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I 


RAHD,  IcSAUY  &  CO.'S 

ENCYCLOPEDIA 

AND 

GAZETTEER. 


A  CONDENSATION  OF  THE  ENCYCLOPEDIA  BRITANNICA,  CHAMBERS’S 
ENCYCLOPEDIA,  ETC.,  WITH  THE  ADDITION  OF  MUCH 
ORIGINAL  MATTER  TREATING  OF 


AMERICAN  SUBJECTS, 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH  EIGHTY  FULL-PAGE  COLORED  MAPS  AND 
NEARLY  TWO  THOUSAND  ENGRAVINGS. 


CHICAGO  AND  NEW  YORK: 
RAND,  McNALLY  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS. 

1889. 


Copyrighted,  1889.  ry  Rand.  McNally  &  Company. 


INDEX  TO  MAPS, 


0  30 

^  £/5e 


!  'S 

rV 

ej 


1 

£ 


4 

A 

'SO 

NO 

Xf- 


PAGE. 

Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres .  721 

North  America .  722 

New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  and  Prince  Edward 

Island .  723 

Quebec .  724 

Ontario .  725 

British  Columbia,  Northwest  Territories,  and 

Manitoba .  726 

United  States .  727 

Alabama . 728 

Alaska .  729 

Arizona .  730 

Arkansas .  731 

California .  732 

Colorado .  733 

Connecticut .  734 

Dakota,  North  and  South .  735 

Delaware .  736 

Florida .  737 

Georgia .  738 

Idaho .  739 

Illinois .  740 

Indiana .  741 

Indian  Territory .  742 

Iowa .  743 

Kansas .  744 

Kentucky .  745 

Louisiana .  746 

Maine .  747 

Maryland .  748 

Massachusetts .  749 

Michigan .  750 

Minnesota .  751 

Mississippi .  752 

Missouri .  753 

Montana . 754 

Nebraska .  755 

Nevada .  756 

New  Hampshire .  757 

New  Jersey .  758 


PAGE* 

New  Mexico .  759 

New  York .  760 

North  Carolina .  761 

Ohio .  762 

Oregon .  763 

Pennsylvania .  764 

Rhode  Island .  765 

South  Carolina .  766 

Tennessee .  767 

Texas .  768 

Utah .  769 

Vermont .  770 

Virginia .  771 

Washington. . .  .  772 

West  V irginia .  773 

Wisconsin .  774 

Wyoming .  775 

Mexico .  776 

Central  America .  777 

South  America .  778 

Europe .  779 

British  Isles . . .  780 

France  and  Switzerland .  781 

Germany .  782 

Spain  and  Portugal .  783 

Denmark .  784 

Turkey  and  Bulgaria .  785 

Italy  (2  pages) . 786,  787 

Belgium  and  the  Netherlands .  788 

Austria-Hungary .  789 

Servia  and  Rumania .  790 

Russia .  791 

Sweden  and  Norway  (2  pages) . . 792,  793 

Asia .  794 

India .  795 

China .  796 

Japan .  797 

Australasia  (2  pages) . 798,  799 

Africa .  800 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2018  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign  Alternates 


https://archive.org/details/randmcnallycosenOOunse 


Rand,  McNally  &  Co.’s 
ENCYCLOPEDIA  AND  GAZETTEER. 


A  is  the  first  letter  in  our  alphabet,  and  the 
corresponding  symbol  also  stands  first  in 
many  other  alphabets  derived  from  the  Phoeni¬ 
cian;  the  chief  exceptions  being  the  Ethiopic,  in 
which  it  occupies  the  thirteenth  place;  the  Runic, 
in  which  it  has  been  lost  and  replaced  by  a  sign 
obtained  from  E;  and  the  numerous  alphabets  of 
India  and  the  Trans-Gangetic  peninsula,  which 
have  been  re-arranged  on  phonological  principles. 

Aa,  the  name  of  a  number  of  European  rivers; 
the  word  being  akin  to  the  Old  High  German  alia, 
“  water.” 

Aali  Pasha,  a  distinguished  Turkish  states¬ 
man,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1815.  In  1844  he 
became  ambassador  at  London.  He  presided  at 
the  Commission  which  passed  the  famous  reform¬ 
ing  decree  of  1856,  the  Hatti-Humayun.  At  the 
Congress  of  Paris  he  represented  the  Porte.  He 
was  Grand  Vizier  more  than  once,  and  was  active 
in  suppressing  the  Cretan  rebellion,  in  1867-’68. 
He  died  6th  September,  1871. 

Aard-vark  (Dutch  “earth-hog”),  or  Cape  Ant- 
eater  (Orycteropus  capensis),  one  of  the  Edentata, 
and  the  only  ant-eater  with  teeth.  It  has  seven 
molars  on  each  side  above,  and  six  on  each  side 
below,  with  neither  incisors  nor  canine  teeth. 
It  is  a  stout  animal,  with  long,  pig-like  snout, 
tubular  mouth,  the  usual  termite-catching  tongue, 
large  ears,  fleshy  tail,  and  short,  bristly  hair.  The 
limbs  are'  short  and  very  muscular  ;  on  the  fore 
feet  are  four,  on  the  hind  five  powerful  claws, 
used  in  burrowing  and  in  excavating  the  hills  of 
the  white  ants,  on  which  it  feeds.  It  is  nocturnal 
in  its  habits,  and  is  very  inoffensive  and  timid. 
When  pursued,  it  can  burrow  itself  out  of  sight 
in  a  few  minutes,  working  inwards  with  such 
rapidity  as  to  make  it  almost  impossible  to  dig  it 
out.  Its  total  length  is  about  five  feet,  of  which 
the  tail  is  1  foot  9  inches.  Its  dwelling  is  a  bur¬ 
row  at  a  little  distance  from  the  surface,  and 
thence  it  may  be  observed  creeping  at  dusk. 
Three  species  are  known— one  in  South  Africa, 
another  in  Senegal,  and  a  third  in  South  Nubia. 
The  flesh  is  considered  a  delicacy. 

Aard-wolf  (  “eartli-wolf;  ”  Proteles  Lalandii), 
a  South  African  carnivore,  belonging  to  a  sub¬ 
family  of  Hytenidae. 

Aarhuus,  second  in  size  of  Danish  cities,  is  a 
seaport  on  the  east  coast  of  Jutland.  Population 
<1880), 24, 831. 

Aaron,  the  elder  brother  of  Moses,  was  appoint¬ 
ed  his  assistant  and  spokesman,  and  received  for 
himself  and  his  descendants  the  hereditary  dignity 
of  the  priesthood.  A  aron  was  high-priest  for  forty 
years.  He  died  at  Mount  Hor,  on  the  borders  of 
Idumea,  in  the  124th  year  of  his  age  (Numbers 
xxxiii,  39). 

Aaron’s  Beard,  a  popular  name  for  a  number 
■of  cultivated  plants,  as  Saxifraga  sarmeutosa  (nat. 
-ord.  Saxifragaceae),  etc. 

Ab,  a  Hebrew  term  for  the  eleventh  month  of 
the  year,  including  the  end  of  July  and  pait  of 
August. 

Ab  acus,  an  instru¬ 
ment  sometimes  em¬ 
ployed  in  infant- 
schools  to  make  the 
•elementary  operations 
-of  arithmetic  palpable. 

Ab'acus,  in  archi¬ 
tecture,  is  a  square  or  oblong  level  tablet  placed 
above  the  capital  of  a  column  and  supporting 
the  entablature. 

Abaddon,  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  “destruc¬ 
tion,”  used  in  Job  as  a  poetical  term  for  Slieol. 

Ab'attis  (Fr.),  is  an  old  and  simple  species  of 
intrenchment,  consisting  of  trees  felled  and  laid 
side  by  side;  the  butt-ends  are  fixed  in  the  earth, 


the  smaller  twigs  cut  off,  anil  the  branches  are 
directed  towards  the  enemy. 

Abattoir,  French,  for  Slaughter-house. 

Abbas,  the  uncle  of  Mohammed,  at  first  hostile 
to  him,  but  ultimately  the  chief  promoter  of  his 
religion,  was  born  in  566,  and  died  652. 

Abbas  Pasha,  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  was  grandson 
of  the  famous  Mehemet  Ali.  He  was  born  in  1813, 
and  was  found  dead,  not  without  suspicion  of 
foul  play,  on  the  morning  of  13th  July,  1854. 

Abbe,  originally  the  French  name  for  an  abbot, 
but  often  used  in  the  general  sense  of  a  priest  or 
clergyman. 

Abbess, the  superior  of  a  religious  community 
of  women,  corresponding  in  rank  and  authority  to 
an  Abbot  except  in  not  being  allowed  to  exercise 
the  spiritual  functions  of  the  priesthood,  such  as 
preaching  or  confession. 

Abbot  (Semitic  ab,  abba,  father),  a  prelate  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  the  head  of  a  mon¬ 
astery. 

Abbot,  Benjamin,  LL.  D.,  was  born  in  1763, 
died  Oct.  25,  1849.  For  many  years  lie  was  Prin¬ 
cipal  of  Phillips  Academy.  Abbott,  Jacob,  was 
born  at  Hallowell,  Maine,  in  1803,  was  Professor 
of  Mathematics  in  Amherst  College  from  1825  till 
1829.  In  1838  he  began  writing  simple  and  popu¬ 
lar  works,  mainly  for  the  young.  He  published 
over  200  volumes.  Abbott,  Lyman,  D.  D.,his 
son,  was  born  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  in  1835;  studied 
law,  but  subsequently  became  a  Congregational 
minister.  He  has  edited  more  than  one  religious 
journal,  and  is  the  author  of  several  theological 
works,  including  a  Religious  Dictionary  and  a 
New  Testament  Commentary.  Abbott,  John  S. 

C.,  an  American  author,  brother  of  the  Rev.  Jacob 
Abbott,  was  born  at  Brunswick,  Maine,  in  1805. 
He  was  a  voluminous  writer,  but  his  historical 
works  have  little  real  value. 

Abbreviations  are  contrivances  in  writing  for 
saving  time  and  space.  A  syllable  (usually  the 
initial  one),  initial  or  other  letters,  or  arbitrary 
signs,  are  made  to  do  duty  for  whole  words  and 
phrases.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  more  im¬ 
portant  abbreviations  in  general  use: 

Al.  First-class  (of  ships). 

A.B.  Able-bodied  seaman. 

A.B.  Artium  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of 
Arts. 

A.B. F.M.  American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions. 

Abp.  Archbishop. 

A.B.S.  American  Bible  Society. 

Acct,  or  a/c  Account. 

A.  D.  A  nno  Domini,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

A.D.C.  Aide-de-camp. 

Ad  lib.  Ad  libitum,  at  pleasure. 

Hit.  JEtatis  \anno\,  in  the  year  of  his  age. 

A. F.B.S. American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

A.G.  Adjutant-general. 

A.H.  AnnoIIegirce,  in  the  year  of  the  Hegira, 

(622  a.d.) 

A. I.  A.  Associate  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries. 

Ala.  Alabama. 

A.M.  Ante  Meridiem,  before  noon. 

A.M.  Anno  Mundi,  in  the  year  of  the  world. 

A.M.  Artium  M agister.  Master  of  Arts. 

A.R.  A.  Associate  of  Royal  Academy. 

Ark.  Arkansas. 

A.S.  Anglo-Saxon. 

A.U.C.  Ab  Urbe  Condita,  from  the  building  of 
the  City — Rome,  (753  b.c.) 

A. V.  Authorized  Version  of  the  Bible. 

Ax.  Axiom. 

B. A.  Baccalaureus  Artium,  Bachelor  of 

Arts. 

B.C.  Before  Christ. 

B  C.L.  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.D.  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

B.L.  Bachelor  of  Laws. 

6 


Chinese  Abacus. 


°/i  Bill  of  Lading. 

B.M.  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

Bp.  Bishop. 

B.Sc.  Bachelor  of  Science. 

B. V.M.  Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 

C.  Centum,  a  hundred;  centigrade;  cent> 

ury. 

C.A.  Chartered  Accountant. 

Cal.  California. 

Cantab.  Cantabrigiensis,  of  Cambridge. 
Cantuar.  Cantuarensis,  of  Canterbury. 

Cap.  Capitulum,  chapter. 

C.D.V.  Carte- de-visite. 

C.E.  Civil  Engineer, 
cent.  Centum,  a  hundred. 

Cf.  Confer,  compare. 

C.H.  Court-house. 

C.J.  Chief-justice. 

C.M.S.  Church  Missionary  Society. 

‘to  Care  of. 

Co.  Company;  County. 

C.O.D.  Cash  on  delivery. 

Con.  Contra,  against. 

Conn,  or  Ct.  Connecticut. 

Cr.  Creditor. 

Crim.Con. Criminal  conversation. 

C. T.  Certificated  Teacher. 

Curt.  Current — the  present  month. 

Cwt.  Hundredweight. 

d.  Dele,  delete,  erase. 

D. C.  Da  Capo,  from  the  beginning. 

D.C.  District  of  Columbia. 

D.C.L.  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

I).D.  Doctor  of  Divinity. 

Deg.  Degree,  of  Latilude  and  Longitude. 
Del.  Delaware. 

Delt.  Delineavit,  drew  (it). 

Dep.  Deputy,  Department. 

D.G.  Dei  Oratid,  by  the  grace  of  God. 

D.Lit.  Doctor  of  Literature. 

D.L.O.  Dead-letter  Office. 

Do.  Ditto  (Ital.),  the  said;  the  same. 

D.O.M.  Deo,  Optimo  Maximo,  to  God,  best  and. 
greatest. 

Dr.  Doctor  Debtor. 

D.Sc.  Doctor  of  Science. 

D.T.  Dakota  Territory. 

D.T.  Doctor  of  Theology. 

D. V.  Deo  Volente,  God  willing. 

Dwt.  Pennyweight. 

Ed.  Edition;  Editor. 

e. g.  or  Ex.  gr.  Exempli  Oratid,  for  example. 

E. I.  East  Indies. 

Etc.  Et  eater  a,  and  the  rest;  and  so  on. 

Exr.  Executor. 

f.  following;  ff.,  following,  (plur.). 

F. ,Fahr.  Fahrenheit. 

Fcp.  Foolscap. 

Fee.  Fecit,  made  (it). 

FI.  Floruit,  flourished. 

Fla.  Florida. 

F.M.  Field-marshal. 

F.O.  Field  officer. 

F .  O .  B .  Free  on  board. 

F.P.  Fire-plug. 

F.R.C.P.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Phy¬ 
sicians. 

F.R.C.S.Fellow  of  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 
F.R.C.S.E.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons,  Edinburgh. 

F.R.G.S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society. 

F.R.S.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F. Ii.S.E.  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  Ed  in. 

burgh. 

Ga.  or  Geo.  Georgia. 

G.  B.  Great  Britain. 

Gk. or  Gr. Greek. 

G.P.O.  General  Post  Office. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


6 


ABDERA. 


H.P.  Horsepower. 

H.R.  House  of  Representatives. 

H.R.H.  His  or  Her  Royal  Highness. 

H. S.H.  His  Serene  Highness. 

la.  Iowa. 

lb.  or  Ibid.  Ibidem ,  in  the  same  place. 

Id.  Idem,  the  same. 

i.e.  Id  est,  that  is. 

I. H.S.  For  the  Greek  capitals  If  HE,  the  first 

three  letters  of  lH'SOT'S,  Jesus — 
commonly  interpreted  as  the  initials 
of  the  Latin  Iesus  Hominum  Salva¬ 
tor — Jesus,  the  Savior  of  mankind. 
Ill.  Illinois. 

Imp.  Imperator,  Emperor;  Imperial. 

Incog.  Incognito  (Ital.),  unknown. 

Ind.  Indiana. 

Ind.Ter.  Indian  Territory. 

Inf.  Infra,  Below. 

I.N.R.I.  Iesus  Naznrenus  Rex  Iudmrum,  Jesus 
of  Nazareth,  king  of  the  Jews. 

Inst.  Instante  (mense),  instant  of  the  present 
month;  Institute. 

Inv.  Invenit,  designed  (it). 

I.O.G.T.  Independent  Order  of  Good  Templars. 
I.O.O.F.  Independent  Older  of  Odd  Fellows. 
I.O.U.  I  owe  you. 

I.T.  Idaho  Territory. 

I. T.  Indian  Territory. 

It.  Italian. 

J. C.  Juris  Consultus,  Jurisconsult. 

Jno.  John. 

J.P.  Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Kan.  Kansas. 

Ken.  or  Ky.  Kentucky, 

kilo.  Kilogramme. 

Lat.  Latin;  Latitude. 

Lb.  Libra ,  pound. 

L.c.  Lower  case  (in  printing). 

L.D.S.  Licentiate  in  Dental  Surgery. 

L.I.  Long  Island;  Light  Infantry. 

Linn.  Linnaean. 

LL.B.  Legum  Baccalaureus,  Bachelor  of 
Laws  (the  plural  being  denoted  by 
the  double  L). 

LL.  D.  Legum  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Laws. 

Loc.  cit.  Loco  citato,  in  the  place  quoted. 

Long.  Longitude. 

Loq.  Loquitur,  speaks. 

Lou.  or  La.  Louisana. 

L.S.  Lor#  sigilli,  the  place  of  the  seal. 

L. S.D.  Librae,  Solidi,  Denarii,  pounds,  shill¬ 

ings,  pence. 

LXX.  Septuagint  version  (70). 

M.  Mills,  a  thousand;  Monsieur. 

M.A.  Magister  Artium,  Master  of  Arts. 

Mass.  Massachusetts. 

M.B.  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

M.C.  Member  of  Congress;  Master  of  Cer¬ 
emonies. 

M.D.  Medicinm  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

Md.  Maryland. 

Mdlle.  Mademoiselle. 

Me.  Maine. 

M.E.  Methodist  Episcopal. 

Mem.  Memento,  remember. 

Mich.  Michigan. 

Minn.  Minnesota. 

Miss.  Mississippi. 

M.L.  Member  of  Legislative  Assembly. 

M.L.A.  Member  of  Legislative  Council. 

MM.  Messieurs. 

Mme.  Madame. 

Mo.  Missouri. 

M.P.  Member  of  Parliament. 

MS.  Manuscript. 

MSS.  Manuscripts. 

M.T.  Montana  Territory. 

Mus.Bac. Bachelor  of  Music. 

Mus.Doc.  Musicae  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Music. 


N. 

North. 

N.A. 

North  America. 

N.B. 

North  Britain;  New  Brunswick. 

N.B. 

Nota  bene,  mark  well;  observe. 

N.C. 

North  Carolina. 

N.D. 

No  date. 

N.E. 

New  England. 

Neb. 

Nebraska. 

Nem.con.  Nemine  contradicente ,  no  one  contra¬ 
dicting. 

Nev.  Nevada. 

N.F.  Newfoundland. 


N.H.  New  Hampshire. 

N.  J.  New  Jersey. 

N.M.  New  Mexico. 

N.O.  New  Orleans. 

No.  Numero ,  Number. 

N.P.  Notary  Public;  New  Providence. 

N.S.  New  Style;  Nova  Scotia. 

N.S.W.  New  South  Wales. 

N.T.  New  Testament. 

N.W.T.  North-west  Territory. 

N  Y.  New  York. 

N.Z.  New  Zealand. 

N.  &  Q.  Notes  and  Queries. 

O.  Ohio. 

° / a  On  account  of. 

Ob.  Obiit,  died. 

O.H.G.  Old  High  German. 

O.K.  For  All  Correct. 

#  per  cent. 

O  P.  Out  of  print. 

Op.  cit.  Opere  citato,  in  the  work  quoted. 

Or.  Oregon. 

O.S.  Old  Style. 

O.S.B.  Order  of  St.  Benedict. 

O. T  Old  Testament. 

Oxon.  Oxoniensis,  of  Oxford. 

Oz.  Ounce. 

P.  President;  Professor. 

Pa.  Pennsylvania. 

P.C.  Privy  Councillor;  Police  Constable. 

P.E.  Protestant  Episcopal. 

P.E.I.  Prince  Edward  Island. 

Penn.  Pennsylvania. 

Per  ann.  Per  annum,  by  the  year. 

Percent.  Per  centum,  by  the  hundred. 

Pli.D.  Philosophies  Doctor,  Doctor  of  Philos¬ 
ophy. 

Phila.  Philadelphia. 

Pinx.  Pinxit,  painted  (it). 

P.M.  Post  Meridiem,  afternoon. 

P.M.  Post  Mortem,  after  death. 

PM.G.  Postmaster-General. 

P.O.  Post-office. 

P.O.O.  Post-office  order. 

Pp.  Pages. 

P.  P.  Parish  priest. 

P.P.C.  Pour  prendre  conge,  to  take  leave;  to 
say  good-bye. 

P.P.S.  Postscript  additional. 

P.R.  Prize-ring. 

Pro.  Professional. 

Pro  tern.  Pro  tempore,  for  the  time. 

Prox.  Proximo,  in  the  next  month. 

P.S.  Post  scriptu'm,  Postscript. 

P.T.O.  Please  turn  over. 

P.  &  O.  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Co. 

Q.  Query  or  Question. 

Q.E.D.  Quod  er at  demonstrandum,  which  was 
to  be  demonstrated. 

Q.E.F.  Quod  erat faciendum,  which  was  to  be 
done. 

Q. M. G.  Quartermaster-general . 
q.s.  Quantum  svfficit,  enough, 
q.v.  Quod  vide,  which  see. 

R.  Reaumur. 

R  Recipe  (in  prescriptions),  Take. 

R.A.  Royal  Academician,  Royal  Artillery. 
Rep.  Representative;  Republic. 

R.I.  Rhode  Island. 

R.I.P.  Requiescat  in  Pace,  May  he  rest  in 
peace. 

R.S.V.P.  Repondez  s’il  vous  plait,  Please  reply. 

R.  V.  Revised  Version  of  the  Bible. 

Ry.  Railway. 

S.  South;  Saint;  Seconds. 

S.  Am.  South  America.  , 

Sc.  Scilicet,  namely. 

Sc.  Sculpsit,  engraved  (it). 

S.C.  South  Carolina. 

Sc.D.  Doctor  of  Science. 

Sen.  Senator;  Senior. 

S.J.  Society  of  Jesus  (Order  of  the  Jesuits). 
S.L.  Solicitor  at  Law. 

S.P.  Sine  prole,  without  offspring. 

S. P.C.  A. Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty 
to  Animals. 

S.P.C.K.  Society  for  Promoting  Christian 
Knowledge. 

S.P.G.  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel. 

S.P.Q.R.  Senatus  Populusque  Romanus ,  The 
Roman  Senate  and  people. 


Sq.  Sequens,  the  following. 

Sqq.  Sequentia,  the  following  ( plural ). 

S.S.  Screw  steamer. 

S. T.P.  Sacrce  Theologies  Professor,  P ro feasor 

of  Theology. 

Sup.  Supra,  above. 

s.v.  Sub  voce,  under  such  and  such  a  head.. 

T. C.D.  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Tenn.  Tennessee. 

Temp.  Tempore,  in  the  time  of. 

Tex.  Texas. 

T. O.  Telegraph  Office;  Turn  over. 

U. K.  United  Kingdom. 

Ult.  Ultimo  (mense),  in  the  last  month. 

U.P.  United  Presbyterian. 

U.  S.  United  States;  United  Service. 

U.S.A.  United  States  of  America;  United! 
States  Army. 

U.S.C.  United  States  of  Columbia. 

U.S.N.  United  States  Navy. 

U.S.S.  United  States  Ship. 

U. T.  Utah  Territory. 

Ut  sup.  Ut  supra,  as  above. 

V.  Versus,  against. 

Va.  Virginia. 

V.G.  Vicar-general. 

Viz.  Videlicet,  to-wit,  namely. 

V. P.  Vice-president. 

V  R  (  Victoria  Regina,  Queen  Victoria- 

“  “  Imperatrix. 

'  (  ( Queen  and  Empress ). 

V  S.  Veterinary  Surgeon. 

Vt.  Vermont. 

W. I.  West  Indies. 

Wis.  Wisconsin. 

W.T.  Washington  Territory. 

W.Va.  West  Virginia. 

Wy.  T.  Wyoming  Territory. 

Xmas.  Christmas.  The  letter  X  has  the  same- 
form  as  the  Greek  letter  X(Ohi),  the 
first  letter  of  Christ’s  name. 

Xtian.  Christian. 

Ye.Y'-.  The,  That.  ( This  use  of  Y  originated 
in  the  Anglo-Saxon  character  p. 

.  equivalent  in  sound  to  the  modern 

th.) 

Y.M.C.A.  Y  bung  Men’s  Christian  Association. 
Y.W.C.A.  Young  Women’s  Christian  Associa- 


and  the  rest. 


£  Pound  (money). 

$  Dollar. 

TP  Per,  by. 

Abd  signifies  in  Arabic  “slave  ”  or  “servant,’" 
and  enters,  along  with  the  name  of  God,  into  the 
composition  of  many  proper  names,  as  Abd-Allah, 
“servant  of  God;”  Abd-el-Kader,  “  servant  of  the 
mighty  God,”  etc.  So  Ebed  in  Hebrew  and  Syriac. 

Abd-el-Kader,  properly  Sidi-el-Hadji-Abd-el 
Kader-Uled-Maliiddin,  the  famous  hero  in  the 
great  Algerian  struggle  with  the  French,  was  born, 
at  Mascara  in  1807.  On  December  22,  1847,  he 
was  sent  with  his  family  to  France,  where  he 
lived  in  honorable  captivity,  until  liberated,  in 
1852,  by  Louis  Napoleon.  Enjoying  a  French 
pension  of  100,000  francs,  he  spent  his  leisure  in 
writing  a  book  of  a  religious-philosophical  char¬ 
acter,  which  was  translated  in  1858,  under  the- 
title,  Rappel  d  l' Intelligent:  Avis  d  l Indifferent. 
He  was  of  great  service  to  the  cause  of  humanity 
during  the  Syrian  massacres  of  1860,  and  for  this 
was  decorated  by  Napoleon  III.  with  the  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  lie  died  at  Damas¬ 
cus,  May  26,  1883. 

Abdallah,  Ben  Abd-el-Mottalib,  father  of  • 
Mohammed  the  Prophet,  was  born  at  Mecca 
about  545.  He  died  in  570  on  Ins  way  to  Mecca, 
and  his  famous  son  was  a  posthumous  child. 
Abdallali,  Ben  Zobair,  ruler  of  Mecca,  was  the 
first  disciple  of  Mohammed  after  the  Hegira . 
Upon  the  death  of  the  Prophet,  Abdallah  declared 
against  the  claims  of  Ali  to  the  Caliphate.  He  cap¬ 
tured  Mecca  and  restored  it,  but  in  692,  at  the 
age  of  seventy,  was  killed  when  the  city  was 
stormed  by  the  Caliph  of  Damascus. 

Abde’ra,  a  town  which  stood  on  the  south 
coast  of  ancient  Tlrracia,  1o  the  east  of  the  River 


tion. 

Yr. 

Younger. 

&, 

El,  and. 

&c. 

Ei  caster  a,  a: 

4to. 

Quarto. 

8vo. 

Octavo. 

12mo. 

Duodecimo. 

ABDICATION. 


7 


ABERRATION  OF  LIGHT. 


Nestus.  It  was  colonized  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Teos  in  541  b.c. 

Abdication  is  the  resignation  of  an  office,  gen¬ 
erally  the  office  of  ruler  or  sovereign.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  abdications  of  history  were  by  the  following 
sovereigns:  Diocletian  (305  a.d.);  Christina  of 
Sweden  (1654),  who  wished  still  to  exercise  the 
rights  of  a  sovereign;  Charles  V.  (1556);  Philip  Y. 
of  Spain  (1724),  who  resumed  his  crown  on  the 
death  of  his  son ;  Louis  Bonaparte,  who  resigned 
the  crown  of  Holland  (1810),  because  lie  would 
not  consent  to  treat  that  country  as  a  province  of 
France;  Charles  Emmanuel  of  Sardinia  (1802); 
Victor  Emmanuel  (1821);  William  I.  of  the  Neth¬ 
erlands  (1840).  Foreign  force  compelled  the  abdi¬ 
cation  of  Augustus  of  Poland  (1704);  of  Stanis¬ 
laus  Leszczyuski  (1735);  of  Poniatowski  (1795);  of 
Charles  IV.  of  Spain  (1808);  and  of  Napoleon 
(1814  and  1815).  The  abdication  of  Richard  II. 
of  England  (1399);  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots 
(1567);  of  Charles  X.  (1830)  and  of  Louis  Philippe 
(1840),  kings  of  the  French;  of  Ferdinand  of  Aus¬ 
tria  (1848),  of  Louis  of  Bavaria  (1848),  of  Charles 
Albert  of  Sardinia  (1849),  of  Amadeus  of  Spain 
(1873),  and  of  Prince  Alexander  of  Bulgaria  (1886), 
were  compulsory. 

In  the  case  of  James  II. ,  it  was  disputed  whether 
the  king  had  “  legally  abdicated  ”  or  “deserted.” 
At  the  conference  between  the  two  Houses  of 
Parliament,  previous  to  the  passing  of  the  statute 
which  settled  ttie  crown  on  William  III.,  the 
word  ‘  ‘  abdicated  ”  was  used  instead  of  “deserted.  ” 
The  Scotch  convention,  however,  more  vigorously 
and  distinctly  resolved  that  King  James  “had 
forfeited  the  crown,  and  the  throne  was  become 
vacant.” 

•  Abdomen.  The  trunk  of  the  human  body  is 
divided  by  the  diaphragm  into  two  cavities — the 
upper  being  the  thorax,  or  chest,  and  the  lower, 
the  abdomen,  or  belly.  Both  the  cavity  and  the 


Organs  of  the  Chest  and  Abdomen. 


A,  B,  lungs;  C,  heart  ;  OO.  diaphragm;  P,  liver;  Q,.  gall¬ 
bladder;  R,  spleen;  S,  stomach;  TUV,  colon;  W,  W, 
small  intestines. 

viscera  proper  are  artificially  divided  externally  by 
two  horizontal  lines  into  three  principal  zones — the 
upper,  the  middle,  and  the  lower.  These  are 
again  subdivided  by  two  vertical  lines  into  nine 
areas  —  the  three  lateral  divisions  upon  either 
side  being  named  from  above  downwards,  the 
hypochondriac,  lumbar,  and  iliac  regions,  respect¬ 
ively;  while  the  names  epigastric,  umbilical,  and 
hypogastric,  are  applied  from  above  downwards 
to  the  three  mesial  areas.  Abdomen,  in  Entomol- 
ogy,  the  posterior  of  the  three  parts  into  which 
the  body  of  an  insect  is  divided. 

Abduction.  In  the  older  systems  of  law, 
abduction  meant  the  unlawful  taking  away  of  a 
free  person,  or  of  a  slave  belonging  to  another. 


The  buying  of  a  free  person  was  punishable  by 
the  criminal  law  of  Rome  under  the  name  of 
placjium,  which  is  still  used  in  Scotland  for  the 
theft  of  children. 

In  the  United  States,  abduction  is  the  taking 
and  carrying  away  of  a  child,  a  ward  a  wife,  etc. , 
by  fraud,  persuasion,  or  open  violence.  Every 
one  who  takes  away  any  female  under  the  age  of 
eighteen  years  from  her  father,  mother,  guardian, 
or  other  person  having  the  legal  charge  of  her 
person,  without  her  consent,  for  the  purpose  of 
prostitution,  is  guilty  of  a  felony.  The  gist  of 
the  offense  is  the  enticing  and  carrying  away.  In 
abduction  for  the  purpose  of  marriage  it  is  not 
necessary  to  use  physical  force  or  violence,  nor  is 
it  any  defense  that  the  abductor  really  believed, 
or  had  reason  to  believe,  the  girl  to  be  over  six¬ 
teen.  A  child  under  the  age  of  fourteen  years  is 
incapable  of  giving  her  consent.  Abduction 
throughout  the  United  States  is  a  felony,  and 
punished  by  fine  in  some  States,  and  in  others  by 
imprisonment. 

Abd-ul-Aziz,  the  thirty-second  sultan  of  the 
Ottoman  Turks,  was  born  February  9,  1830,  and 
succeeded  his  brother,  Abd-ul-Medjid,  in  1861. 
Great  reforms  were  vainly  expected  of  him.  A 
conspiracy  forced  him  to  dismiss  his  minister,  and 
next  to  abdicate  the  throne,  30th  May,  1876.  Four 
days  later  he  was  found  dead,  it  is  almost  certain 
by  foul  play. 

Abd-ul-Latif,  a  celebrated  Arabian  writer,  was 
born  at  Bagdad  in  1162,  and  died  there  in  1231, 
on  his  way  to  Mecca. 

Abd-ul-Medjid,  the  Grand  Sultan,  was  born 
23d  April,  1823,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Mah¬ 
mud  II.,  in  1839.  He  died  25th  June,  1861 . 

Abecedarians,  a  small  sect  among  the  Ana¬ 
baptists  in  Germany  in  the  sixteenth  century,  noted 
for  their  dislike  to  learning. 

A  Becket,  Thomas.  See  Becket. 

A  Beckett,  Gilbert  Abbott,  a  comic  writer 
and  lawyer,  born  in  London,  9th  January,  1811, 
and  died  at  Boulogne  in  1856. 

Abel  (from  the  Heb.  hebel,  “  breath  ”),  the  sec¬ 
ond  son  of  Adam,  was,  according  to  the  account 
in  Genesis,  slain  by  his  elder  brother  Cain,  jealous 
because  his  offering  had  been  rejected  by  Jeho¬ 
vah  and  Abel’s  accepted. 

Abel,  Sir  Frederick  Augustus,  a  well-known 
chemist,  was  born  in  London  in  1827.  He  devoted 
himself  to  the  science  of  explosives,  upon  which 
subject  he  is  a  noted  authority. 

Abel,  Kari.  Friedrich,  a  German  musician, 
born  at  Koethen  in  1725.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Sebastian  Bach,  and  in  1758  he  visited  England, 
where  he  was  appointed  chamber-musician  to  the 
queen  of  George  III.  He  died  in  London,  22d 
January,  1787. 

Abel,  Niels  Henrik,  one  of  the  ablest  and 
acutest  mathematicians  of  modern  times,  was 
born  at  Findci,  Christiansand,  5th  August,  1802. 
He  became  a  lecturer  at  the  University  of  Chris¬ 
tiania  and  the  school  of  engineering  there.  He 
died  on  the  6th  April,  1829. 

Ab'elaril,  (Fr.  Abelard  or  Abailard-,  Lat. 
Aboelardus),  Peter,  the  keenest  thinker  and  bold¬ 
est  theologian  of  the  12th  century,  was  born  at 
Pallet  or  Palais,  near  Nantes,  in  1079.  His  sin¬ 
gular  gifts  as  a  dialectician  soon  enabled  him  to 
excel  in  deoate,  and  he  speedily  met  with  brilliant 
success  as  a  scholastic  lecturer.  But  Abelard’s 
fall  from  prosperity  and  power  was  sudden  and 
rapid.  Within  the  precincts  of  Notre  Dame  lived 
Ilelo'fse,  the  niece  of  the  Canon  Fulbert,  then 
seventeen  years  of  age,  and  already  remarkable 
for  her  beauty  and  accomplishments,  Abelard 
professed  iove  to  her,  and  they  fled  to  Brittany; 
where  Hbloise  bore  a  son.  It  was  claimed  that 
they  were  married,  but  both  Abelard  and  Hdloi’se 
denied  this.  Fulbert  .hired  some  men  who 
effected  a  terrible  revenge  upon  Abelard.  In  deep 
humiliation,  Abelard  entered  the  abbey  of  St. 
Denis  as  monk;  IL'loIse  took  the  veil  at  Argen- 
tcuil.  A  snyod  at  Soissons  (1121)  condemned  his 
teaching  on  the  Trinity  as  heretical,  and  ordered 
him  to  be  confined  for  a  time. 

On  his  way  to  Rome  to  defend  himself  he  died 
at  the  priory  of  St.  Marcel,  21st  April,  1142.  His 
remains  were  given  into  the  keeping  of  HMoise, 
whose  own  were,  twenty  years  afterward,  laid 
beside  them.  From  Paracelete  the  ashes  of  both 
were  taken  to  Paris  in  1800,  and  in  1817  were 


buried  in  one  sepulchre  at  Pc  re  la  Chaise,  where 
stdl  they  lie,  the  tomb  forming  the  chief  object 
of  attraction  in  that  great  city  of  the  dead. 

Abencerra'ges,  a  noble  Moorish  family, which 
came  to  Spain  in  the  eighth  century,  and  were 
named  from  Jusuf  ben  Serragh.  Their  struggle 
with  the  family  of  theZegris,  and  tragical  destruc¬ 
tion  in  the  royal  palace  of  the  Alhambra,  in  Gra¬ 
nada,  in  the  time  of  Abu  Ilassan  (1466-84),  the  last 
but  one  of  the  kings  of  Granada,  furnish  the 
materials  for  several  legends,  a  romance  by  Cha¬ 
teaubriand,  and  an  opera  by  Chembini. 

Aber  is  a  Celtic  word  which  enters  into  the 
composition  of  several  names  of  places,  chiefly  in 
Wales  and  Scotland.  It  indicates  the  mouth  or 
embouchure  of  a  stream,  either  into  the  sea  or 
into  another  river. 

Abercrombie,  John,  in  his  day  the  most 
eminent  of  Scottish  physicians,  was  born  in  1780, 
at  Aberdeen,  where  liis  father  was  a  parish  min¬ 
ister.  He  studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh,  taking 
his  degree  in  1803.  His  principal  professional 
writings  were  treatises  on  the  pathology  of  the 
brain  and  on  diseases  of  the  stomach.  Dr.  Aber¬ 
crombie  died  suddenly,  November  14,  1844. 

Abercrombie,  Gen.  James,  born  in  Scotland 
in  1706,  died  in  1781.  He  was  Commander-in- 
Chief  in  America  in  1756  and  1758,  and  unsuccess¬ 
fully  attacked  Ticonderoga  Fort  on  July  8,  of  the 
latter  year,  losing  2,000  killed  and  wounded.  Sir 
.1.  Amherst  retook  the  Fort  and  Crown  Point  in 
1759  and  Abercrombie  returned  to  England. 

Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph,  a  distinguished 
English  general,  was  born  October  7, 1834,  served 
in  the  Seven  Years’  War  and  the  disastrous  Wal- 
cheren  expedition,  and  fell  in  the  arms  of  victory 
at  the  battle  of  Aboukir,  Egypt,  on  March  21, 
1801.  He  was  buried  at  Malta,  and  a  monument 
was  erected  to  him  in  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral.  A 
peerage  was  conferred  on  his  widow.  His  third 
son,  James,  was  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons,  and  afterwards  created  Baron  Dunferm¬ 
line. 

Aberdeen,  the  chief  city  and  seaport  in  the 
north  of  Scotland,  lies  in  the  southeast  angle  of 
the  county,  at  the  mouth  and  on  the  north  side  of 
the  river  Dee,  1 1 1  miles  north  of  Edinburgh.  Old 
Aberdeen,  within  the  same  parliamentary  bound¬ 
ary,  is  a  small  town  a  mile  to  the  north,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Don,  and  is  the  seat  of  St.  Machar’s 
Cathedral  (1357-1527),  now  represented  by  the 
granite  nave,  which,  as  restored  since  1869,  is  used 
as  a  parish  church.  King’s  College  and  Univer¬ 
sity,  founded  by  Bishop  Eiphinstone  in  Old  Aber 
deen  in  1494,  and  Marisehal  College  and  Univer¬ 
sity,  founded  by  the  Earl  Marisehal  in  New  Aber¬ 
deen  in  1593,  were,  in  1860,  united  into  one  insti¬ 
tution,  the  University  of  Aberdeen.  Aberdeen, 
has  a  flourishing  trade  and  thriving  manufactures. 
The  aggregate  tonnage  of  vessels  entering  in  good 
years  exceeds  600,000  tons.  Population  (1887), 
about  120,000. 

Aberdeenshire,  a  large  maritime  county  in 
the  extreme  northeast  of  Scotland.  The  Gram¬ 
pian  Hills  run  along  the  south  side  and  branch 
olf  to  the  northeast  and  north. 

Aberdevine,  a  small  song  bird,  native  of 
Northern  Europe,  but  found  in  England  during 
the  winter  season,  and  sometimes  domesticated 
there. 

Aberdeen,  George  Hamilton  Gordon,  Earl 
of,  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  28th  January,  1784. 
In  1806  he  was  elected  one  of  the  Scotch  repre¬ 
sentative  peers,  and  entered  the  House  of  Lords 
as  a  Tory.  He  was  ambassador  to  Austria,  and 
held  offices  under  Wellington  and  Peel,  gradually 
abandoning  his  high  Toryism  for  more  liberal 
principles.  With  Peel,  he  resigned  in  1846,  im¬ 
mediately  after  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws.  In 
1852,  on  the  resignation  of  Lord  Derby,  Lord 
Aberdeen  was  selected  to  head  the  new  ministry, 
and  on  1st  February,  1855,  Lord  Aberdeen  re¬ 
signed.  He  died  in  London  13th  December,  1860. 

Abernethy,  John,  an  eminent  English  sur¬ 
geon,  was  born  in  London,  3d  April,  1764.  He 
died  at  Enfield,  28th  April,  1831.  He  was  the 
author  of  several  valuable  works. 

Aberration  of  Light  is  an  apparent  alteration 
in  the  place  of  a  star,  arising  from  the  motion  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit,  combined  with  the  progres¬ 
sive  passage  of  light.  The  difference  between 
the  apparent  und  the  real  position  of  the  star  is 


ABERYSTWITH. 


8 


ABSINTHE. 


called  aberration.  The  aberration  of  light  was 
discovered  bv  the  English  astronomer  Bradley  in 
1727. 

Aberystwith,  a  seaport  and  municipal  borough 
of  Cardiganshire,  is  the  seat  of  the  University 
College  of  Wales  (1872).  Population  (1881),  7,088. 

Abeyance,  an  English  law  term  importing  that 
a  hereditament,  dignity,  or  office  is  not  vested  in 
any  one,  but  is  suspended,  until  the  true  owner 
appears,  or  the  right  thereto  is  determined.  In 
the  United  States  personal  property  may  be  in  a 
state  of  legal  sequestration  or  abeyance.  A  par¬ 
sonage,  a  vessel  captured  at  sea,  until  condemned 
as  a  prize,  may  be  in  abeyance.  The  reminder,  or 
reversion  in  fee,  where  there  is  a  tenant  of  the 
freehold,  may,  for  a  time,  be  said  to  be  in  abey¬ 
ance  when  without  any  particular  owner.  The 
right  of  a  citizen  to  vote  may  be  held  in  abeyance 
when  he  is  not  allowed  to  exercise  that  right. 

Abhorrers,  the  name  of  the  court  party  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  (afterwards  Tories),  who 
abhorred  the  views  of  the  addressers,  or  op¬ 
ponents  of  the  royal  prerogative. 

Abi'athar,  a  Hebrew  high-priest  in  the  time 
of  David.  For  his  share  in  Adonijah’s  rebellion 
he  was  deprived  of  the  priestly  office  and  banished 
by  Solomon  from  Jerusalem. 

Abicli,  Wilhelm  Hermann,  geologist  and 
traveller,  was  born  at  Berlin,  December  11,  1806. 
He  explored  the  Caucasus  region,  the  Armenian 
Highlands,  and  Northern  Persia.  He  died  2d 
July,  1886. 

Abigail,  wife  of  Nabal,  a  wealthy  chief  at 
Carmel,  who  refused  common  hospitality  to  David 
when  an  outlaw  from  the  court  of  Saul.  David 
was  on  his  way  to  punish  Nabal  for  his  churlish¬ 
ness,  when  Abigail  hastened  to  meet  him  with  a 
present,  and  so  charmed  him,  that,  on  the  death 
of  her  husband,  soon  after,  he  at  once  took  her  to 
wife  (see  1  Sam.  xxv).  The  name  Abigail  has 
passed  into  a  general  name  for  a  waiting-maid  or 
lady’s  maid,  from  the  title  of  “  handmaid  ”  applied 
to  herself  by  Abigail  in  her  address  to  David. 

Abimelech,  ( 1 )  a  Philistine  king  at  Gerar, 
who  took  to  his  harem  Sarah,  whom  Abraham 
had,  for  safety’s  sake,  represented  as  his  sister 
instead  of  his  wife,  but  restored  her  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  a  Divine  command  given  him  in  a 
dream. 

Abipones,  formerly  a  powerful  and  warlike 
tribe  of  South  American  Indians,  inhabiting  the 
La  Plata  region.  They  are  now  almost  entirely 
incorporated  with  other  tribes. 

Abjuration.  The  oath  of  abjuration  was  im¬ 
posed  in  1701  upon  members  of  Parliament  and 
all  holders  of  public  offices,  including  clergymen, 
teachers,  barristers,  solicitors,  etc.  It  was  a  dec¬ 
laration  in  favor  of  King  William  and  the  Revo¬ 
lution  Settlement,  and  against  the  “late  King 
James,”  and  concluded  with  the  words,  “  upon  the 
true  faith  of  a  Christian.”  The  form  of  oath  was 
altered  in  1714,  when  the  first  Pretender  had 
assumed  the  title  of  James  III.  and  VIII.  The 
law  was  consolidated  by  the  Promissory  Oaths 
Act,  1868.  By  this  statute  a  short  oath  of  true 
allegiance,  usable  by  Catholics  and  Jews,  is  sub¬ 
stituted  for  the  old  oaths  of  abjuration,  suprem¬ 
acy,  and  allegiance;  an  official  oath  of  true  serv¬ 
ice  is  provided  for  public  officers  other  than 
judges;  and  a  judicial  oath  of  true  service,  and  to 
<lo  right  without  fear  or  favor,  is  provided  for  the 
judges.  All  these  oaths  conclude  “so  help  me 
God”;  which  words,  in  the  case  of  the  oath  of  the 
allegiance  now  taken  by  members  of  Parliament, 
gave  rise  to  the  famous  Bradlaugh  case.  The 
result  of  this  case  is  that  penalties  can  be  recovered 
from  every  member  who,  though  he  took  the 
oath,  can  be  proved  to  a  jury  to  have  no  religious 
belief. 

Abner,  a  famous  Hebrew  captain,  cousin  of 
King  Saul.  He  fought  with  the  Philistines,  and 
after  Saul’s  defeat  aud  death  at  Mount  Gilboa 
saved  the  crown  for  his  son,  Ishbosheth.  Resent¬ 
ing  a  charge  made  against  him  by  his  master,  lie 
went  over  to  David;  but  was  soon  after  murdered 
by  Joab. 

Abo  (pronounced  Obo),  the  chief  town  of  a 
government  in  Finland,  situated  on  the  River 
Aurajoki,  near  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Its  univer¬ 
sity  was  transferred  to  Helsingfors  after  the  great 
tire  of  1827.  A  peace  between  Sweden  and  Rus¬ 


sia  was  signed  here  in  1743.  Population  (1885), 
25,181.  _ 

Abolitionists,  a  term  used  to  designate  a  party 
in  the  United  States,  who  sought  the  immediate 
and  total  abolition  of  slavery,  and  who  began  to 
become  politically  important  about  the  close  of 
the  18th  century.  After  about  thirty  years  of 
agitation,  the  Abolitionists  became  sufficiently 
powerfid  to  get  some  of  their  doctrines  adopted 
by  the  Republican  party.  Their  ends  were  gained 
when,  under  Lincoln’s  administration,  slavery 
was  abolished,  1863-’5. 

Abor '  igines  (Lat.),  properly  the  earliest  inhab¬ 
itants  of  a  country.  The  name  is  applied  generally 
to  the  original  or  native  inhabitants  of  a  country 
as  opposed  to  an  intrusive  conquering  race,  or  to 
colonists  and  their  descendants. 

Abortion  is  the  term  used  in  medicine  to 
denote  the  expulsion  of  the  product  of  conception 
(the  impregnated  ovum)  from  the  womb  before 
the  sixth  month  of  pregnancy.  If  the  expulsion 
takes  place  after  that  date,  and  before  the  proper 
time,  it  is  termed  a  premature  labor  or  miscar¬ 
riage.  In  law  no  such  distinction  is  made.  The 
best  evidence  leads  to  the  belief  that  abortion 
takes  place  on  an  average  in  one  out  of  every 
three  or  four  cases  of  pregnancy.  The  following- 
are  amongst  the  causes  predisposing  to  this  acci¬ 
dent:  ( 1 )  A  diseased  condition  of  either  parent, 
and  especially  a  syphilitic  taint.  ( 2 )  Most  fevers, 
and  many  other  acute  diseases  occurring  during 
pregnancy.  ( 3 )  Any  condition  interfering  with 
the  health  of  the  mother — e.g.,  the  constant 
breathing  of  impure  air,  insufficient  nourishment, 
tight  lacing,  etc.  (4)  A  peculiar  temperament  on 
the  part  of  the  mother.  Among  the  direct  causes 
of  abortion  may  be  placed  blows  on  the  abdomen, 
falls,  any  violent  muscular  efforts,  too  long  a 
walk  or  ride  on  horseback  (indeed,  women  with 
a  tendency  to  abort  should  avoid  horseback  riding 
during  pregnancy),  a  severe  mental  shock,  etc. 
Moreover,  the  death  of  the  foetus  from  any  cause 
is  sure  to  occasion  abortion.  It  can  not  be  too 
generally  known,  that  all  attempts  at  procuring 
criminal  abortion  are  accompanied  with  extreme 
dangertothe  pregnant  woman.  Neitherinthelaw 
of  England  nor  of  Scotland  is  it  murder  to  kill  a 
child  in  the  mother’s  womb  (although  it  would 
be  murder  of  the  mother  if  she  died  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  treatment). 

In  the  United  States  abortion  is  a  felony,  and 
severely  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  It 
is  a  misdemeanor  for  any  person  knowingly  to 
deposit  for  mailing  or  delivery  any  article  or  thing 
designed  or  intended  to  procure  abortion.  Even 
for  a  publisher  knowingly  to  deposit  in  the  mail 
a  newspaper  containing  a  quack  medical  adver¬ 
tisement  giving  information  how  and  where 
articles  for  producing  abortion  could  be  obtained, 
however  vaguely  the  advertisement  may  be  ex¬ 
pressed,  is  by  act  of  Congress  amisdemeanor  (Rev. 
Stat.  3893).  Although  to  procure  abortion  with 
consent  of  the  woman  is  not  indictable  at  common 
law,  it  is  a  felony,  and  punished  with  severe  pen¬ 
alties. 

Abonkir  is  a  small  village  on  the  coast  of 
Egypt,  thirteen  miles  northeast  of  Alexandria. 
This  bay  is  celebrated  on  account  of  Nelson’s  vic¬ 
tory  over  the  French  fleet,  August  1,  1798,  the 
famous  “  Battle  of  the  Nile.”  Here  Napoleon,  in 
1799,  defeated  a  Turkish  army;  and  here  Sir 
Ralph  Abercromby’s  expedition  landed  in  1801  in 
the  face  of  the  enemy. 

About,  Edmond  Francois  Valentin,  an  emi¬ 
nent  French  author,  was  born  at  Dieuze,  in  Lor¬ 
raine,  February  14,  1828.  About  contributed 
constantly  to  the  journals  of  the  day,  and  wrote 
many  plays,  few  of  which,  however,  were  suc¬ 
cessful  on  the  stage.  He  also  wrote  many  success¬ 
ful  novels.  About  had  been  decorated  with  the 
Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1868,  and  in  1884 
was  elected  to  the  Academy,  but  died  just  before 
he  was  formally  received,  January  17,  1885. 

Abracadabra,  a  magical  abracadabra 
word  or  formula  constructed  aBRACADABR 
out  of  the  letters  of  the  alpha-  abracadab 
bet,  and  supposed  to  be  ABR AC  AD A 
highly  efficacious  for  the  a  b  R  a  c  a 
cure  of  agues  and  fevers.  abrac 
The  letters  wrere  written  so  AaBrrA 

as  to  form  a  triangle,  capable  a  B 

of  being  read  many  ways  on  a 


a  square  piece  of  paper,  which  was  folded  or 
stitched  into  the  form  of  a  cross,  worn  as  an 
amulet  in  the  bosom  for  nine  days,  and  ulti¬ 
mately  thrown  backward  before  sunrise  into  a 
stream  running  eastward.  The  adjoining  is  one 
way  of  arranging  this  mystic  word. 

Abraham,  the  father  of  the  Hebrew  people, 
was  also,  according  to  the  Bible  narrative,  the 
restorer  of  the  primitive  belief  in  one  true  God. 
See  Gen.  xi-  xxv.  Abraham,  originally  known 
as  Abram,  was  the  son  of  Terah,  a  descendant  of 
Shem,  and  was  born  in  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.  In 
Ur,  Abraham  married  his  half-sister  Sarai  (after¬ 
ward  Sarah).  He  was  a  nomad  chief,  and  subse¬ 
quently  commanded  a  large  following.  On  his 
death,  at  the  age  of  175,  he  was  buried  beside 
Sarah  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah. 

Abraham,  the  Plains  of,  or  Heights  of,  close  to 
the  city  of  Quebec,  were  the  scene  of  the  battle 
between  Montcalm  and  Wolfe,  13th  September, 
1759. 

Abraliam-a-Santa-CIara,  a  very  eccentric  but 
popular  German  preacher,  was  born  near  Mos- 
kirch,  in  Swabia,  July  4, 1644,  and  died  in  Vienna, 
December  3,  1709. 

Abraham-men,  a  class  of  sturdy  beggars  who 
simulated  lunacy,  and  wandered  about  England 
in  a  disorderly  manner,  working  on  the  sympathy 
or  the  fears  of  women,  children,  and  domestics. 
They  were  common  in  Shakespeare’s  time,  and 
existed  even  as  late  as  the  period  of  the  Civil  war. 
The  term  is  a  cant  one,  as  old  at  least  as  1561. 

Abrantes,  a  town  of  Portugal,  on  the  Tagus, 
eighty-four  miles  northeast  of  Lisbon.  Popula¬ 
tion,  6,380.  Abrantes  gave  a  ducal  title  to  the 
famous  Junot. 

Abraxas  Stones  are  so  called  from  having  .the 
word  abraxas  or  abrasax  engraved  on  them.  They 
are  cut  in  various  forms,  and  bear  a  variety  of 
cabalistic  symbols,  mostly  composed  of  a  human 
body,  a  fowl’s  head,  and  serpentine  extremities. 
These  gems  are  common  in  collections,  and  are 
represented  as  coming  from  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
Spain. 

Abrogation  is  a  term  of  canon  law,  which 
means  the  entire, as  distinguished  from  the  partial, 
change  of  an  existing  law.  The  term  is  used 
popularly  as  the  equivalent  of  repeal,  whether  by 
statute  or  contrary  usage. 

Abruzzo  (or  rather  the  Abrvzzi),  a  district  of 
Central  Italy,  in  the  wildest  and  loftiest  portion 
of  the  Appenines.  The  jagged  mountain  groups 
reach  in  the  Gran  Sasso  d’ltalia  an  elevation  of 
9,600  feet.  The  three  Abruzzi  contain  about  5,000 
square  miles  and  1,000,000  inhabitants. 

Absalom,  the  third  son  of  David,  king  of 
Israel,  remarkable  for  his  beauty,  and  for  his 
unnatural  rebellion  against  his  father.  He  was 
defeated,  and  in  his  flight,  as  he  was  riding  under 
a  tree,  was  caught  (by  his  long  hair,  as  is  generally 
supposed,  though  not  expressly  stated  in  Scrip¬ 
ture,)  in  the  branches,  and  was  left  suspended;  in 
which  position  Joab,  the  commander  of  David’s 
army,  thrust  him  through.  See  2  Sam.  xvii. 

Abscess  (technically  called  Apostema),  a  cir¬ 
cumscribed  collection  of  purulent  matter  formed 
by  disease  within  some  tissue  or  organ  of  the 
body.  Abscesses  may  be  acute,  forming  in  a  few 
days,  with  much  pain  ;  or  chronic  or  cold,  taking 
weeks  or  months  to  form,  with  little  or  no  pain. 
An  abscess  must  be  regarded,  not  as  a  distinct 
disease,  but  as  the  result  of  inflammation;  or  as  an 
effort  of  nature  for  the  removal  of  injurious  mat¬ 
ters  from  the  system. 

Absentee,  a  term  applied,  as  a  reproach,  to 
landlords  who  derive  their  rent  from  one  country 
and  spend  it  in  another.  It  has  been  especially 
used  in  discussions  on  the  social  condition  of  Ire¬ 
land.  A  new  form  of  absenteeism  is  beginning 
to  excite  attention  in  America.  A  great  deal  of 
the  land  of  the  United  States  is  held  by  proprie¬ 
tors  living  in  England  and  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  In  this  way  large  sums  are  paid  every 
year  to  owners  who  are  so  remote  and  know  so 
little  of  their  estates  that  they  can  not  possibly 
fulfill  the  recognized  duties  of  property.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  objections  brought  against  the 
absentee  are  both  moral  and  economic. 

Absinthe  is  a  spirit  flavored  with  the  pounded 
leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  certain  species  of 
Artemisia,  chiefly  wormwood  (A.  absinthium), 
together  with  angelica  root,  sweet  flag  root,  star 


ABSOLUTION. 


9 


ACADEMY. 


.-anise  and  other  aromatics.  When  to  be  drunk, 
the  greenish  liquor  is  usually  mixed  with  water; 
whereupon  the  precipitation  of  the  contained 
volatile  oil  causes  the  mixture  to  cloud  or  whiten. 
The  evil  effects  of  drinking  absinthe  end  in 
paralysis  and  idiocy. 

Absolution,  originally  a  term  of  Roman  law, 
signifies  acquittal. "  It  is  now  a  part  of  the  sacra¬ 
ment  of  penance  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
pronounced  by  the  priest  after  confession. 

Abu  Klea,  on  the  route  across  country  between 
Korti  and  Metammeh,  on  the  great  bend  of  the 
Nile  below  Khartoum,  was  the  scene  of  a  battle 
on  the  17th  January,  1885,  in  which  Sir  Herbert 
Stewart  defeated  the  Malidi’s  forces. 

Aby'dos,  a  town  in  Asia  Minor,  situated  at  the 
narrowest  part  of  the  Hellespont,  opposite  Sestos, 
is  celebrated  in  history  as  the  place  whence 
Xerxes  and  his  vast  army  passed  into  Europe  in 
480  b.c.;  and  in  poetry  on  account  of  the  loves  of 
Hero  and  Leander.  Byron  swam  from  Sestos  to 
Abydos,  and,  more  fortunate  than  Leander,  got 
safe  to  shore. 

Abyssinia  (from  the  Arabic  name  Habesh, 
“  mixture,”  given  on  account  of  the  mixed  popula¬ 
tion)  is  that  part  of  Eastern  Africa  lying  between 
7°  30'  and  15°  40'  north  latitude  and  the  meri¬ 
dians  of  35°  and  40°  30'  east  longitude;  having 
Nubia  on  the  northwest,  the  Red  Sea  on  the 
northeast,  the  River  Hawash  on  the  southeast, 
and  the  Blue  Nile  on  the  southwest.  The 
mountainous  part  of  this  tract  forms  the  king¬ 
dom  of  Abyssinia.  Abyssinia,  the  area  of 
which  is  about  200,000  square  miles,  consists  of  a 
huge  tableland,  with  a  mean  elevation  of  7,000 
feet.  The  declivity  to  the  bordering  tract  on  the 
Red  Sea  is  abrupt;  towards  the  Nile  basin  it  is 
more  gradual.  The  main  mass  has  been  cut  into 
a  number  of  island-like  sections  by  the  streams, 
which  have  worn  their  channels  into  ravines  of 
vast  depth,  as  much  sometimes  as  4,000  feet.  The 
Samen  Mountains  have  summits  rising  to  the 
height  of  15,000  feet. 

The  chief  watercourses  are  the  Abai,  the  Tak- 
uzze,  the  Mareb,  and  the  Hawash,  of  which  the 
first  two  flow  to  the  Nile.  The  largest  lake  in 
Abyssinia  is  Lake  Tzana  (Tsana)  or  Dembea, 
sixty  miles  long,  and  in  some  places  600  feet  deep. 

The  climate  of  Abyssinia,  notwithstanding  its 
tropical  position,  is,  on  the  whole,  moderate  and 
pleasant,  owing  to  its  elevation.  The  rainy  sea¬ 
son  is  in  summer,  from  April  to  September. 

Abyssinia,  as  a  whole,  is  exceedingly  fruitful; 
and  its  productions  are  of  the  most  varied  nature. 
The  commonest  wild  animals  are  the  hyaena,  the 
elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  crocodile,  and  the 
hippopotamus,  while  lions,  panthers,  and  leopards 
are  not  infrequent. 

The  population  of  Abyssinia,  numbers  between 
three  and  four  millions.  The  nucleus  is  formed 
-of  the  Abyssinians  proper,  a  brown,  well-formed 
people,  belonging  to  the  Semitic  stock,  and  be¬ 
lieved  to  be  the  descendants  of  immigrants  from 
Arabia.  The  basis  of  the  language  is  the  ancient 
Ethiopic,  understood  only  by  the  priests.  Since 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Gallas, 
an  African  people,  have  taken  possession  of  many 
•districts.  Jewish  tribes,  called  Falashas,  retain 
many  of  their  Jewish  peculiarities.  What  foreign 
•commerce  there  is  passes  through  the  port  of 
Massowah. 

The  religion  of  the  Abyssinians  proper  is  a 
-debased  Christianity;  but  the  Gallas  and  other 
alien  tribes  are  mostly  Mohammedan,  and  partly 
also  pagan.  Christianity  was  introduced  in  the 
fourth  century  by  Frumentius,  who  was  conse¬ 
crated  Bishop  of  Abyssinia  by  the  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria.  The  native  annals  of  Abyssinia, 
trace  their  kings  from  Menilek,  the  son  of  Sol¬ 
omon  by  the  Queen  of  Sheba,  down  to  recent 
times,  but  the  real  history  begins  with  the  king- 
•dom  of  Axum.  Under  the  Axumiterulers,  Abys¬ 
sinia  attained  its  greatest  extent  and  prosperity,  in 
the  sixth  century,  when  it  embraced  Yemen,  in 
Arabia.  The  search  for  the  kingdom  of  Prester 
John  brought  the  Portuguese  in  contact  witli 
Abyssinia  in  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  design  was  thereupon  formed  of  converting 
the  A  byssinians  to  the  Catholic  Church.  With 
this  view  an  embassy  was  sent  to  the  Negus 
<1520);  and  at  last,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
-seventeenth  century,  the  royal  family  submitted 


to  the  Roman  Church;  but  in  1634,  the  monarch 
was  obliged  to  resign  in  favor  of  his  son,  who 
banished  or  executed  the  Catholic  priests. 

The  monarchs  lost  all  control  over  the  great 
chiefs,  who  set  up  as  independent  rulers  in  their 
several  provinces.  About  1850,  the  adventurer 
Kasa  or  Kassai,  afterward  known  as  Theodore, 
began  to  excite  attention.  Kassai  was  a  native 
(born  1816)  of  Kuara,  a  province  in  the  west  of 
Amliara,  of  which  his  uncle  was  governor.  After 
the  uncle’s  death,  Kassai,  defeating  the  armies  of 
Ali,  the  Ras,  compelled  his  recognition  as  gov¬ 
ernor  and  became  Ali’s  son-in-law.  In  1853  he 
crushed  the  Ras,  and  two  years  later,  after  com¬ 
pletely  defeating  the  Prince  of  Tigre,  was  crowned 
by  the  Abuna  as  the  Negus  of  Abyssinia,  with  the 
name  of  '1  heodore.  He  then  subdued  the  Wollo 
Gallas;  and,  having  conquered  Shoa,  he  was  now 
master  of  the  whole  of  Abyssinia.  At  first  he 
ruled  prudently,  and  with  moderation,  but  after 
losing  his  two  English  counsellors,  Messrs.  Plow- 
den  and  Bell,  in  i860,  his  rule  became  tyrannous. 
The  enormous  army  (150,000  out  of  a  population 
of  three  or  four  millions)  exhausted  the  resources 
of  the  country.  One  province  after  another  rose 
in  rebellion,  and  these  insurrections  were  sup¬ 
pressed  with  unheard-of  rigor. 

Theodore  had  made  several  attempts  to  procure 
the  active  alliance  of  England  and  France  against 
the  Mussulman  powers;  but  when  these  efforts 
failed  he  became  so  enraged  that  he  began  to 
maltreat  the  consuls  and  their  servants,  and 
kept  them  prisoners  along  with  the  missionaries 
and  other  Europeans  in  his  dominions.  The 
British  Government  in  1864  sent  envoys  to  treat 
for  the  release  of  the  prisoners.  The  negotiations 
failed,  and  the  three  envoys  were  put  in  irons  and 
shut  up  along  with  the  other  prisoners  in  the  fort¬ 
ress  of  Magdala.  Thereupon  a  military  expedi¬ 
tion  of  16,000  troops  was  sent  from  England 
under  General  (afterward  Lord)  Napier.  Theo¬ 
dore  had  occupied  the  fort  with  5,000  or  6,000 
men,  three  weeks  before  the  arrival  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish.  On  the  10th  of  April  5,000  Abyssinians 
rushed  down  upon  a  British  detachment  of  1,700 
men  in  the  plain  below  the  fort,  but  were  repulsed. 
Theodore  sued  for  peace,  and  released  the  prison¬ 
ers;  but  as  he  declined  to  surrender,  the  fort  was 
stormed  and  taken  on  the  13tli.  Theodore  was 
found  dead,  having  shot  himself.  The  fort  being- 
demolished,  the  British  forces  were  withdrawn. 

After  the  departure  of  the  British  Prince  Kassai 
of  Tigre  vanquished  his  most  powerful  rival,  and 
had  himself  crowned  Emperor  of  Abyssinia  in 
1872,  assuming  the  name  of  John;  but  failed  to 
establish  his  rule  over  the  whole  country.  He 
made  repeated  but  vain  attempts  to  get  European 
help  against  the  Egyptians,  with  whom  Abyssinia 
had  been  at  enmity  since  1860.  In  1875  the  Khe¬ 
dive  sent  a  small  force;  but  they  fell  into  an 
ambuscade  and  were  all  massacred.  In  the  same 
year  a  second  expedition  of  1,600  men  was  sent 
against  the  Aby-sinians,  and  a  short,  sanguinary 
campaign  followed,  in  which  both  parties  lost  so 
heavily  that  each  was  compelled  to  retire,  and  the 
frontier  difficulties  continued  until  the  Soudan 
was  evacuated  by  Egypt  in  1882.  In  1885  the 
Italians  occupied  Massowah,  but  did  not  succeed 
in  establishing  friendly  relations  with  the  Abys¬ 
sinians.  On  the  26th  of  January,  18S7,  three  com¬ 
panies  of  Italian  soldiers  were  attacked  by  the 
Abyssinians,  and  all  were  slaughtered,  with  the 
exception  of  ninety  wounded,  who  managed  to 
make  their  way  back  to  Massowah.  See,  besides, 
the  works  of  Bruce  and  the  Brothers  Abbadie, 
Markham’s  History  of  the  Abyssinian  Expedition 
(1869),  and  Holland  and  Hozier’s  official  report 
thereon  (1871). 

Acacia,  an  important  genus  of  leguminous 
trees  or  shrubs,  belonging  to  the  sub-order  Mim- 
osete,  distinguished  from  Mimosa  by  the  greater 
number  of  stamens,  usually  indefinite,  and  by  the 
absence  of  transverse  partitions  in  the  pods.  The 
species  are  for  the  most  part  natives  of  tropical 
Africa  (140  species)  or  Australia  (280  species),  are 
frequently  thorny,  and  exhibit  extraordinary  dif¬ 
ferences  in  general  appearance,  owing  to  the 
remarkable  modifications  of  the  vegetative  organs. 
Many  species  are  cultivated  in  greenhouses  for  the 
sake  of  their  flowers,  which  are  united  into  golden 
stamen  tufts  of  great  beauty,  and  are  often  fra¬ 
grant.  The  leaves  often  exhibit  sleep-movements 


analogous  to  those 
which  aredeveloped 
into  sensitiveness  in 
some  of  the  allied 
Mimosas,  and  in 
some  species  close 
whenever  the  sun  is 
clouded.  The  genus 
is  of  greatandvaried 
economic  import¬ 
ance,  not  merely  as 
frequently  yielding 
timber  or  edible 
seeds  in  the  regions 
where  they  flourish, 
but  as  poss  ssiug 
the  astringent  and 
gum-yielding  pro¬ 
perties  common  in 
the  sub-order  in  the 
highest  degree.  The 
drug  known  as  Cat¬ 
echu  is  prepared 
from  Acacia  cate¬ 
chu. 

Academy  (Gr.  akademeia  or  akademiu)  was  the 
name  of  a  public  park  nearly  a  mile  to  the  north¬ 
west  of  Athens,  equipped  as  a  gymnasium.  There 
Plato  was  wont  to  converse  with  his  disciples  and 
friends;  and  the  name  of  the  meeting-place  came 
to  be  used  as  a  distinctive  title  of  Plato’s  school 
and  of  the  Platonic  philosophy.  In  Italy  the 
term  is  applied  either  to  associations  of  learned 
men  or  to  educational  institutes.  In  Germany  it 
is  generally  used  of  learned  societies,  is  occasion¬ 
ally  applied  to  the  universities,  and  is  the  recog¬ 
nized  denomination  of  many  technical  institutes, 
such  as  military  and  naval  academies,  schools  of 
mining,  agriculture,  and  forestry.  In  England 
and  America,  academies  may  be  grammar  schools, 
military  and  naval  educational  schools,  or  asso¬ 
ciations  for  the  promotion  of  music  and  the  fine 
arts.  In  France,  by  academy  is  sometimes  meant 
not  only  a  learned  society,  but  the  whole  educa¬ 
tional  staff  of  a  large  territorial  area,  or  division 
of  the  University  of  France.  The  Academie  of 
Geneva  is  its  university.  The  Grand  Opera  in 
Paris  is  officially,  but  strangely,  termed  Academie 
Imperiale  de  Musique,  an  example  followed  by 
several  of  the  comic  theatres.  In  this  country 
the  name  Academy  of  Music  is  often  used  for 
opera  houses. 

In  its  most  universal  modern  acceptation  the 
word  academy  denotes  a  society  of  learned  men 
incorporated  for  the  promotion  of  science,  litera¬ 
ture  or  art.  The  first  institution  in  ancient  times 
that  seemed  to  merit  the  name,  in  this  sense,  of 
academy,  was  the  celebrated  Museum  founded  at 
Alexandria  in  the  3d  century  n.  c.,  by  Ptolemy 
Soter.  After  this  model  the  Jews,  and  at  a  later 
period  the  Arabians,  founded  numerous  institu- 
ions  for  the  promotion  of  learning.  In  1635  Riche¬ 
lieu  transformed  a  private  association  of  poets  of 
no  great  note  into  a  national  instil  ui  ion,  the  Acad¬ 
emie  Franfaise,  which  met  for  the  first  time,  10th 
of  July,  1637.  The  chief  object  of  this  institu¬ 
tion  was  to  render  the  French  language  pure, 
eloquent,  and  capable  of  treating  the  arts  and 
sciences.  The  influence  of  the  Academy  on  the 
French  language  and  literature  has  naturally 
been  in  the  main  conservative,  and  directed  on 
‘taste’  rather  than  on  originality.  Except  in  the 
case  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
Dublin  (founded  1782),  the  name  academy  is  in 
England  given  to  institutions  existing  expressly 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts.  The  Royal 
Academy  of  Arts  in  London  was  founded  in  1768, 
for  the  promotion  of  the  arts  of  design,  painting, 
sculpture,  etc.  The  Royal  Scottish  Academy  of 
Painting,  Sculpture  and  Architecture  was 
founded  at  Edinburgh  in  1826,  and  received  a 
royal  charter  in  1838.  Similar  to  these  also  is 
the  Royal  Hibernian  Academy,  incorporated  at 
Dublin  in  1803.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Music 
in  London,  founded  1823,  is  an  educational 
institute. 

In  America,  as  in  Britain,  learned  societies  are 
not  usually  termed  academies,  though  many  are. 
The  Smithsonian  Institution  at  Washington,  and 
the  American  Philosophical  Society  at  Philadel¬ 
phia,  founded  in  1780,  are  prominent  amongst 
the  learned  associations  of  the  United  States. 


ACADIA. 


10 


ACCOUNTANT. 


Acadia  ( Accidie )  was  the  name  given  by  the 
French  settlers  to  Nova  Scotia  on  its  first  settle¬ 
ment  in  1604.  The  English  claimed  the  colony 
by  right  of  discovery — as  having  been  discovered 
by  the  Cabots;  the  exclusive  possession  of  the 
fisheries  proved  a  further  bone  of  contention. 
In  1667  it  was  ceded  to  France;  but  the  English 
colonists  never  recognized  the  cession,  and  har- 
rassed  the  French  settlers.  In  1713  France  gave 
up  all  claim  to  the  colony;  the  Acadians  mostly 
remained,  though  they  had  liberty  to  leave  within 
two  years,  and  were  exempted  from  bearing  arms 
against  their  brethren.  The  majority  of  the  Aca¬ 
dians  would  not  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to 
England.  In  1755  it  was  determined  to  remove 
them,  and  to  the  number  of  18,000  they  were  dis¬ 
possessed  of  their  property  and  dispersed  among 
the  other  British  provinces.  The  sufferings  of 
the  Acadians  form  the  groundwork  of  Longfel¬ 
low’s  Evangeline.  See  Murdock’s  History  of  Nova 
Scotia  (1866);  Hannay’s  History  of  Acadia  (1870); 
and  Parkham’s  Montcalm  and  Wolfe  (1884). 

Acajutla,  a  small  seaport  on  the  west  coast  of 
San  Salvador,  which  still  has  considerable  trade, 
but  was  formerly  much  more  prosperous. 

Acanthoccphala,  a  peculiar  order  of  parasitic 
worms  of  cylindrical  form,  with  protrusible  hook¬ 
bearing  proboscis,  and  without  alimentary  c  nal. 
The  order  includes  several  species  of  a  single 
genus,  Echinorhynchus. 

AcantJiopterygii,  a  term  due  to  Cuvier,  and 
employed  to  designate  one  of  the  principal  orders 
*f  bony  fishes.  Literally  meaning  thorny-winged 


Perch,  an  Acanthopterygious  Fis  . 


(Gr.  arantha,  a  thorn,  and  pleryr,  a  wing), 
the  term  describes  one  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  order — namely,  the  presence  of  unjointed 
spinous  rays  in  the  dorsal,  anal,  and  ventral  fins. 
Among  the  common  representatives  are  perch, 
mullet,  mackerel,  miller’s  thumb,  gurnard, 
blenny,  and  stickleback. 

Acanthus,  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  to  the  plants  sometimes  also  called  Bran- 
•ursine,  and  adopted  l*y  Linnaeus  as  the  generic 
■ame.  Acanthus  mollis  is  said  to  have  furnished 
to  Callimachus  the  idea  of  the  Corinthian  capital. 

Acapulco,  the  best  Mexican  harbor  on  the 
Pacific,  situated  about  180  miles  southwest  of 
the  capital.  Population  about  3,000. 

Acari'na,  or  mites,  in  the  wide  sense,  form  a 
low  order  of  Arachnida.  Most  of  them  are  ex¬ 
tremely  small,  the  body  is  all  one  piece,  the  mouth 
parts  are  modified  for  sucking  or  biting,  and  the 
organs  are  generally  s’mple  and  often  degenerate. 
Cheese-mite,  the  Sugar-mite,  the  Itch-mite,  the 
common  Ilarvest- 
bug,  the  frequent 
parasite  on  the  hu¬ 
man  nose(,4<wMs/0j- 
hculornm),  the  abun¬ 
dant  ticks,  the  water- 
mites  or  water- 
beetles,  &c.;  the  fa 
miliar  “red  spider” 
of  hot  houses,  are  ex¬ 
ceedingly  frequent 
forms  of  acarina.  An 
East-Ind'an  species  of 
harvest  mite  ( Trombi - 
dium  tinctonim) yields 
a  dye.  In  their  des¬ 
truction  of  decaying 
organic  matter,  mites 
doubtless  act  as  bene¬ 
ficial  scavengers. 

Acarnania,  the  most  westerly  part  of  ancient 
Greece,  separated  from  Epirus  on  the  north  by 
the  Ambracian  Gulf,  now  the  Gulf  of  Arta;  from 
AStolia  on  the  east  by  the  river  Achelolis;  and 
washed  south  and  west  by  the  Ionian  Sea.  The 


chief  town  is  Missolonghi,  where  Byron  died,  in 
1824. 

Ac  ’  arus  folliculorum,  or  Demo- 
dex  Folliculorum,  is  a  micro¬ 
scopic  parasite  allied  to  the  mites, 
which  inhabits  the  hair-follicles  and 
sebaceous  glands  of  the  human  skin, 
also  the  wax  of  the  ear. 

Acceleration,  is  a  term  used  in 
the  science  of  Kinematics.  If  a 
point  be  moving  with  variable  veloc¬ 
ity,  its  motion  is  said  to  be  acceler¬ 
ated,  and  the  rate  of  change  of 
velocity  is  termed  its  acceleration. 

Accent,  in  Language,  is  a  special 
stress  of  voice  laid  upon  one  syllable 
of  a  word,  by  which  it  is  made  more 
prominent  than  the  rest ;  every  word 
in  English  has  one  syllable  thus 
brought  markedly  into  notice.  The 
accented  syllable  is  sometimes  indi 
cated  by  a  mark,  as  away' ,  for' tify.  folliculurum. 
When  the  accented  syllable  falls  near  the  end  of  a 
long  word,  there  may  be  one  or  more  secondary 
accents,  as  in  rec ' ornrnend ' ' ,  subor'  dina"tion.  It 
is  accent  that  determines  English  metres  in  versi¬ 
fication.  There  seems  to  be  an  increasing  tend¬ 
ency  in  our  language  to  throw  the  accent  toward 
the  beginning  of  words.  Emphasis  is  to  sentences 
what  accent  is  to  words. 

Accent,  in  Music,  is  analogous  with  accent  in 
poetry.  It  is  one  of  the  elementary  requisites  of 
musical  art,  that  in  a  series  of  no  es,  an  empha¬ 
sis  or  accent  should  recur  with  mostly  unbroken 
regularity.  The  position  of  this  is  generally  in¬ 
dicated  by  bars  across  the  stave,  the  accent  being 
normally  on  the  first  note  within  the  measure. 
Accems,  in  liturgical  services,  are  the  forms  of 
intonation  of  various  portions  in  definite  musical 
rythm. 

Acceptance  is  the  signification  by  the  drawee 
in  a  bill  of  his  assent  to  the  order  of  the  drawer. 
It  consists  in  the  drawee,  or  some  person  duly 
authorized  by  him,  signing  the  bill.  An  accept 
ance  may  be  called  absolute,  when  it  is  a  positive 
engagement  to  pay  the  bill  according  to  its  tenor; 
conditional,  when  it  is  an  undertaking  to  pay  the 
bill  on  a  contingency;  express,  when  it  is  an  un¬ 
dertaking,  in  express  and  direct  terms,  to  pay  the 
bill;  implied,  when  the  undertaking  to  pay  the 
bill  is  inferred  from  acts  of  a  character  to  warrant 
such  an  inference;  partial,  when  the  undertaking 
varies  from  the  tenor  of  the  bill;  and  qualified, 
when  the  acceptance  is  either  conditional  or 
partial. 

Accessary,  or  Accessory.  In  the  criminal 
law  of  England,  an  accessary  is  a  person  who  is 
not  the  chief  actor  in  a  felony,  or  even  present  at 
its  perpetration,  but  who  is  in  some  way  con¬ 
cerned,  either  before  or  after  the  fact.  An  acces¬ 
sary  before  the  fact  is  one  who  procuies  or  coun¬ 
sels  or  commands  another  to  commit  a  crime,  he 
himself  being  absent.  An  accessary  after  the 
fact  is  a  person  who,  knowing  a  felony  to  have 
been  committed,  leceives,  protects,  or  assists  the 
felon;  but  merely  suffering  the  principal  to  escape 
is  not  enough.  In  the  United  States,  the  common 
law  distinction  between  principals  and  accessaries 
has  been  abolished  by  statute,  and  every  person 
concerned  in  the  commission  of  a  crime,  whether 
he  directly  commits  the  act  constituting  the  of¬ 
fense  or  aids  and  abets  in  its  commission,  is  a 
principal. 

Accession  is  the  right  to  all  which  one’s  own 
property  produces;  the  right  to  that  .which  is 
united  to  it,  naturally  or  artificially,  by  accretion. 
If  the  materials  of  one  person  are  united  by 
labor  to  the  materials  of  another,  so  as  to  form  a 
single  article,  the  property  in  the  joint  product 
is,  in  the  absence  of  any  agreement,  in  the  owner 
of  the  principal  part  of  the  materials  by  acces¬ 
sion.  If  there  be  a  sale,  mortgage,  or  pledge  of 
a  chattel,  carried  into  effect  by  delivery,  and  other 
materials  are  added  afterwards  by  the  labor  of  the 
vendor  or  mortgager,  these  pass  by  accession. 

Accidence  is  the  part  of  Grammar  which  treats 
of  the  inflection  of  words. 

Accidental  Colors  are  the  imaginary  com¬ 
plimentary  colors  due  to  subjective  sensation, 
which  are  seen  when,  after  looking  fixedly  at  a 
bright-colored  object,  the  eye  is  turned  to  a 
white  or  light-colored  surface. 


Arams 


Accidentals,  in  Music,  are  signs  of  chromatic- 
alteration  of  the  notes,  differing  from  the  Signa¬ 
ture  in  applying  only  to  particular  notes,  and  not 
extending  their  effects  beyond  the  bar  in  which 
they  occur,  or  according  to  others,  the  first  note 
of  the  next  bar.  They  indicate  a  temporary 
change  of  key.  They  are  five  in  number;  the 

sharp  (^),  the  double  sharp  (2$),  which  raise  the 
note  to  which  they  are  prefixed  a  semitone  and  a 
tone  respectively;  the  flat  ( j?)  and  the  double  fiat 
which  lower  it  correspondingly;  and  the 

L 

natural  (y),  which  annuls  the  effect  of  preceding- 
flats  or  sharps,  whether  accidental  or  in  the 
signature. 

Accidents,  in  Logic  or  Philosophy,  are  op¬ 
posed  to  Essentials,  or  to  Substance.  An  accident 
is  a  property  of  an  object  which  maybe  modified, 
or  even  be  altogether  abstracted,  in  thought  or 
reality,  without  the  object  ceasing  to  be  essen¬ 
tially  -what  it  is. 

Accip  itres,  a  term  applied  by  Linnaeus  to 
Birds  of  Prey,  such  as  the  hawk  (Aecipiter).  The 
order  is  now  more  generally  named  liaptores,  or 
more  technically,  Actomorphse. 

Acclimatization  is  that  process  whereby  ani¬ 
mals  or  plants  become  adapted  to,  and  so  thrive 
in,  a  climate  different  from  that  in  which  ihey  are 
indigenous.  The  power  of  bearing  changes  of 
climate  is  greatest  in  the  Anglo-German  race, 
and  usually  bears  a  direct  ratio  to  the  intellectual 
development  of  a  race.  Among  animals  we  find 
great  powers  of  adaptation  to  various  climates  in 
the  horse,  dog,  cat,  and  rat;  among  plants,  in  the 
various  cereals,  in  potatoes,  and  in  several  weeds 
common  to  almost  all  climates;  but  there  seems, 
to  be  a  limit  to  the  power,  at  least  as  seen  in  the 
individual.  The  change  produced  by  the  accli¬ 
matizing  of  animals  may  be  either  an  improve¬ 
ment  or  a  deterioration;  of  the  latter,  we  have  an 
instance  in  the  Shetland  pony;  of  the  former,  in 
the  merino  sheep  of  Spain. 

The  introduction  of  coffee  into  the  'West  Indies 
and  of  cinchona  into  India  offer  further  examples 
of  successful  acclimatization. 

Accolade,  an  essential  part  of  the  ceremony 
by  which  knighthood  was  and  is  conferred. 
Originally,  the  grand  master  of  the  order,  in 
receiving  the  neophyte,  embraced  him  by  folding 
the  arms  round  the  neck  ( ad  collum).  Later,  a 
blow  was  given  with  the  fist  or  the  flat  of  a  sword 
(perhaps  as  the  last  the  knight  should  suffer  to 
pass  unavenged).  Now  the  sovereign  gives  the 
accolade  by  laying  a  drawn  sword  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  kneeling  kuiglit-elect,  and  bids  him  rise, 
addressing  him  with  “Sir”  prefixed  to  his- 
Christian  name. 

Accommodation,  in  Commerce,  is  either  a  loan 
directly,  or  the  service  rendered  when  one  be¬ 
comes  security  for  a  sum  advanced  to  another  by 
a  third  party,  as  by  a  banker. 

Accompaniment,  in  Music,  is  the  assisting  or 
aiding  of  a  solo  part  by  other  parts,  which  may 
consist  of  a  whole  orchestra,  or  a  single  instru¬ 
ment,  or  even  subservient  vocal  parts.  It  is  either 
adlibitum,  when  it  maybe  omitted  at  pleasure, 
or  obbligato,  when  it  forms  an  integral  part  of  the 
composition. 

Accordion,  a  reed  musical  instrument  invented 
in  1829,  by  Damian,  of  Vienna.  Its  capabilities 
are  extremely  limited,  and  it  is  little  more  than  a 
toy. 

Accosted,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  often  applied  to 
a  bend,  chevron,  or  fess,  placed  between  two 
cotises. 

Account,  in  Law,  means  a  statement  of  money 
transactions  showing  a  balance  due  by  one  party 
to  another,  or  it  may  show-  only  goods  supplied 
or  services  rendered  by  one  party,  in  respect  of 
which  money  is  due  to  the  other. 

Accountant.  Most  public  companies  have  an 
officer  called  an  accountant,  whose  duty  it  is  to 
take  charge  of  the  books  and  accounts  of  the 
concern,  and  to  make  up  periodical  statements 
and  balance-sheets.  The  business  of  an  account¬ 
ant  may  be  stated  generally  as  falling  under  two 
divisions;  (1)  The  management  or  realization  of 
estates,  whether  of  bankrupts  or  others;  and  (2) 
all  matters  involving  the  investigation  of  business- 
books,  as  auditing  the  books  of  private  firms  or 


ACCRA. 


11 


ACONITIN 


public  companies,  and  making  up  balance-sheets, 
statements  of  all  kinds,  and  reports. 

Accra,  since  1875  capital  of  the  (British)  Gold 
Coast  Colony  (Africa),  and,  after  Cape  Coast  Castle, 
the  most  important  town  on  the  coast,  lies  slightly 
to  the  west  of  die  longitude  of  Greenwich.  Popu¬ 
lation  about  10,000. 

Accumulator.  In  such  pieces  of  hydraulic 
apparatus  as  cranes  or  hoists,  unless  the  height 
of  the  available  column  of  water,  or  head  press¬ 
ure,  is  considerable,  the  necessary  amount  and 
constancy  of  pressure  is  obtained  by  means  of  an 
accumulator.  This  usually  consists  of  a  dead 
weight  acting  by  means  of  a  plunger  on  the  water 
column.  Sometimes  steam  is  used  to  put  on  the 
required  pressure,  in  which  case  tire  arrangement 
Is  called  a  steam  accumulator.  In  electricity,  the 
accumulator  is  an  arrangement  by  which  elec¬ 
trical  energy  can  be  stored  for  a  considerable  time 
in  some  potential  form,  so  as  to  be  u-ed  at  will 
for  the  production  of  electric  currents. 

Acel  dama  (Chaldee,  field  of  blood),  the 
name  given  to  the  potter’s  field  bought  by  the 
priests,  as  a  burial-place  for  strangers,  with  the 
money  which  Judas  received  for  betraying 
Jesus. 

Aceph'ala  (Gr.  headless),  a  term  used  from 
the  time  of  Aristotle  in  reference  to  the  class  of 
bivalve  molluscs  or  Lamellibrauchs. 

Acetal,  CiHjOCJhk  is  a  colorless  liquid,  of 
an  agreeable  odor,  and  a  flavor  said  to  resemble 
that  of  the  hazel-nut.  It  is  one  of  the  products  of 
the  slow  oxidation  of  alcohol  under  the  influence 
of  finely  divided  platinum,  or  of  chlorine,  or  of 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  peroxide  of  manganese. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  .821,  and  it  boils  at  k!21°  F. 
(105*  C.) 

Acetic  Acid  (C2H40->),  the  sour  principle  in 
vinegar,  is  the  most  common  of  the  vegetable 
acids.  If  alcohol,  diluted  with  water,  be  mixed 
with  a  ferment  such  as  yeast,  and  exposed  to  the 
air  at  or  a  little  above  its  ordinary  temperature,  it 
is  rapidly  converted  into  vinegar  or  acetic  acid. 
Pure  acetic  acid  is  a  crystalline  solid  at  ordinary 
temperatures.  See  Acid. 

A 'cetyl  is  an  organic  radical  not  yet  isolated, 
but  which  is  supposed  to  exist  in  acetic  acid 
and  its  derivatives;  the  rational  formula  for 
acetic  acid  being  on  this  hypothesis  (C2H30)0H. 
The  term  acetyl  was  formerly  applied  to  the  radi¬ 
cal  C»H3. 

Achaeinen'ides,  a  dynasty  in  ancient  Persia, 
from  which  sprang  Cyrus,  the  founder  of  one  of 
the  great  monarchies  of  the  world.  The  dynasty 
reigned  in  Persia  until  the  overthrow  of  the  em¬ 
pire  by  Alexander  the  Great,  330  b.c. 

Achaia,  a  small  Greek  district  lying  along  the 
■orthern  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus.  As  the 
Achaians  (Achseans)  were  the  ruling  people  of  the 
Peloponnesus  in  heroic  times,  Homer  speaks  of 
Itie  Greeks  generally  as  Achaiui. 

Achard,  Franz  Karl,  born  in  1754,  distin¬ 
guished  himself  by  his  improvements  in  the  man¬ 
ufacture  of  beet-root  sugar.  He  was  director  of 
the  physical  class  in  the  Berlin  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  died  in  1821. 

Achard,  Louis  Amedee  Eugene,  a  French 
■ovelist,  born  at  Marseilles  in  1814,  became  a 
journalist,  and  has  written  several  novels  and 
plays. 

Aclia'tes,  the  constant  companion  of  iEneas 
in  his  wanderings  after  the  capture  of  Troy.  He 
is  always  styled  by  Virgil  “  fidus  Achates,”  hence 
the  name  has  become  a  synonym  for  a  trusty 
companion. 

Achelo'us,  now  called  Aspropot'  amo,  the 
largest  river  in  Northern  Greece,  rises  in  Mount 
Pimlus,  fiows  south  and  souihwest,  dividing  in 
its  lower  course  iEtolia  from  Acarnania,  and  falls 
into  the  Ionian  Sea  opposite  Cephalonia.  In 
Greek  mythology  the  god  of  this  river  was  the 
oldest  of  the  river  gods,  and  was  the  son  of  Ocea- 
nus  and  Tethys. 

Ach'eron,  the  name  given  to  several  rivers  by 
the  ancients,  always  with  reference  to  some  pecul¬ 
iarity,  such  as  black  or  bitter  water,  or  mephitic 
gases.  The  Acheron  in  Thesprotia  in  Epirus, 
flowing  through  the  lake  Aclierusia  into  the 
Ionian  sea;  another  river  of  the  same  name  in 
Elis  (now  called  Sacuto),  and  several  streams  in 
Egypt,  were  all  supposed  to  have  some  communi¬ 
cation  with  the  infernal  world. 


A-clieval  Position.  When  troops  are  arranged 
so  that  a  river  or  highway  passes  through  the 
Centre  and  forms  a  perpendicular  to  the  Iront, 
they  are  said  to  be  drawn  up  in  d-cheval  position. 

Achievement,  in  Heraldry,  originally  arms 
granted  for  the  performance  of  an  honorable 
action ;  hence  a  complete  representation  of  one’s 
armorial  ensigns. 

Acliill,  or  “ Eagle”  Isle,  off  the  west  coast  of 
Ireland,  is  reckoned  within  the  county  of  Mayo. 
It  is  fifteen  miles  long  by  twelve  miles  broad. 

Achilles,  the  hero  of  Homer’s  Iliad,  was  the 
son  of  the  nereid  Thetis  and  Peleus,  who  was  son 
of  iEacus,  and  king  of  the  Myrmidons  at  Phthia 
in  Thessaly.  He  was  taught  eloquence  and  arts 
of  war  by  Phoenix,  and  the  healing  art  by  the 
centaur  Chiron.  He  led  his  Myrmidons  in  fifty 
ships  to  Troy,  although  he  knew  that  he  would 
not  return.  In  the  war  he  was  the  bulwark  of 
the  Greeks,  being  the  swiftest  and  bravest  hero 
in  the  army.  In  avenging  the  death  of  his  friend 
Patroclus  he  slew  a  great  number  of  Trojan 
heroes,  and  lastly  Hector  himself.  The  hero  him¬ 
self  fell  in  battle  at  the  Scaean  gate  before  the 
city  was  taken.  His  death  is  not  especially  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  Iliad,  but  in  the  Odyssey  his  remains 
are  buried,  together  with  those  of  Patroclus,  in 
a  golden  urn  on  the  coast  of  Hellespont,  where  a 
mound  was  raised  over  them.  His  mother  dipped 
him  when  an  infant  into  the  Styx,  and  hence  he 
became  invulnerable  except  in  the  heel  by  which 
she  held  him.  It  was  by  a  shot  in  the  heel  that 
he  was  finally  slain,  either  by  Paris  or  by 
Apollo. 

Achilles  Tendon  {Ter do  Achillis)  attaches  the 
soleus  and  gastrocnemius  muscles  of  the  calf  of 
the  leg  to  the  lieel-bone.  It  is  capable  of  resisting 
a  tension  strain  equal  to  a  thousand  pounds 
weight. 

Achi'meneS)  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Gesneracece,  cultivated  in  stores  and  green¬ 
houses  for  the  beauty  of  their  flowers.  The  species 
are  numerous — natives  of  tropical  America. 

Achromat  ism,  the  property  in  virtue  of  which 
certain  combinations  of  lenses,  etc.,  refract  abeam 
of  light  without  producing  colored  fringes.  Any 
arrangement  of  lenses  or  prisms  which  refract 
light  without  dispersion  is  achromatic.  The 
combination  of  convex  lens  with  concave  lens  of 
different  density  produces  the  ordinary  achroma¬ 
tic  lens.  Blair,  in  1791,  made  a  compound  lens 
consisting  of  two  glass  lenses  inclosing  a  liquid. 

Acidimetry  is  the  determination  of  the  per¬ 
centage  of  real  acid  contained  in  a  sample  of 
a  hydrated  acid,  as  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid.  This 
is  commonly  calculated  from  specific  gravity. 

Acids.  An  acid  is  a  chemical  compound  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  the  property  of  combining  with 
bases  in  definite  proportions  to  form  salts.  The 
most  striking  characteristics  of  acids  are  a  sour 
taste,  and  the  property  of  reddening  vegetable 
blues.  They  are  also  mostly  oxidized  bodies ;  and  at 
one  time  oxygen  was  thought  to  be  essential  to 
an  acid,  as  the  name  oxygen  (the  acid  producer) 
indicates.  Subsequent  experience  has  extended 
the  definition.  There  is  an  important  class  of 
undoubted  acids  that  contain  no  oxygen;  and 
silex,  or  flint,  which,  being  insoluble,  neither 
tastes  sour  nor  reddens  litmus-paper,  is  held  to  be 
an  acid  because  it  combines  with  bases  and  forms 
compounds  like  acknowledged  acids.  The  most 
familiar  of  the  mineral  acids  are  arsenious  (com¬ 
mon  arsenic)  AS2O3;  sulphuric,  II2SO4;  sulphurous, 
II2O,  SO3;  nitric  HNO3;  hydrochloric  or  muri¬ 
atic,  IIC1;  carbonic  (gaseous),  CO2;  carbonous  or 
carbonic  oxide  (gaseous),  CO;  carbolic  (from  coal 
tar)  CeHjO.  The  commonest  vegetable  acids 
are  acetic  (vinegar),  HC2H3O2;  oxalic,  II2C2O4; 
citric,  H3C6H5O7;  tartaric,  H2C4H4O6;  and  hydro¬ 
cyanic  (a  violent  poison),  HCN.  The  stronger 
acids,  when  concentrated,  are  powerful  caustics. 

Aci  Rea'le,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province 
of  Catania,  fifty  miles  southwest  of  Messina  by 
rail.  It  lies  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hitna,  on  the 
coast,  and  contained  (1881)  22,431  inhabitants. 
Aci  Reale  is  famed  for  its  mineral  waters,  and  for 
the  cave  of  Polyphemus  and  the  grotto  of  Gala- 
tea  in  its  vicinity. 

Acis,  a  son  of  Faunus,  beloved  by  the  nymph 
Galatea,  and  through  jealousy  killed  by  Polyphe¬ 
mus  the  Cyclops.  He  was  crushed  under  a  huge 
rock,  and  his  blood,  as  it  gushed  from  beneath 


the  rock,  was  changed  by  the  nymph  into  the 
river  Acis,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hitua. 

Ackermann,  Rudolph,  a  native  of  Saxony 
(born  1764 — died  1834),  removed  in  1795  to  Lon¬ 
don,  and  introduced  lithography  as  a  fine  art  into- 
England. 

Aclinic  Line  is  a  name  for  the  magnetic 
equator,  which  cuts  the  terrestrial  equator,  inas¬ 
much  as  on  that  line  the  magnetic  needle  has  no¬ 
dip,  but  lies  horizontal. 

Ac'ne  (probably  a  corruption  of  Gr.  nkme.  a 
point)  is  a  familiar  disease  of  the  sebaceous  folli¬ 
cles  of  the  skin.  It  is  common  on  the  face  and 
shoulders  at  the  age  of  puberty,  and  its  eruptions 
are  vulgarly  called  “pimples,”  “black-heads,” 
etc.  Acne  Rosacea,  also  called  Rosacea  and 
Gutta  Rosea,  is  so  different  from  the  forms  of 
acne  above  described  that  it  is  regarded  by  most 
authorities  as  a  distinct  disease.  It  usually  first 
appears  at  or  near  the  end  of  the  nose;  and  in 
some  cases  it  is  confined  to  the  nose,  while  in 
others  it  extends  to  the  cln-eks,  forehead,  chin, 
or  even  to  the  whole  face.  The  skin  in  the  part 
affected  assumes  a  deep  red  color,  usually  tran¬ 
sient  at  first,  but  returning  either  on  no  special 
provocation,  or  in  consequence,  apparently, 
of  some  gastric,  or  other  disturbance,  and 
after  a  time  becomes  permanent.  This  affection 
is  no  doubt  often  a  result  of  intemperate  living, 
but  it  may  occur  in  persons  of  regular  habits  of 
life.  It  has  occasionally  been  observed  to  lie 
hereditary. 

Accemetae  (Gr.  ahoimetai,  sleepless  ones),  a 
congregation  of  monks  founded  in  460  near  Con¬ 
stantinople,  whose  peculiarity  it  was,  by  means 
of  alternating  choirs,  to  keep  divine  service  going 
on  day  and  night,  without  intermission  in  their 
monastery.  They  ceased  to  exist  in  the  6th 
century. 

Ac'olytes  (Gr.  followers)  were  the  young- 
clerics  who  assisted  the  bishops  and  priests  in  the 
performance  of  religious  rites,  lighting  the  can¬ 
dles,  presenting  the  wine  and  water  at  the  com 
munion,  and  the  like  offices.  They  were  consid 
ered  as  in  holy  orders,  and  ranked  next  to  sub¬ 
deacons.  These  services  have,  since  the  7th 
century,  been  performed  by  laymen  and  boys, 
who  are  improperly  called  acolytes;  but  in  the 
Catholic  Church,  aspirants  to  the  priesthood  are 
still  at  one  stage  consecrated  as  acolytes. 

Aconcagua,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Andes; 
height,  22,867  feet.  The  mountain,  which  is  an 
extinct  volcano  (though  this  has  been  disputed), 
is  abjut  one  hundred  miles  east-northeast  of  Val¬ 
paraiso,  on  the  frontier  of  Chili  and  the  Argen 
tine  Republic.  It  gives  name  to  a  Chilian 
province. 

Aconite  (Aconitwn),  a  genus  of  Ranunculace*- 
having  five  petaloid  sepals,  of  which  the  upper 
one  is  helmet-shaped;  and  two  hammer-headed 
petals  (nectaries)  concealed  within  the  helmet - 
shaped  sepal. 

The  fruit 
consists  of 
3-5  follicles. 

A.  napellus, 
the  common 
W olf ’s  -  bane 
or  Monk’s- 
hood,  often 
cultivated  in 
flower  -  gar¬ 
dens  for  the 
sake  of  its 
erect  racemes 
of  blue  flow¬ 
ers,  is  com¬ 
mon  in  some 
parts  of  Eu¬ 
rope.  The 
root  and 
whole  plant 
are  very  poi¬ 
sonous,  con¬ 
taining  an  alkaloid  called  Aconitin.  The  viru¬ 
lent  bikh  poison  of  India,  equally  fatal  in  its 
effects  whether  introduced  into  wounds  or  taken 
into  the  stomach,  is  prepared  from  the  roots  of 
several  species. 

Aeon  ’ i tin,  the  active  principle  of  the  aconite 
or  monk’s-hood,  isoneof  the  most  potent  poisons 
known,  so  small  a  quanti.y  as  one-fiftieth  of  a 


Monk’s-hood  ( Aconilum  napellus). 
a,  fruit;  b ,  root. 


ACORN. 


12 


ADALBERT. 


grain  of  the  pure  alkaloid  having  nearly  proved 
fatal. 

Acorn.  See  Oak. 

Acorn-Shells,  (Eahmvs),  a  genus  of  Cirripedes 
in  the  class 
Crustacea.  The 
classical  title 
refers  to  that 
remote  resem¬ 
blance  to  acorns 
which  their 
popular  name 
also  records. 

They  occur  in 
great  abund¬ 
ance  incrustinsT  Acorn-shells  in  the  skin  of  a  whale, 
the  rocks  '  bob  (From  Bronn'8  ™ier-Beich.) 
ween  high  and  low  water  mark. 

Acosta,  Gabriel,  or  Uriel  d’,  a  Portuguese  of 
noble  Jewish  birtli, was  born  at  Oporto  about  1594. 
Brought  up  a  Catholic,  he  early  adopted  the  faith 
of  his  fathers,  and  fled  to  Amsterdam,  only  to  find 
there  how  little  modern  Judaism  accorded  with 
the  Mosaic  Law.  For  his  Examination  of  Phar¬ 
isaic  Traditions  (1624),  a  charge  of  atheism  was 
brought  against  him  by  the  Jews  before  a  Chris¬ 
tian  magistracy;  and  having  lost  all  his  property, 
twice  suffered  excommunication,  and  submitted 
to  humiliating  penance,  lie  shot  himself  (1647). 

Acoustics  (Gr.  akouo,  I  hear)  is  sometimes 
used  for  the  science  of  sound  in  general,  but 
more  commonly  for  the  special  practical  branch 
•of  that  science  which  deals  with  the  construction 
of  public  halls,  churches,  etc.,  so  as  to  secure  the 
accurate  hearing  of  speech  or  music. 

Acras’peda  (Gr.,  without  a  border  ),  a  term 
applied  to  jelly  fishes  without  an  inward  fringe 
or  velum  round  the  edge  of  the  disc,  llhizostoma, 
Pelagia,  Aurelia  are  common  representatives. 

Acre.  The  word  (from  A.S.  cecer)  is  identical 
with  Gothic  akr-s,  Ger.  acker  (a  cultivated 
field),  Lat.  ager,  Gr.  agros,  Sansk.  ajras.  Most 
nations  have,  or  had,  some  measure  nearly  corre¬ 
sponding;  originally,  perhaps,  the  quantity  which 
one  plow  could  plow  in  a  day.  The  English 
statute  acre  consists  of  4,840  square  yards.  The 
chain  with  which  land  is  measured  is  22  yards 
long,  and  a  square  chain  will  contain  22  X  22,  or 
484  yards;  so  that  10  square  chains  make  an 
acre.  The  acre  is  divided  into  4  roods,  a  rood 
into  40  perches,  and  a  perch  contains  fSOjJ’  square 
yards.  The  old  Scotch  acre  is  larger  than  the 
English,  and  the  Irish  than  the  Scotch;  23  Scotch 
acres  =  29  imperial  acres;  30)4  Irish  acres  = 
49  imperial  acres.  The  hectare  of  the  French 
metric  system  has  on  the  Continent  superseded 
almost  all  the  ancient  local  measures  correspond¬ 
ing  to  the  acre — such  as  the  Prussian  morgen. 


English  acre .  100 

Scotch  “  1.27 

Irish  “  . 1.62 


1  Hectare  (  —  100  ares) 
trance  j  Arpent  (old  system)  . 

Prussia  i  Little  Morgen . 

l  russia  -j  Ureat  Morgen . 

United  States,  English  acre. . . . 

Roman  Jugerum  (ancient) _ 

Greek  l’let  hron  (ancient) . 


2.47 
0.99 
0  63 
1.40 
.1.0(1 
.0.60 
.0.23 


Acie,  St.  Jean  d’,  or  Acca,  the  Biblical 
Accho,  is  a  seaport  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  not  far 
from  the  base  of  Mount  Carmel,  and  contains 
about  10,000  inhabitants.  It  is  eighty  miles 
north-northwest  of  Jerusalem,  and  twenty- 
seven  south  of  Tyre.  In  1887  a  railway  was 
projected  from  Acre  to  Damascus;  and  omnibuses 
were  running  regularly  from  Haifa  to  Acre.  It 
was  named  Ptolemais  from  King  Ptolemy  Soter 
of  Egypt.  Taken  by  the  Crusaders  in  1110,  it 
was  recovered  in  1187  by  the  Sultan  Saladin,  but 
retaken  in  1191  by  Richard  I  of  England  and 
Philip  at  a  cost  of  100,000  men.  The  town  was 
given  to  the  Knights  of  the  Order  of  St.  John, 
who  kept  it  by  constant  fighting  for  a  hundred 
years.  In  1517  it  was  captured  by  the  Turks;  in 
1799  it  was  besieged  by  the  French  for  sixty-one 
days,  but  was  successfully  defended  by  the  gar¬ 
rison,  aided  by  a  body  of  English  sailors  and 
marines  under  Sir  Sidney  Smith.  In  1832  it  wras 
stormed  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  son  of  the  Viceroy  of 
Egypt,  and  continued  in  his  possession  till  it  was 
bombarded  and  taken,  in  1840,  by  a  combined 
English,  Austrian,  and  Turkish  fleet. 

Acrobat,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek,  and 
nearly  synonymous  with  rope-dancer.  It  liter¬ 


ally  signifies  one  who  walks  on  tiptoe  ( akron , 
extremity,  and  baino,  I  go);  and  is  employed 
to  designate  those  who  perform  difficult  feats, 
vaulting,  sliding,  tumbling,  and  dancing  on  a 
slack  or  tight  rope,  stretched  either  horizontally 
or  obliquely. 

Acroceraunia,  a  promontory  in  the  northwest 
of  Epirus,  jutting  out  into  the  Ionian  Sea,  the 
termination  of  the  Montes  Ceraunii. 

Acrolein,  C2H3COIJ,  is  a  colorless,  limpid, 
strongly  refracting  liquid,  lighter  than  water, 
and  having  its  boiling-point  at  about  126°  Fahr. 
(52  .4°  Cent.)  It  constitutes  the  acrid  principle 
produced  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  fatly 
bodies,  and  is  in  part  due  to  the  decomposition 
of  glycerine.  The  pungent  smell  given  off  by  the 
smoldering  wick  of  a  candle  just  blown  out  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  acrolein. 

Acrolitlis  (Gr.  akron,  extremily,  and  lilhos, 
a  stone)  the  name  given  to  the  oldest  works  of 
Greek  plastic  art,  in  which  wood-carving  is  seen 
in  transition  into  marble  statuary.  The  trunk  of 
the  figure  is  still,  in  the  old  style,  of  wood,  cov¬ 
ered  with  gilding  or  with  actual  cloth  drapery; 
but  the  extremities — head,  arms,  feet — which  are 
meant  to  appear  naked  from  below  the  drapery, 
are  of  stone. 

Acropolis,  the  high  town,  was,  in  many  of 
the  important  cities  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
the  name  of  the  citadel.  The  Acropolis  of 
Athens  contained  the  Parthenon,  theErechtheum, 
and  other  famous  buildings. 

Acrostic  (Gr.,  made  up  of  akros,  pointed, 
first,  and  stichos,  a  row),  a  term  for  a  number 
of  verses  the  first,  the  last,  or  the  middle  letters 
of  which  follow  some  pre-determined  order, 
usually  forming  a  wTord — most  commonly  a  name 
— or  a  phrase  or  sentence.  In  the  acrostic  poetry 
of  the  Hebrews,  the  initial  letters  of  the  lines  or 
of  the  stanzas  were  made  to  run  over  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet  in  their  order.  Twelve  of  the 
psalms  of  the  Old  Testament  were  written  on 
this  plan.  The  119th  is  the  most  remarkable. 

Acrote'rion  (Gr.,  the  summit),  a  term  fora 
statue  or  other  ornament  placed  on  the  apex  or  at 
one  of  the  lower  angles  of  a  pediment. 

Act  has  various  technical  meanings,  legal  and 
other;  frequently  a  document  in  writing,  as 
when  a  person  executing  a  legal  instrument, 
declares  it  to  be  his  act  and  deed.  Or  it  may  be 
the  record  of  an  act  or  proceeding  of  a  public 
nature,  as  an  Act  of  Congress.  This  use  of  the 
word  is  derived  from  the  Romans,  who  employed 
Acta  to  signify  the  records  of  public  official 
transactions.  In  the  United  States  the  term  act 
signifies  something  done  for  which  the  person 
doing  is  responsible;  something  done  by  an  indi¬ 
vidual  in  his  private  capacity,  or  as  an  officer; 
or  by  a  body  of  persons,  as  an  association,  cor¬ 
poration,  legislature,  or  court.  It  includes  not 
only  physical  acts,  but  also  decrees,  orders, 
resolutions,  and  laws. 

Act  of  God  is  a  legal  expression,  and  signifies 
any  occurrence  not  caused  by  human  negligence 
or  intervention. 

Act,  in  the  Drama,  is  a  distinct  section  of  a 
play,  in  which  a  definite  and  coherent  part  of  the 
plot  is  represented.  It  is  generally  subdivided 
into  smaller  portions  called  scenes ,  and  its  con¬ 
clusion  is  properly  marked  by  a  fall  of  the  act- 
drop  or  curtain.  Five  acts  or  three  are  the  usual 
numbers  in  plays. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  fifth  book  of  the 
New  Testament,  the  authorship  of  which  is 
ascribed  by  tradition  to  the  Evangelist  Luke.  It 
is  in  form  substantially  a  continuation  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Luke.  See  De  Wette’s  Introduc¬ 
tion,  Ilausrath’s  Neutestanientliche  Zeitgeschiclitc, 
Davidson’s  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament , 
and  the  more  conservative  commentaries  of  Meyer 
and  others. 

Act® 'on,  in  Greek  Mythology,  a  famous 
hunter,  a  grandson  of  Cadmus.  He  was  trained 
as  a  hunter  by  the  centaur  Chiron.  Having  sur¬ 
prised  Diana  bathing  in  a  fountain,  he  was 
changed  by  the  offended  goddess  into  a  stag,  in 
which  form  he  was  torn  to  pieces  by  liis  own 
dogs  on  Mount  Cithasron.  According  to  Euripi¬ 
des,  Diana  was  jealous  because  Actaeon  had 
boasted  that  he  excelled  her  in  hunting, 

Acta  Sancto  rum  or  Mar'tyrum  (Acts  of 
Saints  or  Martyrs),  the  collective  title  given  to 


several  old  writings,  respecting  saints  and  mar¬ 
tyrs,  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches, 
but  now  applied  especially  to  one  great  collection 
already  extending  to  more  than  sixty  volumes. 
Begun  by  the  Jesuits  in  the  17th  century,  it  was 
continued  by  a  succession  of  editors,  usually 
called  the  Bollandists. 

Actinomyco '  sis  (Gr.  aklis,  a  ray,  and  mykes, 
a  mushroom)  the  name  now  given  to  a  fungoid 
disease  long  known  to  occur  in  cattle,  but  con¬ 
founded  with  tubercle  or  sarcoma.  Actinomy¬ 
cosis  is  most  common  in  cattle,  occurs  also  in 
pigs,  and  (rarely)  in  man. 

Actinozo'a  (Gr.  aklis,  a  ray,  and  zoon,  an 
animal)  one  of  the  three  classes  of  Ccelenterates, 
including  sea-anemones,  dead-men’s  fingers, 
corals,  etc.  They  are  provided  with  tentacles 
round  the  mouth,  and  live  either  isolated  or  in 
colonies.  The  Actinozoa  include  two  orders — 
Alcyonaria  or  Octacoralla,  with  eight  tentacles; 
and  Zoantliaria  or  Hexacoralla,  with  tentacles  in 
sixes. 

Actinometer,  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
actinic  or  chemical  power  of  the  sun’s  rays. 

Action,  in  its  large  sense,  means  a  judicial  pro¬ 
ceeding  before  a  competent  tribunal  for  the  attain¬ 
ment  of  justice;  and  in  this  sense  it  is  applied  to 
procedure,  whether  criminal  or  civil.  In  its  more 
limited  acceptation  it  is  used  to  signify  proceed¬ 
ings  in  the  civil  courts,  where  it  means  the  form 
prescribed  by  law  for  the  enforcement  of  a 
right. 

Actiuin,  a  promontory  on  the  west  coast  of 
Greece  at  the  entrance  of  the  Ambracian  Gulf, 
memorable  for  the  naval  victory  gained  near  it  by 
Octavian  (afterward  the  Emperor  Augustus),  over 
Mark  Antony  and  Cleopatra,  which  decided  the 
fate  of  Rome  and  of  the  world,  2d  September,  31 
n.  c. 

Acton,  Sir  John  Francis  Edward,  minister 
of  Ferdinand  IV  of  Naples,  born  at  Besan9on  in 
1737.  After  acquiring  distinction  in  the  naval  serv¬ 
ice  of  Tuscany,  he  became  successively  admiral 
and  generalissimo  in  that  of  Naples,  and  soon  man¬ 
aged  the  entire  administration.  His  measures, 
able  but  arbitrary,  caused  a  reaction  against  the 
royal  family  of  Naples,  and  in  favor  of  the  French 
party.  Acton  fell  from  power  in  1806,  and  died 
August  12,  1811,  at  Palermo. 

Acton,  Lord.  John  Acton,  grandson  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Naples  in  1834,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father,  a  Shropshire  baronet,  in  1838. 
He  became  leader  of  the  English  Liberal 
Catholics. 

Actuary.  The  Actuarii,  in  ancient  Rome,  were 
clerks  who  recorded  the  Ada  of  the  senate  and 
other  public  bodies.  The  investigations  and  cal¬ 
culations  of  the  modern  actuary  supply  the  prin¬ 
ciples  of  operation  for  the  numerous  institutions 
now  engaged  in  the  transaction  of  life-assurance, 
annuity,  and  reversionary  business.  His  functions 
might  be  briefly  defined  as  the  application  of  the 
doctrine  of  probabilities  to  the  affairs  of  life. 

Acupressure,  (Lat.  pressure  with  a  needle), 
a  mode  of  arresting  hemorrhage  from  cut  arteries, 
ini  reduced  by  the  late  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson.  It 
consists  in  the  insertion  of  a  needle  through  the 
tissues  on  both  sides  of  the  bleeding  vessel,  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  elasticity  of  the  tissues, 
aided  sometimes  by  a  wire  firmly  looped  round 
the  projecting  ends  of  the  needle,  presses  the 
artery  against  the  needle  and  closes  its  tube. 

Acupuncture  (Lat.  pricking  with  a  needle), 
is  a  very  ancient  remedy,  and  one  practiced  ex¬ 
tensively  in  the  East,  for  the  cure  of  headaches, 
lethargies,  etc.  In  Europe  it  is  principally  em¬ 
ployed  to  relieve  neuralgic  pains,  and  those  of 
chronic  rheumatism.  Steel  needles  are  inserted  by 
a  rotary  movement  to  the  desired  depth  in  the 
tissues,  and  left  there  from  a  few  minutes  to  an 
hour. 

Adagio  (It.),  slow  movement  or  measure  of 
time  in  music. 

Adalbert,  St.,  the  apostle  of  the  Prussians, 
was  a  native  of  Prague,  and  was  chosen  its  bishop 
in  982.  His  austerity  irritated  the  lawless  and 
but  recently  converted  Bohemians,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  flee  from  his  diocese.  He  afterwards 
preached  without  much  success  to  the  heathen 
Poles  and  Prussians,  and  was  murdered  by  the 
latter,  23d  April,  997.  His  body  was  buried  in 
the  cathedral  at  Gnesen,  and  afterwards  carried 


ADALBERT. 


13 


ADAM'S. 


to  Prague;  and  here,  in  1880,  his  bones  were  dis¬ 
covered  in  a  vault  and  re-interred  in  the  cathedral. 

Adalbert,  a  German  ecclesiastic,  born  about 
1000,  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Bremen  and 
Hamburg  in  1045,  and  papal  legate  to  the  north 
in  1053.  He  extended  his  spiritual  sway  over 
Scandinavia,  and  carried  Christianity  to  the 
Wends.  In  1063  he  became  tutor  of  the  young 
Henry  IV,  and  soon,  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  nobles,  ruled  over  the  whole  kingdom. 
His  ambitious  mind  now  conceived  the  design  of 
founding  a  great  northern  patriarchate,  which 
should  vie  with  the  Roman  curia  itself;  but  he 
died  atGoslar,  March  16,  1072. 

Adam  and  Eve,  the  names  of  the  first  pair  of 
human  beings  in  the  account  of  the  creation 
given  in  the  book  of  Genesis.  “Adam”  is  strictly 
a  generic  name,  applicable  to  both  man  and 
woman,  as  used  in  Genesis,  chapter  i;  but  it  came 
to  be  a  proper  name  used  with  the  article,  as  in 
chapters  ii,  iii,  and  iv.  The  origin  of  the  name 
is  uncertain,  but  is  usually  connected  with  the 
Hebrew  root  Adam,  “to  be  red.”  It  is  often  de¬ 
rived  from  Adamah,  “  the  ground,”  but  this  is  tak¬ 
ing  the  simpler  from  the  more  developed  form. 
The  Assyrian  equivalent  is  Adamu,  “  man,”  used 
only  in  a  general  sense,  not  as  a  proper  name. 
Eve  is  the  Hebrew  Hamah,  which  name,  accord¬ 
ing  to  Gen.  iii,  20,  Adam  gave  her  as  the  “  mother 
of  all  living.”  Literally  the  word  means  “  life.” 
Many  of  the  later  Jews  explained  the  story  of 
Adam  and  Eve  as  an  allegory.  Augustine 
explained  the  story  as  history,  but  admitted  a 
spiritual  meaning  superinduced  upon  the  literal; 
and  his  explanation  was  adopted  by  the  Reform¬ 
ers,  and  indeed  generally  by  the  orthodox  within 
the  Roman  and  the  various  Protestant  churches 
alike.  It  was  a  common  opinion  that  man  was 
created  both  male  and  female  in  one  body,  and 
that  the  two  sexes  were  separated  to  form  man 
and  woman.  This  is  taught  by  many  of  the 
Rabbis,  and  is  suggested  by  Aristophanes  in 
the  Symposium  of  Plato.  Lenormant  endeavors 
to  show  that  this  is  borne  out  by  Gen.  i,  28,  and 
chapter  v,  2,  and  the  interpretation  has  the 
authority  of  Jewish  tradition,  as  well  in  the  Tar- 
gums  and  Talmud,  as  in  scholars  like  Moses 
Maimonides  and  Eusebius  of  Caesarea. 

Some  have  tried  to  establish  from  the  double 
account  of  the  creation  in  Genesis  that  there  were 
two  creations  of  man — the  first,  a  defective  race 
which  peopled  the  whole  Gentile  world;  the 
second,  Adam,  from  whom  the  Jews  were  spe¬ 
cially  descended.  The  argument  for  the  pre- 
Adamite  creation  will  be  found  in  a  curious  book 
published  in  1655  by  Isaac  de  la  Peyreira,  a  con¬ 
verted  Jew,  who  afterwards,  for  safety’s  sake, 
recanted  his  errors  at  Rome. 

See  Tylor’s  Primitive  Culture  (1871);  Darwin’s 
Descent  of  Man  (1871) ;  Haeckel’s  History  of  Cre¬ 
ation  (trans.  by  Ray  Lankester,  1876);  Peschel’s 
Races  of  Man  (trans.  1876);  Baudissin’s  Studien 
zur  Semitvtchen  Religions-geschieh te  ( 1 876-78) ;  De 
Quatrefages’  The  Human  Species  (trans.  1879); 
Professor  Sayce’s  edition  of  George  Smith’s 
Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis  (1880);  vol.  i  (1882), 
of  Lenormant’s  Les  Origines  de  VHistoire  d’apres 
la  Bible;  Schrader’s  Keilinschriften  vnd  das  Alte 
Testament  (2d  ed.  1883,  Eng.  trans.  vol.  i,  1885); 
Sayce’s  Introduction  to  the  Science  of  Language 
(2d  ed.  1883);  and  Eichtlial’s  Melanges  de  Critique 
Biblique  (1886). 

Adam  of  Bremen,  an  old  historical  writer, 
whose  work  entitled  Gesta  Pontifical n  Hammen- 
burgensium  gives  a  history  of  the  archbishopric 
of  Hamburg  from  788  A.  D.  to  the  death  of  the 
Archbishop  Adalbert  in  1072.  It  has  great  his¬ 
torical  value.  Adam  was  canon  and  magister 
scholarum  at  Bremen  from  1069  to  the  time  of  his 
death,  which  took  place  in  1075. 

Adam,  Adolphe  Charles,  musical  composer, 
was  horn  in  Paris  on  July  24,  1803,  and  died  in 
1856. 

Adam,  Alexander,  LL.D.,  a  distinguished 
Scotch  educator,  was  born  near  Forres,  Elgin¬ 
shire,  24th  June,  1741.  Scott,  Ltorner,  and 
Jeffrey  were  among  his  pupils.  He  died  Decem¬ 
ber,  1809. 

Adam,  Robert,  a  distinguished  architect,  was 
bom  at  Kirkcaldy,  Scotland,  in  1728.  In  1762 
he  was  appointed  architect  to  the  king.  In  op¬ 
position  to  the  heavy  style  of  architecture  then 


prevalent,  he  introduced  a  taste  for  lightness  and 
decoration,  which  however,  tended  to  the  op¬ 
posite  extreme  of  weakness  and  triviality.  He 
died  in  London  March  3,  1792,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

Adam's  Apple,  the  popular  name  given  to  the 
projection  in  the  fore  part  of  the  neck  formed  by 
the  anterior  extremity  of  the  thyroid  cartilage 
of  the  larynx;  so  called  from  the  notion  that  it 
was  caused  by  a  bit  of  the  forbidden  fruit  which 
stuck  in  Adam’s  throat.  The  same  name  is  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  fruit  of  a  variety  of  the  lime  with  a 
kind  of  depression  on  the  surface,  in  which  the 
Italian  peasants  see  the  mark  of  Adam’s  teeth. 
The  name  is  also  used  for  the  Forbidden  Fruit. 

Adam’s  Bridge,  a  chain  of  sand  shoals  thirty 
miles  long,  extending  from  a  small  island  off  the 
Indian  coast  to  one  just  off  Ceylon. 

Adam’s  Peak,  the  name  given  by  Mohamme¬ 
dans,  and  after  them  by  Europeans,  to  a  mount¬ 
ain  summit  in  the  south  of  Ceylon,  7,420  feet 
high  (not,  however,  the  highest  of  the  group). 
The  native  name  is  Samanella.  The  cone  form¬ 
ing  the  summit  is  a  naked  mass  of  granite,  ter¬ 
minating  in  a  narrow  platform,  in  the  middle  of 
which  is  a  hollow,  five  feet  long,  having  a  re¬ 
semblance  (increased  by  human  agency)  to  a 
human  footstep.  Mohammedan  tradition  makes 
this  the  scene  of  Adam’s  penitence,  after  his  ex¬ 
pulsion  from  Paradise;  he  stood  1,000  years  on 
one  foot,  and  hence  the  mark.  To  the  Buddhists, 
the  impression  is  the  Sri-pada,  or  sacred  foot¬ 
mark,  left  by  Buddha  on  his  departure  from 
Ceylon;  and  the  Hindus  recognize  Buddha  as  an 
avatar  of  Vishnu.  Multitudes  of  devotees, 
Buddhist,  Hindu,  and  Mohammedan,  visit  the 
mountain. 

Ad  ’  am  ant,  a  term  now  used  to  express  any 
substance  of  extraordinary  hardness.  The  name 
was  attached  to  a  supposed  stone  or  mineral,  as  to 
the  properties  of  which  vague  notions  long  pre¬ 
vailed.  It  was  identified  with  the  lodestone,  and 
was  often  used  as  synonymous  with  it  by  early 
writers. 

Adaniawa,  a  province  of  the  African  Fulah 
State  of  Sokoto,  lias  an  area  about  equal  to  that 
of  Illinois.  In  the  south  are  vast  mountain 
groups,  still  almost  unexplored,  amid  which  rise 
numerous  streams,  the  most  important  being  the 
Benue,  which  waters  the  entire  province.  The 
people,  who  profess  Mohammedanism,  are  active, 
industrious,  and  intelligent.  The  chief  town  is 
Yola  (12,000  inhabitants). 

Adamites,  a  Gnostic  sect  of  Antinomian  tend¬ 
ency,  first  heard  of  in  Africa  in  the  2d  century. 
They  sought,  by  abstaining  from  all  indulgences 
of  the  senses,  to  recall  the  state  of  innocence 
men  were  in  before  the  fall.  They  therefore  re¬ 
jected  marriage  and  went  naked. 

Adamnan,  Columba’s  biographer,  was  born 
about  625,  of  the  race  of  Hy-Neill,  in  that  part 
of  Ulster  which  now  forms  the  county  of  Done¬ 
gal.  Educated  at  the  monastic  seminary  of 
Olonard,  in  his  28th  year  he  joined  the  Colum- 
ban  brotherhood  of  Iona,  of  which,  in  679, 
he  was  chosen  abbot,  the  ninth  in  succession 
to  his  great  kinsman,  the  founder,  He  died  in 
704,  leaving  several  interesting  books. 

Adams,  Charles  Francis,  an  American  dip¬ 
lomatist,  the  son  of  John  Quincy  Adams,  was 
born  in  Boston  on  the  18th  of  August.  1807.  He 
passed  his  childhood  mostly  in  St.  Petersburg 
and  London,  graduated  at  Harvard,  studied  law, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1828.  He  served 
for  five  years  in  the  legislature  of  Massachusetts . 
He  was  nominated  at  Buffalo,  in  August,  1848,  for 
the  office  of  Vice-President  by  the  convention  of 
Freesoilers.  In  1858,  and  again  in  1860,  he  was 
elected  to  Congress  for  Massachusetts.  In  1861 
he  was  appointed  minister  to  England,  where  he 
acquitted  himself  with  credit  in  the  difficult  and 
important  controversies  that  arose  between  this 
country  and  Great  Britain  during  the  Rebellion. 
He  resigned  this  office  in  1868,  and  was  appointed 
an  arbitrator  in  the  Alabama  claims  tribunal  at 
Geneva  (1871-72).  He  published  the  Life  and 
Works  of  John  Adams  (10  vols.  1850-56).  He 
died  November  21,  1886. 

Adams,  Edwin,  an  American  actor,  born  in 
Massachusetts,  Feb.  3,  1834.  He  first  appeared  at 
Boston  in  1853,  and  has  attained  a  high  reputation 


both  as  a  comedian  and  an  interpreter  of  Shakes- 
perian  parts. 

Adams,  John,  second  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  Braintree  (now  Quincy), 
Mass.,  Oct.  19,  1735,  and  was  of  English  descent. 
He  received  a  good  education,  and  graduated  at 
Harvard  when  twenty  years  old.  He  taught 
school  and  studied  law,  and  soon  drifted  into  pol¬ 
itics.  In  1764  he  married,  and  in  1768  removed 
to  Boston.  He  became  a  Representative  in  the 
General  Court,  and  was  elected  to  the  Provincial 
Council,  but  did  not  sit  in  that  body.  Adams 
had  taken  a  prominent  part  in  defending  the  rights 
of  the  Colonies,  and  denounced  the  Stamp  Act 
and  other  oppressive  measures  of  King  George’s 
government.  He  was  a  member  of  both  the 
Philadelphia  Congresses  (1774  and  1775),  and  act¬ 
ively  forwarded  the  measures  of  defense  recom¬ 
mended  by  the  latter  body.  On  his  return  home 
he  sat  as  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts  council, 
which  had  assumed  the  powers  of  the  governor. 
He  recommended  that  the  command  of  the  army 
should  be  given  to  General  Washington,  and  joined 
in  the  debate  over  the  Declaration  of  Independ¬ 
ence.  After  two  years’  service  in  Congress,  dur¬ 
ing  which  time  he  presided  over  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  committees,  and  performed  an  immense 
amount  of  work,  Adams  was  sent  as  commissioner 
to  France.  The  jealousy  of  the  French  ministry 
rendered  his  work  there  futile,  and  he  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  Hague,  where  he  negotiated  a  treaty 
with  Holland,  and  succeeded  in  raising  a  loan  of 
$2,000,000.  After  the  signature  of  a  preliminary 
treaty  between  England  and  the  United  States, 
Mr.  Adams  was  appointed  minister  at  the  Court 
of  St.  James,  but  was  recalled  at  his  own  request 
in  1788,  and  was  again  elected  to  Congress. 

The  first  election  under  the  new  Federal  consti¬ 
tution  made  Washington  President,  and  Adams 
Vice-President,  with  34  votes  out  of  69.  In  1792 
he  was  re-elected,  defeating  George  Clinton  of  New 
York,  and  in  1796  became  a  candidate  for  the  Pres¬ 
idency.  He  was  opposed  by  Jefferson,  but  beat 
him  by  71  votes  to  68,  and  Jefferson,  under  the 
old  constitution,  took  the  second  place.  Trouble 
with  France,  and  dissensions  in  the  Federal  party, 
the  unpopularity  of  the  alien  and  sedition  laws, 
and  the  opposition  of  Jefferson  and  Burr  combined 
to  deprive  Mr.  Adams  of  his  coveted  re-election. 
He  received  65  votes,  and  Pinckney  64,  while- 
Jefferson  and  Burr  had  each  73,  and  Jefferson 
was  finally  chosen.  Mr.  Adams  retired  into- 
private  life,  and  was  scarcely  heard  of  during 
the  next  quarter  century.  He  was  reconciled  to 
Jefferson  after  some  years,  and  corresponded  with 
him.  Part  of  his  leisure  lie  employed  in  prepar¬ 
ing  his  autobiography,  but  this  he  left  in  a  very 
incomplete  state.  He  died  on  the  same  day  as  his 
old  friend  and  opponent,  Jefferson,  on  the  fiftieth 
anniversary  of  the  signing  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  July  4,  1826. 

Adams,  John  Couch,  discoverer,  simultane¬ 
ously  with  Leverrier,  of  the  planet  Neptune,  was 
born  near  Launceston,  in  Cornwall,  1819.  The 
council  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society  awarded 
equal  honors  to  both  in  1848.  In  1858  Adams  was 
appointed  to  the  chair  of  mathematics  in  St. 
Andrews,  which,  however,  he  vacated  within  a 
few  months,  on  being  nominated  to  theLowndean 
Professorship  of  Astronomy,  Cambridge.  He  has 
made  important  researches  as  to  the  secular  accel¬ 
eration  of  the  moon’s  mean  motion,  and  on  the 
theory  of  the  November  meteors. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
President  John  Adams,  and  was  born  at  Brain¬ 
tree,  Mass.,  July  11,  1767.  In  1778  he  went  to 
Paris  with  his  father,  who  had  been  appointed 
minister  to  France.  He  was  educated  there  and 
at  Leyden  University,  traveled  over  Europe,  and 
in  1786  entered  Harvard  University.  He  became 
a  lawyer,  though  his  practice  was  very  small,  and 
a  political  writer,  in  which  capacity  lie  had  better 
success.  Washington  appointed  liiin  minister  to 
the  Hague  in  1794,  an.d  when  his  father  became 
President  he  nominated  John  Quincy  for  the  Ber¬ 
lin  mission.  In  1797  Adams  married  Miss  John¬ 
son,  daughter  of  the  American  consul  in  London. 
He  was  recalled  when  Jefferson  became  President  in 
1801,  pract  iced  law  again  in  Boston,  and  was  elected 
to  the  State  senate.  In  1803  the  Federalists  in  the 
legislature  elected  him  U.  S.  Senator,  but  when 
Jefferson  recommended  an  embargo  in  1807  Adams 


ADAMS. 


14 


ADIGE. 


broke  away  from  the  party,  and  was  defeated  for 
reelection  and  resigned  at  once.  He  became  pro¬ 
fessor  of  literature  at  Harvard,  and  on  Madison’s 
accession  to  the  Presidency  was  sent  as  minister  to 
St.  Petersburg.  He  declined  to  accept  a  nomi¬ 
nation  to  the  Supreme  bench,  and  remained  abroad 
for  eight  years,  his  chief  work  being  the  negotia¬ 
tion  of  the  Treaty  of  Ghent  in  1814,  by  which 
peace  with  England  was  secured.  In  1817  Presi¬ 
dent  Monroe  offered  him  the  post  of  Secretary  of 
State,  which  he  accepted.  During  his  term  the 
United  States  purchased  Florida  from  Spain  for 
$5,000,000,  and  Missouri  was  admitted  as  a  State 
under  the  famous  “Compromise.”  Inl824Adams 
was  the  Federalist  candidate  for  the  Presidency, 
receiving  84  electoral  votes,  mostly  from  New 
England  and  New  York.  Jackson  had  99  votes, 
Crawford  41,  and  Clay  37;  there  being  no  choice 
by  the  people.  In  the  House,  by  the  influence  of 
Clay,  Adams  was  elected  on  the  first  ballot,  thir¬ 
teen  States  voting  for  him,  seven  for  Jackson,  and 
four  for  Crawford.  Calhoun  had  been  elected 
Vice-President  by  the  popular  vote.  Adams 
began  his  presidency  with  Clay  as  his  Secretary  of 
State, ,  while  a  Crawford- Jackson  combination 
was  at  once  formed  to  prevent  his  reelection.  It 
was  charged  that  a  corrupt  bargain  had  been 
made  between  Adams  and  Clay,  and  the  tariff 
issue  was  also  raised  with  the  effect  of  splitting 
the  olfl  Federalist  party.  In  the  end  Mr.  Adams 
was  badly  defeated  by  Jackson,  and  retired  in  dis¬ 
gust.  to  Quincy,  Mass.  In  1831  he  ran  on  the 
Anti-Masonic  ticket  for  Congress,  and  represented 
his  district  till  his  death  in  Washington,  Feb. 
23,  1848.  He  occupied  almost  an  unique  posit  ion 
in  the  House,  holding  himself  accountable  to  no 
party.  Adams  championed  the  right  of  petition 
in  the  House  when  he  had  not  one  sympathizer  in 
that  body,  and  he  lived  to  carry  his  point.  He 
was  one  of  the  hardest  workers  in  Congress,  and 
was  a  man  of  tireless  energy,  indomitable  cour¬ 
age,  and  great  determination. 

Adams,  Samuel,  was  bora  at  Boston,  Sept. 
27,  1722,  and  graduated  at  Harvard.  He  was 
destined  for  the  Congregationalist  ministry,  but 
became  a  collector  of  taxes.  He  displayed  on  all 
occasions  an  unflinching  zeal  for  popular  rights, 
and  in  1765  was  elected  by  the  patriotic  party  a 
member  of  the  Massachusetts  legislature.  He 
played  a  prominent  part  in  the  Philadelphia  Con¬ 
gress,  unci  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
(1776).  He  assisted  in  framing  the  constitution  of 
Massachusetts,  and  was  for  several  years  Presi¬ 
dent  of  its  Senate.  He  held  the  office  of  Lieuten¬ 
ant-Governor  from  1789  to  1794,  and  of  Governor 
from  that  time  till  1797.  He  died  at  Boston 
Oct.  2,  1802,  poor  as  he  had  lived. 

Adams,  Thomas,  a  great  Puritan  preacher. 
From  1612  till  about  1653  he  held  charges  in 
Bedfordshire,  Buckingham,  and  London. 

Adams,  William,  an  English  navigator,  was 
born  in  1575,  and  from  f  600  till  his  death  in  1620 
was  resident  in  Japan.  See  his  Letters  in  vol.  i, 
of  Purchas  his  Pilgrimes;  also  the  Diary  of  Rich¬ 
ard  Cocks  (Hakluyt  Soc.  1883). 

Adams,  William  T.  (Oliver  Optic),  an  author 
of  books  for  children,  born  July  30,  1822. 

Adana,  a  province  in  the  southeast  of  Asia 
Minor,  derives  its  name  from  its  chief  city  Adana, 
containing  30,000  inhabitants.  The  city,  on  the 
Sihun,  thirty  miles  from  the  sea,  commands  the 
pass  of  the  Taurus  Mountains,  and  carries  on  a 
considerable  trade  between  Syria  and  Asia  Minor. 

Adanson,  Michel,  a  celebrated  French  bot¬ 
anist,  born  at  Aix,  April  7,  1727.  He  published, 
:in  1757,  his  Histoire  Naturelle  du  Senegal,  and, 
in  1763,  his  Families  des  Plantes,  in  which  he 
endeavored  to  give  a  new  form  to  botany,  but 
he  could  not  prevail  against  the  established  Lin- 
naean  system.  He  died  Aug.  3,  1806. 

Adaptation,  a  term  applied  in  the  theory  of 
evolution  to  the  process  by  which  organisms  are 
adjusted  to  the  conditions  of  their  life. 

Adder,  a  common  English  name  of  the  Viper, 
but  also  often  more  vaguely  used  for  poisonous 
serpents  of  the  family  Viperidae.  The  word  was 
naedre  in  Anglo-Saxon;  thy  present  form  arose 
through  mistaking  a  nadder  for  an  adder. 

Addison,  Joseph,  was  born  on  the  1st  of  May, 
1672.  He  was  educated  at  Amesbury,  at  the 
grammar-school  in  Lichfield  and  afterwards  at 
the  Charter-house,  from  which,  in  his  sixteenth 


year,  he  passed  to  Queen’s  College,  Oxford.  Hav¬ 
ing  obtained  a  demyship  at  Magdalen,  he  pro¬ 
ceeded  to  his  Master’s  degree  in  1693,  and  in  the 
same  year  began  his  literary  career  with  a  poeti¬ 
cal  address  to  Dryden.  In  1697  he  was  elected 
probationary  fellow  of  his  college.  Through  the 
influence  of  Montague,  he  obtained  in  1699  a  pen¬ 
sion  from  the  crown  of  £300,  for  the  purpose  of 
enlarging  his  experience  by  continental  travel. 
He  returned  to  England  in  the  autumn  of  1703. 
His  chief  patron,  Halifax,  having  been  removed 
by  Queen  Anne  from  the  Privy  Council,  he  was 
now  without  hope  of  political  advancement,  and 
was  reduced  to  a  state  approaching  poverty,  when 
he  was  invited  by  the  ministry,  acting  on  the 
advice  of  Halifax,  to  commemorate  in  verse  the 
victory  of  Blenheim.  In  return  he  received  a 
commissionership  of  appeal  in  Excise.  From 
this  date  he  was  in  turn  Under-Secretary  of  State 
(1706),  Secretary  to  Lord  Wharton,  the  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  (1708),  Member  of  Parlia¬ 
ment  (1708),  Secretary  to  the  Lord  Justices 
appointed  to  administer  on  the  death  of  Queen 
Anne  (1714),  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  (1715), 
Commissioner  for  Trade  and  Colonies  (1716), 
and  Secretary  of  State  (1717).  While  Secretary 
in  Ireland  he  formed  a  warm  friendship  with 
Swift,  who  frequently  mentions  him  with  affec¬ 
tion  in  bis  Journal  to  Stella,  and  regrets  the 
estrangement  which  afterwards  grew  up  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  their  party  differences.  He  also  con¬ 
tributed  largely  to  the  Taller,  which  had  been 
started  by  his  friend  Steele  in  1709;  forty-one 
papers  being  wholly  by  Addison,  and  thirty-four 
by  him  and  Steele  conjointly.  In  March,  1711, 
was  founded  the  Spectator,  274  numbers  of  which, 
namely,  those  signed  with  one  of  the  letters  C  L  I 
O,  were  the  work  of  Addison. 

While  on  his  travels  he  had  written  four  acts  of 
his  tragedy  Cato,  which  his  political  friends  per¬ 
suaded  him  in  1713  to  finish  for  the  stage.  It  was 
acted  on  the  14th  of  April,  1713,  and  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  vehement  party  spirit  of  the  times, 
aroused  such  enthusiasm  that  it  kept  the  stage  for 
thirty -five  nights.  He  died  at  Holland  House  on 
the  17th  of  June,  1719,  at  the  age  of  47.  Addison 
has  long  been  regarded  as  the  model  light  essay¬ 
ist  among  English  writers,  and  the  Sir  Roger  de 
Coverly  papers  in  the  Spectator  are  English  classics; 
but  he  was  careless  in  grammar  and  rhetoric,  and 
his  essays  no  longer  hold  the  position  of  unri¬ 
valed  productions.  See  the  Life,  by  Lucy  Aikin 
(1843),  and  Macaulay’s  review  of  it;  also  Court- 
hope’s  Addison  (1884). 

Addison,  Thomas,  physician,  was  bom  in  1793. 
He  was  an  eminent  investigator  and  lecturer,  and 
his  name  is  associated  with  an  obscure  affection  of 
the  supra-renal  capsules,  since  called  Addison's 
Disease.  He  died  June  29,  1860. 

Address,  Forms  of.  The  following  are  the 
correct  ceremonious  modes  of  addressing  and 
beginning  letters  to  persons  holding  offices: 

Clergy. — The  Rev.  [Christian  name  and  sur¬ 
name],  Begin  “  Rev.  Sir.”  If  bearing  any  Uni¬ 
versity  degree,  add  B.  A.,  M.  A.,  D.  D.,LL.  D., 
Ph.  D. 

Bishops. — Of  the  Roman  Catholic  or  Protest¬ 
ant  Episcopal  Church,  are  Right  Reverend;  an 
Archbishop  is  Most  Reverend.  Bishops  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church  are  addressed  as 
“  Bishop - .”  A  Catholic  Archbishop  is  prop¬ 

erly  addressed  as  “  Your  Grace;”  a  Cardinal  as 
“  Your  Eminence.”  The  latter  is  a  prince  of  the 
Church,  and  there  is  equal  propriety  in  addressing 
them  by  their  recognized  titles  as  in  speaking  of  a 
British  peer  as  “His  Lordship,”  or  a  Duke  as 
“  His  Grace.” 

Doctors — (Of  medicine). — John  Smith,  M.  D. 

Hon. — Is  prefixed  to  the  name  of  a  United 
States  Senator  or  Congressman,  or  of  State  Sena¬ 
tors  or  Representatives  in  most  States.  Judges  of 
the  United  States  Supreme,  Circuit,  and  District 
courts,  and  of  all  State  courts  of  record  are  simi¬ 
larly  addressed.  A  judge  on  the  bench  is  ad¬ 
dressed  as  “  Your  Honor.” 

Ministers — (Diplomatic). — The  United  States 
sends  out  no  Ambassadors,  its  representatives 
abroad  being  styled  Ministers.  The  title  of 
Excellency  is  therefore  improperly  applied  to 
them.  Address  “  The  Hon.  the  United  States 
Minister,”  or  “  Hqu.  John  Smith,  U.  S.  Minister 
to  Paris.” 


Private  Citizens. — Mr.  John  Smith,  or  John 
Smith,  Esq. 

Married  Women. — Madame. 

Adelaar,  Cort  Siversen,  one  of  the  greatest 
naval  commanders  of  the  17th  century,  was  born 
at  Brevig,  in  Norway,  in  1622,  and  in  his  20th 
year  was  employed  in  the  naval  service  of  Venice 
against  the  Turks.  On  one  occasion  he  broke 
through  a  line  of  sixty-seven  Turkish  galleys  which 
surrounded  his  ship,  sunk  fifteen,  and  burned 
several  others.  Frederick  III.  secured  his  services 
as  admiral  of  the  Danish  fleet,  and  ennobled  him. 
In  1675,  under  Christian  V.,  he  took  the  command 
of  the  whole  of  the  Danish  naval  force  against 
Sweden,  but  died  suddenly  at  Copenhagen  before 
the  expedition  set  out. 

Adelaide,  the  capital  of  the  colony  of  South 
Australia,  is  situated  on  the  Torrens,  seven  miles 
southeast  of  Port  Adelaide,  on  St.  Vincent  Gulf, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  The  first 
settlement  was  made  in  1836,  and  named  after  the 
queen  of  William  IV.  The  Torrens  divides  the 
town  into  North  and  South  Adelaide.  Pop.  (1881), 
exclusive  of  suburbs, 38, 479.  Estimated  pop.  within 
ten  miles  radius  of  post-office,  60,000. — Port 
Adelaide,  its  haven,  is  situated  on  an  estuary  of 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Vincent,  and  is  a  principal  port  of 
call  for  vessels  arriving  from  Europe  either  round 
the  Cape  or  by  the  Suez  Canal. 

Adelsberg,  a  market-town  in  Carniola,  twenty- 
two  miles  northeast  of  Trieste,  with  a  pop.  of  1,800. 
Near  it  are  numerous  caves,  the  most  famous  being 
a  large  stalactite  cavern,  the  Adelsberg  Grotto.  This 
cavern,  the  largest  in  Europe,  is  divided  into  the 
old  and  the  new  grotto,  the  latter  discovered  in 
1816.  The  old  grotto  is  858  feet  in  length;  the 
new,  8,550  feet.  The  river  Poik  runs  through  a 
part  of  the  grotto,  and  then  disappears  below  the 
ground.  In  its  waters  the  Proteus  is  found. 

Ad '  elnng,  Johann  Christoph,  a  distinguished 
linguist  and  lexicographer,  was  bora  1732,  in 
Pomerania,  and  died  Sep.  10,  1806,  at  Dresden. 

Aden,  a  peninsula  and  town  on  the  southwest 
coast  of  Arabia,  105  miles  east  of  the  strait  of 
Bab-el-Mandeb,  the  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea.  It 
is  in  12° 47'  N.  latitude,  45°  10'  E.  longitude,  and 
is  a  British  possession.  The  peninsula  is  a  mass 
of  volcanic  rocks,  five  miles  in  length  from  east 
to  west,  the  highest  point  being  1,776  feet  in 
height.  It  is  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a  narrow, 
level,  and  sandy  isthmus.  The  town  is  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  peninsula,  stands  in  the  crater 
of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  is  surrounded  by  in¬ 
describably  barren,  cinder-like  rocks.  The  Romans 
occupied  it  in  the  first  century  a.  d.  The  Portu¬ 
guese  held  it  for  a  short  time;  but  in  1838  it  had 
sunk  to  be  a  village  of  600  inhabitants,  and  in 
1839  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British.  It  is 
now  a  fortified  English  coaling  station,  and  a 
telegraphic  station  on  the  cable  between  Suez  and 
Bombay,  and  on  the  line  to  Zanzibar  and  the  Cape. 
The  settlement  had  in  1881  a  population  of  34,711, 
of  whom  2,600  were  Christians,  and  as  many 
Hindus,  with  2,000  Jews.  The  bulk  of  the  natives 
are  Arabs  and  Somalis  from  Africa,  all  speaking 
Arabic. 

Adeni'tis  (Gr.  aden,  a  gland),  and  Angeio- 
LEUCiTis(Gr.  angeion,  a  vessel,  leukos,  white),  are 
the  terms  employed  in  medicine  to  indicate  in¬ 
flammation  of  the  lymphatic  glands  and  inflam¬ 
mation  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  respectively.  The 
two  are  usually  simultaneous. 

Adenoce'le  (Gr.  aden,  a  gland,  and  kele,  a 
tumor),  or  Adeno-sarcoma,  terms  employed  in 
surgery  to  indicate  a  kind  of  new  growth  in  the 
female  breast,  the  tissue  of  which  closely  resembles 
the  breast-tissue  itself. 

Aderno  (ancient  Adranitni),  a  town  of  Sicily, 
seventeen  miles  northwest  of  Catania.  It  is  situ¬ 
ated  at  the  base  of  Mount  iEtna,  has  an  ancient 
Norman  tower,  now  a  prison, and  several  churches. 
Pop.  (18S1),  19,180. 

Adersbach  Rocks,  a  remarkable  labyrinthine 
group  of  sandstone  rocks  situated  near  the  village 
of  Adersbach,  in  the  northeast  of  Bohemia. 

Adhesion,  in  Pathology,  a  vital  union  between 
two  surfaces  of  a  living  body  which  have  been 
either  naturally  or  artificially  separated. 

Adhesion,  in  Physics.  See  Cohesion. 

Adige  (Ger.  Etsch\  ancient  A  thesis),  after  the 
Po,  the  most  important  river  in  Italy,  rises  in  the 


ADIPIC  ACID. 


15 


ADOPTION. 


Blood- 


Rhaetian  Alps,  and  flows  into  the  Adriatic,  about 
*250  miles  distant.  It  is  navigable  with  difficulty 
as  far  as  Trent. 

Adipic  Acid,  CiH8(COOH)2,  is  a  dibasic  acid 
of  the  oxalic  series,  having  the.  general  formula 
OnHzn  2O4,  and  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  white, 
opaque,  hemispherical  nodules  (which  are  prob¬ 
ably  aggregations  of  small  crystals),  by  the  oxidiz¬ 
ing  action  of  nitric  acid  on  oleic  acid,  suet, 
spermaceti,  and  other  fatty  bodies.  It  derives 
its  name  from  the  Latin  adept,  fat. 

Adipoce're  (Lat.  adept ,  fat,  and  cent,  wax), 
.a  substance  resembling  a  mixture  of  fat  and  wax 
and  resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  animal 
bodies  in  moist  places  or  under  water. 

Adipose  Tissue  consists  of  an  aggregation  of 
minute  spherical  pouches  or  vesicles  tilled  with 
fat  or  oil.  It  is  copiously  supplied  with  capillary 
blood-vessels,  but  no 
nerves  have  been  seen 
to  end  in  it.  Adipose 
tissue  is  widely  dis¬ 
tributed  throughout 
the  body.  It  occurs 
as  the  yellow  marrow 
■of  bones.  A  consid¬ 
erable  layer  is  found 
under  the  skin,  where 
it  serves  to  give 
smoothness  and 

roundness  to  the  con-  Fat  Cells  (highly  magnified), 
tour,  and,  being  a  membranous  envelope;  n.  mi- 
bad  conductor  of  clens  of  cell;  fg,  fat  globule; 
heat,  it  is  specially  Connective  tissue, 
valuable  in  retaining  ve8sels  not  repre8emed' 
the  warmth  of  the  bodies  of  animals  exposed  to 
great  cold,  such  as  whales.  Being  light  and  elastic, 
it  forms  an  excellent  packing  substance;  hence  it  is 
found  surrounding  large  vessels  and  nerves,  in  the 
omentum  and  mensentery,  round  the  kidneys, 
joints,  etc.  Its  utilization  asa.reserve  supply  of 
nutriment  is  well  illustrated  in  hibernating  ani¬ 
mals  like  the  hedgehog. 

Adirondack  Mountains,  the  chief  range  in 
New  York  State,  lie  between  Lakes  Champlain 
and  Ontario,  and  extend  from  the  northeast  cor¬ 
ner  of  the  State  towards  its  centre.  Rising  from 
an  elevated  plateau  about  2,000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  they  are  remarkable  for  grand  and  pictur¬ 
esque  scenery;  the  highest  summit,  Mount  Marcy, 
is  5,402  feet  high.  Small  lakes  are  numerous;  the 
head  streamy  of  the  Hudson  are  here;  and  there  is 
much  tine  timber  in  the  region.  The  whole  north¬ 
ern  wilderness  of  New  York  State  is  popularly 
known  as  the  Adirondacks,  and  is  a  favorite  resort 
■of  sportsmen  and  pleasure-seekers. 

Adjudication.  In  the  United  States  the  term 
adjudication  is  used  generally  as  the  act  or  pro¬ 
cess  of  trying  and  determining  judicially;  it  is 
the  judgment  of  a  court.  Adjudication  is  also 
used  specifically  as  the  act  of  a  court  declaring 
a  person  bankrupt. 

Adjustment  of  Average  is  a  term  used  mainly 
in  Marine  Insurance,  but  also  in  Fire  Insurance, 
to  denote  the  ascertainment  of  the  amount  which 
the  insured  is  entitled  to  receive  under  the  policy, 
and  of  the  pro¬ 
portion  of  the 
loss  to  be 
borne  by  each 
and  e  r  writer. 

In  the  United 
States,  the 
adjustment. to 
be  binding, 
must  be  in¬ 
tended  by  the 
parties  to  be 
absolute  and 
final. 

Adjutant,  * 

an  officer  not  V 
above  the  rank 
of  major,  spe- 
c  i  a  1 1 y  ap¬ 
pointed  to  as¬ 
sist  the  officer  -  — 
commanding  ,  ^ 

a  regiment  or  The  Adjutant  (Leptoptilus  Argala). 

corps  — The  Adjutant-General  is  the  head  of  his 
department  on  the  general  staff  of  the  army,  and 
the  executive  officer  of  the  general-in-chief. 


Adjutant  ( Leptoptilus  argala),  a  stork-like 
bird,  common  during  summer  in  India.  Gener¬ 
ally  stork-like  in  appearance,  it  stands  about  five 
feet  high,  and  measures  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet 
from  tip  to  tip  of  extended  wings.  The  four¬ 
sided,  pointed  bill  is  very  large,  the  head  and 
neck  are  almost  bare,  and  a  sausage-like  pouch, 
sometimes  sixteen  inches  long,  and  apparently 
connected  with  respiration,  hangs  down  from  the 
base  of  the  neck.  While  feeding  largely  on  car¬ 
casses  and  offal  about  the  towns,  it  also  fishes  for 
living  food,  and  sometimes  devours  birds  and 
small  mammals.  (See  illustration.) 

Adler,  Nathan  Marcus,  chief  rabbi,  was 
born  at  Hanover  in  1803.  He  became  chief  rabbi 
of  Oldenburg  in  1829,  of  Hanover  in  1830,  and  of 
the  united  congregations  of  the  British  Empire  in 
1845. — Herman,  B.  A.,  Ph.  D.,  son  of  the  pie- 
ceding,  born  in  Hanover  in  1S39.  In  1863  lie 
became  principal  of  the  Jews’  college  in  London, 

;  nd  in  1879,  as  delegate  chief  rabbi,  coadjutor 
to  his  father.  He  distinguished  himself  by  his 
learned  and  spirited  writings  in  defense  of  his 
co-religionists.  A  member  of  the  Mansion  House 
Committee  for  the  relief  of  the  Jewish  victims 
of  persecution  in  Russia  in  1881-82,  Adler  visited 
the  conference  of  leading  Jews  at  Berlin,  and 
afterwards  the  colonies  of  Russian  refugees  in  the 
Holy  Land. 

AdLib'itum,  abbreviated, “ad  lib.,” — (inltal. 
a  piacere,  or  a  pincirnento)  is  a  musical  term  which 
implies  that  the  part  so  marked  maybe  performed 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  performer,  and  not 
necessarily  in  strict  time.  Ad  Libitum  also  fre¬ 
quently  means  that  a  part  for  a  particular  instru¬ 
ment  or  instruments  may  either  be  played  or 
entirely  left  out.  The  popular  meaning  of  the 
word  is  “at  discretion.”  or  “at  pleasure.” 

Adar,  the  sixth  civil  and  twelfth  ecclesiastical 
month  of  the  Jewish  year. 

Adit,  a  horizontal  passage  made  into  mines  for 
purposes  of  drainage,  or  for  extracting  their  pro¬ 
ducts  at  a  low  level.  The  Sutro  tunnel  is  the 
most  important  adit  in  this  country. 

Administrator,  in  the  United  States,  is  a  per¬ 
son  appointed  by  competent  authority  to  manage 
and  distribute  the  estate  of  an  intestate.  Any  per¬ 
son  competent  to  make  contracts  may  be  ap¬ 
pointed.  An  administrator  is  generally  obliged 
to  give  a  bond  for  the  faithful  performance  of  the 
duties  therein  mentioned.  It  is  the  duty  of  an 
administrator  to  file  an  inventory  of  the  property, 
and  to  collect  outstanding  debts  due  the  estate; 
its  also  to  pay  preferred  accounts.  After  paying 
tdl  legal  claims,  the  administrator  must  make 
distribution  of  the  residue  under  direction  of  the 
court. 

Admiral,  the  title  of  the  highest  rank  of  naval 
officers.  The  office  was  created  by  the  Arabs  in 
Spain  and  Sicily,  and  adopted  with  the  name  by 
Genoese,  French,  and  by  the  English  under 
Edward  III.  as  “amyrel  of  the  se,”or  “admirall  of 
the  navy.”  In  the  modern  British  navy  the  admi¬ 
rals  are  distinguished  into  three  classes — admi¬ 
rals,  vice  admirals,  and  rear-admirals.  Admit  al 
of  the  fleet  is  a  higher  rank,  conferred  at  the  will 
of  the  sovereign.  He  takes  rank  with  a fi<  Id-mar¬ 
shal,  admirals  with  generals,  vice-admirals  with 
lieutenant-generals,  and  rear-admirals  with  major- 
generals. 

In  the  navy  of  the  United  States  no  officer  of 
higher  rank  than  captain  was  commissioned  prior 
to  1862  (with  one  single  exception).  I11  that  year 
there  were  authorized  to  be  commissioned  nine 
rear-admirals  on  the  active  list,  and  nine  on  the 
retired  or  reserve  list.  Subsequently  the  number 
on  the  active  list  was  reduced  to  seven,  the  num¬ 
ber  on  the  retired  list  varying  from  time  to  time. 
Rear-admirals  have  the  relative  rank  of  major- 
generals.  The  rank  of  vice-admiral,  and  that  of 
admiral  were  created  in  1864  and  1866,  respect¬ 
ively,  but  it  was  resolved  to  allow  their  grades  to 
become  extinct.  France  has  one  admiral,  twenty- 
five  vice-admirals,  and  thirty-three  rear-admirals; 
Germany,  one  admiral,  three  vice-admirals,  and 
seven  rear-admirals;  Italy,  one  admiral,  five  vice- 
admirals,  and  eleven  rear-admirals. 

Admiralty,  Board  of,  a  department  of  the 
English  Government  which  has  the  management 
of  all  naval  matters. 

Admiralty  Courts.  In  the  United  States  the 
court  of  original  Admiralty  jurisdiction  is  the 


United  States  district  court.  Its  civil  jurisdiction 
extends  to  cases  of  salvage,  bonds  of  bottomry, 
respondentia,  seamen’s  wages,  seizures  under  the 
law  of  imposts,  navigation,  or  trade,  cases  of  prize 
or  ransom,  charter-parties,  contracts  of  affreight¬ 
ment  between  different  States  or  foreign  ports, 
contracts  for  conveyance  of  passt  ngers,  contracts 
with  material  men,  jettisons,  maritime  contribu¬ 
tions  and  averages,  pilotage,  surveys  of  ship  and 
cargo,  and  generally  to  all  damages  and  trespasses 
occurring  on  the  high  seas.  Its  criminal  jurisdic¬ 
tion  extends  to  all  crimes  and  offenses  committed 
on  the  high  seas,  or  beyond  the  jurisdiction  of 
any  country  Courts  of  Admiralty  within  the 
limits  of  their  jurisdiction,  resemble  courts  of 
equity  in  their  practice  and  modes  of  proceeding, 
but  are  even  more  free  from  technical  rules. 

Admiralty  Island  lies  off  the  coast  of  South¬ 
ern  Alaska,  in  57°  30'  N.  latitude,  and  134°  15' 
W.  longitude.  It  is  about  ninety  miles  long, 
well  wooded  and  watered,  and  contains  coal  and 
copper.  It  is  inhabited  and  belongs  to  the  United 
States. 

Admiralty  Islands,  a  group  of  forty  islands 
to  the  northeast  of  New  Guinea,  about  2  S.  lati¬ 
tude  and  147°  E.  longitm.e.  They  were  dis¬ 
covered  by  the  Dutch  in  1616.  The  largest  is 
above  fifty  miles  long,  and  is  mountainous  but 
fruitful.  Their  total  area  is  878  square  miles. 
Some  are  volcanic,  others  are  coral  islands.  They 
are  inhabited  by  a  race  of  savages  of  the  Papuan 
stock,  about  eight  hundred  in  number.  Together 
with  New  Britain  and  some  adjoining  groups 
they  were  annexed  by  Germany  in  1885,  and  now 
form  part  of  the  Bismarck  Archipelago. 

Adobe  (Span,  adobar,  toplastei)  is  a  sun-dried 
brick.  These  unburnt  bricks  are  commonly  used 
in  Mexico,  Texas,  and  Central  America,  and  the 
houses  built  with  them  are  very  durable. 

Adonai,  a  Hebrew  name  for  the  Supreme 
Being;  a  plural  form  of  Ad’  n,  “  lord,”  combined 
with  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person.  In  reading 
the  Scriptures  aloud  the  Jews  pronounce 
“Adonai”  wherever  the  holy  name  Jnvn  is 
found  in  the  text;  and  the  name  “Jehovah”  has 
arisen  out  of  the  consonants  of  ,//ivh,  with  the 
vowel  points  of  Adonai. 

Adonis,  in  Greek  Mythology,  a  youth  of  mar 
velous  beauty,  beloved  by  Aphrodite.  He  was 
killed  by  a  boarwliih-  hunting,  and  the  goddess, 
coming  too  late  to  his  rescue,  changed  his  blood 
into  flowers,  A  yearly  festival  w7as  celebrated  in 
honor  of  Adonis,  and  consisted  of  two  parts — a 
mourning  for  his  departure  to  the  underworld, 
and  a  rejoicing  for  his  return  to  Aphrodite. 
The  myths  connected  with  Adonis  belong  orig 
inally  to  the  East.  They  display  a  worship  of  the 
powers  of  nature  conjoined  with  that  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  and  Adonis  himself  appears  to  be* 
the  god  of  the  solar  year.  The  similarity  of  the 
name  to  the  Phoenician  Adon,  which  signified 
“lord,”  is  unmistakable;  and  this  word  Adon  was 
specially  applied  to  the  king  of  heaven,  the  sun. 

Adonis,  a  herbaceous  annual  or  perennial  genus 
of  Ranunculaceae,  native  of  Germany  and  culti¬ 
vated  in  England.  Its  bright  scarlet  petals 
obtained  for  it  the  name  of  Flos  Adonis,  their  color 
having  been  ascribed  to  their  being  stained  with 
the  blood  of  Adonis. 

Adoption,  in  the  stricter  sense,  in  the  Roman 
law,  applied  only  to  the  case  in  which  a  person  in 
the  power  of  his  father  or  grandfather  was  trans¬ 
ferred  to  that  of  the  person  adopting  him.  At 
Athens,  the  adopted  child  was  transferred  from  his 
own  family  and  parish  or  tribe  (demos),  into  those 
of  the  adoptive  father,  whose  property  he  inher¬ 
ited  in  the  absence  of  legitimate  children,  and 
whose  sacred  rights  he  was  bound  to  maintain. 
Only  Athenian  citizens  could  be  adopted. 

I11  Rome,  the  adopted  child  assumed  the  name, 
and  became  bound  to  discharge  the  religious 
duties,  of  the  adoptive  father.  Adoption  was 
effected  first  by  the  form  of  a  fictitious  sale,  and 
then  under  the  authority  of  a  magistrate,  the 
pnetor  at  Rome,  or  the  governor  (prases)  in  the 
provinces.  It  was  requisite  that  the  adoptive 
father  should  have  no  legitimate  children  at  the 
time,  and  no  reasonable  prospect  of  having  any. 

In  the  United  States,  adoption  is  regulated  by 
the  statutes  of  the  several  States,  which  differ  in 
details,  though  they  all  aim  at  one  result — viz.,  the 
creation  of  new  civil  relations  of  child  and  parent. 


ADOUR. 


16 


ADULTERY. 


Adoar,  a  French  river,  rising  in  the  department 
of  Hautes  Pyr6n6es,  which  enters  the  Atlantic 
below  Bayonne.  It  is  navigable  for  eighty  miles. 

Adovra,  a  town  of  Abyssinia,  the  capital  of 
Tigrfi,  145  miles  northeast  of  Gondar,  is  the  chief 
entrepot  of  trade  between  the  interior  of  Tigr6  and 
the  coast.  The  population  varies  between  3,000 
and  20,000,  according  to  the  absence  or  presence 
of  the  king. 

Adra  (ancient  Abdera),  a  Mediterranean  seaport 
of  Spain,  forty-nine  miles  southeast  of  Granada. 
Pop.  (1877),  11,320. 

Adrastus,  a  king  of  Argos,  whose  daughter 
married  Polynices  of  Thebes,  who  had  been  exiled 
from  his  native  city  by  his  brother  Eteocles.  He 
led  the  expedition  of  the  “Seven  against  Thebes  ” 
to  restore  his  son-in-law  to  his  right,  and  was  the 
only  one  that  survived,  as  Amphiaraus  had  fore¬ 
told.  Ten  years  later  he  led  the  six  sons  of  the 
heroes  that  had  fallen  to  a  new  attack  on  Thebes — 
the  war  of  the  Epigoni  (descendants).  This 
time  the  attack  was  successful,  but  a  son  of 
Adrastus  fell  in  the  struggle,  and  the  father  imme¬ 
diately  died  of  grief. 

Adrian,  a  city  of  Michigan,  situated  on  the 
Raisin  river.  It  is  well  furnished  with  water¬ 
power,  commands  the  trade  of  a  large  grain-grow¬ 
ing  region,  has  several  factories,  and  a  Methodist 
college  founded  in  1859.  Pop.  (1880),  7,849. 

Adrian,  the  name  of  six  Popes,  none  of  them 
very  remarkable.  Adrian  IV.  was  by  birth  an 
Englishman,  the  only  one  that  ever  sat  upon  the 
papal  chair.  His  name  was  Nicolas  Breakspear. 
He  was  a  native  of  Langley,  near  St.  Albans, 
became  first  a  lay-brother  or  servant  in  the  monas¬ 
tery  of  St.  Rufus,  near  Avignon,  and  in  1137  was 
elected  its  abbot.  Eugenius  III.  appointed  him 
cardinal-bishop  of  Albano  in  1146.  In  1154  he 
was  raised  to  the  papal  see,  one  of  his  early  acts 
being  to  grant  Ireland  to  King  John.  Adrian  was 
at  first  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Emperor  Fred¬ 
erick  I. ;  but  his  high  notions  of  the  papal  suprem¬ 
acy  led  to  the  beginning  of  that  long  contest  with 
the  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  which  ended  in  the 
destruction  of  the  dynasty.  He  was  about  to 
excommunicate  Frederick  when  he  died,  at  An- 
agni,  1159. 

Adrianople  (Turkish  Edirne;  Bulgarian 
Odriri),  the  third  city  of  European  Turkey,  stands 
on  the  navigable  Maritza  (the  ancient  Hebrus),  198 
miles  west-nortliwest  of  Constantinople  by  rail.  It 
has  upwards  of  65,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  about 
one-third  are  Turks.  Adrianople  was  the  seat  of 
the  Ottoman  sultanate  from  1366  to  1453.  The 
Russo-Turkish  war  was  here  concluded,  Sep. 
14,  1829,  by  the  Peace  of  Adrianople;  and  in 
1878,  again,  an  armistice  was  concluded  here 
between  the  Russians  and  the  Turks,  on  Jan.  31. 

Adriatic  Sea,  a  large  arm  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  extending,  in  a  northwesterly  direction, 
between  the  east  coast  of  Italy  and  the  west  coast 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  being  terminated  to  the 
south  by  the  Strait  of  Otranto,  forty-five  miles 
wide.  In  the  north,  it  forms  the  Gulf  of  Venice, 
and  in  the  northeast  the  Gulf  of  Trieste.  The 
west  coast  is  comparatively  low,  and  has  few 
inlets,  and  the  north  is  marshy,  and  edged  with 
lagoons.  On  the  other  side,  the  coasts  of  Illyria, 
Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and  Albania  are  steep,  rocky, 
and  barren,  with  many  inlets,  and  begirt  with  a 
chain  of  almost  innumerable  small,  rocky  islands. 
The  total  area  of  the  sea,  including  islands,  is  cal¬ 
culated  at  52,220  square  miles — the  area  of  the 
islands  being  1,290;  the  mean  depth  is  llOfathoms, 
the  greatest  depth  565  fathoms.  The  most  consid¬ 
erable  rivers  flowing  into  the  sea  are  the  Adige 
and  the  Po,  which  are  continually  depositing  soil 
on  the  coast,  so  that  places  once  on  the  shore  are 
now  inland. 

Adu'le,  or  Adulis,  an  ancient  town  of  ^Ethio¬ 
pia,  on  the  Red  Sea,  or  what  is  now  AnnesleyBay. 
On  its  site  is  the  modern  village  of  Zulla. 

Adnllamites.  The  attempt  to  extend  the 
franchise  made  in  England  in  1866  led  many  of 
the  Whigs  to  secede  from  the  liberal  leaders.  The 
designation  Adnllamites  was  fastened  on  them  by 
Mr.  Bright,  who  likened  them  to  the  political  out¬ 
laws  who  took  refuge  with  David  in  the  cave  of 
Adullam  (1  Sam.,  xxii). 

Adulteration.  The  crime  of  food  adulteration 
is  a  very  old  one,  and  is  mentioned  by  Pliny.  It 
has  been  practiced  ever  since. 


The  objects  of  employing  different  materials  in 
the  adulteration  of  food  may  be  said  to  be  three  in 
number.  First,  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
bulk  or  weight  of  the  dearer  article;  as,  for  exam¬ 
ple,  when  water  is  added  to  milk  or  whisky,  or 
when  chicory  is  added  to  coffee,  or  flour  to 
mustard,  or  butcher  fat  to  butter.  Second,  to 
brighten  its  color,  or  to  alter  or  improve  its  appear¬ 
ance;  as  in  the  case  of  the  addition  of  certain 
metallic  compounds  to  preserved  fruits  or  vegeta¬ 
bles,  or  the  addition  of  barley-meal  to  oatmeal,  or 
of  alum  to  bread .  Third,  to  increase  its  pungency 
or  alter  its  flavor;  as,  for  example,  when  pepper 
is  added  to  ginger,  artificial  flavorings  to  wine  or 
to  alcohol,  as  is  done  in  the  manufacture  of  spuri¬ 
ous  liquors,  such  as  imitation  brandy,  etc. 

For  the  detection  of  adulterations  dependence 
is  placed  mainly  upon  chemical  analysis  and  micro¬ 
scopical  examination.  It  is  chiefly  the  work  of 
expert  analysts,  though  many  simple  tests  for 
common  adulterants  are  known  to  every  house¬ 
keeper. 

Milk  is  adulterated  by  abstracting  the  cream, 
or  by  adding  water;  but  chalk  can  not  be 
used,  as  it  would  soon  settle.  The  adulteration 
may  be  detected  in  a  rough  way  either  by  means 
of  the  hydrometer  or  by  ascertaining  how  much 
cream  the  milk  will  throw  up.  Good  pure  milk 
will  throw  up  from  twelve  to  fourteen  parts  of 
cream  in  the  hundred,  and  such  milk  unadulter¬ 
ated  should  have  a  specific  gravity  of  from  1029 
to  1032.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  if 
milk  shows  a  high  proportion  of  cream,  a  low 
specific  gravity  does  not  necessarily  indicate  dilu¬ 
tion. 

Bread. — Bread  and  sugar  arc  the  purest  forms 
of  food  with  which  the  public  are  at  present  sup¬ 
plied.  The  only  adulteration  we  now  occasionally 
find  in  bread  is  alum,  and  occasionally  an  exces¬ 
sive  amount  of  common  salt .  The  former  is  added 
for  the  purpose  of  communicating  a  white  appear¬ 
ance  to  the  bread,  and  the  latter  in  order  that  it 
may  retain  an  undue  proportion  of  water. 

Alum  may  be  detected  in  bread  by  laying  a 
piece  about  two  inches  square  upon  a  saucer,  and 
then  pouring  upon  it  a  small  quantity  of  tincture 
of  logwood,  which  has  previously  been  mixed 
with  its  own  bulk  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  solu¬ 
tion.  If  alum  be  present,  the  bread  will  turn  blue 
by  this  treatment,  whereas,  if  it  be  free  from  any 
admixture  of  this  kind,  it  will  become  pink. 
Other  substances  besides  alum  which  might  be 
present  in  bread,  have  the  effect  of  producing  a 
blue  color  with  logwood,  so  that  if  a  blue  color  is 
produced,  the  bread  is  not  pure,  and  the  impurity 
most  probably  is  alum. 

Coffee  is  extensively  adulterated.  The  material 
most  commonly  used  for  adulterating  coffee  is 
ground  chicory-root.  It  is  used  for  this  purpose 
in  enormous  quantities,  40  or  50  per  cent, 
being  no  unusual  amount  to  find  in  coffee  as  fre¬ 
quently  sold;  and  occasionally  as  much  as  70, 
80,  or  even  90  per  cent,  has  heen  shown  to 
be  present.  Chicory  may  be  detected  in  coffee  by 
allowing  a  few  grains  of  the  suspected  article  to 
fall  into  a  glass  of  cold  water.  If  the  coffee  is 
pure,  almost  all  the  little  particles  will  remain 
hard,  and  will  continue  to  float  on  the  surface, 
communicating  very  little  color  to  the  water.  If 
chicory  or  any  similar  foreign  substance  be  pres¬ 
ent,  many  of  the  little  particles  will  become  quite 
soft,  and  will  sink  to  the  bottom,  coloring  the 
water  more  or  less  brown. 

Cocoa  is  largely  adulterated  with  sugar,  arrow- 
root,  and  other  starchy  matters,  with  the  view  of 
concealing  the  cocoa-fat,  and  enabling  the  powder 
to  mix  easily  with  boiling  water. 

Butter  is  extensively  adulterated.  Occasionally 
materials  are  sold  as  butter  which  contain  no  but¬ 
ter  at  all.  Such  articles  consist  principally  of 
different  kinds  of  grease,  which  have  been  manipu¬ 
lated  by  means  of  salt  and  milk,  so  as  to  constitute 
a  wonderfully  close  imitation  of  the  genuine 
article.  Such  are  butterine,  oleomargarine, 
etc.  The  presence  of  fat  in  butter  may  be  de¬ 
tected,  in  many  instances,  by  ascertaining  the 
exact  temperature  at  which  the  suspected  material 
will  melt.  Genuine  butter  melts  at  from  94°  to 
97°  Fahr.  A  lower  melting-point  than  this  indi¬ 
cates  butterine,  and  a  higher  melting-point  sug¬ 
gests  the  probable  presence  of  lard  or  dripping,  or 
of  some  similar  animal  fat. 


Sugar  is  usually  sold  in  a  state  of  great  purity; 
but  occasionally  contains  a  slight  excess  of  water 
or  mineral  matter.  Sugar  should  not  have  a  damp 
appearance;  it  should  have  a  pure,  sweet  taste; 
should  dissolve  completely  in  cold  water,  and 
should  leave  only  a  very  small  residue  or  ash 
when  it  is  burned. 

'lea. — The  only  form  of  adulteration  now  en¬ 
countered  is  in  the  so-called  faced  tea.  This  is 
nothing  more  than  black  tea,  possibly  not  of  a  very 
high  class,  to  which  a  fictitious  appearance  has 
been  communicated  by  means  of  such  things  as 
indigo,  Prussian  blue,  French  chalk,  plumbago, 
and  lime,  being  made  to  adhere  to  the  surface  of 
the  leaf.  When  tea  is  heavily  faced,  the  facing- 
material  may  be  detected  by  removing  a  portion 
of  it  either  by  friction  on  a  soft  piece  of  white 
cloth  or  by  digesting  the  leaves  for  a  few  minutes 
in  a  small  quantity  of  warm  water. 

Whisky  is  generally  supposed  to  be  extensively 
adulterated.  This,  however,  is  a  mistaken  belief. 
It  is  frequently  sold  when  it  is  too  new  and  not 
properly  matured,  and  is  occasionally  rather  freely 
watered  by  some  of  the  smaller  retailers.  Any 
other  form  of  adulteration  is,  however,  extremely 
rare.  The  strength  can  be  ascertained  by  means 
of  the  hydrometer. 

Brandy  is  a  preparation  resulting  from  the  dis¬ 
tillation  of  wine.  There  can  be  little  doubt,  how¬ 
ever,  that  most  of  the  brandy  sold  is  simply  a 
mixture  of  spirit  with  various  flavoring  materials, 
including,  possibly,  a  small  quantity  of  genuine 
brandy. 

Wine. — The  stronger  wines,  before  they  arc  im¬ 
ported  are  generally  fortified  by  the  addition  of 
a  certain  quantity  of  spirit.  It  is  also  alleged 
that  wines  are  frequently  colored  with  various 
coloring  matters.  A  satisfactory  test  of  the 
purity  and  quality  of  wine,  and  of  similar  spir¬ 
ituous  liquors,  can  not  be  made  without  employ¬ 
ing  somewhat  complicated  chemical  processes. 

Malt  Liquors  in  this  country  are  probably 
less  adulterated  than  any  other  article  of  daily 
consumption.  The  lager  beer,  which  of  late 
years  has  grown  so  extensively  in  favor  in  our 
cities,  is  sold  as  it  comes  from  the  brewer,  and  is 
seldom  tampered  with.  In  England  the  heavier 
beers,  porter,  and  stout  consumed  by  the  lower 
classes  are  undoubtedly  doped  with  cocculus  in- 
dicus,  and  hundreds  of  convictions  for  diluting 
ales  and  beers  have  recently  been  obtained  by  the 
excise 

Honey,  as  sold  in  the  markets,  is  ’principally 
glucose. 

Pickles  are  now  sold  in  a  much  purer  condition 
than  formerly,  though  copper  salts  are  still  some¬ 
times  used  to  impart  a  green  color.  Such  an 
adulteration  may  be  detected  by  introducing  the 
blade  of  a  steel  knife,  polished  by  means  of  fine 
sandpaper,  into  the  vinegar.  A  coating  of  metal¬ 
lic  copper  will  be  deposited  on  the  knife  blade  in 
a  few  minutes. 

Mustard. — The  materials  principally  used  for 
adulterating  mustard  are  flour  and  the  yellow' 
dye-stuff  turmeric.  There  is  no  simple  test  for 
these  adulterants. 

Pepper  is  frequently  mixed  with  sand,  occasion¬ 
ally  with  linseed-meal  and  other  vegetable  sub¬ 
stances,  and  sometimes  with  starchy  matters,  such 
as  wheat-flour,  rice-flour,  sago,  etc.  The  most 
common  adulteration,  the  sand,  may  be  detected 
by  burning  the  suspected  pepper  until  all  the 
vegetable  matter  is  consumed,  and  making  an 
examination  of  the  ash.  If  sand  is  present  the 
ash  will  be  rough  and  gritty;  if  the  pepper  is 
pure,  the  ash  will  be  fine,  and  few  or  no  rough 
silicious  particles  will  be  discernible  in  it. 

Vinegar. — The  chief  adulterants  of  vinegar  are 
water  and  sulphuric  acid.  According  to  Hassall, 
vinegar  which  shows  less  than  1015  on  the  hy¬ 
drometer  scale  is  unquestionably  adulterated  with 
water.  Sulphuric  acid  and  other  mineral  acids 
may  be  detected  by  adding  to  the  suspected  vine¬ 
gar  a  few  drops  of  methyl  aniline  violet.  If  the 
vinegar  be  pure,  no  color  will  result;  but  if  it  be 
mixed  with  sulphuric  or  any  other  mineral  acid,  a 
blue  or  green  coloration  will  be  developed. 

Adultery  means  illicit  intercourse  had  by  a 
married  person.  In  Catholic  countries,  where 
divorce  is  not  allowed,  separation  is  granted  to 
either  spouse  for  adultery.  Since  the  Reforma- 
|  tion,  in  Protestant  countries,  adultery  has  been 


AD  VALOREM. 


17 


A2SCULAPIUS. 


generally  recognized  as  a  ground  for  com¬ 
plete  divorce,  at  the  instance  of  either  hus¬ 
band  or  wife.  In  England,  the  wife’s  adultery  is 
sufficient  to  procure  the  divorce  for  the  husband; 
but  to  free  the  wife  the  husband’s  adultery  must 
be  shown  to  be  complicated  with  incest,  bigamy, 
gross  cruelty,  or  two  years’  desertion.  In  both 
England  and  Scotland,  damages  may  be  claimed 
by  the  injured  husband  from  the  paramour.  In 
the  United  States,  adultery  is  a  civil  injury,  for 
which  the  husband  of  the  woman  can  have  an 
action  of  damages  against  her  paramour. 
Adultery  is  also  a  crime,  punishable  by  tine  and 
imprisonment,  with  more  or  less  severity  through¬ 
out  the  United  States. 

Ad  Valo'rem  (Lat.  according  to  value),  a 
phrase  used  in  levying  customs  duties,  when  the 
duties  on  the  goods  are  fixed,  not  according  to 
weight,  size,  or  number,  but  at  rates  proportioned 
to  the  estimated  value  of  the  goods. 

Advent  (Lat.  adventus,  the  coming),  a  season  of 
preparation  for  the  festival  of  Christmas,  as  Lent 
for  that  of  Easter.  In  the  Greek  Church  the 
Advent  period  comprises  forty  days,  while  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  and  the  English  Churches  it  is 
restricted  to  the  four  Sundays  of  Advent. 

Adventists,  Second,  sometimes  called  Miller- 
ites,  from  their  founder,  William  Miller  (1781— 
1849);  a  sect  who  look  for  the  speedy  second 
coming  of  Christ.  They  first  expected  the  end  of 
the  world  in  October,  1842.  In  1880  they  num¬ 
bered  70,000,  with  600  ministers.  The  Seventh- 
day  Adventists  set  no  time  for  the  coming  of 
Christ.  In  1880  they  numbered  15,570,  with  144 
ministers. 

Advertising  is  usually  effected  by  means  of 
the  ordinary  newspapers,  covers,  and  fly-leaves  of 
magazines,  or  of  newspapers  and  publications 
specially  devoted  to  the  purpose.  Public  notifica¬ 
tions  are  frequently  enjoined  by  statute,  as  in  the 
case  of  Government  contracts.  Advertising  in 
the  United  States  has  become  an  important  pro¬ 
fession,  where  large  salaries  are  sometimes  paid  to 
professional  writers  of  advertising  matter. 

American  advertising  began  in  an  humble  way 
about  1788.  A  great  impulse  was  given  to  it  by 
the  establishment  of  the  New  York  San  in  1833, 
the  Herald  in  1835,  and  the  Tribune  in  1841.  The 
proprietors  of  a  patent  medicine  offered  a  sub¬ 
scription  of  $25,000  toward  the  gigantic  statue  of 
Liberty  in  New  York  harbor,  provided  they  were 
allowed  to  affix  an  advertisement  upon  it  for  one 
year.  See  Grant’s  Newspaper  Press  (1871);  Samp¬ 
son’s  History  of  Advertising  (1874);  and  Hatton’s 
Journalistic  London  (1882),  besides  the  newspaper 
press  directories. 

Advocate  (Lat.  advocatus).  An  advocate  is 
generally  defined  “  the  patron  of  a  cause,”  though 
it  does  not  appear  that  the  “patrons”  who,  in 
ancient  Rome,  assisted  their  clients  with  advice, 
and  pleaded  their  causes,  were  ever  called  by  that 
name.  In  the  United  States,  advocate,  if  used  in 
a  legal  sense,  is  almost  synonymous  with  coun¬ 
sellor  in  England. 

Advocate,  Lord.  The  Lord  Advocate  for 
Scotland,  called  also  the  King’s  or  Queen’s  Advo¬ 
cate,  is  the  public  prosecutor  of  crimes,  senior 
counsel  for  the  crown  in  civil  causes,  and  a  political 
functionary  of  very  great  importance  in  the  man¬ 
agement  of  Scottish  affairs.  He  is  appointed  by 
the  crown. 

Advoca'tus  Diab'oli  (the  devil’s  advocate), 
the  name  given  to  the  person  appointed  to  state 
the  objections  to  any  proposed  canonization  in 
the  Romish  Church. 

Advowson,  the  right  of  presentation  to  a 
church  or  ecclesiastical  benefice  in  England. 

An  advowson  is  regarded  as  real  estate,  and  may 
be  disposed  of  as  freely  as  other  property;  but  an 
agreement  to  sell  an  advowson  or  next  presenta¬ 
tion  while  the  living  is  vacant  is  simoniacal,  and 
therefore  unlawful.  The  barter  is,  however, 
common. 

Ad  ytum,  the  sanctuary  or  innermost  part  of 
an  ancient  temple,  which  none  but  priests  could 
enter,  and  from  which  oracles  were  delivered. 

Ediles,  Roman  magistrates,  who  had  the  care 
of  public  buildings  (cedes),  especially  the  temples, 
and  also  acted  as  public  inspectors,  highway 
commissioners,  etc. 


Egean  Sea,  the  old  name  of  the  gulf  between 
Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  now  usually  called  Archi¬ 
pelago. 

Egeus,  a  king  of  Athens,  son  of  Pandion,  and 
father  of  Theseus.  He  drowned  himself  in  the 
sea  which  was  thereafter  named  “ASgean.” 

Egi'na,  a  Greek  island  about  forty  square 
miles  in  area,  in  the  Gulf  of  Angina  (the  ancient 
Saronicus  Sinus).  The  modem  town  of  MSgina 
stands  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town,  at  the 
northwest  end  of  the  island.  The  island  contains 
about  6,000  inhabitants. 

Egis,  the  shield  of  Zeus,  which  had  been  fash¬ 
ioned  by  Hephaestus  (Vulcan).  It  was  the  symbol 
of  divine  protection. 

Egistlius,  son  of  Thyestes,  and  cousin  of 
Agamemnon.  He  did  not  accompany  the  Greeks 
to^Troy,  and  during  the  absence  of  Agamemnon, 
lived  in  adultery  with  Clytsemnestra,  the  latter’s 
wife.  He  assisted  her  in  murdering  her  husband 
on  his  return,  but  was  himself  put  to  death 
seven  years  later  by  Orestes,  son  of  Agamemnon. 

Egle,  a  genus  of  Aurantiaceae,  one  of  which, 
the  HJgle  marmelos,  produces  a  fragrant,  delicious, 
and  wholesome  Indian  fruit  resembling  the  orange, 
called  Bael-fruit  or  Bliel-fruit. 

Elfric  (called  Grammaticus,  the  Grammarian), 
a  voluminous  old  English  writer  about  the  close  of 
the  10th  century,  wffiose  history  and  whose  per¬ 
sonality  even  are  alike  involved  in  obscurity. 

Eliamis,  Claudius,  a  native  of  Prieneste  in 
Italy,  who  studied  and  taught  rhetoric  in  Rome 
at  the  end  of  the  second  century  a.  d.,  and  was 
styled  the  Sophist. 

Emilius  Paulus.  The  most  remarkable  ot 
this  name  was  the  son  of  the  Consul  iEmilius 
Paulus,  who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cannae,  216  b.  c. 
In  168  b.  c.  he  gained  the  battle  of  Pydna  from 
Perseus,  king  of  Macedon. 

Eue  as,  the  hero  of  Virgil’s  JEneid,  was,  ac¬ 
cording  to  Homer,  the  son  of  Ancliises  and  Aphro¬ 
dite  (Venus),  and  ranked  next  to  Hector  among 
the  Trojan  heroes.  In  Virgil’s  account,  he  es¬ 
caped  from  Troy  carrying  his  aged  father  on  his 
shoulders,  but  in  His  hasty  flight  lost  his  wife, 
Creusa.  His  filial  affection  to  his  father  earned 
him  the  name  of  the  “ Pious  iEneas.”  “Much 
tossed  between  sea  and  sky,”  he  sailed  to  Thrace, 
then  to  Crete,  and  thence  to  Drepanum,  where 
his  father,  Ancliises,  died.  A  storm  drove  him 
to  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  landing  near  Carthage, 
he  was  hospitably  received  and  entertained  by 
Queen  Dido.  His  marriage  with  Dido  was  pre¬ 
vented  only  by  an  express  command  of  Jupiter 
that  he  must  return  to  Italy.  The  hero  sailed 
away,  leaving  the  unhappy  queen  to  despair  and 
death  by  her  own  hand.  After  building  the  city 
Acesta,  he  sailed  for  Italy.  On  landing  in  Italy, 
he  visited  the  Sibyl  at  Curate.  In  the  country  of 
Latinus,  king  of  the  Aborigines,  he  married 
Lavinia,  daughter  of  the  king,  and  founded  the 
1  ‘  Latin  ”  race.  He  was  claimed  as  an  ancestor  of 
Julius  Caesar.  His  landing  in  Italy  occurred 
seven  years  after  the  fall  of  Troy. 

Eolian  Accumulations  is  the  term  often  ap¬ 
plied  to  sand  hills  and  other  formations  which 
are  due  to  the  action  of  the  wind. 

Eoliau  Harp  (i.  e.,  the  harp  of  iEolus),  a 
simple  musical  instrument  which  produces  har¬ 
monious  sounds  when  placed  in  a  current  of  wind. 
St.  Dunstan  is  said  to  have  invented  it. 

iEoliau  Islands.  See  Lipari. 

Eolians,  one  of  the  principal  races  of  the 
Greek  people,  who  were  originally  settled  in 
Thessaly,  from  which  they  spread  and  formed 
numerous  settlements  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Greece  and  in  the  west  of  Peloponnesus. 

Eolipile,  a  hollow  metallic  ball  from  which, 
when  heated,  steam  issues  by  orifices  in  two  tubes, 
so  as  to  turn  the  ball.  It  was  invented  by  Hero 
of  Alexandria. 

Eolot  ropy  (from  Greek  words  for  changeful 
and  turning)  is  the  opposite  of  isotropy,  and  im¬ 
plies  change  in  the  electrical,  optical,  or  other 
physical  properties  of  bodies  in  consequence  of 
change  of  position — as  when  the  refractory  prop¬ 
erty  of  a  transparent  body  is  not  the  same  in  all 
directions.  The  aeolotropy  of  Iceland  spar  is  a 
notable  instance. 

E'olus,  the  ruler  and  god  of  the  winds.  His 
seat  was  in  the  -Eolian  Islands,  now  the  Lipari 
group. 


Eon,  a  Greek  word,  properly  meaning  “age” 
or  “eternity,”  but  used  by  the  Gnostics  to  mean 
an  emanation  from  God,  which  became  in  some 
degree  a  separate  spiritual  existence,  and  presided 
over  spheres  of  the  world,  or  phases  of  the  world’s 
history. 

Epyornis  (Gr.  tall  bird),  the  name  given  to 
a  great  wingless  bird,  whose  remains  occur  in 
Post-tertiary  deposits  in  Madagascar.  Its  sub¬ 
fossil  eggs  are  thirteen  to  fourteen  inches  in  diam¬ 
eter,  and  have  the  capacity  of  three  ostrich  eggs. 

Equi,  a  warlike  tribe  of  ancient  Italy,  who 
inhabited  the  upper  valley  and  hills  to  the 
southeast  of  the  river  Anio,  on  the  eastern  border 
of  Latium.  Their  last  struggle  with  Rome  began 
in  304  b.  c.,  and  ended  with  their  complete  sub¬ 
jugation. 

Aerated  Bread  is  unfermented  bread  mechan¬ 
ically  charged  with  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Aerated  Waters,  a  name  applied  to  the  large 
class  of  beverages  which  are  rendered  sparkling 
by  dissolving  in  them  carbonic  acid  under  pres, 
sure,  which  escapes  with  effervescence  when  the 
pressure  is  removed. 

Thg  better  known  kinds  of  aerated  waters  are: 
(1)  Potash  and  Soda  waters,  which,  when  of  full 
medicinal  strength,  contain  fifteen  grains  of  the 
bicarbonate  of  potash  or  soda  in  each  bottle;  (2) 
Aerated  water ,  which  is  a  simple  solution  of  car¬ 
bonic  acid,  and  contains  no  admixture;  (3)  Seltzer 
wider  (better  (Severs  water,  from  Selters,  in  Nassau, 
where  the  natural  wrater  is  obtained),  which  con¬ 
tains  the  chlorides  of  sodium,  calcium,  and  mag¬ 
nesium,  along  with  phosphate  and  sulphate  of 
sodium;  (4)  Medicinal  waters,  containing  varying 
proportions  of  remedial  agents,  as  lime,  carbonate 
of  iron,  citrate  of  lithia,  or  bromide  of  potassium. 

Aerodynamics  is  that  branch  of  Hydro¬ 
dynamics  which  treats  of  gases  in  motion. 

Aeroklinoscope  is  the  name  of  an  instrument 
invented  by  Buys  Ballot,  and  used  in  connection 
with  weather-signals  for  exhibiting  publicly  the 
difference  of  barometric  pressure  at  different  ob¬ 
serving  stations. 

Aerolites  (Gr.  aer,  air,  and  lilhos,  stone),  min¬ 
erals  falling  on  the  earth’s  surface  from  interplan¬ 
etary  space. 

Aerostatic  Press,  a  machine  used  in  extracting 
the  coloring  matter  from  dye-woods  by  hydrostatic 
pressure. 

Aerostatics  is  that  branch  of  Hydrostatics 
which  treats  of  the  properties  of  gases  at  rest. 

Es '  chines,  an  Athenian  orator,  second  only  to 
Demosthenes,  born  389  b.c.  Demosthenes  accused 
him  of  receiving  bribes  from  Philip  of  Macedon 
and  of  betraying  the  cause  of  Athens  and  of  her 
allies.  He  died  at  Samos,  314  b.c. 

Es'chylus,  the  father  of  Greek  tragedy,  was 
born  at  Eleusis,  in  525  b.c.  He  fought  for  Athens 
in  the  great  Persian  wars,  and  is  reported  to  have 
been  wrounded  at  Marathon,  wdiere  his  brother 
fell.  He  won  thirteen  first  prizes  in  tragic  com¬ 
petitions,  and  was  exceedingly  hurt  at  being 
defeated  by  Sophocles  in  468  b.c.  He  was  tried 
before  the  Areopagus  for  divulging  the  Mysteries, 
and  went  to  Sicily,  where  he  died,  455  b.c.  He 
wrote  over  sixty  plays,  of  which  seven  are  extant. 
These  are  the  Suppliants,  the  Per. sou,  the  Seven 
against  Thebes,  Prometheus  Bound,  and  the  tri¬ 
logy,  composed  of  the  Agamemnon,  the  Choe- 
phori,  and  the  Euminides,  or  Furies. 

The  newest  critical  text  of  all  the  plays  is  Weck- 
lein’s  (Berlin,  1885).  The  handiest  general  com¬ 
mentary  is  Dr.  Paley’s  (fourth  edition,  1879);  and 
we  have  translations  by  Potter,  Blackie,  and 
Plumptre.  For  special  plays,  Sidgwick’s  Aga¬ 
memnon,  and  R.  Browning’s  and  Fitzgerald’s 
translations  of  the  same,  Verrall’s  Septem,  Priek- 
ard’s  Pt  rsoe,  and  Mrs.  Browning’s  version  of  the 
Prometheus,  are  the  best  helps  available  to  Eng¬ 
lish  students. 

Esculapius  (Gr.  Asldepios),  appears  in  Homer 
as  the  “blameless  physician,”  of  human  origin;  in 
the  later  legends,  he  has  become  the  god  of  the 
healing  art.  The  most  common  account  makes 
him  the  son  of  Apollo  and  Coronis.  He  was 
instructed  by  the  Centaur  Chiron,  and  could 
restore  the  dead  to  life.  Pluto,  fearing  the 
depopulation  of  Hades,  complained  to  Zeus,  vcho 
slew  the  physician  by  a  thunderbolt.  After  this 
he  -was  raised  to  the  rank  of  the  gods  by  the  grati 


2 


iESIR. 


18 


AFGHANISTAN. 


tude  of  mankind,  and  was  especially  worshiped 
at  Epidaurus,  on  the  coast  of  Laconia. 

.iEsir,  a  race  of  gods  in  the  Scandinavian 
Mythology. 

jEsop,  the  famous  Greek  fabulist,  who  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  sixth  century  b.c.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  Phrygian  slave,  afterward 
freed.  He  visited  the  court  of  Croesus,  and  was 
sent  on  several  missions.  In  one  to  Delphi  he  was 
thrown  over  a  precipice  by  the  priests,  infuriated 
at  his  witty  blasphemies.  The  traditions  of  his 
ugliness  and  his  buffoonery  may  be  rejected  as 
untrue. 

jEstheticism  is  an  art  movement  which  has 
sprung  up  during  the  present  generation,  mani¬ 
festing  itself  in  various  forms.  Its  purpose  is  to 
apply  the  principles  of  art  to  the  surroundings  of 
daily  life.  Ruskin  and  the  so-called  Pre-Raphael¬ 
ite  school  are  its  chief  expositors. 

.Esthetics  is  the  term  commonly  used  to  denote 
the  science  or  philosophy  of  the  beautiful;  the 
principles  of  taste  and  of  art. 

.Estivation  (Lat.  JEstivus,  belonging  to  sum¬ 
mer),  or  Pii.EKi.o ration,  a  term  employed  to 
denote  the  manner  in  which  the  sepals  and  petals 
.are  disposed  in  the  flower-bud. 
i  .E tlirios cope  is  an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  minute  variations  of  temperature  due  to  the 
condition  of  the  sky. 

.Etiology,  or  Etiology  (Gr.  aiiia  cause,  and 
locjia  discourse),  the  science  or  philosophy  of 
causes  and  causation,  especially  (1)  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  biology,  which  seeks  to  give  a  rational 
account  of  the  forms,  functions  and  history  of 
organisms;  (2)  the  branch  of  medicine  which 
investigates  the  causes  and  origin  of  diseases. 

Aetius,  the  great  Roman  general,  born  in 
Moesia  towards  the  end  of  the  4th  century  a.  d. 
He  led  an  army  of  Huns  to  the  support  of  the 
usurping  Emperor  John;  and  by  help  of  the  Huns 
compelled  the  Empress-mother  Placidia  to  advance 
him  at  the  expense  of  his  rival  Bonifacius  In 
433  he  became  patrician,  consid  and  general-in¬ 
chief;  and  as  such  maintained  the  empire  against 
the  barbarians  for  twenty  years,  defeating  West 
Goths,  Burgundians,  rebellious  Gauls  and  Franks. 
His  crowning  victory  was  that  at  Chalons  over 
Attila  in  451.  In  454  the  Emperor  Valentinian 
III.,  jealous  of  his  greatness,  stabbed  him  to 
death. 

.Eto'  lia,  a  district  of  ancient  Greece,  lying  on 
the  north  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  Along  with 
Acarnania,  AEtolia  now  forms  a  department  of  the 
modern  kingdom  of  Greece,  with  a  united  area  of 
over  3,000  square  miles.  The  chief  towns  are 
Missolonghi  and  Lepanto. 

Affidavit  (from  the  perfect  tense  of  a  barbarous 
Latin  verb,  affido — e.g.  A.  B.  affidavit,  A.  B. 
hath  sworn),  an  oath  in  writing,  or  a  written  dec¬ 
laration  made  before  a  magistrate,  or  other  person 
legally  authorized  to  administer  an  oath,  the  truth 
of  which  is  confirmed  either  by  an  oath  sworn,  or 
a  solemn  affirmation  under  the  statute.  In 
the  United  States  the  affidavit  of  parties  to  a 
■cause  is  received  upon  incidental  questions  ad¬ 
dressed  to  the  court  and  auxiliary  matters  not 
affecting  the  issue.  An  affidavit  made  solely  on 
information  or  belief  is  not  sufficient  for  the 
arrest  of  any  person  charged  with  an  offence 
against  the  laws  of  the  United  States. 

Affinity  (Lat.  affinitas),  the  relationship  created 
by  marriage  between  the  husband  and  the  blood- 
relations  of  the  wife,  and  between  the  wife  and 
the  blood-relations  of  the  husband.  The  relatives 
of  the  wife  stand  to  the  husband  in  the  same 
degree  of  affinity  in  which  they  stand  to  the  wife 
toy  blood  or  consanguinity,  and  vice  versa.  But 
between  the  relatives  of  the  two  parties  by  affinity 
there  is  no  affinity.  Marriage  between  a  man  and 
the  sister  of  his  deceased  wife  is  at  present  forbid¬ 
den  by  statute  in  England. 

Affirmation,  a  solemn  declaration  which,  in 
the  case  of  persons  holding  conscientious  scruples, 
is  admitted  in  the  place  of  an  oath.  False  affirma¬ 
tion  is  legally  perjury. 

Affre,  Denis  Auguste,  was  born  Sept.  27, 
1793,  and  in  1840,  on  account  of  his  prudent 
and  temperate  character,  was  made  Archbishop  of 
Paris  by  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  June  insurrection,  1848,  he  climbed  on  a 
barricade  in  the  Place  de  la  Bastille,  carrying  a 
_green  bough  as  a  messenger  of  peace;  but  lie  had 


scarcely  uttered  a  few  words  when  the  firing 
recommenced,  and  he  fell  mortally  wounded,  to  die 
the  next  day,  June  27.  He  wras  the  author  of 
several  theological  writings  and  of  a  work  on 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics. 

Affrontee,  in  Heraldry,  fronting  the  spectator, 
as  the  lion  sejant  affrontee,  which"  is  the  crest  of 
Scotland. 

Afghanistan  is  the  country  lying  to  the  north 
west  of  India.  Its  boundaries  are,  on  the  north, 
the  Oxus  or  Amu  Daria,  from  its  source  in  Lake 
Victoria  or  Sir-i-Kul  to  Khoja  Saleh,  and  thence 
a  line  drawn  across  the  Turkoman  desert  south- 
westward  to  the  Murghab,  passing  south  of  Panj- 
deh  and  touching  the  Hari-Rud  at  Zulfikar.  This 
line  has  been 
demarcated  in 
accordance 
with  the  Lon¬ 
don  protocol 
of  1885  and 
the  St.  Peters¬ 
burg  treaty  of 
1887.  Within 
these  limits, 

Afghanistan 
extends  400 
miles  from 
north  to  south, 
and  600  miles 
from  east  to 
west,  and  con¬ 
tains  an  area 
which  may  be 
roughly  esti¬ 
mated  at 
240,000  square 
miles.  Af¬ 

ghanistan  may 
be  divided  into 
the  three  great 
river-basins  of 
the  Oxus,  the 
Indus,  and  the 
Helmand. 

The  princi¬ 
pal  mountain 
systems  of  Af¬ 
ghanistan  are 
the  Hind  u 
Kush,  with  its 
westerly  con¬ 
tinuations,  the 
Koh  - 

Paghman,  Sa- 
fed-Koh,  and  Siali-Koh.  The  Hindu  Kush  takes  its 
rise  in  the  northeast,  where  it  abuts  on  the  north¬ 
western  end  of  the  Himalayas  in  a  group  of  magni¬ 
ficent  peaks,  rising  to  a  height  of  23, 000  feet  above 
the  sea.  Hence  it  extends  in  a  southwesterly  direc¬ 
tion  to  the  Ivliawak  Pass  as  a  single  range  of  great 
height.  The  climate  of  Afghanistan  is  as  diversi¬ 
fied  as  its  physical  configurat  ion.  The  population 
is  estimated  at  about  4,900,000.  The  Afghans 
proper,  or  Pathons,  number  about  3,000,000. 

The  Afghans  claim  descent  from  King  Saul, 
and  call  themselves  “  Bani  Israel,”  but  their  lan¬ 
guage  belongs  rather  to  the  Aryan  family.  In 
religion  they  are  Sunni  Mohammedans. 

The  principal  towns  are  Kabul  (population 
140,000),  the  seat  of  government  and  center  of  a 
fertile  district;  Ghazni,  a  strong  fortress;  Kanda¬ 
har,  the  chief  city  of  Southern  Afghanistan,  with 
30,000  inhabitants;  and  Herat,  “the  key  of 
India.” 

Among  the  natural  productions  of  Afghanistan 
are  assafoetida,  castor  oil,  tobacco,  wheat,  barley, 
cotton,  grapes,  melons,  etc.  Afghanistan  is  crossed 
by  several  trade-routes  leading  to  India  on  the  one 
side,  and  to  Persia  and  Turkestan  on  the  other. 
Merchandise  is  all  transported  on  camel  or  pony- 
back. 

The  history  of  Afghanistan  as  an  independent 
State  only  dates  from  the  middle  of  the  18th  cen¬ 
tury.  For  two  centuries  before,  Herat  and  Kan 
dahar  had  been  in  the  possession  of  Persia;  while 
Kabul  was  included  in  the  Mogul  empire  of 
Delhi.  Upon  the  death  of  Nadir  Shah,  in  1747, 
Ahmed  Shah  Durani  subjugated  the  different 
provinces,  and  when  he  died,  in  1773,  left  an  em¬ 
pire  to  his  son,  Timur  Shah,  extending  to  the  Sea 
of  Oman  on  the  south,  and  on  the  east  to  the 


mountains  of  Tibet,  the  Sutlej,  and  the  Indus. 
Timur  Shah  reigned  twenty  years,  and,  dying 
in  1793,  left  thirty-six  children,  of  whom  twenty- 
three  were  sons.  The  rivalries  and  jealousies 
among  these  princes  or  sirdars  kept  Afghanistan 
in  a  constant  state  of  warfare,  and  led  to  the 
interference,  first  of  Persia,  and  then  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish.  In  1809  Mountstuart  Elpliinstone  was  sent 
as  embassador  to  Kabul,  and  concluded  a  treaty 
with  Shah  Shuja,  son  of  Timur  Shah,  at  Pesha¬ 
war. 

Since  1834,  England,  desiring  to  preserve  a 
barrier  between  India  and  the  Russian  power  in 
Central  Asia,  has  kept  Afghanistan  in  a  continual 
ferment.  On  one  or  another  pretext  Afghanistan 


Map  of  Afghanistan. 


was  invaded  in  1839;  but  in  1841  a  revolt  broke 
out,  and  after  a  disastrous  retreat  the  army  of 
possession  was  completely  annihilated  at  Kyber 
Pass  in  1842.  A  new  expedition  was  organized, 
and  in  1855  a  treaty  was  concluded.  Since  that 
date  British  influence  has  been  very  powerful  with 
the  Afghan  rulers,  though  this  influence  has  been 
maintained  only  by  means  of  incessant  force. 
Thus,  in  1878,  Sliere  Ali  refused  to  receive  a  Brit¬ 
ish  mission.  This  led  to  a  war,  in  which  the 
British  were  successful,  and  on  the  26th  May  a 
treaty  of  peace  was  signed  at  Gandamak.  In 
September  of  the  same  year  the  British  residency 
was  attacked,  and  the  resident,  Sir  Louis  Cavag- 
nari,  and  his  staff,  with  almost  the  whole  of  their 
Indian  guard,  were  cut  to  pieces,  after  a  desperate 
and  gallant  resistance.  Thereupon  Afghanistan 
was  again  invaded  by  a  force  of  6,000  troops,  who 
took  possession  of  Kabul,  and  forced  the  Ameer, 
Yakub  Khan  to  abdicate. 

In  June,  1880,  Ayub  Khan,  a  younger  brother 
of  Yakub  Khan,  the  ex-Ameer,  proclaimed  a 
ghaza,  or  holy  war,  and  announced  his  intention 
of  marching  on  Kandahar,  then  in  the  possession 
of  the  British.  On  July  27th,  Brigadier-General 
Burrows,  who  was  sent  to  punish  Ayub,  was  com¬ 
pletely  defeated,  with  the  loss  of  over  1,000  killed 
and  wounded.  To  avenge  this  defeat,  General 
Roberts  marched  with  a  force  from  Kabul  on 
Aug.  9th,  and  reached  Kandahar  on  the  31st. 
On  the  following  day  he  totally  defeated  Ayub 
Khan.  Before  withdrawing,  the  British  troops 
reduced  to  submission  some  refractory  tribes,  and 
completed  the  evacuation  of  Afghanistan  by  the 
end  of  April,  1881.  Abdul  Rahman  Khan,  with 
the  assistance  of  the  British  Government,  made 
himself  master  of  the  whole  country. 


AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR. 


19 


AFRICA. 


In  July,  1884,  a  commission  was  appointed  to 
demarcate  the  boundary  between  Afghanistan  and 
the  Russian  territory  of  the  Turkomans,  and  in 
April,  1887,  the  British  and  Russian  commission¬ 
ers  met  at  St.  Petersburg.  Russia  now  touches 
the  northwestern  frontier  of  Afghanistan. 

See  Elphinstone’s  Cabul  (1815);  Kaye’s  History 
of  the  War  of  Afghanistan  (1851),  4th  ed.  (1878); 
Bellew,  Afghanistan  and  the  Afghans  (1879);  Re¬ 
ports  by  Lumsden  and  Macgregor. 

Afium-Kara-Hissar  (Opium  Black  Castle),  a 
city  of  Asia  Minor,  170  miles  east-northeast  of 
Smyrna.  Pop.  about  20,000. 

Africa,  a  continent  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere, 
forming  a  southwestern  extension  of  Asia,  to 
which  it  has  been  attached  since  Eocene  times  by 
the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Suez,  now  pierced  by  a 
canal  ninety  miles  long.  Africa  is  thus  consti¬ 
tuted  an  insular  mass  of  irregular  triangular 
shape,  with  base  on  the  Mediterranean  and  apex 
at  the  junction  of  the  Indian  and  Atlantic  waters. 
It  stretches  across  72°  of  latitude,  or  about  5,000 
miles,  disposed  nearly  equally  on  both  sides  of  the 
equator.  The  extreme  eastern  and  western  points 
are  Capes  Guardafui  (51°  14'  E.)  on  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  Yerd  (17°  32'  W.)  on  the  Atlantic,  a 
distance  of  about  4,500  miles.  Including  Mada¬ 
gascar  and  all  adjacent  insular  groups,  it  can  not 
be  estimated  at  much  more  than  ll,950,000square 
miles,  or  some  4,000,000  less  than  Asiaor  America. 
Although  about  three  times  larger  than  Europe, 
its  coast-line  scarcely  exceeds  15,000  miles,  as  com¬ 
pared  with  the  19,000  of  that  continent.  Africa 
is  nearly  destitute  of  islands,  the  few  there  are 
near  the  coast  being  of  volcanic  origin.  The 
Madeiras,  Canaries,  and  Cape  Verdes,  St.  Helena 
and  Ascension  are  all  volcanic.  The  vast  Island 
of  Madagascar  and  its  outlying  group  are  be¬ 
lieved  to  be  fragments  of  a  Miocene  continent  now 
flooded  by  the  Indian  Ocean.  Owing  to  its 
generally  high  altitude,  and  to  the  almost  total 
absence  of  extensive  low-lying  plains,  Africa,  not¬ 
withstanding  the  lack  of  vast  Alpine  regions,  has  a 
greater  mean  elevation  than  either  Europe  or  Asia. 

A  line  running  from  the  Cameroons  northward 
to  the  Benue,  and  sweeping  round  Mount  Alan- 
tika  (last  northern  outpost  of  the  tableland  in 
Adamawa),  eastward  to  the  Red  Sea  below  Sua- 
kim,  will  roughly  mark  off  the  comparatively  low 
northern  plain  from  the  lofty  southern  plateau. 
Between  Tripoli,  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
Lake  Tsad  depression  in  Central  Soudan,  the  mean 
height  for  the  Central  Sahara  ranges  from  1,300  to 
1,400  feet,  falling  in  Soudan  generally  somewhat 
lower.  Corresponding  with  these  heights  are 
those  of  Khartoum,  at  the  confluence  of  both  Niles, 
in  the  east  (1,210),  and  Timbuktu,  at  the  great 
western  bend  of  the  Niger,  in  the  west  (820).  In 
the  south,  the  plateau  between  the  coast-range 
nnd  Lake  Tanganyika  maintains  a  uniform  eleva¬ 
tion  of  about  4,000  feet.  The  rapid  descent  from 
the  plateau  to  the  northern  plain  is  well  marked 
towards  the  east  of  the  continent  by  the  Somerset 
(Victoria)  Nile,  which  in  the  short  course  of  ninety 
miles  between  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Nyanzas, 
falls  from  3,800  feet,  the  level  of  the  upper,  to 
1,500  feet,  the  level  of  the  lower  lake,  no  less  than 
2,300  feet  altogether. 

The  Atlas  system  of  mountains  (8, 000  to  12,000), 
stretching  in  the  extreme  northwest  between  Cape 
Nun,  over  against  the  Canaries,  and  Cape  Bon, 
over  against  Sicily,  runs  parallel  to  the  Sierra 
Nevada  on  the  opposite  coast,  with  which  it  forms 
a  distinct  physical  region.  Sallust’s  remark  that 
this  part  of  Africa  belonged  physically  to  Europe 
has  been  amply  confirmed  by  modern  research. 
The  Sahara  is  a  vast  elevated  plain,  somewhat 
higher  than  the  Soudan;  in  fact,  the  Sahara  was 
what  the  Soudan  still  is — a  thickly-peopled  land, 
abounding  in  natural  products,  diversified  with 
broad  belts  of  tropical  forests,  arable  tracts,  and 
grassy  steppes,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
and  greater  or  less  abundance  of  moisture. 

In  its  geological  constitution,  Africa  presents 
the  appearance  of  great  stability  and  antiquity. 
Earthquakes  are  confined  mainly  to  the  Atlas, 
which  belongs  physically  rather  to  Europe  than 
to  Africa.  The  lava-fields  of  the  Masai  Plateau 
are  the  most  extensive. 

Apart  from  its  great  rivers,  including  the  his¬ 
torical  Nile,  earliest  seat  of  human  culture,  Africa 
possesses  a  magnificent  equatorial  lake  system, 


elsewhere  unrivaled  except  by  the  great  North 
American  lacustrine  basins.  All  have  been  re¬ 
vealed  to  science  by  English-speaking  explorers 
(Livingstone,  Speke,  Grant,  Burton,  Baker,  Stan¬ 
ley)  since  the  middle  of  this  century.  They  are 
grouped  towards  the  east  side  of  the  continent 
between  15°  S.  and  4°  N.  latitude,  and  all  stand  on 
the  southern  tableland.  Here  are  the  Congo  (Tan¬ 
ganyika,  with  intermittent  outflow  by  the  Lukuga) 
and  the  Nile  (Alexandra  Nyanza,  Victoria  Nyanza, 
Mwutan  Nzigd,  and  Albert  Victoria),  next  to 
Superior  (33,500  square  miles),  the  largest  fresh¬ 
water  basin  (26,600  square  miles)  on  the  globe. 
The  Shimiyu,  another  influent  from  the  south, 
may  be  regarded  as  the  farthest  head-stream  of  the 
Nile,  which  thus  rises  about  5°  S.  latitude,  flow¬ 
ing  thence  northward  to  the  Mediterranean  for 
some  4,300  miles,  a  course  probably  a  few  miles 
longer  than  that  of  the  Missouri-Mississippi,  the 
next  longest  in  the  world.  The  Albert  Nyanza  is 
nearly  2,000  square  miles  in  extent.  The  outflow 
of  Tanganyika  is  westward  through  the  Lukuga, 
at  least  intermittently  to  the  Congo.  This  adds 
considerably  to  the  drainage  area  of  the  Congo, 
which  ranks  next  to  the  Amazon  for  volume,  dis¬ 
charging  probably  as  much  water  as  all  the  other 
African  rivers  together.  The  great  oceanic  and 
inland  hydrographic  systems  of  the  cont  inent  may 
be  tabulated  thus; 

Seaward  Basins—  Area  in  sq.  m. 

Nile . 1,500,000 

Congo . 1 ,350,000 

Niger . 1,150,000 

Zambesi .  850,000 

Orange .  „ .  400,000 

Limpopo .  200,000 

Senegal .  100,000 

Ogoway .  150,000 

Smaller  basins  and  dried-up  areas  of  seaward 
drainage . 3,000,000 

Total  seaward . 8,760,000 

Inland  Basins— 

Tsad . 750,000 

Ngami..,  .  320,000 

Igharghar,  Messawara,  and  other  dried-up 
areas  of  inland  drainage .  1,850,000 

Total  inland . 2,920,000 

Above  all  the  great  divisions  of  the  globe,  Africa 
is  distinguished  by  the  general  uniformity  of  its 
climatic  phenomena,  a  circumstance  due  to  its 
massive  form  and  intertropical  position.  In  the 
region  approaching  nearest  to  the  northern  or 
southern  equinoctial  lines,  rain  falls  throughout 
the  year.  In  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  a  zone  of 
two  wet  seasons  stretches  from  the  equator  to  the 
15°  latitude.  In  summer,  copious  showers  are 
caused  by  the  moisture-bearing  southwest  winds; 
in  winter,  the  northwest  currents  become  in  their 
turn  the  bearers  of  heavy  rain-charged  clouds  to 
the  southern  plateau.  Africa  has  two  almost 
completely  barren  zones  of  rocks,  gravels,  marls, 
clay  and  sand — the  Sahara  and  Libyan  desert  in 
the  north,  Kalahari  and  other  wastes  in  the  south. 
The  general  temperature  has  often  been  exagger¬ 
ated;  that  of  Gambia,  for  instance,  has  been  re¬ 
duced  by  the  Colonial  Official  Report  for  1886  to 
about  70°  Fahr.  for  January,  and  80°  to  82°  for 
July  at  noon.  The  mean  annual  rainfall  ranges 
from  under  four  inches  in  the  Sahara  and  about  ten 
in  the  Kalahari,  to  sixty  and  eighty  about  the  equa¬ 
tor,  and  from  eighty  upwards  on  the  Guinea  coast. 

About  41  per  cent,  of  the  surface  is  said  to  be 
either  desert  or  under  scrub,  or  otherwise  abso¬ 
lutely  waste,  and  35  per  cent,  steppe,  or  nearly 
treeless  grass-grown  savannah,  leaving  only  24  per 
cent,  for  forest  and  arable  lands.  The  continuous 
forest  growths  are  confined  mainly  to  the  vast 
equatorial  region  between  the  Upper  Zambesi  and 
Soudan,  and  to  some  isolated  tracts  about  the 
Abyssinian  Plateau,  in  the  Moroccan  Atlas,  all 
along  the  Guinea  coast,  about  the  Middle  Limpopo 
and  Zambesi,  and  in  parts  of  Masai  Land  and  the 
Upper  Nile  Basin.  From  Sierra  Leone  to  the 
River  Ogoway,  along  the  coast,  the  one  prevailing 
landscape  is  that  of  endless  forest. 

In  the  extreme  north,  African  and  South  Eu¬ 
ropean  species  intermingle  with  some  local  va¬ 
rieties,  and  here  are  found  the  olive,  date,  and 
cork,  with  seven  other  kinds  of  oak,  besides  the 
eucalyptus,  recently  introduced  from  Australia, 
all  flourishing  side  by  side.  The  papyrus  itself, 
whence  the  word  paper,  still  lingers  in  the  Upper 
Nile,  although  in  the  Lower  Nile  the  lotus  and 
other  characteristic  plants  have  been  mostly  re¬ 


placed  by  cereals,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  other 
economic  species.  Beyond  Egypt  the  date  gives 
place  to  the  dum  and  deleb  palms,  wheat  and  rice 
to  durrha;  while  in  the  forest  regions  of  Soudan 
and  Guinea,  the  prevailing  species  are  the  magni¬ 
ficent  baobab  (Adansonia),  the  banana,  butter 
tree,  ebony,  Elceis  Guineensis  or  oil  palm,  which 
yields  the  palm-oil  of  commerce,  the  musanga, 
the  mangrove,  ground-nut,  dragon-tree,  accacias, 
mimosas,  and  other  gum  trees,  succeeded  in  Galla 
and  Somali  Land  by  aromatic  shrubs  and  the 
coffee  shrub,  supposed  to  take  its  name  from  the 
Kaffa  country,  south  of  Abyssinia.  Another 
variety  of  this  shrub  is  indigenous  to  Liberia, 
whence  it  has  lately  been  introduced  into  Ceylon 
and  other  coffee-growing  lands.  Indigenous  to 
Africa  is  also  the  cotton-plant,  which,  like  indigo, 
is  widely  cultivated  in  Egypt  and  Soudan,  and 
which  grows  wild  in  many  places  as  far  north  as 
19°  N.  latitude. 

Africa  is  the  home  of  the  large  fauna,  many  of 
which,  owing  to  the  absence  of  great  central 
mountain  barriers, freely  roam  from  one  end  of  the 
continent  to  the  other,  without  undergoing  any 
special  modification  of  type.  Such,  among  the 
carnivora,  are  the  lion,  the  panther,  and  the  leo¬ 
pard,  but  not  the  tiger,  the  hyena,  fox,  and  jackal. 
The  great  lierbivora  are  represented  by  the  ele¬ 
phant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  buffalo,  the  giraffe,  the 
ostrich,  and  the  hippopotamus,  which,  like  the 
crocodile,  frequents  all  the  large  rivers  and  lakes. 
Africa  is  also  the  home  of  the  gnu,  and  several 
other  species  of  antelope.  The  monkey  family  is 
also  spread  over  the  whole  continent,  where  it  is 
represented  by  numerous  types,  the  dog-faced 
baboon,  the  lemur,  the  colobus,  the  anthropoid 
chimpanzees  and  gorilla  of  the  west  equatorial  dis¬ 
tricts.  Peculiar  also  are  such  equidae  as  the  zebra, 
quagga,  and  pigmy  Mauritanian  ass.  Of  land 
mammals  there  are  about  480  species  peculiar  to 
this  continent,  amongst  which  are  ninety-five  of 
the  simian  and  fifty  of  the  antelope  family. 

Of  birds,  besides  the  ostrich,  are  the  secretary, 
ibis,  guinea-fowl,  weaver-bird,  roller-bird,  love¬ 
bird,  waxbill,  wliydali,  sun-bird,  parrots,  quail, 
and  several  other  indigenous  species.  Reptiles 
and  insects  abound,  comprising  the  huge  python, 
many  poisonous  snakes,  termites,  locusts,  and  two 
little  winged  pests  highly  destructive  to  domestic 
animals — the  tsetse  fly,  fatal  to  the  horse,  camel, 
ox,  and  dog;  and  the  donderobo,  south  of  Kili- 
ma-Njaro,  which  attacks  the  ass,  goat,  and  sheep. 

Recent  authorities  roughly  estimate  the  popula¬ 
tion  of  Africa  at  about  210,000,000,  or  eighteen  to 
the  square  mile,  a  density  five  times  less  than  that  of 
Europe.  Of  the  whole  number,  probably  less 
than  1,000,000  are  recent  immigrants  from  Europe, 
settled  chiefly  in  the  extreme  north  (Egypt  and 
Algeria)  and  in  the  extreme  south  (Cape  Colony, 
Natal,  and  the  Boer  States).  About  34,000,000, 
all  of  Semitic  stock,  are  intruders  from  Asia.  All 
the  rest,  numbering  about  175,000,000  altogether, 
may  be  regarded  as  the  true  aboriginal  element. 

The  distribution  of  the  various  races  inhabiting 
Africa  is  shown  below; 

I.— NEGRO  AJND  NEGROID  PEOPLES. 
Negritos  (Pigmies)—  , 

Bushman  (San) . Kalahari  Desert 

Batwas .  Sankuru  River,  Congo  Basin 

Obongos . Ogoway  Basin 

Akkas . South  Monbuttuland 

Hottentots  (Khoi-Khoin)  — 

Kamaqua .  Great  and  Little  Namaqualand 

Koraqua  . Upper  Orange,  Vaal,  and  Modder  rivers 

Qh'iqua  (half-castes) . Griqualand  West 

Bantus — 

Zulu-Kafirs,  Basutos ,  Bechva- 

nas.'. . South  from  the  Limpopo 

Makua ,  Matebele . Between  Limpojio  and  Zambesi 

Manganja,  Waiyau . Lake  Nyassa 

Barotse ,  Barva,  Balunda . .  Between  Zambesi  and  Congo 

Waswahili ,  Wanika,  Wapokoma . East  Coast 

Waganda,  Wanyamwesi ,  Walegga . Equatorial  Lakes 

Oraherero,  Ovampo ,  Bacongo,  Bateke,  Duallo, West  Coast 
Soudanese  Negroes— 

Kru,  Fanti ,  Ashanti,  Yoruba ,  Nupe . Upper  Guinea 

Mandingan.  Wolof,  Bambara,  Sonrhai — Senegambia 
Haussa ,  Batta ,  Kanuri ,  Baghirmi,  Mosga, 

Kanem . Central  Soudan 

Mala,  Nuba,  Dinka,  Shilluk,  Bari,  Montmttu, 

Zandeh . Eastern  Soudan 

II.— HAMITIC  PEOPLES. 

Mixed  and  Doubtful  Ramites— 

Fans . Ogoway  Basin,  thence  inland 

Fvtahs . West  and  Central  Soudan 

Tibbus . East  Sahara 

Agaus . Abyssinia 

Masai . Masailand 

Fellahin . Egypt 


AFRICANDER. 


20 


AGAVE. 


II.— HAMITIC  rEOPLES.—  Continued. 

True  Hamites— 

l  Shluli . Morocco 

Berbers  -  Mzab,  Kabyle . Algeria,  Tunis 

(  Tuareg . West  Sahara 

Gallos,  Somali,  Afar  (Dandkil)..  Bejas,  North-east  Coast 

III.— SEMITIC  PEOPLES. 

, I  Mauritania,  West  Sahara,  Central  and  West 
Aiabs\  Soudan) 

Himyarites  (Amhara,  Tigre,  Shoa ) . Abyssinia 


The  Northern  Hamites  and  Semites  are  Moham¬ 
medans  and  stock  breeders,  the  southern  Bantus 
nature-worshipers  and  agriculturists;  all  these 
factors  intermingling  in  the  intervening  zone  of 
Soudan.  The  chief  exceptions  to  this  broad  state¬ 
ment  are  the  Christian  Abyssinians  (Monophysite 
sect);  the  Hottentots,  and  the  Algerian  Berbers. 
A  nomad  existence  prevails  in  East  Soudan; 
a  settled,  in  Central  and  West  Soudan.  Through¬ 
out  the  whole  of  this  region  Islam  con¬ 
tinues  to  encroach  on  heathendom;  it  is  now 
firmly  seated  on  the  Upper  Niger  and  Upper 
Senegal;  it  has  already  penetrated  to  various  points 
of  the  Senegambian  and  Guinea  coasts;  it  has 
spread  with  the  conquering  Fulahs  to  the  south¬ 
ern  limits  of  Adamawa,  and  has  crept  down  the 
east  coast  from  Somaliland  to  Zanzibar  and 
Mozambique.  Thus  fully  one-half  of  the  conti¬ 
nent  has  accepted  its  tenets.  Elsewhere,  progress  is 
barred  by  the  all-prevailing  fetichism,  intimately 
associated  as  that  system  is  with  the  baneful  prac¬ 
tice  of  witchcraft.  Cannibalism  also  in  its  most 
repulsive  forms  holds  its  ground  among  the 
Monbuttus,  Zandehs,  and  Fans,  a  central  zone 
of  anthropophagy  apparently  traversing  the  con¬ 
tinent  from  the  west  coast  along  the  equator 
nearly  to  the  great  lakes,  and  stretching  north¬ 
wards  to  the  Upper  Shari  Basin.  Christianity 
has  been  introduced  at  various  points  amongst  the 
Basutos  and  some  other  Southern  Bantus. 

Nearly  a  fourth  of  Africa  is  under  the  control 
of  seven  European  States — Great  Britain,  France, 
Portugal,  Spain,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Turkey. 

Great  Britain  holds:  (1)  Settlements  at  two 
points  of  the  Senegambian  coast  (Gambia  and 
Sierra  Leone),  and  all  along  the  Guinea  coast;  a 
protectorate  over  the  Lower  Niger  and  Benue;  the 
colonies  of  the  Cape  and  Natal,  with  Griqualand 
West,  and  protectorates  over  Basutoland,  Kaffir- 
land,  Pondoland,  and  all  Zululand  except  what 
now  belongs  to  the  Boers,  and  over  the  wdiole  of 
Becliuanaland,  between  the  Boer  States  and  20° 
E.  long,  east  and  west,  with  undefined  northern 
limits  toward  Lake  Ngami;  also  a  protectorate 
(also  by  treaty  with  Germany,  1887,)  over  the  terri¬ 
tory  between  Mount  Kilima-Njaro  and  the  Tana 
(Dana)  river,  giving  permanent  access  from  the 
east  coast  to  Masai  Land  and  the  equatorial  lake 
region.  She  has  also  formally  annexed  Socotra 
(1886),  and  in  the  meantime  holds  military  occu¬ 
pation  of  Egypt. 

France  holds;  (1)  Algeria,  to  which  Tunis  has 
recently  been  practically  annexed,  making  a  com¬ 


pact  territory  between  Morocco  and  Tripolitana, 
stretching  from  the  Mediterranean  southward  to 
about  30  N.  lat.  (2)  The  whole  of  the  Senegal 
Basin.  (3)  The  Gaboon  and  Ogoway  Basins.  (4) 
Obok.on  Bab-el-Mandeb  Strait,  and  Grand  Bassam, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 

Portugal  holds  her  old  possessions  of  Angola  and 
Benguela,  with  a  small  tract  just  north  of  the 
Congo  mouth,  on  the  west  coast,  and  on  the  east, 
Mozambique,  with  dependencies.  Spain  claims 
on  the  mainland  Ceuta,  over  against  Gibraltar; 
a  strip  of  the  northwest  coast  between  Capes 
Bojador  and  Blanco;  Ifni,  near  Cape  Nun,  and 
the  district  of  the  Muni  and  Naya  rivers,  north 
of  the  Gaboon.  Germany,  by  treaties  with 
England,  has  acquired  the  coast  lands  between 
Cape  Frio  and  the  Orange  river  (except  the 
British  territory  of  Walviscli  Bay),  extending 
inland  to  20°  E.  long.  (Becliuanaland);  the 
Cameroons;  and  a  protectorate  over  the  region 
stretching  from  the  Rovuma  river,  west  from 
Zanzibar,  northwards  to  Kilima-Njaro  and  the 
south  end  of  Victoria  Nyanza.  Italy  has, 
since  1884,  occupied  the  Red  Sea  coast  from 
Massowah  southward  to  Assab;  but  her  claim 
to  this  territory  is  disputed  by  Abyssinia,  with 
which  power  she  came  into  collision  early  in 
1887.  Turkey  continues  her  suzerainty  over 
Egypt,  wdiile  retaining  the  Pashalik  of  'Tripo¬ 
litana  with  Fezzan — that  is,  the  Mediterranean 
seaboard  from  Egypt  to  Tunis.  Since  the  revolt 
of  the  Mahdi  in  Eastern  Soudan,  the  Egyptian 
frontier  has  been  withdrawn  to  Wady  Haifa 
(second  cataract  of  the  Nile),  in  Lower  Nubia. 
Thus  the  whole  of  Egyptian  Soudan  southward 
to  the  equator  and  westward  to  Wadai,  reverts, 
at  least  temporarily,  to  the  state  of  barbarism 
which  prevailed  in  this  region  before  its  annex¬ 
ation  to  Egypt.  Lastly,  the  Congo  Free  State, 
under  the  sovereignty  of  Leopold  II.,  king  of 
Belgium,  and  the  joint  protectorate  of  the  Euro¬ 
pean  powers,  comprises  the  Congo  Basin  eastward 
to  Tanganyika,  southward  to  Lake  Bangweolo, 
and  northward  to  about  4°  N.  lat.,  with  a  total 
area  of  over  1,000,000  square  miles. 

Of  the  native  States,  the  most  important  are: 
Morocco,  in  the  extreme  northwest;  the  Abyssinian 
empire;  Wadai,  lietween  Dar-Fur  and  Lake  Tsad; 
the  former  Haussa,  now  Fulah,  States  of  Western 
Soudan;  Dahomey,  the  most  powerful  native  State 
in  Upper  Guinea;  the  sultanate  of  Zanzibar, 
Uganda,  Muata,  and  Matabele.  The  Transvaal 
States  and  Orange  Free  State  are  peopled  mostly 
by  Dutch  Boers. 

The  modern  epoch  of  research  begins  with  Bruce 
in  1770,  and  prior  to  1800  the  African  Association 
sent  out  Ledyard,  Lucas,  Houghton,  and  Mungo 
Park  to  explore  the  Niger  Basin. 

Since  1840  our  knowledge  of  South  Africa  has 
received  many  important  additions  from  the  mis¬ 
sionaries  stationed  there,  especially  Moffat;  while 
Livingstone,  Stanley,  Baker,  Burton,  and  Speke, 
Grant,  and  others,  have  made  the  geography  of 
the  Nile  and  the  Congo  familiar. 

Africander,  or  Afrikander,  is  a  term  for  the 
descendants  of  European  parents  born  in  South 
Africa.  The  Africander-Bond  is  an  association 
which  became  prominent  in  the  Cape  Colony  after 
the  Transvaal  war. 

Afrit,  a  powerful  evil  genie  or  demon  in  Mo¬ 
hammedan  mythology. 

Afzelins,  Adam,  Swedish  botanist,  born  Oct. 
8,  1750.  He  died  in  1837.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Linnaeus,  whose  autobiography  he  edited. 

Ag'  ades,  once  a  very  important  city  of  Central 
Africa,  and  still  a  great  meeting-place  of  trading 
caravans,  is  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Air  or  Ashen, 
south  of  the  Sahara.  Pop.  7,000. 

Agadir,  the  southernmost  seaport  town  in 
Morocco,  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sus,  twenty- 
three  miles  southeast  of  Gliir.  Its  harbor  is  the 
hest  on  the  coast. 

Agalactia,  or  Agalaxy  (Gr.),  a  want  of  the  due 
secretion  of  milk. 

Agamemnon,  son  of  King  Atreus,  and  brother 
of  Menelaus.  AJter  his  father’s  death,  he  reigned 
in  Mycenae,  and  married  Clytaemnestra,  by  whom 
he  had  three  children — Iphigenia,  Eleetra,  and 
Orestes.  Paris,  son  of  the  Trojan  king,  Priam, 
carried  off  Helen,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  whereupon 
Agamemnon  led  the  Greeks  against  Troy,  as 
related  in  the  Iliad.  After  the  fall  of  Troy,  he 


returned  home,  taking  with  him  Cassandra,  the 
daughter  of  Priam.  Shortly  afterward,  he  was 
murdered  by  Clytaemnestra,  aided  by  JEgisthus, 
in  whose  care  he  had  left  his  wife  and  children. 

Ag '  ami,  the  common  name  of  a  genus  of  crane¬ 
like  birds  ( Psophia ),  better  known  as  Trumpeters. 

Agamida},  a  family  of  squat-bodied,  tliick- 
tongued,  terrestrial  lizards,  closely  related  to  the 
Iguanas. 

Agamogenesis,  a  reproduction  without  sex,  a 
process  of  multiplication  by  division,  budding, 
etc.,  in  which  there  is  no  union  of  sexual  ele¬ 
ments,  but  simply  more  or  less  discontinuous 
growth. 

Ag'apae  (Gr.  agape,  love),  were  love-feasts,  or 
feasts  of  charity,  originally  celebrated  by  the 
early  Christians  in  connection  with  the  Lord’s- 
Supper. 

Agapem'one  (Gr.  love-abode),  a  community 
of  religious  visionaries  founded  in  1859  in  Eng¬ 
land,  but  now  broken  up. 

Agar,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  State  of  Gwalior. 
Pop.,  30,000. 

Agar-agar,  the  dried,  sliced  stem  of  a  sea¬ 
weed,  used  in  cookery  under  the  name  of  Bengal 
or  Japan  isinglass. 

Agardli,  Karl  Adolf,  a  Swedish  botanist, 
was  born  Jan.  23,  1785,  and  died  a  bishop 
in  1859.  His  son,  Jakob  Georg,  born  1813, 
became  his  successor  in  the  chair  of  botany  at 
Lund  (1854-1879), and  continued  his  labors  on  the 
algie  in  a  series  of  important  works. 

Agaric  and  Agaricns.  See  Mushroom. 

Agassiz,  Jean  Louise  Rudolph,  was  born  in 
Switzerland,  May  28,  1807,  of  a  French  Protest¬ 
ant  family.  He  studied  at  Bienne,  Lausanne, 
Zurich,  Heidelberg,  and  Munich.  He  had  in¬ 
tended  to  practice  medicine,  but  turned  liis 
attention  to  the  natural  sciences,  and  especially 
ichthyology.  Having  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Humboldt  and  Cuvier,  and  being  provided  with 
funds  by  scientific  friends,  he  thoroughly  ex¬ 
plored  the  continental  rivers  and  lakes,  and  pub¬ 
lished  valuable  monographs  on  fishes  and  fossils. 
The  Universities  of  Munich,  Edinburgh,  and  Dub¬ 
lin  conferred  degrees  upon  him,  and  in  England  he 
met  Buckland,  Owen,  Murchison,  and  other  nat¬ 
uralists  and  geologists.  From  1836  to  1845 
Agassiz  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
Alpine  glaciers,  and  his  writings  upon  the  glacial 
epoch  are  of  standard  value.  In  1846  lie  came  to 
this  country,  where  he  lectured  with  great  success. 
A  scientific  school  was  founded  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  and  Agassiz  became  professor  of  geology 
and  zoology  there,  holding  that  position  until 
his  death,  Dec.  14,  1873.  Meantime  he  pub¬ 
lished  several  volumes  of  Contributions  to  the 
Natural  History  of  the  United  States,  and  made 
a  scientific  expedition  to  Brazil,  an  account  of 
which  he  wrote  in  conjunction  wfith  Mrs.  Agassiz. 
His  last  work  was  the  organization  of  a  school  of 
natural  history  on  the  Island  of  Penekcse.  Alex¬ 
ander,  son  of  Prof.  Aga^ssiz,  is  also  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  naturalist  and  geologist,  and  has  writ¬ 
ten  much  upon  scientific  subjects. 

Ag  ate,  a  mineral  composed  of  layers  of 
quartz,  generally  of  different  varieties  of  colors,, 
intimately  joined  together.  The  composition 
varies  greatly,  but  silica  is  always  predominant, 
usually  with  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron.  Chal¬ 
cedony,  carnelian,  amethyst,  common  quartz, 
jasper,  opal,  and  flint  occur  as  layers  in  agate,, 
and  are  spoken  of  as  kinds  of  agate. 

Ag  atha,  St.,  a  noble  Sicilian  lady  of  great 
beauty,  who  rejected  the  love  of  the  Prefect  Quin- 
tilianus,  and  suffered  a  cruel  martyrdom  in  the 
persecution  of  Christians  under  Decius  (251). 
She  holds  a  high  rank  among  the  saints  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  Her  festival  falls 
Feb.  5. 

Aga'thocles,  Tyrant  of  Syracuse,  was  born 
at  Thermae,  in  Sicily,  in  361  b.  c.  He  was  twice 
driven  into  exile,  but  ultimately  made  himself 
autocrat  of  Syracuse  after  a  massacre  of  several 
thousands  of  citizens,  317  b.  c.  He  was  finally 
assassinated. 

Aga've,  a  genus  of  plants  of  remarkable  and 
beautiful  appearance,  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  of  Amatyllideie.  There  are  a  number  of 
species,  all  na'ives  of  Mexico  and  Central  Amer¬ 
ica.  They  are  often  popularly  confounded  with 
aloes,  and  Agave  Americana  is  generally  known 


AGDE. 


21 


AGRA. 


by  tlie  name  of  American  Aloe  In  Mexico  these 
plants  usually  flower  in  the  seventh  and  eighth, 
sometimes  even  fifth  or  sixth  year,  and  even  in 
poor  soils  or  exposed  situations  seldom  later 


American  Aloe  ( Agave  americana) . 


than  the  twelfth  year,  but  in  liot-houses  not  until 
they  have  reached  a  very  advanced  age  (forty  to 
sixty  years),  whence  arises  the  gardeners’  fable  of 
their  flowering  only  once  in  a  hundred  years. 
After  flowering  the  plant  always  dies  down  to  the 
ground,  but  new  plants  arise  from  lateral  buds. 
The  ancient  Mexicans  employed  the  fibre  of  the 
American  agave  in  the  preparation  of  a  coarse 
kind  of  paper,  and  the  Indians  use  it  for  oakum. 
The  sap,  after  rapid  fermentation,  furnishes  the 
national  beverage  called  pulque.  The  strong 
spirit  of  the  country  ( aguardiente )  is  also  distilled 
from  it. 

Agile,  an  ancient  French  town  in  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  Hdrault,  situated  about  three  miles  from 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Pop.  (1881),  7,728. 

Age  is  used  specially  to  denote  certain  long 
periods  in  the  history  of  the  human  race  or  of 
human  civilization.  Hesiod  mentions  five  ages 
—the  golden,  simple,  and  patriarchal;  the  silver, 
voluptuous,  and  godless;  the  brazen,  war-like, 
wild,  and  violent;  the  heroic,  an  aspiration 
towards  the  better;  the  iron  in  which  justice, 
piety,  and  faithfulness  had  vanished  from  the 
earth, — the  time  in  which  Hesiod  believed  that 
he  himself  lived.  The  golden  age  was  said  to 
be  governed  by  Saturn;  the  silver  by  Jupiter;  the 
brazen  by  Neptune;  and  the  iron  by  Pluto.  The 
Middle  Ages  are  so  called  as  intervening  between 
classical  antiquity  and  modern  times.  The  Dark 
Ages,  nearly  coinciding  in  time,  refer  to  the  period 
of  intellectual  darkness  from  the  decline  of  clas¬ 
sical  learning,  after  the  establishment  of  the  bar¬ 
barians  in  Europe  in  the  fifth  century,  till  the 
Renaissance  in  the  fifth  century. 

Age.  The  legal  divisions  of  human  life,  being 
sometimes  arbitrary,  and  sometimes  founded  on 
nature,  differ  considerably  in  different  countries. 
In  England,  the  whole  period  previous  to  twenty- 
one  years  of  age  is  usually  spoken  of  as  infancy, 
a  term  which  has  a  totally  different  signification 
in  those  countries  that  have  followed  the  civil 
law.  The  age  of  consent  for  a  girl  is  now  sixteen 
years.  Infancy,  generally,  is  for  the  protection 
of  civil  rights.  In  France,  the  marriageable 
age  is  eighteen  in  males,  and  fifteen  in  females. 
Twenty-one  is  generally  the  age  at  which  men  are 
eligible  for  public  offices.  In  this  country,  full 
age  is  the  day  preceding  the  twenty-first  anniver¬ 
sary  of  a  person’s  birth.  All  persons  under  seven 
years  of  age  are  incapable  of  crime;  and  between 
the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  the  legal  presump¬ 
tion  is  that  they  are  not  capable  of  crime,  but  this 
assumption  may  be  rebutted  by  strong  and  clear 
proof  of  a  mischievous  discretion  or  knowledge 
of  the  wrong.  The  presumptions  of  innocence 
cease  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  at  which  time  males 
may  choose  their  own  guardians,  and  at  eighteen 
may  enlist  in  the  army.  Females  are  supposed 
to  arrive  at  discretion  at  twelve  years  of  age,  and 
may  consent  to  marriage,  and  at  fourteen  choose 
their  own  guardians.  In  some  of  the  States  they 
become  of  full  age  at  eighteen.  A  male  may  vote 


at  twenty-one,  be  elected  a  Reprecentative  to  Con¬ 
gress  at  twenty-five,  and  a  Senator  of  the  United 
Slates  at  thirty. 

Agen,  the  chief  town  of  the  French  depart¬ 
ment  of  Lot-et-Garonne,  is  situated  in  a  fertile 
region  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Garonne,  eighty- 
four  miles  southeast  of  Bordeaux.  Pop.  (1881), 
18,743. 

Agent  is  one  who  is  authorized  or  delegated 
lo  transact  business  for  another  (who  in  this  rela¬ 
tion  is  called  his  principal  or  constituent),  in  whose 
place  he  comes,  and  who  is  bound  by  his  acts  in 
the  business  to  which  the  agency  extends.  In 
this  country  an  agency  may  be  created  by  deed 
in  writing,  not  by  deed  or  by  verbal  delegation 
of  authority.  It  may  be  implied  from  the  rela¬ 
tion  and  acts  of  the  parties  and  the  nature  of  the 
employment,  without  any  express  appointment. 
When  the  authority  extends  to  all  acts  connected 
with  a  particular  business,  it  is  called  general;  but 
when  confined  to  a  single  act,  it  is  called  special. 
The  agency  may  terminate  by  revocation  of  the 
power  conferred.  A  person  can  not  act  as  agent 
in  a  transaction  wherein  he  has  an  adverse  interest 
or  employment.  The  death  of  either  principal 
or  agent  terminates  the  ag.  ncy. 

Agent  and  Client.  The  employer  of  a  law- 
ageDt  is  entitled  to  presume  that  he  is  possessed 
of  competent  professional  knowledge,  and  the 
agent  is  consequently  responsible  to  his  client 
for  the  consequences  of  want  of  reasonable  care 
and  skill,  or  gross  ignorance  in  the  conduct  of 
the  business  intrusted  to  him,  as  in  not  duly  nego¬ 
tiating  a  bill,  using  a  wrong  stamp  or  taking  an 
informal  security. 

Agegila  us,  King  of  Sparta  (397-360  b.c.),  was 
one  of  the  most  brilliant  soldiers  of  antiquity. 
He  was  victorious  at  CoronSa  (394  b.c.),  and  in 
the  Theban  war,  though  defeated  at  Mantinea 
(362),  he  bravely  and  ably  defended  his  country. 
He  fought  a  campaign  in  Egypt,  and  died  in  his 
84tli  year. 

Agglomerate,  or  Volcanic  Agglomerate,  is 
a  rock  made  up  of  a  confused  mass  of  angular  and 
subangular  blocks  of  all  sizes.  The  blocks  may 
consist  exclusively  of  igneous  rocks,  or  of  sedi¬ 
mentary  rocks,  or  of  both,  set  in  a  more  or  less 
meagre  matrix  of  finer-grained  detritus  of  the 
same  materials.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin. 

Aglirim,  a  hill  in  Galway,  Ireland,  thirty  miles 
southwest  of  Atlilone.  Here,  on  July  12, 
1691,  Ginkell  defeated  the  French  and  Irish  ad¬ 
herents  of  James  II.,  under  St.  Ruth. 

Agincoart,  now  Azincourt,  a  small  village  in 
the  centre  of  the  French  department  of  Pas-de- 
Calais,  celebrated  for  a  bloody  battle  between  the 
English  and  French,  Oct.  25,  1415. 

A'gio,  an  Italian  word,  is  used  generally  in 
connection  with  continental  exchanges,  to  denote 
the  difference  between  the  real  and  the  nominal 
value  of  money,  or  between  coin  and  paper  money; 
also  the  variations  from  fixed  pars  or  rates  of 
exchange.  It  sometimes  also  corresponds  very 
nearly  to  the  English  word  “  premium.” 

Agis,  the  name  of  several  kings  of  Sparta,  of 
whom  the  most  noted  was  Agis  IV.  He  came  to 
the  throne  in  244  b.  c.,  and  was  put  to  death  by 
strangulation,  241  b.  c. 

Agna'no,  till  1870,  when  it  was  drained,  a 
small  lake  three  miles  west  of  Naples,  about  sixty 
feet  in  depth,  and  without  visible  outlet.  On  the 
right  lies  the  Grotto  del  Cane,  and  on  the  left  are 
found  the  sulphurous  vapor  baths  of  San  Ger- 
mano. 

Agnes,  St.,  according  to  legend,  was  a  beauti¬ 
ful  Roman  Christian,  in  the  time  of  Diocletian, 
who,  having  in  her  thirteenth  year  refused  the 
heathen  son  of  the  praetor,  was  exposed  in  a  public 
brothel.  The  miraculous  growth  of  her  hair,  the 
blinding  of  the  praetor’s  son,  his  restoration  to 
sight,  and  the  refusal  of  the  flames  to  touch  her — 
all  could  not  save  her  from  the  executioner’s 
sword.  Her  festival  falls  on  Jan.  21,  and  her 
symbol  is  a  lamb. 

Agnesi,  Maria  Gaetana,  a  woman  remarkable 
for  her  varied  attainments  in  languages,  mathe¬ 
matics  and  theology,  was  born  at  Milan  in  1718. 
When  her  father  was  disabled  by  infirmity,  she 
took  his  place  as  professor  of  Mathematics  in  the 
University  of  Bologna,  by  the  appointment  of  Pope 
Benedict  XIV.  She  ultimately  entered  a  convent 


at  Milan,  where,  in  1799,  she  died,  at  the  age  of 
eighty-one. 

Agnes  Sorel  was  born  in  Touraine  about  1400 
and  died  in  1450.  She  became  the  mistress  of  the 
imbecile  Charles  VII.  of  France,  by  whom  she  had 
three  children.  Notwithstanding  her  connection 
with  the  King,  she  enjoyed  the  friendship  of  his 
wife,  Marie  of  Anjou,  and  was  beloved  by  the 
people.  It  has  been  alleged  that  she  was  poisoned  by 
order  of  the  Dauphin,  afterward  Louis  XI.,  a  mon¬ 
arch  who  has  been  suspected  of  even  worse  crimes. 

Agnosticism,  a  word  introduced  into  the  Eng¬ 
lish  language  by  Professor  Huxley,  in  1869.  The 
term  was  suggested  to  him  by' the  inscription, 
Agnosto  Theo  (To  an  Unknown  God),  which  the 
apostle  Paul  saw  on  an  Athenian  altar,  as  recorded 
in  Acts  xvii,  23.  It  connotes  the  doctrine  that 
man  does  not  know  anything  about  spiritual 
existences,  whether  divine  or  human,  or  about  a 
future  life.  In  their  reasoning  against  spiritual¬ 
ism,  agnostics  are  careful  to  guard  themselves 
against  the  charge  of  positive  atheism,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  philosophical  materialism  on  the 
other.  They  admit  that  there  is  more  than  matter 
and  force  in  the  universe.  The  phenomena  of 
consciousness  and  mental  activity  can  not,  they 
grant,  be  put  in  the  same  category  with  the  proper¬ 
ties  of  matter.  With  the  former,  they  admit, 
physical  science  can  not  deal.  As  regards  the 
existence  of  a  God,  they  say  that,  having  regard 
to  the  universality  of  the  law  of  causation,  they 
can  not  refuse  to  admit  an  eternal  existence,  and 
that,  in  view  of  the  doctrine  of  the  conservation  of 
energy,  they  must  also  grant  the  possibility  of  an 
eternal  energy.  Owing  to  the  reverence  of  agnos¬ 
tics  for  the  law  of  causation,  they  repudiate  the 
ascription  to  man  of  free-will,  as  ordinarily  under¬ 
stood.  Agnosticism  may  be  regarded  as  positiv¬ 
ism  without  its  dogmatism. 

Agnus  Dei  (Lat.  Lamb  of  God),  one  of  the 
titles  of  Christ  (John  i,  29);  also  the  name  given 
to  a  prayer  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic  service  of 
Mass:  “  O  Lamb  of  God,  that  takest  away  the  sins 
of  the  world,  have  mercy  upon  us.”  The  figure 
of  a  lamb  bearing  a  cross,  stamped  upon  a  disc  of 
wax,  silver,  or  gold,  is  also  styled  an  Agnus  Dei. 
The  lamb  bearing  the  banner  of  the  cross  is  used 
frequently  as  a  symbol  of  Christ. 

Agonic  Line  (Gr.  without  angle)  is  the  line 
of  no  magnetic  variation;  an  irregular  line  passing 
through  the  magnetic  poles  of  the  earth,  along 
which  the  magnetic  needle  points  directly  north 
or  south. 

Ag  ora,  the  public  square  and  market-place  of 
an  ancient  Greek  town,  corresponding  to  the  forum 
of  the  Romans. 

Agoult,  Marie  de  Flavigny,  Comtesse  d’, 
a  French  author  known  under  the  literary  pseu¬ 
donym  of  “  Daniel  Stern,”  was  born  at  Frank¬ 
fort.,  Dec.  31,  1805.  She  married  the  Comte 
d’ Agoult  in  1827,  but  left  him  and  formed  a  con¬ 
nection  with  Liszt.  To  him  she  bore  three 
daughters,  the  eldest  of  whom  married  Emile 
Ollivier;  the  second,  Guy  de  Charnace;  and  the 
third,  first  Hans  von  Bulow,  and  afterwards  Rich¬ 
ard  Wagner.  She  died  in  Paris,  March  5,  1876. 

Agouti  ( Dasyprocea  agouti),  a  small  South 
American 
rodent  al¬ 
lied  to  the 
Guinea 
pig.  The 
agouti 
livesinthe 
forests  of 
G  u  i  a  na, 

B  r  a  z  i  1 , 
and  Peru, 
where  it 

makes  its  Agouti  ( Dasyprocea  agouti) . 

home  at  the  foot  of  trees. 

Agra,  a  city  in  the  northwestern  provinces  of 
India,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna, 
130  miles  southeast  of  Delhi,  and  841  northwest 
of  Calcutta.  Agra  is  the  handsomest  city  in  Upper 
India.  Some  of  the  public  buildings,  monuments 
of  the  house  of  Timur,  are  on  a  scale  of  striking 
magnificence.  Most  celebrated  is  the  Taj  Mahal, 
built  by  the  Emperor  Shah  Jelian  for  himself  and 
his  favorite  wife,  who  died  in  1629.  Twenty  thou¬ 
sand  men  were  employed  incessantly  on  it  for 
twenty-two  years.  It  is  built  principally  of  white 


AGRAM 


99 


AGUAS  CALIENTES. 


marble,  and  the  mosaic  work  of  the  interior  is 
singularly  rich  and  beautiful.  Agra  is  a  very 
important  railway  centre,  and  has  many  claims  to 
be  regarded  as  the  commercial  capital  of  the  North¬ 
west.  Pop.  (1881),  160,203,  of  whom  44,000  are 
Mohammedans. 

This  city  is  held  in  great  veneration  by  the 
Hindus,  as  the  scene  of  the  incarnation  of  Vishnu 
under  the  name  of  Parasu  Rama.  . 

Agram  (Croatian  Zagreb),  capital  of  the  Aus¬ 
trian  province  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  142  miles 
northeast  of  Fiume.  Earthquake  in  Nov.,  1880, 
destroyed  most  of  the  public  buildings,  and  over¬ 
threw  200  houses.  Pop.  (1880),  28,360. 

Agrarian  Laws,  the  land  laws  of  the  ancient 
Romans.  The  French  Convention,  in  1793, 
passed  a  law  punishing  with  death  anyone  who 
should  propose  an  agrarian  law,  understanding  by 
the  term  an  equal  division  of  the  soil  among  all 
citizens.  Heyne,  Savigny,  and  Niebuhr  first  ex¬ 
plained  the  true  nature  and  character  of  the 
Roman  agrarian  laws.  These  laws  were  for  the 
most  part  an  assertion  by  the  State  of  its  right  to 
dispose  of  the  public  lands  for  the  public  good. 
When  new  citizens  were  to  be  admitted,  each  re¬ 
ceived  his  portion  out  of  the  unallotted  public 
domain. 

Agri'cola,  Cn^eus  Julius,  was  born  at  Forum 
Julii  (now  Frtqus  in  Provence),  37  a.d.  In  77 
a.d.  lie  was  elected  Consul,  and  in  the  following 
year  proceeded  as  Governor  to  Britain — the  scene 
of  his  military  and  civil  administration  during 
the  next  seven  years.  He  was  the  first  Roman 
general  who  effectually  subdued  the  island. 
Among  the  works  executed  by  Agricola  during 
his  administration  was  a  chain  of  forts  between 
the  Clyde  and  Forth.  He  died  in  93  a.d. 

Agricola,  Johann  (originally  Schnitter  or 
Schneider,  called  also  Magister  Islebius  from  his 
birthplace),  born  1492,  was  one  of  the  most  zeal¬ 
ous  founders  of  Protestantism,  and  was  sent  in 
1525  by  Luther  to  Frankfort  to  institute  the  Prot¬ 
estant  worship  there.  He  died  at  Berlin  in  1566. 

Agricola,  Rudolpiius,  the  foremost  scholar  of 
the  “New  Learning”  in  Germany,  was  born 
(1443)  near  Groningen,  in  Friesland.  He  estab¬ 
lished  himself  in  the  Palatinate,  where  he  so¬ 
journed  alternately  at  Heidelberg  and  Worms, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  as  a  lecturer, 
musician,  and  painter.  He  died  at  Heidelberg 
Oct.  28,  1485.  See  Tresling’s  Vita  et  Merita  11. 
Agricolce  (Gron.  18301. 

Agricultural  Chemistry  is  the  study  of 
plants,  animals,  and  organic  substances,  in  their 
relation  to  agriculture.  The  composition  of  the 
soil  and  the  best  methods  of  renewing  its  fertility, 
the  adaptability  of  certain  plants  to  certain  locali¬ 
ties,  and  the  chemical  constituents  of  fertilizing 
.bodies,  all  come  under  this  heading.  Of  late 
years  the  necessity  of  scientific  instruction  for 
those  engaged  in  agriculture  has  been  recognized 
by  the  establishment  of  colleges  and  training- 
schools,  and  prominent  investigators,  notably 
Liebig,  have  devoted  much  time  to  the  study  of 
the  chemistry  of  agriculture. 

Agriculture  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  arts, 
and  the  term  is  applied  to  the  practical  business 
of  the  farm  in  all  its  details.  Primitive  man, 
originally  living  by  the  chase,  and  supplementing 
his  rude  diet  of  meat  or  fish  by  such  edible  roots 
and  fruits  as  he  could  find,  must  have,  in  a  very 
early  age,  recognized  the  necessity  of  cultivating 
the  more  desirable  species  of  plants  in  order  to 
provide  a  store  in  case  of  scarcity.  Emerging 
from  a  savage  state,  he  became  a  nomadic  wan¬ 
derer  possessed  of  flocks  and  herds.  The  inclem¬ 
ency  of  certain  seasons  must  again  have  impressed 
upon  him  the  truth  that  for  the  preservation  of 
his  cattle  he  must  cultivate  the  necessary  grasses 
and  roots  and  store  them.  Thus  lie  settled  down 
by  river  banks  and  on  fertile  soil  and  with  rude 
implements  began  his  allotted  toil.  He  found 
that  certain  plants  produced  seeds,  which,  if 
imbedded  in  the  soil  at  proper  times,  brought 
forth  an  hundredfold.  Soon  he  learned  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  the  seasons  for  planting,  the  necessity  of 
tillage,  and  the  application  of  moisture  in  dry 
summers,  and  thus  he  became  a  farmer. 

From  the  earliest  records  of  the  Hebrew  race, 
the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Babylon  and  Chal¬ 
dea,  and  the  hieroglyphical  records  of  Egypt,  we 
learn  something  of  the  remote  antiquity  of  agri¬ 


culture.  The  plow,  formed  of  the  forks  of  a 
tree,  and  drawn  through  the  earth  by  oxen  with 
harness  of  the  crudest  character,  was  probably 
the  first  implement  used  in  agriculture;  the  seed 
was  sown  broadcast,  and  the  reaping  may  have 
been  done  with  knives  of  flint.  But  at  a  very 
early  date  in  the  civilization  both  of  Egypt  and 
of  China  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  was  carried 
on  in  a  systematic  and  even  a  scientific  manner. 
These  peoples  understood  the  art  of  manuring 
and  of  irrigation,  the  value  of  the  system  of  rota¬ 
tion  of  crops,  and  the  necessity  of  careful  tillage 
and  of  drainage.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that 
in  the  days  of  the  earliest  Pharaohs  the  Valley  of 
the  Nile  was  as  well  tilled  as  are  the  hop-gardens 
of  Kent  and  the  vineyards  of  France  to-day, 
and  that  the  fertile  lands  of  China  produced, 
under  the  patient  care  of  its  people,  two  thousand 
years  before  Confucius  preached,  crops  of  grain 
not  to  be  equaled  by  the  most  favored  soils  of 
the  Western  prairie  to-day. 

The  early  settlers  of  the  United  States,  landing 
as  they  did  in  a  part  of  the  country  not  the  most 
favorable  to  the  development  of  agriculture,  were 
confronted  by  many  difficulties,  and  for  a  time 
made  slow  progress.  But  as  they  pressed  forth 
into  the  wilderness  and  came  into  possession  of 
more  fertile  lands  and  under  the  influence  of 
kindlier  skies  their  progress  became  more  rapid. 
Now  the  United  States  stands  preeminent  above 
all  nations  in  the  magnitude  and  variety  of  its 
agricultural  development.  It  is  the  granary  of 
the  world  as  well  as  the  greatest  source  of  its  sup¬ 
ply  of  cattle.  It  alone  of  all  lands  can  feed 
its  own  people  from  its  own  soil  and  have  hun¬ 
dreds  of  millions  of  bushels  of  grain  and  millions 
of  cattle  to  spare  for  other  less  favored  countries. 
Some  idea  of  the  immense  productiveness  of  the 
United  States  can  be  given  by  statistics,  and  those 
of  1886-87  are  appended: 


Value  op  Products  op  American  Agriculture  in  1886, 
and  of  the  Proportion  Exported  in  the  Fiscal 
Year  1886- "87. 


Products. 

Production 
(farm  value)- 

Exportation 
(farm  value) . 

Per  cent. 

Breadstuffs: 

Corn . 

$510, SI], 000 
314,226,020 
186,137,930 
31,840,510 
13,181,330 
6,465,120 
5,000,000 

$11,790,046 

87,668,833 

343,659 

691,809 

197,687 

1.9 

27.9 

.2 

2.2 
i.  5 

Rice . 

Total . 

26,284 

.5 

$1,167,161,910 

$100,718,318 

 8  6 

$748,000,000 
186.0004  00 
93.000  000 

$62,522,185 

71,176 

825,902 

8  4 

Poultry  products. 
Hides,  hair,  etc 
Dairy  products: 
Butter . 

<) 

$192,000,0)  0 
32,000,000 
156,000,000 

$1,497,7  73 
6,455,438 
181,279 

.8 

20-2 

1 

Cheese . 

Milk . 

Total . 

$380,000,000 

$8,124,400 

2.1 

Textile  fibres: 

$257,295,327 

77,000,000 

9,000,000 

$177,895,501 

70,202 

69.1 

.1 

Wool . 

Hemp,  flax, etc. 

Total . 

$343,295,327 

$177,965,703 

51.8 

Chief  among  the  advantages  which  the  Ameri¬ 
can  farmer  has  over  his  predecessors  in  the  art  of 
agriculture,  and  to  a  large  extent  over  the  farm¬ 
ers  of  other  countries  to-day,  is  the  superiority  of 
the  means  employed  in  cultivation.  The  adap¬ 
tation  of  machinery  to  the  varied  work  of  plowing, 
reaping,  harvesting,  and  other  operations  of  the 
farm  has,  within  the  past  half  century,  been 
wonderfully  developed.  He  has  also  a  fertile  soil 
and  a  variety  of  climate  and  of  possible  produc¬ 
tions  unknown  elsewhere.  Between  the  Canada 
border  and  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 
cereals  and  grasses  of  the  temperate  zone  blend 
with  the  fruits  and  food-products  of  the  sub¬ 
tropics.  The  hardy  barley,  oats  and  wheat  of  the 
North;  the  teeming  corn-fields  of  the  centre;  the 
cotton  of  the  Southern  States  are  all  for  him. 
Chemistry,  in  its  application  to  agriculture,  has 
taught  him  much.  Forestry  and  fruit-culture, 
the  rotation  of  crops,  the  application  of  proper 
manures,  the  drainage  of  wet  lands,  and  the  irri¬ 
gation  of  such  as  are  insufficiently  supplied  with 
natural  moisture,  have  developed  his  opportuni¬ 
ties,  turned  the  desert  and  the  wilderness  into  a 


garden,  and  placed  the  American  agriculturist 
to-day  foremost  in  the  ranks  of  those  who  claim 
from  Mother  Earth  the  bounteous  harvest  which 
she  never  denies  to  well-directed  toil. 

Agrigeutum  (Gr.  Akragas),  the  modern  Gir- 
genti,  a  town  on  the  south  coast  of  Sicily.  About 
the  end  of  the  5th  century  b.c.,  it  is  said  to  have 
contained  200,000  inhabitants;  and  its  territory 
extended  across  Sicily.  It  was  utterly  demolished 
by  the  Carthaginians  (405  b.c.),  and  never  re¬ 
covered  its  importance.  During  the  Punic  wars, 
it  submitted  to  the  Romans.  The  modern  Gir- 
genti  stills  shows  numerous  and  splendid  ruins,  of 
which  the  best  preserved  is  the  temple  of  Concord. 

Ag  rimony  ( Agrimonia ),  a  genus  of  Rosacea?, 
sub-order  Po- 
tentillese.  The 
Common  Agri¬ 
mony  (Agri¬ 
monia  evpa- 
toria)  is  a  na¬ 
tive  of  Britain 
and  other  parts 
of  Europe, 
growing  in 
borders  of 
fields,  on  way- 
sides,  etc. 

Very  similar 
to  this  is  A. 
parviflora,  a 
native  of  the 
United  States. 

It  has  a  very  Common  Agrimony  (Agrimonia  evpa- 
agreeable  fra-  toria) . 

grance.  A.  incisa  is  common  in  the  Southern  At¬ 
lantic  States.  Agrimony  is  a  favorite  domestic 
medicine. 

Agrippa,  Cornelius,  a  cabalistic  philosopher, 
born  at  Cologne  (I486),  was  educated  at  the  uni¬ 
versity  there,  and  early  entered  the  service  of  the 
Emperor  Maximilian.  He  served  as  a  soldier, 
and  afterward  studied  law  and  medicine.  He  is 
best  known  as  an  alchemist,  and  was  accounted  a 
magician  by  the  vulgar  and  persecuted  as  such, 
lie  died  in  1535. 

Agrippa,  M.  Vipsanius  (63-12  b.c.),  a  Roman 
who  commanded  the  fleet  in  the  battle  of  Actium 
(31  b.c.),  and  did  good  service  in  Gaul,  Spain, 
Syria,  and  Pannonia. 

Agrippina.  (1)  The  daughter  of  M.  Vipsan- 
ius  Agrippa  and  Julia,  daughter  of  Augustus. 
She  married  Germanicus,  and  accompanied  him  in 
his  campaigns,  and  on  his  sudden  and  suspicious 
death  in  Asia,  carried  his  ashes  to  Rome.  The 
esteem  in  which  she  was  held  by  the  people  made 
her  hateful  to  Tiberius,  and  in  30  a.d.  he  ban¬ 
ished  her  to  the  island  of  Pandataria,  where  she 
died  by  voluntary  starvation  three  years  later. 
There  are  four  fine  portrait-busts  of  her  at  Dres¬ 
den;  and  that  in  the  museum  of  the  Capitol  at 
Rome  is  one  of  the  masterpieces  of  Roman  sculp¬ 
ture.  (2)  Her  daughter,  Agrippina,  was  one  of 
the  most  detestable  women  that  have  lived.  She 
was  born  at  Cologne,  hence  called  Colonia  Agrip¬ 
pina.  She  first  married  Cn.  Domitius  Ahenobar- 
bus,  by  whom  she  had  a  son,  afterwards  the  Em¬ 
peror  Nero.  Her  third  husband  wTas  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  though  her  owrn  uncle.  She  soon  per¬ 
suaded  him  to  adopt  as  his  successor  her  son  Nero, 
to  the  exclusion  of  Britannicus,  his  own  son  by 
his  former  wife,  Messalina.  She  then  proceeded 
to  remove  by  poison  all  his  rivals  and  enemies, 
and  finally  the  Emperor  himself.  Her  ascendancy 
proving  intolerable,  Nero  caused  her  to  be  put  to 
death  in  59  a.d. 

Agtelek,  a  Hungarian  village  to  the  north¬ 
east  of  Pesth,  near  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
remarkable  stalactitic  caverns  of  Europe.  The 
cavity  opens  at  the  foot  of  a  limestone  mountain 
with  an  entrance  scarcely  31  feet  high  by  5  feet 
wide.  It  consists  of  a  labyrinth  of  caverns  com¬ 
municating  with  one  another,  many  of  which  it  is 
difficult,  and  even  dangerous,  to  explore  when  the 
subterranean  streams  that  flow  through  them  are 
high.  Numerous  stalactitic  structures  occur  in  all 
the  caverns. 

Aguas  Calientes,  a  town  of  Mexico,  capital 
of  a  central  State  named  after  it,  with  an  area  of 
2,900  square  miles,  stands  on  a  plain  6,000  feet  above 
the  sea  level,  270  miles  northwest  of  the  City  of 
Mexico.  Pop.  (1882),  22,000. 


AGUE. 


23 


AINSWORTH. 


Ague  (Feb  r  is  intermittent)  is  the  common  name 
for  an  intermittent  fever  accompanied  by  par¬ 
oxysms  or  fits.  Each  fit  is  composed  of  three  stages 
— the  cold,  the  hot,  and  the  sweating  stage.  These 
paroxysms  recur  at  regular  intervals.  The  interval 
between  them  is  called  an  intermission.  When 
they  occur  every  day,  the  patient  has  quotidian. 
ague;  every  second  day,  tertian;  and  when  they 
are  absent  for  two  days,  quartan.  There  is  a  double 
quotidian  in  which  two  paroxysms  occur  daily; 
in  the  double  tertian  there  is  a  daily  attack,  but 
the  paroxysms  of  successive  days  differ  in  some 
respects,  while  those  of  alternate  days  agree  in 
character.  Quintan,  sextan,  heptan,  and  octan 
cases  are  extremely  rare.  AH  ages  are  liable  to 
this  disease. 

The  exciting  causes  of  this  disease  are  unknown, 
but  are  thought  by  some  to  be  effluvia  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth  (marsh  miasmata).  It  does  not 
exist  within  the  arctic  circle,  nor  does  it  appear  in 
the  cold  seasons  of  temperate  climates,  and  seldom 
beyond  the  56°  N.  lat.  It  also  requires  moisture. 
In  England,  ague  is  almost  exclusively  confined 
to  the  eastern  coast;  and  the  extension  of  drainage 
has  rendered  agues  far  more  rare  than  before. 
James  I.  and  Oliver  Cromwell  died  of  ague  con¬ 
tracted  in  London.  The  Pontine  Marshes  to  the 
south  of  Rome  have  long  been  notorious  as  a 
source  of  aguish  fevers.  Peat  bog,  or  moss,  is  not 
productive  of  malaria,  as  is  seen  in  parts  of  Ire¬ 
land  and  Scotland.  Neither  is  ague  ever  seen 
among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Dismal  Swamp — a 
moist  tract  of  150,000  acres  on  the  frontiers  of 
Virginia  and  North  Carolina. 

Aguessean,  Henri  Francois  d’,  was  born  at 
Limoges  in  1668.  During  the  regency  of  the 
Duke  of  Oreans  he  became  Chancellor  of  France; 
but  in  1718  he  fell  into  disgrace  by  opposing 
Law’s  fatal  system  of  finance.  In  1720  he  was 
reinstated,  in  1722  he  was  again  dismissed,  and 
did  not  resume  the  office  of  Chancellor  till  1737. 
He  resigned  in  1750,  and  died  Feb.  9,  1751. 

Aguilar,  Grace,  was  born  of  Jewish  parent¬ 
age  at  Hackney,  near  London,  in  1816,  and  from 
1828  lived  in  Devonshire.  She  died  on  Sep.  16, 
1847,  at  Frankfort.  She  wrote  several  graceful 
fictions. 

Aguilar  de  la  Fronte'ra,  a  Spanish  town  of 
Andalusia,  twenty-six  miles  south-southeast  of 
Cordova.  Pop.,  11,712. 

Aguilas,  a  fortified  port  in  the  Spanish  prov¬ 
ince  of  Murcia.  Pop.,  8,947. 

Agul  lias.  Cape,  the  most  southern  point  of 
Africa,  lies  about  one  hundred  miles  east-south¬ 
east  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  latitude  34° 
49'  S.,  longitude  20°  0 '  40  '  E.  The  point  is 
very  dangerous  for  ships.  Agulhas  (Portuguese) 
means  “needles.” 

Agustina,  the  maid  of  Saragossa,  a  peasant 
girl,  who  during  the  siege  of  her  native  town  by 
the  French  in  1809,  distinguished  herself  by  her 
bravely.  It  is  said  that  when  her  lover  fell  while 
trimming  his  cannon,  she  snatched  the  match 
from  his  dying  hand  and  fired  the  piece.  She 
was  much  honored  by  the  Government  and  people, 
and  is  immortalized  by  Byron  in  (Jhilde  Harold. 

Ahab,  son  and  successor  of  Omri,  was  king  of 
Israel  from  918  to  896  b.c.  He  married  Jezebel, 
the  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  king  of  Sidon.  Through 
his  wife’s  influence  the  Phoenician  worship  of 
Baal  was  introduced,  and  the  priests  and  prophets 
of  Jehovah  cruelly  persecuted.  Ahab  was  killed 
in  battle,  and  his  whole  family  wras  afterward  ex¬ 
tirpated  under  Jehu. 

Ahasue'rus  is  the  name,  or  rather,  perhaps, 
the  title,  by  which  several  kings  of  Media  and 
Persia  are  mentioned  in  Scripture.  The  best 
known  of  these  is  Esther’s  husband,  who  is  prob¬ 
ably  the  same  as  the  Persian  King  Xerxes.  Alias- 
uerus  is  also,  according  to  the  tradition,  the  name 
of  the  Wandering  Jew. 

Ahaz,  king  of  Judah  from  741  to  725  b.c. 
Being  pressed  hard  by  the  Edomites  and  Philis¬ 
tines,  and  by  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Damascus, 
he  called  to  his  aid  the  Assyrian  king,  Tiglath 
Pileser,  sending  him,  as  the  price  of  his  help,  all 
the  treasures  of  the  temple  and  the  palace.  Tig- 
lath  Pileser  beat  off  his  enemies,  but  forced  Ahaz 
himself  to  do  him  homage  at  Damascus,  and  to 
pay  him  tribute. 

Ahlquist,  August  Engelbert,  Finnish  phi¬ 
lologist,  was  born  Aug.  7,  1826;  studied  phi¬ 


losophy  and  philology  at  Helsingfors;  traveled 
through  Northern  Russia  and  Siberia  (1853-58), 
and  became  Professor  of  Finnish  in  the  University 
of  Helsingfors.  He  has  published  several  poems 
and  other  works  in  Finnish. 

Ahmedabad '  (better  Ahmadabad),  chief  town 
of  a  district  in  Guzerat,  second  amongst  the 
cities  of  the  Province  of  Bombay,  was  built  in 
the  year  1412  by  Ahmed  Shah,  and  finally  came 
under  the  power  of  the  British  in  1818.  It  was 
formerly  one  of  the  largest  and  most  magnificent 
cities  in  the  East,  and  last  century  had  a  pop¬ 
ulation  of  900,000.  Now  it  has  not  more  than 
130.000. 

Alimednagar  (Alnnadnagar),  a  town  of  the 
province  of  Bombay,  is  the  third  city  of  the 
Deccan.  It  was  founded  in  1494  by  Ahmed 
Nizam  Shah.  In  1797  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  Mahrattas,  and  in  1817  became  British.  Pop. 
(1881),  37,492. 

Ahmedpur',  a  meanly-built  town  of  India,  in 
the  native  State  of  Bahawalpur.  Estimated  pop., 
30,000. 

Ahmed  Shah,  the  first  monarch  of  Afghanis¬ 
tan,  born  about  1724,  was  the  son  of  Seman  Khan, 
chief  of  the  Abdali  tribe.  He  served  in  the 
bodyguard  of  Nadir  Shah,  and  on  his  assassina¬ 
tion,  retired  to  Afghanistan,  where  he  induced  the 
native  tribes  to  revolt  and  to  choose  him  sovereign. 
On  his  death,  in  1773,  he  left  to  his  son,  Timur, 
an  empire  which  reached  from  Khorasan  to  Sir- 
hind,  and  from  the  Oxus  to  the  Indian  Sea, 

Alin,  Johann  Franz,  educationist,  was  born 
at  Aix-la-Cliapelle  in  1796,  and  died  Aug.  21, 
1865.  His  French  Grammar  for  Germans  (1834) 
has  gone  through  more  than  200  editions,  and 
was  succeeded  by  similar  works  on  English, 
Italian,  and  Dutch. 

Ah  'riman  (Zend,  anro  mainyus,  dark  spirit), 
the  evil  principle,  opposed  to  Oruiuzd,  in  the 
dualism  of  later  Zoroastrianism 

Aidan,  St.,  the  founder  of  the  Northumbrian 
Church,  was  sent  from  Iona  in  635,  in  answer  to 
King  Oswald’s  summons,  to  become  the  Bishop 
of  Northumbria.  He  established  himself  in  the 
Island  of  Lindisfarne,  and,  thence  making  mis¬ 
sionary  journeys  to  the  mainland,  achieved  a 
great  work,  in  spite  of  the  ravages  of  Penda,  the 
heathen  ruler  of  Mercia.  He  died  in  651. 

Aide,  Hamilton,  English  poet  and  novelist, 
was  born  in  1830  at  Paris,  the  son  of  an  Arme¬ 
nian  and  of  a  daughter  of  Admiral  Sir  George 
Collier.  He  served  seven  years  in  the  British 
army,  and  then,  settling  down  in  the  New  Forest, 
devoted  himself  to  literature. 

Aide-de-Camp,  an  officer  attached  to  the  per¬ 
sonal  staff  of  a  general  officer.  He  carries  all 
orders  on  the  field  of  battle,  and,  when  thus  act¬ 
ing  as  the  mouthpiece  of  the  general,  is  to  be 
implicitly  obeyed ;  the  importance  of  clearness  and 
accuracy  is  therefore  manifest.  In  the  United 
States  army  a  lieutenant-general  is  allowed  two 
aides  and  a  military  secretary,  with  the  rank  and 
pay  of  lieutenant-colonel;  three  and  two  aides 
respectively  are  allotted  to  major-generals  and 
brigadiers,  selected  in  the  former  case  from  cap¬ 
tains  and  lieutenants,  in  the  latter  from  lieuten¬ 
ants  in  the  army,  but  with  no  additional  rank 
attached  to  their  position. 

Aidin  (Guzel  Ilissar),  a  town  of  Western  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  river  Meander,  is  the  capital  of  a 
province,  and  was  built  out  of  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Tralles.  Pop.,  about  30,000. 

Aigrette,  is  the  French  name  of  the  bird  known 
in  England  as  Egret,  the  lesser  white  heron. 
Hence  the  term  came  to  be  used  for  its  feathery 
crest,  for  feathers  in  a  lady’s  head-dress,  and  more 
loosely  for  any  head  dress  like  a  plume,  a  bouquet 
of  flowers,  or  an  ornament  of  precious  stones. 

Aigui'lle  (Fr.  needle),  an  instrument  used  by 
military  engineers  to  pierce  a  rock  for  the  recep¬ 
tion  of  gunpowder  when  any  blasting  or  blowing- 
up  is  to  be  effected .  The  word  is  also  used  of  the 
needle-like  peaks  or  summits  of  mountains,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  Alps. 

Aikin,  John,  son  of  a  Unitarian  tutor,  was 
born  Jan.  15,  1747,  and  after  studying  at  Edin¬ 
burgh  and  London,  took  his  M.  D.  degree  at 
Leyden  University  (1780).  He  practiced  in  Ches¬ 
ter,  Warrington,  Yarmouth,  and  London,  but  in 
1798  retired  to  Stoke-Newington,  where  he  died 
Dec.  7,  1822.  He  was  a  voluminous  author,  and 


wrote  Evenings  at  Home  (6  vols ,  1792-95),  in 
conjunction  with  his  sister,  Mrs.  Barbauld.  His 
daughter,  Lucy  Aikin,  was  born  Nov.  6,  1781, 
and  died  Jan.  29,  1864.  She  was  author  of  several 
memoirs  and  short  stories. 

Aikman,  William,  Scottish  portrait  painter, 
was  born  at  Cairnie,  Aberdeenshire,  in  1682,  and 
died  in  London  in  June,  1731. 

Ailanto  or  Ailantus  (Ailanthus  glandulosa,  the 
tree  of  heaven),  a  lofty  and  beautiful  tree,  of  the 
natural  order  Simarubacea;,  a  sub-order  of  Rut- 
aceie,  native  of  Southeastern  Asia,  was  brought 
from  China  in  1751,  and  isnow  frequently  planted 
to  shade  public  walks  in  France  and  Italy.  It 
has  also  been  introduced  into  the  United  States. 

Ailsa  Craig,  a  rocky  islet  of  Ayrshire.  Ris¬ 
ing  abruptly  out  of  the  sea  to  the  height  of  1114 
feet,  it  forms  a  most  striking  object.  It  is  about 
two  miles  in  circumference,  and  is  accessible  only 
at  one  point,  where  the  accumulation  of  debris 
has  formed  a  rough  beach.  On  the  northwest 
perpendicular  cliffs  rise  to  the  height  of  from  20(> 
to  300  feet;  on  the  other  sides  the  Craig  descends 
to  the  sea  with  a  steep  slope.  Till  the  erection  of 
a  lighthouse  (1883-86)  the  only  inhabitants  were 
goats,  rabbits,  and  wild  fowl;  solan  geese,  in  par¬ 
ticular,  breeding  in  the  cliffs  in  countless  numbers. 

Aimard,  Gustave,  the  French  Fenimore 
Cooper,  was  born  in  Paris,  Sep.  13,  1818, 
and  shipping  as  a  cabin-boy  to  America,  spent 
those  ten  years  of  adventure  in  Arkansas  and 
Mexico  which  furnished  the  themes  of  most  of 
his  novels.  He  traveled  also  in  Spain,  Turkey, 
and  the  Caucasus;  in  Paris  served  as  an  officer  of 
the  Gaide  Mobile  (1848);  organized  the  Franc- 
tireurs  dela  Presse  against  the  Germans  (1870-71); 
and,  after  some  years’  confinement  in  an  asylum, 
died  June  20,  1883.  Of  his  very  numerous  novels, 
published  between  1858  and  1878,  twenty-six  have 
been  translated  into  English. 

Aimon  or  Aymon,  the  four  sons  of,  were  the 
heroes  of  an  early  French  romance,  which  was 
translated  by  Caxton,  and  utilized  by  German 
and  Italian  authors,  notably  by  Ariosto. 

Ain,  a  French  river  rising  in  the  mountains  of 
Jura  and  falling  into  the  Rhone,  eighteen  miles 
above  Lyons. 

Ain,  an  eastern  department  of  France,  sepa¬ 
rated  from  Savoy  by  the  Rhone.  Area,  2,239 
square  miles.  Theyeastern  part  is  mountainous, 
with  summits  5,000  to  6,500  feet,  high.  Pop. 
(1886),  364,408. 

Ainmiller,  Max  Emanuel,  glass  painter,  was 
born  at  Munich  in  1807.  He  began  the  study  of 
architecture,  but  afterwards  entered  the  royal 
porcelain  manufactory  as  decorator,  and  succeeded 
in  overcoming  the  technical  difficulties  in  the  exe¬ 
cution  of  glass-painting.  He  died  at  Munich, 
Dec.  8,  1870. 

Ainos,  a  race  who  were  probably  the  first 
inhabitants  of  Japan,  but  who  now  are  reduced 
to  about  15,000,  confined  chiefly  to  the  islands  of 
Yesso  and  Sakhalin.  They  are  short  in  stature, 
but  strongly  built,  and  the  bodies  of  many  are 
covered  with  short,  bristly  hair.  They  speak  a 
language  distinct  from  Japanese,  and  appear  to 
be  rapidly  dying  out. 

Ainsworth,  Robert,  lexicographer,  was  born 
at  Woodvale,  near  Manchester,  in  1660.  In  1714 
he  commenced  his  Dictionary  (Latin-Englisli  and 
English-Latin),  which,  however,  was  not  published 
until  1736.  He  died  in  London,  April  4,  1743. 

Ainsworth,  William  Francis,  an  English 
physician,  geologist  and  traveller,  was  born  at 
Exeter  in  1807.  In  1832-33  he  did  good  service 
against  the  cholera;  in  1835  he  was  attached  as 
physician  and  geologist  to  the  Euphrates  expedi¬ 
tion  under  Colonel  Chesney,  and  returned  home 
in  1837  through  Kurdistan,  the  Taurus,  and  Asia 
Minor.  In  1838-41  he  visited  the  East  with 
Rassam  and  Russell.  He  has  written  several 
books  of  travel,  and  is  a  member  of  many  learned 
societies. 

Ainsworth,  William  Harrison,  was  born 
Feb.  4,  1805.  He  had  contributed  some  articles 
to  magazines  prior  to  1822,  but  his  earliest 
hi*  was  Iiookicood  (1834),  with  its  vivid  descrip¬ 
tion  of  Dick  Turpin’s  ride  to  York.  By  1881  he 
had  published  no  fewer  than  thirty-nine  novels, 
seven  of  which  were  illustrated  by  Cruikshank — 
xiz,.,  Rookwood,  Jack  Sheppard  ( 1 839),  Tower  of  Lon¬ 
don  (1840),  Guy  Fawkes  (1841),  Miser’s  Daughter 


AIR. 


24 


AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 


(1842),  Windsor  Castle  (1843),  and  St.  James’s  (1844) 
He- also  wrote  Crichton  ( 1837),  Old  St.  Paul’s  (1841), 
and  Lancashire  Witches  (1848).  He  died  at  Rei- 
gate,  Jan.  3,  1882. 

Air,  or  Asben,  an  oasis-kingdom  in  tlie  north 
of  the  Soudan.  Agades  is  the  capital. 

Air  is  the  name  given  to  that  compound  of 
gases  constituting  the  substance  of  our  atmosphere. 
Formerly,  all  aeriform  fluids  were  called  ‘ '  airs  ” 
(oxygen  being  called  dephlogisticated  air),  but  in 
this  sense  the  word  “gas”  is  now  used. 

Air-beds,  Cushions,  and  Pillows.  An 
inflated  bladder  explains  the  nature  of  these.  Air- 
cushions,  or  half-beds,  pillows,  and  traveling- 
cushions,  differ  only  in  shape  and  size.  They 
were  first  made  at  a  moderate  price  after  the  intro¬ 
duction  of  Mackintosh  cloth,  an  air-tight  fabric 
consisting  of  two  pieces  of  cloth  united  by  an 
interposed  layer  of  india-rubber  spread  on  in 
solution.  They  are  still  made  in  essentially  the 
same  way,  a  thin  sheet  of  vulcanized  rubber  being 
placed  between  the  two  layers  of  cloth,  and  the 
whole  made  into  one  fabric  by  pressure.  When 
they  are  inflated,  either  by  the  mouth  or  by  a  pair 
of  bellows,  a  screw  stop-cock  prevents  the  escape 
of  air.  Air-beds  and  pillows  are  valuable  in  cases 
of  sickness,  but  are  not  so  lasting  or  so  comfort¬ 
able  as  water-beds  and  water-pillows,  which  are 
formed  of  thicker  material,  consisting  entirely  of 
vulcanized  india-rubber. 

Air-bladder,  or  Swimming-bladder,  a  sac 
pushed  out  from  the  alimentary  canal  of  fishes, 
and  discharging  a  respiratory  or  a  hydrostatic 
function.  Its  origin  and  modifications  resemble 
those  of  lungs,  and  in  the  highest  fishes,  Dipnoi, 
the  air-bladder  is  really  a  lung.  Lungs,  however, 
arise  ventrally,  while  the  air-bladder  is  usually 
dorsal,  and,  except  in  the  transitional  forms,  not 
in  such  special  connection  with  the  circulatory 
system.  The  original  connection  with  the  ali¬ 
mentary  canal  frequently  degenerates,  or  may 
wholly  disappear.  In  such  cases,  the  contained 
air  is  apparently  secreted  from  the  walls  of  the 
sac.  The  pressure  of  the  ribs,  and  the  frequent 
presence  of  muscular  fibres  on  the  walls,  affect 
alteration  of  volume,  and  a  hydrostatic  function 
auxiliary  to  rising  and  sinking  is  thus  doubtless 
discharged.  The  organ  is  singularly  inconstant  in 
its  occurrence,  and  varies  greatly  in  form.  The 
air-bladder  of  fishes  furnishes  the  finest  isin¬ 
glass. 

Air-cells,  or  preferably  Air-spaces,  in  plants, 
are  cavities  containing  air  in  the  stems  or  leaves, 
which  aid  greatly  in  effecting  the  interchange  of 
gases  necessary  for  the  life  of  the  plant.  They 
are  especially  large  and  numerous  in  many 
aquatic  plants,  which  are  partly  or  entirely  float¬ 
ing — mainly  owing  their  buoyancy  to  this  cause. 

Aird,  Thomas,  minor  poet,  was  born  at  Bow¬ 
den,  Roxburgshire,  in  1802,  and  in  1816  passed 
from  the  parish  school  to  the  University  of  Edin¬ 
burg.  There  he  made  Carlyle’s  acquaintance, 
whilst,  as  tutor  in  the  family  of  a  Selkirkshire 
farmer,  he  often  met  Hogg,  the  Ettriek  Shep¬ 
herd.  He  devoted  himself  to  letters,  but  his 
poetry  has  never  become  popular.  Aird  died  at 
Dumfries,  April  25,  1877. 

Aire  (ancient  Vicvs  Jain),  a  French  town  in 
the  department  of  Landes,  on  the  Adour,  112 
miles  south  of  Bordeaux.  It  is  a  bishop’s  seat, 
and  has  an  ancient  cathedral.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Air-Engine,  a  form  of  heat-engine  in  which 
air  is  the  working  substance.  Captain  Ericsson 
called  his  latest  air-engine  a  caloric  engine. 

It  is  a  well-known  law,  applicable  to  all  heat 
engines,  that  (presupposing  the  merely  mechani¬ 
cal  part  of  the  machine  to  be  perfect)  the  heat 
converted  into  work  bears  the  same  proportion  to 
the  total  heat  given  to  the  working  substance  as 
the  range  of  temperature  bears  to  the  absolute  tem¬ 
perature  of  the  source  of  heat.  Heated  air  pos¬ 
sesses  the  advantage  over  superheated  steam  as  a 
motive  power  than  with  it  an  explosion,  in  the 
Usual  sense  of  the  word,  is  rendered  almost  im¬ 
possible,  and  that,  if  one  were  to  occur,  it  would 
be  comparatively  harmless.  It  also,  of  course, 
enables  the  boiler  to  be  dispensed  with. 

Air-engines,-  in  their  principal  working  parts, 
are  very  similar  to  ordinary  steam-engines.  The 
heated  air  is  introduced  into  a  cylinder,  in  which 
works  a  tightly-fitting  piston,  which  is  thus  com¬ 
pelled  to  move  up  and  down,  and  transfers  its 


motion  to  a  revolving  shaft  by  means  of  a  piston 
and  connecting-rod  in  the  usual  manner.  The 
motion  of  the  piston  re¬ 
sults  in  all  cases  from 
the  expansion  of  the 
heated  air;  the  air  is 
heated  by  means  of  a 
furnace,  is  introduced 
below  the  piston,  raises 
it,  and  then  is  allowed  to 
escape  into  the  atmos¬ 
phere.  Air-engines  are 
almost  invariably  single- 
acting;  they  are  some¬ 
times  worked  simply  by 
heated  air,  and  some¬ 
times  with  the  air  which, 
having  passed  through  Stirling’s  Air-Engine. 

the  furnace  is  mixed  plunger  :  cab,  receiver  , 
ine  luiuaee,  is  inixeu  q  cylinder  ;  d,  refrigerator. 

with  all  the  gaseous  pro¬ 
ducts  of  combustion.  The  latter  method  utilizes 
the  heat  which  would  otherwise  be  rejected  into 
the  chimney,  and  so  prevents  considerable  waste 
of  fuel. 

Air-sur-Lys.  a  fortified  town  in  the  French 
department  of  Pas-de-C'alais.  Pop.  5,000. 

Air-Grim.  There  are  several  forms  of  this 
weapon,  but  it  is  commonly  made  like  a  fowling- 
piece  or  musket,  with  lock,  stock,  and  barrel.  In 
one  of  the  simplest  kinds  there  is  an  air-chamber 
placed  above  the  barrel,  and  the  two  communi¬ 
cate  by  a  valve  opening  just  behind  where  the 
bullet  is  placed.  By  means  of  a  syringe  in  the 
stock,  the  air  is  condensed  in  the  chamber.  On 
pulling  the  trigger  the  valve  opens,  and  the  bullet 
is  projected  with  considerable  force  by  the  elas¬ 
ticity  of  the  compressed  air  behind  it.  In  air- 
guns,  the  reservoir  of  condensed  air  is  usually 
very  large  in  proportion  to  the  tube  which  con¬ 
tains  the  ball,  so  that  its  elastic  force  is  not  greatly 
diminished  by  expanding  through  it.  These  guns 
commonly  propel  a  bullet  to  a  distance  of  from 
sixty  to  eighty  yards. 

Air-lock.  When  hollow  cylinders  or  ’caissons 
of  iron  are  used  for  founding  the  piers  of  bridges 
under  water,  it  is  the  custom  to  use  condensed  air 
in  them,  the  pressure  of  which  does  not  generally 
exceed  two  atmospheres  beyond  the  ordinary 
atmospheric  pressure.  This  iron  shell  is  open  at 
the  bottom,  but  air-tight  and  water-tight  at  all 
other  points;  thus  water  is  prevented  from  rising 
in  it.  It  is  necessary  to  have  at  the  top  of  the 
caisson,  or  elsewhere,  a  chamber,  called  an  air¬ 
lock  to  serve  for  the  exit  and  entrance  of  men  and 
materials.  This  comparatively  small  chamber 
has  an  outer  and  an  inner  door.  The  outer  door 
is  shut  after  a  man  enters,  and  just  then  the  air 
around  him  is  at, its  ordinary  pressure.  But  be¬ 
fore  the  inner  door  is  opened,  the  air  in  this 
chamber  is  compressed  like  that  in  the  caisson, 
and  lie  can  then  descend  to  his  work. 

Air-pump,  an  instrument  for  removing  the  air 
from  a  vessel;  invented  by  Otto  Guericke  in  1654. 


Air-pump. 


Though  many  improvements  and  varieties  of 
structure  have  been  since  devised,  the  principle  of 
all  is  the  same.  Two  barrels  are  generally  used, 
j  so  as  to  double  the  effect  of  one  stroke.  In  some 


air-pumps,  stop-cocks  turned  by  the  hand  take  the 
place  of  valves;  and  in  others,  the  entrance  of  the 
connecting  tube  into  the  cylinder  is  so  contrived 
thqt  the  valve  through  the  piston  is  not  required. 

Air-saes  are  out¬ 
growths  from  the 
lungs  of  birds.  They 
lie  in  the  chest  and 
abdominal  region,  are 
in  direct  connection 
with  the  branches  of 
the  bronchial  tubes, 
and  are  usually  nine  a, 
in  number.  The  air  7 
entering  those  reser-  ^ 
voirs  is  warmed  and 
moistenedj  while  by 
their  dilation  the  spe¬ 
cific  gravity  of  the 
bird  can  be  greatly 
lessened. 

Airy,  Sir  George 
Biddell,  K.  C.  B., 

Astronomer  Royal  of 
England,  from  1836 
till  his  retirement  in 
1881,  was  born  at 
Alnwick,  July  27, 

1801.  In  1819  he 
went  up  to  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge, 
of  which  he  was 
elected  scholar  (1822) 
and  fellow  (1824)  hav¬ 
ing  the  year  before 
come  out  senior 
wrangler,  and  in  1836  he  succeeded  Pond  as 
Astronomer  Royal.  He  is  considered  one  of  the 
ablest  and  most  indefatigable  of  modern  savants. 

Aisle  (from  Latin  ala,  a  wing)  means  any  lat¬ 
eral  division  of  any  part  of  a  church,  whether 
attached  to  the  nave,  choir,  or  transept.  The 
number  of  aisles  varies  in  different  churches.  In 


Diagram  of  Lungs  and  Air-sacs 
of  the  Pigeon. 

Tv,  trachea :  l,  lungs  :  a,  peri¬ 
tracheal  air-sac,  with  its  di¬ 
verticula  ( b  and  c)  into  the 
humerus  (d)  and  between  the 
pectoral  muscles  ;  e.  interme¬ 
diate  air-sacs ;  /,  abdominal  or 
posterior  air-sacs. 

(From  Claus,  after  Heider.) 


England,  as  a  rule,  there  is  only  one  on  each  side 
of  the  nave,  or  choir;  in  most  foreign  countries 
there  are  frequently  two,  and  at  Antwerp  and 
elsewhere  there  are  three.  The  word  is  often 
incorrectly  applied  to  the  passage  in  a  church 
between  the  pews  or  seats. 

Aisne,  a  French  river  which  flows  into  the  River 
Oise,  above  Compiegne. 

Aisue,  a  department  in  the  north  of  France. 
Area,  2,839  square  miles.  Laon  is  the  capital. 
Pop.  (1886),  555,925. 

Aiwalyk,  a  seaport  in  the  northwest  of  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  Gulf  of  Edremid  (Adramyti).  Pop., 
35,000. 

Aix,  a  French  towm,  formerly  the  capital  of 
Provence,  in  the  department  of  Bouches-du-Rhone. 
In  the  middle  ages,  under  the  Counts  of  Provence, 
Aix  was  long  "the  literary  capital  of  Southern 
Europe.  Pop.  (1881),  23,887. 

Aix-la-Cliapelle  (Ger.  Aachen),  the  capital  of 
a  district  in  Rhenish  Prussia.  Pop.  (1885),  95,321, 
of  whom  not  7  per  cent,  are  Protestants.  It  lias 
immense  manufactures  of  machinery,  bells,  glass 
buttons,  chemicals,  and  cigars.  As  a  principal 
station  on  the  Belgian-Rlienish  railways,  Aix  is  an 
important  centre  of  trade.  The  city  is  rich  in  his¬ 
torical  associations.  Charlemagne  founded  its 
world-wide  celebrity.  Whether  it  was  his  birth¬ 
place  is  doubtful,  but  in  814  it  became  his  grave. 
Its  ancient  cathedral  is  in  the  form  of  an  octagon, 
which,  with  various  additions  round  it,  forms  on 
the  outside  a  sixteen-sided  figure.  In  the  middle 
of  the  octagon,  a  stone  with  the  inscription  “  Carolo 
Magno”  marks  the  site  of  the  grave  of  Charle¬ 
magne.  The  name  of  the  place  is  derived  from 
the  springs,  for  which  it  has  been  always  famous. 
The  French  Aix  is  the  Latin  aqua,  while  the 
Chapelle  in  the  French  name  is  the  chapel  of  the 
palace. 

The  Mineral  Springs  of  Aix-la-Cliapelle,  of 
which  six  are  hot,  and  two  cold,  -were  known  in 
the  time  of  Charlemagne. 

Treaties  of  Peace  and  Congress  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle. — The  first  Peace  of  Aix-la-Cliapelle 
(1668)  ended  the  war  carried  on  between  France 
and  Spain  for  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  Neth¬ 
erlands.  The  second  Peace  of  Aix-la-Cliapelle 
(1748)  concluded  the  war  respecting  the  succession 
of  Maria  Theresa  to  the  empire.  Austria  ceded 


AIXLES-B  AINS. 


25 


ALAGOAS 


Parma  and  Placentia  to  the  Spanish  Infanta 
Philip,  and  the  possession  of  Silesia  was  guaran¬ 
teed  to  Prussia. 

The  Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was  held  in 
1818,  for  regulating  the  affairs  of  Europe  after  the 
war.  Its  principal  object  was  the  withdrawal 
from  France  of  the  army  of  occupation,  150,000 
strong,  as  well  as  the  receiving  of  France  again 
into  the  alliance  of  the  great  powers.  The  Emper¬ 
ors  of  Russia  and  Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia 
were  present  in  person.  The  five  great  powers 
assembled  signed  a  protocol  announcing  a  policy 
known  as  that  of  the  “Holy  Alliance.” 

Aix-les-Bains  ( Aqua,  Gratianoe),  a  small  town 
in  the  French  department  of  Savoy.  It  was  a 
much  frequented  bathing-place  in  the  time  of  the 
Roman  empire.  The  sulphurous  hot  springs,  two 
in  number,  have  a  temperature  of  109°  and  113° 
F.  Pop.,  2,689. 

Ajac  cio,  since  1811  the  capital  of  Corsica,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  island,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf 
of  Ajaccio, was  the  birthplace  of  Napoleon.  There 
is  a  statue  of  him  as  First  Consul  (1850),  and  a 
monument  of  the  Emperor  on  horseback,  sur¬ 
rounded  by  his  four  brothers  (1865).  The  house 
of  the  Bonapartes,  the  “  Casa  Bonaparte,”  is  now 
national  property.  Pop.  (1881),  17,327. 

Ajaigarli,  a  hill-fort  of  India,  in  the  Northwest 
Provinces,  130  miles  west-southwest  of  Allahabad. 
Within  its  walls  are  two  great  masses  of  ruined 
Jain  temples,  covered  with  the  most  elaborate 
sculptures. 

Aj'alon,  (the  modern  Yalo ),  a  town  of  the 
Levites  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Dan,  in  ancient 
Palestine.  In  a  valley  near  it  took  place  the  battle 
between  Joshua  and  five  Canaanitish  kings,  in 
which  it  is  narrated  that  Joshua  made  the  sun  and 
moon  stand  still. 

Ajax,  the  name  of  two  of  the  Greek  heroes  in 
the  Trojan  war:  (1)  Ajax  the  Less,  son  of  Oileus, 
king  of  the  Locrians.  He  led  forty  ships  to  Troy, 
and  was  famous  for  swiftness  of  foot  and  skill  in 
hurling  the  spear. 

(2)  Ajax  the  Greater,  son  of  Telamon,  king  of 
Salamis,  and  by  his  mother’s  side  a  grandson  of 
iEacus.  He  sailed  against  Troy  with  twelve  ships, 
and  is  represented  by  Homer  as,  next  to  Achilles, 
the  bravest  and  handsomest  of  the  Greeks. 

Ajmere  ( Ajmir ),  an  ancient  city  of  Rajputana, 
situated  in  a  picturesque  and  rocky  valiey,  and 
surrounded  by  a  stone  wall  with  five  gateways. 
Pop.  (1881)  48,735,  of  whom  26,685  were  Hindus, 
and  18,702  Mohammedans. 

Akabali,  a  haven  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah,  the  northeastern  horn  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Akbar  (i.  e.,  “the  great,”  his  proper  name 
being  Jelal-ed-din-Mohammed),  Mogul  emperor  of 
India,  the  greatest  Asiatic  monarch  of  modern 
times.  Akbar’s  empire  embraced  the  whole  of 
India  north  of  the  Yindhya  Mountains,  but  in 
Southern  India  he  was  less  successful.  He  con¬ 
quered  and  conciliated  all  the  independent  Moham¬ 
medan  and  Hindu  princes  of  Northern  India  from 
Cashmere  to  Behar;  and  although  a  great  con¬ 
queror,  was  yet  a  greater  ruler.  For  a  born 
Mohammedan,  the  tolerance  with  which  he  treated 
other  religions  was  wonderful.  He  gave  the  Hin¬ 
dus  freedom  of  worship,  though  he  prohibited 
cruel  ordeals  and  the  burning  of  widows.  After 
a  reign  of  nearly  fifty  years,  Akbar  died  in  1605. 

Akee'  (Gupania  or  Blighia  sapid  a),  a  fruit  tree 
belonging  to  the  natual  order  Sapindaceae,  a  native 
of  Guinea,  introduced  into  Jamaica  in  the  end  of 
the  last  century.  The  Aki  of  New  Zealand  is  a 
totally  different  plant,  Melrosideros  buxifolia,  of 
the  natural  order  Myrtaceae. 

Akenside,  Mark,  poet  and  physician, was  born 
in  1721,  at  Newcastle.  He  graduated  as  a  physi¬ 
cian  at  Leyden,  in  1744  and  practiced  at  North¬ 
ampton,  then  at  Hampstead,  and  finally  in  Lon¬ 
don.  His  success  as  a  practitioner  was  never  very 
great.  He  died  June  23,  1770,  having  nine  years 
earlier  been  appointed  one  of  the  physicians  to  the 
queen.  Some  of  his  medical  treatises  possess  con¬ 
siderable  merit.  His  principal  work  is  the  Plea¬ 
sures  of  the  Imagination ,  a  didactic  poem,  which 
was  begun  in  his  eighteenth  year. 

Akers,  Benjamin  Paul,  an  American  sculp¬ 
tor,  born  near  Portland,  Me.,  July  10,  1825, 
died  May  21,  1861.  His  finest  works  were  exe¬ 
cuted  at  Rome,  such  as  “  Una  and  the  Lion,” 


“St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary,”  ‘  Dead  Pearl- 
Diver,”  and  a  head  of  Milton. 

Ak-Hissar,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  fifty-two 
miles  northeast  of  Smyrna,  in  the  valley  of  the 
Hyllus.  It  is  the  ancient  7  hyatira,  where  was 
one  of  the  seven  churches  of  Asia.  Pop.,  12,000. 

Akhlat,  or  Ardisii,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
on  the  northwest  shore  of  Lake  Van.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Akhtyrka,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  fifty- 
eight,  miles  northwest  of  Kliarkoff.  Pop.  (1880), 
17,820. 

Altiba,  Ben  Joseph,  a  Jewish  Rabbi  of  the 
second  century,  who  studied  under  Rabbi  Eliezer, 
and  was  himself  one  of  the  principal  fathers  of  the 
Mishna.  He  was  put  to  death  with  great  tortures 
by  the  Romans  (135  a.  d.) 

Akjerman,  or  Akerman  (Polish  Bitlogrod),  a 
town  of  Russia,  on  the  Black  Sea,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Dniester.  Pop.  (1880),  28,944. 

Akka,  a  wandering  tribe  of  dwarfs  in  Central 
Africa,  made  known  by  Schweinfurih  in  1874, 
and  visited  in  1882  by  Junker.  Their  average 
height  does  not  exceed  four  feet  ten  inches,  and 
their  projecting  jaw  and  protruding  lips  give 
them  a  painfully  ape-like  appearance.  They  are 
timid  and  difficult  to  approach,  and  shun  commu¬ 
nication  with  strangers. 

Akmollinsk,  a  province  of  Western  Siberia, 
organized  in  1868.  Pop.  (1883),  463,347.  Akmol¬ 
linsk,  the  capital,  300  miles ‘southwest  of  Omsk, 
was  founded  in  1862,  and  has  a  population  of 
5,700. 

Akron,  a  town  in  Ohio,  the  capital  of  Summit 
couuty,  is  situated  thirty-six  miles  south  of 
Cleveland,  and  was  first  settled  in  1825.  Pop. 
(1880),  16,512. 

Aksakof,  Ivan  Sergejevich,  a  member  of 
a  Russian  family  of  litterateurs,  born  Oct.  7, 
1823,  wrote  lyrics,  but  is  best  known  as  the  rep¬ 
resentative  of  Panslavism.  From  1880  till  his 
death,  Feb.  8, 1886,  he  edited  the  recognized  organ 
of  his  party. 

Ak-shelir  ( White  City),  a,  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
in  the  province  of  Konia.  Pop.  6,000. 

Ak-su',  a  town  of  Chinese  Turkestan,  260  miles 
northeast  from  Yarkand,  formerly  the  capital  of 
a  separate  khanate.  In  1867  it  became  a  part  of 
the  State  of  Eastern  Turkestan,  under  Yakoob 
Beg,  but  was  conquered  again  by  China  in  1877. 
Pop.,  20,000,  besides  a  Chinese  garrison  as  numer¬ 
ous. 

Akyab,  a  town  of  Burmah,  the  chief  seaport 
of  Aracan,  is  a  great  race  port,  a  well-built 
place,  with  broad  and  regular  streets.  Pop. 
(1881),  35,989.  Area  of  district  of  Akyab,  5,535 
square  miles.  Pop.,  (1881),  359,706. 

Al,  the  Arabic  definite  article,  much  used  in 
words  now  incorporated  in  the  English,  as 
“  alkali,”  “algebra,”  “  alcohol,”  etc. 

Alabama,  the  State  of,  .was  admitted  into  the 
Union  in  1819.  It  is  bounded  south  by  Florida 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  north  by  Tennessee,  east 
by  Florida  and  Georgia,  and  west  by  Mississippi; 
contains  sixty -six  counties,  and  has  an  area  of 
52,250  square  miles.  Its  sea-coast  line  is  only 
sixty  miles  long,  and  Mobile  is  its  only  seaport. 
In  the  northeast  it  is  somewhat  broken  by  the 
Alleghany  mountains.  The  central  division  is 
uneven,  and  the  southern  half  flat,  with  a  gen¬ 
tle  slope  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Mobile,  Alabama,  Tombigbee,  Black 
Warrior,  Chattahoochee,  Coosa,  and  Tennessee, 
and  it  is  almost  destitute  of  lakes.  The  tempera¬ 
ture  ranges  from  20°  to  104°  Fahr.,  snow  seldom 
falls,  and  ice  is  almost  unknown.  The  climate 
is  fairly  healthy,  except  along  the  river  bottoms, 
where  fevers  prevail,  and  Mobile  is  sometimes 
visited  by  yellow  fever.  The  State  had  a  popu¬ 
lation  of  1,262,505  in  1880,  since  largely  increased. 
At  that  date  662,185  were  whites,  and  526,271 
were  of  African  descent.  Montgomery,  with  a 
population  estimated  at  20,000,  is  the  capital. 
Other  important  towns  are  Mobile,  29,132,  and 
Birmingham,  the  new  seat  of  the  Southern  iron 
trade,  which  claims  35,000.  Huntsville  and  Selma 
are  important  trading  points,  and  Mobile  has  a 
large  trade.  Alabama  is  rich  in  minerals,  espe¬ 
cially  coal  and  iron,  and  produces  fine  marble 
and  building  stone.  The  chief  natural  produc¬ 
tions  are  cotton  and  corn.  Sugar-cane,  rice  and 
tobacco  are  also  grown.  The  State  has  an  exten¬ 
sive  system  of  railways,  and  ships  great  quanti¬ 


ties  of  lumber  and  pig-iron.  It  was  originally 
settled  by  the  French,  who  founded  Mobile  in 
1712,  and  it  remained  nominally  attached  to 
Louisiana  until  the  purchase  of  that  territory 
by  the  United  States.  Alabama  seceded  with 
others  of  its  neighbors  in  1861,  and  became  the 
theatre  of  war,  1862-65,  Selma,  Mobile,  and 
Montgomery  holding  out  almost  to  the  close  of 
the  war.  Under  the  Reconstruction  Act  it 
formed  part  of  the  Third  Military  District,  but  in 
1868  resumed  all  the  privileges  of  statehood,  rat¬ 
ified  the  amendments  and  adopted  a  new  consti¬ 
tution,  under  which  it  has  continued  on  a  course 
of  prosperity. 

Alabama  was  the  name  of  an  armed  vessel  of 
the  Confederate  States,  which  inflicted  terrible 
injury  upon  the  shipping  of  the  North  during  the 
civil  war.  She  was  built  by  Messrs.  Laird  A  Sons, 
at  Birkenhead,  England,  and  was  a  screw  steam- 
sloop  of  1,040  tons’  register,  built  of  wood,  and 
for  speed  rather  than  strength.  Captain  Semmes 
was  appointed  commander,  and  in  spite  of  the 
protests  of  the  American  Minister  she  was  per¬ 
mitted  to  sail  on  her  filibustering  or  piratical  mis¬ 
sion.  She  made  for  Terceira,  one  of  the  Azores, 
where  she  shipped  her  armament  and  stores,  and 
by  Aug.  24,  1862,  was  ready  for  sea.  The  vessel 
made  her  first  capture  on  Sept.  5.  Within  eleven 
days  of  that  date,  she  captured  and  burned  prop¬ 
erty  the  value  of  which  exceeded  her  own  cost. 

Off  the  American  coast  the  Alabama  gave  battle 
to  the  United  States  gunboat  Hatteras,  an  old  ves¬ 
sel,  and  sunk  her  after  a  few  broadsides.  Her  subse¬ 
quent  history  consists  of  a  succession  of  captures 
made  in  different  seas,  her  prizes  being  merchant- 
vessels  incapable  of  resistance,  which  were  burned, 
as  there  was  no  port  available  for  the  disposal  of  her 
prizes,  or,  when  there  was  convincing  evidence  of 
the  neutral  ownership  of  the  cargo,  liberated  upon 
bond.  She  captured  in  all  sixty-five  vessels;  and 
the  value  of  the  property  she  destroyed  was  esti¬ 
mated  at  $4,000,000.  It  was,  however,  by  the 
heavy  insurance  for  war-risks  to  which  she  sub¬ 
jected  the  ship-owners  of  the  United  States,  and 
by  the  difficulty  she  caused  them  in  getting 
freights,  that  the  Alabama’s  career  inflicted  the 
greatest  injury.  After  a  cruise  in  the  Eastern 
seas,  she  entered,  on  June  11,  1864,  the  French 
port  of  Cherbourg  to  refit.  Within  a  few  days 
the  United  States  steamer  Keanarge,  coi.  manded 
by  Captain  Winslow,  arrived  at  Clierbo:  'g,  and 
made  a  demonstration  which  the  office!  s  of  the 
Alabama  regarded  and  accepted  as  a  challenge. 
The  fight  took  place  on  Sunday,  June  19,  outside 
the  port  of  Cherbourg.  Before  the  fight  had 
lasted  an  hour,  Captain  Semmes  found  his  ship 
was  sinking,  and  gave  orders  to  pull  down  his 
flag. 

The  “Alabama  question”  was  raised  in  the  winter 
of  T862-63,  when  Mr.  Seward  declared  that  the 
Union  was  entitled  to  demand  full  compensation 
from  England  for  the  damages  inflicted  on  Ameri¬ 
can  property;  and  the  divergence  of  views  more 
than  once  threatened  to  issue  in  the  gravest  conse¬ 
quences  to  both  nations.  In  1871  a  commission  met 
at  Washington;  and  by  a  treaty  concluded  there, 
provision  was  made  for  referring  this  claim  to  a 
tribunal  composed  of  five  arbitrators,  of  whom 
the  Queen,  the  President  of  the  United  States,  the 
King  of  Italy,  the  President  of  the  Swiss  Confed¬ 
eration,  and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil  were  each  to 
appoint  one.  The  tribunal  met  at  Geneva  in 
Dec.,  1871,  and  by  its  final  award  Great  Brit¬ 
ain  was  ordered  to  pay  a  sum  of  £3,229,166; 
this  sum  covering  also  some  responsibility  for  the 
depredations  of  the  ships  Florida  and  Shenan¬ 
doah.  The  claim  for  indirect  damage  to  Ameri¬ 
can  commerce  was  dropped.  A  court  of  commis¬ 
sioners  was  created  by  Congress  to  adjudicate  on 
“  Alabama  claims.” 

Alabaster,  a  variety  of  Gypsum  or  Selenite. 
Chemically,  these  are  all  forms  of  the  hydrated 
sulphate  of  calcium  (hydrated  sulphate  of  lime). 
Anhydrite  is  anhydrous  sulphate  of  calcium. 
Both  alabaster  and  anhydrite  are  used  as  orna¬ 
mental  stones.  Beautiful  statuettes,  and  orna¬ 
ments  of  different  kinds,  are  made  of  this  material 
in  Italy. 

Alagoas,  a  maritime  province  of  Brazil, 
bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  Pernambuco. 
The  town  of  Alagoas,  once  the  capital,  has  40,000 
inhabitants. 


ALAMO. 


26 


ALBERONI. 


Alamo,  the  fort  near  San  Antonio,  Tex., 
which,  in  Feb.,  1836,  was  defended  by  140 
Texans  against  4,000  Mexicans  under  Santa  Anna. 
The  assailants  hadcannon  and  mortars,  and  during 
the  siege,  which  lasted  from  Feb.  23  to  March  6, 
threw  more  than  200  shells  into  the  fort.  It  was 
taken  by  storm  after  the  Texans  were  exhausted 
by  watching  and  hunger,  and  every  man  was 
ruthlessly  murdered  and  his  body  mutilated 
and  burned.  The  Mexicans  lost  1,600  men.  In 
the  battle  of  San  Jacinto,  where  Santa  Anna  and 
a  great  part  of  his  army  were  captured,  the  battle- 
cry  of  the  Texans  was,  “We  remember  the 
Alamo/’  The  inscription  placed  on  the  old  fort 
reads,  “Thermopylae  had  its  messenger  of  defeat; 
the  Alamo  had  none.” 

Alamos,  Los  (the  poplars),  a  town  of  Mexico, 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  State  of  Sonora, 
famous  for  its  copper  and  silver  mines.  Pop., 
10,000. 

Aland  Islands  (pronounced  Oland),  a  group 
of  some  300  small  islands  and  rocks  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Gulf  .  of  Bothnia,  opposite  Abo. 
The  total  population  is  about  16,000,  of  whom 
two-thirds  inhabit  the  largest  island,  called  Aland, 
which  is  eighteen  miles  in  length. 

Alans,  a  nomad  race,  of  warlike  equestrian 
habits,  belonging  to  the  great  nation  of  the  Sar- 
matians. 

Al-araf,  the  Mohammedan  purgatory.  A  wall 
dividing  heaven  from  hell,  upon  which  those 
who  are  not  good  enough  for  the  one  place  and 
not  bad  enough  for  the  other,  remain  in  a  state 
of  suspense. 

Alarcon,  Pedro  Antonio  de,  Spanish  author 
and  politician,  born  in  1833,  was  intended  for  the 
church,  but  early  devoted  himself  to  journalism. 
He  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  Morocco  campaign 
(1859),  entered  the  Cortes  as  Liberal  deputy  for 
his  native  town,  and  worked  for  the  restoration  of 
the  constitutional  monarchy  in  the  person  of  Al¬ 
fonso  XII.,  who,  after  his  accession,  made  him  a 
councillor. 

Alarcon  y  Mendoza,  Juan  Ruiz  de,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  of  Spanish  dramatists,  born 
at  the  town  of  Tasco,  in  Mexico,  about  the  end  of 
the  16th  century.  He  is  admitted  to  hold  a 
place  as  a  dramatist  next  after  Calderon  and 
Lope  de  Vega.  He  died  in  1639. 

A1  uric  I.  (Al-ric,  all  rich)  belonged  to  one 
of  the  noblest  families  of  the  Visigoths.  He 
makes  his  first  appearance  in  history  in  394  a.  d., 
as  leader  of  the  Gothic  auxiliaries  of  Theodosius 
in  his  war  with  Eugenius;  but  after  the  death  of 
the  former,  he  took  advantage  of  the  dissensions 
and  weakness  that  prevailed  in  the  Roman  empire 
to  invade  Thrace,  Macedon,  and  Thessaly.  Alaric 
several  times  invaded  Italy,  and  three  times  be¬ 
sieged  Rome.  His  victorious  army  entered  the 
city  on  Aug.  24,  410,  and  continued  to  pillage  it 
for  six  days,  Alaric  strictly  forbidding  his  soldiers 
to  dishonor  women  or  destroy  religious  buildings. 
He  died  a  few  months  later  at  the  age  of  34. 

Alaric  II.,  eighth  king  of  the  Visigoths,  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father  in  484  a.d.  Hisdominions  com¬ 
prised  all  Gaul  beyond  the  Loire  and  Rhine  and 
most  of  Spain.  Alaric’s  forces  were  completely 
routed  near  Poitiers,  and  he  himself  was  over¬ 
taken  and  slain  by  the  hand  of  Clovis  (507). 

Alarm,  or  Alarum  (from  Ital.  all'  arme,  to 
arms),  was  originally  a  call  to  arms,  or  the  signal 
for  this  purpose,  as  the  loud  and  hurried  peal  of 
an  alarm-bell.  Now  it  is  commonly  used  of  an 
instrument  or  apparatus  for  awakening  sleepers — 
generally  attached  to  a  clock. 

Ala-shehr  (i.e. ,  the  exalted  city,  ancient  Phila¬ 
delphia),  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  seventy-five  miles 
east  of  Smyrna.  It  was  founded  by  Attalus  Phila- 
delplius,  king  of  Pergamos,  about  200  b.c.,  and 
is  famous  as  the  seat  of  one  of  the  seven  churches 
of  Asia.  Pop.  about  15,000. 

Alaska  comprises  the  territory  in  the  extreme 
northwest  of  North  America,  which  was  pur¬ 
chased  from  Russia  by  the  United  States  for 
$7,200,000  in  1867.  It  has  an  area  of  530,000 
square  miles,  and  is  an  enormous  and  irregular 
peninsula,  stretching  far  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle, 
and  at  Behring’s  Straits  reaching  within  a  few 
miles  of  Asiatic  Russia.  Its  coast-line  is  of  great 
length  and  broken  up  into  numerous  inlets,  and 
its  southern  portion  includes  the  Peninsula  of 
Aliaska  and  the  Aleutian  Archipelago.  Its  eastern 


boundaries  are  British  Columbia  and  the  Canadian 
Northwestern  Territories.  Sitka  is  the  capital  and 
only  town  of  any  importance.  The  Territory  is 
governed  by  officers  appointed  by  the  President, 
and  there  are  only  a  few  hundred  white  men  in 
the  country.  Its  sole  value  is  as  a  fishing  and  fur¬ 
trading  point,  but  recent  discoveries  of  minerals 
have  been  made.  Alaska  is  by  no  means  so  cold 
as  would  be  imagined  from  its  situation,  and  at 
Sitka,  where  more  rain  falls  each  year  than  any¬ 
where  outside  the  tropics,  ice  fit  for  use  seldom 
forms.  In  the  extreme  north,  of  course,  the  climate 
is  arctic.  There  are  many  mountains  in  the  Ter¬ 
ritory,  the  most  notable  being  Mt.  St.  Elias,  and 
it  possesses  magnificent  glaciers  and  mineral 
springs. 

Alatau,  a  range  of  mountains  forming  the 
boundary  between  Turkestan  and  Mongolia,  and 
the  northern  limit  of  the  great  tableland  of  Central 
Asia.  The  loftiest  peak,  Khan  Tengri,  is  24,000 
feet  above  the  sea. 

Alatyr,  a  town  in  the  Russian  province  of  Sim¬ 
birsk,  on  the  Sura,  103  miles  northwest  of  Sim¬ 
birsk.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Alausi,  a  town  of  Ecuador,  in  the  province  of 
Chimborazo.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Alava,  the  southern  and  largest,  but  most 
sparsely  populated,  of  the  three  Basque  provinces 
of  Spain.  Area,  1,205  square  miles.  The  inhab¬ 
itants,  who  are  chiefly  Basques,  in  1884  numbered 
97,912.  The  capital  is  Vittoria. 

Alava,  Don  Miguel  Ricardo  de,  a  Spanish 
general,  born  in  1777.  At  first  a  supporter  of 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  he  deserted  to  the  winning  side 
in  1811,  and  soon  attracted  the  favorable  notice  of 
Wellington,  who  made  him  a  general  of  brigade. 
At  the  restoration  of  Ferdinand  VII.,  Alava  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  The  Hague.  He  returned 
to  Spain  in  1820,  after  the  revolution,  was  sent  as 
a  deputy  to  the  Cortes,  and  became  a  leader  in  the 
party  of  the  Exultados,  voting  for  the  suspension 
of  the  royal  authority.  He  was  exiled,  and  died 
in  1843. 

Alb,  or  Albe  (Lat.  albus,  white),  the  long  white 
linen  vestment  worn  how  by  priests  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  alone,  but  used  in  early  times  by 
all  ecclesiastics  at  divine  service. 

Alba  (ancient  Alba  Pompeia),  a  very  ancient 
city  of  North  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Cuneo.  The 
cathedral  was  founded  in  1486.  Pop.,  8,961. 

Albace'te,  capital  of  a  Spanish  province,  140 
miles  southeast  of  Madrid.  Pop.,  18,976.  The 
province  of  Albacete  is  partly  formed  from  the 
former  kingdom  of  Murcia,  and  partly  from  New 
Castile.  Agriculture  is  in  a  more  advanced  state 
than  in  most  parts  of  Spain.  The  area  of  the 
province  is  5,972  square  miles.  Pop.  (1884),  222,- 
028. 

Alba  Louga,  the  most  ancient  city  of  Latium. 
According  to  legendary  history,  it  was  built  by 
Ascanius,  the  son  of  /Eneas,  about  300  years  before 
the  foundation  of  Rome,  which  is  represented  as  a 
colony  of  Alba  Longa.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Romans. 

Alban,  St.,  the  first  martyr  of  Britain, was  born 
at  Verulam,  in  the  third  century,  and  after  having 
long  lived  as  a  heathen,  was  converted  to  Chris¬ 
tianity.  He  suffered  martyrdom  in  283  or  305; 
and  his  anniversary  is  celebrated  on  June  22.  The 
town  of  St.  Albans  is  believed  to  stand  either  on 
the  site  of  his  birthplace  or  the  scene  of  his  mar¬ 
tyrdom. 

Alba '  ui,  a  rich  and  celebrated  Roman  family, 
of  which  Clement  XI.  was  a  member,  and  others 
filled  high  positions  in  the  church.  It  died  out  in 
1852.  Cardinal  Alessandro  Albani  (born  1692 — 
died  1779)  formed  the  famous  collection  of  objects 
of  art  in  the  Villa  Albani,  outside  the  Porta  Salaria 
at  Rome. 

Albani,  Francesco,  a  painter  of  the  Bolognese 
school,  of  the  time  of  the  Caracci,  was  born  at 
Bologna,  in  1578,  and  died  there  in  1660. 

Albani,  Madame  (nee  Emma  La  Jeunesse), 
vocalist,  was  born  at  Chambly,  in  Canada,  and  at 
the  age  of  twelve  made  her  debut  at  Albany,  from 
which  she  assumed  the  professional  name  of 
“Albani.”  She  studied  afterward  at  Paris  and 
Milan,  and  now  occupies  a  high  position  on  the 
operatic  stage.  In  1878,  she  married  Mr.  Ernest 
Gye,  eldest  son  of  the  director  of  the  Royal  Italian 
Opera,  London. 

Alba'nia  forms  tlie  southwestern  portion  of  the 


possessions  of  European  Turkey,  and  extends 
along  the  western  shore  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
from  the  River  Bojano  to  the  Gulf  of  Arta.  To  the 
north  it  is  bounded  by  the  newly- won  Montene¬ 
grin  territory,  including  Dulcigno,  and  by  Bosnia; 
on  the  south  it  is  separated,  since  1881,  from 
Greece  by  the  River  Arta.  The  eastern  boundary 
is  vaguely  defined  by  a  mountain-range,  which  to 
the  north  attains  a  maximum  altitude  of  7,990 
feet. 

A  fine  climate,  the  heat  of  which  is  tempered  by 
high  mountains  and  the  proximity  of  the  sea,  and 
a  favorable  soil,  would  seem  to  invite  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  to  agriculture;  but  for  the  most  part  in  vain. 
In  the  north,  little  is  cultivated  but  maize,  with 
some  rice  and  barley,  in  the  valleys;  whilst  the 
mountain  terraces  are  used  as  pastures  for  numer¬ 
ous  herds  of  cattle  and  sheep.  In  the  south  there 
is  more  variety.  The  Albanians  are  half-civilized 
mountaineers,  frank  to  a  friend,  vindictive  to  an 
enemy.  They  are  constantly  under  arms,  and  are 
more  devoted  to  robbery  than  to  cattle-rearing  and 
agriculture.  They  live  in  perpetual  anarchy,  every 
village  being  at  war  with  its  neighbor,  and  even 
the  several  quarters  of  the  same  town  carrying  on 
mutual  hostilities.  Of  the  1,400,000  Albanians  of 
the  Ottoman  Empire,  1,000,000  are  Mohamme¬ 
dans,  280,000  members  of  the  Greek  Church,  and 
120,000  Roman  Catholics. 

Alba' no,  a  town  of  Italy,  eighteen  miles  south- 
southeast  of  Rome.  Pop.,  6,560.  The  Alban 
Lake,  or  Lago  di  Castello,  is  formed  in  the  basin 
of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  has  a  circumference  of 
six  miles,  with  a  depth  of  530  feet.  Its  surface  is 
961  feet  above  the  sea  level. 

Al'bany,  or  Alban,  an  ancient  name  for  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  still  in  some  degree 
used  in  our  own  day.  It  has  given  titles  to  many 
Scottish  and  English  princes,  the  present  Duke 
being  an  infant  grandson  of  Queen  Victoria. 

Albany,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
stands  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson,  150  miles 
from  the  sea,  and  has  a  population  of  at  least 
100,000.  It  is  a  handsome  and  well-built  city, 
and  contains  many  magnificent  public  buildings. 
Chief  of  these  is  the  State  Capitol,  the  most  costly 
structure  of  its  kind  in  existence.  Albany  was 
founded  by  the  Dutch  in  1614,  and  is  the  oldest 
chartered  city  in  the  United  States.  It  is  the 
centre  point  of  six  railways  and  two  great  canals, 
and  has  numerous  manufactures  and  an  extensive 
commerce. 

Albatross  (Diornedea),  a  genus  of  web-footed 
birds,  nearly  allied  to  Gulls  and  Petrels.  The 
common  or  wandering  albatross  (D.  exulans)  is 
the  largest  of  web-footed  birds,  measuring  four 
feet  in  length,  and  from  ten  up  to  as  much  as 
seventeen  feet  in  spread  of  wings.  It  weighs 
fifteen  to  twenty  pounds,  or  even  more.  This 
bird  is  often  seen  at  a  great  distance  from  land, 
and  abounds  in  the  Southern  seas,  particularly 
near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  whence  sailors 
sometimes  call  it  the  Cape  Sheep  The  albatross 
has  great  powers  of  sustained  flight.  It  often  fol¬ 
lows  a  ship  for  a  considerable  time,  and  it  has 
been  calculated  that  it  may  fly  720  nautical  miles 
in  a  day.  Its  flesh  is  unpalatable.  Albatrosses 
breed  on  solitary  islands,  like  Tristan  d'Acunlia, 
and  form  a  large,  rough  nest  of  earth,  grass,  and 
leaves.  The  single  egg  is  four  or  five  inches  long, 
of  a  white  color,  spotted  at  the  larger  end.  Sail¬ 
ors  have  many  superstitions  in  regard  to  the  alba¬ 
tross,  and  the  “Ancient  Mariner”  in  Coleridge’s 
poem  was  punished  for  killing  one  by  having  the 
bird  hung  round  his  neck. 

Albay,  a  town  in  the  south  end  of  the  Philip¬ 
pine  Island  of  Luzon.  Pop.,  13,000. 

Albemarle,  the  English  form  of  Aumale,  in 
Normandy,  a  title  borne  by  several  English  fam¬ 
ilies.  General  Monk,  who  assisted  in  the  restora¬ 
tion  of  Charles  II.,  was  made  Duke  of  Albemarle 
as  a  reward  for  his  treason  to  the  Commonwealth. 
The  fifth  earl  fought  a  duel  with  Benedict 
Arnold,  whom  he  had  spoken  of  in  the  House  of 
Lords  as  a  traitor. 

Albemarle  Sound,  an  inlet  in  the  northeast  of 
North  Carolina,  running  inland  for  sixty  miles, 
with  a  breadth  of  from  four  to  fifteen  miles. 

Alberoni,  Giulio,  cardinal  and  statesman  was 
born  in  1664  at  Firenzuola  in  Parma.  He  was 
sent  to  Madrid  and  became  Prime  Minister  of 
Spain,  and  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Ciement  XI. 


ALBERT  I. 


27 


ALBUQUERQUE. 


He  was  much  more  a  politician  than  a  church¬ 
man,  and  by  his  aggressive  policy  stirred  up  much 
strife  in  Europe.  Finally  he  was  exiled,  and  died 
in  Italy,  June  16,  1752. 

Alberti.  (Ger.  Albrecht ),  Duke  of  Austria  and 
German  Emperor,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Rudolph 
of  Hapsburg,  and  was  born  about  1250,  and 
crowned  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1298.  He  ruled 
with  vigor,  and  in  1308  subjugated  a  part  of 
Switzerland,  but  was  murdered  the  same  year  by 
his  own  nephew,  John,  whose  claim  to  the  Duchy 
of  Swabia  he  had  refused.  Four  other  Dukes  of 
Austria  bore  the  name  of  Albert,  of  whom  Albert 
V.  was  elected  German  king  in  1438,  and  as  such 
was  called  Albert  II. 

Albert,  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg  and  Elec¬ 
tor  of  Mainz,  was  a  younger  son  of  the  Elector  of 
Brandenburg,  and  was  born  in  1490.  In  1513  he 
became  Archbishop  of  Magdeburg,  and  in  the 
following  year  Archbishop  and  Elector  of  Mainz. 
Leo  X.  having  granted  him  permission  to  sell 
indulgences,  Albert  appointed  the  Dominican 
Tetzel  as  his  agent,  who,  by  the  shameless  manner 
in  which  he  went  about  his  work,  first  roused 
the  wrath  of  Luther.  He  ultimately  sided  strongly 
against  the  Reformers.  He  died  in  1545. 

Albert,  last  Grand  Master  of  the  Teutonic 
Order  and  first  Duke  of  Prussia,  was  born  in 
1490.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Margrave  of  Ans- 
bach.  In  1511  lie  was  chosen  Grand  Master  of 
the  Teutonic  Order.  Acting  upon  Luther’s 
advice,  lie  declared  himself  secular  Duke  of  Prus¬ 
sia,  and  placed  his  land  under  the  sovereignty  of 
Sigismund  of  Poland  in  1525,  and  the  Teutonic 
Order  tried  in  vain  to  drive  him  out.  He  died  of 
the  plague  in  1568. 

Albert,  or  Albrecht,  the  Pious,  Archduke  of 
Austria,  born  1559,  was  the  third  son  of  the 
Emperor  Maximilian  II.  In  1577  he  was  made 
cardinal,  in  1584  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  dur¬ 
ing  the  years  1594-96  held  the  office  of  Viceroy 
of  Portugal.  He  was  next  appointed  Stadtholder 
of  the  Netherlands,  where  he  continued  until  his 
death  the  representative  of  the  Spanish  monarch. 
He  abandoned  his  ecclesiastical  profession,  and  in 
1598  married  the  Infanta  Isabella.  Albert  was 
defeated  by  Maurice  of  Nassau  in  1599,  made 
a  twelve  years’  truce  with  him  in  1609,  and  died 
in  July,  1621,  at  Brussels. 

Albert,  Prince  Consort  of  Great  Britain, 
was  born  at  Schloss  Rosneau,  near  Coburg, 
Aug.  26,  1819,  the  younger  son  of  the  Duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  by  his  first  marriage  with 
Louisa  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha-Alten- 
burg.  He  was  a  first  cousin  of  Queen  Victoria, 
and  was  married  to  her  Feb.  10,  1840,  when 
he  received  the  title  of  Royal  Highness,  was 
naturalized  as  a  subject  of  Great  Britain,  and 
obtained  the  rank  of  Field-Marshal.  The  title 
of  Consort  of  Her  Majesty  was  formally  con¬ 
ferred  in  1842,  and  that  of  Prince  Consort  in  1857. 
When  the  Whig  ministry  of  1840  proposed  for 
him  the  income  of  £50,000  as  the  Consort  of 
Queen  Victoria,  the  Tories,  in  conjunction  with 
the  Radicals,  succeeded  in  limiting  the  sum  to 
£30,000.  During  the  Crimean  war  he  was  more 
than  suspected  of  pro-Russian  sympathies,  but 
later  he  abstained  from  open  interference  in  poli¬ 
tics,  and  opened  for  himself  an  influential  sphere 
of  action  in  the  encouragement  and  promotion  of 
science  and  art,  appearing  as  the  patron  of  many 
useful  associations  and  public  undertakings.  The 
exhibition  of  1851  owed  much  to  his  strong  inter¬ 
est.  As  regards  continental  politics  his  ruling 
idea  was  that  Prussia  should  be  supreme  in  Ger¬ 
many.  He  died  of  typhoid  fever  at  Windsor 
Castle,  Dec.  14,  1861.  See  his  life  by  Sir  Theo¬ 
dore  Martin  (5  vols.,  1874-80),  and  Count  Vitz- 
thum’s  Reminiscences  (Eng.  trans.  1887). 

Alberta,  one  of  the  four  provisional  districts 
into  which  the  Northwest  Territories  of  Canada 
were  divided  in  1882.  It  is  bounded  on  the  south 
by  latitude  49  ',  east  by  Assiniboia  and  Saskatch¬ 
ewan,  north  by  latitude  55°,  and  west  by  British 
Columbia.  The  area  is  about  100,000  square 
miles. 

Albert  Edward,  Prince  of  Wales,  eldest 
son  of  Queen  Victoria  was  born  at  Buckingham 
Palace,  Nov.  9,  1841.  In  1860  he  visited  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  in  1862  traveled 
with  Dean  Stanley  in  the  East,  and  on  March  10, 
1863,  married  the  Princess  Alexandra  (born 


Dec.  1,  1844),  eldest  daughter  of  Christian  IX. , 
of  Denmark.  Of  their  two  sons  and  three 
daughters  the  eldest  is  Prince  Albert  Victor  Chris¬ 
tian  Edward  (born  Jan.  8,  1864).  He  is  a  Field- 
Marshal  in  the  British  army  (1875),  and  also  in  the 
German  (1883);  in  1874  he  was  elected  Grand  Mas¬ 
ter  of  the  Freemasons.  Helias  also  visited  India, 
and  now  takes  the  place  of  the  Queen  at  most 
public  functions  and  celebrations. 

Albert  Lea,  a  post  village  in  Freeborn  county, 
Minn.,  about  one  hundred  miles  south  of  St.  Paul. 
Three  important  railway  lines  centre  here.  Pop., 
(1885),  3,367. 

Albert  Medal,  a  decoration,  which,  in  its  orig¬ 
inal  institution  in  1866,  was  intended  to  reward 
heroic  acts  of  mariners  and  others  in  saving  life 
at  sea,  and  has  since  been  extended  in  its  scope. 
Albert  Medal  is  also  the  name  of  a  distinction 
granted  since  1864  by  the  Society  of  Arts.  It  was 
founded  to  reward  distinguished  merit  in  promot¬ 
ing  arts,  manufactures,  or  commerce,  and  has 
been  conferred  on  many  of  the  most  notable  men 
of  science,  engineers,  and  inventors  in  Britain, 
America,  and  France. 

Albert  Nyanza  (the  Little  Luta  Nzige  of 
Speke),  a  large  lake  of  East  Central  Africa,  is  sit¬ 
uated  in  a  deep  rock-basin,  eighty  miles  north¬ 
west  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  The  Albert  Nyanza 
is  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  is  140  miles  long  from 
north  to  south  and  forty  miles  broad.  It  was 
surveyed  by  Mason  Bey  in  1876,  having  been 
originally  discovered  by  Baker  in  1864.  The 
lake  lies  2,720  feet  above  the  sea,  and  1,470  feet 
below  the  general  level  of  the  country.  Its  water 
is  fresh  and  sweet,  and  it  is  of  great  depth  toward 
the  centre. 

Albert  River,  North  Queensland,  falls  into 
the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  after  a  total  course  of 
about  two  hundred  miles. 

Albertus  Magnus,  Count  of  Bollstadt,  the 
great  scholastic  philosopher  of  the  first  half  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  was  born  at  Lauiugen,  in 
Swabia,  in  1193.  In  1254  he  became  Provincial 
of  the  Dominican  Order  in  Germany.  In  1260  he 
received  from  Pope  Alexander  the  IV.  the  bish¬ 
opric  of  Ratisbon.  But  in  1262  he  retired  to  his 
convent  at  Cologne  to  devote  himself  to  liter¬ 
ary  pursuits,  and  here  he  composed  many  of  his 
works.  He  had  fallen  into  dotage  some  years 
before  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1280.  Like 
most  learned  men  of  his  time,  he  was  accused  of 
sorcery. 

Albi,  capital  of  the  department  of  Tarn,  in  the 
south  of  France.  The  chief  buildings  are  the 
cathedral  (1282-1512),  the  old  fortress,  and  the 
archbishop’s  palace.  Pop.  (1881),  16,914. 

Albigenses,  is  a  name  applied  loosely  to  the 
“heretics,”  belonging  to  various  sects,  who 
abounded  in  the  south  of  France  about  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  They  were 
much  persecuted  by  the  Church,  and  were  often 
in  armed  rebellion.  Finally  they  were  extirpated 
as  a  sect  about  1250. 

Albi  nos  (Portuguese,  from  Latin  dibits,  white) 
— called  also  Leucoethiopes,  or  white  negroes,  and 
by  the  Dutch  and  Germans  Kakerlaken — were  at 
one  time  considered  a  distinct  race.  Their  skin 
has  a  pale,  sickly  white  color,  while  the  iris  of 
the  eye  appears  red  from  its  great  vascularity. 
The  coloring  matter  of  the  hair  is  also  wanting  in 
albinos,  so  that  their  hair  is  white.  Albinoism 
is  always  born  with-  the  individual,  and  occurs 
not  only  in  men  but  also  in  other  mammalia,  in 
birds,  and  probably  in  insects.  It  is  not  improb¬ 
able  that  the  peculiarity  may  to  some  extent  be 
hereditary.  The  opinion  that  albinos  are.  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  other  men  by  weakness  of  body 
and  mind,  is  completely  refuted  by  facts. 

Albion,  a  town  in  Michigan,  on  the  Kalama¬ 
zoo  river,  ninety-six  miles  west  of  Detroit.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  Methodist  college  with  over  three 
hundred  students.  Pop.  (1887),  about  3,400. 

Alboin,  the  founder  of  the  Lombard  dominion 
in  Italy,  succeeded  his  father  in  561  a.  d.  as  king 
of  the  Lombards.  During  a  feast  at  Verona  in 
574  he  made  his  queen  drink  out  of  the  skull  of 
her  father,  which  he  had  turned  into  a  wine-cup, 
and  she,  in  revenge,  incited  her  paramour  to  mur¬ 
der  him. 

Albornoz,  Gil  Alvarez  Carillo,  born  at 
Cuenca,  in  Spain,  in  1300,  studied  at  Toulouse,  and 
became  Archbishop  of  Toledo.  Pope  Clement  j 


VI.  made  him  a  cardinal.  Innocent  VII.  sent 
him  as  cardinal-legate  to  Rome;  and  Pope  Urban 
V.  appointed  him  legate  at  Bologna  in  1367.  In 
the  same  year  he  died. 

Albue'ra,  in  the  Spanish  province  of  Estrema- 
dura,  famous  for  the  sanguinary  battle  of  May 
16,  1811,  between  the  combined  English,  Spanish, 
and  Portuguese  forces  under  General  Beresford, 
and  the  French  under  Marshal  Soult. 

Albnfe'ra  (Arab,  the  lake),  a  lake  near  Val¬ 
encia,  in  Spain. 

Albugo  is  a  term  employed  in  surgery  to  des¬ 
ignate  the  white  opacity  that  often  follows  ulcera¬ 
tion  of  the  cornea  of  the  eye.  The  disease  is  also 
called  Leucoma. 

Albula,  a  pass  and  mountain  stream  in  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Grisons.  The  pass  (elevation, 
7,595  feet)  is  a  marshy  plateau,  three-fourths  of  a 
mile  long.  The  stream  rises  close  by,  and  after  a 
course  of  twenty  miles,  broken  by  numerous  pict¬ 
uresque  waterfalls,  it  joins  a  tributary  of  the 
Rhine. 

Album  (Lat.  white),  amongst  the  Romans, 
was  a  white  tablet  overlaid  with  gypsum,  on 
which  were  written  the  Aunales  Maximi  of  the 
pontifex,  edicts  of  the  praetor,  and  rules  relative 
to  civil  matters.  In  the  middle  ages,  the  word 
was  used  to  denote  any  list,  catalogue,  or  regis¬ 
ter,  whether  of  saints,  soldiers,  or  civil  function¬ 
aries.  In  the  universities  on  the  Continent,  the 
list  of  the  names  of  the  members  is  called  the 
album.  But  its  popular  signification  in  modern 
times  is  that  of  a  book  for  containing  photo¬ 
graphs,  or  a  blank  book  fora  drawing-room  table, 
and  intended  to  receive  fugitive  pieces  of  verse, 
or  the  signatures  of  distinguished  persons,  or 
sometimes  merely  drawings,  prints,  marine  plants, 
postage  stamps,  and  the  like. 

Alborak.  Mohammed  alleged  that  he  made 
miraculous  journeys  to  heaven  upon  a  camel  thus 
named. 

Albrecht  of  Austria,  a  second  cousin  of  the 
reigning  Emperor,  was  born  in  1817.  He  de¬ 
feated  King  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia  at  Novara 
in  1849,  and  beat  the  Italians  at  Custozza  in  1866. 
He  was  made  a  Field-Marshal  in  the  Austrian 
service  and  held  other  important  commands. 

Albumen  is  a  term  used  in  physiological  chem¬ 
istry  and  in  botany  in  distinct  senses;  (a)  A  defi¬ 
nite  proteid  substance  (now  frequently  spelled 
Albumin,  so  as  to  agree  in  form  with  the  other 
organic  compounds),  containing  carbon,  hydro¬ 
gen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  a  small  percentage  of 
sulphur,  coagulable  by  heat,  mineral  acids,  alco¬ 
hol,  ether,  tannic  acid,  etc.,  and  existing  in  ani¬ 
mals,  in  white  of  egg,  blood  and  serum,  and  in 
plants  in  seeds  and  elsewhere.  It  is  the  sulphur 
of  the  albumen  that  blackens  silver  when  brought 
in  contact  with  eggs,  and  the  smell  of  rotten  eggs 
arises  from  the  formation  of  sulphuretted  hydro¬ 
gen  during  their  decomposition.  It  is  used  for 
clarifying  sugar  and  for  making  cement.  With 
many  metallic  salts,  such  as  bichloride  of  mercury 
(corrosive  sublimate),  sulphate  of  copper  (blue 
vitriol),  acetate  of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  and  nitrate 
of  silver  (lunar  caustic),  it  forms  insoluble  com¬ 
pounds,  and  is  therefore  used  as  an  antidote  to 
these  poisons.  Vegetable  ivory  is  the  albumen  of 
a  palm  {P/u/telephas)  which  grows  on  the  banks 
of  the  Magdalena  in  Columbia,  and  is  used  in  the 
place  of  ivory. 

Albuminuria,  a  symptom  of  Bright’s  disease 
of  the  kidneys;  but  albumen  occurs  in  the  urine 
of  perfectly  healthy  persons,  and  varies  according 
to  circumstances 

Albunol,  a  small  town  of  Spain,  forty  miles 
southeast  of  Granada.  Pop.,  8,923. 

Albuquerque,  a  town  of  Spain,  twenty-four 
miles  north  of  Badajoz,  near  the  Portuguese 
frontier.  It  stands  on  an  eminence,  and  is  de¬ 
fended  by  a  strong  fortress.  Pop.,  7,214. 

Albuquerque,  Affonso  d’,  “The  Great,” 
viceroy  of  the  Indies,  was  born  in  1453,  near  Lis¬ 
bon.  When  the  King  of  Persia  sent  for  the 
tribute  which  the  princes  of  this  island  had  for¬ 
merly  rendered  to  him,  Albuquerque  presented 
bullets  and  swords  to  the  ambassador,  saying: 
“This  is  the  coin  in  which  Portugal  pays  her 
tribute.”  He  made  the  Portuguese  name  pro¬ 
foundly  respected  among  the  princes  and  people 
of  the  East,  but  did  not  escape  the  envy  of  cour¬ 
tiers  and  the  suspicions  of  his  king,  who  appointed 


ALBURNUM. 


28 


ALCUDIA. 


•Soarez,  a  personal  enemy  of  Albuquerque,  to 
supersede  him  as  viceroy.  He  died  at  sea  near 
Goa,  Dec.  16,  1515. 

Alburnum,  or  Sap-wood,  is  the  youngest  and 
most  external  portion  of  the  wood  of  ordinary 
dicotyledonous  trees.  It  is  still  imperfectly 
hardened,  and  lies  between  the  bark  and  the 
heartwood  or  duramen.  When  there  is  a  great 
proportion  of  alburnum,  the  wood  dries 'slowly, 
and  with  difficulty,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  sap 
it  contains. 

Alcaeus  of  Mytylene,  one  of  the  greatest 
lyric  poets  of  Greece,  flourished  about  600  b.c. 
He  was  the  inventor  of  the  Alcaic  verse. 

Alcala'  de  Guada  ira,  a  town  of  Spain,  nine 
miles  east  by  south  from  Seville.  Pop.,  8,298. 

Alcala'  de  Heuares,  a  town  in  Spain,  Cer¬ 
vantes’  birthplace,  twenty-one  miles  east  of  Mad¬ 
rid.  It  contains  the  church  of  Santa  Maria,  in 
which  Cervantes  was  baptized,  Oct.  9,  1547. 
The  house  in  which  he  was  born  is  marked  by  an 
inscription.  Pop  ,  12,317. 

Alcala'  laRe'al  (the  royal  castle),  a  city  of 
Andalusia,  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Jaen,  was  a 
strong  fortress  under  the  Moors,  but  was  taken  in 
1340  by  Alfonso  XI.  in  person,  whence  it  obtained 
the  name  Real.  Pop.  (1878),  15,901. 

Alcal'de,  a  corruption  of  the  Arabic  al-qadi, 
■“the  judge.”  It  is  still  used  in  Spain  as  the 
general  title  for  the  elected  president  of  the  coun¬ 
cil  of  the  commune,  who  exercises  both  judicial 
and  magisterial  offices. 

A1  camo,  a  quaint  old  town  of  Sicily,  flfty-two 
miles  from  Palermo.  Pop.  (1881),  37,697. 

Alcaniz',  a  town  of  Aragon,  Spain.  It  has  a 
magnificent  collegiate  church.  Pop.,  7,366. 

Alcan' tara  (Arab,  the  bridge),  an  old  Span¬ 
ish  town  in  Estremadura.  Tiie  bridge  from 
which  it  takes  its  name  was  built  under  Trajan, 
105  a.d.  It  consists  of  six  arches,  the  whole 
length  is  670,  and  the  height  210  feet.  It  has 
twice  been  partially  blown  up  in  time  of  war,  but 
the  larger  part  is  still  intact.  Pop.,  3,527. 

The  Order  of  Alcantara,  one  of  the  relig¬ 
ious  orders  of  Spanish  knighthood,  was  founded 
in  1156  as  a  military  fraternity  for  the  de¬ 
fense  of  Estremadura  against  the  Moors.  In 
the  present  century  the  order  has  been  several 
times  suppressed,  and  as  often  restored. 

Alcan'tara,  a  seaport  town  of  Brazil,  in  the 
province  of  Maranhao,  on  the  Bay  of  St.  Marcos. 
Pop.,  10,000. 

Alcaraz,  a  town  of  La  Mancha,  Spain.  Pop., 
4,392. 

Alcaz'ar  de  San  Juan  (ancient  Alee),  a  town 
of  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Ciudad  Real.  Pop., 
8,721. 

Alcazar-kebir,  a  city  of  Morocco,  about 
eighty  miles  northwest  of  Fez.  In  a  battle  here 
in  1578,  Sebastian,  king  of  Portugal,  was  de¬ 
feated  and  slain  by  the  .Moors.  Pop.,  nearly  9,000; 
many  Jews. 

A  icestis,  the  wife  of  Admetus,  king  of  Plierae, 
in  Thessaly.  Alcestis  is  the  subject  of  a  noble 
tragedy  by  Euripides,  which  Browning  has  trans¬ 
lated.  The  allusion  to  her  story  in  one  of  the 
finest  of  Milton’s  sonnets  will  be  remembered. 

Alchemy  is  to  modern  chemistry  what  astrol¬ 
ogy  is  to  astronomy,  or  legend  to  history.  In  the 
eye  of  the  astrologer,  a  knowledge  of  the  stars 
was  valuable  only  as  a  means  of  foretelling,  or 
even  of  influencing,  future  events.  In  like  man¬ 
ner,  the  genuine  alchemist  toiled  with  his  cruci¬ 
bles  and  alembics,  calcining,  subliming,  distill¬ 
ing,  not  with  a  view  to  discover  the  chemical 
properties  of  substances,  but  with  two  grand 
objects,  as  illusory  as  those  of  the  astrologer — to 
discover — namely,  (1)  the  secret  of  transmuting 
the  baser  metals  into  gold  and  silver,  and  (2)  the 
means  of  indefinitely  prolonging  human  life. 
Among  the  leading  practitioners  of  and  writers 
upon  alchemy  are  Hermes  Trismegistus,  Gebir, 
Roger  Bacon,  Thomas  Aquinias,  Raymond 
Lully,  Valentine,  and  Paracelsus.  They  were  not 
all  quacks,  and,  in  the  course  of  their  gropings 
after  the  impossible,  some  of  them  made  valuable 
discoveries.  The  so-called  science  has  now  fallen 
into  disuse. 

Alcibi '  ados,  son  of  Clinias  and  Deinomache, 
was  born  at  Athens  about  450  b.c.  He  lost  his 
father  in  the  battle  of  Coronea  (447),  so  was 
brought  up  in  the  house  of  his  kinsman,  Pericles. 


He  first  bore  arms  in  the  expedition  against  Poti- 
daea  (432  b.c.),  where  his  life  was  saved  by  Soc¬ 
rates — a  debt  which,  eight  years  later,  he  repaid 
at  Delium,  by  saving,  in  his  turn,  the  life  of  the 
philosopher.  He  seems  to  have  taken  no  part  in 
political  matters  till  after  the  death  of  the  dema¬ 
gogue  Cleon,  when  Nicias  brought  about  a  fifty 
years’  treaty  of  peace  between  Athens  and  Lace¬ 
daemon.  lie  defeated  the  Lacedaemonians  at 
Cynossema,  Abydos,  and  Cyzicus;  recovered 
Chalcedon  and  Byzantium,  and  restored  to  the 
Athenians  the  dominion  of  the  sea.  He  then 
returned  home,  and  was  received  with  general 
enthusiasm.  His  triumph,  however,  was  brief. 
He  was  sent  back  to  Asia  with  a  hundred  ships; 
but  his  own  ill-success  against  Andros,  and  the 
defeat  of  his  lieutenant  at  Notium,  enabled  his 
enemies  to  get  him  superseded  (406).  He  went 
into  exile  in  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  and  two 
years  later  crossed  over  to  Phrygia,  where  he  was 
killed  in  404  b.c. 

Alcipliron,  a  Greek  writer  of  epistles  noted  for 
elegance.  He  lived  about  180  a.d. 

Alci'ra  (ancient  Scebaticula),  a  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Valencia.  Pop.,  16,146. 

Alcmoe'on,  a  son  of  Amphiaraus  and  Eriphyle, 
was  one  of  the  heroes  who  took  part  in  the  suc¬ 
cessful  expedition  of  the  Epigoni  against  Thebes. 

Aleman,  one  of  the  earliest  Greek  lyric  poets, 
was  born  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century 
b.c.  at  Sardis,  in  Lydia,  but  lived,  first  as  a  slave, 
and  afterward  as  a  freedman,  in  Sparta. 

Alcock,  Sir  Rutherford,  K.C.B.,  was  born 
in  1809,  studied  medicine,  and  saw  three  years’ 
service  on  the  medical  staff  of  the  British  auxil 
iarii  s  in  Portugal  and  Spain  (1833  6).  Sent  out 
in  1844  as  a  British  consul  to  China,  he  was,  in 
1858,  made  consul-general  in  Japan,  and  next 
year  received  the  rank  of  minister-plenipotentiary. 
This  post  he  filled  until  1865,  from  which  year 
until  1871  he  was  envoy  to  the  Chinese  govern¬ 
ment. 

Alcohol  (Arab,  al-koh’l,  originally  designating 
a  collyrium,  a  very  fine  powder  of  antimony  for 
staining  the  eyelids;  afterward  essence,  spirits). 
Ordinary  or  ethyl  alcohol  is  a  limpid,  colorless 
liquid,  of  a  hot,  pungent  taste,  and  having  a 
slight  but  agreeable  smell.  It  is  the  characteristic 
ingredient  of  fermented  drinks,  gives  them  their 
intoxicating  quality,  and  is  obtained  from  them 
by  distillation.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important 
substances  produced  by  art.  Alcohol  occurs  in 
nature  in  several  growing  plants,  but  for  practical 
purposes  there  is,  however,  only  one  source  of 
alcohol — namely,  the  fermentation  of  sugar  or 
other  saccharine  matter. 

Owing  to  the  attraction  of  alcohol  for  water,  it 
is  impossible  to  procure  pure  alcohol  by  distilla¬ 
tion  alone.  Common' spirits,  such  as  brandy, 
whisky,  etc.,  contain  50  or  52  percent,  of  alcohol; 
in  other  words,  they  are  about  half  alcohol,  half 
water.  Proof-spirit,  which  is  the  standard  by 
means  of  which  all  mixtures  of  alcohol  and  water 
are  judged,  contains  57.27  percent,  by  volume, 
and  49.50  per  cent,  by  weight  of  alcohol.  The 
specific  gravity  of  proof-spirit  is  .9186;  and  when 
a  spirit  is  called  above  proof ,  it  denotes  that  it 
contains  an  excess  of  alcohol.  The  highest  con¬ 
centration  possible  by  distillation  gives  90  per 
cent,  of  alcohol,  still  leaving  10  per  cent,  of  water, 
but  this  can  be  removed  by  evaporation.  The 
formula  of  alcohol  is  C’2  II 5  OH.  In  100  pounds, 
therefore,  of  alcohol,  about  53  are  carbon,  13 
hydrogen,  and  34  oxygen.  Besides  the  alcohol 
consumed  in  wine,  beer,  and  spirits,  it  is  much 
employe®  in  pharmacy  and  in  the  arts.  It  is  a 
powerful  solvent  for  resins  and  oils;  and  hence  is 
employed  in  the  preparation  of  varnishes.  In 
Germany,  a  cheap  spirit  made  from  potatoes  is 
much  used  for  cooking  on  a  small  scale. 

Alcohol  is  of  a  double  use  to  the  chemist,  inas¬ 
much  as  it  furnishes  a  cleanly  and  valuable  fuel 
when  used  in  the  spirit-lamp,  and  possesses 
remarkable  solvent  powers  without  in  general 
exerting  chemical  action  on  the  dissolved  sub¬ 
stances.  It  dissolves  many  of  the  gases  more 
freely  than  water,  as,  for  example,  nitrous  oxide, 
carbonic  acid,  phospliuretted  hydrogen,  cyanogen, 
and  the  hydro  carbons,  a°,  for  instance,  ethylene. 
Amongst  the  mineral  substances  which  it  dissolves 
may  be  mentioned  iodine,  bromine,  boracic  acid, 
the  hydrates  of  potash  and  soda,  the  chlorides  of 


calcium,  strontium,  magnesium,  zinc,  platinum, 
and  gold,  the  perchloride  of  iron,  corrosive  sub¬ 
limate,  the  nitrates  of  lime,  magnesia,  etc.;  whilst 
amongst  organic  matters,  it  dissolves  many 
organic  acids,  bases,  and  neutral  bodies,  the 
resins,  the  soaps,  and  the  fats.  The  latter  dis¬ 
solve  more  freely  in  ether  than  in  alcohol.  The 
alcoholic  solutions  of  substances  used  in  medicine 
are  called  essences,  spirits,  and  tinctures. 

Alcoholism  is  the  term  employed  to  denote 
the  symptoms  of  disease  produced  by  alcoholic 
poisoning.  It  is  usual  to  consider  the  subject 
under  two  heads,  according  as  the  affection  is 
acute  or  chronic.  Acute  alcoholism,  which  is 
generally  caused  by  the  rapid  absorption  of  a  large 
quantity  of  alcohol,  commonly  begins  with  the 
same  train  of  symptoms — animation  of  manner, 
exaltation  of  spirits,  and  relaxation  of  judgment, 
which  lead  to  want  of  mental  control.  The  emo¬ 
tions  are  also  affected,  always  being  altered,  and 
of'en  perverted,  irregular  or  ataxic  in  character. 
The  mechanism  of  speech  is,  as  a  rule,  the  first  to 
suffer,  but  other  muscular  efforts  are  also  ren¬ 
dered  imperfect,  the  erect  posture  even  becoming 
impossible.  Mania  may  follow,  under  the  effects 
of  which  the  victim  of  alcoholism  commits  crimes 
almost  unknowingly,  and  death  may  ensue,  either 
from  paroxysms  or  coma,  especially  if  natural 
sleep  cannot  be  had. 

Chronic  alcoholism  is  caused  by  the  prolonged 
use  of  overdoses  of  various  alcoholic  drinks.  The 
drug  causes  changes  in  every  tissue  of  the  body, 
but  it  more  especially  affects  the  nervous,  respi¬ 
ratory,  and  circulatory  systems,  together  with  the 
liver  and  kidneys. 

But  of  all  the  symptoms  of  chronic  alcoholism 
those  connected  with  the  nervous  system  are  the 
most  characteristic.  The  moral  sense  is  impaired, 
the  will  power  weakened,  and  the  intellectual 
energies  enfeebled,  but  there  are  in  addition  two 
characteristic  results  of  the  poisonous  action  of 
the  drug  upon  the  central  nervous  structures. 
These  are  delirium  tremens  and  alcoholic  insanity. 
The  alcoholic  habit  annually  destroys  thousands 
of  lives,  and  its  radical  cure  appears  to  be  an  im¬ 
possibility. 

Alchoiom'etry  is  the  process  of  estimating 
the  percentage  of  absolute  alcohol  in  a  sample  of 
spirits. 

Al  coran.  See  Koran. 

Alcott,  Amos  B.,  was  born  in  Connecticut, 
Nov.  29,  1799.  He  taught  school,  and  wrote 
philosophical  works  and  pamphlets  on  ethics  and 
morals.  He  founded  a  community  in  Massachu¬ 
setts,  which  failed,  and  for  many  years  lectured 
on  dietetics  and  philosophy.  Alcott,  Wm.  A.,  a 
cousin  of  the  foregoing,  was  born  in  1798,  and 
died  in  1859.  He  was  distinguished  as  an  edu¬ 
cator  and  compiler  of  school  books. 

Alcott,  Louisa  May,  a  popular  American  au¬ 
thoress,  daughter  of  Amos  Bronson  Alcott,  born 
at  Germantown,  Penn.,  Nov.  29,  1832,  began  to 
write  at  an  early  age,  and  published  her  first 
book,  Floicer  Fables,  in  1855.  Little  Women  (1868) 
and  many  other  stories  for  children  have  been 
published,  and  Miss  Alcott  has  contributed  to  the 
magazines. 

Alcove  (Spanish  alcova,  from  the  Arabic  al- 
gobbali,  the  vault)  a  recess  or  part  of  a  chamber  in 
which  a  bed  of  state  or  seats  may  be  placed.  It 
is  shut  off  by  a  balustrade,  or  by  draperies. 

Alcoy,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Spain.  In 
1873  it  was  the  scene  of  a  rising  of  the  Spanish 
International.  Pop.  (1878),  32,497. 

Alcudia,  Manuel  de  Godoy,  Duke  of,  a 
Spanish  statesman,  was  born  at  Badajoz,  May  12, 
1767.  Ilis  handsome  figure  and  agreeable  man¬ 
ners  soon  gained  him  the  favor  of  the  queen  and 
of  the  weak  king,  Charles  IV.  He  was  succes¬ 
sively  made  Duke  of  Alcudia,  a  generalissimo  of 
the  forces,  and  prime  minister  in  1792.  He  re¬ 
ceived  the  title  of  “Prince  of  the  Peace”  for  his 
share  in  the  treaty  with  France,  concluded  at 
Basel  in  1795.  His  power,  which  was  at  its 
height  in  1807,  from  that  time  began  to  decline. 
When  the  king  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  in 
1808,  Alcudia’s  life  was  only  saved  by  tlie  prom¬ 
ise  of  a  trial.  This  trial,  however,  never  took 
place.  Napoleon,  who  knew  his  influence  over 
the  mind  of  the  Spanish  king,  had  him  liberated, 
and  brought  to  Bayonne,  where  he  instigated  all 
measures  taken  by  the  ex-king  and  queen.  After 


ALCYONIUM. 


29 


ALEMBIC. 


A  stock  of  Alcyonium,  showing 
individual  Polyps. 


the  death  of  Charles  IV.  he  lived  at  Paris,  and 
received  a  small  pension.  He  died  in  Paris,  Oct. 
7,  1851. 

Alcyonium,  or  Dead  Men’s  Fingers,  a  com¬ 
mon  cselenterate  of  the  sub-class  Actinozoa,  be¬ 
longing  to  the  same  order  as  the  sea-pen  and  red 

coral.  It  is  often 
found  on  the  sea¬ 
shore,  a  lump  of 
lobed  matter  at¬ 
tached  to  stones 
and  shells.  The 
whole  clump, 
which  is  about 
the  size  of  a  man’s 
hand,  is  not  one 
animal,  but  a  col¬ 
ony.  When  un¬ 
disturbed  the  indi¬ 
vidual  polyps  may 
be  seen  projecting 
from  the  surface 
like  miniature  sea- 
anemones,  about 
the  size  of  a 
snail’s  horns. 

Each  polyp  con¬ 
sists  of  a  contract¬ 
ile  tube,  with  a 
crown  of  tenta¬ 
cles  round  a  slit¬ 
like  mouth,  and 
with  the  margin  of  the  latter  prolonged  inwards 
to  form  an  inner  stomach  tube,  connected  with 
the  outer  wall  by  radial  parti¬ 
tions  or  mesenteries.  So  far 
the  general  structure  is  that 
of  a  sea-anemone.  A  giant 
species  ( Alcyonium  poculum), 
found  on  the  coral  reefs  of 
Sumatra  and  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  Singapore,  attains 
nearly  three  feet  in  height  and 
eighteen  inches  in  diameter. 

Aide '  baran,  the  Arabic 
name  of  a  star  of  the  first  mag¬ 
nitude  in  the  constellation 
Taurus.  It  is  the  largest  and 
most  brilliant  of  a  cluster  of 
five  which  the  Greeks  called 
the  Hyades. 

Aldehyde,  CH3COH,  is  a  volatile  fluid  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  oxidation  and  destructive  distillation 
of  alcohol  and  other  organic  compounds.  It 
mixes  in  all  proportions  with  water,  alcohol,  and 
ether,  and  dissolves  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and 
iodine.  Aldehydes  are  a  class  of  organic  com¬ 
pounds  intermediate  between  primary  alcohols 
and  acids.  Each  aldehyde  is  derived  from  the 
corresponding  alcohol  by  the  abstraction  of  two 
atoms  of  hydrogen,  and  each  aldehyde  is  con¬ 
verted  into  its  corresponding  acid  by  the  addition 
of  one  atom  of  oxygen. 

Alden,  John,  one  of  the  original  Mayflower 
immigrants,  and  friend  of  Miles  Standisli.  See 
Longfellow’s  “Courtship  of  Miles  Standisli,” 
which  tells  how  John  acted  as  ambassador  on 
Standish’s  behalf  to  a  Puritan  maiden  named 
Priscilla,  whom  he  married  himself  when  the 
lady  asked,  “  Why  don’t  you  speak  for  yourself, 
John?” 


Small  Portion  of  a 
Colony. 


Common  Alder  ( Almis  glutinosa) . 

Alder  (Alans),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Betulacete  (regarded  by  many  as  a  sub-order 


of  Amentacete).  The  genus  consists  entirely  of 
trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  cold  and  temperate 
climates;  the  flowers  in  terminal,  imbricated  cat¬ 
kins,  which  appear  before  the  leaves;  the  male 
and  female  flowers  in  separate  catkins  on  the 
same  plant;  fruit,  a  compressed  nut  without 
wings.  The  Common  or  Black  Aldek  (A. 
glutinosa)  is  a  native  of  Britain,  and  of  the  north¬ 
ern  parts  of  Asia  and  America.  It  succeeds  best 
in  moist  soils,  and  helps  to  secure  swampy  river- 
banks  against  the  effects  of  floods.  It  attains 
a  height  of  thirty  to  sixty  feet.  The  wood  is  of 
an  orange-yellow  color,  not  very  good  for  fuel, 
but  affording  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  charcoal  for 
the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  Tiie  Guay  or 
White  Alder  (A.  incana),  a  native  of  many 
parts  of  continental  Europe,  especially  of  the 
Alps,  and  also  of  North  America  and  of  Kamt- 
cliatka,  differs  from  the  common  alder  in  having 
acute  leaves,  downy  beneath,  and  not  glutinous. 
It  attains  a  rather  greater  height,  but  in  very 
cold  climates  and  unfavorable  situations  appears 
as  a  shrub.  The  wood  is  white,  fine  grained,  and 
compact,  but  readily  rots  under  water.  The  bark 
is  used  in  dyeing. 

Aldermau,  a  title  derived  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  ealdorman,  compounded  of  ealdor  (older) 
and  man.  In  modern  times,  aldermen  are  officers 
invested  with  certain  powers  in  municipal  corpo¬ 
rations,  cither  as  councillors  or  as  magistrates,  or 
both.  The  office  is  elective. 

Alderney  (Fr.  Aurigny,  Lat.  Biduna),  a  Brit¬ 
ish  island  in  the  English  Channel,  thirty-one 
miles  north  of  Jersey,  and  ten  west  of  Cape  la 
Hague.  The  Race  of  Alderney,  or  strait  that 
separates  it  from  the  coast  of  Normandy,  is  very 
dangerous  in  stormy  weather.  The  length  of  the 
island  is  four  and  one-fourth  miles;  its  extreme 
breadth,  one  and  one-half  miles;  and  its  area  is 
1,962  acres,  or  three  square  miles.  The  Caskets 
are  a  small  cluster  of  dangerous  rocks,  six  and 
three-fourths  miles  to  the  west,  on  which  are  three 
lighthouses.  The  soil  in  the  centre  of  the  island 
is  highly  productive;  and  the  Alderney  cattle,  a 
small  but  handsome  breed,  have  always  been 
celebrated.  The  climate  is  mild  and  healthy, 
and  good  water  abounds.  The  population  was 
originally  French,  but  half  the  inhabitants  now 
speak  English,  and  all  understand  it.  Protest¬ 
antism  has  prevailed  here  since  the  Reformation. 
Alderney  is  a  dependency  of  Guernsey,  and  sub¬ 
ject  to  the  British  crown.  Pop.  of  island  (1881), 
2,048. 

Aldershot  Camp,  a  permanent  camp  of  exer¬ 
cise  on  the  confines  of  Hampshire,  Surrey,  and 
Berkshire,  thirty-five  miles  southwest  of  London, 
England.  It  was  established  in  1855  after  the 
Crimean  war,  to  provide  for  practical  instruction 
in  tactics,  outpost  duties,  and  other  military  exer¬ 
cises.  There  are  usually  from  10,000  to  15,000 
troops  of  all  arms  at  the  camp,  several  militia 
battalions  under  canvas  during  the  summer,  and 
many  volunteers  who  spend  fourteen  days  at  a 
time  in  tents.  Similar  camps  exist  at  the  Curragh 
of  Kildare  in  Ireland,  and .  at  Shorncliffe  near 
Dover;  but  that  at  Aldershot  is  at  the  same  time 
the  largest  and  most  complete  garrison  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  the  headquarters  of  practi¬ 
cal  military  work  in  the  field. 

Aid  holm,  St.,  born  about  640,  was  educated  at 
Malmesbury  and  Canterbury,  and  became  Abbot 
of  Malmesbury  about  673,  Bishop  of  Sherborne  in 
705.  He  died  in  709. 

Aldine  Editions,  the  name  given  to  the 
works  that  issued  (1490-1597)  from  the  press  of 
Aldo  Manuzio  and  his  family  in  Venice.  Recom¬ 
mended  by  their  intrinsic  value,  as  well  as  by 
their  handsome  exterior,  they  have  been  highly 
prized  by  the  learned  and  by  book-collectors. 
Many  of  them  are  the  first  editions  ( editiones  prin- 
cipes)  of  Greek  and  Roman  classics;  others  con¬ 
tain  corrected  texts  of  modern  classic  writers,  as 
of  Petrarch,  Dante,  or  Boccaccio,  carefully  col¬ 
lated  with  the  MSS.  All  of  them  are  distinguished 
for  the  remarkable  correctness  of  the  typog¬ 
raphy;  the  Greek  works,  however,  being  in  this 
respect  somewhat  inferior  to  the  Latin  and 
Italian.  The  editions  published  by  Aldo  Man¬ 
uzio  (1450-1515),  the  father,  form  an  epoch  in 
the  annals  of  printing,  as  they  contributed  in  no 
ordinary  measure  to  the  perfecting  of  types.  The 
printing  establishment  founded  by  Aldo  con- 


1  tinued  in  active  operation  for  100  years,  and 
during  this  time  printed  908  different  works, 
j  The  distinguishing  mark  is  an  anchor,  en- 
|  twined  by  a  dolphin,  with  the  motto  either  of 
I  Festina  lente  or  of  Sudavit  et  alsit.  The  demand 
which  arose  for  editions  from  this  office,  and 
especially  for  the  earlier  ones,  induced  the  print¬ 
ers  of  Lyons  and  Florence,  about  1502,  to  begin 
the  system  of  issuing  counterfeit  Aldines.  The 
Aldo-mania  has  considerably  diminished  in  later 
times. 

Aldred  (also  Ealdred  or  Aired)  wras  succes¬ 
sively  during  the  lltli  century,  Abbot  of  Tavi¬ 
stock,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  and  Archbishop  of 
York.  Aldred  died  Sept.  11,  1069.  See  Vols.  II. 
to  IV.  of  Freeman’s  Borman  Conquest. 

Aldrich,  Henry,  born  at  Westminster  in 
1647,  passed  in  1662  from  Westminster  School  to 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  of  which  he  became  a 
canon  in  1682,  and  dean  in  1689.  He  designed 
the  Peckwater  Quadrangle,  and  wrrote  the  well- 
known  catch,  “  Hark,  the  bonny  Christ  Church 
Bells.”  He  died  Dec.  14,  1710. 

Aldrich,  Thomas  Bailey,  poet  and  novelist, 
was  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  IL,  Nov.  11,  1836. 
He  began  to  contribute  verse  to  the  news¬ 
papers,  and  soon  after  the  publication  of  The  Bells 
(1855),  adopted  journalism  as  a  profession.  He 
contributed  in  prose  and  verse  to  some  of  the 
principal  magazines,  and  became  editor  of  the 
Atlantic  Monthly  in  1881.  Through  his  prose, 
Aldrich  has  taken  a  high  place  for  descriptive 
power  and  gift  of  humor;  his  verse  includes  some 
of  the  dantiest  work  yet  produced  in  America. 

Aldridge,  Ira,  negro  tragedian,  born  in  1804 
at  Belair,  near  Baltimore,  Md.  In  1826  he  went 
to  England  as  a  valet  to  Edmund  Kean.  He 
made  his  debut  as  “  Othello”  at  Covent  Garden, 
London,  in  1839,  played  in  the  provinces  till 
1852,  and  afterwards  visited  the  Continent.  He 
died  in  Poland,  Aug.  7,  1867. 

Aldrovandi,  Ulysses,  one  of  the  most  dis¬ 
tinguished  naturalists  of  the  16th  century,  was 
born  at  Bologna  in  1522.  In  1550  he  was  im¬ 
prisoned  as  a  heretic  at  Rome;  and  after  his  libera¬ 
tion  wrote  a  treatise  on  ancient  statuary.  Hav¬ 
ing  taken  his  degree  in  medicine  at  the  University 
of  Bologna  in  1553,  he  occupied  successively  the 
chairs  of  botany  and  natural  history  there,  and 
practiced  medicine  for  some  time.  He  estab¬ 
lished  the  Botanical  Garden  at  Bologna  in  1567, 
and  wrote  a  work  on  natural  history,  the  first 
volume  of  which — on  Birds — appeared  in  1599. 
Six  volumes  appeared  during  Aldrovandi’s  life; 
other  seven  were  published  from  his  manuscripts 
after  his  death,  which  took  place  in  1605.  His 
work  on  Botany  was  also  of  great  importance, 
and  he  was  the  first  to  collect  a  real  herbarium, 
as  the  word  is  now  understood. 

Ale  would  seem  to  have  been  the  current  name 
in  England  for  malt  liquor  in  general  before  the 
introduction  of  hops  from  the  Netherlands,  about 
the  year  1524.  The  two  names,  ale  and  beer,  are 
both  Teutonic,  and  seem  originally  to  have  been 
synonymous.  The  word  ale  is  still  the  name  for 
malt  liquor  in  the  Scandinavian  tongues  (Swedish, 
Danish,  and  Icelandic,  61).  The  hopped  liquor 
came  to  be  called  beer,  and  now  this  is  the  generic 
name  in  the  trade  for  all  malt  liquors.  Burton 
ale  is  the  strongest  made,  containing  as  much  as 
8  per  cent,  of  alcohol;  while  the  best  brown 
stout  lias  about  6  per  cent.,  and  table-beer  only 
1  or  2  per  cent.  India  pale  ale  differs  chiefly  in 
having  a  larger  quantity  of  hops. 

Alemau,  Mateo,  a  famous  Spanish  novelist, 
was  born  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  at  Seville,  and  died  in  Mexico  in  1610. 

Alcmanni,  the  name  of  a  confederacy  of  seve¬ 
ral  German  tribes  which  began  to  appear  in  the 
country  between  the  Main  and  the  Danube  about 
the  beginning  of  the  third  century.  Caracalla  (in 
211  a.  d.)  and  Alexander  Severus  fought  against 
them  unsuccessfully;  but  Maximinus  at  length 
drove  them  beyond  the  Rhine.  From  the  Alc¬ 
manni  the  French  have  given  the  name  of  Alle- 
mands  and  Allemagne  to  Germans  and  Germany 
in  general,  though  the  proper  descendants  of  the 
Alcmanni  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  north  of 
Switzerland,  of  Alsace,  and  part  of  Swabia. 

Alembic  (Arab,  al-anbiq,  the  still)  is  a  form 
of  still  introduced  into  chemistry  by  the  alchem¬ 
ists,  and  used  by  the  more  ancient  experimenters 


ALEMTEJO. 


30 


ALEXANDER. 


in  manipulative  chemistry  for  the  distillation  and 
sublimation  of  substances  such  as  alcohol,  or 
formic  acid,  obtained  by  heating  a  decoction  of 
red  ants  in  water. 

Alemte  'jo,  a  province  in  the  south  of  Portugal, 
with  an  area  of  9,381  squat  e  miles.  The  chief 
towns  are  Evora  (the  capital),  Elvas,  and  Portal- 
egre.  Pop.  (1881),  367,169. 

Alen'gon,  chief  town  of  the  Norman  depart¬ 
ment  of  Orne,  on  the  Sarthe,  sixty-eight  miles 
south-southeast  of  Caen.  The  cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame  (1553-1617)  is  a  Gothic  edifice,  with  good 
stained  glass,  and  the  remains  of  the  tombs  of  the 
Alen(:on  family,  which  were  almost  completely 
destroyed  at  the  Revolution.  The  manufacture 
of  the  famous  Alengon  point-lac elpointd'  Alengon) 
employs  barely  a  tenth  part  of  the  20,000  hands 
that  once  engaged  in  it.  Pop.  (1881),  15,939. 

The  old  Dukes  of  Alenijon  were  a  branch  of  the 
royal  family  of  Yalois,  being  descended  from 
Charles  of  Valois,  who  perished  at  the  battle  of 
Crecy  in  1346.  More  recently  the  title  has  been 
borne  by  the  son  of  the  Due  de  Nemours,  who 
was  a  son  of  Louis  Philippe. 

Aleppo  (Italianized  form  of  Haleb),  a  town  in 
the  north  of  Syria,  capital  of  a  Turkish  province 
between  the  Orontes  and  the  Euphrates.  Form¬ 
erly  it  was  a  principal  emporium  of  trade 
between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  was  the  centre  of 
many  of  the  chief  trade  routes,  especially  before 
the  discovery  of  the  sea  route"  to  India ;  but  in 
1822  an  earthquake  swallowed  up  two-thirds  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  transformed  the  citadel  into 
a  heap  of  ruins.  The  p'ague  of  1827,  the  cholera 
of  1832,  and  the  oppression  of  the  Egyptian  Gov¬ 
ernment,  all  but  completed  its  destruction.  Its 
port  is  Alexandretta  or  Scander.  on.  The  trade 
is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  native  Chris¬ 
tians  (Greeks  and  Armenians),  who  number 
20,000,  and  have  superseded  the  European  houses 
that  used  to  be  established  here.  The  Jews,  5,000 
in  number,  are  a  very  important  and  wealthy 
community,  occupying  a  special  quarter  of  the 
city.  The  Mohammedans  here  are  less  bigoted 
than  in  some  other. cities  of  Syria;  but  religious 
riots  sometimes  occur — notably  in  1850  and  1862. 
The  pop.,  usually  stated  at  70,000,  was  estimated 
in  1883  at  125,000. 

Alesia,  a  town  in  the  east  of  ancient  Gaul,  the 
siege  and  capture  of  which  formed  one  of  Caesar’s 
greatest  exploits.  Vercingetorix,  after  several 
defeats,  had  shut  himself  up  with  80,000  Gauls  in 
Alesia,  which  was  situated  on  a  lofty  hill.  Caesar, 
with  his  army  of  60,000  men,  completely  sur¬ 
rounded  the  place;  and,  in  spite  of  the  desperate 
efforts  of  the  besieged,  the  town  was  obliged  to 
surrender. 

Alesins,  Alexander,  a  noted  divine  and 
Reformer,  whose  name  was  originally  Alane,  was 
born  in  Edinburgh  on  April  23,  1500.  He  was 
successively  appointed  to  a  theological  chair  in 
the  Universities  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  and 
Leipzig;  and  had  an  active  and  influential 
share  in  several  episodes  of  the  Reformation  in 
Germany.  He  died  at  Leipzig,  March  17,  1565. 
He  wrote  some  thirty  exegetical  and  polemical 
works. 

Alessandria,  the  principal  fortress  and  town 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name  in  the  north  of 
Italy,  is  situated  in  a  marshy  country  near  the 
confluence  of  the  Bormida  and  Tanaro,  fifty-eight 
miles  east-southeast  of  Turin.  It  was  built  in 
1168,  taken  and  plundered  in  1522  by  DukeSforza; 
besieged  by  the  French  in  1657;  and  again  taken 
by  Prince  Eugene  in  1707.  In  1800,  Bonaparte 
here  concluded  an  armistice.  It  was  the  principal 
stronghold  of  the  Piedmontese  during  the  insur¬ 
rection  of  1848-9.  The  citadel  is  still  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  Italy.  Pop.  (1881),  30,761. 

Aletscli,  the  largest  glacier  (twelve  and  a  half 
miles  long)  in  Europe,  sweeps  round  the  southern 
.side  of  the  Jungfrau.  Following  the  valley  in  a 
majestic  curve,  it  is  distinguished  by  the  title 
Great  Aletsch  from  i:s  two  tribut  iry  glaciers,  the 
Upper  and  Middle  Aletsch,  which  branch  off  to 
the  northwest. 

Aleutian  Islands.  These  comprise  about  150 
islands,  west  of  the  Aliaskan  Peninsula,  and  form¬ 
ing  part  of  the  Territory  of  Alaska.  They  contain 
numerous  volcanic  peaks,  some  8,000  feet  high, 
and  are  mostly  barren  and  rocky.  The  inhabit¬ 


ants  are  Eskimo,  and  number  about  2,000.  They 
live  by  hunting  and  fishing,,  and  some  valuable 
furs  are  obtained  here. 

Alewife  (Alosa  tyrannvs),  a  fish  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  Shad,  which,  in  the  end  of  spring 
and  beginning  of  summer,  appears  in  great  num¬ 
bers  on  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America,  and 
enters  the  mouths  of  rivers  to  spawn.  It  appears 
in  Chesapeake  Bay  in  March,  on  the  coasts  of  New 
York  and  New  England  in  April,  and  on  those  of 
the  British  provinces  about  the  1st  of  May.  It 
abounds  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  but  is  more  rare  in 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence;  and  the  Bay  of  Mira- 
michi  appears  to  be  its  northern  limit.  It  ascends 
rivers  only  as  far  as  the  tide  extends,  and  after 
spawning  returns  to  the  sea  in  the  middle  of  sum¬ 
mer. 

Alexander  the  Great,  son  of  Philip  of  Mace- 
don  and  Olympias,  daughter  of  Neoptolemus  of 
Epirus,  was  born  at  Pella,  356  b.  c.  His  mind 
was  formed  chiefly  by  Aristotle,  who  instructed 
him  in  every  branch  of  human  learning,  especially 
in  the  art  of  government.  Alexander  was  sixteen 
years  of  age  when  his  father  marched  against 
Byzantium,  and  left  the  government  in  his  hands 
during  his  absence.  Two  years  afterward  he  dis¬ 
played  singular  courage  at  the  battle  of  Clioeronea 
(338  b.c  ),  where  he  overthrew  the  Sacred  Band 
of  the  Thebans.  Philip,  being  appointed  general¬ 
issimo  of  the  Greeks,  was  preparing  for  a  war  with 
Persia  when  lie  was  assassinated  (336  b.  c.),  and 
Alexander,  not  yet  twenty  years  of  age,  ascended 
the  throne.  A'ter  punishing  his  father's  mur¬ 
derers  he  marched  on  Corinth,  and  in  a  general 
assembly  of  the  Greeks  caused  himself  to  be 
appointed  to  the  command  of  the  forces  against 
Persia.  On  his  return  to  Macedon  he  found  the 
Illyrians  and  Triballi  up  in  arms,  whereupon  lie 
forced  his  way  through  Thrace,  and  was  every¬ 
where  victorious.  Alexander  marched  against 
Thebes,  which,  refusing  to  surrender,  was  con¬ 
quered  and  razed  to  the  ground.  Six  thousand 
of  the  inhabitants  were  slain,  and  30,000  sold  into 
slavery,  the  house  and  descendants  of  the  poet 
Pindar  alone  being  spared.  This  severity  struck 
terror  into  all  Greece.  The  Athenians  were  treated 
with  more  leniency. 

Alexander  crossed  the  Hellespont  in  the  spring 
of  334  b.  c.,  with  30,000  foot  and  5,000  lioise, 
attacked  the  Persian  satraps  at  the  river  Graui- 
cus  and  gained  a  complete  victory,  overthrowing 
the  son-in-law  of  Darius  with  his  own  lance.  As 
a  result  of  the  battle  most  of  the  cities  of  Asia 
Minor  opened  their  gates  to  the  conqueror.  Alex¬ 
ander  restored  democracy  in  all  the  Greek  cities, 
and  as  he  passed  through  Gordium,  cut  the  Gor¬ 
dian  knot,  which  none  should  loose  but  the  ruler 
of  Asia.  He  then  advanced  towards  the  defiles  of 
Cilicia, in  which  Darius  had  stationed  himself  with 
an  army  of  600,000  men.  He  ariived  in  Nov.,  333 
b.  c.,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Issus,  where  the 
unwieldy  masses  of  the  Persians  were  thrown  into 
confusion  by  the  charge  of  the  Macedonians  and 
fled  in  terror.  All  the  treasures  as  well  as  the  family 
of  Darius  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conqueror, 
who  treated  them  with  the  greatest  magnanimity. 
Overtures  for  peace  made  by  Darius  on  the  basis 
of  surrendering  to  Alexander  all  Asia  west  of  the 
Euphrates  were  rejected.  Alexander  occupied 
Damascus,  where  he  found  princely  treasures,  and 
secured  to  himself  all  the  cities  along  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean.  Tyre  resisted  him,  but 
was  conquered  and  destroyed ,  (332  b.  c.)  Thence 
he  marched  victoriously  through  Palestine,  where 
all  the  cities  submitted  to  him  except  Gaza;  it 
shared  the  same  fate  as  Tyre.  Egypt,  weary  of 
the  Persian  yoke,  welcomed  him  as  a  deliverer. 
He  restored  all  the  o'd  customs  and  religious 
institutions  of  the  country,  and  founded  Alex¬ 
andria  in  the  beginning  of  331  b.  c.  Thence  he 
marched  through  the  Libyan  Desert,  in  order  to 
consult  the  oracle  of  Ammon,  whose  priest  saluted 
him  as  a  son  of  Zeus;  and  he  returned  with  the 
conviction  that  he  was  indeed  a  god  He  then 
again  set  out  to  meet  Darius.  In  October,  331 
b.  c.,  a  great  battle  was  fought  on  the  plain 
stretching  eastward  to  Arbela.  Notwithstanding 
the  immense  superiority  of  his  adversary,  who 
had  collected  a  uewr  army  of  more  than  a  million 
men,  Alexander,  heading  the  cavalry  himself, 
rushed  on  the  Persians  and  put  them  to  flight; 
then  hastened  to  the  assistance  of  his  left  wing, 


which,  in  the  meanwhile,  had  been  sorely  pressed. 
Darius  escaped  on  horseback,  leaving  his  baggage 
and  all  his  treasures  a  prey  to  the  conqueror. 
Babylon  and  Susa,  the  treasure-houses  of  the 
East,  opened  their  gates  to  Alexander,  who  next 
marched  towards  Persepolis,  the  capital  of  Persia, 
which  he  entered  in  triumph. 

The  marvelous  successes  of  Alexander  now 
began  to  dazzle  his  judgment,  and  to  inflame  his 
passions.  He  became  a  slave  to  debauchery,  and  in 
a  tit  of  drunkenness,  and  at  the  instigate  n  of 
Thais,  an  Athenian  courtesan,  he  set  fire  to  Per¬ 
sepolis,  the  wonder  of  the  world,  and  reduced  it 
to  a  heap  of  ashes.  In  329  he  penetrated  to  the 
furthest  known  limits  of  Northern  Asia,  and 
overthrew  the  Scythians  on  the  banks  of  the 
Jaxartes.  In  the  following  year  he  subdued  the 
whole  of  Sogdiana,  and  married  Roxana,  whom 
he  had  taken  prisoner.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Oxyartes,  one  of  the  enemy’s  captains,  and  was 
said  to  be  the  fairest  of  all  the  virgins  of  Asia. 
The  murder  of  his  foster-brother,  Clitus,  in  a 
drunken  brawl,  was  followed  in  327  b.  c.  by  the 
discovery  of  a  fresh  conspiracy  in  which  Callis- 
tlienes,  a  nephew  of  Aristotle,  was  falsely  impli¬ 
cated.  For  challenging  Alexander’s  divinity  he 
was  cruelly  tortured  and  hanged. 

In  326  b.  c.,  proceeding  to  the  conquest  of 
India,  hitherto  known  only  by  name,  Alexander 
crossed  the  Indus  near  to  the  modern  Attock,  and 
pursued  his  way  under  the  guidance  of  a  native 
prince  to  the  Hydaspes  (Jhelum).  He  there  was 
opposed  by  Porus,  another  native  prince,  whom 
he  overthrew  after  a  bloody  contest,  and  there  he 
lost  his  charger  Bucephalus;  thence  he  marched 
as  lord  of  the  country  through  the  Punjab,  estab¬ 
lishing  Greek  colonies.  On  regaining  the  Hydas¬ 
pes  lie  built  a  fleet  and  sent  one  division  of  his 
army  init  down  the  river,  while  the  other  followed 
along  the  hanks  fighting  its  way  through  successive 
Indian  armies.  Having  reached  the  ocean  he 
ordered  Nearchus,  the  commander  of  the  fleet,  to 
sail  thence  to  the  Persian  Gulf,  while  he  himself 
struck  inland  with  one  division  of  his  army  in 
order  to  return  home  through  Gedrosia  (Beluchis- 
tan).  During  this  march  his  forces  suffered  fear¬ 
fully  from  want  of  food  and  water.  Of  all  the 
troops  which  had  set  out  with  Alexander,  little 
more  than  a  fourth  part  arrived  with  him  in  Per¬ 
sia,  (325  b.  c.)  As  lie  was  returning  from  Ecba- 
tana  to  Babylon  it  is  said  that  the  Magi  foretold 
that  the  latter  city  would  prove  fatal  to  him,  but 
he  despised  their  warnings.  At  Babylon  he  was 
busy  with  gigantic  plans  for  the  future,  both  of 
conquest  and  civilization,  when  he  was  suddenly 
taken  ill  after  a  banquet  and  died  eleven  days 
later,  323  b.  c.,  in  the  thirty-second  year  of  his 
age  and  the  thirteenth  of  his  reign.  His  body  was 
deposited  in  a  golden  coffin  at  Alexandria  by 
Ptolema  us,  and  divine  honors  were  paid  to  him, 
not.  only  in  Egypt,  but  in  other  countries.  The 
empire  of  Alexander  soon  broke  up,  and  his 
dominions  were  divided  amongst  his  generals. 

Alexander  was  more  than  a  conqueror.  He 
diffused  the  language  and  civilization  of  Greece 
wherever  victory  *jed  him,  and  planted  Greek 
kingdoms  in  Asia,  which  continued  to  exist  for 
some  centuries.  At  the  very  time  of  his  death  he 
was  engaged  in  devising  plans  for  the  drainage 
of  the  unhealthy  marshes  around  Babylon,  and  a 
better  irrigation  of  the  extensive  plains.  To 
Alexander  the  ancient  world  owed  avast  increase 
of  its  knowledge  in  geography,  natural  history, 
etc.  He  taught  Europeans  the  road  to  India,  and 
gave  them  the  first  glimpses  of  that  magnificence 
and  splendor  which  have  dazzled  and  captivated 
their  imagination  for  more  than  two  thousand 
years.  See  Freeman’s  Historical  Essays  (second 
series,  1873),  and  Maliaffy’s  Alexander’s  Empire 
(1887). 

Alexander  I.,  king  of  Scotland,  the  fourth  son 
of  Malcolm  Canmore,  was  born  about  1078,  and 
died  at  Stirling  in  1124. 

Alexander  II.,  born  at  Haddington  in  1198. 
succeeded  his  father,  William  the  Lion,  in  1214. 
The  first  act  of  his  reign  was  to  enter  into  a  league 
with  the  English  barons  who  had  combined  to 
resist  the  tyranny  of  King  John.  This  drew 
down  upon  him  and  his  kingdom  the  papal  excom- 
munication,  but  two  years  later  the  ban  was 
removed,  and  the  liberties  of  the  Scottish  Church 
were  even  confirmed.  In  1249  while  engaged  in 


ALEXANDER. 


31 


ALEXANDRIA. 


an  expedition  to  wrest  the  Hebrides  from  Nor¬ 
way,  Alexander  died  of  fever  at  Kerrera,  a  small 
island  opposite  Oban.  During  his  reign  Argyll 
and  Galloway  were  brought  into  subjection  to 
the  crown. 

Alexander  III.,  born  in  1241,  succeeded  his 
father,  Alexander  II. ,  at  the  age  of  eight,  and 
two  years  later  married  the  Princess  Margaret, 
eldest  daughter  of  Henry  III.  of  England  (1251). 
He  fought  and  defeated  Haco,  King  of  Norway, 
and  was  killed  by  a  fall  from  his  horse,  March 
12,  1286. 

Alexander  I.,  Emperor  and  Autocrat  of  All  the 
Russias  (1801-25),  was  born  in  1777.  His  father, 
Paul,  had  no  control  over  his  education;  it  was  con¬ 
ducted  by  his  grandmother,  the  Empress  Cathar¬ 
ine,  with  the  help  chiefly  of  Laliarpe,  a  Swiss,  and 
the  young  prince  was  brought  up  in  the  most 
advanced  and  enlightened  opinions  of  the  eight¬ 
eenth  century.  His  mother  was  Maria  of  Wur- 
temberg.  In  1793  he  married  Elizalie  h  of  Baden, 
and,  on  the  assassination  of  his  father  in  1801, 
succeeded  him  upon  the  throne.  Alexander  knew 
of  the  conspiracy  to  dethrone  his  father,  but  he 
was  in  no  way  privy  to  his  murder. 

The  accession  of  Alexander  was  most  distinctly 
felt  in  the  conduct  of  foreign  affairs.  In  1801  he 
concluded  a  convention  putting  an  end  to  hostil¬ 
ities  with  England.  He  broke  with  France,  and 
joined  the  coalition  of  1805.  He  was  present  at 
the  battle  of  Austerlitz,  where  the  allied  armies  of 
Austria  and  Russia  were  defeated,  and  retired  with 
the  remains  of  his  forces  into  Russia,  declining  to 
enter  into  the  treaty  that  followed.  Next  year  he 
came  forward  as  the  ally  of  Prussia;  but  after  the 
battles  of  Eylau  and  Friedland,  in  1807,  he  was 
obliged  to  conclude  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  and  pre¬ 
vented  the  restoration  of  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 
During  the  war  with  France,  Alexander  had  also 
to  carry  on  hostilities  with  Persia  and  with 
Turkey. 

In  pursuance  of  the  stipulations  of  Tilsit,  Alex¬ 
ander  acceded  with  his  huge  empire  to  the  French 
continental  system,  thus  altering  entirely  the 
foreign  policy  of  Russia.  He  began  by  declaring 
war  on  England  in  1808,  and,  attacking  her  ally 
Sweden,  wrested  from  that  country  the  province 
of  Finland.  In  the  war  of  France  against  Aus¬ 
tria  in  1809,  Alexander  took  only  a  lukewarm  part. 
Against  the  Porte  he  renewed  the  war,  which  was 
continued  till  the  peace  of  Bucharest  in  1812. 

The  unnatural  alliance  of  Alexander  with  Na¬ 
poleon  could  not,  however,  be  maintained.  The 
proffers  of  alliance  by  England  and  Sweden 
awoke  in  Alexander  the  thought  of  a  decisive 
contest  against  the  subjugator  of  Europe  and  the 
disturber  of  the  peace  of  the  world.  When  this 
gigantic  struggle  at  last  began  (1812),  Russia 
brought  into  the  field  an  army  of  800,000  men. 
During  the  French  invasion,  Alexander  was  not 
present  with  his  troops,  but  he  took  an  active  part 
in  the  great  struggles  of  1813  and  1814.  At  the 
occupation  of  Paris  after  the  downfall  of  Na¬ 
poleon  in  1814,  Alexander  was  the  central  figure  of 
the  politics  and  diplomacy  of  the  times.  On  the 
return  of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  Alexander  urged 
the  energetic  prosecution  of  the  war  against  the 
common  enemy. 

In  the  end  of  Oct.  1815,  Alexander  returned 
to  his  own  dominions.  Under  his  guidance,  Rus¬ 
sia  had  become  the  leading  power  on  the  Con¬ 
tinent.  The  most  important  political  outcome  of 
this  period  was  the  Holy  Alliance,  founded  by 
Alexander,  and  accepted  by  all  the  leading  Chris¬ 
tian  countries  of  Europe,  except  Britain.  Alex¬ 
ander  yielded  to  the  influence  of  Metternich,  the 
celebrated  Austrian  statesman,  and  the  Holy  Alli¬ 
ance  became  an  instrument  of  political  reaction 
throughout  Europe.  At  home  he  adopted  severe 
measures  of  repression,  which  were  in  entire  con¬ 
tradiction  to  the  principles  of  his  youth.  He 
died  at  Taganrog,  Dec.  1,  1825.  The  rumor  that 
lie  had  been  poisoned  is  altogether  groundless. 
See  Rambaud,  Histoire  de  la  limsie  (Par.  1879; 
English  trans.  by  L.  B.  Lang). 

Alexander  II.,  Emperor  of  Russia  (1855-81), 
Wits  born  April  29,  1818.  He  was  carefully  edu¬ 
cated  by  his  father,  Nicholas,  who  professed  him¬ 
self  delighted  with  the  manifestations  of  “true 
Russian  spirit  ”  in  his  son.  On  his  accession  to  the 
throne,  March  2, 1855,  he  found  himself  in  a  very 
critical  position.  He  had  two  parties  to  concili¬ 


ate — the  old  (Muscovite  party,  zealous  for  the 
prosecution  of  the  Crimean  war,  and  the  more 
peaceable  portion  of  the  nation,  with  whom  he 
sympathized.  By  temporizing  he  was  enabled  to 
conclude  a  peace.  The  grand  achievement  of  his 
reign,  which  was  in  great  measure  his  own  deed, 
was  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs— 23,000,000 
souls — in  1861.  Reforms  of  the  tribunals  of 
civil  and  criminal  procedure  and  of  municipal 
institutions  followed.  In  1865  Alexander  estab¬ 
lished  elective  representative  assemblies  in  the 
provinces.  He  resisted  strenuously  all  foreign 
interference  with  Polish  affairs  during  the  insur¬ 
rection  of  1863,  which  was  suppressed  with  great 
severity.  During  his  reign  the  Russian  empire 
was  widely  extended  in  two  important  regions,  in 
the  Caucasus  and  in  Central  Asia.  In  1864  Russia 
began  her  decided  advance  against  the  Khanates 
of  Central  Asia,  and  in  a  few  years  reduced  them 
all  more  or  less  completely  to  subjection.  During 
the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-71,  Alexander 
maintained  a  very  sympathetic  attitude  toward 
Germany.  The  marriage  of  his  only  daughter, 
Marie,  with  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  in  1874,  has 
had  no  permanent  effect  in  allaying  the  mutual 
jealousies  of  Russia  and  England.  The  Czar 
shared  the  national  sympathy  with  the  Slavic  races 
under  Turkish  rule,  and  took  the  field  with  the 
army  during  the  momentous  war  between  Russia 
and  Turkey,  in  1877-8.  But  the  most  re¬ 
markable  feature  of  the  second  half  of  his  reign 
was  the  struggle  of  the  Russian  autocracy  with 
the  revolutionary  party  called  Nihilists.  Like  his 
grandfather,  Alexander  I.,  he  was  personally  a 
liberal  and  humane  monarch,  but  he  could  not 
keep  pace  with  the  more  forward  portion  of  his 
subjects;  hence  the  reactionary  tendency  of  many 
of  his  later  measures.  His  government  repressed 
the  revolutionists  most  severely,  and  they  sought 
vengeance  by  attacking  the  person  of  the  Czar  and 
his  officers.  Repeated  attempts  were  made  to 
assassinate  Alexander.  In  1879  he  was  shot  at  in 
his  capital;  in  the  same  year  the  train  in  which  lie 
was  supposed  to  be  traveling  was  blown  up  by 
an  elaborate  mine  beneath  the  railway;  in  1880  a 
violent  and  destructive  explosion  was  effected  by 
dynamite  below  the  imperial  apartments  in  the 
Winter  Palace  at  St.  Petersburg.  On  March  13, 
1881 ,  he  was  so  severely  injured  by  a  bomb  thrown 
at  him  near  his  palace,  that  he  died  a  few  hours 
after.  See  Lafertd,  Alexandre  II.  (1882.) 

Alexander  III.,  son  of  Alexander  II.,  was 
born  March  10,  1845,  and  married  the  daughter  of 
the  King  of  Denmark  in  1866.  After  his  father’s 
death,  through  fear  of  assassination,  he  shut  him¬ 
self  up  in  his  palace  at  Gatschina.  His  coronation 
was  postponed  till  1883,  and  was  celebrated  with 
extraordinary  magnificence,  and  witli  national 
festivities  lasting  several  days.  During  the  reign 
of  this  emperor,  Russia  has  steadily  pursued  her 
policy  of  conquest  and  of  the  consolidation  of 
her  dominions.  Through  the  fall  of  Merv,  the 
subjugation  of  the  Turkomans  in  Central  Asia 
was  completed.  In  1885  hostilities  with  Britain, 
with  regard  to  the  defining  of  the  frontier  between 
the  Russian  territories  and  Afghanistan,  for  a  time 
seemed  imminent.  As  regards  European  affairs, 
his  policy,  on  the  whole,  resembles  that  of  his 
father;  a  triple  alliance  between  Russia,  Germany, 
and  Austria  has  been  regarded  as  a  guarantee  of 
common  action;  but  the  growing  rivalry  with 
Austria  for  influence  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and 
especially  in  Bulgaria,  has  been  a  continual 
occasion  of  strife.  In  1887  and  1888  there  were 
repeated  attempts  by  the  revolutionary  party  on 
the  life  of  the  Emperor. 

Alexander  VI.,  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
eight  Popes  of  this  name,  but  at  the  same  time 
the  most  infamous  of  all  that  ever  occupied  St. 
Peter’s  chair.  His  most  conspicuous  qualities 
were  a  cunning  and  insidious  cruelty,  united  with 
great  fearlessness  in  danger,  an  unwearied  perse¬ 
verance  and  vigilance  in  all  his  undertakings,  a 
soft  and  plausible  manner  towards  his  inferiors,  a 
harsh  and  grasping  spirit  toward  the  rich.  He 
was  born  in  Spain,  at  Jativa,  in  Valencia,  in  1431. 
The  beautiful  Rosa  Vanozza  de  Cattenei  bore  him 
five  children,  two  of  whom,  Caesar  and  Lucretia 
Borgia,  equaled  himself  in  notoriety.  In  1455 
he  was  made  a  cardinal  by  his  uncle,  Calixtus 
III.,  and  in  1492,  on  the  death  of  Innocent  VIII., 
was  elevated  to  the  papal  chair,  which  he  had 


previously  secured  by  flagrant  bribery.  He  died 
in  1503,  most  likely  of  fever,  but  according  to 
popular  tradition,  through  having  accidentally 
partaken  of  poisoned  wine,  intended  for  ten  car¬ 
dinals,  his  guests.  He  apportioned  the  New 
World  between  Spain  and  Portugal;  whilst  under 
his  pontificate  the  censorship  of  books  was  intro¬ 
duced,  and  Savonarola,  the  earnest  and  eloquent 
Florentine  priest,  who  had  advocated  his  deposi¬ 
tion,  was  condemned  to  be  burned  as  a  heretic. 
See  Creighton’s  History  of  the  Papacy,  Vols.  II 
and  III  (1887). 

Alexander  of  Hales,  the  “irrefragable 
Doctor,”  was  originally  an  ecclesiastic  in  Glouces¬ 
tershire,  but  having  repaired  to  the  schools  of 
Paris,  and  become  a  noted  professor  of  philoso¬ 
phy  and  theology,  he  suddenly,  in  1222,  entered 
the  Order  of  the  Franciscans.  He  continued  to 
lecture,  however,  till  seven  years  before  his  death, 
in  1245. 

Alexander,  Archibald,  an  American  divine 
of  Scottish  descent,  was  born  in  Virginia,  April 
17,  1772,  and  died  at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  Oct. 
22,  1851.  On  the  establishment  of  Princeton 
College,  he  was  appointed  its  first  theological 
professor  in  1812,  which  position  he  held  till  his 
death.  His  eldest  son,  James  Waddell  Alex¬ 
ander  (1804-59),  was  a  Presbyterian  minister  in 
Virginia,  New  Jersey,  and  at  New  York;  and 
afterward  professor  in  Princeton  Theological 
Seminary.  He  contributed  to  the  Princeton 
Iteriev j,  wrote  over  thirty  children’s  books,  a  life 
of  his  father,  and  miscellaneous  works.  Joseph 
Addison  Alexander,  third  son  (1809-60),  gradu¬ 
ated  at  Princeton  in  1826,  lectured  there  on  Bibli¬ 
cal  Criticism  and  Ecclesiastical  History,  and  for 
the  last  eight  years  of  his  life  filled  the  chair  of 
Biblical  and  Ecclesiastical  History. 

Alexander,  William  Lindsay,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
an  eminent  scholar  and  divine  of  the  Scottish 
Congregational  Church,  was  born  at  Leith,  Aug. 
24,  1808,  and  died  atPinkieburn,  near  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  20,  1884. 

Alexander  Nevski,  a  Russian  hero  and  saint, 
born  in  1218  A.D.,was  the  son  of  the  Grand-Duke 
Jaroslavof  Novgorod,  who  was  forced  to  submit 
to  the  Mongol  dominion  in  1238.  Alexander 
received  the  surname  of  Nevski  on'  account  of  the 
splendid  victory  over  the  Swedes  which  he 
achieved  in  1240,  on  the  Neva,  near  where  St. 
Petersburg  now  stands.  At  the  death  of  his 
father,  in  1247,  he  became  his  successor,  and 
opposed  a  papal  attempt  to  reunite  the  Greek  and 
Roman  Churches.  He  was  a  good  prince,  and 
when  he  died,  in  1263,  the  gratitude  of  the  nation 
canonized  him. 

Alexander  Seve  rus,  a  Roman  emperor,  born 
in  205  A.  d.,  was  the  cousin  and  adopted  son  of 
Heliogabalus,  whom  he  succeeded  in  222.  His 
first  expedition  (231-33),  against  Artaxerxes,  king 
of  Persia,  was  successful,  but  during  one  which 
he  undertook  in  234  against  the  Germans  of  the 
Rhine,  to  defend  the  frontiers  of  the  empire  from 
their  incursions,  an  insurrection  broke  out  among 
his  troops,  headed  by  Maximinus,  in  which  Alex¬ 
ander  was  murdered. 

Alexanders  ( Smyrnium  olusatrum),  a  biennial 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Umbelliferae,  found  in 
waste  ground,  near  ruins,  etc.,  in  Britain  and  the 
south  of  Europe.  The  plant  has  an  aromatic 
taste,  strong  and  pungent,  but  becomes  rather 
pleasant  when  blanched,  and  was  formerly  culti¬ 
vated  and  used  in  the  same  way  as  celery,  although 
at  present  it  is  little  regarded. 

Alexandri  (or  Aleksandri)  Vasilto,  Rouman¬ 
ian  poet  and  patriot,  was  born  at  Jassy,  in  1821. 
His  share  in  the  abortive  revolution  of  1848 
obliged  him  for  a  time  to  take  refuge  in  Paris. 
He  was  foreign  minister  under  Gliika  in  1859-60. 
His  complete  works  fill  seven  volumes. 

Alexandria  was  founded  by  Alexander  the 
Great  in  332  b.  c.  It  was  situated  originally  on 
the  low  tract  of  land  which  separates  the  Lake 
Mareotis  from  the  Mediterranean,  about  fourteen 
miles  west  of  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile. 
Before  the  city,  in  the  Mediterranean,  lay  an 
island,  upon  the  northeast  point  of  which  stood 
the  famous  lighthouse,  the  Pharos,  built  in  the 
time  of  Ptolemy  I.,  in  the  third  century  b.c.,  and 
said  to  have  been  400  feet  high.  The  plan  of 
Alexandria  was  designed  by  the  architect  Deino- 
crates,  and  its  original  extent  is  said  to  have  been 


ALEXANDRIA. 


32 


ALFRED. 


about  four  miles  in  length,  with  a  circumference 
of  fifteen  miles.  The  most  magnificent  quarter 
of  the  city  was  that  called  the  Brucheion,  which 
contained  the  Palaces  of  the  Ptolemies,  the 
Museum, and  the  famous  Library;  the  Mausoleum 
of  Alexander  the  Great  and  of  the  Ptolemies,  the 
Temple  of  Poseidon, and  the  great  Theatre.  To  the 
south  was  the  beautiful  Gymnasium.  To  the  west 
of  the  city  lay  the  great  Necropolis,  and  to  the 
east  the  Race-course  and  suburb  of  Nicopolis. 
From  the  time  of  its  foundation  Alexandria  was 
the  Greek  capital  of  Egypt.  Its  population,  in 
the  time  of  its  prosperity  is  said  by  Diodorus  to 
have  amounted  to  about  300,000  free  citizens,  and 
probably  a  larger  number  of  slaves.  After  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Alexandria  became 
the  residence  of  the  Ptolemies.  They  made  it, 
next  to  Rome  and  Antioch,  the  most  magnificent 
city  of  antiquity. 

Alexandria  had  reached  its  greatest  splendor 
when,  on  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  the  last  of  the 
Ptolemies,  in  30  B.c.,  it  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  Romans.  Its  glory  was  long  unaffected, 
and  it  was  the  emporium  of  the  world's  com¬ 
merce,  especially  for  corn.  The  choice  of  Cairo 
as  the  capital  of  the  Egyptian  califs  hastened  the 
rapid  decay  of  the  city;  the  discovery  of  America, 
and  of  the  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  very  much  diminished  its  trade;  and  when, 
in  1517,  the  Turks  took  the  place,  the  remains  of 
its  former  splendor  wholly  vanished,  walls  and 
buildings  being  reduced  to  ruins.  In  1778  Alex¬ 
andria  contained  no  more  than  6,000  inhabitants. 
Under  Mehemet  Ali,  however,  the  tide  turned, 
and  the  city  recovered  rapidly.  It  is  now  again 
one  of  the  most  important  commercial  places  on 
the  Mediterranean.  The  Suez  Canal  diverted 
part  of  its  trade  as  the  centre  of  steam  communi¬ 
cation  with  India;  but  this  was  more  than  com¬ 
pensated  by  the  general  impetus  given  by  the 
canal  to  Egyptian  prosperity.  In  1882,  during 
the  rising  of  Arabi  Pasha,  serious  damage  was 
done  to  the  city.  An  English  fleet,  in  the  interests 
of  the  Khedive,  bombarded  the  forts  of  Alexandria 
for  over  ten  hours,  July  11.  On  the  two  follow¬ 
ing  days  the  town  was  sacked  and  plundered  by 
the  soldiery  and  populace,  and  great  part  of  it 
destroyed  by  fire.  A  British  force  occupied  it  on 
the  14th. 

Recent  improvements,  undertaken  at  a  cost  of 
£2,000,000,  are  expected  to  make  the  old  harbor — 
the  western  one — one  of  the  best  and  most  spa¬ 
cious  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  recent  growth 
of  the  city  lias  been  extraordinary.  Pop.  (1825), 
16,000;  (1882),  227,064,  of  whom  48,672  were 
foreigners,  many  Greeks,  Italians,  and  French. 
Of  the  few  remaining  objects  of  antiquity  the 
most  prominent  is  Pompey’s  Pillar,  as  it  is  errone¬ 
ously  called.  Of  the  so-called  Cleopatra’sNeedles — 
two  obelisks  of  the  sixteenth  century  b.  c.  which 
long  stood  here — one  was  taken  to  England  and 
erected  on  the  Thames  Embankment,  1878;  and 
the  other,  presented  by  the  Khedive  to  the  United 
States,  was  set  up  at  New  York  in  1881. 

Alexandrian  Codex,  an  important  manu¬ 
script  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  in  Greek,  now  in 
the  British  Museum.  It  is  written  on  parchment, 
in  finely  formed  uncial  letters,  and  is  without 
accents,  marks  of  aspiration,  or  spaces  between 
the  words.  Its  probable  date  is  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century. 

Alexandrian  Library  — This  remarkable 
collection  of  books,  the  greatest  of  the  ancient 
world,  was  founded  by  the  first  Ptolemy,  and 
fostered  by  his  son.  During  its  most  flourishing 
period  it  is  said  to  have  contained  490,000,  or, 
including  all  duplicates,  as  many  as  700,000  vol 
umes.  The  greater  part  of  this  Library,  which 
embraced  the  collected  literature  of'  Rome, 
Greece,  India,  and  Egypt,  was  contained  in  the 
famous  Museum,  in  the  quarter  of  Alexandria 
called  the  Brucheion.  During  the  siege  of  Alex¬ 
andria  by  Julius  Caesar,  this  part  of  the  Library 
was  destroyed  by  fire,  but  it  was  afterwards  re¬ 
placed  by  the  collection  of  Pergamos,  which  was 
presented  to  Cleopatra  by  Mark  Antony.  The 
remainder  of  the  Library  was  partly  destroyed  by 
fanatic  Christians  in  391  a.d.,  and  the  ruin  was 
completed  by  the  Arabs  in  641 . 

Alexandrian  tecnooL. — For  about  four  cen¬ 
turies,  the  Alexandrian  School  was  the  center  of 
learning  and  science  in  the  ancient  world.  Count¬ 


ing  from  its  origin  to  its  complete  extinction,  it 
lasted  a  thousand  years.  The  influence  of  the  Alex¬ 
andrian  School  upon  Latin  literature  in  the  Augus¬ 
tan  age  must  not  be  forgotten.  We  find  it  in  all 
the  contemporary  poets,  notably  in  Virgil,  the 
greatest  poet  of  the  group. 

The  Alexandrian  Philosophy  is  character¬ 
ized  by  a  blending  of  the  philosophies  of  the  East 
and  of  the  West,  and  by  a  general  tendency  to 
eclecticism ,  as  it  is  called,  or  an  endeavor  to  recon¬ 
cile  conflicting  systems  of  speculation,  by 
bringing  together  what  seemed  true  in  each.  The 
most  famous  representatives  of  this  school  were 
the  Neo-Platonists.  Its  mathematical  school  was 
founded  in  the  reign  of  the  first  Ptolemy  by  the 
famous  Euclid.  Among  its  chief  ornaments  were 
Eratosthenes,  the  first  to  attempt  the  measure¬ 
ment  of  the  earth ;  Apollonius  of  Perga,  the 
great  geometrician,  author  of  a  work  on  conic  sec¬ 
tions;  and  Hipparchus,  the  true  father  of  astron¬ 
omy,  to  whom  Claudius  Ptolemy  owed  the  sub¬ 
stance  of  his  famous  work,  the  Almagest. 

Alexandria,  a  port  of  entry  on  the  right  or 
Virginian  bank  of  the  Potomac,  seven  miles  below 
Washington,  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river. 
Pop.  (1880),  13,658. 

Alexandrines  are  rhyming  verses  consisting 
each  of  twelve  syllables  or  six  measures.  The 
Alexandrine  has  become  the  regular  epic  or 
heroic  verse  of  the  French,  among  whom  each 
line  is  divided  in  the  middle  into  two  liemistichs, 
the  sixth  syllable  always  ending  a  word.  In 
English  this  rule  is  not  always  observed.  The 
only  considerable  English  poem  wholly  -written  in 
Alexandrines  is  Drayton’s  Polyolbion.  Pope’s 
lines  in  the  Essay  on  Criticism  are  familiar: 

A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song. 

That,  like  awounded  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  along. 

Alcxandropol  (formerly  Gumri ),  an  import¬ 
ant  fortress  and  the  largest  town  in  the  Erivan 
district  of  Russian  Armenia.  Pop.  (1880),  20,477. 

Alexandroy,  a  town  iii  the  Russian  Govern¬ 
ment  of  Vladimir,  fifty-eight  miles  northeast  of 
Moscow.  Pop.  (1880),  6,200. 

Alexei,  or  Alexis,  called  Michailovitch,  the 
second  Russian  czar  of  the  House  of  Romanoff, 
was  born  in  1629,  and  succeeded  his  father, 
Michael,  in  1645.  He  added  several  Polish  prov¬ 
inces  to  his  dominions;  but  his  war  with  Sweden 
(1656-58)  was  unfortunate.  Alexei  introduced 
various  important  reforms  into  the  Russian  laws. 
He  died  in  1676.  By  his  second  wife  he  was  the 
father  of  Peter  the  Great. 

Alexei,  called  Petro Witch,  the  eldest  son 
of  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  was  born  at  Moscow 
in  1690,  but  was  excluded  by  Peter  from  the  line 
of  succession  to  the  throne.  He  escaped  to 
Vienna,  and  thence  went  to  Naples,  but  was  in¬ 
duced  to  return  to  Russia,  and  the  accomplices  of 
his  flight  -were  punished  with  merciless  severity. 
He  died  in  prison  1718.  Other  accounts  assert 
that  he  was  beheaded  in  prison.  Alexei  left  a 
son,  who,  as  Peter  II.,  was  elevated  to  the  throne. 

Alexinatz,  a  town  of  Servia,  on  the  Morav- 
itza,  134  miles  south-southeast  of  Belgrade.  Pop. 
(1884),  5,108. 

Alexins  Comnenus,  one  of  the  ablest  rulers 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  was  born  at  Constanti¬ 
nople  in  1048.  He  was  the  nephew  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  Isaac  Comnenus,  on  whose  abdication,  in 
1059,  his  own  father  refused  the  crown;  and 
Alexius  was  at  length,  in  1081,  after  four  brief 
anarchic  reigns,  elevated  by  his  soldiers  to  the 
throne.  He  reigned  for  thirty-seven  years;  and, 
had  it  been  possible  to  preserve  the  weak  and 
corrupt  Byzantino  empire  in  its  integrity,  a  ruler 
like  Alexius  might  have  achieved  the  task. 

Alfa,  one  of  the  varieties  of  Esparto,  valuable 
for  paper-making. 

Alfarabi,  an  Eastern  philosopher,  born  at 
Farab,  and  died  in  950.  The  subjects  of  his 
voluminous  writings  embrace  almost  every  known 
science. 

Allie'ri,  Vittorio,  Count,  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  modern  Italian  poets,  was  born  at  Asti, 
in  Piedmont,  on  Jan.  17,  1749.  Alfieri  made  the 
acquaintance  of  the  Countess  of  Albany,  wife  of 
the  Pretender,  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  with  whom, 
after  the  death  of  her  husband,  he  lived  in  Paris 
and  England.  He  died  at  Florence  in  1803,  and 
was  buried  in  Santa  Croce.  Alfieri  published 


twenty-one  tragedies,  six  comedies,  and  one 
“  tramelogedia” — a  name  invented  by  himself. 

Alfonso  Ill.,  surnamed  The  Great,  King  of 
Leon,  Asturias,  and  Galicia,  succeeded  his  father, 
Ordono,  in  866.  He  fought  through  more  than 
thirty  campaigns,  and  gained  numerous  victories 
oyer  the  Moors,  occupied  Coimbra,  and  extended 
his  territory  as  far  as  Portugal  and  Old  Castile.  A 
conspiracy  was  formed  against  him  and  he  was 
obliged  to  abdicate  the  throne,  and  divide  his  ter¬ 
ritory  among  his  three  sons.  He  died  at  Zamora, 
910. 

Alfonso  X,,  surnamed  “the  Astronomer,” 
“the  Philosopher,”  or  “the  Wise”  (El  Sabio), 
King  of  Leon  and  Castile,  born  1226,  succeeded 
his  father,  Ferdinand  III.,  in  1252.  He  was  suc¬ 
cessful  in  his  wars  with  the  Moors,  and  his  victo¬ 
ries  over  them  enabled  him  to  unite  Murcia  with 
Castile.  In  1271  he  was  able  to  crush  an  insur¬ 
rection  headed  by  his  son  Philip;  but  a  second 
and  successful  rising,  under  another  son,  Sancho, 
in  1282,  deprived  him  of  his  throne.  Two  years 
later  he  died  a  fugitive  at  Seville.  He  took  great 
interest  in  literature  and  science,  and  prepared  a 
code  of  laws  and  the  improved  planetary  tables 
named  after  him. 

Alfouso  XII.,  King  of  Spain,  son  of  Isabella 
II.,  was  proclaimed  king  Dec.  31,  1874,  and 
reigned  until  1885,  dying  at  the  age  of  29.  A  few 
months  later  his  widow  gave  birth  to  a  posthu¬ 
mous  son,  who  is  now  titular  king,  with  his 
mother  as  Regent. 

Alfonso  I.  (El  Conquistador,  the  Conqueror), 
earliest  King  of  Port  ugal,  was  the  son  of  Henry  of 
Burgundy,  conqueror  and  first  Count  of  Portugal. 
Born  in  1110,  he  was  but  two  years  of  age  at  his 
father’s  death.  He  defeated  the  .Moors  after  a 
bloody  struggle,  at  Ourique,  July  25,  1139,  pro¬ 
claiming  himself  King  of  Portugal  on  the  field  of 
battle.  He  died  at  Coimbra,  Dec.  6,  1185. 

Alfouso  VI.,  King  of  Portugal,  succeeded  his 
father,  John  IV.,  in  1656,  wdien  but  thirteen 
years  of  age.  In  1666  Alfonso  married  a  princess 
of  Savoy,  but  the  queen  was  soon  disgusted  with 
her  unworthy  husband,  and  conspired  with  his 
brother  Pedro  against  him.  lie  was  forced  to 
surrender  to  the  latter  his  crown,  and  to  dissolve 
what  was  a  marriage  merely  in  name.  Alfonso 
died  twelve  years  later  (1683),  a  state  prisoner  at 
Cintra. 

Alfonso  V.,  King  of  Aragon  and  Navarre,  but 
Alfonso  I.,  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  “the  Magnani¬ 
mous,”  succeeded  his  father  in  1416,  when  but  15 
years  old.  He  claimed  the  crown  of  Naples  and 
obtained  it  after  five  years  of  fighting.  He  patron¬ 
ized  letters  and  the  arts,  and  governed  with 
prudence  and  justice.  He  died  at  Naples  in  1458, 
leaving  his  hereditary  dominions  to  his  brother 
John,  and  Naples  to  his  own  son  Ferdinand,  who 
was  legitimized  by  the  Pope. 

Alford,  Henry,  born  in  London  in  1810,  in 
1829  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  in 
1834  was  elected  to  a  fellowship.  He  edited  the 
Greek  Testament  and  wrote  some  fifty  books.  In 
1857  he  became  Dean  of  Canterbury,  and  died 
Jan.  12,  1871. 

Alfred  (871-901),  king  of  the  West  Saxons 
(Wessex),  was  born  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  in 
849,  and  succeeded  to  the  crown,  in  871,  on  the 
death  of  his  brother  Ethelred,  at  the  age  of  22. 
By  that  time  the  Danes  had  overrun  most  of  Eng¬ 
land  north  of  the  Thames.  In  the  year  of  his 
accession,  the  West  Saxons  fought  nine  battles 
against  the  Danes,  with  varying  success.  In  878, 
Guthrum,  king  of  the  Danes  of  East  Anglia,  sud¬ 
denly  burst  into  Wessex  with  his  savage  host. 
Alfred  could  make  no  effectual  resistance,  and 
had  to  seek  refuge  in  the  marshes  of  Somersetshire. 
There  he  raised  a  fort  at  Athelney,  and  with  a 
band  of  faithful  followers  maintained  himself  for 
several  months.  To  this  period  belongs  the  well- 
known  story  of  the  burnt  cakes.  In  the  same 
year  (878),  Alfred  defeated  the  Danes  at  Eding- 
ton,  in  Wiltshire. 

Early  in  his  reign,  Alfred  saw  the  necessity  of 
meeting  the  Danes  on  their  own  element,  the  sea, 
and  his  success  led  him  to  establish  an  English 
navy.  In  886  he  recovered  London,  in  893  North¬ 
umbria  made  submission  to  him;  and  thus  he 
became  nominally  king  of  all  England. 

As  a  leader,  Alfred’s  great  work  consisted  in 
repelling  the  invasion  of  the  Danes,  who  at  his 


ALGJE. 


33 


ALGONQUINS. 


accession  threatened  to  subdue  the  whole  country, 
and  in  helping  towards  the  consolidation  of  Eng¬ 
land  into  a  united  monarchy.  His  work  as  a 
legislator  is  also  important,  though  it  is  absolutely 
unhistorical  to  regard  him  as  establishing  trial  by 
iury,  as  having  divided  England  into  counties 
and  hundreds,  or  as  the  founder  of  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  Oxford.  As  legislator,  he  simply  com¬ 
piled  or  collected  the  best  among  the  enactments 
of  earlier  kings.  Alfred  died  Oct.  27,  901,  aged 
52,  leaving  his  country  in  the  enjoyment  of  com¬ 
parative  peace  and  prosperity. 

Algae.  While  the  sea-weeds  furnish  the 
most  familiar  representatives  of  this  great 
series  of  lower  plants,  many  forms  are  abundant 
in  fresh  water,  and  even  occur  on  terra  firma. 
So  great  is  the  diversity  of  form  which  they  pre¬ 
sent,  that  they  must  by  no  means  be  regarded  (as 
was  too  long  the  case)  as  a  mere  natural  order, 
corresponding  to  those  of  higher  plants,  but 
rather  as  a  vast  and  vague  alliance  comprehend¬ 
ing  many  orders,  and  presenting  all  degrees  of 
organization,  from  the  simple  and  almost  un¬ 
differentiated  cell  onwards  through  linear  and 
plane  cell-aggregates,  to  forms  of  almost  arbor¬ 
escent  complexity  and  often  gigantic  size.  The 
Lichens  being  analyzed  into  a  curiously  inter¬ 
woven  web  of  mixed  algal  and  fungal  nature,  the 
problem  of  discriminating  algae  from  fungi  re¬ 
mains,  and  this  has  been  the  subject  of  no  little 
research  and  controversy.  A  simple  and  com¬ 
mon  form  is  the  Plenrococcus  vulgaris,  to  which 
the  green  covering  of  tree  trunks  is  due.  Here 
the  organism  is  a  simple  cell,  or  nucleated  mass 
of  protoplasm,  tinged  green  by  chlorophyl,  and 
covered  by  a  cellulose  wall.  Multiplication  by 
transverse  division  is,  however,  in  active  progress; 
twos  and  fours  are  thus  formed,  but  soon  separate 
as  independent  cells.  Closely  allied  forms  occur 
in  water,  and  may  be  followed  through  a  more 
complex  life-history. 


A,  Noaloc ;  B,  Oscillatoria ;  C,  Bivularia. 


Returning  to  the  primitive  protococcus-like 
form,  we  may  readily  imagine  its  multiplication 
by  division  to  continue  until  not  only  four,  but 
eight,  sixteen,  or  more  segments  are  formed.  Such 
a  form  with  eight  segments  is  Chlamydomonas ; 
with  sixteen  segments,  Pandorina.  It  will  be 


A,  Caulerpa;  B,  Bryopsis;  C,  Botrydium;  D,  Vaucheria. 


seen  that  in  the  different  families  of  lower  algae  the 
degree  of  differentiation  of  the  reproductive  pro¬ 
cess  in  the  direction  of  definite  sex  runs  broadly 
parallel,  while  the  vegetative  structure  is  much 
more  widely  differentiated. 

Algardi,  Alessandro,  born  at  Bologna  in 
1602,  ranks  next  to  Bernini  among  Italian  sculp¬ 
tors  of  the  17th  century,  and  excelled  especially 
in  the  representation  of  the  nude.  Algardi  died 
in  1654. 


Algarotti,  Francesco,  an  Italian  author,  was 
born  in  1712,  and  died  March  3,  1764,  at  Pisa, 
where  Frederick  the  Great  raised  a  monument  to 
his  memory. 

Algarve,  the  smallest  and  most  southerly  of 
the  provinces  of  Portugal.  Its  area  is  1,873 
square  miles,  and  its  population  (1881)  204,037. 

Al'gebra  is  a  branch  of  pure  mathematics. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Arabs,  who  call 
the  science  Al  jebr  wa’l  muqabalah  (redintegration 
and  equation).  The  term  algebra  is  generally 
used  to  denote  a  method  of  calculating  by  means 
of  letters  which  are  employed  to  represent  the 
numbers,  and  signs  which  are  employed  to  repre¬ 
sent  their  relations. 

The  oldest  work  in  the  West  on  algebra  is  that 
of  Diopliantus  of  Alexandria,  in  the  fourth  cen¬ 
tury  after  Christ.  The  modern  Europeans  got 
their  first  acquaintance  with  algebra,  not  directly 
from  the  Greeks,  but,  like  most  other  knowledge, 
through  the  Arabs,  who  derived  it,  again,  from 
the  Hindus.  The  Geomelrie  (1637)  of  Descartes 
makes  an  epoch  in  algebra;  it  is  rich  in  new  inves¬ 
tigations.  Descartes  applied  algebra  to  geometry, 
and  was  the  first  to  represent  the  nature  of  curves 
by  means  of  equations. 

Algeci'ras,  or  Algeziras,  a  town  in  Spain,  on 
the  Bay  of  Gibraltar.  Pop.  (1878),  12,465. 

Alger,  Horatio,  an  American  author  of  books 
for  the  young,  born  near  Boston,  in  1834.  Wm. 
R.  Alger,  a  cousin  of  the  above,  was  born  in 
Massachusetts,  in  1823,  became  a  Unitarian  min¬ 
ister,  and  wrote  a  number  of  essays. 

Algeria  (Fr.  Algerie),  a  country  on  the  north 
coast  of  Africa,  which,  since  1830,  has  been  gradu¬ 
ally  taken  possession  of  by  the  French,  and  is  now 
regarded  by  them  as  an  outlying  part  of  France 
rather  tliau  as  a  colony.  It  lies  between  Morocco 
on  the  west  side,  and  Tunis  on  the  east,  stretching 
from  west  to  east  from  about  2°  8'  W.  to  8°  50' 
E.  long.  It  extends  from  the  Mediterranean,  on 
the  north  side,  to  an  ill-defined  limit  on  the  south 
side,  which  may,  however,  be  generally  taken  at 
the  extreme  as  the  30th  parallel  north.  The  total 
area  is  about  255,000  square  miles,  or  more  than 
that  of  Texas.  It  includes  much  of  the  Great 
Desert  of  Sahara,  which  is  uncultivable,  but  along 
the  Mediterranean  the  country  is  fertile. 

Algeria  is  coming  to  the  front  as  a  wheat-grow¬ 
ing  country,  and  between  1869  and  1885  had 
doubled  its  export  of  this  cereal.  Fruits  and 
vegetables  are  grown  in  large  quantities  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  town  of  Algiers,  for  the 
markets  in  France,  England,  and  Germany.  The 
cultivation  of  the  grape,  silk,  and  tobacco  is  rap¬ 
idly  extending.  Immense  tracts  of  land,  suitable 
for  no  other  cultivation,  are  being  successfully 
planted  with  vines,  and  Algeria  promises  to 
develop  into  a  great  wine-producing  country. 
Algeria  has  been  ascertained  to  have  a  very  con¬ 
siderable  wealth  of  metals,  iron  and  copper  being 
particularly  abundant,  though  yet  little  worked. 
Over  100  mineral  springs  are  counted  in  Algeria. 
Algeria  is  divided  into  a  civil  territory  of  three 
departments,  and  a  military  territory  of  three 
divisions,  distributed  as  follows; 


Territories. 

Civil  Departments— 

Algiers  Province .  23.550 

Oran  Province . —  21,643 

Constantine  Province. .  20,043 

- -  74,236 

Military  Divisions— 

Algiers  Province .  81,017 

Oran  Province . 01,460 

Constantine  Province .  101 ,021 

-  244,098 


Population. 


1,202,768 

752,554 

1,369,153 

-  3,324,475 


177.773 

117,951 

197,266 


492.990 


Total  —  Algeria,  exclusive  of 

Sahara . .  318,334  3,817,465 

The  trade  of  Algeria  shows  a  constant  increase. 
Since  the  French  occupation,  the  imports  have 
increased  fifty,  and  the  exports  one  hundred  fold. 
The  imports,  three-fourths  of  which  come  from 
France,  varied  in  the  period  1881-85  from 
£8,800,000  to  £12,000,000.  The  exports,  two- 
thirds  of  which  go  to  France, varied  from  £6,000,- 
000  to  close  on  £8,000,000.  From  1834  down  to 
1870  Algeria  was  entirely  under  military  rule.  At 
that  date  a  civil  governor-general,  with  residence 
at  Algiers,  was  substituted  for  the  former  mili¬ 
tary  governor,  to  administer  the  government  of 
the  colony. 


The  French  troops  in  Algeria  number  upwards 
of  52,000.  These  are  divided  into  a  French  corps 
remaining  in  garrison  in  Algeria  a  certain  number 
of  years,  after  which  they  return  to  France,  and 
native  troops  which  may  quit  Algeria  only  on 
extraordinary  occasions. 

In  1492  the  Moors  and  Jews  who  had  been 
driven  out  of  Spain  settled  in  Algeria,  and  began 
to  revenge  themselves  on  their  persecutors  by 
piracy.  Ferdinand,  the  Spanish  monarch,  attacked 
them  on  this  account,  and  took  the  city  of  Algiers 
in  1509.  In  1518  the  reigning  Sultan  put  himself 
under  the  protection  of  the  Ottoman  court,  and  by 
the  help  of  a  Turkish  army  drove  the  Spaniards  out 
of  the  country,  and  established  that  system  of 
military  despotism  and  piracy  which  the  English, 
Dutch,  French,  Spaniards,  and  Americans  from 
time  to  time  in  vain  endeavored  to  extirpate,  and 
which  lasted  till  1830.  In  that  year  the  town  of 
Algiers  capitulated  to  a  French  fleet,  and  the 
French  took  possession  of  the  place. 

After  the  revolution  of  1830,  General  Clausel 
set  about  subduing  the  country  and  giving  it  a 
regular  government;  but  he  encountered  the  most 
determined  opposition  in  Abd-el-Kader,  who  soon 
became  the  rallying-point  of  the  “holy  war,” 
which  the  Marabouts  had  begun  to  preach. 

For  more  than  thirty  years  the  French  were 
engaged  in  war  with  the  Kabyles  and  other  tribes, 
and  it  was  not  till  1864  that  the  country  was 
pacified.  Abortive  attempts  at  rebellion  were 
made  in  1870  and  1881,  and  were  met  by  the 
concession  of  certain  measures  of  local  self-gov¬ 
ernment.  Algeria  contributes  largely  to  "the 
French  army,  the  troops  being  known  as  Tureos 
or  Zouaves. 

See  works  on  Algeria  by  Niort  (1884),  Gaffarel 
(1883),  Becquet  et  Simon  (1883),  MacCar thy  (Paris, 
1857),  Fillias  (3d  ed.  1874),  Nettement  (2d  ed. 
1871);  also  Ileclus,  Nouvelle  Geographic  (1877);  A. 
Ram  baud,  Prance  Coloniale  (1886);  Certeux  and 
Carnoy,  L’ Algerie  Truditionnelle.  (Yol.  I,  1884);  and 
De  Lauessan,  L’ Expansion  Coloniale  de  la  France 
(1886). 

Alglie'ro,  a  seaport  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
Island  of  Sardinia.  Pop.,  8,995. 

Algiers  (Fr.  Alger;  Arab.  Aljeznir,  the 
islands),  the  capital  of  Algeria,  was  built  about 
935  a.d.  by  an  Arab  chief.  The  old  town  is  Moor¬ 
ish  both  in  its  edifices  and  inhabitants,  but  the 
new  town  of  Algiers  might  deceive  the  traveler 
into  the  belief  that  he  is  still  in  Europe,  were  it 
not  for  the  throng  of  swarthy  faces  he  meets.  The 
streets  are  regular,  spacious,  and  elegant;  some  of 
them  as  handsome  as  the  Parisian  Boulevards,  and 
adorned  with  arcades.  The  French  have  at  great 
expense  improved  the  port,  which  is  safe  and 
spacious  and  has  a  lighthouse.  It  is  strongly 
fortified,  and  can  contain  forty  warships  and  300 
trading  vessels.  There  is  a  great  trade,  Algiers 
being  the  chief  commercial  place  in  Algeria;  the 
produce  of  the  interior  is  exported,  the  imports 
being  mainly  French  goods,  with  British  coal, 
iron,  and  cottons.  Recently,  Algiers  has  become 
famous  as  a  winter  residence  for  Europeans  suffer¬ 
ing  from  chest  diseases.  Of  the  70,747  inhabi¬ 
tants  in  1881,  only  16,000  were  French. 

Algin.  On  the  surface  of  certain  species  of 
seaweed — notably  of  those  belonging  to  the  genus 
laminaria — is  sometimes  seen  a  jelly-like  material, 
which  is  partly  formed  of  a  substance  called  algin, 
and  may  be  drawn  out  by  the  fingers  in  long, 
tenacious  strings.  The  cell-walls,  of  common 
brown  seawreeds  (fucus  and  laminaria)  are,  in 
fact,  very  mucillaginous,  and  all  contain  algin. 

The  properties  of  algin  in  the  soluble  form  are 
those  of  a  very  viscous  gum,  drying  up  to  a 
transparent,  elastic  film.  As  a  size  or  dressing  for 
textile  fabrics,  experiments  have  shown  that  algin 
goes  further  and  does  more  work  than  starch  or 
any  of  the  ordinary  gums,  and  it  has  the  advan¬ 
tage  of  being  easily  rendered  insoluble  in  water. 
Algin  makes  an  excellent  thickening  for  soups, 
and  with  the  addition  of  a  little  gelatine  or  isin¬ 
glass,  is  serviceable  for  jellies. 

Algoa  Bay,  a  broad  inlet  at  the  eastern  extrem¬ 
ity  of  the  south  coast  of  Africa,  with  a  sheltered 
anchorage  except  toward  the  southeast.  Port 
Elizabeth  lies  in  the  southwest  angle  of  the  bay, 
the  western  horn  of  which  is  Cape  Recife. 

Algonquins,  the  most  prominent  of  the  three 
aboriginal  races  (the  other  two  being  the  Hurons 


3 


ALGUACIL. 


34 


ALKALIES. 


and  the  Iroquois)  that  occupied  the  great  Basin 
of  t lie  St.  Lawrence  at  the  beginning  of  the  sev¬ 
enteenth  century.  The  Algonquin  tribes  occupied 
all  the  coast  region  from  the  northeast  limit  to 
the  Janies  river  in  Virginia,  and  were  found 
westward  nearly  as  far  as  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Al'guacil,  or  Algitazil  (Arab,  al-wazir,  the 
vizier),  is  the  general  name  in  Spain  of  the  offi¬ 
cers  intrusted  with  the  execution  of  justice. 

Alhag'i  is  an  Arabic  name  for  a  genus  of  trees 
from  which  manna  exudes. 

Alhama  (Arab.  Al  JIammdm,  the  bath),  a 
town  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  was  a  famous  fortress 
of  the  Moors,  and  there  are  still  remains  of  Roman 
and  Moorish  buildings.  Pop.,  7,758. — Alhama 
de  Aragon,  eight  miles  southwest  of  Calatayud, 
has  famous  mineral  springs.  Pop.,  1,278. — Al¬ 
hama,  thirteen  miles  southwest  of  Murcia,  is  also 
celebrated  for  its  warm  mineral  waters.  Pop.  ,6, 298. 

Alhambra,  a  fortified  suburb  of  Granada, 
which  forms  a  sort  of  acropolis  to  the  city,  and 
in  which  stand  the  exquisite  remains  of  the  palace 
of  the  ancient  Moorish  kings  of  Granada.  It  is 
surrounded  by  a  strong  wall,  more  than  a  mile  in 
circuit,  and  studded  with  towers.  One  of  them 
contains  the  famous  Hall  of  the  Ambassadors.  The 


remains  of  the  Moorish  palace  are  called  by  the 
Spaniards  the  Casa  Real.  The  portions  still 
standing  are  ranged  round  two  oblong  courts,  one 
called  the  Court  of  the  Fishpond ,  the  other  the 
Court  of  the  Lions.  They  consist  of  porticoes, 
pillared  halls,  cool  chambers,  small  gardens, 
fountains,  mosaic  pavements,  etc.  In  the  most 
beautiful  room  in  the  palace,  the  Ilall  of  the 
Abencerrages,  to  the  beauty  of  color  and  of  orna¬ 
mentation  is  added  an  arcade  resting  on  light  and 
graceful  marble  arches  that  run  round  the  place. 
See  the  works  by  Washington  Irving  (1832),  Owen 
Jones  (1848),  and  Murphy  (new  ed.  1856). 

Ali,  the  first  convert  to  Mohammedanism,  and 
fourth  of  the  califs,  was  the  son  of  Abu  Talcb, 
the  Prophet’s  uncle.  He  was  the  bravest  and 
most  faithful  follower  of  the  Prophet,  whose 
daughter  Fatima  he  married.  Ali  was  assassin 
ated  in  the  year  660,  and  buried  near  Kufa.  The 
question  of  his  right  to  succeed  to  the  califate 
permanently  divided  the  Mohammedan  world, 
the  Shiites  still  reverencing  him  asmext  to  Moham¬ 
med,  while  the  Sunnites  abhor  bis  memory. 

Ali  Bey  of  Egypt  was  a  Caucasian  slave,  born 
in  1728,  who  rose  to  be  chief  of  the  Mamelukes  in 
1763,  and  was  proclaimed  Sultan  in  1768.  He 
made  himself  independent  of  the  Porte,  and  had 
conquered  Syria  and  part  of  Arabia,  but  in  April, 
1773,  was  defeated  in  battle,  and  a  few  days  after 
died  of  his  wounds  or  of  poison. 

Ali  Pasha  (surnamed  Arslan,  the  Lion),  was 
born  in  1741,  at  Tepelini,  a  village  of  Albania. 
He  early  engaged  in  the  wars,  and  after  the  Aus- 
tro-Russian  war  of  1787  was  named  Pasha  of 
Trikala  in  Thessaly;  at  the  same  time  he  seized 
Janina,  of  which  lie  got  himself  appointed  Pasha 
by  the  instrumentality  of  terror,  a  forged  firman, 
and  bribery.  In  1797  he  entered  into  alliance 
with  Napoleon,  who  sent  him  engineers,  but 
next  year,  after  the  battle  of  Aboukir  Bay,  he 
wrested  the  seaport  of  Prevesa  from  the  French. 
After  a  three  years’  war  he  subdued  the  Suliots, 
for  which  the  Porte  promoted  him  to  be  Gov¬ 


ernor  of  Rumili.  After  this  he  formed  alliances 
first  with  Napoleon  and  later  with  England,  lie 
caused  the  death  of  hundreds  of  his  opponents, 
and  murdered  his  own  brother.  The  Porte 
resolved  at  length  to  end  the  power  of  this  daring- 
rebel,  and  in  1820  Sultan  Mahmoud  sentenced 
him  to  be  deposed.  Ali  resisted  for  a  time  sev¬ 
eral  pashas  who  were  sent  against  him,  but  at 
last  surrendered  and  was  put  to  death  Feb.  5,  1822. 

Alias  is  a  name  given  to  a  second  wri  2  issued 
when  the  first  has  jailed,  but  is  more  commonly 
used  as  part  of  an  indictment  describing  a  pris¬ 
oner  wdio  goes  by  moi’e  names  than  one.  Indict¬ 
ments  used  to  be  in  Latin,  and  alias  dictus  is 
(late)  Latin  for  “  otherwise  called.” 

Al'ibi  (Lat.  elsewhere)  is  a  defense  resorted 
to  in  criminal  prosecutions,  when  the  accused,  in 
order  to  prove  that  he  could  not  have  committed 
the  crime,  tenders  evidence  to  the  effect  that  he 
wras  in  a  different  place  at  the  time  the  offense 
wTas  committed. 

Alican'te,  chief  town  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name  in  Spain,  situated  on  a  bay  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  the  third  seaport  in  the 
kingdom,  and  its  harbor  is  spacious  and  secure. 
Pop.  (1884),  35,479.  The  province  of  Alicante, 
formed  in  1834  of  parts  of  the 
old  kingdoms  of  ’  Valencia  and 
Murcia,  has  an  area  of  2,098 
square  *niles.  Pop.  (1884), 
427,818. 

Alice  Maud  Mary,  Grand 

Duchess  of  Hesse,  the  second 
daughter  of  Queen  Victoria,  was 
borji  in  1843,  married  Prince 
Louis  of  Hesse,  and  died  Dec. 
14,  1878. 

Alien  (Lat.  alienus,  foreign). 
The  citizen  of  one  country, 
when  resident  in  another,  unless 
naturalized,  is  an  alien.  In  the 
United  States  children  born  out 
of  the  country  are  not  aliens  if 
their  fathers  are  citizens.  The 
alien,  although  not  admitted  to 
the  same  political  and  municipal 
rights  as  the  citizen,  is  protected 
in  person  and  property  against 
wrrong.  By  an  act  approved 
March  3, 1887,  it  is  provided  that  individual  aliens, 
corporations  not  created  by  and  under  the  laws 
of  the  United  States,  or  of  some  State  or  Territory, 
and  corporations  more  than  20  per  cent,  of  the  stock 
of  which  may  be  owned  by  persons  not  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  shall  not  “hereafter  acquire, 
hold  or  ow  n  real  estate  so  hereafter  acquired,  or 
any  interest  therein,  in  any  of  the  Territories  of 
the  United  States  or  in  the  District  of  Columbia.” 
It  is  also  provided  that  no  corporations,  -other 
than  railway,  canal,  or  turnpike  companies,  shall 
acquire,  hold,  or  own  more  than  5,000  acres  of 
land  in  any  of  the  Territories.  As  since  inter¬ 
preted  by  the  Attorney-General,  however,  this  act 
does  not  divest  any  rights  already  existing,  nor 
does  it  apply  to  bona  fide  leases,  or  to  personal 
contracts  to  work  mines. 

Aligarh  (sometimes  Allygurh),  a  fort  in  the 
district  of  the  same  name  in  the  Northwest  Prov¬ 
inces  of  India.  The  district  of  Aligarh  has  an 
area  of  1,955  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881)  ,1,021,187. 

Alima  ( Kunja ),  a  tributary  of  the  Congo, 
which  it  joins  on  the  right  bank. 

Alimeutary  Caual  is  the  name  given  to  the 
principal  part  of  the  digestive  apparatus.  It 
extends  from  the  mouth  to  the  anus,  having,  in 
man,  an  average  length  of  about  thirty  feet — i.  e., 
five  or  six  times  as  long  as  the  body.  Passing 
through  the  head  and  chest,  it  includes  the  teeth, 
the  organs  of  mastication;  the  salivary  glands,  the 
organs  of  insalivation;  the  tongue,  pharynx, 
wsophagus  or  gullet,  the  organs  of  deglutition. 
In  the  abdomen  and  pelvis  there  are  the  stom¬ 
ach  and  small  and  large  intestines.  Other  organs 
connected  with  it  functionally  are  the  liver  and 
pancreas,  which  pour  their  secretions  into  the 
interior  of  the  canal  by  ducts  opening  upon  its 
inner  surface. 

Alimony  signifies,  in  law,  the  allowance  which 
a  married  woman  is  entitled  to  receive  out  of  her 
husband’s  estate,  pendente  lite,  or  after  decree  of 
judicial  separation,  or  for  dissolution  of  the  mar¬ 
riage.  Iu  the  case  of  separation  the  court  can 


only  increase,  and  not  diminish,  money  previously 
secured  to  the  wife.  In  the  case  of  divorce  they 
can  deal  with  the  settlements.  Alimony  is  some¬ 
times  called  maintenance.  In  the  United  States 
it  is  fixed  by  the  c  >urt,  and  is  generally  propor¬ 
tioned  to  the  standing  and  mode  of  life  of  the 
parties.  When  the  wrongful  cause  of  separation 
is  in  the  wife  she  is  not  allowed  permanent 
alimony. 

Aliquot  Part.  One  quantity  or  number  is 
said  to  be  an  aliquot  part  of  another  when  it  is 
contained  in  this  other  an  exact  number  of  times 
w-ithout  remainder.  Thus  2,  2 %,  4  and  5  are  ali¬ 
quot  paits  of  20,  being  contained  in  it  10,  8,  5, 
and  4  times,  respectively. 

Alisma'ceae,  a  small  order  of  monocotyledon- 
ous  plants  interesting  on  account  of  its  remark¬ 
ably  close  affinities  to  the  dicotyledons,  through 
Ranunculaceae. 

Alison,  Archibald,  born  at  Edinburgh  in 
1757,  studied  at  Glasgow  University  and  Baliol 
College,  Oxford,  and  in  1784  received  Anglican 
orders.  He  died  May  17,  1839.  Alison  w-as  best 
known  by  his  Essays  on  the  Nature  and  Princi¬ 
ples  of  Taste.  His  son,  William  Pulteney 
Alison,  born  1790,  was  professor  of  the  insti¬ 
tutes  of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Edin¬ 
burgh  from  1822  to  1856.  He  died  Sept.,  1859. 
A  younger  son  was  Sir  Archibald  Alison  the 
historian.  Born  at  Kenley,  Shropshire,  in  1792' 
he  entered  Edinburgh  University  in  1805,  and  in 
1814  was  called  to  the  Scottish  bar.  His  Princi¬ 
ples  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  Scotland  (2  vols. 
1832-33)  is  still  a  standard  authority.  He  died 
May  23,  1867.  His  History  of  Europe  During  the 
French  Devolution  (10  vols.,  1833-42)  narrates  the 
events  from  1789  to  1815,  and  was  continued 
under  the  title  of  The  History  of  Europe  from  the 
Full  of  Napoleon  to  the  Accession  of  Louis  Napo¬ 
leon.  His  son,  Sir  Archibald  Alison,  K.  C.  B., 
was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1826,  and  entered  the 
army  in  1846.  He  served  in  the  Crimean  war; 
the  Indian  mutiny,  losing  his  left  arm  at  the  relief 
of  Lucknow;  the  Ashanti  expedition;  and  the 
Egyptian  campaign,  leading  the  Highland  Bri¬ 
gade  at  the  battle  of  Tel-el-Kebir.  He  was 
gazetted  lieutenant-general  in  1882,  and  next  year 
was  appointed  to  the  command  at  Aldershot. 
He  is  author  of  a  treatise  On  Army  Organization 
(1869). 

Aliwal,  a  Punjab  village  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Sutlej.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  fierce  conflict 
between  the  British  and  Sikli  forces,  June  28, 
1846. 

Alizarin,  the  coloring  matter  used  in  the  dye¬ 
ing  of  Turkey  red,  exists  in  the  madder  root  as  a 
glucoside,  which,  when  boiled  with  acids  or 
alkalies,  gives  glucose  and  alizariu.  In  1869 
Graebe  and  Liebermann  discovered  a  method  of 
manufacturing  it  from  the  coal-tar  product  anthra¬ 
cene,  the  first  instance  of  the  artificial  produc¬ 
tion  of  a  natural  coloring  matter.  The  manu¬ 
facture  of  alizarin  is  now  one  of  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  branches  of  the  coal-tar  coloring  industry, 
and  threatens  to  put  an  end  to  the  growing  of 
madder  root.  The  14,000  tons  of  alizarin  pro¬ 
duced  in  1880  were  reckoned  equal  in  coloring 
power  to  126,000  tons  of  madder.  The  artificial 
dye  costs  less  than  a  th’rd  of  the  price  of  the 
natural,  but  the  artificial  dye  is  inferior  to  the 
natural  in  permanence.  Alizarin  is  represented 
by  the  formula,  ChIL  O2  (OII)2. 

Al  kahest,  or  Alcahest,  the  universal  solvent 
of  the  alchemists. 

Alkalies.  The  word  alkali  is  of  Arabic  origin, 
kali  being  the  name  of  the  plant  from  the  ashes 
of  which  an  alkaline  substance  was  first  procured. 
The  name  now  denotes  a  class  of  substances  hav¬ 
ing  similar  properties  The  alkalies  proper  are 
four  in  number — potash,  soda,  lithia,  and  am¬ 
monia.  The  first  three  are  oxides  of  metals;  the 
last  is  a  compound  of  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  and,  being  in  the  form  of  a  gas,  is  called 
the  volatile  alkali.  Potash,  being  largely  present 
in  the  ashes  of  plants,  is  called  the  vegetable 
alkali;  and  soda,  predominating  in  the  mineral 
kingdom,  is  designated  the  mineral  alkali.  The 
alkaline  earths  ( so  called) — lime,  magnesia,  baryta, 
and  strontia — are  distinguished  from  the  former 
by  their  carbonates  not  being  soluble  in  water. 
The  distinguishing  property  of  alkalies  is  that 
of  turning  vegetable  blues  green,  and  vegetable 


Alhambra. 


ALKALIMETRY. 


35 


ALLEGORY. 


yellows  reddish  brown.  Blues  reddened  by 
an  acid  are  restored  by  an  alkali.  The  alkalies 
have  great  affinity  for  acids,  and  combine  with 
them,  forming  salts,  in  which  the  peculiar  qual¬ 
ities  of  both  alkali  and  acid  are  generally 
destroyed;  hence  they  are  said  to  neutralize  one 
another.  In  a  pure  state,  alkalies  are  extremely 
caustic,  and  act  as  corrosive  poisons. 

Alkalim'etry.  Commercial  potash  and  soda 
always  contain  foreign  substances,  such  as  sul¬ 
phate  of  potash,  common  salt,  silicates,  oxide  of 
iron,  water,  etc.,  which  diminish  the  percentage 
of  real  alkali  in  a  given  weight.  The  alkalimeter 
serves  to  determine  the  proportion  of  pure  car¬ 
bonates  present.  It  consists  of  a  graduated  glass 
tube,  filled  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  and  con¬ 
taining  as  much  absolute  sulphuric  acid  as  would 
neutralize  a  given  weight  of  carbonate  of  potash. 
One  hundred  grains  of  the  article  to  be  judged  of 
is  dis-olved  in  water,  and  as  much  acid  is  gradu¬ 
ally  added  to  it  from  the  tube  as  to  neutralize  the 
solution,  that  is,  take  up  all  the  alkali.  The 
point  at  which  neutralization  is  complete  is  deter¬ 
mined  by  means  of  colored  tests. 

This  method  of  determining  the  strength  of 
alkalies  is  called  the  alkalimetric  process;  but  the 
alkalimeter  is  likewise  employed  in  the  determin¬ 
ation  of  the  strength  of  acids,  such  as  sulphuric 
acid,  hydrochloric-  acid,  nitric  acid,  and  acetic 
acid  (vinegar).  The  latter  application  of  this 
instrument  is  called  acidimetry.  The  same  gradu¬ 
ated  glass  tube  has  been  recently  employed  in 
many  other  ways,  such  as  the  determination  of 
the  strength  of  a  solution  of  silve  r,  by  charging 
the  instrument  with  a  known  or  standard  solution 
of  common  salt;  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  used 
largely  by  assayers  and  other  metallurgic  chem¬ 
ists.  This  mode  of  analysis  is  every  day  becom¬ 
ing  of  more  and  more  importance,  and,  in  fact, 
has  given  rise  to  a  new  department  of  analytical 
chemistry,  which  has  been  designated  volumetric 
analysis. 

Alkaloids  form  an  important  class  of  sub¬ 
stances  discovered  by  modern  chemistry.  They 
are  divided  into  two  classes — namely,  natural  and 
artificial.  The  natural  alkaloids  are  found  in 
plants  and  animals,  and  are  often  designated 
organic  bases.  Those  obtained  from  plants  are 
frequently  their  active  principles;  but  it  must  not 
therefore  be  assumed  that  when  a  plant  contains 
au  alkaloid  it  is  of  necessity  the  active  principle, 
which  may  rather  be  a  resin,  glucoside,  volatile 
oil,  or  vegetable  acid.  Most  of  the  natural  alka¬ 
loids  consist  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and 
oxygen,  and  are  solid  bodies  at  the  ordinary 
temperature.  A  few,  however,  only  contain  car¬ 
bon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  and  these  are,  for 
the  most  part,  liquids  which  can  be  distilled  with¬ 
out  decomposition.  The  more  important  of  this 
class  are  coniine  and  nicotine.  The  alkaloids  have 
generally  an  energetic  action  on  the  animal  sys¬ 
tem,  and  hence  are  employed  in  small  doses  as 
medicine;  whilst  in  comparatively  large  doses 
they  are  powerful  poisons.  Many  of  them  have 
an  alkaline  reaction  on  vegetable  colors,  and  are 
hence  termed  vegetable  alkalies;  but  in  the  greater 
number  this  property  is  only  possessed  in  a  very 
faint  degree,  and  it  is  by  analogies,  based  on  other 
properties,  that  they  are  all  classed  under  one 
tide.  There  is  only  one  property  common  to  all 
alkaloids,  natural  and  artificial — namely,  that 
they  combine  directly  with  acids  to  form  more  or 
less  stable  salts;  capable  of  undergoing  double 
decomposition;  as,  for  example,  sulphate  of  qui¬ 
nine,  muriate  of  morphine,  etc.  Most  of  the 
alkaloids  have  an  acrid,  bitter  taste,  and  are  spar¬ 
ingly  soluble  in  wafer,  more  freely  so  in  alcohol. 
They  are  precipitated  from  solutions  by  tannin, 
and  the  double  iodides  of  potassium  and  mercury, 
or  cadmium  and  bismuth;  and  by  treating  these 
precipitates  with  an  alkali,  the  bases  may  be 
obtained.  The  following  list  contains  the  names 
of  the  chief  alkaloids,  with  the  plants  from  which 
they  are  obtained: 


Alkaloids.  Source. 

Aconitine . Aconite 

Angosturine. .  .Cusparia 

Belladonnine  [  Bt-'lladonna 
Bebeerine _  BebeeruTree 

Berberine  .  \  Ba,rhel;ry 

I  Calumba 

Cocaine . .Coca  Leaf 

•Coniine . Hemlock 


Alkaloids.  Source. 
Curarine . Arrow  Poison 

g8&4~*— 

Daturine . Stramonium 

Delphinine. . . .  Stavesacre 
Ergotinine ....  Ergot 
Eserine  or  ) 

Physostig-  >  Calabar  Bean 
matine  . . .  ) 


Alkaloids,  Source. 
Hyoscyamine..  Henbane 

Jervine . Hellebore 

Lupuline . Hops 

Morphine  ) 

Codeine  >  .  •  Opium 
Narcotine ) 

Nicotine  . Tobacco 

Pilocarpine _ Jaborandi 


Alkaloids.  Source. 


Piperine _ _ 

Quinine . 

(  inchonine. . 
Cinchonidine 
Sinapine  .... 
Strychnine  I 
Brucine  . .  f 
Veratrine 


Black  Pepper 
Cinchona 

. .  Mustard 
.  .Nux  Vomica 
. .  Cevadilla 


Alkanet  ( Anchusa  tinctoria,  to  which  the 
name  Alkanet  or  Alkanna — Arab.  Al-chenneh — 
more  strictly  belongs)  is  a  native  of  the  Levant 
and  of  the  south  of  Europe,  extending  as  far 
north  as  Hungary.  The  root  is  sold  under  the 
name  of  alkanet  or  alkanna  root,  and  is  imported 
from  the  Levant.  Alkanet-root  contains  a  resin¬ 
ous  red  coloring  matter  called  Alkanna  Red 
(Alkannin  or  Anchusin).  The  color  which  it 
yields  is  very  beautiful,  but  not  very  durable.  It 
is  readily  soluble  in  oils  and  alcohol,  and  is  used 
to  color  pomades  and  soaps. 

Alkmaar,  an  old  town  of  the  Netherlands,  on 
the  North  Holland  Canal.  Alkmaar  held  out 
against  the  Duke  of  Alba,  who  besieged  it  in  1573. 
Here,  on  Oct.  18,  1799,  the  Duke  of  York  signed 
a  not  very  honorable  capitulation.  Pop.  (1883), 
14,048. 

Allah  (compounded  of  the  article  al  and  Rah 
— i.  e.,  the  god,  a  word  cognate  with  the  Hebrew 
Eloah),  the  Arabic  name  of  the  Supreme  God 
amongst  the  heathen  Arabs,  adopted  by  Moham¬ 
med  for  the  one  true  God. 

Allahabad  (city  of  God),  the  seat  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  Northwest  provinces  of  British 
India,  occupies  the  fork  of  the  Ganges  and  Jum¬ 
na,  or  the  country  of  Two  Rivers,  390  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Delhi.  The  situation  of  Allahabad,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  holy  streams  of  India,  besides 
giving  the  city  its  sacred  appellation,  has  rendered 
it  a  much-frequented  place  of  pilgrimage  for  the 
purposes  of  religious  ablution.  The  Mahrattas 
held  Allahabad  from  1730  till  1750;  the  city  and 
district  were  ceded  to  the  British  in  1801.  On 
June  6,  1857.  the  insurrection  which  had  begun 
at  Meerut  on  May  10,  extended  to  Allahabad,  and 
the  city  soon  became  little  better  than  a  heap  of 
blackened  ruins.  General  Neill  arrived  on  the 
lltli,  and  recovered  Allahabad  on  the  18th.  Alla¬ 
habad  is  distant  from  Calcutta,  by  land,  504 
miles,  and  eighty-nine  from  Benares.  Pop.  (1881), 
148,547,  of  -whom  99,518  were  Hindus,  and  43,558 
Mohammedans.  Allahabad  district  is  eighty- 
five  miles  in  length  by  fifty  in  breadth;  area,  2,833 
square  miles.  The  pop.  in  1881  was  1,474,- 
100,  almost  wholly  Hindus. 

Allamanda,  a  tropical  American  genus  of 
Apocynacese,  cultivated  in  hothouses  for  the  sake 
of  its  large,  beautiful  yellow  flowers.  Alla¬ 
manda  Catiiartica,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies, 
has  violently  emetic  and  purgative  properties. 

Allan,  David,  a  Scottish  painter,  was  born  at 
Alloa  in  1744.  He  died  at  Edinburgh,  Aug.  0, 1709. 

Allan,  Sir  William,  a  Scottish  historical 
painter,  was  born  in  1782.  In  1838  he  became 
President  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy,  and 
died  in  1850. 

Allantois,  a  sac-like  foetal  membrane  formed 
in  the  embryos  of  reptiles,  birds,  and  mammals, 


Foetal  Membranes  o£  a  Mammal. 

E,  embryo;  M.  Us  middle  layer  or  mesoderm;  II  gut-cavity 
lined  by  inner  layer  orendoderm;  U.  V.,  umbilical  vesicle; 
al,  allantois,  with  allantois  cavity,  AL.  C\;  am,  amnion, 
with  amniotic  cavity,  A.  C.  am  represents  the  united 
inner  portion  of  double  folds,  the  outer  lines  of  which 
form  the  sub-zonal  membrane  (not  lettered)  undergo-,  the 
zona  pellucida.  (From  Turner.) 


as  an  outgrowth  from  the  posterior  end  of  the 
alimentary  tract,  just  in  front  of  the  anus.  In  all 
higher  animals  it  is  precociously  developed  and 
modified  for  other  purposes.  It  forms  a  large 
sac,  enveloping  the  embryo  outside  the  amnion. 
In  reptiles  and  birds  the  surface  is  traversed  by  an 
abundant  network  of  blood-vessels,  and  the  im¬ 
portant  function  of  embryonic  respiration  is  thus 
discharged. 

Allard,  Jean  Frankie,  was  born  in  1785, 
entered  the  service  of  Abbas-Mirza  of  Persia,  and 
in  1820  proceeded  to  Lahore.  There  Runjeet 
Singh  made  him  generalissimo  of  the  Sikh  army, 
which  he  organized  and  trained  in  the  European 
modes  of  warfare.  He  died  Jan.  23,  1839. 

Alleghany,  a  river,  which,  rising  in  the  north 
part  of  Pennsylvania,  unites  with  the  Mononga- 
liela  at  Pittsburg  to  form  the  Ohio.  Though  it 
flows  through  a  hilly  country,  it  is  navigable  for 
nearly  200  miles  above  Pittsburg. 

Alleghany  Mountains,  a  term  sometimes  used 
as  synonymous  with  the  Appalachian  system,  but 
properly  applied  only  to  that  portion  of  the  sys¬ 
tem  which  extends  from  Pennsylvania  to  North 
Carolina,  and  which  forms  the  watershed  between 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Mississippi.  It  is  sometimes 
used  in  a  still  more  restricted  sense.  The  ridges 
are  remarkable  for  their  parallelism  and  regularity, 
all  the  main  valleys  being  longitudinal.  The  gen¬ 
eral  direction  is  nearly  parallel  with  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Their  average  height  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Virginia  is  from  2,000  to  2,400  feet  above  the  sea. 
They  are  rich  in  coal,  iron,  and  limestone,  and 
their  forests  supply  large  quantities  of  valuable 
timber. 

Allegheny,  or  Alleghany,  one  of  the  chief 
manufacturing  cities  of  Pennsylvania,  situated  on 
the  Alleghany  River,  opposite  Pittsburg,  is  the 
terminus  of  important  railway  lines,  and  has 
besides  its  factories  numerous  important  public 
institutions.  The  chief  industries  include  rolling- 
mills  for  iron,  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  brewer¬ 
ies,  foundries,  a  steel  factory,  blast  furnace,  and 
locomotive  works.  It  is  a  favorite  place  of  resi¬ 
dence  for  the  business  men  of  Pittsburg,  but 
though  in  many  respects  a  suburb  of  that  city, 
it  has  a  separate  municipal  organization.  Pop. 
(1880),  78,081,  nearly  half  being  Germans. 

Allegiance  is  derived  from  the  Old  French  lic/e, 
most  probably  from  an  Old  German  ledig,  “free;” 
the  ledigman,  or  l  gius  homo,  being  the  man  who 
was  free  except  in  his  obligations  to  his  lord. 

In  the  United  States  there  is  no  personality  to 
whom  allegiance  is  due;  the  sovereignty  resides  in 
the  combined  will  of  the  people,  as  expressed  in 
the  constitution  and  laws.  Allegiance  is  twofold; 
(1)  to  the  central  Government,  which  is  para¬ 
mount;  (2)  to  the  State  of  which  one  is  a  citizen. 
Children  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  born 
without  the  limits  of  the  country,  owe  allegiance 
to  the  United  States. 

Allegory  (Gr.  made  up  of  alios,  other,  and 
ayoria,  speaking),  a  figurative  representation,  in 
which  properties  attributed  to  the  apparent  sub¬ 
ject  really  refer  to  another  subject  not  named  but 
intended  to  be  understood.  It  is  thus  a  continued 
or  extended  metaphor,  a  concrete  narrative  or 
picture  intended  to  suggest  an  abstract  truth  or 
doctrine.  The  New  Testament  parable  is  a  short 
allegory,  marked  by  simplicity  and  brevity,  and 
with  one  definite  moral;  the  classical  fable  is  a 
short  story,  differing  from  the  allegory  only  in 
not  being  necessarily  probable  in  its  incidents. 
Allegory  differs  from  metaphor  chiefly  in  its 
being  longer  sustained,  and  more  fully  carried 
out  in  its  details.  Nor  is  language  alone  the 
medium  of  allegory;  it  may  be  addressed  to  the 
eye,  and  is  often  exhibited  in  painting,  sculpture, 
or  the  actor’s  art. 

We  find  allegory  in  use  from  the  earliest  ages. 
Orientals  are  specially  fond  of  it.  As  examples  from 
antiquity  may  be  cited  the  comparison  of  Israel 
to  a  vine  in  the  80th  Psalm;  the  beautiful  passage 
in  Plato’s  Phcedrus,  where  the  soul  is  compared  to 
a  charioteer  drawn  by  two  horses,  one  white  and 
one  black;  the  description  of  Fame  in  the  Fourth 
Book  of  the  vEneid.  Bunyan’s  Pilgrim's  Progress 
is  perhaps  the  most  complete;  Spenser’s  Faerie 
Queen,  Swift’s  Tale  of  a  Tub,  Addison’s  Vision  of 
Mirza  in  the  Spectator,  and  Thomson’s  Castle  of 
Indolence ,  are  well-known  examples  of  the  alle¬ 
gory. 


ALLEGRO. 


36 


ALLOTMENTS. 


Allegorical  Interpretation  is  that  kind  of 
interpretation  by  which  the  literal  significance  of 
a  passage  is  either  transcended  or  set  aside,  and  a 
more  spiritual  and  profound  meaning  elicited  than 
is  contained  in  the  form  or  letter. 

Alle'gro  (It.  lively),  the  fourth  of  the  five 
principal  degrees  of  movement  in  music,  imply¬ 
ing  that  the  piece  is  to  be  performed  in  a  quick  or 
lively  style.  As  a  substantive,  allegro  is  used  as 
the  name  of  a  whole  piece  of  music,  or  a  move¬ 
ment  (usually  the  first)  of  a  symphony,  sonata,  or 
quartet. 

Alleine,  Joseph,  next  to  Baxter  the  most 
widely-read  of  the  Puritan  writers,  was  born  at 
Devizes,  Eng.,  in  1634,  and  died  in  1668.  Ilis 
Alarm  to  the  Unconverted,  of  which  20,000  copies 
were  sold  at  once  on  its  appearance  (1672),  and 
50,000  on  its  republication  under  a  new  title  three 
years  later,  is  still  read.  His  interesting  Remains 
were  published  in  1674. 

Allemande  is  a  German  national  dance  (hence 
the  French  name,  meaning  German),  originally 
Swabian,  in  various  kinds  of  waltz  tempo. 

Allen,  Bog  of,  a  general  name  applied  to  a 
series  of  morasses  east  of  the  Shannon,  in  King’s 
County  and  Kildare,  Ireland,  comprising  about 
150,000  acres.  The  average  elevation  of  the 
morasses  is  250  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Lough 
Allen,  in  Lietrim,  is  a  lake  on  the  upper  course  of 
the  Shannon,  qnd  has  an  area  of  8,900  acres. 

Allen,  Charles  Grant,  novelist  and  versatile 
writer,  born  at  Kingston,  Canada,  Feb.  24,  1848, 
wars  educated  at  Merton  College,  Oxford,  and 
graduated  in  1870.  Since  adopting  a  literary 
career  lie  has  contributed  largely  to  periodicals, 
and  has  written  several  novels. 

Allen,  Ethan,  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  in 
1738,  distinguished  himself  early  in  the  Revolu¬ 
tionary  war  by  the  surprise  and  capture  of  Fort 
Ticonderoga  (May  10,  1775),  demanding  its  sur¬ 
render  “  in  the  name  of  Almighty  God  and  the 
Continental  Congress.”  He  did  good  service  in 
Montgomery’s  expedition  to  Canada,  but  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  not  exchanged  till  1778.  He 
was  afterwards  a  member  of  the  Vermont  Legisla¬ 
ture,  and  died  Feb.  13,  1789.  He  was  author  of 
a  deistical  work.  Reason  the  Only  Oracle  of  Man 
(1784).  See  his  Life  by  De  Puy  (1853). 

Allen,  Joel  Asapii,  American  zoologist,  born 
at  Springfield,  Mass.,  in  1838,  accompanied  Agas¬ 
siz  to  Brazil  in  1865,  and  in  1885  was  appointed 
curator  of  ornithology  and  mammalogy  in  the 
New  York  Museum,  after  holding  a  similar  office 
at  Cambridge.  He  is  author  of  monographs  on 
the  buffalo,  pinnipeds,  rodentia,  etc.,  of  high  scien¬ 
tific  and  literary  value. 

Allen,  John,  was  born  at  Redford,  in  Colin- 
ton  parish,  near  Edinburgh,  in  1771,  and  in  1791 
became  M.D.  of  Edinburgh  University.  He  con¬ 
tributed  upwards  of  forty  articles  to  the  Edinburgh 
Review.  His  most  valuable  work  is  his  Inquiry 
into  the  Rise  and  Growth  of  the  Royal  Prerogative 
in  England  (1830).  He  was  warden  of  Dulwich 
College  (1811-20),  and  then  its  master  until  his 
death,  on  April  10,  1843. 

Allen,  William,  Cardinal,  was  born  in  1532. 
In  1556  he  became  principal  of  St.  Mary’s  Hall, 
and  Catholic  though  he  was,  he  retained  this 
office  till  1560.  In  1587  he  was  created  a  cardinal 
during  his  fourth  visit  to  Rome.  He  never  after¬ 
wards  quitted  the  Imperial  City,  dying  there  on 
Oct.  16,  1594.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  English 
College  at  Douay. 

Allentown,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  sixty  miles  northwest  of  Philadelphia. 
The  Lehigh  Valley  is  rich  in  iron  ore  and  anthra¬ 
cite  coal;  large  blast-furnaces,  iron  works,  and 
rolling-mills  are  in  operation  in  the  neighborhood; 
and  there  are  manufactures  of  furniture  and  linen 
thread.  Pop.  (1880),  18,063. 

Allerion,  in  Heraldry,  an  eagle  with  expanded 
wings,  but  without  beak  or  feet.  In  the  earlier 
heraldry  it  has  both  beak  and  claws,  and  is 
described  as  a  large  species  of  eagle. 

Alleyn,  Edward,  a  famous  actor,  contem¬ 
porary  with  Shakespeare,  was  born  in  1566,  and 
died  in  1626.  His  connection  with  the  English 
stage  during  the  period  of  its  highest  prosperity, 
invests  his  life  with  interest  to  the  student  of  the 
drama;  but  it  is  as  the  founder  of  Dulwich  Col¬ 
lege  (Alleyn’s  College  of  God’s  Gift)  that  he  prin¬ 
cipally  claims  the  remembrance  of  posterity. 


Allia  (more  correctly,  Alia),  a  small  stream  in 
ancient  Latium.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of 
j  the  Roman  army  by  the  Gauls  under  Brennus  in 
I  387  or  390  r.c. 

Alliaceous  Plants  are  primarily  those  of 
the  genus  Allium  (onion,  leek,  shallot,  garlic, 
ramsons,  rocambole),  or  others  nearly  allied  to  it. 
The  term  is,  however,  extended  to  denote  the 
possession  of  the  characteristic  odor  and  taste 
(due  to  the  presence  of  an  essential  oil),  presented 
in  varying  degrees  by  all  members  of  that  im¬ 
portant  genus. 

All  iance,  a  compact  between  independent 
families  or  nations. 

Allibone,  Samuel  Austin,  LL.D.,  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  April  17,  1816.  He  was  an 
earnest  student  of  English  literature,  and  in  1853 
he  began  the  work  by  which  his  name  is  identi¬ 
fied  in  literature  and  bibliography,  his  Critical 
Dictionary  of  English  Literature  and  of  British 
and  American  Authors  (3  Vols.  1858-70-71). 
This  work  contains  notices  of  46,499  authors,  and 
forty  classified  indices  of  subjects. 

Allier,  a  river  of  Central  France,  rising  in  the 
watershed  of  the  east  of  the  department  of  Lozere, 
and  flowing  into  the  Loire. 

All  ier,  a  department  in  the  centre  of  France, 
has  an  area  of  2,822  square  miles,  and  a  popula¬ 
tion  of  (1886)  424,582.  The  chief  town  is  Moulins. 

Allies,  Thomas  William,  born  at  Bristol  in 
1813,  passed  from  Eton  to  Wadliam  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  obtained  a  first  class  in  1832. 
In  1850  he  joined  the  Roman  Catholic  com¬ 
munion,  and  published  the  See  of  St.  Peter 
accounting  for  his  conversion. 

Alligation,  from  a  Latin  word  signifying  to 
bind  together,  is  a  rule  in  arithmetic  which 
teaches  how  to  solve  such  questions  as  the  follow¬ 
ing:  31b.  of  sugar  at  6c.  are  mixed  with  51b.  at 
10c.;  what  is  (lie  price  of  a  pound  of  the  mix¬ 
ture?  The  solution  is  — fi.i+J’!*—  =  si/2c. 

If  there  are  more  than  two  ingredients,  the 
problem  becomes  indeterminate,  and  admits  of 
a  variety  of  answers.  Thus:  Of  three  metals, 
whose  specific  gravities  are  10,  15,  and  16,  it  is 
required  to  compose  an  alloy,  whose  specific 
gravity  shall  be  14.  The  conditions  will  be  an¬ 
swered  by  mixing  them  in  any  of  the  following 
proportions:  1,  2,  1;  2,  2,  3;  6,  2,  11,  etc. 

Alligator  (Span,  lagarto,  a  lizard),  a  genus  of 
Crocodilia,  the  highest  sub-class  of  reptiles.  The 
alligator  family  (Alligatoridae)  includes  three 
genera  —  alligator,  caiman,  and  jacare  (which 
differ  from  crocodiles  in  their  shorter  and  broader 
heads;  in  their  more  unequal  teeth;  in  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  pits  in  the  upper  jaw,  which  receive  the 
first  and  fourth  lower-jaw  teeth;  in  the  limited 
extent  of  the  union  between  the  two  lower  jaws, 
which  does  not  extend  backwards  beyond  the 
fifth  tooth;  in  the  separation  between  the  scales  of 
neck  and  back;  and  in  other  less  notable  char¬ 
acteristics).  Generally,  however,  they  resemble  croc¬ 
odiles  both  in  habit  and  structure.  The  alligators 
are  now  exclusively  confined  to  the  warmer  parts 
of  America,  but  fossil  forms  indicate  a  much 
wider  distribution.  They  vary  in  size  from  two 
to  twenty  feet.  The  genus  alligator  includes  a 
few  species,  of  which  t  he  most  familiar  is  alligator 
Indus,  the  pike-headed  alligator  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  region.  There  are  twenty  teeth  on  each  of 
the  upfter  and  lower  jaws.  The  lids  of  the  gleam¬ 
ing  eyes  are  fleshy  and  smooth.  The  caiman  and 
the  jacare  are  at  home  in  tropical  South  America, 
but  extend  northward  to  Mexico.  The  large  eggs 
are  laid  on  shore  in  a  hollow  in  the  sand,  covered 
over  with  grass  and  reeds,  and  left  to  themselves 
and  the  sun’s  heat.  As  many  as  sixty  may  be  laid 
in  one  nest,  arranged  in  separate  layers. 

Allingham,  William,  a  popular  poet,  of 
English  origin,  born  at  Ballyshannon,  in  Ireland, 
in  1828.  He  contributed  to  the  Athenaeum, 
Household  Words,  and  other  journals,  and  in  1874 
succeeded  Froudc  as  editor  of  Fraser’s  Magazine. 
His  first  volume  of  poems  appeared  in  1850,  and 
he  has  since  written  many  ballads  and  several 
poems  of  Irish  life. 

Alliteration  is  the  frequent  occurrence  in  a 
composition  of  words  beginning  with  the  same 
letter.  In  Old  German,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  Scan¬ 
dinavian  poetry,  alliteration  took  the  place  of 
rhyme.  Alliterative  poems  continued  to  be  writ¬ 


ten  in  English  after  it  had  assumed  its  modem 
form;  the  most  remarkable  example  is  Piers  the 
Plowman,  a  poem  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Even 
after  the  introduction  of  rhyme,  alliteration  con¬ 
tinued  to  be  largely  used  as  an  embellishment  of 
poetry.  Shakespeare  ridicules  the  excessive  use 
of  it  by  many  poets  of  his  time  in  Midsummer 
Night’s  Dream  (V.  I.,  147),  where  he  makes 
Quince  say  in  his  prologue: 

With  Made,  with  Moody,  Mameful  Slade, 

He  M'avely  broach’d  his  foiling,  Moody  ireast. 

Poets  in  all  times  have  employed  it  for  the  sake  of 
the  point  and  emphasis  it  often  gives  a  line.  The 
satirist  Churchill  speaks  of  himself  as  one 
Who  often,  but  without  success,  had  prayed 
For  apt  alliteration's  artful  aid. 

A  fine  example  of  its  effect  in  poetry  occurs  in 
the  well-known  lines  of  Coleridge: 

The  fair  breeze  /dew,  the  white  /oam  /lew, 

The  /urrow  /ollowed  free. 

And  another  by  the  same  author: 

Five  miles  meandering  with  a  mazy  motion. 

But  the  perfect  ear  of  that  consummate  master  of 
rhythm  could  tolerate  only  its  occasional  use. 
Shakespeare  was  himself  a  master  of  alliteration 
in  its  proper  use,  and  as  a  poetical  device  it  has 
survived  to  our  own  day,  no  poet  having  used  it 
with  finer  effect  than  Tennyson,  and  none  with 
more  wearisome  monotony  than  the  latest  of  oui- 
greater  poets,  Mr.  Swinburne. 

Alliteration  is  not  confined  to  verse;  the  charm 
that  lies  in  it  exercises  great  influence  on 
human  speech  generally,  as  may  be  seen  in  many 
current  phrases  and  proverbs  in  all  languages,  as- 
“life  and  limb,”  “  house  and  home,”  “kith  and 
kin,”  “  Land  und  Leute,”  etc.  Among  modern 
writers  this  application  of  alliteration  is  perhaps 
most  felicitously  exemplified  by  Sydney  Smith, 
as,  when  in  contrasting  the  conditions  of  a  digni¬ 
tary  of  the  English  Church  and  of  a  poor  curate, 
lie  speaks  of  them  as  “  the  Right  Reverend  Dives- 
in  the  palace,  and  Lazarus-in-orders  at  the  gate,, 
doctored  by  dogs  and  comforted  with  crumbs.” 

Allium,  a  genus  of  Liliaceac,  containing  about 
150  species.  These  are  perennial,  or  more  rarely 
biennial,  herbaceous  plants,  and  are  natives 
chiefly  of  the  temperate  and  colder  regions  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere.  Garlic,  onion,  leek,  shal¬ 
lot,  chive,  and  rocambole  are  species  of  this  genus 
in  common  cultivation. 

Al'loa,  a  seaport  town  in  Clackmannanshire, 
Scotland.  The  Forth  is  here  crossed  by  a  railway 
viaduct  (1885).  Close  by  is  Alloa  House  (1838), 
the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Mar  and  Kellie,  with  Alloa 
Tower,  eighty-nine  feet  high,  and  built  about 
1223.  Here  Queen  Mary  spent  part  of  her  child¬ 
hood,  as  also  did  James  VI.  and  Prince  Henry. 
Pop.  (1881),  10,601. 

Allob'roges,  a  Celtic  race  of  Gaul,  whose  ter¬ 
ritory  lay  between  the  Is  ere,  the  Lake  of  Geneva, 
and  the  Rhone,  corresponding  to  the  later  Dau- 
pliinC  and  Savoy. 

Allocution,  which  simply  means  an  address, 
is  applied,  in  the  language  of  the  Vatican,  to 
denote  specially  the  address  delivered  by  the  Pope 
at  the  College  of  Cardinals  on  any  ecclesiastical  or 
political  circumstance.  Allocutions  are  published 
by  being  affixed  to  the  doors  of  St.  Peter’s. 

Allodium,  or  Allodial  Tenure,  has  no  well- 
defined  general  meaning  in  law.  It  refers  to  a 
primitive  form  of  land-tenure,  which,  both  in 
Celtic  and  Teutonic  communities,  seems  to  have 
succeeded  the  original  shifting  allotment  among 
the  members  of  the  tribe,  the  sors  of  the  Bur¬ 
gundian  law.  In  the  United  States,  although  the 
word  fee  is  in  use,  the  feudal  relation  does  not 
exist,  and  the  title  to  land  is  essentially  allodial. 
Every  tenant  in  fee  simple  has  absolute  and 
unqualified  dominion  over  his  land. 

Allopathy,  a  mode  of  curing  diseases  by 
producing  a  condition  of  the  system  opposite  to 
that  characteristic  of  the  disease;  a  name  invented 
by  Hahnemann  for  the  standard  system  of  medi¬ 
cal  treatment,  as  opposed  to  Homoeopathy. 

Allotments.  In  England,  allotments  are  small 
plots  of  land  let  to  agricultural  laborers,  who  cul¬ 
tivate  them  during  their  spare  time.  Of  recent 
years  much  attention  has  been  given  to  the  ques¬ 
tion  of  allotments,  chiefly  in  connection  with  pro¬ 
posals  for  giving  to  local  bodies  compulsory 
powers  for  creating  them.  According  to  the  last 


ALLOTROPY. 


37 


ALMAGRO. 


Teturns  in  1873,  there  were  in  England  242,000  al¬ 
lotments.  In  1887  a  bill,  confined  to  England,  was 
passed,  by  which  local  authorities  have  compul¬ 
sory  powers  for  providing  allotments  and  common 
pasturage. 

Allotropy  is  a  term  applied  in  chemistry  to 
the  peculiarity  which  certain  elements  exhibit  of 
existing  in  two  or  more  distinct  modifications, 
which,  although  chemically  identical,  usually 
differ  very  much  in  their  physical  properties,  such 
as  color,  density,  hardness,  etc. 

The  element  carbon,  which  is  a  constituent  of 
the  very  numerous  chemical  compounds  com¬ 
monly  called  organic  bodies,  is  known  in  several 
allotropic  modifications.  Of  these,  two  crystalline 
forms  occur  in  nature — the  first,  the  widely  distrib¬ 
uted  but  comparatively  rare  diamond;  and  the 
second,  graphite  or  black-lead,  used  in  manu¬ 
facture  of  the  so-called  lead  pencils 

Phosphorus  and  sulphur  exist  in  several  allo¬ 
tropic  forms,  and  oxygen  in  two  (both  gases) — 
common  oxygen  and  ozone.  The  latter  has  a 
density  half  as  great  again  as  the  former,  the 
formula  for  oxygen  being  O2,  and  for  Ozone  O3. 

Alioway,  Burns’  birthplace,  and  the  scene  of 
his  Tam  O’Shanter,  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Doon,  two  miles  south  of  the  town  of  Ayr.  The 
“  auld  clay  biggin,”  in  which  the  poet  was  born 
on  Jan.  23,  1759,  was  in  1880  converted  into  a 
Burns  Museum.  The  “haunted  kirk”  still 
stands,  a  roofless  ruin,  near  the  “auld  brig;” 
and  hard  by  is  the  Burns  Monument  (1820). 

Alloy.  Compounds  or  mixtures  which  differ¬ 
ent  metals  form  with  one  another  are  called  alloys. 
There  is  an  exception,  however,  in  the  case  of 
mercury.  When  it  is  mixed  with  another  metal, 
the  compound  is  termed  an  amalgam.  All  alloys 
retain  the  essential  properties  of  metals.  They 
possess  metallic  lustre,  and  conduct  heat  and 
electricity  well.  Alloys  are  divided  into  three 
groups:  (1)  Those  formed  by  the  metals  lead,  tin, 
zinc,  and  cadmium,  which  impart  to  their  alloys 
their  own  physical  properties  in  the  proportions 
in  which  they  themselves  are  contained  in  the 
alloy.  (2)  Those  formed  by  almost  all  other 
metals.  Such  alloys  as  belong  to  this  group  do 
not  get  imparted  to  them  the  physipal  properties 
of  their  constituent  metals  in  the  proportions  in 
which  they  are  present.  (3)  Those  which  contain 
metals  found  in  both  these  groups  of  alloys. 

In  an  alloy  the  specific  heat  and  the  coefficient 
of  expansion  are  always  the  means  of  those  of  its 
component  metals.  But  in  other  physical  prop¬ 
erties  a  variation  takes  place.  This  is  the  case 
with  specific  gravity,  which  in  alloys  of  the  first 
group  is  the  mean  of  their  constituent  metals; 
but  in  those  of  the  second  group  it  is  always 
greater  or  less  than  the  mean  specific  gravity  of 
their  constituents. 

In  alloys  of  the  first  group  the  conducting- 
power  for  electricity  is  exactly  proportional  to  the 
relative  volumes  of  the  component  metals;  while 
in  alloys  of  the  second  group  the  case  is  different. 
If  lead,  tin,  zinc,  or  cadmium  be  mixed  with  any 
of  the  metals  from  which  alloys  of  the  second 
group  are  formed,  this  alloy  has  its  coefficient  of 
elasticity  much  increased.  For  example,  coils  of 
copper  or  silver  wire  are  made  straight  by  weights, 
by  which  a  coil  of  brass  or  gun-metal  wire  will 
scarcely  be  altered  in  shape. 

In  some  instances,  when  two  melted  metals  are 
mixed  together  to  form  an  alloy,  an  evolution  of 
heat  occurs,  which  is  believed  to  indicate  that  a 
chemical  compound  has  been  formed.  This  is 
the  case  with  copper  and  zinc,  copper  and  alumi¬ 
nium,  platinum  and  tin,  etc.  Platinum  by  itself 
is  quite  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but  if  it  be 
alloyed  with  silver  the  compound  is  completely 
dissolved.  Silver,  on  the  other  hand,  readily 
dissolves  in  nitric  acid,  but  it  will  not  do  so  when 
mixed  with  a  large  quantity  of  gold. 

The  strength  or  cohesion  of  an  alloy  is  gener¬ 
ally  greater  than  that  of  the  mean  cohesion  of  the 
metals  contained  therein,  or  even  of  that  of  the 
most  cohesive  of  its  constituents.  Thus,  the 
breaking  weight  of  a  bar  of  copper  or  tin  is  very 
much  lower  than  the  breaking  weight  of  a  bar  of 
the  same  size  composed  of  certain  alloys  of  tin 
and  copper. 

The  most  useful  alloy  in  the  arts  is  brass.  This 
compound  metal  is  next  to  iron  in  importance. 
Several  kinds  are  made,  varying  in  composition 


from  equal  parts  of  copper  and  zinc  to  five  parts 
of  copper  with  one  of  zinc. 

Among  the  important  alloys  of  copper  and  tin 
are  bronze,  gun-metal,  bell-metal,  and  speculum 
metal.  In  these  the  proportions  of  the  two  con¬ 
stituents  vary  from  equal  parts  of  copper  and 
tin,  to  ten  parts  of  copper  with  one  of  tin.  The 
strongest  of  them  is  a  bronze  consisting  of  six 
parts  of  copper  to  one  of  tin. 

German  silver  is  an  alloy  composed,  in  its  best 
quality,  of  two  parts  of  zinc,  four  of  copper,  and 
one  of  nickel.  Britannia  metal  generally  consists 
of  about  ninety  parts  of  tin,  eight  of  antimony, 
and  two  of  copper.  Nickel-copper  alloys  are 
used  for  coins. 

Pewter  is  a  tin  alloy  which  was  more  used  for 
merly  than  now.  Its  composition  varies.  Com 
moniy  it  consists  of  four  parts  of  tin  to  one  of 
lead,  but  sometimes  it  is  tin  with  a  little  copper. 
Type  metal  is  a  compound  of  fifty  parts  of  lead, 
twenty-five  of  antimony,  and  twenty-five  of  tin, 
but  it  varies  slightly.  Fusible  metal  melts  in  hot 
water.  One  kind  of  it  is  composed  of  three  parts 
of  tin,  five  of  lead,  and  eight  of  bismuth.  This 
alloy  is  now  a  good  deal  employed  in  stereo¬ 
typing,  and  in  obtaining  copies  of  woodcuts. 

Aluminium  bronze,  an  alloy  very  closely 
resembling  gold  in  appearance,  which  is  much 
used  for  pencil-cases,  chains,  and  some  larger 
objects,  varies  in  composition  from  ninety-five  of 
copper  and  five  of  aluminium  to  ninety  of  copper 
and  ten  of  aluminium.  A  compound  of  silver 
and  aluminium  is  sometimes  used  for  watch- 
springs,  and  for  spoons  and  forks.  Dentists  use  a 
very  ductile  alloy,  composed  of  two  parts  by 
weight  of  silver  and  one  of  platinum.  A  metal 
formed  of  nine  parts  of  platinum  and  one  part  of 
iridium  has  recently  been  employed  for  the  stand¬ 
ard  metre-measure  by  the  Parisian  Commission 
for  the  International  Metrical  System. 

Sterling  silver  consists  of  11  oz.  2  dwt.  of  silver 
anil  18  dwt.  of  copper  in  the  Troy  pound.  That 

is,  it  contains 7.5  percent,  of  copper.  Pure  silver 
is  too  soft  to  be  used  for  anything  which  is  to  be 
much  handled.  A  little  copper  imparts  to  it 
greater  hardness  and  toughness,  and  makes  it 
more  easily  fusible. 

When  gold  is  to  be  used  for  coins,  jewelry  or 
plate,  it  requires  to  be  alloyed  with  copper  or  sil¬ 
ver,  or  with  both,  in  ordeato  harden  it.  English 
sovereigns  are  made  of  a  mixture  of  twenty-two 
parts  gold  to  two  of  copper,  and  this  is  called  22- 
carat  or  standard  gold.  In  Germany,  Italy,  and 
the  United  States,  standard  gold  for  the  coinage 
is  21.6  carats.  I11  the  United  States  it  is  declared 
by  law  that  t  he  standard  for  both  gold  and  silver 
coins  shall  be  such  that  of  a  thousand  parts  by 
weight,  nine  hundred  shall  be  of  pure  metal  and 
one  hundred  of  alloy.  Until  lately,  it  was  pro¬ 
vided  that  the  alloy  of  gold  coins  might  be- of 
either  copper  or  silver;  but  by  a  recent  regulation 
only  copper  is  used  in  the  alloy  either  of  silver  or 
gold  coins. 

All-Saints  Bay,  in  the  province  of  Bahia, 
on  the  coast  of  Brazil,  forms  a  superb  natural 
harbor,  in  which  the  navies  of  the  whole  world 
might  ride  at  anchor.  Its  length  is  thirty-seven 
miles;  its  breadth  twenty-seven.  The  town  of 
Bahia  lies  just  within  it. 

All-Saints’  Day,  in  Old  English  All-Hallows, 
All-Hallowmas,  or  simply  Hallowmas,  a  church 
festival,  introduced  because  of  the  impossibility 
of  keeping  a  separate  day  for  every  saint.  The 
festival  of  All-Saints  was  first  regularly  instituted 
by  Gregory  IY.  in  835,  on  Nov.  1.  The  choice 
of  the  day  was  doubtless  determined  by  the  fact 
that  Nov.  1,  or  rather  the  eve  or  night  preceding 

it,  was  one  of  the  four  great  festivals  (Feb.  1, 
May  i,  Aug.  1,  and  Nov.  l)of  the  heathen  nations 
of  the  North,  for  it  was  the  policy  of  the  church 
to  supplant  heathen  by  Christian  observances. 

All-Souls’  Day,  a  festival  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  which  falls  on  Nov.  2.  The 
object  of  it  is,  by  prayers  and  almsgiving,  to 
alleviate  the  sufferings  of  the  souls  in  purgatory. 

Allspice,  a  name  frequently  given  to  the  kind 
of  spice  called  pimento  or  Jamaica  pepper,  the 
fruit  of  Eugenia  pimenla  and  E.  acris.  The 
name  originated  in  its  being  supposed  to  combine 
the  flavor  of  different  spices,  particularly  cinna¬ 
mon,  nutmeg,  and  cloves. 


Allston,  Washington,  an  American  painter,, 
was  born  in  South  Carolina  in  1779.  He  gradu¬ 
ated  at  Harvard  in  1800,  and  studied  under  West, 
who  was  at  that  time  President  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  In  1804  he  proceeded  to  Rome,  where 
he  lived  for  some  years  in  close  intimacy  with 
Thorwaldsen  and  Coleridge.  In  1817  he  went  to 
Paris,  and  the  year  after  returned  to  America, 
and  permanently  fixed  his  residence  at  Cambridge- 
port,  near  Boston,  where  he  lived,  cultivating  Ids 
art  and  the  muses,  till  his  death  on  July  9,  1843. 
In  1819  he  was  elected  a  London  A.R.A. 

Alluvion  takes  place  where  land  is  gained  from 
the  sea  by  the  washing  up  of  sand  anil  earth  so  as 
to  make  it  terra firma.  In  the  United  States  allu¬ 
vion  signifies  the  increase  of  the  earth  on  a  shore 
or  the  bank  of  a  river  by  the  force  of  the  wTater, 
gradually  and  imperceptibly  made.  The  pro¬ 
prietor  of  the  bank  is  the  gainer.  Where  an  open 
space  by  the  water’s  edge  is  public,  the  public  is 
entitled  to  the  alluvion. 

Alluvium,  a  term  originally  applied  to  those 
deposits  which  were  supposed  to  have  been 
formed  subsequently  to  the  flood,  while  diluvium 
included  the  strata  produced  by  it.  In  modern 
geological  classification,  these  two  terms  have 
ceased  to  be  used  in  this  sense.  By  alluvium  is 
now  meant  any  earthy  material  deposited  by  the 
ordinary  operation  of  water  in  motion. 

Allyi  (Lat.  allium ,  garlic)  is  an  organic  radical, 
represented  when  in  combination  by  C3H5,  and 
when  in  the  free  state  by  C<iHi0. 

Alma,  a  river  in  the  Crimea.  On  the  steep 
banks  of  this  stream,  through  the  channel  of 
which  the  British  troops  waded  amidst  a  shower  of 
bullets,  a  brilliant  victory  was  won  on  Sept. 
20,  1854,  by  the  allied  armies  of  Britain  and 
France,  under  Lord  Raglan  and  Marshal  St. 
Arnaud,  over  the  Russian  army  commanded  by 
Prince  Menschikoff.  It  was  the  first  battle  of  the 
Crimean  wrar. 

Almacantar,  a  name  for  circles  of  altitudes 
parallel  to  the  horizon,  and  for  an  astronomical 
instrument  for  determining  time  and  latitude. 
The  almacantar  consists  of  a  telescope  revolving 
on  a  horizontal  axis,  which  can  be  clamped  at  any 
altitude,  the  whole  resting  on  a  float  sustained  in 
a  trough  of  mercury.  The  clamped  telescope, 
when  its  floating  support  is  turned,  will,  there¬ 
fore,  trace  out  a  circle  of  equal  altitude,  and  by 
the  transits  of  stars  across  this  circle,  time  and 
latitude  can  be  obtained  with  very  great  accuracy. 
It  can  also  be  used  for  determining  the  apparent 
places  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

Almack’s,  a  suite  of  assembly  rooms  in  King 
street,  London,  now  called  Willis’s  rooms.  The 
name  is  chiefly  associated  with  the  balls  that,  from 
the  opening  of  the  rooms,  in  1765,  till  about  1840, 
were  held  there  under  the  management  of  a  com¬ 
mittee  of  ladies  of  high  rank.  Willis’s  rooms  are 
also  much  used  for  dinners  and  concerts,  as  well 
as  balls. 

Alma'da.  a  tow  n  of  Portugal,  in  the  province 
of  Estremadura,  opposite  Lisbon.  Pop.,  5,091, 

Almaden',  a  town  in  Spain,  situated  in  the 
chain  of  the  Sierra  Morena.  Pop  ,  7,755.  It  is 
famous  for  its  twelve  rich  quicksilver  mines, 
employing  about  4,000  miners,  and  yielding  an 
annual  output  of  2,500,000  pounds.  —  New 
Almaden,  in  the  Coast  Range,  California,  twelve 
miles  from  San  Jos£,  was  first  worked  regularly 
for  mercury  in  1845,  and  nowr  yields  upwards  of 
2,000,000  pounds  a  year. 

Al'magest,  the  name  given  by  the  Arabs  to  the 
great  work  of  the  astronomer  Ptolemy. 

Almagro,  a  town  of  New  Castile,  Spain.  It 
has  a  great  manufacture  of  lace.  Pop. ,  8,628. 

Almagro,  Diego  d’,  a  Spanish  conquistador, 
was  born  in  1464  or  1475,  and  was  a  foundling 
who  derived  his  name  from  the  towm  near  which 
he  was  found.  He  became  one  of  the  leading 
members  of  the  young  colony  of  Darien,  and  in 
1522  formed,  with  Pizarro,  the  design  of  con¬ 
quering  Peru — an  undertaking  crowned  ten  years 
afterward  with  marvelous  success.  He  marched 
on  Chili  in  1536,  penetrated  as  far  as  the  Ccquimbo, 
and  returned  in  1537,  just  when  the  Peruvians 
had  shut  up  the  Spaniards  in  Cuzco  and  Lima. 
As  these  towns  lay  south  of  Pizarro’s  district, 
they  were  claimed  by  Almagro.  He  dispersed  the 
Peruvian  army  before  Cuzco,  and  advanced 
|  against  Lima,  but  on  April  6,  1538,  he  was 


ALMA  MATER. 


38 


ALOE. 


defeated  in  a  desperate  engagement  with  the 
Spaniards  under  Pizarro  near  Cuzco;  and  on  the 
26th  he  was  strangled  in  prison,  and  his  corpse 
beheaded  in  the  market-place  of  Cuzco.  His  half- 
caste  son,  Diego,  stormed  Pizarro's  palace,  and 
slew  him  (1541);  then  proclaimed  himself  captain- 
general  of  Peru;  but,  defeated  in  the  bloody  battle 
of  Chupas  (Sept.  16,1542),  he  was  executed,  along 
with  forty  of  his  companions. 

Alma  Mater  (Lat.  nourishing  mother),  is  a 
name  given  to  a  university  in  relation  to  those 
who  have  derived  instruction  from  it. 

A1  ’  manac,  a  word  applied  in  Roger  Bacon’s 
Opus  Mnjus  (1267)  to  permanent  tables  showing 
the  apparent  movements  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
The  earliest  printed  almanac  was  that  Pro  pluri- 
bus  annifs,  published  at  Vienna  in  1457  by  the 
celebrated  astronomer  Purbach.  In  1533  Rabelais 
published,  at  Lyons,  his  almanac  for  that  year, 
and  renewed  the  publication  in  1535,  1548  and 
1550.  The  fame  and  popularity  of  the  celebrated 
astrologer  Nostradamus  gave  such  an  impulse  to 
the  publication  of  predictions  that,  .in  1579, 
Henry  III.  of  France  prohibited  the  insertion  of 
any  political  prophecies  in  almanacs — a  prohibi¬ 
tion  renewed  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1628. 

Prophetic  almanacs  still  circulate  to  an  incredi¬ 
ble  extent  in  France,  in  rural  districts,  among 
the  uneducated.  The  most  popular  is  the 
Almanack  Liegeois,  a  venerable  remnant  of  super¬ 
stition  It  was  first  published  at  Li6ge,  in  1625. 

In  England,  James  I.  gave  a  monopoly  of  the 
trade  to  the  two  Universities  and  the  Stationers’ 
Company,  under  whose  patronage,  and  with  the 
imprimatur  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
flourished  such  productions  as  Lilly’s  Merlini 
Ephemeris  (1644-81),  Poor  Robin's  Almanac  (1664- 
1824),  and  Moore's  Almanac,  under  the  editorship 
of  Henry  Andrews,  which  reached  an  annual  sale 
of  more  than  half  a  million.  The  memory  of 
Partridge,  from  1678  to  1713  the  prophet  of  the 
Stationers’  Company,  is  preserved  in  Pope’s  Rape 
of  the  Lock,  and  in  Swift’s  lively  burlesque,  in 
which  the  prophet’s  own  death  was  predicted. 
The  British  Almanac  has,  from  1870,  been  the 
principal  almanac  published  by  the  Stationers’ 
Company.  Whitaker's  Almanack  is  a  valuable 
compendium  of  varied  information,  started  in 
1869,  and  enlarged  in  1887  to  632  pages. 

Of  important  national  almanacs  are  the  French 
Almanack  Royal,  afterward  Imperial,  now  Na¬ 
tional,  begun  in  1679,  and  the  American  Almanac 
and  Treasury  of  Fact,  a  very  meritorious  publica¬ 
tion,  started  in  1878.  The  earliest  American 
almanac  was  published  by  William  Bradford,  at 
Philadelphia,  in  1687.  Franklin’s  Poor  Richard' s 
Almanac  (1732-57)  may  be  noticed. 

The  Almanack  de  Gotha,  published  annually  at 
Gotha  by  the  great  geographical  house  of  Justus 
Perthes,  has  a  European, or  rather  a  cosmopolitan, 
character.  It  is  published  in  French  and  German, 
and  was  first  printed  in  1764.  The  almanac  is  a 
small  pocket  volume,  containing  more  than  1,100 
pages  of  small  type,  and  recording  the  sovereigns 
and  royal  families  of  every  civilized  country, 
with  the  civil,  diplomatic,  military,  and  naval 
officers,  a  great  amount  of  statistical  information, 
a  compact  summary  of  historical  events,  obituary 
notices  of  the  most  distinguished  persons,  and 
other  matters  of  political  interest.  No  book  ever 
printed  contains  so  much  political  and  statistical 
information  in  so  small  a  compass. 

The  most  important  astronomical  almanac  pub¬ 
lished  ii>  Britain  is  the  Nautical  Almanac,  pro¬ 
jected  by  the  Astronomer  Royal,  Dr.  Maskelyne, 
and  first  published,  by  authority  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment,  for  1767.  It  is  issued  four  years  in  ad¬ 
vance  of  the  year  to  which  it  refers.  Still  older 
than  this  almanac  is  the  French  Gonnoissance  d>s 
Temps,  commenced  in  1679  by  Picard,  and  now 
published  under  the  authority  of  the  Bureau  des 
Longitudes.  Its  plan  resembles  that  of  the  Nauti¬ 
cal  Almanac,  but  it  contains  a  larger  amount  of 
original  memoirs,  many  of  them  of  great  value. 
Similar  works  are  the  Berliner  Astro nomisches 
Jahrbuch  (1776),  from  1830  till  1862  edited  by 
Encke,  and  the  American  Nautical  Almanac 
(1855). 

Almansa,  a  town  of  Spain  in  the  Province  of 
Albacete.  Here  the  French  under  the  Duke  of 
Berwick  gained  an  important  victory  on  April  25, 
1707,  over  the  Spanish  and  English.  Pop.,  7,960. 


Almansur  (the  victorious),  the  title  assumed 
by  Abu-Jafar,  the  second  calif  of  the  house  of  the 
Abbasides,  who  succeeded  his  brother  in  745. 
He  especially  persecuted  the  Christians  in  Syria 
and  Egypt.  He  removed  the  seat  of  government 
from  Kufa  to  Bagdad,  which  he  built  (764)  at 
immense  cost,  raising  the  money  by  oppressive 
taxation.  He  caused  the  Elements  of  Euclid  to 
be  translated  from  the  Syriac,  and  the  famous 
fables  of  Bidpai  from  the  Persian.  Almansur 
died  in  775  during  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  at  the 
age  of  almost  seventy. 

Alma-Tad 'ema,  Lawrence,  R.  A.,  is  a  native 
of  the  Netherlands,  born  at  Dronryp,  Jan.  8,  1836. 
In  1852  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  art, 
and  entered  the  Academy  of  Antwerp.  He  set¬ 
tled  permanently  in  England  in  1873.  His  works 
are  distinguished  for  their  careful  composition, 
accuracy  of  design,  and  the  beauty,  sobriety,  and 
finish  of  their  coloring.  Tadema  exhibited  a 
series  of  three  pictures  at  the  Grosveuor  Gallery — 
entitled,  respectively,  “Architecture,”  “Sculp¬ 
ture,”  and  “Painting,” — and  at  the  same  gallery, 
in  1883,  there  wasa  special  exhibition  of  his  works. 
He  has  also  executed  several  notable  works  in 
portraiture,  and  is  one  of  the  most  decorated 
men  amongst  modern  artists,  holding  Dutch,  Bel 
gian,  and  Bavarian  orders,  the  German  order 
Pour  le  Merite,  and  the  Legion  of  Honor.  Elected 
A.R.A.  in  1876,  he  became  R.A.  in  1879.  His  sec¬ 
ond  wife  is  an  artist  of  considerable  repute. 

Almeli,  Alme,  or  Almai  (Arabic  dlim,  wise, 
learned),  a  class  of  Egyptian  singing  girls  in 
attendance  at  festivals,  entertainments,  or  fune¬ 
rals.  The  Ghawazee  or  dancing  girls  are  of  a 
lower  order. 

Almei'da,  one  of  the  strongest  fortified  places 
in  Portugal,  is  situated  on  the  river  Coa.  In  1762 
it  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards.  In  1810  it  was 
defended  against  Marshal  Ma.ssena  by  an  English 
officer  until  the  explosion  of  a  powder  magazine 
compelled  him  to  capitulate.  Pop.,  1,680. 

Almeida,  Don  Francesco  d’,  a  famous  Portu¬ 
guese  viceroy  of  the  Indies,  was  the  seventh  son 
of  the  Count  of  Abrantes,  and  distinguished  him¬ 
self  in  the  wars  with  the  Moors,  especially  at  the 
conquest  of  Granada  in  1492.  In  1505  he  was 
appointed  Viceroy  of  the  Portuguese  possessions 
in  the  East  Indies.  He  was  slain  in  an  obscure 
affray  with  savages  at  @ape  iSaldanlia,  in  the  South 
of  Africa,  March  1,  1510. 

Almeri  a  (Arab.  Al-Mariyat,  the  conspicu¬ 
ous),  the  chief  town  of  a  Spanish  province  on  the 
Gulf  of  Almeria.  In  the  time  of  the  Moors  it  was, 
next  to  Granada,  the  richest  and  most  important 
town  in  the  kingdom,  with  about  150,000  inhabi¬ 
tants,  being  the  great  port  of  traffic  with  Italy  and 
the  East.  At  one  time  it  was  as  terrible  a  nest  of 
pirates  as  Algiers  itself.  Pop.  (1884),  39,206. 
The  Province  of  Almeria  consists  of  the  eastern 
portion  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Granada,  and 
lias  an  area  of  3,300  square  miles.  Pop.,  (1884), 
357,570. 

Almodo  var  del  Cam'po,  a  town  of  New 
Castile,  Spain.  Pop.,  10,362. 

Almoliades,  the  name  of  a  Moslem  dynasty 
that  ruled  in  Africa  and  Spain  during  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries.  The  word  is  Arabic, 
signifying  “worshippers  of  the  one  true  God,” 
and  was  assumed  as  a  term  of  distinction. 

Almond  ( Amygdalus ),  a  genus  of  the  natural 
order  Rosacea;,  sub-order  Amygdalese  or  Dru- 


The  Almond:  a  flower,  b  fruit, 
pace®,  consisting  of  trees  or  shrubs  distinguished 
by  the  coarsely  furrowed  and  wrinkled  shell  (eudo- 


carp  or  putamen )  of  the  drupe,  and  by  the  young 
leaves  being  conduplicate,  or  having  their  sides 
folded  together.  According  to  the  greater 
number  of  botanists,  it  includes  the  peach, 
constituted  by  some  into  a  distinct  genus.  The 
wood  of  the  almond-tree  is  hard,  and  of  red¬ 
dish  _  color,  and  is  used  by  cabinet-makers. 
But  it  is  chiefly  valued  on  account  of  the  kernel 
of  its  fruit,  which  forms  an  important  article  of 
commerce.  The  almond  tree  is  often  referred  to 
in  the  OKI  Testament,  and  the  word  translated 
hazel  is  supposed  to  be  another  name  for  the 
almond.  Almonds  are  either  sweet  or  bitter. 
The  bitter  appear  to  be  the  original  kind,  and  the 
sweet  to  be  an  accidental  variety,  perpetuated  and 
improved  by  cultivation.  Large  quantities  of 
almonds  are  annually  imported  into  Britain  and 
America  from  France,  Spain,  Italy,  and  the 
Levant,  and  California  produces  annually  about 
2,000,000  pounds.  Bitter  almonds  are  brought 
chiefly  from  Mogadore. 

Almonds,  Fixed  Oil  of.  When  almonds  are 
subjected  to  pressure,  a  fixed,  greasy  oil  exudes. 
Either  bitter  or  sweet  almonds  may  be  employed; 
but  the  former  are  generally  used,  as  they  are 
cheaper  than  the  sweet  almonds,  and  the  ex¬ 
pressed  cake  is  valuable  in  the  preparation  of  the 
essential  oil.  One  hundredweight  of  the  almonds 
generally  yields  48  to  52  lbs.  of  the  fixed  oil. 

Almonds,  Volatile  Oil  or  Essential  Oil 
of.  The  cake  which  is  left  after  the  expression 
of  the  fixed  oil  from  bitter  almonds,  contains, 
among  other  matters,  a  portion  of  two  substances 
called,  respectively,  amygdalin,  and  emulsin  or 
synaptase.  When  the  cake  is  bruised  and  made 
into  a  paste  with  water,  the  synaptase  acts  as  a 
ferment  upon  the  amygdalin,  splitting  it  up  into 
the  volatile  oil  of  almonds,  hydrocyanic  (prussic) 
acid,  grape-sugar,  ammonia,  formic  acid,  and 
water.  The  oil  is  not  originally  present  in  the 
bitter  almonds,  but  is  purely  the  product  of  the 
fermentation  of  amygdalin,  100  parts  of  which 
yield  47  of  crude  oil.  In  medicine,  the  crude  oil 
used  to  be  employed  in  place  of  prussic  acid,  but 
its  variability  in  strength  has  led  to  its  disuse  for 
this  purpose.  The  oil  is  used  for  flavoring  cus¬ 
tards,  etc.,  and  it  forms  the  basis  of  several  flavor¬ 
ing  essences,  as  ratafia,  peach  kernels,  etc.  For 
these  purposes  none  but  the  oil  freed  from  prussic 
acid  must  be  used. 

Almoner,  that  functionary  of  a  religious  house 
who  had  the  dispensing  of  the  money  and  other 
things  set  apart  for  alms,  which  must,  by  canon 
law,  amount  to  at  least  a  tenth  of,  the  revenues  of 
the  establishment.  The  Grand  Almoner  of  France 
was  one  of  the  principal  officers  of  the  court  and 
of  the  kingdom,  usually  a  cardinal.  The  Lord 
High  Almoner  of  England,  who  is  usually  a 
bishop,  distributes  twice  a  year  the  royal  bounty, 
which  consists  in  giving  silver  money  to  as  many 
poor  persons  as  the  sovereign  is  years  of  age. 

Almora,  the  principal  town  of  the  British  dis¬ 
trict  of  Kumaun.  Pop.,  8,000. 

Almoravides  (Arab,  al  murabathin,  dedi¬ 
cated  to  the  service  of  God),  the  name  of  an  Arab 
dynasty  that  ruled  in  Africa  and  Spain  in  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  of  our  era. 

Almqvist,  Karl  Jonas  Ludvig,  a  Swedish 
author,  was  born  at  Stockholm  in  1793,  and  died 
in  1866  at  Bremen,  after  a  singular  career,  in 
which  he  once  had  to  flee  as  a  forger  and  a  sus¬ 
pected  would-be  assassin  to  America. 

Almshouse.  An  almshouse  is  a  house  or  set  of 
houses  in  which  accommodation  is  provided  for 
persons  disabled  by  age  and  poverty. 

Almug  Tree,  or  Algum  Tree.  This  name, 
occurring  in  the  Old  Testament,  was  formerly 
supposed  to  denote  a  species  of  acacia,  or  a  con¬ 
iferous  tree  like  the  cypress;  but  it- is  now  thought 
more  probable  that  it  was  one  of  the  kinds  of 
Sandalwood. 

Almunecar,  a  seaport  town  of  Andalusia, 
Spain.  Pop.,  8,794. 

Alnwick  (town  on  the  Alne),  the  county  town 
of  Northumberland,  Eng.  At  the  north  entrance 
of  the  town  stands  Alnwick  Castle,  the  seat  origi¬ 
nally  of  the  De  Vescis,  and  since  1310  of  the  House 
of  Northumberland.  It  is  one  of  the  most  magnifi¬ 
cent  baronial  structures  in  England.  Pop. 
(1881),  6,691. 

Aloe  (Aloe),  a  genus  of  plants  of  considerable 
medicinal  importance,  belonging  to  the  natural 


ALOES  WOOD. 


89 


ALPHABET. 


order  Liliaceae,  sub-order  Aloinese.  There  are 
about  200  species,  of  which  170  are  indigenous  to 
the  Cape  Colony.  The  species  all  have  stems,  but 
vary  in  height  from  a  few  inches  to  thirty  feet. 
They  have  permanent,  succulent  leaves.  Aloes 
are  chiefly  valuable  for  their  medicinal  proper¬ 
ties.  The  well-known  drug  called  Aloes  (see 
below)  is  the  inspissated  juice  of  the  leaves  of 
several  almost  tree  like  species,  and  particularly 
of  A.  socotrina,  perryi,  purpurascens,  apical  a, 
fruticosa,  and  indica.  A.  vulgaris  is  found  in  the 
East  and  West 
Indies  and  in 
Italy.  The  Am¬ 
erican  Aloe  is  a 
totally  different 
plant  (see  Ag¬ 
ave).  The  aloes 
of  the  Bible  was 
the  wood  of  a 
tree.  The  juice 
of  aloes  was'  an¬ 
ciently  used  in 
embalm i n g  to 
preserve  dead 
bodies  from 
putrefaction.  In  ' 
the  East  Indies, 
it  is  employed  as ' 
a  varnish  to  pre¬ 
vent  the  attacks 
of  insects.  A 
beautiful  violet 
color  is  obtained 

from  the  leaves  Aloe  socotrina. 

of  the  Socotrine  aloe,  which  also  affords  a  fine 
transparent  color  for  miniature  painting.  Aloes 
is  a  drug  of  great  antiquity,  mentioned  by  Dios- 
corides,  (50  a.d.)  Till  modern  times,  the  source 
of  the  drug  was  the  Island  of  Socotra,  but  at 
present  it  is  imported  from  various  parts  of  the 
world.  Various  forms  of  the  drug  are  derived 
from  several  species  of  aloe,  but  all  agree  in  pos¬ 
sessing  a  bitter  taste,  and  having  powerful  purga¬ 
tive  properties.  Active  principles,  similar  in 
nature  but  differing  in  composition,  are  found  in 
the  three  chief  varieties.  These  areSocaloin, 
CisHioO?,  found  in  Socotrine  aloes;  Nataloin, 
Ci6llis07,  found  in  Natal  aloes;  Barbaloin, 
C17II20O7,  found  in  Barbadoes  aloes. 

When  employed  in  small  doses  as  extract,  tinc¬ 
ture,  pills,  or  otherwise,  aloes  exerts  a  tonic,  and 
in  larger  doses,  a  cathartic  action. 

Aloes  Wood  (sometimes  called  also  Eagle 
Wood,  Calambac,  Paradise  Wood,  or  Agal- 
lochum)  is  the  heart-wood  of  Aquilaria  ovata  and 
A.  agaUochum,  trees  of  the  order  Aquilariacese, 
natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia,  and  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  the  aloes  or  lign-aloes  of  the  Bible. 
They  are  large,  spreading  trees.  Aloes  wood  con¬ 
tains  a  dark-colored,  fragrant,  resinous  substance, 
and  is  much  prized  in  the  East  as  a  medicine  and 
for  the  pleasant  odor  which  it  diffuses  in  burning. 

Alop'ecia  (Gr.  fox-mange),  the  teclrinal  term 
for  baldness. 


Alo'ra,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Malaga.  Pop  (1877),  10,014. 

A  lost}  or  Aalst,  a  town  of  Belgium,  on  the  Den- 
der,  a  navigable  tributary  of  the  Scheldt,  nineteen 
miles  northwest  of  Brussels.  The  Church  of  St. 
Ms  irtin,  an  unfinished  edifice,  is  one  of  the  grand¬ 
est  in  Belgium,  with  a  famous  painting  by  Rubens 
— “  St.  Roche  Beseeching  Our  Saviour  to  Stay  the 
Plague  of  Alost.”  Alost  has  also  a  13th-century 
town-hall  with  a  beautiful  belfry.  Pop.  (1886), 
22,431. 

Alpa  ca  (Auchenia  Paco),  an  animal  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  Llama,  and  belonging  to  the 
camel  family  of  Ruminante.  It  is  the  half-domes¬ 
ticated  form  of  the  wild  Vicuna.  It  is  remark¬ 
able  for  the  length  and  fineness  of  the  wool, 
which  is  of  a  silken  texture,  and  of  an  uncom¬ 
monly  lustrous,  almost  metallic  appearance.  The 
alpaca  is  smaller  than  the  llama.  In  form  it  some¬ 
what  resembles  the  sheep,  but  has  a  longer  neck 
and  more  elegant  head.  The  eyes  are  very  large 
and  beautiful.  The  wool,  if  regularly  shorn,  is 
supposed  to  grow  about  six  or  eight  inches  in  a 
year;  but,  if  allowed  to  remain  upon  the  animal 
for  several  years,  attains  a  much  greater  length, 
sometimes  even  thirty  inches.  It  is  often  yellow¬ 


ish  brown;  sometimes  gray,  or  approaching  to 
white;  sometimes  almost  black. 

The  alpaca  is  a  native  of  the  Andes,  from  the 
equator  to  Tierra  del  Fuego,  but  is  most  frequent 
on  the  highest  mountains  of  Peru  and  Chili, 
almost  on  the  borders  of  perpetual  snow,  congre¬ 
gating  in  flocks  of  one  or  two  hundred. 

The  Indians  have  from  time  immemorial  made 
blankets  and  ponchos  or  cloaks  of  alpaca  wool. 
It  is  fifty  years  since  if  became  an  article  of  com¬ 
merce,  and  its  use  for  the  manufacture  of  shawls, 
coat  linings,  cloth  for  warm  climates,  umbrellas, 
etc.,  has  gradually  increased.  An  attempt  was 
made  in  1821  to  introduce  the  alpaca  into  the 
United  States;  in  1857  a  cargo  of  them  was 
shipped  to  Baltimore,  but  the  result  showed  that 
they  could  uot  be  acclimatized. 

Alp- Arslan,  a  Persian  Sultan,  the  second  of 
the  Seljuk  dynasty,  born  in  Turkestan  in  1029. 
In  1059  he  ascended  the  throne  of  Kliorassan,  and 
in  1063,  on  the  death  of  his  uncle,  became  monarch 
of  all  Persia.  He  embraced  Islamism,  taking  the 
name  of  Mohammed;  and  by  his  bravery  obtained 
the  surname  of  Alp- Arslan,  “Brave  Lion.”  He 
conquered  Armenia  and  Georgia,  and  defeated 
the  Greek  Emperor,  Romanus  Diogenes,  in  1071. 
Marching  to  the  conquest.of  Turkestan  in  1072, 
the  Sultan  perished  by  the  dagger  of  a  captive 
enemy. 

Alpena,  a  post-town  at  the  mouth  of  Thunder 
Bay  River,  in  Michigan.  Pop.  (1884),  9,210. 

Alpes,  the  name  of  three  departments  in  France. 
That  of  Basses-Alpes  occupies  the  northeast 
part  of  Provence,  and  is  the  most  sparsely  popu¬ 
lated  in  all  France.  It  is,  for  the  most  part, 
mountainous.  The  department  is  watered  by  the 
Durance.  The  area  of  the  department  is  2,685 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1886),  129,494.  The  chief 
town  is  Digne. 

The  Hautes-Alpes,  lying  north  of  the  Basses- 
Alpes,  and  forming  part  of  the  old  province  of 
Paupliinc,  is  traversed  by  the  chief  range  of  the 
Cottian  Alps,  which  here  rise,  in  Mount  Pelvoux, 
to  the  height  of  14,000  feet.  The  scenery  is 
singularly  picturesque.  The  Hautes-Alpes  is, 
after  Savoy,  the  highest  department  in  France. 
The  area  is  2,158  square  miles;  pop.  (1886), 
122,924.  Chief  town,  Gap. 

Alpes  Maritimes,  in  the  southeast,  on  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean  and  confines  of  Italy, 
was  formed  in  1860.  It  is  made  up  of  the  ancient 
County  of  Nice,  which  was  ceded  in  that  year 
to  France,  and  of  the  Arrondissement  of  Grasse. 
The  chain  of  the  Alpes  Maritimes  forms  the  north¬ 
ern  boundary  of  the  department.  The  capital 
is  Nice*  and  the  other  principal  towns  are  Antibes, 
Villefranclie,  Cannes,  Grasse,  and  Menton  or 
Mentone.  The  area  is  1,482  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1886),  238,057. 

Alphabet,  so  called  from  alpha  and  beta,  the 
first  two  Greek  letters,  is  the  name  given  to  a  set 
of  graphic  signs,  called  letters,  denoting  elemen¬ 
tary  sounds,  by  the  combination  of  which  words 
can  be  visibly  represented.  Nearly  two  hundred 
alphabets,  ancient  and  modern,  are  known,  of 
which  about  fifty  are  now  in  use.  They  are 
all  developments  from  the  primitive  Phoenician 
alphabet,  which  was  derived  from  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics. 

All  writing  was  in  its  origin  pictorial .  Five 
independent  systems  of  ideographic  writing  have 
been  invented:  (1)  The  Cuneiform,  which  arose  in 
the  Valley  of  the  Euphrates,  and  developed  into 
the  Achsemenian  syllabaries.  (2)  The  Chinese, 
out  of  which  the  Japanese  syllabaries  have  arisen. 
(3)  The  Ilittite,  which  was  t  he  probable  source  of 
the  Cypriote  syllabary.  (4)  The  Mexican  picture- 
writ  ing.  (5)  The  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  from 
which  the  Phoenician  alphabet  was  derived. 

'The  Phoenician,  the  mother  of  all  other  alpha¬ 
bets,  arose  out  of  the  Egyptian  picture-writing, 
and  its  principal  offshoots  are  the  Hebrew,  the 
Syriac,  the  Arabic,  the  Indian,  the  Greek,  and 
last — but  not  least— the  Roman  alphabet. 

The  Egyptian  hieroglyphic  picture-writing  may 
be  traced  back,  by  means  of  inscriptions,  for  more 
than  six  thousand  years.  The  transition  to  a  pure 
alphabetic  writing  was  only  made  when  the  Phoe¬ 
nicians  borrowed  the  art  of  writing  from  the 
Egyptians. 

To  a  French  scholar,  M.  do  Rouge,  belongs  the 


honor  of  having  demonstrated  the  true  origin  of 
the  alphabet.  De  RougS  shows,  letter  by  letter, 
how  twenty-one  of  the  most  suitable  of  the  Egyp¬ 
tian  characters  were  selected  from  the  rest,  and 
taken  over;  only  one  new  letter,  ayin,  the  source 
of  our  o,  having  been  added  by  the  Phoenicians. 

The  twenty-two  letters  of  the  Phoenician  alpha¬ 
bet  were  the  germs  from  which  the  letters  of  all 
other  alphabets  have  been  developed.  In  the 
Semitic  alphabets,  the  number  of  letters  has 
remained  constant,  while  in  Aryan  alphabets  new 
letters  have  been  abundantly  developed  by  differ¬ 
entiation,  as  our  J,  which  has  been  evolved  out 
of  I;  G,  from  C,  and  F,  Y,  V,  U,  and  W  all  from 
the  Phoenician  vav.  Many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  explain  the  order  of  the  letters  in  the 
alphabet,  and  it  is  generally  recognized  that  the 
order  of  the  Hebrew  letters  exhibits  traces  of  a 
primitive  phonological  classification.  The  oloest 
forms  of  the  Phoenician  letters  are  seen  in  the  in¬ 
scriptions  on  certain  bronze  vessels  dedicated  to 
Baal  Lebanon,  which  are  attributed  to  the  eleventh 
century  b.c.  Next  comes  the  Moabite  stone, 
assigned  to  the  ninth  century ;  the  lion  weights  from 
Nineveh,  to  the  eighth;  the  Siloam  inscription,  to 
the  seventh;  and  the  Eshmunazar  sarcophagus,  to 
the  fifth.  The  Phoenician  alphabet  gradually  died 
out  with  the  decline  of  the  Phoenician  empire 
and  commerce. 

Among  the  Semitic  races  it  was  superseded  by 
the  Aramean  alphabet,  which,  arising  in  North¬ 
ern  Syria  about  the  seventh  century  b.c.,  became 
the  commercial  alphabet  of  Western  Asia.  After 
an  existence  of  seven  or  eight  centuries,  it  broke 
up  into  a  number  of  national  alphabets,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  the  square  Hebrew,  the 
Syriac,  the  Arabic,  the  Pehlevi,  and  the  Mongo¬ 
lian,  which  owe  their  diffusion  and  their  perma¬ 
nence  to  the  fact  of  their  having  become  the 
scripts  of  five  of  the  great  faiths  of  Asia — Juda¬ 
ism,  Christianity,  Mohammedanism,  Zoroastrian¬ 
ism,  and  Buddhism. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  must 
have  been  written  in  the  alphabet  seen  in  the  in¬ 
scriptions  on  the  Moabite  stone  and  in  the  Siloam 
tunnel,  which  is  .practically  identical  with  that 
used  by  the  Phoenicians.  On  their  return  from 
the  captivity  of  Babylon,  the  exiles  brought  with 
them  the  Aramean  script  used  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Euphrates.  After  the  first  century  b.c.  this  alpha¬ 
bet  developed  into  two  branches — the  northern, 
which  became  the  parent  of  the  Syriac  alphabets; 
and  the  southern,  which  developed  into  the  square 
Hebrew.  This  only  assumed  its  present  style 
about  the  twelfth  century,  and  is  thus  one  of  the 
most  modern  of  existing  alphabets,  and  not,  as 
was  formerly  believed,  the  most  ancient  of  all. 

What  we  call  the  Arabic  ciphers,  are  really  of 
Indian  origin,  having  been  brought  from  India 
by  the  Arabs,  and  introduced  by  them  into  Spain, 
whence,  during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  cen¬ 
turies,  they,  spread  over  Europe,  gradually  replac¬ 
ing  the  more  clumsy  Roman  numerals.  Few  things 
in  the  history  of  the  alphabet  are  more  curious 
than  the  fact,  first  discovered  by  Dr.  Isaac  Taylor, 
that  the  numeral  signs  of  Europe  and  America  are 
die  letters  of  an  obscure  alphabet  introduced  into 
India  2,400  years  ago  as  a  consequence  of  the  con¬ 
quests  of  Darius. 

The  Iranian  alphabets  of  Central  Asia  were 
suddenly  exterminated  by  the  Arabic,  whose  rapid 
diffusion  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable  results 
of  the  spread  of  Islam. 

As  the  square  Hebrew  and  the  Syriac  arose  out 
of  the  local  alphabets  of  Jerusalem  and  Edessa, 
so  the  Arabic,  next  after  the  Latin  the  most 
important  alphabet  in  the  world,  was  originally 
only  the  local  alphabet  of  Mecca.  There  were 
two  early  alphabets  in  Arabia.  The  Sabean  or 
Himyaritic  was  employed  in  Arabia  Felix.  It 
seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  alphabet  of 
Tyre,  and  may  probably  have  been  obtained  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Hiram.  It  became  the  parent 
of  the  alphabets  of  the  Abyssinian  Christians, 
called  the  Ethiopic  and  the  Amharic. 

The  chief  interest  of  the  Sabean  alphabet  arises 
from  its  having  become  the  parent  of  the  modern 
scripts  of  India,  which  comprise  more  than  half 
of  the  existing  alphabets.  In  the  hands  of  the 
early  Indian  grammarians  it  became  the  most  per¬ 
fect  scientific  alphabet  of  the  world.  Consisting 
of  forty-two  letters,  thirty-three  consonants,  and 


ALPHABET. 


40 


ALPINE  CLL’B. 


nine  vowels,  it  is  capable  of  expressing  the  most 
delicate  gradations  of  the  Sanskrit  sounds. 

The  developments  of  the  primitive  Indian 
alphabet  may  be  traced  by  means  of  inscriptions, 
from  the  time  of  Asoka,  in  the  third  century  b.c., 
to  the  tenth  century  a.d.,  when  the  prototypes  of 
the  present  provincial  alphabets  of  India  had 
established  themselves.  The  existing  vernacular 
alphabets  divide  them¬ 
selves  into  four  well- 
marked  groups:  The 
Pali,  the  Nagari,  the 
Dravidian,  and  the 
Malay. 

The  alphabet  of 
Southern  Arabia,  the 
parent  of  the  numer¬ 
ous  Indian  scripts, 
branched  off  from  the 
Phoenician  stem  about 
the  tenth  century  b.c., 
a  date  which  also  must 
be  assigned  to  a  still 
more  important  off¬ 
shoot  of  the  Phoeni¬ 
cian.  This  was  the 
Hellenic  branch,  the 
source  of  the  alpha¬ 
bets  of  Europe  and 
America.  A  Greek 
legend  refers  the  in¬ 
troduction  of  the  al¬ 
phabet  to  Cadmus,  the 
Tyrian.  Cadmus  is 
an  eponymic  name, 
meaning  in  Semitic 
speech  “  the  man  of 
the  East.” 

A  knowledge  of  al¬ 
phabetical  writing 
must  have  been  ob¬ 
tained  by  the  Greeks 
from  the  Phoenician 
trading  settlements  in 
the  Aegean,  as  early 
as  the  tenth  century 
B.C. 

By  the  middle  of 
the  sixth  century,  the 
Greek  alphabet  had  in 
all  essential  respects 
attained  its  final  de¬ 
velopment. 

The  primitive  al¬ 
phabet  of  Italy,  from 
which  our  own  is  de¬ 
rived,  belonged  to  the 
Western  Greek  type. 

As  early,  probably, 
as  the  ninth  century 
b.c.  ,  it  was  carried  by 
the  Chalcidians  of 
Euboea  to  Cumae,  near 
Naples,  which  was  a 
colony  of  Chalcis.  It 
became  the  parent  of 
five  local  Italic  alpha¬ 
bets — the  Oscan,  the 
Etruscan,  the  Um¬ 
brian,  the  Faliscan, 
and  the  Latin.  Owing 
to  the  political  supre¬ 
macy  of  Rome,  the 
Latin  ultimately  dis¬ 
placed  the  other  na¬ 
tional  scripts  of  Italy, 
and  became  the  al¬ 
phabet  of  the  Roman 


printed  capitals,  and  of  our  printed  minuscules 
or  small  types. 

The  wide  dilference  existing  between  the  forms 
of  our  capital  and  smaller  letters  is  thus  explained. 
We  have,  in  fact,  two  alphabets,  both  dating 
from  the  first  century  a.d.,  in  concurrent  use;. 
Thus  the  forms  a,  b,  d,  r,  g,  m,  h,  are  derived 
from  the  old  Roman  cursive,  while  A,  B,  D,  R, 


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VIII 

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X, 

I.  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics,  facing  to  the 
left. 

II.  Egyptian  Hieratic  characters,  facing  to 
the  right. 

IH.  The  oldest  Phoenician  letters,  mostly 
from  the  Baal  Lebanon  inscriptions, 
empire,  and  afterward  IV-  The  oldest  Greek  letters  from  inscrip- 
/■  t  tions  at  Thera  and  Athens,  reading 

of  Latin  Christendom.  from  right  to  left. 

Curiously  enough,  V.  The  lapidary  Greek  alphabet  at  the 
this  the  most  modern  time  of  the  Persian  war,  reading  from 

of  alphabets,  has  ad-  left  to  right, 
liered  more  closely  than  any  other  to  the  primi¬ 
tive  Phoenician  type. 

At  the  time  of  the  early  empire,  the  Romans 
employed  two  forms  of  their  letters — capitals  for 
inscriptions;  and  for  business  and  correspondence, 
degraded  cursive  forms,  which  are  known  to  us 
chiefly  from  graffiti  scribbled  by  schoolboys  on 
the  walls  of  Pompeian  houses.  These  two  Roman 
scripts  are  respectively  the  sources  of  our  own 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  ALPHABET. 

VI.  Greek  uncials,  from  the  Codex  Alex- 
andrinus,  about  400  a.d. 


VII.  Greek  minuscules. 

VIH.  The  old  alphabet  of  Italy. 

IX.  Lapidary  Latin  alphabet  at  the  time 
of  Cicero. 

X.  Latin  uncials  and  minuscules. 

XI.  Modern  square  Hebrew,  derived  from 
the  Phoenician  letters  in  Col.  HI. 

G,  M.  II,  are  the  Roman  capitals.  In  our  own 
alphabet,  the  order  of  the  letters  does  not  differ 
very  greatly  from  the  Phoenician  arrangement. 

Our  letters  are  named  on  the  same  principle  as 
in  the  Latin  alphabet.  The  vowels  are  called 
by- their  sounds;  t lie  consonants  by  the  sound  of 
the  letter  combined  with  the  easiest  vowel,  which, 
for  convenience  of  utterance,  precedes  the  con¬ 
tinuants  and  follows  the  explosives. 


The  Greek  alphabet  was  the  source,  not  only  of 
the  Latin,  but  of  the  other  national  alphabets  of 
Europe.  The  Coptic  alphabet  used  in  Egypt  was 
also  derived  from  the  Greek  uncials  of  the  fourth 
century  A.  d.,  with  six  additional  characters  bor¬ 
rowed  from  the  Egyptian  Demotic,  a  cursive 
script  derived  from  the  hieroglyphic  writing. 
The  Slavonic  alphabets,  of  which  the  Russian  is 
the  most  important,  were  obtained  from  the  ninth 
Byzantine  uncial,  witli  some  additional  characters 
derived  from  ligatures  employed  in  the  Greek  cur¬ 
sive  writing. 

The  standard  work  on  the  subject  is  Dr.  Isaac 
Taylor’s  book  on  The  Alphabet  (2.vols.  1883).  The 
reader  may  also  consult  L' Alphabet  Phcnicien,  by 
F.  Lenormant;  Das  Griechische  Alphabet,  by 
Kirchof;  Gardthausen’s  Griechische  Palmgraphie; 
Wattenbach’s  Anleitung  ;  Bullhorn's  Alphabet; 
Fau  1  man  n's  Bitch  der  Schrift,  and  other  books 
referred  to  in  Dr.  Taylor’s  work. 

Alpha  and  Omega,  the  first  and  last  letters  of 
the  Greek  alphabet. 

A1  pile  us  ( Rufea)  is  the  chief  river  of  Pelopon¬ 
nesus  (Morea),  rising  in  the  southeast  of  Arcadia 
and  flowing  past  the  famous  Olympia  westwards 
into  the  Ionic  Sea. 

Alphonso.  See  Alfonso. 

Alpiue  Club.  De  Saussure,  in  virtue  of 
his  ascent  of  Mont  Blanc  (Aug.,  1787),  and  the 
published  account  thereof,  may  be  looked  upon 
as  the  father  of  mountaineering.  For  many  years 
climbing  was  almost  confined  to  this  peak,  and 
the  amusement  was  little  appreciated.  Albert 
Smith  (who  ascended  Mont  Blanc  in  1851)  stimu¬ 
lated  public  curiosity,  but  the  real  development 
came  with  the  formation  of  the  Alpine  Club  in 
1857-58.  and  the  publication  of  Peaks,  Passes  and 
Glaciers  in  1859.  Mountaineering  then  at  once 
sprang  into  fashion.  The  first  pioneers  of  the 
Alps  were  explorers  and  geographers,  rather  than 
climbers,  but  the  high  mountains  soon  began  to 
attract,  and  many  found  pleasure  in  climbing 
for  its  own  sake.  The  natives  of  the  Alpine  val¬ 
leys,  speaking  generally,  were  expert  mount¬ 
aineers,  and  a  race  of  instructors  was  therefore 
ready  to  hand.  The  Alpine  Club  numbers  nearly 
five  hundred  members.  Mountaineering  has 
opened  up  what  would  otherwise  be  the  terra 
incognita  of  the  regions  above  the  snow-line,  with 
all  their  wild  beauty  and  grandeur,  and  has  made 
them  accessible  to  the  many.  Since  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  Alpine  Club  the  death-rate  from  mount¬ 
ain  accidents  has  been  3.8  lives  per  annum,  but 
in  1887  eight  lives  were  lost  above  the  snow-line. 

Still,  there  are  real  dangers  which  cannot  be 
wholly  eliminated,  even  by  the  most  skillful 
climber.  The  mountaineer  who  refuses  to  recog¬ 
nize  that  such  is  the  case,  runs  the  greatest  risk  of 
all.  No  man  takes  proper  precautions  who  under¬ 
takes  an  expedition  which,  under  favorable  con¬ 
ditions,  is  only  just  within  his  powers.  Unex¬ 
pected  difficulties  may  occur,  and  the  climber 
who  has  no  reserve  to  draw  upon  is  at  every 
instant  in  grave  peril,  and  so,  too,  are  all  the 
members  of  his  party.  Some  knowledge  and 
judgment  of  the  weather  are  indispensable.  The 
risk  of  avalanches  is  greatest  in  the  spring  and 
winter  and  least  in  the  summer  months,  when  the 
Alps  are  chiefly  visited. 

The  idea  of  founding  the  Alpine  Club  origin¬ 
ated  with  Air.  William  Mathews.  The  Alpine 
Journal,  by  members  of  the  club,  published 
quarterly,  began  in  1863.  Among  the  more 
famous  first  ascents  made  by  members  of  the 
Alpine  Club  may  be  mentioned  those  of  the  Mat¬ 
terhorn  (Whymper,  1865);  the  Schreckhorn 
(Stephen,  1861);  Elbruz  in  the  Caucasus  (Fresh- 
field,  Grove,  1868,  1874);  Cotopaxi  and  Chimbor¬ 
azo  in  the  Andes  (Wliymper,  1880);  Mount  Cook, 
New  Zealand  (Green,  1882).  An  Austrian  Alpine 
Club  was  founded  in  1862;  and  was  followed  by 
Swiss  (1863),  Italian  (1863),  and  German  associa¬ 
tions  (1869),  counting  their  members  by  thousands. 
The  German  and  Austrian  societies  united  in 
1874,  and  had  in  1884  above  13,000  members. 
Mountaineering  clubs  exist  in  other  mountain 
regions;  thus  there  is  in  Boston,  an  “  Appalachian 
Mountain  Club.”  See  Ball’s  Alpine  Guide  {East¬ 
ern  Alps,  1868;  Central  Alps,  1870;  Western  Alps, 
1870);  Tyndall’s  Mountaineering  (1861)  and  Hours 
of  Exercise  in  the  Alps  (1873);  Wliymper’s  Scram¬ 
bles  Among  the  Alps  (1871). 


alpine  plants. 


41 


ALSACE-LORRAINE. 


Alpine  Plants.  This  appellation  is  given  not 
only  to  those  plants  which  are  found  at  elevations 
approaching  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  in  the 
Alps  of  Central  Europe,  but  also  to  plants  belong¬ 
ing  to  other  mountainous  regions  in  any  part  of 
the  world,  whose  natural  place  of  growth  is  near 
snows  that  are  never  melted  even  by  the  beams  of 
the  summer’s  sun.  The  snow  line  varies  in  differ¬ 
ent  latitudes.  On  the  Andes  near  the  equator, 
at  an  elevation  of  12,000  to  15,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  many  kinds  of  plants  are  found, 
of  humble  growth,  resembling  in  1  heir  general 
appearance  those  which  occur  in  Germany  and 
Switzerland  at  an  elevation  of  6,000  feet;  and 
these  again  either  resemble,  or  are  even  identical 
with,  the  species  which  in  Lapland  grow  upon 
hills  of  very  little  elevation,  or  which,  in  the  north¬ 
ern  parts  of  Siberia,  are  found  at  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Similar  plants  occur  also  in  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  at  elevations  varying  remarkably 
within  very  narrow  geographical  limits  from 
local  causes.  In  the  Alps  of  Central  Europe,  the 
eye  is  at  once  caught  by  gentians,  saxifrages, 
rhododendrons,  and  various  species  of  primrose, 
as  well  as  by  the  rarer  edelweiss — Gnaphalium 
[Leonto podium)  a'pinum.  With  these  and  other 
phanerogamous  plants  are  associated  a  number 
of  delicate  ferns  and  exceedingly  beautiful  mosses. 
The  highest  mountains  in  Scotland  exhibit  a  some¬ 
what  similar  flora,  and  beautiful  plants,  both 
phanerogamous  and  cryptogamous,  are  found  on 
them,  which  never  appear  in  lower  situations,  as 
the  Alpine  Speedwell  (  Veronica  alpina),  the  small 
Alpine  gentian  ( Gentia na nivalis),  the  rock  scor¬ 
pion  grass,  or  Alpine  forget-me-not  (Mijosolis 
alpestris),  Ascdea  prorumbens,  Woodsiailvenm  and 
hyperborea ,  etc.  Cryptogamic  plants  are  generally 
found  in  Alpine  regions  in  much  greater  abund¬ 
ance  than  elsewhere.  Their  great  beauty,  even 
when  dried,  makes  them  favorites  with  those 
plant  collectors  who  have  amusement  more  in  view 
than  the  mere  interests  of  science.  See  Suther¬ 
land’s  Alpine  and  Herbaceous  Plants-,  Robinson’s 
Alpine  Plants:  Hartinger’s  Atlas  der  Aipenflora 
(4  vols.  1882). 

Alpnach,  or  Alp^acht,  a  Swiss  village,  in  the 
Canton  of  Uuterwalden.  It  is  known  principally 
on  account  of  its  celebrated  “slide,”  now  disused, 
which  was  eight  miles  long,  and  by  means  of 
which  timber  was  brought  from  the  forests  of 
Mount  Pilatus  to  the  village.  Pop.,  1,679. 

Alps  (possibly  a  Celtic  word  meaning  high; 
cf.  Gaelic  a'p,  a  high  mountain;  or  connected 
with  Lat.  alb  us,  white  ),  the  most  extensive  sys¬ 
tem  of  lofty  mountains  in  Europe,  raising  their 


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the  Thun,  the  Aar,  the  Mincio,  and  the  Adage, 
and  the  various  tributaries  of  the  Danube.  The 
most  famous  lakes  are  Geneva  (Leman),  Constance, 
Maggiore,  Bienne,  Lucerne,  and  Lugano. 

The  chief  divisions  of  the  mountains  are  : 

I.  West- Alps. — The  principal  ranges  of  these 
are :  (1)  The  Maritime  Alps,  extending  from  the 
Middle  Durance  southwards  to  the  Mediterranean, 
and  rising,  in  the  Aiguille  de  Chambeyron  to  a 
height  of  11,155  feet.  (2)  The  Cottian  Alps, 
north  of  these,  whose  highest  summit,  Monte  Viso, 
is  12.605  feet.  (3)  The  DauphinC  Alps,  separated 
by  the  Yalley  of  the  Durance  from  the  Cottian  ; 
their  highest  summit  is  the  Pic  desEcrins,  13,462 
feet.  (4)  The  Graian  Alps,  forming  the  boundary 
between  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  and  attaining  in  the 
Grand  Paradis  an  elevation  of  13,300  feet.  II. 
Middle  Alps.  Central  Chain . — (1)  The  Pennine 
Alps,  between  the  plains  of  Lombardy  and  the 
Yalley  of  the  Rhone.  Highest  summits:  Mont 
Blanc,  15,732  feet ;  Monte  Rosa,  15,151  feet.  (2) 
The  Lepontain  or  Helvetian  Alps,  from  the  de¬ 
pression  of  the  Simplon,  along  the  plateau  and 
masses  of  St.  Gotland,  to  the  pass  of  Mont  Splii- 
gen  (3)  The  Rhsetian  Alps,  between  the  Inn,  the 
Adda,  and  the  Upper  Adige.  Northern  Chain. — 

(1)  The  Bernese  Alps,  between  the  Rhone  and  the 
Aar.  Highest  summits :  Finsteraarhorn,  14.026 
feet;  Aletschhorn,  13,803 ;  Jungfrau,  13,671  feet 

(2)  The  Alps  of  the  Four  “Forest  Cantons,”  the 
Schwyz  Alps,  etc.  The  Southern  Chain. — (1)  The 
Ortler  Alps,  between  the  Adda  and  the  Adige. 
(2t  The  Trientine  Alps,  between  the  Adige  and 
the  Piave.  III.  East  Alps. — The  principal  chains 
of  these  are:  (1)  The  Norio  Alps,  between  the 
plains  of  Drave  and  the  Danube.  (2)  The  Carnian 
Alps,  between  the  Drave  and  the  Save.  (3)  The 
Julian  Alps,  between  the  Save  and  the  Adriatic  Sea, 

No  lofty  mountains  in  the  world  are  more  easily 
crossed  than  the  Alps ,  of  late  years  the  Mont 
Cenis,  the  Brenner,  and  the  St.  Gothard  Railways 
into  Italy  from  the  north  afford  special  facilities. 
Hence  we  can  understand  how  the  plains  of  Upper 
Italy,  accessible  from  the  French,  German,  and 
Austrian  sides,  have  for  ages  been  the  theatre  of 
bloody  strife.  The  passage  of  the  IV est  Alps  is 
made  by  five  principal  roads  :  (1)  The  military 
road,  La  Corniche.  (2)  The.  causeway  over  the 
Col-di-Tcnda,  between  Nice  and  Coni,  made  in 
1778  ;  highest  point,  6,158  feet.  (3)  The  high¬ 
road  over  Mont  Genevre,  connecting  Provence 
and  Dauphin®  with  Turin  ;  highest  point,  6,102 
feet.  (4)  The  carriage-road  made  by  Napoleon  in 
1805,  over  Mont  Cenis,  connecting  Savoy  with 
Piedmont ;  highest  point,  6,848  feet.  Near  this 


Tbe  Chain  of  Mont  Blanc  from  the  Flegfere  across  the  Valley  of  Chamonni. 


giant  masses  on  a  basis  of  90,000  square  miles, 
between  6  40'  and  18°E.  longitude,  and  extending 
in  some  places  from  the  44th  to  the  48th  parallel 
of  latitude.  The  Alpine  system  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  hilly  ground  of  Switzerland  and 
the  upper  plain  of  the  Danube;  on  the  east,  by 
the  low  plains  of  Austria;  on  the  south  by  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa;  and  on  the  west,  by  the  plains 
of  Provence  and  the  Valley  of  the  Rhone.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  the  Var, 


the  chain  is  pierced  by  the  railway  tunnel  opened 
in  1871.  (5)  The  'pass  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard, 
connecting  Geneva,  Savoy,  and  Piedmont;  high¬ 
est  point,  7,190  feet.  It  lias  been  debated 
whether  Hannibal  crossed  the  Cottian  Alps  by  the 
Cenis,  or  the  Graian  by  the  Little  St,  Bernard. 
The  passage  of  the  Middle  Alps  is  made  by  eight 
principal  roads  :  (1)  The  Great  St.  Bernard,  con¬ 
necting  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  with  Piedmont; 
highest  point,  8,120  feet.  It  was  crossed  by  Napo¬ 
leon  in  1800.  (2)  The  magnificent  road  over  the 


Simplon,  constructed  by  Napoleon,  1801-6  ;  high¬ 
est  point,  6,595  feet.  (The  project  of  effecting  an¬ 
other  junction  of  the  Swiss  and  Italian  railways 
by  a  tunnel  through  the  Simplon,  at  a  cost  of  60- 
000.000  francs,  has  been  long  in  contemplation.) 

(3)  The  Matterjoch,  connecting  Piedmont  with 
the  Valais.  (4)  The  pass  of  St,  Gothard,  connect¬ 
ing  Lucerne  with  Lago  Maggoire  ;  highest  point, 
6,936  feet.  (The  St.  Gothard  Railway  tunnel  was 
opened  for  traffic  in  1882.)  (5)  The  Bernardino 
Pass,  made  1819-23,  by  the  Swiss  Grisons  and 
Sardinia ;  highest  point,  6,769  feet.  (6)  The  Splti- 
gen  Pass.  (7)  The  Wormser  Joeh,  connects  the 
Tyrol  with  Lombardy.  (8)  The  Brenner  Pass  also 
connects  the  Tyrol  with  Lombardy;  highest  point, 
4,588  feet.  The  roads  over  the  East  Alps  are 
much  lower,  and  also  much  more  numerous  than 
those  in  the  Middle  or  West  Alps. 

Alpujar'ras  (Arab.  Al-Bushera.t ),  a  name 
applied  to  all  the  valleys  lying  south  of  the  chief 
chain  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  in  the  south  of  Spain. 

Alsace-Lorraine  (Gcr.  Etsass-Lothringen), since 
1871  a  Stateof  “imperial  territory  ” (lleichs/and) of 
the  German  Empire,  bounded  west  by  France, 
east  by  Baden,  and  south  by  Switzerland.  Its 
utmost  length,  from  north  to  south,  is  123  miles; 
its  breadth  varies  between  22  and  105  miles;  and 
its  area  is  5,580  square  miles  of  which  1,353 
belong  to  Upper  Alsace,  1,844  to  Lower  Alsace 
and  2,383  to  Lorraine.  Pop.  (1885),  1,564,354,  of 
whom  78  per  cent,  were  Catholics,  and  80  per  cent. 
German-speaking.  There  is  a  large  popular  liter¬ 
ature  in  the  Alsatian  (German)  dialect,  a  branch 
of  t he  Allemannian.  The  French-speaking  popu¬ 
lation  is  mainly  in  the  larger  towns  and  in  Lor¬ 
raine.  The  Rhine  flows  along  all  the  eastern 
boundary,  and  receives,  below  Strasburg,  the  Ill 
from  Alsace,  127  miles  long.  Other  rivers  are  the 
Moselle,  flowing  through  Lorraine,  past  Metz,  and 
its  affluent,  the  Saar.  Westward  of  the  Rhine  rise 
the  Vosges  Mountains,  culminating  at  a  height  of 
4,677  feet,  whilst  Lorraine  rarely  attains  1,300 
feet.  Alsace-Lorraine  contains  the  important 
cities  of  Strasburg,  Muhlausen,  Metz,  and  Colmar. 
As  a  French  province,  Alsace  was  divided  into 
the  departments  of  Haut-Rhin  and  Bas-Rhin. 
Lorraine  fell  into  the  departments  of  Meuse, 
Moselle,  Meurthe,  and  Vosges  (parts  of  all  which 
still  remain  French).  The  lieutenant-governor 
( statthalter ),  representing  the  Imperial  Govern¬ 
ment,  resides  at  Strasburg,  and  is  assisted  by  a 
ministry  of  five  departments,  and  a  council  of 
state. 

In  Caesar’s  time  Alsace-Lorraine  was  occupied 
1  by  Celtic  tribes,  and  formed  part  of  ancient  Gaul, 
but  during  the  decline  of  the  empire  the 
Alemanni  and  other  tribes  from  beyond  the 
Rhine  occupied  and  largely  Germanized  it. 
From  the  tenth  century  it  formed  part  of  the 
German  empire  under  various  sovereign  dukes 
and  princes,  latterly  of  the  House  of  Haps- 
burg,  till  a  part  of  it  was  ceded  to  France  at 
the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648),  and  the  rest 
fell  a  prey  to  the  aggression  of  Louis  XIV., 
who  seized  Strasburg  (1681)  by  surprise  in 
time  of  peace.  German  never  ceased  to  be 
the  chief  language  of  the  people,  and  all 
newspapers  were,  during  the  whole  period  of 
the  French  possession,  printed  in  both  lan¬ 
guages.  It  was  not  till  1871,  after  the  Franco- 
German  war,  that  Alsace  and  German  Lor¬ 
raine  were,  by  ihe  treaty  of  Frankfort,  incor¬ 
porated  in  the  new  German  empire.  The 
great  mass  of  the  population  were  strongly 
against  the  change,  and  160,000  elected  to 
be  French,  though  only  50,000  went  into 
actual  exile,  refusing  to  become  German  sub¬ 
jects.  Since  the  era  of  the  revolution,  Alsace 
in  sentiment  was  wholly  French.  To  France 
she  gave  the  bravest  of  her  sons — Kcllerman, 
K1  flier,  and  many  another  hero.  Strasburg 
first  heard  the  Marseillaise,  and  MM.  Erckmann- 
Chatrian,  Alsatians  both,  have  faithfully  repre¬ 
sented  their  countrymen’s  love  of  J.a  Patrie  in  the 
days  of  the  second  as  of  the  first  Napoleon.  Nor 
have  the  Germans  done  much  to  endear  themselves, 
with  their  strivings  at  Germanization,  their  anti- 
clericalism,  and  their  compulsory  service  in  the 
German  army.  Field-Marshal  van  Manteuffel  was 
lieutenant-governor  of  Alsace-Lorraine  from  1879 
till  his  death,  in  1885,  but  not  even  he  succeeded, 
for  the  elections  of  1881,  1884,  and  1887  showed  a 


ALSATIA. 


42 


ALUMINIUM. 


much  stronger  anti-German  feeling  than  those  of 
1877-78.  During  1880-85  no  fewer  than  49,254 
natives  left  their  homes,  their  places  being  only 
partially  occupied  by  30,958  immigrants  from 
Germany.  France,  too,  is  always  thinking  of  her 
loss,  eager  some  day  to  repair  it,  and  the  imperial 
territory,  discontented  and  under  stringent  rule, 
remains  a  perpetual  cause  of  strained  relations 
between  France  and  Germany.  For  the  history 
of  Lorraine,  see  Lorraine. 

Alsatia,  a  cant  name  applied  to  the  precinct  of 
Whitefriars,  which,  until  1097,  enjoyed  the  privi¬ 
lege  of  a  debtors’  sanctuary,  and  hence  was 
crowded  with  swindlers  and  bullies.  See  Scott’s 
Fortunes  of  Nigel. 

Alseii,  an  island  in  the  Baltic  off  the  coast  of 
Sleswick.  Pop.,  25,000. 

Alster,  a  river  in  Holstein,  which  flows  through 
canals  into  the  Elbe. 

Alstrceiue'ria,  or  Als'rdmer’s  Lily ,  a  genus  of 
amaryllidacese,  cultivated  for  its  flowers  and 
curiously  twisted  leaves,  which  have  the  upper  in 
the  normal  position  of  the  lower  surface. 

Altai,  the  Gin-slian  or  golden  mountains  of 
the  Chinese,  is  the  name  given  to  a  wild,  mount¬ 
ainous  region  which  covers  the  southern  parts  of 
Tomsk,  in  Siberia,  and  partly  extends  into  Mon¬ 
golia.  It  comprises  the  mountainous  border  region 
of  the  great  plateau  of  Central  Asia  between  the 
Tian-shau  and  the  Sajan  Mountains,  and  consists 
of  two  separate  parts — the  Altai  proper  belonging 
to  the  Russian  Empire. 

Altaian  ra,  a  town  of  South  Italy.  Pop. 
(1881),  19,817. 

Altar  (Lat.  oltare,  from  altus,  high),  the  place 
whereon  offerings  wrere  laid  both  by  Jews  and 
heathens.  The  first  on  record  is  that  which  Noah 
built  on  leaving  the  ark.  The  Israelites,  after  the 
giving  of  the  Law,  were  commanded  to  make 
one.  The  word  has  been  transferred  into  the 
Christian  system.  For  upwards  of  five  centuries, 
aliars  in  the  Christian  churches  were  for  the  most 
part  made  of  wood,  and  an  altar  of  this  kind  is 
still  to  be  seen  in  St.  John  Lateran’s  at  Rome.  In 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  rubrics  require 
that  all  altars  should  be  of  stone.  The  stone 
must  in  all  cases  be  provided  with  relics  inclosed 
within  it,  and  be  consecrated  by  a  bishop.  The 
altar  must  be  covered  with  three  cloths,  one  of 
which  must  reach  to  the  ground.  It  should  also, 
if  possible,  have  attached  to  it  in  front  a  pal¬ 
lium,  or  frontal,  varying  in  color  according  to 
the  feast  or  season.  I  he  essentials  of  the  altar 
for  mass  in  Roman  Catholic  Churches  are  the 
altar  itself,  the  altar  cloths,  the  missal,  the  three 
cards  (containing  portions  of  the  missal),  the 
tabernacle  for  the  reservation  of  the  Host,  and  the 
crucifix.  The  crucifix  must  stand  upon  or  above 
the  altar,  bi  tween  two  candles.  The  missal  is 
moved  from  side  to  side  of  the  altar  at  various 
parts  of  the  mass.  The  epistle  is  read  from  the 
right  side,  and  the  gospel  from  the  left;  hence  it 
is  customary  to  speak  of  the  epistle  and  gospel 
sides  of  the  altar.  The  Credence  Table  and  the 
Piscina  are  adjuncts  of  an  altar.  The  Greek 
Church  uses  but  one  altar.  Altars  were  fre¬ 
quently  placed  at  the  west  end  of  the  ancient 
churches  (as  in  the  old  British  Church),  instead 
of  the  east. 

Bowing  toward  the  altar  is  an  ancient  practice 
of  the  church,  a  mark  of  homage  offered  to  the 
seat  of  the  presence  of  Christ  in  Holy  Commun¬ 
ion.  Among  Roman  Catholics,  it  is  the  custom 
to  genuflect  before  the  altar  when  the  Host  is  re¬ 
served  in  the  Tabernacle. 

Altazimuth  (a  contraction  for  altitude  and 
azimuth,  instrument),  an  astronomical  instrument 
for  determining  the  apparent  places  of  the  heav¬ 
enly  bodies  on  the  celestial  sphere.  It  consists  of 
a  telescope  revolving  about  a  horizontal  axis, 
which  in  turn  revolves  about  another  vertical 
axis,  the  angle  of  revolution  being  measured  in 
each  case  by  a  divided  circle.  These  angles  give 
the  Altitude  and  Azimuth  of  the  heavenly  body 
observed  at  the  instant  of  observation,  and  so 
indicate  its  place. 

Altdorfer,  Albrecht,  painter,  engraver,  and 
architect,  was  born  at  Ratisbon  about  1480,  and 
died  therein  February,  1538. 

Alte’a,  a  Spanish  seaport,  twenty-five  miles 
northeast  of  Alicante.  Pop.,  5,809. 


Alten,  Karl  August,  Count  of,  Hanoverian 
general,  entered  the  army  in  1781,  and  fought 
with  distinction  at  Quatre-Bras  and  Waterloo. 
After  his  return  to  Hanover  he  was  made  minis¬ 
ter  of  war.  He  died  April  20,  1840. 

Al'tena,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  district  of 
Arnsberg.  Pop  ,  8,787. 

Alten  burg,  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe- 
Altenburg,  thirty  miles  south  of  Leipzig.  Pop., 
(1885),  29,110. 

Altengaard,  a  hamlet  in  Finmarken,  the 
northernmost  province  of  Norway,  situated  on 
the  south  side  of  the  Alten  Fiord,  in  09°  55'  N 
latitude.  Beyond  this  point,  no  cereals  will 
ripen. 

Altenstein,  Karl,  Baron  von  Stein  zum,  a 
Prussian  statesman,  born  at  Ansbach,  Oct.  7, 
1770.  In  1808  he  became  the  head  of  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  finance,  and  in  1817  was  made  minister 
of  public  worship  and  education.  He  died  May 
14,  1840. 

Alteratives,  in  Medicine,  a  term  applied  to 
remedies  that  improve  the  nutrition  of  the  body 
without  exerting  any  very  perceptible  action  on 
individual  organs.  Among  the  most  important 
alteratives  are  various  preparations  of  arsenic, 
mercury,  iodine,  phosphorus,  gold,  cod-liver  oil, 
colchicum,  guaiacum,  sarsaparilla.  Many  of 
them  are  violent  poisons  when  taken  in  improper 
doses. 

Altitude,  in  Astronomy,  is  the  height  of  a 
heavenly  body  above  the  horizon.  It  is  meas¬ 
ured,  not  by  linear  distance,  but  by  the  angle 
which  a  line  drawn  from  the  eye  to  the  heavenly 
body  makes  with  the  plane  of  the  horizon,  or  by 
the  arc  of  a  vertical  circle  intercepted  between  the 
body  and  the  horizon.  Altitudes  are  taken  in 
observatories  by  means  of  a  telescope  attached  to 
a  graduated  circle,  which  is  fixed  vertically.  The 
altitude  thus  observed  must  receive  various  cor¬ 
rections — the  chief  being  for  parallax  and  refrac¬ 
tion — in  order  to  get  the  true  altitude.  At  sea, 
the  altitude  is  taken  by  means  of  a  sextant,  and 
then  it  has  further  to  be  corrected  for  the  dip  of 
the  visible  horizon  below  the  true  horizon. 

Alto,  in  Music,  is  properly  the  same  as  counter¬ 
tenor,  the  male  voice  of  the  highest  pitch  (now 
principally  falsetto),  and  not  the  lowest  female 
voice,  which  is  properly  contralto,  though  in 
printed  music  the  second  part  in  a  quartette  is 
always  entitled  alto. 

Alton,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Illinois,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  twenty-four  miles 
north  of  St.  Louis,  and  eight  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Missouri.  It  was  laid  out  in  1817 
Pop.  (1880),  8,975. 

A1  toil.!,  the  largest  city  in  the  Prussian  prov¬ 
ince  of  Sleswick-Holstein,  just  below  Hamburg. 
In  a  commercial  point  of  view,  the  two  maybe 
regarded  as  forming  a  single  city.  The  trade  is 
largely  with  America.  Altona  has  declined  in 
importance  since  its  annexation  to  Prussia  (18G6). 
Pop.  (1885),  104,719. 

Altoo'na,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  at  the  east 
base  of  the  Alleghanies,  237  miles  west-northwest 
of  Philadelphia.  It  contains  large  locomotive 
works  and  machine-shops  in  connection  with  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad,  employing  4,500  hands. 
Near  Altoona  is  a  remarkable  triumph  of  railway 
engineering,  known  as  the  “Horseshoe  Bend.” 
Pop.  (1880X  19,716. 

Altorf,  or  Altdorf,  the  chief  town  in  the 
Swiss  Canton  Uri,  is  situated  on  the  St.  Gotliard 
road  and  railway.  Pop.,  about  3,000. — The  old 
town  of  Altorf,  or  Altdoiif,  in  Middle  Fran¬ 
conia  (pop.,  4,000),  was  the  seat  of  a  university 
from  1623  to  1809. 

Alto-rilievo  (Ital.  high  relief),  iif  Sculpture, 
used  of 'figures  projecting  from  the  background 
on  which  they  are  carved,  by  at  least  half  their 
thickness.  The  Elgin  Marbles  comprise  the  most 
notable  high  reliefs, 

Al'triiichani,  a  market-town  of  Cheshire.  Eng 
land.  Pop.  (1881),  11,249. 

Altruism  is  the  English  form  of  the  French 
altruisme ,  a  word  formed  by  Comte  from  the 
Italian  altrui,  of  or  to  others.  It  means  unself¬ 
ishness;  or  devotion  to  the  welfare  of  others  as  a 
principle  of'action  or  an  element  of  character. 

Alum,  a  white,  saline  substance,  with  a  sweet¬ 
ish,  astringent  taste,  is,  properly  speaking,  a 
double  salt,  being  composed  of  sulphate  of  pot¬ 


ash  and  sulphate  of  alumina,  which,  uniting 
together,  along  with  a  certain  proportion  of  water, 
crystallize  in  octahedrons  or  in  cubes.  Its  for¬ 
mula  is  K^SCRALSSO^ILO.  Alum  is  soluble 
in  eighteen  times  its  weight  of  cold  water,  and 
in  its  own  weight  of  hot  water.  Alum  is  much 
used  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing.  This  property  it 
owes  to  the  alumina  in  it,  which  has  a  strong 
attraction  for  textile  tissues,  and  also  for  coloring 
matters;  the  alumina  thus  becomes  the  means  of 
fixing  the  color  in  the  cloth.  It  is  also  used  in 
the  preparation  of  leather  from  skins,  and,  in 
medicine,  as  a  powerful  astringent  for  arresting 
bleeding  and  mucous  discharges.  Its  use  to  im¬ 
part  whiteness  to  bread  made  from  poor  flour  is 
highly  objectionable. 

Alum  rarely  occurs  in  nature,  except  in  a  few 
springs,  and  in  some  extinct  volcanoes,  where  it 
appears  to  be  formed  from  the  action  of  sulphur¬ 
ous  acid  vapors  upon  feldspathic  rocks.  It  is 
prepared  artificially  from  alum-shale,  and  from 
alum-slate,  which  are  exposed  to  the  action  of 
weather  or  fire,  causing  the  oxidation  of  the  sul 
phur  and  iron  contained  in  these  bodies,  and 
forming  sulphate  of  alumina  and  sulphate  of  iron. 
From  these  the  alum  is  extracted  in  the  form  of 
crystals. 

Altim-Baffh  ( Alambagh ),  a  fort  rendered  fam¬ 
ous  during  the  Indian  mutiny  of  1857.  On  evac¬ 
uating  Lucknow,  Sir  Colin  Campbell  left  Sir 
James  Outram  with  3,500  men  to  hold  the  Alum- 
Bagh.  He  was  surrounded  by  the  insurgent 
forces  of  30,000  sepoys  and  50, 000  volunteers,  and 
was  repeatedly  attacked  by  them,  but  in  vain.  In 
March,  Sir  Colin  Campbell  reconquered  Lucknow, 
and  relieved  the  Alum-Bagli  from  its  perilous 
isolation.  Havelock  had  been  buried  within  the 
walls  in  Nov.,  1857. 

Aln'niina,  the  most  abundant  of  the  earths,  is 
the  oxide  of  the  metal  Aluminium,  the  formula 
being  AI2O3.  It  occurs  in  nature  abundantly  in 
combination  with  silica,  associated  with  other 
bases.  The  most  familiar  of  its  native  compounds 
is  feldspar,  a  silicate  of  alumina  and  potash, 
K  O,  AlgOs.GSiOs.  This  is  one  of  the  constituents 
of  granite, and  of  several  other  igneous  rocks.  Clay 
consists  of  silica  and  alumina  in  a  state  of  chem¬ 
ical  combination.  It  never  is  pure  alumina,  but 
the  quantity  of  silica  united  to  the  latter  is  vari¬ 
able. 

From  alum,  alumina  is  prepared  by  adding  to 
a  solution  of  the  former,  water  of  ammonia,  as 
long  as  it  occasions  a  precipitate.  The  alumina 
appears  as  a  voluminous,  white,  gelatinous  sub¬ 
stance,  consisting  of  the  oxide  of  the  metal  com 
bined  with  water.  Alumina  in  the  state  of  pre¬ 
cipitate,  after  being  gently  dried,  is  readily  solu¬ 
ble  in  acids  and  in  alkalies.  Alumina,  as  gener¬ 
ally  prepared,  whether  hydrated  or  anhydrous,  is 
insoluble  in  water,  possesses  no  taste,  ami  does  not 
alter  coloring  matters;  but  it  has  also  been  ob¬ 
tained  in  an  allotropic  hydrated  form,  which,  in 
the  presence  of  a  very  small  proportion  of  acetic 
acid,  is  largely  soluble  in  water,  from  which  a 
minute  trace  of  sulphuric  acid  precipitates  it.  It 
is  quite  different,  therefore,  in  properties  from  the 
alkaline  earths,  and  is  a  much  weaker  base. 
Alumina  is  not  fusible  by  a  forge  or  furnace 
heat,  but  it  melts  before  the  oxyliydrogen  blow¬ 
pipe  into  a  clear  globule,  possessing  great  hard¬ 
ness.  It  occurs  in  nature  in  a.  similar  state.  The 
more  coarsely  crystallized  specimens  form  the 
emery  which  is  used  for  polishing;  the  trans¬ 
parent  crystals,  when  of  a  blue  color,  owing  to  a 
trace  of  metallic  oxide,  constitute  the  precious 
gem  the  sapphire,  and,  when  red,  the  ruby. 

Alumin  iiim  (sym.  Al,  eq.  27.4)  is  one  of  the 
metals  present  in  clay,  feldspar,  slate,  and  many 
more  rocks  and  minerals.  It  was  discovered  by 
Wohler  in  1828,  and  was  reexamined  by  him  in 
1846,  when  he  obtained  the  metal  in  minute 
globules  or  beads,  by  heating  a  mixture  of  chlo¬ 
ride  of  aluminium  and  sodium.  In  1855,  the 
French  chemist  Deville  showed,  as  the  result  of  a 
series  of  experiments,  that  aluminium  could  be 
prepared  on  a  large  scale  and  in  a  compact  form 
without  much  difficulty.  The  manufacture  of 
aluminium  was  started  in  1860  near  Newcastle,  by 
Mr.  (afterwards  Sir)  I.  L.  Bell.  Ifis  now  chiefly 
manufactured  in  France.  Large  works  have 
also  been  started  at  Detroit  by  the  American 
Aluminium  Company.  A  new  process  for  the 


ALUMNUS. 


43 


AMANITA. 


production  of  sodium,  invented  by  IT.  Y.  Castner 
of  New  York,  was  made  public  in  1887.  The 
sodium  is  obtained  from  caustic  soda  by  heating 
this  substance  along  with  carbon  and  iron  in 
steel  crucibles.  It  is  asserted  by  some  eminent 
chemists  that  by  this  process  the  price  of  sodium 
will  be  greatly  reduced.  If  so,  the  cost  of  alum¬ 
inium  will  also  be  much  lessened,  as  sodium  is 
largely  used  in  its  manufacture. 

Aluminium  is  a  white  metal,  somewhat  resem¬ 
bling  silver,  but  possessinga  bluish  hue,  like  zinc. 
It  is  very  malleable  and  ductile,  in  tenacity  it 
approaches  iron,  and  it  takes  a  high  polish.  It 
fuses  at  about  1292°  Fahr.  (700  C.),  and  can  then 
be  cast  in  moulds  into  ingots.  Exposed  to  dry  or 
moist  air,  it  is  unalterable,  and  does  not  oxidize 
or  tarnish  like  most  common  metals.  Sulphur¬ 
etted  hydrogen,  the  gas  which  so  readily  tarnishes 
the  silver  in  households,  does  not  act  on  alumin 
ium,  which  is  found  to  preserve  its  appearance 
under  all  ordinary  circumstances  as  perfectly  as 
gold  does.  When  hammered  or  rolled,  it  be 
comes  as  hard  as  iron,  and  its  density  increases  to 
2.67.  It  is  therefore  lighter  than  glass,  and  only 
one-fourth  as  heavy  as  silver.  Aluminium  is 
very  sonorous,  a  bar  of  it  when  struck  giving  out 
a  clear,  ringing  sound.  It  is  a  good  conductor  of 
heat  and  electricity.  Considerable  difficulty  was 
long  experienced  in  working  the  metal,  for  want 
of  a  suitable  solder.  That  generally  used  con¬ 
sists  of  aluminium,  6  per  cent. ;  copper,  4  per 
cent. ;  and  zinc,  90  per  cent. 

Aluminium  is  still  rather  more  than  one-half  of 
the  price  of  silver,  and  has  not  the  beautiful  color 
of  the  latter.  These  reasons  seem  to  prevail 
against  its  extensive  use  in  the  arts.  It  is  chiefly 
used  for  optical,  surgical,  and  chemical  instru¬ 
ments  or  pieces  of  apparatus.  Aluminium  forms, 
with  copper,  several  light,  very  hard,  white 
alloys;  also  a  yellow  alioy,  which,  though  much 
lighter  than  gold,  is  very  similar  to  it  in  color. 
This  gold-like  alloy,  which  is  ordinary  aluminium 
bronze,  contains  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  alumi¬ 
nium,  and  is  very  strong.  It  is  manufactured 
into  watch-chains,  pencil  cases,  table-plate,  and 
carriage  mountings,  which  have  an  attractive  ap¬ 
pearance.  This  bronze,  which  can  be  made  with 
a  tensile  strength  equal  to  steel,  has  certain 
advantages  for  field-guns.  Its  anti  friction  and 
wearing  qualities  make  it  well  adapted  for  bear¬ 
ings  of  shafts;  but  its  price,  being  considerably  in 
excess  of  ordinary  bronze,  somewhat  hinders  its 
use  on  a  large  scale  for  objects  of  utility.  See  J. 
W.  Richards,  Aluminium,;  its  History  (1887). 

Alumnus  (from  ahre  Lat.  to  nourish)  was 
originally  applied  to  students  educated  and  sup¬ 
ported  by  endowed  institutions.  The  term  is 
now  applied  to  all  graduates  of  colleges  or  uni 
versities. 

Alum  Root.  This  name  is  given  to  two 
plants,  natives  of  the  United  States,  very  different 
from  one  another,  but  agreeing  in  the  remarkable 
astringency  of  their  roots,  which  are  medicinally 
.  used.  One  of  these  plants  is  Geranium  mneu- 
latum.  The  root  contains  more  tannin  than  Kino 
does.  The  other  is  Heuchera  americana,  a  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Saxifragaceae,  an  order  in 
which  also  astringency  is  a  prevalent  property. 

Aluuuo,  Niccolo,  or  Niccolo  of  Fuligno,  one 
of  the  earliest  of  the  old  Umbrian  fresco  and  altar- 
piece  painters,  was  born  at  Fuligno  about  1430. 

Alured,  or  Alfred,  of  Beverley,  in  Yorkshire, 
an  old  English  historian  of  the  time  of  Henry  I. 
Alured  died  in  1128  or  1129. 

Alva,  or  Alba,  Ferdinand  Alvarez  de 
Toledo,  Duke  of,  prime  minister  and  general  of 
the  Spanish  armies  under  Charles  V.  anil  Philip 
II.,  was  born  in  1508,  of  one  of  the  most  illus 
trious  families  of  Spain.  He  entered  the  army  a 
mere  youth,  and  gave  such  proofs  of  his  courage 
and  capacity  for  command  in  the  battle  of  Pavia 
(1525),  in  Hungary  in  battles  against  the  Turks, 
in  Charles  V.’s  expedition  to  Tunis  and  Algiers, 
and  in  Provence,  that  he  rose  quickly  in  rank, 
becoming  general  at  twenty-six,  and  commander- 
in-chief  at  thirty  years  of  age.  His  skilful  de¬ 
fence  of  Navarre  and  Catalonia  gained  him  his 
title  of  Duke  of  Alva.  After  the  abdication  of 
Charles  V.,  in  1556,  Alva  continued  to  hold  the 
command  of  the  army,  and  overran  the  States  of 
the  Church,  but  was  obliged  by  the  command  of 
Philip  II.  to  conclude  a  peace  with  Pope  Paul 


IV.,  and  restore  all  his  conquests.  In  1559  he 
visited  the  Court  of  France,  and  as  proxy  for  his 
sovereign  espoused  Elizabeth,  Henry  II.’s  daugh¬ 
ter. 

When  the  inhabitants  of  the  Netherlands,  who 
had  been  accustomed  to  freedom,  revolted  against 
the  tyranny  of  Spain,  and  especially  against  the 
hated  Inquisition,  the  Duke  of  Alva’s  counsel  was 
to  suppress  the  insurrection  with  rigor.  He  was 
given  unlimited  power  and  a  large  military  force, 
and  his  native  cruelty  and  bigotry  led  him  to  use 
the  harshest  measures,  killing  the  people  by 
thousands,  both  in  the  open  field  and  after  trials, 
which  were  mockeries  of  justice.  The  present 
and  the  absent,  the  living  and  the  dead,  were  sub¬ 
jected  alike  to  trial  and  their  property  confiscated 
by  the  council  over  which  he  presided.  As  many 
as  100,000  abandoned  their  native  country,  many 
of  them  industrious  artisans,  mechanics,  and  mer¬ 
chants,  who  emigrated  to  England,  while  many 
others  enlisted  under  the  banners  of  the  pro¬ 
scribed  princes,  Louis  and  William  of  Orange. 
Alva,  rendered  still  more  savage  by  the  defeat  of 
his  lieutenant,  the  Duke  of  Aremberg,  sent  Counts 
Egmont  and  Horn  to  the  block.  He  afterwards 
defeated  Prince  Louis,  and  compelled  William  of 
Orange  to  retire  to  Germany,  upon  which  he 
entered  Brussels  in  triumph  on  Dec.  22,  1568 
His  executioners  shed  more  blood  than  his  soldiers; 
and  none  now  withstood  his  arms  except  Holland 
and  Zealand,  where  the  dykes  were  cut  and  his 
fleet  destroyed.  Recalled  by  his  own  desire  in 
1573,  he  resigned  the  command  of  the  troops  to 
the  mild  Don  Louis  de  Requesens,  and  left  the 
country,  in  which,  as  he  himself  boasted,  he  had 
executed  18,000  men.  The  war  which  he  had 
kindled,  burned  for  nearly  seventy  years,  and  cost 
Spain  untold  treasure,  her  finest  troops,  and  the 
loss  of  seven  of  the  richest  provinces  of  the 
Netherlands. 

He  afterward  drove  out  Don  Antonio,  who,  as 
grandson  of  John  III.,  had  taken  possession  of 
the  throne  of  Portugal,  and  overran  the  whole 
country  with  his  accustomed  cruelty  and  rapac¬ 
ity;  he  seized  the  treasures  of  the  capital  himself, 
while  he  allowed  the  soldiers  to  plunder,  without 
mercy,  the  suburbs  and  the  surrounding  country. 
Shortly  after,  Alva  died  at  Tliomar,  Jan.  12,  1582, 
at  the  age  of  74.  He  had  a  haughty  carriage,  a 
hard  voice,  and  a  dark  anil  gloomy  countenance. 
He  was  cruel,  avaricious,  and  a  fanatical  bigot. 
It  has  been  said  of  him,  that  during  sixty  years 
of  military  service  he  never  lost  a  battle,  and 
never  allowed  himself  to  be  surprised.  See  Mot¬ 
ley's  Hutch  Republic  (1856). 

Alvara'do,  a  town  of  Mexico,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  forty*  miles  southeast  of  Vera  Cruz. 
Pop.,  6,000. 

Alvarado,  Pedro  de,  a  famous  comrade  of 
Cortes,  was  born  at  Badajoz,  toward  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  In  1518  he  sailed  for  the 
New  World,  and  accompanied  Grijalva  in  his' 
exploring  voyage  along  the  shores  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  continent.  In  Feb.,  1519,  he  sailed  with 
Cortes  anil  his  little  band  from  Havana,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  all  the  incidents  of  the  conquest 
of  Mexico.  He  held  the  city  of  Mexico  during 
the  absence  of  his  chief,  and  massacred  in  the 
midst  of  a  fete  a  great  number  of  disaffected 
Aztec  nobles.  After  the  conquest  of  Mexico  he 
subdued,  with  a  small  force,  the  tribes  on  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific  in  the  direction  of  Guatemala. 
On  his  return  to  Spain,  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
gave  him  a  splendid  reception,  and  appointed  him 
governor  of  Guatemala.  He  made  other  success¬ 
ful  expeditions  to  .Mexico,  and  died  in  1541. 

Alvarez,  Don  Jose,  the  greatest  of  modern 
Spanish  sculptors,  was  born  in  1768,  in  Cordova. 
In  Rome,  where  he  lived  on  terms  of  friendship 
with  Canova  and  Thorvaldsen,  he  executed  a 
famous  group,  now  in  the  Royal  Museum  of 
Madrid,  representing  a  scene  in  the  defense  of 
Saragossa.  He  died  at  Madrid  in  1827. 

Alwar,  or  Ulwar,  a  Rajput  State  of  India,  in 
Rajputana.  Its  area  is  3,024  square  miles.  The 
capital,  Alwar,  is  a  small  town  ninety-four  miles 
west-northwest  of  Agra.  Pop.  (1881),  682,926. 

Alzey,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Hesse,  on  the  Selz, 
eighteen  miles  southwest  of  Mainz.  Pop.,  5,932. 

Amade  us,  (i.  e.,  “Love-God”),  a  common 
name  in  the  House  of  Savoy.  The  first  who  bore 
it  was  Count  Amadeus,  who  lived  in  the  eleventh 


century;  but  the  first  to  make  an  important  figure 
in  history  was  Amadeus  V.  (1249-1323.)— Ama¬ 
deus  VIII.,  born  in  1383,  secured  the  elevation 
of  Savoy  into  a  duchy  (1416),  and  in  1418  Pied¬ 
mont  chose  him  for  its  ruler;  but  in  1434  he 
retired  to  a  hermitage  on  the  shores  of  the  Lake 
of  Geneva.  He  was  elected  Pope  in  1439,  and 
assumed  the  name  of  Felix  V.,  but  resigned  the 
papal  chair  in  1449,  and  died  two  years  afterward 
at  Geneva. — Amadeus  I.  of  Spain,  born  in  1845, 
the  second  son  of  King  Victor  Emmanuel  of 
Italy,  was  elected  King  of  Spain  in  1870,  but, 
owing  to  the  want  of  popular  sympathy  with  his 
government,  he  abdicated  the  throne  in  Feb., 
1873,  and,  as  Duke  of  Aosta,  returned  to  Italy. 

Am  ad  is,  a  much-used  name  in  the  chivalric 
poetry  of  the  middle  ages.  Of  the  numerous 
romances  that  may  be  grouped  under  it,  that 
which  narrates  the  adventures  of  Amadis  of  Gaul 
is  at  once  the  most  ancient  and  the  best. 

Am'adou  (Fr.)  is  obtained  from  two  species  of 
Ilymenomycete  Fungi,  Polyporus  igniarius  (hard 
amadou,  or  touchwood)  anil  P  fomentarius  (soft 
amadou,  or  German  tinder)  They  grow  upon 
old  trees  in  Britain  and  on  the  continent  of  Eu 
rope  They  are  used  as  styptics  for  stanching 
slight  wounds;  and,  when  steel  and  flint  were  in 
general  use  for  striking  fire,  were  much  employed 
as  tinder,  being  prepared  for  this  purpose  by  boil¬ 
ing  in  a  solution  of  nitre. 

Amal'ekites,  a  warlike,  nomadic  tribe  in  the 
southwest  of  Palestine  and  the  Peninsula  of  Sinai. 
They  were  at  constant  war  with  the  Israelites, 
and  were  finally  exterminated  in  the  time  of 
Hezekiah. 

Amalfi,  a  seaport  on  the  Gulf  of  Salerno,  on 
the  west  coast  of  Southern  Italy.  It  was  founded 
by  Constantine,  and  was  once  an  independent 
republic  but  fell  into  decay.  Pop.,  about  4,500. 

Amalgam  is  the  term  applied  to  that  class  of 
alloys  in  which  one  of  the  combining  metals  is 
mercury.  Mercury  unites  readily  with  gold  and 
silver  at  the  usual  temperature.  It  has  no  dispo¬ 
sition  to  unite  with  iron  even  when  hot.  A  solid 
amalgam  of  tin  is  used  to  silver  looking-glasses. 

Amalgamation  is  employed  on  a  small  scale  in 
some  processes  of  gilding,  the  silver  or  other 
metal  being  overlaid  with  a  film  of  gold  amalgam, 
and  the  mercury  being  then  driven  off  by  heat. 
But  its  most  extensive  use  is  in  separating  gold, 
and  especially  silver,  from  certain  of  their  ores. 
The  mercury  dissolves  the  particles  of  the  metal, 
and  leaves  the  earthy  particles;  it  is  then  easily 
separated  from  the  gold  or  silver.  This  process, 
discovered  in  Mexico  in  1557,  is  still  used  there, 
and  was  introduced  with  great  success  into  the 
Californian  and  Australian  gold-fields.  The  mode 
of  application  is  to  crush  the  quartz  rock,  which 
serves  as  the  matrix  in  which  the  small  particles, 
of  gold  are  imbedded;  place  the  fragments  in  a 
barrel  or  revolving  drum  with  mercury  and  agi¬ 
tate  for  some  time.  The  mercury  attaches  all  the 
gold  particles  to  itself;,  and  in  the  apparatus, 
when  fully  agitated,  there  is  found  a  semi-fluid 
mass,  which  is  the  mercury,  appearing  half-con- 
gealeil,  and  containing  all  the  gold.’  It  is  only 
necessary  to  place  this  amalgam  in  a  retort  and 
apply  heat,  when  the  mercury  sublimes  over — 
and  can  be  reemployed  for  further  amalgamation 
— and  leaves  the  gold  in  the  body  of  the  retort. 

Aniani  ta,  a  genus  of  Hymenomycete  Fungi, 


Amanita  mutcaria , 
young. 


Amanita  muscaria, 
full-grown,  more  reduced. 


nearly  allied  to  the  mushrooms  (Agaricus).  Sev¬ 
eral  of  the  species  are  edible,  notably  the  delicious 


AMARANTH. 


44 


AMBERGRIS. 


Orange  ( A .  ccBsarea),  but  the  majority  are  poison¬ 
ous. 

Am '  aranth  ( Amaranths ),  the  leading  genus  of 
Amaranthacese,  an  order  differing  from  Clieno- 
podieceae,  in  the  pos¬ 
session  of  a  crowded 
bracteate  inflorescence 
and  membranous  peri¬ 
anth.  A.  cavdatus 
(love-lie  s-blceding), 

A.  speciosus,  A.  hypo¬ 
chondriacs  (prince’s 
feather),  and  other 
species,  are  common 
annuals.  A.  tricolor, 
fiom  (  hina,  is  culti-  Love-lies-bleeding, 
rated  in  the  Southern  {Amaranth us  cau- 
States,  and  is  popu-  datus.) 
larly  known  as  Joseph’s  coat.  The 
spikes  of  A.  caudatus are  sometimes  sev¬ 
eral  feet  in  length.  The  dry  red  bracts 
which  surround  the  flower  retain  their 
freshness  for  a  long  time  after  being 
gathered;  for  which  reason  the  plant  has 
been  employed  from  early  times  as 
an  emblem  of  immortality.— The  Globe 
amaranth  ( Gomplirena  globosa)  and  the 
cockscomb,  well-known  tender  annuals,  belong  to 
the  same  natural  order.  The  Globe  amaranth  is 
much  cultivated  in  Portugal  and  other  Roman 
Catholic  countries  for  adorning  churches  in  win¬ 
ter.  Its  flowers,  which  are  of  a  shining  purple, 
retain  their  beauty  and  freshness  for  several  years. 

Amarapu'ra  (city  of  the  gods),  till  1860  the 
capital  of  Burmah,  was  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Irawadi,  six  miles  northeast  of  Ava. 
Founded  in  1783,  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire 
in  1810,  and  almost  totally  by  earthquake  in  1839; 
so  that  the  population  dwindled  from  175,000  in 
1800,  to  almost  nothing  after  Mandalay  became 
the  seat  of  government 

Amara-Sinha,  a  celebrated  Hindu  grammarian, 
of  whose  life  little  is  known;  his  date  is  by  various 
authorities  put  at  56  n.c.,  the  fifth  century  a.d.  , 
and  the  eleventh  century. 

Aina  ri,  Michele,  an  Italian  historian  and 
orientalist,  was  born  at  Palermo,  July  7,  1806. 
He  was  exiled  for  publishing  a  history  of  the 
Sicilian  Vespers;  but  the  revolution  of  1848  recalled 
him  to  Sicily,  where  he  was  elected  vice  president 
of  the  committee  of  war,  and  sent  by  the  provis¬ 
ional  Government  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to 
France  and  England.  The  restoration  in  1849 
sent  him  once  more  into  exile,  from  which  he  was 
recalled  in  1859  to  fill  the  chair  of  Arabic,  first  at 
Pisa,  afterward  at  Florence.  In  1860  he  took  an 
active  part  in  Garibaldi’s  expedition  to  Sicily. 
After  the  accession  of  Sicily  to  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  he  was  made  a  senator,  and  in  1863-4  held 
the  portfolio  of  Public  Instruction.  He  presided 
over  the  Congress  of  Orientalists  at  Florence  in 
1878. 


Amarylliil  ea%  or  Amaryllidace.e,  a  natural 
order  of  petaloid  monocotyledons,  essentially 
distinguished  from  liliacete  by  their  inferior 
ovary,  and  including  many  species  distinguished 
by  the  beauty  of  their  flowers.  They  have  the 
character  of  gigantic  herbs  rather  than  of  shrubs. 
The  greater  part  are  bulbous-rooted.  There  are 
about  400  known  species,  natives  of  tropical  or 
sub-tfopical,  and  more  sparingly  of  temperate 
regions,  but  particularly  abundant  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  Amongst  these  are  different  -spe¬ 
cies  of  Narcissus,  Amaryllis,  Alstrcemeria,  Pan 
cratium,  etc.  To  this  order  belong  the  snowdrop. 
Snowflake,  and  the  American  aloe  (Agave). 
Sternbergia  Ivlea  is  said  to  be  the  lily  of  the  field 
referred  to  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 

Amaryllis,  a  genus  of  bulbous-rooted  herbs  of 
the  natural  order  Amaryllidese  (see  ante),  contains 
a  large  number  of  species,  natives  of  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  globe.  Many  of  t hem  have  flowers 
of  very  great  beauty,  and  are  extensively  culti¬ 
vated  by  florists,  who  have  also  produced  many 
varieties  and  hybrids. 

Amasia,  a  town  in  Asia  Minor.  The  ancient 
town,  long  capital  of  the  kings  of  Pontus,  was 
the  birthplace  of  Strabo.  Pop.,  35,000,  of  whom 
about  one-third  are  Christians. 

Ama'sis,  a  king  of  Egypt  of  humble  origin, 
who  rose  to  be  general,  and  when  sent  to  put 
down  an  insurrection,  joined  the  rebels  and  was 


proclaimed  king,  (570  n.  c.)  ■  During  his  reign  of 
forty-four  years,  he  greatly  promoted  the  pros¬ 
perity  and  adornment  of  Egpyt. 

Amateur  (Fr.),  one  who  does  anything  for  love, 
as  distinguished  from  one  who  makes  it  a  profes¬ 
sion.  There  is  no  general  definition  of  an  ama¬ 
teur  applying  to  all  sports,  and  different  associa¬ 
tions  are  by  no  means  in  accord.  The  latest  de¬ 
liverance  on  the  subject  defines  an  amateur  as  one 
who  does  not  play  for  or  accept  money  prizes  in 
a  competition  open  to  professionals. 

Amati,  a  family  of  Cremona,  famous  violin- 
makers  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen¬ 
turies  ‘ 

Amatitlan,  a  deep  lake  in  the  Central  Ameri¬ 
can  State  of  Guatemala,  surrounded  with  high 
and  precipitous  rocks  of  volcanic  origin. 

Amaurosis  (Gr.  amauros,  obscure)  is  the  name 
applied  to  total  blindness  when  no  change  can  be 
seen  in  the  eye  sufficient  to  account  for  it.  Am¬ 
blyopia  is  used  to  denote  partial  loss  of  sight  under 
similar  circumstances.  The  meaning  of  these 
terms  has  become  very  much  more  limited  since 
the  invention  of  the  Ophthalmoscope,  which  has 
rendered  visible,  in  the  interior  of  the  eye,  the 
cause  of  loss  of  sight  in  many  cases  where  it  was 
previously  unknown.  They  are  still,  however, 
used  to  denote  loss  of  sight  from  atrophy  of  the 
optic  nerve. 

Amazon,  the  largest  river  in  the  world,  although 
not  the  longest.  It  has  two  main  head  streams, — 
the  Maranon,  rising  in  Lake  Lauricocha,  Peru, 
and  the  Ucayule,  whose  tributaries  rise  in  the 
Eastern  Andes.  Its  extreme  length  is  variously 
estimated  tit  from  3,000  to  4,000  miles  ,  its  drain¬ 
age  area  covers  2,500,000  square  miles,  and  with 
its  tributaries  it  has  25,000  miles  of  navigable 
water-way.  It  forms  for  a  great  distance  the 
boundary  between  Peru  and  Ecuador,  and  strikes 
through  Brazil,  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  at  the 
equator,  where  the  main  channel  is  fifty  miles 
wide.  The  tide  is  felt  400  miles  up  the  river,  and 
the  outflowing  current  of  the  Amazon  has  been 
noticed  200  miles  out  at  sea. 

See  Agassiz, -A  Journey  in  Brazil  (1888)/  II.  W. 
Bates,  A  Naturalist  on  the  River  Amazon;  YV.  II. 
Edwards,  Fifteen  Thousand  Miles  on  the  Amazon; 
H.  II.  Smith,  Braz  l,  the  Amazons ,  and  the  Coast 
(1880);  Mrs.  Mulhall,  Between  the  Amazon  and  the 
Andes  (1882). 

Amazo '  nas.  (1)  The  northernmost  province  of 
Brazil  has  an  area  of  753.439  square  miles,  and 
an  estimated  population  of  (1885)  80,942.  (2)  A 
department  of  Peru,  bounded  on  the  norih  by 
Ecuador,  with  an  area  of  14,129  square  miles. 
Pop.,  34,245. 

Am  azons,  in  Greek  Mythology,  a  nation  of 
women  who  suffered  no  men  to  remain  among 
them,  but  marched  to  battle  under  the  command 
of  their  queen.  They  held  occasional  intercourse 
with  the  men  of  the  neighboring  states.  If  boys 
were  born  to  them,  they  either  sent  them  to  their 
fathers  or  killed  them.  But  they  brought  up  the 
girls  for  war,  and  burned  off  their  right  breasts, 
that  they  might  not  be  impeded  in  bending  the 
bow.  From  this  custom  they  received  the  name  of 
Amazons,  that  is  “  breastless.”  Real  Amazons  ex 
ist  at  the  present  day  in  Dahomey,  in  Western 
Africa,  where  part  of  thearmy  consists  of  women, 
who  are  regularly  marshaled  in  regiments,  with 
distinctive  uniform  and  badges.  They  are  sub¬ 
jected  to  severe  discipline,  and  are  said  by  travel¬ 
ers  to  be  more  than  merely  ornamental  sdldiers. 

Ambassador.  Diplomatic  envoys  are  of  four 
kinds  :  (1)  Ambassadors  accredited  directly  to  a 
foreign  sovereign  and  personally  representing 
the  sovereign  or  country  appointing  them. 
(2)  (Ministers  accredited  to  a  foreign  sovereign  or 
state,  who  do  not  represent  the  sovereign,  but 
only  the  state  which  sends  them,  and  its  affairs. 
These  are  usually  called  en voy s ■  c x t raordi nary  and 
ministers  plenipotentiary.  (3)  Ministers  resident, 
called  simply  envoys.  These  differ  not  in  repre¬ 
sentative  power,  but  in  dignity.  (4)  Charges  d  Af 
faires  accredited  to  foreign  ministers.  The  term 
ambassador  is  commonly  used  to  denote  any  kind 
of  diplomatic  minister.  In  the  performance  of 
all  his  diplomatic  duties  an  ambassador  is  under¬ 
stood  to  represent  not  only  the  affairs  but  the  dig¬ 
nity  and  the  power  of  his  country;  and  by  the 
law  of  nations  he  has  many  important  rights  and 
privileges,  the  chief  of  which  is  exemption  from 


the  control  of  the  municipal  laws  of  the  nation 
wherein  he  is  to  exercise  his  functions,  an  exemp¬ 
tion  that  is  not  confined  to  the  ambassador  him¬ 
self,  but  is  extended  to  all  of  his  suite,  including 
not  only  the  persons  employed  by  him  in  the  di¬ 
plomatic  services,  but  his  wife,  chaplain,  and 
household  generally.  But  although  an  ambassa¬ 
dor  is  not  ami  liable  to  any  tribunal  of  the  country 
he  resides  in,  he  cannot  misconduct  himself  with 
impunity.  He  must  respect  the  laws  and  customs 
of  the  country  in  which  he  is  officially  resident ; 
and  if  he  violates  or  offends  these  laws  and  cus¬ 
toms  he  may  be  complained  (ff  to  the  court  or  gov¬ 
ernment  which  he  represents;  or  if  the  offense 
is  of  a  very  serious  nature  his  recall  may  be  de¬ 
manded,  or  the  nation  to  whom  he  has  given  such 
offense  may  dismiss  him  peremptorily,  and  further 
require  that  he  be  brought  to  trial  in  his  own 
country. 

The  United  States  sends  out  no  ambassadors — 
only  envoys  extraordinary  and  ministers  plenipo¬ 
tentiary  ;  its  representatives  theiefore  rank  in  the 
second  class  of  diplomatic  agents,  though  there 
is  theoretically  no  distinction  made  between  the 
representatives  of  monarchies  and  republics.  The 
usual  title  for  ambassadors  proper  is  ‘‘Excellency,” 
which  is  often  conferred  also  on  the  lower  ranks 
of  ministers.  An  old-time  definition  of  an  am¬ 
bassador  is  ‘  An  honest  man  sent  to  Re  abroad  for 
the  good  of  his  country.” 

Amber  (through  Span,  from  Arab,  ambar, 
ambergris,  from  its  supposed  resemblance),  a 
substance  analogous  to  the  vegetable  resins,  and 
in  all  probability  derived  from  various  extinct 
coniferous  trees,  although  now  appearing,  like 
coal,  as  a  product  of  the  mineral  kingdom.  It  is 
usually  of  a  pale  yellow  color,  sometimes  reddish 
or  brownish,  is  sometimes  transparent,  sometimes 
almost  opaque,  and  is  occasionally  greenish,  bluish, 
or  violet  colored.  It  occurs  in  round  irregular 
lumps,  grains,  or  drops;  has  a  perfectly  conchoidal 
fracture,  is  slightly  brittle,  emits  an  agreeable 
odor  when  rubbed,  melts  at  about  536°  F. 
(280°  C.),  and  burns  with  a  bright  flame  and 
pleasant  smell.  It  becomes  negatively  electric  by 
friction,  and  possesses  this  property  in  a  high 
degree — which,  indeed,  was  first  observed  in  it, 
and  the  term  electricity  is  derived  from  electron, 
the  G  “eek  name  of  amber.  The  specific  gravity 
of  amber  is  1.065  to  1.070.  Deprived,  by  means 
of  ether,  of  all  its  soluble  constituents,  its  eompo- 
sitidh  is  similar  to  that  of  camphor,  CioHicO.  It 
was  obtained  by  the  ancients  from  the  coasts  of 
the  Baltic  Sea,  where  it  is  still  found,  especially 
between  Konigsberg  and  Memel,  in  greater  abund¬ 
ance  than  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  It  is  there 
partly  cast  up  by  the  sea,  especially  after  storms, 
partly  obtained  by  means  of  nets,  and  partly  by 
systematic  dredging,  and  is  also  obtained  by  dig¬ 
ging  in  the  “  blue  earth.”  '1  he  annual  produc¬ 
tion  m  Prussia  is  about  220,000  lb.,  of  which 
about  one-third  is  cast  up  by  the  sea,  and  one- 
third  obtained  by  dredging.  According  to  an 
ancient  fable,  amber  is  the  tears  of  the  sisters  of, 
Phai-thon,  who,  after  his  death,  were  changed 
into  poplars  In  the  Royal  Cabinet,  at  Berlin,  is 
a  piece  weighing  fifteen  pounds,  said  to  be  the 
largest  ever  found,  and  valued  at  £1,500;  but  it  is 
extremely  rare  that  pieces  of  ten  pounds’  weight 
are  met  with  Amber  is  employed  in  the  arts 
for  the  manufacture  of  smokers’  mouthpieces,  for 
jewelry,  and  many  ornamental  objects;  and  from 
it  a  very  clear,  pale  varnish  is  obtained  by  heat¬ 
ing  six  parts  of  amber,  two  of  boiled  linseed  oil, 
and  eighteen  of  turpentine  to  a  temperature  of 
752°  F.  (400°  C.),  in  a  strong  copper  vessel  capable 
of  resisting  the  great  pressure  developed  (about 
twenty  atmospheres) 

Aniberg,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  once  the  capital 
of  the  Upper  Palatinate.  Chief  buildings  are  the 
town-hall  (1490)  and  the  Chinch  of  St.  Martin 
(1421),  with  a  steeple  321  feet  high.  Pop.  1,1885), 
15,705, 

Am  bergris  (t.e.,  gray  amber),  a  fatty  sub¬ 
stance,  of  an*ash  gray  color,  with  yellow  or  red¬ 
dish  striae,  like  those  of  marble,  which  is  found 
in  lumps  of  from  half  an  ounce  in  weight  to  100 
lb.  and  upwards,  floating  on  the  sea,  or  cast  upon 
the  seashore  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  and 
is  also  taken  by  wliale-fishers  from  the  bowels  of 
the  spermaceti  whale  ( Physeter  macrocephalns). 
It  is  probable  that  all  of  it  is  produced  by  the 


AMBLESIDE. 


45 


AMERICA. 


spermaceti  whale,  and  that  it  is  a  morbid  secretion 
in  the  intestinal  canal  of  that  animal,  derived  from 
the  bile.  It  is  highly  valued  on  account  of  its 
agreeable  smell,  and  is  much  used  in  perfumery. 
The  price  is  about  $25  to  $30  an  ounce. 

Ambleside,  a  market  village  of  Westmoreland, 
situated  in  the  heart  of  the  Lake  District,  about 
a  mile  from  the  head  of  Lake  Windermere. 
Rydal  Mount,  for  many  years  the  residence  of 
Wordsworth,  is  in  the  neighborhood. 

Amblyopsi8,abonyfish,  found  in  the  Mammoth 
Cave  of  Kentucky,  and  interesting  as  illustrating 
in  the  rudimentary  condition  of  its  eyes  the  effects 
of  darkness  and  consequent  disuse.  It  is  only  a 
few  inches  in  length,  is  colorless,  and  has  its 
small  eyes  covered  by  the  skin.  It  seems  able, 
however,  to  hear  acutely,  and  the  wrinkles  of 
skin  on  its  head  are  regarded  as  special  feeling 
organs.  Typhlichthys  is  a  closely  allied  genius 
found  in  the  same  surroundings,  while  another 
relative,  Ghologasler ,  occuring  in  the  ditches 
of  the  South  Carolina  rice-fields,  is,  as  one 
would  expect,  open-eyed.  The  caves  are  inhab¬ 
ited  by  similar  half  blind  animals  of  various 
classes.  Truly  blind  fishes  are  only  found  in  the 
unsunned  ocean  depths. 

Amblys '  Ionia,  a  genius  of  tailed  amphibians  in 
the  gill-less  or  Salamandroid  sub-order.  It  is  the 
adult  form  of  Axolotl,  from  which  itdiffers  in  its 
mode  of  respiration,  and  in  a  few  external  char¬ 
acteristics. 

Am  bo  (Gr.  ambon),  a  kind  of  reading-desk  or 
pulpit,  which  in  early  churches  was  placed  in  the 
choir.  The  epistle  and  gospel  were  read  from 
the  ambo,  and  sermons  were  sometimes  preached 
from  it. 

Amboise,  a  French  town  in  the  department  of 
Indre-et-Loire,  on  the  Loire,  fifteen  miles  east  of 
Tours.  The  town  is  memorable  for  the  Hugue¬ 
not  conspiracy  (1560),  which  cost  the  lives  of 
1,200  Protestants,  and  as  the  place  whence  was 
issued  the  Edict  of  Amboise  (1563),  conceding 
privileges  to  the  Huguenots.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Amboise,  George  of,  cardinal  and  prime 
minister  under  Louis  XII.  of  France,  was  born 
in  1460  near  Amboise.  He  became  chief  minister 
of  Louis  XII.,  was  made  a  cardinal,  and  aspired 
to  the  papacy  but  failed,  and  encouraged  a  schism 
between  the  French  Church  and  the  See  of  Itome. 
He  convened  a  separate  council,  first  at  Pisa, 
af  erwards  at  Milan  and  Lyons,  but  his  plans  were 
frustrated  by  the  failures  of  the  French  arms  in 
Italy.  He  died  at  Lyons,  May  25,  1510. 

Amboyna,  the  most  important  of  the  Moluccas 
or  Spice  Islands,  belonging  to  the  Dutch,  lies 
southwest  of  Ceram,  and  northwe-t  of  Banda. 
Area,  365  square  miles.  Pop.,  about  58,000, 
nearly  a  third  Mohammedans.  Amboyna,  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  Dutch  Moluccas,  is  situated  on  the 
northwest  shore  of  Leitimor,  on  the  bay  of 
Amboyna.  Pop.,  about  9,000. 

Ambracia,  a  town  in  ancient  Epirus,  on  the 
River  Arachtlius,  north  of  the  Ambracian  Gulf. 
Colonized  by  the  Corinthians  about  630  b.c.,  it 
soon  attained  to  great  wealth  and  importance. 
Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  made  it  his  residence. 
On  its  site  stands  the  modern  town  of  Arts. 

Ambriz,  the  northernmost  division  of  the  Por¬ 
tuguese  territory  of  Angola,  West  Africa,  extend¬ 
ing  from  the  Congo  to  the  River  Ambriz. 

Ambrose,  St.,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  ancient  fathers  of  the  church,  was  born  about 
the  year  340,  probably  at  Treves,  where  his  father, 
as  Prefect  of  Gaul,  resided.  He  was  unanimously 
called  to  be  Bishop  of  Milan  in  374.  He  long 
refused  to  accept  this  dignity,  and  even  left  the 
city,  yet  he  soon  returned,  was  baptized,  as 
hitherto  he  had  been  only  a  catechumen,  and  was 
consecrated  eight  days  afterwards.  The  anniver¬ 
sary  of  this  event  (Dec.  7)  is  still  celebrated  as  a 
festival  by  the  Catholic  Church.  He  repulsed  the 
Emperor  Theodosius  from  the  door  of  the  church 
on  account  of  his  having  caused  the  rebellious 
Thessalonians  to  be  cruelly  massacred  by  Rufinas, 
excommunicated  him,  and  only  restored  him  to 
the  church  after  eight  months  of  severe  penance. 
Ambrose’s  most  valuable  legacy  to  the  church  is 
his  hymns,  and  the  improvements  he  introduced 
into  the  service.  Ambrose  died  in  397.  The  best 
edition  of  his  works,  generally  ascetic  in  tone, 
and  in  which  he  followed  in  many  things  the 
Greek  theological  writers,  is  that  published  by 


the  Benedictines  (2  vols.  .Paris,  1686-90).  Ambrose 
is  the  patron  saint  of  Milan.  The  Ambrosian 
Library  there,  named  in  his  honor,  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  1609  by  Cardinal  Borromeo.  It  now 
contains  160,000  volumes  of  printed  books  and 
8,000  MSS. 

Ambrosia  (formed  from  Gr.  ambrotos,  immor¬ 
tal),  in  Greek  Mythology,  the  food  of  the  gods, 
as  nectar  was  their  drink. 

Ambry,  a  niche  or  recess  in  the  wall  of  a  church 
shut  in  by  a  door,  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the 
vestments  and  utensils  used  for  the  service  of  the 
Mass.  In  monastic  buildings  the  term  ambry 
seems  to  have  been  applied  to  any  kind  of  cup¬ 
board  which  was  closed  in  and  locked,  and  it  is 
so  used  in  Scotland  at  the  present  day. 

Ambulacral  System  (Lat.  ambulure ,  to  walk), 
a  term  applied  to  a  partly  locomotor,  partly  res¬ 
piratory,  system  in  the  starfish  group  of  animals. 
The  term  water-vascular  is  on  the  whole  prefer¬ 
able.  The  system  usually  consists  (1)  of  five  rad- 


A,  cross  section  of  complex  supply-canal  of  a  starfish— 
the  so-called  stone-canal  (after  Gegenbaur).  B,  dia¬ 
grammatic  plan  of  system  in  a  starfish  (after  Gegen- 
baur):  r,  radial  canals,  giving  off  branches,  l,  to  sucto¬ 
rial  tube-feet,  s,  with  lateral  and  internal  reservoirs  or 
ampulla;,  c,  circular  canal,  with  side  reservoirs  or 
Polian  vesicles,  p,  with  supply  or  stone-canal,  s.c.,  and 
special  entrance  or  madreporic  plate,  m. 

ial  canals,  giving  off  tube-feet,  which  are  gen¬ 
erally  suctorial;  (2)  of  a  circular  canal  surround¬ 
ing  the  mouth  and  uniting  the  oral  ends  of  the 
five  radials;  and  (3)  of  a  special  supply-canal  by 
which  water  enters  the  system.  According  to 
some  the  water-vascular  system  of  Echinoderms 
is  essentially  llie  same  as  that  found  in  some 
worms. 

Ambulance  (Fr.),  originally  a  loal/cing  or  mov¬ 
able  hospital,  but  now  a  wagon  for  the  convey¬ 
ance  of  sick  and  wounded  soldiers.  The  term  is 
sometimes  erroneously  used  to  designate  the  por¬ 
tion  of  the  army  medical  department  which  rend¬ 
ers  first  aid  to  the  wounded,  and  even  that  work 
itself. 

Ambuscade,  a  manoeuvre  in  warfare,  whose 
general  nature  is  indicated  by  the  original  Italian 
imboscala  (concealed  in  a  wood),  but  which  now 
applies  to  any  attempt  to  attack  an  enemy  by 
lying  in  wait  and  coming  upon  him  unexpectedly. 
The  tactics  of  modern  times  render  ambuscades 
unusual  in  civilized  warfare.  It  is  something 
more  sudden  and  unexpected  than  a  surprise. 
Ameer,  or  Amir,  another  spelling  of  Emir. 
Amelaucliier  (so  called  from  the  Savoy  name 
of  the  medlar),  is  a  small  but  widely-dispersed 
genus  of  small  trees  belonging  to  the  order  Rosa- 
cese,  sub-order  Pomeae.  They  are  very  hardy. 
Amelanchier  botryapium,  an  American  variety,  is 
sometimes  called  June-berry,  from  its  early  ripen¬ 
ing;  and  A.  ovalis,  produces  a  pleasant  fruit 
Amen,  a  Hebrew  word  of  asseveration,  equiv¬ 
alent  to  “Yea,”  “  Truly,”  which  has  been  com¬ 
monly  adopted  in  the  forms  of  Chiistian  worship. 
In  Jewish  synagogues,  the  Amen  is  pronounced 
by  the  congregation  at  the  conclusion  of  the  bene¬ 
diction  given  at  parting.  Among  the  early  Chris¬ 
tians,  the  prayer  offered  by  the  presbyter  was 
concluded  by  the  word  Amen,  uttered  by  the  con¬ 
gregation  (cf.  1  Cor.  xiv. ,  16).  The  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  version  of  the  New  Testament  (Rheims,  1582) 
substitutes  Amen  for  the  “  verily  ”  of  the  Author¬ 
ized  Version,  it  being  the  word  used  in  the  orig¬ 
inal  Greek.  The  Mohammedans  also  use  this 
word  in  their  service. 

Amende-liouorable  (Fr.,  honorable  compensa¬ 


tion)  was  in  France,  in  the  ninth  century,  a 
public  and  humiliating  confession  made  by  trait¬ 
ors  and  other  offenders  in  court,  after  being 
stripped  of  their  shirts  by  the  executioner,  and 
having  had  other  indignities  inflicted  on  them. 
Now  the  phrase  is  used  figuratively  of  a  full  and 
frank  apology  sufficient  to  atone  for  the  wounded 
honor  of  another. 

Amendment,  in  judicial  proceedings,  means 
the  correction  of  any  errors  or  the  supplying  of 
any  omissions  in  the  record  of  a  civil  action  or  in 
a  criminal  indictment.  In  the  United  States, 
amendments  were  authorized  to  be  made  by 
courts  of  general  jurisdiction  at  common  law. 
The  equitable  power  of  amendment  of  pleadings 
and  proceedings  in  the  courts,  and  in  all  the  vari¬ 
ous  steps  in  a  cause,  has  been  conferred  on  the 
United  States  courts  by  acts  of  Congress.  The 
changes  and  additions  made  to  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  during  the  last  hundred  years 
are  called  the  amendments.  The  Senate  may 
amend  money  bills  passed  by  the  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives,  but  cannot  originate  such  bills. 

In  parliamentary  procedure,  the  object  of  an 
amendment  is  generally  to  effect  such  an  altera¬ 
tion  in  a  question  or  motion  as  will  make  certain 
members  vote  in  favor  of  it  who,  without  such 
alteration,  must  either  have  voted  against  it,  or 
have  abstained  from  voting.  Proper  amendments 
are  obviously  of  great  convenience  to  a  delibera¬ 
tive  assembly,  because  otherwise  they  would  be 
compelled  to  express  a  positive  or  negative  opin¬ 
ion  upon  the  whole  question  as  put.  The  amend¬ 
ment  may  even  contain  an  alternative  proposition 
wholly  opposed  to  the  original  question.  An 
amendment  of  an  amendment  may  be  proposed, 
where  the  original  amendment  is  simply  to  leave 
out  words;  and  the  original  amendment  becomes 
for  the  time  the  question.  If  the  previous  ques¬ 
tion  is  moved  before  an  amendment,  it  must  be 
voted  on  before  the  amendment,  but  it  is  obviously 
convenient  that  an  amendment  should  be  disposed 
of  before  the  previous  question.  An  amendment 
does  not  require  notice,  although  notice  is  usually 
given.  It  must,  however,  be  relevant  to  the  ques¬ 
tion. 

Amenophis,  Amunopii,  or  Amen-hotep,  is  the 
name  borne  by  three  Egyptian  kings  of  the  eight¬ 
eenth  dynasty,  beginning  with  Amasis  orAalimes 
I.,  about  1525  b.c. 

Ameuta'ceae,  a  vast  order  of  very  varying 
limits,  consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  whose  flow¬ 
ers  are  unisexual,  the  male  flowers,  and  very  often 
also  the  female  flowers,  disposed  in  amenta  or 
Calkins,  and  the  perianth  either  wanting  or  in¬ 
complete.  The  Amentacese  include  as  sub-orders 
the  Cupuliferae  (alder,  birch,  hazel,  hornbeam, 
beech,  oak,  chestnut)  and  the  Juglandaceae 
(walnut,  hickory). 

Amenthes,  the  unseen  world  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  the  Hades  of  the  Greeks,  who  bor¬ 
rowed  their  ideas  about  the  lower  world  from 
Egypt. 

America.  The  Western  Continent,  or  the  New 
World, asit  isoften  called,  though  it  is  geologically 
older  than  all  the  others,  consists  of  three  divisions: 
North,  South,  and  Central  America.  The  first  of 
these  stretches  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the 
southern  boundary  of  Mexico,  or  from  near  the 
pole  to  latitude  15°  N.  On  the  east  it  is  washed 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Pacific,  which  are  3,000  miles  apart  at  that 
point  where  the  continent  has  its  greatest  breadth. 
The  total  area  is  estimated  at  7,400,000  square 
miles,  being  thus  twice  the  size  of  Europe.  If 
Greenland  and  the  islands  lying  north  of  Hudson’s 
Straits  are  included,  its  area  will  be  increased  by 
900,000  square  miles.  Geographically  it  may  be 
divided  into  five  great  regions;  The  barren  and 
inhospitable  plain  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the 
50th  parallel;  the  fertile  belt  between  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  Pacific;  the  Valley  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  stretching  from  the  desert  plains  of 
the  West  to  the  slopes  of  the  Alleghanies  in  the 
East;  the  comparatively  narrow  belt  of  ter¬ 
ritory  between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  At¬ 
lantic;  and  the  tableland  and  coast  regions  of 
Mexico.  As  compared  with  Africa  and  Asia, 
North  America  is  remarkable  for  its  extensive 
river  and  lake  systems,  which  leave  few  interior 
points  far  removed  from  water  communica¬ 
tion  with  the  ocean.  Into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 


AMERICA. 


46 


AMERICA. 


pours  the  Mississippi,  which,  with  its  tribu¬ 
taries,  has  a  navigable  length  of  over  85,- 
000  miles,  while  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  great 
northern  lakes,  and  the  canals  which  connect 
them,  enable  a  vessel  to  sail  from  the  western 
point  of  Lake  Superior  to  the  Atlantic.  The 
Saskatchewan,  rising  at  the  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  flows  into  Lake  Winnipeg,  which 
drains  into  Hudson’s  Bay,  but  the  severity  of  the 
climate  is  such  that  this  route  can  not  be  utilized. 
The  rivers  which  flow  iuto  the  Atlantic,  south  of 
the  St  .  Lawrence,  are  generally  navigable  for  only 
a  short  distance  from  the  sea,  while  of  those  upon 
the  west  coast,  only  one — the  Columbia — stretches 
far  into  the  interior.  Along  the  Pacific,  from  the 
remote  north  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  the  Rocky 
Mountains  stretch  in  an  unbroken  curve,  with 
minor  ranges  which  enclose  the  Salt  Lake  Basin. 
Near  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  mountains  approach 
close  to  the  ocean;  farther  south  they  are  at  a 
distance  of  COO  miles  from  it.  At  various  points 
peaks  rise  to  immense  heights.  The  elevation  of 
Mt.  St,  Elias  is  from  16,000  to  18,000  feet,  while 
Orizaba  and  Popocatapetl,  in  Mexico,  reach  an 
altitude,  respectively,  of  17,176  and  17,540  feet. 
Along  the  Atlantic  border  there  is  the  Appalachian 
range  of  parallel  ridges,  the  eastern  including  the 
Green  Mountains  and  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  the 
western  the  Adirondack.  Alleghany  and  Cumber¬ 
land  Mountains.  The  highest  peaks  in  these 
chains  are  Mount  Washington  in  the  north,  and 
Mitchell’s  peak  in  the  south.  A  gradual  swell, 
rarely  reaching  a  higher  elevation  than  1,500  feet, 
extends  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  Hudson’s 
Bay,  and  divides  the  waters  flowing  into  that  bay 
and  the  Arctic  Ocean  from  those  which  drain  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic. 

It  was  in  1492  that  Columbus  saw  the  island  of 
San  Salvador,  but  long  prior  to  that  time  the 
Northmen  had  visited  the  New  England  coast, 
and  perhaps  made  temporary  settlements  there. 
At  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  the  country  it  was 
thinly  inhabited  by  Indian  tribes.  Those  of  Mex¬ 
ico  had  made  some  progress  in  civilization,  had 
abandoned  a  nomadic  life,  and  had  passed  out  of 
the  tribal  form  of  government.  But  all  along 
the  Atlantic  coast  the  natives,  while  growing  corn 
and  a  few  other  articles,  lived  chiefly  on  fish  and 
game.  Unable  to  oppose  any  organized  resistance 
to  the  whites,  they  were  gradually  driven  back 
iuto  the  interior.  France,  Spain,  and  England 
were  the  three  nations  which  at  first  disputed  the 
possession  of  North  America.  The  first  of  these 
controlled,  for  a  time,  the  Basins  of  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence  and  the  Mississippi;  to  thesecond  fell  Cuba, 
Mexico,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  Pacific  slope; 
while  the  latter  held  the  Atlantic  coast  from  Maine 
to  Florida.  After  many  years  of  warfare  the 
British  conquered  Canada  and  the  French  pos¬ 
sessions  in  the  Northwest,  Spain  yielded  to  the 
United  States  all  she  held  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
east  of  the  M  ssissippi,  while  the  revolt  of  the 
Mexicans  deprived  her  of  one  of  her  wealthiest 
provinces.  The  mistaken  policy  of  George  III. 
led  to  the  creation  of  the  United  States,  a 
power  which,  after  the  war  with  Mexico,  extended 
its  area  far  to  the  westward.  At  present  the 
northern  continent  is  divided  among  the  United 
States,  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  which  extends 
northward  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  the  Republic 
of  Mexico.  Greenland  has  a  few  Danish  settle¬ 
ments;  Cuba  is  still  retained  by  Spain,  and  the 
neighboring  islands,  with  the  exception  of  San 
Domingo,  are  divided  among  various  European 
powers. 

In  extent  and  variety  of  mineral  resources 
North  America  is  unsurpassed.  Coal  and  iron, 
the  two  great  agencies  of  modern  wealth  and  civ¬ 
ilization,  are  widely  diffused  and  often  lie  side  by 
side.  The  area  of  all  the  coal  fields  in  the  United 
States  alone  is  estimated  at  190,000  square  miles. 
That  of  the  Appalachian  field  is  70,000  square 
miles,  while  in  the  centre  of  the  continent,  Mich¬ 
igan,  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Iowa,  are  underlaid 
with  this  mineral,  which  is  also  found  in  Nova 
Scotia  and  in  British  Columbia.  As  for  iron 
ores,  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  place,  except  on  the 
Great  Plains,  or  the  alluvial  deposits  along  the 
Gulf,  where  they  do  not  occur  in  some-  form. 
Gold  is  found  in  abundance  on  both  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  and  more  scantily  along  the 
Appalachian  range.  The  silver  mines  of  Mexico 


and  the  United  States  are  renowned  for  their  rich¬ 
ness.  Great  masses  of  almost  pure  copper  are 
found  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.  Lead, 
quicksilver,  zinc,  .and  tin,  and  nearly  all  the 
precious  stones,  except  diamonds,  have  been  dis¬ 
covered.  Petroleum,  which  occurs  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  has  become  a  great  article  of 
export. 

The  rich  fisheries  on  the  banks  of  Newfound¬ 
land  attracted  the  fishermen  of  many  countries 
from  an  early  day,  and  they  are  even  yet,  after 
the  lapse  of  centuries,  rivaled  in  productiveness 
only  by  those  along  the  coast  of  Oregon  and 
Washington.  But  at  present  it  is  in  agriculture 
that  this  continent  is  pre-eminent,  audit  is  rapidly 
becoming  the  granary  of  Europe.  Immense 
quantities  of  wheat  are  yearly  shipped  across  the 
Atlantic,  and  the  supply  will  increase  as  the  set¬ 
tlements  extend  westward  and  northward.  The 
cheaper  meats  and  dairy  products  of  North  Amer¬ 
ica  are  alsofinding  their  way  to  frans- Atlantic  mar- 
kets,  and  will  go  there  in  still  greater  quantities 
until  the  increased  development  of  manufacturing 
interests  and  the  growth  of  population  create  a 
larger  demand  for  them  at  home. 

The  occupation,  by  white  men,  of  the  tillab'e 
soil  of  North  America,  slow  at  first,  is  now  going 
on  with  great  rapidity.  The  tide  of  immigration 
is  such  that  it  will  not  be  long  before  all  the  land 
suited  for  agriculture  will  be  reduced  to  cultiva¬ 
tion,  and  the  population,  which  consisted  of  only 
a  few  millions  when  the  continent  was  discovered, 
will  be  counted  by  hundreds  of  millions. 

The  countries  embraced  under  the  general  head 
of  Central  America  are  the  Republics  of  Guate¬ 
mala,  Honduras,  San  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and 
Costa  Rica,  and  the  strip  of  territory  on  the  Carib¬ 
bean  Sea  known  as  British  Honduras.  This 
region  fell  into  the  power  of  the  Spaniards  soon 
after  its  discovery  in  1502,  and  remained  a  part  of 
the  Spanish  crown  until  1821,  when  it  revolted, 
many  of  the  States  uniting  with  Mexico.  In  1828 
the  Central  American  Confederation  was  formed, 
but  in  1839  Honduras  and  Nicaragua  withdrew, 
followed  by  Costa  Rica  in  1840  and  Guatemala  in 
1847.  In  1872,  Costa  Rica,  Guatemala,  Hondu¬ 
ras,  and  San  Salvador  formed  a  Central  American 
Union,  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  peace  in 
the  several  States,  and  securing  to  each  a  repub¬ 
lican  form  of  government.  Provision  was  also 
made  for  a  congress  to  frame  the  necessary  laws 
to  carry  out  these  objects. 

South  America  extends  from  Cape  Gallinas  in 
latitude  12°  80'  N.,  to  Cape  Horn  in  latitude 
55°  59'  S.,  a  distance  of  4,550  miles.  Its 
shores  are  washed  by  two  oceans,  and  three  of 
the  world’s  great  rivers  penetrate  the  interior.  It 
has  every  variety  of  climate,  from  the  intense, 
sultry  heat  of  the  equatorial  regions  to  the  bitter 
frosts  of  the  lofty  mountain  peaks,  or  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego.  In  mineral  and  vegetable  wealth  it 
stands  unrivaled,  and  while  much  of  its  area  of 
7,218,272  square  miles  is  uninhabitable,  owing  to 
the  mountains,  the  swamps,  the  deserts,  and  the 
inhospitable  climate  of  the  far  south,  yet  it  should, 
and  will  in  time,  become  the  home  of  a  vast  and 
wealth-producing  population.  Topographically, 
the  continent  consists  of  seven  grand  divisions. 
The  first  of  these,  commencing  in  the  north  ast, 
is  the  Basin  of  the  Orinoco,  including  all  the 
country  drained  by  that  great  river  and  its 
tributary  streams;  the  second  is  the  Basin  of  the 
Amazon;  the  third,  the  mountain  systems  of 
Eastern  and  Southern  Brazil,  which  have  no  con¬ 
nection  with  the  Andes;  the  fourth,  the  Basin  of 
the  Plata;  the  fifth,  the  barren  desert  lying  south 
of  the  fortieth  degree  of  latitude,  and  known  as 
Patagonia;  the  sixth,  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
varying  in  width  from  50  to  100  miles,  which 
lies  between  the  Andes  and  the  Pacific;  and  the 
seventh,  the  lofty  tablelands  of  Bolivia,  Peru, 
and  Ecuador.  The  great  chain  of  the  Andes 
traverses  the  Continent  from  north  to  south — 
from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  the  southernmost 
point  of  Chili,  and  forms  a  serious  barrier  to 
communication  between  the  east  and  west  coasts. 
It  has  many  lofty  peaks  which  rise  far  above  the 
limit  of  perpetual  snow,  and  among  them  volca¬ 
noes  which  are  in  almost  constant  activity. 
Along  the  Pacific,  earthquakes  are  of  frequent 
occurrence,  and  whole  cities  have  been  destroyed 
with  terrible  loss  of  life.  In  1859  the  city  of 


Quito,  in  Ecuador,  was  visited  by  such  a  dis- 
i  aster. 

The  resources  of  the  country  are  as  diversified 
as  its  surface.  In  the  Andes  are  silver  mines  of 
unsurpassed  richness,  which  were  worked  long 
before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  who,  after 
seizing  the  accumulated  wealth  of  the  Incas, 
enslaved  the  Indians  and  forced  them  to  labor  in 
the  mines.  There  seems  to  be  no  limit  to  the  pro¬ 
ductiveness  of  these  deposits,  of  which  those  of 
Potosi  are  the  most  celebrated.  Gold  is  found  at 
many  points,  and  the  baser  metals,  such  as  lead, 
iron,  copper,  etc.,  abound  from  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  to  the  far  south,  but  are  generally  neg¬ 
lected;  coal,  salt,  and  otln  r  sources  of  wealth  are 
not  lacking.  Among  the  indigenous  vegetable 
products  are  cacao,  cochineal,  vanilla,  the  potato, 
tobacco,  cotton,  Paraguay  tea,  corn,  and  sugar¬ 
cane,  while  others  which  have  been  introduced 
there  grow  well.  Thus  coffee  has  become  one 
of  the  great  crops,  being  cultivated  extensively  in 
Brazil,  Venezuela,  and  elsewhere.  In  the  im¬ 
mense  forests  of  the  Andes  and  of  the  lowlands, 
are  found  trees  which  give  products  used  in 
medicine  and  manufacture.  The  cinchona  tree, 
from  which  quinine  is  made,  is  a  native.  Co¬ 
paiba,  sarsaparilla,  ipecacuanha,  India-rubber, 
and  copal,  are  but  a  few  of  the  valuable  com¬ 
modities  which  can  be  obtained  here.  Rosewood, 
mahogany,  dyewoods,  etc.,  grow  in  profusion, 
and  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  exports.  The 
treeless  plains  of  the  Argentine  Republic  furnish 
pasturage  for  endless  herds  of  cattle,  whose  hides 
and  carcasses  are  exported  in  great  quantities. 
Upon  the  islands  off  the  Chilian  and  Peruvian 
coasts  are  immense  deposits  of  guano,  while  the 
nitrate  of  soda  beds  upon  the  mainland  have 
given  great  commercial  value  to  what  was  once 
regarded  as  worthless  territory. 

There  are  but  few  railways,  Chili  having  more 
than  any  other  State,  and  the  ordinary  roads, 
where  there  are  any,  are  in  wretched  condition. 

Three  great  river  systems  bring  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  interior  within  access.  Of  these  rivers  the 
Orinoco  and  Amazon,  which  rise  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  the'  Andes,  are  described  more  in  detail 
elsewhere,  under  the  heads  of  Venezuela  and 
Brazil.  The  third,  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  or  River  of 
Silver,  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Parana  and 
Uruguay;  its  headwaters  being  among  the  Bra¬ 
zilian  mountains.  The  area  of  the  territory  which 
it  drains  is  estimated  to  be  1,200,000  square  miles. 
By  means  of  this  stream  the  fertile  plains  of  Para¬ 
guay  can  be  reached.  On  the  western  coast  there 
are  no  rivers  of  any  length. 

The  continent  abounds  with  animal  life.  The 
jungles  of  the  river  valleys,  and  the  dense  forests 
on  the  mountain  slopes,  are  the  homes  of  count¬ 
less  beasts,  birds,  and  reptiles.  The  jaguar,  tiger- 
cat,  puma,  hyena,  wolf,  ocelot,  and  bear  are  chief 
among  the  carnivora.  The  llama  is  almost  the 
only  animal  which  the  natives  had  domesticated. 
The  tapir,  peccary,  armadillo,  sloth,  and  ant-eater 
are  also  deserving  of  mention,  together  with  the 
countless  species  of  monkeys,  some  of  them  of 
large  size,  and  others  so  small  that  they  can  be 
held  in  the  hand.  The  humming-birds  and  par¬ 
rots  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  their  plum¬ 
age,  the  condor  for  its  immense  size,  and  the 
blood-sucking  vampire  for  the  damage  it  does  to 
cattle.  The  boa-constrictor  and  smaller  but 
equally  dangerous  serpents  are  found  in  the  low¬ 
lands,  and  alligators  and  electric  eels  or  torpedoes 
in  the  rivers. 

The  starting  point  of  the  primitive  civilization 
of  South  America  was  the  tableland  of  Bolivia, 
whence  came  the  Inca  rulers  of  Peru  and  Ecua¬ 
dor.  Only  there  and  in  Colombia  did  the  Span¬ 
iards  find  native  races  which  had  made  any  prog¬ 
ress.  All  the  tribes  along  the  eastern  and  north* 
eastern  coast  were  sunk  in  the  deepest  barbarism. 
The  country  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Span¬ 
iards  and  Portuguese  with  hardly  a  struggle,  and 
the  former  retained  their  vast  possessions  until 
the  early  part  of  the  present  century,  when  col¬ 
ony  after  colony  revolted,  and  all,  after  a  series 
of  sanguinary  engagements,  succeeded  in  winning 
their  freedom.  The  territorial  divisions  are  as 
follows,  taking  them  in  the  order  of  their  size; 

The  Empire  of  Brazil  (3,217,645  square  miles); 
the  Argentine  Confederation  (841,000;;  the  Repub- 
|  lie  of  Peru  (500,000);  the  Republic  of  Bolivia  (677,- 


AMERICA. 


47 


AMIDOGEN. 


280);  the  Republic  of  Colombia  (500,000);  Guiana 
—  British,  French,  and  Dutch — (191,834);  the 
Republic  of  Venezuela  (403,000);  Patagonia  (350,- 
000);  the  Republic  of  Ecuador  (248,380);  the  Re¬ 
public  of  Chili  (123,630);  the  Republic  of  Uruguay 
(73,538);  and  that  of  Paraguay  (91,965). 

All  the  republics  have  been  a  prey  to  almost 
uninterrupted  civil  war,  aud  when  not  disturbed 
by  revolutions  they  have  been  engaged  in  con¬ 
flicts  with  one  another.  The  Guiana  colonies 
have  been  vexed  by  the  incursions  of  the  wild 
Indians  and  fugitive  slaves,  and  Brazil  carried  on 
a  long  and  bloody  war  with  Paraguay.  The  rev¬ 
olution  found  the  natives  of  the  South  American 
States  untrained  in  the  art  of  self-government,  and 
they  have  made  but  little  progress  in  that  direc¬ 
tion  since  then. 

The  population  is  estimated  to  exceed  30,000,- 
000.  A  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Indians,  numbers  of  them  in  Patagonia  and  the 
interior  of  Brazil  being  still  in  a  state  of  savagery. 
The  whites  of  unmixed  blood,  though  in  the 
minority,  are  the  ruling  class,  and  next  in  influ¬ 
ence  come  the  various  crosses  between  the  whites 
and  the  natives.  Negroes  were  brought  to  the 
country  at  an  early  date  and  form  a  large  element 
of  the  population  of  Brazil.  The  Roman  Catholic 
religion  is  everywhere  the  predominant  one,  and 
the  work  of  its  missionaries  among  the  Indians 
has  resulted  in  their  pretty  general  conversion. 
Education,  especially  among  the  women,  receives 
but  little  attention,  and  less  money  is  spent  upon 
it  than  for  military  purposes.  Nearly  every  State 
has  a  foreign  debt,  the  interest  on  which  is  rarely 
paid.  The  money  was  chiefly  borrowed  for  works 
of  internal  improvement  which  were  not  con 
structed.  The  revenues  derived  from  the  custom¬ 
house  receipts,  the  tobacco  monopoly,  percentages 
on  precious  metals  exported,  etc.,  are  small,  and 
generally  less  than  the  expenditures. 

Manufacturing  is  limited  to  the  production  of 
the  cheapest  and  commonest  articles  of  domestic 
use,  and  the  exports  consist  almost  entirely  of 
animal,  mineral,  and  vegetable  products. 

America,  British,  is  a  name  formerly  applied 
to  what  is  now  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  together 
with  Newfoundland  and  Labrador. 

America,  Russian,  is  a  name  once  applied  to 
what  is  now  called  Alaska,  including  the  Aleutian 
Islands. 

America,  Spanish,  at  present  includes  only  the 
Islands  of  Cuba  and  Puerto  Rico,  with  their 
dependencies.  Yet,  in  a  larger  sense,  the  term  is 
often  used  to  designate  all  those  parts  of  America 
where  the  Spanish  language  is  the  common  speech 
of  the  people.  In  this  sense  the  term  won  Id  include 
the  South  and  Central  American  republics,  Mex¬ 
ico  and  San  Domingo,  as  well  as  Cuba  and  Puerto 
Rico. 

American  Blight,  the  apple-bark  plant-louse, 
or  woolly  aphis  which  forms  a  cottony  film  on 
neglected  apple  trees. 

American  Indians.  It  is  yet  an  unsettled 
question  whether  the  American  aborigines  came 
from  Asia,  or  whether  the  country  which  is  so 
old  geologically  was  not  inhabited  earlier  than 
other  parts  of  the  world.  Many  are  of  the  opin¬ 
ion  that  the  ancestors  of  the  Indians  crossed  at 
Behring’s  Straits,  and  gradually  spread  south 
ward,  while  others  believe  that  the  semi-civiliza¬ 
tion  of  Mexico  was  due  to  chance  comers  from 
China,  or  some  other  point  on  the  Asiatic  coast. 
In  the  Valleys  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  Ohio,  are 
the  remains  of  the  structures  of  the  Mound  Build¬ 
ers,  an  extinct  race,  who  seem  to  have  progressed 
in  civilization  beyond  the  red  men  whom  the  first 
European  visitors  discovered  there.  They  wove 
•cloth,  worked  copper,  and  dwelt  in  huts  erected 
upon  the  vast  piles  of  earth  which  they  heaped 
up.  But  they  have  vanished  utterly,  leaving  only 
a  tradition  among  the  Indians  that  their  fore¬ 
fathers  destroyed  them.  Within  the  confines  of 
the  United  States  the  aborigines  are  rapidly  being 
•extinguished,  but  in  Mexico  they  have  mixed 
with,  and  to  a  great  extent  absorbed,  the  Spaniards, 
while  the  Esquimaux  around  the  Arctic  ocean, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  regions  which  extend 
from  those  waters  far  to  the  south,  are  protected 
by  the  desolation  which  surrounds  them.  Of  the 
surviving  tribes  of  Indians  in  the  United 
States  the  most  important  in  numbers  are 
•the  Sioux,  Choctaws,  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Chey¬ 


ennes,  Utes,  Arapahoes,  Chippewas,  Assini- 
boines,  Shoshones,  and  the  Six  Nations,  the  lat¬ 
ter  being  partly  civilized  and  mostly  located  in 
New  York  State.  There  are  also  several  thous¬ 
ands  each  of  Crows,  Comanches,  Chiekasaws,  and 
Nez  Perces,  and  some  Pawnees,  Seminoles,  and 
others.  The  total  Indian  population  on  reserva¬ 
tions  in  Alaska  and  scattered  through  the  country 
may  aggregate  350,000.  Further  details  will  be 
found  in  the  article  on  the  Indian  Territory. 

Americanisms.  Words  and  phrases  racy  of  the 
soil,  thousands  of  which  have  been  coined  by  the 
go-ahead  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and  many 
of  which  have  already  found  their  way  into  liter¬ 
ature  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic,  are  so  termed. 
Many  are  purely  colloquial,  many  are  but  little 
removed  from  slang;  but,  for  all  that,  it  is  safe  to 
say  that  the  English  language  has  been  not  only 
added  to,  but  enriched,  by  a  number  of  expressive 
phrases  and  names  thus  originated.  There  are 
also  a  great  many  so-called  Americanisms  which 
are  really  original  Anglicisms  now  obsolete  in  the 
land  of  their  birth,  or  to  which  the  two  countries 
now  attach  meanings  essentially  different.  For 
instance,  the  word  “  guess,”  so  much  used  in  New 
England,  is  pure  English,  and  isused  by  Chaucer, 
Spenser,  Coleridge,  and  Byron.  “Reckon ’’and 
‘ ‘calculate, ”  ‘  ‘  smart  ”  for  clever,  ‘  ‘  ugly, ”  for  ill 
natured,  and  “mad,”  for  angry,  had  the  same  mean 
ings  in  England  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  as  are  now  given  them  here.  The  early 
Puritan  settlers  brought  with  them  the  character¬ 
istic  dialect  and  provincialisms  of  Lincolnshire 
and  other  rural  English  districts,  and  many  a 
New  England  phrase  of  to-day  still  finds  its 
counterpart  in  the  speech  of  the  English  agricul 
turist. 

A  new  country  practically  needs  a  new  lan¬ 
guage;  it  may  be  content  to  use  an  old  one  as  a  base- 
root,  but  is  bound  to  add  to  and  largely  change 
it.  The  vast  non-English  immigration  has  had 
some  effect  upon  the  speech  of  Americans,  but 
much  less  than  would  be  supposed.  We  have 
borrowed  loafer,  boss,  and  bower,  from  the  Dutch; 
ranch,  vamose,  and  canon  from  the  Spanish; 
bayou  and  levee  from  the  French.  But  where  the 
United  Stales  has  incorporated  from  the  latter 
language  a  few  such  words  as  depot,  valise,  and 
bureau,  the  English  have  assimilated  hundreds. 
Americans  do  not  use,  although  the  English  do, 
such  ridiculous  phrases  as  the  dansante;  or  speak 
of  society  celebrities  as  the  creme  de  la  creme; 
expressions  totally  unknown  to  any  French  save 
that  of  Stratford-atte-Bowe.  Of  the  coined  Amer¬ 
icanisms,  most  have  the  merit  of  pith  and  brevity. 
“Get,”  said  the  man  with  the  gun,  and  “You 
bet,”  replied  the  burglar,  as  he  quickly  withdrew. 
An  Englishman  would  have  said,  “If  you  don’t 
go  away  I  will  shoot,”  and  the  thief  would  have 
answered,  “All  right,  mister,  I'm  going.”  It 
must  be  confessed  that  we  are  somewhat  lavish  in 
ouruseof  the  harmless,  necessary  “fix,”  and  that 
“pretty”  as  an  adjective  is  much  misapplied. 
But  the  latter  is  not  nearly  so  much  out  of  place 
as  the  English  “awfully.”  “  Pretty  strong”  is 
bad  enough,  but  “awfully  jolly”  is  a  great  deal 
worse.  It  is  true,  however,  that  we  have  bor¬ 
rowed  far  too  extensively  from  the  Latin.  We 
operate  instead  of  work,  locate  instead  of  place, 
recite  instead  of  say  our  lessons;  and  construct 
our  residences  on  an  eminence,  instead  of  build 
houses  on  a  hill.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
have  cars  instead  of  railway  carriages,  and  we 
wire  instead  of  send  a  telegraphic  message.  “Is 
that  so?”  is  certainly  more  expressive  than  the 
inane  “  Really?”  or  “  Indeed!”  As  for  our  purely 
native  slang  and  Western  colloquialisms,  many 
have  already  forced  their  way  into  English  speech. 
“Go-ahead,”  “right  away,”  “hurry  up,” 
“posted,”  to  “boom,”  “rush”  it  through,  are  all 
freely  used  in  England,  while  the  average  Lon¬ 
don  sport  bets  his  “dollar”  on  the  Derby  and 
pays  a  crown  piece  when  his  nag  fails  to  “pull 
it  off.” 

Sec  The  Enqiisli  Language  in  America,  in  the 
Cambridge  Essays  for  1855;  Bartlett’s  Dictionary 
of  Americanisms  (1858) ;  R.  A.  Proctor’s  “Ameri¬ 
canisms,”  in  Knowledge  for  1886;  and  Lowell’s 
prefaces  to  Biglow  Payers. 

Amerigo  Vespucci.  See  Vespucci. 

Amersfoort,  an  ancient  town  of  the  Nether¬ 


lands.  Here  was  born  the  statesman  Oldenbarnc- 
veld.  Pop.  (1883),  14,182. 

Am'ethyst,  a  variety  of  Quartz,  differing  from 
common  quartz  and  rock-crystal  chiefly  in  its 
beautiful  violet-blue  or  purplish-violet  color — 
well  known  as  amethystine — which  is  owing  to  the 
presence  of  a  little  peroxide  of  iron  or  of  manga¬ 
nese.  It  is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  varieties  of 
quartz,  and  is  much  einp  oyed  for  seals,  rings, 
etc.,  a  though,  being  comparatively  abundant,  it 
is  much  inferior  in  price  to  the  true  gems.  The 
finest  specimens  of"  amethyst  are  brought  from 
India,  Ceylon,  and  Brazil.  It  is,  however,  a 
common  mineral  in  Europe,  and  occurs  in  many 
parts  of  Scotland. 

Amlia'ra  (the  high  lands),  the  middle  and 
largest  of  the  three  divisions  of  Abyssinia,  extend 
ing  from  the  Tacazze  to  the  Blue  Nile,  and  em¬ 
bracing  the  beautiful  Lake  Tzana;  capital,  Gon 
dar.  The  Amharic  language  is  spoken  with  local 
variations  throughout  Abyssinia.  It  is  of  Sem¬ 
itic  origin. 

Amherst,  a  seaport  of  Tenasserim,  Burmali. 
Pop.,  3,000.  The  district  of  Amherst,  has  an  area 
of  15,189  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881)  of 
301,086. 

Amherst  is  the  name  of  a  village  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  twenty  miles  north  of  Springfield.  It  is 
the  seat  of  Amherst  College,  under  Congregation- 
alist  management,  founded  in  1821  Amiierst 
County,  one  of  the  counties  of  Virginia  which 
were  the  fields  of  the  last  operations  of  Lee’s  army 
during  the  American  Civil  War  (1861-65). 

Amherst,  Jeffery,  Baron  Amherst,  born  in 
1717.  In  1758  he  took  command  of  the  expedi¬ 
tion  against  the  French  in  Canada.  In  1772  lie 
became  officiating  commander-in-chief,  and  in 
1796  a  field  marshal,  having  been  raised  to  the 
peerage  in  1776.  lie  died  Aug.  3,  1797  Ilis 
nephew,  William  Pitt  Amherst,  Earl  Amherst 
of  Arrakan,  was  born  in  1773,  and  succeeded  as 
second  baron  in  1797.  His  embassy  to  China  (1816) 
failed,  but  he  received  in  1823  the  governor-gen¬ 
eralship  of  India,  and  was  rewarded  with  an  earl¬ 
dom  in  1825.  He  died  March  13,  1857 

Amherstburg,  a  town  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
four  miles  south  of  Detroit.  Pop  (1881),  2,672. 

Amice,  allowing  cloak  formerly  worn  by  priests 
and  pilgrims.  Also  a  strip  of  fine  linen,  with  a 
piece  of  embroidered  cloth  sewed  upon  it,  worn 
upon  the  shoulders  by  priests  of  the  Roman -Cath¬ 
olic  Church  in  the  service  of  the  Mass.  The  bands 
sometimes  worn  by  Protestant  clergymen  are  a 
relic  of  this  garment. 

Am  ides  was  the  name  originally  applied  to  a 
group  of  organic  compounds  derived  from  ammo¬ 
nia,  NH;i  or  NIIHH,  by  the  exchange  of  one  or 
more  atoms  of  hydrogen  for  a  corresponding  num¬ 
ber  of  atoms  of  a  metal  or  a  compound  radical. 
At  present  the  term  amide  is  restricted  to  the  case 
in  which  one  or  more  atoms  of  hydrogen  are  re¬ 
placed  by  an  acid  radical ,  and  the  amides  are 
called  primary,  secondary,  or  tertiary,  according 
as  one,  two,  or  all  three  of  the  atoms  of  hydrogen 
are  replaced  by  the  acid  radical.  The  primary 
amides  may  be  obtained  in  various  ways,  of  which 
we  shall  mention  two:  (1).  If  we  heat  an  amrno- 
niacal  salt,  two  atoms  of  water  are  given  off,  and 
the  amide  corresponding  to  the  acid  is  left;  thus 
acetate  of  ammonia  (NH.,0,C2H30) — water  (H20) 
^acetamide  C2H3ONII2).  (2.)  If  anhydride  is 
submitted  to  the  action  of  ammonia,  there  are  sim¬ 
ultaneously  formed  an  amide  and  an  ammoniacal 
salt.  Thus  valerianic  or  valeric  anhydride 
(C5HaO)20-)-ammonia  (Nil 3)2= valerate  of  ammo¬ 
nia  (NILOCtILO)  -f-  valeramide  (C6H9ONH2). 
The  amides  are,  for  the  most  part,  capable  of  be¬ 
ing  obtained  in  a  crystalline  form,  and  are  fusible 
volatile  bodies.  If,  in  place  of  an  acid  radical, 
a  base  radical  replaces  one  or  more  atoms  of  hydro¬ 
gen  in  ammonia,  a  class  of  compounds  termed 
amines  is  formed. 

Ami'dogen,  or  Diamide,  NH2 — NII2,  was  till 
lately  looked  upon  as  a  hypothetical  body,  to 
which  the  formula  NH2  was  assigned.  Curtius 
has,  however,  recently  produced  the  sulphate  of 
amidogen,  from  which  amidogen  itself  is  obtained 
by  the  action  of  an  alkali.  It  is  a  gas,  possessing 
(when  concentrated)  a  peculiar  odor  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  ammonia,  and  when  inhaled  it 
strongly  affects  the  nose  and  fauces.  It  possesses 
an  alkaline  reaction,  and  unites  with  acids  to  form 


AMIEL. 


48 


AMOS. 


salts.  Research  shows  that  its  formula  must  be 
NH2 —  N1I2,  and  not  NH,. 

Amiel,  IIisnri  Frederic,  was  born  at  Geneva 
in  1821.  In  1849  he  was  appointed  Professor  of 
^Esthetics  and  French  Literature  at  the  Academy 
(University)  of  Geneva.  He  died  in  1881. 

Amiens  (ancient  Samarobriva),  an  old  French 
city,  the  capital  once  of  Picardy,  and  now  of  the 
department  of  Somme,  eighty-one  miles  north  of 
Paris.  Its  fortifications  have  been  turned  into 
boulevards,  but  it  still  retains  its  old  citadel.  The 
cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  is  a  masterpiece  of  Gothic 
architecture.  Begun  in  1220,  or  a  little  later  than 
Salisbury  cathedral,  it  is  452  feet  long,  and  has  a 
spire  (1529)  426  feet  high,  but  its  special  feature  is 
the  loftiness  of  the  nave,  141  feet.  Other  note¬ 
worthy  buildings  are  the  Hotel-de-Ville  (1600- 
1760),  in  which  the  Peace  of  Amiens  was  signed; 
the  large  museum  (1864),  in  Renaissance  style; 
and  the  public  library,  which  was  founded  in  1791 
and  contains  70,000  volumes.  Peter  the  Hermit, 
and  Ducange  were  natives,  and  there  are  statues 
to  both  of  them.  The  “Peace of  Amiens”  (March 
27, 1802)  was  a  treaty  intended  to  settle  the  disputed 
points  between  England,  France,  Spain,  and  Hol¬ 
land.  In  the  Franco-German  war,  on  Nov.  27, 1870, 
General  Manteuffel  defeated  a  French  army  30,- 
000  strong,  and  three  days  later  the  citadel  sur¬ 
rendered.  Pop.  (1886),  80,288. 

Amirante  Islands,  a  group  of  eleven  low, 
wooded  islands  lying  southwest  of  the  Seychelles, 
opposite  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa. 

Ammana'ti,  Bartiiolommeo,  architect  and 
sculptor,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1511,  and  died 
in  1592. 

Anmiia'nus  Marcel li'nus,  a  Roman  historian, 
born  of  Greek  parents  at  Antioch,  in  Syria,  about 
330.  He  wrote  in  Latin  a  History  of  the  Roman 
Empire  from  96  to  378  A.  d.,  in  thirty-one  books, 
of  which  only  eighteen  books  are  extant,  compris¬ 
ing  the  years  353  to  378. 

Ammon,  a  god  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  wor¬ 
shiped  especially  in  Thebes  ( No-Ammon ),  and 
early  represented  as  a  ram  with  downward  branch¬ 
ing  horns,  the  symbols  of  power;  or  as  a  man  with 
a  ram’s  head.  Twelve  days’  journey  west  of  Mem¬ 
phis,  in  the  desert,  was  a  green  oasis  fringed  with 
a  belt  of  palm  trees,  on  which  rose  the  temple  of 
Ammon.  Hither  came  pilgrims  laden  with  costly 
presents;  among  them  Alexander  the  Great  and 
Cato  of  Utica.  Alexander  was  hailed  as  the  actual 
son  of  the  god  by  the  priests,  quick  to  anticipate 
the  wishes  of  the  hero.  The  worship  of  Ammon 
spread  at  an  early  period  to  Greece,  and  afterward 
to  Rome,  where  he  was  identified  with  Zeus  and 
Jupiter. 

Ammon,  Christoph  Friedrich  von,  a  Ger¬ 
man  theologian,  born  in  1766,  was  professor  of 
theology  at  Erlangen  and  Gottingen,  and  court- 
preacher  at  Dresden,  where  lie  died  in  1850. 

Ammonia,  Hartshorn,  or  the  Volatile  Al¬ 
kali,  was  one  of  the  few  substances  known  to 
the  chemistry  of  the  ancients;  being  referred  to 
by  Pliny  under  the  name  of  vehement  odor,  which 
he  evolved  by  mixing  lime  with  nitrum  (probably 
sal  ammoniac).  It  derives  its  name  ammonia  from 
its  being  obtained  from  sal  ammoniac.  The  at¬ 
mosphere  contains  a  minute  quantity  of  ammonia. 
It  is  likewise  present  in  rainwater  in  variable  pro¬ 
portion.  The  supply  of  ammonia  to  the  atmos¬ 
phere  is  due  to  its  evolution  during  putrefac¬ 
tion  of  animal  and  vegetable  substances,  during 
vinous  fermentation,  and  the  combustion  of 
coal.  It  is  likewise  present  in  respired  air.  The 
principal  source  of  ammonia  at  the  present  time 
is  the  destructive  distillation  of  coal,  as  in  gas¬ 
making.  Blast-furnaces  and  paraffin  works  also 
produce  large  quantities.  Pure  ammonia  is  man¬ 
ufactured  from  impure  chloride  of  ammonium  by 
mixing  it  with  its  own  weight  of  slaked  lime  in 
a  retort,  and  applying  a  gentle  heat,  when  the 
ammonia  as  a  gas  passes  over,  and  is  received  in 
a  vessel  containing  water.  The  solubility  of  am¬ 
monia  in  water  is  very  great,  1  volume  of  water 
at  32°  F.  (0°  C.)  dissolving  1,050  volumes  of  am- 
moniacal  gas. 

The  tiquor  ammonia  of  the  chemists,  or  harts¬ 
horn  of  the  shops,  contains  about  32  per  cent,  by 
weight  of  the  gas,  and  it  is  lighter  than  water,  its 
density  being  0.891.  As  generally  obtained,  even 
in  the  gaseous  condition,  it  is  in  combination  with 
water,  and  may  be  represented  by  the  formula 


Nil, HO  or  NH3H20.  Ammonia  combines  with 
acids  to  form  a  class  of  salts  which  are  of  consid¬ 
erable  importance.  Thus,  the  crystallized  sul¬ 
phate  of  ammonia,  (NIL)2S04,  is  very  exten¬ 
sively  used  as  a  top-dressing  by  farmers,  and  is 
also  mixed  with  manures  where  an  increase  of 
ammoniacal  matter  is  desirable. 

Animoiii'aciim,  or  Ammo'niac,  a  gum  resin, 
used  in  medicine  on  account  -of  its  stimulant  and 
expectorant  qualities,  is  obtained  from  Dorema 
Arnmoniacum,  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Umbcl- 
liferae,  a  native  of  Persia. 

Ammonites,  a  Semitic  race  of  people,  living- 
on  the  edge  of  the  Syrian  Desert;  according  to 
Gen.  xix,  38,  the  descendants  of  Lot,  and  closely 
akin  to  the  Moabites.  Jephtliah  defeated  them 
with  great  slaughter,  and  they  were  also  over¬ 
come  by  Saul,  David,  Uzziah,  and  Jotham. 
After  the  captivity,  they  endeavored  to  hinder 
the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  State,  but  were 
finally  conquered  by  Judas  Maccabaeus.  Justin 
Martyr  affirms  that  in  his  time  the  Ammonites 
were  still  numerous. 

Ammonites,  a  genus  of  fossil  shells,  nearly 
allied  to  the  recent  genus  Nautilus,  being,  like  it, 


Ammonites. 

1,  Ammonites  obtusvs  ;  2,  section  of  ammonites  ob/usus, 
showing  the  interior  chambers  anti  siphuncle. 

chambered  and  spiral.  Ammonites  have  long 
been  popularly  called  Cornua  Ammonis,  from  a 
fancied  resemblance  to 
the  horns  on  the  sculp¬ 
tured  heads  of  Jupiter 
Ammon.  In  former  times 
they  were  ignorantly  mis¬ 
taken  for  petrified  snakes. 

The  number  of  species  of 
true  Ammonites  is  very 
great,  several  hundred 
being  known.  They  differ 
much  in  size — some  being  Ammonites  nodosus. 
quite  minute,  while  others  are  as  large  as  cart¬ 
wheels. 

Amm'onium,  the  site  of  the  famous  Temple  of 
Ammon  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  the  modern  Oasis 
of  Siwah.  See  Ammon. 

Ammo'nius,  surnamed  Saccas  (sack-carrier), 
a  Greek  philosopher,  founder  of  the  Neo-Pla¬ 
tonic  School.  His  most  distinguished  pupils  were 
Origen  and  Plotinus.  Ammonias  Saccas  died  at 
Alexandria,  243  a.d.,  at  the  age  of  more  than 
eighty.  Ammonius  was  also  the  name  of  a  per¬ 
ipatetic  philosopher  of  the  first  century,  the  in¬ 
structor  of  Plutarch;  of  a  Christian  philosopher 
of  the  third  century,  who  wrote  a  “  Harmony  of 
the  Gospels;”  of  a  philosopher  of  the  fifth  century, 
a  disciple  of  Proclus,  who  left  important  com 
mentaries  on  Aristotle;  and  of  an  Alexandrian 
grammarian  of  the  fourth  century. 

Ammunition  is  a  term  once  used  for  all  mili¬ 
tary  stores;  now  only  for  materials  employed  in 
charging  firearms — shot,  shell,  gunpowder,  car 
tridges,  fuses,  and  wads.  Ammunition-wagons 
are  specially  constructed  for  carrying  different 
kinds  of  ammunition. 

Amne  sia  is  loss  of  memory.  See  Memory. 

Amnesty  (from  Greek  words  for  not  remem¬ 
bered)  signifies  an  act  of  pardon  or  oblivion,  and 
the  effect  of  it  is  that  the  crimes  and  offences 
against'  the  state,  specified  in  the  act,  are  so 
obliterated  that  they  can  never  be  charged  against 
the  guilty  parties.  While  pardon  exempts  indi¬ 
viduals  from  the  punishment  the  law  inflicts  for 
their  offence,  an  amnesty  is  generally  granted  to  a 
whole  class  of  offenders.  The  amnesty  to  all  who 
were  guilty  of  treason  against  the  United  States,  or 
adhered  tg  their  enemies  during  the  Civil  War, 
included  domiciled  aliens.  But  the  amnesty 
proclamation  (Dec.  25,  1868,)  did  not  entitle 
one  whose  property  had  been  sold  under  the  Con¬ 
fiscation  Act  of  1862  to  reclaim  the  proceeds  after 


they  had  been  paid  into  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States. 

Amnion  is  a  foetal  membrane  which  immedi¬ 
ately  invests  the  embryo,  appearing  very  early  in 
the  development  of  the  latter,  and  adhering 
closely  to  it.  Double  folds  grow  round  the  em¬ 
bryo,  arching  over  it  on  all  sides,  arid  uniting  in 
a  central  point.  The  origin  of  the  anterior  and 
posterior  folds  is  indicated  by  the  diagram.  In 
fishes  and  amphibians  F 

it  does  not  exist,  but 
is  found  in  reptiles, 
birds,  and  mammals. 

As  gestation  proceeds, 
this  membrane  secretes 
from  its  inner  surface  i 
a  fluid  which  distends 
the  amnion,  within  ' 
which  the  foetus  floats 
suspended  by  its  um¬ 
bilical  cord.  It  con¬ 
sists  of  water,  contain-  A.F.,amnion-fold;E.,embryo; 
mg  epithelium,  hairs,  G.C.,gut-cavity;  Y.S.. yolk-sac. 
and  i  to  2  per  cent.  (After  Weidersheim.) 
of  fixed  solids.  In  mammals,  the  foetal  urine  is 
added  to  it  during  the  second  half  of  pregnancy. 
Its. specific  gravity  varies  from  1007  to  1011.  The 
fluid  preserves  the  foetus  from  injury  and  pres¬ 
sure,  permits  of  the  free  movement  of  its  limbs, 
and  prevents  them  from  growing  together.  When 
gestation  is  completed,  and  labor  commences,  the 
amniotic  fluid  is  the  chief  mechanical  agent  in 
dilating  the  os  uteri,  and  so  opening  llie  way  for 
the  foetus. 

Amoeba  (Gr.  change),  a  name  given  to  a  num¬ 
ber  of  the  simplest  animals  or  Protozoa,  which 
consists  of  unit  masses  of  living  matter.  They 
arc  found  in  fresh  water  or  in  mud,  and  occasion¬ 
ally  in  damp  earth. 


Amoeba. 

1,  amoeba  with  blunt  processes,  nucleus,  nc ;  contractile 
vacuoles,  vc;  food  vacuoles  and  granules.  2,  two 
daughter  amoeba.  3.  amoeba  in  process  of  dividing.  4,  en¬ 
cysted  phase,  with  inclosed  diatoms,  etc.  (After  Butschli 
and  G  B.  Howes.) 

A liucbiau  Verses  are  such  as  answer  one 
another  alternately,  as  in  some  of  Virgil’s 
eclogues. 

Amol,  a  town  of  Persia,  seventy-six  miles 
northeast  of  Teheran.  Pop.,  about  10,000. 

Amo  mum,  a  genus  of  Zingiberacete,  to  which 
belong  the  plants  yielding  cardamoms  and  grains 
of  paradise. 

Am'orites,  a  powerful  tribe  of  Canaanites, 
who  inhabited  the  country  northeast  of  the  Jor¬ 
dan,  as  far  as  Mount  Ilermon,  who  were  defeated 
by  Joshua  at  Gibeon.  Their  two  most  famous 
kings  were  Sihon,  king  of  Heshbon,  and  Og, 
king  of  Baslian,  the  last  said  to  have  been  of 
gigantic  size. 

Amoroso,  in  music,  affectionately,  tenderly. 
Amorphous,  (Gr.  a,  not;  morphe,  form),  shape¬ 
less.  In  Chemistry,  the  term  amorphous  is  used 
to  describe  the  uncrystallized,  in  opposition  to 
the  crystallized,  condition  of  bodies.  Thus,  pure 
sugar  contains  carbon,  which  appears  as  an  amor¬ 
phous  substance  after  the  sugar  has  been  burned 
in  a  platina  crucible.  The  same  substance,  car¬ 
bon,  appears  in  its  crystallized  form  in  the  dia¬ 
mond. 

Amory,  Thomas,  an  eccentric  author  of  Irish 
descent,  who  was  born  about  1691  and  died  in 
1788. 

Amos,  one  of  the  so-called  minor  prophets  of 


AMOY. 


49 


AMPUTATION. 


the  Hebrews,  was  a  herdsman  of  Tekoa,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Bethlehem,  and  also  a  dresser  of 
sycamore  trees.  During  the  reigns  of  Uzziah  in 
Judah,  and  Jeroboam  II.  in  Israel  (about  800  b. c.), 
he  came  forward  to  denounce  the  idolatry  then 
prevalent. 

Amoy',  a  seaport  town  of  China,  325  miles 
east-northeast  of  Canton.  It  is  the  third  in  im 
portance  of  the  twenty-two  treaty  ports,  and  has 
been  celebrati  d  as  a  trading  town  for  some  cen¬ 
turies.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest  seats  of  Eu¬ 
ropean  commerce  in  China.  Pop.  estimated 
(1881)  at  95,600.  The  island  of  Amoy,  measur¬ 
ing  9x7  miles,  has  400,000  inhabitants. 

Ampelopsis,  a  genus  of  Vitacese,  closely  re¬ 
sembling  the  vine.  The  A.  liederacea  is  the  Vir¬ 
ginian  creeper. 

Ampere,  Andre  Marie,  a  distinguished 
mathematician  and  physicist,  was  born  at  Lyons  in 
1775,  and  died  at  Marseilles  June  10, 1836.  Scien¬ 
tific  progress  is  largely  indebted  to  Ampere,  especi¬ 
ally  for  his  electro-dynamic  theory  and  his  original 
views  of  the  identity  of  electricity  and  magnet¬ 
ism. 

Ampere,  Jean  Jacques  Antoine,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Lyons,  Aug.  12,  1800. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1847,  and  died 
March  27,  1864.  Ampere  was  deeply  read  in 
German  literature;  his  learning  was  marvelously 
wide,  and  his  valuable  writings  upon  China, 
Persia,  India,  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  his  Levantine 
voyages,  proved  that  the  Far  East  was  embraced 
within  the  circle  of  his  studies. 

Amphibia  (Gr.  double-life,  as  living  on  both 
land  and  water),  a  class  of  vertebrates  between 
fishes  and  reptiles.  The  term  was  used  by  Lin¬ 
naeus  to  Include  reptiles,  amphibians,  and  some 
fishes,  and  by  Cuvier  as  synonymous  with  the 
title  “  reptiles,”  which  he  applied  to  all  animals 
between  fishes  and  birds.  Since  the  amphibia 
are  more  nearly  related  to  fishes  than  to  reptiles, 
Huxley  united  them  in  1863  with  the  former  in 
the  general  division  of  Ichtliyoids,  afterward 
changed  to  Ichthyopsida,  while  reptiles  and  birds 
were  included  under  the  contrasted  title  of 
Sauroids  or  Sauropsida. 

The  amphibia  include  four  orders,  three  of 
which  are  represented  by  the  newt,  the  frog,  and 
the  vermiform  Caecilia;  while  the  fourth  includes 
the  Labyrinthodonts,  now  wholly  extinct. 

The  majority  of  amphibia  are  much  more  at 
home  in  water  than  on  land,  though  in  some  cases 
the  adaptation  to  terrestrial  life  is  very  complete, 
and  has  even  modified  the  ordinary  course  of 
development.  Even  among  exclusively  lung¬ 
breathing  forms,  the  majority  prefer  to  remain  in 
the  vicinity  of  water.  Many  live  alone,  and  only 
assemble  in  crowds  for  the  satisfaction  of  the 
reproductive  impulses.  Both  in  their  love  and 
hunger  they  are  especially  active  in  the  twilight. 
The  food  of  the  adults  consists  mostly  of  insects, 
slugs,  and  worms,  but  the  larval  forms  are  mainly 
vegetarian,  “though  not  despising  animal  food, 
even  in  the  shape  of  the  weaker  members  of  their 
own  family.”  Their  life  is  generally  at  a  com¬ 
paratively  low  potential,  and  they  save  themselves 
from  cold  of  winter  or  heat  of  the  dry  season  by 
falling  into  a  lethargic  state.  They  are  able  to 
remain  without  food  for  long  periods,  and  though 


The  Surinam  Toad  ( Pi  pa  americana). 


the  tales  of  toads  within  stones  are,  to  a  large  ex¬ 
tent  doubtless,  mythical,  and  the  results  of  careless 
observation,  there  are  some  authentic,  instances  of 


considerably  prolonged  imprisonment,  both  in 
nature  and  by  experiment.  Amphibia  have  con¬ 
siderable  power  of  regenerating  lost  parts.  Some 
habits  connected  with  the  care  of  the  young 
deserve  notice.  Thus,  in  the  Surinam  Toad  (Pipa 
americana),  the  fertilized  eggs,  placed  by  the 
male  on  the  back  of  the  female,  form  small  pits 
in  the  soft  skin,  and  in  each  of  these  cradles  a 
young  form  is  developed. 


1,  recently  hatched  tadpoles  about  natural  size;  2.  with 
external  gills;  Ha,  same  enlarged;  3  and  4.  inclosure 
of  gills;  5,  hind-limbs  visible;  0,  after  skin-casting; 
both  pairs  of  legs  visible;  7,  atrophy  of  tail;  8,  young 
frog.  (From  Mivart.) 

The  article  Amphibia  in  the  Enryclopmlia  Bri- 
tanuica,  by  Professor  Huxley,  and  Professor  St. 
George  Mivart’sbook  on  The  Frog  (Nature  Series, 
London),  may  be  profitably  consulted  for  further 
details. 

Ampliibole,  the  name  of  a  group  of  minerals 
which  are  essentially  silicates  of  lime  and  mag¬ 
nesia;  but  these  bases  are  often  partly  replaced  by 
alumina,  and  oxides  of  iron  and  manganese. 

Amphictyon'ic  Council,  a  celebrated  council 
of  the  States  of  ancient  Greece. 

Amplii'on,  son  of  Zeus  and  Antiope.  He 
married  Niobe,  and  killed  himself  from  grief 
when  all  his  children  were  destroyed  by  Apollo. 

Amphioxus,  or  Lancelet,  one  of  the  lowest 
backboned  animals,  abundantly  distributed  on 
the  sandy  coasts  of  warm  and  temperate  seas.  It 
can  scarcely  be  called  a  fish,  for  there  is  a  greater 
difference  in  structure  between  it  and  any  fish 
than  there  is  between  a  mammal  and  a  bird.  It 
has  a  rudimentary  backbone.  The  sexes  are  sepa¬ 
rate,  and  the  reproductive  organs  form  a  row  of 
cell-clumps  on  the  wall  of  the  body-cavity.  These 
open  separately  into  the  outer  chamber  above 
ment  ioned,  and  thence  the  elements  find  their  way 
out  by  the  abdominal  pore. 

Ainphipods,  an  order  of  small  sessile-eyed  crus¬ 
taceans,  with  laterally  compressed  bodies,  and 
long  abdomen  with  three  pairs  of  swimming  ap¬ 
pendages  in  front,  and  behind  these,  three  back¬ 
ward-turned  springing  feet.  The  thoracic  or 
anterior  legs  bear  the  gills.  The  order  includes 
a  great  number  of  common  forms. 

Amphip '  olis,  a  town  of  Macedonia.  It  is  men¬ 
tioned  in  Acts  xvii. 

Ampliisboena,  a  serpent-like,  limbless  lizard, 
with  naked,  scaleless  skin,  and  very  short  tail. 
There  is  no  breastbone,  and  the  skull  resembles, 
in  some  respects,  that  of  serpents. 

Amphithe'atre,  a  spacious  building,  generally 
oval  in  form,  used  by  the  Homans  for  exhibiting 
gladiatorial  combats,  fights  of  wild  beasts,  and 
other  spectacles.  The  amphitheatre  differed  from 
a  theatre  for  dramatic  performances  ( theatrum )  in 
this,  that  whereas  the  theatre  had  only  a  semi¬ 
circle  of  seats  fronting  the  stage,  the  amphitheatre 
was  entirely  encircled  by  them;  hence  its  name 
(Gr.  amphi,  all  round).  The  Flavian  amphitheatre 
at  Home,  known  as  the  Colosseum  from  its  colos¬ 
sal  size,  was  begun  by  Vespasian,  and  finished  by 
Titus,  80  a.d.,  ten  years  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  It  was  the  largest  structure  of  the 
kind,  and  is  fortunately  also  the  best  preserved. 
It  covers  about  five  acres  of  ground,  and  was  cap¬ 


able  of  seating  87,000  spectators.  Its  greatest 
length  is  612  feet,  and  its  greatest  breadth  515. 
On  the  occasion  of  its  dedication  by  Titus,  5,000 
wild  beasts  were  slain  in  the  arena,  the  games 
lasting  nearly  a  hundred  days.  The  exterior  is 
about  160  feet  in  height,  and  consists  of  three 
rows  of  columns,  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian,  and, 
above  all,  a  row  of  Corinthian  pilasters.  Theopen 


Colosseum— Exterior. 


space  in  the  centre  of  the  amphitheatre  was  called 
arena,  the  Latin  word  for  sand,  because  it  was 


Colosseum— Interior. 

covered  with  sand  or  sawdust  during  the  per¬ 
formances. 

Ampliitri'te,  a  sea-goddess  in  Greek  Mythol¬ 
ogy,  daughter  of  Nereus,  or  of  Oceanus,  and  wife 
of  Poseidon. 

Amphit  ryon,  in  Greek  Mythology,  a  king  of 
Tiryns,  son  of  Alcaeus,  and  husband  of  Alcmene, 
who  became  the  mother  of  Hercules,  by  Zeus.  In 
a  story  by  Moliere,  Amphitryon  gives  a  great  din¬ 
ner;  hence  the  name  has  become  a  common  term 
for  a  host  or  entertainer  to  dinner. 

Amphiuma,  a  Forth  American  tailed  amphi¬ 
bian,  which  loses  the  external  gills  of  its  youth. 
A.  means  is  found  in  the  Southern  and  South¬ 
western  States  burrowing  in  the  ditches  of  the  rice- 
fields.  It  feeds  on  small  fish,  mollusks,  and 
insects.  The  negroes  call  it  the  Congo  snake,  and 
erroneously  regard  it  as  venomous.  Another 
species  (A.  tridactyia)  is  somewhat  doubtfully  dis¬ 
tinct. 

Am'pliora,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  a 
large  vessel,  usually  made  of  clay,  with 
a  narrow  neck  and  two  handles,  and  often 

ira  iFj  ending  in  a  sharp  point  below,  for  being 
\\J  1 //  inserted  in  a  stand  or  in  the  ground.  It 
1  was  chiefly  used  for  preserving  various 
liquids,  especially  wine,  and  was  fre¬ 
quently  decorated  with  paintings.  There 
is  also  evidence  that  amphora}  were  em¬ 
ployed  as  cinerary  urns  and  as  coffins. 
The  Greek  amphora  contained  about  nine 
English  gallons;  the  Roman,  about  six. 
Amplitude,  in  Astronomy,  is  the 
Amphora,  distance  of  a  heavenly  body,  at  the  time 
of  its  rising  or  setting,  from  the  east  or  the  west 
point  of  the  horizon. 

Ampulla,  a  kind  of  bottle  used  by  the  Romans 
for  the  preservation  of  liquids.  It  was  made 
either  of  earthenware  or  glass,  and  sometimes, 
though  very  rarely,  of  costlier  materials.  The 
ampulla,  a  vessel  for  the  coronation  oil  in  the 
English  regalia,  is  in  the  shape  of  an  eagle. 

Ampnta'tion  (Lat.  amputare,  to  lop  or  prune) 
is  the  cutting  of  a  part  which,  by  its  injured  or 
diseased  condition,  endangers  or  may  endanger, 
the  safety  of  the  whole  body.  The  amputation 


4 


AMRAOTI. 


50 


ANACHARIS. 


of  a  limb,  was  in  ancient  times,  attended  witli 
great  danger  of  the  patient’s  dying  during  its  per¬ 
formance,  as  surgeons  had  no  efficient  means  of 
restraining  the  bleeding.  They  rarely  ventured 
to  remove  a  large  portion  of  a  limb,  and  when 
they  did  so,  they  cut  in  the  gangrened  parts, 
where  they  knew  the  vessels  would  not  bleed;  the 
smaller  limbs  they  chopped  oil  with  a  mallet  and 
■chisel;  and  in  both  cases  had  hot  irons  at  hand 
with  which  to  sear  the  raw  surfaces,  boiling  oil  in 
which  to  dip  the  stump,  and  various  resins, 
mosses,  and  fungi,  supposed  to  possess  the  power 
of  arresting  hemorrhage.  Some  tightly  bandaged 
the  limbs  they  wished  to  remove,  so  that  they 
mortified  and  dropped  off;  and  others  amputated 
with  red-hot  knives,  or  knives  made  of  wood  or 
horn  dipped  in  vitriol.  The  desired  power  of 
controlling  the  hemorrhage  was  obtained  by  the 
invention  of  the  tourniquet  in  1674,  by  a  French 
surgeon,  Morel,  and  its  improvement  early  in  » 
next  century  by  his  countryman,  Peti*.  The 
ancient  surgeons  endeavored  to  save  a  covering  of 
.skin  for  the  stump,  by  having  the  skin  drawn 
upwards  by  an  assistant,  previously  to  using  the 
knife.  In  1679,  Lowdham  of  Exeter,  suggested 
cutting  semicircular  flaps  on  one  or  both  sides  of 
a  limb,  so  as  to  preserve  a  fleshy  cushion  to  cover 
the  end  of  tin*  bone.  Both  these  methods  are  now 
in  use,  and  are  known  as  the  “circular”  and  the 
“flap”  operations. 

Amraoti  (sometimes  Oomramuttee),  a  district 
in  Berar,  British  India,  with  an  area  of  2,759 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881)  of  575,328. 

Amritsar  (often  Umritsir), a  city  of  the  Punjab, 
thirty-two  miles  east  of  Lahore.  It  is  the  re¬ 
ligious  metropolis  of  the  Sikhs,  a  distinction 
which,  along  with  its  name  (literally  pool  of  im¬ 
mortality),  if  owes  to  its  sacred  tank,  in  the  midst 
of  which  stands  the  marble  temple  of  the  Sikh 
faith.  Founded  in  1574,  it  is,  next  to  Delhi,  the 
richest  and  most  prosperous  city  in  Northern 
India.  Pop.  (1881),  151,896,  of  whom  61,274 
were  Hindus,  and  75,891  Mohammedans. 

Ainroha,  a  town  in  the  Northwest  provinces  of 
India,  twenty  miles  northwest  of  Moradabad. 
Pop.  (1881),  36,145,  mainly  Moslems. 

Anirn,  Ibn  Aass,  a  celebrated  Arab  soldier, 
was  at  first  an  opponent  of  the  Prophet,  but 
joined  him  about  629.  In  641  he  took  Alexan¬ 
dria  after  a  fourteen  months’  siege,  during  which 
he  had  lost  before  the  wTalls  23,000  men  He  died, 
Governor  of  Egypt,  in  664. 

Amsler,  Samuel,  engraver  after  Raphael  and 
Thorwaldsen,  was  born  in  Switzerland,  1791,  and 
became,  in  1829,  professor  of  engraving  at 
Munich,  where  he  died,  May  18, 1849. 

Amsterdam  (dam  or  dike  of  the  Amstel),  the 
capital  of  the  Netherlands,  is  situated  at  the  influx 
of  the  Amstel  to  the  Ij  or  Y  (pron.  eye),  an  arm 
(now  mostly  drained)  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  44f  miles 
north-northeast  of  Rotterdam  by  rail.  It  is  divided 
by  the  Amstel  and  numerous  canals  into  a 
hundred  small  islands,  connected  by  more  than  300 
bridges.  Almost  the  whole  city,  which  extends 
in  the  shape  of  a  crescent,  is  founded  on  piles 
driven  forty  or  fifty  feet  through  soft  peat  and 
sand  to  a  firm  substratum  of  clay.  At  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  thirteenth  century  it  was  merely  a 
fishing-village,  with  a  small  castle,  the  residence 
of  the  Lords  of  Amstel.  It  became  an  import¬ 
ant  trading  point  about  1600.  Amsterdam  had 
to  surrender  to  the  Prussians  in  1787,  to  the 
French  in  1795;  and  the  union  of  Holland  with 
France  in  1810  entirely  destroyed  its  foreign 
trade,  while  the  excise  and  other  new  regulations 
impoverished  its  inland  resources.  In  1815  com¬ 
merce  again  began  to  expand — an  expansion 
■greatly  promoted  by  the  opening  in  1876  of  a  new 
and  more  direct  water-way  between  the  North  Sea 
and  the  Zuider  Zee. 

The  population,  which  from  217,024  in  1794, 
sank  to  180,179  in  1815,  rose  steadily  to  366,660 
in  1885,  of  whom  the  majority  belong  to  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church.  Of  the  remainder 
about  80,000  are  Catholics,  30,000  German  Jews, 
and  3,200  Portuguese  Jews. 

The  former  Stadhuis  (townhouse),  converted 
in  1808  into  a  palace  for  King  Louis  Bonaparte, 
and  still  retained  by  the  reigning  family,  is  a 
noble  structure.  It  has  a  hall  120  feet  long,  57 
wide,  and  90  high,  lined  with  white  Italian  mar¬ 
ble — an  apartment  of  great  splendor.  The 


cruciform  Nieuwe  Eerk  (New  Church),  a  Gothic 
edifice  of  1408-14,  is  the  finest  ecclesiastical 
structure  in  the  city,  with  a  splendidly  carved 
pulpit,  and  the  tombs  of  Admiral  de  Ruyter,  the 
great  Dutch  poet  Yondel,  and  various  other 
worthies.  Rembrandt  made  Amsterdam  his 
home,  and  his  statue  (1852)  now  fronts  the  house 
he  occupied.  Spinoza  was  a  native. 

Amsterdam,  a  barren  volcanic  islet  in  37°  50'  S. 
latitude  and  77 J  30'  E.  longitude,  about  midway 
between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Tasmania. 

Am 'ulet,  any  object  worn  as  a  charm.  It  is 
often  a  stone,  or  piece  of  metal,  with  an  inscrip¬ 
tion  or  some  figures  engraved  on  it,  and  is  gen¬ 
erally  suspended  from  the  neck,  and  worn  as  a 
preservative  against  sickness  or  witchcraft.  Its 
origin,  like  its  name,  seems  to  be  Oriental.  The 
ancient  Egyptians  had  their  amulets,  sometimes 
forming  necklaces.  Among  the  Greeks,  such  a 
protective  charm  was  styled  Phylacterion.  From 
the  heathen  the  use  of  amulets  passed  into  the 
Christian  Church,  the  usual  inscription  on  them 
being  ichthus  (the  Greek  word  for  a  fish),  because 
it  contained  the  initials  of  the  Greek  words  for 
Jesus  Christ,  Son  of  God,  Saviour.  Among  the 
Gnostic  sects.  Abraxas  stones  were  much  used. 

Amur  (or  Amoor,  also  called  Sakhalin),  a  river 
formed  by  the  junction  (about  53  N.  latitude  and 
121°  E.  longitude)  of  the  Shilka  and  the  Argun. 
From  the  junction,  the  river  flows  first  southeast 
and  then  northeast,  and  after  a  total  course  of 
3,060  miles,  falls  into  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  oppo¬ 
site  the  island  of  Sakhalin.  The  river  is  frozen 
for  six  months  of  the  year;  in  the  summer  there 
are  extensive  inundations. 

Amurnatli,  a  cave  in  Cashmere.  Believed  to 
be  the  residence  of  the  god  Siva,  it  is  visited 
by  multitudes  of  pilgrims. 

Amy' cl  as  (1)  an  ancient  town  of  Laconia,  on 
the  eastern  bank  of  the  Eurotas,  2|  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Sparta.  It  was  the  home  of  Castor  and 
Pollux,  the  “  Amyclsean  brothers.”  (2)  An  ancient 
town  of  Latium,  which  claimed  to  have  been 
built  by  a  colony  from  the  Greek  Amyclse. 

Amygdalin,  C2oH27NOn3H20,  is  a  crystalline 
principle  existing  in  the  kernel  of  bitter  almonds, 
the  leaves  of  the  Prunus  lauro-cerasus,  and  various 
other  plants,  which,  by  distillation,  yield  hydro¬ 
cyanic  acid. 

Amyg  daloid  (Gr.  amygdale,  an  almond),  an 
igneous  crystalline  or  vitreous  rock  (lava), 
containing  numerous  cells,  which  owe  their  origin 
to  the  segregation  and  expansion  of  steam,  with 
which  all  lavas  are  more  or  less  charged  at  the 
time  of  tlieir  eruption. 

Am  yl,  C5II 1 1 ,  is  the  fifth  in  a  series  of  alcohol 
radicals  whose  general  formula  is  CnH2n+i,  and 
of  which  methyl  and  ethyl  are  the  first  two  mem¬ 
bers. 

Amyl,  Nitrite  of,  CsHhN02,  a  valuable 
drug  which  must  not  be  confounded  with  Nitrate 
of  Amyl,  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid 
on  fusel  oil  (amylic  alcohol).  It  is  a  pale  yellow¬ 
ish  liquid,  with  an  ethereal,  fruity  odor,  and  is  a 
powerful  remedy  in  all  convulsive  diseases,  and  of 
special  value  in  angina  pectoris  and  in  asthma. 

Amyloid  (Lat.  amylum,  starch)  is  a  term  used 
in  chemistry  and  botany,  and  generally  equiva¬ 
lent  to  starchy.  Amyloids  are  substances  like 
starch,  dextrine,  sugar,  gum,  etc.,  which  consist 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  the  latter  two 
being  always  in  the  proportion  in  which  they 
occur  in  water,  II20.  In  the  human  body  the 
most  important  carbohydrates  are  glycogen, 
CrJLoOs;  grape-sugar  or  dextrose,  CJLAL; 
maltose,  Ci2H220,i,  and  milk  sugar,  Ci2H220n. 

Amyot,  Joseph,  Oriental  scholar,  was  born  at 
Toulon  in  1718,  and  lived  as  a  Jesuit  missionary 
in  China  from  1750  till  his  death  in  1794. 

Amyridacese,  a  sub-order  of  Terebinthacese, 
consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs  remarkable  for  the 
abundance  of  their  fragrant  resinous  juice.  To 
the  sub-order  belong  myrrh,  frankincense,  etc. 

An '  a,  a  termination  added  to  proper  names  to 
designate  collections  of  sayings,  table  talk,  anec¬ 
dotes,  items  of  gossip,  as  Johnsoniana,  B01- 
tcelliana;  as  well  as  notes  about  some  person,  or 
publications  bearing  upon  him,  as  Shakespeari- 
una,  Burmiana. 

Anabaptists  (Gr.  to  baptize  again),  a _  term 
often  applied  to  those  Christians  who  reject  infant 
baptism  and  administer  the  rite  only  to  adults; 


so  that  when  a  new  member  joins  them,  he  cr 
she,  if  baptized  in  infancy,  is  baptized  a  second 
time.  It  is  properly  applied  to  a  set  of  fanatical 
enthusiasts  called  the  Prophets  of  Zwickau,  in 
Saxony,  at  whose  head  were  Thomas  Miinzer 
(1520)  and  others,  who  appeared  shortly  after  the 
beginning  of  the  Reformation.  They  inaugu¬ 
rated  the  “  Peasant  War,”  a  socialistic  insurrection 
in  1525,  and  defended  the  City  of  Munster  against 
the  Prince-Bishop,  having  elected  a  fanatic  baker 
as  their  bishop.  The  churches  were  destroyed, 
and  twelve  judges  were  appointed  over  the  tribes, 
as  among  the  Israelites;  and  one  Bockhold  (1534) 
had  himself  crowned  king  of  the  “New  Zion,” 
under  the  name  of  John  of  Leyden.  The  Ana¬ 
baptist  madness  in  Munster  went  beyond  all 
bounds.  The  city  became  the  scene  of  the  wild¬ 
est  licentiousness;  until  several  Protestant  princes, 
uniting  with  the  bishop,  took  the  city,  and  by 
executing  the  leaders  after  the  crudest  tortures, 
put  an  end  to  the  new  kingdom  (1535). 

The  rude  and  fanatical  period  of  the  history  of 
Anabaptism  closes  with  the  scandal  of  Munster. 
A  new  era  begins  with  Menno  Simons,  the  founder 
of  the  Mennonite  sect,  of  whom  t  here  are  thousands 
in  the  Western  States,  who  collected  many  of  the 
scattered  adherents  of  the  sect,  and  founded  con¬ 
gregations  in  the  Netherlands  and  in  Germany. 

Anabasis  (Gr.  literally,  an  ascent  or  a  march 
out  of  a  lower  into  a  higher  country),  the  name  of 
two  historical  works:  (1)  The  Anabasis  of  Cyrus, 
written  by  Xenophon,  which  gives  a  narrative  of 
the  unfortunate  expedition  of  the  Younger  Cyrus 
against  his  brother,  the  Persian  King  Artaxerxes, 
and  of  the  retreat  of  his  10,000  Greek  allies  under 
the  command  of  Xenophon,  after  the  battle  of 
Cunaxa,  (401  b.c.)  (2)  The  Anabasis  of  Alexander, 
written  by  Arrian,  and  giving  an  account  of  the 
campaigns  of  Alexander  the  Great. 

Anableps  (Gr.  anablepsis,  looking  up),  a  genus 
in  Agassiz’s  cyprinodont  family  of  bony  fishes 
with  open  air-bladders.  They  are  especially  note¬ 
worthy  for  their  projecting  eyes,  which  are 


Anableps  tet.repthalmus. 


divided  into  an  upper  and  lower  portion.  The 
outer  covering  or  cornea  is  crossed  by  a  dark  band, 
and  the  inner  iris  is  similarly  divided,  so  that 
there  are  really  two  pupils  instead  of  one. 

Anabolism,  the  constructive  processes  within 
the  protoplasm,  by  which  food  or  other  material, 
at  a  relatively  low  level,  passes  through  an  ascend¬ 
ing  series  of  ever  more  complex  and  unstable 
combinations,  till  it  is  finally  worked  up  into 
living  matter. 

Anacharis,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Hydrocharideye,  of  which  Anacharis  alsinas- 
trum  ( Elodea  canaden¬ 
sis)  is  a  native  of  North 
America,  growing  in 
ponds  and  slow-run¬ 
ning  streams;  and  is  a  , 
dark-gre  e  n  ,  much-  \ 
branched  perennial,  en-  / 
tirely  floating  under 
water.  The  plant  was 
first  found  in  Britain  in 
1842,  and  is  now  very 
abundant  and  trouble¬ 
some  in  the  Trent, 

Derwent,  and  o  t  h  e  r 
British  rivers;  in  fact 
much  more  so  than  in 
America.  As  being 
calculated  to  block  up 
water-courses,  the  plant 
involves  some  serious 
economic  consi d ora¬ 
tions.  It  is  remark-  Anacharis  alsinastrum. 
able  that  in  its  native  laud,  it  never  grows  so 
as  to  block  the  rivers. 


ANACHARSIS. 


51 


ANALYSIS. 


Anacliar'sls,  a  Scythian  prince  who  traveled 
widely  in  quest  of  knowledge,  and  visited  Athens 
in  the  time  of  Solon. 

Ana'chronism  (Gr.  ana,  backward;  chronos, 
time),  the  erroneous  reference  of  a  circum¬ 
stance  or  custom  to  a  wrong  date;  as  when  Shake¬ 
speare,  in  Troilus  and  Gressida,  makes  Agamem¬ 
non  quote  Aristotle,  or  Raphael  represents  the 
Blessed  Virgin  as  an  Italian  coniadina.  Etymo¬ 
logically,  it  should  apply  only  to  a  date  which  is 
too  early — prochronism,  hut  it  is  also  used  of  too 
late  a  date — parachronism.  It  is  difficult  for  a 
writer  to  project  himself  so  completely  into  a  past 
age  as  to  breathe  freely  in  its  atmosphere.  Most 
of  our  so-called  historical  novels,  however  good 
as  novels,  are  of  but  little  value  to  the  serious 
student  of  history.  Even  the  glowing  imagina¬ 
tion  of  a  Scott  or  Kingsley  can  hardly  make 
more  of  their  old-world  figures  than  nineteenth- 
century  men  and  women  in  antique  garb.  There 
is  hardly  a  novel  of  its  class  that  contains  more 
study  than  Thackeray’s  Esmond,  yet  here  a  Jacob¬ 
ite  whistles  “  Lilliburlero,”  and  a  book  is  spoken 
of  in  1712  which  was  not  published  until  1750. 
Thus  Shakespeare  makes  Cassius  say,  in  Julius 
Ccesar,  “The  clock  hath  stricken  three;”  and 
Cleopatra  call  on  her  maid  to  go  and  play  billiards, 
while  Schiller,  in  his  Piccolomini,  introduces  a 
lightning-conductor  more  than  a  hundred  years 
before  the  date  of  its  invention.  Scott’s  novels 
and  poems  bristle  with  anachronisms,  many  of 
which  he  acknowledges  and  justifies  as  dramatic 
necessities.  In  popular  epic  poetry  it  is  a  com¬ 
mon  feature.  Achilles  is  always  young,  Helena, 
always  beautiful.  In  their  versions  of  old  classic 
traditions,  the  writers  of  the  middle  ages  con 
verted  Alexander,  iEneas,  and  other  ancient  he¬ 
roes,  into  good  Christian  knights  of  the  twelfth 
century. 

Anacoln'thon  is  a  term  employed  both  in 
grammar  and  rhetoric,  to  denote  the  absence  of 
strict  logical  sequence  in  the  grammatical  con¬ 
struction.  Good  writers  sometimes  sacrifice  the 
logical  sequence  to  emphasis,  clearness,  or  grace¬ 
ful  arrangement.  An  example  is  Coleridge’s 
“His  young  and  open  soul — dissimulation  is 
foreign  to  its  habits.”  In  colloquial  speech 
nothing  is  more  common  than  examples  of  anaco- 
lutlion. 

Anaconda  ( Eunecies  murinus),  a  large  South 
American  water-snake  of  the  Python  family, 
closely  related  to  the  boa-constrictor.  In  size  it 
is  hardly  exceeded,  unless  by  the  pythons,  as 
some  specimens  have  measured  from  25  to  30  feet 
in  length.  The  anaconda  is  ovoviviparous.  It  is 
found  m  the  rivers  of  Guiana  and  Brazil,  and 
lives  on  small  animals. 

Ana'creon,  one  of  the  most  esteemed  lyric 
poets  of  Greece,  was  born  about  550  b.c.  at  Teos, 
iu  Asia  Minor.  He  sang,  in  light  and  (lowing 
strains,  the  praise  of  wine  and  beauty.  We  know 
nothing  certain  of  his  life  after  the  fall  of  Hip¬ 
parchus,  but  that  he  left  Athens;  and  tradition 
tells  that  he  died  at  the  age  of  85,  by  being  choked 
by  a  dried  grape.  Moore  paraphrased  many  of 
Anacreon’s  lyrics  in  English. 

Anadyom'ene  (emerging),  the  goddess  rising 
out  of  the  sea,  a  name  given  to  Aphrodite  from 
her  being  born  of  the  foam  of  the  sea. 

Anaunia  (Gr.  bloodlessness)  is  a  comprehen¬ 
sive  term  employed  to  denote  those  conditions 
in  which  there  is  a  diminished  quantity  of  blood, 
or  a  smaller  number  of  its  corpuscles,  than  in 
health.  In  some  forms  of  disease  in  which  ane¬ 
mia  is  a  characteristic  feature,  there  is  an  absolute 
reduction  in  the  amount  of  blood  in  the  body;  in 
others  there  is  merely  a  reduction  in  the  number 
of  the  red  corpuscles;  and  in  others  again,  the 
reduced  number  of  the  red  is  accompanied  by  an 
increase  in  the  number  of  the  white  corpuscles. 

Amestlie'sia  (Gr.  lack  of  sensation)  is  a  term 
used  to  express  a  loss  of  sensibility  to  external 
impressions,  which  may  involve  a  part  or  the 
whole  surface  of  the  body.  It  may  occur  natu¬ 
rally  as  the  result  of  disease,  or  may  be  produced 
artificially  by  the  administration  of  anmthetics. 
In  ancient  writers,  we  read  of  insensibility  or 
indifference  to  pain  being  obtained  by  means  of 
Indian  hemp  ( Cannahis  indica),  either  smoked  or 
taken  into  the  stomach.  The  Chinese,  more  than 
1500  years  ago,  used  a  preparation  of  hemp,  or 
Tna-yo,  to  annul  pain.  The  Greeks  and  Romans 


used  mandragora  for  a  similar  purpose  ( poiein 
anaisthesian).  As  early  as  1795,  Dr.  Pearson  had 
used  the  vapor  of  sulphuric  ether  for  the  relief  of 
spasmodic  affections  of  the  respiration.  The  fact 
that  sulphuric  ether  could  produce  insensibility 
was  shown  by  the  American  physicians,  Godwin 
(1822),  Mitchell  (1832),  Jackson  (1833),  Wood  and 
Bache  (1834);  but  it  was  first  used  to  prevent  the 
pain  of  an  operation  in  1846,  by  Dr.  Morton,  a 
dentist  of  Boston.  The  news  of  his  success 
reached  England  on  17th  December,  1846;  on  the 
22d,  Mr.  Robinson,  a  dentist,  and  Mr.  Liston, 
the  eminent  surgeon,  operated  on  patients  ren¬ 
dered  insensible  by  the  inhalation  of  sulphuric 
ether.  This  material  was  extensively  used  for  a 
year,  when  Sir  J.  Y.  Simpson,  of  Edinburgh, 
discovered  anaesthetic  powers  of  Chloroform  (q.v.), 
and  introduced  the  use  of  it  into  his  special 
department,  midwifery.  Since  that  time  chloro¬ 
form  has  been  the  anaesthetic  in  general  use  in 
Europe,  but  ether  is  preferred  in  America. 
Nitrous  oxide  gas,  morphine  and  cocaine  are  also 
used  as  anaesthetics. 

Anagni,  a  town  of  Italy,  the  birth-place  of  four 
Popes — Innocent  III.,  Gregory  IX.,  Alexander 
IV.,  and  Boniface  VIII.  Virgil  mentions  it  as 
“  Wealthy  Anagnia.”  Pop.  6,347. 

An'agram  (Gr.  ana,  up,  and  gramma,  a  letter 
of  the  alphabet),  the  transposition  of  the  letters  of 
a  word,  phrase,  or  short  sentence,  so  as  to  form  a 
new  word  or  sentence.  It  originally  signified  a 
simple  reversal  of  the  order  of  letters,  but  has 
long  borne  the  sense  in  which  it  is  now  used. 
Although  now  classed  among  follies,  or  at  best 
among  ingenious  trifles,  anagrams  formerly  em¬ 
ployed  the  most  serious  minds,  and  some  of  the 
Puritan  writers  commended  the  use  of  them. 
Cotton  Mather,  in  his  elegy  on  the  death  of  John 
Wilson,  the  first  pastor  of  Boston,  mentions 
His  care  to  guide  his  flock  and  feed  his  lambs 
By  words,  works,  prayers,  psalms,  alms,  and  anagrams. 
The  best  anagrams  are  such  as  have,  in  the  new 
order  of  letters,  some  signification  appropriate  to 
that  from  which  they  are  formed.  It  was  a  great 
triumph  of  the  mediaeval  anagrammatist  to  find  in 
Pilate’s  question,  “Quid  est  veritas?”  (What  is 
truth?)  its  own  answer;  “Est  vir  qui  adest”  (It 
is  the  man  who  is  here).  With  equal  appropriate¬ 
ness,  Horatio  Nelson  may  read  “Honor  est  a 
Nilo”  (Honor  is  from  the  Nile),  and  Florence 
Nightingale,  “Flit  on,  cheering  angel.” 

Marie  Touchet,  the  name  of  a  favorite  mistress 
of  Charles  IX.  of  France,  was  read  “  le  charme 
tout”  (I  charm  everyone);  the  flatterers  of  James 
I.  of  England  found  in  his  name,  James  Stuart, 
“a  just  master,”  and  proved  his  right  to  the 
British  monarchy,  as  the  descendant  of  the  myth¬ 
ical  King  Arthur,  from  his  name  Charles  James 
Stuart,  which  becomes  “  Claims  Arthur’s  Seat,” 
But  perhaps  the  happiest  of  anagrams  was  that 
which  laughed  back  to  sanity  Lady  Eleanor 
Davies,  the  wife  of  the  celebrated  Sir  John  Davies 
the  poet.  The  poor  lady  was  half  crazy,  and 
began  to  fancy  herself  a  prophetess,  because  she 
discovered  that  from  the  letters  of  her  own  name 
could  be  read  “  Reveal,  O  Daniel.”  Political 
prophecy  was  a  dangerous  game  under  Charles  I. 
and  at  last  she  found  herself  arraigned  before  the 
Court  of  High  Commission.  Judge  and  bishop 
reasoned  with  her  in  vain,  until  the  Dean  of 
Arches  laughed  her  out  of  court  by  finding  also 
in  her  name,  Dame  Eleanor  Davies,  the  unfortu¬ 
nate  words,  “  Never  so  mad  a  Ladle.” 

Anahuac  (a  term  signifying,  in  the  old  Mexi¬ 
can  language,  near  the  water),  the  original  name 
of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Mexico.  It  is  now 
used  to  designate  either  the  whole  of  the  table¬ 
land  of  Mexico  or  certain  portions  thereof,  more  or 
less  extensive,  with  the  capital  as  a  common  centre. 

An'akim,  a  people  living  in  the  south  of  Pales¬ 
tine,  and  especially  about  Hebron,  then  called 
Kirjath-arba.  They  are  described  in  Scripture  as 
a  race  of  giants,  and  are  also  called  “Sous  of 
Anak,”  and  were  dispossessed  by  Joshua.  See 
Num.  xiii. 

Anal  Glands,  pouches  from  the  end  of  the 
intestine  beside  the  anus.  They  occur  especially 
in  mammals,  but  also  in  snakes,  lizards,  and  other 
reptiles,  and  in  some  invertebrates,  such  as  in¬ 
sects,  and  consist  of  cells  which  exhibit  a  special 
development  of  the  general  glandular  properties 
so  abundantly  associated  with  the  skin. 


An'alogue,  a  technical  term  in  biology,  used 
I  to  denote  physiological,  independent  of  morpho¬ 
logical  resemblance. 

Aiial'ogy,  a  term,  originally  Greek,  which  sig¬ 
nifies  an  agreement  or  correspondence  in  certain 
respects  between  things  in  other  respects  differ¬ 
ent.  Euclid  employed  it  to  signify  proportion, 
or  the  equality  of  ratios,  and  it  has  retained  this 
sense  in  mathematics.  In  grammar  we  speak  of 
the  analogy  of  language.  The  opposite  to  analogy 
is  anamoly  (Gr.  irregularity);  and  this  term  is  used 
not  only  in  grammar,  but  with  reference  to 
objects  of  natural  history  which  in  any  respect 
are  exceptions  to  the  ordinary  rule  of  their  class 
or  kind.  See  Butler’s  Analogy  of  Religion. 

Anal'ysis  (Gr.  taking  apart)  and  its  converse 
Synthesis  (putting  together)  are  now  generally 
used  to  designate  two  complementary  processes, 
the  correlatives  of  each  other,  employed  in  chem¬ 
istry,  logic,  mathematics,  and  philosophy.  Anal¬ 
ysis  is  the  resolution  of  a  whole  into  its  compo¬ 
nent  parts,  the  tracing  of  things  to  their  source, 
and  so  discovering  the  general  principles  under¬ 
lying  individual  phenomena  ;  Synthesis  is  the  ex 
planation  of  this  purpose  assumed  as  established. 

In  Grammar,  analysis  is  a  term  much  used  since 
1852  for  the  school  exercise  of  distinguishing  the 
different  elements  composing  a  sentence,  or  any 
part  of  it.  Mathematical  Analysis  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  term,  is  the  method  of  treating  all 
quantities  as  unknowm  numbers,  and  representing 
them  for  this  purpose  by  symbols,  such  as  letters, 
the  relations  subsisting  among  them  being  thus 
stated  and  subjected  to  further  investigation.  It 
is  therefore  the  same  thing  with  algebra  in  the 
widest  sense  of  that  term.  The  analysis  of  the 
ancient  mathematicians  was  a  thing  entirely  differ¬ 
ent  from  this,  and  consisted  simply  in  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  the  analytic  method  as  opposed  to  the 
synthetic,  to  the  solution  of  geometrical  questions. 

Analysis,  in  Chemistry,  is  the  term  applied  to 
that  department  of  experimental  science  which  has 
for  its  object  the  chemical  disunion  or  separation 
of  the  constituents  of  a  compound  substance. 
This  department  of  chemistry,  therefore,  takes 
cognizance  of  the  breaking  down  of  the  more 
complex  or  compound  substances  into  their  more 
simple  and  elementary  constituents,  and  is  antag¬ 
onistic  to  chemical  synthesis,  which  treats  of  the 
union  of  the  more  simple  or  elementary  bodies  to 
produce  the  more  complex  compound.  Chemical 
analysis  is  of  two  kinds .  Qualitative  analysis, 
which  determines  the  quality  or  nature  of  the  in¬ 
gredients  of  a  compound,  without  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  each  which  may  be  present ;  and 
quantitative  analysis,  which  estimates  the  exact 
proportion,  by  weight  or  volume,  in  which  the 
several  constituents  are  united. 

The  divisions  of  inorganic  (mineral)  chemistry 
and  organic  (vegetable  and  animal)  chemistry  have 
led  to  a  corresponding  classification  of  chemical 
analysis  into  inorganic  analysis,  comprehending 
the  processes  followed  and  the  results  obtained  in 
the  investigation  of  the  atmosphere,  water,  soils, 
and  rocks ;  and  organic  analysis,  treating  of  the 
modes  of  isolation,  and  the  nature,  of  the  ingredi¬ 
ents  found  in  or  derived  from  organized  structures 
— viz.,  plants  and  animals.  Both  departments 
afford  examples  of  what  are  called  proximate  and 
ultimate  analysis.  Proximate  analysis  is  the  res¬ 
olution  of  a  compound  substance  into  compo¬ 
nents  which  are  themselves  compound. 

Generally  speaking,  there  are  three  methods  in 
use  in  analysis.  These  are  the  Volumetric,  Gravi¬ 
metric,  and  Spectroscopic.  The  Vol  umetric  met  hod 
submits  the  sample  to  certain  characteristic  reac¬ 
tions,  employing  as  reagents  liquids  of  known 
strength,  called  standard  solutions  ;  and  by  means 
of  color  tests  determines  when  a  certain  reaction 
is  complete.  From  the  data  thus  obtained,  it  is 
possible  to  calculate  the  weight  of  substance 
present  in  the  sample  under  examination.  The 
Gravimetric,  on  the  other  hand,  seeks  to  precipi¬ 
tate  the  metal  or  other  substance  in  a  convenient 
form  for  weighing,  and  makes  constant  use  of  the 
balance.  The  Spectroscopic  method  depends  on 
the  separation  of  the  different  rays  of  light  by 
means  of  a  spectroscope. 

Organic  Analysis. — The  analysis  of  that  class 
of  substances  commonly  known  as  organic  com¬ 
pounds,  is  a  process  which  requires  to  be  varied 
very  considerably,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 


LIBRARY 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


ANANIEV. 


ANCHOR. 


compound  to  be  analyzed,  and  according  to  the 
elements  which  it  contains. 

The  simplest  case  of  the  quantatitive  analysis 
of  an  organic  compound  is  that  when  the  com¬ 
pound  contains  carbon  and  hydrogen  only,  or 
these  two  along  with  oxygen.  In  such  a  case, 
the  method  almost  universally  adopt  ed  now  is  what 
is  known  as  the  open  tube  combustion  method,  or 
the  combustion  of  the  substance  in  a  tube  con¬ 
taining  red-hot  cupric  oxide,  through  which  a 
current  of  air  or  oxygen  is  passed  during  the 
operation. 

The  percentages  of  hydrogen  and  carbon  in  the 
substance  are  calculated  from  the  weights  of 
water  and  carbonic  acid,  respectively,  obtained. 

Ananiev,  a  town  of  Southern  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Kherson.  Pop.  (1881  >,  10,449. 

Anapa,  a  seaport  town,  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  Black  Sea,  in  Russian  Caucasia.  Its  fortifi¬ 
cations  were  destroyed  by  the  Russians  in  the 
Crimean  War,  but  it  was  speedily  redccupied. 
Pop.  5,037. 

Anarchism  (Gr.  an,  not,  and  arch'd,  rule,) 
properly  means  the  negation  of  government,  and 
has  quite  a  distinct  meaning  from  Anarchy  in  the 
usual  acceptation  of  the  word.  In  its  ordinary 
sense,  anarchy  is  a  state  of  society  without  any 
regular  government,  when  social  and  political 
confusion  prevails  in  its  midst.  Anarchism,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  a  name  adopted  by  a  phase  of 
revolutionary  socialism.  The  acknowledged 
father  of  anarchism,  as  a  form  of  recent  and 
contemporary  socialism,  is  Proudhon.  Since 
Proudhon,  the  most  prominent  expounder  of  the 
anarchist  theory  has  been  the  Russian  Bakunin, 
who,  in  various  writings,  and  by  an  active  propa¬ 
ganda,  diffused  it  in  most  of  the  Romance 
countries.  The  best-known  representatives  of 
anarchism  are  the  Russian  scientist,  Prince 
Kropotkine,  and  the  distinguished  French  geog¬ 
rapher,  Elisee  Reclus.  Their  theory  is  that  when 
natural  laws  shall  have  been  understood,  and  the 
knowledge  of  them  universally  diffused  among 
men,  there  will  be  no  need  for  external  authority. 
Anarchism  has  been  imported  into  the  United 
States  by  the  lowest  class  of  non-English  speak¬ 
ing  aliens. 

An'as,  a  Linnaean  genus  (now  largely  sub¬ 
divided),  including  ducks,  geese,  swans,  etc. 

Anastasius,  the  name  of  four  Popes,  the  first 
and  most  eminent  of  whom  held  that  office  for 
only  three  years  (398-401).  lie  enforced  celibacy 
on  the  higher  clergy,  and  was  a  strong  opponent 
of  the  Manichaeans  and  Origeu. 

Anastasius  I.,  Emperor  of  the  East,  was  born 
in  430  a.  i).,  at  Dyrrachium,  in  Epirus,  and  pro¬ 
claimed  emperor  on  the  death  of  Zeno  in  491. 
He  was  anathematized  by  the  Pope  for  sympathy 
with  the  Eutychian  heresy,  and  as  a  heretic  had 
to  contend  with  a  widespread  revolt.  He  died  in 
518. — Anastasius  II.,  emperor  of  the  East, 
mounted  the  throne  in  713,  but  was  deposed  two 
years  later  by  his  mutinous  soldiers,  lie  retired 
to  a  cloister,  and  an  attempt  to  recover  his  crown 
cost  him  his  life  in  7 1 9. 

Anastomosis  (Gr.  the  making  of  a  mouth  or 
opening),  an  anatomical  term  used  to  express  the 
union  of  the  vessels  which  carry  blood 
or  other  fluids,  and  also  for  conven¬ 
ience  the  junction  of  nerves.  The 
veins  and  absorbents  anastomose  to 
form  large  single  trunks,  as  they  ap¬ 
proach  their  ultimate  destinations.  The 
arteries  break  up  into  small  branches  | 
foi  the  supply  of  the  tissues,  and  each 
small  vessel  again  communicates  with 
others  given  off  above  and  below. 

When  tlie  main  artery  has  been  perma¬ 
nently  obstructed,  the  anastomosing 
vessels  enlarge,  so  as  to  compensate  for 
the  loss. 

Anathe'ma  (Gr.  a  thing  set  up  or 
hung  up),  a  word  originally  signifying 
some  offering  or  gift  to  the  gods,  gener¬ 
ally  suspended  in  the  temple.  It  also 
signifies  a  thing  devoted  to  destruction 
(the  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  Chcrem)\  *  ’ 
and  was  ultimately  used  in  its  strongest  Arteries 
sense,  implying  perdition,  as  in  Rom.  anastomos- 
ix.,  3;  Gal.  i.,  8,  9.  In  the  Catholic  mg' 
Church,  from  the  ninth  century,  a  distinction  has 
been  made  between  excommunication  and  anathe¬ 


matizing,  the  latter  being  the  extreme  form  of 
denunciation  against  obstinate  offenders. 

Anatolia,  a  Greek  name  for  Asia  Minor.  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  Greek  Analole,  “  the 
rising  of  the  sun,”  “the  east.” 

Anatomy  (Gr.  a  cutting  up  or  dissecting)  is 
the  science  of  the  form  and  structure  of  organized 
bodies,  and  is  practically  acquired  by  separation 
of  the  parts  of  a  body,  so  as  to  show  their  distinct 
formation,  and  their  relations  to  each  other.  It  is 
therefore  a  branch  of  thescience  of  Biology,  which 
consists  of  two  great  divisions — the  anatomy  of 
animals,  styled  Zootomy,  and  that  of  plants,  Phy- 
totomy.  It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  date  at 
which  this  science  began  to  be  cultivated,  but  it  is 
probable  that  from  the  earliest  times  some  persons 
took  advantage  of  favorable  circumstances  to  ac¬ 
quaint  themselves  with  it.  Alcmaeon  of  Crotona, 
a  disciple  of  Pythagoras,  and  Democritus  are  said 
to  have  dissected  animals  with  the  view  of  obtain¬ 
ing  comparative  knowledge  of  human  anatomy. 
Hippocrates,  born  at  Cos  about  460  b.c.,  though 
the  fathef  of  medicine,  is  less  justly  regarded  as 
the  father  of  anatomy,  as  his  views  of  the 
structure  of  the  human  body  are  very  superficial 
and  incorrect.  Aristotle,  born  384  b.c.,  is  really 
the  founder  of  the  science.  Galen  (131  a.d.),  dis¬ 
sected  apes  as  being  most  like  human  subjects, 
though  he  occasionally  obtained  bodies  of  persons 
found  murdered,  and  his  writings  show  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  human  anatomy.  Anatomy  made  small 
progress  among  the  Arabs,  as  their  religion  pro¬ 
hibited  contact  with  dead  bodies.  The  medical 
school  at  Bologna  became  famous  in  the  thir¬ 
teenth  century,  as  did  also  those  at  Padua  and 
Salerno,  but  no  very  material  progress  was  made 
in  anatomy.  In  the  seventeenth  century  progress 
was  rapid.  Harvey,  in  1619,  discovered  the  circu¬ 
lation  of  the  blood,  and  the  microscope  was  em¬ 
ployed  to  detect  the  structure  of  minute  vessels. 
Aselli  in  1622  discovered  and  demonstrated  the 
existence  of  the  lymph-vessels.  The  glandular 
organs  were  investigated  by  Wharton,  while  Mal¬ 
pighi,  Swammerdam,  and  the  illustrious  Ruysch, 
by  the  use  of  injections  and  the  aid  of  the  micro¬ 
scope,  gave  a  new  impulse  to  research  in  the  mi¬ 
nute  structures.  Eminent  names  in  the  history 
of  anatomy  are  numerous  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

The  necessity  of  a  union  of  theory  and  practice 
has  led  to  the  study  of  Pathological,  Anatomy 
(the  dissection  and  study  of  structures  as  modified 
by  diseases). 

*  Theoretical  anatomy  is  divided  into  general  and 
special.  General  Anatomy  gives  a  description 
of  the  elementary  tissues  of  which  the  systems 
and  organs  of  the  body  are  composed,  as  prelim¬ 
inary  to  an  examination  of  them  in  their  com¬ 
bined  state  in  the  various  organs;  it  also  investi¬ 
gates  their  laws  of  formation  and  combination, 
and  the  changes  which  they  undergo  in  various 
stages  of  life.  Special  Anatomy  (styled  descrip¬ 
tive  by  the  French  writers)  treats  of  the  several 
parts  and  organs  of  the  body  in  respect  to  their 
form,  structure  and  systematic  connection  or  rela¬ 
tion  with  each  other.  The  arrangement  of  the 
several  parts  and  organs  in  an  order  deduced  from 
their  similarity  in  structure  or  use  constitutes 
Systematic  Anatomy. 

Comparative  Anatomy,  the  investigation  and 
comparison  of  the  structures  of  two  or  more 
animals,  has  always  preceded  anthropotomy,  or 
dissection  of  the  human  subject,  but  was  first 
treated  systematically  as  a  distinct  science  by 
Cuvier  and  his  pupil,  Meckel  the  younger. 

Practical  Anatomy  includes  Dissection  and 
the  making  of  Preparations.  Preparation  con¬ 
sists  in  dividing  parts  or  organs,  so  that  their  re¬ 
spective  forms  and  positions  may  be  clearly  shown . 
Organs  or  parts  thus  treated  are  styled  Anatomical 
Preparations  of  bones,  muscles, vessels,  nerves, etc. 

Anatomy,  in  Law.  The  difficulty  of  obtaining 
a  sufficiency  of  human  bodies  for  dissection  for 
purposes  of  surgical  and  medical  instruction  gave 
rise,  in  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
to  the  Resurrectionists,  and  to  the  horrible  crimes 
for  which  Burke  was  executed  in  Scotland  in 
1828.  In  this  country  “  subjects”  are  furnished 
to  the  medical  schools  from  the  hospitals,  the 
unclaimed  dead  being  utilized  for  scientific  pur¬ 
poses.  In  some  States  there  are  stringent  laws 
prohibiting  the  export  of  dead  bodies,  but  these 


laws  are  evaded,  and  grave-robbing  is  by  no 
means  unknown. 

Auaxag'oras,  one  of  the  most  eminent  Ionic 
philosophers,  was  born  in  Clazomeme,  in  Ionia, 
500  b.  c.  He  opposed  divination  and  astrology  ; 
and,  being  accused  of  impiety  toward  the  gods, 
was  condemned  to  death.  His  sentence,  how¬ 
ever,  through  .the  eloquence  of  Pericles,  was  com¬ 
muted  into  banishment  for  life.  He  withdrew  to 
Lampsacus,  on  the  Hellespont,  where  he  died  in 
428.  His  most  notable  work,  On  Nature,  has 
survived  only  in  fragments,  edited  by  Schaubacli 
(1827),  and  by  Schorn  (1829). 

Anaximander,  a  Greek  mathematician  and 
philosopher,  successor  of  Thales  as  head  of  the 
physical  school  of  philosophy,  was  born  at 
Miletus,  611  b.  c.,  and  died  in  547.  He  is  said  to- 
have  discovered  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and 
he  certainly  taught  it.  He  appears  to  have  applied 
the  gnomon,  or  style  set  on  a  horizontal  plane,  to 
determine  the  solstices  and  equinoxes.  The  inven¬ 
tion  of  geographical  maps  is  also  ascribed  to  him. 

Anaxim'enes,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  the 
Ionic  school,  was  born  at  Miletus,  and  died  about 
500  b.c.  lie  held  air  to  be  the  first  cause  of  all 
things,  or  the  primary  form  of  matter,  whence 
all  things  were  formed  by  compression. 

Anbury  is  a  disease  in  the  turnip,  which  is 
produced  by  a  fungus  Plasmodophora,  belonging 
to  the  family  of  slime-fungi,  Myxomycetes. 
There  is  no  cure,  but  preventive  means  may  be 
successfully  employed;  such  as  planting  turnips 
on  the  same  land  only  after  long  intervals;  avoid¬ 
ing  treading  of  the  land  while  wet;  working  the 
soil  and  planting  good  seed  at  the  proper  season, 
and  supplying  manures  sufficient  to  make  good 
the  soil’s  deficiencies. 

Ancelot,  Jacques  Arsene  Polycar  be  Fran¬ 
cois,  a  French  dramatic  poet,  was  born  at  Havre, 
Feb.  9,  1794,  and  died  Sept.  7,  1854. 

Ancestors,  Worship  of,  the  chief  element  in 
the  religions  of  perhaps  the  larger  half  of  man¬ 
kind  at  the  present  moment.  The  universality  of 
ancestor  worship  has  led  Herbert  Spencer  to  the 
opinion  that  it  was  the  origin  of  religion  every¬ 
where.  He  argues  that  all  religious  beliefs  arose 
originally  out  of  the  erroneous  conclusions  drawn 
by  primitive  man  from  the  ill-understood  facts  of 
Ids  own  nature,  especially  in  the  phenomena  of 
sleep  and  dreams.  These  have  to  the  savage  as 
much  objective  reality  as  those  he  has  seen  when 
awake. 

Auchitherinm,  a  noteworthy  animal  that  lived 
in  Europe  and  North  America  during  Upper 
Eocene  times.  It  had  affinities  to  the  tapir-like 
Palseotlierium  and  true  horse.  Each  foot  had 
three  hoofs,  the  middle  one  being  the  largest,  and 
all  reached  to  the  ground.  The  ancliitherium  was 
about  the  size  of  a  small  pony,  and  is  looked  upon 
as  one  of  the  ancestors  of  the  existing  horse. 

Anchor,  an  implement  for  retaining  a  ship  in  a 
particular  spot,  by  temporarily  chaining  it  to  the 
bed  of  a  sea  or  river.  Many  forms  of  anchor  were 
made  by  the  ancients ;  some  were  merely  large 
stones  ;  others,  crooked  pieces  of  wood,  weighted 
to  make  them  sink  in  water,  the  earlier  ones  acting 
niainly  as  weights,  and  holding  the  vessel  by  their 
own  inertia  instead  of  hooking  into  the  ground. 
The  first  iron  anchors  are  supposed  to  have  Iteen 
used  by  the  Greeks.  As  originally  made,  the  an¬ 
chor  had  only  one  fluke  or  arm  for  penetrating  the 
ground,  and  no  stock.  A  large-sized  modern  an¬ 
chor,  irrespective  of  recent  improvements,  com¬ 
prises  the  following  parts:  The  vertical  or  support- 
ingbeamof  the  anchor  is  theshank,  B;  attheupper 
end  of  it  is  a  ring,  r,  or  a  shackle,  and  just  below  the 
ring  is  a  transverse  piece  called  r 

the  stock,  s  a;  the  other  ex¬ 
tremity  is  the  crown,  c,  from 
which  branch  out  two  arms  or 
blades,  g,  in  directions  nearly 
at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  ® 
stock ;  each  arm  spreads  out 
into  a  broad  palm  or  flake,  h, 
the  sharp  extremity  of  which 
is  the  peak  or  bill,  k.  When 
the  anchor  is  let  go  from  the 
ship’s  side,  the  crown  first  c 

strikes  the  ground ;  it  then  Anchor  of  Admi- 
falls  over  in  such  a  manner  ralty  Pattern 
that  one  end  of  the  stock  rests  upon  the  ground  ; 
and  the  subsequent  movements  of  the  ship  and 


ANCHORAGE. 


53 


ANDOVER. 


the  cable  cause  one  or  other  of  the  flukes  to  enter 
the  ground,  and  take  a  fast  hold. 

The  number  of  anchors  in  ships-of-war  varies 
according  to  the  size  of  vessel,  and  the  character 
of  the  service  intended.  A  large  ironclad  carries 
8  anchors — 2  “bowers,”  2  “sheet,”  1  “stream,” 
1  “stern,”  and  2  “hedges.”  Smaller  vessels  have 
fewer  and  smaller  anchors.  Steamers  are  required 
to  carry  only  the  anchors  and  cables  which  belong 
to  a  sailing-vessel  of  two-thirds  their  total  ton¬ 
nage. 

Many  improvements  in  the  shape  and  construc¬ 
tion  of  anchors  of  the  standard  type  have  been 
introduced  during  the  past  forty  or  fifty  years’ 
service.  One  of  the  most  important  changes  is 
that  effected  under  Rodgers’  patent  of  1838,  also 
known  as  Ilonibal’s.  The  arms,  instead  of  being 
solidly  connected  to  the  shank,  are  movable  in  re¬ 
lation  to  it.  They  pivot  about  a  bolt  passing 
through  the  crown-piece  of  the  arms  and  the  end 
of  the  shank,  the  latter  being  fork-shaped  to  re¬ 
ceive  the  former. 

An  anchor  radically  different  is  that  patented 
by  Martin,  a  Frenchman.  It  is  self-canting,  and 
both  flukes  are  utilized  at  one  operation  for  main¬ 
taining  a  hold  of  the  ground.  The  arms,  which 
are  in  one  piece,  are  fitted  through  a  hole  in  the 
crown  end  of  the  shank,  which  is  increased  in  area 
for  the  purpose,  and  they  are  free  to  swing 
through  a  range  of  30°  relatively  to  the  shank. 
Thus,  on  whatever  side  the  anchor  falls,  the  arms 
by  their  own  weight  and  the  pull  of  the  cable  are 
made  to  take  hold  of  the  ground  at  once.  The 
stock,  which  is  flat  and  broad,  is  fitted  across  the 
shank  in  the  same  direction  as  the  arms. 

Anchorage  is  a  due  or  toll  levied  on  the  owner 
or  captain  of  a  ship  for  permission  to  cast  anchor 
at  special  anchoring-grounds.  In  most  instances 
it  is  payable  to  the  State  ;  but  sometimes  the  right 
is  vested  in  corporate  bodies  or  individuals. 

Anclior-ice,  or  Ground-ice,  a  kind  of  ice 
which  forms  upon  the  beds  of  rivers,  or  shallow 
brackish  seas.  It  only  begins  to  form  when  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  falls  to  within  10° 
F.,  and  it  does  not  adhere  strongly  to  the  bottom 
until  zero  is  reached. 

Ancho'vy  ( Engraulis  enchrasicholus),  a  small 
bony  fish  of  the  herring  family  (Clupeidae),  of 
some  importance  as  a  food-luxury.  It  may  attain 
a  length  of  eight  inches,  but  usually  measures 
only  about  a  finger’s  length.  The  species  occurs 


Anchovy. 


abundantly  round  the  European  coasts,  especially 
in  the  southern  and  Mediterranean  region,  while 
the  genus  is  represented  in  all  the  warmer  waters. 
Three  species  are  found  in  North  American  Atlan¬ 
tic  waters,  and  four  on  the  Pacific  side. 

Anchovy  Pear  ( Grias  cauliflora),  a  tree,  the 
only  known  species  of  a  genus  somewhat  doubt¬ 
fully  referred  by  Lindley  to  his  order  Barring- 
toniaceas  (now  regarded  as  a  sub-order  of  Myrta- 
ceie).  It  grows  in  boggy  places  in  the  mountain¬ 
ous  districts  of  Jamaica  and  other  West  Indian 
islands,  attains  a  height  of  fifty  feet,  and  has 
great  oblong  leaves  two  or  three  feet  in  length. 

Ancillon,  John  Frederick,  was  born  in  Ber¬ 
lin  in  1767.  Originally  pastor  of  the  French 
refugees,  he  was  in  1792  appointed  Professor  of 
History  in  the  Military  Academy  of  Berlin, 
and  wrote  Revolutions  du  Systeme  Politique  de 
l’Europe{iouv  vols.  1803-5).  In  1814  and  1818 
lie  held  administrative  posts,  and  in  1832  became 
minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He  died  in  1837. 

Anco'  na,  the  capital  of  a  province  in  Italy,  of 
the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the  Adriatic  coast, 
127  miles  southeast  of  Ravenna.  It  contained 
(1881),  31,277  inhabitants,  of  whom  above  2,000 
are  Jews. 

Ancre,  Baron  de  Lussigny,  Marshal  d’, 
originally  Concino  Concini,  was  a  Florentine  by 
birth,  and  came  to  the  French  court  in  1600,  in 
the  train  of  Maria  de’  Medici,  the  wife  of  Henry 
IV.  After  Henry’s  death  he  became  chief  favor¬ 
ite  and  adviser  of  the  queen-regent.  He  was 


assassiuated  in  the  Louvre  in  open  day.  on  April 
24,  1617. 

Ancns  Marcius,  the  fourth  king  of  Rome, 
was  the  grandson  of  King  Numa  Pompilius.  lie 
died  in  616  n.  c.,  after  reigning  twenty-four 
years. 

Anda,  a  genus  of  Euphorbiaeea',  from  the 
seeds  of  one  of  which  the  A.  braziliensis,  a  fine 
oil,  highly  purgative,  is  obtained. 

Andalu'sia,  (Span.  Andaluci'a),  a  large  and 
fertile  region  occupying  the  south  of  Spain.  The 
Andalusians  speak  a  dialect  of  Spanish  tinctured 
with  Arabic.  Andalusia  is  divided  into  the 
provinces  of  Almeira,  Jaen,  Malaga,  Cadiz, 
Huelva,  Seville,  Cordova,  and  Granada.  The 
chief  towns  are  Seville,  Cordova,  Jaen,  and 
Cadiz.  Area,  33,340  square  miles.  Pop.  (1884), 
3,370,089. 

Amlalusite,  a  mineral,  consisting  o-f  silicate 
of  alumina,  occurs  in  slightly  rhombic,  four¬ 
sided  prisms,  and  also  in  a  massive  form;  pearl- 
gray  or  reddish  in  color. 

An 'damans,  a  group  of  thickly  ’wooded 
islands  toward  the  east  side  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
between  10°  and  14°  of  N.  latitude,  and  92°  and 
94°  of  E.  longitude.  They  consist  of  the  Great 
and  Little  Andaman  groups,  surrounded  by  many 
smaller  islands.  The  Great  Andaman  group  is 
more  than  150  miles  long  and  20  miles  broad, 
and  comprises  four  islands,  the  North,  Middle, 
and  South  Andaman,  and  Rutland  Island.  The 
Little  Andaman,  which  lies  thirty  miles  south 
of  the  larger  group,  is  28  miles  long  by  17  miles 
broad.  The  total  area  is  2,508  square  miles.  The 
islands  belong  to  Great  Britain.  Since  1858,  the 
Andamans  have  been  a  penal  settlement  for  Sepoy 
mutineers  and  other  life-convicts.  In  1881  the 
population  of  the  convict  colony  was  14,628,  of 
whom  1,988  were  women.  In  1872,  Lord  Mayo, 
Viceroy  of  India,  was  assassinated  at  Hopetown, 
on  Viper  Island,  by  a  Mussulman  convict. 

Andan  te  (Ital.)  in  Music,  implies  a  movement 
somewhat  slow  and  sedate,  but  in  a  gentle  and 
soothing  style.  This  term  is  modified,  both  as  to 
time  and  style,  by  the  addition  of  other  words. 

Andelys,  Les,  a  town  in  the  Norman  depart¬ 
ment  of  Eure,  France,  consisting  of  Great  and 
Little  Andelys,  situated  less  than  a  mile  apart, 
and  about  twenty  miles  northeast  of  Evreux. 
Pop.  (1881),  3,883. 

Andenne,  a  town  of  Belgium,  twelve  miles 
east  of  Namur.  Pop.  (1883),  7,503. 

Anderab,  or  Inderab,  a  town  in  Afghan 
Turkestan.  It  is  an  entrepot  of  commerce  be¬ 
tween  Persia  and  India.  Pop.,  6,500. 

Audernaeh,  a  little  town  belonging  to  the  dis¬ 
trict  of  Coblenz  on  the  Rhine,  formerly  the  seat 
of  the  Merovingian  kings. 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian,  one  of  the  great 
story-tellers  of  the  world,  the  most  widely  popu¬ 
lar  of  Danish  authors,  was  born  April  2,  1805. 
In  1830  he  published  the  first  collected  volume  of 
his  Poems,  and  in  1831  asecond,  underthe  title  of 
Fantasies  and  Sketches.  For  nearly  forty  years 
Andersen  continued  to  pour  forth  his  charming 
stories  and  sketches,  the  delight  alike  of  children 
and  of  adults.  His  style  is  delightful  and  his 
works  mark  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  literature 
for  the  young.  His  fame  has  long  been  more 
than  European.  He  died  at  Copenhagen  Aug.  7, 
1875. 

Anderson,  James,  antiquary,  was  born  at 
Edinburgh,  in  1662.  In  1705,  two  years  before 
the  Union,  he  published  a  treatise  vindicating  the 
independence  of  Scotland.  He  died  in  1728. 

Anderson,  James,  a  writer  on  political  econ- 
omyand  agriculture,  was  born  in  1739,  near  Edin¬ 
burgh.  He  invented  the  small  two-horse  plough 
without  wheels,  commonly  called  the  Scotch 
plough.  He  died  in  1808. 

Anderson,  JonN,  founder  of  the  college  in 
Glasgow,  Scotland,  bearing  his  name,  was  born 
in  1726  and  died  in  1796. 

Anderson’s  College  was  opened  with  a  single 
course  of  lectures  on  Natural  Philosophy  and 
Chemistry,  by  Dr.  Thomas  Garnett,  in  1796.  In 
1798  a  Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Geography 
was  appointed.  In  1799  Dr.  Birkbeck,  the  suc¬ 
cessor  of  Dr.  Garnett,  commenced  the  system  of 
giving  a  familiar  exposition  of  mechanics  and  gen¬ 
eral  science,  and  this  was  the  origin  of  mechanics’ 
institutes. 


The  institution  gradually  enlarged  its  sphere  of 
instruction,  till  it  came  to  have  a  staff  of  nearly 
twenty  professors  and  lecturers. 

Anderson,  Mary,  a  distinguished  actress,  was 
born  at  Sacramento,  Cal.,  July  28,  1859,  of  Cath¬ 
olic  parentage,  her  father  being  a  Confederate 
officer  who  lost  his  life  in  the  Civil  War.  She 
played  for  the  first  time  at  Louisville,  in  1875,  in 
the  character  of  Juiiet.  Her  success  was  marked 
and  immediate,  and  during  the  following  years 
she  played  with  increasing  popularity  in  the  prin¬ 
cipal  cities  of  the  Union,  in  various  roles.  In 
1883  she  appeared  at  the  Lyceum  Theatre  in 
London,  and  speedily  became  well  known  in  Eng¬ 
land. 

Amlersonville,  a  village  in  Georgia,  noted  as 
having  been  the  seat  of  a  Confederate  military 
prison,  which  was  notorious  for  unhealthfulness 
and  for  barbarity  of  discipline.  Between  Feb¬ 
ruary  15,  1864,  and  April,  1865,  49,485  prisoners 
were  received,  of  whom  12,926  died  in  that  time 
of  various  diseases.  Henry  Wirz,  the  superin¬ 
tendent,  was  tried  for  injuring  the  health  and 
destroying  the  lives  of  the  soldiers  confined  here, 
was  found  guilty,  and  hanged,  !Nov.  10,  1865. 
The  long  trenches  where  the  soldiers  were  buried 
have  been  laid  out  as  a  cemetery. 

Andersson,  Kari.  Johan,  an  African  explorer, 
born  in  Sweden,  in  1827.  In  1850  he  joined 
Francis  Galton  in  a  journey  to  the  territories  of 
the  Damaras  and  Ovampos,  and  in  1853-54  con¬ 
tinued  the  exploration  alone.  He  died  in  Africa, 
July  5,  1867. 

Andes,  the  great  mountain  system  of  South 
America,  which  extends  along  the  Pacific  coast 
from  north  to  south,  some  4,500  miles  in  length. 
It  includes  the  Cordilleras  of  Peru  and  Bolivia, 
and  extends  into  Patagonia  and  to  Cape  Horn, 
while  the  coast  islands  are  only  partially  sub¬ 
merged  peaks.  The  Andes  are  of  undoubted  vol¬ 
canic  origin,  and  their  highest  peaks  are  Acon¬ 
cagua,  Chimborazo,  and  Sorata,  in  Chili,  their 
respective  heights  being  given  as  22,422,  21,425, 
and  21,284  feet. 

Andesite,  a  group  of  volcanic  rocks,  gray, 
reddish,  or  dark  brown  in  color.  The  ground 
mass  of  these  rocks  is  usually  composed  of  feldspar 
microliths,  scattered  through  which  are  abundant 
crystals  of  plagioclase  feldspar. 

Andiron  (OklFr.a/idt«i),  more  generally  known 
as  a  fire-dog.  Andirons 
were  used  for  burning 
wood  on  an  open  hearth, 
and  consisted  of  a  hori¬ 
zontal  bar  raised  on 
short  supper's,  with  an 
upright  standard  at  one 
end.  The  use  of  and¬ 
irons  has  recently  been 
revived  in  some  modern 
American  houses. 

Amlkhui.a  town  and 
khanate  in  A  f  g  h  a  n 
Turkestan.  The  popu¬ 
lation  is  estmated  at  15,000,  consisting  piincipally 
of  Turkomans. 

Andorra,  a  valley  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees, 
between  the  French  department  of  Aridge  and  the 
Spanish  Province  of  Lerida,  part  of  Catalonia, 
Its  inaccessibility  naturally  fits  it  for  being  the  seat 
of  the  interesting  little  republic  which  here  holds 
a  kind  of  semi-independent  position  between 
France  and  Spain.  Area  (divided  into  six  com¬ 
munes),  175  square  miles.  Pop.  6,800.  Andorra 
is  said  to  have  been  declared  a  free  State  by  Char¬ 
lemagne.  The  State  now  stands  under  the  pro¬ 
tectorate  of  France  and  the  Bishop  of  Urgel. 

An'dover,  a  municipal  borough  of  Hampshire, 
sixty-six  miles  southwest  of  London,  orginally 
Andeofaran  (passage  of  the  river  Ande).  A 
Roman  villa  and  other  relics  of  antiquity  have 
been  discovered  near  Andover.  Pop.  (1881),  5,654. 

Andover,  a  village  of  Essex  county,  Massachu¬ 
setts,  twenty  three  miles  north  of  Boston.  Settled 
in  1643  from  its  English  namesake,  it  is  famous  for 
its  educational  institutions;  the  Phillips  Academy, 
instituted  in  1780,  the  Andover  Theological  Semin¬ 
ary  of  the  Congregationalists,  an  offshoot  from  it. 
founded  in  1807,  for  the  purpose  of  “providing 
for  the  church  a  learned,  orthodox,  and  pious 
ministry.”  Largely  endowed,  it  offers  free  res¬ 
idence  and  instruction.  There  is  a  valuable 


ANDRAL. 


54 


ANEMONE. 


library  of  30.000  volumes.  Pop.  of  township 
(1880)  5,169.  • 

Amlral,  Gabriel,  a  celebrated  French  physi¬ 
cian  and  pathologist,  born  at  Paris,  Nov.  6,  1797, 
died  Feb.  13,  1876.  Andral  may  be  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  apply  an  analytical  and  inductive 
method  to  pathology. 

Aiulrassy,  Julius,  Count,  a  Hungarian  states¬ 
man,  was  born  at  Zemplin,  March  8,  1823.  He 
was  returned  by  his  native  town  to  the  Presburg 
Diet  of  1847.  He  threw  himself  heartily  into  the 
revolutionary  movement  of  1848,  and  on  its  defeat 
was  exiled,  until  the  general  amnesty  of  1857  en¬ 
abled  him  to  return  to  his  own  country,  lie  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Hungarian  Diet  in  1860, 
and  in  1867  was  appointed  prime-minister  of 
Hungary.  The  chief  event  of  his  administration 
wais  the  civil  and  political  emancipation  of  the 
Jews.  In  1871,  Count  Aiulrassy  became  minister 
for  foreign  affairs,  and  in  1878  represented  Austria 
at  the  Congress  of  Berlin.  In  1879  he  retired  from 
public  life. 

Andre,  John,  a  major  in  the  British  army, 
who,  while  acting  as  adjutant-general  under  Clin¬ 
ton,  entered  the  American  lines  to  confer  with  the 
traitor  Arnold  in  reference  to  the  surrender  of 
West  Point  to  the  British.  He  was  stopped  by 
some  militia  men,  one  of  whom  wore  a  coat  taken 
from  a  Hessian  soldier,  and,  believing  them  to  be 
British  soldiers,  he  avowed  himself  an  officer  in 
King  George’s  service.  Finding  he  had  made  a 
mistake,  he  produced  a  pass  signed  by  Arnold, 
and,  that  failing  to  procure  his  liberty,  he  offered 
heavy  bribes  to  his  captors.  They  searched  him, 
found  the  evidences  of  Arnold's  treason  in  his 
boots,  and  delivered  him  to  the  military  authori¬ 
ties.  He  was  tried  by  court-martial  and  hanged 
as  a  spy,  at  Tappantown,  Oct.  2,  1780,  being  only 
29  years  of  age.  His  high  personal  character  and 
early  death  created  much  sympathy  for  him,  but 
his  ignominious  execution  was  entirely  justified 
by  the  laws  of  war,  as  he  was  within  the  lines  in 
disguise,  with  the  plans  of  an  American  fort  on 
his  person.  England  gave  him  a  monument  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  and  a  few  years  ago  a  New 
York  millionaire  erected  one  at  Tappantown. 
The  English  hanged  Nathan  Hale,  who  was  cap¬ 
tured  under  somewhat  similar  circumstances  four 
years  before,  but  Hale’s  case ’differed  in  that  he 
was  not  the  go-between  of  a  traitor,  but  a  soldier 
who  volunteered  to  personally  enter  the  enemy’s 
lines  and  make  drawings  of  the  fortifications. 

See  Sargent,  Life  of  Major  Andre  (1861);  Loss- 
ing,  The  Two  Sines — Nathan  Hale  and  John  An¬ 
dre  (1886). 

Andrea,  Johann  Valentin, an  original  thinker 
and  writer,  born  in  1586  near  Tubingen.  He 
studied  at  Tubingen,  became  a  Protestant  pastor, 
and  died  in  1654  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  was  court 
chaplain. 

Andreossy,  Antoine  Francois,  Count,  an 
eminent  French  general  and  statesman,  was  born 
on  March  6,  1761,  at  Castelnaudary,  in  Langue¬ 
doc.  He  entered  the  artillery  in  1781,  joined  the 
revolutionists,  rose  rapidly  in  military  rank, 
served  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy  and  Egypt,  and 
took  part  in  the  revolution  of  the  18th  Brumaire. 
He  served  as  ambassador  at  London,  at  Vienna,  and 
at  Constantinople,  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in 
1826,  and  died  Sept.  10,  1828.  lie  was  a  man  of 
eminent  scientific  attainments. 

Andrew,  the  first  disciple,  and  one  of  the  apos¬ 
tles  of  Jesus.  His  career  after  the  Master’s  death 
is  unknown.  Tradition  tells  us  that,  after  preach¬ 
ing  the  Gospel  in  Scythia,  Northern  Greece,  and 
Epirus,  he  suffered  martyrdom  on  the  cross  at 
Patrce  in  Achaia,  62  or  70  a.d.  The  anniversary 
of  St.  Andrew  falls  on  Nov.  30.  About  740  St. 
Andrew  became  the  patron  saint  of  Scotland,  and 
he  is  held  in  great  veneration  in  Russia,  as  the 
apostle,  who,  according  to  tradition,  first  preached 
the  Gospel  in  that  country. — Cross  of  St.  An¬ 
drew. — A  white  saltire  on  a  blue  ground,  to 
represent  the  x-shaped  cross  on  which  the  patron 
saint  of  Scotland  suffered  martyrdom,  has  been 
from  an  early  date  adopted  as  the  national  ban¬ 
ner  of  Scotland,  The  Scottish  Order  of  the  This¬ 
tle  is  sometimes  known  as  the  Order  of  St.  An¬ 
drew. — The  Russian  Order  of  St.  Andrew  is 
the  highest  in  the  Empire,  and  was  founded  by 
Peter  the  Great  in  1698.  It  has  but  one  class,  and 
is  confined  to  members  of  the  imperial  family, 


princes,  and  persons  of  the  rank  of  general  who 
already  hold  two  other  important  orders. 

Andrew,  JonN  Albion,  an  American  states¬ 
man,  was  born  at  Windham,  Maine,  in  1818.  In 
1860  he  became  governor  of  Massachusetts,  and 
was  four  times  re-elected,  retiring  in  1866.  He 
was  a  prominent  abolitionist.  He  died  October, 
1867. 

Andrewes,  Lancelot,  an  English  prelate,  was 
born  in  1555,  was  one  of  the  translators  of  the 
Bible  and  became  successively  Bishop  of  Chi¬ 
chester,  Ely,  and  Winchester.  He  died  in  1626. 

Andrews,  Thomas,  physicist,  was  born  in 
Belfast  ,  Dec.  19,  1813,  and,  in  the  Queen’s  College 
there,  filled,  from  1849  till  1879,  the  posts  of  Pro¬ 
fessor  of  Chemistry  and  Vice-President.  He  was 
President  of  the  British  Association  in  1876. 

Andria  is  a  city  of  South  Italy,  thirty  miles 
west  of  Bari.  Its  cathedral,  a  fine  edifice,  was 
founded  in  1046.  Majolica  ware  is  made  here. 
Pop.  (1881),  36,795. 

•Audrieux,  Francois  Guillaume  Jean  Stan¬ 
islaus,  a  French  scholar  and  dramatist,  born  at 
Strasburg,  May  6,  1759.  He  was  admitted  to 
the  Academy  in  1816,  and  made  perpetual  secre¬ 
tary  in  1829.  He  died  May  10,  1833. 

Androclus,  a  Roman  slave  of  the  early  part  of 
the  first  century,  the  hero  of  a  well-known  story 
related  by  Aulus  Gellius.  Having  attempted  to 
run  away  from  his  master,  he  was  sentenced  to  be 
torn  by  wild  beasts  in  the  circus,  but,  to  the 
amazement  of  the  spectators,  the  lion  when  let 
loose  rushed  up  to  him  and  began  to  lick  him 
fondly.  On  inquiry  it  was  found  that  he  had 
once  pulled  a  thorn  out  of  a  lion’s  foot  in  a  cave 
in  Africa,  and  that  the  grateful  beast  had  at  once 
recognized  in  him  his  benefactor.  Androclus 
was  pardoned  by  the  Emperor,  and  afterwards 
led  the  lion  about  the  streets  of  Rome. 

Andro  gynous  (Gr.  male-female),  an  almost 
obsolete  term  applied  (1)  to  plants  where  the 
inflorescence  is  monoecious— i.e. ,  consists  of  distinct 
male  and  female  flowers;  and  (2)  to  animals  which 
are  hermaphrodite — i.e.,  possess  a  distinct  male 
and  female  generative  system  in  the  same  indi¬ 
vidual.  This  is  the  case  with  very  many  of  the 
lowrer  animals. 

Androm'ache,  the  wife  of  Hector,  was  the 
daughter  of  Eetion,  King  of  the  Cilician  Thebes, 
and  is  one  of  the  female  figures  in  Homer’s  Iliad. 
During  her  childhood,  Achilles  slew  her  father 
and  her  seven  brothers.  By  Hector  she  had  a  son, 
Scamandrius  (Astyanax).  Andromache  is  the 
heroine  of  one  of  the  tragedies  of  Euripides. 

A  ndrom'eda,  daughter  of  the  Ethiopian  King 
Cepheus  and  Cassiopeia,  like  her  mother,  remark¬ 
able  for  her  beauty.  Cassiopeia  having  been  rash 
enough  to  boast  that  her  daughter  was  more  beau¬ 
tiful  than  the  Nereids,  these  deities  prayed 
Poseidon  to  revenge  the  insult.  Accordingly,  the 
territory  of  King  Cepheus  was  devastated  by  a 
flood,  and  a  terrible  sea  monster  appeared,  whose 
wraith  the  oracle  of  Ammon  declared  could  only 
be  appeased  by  the  sacrifice  of  Andromeda.  She 
was  fastened  to  a  rock,  and  left  as  a  prey  to  the 
monster,  when  Perseus,  returning  from  his  battle 
with  Medusa,  slew  the  monster,  and  received 
Andromeda  as  his  reward. 

Androni'cus  of  Rhodes,  a  peripatetic  philos¬ 
opher,  lived  at  Rome  in  Cicero’s  time,  and  em¬ 
ployed  himself  in  criticising  and  explaining  the 
works  of  Aristotle,  a  great  number  of  which  he 
was  probably  the  means  of  preserving  to  us. 

Androni'cus,  the  name  of  four  Byzantine 
emperors — Andronicus  I.,  Comnenus,  grandson 
of  Alexius  I.,  was  brave,  profligate  and  perfidious. 
In  his  youth  he  served  against  the  Turks,  in  1141 
was  for  some  time  a  prisoner,  and  was  after¬ 
wards  appointed  to  a  military  command  in  Cilicia, 
but  was  unsuccessful.  He  was  imprisoned  and 
exiled  for  treason  by  his  cousin,  the  Emperor 
Manuel.  After  the  death  of  Manuel  in  1182,  he 
was  recalled  to  become  first  guardian,  then  col¬ 
league,  of  the  young  Emperor  Alexius  II.  Soon 
after  lie  caused  the  empress-mother  to  be 
strangled,  and  afterwards  Alexius  himself,  with 
whose  youthful  widow  he  cont1  acted  an  indecent 
marriage.  He  wTas  killed  by  a  mob  in  1185. 

Andros,  an  island  of  the  Greek  Archipelago, 
the  most  northern  of  the  Cyclades.  The  island  is 
25  miles  long,  and  about  10  miles  in  its  greatest 
breadth,  the  area  being  156  square  miles.  Pop. 


(1879),  22,562.  Andros  is  also  the  name  of  one 
of  the  Bahamas. 

Andujar,  a  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain.  The 
Convention  of  Baylen  was  signed  here  on  July 
23,1808.  Pop.  11,974. 

Anecdote  (Gr.  an,  not,  and  eledotos,  published), 
a  narrative  of  any  single  incident  or  fact  of  an 
interesting  nature. 

Anega'da,  the  most  northerly  of  the  Virgin 
Islands,  lying  east  of  Porto  Rico  in  the  West 
Indies. 

Aueniom'eter  (Gr.  anemos,  the  wind,  and 
metron,  a  measure,  Fr.  anemometre,  Ger.  Wind- 
messer ),  an  instrument  for  measuring  the  pressure. 


Robinson's  Hemispherical  Cup  Anemometer. 


or  velocity  of  the  wind.  The  simplest  anemometer 
is  that  which  is  generally  known  as  Robinson’s 
hemispherical-cup  anemometer,  invented  by  Dr. 
Robinson,  of  Armagh,  in  1846.  It  consists  of 
four  hollow  hemispheres  or  cups  fixed  to  the  ends 
of  two  horizontal  iron  rods  crossing  each  other  at 
right  angles,  and  supported  on  a  vertical  axis 
which  turns  freely.  Experiments  show  that  the 
cups  revolve  with  about  a  third  of  the  wind’s 
velocity/and  the  instrument  is  so  constructed  that 
500  revolutions  are  made  whilst  a  mile  of  wind 
passes  over  it.  The  revolutions  are  registered  by 
a  system  of  wheels  similar  to  those  of  an  ordinary 
gas-meter. 


Pressure  anemometers  are  of  very  great  im¬ 
portance  in  meteorological  observatories  and  for 
engineering  purposes.  Of  these,  one  of  the  best 
known  is  that  invented  by  Osier.  In  this  instru¬ 
ment  the  force  of  the  wind  is  ascertained  by  its 
pressure  against  a  disk. 

In  Lind’s  anemometer,  the  wind,  entering  the 
mouth  of  one  of  two  upright  glass  tubes,  con¬ 
nected  below,  depresses  the  column  of  water  con¬ 
tained  in  the  one  tube,  and  raises  proportionately 
that  in  the  other. 

Anem'one,  a  genus  of  Ranunculacese,  charac¬ 
terized  by  the  acrid¬ 
ity  prevalent  in  this 
order.  The  species 
are  numerous,  and 
generally  beautiful. 

Most  of  them  flower 
early  in  spring  They 
are  natives  of  tem¬ 
perate  and  cold  cli¬ 
mates,  chiefly  of  the 
Northern  Hemis¬ 
phere.  One  speci¬ 
men,  Anemone  nem- 
orosa,  the  wood  an¬ 
emone,  is  common 
in  parts  of  North 
America.  The  genus 
Hepatica  is  frequent¬ 
ly  included  in  An¬ 
emone.  An  emone 
triloba  ( Anemone  he¬ 
patica),  with  three- 
lobed  leaves,  is  com¬ 
mon  in  America.  _  ,  .  ,  .  „„„  , 

Anemone,  Sea,  a  Wood  Anemone  U.  nemarosa). 

popular  name  of  Actinia  and  some  allied  genera 
of  Actinozoa.  Almost  cosmopolitan  in  their 
distribution,  they  attain  most  magnificent  devel¬ 
opment  in  the  warmer  seas,  such  as  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean.  The  sea  anemone  consists  of  a  muscular 
lube,  fixed  by  its  expanded  base,  and  with  a  rich. 


ANEROID. 


55 


ANGLER. 


crown  of  tentacles  round  the  mouth.  See 
monograph  by  Dr.  Angelo  Andres  in  the  series 


A,  Anemonia  sulcata;  B,  Cerianthus  membranaceus; 
C,  Bunodes  gemmaceus  (closed) ;  D.  the  same  (open). 


of  reports  on  the  fauna  and  flora  of  the  Gulf  of 
Naples,  the  Challenger  report,  etc. 

Aneroid  (formed  from  Gr.  a,  not,  and  neros, 
wet),  the  name  given  to  a  barometer  invented  in 
1844  by  M.  Vitli  of  Paris,  in  which  the  pressure 
of  the  air  is  measured  without  the  use  of  liquid, 
as  in  ordinary  instruments.  The  pressure  of  the 


atmosphere  acts  upon  a  circular  metal  box,  A  A, 
about  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  one-quarter 
of  an  inch  deep,  which  has  been  nearly  exhausted 
of  air,  and  then  soldered  air-tight.  The  sides 
are  corrugab  d  in  concentric  rings,  so  as  to  in¬ 
crease  their  elasticity  and  strength,  and  one  of 
them  is  fixed  to  the  back  of  the  brass  case  which 
contains  the  whole.  The  amount  of  exhaustion 
is  such  that  if  the  sides  of  the  box  were  allowed  to 
take  their  natural  position,  they  would  be  pressed 
in  upon  each  other,  and  to  prevent  this  they  are 
kept  distended,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  a  strong 
sp.ing,  S,  fixed  to  the  case,  which  acts  upon  the 
head  of  the  stalk,  B,  attached  to  the  side  next 
the  face.  When  the  pressure  of  the  air  increases 
the  corrugated  sides  are  forced  inwards,  and 
when  it  diminishes  again,  their  elasticity  restores 
them  to  their  former  places;  and  thus  the  little  box 
becomes  a  spring  extremely  sensitive  to  the  vary¬ 
ing  pressure  of  the  external  atmosphere.  By  the 
mechanism  a  very  small  motion  of  t  lie  corrugated 
sides  produces  a  large  deviation  of  the  index  hand, 
1-220  of  an  inch  causing  it  to  turn  through  three 
inches.  The  “Metallic  Barometer”  of  M.  Bour¬ 
don  is  a  modification  of  the  aneroid  principle. 

Aneurin,  a  Welsh  poet  (603),  was  the  son  of 
Caw  ab  Geraint,  chief  of  the  Otadini,  and  author 
of  an  epic  poem,  the  Oodoclin. 

Aneurism  (Gr.  aneurysma,  a  dilatation)  is  a 
tumor  containing  blood,  and  communicating 
with  the  cavity  of  an  artery.  True  aneurism  is 
almost  always  a  result  of  Atheroma,  and  is  most 
common  in  middle  life.  Aneurisms  prove  fatal 
by  their  pressure  on  some  important  part,  or  by 
bursting  and  allowing  a  sudden  escape  of  blood. 

Angel.  Angels  (Gr.  dngeldi ,  messengers)  are  a 
class  of  spiritual  beings  who  appear  in  the  Bible  as 
the  attendants  of  God,  and  especially  as  His  mes¬ 


sengers  and  the  medium  of  communication  be¬ 
tween  Him  and  men.  (1)  In  the  earlier  historical 
books,  the  angel  has  sometimes  no  apparent  form, 
but  is  only  a  voice,  as  it  were;  sometimes  there  is 
a  form  undistinguishable  from  that  of  an  ordin¬ 
ary  man,  except  by  the  conduct  (Gen.  xviii, 
xix);  although  elsewhere  at  times  there  is  some¬ 
thing  in  his  aspect  that  betrays  the  heavenly 
messenger  (Judges  xiii,  6).  (2)  In  the  poetical 
and  prophetic  books,  as  “Sons  of  God,” 
“Saints,”  or  “Holy  Ones;”  to  the  name 
of  messengers  are  added  new  titles,  but  they 
continue  to  discharge  the  same  duties.  (3)  To 
express  the  majesty  of  the  Almighty  and 
His  power  in  executing  His  will,  the  poetic  imagi¬ 
nation  not  only  conceived  of  the  angels  as  exist¬ 
ing  in  vast  numbers,  but  ascribed  to  them  a  certain 
warlike  character.  (4)  The  belief  in  guardian 
angels  is  merely  a  particular  phase  of  the  general 
idea.  Israel  lias  a  special  angel  guide  (Ex.  xiv, 
19;  xxiii,  20);  at  a  later  period  Michael  is  named 
their  “  great  prince  ”  (Dan.  xii.  1).  Individuals 
also  have  their  special  guardian  angels  (Matt, 
xviii).  It  was  believed  that  they  sometimes  as¬ 
sumed  the  form  of  their  charge,  becoming  their 
double,  as  it  were  (Acts  xii,  15).  Not  one,  but 
an  unlimited  number  attended  on  Jesus  from  llis 
birth  to  His  Ascension,  were  throughout  His 
earthly  life  at  His  command,  and  will  accompany 
Him  at  His  second  coming.  Angels  have  an  im¬ 
portant  place  in  the  Apocalypse.  The  seven  angels 
(Rev.  viii,  2)  “which  stand  before  God”  are 
Michael,  Gabriel,  Raphael,  Uriel,  Chamuel,  Jo- 
phiel,  and  Zadkiel.  The  first  three  are  the  princi¬ 
pal  archangels,  and  in  Christian  art  are  often 
represented  together,  while  the  last  three  have 
never  been  generally  recognized  either  in  the  East 
or  West.  One  large  sect  of  the  Jews,  that  of  the 
Sadducees,  rejected  the  belief  in  the  existence  of 
angels  as  something  entirely  foreign  to  the  Mosaic 
system.  In  the  later  stages  of  revelation,  a 
group  of  angels  came  to  be  represented  as  having 
fallen  from  their  primitive  condition  of  innocence 
and  taken  up  a  position  of  hostility  to  God. 
Punished  by  being  degraded  from  their  “first 
estate,”  they  group  themselves  under  the  kingship 
of  Satan,  and  continue  to  employ  their  activity 
in  attempting  to  frustrate  the  good  purposes  of 
God.  Angel-worship  is  specially  condemned  by 
St.  Paul  (Col.  ii,  18),  probably  with  reference  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  Essenes. 

See  Oswald  Angelolntrie,  die  Lehr e  von  den  guten 
uvA  bdsen  Engeln  im  Sinn  der  Kalholischen  Kirche 
(Paderborn,  1883) ;  Edersheim’s  Life  and  Times 
of  Jesus,  the  Messiah  (Exc.  xiii,  3d  ed.  1886);  Mrs. 
Jameson’s  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art  (9tli  ed.  1883). 

Angel-fish,  a  quaint  and  ugly  fish  belonging 
to  the  shark  sub-order  of  Elasmobranchs. 

Angel  ica,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Umbelliferse,  by  some  botanists  divided  into 
two,  Angelica 
and  Archan¬ 
gelica.  The 
species  are 
mostly  li  e  r- 
baceous  and 
perennial, 
natives  of 
the  temper¬ 
ate  and  cold¬ 
er  regions  of 
the  Northern 
H  emispliere. 

Wild  Angel¬ 
ica  {A.  sylves- 
tris)  is  a  com¬ 
mon  plant  in 
moist  mead¬ 
ows,  by  the 
sides  of 
brooks,  and 
in  woods. 

The  garden 
angelica  is  a 
biennial 
p  1  a  n  t,  b  e- 
coming  per¬ 
ennial  when 
not  allowed 
to  ripen  i  t  s  Angelica  archangelica 

seeds.  The  whole  plant,  and  especially  the  root, 
is  aromatic  and  bitter,  with  a  pleasant  odor.  The 


garden  angelica  was  at  one  time  also  much  cul¬ 
tivated  for  the  blanched  stalks,  which  were  used 
as  celery  now  is.  The  tender  stalks  and  mid¬ 
ribs  of  the  leaves,  candied,  are  still,  a  well- 
known  article  of  confectionery,  and  an  agreeable 
stomachic;  the  roots  and  seeds  are  employed  in 
the  preparation  of  gin  and  of  “  bitters.”  Sev¬ 
eral  species  of  angelica  are  natives  of  North 
America. 

Angel'ico,  Fra,  the  commonest  designation  of 
the  great  friar-painter — in  full  “II  bcato  Fra  Gio¬ 
vanni  Angelico  da  Fiesole,”  “the  blessed  Brother 
John  the  angelic  of  Fiesole.”  Born  in  1387  at 
Vicchio,  in  the  Tuscan  province  of  Mugello,  in 
1407  he  entered  the  Dominican  monastery  at  Fie¬ 
sole,  but  was  called  to  Rome  and  painted  numer¬ 
ous  frescoes  and  altar-pieces.  He  died  in  1455. 
Of  his  easel  pictures,  the  Louvre  possesses,  “The 
Coronation  of  the  Virgin,”  and  the  London  Na¬ 
tional  Gallery  a  “Glory,”  or  Christ  with  265  saints. 

An'gelo,  Michael.  See  Michael  Angelo. 

An'gelus  Bell,  a  bell  rung  at  morning,  noon, 
and  sunset,  in  Catholic  Churches  to  invite  the 
faithful  to  recite  the  Angelic  Salutation.  It  gives 
name  to  a  very  famous  picture  by  Millet.  See 
Ave  Maria. 

Angermanlaml,  a  former  division  of  Sweden, 
now  chiefly  comprised  in  the  government  of  Wes- 
ternorrland.  The  river  Angerman,  200  miles  long, 
is,  in  its  lower  course,  navigable  for  large  ships. 
The  chief  town  of  the  district  is  Hernoesand, 
with  a  pop.  of  5,000. 

Angcrmunde,  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  Lake 
Munde,  forty-three  miles  northeast  of  Berlin. 
Pop.,  6,833. 

Angers,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Duchy  of 
Anjou,  and  now  of  the  French  department  of 
Maine-et -Loire,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
navigable  river  Maine,  214  miles  southwest  of  Paris. 

Angina  (Lat.  an'gina,  quinsy,  but  the  term 
is  usually  pronounced  angi'na)  is  sore  throat.  In 
medical  parlance  it  is  customary  to  append  an 
adjective  specifying  the  nature  of  the  affection  ; 
thus  Angina  rheumatica  is  rheumatic  sore  throat. 

Angina  Pec  toris,  sometimes  called  Heart- 
stroke  or  Breast-pang,  is  characterized  by  intense 
pain,  accompanied  by  a  sense  of  constriction, 
which  occurs  in,  paroxysms,  beginning  at  the 
breastbone  and  radiating  thence  in  different  direc¬ 
tions,  but  chiefly  towards  the  left  shoulder  and 
arm.  The  attack  gradually  passes  away,  or  may 
end  in  syncope,  which  is  sometimes  fatal.  There 
are  at  times  premonitory  symptoms,  such  as 
nausea  or  faintness,  but  usually  these  are  absent. 
The  affection  may  be  symptomatic  of  various  dis¬ 
orders. 

Angiospcrnis(Gr.  angeion ,  a  vessel,  and  sperma, 
seed),  a  term  applied  to  Monocotyledons  and  Dico¬ 
tyledons,  in  contrast  to  Gymnosperms  (Conifers 
and  Cycads). 

Angle  (from  Lat.  angulus,  a  corner)  means,  in 
Geometry,  the  opening  or  inclination  of  two  lines 
that  cut  or  meet  one  another.  If  the  lines  are 
straight,  the  angle  is  rectilinear.  A  perpendicular 
line,  meeting  its  horizontal,  forms  at  the  junction 
a  right  angle.  Any  angle  less  than  a  right  angle 


A,  right  angle  ;  B,  acute  angle  ;  C,  obtuse  angle. 


is  called  acute,  and  one  greater  is  called  obtuse. 
Angles  are  measured  by  degrees,  of  which  a  right 
angle  contains  90.  The  angle  made  by  two  curved 
lines  (curvilinear)  is  the  same  as  the  angle  made 
by  the  tangents  to  the  two  curves  at  the  point  of 
intersection.  Angles  made  by  planes  with  one 
another  can  also  be  reduced  to  rectilinear  angles. 
When  three  or  more  planes  meet  at  the  same  point, 
the  angular  space  included  between  them  is  called 
a  solid  angle. 

Angler  ( Lophius  piscatorius),  a  fish  sometimes 
called"  the  Fishing-frog;  sometimes,  from  its  ugli¬ 
ness  and  voracity,  the  Sea-devil.  It  usually  meas¬ 
ures  three  feet  or  more  in  length.  The  head  is 
enormously  large,  depressed,  and  spinous ;  the 
mouth  is  of  similar  proportions,  and  furnished 
with  many  sharp  curved  teeth,  and  with  numerous 


ANGLES. 


56 


ANILINE. 


worm-like  lip-processes  or  barbules.  The  lower 
jaw  is  considerably  longer  than  the  upper  one. 


Angler-fish. 


The  body  is  narrow  in  comparison  with  the  great 
breadth  of  the  head,  and  tapers  rapidly  to  the 
tail.  The  whole  fish  is  covered  with  a  loose  skin, 
almost  without  scales.  The  fish  is  exceedingly 
voracious.  It  is  common  in  all  North  Atlantic 
coast  waters.  Other  species  are  known  in  Medi¬ 
terranean,  Pacific,  and  South  Atlantic  waters. 

Angles  (Angli),  a  German  tribe  who  occupied 
the  country  still  called  Angela  on  the  east  of  the 
Elbe,  between  Sleswick  and  Flensburg.  Along 
with  the  Saxons  and  Jutes,  they  passed  over  in 
great  numbers  to  Britain  during  the  fifth  century, 
and  settled  in  East  Anglia,  Northumbria,  and 
Mercia.  From  them  England  derives  its  name 
(Lat.  Anglia,  Anglo-Saxon,  Engla-land). 

Anglesey,  or  Anglesea  (A.S.  Angles  Ey — i.  e. , 
the  Englishmen’s  island),  an  island  and  county  of 
Wales,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  that  principality, 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Menai  Strait, 
which  is  spanned  by  the  suspension  bridge  (1826) 
and  by  the  tubular  bridge  ( 1850).  The  extreme 
length  of  the  island  is  21  miles;  its  extreme 
breadth,  19;  the  coast  line  measures  about  80;  and 
its  area  is  302  square  miles,  or  193,453  acres. 
Anglesey  was  known  to  the  Romans  under  the 
name  of  Mona. 

Anglesey,  Henry  William  Paget,  Marquis 
of,  born  May  17,  1768,  served  with  distinction  in 
Flanders,  Holland,  and  the  Peninsular  war,  and 
in  1812  succeeded  his  father  as  Earl  of  Uxbridge. 
For  his  splendid  services  as  commander  of  the 
British  cavalry  at  Waterloo,  where  he  lost  a  leg, 
he  was  made  Marquis  of  Anglesey.  In  1828  he 
was  appointed  lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland,  and  in 
1846  was  made  a  field  marshal.  He  died  April 
29,  1854. 

Anglia,  East,  a  kingdom  founded  by  the  An¬ 
gles  about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  central  England,  in  what  forms 
the  present  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk. 

Anglican,  belonging  to  the  Church  of  England 
and  the  other  churches  in  communion  with  it  in 
Ireland,  Scotland,  and  the  United  States.  Some¬ 
times  used  specially  of  the  High  Church  party. 

Angling  is  the  art  of  catching  fish  by  rod,  line, 
and  hook,  or  by  line  and  hook,  the  salient  feature 
of  the  pursuit  being  the  allurement  of  the  prey  by 
an  attractive  bait.  The  requisites  for  a  successful 
angler  are,  knowledge  of  the  haunts  and  habits  of 
fish,  dexterity  in  the  use  of  tackle,  and  a  patience 
much  in  excess  of  that  required  for  most  out- 
of-door  amusements.  The  first  qualification  cov¬ 
ers  a  wide  field  of  study,  involving,  as  it  does, 
familiarity  with  the  movements  of  fish  at  different 
seasons  of  the  year,  and  in  varying  conditions  of 
water;  with  the  food  peculiar  to  diffeient  species; 
and  with  the  characteristics  of  the  fishes  angled 
for.  The  first  printed  English  book  on  angling 
was  the  second  edition  of  Dame  Juliana  Berners’ 
(or  Barnes)  Book  of  St.  Albans,  in  which,  to  a 
previous  chapter  on  hawking  and  hunting,  was 
added  a  Treaty se  of  Pysshynge  with  an  Angle. 
Shortly  after  this  publication,  Wynkyn  de  Worde 
(probably  in  1450)  issued  the  angling  chapter  as  a 
■separate  book.  In  1590  Leonard  Mascall  pub¬ 
lished  A  Booke  of  Fishing  with  Hook  and  Line , 
and  of  All  Other  Instruments  Thereto  Belonging. 
John  Denny’s  poetical  Secrets  of  Angling  followed 


in  1613.  Thirty-eight  years  later  Thomas  Barker’s 
Art  of  Angling  appeared,  to  be  succeeded  in  two 
years  by  Izaak  Walton’s  Complete  Angler,  of 
which  ninety-two  editions  have  been  published. 
The  number  of  books  on  angling  has  marvel¬ 
ously  increased  during  the  last  fifty  years,  and 
Westwood  and  Satchell’s  Bibliotheca  Piscatoria 
(1883)  catalogues  3,158  editions  and  reprints  of 
2,148  distinct  works  on  fish  and  fishing. 

Anglo-Catholic  is  a  term  used  of  the  Church 
of  England  generally,  but  especially  of  the  High 
Church  section,  which  claims  that  the  national 
church  is  Catholic  (as  opposed  to  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic),  and  repudiates  the  name  of  Protestant. 

Anglo-Israelite  Theory,  an  opinion  as  to  the 
historical  origin  of  the  English  people  held  by  a 
considerable  number  of  persons  in  Britian  and 
America.  They  contend,  without  evidence,  that 
the  English,  and  indeed  the  entire  Anglo-Saxon 
race,  are  descended  from  the  Israelites  who  were 
carried  into  captivity  by  the  Assyrians  under  Sar- 
gon  in  721  b.c. 

Angloma'uia  designates  among  the  French  and 
Germans  a  weak  imitation  of  English  manners 
and  customs,  or  an  indiscriminate  admiration  of 
English  institutions.  Anglomania  is  often  limited 
to  trifles  such  as  fashions  and  society  manners, 
and  in  this  sense  is  known  in  the  United  States, 
especially  in  New  England  and  New  York. 

Anglo-Saxon  Language  and  Literature. 
The  term  Anglo-Saxon  was  frequently  applied, 
in  the  works  of  the  last  three  centuries,  to  the 
earliest  forms  of  the  English  language,  up  to  the 
date  of  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  a  little  later. 
English,  in  short,  was  described  as  Anglo-Saxon  so 
long  as  it  remained  an  inflected  tongue,  and  no 
longer.  The  word ,  however,  was  never  used  by 
the  people  themselves  who  spoke  that  language. 
The  Teutonic  settlers  of  Southern  Britain,  com¬ 
monly  called  Anglo-Saxons,  were  divided  into 
two  main  branches — one  northern,  the  Auglians 
or  English  (in  their  own  dialect,  Engle),  who  oc¬ 
cupied  the  eastern  coast  from  the  Frith  of  Forth 
to  the  farther  limit  of  Suffolk  (see  Angles),  and 
one  southern,  the  Saxons  (in  their  own  dialect, 
Scare),  who  held  the  portion  of  the  island  from 
Essex  to  Dorsetshire,  extending  inland  to  Oxford 
and  the  Severn  Valley.  The  word  Anglo-Saxon 
wjis  applied  only  at  a  much  later  date  to  the  early 
Teutonic  inhabitants  of  South  Britain  and  their 
language,  after  the  latter  had  become  so  far  obso¬ 
lete  in  form  and  vocabulary  as  only  to  be  compre¬ 
hensible  by  means  of  special  study. 

Ango'la,  is  a  name  formerly  used  loosely  of  the 
whole  West  African  coast  from  Cape  Lopez  to 
Benguela.  But  since  the  establishment  of  the 
Congo  Free  State,  in  1885,  it  should  at  most  be 
used  of  the  Portuguese  West  African  possessions, 
extending  from  the  Congo  southward  to  Cape  Frio. 
This  region  is  subdivided  into  four  governments 
— Ambriz,  Angola  in  the  narrower  sense  (capital, 
St.  Paul  de  Luanda),  Benguela,  and  Mossamedes. 
The  limit  toward  the  interior  is  very  vague,  but 
the  Portuguese  influence,  represented  by  military 
posts,  extends  some  1,500  miles  inland.  The  area 
of  the  whole  dependency  is  stated  at  312,000 
square  miles,  and  its  pop.  estimated  at  2,000,000. 

Angora,  or  Angwireh  (anc.  Ancyra),  capital 
of  a  Turkish  province  in  the  mountainous  interior 
of  Asia  Miuor,  220  miles  east-southeast  of  Con¬ 
stantinople.  A  great  battle  between  the  Turks 
and  Tartars  was  fought  here  in  1402.  The  city 
has  40,000  inhabitants.  Its  trade  is  mainly  in  the 
hands  of  the  Armenians,  who  number  12,000. 
It  is  famous  for  its  breed  of  goats,  with  beautiful 
silky  hair  eight  inches  long.  The  annual  export 
of  wool  from  Angora  is  said  to  have  a  value  of 
$1,000,000.  The  Angora  goat  is  bred  for  its 
hair,  called  Mohair,  in  the  United  States  and  in 
Cape  Colony,  and  has  also  been  introduced  into 
Victoria. 

Angostura,  or  Ciudad  Bolivar,  a  town  of 
Venezuela,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Orinoco, 
about  240  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  Orinoco  is 
navigable  to  this  point  for  vessels  of  300  tons.  In 
1819  it  was  decreed  that  its  name  should  be 
changed  to  Ciudad  Bolivar,  after  the  liberator. 
Pop.  (1881),  10,861. 

Angostura  Bark,  or  Cusparia  Bark,  is  the 
aromatic  bitter  bark  of  the  Galipea  cusparia.  a 
native  of  Venezuela  and  other  tropical  countries. 
The  Galipea  cusparia  is  a  small  tree  belonging  to 


the  natural  order  Rutaceie,  twelve  to  fifteen  feet 
high,  with  a  trunk  three  to  five  inches  in  diam¬ 
eter.  Angostura  bark  is  a  valuable  tonic  in  dys¬ 
entery,  chronic  diarrhoea,  and  dyspepsia,  but  it  is 
falling  into  disuse.  Under  the  name  of  Angos¬ 
tura  Bitters  an  essence  is  sold  containing  angos- 
tura,  canella,  cinchona,  lemon  peel,  and  other 
aromatics.  Angostura  contains  an  alkaloid 
called  angosturia. 

Augouleine,  the  capital  of  the  French  depart¬ 
ment  of  Charente,  and  formerly  of  the  Province 
of  Angoumois,  eighty-three  miles  northeast  of 
Bordeaux.  It  was  die  birthplace  of  Marguerite  of 
Navarre,  author  of  the  Hep  tamer  on.  Ravaillacwas 
also  a  native.  Pop.  (1886),  34,647. 

Augouleine,  Louis  Antoine  de  Bourbon, 
Due  d’,  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  X.  of  France, 
and  Dauphin  during  his  father’s  reign,  was  born 
at  Versailles  on  Aug.  6,  1775.  At  the  Revolution 
he  retired  from  France  along  with  his  father.  In 
1799  he  married  his  cousin,  Marie  ThtrLse,  the 
only  daughter  of  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoin¬ 
ette,  whom  Napoleon  called  “  the  only  man  in  the 
family.”  On  the  recall  of  his  uncle,  Louis  XVIII., 
he  was  appointed  lieutenant-general  of  the  king¬ 
dom,  but  surrendered  during  the  Hundred  Days. 
On  the  revolution  in  July,  1830,  he  signed,  along 
with  his  father,  an  abdication  in  favor  of  his 
nephew,  the  Due  de  Bordeaux,  and,  when  the 
Chambers  declared  the  family  of  Charles  X.  to 
have  forfeited  the  throne,  accompanied  him  into 
exile.  Died,  June  3,  1844. 

Angra,  the  capital  of  the  Azores,  on  the  south 
coast  of  the  island  of  Terceira.  Pop.  (1878),  11,070. 

Angra-Pequena,  a  bay  on  the  southwest  coast 
of  Africa,  in  26°  27'  S.  latitude  and  15°  E.  longi¬ 
tude.  It  gives  name  to  the  southern  littoral  of 
Great  Namaqualand.  In  1883  Angra-Pequena  was 
ceded  by  a  Namaqua  chieftain  to  Luderitz,  a 
Bremen  merchant;  and  next  year  it  was  taken 
under  German  protection,  with  all  the  coast  to  the 
north  as  far  as  Cape  Frio,  except  Walvisch  Bay, 
which  belongs  to  England. 

Angri,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  17  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Salerno.  Pop.  7,110. 

Angstrom,  Anders  Jonas,  a  Swedish  natural 
philosopher,  was  born  Aug.  13,  1814,  and  died 
June  21,  1874. 

Anguilla,  or  Little  Snake,  an  English  West 
India  Island,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  lying  160 
miles  east  of  Porto  Rico.  Area,  35  square  miles; 
pop.,  2,500. 

Anhalt,  a  duchy  of  the  German  Empire,  almost 
entirely  surrounded  by  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Saxony,  which  breaks  it  up  into  two  principal 
and  five  smaller  portions.  Area,  869  square  miles; 
pop.,  (1875)  213,689;  (1885)  247,603— nearly  all 
Protestants. 

Anhydrides  is  the  term  now  commonly  given 
to  the  compounds  formerly  known  as  anhydrous 
acids.  In  some  cases  they  are  the  result  of  the 
dehydration  of  acids,  and  in  all  cases  they  repre¬ 
sent  in  their  composition  the  acid  minus  water. 
The  most  important  property  of  this  class  is  their 
conversion  into  the  corresponding  acids,  under 
the  influence  of  water. 

Anhydrite,  a  mineral,  consisting  of  anhydrous 
sulphate  of  lime,  with  some  slight  addition  of 
sea-salt,  appears  in  several  varieties.  Anhydrite 
is  converted  into  gypsum  by  combination  with  a 
certain  proportion  of  water.  When  burned  and 
reduced  to  powder,  it  is  used  as  a  manure, 
resembling  gypsum  in  its  effects. 

Anhydrous  is  the  term  applied  to  a  chemical 
substance  free  from  water.  Thus,  ordinary  quick¬ 
lime,  as  it  comes  from  the  kiln  is  simply  lime, 
CaO,  without  any  water,  and  is  called  anhydrous 
lime;  but  when  water  is  thrown  upon  the  quick 
lime,  the  liquid  disappears  by  combination  with 
the  lime,  which  very  much  increases  in  volume, 
and  becomes  hydratedlime,  CaOH20.  The  “  set¬ 
ting”  of  ordinary  plaster  of  paris  is  another 
familiar  example  of  the  conversion  of  an  an¬ 
hydrous  compound  into  a  hydrate. 

Ani,  a  ruined  city  of  Turkish  Armenia,  about 
twenty-five  miles  southeast  of  Kars. 

Aniline,  or  Amido-benzene,  was  discovered 
in  1826,  as  a  product  of  the  dry  distillation  of 
indigo;  hence  the  name,  derived  from  anil,  the 
Portuguese  for  indigo.  Practically,  all  the  aniline 
now  manufactured  is  obtained  from  the  benzene 
of  coal-tar.  The  pure  article  is  a  colorless,  oily 


animal. 


57 


ANIO. 


fluid,  slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  readily  dis¬ 
solving  in  alcohol  and  either.  It  refracts  light 
strongly,  and  possesses  a  weak,  aromatic  taste. 
It  boils  at  360°  F.  (182°  C.),  and  when  pure  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.020.  It  is  a  well-marked 
base,  producing  numerous  crystalline  salts,  al¬ 
though  it  has  no  alkaline  action  on  vegetable 
colors.  It  is  a  powerful  narcotic  poison.  It  is, 
however,  as  being  the  source  of  the  numerous 
aniline  dyes,  that  this  body  has  become  of  lead¬ 
ing  importance.  They  may  be  regarded  as  amines 
— i.  e.,  ammonia  in  which  hydrogen  has  been 
replaced  by  one  or  more  radicals.  Thus  we  have 
diphenylamine,  NH(C6H5)2;  dimethyl  aniline, 
N  (CbHs)  (CH3)a;  methyl  ethyl  aniline,  N  (C6II5) 
(CHs)  (C2II5);  and  so  on.  The  colors  produced 
by  tiiese  dyes  include  every  shade  and  tint.  The 
so-called  aniline  blacks  are  usually  either  very 
intense  greens  or  blues,  appearing  black  through 
concentration. 

The  aniline  dyes  are  noted  for  their  intense 
coloring  power,  one  part  of  a  rosaniline  salt  in  a 
million  parts  of  water  still  possessing  a  deep 
•cHmson  color. 

The  chief  drawback  to  their  use  lies  in  the 
fugitive  nature  of  many  varieties.  The  aniline 
colors  areas  a  whole  disapproved  from  the  artistic 
point  of  view.  Germany  is  now  the  headquarters 
of  the  industry.  See  Perkin,  “On  the  Coal-Tar 
Colors,”  in  Nature ,  Vol. XXXII;  and  The  Chemis¬ 
try  of  the  Coal-Tar  Colors ,  by  Beuedikt  (Eng. 
trans.  1886). 

Animal,  The  popular  classification  of  all 
bodies  into  three  “  kingdoms” — the  animal,  the 
vegetable,  and  the  mineral — only  assumed  author 
ity  in  comparatively  recent  times,  and  has  done 
much  mischief  in  exaggerating  the  apparent  differ¬ 
ences  between  plants  and  animals  on  the  one 
hand,  and  in  obscuring  the  fundamental  distinc¬ 
tion  between  these  and  minerals  on  the  other.  There 
are  in  reality  only  two  kingdoms  of  nature,  the 
living  and  the  non-living — the  organic  and  the 
inorganic. 

While  living  bodies  are  thus  clearly  distinguish¬ 
able  from  inorganic,  every  attempt  to  erect  a  simi¬ 
larly  sharp  distinction  between  plants  and  ani 
mals  completely  breaks  down. 

Animal  Chemistry.  The  objects  of  animal  or 
physiological  chemistry  are,  to  investigate  the 
composition  and  properties  of  protoplasm  and  its 
various  modifications  which  form  the  tissues  and 
organs  of  living  beings,  and  to  ascertain  the  pre¬ 
cise  nature  of  the  constructive  and  destructive 
changes  which  take  place  in  those  tissues  and 
organs  during  the  performance  of  their  functions. 

Protoplasm  is  always  found  to  contain  much 
albuminous  or  proteid  matter,  together  with 
smaller  quantities  of  amyloids  and  fats,  and  its 
molecule  is  conjectured  to  include  representatives 
of  all  these  three  classes.  Much  water  is  also 
present,  together  with  small  quantities  of  nume¬ 
rous  products  of  functional  activity.  We  may 
briefly  refer  to  these. 

Pro'eids  are  at  present  classified  as  follows;  (1) 
Native  Albumens  (egg,  serum,  etc.);  (2)  Derived 
Albumens  (acid  and  alkali  albumens,  casein);  (3) 
Globulins  (globulin,  myosin,  vitelin,  etc.);  (4) 
Fibrin:  (5)  Coagulated  Proteids;  (6)  Peptones; 
(7)  Lardacein.  Certain  nitrogenous  bodies  allied 
to  proteids  are  mucin,  chondrin,  gelatin,  keratin, 
nuclein,  etc.,  which  form  the  principal  compo¬ 
nents  of  mucus,  cartilage-matrix,  connective  tis¬ 
sue,  epidermic  structures,  and  cell  nuclei,  respect¬ 
ively. 

The  Amyloids,  or  carbo-hydrates,  from  their 
far  less  complex  structure,  are  much  better 
understood.  The  most  important  of  these  are 
grape-sugar  (glucose,  dextrose,  diabetic  sugar), 
C6HuO«+HaO;  milk-sugar  (lactose),  GYjIl^C),  ,-j- 
II20;  muscle-sugar  (inosite),  C(!HiaO«-|-2H20; 
glycogen  or  animal  starch,  C6Hio05;and  dextrine, 
Cell  1 0O5. 

The  fats,  with  their  derivatives  and  allies,  form 
very  complete  series,  acid,  neutral,  and  nitro¬ 
genous,  of  which  the  composition  is  tolerably  well 
known.  The  acetic  acid  series,  C?,Ha?i03,  is  best 
represented,  including  formic  (in  blood  and  many 
tissues,  also  secreted  by  ants,  etc.);  acetic  (in 
stomach  during  fermentation  of  food,  in  diabetic 
ur  ne,  etc.);  propinoic  (in  sweat,  etc.);  butyric 
(in  milk;  also  sweat,  urine);  valerianic  (in  faeces); 
caproic,  caprylic,  and  capric  (in  butter);  lauro- 


stearic  and  myriotic  (in  spermaceti,  etc.);  palmitic 
and  stearic  acid  (in  human  fat).  Of  the  oleic  series, 
H(C„H.2„-3)02,  many  members  are  known.  Hu¬ 
man  fat  is  a  mixture  of  oleic,  palmitic,  and  stearic 
acids  in  combination  with  glycerine.  The  glj  - 
colic  acid  series  is  represented  by  lactic  acid, 
the  oxalic  series  supplying  oxalic  and  succinic 
acids.  Cholesterin  is  abundant  in  nervous  tissue 
and  in  bile,  etc.  The  complex  nitrogenous  fats 
are  lecithin,  neurin,  cerebrin,  e’c. 

The  most  important  product  of  nitrogenous 
waste  in  mammalia  is  urea  (NIIa)2CO,  which 
forms  the  chief  solid  constituent  of  urine,  and 
occurs  in  traces  in  blood  and  most  tissues,  except 
muscle,  which,  however,  contains  intermediate 
products  of  decomposition.  Uric  acid,  C5H4Na03, 
predominates  in  the  urine  of  birds  and  reptiles, 
but  it  is  also  present,  in  small  quantities,  in  that 
of  mammals,  and  its  salts  form  gouty  and  urinary 
concretions.  Kretin,  kretinin,  and  sarkin  occur 
constantly  in  muscle;  xanthin,  guanin,  etc.,  in 
urine;  glycocoll  and  taurin  in  combination  in  the 
bile  acids,  etc  ;  leucin  and  tyrosin,  as  products  of 
pancreatic  digestion. 

Most  of  the  preceding  substances,  though  sel¬ 
dom  constant,  appear  to  be  of  exceedingly  wide 
distribution  throughout  the  animal  kingdom. 

See  Gamgee’s  Physiological  Chemistry,  and  Fos¬ 
ter’s  or  other  modern  Text-book  of  Physiology. 

Animal  'cule,  a  term  which,  although  etymo¬ 
logically  applicable  to  any  very  small  animal,  is 
limited  in  ordinary  language  to  those  which  are 
microscopical.  Animalcules  exist  in  prodigious 
numbers,  their  size  being  such  that  myriads  of 
them  find  ample  space  for  all  the  movements  of 
an  active  life  within  a  single  drop  of  water.  Sea¬ 
water  often  contains  them  in  enormous  numbers, 
and  the  luminosity  of  the  sea  is  often  due  to  this 
cause  (Noctiluca).  Although,  contrary  to  a  widely 
diffused  belief,  they  occur  only  in  very  small  num¬ 
ber  in  drinkable  waters,  they  abound  wherever 
water  becomes  stagnant  ,  or  contains  decomposable 
organic  matter.  The  simplest  form  is  a  naked  lump 
of  jelly-like  protoplasm,  constantly  flowing  into 
new  shapes,  the  amoeba;  while  other  masses  of 
jelly,  the  foraminifera,  may  be  found  possessed 
of  coverings  of  sand,  or  even  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  only  protruding  their  irregular  processes 
(pseudopodia)  through  its  openings.  See  any 
adequate  work  on  microscopy — e.g. ,  Carpenter  On 
the  Microscope,  and  the  Micrographic  Dictionary. 

Animal  Heat.  Living  protoplasm  is  con¬ 
stantly  in  process  of  disintegration  and  oxidation, 
and  these  changes  are  accompanied  by  evolution 
of  heat.  The  greater  the  activity  of  change,  the 
higher  does  the  temperature  tend  to  become. 
Even  the  infusoria  evolve  heat,  as  is  shown  by  the 
slowness  with  which  the  surrounding  water 
freezes.  The  average  temperature  of  the  human 
body  is  about  98.4°  Falir. ,  that  of  the  wolf  is 
30  or  40  ]ower  auq  that  of  the  arctic  fox  5°  or  6° 
higher.  In  birds,  the  temperature  varies  from 
100°  in  the  gull  and  other  aquatic  birds,  to  nearly 
112°  in  the  swallow,  while  a  hybernating  mammal 
like  the  lemming  becomes  temporarily  cold¬ 
blooded,  its  temperature  during  the  winter  sleep 
being  comparatively  little  above  that  of  the  atmos¬ 
phere. 

Animal  Magnetism,  Mesmerism,  or  Hyp¬ 
notism.  From  time  immemorial,  Egyptian 
conjurors  and  sorcerers  have  been  accustomed  to 
produce  artificial  somnambulism,  usually  by 
inducing  their  subject  to  gaze  intently  for  a  few 
minutes  at  certain  cabalistic  signs  marked  on  the 
center  of  a  white  plate.  About  1774,  Mesmer,  a 
Viennese  physician,  commenced  to  treat  diseased 
organs  by  the  application  of  artificial  magnets. 
Four  years  later,  he  commenced  practice  in  Paris, 
with  great  success.  His  usual  methods  were  to 
seat  his  patient  with  his  back  to  the  north,  to 
press  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  and  make  passes 
with  his  hands  in  front  of  his  face,  meanwhile 
fixing  his  patient’s  eye,  and  soothing  him  by  the 
aid  of  music.  Sometimes,  too,  he  placed  his 
patients  in  connection  with  magnetized  trees,  or 
set  them  in  a  circle  around  a  covered  vessel  from 
which  he  professed  to  conduct  the  invisible  fluid, 
thus  inducing  peculiar  nervous  conditions.  In 
1785  a  royal  commission  found  that  the  same 
phenomena  could  be  produced  in  Mesmer’s  more 
nervous  patients  when  blindfolded,  by  merely 
|  inducing  them  to  suppose  themselves  in  the 


neighborhood  of  any  of  Mesmer’s  magnetic  appli¬ 
ances,  while  conversely,  magnets  and  magnetic 
trees  were  alike  powerless,  if  the  patient  were 
unaware  of  their  proximity.  Unfortunately  for 
further  investigation,  the  subject  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  arch-quack,  Cagnostro,  and  thus 
became  extremely  discredited  by  physiologists. 
In  1841  Dr.  James  Braid  proved  the  absolute 
dependence  of  the  mesmeric  phenomena  upon  the 
physiological  condition  of  the  patient,  not  on  that 
of  the  operator.  He  proposed  the  word  hypnot¬ 
ism,  which  now  so  advantageously  replaces  the 
terms  animal  magnetism  and  mesmerism.  Since 
his  day  the  phenomena  have  been  thoroughly 
investigated  and  explained.  Hypnotism  is  again 
coming  into  use  in  medical  and  surgical  practice, 
and  its  facts  have  important  bearings  on  the 
phenomena  of  reverie,  trance,  somnambulism, 
religious  excitement,  mania,  and  spiritualism. 
See  Braid’s  Magic,  Animal  Maqnetism,  etc., 
(3d  ed.  1852);  Figuier’s  Histoire  du  Marveilleux 
(1860);  Heidenhain’s  Animal  Magnetism  (I860); 
Binet  and  Fere,  Animal  Magnetism  (International 
Science  Series  1886).  , 

Animals,  Cruelty  to.  England  has  the  honor 
of  first  forming  societies  for  its  prevention,  and  of 
first  legislating  for  its  punishment.  The  English 
Society  for  the  Prevention  of  Cruelty  to  Animals 
was  founded  in  1824,  the  Scottish  in  i 839.  In  the 
United  States  above  thirty  branches  of  a  similar 
organization  were  founded  between  1866  and  1881 ; 
and  the  movement  has  extended  into  France  and 
Germany. 

Animals,  AVoRsnip  of,  according  to  most 
students  of  comparative  religion,  is  a  stage  in  the 
religious  evolution,  characteristic  of  the  less  cul¬ 
tured  races,  which  has  sometimes  held  its  place 
in  the  higher  stages  of  civilization.  It  originates 
in  Animism,  or  Spirit  Worship,  which  is  a  univer¬ 
sal  phenomenon  of  humanity.  Naturally  man  tries 
to  conciliate  the  power  for  evil  indwelling  in  the 
animal,  and  thus  reaches  the  stage  of  full  or  direct 
worship,  in  which  he  recognizes  the  animal  as  the 
incarnation  of  a  divine  soul.  But  a  wider  and 
deeper  motive  for  such  worship  is  his  veneration 
for  the  animal  as  a  totem,  or  representative  of  a 
tribe-ancestor  or  protector.  Among  primitive 
peoples  all  animals  are  supposed  to  be  endowed 
with  souls,  which  in  many  cases  have  formerly 
animated  human  beings.  Hence  a  likeness  is  often 
recognized  between  an  animal  and  some  deceased 
friend,  and  the  animal  is  addressed  as  the  person 
would  have  been,  and  honored  with  a  kind  of 
worship. 

In  the  modern  world  the  most  civilized  people 
among  whom  animal-worship  vigorously  survives 
lie  within  the  range  of  Brahmanism,  where  the 
sacred  cow  is  worshiped  by  the  pious  Hindu.  Per¬ 
haps  no  worship  has  prevailed  more  widely  than 
that  of  the  serpent.  It  had  its  place  in  Egypt  and 
among  the  Hebrews ;  in  Greece  and  Rome ;  among 
the  Celts  and  Scandinavians  in  Europe  ;  in  Persia 
and  in  India;  in  China  and  Thibet  ;  in  Mexico  and 
Peru;  in  Africa,  where  it  still  flourishes  as  the 
State  religion  in  Dahomey;  in  Java  and  Ceylon, 
among  the  Fijians,  and  elsewhere  in  Oceanica. 

See  Fergus, son’s  Tree  and  Serpent  Worship  (1868)\ 
McLennan  in  'The  Fortnightly  Review  for  1869  and 
1870;  Herbert  Spencer  in  the  Fortnightly  for  1870; 
Chap.  XV  of  Tylor’s  Primitive  Culture  (1871); 
Gubernatis’  Zoological  Mythology  (18741,  for  its 
facts;  Robertson  Smith  in  the  Journal  of  Philology 
(1880);  Chap.  VI  of  Dorman’s  Origin  of  Primitive 
Superstitions  (Philadelphia,  1881);  two  chapters  in 
Lang’s  Custom  and  Myth  (1884);  and  Lang’s  Myth, 
Ritual,  and  Religion  (2  vols.  1887). 

An'inia  Mnndi,  according  to  many  of  the  early 
philosophers,  a  force  of  vital  principle  immaterial, 
yet  not  intelligential  ;  inseparable  from  matter, 
but  giving  it  its  form  and  movement,  the  source  of 
all  physical  and  sentient  life. 

An  ime,  a  resin  exuding  from  the  trunk  of  the 
Flymencea  courburil,  a  large  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosie,  sub  order  Caesalimieae,  a  native 
of  New  Spain  and  Brazil, 

Animism,  a  term  originally  used  to  denote  the 
theory  of  Stahl  which  regarded  the  vital  principle 
and  the  soul  as  identical,  but  now  used  in  the 
sense  given  to  it  by  Dr.  Tylor  as  the  general  doc¬ 
trine  of  spiritual  beings. 

Anio,  the  ancient  name  of  the  Teverone,  a 
tributary  of  the  Tiber,  which  rises  in  Monte  Can- 


ANISE. 


58 


ANNECY. 


taro,  and  joins  the  larger  river  three  miles  above 
Rome. 

An  ise  ( PimpineUa  anisum),  an  annual  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Umbelliferae.  Anise  proper 
is  a  native  of  Egypt.  It  is  cultivated  in  Egypt, 
Syria,  Malta,  Spain,  and  Germany.  Anise-seed 
(aniseed)  is  used  as  a  condiment  and  in  the  prepar¬ 
ation  of  liqueurs ;  also  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant 
stomachic,  to  relieve  flatulence,  etc.,  particularly 
in  infants.  It  has  an  aromatic,  agreeable  smell, 
and  a  warm,  sweetish  taste.  Its  properties  are  due 
to  a  nearly  colorless,  or  sometimes  blue,  volatile  oil, 
called  Oil  of  Anise 

Star  Anise,  or  Chinese  Anise,  is  a  fruit  of 
lllicium  anisatum,  a  small  evergreen  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Magnoliaceae,  somewhat  resembling 
a  laurel. 

.Anjou,  a  former  province  in  the  northwest  of 
France,  of  about  3,500  square  miles  in  extent,  now 
forming  the  department  of  Maine-et-Loire.  Its 
capital  was  Angers  (Lat.  Andegavum).  It  has 
given  titles  to  many  Princes  of  France. 

Ankevstrom,  John  Jacob,  the  assassin  of 
Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden,  born  1702.  He  formed 
a  plot  with  a  ring  of  discontented  nobles  to  mur¬ 
der  Gustavus,  and  the  lot  having  fallen  to  him, 
he  wounded  the  king  mortally  with  a  pistol-bullet 
at  a  masked  ball  held  March  15,  1792.  Anker- 
strdm  was  executed  on  the  27tli  April,  after  hav¬ 
ing  been  publicly  flogged  for  three  successive 
days. 

Anker,  a  Dutch  liquid  measure,  formerly  often 
referred  to  in  England,  containing  ten  wine  gal¬ 
lons. 

Anklain,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  Province  of 
Pomerania.  Pop.  (1885),  12,784. 

A  nko  bar,  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Shoa, 
in  Abyssinia,  is  built  8,200  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
consists  of  3,000  huts  scattered  over  the  summit  and 
western  slopes  of  a  mountain.  When  the  king  is 
in  residence  the  population  is  increased  from  6,000 
to  near  15,000. 

Ankylo'sis  (Gr.  ankylosis,  bending  or  crooking; 
ankyle,  stiff-joint)  is  a  term  used  in  surgery  to  im¬ 
ply  a  stiffness  arising  from  adhesions  in  any  joint. 
It  is  usually  the  result  of  disease. 

Anua,  or  Anne,  St.,  according  to  tradition,  wife 
of  St.  Joachim,  and  mother,  after  twenty  years  of 
barrenness,  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  the  mother  of 
Jesus.  The  first  to  mention  her  is  St.  Epiplianius, 
in  the  fourth  century;  but  towards  the  eighth,  we 
find  her  all  but  universally  held  in  honor.  1 1 er  body 
is  said  to  have  been  transferred  from  Palestine  to 
Constantinople  in  710.  She  is  the  patron  saint  of 
carpenters.  Her  festival  falls  on  the  26th  of  J uly; 
with  the  Greeks,  on  the  9tli  of  December. 

Anna,  an  Indian  coin,  value  nominally  1  hi. 
sterling,  but  always  the  sixteenth  part  of  a  rupee. 

Anuaberg,  a  mining  town  of  Saxony,  of  Chem¬ 
nitz.  Pop.  (1885),  13,822. 

Anna  Carlovna,  regent  of  Russia  during  the 
minority  of  her  son  Ivan,  was  the  niece  of  the 
Empress  Anna  Ivanovna,  and  in  1739  married 
Anton  Ulrich,  Duke  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel. 
Her  son  Ivan,  born  1740,  was  nominated  by  the 
Empress  Anna  as  her  successor ;  and  Anna  Car¬ 
lovna  proclaimed  herself  regent.  A  conspiracy 
took  place  in  1741;  the  infant  Ivan  was  murdered; 
and  Anna  and  her  husband  were  imprisoned. 
She  died  in  1746;  while  Anton  was  confined  till 
his  death,  in  1776. 

Anna  Comnc'na,  a  learned  Byzantine  princess, 
author  of  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  Byzan¬ 
tine  histories,  was  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Alexius  I.  (Comenus),  and  was  born  on  December 
1,  1083.  On  the  death  of  her  husband  (1137),  she 
retired  into  a  convent,  where  she  died  in  1148. 

Anna  Ivanovna,  Empress  of  Russia,  born  in 
1693,  was  the  second  daughter  of  Ivan,  elder 
brother  of  Peter  the  Great.  She  married  in  1710 
the  Duke  of  Courland,  who  died  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  year ;  and  she  obtained  the  duchy  of  Cour¬ 
land  for  her  favorite,  Biron,  a  Courlander  of  low 
birth.  The  throne  of  Russia  was  offered  to  her 
by  the  Supreme  Council  on  the  death  of  Peter  II. 
iii  1730.  She  declared  herself  autocrat,  and  sup¬ 
pressed  an  attempt  of  the  nobles  to  establish  a 
constitutional  government ;  and  her  paramour, 
Biron,  established  a  reign  of  terror.  Anna  died 
in  1740,  and  left  the  throne  to  her  grand-nephew, 
Ivan. 

Annals*  These  were  at  first  books  which  con¬ 


tained  a  record,  in  chronological  order,  of  the 
principal  events  occurring  in  one  or  more  years. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  oldest  historical 
documents  of  the  Romans,  the  Annales  Pontifi- 
cum,  or  Annales  Maximi,  the  duty  of  drawing  up 
which  devolved  upon  the  Pontifex  Maximus;  but 
these  were  all  destroyed  by  the  Gauls  at  the  sack 
of  Rome,  nearly  four  hundred  years  before  the 
time  of  Christ.  At  a  still  later  period,  the  term 
was  applied  to  any  historical  work  that  followed 
the  order  of  time  in  its  narrations,  separating  them 
off  into  single  years — as,  for  instance,  the  Annals 
of  Tacitus. 

Annain,  a  territory  along  the  east  coast  of  Indo- 
China,  between  10°  and  23°  N.  latitude,  forming 
an  empire  which,  since  1885,  has  been  under  a 
French  protectorate.  The  names  Annam  and  Co¬ 
chin-China  are  sometimes  used  as  interchangeable; 
Cochin-China  was  the  name  given  by  the  early 
navigators  to  the  whole  coast  from  Siam  to  China. 
Annam,  a  name  given  by  the  Chinese  in  the  third 
century  a.d.,  was  adopted  by  the  Annamese  as  the 
official  name  for  the  whole  country.  The  area  of 
Annam  is  estimated  at  about  106,000  square  miles, 
and  its  population  at  about  21,000,000.  French 
(or  Lower)  Cochin-China,  to  the  south  of  An¬ 
nam,  consisting  of  six  provinces,  was  in  1863 
detached  from  Annam,  and  is  now  under  the 
administration  of  the  French  Marine  Department. 
Cambodia,  occupying  the  lower  course  of  the 
Mehkong,  to  the  southwest  of  Annam,  was,  till 
recently,  under  the  vassalage  of  Siam  ;  but  since 
the  French  occupation  of  Lower  Cochin-China, 
Cambodia  too  has  detached  itself  from  Siam,  and 
declared  allegiance  to  the  French.  Tongking, 
placed  by  the  treaty  of  Hut;  (1884)  along  with 
Annam  Proper  under  the  protection  of  France,  is 
distributed  into  three  distinct  natural  divisions. 
Though  Annam  lies  wholly  in  the  torrid  zone,  the 
climate  of  Tongking  is  on  the  whole  excellent. 
During  the  dry  season,  from  September  to  April, 
the  thermometer  varies  between  70°  and  40°  F. 
During  the  hot  and  rainy  season,  extending  over 
the  other  six  months,  the  thermometer  seldom 
mounts  from  a  minimum  of  70°  to  beyond  100° 
F.  On  account  of  the  moisture,  however,  the 
heats  in  June  and  July  are  sometimes  almost  in¬ 
tolerable.  In  the  mountains  of  Annam,  tigers, 
buffaloes,  rhinoceroses,  and  elephants  abound. 
Much  fishing  is  carried  on.  The  Annamese  are 
mainly  of  Mongoloid  stock.  Rice  is  their  princi¬ 
pal  food  ;  but,  like  the  Chinese,  they  are  omniv¬ 
orous,  and  devour  snakes,  locust,  rats,  and  dogs. 
The  Tongkingese  display  wonderful  skill  in  build¬ 
ing  dykes.  Yet  at  Haiphong,  the  Chinese  have 
monopolized  all  the  industries  demanding  skill 
and  perseverance  ;  and  “lazy  as  an  Annamese”  is 
a  common  proverb.  The  speech  of  the  Annamese 
is  monosyllabic,  like  Chinese,  from  which  they 
have  borrowed  many  words.  The  Annamese 
written  character  was  also  derived  at  an  early 
period  from  the  Chinese  alphabet.  There  is  no 
Annamese  literature  distinct  from  the  Chinese. 
The  mass  of  the  people  worship  tutelary  spirits  ; 
Confucianism  is  in  vogue  with  the  more  culti¬ 
vated  ;  the  remainder  adhere  to  Buddhism. 
There  are  besides  about  420,000  Roman  Catholics, 
descendants  of  emigrants  from  Macao  and  Japan 
(1624),  and  of  Portuguese  fugitives  from  Malacca. 
See  recent  works  on  Annam  and  French  Cochin- 
China  by  Bouillevaux,  DeRhins,  Lemire,  Launay; 
and  works  on  the  French  colonies  by  Vignon, 
Rambaud,  and  De  Lanessan  (1886). 

Annamaboo,  a  small  seaport  town,  protected 
by  a  strong  British  fort,  on  the  Gold  Coast  of 
Africa,  ten  miles  east  of  Cape  Coast  Castle.  Pop. , 
5,000. 

Annap'olis,  a  seaport  of  Nova  Scotia,  on  an 
arm  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  ninety-five  miles  west 
of  Halifax.  Annapolis  is  the  oldest  European 
settlement  to  the  north  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
having  been  established,  in  1604,  by  the  French 
as  the  capital  of  their  province  of  Acadia,  under 
the  name  of  Port  Royal.  Acadia  was  ceded  to 
Britain  by  the  French  in  1713,  when  Port  Royal 
changed  its  name  in  honor  of  Queen  Anne,  con¬ 
tinuing  to  be  the  seat  of  government  till,  in  1750, 
it  was  superseded  by  the  newly-founded  city  of 
Halifax.  Pop.  (1880),  2,833. 

Annapolis,  the  capital  of  Maryland,  stands  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  River  Severn,  two  miles 
from  its  entrance  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  forty 


miles  east  by  north  from  Washington.  Among 
its  edifices  are  an  imposing  state-house,  St.  John's 
College  (1784),  a  Roman  Catholic  seminary,  a 
naval  hospital  (1871),  and  the  United  States  Naval 
Academy,  established  in  1845.  Founded  as  Prov¬ 
idence  in  1649,  Annapolis  received  its  present 
name  in  honor  of  Queen  Anne.  Pop.  (1887), 
about  10,000. 

Ann  Arbor,  a  flourishing  city  of  Michigan, 
thirty-eight  miles  west  of  Detroit,  It  was  settled 
in  1824,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1851.  The 
State  University,  founded  in  1837,  possesses  a 
good  library,  a  notable  observatory,  and  a  labora¬ 
tory.  Pop.  (1880),  7,849. 

An'nates,  or  First-Fruits,  in  the  ecclesias¬ 
tical  law  of  England,  meant  the  value  of  every 
spiritual  living  for  a  whole  year,  which  the  Pope, 
claiming  the  disposition  of  every  spiritual  bene¬ 
fice  within  Christendom,  reserved  out  of  every 
living.  It  was  abolished  in  1534,  and  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year  the  right  to  annates  was  annexed  to- 
the  crown. 

Anuatto,  or  Anatta,  also  known  in  com¬ 
merce  as  Arnotlo,  Roucou,  and  Orleana,  is  tJie 
reddish  pulp  surrounding  the  seeds  of  the  Butt 
i  rellana,  a  medium-sized  tree  growing  in  Guiana 
and  other  parts  of  South  America.  Annatto  is- 
used  in  the  dyeing  of  cloth,  and  it  also  enters 
into  some  bright-colored  varnishes.  It  is  in  the 
coloring  of  butter  and  cheese  that  it  finds  its 
widest  application.  It  is  \  cry  much  adulterated. 

Aline,  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and 
the  last  British  sovereign  of  the  House  of  Stuart, 
was  born  at  St.  James’s  Palace,  London,  on  Feb. 
6,  1665.  She  was  the  second  daughter  of  James 
II.  of  England  and  VII.  of  Scotland  (who  at  the 
time  of  her  birth  was  Duke  of  York),  by  his  first 
wife,  Anne  Hyde,  the  daughter  of  the  famous 
Earl  of  Clarendon.  In  1683,  Anne  was  married 
to  Prince  George  of  Denmark  (1653-1708).  Soon 
after  her  marriage,  the  wife  of  Colonel  Churchill 
(afterward  the  famous  Duke  of  Marlborough) 
was  appointed  one  of  the  ladies  of  her  bed¬ 
chamber,  and  soon  acquired  great  influence  over 
her.  Anne  had  seventeen  children,  but  they  all 
died  before  she  came  to  the  throne,  March  8, 
1702.  Anne  died  Aug.  1,  1714.  The  Elector  of 
Hanover  succeeded  her  as  George  I. 

Auue  Boleyn.  See  Boleyn. 

Anne  of  Austria,  daughter  of  Philip  III.  of 
Spain,  was  born  in  1601,  and  in  1615  became  the 
wife  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France.  The  royal  pair 
lived  for  twenty-three  years  in  a  state  of  virtual 
separation — a  result  due  chiefly  to  the  influence 
of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  On  the  death  of  the  king 
in  1643,  Anne  became  queen-regent  and  chose  as 
her  minister  Cardinal  Mazarin,  under  whose 
management  the  young  king  (Louis  XIV.)  came 
into  possession  of  a  throne  firmly  established  on 
the  ruins  of  contending  parties.  On  the  death 
of  Mazarin,  Anne  retired  to  the  convent  of  Val 
de  Grace,  where  she  died  in  1666. 

Annealing  is  a  process  of  slow  cooling  of  a 
body  from  a  high  temperature,  by  which  there  is 
secured  a  more  or  less  uniform  arrangement  of 
the  particles  or  molecules  throughout  its  mass. 
Glass  in  this  way  is  made  strong  and  able  to 
resist  changes  of  temperature. 

An  annealing  kiln,  or  oven,  is  usually  large, 
and  the  glass  vessels  or  sheets  placed  in  it  are 
raised  to  near  their  melting  points  at  its  hottest 
portion,  and  then  moved  away  at  intervals  to 
cooler  and  cooler  parts  of  the  chamber. 

Metals  under  various  circumstances  require  to 
be  annealed.  Hollow  ware  of  cast-iron,  before 
it  can  be  turned  bright  for  tinning,  must  be  soft¬ 
ened  by  the  annealing  process. 

What  are  called  malleable-iron  castings  are 
made  of  cast-iron,  which  are  afterward  annealed. 
They  are  covered  over  with  powdered  haematite 
ore,  and  subjected  to  various  degrees  of  heat 
for  about  ten  days,  when  they  become  quite 
malleable. 

Annealing  is  also  used  in  gold-beating,  in  wire¬ 
drawing,  in  nail-making,  and  many  other  arts. 
Tin,  lead,  and  zinc  are  annealed  by  the  use  of 
boiling  water,  and  steel  tools  by  immersion  in 
hot  oil,  both  liquids  being  allowed  to  cool  slowly. 
Tempering  is  the  process  of  annealing  reversed. 

Annecy,  chief  town  of  the  French  department 
of  Haute-Savoie,  twenty-two  miles  south  of 
Geneva.  The  Lake  of  Annecy,  1,426  feet  above  the 


ANNELIDA. 


59 


ANT. 


sea,  is  about  nine  miles  long.  Annecy  was  trans¬ 
ferred  with  Savoy  to  France  in  1860.  Here 
Eugene  Sue  died  in  exile.  Pop.  (1881),  10,740. 

Annelida  (Lat.  annellus ,  a  little  ring),  a  term 
due  to  Lamarck,  and  definitely  applied  by  Cuvier 
to  the  higher  red-blooded  worms. 

Annexation  is  the  adding  or  joining  to  a  State 
of  territory  which  was  previously  independent  or 
in  possession  of  another  power. 

Annobon,  or  Annabon,  the  smallest  of  the 
four  islands  in  the  Bay  of  Biafra,  the  eastern  part 
of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  now  belonging  to  Spain. 

Annonay  (ancient  Annoniacum),  a  town  of  the 
department  of  Ard&che,  France,  thirty-seven  miles 
south  of  Lyons.  Montgolfier  was  born  here. 
Pop.  (1881),  14,891. 

Annual,  a  term  applied  to  plants  which  com¬ 
plete  the  whole  course  of  their  development  in 
one  season.  Most  kinds  of  corn  are  the  produce 
of  annual  grasses,  some  of  which,  however, 
as  wheat,  in  certain  circumstances,  prove  of 
longer  duration.  The  annuals  cultivated  in  our 
flower-gardens  are  very  numerous,  and  many 
species,  both  native  and  foreign,  are  among  our 
most  beautiful  flowers.  Among  them  are  the 
cockscomb,  China  aster,  phlox,  marigold,  lark¬ 
spur,  and  candytuft. 

Annual  Register,  a  yearly  record  of  public 
events,  which  was  commenced  in  England  in  1759, 
and  has  been  continued  to  the  present  time. 

Annuals,  the  name  given  to  a  class  of  sump¬ 
tuous  books,  much  in  demand  during  the  first  half 
of  the  present  century,  for  Christmas,  New  Year, 
and  birthday  presents.  They  were  usually  illus¬ 
trated  with  good  engravings,  and  often  contained 
prose  and  poetry  by  prominent  writers  of  the  day. 
Atone  time  over  150,000  copies  were  sold  each 
year,  but  the  craze  died  out  about  1850. 

Annuity  is  the  term-  employed  to  describe  a 
payment  generally  (but  not  necessarily)  of  uniform 
amount  falling  due  in  each  year  during  a  given 
term,  such  as  a  period  of  years  or  the  life  of  an 
individual,  and  payable  either  in  one  sum  at  the 
end  of  the  year,  or  by  half-yearly  or  other  install¬ 
ments.  The  first  to  place  the  calculation  of  life 
annuities  on  a  scientific  basis  by  applying  the  doc¬ 
trines  of  probabilities  and  of  compound  interest 
to  a  mortality  table  deduced  from  the  recorded 
statistics  of  an  actual  community  (Breslau),  was 
the  celebrated  astronomer  royal,  Halley,  whose 
monograph  on  the  subj  ,  t  is  printed  in  the  Philo¬ 
sophical  Transactions,  for  Jan.,  1693. 

Annulet,  (Lat.  annulus ,  a  ring),  a  term  in 
architecture  for  a  small  fillet  or  band  which  fre¬ 
quently  surrounds  a  column.  The  annulet,  a  ring, 
is  a  charge  in  Heraldry. 

Annunciation, the  tidings  brought  by  the  Angel 
Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  Mary  of  the  incarnation  of 
Christ.  Also  the  festival  kept  by  the  Church  in 
commemoration  of  this  event,  on  March  25.  In 
England  the  festival  is  commonly  called  Lady 
Day.  The  Order  of  the  Annunciation,  now  the 
highest  Italian  order,  was  instituted  in  1360  by 
Amadeus  VI.,  Duke  of  Savoy,  and  in  1725  was 
made  the  first  order  of  the  Kingdom  of  Sardinia. 

Anode  (Gr.  ana,  up,  and  hodos,  a  way),  a  term 
in  electrolysis  introduced  by  Faraday  to  des¬ 
ignate  the  positive  pole,  or  that  surface  by 
which  the  galvanic  current  enters  the  body  under¬ 
going  decomposition  (electrolyte);  as  opposed  to 
cathode,  the  negative  pole. 

An'odjne  (Gr.  an,  not,  and  odyne,  pain),  a 
medicine  used  to  assuage  pain.  The  principal 
anodynes  are  aconite,  belladonna,  cocaine,  chloral, 
Indian  hemp,  opium,  and  bromide  of  potassium. 

Anomalistic  Year  is  the  interval  that  elapses 
between  two  successive  passages  of  the  earth 
through  its  perihelion,  or  point  of  nearest  ap¬ 
proach  to  the  sun.  The  length  of  the  anomal¬ 
istic  year  is  365  days,  6  hours,  13  minutes,  49 
seconds,  or  4  minutes,  39  seconds  longer  than  the 
sidereal  year. 

Anom  aly  (Gr.  anomalia,  irregularity),  the 
angle  measured  at  the  sun  between  a  planet  in 
any  point  of  its  orbit  and  the  last  perihelion. 

Anona  ceac,  the  custard-apple  order  are  Tlial- 
amifloral,  Dicotyledons,  closely  allied  to  Magno- 
liaceae.  They  are  trees  and  shrubs,  mostly  trop¬ 
ical,  and  usually  aromatic  and  fragrant. 

Anou  ymous  (Gr.  nameless),  a  term  applied  to 
a  book  or  letter,  the  author  of  which  does  not 


give  his  name;  when  an  assumed  name  is  given, 
the  term  Pseudonymous  is  used. 

Auoplothe'rium  (from  the  Gr.  an,  not; 
hoplon,  armor;  and  kerion,  a  beast),  a  genus  of 


extinct,  even-toed,  hoofed  animals,  established  by 
Cuvier  from  bones  occurring  in  great  abundance 
in  the  gypseous  strata  of  the  Oligocene  formation 
near  Paris. 

Anquetil,  Louis  Pierre,  a  French  historian, 
born  in  1723,  and  died,  a  member  of  the  Institute, 
at  Paris  Sept.  6,  1806. 

Anquetil-Duperron,  Abraham  Hyacinthe, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  a  French  orientalist, 
was  born  at  Paris,  Dec.  7,  1731.  He  studied  in 
India  and  his  Zend-avesta,  Ouvrage  de  Zoroaster, 
appeared  in  1771,  being  the  find  translation 
ever  made  into  a  European  tongue.  He  died 
at  Paris  Jan.  17,  1805. 

Ansars,  more  correctly  Nossairians,  an  Arab 
sect  living  in  the  mountainous  region  of  Syria, 
north  of  the  Lebanon  Mountains.  Their  whole 
number  is  about  75,000. 

Ansbach  (in  England  often  Anspacii)  a  town 
of  Bavaria.  The  margraves  of  the  old  princi¬ 
pality  of  Ansbach  were  a  branch  of  the  family  of 
Ilohenzollern.  The  last  of  them  gave  up  his 
possessions  in  1791  to  Prussia;  and  in  1807  Na¬ 
poleon  transferred  Ansbach  to  Bavaria.  Pop. 
(1885),  14,057. 

Anstlell,  Richard,  animal  and  landscape 
painter,  was  born  at  Liverpool  in  1815.  He  was 
elected  A.R.A.  in  1861,  and  R.A.  in  1870.  He 
died  April  20,  1885. 

Anselm  of  Canterbury,  a  scholastic  philoso¬ 
pher,  was  born  near  Aosta,  in  Piedmont,  in  1033. 
He  was  distinguished  both  as  a  churchman  and 
philosopher,  and  in  1093  became  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury.  Exiled  by  Rufus,  Anselm  returned 
at  Henry’s  request;  but  the  new  monarch’s  de¬ 
mand  that  he  should  renew  his  homage,  and  be 
again  invested  with  his  archbishopric,  was  met 
with  an  absolute  refusal,  and  led  to  a  second  exile 
of  two  years’ duration.  In  1105,  however,  An¬ 
selm’s  threat  of  excommunication  led  to  the  re¬ 
conciliation  of  king  and  prelate,  and  the  com¬ 
promise  was  devised  which,  in  1122,  was  accepted 
by  Pope  and  Emperor  at  Worms.  He  died  April 
21,  1109,  and  was  buried  next  to  Lanfranc  at 
Canterbury.  In  1494  he  was  canonized,  but 
Dante  had  long  before  placed  him  among  the 
greatest  saints  in  Paradise.  In  1720  Clement  XI. 
expressly  placed  him  in  the  list  of  church  author¬ 
ities.  See  Rthnusat’s  Ansehne  (1853;  2ded.  1868); 
Dean  Church’s  Anselm  (1870);  Life  and  Times  of 
St.  Anselm  (2  vols.  1883),  by  Mr.  Martin  Rule, 
who  has  also  edited  for  the  Rolls  Series  Eadmer’s 
two  lives  of  Anselm  (1844). 

Ansgar  ( Anscharius ),  the  Apostle  of  the 
North,  was  born  in  Picardy  in  801.  Under  the 
patronage  of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  lie  went,  with 
his  colleague  Autbert,  to  preach  Christianity  to 
the  heathen  Northmen  of  Sleswick.  He  suffered 
many  persecutions,  and  died  in  865  at  Bremen. 

Anson,  George,  Lord  Anson,  born  April  23, 
1697,  entered  the  English  navy  in  1712,  and  in 
1761  received  the  dignity  of  Admiral  of  the 
Fleet.  He  died  June  6,  1762.  Few  works  have 
been  so  popular  as  Anson’s  Voyage  Round  the 
World  (1748).  See  his  life  by  Sir  John  Barlow. 

Ansonia,  a  town  within  the  township  of  Derby, 
New  Haven  county,  Conn.,  noted  for  clock  man¬ 
ufacturing. 

Ansted,  David  TnoMAs,  geologist,  born  in 
London  Feb.  5,  1814.  He  died  May  13,  1880. 

Ant.  Ants  ( Formiridee ,  Myrmicidee)  are  a  group 
of  Hymenopterous  insects,  in  the  same  order  as 
wasps  and  bees,  which  they  resemble,  not  only  in 
general  structure,  but  in  the  high  evolution  of 
their  instinctive  habits  and  social  life.  The  word 
*  ‘  ant”  is  contracted  from  the  old-fashioned  Saxon 


word  emmet;  and  “pismire”  is  another  almost 
obsolete,  originally  Danish  term.  The  white  ants 
or  termites  are  members  of  an  entirely  different 
order — Neuroptera.  The  ant  family  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  between  two  and  three  thousand  differ¬ 
ent  forms,  widely  distributed  in  temperate  and 
tropical  countries. 


A  Common  Ant  ( Laeius  flatus), 
a ,  queen;  b,  worker;  c,  male;  d,  larva;  e,  pupa. 
(After  Lubbock.) 


Like  most  bees,  ants  occur  in  three  different 
forms — (a)  the  perfect  females  or  queens,  the 
mothers  of  new  generations;  ( b )  the  short-lived 
males,  which  die  soon  after  the  “  nuptial  flight;” 
and  (c)  the  great  majority  of  workers,  which  are 
predominantly  females,  though  rarely  sexual, 
and  often  exhibit  different  forms  according  to  the 
work  which  they  have  to  do.  In  some  cases, 
further,  there  are  distinct  classes  of  workers. 

As  in  other  insects,  the  body  consists  of  three 
parts— head,  thorax,  and  abdomen.  The  head, 
which  of  course  contains  the  “  brain,”  is,  though 
minute,  yet  large  in  proportion.  There  are  four 
chapters  in  the  life-history  of  an  ant — viz.,  egg, 
larva,  chrysalis,  and  perfect  insect.  The  minute 
white  or  yellowish  eggs  laid  by  the  queen  in  the 
ant  nest,  are  hatched  in  from  two  to  six  weeks, 
and  develop  into  white  legless  larvae  or  grubs. 
Both  eggs  and  grubs  are  carefully  watched,  and 
the  grubs  fed,  by  the  ever-vigilant  workers. 
After  a  period  varying  from  a  few  weeks  to  as 
many  months,  the  larvae  become  pupae  or  chrysa¬ 
lids.  These  may  remain  naked,  or  may  spin 
silken  robes  or  cocoons.  The  nursing  care  of  the 
workers  does  not  cease;  the  brood  is  kept  clean, 
shifted  into  the  sunshine,  or  carried  off  in  case  of 
danger.  After  a  short  while,  during  which  no 
food  is  taken,  the  perfect  insects  appear,  weak 
and  helpless,  still  dependent  upon  the  kindly  aid 
of  the  workers,  even  to  free  them  from  their  silken 
birth-robes.  For  some  weeks,  in  fact,  the  workers 
continue  to  care  for  them.  As  in  all  insects  with 
a  similar  history,  or  complete  metamorphosis,  the 
insect  has  attained  its  full  size  when  it  leaves  the 
pupa  stage.  Left  to  themselves,  the  males  gene¬ 
rally  die  after  fertilizing  the  queens  in  the  nuptial 
flight,  but  the  queens  and  workers  may  live  for 
several  years.  Great  numbers  fall  victims  _  to 
other  animals — insects,  spiders,  birds,  ant-eating 
mammals,  etc.;  and,  small  as  they  are,  ants  are  not 
unfrequently  attacked  by  still  smaller  parasites. 

The  whole  food-supply  for  the  inmates  of  the 
nest  is  collected  by  the  industrious  workers,  or  in 
a  few  cases  by  captured  slaves  of  another  species. 
The  food  chiefly  consists  either  of  insects  and 
available  animal  matter,  or  of  sweet  vegetable 
substances,  such  as  honey,  fruit,  and  sugar. 


Part  of  a  Gallery,  with  Ant  working  on  tiptoe. 
Pogonomyrmex  motif aciens,  the  Agricultural  Ant  of  Texas.. 

(From  M’Cook.) 

Ants  are  especially  fond  of  the  sweet  secretion 
which  flows  out  from  the  plant-lice  or  Aphides; 
and  some  species  not  only  tap  and  tickle  the  latter 
to  induce  them  to  part  with  their  honey-dew,  but 
keep  them,  as  Linnteus  said,  as  “cows,”  protect- 


ANTACIDS. 


60 


ANTELOPES. 


ing  them  iu  sheds,  and  yet,  more  marvelously, 
caring  for  their  eggs. 

Most  ants  live  in  chambered  nests.  These  are 
of  very  varied  construction,  from  simple  heaps  of 
loose  material  to  houses  of  more  or  less  elaborate 
architecture.  Some  simply  utilize  the  shelter  of 
a  large  stone,  under  which  they  burrow,  while 
others  weave  a  hanging  silken  nest;  some  bore 
into  old  stumps,  which  they  riddle  with  their 


Ant's  Nest  (a  mound  disc)  with  Roads. 
Pooonomyrmex  molifaciens ,  the  Agricultural  Ant  of  Texas 
(From  M'Cook.) 

tunnels,  and  others  form  a  house  from  leaves 
glued  or  woven  together.  The  nest  of  F.  rufa 
exhibits  a  thatched  dome,  witli  lattice-work  shut¬ 
ters  and  doors  which  are  closed  at  night.  In 
South  America,  the  ant-hills  are  sometimes  several 
feet  in  height,  and  exhibit  internally  a  marvel¬ 
ously  complex  and  orderly  arrangement  of 
chambers  and  galleries.  The  so-called  “mason- 
ants”  use  soft  clay  in  forming  the  roofs  and  par¬ 
titions  of  their  neat  chambers,  while  the  “car¬ 
penters”  hollow  out  their  houses  in  trees  and 
shrubs.  Roads,  tunnels,  and  covered  ways  are 
also  frequently  formed  round  about  the  nest. 
Many  communities  live  in  a  large  nest,  which 
may  contain  half  a  million  members. 

An  ants’  nest  contains  three  kinds  of  individ¬ 
uals,  workers,  males,  and  one  or  more  queens.  It 
is  generally  supposed  that  ants,  like  bees,  have 
the  power  to  determine  by  differences  of  food, 
etc.,  whether  a  given  egg  will  develop  into  a 
worker  or  a  queen.  There  is  a  general  division 
of  labor  involved  in  the  existence  of  a  caste  of 
workers  separate  from  the  males  and  normal 
females.  But  apart  from  this  the  workers  come 
to  discharge  among  themselves  very  different 
functions.  The  young  and  the  old,  the  small  and 
the  large,  are  set  apart  for  different  duties. 
Sanguinary  wars  between  different  species  of  ants 
have  been  observed  from  very  early  times,  and 
the  dates  of  certain  remarkable  campaigns  gravely 
recorded.  In  some  ant  communities,  members  of 
other  species  are  captured  when  young,  and  used 
as  slaves. 

The  senses  of  ants  are  well  developed.  Some 
forms  are  able  to  make  a  rasping  noise  by  means 
of  a  structure  on  the  abdomen,  and  the  solitary 
ant,  mut ii la,  utters  when  seized  a  characteristic 
note  between  a  buzz  and  a  squeak.  They  are 
able  to  recognize  the  members  of  their  own  com¬ 
munity  even  when  these  are  intoxicated,  or  re¬ 
moved  from  the  nest  as  larvae  and  brought  up 
separately.  Several  naturalists  have  shown  that 
ants  are  able  definitely  to  communicate  with  one 
another  by  something  approaching  to  language. 
See  Lubbock’s  Ants,  Bees,  and  Wasps  (Intemat. 
Sc.  Series,  1882);  Rev.  W.  Farren  White’s  Ants 
and  Their  Ways;  M’Cook’s  Agricultural  Ant  of 
Texas  (1880);  Bates’  Naturalist  on  the  Amazon; 
Belt’s  Naturalist  in  Nicaragua. 

Antacids  are  drugs  used  for  the  purpose  of 
neutralizing  or  diminishing  excessive  acidity  of 
the  digestive  system,  or  of  the  different  excre¬ 
tions.  Substances  which  act  upon  the  former  are 
termed  direct,  and  upon  the  latter,  remote  ant¬ 
acids.  Many  drugs  act  in  both  ways,  such  as 
potash,  soda,  lithia,  lime,  and  magnesia,  as  well 
as  their  combinations  with  carbonic  acid. 

Antic  us,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  son  of  Poseidon 
and  G5,  a  huge  giant  in  Libya,  who  challenged 
all  strangers  who  came  to  his  country  to  wrestle 
with  him.  No  one  could  throw  him,  because 
ev.ery  time  he  touched  the  earth,  his  mother,  he 
received  new  strength.  At  last,  Hercules  crushed 
him,  lifting  him  up  so  that  he  could  not  touch  the 
earth. 

Antalciilas,  a  Spartan  politician,  chiefly  known 
by  the  celebrated  treaty  concluded  with  Persia  at 
the  close  of  the  Corinthian  war,  in  387  b.c.,  and 


called  by  his  name,  as  it  was  the  fruit  of  his  skill¬ 
ful  diplomacy. 

Antananarivo,  or  TanaijarIvo,  the  capital 
city  of  Madagascar,  and  seat  of  the  government, 
has  a  population  estimated  at  80,000. 

Anta  ra,  or  Antar,  a  celebrated  Arab  chief  in 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century. 

Antarctic  Ocean.  The  Antarctic  Ocean  is 
situated  about,  or  within,  the  Antarctic  Circle. 
The  Great  Southern  Ocean,  according  to  modern 
geographers,  is  that  part  of  the  ocean  which  sur¬ 
rounds  the  world  in  one  continuous  band  between 
the  latitudes  of  40°  S.  and  the  Antarctic  Circle. 
This  band  is  only  partially  interrupted  by  the 
southern  prolongation  of  South  America.  The 
northern  portions  of  this  band  are  often  called  the 
South  Atlantic,  South  Indian,  and  South  Pacific, 
while  the  southern  portions  are  usually  called  the 
Antarctic  Ocean.  The  average  depth  of  the  con¬ 
tinuous  ocean  which  surrounds  south  polar  land 
is  about  two  miles;  it  gradually  shoals  towards 
Antarctic  land,  which  in  some  places  is  met  with 
a  short  distance  within  the  Antarctic  Circle.  The 
Challenger  found  1,800  fathoms  near  the  Antarctic 
Circle  south  of  Kerguelen,  but  Ross  records  a 
much  greater  depth  in  the  same  latitude  south  of 
the  Sandwich  group.  Only  three  navigators, 
Cook,  Weddell,  and  Ross,  have  crossed  the  70th 
parallel  south.  Of  several  other  expeditions  that 
have  crossed  the  Antarctic  Circle,  the  most  nota¬ 
ble  was  the  Challenger ,  in  1874,  the  only  steam 
vessel  that  had  visited  these  seas.  The  majority 
of  Antarctic  voyagers  have  discovered  land  south 
of  the  60th  parallel,  Cook  in  71"  S.  and  107°  W. 
Bellingshausen  discovered  Peter  Island  and  Alex¬ 
ander  Land;  D’Urville  discovered  Adelie  Land. 
Wilkes  found  land  extending  from  the  100th  to 
to  the  160th  meridian  of  E.  longitude  between  the 
parallels  of  65°  and  67°  S.  Ross  discovered  Vic¬ 
toria  Land,  and  in  February,  1841,  sailed  along  its 
coasts  within  sight  of  the  high  mountain  ranges, 
7,000  to  10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  as  far  as  78°  S. 
The  mountain  range  here  terminated  in  an  active 
volcano,  Mount  Erebus,  12,000  feet  in  height. 
His  farther  progress  was  stopped  by  an  icy  barrier 
150  to  200  feet  in  height,  along  which  he  sailed  to 
the  east  for  300  miles.  The  depth  off  this  ice 
barrier  was  260  fathoms.  Ross  and  D’Urville 
alone  have  succeeded  in  setting  foot  on  land 
within  the  Antarctic  Circle.  This  land  was  of 
volcanic  origin;  but  there  is,  no  doubt,  a  large  ex¬ 
tent  of  continental  land  around  the  South  Pole, 
for  the  Challenger  dredged  up  granitites,  mica- 
schists,  sandstones,  and  other  continental  rocks 
close  to  the  ice-barrier.  Air.  Murray  estimates 
the  extent  of  the  Antarctic  Continent  at  3,000,000 
square  miles.  Whales,  grampuses,  spals,  pen¬ 
guins,  petrels,  albatrosses,  and  other  oceanic  birds 
abound.  The  mean  temperature  both  of  the  air 
and  sea,  south  of  63°  S.,  is,  even  in  summer,  below 
the  freezing  point  of  sea  water.  Between  60°  and 
63°  S.,  a  sensible  rise  takes  place,  temperatures  as 
high  as  38p  Fahr.,  being  recorded  both  of  sea  and 
air  in  March. 

Ant-ealers  ( llyrmecophagidoe ),  a  family  of 
South  American  mammals  belonging  to  the  insect¬ 
eating  division  of  the  order  Edentata.  The  ab¬ 
sence  of  teeth,  the  long  head,  tubular  mouth,  worm¬ 
like  tongue,  the  marked  development  of  the 
third  digit  of  the  fore  foot,  and  the  insect  diet,  are 
prominent  characteristics  of  this  small  family. 


Great  Ant-eater  (Myrmicophaga jiibala). 


(1)  The  largest  form  of  the  great  ant-eater  ( Myr ■ 
mecophaga  jubata),  or  ant-bear,  as  it  is  called  in 
Demerara,  which  inhabits  swampy  regions  in 
South  and  Central  America.  It  measures  four 
feet  in  length,  not  including  the  bushy  tail,  which 
is  sometimes  as  long  as  the  body.  The  long, 
worm-like  tongue  may  be  protruded  to  a  length  of 


eighteen  inches  from  the  tubular  mouth  at  the  end 
of  the  muzzle,  and  is  covered  with  a  viscid  secre¬ 
tion  from  large  glands  which  extend  back  over 
the  chest.  By  this  means  termites  or  white  ants 
are  caught  in  great  numbers  as  they  issue  from  the 
invaded  nest,  and  whipped  with  extraordinary 
rapidity  into  the  mouth. 

Like  other  insectivorous  animals  the  ant-eater  can 
live  for  prolonged  periods  without  food.  It  spends 
much  of  its  time  in  sleep.  Another  much  smaller 
form,  the  tamandua,  (T.  tetradactyla),  isarboreal. 
The  little  two-toed  ant-eater  ( Cyclosurus  didac- 
tyla)  is  also  arboreal.  (2)  The  pangolins,  or  scaly 
ant-eaters  of  the  Old  World,  though  closely  re¬ 
lated,  belong  to  a  different  family.  The  name 
ant-eater  is  given  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the 
Orycteropus  capensis,  the  aardvark  or  earth-hog 
of  the  Dutch  colonists,  a  quadruped  of  about  the 
same  size  as  the  great  ant-eater  of  America,  and 
belonging  to  the  same  natural  order.  (3)  The 
Ecliidnce  of  Australia  are  sometimes  called  porcu¬ 
pine  ant-eaters  ;  but  though  they  agree  with  the 
above  in  the  nature  of  their  food,  and  in  the  sharp 
snout  and  protrusible  tongue,  their  general  struct- 
ture  is  cjuite  different.  The  Myrmecobius  faciatus, 
a  small  marsupial  of  Australia,  is  also  called  ant- 
eater. 

Antecedent,  a  term  in  Logic,  Grammar,  and 
Mathematics.  In  Logic  it  is  a  statement  or  prop¬ 
osition  from  which  another  is  logically  deduced. 
In  Grammar  it  is  the  substantive  (word  or  clause) 
to  which  a  relative  points  back.  In  Mathematics 
we  speak  of  the  antecedent  of  a  ratio — i.  e.,  the 
first  of  two  terms  which  compose  the  ratio ;  the 
first  and  third  in  a  series  of  four  proportionals. 

Antediluvian  (Lat.  ante,  before;  diluvium,  the 
deluge,)  is  the  word  used  of  anything  that  existed 
before  the  flood. 

Antelopes  (Antilopidce);  a  family  of  Mammalia 
belonging  to  the  order  of  Ruminants  and  to  the 
hollow  horned  section  of  that  order — in  which  the 
horns  consist  of  a  horny  sheath,  surrounding  a 
bony  process  of  the  skull,  and  are  permanent,  not 
annually  renewed.  In  antelopes,  however,  the 
bony  centre  of  the  horns  is  solid.  They  differ  ex¬ 
ternally  from  goats  in  their  beardless  chin,  and 
from  them  and  sheep  in  the  absence  of  longitudi¬ 
nal  angles  or  ridges  on  the  horns,  which  are,  how¬ 
ever.  very  generally  marked  with  cross  rings.  The 


Addax  (Antelope  adclax.) 

body  is  slender  and  deer-like,  the  feet  small  and 
elegant,  the  tail  short  and  tufted,  the  hair  gener¬ 
ally  short,  and  the  color  often  lively.  North 
America  possesses  two  species — the  prong-horn 
(Antilocapra)  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  goat  (Ap- 
locerus),  which  depart  considerably  from  the  typi¬ 
cal  character  of  the  genus.  The  prong-horn  sheds 
the  horns  annually  like  most  species  of  deer.  The 
addax  or  Nubian  antelope  {A.  addax),  which  was 
known  to  the  ancients  and  is  mentioned  by  Pliny, 
has  horns  similar  to  those  of  the  Indian  antelope. 
It  inhabits  the  deserts  of  Central  Africa,  and,  con¬ 
trary  to  the  usual  habits  of  the  genus,  is  said  not 
to  be  gregarious,  but  to  live  in  pairs.  The  chikara 
inhabits  thick  forests  and  jungles.  Like  the  ad¬ 
dax,  it  lives  in  pairs  ;  as  do  also  the  stein-bok  of 
South  Africa  and  the  kleene-bok  of  the  same 
country  ( A .  perpu silla),  a  beautiful  and  active 
little  creature  with  very  small  horns.  The  gazelle 
of  North  Afiica  (.4.  ' dorcas ),  is  very  frequently 
domesticated.  The  South  African  spring-bok  is 
another  very  beautiful  species,  and  is  frequently 
domesticated  by  colonists  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

Still  more  worthy  of  notice  among  the  South 
African  species,  but  in  some  measure  departing 
from  the  strict  antelope  type,  is  the  eland,  the 


ANTENNJ3. 


61 


ANTHROPOLOGY. 


largest  of  all  the  antelopes.  The  koodoo  is  another 
noble  species  allied  to  the  eland. 

Antenna;,  or  feelers,  the  anterior  appendages 
on  the  head  of  crustaceans,  insects  and  myriapods. 
The  typical  crustacean,  such  as  a  lobster,  has  two 
pairs  of  feelers,  while  insects  and  myriapods  have 
only  one  pair.  The  name  may  also  be  applied  to 
sensory  processes  on  the  head  of  some  marine 
worms.  They  are  really  “head-legs”  modified 
for  sensory  purposes,  and  consist  of  a  long  series 
of  joints,  sometimes  over  100  in  number.  They 
are  supplied  with  nerve  branches,  and  are  used  by 
the  animals  for  feeling  their  way,  for  testing  sur¬ 
rounding  objects,  aud  apparently  for  communi¬ 


cating  with  one  another.  Deprived  of  its  anten¬ 
nae,  an  ant,  for  instance,  is  peculiarly  helpless. 

Anteque’ra  (the  Anti^uana  of  the  Romans), 
an  important  town  in  the  Spanish  Province  of 
Malaga.  Pop.  (1884),  25,122. 

Anthe'lia  (Gr.  anti,  opposite,  and  hellos ,  the 
sun  Ger.  Gegensonnen)  are  luminous  rings  seen 
by  an  observer  on  a  cloud  or  fog  which  lies  oppo¬ 
site  to  the  sun.  They  are  only  seen  when  sun 
shine  and  cloud,  or  fog,  occur  at  the  same  time. 

Anthem,  a  shortened  form  of  Antiphon  (Gr. 
anti,  in  return,  phone,  voice;  a  piece  sung  in  alter¬ 
nate  parts),  a  species  of  musical  composition 
introduced  into  the  service  of  the  English  Church 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  appointed  to  be 
sung  daily,  at  morning  and  evening  service,  after 
the  third  collect. 

Antheridium,  the  male  reproductive  organs  of 
many  cryptogams  (ferns,  horsetails,  mosses,  etc). 
They  may  consist  of  a  single  cell,  but  are  usually 
multicellular  sacs,  within  which  the  thread-like 
male  reproductive  elements  or  antherozoids  are 
produced. 

Anthol'ogy.  from  a  Greek  word  meaning  liter¬ 
ally  “a  collection  of  flowers,”  is  a  title  given  to  a 
work  consisting  of  a  series  of  choice  thoughts, 
generally  used  solely  of  collections  of  poems. 

Anthon,  Charles,  LL.D.,  a  well-known 
editor  of  classics,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1797. 
Educated  at  Columbia  College,  he  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1819.  In  1830  appeared  his  large 
edition  of  Horace.  Five  years  later  he  became 
•  head  of  the  classical  department  at  Columbia  Col¬ 
lege.  He  died  July  29,  1867. 

Anthozoa  (Gr.  anthos,  a  flower,  and  zoon,  an 
animal),  one  of  the  three  classes  of  Ccelenterates, 
including  sea-anemones,  dead  men's  fingers, 
corals,  etc.  The  common  term  is  Actinozoa. 

Anthracene  (C6H4)2(CH)2  is  a  substance  ob¬ 
tained  in  the  distillation  of  coal-tar.  Although 
long  known  to  chemists,  it  is  as  the  source  of 
artificial  Alizarin  that  it  has  become  of  commer¬ 
cial  value.  "When  perfectly  pure  it  forms  white, 
pearly  scales,  melting  at  about  41 0°  Falir.  (210°C.), 
and  at  a  higher  temperature  distilling  without 
decomposition.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but 
readily  dissolves  in  boiling  alcohol,  ether,  or  tur¬ 
pentine. 

Anthracite  (Gr.  anthrax,  a  coal),  or  Stone 
Coal,  is  black,  has  a  kind  of  iridescent  or  metallic 
lustre,  is  not  readily  ignited,  and  burns  nearly 
without  smell,  smoke,  or  flame,  giving  out  an  in¬ 
tense  heat.  It  consists  almost  entirely  of  carbon, 
and  contains  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  con¬ 
stituents  of  bitumen.  Soft  coal  which  has  been 


subjected  to  the  action  of  heat  underground 
loses  its  bituminous  constituents  and  passes  into 
anthracite.  Thus  many  coals  have  been  rendered 
anthracitic  in  the  neighborhood  of  intrusive 
igneous  rocks.  It  is  found  largely  in  South 
Wales,  and  here  and  there  in  Scotland.  The 
largest  field  of  anthracite  is  in  the  coal-region  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Anthrax  (Gr.  a  carbuncle),  the  name  now  gen¬ 
erally  used  of  a  widely-distributed  and  very 
destructive  disease,  most  common  among  sheep 
and  cattle.  Besides  its  practical  importance,  it 
has  special  theoretical  interest,  because  it  was  the 
first  infectious  disease  proved  to  be  due  to  the 
presence  of  microscopic  vegetable  organisms 
[bacilli),  and  because  it  has  been  more  fully  studied 
than  any  other  analogous  disease. 

Anthrax  has  received  many  names;  the  most 
important  are  Splenic  Apoplexy,  Splenic  Fever; 
as  it  occurs  in  man,  Malignant  Pustule,  Wool- 
sorter’s  Disease;  in  French,  Gharbon,  Sang  de 
Bate,  Mai  de  Sang;  in  German,  Milzbrand.  It 
occurs  in  most  countries  of  Europe.  The  Lood- 
iana  Fever  and  Pali  Plague  of  India,  and  the 
disease  which  was  very  fMal  to  horses  and  cattle 
in  the  Zulu  war,  areclosely  allied,  if  not  identical. 
The  disease  of  cattle  called  Black-leg  or  Quarter 
Evil,  though  very  similar,  is  now  proved  to  be 
distinct  from  anthrax. 

Cattle  and  sheep  are  most  commonly  attacked 
by  anthrax.  Among  horses  and  camels  it  is  also 
very  destructive.  Rabbits,  hares,  mice,  guinea- 
pigs,  are  readily  affected,  and  probably  many 
other  herbivorous  mammals.  It  has  been  found 
that  rats  are  susceptible  to  it  when  fed  on  vege 
tables,  but  not  when  on  animal  diet;  and  prob¬ 
ably  food  has  a  similar  influence  in  man.  Car¬ 
nivorous  animals  become  affected  with  difficulty, 
if  at  all.  Fowls  can  contract  it,  but  only  when 
their  temperature,  naturally  higher  than  that  of 
mammals,  is  artificially  reduced. 

Anthrax  does  not  readily  attack  man,  and  is 
very  rarely  communicated  by  one  human  being  to 
another.  It  occurs  in  those  whose  occupations 
bring  them  into  contact  with  diseased  animals  or 
their  hides,  wTool,  etc. — i.  e.,  butchers,  farriers, 
porters,  etc. 

In  1881  Pasteur  announced  that  by  cultivating 
the  anthrax  bacillus  at  42-43°  C.  (108°  Fahr.),  he 
was  able  to  obtain  a  form  which  produced  a  mod¬ 
ified  anthrax  in  sheep  and  cattle  inoculated  with 
it,  much  less  virulent  and  fatal  than  the  ordinary 
disease;  and  tnat  the  animals  thus  treated  were 
proof  against  the  ordinary  anthrax  poison. 
Subsequent  experimenters  have  not  fully 
confirmed  Pasteur’s  results;  but  his  method  is 
largely  employed  on  the  Continent,  frequently, 
though  not  always,  with  success.  He  stated  in 
1886  that  half  a  million  animals  are  inoculated 
annually  for  anthrax  in  France  alone.  Koch  On 
Traumatic  Infective  Diseases  (1880);  Klein  in  The 
Practitioner  for  1884. 

Anthropoid  Apes,  the  highest  and  most  man¬ 
like  monkeys,  including  gorilla,  chimpanzee, 


scribed  with  more  or  less  definiteness.  The  family 
is  of  special  interest  and  importance  in  connection 
with  the  views  held  by  evolutionists  as  to  the 
descent  of  man.  In  their  expressions  of  cerebral 
activity,  whether  intellectual  or  emotional,  the 
anthropoids  come  in  some  respects  very  near  the 
lowest  human  tribes. 

On  the  other  hand,  while  it  is  impossible  to 
establish  any  fundamental  distinction  in  physical 
structure  between  Homo  and  the  Anthropo- 
morpha,  there  is  among  evolutionists  an  equal 
consensus  of  opinion  as  to  the  impossibility  of 
regarding  an  ape  of  any  existing  anthropoid 
species  as  in  the  direct  line  of  human  ancestry. 
As  regards  brain-structure,  the  most  man-like  ape 
is  the  orang,  while  the  champanzee  has  the  most 
closely  related  skull,  the  gorilla  the  most  human 
feet  and  hands,  the  gibbon  the  most  similar  chest. 
The  reader  should  consult  Darwin’s  Descent  of 
Man,  Hteckel’s  Anlhropogeny ,  Huxley’s  Man’s 
Place  in  Nature,  and  Hartmann’s  A  nthropoid  Apes 
(Internat.  Sc.  Series),  where  abundant  references 
will  be  found. 

AntliropoTatry  (Gr.  man-worship)  the  giving 
of  divine  honors  to  a  human  being,  a  term  always 
applied  in  reproach. 

Anthropology  is  the  science  of  man,  and  more 
especially  of  man  considered  as  a  social  animal. 

As  to  man’s  origin,  two  main  views  may  be 
said  at  present  to  contest  the  field.  The  one, 
heretofore  the  usual  belief,  is  based  either  upon 
the  literal  interpretation  of  Scripture  or  upon 
natural  theology,  and  regards  him  as  a  distinct 
creation,  separate  from  and  superior  to  the  re¬ 
maining  animals.  The  other,  accepted  by  many 
competent  biological  authorities,  regards  him  as 
descended  from  a.  hairy  quadrumanous  arboreal 
animal,  more  or  less  remotely  allied  to  the 
anthropoid  apes.  This  theory  is  elaborated  in 
profuse  detail  by  Charles  Darwin,  whose  Descent 
of  Man  forms  the  great  storehouse  of  information 
and  speculation  on  the  question.  Huxley’s  Man's 
Place  in  Nature  may  likewise  be  consulted  on 
this  branch  of  the  subject,  as  may  also  Lyell’s 
Antiquity  of  Man,  and  Dr.  E.  B.  Tylor’s  Anthro¬ 
pology.  The  other  side  of  the  question  is  ably 
argued  in  A.  de  Quartrefages’  Races  llumaines 
(Par.  1887). 

When  man  first  appears  before  us  in  recogniz¬ 
able  form,  he  appears  as  an  erect  animal,  intelli¬ 
gent  and  social,  endowed  with  articulate  speech, 
and  capable  of  manufacturing  weapons  and  im¬ 
plements  of  stone,  bone,  wood,  and  other  like 
materials.  All  questions  as  to  how,  on  the  evo¬ 
lutionist  theory,  he  acquired  the  erect  habit, 
already  partially  foreshadowed  in  the  anthropoid 
apes,  and  how  lie  lost  the  hairy  covering  of  his 
body,  belong  strictly  to  the  domain  of  anthropol¬ 
ogy,  and  have  been  argued  out  by  Darwin,  Hux¬ 
ley,  Wallace,  and  others.  The  unusual  intelligence 
and  mechanical  ability  of  man  are  closely  cor¬ 
related  with  his  large  brain;  and  the  oldest  skulls 
yet  discovered  show  that  this  exceptional  devel¬ 
opment  of  the  brain  dates  back  to  a  very  early 


o  c  Go 

Skeletons  of  Anthropoid  Apes  compared  with  that  of  Man. 

G,  gibbon  (for  distinctness,  given  about  twice  the  proportional  size) ;  O,  orang-utan;  C,  chimpanzee;  Go,  gorilla; 

M,  man  (After  Huxley. 


orang-utan,  gibbon,  and  several  other  species. 
The  anthropoid  apes  are  all  arboreal,  and  inhabit 
Africa,  South-eastern  Asia,  and  the  Malay  Archi¬ 
pelago.  About  a  dozen  species  have  been  de¬ 


period.  Similarly,  it  is  for  the  most  part  by  his 
works  and  tools,  indicating  a  high  degree  of  in¬ 
telligence,  that  we  trace  the  existence  of  man  in 
geological  time. 


ANTHROPOMETRY. 


02 


ANTIPERIODICS. 


According  to  the  biblical  theory  of  creation, 
man’s  first  home  was  in  Eden,  the  position  of 
which  has  been  greatly  debated.  But  if  we 
accept  the  evolutionary  view,  man  perhaps  had 
his  origin  in  the  torrid  region  of  Asia  or  Africa, 
still  (he  home  of  the  anthropoid  apes.  In  the 
beginning,  according  to  their  theory,  man  was 
apparently  homogeneous,  speaking  a  single  prim¬ 
itive  rude  tongue.  At  an  early  period,  however, 
the  species  broke  up  into  several  races,  now  in¬ 
habiting  various  parts  of  the  world. 

See  the  writings  of  Broca,  regarded  by  many 
as  the  real  founder  of  anthropolgy;  Lubbock, 
Prehistoric  Times  (1865)  and  Origin  of  Civilization 
(1870);  Tylor,  Researches  into  the  Early  History  of 
.. Mankind  (1865),  Primitive  Culture  (1871),  and 
Anthropology  (1881);  Bagehot,  Physics  and  Poli¬ 
tics  (1872);  Herbert  Spencer,  Principles  of  Sociol¬ 
ogy  (1876  et  seq.);  Letourneau,  Sociology  (Eng. 
trans.  1877);  Waitz,  Anlhropologie  der  Naturmlker 
(Vols.  I-IV,  1859-65;  Vols.  V-VI  by  Gerland, 
1867-71);  and  the  Diclionnaire  des  Sciences  An- 
thropologiques,  (1882  et  seq.)  Special  journals  are 
the  Zeitschrift  fur  Ethnologic ,  founded  1868; 
Revue  d’ Anthropologic  founded  1865. 

Anthropometry,  the  measurement  of  the 
human  body  to  discover  its  exact  dimensions  and 
the  proportions  of  it*  parts,  for  comparison  with 
its  dimensions  at  different  periods,  or  in  different 
races  or  classes. 

Anthropomorphism  (Gr.  anthropos,  man,  and 
morphe,  form),  the  application,  in  a  figurative 
way,  to  God,  of  terms  which  properly  relate  to 
human  beings. 

Anti'bes  (anc.  Antipolis),  a  fortified  seaport  in 
the  French  department  of  Alpes  Maritimes,  seven 
and  one-half  miles  south  of  Cannes.  Pop.  (1881), 
4,565. 

Auticlilor,  was  the  name  formerly  applied  to 
commercial  sulphite  of  soda  by  paper-makers, 
but  now  usually  restricted  to  hyposulphite  of 
soda. 

Antichrist,  a  name  which  occurs  only  in  the 
Epistles  of  St.  John,  and  is  identified  by  differ¬ 
ent  writers,  with  more  or  less  probability,  with 
false  Christs,  and  other  enemies  of  Christianity. 
The  Greek  preposition  anti  has  the  twofold  mean¬ 
ing  of  substitution  and  of  opposition;  and  the 
two  meanings  of  a  rival  Christ  or  pretender  to  the 
Messiahsliip  and  an  opponent,  are  mixed  up  in 
the  early  Christian  conceptions  of  Antichrist,  in 
which  various  stages  of  development  are  to  be 
distinguished. 

Among  those  to  whom  the  name  of  Antichrist 
has  been  given  are  Nero,  Caligula,  Mohammed, 
and  the  First  and  Third  Napoleons,  while  the 
early  followers  of  Luther  characterized  each  suc¬ 
cessive  Pope  by  that  title. 

Anticlimax,  as  opposed  to  climax,  is  the  addi¬ 
tion  to  a  statement  of  a  particular  which,  instead 
of  heightening  the  effect,  renders  the  whole 
ludicrous,  nearly  equal  to  bathos. 

Anticline  (Gr.  anti,  against;  klino,  I  bend),  in 
Geology,  applied  to  strata  which  are  inclined  in 
opposite  directions /rom  a  common  axis — that  is, 
in  a  roof-like  form.  Saddleback  is  another  term 
used  for  the  same  structure.  Syncline  (Gr.  syn. 


a ,  Anticline:  s,  Syncline. 


together,  and  klino)  is  the  converse  of  anticline, 
and  is  applied  to  strata  which  are  inclined  in 
opposite  directions  toward  a  common  axis. 

Anticosti,  an  island  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law¬ 
rence,  which  it  divides  into  two  channels,  with 
lighthouses  at  different  parts  of  the  coast,  and 
about  140  miles  long,  and  30  miles  broad  in 
the  centre.  The  island  is  attached  to  the  Cana¬ 
dian  Province  of  Quebec. 

Anti'cyra,  (1)  the  modern  Aspraspitia,  an 
ancient  Greek  town  in  Pliocis,  built  on  a  penin¬ 
sula  in  a  bay  on  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  (2)  A  town 
of  Thessaly,  on  the  Sinus  Maliacus,  noted  for 
its  hellebore.  (3)  A  town  of  Locris,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Corinthian  Gulf. 


Antidotes,  a  term  applied  to  substances  given 
to  counteract  the  effect  of  poisons. 

Antietam,  a  narrow  but  deep  river  in  Mary¬ 
land,  falling  into  the  Potomac  seven  miles  below 
Harper’s  Ferry.  On  its  banks,  near  Sharpsburg, 
was  fought  a  bloody  battle  between  the  Union 
troops  under  McClellan,  and  the  Confederate 
army  under  Lee,  in  which  the  former  remained 
master  of  the  field,  though  at  a  loss  of  nearly 
13,000  men. 

Autifcbrin,  or  Acetanilid,  introduced  in 
1886  as  a  febrifuge,  the  cheapness  of  which,  com¬ 
bined  with  its  rapidity  of  action  and  its  non- 
poisonous  nature,  have  brought  it  rapidly  into 
favor  as  a  substitute  for  quinine.  A  white  color¬ 
less  powder,  witli  burning  taste,  it  is  almost  in¬ 
soluble  in  cold  water,  though  readily  soluble  in 
alcohol.  It  is  derived  from  aniline, to  which 
it  is  closely  allied,  its  chemical  formula  being 
GeHsNHCaHsO. 

Antig'one,  daughter  of  (Edipus  by  his  own 
mother,  Jocasta,  and  sister  of  Eteocles,  Polynices, 
and  Ismene.  AntigonC  has  been  immortalized  by 
Sophocles  in  his  (Edipus  at,  Golonus  and  Antigone. 

Antig'onus,  surnamed  tlie“One-eyed”  {Cyclops), 
one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
received  in  the  division  of  the  empire,  after  the 
death  of  the  latter,  the  Provinces  of  Phrygia 
Major,  Lycia,  and  Pamphylia.  In  306  he  assumed 
the  title  of  king,  but  was  defeated  by  Lysima- 
chus,  Cassander,  and  Seleucus  in  the  decisive 
bat  tle  of  Ipsus,  in  Phrygia,  in  which  he  was  slain, 
301  n.c.  lie  was  the  father  of  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes — Antigonus  Gona'tas,  son  of  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  grandson  of 
the  great  Antigonus.  Driven  out  of  his  king¬ 
dom  in  273  by  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus,  he  recovered 
it  in  the  following  year,  and  kept  it  until  his 
death,  in  239. 

Antig'ua,  the  most  important  of  the  Leeward 
Islands  (West  Indies),  and  the  residence  of  the 
governor-in-chief  of  the  British  portion  of  the 
group.  It  is  82  miles  long  and  14  wide.  Antigua 
was  discovered  in  1493,  by  Columbus.  It  was 
first  settled  by  a  few  English  in  1632.  For  a  time 
occupied  by  the  French,  it  was  declared  a  British 
possession  by  the  Treaty  of  Breda  (1667).  Pop. 
(1881),  34,964. 

Antiliegom '  ena  (Gr.  spoken  against),  a  term 
applied  to  those  books  of  the  New  Testament 
not  at  first  accepted  by  the  whole  Christian 
Church,  but  ultimately  admitted  into  the  Canon 
— the  seven  books  of  II  Peter,  James,  Jude,  He¬ 
brews,  II  and  III  John,  and  the  Apocalypse. 

Antilles,  a  term  applied  to  the  whole  of  the 
West  India  Islands,  except  the  Bahamas.  The 
Greater  Antilles  are  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Ilayti,  and 
Porto  Rico;  the  others  are  known  as  the  Lesser 
Antilles. 

Anti-Masonry.  In  the  year  1826  one  William 
Morgan,  of  Batavia,  N.  Y.,  who  had  announced 
his  intention  of  publishing  a  book  exposing  the 
secrets  of  Freemasonry,  he  having  been  a  mem¬ 
ber,  mysteriously  disappeared,  and  was  never 
found.  It  was  alleged  that  he  had  been  thrown 
into  the  Niagara  River  by  Masons,  and  great 
public  indignation  was  aroused  against  the  Ma¬ 
sonic  body.  An  anti-Masonic  party  was  formed 
in  New  York,  and  rapidly  spread  through  New 
•England,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania.  State 
and  National  conventions  of  anti-Masons  were 
held,  and  in  1832  Vermont,  gave  her  seven 
electoral  votes  for  the  anti-Masonic  nominees. 

Antimony — symb.,  Sb.  (Lat.  stibium)-,  equiv. 
122 — is  a  brittle  metal  of  a  flaky,  crystalline 
texture,  and  a  bluish-white  color.  It  readily 
pulverizes;  when  heated  to  842°  Fahr.  (450°  Cent.), 
it  fuses,  and  on  cooling  solidifies  in  rhombo- 
liedral  crystals,  which  are  isomorphous  with 
those  of  arsenic.  Heated  in  a  retort,  with  oxygen 
excluded,  antimony  volatilizes  as  the  vapor  of 
the  pure  metal.  Native  antimony  is  found  but 
rather  sparingly,  associated  with  a  few  other 
metals.  Antimony  is  smelted  in  France,  where 
ore  is  found  abundantly;  in  Germany,  and  in 
England,  which  receives  its  supply  of  ore  from 
Singapore  and  Borneo. 

The  compounds  of  antimony  are  numerous: 
With  oxygen  it  forms  (1)  the  sesquioxide  of  anti¬ 
mony,  or  while  antimony  ore,  Sb2Oa,  which  enters 
into  the  composition  of  tartar  emetic;  (2)  anti- 
monious  acid,  Sb204,  which  forms  one  of  the 


components  of  Dr.  James’s  powders;  (3)  antimo- 
nic  acid,  Sb205,  a  very  insoluble  compound,  ob¬ 
tained  by  acting  upon  the  metal  with  concen¬ 
trated  nitric  acid.  With  sulphur,  antimony 
forms  the  sub-sulpldde,  Sb2S3,  already  referred 
to  as  the  natural  ore  of  the  metal. 

Autino'mianism  (Gr.  anti,  against,  and  nomas, 
law),  the  doctrine  or  opinion  that  Christians  are 
freed  from  obligation  to  keep  the  law  of  God. 
It  is  generally  regarded  by  advocates  of  the 
doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  as  a  monstrous 
abuse  and  perversion  of  that  doctrine,  upon 
which  it  usually  professes  to  be  based. 

Antin'ous,  a  youth  of  extraordinary  beauty,  a 
native  of  Claudiopolis,  in  Bithynia,  the  favorite 
of  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and  his  companion 
in  all  his  journeys.  He  was  drowned  in  the 
River  Nile,  near  Besa,  in  122  a.d.,  perhaps 
through  suicide. 

An'tioch,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Greek 
kings  of  Syria,  and  long  the  chief  city  in  Asia, 
lies  in  a  fertile  and  beautiful  plain,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  River  Orontes,  fourteen  miles  from 
the  sea.  The  city  was  erected  by  Seleucus  Ni- 
cator  about  300  n.c.,  and  was  the  most  splendid 
of  the  sixteen  cities  built  by  him  in  honor  of  his 
father  Antiochus.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest 
strongholds  of  the  new  faith — indeed,  it  was 
here  that  the  name  of  Christians  was  first  used. 
The  downfall  of  the  city  dates  from  the  fifth 
century.  At  present  it  forms  a  portion  of  Syria, 
in  the  Province  of  Aleppo,  and  has  a  population 
of  17,500,  mostly  Turks. 

Anti'ochus,  the  name  of  thirteen  kings  of 
Syria,  of  the  Seleucid  dynasty.  Antiochus  I., 
surnamed  Sotor  (reigned  281-261  b.c.),  the  first 
of  the  Syrian  dynasty  of  the  Seleucidae,  was  the 
son  of  Seleucus,  one  of  the  generals  and  suc¬ 
cessors  of  Alexander. — Antiochus  II  (261-246), 
surnamed  Theos  (God)  by  the  Milesians,  whom 
he  freed  from  their  tyrant  Timarchus.  Anti¬ 
ochus  III.,  surnamed  the  Great,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Seleucus  Callinicus,  and  grandson 
of  the  preceding,  was  the  most  distinguished  of 
the  Seleucidae.  lie  reigned  from  223  to  187.  He 
failed  in  his  attempts  to  recover  Parthia  and 
Bactria,  and  waged  war  with  success  against 
Ptolemy  Philopater,  and  though  defeated  in  a 
great  battle  fought  at  Raphia  near  Gaza  (217),  he 
afterward  obtained  entire  possession  of  Palestine 
and  Ccele-Syria  (198).  He  was  killed  by  his 
people  187  i?.c. — Antiochus  IV.  (175-164  b.c.), 
surnamed  Epiphanes,  fought  against  Egypt,  and 
conquered  a  great  part  of  it.  He  twice  took 
Jerusalem;  and,  by  his  tyranny  and  sacrilege,  ex¬ 
cited  the  Jews  to  a  successful  insurrection  under 
their  leaders,  Matthias  and  his  heroic  sons,  the 
Maccabees. — The  last  of  the  Seleucidae,  Anti- 
oenus  XIII.,  surnamed  Asiaticus,  was  deprived 
of  his  kingdom  by  Pompey,  who  reduced  Syria 
to  a  Roman  province,  (65  b.c.) 

Antipadobaptist,  is  a  term  derived  from 
Greek  words  for  one  who  objects  to  infant 
baptism. 

Antip'aros  (anc.  Oliaros),  one  of  the  middle 
Cyclades  in  the  yEgean  Sea,  close  to  Paros.  Its 
wonderful  stalactite  grotto  has  been  well  known 
since  1673.  At  a  depth  of  918  feet  under  the  en¬ 
trance,  the  chief  chamber  is  reached.  It  is  312 
feet  long,  98  wide,  and  82  high,  and  is  covered 
everywhere  with  the  most  wonderful  stalactite 
and  stalagmite  formations. 

Antip'ater,  (1)  a  general  highly  trusted  by 
Philip  and  Alexander  the  Great,  left  by  the  latter 
as  regent  in  Macedonia  when  he  crossed  over  into 
Asia,  334  b.c.  He  died  at  an  advanced  age  in 
319. — (2)  The  father  of  Herod  the  Great,  ap¬ 
pointed  by  Julius  Caesar  procurator  of  Judaea  in 
47  b.c.  He  was  poisoned  in  43  b.c. — (3)  The  sou 
of  Herod  the  Great  by  his  first  wife.  He  was 
executed  in  prison  five  days  before  Herod  died. 

Antip'athy  is  the  term  applied  to  a  class  of 
cases  in  which  individuals  are  disagreeably  affected 
by,  or  violently  dislike  things  innocuous  or  agree¬ 
able  to  the  majority  of  mankind.  These  peculi¬ 
arities  are  sometimes  innate. 

Aiitiperiodics  are  drugs  which  relieve  or  cure 
certain  diseases  (particularly  ague,  and  some 
forms  of  neuralgia  and  headache)  whose  attacks 
occur  at  regular  intervals.  The  most  important 
are  cinchona  bark  and  its  alkaloids  (especially 
quinine)  and  arsenic. 


ANTIPHLOGISTIC. 


63 


ANTONIUS. 


Antiphlogistic  (Gr.  and?, against,  and  phlogiso, 
I  burn),  a  term  applied  to  remedies  and  to 
rerimen  opposed  to  inflammation,  such  as  blood¬ 
letting,  purgatives,  low  diet,  etc. 

An'tiphon,  the  earliest  of  the  ten  Attic  orators 
in  the  Alexandrine  canon,  born  at  Rharnus  in 
Attica,  480  b.c. 

Antiph'ony,  the  name  of  a  species  of  sacred 
.song,  sung  by  two  parties,  each  responding  to 
the  other. 

Antip'odes,  a  word  of  Greek  origin,  signifying, 
literally,  those  who  have  their  feet  over  against 
•each  other.  As  applied  in  geography  the  term 
means  the  inhabitants  of  any  two  opposite  points 
of  the  globe. 

Autipope,  a  pontiff  elected  in  opposition  to 
one  canonically  chosen.  Of  these  there  were 
many  in  the  early  and  middle  ages,  but  none 
since  1455  a.d. 

Antipyrin,  an  artificial  substitute  for  quinine. 
It  is  obtained  from  coal-tar  products  by  a  process 
of  great  complexity,  its  chemical  composition  be- 
ing  C11EL2N2O.  It  is  a  white,  crystalline  powder, 
tasteless,  colorless,  and  soluble  in  water.  It  is 
not  an  antiperiodic. 

Antique.  As  the  term  ancients  is  commonly 
applied  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  word  an¬ 
tique  is  used  with  reference  to  their  works  of  art, 
•especially  their  incomparable  sculptures. 

Anti-rentism,  a  term  applied  to  the  action  of 
a  political  party  which  caused  considerable  dis¬ 
turbance  in  the  State  of  New  York  (1843-47)  in 
connection  with  the  non-payment  of  rent.  Large 
tracts  of  land  had  been  granted  in  old  colonial 
days  by  the  Dutch  West  India  Company  to  its 
members  in  New  York,  who  had  the  title  or  priv¬ 
ilege  of  a  lord  “patroon”  or  protector,  and  the 
colony  or  manor  was  governed  by  feudal  tenures. 
Though  the  latter  were  abolished  bylaws  enacted 
in  1779  and  1785,  yet  the  proprietors  managed  to 
form  a  deed  by  which  rents  and  dues  should  be 
paid  as  formerly.  Associations  were  formed  in 
1839  to  get  rid  of  these  burdens.  Evictions  were 
tried  by  the  proprietors  which  led  to  resistance 
and  outrages.  Ultimately  the  Legislature  gave  re¬ 
lief  of  a  certain  kind  to  the  tenantry,  feudal  ten¬ 
ures  and  incidents  were  abolished,  and  agricul¬ 
tural  land  was  forbidden  to  be  leased  for  a  longer 
period  than  twelve  years. 

Antisana,  a  volcano  of  the  Andes,  in  Ecuador. 
On  its  slopes  are  many  extinct  craters,  and  at  a 
height  of  12,400  feet  is  the  famous  Tambo  de  An¬ 
tisana,  one  of  the  highest  inhabited  places  in  the 
world. 

Antisemites,  the  modern  opponents  of  the 
Jews  in  Russia,  Romania,  Hungary,  and  Eastern 
Germany.  They  incited  recent  massacres  in  those 
countries. 

Antiseptics  (Gr.  anti,  against;  septilws,  caus¬ 
ing  putrefaction)  are  substances  which  prevent 
or  arrest  putrefaction  and  analogous  fermentive 
changes.  It  has  been  proved  that  putrefaction, 
fermentation  of  grape-juice  (vinous  ferment  at  ion), 
of  milk  (luetic  fermentation),  and  many,  though 
probably  not  all  other,  fermentations,  depend 
upon  the  presence  of  microscopic  vegetable  organ¬ 
isms.  To  prevent  these  processes,  then,  it  is 
necessary  either  to  exclude  these  organisms  alto- 
getlier;  to  interfere  with  conditions  which  permit 
of  their  development  ;  or  to  destroy  their  vitality. 
Their  growth  may  be  arrested  by  dessication,  by 
exclusion  of  air,  and  by  a  low  temperature.  Of  anti¬ 
septics  the  most  important  are  common  salt  and 
saltpetre,  alcohol,  sulphurous  acid,  boracic  acid, 
and  arsenious  acid;  many  salts,  as  chloride  of 
zinc  (Burnett’s  solution),  permanganate  of  potash 
(Condy’s  fluid),  sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol), 
corrosive  sublimate,  nitrate  of  silver;  chlorine 
(given  off  by  chloride  of  lime),  iodine,  iodoform 
(Cilia),  glycerine,  boroglyceride,  eucalyptus  oil, 
thymol,  creosote,  carbolic  acid,  salicylic  acid, 
tannic  acid,  quinine,  charcoal,  dry  mold,  used  in 
the  earth-closet  system.  All  these  substances  act 
directly  or  indirectly  as  poisons  to  the  organisms 
which  produce  putrefaction,  etc.  Most  of  them 
are  either  poisonous  or  very  unpalatable  to  man, 
and  cannot  therefore  be  used  in  preserving  food. 

Antiseptic  Surgery,  or  Listerism,  is  the 
system  of  treating  surgical  wounds  introduced  by 
Sir  Joseph  Lister,  based  on  his  clear  recognition 
of  the  fact  that  putrefactive  processes  (sepsis)  arc 
the  chief  danger  which  the  surgeon  has  to  com¬ 


bat  in  dealing  with  accidental  and  operation 
wounds.  The  system  consists  essentially  in  spray¬ 
ing  the  wound  and  everything  brought  in  con¬ 
tact  with  it  with  an  antiseptic,  the  favorite  anti¬ 
septics  being  carbolic  acid  and  corrosive  subli¬ 
mate.  By  this  practice  mortality  from  injuries 
and  operations  has  been  greatly  diminished,  the 
death-rate  after  major  amputations  (in  1864  and 
1866)  having  fallen  from  45  per  cent,  to  about  12 
per  cent,  (in  1871-77). 

Antisthenes,  founder  of  the  Cynic  school  of 
philosophy,  fought  in  his  youth  at  Tanagra  (426 
b.c.),  was  first  a  disciple  of  Gorgias,  afterwards  a 
friend  and  follower  of  Socrates,  and  died  at 
Athens  at  the  age  of  70. 

Antithermin  is  the  popular  name  applied  to 
a  substance  derived  from  coal-tar,  and  having  a 
very  complex  chemical  composition,  introduced 
by  M.  Nicot  in  1887  as  a  rival  to  quinine. 

Antithesis  (Gr.  anti,  against,  and  thesis,  from 
tithemi,  I  place),  an  opposition  or  contrast  of  ideas 
expressed  by  bringing  words  that  are  the  natural 
opposites  of  each  other  close  together  so  as  to 
produce  a  strong  contrast. 

Antitrinita'rian,  one  who  denies  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity.  The  name  is  practically  synony¬ 
mous  with  Unitarian. 

Antitype,  a  Greek  word,  literally  signifying  a 
type  or  figure  which  corresponds  to  some  other 
type  or  figure. 

ABliuin,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Latium.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  Emperors 
Caligula  and  Nero. 

Antivnri,  a  seaport  of  the  coast-district 
assigned  to  Montenegro  by  the  treaty  of  Berlin  in 
1878.  Pop.,  8,000. 

Antlers,  bony  outgrowths  from  the  frontal 
bones  of  almost  all  the  members  of  the  deer 
family.  Except  in  the  reindeer,  they  are  re¬ 
stricted  to  the  males,  and  are  secondary  sexual 
characteristics  used  as  weapons  in  fighting  for 
possession  of  the  females.  In  many  cases  deer  shed 
their  r.ntlers  annually. 

Anl  .ion,  the  larva  of  an  insect  (Myrmeleon) 
of  the  order  Neroptera,  remarkable  for  the  ingenu¬ 
ity  of  its  insect-catching  habits.  It  inhabits 
sandy  districts,  and  is  more  common  in  the  South 
of  Europe  than  in  the  North.  Some  species  are 


Ant-lion,  showing  perfect  insect,  larva,  and  excavation. 


common  in  North  America.  The  perfect  insect 
is  about  an  inch  long,  and  has  a  general  resem¬ 
blance  to  a  dragon-fly.  It  feeds  upon  the  juices 
of  insects,  especially  ants,  in  order  to  obtain 
which  it  cleverly  excavates  a  funnel-shaped  pit- 
fall  in  sandy  ground,  and  lies  in  wait  at  the  bot¬ 
tom,  often  with  all  but  its  mandibles  buried  in 
the  sand.  When  insects  approach  too  near  to  the 
edge  of  the  hole,  the  loose  sand  gives  way,  so  that 
they  fall  down  the  steep  slope. 

Antofagasta,  a  port  in  the  Chilian  territory  of 
the  same  name.  Pop.  (1875),  5,384. 

Antommarclii,  Francesco,  the  physician  of 
Napoleon  at  St.  Helena,  was  a  native  of  Corsica, 
and  was  born  about  1780.  He  died  in  Cuba, 
April  3,  1838. 

Antonelli,  Giacomo, Cardinal,  was  born  April 
2,  1806,  at  Sonnino,  a  village  situated  near  the 
Pontine  Marshes.  In  1819  Antonelli  went  to 
Rome,  and  entered  the  Grand  Seminary,  where 
he  proved  himself  one  of  the  cleverest  students 
of  his  time.  He  gained  the  favor  of  Pope 
Gregory  XVI.,  who  named  him  a  prelato,  and 


gave  him  some  excellent  ecclesiastical  appoint¬ 
ments.  In  1841  Antonelli  became  Under-Secre¬ 
tary  of  State  to  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior;  in 
1844,  Second  Treasurer;  and  in  the  following  year, 
Finance  Minister  of  the  two  Apostolic  Chambers. 
Pope  Pius  IX.,  having  mounted  the  papal  throne 
in  1846,  raised  Antonelli,  during  the  next  year,  to 
the  dignity  of  cardinal -deacon  of  Santa  Agat  ha 
alia  Suburra.  In  1848  Antonelli  was  President 
and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  a  Liberal  Cabi¬ 
net  which  framed  the  famous  Statute  or  Constitu¬ 
tion  proclaimed  in  1848.  He  accompanied  the 
Pope  in  his  flight  to  Gaeta,  and  returned  with  him 
to  Rome,  and  supported  the  reactionary  policy. 
In  1855  an  attempt  was  made  upon  his  life.  In 
the  Vatican  Council  of  1869-70,  Antonelli  showed 
great  tact  and  ability.  At  the  date  of  his  death, 
Nov.  6,  1876,  the  various  posts  held  by  Antonelli 
made  him  virtually  Prime  Minister  to  the  Pope. 
The  vast  property,  $8,000,000,  bequeathed  to  his 
three  brothers,  was  vainly  disputed  by  his  alleged 
daughter  in  a  tedious  and  famous  lawsuit 
(1877-9). 

Antonello,  of  Messina,  an  Italian  painter, 
born  about  1414,  who  introduced  into  Italy  the 
Flemish  methods  of  oil-painting,  which  he  had 
learned  from  the  Van  Eycks.  lie  died  in  1493. 

Antoninus  Pius,  Titus  Aurelius  Fulvus, 
Roman  Emperor  (138-161  a.d.),  was  born  in  the 
reign  of  Domitian,  in  the  year  86  a.d.  Iu  120  he 
was  made  consul;  afterwards  he  was  sent  by 
Hadrian  as  proconsul  into  Asia.  In  138  he  was 
adopted  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and  came  to 
the  throne  in  the  same  year.  Ilis  reign  was 
peaceful  and  happy.  The  persecution  of  Chris¬ 
tians  was  partly  stayed  by  his  mild  measures,  and 
Justin  Martyr’s  Apologia  was  received  by  him 
with  favor.  Antoninus  died  in  161  a.d.  By  his 
wife  Faustina,  lie  had  four  children,  three  of 
whom  died ,  but  one  lived  to  be  the  wife  of  Marcus 
Aurelius,  his  adopted  son  and  successor. 

Antoninus,  Wall  of,  a  Roman  rampart 
erected  between  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde,  in 
140  a. d.,  during  the  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  to 
restrain  the  encroachments  of  the  northern  tribes. 
The  line  of  the  wall  may  still  be  traced  to  a  con¬ 
siderable  extent. 

Antonius,  Marcus  (Mark  Antony),  the 
Roman  triumvir,  born  about  83  b.c.,  belonged 
to  one  of  the  oldest  patrician  families,  and 
on  his  mother’s  side  was  related  to  Julius 
Caesar.  In  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  he  led  the 
left  wing  of  Caesar’s  army.  In  47  B.c.  he  was 
made  master  of  the  horse  by  Caesar,  who  left 
him  to  govern  Italy  during  his  absence  in 
Africa.  Antony  disgraced  himself.  He  drank, 
he  divorced  his  wife,  and  took  up  with  an 
actress,  Cytheris.  In  44  b.c.  he  was  made 
Consul,  and  vainly  endeavored  to  prevail  on 
the  Romans  to  recognize  Caesar  as  Emperor. 
On  Caesar’s  assassination,  by  his  funeral  ora¬ 
tion  he  so  wrought  on  the  passions  of  the  people 
that  the  conspirators  were  forced  to  escape 
from  Rome,  leaving  Antony  in  possession  of 
almost  absolute  power.  The  defeat  of  Mutina 
(43  b.c.)  drove  him  a  fugitive  beyond  the  Alps; 
but  iu  Gaul  he  visited  the  camp  of  Lepidus,  and 
gained  the  favor  of  the  army,  of  which  he  took  the 
command.  Plancus  and  Pollio  joined  him  with 
their  troops;  and  Antony,  who  so  recently  escaped 
as  a  helpless  fugitive  from  Italy,  returned  to  Rome 
at  the  head  of  seventeen  legions  and  10,000  cav¬ 
alry.  He  joined  forces  with  Octavian  and  Lepi¬ 
dus,  forming  the  triumvirate  which  was  to  divide 
the  known  world.  Among  their  first  victims  was 
Cicero,  the  orator  whose  eloquence  they  dreaded; 
and,  in  all,  not  less  than  300  senators  and  2,000 
equites  are  believed  to  have  fallen.  After  securing 
Italy  for  themselves,  and  raising  an  enormous  sum 
of  money  to  carry  on  the  war  abroad,  Antony 
and  Octavian  led  their  troops  into  Macedonia,  and 
defeated  Brutus  and  Cassius.  Antony  next  paid 
a  visit  to  Athens,  and  then  passed  over  to  Africa, 
to  arrange  his  dispute  with  Cleopatra,  Queen  of 
Egypt,  whose  conduct  had  offended  the  triumvirs. 
The  Queen  herself  appeared  to  answer  his  chal¬ 
lenge,  and  captivated  him  by  her  beauty  and 
address.  He  followed  Cleopatra  into  Egypt,  and 
lived  with  her  in  idleness  and  luxury,  until  he 
was  aroused  by  tidings  of  a  quarrel  in  Italy  be¬ 
tween  his  own  kindred  and  Octavian.  A  new 
division  of  the  Roman  world  was  now  arranged, 


ANTONY. 


64 


APHONIA. 


Antony  taking  the  East,  and  Octavian  the  West, 
while  Lepidus  had  to  put  up  with  Africa.  Antony 
had  confirmed  his  friendship  with  Octavian  by  a 
marriage  with  his  sister,  Octavia;  but,  returning 
now  to  Cleopatra,  he  resumed  his  voluptuous 
mode  of  life,  and  was  guilty  of  acts  of  the  gross¬ 
est  injustice.  Meanwhile,  at  Home,  he  was  de¬ 
posed  from  the  triumvirate,  and  war  was  pro¬ 
claimed  against  Cleopatra.  Each  party  collected 
its  forces,  and  in  the  naval  engagement  of  Actium 
•  (31  b.c.)  Antony  was  defeated.  Deserted  by  the 
Egyptian  fleet,  as  by  his  own  army,  and  deceived 
by  a  false  report  of  Cleopatra’s  suicide,  lie  killed 
himself  by  falling  upon  his  sword  in  the  year  30 
b.c.  See  Shakespeare’s  A ntony  and  Cleopatra. 

Antony.  St.,  surnamed  Tite  Great,  or  An¬ 
ton  y  of  Thebes,  the  father  of  monachism,  was 
born  about  the  year  251  a.d.  ,  at  Koma,  near 
Heraklea,  in  Upper  Egypt.  lie  died  at  the  age 
of  105. 

St.  Antony’s  Fire  was  the  name  given  to  a 
pestilential  epidemic,  also  called  the  sacred  fire, 
which  in  1089  swept  off  great  numbers,  especially 
in  France;  it  being  held  that  many  sufferers  had 
been  cured  through  the  intercession  of  St.  An¬ 
tony,  especially  by  prayer  before  his  relics.  The 
disease  was  commonly  supposed  to  be  erysipelas. 

Antony  of  Padau,  St.,  was  born  at  Lisbon, 
Aug.  15,  1195,  and  on  the  father’s  side  was  re¬ 
lated  to  Godfrey  of  Bouillon.  He  was  at  first  an 
Augustinian  monk;  but  in  1220  he  entered  the 
Franciscan  order,  and  became  one  of  its  most 
active  propagators.  He  preached  in  the  South  of 
France  and  Upper  Italy,  and  died  at  Padua,  June 
13,  1231.  He  was  canonized  by  Gregory  IX.  in 
the  following  year. 

Antraigues,  Emanuel  Delaunay,  Comte  d’, 
a  great  politician,  with  a  very  ambiguous  charac¬ 
ter,  was  born  at  Villeneuve  de  Berg,  in  the  depart¬ 
ment  Ardfeehe,  in  1755.  On  July  22,  1812,  he 
was  murdered,  with  his  wife,  at  his  residence  near 
London,  by  an  Italian  servant. 

Antrim,  a  maritime  county  in  the  northeast  of 
Ireland,  in  the  Province  of  Ulster,  stands  second 
among  the  Irish  counties  in  population,  but  in 
size  only  ninth.  Its  greatest  length  is  57  miles; 
its  greatest  breadth,  28;  its  extent  of  sea-coast,  90; 
and  its  area,  1,192  square  miles.  The  principal 
towns  are — Belfast,  Lisbon,  Ballymena,  Baily- 
money,  Carriekfergus,  Larne,  and  Antrim. 

Ant-thrusli,  a  general  name  applied  to  birds  of 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries,  which  feed  to 
a  large  extent  upon  ants. 

Antwerp  (Fr.  Anvers;  Flem.  Antwerpen ,  on 
the  wharf),  the  capital  of  the  province  which 
bears  its  name,  and  the  chief  commercial  city  of 
Belgium,  is  situated  on  the  river  Scheldt,  fifty-two 
miles  from  the  sea,  and  twenty-seven  north  of 
Brussels.  It  is  the  Liverpool  of  the  Continent, 
and  the  tonnage  of  vessels  entering  its  port  has 
increased  tenfold  within  thirty  years',  until  it  stands 
at  about  4,000,000  tons  annually  A  new  quay, 
two  miles  in  length,  and  docks  have  been  con¬ 
structed  at  a  cost  of  nearly  $20,000,000,  which 
were  opened  by  the  King  of  the  Belgians  in  July 
1885.  Antwerp  is  one  of  the  most  strongly  forti¬ 
fied  places  in  Europe.  Pop.  (1886),  198,174. 

Antwerp  is  mentioned  as  early  as  the  eighth 
century;  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  it  gave  signs 
of  considerable  prosperity,  and  in  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  the  commercial 
capital  of  the  world.  It  has  been  besieged,  bom¬ 
barded,  and  taken  over  and  over  again  by  French, 
Spanish,  Dutch  and  others. 

Anu  bis,  an  Egyptian  deity,  a  son  of  Osiris, 
identified  by  the  Greeks  with  Hermes. 

Auupshahr,  an  ill-built,  crowded  town  of 
India,  seventy-five  miles  southeast  of  Delhi.  Pop., 
14,000. 

Auu'ra.  One  of  the  main  divisions  of  Am¬ 
phibia,  containing  the  frogs  and  toads. 

A  nus,  the  term  applied  by  anatomists  to  the 
lower,  or  (in  the  case  of  animals)  the  posterior, 
aperture  of  the  intestinal  canal;  the  rectum  termi¬ 
nating  externally  in  the  anus. 

Anwari,  a  celebrated  Persian  poet  who  flour¬ 
ished  during  the  twelfth  century,  was  born  in 
Khorassan,  and  became  a  favorite  of  the  Seljuk- 
ide  Sultan,  Sanjar,  who  was  also  one  of  the  most 
notable  astrologers  of  his  time.  He  died  between 
1191  and  1196. 

Aonlaganj',  or  Aounlah,  a  town  of  India,  in 


the  British  distric  of  Bareilly.  It  has  a  large 
bazaar.  Pop.,  11,000. 

A'orist  (Gr.  aoristos,  unlimited),  a  form  of 
the  Greek  verb  by  which  an  action  is  expressed 
as  taking  place  in  an  indefinite  time.  It  cor¬ 
responds  to  the  simple  past  tense  in  English,  as 
“he  died.” 

Aor'ta  is  the  great  arterial  trunk  which,  rising 
from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  sends  its 


Diagram  of  the  Aorta,  with  its  principal  Branches. 

A,  ascending  part  of  the  arch  of  the  aorta;  a,  thoracic 
aorta;  bb,  abdominal  aorta :  c,  cl,  right  and  left  ventricles 
of  heart;  e,f,  right  and  left  auricles  of  the  heart;  g,  /<, 
right  and  left  pulmonary  arteries;  i,  k,  right  and  left 
common  carotid  arteries;  /,  m,  right  and  left  subclavian 
arteries;  n,  hepatic  artery:  o,  gastric  artery ;  p,  splenic 
artery;  q,  r,  right  and  left  renal  arteries;  s,t,  superior 
and  inferior  mesenteric  arteries:  u,  v,  right  and  left 
common  iliac  arteries;  u\  middle  sacral  artery;  x. 
phrenic  arteries;  y,  spermatic  arteries. 

1,  superior  vena  cava;  2,  right  internal  jugular  vein;  3, 
right  subclavian  vein  (the  left  is  removed  to  show  the 
arch  of  the  aorta) :  4,  inferior  vena  cava;  5,  C,  right  and 
left  pulmonary  veins;  T,  hepatic  veins;  8,  9,  right  and 
left  renal  veins;  10,  11,  right  and  left  iliac  veins;  12, 
trachea. 

branches  ramifying  through  the  whole  body. 
The  aorta  in  man  is  subdivided  by  anatomists  into 
the  arch,  the  thoracic  aorta,  and  the  abdominal 
aorta. 

Aosta,  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  on  the  Dora 
Baltea  St.  Bernard  was  archdeacon  of  Aosta; 
and  here  Anselm,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  born.  Pop.  (1881),  5,672. 

Apa'clies,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians, 
formerly  very  fierce  and  numerous,  living  in 
portions  of  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and  Arizona, 
and  belonging  to  the  Athabascan  family.  The 
numbers  of  the  Apaches  proper  within  the 
United  States  may  be  put  at  nearly  7,000. 

Apatin',  a  market  town  of  Hungary.  Pop. 
(1881),  11,973. 

Apatite  (Gr.  opiate,  deception),  a  mineral  so 
named  because  it  resembles  various  other  miner¬ 
als  for  which  it  might  be  mistaken,  consisting 
chiefly  of  phosphate  of  lime. 

Ape,  a  term  generally  applied  to  the  lower 
Primates  or  Simiina  family,  including  the  vast 
majority  of  monkeys,  with  the  exception  of  the 
anthropoids  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  lemurs,  or 
semi-apes,  on  the  other. 

A p'eldorn,  a  flourishing  town  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  in  the  province  of  Gelderland.  Pop.  (1883), 
16,283. 

Apelles,  the  most  celebrated  painter  in  ancient 
times,  was  the  son  of  Pytheas,  and  was  probably 
born  at  Colophon,  on  the  Ionian  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  He  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
fourth  century  b.c.  During  the  time  of  Philip 
he  visited  Macedon,  where  he  became  the  inti¬ 
mate  friend  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  most 
celebrated  paintings  of  Apelles  were  bis  Ana- 
dyomene,  or  Aphrodite  Rising  from  the  Sea,  The 
Graces,  and  others  on  similar  subjects.  His 
portrait  of  Alexander  Wielding  a  Thunderbolt 
was  very  famous. 

Ap  ennines  (Ital.  Appennini,  Lat.  Mons  Apen- 
ninus;  from  Celtic  pen,  a  head  or  mountain- 


height),  a  mountain-chain  extending  740  miles 
uninterruptedly  throughout  the  wdiole  length  of 
the  Italian  Peninsula.  It  belongs  to  the  system 
of  the  Alps,  from  which  it  branches  off  near 
Savona. 

The  average  height  of  the  entire  chain  of  the 
Apennines  is  about  4,000  feet,  which,  however, 
in  the  north,  sinks  down  to  little  more  than  3,500 
feet;  and  in  the  mountains  of  the  Abruzzi,  rises 
to  7,000  feet.  Here,  in  Monte  Corno,  the  highest 
peak  of  the  range  known  under  the  name  of  Gran 
Sasso  d ’Italia,  they  reach  an  elevation  of  9,574 
feet,  and  in  Monte  Velino,  of  7,916  feet. 

The  Apennines  are  crossed  by  thirteen  princi¬ 
pal  passes;  and  seven  of  these  are  traversed  by 
the  railway. 

Apenra'de,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  Province 
of  Sleswick-Holstein.  Pop.  (1885),  6,068. 

Aperients  are  substances  which  are  employed 
to  cause  intestinal  evacuations.  Many  articles  of 
food,  such  as  oatmeal,  brown  bread,  and  bran 
biscuits  and  fruits,  such  as  figs,  prunes,  and  straw¬ 
berries,  are  used  for  this  purpose;  but  the  term 
is  usually  applied  to  denote  certain  medicines, 
which  act  upon  the  intestines  and  cause  them  to 
expel  their  contents. 

Apct'alons  (without  petals),  a  term  applied 
somewhat  indefinitely  to  those  flowering  plants 
in  which  the  petals  are  absent  . 

Aphasia  is  the  term  originally  introduced  by 
Trousseau  to  denote  the  inability  to  express 
thought  by  means  of  speech  which  follows  cer¬ 
tain  diseases  of  the  brain;  in  recent  years,  how¬ 
ever,  it  has  obtained  a  wider  significance,  and 
may  now  be  defined  as  the  loss  of  the  faculty  of 
interchanging  thought,  without  any  affection  of 
the  intellect  or  will. 

In  motor  aphasia,  there  is  a  loss  of  the  memory 
of  the  coordinated  movements  necessary  for  the 
formation  of  symbols,  and  this  usually  includes 
gestures,  speech,  and  writing.  The  inability  to 
write  is  commonly  termed  agraphia. 

Apbe'liou,  that  point  in  the  elliptical  orbit  of 
a  planet  which  is  most  remote  from  the  sun. 
The  opposite  point,  or  that  nearest  to  the  sun,  is 
styled  the  perihelion 

Aplieinia  (Gr.  voicelessness),  a  form  of  Apha¬ 
sia  in  which  words  are  understood  and  remem¬ 
bered,  but  the  power  to  utter  them  is  lost. 

Aphides  (Gr.),  a  family  of  small  “plant-lice” 
belonging  to  the  order  of  hemipterous  insects. 
They  occur  very  abundantly  in  temperate  re- 


Anhis  padi.  (After  Kessler.) 

The  figure  represents  equally  well:  1,  the  autumn  forms— 
the  sexual  male  and  the  wingless  female,  the  parents  of 
the  spring  brood;  2,  winged  and  wingless  viviparous 
parthenogenetie  forms  occurring  in  spring;  and  3,  an 
autumn  winged  female  appearing  after  a  succession  of 
wingless  forms. 

gions  as  parasites  on  the  roots,  leaves,  stems,  etc., 
of  plants,  to  which  they  frequently  do  great 
damage. 

Apart  from  the  vine  insect  phylloxera,  which 
does  so  much  damage  in  the  vineyards  of  the 
Continent  and  North  America,  the  aphides  of 
turnip,  cabbage,  potato,  bean,  apple,  pear,  larch, 
etc.,  have  frequently  been  the  cause  of  wide¬ 
spread  loss.  The  reader  is  referred  to  G.  B. 
Buckton’s  Ray  Society  Monograph  on  British 
Aphides  (4  vols.  1876);  and  Miss  Ormerod’s  work 
on  Injurious  Insects  ought  to  be  consulted  for 
practical  purposes. 

Aphonia.  This  term  is  applied  to  loss  of  voice 
from  whatever  cause  arising. 


APHORISM. 


65 


APOSTOLIC. 


Aph  orism  (Gr.),  a  principle  expressed  tersely 
in  a  few  words,  or  a  short  and  pithy  sentence 
conveying  a  general  truth;  such  as  “  Use  is  second 
nature.”  The  name  was  first  used  in  the  Aphor¬ 
isms  of  Hippocrates. 

Aphrodi  te,  one  of  the  chief  divinities  of  the 
Greeks,  the  goddess  of  love  and  beauty,  so  called 
because  she  was  sprung  from  the  foam  ( aphros )  of 
the  sea.  She  was  the  wife  of  Hephaestus,  but  she 
loved  besides,  among  gods,  Ares  and  Dionysus, 
and  among  mortals,  Ancliises  and  Adonis.  The 
chief  places  of  her  worship  in  Greece  were  Cyprus 
and  Cythera.  Aphrodite  not  only  surpassed  all 
other  goddesses  in  beauty,  but  she  had  the  power 
of  granting  irresistible  beauty  and  attractiveness 
to  others,  especially  to  wearers  of  her  magic  girdle. 
The  sparrow,  the  dove,  and  the  swan  were  sacred 
to  her,  as  also  the  myrtle,  the  rose,  and  the  poppy. 
In  the  later  poets,  Eros  is  her  son  and  her  constant 
companion.  Aphrodite  has  had  the  most  import¬ 
ant  place  in  the  history  of  art  as  the  Greek  ideal  of 
feminine  grace  and  beauty.  Her  most  famous 
statue  in  antiquity  was  that  of  Praxiteles  at  Cnidus; 
her  most  famous  picture,  the  Aphrodite  Anadyo- 
mene  of  Appelles.  The  finest  statues  of  the  god¬ 
dess  that  still  exist  are  those  of  Melos  (Milo)  at 
Paris,  of  Capua  at  Naples,  and  of  the  Medici  at 
Florence. 

Apth'tli  8e  are  small,  whitish  ulcers,  usually 
commencing  as  vesicles,  on  the  surface  of  a  mu¬ 
cous  membrane.  The  whitish  substance  generally 
contains  large  quantities  of  minute  fungus,  Oidium 
albicans. 

Infants  are  liable  to  an  apthous eruption  termed 
Thrush.  Aphthae  in  adults  are  generally  a  conse¬ 
quence  of  fevers  and  other  diseases,  or  a  symptom 
of  disturbances  of  the  digestive  system.  In  some 
cases  of  pulmonary  consumption  they  form  a 
painful  addition  to  the  patient’s  sufferings. 

Api'cius,  Marcus  Gabius,  a  Roman  epicure, 
who  lived  in  the  times  of  Augustus  and  Tiberius, 
and  was  celebrated  for  his  luxurious  table  and  his 
acquirements  in  the  art  of  cookery.  It  is  said  that 
when  he  had  spent  $4,000,000  upon  his  appetite, 
and  had  only  some  $400,000  left,  he  poisoned  him¬ 
self  in  order  to  avoid  the  misery  of  plain  diet. 

Apion,  a  Greek  grammarian,  was  born  at  Oasis 
in  Libya,  but  educated  in  Alexandria,  which  he 
affected  to  consider  his  birthplace,  from  the  wish 
to  be  thought  a  pure  Greek.  Settling  at  Rome 
about  30  a.  d.  ,  he  became  famous  as  a  teacher  of 
rhetoric. 

Apios,  a  North  American  plant  of  the  pea  order 
(Leguminosae),  with  tuburous,  starchy,  edible 
rhizomes. 

A'pis,  the  bull  worshipped  by  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  who  regarded  it  as  a  symbol  and  incar¬ 
nation  of  Osiris,  the  husband  of  Isis,  and  next  to 
Ila,  the  great  divinity  of  Egypt. 

Aplodon,  the  name  of  a  small  rodent  animal ; 
better  written  Haplodon  or  Sewellel. 

Apncea,  an  abnormal  state  of  the  animal  organ¬ 
ism  during  which  there  is  a  complete  cessation  of 
breathing.  It  is  brought  about  by  too  vigorous 
artificial  respiration. 

Apocalyp'tic  Number  is  the  mystical  number 
666,  spoken  of  in  the  Book  of  Revelation  (xiii,  18). 
Among  the  Greeks  and  Hebrews  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  were  used  to  denote  numbers.  Hence 
such  letters  must  be  taken  as  will,  when  used  as 
numbers,  make  up  666  (either  in  the  Greek  or  He¬ 
brew  alphabet)  as  the  letters  of  the  name  in  ques¬ 
tion.  The  best  solution  of  the  riddle  is“Neron 
Kesar,”  the  Hebrew  form  of  the  Latin  “  Nero  Cae¬ 
sar.”  The  vowels  e  and  a  are  not  expressed  in  the 
ancient  Hebrew  writing.  The  number  represented 
by  NeRON  KeSaR  would  be  666,  thus  : 

N  R  O  N  K  S  R 
50  +  200  +  6  +  50  +  100  +  60  +  200  =  666. 

Apocalyptic  Writings  are  such  as,  like  the 
prophecies  of  Daniel,  their  prototype,  set  forth  in 
a  figurative  and  pictorial  manner  the  future  prog¬ 
ress  and  completion  of  the  world’s  history,  es¬ 
pecially  in  its  religious  aspects.  The  two  apoca¬ 
lyptic  books  received  into  the  canon  of  Scripture 
are  the  books  of  Daniel  and  the  Apocalypse 
specially  so  called,  the  Revelation  of  St.  John. 

Apocarpous  Fruits,  in  Botany,  are  those 
fruits  which  are  the  produce  of  a  single  flower, 
and  are  formed  of  only  one  carpel,  or  of  a  number  , 
of  carpels  remaining  free  and  separate  from  each  ! 

b 


other.  The  term  is  derived  from  the  Greek  apo, 
implying  separation,  and  carpus,  fruit. 

Apocatas'tasis,  in  Theology,  the  final  restitu¬ 
tion  of  all  things,  when  at  the  appearance  of  the 
Messiah  the  kingdom  of  God  shall  be  extended 
over  the  whole  earth  (Acts  iii,  21). 

Apcorenic  Acid  (Ilumic  Acid,  Ulmic  Acid) 
is  one  of  the  products  of  the  natural  decay  of  wood 
or  other  plant  textures,  and  is  found  where  woody 
fibre  is  decomposing  in  soils.  It  is  soluble  in 
water,  and  is  an  intermediate  step  in  the  assimila¬ 
tion  by  living  plants  of  dead  vegetable  matter. 

Apoc'rypha  (a  Greek  word  meaning  hidden, 
secret)  seems,  when  applied  to  religious  books 
or  writings,  to  lqive  been  used  (1)  for  such  as  were 
suitable,  not  for  the  mass  of  believers,  but  for  the 
initated  only  ;  works  containing  the  esoteric  or 
recondite  teaching  of  the  faith  or  sect ;  (2)  works, 
the  date,  origin,  and  authorship  of  which  were 
unknown  or  doubtful ;  (3)  works  which  claimed 
to  be  what  they  were  not,  were  spurious  or  pseu- 
depigraphic.  When  the  Apocrypha  is  spoken  of, 
the  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament  is  generally 
meant. 

Apocyna'ceae,  or  Apocyne/E,  a  natural  order 
of  corollifioral  Dicotyledons,  chiefly  tropical 
shrubs  and  trees,  but  represented  in  Britain  by  the 
periwinkle,  and  in  South  Europe  by  the  olean¬ 
der.  It  is  a  frequent  source  of  caoutchouc. 
Some  yield  indigo,  and  a  few  (carissa,  hancornia) 
bear  edible  fruits;  but  the  majority  are  poisonous. 

Apodictic  (from  the  Greek  verb  to  prove),  a 
logical  term  signifying  a  judgment  or  conclusion 
which  is  necessarily  true.  No  apodictic  judg¬ 
ment  can  be  founded  on  experience. 

Ap  'ogee  (Gr.  apo,  from;  gc,  the  earth), the  great¬ 
est  distance  of  the  earth  from  any  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  Its  application,  however,  is  restricted 
to  the  sun  and  moon,  the  sun’sapogee  correspond¬ 
ing  to  the  earth’s  aphelion,  and  the  moon’s  apogee 
being  the  point  of  its  orbit  most  remote  from  the 
earth.  Apogee  is  opposed  to  perigee. 

Apolda,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Saxe- 
Weimar.  Pop.  (1885),  18,061. 

Apollina'ris  the  younger,  Bishop  of  Laodicea, 
in  Syria  (died  390  a.d.),  and  one  of  the  warmest 
opponents  of  Arianism. 

Apollinaris  Water,  an  alkaline  mineral  water, 
containing  carbonate  of  soda,  derived  from  the 
Apollinaris  Spring,  in  the  Valley  of  the  Ahr;  in 
the  Rhine  Province. 

Apollo  (Gr.  Apollon )  may  be  regarded  as  the 
characteristic  divinity  of  thc'Greeks  inasmuch  as 
he  was  the  imper¬ 
sonation  of  Greek 
life  in  its  most  beau 
tiful  form,  and  the 
ideal  representative 
of  the  Greek  nation. 

Homer  and  Hesiod 
mention  that  he  was 
the  son  of  Zeus  and 
Leto,  and  twin-broth¬ 
er  of  Artemis.  He 
was  the  god  of  retrib¬ 
utive  justice,  of  mu¬ 
sic,  of  prophecy,  and 
medicine,  the  found¬ 
er  of  cities  and  the 
guardian  of  flocks 
and  herds.  His  oracle 
at  Delphi  inculcated 
a  really  high  stand¬ 
ard  of  religious  life. 

Apollodo'rns,  (1)  Apollo  Belvedere, 
an  Athenian  painter, who  flourished  about  408  b.c. 
He  introduced  improved  coloring  and  distribution 
of  light  and  shade. — (2)  an  Athenian  grammarian 
who  flourished  about  140  b.c. — (3)  Another 
Apollodorus  was  a  celebrated  architect  in  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Trajan.  He  was  sentenced 
to  death  in  129  a.d.  by  Hadrian,  offended  at  his 
fearless  criticism  of  a  temple  designed  by  the 
emperor  himself. 

Apollo'nius,  (1)  Apollonius  of  Rhodes  (born 
in  Alexandria  about  240  b.c.,  but  long  resident 
in  Rhodes)  wrote  many  books  on  grammar,  and 
an  epic  poem  entitled  the  Argonauiica. — (2) 
Apollonius  of  Perga,  who  flourished  250-220 
b.c.,  is  classed  with  Euclid,  Archimedes,  and 
Diophantus,  among  the  founders  of  the  mathe¬ 
matical  sciences. — (3)  Apollonius  of  Tya'na  in 


Cappadocia,  born  three  or  four  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  was,  according  to  Philostratus,  a 
zealous  teacher  of  the  neo- Pythagorean  doctrines, 
who  claimed  a  commission  from  heaven  to  teach 
a  pure  and  reformed  religion.  Voltaire  attempted 
to  prove  his  similarity  or  superiority  to  Christ. — 
(4)  Apollonius,  surnamed  Dyscolos  (or  ill-tem¬ 
pered),  of  Alexandria,  lived  in  the  second  century. 
He  was  the  first  who  reduced  grammar  to  a 
system. 

Apollo'nius  of  Tyre,  the  hero  of  a  Greek 
metrical  romance,  very  popular  in  the  middle  ages. 
Shakespeare's  Periclt s,  Prince  of  'Pyre,  is  based 
on  an  Italian  version  of  this  story. 

Apollos,  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  described  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  as  an  eloquent  man,  and 
mighty  in  the  Scriptures,  knowing  only  the  bap¬ 
tism  of  John,  who  on  coming  to  Ephesus  (54  a.  d.) 
was  more  perfectly  taught  by  Aquila  and  Priscilla. 
He  was  a  distinguished  fellow-laborer  of  the 
Apostle  Paul. 

Apollyon  (Gr.  the  destroyer),  or  Abaddon 
(Rev.  ix,  11;  cf.  Job  xxvi,  6;  xxxi,  12),  the  same 
as  the  Asmodeus  of  the  Book  of  Tobit  (iii,  8). 

Apologetics  (a  word  derived  from  Gr.  apo, 
from,  and  logos,  speech — something  spoken  to  ward 
off  an  attack)  technically  connotes  that  branch  of 
theology  which  is  concerned  with  the  defence  of 
Christianity.  It  is  not  to  be  confounded  with 
polemics,  which  is  occupied  with  the  defence  of 
the  peculiar  doctrines  of  parties  within  the  Chris¬ 
tian  pale. 

Ap'ologue,  a  fable,  parable,  or  short  allegorical 
story,  intended  to  serve  as  a  pleasant  vehicle  for 
some  moral  doctrine.  The  New  Testament  par¬ 
able  is  a  simpler  kind  of  apologue. 

Apomor'pliia  is  an  alkaloid  prepared  from 
morphia  by  heating  with  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is 
a  rapid  and  powerful  emetic,  but  its  effects  quickly 
pass  off  ;  and  it  causes  very  little  depression. 

Apoueuro'sis  (Gr.  apo,  from,  and  neuron,  a 
string)  is  an  anatomical  term  for  an  expansion  of 
strong  fibrous  tissue— as  the  tendon  of  the  external 
oblique  abdominal  muscle. 

Ap'oplexy  (Gr.  apoplexia — from  ple.sso,  I  strike 
— disablement  from  a  stroke),  a  term  used  in  medi¬ 
cine,  from  early  times,  of  any  sudden  and  unac¬ 
countable  loss  of  consciousness,  and  still  popularly 
employed  in  much  the  same  way.  It  is  generally 
applied,  however,  by  modern  medical  writers  to 
rupture  of  a  blood-vessel,  with  hemorrhage  in  the 
brain  or  its  membranes,  whether  with  or  without 
unconsciousness. 

Apostate  literally  designates  any  one  who 
changes  his  religion,  whatever  may  be  his  motive; 
but,  by  custom  the  word  is  always  used  in  an  in¬ 
jurious  sense,  as  equivalent  to  one  who,  in  chang¬ 
ing  his  creed,  is  actuated  by  unworthy  motives. 
The  Roman  Catholic  Church  at  one  period  im¬ 
posed  severe  penalties  on  apostasy. 

A  posteriori  reasoning  is  reasoning  from  ex¬ 
perience,  or  backwards  from  effect  to  cause. 

Apostle  (Gr.  apostohs,  one  sent  forth),  a  messen¬ 
ger,  but  especially  used  to  denote  the  twelve  dis¬ 
ciples  whom  Jesus  sent  forth  to  preach  the  Gospel 
— twelve  probably  because  there  were  twelve 
tribes.  Their  names  were  Simon  Peter,  Andrew, 
John  (the  son  of  Zebedee),  James  (his  brother), 
Philip,  Bartholomew,  Thomas,  Matthew  (identified 
with  Levi),  James  (the  son  of  Alphaeus),  Tliad- 
daeus,  Simon,  and  Judas  Iscariot.  (The  lists  in 
Matt,  x,  Mark  iii,  Luke  vi,  and  Acts  i.  are  the 
same,  with  the  exception  that  for  Thaddseus  in 
Matthew  and  Mark,  we  have  Judas  in  Luke  and 
Acts.) 

Apostles,  Teachings  of  the  Twelve,  is  the 
title  of  a  treatise  discovered  in  1883  by  Bryennius, 
the  metropolitan  of  Nieomedia,  and  published  by 
him  with  a  Greek  commentary  (Constantinople, 
1883). 

Apostle  Spoons,  silver  spoons  whose  handles 
ended  in  figures  of  the  apostles,  a  common  bap¬ 
tismal  present  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries. 

Apostol  ic,  or  Apostolical,  the  general  term 
applied  to  everything  derived  directly  from  the 
apostles,  or  bearing  their  character.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  declares  itself  the  Apostolic 
Church,  and  the  papal  chair  the  apostolic  chair, 
on  the  ground  of  an  unbroken  series  of  Roman 
bishops  from  the  chief  apostle,  Peter.  The 
Church  of  England,  in  virtue  of  regular  episcopal 


APOSTOLICAL  SUCCESSION. 


66 


APPOINTMENT. 


ordination  from  llie  pre^re formation  church, 
claims  to  be  apostolic;  so  likewise  do  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Churches  in  Scotland  and  the  United 
States. 

Apostolical  Succession  is  a  phrase  used  to  de¬ 
note  one  or  both  of  two  things — the  derivation  of 
holy  orders  by  an  unbroken  chain  of  transmission 
from  the  apostles,  and  a  succession  of  a  ministry 
so  ordained  to  the  powers  and  privileges  of  the 
apostles.  The  theory  of  the  Catholic  Church  is 
that  its  present  bishops  have  the  right  to  ordain, 
in  virtue  of  being  the  representatives  of  the 
apostles,  who  in  their  turn  represented  the  Lord 
himself,  the  fountain  of  all  grace. 

Apostolic  Brethren,  the  name  given  in  Italy, 
toward  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century,  to  a 
sect  which  opposed  the  worldly  tendencies  of  the 
church.  Its  founder  was  Segarelli,  a  weaver  and 
palmer.  The  movement  was  condemned  by  Popes 
Honorius  IV.  and  Nicholas  IV.,  and,  in  1300, 
Segarelli  perished  at  the  stake,  with  many  others, 
both  men  and  women.  A  Gnostic  sect  of  the 
third  century  took  the  same  name,  as  also  a  body 
of  persons  near  Cologne,  in  the  twelfth  century. 

Apostolic  Constitutions  and  Canons,  both 
ascribed  by  tradition  to  Clemens  Romanus,  are 
notes  of  ecclesiastical  customs  held  to  be  apostol¬ 
ical,  written  in  the  form  of  apostolic  precepts. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  the  name  given  to  the 
immediate  disciples  and  fellow-laborers  of  the 
■  apostles,  and,  in  a  more  restricted  sense,  to  those 
among  them  who  have  left  writings  behind  them. 
Those  specially  so  called  are  Barnabas,  Clement 
of  Rome,  Ignatius,  Hennas,  and  Polycarp. 

Apos  trophe  (Gr.  apostrophe  a  turning  away, 
or  breaking  off)  is  a  rhetorical  figure  by  which  a 
speaker  changes  the  course  of  his  speech  and  ad¬ 
dresses,  with  greater  or  less  emotional  emphasis, 
persons  present  or  absent,  the  dead,  or  inanimate 
objects,  either  to  invoke  them  as  witnesses,  or  to 
pity,  praise,  or  blame  them.  Apostrophe  in 
grammar,  is  the  sign  (’)  used  to  indicate  the  omis¬ 
sion  of  a  letter  or  letters  in  a  word,  as  in  o'er, 
thro’ ,  can’t;  and  as  a  sign  of  the  modern  English 
genitive  or  possessive  case,  as  in  boy’s,  boys’, 
men’s,  conscience’ ,  Moses’ .  In  the  latter  case,  it 
marked  originally  merely  the  dropping  of  the 
letter  e  in  writing,  as  in  fox's,  James’s,  and  was 
equally  common  in  the  nominative  plural.  Grad¬ 
ually  the  latter  use  was  dropped,  and  it  was  ex¬ 
tended  to  all  possessives,  even  where  e  had  not 
been  dropped,  as  in  man’s,  children’s,  conscience ’ 
sake. 

Apothecary,  the  name  formerly  given  in 
England  and  Ireland  to  members  of  an  inferior 
branch  of  the  medical  profession.  In  America  it 
designates  a  dispenser  and  compounder  of 
medicines. 

Apothegm,  a  terse,  pithy,  saying  conveying 
an  important  truth  in  few  words. 

Apotheosis  (pronounced  formerly,  Apothe’osis, 
now  Apotheo’ sis,  from  Gr.  theos,  a  god),  deifica¬ 
tion,  or  the  raising  of  a  mortal  to  the  rank  of  a 
god. 

Appalachian  Mountains,  the  great  range  ex¬ 
tending  from  Canada  through  the  New  England 
and  Middle  Atlantic  States  to  Alabama.  It  in¬ 
cludes  the  White  Mountains,  the  Catskills,  the 
Adirondacks,  and  the  Alleghenies  in  the  north, 
and  the  Blue  Mountains  further  south.  Its  total 
length  is  1,300  miles,  extreme  width  (not  includ¬ 
ing  lateral  ranges)  about  100.  The  highest  peaks 
are  found  in  the  north,  but  none  attain  over  7,000 
feet.  It  forms  the  watershed  of  many  rivers 
flowing  into  the  Atlantic,  of  which  the  Hudson  is 
the  most  important. 

Appalachico'la,  a  river  of  the  United  States, 
Using  m  Georgia,  and  flowing  through  Florida 
into  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico. 

Ap 'panage  is  a  technical  word  in  the  French 
law,  in  which  system  it  signifies  the  assignment 
or  conveyance  by  the  crown  of  lands  and  feudal 
rights  to  the  princes  of  the  royal  family,  that  they 
may  be  enabled  to  maintain  themselves  according 
to  their  rank. 

Apparent.  This  term  is  used  to  express  a 
number  of  important  distinctions,  especially  in 
astronomy.  The  upparept  magnitude  of  a  heavenly 
body  is  tlie  angle  formed  by  two  lines  drawn  from 
the  ends  of  its  diameter  to  the  spectator’s  eye;  this 
.obviously  depends  upon  the  distance  of  the  body, 


as  well  as  upon  its  real  magnitude.  A  planet 
seen  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  seems  lower 
than  if  seen  from  the  centre  of  the  earth— the 
former  is  its  apparent  altitude,  the  latter  its  real. 
Apparent  noon  is  when  the  sun  is  on  the  meridan; 
true  or  mean  noon  is  the  time  when  the  sun  would 
be  upon  the  meridian  if  his  motion  in  the  heavens 
were  uniform  and  parallel  to  the  equator.  The 
daily  and  annual  motions  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens 
are  both  apparent  motions,  caused  by  two  real 
motions  of  the  earth, 

Apparitions.  The  belief  that  the  spirits  of  the 
departed  are  occasionally  presented  to  the  sight  of 
the  living,  has  existed  in  all  ages  and  countries, 
and  usually  declines  only  when  a  people  has  ad¬ 
vanced  considerably  in  the  knowledge  of  physical 
conditions  and  laws 

Most  authentic  apparitions  have  been  due  to 
temporary  or  permanent  mental  or  visual  aber¬ 
ration,  dependent  upon  a  diseased  condition  of 
the  body,  pressure  upon  the  brain,  or  mere  un¬ 
conscious  ratiocination. 

Apparitor,  the  general  name  for  the  public 
servants  of  the  magistrates  in  ancient  Rome,  so 
called  because  they  were  at  hand  to  carry  out  the 
magistrates’  orders.  The  name  is  still  applied  to 
the  lowest  officer  of  an  ecclesiastical  court,  also  in 
a  somewhat  general  sense  to  an  officer  of  a  civil 
court,  and  specially  to  the  beadle  of  a  university, 
who  carries  the  mace. 

Appeal  is  the  right  or  process  of  bringing 
under  the  notice  of  a  higher  court  the  judgment 
of  a  lower  court  which  the  appellant  represents 
as  erroneous  in  fact  or  law. 

In  the  United  States,  the  distinction  between 
an  appeal,  which  originated  in  the  civil  law,  and 
a  writ  of  error,  which  is  of  common  law  origin, 
is  that  the  former  carries  the  whole  case  for 
review  by  the  higher  court,  including  both  the 
facts  and  the  law;  while  the  latter  removes  only 
questions  of  law.  An  Act  of  Congress  of  1875 
provides  that  the  judgments  and  decrees  of  the 
circuit  courts  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be 
reexamined  in  the  Supreme  Court  unless  the 
matter  in  dispute  shall  exceed  the  sum  or  value 
of  $5,000,  exclusive  of  costs.  No  judgment, 
decree,  or  order  of  a  circuit  or  district  court,  in 
any  civil  action  at  law  or  in  equity,  shall  be 
reviewed  in  the  Supreme  Court  on  writ  of  error 
or  appeal,  unless  the  writ  of  error  is  brought,  or 
the  appeal  is  taken,  within  two  years  after  the* 
entry  of  such  judgment,  decree,  or  order;  save  in 
the  case  of  infants,  insane  persons,  and  impris¬ 
oned  persons,  when  the  period  is  two  years,  ex¬ 
clusive  of  this  term  of  disability.  An  appeal 
from  a  district  court  to  the  circuit  court  of  the 
United  States  must  be  taken  within  one  year. 
An  appeal  from  the  district  court  in  admiralty  to 
the  circuit  court  must  be  made  immediately  after 
the  decree,  in  open  court,  before  the  adjournment 
•sine  die;  and  it  should  be  taken  to  the  next  suc¬ 
ceeding  circuit  court.  An  appeal  may  be  taken 
from  the  State  courts  to  the  Supreme  Court  of 
the  United  States,  in  cases  involving  the  validity 
of  a  treaty  or  statute  of,  or  authorized  under,  the 
United  States;  on  the  ground  of  repugnance  to 
the  constitution;  and  in  certain  other  specified 
cases. 

Appeinlieularia,  a  genus  of  Ascidians  and 
type  of  a  small  but  important  order,  the  members 
of  which  retain  the  larval  vertebrate  characters 
which  are  lost  in  the  more  or  less  degenerate 
adult  sea-squirts. 

Appenzell'  (from  Abbatis  Celia),  a  double  can¬ 
ton  in  the  northeast  of  Switzerland.  Area,  162 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1880),  64,799.  The  largest^ 
town  is  Herisau  (pop.,  11,082). 

Appenzell,  capital  of  the  canton,  is  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Sittern.  Pop.  (1880),  4,302. 

Appetite  (Lat.  appetitus,  from  appeto,  I  desire) 
is  generally  used  of  the  natural  desire  for  food 
experienced  in  health.  Its  causes  are  two:  (1) 
A  condition  of  the  stomach,  not  yet  accurately 
understood,  relieved  by  taking  food;  (2)  a  con¬ 
dition  of  the  system,  not  relieved  till  the  products 
of  digestion  begin  to  be  absorbed  into  the  blood. 

Appian  (Lat.  Appianus),  a  native  of  Alexan¬ 
dria,  who  flourished  during  the  reigns  of  Trajan, 
Hadrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius.  He  was  author  of 
a  Roman  history  in  twenty-four  books,  of  which 
only  eleven  are  extant. 

Appia'ni,  Andrea,  styled  in  his  day  “the 


Painter  of  the  Graces,”  was  born  at  Milan,  May 
23,  1754,  and  died  Nov.  8,  1817. 

Appian  Way  (Lat.  Via  Appia),  well  named  by 
an  ancient  writer  Regina  Viarum  (the  queen  of 
roads),  was  formed,  in  part,  at  least,  by  Appius 
Claudius  C;ecus,  while  he  was  censor,  (313  n.c.) 
It  is  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  of  all  the 
Roman  roads,  and  with  its  branches  connected 
Rome  with  all  parts  of  Southern  Italy. 

Apple  ( Pyrns  malm).  This  well-known  fruit 
has  been  very  long  cultivated,  and  by  that  means 
it  has  been  very  much  improved.  It  was  exten¬ 
sively  cultivated  by  the  Romans,  by  whom,  prob¬ 
ably,  it  was  introduced  into  Britain.  The  apple- 
tree,  even  in  a  cultivated  state,  is  seldom  more 
than  30-40  feet  high.  It  has  a  large  round  head; 
the  leaves  are  broadly  ovate,  much  longer  than  the 
petioles,  woolly  beneath,  acute,  crenate,  and  pro¬ 
vided  writh  glands;  its  flowers  are  always  pro¬ 
duced  in  sessile  umbels,  and  are  various  in  size, 
according  to  the  variety.  The  fruit  is  roundish, 
or  narrowest  toward  the  apex,  with  a  depression 
at  each  end,  generally  green,  but  also  frequently 
yellow,  light  red,  dark  red,  streaked,  sometimes 
even  almost  black,  with  the  rind  sometimes 
downy,  sometimes  glabrous,  sometimes  thickish, 
and  sometimes  very  thin  and  transparent,  vary¬ 
ing  in  size  from  that  of  a  walnut  to  that  of  a 
small  child’s  head — the  taste  more  or  less  aro¬ 
matic,  sweet,  or  subacid.  It  is  produced  on  spurs 
which  spring  from  branclilets  of  two  or  more 
years’  growth,  and  continue  to  bear  for  a  series 
of  years.  The  fruit  of  the  apple  is,  with  regard 
to  its  structure,  styled  by  botanists  a  “  pome.” 

The  apple  is  now  one  of  the  most  widely  dif¬ 
fused  of  fruit-trees,  and  for  the  general  fruit-sup¬ 
ply  is  the  most  valuable  of  all.  It  succeeds  best 
in  the  colder  parts  of  the  temperate  zone.  The 
varieties  in  cultivation  are  by  far  too  numerous. 
They  have  been  classified  with  great  care  by  Ger¬ 
man,  French,  English,  and  American  writers,  by 
whom  the  classification  and  description  of  apples, 
pears,  and  similar  fruits  have  been  made  quite  a 
matter  of  science,  and  entitled  Pomology. 

The  various  uses  of  the  fruit — for  the  dessert, 
for  baking,  preserving,  making  jelly,  etc.,  as 
well  as  for  making  the  fermented  liquor  called 
cider — are  sufficiently  well  known.  Vinegar  is 
also  made  from  it;  and  sometimes  a  kind  of 
spirit,  especially  in  Switzerland  and  Swabia,  It 
contains  malic  act'd, which  is  extracted  formedicin- 
al  purposes.  The  fermented  juice  of  the  crab 
apple  is  called  verjuice.  It  is  used  in  cookery, 
and  sometimes  medicinally;  also  for  the  purify¬ 
ing  of  wax.  Apples  are  an  important  article  of 
commerce.  Great  quantities  are  imported  into 
Britain,  chiefly  from  France,  Canada,  and  the 
northern  parts  of  the  United  States,  The  apple 
keeps  better  than  most  kinds  of  fruit. 

Appleby,  England,  the  county  town  cf  West¬ 
moreland,  on  the  Eden,  thirteen  miles  southeast 
of  Penrith.  There  is  a  castle,  first  mentioned 
in  1088,  the  keep  of  which,  called  Caesar’s  Tower, 
is  still  in  tolerable  condition.  Pop.  (1881),  2,899. 

Appleton,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  185  miles  north 
of  Chicago,  and  120  miles  from  Milwaukee.  The 
city  is  the  seat  of  Lawrence  University  (1847),  a 
Methodist  institution.  Pop.  (1887),  about  12,000. 

Appleton,  Charles  Edward,  D.C.L.,  founder 
of  the  Academy  was  born  at  Reading,  England, 
March  16, 1841.  He  died  at  Luxor,  in  Upper  Egypt, 
in  1879. 

Appleton,  Daniel  (1785-1849),  the  founder 
of  the  American  publishing  house  of  D.  Apple- 
ton  &  Co.,  was  born  at  Haverhill,  Mass.  The 
firm  issued  the  New  American  Cyclopedia,  under 
the  editorship  of  George  Ripley  and  Charles  A. 
Dana,  which  was  completed  in  1863,  in  sixteen 
volumes.  A  new  edition  was  published  in 
1872-76. 

Appogiatu'ra  (leaning  note),  an  Italian  mu¬ 
sical  term,  designating  a  form  of  embellishment 
by  insertion  of  notes  of  passage  in  a  melody. 

Appointment.  In  a  deed  or  will,  power  is 
often  given  or  reserved  to  a  certain  person  to 
appoint  the  uses  to  which  property  may  be  ap- 
applied.  Thus,  a  marriage  settlement  may  con¬ 
tain  a  power  of  appointment,  enabling  the'  wife 
to  distribute  her  property  among  the  children  of 
the  marriage  at  her  own  discretion.  The  appoint¬ 
ment  when  it  is  made  derives  its  force,  and  the 
pujly  in  whose  favor  i(  is  inade  derives  his  title, 


APPOMATTOX  COURTHOUSE. 


67 


AQUEDUCT. 


from  the  instrument  in  which  the  power  of  ap¬ 
pointment  is  contained. 

Appomattox  Courthouse,  a  village  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  twenty  miles  east  of  Lynchburg.  Here 
General  Lee,  on  April  9,  1865,  surrendered  the 
army  of  Northern  Virginia,  27,805  men  strong, 
to  General  Grant. 

Apposition,  a  term  in  grammar  signifying  the 
annexing  of  one  substantive  to  another,  in  the 
same  case  or  relation,  in  order  to  explain  or  limit 
the  first;  as.  My  brother ,  the  physician ;  Thomas, 
the  rhymer. 

Appraisement.  An  appraisement  signifies 
generally  any  formal  valuation  of  property. 

Apprentice  is  a  person  described  in  law-books 
as  a  species  of  servant,  and  called  apprentice, 
from  the  French  verb  apprendre,  “to  learn,”  be¬ 
cause  he  is  bound  by  indenture  to  serve  a  master 
for  a  certain  term,  receiving  in  return  for  his 
services  instruction  in  his  master’s  profession,  art, 
or  trade;  the  master,  upon  the  other  hand,  con¬ 
tracting  to  instruct  the  apprentice,  and,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  nature  of  the  agreement,  to  provide 
food  and  clothing  for  the  apprentice,  and  to  pay 
him  small  wages. 

In  the  United  States  the  system  of  apprentice¬ 
ship  has  largely  become  obsolete,  but  most  of  the 
States  have  laws  on  the  subject. 

Approaches,  in  Military  Language,  are  the 
sunken  trenches  or  excavated  roads  which  are 
constructed  by  besiegers. 

Appropriation  is  the  opposite  of  expropria¬ 
tion,  and  means  making  something  the  property 
of  a  particular  person — e.g.,  game,  which  is  the 
property  of  no  one,  is  appropriated  by  capture; 
or  one  man  is  said  to  appropriate  the  ideas  of 
another.  The  word  has  various  important  appli¬ 
cations  in  law. 

Approximation,  a  term  commonly  used  in 
Mathematical  Science  to  designate  such  calcula¬ 
tions  as  are  not  rigorously  correct,  but  approach 
the  truth  near  enough  for  a  given  purpose. — e.  g. , 
the  solution  of  equations  beyond  the  fourth  de¬ 
gree  can  be  got  only  by  approximation. 

Apraxin,  Feodor,  Count,  the  creator  of  the 
Russian  navy,  and  long  the  most  powerful  man 
in  the  court  of  Peter  the  Great,  was  born  in  1671, 
and  died  in  1728. 

Apricot  (Prunus  armeniaca),  a  species  of  the 
same  genius  with  the  plum,  is  a  native  of  Ar¬ 
menia,  and  of  the  countries  eastward  to  China 
and  Japan;  a  middle-sized  tree  of  15,  20,  or 
even  30  feet  high,  with  ovate,  acuminate, 
and  cordate,  smooth,  doubly-toothed  leaves  on 
long  stalks;  solitary,  sessile,  white  flowers  which 


Apricot  ( Prunus  armeniaca) . 


appear  before  the  leaves,  and  fruit  resembling 
the  peach,  roundish,  downy,  yellow,  and  ruddy 
on  the  side  next  the  sun,  with  yellow  flesh.  Tl;e 
apricot  was  brought  into  Europe  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  and  since  the  days  of  the 
Romans  has  been  diffused  over  all  its  western 
countries. 

April.  The  Romans  gave  this  month  the  name 
of  Aprilis,  derived  from  aperire,  “to  open,” 
probably  because  it  is  the  season  when  the  buds 
begin  to  open;  by  the  Anglo-Saxons  it  was  called 
Easter-month.  The  custom  of  sending  one  upon 
a  bootless  errand  on  the  first  day  of  this  month, 
lias  been  supposed  to  be  a  travesty  of  the  sending 
hither  and  thither  of  the  Saviour  from  Annas  to 
Caiaphas,  and  from  Pilate  to  Herod,  because 
during  the  middle  ages  this  scene  in  Christ’s  life 
was  made  the  subject  of  a  miracle-play  at  Easter,' 


which  usually  occurs  in  April.  In  France,  one 
thus  imposed  upon  is  called  un  poisson  d’ April 
(an  April  fish).  In  England  and  America  he  is  an 
April  Fool. 

A  prio’ri.  A  priori  reasoning,  in  Kant’s  use 
of  the  term,  is  that  which  rests  on  general  notions 
or  ideas,  and  is  independent  of  experience;  which 
is  derived  from  the  constitution  of  the  mind,  and 
is  accordingly  prior  to  all  experience. 

Apse  (Lat.  apsis),  a  semicircular  or  semioctag- 
onal  recess,  usually  placed  at  the  east  end  of  the 
choir  or  chancel  of  all  early  churches,  up  to  and 
including  those  of  the  Romanesque  and  Norman 
styles. 

Apsheron,  a  peninsula  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  belonging  to  the  Russian  government 
of  Baku. 

Ap'sides  (Gr.  apsis,  connection),  the  two  ex¬ 
treme  points  in  the  orbit  of  a  planet — one  at  the 
greatest,  the  other  at  the  least  distance  from  the 
sun. 

Apt  (Apta  Julia),  a  town  in  the  French  depart¬ 
ment  of  Vaucluse.  Pop.  (1881),  4,260. 

Ap'terous  Insects  are  insects  without  wings. 

Apteryx  (Gr.  a.  without,  pteryx,  wing),  or 
Kiwi,  a  genus  of  New  Zealand  birds,  belonging 


Apteryx. 

to  the  sub-class  Ratitae,  in  which  the  breastbone 
has  no  keel.  It  is  thus  allied  to  the  ostrich-like 
birds.  It  is  usually  about  the  size  of  a  large  hen, 
but  some  measure  two  feet  or  more  in  height. 

Apuleius,  or  Appuleius,  a  Latin  satirist  of  the 
second  century,  was  born  at  Madaura,  in  Africa. 
Apuleius  studied  first  at  Carthage,  and  afterwards 
at  Athens,  displaying  a  special  predilection  for  the 
Platonic  philosophy.  His  chief  work  was  the 
Golden  Ass,  a  satire  on  the  priesthood. 

Apu'lia  (modern  Puglia),  the  southeastern  part 
of  Italy,  comprising  the  three  provinces  of  Bari, 
Foggia,  and  Lecce,  with  an  area  of  8,540  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1884)  of  1,675,471. 

Apu're,  a  navigable  river  of  Venezuela,  which 
rises  near  the  western  boundary  among  the  Eastern 
Cordillera,  and  flows  nearly  1,000  miles  eastward, 
till  it  falls  by  six  arms  into  the  Orinoco. 

Apu'rimac,  a  river  of  Peru,  also  called  Tambo. 
It  gives  name  to  a  province  of  Peru,  with  an  area 
of  62,325  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1876)  of 
119,246. 

Aqua  Fortis  (literally  strong  water)  was  the 
term  used  by  the  alchemists  to  denote  nitric  acid, 
and  is  still  the  commercial  name  of  that  acid. 

Aquamarine,  a  name  sometimes  popularly 
given  to  the  Beryl,  as  being  sea-colored.  Some 
green  and  blue  varieties  of  topaz  have  also  been 
so  styled. 

Aqua  Regi'nse  (literally  queen’s  water)  is  a 
mixture  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  and  nitric 
acid,  or  of  sulphuric  acid  and  nitre.  Either 
mixture  evolves  fumes  largely,  and  may  be  used 
as  a  disinfectant. 

Aqua  Regis,  or  Regia  (literally  royal  water), 
is  the  common  name  applied  to  a  mixture  of  one 
part  of  nitric  acid,  and  two,  three,  or  four  parts 
of  hydrochloric  acid.  The  general  proportion  is 
one  to  two.  The  term  aqua  regia  was  given  to 
the  mixture  from  the  power  it  possesses  of 
dissolving  gold, which  is  the  king  of  the  metals, 
i  Aqua 'Hum,  some  contrivance  on  a  large  or 
small  scale  for  keeping  aquatic  animals  and  plants 
.alive  out  of  their  native  habitat, 

!  Aqua'rius  (the  Water-Bearer),  the  eleventh 


sign  of  the  zodiac,  through  which  the  sun  moves 
in  part  of  the  months  of  January  and  February. 

Aquatic  Plants.  1  he  presence  of  water  is  not 
only  essential  to  the  active  life  of  all  organisms, 
but  is  peculiarly  necessary  for  plants,  which  are 
for  the  most  part  dependent  for  food  supply  on 
matter  dissolved  in  water,  as  well  as  on  the  car¬ 
bonic  anhydride  mingled  with  the  surrounding 
medium.  Numerous  plants  are,  moreover,  in  the 


A,  Ponlederia  crassipes  of  Amazons;  ordinary  floating 

form  with  air-spaces  in  leaf-stalks,  and  branched  roots. 

B,  a  runner  which  has  taken  root  on  land,  and  accordingly 

reverted  to  the  ordinary  form  of  root  and  leaf  stalk. 

strict  sense  of  the  word,  aquatic,  having  never 
acquired  or  having  lost  all  direct  connection  with 
the  soil.  The  simplest  plants  or  algae  are  almost 
all  aquatic,  though  many  occur  in  damp  situations 
on  land,  or  on  other  organisms,  while  others 
remain  for  long  periods  quiescent  in  comparative 
dryness. 

Aquatint,  a  mode  of  etching  on  copper,  by 
which  imitations  of  drawings  in  India  ink,  bister, 
and  sepia  are  produced. 

Aqua  Tofa'na,  a  mysterious,  poisonous  liquid, 
applied  to  criminal  purposes  by  a  Sicilian  woman 
named  Tofana,  about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Aqua  Vitas  (Lat.  water  of  life)  is  a  common 
term  applied  to  ardent  spirits;  especially,  in  com¬ 
merce,  spirits  of  the  first  distillation,  or  unrect¬ 
ified. 

Aquaviva,  general  of  the  Jesuits,  was  born  in 
1543  of  an  old  Neapolitan  family,  and  died  at 
Rome,  Jan.  31,  1615. 

Aqueduct.  This  term  is  most  commonly  under¬ 
stood  to  mean  a  bridge  of  stone,  iron,  or  wood, 
for  conveying  water  across  a  valley.  But  a  pipe, 
an  open  channel,  or  a  tunnel  through  a  mountain 
is  equally  an  aqueduct,  if  its  function  is  to  convey 
water  from  one  place  to  another.  All  great 
aqueducts  have  been  constructed  for  the  purpose 
of  conducting  water  from  some  more  or  less  distant 
source  to  large  towns  or  cities.  This  term  is  also 
properly  applied  to  a  bridge  carrying  a  canal  for 
the  purposes  of  navigation. 

The  aqueducts  of  the  Romans  were  amongst 
the  most  magnificent  of  their  works,  and  the  noble 
supply  of  water  which  modern  Rome  derives 
from  the  four  now  in  use,  of  which  three  are 
ancient,  gives  the  stranger  a  very  vivid  conception 
of  the  vast  scale  on  which  the  ancient  city  must 
have  been  provided  with  one  of  the  most  import¬ 
ant  appliances  of  civilization  and  refinement, 
when  nine  were  employed  to  pour  water  into  its 
baths  and  fountains.  As  forming  a  link  between 


Aqua  Alexandrina. 


the  ancient  Roman  structures  and  the  great  aque¬ 
duct-bridges  of  modern  times,  that  of  Spoleto, 
about  sixty  miles  to  the  southeast  of  Rome, 


AQUEOUS  HUMOR. 


68 


ARABIAN  NIGHTS. 


should  be  mentioned.  Erected  in  the  sixtli  or 
seventh  century,  it  serves  both  as  a  bridge  and  as 
an  aqueduct,  and  is  a  wonderful  piece  of  engi¬ 
neering  for  its  time.  The  very  tall  piers  are  built 
of  a  durable  stone,  and  the  pointed  arches  are  of 
brick.  It  is  about  300  feet  high,  nearly  700  feet 
long,  and  the  ten  great  arches  have  each  a  span  of 
GO  feet.  These  are  surmounted  by  a  row  of  much 
smaller  arches  carrying  the  canal  of  the  aqueduct. 

In  1G84  Louis  XIV.  set  his  engineers  to  con¬ 
struct  an  aqueduct  to  convey  the  waters  of  the 
Eure  from  Point  Gouin  to  Versailles.  Troops  to 
the  number  of  40,000  were  employed  in  this  great 
undertaking.  Thousands  of  these  men  died 
during  the  progress  of  the  work,  which  was  in¬ 
terrupted  during  the  war  of  1688  and  never 
resumed.  The  bridge  at  Maintenon,  forming 
part  of  this  aqueduct,  even  in  its  incomplete  state, 
is,  in  point  of  magnitude,  the  grandest  structure 
of  the  kind  in  the  world.  The  remains  consist  of 
forty-seven  arches,  each  42  feet  wide  and  83  feet 
high.  The  piers  are  25  feet  6  inches  thick.  New 
York  is  supplied  with  water  from  the  Croton 
river,  which  falls  into  the  Hudson.  The  first 
aqueduct  was  constructed  between  t lie  years  1837 
and  1842.  It  is  38  miles  long,  with  a  declivity 
for  the  greater  part  of  its  course  of  VS}£  inches  to 
the  mile.  For  a  length  of  33  miles  the  water- 
channel  is  8  feet  5  inches  in  height,  and  7  feet  8 
inches  in  greatest  breadth.  Stone,  brick,  and 
cement  are  used  for  the  encasing  masonry,  which 
varies  slightly  as  the  channel  is  formed  in  rock, 
or  earth,  or  in  an  open  cutting.  In  flat  valleys 
the  built  conduit  has  sloping  earth  embankments 
on  each  side.  When  it  reaches  the  Harlem  river 
the  water  is  conveyed  in  iron  pipes  over  a 
splendid  bridge.  These  large  pipes  also  connect 
the  receiving  and  the  distributing  reservoirs, 
which  are  two  miles  apart.  The  first  Croton 
aqueduct,  though  justly  considered  one  of  the 
grandest  modern  works  of  its  kind,  has  been 
found  to  be  totally  inadequate  for  New  York. 
Accordingly,  a  new  aqueduct  on  a  more  stupen¬ 
dous  scale  has  been  constructed  since  1883.  A 
dam  of  vast  size  has  been  built  to  collect  the  water 
of  the  Croton  watershed,  and  for  nearly  the  whole 
way— from  this  to  the  city,  a  length  of  28%  miles 
— the  conduit  or  water-channel  is  tunneled 
through  solid  rock.  For  the  most  part  this  chan¬ 
nel  is  fully  13  feet  both  in  height  and  width.  A 
certain  length  of  its  more  southerly  portion,  how¬ 
ever,  is  quite  circular  in  section,  with  a  diameter 
first  of  12  feet  3  inches,  and  then  of  10  feet  G 
inches. 

Other  important  aqueducts  are  the  one  which 
supplies  Manchester  with  water  from  Lake  Tliirl- 
mere,  100  miles  long;  the  Loch  Katrine  and  Glas¬ 
gow  aqueduct,  35  miles  long;  the  Liverpool  aque¬ 
duct  which  draws  its  supply  from  a  Welsh  river, 
and  the  aqueduct  which  supplies  Vienna. 

Aqueous  Humor,  the  watery  fluid  which  fills 
the  space  in  the  eye  between  the  cornea  and  the 
lens. 

Aqueous  Rocks,  rocks  which  owe  their  origin 
to  the  mechanical  or  chemical  action  of  water. 
In  some  systems  of  classification,  the  term  is 
synonymous  with  sedimentary  rocks. 

Aquifolia'ceae,  the  holly  order,  are  coralli- 
floral  exogens  allied  to  Rhamnacese,  Cejastraceaj, 
and  Ebenaceae.  They  are  all  shrubs  or  trees,  and 
are  chiefly  natives  of  tropical  and  subtropical 
America. 

Aq  Hila,  the  capital  of  the  Italian  province  of 
the  same  name,  situated  on  the  Alterno,  near  the 
loftiest  of  the  Apennines,  sixty-four  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Terni.  P  'p.  (1881),  14,720.  The  Province 
of  Aquila  is  most  picturesque,  snow-topped  moun- 
tains  and  smiling  valleys  alternating.  Area,  2,509 
square  miles;  pop.  (1885),  371,332. 

Aq'uila,  Ponticus,  a  celebrated  translator  of 
the  Old  Testament  into  Greek,  born  at  Sinope. 
He  is  said  to  have  been  related  to  the  Emperor 
Hadrian,  and  to  have  been  first  a  Pagan  then  a 
Christian,  and  finally  a  Jew. 

Aquilei'a  (also  Aglar)  is  a  small  town  in  Aus¬ 
tria,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  twenty-two 
miles  northwest  of  Trieste.  Pop.  about  1,400. 

Aqui'nas,  Thomas  (or  Thomas  of  Aquino),  the 
prince  of  scholastic  theologians,  was  born  about 
1226.  He  received  the  rudiments  of  his  educa¬ 
tion  from  the  Benedictine  monks  of  Monte-Casino, 
and  completed  his  studies  at  the  University  of 


Naples.  He  entered  the  Order  of  St.  Dominic  and 
preached  throughout  Italy  and  France.  During 
his  life  Aquinas  enjoyed  the  highest  consideration 
in  the  Church.  His  voice  carried  decisive  weight 
with  it,  and  his  scholars  called  him  the  “Angel 
of  the  Schools,”  or  “  Angelic  Doctor.” 

He  treated  Christian  morals  with  a  compre¬ 
hensiveness  that  procured  him  the  title  of  the 
“  Father  of  Moral  Philosophy.”  The  definite¬ 
ness,  clearness,  and  completeness  of  his  method 
of  handling  theology  were  such  that  his  Summa 
Theologies,  which  may  be  said  to  be  the  first  at¬ 
tempt  at  a  complete  theological  system,  remains 
to  this  day  substantially  the  standard  authority 
in  the  Roman  Church.  Another  important  work 
of  Aquinas  is  his  Summa  Contra  Gentiles,  which 
deals  chiefly  with  the  principles  of  natural  relig¬ 
ion.  His  commentaries  on  Scripture  and  devo¬ 
tional  treatises  also  have  a  high  reputation.  He 
died  at  the  Cistercian  Abbey  of  Fossa-Nuova, 
March  7,  1274.  Aquinas  was  canonized  by  John 
XXII.  in  1323,  and  proclaimed  a  “  Doctor  of  the 
Church  ”  by  Pius  V.  in  1567. 

Aquita'uia,  the  Latin  name  of  a  part  of  Gaul, 
originally  including  the  country  between  the 
Pyrenees  and  the  Garonne,  peopled  by  Iberian 
tribes,  and  by  Celtic  families  who  settled  among 
them. 

Arabesque  (Fr.),  a  pecular  kind  of  fantastic 
decoration,  either  sculptured 
or  painted,  which  the  Spanish 
.Moors  are  supposed  to  have  in¬ 
troduced  into  modern  Europe. 

Arabgir',  or  Arahiuk  (anc. 

Anahraee),  a  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  in  the  Province  of 
Sivas. 

Arabia — called  by  the  in¬ 
habitants,  Jezirat-al-Arab  (the 
Peninsula  of  Arabia);  by  the 
Turks  and  Persians,  Arabistan- 
is  the  great  southwestern  pen¬ 
insula  of  Asia,  and  is  situ¬ 
ated  12°40' — 34°  N.  latitude, 
and  32°  30' — 60°  E.  longitude. 

Its  greatest  length  from  north¬ 
west  to  southeast  is  about 
1,800  miles;  its  mean  breadth, 
about  600;  its  area,  1,230,000 
square  miles;  and  its  popula¬ 
tion  conjectured  to  be  not 
much  above  5,000,000  It  is  Arabesque  Panel, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  (From  the  Mosque  at 
highlands  of  Syria,  and  the  Cordova.) 
plains  of  Mesopotamia;  on  the  east,  by  the  Per¬ 
sian  Gulf  and  the  Gulf  of  Oman;  on  the  south, 
by  the  Arabian  Sea;  and  on  the  west,  by  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Suez  Canal.  Midway  between 
.Mecca  and  Medina  runs  the  tropic  of  Cancer. 

Arabia  has,  on  the  whole,  an  African  climate. 
The  terraced  districts  are  more  favorable  to  cult¬ 
ure,  and  produce  wheat,  barley,  millet,  palms, 
tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  sugar,  tamarinds,  excel¬ 
lent  coffee,  senna,  and  many  aromatic  and  spice 
plants,  as  balsam,  aloe,  myrrh,  frankincense,  etc. 
Arabia  is  destitute  of  forests,  but  has  vast 
stretches  of  desert  grass,  fragrant  with  aromatic 
herbs,  and  furnishing  admirable  pasturage  for  the 
splendid  breed  of  horses.  Coffee,  one  of  the  most 
important  exports,  is  an  indigenous  product  of 
both  Arabia  and  Africa.  The  Arab  is  of  medium 
stature,  muscular  make,  and  brown  complexion. 
The  history  of  Arabia  properly  begins  with  Mo¬ 
hammed,  born  in  571,  who  converted  his  country¬ 
men  from  paganism  to  Islam,  and  whose  succes¬ 
sors  created  empires  in  Syria,  Persia,  Egypt, 
Northern  Africa,  and  Spain.  In  the  eighteenth 
century  occurred  the  Wahabi  uprising,  a  relig¬ 
ious  movement  aiming  at  the  restoration  of 
primitive  Islamism. 

Arabian  Architecture  is  based  upon  Byzan¬ 
tine  models,  to  which  a  new  and  fanciful  orna¬ 
mentation  known  as  Arabesque  was  added.  The 
exclusion  of  animal  figures,  which  their  ab¬ 
horrence  of  the  very  appearance  of  idolatry  ne¬ 
cessitated,  confined  the  Mohammedan  artists  to 
the  imitation  of  vegetable  productions,  varied  by 
geometrical  patterns  and  inscriptions,  of  which 
the  letters  were  woven  into  forms  which  suited 
them  for  architectural  uses.  The  Alhambra,  at 
Granada,  Spain,  is  the  finest  Arabic  structure  in 
Europe. 


Arabian  Languaffe  and  Literature.  Re¬ 
garding  the  oldest  literary  culture  of  the  Ara¬ 
bians,  we  possess  but  slight  information.  As  far 
back  as  Solomon’s  time,  the  Queen  of  Sheba  (prob¬ 
ably  Arabia  Felix)  was  noted  for  her  skill  in  enig¬ 
mas.  Arabian  literature  began  a  new  career  with 
Mohammed,  though  his  Koran  contains  not  one 
precept  favorable  to  literature  or  science.  Under  the 
Abbasides  literature,  science,  and  art  arose  (750 
a.d.);  when  the  califate  fell  (1258),  they  entered 
on  their  decline.  They  were  generously  fostered 
under  the  splendid  sway,  first  of  Almansor 
(754-75),  and  afterwards  of  the  celebrated  Haroun 
Al-Rasliid  (Harun  Al-Rashid,  786-808).  Learned 
men  were  invited  to  their  courts  from  many  coun¬ 
tries,  and  remunerated  for  their  labors  with 
princely  munificence;  the  works  of  the  best  Greek, 
Syriac,  and  old  Persian  writers  were  translated 
into  Arabic,  and  spread  abroad  in  numerous 
copies. 

In  mathematics,  the  Arabs  made  great  advances 
by  the  introduction  from  India  of  the  numerals  , 
and  mode  of  notation  now  in  use,  of  the  sine 
instead  of  the  chord  in  trigonometry,  and  of  a 
more  extended  application  of  algebra.  While 
alchemists,  searching  for  the  elixir  of  life  and  the 
philosopher’s  stone,  were  founding  chemistry, 
astrologers  were  enriching  astronomy,  which  was 
zealously  studied  in  the  famous  schools  and  ob¬ 
servatories  of  Bagdad  and  Cordova. 

The  Arabic  belongs  to  the  so-called  Sem¬ 
itic  family  of  languages,  among  which  it  is 
distinguished  for  its  antiquity  and  soft,  flex¬ 
ible  grace.  Through  the 
Koran,  the  dialect  of  an 
Ishmaelitic  tribe,  the  Koreish, 
became  the  predominant  lan¬ 
guage  of  literature  and  com¬ 
merce  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  the  Arabian  domin¬ 
ions.  The  Himyaritic  from 
Abyssinia,  and  closely  akin 
to  the  ancient  Etliiopic,  is 
known  as  yet  only  by  a  few 
inscriptions,  etc.  The  Arabic, 
like  all  Semitic  writing,  pro¬ 
ceeds  from  right  to  left.  It  is 
borrowed  from  the  old  Syriac, 
and  was  probably  introduced 
into  Arabia  by  Christian  mis¬ 
sionaries  about  the  time  of 
Mohammed.  In  its  oldest 
form  it  is  called  Kufic,  from 
the  town  of  Kufa,  on  the  Eu¬ 
phrates,  where  the  transcrip¬ 
tion  of  the  Koran  was  busily 
carried  on.  Its  characters  are 
rude  and  coarse,  and  it  has 
particular  symbols  for  only 
sixteen  of  the  twenty-eight 
Arabic  consonants.  This  writ¬ 
ing,  nevertheless,  continued 
to  be  employed  for  300  years, 
and  for  coins  and  inscriptions 
even  later;  but  in  the  tenth 
century  it  was  displaced  for 
common  purposes  by  a  cur¬ 
rent  handwriting,  the  Neskhi, 
introduced  by  Ibn  Mokla. 

This  is  the  character  still  in 
use,  more  or  less  modified,  by 
all  nations  that  have  adopted 
the  Mohammedan  religion. 

In  it,  the  consonants  which 
resemble  each  other  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  points,  and  the 
vowels  by  strokes  over  and 
under  the  line;  but  in  writing 
and  printing,  the  vowels  are 
commonly  omitted. 

The  accompanying  illustra¬ 
tion  shows  the  twenty-eight 
letters  of  the  Arabic  alphabet,  Arabic  AIPhabet- 
which  may  be  compared  with  the  Greek  and 
Hebrew. 

Arabian  Nights’  Entertainments  (Alf  Lay- 
lah  wa  Laylali,  A  Thousand  Nights  and  a  Night), 
in  Christian  lands,  the  best-known  product  of 
Arabian  literature.  The  name  and  plan  of  this 
work  are  very  ancient.  The  popular  story  of 
its  origin  runs  as  follows;  •  A  Persian  king 
used  to  marry  a  new  bride  every  day,  and  put 


1 

Alifi 

rt-J:  ? 

Be 

to  > 

Te 

,  •  * 

d_>  i 

The 

£  ** 

Jim 

r 

Hha, 

C  * 

Efim 

DA 

i 

Dzal 

/ 

Be 

Ze 

j 

i  M 

Sin 

A  /. 

'LT  *** 

Shin. 

lUa  ,e 

Sad 

* 

Dad 

b  b 

Ta 

b  b 

Za 

t  c 

'Ain 

i  'c 

Ghain 

1  i—i  '» 

Fa 

id  5 

Qaf 

CJ  £ 

Kef 

a)  1 

Lara 

i  r  ^ 

Mira 

u  * 

Nun 

is  A 

He 

‘Yaw 

Ye 

ARABIAN  NUMERALS. 


69 


ARBOIS. 


her  to  death  next  morning.  One  wife  was  Shali- 
razad  (Scheherazade),  who  had  understanding 
and  discretion.  As  they  sat  together  she  began 
a  tale,  and  late  at  night  she  broke  it  off  at  such 
an  interesting  point  that  the  king  next  morning 
spared  her  life,  and  at  night  begged  her  to  con¬ 
tinue  her  tale.  So  she  did  a  thousand  nights. 
Meantime  she  bore  him  a  child.  Presenting  the 
child  to  him,  she  told  him  of  the  craft  she  had 
used;  and  the  king,  whose  love  she  had  now 
gained,  admired  her  policy  and  let  her  live. 

Arabian  Numerals,  or  Ciphers — the  charac¬ 
ters  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9.  Properly,  they 
should  be  styled  Hindu  or  Indian  Numerals,  for 
the  Arabs  borrowed  them,  along  with  the  decimal 
system  of  notation,  from  the  Hindus,  probably  in 
773  a.d. 

Arabian  Sea,  the  Mare  Erythrceum  (Red  Sea) 
of  the  ancients,  is  that  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
which  lies  between  India  on  the  east  and  Arabia 
on  the  west.  Its  two  great  arms  are  the  Red  Sea 
proper  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Ar'abin  is  the  essential  principle  of  gum- 
arabic,  and  is  obtained  pure  by  adding  alcohol 
to  a  solution  of  gum-arabic  in  water,  when  the 
arabin  is  precipitated  in  white  flocculi. 

Ara'bi  Pasha,  leader  of  the  military  and  in¬ 
surrectionary  party  in  Egypt  in  1882.  He  was 
sentenced  to  death,  but  the  penalty  was  changed 
to  exile,  and  he  is  now  (1889)  in  honorable  cap¬ 
tivity  in  Ceylon. 

Aracli'nida  (Gr.  arachne,  a  spider),  a  sub-class 
of  Tracheate  Artliropoda,  including  scorpions, 
spiders,  mites,  etc.,  and  first  separated  by 
Lamarck  from  the  insecta  of  Linnaeus. 

Arach'noid  Membrane,  one  of  three  cover¬ 
ings  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord,  is  situate  be¬ 
tween  the  dura-mater  and  the  pia-mater.  It  is 
non-vascular,  transparent,  and  remarkably  thin. 

Arad,  capital  of  a  district  in  Eastern  Hungary, 
is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Maros,  an 
affluent  of  the  Theiss,  and  has  a  population  (1880) 
of  35,556. 

Ar'afat,  Mount,  Orphat  or  Jebel-er-’rcclnne 
(mountain  of  mercy),  is  a  granite  hill  about  fif¬ 
teen  miles  southeast  of  Mecca,  visited  by  the 
faithful,  and  believed  to  be  the  spot  where  Adam, 
conducted  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  met  again  his 
wife  Eve,  after  a  punitive  sepai'ation  of  200 
years,  on  account  of  their  disobedience  in  Para¬ 
dise. 

Ar'ago,  Franqois  Jean  Dominique,  a  cele¬ 
brated  French  astronomer  and  physicist,  was 
born  Feb.  26,  1786,  at  Estagel.  In  1816,  along 
with  Gay  Lussac,  he  established  the  Annates  de 
Chimie  et  de  Physique,  and  confirmed  the  truth  of 
the  undulatory  theory  of  light.  In  1830  he 
became  Chief  Director  of  the  Observatory,  and 
received  the  post  of  Perpetual  Secretary  of  the 
Academy.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  July 
revolution  (1830).  Arago  opposed  Louis  Napo¬ 
leon  and  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
after  the  coup  d’  etat  of  1852.  He  died  Oct.  3, 
1853. 

Jacques  Etienne  Yictor  Arago,  brother  of 
the  great  savant,  was  born  March  10,  1790.  In 
1817  he  accompanied  an  expedition  round  the 
world.  From  1835  to  1837  he  managed  the 
theatre  at  Rouen.  His  Promenade  autour  du 
Monde  (1822)  and  Souvenir  dun  Aveugle  (1838), 
are  well  known.  In  1849,  though  blind,  he 
formed  a  company  of  speculators,  and  departed 
for  California,  to  search  for  gold.  He  died  in 
Brazil  in  Jan.,  1855. — Etienne,  another  brother 
of  the  astronomer,  was  born  Feb.  9,  1802,  and 
made  himself  well  known  as  a  popular  author. 
He  held  an  appointment  under  the  Provisional 
Government  of  1848,  and  was  afterwards  exiled. 
In  1859  he  returned  to  France.  In  1878  he  be¬ 
came  archivist  in  the  Ecole  de  Beaux  Arts. — 
Emanuel,  son  of  the  astronomer,  born  1812,  be¬ 
came  known  as  a  zealous  republican  in  1848,  and 
was  after  1852  active  as  a  barrister.  In  1870  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  National 
Defence,  and  afterwards  held  appointments  under 
the  Government. 

Aragon,  once  a  kingdom,  now  divided  into 
the  three  Provinces  of  Saragossa,  Huesca,  and 
Teruel,  in  the  northeast  of  Spain.  Greatest 
length  from  north  to  south,  190  miles;  breadth, 
130.  Area,  17,880.  Pop.  (1884),  925,920.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Pyrenees,  and 


borders  on  Navarre,  the  Castiles,  Valencia,  and 
Catalonia.  The  Ebro  flows  through  Aragon  in  a 
southeasterly  direction,  receiving  numerous  trib¬ 
utaries  both  from  the  lofty  regions  of  the  Pyr¬ 
enees  and  from  the  Sierras  in  the  south.  The 
chief  towns  are  Saragossa,  Calatayud,  Huesca, 
and  Teruel. 

Aragona,  a  town  of  Sicily,  six  miles  north- 
northeast  of  Girgenti,  with  the  old  castle  of  the 
princes  of  Aragona.  Pop.  (1881),  9,571. 

Aragonite,  a  mineral  essentially  consisting  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  so  agreeing  in  chemical 
composition  with  calcareous  spar,  but  differing 
from  it  in  the  form  of  its  crystals,  of  which  the 
primary  form  is  a  rhombic  prism  with  angles  of 
116°  16'  and  63°  44',  the  secondary  forms  being 
generally  prismatic  and  pyramidal. 

Araguay',  a  large  river  of  Brazil,  rising  in  the 
Sierra  Sciada,  and  flowing  into  the  Amazon. 

Ar'akan  ( Arukdn ;  also  spelt  Aracan  and 
Arracan),  long  the  most  northerly  division  of 
British  Burmah,  is  a  narrow  strip  of  territory  on 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  between  Pegu  and  Chitta¬ 
gong,  in  Lower  Bengal.  Its  length  is  ab  ait  400 
miles,  its  greatest  breadth  is  90  miles,  its  narrowest 
15  miles.  The  area  is  14,526  square  miles.  Pop. 
about  600,000. 

A'ral,  L  are,  separated  by  the  plateau  of  Ust- 
Urt  from  the  Caspian  Sea,  is  the  largest  lake  in 
the  steppes  of  Asia.  It  lies  wholly  within  the 
limits  of  Russian  Central  Asia,  embracing  an 
area  of  about  24,000  square  miles.  It  has  no 
outlet,  and  is  generally  shallow.  Its  level  is  117 
feet  above  that  of  the  Caspian,  which  is  84  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  Black  Sea. 

A'ralia,  a  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of  the 
Araliaceoe,  which  are  a  sub-order  of  Umbelliferae 
less  developed  in  inflorescence,  which  is  often 
racemose-umbellate, and  in  fruit, which  has  usually 
more  than  two  carpels,  and  is  often  succulent — 
witness  the  berries  of  the  common  ivy.  The 
order  contains  about  160  known  species,  natives 
of  tropical,  temperate,  and  cold  climates,  gener¬ 
ally  possessing  stimulant  and  aromatic  properties. 
Poisonous  qualities  are  not  developed  as  in  the 
umbelliferse.  The  herbage  of  many  species  af¬ 
fords  good  food  for  cattle,  and  some  are  used  for 
human  food. 

Aram,  Eugene,  was  born  in  1704  in  Yorkshire, 
England.  Though  but  the  son  of  a  poor  gardener 
he  contrived  to  acquire  considerable  learning, 
married  early,  and  became  a  schoolmaster,  first  | 
in  Netherdale,  and  afterwards  at  Knaresborough, 
where  he  became  intimate  with  one  Daniel 
Clarke,  a  shoemaker,  whom  he  murdered,  in 
1745.  Fourteen  years  later  the  skeleton  of 
Clarke  was  found  in  a  cave,  and  Aram  was  sud¬ 
denly  dragged  from  his  ushership  at  Lynn  Acad¬ 
emy,  in  Norfolk,  and  thrown  into  prison  on  a 
charge  of  murder.  He  was  tried  at  York,  Aug. 
3,  1759,  and  sentenced  to  be  hanged  within  three 
days.  At  the  trial  he  conducted  his  own  defence, 
attacking  with  great  acumen,  plausibility,  and 
curious  erudition,  the  doctrine  of  circumstantial 
evidence.  After  his  condemnation  he  confessed 
his  guilt,  wrote  a  defence  of  suicide,  but  failed 
in  an  attempt  to  illustrate  his  essay.  Interest  has 
been  attached  to  Aram  from  Lord  Lytton’s  ro¬ 
mance,  Eugene  Aram,  and  Hood’s  powerful  bal¬ 
lad,  “  The  Dream  of  Eugene  Aram.” 

Aramse'a  (from  the  Hebrew  word  Aram,  sig¬ 
nifying  the  highland,  in  opposition  to  the  low¬ 
land  of  Canaan)  includes  the  whole  of  the  coun¬ 
try  situated  to  the  northeast  of  Palestine.  It 
embraces  the  countries  known  to  the  Greeks  by 
the  various  names  of  Syria,  Babylonia,  and 
Mesopotamia. 

Aran,  South  Isles  of,  Ireland.  These  are 
three  small  islands  lying  northeast  and  southwest 
across  the  entrance  to  Galway  Bay.  Total  area, 
11,286  acres.  Pop.  (1881),  3,i63. 

Aranju'ez  (probably  the  Latin  Ara  Jo  vis),  a 
town  of  Spain,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tagus, 
thirty  miles  south-southeast  of  Madrid.  Pop., 
8,000. 

Arany,  Janos,  next  to  Petofi  the  most  distin¬ 
guished  of  modern  Hungarian  poets,  was  born  at 
Nagy-Szalonta,  March  2,  1817.  He  died  Oct. 
22,  1882. — His  son  Lazslo  (born  March  24,  1844) 
is  also  noted  as  a  poet  and  translator  of  Shake 
speare. 

Arapaim'a,  a  genus  of  tropical  fishes,  includ¬ 


ing  the  largest  known  fresh-water  forms.  They 
are  found  in  the  rivers  of  South  America,  and  are 
sometimes  taken  in  the  Rio  Negro,  15  feet  in 
length,  and  4  cwt.  in  weight. 

Ar'arat  (Armenian  Aira/rai),  a  general  name 
for  the  district  through  which  the  Aras  flows,  and 
never  the  name  by  which  the  Mount  of  Ararat  has 
been  known  to  the  people  around  it.  Associated, 
however,  as  the  mountains  of  this  district  are  in 
Genesis,  viii,  4,  with  the  landing-place  of  the  ark 
after  the  flood,  the  name  has  been,  naturally 
enough,  appropriated  to  the  highest  peak.  The 
peak  is  a  double  one,  Great  Ararat  being  16,969 
and  Little  Ararat  12,840  feet  above  the  sea-level. 

Aras  (the  ancient  Arax.es),  the  chief  river  of 
Armenia,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Bingol-Su 
and  the  Kaleh-Su. 

Ara'tus  of  Sicyon,  a  distinguished  Greek 
statesman,  was  born  about  271  b.c.  He  liberated 
Sicyon  from  its  tyrant,  Nicoeles,  251,  and  united 
it  with  the  Achaian  League,  of  which  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  General  in  245.  According  to  Plutarch, 
lie  was  poisoned  in  213  by  command  of  Philip  III. 
of  Macedon. 

Arauca'nia,  the  country  of  the  Araucos  or 
Araucanian  Indians,  in  the  south  of  Chili.  The 
Chilian  Province  of  Arauco,  lying  between  the 
Andes  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Concepcion,  on  the  south  by  Valdivia, 
was  formed  in  1875,  with  an  area  of  8,100  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1885)  of  93,565. 

Arauca'ria,  an  evergreen  genus,  of  Coniferse, 
consisting  of  lofty  trees,  natives  of  South  America 
and  Australasia.  A.  imbricata,  sometimes  called 
the  Chili  Pine,  or  more  popularly,  from  the 
sharp-pointed  leaves,  the  Monkey-puzzle,  is  a 


Branch  of  Avraucaria  imbricata. 


native  of  the  Andes  of  Chili,  forming  forests  on 
their  western  declivities,  where  it  attains  a  height 
of  100  to  150  feet. 

Aran 're,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  South  America. 
Pop.  about  10,000. 

Araval'li,  a  range  of  mountains  in  Western 
India,  extending  for  300  miles  in  a  northeasterly 
direction  through  Rajputana.  The  highest  sum¬ 
mit  is  Abu,  5,650  feet. 

Arbe'la,  now  Erbil  or  Arbil,  a  small  town  of 
Assyria,  east  from  Mosul,  famous  as  having  given 
name  to  the  battle  in  which  Alexander  finally 
defeated  Darius,  331  b.c. 

Arbitration  is  the  adjudication  by  private 
persons  appointed  to  decide  a  matter  or  matters 
in  controversy,  on  a  reference  made  to  them  for 
that  purpose,  either  by  agreement  of  the  disput¬ 
ants,  or  by  the  order,  or  on  the  suggestion  of  a 
court  of  law.  The  proceeding  generally  is  called 
a  submission  to  arbitration ,  or  reference;  the  part¬ 
ies  appointed  to  decide  are  termed  arbitrators  or 
referees;  and  their  adjudication  is  called  an 
award.  There  are  State  boards  of  arbitration  in 
some  States.  International  arbitration  has  been 
of  late  repeatedly  had  recourse  to  in  matters  of 
debate  between  nations.  Thus,  as  between 
Britain  and  the  United  States,  the  San  Juan 
boundary  question,  and  the  Alabama  dispute 
were  so  arranged.  The  dispute  between  Spain 
and  Germany  as  to  the  possession  of  the  Caroline 
Islands  was  settled  in  1885  by  the  arbitration  of 
the  Pope. 

Arbo'ga,  an  ancient  town  in  Sweden,  in  the 
Province  of  Westmanland.  Pop.,  3,823. 

Arbois,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 


ARBOR  DAY. 


70 


ARCHEGOSAURUS. 


Jura.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Pichegru.  Pop. 
(1881),  4,639. 

Arbor  Day,  in  America,  a  day  set  apart  for  the 
planting  of  shade  trees,  shrubs,  etc.,  by  school 
children.  The  first  Friday  in  May  has  been 
selected  for  this  purpose  in  Canada;  in  the  United 
States  different  days  are  chosen  in  the  several 
States. 

Arbores'cent  (Lat.  arbor,  a  tree),  a  term 
applied  to  plants  to  signify  that  they  possess 
either  altogether,  or  in  some  measure,  "the  char¬ 
acter  of  trees. 

Arboricnl'ture,  a  term  literally  signifying  the 
cultivation  of  trees,  is  in  use  generally  restricted 
to  the  planting  and  management  of  timber  trees, 
exclusive  of  the  cultivation  of  fruit  trees,  which 
is  a  branch  of  horticulture  or  gardening. 

Ar'bor  Vi'tse  (Thuja),  an  evergreen  genus  of 
coniferous  trees  and  shrubs  allied  to  the  cypress. 
The  common  arbor  vitae  (T.  occidental is)  is  a 
native  of  North  America,  especially  between 
latitude  45°  and  49°.  It  is  a  tree  of  20  to 
50  feet  high;  the  young  leafy  twigs  have  a 
balsamic  smell,  and  both  they  and  the  wood  were 
formerly  in  great  repute  as  a  medicine;  the  oil 
obtained  by  distillation  from  the  twigs,  which 
has  a  pungent  and  camphor-like  taste,  has  been 
employed  as  a  vermifuge.  The  wood  of  the 
stem  is  reddish,  soft,  and  very  light,  but  compact, 
tough,  and  durable,  bearing  exposure  to  the 
weather  remarkably  well. 

Arbuth '  not,  or  Arbuthnott,  John,  physician 
and  wit,  the  friend  of  Swift  and  Pope,  was  born 
in  1667.  lie  died  in  1735. 

Ar'butus,  a  genus  of  small  trees  and  shrubs 
belonging  to  the  order  of  Ericaceae.  Arbutus 
unedo,  the  strawberry  tree,  is  a  native  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  found  also  in  Asia  and  America. 


Arbutus  unedo. 
a,  fruit;  6,  section  of  fruit. 

Arc  (Lat.  arcus,  a  bow)  is  any  part  of  a  curved 
line.  The  straight  line  joining  the  ends  of  an  arc 
is  its  chord,  which  is  always  less  than  the  arc 
itself.  Arcs  of  circles  are  similar  when  they  sub¬ 
tend  equal  angles  at  the  centres  of  their  respective 
circles;  and  if  similar  arcs  belong  to  equal  circles, 
the  arcs  themselves  are  equal.  The  length  of  an 
arc  is  readily  found  if  the  angle  which  it  sub¬ 
tends  at  the  centre  of  the  circle  is  known,  and 
also  the  length  of  the  whole  circumference.  Let 
the  whole  circumference  be  100,  and  the  angle  of 
an  arc  50°,  the  length  of  the  arc  is 

360°  :  50°  :  :  100  :  1Q0-*  50  =  14  nearly. 

3b0  J 

Area,  or  Ark-shell,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchi- 
ate  molluscs. 

Arcachon,  a  bathing-place  which  lias  grown 
up  since  1854,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Bassin 
d’ Arcachon,  thirty-four  miles  southwest  of  Bor¬ 
deaux. 

Arcade  (Fr.),  a  row  of  arches  supported  by 
columns,  either  having  an  open  space  of  greater 
or  less  width  behind  them,  or  in  contact  with 
masonry.  The  arcade  in  Gothic  corresponds  to 
the  colonnade  in  classical  architecture.  The 
term  is  also  applied,  but  improperly,  to  a  glass- 
covered  street  or  lane,  with  a  row  of  shops  or 
stalls  on  each  side. 

Arcadia,  the  central  and  highest  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  was  in  length  about  50  miles,  in 


breadth  about  40.  The  loftiest  peak  in  Arcadia 
— the  loftiest  also  in  the  Peloponnesus — is  Mount 
Cyllene,  in  the  northeast  (7,787  feet).  The  chief 
river  is  the  Alpheus.  The  modern  Province  of 
Arcadia  has  an  area  of  2,020  square  miles,  and  a 
pop.  (1879)  0^148,905.  Arcadia  became  both  to 
ancient  and  modern  poets  the  land  of  peace, 
innocence,  and  patriarchal  manners. 

Arcadius,  first  emperor  of  the  East  alone,  was 
born  in  Spain,  377  a.d.,  and  was  the  son  of  the 
Emperor  Theodosius,  after  whose  death,  in  395 
a.d.,  the  Roman  Empire  was  divided  into  East 
and  West,  the  West  falling  to  Honorius.  He 
died  in  408  a.d. 

Arcanum,  The  Great.  In  the  middle  ages, 
the  Latin  word  arcanum  (secret)  was  used  of  any 
of  the  most  valued  preparations  of  alchemy;  but 
the  title  was  especially  applied,  as  above,  to  the 
highest  problems  of  the  science,  the  discovery  of 
such  supposed  great  secrets  of  nature  as  the 
grand  elixir. 

Arcesila'us,  a  Greek  philosopher,  founder  of 
the  New  Academy,  was  born  at  Pitanc  in  vEolia, 
Asia  Minor,  316  b.c.  He  died  in  his  seventy- 
sixth  year,  (241  b.c.) 

Arch,  a  concave  structure  of  bricks,  stones,  or 
other  materials  built  or  turned  on  a  centring  over 
an  open  space,  and  so  arranged  as  to  support 
each  other  by  mutual  pressure,  and  to  sustain  a 
superincumbent  weight.  It  is  to  the  Romans 
that  the  nations  of  modern  Europe  are  indebted 
for  the  use  of  the  arch.  The  Romans  most  prob¬ 
ably  derived  their  acquaintance  with  it  from  the 
Etruscans,  who,  as  well  as  the  Pelasgians  of 
Greece,  made  their  arches  pointed. 


Drop  Arch. 


Segmental  Arch. 


Trefoil  Arches. 


The  sides  of  an  arch  are  termed  haunches  or 
flanks,  and  its  highest  part  is  called  the  crown. 
The  wedge-shaped  stones,  bricks,  or  other  mate¬ 
rials  of  which  an  arch  is  constructed,  are  called 


voussoirs  (a,  a,  a );  the  uppermost  one  of  all  (b)  is 
called  the  keystone;  the  lowest,  which  is  placed  im¬ 
mediately  over  the  impost, 
the  springer,  ( c ),  or  spring¬ 
ing  stone;  the  under  or 
lower  side  of  the  vous- 
soirs,  the  inirados;  the 
upper  side,  the  exlrados  or 
back. 

Arch,  Triumphal,  a 
structure  erected  by  the 
Romans  across  roads,  or 
at  the  entrance  of  cities, 
in  honor  of  victorious 
generals.  Under  the  em¬ 
perors  these  structures 
became  numerous  and 
magnificent.  Of  nearly  forty  that  were  built 
during  that  period,  at  least  three  remain,  those  of 
Titus (circa  82  a.d.),  Septimius  Severus  (203  a.d.); 
and  of  Constantine,  (306-337  a.d.)  Napoleon  pro¬ 
posed  to  adorn  Paris  with  four  triumphal  arches, 
and  erected  in  1806  the  Arc  de  Triomphe  du  Car¬ 
rousel,  between  the  Louvre  and  the  Tuileries, 
after  the  model  of  the  arch  of  Septimus 
Severus.  The  Arc  de  Triomphe  de  l’Etoile, 
beyond  the  Champs  Elys<?es,  was  begun  at  the  same 
time,  but  not  completed  till  1836.  Through  it 
the  Germans  marched  on  their  entry  into  Paris 
in  1871. 

Archtean  System  forms,  in  Geology,  the  base¬ 
ment  division  of  the  stratified  series  of  rocks. 
The  rocks  included  under  archsean  system  consist 
principally  of  crystalline  schistose  rocks, and  attain 
a  thickness  of  many  thousand  feet.  There  is,  in¬ 
variably,  an  unconformity  between  them  and  the 
strata  which  happen  to  rest  upon  them.  The 
archaean  rocks  are  often  penetrated  by  mineral 
veins  from  which  large  supplies  of  various  metals 
have  been  obtained.  Great  masses  of  iron  ore 
form  a  marked  feature  of  the  archaean  system  in 
Canada. 

Archaeology  (Gr.  arcliains,  ancient,  and  logos, 
a  discourse)  is  a  science  which  deduces  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  past  times  from  the  study  of  their  existing 
remains. 

Archaeop'teryx,  an  extinct  bird,  the  remains 
of  which  have  been  obtained  in  the  well-known 
Solenhofen  lithographic  stone — a  limestone  of  Ju¬ 
rassic  age — which  is  quarried  at  Aichstadt  in 
Bavaria.  Only  two  specimens  of  archaeopteryx 
are  known — one  in  the  British  Museum,  and  the 
other  at  Berlin. 

Archangel,  the  chief  city  in  the  Russian  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  Archangel,  is  situated  about  forty 
miles  above  the  junction  of  the  River  Dwina  with 
the  White  Sea.  Pop.  (1880),  19,540.  The  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  Archangel  has  an  area  of  331,505 
square  miles,  and  had  in  1883  a  pop.  of  318,429. 

Archbishop  (Gr.  arch-,  and  episcopos,  overseer) 
is  the  title  given  to  a  metropolitan  bishop  who 
superintends  the  conduct  of  the  suffragan  bishops 
in  his  province,  and  also  exercises  episcopal  au¬ 
thority  in  his  own  diocese. 

England  has  two  Protestant  archbishops,  Can¬ 
terbury  and  York,  and  one  Roman  Catholic  Aroh- 
iepiscopal  See,  that  of  Westminster ;  in  Scotland 
there  are  two,  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh,  and 
Glasgow.  In  Ireland  there  are  two  Protestant  and 
four  Roman  Catholic  archbishops  Of  the  former, 
the  Archbishop  of  Armagh  is  primate  of  all  Ire¬ 
land  ;  the  Archbishop  of  Dublin  being  primate  of 
Ireland.  The  United  States  is  divided  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  into  twelve  ecclesiastical 
provinces,  each  under  an  archbishop,  and  each  in¬ 
cluding  several  dioceses.  The  divisions  are  known 
as  the  provinces  of  Baltimore,  Boston,  Chicago, 
Cincinnati,  Milwaukee,  New  Orleans,  New  York, 
Oregon,  Philadelphia,  St.  Louis,  San  Francisco, 
and  Santa  FA  There  are  no  Protestant  arch¬ 
bishops  in  this  country. 

Archdeacon,  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary  whose 
jurisdiction  is  immediately  subordinate  to  that  of 
the  bishop. 

Archduke  (Ger.  Erzlierzog).  Archduke  and 
archduchess  are  titles  now  borne  by  all  the  sons 
and  daughters  of  an  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  by 
their  descendants  through  the  male  line. 

Archegosaur'us,  a  remarkable  fossil  saurian 
reptile.  It  had  four  long,  slender  digits,  which 
obviously  supported  a  longish,  narrow-pointed 
paddle,  adapted  tor  swimming.  Externally,  the 


ARCHENHOLZ. 


71 


ARCHITECTURE. 


body  was  protected  by  a  covering  of  oblong, 
quadrangular  scales,  which  are  preserved  in  some 
specimens. 

Archenholz,  Johann  Wilhelm  von,  born  at 
Danzig  in  1745— died  near  Hamburg  in  1812.  Ilis 
Geschichte  des  Siebenjdhrigen  Krieges  (1793) 
reached  an  eleventh  edition  in  1879. 

Archer  Fish,  a  name  given  to  certain  small 
East  Indian  fishes  of  the  Acantliopterygious  family 
of  Squamipennes  or  Chaetodontidae,  which  have 
acquired  the  unique  habit  of  catching  insects  by 
spouting  water  from  their  mouths.  Toxoics  jacu- 


lalor,  one  of  these  species,  is  a  fish  about  six  or 
seven  inches  in  length,  a  native  of  Java  and  other 
parts  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  is  that  to 
which  the  name  archer  fish  has  been  more  strictly 
appropriated.  It  can  project  a  drop  of  water  to 
the  height  of  four  or  five  feet.  Chelmon  rostral  us, 
also  a  Javanese  fish,  posesses  the  same  power,  and 
the  Chinese  in  Java  keep  it  in  jars  for  their  amuse¬ 
ment,  causing  it  to  practice  its  art  by  placing  in¬ 
sects  within  its  range. 

Archery  is  the  art  of  shooting  with  the  bow 
and  arrow.  The  use  of  these  weapons  was  prob¬ 
ably  known  to  man  at  a  very  early  period  of  his 
history.  The  bow  is  mentioned  in  Scripture 
as  having  been  used  in  patriarchal  times,  and  we 
know  that  all  the  leading  nations  of  antiquity 
were  acquainted  with  it.  Archery  was  brought 
to  perfection  in  England  in  the  time  of  Edward 
III.  At  Cressy,  Poitiers,  and  Agincourt,  the 
English  archers  were  all  armed  with  the  long-bow, 
while  the  French  principally  depended  on  the 
arbalest  or  crossbow,  a  powerful  but  clumsy  and 
unwieldy  weapon.  Archers  continued  to  form  a 
part  of  the  English  army  long  after  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  gunpowder.  .Archery  as  an  amusement 
has  recently  been  revived  in  England  and  to  some 
extent  in  this  country. 

Arches,  Court  of,  an  ecclesiastical  court  be 
longing  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  an 
ciently  held  in  the  Church  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow  (S. 
Maria  de  Arcubus)  in  London. 

Ar'cliil,  or  Orciiill  (Fr.  orseille;  Spain  ar 
cl  villa;  Ital.  orcello )  is  a  coloring  substance  obtained 
from  various  species  of  lichens.  Archil  is  soluble 
in  water  and  alcohol,  to  either  of  which  it  imparts 
a  violet  color  with  a  good  deal  of  a  crimson  hue. 

Archil'oclius  of  Paros  flourished  about  714— 
676  b.c. ,  and  is  regarded  as  the  first  of  the  Greek 
lyric  poets. 

'  Ar<  himan'drite(Gr.  archi-,  chief,  and  mandra, 
a  fold  or  a  convent),  the  title  of  the  highest  order 
of  superiors  of  convents  in  the  Greek  Church. 

Arcliiine 'des,  the  most  celebrated  of  ancient 
mathematicians,  was  born  at  Syracuse  about  287 
b.c.  Upon  his  discoveries  modern  mathematicians 
have  founded  their  methods  of  measuring  curved 
surfaces  and  solids.  His  demonstration  that  the 
area  of  a  segment  of  a  parabola  is  two-thirds  of 
the  inclosing  parallelogram,  is  the  first  real  ex 
ample  of  the  quadrature  of  a  curvilinear  space. 
In  his  treatise  on  spirals,  he  rises  to  yet  higher  in¬ 
vestigations,  which,  however,  are  not  very  easily 
understood,  even  by  masters  of  the  subject.  He 
first  established  the  truth  that  a  body  piunged  in 
a  fluid  loses  as  much  of  its  weight  as  is  equal  to 
the  weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  the  fluid,  that 
is,  he  gave  us  the  law  of  specific  gravity.  Among 
the  numerous  inventions  ascribed  to  him  is  that  of 
the  endless  screw,  and  the  Archimedean  screw. 

Archimedes,  The  Principle  of  (so  called 
aftei  its  supposed  discoverer,)  may  be  thus  stated: 


A  body  when  immersed  in  a  fluid  weighs  less  than 
it  does  in  vacuo  by  the  weight  of  the  fluid  it  dis¬ 
places;  or,  a  fluid  sustains  as  much  of  the  weight 
of  a  body  immersed  in  it  as  is  equal  to  the  weight 
of  the  fluid  displaced  by  it.  It  is  demonstrated  as 
follows:  A  delicate  balance  is  so^arranged  that 
two  brass  cylinders,  A  and  B,  may  be  suspended 
from  one  of  the  scale-pans,  the  one  under  the 


other.  •  The  lower  cylinder,  B,  is  solid,  or  closed 
all  round,  and  fits  accurately  into  the  upper  cylin¬ 
der,  A,  which  is  hollow.  When  the  two  cylinders 
are  placed  under  the  one  scale,  pan-weights  are 
placed  upon  the  other  until  perfect  equilibrium 
is  obtained.  The  cylinder  B  is  now  immersed  in 
water,  and,  in  consequence,  the  equilibrium  is 
destroyed;  but  it  may  be  completely  restored  by 
filling  the  hollow  cylinder,  A,  with  water.  The 
amount  of  weight  which  B  has  lost  by  being 
placed  in  the  water,  is  thus  found  to  be  exactly 
the  same  as  the  weight  of  a  quantity  of  water 
equal  to  its  own  bulk  ^ 

Archimedes’  Screw  (called  also  the  spiral 
pump),  a  machine  for  raising  water,  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Archimedes,  during  his  stay  in 
Egypt,  for  draining  and  irrigating  the  land.  In 
its*  simplest  form  it  consists  of  a  flexible  tube  bent 


spirally  round  a  solid  cylinder,  the  ends  of  which 
are  furnished  with  pivots,  so  as  to  admit  of  the 
whole  turning  round  its  axis.  It  acts  as  a  station¬ 
ary  screw  operating  upon  a  movable  medium. 

Archipel  ago,  an  Italian  form,  dating  from 
the  thirteenth  century,  of  the  Greek  archipelagos, 
“the  chief  sea,”  and  the  term  applied  originally 
to  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  which  separates 
Greece  from  Asia  (the  iEgean  Sea  of  the  ancients); 
but  now  extended  to  any  sea,  like  it,  thickly  in¬ 
terspersed  with  islands,  or  rather  to  the  group  of 
islands  themselves. 

Architecture  is  the  art  of  building  or  con¬ 
structing,  though  bridge-building  and  the  like  are 
now  confided  to  engineers. 

Civil  architecture  has  a  scientific  or  constructive 
side,  and  an  aesthetic  or  artistic  side.  The  first 
relates  to  mechanical  and  constructional  details; 
the  second  to  the  forms  and  proportions  of  its 
principal  features,  and  to  its  decorative  character. 
Architecture  varies  under  the  exigencies  of  differ¬ 
ent  ages  and  peoples. 

Egyptian. — The  history  of  architecture  may  be 
said  to  begin  with  the  construction  of  the  Egyp¬ 
tian  Pyramids,  3,000  years  or  more  before  the 
birth  of  Christ,  but  it  is  long  after  this — namely, 
2,570  b.c. — ere  we  find  in  Egypt  a  form  of  struct¬ 
ure  which  contains  the  germ  of  a  style  practiced 
at  a  later  age  in  Greece. 

Assyrian. — Assyria  comes  next  to  Egypt  for  the 
age  and  importance  of  its  buildings.  Among  the 
oldest  hitherto  excavated  is  the  Northwest  Palace 
at  Nimroud,  built  about  884  b.c. 

Persian. — Persia  possesses  in  the  remarkable 
ruins  of  palaces  at  Persepolis  and  Susa,  built  in 


the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  b.c.,  remains  which 
bear  a  close  resemblance  to  those  of  Assyria. 

Indian. — Examples  of  almost  every  kind  of 
construction,  both  in  wood  and  stone,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  various  styles  of  India.  It  has  now 
been  ascertained  that  the  cave  temples  of  India 
date  no  further  back  than  the  sixth  or  seventh 
century  of  our  era. 

Greek. — Ancient  Greek  architecture  is  almost 
wholly  represented  by  temples  and  theatres. 
Some  of  tiicse,  were  originally  of  gneat  size;  and 
their  architecture,  even  in  its  minutest  details,  is 
of  a  very  refined  character.  The  Grecian  style 
embraces  three  orders,  called  the  Doric,  the  Ionic, 
and  the  Corinthian.  The  most  marked,  though 
not  the  only  distinguishing,  feature  in  these  is 
the  capital  of  the  column.  The  architecture 
of  ancient  Greece  flourished  from  650  to  324 

B.C. 

Roman.—  The  Romans  borrowed  their  early 
architecture  from  that  of  Greece  and  Etruria,  but 
about  Roman  buildings  erected  much  before  the 
Christian  era  very  little  is  known.  By  the  Ro¬ 
mans,  the  Grecian  orders  were  modified  in  their 
proportions  and  details,  and  two  others  were 
added— namely,  the  Tuscan  (a  variety  of  the 
Roman  Doric)  and  the  Composite.  In  many  of 
their  buildings,  such  as  the  Colosseum,  built  80 
a.d.,  the  orders  are  piled  over  each  other,  divid¬ 
ing  the  great  height  of  the  external  wall  into 
several  tiers  or  stories.  At  Pompeii  there  are  in¬ 
teresting  examples  of  the  domestic  architecture- 
of  the  first  century  of  our  era. 

Byzantine. — With  the  establishment  of  Byzan¬ 
tium  as  the  capital  of  the  Empire,  the  Roman 
style  of  architecture  was  naturally  much  prac¬ 
ticed  there,  and,  in  particular,  the  development  of 
the  dome  became  from  the  first  a  chief  object 
with  the  Eastern  architects.  The  name  Byzantine 
is,  strictly  speaking,  only  applicable  to  the  Chris¬ 
tian  architecture  of  Eastern  Europe  and  Asia 
Minor,  erected  from  the  reign  of  Justinian  to  the 
eleventh  century. 

Romanesque  is  the  general  term  applied  to  all 
the  various  round-arched  styles  which  arose  in 
Western  Europe,  after  the  irruptions  of  the  bar¬ 
barians  had  ceased. 

Saxon  or  Pre-Norman. — The  Norman  style 
would  link  on  more  naturally  than  this  with  the 
Teutonic  Romanesque.  But  the  Saxon  is  prior 
in  point  of  date.  It  is  simple,  and  has,  as  a  rule, 
coarsely  dressed  masonry. 

Norman. — This  style  is  also  sometimes  called 
Romanesque.  It  is  characterized  by  round-headed 
openings,  by  flat  buttresses  like  pilasters,  by 
“cubical”  masonry,  and  by  the  richness  and 
quaintness  of  the  carving,  especially  on  many  of 
the  doorways  and  chancel  arches  of  even  the 
smaller  churches. 

Under  the  general  term  Gothic  Architecture 
some  writers  include  the  Norman  style.  More 
usually,  however,  the  name  Gothic  is  understood 
to  mean  the  pointed  styles  of  architecture,  which 
succeeded  the  Romanesque  and  Norman. 

Early  English  or  First  Pointed  Style. — As  soon 
as  the  transition  from  the  Norman  to  First  Pointed 
architecture  was  complete,  the  latter  was  charac¬ 
terized  by  its  narrow,  pointed  or  “lancet”  win¬ 
dow’s,  without  any,  or  with  only  very  simple, 
tracery.  This  style  lasted  from  toward  the  end 
of  the  twelfth,  to  near  the  end  of  the  thirteenth 
century. 

What  are  called  the  Transition,  and  the  Decor¬ 
ated,  Second  Pointed,  or  Middle.  1  ointed  styles  suc¬ 
ceeded  the  Early  English.  These  styles  continued 
from  about  1274  to  1377. 

The  Perpendicular,  Third  Pointed  or  J.a'e 
Pointed  style,  prevailed  from  the  end  of  the  four¬ 
teenth  to  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
latter  portion  of  this  period  is  sometimes  called  the 
Tudor  style.  The  elaborately  ornamented  Fiam- 
boyant  style  was  the  latest  style  of  Gothic  in  France 
(fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries).  The  Municipal 
Architecture  of  the  middle  ages  was  largely  Gothic 
in  type. 

Roman  or  Classic  Architecture  may  be  said  to 
have  never  entirely  died  out  in  Rome,  and  when, 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  revival  of  classic  litera¬ 
ture  and  taste  took  place,  the  ancient  classic  style 
of  architecture  naturally  revived  along  with  them. 
This  is  called  the  Italian  Renaissance.  Renais¬ 
sance  as  applied  to  architecture  means  a  revival 


ARCHITRAVE. 


AREZZO. 


of  classical  features  and  details  as  distinguished 
from  those  which  characterize  the  Gothic. 

Arabian,  t-araeenie,  or  Moorish.-* ‘This  singular 
and  beautiful  style  of  architecture  appears  to 
have  first  taken  a  definite  character  in  the  ninth 
century.  The  style  is  noted  for  its  elegant  domes, 
often  with  remarkable  external  decoration;  for 
its  graceful  minarets  or  towers,  lessening  in  diame¬ 
ter  stage  by  stage  as  they  rise;  for  the  frequent 
use  of  the  pointed  arch,  and  of  the  horseshoe 
arch;  and  in  some  cases  for  the  peculiarly  slender 
columns  which  support  the  walls  above  them. 

Mo  ern  Architecture. — This  title  is  generally 
applied  to  the  architecture  which  has  been  used 
by  European  nations  since  the  time  of  the  Renais¬ 
sance.  All  modern  architecture  is  imitative, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  a  really  new  style  is 
possible.  At  present,  Gothic  is  generally  adopted 
for  churches,  and  Renaissance  for  domestic  build¬ 
ings.  In  France,  the  birthplace  of  Gothic,  it  is 
little  practiced,  the  French  having  adopted  a 
special  modification  of  the  Renaissance,  which  is 
known  as  the  “  French  style.”  In  Germany  and 
Italy  the  purer  classic  examples  have  been  more 
frequently  followed;  but  in  recent  years  there 
has  been  a  strong  tendency  in  Germany  to  follow 
the  style  of  the  Renaissance  as  practiced  during 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.  The 
architecture  of  America  follows  very  much  the 
same  course  as  that  of  Europe.  See  Fergusson’s 
Handbook  of  Architecture;  Ruskin's  Seven  J.amps 
of  Architecture;  the  works  of  Pugin,  Viollet  le 
Due,  Parker,  Freeman;  and  works  on  special 
departments  of  architecture  noted  under  the 
several  articles  therein. 

Ar'chitrave  (Gr.  archi,  chief;  Lat.  trabs, 
beam),  the  lowest  part  of  the  entablature  or  that 
which  rests  immediately  upon  the  columns. 

Ar'cliivolt,  the  ornamental  band  or  molding 
which  runs  round  the  lower  part  of  the  voussoirs 
of  an  arch. 

Ar'chon,  the  highest  magistrate  in  Athens. 
The  government  was  originally  monarchical;  but 
on  the  death  of  Codrus,  the  Athenians  resolved 
that  no  one  should  succeed  him  with  the  title  of 
king  ( basileus ),  and  therefore  appointed  his  son, 
Medon,  with  the  title  of  arc/ton  (ruler). 

Archpriest.  Archpriest  was  the  title  given  to 
the  superiors  who  were  appointed  byr  the  Pope 
to  govern  the  secular  priests  sent  into  England 
from  the  foreign  seminaries  during  the  period 
1598-1621. 

Arcliy'tas  of  Tarentum,  flourished  about 
400  b.c.,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Plato.  He 
was  seven  times  elected  General  of  his  city,  and 
was  victorious  in  every  campaign.  His  civil  ad¬ 
ministration  was  equally  fortunate,  and  he  was 
no  less  distinguished  as  a  mathematician  and 
philosopher. 

Arcis-sur-Aube,  a  town  of  3,000  inhabitants 
in  the  French  department  of  Aube.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Danton,  and  near  it  a  battle  was 
fought,  March  20-21,  1814,  between  Napoleon 
and  the  allied  forces  under  Prince  Schwarzen- 
berg,  ending  in  a  French  retreat. 

Ar 'cole,  a  village  on  the  left  bankofthe  Adige, 
in  Northern  Italy,  fifteen  miles  east-southeast  of 
Verona,  famous  for  the  victory  gained  by  Napo¬ 
leon  over  the  Austrians,  Nov.  15-17,  1796. 

Arcos  de  la  Fronte'ra,  a  town  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Guadalete,  in  the  Spanish  Province 
of  Cadiz.  Pop.  (1878),  16,280. 

Arctic  means,  properly,  lying  near  the  con¬ 
stellation  of  the  Bear  (Gr  arc/os)  or  Ursa  Major, 
and  hence,  northern  The  Arctic  Circle  is  a 
circle  drawn  round  the  North  Pole,  at  a  distance 
from  it  equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  or 
23^°.  The  corresponding  circle  round  the  South 
Pole  is  the  Antarctic  Circle. 

Arctic  Animals  The  region  north  of  the 
cultivation  of  cereals  is  peopled  by  a  limited 
and  homogeneous  fauna.  Mammals  are  repre¬ 
sented  almost  exclusively  by  ruminants,  carni¬ 
vores,  and  rodents,  such  as  the  Arctic  fox,  polar 
bear,  glutton,  ermine,  sable,  walrus,  tailless  hare, 
lemming,  reindeer,  and  musk-ox.  Birds  are  rep¬ 
resented  especially  by  the  snow-partridges,  snowy 
owl,  Iceland  falcon,  eider-duck,  auks,  divers,  and 
guillemots.  No  reptiles  can  live  in  the  cold  of 
the  Arctic  regions;  but  fishes,  especially  Salmon- 
idse,  are  well  represented.  Insects  and  molluscs 
are  fairly  numerous.  Not  a  few  of  the  birds 


and  mammals  inhabiting  these  snowy  regions 
exhibit  adaptive  characteristics  of  white  color, 
thick  coats,  accumulations  of  fat,  and  the  like. 

Arctic  Ocean.  The  Arctic  Ocean  lies  to  the 
north  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  and 
surrounds  the  North  Pole;  it  is  usually  defined 
as  the  water  area  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  The 
influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  however,  carries 
a  relatively  mild  climate  a  long  way  within  the 
Arctic  Circle  off  the  coasts  of  Norway;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  Arctic  currents  along  the 
east  coast  of  Greenland,  and  through  Davis’ 
Strait,  bring  down  Arctic  conditions  a  long  dis¬ 
tance  into  the  Atlantic.  Physiographically,  the 
Norwegian  Sea  and  Greenland  Sea,  situated  be¬ 
tween  Norway  and  Greenland,  belong  to  the 
same  basin  as  the  Arctic  Ocean,  it  being  cut  off 
from  the  Atlantic  by  the  ridges  stretching  be¬ 
tween  Greenland,  Iceland,  the  Faroe  Islands,  and 
the  north  of  Scotland,  which  have  an  average 
depth  over  them  of  240  fathoms.  If  the  Arctic 
Ocean  be  regarded  as  lying  wholly  within  the 
Arctic  Circle,  then  it  is  almost  landlocked  be¬ 
tween  that  circle  and  the  parallel  of  70®  N.  It 
communicates  with  the  Pacific  by  Behring’s  Strait, 
and  with  the  Atlantic  through  Davis’  Strait  and 
the  wide  sea  between  Norway  and  Greenland. 
The  area  of  the  ocean  is  about  5,500,000  square 
miles,  and  into  it  there  drain  about  8,600,000 
square  miles  of  land.  The  rainfall  on  this  land 
is  estimated  at  2,100  cubic  miles  per  annum. 

Ar'cus  Seni'lis  (Lat.  the  bow  of  old  age),  a 
narrow  white  or  yellowish  band  close  to,  but 
within  the  margin  of,  the  cornea  (see  Eye), 
caused  by  fatty  degeneration  of  its  tissue.  It 
usually  begins  during  middle  life,  first  at  the 
upper,  then  at  the  lower  mart  of  the  cornea;  be¬ 
fore  old  age  is  reached,  mese  two  arcs  have  gen¬ 
erally  united  at  the  sides  to  form  a  ring. 

Ardalan,  a  province  in  the  west  of  Persia, 
embracing  the  basin  of  theSliirwan  Rud.  Area, 
6,000  square  miles;  estimated  pop.,  150,000. 
Capit  al ,  Kermanshah . 

Ardebil,  a  town  of  Persia,  in  the  Province  of 
Azerbijan,  110  miles  east  of  Tabriz,  and  some 
5,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Pop.  about  10,000. 

Ardeche,  a  department  in  the  south  of  France, 
takes  its  name  from  the  tributary  of  the  Rhone, 
and  includes  part  of  the  ancient  Languedoc.  In 
the  northwest  of  the  department,  the  Cevennes 
culminate  in  the  volcanic  Mont-Meztme,  5,752 
feet  in  height.  Area,  2,136  square  miles;  pop. 
(1886),  375,472.  The  capital  is  Privas. 

Ardennes,  an  extensive  hill  country  and  for 
est,  occupying  the  southeast  corner  of  Belgium, 
between  the  Moseile  and  the  Meuse,  but  extend¬ 
ing  also  into  France  and  Rhenish  Prussia.  It 
consists  of  a  broken  mass  of  hills,  for  the  most 
part  of  no  great  elevation,  which  gradually  slope 
toward  the  plains  of  Flanders.  Shakespeare’s 
Forest  of  Arden  is  a  district  in  Warwickshire, 
extending  from  the  Avon  to  near  Birmingham. 

Ardennes,  a  frontier  department  of  France, 
bordering  on  Belgium.  It  is  named  from  the 
forest  of  Ardennes,  and  formed  a  part  of  the  old 
Province  of  Champagne.  Length  from  north  to 
south,  63  miles;  area,  2,020  square  miles.  The 
capital  is  M£zi&res,  but  the  most  important  place 
is  the  great  fortified  City  of  Sedan,  where  Na- 
poieon  111.  surrendered  his  army  to  the  Germans 
in  1870.  Pop.  of  department  (1886),  332,759. 

Arditi,  L  itigi,  musician  and  composer,  born 
July  22, 1822.  From  1857  till  1878  he  was  musical 
director  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre,  London. 

Ardoch,  a  place  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  cele¬ 
brated  for  a  Roman  camp,  the  most  entire  in 
Britain. 

Ardoye,  a  town  of  Belgium,  in  the  Province 
of  West  Flanders.  Pop.  (1882),  6,082. 

Ardros'san,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  in 
Ayrshire,  Scotland.  Pop.,  4,036. 

Are  (Lat.  area),  the  unit  of  the  French  land- 
measure,  is  a  square,  the  side  of  which  is  10 
metres  (or  32.809  feet)  long,  and  which  therefore 
contains  100  square  meters  =  119.6  English 
square  yards.  The  next  denomination  in  the 
ascending  scale  is  the  decare,  containing  10  ares; 
but  the  denomination  commonly  used  in  describ¬ 
ing  a  quantity  of  land  is  the  hectare  of  100  ares, 
=  2.47  English  statute  or  imperial  ares. 

Area  (Lat.)  is  a  term  in  mathematics  meaning 
quantity  of  sarj  ace.  The  calculation  of  areas,  or 


mensuration  of  surfaces,  is  one  of  the  objects  of 
geometery. 

Are'ca,  a  genus  of  palm,  containing  several 
species,  having  pinnate  leaves  and  double  spathes. 
The  fruit  is  a  fibrous  one-seeded  drupe,  a  nut 
with  an  outer  fibrous  husk.  A.  catechu,  the  Pe¬ 
nang  Palm,  or  Betel-nut  Palm,  is  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies,  whose  nut  yields  a  sort  of  Catechu, 
This  areca-nut,  or  betel-nut,  is  very  much  used 
in  many  parts  of  the  East,  the  chewing  of  it  with 
quicklime  and  the  leaf  of  the  betel -pepper  being 
one  of  the  most  prevalent  habits  of  the  people. 
A.  oleracea,  the  Cabbage  Palm  of  the  West 
Indies,  is  a  very  tall  tree,  100  to  200  feet,  whose 
huge  terminal  leaf-bud  is  sweet  and  nutritious, 
and  is  sometimes  used  for  the  table  as  cabbage,  but 
when  it  is  cut  off,  the  tree  is  destroyed.  The 
stem  of  this  tree,  notwithstanding  its  great  height, 
is  remarkably  slender.  A.  sapida,  the  New  Zea¬ 
land  Palm,  is  remarkable  as  extending  southward 
beyond  the  geographical  limits  of  any  other  of  its 
order,  as  far  indeed  as  38°  22'  S.  latitude.  It  is 
a  small  palm,  only  from  six  to  ten  feet  high,  with 
leaves  four  to  six  feet  long. 

Areci'bo,  a  town  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
Spanish  West  Indian  Island  of  Porto  Rico.  Pop., 
10,000. 

Are  na,  a  part  of  an  ampliitheal re  where  the 
combats  of  gladiators  and  wild  beasts  took  place. 
It  was  so  called  because  it  was  usually  strewed 
with  sand  (Lat.  arena). 

Arena  ceous  Rocks.  All  rocks  composed 
entirely,  or  to  a  large  extent,  of  grains  of  quartz 
are  included  under  this  title. 

Arenberg  (Ar ember;/),  from  1644  till  1820  a 
small  sovereign  duchy  of  Germany,  lying  between 
Jtilich  and  Cologne;  now  part  of  the  district  of 
Coblenz,  Rhenish  Prussia. 

Ar'endal,  a  coast  town  in  the  soqiheast  of 
Norway,  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nidelf  in 
the  Bay  of  Christiania.  It  is  built  partly  on  piles. 
Pop.,  4,107. 

Arends*  Leopold,  founder  of  a  widely  popu¬ 
lar  system  of  stenography,  was  born  near  Wilna, 
in  Russia,  Dec.  i,  1817,  and  died  in  Berlin, 
Dec.  22,  1882.  He  wrote  dramas,  as  well  as  books 
on  popular  natural  history  and  ancient  Hebrew 
music,  but  his  name  is  best  known  through  his 
“  Rational  Stenography,”  tir.-t  published  fully  in 
1860  in  his  Vollstandige  Lei/faden.  See  Wendt- 
land,  Leopold  A  rends  und  Seine  Schule  (Leip., 
1883). 

Areometer,  an  instrument  for  determining 
specific  gravity,  called  also  the  hydrometer. 

Areop  agus,  a  small  hill  in  Athens,  and  a 
famous  court,  so  named  from  its  meeting  on  the 
hill. 

Arequi'pa,  a  term  applied  primarily  to  a 
mountain  in  the  west  Cordillera  of  the  Peruvian 
Andes,  as  also  to  a  city  at  its  foot,  and  to  the 
southern  department  of  Peru,  which  contains 
them  both.  The  mountain,  also  called  Misti,  is 
volcanic,  of  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone;  it  some¬ 
times  smokes,  and  has  a  height  of  18,500  feet. 
Its  neighborhood  is  subject  to  earthquakes.  The 
city,  in  a  rich  valley,  7,700  feet  above  the  sea,  is 
the  third  largest  in  Peru,  being  inferior  only  to 
Lima  and  Callao,  and  contains  about  35,000  in¬ 
habitants.  The  department  is  bounded  north  by 
Lima,  and  west  by  the  Pacific.  It  has  an  area 
of  27,744  square  miles.,  and  a  pop.  (1876)  of 
160,282. 

A  res,  the  Greek  God  of  War,  or  more  particu¬ 
larly  of  its  horror  and  tumult,  was  the  son  of 
Zeus  and  Hera,  and  one  of  the  favorites  of  Aphro¬ 
dite.  The  Romans  identified  their  national  War 
God,  Mars,  with  the  Greek  Ares. 

A  retains,  a  Greek  physician  of  Cappadocia, 
who  flourished  about  100  a.d. 

Aretin'ian  Syllables  are  the  syllables  ut,  re, 
mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  used  by  Guido  o1  Arezzo  for  the 
names  of  the  notes  in  his  musical  scale. 

Aretino,  Pietro,  an  Italian  poet  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century,  was  the  natural  son  of  a  noble¬ 
man  named  Luigi  Bacci,  and  was  born  at  Arezzo, 
in  Tuscany,  in  1492.  He  wrote  several  comedies 
and  some  satirical  verses  and  sonnets,  and  died  in 
1557. 

Arezzo  (anc.  Arettium),  the  chief  city  of  an 
Italian  province,  is  situated  in  a  fertile  valley 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Chiana  with  the  Arno 
Pop.  (1881),  11,816. 


ARGALI. 


73 


ARGYLL. 


Argali  (Ovis  argali;  also  Ovis  ammon), the  great 
wild  sheep  of  Siberia  and  Central  Asia.  It  is 
found  from  Kamchatka  to  the  Himalaya  Mount¬ 
ains,  where,  however,  it  is  only  seen  in  the  more 
elevated  regions.  The  horns  of  the  male,  which 
he  uses  for  lighting,  are  nearly  four  feet  long  and 
fourteen  inches  in  circumference  at  the  base  where 
they  are  triangular.  The  Rocky  Mountain  sheep, 
or  Big-horn  ( Ovis  Montana),  which  is  sometimes 
called  the  American  Argali,  has  very  similar 


characteristics. 

Arg'an  (Argania  sideroxylon,  Sid eroxyl on  spi no- 
sum  of  Linna?us),  a  low,  spiny  evergreen  tree  of 
the  natural  order  Sapotaceae,  a  native  of  Southern 
Morocco.  The  Moors  extract  an  oil  from  the 
fruit,  which  they  use  with  their  food. 

Argand,  Aime,  physician  and  chemist,  was 
born  at  Geneva  in  1775. 

He  was  the  inventor  of  the 
well-known  Argand  Lamp. 

Argaum',  a  village  in 
Berar,  India,  between  El- 
lichpur  and  Aurungabad. 

Ar'gel,  or  Arghel  ( Sol - 
enostemma  argel),  a  plant  a 
of  the  order  Asclepiadaceae, 
a  native  of  Arabia  and  of  ,  _  , 

the  North  of  Africa,  the  Argand  Gas-burner. 

leaves  of  which  are  used  quite  frequently  to  adul¬ 
terate  senna. 

Argelander,  Friedrich  Wilhelm  August, 
an  eminent  astronomer,  was  born  1799  at  Memel. 
He  died  Feb.  17,  1875. 

Arge'inone,  a  genus  of  American  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Papaveraceae;  from  the  A.  Mex¬ 
icans,  sometimes  called  Mexican  Poppy.  A  use¬ 
ful  oil  is  obtained  from  it  and  the  seeds  are 
narcotic. 

Argenso'la,  Lupercio  and  Bartholomeo  de, 
poets,  styled  the  “  Spanish  Horaces,”  were  born 
in  Aragon,  the  former  in  1564,  the  latter  in  1565. 
The  elder  brother  died  in  1613,  the  younger  in 


1631. 


Argent,  the  French  word  for  silver,  is  always 
used  in  English  heraldry  to  signify  that  metal. 
In  engraving  shields,  it  is  left  white. 

Argenta,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  twenty-one 
miles  southeast  of  Ferrara.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Argentan,  a  town  in  the  French  department 
of  Orne.  Pop.  (1881),  5,663. 

Argenteuil,  a  town  in  the  French  department 
of  Seine-et-Oise,  on  the  Seine.  Its  priory,  now 
in  ruins,  was  founded  in  656,  and  was  by  Char¬ 
lemagne  turned  into  a  nunnery,  of  which  the 
famous  Heloise  afterwards  became  abbess.  Pop. 
(1881),  10,167. 

Ar'gentine  ( Argentina ),a  genus  of  small,  bony 
fishes  of  the  family  Salmonidae.  One  species  (A. 
yarrelii)  is  rarely  found  on  the  British  and 
Northern  European  shores,  some  are  North  Amer¬ 
ican,  and  two  or  three  occur  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Argentine  Republic,  The,  is  a  South  Ameri¬ 
can  Confederation  lying  between  latitudes  21° 
and  41°  S.,  and  longitudes  53°  and  71°17'W.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Andes  and  Chili, 
north  by  Bolivia,  east  by  Paraguay,  Uruguay, 
Brazil,  and  the  Atlantic,  and  south  by  the  Atlan¬ 
tic  and  Patagonia.  Its  area  is  nearly  a  million 
square  miles,  and  its  pop.  over  3,000,000.  It  con¬ 
sists  of  fourteeen  provinces,  and  Buenos  Ayres 
(pop.  400,000)  is  the  capital.  Other  large  cities,  are 
Cordoba,  Rosario,  La  Plata,  Mendosa,  and  Tucu- 
man.  About  two-thirds  of  the  population  are 
native-born,  but  there  are  a  great  many  Italians, 
Spaniards,  French,  and  Germans.  The  climate 
is  generally  healthy,  but  the  northern  division 
lies  within  the  tropics.  The  Spanish  language  is 
spoken  by  the  natives,  and  the  Roman  Catholic 
is  the  established  religion.  The  form  of  gov¬ 
ernment  much  resembles  that  of  the  United 
States.  The  Republic  maintains  a  standing  army 
of  9,000  men  and  a  national  guard  numbering 
350,000;  it  has  also  a  navy  including  several 
ironclads.  Its  debt  is  .$220,000,000,  its  annual 
expenditure  being  about  $50,000,000.  There  are 
4,000  miles  of  railway  and  15,000  miles  of  tele¬ 
graph  wires  in  the  country.  The  chief  industry 
of  the  Republic  is  stock-raising,  the  vast  plains 
(pampas)  affording  food  for  millions  of  horned 
cattle.  Sheep-farming  has  been  developed  by 
the  European  settlers,  and  wool  is  exported 
largely  to  Europe.  The  trade,  both  export  and 


import,  is  principally  with  France  and  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States  getting  very  little  of  it. 
The  country  was  first  colonized  by  Spain,  and 
Buenos  Ayres  was  founded  in  1535.  Between 
1810  and  1824  the  people  conducted  a  saguinary 
war  against  their  Spanish  rulers,  and  the  inde¬ 
pendence  of  the  Republic  was  not  formally  ac¬ 
knowledged  by  Spain  until  1842.  Since  that  time 
there  have  been  many  abortive  revolutions,  but 
latterly  peace  has  prevailed.  No  South  Ameri¬ 
can  country  (not  even  Brazil)  has  made  such 
rapid  and  satisfactory  progress  as  the  Argentine 
Republic  during  the  last  thirty  years. 

Arges,  a  genus  of  small,  bony  fishes  belonging 
to  the  family  of  Siluridae.  They  are  found  in 
mountain-lakes  among  the  volcanoes  of  the  Andes, 
which  lie  in  some  cases  10,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  According  to  Humboldt,  numbers 
of  them  are  ejected,  along  with  torrents  of  hot, 
muddy  water,  from  craters  and  sides  of  vol¬ 
canoes,  at  an  elevation  of  16,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Arg'ile  Plastique,  a  series  of  beds  near  the  base 
of  the  Eocene  system  in  France.  They  consist  of 
extensive  deposits  of  sand,  with  occasional  beds  of 
plastic  clays,  used  for  pottery. 

Argilla'ceous  Rocks.  All  rocks  composed  en¬ 
tirely,  or  to  some  extent,  of  clay  are  included  under 
this  title.  Pure  clay  is  known  as  kaolin  or  por¬ 
celain  day.  It  is  a  hydrated  silicate  of  alumina. 
Decomposed  feldspar,  from  which  the  silicates  of 
potash,  soda,  etc.,  have  been  washed  out,  supplies 
the  material  which  forms  kaolin.  Common  day. 
however,  contains  many  impurities;  the  chief  are 
sand,  in  variable  proportions,  and  oxide  of  iron, 
which  gives  its  color  to  the  mass. 

Ar'gol  is  a  crude  variety  of  cream  of  tartar 
which  forms  a  crust  in  the  interior  of  wine-vats 
and  wine-bottles.  Originally,  it  exists  in  the  juice 
of  the  grape,  and  is  soluble  therein;  but  during 
the  fermentation  of  the  juice,  and  as  it  passes  into 
wine,  much  alcohol  is  developed,  which  remain¬ 
ing  in  the  fermenting  liquor,  causes  the  precipi¬ 
tation  of  the  argol. 

Ar'golis,  the  northeastern  peninsula  of  the 
Morea  of  Greece,  lying  between  the  Bays  of 
Nauplia  and  Hygina.  Together  with  Corinth,  it 
forms  one  of  the  thirteen  provinces  of  the  King¬ 
dom  of  Greece,  with  an  area  of  1,442  square  miles, 
and  a  pop.  (1879)  of  136,081.  Its  capital  is 
Nauplia.  The  modern  town  of  Argos  is  built  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  seven  miles  from 
Nauplia.  Pop.  (1879),  9,861. 

By  Argos,  Homer  frequently  means  the  whole 
Peloponnesus,  the  most  important  part  of  Greece; 
hence  the  Greeks  collectively  are  often  styled 
Ar  gives. 

Ar'gonauts,  heroes  of  Greek  Mythology  (so 
named  from  their  ship  Argo),  who  undertook  a  long 
voyage  into  unknown  seas,  under  the  command 
of  Jason.  The  story  is  alluded  to  in  the  Odyssey, 
and  is  related  by  Hesiod. 

Arg'os'toli,  a  seaport  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  the 
capital  of  Ceplialonia.  Pop.,  7,871. 

Argument (£at.  argumentum),  in  Logic,  means 
properly  the  ground  or  premise  on  which  a  con¬ 
clusion  is  rested;  popularly,  it  is  applied  to  a  series 
of  arguments,  or  to  a  controversy.  Logicians 
have  given  distinctive  names  to  various  kinds  of 
arguments.  The  argumentum  ad  liominem  is  no 
real  proof,  but  only  an  appeal  to  the  known  pre¬ 
possessions  or  admissions  of  the  persons  addressed. 
The  argumentum  ad  veritatem,  again,  has  no  re¬ 
gard  to  anything  save  objective  truth.  The 
argumentum  e  consensu  gentium,  is  an  appeal  to 
the  common  belief  of  mankind.  A  good  example 
of  this  is  the  well-known  proof  of  the  truth  of 
Catholic  doctrine:  Quodsemper,  quodubigue,  quod 
ab  omnibus.  The  argumentum  a  baculo  is  the 
use  of  the  cudgel. 

Argus,  the  son  of  Zeus  and  Niobe,  third  king 
of  Argos,  which  took  from  him  its  name. — Argus, 
son  of  Agenor,  or  of  Iuachus,  surnamed  Panoptes 
(all-seeing),  had  100  eyes,  some  of  which  were 
always  awake.  Hera  put  his  hundred  eyes  in  the 
tail  of  the  peacock,  her  favorite  bird. — Argus, 
the  builder  of  the  ship  Argo  (see  Argonauts). 

Ar'gus,  a  genus  of  gallinaceous  birds,  remark¬ 
able  for  magnificence  of  plumage.  The  only 
known  species  is  Argus  giganteus,  formerly  called 
Phasianus  Argus,  and  still  very  generally  the 
argus  pheasant.  The  name  argus  has  allusion  to 
the  many  beautiful  eye-like  markings  which 


adorn  the  plumage  of  the  male,  and  particularly 
the  secondary  wing-feathers.  The  primary 
feathers  are  also  exqusitely  marked.  The  orna- 


Argus  Pheasant  (from  Darwin). 


ments  are  hidden  except  when  the  male  shows 
himself  off  to  his  mate.  The  total  length  of  the 
male,  including  tail-feathers,  is  over  five  feet,  and 
the  secondaries  alone  may  be  almost  three  feet 
long.  The  argus  is  a  native  of  Sumatra  and 
other  Eastern  islands,  and  of  the  Peninsula  of 
Malacca,  and  of  Siam. 

Argyll',  Archibald  Campbell,  Marquis  of, 
was  born  in  1598.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Covenanters;  but  in  1645  Montrose  annihilated  his 
army  at  Inverlochy.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to 
the  execution  of  the  king;  and  in  1651  he  crowned 
Charles  II.  at  Scone,  having  previously  made 
overtures  to  marry  him  to  one  of  his  own 
daughters.  After  the  defeat  at  Worcester,  he 
defended  himself  for  nearly  a  twelvemonth,  in 
his  castle  of  Inveraray,  against  Cromwell’s  troops; 
but  in  1652  he  gave  in  his  submission  to  the  Pro¬ 
tector.  He  was  tried  in  1661  for  compliance  with 
the  usurpation,  and  was  beheaded  in  Edinburgh. 
Ilis  son,  Archibald,  ninth  Earl  of  Argyll,  ex¬ 
hibited  great  bmvery  on  the  disastrous  day  of 
Dunbar,  where  he  commanded  a  regiment  on  the 
Royalist  side.  After  Worcester,  he  continued,  like 
his  father,  in  arms,  and  made  himself  so  obnoxious 
to  Cromwell,  that  he  was  specially  excepted  from 
the  act  of  grace  in  1654.  Acting  under  Charles’ 
orders,  he  submitted  next  year  to  the  Protectorate; 
but  from  1657  to  1660  he  was  a  prisoner.  On  the 
Restoration,  he  was  received  into  high  favor,  and 
participated  in  some  of  the  iniquitous  acts  of  the 
Scottish  Legislature.  Landing  in  Argyllshire,  in 
May,  1685,  with  an  armed  force,  to  cooperate  in 
Monmouth’s  rebellion,  he  was,  after  a  series  of 
misfortunes,  taken  prisoner,  and  beheaded  at 
Edinburgh,  June  30,  1685. — His  son,  Archibald, 
an  active  promoter  of  the  Revolution,  was  created 
Duke  of  Argyll  in  1701,  two  years  before  his 
death. — His  son,  John,  second  Duke  of  Argyll, 
was  born  in  1678.  As  royal  commissioner,  in  1705, 
he  had  a  principal  share  in  bringing  about  the 
Act  of  Union;  whilst  as  a  soldier,  from  1694,  he 
distinguished  himself  under  Marlborough  at 
Ramillies,  Oudenarde,  and  Malplaquet.  Previous 
to  the  change  of  ministry,  in  1710,  Argyll  had 
been  a  keen  Whig,  but  turned  Tory,  and  after¬ 
ward  Whig  again.  In  1718  he  was  created  DtMe 
of  Greenwich.  He  died  Sept.  3,  1743.  He  was  a 
man  of  lax  principles  and  selfish  character,  but 
his  charm  of  manner  is  well  depicted  in  Scott’s 
Heart  of  Midlothian. — George  John  Douglas 
Campbell,  eighth  Duke  of  Argyll,  was  born  in 
1823,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  1847.  He  was 
Lord  Privy  Seal  (1853-55;  1859-66)  and  Postmaster, 
General  (1855-58)  under  Lord  Palmerston.  Under 
Mr.  Gladstone  he  was  Secretary  of  State  for  India 
(1868-74),  and  Lord  Privy  Seal  (1880-81).  He 
resigned  the  last  office,  disapproving  of  the  Irish 
Land  Bill.  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of 
many  valuable  scientific  writings. — His  eldest  son, 
John  Douglas  Sutherland  Campbell,  Marquis 
of  Lome,  born  in  1845,  in  1871  married  the  Prin¬ 
cess  Louise,  and  from  1878  to  1883  was  Governor- 
General  of  Canada. 


ARGYLLSHIRE. 


74 


ARISTOTLE. 


Argyll 'shire,  or  Argyleshire,  a  county  in 
the  West  of  Scotland.  Its  greatest  length  is  115 
miles;  greatest  breadth  55.  Next  to  Inverness,  it  is 
the  largest  county  in  Scotland,  its  area  being  3,213 
square  miles,  of  which  623  belong  to  the  islands. 
The  chief  islands  are  Mull.  Islay,  Jura,  Tyree, 
Coll,  Lismore,  and  Colonsay,  with  Iona  and  Staffa. 
Pop.  (1831),  100,973;  (1881),  76,440,  of  whom 
46,503  were  Gaelic-speaking. 

Argyrokastron  (the  Turkish  Ergen),  a  town  of 
Albania,  in  the  province  of  Janina.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Argyropu'los,  (1)  Joannes,  one  of  the  earliest 
teachers  of  Greek  learning  in  the  West,  born  at 
Constantinople  in  1416,  settled  finally  in  Italy 
after  the  fall  of  his  native  city,  in  1453,  and  died 
in  1486. — (2)  Perikles,  a  Greek  publicist,  born 
September  17,  1809,  at  Constantinople,  became 
Professor  of  Jurisprudence  at  Athens  in  1837. 
Elected  to  the  Chamber  in  1843,  he  was  Foreign 
Minister  from  May  1854  to  September  1855,  when 
he  returned  to  his  academic  chair,  He  died  De¬ 
cember  22,  1800. 

Aria  (Ital.  air),  in  Music,  a  rhythmical  melody, 
as  distinct  from  recitative.  The  term  was  form¬ 
erly  applied  to  a  measured  lyrical  piece  either  for 
one  or  several  voices;  but  is  now  commonly  ap¬ 
plied  to  a  song  introduced  in  a  cantata,  oratorio, 
or  opera,  and  intended  for  one  voice  supported  by 
instruments.  Arietta  is  a  short  melody. 

Ariad'ne,  daughter  of  Minos  of  Crete  and 
Pasiphae.  She  fell  in  love  with  Theseus  when  he 
came  to  Crete  with  the  annual  tribute  of  the 
Athenians  for  the  Minotaur,  and  gave  him  a  sword 
with  which  to  slay  the  monster,  and  a  clew  by 
means  of  which  to  find  his  way  out  of  the  Laby¬ 
rinth.  She  was  deserted  by  Theseus  at  Naxos, 
where  she  was  found  by  Dionysus  returning  from 
his  triumph  in  India.  The  youthful  god  was 
captivated  by  her  beauty,  and  married  her.  At 
her  death  he  gave  her  a  place  among  the  gods, 
and  hung  her  wedding-crown  as  a  constellation  in 
the  sky. 

Aria'no  (Arianum),  a  city  of  South  Italy,  in 
the  Province  of  Avellino,  84  miles  northeast  of 
Naples.  Pop.  (1881),  12,522. 

A  rias  Monta'nus,  Benedictus,  a  Catholic 
divine  and  learned  orientalist,  was  born  in  1527, 
in  the  South  Estremadura.  He  superintended  the 
publication  of  the  famous  edition  of  the  Antwerp 
Polyglot  Bible  (8  vols.  folio,  1569-72),  became 
Librarian  at  the  Escurial,  and  died  in  1598. 

Ari  'ca,  a  seaport  of  Tacna,  the  most  southerly 
department  of  Peru.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  outlets 
of  the  trade  of  Bolivia.  It  was  almost  wholly 
destroyed  in  1832,  by  earthquakes,  and  suffered 
severely  again  in  1868,  the  earthquake  being  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  fearful  waves,  one  of  them  forty  feet 
high.  In  the  time  of  the  Spanish  supremacy. 
Arica  was  a  great  commercial  city  with  30,000 
inhabitants;  its  present  pop.  is  about  4,000.  It 
was  stormed  and  taken  by  the  Chilians  in  1880. 

Arichat,  a  seaport  on  the  south  side  of  Isle 
Madame,  in  the  Province  of  Nova  Scotia.  Pop. 
about  1,000. 

Ari6ge,  a  department  in  the  South  of  France, 
lying  along  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees. 
It  contains  some  of  the  highest  mountain-summits 
in  France,  such  as  Montcalm,  10,513  feet,  and 
Estats,  10,800  feet.  Area  1,890  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1886),  237,619. — The  River  Ari£ge  rises  in 
the  Pyrenees,  and  falls  into  the  Garonne  near 
Toulouse. 

Ariel,  a  man’s  name  in  the  old  Testament, 
applied  also  to  the  City  of  Jerusalem  by  Isaiah. 
In  later  demonology,  it  means  a  water-spirit. 
Thomas  Hey  wood  and  Milton  apply  it  to  an  angel. 
The  literary  currency  of  the  name  is  due  to  Shake¬ 
speare’s  use  of  it  in  his  Tempest  as  a  name  for  a 
particular  spirit  of  the  air. 

A'ries,  the  Ram,  one  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
including  the  first  thirty  degrees  of  the  ecliptic 
measured  from  the  vernal  equinox,  or  that  point 
where  the  vernal  passage  of  the  sun  across  the 
equator  takes  place.  The  vernal  equinox,  or,  as 
it  is  also  called,  the  first  point  of  Aries,  is  con¬ 
stantly  changing  its  position  among  the  fixed  stars, 
in  consequence  of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes. 
Hence  the  sign  Aries  no  longer  corresponds  with 
the  constellation  Aries,  as  it  did  about  two 
thousand  years  ago.  The  present  sign  Aries 
is  in  the  constellation  Pisces,  about  30°  west  of 
the  original  sign. 


Ar'il  ( nrillus ),  a  peculiar  covering  of  the  seed 
in  some  plants,  formed  by  an  expansion  of  the 
funiculus  (the  cord  which  attaches  the  ovule  to 
the  placenta).  This  expansion  takes  place  after 
fertilization,  and  sometimes  invests  the  seed  en¬ 
tirely,  sometimes  only  partially.  The  white  water- 
lily  and  the  passion-flower  form  characteristic 
arils. 

Arimaspi,  a  fabulous  people,  supposed  by  the 
ancient  Greeks  to  inhabit  the  most  northern  region 
of  the  world.  They  are  described  by  Herodotus 
in  the  Fourth  Book  of  his  History,  as  one-eyed  and 
fierce,  engaged  in  perpetual  conflict  with  the  neigh¬ 
boring  griffins  for  the  gold  hoarded  by  them. 

A rin  os,  a  river  in  the  southwest  of  Brazil, 
which,  joins  the  Tapajos,  itself  an  affluent  of  the 
Amazon. 

Ari  'on,  a  celebrated  lute-player  of  Methynma 
in  Lesbos,  about  600  b.c.  ,  regarded  by  the  ancients 
as  the  inventor  of  the  dithyrambic  metre.  Having 
fallen  among  robbers  in  returning  to  Corinth  from 
Tarentum,  where  he  had  won  the  prize  in  a  poeti¬ 
cal  contest,  he  threw  himself  into  the  sea  after 
playing  on  his  lute.  A  dolphin,  charmed  by  hi.s 
music,  carried  him  on  his  back  safely  to  shore. 
The  lute  and  dolphin  were  placed  among  the 
constellations. 

Ariosto,  Ludovico,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Italian 
poets,  was  born  at  Reggio,  September  8,  1474, 
being  the  eldest  son  of  the  military  governor  of 
that  city.  He  was  bred  to  the  law,  but  abandoned 
it  for  poetry.  In  Ferrara,  in  the  space  of  about 
ten  years,  Ariosto  produced  his  great  poem,  Or¬ 
lando  Furioso,  which  was  published  in  that  city  in 
1516,  in  forty  cantos.  Ariosto  died  on  June  6, 
1533,  and  was  buried  in  the  Church  of  San  Bene¬ 
detto,  at  Ferrara,  where  a  magnificent  monument 
marks  his  resting-place. 

Aristaeus,  an  ancient  divinity  whose  worship  in 
the  earliest  times  was  widely  diffused  throughout 
Greece,  but  whose  myth  is  remarkably  obscure. 

Aristarchus  (1)  of  Samos,  a  celebrated  ancient 
astronomer,  of  the  Alexandrian  school,  who  flour¬ 
ished  280-264  R.c.  He  seems  certainly  to  have 
anticipated  Copernicus,  maintaining  that  the  earth 
moves  arouud  the  sun. — (2)  Of  Samothrace,  a 
very  famous  grammarian  and  critic,  who  flour¬ 
ished  about  160  r.c.  in  Alexandria,  where  he  edu¬ 
cated  the  children  of  Ptolemy  Pliilopator,  and 
superintended  the  great  library. 

Aristi'des,  surname^  “The  Just,”  belonged 
to  a  good  old  Athenian  family,  and  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon  (490  b.c.)  was  one  of  t lie  ten  leaders. 
Next  year,  Aristides  was  chief  art-lion.  About  483 
the  jealousy  of  his  great  rival  Themistocles  pro¬ 
cured  the  banishment  of  Aristides.  I  le  afterwards 
fought  as  a  volunteer  general  in  the  victorious  bat¬ 
tle  of  Plataea  (479),  where  Xerxes  was  defeated. 

Aristip'pus,  the  founder  of  the  Cyrenaic school 
of  philosophy  among  the  Greeks,  was  a  native  of 
Cyrene,  in  Africa.  Having  come  in  contact  with 
Socrates  on  a  visit  to  Athens,  he  became  one  of 
his  pupils,  and  remained  with  the  master  almost 
up  to  his  death,  399  b.c.  He  taught  philosophy 
both  at  Athens  and  iEgina,  and  was  the  first  of 
the  pupils  of  Socrates  to  take  money  for  his  in¬ 
struction. 

Aristobu'lus,  an  Alexandrian  Jew  and  peripa¬ 
tetic  philosopher,  who  lived  about  170  b.c.,  was 
considered  by  the  early  fathers  as  the  founder  of 
the  Jewish  philosophy  in  Alexandria. 

Aristocracy  (Gr.  aristocratia,  from  aristos, 
best,  and  kratos,  power,)  means  etymologically 
the  power  or  government  of  the  best  men.  As 
used  by  Plato  and  Aristotle  it  meant  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  a  class,  whose  supremacy  rested  not  on 
wealth  alone,  but  on  character  and  personal  dis¬ 
tinction.  In  point  of  fact,  that  class  was  a  privi¬ 
leged  one,  consisting  of  the  leading  families,  in 
which  wealth  and  good-breeding  were  hereditary, 
and  which  long  experience  had  trained  to  a  habit 
of  command.  Oligarchy  is  a  degenerate  phase  of 
aristocracy,  in  which  the  rule  of  the  minority  is 
founded  on  wealth. 

Aristolo'cliia,  a  genus  belonging  to  the  dico¬ 
tyledonous  order  Anstocliiaeeae,  which  includes 
a  large  number  of  herbs  and  shrubs,  frequently 
climbers,  and  which  is  specially  abundant  in  trop¬ 
ical  South  America. 

A.  serpentaria ,  Virginian  Snakeroot,  is  a  native 


of  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  growing  in 
woods.  The  root  has  long  been  a  fancied  remedy 


Aristolochia  clematitis  ; 
a,  flower  on  larger  scale  ;  b,  seciion  ol  flower. 


for  the  bite  of  the  rattlesnake.  It  possesses  stimu¬ 
lant  and  tonic  properties. 

Aristopli  'aues,  the  greatest  of  Attic,  if  not  of 
all,  comedians,  was  born  about  448  b.c.  He  had 
three  sons — Philippos,  Araros,  and  Nikostratos — 
all  comic  poets.  Aristophanes  is  said  to  have 
written  fifty-four  plays,  but  eleven  only  are  ex¬ 
tant,  which  may  be  ranged  under  the  categories  of 
political,  philosophical,  social,  and  literary;  and 
again  under  three  periods,  ending  respectively 
425,  406,  and  388  b.c.,  about  which  last  date  he 
died.  To  the  first  period  belong  (1)  the  Achnrni- 
ans,  (2)  the  Knights,  (3)  the  Clouds,  (4)  the  Wasps, 
the  poet’s  four  masterpieces,  named  from  their 
respective  choruses,  and  (5)  the  Peace,  in  all  of 
which  full  rein  is  given  to  political  satire.  To 
the  second,  (6)  the  Birds,  (7)  the  Lysislrata,  (8) 
the  1'hesmophoriazusce,  (9)  the  Frogs,  in  which 
we  find  less  political  rancor,  and  more  reticence 
and  caution.  To  t he  third,  the  Ecclesiazusce  and 
Plutus,  comedies  of  a  tamer  type,  known  as  that 
of  the  middle  comedy,  in  which  political  allu¬ 
sions  and  the  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  old 
comedy,  the  parabasis,  disappear. 

'I  he  first  printed  edition  of  Aristophanes  was 
the  Aldine  (Venice,  1498);  it  contains  nine  plays. 
Junta  (1515)  added  two.  Other  editions  are  those 
of  Bergler  (1760),  Brunck(1783),  Invernizzi-Beck 
(1794),  containing  a  collation  of  the  Ravenna  or 
oldest  MS  ,  Bckker  (1829),  Dindorf  {Poetm  Scenici, 
5th  ed.  1869),  Bergk  (1857),  Meineke  (1860), 
Blaydes (1886),  Holden  (5th  ed.  1887).  There  are 
translations  of  single  plays  by  Mitchell  (1822), 
J.  II.  Frere,  Walsh  (1837),  B.  B.  Rogers,  B.  II. 
Kennedy,  R.  Y.  Tyrrell  (1883). 

Ar'istotle  was  born  at  Stagira  (Stageira),  a 
Greek  colony  on  the  Macedonian  Peninsula  Chal- 
cidic-e,  in  the  year  384  b.c.  In  his  eighteenth 
year  (367  b.c.)  lie  left  Stagira  for  Athens.  Plato 
was  then  absent  at  Syracuse.  Aristotle,  there¬ 
fore,  pursued  his  studies  by  books,  and  by  the 
help  of  any  other  masters  lie  could  find,  during 
the  first  three  years  of  his  stay.  On  the  return 
of  Plato,  he  became  the  latter’s  pupil,  and  soon 
made  his  master  aware  of  the  remarkable  pene¬ 
tration  and  reach  of  his  intellect.  He  remained 
at  Athens  twenty  years,  during  which  time  he  set 
up  a  class  of  rhetoric,  and  became  the  rival  of 
the  celebrated  orator  and  rhetorical  teacher, 
Isocrates,  whom  he  appears  todiave  attacked  with 
great  severity. 

The  death  of  Plato  (347  b.c.)  was  the  occa¬ 
sion  of  Aristotle’s  departure  from  Athens.  He 
went,  in  his  thirty-seventh  year,  after  a  stay  of 
nearly  twenty  years  in  Athens,  to  the  Mysian 
town  of  Atarneus,  opposite  to  the  Island  of 
Lesbos. 

After  two  years’ stay  at  Mitylene  he  was  in¬ 
vited  (in  the  year  342  b.c.,  age  42)  by  Philip  to 
Macedonia,  to  educate  liis  son  Alexander,  a  boy 
of  13,  who  for  at  least  three  years  was  the  pupil 
of  Aristotle.  The  two  parted  finally,  when 
Alexander  set  forth  on  his  expedition  into  Asia 
(334  b.c.),  and  Aristotle  came  from  Macedonia  to 


ARISTOTLE’S  LANTERN. 


75 


ARM. 


Athens,  where  he  opened  a  school  called  the 
“Lyceum,”  from  its  proximity  to  the  temple  of 
Apollo  Lyceius.  His  followers  came  to  be  called 
the  Peripatetic either  from  his  practice  of  walk¬ 
ing  up  and  down  in  the  garden  during  his  lect¬ 
ures,  or  because  the  place  was  known  as  “The 
Walk”  (Peripatos).  After  twelve  years  he  lied 
from  the  country,  being  accused  of  impiety,  and 
died  at  Chalcis  at  the  age  of  62. 

The  great  edition  of  Aristotle  is  still  that  of 
Bekker,  published  by  the  Prussian  Royal  Acad¬ 
emy  (Berlin,  1831-40).  Aristotle  is  now  gener¬ 
ally  quoted  by  scholars  according  to  the  pages, 
columns,  and  lines  of  this  edition.  Bekker’s 
text  has  been  reprinted  at  Oxford  (1837;  11  vols. 
8vo). 

Aristotle’s  Lantern,  the  five-toothed  masti¬ 
cating  apparatus  found  round  the  beginning  of 
the  alimentary  canal  of  some  sea-urchins.  The 
structure  owes  its  name  to  its  discoverer  and  its 
general  shape. 

Aristox'enus  of  Tarenttjm,  a  pupil  of  Aris¬ 
totle,  and  one  of  the  oldest  writers  upon  music, 
flourished  about  350  b.c. 

Aritli'metic  is  the  science  that  treats  of  num¬ 
bers  (Gr.  arithm.es).  It  is  sometimes 'divided  into 
theoretical  and  practical;  the  former  investigat¬ 
ing  the  properties  of  numbers  and  their  combina 
tions,  the  latter  applying  the  principles  so  estab¬ 
lished,  in  the  form  of  rules,  to  actual  calculations. 
Some  restrict  the  term  arithmetic  to  this  art  of 
reckoning,  assigning  the  investigation  of  the  prin¬ 
ciples  to  analysis.  Anciently  the  science  of  reck¬ 
oning  was  usually  called  logistic;  while  arithmetic 
dealt  with  forms  of  numbers,  primary  numbers, 
etc. 

Arithmetic  is  said  to  have  been  first  developed 
into  a  science  in  India;  the  Egyptians  reckoned 
the  god  Tlioth  the  first  teacher  of  numeration. 
Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  arith¬ 
metic  made  little  progress,  owing  to  their  clumsy 
modes  of  notation.  Few  of  their  writings  on  the 
subject  have  come  down  to  us;  the  most  import¬ 
ant  are  those  of  Euclid,  Archimedes,  Diophantus, 
and  Nicomaclius.  After  the  introduction  of  the 
decimal  system  and  the  Arabic  or  Hindu  numer¬ 
als,  about  the  eleventh  century,  arithmetic  began 
to  assume  a  new  form.  It  was  not  till  the  six¬ 
teenth  century  that  the  Double  Rule  of  Three,  or 
Compound  Proportion,  was  discovered,  and  deci¬ 
mal  fractions  ■were  introduced.  The  invention  of 
Logarithms,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  is  the  last 
great  step  in  advance  that  the  art  has  made. 

Aritlimeti'cal  Mean  is  that  number  that  lies 
equally  distant  between  two  others — thus,  the 
arithmetical  mean  between  11  and  17  is  14,  which 
is  found  by  taking  half  their  sum. 

Arithmetical  Progression  is  a  series  of  num¬ 
bers  that  increase  or  diminish  by  a  common  dif¬ 
ference,  7,  10,  13,  16,  49,  22;  or,  12,  104,  9,  74,  6. 
To  find  the  sum  of  such  a  series,  multiply  the 
sum  of  the  first  and  last  terms  by  half  the  num¬ 
ber  of  terms.  The  series  of  natural  numbers, 
1,  2,  3,  4,  etc.,  form  an  arithmetical  progression, 
of  which  the  difference  is  1. 

Arithmetical  Signs  are  arbitrary  marks  or 
symbols  used  to  denote  the  operations  to  be  per¬ 
formed  on  numbers,  or  the  relations  existing  be¬ 
tween  them,  The  sign  of  Addition  is  of  Sub¬ 
traction, — ;  of  Multiplication,  X;  of  Division, 
— ;  of  Equality,  =.  De  Morgan,  followed  by 
Stokes  and  others,  introduced  for  division  the 
convenient  symbol' /;  thus,  18/3  has  the  same 
meaning  as  18-j-3  or  y*. 

A'rius(Gr.  Areios),  the  celebrated  founder  of 
Arianism,  was  a  native  of  Libya,  and  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  born  shortly  after  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  third  century.  In  318,  Alexander,  the 
successor  of  Achillas,  said  that  the  Trinity  con¬ 
tained  an  indivisible  unity  of  substance.  Arius 
alleged  that  such  a  conception  was  impossible  to 
the  human  mind.  In  maintaining  his  ground, 
Arius  went  beyond  his  first  statement  of  the  abso¬ 
lute  distinctness  of  person  between  the  Father  and 
the  Son;  he  maintained  that  the  Son  was  not  co¬ 
equal  or  coeternal  with  the  Father,  but  only  the 
first  and  highest  of  all  finite  beings,  created  out 
of  nothing  by  an  act  of  God’s  free-will,  and  that 
He  ought  not  to  be  ranked  equal  with  the  Father. 
In  321  a  synod  of  bishops  at  Alexandria  deposed 
and  excommunicated  him. 

The  Emperor  Constantine,  in  325,  convoked 


the  memorable  Council  of  Nicaea,  or  Nice,  con¬ 
sisting  of  318  bishops,  besides  numbers  of  priests, 
deacons,  and  acolytes.  Arius  boldly  expounded 
and  defended  his  opinions.  It  was  principally 
by  the  reasonings  of  Athanasius  that  the  Council 
was  persuaded  to  define,  in  the  most  precise  man¬ 
ner,  the  doctrine  of  the  Godhead — viz.,  the  abso¬ 
lute  unity  of  the  Divine  Essence,  and  the  absolute 
equality  of  the  three  Persons.  All  the  bishops 
subscribed  it  except  two,  who  were  banished, 
along  with  Arius,  to  Illyricum.  The  writings  of 
Arius  were  burned,  but  five  years  later  he  re¬ 
tracted  a  part  of  his  claims.  The  emperor  sent 
orders  to  Athanasius,  now  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
to  receive  Arius  into  the  communion  of  the 
church.  This  Athanasius  refused  to  do.  Euse¬ 
bius  called  a  synod  of  bi-hops  at  Tyre,  in  335, 
which  deposed  Athanasius.  In  the  same  year 
another  synod  met  at  Jerusalem,  which  revoked 
the  sentence  of  excommunication  uttered  against 
Arius  and  his  friends.  Still  the  majority  of  the 
Christians  of  Alexandria  clung  to  the  doctrines 
of  Athanasius.  Disappointed  in  his  expectations, 
Arius,  in  336,  proceeded  to  Constantinople,  where 
he  presented  the  emperor  with  another  apparently 
orthodox  confession  of  faith;  whereupon  orders 
were  issued  to  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Constanti¬ 
nople,  to  administer  to  him  the  holy  communion 
on  the  Sunday  following.  Before  the  ceremony, 
however,  he  died  suddenly.  Arianism  existed 
for  several  centuries,  but  only  survives  at  this 
day  among  the  Unitarians.  The  poet  Milton 
held  strong  Arian  views. 

Arizona  became  a  Territory  of  the  United 
States  in  1863  and  has  an  area  of  113,020  square 
miles.  It  lies  between  latitude  31°  and  37°  N. 
and  longitude  109°  and  114°  40'  W.;  is  bounded 
north  by  Utah,  south  by  Mexico,  west  by  Cali¬ 
fornia  and  Nevada,  and  east  by  New  Mexico,  to 
which  it  formerly  belonged.  Its  greatest  length 
is  375  miles,  breadth  340  miles.  Prescott  is  the 
capital;  Tucson,  the  largest  town,  pop.,  7,000. 
The  Territory  lias  not  more  than  40,000  popula¬ 
tion.  It  is  rich  in  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead, 
and  its  soil  in  many  places  is  fertile,  though 
agricultural  operations  are  hampered  for  want  of 
water.  The  Southern  Pacific  and  Atlantic  A 
Pacific  Railways  cross  Arizona. 

Ark  of  the  Covenant,  Ark  of  the  Testi- 
mony,  or  Ark  of  Jehovah,  among  the  ancient 
Israelites,  an  oblong  box  of  acacia- wood,  over¬ 
laid  with  gold  within  and  without,  two  cubits 
and  a  half  (3  ft.  9  in.)  in  length,  one  cubit  and  a 
half  (2  ft.  3  in.)  in  breadth  and  height,  in  which 
was  deposited  the  testimony,  the  law  of  the  ten 
commandments,  inscribed  on  two  stone  tablets. 

Arkansas,  a  part  of  the  original  Louisiana 
purchase,  became  a  State  in  1836.  It  is  bounded 
north  by  Missouri,  east  by  the  St.  Francis  and 
Mississipi  rivers,  south  and  southwest  by  Louisi¬ 
ana  and  Texas,  and  west  by  the  Indian  Territory. 
It  is  240  miles  long,  and  from  176  to  250  miles 
wide,  and  contains  seventy-five  counties.  Little 
Rock  (pop.,  13,000),  is  the  capital,  and  the  State 
has  no  large  cities,  although  it  has  a  population 
of  800,000.  It  grows  chiefly  corn  and  cotton, 
and  contains  valuable  minerals.  The  climate  is 
mild  and  the  soil  fertile.  The  State  is  well 
watered.  In  addition  to  its  boundary  streams,  it 
has  the  Arkansas,  Red,  White,  and  Ouchita 
rivers,  all  navigable.  The  railroad  system  has 
been  well  developed.  Hot  Springs  contains  numer¬ 
ous  mineral  springs  of  great  efficacy  in  rheumatic 
complaints.  Arkansas  seceded  in  May, 1861,  and 
several  important  Union  victories  were  gained 
within  its  borders  (1862-63).  It  became  a  part  of 
the  South  Military  District,  but  was  readmitted  in 
1869,  and  is  advancing  rapidly  in  population  and 
mineral  wealth. 

Arkansas  River,  next  to  the  Missouri  the 
largest  affluent  of  the  Mississippi.  It  is  1,514 
miles  long,  rising  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  at  an 
altitude  of  10,000  feet,  on  the  borders  of  Utah, 
and  joining  the  “  Father  of  Waters  ”  at  Napoleon, 
275  miles  above  New  Orleans. 

Arklow,  a  seaport,  of  Wicklow,  forty-nine  miles 
south  of  Dublin,  and  in  1798,  a  bloody  encounter 
took  place  here  between  the  Government  troops 
and  the  United  Irishmen.  Pop.  (1881),  4,777. 

Arko'na,  the  northeast  promontory  of  the 
Island  of  Rligen,  in  the  Baltic. 

Arkwright,  Sir  Richard,  celebrated  for  his 


inventions  in  cotton-spinning,  was  born  at  Preston, 
in  Lancashire,  December  23,  1732.  lie  died  in 
1792. 

Arlberg  is  the  name  of  a  crystalline  mount-un 
mass  amongst  the  Western  Alps,  which  forms  the 
boundary  between  the  Austrian  Provinces  of 
Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg  (the  land  before  or  beyond 
the  Arlberg). 

Arles,  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  France,  in 
the  department  of  Bouches  du  Rhone,  fifty- 
three  miles  northwest  of  Marseilles.  Pop.  (1881), 
14,431. 

Arles,  a  term  used  in  Scotland  and  the  North 
of  England  for  a  piece  of  earnest-money  given  in 
confirmation  of  a  bargain  or  engagement, 
especially  when  a  servant  is  hired.  The  ultimate 
origin  of  the  word  is  the  Latin  arrha,  “earnest- 
money,”  “  part  of  the  price  paid  down.” 

Arlington,  Henry  Bennet,  Earl  of,  was 
born  in  1618.  Created  Lord  Arlington,  in  1663, 
and  Earl  of  Arlington  in  1672.  In  1674  he  was 
impeached  as  a  promoter  of  popery,  a  self-ag- 
grandizer,  and  a  betrayer  of  trust.  The  impeach¬ 
ment  fell  through.  He  died  July  28,  1685,  at 
Euston. 

Arlon  (anc.  Orolanvm ),  a  town  of  Belgium, 
the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Luxemburg,  twenty- 
seven  miles  west-northwest  of  Luxemburg.  The 
town  is  mentioned  as  early  as  870.  Pop.  (1883), 
7,684. 

Arm.  The  upper  extremity  of  the  human 
body  may  be  divided  into  three  portions — viz., 
the  shoulder,  the  hand,  and  the  intermediate 
shaft  or  arm.  The  latter  consists  of  an  upper  arm 
and  a  forearm.  In  the  upper  arm  there  is  one 
bone,  the  humerus,  h.  This  bone  presents  a 
globular  head ,  which  articulates  with  and  moves 
freely  upon  the  scapula,  s, -forming  the  shoulder- 
joint.  At  the  junction  of  the  head  and  shaft  of 
the  humerus,  there  is  a  constriction  termed  the 
anatomical  neck.  The  shaft  is  cylindrical  in  its 
upper  part,  but  becomes  flattened  and  somewhat 
three-sided  below.  A  short  distance  above  its 
lower  end,  and  on  the  inner  side,  a  hooked  pro¬ 
cess  pointing  downwards  is  not  infrequently 
found.  This  represents  a  process  of  bone  form¬ 
ing  a  complete  foramen  in  carnivorous  animals. 


Fig.  1.— Bones  of  the  Fig.  2.— Muscles  of  the 

Human  Arm.  Human  Arm. 

//,  humerus;  r,  radius;  «,  abc,  deltoid  muscle;  rf,  eor- 
ulna;  to,  wrist-joint;  hot,  aco-brachialis  muscle ;r,r, 
hand;  f,  scapula;  c ,  clav-  triceps;  e,  i,  extensors  of 
icle,  or  collar-bone.  wrist  and  long  supinator 

of  the  hand;  Am,  flexor  of 
fingersandi-adial  and  ulnar 
sides  of  the  wrist  and  l , 
palm  of  the  hand,  or  pal- 
maris  longus;  p.  palmaris 
brevis;  q,  palmar  fascia; 
o,  biceps. 

through  which  the  main  artery  and  nerve  of  the 
limb  run.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  shaft  two 
articular  surfaces  for  the  bones  of  the  forearm 
are  found;  the  outer,  rounded  for  the  head  of  the 


ARMADA. 


76 


ARMINIUS. 


radius,  r;  the  inner,  a  pulley  or  trochlea  for  the 
movements  of  the  ulna,  u.  The  bones  of  the 
forearm  are  two  in  number,  the  radius  and  ulna; 
the  former  being  placed  upon  the  outer,  the  latter 
upon  the  inner  aspect  of  the  forearm.  By  their 
upper  ends,  these  bones  articulate  with  the 
humerus,  to  form  the  elbow-joint;  by  their  lower 
ends,  with  the  carpus,  to  form  the  wrist  joint,  w. 

The  shoulder-joint  is  constructed  upon  the  plan 
of  a  ball  and  socket,  the  bones  being  held  in 
position  by  a  capsular  ligament  which  is  very 
loose,  thereby  allowing  freedom  of  movement  to 
a  greater  extent  than  in  any  other  joint  in  the 
body.  This  gain  in  movement  occasions  a  loss  of 
stability,  hence  dislocations  are  frequent.  For 
the  most  part  the  head  of  the  humerus  is  driven 
downwards  into  the  armpit,  this  being  the  only 
side  of  the  joint  unsupported  by  muscles  passing 
to  be  inserted  into  the  upper  end  of  the  shaft. 

A  large  triangular  muscle,  the  deltoid ,  raises 
the  arm  from  the  side — a  movement  distinctively 
human;  it  is  depressed  by  the  coraco-bracliialis, 
the  latissimus  dorsi  (the  great  muscle  of  the  back), 
and  the  pectoralis  major  (the  great  muscle  of  the 
chest);  in  addition,  it  can  be  carried  forwards 
and  backwards  by  the  action  of  these  muscles. 
Circumduction  is  the  result  of  a  combination  of 
these  movements. 

The  elbow-joint  is  liinge-like  or  ginglymoid. 
It  is  provided  with  strong  lateral  ligaments,  and 
its  movements  are  extension  or  straightening  of 
the  forearm  produced  by  the  triceps;  flexion  or 
bending  by  the  biceps,  brachialis  anticns,  and 
supinator  long  ns.  During  the  latter  movement, 
the  twist  upon  the  trochlear  surface  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  humerus  causes  the  hand  to  be  carried 
inwards  in  the  direction  of  the  mouth. 

Joints  called  radio  ulnar  are  found  between  the 
bones  of  the  forearm  at  their  upper  and  lower 
extremities.  The  movements  at  these  joints  affect 
the  hand,  for  it  articulates  with  the  lower  end  of 
the  radius,  to  which  they  are  principally  due. 
When  the  radius  rolls  forward  upon  the  ulna, 
the  palm  of  the  hand  is  turned  downwards — pro- 
nation;  when  it  rolls  backwards  the  palm  is 
turned  upwards  —supination.  Each  movement 
is  produced  by  two  muscles,  which  take  their 
fixed  points  from  the  humerus  and  ulna. 

A  variety  of  the  hinge-joint  is  found  between 
the  radius  and  carpus,  for,  in  addition  to  flexion 
and  extension,  the  hand  can  be  drawn  to  the 
radial  or  ulnar  borders  of  the  forearm.  These 
movements  are  effected  by  the  palmaris  longus, 
the  flexors  and  extensors  of  the  radial  and  ulnar 
sides  of  the  wrist. 

Arina 'da,  a  Spanish  word  signifying  simply 
an  armed  force,  but  applied  specially  to  the  great 
Spanish  fleet  fitted  out  by  Philip  II.  against  Eng¬ 
land  in  1588.  When  ready  for  sea  it  consisted  of 
139  vessels,  sixty-five  of  which  were  over  700 
tons,  and  was  manned  by  8,000  sailors,  while  it 
carried  19,000  Castilian  and  Portuguese  soldiers, 
over  2,000  cannon,  and  provisions  sufficient  to 
feed  40,000  men  for  six  months.  A  squadron  of 
eighty  ships,  only  thirty  of  which  were  ships  of 
the  line,  was  all  that  Elizabeth  had  to  oppose  it 
by  sea.  The  armada  was  disposed  in  the  form  of 
a  half-moon,  stretching  seven  miles  from  the  one 
horn  to  the  other.  As  the  armada  advanced  up 
the  Channel  the  English  followed  and  harassed 
its  rear,  and  the  running  fire  continued  through¬ 
out  the  week,  until  the  Spaniards  took  shelter  in 
the  port  of  Calais.  After  further  fighting  the 
Spaniards  decided  to  withdraw,  but  storms 
finished  the  work  of  destruction.  The  English 
Queen  struck  a  medal  bearing  the  inscription, 
Deus  flaoil,  etdissipatisunt,  “  God  blew,  and  they 
were  scattered.”  See  the  last  volume  of  Froude’s 
Westward  Ho. 

Armadillo  (Dasgpus),  a  genus  of  mammals  in 
the  order  Edentata.  They  are  not,  however, 
toothless,  as  the  word  Edentate  would  suggest, 
but  provided  with  a  variable  number  of  simple 
molars,  destitute  of  true  roots,  and  distant  from 
one  another,  so  that  those  of  upper  and  lower 
jaw  interlock  when  the  mouth  is  shut.  Only  in 
one  case  are  there  teeth  which  are  not  molars. 
The  elongated  snout  bears  at  its  tip  the  down 
ward  directed  nostrils.  The  tongue  is  smooth, 
slender,  and  glutinous,  but  not  long  and  exten¬ 
sile  like  that  of  the  ant-eater.  The  largest  of 
the  numerous  species  ( 1 ).  gigas)  is  fully  three 


feet  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which  measures 
a  foot  and  a  half  more,  while  the  smallest  is  not 
above  ten  inches  in  length.  Though  all  are  eaten, 
the  flesh  of  the  more  vegetarian  species  is  par¬ 
ticularly  esteemed.  Nearly  allied  is  the  small 
hairy  Clilamydophorus,  which  has  no  shields, 
but  a  loose,  leathery  armor  formed  of  twenty- 
four  cross  bands  of  plates.  In  the  pleistocene 
strata  of  South  America  the  armadillos  are  rep¬ 
resented  by  giant  fossil  forms. 

Armageddon,  the  great  battlefield  of  the  Apoc¬ 
alypse,  in  which  the  final  struggle  between  the 
powers  of  good  and  evil  is  to  be  fought. 

Armagh',  the  capital  of  County  Armagh, 
thirty-three  miles  southwest  of  Belfast,  from  495 
to  the  ninth  century,  was  the  metropolis  of  Ire¬ 
land,  the  native  kings  living  at  Eamania,  two 
miles  to  the  west  of  the  city.  It  was  then  re¬ 
nowned  as  a  school  of  theology  and  literature — 
its  college  being  the  first  in  Europe.  Pop.  (1881), 
10,070. 

Armagh,  a  small  inland  county  in  Ulster, 
Ireland,  bounded  north  by  Lough  Neagh,  east 
by  Down,  south  by  Louth,  west  by  Monaghan 
and  Tyrone.  Its  greatest  length  is  32  miles, 
and  breadth  20.  Area,  512%  square  miles.  Pot). 
(1881),  163,177. 

Armato'les,  the  warlike  inhabitants,  since  the 
fifteenth  century,  of  the  mountain  districts  in 
Northern  Greece,  especially  iu  Macedonia,  Epi¬ 
rus,  and  Thessaly. 

Ar 'mature  is  the  term  applied  to  the  pieces 
of  soft  iron  that  are  placed  at  the  extremities  or 
poles  of  magnets  to  preserve  their  magnetic 
power. 

Armenia,  a  high  tableland  in  the  upper  Val¬ 
leys  of  the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  Aras  and  Kur,  400 
to  500  miles  long,  by  nearly  the  same  breadth. 
In  ancient  times  an  independent  country,  it  re¬ 
peatedly  recovered  its  independence  down  to  the 
middle  ages,  although  with  varying  boundary. 
It  is  now,  however,  distributed  between  Russia, 
Turkey,  and  Persia,  and  stretches,  in  its  utmost 
extent,  from  Asia  Minor  on  the  west,  to  the  Cas¬ 
pian  Sea  on  the  east,  and  from  the  Caucasus  on 
the  north  to  the  Murad  Su  on  the  south.  The 
interior  consists  mostly  of  pastoral  plateaus,  2,700 
to  7,000  feet  above  sea-level,  crowned  by  conical 
heights  or  traversed  by  mountain-chains,  and  cul¬ 
minating  in  Mount  Ararat,  16,969  feet  high.  On 
the  plateau  of  Erivan,  the  principal  cones  are 
Little  Ararat,  12,840  feet  high;  Great  Ararat, 
17,212  feet;  and  Ala  Gdz  (with  three  pinnacles), 
13,436  feet.  Surrounding  Lake  Van  is  the  chain 
of  the  Ala  Dagli,  rising,  in  Tura  Jelu,  to  13,720 
feet.  To  the  east  of  the  Valley  of  the  Aras,  the 
plateau  of  Kara  Bagh  attains  a  height  of  11,000 
feet.  The  Murad  Su  or  East,  and  the  Kara  Su 
or  West  Euphrates,  form  the  headwaters  of  the 
Euphrates;  whilst  the  Shett,  rising  to  the  south 
of  Van  Lake,  and  an  arm  of  the  Diarbekr,  rising 
in  the  Alinjik  Dagli,  constitute  the  headwaters  of 
the  Tigris.  Other  rivers  are  the  Aras,  the  Kur, 
and  the  Tcliorak.  Of  lakes,  there  are  Van  in 
Turkish,  Goktclia  or  Sevan  in  Russian,  and  Ur- 
miah  in  Persian  Armenia.  Armenia  is  rich  in 
metals,  possessing  mines  of  silver,  lead,  iron, 
arsenic,  alum,  rock-salt,  and  especially  copper. 

The  Armenian  is  rather  above  middle  stature, 
of  darkish  brown  or  yellow  complexion,  with 
black,  straight  hair,  large  nose,  wide  rather  than 
high  forehead.  He  is  of  quick,  adaptive  intelli 
gence,  and  especially  qualified  for  trade.  The 
women  are  often  handsome,  with  erect  carriage, 
regular  features,  and  fine  dark  eyes.  Only  a  part 
of  the  Armenians  live  in  Armenia,  most  of  them 
having  been  long  dispersed  all  over  the  world, 
yet  is  their  essential  national  cohesion  and  indis¬ 
solubility  of  national  character  almost  as  strong 
as  is  that  of  the  Jews,  though  it  has  not  had  such 
unremitting  fires  of  persecution  to  anneal  it. 
They  belong  to  the  Iranian  group  of  the  Indo- 
Germanic  family.  Their  number  in  Armenia 
itself  is  estimated  at  1,000,000  at  the  most;  in 
Persia  and  adjacent  territories,  100,000;  in  Eu¬ 
ropean  Turkey,  400,000;  in  Russia,  500,000;  in 
India,  5,000;  in  Africa,  5,000;  in  Transylvania, 
Hungary,  and  Galicia,  16,000.  Their  total  num¬ 
ber  is  calculated  at  not  more  than  2,500,000.  The 
Armenians  profess  a  form  of  Christianity  some¬ 
what  resembling  the  Russo-Greek  faith,  but  are 
very  bigoted  and  superstitious. 


Armfelt,  Gustav  Maubitz,  born  in  Finland, 
1757,  during  the  war  between  Sweden  and  Rus¬ 
sia  (1788-90)  displayed  remarkable  courage  and 
spirit.  He  defeated  (he  Russians  near  Fredriks- 
liamra,  and,  as  military  representative  of  Gusta- 
vus  III.,  concluded  the  peace  of  Verelii.  He  was 
exiled  for  treason  in  1792  but  afterward  restored 
to  power.  In  1810  he  fled  to  Russia,  being  sus¬ 
pected  of  conspiracy,  and  died  there  in  1814. 

Arinida,  in  Tasso’s  Jerusalem  Delivered,  was 
a  very  beautiful  sorceress,  employed  to  seduce 
Rinaldo,  and  other  Crusaders,  as  they  approached 
the  Holy  City.  Her  witchcraft  wras  after  a 
struggle  overcome  by  Rinaldo,  who  then  con¬ 
fessed  his  love  to  her,  and  persuaded  her  to 
become  a  Christian. 

Annil'lary  Sphere  (Lat.  armilla,  a  ring),  an 
instrument  intended  to  give  a  just  conception  of 
the  constitution  of  the  heavens,  and  of  the  motions 
of  the  heavenly  bodies,  as  seen  by  an  observer  on 
the  earth.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  rings  fixed 


z 


together  so  as  to  represent  the  principal  circles  of 
the  celestial  sphere,  and  these  are  movable  round 
the  polar  axis  within  a  meridian  and  horizon,  as 
in  the  ordinary  celestial  globe. 

Arminius  (Ger.  Hermann  or  Herman),  a 
famous  prince  or  chief  of  the  German  tribe 
Clierusci,  was  born  16  b.c.  He  conceived  the 
plan  of  delivering  his  country  from  its  oppressors, 
the  Romans.  All  the  tribes  and  leaders  as  far  as 
the  Elbe  were  secretly  summoned;  Varus  the 
Roman  Viceroy  was  lulled  into  security,  and 
induced  to  despatch  portions  of  his  army  to  differ¬ 
ent  points,  and,  with  the  remaining  portion,  con¬ 
sisting  of  three  legions  and  some  auxiliaries  and 
cavalry,  to  quit  the  highway.  He  was  thus  lured 
into  the  impassable  districts  of  the  Teutoburg 
Forest,  in  the  north  of  Westphalia;  an  engage¬ 
ment  took  place,  probably  near  Detmold,  which 
lasted  for  three  days.  The  result  was  the  annihi¬ 
lation  of  the  whole  Roman  army,  (9  a.d.)  When 
intelligence  of  this  defeat  reached  Rome,  it  ex¬ 
cited  the  greatest  consternation  and  anxiety. 
Augustus,  who  was  now  old  and  weak,  is  said  to 
have  yielded  to  transports  of  grief,  repeating  the 
words,  “  Varus,  Varus,  give meTtack  my  legions!” 
Germanicus  in  two  successive  campaigns,  14  a.d. 
and  16  a. d.,  reduced  Arminius  to  great  straits; 
but  he  being  recalled  to  Rome  by  the  Emperor 
Tiberius,  17  a.d.,  the  results  of  his  victorious 
activity  were  lost.  From  this  time  no  Roman 
army  ever  ventured  to  penetrate  from  the  Rhine 
into  the  interior  of  Germany,  and  this  result 
must  be  ascribed  chiefly  to  the  Cheruscan  prince. 
Nevertheless,  no  sooner  was  the  foreign  enemy 
expelled,  than  internal  feuds  broke  out,  in  the 
course  of  which  Arminius  was  slain  by  his  own 
kinsmen,  in  the  thirty-seventh  year  of  his  age  and 
t  welfth  of  his  leadership. 

Arminius, Jacobus,  or  Jakob  Habmensen, 
the  founder  of  Arminianism,  was  born  in  1560, 
at  Oudewater,  in  South  Holland.  In  1582  he 
went  to  Geneva,  and  received  the  instructions  of 
Theodore  Beza,  a  rigid  Calvinist.  Here  he  made 
himself  unpopular  by  the  boldness  with  which 


ARMISTICE. 


77 


ARMY. 


he  defended  the  logic  of  Peter  Ramus,  in  oppo¬ 
sition  to  that  of  the  Aristotelians  of  Geneva. 

The  chief  opponent  of  Arminius  was  Francis 
Gomar,  his  colleague  in  the  University  of  Ley¬ 
den.  In  the  course  of  the  year  1604,  the  latter 
attacked  his  doctrines,  and  from  that  hour  to  the 
end  of  his  life,  Arminius  was  engaged  in  a  series 
of  bitter  disputes  with  his  opponents.  While 
these  fierce  disputes  were  continuing,  Arminius, 
who  was  not  destitute  either  of  friends  or  in¬ 
fluence,  was  created  rector  magnificus  of  the 
university,  but  resigned  the  honor  Feb.  8,  1606, 
having  held  the  office  only  for  one  year.  All  the 
pulpits  in  Holland  now  thundered  against  him. 
At  length,  in  1608,  Arminius  himself  applied  to 
the  States  of  Holland  to  convoke  a  synod  for  the 
purpose  of  settling  the  controversy;  but  he  died 
on  Oct.  10,  1609,  before  it  was  held,  leaving  seven 
sons  and  two  daughters. 

The  number  of  Arminians,  or  Remonstrants  is 
now  only  about  5,000,  and  is  still  decreasing.  In 
1809  they  had  thirty -four  congregations  with 
forty  preachers  in  Holland;  but  in  1880,  only 
about  twenty  congregations.  The  largest  society 
of  Arminians  is  in  Rotterdam,  and  numbers  only 
600  members. 

Although  the  Arminians  are  thus  dwindling 
away  as  a  distinct  body,  their  tenets  respecting 
predestination  have  been  adopted  with  greater  or 
less  modification  by  several  other  Christian  denom  • 
inations,  as  well  as  by  multitudes  of  the  individ¬ 
ual  members  of  those  churches  whose  formu¬ 
laries  are  Calvinistic.  Arminian  influence  became 
marked  in  the  Church  of  England  after  Laud’s 
time;  and  a  decided  aversion  to  the  harsher 
aspects  of  Calvinistic  doctrine  is  characteristic 
not  merely  of  the  Broad  Church,  but  of  what  is 
often  called  Modern  Theology.  Arminian  views 
are  also  very  prevalent  in  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Most  of  Arminius’s  works  have  been  published 
in  Nichol’s  translation,  and  Brandt’s  life  of 
Arminius  has  been  translated  into  English  by 
Guthrie  (1854). 

Armistice,  a  temporary  suspension  of  hostilities 
between  two  armies,  or  two  nations  at  war,  by 
mutual  agreement.  It  takes  place  sometimes 
when  both  are  exhausted,  and  at  other  times  when 
an  endeavor  to  form  a  treaty  of  peace  is  being 
made. 

Armisticio,  a  territory  of  Venezuela,  with  an 
area  of  7,040  square  miles. 

Ariuitage,  Edward,  an  English  historical  and 
mural  painter,  was  born  in  London,  May  20,  1817, 
and  studied  in  Paris,  where,  in  1842,  he  exhibited 
his  first  independent  work. 

Amor'ica  (Celt,  are-mor,  before  the  sea),  the 
country  of  the  Armorici,  who,  in  Caesar’s  time, 
occupied  the  coast  of  Gaul,  between  the  Seine 
and  the  Loire.  Later  the  name  was  confined  to 
Brittany. 

Armor  is  a  general  term  for  the  apparatus  of 
personal  defense,  as  distinguished  from  arms  or 
weapons  of  offense.  The  commonest  implement 
of  defense  in  prehistoric  and  early  historic  times 
in  Europe  was  the  shield.  The  earliest  known 
shields  are  of  bronze,  and  circular,  and  were  held 
in  the  left  hand  by  a  handle  under  the  central 
boss.  In  addition  to  the  shield  the  early  Greeks 
used  greaves  and  helmets  of  bronze,  and  to  these, 
in  later  times,  a  cuirass  of  breast  and  back  plates 
was  added.  The  Romans  added  shoulder-guards 
to  the  cuirass,  which  was  modeled  to  the  bust, 
and  furnished  with  a  series  of  pendant  plates, 
reaching  almost  to  mid-thigli.  It  is  not  known 
when  the  tunic  of  interlinked  rings,  or  coat  of 
mail,  first  made  its  appearance  in  Europe.  Flex¬ 
ible  cuirasses  were  worn  by  the  Roman  Hastati, 
but  there  is  no  distinct  evidence  of  their  construc¬ 
tion.  It  seems  unquestionable  that  chain  mail 
was  in  general  use  among  the  Northern  nations 
long  before  the  crusades.  In  armor,  as  in  dress, 
the  changing  fashions  of  the  different  periods  are 
strongly  marked.  At  the  time  of  the  Norman 
Conquest  of  England,  or  about  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century,  the  armor  consisted  of  a  hauberk 
or  tunic  of  mail  for  the  body,  hose  of  mail  for 
the  legs,  a  conical  helmet  with  nasal,  and  circular 
or  kite-shaped  shield.  This  continued  to  be  the 
style  of  equipment  throughout  the  twelfth  cent¬ 
ury.  in  the  first  part  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
the  hauberk  and  hose,  or  long  chausses  of  mail, 
remained  the  usual  body -armor  of  the  knight; 


but  in  the  second  half  of  the  century  the  mail  de¬ 
fenses  of  the  limbs  began  to  be  reinforced  by  por¬ 
tions  of  plate  attached  as  shoulder-pieces,  and 


Fig.  1.— From  Brass  of  Sir  Fig  2.— Complete  Suit  of 
John  de  St.  Quintiu,  1397:  Plate-armor,  beginning 

of  Sixteenth  Century: 

1,  helmet.  2,  visor;  3,  gorget;  3a,  camail;  4,  breastplate; 
5,  skirt;  0,  arm-pieces;  7,  elbow-piece;  8,  gauntlet;  9, 
hauberk;  10,  thigh-piece;  11,  knee-piece;  12,  greaves, 
13,  sollerets;  14,  lance-rest;  15,  belt. 

elbow  and  knee-pieces,  to  which  were  speedily 
added  greaves  or  shin-pieces.  The  hauberk  was 
made, in  the  beginningof  the  century,  with  a  contin¬ 
uous  coif  for  the  head,  and  gloves  not  divided  into 
fingers,  but  having  an  aperture  in  the  center  of 
the  palm.  The  armor  was  also  extended  from 
t lie  man  to  the  horse,  which  had  a  couverture  of 
chain-mail  fitting  tightly  to  the  head  and  neck, 
and  falling  loosely  over  the  body. 

The  fourteenth  century  was  the  period  of  the 
greatest  development  of  body-armor,  marking  the 
transition  from  the  coat  of  mail  to  the  panoply  of 
plate.  The  knightly  equipment  at  this  period 
necessitated  the  the  wearing  of  four  or  five  dif¬ 
ferent  casings  or  defences  over  each  other.  The 


Suit  of  Armor  presented  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian  to 
Henry  VIII.,  showing  the  Horse-armor. 

reinforcements  to  the  chausses  or  hose  of  mail 
which  protected  the  legs  in  the  previous  century 
gradually  give  way  to  complete  defences  of  plate, 
the  greaves  fitting  to  the  knee-pieces,  and  these  to 
the  thigh-pieces,  till  in  the  latter  part  of  the  cent¬ 
ury  the  legs  were  completely  incased  in  tubular 
jambards,  or  jointed  casings  of  plate,  which 
opened  upon  hinges  on  the  outside  of  the  leg,  and 
fastened  on  the  inside.  The  horses  were  almost 
as  closely  clad  in  plate  as  their  riders,  and  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  the  weight  they  bore,  a  fall  was  often 
fatal  to  them  both.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the 
development  of  plate-armor  proceeded  until, 
toward  the  middle  of  the  century,  body  and  limbs 
were  completely  enveloped  in  an  articulated  cas¬ 
ing  of  iron  plates.  After  the  invention  of  gun¬ 
powder,  muskets,  and  artillery,  armor  became 
useless.  In  the  sixteenth  century,  so  prolific  in 
changes,  there  was  no  longer  the  same  uniform¬ 


ity  of  equipment;  and  since  that  time  modifica¬ 
tions  have  followed,  until  now  armor  is  never 
used  except  as  a  parade  ornament. 

Armorer,  formerly  an  armor-smith  or  maker 
of  armor,  now  a  skilled  gunsmith  in  charge  of  the 
rifles,  swords,  and  bayonets  of  the  army  or  navy. 

Armpit,  technically  called  the  axilla,  is  the 
term  applied  to  a  space  or  hollow  situated  be¬ 
tween  the  inner  aspect  of  the  arm  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  chest-wall. 

Arms,  Armorial  Bearings,  or  Ensigns,  de¬ 
vices  borne  on  shields  and  banners  by  families,  or 
by  kingdoms,  provinces,  episcopal  sees,  or  cor¬ 
porate  bodies. 

Armstrong,  John,  physician  and  poet,  was 
born  about  1709.  He  died  September  7,  1779. 

Armstrong,  John,  physician  and  medical 
writer,  was  born  May  8,  1784.  He  wrote  on 
typhus  and  other  fevers,  and  died  in  1829.— His 
son,  John  Armstrong  (1813-56),  in  1853  became 
Bishop  of  Grahamstown. 

Armstrong,  William  George,  Lord  Arm¬ 
strong,  inventor  of  the  Armstrong  gun,  was  born 
in  1810  at  Newcastle.  The  essential  feature  of 
the  Armstroi»g  gun  whether  rifled  or  smooth  bore, 
breech-loading  or  muzzle-loading,  is  that  the  barrel 
is  built  up  of  successive  coils  of  wrought-iron, 
welded  round  a  mandrel  into  a  homogeneous  mass 
of  great  tenacity,  the  breech  being  specially 
strengthened  on  similar  principles. 

Army,  a  body  of  armed  men,  so  organized  and 
disciplined  as  to  act  together,  be  mutually  reliant 
and  perform  in  unison  the  evolutions  of  the  march 
and  battlefield  according  to  the  absolute  will  of 
one  man.  An  army  is  a  movable  engine  composed 
of  a  vast  number  of  individual  parts  or  powers, 
arranged  so  as  not  only  to  act  in  concert,  but  to 
exert  their  whole  aggregate  force  in  any  direction 
and  upon  any  point  which  may  be  ordered  or 
required.  The  organization  of  an  arm}'  is  of  two 
kinds,  tactical  and  administrative.  The  former 
enables  the  leader  of  an  army  to  transmit  his 
orders  to  three  or  four  subordinate  commanders, 
who  pass  them  on  to  three  or  four  others  under 
them,  until,  through  a  regular  chain  of  responsi¬ 
bility,  the  original  impulse  is  communicated  to  the 
private  soldier.  The  latter,  in  a  similar  manner, 
divides  the  army  into  groups  of  gradually  decreas¬ 
ing  size,  so  that  the  men  may  be  efficiently  paid, 
fed,  clothed,  and  armed.  Armies  have  existed 
since  the  earliest  times,  the  first  on  record  being 
that  raised  by  Sesostris,  in  Egypt,  sixteen  centuries 
is. c.  The  Philistines  and  other  neighbors  of  the 
Jews  had  regular  military  organizations.  Xerxes 
had  more  than  a  million  of  men  under  his  com¬ 
mand  at  one  time.  The  raw  levies  of  the  Greeks 
were  overthrown  easily  by  the  standing  army  of 
the  Macedonian  King.  Then  came  the  Romans 
with  their  unrivalled  organization  which  over¬ 
came  the  whole  known  world.  The  armies  of  the 
Goths,  Huns,  and  Vandals  were  but  disor¬ 
ganized  bands  of  barbarians;  held  together 
by  the  cohesive  force  of  possible  plunder,  and 
melting  away  like  snow  in  case  of  disaster.  Until 
the  later  Crusades  organized  bodies  of  men, 
regularly  armed  and  drilled  for  fighting  purposes, 
were  unknown.  When  England  went  to  war 
with  France,  or  struck  across  the  Scottish  bor¬ 
der,  the  troops  on  either  side  were  raised  from  the 
masses  of  the  people,  who  came  to  war  under 
their  feudal  lords.  The  introduction  of  fire-arms 
and  artillery  necessitated  the  formation  of  stand¬ 
ing  armies  of  disciplined  soldiers,  and  thus  began 
the  great  change  which  has  gradually  developed 
ever  since.  To-day,  thanks  to  dynastic  and  auto¬ 
cratic  rule,  Europe  is  an  armed  camp. 


The  following  table  presents  an  approximate 
comparison  of  the  military  resources  of  the  great 
powers  of  Europe: 


Army. 

Approximate  Cost. 

Peace  Footing. 

War 

Footing:. 

All  Items. 

Each 

Man. 

Austria . 

1,100,000* 

$47,500,000 

$225 

France . 

...524,000 

3,750,000 

132,500,000 

215 

Germany . 

...450,000 

5,670.000 

66,500,000 

215 

Great  Britain. 

...210,000 

670.000 

97,500.000 

465 

Italy . 

902,000 

51.500,000 

190 

Russia . 

2,900,000 

102,500,000 

185 

*  It  is  estimated  that  about  1.000,000  more  will  be  added 
to  the  effective  strength  of  the  Austrian  army  by  the 
laudsturm  law  of  1880. 


ARMY-WORM. 


78 


ARNOLD. 


At  the  commencement  of  1801,  the  United 
States  army  consisted  of  only  about  14,000  regu¬ 
lar  troops.  In  various  successive  levies  by  the 
President  during  the  civil  war  (1801-65),  as  many 
as  2,653.062  men  had  been  called  out — nearly  one- 
fourth  of  the  entire  male  population  of  the  North¬ 
ern  States.  After  the  war,  the  standing  army  was 
steadily  diminished;  and  by  a  law  passed  in  June, 
1874,  it  was  provided  that  there  shall  he  no  more 
than  25,000  enlisted  men  at  one  time.  That  force  is 
distributed  amongst  twenty-five  regiments  of 
infantry,  ten  of  cavalry,  five  of  artillery,  and  one 
batallion  of  engineers.  The  actual  enlisted  strength 
of  the  regular  army  in  June,  1886,  was  24,442. 
The  country  is  divided  into  three  military  divis¬ 
ions.  Each  State  is  also  supposed  to  have  a 
■militia,  in  which  all  men  from  eighteen  to  forty- 
five  should  be  enrolled;  but  in  several  States  the 
organization  is  imperfect  The  organized  militia 
numbers  slightly  over  01 ,000 of  all  ranks;  but  the 
number  of  citizens  who  in  case  of  war  might  be 
enrolled  is  estimated  at  over  6,700,000.  See  A 
Military  Dictionary  and  Gazetteer ,  by  Captain  T. 
Wilhelm,  U.  S.  A.  (Philadelphia,  1881.) 

In  the  United  States,  the  supreme  command  of 
all  military  forces  is,  in  terms  of  the  constitution, 
vested  in  the  President.  His  representative  is 
the  Secretary  of  War,  who  is  the  declared  head 
of  the  War  Department.  The  average  annual 
cost  of  the  United  States  army  is  about  $50-, 
000,000. 

Army-worm,  a  name  sometimes  given  in 
Europe  to  the  grubs  of  a  small  black  fly  (Sciara 
militaris),  very  common  in  some  European  forests. 
In  the  United  States  the  name  is  given  to  the 
larva  of  the  Leucania  unipuncta,  a  voracious 
moth,  common  every where,  which  collects  in 
large  numbers. 

Arnaud,  IIenri  (1641-1721),  pastor  and  suc¬ 
cessful  military  leader  of  the  Waldenses,  was  born 
at  La  Tour,  in  Piedmont,  and  died  among  his  ex¬ 
iled  brethren  at  Schonberg. 

Arnauld,  Antoine,  the  greatest  advocate  of 
his  time  in  France,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1560. 
He  died  Dec.  29,  1019. 

Arnauld,  Antoine,  known  as  “the  great  Ar¬ 
nauld,”  the  twentieth  and  youngest  son  of  the 
preceeding,  was  born  at  Paris,  Feb.  0,  1612.  In 
1641  he  attained  the  dignity  of  doctor,  and  was 
ordained  a  priest.  He  wrote  a  number  of  religious 
works  of  a  non-polemical  kind,  and  became  the 
religious  director  of  the  nuns  of  Port-Royal  des 
Champs,  the  famous  convent  of  which  his  sister 
was  abbess. 

In  1056  the  war  with  the  Jesuits  was  renewed  by 
the  great  Pascal  in  the  Provincial  Letters — sub- 
stantiallya  brilliant  defence  of  Arnauld’s position. 
Though  praised  for  equanimity  and  gentleness  he 
was  incessantly  engaged  in  keen  controversy,  even 
with  his  friends ;  for  he  wrote  not  against  his 
enemies  only,  but  against  Pascal,  Domat,  Nicole, 
his  protector  Pope  Innocent  XI.,  Descartes,  and 
his  old  friend,  Pere  Malebranche.  He  died  at 
Brussels  Aug.  8,  1094. 

Arnauld,  Marie  Angelique,  the  sister  of  the 
great  Arnauld,  was  born  in  1591.  When  little 
over  eleven  years  of  age  she  was  made  abbess  of 
Port-Royal.'  She  died  in  1661,  ere  the  persecu¬ 
tions  of  Port-Royal  began.  Her  niece,  Angelique 
Arnauld,  was  born  in  1624.  At  twenty  years  of 
age  she  became  a  nun  at  Port-Royal  des  Champs. 
In  1678  AngGique  was  made  abbess.  She  died  in 
1684. 

Arnault,  Antoine  Vincent,  French  poet,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1706,  suffered  four  years’  exile  as 
an  Imperialist  (1815-19),  and  died  secretary  of  the 
Academy,  near  Havre,  Sept.  16,  1834. 

Arndt,  Ernst  Moritz,  German  poet  and  pa¬ 
triot,  was  born  in  the  then  Swedish  Island  of  Iiu- 
gen,  Dec.  26,  1769.  His  famous  song,  Was  ist 
des  Deutschen  Vaterland?  and  many  others  are 
sung  wherever  German  is  spoken.  He  died  at  the 
age  of  90,  Jan.  29,  1860. 

Arndt,  Jouann,  a  German  Lutheran  divine, 
was  born  at  Ballenstcdt,  Anhalt,  in  1555,  and  died 
at  Celle,  Hanover,  in  1621. 

Arne,  Thomas  Augustine,  Doctor  in  Music, 
was  born  in  London,  March  12,  1710.  The  na¬ 
tional  air.  Rule  Britannia,  was  of  his  composition, 
as  was  also  the  Well-known  setting  of  Where  the 
Bee  Sucks,  written  for  a  performance  of  the  Tem¬ 
pest.  He  died  in  London  March  5,  1778. 


Mountain  Arnica 
ul.  Montana). 


Arnee  is  the  native  name  for  the  wild  Buffalo 
of  India. 

Arnhem  (anc.  Arenacum  ;  Ger.  Arnheim),  the 
capital  of  the  Dutch  province  of  Guelderland,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  thirty -eight  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Utrecht.  Pop.  (1884),  44,436. 

Ar'uica,  a  genus  of  Tubulifloral  Composites. 
The  rhizone,  leaves,  and  flowers  of  the  Mountain 
Arnica  ( A.montana ),  some¬ 
times  called  mountain  to¬ 
bacco,  formerly  enjoyed 
much  repute  in  medicine  as 
a  stimulant  in  paralytic  af¬ 
fections,  low  fevers,  &c. 

The  flowers  are  still  em¬ 
ployed  to  yield  a  tincture 
which  is  of  service  as  an  ex¬ 
ternal  application  to  wounds 
and  bruises. 

Arnim,  Harry,  Graf 
von,  born  in  Pomerania  in 
1824,  from  1864  to  1870  was 
Prussian  ambassador  at 
Rome,  where  he  backed  up 
the  anti-infalliblists  during 
the  Vatican  Council.  He 
wras  rewarded  with  the  title 
of  Graf,  but,  as  German  am¬ 
bassador  to  France  (1872-74), 
he  fell  into  Prince  Bis¬ 
marck's  disfavor,  and,  on  a 
charge  of  purloining  State 
documents,  was  sentenced 
to  three  months’,  to  six  months’,  and  to  five 
years’  imprisonment.  He  had,  however,  retired 
into  exile,  and  died  at  Nice,  May  19,  1881. 

Arnim,  Ludwig  Achim  von,  a  fantastic  but 
original  German  writer  of  romances,  was  born  at 
Berlin  in  1871,  and  died  in  1831.  His  wrife,  Bet- 
tina  von  Arnim,  a  sister  of  Clemens  Brentano, 
was  born  in  1785  at  Frankfort,  and  married  him 
in  1811 .  The  great  event  of  her  early  life  was  her 
enthusiastic  attachment  to  Goethe,  whom  she  first 
saw  in  1807,  he  being  then  nearly  sixty.  She  died 
at  Berlin,  Jan.  20,  1859.  See  Loper,  Goethe’s 
Brief e  an  Betti na  (1879). 

Ar'no,  next  to  the  Tiber,  the  most  considerable 
river  of  Central  Italy,  rises  on  Mount  Falterona, 
at  an  elevation  of  4,444  feet  above  sea  level,  and 
falls  into  the  sea,  eleven  miles  below  Pisa,  where 
it  once  had  its  embouchure. 

Arnold  of  Brescia,  was  born  in  the  early  part 
of  the  twelfth  century.  He  was  educated  in 
France  under  Abelard,  and  adopted  the  monastic 
life.  He  was  banished  from  France  and  Italy, 
and  lived  five  years  in  Zurich.  Meanwhile,  an  in¬ 
surrection  against  the  Papal  Government  had  taken 
place  in  Rome,  and  thither,  in  1143,  Arnold  re¬ 
paired,  and  endeavored  to  lead  and  direct  the 
movement.  On  the  arrival  of  the  Emperor 
Frederick  Barbarossa  for  his  coronation,  in  1155, 
Arnold  was  arrested,  brought  to  Rome,  and 
hanged,  his  body  burned,  and  the  ashes  thrown 
into  the  Tiber. 

Arnold,  Benedict,  the  arch-traitor  of  the 
American  Revolution,  was  born  in  Norwich, 
Conn.,  Jan.  3,  1740.  He  displayed  considerable 
military  ability  in  the  earlier  battles  of  the  war, 
and  received  rapid  promotion.  Heassisted  Ethan 
Allen  in  the  capture  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown 
Point,  and  was  severely  wounded  at  Quebec. 
For  these  services  he  was  made  brigadier  general, 
but  as  Congress  omitted  him  from  the  next  list  of 
major-generals  he  became  dissatisfied  and  insub¬ 
ordinate.  After  he  received  his  deferred  pro¬ 
motion  he  took  part  in  several  fights,  and  was 
again  wounded.  He  was  court-martialed  in  1780 
for  misconduct  while  in  command  at  Philadelphia, 
but  escaped  with  a  reprimand.  Notwithstanding 
his  loud  protestations  of  patriotism  he  was  at  that 
very  time  in  treasonable  correspondence  with  the 
enemy.  He  married  a  lady,  whose  family  were 
strong  Tories,  and  for  eighteen  months  corres¬ 
ponded  secretly  with  the  British  commander,  Sir 
Henry  Clinton.  On  Aug.  3,  1780,  Arnold  was 
given  command  of  the  important  fortress  of  West 
Point.  This  was  done  at  his  own  request,  as  he 
alleged  that  he  could  not  take  the  field  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  his  wounds,  but  was  still  anxious  to 
serve  his  country.  Not  the  slightest  suspicion  of 
his  loyalty  was  entertained,  and  he  enjoyed  the 
friendship  and  confidence  of  Washington.  His 


correspondence  with  Clinton  was  carried  on 
through  Major  Andr£,  adjutant-general  and  aide- 
de-camp  to  the  British  commander,  and  he  induced 
Andre1  to  visit  him  for  the  purpose  of  perfecting 
arrangements  for  the  surrender  of  West  Point. 
He  gave  Andrd  a  safe  conduct  and  plans 
of  the  fort,  but  the  young  officer  was  cap¬ 
tured  by  some  militia-men  and  the  papers  dis¬ 
covered.  [See  Andre,  ante.\  Unfortunately  for 
justice,  Arnold  was  informed  of  the  capture,  and 
immediately  ordered  a  boat,  in  which  he  was 
rowed  to  a  British  vessel.  He  had  the  incredible 
baseness  to  surrender  his  own  oarsmen  to  the 
enemy,  but  Sir  Henry  Clinton  instantly  gave  them 
their  liberty.  Arnold  was  made  a  major-general 
in  the  British  army,  and  ravaged  and  burned 
several  towns  in  Virginia  and  Connecticut.  After 
the  close  of  the  war  he  lived  in  England  on  an 
allowance  made  him  by  the  Government,  and  en¬ 
gaged  in  trade,  but  unsuccessfully.  Even  those 
who  would  have  profited  by  his  treachery,  had  it 
been  successful,  despised  and  shunned  him,  and 
he  died  in  obscurity  June  14,  1801. 

Arnold,  Edwin,  poet,  orientalist,  and  journal¬ 
ist,  was  born  June  10,  1832.  He  was  for  a  while 
second  master  at  Birmingham,  and  then  became 
principal  of  the  Government  Sanskrit  College  at 
Poona.  Returning  to  England  in  1861,  he  joined 
the  editorial  staff  of  the  Daily  Telegraph ;  and  to 
him  was  largely  due  the  dispatching  of  Air. 
George  Smith  to  Assyria,  and  of  Mr.  Stanley  to 
discover  Livingstone.  His  numerous  works  in¬ 
clude  Poems  (1853);  The  Indian  Song  of  Songs 
(1875);  The  light  of  Asia  (1879);  Indian  Poetry 
(1881);  Pearls  of  the  Faith  (1883);  The  Song 
Celestial  (1885);  and  Lotus  and  Jewel  (1888). 

Arnold,  Matthew,  one  of  the  greater  modern 
English  poets,  and  the  Sainte-Beuve  of  English 
criticism,  eldest  son  of  Dr.  Arnold  of  Rugby,  was 
born  at  Laleham,  near  Staines,  Dec.  24,  1822,  and 
educated  at  Winchester,  Rugby,  and  Balliol  Col¬ 
lege,  Oxford,  and  was  elected  a  fellow  of  Oriel  in 
1845.  After  acting  for  a  few  years  as  private 
secretary  to  Lord  Lansdowne,  he  was  appointed 
one  of  the  Lay  Inspectors  of  Schools  in  1851,  an 
office  from  which  he  retired  in  1885.  In  1857  he 
was  elected  Professor  of  Poetry  at  Oxford.  He 
was  more  than  once  sent  by  Government  to  inquire 
into  the  state  of  education  on  the  Continent,  es¬ 
pecially  in  France,  Germany,  and  Holland;  and 
Ins  masterly  reports  attracted  much  attention  in 
England.  In  1883  a  pension  of  £250  was  con¬ 
ferred  on  him,  and  in  the  same  year  he  lectured 
in  the  United  States.  In  1854  he  published,  under 
his  name,  a  volume  consisting  of  new  poems  and 
selections  from  his  two  earlier  volumes,  signed 
“A,”  and  in  1885  he  issued  a  collected  edition  of 
his  poems  in  three  volumes.  His  chief  prose 
writings  are  Essays  in  Criticism,  collected  in 
1865;  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  Celtic  Literature 
(1867);  Culture  and  Anarchy  (1869);  Last  Essays 
on  Church  and  Religion  { 1877);  Mixed  Assays  (1879); 
and  Irish  Essays  (1882).  His  contributions  to 
theological  literature  were,  St.  Paul  and  Protest¬ 
antism  (1870),  and  Literature  and  Dogma  (1872). 
Arnold  died  in  1888. 

Arnold,  Samuel,  an  English  composer,  was 
born  in  1740,  and  died  Oct.  22,  1802.  He  is  best 
remembered  by  his  valuable  collection  of  cathe¬ 
dral  music  (1790). 

Arnold,  TnoMAs,  D.D.,  head  master  of  Rugby, 
was  born  June  13,  1795',  at  West  Cowes,  in  the 
Isle  of  Wight.  In  1807  he  was  sent  to  Win¬ 
chester,  and  remained  there  till  1811,  when  he 
was  elected  a  scholar  of  Corpus  Christi  College, 
Oxford.  Having  taken  a  first  class  in  classics 
(1814),  he  was  next  year  elected  a  fellow  of  Oriel, 
and  he  gained  the  chancellor’s  prizes  for  the  Latin 
and  English  essays  in  1815  and  1817.  He  took 
deacon’s  orders  in  1818,  and  the  year  after  settled 
at  Laleham,  near  Staines,  where  he  occupied  him¬ 
self  in  preparing  pupils  for  the  university.  In 
1820  he  married  Mary  Penrose,  daughter  of  a 
Nottinghamshire  rector,  and  sister  of  one  of  his 
earliest  friends.  He  had  already  commenced  his 
great  undertaking,  the  History  of  Rome.  From 
Laleham  he  was  called  to  undertake  the  arduous 
duties  of  the  liead-mastership  of  Rugby.  On 
these  he  entered  in  Aug.,  1828.  In  1841  he 
received  from  Lord  Melbourne  the  Regius  Pro¬ 
fessorship  of  Modem  Historyat  Oxford.  Hedied 
,  June  12,  1842. 


ARNOLD. 


79 


ARSENIC. 


Arnold.  Thomas  Kerchever,  a  writer  of 
educational  works,  was  bom  in  1800,  and  died 
March  9,  1853. 

Arnot,  William,  a  popular  Scottish  preacher 
and  author,  was  born  at  Scone  in  1806,  and  died 
in  1875. 

Arnsberg',  a  town  of  Westphalia,  on  the  Ruhr, 
thirty-six  miles  east  of  Hagen.  Pop.  (1885),  6,131 . 

Arnstadt,  the  chief  town  in  the  principality  of 
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  ten  miles  south  of 
Erfurt.  Pop.  (1885),  11,537. 

Arolsen,  the  capital  of  the  principality  of 
Waldeck.  The  sculptor  Rauch  and  the  painter 
Kaulbach  were  natives.  Pop.  (1885),  2,442. 

Aromatics  constitute  a  class  of  medicines 
which  owe  their  properties  to  the  essential  oils,  to 
benzoic  and  cinnamic  acids,  to  volatile  products 
of  distillation,  or  to  odorous  glandular  secretions. 
The  plants  that  contribute  to  this  class  of  medi¬ 
cines  are  those  which  yield  essences,  camphor,  or 
odorous  resins,  and  amongst  the  families  which 
yield  the  most  important  aromatics  are  the  Labi- 
atse,  Umbelliferse,  Lauracese,  Myrtacese,  Auranti- 
aceae,  Conifer®,  Scitamineae,  Orcliideae,  etc.  Some 
of  them  are  artifically  produced  by  destructive 
distillation,  as  tar,  creosote,  benzol,  or  the  various 
empyreumatic  oils. 

Aromatic  Series.  This  term  is  applied  to  a 
large  group  of  organic  chemical  compounds, 
many  of  which  occur  in  balsams,  essential  oils, 
and  other  substances  having  an  aromatic  odor. 
It  was  originally  limited  to  the  compounds  of  the 
benzoic  group,  but  it  has  now  been  extended  so  as 
to  include  other  series  homologous  with  them, 
and  ranging  round  the  group  of  hydrocarbons, 
C„,  H2n.0.  The  simplest  of  these  hydrocarbons  is 
benzene,  in  which  there  are  six  atoms  of  carbon, 
the  formula  being  CflH6.  When  carbon  enters  the 
benzene  group,  C6H6,  it  forms  many  new  com¬ 
pounds.  Thus,  hydrogen  may  be  replaced  by 
radicals  such  as  methyl  and  ethyl,  OIL  and  C2II5, 
giving  rise  to  such  compounds  as 

Methyl  benzene . C6H5CH3 

Ethyl  benzene . CoHjCsHs 

or,  again,  more  than  one  molecule  of  these  radi¬ 
cals  may  be  introduced,  as  in 

Dimethyl  benzene . C0Hi(CH3)2 

Methyl-ethyl  benzene. . .  .CeHiOHsCjHs 
From  these  again  are  derived  aldehydes,  alcohols, 
and  acids,  of  which  we  can  only  give  a  single  ex¬ 
ample: 

Methyl  benzene,  or  toluene.  CeH6CH3 

Benzyl  alcohol . CgHsCIUOII 

Benzyl  aldehyde . CJI5COH 

Benzoic  acid . C6H5COOH 

Aromatic  Yinegar  differs  from  ordinary  vine¬ 
gar  (which  is  acetic  acid  diluted  with  water)  in 
containing  certain  essential  oils  which  impart  an 
agreeable  fragrance. 

Aroo'stook,  a  river  which,  rising  in  the  north 
of  Maine,  falls  into  the  St.  John  in  New  Bruns¬ 
wick,  after  a  course  of  about  120  miles. 

Arouet,  the  family  name  of  Voltaire. 

Arpad,  the  national  hero  of  Hungary,  under 
whom  the  Magyars  first  gained  a  footing  in  that 
country,  about  884.  He  died  in  907,  leaving  his 
power  to  his  son. 

Arpeggio,  in  music,  is  a  chord  of  which  the 
notes  are  given,  not  simultaneously,  but  in  suc¬ 
cession. 

Arpent,  an  old  French  land-measure,  corre¬ 
sponding  to  the  English  acre.  It  contained  a 
hundred  square  perches,  and  varied  with  the  vary¬ 
ing  value  of  the  perch  from  about  an  acre  and  a 
quarter  to  about  five-sixths  of  an  acre;  or,  in 
modern  French  measure,  from  one-tliird  to  one- 
half  of  a  liectarfe. 

Arpi'no  (anc.  Arpinum),  the  birthplace  of 
Cicero  and  Marius,  lies  between  Rome  and 
Naples,  about  sixty-five  miles  from  each.  Pop. 
(1881),  5,145. 

Ar'qua,  an  Italian  village  with  about  1,000 
inhabitants,  twelve  miles  southwest  of  Padua. 
Here  Petrarch  died  July  18,  1374. 

Ar'qnebns,  or  Haiiqcebus  (from  Dutch  hank- 
bus,  lit.  a  gun  with  a  hook),  was  the  .first  form  of 
hand-gun  which  could  fairly  be  compared  with 
the  modern  musket.  Those  of  earlier  Hate  were 
fired  by  applying  a  match  by  hand  to  the  touch- 
hole. 


Arraca'clia  {Arraeacha  esculenta),  a  plant  of 
the  natural  order  umbelliferse,  a  native  of  the 
elevated  tablelands  in  the 
northern  parts  of  South 
America.  It  is  much  cul¬ 
tivated  in  its  native  coun¬ 
try  for  its  roots,  which  are 
used  as  an  esculent.  The 
plant  is  very  like  hemlock, 
to  which  genus  Humboldt 
indeed  referred  it,  and  has 
a  similar  heavy  smell.  The 
flowers  are  in  compound 
umbels,  and  are  of  a  dull 
purple  color. 

Arrack,  or  Rack,  is  an 
East  Indian  name  (derived 
from  the  Arabic)  for  all 
sorts  of  distilled  spirit  ous 
liquors,  but  chiefly  to  that  Arraeacha. 
procured  from  toddy  or  the  fermented  juice  of 
the  cocoa  and  other  palms,  as  well  as  from  rice 
and  the  kind  of  brown  sugar  called  jaggery. 

Arrall,  a  town  of  Bengal,  where,  in  1857,  a 
dozen  Englishmen,  with  fifty  Sikhs,  held  out  for 
eight  days  against  3,000  sepoys,  till  relieved  by 
Major  Eyre.  Pop.  (1881),  42,998. 

Arraignment,  in  the  practice  of  the  criminal 
law,  means  calling  a  prisoner  by  his  name  to  the 
bar  of  the  court  to  answer  the  matter  charged 
upon  him  in  the  indictment.  His  innocence  being 
presumed,  he  is  entitled  to  stand  at  the  bar  in  the 
form  and  in  the  garb  of  a  free  man,  without 
shackles  or  bonds,  unless  there  be  evident  danger 
of  his  escape,  or  of  violence  at  his  hands. 
When  duly  arraigned,  the  indictment  is  dis¬ 
tinctly  read  over  to  the  accused  in  the  English 
tongue,  and  he  then  either  confesses  the  fact — 
that  is,  admits  his  guilt— or  he  puts  himself  upon 
his  trial  by  a  plea  of  “Not  guilty.”  If  a  pris¬ 
oner  refuses  to  plead,  a  plea  of  not  guilty  is  entered 
on  his  behalf,  and  the  court  usually  appoints  a 
lawyer  to  defend  him,  if  he  has  no  counsel. 

Arras,  the  capital  of  the  French  department 
of  Pas-de-Calais,  on  the  Scarpe,  120  miles  north 
of  Paris.  Robespierre  was  a  native  of  Arras. 
It  was  famous  for  its  tapestry,  which  is  called 
arras  in  Shakespeare.  Pop.  (1881),  27,041. 

Arrest.  To  arrest  an  offender  or  a  debtor  is 
to  seize  his  person,  in  order  that  he  may  be 
brought  to  trial,  or  compelled  to  obey  the  law. 

Arrhena'therum,  a  genus  of  grasses. 

Arrian,  Flavius,  a  native  of  Nicomedia,  in 
Bithynia,  born  about  100  a.d.  A  disciple  and 
friend  of  Epictetus,  the  Stoic  philosopher,  he 
was  admitted  to  citizenship  in  Athens,  and  in  124 
a.d.  to  that  of  Rome  at  the  hands  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  Hadrian.  He  was  appointed  prefect  of 
Cappadocia  in  the  year  136,  and  under  Antoninus 
Pius,  the  successor  of  Hadrian,  he  was  promoted 
to  the  consulship.  The  most  important  work  by 
Arrian  is  the  Anabasis  Alexandron,  or  history  of 
the  campaigns  of  Alexander  the  Great,  which 
has  come  down  to  us  almost  entire. 

Arrondissement  (Fr.  from  arrondir,  to  make 
round),  an  administrative  district  forming  a  sub¬ 
division  of  a  French  department. 

Arrow-grass.  The  popular  name  of  Tirglochin, 
a  genus  of  A 1  ism  ace®. 

Arrowhead  ( Sagitarria ),  a  genus  of  petaloid 
monocotyledons  of  the  order  Alismacese.  They 


Arrowhead  ( SagUtana  sarjittifolia.) 


are  aquatic  plants,  natives  of  very  different  cli¬ 
mates,  from  the  tropics  to  the  cold  regions. 


Arrowroot  is  a  variety  of  starch  extracted 
from  the  roots  of  certain  plants  growing  in  trop¬ 
ical  countries.  It  is  a  fine,  starchy  farina,  much 
valued  as  a  delicacy,  and  as  an  easily  digestible 
food  for  children  and  invalids.  It  is  obtained 
from  the  root-stocks  {rhizomes)  of  different  species 
of  Maranta,  belonging  to  the  natural  order  of 
Scitamineae. 


A ,  flowering  branch ;  B,  base  of  flower  stem ;  C,  branch  of 

the  rhizome.  (From  Bentley  and  Trimen's  Medicinal 

Plants.) 

The  West  Indian  arrowroot,  most  esteemed  in 
the  market,  is  grown  in  Bermuda;  the  next,  and 
almost  equal  to  it,  in  Jamaica.  The  East  Indian 
arrowroot  is  not  in  general  so  highly  valued,  per¬ 
haps  because,  substitutes  for  the  genuine  arrow- 
root  more  frequently  receive  that  name.  Maranta 
arrowroot  is  also  produced  in  Florida. 

Ar  rowsmitli,  Aaron,  born  at  Winston,  Dur¬ 
ham,  in  1750,  at  the  age  of  twenty  went  to 
London,  and  by  1790  had  established  a  great 
map-making  business.  He  died  April  23,  1823. — 
His  nephew,  John  (1790-1873),  was  also  an  emin¬ 
ent  cartographer. 

Arm  Islands,  a  group  of  over  eighty  islands 
in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  lying  west  of  New 
Guinea,  with  a  united  area  of  about  2,650  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  some  15,000. 

Arsacidae,  a  dynasty  of  Parthian  kings,  so 
called  from  the  name  of  its  founder,  Arsaces, 
who  wrested  a  kingdom  for  himself  from  the 
feeble  grasp  of  the  Seleucid  Antiochus  II.  about 
250  b.c. 

Arsamas,  a  Russian  town,  sixty  miles  south  of 
Nijni-Novgorod.  Pop.  (1881),  11,497. 

Arsenal  (through  Ital.  and  Span,  forms  from 
Arab,  dar  accina’ah,  workshop,  made  up  of  dar, 
house,  al,  the,  cina’ah ,  art.  The  Span,  atarazdna 
best  preserves  the  wider  sense  of  the  Arabic  orig¬ 
inal;  the  other  languages  have  narrowed  its 
meaning  to  dock  or  armory),  a  term  formerly 
applied  merely  to  a  repository  of  naval  stores  and 
ordnance,  but  now  extended  to  the  foundries  and 
factories  of  warlike  stores,  for  both  army  and 
navy,  as  well  as  to  the  depots  where  they  are 
stored.  The  principal  armories  of  the  United 
States  are  at  Springfield,  Mass. ,  where  small-arms 
are  manufactured,  and  at  Watertown,  in  the 
same  State,  where  heavy  guns  are  cast;  besides 
which  there  are  numerous  other  arsenals  and 
depots  of  supply  in  various  States  and  Territories. 
There  are  naval  arsenals  at  New  York,  Boston, 
Baltimore,  and  other  points  on  the  coast. 

Ar'senic  and  its  Compounds.  Arsenic 
(through  Lat.  from  Gr.  arseni/con,  arsenic,  a  word 
meaning  literally  male  arsen,  from  the  notion  of 
the  old  alchemists  that  metals  were  of  different 
sexes)  is  the  name  applied  in  popular  language  to 
a  well-known  poisonous  substance,  arsenious  acid, 
but,  strictly  speaking,  the  term  is  restricted  to 
the  metal,  of  which  the  symbol  is  As  and  the 
equivalent  is  75.  The  metal  arsenic  is  rarely 
found  free  in  nature,  but  in  a  state  of  combina¬ 
tion  it  occurs  largely.  The  most  important  of  all 
arsenical  minerals,  because  of  their  use  as  ores  of 
arsenic,  for  the  preparation  of  white  arsenic,  or 
arsenious  acid,  are  those  in  which  arsenic  is  com¬ 
bined  with  nipkel  and  cobalt.  The  chief  of  these 
are  arsenical  pyrites,  or  leucopyrite,  nickeline, 


ARSINOE. 


80 


ARTESIAN  WELLS. 


cobaltine,  and  smaltine,  which  are  found  in  Corn¬ 
wall  and  the  Continent  of  Europe,  as  well  as  in 
other  parts  of  the  world.  The  last-named  two 
are  used  for  the  preparation  of  blue  colors  for 
poicelain  or  stoneware.  The  presence  of  arsenic 
in  a  mineral  may  commonly  be  detected  by  the 
alliaceous  odor  which  it  emits  before  the  blow- 
pipe. 

Metallic  arsenic  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
shot.  With  sulphur,  arsenic  forms  two  import¬ 
ant  compounds:  Realgar,  As2S2,  a  red,  transpar¬ 
ent,  and  brittle  substance,  which  is  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  the  signal-light  called  White 
Indian  Fire;  and  Orpiment,  As2S3,  or  King’s 
Yellow,  a  cheap  pigment  of  a  yellow  color.  With 
hydrogen,  arsenic  forms  arseniuretted  hydrogen, 
AsH3,  a  very  poisonous  gas,  and  one  which  has 
been  fatal  to  several  chemists. 

Arsenious  Acid  is  the  arsenical  compound 
most  familiarly  known.  It  is  obtained  principally 
during  the  roasting  of  the  arsenical  nickel  ores  in 
Germany  in  furnaces  communicating  with  flues. 
When  the  arsenic  of  the  ore  burns,  it  passes  into 
the  condition  of  arsenious  acid,  As203,  and  rising 
as  vapor  into  the  somewhat  cool  flue,  is  there 
deposited  as  a  grayish  powder,  known  by  the 
names  of  Smelling-house  Smoke,  Flowers  of  Ar¬ 
senic,  Poison-flour,  or  Hough  Arsenious  Acid.  It 
is  soluble  in  about  10  parts  of  boiling  water,  or 
100  parts  of  cold  water. 

Arsenic  has  long  been  used  as  a  medicine  par¬ 
tially  as  an  alterative.  The  quantity  necessary 
to  destroy  life,  of  course,  varies;  but  under  cir¬ 
cumstances  favorable  for  its  operation  the  fatal 
dose  for  an  adult  is  from  two  to  three  grains. 
Arsenic  is  eaten  by  women  to  improve  their  com¬ 
plexions,  but  the  practice  is  most  deleterious,  and 
becomes  a  terrible  habit. 

No  effective  chemical  antidote  for  arsenic  has" 
yet  been  discovered.  In  case  of  an  overdose,  or 
of  intentional  poisoning,  the  following  treatment 
is  recommended:  Evacuate  the  stomach  by  the 
stomach-pump,  using  lime-water;  administer 
large  draughts  of  tepid  sugar  and  water,  chalk 
and  water,  or  lime-water;  avoid  the  use  of  alka¬ 
lies,  but  administer  charcoal  and  hydrated  sesqui- 
oxide  of  iron;  bleed  freely;  take  a  tepid  bath, 
and  use  narcotics.  If  the  fatal  symptoms  be 
averted,  let  the  patient  for  a  long  time  subsist 
wholly  on  farinaceous  food,  milk,  and  demul¬ 
cents. 

Arsiu  oe,  daughter  of  Ptolemy  I.,  King  of 
Egypt,  born  816  is.;'.,  married  at  sixteen  the  aged 
Lysimachus,  King  of  Thrace,  whose  eldest  son, 
Agathocles,  had  already  wedded  Lysaiidra,  her 
half-sister.  She  fled  to  Egypt  after  the  murder 
of  her  husband,  and  there  married  her  own 
brother,  Ptolemy  II. 

Arsis  and  Thesis  (Gr.  raising  up,  and  laying 
down),  grammatical  terms  applied  to  the  elevation 
and  depression  of  the  voice  in  speaking.  In 
music  they  signify  the  strong  position  and  the 
weak  in  a  bar,  and  are  indicated  by  the  down- 
beat  and  up-beat  of  the  hand. 

Arson  (Old  Fr.  from  Lat.  ardere,  to  burn),  in 
criminal  law,  is  a  felony  described  as  the  malicious 
and  willful  burning  of  a  house  or  building.  Mere 
negligence  will  not  support  a  charge  of  arson — 
there  must  be  criminal  intention. 

Ars-sur- Moselle,  a  town  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  on 
the  River  Moselle,  six  miles  southwest  of  Metz. 
Pop.  (1885),  4,620. 

Art.  A  man  in  the  savage  state  is  one  whose 
whole  time  is  of  necessity  occupied  in  getting  and 
retaining  the  things  barely  needed  to  keep  him 
alive.  When  a  society  is  able  to  supply  its  needs 
without  using  up,  to  that  end,  all  the  time  of  all 
its  members,  leisure  arises,  and  some  or  all  of  them 
are  enabled  to  devote  part  or  even  the  whole  of 
their  time  to  occupations  other  than  the  support 
and  protection  of  life.  All  such  occupations  have 
pleasure  for  their  aim,  and  are  included  in  the 
domain  of  art  in  its  widest  sense.  The  earliest 
forms  of  art  were  naturally  methods  of  decora¬ 
tion  applied  to  objects  of  daily  use.  Prehistoric 
man  is  known  to  have  developed  several  kinds 
of  decoration.  In  ordinary  speech,  the  intonation 
of  the  voice  already  provides  the  materials  for 
song.  Passionate  speech  approximates  to  song 
still  more  closely.  Musical  notes  can  be  gained 
from  shaped  pieces  of  wood,  stone,  and  other 
simple  contrivances.  Thus  rude  forms  of  music 


could,  and  doubtless  did,  arise  very  early,  gener¬ 
ally  in  connection  with  the  dance  or  with  some 
kind  of  mimetic  performance,  out  of  which  the 
drama  was  in  time  destined  to  arise.  The  im¬ 
pulse  to  decorate  a  useful  object  is  one  common 
to  all  mankind.  It  is  merely  to  continue  a  little 
further  the  labor  of  simple  manufacture.  With 
this  instinct  is  involved  the  equally  natural  im¬ 
pulse  which  drives  men  to  imitate  the  objects 
seen  about  them,  and  by  which  they  are  chiefly 
interested.  Landscape-painting,  for  example,  is 
suggested  by  the  desire  to  fix  upon  some  portable 
surface  the  image  of  a  view  which  pleases  or  in¬ 
terests  the  draughtsman.  It  is  impossible  to  draw 
a  sharp  line  of  division  between  tine  and  decora¬ 
tive  art.  Sculpture,  primarily  intended  to  deco¬ 
rate  a  building,  may  be  amongst  the  finest,  con¬ 
sidered  as  pure  sculpture.  In  a  time  of  artistic 
culmination,  almost  everything  that  is  made  is  en¬ 
dowed  with  something  of  the  splendor  of  the 
supreme  art.  All  the  decorative  and  many  of  the 
creative  arts  may  be  considered  as  “glorified  hand¬ 
icrafts.”  As  long  as  an  object  is  only  intended  for 
use,  it  is  not  a  work  of  art.  It  is  only  when  the 
workman  goes  beyond  what  is  necessary  for  use, 
and  consciously  aims  at  giving  also  pleasure  by 
his  work,  that  he  becomes  an  artist. 

The  bibliography  of  art  is  vast;  but  for  the 
history  of  ancient  art  the  reader  may  consult  the 
works  of  Cliipiez  and  Perrot;  Fergussoitis  His¬ 
tory  of  Architecture,  Murray’s  Greek  Sculpture, 
(1880);  Lord  Lindsay’s  Christian  Ar<,(1847);  Walt- 
mann  and  Woermann’s  History  of  Painting  (trans. 
by  Colvin,  1880);  Lttbke’s  History  of  Art;  Jame¬ 
son’s  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art;  the  South  Ken¬ 
sington  Universal  Catalogue  of  Works  on  Art; 
W.  M.  Conway’s  Early  Flemish  Artists,  and  Rus- 
kin’s  works. 

Arta  (Turkish  Narda,  the  ancient  Ambracia), 
capital  of  a  nomarchy  of  Greece,  to  which  it  was 
ceded  by  Turkey  in  1881  (area,  395  square  miles; 
pop.,  31,178).  Pop.  (1881),  4,328,  two-thirds 
Greeks. 

Artaxerx'es  (ancient  Persian  Artalchshathra), 
the.  name  of  several  Persian  kings.  (1)  Arta- 
xerxes  I.,  surnamed  Longimanus  (long-handed, 
no  doubt  from  his  wide-reaching  power),  the 
second  son  of  Xerxes,  after  the  conspiracy  of  Ar- 
tabanus,  which  caused  the  death  of  the  king,  put 
to  death  his  elder  brother,  and  ascended  the  throne 
in  465  b.C.  His  long  reign,  extending  for  forty 
years,  was  marked  by  a  decline  of  power. — (2) 
Artaxerxes  II.,  surnamed  Mnemon  (the  mind¬ 
ful),  succeeded  his  father,  Darius  II.,  in  404  b.c. 
After  the  death  of  his  rebellious  brother  Cyrus  in 
the  battle  at  Cunaxa,  he  became  involved  in  war 
with  Sparta,  which  ended  with  the  peace  of  An 
talcidas.  He  died  in  358.— (3)  Artaxerxes  III., 
named  Ochus,  was  the  son  and  successor  of  the 
preceding.  After  putting  down  the  revolts  of 
Artabazus  and  Orontes,  he  subdued  Phoenicia  and 
Egypt,  and  reduced  Cyprus.  He  was  poisoned  in 
338  by  his  favorite  eunuch,  Bagoas. — (4)  Ar¬ 
taxerxes,  or  Ardeshire,  the  founder  of  the  new 
Persian  dynasty  of  the  Sassanidae,  overthrew 
Ardavan  (Artabanus),  the  last  of  the  Parthian 
kings,  and  was  hailed  as  “king  of  kings”  on  the 
battlefield  in  227  a.d.  He  next  conquered  Media 
and  a  large  part  of  the  Iranian  highlands,  but  had 
less  success  in  Armenia,  and  was  defeated  by 
Alexander  Severus  in  a  great  bat  tle  in  233.  He 
died  in  242. 

Artedi,  Peter,  a  celebrated  Swedish  naturalist, 
was  born  in  1705.  He  became  specially  distin¬ 
guished  in  ichthyology.  He  was  drowned  near 
Amsterdam  in  1735. 

Ar'temis,  a  goddess  of  Greek  Mythology, 
daughter  of  Zeus  and  Leto,  twin-sister  of  Apollo, 
born  with  him  in  Delos,  whence  she  is  often  called 
Ortygia  from  the  ancient  name  of  the  island,  or 
Cynthia  from  Mount  Cynthus  there.  The  goddess 
worshipped  as  Artemis  at  Ephesus  was  originally 
a  divinity  of  Asiatic  origin,  quite  distinct  from 
the  maiden  huntress  of  native  Greek  mythology. 
Instead,  she  personified  the  fructifying  powers  of 
nature,  and  her  image  was  represented  as  many¬ 
breasted  ( polyma.stos ),  the  attendants  of  her  temple 
being  eunuchs  and  women.  The  allusions  to  her 
worship  as  “Diana  of  the  Ephesians”  in  Acts  xix, 
will  be  remembered.  By  the  Romans  Artemis 
was  identified  with  the  ancient  Italian  divinity 
Diana.  In  art  Artemis  is  represented  as  a  young 


and  handsome  huntress,  her  hair  tied  up  around 
her  head,  modestly  clothed  in  the  chlamys,  but 
with  the  legs  bare  below  the  knees.  She  carries 
t  lie  bow  and  quiver  of  arrows,  and  is  attended  by 
dogs  or  stags. 

Arteinis'ia,  queen  of  Caria  from  352  to  350 
b.c.,  was  the  sister  and  wife  of  Mausolus,  and  is 
celebrated  for  the  magnificent  mausoleum  which 
she  caused  to  be  erected  to  her  husband’s  memory. 
— Another  Artemisia,  queen  of  Halicarnassus, 
accompanied  Xerxes,  with  five  ships,  in  his  expe- 
dit  on  against  Greece,  and  distinguished  herself  at 
the  battle  of  Salamis  (480  b.c.);  she  ended  her  life, 
in  consequence  of  an  unfortunate  attachment,  by 
leaping  from  a  rock. 

Arteimis  Ward.  See  Browne,  C.  F. 

Arteries  (Gr.  arteria,  probably  from  air-fin,  to 
raise,  but  by  some  connected  with  ner,  air,  from 
the  old  idea  that  these  tubes  were  air-carriers, 
since  after  death  they  are  generally  found  empty), 
the  vessels  through  which  the  blood  passes  from 
the  heart  to  the  tissues.  The  structure  of  an 
arterial  tube  is  very  complex,  and  a  section  of  it 
may  be  roughly  subdivided  into  three  layers, 
called  the  coats  of  the  artery:  an  external,  con¬ 
sisting  of  interlacing  bundles  of  fibrous  tissue 
mixed  with  elastic  fibres,  which  in  large  vessels 
such  as  the  aorta  are  gathered  together  to  form  an 
elastic  layer;  a  middle,  which  is  muscular,  con¬ 
tractile,  and  brittle,  the  fibres  being  arranged  in  a 
circular  direction;  an  internal,  also  brittle,  the 
free  surface  being  smooth  and  formed  of  a  single 
layer  of  endothelial  cells.  External  to  these  cells 
there  is  a  layer  of  delicate  connective  tissue,  out¬ 
side  which  there  is  the  elastic  layer  constituting 
the  bulk  of  the  inner  coat,  and  distinguished  by 
numerous  perforations,  causing  its  fenestrated 
appearance.  The  tube  is  also  enveloped  in  cellu¬ 
lar  tissue,  termed  the  sheath  of  the  artery.  The 


Diagram  of  the  Structure  of  an  Artery  (after  Turner). 

1.  External  coat  j  plastic8' 

2.  Middle  coat  c,  muscular. 

3.  Internal  coat  j  f,’ endothelial. 

arteries  of  the  human  body  consist  of  two  groups — 
those  belonging  to  the  lesser  or  pulmonic  circu¬ 
lation,  and  those  belonging  to  the  greater  or 
systemic  circulation.  All  the  offsets  of  the  latter 
group  are  branches,  more  or  less  direct,  of  the 
aorta.  As  each  main  trunk  passes  into  a  portion 
of  the  body,  it  divides  into  two  principal  divisions: 
one,  which  breaks  up  into  branches  for  the  supply 
of  the  tissues  in  the  vicinity— the  artery  of  supply; 
and  another,  which  passes  almost  branchless  to 
supply  the  parts  beyond— the  artery  of  transmis¬ 
sion.  These,  however,  anastomose  freely,  so  that 
the  distant  tissues  are  not  solely  dependent  for 
their  supply  on  only  one  arterial  trunk. 

Arteriot'omy,  or  the  opening  of  an  artery,  is 
an  operation  that  has  been  strongly  advocated  in 
those  cases  in  which  it  is  desirable  to  produce  a 
more  decided  and  immediate  depletion  of  the 
cerebral  circulation  (as  in  severe  forms  of  san¬ 
guineous  apoplexy)  than  could  be  produced  by 
ordinary  venesection.  The  only  vessel  operated 
on  is  either  the  temporal  artery  itself  or  one  of  its 
main  branches,  which  is  partially  divided  and 
allowed  to  bleed. 

Artesian  Wells  are  perpendicular  borings  into 
the  ground,  through  which  water  rises  from  var¬ 
ious  depths,  according  to  circumstances,  above 
the  surface  of  the  soil.  The  possibility  ot  obtain¬ 
ing  water  in  this  way  in  a  particular  district  de¬ 
pends  on  its  geological  structure.  There  is  a  class 
of  rocks  which  are  perfectly  impervious  to  water, 
neither  allowing  water  to  be  obtained  through 
them  nor  to  pass  through  them.  When  such 
rocks  occur  in  basins  in  alternating  layers,  and 
in  such  order  that  pervious,  beds  are  inserted 
between  impervious  ones,  it  is  evident  that  if  a 
perforation  is  made  through  the  retentive  barrier- 
bed  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  basin,,  the  water 
contained  in  the  water-logged  strata  will  rise 
through  the  bore  to  a  height  depending  upon  the 


ARTEVELDE. 


81 


ARTIFICIAL  LIMBS. 


pressure  of  water  which  has  accumulated  in  the 
confined  sloping  space  between  the  two  imperv¬ 
ious  beds.  Explanation  will  be  more  evident  by 
a  reference  to  the  accompanying  figure.  There 


Section  of  the  London  Basin. 


are  here  a  number  of  porous  beds,  b,  b,  compos¬ 
ing  the  cretaceous  measures,  resting  on  the  im¬ 
pervious  gault,  a ,  a,  and  these,  again,  are  covered 
by  the  equally  impervious  series  of  clay,  c,  c,  which 
form  the  strata  on  the  surface,  and  extend  to  a 
considerable  depth.  The  edges  of  the  chalk-beds 
are  largely  exposed  in  the  higher  grounds;  the 
water  falling  on  the  whole  area  of  these  exposed 
edges,  sinks  into  the  more  or  less  porous  creta¬ 
ceous  beds,  and  wrould,  in  course  of  time,  by 
continued  accessions,  fill  up  the  basin,  were  it  not 
prevented  by  the  clay  above.  By  driving  a  bore, 
cl,  through  this  superior  bed,  the  inferior  water¬ 
logged  strata  are  reached,  and  the  subterranean 
water  rises  to  the  surface,  and  flows  continuously 
by  means  of  hydrostatic  pressure. 

In  the  United  States  numerous  artesian  wells 
have  been  sunk,  some  of  great  depth,  among 
which  are  two  in  St.  Louis,  a,  197  and  3,8431  feet 
deep  respectively;  several  in  Chicago  of  from  700 
to  1,200  feet  in  depth;  one  in  Louisville  2,086  feet 
deep;  one  in  Columbus,  2,7751  feet  in  depth, 
with  many  others  from  500  to  2,000  feet  deep. 

The  Chinese  and  Egyptians  were  early  ac 
quainted  with  artesian  wells.  The  oldest  known 
in  Europe  is  at  Lillers,  in  Artois  (hence  the  name 
Artesian),  and  was  sunk  in  1126. 

Artevelde,  Jacob  van,  a  Flemish  popular 
leader  in  the  fourteenth  century,  was  a  wealthy 
brewer  of  Ghent.  In  1335,  when  war  was  raging 
between  England  and  France,  he  gave  his  sup¬ 
port  to  the  former  power,  while  the  Count  of 
Flanders  sided  with  the  latter;  and  he  actually 
concluded  a  ireaty  with  Edward  III.  Proclaimed 
Governor  of  Flanders,  for  nine  years  he  was 
almost  absolute  ruler;  but  he  went  too  far  when 
in  1345  he  proposed  that  the  Black  Prince  should 
be  elected  Count  of  Flanders.  For  this  the  Flem¬ 
ings  were  not  prepared,  and  Artevelde  was  killed 
in  a  popular  insurrection,  July  24,  1345.  His  son 
Philip  van  Artevelde  in  1381  headed  a  new  revolt 
of  the  people  of  Ghent,  and  gained  a  victory  over 
the  Count  of  Flanders,  the  son  of  his  father’s  old 
enemy.  The  Count  therefore  sought  the  assist¬ 
ance  of  Charles  VI.  of  France,  and  Philip  was 
defeated  and  slain  at  Roosbeke,  1382.  His  his¬ 
tory  forms  the  theme  of  a  fine  drama  by  Sir 
Henry  Taylor.  See  Hutton,  James  and  Philip 
van  Artevelde  (1883). 

Arthritis,  inflammation  of  the  joints. 

Arthropoda.  In  this  great  division  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  the  body  consists  of  a  usually 
different  number  of  segments,  each  bearing  a 
pair  of  hollow  and  almost  always  jointed  limbs, 
into  which  the  body  muscles  proceed.  The 
Arthropoda  divide  naturally  into  two  great  alli¬ 
ances — the  water-breathers  or  Branchiata,  and 
the  air  breathers  or  Tracheata;  the  former  includ¬ 
ing  the  Crustacea  and  the  latter  the  prototracheata 
or  peripatidea,  the  myriapoda,  the  arachnida, 
and  the  insecta. 

Arthur,  King  of  the  Siluri  or  Dumnonii — 
British  races  driven  back  into  the  West  of  Eng¬ 
land  by  the  Saxons — is  represented  as  having 
united  the  British  tribes  in  resisting  the  pagan 
invaders,  and  as  having  been  the  champion,  not 
only  of  liis  people,  but  also  of  Christianity.  He 
is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  sixth  century,  and  to 
have  maintained  a  stubborn  contest  against  the 
Saxon  Cerdic. 

In  the  lays  of  the  Welsh  bards,  supposed  to  be 
as  early  as  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries 
(although  no  MS.  is  extant  of  older  date  than 
the  twelfth  century),  Arthur  and  his  brave  com¬ 
panions  are  celebrated,  but  modestly  and  without 
marvels.  It  is  possible  there  may  have  existed  in 
the  sixth  century  a  prince  bearing  the  already 
well-known  heroic  name;  and  if  so,  about  him 
the  myths  belonging  to  the  remote  ancestor  or  god 
0 


have  crystallized.  In  our  own  day  the  interest  of 
the  legends  about  King  Arthur  and  his  knights 
has  been  revived  by  Tennyson’s  Idylls  of  the  King 
(1859  etseq.),  and  some  of  Wagner’s  operas. 

Arthur,  Prince,  the  posthumous  son  of  Geof¬ 
frey  (fourth  son  of  Henry  II.)  by  Constance,  Duch¬ 
ess  of  Brittany,  was  born  in  1187.  On  Richard’s 
death  in  1199,  by  the  law  of  primogeniture,  Arthur 
should  have  succeeded  to  the  English  crown ;  and 
the  French  King,  Philip  II.,  upheld  his  claims, 
until  John  bought  him  over  to  a  disgraceful  treaty. 
Arthur  soon  after  fell  into  his  uncle’s  hands,  and 
was  imprisoned,  first  at  Falaise,  afterward  at 
Rouen,  where,  on  April  3,  1203,  he  is  supposed 
to  have  perished,  either  by  assassination  or  by 
drowning  in  an  attempt  to  escape.  The  story 
of  John’s  orders  to  Hubert  to  put  out  his  eyes 
was  current  as  early  as  1228,  and  is  treated  in  a 
celebrated  scene  of  Shakespeare’s  King  John. 

Arthur,  Chester  Alan,  twenty-first  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Fairfield, 
in  Franklin  County, Vt.,  Oct.  5,  1830.  Hisfather 
was  the  Rev.  W.  Arthur,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minis¬ 
ter,  and  a  native  of  the  North  of  Ireland.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  a  student  at  Union  Col¬ 
lege,  New  York,  and,  devoting  himself  to  law 
studies,  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1853.  After 
having  practiced  for  some  years,  he  was  made  a 
judge-advocate;  at  the  outbreak  of  the  great 
Civil  War  he  held  the  post  of  Inspector-General; 
and  during  the  war  was  Quartermaster-General  for 
the  New  York  forces.  He  subsequently  returned 
to  law  practice,  and  became  the  head  of  an  emi¬ 
nent  law  firm.  Arthur  look  a  prominent  share 
in  politics,  on  the  Republican  side;  and  in  1871 
President  Grant  appointed  him  Collector  of  Cus¬ 
toms  at  the  port  of  New  York.  As  being  hostile 
to  the  reform  in  the  Civil  Service  aimed  at  by 
President  Hayes,  he  was  removed  from  this  post 
in  1878,  and  again  returned  to  the  practice  of  law. 
He  was  a  leader  in  the  Republican  party  in  the 
State,  and  though  belonging  to  a  section  of  the 
Republicans  opposed  on  the  questions  of  Civil 
Sevice  Reform  to  that  represented  by  General 
Garfield,  was  made  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States  when  Garfield  become  President,  in  1881. 
On  the  death  of  Garfield,  by  assassination,  Arthur 
was  installed  as  President,  Sept.  22,  1881,  and 
held  the  office  till  March  4,  1885,  when  he  was 
succeeded  by  Grover  Cleveland,  who  had  been 
the  Democratic  candidate.  During  his  term  of 
office  two  important  measures  were  passed  by 
Congress  in  1882 — a  bill  dealing  with  the  Mor¬ 
mon  question,  and  declaring  polygamy  illegal, 
and  the  other  dealing  with  the  Chinese  question. 
A  tariff  bill  with  Protectionist  bearings  was 
passed  in  1883.  He  died  Nov.  18,  1886. 

Arthur’s  Seat,  a  well-known  lion-shaped  hill 
immediat  ely  east  of  Edinburgh,  rising  to  a  height 
of  822  feet  above  sea  level.  Arthur’s  Seat  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  derive  its  name  from  the  British  king. 

Artichoke  ( Gynara  Scolymus),  a  thistle-like 
perennial  plant  belonging  to  the  tubulifloral  group 
of  composites,  now  growing  wild  in  the  South  of 
Europe,  but  probably  a  native  of  Asia.  The 
radical  leaves  are  three  to  four  feet  long,  some- 


Ai'tichoke. 


what  spiny,  pinnatifid,  or  undivided.  The  stem 
is  two  or  three  feet  high,  branched,  with  large 
heads  of  violet-colored  (sometimes  white)  thistle- 
like  flowers  at  the  summit  of  the  branches.  The 
plant  has  been  long  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  the 
delicate  succulent  receptacle  or  broadened  axis  of 


the  flower-head,  taken  before  the  flower  expands, 
which  is  boiled  and  eaten  with  melted  butter,  or 
sometimes  eaten  raw  with  salt  and  pepper.  The 
tender  central  leaf-stalk  is  also  occasionally  used 
in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the  cardoon.  ”  Arti¬ 
chokes  are  generally  propagated  by  rooted  slips 
or  suckers  in  spring.  These  are  planted  in  rows 
about  four  feet  asunder,  and  two  feet  apart  in  the 
row.  The  artichoke  bed  continues  productive  for 
several  years.  Seaweed  is  an  excellent  manure. 
The  cardoon  belongs  to  the  same  genus.  1  he 
Jerusalem  artichoke  is  a  totally  different  plant, 
being  a  kind  of  sunflower  (II  lianthvs  tuberosux). 

Articles  of  War,  ordinances  for  the  government 
of  troops,  seamen  and  camp-followers,  by  pun¬ 
ishing  as  crimes  acts  or  omissions  which  in  civil 
life  would  be  mere  breaches  of  contract — '.g., 
desertion  or  disobedience  of  orders.  The  United 
States  Articles  of  War  are  published  in  the 
annual  Army  Regulations,  and  cover  generally 
the  same  ground  as  those  of  England.  Sentences 
of  death  by  courts-martial  must  be  concurred  in 
by  at  least  two-tliirds  of  the  members,  and  with 
few  exceptions,  must  be  confirmed,  before  execu¬ 
tion,  by  the  President.  In  this  country  marines 
are  subject  to  the  regulations  for  the  army  or 
navy,  according  as  they  happen  to  be  engaged 
with  either  branch  of  the  service;  the  Naval  Arti¬ 
cles  being,  however,  essentially  the  same  as  those 
governing  the  army. 

Articles,  The  Six,  were  imposed  by  Act  of 
Parliament  in  1539,  when  Henry  VIII.  beingdis- 
pleased  with  some  of  the  bishops  most  favorable 
to  the  Reformation,  their  opponents  for  a  time 
regained  the  ascendency.  These  articles  asserted 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  declared  com¬ 
munion  in  both  kinds  as  not  necessary,  con¬ 
demned  the  marriage  of  priests,  enjoined  the 
continued  observance  of  vows  of  chastity,  and 
sanctioned  private  masses  and  auricular  confes¬ 
sion.  The  act  imposing  them  was  popularly  called 
“the  six-stringed  whip.” 

Articles,  The  Thirty-nine,  of  the  Church  of 
England,  are  the  articles  of  religion  which  were 
agreed  upon  by  the  archbishops  and  bishops  of 
both  provinces  and  the  whole  clergy  in  the  con¬ 
vocation  held  at  London  in  the  fourth  year  of 
Elizabeth.  1562,  under  Archbishop  Parker,  and 
which  still  form  the  standard  of  doctrine  in  the 
Episcopal  Church. 

See  Hardwick’s  history  of  the  Articles. 
Amongst  the  commentaries  upon  them  are  those 
by  Bishop  Burnet  (1669);  Bishop  Beveridge  (1716); 
Bishop  Forbes  of  Brechin  (2d.  ed.  1871);  and  the 
exposition  by  Dr.  Harold  Browne,  Bishop  of  Win¬ 
chester  (Lond.  12th  ed.  1882).  Tract  XV. ,  by 
Cardinal  Newman,  illustrated  the  “  elasticity  ”  of 
the  Articles. 

Articiila  'ta  or  Articulated  Animals,  one  of 
the  great  primary  divisions  of  the  Animal  King¬ 
dom,  according  to  the  system  of  Cuvier.  It  in¬ 
cluded  those  animals  of  which  tire  body  is  divided 
into  a  number  of  distinct  joints — viz.,  the  higher 
worms  or  Annelids,  and  also  the  Insects,  Crus¬ 
taceans,  Arachnids,  and  Myriapods.  The  four 
latter  groups  were  separated  from  the  Annelida 
by  Von  Seibold,  on  account  of  their  possession  of 
hollow,  jointed,  limbs,  into  a  separate  sub-king¬ 
dom,  Arthropoda. 

Artificial  Limbs  are  mechanical  contrivances 
adapted  to  reproduce  the  form,  and  as  far  as 
may  be,  the  function  of  a  lost  or  absent  member. 
They  have,  in  one  form  or  oilier,  been  in  use 
from  very  early  times.  Herodotus  mentions  the 
case  of  a  prisoner  who  amputated  his  own  foot 
to  escape  from  his  shackles,  and,  escaping  to  his 
friends,  was  provided  with  a  wooden  substitute. 

The  celebrated  artificial  hand  of  the  German 
knight,  Gdtz  von  Berlichingen— “  Gdtz  of  the 
Iron  Hand  ” — was  invented  about  1504  by  a 
mechanic  of  Nuremberg.  It  weighed  three 
pounds,  and  was  so  constructed  as  to  grasp  a 
sword  or  lance. 

The  utility  of  an  artificial  arm  depends  much 
on  the  nature  of  the  stump.  '1  he  simplest  form 
of  artificial  arm  after  amputation  above  the 
elbow,  consists  of  a  leathern  sheath  accurately 
fitted  to  the  upper  part  of  the  stump.  The  lower 
end  of  the  sheath  is  furnished  with  a  wooden 
block  and  metal  screw-plate,  to  which  can  be  at¬ 
tached  a  fork  for  holding  meat,  a  knife  for  cut¬ 
ting  food,  ora  hook  for  carrying  a  weight.  The 


ARTILLERY. 


82 


ARYAN  RACE. 


arm  should  be  so  carried  as  to  represent  the 
position  of  the  natural  arm  when  at  rest.  It  is 
retained  in  its  position  by  shoulder  and  breast 
straps,  and  forms  a  light,  useful,  and  inexpensive 
substitute  for  the  lost  member. 

The  Beaufort  arm  pos-esses  an  instinctive 
power  of  movement.  It  consists  of  a  wooden 
hand  attached  to  a  leathern  socket  that  firmly 
fits  the  stump.  The  fingers  are  half  closed,  par¬ 
allel  to  one  another,  the  first  two  finger-tips  op¬ 
posing  that  of  the  movable  thumb.  The  thumb 
is  pivoted  on  a  pin  concealed  in  the  ball  of  the 
thumb;  it  is  firmly  pressed  against  the  finger¬ 
tips  by  a  strong  india-rubber  band  similarly  con¬ 
cealed.  A  piece  of  whipcord  is  attached  to  the 
back  of  the  thumb,  whence  it  runs  upward  to 
the  shoulder  of  the  wearer,  and  across  his  back 
to  the  opposite  shoulder,  around  which  it  is  fas¬ 
tened  by  a  tape  loop.  By  drawing  upon  and  re¬ 
laxing  the  whipcord,  the  grasp  of  the  thumb  is 
alternately  opened  and  closed;  and  these  move¬ 
ments  can  be  attained  by  slight  movements  of 
the  shoulders,  or  by  advancing  and  retracting  the 
artificial  arm.  This  arm  was  adopted  by  the 
French  Government  for  distribution  to  soldiers 
maimed  in  the  Franco-German  war  of  1870-71. 
It  is  a  remarkably  efficient  appliance,  and  has  the 
advantage  of  cheapness,  so  that  it  is  within  the 
reach  of  all  classes. 

Legs. — The  object  in  view  here  is  to  support 
weight  and  to  supply  movement  useful  in  pro¬ 
gression. 

The  simplest  artificial  leg  is  the  “bucket”  leg, 
consisting  of  a  hollow  wooden  or  leathern 
sheath,  fitting  accurately  to  the  contour  of  the 
stump,  and  having  a  “peg”  firmly  attached  to 
its  lower  end.  The  weight  is  here  chiefly  borne 
by  the  “sitting  bone,”  which  reposes  on  the 
smooth  brim  of  the  “bucket.”  The  end  of  the 
stump  should  not  quite  reach  the  floor  of  the 
“bucket;”  hence  it  takes  no  part  in  supporting 
the  weight  of  the  body,  which  might  give  rise 
to  pain  in  the  stump.  This  appliance  is  suited 
only  for  amputation  through  the  thigh.  Its 
great  defects  are  the  absence  of  bending  at  the 
knee,  and  the  absence  of  a  foot,  which  makes  it 
useless  on  soft  ground. 

The  Beaufort  leg,  invented  by  the  Count  de 
Beaufort  in  1851,  and  improved  subsequently,  has 
three  great  recommendations;  it  lengthens  the 
stride  that  can  be  safely  taken,  it  reproduces  the 
natural  gait,  and  it  is  remarkably  cheap.  Baron 
Larrey,  the  celebrated  French  surgeon,  reported 
on  this  invention  to  the  Academy  of  Medicine 
that  “  it  consists  of  a  piece  of  ash-wood,  which, 
like  the  peg,  is  attached  to  the  ordinary  wooden 
leg.  It  replaces  the  metal  disc  of  the  peg,  and 
is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  foot,  but  shorter  in 
length.  The  plantar  surface  is  covered  with  a 
leathern  sole,  garnished  with  cork  at  the  heel. 
It  is  curved  in  form ,  the  curve  being  such  as  to 
give  the  limb  continuous  lines  of  bearing  on  the 
ground  while  the  body  moves  forward,  save  that 
the  curve  is  not  so  perfectly  uniform  as  to  involve 
any  danger  of  slipping.” 

Ai’tillery  originally  meant  any  projectile  wea¬ 
pon  or  engine  of  war,  even  bows  and  arrows  and 
slings;  now  it  means  either  cannon  of  any  de¬ 
scription  or  the  soldiers  who  manage  the  cannon. 
The  introduction  of  field  guns  necessitated  the 
formation  of  a  body  of  men  set  apart  to  study 
the  force  and  action  of  gunpowder,  the  flight 
and  range  of  projectiles,  the  weight  and  strength 
of  cannon,  and  the  manoeuvring  of  heavy  masses 
of  field  artillery;  and  after  the  great  wars  in  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century,  artillery  had 
become  the  third  great  branch  of  military  service, 
after  the  infantry  and  cavalry. 

Artillery  is  divided  into  two  classes,  field  and 
siege  (sometimes  called  fortress  or  garrison  artil¬ 
lery).  The  former  is  divided  into  batteries  as 
tactical  units,  and,  besides  the  highly-trained 
horse,  field,  and  mountain,  there  are  rocket  and 
position  batteries  formed  when  necessary.  In 
time  of  peace,  a  few  of  the  latter  class  exist  in 
India,  where  the  guns  are  drawn  by  bullocks  and 
manned  by  men  of  the  garrison  artillery.  Siege  or 
fortress  artillerymen  are  grouped  into  regiments, 
battalions,  etc.,  like  infantry,  for  administrative 
purposes,  in  all  armies  except  that  of  Great  Brit¬ 
ain.  Marine  artillerymen,  though  belonging  to 
the  navy,  and  working  ships’  guns,  are  to  be 


classed  as  siege  artillery.  They  are  organized 
like  infantry. 

In  the  United  States,  the  principal  artillery 
school  is  at  Fortress  Monroe,  in  Virginia.  Here, 
under  three  artillery  field-otficers,  five  batteries 
(one  from  each  artillery  regiment  of  the  army) 
are  in  constant  trailing,  together  with  such  offi¬ 
cers  and  men  as  may  from  time  to  time  be  ordered 
to  the  school  for  instruction. 

Artiodactyla.  The  great  mammalian  order 
Ungulata  is  divided  into  two  groups;  first,  the 
Perissodactyla,  including  the  horse,  tapir,  and 
rhinoceros,  besides  a  multitude  of  extinct  forms, 
and  distinguished  by  the  third  digit  of  each  limb 
being  symmetrical  in  itself,  by  the  presence  of  an 
odd  number  of  digits  on  the  hind-foot,  by  the 
number  of  dorso-lumbar  vertebrae  being  at  least 
twenty-two,  and  so  on;  while  the  second  sub¬ 
order,  the  Artiodactyla,  possess  the  third  digit, 
unsymmetrical  in  itself,  but  forming  a  symmetri¬ 
cal  pair  with  the  fourth  digit.  While  the  hind- 
foot  bears  an  even  number  of  digits,  the  number 
of  dorso-lumbar  vertebrae  never  reaches  twenty- 
tw'o,  and  rarely  exceeds  nineteen.  Numerous 
minor  osteological  differences  exist  between  the 
two  sub-orders,  which  broadly  correspond  to  the 
ancient  divisions  of  solid-hoofed  and  cloven- 
hoofed,  respectively.  The  Artiodactyla  is  again 
subdivided  into  Non-Ruminantia  and  Ruminantia 
(or  cud-chewers). 

Artocarpa'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  Mono- 
chlamydeous  Dicotyledons,  of  which  the  Bread¬ 
fruit  ( Artocarpus  mcisa)  is  the  most  familiar  ex¬ 
ample;  it  is  usually  extended  to  include  the  tribe 
of  mulberries  and  figs  (Moracese),  and  with  them 
is  often  grouped  as  a  sub-order  of  the  great  nettle 
family,  Urticacete,  but  by  Baillon  under  Ulmaceae. 
The  artocarpaceae  proper  are  almost  all  tropical 
trees,  and  include  many  highly  useful  species,  as 
well  as  some  deleterious  to  man.  The  milky  juice 
of  some  yields  caoutchouc,  and  that  of  a  few 
species  is  so  bland  as  to  be  used  as  a  substitute 
for  milk.  The  juice  of  others  is,  however,  very 
poisonous,  as  that  of  A  ntiaris  toxic  ana,  the  poison 
usually  called  Upas  by  the  Javanese.  The  fruits 
are  wholesome;  the  importance  of  bread-fruit  in 
the  South  Sea  Islands  is  well  known;  and  the 
seeds  of  the  musanga  of  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa, 
and  of  Brosimum  alicastrum  in  the  West  Indies, 
are  eaten  as  nuts. 

Artois,  an  old  province  in  the  North  of  France, 
bounded  by  Flanders  and  Picardy,  and  almost 
corresponding  with  the  modern  department  of 
Pas-de-Calais.  Its  capital  was  Arras.  Charles  X., 
in  his  early  life,  and  also  after  his  abdication,  was 
known  by  the  title  of  Count  d’Artois. 

Arts.  The  term  “Arts,”  or  “  Liberal  Arts,” 
as  technically  applied  to  certain  studies,  came 
into  use  during  the  middle  ages,  and  on  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  universities,  the  term  “  Faculty  of 
Arts”  denoted  those  who  devoted  themselves  to 
science  and  philosophy,  as  distinguished  from 
the  faculty  of  theology,  and  afterward  of  medi¬ 
cine  and  law.  The  number  of  “Arts”  embraced 
in  the  full  mediaeval  course  of  learning  was  seven: 
Grammar,  Logic,  Rhetoric  (constituting  the  Tri¬ 
tium),  Music,  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  and  Rhetoric 
(the  Quadrivium).  The  terms  Master  and  Doctor 
were  originally  applied  synonymously  to  any  per¬ 
son  engaged  in  teaching.  In  process  of  time,  the 
one  was  restricted  to  the  liberal  arts;  the  other  to 
divinity,  law,  and  medicine. 

Art  Unions.  Art  unions  are  associations  hav¬ 
ing  for  their  object  the  promotion  of  an  interest 
in  the  fine  arts,  and  a  more  liberal  patronage  of 
them  by  the  public.  Though  the  origin  of  these 
unions  seems  to  belong  to  the  French,  it  was  the 
Germans  who  fostered  and  developed  them  into 
the  important  aids  to  art  they  have  since  become. 
The  Art  Union  of  Munich  was  formed  in  1823, 
and  within  ten  years  of  that  date,  nearly  every 
town  of  any  consequence  in  Germany  had  one. 
Many  of  the  German  associations  also  directed 
their  attention  to  the  formation  and  encourage¬ 
ment  of  permanent  galleries  of  art  and  other  kin¬ 
dred  objects;  that  of  Cologne  greatly  assisting  in 
the  completion  of  its  celebrated  cathedral.  Art 
unions  are  common  in  Great  Britain  but  are  un¬ 
known  in  this  country. 

Artvin,  a  town  of  Russian  Armenia,  on  the 
Charuch,  thirty-four  miles  south  of  Batum. 
Pop.,  8,000. 


Arum,  a  genus  of  spadicifloral  monocotyle¬ 
dons,  belonging  to  the  natu¬ 
ral  order  Araceae  or  Aroidese. 

This  order  is  chiefly  trop¬ 
ical,  and  comprises  herba¬ 
ceous  plants,  some  of  which 
are  stemless;  shrubby  plants, 
some  of  which  are  arbores¬ 
cent;  and  plants  which  climb 
by  aerial  roots,  clinging  to  the 
trees  of  tropical  forests.  The 
leaves  are  sheathing  at  the 
base,  convolute  in  bud,  usu 
ally  with  branching  veins. 

The  small,  degenerate  flowers 
are  crowded  upon  the  elon¬ 
gated  axis  or  spadix,  which  is 
generally  inclosed  by  a  large 
bract  or  spathe,  frequently 
colored  or  white — the  male 
flowers  are  aggregated  at  the 
upper  part  of  the  spadix,  and 
the  female  flowers  toward  its 
base.  In  some  species,  a 
stench  like  that  of  carrion  is 
produced  during  flowering, 
as  well  as  a  remarkable  de¬ 
gree  of  heat. 

Ar'undel,  an  ancient  municipal  borough  of 
Sussex,  England.  Pop.  (1881),  2,748.  See 
Tierny’s  Arunael  (1834)  and  Freeman’s  English 


Arum  maculatum: 

A.  flower-stock  within 
bract  or  spathe ;  B, 
flower-stock  with¬ 
out  spathe. 


Towns  (1883). 

Arundel,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  born  in  1353,  became  Bishop  of  Ely  and 
Archbishop  of  York,  and  in  1396  was  transferred 
to  Canterbury.  Banished  by  Richard  II.  (1397), 
he  helped  to  seat  Henry  of  Lancaster  on  the  throne 
(1399);  but  he  is  chiefly  remembered  as  a  bitter 
opponent  of  the  Lollards,  two  of  whom  were 
burned  by  him  in  1401  and  1410.  He  died  Feb. 
19,  1413. 

Arundel  Marbles,  part  of  a  collection  of 
ancient  sculptures,  purchased  in  1624  at  Smyrna 
and  elsewhere  by  Thomas  Howard,  Earl  of 
Arundel  (1586-1646),  and  presented  in  1667  to  the 
University  of  Oxford  by  his  grandson,  Henry 
Howard,  afterwards  Duke  of  Norfolk. 

Aruwimi  is  the  name  of  an  important  tributary 
of  the  Congo,  entering  the  latter  from  the  north 
in  1°  10'  N.  latitude,  23°  30'  E.  longitude.  It 
was  explored  for  100  miles  by  Stanley  in  1883,  and 
by  it  Stanley  advanced  to  the  relief  of  Emin  Pasha 


in  1887. 

Arvad  (Gr.  Arados),  an  ancient  city  of  Phoe¬ 


nicia.  1 

Arval  Brethren  (Fratres  Arvales),  a  college  of 
twelve  priests  in  ancient  Rome,  who  yearly  made 
offerings  to  the  field  Lares  for  the  increase  of  the 
fruits  of  the  field.  Its  institution  was  ascribed  to 
Romulus. 

Arve,  a  mountain  stream  rising  in  the  Col  de 
Balme,  one  of  the  Savoyan  Alps,  and  flowing 
through  the  Yale  of  Chamouni  into  the  Canton  of 
Geneva,  below  which  town  it  joins  the  Rhone, 
after  a  course  of  sixty -two  miles. 

Arveyron,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Arve,  in 
Savoy,  is  the  outlet  of  the  famous  Mer  de  Glace, 
in  the  valley  of  Chamouni,  from  which  it  issues  in 
a  torrent  through  a  beautiful  grotto  of  ice,  from 
40  to  150  feet  in  height,  known  as  the  “Ice-gates 
of  the  Arveyron.” 

Ar  yan  Race  and  Languages.  The  name 
Aryan  (less  properly,  Arian)  has,  since  about  1845, 
been  used  to  designate  the  ethnological  division 
of  mankind  otherwise  called  Indo-European  or 
Indo-Germanic.  That  division  consists  of  two 
branches,  geographically  separated,  an  eastern  and 
a  western.  The  western  branch  comprehends  the 
inhabitants  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Turks,  the  Magyars  of  Hungary,  the  Basques  of 
the  Pyrenees,  and  the  Finns  of  Lapland;  the 
eastern  comprehends  the  inhabitants  of  Armenia, 
of  Persia,  of  Afghanistan,  and  of  Northern  Hin¬ 
dustan. 

As  was  the  designation  both  of  a  Roman  weight 
(called  also  libra)  corresponding  very  nearly  to  an 
English  pound  and  also  of  a  coin  made  of  the 
mixed  metal  aes,  or  bronze.  The  weight  was 
divided  into  twelve  parts;  the  uncia  —t\,  the  quad¬ 
ra, ns  =  i,  the  sextans  as,  etc.  The  as  (coin) 
originally  no  doubt  weighed  a  (Roman)  pound,  of 
the  value  of  about  16c.,  and  was  uncoined  until 


ASA. 


83 


ASCOT  HEATH. 


asafoetida. 


Servius  Tullius  stamped  it  with  the  figures  of  ani¬ 
mals,  hence  the  Latin  pecunia,  “money,”  from 
pecus,  “  cattle.” 

A'sa,  son  of  Abijah,  the  third  King  of  Judah 
<956-916  b.c.),  repelled  with  immense  slaughter 
an  Egyptian  invasion,  and  waged  successful  war 
against  Baasha,  King  of  Israel,  with  the  aid  of  the 
Syrian  monarch,  Benhadad. 

Asa  Dulcis  (i.e.,  Sweet  Asa),  a  synonym  of 
Benzoin.  This  name  was  applied  to  the  gum-resin 
when  first  imported  into  Europe,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  sixteenth  century. 

Asafce'tida,  or  Assafcetida  (i.e.,  foetid  Asa  or 
Assa),  is  a  gum  resin,  which  has  been  supposed 
to  be  identical  with  the  exuded  juice  of  the  Sil- 
pliion  of  Dioscorides,  so  highly  esteemed  among 
the  Greek  physicians.  Its  name  is  derived  from 
the  Persian  word  aza, 

“mastic.”  The  drug  is 
procured  by  drying  the 
milky  juice  which  flows 
from  the  root  of  the  plant 
Ferula  ( N art  hex )  asafoe¬ 
tida.  The  root  of  the  asa¬ 
foetida  plant  is  long,  and 
generally  undivided; 
white  inside,  but  having  a 
black  covering;  and  con¬ 
tains  in  its  interior  a 
quantity  of  juice  of  an 
overpowering  odor,  which 
much  resembles  that  of 
garlic.  Ferula  or  Narthex 
asafoetida  has  its  radical 
leaves  tripartite,  their  seg¬ 
ments  bipennatitid,  and  i 

nearly  two  feet  in  length.  Ferula 

Asafoetida  is  prepared  in  the  dry  southern  Pro¬ 
vinces  of  Persia,  but  chiefly  in  Khorassan  and 
Afghanistan,  and  also  in  the  north  of  the  Hindu 
Kush  range  of  mountains.  Asafoetida  is  used  in 
medicine,  and  possesses  stimulant  and  anti-spas¬ 
modic  properties. 

Asarabac  'ca  (Asa- 
rum  europceum),  a 
plant  of  the  natural 
order  Aristolochiaceaej^ 

(see  Aristolochia), 
a  native  of  Europe, 
growing  in  woods. 

The  whole  plant  has 
acrid  properties;  the 
roots  and  leaves  are 
aromatic,  purgative, 
and  emetic,  and  were 
formerly  considerably 
used  in  medicine,  es¬ 
pecially  in  the  prepa¬ 
ration  of  snuffs  used 
in  the  treatment  of 
catarrh,  etc. — A  near¬ 
ly  allied  species,  A. 
conadense,  a  native  of 
Canada,  is  stimulant 
and  diaphoretic,  and  Asarabacca. 

is  used  under  the  name  of  Canada  Snakeroot,  in¬ 
stead  of  Aristoloehia  strpenlaria.  It  is  also  called 
Wild  Ginger,  and  used  as  a  spice,  being  of  a 
warm,  aromatic  quality,  and  not  acrid,  like  its 
European  congener. 

Ashes 'tos,  a  mineral  very  closely  allied  to 
tremolite,  actinolite,  and  hornblende,  and  which, 
along  with  tremolite  and  actinolite,  is  often  ranked 
among  the  varieties  of  hornblende.  It  consists 
chiefly  of  silica,  magnesia,  lime,  and  oxide  of 
iron,  and  is  of  a  fine  fibrous  character,  the  fibers 
sometimes  combined  together  in  a  compact  mass, 
sometimes  easily  separable,  elastic  and  flexible. 
It  is  generally  of  a  whitish  or  greenish  color, 
and  has  a  silky  or  vitreous  luster.  The  finest 
fibrous  variety  with  easily  separable  fibers  is  called 
Amianthus  (from  a  Greek  word  signifying  un¬ 
polluted,  as  asbestos  is  from  a  Greek  word  signi¬ 
fying  indestructible),  because  cloth  made  of  it  was 
cleansed  by  passing  it  through  fire.  This  cloth 
was  used  by  the  ancients  to  enwrap  dead  bodies 
placed  on  the  funeral  pile,  so  as  to  preserve  the 
ashes  of  the  body  unmixed.  It  has  recently  come 
into  extensive  use  in  the  construction  of  gas  fires 
and  for  the  manufacture  of  non-inflammable 
paint,  theatre  curtains,  fire  escapes,  gloves,  cloths, 
and  rope. 


Asbjornsen,  Peter  Christian,  one  of  the 
most  popular  among  Norwegian  authors,  was 
born  .Tan.  15,  1812,  at  Christiania,  and  died  at 
Christiania,  Jan.  6,  1885. 

Asbury,  Francis,  the  first  Methodist  bishop 
consecrated  in  America,  was  born  in  Stafford¬ 
shire,  England,  Aug.  20, 1745.  When  sixteen  years 
old  he  became  an  itinerant  Wesleyan  preacher,  and 
in  1771  he  was  sent  as  a  missionary  to  America, 
where  he  was  consecrated  in  1784.  He  died  at 
Richmond,  Va.,  March  31,  1816. 

Ascalon,  or  Ashkelon,  one  of  the  five  chief 
cities  of  the  ancient  Philistines,  lying  north  of 
Gaza,  on  the  Mediterranean.  It  was  strongly 
fortified,  had  a  shrine  of  the  Syrian  fisli-goddess 
Derketo,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Herod  the 
Great.  It  was  dismantled  by  Saladin  in  1191, 
and  completely  demolished  in  1270  by  Sultan 
Bibars. 

As'caris,  a  genus  of  parasitic  worms  in  the 
Nematode  or  Thread-worm  order.  Ascaris  lum- 
bricoides  is  one  of  the  four  thread-worms  not 
infrequently  infesting  man,  and  especially  chil¬ 
dren.  It  occurs  in  the  intestine,  whence  it  occasion¬ 
ally  works  its  way  into  other  parts  of  the  body. 
The  thin,  cylindrical  body  measures  from  six  to 
ten  inches  in  length,  is  of  a  whitish  or  light-yel¬ 
low  color,  and  is  pointed  at  both  ends.  The 
eggs  develop  in  water,  or  damp  earth,  and  it 
seems  probable  that  the  embryos  are  directly 
swallowed  by  man.  This  troublesome,  though 
rarely  dangerous  parasite,  is  best  dealt  with  by 
means  of  expulsive  purgatives.  Care  as  to  the 
purity  of  drinking-water,  and  thorough  cleaning 
of  vegetables  eaten  raw,  are  evident  preventive 
precautions. 

Ascension,  a  solitary  island  nearly  in  the 
middle  of  the  South  Atlantic,  685  miles  north¬ 
west  of  St.  Helena,  in  7°  57'  S.  latitude,  and  14° 
21'  W.  longitude.  It  is  said  to  have  received 
its  name  from  having  been  discovered  by  a 
Portuguese  navigator  on  Ascension-day,  1501.  It 
is  7i  miles  long  by  6  broad,  its  area  being  35 
square  miles.  Like  St.  Helena,  it  is  of  volcanic 
origin,  being  one  of  the  peaks  of  a  submarine 
ridge  which  separates  the  north  and  south  basins 
of  the  Atlantic.  It  rises  in  the  Green  Mountain 
to  a  height  of  2,870  feet.  Pop.,  about  500. 

Ascension,  Right,  the  name  given  in  astron¬ 
omy  to  one  of  the  arcs  which  determine  the  posi¬ 
tion  relatively  to  the  equator  of  a  heavenly  body 
on  the  celestial  sphere,  the  other  being  the  decli¬ 
nation.  It  meant  originally  the  difference  of 
time  of  rising  of  the  first  point  of  Aries  and  the 
heavenly  body  referred  to,  on  right  sphere, 
hence  it  is  called  right  ascension.  The  sphere  of 
the  heavens  would  be  right  if  the  poles  were  on 
the  horizon,  as  is  the  case  at  the  earth’s  equator. 
At  all  other  places,  the  axis  of  the  celestial 
sphere  is  oblique— i.e.,  inclined  to  the  horizon — 
so  that  the  right  ascension  of  a  star  gives  no 
direct  knowledge  of  its  rising  time  except  there. 

Ascension-day,  or  Holy  Thursday,  one  of 
the  great  festivals  of  the  church,  held  on  the 
fortieth  day  after  Easter,  to  commemorate  the  as¬ 
cension  of  Christ  into  heaven.  Its  institution  dates 
from  the  fourth  century. 

Asceticism.  Among  the  Greeks,  askesis  de¬ 
noted  the  training  gone  through  by  athletes  or 
wrestlers,  who  had  to  harden  their  bodies  by  exer¬ 
tion  and  to  avoid  all  sensual  and  effeminating 
indulgences.  In  the  schools  of  the  philosophers, 
especially  of  the  Stoics,  the  same  word  signified 
the  practice  of  mastering  the  desires  and  passions, 
and  in  this  sense  it  passed  into  the  language  of 
the  early  Christians.  The  ascetic  spirit  often 
shows  itself  still  alive  under  various  disguises 
even  in  Protestantism. 

In  the  Catholic  Church,  ascetic  practices  have 
been  modified  in  recent  times,  fastings  are  less 
rigorous,  and  the  self-sacrifice  of  conventual  life  is 
more  directed  to  beneficial  ends. 

Ascii,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  fourteen  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Eger.  Pop.  (1880),  13,209. 

A  sc  ha  fieri  burg,  a  Bavarian  town  of  Lower 
I  Franconia,  twenty -five  miles  southeast  of  Frank¬ 
fort.  The  castle  of  Johannisburg,  a  Renaissance 
pile  of  1605-14,  overlooks  the  town.  In  1814, 
along  with  the  principality  of  which  it  was  the 
capital,  Aschaffenburg  was  ceded  to  Bavaria  by 
Austria.  Near  it  the  Prussians  defeated  the  Aus¬ 
trians,  July  14,  1866. 


Ascliam,  Roger, a  distinguished  English  writer, 
educator,  and  classical  scholar,  was  born  in  1515. 
In  1548  he  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  Lady  (after¬ 
ward  Queen)  Elizabeth.  After  Mary’s  death, 
Elizabeth  retained  him  at  court  in  the  double 
capacity  of  secretary  and  tutor,  which  offices  he 
held  till  his  death,  Dec.  30,  1568. 

Aschersle'ben,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on 
the  River  Eine,  thirty-two  miles  southwest  of 
Magdeburg.  Pop.  (1885),  21,528. 

Ascidinns,  or  Tunicates,  are  a  class  of  degen 
erate  survivors  of  ancestral  vertebrates.  They 
were  observed  and  well  characterized  by  Aris- 


Ascidians. 

A,  simple;  B,  compound. 


totle,  but  were  never  really  understood  till  1866, 
when  the  discovery  of  their  complete  life -history 
warranted  naturalists  in  removing  them  from 
their  random  position  beside  molluscs  to  the  base 
of  the  vertebrate  series. 

Asclepiada '  cete  (or  Asclepiadca),  a  chiefly  trop¬ 
ical  order  of  corollifloral  dicotyledons,  closely 
allied  to  Apocynaceae,  from  which  they  are  chiefly 
distinguished  by  the  united  filaments  and  coherent 
stigmas  to  which  the  anthers  adhere,  as  well  ashy 
the  peculiar  orchid-like  pollen-masses.  They  are 
mostly  shrubs,  often  with  twining  stems,  and 
almost  always  possess  milky  juice,  which  is 
usually  poisonous,  sometimes  so  much  so  as  to  be 
used  for  arrow-points,  but  is  occasionally  bland, 
and  even  in  the  case  of  the  Cow-plant  of  Ceylon 
(Gymnema  lactiferu)  is  used  as  food.  It  is  some¬ 
times  also  a  source  of  caoutchouc.  Some  are 
prized  by  florists,  notably  the  fragrant  Stepliano- 
tis,  the  Wax-plant  ( Hoya  carnosa),  as  well  as 
species  of  the  curious  genus  Ceropegia,  and  the 
cactus-like  and  carrion-scented  Stapelia.  A  num¬ 
ber  of  species  are  medicinal,  as  Indian  Sarsaparilla 
(Hcemidesmus  indicus);  Mudar  ( Calotropis  gigan- 
tea),  so  highly  prized  in  the  East  Indies,  and  Sar- 
costemma  glaucum,  the  Ipecacuanha  of  Venzuela. 

Asclep  'iades,  a  Greek  physician,  born  at  Prusa, 
in  Bitliynia,  who  flourished  during  the  early  part 
of  the  first  century  b.c.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  distinguished  between  acute  and 
chronic  diseases,  and  the  invention  of  laryngotomy 
is  also  ascribed  to  him 

Ascle'pias(or  Swallow-wort)  is  the  typical  genus 
of  Asclepiadaceae.  The  species  are  generally 
erect,  seldom  climbing  and  twining,  herbaceous 
plants  with  opposite,  whorled,  or  alternate  leaves 
and  flowers  in  umbels.  They  are  mostly  Ameri¬ 
can — A.  cornuti  (formerly  called  A.  syriaca), 
Virginian  Swallow-wort  or  Virginian  Silk,  is  a 
native  of  North  America.  It  is  frequently  culti¬ 
vated  in  flower-gardens,  The  young  shoots  are 
eaten  in  North  America  like  asparagus,  as  those 
of  A.  stipitacea  are  in  Arabia. 

As' col i  (anc.  Asculum  Picenum),  a  city  of  Italy, 
on  the  Tronto,  eighty-three  miles  south  of  An¬ 
cona.  Pop.  (1881),  11,199. — Ascoli  (anc.  Asculum 
Apvlum  or  Sutrianum )  is  another  episcopal  city, 
nineteen  miles  south  of  Foggia.  Pop.,  6,478. 
Pyrrhus  here  defeated  the  Romans,  279  b.c. 
Ascoli  Piceno,  a  province  of  Central  Italy,  be¬ 
longing  to  the  Marches,  with  an  area  of  809  square 
miles,  and  estimated  population  (1885)  of  219,962. 

Ascoli,  Graziadio  Isaia,  Italian  philologist, 
wTas  born  of  Jewish  parentage  at  Gcirz  in  1829. 

Ascot  Heath,  a  noted  race-course  in  Berkshire, 
England,  twenty-nine  iriles  from  London. 


ASGARD. 


84 


ASIA. 


Asgard,  the  heaven  of  Scandinavian  Mythology. 

Ash  ( fraxinus ),  a  genus  of  trees  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  Oleacere,  and  distinguished  by 
very  imperfect  flowers,  in  which  the  calyx  is  obso¬ 
lete,  and  the  corolla  either  wanting  or  3-4-partite  ; 
the  fruit  is  a  samara,  a  seed-vessel  winged  at  the 
edges  and  extremity.  The  leaves  are  deciduous, 
and  are  pinnate  with  a  terminal  leaflet.  There 
are  about  fifty  species,  mostly  natives  of  Europe 
and  North  America. — The* Common  Ash  (F.  excel 
sior )  grows  wild  in  the  Middle  and  South  of  Eu¬ 
rope  and  North  of  Asia,  and  is  a  native  of  Britain. 
It  is  a  beautiful  and  umbrageous  tree,  highly  or- 


Branch  of  Common  Ash  (Fraxinus  excelsior),  a,  fruit, 
namental  in  parks,  but  extremely  injurious  to  the 
grass  or  crops  immediately  around  it.  It  rises 
to  the  height  of  100-150  feet,  generally  with  a 
smooth  stem.  The  wood  is  white,  tough,  and 
hard,  much  valued  by  wheelwrights,  Cartwrights, 
coaclimakers,  joiners,  and  turners.  It  ranks 
next  in  value  to  that  of  the  oak  for  strength  and 
durability,  and  is  adapted  to  a  much  wider  range 
of  uses.  The  American  Ash,  or  White  Ash  (F 
americana),  is  readily  distinguished  from  the  com¬ 
mon  ash  by  its  lighter  bark  and  paler  green  leaves. 
It  is  abundant  in  New  Brunswick  and  Canada, 
but  becomes  rare  to  the  south  of  New  Jersey. 
The  trunk  often  rises  more  than  forty  feet  undi¬ 
vided.  The  wood  is  used  for  the  same  purposes 
as  that  of  the  common  ash. — The  Red  Ash,  or 
Black  Ash  (F.  pubescent),  is  very  similar,  but  of 
smaller  size,  and  has  a  deep  brown  bark.  It  is 
most  abundant  in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and 
Virginia,  especially  in  swampy  ground. — The 
Black  Ash,  or  Water  Ash  of  the  New  England 
States,  New  Brunswick,  etc.  (F.  sambucifotia),  is 
a  large  tree  with  buds  of  a  deep  blue  color.  The 
Blue  Ash  of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  etc.  (F. 
quadrangulata),  is  also  a  large  tree.  The  branches 
are  quadrangular,  the  young  shoots  having  on  the 
angles  four  membranes  which  extend  their  whole 
length.- — The  Green  Ash  (F.j upland/folia),  readily 
recognized  by  the  brilliant  green  of  its  young 
shoots,  is  chiefly  found  in  the  Middle  States  ;  and 
the  Carolina  Ash  (F.  caroliniana),  remarkable 
for  the  great  size  of  its  leaflets,  chiefly  in  the 
Southern  States.  Besides  these,  North  America 
produces  a  considerable  number  of  other  species 
or  varieties.  The  wood  of  all  of  them  is  used  for 
somewhat  similar  purposes  to  that  of  the  common 
ash. 

Asliango,  a  tribe  of  Western  Equatorial  Africa, 
inhabiting  a  thickly  wooded  plateau  (1,000  to 
1,500  feet)  south  of  the  Ogowd,  230  miles  from 
the  Atlantic  Coast.  They  are  great  slave-holders, 
are  very  superstitious,  and  are  broken  up  into 
several  sub-tribes.  Among  these  are  the  Obongo, 
a  race  of  hairy,  yellow  skinned  dwarfs,  whose 
average  height  does  not  exceed  4  feet  4  inches. 
See  Du  Chaillu,  A  Journey  to  Ashango- Land 
(1867). 

Ashanti,  or  Ashantee,  a  negro  kingdom  in 
Western  Africa,  on  the  north  of  the  Gold  Coast, 
extending  5° — 9°  N.  latitude,  andO® — 4°  W.  long¬ 
itude,  and  shut  off  from  the  seaboard  by  the 
British  protectorate,  80  miles  broad,  of  the  Gold 
Coast  colony.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Volta, 
Prah,  and  Assinnee.  Pop.  estimated  at  from 
1,000,000  to  3,000,000. 


Asliborne,  a  market  town  thirteen  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Derby,  England.  Here  Moore  wrote  great 
part  of  Lalia  RoolJi.  Pop.  (1881),  3,485. 

Ashburton,  Alexander  Baring,  Lord,  born 
in  1774,  was  the  second  son  of  Sir  Francis 
Baring.  In  Peel’s  administration  (1834^35)  he 
was  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  and  was 
created  Baron  Ashburton  in  1835.  In  1842  he 
was  appointed  special  ambassador  to  the  United 
States  to  settle  the  northwest  boundary  question, 
and  other  disputes.  In  August  of  that  year  he 
concluded  the  famous  treaty  of  Washington,  by 
which  the  frontier  line  between  the  State  of  Maine 
and  Canada  was  definitely  agreed  to.  Seven- 
twelfths  of  the  disputed  territory,  and  the  British 
settlement  of  Madawaska,  were  given  by  it  to  the 
United  States.  He  died  May  13,  1848. 

Asliby-de-la-Zoucli,  a  town  of  Leicestershire, 
England.  It  owes  its  suffix  to  the  Norman  family 
of  La  Zoucli.  Their  ruined  castle,  celebrated  in 
Scott’s  Ivanhoe,  and  rebuilt  in  1480  by  Sir  Wil¬ 
liam  Hastings,  crowns  a  height  to  the  south  of 
the  town.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  was  imprisoned 
here.  Pop.  (1881),  4,536.' 

Aslidod,  the  New  Testament  Azotus  (now 
Esdud),  a  village  on  the  Mediterranean,  twenty- 
one  miles  south  of  Jaffa.  Into  this  city  the  ark 
of  the  covenant  was  brought  by  the  Philistines, 
and  placed  in  the  temple  of  their  god  Dagon. 
Esdud  is  now  a  miserable  village,  with  a  pop.  of 
about  300. 

Ashe'ra,  the  name  of  a  Phoenician  goddess,  or 
rather  of  the  idol  itself  by  which  the  goddess  was 
symbolized.  Tin;  name  is  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament  in  connection  with  Ash- 
toreth  and  her  worship,  and  it  appears  certain 
that  the  latter  is  the  proper  name  of  the  goddess, 
while  Ashera  is  her  image  or  symbol. 

Ashes,  the  remains  of  animal  and  vegetable 
bodies  after  burning.  It  is  not  strictly  correct  to 
speak  of  the  ashes  of  a  mineral.  The  ashes  of 
organic  substances  destroyed  by  fire  consist  of  the 
fixed  salts  contained  in  these  substances.  In  land 
plants,  the  most  important  are  salts  of  potash, 
along  with  silica  and  lime;  in  sea-plants,  soda 
takes  the  place  of  potash.  By  lixiviation  of  the 
ashes,  the  potash  or  soda  is  dissolved  and  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  insoluble  mass,  and  is  then  purified 
by  crystallization.  The  ashes  of  sea-plants  con¬ 
tain  also  more  or  less  iodine.  Peat  and  turf  ashes 
contain,  besides  alkalies,  more  or  less  clay  and 
sand;  the  same  is  true  of  pit-coal,  which  some¬ 
times  contains  iron. 

The  ashes  of  animal  bodies  do  not  differ  greatly 
from  those  of  vegetables.  Bone  ashes  consist 
essentially  of  lime  united  with  phosphoric  acid. 
This  bone-eartli  is  very  valuable  as  manure  for 
grain.  In  well  wooded  countries,  ashes  from 
burnt  wood  form  an  article  of  considerable  trade. 
They  are  much  used  in  the  processes  of  soap-boil¬ 
ing,  bleaching,  dyeing,  glass-making,  etc.  Wood- 
ashes  are  used  in  washing  and  other  domestic 
processes,  as  a  cheap  preparation  of  Potash,  bet¬ 
ter  known  as  “  pearl-ash.” 

Ashkenaz,  the  name  of  a  northern  people  men¬ 
tioned  in  the  table  of  races  given  in  Gen.  x,  lo¬ 
cated  in  Armenia  or  its  neighborhood. 

Ashland,  a  po-t-town  of  Schuylkill  County, 
Pennsylvania.  It  depends  principally  upon  its 
rich  mines  of  anthracite  coal.  Pop.  (1887),  8,000. 

Ashlar,  or  Ashler,  building-stone  squared 
and  hewn,  as  distinguished  from  rubble  or  rough 
stones  which  are  used  as  they  come  from  the 
quarry  without  being  dressed.  Ashlar  is  laid  in 
regular  courses  in  building,  and  is  of  various 
kinds,  according  to  the  style  of  working  that  side 
of  the  stone  which  is  to  form  the  facing  of  the 
wall.  Thus  there  are  tooled  ashlar — the  marks  of 
the  tooling  being  either  random  or  in  grooves; 
polished  ashlar,  in  which  the  face  of  the  stone  is 
rubbed  smooth;  and  rustic  ashlar,  in  which  only 
the  joints  are  accurately  hewn,  the  face  of  the 
stone  being  left  projecting  irregularly. 

Aslimole,  Elias,  antiquary,  was  born  at  Lich¬ 
field,  Eng.,  May  23,  1617,  and  died  May  18,  1692. 

A  shin  ii  n.  Jkiiudi,  an  American  philanthropist, 
was  born  at  Champlain,  N.Y.,  in  1794.  He  was 
actively  interested  in  the  Liberian  Colony,  which 
for  a  time  he  governed.  He  died  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  Aug.  25,  1828. 

Ashtabula,  a  rapidly -increasing  town  of  the 
State  of  Ohio,  three  miles  from  Lake  Erie,  and 


forty-nine  miles  northeast  of  Cleveland.  Pop. 
(1880),  4,445. 

Asliton-under-Lyne,  a  town  of  Southeast  Lan¬ 
cashire,  six  and  a  half  miles  east  of  Manchester. 
Pop.  (1881),  43,630. 

Asli-Wednesday,  the  first  day  of  Lent,  so  called 
from  the  Catholic  ceremony  of  strewing  ashes  on 
the  head  as  a  sign  of  penitence.  This  custom, 
probably  introduced  by  Gregory  the  Great  (590- 
604),  was  sanctioned  by  Pope  Celestin  III.  in 
1191,  and  afterward  generally  prevailed.  The 
Protestant  Church  in  Germany  does  not  celebrate 
Ash- Wednesday.  In  the  Church  of  England  it  is 
observed,  but  without  anything  of  the  ceremony 
from  which  it  derives  its  name;  and  the  Com- 
mination  is  appointed  to  be  read  in  the  service 
for  this  day. 

Asia,  the  largest  of  the  divisions  of  the  world, 
occupies  the  northern  portion  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere  in  the  form  of  a  massive  continent 
which  extends  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  by 
its  southern  peninsulas  nearly  reaches  the  equator. 
The  origin  of  its  name  remains  unknown. 

Viewed  in  their  broad  features,  Europe  and 
Asia  constitute  but  one  continent  ,  extending  from 
west  to  east,  and  having  the  shape  of  an  immense 
triangle,  the  angles  of  which  are  Spain  in  the 
west,  the  Peninsula  of  the  Tchuktchis  in  the 
northeast,  and  that  of  Malacca  in  the  southeast. 
The  Arctic  Ocean  in  the  north,  the  Pacific  in  the 
east,  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  continued  by  its  nar¬ 
row  gulf,  the  Red  Sea,  which  nearly  reaches  the 
Mediterranean,  inclose  the  Continent  of  Asia. 
This  immense  mass  of  land  touches  the  latitude 
77°  34'  N.  in  Cape  Tclielyuskin,  while  Cape 
Burros,  at  the  extremity  of  the  Peninsula  of 
Malacca,  and  5,350  miles  distant  from  the  former, 
falls  short  by  1°15'  of  reaching  the  equator. 
Cape  Baba,  in  Asia  Minor,  advances  as  far  west 
as  the  26th  degree  of  longitude;  and  the  utmost 
northeast  extremity  of  Asia — East  Cape,  5,990 
miles  distant  from  Cape  Baba — protrudes  to  the 
190th  degree  (12  hours  40  minutes)  to  the  east  of 
Greenwich.  The  area  covered  by  Asia  and  its 
islands  is  17,255,890  square  miles;  that  is,  almost 
exactly  one-third  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe, 
(32  per  cent.)  It  is  nearly  equal  to  the  surface  of 
both  Americas  together,  by  one-half  larger  than 
that  of  Africa,  and  more  than  four  times  larger 
than  that  of  Europe. 

The  chief  island  groups  are  those  of  the  east 
and  southeast.  Saghalin  Island  and  the  Kurile 
group;  the  four  irregular  islands  which  form  the 
greater  part  of  the  Japanese  Empire;  the  Lutehu, 
or  Loo-Choo,  chain  and  Formosa,  off  the  Chi¬ 
nese  coast;  and  the  Philippines,  to  the  east  of 
Anam,  are  Asiatic  beyond  doubt.  As  to  exactly 
where  the  dividing  line  should  be  drawn  in  the 
Eastern  Archipelago  geographers  differ,  but 
Sumatra,  Java,  and  Borneo  are  usually  consid¬ 
ered  as  Asiatic.  Ceylon,  southeast  of  Hindustan; 
the  Laccadive  and  Maidive  groups  in  the  Arabian 
Sea;  the  Nicoba  and  Andaman  Islands  in  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  and  Cyprus  and  the  islands  of  the 
Archipelago  in  the  Mediterranean,  complete  the 
list  of  the  larger  islands.  The  entire  coast  line  is 
variously  estimated  at  from  33,000  to  35,800 
miles. 

There  are  four  great  mountain  systems — the 
Altai,  the  Armenian,  the  Himalaya,  and  the 
Hindu-Kush.  The  first  of  these  occupies  the 
geographical  centre  of  the  continent,  and  sepa¬ 
rates  the  great  northern  Plain  of  Siberia  from  the 
Mongolian  and  Mantcliurian  Steppes.  Its  gen¬ 
eral  trend  is  northeast  and  southwest.  The  Kliin 
Gan,  Yablonoi  and  Stanovoi  Ranges,  though 
inferior  in  grandeur  to  the  others,  are  yet  well 
defined  systems,  and  extend  in  the  order  given, 
from  Chinese  Tartary  north  to  the  utmost  limits 
of  Kamtchatka.  The  Himalayas  contain  the 
highest  known  peaks,  and  guard  the  frontier  of 
Hindustan  from  latitude  95®  E.  to  their  junction 
with  the  Hindu-Kush  in  Kabul.  Along  the 
whole  of  this  range  the  peaks  rise  far  beyond  the 
snow  limit,  and  few  of  the  passes  are  at  a  lower 
elevation  than  15,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  In  the  midst  of  these  mountains,  and 
towering  above  all  others,  rise  Mount  Everest, 
29,000  feet;  Kunchain-Junga,  28,150  feet,  and 
Dliawalagiri,  26,826  feet  —  the  three  highest 
mountains  in  the  world.  Midway  between  the 
Himalayas  and  the  Altai  chain,  the  Kuen-lun  and 


ASIA. 


85 


ASIA. 


Nan-Shan  Mountains  extend  through  Chinese 
Thibet,  and  form  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
Great  Sandy  Desert.  The  Hindu-Kush  with 
its  projections  occupies  Afghanistan,  an<# throws 
out  spurs  to  the  Altai  Range  on  the  north  and  to 
the  shores  of  the  Caspian  on  the  west.  The 
Armenian  group  in  Asia  Minor  and  Northern 
Persia  lies  in  parallel  ranges  between  the  Black, 
the  Caspian,  and  the  Mediterranean  Seas.  The 
Caucasus,  an  isolated  range  of  moderate  height, 
runs  northwest  from  the  Caspian  to  the  Black 
Sea,  and  the  Ural  Mountains  extend  north  and 
south  from  latitude  50°  N.  to  the  Sea  of  Kara, 
and  mark  the  dividing  line  between  European 
and  Asiatic  Russia. 

The  interior  of  Asia  consists  of  two  vast  ele¬ 
vated  plateaus  and  six  great  lowland  divisions. 
Between  the  Altai  Mountains  and  the  south  of 
China,  and  having  the  Himalayas  for  its  south¬ 
ern  and  the  Khin-Gan  Mountains  for  its  north¬ 
eastern  boundary,  is  the  great  elevated  table¬ 
land,  almost  equal  in  area  to  all  Europe,  which 
includes  Thibet,  the  Desert  of  Gobi,  and  the  west¬ 
ern  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire.  The  great 
western  plateau  includes  Persia,  Turkestan,  Ar¬ 
menia,  and  Asia  Minor.  Of  the  lowland  plains 
the  largest  is  that  of  Siberia,  which  stretches 
north  from  the  Altai  Mountains  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean;  a  cold,  bleak,  inhospitable  country,  in 
many  places  a  desert.  The  great  plains  of  India 
from  the  Himalayas  to  Cape  Comorin;  the  vast 
sandy  lowlands  of  the  Arabian  Peninsula;  the 
Indo-Burmahn  plain,  and  the  immense  stretch  of 
fertile  low  country  which  is  known  as  China 
proper,  form  the  remaining  great  geographical 
divisions. 

The  chief  rivers  are  those  of  China:  the 
Yang-tse-Kiang,  3,000  miles  long  and  only  inferior 
in  volume  to  the  Amazon  and  the  Mississippi ;  the 
Hoang-Ho,  Hoang-Kiang,  and  the  Pei-ho.  The 
Siberian  system  includes  the  Lena,  Obi,  and 
Yenesei,  all  of  great  length,  but  of  little  present 
value  for  navigation,  and  all  falling  into  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  The  Brahmapootra  and  Ganges, 
with  their  numerous  tributaries,  have  their 
sources  in  the  Himalayas  or  Thibetan  highlands 
and  flow  through  Bengal  into  the  bay  of  that 
name.  The  Indo  Burmahn  system  includes  Irra¬ 
waddy,  Cambodia, Menamand  Salwan.  The  Indus 
rises  in  Cashmere,  breaks  through  the  Himalayas, 
and  falls  into  the  Arabian  Sea  near  the  eastern 
borders  of  Belucliistan.  In  Armenia,  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates  take  their  rise  near  Mount  Ararat 
and  flow  past  ancient  Mesopotamia,  once  the 
garden  of  the  earth,  to  the  Persian  Gulf.  Arabia 
is  destitute  of  rivers;  Lower  India  has  a  number 
of  important  streams,  and  aside  from  those  men¬ 
tioned  are  the  Amoor,  which  drains  Mantchuria 
and  falls  into  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  after  a  course 
of  2,400  miles;  and  the  rivers  which  water 
Persia,  Belucliistan  and  Turkestan,  the  principal 
ones  being  the  Amoo-Darya  and  Syr-Darya. 

The  great  salt  lakes,  or  inland  seas,  are  the 
Caspian  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  Lake  Van. 
The  first  of  these  is  the  largest  body  of  water  in 
existence  entirely  enclosed  by  land.  It  lies  on 
the  frontiers  of  Russia  and  Turkestan,  and  to  the 
north  of  Persia,  and  is  760  miles  in  length  by 
about  270  miles  in  average  breadth,  with  an  area 
of  180,000  square  miles.  It  is  of  great  depth,  a  line 
of  450  fathoms  failing  to  touch  bottom  in  some 
parts,  and  its  level  is  eighty-four  feet  below  that 
of  the  Black  Sea.  Although  it  receives  an  im¬ 
mense  volume  of  fresh  water  from  the  Volga 
(the  largest  European  river),  the  Ural,  the  Kur, 
and  other  streams,  its  waters  are  salt;  less  so, 
however,  than  the  ocean,  the  average  specific 
gravity  being  about  1.009.  It  has  no  outlet  and 
no  tides,  but  is  subject  to  frequent  changes  of 
level.  The  Sea  of  Aral,  in  Northern  Turkestan, 
has  many  characteristics  in  common  with  the 
Caspian,  and  it  is  believed  that  ttiey  were  for¬ 
merly  connected.  It  is  265  miles  long  by  145 
broad,  and  is  said  to  be  150  feet  (by  recent  but 
unconfirmed  measurement  250  feet)  above  the 
Caspian,  which  would  give  it  an  average  eleva¬ 
tion  of  166  feet  above  the  Black  Sea.  Its  depth 
varies  from  fifteen  to  thirty-five  fathoms;  it  is 
less  salt  than  its  larger  neighbor,  and  in  winter 
the  northern  portion  freezes  completely  over. 
Lake  Van,  in  Northern  Armenia,  5,400  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  has  an  extent  of  1,400  square 


miles,  and  is  also  salt.  The  great  salt  Lake  of 
Urumiah,  in  Northeast  Persia,  is  of  considerable 
size  and  very  salt,  as  are  also  Lake  Bakhtegan, 
near  Shiraz,  and  the  Dead  Sea  in  Asia  Minor. 

In  Southern  Siberia,  in  the  Province  of  Irkutsk, 
is  Lake  Baikal,  400  miles  long,  and  from  13 
to  50  miles  wide,  with  an  area  of  13,000  square 
miles,  being,  next  after  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan, 
and  Huron,  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water  on 
the  globe.  Lake  Tenghiz  or  Balkash,  in  South¬ 
west  Siberia,  lias  an  area  of  8,000  square  miles — 
about  equal  to  that  of  Lake  Erie.  India,  Bur¬ 
undi,  and  the  central  upland  plateau  are  destitute 
of  lakes,  but  there  are  several  of  large  size  in  China, 
the  chief  being  Koko-Nor,  Tung-Ting,  Po-Yang, 
and  Tei-Ho.  In  Thibet  is  the  Tengri-Nor  Lake, 
with  an  area  of  2, 800  square  miles. 

Every  variety  of  climate,  from  the  torrid  heat 
of  the  equatorial  islands,  the  plains  of  Hindustan, 
and  the  Arabian  desert,  to  the  perpetual  snows 
and  frozen  ground  which  repel  mankind  from  the 
inhospitable  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  can  be 
found  on  this  Continent,  which,  more  than  any 
other,  is  exposed  to  excessive  differences  in  tem¬ 
perature. 

The  amount  of  rainfall  varies  even  more  than 
the  temperature.  The  hot  winds  which  sweep 
over  the  sterile  plains  of  Gobi  and  Thibet  and  the 
desert  of  Arabia  bring  little  or  no  rain  to  those 
desolate  regions.  But  the  ocean  breezes  which 


blow  continuously  from  the  southwest  during  the 
prevalence  of  the  monsoons  are  highly  charged 
with  vapor,  and  this  is  precipitated  whenever,  by 
the  interruption  of  their  progress  by  continuous 
lines. of  snow-clad  mountains,  a  considerable  re¬ 
duction  in  temperature  is  effected.  At  Pekin, 
the  annual  rainfall  is  23  inches;  at  Canton, 
on  the  southwest  coast,  it  is  78  inches.  In  Java 
and  the  Malayan  Peninsula  it  ranges  from  80  to 
100  inches,  but  near  the  Caspian  it  never  exceeds 
8  inches  per  annum,  and  in  Central  and  Eastern 
Siberia  it  is  from  5  to  10  inches. 

From  the  mosses  and  lichens  of  Siberia  and 
Kamtchatka  to  the  date-palms  of  Arabia  and  the 
luxuriant  tropical  vegetation  of  Farther  India  and 
Malayan  Archipelago,  the  flora  of  Asia  embrace 
nearly  every  variety  known  to  naturalists,  an 
approach  even  to  the  peculiar  forms  of  Australia 
being  met  with  in  Borneo  and  the  Celebes. 


wheat,  barley,  corn,  and  rice  flourish.  Dates, 
coffee,  indigo,  and  sorghum  are  grown  largely,  as 
also  figs  and  lemons,  raisins  and  grapes,  the  latter 
especially  on  the  Mediterranean  Coast.  The  warm, 
temperate  zone  extending  to  Northern  India 
allows  the  free  growths  of  nearly  all  the  European 
cereals,  and  is  equally  well  suited  for  rice,  indigo, 
sugar,  peas,  beans,  and  tobacco.  In  Central  and 
Southern  India  wheat  and  barley  give  place  to  rice 
and  the  tropical  fruits  and  vegetables.  Cotton 
has  been  extensively  grown  of  late  years,  the 
stoppage  of  supplies  during  the  American  Civil 
War  leading  the  English  to  strain  every  nerve  to 
produce  this  necessary  staple,  but  it  is  much  in¬ 
ferior  to  the  American  plant,  and  the  production 
is  diminishing  yearly.  The  chief  food  is  rice; 
the  Hindus,  like  most  natives  of  tropical  coun¬ 
tries,  being  almost  entirely  vegetarians.  Of  other 
products  one  of  the  chief  is  opium,  which  is 
grown  in  great  quantities  for  the  China  market 
and  for  export  to  Europe  and  America.  The  cul¬ 
tivation  of  tea  and  coffee  in  Assam  has  attained 
large  proportions.  Ceylon  has  immense  coffee 
plantations,  and  is  favored  with  a  splendid  climate 
and  a  rich  soil.  Sumatra  and  Borneo  produce 
spices,  sandalwood,  pepper,  ginger,  and  tumeric. 
China  raises  immense  quantities  of  rice  for  the  sup¬ 
port  of  its  own  population,  and  tea  for  the  whole 
world.  In  Asia  the  yam  takes  the  place  filled  by 
the  potato  in  the  Western  World.  Cotton  is 


indigenous,  and  hemp  and  flax  are  grown  in  large 
quantities.  Druggists  are  indebted  to  this  Conti¬ 
nent  for  opium,  camphor,  jalap,  myrrh  and  sar¬ 
saparilla;  and  of  spices  the  chief  are  the  nutmeg, 
mace,  cinnamon,  clove,  and  cassia.  The  aloe, 
gutta  percha,  rosewood,  and  ebony  are  among 
the  best-known  trees. 

Among  the  chief  and  most  characteristic  of  the 
mammalia  of  Asia  are  the  elephant,  tiger,  cheetah 
or  leopard,  and  the  lion.  The  horse  and  the  ass, 
the.  camel,  goat,  hog  and  ox  originally  came  from 
Asia.  The  elephant,  which  differs  considerably 
from  the  African  species,  has  been  domesticated 
in  India  from  time  immemorial,  and  in  Arabia 
and  Syria  the  camel  and  the  ass  have  always  been 
subject  to  man.  The  yak,  buffalo,  and  the  In¬ 
dian  ox,  deer  of  all  species  from  the  antelope  to 
the  reindeer,  the  cashmere  goat,  and  the  long¬ 
tailed  sheep  of  Thibet,  are  among  the  most 
noticeable  of  the  mammalia.  Many  varieties  of 


Ethnological  Map  of  Asia. 


In  Asia  Minor,  Persia  and  Northern  Arabia,  I 


ASIA. 


86 


ASPEN. 


quadrumana  are  found,  including  the  lemurs  and 
the  true  apes.  Nearly  all  the  well-known  species 
of  European  birds  abound,  and  in  the  Indian 
region  these  are  supplemented  by  many  others 
peculiar  to  Asia.  Some  marsupial  animals  simi¬ 
lar  to  those  of  Australia  exist  in  the  Molucca 
Islands  and  the  Celebes.  Fish  abound  in  the 
northern  rivers;  in  the  southeast  the  walking  or 
climbing  fishes,  which  can  exist  for  a  length  of 
time  without  water,  are  common.  The  Asiatic 
seas  contain  all  varieties  of  sea  fish  and  cetacea. 

Every  variety  of  mineral  exists  in  Asia,  and  in 
some  countries  mining  has  been  carried  on  in  a 
rude  and  primitive  fashion  for  thousands  of  years. 
Copper  and  iron  are  widely  diffused,  tin  is  found 
in  the  Island  of  Banca  in  the  Malayan  Archi¬ 
pelago,  and  coal  in  Japan  and  Northern  China. 
The  gold  mines  of  the  Ural  and  Altai  Ranges,  and 
of  China,  Persia,  and  Japan,  are  of  great  value, 
and  silver  exists  in  India  and  Siberia.  Prior  to 
the  discoveries  of  gold  in  Californiaand  Australia, 
and  of  silver  in  the  Western  Territories  and 
States,  almost  the  entire  supply  of  the  precious 
metals  was  drawn  from  Asia.  India  has  produced 
nearly  all  the  large  and  valuable  diamonds  known, 
and  rubies,  garnets,  emeralds,  turquoise,  and 
others  of  the  most  valued  precious  stones,  are 
widely  distributed.  The  pearl  fisheries  of  Cey¬ 
lon  and  the  Persian  Gulf  are  famous. 

The  Mongolian  or  Turanian,  Arian  and  Semitic 
races  form  the  vast  bulk  of  the  population  of 
Asia.  Some  ethnologists  separate  the  Tartars 
from  the  Chinese,  and  others  divide  the  Indian 
peoples  into  several  distinct  classes.  The  Penin¬ 
sula  of  Malacca  and  the  islands  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago  .are  peopled  by  Malays  and  Negri¬ 
tos.  While  the  figures  are,  to  a  very  large  extent, 
founded  upon  conjecture  only,  there  is  no  doubt 
that  Asia  contains  at  least  three-fifths,  and  possi¬ 
bly  three-fourths,  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  globe. 
Of  the  834,707,000  believed  to  exist  in  Asia,  up¬ 
wards  of  600,000,000  inhabit  China  and  India. 

Buddhism,  Brahminism  and  Mohammedanism 
are  the  three  great  religions  of  the  continent,  the 
number  of  Christians  being  extremely  limited. 
In  Asiatic  Russia  the  Greek  Church  has  a  few 
million  members,  and  the  European  Protestants . 
scattered  through  India,  Burmali,  and  China  may 
amount  to  250,000.  Although  Christianity  had 
its  origin  in  Asia  Minor  and  spread  extensively 
in  the  first  five  centuries  after  the  death  of  its 
Divine  Founder,  its  progress  was  arrested  in  the 
seventh  century  by  the  outburst  of  Mohamme¬ 
danism,  which  rapidly  extended  its  sway  over 
Arabia,  Persia,  Turkey,  and  Mesopotamia.  In 
the  succeeding  five  centuries  the  Turkish  hordes 
swept  over  Persia  and  India,  and  became  the 
dominant  race  in  both  countries.  At  the  present 
time  the  Mohammedan  population  of  Hindustan 
is  about  40,000,000;  that  of  Asia  is  estimated  at 
50,000,000. 

The  chief  of  the  existing  political  divisions  are 
the  Empires  of  China,  Japan,  Russia,  Turkey, 
and  British  India;  the  Kingdoms  of  Persia, 
Siam,  Burmali,  and  Annam;  the  Khannates 
of  Kiva,  Khokand  and  Bokhara,  and  the 
native  Governments  of  Afghanistan,  Herat, 
Beluchistan.  More  than  a  third  of  the  continent 
is  ruled  by  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  and  another 
third  is  subject  to  the  Emperor  of  China.  Arabia 
is  divided  into  several  petty  kingdoms  with  ill- 
defined  boundaries,  and  Corea,  Mongolia,  Thibet, 
and  Mantchuria  are  dependencies  of  the  Chinese 
Empire. 

Asia,  Central.  This  term  is  generally,  in  its 
geographical  sense,  used  of  the  region  lying  be¬ 
tween  the  Altai  Mountains  and  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  includes  part  of  Siberia,  all  Turkestan,  Af¬ 
ghanistan,  Beluchistan,  and  part  of  Persia.  An 
earlier  usage — that  of  Humboldt — gave  this  name 
to  the  Khannates  of  Bokhara  and  Independent 
Tartary.  In  Russian  official  language  Central 
Asia  is  an  administrative  division  of  the  Empire 
lying  to  the  southwest  of  Siberia,  and  comprising, 
with  part  of  what  used  to  be  called  Siberia,  the 
recent  Russian  annexations  in  Turkestan.  The 
total  area  is  given  at  1,201,000  square  miles,  and 
the  pop.  at  4,390,000. 

Asia  Minor  (Asia  the  Less,  as  distinguished 
from  Asia  in  the  widest  ex  lent)  is  the  name  usually 
given  to  the  western  peninsular  projection  in 
Asia,  forming  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia.  The  late 


Greek  name  for  Asia  Minor  is  Anatolia.  The 
area  of  the  peninsula  is  220,000  square  miles,  and 
it  consists  of  a  grand  plateau  bordered  by  mount¬ 
ains,  some  of  which  rise  to  a  height  of  12,000 
feet.  The  inhabitants,  some  7,000  000  in  number, 
consist  of  the  most  various  races.  The  dominant 
race  are  the  Osmanli  Turks,  who  number  about 
1,200,000.  The  Greeks  and  Armenians  are  the 
most  progressive  elements  in  the  population,  and 
have  most  of  the  trade.  While  the  Greeks  mo¬ 
nopolize  the  professions,  the  ownership  of  the 
land  is  largely  passing  into  the  hands  of  Greeks, 
Armenians,  and  Jews.  Asia  Minor  was  the  seat 
of  almost  the  earliest  known  races.  Here,  from 
the  obscure  era  of  Semiramis  (about  2,000  years 
b.c.),  to  the  time  of  Osman  (about  1300  A.D.),the 
greatest  conquerors  of  the  world  contended  for 
supremacy;  and  here  took  place  the  wars  of  the 
Medes  and  Persians  with  the  Scythians;  of  the 
Greeks  with  the  Persians;  of  the  Romans  with 
Mithridates  and  the  Part liians;  of  the  Arabs, 
Seljuks,  Mongols,  and  Osmanli  Turks  with  the 
weak  Byzantine  empire.  Here  Alexander  the 
Great  and  the  Romans  successively  contended  for 
the  mastery  of  the  civilized  world.  Recently,  por¬ 
tions  of  Armenia,  in  some  respects  part  of  the 
peninsula,  have  been  absorbed  by  Russia.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  treaty  negotiations  between  Russia, 
Turkey,  and  the  Powers,  after  the  war  of  1877, 
Great  Britain  made  a  secret  engagement  to  guar¬ 
antee  against  Russian  aggression  the  Asiatic  do¬ 
minions  of  the  Porte,  and  to  assume  an  indefinite 
protectorate  over  Asia  Minor. 

Asiatic  Society,  Royal,  was  founded  in  Lon¬ 
don  in  1823  by  several  noblemen  and  gentlemen 
interested  in  India  and  China,  for  the  investiga¬ 
tion  and  encouragement  of  arts,  science,  and  litera¬ 
ture  in  relation  to  Asia. 

Askabad,  a  down  of  Russian  Turkestan,  the 
political  centre  of  Trans-Caspia,  situated  on  the 
Trans-Caspian  Railway.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Russians  in  1881. 

Askew,  Anne,  Protestant  martyr,  was  born 
near  Grimsby,  Lincolnshire,  in  1521.  In  1545  she 
was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  heresy,  and  was  ex¬ 
amined  by  the  Bishop  of  London  and  others  on 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  After  further 
examination  and  torture  by  the  rack,  she  was 
burned  at  the  stake,  in  Smithfield,  July  18,  1546. 

Ask  ja  (Ice.  basket),  the  largest  volcano  in  Ice¬ 
land,  rises  out  of  the  vast  Odathahraun  lava- 
desert,  near  the  centre  of  the  island,  in  65°  N. 
latitude  and  16°  45'  W.  longitude.  Its  vast  crater 
is  over  23  square  miles  in  area,  and  about  17  miles 
in  circumference. 

Asmodc'us,  or  Asmo'deus  (Heb.  Aschmedai, 
the  destroyer),  a  demon  mentioned  in  the  later 
Jewish  writings.  In  the  Book  of  Tobit,  he  is 
described  as  loving  Sara,  daughter  of  Raguel,  and 
as  having,  in  the  form  of  a  succubus,  destroyed 
in  succession  her  seven  husbands.  In  the  Tal¬ 
mud,  Asmodeus  is  described  as  the  prince  of 
demons,  and  is  said  to  have  driven  Solomon  from 
his  kingdom.  Le  Sage  has  given  him  a  perma¬ 
nent  place  in  literature  by  his  novel,  Le  Diable 
Boiteux. 

Aso'ca  (Jonesia  asoca),  an  Indian  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminosae,  sub-order  CtBsalpinese, 
remarkable  for  the  beauty  of  its  red  and  orange 
flowers. 

Asoka,  an  Indian  king,  has  been  called  the 
“Buddhist  Constantine,”  having  organized  Budd¬ 
hism  as  the  State  religion.  He  began  to  reign  in 
264  B.c.  The  probable  date  of  his  death  is  223 
B.C. 

Asp  (Gr.  aspis),  a  popular  name  applied  loosely 
both  in  its  English  and  Greek  form  to  various 
genera  of  venomous  serpents.  (1)  It  is  often  now 
applied  to  the  Vipera  aspis  of  Southern  Europe, 
which  closely  resembles  the  common  viper. 
Several  other  species  of  Vipera  have  received  the 
same  popular  name.  (2)  Cleopatra’s  asp,  to  which 
allusion  is  so  often  made,  was  most  probably  the 
small  Vipera  hasselquistii  or  horned  viper. 

Aspar'agine,  C2HaNH2|  COOII2-^^2^’ 
crystalline  substance  which  exists  ready  formed  in 
common  asparagus,  marsh-mallow,  potatoes,  chest¬ 
nuts,  liquorice-root,  and  the  young  shoots  of  peas, 
beans,  etc. 

Asparagus,  a  genus  of  Liliaceae,  contains  sixty 
to  seventy  species,  usually  herbaceous,  but  some¬ 


times  shrubby  or  climbing;  the  stem  is  unarmed 
in  some,  in  others  thorny ;  the  young  shoots 
covered  with  leaf-scales,  afterwards  very  much 
branched,  with  numerous  fasciculate,  generally 
bristle-like  “leaves,”  which  are  really  abortive 
branches  or  flower-stalks,  the  true  leaves  being 


reduced  to  minute  scales.  The  most  widely 
diffused  species  is  the  common  asparagus  (A. 
officinalis),  a  native  of  Europe,  which  grows  on 
the  banks  of  rivers  and  on  the  sea-shore,  in 
meadows  and  bushy  places,  especially  in  sandy 
soils,  occurring  wild  in  a  few  places  in  Bi  itain, 
and  which  is  also  in  general  cultivation  as  a  garden 
vegetable;  its  young  shoots,  when  they  first  sprout 
from  the  earth,  form  a  much  esteemed  article  of 
food,  which,  however,  is  only  in  a  slight  degree 
nutritious.  These  sprouts  contain  a  peculiar 
crystalline  substance,  called  Asparagine,  and  have 
a  specific  action  on  the  urinary  organs,  so  that 
their  long-continued  use  in  very  large  quantities 
is  apt  even  to  produce  bloody  urine.  They  are 
no  longer  retained  in  the  pharmacopoeia,  but  both 
the  shobts  and  the  roots  of  asparagus  are  still 
occasionally  used  as  a  diuretic  in  dropsies,  and  as 
a  lithic  to  dissolve  urinary  calculi.  For  these 
purposes,  the  root  is  preferred,  and  is  administered 
in  the  form  of  an  infusion  or  decoction.  The 
thick  and  tender  kinds  of  asparagus  are  most 
esteemed  for  the  table.  By  cultivation  it  is  much 
increased  in  size,  and  considerably  altered  in 
general  appearance.  Asparagus  was  a  favorite 
vegetable  of  the  ancient  Romans.  It  is  raised 
from  seed,  and  grows  best  in  a  rich,  fresh,  sandy 
soil.  The  seed  is  generally  sown  in  spring,  either 
in  the  prepared  bed,  or  in  drills,  from  which  the 
shoots  may  be  transplanted  when  one  year  old. 

Aspa'sia,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  women 
of  antiquity,  was  born  at  Miletus.  The  circum¬ 
stance  that  in  Athens  marriage  with  foreign  women 
was  illegal,  has  originated  the  erroneous  notion 
that  Aspasia  was  a  courtesan.  She  certainly  broke 
through  the  restraint  which  confined  Athenian 
matrons  to  the  seclusion  of  their  own  homes ;  for 
after  her  union  with  Pericles,  who  had  parted  from 
his  first  wife  by  mutual  consent,  her  house  became 
the  rendezvous  of  all  the  learned  and  distinguished 
people  in  Athens.  Socrates  often  visited  her. 
Her  beauty,  varied  accomplishments,  and  political 
insight  were  extraordinarily  great.  Her  son  by 
Pericles  was  allowed  to  assume  Iris  father’s  name. 
After  the  death  of  Pericles  (429  b.c.),  Aspasia 
formed  a  union  with  Lysicles,  a  wealthy  cattle- 
dealer,  who,  through  her  influence,  became  an 
eminent  man  in  Athens. 

Aspects,  in  Astronomy,  are  certain  positions  of 
planets  with  respect  to  one  another,  as  seen  from 
the  earth.  In  the  days  of  astrology  there  were  five 
Aspects — Conjunction,  Sextile,  Quartile,  Trine, 
Opposition.  Two  planets  are  in  conjunction  when 
they  have  the  same  longitude;  the  aspect  is  sextile 
when  they  are  60°  apart ;  quartile,  when  the  dis¬ 
tance  is  90s  ;  trine,  when  it  is  120°  ■,  and  at  18(P 
they  are  opposite  to  one  another,  or  ip  opposition. 

Aspen,  or  Tremulous  Poplar  (Populustrem. 
via;  see  Poplar),  a  tree  which  grows  plentifully 
in  Europe  and  Siberia.  It  has  received  the  specific 


ASPHALT. 


87 


ASSASSINATION. 


name  t remula ,  from  the  readiness  with  which  its 
leaves  are  thrown  into  tremulous  motion  by  the 
slightest  breath  of  wind — a  property  for  which 
the  aspen  leaf  has  become  proverbial.  The  old 


Branch  of  Aspen  ( Populous  trermla ) .  a ,  catkin. 


legend  that  it  supplied  the  wood  of  the  Cross,  and 
has  never  since  ceased  to  tremble,  is  even  yet 
quoted  as  the  cause  of  its  ceaseless  quivering. 

Asphalt,  Asphaltum,  or  Mineral  Pitch,  is 
the  name  given  to  a  compact  form  of  bitumen, 
which  is  usually  black  or  dark -brown  in  color. 
The  Dead  Sea,  the  district  near  Babylon,  some  of 
the  West  India  Islands,  notably  Pitch  Lake  in 
Trinidad,  and  one  or  two  places  in  France,  Switz¬ 
erland,  and  Dalmatia,  are  the  best-known  localities 
for  this  substance  ;  but  it  is  found,  more  or  less, 
in  a  great  many  countries.  Asphalt  was  em¬ 
ployed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  for  embalming 
their  dead,  and  was  used  in  Babylon  as  mortar. 
Its  modern  applications  are  numerous.  It  is  much 
used  to  form  what  are  called  “  damp  courses”  in 
wralls  of  buildings — that  is,  a  layer  of  it,  from  i 
inch  to  |  inch  thick,  is  spread  over  the  thickness 
of  a  wrall  near  the  ground-level,  to  prevent  the 
ascent  of  damp.  Frequently  nowadays  the  whole 
internal  area  of  a  house  is  covered  with  a  layer  of 
asphalt.  In  cases  where  the  wall  of  a  house  comes 
against  a  bank  of  earth  the  whole  surface  is  pro¬ 
tected  from  damp  by  a  lining  of  this  material. 
One  or  twTo  kinds,  such  as  those  found  at  Seyssel 
in  the  east  of  France,  and  at  Val-de-Travers  in 
Switzerland,  though  called  asphalts,  are  really  bi¬ 
tuminous  limestones.  The  latter  is  known  all  over 
the  world  as  a  material  for  pavement. 

As'phodel  ( Asphodclus ),  a  genus  of  perennial 
herbs  belonging  to  the  order  Liliacese.  The  roots 


White  Asphodel  (Asphodclus  albus). 

are  fleshy  and  fasciculated,  the  leaves  linear,  and 
the  flowers  are  arranged  in  long  racemes,  often 


compound,  and  continue  flowering  during  great 
part  of  winter  and  early  spring  in  their  native 
country. 

Asphyx'ia  (Gr.), literally  “pulselessness,”  usu¬ 
ally  applied  to  the  condition  resulting  from  the 
blood  in  the  body  no  longer  being  brought  into 
the  proper  relations  to  the  atmospheric  air  by  res¬ 
piration,  so  as  to  allow  a  sufficiently  free  exchange 
of  carbonic  acid  for  oxygen.  Asphyxia,  or  sus¬ 
pended  respiration,  may  result  from  several  causes. 
No  air,  or  but  a  scanty  supply,  may  be  admitted, 
as  in  strangulation,  drowning,  choking,  or  disease 
in  the  windpipe  ;  the  chest  may  be  prevented  from 
expanding  either  from  a  superincumbent  weight 
or  para  ysis,  as  when  a  man  breaks  the  upper 
part  of  his  neck  above  the  phrenic  nerve,  thus 
paralyzing  the  diaphragm ;  and  again,  although 
there  may  be  every  capacity  for  respiration,  the 
air  itself  may  be  in  fault,  and  contain  too  little 
oxygen  or  too  much  carbonic  acid  in  proportion 
to  other  elements.  Aquatic  animals  may  be  as¬ 
phyxiated  either  by  depriving  the  water  they  in¬ 
habit  of  oxygen,  or  impregnating  it  with  excess 
of  carbonic  acid. 

In  man  death  occurs  in  from  a  minute  and  a 
half  to  live  minutes  after  complete  deprivation  of 
oxygen.  Some  persons,  no  doubt,  as  the  Ceylon 
divers,  can  by  habit  do  without  a  fresh  supply  of 
air  for  a  longer  period  ;  and  some  diving  animals 
have  an  arrangement  of  blood-vessels  by  which 
they  are  enabled  to  be  under  water  for  a  long 
time.  Restoration  of  asphyxiated  persons  may  be 
attempted  with  hopes  of  success  at  a  very  long 
period  after  apparent  death.  The  object  of  all 
methods  is  of  course  to  fill  the  lungs  with  fresh  air. 

Aspliyx'iants,  chemical  substances  inclosed  in 
shells  or  other  projectiles,  and  which  act  by  pro¬ 
ducing  a  suffocating  and  poisonous  effect.  The 
French  secretly  made  experiments  with  asphyxiat¬ 
ing  shot  at  Brest  in  1851.  The  principle  of  these 
missiles  seems  to  have  been  to  carry  into  an 
enemy’s  ship  the  means  of  generating  deadly 
gases  which  would  suffocate  the  crews  between 
decks.  A  similar  device,  the  stinkpot,  is  a  favor¬ 
ite  instrument  of  warfare  amongst  the  Chinese 
and  the  pirates  of  the  Eastern  seas.  Besides  being 
used  in  this  sense,  the  term  asphyxiants  is  applied 
to  any  gases  having  a  suffocating  or  poisonous 
effect  on  the  human  system.  Thus  coal-gas  escap¬ 
ing  in  a  house,  the  carbonic  acid  gas  filling  wine- 
vats,  or  liberated  in  coal-pits  after  an  explosion  of 
fire-damp,  and  the  various  products  of  combus¬ 
tion,  are  all  asphyxiants. 

Aspic  (Fr.),  a  savory  meat-jelly,  containing 
fish,  game,  hard-boiled  eggs,  etc. 

A  spin  wall,  or  Colon,  a  town  in  Colombia, 
virtually,  however,  a  colony  of  the  United  States. 
It  is  situated  at  the  Atlantic  extremity  of  the 
Panama  Railway  (1849-55),  and  of  the  inter- 
oceanic  Panama  Canal  ( 1 881-90),  on  the  island  of 
Manzanilla  inLimon  Bay,  eight  miles  northeast  of 
the  old  Spanish  port  of  Chagres,  forty-seven  miles 
northwest  of  Panama  by  rail,  and  equidistant 
from  the  great  trading  capitals  of  Valparaiso  and 
San  Francisco.  Pop.  about  1,500,  mostly  blacks. 
In  1870  the  Empress  Eugenic  presented  the  town 
with  a  statue  of  Columbus,  after  whom  it  is 
named  officially  Colon.  The  name  Aspinwall  it 
derives  from  aNew  York  merchant,  the  originator 
of  the  Panama  Railway;  the  company  having 
founded  the  town  in  1850.  It  was  burned  by  in¬ 
surgents  in  1885. 

Asp'irate  (Lat.  spiro,  I  breathe),  the  name 
given  to  the  letter  h  in  grammar,  as  marking,  not 
an  articulate  sound,  but  a  breathing.  It  is  accord¬ 
ingly  used  for  the  spiritm  asper  or  “rough 
breathing”  in  Greek,  which,  written  over  an 
initial  vowel,  had  the  force  of  an  h  prefixed. 

Aspira'tor  is  the  name  of  an  apparatus  em¬ 
ployed  to  draw  air  or  other  gases  through  bottles 
or  other  vessels.  It  is  of  great  use  in  the  examina¬ 
tion  of  gases  by  the  analytical  chemist. 

Aspromonte,  a  mountain  in  the  southwest 
corner  of  Italy,  near  Reggio,  forming  the  extrem¬ 
ity  of  the  Southern  Apennines,  and  overlooking 
the  Strait  of  Messina.  Here  Garibaldi  was 
wounded  and  captured,  Aug.  28,  1802,  by 
Pallavicini. 

Ass  (Asinus),  a  genus  of  Perissodactyla,  closely 
related  to  the  horse.  It  differs  from  the  latter  in 
having  short  hair  at  the  root  of  the  tail  and  a  long 
tuft  at  the  end,  in  the  absence  of  warts  on  the 


hind  legs,  and  in  the  persistence  of  stripes,  except 
in  albinos.  The  upright  mane,  the  long  ears,  the 
cross  stripe  on  the  shoulders,  and  the  da:k  bands 
on  the  back,  are  also  characteristic. 

The  domesticated  form  is  referred  for  its  origin 
by  Darwin  to  the  wild  Abyssinian  ass  (.1  tcenio- 
pits).  The  domestication  took  place  at  an  early 
date,  probably  before  that  of  the  horse,  and 
apparently  in  Asia.  The  male  ass  is  capable  of 
procreation  at  two  years  old;  the  female  carries 
her  foal  eleven  months.  The  mule  is  a  hybrid 
bred  between  mare  and  male  ass;  while  the  hinny 
is  the  rarer  result  of  hybridism  between  horse  and 
female  ass.  The  mule  is  much  nearer  in  temper 
and  appearance  to  the  ass  than  to  the  horse;  the 
hinny  in  some  points  resembles  the  horse  more, 
as  it  neighs,  while  the  mule  brays  like  the  ass. 

The  wild  ass  is  hunted  in  Persia;  and  the  flesh 
is  much  esteemed.  The  milk  of  the  ass  is  more 
sugary  and  less  cheesy  than  that  of  the  cow,  and 
is  on  that  account  recommended  to  some  invalids. 
The  leather  called  shagreen  is  made  by  a  peculiar 
process  from  the  skin,  which  is  also  utilized  for 
shoes  and  drums.  The  ancients  are  said  to  have 


The  Wild  Ass. 


used  the  bones  for  making  flutes.  From  early 
times,  white  (albino)  asses  were  reserved  for  the 
use  of  the  honored.  The  reader  may  be  referred 
to  Darwin’s  and  Plants  wider  Domesti¬ 

cation,  where  some  other  works  are  noted. 

Assab  Bay,  an  Italian  trading  station  on  the 
west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  forty  miles  northwest 
of  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb. 

Assai,  a  creamy,  purplish  beverage  used  on  the 
Amazon,  made  from  the  fruit  of  certain  palms. 

Assai',  a  large  salt  lake  in  the  district  of  Adal 
in  Eastern  Africa,  nearly  600  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  sea. 

Assam',  a  province  at  the  northeast  extremity 
of  British  India,  stretching  in  N.  latitude  be¬ 
tween  23°  and  28°,  and  in  E.  longitude  be¬ 
tween  89°  and  97°,  with  an  area  of  46,341  square 
miles.  In  1874  it  was  formed  into  a  separate 
administration  (including  Cachar)  under  a  chief 
commissioner.  It  consists  of  a  fertile  series  of 
valleys,  watered  by  the  Brahmaputra  and  more 
than  sixty  lesser  rivers.  The  tea-plant  is  indigen¬ 
ous,  and  some  believe  that  the  Tliea  assamiensis 
is  the  original  of  the  Chinese  plant.  Since  1840, 
when  its  commercial  cultivation  was  begun,  600,- 
000  acres  have  been  taken  up  for  tea)  in  1882 
there  were  over  1,000  gardens.  Some  three- 
fourths  of  the  tea  grown  in  India  is  the  produce 
of  Assam;  and  between  1875  and  1885  the  total 
exports  of  Indian  tea  increased  from  25,000,000 
pounds  to  above  65,000,000  pounds.  Pop.  (1881), 
4,881,426.  See  Hunter's  Statistical  Account  of 
Assam  (1880). 

Assassination,  the  act  of  taking  the  life  of  any 
one  by  surprise  or  treacherous  violence,  either 
by  a  liired  emissary,  or  by  one  devoted  to  the 
deed,  or  by  one  who  has  taken  the  task  upon 
himself.  Generally  the  term  is  applied  to  the 
murder  of  a  public  personage  by  one  who  aims 
solely  at  the  death  of  his  victim.  In  ancient 
times,  assassination  was  not  unknown,  and  was 
often  even  applauded,  as  in  the  scriptural 
instances  of  Ehud  and  Jael,  and  in  the  murder 


ASSASSINS. 


88 


ASSIGNMENT. 


of  Hipparchus  by  Harmodius  and  Aristogeiton  ; 
but  assassination  by  enthusiasts  and  men  devoted 
to  an  idea  first  became  prominent  in  the  religious 
struggles  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cent¬ 
uries. 

The  following  list  exhibits  the  dates  of  the 
most  noted  assassinations  in  history: 


Julius  Caesar . Mar.  15,  B. 

Thomas  ii  Becket . Dec.  29, a. d. 

Albert  I .,  Emperor  of  Germany . May  1, 

James  I.  of  Scotland  . Feb. 

Alessandro  de  Medici . Jan. 

Cardinal  Beaton . May 

David  Riccio . Mar. 

Lord  Darnley  . .  Feb. 

James,  Earl  of  Murray,  Regent  . Jan. 

William  of  Orange  . . .  July 

Henry  III.  of  France,  by  Jacques  Clement  Aug. 

Henry  IV.  of  France,  by  Ravaillac  . May 

Villiers,  Duke  of  Buckingham,  by  Felton.  Aug. 

Wallenstein .  Feb. 

Archibishop  Sharp.  . May 

i  .ustavus  III.  of  Sweden  .  .Mar.  10;  died  Mar. 

Marat,  by  Charlotte  Corday . July 

General  Kleber,  at  Cairo  . June 

Paul.  Czar  of  Russia . Mar. 

Spencer  Perceval,  premier, by  Bellingham.  May 

Kotzebue,  the  dramatist . Mar. 

Due  de  Berri  . Feb. 

Charles  III. .Duke  of  Parma.  .Mar.26;  died  Mar. 
Abraham  Lincoln,  by  Booth  Apr.  14; died  April  15, 

Michael.  Prince  of  Servia . . June  10, 

Marshal  Prim  ....  Dec.  28;  died  Dec. 

Georges  Darboy,  Archbishop  of  Paris,  by 

Communists .  .  May 

Earl  of  Mayo,  Governor-General  of  India  .  Feb. 

Sultan  Abdul  Aziz . Tune 

Alexander  II.,  Czar  of  Russia. .  . Mar. 

James  Abram  Garfield,  at  Washington, 

by  Guiteau . Tuly  2;  died  Sept. 

Lord  Frederick  Cavendish  and  T. II  Burke 
in  Phoenix  Park,  Dublin . May 


21, 

5, 

29, 

9, 

10, 

23, 

10, 

1-2, 

14, 

23, 
25, 

3, 

29, 

13, 

14, 

24, 
11, 
23, 
13, 
27, 


30, 

24, 

8, 

4, 

13, 


c.  44 
1170 
1308 
1437 
1537 
1546 

1566 

1567 
1570 
1584 
1589 
1610 
1628 
1634 
1679 
1791 
1793 
1800 
1801 
1812 

1819 

1820 
1854 
1865 
1868 

1870 

1871 
187 
1876 
1881 


19,  1881 


6,  1882 


Assassins,  a  fanatical  branch  of  the  secret 
Moslem  sect  of  the  Ismailis.  The  internal  con¬ 
stitution  of  the  order  was  as  follows:  First,  as 
supreme  and  absolute  ruler,  came  the  Sheikh-al- 
jebal ,  the  “Old  Man  of  the  Mountains.”  Then 
came  his  three  vicegerents,  the  Dni-al  kirbal,  or 
grand  priors  of  the  order;  thirdly,  the  Dais,  or 
priors;  and  fourthly,  Pefiks,  associates,  which 
last  were  not  initiated,  like  the  former,  into  all 
the  secret  doctrines.  To  the  uninitiated  belonged 
the  Fedavis  or  Fedais  (the  devoted),  a  band  of 
resolute  youths,  the  ever  ready  and  blindly  obedi 
ent  executioners  of  the  Old  Man  of  the  Mountains. 
Before  he  assigned  to  them  their  bloody  tasks, 
he  used  to  have  them  thrown  into  a  state  of  ecstasy 
by  the  intoxicating  influence  of  the  hashish  (the 
hemp  plant),  which  circumstance  led  to  the  order 
being  called  Ilashishin  (hemp-eaters).  The  word 
was  changed  by  Europeans  into  Assassins,  and 
transplanted  into  the  languages  of  the  West  with 
the  significations  of  “  murderers.” 

Assault.  In  law  a  person  is  guilty  of  an  assault 
if  he  attempts  unlawfully  to  apply  any  force, 
however  slight,  to  the  person  of  another,  or  if  he 
uses  any  gesture  indicating  an  intention  to  com¬ 
mit  an  assault.  If  any  force,  however  slight,  is 
actually  applied  to  the  person  or  dress  of  another, 
the  act  amounts  to  battery.  If  a  person  violently 
deprived  another  of  a  member  proper  for  his 
defence,  such  as  a  leg,  an  arm,  a  finger,  an  eye,  or 
a  fore-tooth,  the  ancient  law  held  him  guilty  of 
mayhem  or  maiming.  Violence  is  not  necessary 
to  constitute  an  assault,  for  the  law,  says  Black  - 
stone,  cannot  draw  the  line  between  different  de¬ 
grees  of  violence,  and  therefore  prohibits  the  first 
and  lowest  stage  of  it,  every  man’s  person  being 
sacred.  Mere  words  can  never  constitute  an 
assault. 

Assault  is  a  civil  wrong,  giving  rise  to  an  action 
for  damages.  It  is  sufficient  to  prove  any  act 
from  which  the  unlawful  intention  may  be  im¬ 
plied.  Thus,  throwing  water  on  a  man,  or  riding 
after  him  and  compelling  him  to  run  away,  are 
both  acts  of  trespass  or  assault.  A  common  as 
sault  is  a  misdemeanor.  Generally,  speaking,  the 
same  defences  may  be  relied  on  in  criminal  and  civil 
proceedings.  But  consent  is  no  defence  where 
the  injury  done  extends  to  maiming,  or  to  a 
breach  of  the  peace.  The  principals  in  a  prize 
fight,  for  example,  are  guilty  of  assault,  and  so 
are  all  who  aid  and  abet  or  witness  the  fight. 
Special  statutes  provide  for  punishment  of  assaults 
on  government  officials  while  in  the  discharge  of 
their  duty,  but  in  general,  assaults,  whether  with 
or  without  a  dangerous  weapon,  are  punishable 
under  State  laws  rather  than  under  those  of  the 
United  States. 


Assaying  is  the  art  of  determining  the  propor¬ 
tion  of  any  specified  metal  in  a  given  metallic  ore 
or  in  an  alloy.  Although  the  actual  process 
adopted  for  assaying  an  ore  is  the  same  as  for  an 
alloy,  the  former  has  to  be  subjected  to  certain 
preliminary  treatment  in  order  to  bring  the  metal 
present  into  a  convenient  form.  This  consists  of 
“  scorification ”  or  “  fusion,”  w'ith  or  without  a 
previous  “roasting,”  in  case  carbonaceous  or  ox- 
idizable  substances  are  present,  as  happens  with 
jewelers’  “sweep,”  etc.  The  “ cupellation ” 
method  of  assaying  gold  and  silver  is  of  the 
highest  antiquity.  It  depends  essentially  on 
the  fact  that  molten  litharge,  monoxide  of  lead, 
PbO,  is  capable  of  holding  in  solution  oxides  of 
other  metals  with  which  it  may  be  brought  in 
contact,  and  thus  separating  them  from  unoxi- 
dizable  metals.  This  is  readily  effected  by  using  a 
“cupel,”  formed  of  compressed bone-asli,  ofsome 
such  form  as  shown  in  Figure  1;  being  porous  it 
absorbs  the  oxides,  while  the  molten  gold  and 
silver  remain  on  its  surface  like  a  bead  of  mer¬ 
cury.  If  there  is  reason  to  suspect  the  presence  of 
small  quantities  of  gold, it  will  only  be  necessary  to 
dissolve  the  silver  button,  after  weighing,  in  ni- 


Fig  1.  Fig.  2. 


trie  acid  (equal  parts  pure  acid  and  water)  collect 
the  black  deposit  (the  gold  that  remains  undis¬ 
solved)  and  wash,  ignite,  and  weigh  it.  See 
Mitchell’s  Manual  of  Practical  Assaying;  Per- 
sey’s  Metallurgy ;  Makin’s  Manual  of  Metallurgy ; 
Balling’s  Manuel  de  VEssayeur. 

Assegai,  a  slender  spear  of  hard  wood,  tipped 
with  iron,  used  in  battle  by  the  South  African 
tribes,  notably  the  warlike  Zulus.  Some  assegais 

^ _ _ _ _ 


Various  forms  of  Assegais. 


are  held  in  the  hand  and  used  as  spears  for 
thrusting;  a  shorter  kind  are  hurled  from  the 
hand  as  missiles. 

Assemaui,  (1)  Joseph  Simon,  a  famous  orien¬ 
talist,  born  of  a  Maronite  family  at  Tripoli,  in 
Syria,  in  1G87.  He  was  succeeded  as  keeper  of 
the  Vatican  Library  by  his  nephew,  (2)  Stephen 
Ephodius  (1707-82),  also  a  learned  author  of 
books  on  orientalist  learning.  Yet  another 
nephew  and  orientalist  was  (3)  Joseph  Aloysius 
(1710-82),  professor  at  Rome. — (4)  Simon,  a  rela¬ 
tive  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Tripoli  in 
1752,  filled  the  chair  of  Oriental  Languages  at 
Padua,  and  died  their,  April  8,  1821. 

Assembly,  General,  in  Scotland,  Ireland, 
and  the  United  States,  denotes  the  highest  court 
of  the  Presbyterian  church.  It  differs  from  the 
Anglican  Convocation  at  once  in  its  .constitution 
and  in  its  powers,  representing  as  it  does  both 
the  lay  and  the  clerical  elements  in  the  church, 
and  possessing  legislative  and  judicial  authority 
in  all  matters  purely  ecclesiastical.  The  General 
Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States,  representing  23  synods  and  182 
presbyteries,  mostly  in  the  Northern  States, 
meets  annually  in  May,  but  has  no  stated  place 
of  meeting.  There  is  also  a  General  Assembly 
of  the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church  (67  presby¬ 
teries),  and  of  the  United  and  Cumberland  Pres¬ 
byterians;  while  the  Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  of  the  United  States,  like  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Scotland,  calls  its  su¬ 
preme  court  the  synod. 

Asser,  King  Alfred’s  biographer,  was  a  monk 
of  St.  David’s  (Menevia),  who,  about  the  year  885, 
was  invited  to  the  court  of  Alfred.  He  died  in 
either  909  or  910. 


Assessment  is  a  valuation  of  property,  income, 
or  profits,  for  the  purpose  of  taxation,  made  by 
authorized  persons  according  to  their  discretion, 
as  opposed  to  a  sum  determined  by  law;  or  the 
fixing  of  the  amount  of  damages,  as  by  a  jury. 

Assessors  in  England  are  persons  sometimes 
associated  with  judicial  functionaries,  to  assist  in 
the  argument  and  procedure  before  them,  and  to 
advise  their  judgments. 

In  the  United  States,  the  term  is  only  employed 
in  the  common  sense  of  persons  elected  or  ap¬ 
pointed  to  determine  the  value  of  property  liable 
to  assessment. 

As 'sets  (Norman-French  asez,  enough,  from 
late  Lat.  acl  satis,  to  sufficiency),  a  term  signify¬ 
ing  the  property  of  a  deceased  person  which  is 
sufficient  in  the  hands  of  his  executor  and  heir 
for  the  payment  of  his  debts  and  legacies.  In 
strictness,  the  term  is  not  applicable  to  the  prop¬ 
erty  of  a  person  who  dies  intestate,  and  without 
any  debts  to  be  paid.  In  general  acceptation, 
however,  it  is  understood  to  mean  the  property 
left  for  distribution  by  a  deceased  person, whether 
testate  or  intestate;  and  in  commerce,  and  also  in 
bankruptcy  and  insolvency,  the  term  is  used  to 
designate  the  stock  in  trade  and  entire  property 
of  all  sorts  belonging  to  a  merchant  or  to  a  trad¬ 
ing  association 

Assets  are  either  personal  or  real,  the  former 
comprehending  such  goods,  chattels,  and  debts 
as  devolve  on  the  executor;  and  the  latter  includ¬ 
ing  all  real  estate,  whether  devised  or  descending 
to  the  heir  at  law. 

In  the  United  States,  the  assets  are  broken  up 
into  several  funds,  and  where  some  of  the  credit¬ 
ors  can  resort  to  two  or  more  funds,  while  others 
can  legally  only  resort  to  one,  a  court  of  equity 
will,  by  “  marshalling  assets,”  compel  the  more 
fortunate  creditors  to  exhaust  the  fund  first  upon 
which  they  have  the  exclusive  claim;  or,  if  they 
have  been  satisfied  from  the  general  fund,  to  per¬ 
mit  others  to  stand  in  their  place  as  to  the  exclu¬ 
sive  fund,  so  that  an  equitable  division  of  assets 
may  be  made  among  all  the  creditors. 

Assien'to  (Span,  contract),  a  word  specially 
applied  to  a  contract  between  Spain  and  some 
foreign  nation,  according  to  which  the  Spanish 
Government  conferred  upon  the  latter,  under  cer¬ 
tain  conditions,  the  monopoly  of  the  supply  of 
negroes  for  its  American  colonies. 

Assign  is  a  legal  term  used  in  law  to  indicate 
generally  the  transfer  of  property,  but  more  par¬ 
ticularly  the  transfer  of  movable  property  and 
personal  rights.  The  word  assign,  as  well  as  the 
word  assignee,  is  applied  to  the  persons  to  whom 
the  transfer  is  made. 

As'signats.  After  appropriating  to  national 
purposes  the  land  belonging  to  the  church,  the 
French  National  Assembly,  instead  of  bringing 
it  into  the  maiket  at  a  time  of  insecurity,  when 
its  value  was  depreciated,  issued  bonds  on  the 
security  of  it,  which  were  called  assignats,  as 
representing  land  assigned  to  the  holder.  This 
paper-money  consisted  chiefly  of  notes  for  100 
francs  each,’  though  many  of  them  were  for  lower 
sums;  and  the  first  issue  in  1790,  amounted  to 
400,000,000  francs.  The  system  relieved  the 
Government;  “the  assignats  saved  the  revolu¬ 
tion  ”  for  the  time  being.  The  facility  of  this 
plan  of  providing  Government  income  led  to  its 
being  repeatedly  had  recourse  to,  as  the  property 
of  wealthy  emigres  was  conficated,  till  the  amount 
rose  to  the  enormous  sum  of  45,578,000,000 
francs,  besides  great  numbers  of  forged  notes. 
At  last  the  value  of  assignats  sank  almost  to  nil. 
In  March,  1796,  a  louis  d’or  (24  francs)  bought 
7,200  francs  in  assignats.  After  this  they  wrere 
withdrawn  from  the  currency,  and  redeemed  at  a 
thirtieth  of  their  nominal  value,  by  “  territorial 
mandates, ”-a  new  kind  of  paper-money,  which 
enabled  the  holder  at  once  to  take  possession  of 
public  lands  at  the  estimated  value,  while  assig¬ 
nats  could  only  be  offered  at  a  sale.  The  mandats 
also  soon  fell  to  a  seventieth  of  their  nominal 
value,  and  were  returned  to  Government  in  pay¬ 
ment,  of  taxes  or  of  land.  The  system  came  to 
an  end  early  in  1797. 

Assignee  in  Bankruptcy,  one  of  the  persons 
officially  appointed  to  manage  a  bankrupt  estate 
for  the  benefit  of  the  creditors. 

Assignment.  In  the  United  States  assignment 
applies  to  the  transfer  of  real  property  by  eertain 


ASSIMILATION. 


89 


ASTHMA. 


conveyance,  as  well  as  to  that  of  personalty.  In 
general,  every  right  of  property,  real  or 
personal,  and  every  demand  connected  with 
a  right  of  property,  real  or  personal;  and 
all  choses  in  action,  as  bonds,  notes,  judg¬ 
ments,  mortgages,  debts,  contracts,  agreements, 
relating  both  to  real  and  personal  property,  are 
assignable,  and  the  assignment  thereof  will  pass 
to  the  assignee  a  right  of  action  in  the  name  of 
such  assignee  against  all  parties  liable  to  an  action. 
Assignment  carries  with  it  all  collateral  securities 
held  by  the  assignor  for  the  collection  of  a  debt 
or  the  fulfillment  of  a  contract,  and  is  subject  to 
all  the  equities  and  charges  which  attached  in  the 
hands  of  the  assignor.  A  personal  trust,  as  the 
right  of  a  master  in  his  indentured  apprentice,  or 
the  duties  of  a  testamentary  guardian,  or  the 
office  of  executor,  trustee,  etc.,  is  not  assignable. 
The  validity  of  an  assignment  must  be  determined 
by  the  law  of  the  State  in  which  it  was  made, 
provided  the  thing  assigned  is  subject  of  munici¬ 
pal  or  State  law;  but  copyrights,  patents,  and 
Government  claims  are  governed  by  Acts  of  Con¬ 
gress.  In  general,  assignments  should  be  re¬ 
corded  in  the  office  prescribed  bylaw,  or  are  void 
as  against  those  claiming  under  subsequent 
assignments. 

Assimilation  is  the  process  by  which  living 
organisms  absorb  nutriment  and  convert  it  into 
part  of  their  own  substance,  solid  or  liquid. 

Assiniboia,  a  Canadian  district  or  territory 
within  the  limits  of  the  Northwest  Territories. 
It  lies  to  the  west  of  Manitoba,  is  bounded  on  the 
south  by  the  United  States  frontier,  west  (at  111° 
W.)  by  Alberta  Territory,  north  (52°  N.)  by  the 
new  Territory  of  Saskatchewan.  It  has  an  area 
of  about  95,000  square  miles. 

Assin'iboine,  a  river  of  British  North  Amer¬ 
ica,  rising  in  51°  40'  N.  latitude  and  105°  E. 
longitude.  At  Winnipeg  it  joins  the  Red  River, 
which  discharges  its  waters  into  Lake  Winnipeg. 

Assi'si,  a  town  of  Central  Italy.  It  is  the 
birthplace  of  St.  Francis,  who  founded  here  in 
1200  the  mendicant  order  that  bears  his  name. 
Pop.  (1881),  3,705. 

Assize.  The  word,  literally  signifying  a  “sit¬ 
ting”  or  “  session  ”  (of  a  court),  is  a  term  used  in 
the  principal  European  legal  systems,  and  very 
much  in  the  same  sense  in  all. 

Assolaut,  Alfred,  French  author,  wras  born 
in  1827  at  Aubusson,  Creuse.  He  died  in  May, 
1886. 

Assonance,  in  Prosody,  is  the  correspondence 
of  sound  pronounced  by  a  reiteration  of  the  same 
accented  vowel  with  different  consonants,  as  in 
nice  and  might,  war  and  fall,  mate  and  shape, 
fed  and  iteed.  It  is  a  kind  of  imperfect  rhyme, 
or  rather  a  substitute  for  rhyme,  and  is  especially 
•common  in  Spanish  poetry.  All  the  old  French 
poetry  also  was  marked  by  assonance,  not  rhyme. 

Assouan '  (also  Eswan;  the  ancient  Syene)  is  the 
southernmost  city  of  Egypt  proper,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Nile,  and  beside  the  first  or  lowest 
cataract.  Pop.,  about  4,000. 

Assumpsit.  In  the  United  States,  assumpsit 
is  the  most  common  form  of  action.  It  is  defined 
to  be  an  action  for  the  recovery  of  damages  for 
the  breach  of  a  parol  or  simple  contract;  but  in 
reality  it  is  the  form  of  action  generally  used  for 
the  recovery  of  any  debt,  or  for  the  recovery  of 
money  in  the  hands  of  the  defendant  which  in 
justice  and  equity  belongs  to  the  plaintiff.  The 
essential  is  that  there  should  be  a  privity  of  con¬ 
tract  between  the  parties  either  expressed  or  im¬ 
plied.  Assumpsit  has  in  most  of  the  older  States 
by  statute  superseded  all  the  common  law  forms 
of  action.  It  is  based  upon  the  general  equitable 
idea  that  one  ought  to  do  what  he  has  assumed  or 
promised  or  undertaken  to  do,  and  being  equit- 
ble  in  its  nature,  takes  the  place  of  all  other  civil 
actions  in  those  States  in  which  the  difference  be¬ 
tween  equity  and  law  has  been  abolished  in  prac¬ 
tice,  and  but  one  form  of  civil  action  is  recog 
nized  by  statute. 

Assumption  of  the  Virgin,  a  church  festival 
instituted  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  cen¬ 
tury  in  the  East,  and  of  the  ninth  in  the  West.  It 
is  based  upon  a  tradition  that,  after  the  death  of 
Mary,  her  soul  and  body  were  taken  up  to  heaven 
by  Christ  and  his  angels.  That  legend  was  con¬ 
demned  by  Pope  Gelasius  (494  A.D.),but  by  590 


was  accepted  as  true  by  Gregory  of  Tours.  The 
festival  is  kept  on  Aug.  15. 

Assyria  (called  Assur  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip¬ 
tions,  Atlmra  in  the  Persian,  and  Assur  a  in  the 
Median)  was  the  northermost  of  the  three  great 
countries  that  occupied  the  Mesopotamian  Plain. 
It  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Niphates 
Mountains  of  Armenia;  on  the  south  by  Susiana 
and  Babylonia;  on  the  east  by  Media,  and  on  the 
west,  according  to  some,  by  the  Tigris,  but  more 
correctly  by  the  watershed  of  the  Euphrates,  for 
many  Assyrian  ruins  are  found  to  the  west  of  the 
I  igris.  It  was  thus  about  280  miles  long  from 
north  to  south,  and  rather  more  than  150  broad 
from  east  to  west. 

In  the  Bible  narrative  we  are  told  that  Nine¬ 
veh  was  founded  from  Babylonia — “  Out  of  that 
land  (Babylonia)  he  (Nimrod)  went  forth  into 
Assyria”  (Gen.  x,  11) — and  this  statement  is  fully 
confirmed  by  the  results  of  recent  explorations. 
The  next  notice  of  Assyria  does  not  occur  until 
the  Assyrian  King  Pul,  or  Tiglath-piieser  II.,  in¬ 
vaded  Palestine,  and  was  bought  off  by  Mena- 
hem,  King  of  Israel,  (738  b.c.)  In  the  same  reign 
we  find  the  Jewish  King  Jehoahaz  (Aliaz)  becom¬ 
ing  a  vassal  of  the  court  of  Assyria,  and  the 
tribes  beyond  Jordan  carried  away  captive,  (734 
b.c.)  In  722  b.c.  Samaria  is  captured  by  Sargon 
“  the  Tartan,”  who  had  usurped  the  throne  from 
his  weak  master,  Shalmaneser  IV.  The  next 
reference  to  Assyria  is  that  of  the  siege  and  cap¬ 
ture  of  Jerusalem  by  Sargon  (Isaiah  x,  xi,  xx),  and 
the  siege  of  Aslulod,  (712-11  b.c.)  This  event  is 
now7  proved  to  be  distinct  from  the  siege  by  Sen¬ 
nacherib  in  701  b.c. ,  which  terminated  appar¬ 
ently  in  a  disaster  for  the  Assyrian  army.  The 
last  mention  of  Assyria  is  the  record  of  the 
murder  of  Sennacherib  by  his  sons  in  681  b.c., 
and  the  accession  of  Esar-haddon,  the  most 
powerful  of  all  the  Assyrian  monarchs,  who  car¬ 
ried  his  arms  as  far  as  the  Mediterranean  and 
conquered  Egypt.  Nineveh  was  taken  and  de¬ 
stroyed  about  605  b.c.,  or,  according  to  Rawlin- 
son,  625.  In  the  time  of  Darius  Hystaspes, 
Assyria  rebelled,  without  success,  in  conjunction 
with  Media.  In  the  time  of  Herodotus,  the  capi¬ 
tal  had  ceased  to  exist;  and  when  Xenophon 
passed  it,  the  very  name  was  forgotten,  though  he 
testifies  to  the  extent  of  the  deserted  city,  and 
asserts  the  height  of  the  ruined  walls  to  be  150 
feet.  An  inconsiderable  town  seems  to  have  ex¬ 
isted  on  its  ruins  in  the  reign  of  Claudius;  and 
(he  last  notice  we  have  of  Nineveh  in  the  classics 
is  in  Tacitus. 

Assyria  became  a  Median  province,  606  b.c., 
and  afterwards,  in  conjunction  with  Babylonia, 
formed  one  of  the  satrapies  of  the  Persian  Em¬ 
pire.  In  331  b.c. ,  at  Gaugamela,  near  Arbela, 
in  Assyria,  Alexander  defeated  Darius  Codoman- 
nus.  In  312  b.  c.,  Assyria  became  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  the  Seleucid®,  wdiose  capital  was 
Seleucia,  on  the  Tigris.  It  was  afterwards  sub 
ject  to  the  Parthian  kings,  whose  capital  was 
Ctesipliou,  and  wTas  more  than  once  temporarily  in 
possession  of  the  Romans.  When  the  Persian 
monarchy  of  the  Sassanides  was  destroyed  by  the 
succes-ors  of  Mohammed,  Assyria  was  subject  to 
the  califs.  Their  seat  was  Bagdad  from  762  a.d. 
till  1258.  It  has  been  under  the  Turks  from  1638, 
at  which  period  it  was  wrested  from  the  Persians. 


The  god  Nergal  (British  Museum). 

The  Assyrians,  it  is  now  generally  acknowl- 
edged,  were  a  branch  of  the  Semitic  family  of 
nations,  and  therefore  were  members  of  the  same 
grand  division  of  the  human  race  as  tiie  Syrians, 


the  Phoenicians  with  their  colonies,  the  Jews,  and 
the  modern  Arabians. 

In  language,  Assyrian  is  clearly  allied  to  the 
northern  branch  of  the  Semitic  family.  The  pre¬ 
dominant  features  of  the  Assyrian  ethnic  type  are 
Semitic,  but  modified  by  intermixture  with  Ak 
kadian  and  other  elements. 

The  excavations  carried  out  by  Botta,  Layard, 
M£nant,  Oppert,  Rawlinson,  George  Smith,  and 
Rassam  near  Mosul,  Khorsabad,  and  Koyunjik, 
have  led  to  many  very  interesting  discoveries. 
The  palaces  and  buildings  that  have  been  laid  open 
are  full  of  sculptures,  all  covered  with  inscrip¬ 
tions,  in  deciphering  which  considerable  progress 
has  been  made,  and  more  may  be  expected. 

Astar'te,  the  Greek  and  Roman  form  of  the 
name  of  the  supreme  female  divinity  of  the 
Phoenicians.  Like  that  of  Baal,  the  correspond¬ 
ing  male  divinity,  the  name  frequently  occurs  in 
the  earlier  books  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the 
plural  form  Ashtaroth, and  indeed  it  is  not  till  the 
time  of  Solomon  that  the  singular  form  Ashtoreth 
occurs.  Astarte  was  the  object  of  a  sensual  nature- 
worship,  attended  by  many  licentious  rites  and 
wild  orgies. 

Astarte,  agenus  of  Lamellibranch — i.e. ,  bivalve 
— Molluscs,  the  type  of  a  family,  Astartidse,  very 
closely  allied  to  the  Veneridos  or  Venus  family. 

Astatic,  “  without  polarity”  (from  the  Greek), 
used  most  frequently  of  a  magnetic  needle  so  ar¬ 
ranged  as  to  be  unaffected  by  the  earth’s  magne¬ 
tism.  This  is  managed  by  taking  two  magnetic 
needles,  as  nearly  of  the  same  intensity  as  possible, 
and  placing  them  parallel  to  one  another,  with 
their  poles  in  opposite  directions.  They  thus 
neutralize  one  another,  so  as  to  be  unaffected  by 
the  earth’s  magnetism,  though  they  remain  sub¬ 
ject  to  galvanic  action.  This  compound  astatic 
needle  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  astatic  gal¬ 
vanometer. 

As' ter  (Gr.  a  star,  from  the  form  of  the  flowers), 
a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Composita; 
and  sub-order  Tubuliflorae.  The  genus  contains 
a  great  number  of  species,  both  herbaceous  and 
shrubby,  and  chiefly  perennial,  of  w7hicli  three- 
fourths  are  indigenous  to  North  America,  the 
remainder  sparingly  distributed  over  Europe  and 
Northern  Asia.  A  number  of  perennial  species 
are  in  cultivation  as  garden-flowers,  of  which  the 
New  England  aster  (A.  nova  angliee )  and  the 
Michaelmas  daisy  (A.  trade-scanti),  both  natives  of 
North  America,  are  perhaps  the  most  common. 
But  the  best  known  and  most  valued  of  all  the 
asters  is  the  China  aster — A.  ( Callistephus)  sinensis 
— a  summer  annual,  of  which  many  varieties  are 
in  cultivation,  and  new7  ones  are  continually  in¬ 
troduced.  It  w7as  brought  from  China  to  France 
by  a  missionary  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Asterisk  (Gr.  a  little  star),  a  sign  symbol  (*) 
used  in  writing  and  printing,  as  a  reference  to  a 
note  at  the  bottom  or  on  the  margin  of  the  page. 
The  asterisk  often  marks  the  omission  of  words  or 
sentences,  or  it  distinguishes  words  as  conjectural 
or  obscure,  or  it  may  be  used  merely  as  a  typo¬ 
graphical  mark  for  any  specified  purpose. 

Asteroids.  About  150  small  planets  have  been 
discovered  within  the  past  century  by  various 
astronomers,  the  first  being  found  by  Piazzi. 
They  lie  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and  Jupiter, 
and  the  best-known  are  called  Ceres,  Pallas,  Juno 
and  Vesta.  Nothing  is  definitely  known  as  to 
their  origin,  but  it  is  held  Dy  some  authorities  that 
they  are  the  remains  of  an  exploded  planet,  which 
formerly  traveled  between  the  paths  of  the  two 
stars  named  above. 

Asterol  'epis,  a  name  given  to  wdiat  appears  to 
have  been  the  largest  fish  that  lived  in  old  red 
sandstone  times  in  the  European  area.  Its  remains 
have  been  met  with  in  Scotland  and  Russia. 
Asterolepis  is  supposed  to  have  been  from  twenty 
to  thirty  feet  long. 

Asteroph'y!lites(Gr.  aster,  a  star,  and  phyllon, 
a  leaf),  a  general  name,  under  which  are  included 
some  abundant  fossil  plants  of  the  coal-measures. 

Asthma  (Gr.)  is  a  disease  characterized  by  the 
occurrence  of  paroxysms,  in  which  the  breathing 
becomes  difficult,  and  is  accompanied  by  wheezing 
and  a  distressing  sense  of  tightness  in  the  chest. 
Asthma  frequently  appears  at  first  after  some 
inflammatory  affection  of  the  respiratory  mucous 
membrane,  but  often  without  any  such  cause.  It 
may  begin  at  any  age,  but  most  often  before  ten. 


ASTI. 


90 


ASTRONOMY. 


It  is  often  clearly  hereditary,  affecting  several 
members  of  the  same  family;  and  it  may  occur  in 
families  wilh  a  tendency  to  nervous  diseases — as 
epilepsy.  The  paroxysms  are  often  preceded  by 
premonitory  symptoms — in  some  by  great  drowsi¬ 
ness  ;  in  others  by  extreme  wakefulness  and 
unusual  mental  activity  and  buoyancy  of  spirits; 
in  at  least  one  case  by  an  attack  of  ophthalmia. 
The  difficulty  of  breathing  may  become  perma¬ 
nent  in  a  lesser  degree,  with  severer  paroxysms  at 
iutervals. 

Asti  (As/a  Pompeia ),  a  city  of  Piedmont,  in  the 
government  of  Alessandria,  lies  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Tanaro,  thirty-five  miles  east-southeast  of 
Turin.  Pop.  (1881),  17,340.  Alficri  was  born 
here  in  1749. 

Astigmatism  (from  Gr.  a,  not;  stigma ,  a  point), 
a  defective  condition  of  the  eye,  in  which  rays 
proceeding  to  the  eye  from  one  point  are  not  cor¬ 
rectly  brought  to  a  focus  at  one  point. 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  millionaire,  the  founder  of 
the  “American  Fur  Company,”  was  born  in  Ger¬ 
many  near  Heidelberg,  in  1763.  In  1783  he  sailed 
to  America,  and  by  the  advice  of  a  dealer  in  furs 
whom  he  met  on  the  voyage,  invested  his  small 
capital  in  furs.  By  economy  and  industry,  he  so 
increased  his  means  that  after  six  years  he  had 
acquired  a  fortune  of  $250,000.  In  1811,  the  fur¬ 
trading  station  of  Astoria  was  established;  but  the 
war  of  1812  stopped  its  prosperity  for  a  time. 
From  this  period  Astor’s  commercial  connections 
extended  over  the  entire  globe,  and  his  ships  were 
found  in  every  sea.  On  his  death  at  New  York, 
March  29,  1848,  he  left  property  estimated  at 
$20,000,000,  and  a  legacy  of  $350,000  for  the 
establishment  of  a  public  library  in  New  York.— 
His  wealth  was  mainly  inherited  by  his  son,  Wil¬ 
liam  (1792-1875),  who  continued  to  augment  it 
till  his  death,  when  he  is  said  to  have  left  $50,000,- 
000.  He  added  $200,000  to  his  father’s  bequest 
for  a  public  library. 

Astorga,  Emanuele  d’,  composer,  born  at 
Palermo  in  1681,  was  the  son  of  a  baron  of  Sicily, 
and  died  in  1736.  His  master-work  is  a  Stabat 
Mater  (edited  by  R.  Franz,  Halle,  1864). 

Astor  Library.  This  magnificent  institution 
was  founded  in  1848,  under  the  will  of  John 
Jacob  Astor,  who  left  $350,000  for  the  purpose. 
Additional  bequests  and  donations  of  land  and 
money  have  been  made  by  members  of  the  Astor 
family,  and  the  library  is  now  one  of  the  most 
complete  in  the  world.  It  occupies  two  splendid 
buildings  in  New  York  City,  and  contains  at  least 
200,000  volumes,  many  of  which  are  of  great 
value. 

Astoria,  originally  a  fur-trading  station  in  Ore¬ 
gon,  United  States,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Colum¬ 
bia,  founded  by  the  Pacific  Fur  Company  in  181 1 , 
and  named  from  its  chief  proprietor,  John  Jacob 
Astor.  It  was  a  main  Doint.  in  the  American  claim 
to  the  territory  of  Oregon.  Pop.  (1881),  2,803. 
See  Washington  Irving’s  Astoria ,  (1836.) 

Astrabad',  a  town  in  the  north  of  Persia,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Elburz  Mountains,  thirty  miles 
southeast  of  the  Caspian. 

Astral 'a,  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Themis,  or  of 
Astraeus  and  Eos  (Aurora),  was  the  last  of  all  the 
goddesses  to  leave  the  earth  when  the  golden  age 
had  passed  away.  She  took  her  place  in  heaven 
as  the  constellation  Virgo  in  the  zodiac.  Astraa 
is  also  the  name  o*f  one  of  the  planetoids. 

Astrag'alus,  a  bone  of  the  foot,  which,  by  a 
convex  upper  surface  and  smooth  sides,  forms, 
with  the  leg-bones,  the  hinge  of  the  ankle-joint. 
Its  lower  surface  is  concave,  and  rests  on  the  os 
calcis,  or  lieel-bone. 

Astrakhan',  a  government  in  the  southeast  of 
European  Russia,  watered  by  the  Volga,  and 
washed  on  the  southeast  by  the  Caspian  Sea.  Area, 
91,327  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  708,911.  As¬ 
trakhan,  its  capital,  and  one  of  the  chief  towns 
of  Russia,  is  situated  on  a  high  island  in  the  Volga, 
forty-one  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Pop.  (1880),  57,700,  consisting  of  Russians,  Armen¬ 
ians,  Tartars,  and  Persians. 

Astral  Spirits.  The  star  (Gr.  astron )  and  fire 
worship  of  the  Eastern  religions  rested  on  the 
doctrine  that  every  heavenly  body  is  animated 
by  a  pervading  spirit,  forming,  as  it  were,  its 
soul.  In  the  demonology  of  Christendom  in  the 
middle  ages,  astral  spirits  are  conceived  of  some¬ 
times  as  fallen  angels,  sometimes  as  souls  of  de¬ 


i 

parted  men,  sometimes  as  spirits  originating  in 
fire,  and  hovering  between  heaven,  earth,  and  hell, 
without  belonging  to  any  one  of  these  provinces. 

Astringents  (Lat.  ail,  to,  and  stringo,  I  bind), 
medicines  employed  for  the  purpose  of  contract¬ 
ing  the  animal  fibers  and  canals,  so  as  to  check 
tluxes,  hemorrhage,  and  diarrhoea.  The  drugs 
most  commonly  used  as  astringents  are  alum, 
catechu,  oakgalls,  rhatany-root,  etc. 

Astroca'ryum,  a  genus  of  American  palms. 

As  'trolabe  (from  two  Greek  words  signifying 
to  take  the  stars),  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  any  circular  instrument  for  observing  the  stars, 
circular  rings,  as  arranged  in  the  Armillary  sphere, 
were  used  for  this  purpose.  . 

Astrology  (Gr.  science  of  the  stars),  in  early 
times  was  a  comprehensive  term  for  the  study, 
both  of  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and 
of  their  supposed  influence  on  human  and  terres¬ 
trial  affairs.  Nowt  it  has  only  the  latter  meaning, 
the  term  Astronomy  having  usurped  the  former. 
Astrology  is  one  of  the  oldest  superstitions,  pre- 
valing  in  very  early  times  among  the  Egyptians, 
Hindus,  Chinese,  Etruscans,  and  above  all,  the 
Chaldeans. 

Nostradamus  was  the  great  astrologer  of  the 
sixteenth  century;  during  which,  though  the  most 
learned  and  powerful  minds  continued  to  cultivate 
the  science,  it  gradually  declined  from  its  former 
position  of  credit  and  power.  Tycho  Bralni, 
Kepler,  and  Gassendi  represent  wrell  this  stage  in 
its  history.  Their  own  discoveries,  with  those  of 
Copernicus  and  Galileo,  sapped  its  foundations, 
though  they  could  not  shake  off  its  influence  on 
themselves.  With  Newton,  astronomy  emerged 
from  mystery.  His  conceptions  extended  the  ter¬ 
restrial  laws  of  the  planets,  and  astrology  is  now 
relegated  to  the  same  category  as  fortune-telling, 
of  which  it  is  generally  an  adjunct. 

Astronomy  (Gr.  astron,  a  heavenly  body; 
nomos,  a  law),  teaches  whatever  is  known  of  the 
heavenly  bodies. 

The  history  of  astronomy  dates  from  a  very 
early  period.  It  is  the  most  ancient  of  all  the 
sciences.  The  Chinese,  Hindus,  Chaldeans,  Egyp¬ 
tians,  and  even  the  Greeks,  are  known  to  have 
investigated  the  heavens  very  long  before  the 
Christian  era.  In  China,  astronomy  was  in¬ 
timately  associated  with  State  politics;  the  Indians, 
Chaldeans,  and  Egyptians  made  it  a  matter  of 
religion;  and  each  of  these  nations  applied  it  to 
astrological  purposes. 

The  Chinese,  Chaldeans,  Hindus,  and  Egyptians 
each  claim  the  honor  of  having  been  the  first 
students  of  astronomy,  and  each  have  had  advo¬ 
cates  to  support  their  claim.  They  record  an  ob¬ 
servation  of  a  conjunction  of  five  planets,  made 
between  2514  and  2436  b.c. 

The  mass  of  evidence  seems  in  favor  of  the 
Plains  of  Chaldea  being  the  primal  seat  of  obser- 
vative  astronomy.  The  rising  and  settings  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  and  eclipses  were  subjects  of  ob¬ 
servation  and  notation  by  their  priests  at  a  very 
remote  period.  Their  first  observations  are  nearly 
all  now  lost,  six  only  being  preserved  by  Ptolemy, 
the  earliest  dated  720  b.c.,  and  forming  the  first 
reliable  observation  we  possess.  The  Chaldeans 
were  genuine  astronomers. 

The  Egyptians,  it  is  supposed,  were  the  first 
instructors  of  the  Greek  in  astronomy.  They  do 
not,  however,  appear  to  have  observed  much  for 
themselves. 

Up  to  this  time,  astronomy  is  little  else  than  tra¬ 
dition.  The  Greeks  have  the  honor  of  elevating 
it  into  a  reliable  history,  and  to  the  dignity  of  a 
science.  Thales  (640  b.c.),  the  founder  of  the 
Ionic  School,  laid  the  foundation  of  Greek  astron¬ 
omy.  He  it  was  who  first  propagated  the  theory 
of  the  earth’s  sphericity.  He  predicted  the  year 
of  a  great  solar  eclipse,  but  this  it  is  now  supposed 
he  must  have  casually  succeeded  in  doing  by 
means  of  the  Chaldean  Saros,  which  gives  a  regu¬ 
lar  recurrence  of  eclipses.  He  made  the  Greeks, 
who,  prior  to  this  time,  were  content  to  navigate 
their  vessels  by  the  Great  Bear — a  rough  approxi¬ 
mation  to  the  north — acquainted  with  the  Lesser 
Bear,  a  much  better  guide  for  the  mariner. 
Among  other  things,  he  held  that  the  stars  were 
composed  of  fire,  and  that  the  earth  was  the  cen¬ 
tre  of  the  universe.  Anaximander,  it  is  said,  held 
that  the  earth  moved  about  its  own  axis,  and  that 
the  moon’s  light  was  reflected  from  the  sun.  To  I 


him  is  also  attributed,  on  somewhat  slender  au¬ 
thority,  the  belief  in  the  idea  of  the  plurality  of 
worlds.  Anaxagoras,  who  transferred  the  Ionic 
School  from  Miletus  to  Athens,  is  said  to  have  of¬ 
fered  a  conjecture  that,  like  the  earth,  the  moon 
had  habitations,  hills,  and  valleys. 

Pythagoras  (500  b.c.)  was  very  far  in  advance 
of  his  predecessors.  He  promulgated  that  the  sun 
is  the  cent  re  of  the  planetary  world,  and  that  the 
earth  circulates  round  it.  Pythagoras  also  first 
taught  that  the  morning  and  evening  star  were 
in  reality  one  and  the  same  planet.  But  his  views 
met  with  little  or  no  support  from  his  successors 
until  the  time  of  Copernicus. 

The  Alexandrian  school,  fostered  by  the  Ptole¬ 
mies,  originated  a  connected  series  of  observa¬ 
tions  relative  to  the  constitution  of  the  universe. 
The  positions  of  the  fixed  stars  were  determined, 
the  paths  of  the  planets  carefully  traced,  and  the 
solar  and  lunar  inequalities  more  accurately  ascer¬ 
tained. 

We  now  reach  the  greatest  name  in  ancient 
astronomical  science — that  of  Hipparchus  of 
Bitliynia  (190-120  b.c.) — and  here  may  be  said  to 
begin  the  real  written  Instory  of  scientific  astron¬ 
omy.  Hipparchus  was  at  once  a  theorist,  a  mathe¬ 
matician,  and  an  observer.  He  catalogued  no 
less  than  1,081  stars.  This  is  the  first  trustworthy 
catalogue  we  have.  He  discovered  the  precession 
of  the  equinoxes;  he  determined  with  greater  ex¬ 
actitude  than  his  predecessors  had  done  the 
mean  motion,  as  well  as  the  inequality  of  the 
motion  of  the  sun;  and  also  the  length  of  the 
year.  He  also  determined  the  mean  motion  of 
ihe  moon,  her  eccentricity,  the  equation  of  her 
centre,  and  the  inclination  of  her  orbit;  and  he 
suspected  the  inequality  afterward  discovered  by 
Ptolemy  (the  evection).  He  invented  processes 
analogous  to  plane  and  spherical  trigonometry, 
and  was  the  first  to  use  right  ascensions  and  decli¬ 
nations,  which  he  afterward  abandoned  in  favor 
of  latitudes  and  longitudes. 

Ptolemy  (130-150  a.d.)  is  the  next  who  rises 
above  mediocrity.  Besides  being  a  practical 
astronomer,  he  was  accomplished  as  a  musician, 
a  geographer,  and  mathematician.  His  most  im¬ 
portant  discovery  in  astronomy  was  the  evection 
of  the  moon.  He  also  was  the  first  to  point  out 
atmospheric  refraction.  He  was  the  founder  of 
the  system  known  by  his  name,  which  was  uni¬ 
versally  accepted  as  the  true  theory  of  the  uni¬ 
verse,  until  the  researches  of  Copernicus  ex¬ 
ploded  it.  The  Ptolemaic  system,  expounded  in 
the  Great  Collection,  or,  as  it  was  called  by  the 
Arabs,  the  Almagest — from  which  source  most  of 
our  knowledge  of  Greek  astronomy  is  derived — 
placed  the  earth  immovable  in  the  centre  of  the 
universe,  making  the  entire  heavens  revolve 
round  it  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours.  It  is 
to  the  Arabs  that  we  owe  the  next  advances  in 
astronomy.  They  commenced  making  observa¬ 
tions  762  a.d.,  in  the  reign  of  the  Calif  Almansor, 
who  gave  great  encouragement  to  science,  as  did 
also  his  successors,  the  “good  Ilaroun  Al-Ras- 
chid  ”  and  Al-Mamun,  both  of  whom  were  them¬ 
selves  diligent  students  of  astronomy.  Under  the 
latter  a  small  arc  of  the  meridian  was  measured 
in  Mesopotamia.  For  four  centuries  the  Arabs 
prosecuted  the  study  of  the  science  with  assiduity, 
but  they  are  chiefly  meritorious  as  observers.  I  n 
the  thirteenth  century,  astronomy  was  again  intro¬ 
duced  into  Western  Europe,  the  first  translation 
from  the  Almagest  being  made  under  the  Em¬ 
peror  Frederick  II.  of  Germany,  about  1230;  and 
in  1252  an  impulse  was  given  to  the  science  by 
the  formation  of  astronomical  tables  under  the 
auspices  of  Alfonso  X.  of  Castile.  We  now  come 
to  Copernicus  (1473-1543),  to  whom  was  reserved 
the  honor  of  exploding  the  Ptolemaic  idea,  and  of 
promulgating  a  correct  though  imperfect  theory 
of  the  universe.  His  system  is  in  some  part  a 
revival  and  systematic  application  of  the  opinions 
said  to  have  been  held  by  Pythagoras.  It  makes 
the  sun  the  immovable  centre  of  the  universe, 
around  which  all  the  planets  revolve  in  concen¬ 
tric  orbits,  Mercury  and  Venus  within  the  earth’s 
orbit,  and  all  the  other  planets  without  it.  In 
the  Copernican  theory  there  were  many  of  the  old 
notions  which  have  since  been  exploded. 

Decidedly  the  most  industrious  observer  and 
eminent  practical  astronomer  from  the  time  of  the 
Arabs  to  the  latter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century 


ASTURIAS. 


91 


ATHANASIUS. 


was  Tycho  Brail <3  (1546-1601).  Tycho’s  system, 
which  made  the  sun  move  round  the  earth,  and 
all  the  other  planets  round  the  sun,  they  moving 
with  it  round  the  earth,  explained  all  natural 
phenomena  then  observed  equally  well,  while  it 
must  have  appeared  more  probable  than  the  crude, 
and,  at  that  era  undemonstrable,  theories  of  Co¬ 
pernicus.  Tycho  Brail 6  compiled  a  catalogue  of 
777  fixed  stars,  more  perfect  than  any  that  had 
previously  appeared.  He  made  the  first  table  of 
refractions,  and  discovered  the  variation  and 
annual  equation  of  the  moon,  the  inequalities  of 
the  motion  of  the  nodes,  and  the  inclination  of 
the  lunar  orbit,  and  rejected  the  trepidation  of 
the  precession,  which  had  hitherto  injuriously 
affected  all  tables.  He  also  made  some  interesting 
cometary  investigations. 

To  his  researches  are  mainly  due  the  discovery 
by  Kepler  (1571-1630)  of  those  famous  laws  which 
have  rendered  his  name  immortal.  To  Kepler  is 
due  the  credit  of  divesting  the  Copernican  sys¬ 
tem  of  its  absurdities.  He  is  also  said  to  have 
had  some  notion  of  the  law  of  gravitation. 

Galileo  Galilei  (1544-1642)  first  applied  the 
telescope  (which  he  made  from  a  general  descrip¬ 
tion  of  the  instrument  of  Hans  Lipperhey  of 
Holland,  who  was  the  first  inventor  of  the  tele¬ 
scope)  to  the  investigation  of  the  heavens.  He 
was  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  the  inequalities 
on  the  moon’s  surface.  The  important  discoveries 
of  the  four  satellites  of  Jupiter,  the  ring  of 
Saturn — not  then  distinctly  recognized  as  a  circle 
— the  spots  on  the  sun,  and  the  crescent  form  of 
Venus,  followed  in  quick  succession.  For  propa¬ 
gating  the  Copernican  doctrine  of  the  world, 
Galileo  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  priests, 
and  was  compelled  by  the  Inquisition  to  retract 
his  opinions. 

Tiie  next  great  epoch  in  the  history  of  astronomy 
brings  us  to  England  and  Newton  (1642-1727). 
Newton’s  fame  rests  upon  his  discovery  of  the 
law  of  gravitation,  upon  which,  the  common 
belief  is,  he  was  led  to  speculate  by  the  fall  of  an 
apple.  Newton  announced  his  discovery  in  the 
Prinnpia  in  1687,  which  was  briefly  that  every 
particle  of  matter  is  attracted  by,  or  gravitates  to, 
every  other  particle  of  matter,  with  a  force  in¬ 
versely  proportional  to  the  squares  of  their  dis¬ 
tances.  This  discovery  is  perhaps  the  grandest 
effort  of  human  genius  of  which  we  have  any 
record. 

Dr.  Halley,  who  succeeded  Flamsteed  as  astron¬ 
omer  royal,  discovered  the  accelerated  mean 
motion  of  the  moon  and  certain  inequalities  of 
Jupiter  and  Saturn,  but  he  is  most  famed  for  his 
successful  investigations  into  tire  motions  and 
nature  of  comets.  His  successor  was  Dr.  Brad¬ 
ley,  who,  in  the  year  of  Newton’s  death,  made 
the  important  discovery  of  the  aberration  of  light, 
which  furnishes  the  only  direct  and  conclusive 
proof  we  have  of  the  earth’s  annual  motion.  To 
him  also  we  are  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of 
the  nutation  of  the  earth’s  axis.  Sir  William 
Ilerschel  discovered  double  binary  stars,  cata¬ 
logued  vast  numbers  of  nebulae,  and  by  new 
methods  framed  daring  theories  of  the  constitu¬ 
tion  of  the  universe  and  the  stars.  The  sun  has 
been  the  chief  field  of  triumph  for  spectroscopic 
astronomy.  Its  physical  constitution,  vast  atmos¬ 
phere,  and  enormous  gaseous  eruptions,  have 
been  observed,  and  the  problems  they  raise  so  far 
solved.  Young  and  Langley  in  America,  Janssen 
in  France,  Secchi  in  Italy,  Zdllner  in  Germany, 
and  Huggins  and  Lockyer  in  England,  are  lead¬ 
ing  names  in  solar  research. 

Photography  has  also  played  a  prominent  part 
in  astronomy.  Daily  photographs  of  the  sun’s 
surface  are  now  made  in  more  than  one  observa¬ 
tory.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  there  have  been  added  to  our  solar 
system  upward  of  260  planetoids  or  asteroids. 
Ceres,  the  first  seen  of  these,  was  discovered  by 
Piazzi  at  Palermo  on  Jan.  1,  1801.  Their  num¬ 
ber  has  been  increased  almost  monthly  by  the 
work  of  observers  such  as  Peters  (of  Clinton, 
N.  Y.)  and  Palisa.  On  the  nights  of  Aug.  11 
and  17,  1877,  Prof.  Asapli  Hall,  using  the 
great  refractor  of  the  U  nited  States  Naval  Ob¬ 
servatory,  Washington,  discovered  two  satellites 
of  the  planet  Mars,  most  minute  and  interesting 
bodies.  Astronomers  now,  too,  look  with  inter¬ 
est  for  the  results  of  the  work  of  those  lately 


charged  with  the  use  of  the  gigantic  and  perfect 
instruments  of  the  Lick  Observatory,  California, 
which  in  effective  power  seem  likely  to  surpass 
all  their  predecessors. 

Astu'rias,  or  Oviedo,  a  northern  province  of 
Spain.  Area,  4,091  square  miles.  Pop.  (1884), 
579,794.  The  chief  towns  are  Gijon,  Aviles, 
Llanes,  and  Luarca.  Oviedo,  the  capital,  has 
since  1833  given  its  name  to  the  whole  province. 
The  eldest  son  of  the  Spanish  King  has  the  title 
of  Prince  of  Asturias. 

Asty'ages,  son  of  Cyaxares,  the  last  King  of 
Media,  reigned  594—559  b.c.  In  the  latter  year 
he  was  dethroned  by  Cyrus,  who,  according  to 
Herodotus,  was  his  grandson. 

Asuncion,  or  Assumption,  the  capital  of  the 
South  American  Republic  of  Paraguay,  was 
founded  in  1537,  on  Aug.  15 — the  feast  of  the 
Assumption.  Pop.  (1886),  22,000. 

Asy 'lum  (Lat.  from  Gr.  asyion,  inviolable),  a 
sanctuary  or  place  of  refuge,  such  as  a  temple  or 
church  or  their  precincts,  from  which  criminals, 
debtors,  or  persecuted  persons  could  not  be  re¬ 
moved  without  sacrilege. 

Asymptote  (Gr.  not  coinciding),  a  line  that 
continually  approaches  nearer  and  nearer  to  some 
curve,  but  only  meets  it  at  an  infinite  distance. 

Atacama,  the  name,  formerly  of  two  prov¬ 
inces,  Chilian  and  Bolivian;  most  of  the  latter 
has,  since  the  late  war,  been  transferred  to  Chili. 

Ata  camite,  an  ore  of  copper,  found  in  the 
iron-mines  of  Sell  wart  zenberg  in  Saxony,  and 
also  as  a  crust  on  the  lavas  of  Vesuvius  and  iEtna, 
especially  on  those  of  Vesuvius  erupted  in  the 
years  97,  1804,  1820,  and  1822. 

Atalmalpa,  last  of  the  Incas,  was  the  favorite 
son  of  Huayna  Capac,  who  died  in  1525.  Atali- 
ualpa,  made  a  captive  by  Pizarro,  agreed  to  pay 
an  enormous  ransom;  but  was  accused  of  plotting 
against  Pizarro,  tried,  and  condemned  to  be 
burnt.  On  his  agreeing  to  be  baptized,  his  sen¬ 
tence  was  commuted  to  death  by  strangulation 
(1533). 

Atalanta,  the  name  of  two  heroines  in  Greek 
mythology,  often  confounded  with  each  other. 
(1)  The  Arcadian  Atalanta,  daughter  of  Iasus  and 
Clymene.  At  her  birth  she  was  exposed  by  her 
father,  who  had  wished  for  a  son,  but  she  was 
suckled  by  a  she-bear,  and  grew  up  to  be  a 
maiden-huntress  of  marvelous  courage  and  skill. 
She  slew  the  centaurs  who  pursued  her,  afterward 
sailed  with  the  Argonauts  to  Colchis,  and  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  chase  of  the  Calydonian 
boar.  She  had  many  suitors,  but  was  merciless 
in  the  conditions  which  she  imposed  on  them. 
Being  the  swiftest  of  mortals,  she  offered  to  be¬ 
come  the  wife  of  him  that  should  outstrip  her — 
the  penalty  of  defeat  being  death.  At  length  she 
was  conquered  through  stratagem  by  Milanion. 
He  obtained  from  Venus  a  gift  of  three  golden 
apples,  which  he  dropped  one  after  another  dur¬ 
ing  the  race;  and  Atalanta  was  so  charmed  by 
their  beauty,  that  she  could  not  refrain  from 
stooping  to  gather  them,  and  so  lost  the  race. 
They  were  both  metamorphosed  into  lions  for 
having  profaned  the  sacred  grove  of  Zeus. 

At'avism  (Lat.  atavus,  ancestor),  or  Rever¬ 
sion,  is  a  term  applied  to  the  frequent  appearance 
of  ancestral,  but  not  parental,  characteristics  in 
an  animal  or  plant. 

At'hara,  the  only  tributary  of  the  Nile  below 
the  junction  of  the  White  with  the  Blue  Nile. 

Atchafalay  'a,  an  outlet  of  the  Red  river  or 
of  the  Mississippi.  Its  name  means  “  lost  river,” 
and  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  once  the  bed  of 
the  Red  river. 

Alcheen  (also  Acheen  or  Atchin;  called  by  the 
Dutch  Atjeh ),  until  1873  an  independent  State  in 
the  northwest  part  of  Sumatra,  now  a  province 
of  the  Dutch  Indies,  with  an  area  of  6,370  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1884),  of  579,753. 

Atchison,  a  city  of  Kansas,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Missouri,  333  miles  above  St.  Louis.  Pop. 
(1883),  about  25,000. 

Ate,  according  to  Homer,  the  daughter  of  Zeus 
— of  Eris,  as  Hesiod  says — was  a  vengeful  god¬ 
dess. 

Ateliers  Nationaux,  or  National  Work¬ 
shops,  was  the  name  given  to  the  works  which 
were  organized  by  the  Provisional  Government  at 
Paris  in  the  spring  of  1848,  and  after  the  downfall 
of  Louis-Philippc,  and  which  were  intended  to 


give  occupation  to  the  unemployed  at  that  time  of 
disturbance.  The  scheme  proved  a  complete 
failure. 

Atella'me,  Fabulce  Atellance  (also  styled  Lvdi 
Osci),  a  kind  of  popular  drama  in  Rome,  first  in¬ 
troduced  from  Atella,  a  town  in  Campania, 
between  Capua  and  Naples. 

Ateshga  (place  of  fire),  a  spot  about  a  mile  in 
diameter,  on  the  P  ninsula  of  Apsheron,  on  the 
west  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  considered 
sacred  by  the  Guebres,  or  Persian  Fire-Worship¬ 
ers.  The  site  of  a  former  temple  of  this  sect  is 
now  occupied  by  large  petroleum  works,  where 
the  natural  gas  is  utilized  for  fuel  for  the  vast 
retorts. 

A  thabas'ea  (locally  La  Biche,  red-deer  or  elk 
river),  a  river  and  lake  in  the  Northwest  Territory 
of  the  Canadian  Dominion,  forming  part  of  the 
great  basin  of  the  Mackenzie.  Length  of  the 
Athabasca  river  over  600  miles,  or  about  2,000 
miles  for  theentire  river  system.  Lake  Athabasca 
receives  nearly  all  its  waters  from  the  Athabasca 
river,  which,  at  the  opposite  side,  is  also  its  sole 
outlet.  It  is  about  230  miles  long,  and  from  14  to 
30  broad.  Athabasca  is  the  name  of  one  of  the 
four  divisions  of  the  Canadian  Northwest,  defined 
in  1882,  between  British  Columbia  and  a  line  to 
the  east  of  the  Athabasca  river,  and  between  the 
parallels  55°  and  60°  N.  latitude.  It  contains  the 
fertile  Peace  river  districts,  and  has  an  area  of 
122,000  square  miles.  Estimated  pop.,  10,000. 

Athtili'ah,  the  daughter  of  Allah,  King  of 
Israel,  married  Jehoran,  King  of  Judah,  and  intro¬ 
duced  into  the  southern  kingdom  the  worship 
of  Baal.  She  attempted  to  kill  all  the  princes  of 
Judah,  but  was  herself  put  to  death.  This  narra¬ 
tive  (2  Kings  xi;  2  Chronicles  xxii,  xxiii) 
is  the  subject  of  an  oratorio  by  Handel,  and  of 
Racine’s  drama,  Athalie,  for  which  Mendelssohn 
composed  the  music. 

Atliau'aric,  a  prince  of  the  Western  Goths, 
whose  settlements  lay  on  the  noith  bank  of  the 
Lower  Danube,  in  the  fourth  century.  He  fought 
three  successive  campaigns  with  the  Emperor 
Yalens,  but  was  finally  defeated  in  369.  He  died 
at  Constantinople  in  381. 

Atlianasiau  Cre«(l,  the  third  of  the  three 
oecumenical  symbols,  derived  its  name  from  its 
composition  being  attributed  to  Athanasius;  it  is 
also  known,  from  its  initial  words  in  Latin,  as  the 
creed  or  psalm  Quicunque  Vult.  The  first  part  of 
this  creed  contains  a  detailed  exposition  of  the 
Trinity;  the  second,  the  doctrine  of  the  incar¬ 
nation.  The  Athanasian  Creed  is  the  most  rigid 
of  the  three  Catholic  symbols,  and  is  generally 
received  by  Protestants  as  well  as  Catholics.  It 
has  no  place  in  the  prayer-book  of  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  America. 

At  ha  nasi  us.  Primate  of  Egypt,  was  born  in 
Alexandria  about  the  year  296  a.d.  In  his  youth, 
he  often  visited  the  celebrated  hermit  St.  Auto  v, 
and  embraced  for  a  time  the  ascetic  life  with  the 
venerable  recluse.  He  was  only  a  deacon  when 
appointed  a  member  of  the  first  general  council  at 
Nice  (325). 

His  patron,  Alexander,  having  died  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year,  he  was  duly  elected  to  the  primacy 
by  the  clergy  and  people;  and  was  but  newly  in¬ 
stalled  in  his  office,  when  Arius,  who  had  been 
banished,  made  a  recantation  of  his  erroneous- 
principles.  Athanasius,  it  is  said,  refused  on  this 
occasion  to  comply  with  the  will  of  the  Emperor 
that  the  heretic  should  be  restored  to  communion. 
On  this  account,  and  in  consequence  of  several 
other  charges  brought  against  him  by  the  Allan 
party,  lie  was  summoned  by  the  Emperor  Con¬ 
stantine  to  appear  before  the  Synod  of  Tyre,  in 
335  a.d. ,  which  deposed  him  from  his  office.  The 
sentence  was  confirmed  by  the  Synod  of  Jerusalem 
in  the  following  year,  when  he  was  banished  to 
Augusta  Trevirorum  (Treves).  In  338,  however, 
he  was  recalled  from  his  banishment,  and  restored 
to  the  primacy  at  Alexandria.  The  Arians  soon 
rose  against  him,  and  (in  341)  he  was  again  con¬ 
demned  by  a  council  of  ninety-seven  (mainly 
Arian)  bishops,  assembled  at  Antioch.  Against 
this  decision  a  protest  was  made  by  a  hundred 
oithodox  bishops  at  Alexandria,  and  in  a  council 
held  at  Sardica,  300  bishops,  countenanced  by 
Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  confirmed  the  decision 
in  favor  of  Athanasius,  who  was  again  replaced 
in  his  office  (349).  Under  Constantine  he  was. 


ATHEISM. 


92 


ATHOS. 


again  exiled,  and  sought  refuge  in  the  desert,  hut 
finally  overcame  the  Arians  and  died  Patriarch  of 
Alexandria  in  373  a.d.  Athanasius  was  the  lead¬ 
ing  ecclesiastic  during  the  most  trying  period  in 
the  history  of  the  early  Christian  Church.  He 
was  a  clear  thinker,  and  as  a  speaker,  was  dis¬ 
tinguished  for  extemporaneous  precision,  force, 
and  persuasiveness.  See  Gibbon,  Dec  i»e  amt 
Fall  of  the  lionxan  Empire ,  Vols.  Ill  and  IV. 

Atheism  is  the  doctrine  that  there  is  no  God. 
The  word,  which  first  appears  in  English  litera¬ 
ture  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  is 
derived  from  Greek  negative  prefix  a,  and  Theo», 
“God.”  The  name  atheist  is  said  to  have  been 
first  applied  in  Greek  literature  to  one  of  the  fol¬ 
lowers  of  the  materialistic  philosopher  Democritus. 

Atheling  (Old  Eng.  JEthd.  noble),  a  title  of 
honor  among  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

Atli'elney,  Isle  of,  a  marsh  at  the  junction  of 
the  Rivers  Tone  and  Parret,  in  the  middle  of  Som¬ 
ersetshire,  England. 

Athelstan,  son  of  King  Edward  the  Elder,  and 
grandson  of  Alfred  the  Great,  was  bom  about  895 
a.d.,  and  was  crowned  King  of  the  Mercians  ami 
West  Saxons  at  Kingston-upon-Thames  in  925. 
He  conquered  portions  of  Cornwall  and  Wales, 
and,  on  the  death  of  Sihtric,  king  of  Northumbria, 
who  had  married  one  of  his  daughters,  made  his 
successor  tributary. 

Atliena,  or  Pallas  Atiiena,  one  of  the  greater 
Greek  divinities,  forming,  with  Zeus  and  Apollo, 
the  supreme  triad  of  Greek  mythology.  Of  her 
origin  and  parentage  different  accounts  are  given, 
but  she  is  generally  represented  as  the  daughter  of 
Zeus.  She  was  the  goddess  of  wisdom  and  special 
patroness  of  Athens,  and  her  worship  was  univer¬ 
sal  in  Greece.  In  Italy  proper  she  was  identified 
with  Minerva,  a  native  goddess  of  wisdom,  and 
worshiped  with  Jupiter  and  Juno. 

Athenae'um(Gr.  Athenaiori),  originally  a  Temple 
of  Athena  (Lat.  Almond),  afterward  a  kind  of 
college  or  institution  for  higher  education.  The 
first  at  Rome  was  that  founded  by  the  Emperor 
Hadrian  about  133,  for  the  study  of  poetry  and 
rhetoric,  with  a  regular  staff  of  professors.  The 
weekly  journal  of  literature,  science,  and  art,  pub¬ 
lished  in  London  under  this  name,  is  well  known. 

Athena;  ns,  a  Greek  writer,  born  at  Naucratis, 
in  Egypt.  He  lived  first  at  Alexandria  and  after¬ 
wards  at  Rome  about  the  close  of  the  second  and 
beginning  of  the  third  century. 

Athenag'oras,  an  early  Christian  philosopher 
who  taught  first  at  Athens,  and  afterwards  at 
Alexandria. 

Athena' is,  an  Athenian  lady  of  distinguished 
beauty  and  learning,  who,  in  421  a.d.,  became  the 
wife  of  the  Emperor  Tlieodo-ius  II. ,  and  assumed 
the  name  of  Eudocia. 

Athens,  the  capital  of  modern  Greece  and  of 
old  times  the  capital  of  Attica,  ranks  with  the 
most  famous  cities  of  the  world.  The  actual  date 
of  its  foundation  is  unknown,  but  it  was  probably 
first  settled  by  Phoenicians  thirteen  or  fourteen 
centuries  before  Christ.  The  ancient  city  occu¬ 
pied  a  magnificent  situation  on  the  Attic  Plain, 
with  a  range  of  hills  for  a  background  and  the 
Bay  of  Salamis  and  the  Saronic  Gulf  at  its  foot. 
Of  its  early  history  under  the  seventeen  kings  of 
Cecropian  dynasty  little  save  tradition  remains. 
Its  second  period  begins  with  Solon  about  638  b.c., 
when  it  became  nominally  a  democracy  but  ac¬ 
tually  an  oligarchy,  governed  by  archons  chosen 
annually.  It  was  taken  and  burnt  by  Persians 
480  b.c.,  but  rebuilt  after  the  victory  of  Salamis, 
and  under  the  leadership  of  Cimon,  Themistocles, 
and  Pericles  became  the  grandest  city  of  the  age. 
Here  Socrates  and  Plato  taught,  NCscliylus  and 
Sophocles,  Herodotus,  and  Thucydides  wrote,  and 
Pindar  sang,  while  the  chisel  of  Phidias  orna¬ 
mented  its  public  buildings  with  statuary  of  un¬ 
equaled  grace  and  beauty.  To  this  age  belong 
the  Parthenon,  the  Ereclitheum,  the  Temple  of 
Wingless  Victory  and  the  Theseum,  monuments 
of  architectural  skill  never  surpassed. 

Athens  in  its  most  flourishing  period  stood  at 
the  head  of  the  Greek  confederacy,  but  suffered 
greatly  during  the  Peloponnesian  war,  403  b.c., 
and  was  finally  overcome  by  the  Macedonians  in 
338.  Lycurgus,  Demosthenes,  and  Aristotle 
flourished  at  this  period.  Under  the  Alexandrian 
rule  the  city  was  greatly  beautified,  but  with  the 
.destruction  of  Corinth  and  the  break-up  of  the 


Achaain  League  in  146  b.c.  all  power  passed  from 
Athens  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans.  Under 
Hadrian  there  was  a  revival  of  prosperity,  but 
Sulla  plundered  the  city,  and  in  267  a.d.  it  was 
captured  by  the  Goths.  *  Athens  next  became  the 
spoil  of  the  Byzantine  Emperors,  then  of  the  cru- 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 


Plan  of  Ancient  Athens. 

Parthenon,  ) 

Erechtheum,  | 

Propylea.  )-  Acropolis. 

Temple  of  Athena  Promachus,  i 
Temple  of  Athena  Ergane,  J 

Prytaneum, 

Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates. 

Theatre  of  Dionvsus. 

Ocleum  of  Herod. 

Stoa  Poecile. 

Sanctuary  of  iEseulapius. 

Circuit  of  the  walls  before  the  Persian  war. 


saders,  and  finally  of  the  Turks.  It  was  not  until 
1821  that  the  fires  of  liberty  were  again  revived  in 
the  breasts  of  the  degenerate  Greeks,  and  in  the 
ten  years’  constant  warfare  which  followed  Athens 
was  captured  and  recaptured  and  practically 
ruined.  In  1832  Otho  of  Bavaria  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  liberated  Greece  by  the  Great  Powers 
of  Europe,  and  during  his  reign  and  that  of  his 
successor,  George  of  Denmark,  t!  e  city  entered 
upon  a  new  era  of  prosperity.  It  now  contains  a 
population  of  about  90.000.  The  modern  town  is 
well  built  and  contains  some  magnificent  build¬ 
ings.  The  chief  interest  of  Athens,  however, 


Map  of  the  Country  around  Ancient  Athens, 
lies  in  the  arclueologieal  remains,  which  even  in 
their  ruin  maintain  the  splendor  of  their  origin. 
The  grasping  rapacity  of  Lord  Elgin,  while  it'  en¬ 
riched  the  British  Museum  with  numerous  works 
of  art,  robbed  Athens  of  its  treasures,  but  even 
now  statues,  friezes  and  architectural  monuments 
of  priceless  value  are  constantly  being  exhumed. 

Athens,  a  name  applied  to  more  than  twenty 
places  in  the  United  States.  (1)  The  most  import¬ 
ant  is  a  thriving  town  in  Georgia,  ninety-two  miles 
west-northwest  of  Augusta.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
University  of  Georgia  (1880).  Pop.  (1881),  6,099. — 
(2)  A  town  in  the  south  of  Ohio,  on  the  Hocking 
river.  Pop.  (1880),  2,457. 

A  flier  field  Clay,  the  lowest  subdivision  of  the 
Lower  Greensand  varying  in  thickness  from  twenty 
to  sixty  feet.  It  rests  directly  on  the  Wealden. 

A  th  'eriue  (Atherina),  a  genus  of  small  fishes, 


Atherine  (Atherina  presbyter'). 
allied  to  the  Gray  Mullet  family  ( Mugilidce ),  but 
latterly  separated  into  a  distinct  family  Atherinidce . 


Athero'ma  (Gr.  from  alliere,  meal,  meal  por¬ 
ridge),  a  name  formerly  applied  to  cysts  on  the 
scalp  with  contents  of  the  consistence  of  porridge, 
but  now  only  used  of  a  common  form  of  inflam¬ 
mation  of  arteries. 

Athletic  Sports.  Contests  of  speed,  strength, 
and  endurance  for  money  prizes  or  for  fame,  have 
probably  been  indulged  in  ever  since  man  emerged 
from  barbarism.  In  Homer’s  Iliad  an  account  is 
given  of  the  sports  held  at  the  tomb  of  Patroclius, 
in  which  all  the  best  Greek  athletes  contended. 
Samson  the  strong  man,  Hercules  the  demigod, 
are  examples  of  the  manner  in  which  rude  races 
reverenced  the  possessors  of  gigantic  thews  and 
muscle.  Of  modern  people  the  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Teutonic  races  have  always  held  the  lead  in 
athletics.  Base-ball  in  the  United  States  and 
cricket  in  England,  although  classed  as  games  are 
properly  athletic  sports,  and  are  attractive  alike 
to  the  contestants  and  to  spectators  in  the  exact 
degree  that  they  call  forth  the  display  of  strength 
and  agility.  Walking,  running,  jumping,  wrest¬ 
ling  and  boxing  matches,  when  contested  by 
experts  invariably  attract  a  large  attendance  of 
spectators  among  all  English-speaking  people. 
The  Latin  races  and  the  inhabitants  of  Southern 
climes  are  not  conspicuous  in  this  regard. 

The  accompanying  table  of  l-ecords  will  show 
the  great  advance  made  within  the  last  twenty-live 
years  in  the  various  branches  of  athletics.  *  The 
letters  U.  S.  showr  records  made  in  the  United 
States : 


100  yards . - 

120yds.  hurdles.. 

300  yards . j 

Quarter  mile. . .  -j 
One  mile . -j 

Mile  walking. . .  -j 

Two  miles .  ...  J 
Three  miles. . . .  -j 

Ten  miles . j 

Wide  jump _  J 

High  jump . . . .  | 

Pole-vaulting. .  | 
One  hour’s  run.  -j 
Onebour’swalk  -j 

I 

Half-mile . \ 

| 

( 


10  1-5,  10  sec _ 

9  4-5  seconds _ 

16  seconds. . . .  -j 
31%  seconds. . . . 
30  seconds 
48  3-5  seconds. . . 
48)4  seconds  . . . 
4  min.  18  3-5  sec. 

I  min.  12%  sec. . 
6  min.  29  1-5  sec. 
6  min.  34  4-5  sec. 
6  min.  23  sec  .. 
9  min  If  2  5  sec. 
9  min.  1114  sec. . 
14  min.  39  sec. . . 
14  min.  36  sec. . . 
51  min.  20  sec. . . 
51  min  6%  sec. 

23  ft.  3  in  . 

21  ft.  614  in. . .  -j 

6  ft.  2%  in . 

6  ft.  14  in . 

6  ft.  2 %  in . 

11  ft  5  m . 

10ft.  10%  in.... 

II  miles  932  yd. . 
1 1  miles  410  yd . . 

7  miles  1318  yd.. 

8  miles  302  yd . . . 

1  min.55  3-5  sec -j 
1  min.  i  7  sec. .  -j 

I  min.  53%  sec  -J 
1  min.  57%  sec  . 


L.  E.  Myers,  U.  S.,  1886. 
H.M  Johnson,U.8..1886. 
C.  N.  Jackson.  1865. 

C.  F.  Daft,  lss6. 

L.  E  Myers.  U.  S.,  1886. 
II.  Hutchens.  1884. 

L.  E.  Myers,  1886. 

R.  Buttery,  1873. 

W.  G.  George,  1884. 

W.  G.  George,  1886. 
J.P.Murray,  U.  S.,  1883. 
II.  Wyatt,  1883. 

W.  Perkins.  1874. 

W.  G.  George.  1886. 

W.  Lang,  1863. 

W.  G.  George,  1884. 

,1.  White,  1803. 

W.  G.  George,  1884. 

W.  Cummings.  1885. 

M.  W.  Ford,  u.  S..  1886. 
E  A.  Johnson,  Canada, 

1879. 

P.  Davin,  1880. 

E. A  Johnson.U-S.,  1886. 
M  J.  Brooks,  1876. 

T.  Ray.  1885. 

G.  Musgrove,  1866. 

W.  G.  George,  1884. 

L.  Bennett.  1863. 

J.  B.  Clark,  U.  S.,  1880. 
J.  Meagher,  U.  8.,  1881. 
L.  E.  Myers,  U.  S  ,  1882 
and  1885. 

F.  K.  Cross,  1887,  at 
Oxford. 

F.  Hewitt,  Australia, 
1871. 

F.  T.  Elborough,  1676. 


Ath  'ole,  a  district  in  the  north  of  Perthshire, 
occupying  a  great  part  of  the  southern  slopes  of 
the  Grampians,  and  giving  the  title  of  duke  to 
a  branch  of  the  Murray  family. 

Athos  (Gr.  Ilagion  Oros,  Ital.  Monte  Santo, 
Holy  Hill),  the  most  eastern  of  the  three  tongues 
of  the  Chalcidice  Peninsula  on  the  HDgean  Sea, 
connected  with  the  mainland  by  a  low  and  nar¬ 
row7  isthmus,  about  a  mile  across.  The  length  of 
the  peninsula  is  about  31  miles;  its  breadth  varies 
from  3  to  6  miles.  At  the  southern  extremity  a 
solitary  peak  rises  abruptly  to  a  height  of  6,346 
feet  above  the  aea.  This  peninsula  is  celebrated 
as  the  seat  of  a  kind  of  monastic  republic,  con¬ 
sisting  of  twenty  large  monasteries,  besides  nu¬ 
merous  hermitages  and  chapels.  The  entire 
number  of  monks  who  inhabit  the  “Holy  Hill” 
is  about  6,000.  The  whole  community  is  gov¬ 
erned  by  an  administrative  body  of  four  presi¬ 
dents,  one  styled  “  First  Man  of  Athos,”  and  a 
representative  body  called  the  Holy  Synod,  con¬ 
sisting  of  twenty  members,  one  from  each  mon- 
asterv.  They  enjoy  complete  autonomy,  sub¬ 
ject  to  paying  the  Turkish  Government  an 
annual  tribute  of  about  .$17,000  The  monks  fol¬ 
low  the  ru’e  of  St.  Basil,  and  lead  an  ascetic  life, 
restricting  their  diet  to  herbs,  fruits,  and  fish. 
No  women  are  permitted  to  enter  Athos. 


ATITLAN. 


93 


ATOM. 


Atitlan,  a  Central  American  lake,  in  the  de¬ 
partment  of  Solola,  in  Guatemala,  24  miles  in 
length,  and  8  to  10  miles  in  breadth.  The  vol¬ 
cano  of  Atitlan  rises  12,538  feet  above  the  sea. 
At  the  foot  of  the  mountain  lies  the  little  Indian 
town  of  Santiago  de  Atitlan,  with  a  pop.  of 
2,000, 

Atlanta,  the  capital  of  Georgia,  has  a  pop. 
of  about  60,000,  and  extensive  trade  and 
manufactures.  It  was  first  settled  in  1840,  and  is 
memorable  for  the  capture  by  General  Sherman, 
in  Sept.,  1864,  and  the  destruction  of  its  business 
portion  a  month  later  when  the  army  started  for 
the  sea.  Atlanta  is  an  important  tobacco  market 
and  possesses  some  fine  public  buildings,  includ¬ 
ing  the  State  House. 

Atlantes,  in  Architecture,  so  called  by  the 
Greeks  in  reference  to  the  mythical  Atlas,  are 
male  figures  used  instead  of  columns.  The 
Romans  called  them  Telamones.  Female  figures 
employed  in  this  way  are  called  Caryatides. 

Atlantic  City,  a  fashionable  health-resort,  is 
situated  on  a  narrow,  sandy  island  off  the  coast  of 
New  Jersey,  sixty  miles  southeast  of  Philadel¬ 
phia.  Pop.  (1885),  7,942. 

Atlantic  Ocean.  The  Atlantic  Ocean,  so 
called  either  from  Mount  Atlas  or  from  the  fabu¬ 
lous  Island  of  Atlantis,  separates  the  Old  from 
the  New  World,  Europe  and  Africa  being  on  the 
east,  and  North  and  South  America  on  the  west. 
Its  greatest  width  is  5,000  miles,  but  between 
Brazil  and  the  African  coast  the  distance  is  only 
about  1,600  miles.  It  is  in  open  communication 
with  both  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  Antarctic  or 
Southern  Ocean.  The  North  Atlantic,  stretching 
from  70°  North  to  the  equator,  has  an  area  of  14,- 
000,000  square  miles.  It  communicates  with 
many  inclosed  or  partially  inclosed  seas,  such  as 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  Hudson 
Bay  on  the  west,  the  Baltic,  North  Sea,  Mediter¬ 
ranean,  and  Black  Sea  on  the  east,  whose  com¬ 
bined  areas  are  about  3,400,000 square  miles.  The 
South  Atlantic  from  the  equator  to  40°  south  has 
an  area  of  10,100,000  square  miles;  if  it  be  sup¬ 
posed  to  extend  through  the  great  Southern 
Ocean  as  far  as  the  Antarctic  Circle,  its  area  is 
16,700,000  square  miles.  Including  the  Arctic 
Ocean  and  the  other  seas  with  which  it  is  in  open 
communication,  the  Atlantic  has  a  drainage  area 
of  26,400,000  square  miles.  On  this  land,  drain¬ 
ing  directly  or  indirectly  into  the  Atlantic,  Mr. 
Murray  estimates  there  is  a  rainfall  of  15,800 
cubic  miles  annually,  and  that  the  annual  dis¬ 
charge  of  rivers  into  the  Atlantic  is  3,400  cubic 
miles  of  water,  equal  to  about  one-lialf  the  rain¬ 
fall  and  river  discharge  of  the  world.  The  Gulf 
Stream  spreads  out  over  the  Atlantic  to  the  south 
of  Newfoundland;  one  prolongation  of  it  returns 
to  the  tropics  off  the  coasts  of  Spain  and  Africa, 
the  other  passes  north  between  the  British  Isles 
and  Iceland,  and  on  to  the  coasts  of  Norway, 
which  are  thus  rendered  habitable,  while  the  op¬ 
posite  coasts  of  Greenland  are  icebound.  A  cold 
Arctic  current  passes  southward  along  the  shores 
of  Greenland,  and  unites  off  Cape  Farewell  with 
the  Davis’  Strait  current,  forming  the  Labrador 
current ,  which  passes  along  the  west  coast  of 
America,  and  passes  beneath  the  Gulf  Stream  to 
the  south  of  the  banks  of  Newfoundland.  Ice¬ 
bergs  are  carried  as  far  south  as  40°  N.  in  the 
Northern  and  as  far  north  as  38°  S.  in  the 
Southern  Hemisphere.  There  are  relatively  few 
oceanic  islands,  Iceland,  the  Azores,  St.  Paul’s 
Rocks,  Ascension,  and  the  Tristan  da  Cuuha 
group,  all  rise  from  the  central  elevation,  and  are 
all  of  volcanic  origin.  Jan  Mayen  rises  from  the 
deep  water  of  the  Norwegian  Sea.  The  coral 
group  of  Bermudas  rises  from  the  deep  water  of 
the  Western  North  Atlantic.  Off  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  are  the  Canaries,  Cape  Verdes,  and 
Madeira.  In  the  South  Atlantic,  to  the  east  of 
the  central  ridge,  are  Fernando  Noronlia  and 
Trinidad,  and  to  the  west  of  the  central  ridge, 
St.  Helena.  There  are  numerous  continental 
islands,  such  as  the  British  Isles,  Newfoundland, 
the  West  Indies,  the  Falklands,  and  others. 

Atlantic  Telegraph.  The  union  of  the  Old 
and  New  Worlds  by  means  of  the  electric  tele¬ 
graph,  probably  the  boldest  feat  of  electric  en¬ 
gineering  ever  projected,  was  first  suggested  by 
Professor  Morse  in  1843.  Various  reasons  pre¬ 
vented  his  ideas  taking  practical  shape,  but  after 


Mr.  Cyrus  Field  and  others  had  thoroughly  dis¬ 
cussed  the  practical  methods,  a  company  was 
formed  for  the  purpose  in  1856.  to  which  the 
Governments  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  gave  liberal  guarantees. 

This  company,  after  a  fruitless  attempt  to  lay 
an  electric  cable  in  1857,  finally  succeeded  in 
1858. 

The  cable,  2,500  miles  long,  and  weighing  one 
ton  per  mile,  was  composed  of  seven  fine  copper 
wires,  cased  in  gutta-percha,  contained  in  a 
casing  of  hemp  saturated  witli  pitch,  beeswax 
and  oil,  the  outer  sheath  being  composed  of 
eighteen  strands  of  seven  iron  wires  each.  The 
current  obtained  through  the  wire  was  so  weak 
that  a  congratulatory  message  from  the  Queen  to 
the  President,  consisting  of  ninety  words,  took 
sixty-seven  minutes  to  transmit.  After  a  few 
more  messages  the  cable  became  useless. 

In  consequence  of  this  failure,  it  was  not  until 

1865  that  c  ipital  was  found  to  make  another  at¬ 
tempt.  This  time  the  cable  was  made  still 
heavier,  and  the  whole  length,  2,300  miles, 
weighing  4,000  tons,  was  shipped  on  board 
one  vessel,  the  Great  Eastern.  The  paying-out 
journey  was  commenced  at  Valentia,  but  when 
the  vessel  was  1,064  miles  from  that  port,  the 
cable  broke  from  an  accidental  strain.  After  a 
fruitless  effort  to  fish  up  the  broken  cable  from 
the  bottom,  it  was  abandoned  for  the  season.  In 

1866  another  line,  so  modified  in  construction  as 
to  be  both  lighter  and  stronger  than  the  previous 
one,  was  successfully  laid  by  the  Great  Eastern. 
The  1865  cable  was  then,  by  means  of  the  same 
vessel,  grappled  for,  and  brought  up  from  a 
depth  of  two  miles,  spliced,  and  completed  to 
Trinity  Bay. 

In  1869  a  French  company  laid  a  line  from 
Brest  to  St.  Pierre  to  the  south  of  Newfoundland. 
In  1873  a  line  was  begun  from  Lisbon  to  Pernam¬ 
buco  in  South  America.  Other  two  cables  were 
laid  from  Valentia  to  Trinity  Bay  in  1874  and 
1875.  The  latter,  made  by  the  Messrs.  Siemens, 
weighed  only  880  pounds  per  mile,  being  the 
lightest  cable  planned  for  Atlantic  telegraphy. 
One  from  Penzance  to  St.  Pierre  was  laid  in  1879; 
another  from  England  to  Panama  was  completed 
in  1882;  and  in  1884  Messrs.  Bennett  and 
Mackay’s  line  was  laid  from  Valentia  to  Torbay 
in  Nova  Scotia. 

Atlantis,  according  to  ancient  myth  or  tradi¬ 
tion,  the  name  of  a  vast  island  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  It  is  first  mentioned  by  Plato  in  the  Tim- 
arus  and  the  Kritias.  An  Egyptian  priest  is 
said  to  have  told  Solon  of  its  existence,  lying  off 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules  in  the  ocean,  and  larger 
than  Libya  and  Asia  Minor  together.  In  conse¬ 
quence  of  an  earthquake,  it  is  said  to  have  been 
engulfed  by  the  waves  9,000  years  before  his 
time,  at  the  close  of  a  long  contest  which  its  in¬ 
habitants  maintained  against  the  Athenians. 
Plato  says  that  shoals  of  sand  marked  the  sight  of 
the  submerged  island.  Some  have  thought  that 
the  Canary  Isles  are  the  remains  of  this  sunken 
island. 

Atlantosaurus,  a  name  given  by  Professor 
Marsh  to  what  appears  to  be  the  largest  deino- 
saurian  reptile  of  which  any  remains  have  been 
preserved.  The  femur  is  more  than  eight  feet  in 
length.  The  size  of  the  bone  indicates  a  length 
of  t  lie  animal  of  nearly  100  feet,  and  a  height  of 
30  feet  or  thereabout  .  The  remains  were  obtained 
in  the  Jurassic  strata  of  Colorado. 

Atlas,  in  Greek  Mythology,  son  of  the  Titan 
Iapetus  and  Clymene,  and  brother  of  Prometheus 
and  Epimetheus.  He  was  father  of  the  Pleiades 
and  the  Hyades.  As  leader  of  the  Titans,  he 
attempted  to  storm  the  heavens,  and  for  this  su¬ 
preme  treason  was  condemned  by  Zeus  to  bear 
the  vault  of  heaven  on  his  head  and  hands,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Hesperides  at  the  western 
extremity  of  the  earth,  where  day  and  night  meet, 
on  the  mountains  in  the  northwest  of  Africa  still 
called  by  his  name.  A  collection  of  maps  is 
styled  an  atlas,  probably  from  the  title  page  illus¬ 
trations  in  the  earliest  of  (lie  publications 

Atlas,  the  great  mountain  system  of  North¬ 
western  Africa,  stretching  from  Cape  Nun  in 
Morocco  to  Cape  Bon  in  Tunis,  a  distance  of  about 
1,400  miles.  It  Is  not  properly  a  mountain  chain, 
but  rather  a  very  irregular  mountainous  mass  of 
j  land  formed  of  many  chains  running  in  various 


|  directions,  meeting  in  mountain-knots,  or  con¬ 
nected  by  short  chains  of  inferior  height,  and 
diversified  still  further  by  several  solitary  mount- 
i  ins  and  groups  of  mountains.  The  Atlas  attains 
its  greatest  height  (about  13,000  feet)  in  Miltsin — 
twenty-seven  miles  southeast  of  the  City  of  Mo¬ 
rocco — Bibawan  and  Tagherain. 

Atlas  is  that  piece  of  the  human  vertebral  col¬ 
umn  which  articulates  with  the  skull;  in  other 
words,  it  is  the  first  cervical  vertebra.  The  atlas, 
with  the  occipital  bone,  forms  the  joint  on  which 
the  head  moves  in  bowing,  and  turns  on  the 
pivot  of  the  second  cervical  vertebra,  when  we 
look  from  side  to  side. 

Atlas,  a  kind  of  silk-satin  manufactured  in  the 
East.  The  word  is  Arabic,  and  means  “  smooth,” 
“  bare,”  hence  it  has  been  applied  to  smooth  silk 
cloth. 

Atinol'ysis,  a  method  of  separating  a  mixture 
of  gases  by  taking  advantage  of  their  different 
rates  of  passage  through  a  porous  septum. 

Atmometer,  an  instrument  which  can  be  used 
to  determine  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere. 
It  consists  of  a  hollow  ball  of  unglazed  clay  with 
a  glass  stem.  The  whole  is  filled  with  water  and 
inverted  in  a  dish  of  mercury.  As  the  W'ater, 
having  passed  into  the  pores,  evaporates  from  the 
surface  of  the  ball,  the  mercury  rises  in  the  stem. 

Atmosphere  (Gr.  atmos,  vapor,  sphairia, 
sphere),  is  the  name  applied  to  the  gaseous  enve¬ 
lope  which  surrounds  the  earth.  The  existence 
of  an  atmosphere  is  to  us  a  matter  of  vital  import¬ 
ance.  We  owe  to  its  influence  the  possibility  of 
animal  and  vegetable  life,  the  modifying  and  re¬ 
taining  of  solar  heat,  the  transmission  of  sound, 
the  gradual  shading  of  day  into  night,  the  disin¬ 
tegration  of  rocks,  and  the  occurrence  of  weather 
phenomena  In  consequence  of  the  action  of 
gravity,  the  atmosphere  assumes  the  form 
of  a  spheroidal  stratum  concentric  with  the 
earth,  and  presses  heavily  on  its  surface.  It  has 
been  determined  by  Biot  and  Arago  that  100  cubic 
inches  of  dry  air,  when  the  barometer  is  at  thirty 
inches,  and  the  thermometer  at  60°  Fall.,  weigh 
31.074  grains.  The  law  of  Archimedes,  that  a 
body  immersed  in  a  fluid  loses  apart  of  its  weight 
equal  to  the  weight  of  the  volume  of  fluid  dis¬ 
placed  by  it,  finds  its  application  in  air  as  well 
as  in  water.  A  balloon  filled  with  heated  air  or 
hydrogen  gas  is  lighter  than  the  volume  of  air 
displaced  by  it,  and  therefore  rises  until  it  reaches 
a  stratum  of  such  density  that  the  'weight  of  the 
volume  of  air  displaced  by  it  equals  the  weight 
of  the  balloon  itself.  The  height  of  the  atmos¬ 
phere  has  not  yet  been  determined,  but  from 
the  observation  of  luminous  meteors  it  is  inferred 
that  in  an  extremely  attenuated  form  it  even 
reaches  500  miles. 

The  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  one  of  its 
most  important  properties.  Its  effect  is  exhibited 
in  the  action  of  the  ordinary  water  pump,  which, 
by  atmospheric  pressure  will  lift  a  column  of 
water  to  a  height  of  nearly  thirty-four  feet,  from 
which  wre  conclude  that  a  column  of  air  is  equal 
in  weight  to  a  column  of  water  of  the  same  hori¬ 
zontal  section,  and  of  the  height  of  nearly  thirty- 
four  feet.  As  mercury  is  13.6  times  heavier  than 
water,  the  air  will  support  a  mercurial  column  of 
about  thirty  inches.  From  the  more  convenient 
size  of  this  column,  mercury  has  been  adopted  as 
the  standard  of  atmospheric  pressure,  and  is  em¬ 
ployed  in  our  ordinary  barometers.  Recent  chem¬ 
ical  researches  give  the  following  as  the  mean 
composition  of  100  volumes  and  of  100  grains  of 
dry  air: 


Volumes. 

Grains. 

Nitrogen . 

. 70  02 

76.84 

Oxygen  . 

. 20.04 

24.10 

Carbonic  acid . 

.  0.04 

0.00 

100.00 

100.00 

Atoll  (a  Maidive  word),  a  form  of  coral  island, 
consisting  of  a  more  or  less  interrupted  ring  of 
coral  rock,  inclosing  a  central  lagoon. 

Atom  (Gr.  atomos,  that  which  cannot  be  cut) 
is  a  term  property  belonging  to  the  science  of  that 
class  of  physicists  who  deny  the  infinite  divisibil 
ity  of  matter.  It  has  a  secondary,  but  uujustfi- 
able,  use  among  chemists. 

Chemical  and  physical  facts,  of  the  most  varied 
and  independent  character,  unite  in  giving  us  the 
information  that,  even  in  such  apparently  texture¬ 
less  bodies  as  glass  and  water,  after  a  certain 


ATOMIC  THEORY. 


94 


ATTILA. 


finite  amount  of  division,  a  stage  is  reached  at 
which  any  further  division  breaks  the  body  into 
fragments  which  are  not  necessarily  similar  to 
one  another,  nor  to  the  original  substance. 

Atomic  Theory.  The  atomic  theory  is  a  theory 
as  to  the  nature  of  the  ultimate  particles  of  mat¬ 
ter.  The  honor  of  having  first  formulated  an 
atomic  theory  based  upon  experimental  evidence, 
obtained  from  his  own  investigations  and  from 
those  of  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries,  falls 
to  Dalton.  Dalton’s  discovery  was  what  has  been 
subsequently  known  as  the  law  of  multiple  -pro¬ 
portions,  and  to  explain  it  Dalton  reverted  to  the 
atomic  hypothesis,  which  assumed  that  matter 
consists  of  atoms  of  different  weights,  those  of 
the  same  element  being  all  of  the  same  weight. 
Dalton  further  introduced  a  system  of  chemical 
notation,  in  which  the  atoms  were  represented  by 
symbols. 

Generalizing  from  their  experiments  on  a  num¬ 
ber  of  the  elements,  Dulong  and  Petit  concluded 
that  the  capacity  for  heat  of  elementary  atoms  is 
identical.  The  laws  of  Dulong  and  Petit,  and  of 
Avogadro,  constitute  the  main  grounds  for  fix¬ 
ing  the  atomic  weights  as  at  present  used  by 
chemists.  For  many  years,  and  indeed  until 
comparatively  recently,  the  atomic  weight  of 
oxygen  was  all  but  universally  stated  as  8, 
compared  with  that  of  hydrogen  as  unity,  instead 
of  16  as  at  present.  Adopting  this  weight, 
the  formula  of  water  becomes  IIO,  this  being  the 
simplest  expression  for  the  proportion  of  one 
part  by  weight  of  hydrogen  to  eight  parts  by 
weight  of  oxygen.  But  experiments  with  marsh 
gas  and  other  compounds  of  oxygen  necessitated 
the  assumption  that  the  atomic  weight  of  oxygen 
is  16,  when  the  formula  for  water  becomes  H20.  In 
most  cases  the  old  atomic  weights  are  just  half 
the  new  atomic  weights.  The  new  numbers  are 
now  all  but  universally  employed  by  chemists. 

Valency  is  the  capacity  of  an  element  to  com¬ 
bine  with  other  elements;  thus  monads  com¬ 
bine  with  one  atom  of  a  monad;  dyads  with  two 
atoms  of  a  monad,  or  one  of  a  dyad;  triads  with 
one  of  a  triad,  three  of  a  monad,  or  one  of  a 
monad  and  one  of  a  dyad,  etc.  What  is  known 
as  the  equivalent  of  an  element  is  that  proportion 
of  an  element  which  is  capable  of  taking  the 
place  of  one  atom  of  a  monovalent  element. 

Atonement.  So  fundamental  is  the  doctrine 
of  the  atonement  of  the  Christian  religion,  that 
all  churches  may  be  said  to  be  orthodox  on  this 
point.  The  Church  of  Rome,  the  Greek  Church, 
the  various  Protestant  churches,  all  agree  in  rest¬ 
ing  the  sinner’s  hope  of  salvation  on  the  media¬ 
torial  work  or  atonement  of  Jesus  Christ.  Never¬ 
theless,  from  the  very  beginning  of  speculative 
Christian  theology,  there  have  been  within  the 
several  churches  various  ways  of  conceiving  and 
explaining  the  nature  and  mode  of  operation  of 
this  mediatorial  work. 

Protestants  and  Roman  Catholics  alike  accept 
the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  as  given  in  Anselm’s 
Satisfaction  theory,  in  ascribing  to  the  sufferings 
or  merits  of  Christ  an  infinite  objective  value,  but 
the  former  give  the  preference  to  that  aspect  of 
this  theory  presented  by  Thomas  Aquinas;  the 
latter,  to  that  of  Duns  Scotus.  The  Protestant 
theologians,  however,  extended  the  idea  of  vicari¬ 
ous  suffering,  so  as  to  make  it  include  the  Divine 
curse,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  they  insisted  on 
the  active  obedience  of  Christ,  together  with  the 
passive,  referring  the  former  to  the  complete 
obedience  which  he  yielded  to  the  law.  Both 
opinions  were  intimately  connected  with  the 
Protestant  dogma  of  justification.  With  the 
Roman  Catholic  theologians,  satisfaction  is  made 
by  the  death  of  Jesus  only  for  guilt  contracted 
before  baptism,  and  only  the  eternal  punishment 
due  to  mortal  sins  committed  after  baptism  is 
remitted;  so  that  Christians  have  themselves  to 
make  satisfaction  for  venial  sins  by  temporal 
punishments.  They  also  asserted  that  the  merits 
of  Christ  were  supererogatory,  while  Protestants 
thought  they  were  equivalent  to  the  penalties  to 
be  inflicted  upon  men. 

The  reader  is  referred  for  further  and  fuller 
information  on  this  subject  to  the  following 
works:  Baur,  Die  Christliche  Lehr e  von  der  Ver- 
sohnung  (1838),  and  Vorlesungen  -uber  die  Christ- 
liche  Dogmengeschirh/e  (3  vols.,  1865-67);  the  D.og- 
mengeschichte  of  Neandler,  of  Gieseler,  and  of 


Ilagenbach;  Calvin’s  Institutes;  the  relevant 
works  of  Edwards,  of  Owen,  of  Archbishop 
Magee,  of  Dale,  and  of  Professor  Crawford; 
Campbell  (John  M’Leod),  Nature  of  the  Atone¬ 
ment;  Thomson’s  Bampton  Lecture  (1853);  H.  N. 
Oxenham’s  Catholic  Doctrine  of  the  Atonement  (2d 
ed.,  1869);  Tayler  (.1.  J .),  Christian  Aspects  of 
Faith  and  Duty;  Maurice,  Theological  Essays; 
the  great  work  of  Ritschl,  Die  Christliche  Lehre 
von  der  Rechtfertigung  und  Versohnung  (3  vols. 
2d  ed.,  1870-74);  and  Dr.  G.  Jamieson’s  Discus¬ 
sions  on  the  Atonement.  Is  it  Vicarious  f  (1887). 
See  also  the  articles  Election,  Predestination, 
Sacrifice,  etc.,  in  this  work. 

Atony  (Gr.  a,  not,  and  teino,  I  stretch),  in  medi¬ 
cine,  slackness,  debility  of  the  whole  body,  or  of 
any  muscular  organ. 

Atra'to,  a  river  of  Colombia,  interesting  be¬ 
cause  it  has  repeatedly  been  made  to  bear  a  part 
in  schemes  for  a  ship-canal  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  It  is  navigable  by  steamers  for  fully 
250  miles,  being  750  to  1,000  feet  wide,  and  8  to 
70  feet  deep.  A  route,  surveyed  by  the  United 
States  Government  in  1871,  proposed  to  connect 
the  Atrato  and  the  Jurador,  flowing  into  the 
Pacific,  by  a  canal  forty-eight  miles  long. 

Atranli  ( Atrowli ),  a  town  of  British  India,  in 
the  Northwest  Provinces,  founded  about  the 
twelfth  century.  Pop.  (1881),  16,000. 

Atrek,  a  river  of  Persia,  rising  in  Khorassan, 
among  the  Hazar  Masjid  Mountains,  and  thence 
flowing  nearly  350  miles  westward  to  the  Caspian 
Sea. 

At  reus,  son  of  Pelops,  grandson  of  Tantalus, 
and  elder  brother  of  Tliyestes.  He  was  married 
first  to  Cleola,  who  bore  him  Pleistlienes,  then  to 
iErope,  who  had  been  wife  of  his  son  Pleistlienes, 
and  who  bore  him  Agamemnon  and  Menelaus, 
and  lastly  to  Pelopia,  daughter  of  his  brother 
Tliyestes.  He  was  slain  by  Atreus.  The  tragic 
fate  of  the  house  of  Pelops  gave  materials  to  the 
great  tragic  poets  of  Greece,  whom  Milton  in  his 
II  Penseroso  speaks  of  as  “  presenting  Thebes  or 
Pelops’  line,  or  the  tale  of  Troy  divine.” 

Atrium,  in  Roman  architecture,  was  the  hall 
which  formed  the  chief  part  of  the  Roman  house. 
In  ecclesiastical  architecture,  the  atrium  was  an 
open  court  before  a  church,  where  penitents  and 
others  stood  to  solicit  the  prayers  of  the  faithful. 

At'rophy  (Gr.  a,  not,  and  trophe,  nourish¬ 
ment),  an  alteration  of  the  vital  processes  in  a 
living  organism,  either  animal  or  vegetable,  re¬ 
sulting  in  a  diminution  in  size  and  functional 
activity  of  the  whole  organism  (general  atrophy), 
or  of  certain  of  its  organisms  or  tissues. 

Atropia,  or  Atropine,  C17H23NO3,  is  an  alka¬ 
loid  existing  in  all  parts  of  the  deadly  night-shade 
(. Atropia  belladonna).  The  seeds  of  the  thorn-apple 
( Datura  stramonium)  also  contain  an  alkaloid, 
daturine,  which  long  was  believed  to  be  iden¬ 
tical  with  atropia.  Recent  researches  seem  to 
indicate  that  it  is,  however,  only  isomeric,  and 
that  it  is  only  half  as  poisonous  as  atropia.  A 
solution  of  sulphate  of  atropia  in  water  dropped 
into  the  eye  is  now  generally  preferred  to  bella¬ 
donna  lotions  or  ointments  for  eye  diseases. 

At'ropos,  one  of  the  Fates. 

Atta'clie  (Fr.),  one  attached  to  or  connected 
with  another,  as  a  part  of  his  suite  of  attendants. 
The  term  is  specifically  applied  to  young  diplo¬ 
matists  on  the  staff  of  an  ambassador. 

Attachment  is  a  legal  term,  signifying  the 
form  of  process  by  the  authority  of  which  the 
person  or  the  goods  of  a  debtor  may  be  seized  in 
satisfaction.  As  a  proceeding  against  the  person, 
it  is  a  species  of  criminal  process,  and  has  the 
force  of  much  that  will  be  found  under  arrest. 
In  form,  it  is  a  writ  addressed  to  the  sheriff, 
commanding  him  to  attach  the  person  against 
whom  it  is  issued,  and  have  him  before  the  court 
to  answer  for  some  act  or  default  amounting  to 
contempt  of  court. 

In  the  United  States,  attachment  may  be  de¬ 
fined  as  the  taking  into  the  custody  of  the  law  the 
person  or  property  of  one  who  is  already  before 
the  court,  or  of  one  whom  it  is  sought  to  bring 
before  the  court;  also  a  writ  for  this  purpose. 
To  some  extent  it  is  of  the  nature  of  a  criminal 
process.  In  some  States,  attachments  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  as  foreign  and  domestic — the  former 
issued  against  a  non-resident  having  property 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State,  the  latter 


against  a  resident  in  the  State;  jurisdiction  over 
the  person  or  property  being  necessary  for  an  at¬ 
tachment.  An  attachment  issued  under  a  State 
law  which  has  not  been  adopted  by  Congress,  or  by 
a  rule  of  court,  cannot  be  sustained  in  a  United 
States  court.  Money  due  to  a  seaman  for  wages 
is  not  attachable  in  the  hands  of  a  purser,  the 
purser  being  a  distributing  agent  for  the  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  in  no  seose  the  debtor  of  the  seaman. 

Attainder  (through  Fr.  from  Lat.  attingere,  to 
touch  upon),  in  English  law,  is  the  legal  conse¬ 
quence  of  sentence  of  death  or  outlawrypn  respect 
of  treason  or  felony.  It  was  followed  by  forfeit¬ 
ure  of  estate  and  corruption  of  blood ;  and  generally 
it  imported  extinction  of  civil  rights  and  capaci¬ 
ties.  Thus,  an  attainted  person  can  not  sue  in  a 
court  of  justice;  he  loses  all  power  over  his  prop¬ 
erty;  and  he  is  by  his  attainder  rendered  incap¬ 
able  of  performing  any  of  the  duties,  or  enjoying 
any  of  the  privileges  of  a  free  citizen. 

In  1870  the  law  on  this  subject  was  revised  and 
made  more  consistent  with  reason.  No  conviction 
for  treason  or  felony  now  causes  any  attainder  or  , 
corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture  or  escheat. 

Attainder  was  sometimes  inflicted  after  death; 
thus,  four  of  the  regicides — Cromwell,  Ireton, 
Bradshawe,  and  Pride — were  attainted  posthum¬ 
ously. 

In  the  United  States,  attainder,  as  it  existed  in 
England  prior  to  the  Act  33  and  34  Viet.,  is  abso¬ 
lutely  unknown.  The  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  forbids  the  enactment  of  any  bill  of  attain¬ 
der  by  Congress  or  any  of  the  States.  Prior  to 
the  adoption  of  the  Constitution,  it  was  held  that 
State  laws  banishing  the  persons  and  confiscating 
the  property  of  individuals  named  for  their  treason, 
were  valid;  but  an  Act  of  Congress  disbarring 
lawyers  unless  they  would  take  an  oath  denying 
past  acts  of  treason,  has  been  held  to  be  uncon¬ 
stitutional  as  a  bill  of  attainder. 

Altalea,  a  genus  of  palms,  chiefly  natives  of 
the  tropical  parts  of  America,  . 

Atterbom,  Peter  Daniel  Amadeus,  Swedish 
poet,  was  born  at  Asbo,  in  East  Gottland,  in  1790, 
and  died  July  21,  1855.  Atterbom  was  the  leader 
of  the  Swedish  Romant  icists. 

Atterbnry,  Francis,  Bishop  of  Rochester, 
was  born  March  6,  1662.  In  1704  he  was  pro¬ 
moted  to  the  Deanery  of  Carlisle;  in  1710  was 
chosen  Prolocutor  of  Convocation;  in  1712 became 
Dean  of  Christ  Church;  and  in  1713  was  made 
Bishop  of  Rochester  and  Dean  of  Westminster. 
His  deep  complicity  in  a  succession  of  plots  for 
the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  at  length  brought 
down  upon  him  the  charge  of  treason,  and  in 

1722  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower.  A  bill  of 
pains  and  penalties  was  brought  into  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  passed  in  the  Lords  by  83  to 
43.  Atterbury,  who  had  defended  himself  with 
great  ability,  was  deprived  of  all  his  ecclesiastical 
offices,  and  forever  banished  the  kingdom.  In 

1723  he  quitted  England,  and  after  a  short  stay 
at  Brussels,  settled  in  Paris,  where  he  died,  Feb. 
15,  1732. 

Attestation,  in  Conveyancing,  is  the  verifica¬ 
tion  of  the  execution  of  deeds  and  wills  by  wit¬ 
nesses;  hence  the  clause  at  the  end  of  these 
instruments  which  immediately  precedes  the  sig¬ 
natures  of  the  witnesses  is  called  the  attestation 
clause. 

Atlic,  a  term  in  architecture,  employed  to 
designate  a  low  story  rising  above  the  cornice  that 
terminates  the  main  elevation  of  a  building.  Such 
a  structure  was  usually  of  the  Attic  order ,  having 
square  columns  or  pilasters  instead  of  pillars.  In 
domestic  architecture,  the  word  is  usually  ap¬ 
plied  to  sky-lighted  rooms  in  the  roof. 

Attica,  one" of  the  political  divisions  or  States 
of  Hellas  or  ancient  Greece,  of  which  Athens  was 
the  capital.  Its  area  was  about  640  square  miles. 
To-day  Attica  and  Bceotia  together  form  a  nom- 
archy  or  government  in  the  Kingdom  of  Greece, 
with  an  area  of  2,472  square  miles.  Pop.  (1879), 
185,364. 

Atticus,  Titus  Pomponius,  was  born  in  Rome 
109  B. c.  In  85  b.c.  he  withdrew  to  Athens. 
After  65  b.c.,  when  Sulla  induced  him  to  return 
to  Rome,  he  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  study  and 
the  pleasures  of  friendship,  and  refused  to  take 
any  part  in  politics.  He  starved  himself  to  death 
in  32  b.c. 

Attila  (Ger.  Eizel;  Hungarian,  Ethele),  the 


ATTOCK. 


95 


AUCUBA. 


«  Scourgeof  God,”  was  born  about  406,  the  son  of 
Mundzuk,  King  of  tlie  Huns,  and  in  434  succeeded 
his  uncle,  Rhuas,  as  chief  of  countless  hordes  scat¬ 
tered  over  the  North  of  Asia  and  Europe.  It  is 
not  certain  when  the  name  of  “  Scourge  of  God  ” 
was  first  applied  to  Attila;  but  he  is  said  to  have 
received  it  from  a  hermit  in  Gaul.  The  whole 
race  of  Huns  was  regarded  in  the  same  light.  In 
447,  after  an  unsuccessful  campaign  in  Persia  and 
Armenia,  he  advanced  through  Illyria,  and  devas¬ 
tated  all  the  countries  between  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Mediterranean.  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and 
Greece  were  overrun;  seventy  flourishing  cities 
were  desolated;  and  Theodosius  -was  compelled 
to  cede  a  portion  of  territory  south  of  the  Danube, 
and  to  pay  tribute  to  the  conqueror,  after  treach¬ 
erously  attempting  to  murder  him.  In  451  Attila 
turned  his  course  westward,  and  invaded  Gaul, 
but  was  defeated  at  Chalons  by  Tlieodoric,  King 
of  the  Visigoths.  On  every  side  the  Huns  were 
routed  and  Attila  with  difficulty  escaped  into  his 
encampment.  This,  if  old  historians  are  to  be 
trusted,  must  have  been  the  bloodiest  battle  ever 
'fought  in  Europe;  for  it  is  stated  by  contempor¬ 
aries,  that  not  less  than  252,000  slain  were  left  on 
the  field  In  the  following  year  he  devastated 
Italy.  The  Roman  Emperor  was  helpless,  and 
Rome  itself  was  saved  from  destruction  only  by 
the  personal  mediation  of  Pope  Leo  I.,  who  vis¬ 
ited  the  dread  barbarian,  and  is  said  to  have  sub¬ 
dued  his  ferocity  into  awe  by  the  apostolic  majesty 
of  his  mien.  This  deliverance  was  regarded  as  a 
miracle  by  the  affrighted  Romans,  and  old  chron¬ 
iclers  relate  that  the  Apostles  Peter  and  Paul 
appeared  in  Attila’s  camp  and  changed  his  pur¬ 
pose.  Attila  died  in  453.  See  Gibbon’s  Decline 
and  Fall,  and  Thierry’s  Ilistorie  d’ Attila  (4tli  ed. 
1874). 

Attock,  a  town  and  fort  of  the  Punjab,  on 
the  left  or  east  bank  of  the  Indus. 

Attorney  (one  appointed,  from  the  old  verb 
attorn,  turn,  assign  or  appoint),  a  term  of  Eng¬ 
lish  law,  used  in  a  general  sense  to  describe  any 
person  authorized  to  act  on  behalf  of  another,  as, 
for  example,  the  holder  of  a  power  or  letter  of 
attorney  authorizing  him  to  sell  property  or  do 
some  other  act  on  behalf  of  the  grantor.  ‘  ‘  At- 
torney-at-law  ”  was  formerly  the  proper  style  of 
those  members  of  the  legal  profession  who  rep¬ 
resented  litigants  in  the  courts  of  common  law, 
and  retained  counsel  on  their  behalf ;  but  it  has 
been  superseded  by  the  designation  of  solicitor, 
In  the  United  States,  the  term  attorney-at-law  is 
used  for  one  standing  in  the  place  of  another  in 
matters  of  law. 

The  attorney-at-law  is  not  a  governmental  offi¬ 
cer,  but  is  an  officer  of  the  court,  responsible  to 
the  court  under  whose  immediate  supervision  he 
is  for  the  faithful  performance  of  his  duties. 
He  has  property  in  his  office,  and  although  he 
may  be  punished  summarily  for  official  miscon¬ 
duct  occurring  in  open  court,  he  can  not  be  re¬ 
moved  from  his  office  without  special  cause  and 
without  having  an  opportunity  to  be  heard  by 
himself  or  counsel. 

Empowered  to  stand  in  the  place  of  his  client 
in  all  matters  of  law,  he  performs  all  acts  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  successful  prosecution  or  defence  of 
his  suit,  not  only  in  the  office  preparation  of  the 
cause,  but  also  in  arguing  the  same  in  open 
court. 

_  Each  State  prescribes  by  statute  the  qualifica¬ 
tions  of  its  own  attorneys.  Any  person  who  has 
been  admitted  to  the  highest  court  of  a  State  is 
eligible  for  admission  to  the  district  and  circuit 
courts  of  the  United  States  for  that  State,  but  to 
be  admitted  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States,  it  is  necessary  that  an  attorney  shall  have 
for  three  years  been  a  practitioner  in  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  State  to  which  he  belongs,  and  that 
his  private  and  professional  character  shall  be 
fair. 

Some  of  the  States  do  not  admit  women  to 
practice  as  attorneys.  In  1887  about  one  hun¬ 
dred  women,  married  or  single,  had  been  admitted 
as  attorneys  in  the  United  States. 

Attorney-General,  the  title  by  which,  in  Eng¬ 
land  and  Ireland,  the  first  ministerial  law  officer 
of  the  crown  is  known.  The  Attorney-General  is 
appointed  by  letters-patent.  His  office,  powers, 
and  duties  correspond  in  many  respects  to  those 


that  belong  to  the  Lord  Advocate  in  Scotland, 
though  the  po-wers  of  the  latter  functionary  are 
more  extensive  and  less  clearly  defined.  Origi¬ 
nally,  the  Attorney-General  was  simply  the  king’s 
attorney,  and  stood  to  the  sovereign  in  the  same 
relation  as  any  other  attorney  does  to  lus  em¬ 
ployer. 

Under  the  United  States  Government,  the 
Attorney-General  is  one  of  the  eight  officials  who 
constitute  the  President’s  Cabinet.  These  officers 
are  appointed  by  the  President,  confirmed  by  the 
Senate,  and  removable  at  pleasure.  The  Attor¬ 
ney-General  is  the  head  of  the  Department  of 
Justice,  and  his  duties  are  to  give  advice  and 
opinions  to  the  President,  or  any  of  the  heads  of 
the  Executive  Departments  on  questions  of  law 
arising  in  their  respective  departments.  He 
argues  suits  in  the  United  States  courts,  when 
considered  necessary,  provides  legal  service  on 
behalf  of  the  Government  in  the  prosecution  or 
defence  of  suits  at  law,  examines  titles  to  lands 
purchased  by  the  United  Slates  for  public  use, 
and  exercises  a  general  superintendence  over  the 
minor  officials  of  the  United  States  courts.  His 
salary  is  $8,000  per  annum.  Nearly  all  of  the 
States  of  the  Union  have  Attorney-Generals,  who 
are  in  some  instances  appointed  by  the  Govern¬ 
ors,  in  others  elected  by  the  people.  Their  duties 
under  the  State  Governments  correspond  essen¬ 
tially  with  those  of  the  United  States  Attorney- 
General  under  the  General  Government. 

Attorney,  Power  of,  an  authority  to  act  in  the 
place  of  another,  given  by  deed,  and  usually  re¬ 
vocable  by  the  maker  or  principal. 

Attraction.  The  mutual  action  between  any 
two  bodies  is  termed  stress.  When  the  stress 
tends  to  separate  the  bodies,  or  to  prevent  their 
mutual  approach,  it  is  termed  a  pressure  or  re¬ 
pulsion.  When  the  stress  is  such  that  the  bodies 
tend  to  approach  each  other,  it  is  termed  a  ten¬ 
sion  or  attraction. 

Attribute,  in  Logic,  is  used  to  denote  the  oppo¬ 
site  of  substance.  The  latter  is  considered  to  be 
self  existent,  while  the  former  can  only  be  con¬ 
ceived  as  possessing  a  dependent  existence. 
Attributes  are  commonly  said  to  belong  to  sub¬ 
stances. 

Attwood,  Thomas,  musician,  was  born  in 
London  in  1765.  With  some  other  appointments, 
he  held  that  of  organist  of  St.  Paul’s  from  1796 
till  his  death,  March  24,  1838. 

Atwood’s  Machine,  an  instrument  for  illus¬ 
trating  the  relations  of  time,  space,  and  velocity, 
in  the  motion  of  a  body  falling  under  the  action 
of  gravity.  It  was  invented  by  George  Atwood, 
or  Attwood,  a  mathematician  of  some  eminence, 
who  was  born  in  1745,  and  died  in  1807.  It  is 
found  that  a  body  falling  freely,  passes  through 
16  feet  in  the  first  second,  64  feet  in  the  first  two 
seconds,  144  feet  in  the  first  three  seconds,  and  so 
on. 

Aubagne,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Bouches-du-Rhone.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Aube,  a  department  in  the  northeast  of  France, 
occupying  the  southern  part  of  the  old  Province 
of  Champagne  and  a  small  portion  of  Burgundy, 
bounded  by  Marne,  Haute-Marne,  Yonne,  and 
Seine-et-Marne.  The  eastern  part  belongs  to  the 
basin  of  the  River  Aube;  the  western  to  that  of 
the  Seine.  Area,  2,310  square  miles.  Pop.  (1886), 
257,374. 

Aubenas,  a  town  of  southeast  France,  in  the 
department  of  Ard&che.  Pop.  (1881),  5,356. 

Auber,  Daniel  Francois  Esprit,  a  composer 
of  operas,  was  born  at  Caen,  in  Normandy,  Jan. 
29,  1784.  By  far  the  most  important  and  success¬ 
ful  of  his  operas  is  La  Muette  de  Portici,  usually 
known  as  Masanidlo  (1828);  of  the  lighter  works, 
Fra  Diavolo  (1829)  is  the  best  known.  Of  his 
forty  operas  the  next  most  notable  are  Le  Domino 
Noir  (1837);  Lett  Diamante  de  la  Couronne  (1841), 
Ilaydee  (1847),  La  Fiancee  du  Roide  Garbe  (1864), 
and  t.eves  d’  Amour  (1869).  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Institute,  director  of  the  Conservatory  of 
Music,  and  commander  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
He  died  at  Paris,  May  13,  1871. 

Aubervilliers,  a  place  in  the  Seine  depart¬ 
ment,  about  five  miles  north  of  Paris.  Pop. 
(1881),  19,437. 

Aubrey,  John,  antiquary  and  folklorist,  was 
born  at  Easton  Percy,  near  Chippenham,  in  Wilt¬ 
shire,  England,  March  12,  1626,  and  died  in  1697. 


Auburn,  the  name  of  several  places  in  the 
United  States.  The  most  important  of  these  is  in 
the  State  of  New  York,  173  miles  west-by-north 
of  Albany.  The  number  of  convicts  in  the  State 
prison,  founded  here  in  1816,  usually  exceeds 
1,000.  Since  1823  it  has  been  conducted  on  the 
“silent”  or  “Auburn”  system.  There  are  also 
a  State  asylum  and  a  State  armory.  Pop.  (1886), 
28,000.  (2)  A  town  of  Maine,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Androscoggin  river.  Pop.  (1880),  9,555. 

Aubusson,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Creuse.  Pop.,  6,406. 

Audi,  the  capital  of  the  French  department  of 
Gers,  on  the  River  Gers,  forty-four  miles  south  of 
Agen.  Pop.  (1881),  12,175. 

Auckland,  the  northern  provincial  district  of 
New  Zealand,  includes  fully  a  half  of  North 
Island,  and  is  about  400  miles  long  by  200  wide 
at  its  greatest  breadth.  Pop.  (1886),  130,379. 

Auckland,  tlie  largest  city  in  the  North  Island 
of  New  Zealand,  situated  on  the  peninsula  about 
seven  miles  wide  on  the  Hauraki  Gulf.  Auckland 
is  distant  from  Sidney  1,315  miles;  from  Mel¬ 
bourne,  1,650.  Pop.  (1881),  16,675. 

Auckland,  William  Eden,  Lord,  statesman 
and  diplomatist,  third  son  of  Sir  Robert  Eden, 
Bart.,  was  born  in  1744.  In  1772 he  was  appointed 
Under-Secretary  of  State,  and  later  became  Post¬ 
master-General  and  Ambassador  to  France,  Spain, 
and  Holland.  In  1788  he  was  raised  to  the  Irish, 
in  1793  to  the  British,  peerage  as  Baron  Auck¬ 
land.  He  died  May  28,  1814.  His  son  George 
Eden,  Earl  of  Auckland,  was  born  in  1784, 
and  in  1814  succeeded  as  Lord  Auckland.  In 
1835  he  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  India. 
As  such,  in  1838,  he  plunged  into  the  unhappy 
Afghan  war,  whose  successful  beginning  pro¬ 
cured  him  the  title  of  Earl  of  Auckland.  He 
died  Jan.  1,  1849. 

Auckland  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  about 
180  miles  to  the  south  of  New  Zealand.  The 
largest  of  them  measures  30  miles  by  15.  The 
Auckland  Islands  are  valuable  chiefly  as  a  whal¬ 
ing  station,  but  are  not  peopled.  They  were 
annexed  by  Great  Britain  in  May,  1886. 

Auction  (Lat.  audio).  The  character  of  this 
convenient  mode  of  offering  property  for  sale  is 
correctly  indicated  by  the  name,  which  means  an 
arrangement  for  increasing  the  price  by  exciting 
competition  amongst  purchasers.  In  the  Dutch 
Auction  of  the  “  Cheap  Jack,”  the  usual  mode  of 
proceeding  is  reversed,  the  property  being  offered 
at  a  higher  price  than  that  which  the  seller  is 
willing  to  accept,  and  gradually  lowered  till  a 
purchaser  is  found. 

Auctioneer,  the  person  who  conducts  an  auc¬ 
tion.  The  auctioneer  is  in  a  certain  sense  the 
agent  of  both  seller  and  purchaser,  and  by  the 
fall  of  his  hammer,  or  by  writing  the  purchaser’s 
name  in  his  book,  he  binds  him  to  accept  the 
article  sold  at  the  price  indicated.  The  auctioneer 
may  also,  and  frequently  does,  act  as  agent  for 
absent  purchasers,  or  for  persons  who  have  in¬ 
structed  him  to  make  biddings  for  them  during 
the  sale. 

Au'cuba,  a  genus  of  Cornacete  of  wdiich  the 


Aucuba  Japonica. 

familiar,  and  probably  the  only  true,  species  is  A. 
japonica,  an  evergreen  shrub  resembling  a  laurel. 


AUDE. 


AUGUSTINE. 


Aude  (Atax),  a  river  in  the  South  of  France, 
rises  in  the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  and  falls  into  the 
Mediterranean,  after  a  course  of  180  miles. 

Aude,  a  maritime  department  in  the  South  of 
France.  It  comprises  some  old  ‘  ‘  counties  ”  which 
formerly  constituted  a  portion  of  the  Province  of 
Languedoc.  Area,  2,438  square  miles;  pop.  (1886), 
332,080  The  chief  town  is  Carcassonne. 

Audebert,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  natural¬ 
ist  and  artist,  was  born  in  1759,  at  Rochefort,  and 
at  Paris  attained  eminence  as  a  miniature-painter. 
In  1800  he  published  a  splendid  illustrated  volume 
on  the  monkeys  and  lemurs,  the  Ilistoire  Naturelle 
des  Singes. 

And  ometer,  is  a  special  application  of  the 
telephone  for  measuring  minute  differences  in 
the  power  of  hearing. 

Audiplionc  is  the  name  of  an  invention  (1879) 
by  Mr.  Rhodes  of  Chicago,  to  assist  the  hearing 
of  deaf  persons  in  whom  the  auditory  nerve  is  not 
entirely  destroyed. 

Auditor,  the  name  given  to  those  who  are  ap¬ 
pointed  to  examine  accounts  on  behalf  either  of  the 
Government,  of  courts  of  law,  of  corporations,  or 
of  private  persons.  An  auditor  is  usually,  but 
not  always,  a  professional  accountant.  His  duties 
are  to  see  that  all  payments  and  receipts  in  the 
accounts  submitted  to  him  are  instructed  by 
vouchers,  or  otherwise  proved,  that  the  accounts 
and  books  are  properly  kept  and  stated,  and  either 
to  certify  their  accuracy  or  point  out  any  error  he 
may  discover. 

Auditory  Nerve,  or  nerve  of  hearing,  is  the 
poriio  mollis  of  the  seventh  pair,  distributed  to  the 
ear. 

Audley,  Sir  James,  one  of  the  original  Knights 
of  the  Order  of  the  Garter,  founded  in  1344  by 
Edward  III.,  in  1350  fought  in  the  sea-fight  of 
Sluys,  and  in  1354  attended  Edward,  the  Black 
Prince,  to  France. 

Audouin,  Jean  Victor,  naturalist,  was  born 
at  Paris,  April  27, 1797,  and  studied  medicine  and 
the  natural  sciences.  Installed  in  1833  as  Profes¬ 
sor  of  Entomology  at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  he 
made  special  studies  on  the  muscardine  (a  silk¬ 
worm  disease),  the  parasites  infesting  the  vine, 
and  other  insect  pests.  He  died  Nov.  9,  1841. 

Audran,  Gerard,  French  engraver,  was  born 
at  Lyons  in  1640.  He  engraved  the  works  of  Le¬ 
brun,  illustrating  the  battles  of  Alexander,  and 
many  paintings  by  Raphael,  Titian,  Domenichino, 
Poussin,  and  others.  He  died  in  Paris  in  1703. 
His  nephews,  Benoit  (1661-1721)  and  Jean  (1667— 
1756)  were  also  engravers. 

Audubon,  John  James,  the  first  of  American 
ornithologists,  was  born  in  Louisiana  May  4,  1780, 
of  French  parents.  His  love  of  natural  history 
was  shown  in  early  youth,  and  he  devoted  his  life 
to  the  study  of  American  birds,  spending  his 
time  in  the  forests,  collecting  and  sketching.  His 
great  work,  the  Birds  of  America,  occupied  ten 
years  in  preparation,  and  cost  .$100,000  to  pro¬ 
duce.  Bulfon  pronounced  it  to  be  magnificent, 
and  its  production  placed  Audubon  in  the  front 
rank  of  ornithologists.  He  also  explored  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  in  1843  visited  the  Yellowstone 
region.  About  1850  he  published  the  Quadrupeds 
of  America,  and  died  Jan.  27,  1851. 

Auenbrugger  von  Auenbrug,  Leopold,  an 
Austrian  physician,  born  at  Gratz  in  1722,  prac¬ 
ticed  at  the  Spanish  hospital  in  Vienna,  where  he 
died  in  1809. 

Auerbach,  Berthold,  German  novelist,  was 
born  of  Jewish  parentage,  at  Nordstetten,  in  the 
Wlirtemberg  Black  Forest,  Feb.  28,,  1812. 
Many  of  the  Auerbach’s  works,  which  in  German 
fill  nearly  forty  volumes,  have  been  translated 
into  English,  ile  died  at  Cannes,  Feb.  8,  1882. 

Auersperg,  Anton  Alexander,  Graf  von, 
German  poet,  was  born  at  Laibach,  April  11,  1806. 
In  1861  he  was  chosen  a  life-member  of  the  upper 
house  of  the  Austrian  Reichsrath;  and  he  died  at 
Gratz,  Sep.  12,  1876. 

Auerstadt,  a  village  in  the  Prussian  Province 
of  Saxony,  ten  miles  west  of  Naumburg.  It  is 
famous  for  the  great  battle  which  took  place  there, 
Oct.  14.,  1806,  between  the  French  under 
Davoust,  and  the  Prussian  army  under  Duke 
Charles  of  Brunswick,  which  ended  in  a  great 
victory  for  the  former.  Napoleon,  who  had,  on 
the  same  day,  defeated  the  main  army  of  Fred- 


9(3 


erick  William  III.  at  Jena,  made  Davoust  Duke 
of  Auerstadt. 

Aufrecht,  Theodor,  philologist,  born  Jan. 
7,  1822,  at  Lesclinitz  in  Upper  Silesia.  In  1852 
he  repaired  to  Oxford,  where  lie  helped  Max 
Muller  in  his  edition  of  the  Rigveda,  and  was  ail- 
pointed  to  a  place  in  the  Bodleian  Library.  In 
1862  lie  became  professor  of  Sanskrit  and  Compara¬ 
tive  Philology  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  1875  resigned 
this  chair  for  one  at  Bonn. 

Auge'as,  or  Augeias,  son  of  Phorbas  or  of 
Helios  (the  sun),  king  of  the  Epeans  in  Elis.  He 
had  3,000  head  of  oxen  in  his  stables,  which  had 
not  been  cleaned  out  for  thirty  years.  Hercules 
was  commissioned  by  Eurystheus  to  cleanse  the 
Augean  stables  in  one  day,  and  accomplished  the 
task  by  turning  the  courses  of  the  Rivers  Peneus 
and  Alplieus  through  the  stables.  Augeas  refused 
to  pay  the  stipulated  wages,  of  one-tentli  of  the 
oxen,  whereupon  Hercules  killed  him. 

Augerean,  Pierre  Francois  Charles,  Duke 
of  Castiglione,  marshal  and  peer  of  France,  was 
born  in  1757.  In  1792  he  volunteered  into  the 
French  revolutionary  army,  and  in  less  than  three 
years  was  made  a  general  of  division  In  1795  he 
accompanied  the  army  to  Italy,  where  he  greatly 
distinguished  himself,  gaining  gloiy  in  the  battles 
of  Lodi,  Castiglione  (in  1796,  from  which  he 
afterwards  received  his  title),  and  Roveredo.  At 
Paris,  in  1797,  he  carried  through  the  coup  d’etat 
of  Sept.  4,  and  became  a  supporter  of  Napoleon. 
In  1801  he  received  the  command  of  the  army  in 
Holland.  In  1804  he  was  made  a  marshal ;  com¬ 
manded  a  wing  at  Jena  and  at  Eylau;  was  Gover¬ 
nor  at  Berlin,  and  fought  at  Leipzig  in  1813.  He 
sat  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers  after  the  restoration, 
and  died  in  1816. 

Augier,  Guillaume  Victor  Emile,  a  French 
dramatist,  was  born  at  Valence,  Sept.  17,  1820, 
and  was  educated  as  a  lawyer.  His  works  are 
mostly  light,  and  very  “  Frenchy  ”  in  character, 
but  they  gained  him  a  seat  in  the  Academy. 

Augite  (Gr.  auge,  brilliancy),  one  of  the 
Pyroxene  (Gr.  pgr,  fire,  and  xenos,  a  guest)  group 
of  minerals,  very  nearly  allied  to  hornblende. 
Augite  consists  of  47-56  per  cent,  of  silica,  20-25 
per  cent,  of  lime,  and  12-19  percent,  of  magnesia, 
the  magnesia  sometimes  giving  place  in  whole  or 
in  part  to  protoxide  of  iron,  and  some  varieties 
containing  a  little  alumina,  or  a  little  protoxide  of 
manganese.  Its  specific  gravity  is  3.195-3.525. 
It  is  little  affected  by  acids,  or  not  at  all.  It  is 
usually  of  a  greenish  color,  often  nearly  black. 
Augite  rock,  consisting  essentially  of  augite  alone, 
occurs  in  the  Pyrenees.  It  is  rarely  associated 
with  quartz,  in  which  respect  it  differs  from  horn¬ 
blende,  but  very  often  with  labradorile,  olivine, 
nepheline,  and  leucite.  In  augite,  the  cleavage- 
planes  intersect  nearly  at  right  angles;  in  horn¬ 
blende,  the  angles  are  124°  30'  and  55°  30'. 

Augmentation,  in  Heraldry,  an  additional 
charge  in  a  coat-of-arms  bestowed  by  the  sovereign 
as  a  mark  of  honor. 

Augmentation,  in  Music,  is  the  reproduction 
of  a  melody,  or  principal  subject  of  a  composition, 
in  the  course  of  the  progress  of  the  piece,  in  notes 
of  greater  length  than  those  notes  in  which  the 
melody  is  first  introduced.  The  tempo  remains 
unaltered. 

Augsburg,  an  historic  city  of  Bavaria,  capital 
of  the  Province  of  Swabia,  is  situated  in  the  angle 
between  the  Rivers  W ertach  and  Lech,  thirty-seven 
miles  west-northwest  of  Munich.  Pop.  (1885), 
65,476;  of  whom  66  per  cent,  were  Catholics. 
Augsburg  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  Christ¬ 
ian  era,  and  in  the  middle  ages  was  a  highly  pros¬ 
perous  free  city.  Many  Diets  of  the  Empire  were 
held  in  Augsburg,  and"  the  leading  events  of  the 
Reformation  are  associated  with  its  name,  as  the 
Diet  of  Augsburg  (1530),  the  Intermin  of  Augs¬ 
burg  (1548),  and  the  “Religious  Peace”  of  Augs¬ 
burg  (1555),  by  which  the  Protestants  secured  the 
full  enjoyment  of  their  rights  and  privileges. 

Augsburg  Confession,  the  chief  standard  of 
faith  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  With  a  view  to 
an  amicable  arrangement  of  the  religious  split  that 
had  existed  in  Germany  since  1517,  Charles  V.,  as 
protector  of  the  Church,  had  convoked  a  Diet  of 
the  Empire,  to  meet  at  Augsburg,  April  8,  1530, 
and  had  required  from  the  Protestants  a  short 
statement  of  the  doctrines  in  which  they  departed 
from  the  Catholic  Church.  In  March,  therefore, 


the  Elector,  John  of  Saxony,  called  on  his  Witten¬ 
berg  theologians,  with  Luther  at  their  head,  to 
draw  up  articles  of  faith,  to  lay  before  him  at 
Torgau.  Luther  was  not  present  in  Augsburg, 
being  then  under  the  ban  of  the  Empire,  but  liis 
advice  was  had  recourse  to  in  its  composition. 
The  Torgau  articles  were  in  German;  the  Confes¬ 
sion  was  both  in  German  and  Latin;  and  Melanch- 
tlion  labored  incess  ntly  at  its  improvement  till  it 
was  presented  to  Hie  Emperor,  June  25. 

This  document,  signed  by  seven  Protestant 
princes  and  two  free  cities,  was  read  before  the 
Emperor  and  the  Diet,  June  25,  1530.  Me- 
lancthon,  not  looking  upon  the  Confess  on  as 
binding,  began  shortly  after  to  make  some  alter¬ 
ations  in  its  expression;  at  last,  in  1540,  he  pub¬ 
lished  a  Latin  edition  (Conf  ssio  Variata)  in  which 
there  were  important  changes  and  additions.  It 
is  not  certain  that  the  form  of  the  I  onfession 
found  in  the  Lutheran  standards  is  identical  with 
the  unaltered  Augsburg  Confession,  as  the  two 
original  documents — German  and  Latin — laid  be¬ 
fore  the  Diet  have  been  lost. 

Anguries  and  Auspices,  the  observation  and 
interpretation  of  omens  as  a  means  of  obtaining 
knowledge  of  secret  or  future  things.  In 
ancient  Rome  augurs  who  pretended  to  divine 
the  future  from  the  flight  of  birds  or  from  com¬ 
mon  occurrences.  storms,  and  the  birth  of  prod¬ 
igies,  practically  held  the  control  of  all  public 
events  in  their  own  hands.  No  general  would 
begin  a  campaign,  though  the  enemy  wrere  thun¬ 
dering  at  the  gates,  unless  the  auspice-  were  fa¬ 
vorable.  No  public  land  could  be  allotted,  no 
marriage  or  other  contract  made  if  the  augurs 
forbade.  Tradition  says  that  if  twro  augurs  met 
in  the  market-place  they  smiled,  but  the  signifi¬ 
cance  of  their  mirth  was  lost  upon  the  people. 

August,  the  sixth  month  in  the  Roman  year, 
which  began  with  March,  was  originally  styled 
Sextitis,  and  received  its  present  name  in  honor 
of  the  Emperor  Augustus. 

Align  ta,  or  Agosta,  a  fortified  city  of  Sicily, 
eleven  miles  north  of  Syracuse.  Pop.  (1881), 
12,210.  The  town  often  suffered  during  the 
wars  of  the  middle  ages,  and  was  in  great  part 
destroyed  by  earthquakes  in  1693  and  in  1848. 

Augusta,  the  capital  of  Maine,  on  the  Ken¬ 
nebec,  sixty-three  miles  north-northeast  of  Port¬ 
land.  Augusta  contains  a  United  States  arsenal; 
and  at  Togus,  four  miles  distant,  is  situated  one 
of  the  national  institutions  for  disabled  soldiers, 
with  accommodations  for  1,350  persons.  Pop. 
(1880),  8,665. 

Augusta,  the  third  city  of  Georgia,  is  situated 
on  the  Savannah  river.  It  is  the  head  of  steam¬ 
boat  navigation  on  the  river.  Augusta  is  the 
seat  of  the  Medical  College  of  Georgia  (1832). 
and  contains  several  other  handsome  public  build¬ 
ings,  the  city  being  generally  well  and  regularly 
built.  Pop!  (1887),  35,000. 

Augusteuburg,  a  village  of  600  inhabitants  on 
a  bay  of  the  Island  of  Alsen. 

Augusti,  Johann  Christian  Wilhelm,  a 
German  theologian,  born  in  1772  near  Gollia. 
He  died  in  1841.  In  the  early  part  of  his  career, 
Augusti  was  a  decided  rationalist;  but  subse¬ 
quently  he  returned  to  orthodox  Lutheranism. 

Augustin  *,  St.  (Aurelius  Augustinus),  the 
greatest  of  the  Latin  fathers,  was  born  at 
Tagaste,  a  town  of  Numidia,  on  Nov.  13,  354 
a.d.  Augustine  was  sent  to  school  at  Madaura, 
and  subsequently  to  Carthage,  to  complete  his 
studies.  Previous  to  this,  however,  he  had  en¬ 
joyed  the  inestimable  fe  icity  of  a  religious  edu¬ 
cation  at  home.  His  godly  mother,  Monica,  had 
been  his  best  instructor.  The  energy  and  pene¬ 
tration  of  intellect  exhibited  by  the  young  Au¬ 
gustine  excited  the  most  flattering  hopes.  When 
he  left  home  for  Carthage,  a  bright  career  of 
worldly  prosperity  seemed  to  open  before  him. 
But  strong  as  Augustine  was,  the  temptations  of 
Carthage  were  stronger.  His  nature,  deep,  im¬ 
petuous,  and  passionate,  thirsted  for  excitement. 
He  had  just  reached  the  age  when  pleasure  is 
conceived  to  be  synonymous  with  happiness,  and 
Carthage,  the  second  city  of  the  Empire,  was 
rank  as  Rome  in  its  sensual  corruptions.  Augus¬ 
tine  fell.  In  his  '  onfessions  he  paints  the  fright¬ 
ful  abyss  into  which  lie  felt  himself  plunged;  nor 
does  he  seek  to  excuse  himself;  on  the  contrary, 
the  shadow  of  his  guilt  is  thrown  forward  over 


AUGUSTINE. 


97 


AUK. 


all  his  boyish  life,  and  he  displays  even  a  morbid 
zeal  and  acuteness  in  pointing  out  what  others, 
less  censorious,  might  term  the  frivolous  errors  of 
his  childhood,  but  which  seemed  to  Augustine 
the  parents  of  his  subsequent  vices,  and  there¬ 
fore  equally  bad  and  equally  reprehensible.  He 
then  became  a  member  of  the  Manichaean  sect, 
but  left  the  society  after  ten  years.  In  883  lie 
went  to  Rome,  and  thence  to  Milan,  where  he 
became  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  At  this  time  the 
Bishop  of  Milan  was  the  eloquent  and  devout 
St.  Ambrose.  An  intimacy  sprang  up  between 
the  two,  and  Augustine,  who  was  at  this  time  a 
zealous  student  of  Plato,  often  went  to  hear  his 
friend  preach.  Once  more  he  studied  the  Bible, 
wishing  to  find  in  it  “  those  truths  which  he  had 
already  made  himself  acquainted  with  from  the 
Platonic  philosophy,  but  presented  in  a  different 
form.”  In  the  eighth  and  ninth  books  of  his 
Confessions  he  has  left  a  noble  though  painful 
picture  of  his  inward  life  during  this  momentous 
crisis.  On  April  25,  387  a.d.,  Augustine,  along 
with  his  natural  son  Adeodatu«,  was  baptized  by 
Ambrose  at  Milan.  Shortly  after,  he  set  out  on 
his  return  home.  At  Ostia,  on  the  Tiber,  his 
beloved  mother,  who  had  followed  him  to  Milan, 
died;  her  eyes  had  seen  the  salvation  of  her  son, 
and  she  could  depart  in  peace.  After  her  death 
and  before  leaving  Italy  for  Africa,  Augustine 
wrote  his  treatises,  Be  Moribus  Ecclesim  Cathol¬ 
ics  ct  de  Moribus  Manichocrum;  Be  Quantitate 
Animas;  De  Libero  Arbitrio.  His  character  and 
principles  of  action  had  become  fixed,  and  he 
now  brought  the  whole  majesty  of  his  intellect 
to  bear  upon  the  side  of  Christianity.  Having, 
as  was  then  customary  for  converts,  divided  his 
goods  among  the  poor,  he  retired  into  private 
life.  In  391  he  Was  ordained  a  priest  by  Valer¬ 
ius,  Bishop  of  Hippo,  in  Nuinidia;  and  during 
the  next  four  years,  though  earnestly  engaged 
in  the  work  of  preaching,  contrived  to  write 
three  different  works.  In  395  he  was  made  col¬ 
league  of  Valerius.  In  397  appeared  his  Con¬ 
fessions,  in  thirteen  books.  It  is  a  deep,  earnest, 
and  sacred  autobiography  of  one  of  the  greatest 
intellects  the  world  has  seen.  Passages  of  it 
have  no  parallel  except  in  the  Psalms  of  David. 
In  413  he  commenced  his  Be  Civitate  Dei,  and 
finished  it  in  426.  It  is  generally  considered  his 
most  powerful  work.  Augustine  died  in  his 
seventy-sixth  year,  during  the  siege  of  Hippo  by 
the  Vandals. 

Augustine,  or  Austin,  St.,  first  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  was  Prior  of  the  Benedictine  monas 
tery  of  St.  Andrew  at  Rome,  wdien,  in  596,  he 
was  sent,  with  forty  other  monks,  by  Pope  Greg¬ 
ory  I. ,  to  convert  the  Anglo-Saxons  to  Christianity, 
and  establish  the  authority  of  the  Roman  See  in 
Britain.  In  597  he  went  to  Arles,  and  was  there 
consecrated  Bishop  of  the  English.  Augustine’s 
subsequent  efforts  to  extend  his  authority  over  the 
native  British  Church  were  not  so  successful  as 
his  missionary  labors.  He  died  May  26,  604,  and 
eight  years  afterward  his  body  was  transferred  to 
his  abbey  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  whose  site  is  now 
occupied  by  St.  Augustine’s  Missionary  College, 
Canterbury  (1848). 

Augustinians,  the  name  given  to  several  re¬ 
ligious  bodies  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
'Whether  St.  Augustine  ever  framed  any  formal 
rule  of  monastic  life,  is  uncertain  ;  but  one  was 
deduced  from  his  writings,  and  was  adopted  by 
as  many  as  thirty  monastic  fraternities,  of  which 
the  chief  were  the  Canons  Regular  of  St.  Augus¬ 
tine,  the  Begging  Hermits  or  Austin  Friars,  the 
Fiiars  Preachers  or  Dominicans  and  the  Premon- 
stratensians. 

Aiigusto' vo,  a  town  in  Russian  Poland,  in  the 
government  of  Suwalki.  It  was  founded  by  Sigis- 
mund  Augustus,  King  of  Poland,  in  1547.  Pop. 
(1879)  11,094. 

Agustulus,  Romulus,  the  last  emperor  of  the 
western  half  of  the  old  Roman  Empire.  He  was 
defeated  in  476  a.d.  and  was  pensioned  by  his  con¬ 
queror,  Odoacer. 

Augustus,  Catus  Julius  C/ESAR  Octavianus, 
son  of  Caius  Octavius  and  Atia  (Julius  Caesar’s 
niece),  was  born  in  63  n.c.  His  father  had  risen 
to  the  rank  of  senator  and  praetor,  but  died  in  the 
prime  of  life,  when  Augustus  was  only  four  years 
old.  Augustus  was  carefully  educated  in  Rome 
under  the  guardianship  of  his  mother  and  his  step- 
7 


father  ;  and  his  talents  recommended  him  to  his 
great-uncle,  Julius  Caesar,  who  adopted  him  as  his 
son  and  heir.  At  the  time  of  Caesar’s  assassina¬ 
tion  (44  b.c.),  Augustus  was  a  student  under  the 
celebrated  orator  Apollodorus.  He  returned  to 
Italy,  and,  learning  that  he  was  his  uncle’s  heir,  as¬ 
sumed  the  name  of  Julius  Caesar  Octavianus.  The 
soldiers  at  Brundusium  saluted  him  as  Caesar;  but 
he  declined  their  offers,  and  entered  Rome  almost 
alone.  The  city  was  at  this  time  divided  between 
the  Republicans  and  the  friends  of  Mark  Antony; 
but  the  latter,  by  adroit  manoeuvres,  had  gained 
the  ascendency,  and  enjoyed,  almost  absolute 
power.  At  first,  Augustus  was  haughtily  treated 
by  Antony,  who  refused  to  surrender  Caesar’s 
property;  but  after  some  fighting,  in  which  An¬ 
tony  was  worsted,  and  forced  to  flee  across  the 
Alps,  Augustus,  who  had  made  himself  a  favorite 
with  the  people  and  the  army,  obtained  the  con¬ 
sulship,  and  carried  out  Caesar’s  will.  When  An¬ 
tony  returned  from  Gaul  with  Lepidus,  Augustus 
threw  off  the  Republican  mask,  and  joined  them 
in  establishing  a  triumvirate.  He  obtained  Africa, 
Sardinia,  and  Sicily;  Antony,  Gaul;  and  Lepidus, 
Spain.  Their  power  was  soon  made  absolute  by 
the  massacre  of  those  unfriendly  to  them  in  Italy, 
and  by  victory  at  Philippi  over  the  Republicans 
under  Brutus  and  Cassius.  Shortly  afterward, 
the  Roman  world  was  divided  anew,  Augustus 
taking  the  western  half,  and  Antony  the  eastern, 
whilst  Lepidus  had  to  content  himself  with  Africa. 
The  contest  for  supremacy  commenced .  War  was 
at  length  declared  against  the  Egyptian  queen, 
and  at  the  naval  battle  of  Actium  (31  b.c.)  Augus¬ 
tus  was  victorious,  and  became  sole  ruler  of  the 
w  hole  Roman  world.  Antony  and  Cleopatra  soon 
afterward  ended  their  lives  by  suicide  ;  Antony’s 
son  by  Fulvia,  and  Caesarion,  son  of  Caesar  and 
Cleopatra,  were  put  to  death ;  and  in  29  b.c.,  after 
regulating  affairs  in  Egypt,  Greece,  Syria,  and 
Asia  Minor,  Augustus  returned  to  Rome  in 
triumph,  and,  closing  the  temple  of  Janus,  pro 
claimed  universal  peace. 

His  subsequent  measures  were  mild  and  prudent. 
To  insure  popular  favor,  he  abolished  the  laws  of 
the  Triumvirate,  and  reformed  many  abuses. 
Hitherto,  since  Caesar’s  death,  he  had  been  named 
Octavian;  but  now  the  tide  of  Augustus,  (sacred 
or  consecrated)  was  conferred  on  him.  In  his 
eleventh  consulship (22 b.c.)  the  tribunician  power 
was  granted  him  for  life  by  the  Senate.  Repub 
lican  names  and  forms  still  remained,  but  they 
were  mere  shadows  ;  and  Augustus,  in  all  but 
name,  was  absolute  monarch.  In  12  b.c.,  on  the 
death  of  Lepidus,  he  had  the  high  title  of  Pontifex 
Maximus  bestowed  on  him.  The  nation  surren¬ 
dered  to  him  all  die  power  and  honor  that  it  had 
to  give. 

Alter  a  course  of  victories  in  Asia,  Spain,  Pan 
nonia,  Dalmatia,  Gaul,  etc.,  Augustus  (9  b.c.) 
suffered  the  one  crushing  defeat  of  his  long  rule, 
in  the  person  of  Quindlius  Varus,  whose  army 
was  annihilated  by  the  Germans  under  Arminius. 
The  loss  so  afflicted  Augustus  that  for  some  time 
lie  allowed  his  beard  and  hair  to  grow,  as  a  sign 
of  deep  mourning,  and  often  exclamed  :  “  O, 
Varus,  Varus,  give  me  back  my  legions  !  ”  Thence¬ 
forth  he  confined  himself  to  plat  s  of  domestic  iin 
provement  and  reform,  and  so  beautified  Rome 
that  it  was  said,  “Augustus  found  the  city  built 
of  brick  and  left  it  built  of  marble.”  He  died  in 
14  a.d.  Horace,  Virgil,  Ovid,  Pro;  ertius,  Tibul¬ 
lus,  and  Livy — greatest  of  Latin  poets  and  scholars 
— belonged  to  the  Augustan  Age,  a  name  since  ap¬ 
plied  in  France  to  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  ,  in 
England  to  that  of  Queen  Anne. 

Augustus,  Elector  of  Saxony  (1553-86),  was 
born  July  31,  1526,  at  Freiburg.  In  1548 he  mar¬ 
ried  Anna,  daughter  of  Christian  III.  of  Denmark. 
After  the  death  of  his  brother  Maurice,  in  1553, 
Augustus  succeeded  to  the  electorate.  Ilis  rule 
is  chiefly  noticeable  as  bearing  upon  the  history 
of  the  newly-established  Protestant  Church.  He 
introduced  valuable  reforms  in  both  jurispru¬ 
dence  and  finance,  and  gave  a  decided  impetus  to 
education,  agriculture,  manufactures,  and  com 
merce.  The  Dresden  Library  owes  its  origin  to 
him,  as  do  also  most  of  its  galleries  of  art  and 
science.  He  died  at  Dresden,  Feb.  1 1 ,  1586,  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Christian  I. 

Augustus  II.  (more  accurately,  Frederick 
Augustus  I.),  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Po¬ 


land,  second  son  of  Elector  John  George  III.  was 
born  at  Dresden,  May  12,  1670.  Ilis  extraordi¬ 
nary  strength  gained  him  the  nickname  of  “the 
Strong.”  From  1687  to  1689  lie  traveled  over  the 
greater  part  of  Europe,  and  in  1694  succeeded 
liis  brother  George  as  Elector,  and  undertook 
the  command  of  the  imperial  army  against 
the  Turks  in  Hungary.  After  the  battle  of 
Olasch,  in  1696,  he  adopted  the  Catholic  faith  and 
was  elected  King  of  Poland.  On  ascending  the 
throne,  he  promised  to  regain  for  his  new  king¬ 
dom  the  provinces  that  had  been  ceded  to  Sweden; 
but  his  efforts  to  do  this  only  led  to  the  defeat  of 
himself  and  his  allies,  his  own  deposition  as  King 
of  Poland,  the  election  of  Stanislaus  Leszcynski, 
and  the  ignominious  peace  of  Altranstadt,  in  1706. 
On  the  defeat  of  Charles  XII.,  at  Pultowa,  in 
1709,  he  marched  with  a  powerful  army  into  Po¬ 
land,  formed  a  fresh  alliance  with  the  Czar,  and 
recommenced  a  war  with  Sweden,  which  raged 
till  the  death  of  Charles  XII.,  in  1718,  and  led  to  a 
peace  with  Sweden.  Meanwhile,  the  jealousy  of 
the  Poles  caused  the  withdrawal  of  the  Saxon 
troops,  in  1717.  The  remainder  of  the  reign  is 
marked  by  no  important  event  till  the  King’s  death, 
Feb.  1,  1733.  Augustus  supporbd  thefine  arts  as 
ministering  to  luxury,  but  did  little  for  the  cause 
of  science.  Reckless,  selfish,  ambitious,  luxuri¬ 
ous,  licentious,  and  despotic,  he  is  powerfully 
depicted  in  Carlyle’s  Frederick  the  Great.  By  his 
wife  he  left  an  only  son,  whosucceded  him.  The 
most  celebrated  of  his  numerous  illegitimate  off¬ 
spring — amounting,  it  is  affirmed,  to  somewhere 
about  300 — was  Count  Maurice  of  Saxony. 

Augustus  III.  (or  Frederick  Augustus  II.), 
the  son  and  successor  of  the  above,  was  born  at 
Dresden,  Oct.  7,  1696,  and  carefully  educated  by 
his  mother  in  the  Protestant  faith.  In  the  course 
of  a  tour  through  Europe,  however,  he  changed 
his  religion,  secretly  professing  Catholicism  at 
Bologna  in  1712,  though  the  fact  was  not  publicly 
known  in  Saxony  till  five  years  later.  He  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father  as  Elector  in  1733,  and  was 
chosen  King  of  Poland  by  a  part  of  the  nobility. 
In  1742,  alarmed  at  the  increased  power  Prussia, 
had  obtained  by  the  conquest  of  Silesia, 
Augustus  formed  an  alliance  with  Maria. 
Theresa;  but  their  united  troops  were  com 
pletely  routed  by  the  Prussians  in  1745,  and 
Frederick  II.  pushing  on  into  Saxony,  Augus¬ 
tus  had  to  escape  from  his  capital,  saving; 
his  art-treasures,  but  leaving  his  State  papers  in 
the  hands  of  the  conqueror.  In  1746  the  peace  of 
Dresden  restored  him  Saxony,  but  the  close  of  the 
year  again  saw  him  embroiled  with  Prussia. 
Joining  the  camp  at  Pirna,  he  narrowly  escaped 
being  taken  prisoner,  and  had  to  flee  to  Poland. 
At  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Hubertsburg, 
Augustus  returned  to  Dresden,  where  he  died  Oct. 
5,  1763.  His  son,  Frederick  Christian,  succeeded 
him  in  the  electorate,  and  Stanislaus  Poniatowski 
became  King  of  Poland. 

Auk  (Alca),  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds,  the 
type  of  a  family  called  Alcadse,  which  was  in 


The  Great  Auk  (Alca  impennis). 
great  part  included  in  the  Lin  mean  genus  Alca,. 
and  to  many  of  the  species  of  which,  now  ranked 
in  other  genera,  (lie  name  auk  is  still  popularly 
extended.  The  auks  arc  confined  solely  to  the: 


AULAPOLAI. 


98 


AURICULA. 


seas  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere — the  penguins 
taking  their  place  in  the  Southern.  All  of  them 
have  a  dense  plumage,  which  generally  exhibits 
on  its  surface  a  beautifully  polished  appearance 
and  silvery  luster.  The  Great  Auk  (Aka  impen- 
nis),  so  far  as  known,  is  now  extinct.  It  was 
about  three  feet  in  height.  It  was  an  inhabitant 
of  the  temperate  region  of  the  North  Atlantic. 
At  one  time  large  numbers  bred  on  St.  Kilda,  and 
in  prehistoric  times  it  appears  to  have  bred  on 
Oronsay  or  neighboring  skerries,  and  possibly 
frequented  other  islands  of  the  Hebrides.  It  bred 
on  several  skerries  off  the  coast  of  Iceland,  and 
the  last  Great  Auks  are  supposed  to  have  been 
killed  on  one  of  these  named  Eldey  in  1844.  In 
the  North  American  habitat  it  bred  in  great 
numbers  on  Funk  gnd  other  islands  off  the  coast 
of  Newfoundland,  on  some  islands  in  the  Bay  of 
St.  Lawrence,  at  Cape  Breton,  and  probably  at 
Cape  Cod.  Its  remains  have  been  found  in  shell 
heaps  at  several  places  on  the  coast  of  Maine  and 
Massachusetts.  Like  most  of  the  A  lead®,  the 
Great  Auk  each  year  laid  only  one  egg,  about  5 
inches  in  length,  and  3  in  maximum  breadth, 
It  laid  it  on  the  bare  rock,  without  any  attempt  at 
a  nest.  The  eggs  of  the  Great  Auk  are  scarce  and 
valuable  curiosities;  they  have  repeatedly  brought 
more  than  $500,  and  in  1887  one  was  sol'd  by  auc¬ 
tion  for  $800.  At  that  date  only  sixty-six  auk’s 
eggs  were  known  to  exist;  and  only  some  seventy- 
two  skins  and  forty  bones  of  the  Great  Auk  are  to 
be  found  in  collections. 

Aulapolai',  or  Alleppt,  a  seaport,  with  a 
lighthouse,  in  Travancore  State,  Madras.  Pop., 
30,000. 

Aulic  Council  (Lat.  aula,  court  or  hall;  Ger. 
Reichsh"fr'ath),  a  court  of  the  Holy  Roman  Em 
pire,  established  in  1501  by  Maximilian  I.,  and 
co-ordinate  with  the  Imperial  Chamber  (Reichs- 
kammergericht,  1495). 

Auniale  (earlier  Albemarle),  a  French  town  of 
2,000  inhabitants,  in  the  department  of  Seine- 
inferieure,  on  the  Breste.  Since  1547  it  has  given 
the  title  of  duke  to  various  families — Aumale,  a 
town  of  Algeria,  fifty-seven  miles  southeast  of 
Algiers.  It  is  a  strong  military  post,  with  bar¬ 
racks,  magazines,  and  hospitals.  Pop.,  5,196. 

Auniale,  Charles de  Lorraine,  Due  d’,  born 
1550,  was  an  ardent  partisan  of  the  League  in  the 
religious  wars  which  devastated  France  in  the  lat¬ 
ter  half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  aim  of  the 
League  was  ostensibly  to  suppress  the  Huguenots, 
but  in  reality  to  secure  the  supreme  power  to  the 
Guises.  Closely  allied  by  blood  to  this  crafty 
and  ambitious  family,  Aumale,  after  the  murder 
of  the  Duke  of  Guise  in  1588,  became,  along  with 
the  Duke  of  Mayenne,  the  leader  of  the  party. 
Defeated  at  Senlis  by  the  Duke  of  Longueville, 
and  at  Arques  and  Ivry  by  Henry  IV.,  he  went 
over  to  the  Spaniards,  refused  the  royal  pardon, 
and  delivered  over  to  the  enemy  several  places  in 
his  possession.  For  this  he  was  impeached,  con¬ 
demned,  and  sentenced  to  be  broken  alive  on  the 
wheel.  Ilis  property  was  confiscated,  but  he  es¬ 
caped.  He  lived  in  exile  t  ill  his  death,  which  took 
place  in  Brussels  in  1631.  With  him  the  old 
Dukes  d’Aumale  of  the  house  of  Lorraine  became 
extinct. 

Aumale,  Henri  Eugene  Phillipe  Louis  d’ 
Orleans,  Due  d’,  fourth  son  of  King  Louis 
Philippe,  was  born  in  Paris  Jan.  16,  1822.  At 
sixteen  he  entered  the  army,  and  served  in  Algeria, 
where  lie  passed  rapidly  through  the  various 
grades  of  rank.  One  of  his  most  brilliant  ex 
ploits  was  the  surprise  of  Abd-el-Kader,  in  May, 
1843.  For  this  he  was  made  lieutenant-general, 
and  appointed  to  the  government  of  the  Province 
of  Constantine.  In  1847  he  succeeded  Marshal 
Bugeaud  in  the  governor-generalship  of  Algeria, 
but  after  the  revolution  of  Feb.,  1848,  laid 
down  his  office,  and  retired  to  England.  In  his 
exile  he  occupied  himself  with  historical  and 
military  studies,  and  soon  became  known  by  his 
contributions  to  the  Revue  des  Deux  Momles.  On 
the  outbreak  of  the  Franco-German  war,  he 
offered  his  services, first  to  the  Emperor,  and  after¬ 
wards  to  the  Provisional  Government,  without 
being  accepted  by  either,  but  in  1871  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Assembly.  In  1873  he  pre¬ 
sided  over  the  council  of  war  which  tried  Marshal 
Bazaine,  and  afterward  held  several  high  military 
commands,  but  was  removed  from  the  last  of 


these,  the  post  of  Inspector-General  of  the  Army, 
in  1883,  and,  with  other  members  of  the  Orleans 
family,  was  expelled  from  France  for  plotting 
against  the  Republic.  Elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  in  1871,  in  1886  he  made  known  his  in¬ 
tention  to  bequeath  his  magnificent  chateau  of 
Chantilly  to  the  Institute  of  France.  His  wife 
(nee  Marie  Caroline  Auguste  de  Bourbon,  daughter 
of  the  Prince  of  Salerno)  had  died  in  1867,  as  well 
as  his  two  sons,  the  elder  in  1866,  the  younger  in 
1872. 

Anne,  the  French  cloth-measure  corresponding 
to  the  English  EH. 

Aungerville,  Richard,  Bishop  of  Durham,  is 
known  as  Richard  de  Bury,  from  his  birthplace, 
Bury  St.  Edmunds.  He  was  born  in  1281, 
studied  with  distinction  at  Oxford,  became  a 
Benedictine  monk  at  Durham,  and  was  made 
tutor  to  Edward  of  Windsor,  afterward  Edward 
III.  In  1333  he  was  appointed  Dean  of  Wells, 
and  in  the  same  year  was  made  Bishop  of  Durham 
by  the  Pope.  After  holding  the  office  of  High 
Chancellor  for  a  year,  he  resigned  it  in  1335,  to  act 
as  the  King’s  ambassador  in  Paris,  Hainault,  and 
Germany.  In  1337  he  was  employed  as  a  com¬ 
missioner  for  the  affairs  of  Scotland,  and  in  1342 
he  arranged  a  truce  with  the  Scottish  King.  He 
died  in  1345. 

Aurautia'cete  (from  late  Lat.  aurantium,  an 
orange),  an  order  of  Thalamifloral  Dicotyledons, 
frequently  grouped  under  Rutaceie,  are  trees  and 
shrubs,  often  of  great  beauty.  The  order  con¬ 
tains  about  one  hundred  known  species,  natives 
of  warm  climates,  and  almost  all  of  the  East 
Indies,  but  now  largely  diffused  by  cultivation. 
The  species  of  the  genus  Citrus,  are  the  best 
known,  among  which  are  the  orange,  lemon, 
citron,  lime,  and  shaddock. 

Auray,  a  port  in  the  French  department  of 
Morbihan,  twenty  miles  east  of  Lorient.  Pop., 
5,000.  Two  miles  north  is  the  famous  place  of 
pilgrimage  of  St.  Anne  of  Auray,  with  a  line 
church,  completed  in  1877. 

Aurelia 'nus,  Lucius  Domitius — also  named 
Claudius  Domitius  and  Valerius — one  of  the 
most  powerful  of  the  Roman  Emperors,  was  of 
very  humble  origin.  He  was  born  in  Dacia  or 
Pannonia  about  212  a.d.,  and  enlisting  early  as 
a  common  soldier,  he  rapidly  distinguished  him¬ 
self,  and  held  the  highest  military  offices  under 
Valerianus  and  Claudius  II.  On  the  death  of 
Claudius  (270),  Aurelian  was  elected  Emperor  by 
the  army,  with  whom  his  great  stature,  strength, 
and  courage  had  made  him  very  popular.  He 
turned  his  attention  to  the  East,  where  the  re¬ 
nowned  Queen  Zenobia,  had  extended  her  sway 
from  Syria  to  Asia  Minor  and  Egypt.  Aurelian 
defeated  her  in  two  battles,  and  besieged  her  in 
Palmyra,  from  which  she  attempted  to  escape 
when  she  saw  defence  would  prove  unavailing. 
She  was,  however,  taken  prisoner,  and  soon  after 
the  city  surrendered,  and  was  treated  leniently. 
Shortly  after  he  had  departed,  a  new  insurrection 
took  place.  He  returned  in  273,  and  gave  the 
splendid  city  up  to  destruction.  He  was  assas¬ 
sinated  at  the  instigation  of  a  faithless  secretary, 
between  Heraclea  and  Byzantium,  during  his 
campaign  against  the  Persians  (275). 

Aurelius.  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  the 
best  of  the  Roman  Emperors,  and  one  of  the 
noblest  figures  in  history,  was  the  son  of  Annius 
Verus  and  Domitia  Calvilla,  and  was  born  at 
Rome  on  April  26,  121  a.d.  His  original  name 
was  Marcus  Annius  Verus.  His  fine  qualities 
early  attracted  the  notice  of  the  Emperor  Ha¬ 
drian,  who,  playing  on  the  boy’s  paternal  name 
of  Verus,  used  to  call  him  Verissimus  (the  most 
true),  and  who  conferred  high  honors  on  him 
while  yet  a  child.  In  the  year  140  a.d.  he  was 
made  Consul;  and  from  this  period  to  the  death 
of  Pius  in  161,  he  continued  to  discharge  his 
public  duties  with  the  greatest  promptitude  and 
fidelity.  On  his  accession  to  the  throne,  he  vol¬ 
untarily  divided  the  government  with  his  adopted 
brother,  young  Commodus,  called  since  his  adop¬ 
tion  Lucius  Aurelius  Verus.  As  the  latter  ex¬ 
celled  in  manly  exercises,  Aurelius  determined 
to  intrust  to  him  the  management  of  war.  To¬ 
ward  the  close  of  161,  the  Parthian  war  broke 
out,  and  Verus  was  sent  to  quell  it;  but  he  proved 
himself  completely  incompetent,  and  only  the 
ability  of  liis  generals,  especially  Avidius  Cassius, 


saved  the  Romans  from  disaster.  Aurelius  now 
resolved  to  lead  his  legions  to  the  war  himself, 
and  was  completely  successful.  The  most  famous 
victory  of  the  war  was  that  gained  over 
the  Quadi  in  174  a.d.,  which  was  attributed  by 
the  Christians  to  an  answer  to  the  prayers  of 
some  soldiers  of  their  faith  in  what  afterward 
became  known  as  the  “  Thundering  Legion.” 

Marcus  Aurelius  was  the  flower  of  the  Stoic 
philosophy.  It  seems  almost  inexplicable  that  so 
harsh  and  crabbed  a  system  should  have  produced 
as  pure  and  gentle  an  example  of  humanity  as 
the  records  of  either  pagan  or  Christian  history 
can  show.  In  him  stoicism  loses  all  its  haughty 
self-assertion,  and  is  replaced  by  a  humility  that 
is  usually  regarded  as  the  most  peculiar,  if  almost 
the  rarest,  of  the  Christian  graces.  Men  of  letters 
were  his  most  intimate  friends,  and  received  the 
highest  honors  both  when  alive  and  dead.  His 
own  range  of  studies  was  extensive,  embracing 
morals,  metaphysics,  mathematics,  jurisprudence, 
music,  poetry,  and  painting.  There  are  few 
books  that  have  had  such  a  potent  charm  over  so 
many  hearts  as  the  sad  Meditations  of  Aurelius. 
His  sentences  reveal  the  loneliness  of  his  soul, 
but  they  show  us  that  he  did  not  suffer  himself 
to  be  embittered  as  well  as  saddened  by  his  ex¬ 
perience  of  life. 

Aurelius  twice  persecuted  the  Christians.  In 
the  first  persecution  (166)  Polycarp  perished;  in 
the  second  (177),  Irenseus.  Many  have  found  it 
difficult  to  understand  how  a  mind  of  such  lofty 
virtue  should  have  consented  to  the  persecution 
of  Christianity.  The  explanation  is  to  be  found 
in  that  very  earnestness  with  which  he  clung  to 
the  old  faith  of  his  ancestors.  He  died  March  17, 

1£0  A.D. 

Aurich,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Hanover,  almost  in  the  centre  of  East  Friesland. 
Pop.  (1885),  5,399. 

Auricles,  two  cavities  of  the  heart. 

Auric'ula,  a  genus,  and  Auricu  lidie,  a  fam¬ 
ily,  of  Gasteropod  Mollusca  (Lat.  auricula,  a  little 
ear).  Some  inhabit  fresh-water  marshes,  while 


Auricula. 


others  prefer  the  vicinity  of  salt  water.  They 
generally  belong  to  warm  climates,  and  some  of 
them  attain  a  large  size.  Auricula  mid  at,  a  native 
of  the  East  Indies,  is  known  to  shell-collectors  by 
the  name  of  Midas’  ear. 

Auric'ula  (Primula  auricula),  a  congener  of 
the  Primrose,  much  cultivated  in  flower  gardens. 
It  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  Romans,  and  has, 
at  least  since  the  seventeenth  century,  received 
particular  attention  from  the  florists  of  England 
and  Holland.  A  fine  dust  appears  on  the  flowers 


Auricula  ( Primula  auricula). 


and  adds  much  to  their  beauty.  Hence  the  pop¬ 
ular  name  in  Scotland  of  “Dusty  Miller.”  By 
cultivation  and  selection  the  auricula  has  been 


AURICULATE. 


99 


AUSTRALIA. 


brought  to  great  beauty  aiul  splendor  of  color. 
More  than  1,200  varieties  were  reckoned  as  early 
as  1850.  and  new  ones  are  continually  raised  from 
seed., 

Auricn '  late,  in  Botany,  a  term  applied  to 
leaves,  stipules,  etc.,  and  signifying  that  they 
have  at  the  base  two  small  ear  like  lobes. 

Aurillac,  capital  of  the  department  of  Cantal, 
in  the  southern  part  of  Central  France.  Here 
Pope  Sylvester  II.  was  born.  Pop.  (1881),  12,800. 

Aurochs  is  properly  the  German  name  of  the 
extinct  species  of  wild  ox,  called  by  Caesar,  Urns. 
Recently  the  name  has  been  erroneously  used  for 
the  Bison,  still  found  in  Lithuania. 

Aurora,  in  Kane  County,  Ill.,  is  located  on 
Fox  river, thirty-nine  miles  west-southwest  of  Chi¬ 
cago.  Pop.  (1887),  about  18,000.  Auroka  is  also 
the  name  of  a  village  in  Indiana,  on  the  Ohio. 
Pop.  (1880),  4,435. 

Aurora,  the  Latin  name  corresponding  to  the 
Eos  of  Greek  Mythology,  the  goddess  of  the 
dawn,  was  the  daughter  of  Hyperion  and  Theia, 
and  sister  of  Helios  and  Selene,  and  wife  of  the 
Titan  Astrseus,  to  whom  she  bore  the  winds,  Ar- 
gestes,  Zephyrus,  Boreas,  Not  us,  as  well  as  Hes¬ 
perus,  the  morning  star. 

Auro'ra  Korea 'lis,  or  Northern  Lights, 
the  name  given  to  the  luminous  phenomenon 
which  is  seen  toward  the  north  of  the  heavens 
by  the  inhabitants  of  the  higher  latitudes.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  winter  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  the 
inhabitants  of  the  arctic  zone  are  without  the 
light  of  the  sun  for  months  together,  and  their 
long  dreary  night  is  relieved  by  this  beautiful 
meteor,  which  occurs  with  great  frequency  in 


Aurangabad,  the  name  of  at  least  four  places 
in  India.  The  most  important  of  these  is  in  the 
State  of  Hyderabad,  situated  on  the  Doodna,  a 
tributary  of  the  Godavery.  The  pop.  is  estimated 
at  about  5<\000.  Its  monuments  of  former  grand¬ 
eur  are  a  palace,  now  in  ruins,  built  by  Aurung- 
zebe,  and  the  mausoleum  of  Aurungzebe’s 
daughter. 

Aurungzebe  ( Aurangzeb ,  Ornament  of  the 
Throne)  was  the  most  powerful  of  the  Mogul  Em¬ 
perors  of  India,  the  last  who  ruled  with  energy 
and  effect.  He  was  born  in  1618,  and  was  the 
third  son  of  Shah  Jehan.  He  imprisoned  his 
father,  killed  his  two  brothers,  and  seized  the 
throne  by  fraud.  He  professed  not  to  care  for 
the  imperial  insignia,  but  was  ultimately  induced 
to  receive  them  in  Aug.,  1658,  assuming  the  title 
of  Alemgir,  “Conqueror  of  the  World,”  and 
later,  that  of  Mohi-eddin,  “the  Reviver  of  Re¬ 
ligion.”  In  the  seventh  year  of  Aurungzebe’s 
reign  his  father  died,  still  in  confinement. 

Aurungzebe’s  long  reign  of  half  a  century  was 
distinguished  by  great  outward  prosperity,  and 
has  been  represented  as  the  most  brilliant  in  In¬ 
dian  annals,  but  the  Empire  was  diseased  at  its 
heart.  The  later  years  of  Aurungzebe’s  life  were 
passed  in  misery.  The  decadence  of  the  Mogul 
Empire  dates  from  Aurungzebe’s  death,  which 
took  place  at  Alimednuggur,  in  Feb.,  1707,  in  the 
eighty-nintli  year  of  his  age,  and  forty -ninth  of 
his  reign. 

Auscultation  (Lat.  auscultarc,  1o  listen),  a 
mode  of  detecting  diseases,  especially  those  of  the 
heart  and  lungs,  by  listening  to  the  sounds  pro¬ 
duced  in  the  cavity  of  the  chest.  This  is  done 
either  by  the  unassisted  ear  ( immediate  ausculta¬ 
tion),  or  by  the  aid  of  a  simple  sound-convey- 
instrument,  the  stethoscope  ( mediate  auscul 
tation). 

Atisonius,  Decitts  Magnus,  the  most  con¬ 
spicuous  Roman  poet  in  the  fourth  century,  was 
born  at  Burdigala  (Bordeaux),  about  309  a.d., 
and  died  in  392. 


Aussif! 


flourishing  town  in  Northern  Bo- 


Map  showing  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  Aurora 
Borealis. 

these  regions.  Those  who  have  explored  the 
southern  seas  have  seen  the  same  phenomenon  in 
the  direction  of  the  south  pole,  so  that  the  term 
polar  lights  might  be  more  appropriate  than 
Northern  Lights  to  designate  the  aurora.  The 
height  of  the  aurora  has  been  variously  est  imated. 


hernia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe.  The  town 
church,  said  to  have  been  built  in  826,  possesses 
a  Madonna  by  Carlo  Dolce,  presented  by  the 
father  of  Raphael  Mengs,  who  was  born  here. 
Pop.  (1880),  16,524. 

Austen,  Jane,  an  English  novelist,  was  born 
Dec.  16, 1775,  atSteventon,  Hampshire,  of  which 
parish  her  father  was  the  rector.  Jane  learned 
French  and  Italian,  and  had  a  good  acquaintance 
with  English  literature,  her  favorite  authors 
being  Richardson,  Johnson,  Cowper,  Crabbe, 
and,  later,  Scott.  Four  stories  were  published 
anonymously  during  her  lifetime — Sense  and 
Sensibility  in  1811,  Pride  and  Prejudice  in 
1813,  Mansfield  Park  in  1814,  and  Emma  in 
1816.  The  first  two  were  written  before  the 
gifted  authoress  was  more  than  two-and-twenty 
years  old.  Early  in  1816  her  health  began 
to  give  way.  In  the  May  of  1817  she  went 
for  medical  advice  to  Winchester,  and  here 
she  died  two  months  later,  July  18,  1817. 
Northangcr  Abbey  and  Persuasion  were  pub¬ 
lished  in  1818,  when  the  authorship  of  the 
whole  six  was  first  acknowledged.  Jane  Austen’s 
novels  are  the  earliest  example  of  the  so-called 
domestic  novel  in  England,  nor  within  their  own 
limits  have  they  been,  surpassed  or  even  equaled 
since 

Austerlitz  (Czech  Slavkov),  a  small  town  in 
Moravia,  stands  on  the  Littawa,  and  has  a  pop. 
of  3,500.  Here,  on  Dec.  2,  1805,  Napoleon  de- 


The  first  observers  were  inclined  to  place  the  seat  feated  the  combined  forces  of  Russia  and  Austria, 


of  it  beyond  the  atmosphere,  but  this  hypothesis 
is  untenable,  as  the  aurora  does  not  seem  to  be 
affected  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  but  appears 
to  be  in  every  respect  a  terrestrial  phenomenon. 
By  taking  observations  of  the  altitude  of  the 
highest  point  of  the  arch  of  the  same  aurora  at 
different  stations,  the  heights  most  generally 
are  from  about  45  to  100  miles.  Some  authors 
have  assigned  heights  as  low  as  5  miles,  and 
others  as  high  as  500  miles  and  even  higher, 
but  the  results  of  recent  research  are  not  con¬ 
firmatory  of  these  extremes.  The  distance  of 
the  stations  at  which  the  same  aurora  has  been 
visible  indicates  the  enormous  geographical  ex¬ 
tent,  and  likewise  the  great  altitude  which  the 
phenomenon  frequently  attains. 


under  the  command  of  their  respective  Emperors. 

Austin,  the  capital  of  Texas,  stands  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Colorado  river,  at  the  junction  of 
several  railroads,  166  miles  west-by-nortli  of 
Houston.  Austin  is  the  seat  of  a  new  State  Cap 
itol  (1887),  for  the  expenses  of  which  3,000,000 
acres  of  land  have  been  appropriated.  The  city 
was  named  after  Stephen  F.  Austin.  Pop.  (1887), 
about  21,000. 

Austin,  Alfred,  journalist  and  poet,  born  of 
Catholic  parents  at  Headingley,  near  Leeds,  Eng¬ 
land,  May  30,  1835.  lie  was  educated  at  Stoney- 
liurstand  St.  Mary’s  College,  Oseott,  graduated  al 
the  University  of  London  in  1853,  and  was  called 
to  the  bar  in  1857. 

Austin,  John,  a  distinguished  writer  on  juris¬ 


prudence,  was  born  March  3, 1790.  At  the  age  of 
sixteen  he  entered  the  English  army,  and  served 
in  Sicily ;  but  he  sold  his  commission  after  the 
peace,  and  in  1818  was  called  to  the  bar.  He  was 
compelled  by  bad  health  to  abandon  his  practice 
at  the  bar  about  the  time  when  the  University  of 
London  was  founded  (1826),  and  he  then  received 
the  appointment  of  Professor  of  Jurisprudence. 
In  1832,  he  published  his  Province  of  Jurisprudence 
Determined ,  a  work  at  the  time  little  appreciated 
by  the  general  public;  in  the  estimation  of  compe¬ 
tent  judges,  however,  it  placed  its  author  in  the 
highest  rank  among  writers  on  jurisprudence.  In 
1833  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  Criminal 
Law  Commission,  and  both  wrote  and  lectured  on 
legal  subjects.  lie  died  in  Dec.,  1859.  Mrs.  Aus¬ 
tin  (nee  Sarah  Taylor),  translator,  was  born  at 
Norwich  in  1793,  and  married  John  Austin  in 
1820,  the  only  child  of  the  marriage  being  Lady 
Duff  Gordon.  She  died  at  Wey bridge,  Aug.  8, 
1867. — Charles  Austin,  younger  brother  of 
John,  was  born  in  1799.  He  was  an  eminent 
lawyer  and  Benthamite.  He  died  Dec.  21, 
1874. 

Austin,  Stephen  F.,  founder  of  the  State  of 
Texas,  was  the  son  of  Moses  Austin,  a  pioneer  in 
the  same  region,  and  in  1821  conducted  a  party  of 
settlers  to  where  the  City  of  Austin  now  stands, 
thus  carrying  out  a  work  his  father  had  begun. 
In  1833  Austin  went  to  the  City  of  Mexico  to 
secure  the  admission  of  his  settlement  into  the 
Mexican  Confederacy,  and  was  imprisoned  there 
till  1835.  He  died  in  Dec.,  1836. 

Aiistrala'sia  is  a  term  etymologically  equal  to 
Southern  Asia,  but  used  to  indicate  Australia  and 
the  adjoining  islands— Tasmania,  New  Zealand, 
Papua  or  New  Guinea,  New  Caledonia,  the  New 
Hebrides,  New  Ireland,  and  New  Britain.  The 
term  would  thus  exclude  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
Micronesia  and  Polynesia  proper ;  but  some 
authors  include  these  great  groups  of  islands  also, 
making  the  name  therefore  equivalent  to  Octanica. 

Australia,  by  far  the  largest  island  on  the 
earth’s  surface,  and  for  extent  describable  as  a 
continent,  lies  between  10’  39'  and  39p  114'  S. 
latitude,  and  113°  5'  and  153°  16'  E.  longitude; 
having  a  maximum  length,  from  west  to  east 
(from  Dirk  Hartog  Island  to  Point  Arkwright),  of 
about  2,400  miles;  and  a  maximum  breadth,  from 
north  to  south  (from  Cape  York  to  Wilson’s  Prom¬ 
ontory),  of  1,971  miles;  making  a  total  area  of 
2,954,417  square  miles  (excluding  Tasmania,  26,- 
215),  about  one-fourth  less  than  that  of  Europe. 
It  is  separated  from  New  Guinea  by  Torres’  Strait, 
90  miles  broad,  and  from  Tasmania  by  Bass 
Strait,  140  miles  wide;  on  the  northwest,  west, 
and  south,  it  is  washed  by  the  Indian  Ocean  ;  and 
on  the  east,  by  the  South  Pacific.  The  absence 
of  rivers  communicating  between  the  coast  and 
the  interior  is  remarkable.  The  mountains  rising 
to  any  great  elevation  are  all  on  the  east  side;  and 
there  is  but  one  great  river,  the  Murray,  collecting 
into  itself  (by  the  Darling  and  other  great  tribu¬ 
taries)  almost  the  whole  western  drainage  of  that 
eastern  range. 

Australia  possesses  few  mountains,  properly  so 
called,  the  highest  peak,  Mt.  Kosciusko,  in  the 
Australian  Alps  being  only  7,308  feet  above  sea- 
level. 

Almost  the  whole  of  the  vast  region  in  the  south¬ 
east  of  Australia  (the  eastern  part  of  South  Aus¬ 
tralia,  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  and  Queens¬ 
land)  is  drained  by  the  Murray  and  its  tributaries, 
whose  arterial  system  has  an  area  of  about  500,000 
miles,  an  area  twice  as  large  as  the  Austrian 
Empire.  The  Murray,  rising  in  the  Australian 
Alps,  flows  between  Victoria  and  New  -South 
Wales,  then  through  South  Australia,  discharging, 
after  a  course  of  2,345  miles  from  the  source  of 
the  Darling,  one  of  its  principal  tributaries,  into 
Encounter  Bay,  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  shortly  after 
passing  through  Lake  Alexandrina.  It  receives 
the  Murrumbidgee  (1,350  miles  long)  and  the 
Darling  (1,160  miles),  which  has  for  its  tributaries 
the  Barwan,  Culgoa,  and  Warrego.  North  of 
the  Murray,  the  two  most  important  rivers  are  the 
Fitzroy  and  the  Burdekin  in  Queensland.  The 
other  rivers  to  the  east  of  the  eastern  highlands 
are  short  and  rapid,  unfit  for  navigation.  Western 
Australia,  toward  the  coast,  is  in  its  northern 
half  crossed  by  ranges  of  detached  mountains, 
running  mostly  east  and  west,  and  intersected  by 


AUSTRALIA. 


100 


AUSTRALIA. 


the  fertile  Valleys  of  Ashburton,  Gascoyne,  and 
Upper  Murchison. 

To  the  north  of  Spencer  Gulf  is  an  area  of 
some  1,000  square  miles,  set  with  lakes,  “the  Lake 
District”  of  Australia ;  Torrens,  straight  to  the 
north  of  Spencer  Gulf,  over  100  miles  long,  with 
Eyre  to  the  north  of  it  and  much  larger,  and 
Gairdner  to  the  west  of  it.  To  the  east  of  Eyre 
are  Lakes  Blanche  and  Gregory,  and  far  to  the 
northwest,  Lake  Amadeus. 

Though  there  are  no  active,  yet  numerous 
extinct,  volcanoes  are  to  he  found  in  Australia. 
In  South  Australia,  in  the  Gambier  group,  is  a 
large  series  of  them,  which  have  broken  through 
the  horizontal  coral  beds,  and  whose  craters  now 
present  beautiful  lakes.  In  Victoria,  a  large  part 
of  the  soil  is  volcanic,  the  debris  of  volcanoes  of 
all  periods  down  to  the  Tertiary. 

Gold  is  distributed  more  or  less  through  all  the 
Australian  colonies,  but  its  principal  seats  are  in 
Victoria,  Queensland,  and  New  South  Wales. 
Diamonds  and  other  precious  stones  have  also 
been  found  in  different  parts  of  the  continent. 
The  Carboniferous  strata  of  New  South  Wales, 
extending  over  a  vast  area,  are  very  rich  in  coal, 
the  coal-fields  of  that  colony  being  among  the 
most  extensive  in  the  world,  containing  also  can- 
nel-coal  and  mineral  oils.  Rich  copper-mines 
have  been  opened  in  the  Palaeozoic  limestones  of 
South  Australia.  Extensive  deposits  of  copper 
ore  lie  at  Wallaroo  and  Moonta,  at  the  northern 
end  of  York  Peninsula.  Silver-lead  has  been 
worked  near  Cape  Jervis,  and  bismuth  in  the 
mountains  of  the  Mount  Lofty  Range.  Lead  and 
copper  exist  largely  in  Western  Australia,  iron  in 
large  masses  in  Western  and  South  Australia. 
Valuable  tin-mines  have  been  opened  in  Queens¬ 
land,  also  to  the  north  of  New  South  Wales.  Ores 
of  antimony  have  been  worked  in  Victoria  and 
New  South  Wales,  and  are  known  to  occur  in 
South  Australia. 

The  total  yield  of  gold  in  Australia  from  1851 
to  1885  was  08,406,511  ounces.  In  1885  the  yield 
of  gold  was  1 . 191 ,135  ounces.  There  are  extensive 
coal-fields  in  New  South  Wales  and  Queensland; 
the  produce  in  1885  was  3,088,561  tons. 

In  proportion  to  its  size,  Australia,  lying  mostly 
within  the  temperate  zone,  enjoyson  the  whole  an 
equable  climate,  although  subject  to  great  occa 
sional  irregularities;  in  general,  hot  and  dry,  and 
remarkably  salubrious.  Within  the  tropics,  it  has 
its  rainy  season  in  summer  (November  to  April); 
south  of  the  tropics,  almost  exclusively  in  winter. 
The  worst  feature  in  the  climate  of  Australia  is 
the  total  uncertainty  and  inequality  of  the  rainfall 
in  all  parts  of  the  continent,  menacing  the  whole 
country  with  almost  equally  distressing  alterna¬ 
tions  of  drought  and  flood.  The  ordinary  drought 
itself  renders  almost  all  the  rivers  of  Australia, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Murray  proper,  merely 
intermittent. 

The  vegetation  of  Australia  is  altogether 
unique,  standing  at  along  interval  from  that  of 
all  other  quarters  of  the  globe;  but  it  is  exceed¬ 
ingly  abundant  in  species.  These,  it  is  calculated, 
number  about  10,000,  of  which  8,000  have 
already  been  determined;  considerably  more  than 
are  to  be  found  in  all  Europe. 

The  highlands  are  rich  in  wood,  such  as  that 
of  the  gum-trees  of  the  genus  eucalyptus,  grow¬ 
ing  to  a  height  of  250  feet,  with  a  girth  of 
12  to  20  feet.  In  the  Dandenong  Range,  forty 
miles  east  of  Melbourne,  are  many  trees  over  420 
feet  high.  The  jarrah,  or  Swan  river  mahogany 
of  Western  Australia,  is  invaluable  for  railway 
sleepers  or  piles,  as  it  resists  the  ravages  of  white 
ants  and  marine  insects.  The  “wattles”  or 
acacias,  abounding  everywhere  in  the  country, 
and  comprising  over  300  species,  are  also  a  most 
characteristic  feature  of  Australia. 

The  zoology  of  Australia  is  even  more  peculiar 
than  its  botany.  The  mammalia  of  other  lands 
are  totally  wanting  here,  while  the  marsupials 
or  pouch-bearing  mammalia  of  Australia  have 
but  the  oppossum.s  of  America  to  represent 
them  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  There  are 
in  Australia  “  no  apes,  no  oxen,  antelopes,  or 
deer;  no  elephants,  rhinoceroses,  or  pigs;  no  cats, 
wolves,  or  bears;  none  even  of  the  smaller 
civets  or  weasels;  no  hedgehogs  or  shrews;  no 
hares,  squirrels,  porcupines,  or  dormice;”  only 
some  peculiar  species  of  rats  and  mice,  and  the 


“dingo,”  a  wild  dog.  The  largest  of  the  mar¬ 
supials  is  the  kangaroo,  attaining  a  height  of  five 
feet,  and  a  weight  of  200  pounds.  Smaller 
species  are  the  wallaby,  the  hare  kangaroo,  and 
rat  kangaroo.  The  fruit-eating  bat,  or  flying 
fox, is  found  in  New  South  Walesand  Queensland. 
The  ant-eater  of  Western  Australia  is  of  the  size 
of  a  squirrel,  beautifully  white  striped,  with  long 
and  rather  bushy  tail.  The  platypus,  having  no 
teeth  nor  marsupial  pouch,  and  inhabiting  the 
rivers  and  lagoons  of  the  south  and  east  of  Aus¬ 
tralia,  is  twenty  inches  long,  having  very  short 
legs,  and  broad,  webbed  feet.  From  its  flat  head 
project  two  flat,  horny  jaws,  like  the  bill  of  a 
duck.  Australia  favors  the  acclimatization  of 
animal  as  well  as  plant  life,  and  the  rabbit  has 
proved  so  prolific  as  to  require  special  legislation 
for  its  suppression. 

The  birds,  if  not  so  unique  and  strange  a  fea¬ 
ture  of  Australia  as  are  its  mammalia,  excel  all 
those  of  all  other  temperate  lands  for  beauty  of 
plumage  and  fineness  of  form.  Passing  over  the 
splendid  parrots  and  cockatoos,  we  note  for  their 
singularity  of  figure  or  brilliancy  of  feather, 
the  regent-bird,  rifle-bird,  fly-catcher,  and  lyre¬ 
bird.  Altogether,  Australia  has  650  distinct 
species  of  birds  to  muster  against  Europe’s  500. 
Of  reptiles,  Australia  has  no  less  than  140  kinds, 
its  largest  lizard  measuring  4  to  6  feet.  The 
common  sparrow  has  multiplied  to  such  an  ex¬ 
tent  that  it  has  become  a  pest,  and  the  Govern¬ 
ment  has  paid  considerable  sums  for  the  destruc¬ 
tion  of  these  birds  and  their  eggs.  The  ostrich 
has  been  successfully  acclimatized,  and  its  feathers 
have  already  become  an  article  of  export. 

Almost  as  much  as  its  botany  and  zoology, 
the  human  natives  of  Australia  are  isolated  and 
peculiar,  separated  by  a  wide  remove  from  the 
Papuans,  the  Malays,  and  the  Negroes.  Of  a 
dark,  coffee-brown  complexion,  rather  than 
actually  black,  the  Australian  stands  not  much 
short  of  the  average  European  in  height,  but  is 
altogether  of  much  slimmer  and  feebler  build; 
his  legs,  in  particular,  are  very  lean  and  destitute 
of  calves  (a  defect  common  to  dark  races),  llis 
head  is  long  and  narrow,  with  a  low  brow,  prom¬ 
inent  just  above  the  eyes,  but  receding  thence  in 
a  very  marked  degree.  They  are  almost  devoid 
of  moral  sense. 

The  lowest  estimate  of  their  number,  prior  to 
European  settlement  among  them,  gives  over 
150,000,  the  natives  still  surviving  being  ealeu 
lated  now  at  about  half  that  figure.  The  census 
of  1881  showed  the  number  to  be  31,700,  but 
only  natives  in  the  settled  districts  were  included 
in  the  returns. 

The  precise  date  of  the  discovery  of  Australia 
is  doubtful.  It  has  been  asserted  that  Magellan’s 
followers  sighted  Western  Australia  in  1522,  and 
that  a  Spanish  ship  passed  Torres’ Strait  in  1545. 
The  name  of  Torres’  Strait  refers  to  the  presence 
of  Torres  there  in  1606.  The  Gulf  of  Carpen¬ 
taria  was  named,  probably  by  Tasman,  after  Car 
pentier,  Governor  of  the  Dutch  Indies,  1623-27. 
In  1688  Australia  was  first  seen  by  British  eyes 
(so  far  as  now  known)  in  the  person  of  Dampier, 
who  gives  name  to  an  archipelago  in  the  North¬ 
west.  Near  a  century  later  (1770)  we  find  Cap¬ 
tain  Cook  at  this  island-continent,  on  his  course 
of  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  exploring  the 
whole  eastern  coast  from  Gipps  Land  on  the 
southeast  (in  Victoria)  to  Cape  York.  This  ex¬ 
pedition  stayed  a  week  in  “  Botany  ”  Bay,  while 
Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  Dr.  Solander  were'  collect¬ 
ing  some  thousand  species  of  the  wonders  of 
Australian  botany  to  show  at  home. 

The  first  civilized  settlement  in  Australia  was 
made  at  Botany  Bay  in  1788  by  1,030  persons, 
mostly  convicts. 

The  revenue  of  all  the  five  colonies,  which  in 
1874  was  $50,000,000,  had  grown  in  1885  to 
$100,000,000;  and  the  debt  in  the  same  period 
(largely  incurred  for  public  works)  increased  from 
$170,000,000  to  $510,000,000. 

Especially  since  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1851, 
Australia  has  been  advancing  in  all  departments 
of  material  well-being.  In  1788  the  first  settle¬ 
ment  at  Botany  Bay,"  Sydney,  numbered  only 
1 ,030  persons;  in  1835  the  European  settlers  of 
Australia  (including  Tasmania)  amounted  to  80,- 
000.  By  1851  the  pop.  had  risen  to  350,000; 
and  at  the  present  time  the  inhabitants  of  the 


Australian  Continent  count  nearly  2,700,000. 
Between  1830  and  1885  the  population  of  New 
South  Wales  grew  from  40,000  to  nearly  1,000,- 
000;  between  1836  and  1885  that  of  Victoria 
grew  from  224  to  close  on  1,000,000;  between 
1851  and  1885  that  of  New  Zealand  from  26,000 
to  more  than  500,000.  From  1870  to  1880 
the  immigration  to  Australia,  Tasmania,  and 
New  Zealand,  averaged  daily  160  persons,  or  58,- 
000  per  annum,  the  increase  of  population  for 
that  decade  doubling  the  rate  of  the  United 
States.  The  population  is  almost  all  of  Euro¬ 
pean  origin,  the  predominating  element  being 
British. 

The  largest  cities  are  (with  their  suburbs)  Mel¬ 
bourne,  capital  of  Victoria,  282,981;  Sydney,  of 
New  South  Wales,  224,211;  Adelaide,  of  South 
Australia,  67,954;  Ballarat,  Victoria,  38,420; 
Sandhurst,  Victoria,  38,420,  and  Brisbane,  capital 
of  Queensland,  36,169. 

Each  of  the  great  divisions  of  Australia  forms 
a  separate  colony,  exercising  its  own  administra¬ 
tion,  passing  its  own  laws,  and  levying  its  own 
fiscal  duties;  and  all  of  them  enjoying  responsible 
government,  with  the  exception  of  Western  Aus¬ 
tralia,  the  constitution  of  which  is  “representa¬ 
tive.”  The  Government  in  each  of  the  other  col¬ 
onies  consists  of  the  Governor,  representing  and 
appointed  by  the  Queen;  the  Legislative  Council, 
corresponding  to  the  House  of  Lords;  and  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  corresponding  to  the  House 
of  Commons.  The  Legislative  Councils  of  New 
South  Wales  and  of  Queensland  are  nominated 
purely  by  the  crown;  those  of  Victoria  and  of 
South  Australia  are  elected  by  the  inhabitants- 
possessing  a  certain  property  qualification  The 
Legislative  Assembly  is,  in  all  four  colonies, 
elected  by  manhood  suffrage.  Imperial  laws  are 
in  force  in  all  the  colonies,  unless  superseded  by 
local  enactments,  and  all  acts  passed  by  the  Local 
Legislature  must  receive  the  assent  of  the  Home 
Government.  All  votes  arc  taken  by  ballot.  In 
Victoria,  the  members  of  both  houses  are  paid 
$1,500  each  per  annum,  for  the  three  years  for 
which  they  are  elected. 

Episcopacy  is  the  dominant  form  of  religion, 
Roman  Catholics  come  second,  Presbyterians 
third,  and  Methodists  fourth.  In  all  the  colonies, 
education  is  either  free  and  compulsory,  or  the  pri¬ 
mary  schools  are  all  so  liberally  endowed  by  the 
Government  as  to  place  elementary  instruction 
within  the  reach  of  all  classes.  The  Melbourne 
Free  Library  has  upward  of  110,000  volumes. 
There  are  universities  in  Melbourne,  Sydney,  and 
Adelaide,  and  also  well-equipped  astronomical 
observatories. 

The  staple  produce  of  Australia,  which  consti¬ 
tute®  its  largest  export,  is  wool.  The  pro¬ 
duce  in  1884  was  320,076,988  pounds,  valued  at 
$84,000,000.  The  cereals  of  Europe  and  maize 
have  been  introduced  with  success,  and  from  1875 
to  1885  the  wheat  crop  of  the  five  colonies  rose 
from  18,000,000  bushels  to  27,000,000  bushels. 
Potatoes  everywhere  yield  abundantly.  The  vine 
is  extensively  cultivated.  Sugar  is  a  very  impor¬ 
tant  and  increasing  product  of  Queensland,  and 
is  also  cultivated  in  New  South  Walt  s.  Cotton 
is  grown  in  Queensland.  The  fruit-trees  of 
Europe  and  of  many  of  the  tropical  and  sub¬ 
tropical  climates  thrive  luxuriantly.  Tobacco  is 
also  grown.  The  native  timber  is  distinguished 
for  its  hardness,  durability,  and  building  proper¬ 
ties. 

The  following  table  gives  a  comparative  view 
of  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  continent: 

Harvest  of  1885. 


Colonies. 

Wheat. 

Oats. 

Barley. 

Maize. 

Victoria . 

New  South  Wales 
*South  Australia 

Queensland . 

VVest’rn  Australia 

Bushels. 

9,170,588 

2,733,133 

14,021,755 

51,598 

339,376 

Bushels. 

4,692.303 

279,107 

88,639 

1,006 

23,142 

Bushels. 

1,302,854 

85,606 

211,207 

9,826 

89,581 

Bushels. 

181,240 

4,336,163 

1,574,294 

1,950 

Total . 

26,916,400 

5,084,197 

1,699,074 

6,093,647 

*No  agricultural  statistics  having  been  collected  in 
South  Australia  in  1885,  the  figures  of  the  previous  year 
have  been  given  for  that  colony. 

The  trade  of  Australia  exhibits  a  remarkable 
development,  the  average  of  trade  per  inhabit¬ 
ant  being  about  five  times  that  of  Europe, 


AUSTRASIA. 


101 


AUSTRIA. 


and  nearly  five  times  that  of  Canada.  The 
imports  of  Australia  have  risen  from  $180,000,- 
000  in  1874,  to  $275,000,000  in  1885;  the  ex¬ 
ports,  in  the  same  period,  from  $185,000,000  to 
$220,000,000. 

At  the  end  of  1885  the  railway  lines  of  Aus¬ 
tralia  already  "working  measured  6,134  miles,  and 
1,840  miles  were  in  course  of  construction.  The 
telegraph  lines  at  the  end  of  1885  measured  31,215 
miles,  embracing  53,437  miles  of  wire. 

The  following  are  the  official  statistics  of  the 
Australian  colonies  at  the  close  of  1885: 


Statistics — 1885. 


Colonies. 

Area  in 
Sq  Miles 

Popula¬ 
tion  of 
1885. 

Revenue  of 
1885. 

Public  Debt 
Dec.31,1885. 

Tictoria . 

87,884 

309,175 

903,425 

668,224 

975,920 

991.869 
957,914 
313,423 
315, 4S9 
35,186 

£  6,290,361 
7,584,593 

2  309,592 

2  840,960 
323,2 1 3 

£  28,028,588 
35,564,259 
17,020.900 
19,320,850 
1,288,100 

N. South  Wales. 
S’uthAustralia. 
Queensland  . . . 
WestAustralia. 

Australia  . . . 

Tasmania . 

New  Zealand 

Grand  Total 

2,944,628 

26,375 

104,235 

2,613,881 

133,791 

575,226 

£19,348,719 

571,397 

4.096,996 

£101,822.697 

3,357,000 

35,790,422 

3  075.238 

3.322,898 

£24  017,112 

£140,970.119 

Statistics — 1885. 


Colonies. 

Imports 
for  1885. 

Exports 
for  life. 

Miles  of 
Railway 
open  Dec. 
31,  1885. 

Miles  of 
Tel’gr'pli 
open  Dec. 
31, 1885. 

£18,044,604 

23,365,196 

5,548,403 

6,442,490 

650,391 

£15,551,758 
16,541,745 
5,636,255 
5  243,404 
440,692 

1,676 

1,777 

1,063 

1,434 

184 

3,949 

10,351 

5,346 

7,533 

2,234 

N.  South  Wales. 
S’uthAustralia. 
Queensland  ... 
WestAustralia. 

Australia.  . . 

Tasmania . 

New  Zealand . . 

Grand  Total. 

£54,031,084 

1,757,486 

7,479,921 

£43,419.854 

1,313,693 

6,819,939 

6,134 

257 

1,654 

29,413 

1.635 

4,463 

£63,268.491 

£51,553,486 

8,045 

35.511* 

*  Miles  of  wire,  66,439. 


Australia,  or  the  East  Kingdom,  the  name 
given,  under  the  Merovingians,  to  the  Eastern 
possessions  of  the  Franks,  embracing  Lorraine, 
Belgium,  and  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and 
having  their  central  point  at  Metz. 

Austria,  the  usual  name  of  the  great  Empire 
now  officially  called  the  Austro-Hungarian 
Monarchy,  is  a  Latinized  form  of  the  German 
Oesterreich  (Fr.  Antriche),  meaning  “Eastern 
Kingdom.”  Since  1867,  the  Empire  is  composed 
of  a  union  of  two  States  under  one  Emperor,  but 
administratively  distinct.  The  one  is  Austria,  or 
Cisleithania  (on  this  side  the  Leitha,  a  tributary 
of  the  Danube,  on  the  frontiers  of  the  Archduchy 
of  Austria  and  Hungary);  the  other,  Hungary 
and  the  lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown,  or  Trans- 
leithania.  The  Austrian  dominions  form  geo¬ 
graphically  a  compact  territory,  with  a  circum¬ 
ference  of  about  5,350  miles.  The  total  area, 
240,456  square  miles,  is  greater  than  that  of  any 
other  European  State  save  Russia.  The  body  of 
the  Empire  lies  in  the  interior  of  Europe,  though 
it  has  about  500  miles  of  sea-coast  on  the  Adriatic. 
Austria  borders  on  Italy,  Switzerland,  Bavaria, 
Saxony,  Prussia,  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Monte¬ 
negro.  Tbe  Turkish  Provinces  of  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina,  though  occupied  and  also  adminis¬ 
tered  by  Austria,  can  not  strictly  be  regarded  as 
the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy. 

Three-fourtlis  of  Austria  is  mountainous  or  hilly, 
being  traversed  by  three  great  mountain-chains — 
the  Alps,  Carpathians,  and  Sudetes,  whose  chief 
ridges  are  of  primitive  rock.  The  Rhsetian  and 
None  Alps  stretch  from  Switzerland  to  the  Dan¬ 
ube,  and  contain  the  highest  points  of  the  Aus¬ 
trian  territories,  the  Ortler  Spitzc  rising  to  12,814 
feet.  The  chief  plains  of  the  Austrian  Empire 
are  the  vast  lowlands  of  Hungary  (the  one  in  the 
west  is  about  4,200  square  miles  in  extent;  the 
other,  which  is  in  the  east,  and  traversed  by 
the  Danube  and  the  Theiss,  has  an  area  of  21,000 
square  miles),  and  the  Plain  of  Galicia. 

From  the  Gulf  of  Trieste  to  the  south  point  of 
Dalmatia,  Austria  has  a  sea-line  of  about  1,000 
miles,  not  counting  the  coasts  of  the  numerous 
islands,  the  largest  of  which  is  Ycglia,  23  miles 


by  12.  The  chief  lakes  are  Lake  Balaton  (382 
square  miles)  and  the  Neusiedler  See  (117),  both 
in  Hungary. 

The  following  table  shows  the  area  and  popu¬ 
lation  of  the  Empire  at  the  census  of  Dec., 
1880: 


Area  in 

Population 

I.  Austrian  Lands— 

Sq.  Miles. 

in  1880. 

Lower  Austria . 

....  7,654 

2,329,021 

Upper  Austria  . 

.  4,631 

700.879 

Salzburg  . 

.  2,767 

163.566 

Styria . 

.  .  . .  8,670 

1,212  307 

Carinthia .  . 

_  4,005 

348,670 

Caruiola . 

.  3,856 

481,176 

Gorz,  Gradiska  Istria,  and  Trieste.  3.084 

650,897 

Tyrol  and  Voralberg . 

91 1 ,887 

Iiohemia . 

5,557,134 

Moravia . 

2,151,619 

Silesia . 

.  1,987 

565,772 

5,951,954 

Bukowina . 

. 4,035 

569,599 

Dalmatia  . 

470,164 

Total  for  Austria .... 

....115,823 

22,130,705 

II.  Lands  of  the  Hungarian  Crown — 

1 1  ungary  and  Transylvania . . . . 

...107,858 

13,700,005 

Fiume . 

8 

21,363 

Crotia  and  Slavonia  (including, 

since  1881,  the  former  Military 

Frontier)  . 

...  16.767 

1,889  351 

Total  for  Hungary . . . 

.  ..124,633 

15,610,719 

Total  for  the  Monarchy  240,456 

37,741,424 

Revised  returns  gave  for  the  Empire  a  total  of 
37,882,712.  This  includes  the  army  and  land- 
welir,  amounting,  in  1885,  on  a  peace  footing,  to 
286,507  men;  and  on  a  war  footing  (with  gen¬ 
darmerie,  etc.),  to  1,068,628.  The  naval  forces 
of  the  monarchy  consisted,  in  1886,  of  11  armor- 
clads,  61  other  steamers,  with  10  tenders,  and  16 
training  ships.  At  the  end  of  1880  Austria  had 
five  cities  of  over  100,000  inhabitants;  Vienna, 
the  capital  of  the  Empire,  1,103,857;  Budapest 
(Pestli),  360,551;  Prague,  177,026;  Trieste,  144,- 
844,  and  Lemberg,  109,746.  These  figures  in¬ 
clude  the  garrisons  and  the  suburbs,  which,  in 
the  case  of  Trieste,  doubled  the  population  of  the 
town  proper.  Besides  these  five,  there  were  seven 
cities  with  over  50,000,  and  forty-two  with  over 
20,000  inhabitants.  After  Trieste,  the  chief  har¬ 
bors  are  Fiume  in  Croatia,  and  C’urzola  in  Dal¬ 
matia,  with  over  20,000  inhabitants;  and  Zara, 
Spalatro,  and  Rovigno,  with  over  10,000,  More 
than  two-thirds  of  the  population  are  engaged  in 
agriculture.  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Novi 
Bazar  contained,  in  1885,  a  pop.  of  1,504,091. 

The  leading  rivers  are;  the  Danube,  which  has 
a  course  of  850  miles  within  the  Austrian  domin¬ 
ions,  from  Passau,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Inn,  to 
Orsova,  on  the  frontier  of  Wallachia,  its  navi¬ 
gable  affluents  being  the  Inn,  Save,  Drave,  March, 
Waag,  and  the  Theiss,  which  drains  nearly  half  of 
Hungary;  the  Vistula,  with  its  tributary  the  Bug; 
the  Elbe,  w  ith  the  Moldau  and  Eger;  the  Dniester 
and  Adige.  The  Rhine  flow's  for  about  tw'enty- 
five  miles  of  its  course  between  Austria  and  Switz¬ 
erland.  The  Isonzo,  Zermagna,  Kerka,  and 
Narenta  flow  into  the  Adriatic. 

The  climate  of  Austria  is,  on  the  w'hole,  very 
favorable,  but  presents  great  varieties.  In  the 
warmest  southern  region  between  42°-46Q  latitude, 
rice,  olives,  oranges,  and  lemons  ripen  in  the 
better  localities;  and  wune  and  maize  are  produced 
everywhere.  In  the  middle  temperate  region 
from  46°-49°,  which  has  the  greatest  extent  and 
diversity  of  surface,  wine  and  maize  still  thrive  in 
perfection.  In  the  northern  region,  beyond  49°, 
except  in  favored  spots,  neither  wine  nor  maize 
succeeds;  but  grain,  fruit,  flax,  and  hemp  thrive 
excellently.  The  mean  temperature  of  the  year 
is,  at  Trieste,  58°  Falir. ;  at  Vienna,  51°;  at  Lem¬ 
berg,  in  Galicia,  44°.  The  rainfall  ranges  from 
16  inches  in  the  plains  of  Hungary  to  more  than 
60  inches  in  the  neigborhood  of  the  Alps. 

Its  mineral  wealth  is  not  surpassed  in  any 
European  country;  it  is  only  lately  that  Russia 
has  exceeded  it  in  the  production  of  gold 
and  silver.  Mining  has  been  an  important  pur¬ 
suit  in  Austria  for  centuries.  Except  platinum, 
none  of  the  useful  metals  are  wanting.  The  value 
of  the  yearly  mineral  produce  is  estimated  at  about 
$45,000,000.  Of  this  sum  coal  yields  about  a  half, 
iron  a  fifth,  salt  a  tenth.  The  number  of  persons 
employed  in  mines  and  smelting-works  is  about 
150,000,  a  third  of  whom  are  in  Hungary. 

The  useful  earths  and  building  stones  are  to  be 
had  in  great  profusion;  likewise  marble,  gypsum, 


chalk,  etc.  Austria  is  peculiarly  rich  in  salt. 
The  annual  production  of  rock-salt  is  from  3,000,- 
000  to  4,000,000  cwt.  Austria  has  also  about  1,600 
valuable  mineral  spiings. 

In  the  production  of  wine,  Austria  is  second 
only  to  France;  Hungary  yielding  four-fifths  of 
the  whole  produce  of  the  Empire,  which  is  esti¬ 
mated  at  about  200,000,000  gallons. 

Flax  and  hemp  are  cultivated  almost  univer¬ 
sally.  Tobacco  is  raised  in  great  quantities,  espe¬ 
cially  in  Hungary,  which  also  is  first  in  the  culti¬ 
vation  of  rape-seed.  Bohemia  raises  hops  of  the 
first  quality.  Nearly  a  third  of  the  productive 
surface  is  covered  with  wood  (66,000  square  miles). 

Bears  are  found  in  the  Carpathians,  Alps,  and 
Dalmatia;  wolves  and  lynxes  in  these  same  dis¬ 
tricts,  and  also  in  the  Banat,  Croatia,  and  Slav¬ 
onia.  The  marmot,  otter,  and  beaver  are  also 
found  in  Dalmatia.  The  wild  goat  lives  in  the 
highest,  the  chamois  and  white  Alpine  hare  in 
the  middle  regions  of  the  Alps  and  Carpathians. 
There  are  productive  fisheries  in  the  Danube, 
Theiss,  and  numerous  streams,  lakes,  and  ponds. 
For  foreign  commerce  the  most  important  branch 
of  rural  industry  is  the  rearing  of  silk. 

The  breeding  of  domestic  animals  is  in  some 
districts  excellent,  in  others  quite  neglected. 

An  official  estimate  of  the  annual  value  of  the 
manufactures  of  the  Empire  in  1880,  gave  it  at 
over  $500,000,000.  Vienna  is  the  chief  seat  of 
manufacture  for  articles  of  luxury;  Moravia, 
Silesia,  and  Bohemia  for  linen,  woolen  and  glass 
wares.  The  glass  wares  of  Bohemia  are  of  special 
excellence.  The  hemp  and  flax  industry  is  one 
of  the  oldest  and  most  important.  No  branch  of 
industry  has  risen  more  rapidly  than  that  of  cot¬ 
ton.  The  manufacture  of  silk  is  very  extensive. 
The  manufacture  of  tobacco  is  a  State  monop¬ 
oly,  and  brings  a  revenue  of  nearly  $29,000,000; 
the  salt  monopoly,  $9,000  000. 

In  respect  to  commerce,  Austria  is  most  unfa¬ 
vorably  situated.  High  mountains  oppose  great 
obstacles  on  all  hands  to  communication,  and 
separate  the  producing  districts  from  the  only  sea 
that  touches  the  Empire;  while  the  chief  navi¬ 
gable  rivers  have  their  mouths  in  other  countries. 

By  the  tariff  of  1852  Austria  passed  from  a  pro¬ 
hibitive  to  a  protective  system.  Absolute  prohibi¬ 
tion  is  now  confined  to  articles  of  State  monop¬ 
oly  (salt,  powder  and  tobacco). 

'Re  i  ween  the  years  1875  and  1885  the  total  im¬ 
ports,  exclusive  of  bullion,  were  highest  in  1882 
($275,000,000);  the  exports,  highest  in  1882  ($330,- 
000,000).  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  whole  com¬ 
merce  of  the  Empire  is  carried  on  with  Germany. 
Its  next  best  markets  are  Roumania,  Russia,  Italy, 
and  Servia. 

The  following  table  shows  the  total  length  of 
railway  lines  in  the*Empire  open  for  traffic  in 
1886: 

Austria.  Hungary.  Total. 

State  lines  worked  by  the  State . 2,240  2,380  4,620 

State  lines  ■worked  by  companies .  60  ....  00 

Companies’  lines  worked  by  the  State.  981  370  1 ,351 

Companies’ lines  worked  by  companies  5,042  2,892  7,934 

Total . 8,323  5,042  13,965 

In  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  there  were  at  the  same 
date  three  military  lines,  with  a  total  length  of 
275  miles.  The  length  of  the  telegraph  lines  in 
the  Empire  in  1885  was  upward  of  35,000  English 
miles.  In  1885  there  were  in  Austria  proper  4,263 
post-offices;  and  in  Hungary,  3,613. 

The  budget  estimates  for  the  Imperial  expenses 
for  the  year  1886  w7ere  $63,000,000.  The  accounts 
of  Austria  proper  generally  show  large  deficits, 
and  of  recent  years  a  growing  expenditure.  In 
1886  the  revenue  wras  estimated  at  $254,000,000; 
the  expenditure  at  $259,000,000.  The  direct  tax¬ 
ation  amounts  to  about  $2  per  head  of  the  popu¬ 
lation.  The  heaviest  item  of  expenditure  is  the 
interest  and  sinking  fund  of  the  public  debt, 
amounting  in  1886  to  over  $1,660,000,000.  To 
this  must  be  added  the  Government  paper-money, 
$205,000,000,  showing  a  total  debt  of  over  $1,865,- 
000,000.  The  interest  on  the  public  debt  amounted 
in  1886  to  $63,000,000.  The  accounts  of  Hun¬ 
gary,  with  her  large  special  debt,  are  hardly  more 
promising.  In  18'-6  the  revenue  was  $165,000,- 
000,  and  the  expenditure  $174,000,000.  The  spe¬ 
cial  debt  of  Hungary  is  over  $640,000,000. 

The  population  is  very  unequally  distributed. 
The  Slavs,  the  most  numerous  race,  amounting 


AUSTRIA. 


102 


AUTO  DA  F& 


to  nearly  42  per  cent,  of  the  whole  population. 
The  Germans  number  above  25  per  cent.  The 
Magyars,  or  Hungarians  proper,  number  over  10 
per  cent. 

The  principal  languages  are  German,  Hunga¬ 
rian,  and  Bohemian. 

The  Roman  Catholics  in  Austria  have  a  large 
preponderance  over  other  religious  bodies.  In 
18S0  there  were  25,543,000  Roman  Catholics; 
4,036,000  Greeks  and  Armenians  united  with  the 
Roman  Church;  2,928,000  non-united  Greeks  and 
Armenians;  3,611,000  Protestants. 

In  18T8  there  were  in  the  Empire  32,273  Volks- 
schulen,  143  training  schools  for  teachers,  271 
gymnasiums,  166  secondary  schools,  13  schools 
of  law,  91  theological  colleges,  and  752  other  pro¬ 
fessional  and  technical  institutions.  In  1882 
Vienna  University  had  257  teachers  and  3,930 
students;  Pesth,  145  teachers  and  2,000  students; 
the  double  University  of  Prague,  in  is 83,  had  150 
teachers,  with  1,307  students  at  its  German,  and 
1,380  at  its  Czech  University. 

Instruction  is  mostly  gratuitous,  or  is  given  at 
a  trifling  cost,  being  provided  from  general  or 
local  public  funds.  Education  is  compulsory. 
There  are  eleven  universities  in  the  Empire,  at 
Vienna,  Prague,  Griitz,  BrL’inn,  Innsbruck,  Pesth 
(Budapest),  Cracow,  Klausenburg,  Lemberg,  and 
Czernowitz.  Vienna,  Gratz,  and  Innsbruck  rank 
as  German  Universities;  Prague  has  since  1880  a 
Bohemian  and  a  German  University. 

Military  service  is  compulsory  on  all  citizens 
capable  of  bearing  arms.  The  army  has,  on  a 
peace  footing,  302,000  men,  and  on  a  war  footing 
1,100,000;  under  the  law  of  1886  it  is  expected 
that  this  will  be  increased  to  2,000,000  or  more. 
In  1887  the  navy  comprised  10  ironclads,  7  cruisers, 
6  torpedo  vessels,  34  torpedo  boats,  and  16 
vessels  for  coast  defence.  These  are  manned  by 
about  10,000  men,  raised  to  14,000  in  time  of  war. 

Austria  is  a  monarchy  hereditary  in  the  House 
of  Hapsburg-Lorraine.  In  the  case  of  the  reign¬ 
ing  family  dying  out,  the  States  of  Bohemia  and 
of  Hungary  have  the  right  of  choosing  a  new 
king,  but  for  the  other  crown  lands  the  last  sov¬ 
ereign  appoints  his  own  successor.  The  reigning 
house  must  profess  the  Roman  Catholic  faith. 
Since  the  year  1867  Austria  has  been  recon¬ 
structed  as  a  dual  empire,  consist  ing  of  a  German 
or  “Cisleithan”  monarchy,  and  a  Magyar  or 
“  Transleithan  ”  kingdom.  Each  of  the  two  coun¬ 
tries  has  its  own  laws,  parliament,  ministers,  and 
government  ,  and  deals  with  the  affairs  exclusively 
relating  to  itself.  The  ministers  for  affairs  com¬ 
mon  to  the  whole  Empire  (foreign  affairs,  finance, 
army)  are  not  responsible  to  either  Parliament, 
but  to  the  Delegations.  The  connecting  link  be¬ 
tween  the  two  portions  of  the  Empire  is  consti¬ 
tuted  by  a  body  known  as  the  Delegations.  These 
form  a  Parliament  of  120  members;  the  one  half 
is  chosen  by  the  legislature  of  Germanic  Austria, 
which  is  represented  by  it,  and  the  other  half 
represents  Hungary.  The  person  of  the  sovereign 
is  another  link  between  the  two  members  of  the 
Empire.  The  Magyars  claim,  under  certain  con¬ 
ditions,  the  right  of  freely  electing  their  monarch. 
The  Delegations  have  control  of  all  matters  affect¬ 
ing  the  common  interests  of  the  two  countries, 
especially  foreign  affairs,  war,  and  finance,  and 
the  ministries  of  these  three  departments  are  re¬ 
sponsible  for  the  discharge  of  their  official  func¬ 
tions  to  the  Delegations,  a  committee  of  which 
sits  permanently.  The  acts  of  the  Delegations 
require  to  be  confirmed  by  the  representative  as¬ 
semblies  of  their  respective  countries,  and  in  this 
manner  it  is  attempted  to  leave  the  self-govern¬ 
ment  of  both  Austria  proper  and  Hungary  free. 
These  arrangements  were  determined  by  the 
famous  Ausgleich  or  agreement  with  Hungary  in 
1867.  The  administration  of  Austria  proper  is 
divided  among  seven  ministries — Public  Educa¬ 
tion  and  Ecclesiastical  Affairs,  Agriculture,  Fi¬ 
nance,  Interior,  National  Defence,  Commerce, 
and  Justice,  who  are  responsible  to  Parliament. 

The  Reichsrath  consists  of  an  upper  and  a  lower 
house.  The  upper  house  is  composed  of  the 
princes  of  the  imperial  family  who  are  of  age,  of 
upward  of  50  nobles,  10  archbishops,  7  bishops, 
and  105  life-members  nominated  by  the  Emperor. 
The  lower  house  numbers  353  members,  elected 
by  voters  of  each  country,  arranged  in  the  four 
classes  of  great  proprietors,  towns,  commerce,  and 


rural  districts.  In  the  three  first  classes  the  voting 
is  direct;  in  the  last  indirect.  To  give  validity 
to  bills  passed  by  the  Reichsrath,  the  consent  of 
both  chambers  is  required,  as  well  as  the  sanc¬ 
tion  of  the  Emperor.  Thus  the  government  of 
Austria  is  both  representative  and  constitutional. 

The  executive  of  Hungary  is  carried  on  in  the 
name  of  “  the  King  ”  by  a  responsible  ministry. 

The  Empire  of  Austria  arose  from  the  smallest 
beginnings  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  century.  In 
796  a  Margraviate,  called  the  Eastern  Mark,  was 
founded  at  an  outpost  of  the  Empire  of  Charle¬ 
magne,  in  the  country  between  the  Ens  and  the 
Raab.  The  name  Oeslerreich  appears  first  in  996. 
In  1156  the  Mark  was  raised  to  a  Duchy;  and 
after  coming  into  possession  of  the  House  of 
Hapsburg  in  1282,  it  rapidly  rose  to  a  powerful 
State.  The  princes  of  that  house  extended  their 
dominion  by  marriage,  by  purchase,  and  other¬ 
wise,  over  a  number  of  other  States,  and  from 
1438  held  almost  without  interruption  the  throne 
of  the  German  Empire.  By  the  acquisition  (1526) 
of  the  crowns  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  Austria 
rose  to  the  rank  of  a  European  monarchy.  In 
1804  Francis  declared  himself  hereditary  Emperor 
of  Austria,  and  two  years  afterward  resigned  the 
title  of  Emperor  of  Germany  and  King  of  the 
Romans.  The  humiliating  peace  of  Vienna  was 
followed  (1809)  by  the  marriage  of  Napoleon  with 
the  Archduchess  Maria  Louisa,  and  in  1812 
Austria  figured  as  the  ally  of  Napoleon  in  his 
great  campaign  against  Russia,  but  she  did  rfbt 
give  much  active  assistance.  In  August  of  the 
following  year  Austria  joined  the  grand  alliance 
against  France,  and  the  Aust  rian  general,  Schwar- 
zenberg,  was  intrusted  with  the  chief  command 
of  the  allied  forces,  which  at  the  battle  of  Leip¬ 
zig  and  in  the  campaign  of  1814  broke  the  power 
of  Napoleon.  The  sacrifices  and  great  services 
rendered  by  Austria  in  the  gigantic  struggle  re¬ 
ceived  full  consideration  at  the  treaty  of  Vienna 
(1815).  As  recompense  for  the  loss  of  the  Neth¬ 
erlands  she  received  Venice  and  Dalmatia,  which 
afforded  an  outlet  for  her  foreign  trade.  A 
Polish  insurrection  in  1846  led  to  the  incorpora¬ 
tion  of  Cracow  with  the  monarchy.  The  fall  of 
Louis  Philippe  (Feb.  24,  1848)  gave  the  signal 
for  the  outbreak  of  the  revolutionary  elements 
all  over  Europe.  Nowhere  was  the  spirit  of 
change  stronger  than  in  Vienna,  which  for  many 
months  became  a  scene  of  confusion.  The  down¬ 
fall  of  the  old  system  was  marked  by  the  flight  of 
Metternich  to  England,  by  the  arming  of  the  cit¬ 
izens,  by  the  granting  of  the  freedom  of  the  press, 
and  other  popular  measures.  At  the  same  time  the 
opposition  in  Hungary  had  carried  their  demand 
for  an  independent  ministry  responsible  to  a  Na¬ 
tional  Diet,  and  the  Emperor  was  not  in  a  position 
to  withstand  it.  The  22d  of  March  saw  the 
insurrection  break  out  at  Milan,  and  Radetzky, 
the  military  commander,  forced  to  retire  on 
Verona.  Venice  rose  at  the  same  time  and  drove 
out  the  Austrians.  The  Austrian  power  and 
system  of  government  had  in  fact  broken  down. 

In  the  course  of  the  summer  Radetzky  took  the 
offensive  against  the  Sardinians,  and  defeated  t  hem 
at  Custozza.  The  fruits  of  the  victory  were  the 
dissolution  of  Charles  Albert’s  army,  and  a  truce 
which  again  delivered  Lombardy  to  Austria. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Government  at  Vienna 
was  more  powerless  than  ever.  The  Emperor 
remained  at  Innsbruck,  and  a  constituent  Diet 
was  opened  in  July  by  the  Archduke  John,  as  his 
representative.  But  order  was  never  permanently 
restored,  and  affairs  were  brought  to  a  crisis  by 
the  proceedings  in  Hungary.  Vienna  rose  in 
rebellion,  but  was  besieged  by  the  Government 
troops  and  surrendered  in  October.  Ferdinand 
abdicated,  and  Francis  Joseph  became  Emperor,  at 
the  age  of  eighteen.  In  Italy,  Radetzky  made 
his  rapid  and  decisive  campaign  of  1849,  and,  by 
the  victory  of  Novara,  completed  the  overthrow 
of  Sardinia.  With  the  surrender  of  Venice,  which 
took  place  in  August,  the  subjugation  of  Italy 
was  complete. 

In  Hungary,  the  Magyars,  though  the  Germans 
and  Slavs  within  the  country  itself  were  hostile 
to  them,  began  the  campaign  of  1849  with  de¬ 
cided  success.  Bern  conquered  Transylvania. 
These  and  other  successes  encouraged  Kossuth  to 
proclaim  the  deposition  of  the  House  of  Haps¬ 
burg,  and  the  reestablishment  of  Hungary  as  a 


separate  State.  Buda  was  retaken  from  the  im¬ 
perial  troops,  which  were  driven  back  on  Pres- 
burg,  but,  with  the  aid  of  Russia,  the  Hungarians 
were  completely  beaten.  Kossuth  transferred  the 
dictatorship  to  General  Gorgei,  who  succumbed  to 
the  Russians  at  Vilagos  (Aug.  13).  The  surrender 
of  Komorn,  in  September,  completed  the  subju¬ 
gation  of  Hungary,  which  was  treated  as  a 
conquered  country. 

The  ten  years  which  followed  on  the  revolution¬ 
ary  troubles  of  1848  were  a  period  of  reaction  and 
of  absolutism.  The  constitution  which  had  been 
granted  in  1849  was  soon  annulled. 

In  the  spring  of  1859  Sardinia  began  to  arm 
against  Austrian  supremacy,  Austria  commenced 
hostilities  by  crossing  the  Ticino  at  the  end  of 
April,  1859.  Sardinia  having  secured  the  aid  of 
France,  the  Austrians  were  defeated,  and  their 
Emperor  concluded  an  armistice  with  Napoleon. 
On  the  12tli  of  the  same  month,  the  two  poten¬ 
tates  met  at  Villafranca,  and  concluded  a  peace, 
the  chief  condition  of  which  was  the  cession  of 
Lombardy  to  Sardinia.  Venice  was  all  that  re¬ 
mained  of  the  Italian  possessions  of  Austria.  In 
1864  the  combined  Prussian  and  Austrian  forces 
drove  the  Danes  out  of  Sleswick-Holstein,  but 
the  two  victors  quarreled  about  the  subsequent 
arrangements.  War  was  declared,  and  in  1866 
the  Austrian  armies  in  Bohemia  were  completely 
beaten  by  the  Prussians,  in  a  campaign  of  seven 
days,  which  closed  with  the  great  defeat  of 
Koniggratz  or  Sadowa.  Sardinia,  which  had 
formed  an  alliance  with  Prussia,  was,  however, 
defeated  at  Custozza.  The  result  of  the  contest 
was  to  exclude  Austria  from  Germany,  and  she 
had  to  hand  over  to  Sardinia  the  Province  of 
Venetia,  a  cession  by  which  she  was  also  excluded 
from  Italy.  After  the  collapse  of  1866  the  polit¬ 
ical  independence  of  Hungary  was  recognized; 
and  the  Emperor  was  crowned  King  at  Pesth  in 
accordance  with  the  old  historic  rites  (1867). 

On  the  geography  and  statistics  of  Austria  see 
works  by  Brachelli,  Hannak,  Trampler,  Umlauft, 
Klun,  Strahalm,  and  D.  Kay  (Lond.  1880);  on 
the  history,  Lager’s  Histoire  de  V  Autriche-IIon- 
grie  (Par.  *1879),  Coxe’s  History  of  the  House  of 
Austria,  and  works  by  Schneller,  Meilath,  Lich- 
nowsky,  Mayer  (1874),  Ivrones  (1879). 

Austria,  Archduchy  of,  the  cradle  and 
nucleus  of  the  Austrian  Empire,  lies  on  both  sides 
of  the  Danube,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Inn  to 
Presburg,  on  the  borders  of  Hungary,  and  em¬ 
braces  an  area  of  18,052  square  miles,  with  a  pop. 
of  nearly  3,300,000.  It  now  forms  three  of  the 
crown-lands,  or  administrative  provinces  of  the 
Empire — viz.,  Lower  and  Upper  Austria  (i.e., 
Austria  below  and  Austria  above  the  Ens),  and 
the  Duchy  of  Salzburg.  The  population  is  mostly 
German  and  Catholic.  The  chief  towns,  besides 
Vienna,  are  Wiener-Neustadt,  Salzburg,  Steyer, 
Linz,  and  Ischl. 

Auteuil,  formerly  a  country  village  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  now  inclosed 
within  the  fortifications  of  Paris.  It  is  known  as 
the  residence  of  famous  literary  men — such  as 
Boileau  and  Moliere. 

Autocli'tliones,  the  Greek  name  for  the 
original  inhabitants  of  a  country,  not  settlers, 
considered  as  having  sprung  from  the  soil  itself. 
The  Athenians  were  fond  of  being  so  called;  the 
ancients  counted  among  autochthonous  races,  also 
the  Arcadians,  Latins,  Gauls,  and  Scythians. 
The  Latin  equivalent  term  was  aborigines. 

Auto'cracy  (Gr.  sole  mastery,  ruling  by  one’s 
self)  signifies  that  form  of  government  in  which 
the  sovereign  unites  in  himself  the  legislative  and 
the  executive  powers  of  the  State,  and  thus  rules 
uncontrolled.  Such  asovereign  is  therefore  called 
an  autocrat.  Nearly  all  eastern  Governments  are 
of  this  form. 

Auto  da  Fe  (Port,  act  of  the  faith;  Span.  Auto 
de  Fe)  was  the  name  given  to  the  solemnity  that 
from  1481  used  to  take  place  in  Spain  and  Portu¬ 
gal  at  the  execution  of  heretics  condemned  to 
death  by  the  Inquisition.  It  was  generally  held 
on  a  Sunday  between  Whitsunday  and  Advent, 
very  often  on  All-Saints’  Day.  The  procession 
was  led  by  the  Dominicans  carrying  the  flag  of 
the  Inquisition;  next  followed  the  penitents,  on 
whom  only  penance  had  been  laid;  behind  them, 
and  separated  by  a  great  cross,  which  was  borne 
before,  came  those  condemned  to  death — bare- 


AUTOGRAPH. 


103 


AVATAR. 


foot,  clad  in  robes  painted  with  hideous  figures 
called  the  sanbenito,  and  with  a  pointed  cap  on 
the  head;  then,  effigies  of  fugitives;  and  lastly, 
the  bones  of  dead  culprits,  in  black  coffins  painted 
with  flames  and  hellish  symbols.  The  frightful 
train  was  closed  by  an  army  of  priests  and  monks. 
The  procession  went  through  the  principal  streets 
to  the  church,  where,  after  a  sermon  on  the  true 
faith,  the  sentence  was  announced,  the  accused 
standing  meantime  before  a  crucifix  with  extin¬ 
guished  torches  in  their  hands.  After  the  sentence 
had  been  read  to  them,  an  officer  of  the  Inquisi¬ 
tion  gave  each  of  the  condemned  a  blow  on  the 
breast  with  his  hand,  as  a  sign  that  they  were 
given  over  by  that  tribunal  to  the  secular  power; 
on  which  a  secular  officer  took  them  in  charge, 
had  them  fettered,  and  taken  to  prison.  A  few 
hours  afterward  they  were  brought  to  the  place 
of  execution.  If  they  yet,  at  the  last,  made  pro¬ 
fession  of  the  Catholic  faith,  they  were  so  far 
favored  as  to  be  first  strangled;  otherwise,  they 
were  burned  alive,  and  with  them  the  effigies  and 
bones  of  the  fugitive  and  dead  culprits.  As  a 
rule  the  King,  along  with  his  whole  court,  had  to 
exalt  by  his  presence  the  solemnity  of  the  horrid 
transaction.  The  most  splendid  auto  da  f 6  took 
place  at  Madrid,  under  Charles  II.,  in  1080;  and 
so  late  as  1826  a  Jew  and  a  deistical  schoolmaster 
were  the  one  burned  and  the  other  hanged,  under 
the  forms  of  an  auto  da  f<5,  at  Valencia. 

Au  tograph  (Gr.),  something  written  in  a  per¬ 
son’s  own  handwriting,  and  not  by  an  amanu¬ 
ensis,  whether  a  mere  signature  or  a  whole  manu¬ 
script,  as  opposed  to  a  copy.  From  the  sixteenth 
century  onwards,  but  especially  in  modern  times, 
the  collect  ion  of  autographs  has  become  an  object 
of  eager  pursuit;  and  consequently  since  1801 
they  have  formed  a  branch  of  literary  trade.  The 
value  of  autographs  is  determined  by  the  interest 
felt  in  the  writer,  the  scarcity  of  such  relics  of 
him,  and  the  contents  of  the  'writing  In  1858  a 
signature  of  Shakespeare  was  purchased  by  the 
British  Museum  for  $1,500;  whilst  at  the  Joy 
sale  in  1887  a  letter  of  Defoe’s,  indorsed  by 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  fetched  $300.  Forgeries  of  au¬ 
tographs  are  not  infrequent.  All  Europe  took  a 
lively  interest  in  the  autograph  of  the  most  emi¬ 
nent  men  of  all  times  from  Caesar  downward, 
possessed  and  partly  published  by  INI.  Quisles, 
until  in  1867  that  eminent  mathematician  had  to 
own  he  had  been  duped  by  a  forger. 

Autogravure,  a  peculiar  process  of  photo¬ 
engraving.  If  an  ordinary  autotype  carbon 
print  be  placed  on  silvered  copper  instead  of  on 
paper,  the  slight  relief  which  the  picture  pos¬ 
sesses  is  enough  to  admit  of  an  electrotype  being 
taken  from  it.  The  raised  parts  of  the  print  be¬ 
come  the  depressed  parts  in  the  electrotype.  The 
latter  can  therefore  be  used  for  taking  impres¬ 
sions  from  in  the  same  way  as  an  engraved  cop¬ 
perplate. 

Autoly'cus,  a  son  of  Hermes,  maternal 
grandfather  of  I  _  sses.  He  lived  on  Mount  Par¬ 
nassus,  and  was  famous  for  his  cunning  and  rob¬ 
beries;  similarly,  in  Shakespeare’s  Winter’s  Tale , 
Autolycus  is  a  “  snapper-up  of  unconsidered 
trifles.”  A  “  literary  Autolycus  ”  is  a  plagiarist. 

Automatism  (Gr.  self  movemeut),  a  term  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  power  of  initiating  vital  processes 
from  within  the  cell,  organ,  or  organism,  inde¬ 
pendently  of  any  direct  or  immediate  stimulus 
from  without. 

Autom'atou  is  derived  from  two  Greek  words 
signifying  self-movement,  and  is  usually  applied 
to  machinery  constructed  to  represent  human  or 
animal  actions;  “automatic”  used  of  an  appa¬ 
ratus,  implies  that  it  does  its  work  with  little  or 
no  guidance  or  interference  from  man,  as  in  a 
telegraphic  “automatic  transmitter.”  The  con¬ 
struction  of  automata  has  occupied  the  attention 
of  mankind  from  very  early  ages.  Archytas  of 
Tarcntum  is  reported,  so  long  ago  as  400  n.c.,  to 
have  made  a  pigeon  that  could  fly.  One  of  the 
most  perfect  of  automata  was  one  const  ructed  by 
M.  Vaucanson,  and  exhibited  in  Paris  in  1738.  It 
represented  a  flute-player,  which  placed  its  lips 
against  the  instrument,  and  produced  t lie  notes 
with  its  fingers  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  a 
human  being  does.  In  1741  M.  Vaucanson  made 
a  flageolet-player,  which  with  one  hand  beat  a 
tambourine;  and  in  the  same  year  he  produced  a 
duck.  This  was  the  most  ingenious  contrivance, 


the  mechanical  duck  being  made  to  conduct  itself 
in  every  respect  like  its  animated  pattern.  M. 
Droz,  a  Swiss,  made  for  the  King  of  Spain  a 
sheep  that  bleated,  and  a  dog  which  guarded  a 
basket  of  fruit.  If  any  of  the  fruit  was  taken 
away,  the  dog  barked  incessantly  until  it  was  re¬ 
placed.  He  also  made  a  singing  bird,  which  was 
ultimately  quite  eclipsed  by  another  made  by 
Maillardet. 

The  “  Piping  Bullfinch,”  first  exhibited  at  the 
London  Exhibition  of  1851,  was  a  very  perfect 
example  of  those  automata  which  imitate  the 
movements  and  song  of  birds.  Upon  touching  a 
spring,  a  tiny  bird  sprang  out,  fluttered  its  wings, 
and  trilled  the  true  pipe  of  the  bullfinch. 

Houdin,  the  famous  conjuror,  made  a  writing 
and  drawing  automaton,  which  made  a  great 
sensation  when  exhibited  in  Paris.  It  was  set  in 
motion  by  clockwork.  Faber’s  talking  machine, 
exhibited  in  various  cities  some  years  ago,  has 
been  classed  among  celebrated  automata;  but  it 
has  no  claim  to  this  distinction,  for  it  was  worked 
by  keys  and  pedals.  It  very  imperfectly  repro¬ 
duced  speech  by  mechanical  means.  Kempelen’s 
chess-player  was  long  regarded  as  an  automaton, 
but  it  is  now  known  that  a  crippled  officer — a 
famous  chess-player — was  concealed  within  the 
figure,  and  that  lie  used  this  means  to  escape 
from  Russia,  where  a  price  had  been  set  upon  his 
head.* 

Of  late  years  all  previous  efforts  in  the  making 
of  automata  have  been  surpassed  by  Mr.  .1.  N, 
Maskelyne.  The  first  one,  “  Psycho,”  was  intro¬ 
duced  to  public  notice  in  Jan.,  1875.  This  is  a 
seated  figure  of  light  construction.  During  per¬ 
formance  it  is  doubly  insulated  by  being  placed 
on  a  glass  cylinder,  which  stands  on  a  small 
movable  platform,  furnished  with  porcelain 
castors.  This  arrangement  at  once  negatives 
the  idea  that  it  may  be  worked  by  electricity. 
The  figure  moves  its  head,  and  from  a  rack  in 
front  of  it  chooses  the  cards  necessary  for  play¬ 
ing  a  hand  at  whist,  which  it  plays  in  a  masterly 
manner.  It  will  also  work  out  calculations  up 
to  100,000,000,  showing  the  entire  total  of  each 
calculation  in  a  box  in  front  by  opening  a 
sliding  door.  It  acts  without  any  mechanical 
connection  with  anything  outside  it,  and  yet  is  so 
much  under  control  that  it  executes  all  orders 
intelligently.  Zoe  (1877)  is  another  automaton 
which  owes  its  creation  to  51.  Maskelyne’s  inge¬ 
nuity.  This  is  also  a  sitting  figure — insulated, 
and  having  no  mechanical  connection  with  any¬ 
thing  else.  During  performance  there  is  placed 
in  front  of  it  a  sheet  of  drawing-paper,  upon 
which  it  traces  the  likeness  of  any  public  char¬ 
acter  which  may  be  chosen  by  the  spectators  from 
a  list  of  200  names. 

Anton 'omy  (Gr.  self-legislation),  is  the  ar¬ 
rangement  by  which  the  citizens  of  a  State  man¬ 
age  their  own  legislation  and  government. 

Antoplasty  (Gr.  lit.,  self-formed),  a  mode  of 
surgical  treatment  which  consists  in  replacing  a 
diseased  part  by  means  of  healthy  tissue  from 
another  part  of  the  same  body,  The  most  fa¬ 
miliar  instance  is  the  Rliinoplastic  or  Ta'iacotian 
operation,  for  supplying  a  new  nose  from  the 
skin  of  the  forehead. 

Autopsy  (Gr.  seeing  for  one’s  self),  eye-wit¬ 
nessing,  a  direct  observation;  but  generally  used 
of  a  post-mortem  examination  or  dissection  of 
the  dead  body. 

Autotype.  In  this  process  a  sheet  of  paper 
coated  with  a  film  of  bichromatized  gelatine,  in, 
which  lampblack  or  other  permanent  pigment 
has  been  held  in  solution  or  suspension,  is  ex¬ 
posed  to  the  action  of  light  in  a  printing-frame, 
beneath  an  ordinary  photograph  negative.  In 
proportion  as  the  light  is  admitted  to  the  gelatine 
film,  or  “tissue,”  through  the  negative,  it  becomes 
hardened  and  insoluble  in  water.  The  print  is 
afterward  treated  by  washing  away  the  unaltered 
portions  of  the  film,  and  the  result  is  a  perma¬ 
nent  print  of  t lie  object  photographed.  The 
process  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  reproduction 
of  oil-paintings. 

Autumn,  the  third  season  of  the  year,  between 
summer  and  winter.  Astronomically,  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  it  begins  at  the  autumnal 
equinox,  when  the  sun  enters  Libra,  Sept.  22, 
and  ends  at  the  winter  solstice,  when  the  suii 
enters  Capricorn,  Dec.  21.  According  to  Webster, 


in  North  America  it  includes  the  months  of  Sep¬ 
tember,  October,  and  November.  In  the  South¬ 
ern  Hemisphere  it  corresponds  in  time  to  the  north¬ 
ern  spring. 

Autun,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Saone-et-Loire.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has 
a  fine  cathedral  (twelfth  century,  restored  in  1865), 
college,  museum,  and  library,  and  many  ruins  of 
Roman  temples,  gates,  triumphal  arches,  and 
otlierantiquities.  At  the  Council  of  Autun  (1094), 
King  Philip  I.  was  excommunicated  fordivorcing 
his  queen,  Bertha.  The  famous  Talleyrand  was 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  and  here  MacMalion  was 
born.  Pop.  (1881),  12,502. 

Auvergne,  a  southern  central  district  of  France, 
was  before  the  Revolution  a  separate  province, 
and  coincided  nearly  with  the  modern  depart¬ 
ments  of  Cantal  and  Puy-de-Dome.  It  is  very 
mountainous.  Among  the  summits  that  have 
apparently  been  at  one  time  volcanoes,  the  most 
remarkable  are  Cantal  (6,093),  Mont-Dore  (6,188), 
and  Puy-de-D6mc  (4,806);  all  are  now  covered 
with  verdure.  Auvergne  has  produced  dis¬ 
tinguished  men,  such  as  the  Arnauld  family, 
Lafayette,  and  Polignac.  The  chief  towns  are 
Clermont  and  Aurillac. 

Auxerre  (anc.  Autmiocl  rvm ),  tliechief  town  of 
the  French  department  of  Yonne,  stands  on  the 
River  Yonne,  100  miles  southeast  of  Paris.  Pop. 
(1881),  16,393. 

Auxonne,  a  fortified  town  in  the  French  de¬ 
partment  of  Cote  d’Or.  It  has  a  fourteenth-cen¬ 
tury  church,  a  sixteenth-century  castle,  and  a 
statue  (1857)  of  Napoleon  I.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Ava,  a  ruined  city  of  Burmah,  of  which  it  was 
the  capital  from  1364  to  1740,  and  again  from  1822 
to  1838.  It  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ira- 
wadi,  about  six  miles  to  the  southwest  of  Amara- 
pura.  Ava  now  is  almost  a  desert,  its  temples 
and  houses  having  been  reduced  to  ruins  by  an 
earthquake  in  1839.  On  the  opposite  bank  stands 
Sagaing,  which  has  twice  been  the  seat  of  govern¬ 
ment. 

Ava,  Arva,  Yava,  orK.WA  (Piper  methysticum), 
a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Piperaceaj,  possessing 
narcotic  properties.  Until  recently,  it  was  ranked 
in  the  genus  Piper  (pepper).  It  is  a  shrubby  plant, 
with  heart-shaped,  acuminate  leaves,  and  very 
short,  solitary,  axillary  spikes  of  flowers.  It  is  a 
native  of  many  of  the  South-sea  islands,  where  the 
inhabitants  intoxicate  themselves  with  a  fer¬ 
mented  liquor  prepared  from  the  upper  portion 
of  the  root  and  base  of  the  stem. 

Avalanches  (Fr.,  from  avatcr,  to  descend) 
are  masses  of  snow  or  ice  that  slide  or  roll  down 
the  declivities  of  high  mountains,  and  often  occa¬ 
sion  great  devastation.  Ice  avalanches  are  those 
that  are  seen  and  heard  in  summer  thundering 
down  the  steeps  of  the  Alps.  They  consist  of 
masses  of  ice  that  detach  themselves  from  the 
glaciers  in  the  upper  regions.  They  are  most 
common  in  July,  August,  and  September.  Nine 
great  Alpine  avalanches,  which  cost  447  lives, 
are  on  record  between  1518  and  1879,  the  most 
destructive  being  one  of  1827,  which  swept  away 
half  the  village  of  Biel,  in  the  Upper  Valais,  with 
eighty-eight  inhabitants.  Sudden  avalanches, 
larger  or  smaller,  constitute  one  of  the  special 
dangers  of  Alpine  climbing. 

Avallon  (anc.  Aballo),  a  town  of  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  YTonne,  France.  Avallon  is  a  very 
ancient  town,  of  Celtic  origin,  and  has  been  often 
besieged  and  taken.  The  church,  in  Burgundian 
Gothic,  dates  from  the  twelfth  century.  Pop., 
5,500. 

Avalon,  the  earthly  paradise  of  Celtic  myth 
ology,  a  “green  island”  far  to  the  westward 
where  the  sun-god  seems  to  sink  to  his  rest. 
Thither  came  heroes  like  the  mighty  Fioun  and 
the  great  Arthur. 

Avalon,  a  peninsula  forming  the  eastern  part 
of  Newfoundland,  in  which  St.  John’s,  the  capi¬ 
tal,  is  situated. 

Avars,  a  tribe  of  Tartar  origin,  who  made  their 
appearance  a  hundred  years  later  than  t lie  Bul¬ 
garians,  in  the  countries  about  the  Don,  the  Cas¬ 
pian  Sea,  and  the  Volga. 

Avatar'  (Sanskrit,  avatdra)  signifies  primarily 
a  descent,  but  is  specially  applied  to  the  descent 
of  a  Hindu  deity  upon  the  earth  in  a  manifest 
shape,  either  for  beneficent  or  for  retributive  ends. 
It  is  thus  almost  synonymous  in  its  signification 


AVATCHA. 


104 


AVOIRDUPOIS. 


’with  the  Christian  term  “  incarnation.”  The  ten 
avatars  of  Vishnu  are  the  most  famous  in  Hindu 
mythology. 

Avatcha,  a  bay  on  the  east  coast  of  Kamtehatka, 
containing  within  it  the  smaller  bay  on  which 
Hands  the  capital  city  of  Petropauiovsk.  The 
name  is  also  given  to  two  volcanoes  lying  to  the 
north — one  (Goviilaja  Sopka)  8,500  feet  high;  the 
(Other  (Koryatskaya  Sopka)  10,000  feet  high. 

Avebury,  or  Abury,  a  small  village  of  Wilt¬ 
shire,  six  and  one-half  miles  west  of  Marlborough. 
It  is  remarkable  as  the  site  of  the  largest  mega- 
litliic  structure  in  Britain,  and  as  having  in  its 
neighborhood  several  barrows  and  cromlechs  of 
remote  antiquity. 

Aveiro,  a  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  Province  of 
Beira.  Pop.,  7,167. 

Avelli'uo  (anc.  Abellinum),  chief  town  of  an 
Italian  province  of  the  same  name,  at  the  foot  of 
Monte  Vergine.  Avellino  suffered  greatly  from 
earthquakes  in  1694, 1731,  and  1805.  Pop.‘(1881), 
16,376;  of  province  (1881),  393,228. 

A  've  Mari  'a,  also  Angelica  Saltjtatio  or  the 
Angelic  Salutation,  are  names  given  by  the  Roman 
Catholics  to  a  very  common  form  of  address  to 
the  Virgin  Mary.  Ave  Maria  are  the  first  two 
words  of  the  prayer,  in  Latin,  which  is  taken  from 
the  angel  Gabriel’s  salutation  (Luke  i,  28):  “  Hail, 
Mary,  highly  favored,  the  Lord  is  with  thee; 
blessed  art  thou  among  women.”  The  ringing  of 
bells  as  a  summons  to  morning,  mid-day,  and 
evening  prayer,  is  retained  in  some  countries,  and 
is  still  called  the  Ave  Maria,  or  Angelus  Domini. 
The  whole  prayer  as  it  now  stands  is  ordered  in 
the  Breviary  of  Pius  V.  (1568)  to  be  said  daily  be¬ 
fore  the  Canonical  Hours,  as  well  as  after  Com¬ 
pline.  The  aves  are  reckoned  by  the  small  beads 
of  the  rosary,  which  are  hence  called  Ave  Marias, 
while  the  large  beads  are  devoted  to  the  Pater 
Noster.  The  name  Angelus  Domini  comes  from 
the  Latin  version  of  the  passage  in  Scripture  in¬ 
troducing  the  salutation.  There  are  famous  musi¬ 
cal  settings  of  the  Ave  Maria  by  many  of  the 
great  composers. 

A  vein  pace  (I  bn  Badjd),  Arabian  philosopher, 
was  born  in  Spain  toward  the  close  of  the  eleventh 
century,  lived  as  a  physician  in  Morocco  at  the 
court  of  the  Almoravides,  and  died  at  Fez  in 
1138. 

Avens,  the  popular  name  of  Geum,  a  genus  of 
Rosaceae,  of  which  two  species,  G.  urbanurn ,  the 
common  avens,  and  G.  rivnle,  or  water  avens, 
with  their  hybrids,  are  common  in  temperate 
regions.  The  roots  were  formerly  used  in  phar¬ 
macy  as  a  tonic,  astringent,  and  aromatic,  whence 
the  names  of  clove-root  and  herb-bennet  ( herba 
benedicta)  of  old  herbals. 

Aventi'nus  [Johannes  Thttrmayr],  a  scholar 
and  historian,  born  at  Aben.sberg  (Lat.  Aventi- 
num),  Bavaria,  in  1477,  studied  at  Ingolstadt, 
Vienna,  and  Paris,  and  afterward  taught  Greek 
and  mathematics  at  Cracow.  He  died  at  Itatis- 
bon  in  1534. 

Aven'turine,  or  Avanttjrine,  a  vitreous  vari¬ 
ety  of  quartz,  generally  translucent,  and  of  a 
gray,  green,  yellow,  red,  or  brown  color,  and 
containing  numerous  minute  spangles. 

Avenzoar  (properly  Ibn  Zohr),  Abu  Merwan, 
an  Arabian  physician,  born  in  Spain  about  1072, 
died  in  1162. 

Average.  If  any  number  of  unequal  quantities 
are  given,  another  quantity  may  be  found  of  a 
mean  or  intermediate  magnitude,  some  of  the 
given  quantities  being  greater  and  others  less, 
than  the  one  found,  which  is  called  the  average. 
The  exact  relation  is  this — that  the  sum  of  the 
excesses  of  the  greater  above  the  average  is  equal 
to  the  sum  of  the  defects  of  the  less  below  it.  If 
there  are  seven  vessels  unequally  filled  with  sand, 
and  containing,  say,  5,  10,  12,  8,  11,  14,  3  ounces, 
the  average  is  found  by  adding  the  numbers  to¬ 
gether,  and  dividing  the  sum  63  by  7,  which 
gives  9  ounces  as  the  average.  General  average 
is  a  contribution  made  by  the  various  interests 
associated  in  a  maritime  adventure  to  restore  the 
value  of  any  sacrifice  or  extraordinary  expense 
voluntarily  incurred  for  the  general  safety. 

Aver 'nus  (Gr.  Aornos,  birdless),  called  now 
Lago  d’Averno,  is  a  small,  nearly  circular  lake  in 
Campania,  Italy,  situated  between  Cumae,  Pute- 
oli,  and  Baiae.  It  is  about  a  mile  and  a  half  in 
circumference,  and  occupies  the  crater  of  an  ex¬ 


tinct  volcano.  The  sulphurous  and  mephitic 
vapors  arising  from  the  lake  were  believed  in 
ancient  times  to  kill  the  birds  that  flew  over  it; 
hence,  according  to  some,  its  Greek  appellation. 
Owing  to  its  gloomy  and  awful  aspect,  it  became 
the  centre  of  almost  all  the  fables  of  the  ancients 
respecting  the  world  of  shades. 

Averrfio'es,  or  Averroes  (properly  Ibn 
Ros/ul),  the  most  famous  of  the  Arabian  philos¬ 
ophers,  was  born  at  Cordova,  in  Spain,  in  1126, 
and  died  in  1198. 

A  versa,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Caserta.  Pop.  (1881),  20,183. 

Avesnes,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Nord.  Pop.  (1881),  5,468. 

Aveyron,  a  department  in  the  South  of  France, 
named  from  the  river  which  runs  westward 
through  it,  and  after  a  course  of  ninety  miles 
falls  into  the  Tarn,  a  feeder  of  the  Garonne.  The 
department  of  Aveyron  has  an  area  of  3,376 
square  miles,  in  one  of  the  most  mountainous 
parts  of  France.  The  capital  is  Rodez.  There 
are  many  prehistoric  remains  in  the  department, 
which  was  formerly  part  of  the  Province  of 
Guienne.  Pop.  (1886),  415,826. 

Avezza'no,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Aquila.  Pop.  (1881),  6,166. 

Avia'nns,  Flavius,  a  Latin  author  who  lived 
probably  in  the  third  or  fourth  century  of  our 
era,  anil  of  whose  writings  forty-two  vEsopic 
fables  in  poor  elegiac  verse  are  extant.  The  edi¬ 
tions  are  those  by  Lachmann  (1845)  and  Robinson 
Ellis  (1887). 

A'viary,  a  place  for  keeping  birds.  Amongst 
the  Romans,  the  name  aviarium  was  sometimes 
used  of  a  place  for  keeping  and  fattening  birds 
meant  to  be  killed  for  food. 

Avicebron,  long  deemed,  like  Avempace,  an 
Arabian  philosopher,  till  Munk  identified  him  in 
1857  with  Salomo  ben  Jehuda  ibn  Gabirol,  a  Jew¬ 
ish  poet  and  philosopher.  Born  about  1020  at 
Cordova  or  Malaga,  the  latter  in  1045  was  ex¬ 
pelled  from  Saragossa,  and  died  about  1070  at 
Valencia. 

Avicenna  (Arabic  Ibn  Sina),  a  famous  Arabian 
philosopher  and  physician,  was  born  980,  near 
Bokhara,  and  died  in  1037. 

Avicennia,  or  White  Mangrove,  a  genus  of 
Verbenaceae,  consists  of  trees  or  large  shrubs 
resembling  mangroves,  and,  like  them,  growing 
in  tidal  estuaries  and  salt-marshes. 

Avie'nus,  Rufus  Festus,  a  Latin  descriptive 
poet  of  some  merit,  who  flourished  about  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century. 

Avi-fauna  (Lat.  avis,  bird,  and  fauna),  acollee- 
tive  term  for  the  birds  found  in  any  country;  the 
fauna  or  zoology  of  that  region  as  regards  the 
birds. 

Aviglia'  no,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Potenza.  Pop.  (1881),  12,949. 

Avignon  (Avenio),  a  city  of  Provence,  capital  of 
the  French  department  of  Vaucluse,  is  situated 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone,  seventy-five  miles 
northwest  of  Marseilles.  Here  is  the  cathedral  of 
Notre  Dame,  dating  from  the  eleventh  century, 
with  its  papal  throne,  and  monuments  of  two 
Popes;  whilst,  hard  by,  towers  the  vast  palace  of 
the  Popes  (1339-64).  Pop.  (1872),  38,196;  (1886), 
41,007.  In  Avignon,  Petrach  spent  several  years; 
here,  in  the  church  of  St.  Clara,  he  first  saw 
Laura.  Avignon  is  celebrated  in  ecclesiastical 
history  as  being  for  a  time  the  residence  of  the 
Popes.  By  order  of  Philip  IV.  of  France,  Pope 
Clement  V.  and  six  of  his  successors  from  1309  to 
1377,  were  obliged  to  reside  there.  It  wras  after¬ 
ward,  from  1378  to  1418,  the  residence  of  the 
French  Antipopes.  Two  ecclesiastical  councils 
were  also  held  at  Avignon  (1326  and  1337). 

Av'ila,  a  town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  Province 
of  Avila,  in  Old  Castile,  situated  3,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  Avila  has  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral,  and  a 
Moorish  castle,  and  its  massive  granite  walls  still 
stand,  42  feet  high  and  14  broad,  with  86  towers 
and  1 0  gateways.  Here  St.  Teresa  rvas  born.  The 
province  is  mountainous  but  has  fertile  valleys. 
Area,  2,981  square  miles.  Pop.  estimated  (1884) 
at  186,400. 

Avila,  Gil  Gonzalez  d’,  born  at  Avila  in  1577, 
died  in  1658,  was  a  royal  historiographer  for 
Castile,  and  wrote  histories  of  several  Castilian 
Kings. 


Avila  y  Znniga,  Don  Luiz  de,  a  Spanish 
general,  diplomatist,  and  historian,  born  about 
1490. 

Aviles  (anc.  Flavignavia),  a  seaport  of  Spain, 
close  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Pop.  (1878),  8,979. 

Avi'so  (Span,  aviso,  advice,  intelligence),  a 
despatch-boat,  a  small  swift  vessel  belonging  to  the 
navy;  also  used  of  a  kind  of  torpedo-boat. 

Avison,  Charles,  a  musical  composer,  was 
born  at  Newcastle,  England,  about  1710,  and  after 
studying  in  Italy,  became  organist  at  Newcastle, 
where  he  died  in  1770. 

Avlona  (Ital.  Valona,  anc.  Auloii),  the  best  sea¬ 
port  in  Albania.  Pop.,  about  5,000. 

Avo'ca,  or  Ovoca  (Celt,  meeting  of  tbe  waters), 
a  small  river  in  the  southeast  of  County  Wicklow, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  Avonmore  and  Avon- 
beg,  which  rise  in  the  hills  of  the  centre  of  the 
county.  The  Avoca  runs  through  a  very  pic¬ 
turesque  vale  only  a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad,  with 
wooded  banks  300  to  500  feet  high,  and  after  a 
course  of  nine  miles  reaches  the  sea  at  Arklow. 
The  ‘  ‘sweet  vale”  is  celebrated  in  one  of  Moore’s 
Irish  Melo'ics.  At  Avondale,  on  the  Avonmore, 
was  born  Mr.  C.  S.  Parnell. 

Avoca 'do  Pear,  or  Alligator  Pear  ( Persea 
gratissima),  a  fruit-tree  of  the  natural  order  Lau- 
racese,  is  a  native  of  tropical  America  and  the 
West  Indies.  It  is  much  esteemed  in  the  West 
Indies,  and  often  eaten  with  pepper  and  salt,  or 
with  sugar  and  lime-juice  or  spices.  The  seeds 
give  a  black  stain,  used  for  marking  linen. 

Avocet  ( Recurvirostra ),  a  genus  of  birds  which, 
although  having  the  feet  webbed  nearly  to  the 
end  of  the  toes,  is  usually  ranked  among  the 
Grallse  or  Grallatores,  on  account  of  the  length  of 
the  legs,  the  half-naked  thighs,  the  long,  slender, 
elastic  bill,  and  the  general  snipe-like  habit.  They 


The  Common  Avocet  ( Recurvirostra  avocetta). 


scoop  through  the  mud  with  the  bill,  first  to  one 
side  and  then  to  the  other  in  quest  of  worms 
and  other  small  animals;  although  Audubon  also 
observed  the  American  Avocet  taking  insects 
which  were  swimming  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  expertly  catching  them  in  the  air,  running 
after  them  with  partially  expanded  wings.  The 
avocets  are  found  in  most  parts  of  the  glohe.— 
The  American  avocet  ( Ii .  americana )  lias  the  bill 
less  recurved  than  the  common  avocet. 

Avoga'dro,  Amadeo,  was  born  in  1776,  and 
died,  Professor  of  Physics  at  Turin,  in  1856.  He 
formulated  his  law  as  to  the  Atomic  Theory  in 
1811. 

Avoirdupois',  or  Averdepois,  is  the  name 
given  to  the  system  of  weights  and  measures 
applied  in  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  to 
all  goods  except  the  precious  metals  and  precious 
stones  and  medicines.  The  word  is  derived  from 
the  old  French  aveir  de  pois  (goods  of  weight),  the 
du  for  de  being  a  corruption;  the  word  aveir  or 
avoir  being  a  noun  meaning  “property,”  “goods.” 
The  correct  spelling  is  the  form  averdepois,  in  use 
in  the  seventeenth  century, 

The  grain  is  the  foundation  of  the  avoirdupois 
system,  as  well  as  of  the  troy.  A  cubic  inch  of 
water,  at  standard  temperature, ,  weighs  252.458 
grains.  Of  the  grains  so  determined,  7,000  make 
a  pound  avoirdupois,  and  5,760  a  pound  troy. — 
The  avoirdupois  pound  is  divided  into  sixteen 
ounces,  and  the  ounce  into  sixteen  _  drams.  A 
dram,  therefore,  contains  27-44  grains,  and  an 
ounce  4374  grains. 


AVOLA. 


105 


AYTOUN. 


A  cubic  foot  of  water  weighs  997.14  ounces 
avoirdupois,  or  nearly  1,000  ounces,  which  gives  an 
easy  rule  for  determining  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
foot  of  any  substance  from  its  specific  gravity. 
Avoirdupois  is  the  weight  used  in  the  United 
States  of  North  America,  where,  however,  a  cwt., 
or  cental,  of  only  100  lbs.  has  come  into  general 
use,  and  a  ton  of  2,000  lbs. 


TABLE  OF  AVOIRDUPOIS  WEIGHT. 


27H  grains .  .. 

..are  1  dram . 

..1  dr. 

1(3  drams  or  drachms. 

. .  “  I  ounce  . 

1  lh 

28  pounds . 

. .  “  1  quarter . 

...1  qr. 

4  quarters . 

.  “  1  hundredweight. 

. .  .1  cwt. 

20  hundredweight - 

. .  “  1  ton . 

Av’ola,  ( Ab-illa ), 

a  seaport  town  on 

the  east 

coast  of  Sicily,  thirteen  miles  southwest  of  Syra¬ 
cuse.  The  famous  honey  of  Ilybla  comes  from 
this  neighborhood.  Pop.  (1881),  12,286. 

Avon,  a  word  of  Celtic  origin,  meaning  “  river” 
or  “  stream/’  which  seems  allied  to  Aa,  and  which 
is  the  name  of  several  of  the  smaller  of  British 
rivers.  The  best  known  of  these  is  the  Warwick¬ 
shire  Avon  into  which  Wvelif’s  ashes  were  cast, 
and  on  whose  banks  Shakespeare  was  born  and 
buried. 

Avonmoutli,  in  Gloucestershire,  England,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Avon.  Here  are  a  pier  and  extensive 
docks  (1879),  constructed  for  the  railway  company 
at  a  cost  of  $3,000,000. 

Avranches  (anc.  Abiinca'ee),  a  French  town  in 
the  department  of  Manclie.  Pop.  (1881),  7,889. 

Awe,  Locii,  a  lake  in  Argyllshire,  Scotland, 
covering  fifteen  and  one-half  square  miles. 

Awn  (Arista),  in  the  flowers  of  Grasses,  a  soli¬ 
tary  pointed  bristle,  growing  either  from  a  glume 
or  a  palea.  The  flowers  of  some  grasses  are  en¬ 
tirely  awnless;  in  many  the  glumes  alone  are 
owned,  or  only  one  of  them  ;  in  others  the  glumes 
are  awnless,  and  the  paleae,  or  one  palea  awned. 
In  barley  it  is  known  as  the  “  beard.” 

Axe,  an  instrument,  usually  of  iron,  edged 
with  steel,  for  hewing  timber  and  chopping  wood. 
The  haft  or  handle  is  of  a  length  and  size  suitable 
for  wielding  with  both  hands,  and  is  fitted  into  a 
head  with  an  arching  edge  in  the  plane  of  the 
sweep  of  the  tool — the  axe  differing  in  this  last 
respect  from  the  adze,  which  is  found  in  use 
amongst  some  uncivilized  peoples  that  do  not  use 
axes  at  all.  Similar  instruments  of  smaller  size, 
for  use  with  one  hand,  are  called  hatchets  (Fr. 
hachette,  diminutive  of  hache,  an  axe).  Within 
historic  times  the  axe  has  recovered  its  early  im¬ 
portance  with  the  progress  of  colonization,  and 
its  importance  to  settlers  has  led  to  ilie  invention 
of  the  American  axe,  which  effects  speedier  results 
with  the  smallest  expenditure  of  strength. 

Axel,  or  Absai.on,  from  1177  Archbishop  of 
Lund,  and  also  minister  and  general  to  Yaldemar 
I.  and  Canute  YI.  of  Demmark,  was  born  in  1128, 
and  died  at  Sorb  in  1201.  lie  founded  Copenha¬ 
gen. 

Axestone,  a  variety  of  the  mineral  Jade  or 
Nephrite.  It  is  of  greenish,  grayish,  or  grayish- 
white  color,  is  more  or  less  translucent,  hard, 
tough,  and  not  easily  broken.  It  occurs  in  Silesia, 
in  Central  Asia  and  China,  and  in  New  Zealand 
and  other  islands  of  the  Southern  Pacific. 

Axil  (axilla),  in  Botany,  the  angle  between  the 
upper  side  of  a  leaf  and  the  stem  or  branch  from 
which  it  grows  (2)  In  anatomical  terminology, 
the  axilla  is  the  Armpit. 

Axim,  an  important  station  and  port  on  the 
Gold  Coast.  Inland  from  Axim,  in  the  basin  of 
that  river,  and  in  the  district  between  it  and  the 
Prali,  gold-mining  operations  have  recently  been 
carried  on  on  a  large  scale. 

Axinomancy  (Gr.  axine,  an  axe,  and  manteia, 
divination),  a  mode  of  divination  much  practiced 
by  the  ancient  Greeks,  particularly  with  the  view 
of  discovering  the  perpetrators  of  great  crimes. 
An  axe  was  poised  upon  a  stake,  and  was  supposed 
to  move  so  as  to  indicate  the  guilty  person. 

Axiom,  a  Greek  word  meaning  a  “  decision  ” 
or  “assumption,”  is  commonly  used  to  signify  a 
general  proposition  which  the  understanding  rec¬ 
ognizes  as  true,  as  soon  as  the  importof  the  words 
conveying  it  is  apprehended.  Such  a  proposition 
is  therefore  known  directly,  and  does  not  need  to 
be  deduced  from  any  other.  Every  rational 
science  requires  such  fundamental  propositions, 
from  which  all  the  truths  composing  it  are  de¬ 
rived  ;  the  whole  of  geometry,  for  instance,  rests 


on  comparatively  a  very  few  axiom's.  The  dis¬ 
tinction  between  axioms  and  postulates  is  usually 
stated  in  this  way:  An  axiom  is  “a  theorem 
granted  without  demonstration  ;  ”  a  postulate  is 
“a  problem  granted  without  construction” — as, 
to  draw  a  straight  line  between  two  given  points. 

Axis,  a  genus  of  deer,  abundant  on  the  banks 
of  the  Ganges,  but  found  throughout  India  and 
in  many  islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  One 
of  its  Indian  names  is  Chittra  or  Cheetal,  and  by 
British  sportsmen  in  India  it  is  often  called  the 
Spotted  Hog-deer,  though  that  name  is  also  given 
to  a  rarer  species.  The  axis  has  a  great  resem¬ 
blance  in  size  and  coloring  to  the  European  fallow- 
deer. 

Axis,  in  Geometry.  The  axis  of  a  curved  line 
is  formed  by  a  right  line  dividing  the  curve  into 
two  symetrical  parts,  so  that  the  part  on  one  side 
exactly  corresponds  with  that  on  the  other  ;  as  in 
the  parabola,  the  ellipse,  and  the  hyperbola.  The 
axis  of  any  geometrical  solid  is  the  right  line 
which  passes  through  the  centre  of  all  the  corres¬ 
ponding  parallel  sections  of  it ;  in  this  sense,  we 
speak  of  the  axis  of  a  cylinder,  a  globe,  or  a  sphe¬ 
roid.  In  physical  science,  the  axis  of  a  lens  is  the 
right  line  passing  through  it  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  be  perpendicular  to  both  sides  of  it ;  and  the 
axis  of  a  telescope  is  a  right  line  which  passes 
through  the  centres  of  all  the  glasses  in  the  tube. 
The  axis  of  the  eyeis  the  right  line  passing  through 
the  centres  of  the  pupil  and  the  crystalline  lens. 

Axis,  in  Botany,  a  term  applied  to  the  central 
portion  of  the  higher  plants  (higher  cryptogams  as 
well  as  phanerogams),  which  bears  the  append¬ 
ages  or  lateral  members  arranged  upon  it.  Those 
plants  in  which  no  distinction  of  axis  and  append¬ 
ages  can  be  made  out  are  termed  Thallophytts, 
and  include  algae,  litcliens,  and  fungi.  The  stem 
is  called  the  ascending  axis-,  the  root,  the  descend¬ 
ing  axis.  (2)  In  human  anatomy  the  axis  is  the 
second  vertebra  of  the  neck. 

Ax 'minster,  a  small  town  of  Devonshire, 
England.  From  1755  till  1835  Axminster  was 
famous  for  the  manufacture  of  Turkish  and  Per 
sian  carpets. 

Axolotl  (the  Aztec  word),  an  amphibian  form 
occurring  abundantly  in  some  Mexican  lakes,  and 
found  widely  distributed  in  the  Western  United 
States.  It  used  to  be  ranked  among  the  forms 
which  permanently  retain  their  gills  (Perenni- 
branchiata),  but  more  complete  observation  has 
shown  that  it  develops  into  a  gill-less  adult  form 
(Amblystoma)  like  a  salamander. 

Ayacu  ’cho,  formerly  Huamanga  or  Guamanga, 
a  town  in  the  Peruvian  department  of  the  same 
name,  220  miles  east-southeast  of  Lima.  Founded 
by  Pizarro  in  1539,  it  is  now  a  handsome  and 
thriving  town.  Here,  on  Dec.  9,  1824,  the  com¬ 
bined  forces  of  Peru  and  Colombia — the  latter 
then  comprising  Ecuador,  New  Granada,  and 
Venezuela — totally  defeated  the  last  Spanish  army 
that  ever  set  foot  on  the  continent.  Pop., 
9,387.  The  department  of  Ayacuclio  lias  an 
area  of  24,213  square  miles,  and  a  pop. of  142,000. 

Ay' ala,  Pedro  Lopez  de  (El  Vvjo),  was  born 
at  Murcia  in  1332,  of  one  of  the  first  Castilian 
families.  A  brave  soldier  and  able  statesman,  he 
filled  some  of  the  leading  offices  under  several 
Kings  of  Castile,  and  died  1407. 

Ayasaluk,  a  village  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Ephesus. 

Aye-Aye  (Cheiromys  madagascariensis),  a  rare 


Aye-Aye  (from  Owen). 

and  aberrant  member  of  the  Lemur  family.  It 
inhabits  the  woods  of  Madagascar,  and  was  first 


noted  in  1780  by  Sonnerat,  who  was  said  to  have 
given  it  the  name  aye-aye  in  reference  to  t lie 
astonished  exclamation  of  some  natives  when  they 
saw  the  first  specimen  of  the  curious  creature 
caught  by  a  European.  It  'was  long  a  puzzle 
to  zoologists;  Buffon  placed  it  beside  squirrels, 
and  Cuvier  was  also  inclined  to  regard  it  as  a  ro¬ 
dent.  It  was  carefully  described  by  Owen  in  the 
Ti-ansaetions  of  the  Zoological  Society,  1866,  and 
since  the  publication  of  this  beautiful  and  ex¬ 
haustive  memoir,  there  has  been  no  doubt  as  to 
the  position  of  the  aye-aye  as  an  aberrant  lemur. 

Ayesliah  (also  Aysha  or  Aishu),  the  favorite 
wife  of  Mohammed,  and  daughter  of  Abu-Bekr, 
was  born  at  Medina  about  610  a.d.,  and  was  only 
nine  years  of  age  when  the  Prophet  married  her. 
She  was  the  only  one  of  Mohammed’s  wives  who 
accompanied  him  in  his  campaigns.  Although 
Ayesliah  bore  no  children  to  Mohammed,  she  was 
tenderly  beloved  by  him.  She  was  accused  of 
adultery,  but  Mohammed  produced  a  revelation 
from  heaven  (now  in  the  Koran)  to  the  effect  that 
she  was  innocent.  Mohammed  expired  in  her 
arms  (632).  She  died  in  677. 

Aylesbury,  the  chief  town  of  Buckingham¬ 
shire,  England.  Aylesbury  is  a  very  ancient 
town,  having  been  taken  from  theBritains  by  the 
Saxons  in  571.  Pop.  of  town  (1881),  7,795. 

Aylesford,  a  village  near  the  centre  of  Kent, 
England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Medway.  Re¬ 
markable  ancient  remains  are  found  here,  includ¬ 
ing  the  cromlech,  called  Kits  Coity  House — a 
small  truncated  pyramidal  chamber,  open  in 
front,  and  formed  of  four  large  rude  blocks,  three 
of  which  are  uprights  and  the  fourth  laid  on 
them. 

Aylmer,  John,  Bishop  of  London,  was  born 
in  1521,  and  in  1541  graduated  B.A.  of  Cam¬ 
bridge.  Taking  orders,  he  became  tutor  to  Lady 
Jane  Grey;  in  1553  was  installed  Archdeacon  of 
Stow;  in  1562  of  Lincoln,  having  lived  abroad 
during  the  Marian  persecution;  and  finally,  in 
1577,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  London.  He 
died  June  3,  1594. 

Aymestrey  Limestone,  a  well-marked  horizon 
in  the  Ludlow  group  of  the  Silurian  system. 

Ayr,  the  county  town  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland. 
Pop.  (1887),  about  30,000.  It  is  famous  for  its 
two  bridges  immortalized  by  Burns,  and  is  char¬ 
acterized  by  the  poet  as: 

“  Old  Ayr  which  never  town  surpasses, 

For  honest  men  and  bonny  lasses.” 

Ayrshire,  a  large  maritime  county  in  the 
southwest  of  Scotland,  washed  on  the  west  by 
the  Firth  of  Clyde  and  the  North  Channel.  Its 
greatest  length  is  78  miles;  its  greatest  breadth, 
28;  and  its  area  is  1,149  square  miles,  or  735,252 
acres,  it  being  seventh  in  size  of  the  Scottish 
counties.  Pop.  (1881),  217,054. 

Ayrer,  Jacob,  next  to  Hans  Sachs  the  most 
prolific  and  important  German  dramatic  writer  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  His  history  is  involved  in 
obscurity;  but  it  is  known  that  he  was  a  citizen 
of  Nuremberg  in  1594,  and  a  procurator  in  the 
courts  of  law. 

Ayton,  Sir  Robert,  Scottish  poet,  was  born 
in  1570.  He  was  a  poet  of  considerable  merit; 
but,  unfortunately,  a  large  number  of  his  effu¬ 
sions  being  complimentary  verses  lo  bis  friends, 
are  characterized  by  conceit  and  extravagant 
flattery.  He  died  at  Whitehall  Palace,  Feb., 
1638. 

Aytoiin,  William  Edmondstoune,  born  in  Ed¬ 
inburgh,  June  21,  1813,  in  1840  was  called  to  the 
Scottish  bar.  Taking  early  to  literary  work,  he 
entered  in  1836  on  his  lifelong  connection  with 
Blaekwooa’s,  and  in  1845  was  appointed  Profes¬ 
sor  of  Rhetoric  and  Belles-Lettres  in  Edinburgh 
University.  In  1849  he  married  a  daughter  of 
Professor  Wilson;  in  1852  was  made  Sheriff  of 
Orkney;  and  next  year  received  from  Oxford 
the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  In  1848  he  pub¬ 
lished  Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cavaliers,  which  es¬ 
tablished  his  reputation  as  a  poet  of  the  school  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  which  has  run  through 
thirty  editions.  The  Bon  Gaultur  Ballads,  a 
series  of  capital  parodies  (1855),  were  produced 
conjointly  with  Theodore  Martin,  as  also  were 
Poems  and  Ballads  of  Goethe  (1858).  Other 
works  by  him  were  Firmilian,  Bolhwell,  an 
edition  of  the  Scottish  Ballads  (2  vols.  1858),  and 


AYUNTAMIENTO. 


10G 


BAALBEK. 


Norman  Sinclair  (1861),  a  semi-autobiographical 
novel.  He  died  at  Blackliibs,  near  Elgin,  Aug. 
4,  1865.  See  his  life  by  Sir  Theodore  Martin 
(1867). 

Ayuntamiento  is  the  name  given  in  Spain  to 
the  councils  or  governing  bodies  of  towns.  The 
municipal  law  of  1870  deprived  them  of  all  po- 
’  litical  authority,  and  regulated  them  as  adminis¬ 
trative  bodies,  subject  in  certain  respects  to  the 
authorities  of  the  provinces,  the  law  courts,  and 
the  Cortes. 

Ayuthia,  the  ancient  capital  of  Siam,  stands 
on  the  Menam,  fifty  miles  north  of  Bangkok.  It 
was  founded  in  1357,  and  was  the  capital  until 
1767,  when  it  was  sacked  and  half  destroyed  by 
the  Burmese. 

Aza'lea,  a  genus'of  the  heath  order  (Ericaceie), 
and  distinguished  from  Rhododendron  chiefly  by 
the  flowers  having  five  stamens  instead  of  ten. 
Most  of  the  species  of  azalea  also  differ  from  the 
rhododendrons  in  having  the  leaves  thin  and  de¬ 
ciduous  instead  of  evergreen.  Perfectly  inter¬ 
mediate  forms  have  now  been  discovered,  and  by 
classifiers  the  two  genera  are  therefore  united 
under  rhododendron;  the  distinction,  however, 
remains  one  of  practical  convenience.  North 
America  abounds  in  azaleas  as  well  as  in  rhodo¬ 
dendrons,  and  some  of  the  species  have  been  long 
cultivated,  particularly  A.  nudiflora  and  A. 
viscosa,  which,  with  A.  pontica,  have  become  the 


Flowering  branch  of  Azalea  ( Azalea  lilii flora). 


parents  of  many  hybrids.  Both  have  nearly 
white  flowers,  very  beautiful,  and  of  delicious 
fragrance.  A.  viscosa.  has  the  flowers  covered  with 
glutinous  hairs  like  A.  pontica;  but  the  flowers  of 
A.  nudiflora  are  nearly  destitute  of  them.  Both 
species  abound  from  Canada  to  the  southern  parts 
of  the  United  States.  They  are  taller  shrubs 
than  A.  pontica.  Upon  account  of  its  sweet  smell 
A.  nudiflora  is  called  in  America  the  Upright 
Honeysuckle.  A.  calendulacea,  native  of  the 
southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  is  described 
as  frequently  clothing  the  mountains  with  a  robe 
of  living  scarlet. 

Azaiugarli,  or  Azim’s  Fort,  a  town  in  the 
Northwest  Provinces  of  India,  situated  on  the 
River  Tons,  eighty-one  miles  north  of  Benares. 
It  was  founded  in  1665  by  Azam  Khan.  The 
Europeans  here  were  compelled  to  flee  during 
the  mutiny  of  1857;  the  native  infantry  murdered 
their  officers  and  carried  off  the  treasure  to  Fyza- 


bad.  Pop.  of  town,  16,000.  Area  of  district, 
2,147  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  1,604,654.  In 
religion  about  1,250,000  are  Hindus,  and  200,- 
000  Mohammedans. 

Azazel,  a  name  occurring  in  Leviticus  xvi,  in 
the  account  of  the  rites  of  the  Day  of  Atonement, 
explained  by  some  as  the  “scapegoat”  which 
was  led  out  into  the  wilderness  laden  with  the 
sins  of  the  people. 

Azeglio,  Massimo  Taparelli,  Marchese  d’, 
famous  as  an  artist,  a  publicist,  a  romance-writer, 
and  a  statesman,  was  the  descendant  of  an  ancient 
and  noble  family  of  Piedmont.  He  was  born  in 
1798,  at  Turin.  He  wrote  several  novels  and  po¬ 
litical  works,  and  identified  himself  with  the 
party  of  reform.  On  the  opening  of  the  Sardinian 
Parliament  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
Chamber  of  Deputies.  After  the  battle  of  Novara 
the  young  King  Victor  Emanuel  II.,  appointed 
him  (1849)  President  of  the  Cabinet.  At  the  close 
of  the  war,  in  1859,  Azeglio  was  for  a  time  Mil¬ 
itary  Commissioner  Extraordinary  for  the  Roman 
States.  On  his  retirement  he  issued  a  proclama¬ 
tion  to  the  people,  which  greatly  tended  to 
strengthen  their  resolution  by  its  noble  yet  tem¬ 
perate  advice.  He  died  Jan,  15,  1866. 

Azerhijau',  or  Aderbaijan,  the  ancient 
Media  Atropatene,  is  the  northwestern  province  of 
Persia,  bounded  south  by  Persian  Kurdistan  and 
Irak,  east  by  Ghilan,  northeast  and  north  by 
Russian  territory,  and  west  by  Turkish  Kurdis¬ 
tan.  It  has  an  area  of  about  40,100  square  miles, 
and  a  pop.  of  2,000,000.  The  capital  is  Tabriz; 
other  towns  being  Urmia,  Maragha,  Miana,  Khoi, 
Selmas,  and  Ardebil. 

Az'imutli.  The  azimuth  of  a  heavenly  body 
is  the  angle  measured  along  the  horizon  between 
i  the  north  or  south  point,  and  the  point  where  a 
circle,  passing  through  the  zenith  and  the  body, 
cuts  the  horizon.  The  word  is  from  the  Arabic. 

Azoic  (Gr.  a  without,  zoe,  life),  a  term  applied 
in  geology  to  rocks  which  contain  no  fossils. 

Azo'res,  or  Western  Islands,  a  Portuguese 
archipelago  in  the  mid- Atlantic,  between  36°  55' 
and  39°  55'  N.  latitude,  and  between  25°  10'  and 
31°  16'  W.  longitude.  Stretching  over  a  distance 
of  over  400  miles,  their  nine  islands  are  divided 
into  three  distinct  groups — Sta  Maria  and  Sao 
Miguel  in  the  southeast;  Terceira,  Sao  Jorge, 
Pico,  Graciosa,  and  Fayal  in  the  middle;  and 
Flores  and  Corvo  in  the  northwest.  In  1431-53 
the  Azores  were  taken  possession  of  by  the  Por 
tuguese.  They  -were  at  that  time  uninhabited; 
but  that  they  had  been  visited  by  the  Carthagin¬ 
ians  is  proved  by  Punic  coins  found  on  Corvo. 
The  total  area  of  the  group  is  919  square  miles, 
and  the  pop.  (1881),  269,401.  The  capital  is 
Angra,  in  Terceira;  but  Ponta  Delgada,  in  Sao 
Miguel,  is  a  larger  town.  The  Azores  are  of  vol¬ 
canic  origin,  and  with  the  exception  of  Corvo, 
Flores,  and  Graciosa,  are  still  liable  to  eruptions 
and  violent  earthquakes,  the  worst  of  twenty-one 
shocks  since  1444  having  been  those  of  1591, 
1638,  1719,  and  1841. 

Azo'te  (Gr.  a,  without,  and  zoe,  life)  is  the 
name  given  by  French  chemists  to  nitrogen. 

Azotized  Bodie-i  are  those  substances  which 
contain  azote  or  nitrogen  as  one  of  their  constit¬ 
uents,  and  which  form  part  of  the  living  structure 
of  a  plant  or  animal,  or  are  produced  during  its 


B 


I)  is  the  second  letter  of  the  alphabet,  and  a 
)  corresponding  and  related  symbol  occupies 
the  same  place  in  the  Greek,  Hebrew,  Arabic, 
and  other  alphabets.  In  the  Greek  alphabet  the 
tail  was  bent  round,  forming  a  second  complete 
loop,  as  in  our  capital  B,  out  of  which  the  Greek 
minuscule  (i  easily  arose  as  a  cursive  form.  Our 
minuscule  b  comes  from  the  cursive  Latin,  this 
form  being  found  as  early  as  the  first  century  a.d. 
scribbled  on  Pompeian  walls.  Phonetically,  B 
may  be  defined  as  the  soft  labial  mute. 

B,  in  music,  is  the  seventh  degree  of  the  dia¬ 
tonic  scale  of  C.  According  to  the  tempered  sys¬ 
tem  of  tuning,  the  ratio  of  B  to  the  fundamental 
note  C  is  In  the  German  notation,  B  is  called 
II,  while  B  flat  is  called  simply  B. 

Baader,  Franz  Xaver  von,  a  distinguished 
German  philosopher  and  theologian,  born  at 


Munich,  March  27,  1765.  Baader’s  philosophical 
and  professional  researches  were  prosecuted  sim¬ 
ultaneously;  and  having  risen  to  the  post  of 
Superintendent-General  of  Mines,  he  retired  in 
1820.  In  1826,  he  was  appointed  Professor  of 
Philosophy  and  Speculative  Theology  in  the  new 
University  of  Munich;  and  here  he  died,  May  23, 
1841. 

Baal,  the  principal  male  deity  of  the  Phoeni¬ 
cian  and  Canaanitisli  nations,  as  Aslitoreth  was 
the  principal  female  deity.  The  Bel  of  Babylon 
and  Assyria  has  no  identity  with  the  Phoenician 
Baal  beyond  the  fact  that  they  both  bore  the  title 
of  Bel-Ba’ab,  “lord.”  Originally  Baal  was  re¬ 
garded  as  a  personification  of  the  sun,  the  ruler 
and  vivifier  of  nature;  but  later  his  sovereignty 
in  the  moral  world  was  also  conceived.  In  con 
trast  to  Baal,  the  genial  and  fructifying  power  of 


natural  decay.  The  principal  members  of  the 
group  are  albumen,  globulin,  or  crystallin,  vitdlin, 
paralbumen,  fibrin,  casein,  legumin,  gelatin, 
chondrin,  isinglass,  give  and  size,  urea,  uric  acid, 
and  hippuric  acid,  kreatin  and  kreal.inin,  several 
forms  of  urinary  calculi,  and  the  very  large  and 
important  class  of  alkaloids,  including  strychnine, 
morphine,  quinine,  etc. 

Azov,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Russia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Don,  seven  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Pop.  (1881),  18,738. 

Azov,  Sea  of,  named  after  the  town,  is  a  large 
gulf  of  the  Black  Sea,  formed  by  the  Crimean 
Peninsula,  or  rather  an  inland  lake  connected 
with  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Strait  of  Yenikale  or 
Kertcli  (anc.  Bosporus  Cimmeria s),  28  miles  long, 
and  barely  4  wide  at  the  narrowest.  The  whole 
sea  is  shallow,  from  3  to  52  feet  deep;  and 
measuring  235  by  110  miles,  it  occupies  an  area 
of  14,500  square  miles.  The  largest  river  empty¬ 
ing  into  it  is  the  Don.  During  the  Crimean  war, 
an  expedition  having  on  board  16,500  English, 
French,  and  Turks,  was  sent  to  this  sea  in  May, 
1855,  which  bombarded  the  ports,  and  cut  off 
supplies  intended  for  Sebastopol. 

Azpeitia,  a  town  in  the  Spanish  Province  of 
Guipuzcoa,  situated  in  a  fine  valley  on  the  Urola, 
eighteen  miles  southwest  of  San  Sebastian.  Here 
Ignatius  Loyola,  the  great  founder  of  the  Jesuits, 
was  born  in  1491.  Pop.,  6,386. 

Azrael  forms  in  Moslem  Mythology,  together 
with  Gabriel,  Michael,  and  Israfil,  the  group  of 
four  highest  angelic  beings  who  surround  the 
throne  of  God.  Called  the  “Angel  of  Death,”  it  is 
he  -who  “separates  men’s  souls  and  bodies,”  and 
with  his  assistants  either  “tears  them  asunder 
with  violence,  or  draws  them  apart  with  gentle¬ 
ness.” 

Az'tecs,  the  name  of  the  dominant  tribe  in 
Mexico  at  the  time  of  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards. 

Azu'ni, Domenico  Alberto,  a  distinguished 
jurist  born  in  Sardinia  in  1749.  He  became  Judge 
of  the  Tribunal  of  Commerce  at  Nice;  and  in 
1795  published  a  work  in  which  he  endeavored 
to  reduce  maritime  laws  to  fixed  principles,  and 
which  appeared  in  French  in  1805  under  the  title 
of  Droit  Maritime  de  VEurope.  Ultimately  lie 
received  a  post  at  Cagliari,  where  he  died  Jan. 
23,  1827. 

Az’ure,  a  French  word  technically  used  in 
Heraldry  to  signify  blue.  In  engraving  arms,  it 
is  always  represented  by  horizontal  lines. 

Az' urine {Lcuciscus  ccerulevs),  or  Blue  Roach, 
a  fish  of  the  same  genus  with  the  roach,  chub, 
dace,  minnow,  etc.,  and  most  nearly  resembling 
the  Red-eye  or  Rudd  ( L.  er ythrophthalmus) ,  from 
which  it  is  distinguished  by  the  slate-blue  color 
of  the  back,  and  the  whiteness  of  the  abdomen 
and  fins.  It  is  a  fresh  water  fish. 

Az'urite,  a  name  which  has  been  given  to  the 
mineral  more  commonly  called  Lazulite,  and  to 
which,  along  with  lapis  lazuli  or  azurestone, 
mineral  turquoise,  etc.,  the  generic  name,  Azure 
Spar,  is  sometimes  given.  The  name  azurite  is 
also  given  by  mineralogists  to  an  ore  of  copper, 
generally  known  as  Blue  Copper  or  Chessylite, 
nearly  allied  to  malachite,  and  remarkable  for  its 
beautiful  azure  color. 


nature,  stood  Moloch,  the  god  of  the  sun  in  his 
destructive  side,  and  the  personification  of  the 
sterner  side  of  nature.  The  Greeks  confounded 
Baal  or  Melkart  with  their  own  Hercules;  and 
for  t lie  purpose  of  distinction,  termed  him  the 
Tyrian  Hercules. 

Baalbek,  a  ruined  city  of  Syria,  thirty-five 
miles  north-northwest  of  Damascus.  The  name 
signifies  “  City  of  Baal,”  the  Sun-god,  and  was 
by  the  Greeks,  during  the  Seleucide  dynasty, 
converted  into  Heliopolis.  It  was  once  the  most 
magnificent  of  Syrian  cities,  full  of  palaces,  foun¬ 
tains,  and  beautiful  monuments;  now  it  is  famous 
only  for  the  splendor  of  its  ruins,  of  which  three 
deserve  special  notice.  The  most  imposing  is 
that  of  the  Great  Temple,  which  was  a  rectangu¬ 
lar  building,  290  feet  by  162,  having  its  roof  sup¬ 
ported  by  a  peristyle  of  54  Corinthian  columns. 


BABA. 


107 


BABOON. 


19  at  each  side,  and  10  at  each  end.  Of  these,  six 
are  yet  standing.  The  circumference  of  these 
columns  is  22  feet,  and  the  length  of  the  shaft 
55j.;  with  pedestal,  capital,  and  entablature,  they 
measure  88  feet  in  height.  The  approach  to  this 
temple  was  through  a  portico  (40  X  248  feet),  a 
hexagonal  hall  (193  X  255  feet),  and  a  grand 
quadrangle  (411  X  440  feet).  The  vast  size  of  the 
stones  used  in  the  Cyclopean  substruction  or  plat¬ 
form  (1,052  X  318  feet)  is  remarkable,  three  of 
them  being  more  than  60  feet  long  and  about  13 
feet  square.  South  of  the  great  temple  is  a 
smaller  one,  known  as  the  Temple  of  Jupiter.  Its 
dimensions  are  228  feet  in  length  by  124  feet  in 
breadth,  being  thus  larger  than  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens. 

The  early  history  of  Baalbik  is  involved  in 
darkness;  but  it  is  certain  that,  from  the  most 
distant  times,  it  had  been  a  chief  seat  of  sun- 
worship,  as  its  name  implies.  Julius  Csesar  made 
it  a  Roman  colony,  and  under  Augustus  it  was 
occupied  by  a  Roman  garrison.  What  the  Arabs, 
Tartars,  and  Turks  spared  was  destroyed  by  a 
terrible  earthquake  in  1759.  Baalbek  is  now  a 
wretched  village,  with  a  population  of  some  few 
hundreds. 

Baba  (the  old),  in  Slavonic  Mythology,  origin¬ 
ally  a  thunder-witch  (the  devil’s  grandmother), 
was  represented  as  a  little,  ugly,  old  woman,  with 
a  monstrous  nose,  long  teeth,  and  disheveled 
hair,  flying  through  the  sky  in  an  iron  mortar. 
By  the  Czechs  she  is  called  now  the  iron,  now 
the  golden,  Baba. 

Baba,  a  Turkish  word  signifying  “father,” 
originating,  like  our  word  papa,  in  the  first  efforts 
of  children  to  speak.  In  Persia  and  Turkey  it  is 
prefixed  as  a  title  of  honor  to  the  names  of  eccle¬ 
siastics  of  distinction,  especially  of  such  as  devote 
themselves  to  an  ascetic  life;  it  is  often  affixed  in 
courtesy,  also,  to  the  names  of  other  persons,  as 
Ali-Baba. 

Baba,  Cape,  a  bold,  rocky  headland  near  the 
western  point  of  Anatolia,  On  a  point  of  the 
cape  stands  the  town  of  Baba,  with  a  pop.  of 
about  4,000. 

Babbage,  Charles,  born  Dec.  26,  1791.  In 
1816  he  was  elected  an  F.R.S.,  and  from  1828  to 
1838  filled  the  sinecure  of  Lucasian  Professor,  of 
Mathematics  at  Cambridge.  He  united  powers 
of  invention  and  observation  with  thorough  scien¬ 
tific  culture.  Foremost  among  his  eighty  writ¬ 
ings  is  his  extremely  correct  and  well-arranged 
Tn'de  of  Logarithms  (1827),  he  being  the  first  to 
make  the  method  of  constructing  such  tables  the 
object  of  earnest  study.  As  early  as  1812  the  idea 
had  occurred  to  him  of  a  calculating  machine, 
and  by  1822  he  had  constructed  a  small  model  of 
one.  Babbage  contributed  many  very  interesting 
papers  to  the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Societies 
of  London  and  Edinburgh.  His  calculating  ma¬ 
chine,  which  cost  $30,000  of  his  own  money,  and 
$85,000  of  the  nation’s,  was  abandoned  in  1842. 
He  died  in  1871. 

Babel,  Tower  of.  According  to  the  story  in 
Genesis  xi,  the  descendants  of  Noah  journeyed 
from  the  East  till  they  came  to  the  Plain  of 
Shinar,  and  there  impiously  began  to  build  a 
tower  of  burned  bricks  and  bitumen,  whose  top 
might  reach  unto  heaven.  But  Jehovah  con¬ 
founded  the  language  of  the  builders,  so  that 
they  could  not  understand  each  other,  and  scat¬ 
tered  them  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  wherefore 
the  tower  was  called  Babel,  or  “confusion,”  from 
the  Hebrew  balbel,  “  to  confound.” 

With  reference  to  the  site  of  the  T ower  of  Ba¬ 
bel,  nothing  more  is  certain  than  that  it  was 
somewhere  in  Babylon.  It  is  usually  supposed 
to  be  represented  by  the  great  pile  of  Birs  Nim- 
roud,  which  stood  in  Borsippa,  the  suburb  of 
Babylon,  eight  miles  distant,  and  was  dedicated 
to  Nebo  and  called  the  “Temple  of  the  Seven 
Lights”  or  planets.  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson  discov¬ 
ered  that  it  consisted  of  seven  stages  of  brickwork 
on  an  earthern  platform,  each  stage  being  of  a 
different  color.  Its  northwest,  southeast,  north¬ 
east,  and  southwest  sides  are  643,  643,  420,  and 
376  feet  long,  respectively,  and  its  ruins  still  rise 
153  feet  above  the  level  of  the  plain. 

Bab-el  Mandeb  (i.  e.,  the  gate  of  tears),  so 
called  from  the  danger  arising  to  small  vessels 
fron^strong  currents,  is  the  name  of  the  strait 
between  Arabia  and  the  Continent  of  Africa,  by 


which  the  Red  Sea  is  connected  with  the  Gulf  of 
Aden  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Arabian  Pen 
insula  here  throws  out  a  cape,  bearing  the  same 
name  as  the  strait,  rising  to  the  height  of  865  feet. 
Within  the  straits,  but  nearer  to  Arabia,  lies  the 
bare,  rocky  Island  of  Perim,  since  1857  occupied 
by  the  British  as  a  fort;  its  guns  command  the 
entrance  to  the  Red  Sea. 

Bab'er  (Zehir-Eddin  Mohammed),  the  first  of 
the  Great  Moguls  in  India,  a  descendant  of  Timur, 
was  born  in  1483.  He  was  twelve  years  of  age 
when  he  succeeded  his  father,  Omar  Sheikh 
Mirza,  in  the  sovereignity  of  the  countries  lying 
between  Samarkand  and  the  Indus.  He  made 
two  or  three  rapid  incursions  into  Hindustan;  and 
about  the  end  1525,  taking  advantage  of  the  feeble 
government  of  Ibrahim  Lodi,  the  Afghan  Emperor 
of  Delhi,  he  crossed  the  Attock  (the  Kabul  branch 
of  the  Indus),  quickly  defeated  some  bodies  of 
troops  that  opposed  him  in  the  Punjab;  and  in 
April,  1529,  on  the  Plain  of  Panipat,  encountered 
and  fought  a  decisive  battle  with  his  enemy, 
whose  army  was  far  superior  in  numbers.  The 
100,000  men  and  1,000  elephants  of  Sultan  Ibra¬ 
him  were  dispersed;  Ibrahim  himself  fled  and 
Baber  made  his  entry  into  Delhi.  In  the  follow¬ 
ing  month,  Agra,  the  second  city  of  the  Empire, 
surrendered.  Baber’s  enjoyment  of  empire  in 
India  was  brief;  he  died  in  1530,  having  had  to 
contend  during  the  five  years  of  his  reign  with 
numerous  conspiracies  and  revolts. 

Babeuf,  Francois  Noel,  a  communist  of  the 
time  of  the  French  Revolution,  was  born  in  1762 
or  1764  at  St.  Quentin.  As  one  of  the  Extreme 
Left,  he  opposed  Robespierre  during  the  Ileign  of 
Terror.  In  1793  Babuef  had  started  a  newspaper, 
to  which  in  1794  he  gave  the  name  of  Tribune  of 
the  People;  and  he  began  to  sign  himself  “  Grac¬ 
chus  Babeuf.”  In  this  paper  he  advocated  the 
most  violent  measures;  particularly  a  rigorous 
system  of  communism,  by  which  private  prop¬ 
erty  should  be  abolished,  and  the  fruits  of  the 
common  industry  placed  in  a  common  magazine, 
from  which  they  should  be  distributed  with  the 
most  scrupulous  equality.  A  secret  conspiracy 
was  formed,  the  aim  of  which  was  the  destruction 
of  the  Directory  and  the  establishment  of  an  ex¬ 
treme  democratic  and  communistic  system.  The 
plot  was  discovered,  and  Babeuf  and  other  chiefs 
were  brought  to  trial.  Babeuf  was  condemned 
to  death,  and  guillotined  in  1797. 

Babi,  the  name  of  a  modern  Persian  sect,  de¬ 
rived  from  the  title,  Bdb-ed-Din(  gate  of  the  faith), 
assumed  by  its  founder,  Mirza  Ali  Mohammed, 
a  native  of  Shiraz,  who  in  1843,  after  a  pilgrim¬ 
age  to  Mecca,  undertook  to  form  a  new  religion 
from  a  mixture  of  Mohammedan,  Christian,  Jew¬ 
ish,  and  Parsee  elements.  The  sect  soon  became 
numerous,  and  were  not  molested  by  the  reigning 
Shah;  but  on  the  accession  of  Nasir-ed-Din  in 
1848,  they  took  up  arms,  proclaiming  the  ad¬ 
vent  of  the  Bub  as  universal  sovereign.  Several 
Persian  armies  were  routed,  but  finally  the  insur¬ 
gents  were  reduced  by  famine,  and  most  of  them 
executed  (1849-50).  The  Bab  had  held  aloof 
from  the  revolt,  but  he  was  arrested  and  put  to 
death,  after  a  long  imprisonment,  in  1850.  His 
successor  was  recognized  in  the  youthful  son  of 
the  Governor  of  Teheran,  wdio  retired  to  Bagdad, 
where  he  afterward  lived  quietly.  Babism  has 
gained  in  strength,  and  is  at  present  widely 
diffused  in  Persia;  its  members  live  in  apparent 
conformity  to  orthodox  Mohammedanism,  but 
privately  holding  the  Bab’s  doctrines. 

Babington,  Antony,  w'as  born  of  an  old  Cath¬ 
olic  family  of  Detliick,  Derbyshire,  England,  in 
1561.  He  was  induced  by  Ballard  and  other 
Catholic  emissaries  to  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
a  conspiracy  that  had  for  its  object  Elizabeth’s 
murder  and  Mary’s  release.  The  plot  was  be¬ 
trayed,  and  after  hiding  in  the  depths  of  St. 
John’s  Wood  and  at  Harrow,  he  was  taken,  and 
with  thirteen  others  condemned  to  die.  His 
prayers  for  mercy,  his  explanation  of  the  cipher 
letters,  were  all  in  vain,  and  on  Sept.  20,  1586,  he 
followed  Ballard  to  the  scaffold, 

Babiroussa  (Sue  babirusa),  a  species  of  hog,  ac¬ 
cording  to  some  adistinct  genus,  inhabiting  marshy 
forests  in  the  Celebes  and  some  of  the  smaller 
islands  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  It  is  a  nim¬ 
bler  animal  than  the  common  hog,  and  has  much 
more  slender  legs.  It  swims  well  and  frequently, 


is  fond  of  eating  maize,  and  is  often  killed  for  the 
sake  of  its  flesh.  It  is  of  interest,  however,  mainly 


Babiroussa  (Sus  babirusa ). 


on  account  of  the  extraordinary  development  of 
the  canines  in  the  male 

Baboo  (Bengali  and  Hindustani  Bobu),  prop¬ 
erly  a  term  of  respect,  like  Master  or  Mr. ,  in  this 
sense  now  used  only  in  Lower  Bengal.  Anglo- 
Indians  often  understand  it  as  meaning  a  super¬ 
ficially  cultivated  Bengali,  and  it  often  means 
neither  more  nor  less  than  “  a  native  clerk  who 
writes  English.” 

Baboon,  or  Cynocepiiai.us  (i.  e.,  dog-headed), 
a  genus  of  Old-World  monkeys  ( Cutarrhini ), 
with  numerous  species,  such  as  mandrill,  drill, 
sphinx,  cliacma,  and  liamadryas. 

Fossil  remains  seem  to  show  that  the  baboons 
had  once  a  much  wider  distribution  than  the  now 
living  species.  They  have,  however,  kept  their 
footing  well,  being  widely  distributed  through¬ 
out  Africa. 

The  dog-shaped  head,  with  its  long  muzzle  and 
almost  constantly  terminal  nostrils;  the  capacious 
cheek-pouches,  in  which  a  superfluity  of  food  can 
be  temporarily  stowed  away,  and  the  frequently 
large  and  brightly-colored  callous  cushions  on 
their  hips,  are  the  most  prominent  external  char¬ 
acteristics.  Some  of  the  more  internal  anatomical 
characteristics  are  no  less  striking.  For  while  the 
double  curve  of  the  back,  and  some  of  the  rela¬ 
tions  of  the  sacral  bone  which  unites  the  haunches, 
and  ot  her  characterist  ics,  suggest  features  perfected 
in  man,  the  baboons  exhibit  greater  affinity  with 
the  carnivora.  This  is  especially  marked  in  the 
mandrill,  where  the  backbone,  the  sacrum,  the 
hip  bones,  the  paw,  and  other  structures,  exhibit 
a  suggestive  resemblance  to  those  of  the  carniv¬ 
ores. 

The  baboons  are  quadrupeds,  running  swiftly 
on  all  fours,  climbing  with  great  vigor,  fond  of 
sitting  on  their  haunch-pads,  and  especially  at 
home  in  mountainous  districts.  Many  of  them 
live  in  herds,  and  are  therefore  formidable  both 
to  animals  and  property.  The  troops  are  led  by 
patriarchs,  and  guarded  by  sentinels.  They  fight 
with  rival  herds,  and  have  to  withstand  the  at¬ 
tacks  of  leopards  and  other  carnivores.  Playful 
and  amiable  when  young,  the  older  forms,  and 
especially  the  males,  are  notorious  for  their  evil 
dispositions,  and  allow  their  passions  to  run 
riot. 

About  a  dozen  different  forms  are  known. 
The  baboon  proper  ( Cynocephalus  babuiv)  is 
hardly  known  except  in  captivity.  It  is  a  large 


Sacred  Baboon  (Cynocep/ialus  hamadryas). 


animal,  with  a  yellowish-brown  hide,  long  de¬ 
pressed  skull,  and  uucolored  cheeks)  It  is  equally 
strong  and  clever,  and  is  utilized  by  Arabian 


BABYLON. 


108 


BABYLONIA. 


and  Egyptian  conjurors.  A  near  relative  is 
the  sphinx  (C.  sphinx),  with  only  a  stump  of  a 
tail.  The  pig- tailed  baboon  (O.  porcarius)  occurs 
in  troops  in  South  Africa.  The  sacred  baboon 
{ C .  liamadryas),  frequenting  the  Abyssinian 
highlands,  stands  about  four  feet  high,  is  of  a 
light-gray  and  dusky-brown  color,  with  a  naked 
flesh-colored  face,  and  a  mucli-compressed,  ugly 
skull.  The  anubis  baboon  (C.  anubis)  is  com¬ 
mon  in  Angola  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  The 


Gelada  baboon  (C.  gelndn),  frequents  the  hills  of 
Abyssinia  up  to  an  elevation  of  10,000  to  13,000 
feet.  The  mandrill  (G.  mormon),  with  its  short 
tail-stump,  its  enormous  brightly-colored  cheek 
swellings,  its  brushed  crown  of  hair  and  pig-like 
snout,  is  the  ugliest  of  the  monkeys. 

Babylon  was  the  name  of  a  fortress  in  Lower 
Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile,  opposite 
the  pyramids  of  Gkizeh.  Its  origin  was  ascribed 
to  Babylonian  deserters,  but  it  first  became  an 
important  place  under  the  Romans. 

Babylonia  ( Babilu  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip¬ 
tion,  Babirush  in  the  Persian)  was  the  name  given 
to  the  low  alluvial  plain  watered  by  the  lower 
streams  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  now  form¬ 
ing  the  modern  Arab  Province  of  Irak-Arabi.  In 
the  Old  Testament  it  bears  the  various  names  of 
Shinar,  Babel,  and  “  the  land  of  the  Chaldees.” 
The  northern  boundary,  from  the  region  of  Na- 
haraim  or  Mesopotamia,  was  formed  partly  by 
the  Euphrates  and  its  tributaries,  but  chiefly  by  a 
line  of  forts  and  frontier  stations.  On  the  east 
the  Tigris  formed  the  natural  boundary,  but  some 
portions  east  of  that  river  and  south  of  t lie  Lower 
Zab  at  times  wTere  included  in  the  Chaldean  Em¬ 
pire.  The  western  boundary  was  the  Euphrates, 
or  rather  the  desert  to  the  east  of  that  stream. 
The  southern  limit  was  the  shores  of  the  Persian 
Gulf,  the  waters  of  which  then  extended  consid¬ 
erably  farther  inland,  the  two  rivers,  as  late  as 
the  time  of  Sennacherib,  705  b.c.,  entering  the 
sea  by  separate  mouths.  The  country  has  from 
all  time  been  one  of  the  most  fertile  spots  in  the 
whole  of  Western  Asia,  and  famed  for  its  rich 
corn  producing  qua'ities.  Babylonia  was  di 
vided  into  several  provinces,  the  number  and  ex¬ 
tent  varying  considerably  at  different  periods  in 
the  history  of  the  Empire.  The  chief  divisions 
appears  to  have  been  first  into  two  large  Prov¬ 
inces  of  Sumir  or  Shinar  (South  Babylonia),  and 
Akkad  or  North  Babylonia,  extending  from  the 
boundary  of  Sumir  to  the  Assyrian  and  Mesopota¬ 
mia  i  frontier.  The  capital  of  this  latter  Prov¬ 
ince  was,  like  Babylon,  built  on  both  banks  of 
the  Euphrates,  the  larger  half  being  called  Sip- 
para  of  Samas,  the  sun-god  (the  modern  Abu 
ll'bbu),  and  the  smaller  half  Akkad  or  Agade. 

The  natural  products  of  this  fertile  land  were 
almost  unbounded — corn  and  many  other  cereals, 
and  also  grapes,  fruits  of  several  kinds,  sem- 
same,  vegetables  of  several  kinds,  cucum¬ 
bers,  melons,  onions,  garlic.  Stone  being  ex¬ 
tremely  rare,  having  to  be  obtained  from  Upper 
Mesopotamia  or  the  mountains  of  Elam,  the  only 
building  material  was  clay,  an  ample  supply  of 
which  was  obtainable. 

Hitherto,  students  of  Babylonia  have  been  al¬ 
most  entirely  dependent  upon  the  fragmentary 
portions  of  the  Canon  of  Kings  drawn  up  by  the 


Greco-Chaldean  priest  Berosus, about  2G8  n.c. ;  but 
these  lists  are  now  confirmed  and  superseded  by 
Babylouian  Canon  inscriptions  dating  from  the 
sixth  century  before  our  era. 

The  few  notices  in  the  works  of  Herodotus  and 
Ctesias  and  other  ancient  writers,  afford  a  very 
scanty  notion  of  the  highly  developed  character 
of  the  social  life  of  ancient  Babylon.  The  recov¬ 
ery  from  the  libraries  and  treasuries  of  the  oldest 
cities  of  the  Empire  of  many  thousands  of  in¬ 
scribed  tablets  relating  to  almost  every  phase  of 
private  daily  life,  give  an  insight  into  the  soci¬ 
ology  of  this  ancient  Empire,  far  more  clear  than 
that  provided  by  the  records  of  any  other  primi¬ 
tive  kingdom,  excepting  perhaps  the  sister  King¬ 
dom  of  Egypt.  The  laws  were  administered  by 
regularly  appointed  judges,  who  sat  either  in  the 
gates  of  the  temple  or  in  the  great  gate  of  the 
city.  The  supreme  judges  were  called  “  the 
judges  of  the  king.”  The  decisions  were  all 
governed  by  certain  precedents,  many  of  great 
antiquity,  which  were  drawn  up  and  carefully 
preserved.  The  chief  punishments  were  fines, 
imprisonment,  deprivation  of  civic  rights,  and  in 
some  cases  death.  The  right  of  appeal  to  the 
King  could  be  claimed.  The  revenues  were  de¬ 
rived  from  a  fixed  tariff  of  taxes.  Their  chief 
taxes  were  the  “  king’s  tax,”  apparently  a  tithe 
on  all  property,  the  army  tax,  and  the  dues  levied 
on  certain  districts  for  ships.  The  standard  cur¬ 
rency  was  a  silver  one,  the  units  being  the  talent, 
maneh,  shekel,  and  paras.  Coined  money  was 
introduced  in  the  reign  of  Darius.  The  first 
coins,  stamped  with  the  figure  of  a  bird,  were 
perhaps  the  tetradrachma  of  Athens. 


Clialdeau  Cylinder,  marble  or  porphyry  (N.  Y.  Museum). 


Babylonian  art  was  until  recently  represented 
by  a  few  engraved  cylinders  and  gems,  but  the 
recent  explorations  on  the  Sliat-el-Hie,  the  site  of 
the  ancient  city  of  Sergal,  or  Kulunu,  conducted 
by  Mr.  Rassam  at  Sippara  ( Abu  Hnbba),  and  by 
M.  De  Sarzec  at  Tel-lo,  have  discovered  statues 
which  are  really  good  works  of  art,  differing 
from  all  previous  examples  of 
Babylonian  art,  and  from  .the 
later  works  of  the  Assyrian 
artists. 

The  earlier  dynasties  consisted 
of  a  mixture  of  Semitic  and  non- 
Semitic  princes,  who  ruled  with 
Babylon  as  capital.  Nabonassar, 
whose  reign  forms  an  important 
epoch  in  Babylonian  history,  as¬ 
cended  the  throne  in  747  b.c., and 
ruled  for  fourteen  years.  During 
his  reign  thecountry  was  twice  in¬ 
vaded  by  the  Assyrians,  and 
though  they  claim  the  victory, 
they  do  not  seem  to  have  shaken 
the  King  on  his  throne  Later 
the  country  was  invaded  by  the 


nwr 


armies  of  Tigiath-pileser  lIL, 'Srg^one" 
King  of  Assyria,  who  drove  the  (From  a  draw¬ 
ing  by  Mr.  Ry- 
lands) . 


Babylonian  King  from  his  capital 
into  the  marshes  of  South  Baby 
Ionia,  where  he  found  him  and  put  him  to  death, 
ascending  his  throne  under  the  Babylonian  name 
of  Pulu  or  Pul.  This  conquest  of  Babylonia  in 
729  b.c.  was  a  very  important  event  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  kingdom,  for  it  brought  the  two  courts 
of  the  north  and  south  kingdoms  once  more  into 
close  relationship.  The  general  disruption  of  the 
States  of  Western  Asia,  which  took  place  in  G25 
b.c.  ,  afforded  the  Babylonians  an  opportunity 
for  throwing  off  the  hated  yoke  of  Assyria,  and 
Nabopolassar  was  proclaimed  king  in  625  b.c. 
He  was  succeeded  in  604  b.c. by  his  son  Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar,  one  of  the  greatest  sovereigns  who  ever 
ruled  over  the  ancient  Empire.  During  a  reign  of 


forty  three  years  the  prince  succeeded  in  recover¬ 
ing  the  long-lost  provinces  of  the  kingdom,  once 
more  making  Babylon  queen  of  nations.  He  not 
only  restored  the  Empire  and  rebuilt  Babylon, 
but  almost  every  temple  and  edifice  throughout 
the  land  underwent  restoration  at  his  hands.  It 
is  an  astonishing  fact  that  not  a  single  mound 
throughout  Babylonia  has  as  yet  been  opened  by 
the  explorers  which  has  not  been  found  to  con¬ 
tain  bricks,  cylinder,  or  tablets  inscribed  with 
his  name.  In  599  b.c.  he  captured  Jerusalem, 
and  sent  Jelioiakim  captive  to  Babylon,  and 
eleven  years  later,  owing  to  the  still  disturbed 
state  of  the  kingdom  (588  b.c.),  lie  destroyed  the 
city,  and  removed  most  of  the  inhabitants  to 
Chaldea.  Nebuchadnezzar  was  succeeded  in  561 
b.c.  by  his  son  Evil-merodacli.  The  throne  was 
in  556  b.c.  usurped  by  a  powerful  and  active 
prince,  Nabu-naid  or  Nabonidus,  the  son  of  a 
“chief  seer,”  whose  reign  is  the  most  important, 
next  to  that  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  later  Baby¬ 
lonian  history.  The  inscriptions  of  this  King  are 
found  in  almost  all  temples,  and  some  of  them 
contain  important  historical  facts.  During  the 
summer  of  538  b.c.  Cyrus  invaded  Babylonia, 
advancing  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  modern 
Bagdad,  and  reaching  Sippara  on  the  14th  day 
of  Tammuz  (June),  which  the  garrison  yielded 
without  fighting.  Two  days  later,  Tammuz  16, 
Babylon  was  taken  in  the  same  manner.  Cyrus 
appointed  Gobryas  ruler.  Three  months  later 
Nabonidus,  who  was  a  prisoner,  died,  and  after 
a  week’s  mourning  by  the  people,  was  buried  on 
the  4th  day  of  Nisan,  538  b.c.  Babylonia  now 
became  a  Persian  province,  and  under  the  rule  of 
Cyrus  (538-29  B.c.)  and  Cambyses  (529-21),  it  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  been  peaceful.  With  the  overthrow 
of  the  Persian  monarchy  Babylonia  came  under 
the  short-lived  dominion  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
who  died  in  that  city,  (323  B.c.)  About  140  b.c. 
it  was  taken  from  the  Syrian  monarclis  by  the 
Parthians.  It  came  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans 
only  temporarily,  first  under  Trajan  (114  A. D.), 
under  Septimius  Severus  (199  a.d.),  and  again 
under  Julian,  (363  a.d.)  When  in  650  the  suc¬ 
cessors  of  Mohammed  put  an  end  to  the  new  Per¬ 
sian  monarchy  ol  the  Sassanides,  the  Province  of 
Babylonia,  where  Bagdad  was  built  (762-766), 
became  the  seat  of  tlxe  Califs  till  1258.  Since 
1638,  when  the  Turks,  for  the  second  time,  took 
it  from  the  Persians,  it  has  been  under  the  do¬ 
minion  of  Turkey. 

The  Babylonians,  that  is,  the  old  Sumero- Akka¬ 
dian  population,  were  essentially  a  literary  people, 
and  the  scribe  casle  comprised  many  of  the  highest 
in  the  land.  During  the  long  period  over  which 
the  monuments  and  inscriptions  extend,  numerous 
changes  took  place  in  the  religion  of  Babylonia. 

City  of  Babylon — The  accounts  that  we  find 
in  the  ancients  of  the  origin,  the  greatness,  and 
the  structure  of  the  city  are  exceedingly  confused. 
The  god  Belus  is  named  as  its  founder,  and  also 
Queen  Semiramis.  Semiramis,  according  to  the 
account  of  Diodorus,  employed  on  it  2,000,000 
of  workmen,  collected  from  all  parts  of  her  domin¬ 
ions.  With  the  capital  of  the  older  kingdom,  the 
accounts  of  the  ancients  have,  for  the  most  part, 
nothing  to  do;  they  are  all  to  be  referred  to  the 
resuscitated  and  adorned  residence  of  Nebuchad¬ 
nezzar.  Herodotus  gives  a  description  of  the  city, 
as  if  from  liis  own  observation.  It  stood  on  both 
sides  of  the  river,  in  the  form  of  a  square,  the 
length  of  whose  sides  is  variously  given  ;  by 
Herodotus  it  is  stated  at  120  stadia,  making  the 
whole  circumference  60  miles.  It  was  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  wall  200  cubits  high,  and  50  cubits 
thick,  and  furnished  with  100  brazen  gates — the 
last  number  is  raised  by  Diodorus  to  250.  On  the 
east  side  of  the  river  stood  the  buildings  of  the 
Neo-Babylonian  period,  among  which  the  “Hang¬ 
ing  Gardens”  of  Semiramis  were  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  Of  these  gardens  Diodorus 
has  left  us  a  detailed  description.  •  Their  ruins 
may  Vie  recognized  in  the  mound  called  El-Kasr. 
The  city  suffered  greatly  from  the  Persian  con¬ 
quest.  When  it  revolted  under  Darius  I.,  and 
after  a  siege  of  two  years,  was  recaptured  through 
the  ingenuity  of  Zopyrus,  the  outer  walls  were 
demolished.  Xerxes  plundered  the  Temple  of 
Belus,  which  had  been  hitherto  spared,  and  Hero¬ 
dotus  found  it  empty.  Although  the  Persian 
Kings  made  Babylon  their  residence,  nothing  was 


BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY. 


109 


BACON. 


done  for  the  restoration  of  the  city;  and  Alexander  J 
the  Great,  who,  on  his  entrance,  331  n.c.,  had 
promised  the  inhabitants  to  rebuild  the  ruined 
temple,  was  unable  even  to  clear  away  the  rubbish, 
although  he  employed  10,000  workmen  for  two 
months.  After  his  death  in  the  palace  of  Nebu¬ 
chadnezzar,  and  the  foundation  of  Seleucia  on  the 
Tigris  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  Babylon  went  rapidly 
to  decay. 

Babylonish  Captivity,  the  deportation,  under 
Nebuchadnezzar,  of  a  large  portion  of  the  princi¬ 
pal  inhabitants  of  Judah,  after  the  fall  of  Jerusa¬ 
lem,  586  b.c.  it  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  the  carrying  into  Assyria  of  a  large  number 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  northern  kingdom — the 
ten  tribes — by  Sargon,  the  successor  of  Shalmane¬ 
ser,  as  early  as  721 .  A  large  number  of  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  Judah  had  been  already  carried  off 
to  Babylon  in  597,  v  hen  Zcdekiali  had  become 
King  over  the  remainder.  It  was  not  long  before 
these  excited  the  anger  of  the  powerful  Chaldean 
King,  and  the  second  capture  of  the  city  and  cap¬ 
tivity  of  the  inhabitants  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom 
of  Judah.  They  were  allowed  the  free  exercise 
of  their  religion,  and  here  Ezekiel  and  the 
unknown  author  of  the  last  part  of  the  book  of 
Isaiah  gave  hope  to  the  spiritual  aspirations  of  the 
despondent  people.  When  Cyrus  overthrew  the 
Babylonian  Empire  (538  b.c.),  he  allowed  the  Jews 
to  return  to  their  own  country,  but  only  42,360  of 
the  tribes  of  Judah,  Benjamin,  and  Levi  are  said 
to  have  returned. 

Bac 'carat  (Fr.  Baccara)  is  one  of  the  most 
widespread  French  games  of  chance,  played  for 
money  between  a  banker  and  several  punters. 

Baccliiglio'ne,  a  river  of  Northern  Italy 
which  falls  into  the  Adriatic  three  miles  south  of 
Chioggia. 

Bacchus,  one  of  the  names  among  the  Greeks 
and  the  usual  name  among  the  Romans  for 
Dionysus,  the  god  of  wine.  Originally  a  mere 
epithet  or  surname,  it  does  not  occur  in  Greek 
writers  till  after  the  time  of  Herodotus,  and  its 
use  is  generally  confined  to  the  god  in  his  more 
riotous  aspects. 

Baccioclii,  Marta  Bonaparte,  eldest  sister  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  born  at  Ajaccio,  Corsica, 
1777,  married  Felice  Baccioclii,  and  was  created 
by  her  brother  in  1805  Princess  of  Lucca,  Piom- 
bino,  Massa,  and  Carrara,  and  in  1809  Grand- 
Duchess  of  Tuscany.  She  died  near  Trieste,  Aug. 
7,  1820.  Her  husband  died  in  1841;  her  only  son, 
in  1833;  and  her  only  daughter,  the  Countess 
Camerata,  in  1869. 

Bach,  Johann  Sebastian,  one  of  the  great 
musicians  of  the  world,  was  born  at  Eisenach  in 
1685,  of  a  family  of  musicians.  In  1700  he 
entered  the  choir  of  St.  Michael’s  school  at  Liine- 
burg,  remaining  there,  as  accompanist  on  the 
harpsichord,  and  also  as  a  violinist.  During  this 
period  he  made  several  excursions  to  Hamburg, 
in  order  that  he  might  hear  the  famous  organist 
Ileinken  play.  In  1703  he  was  given  a  court  ap¬ 
pointment  at  Weimar,  where  he  had  the  oppor¬ 
tunity  of  hearing  a  great  deal  of  Italian  instru 
mental  music;  in  the  following  year,  while  on  a 
visit  at  Arnstadt,  he  wasoffered  the  post  of  organ¬ 
ist  to  the  New  Church,  anti  it  was  here  that  he 
began  to  compose  in  earnest.  Many  of  his 
“church  cantatas”  were  written  here,  as  well  as 
the  famous  “Capriccio  on  the  Departure  of  a 
Brother,”  composed  when  his  brother,  Johann 
Jakob,  went  to  join  the  Swedish  Guard.  He  was 
next  appointed  court  organist  at  Weimar.  The 
nine  years  spent  at  the  ducal  court  did  much  to 
perfect  Bach’s  style  as  a  composer  for  the  organ, 
and  some  of  the  best  of  his  cantatas  were  also 
written  there.  Thence  he  removed  to  Anhalt  and 
afterwards  to  Leipsig,  where  lie  wrote  his  greatest 
works,  lie  died  in  July,  1750. 

Baclie,  Alexander  Dallas,  American  physi¬ 
cist,  a  grandson  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  was  bom 
at  Philadelphia,  July  19,  1806,  and  in  1821  entered 
West  Point  Military  Academy.  He  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Mathematics  in  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  (1827),  President  of  Girard  Coilcge 
(1836,)  and  Superintendent  of  the  Coast  Survey 
(1843),  in  which  last  capacity  he  did  good  service 
to  science.  He  died  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  Feb.  17, 
1867. 

Baclie,  Ben.j.  F.,  great -g’-andson  of  Benjamin 
Franklin,  was  born  in  1801,  and  served  as  surgeon  i 


in  the  United  States  Navy,  rising  to  the  rank  of 
Medical  Director.  Richard  Bache,  his  grand¬ 
father,  \tas  a  merchant  in  Philadelphia  during  the 
Revolution  and  was  six  years  Postmaster-General 
of  the  United  States. 

Bachelor,  a  word  of  uncertain  origin,  derived, 
perhaps,  with  most  probability  through  French 
from  the  Low  Latin  ba-calarius,  “a  farm-servant.,” 
originally  “  a  cow  herd  ;  ”  from  bacca,  Low  Latin 
for  vacca,  “  a  cow.”  It  is  now  applied  to  unmar¬ 
ried  men,  and  as  a  title  of  honor  in  universities. 

The  legislation  of  almost  every  country,  at 
some  period  of  its  history,  has  imposed  penalties 
on  male  celibates  or  bachelors,  on  the  principle 
that  every  citizen  is  bound  to  rear  up  legitimate 
children  to  the  State.  In  Sparta,  at  Athens,  and 
at  Rome,  various  penalties  were  imposed  on  celi¬ 
bates,  various  premiums  offered  for  fruitfulness. 
In  England  there  are  numerous  instances  of  addi¬ 
tional  or  higher  taxes  being  impo  ed  on  bachelors 
and  widowers,  but  apparently  more  with  a  view 
to  the  revenue  than  with  any  other  object. 

Bachelors’  Buttons,  the  popular  name  of  the 
double-flowered  yellow  or  white  varieties  of  but¬ 
tercup  {Ranunculus  arris,  etc.),  frequently  culti¬ 
vated  in  gardens.  It  is  an  excellent  and  effective 
perennial,  suitable  to  the  herbaceous  border,  and 
gives  no  trouble  in  cultivation. 

Bacillus,  (late  Lat.  little  rod,  diminutive  of 
bacillus,  stick),  properly  the  name  of  a  distinct 
genus  of  Schizomycetes,  but  popularly  used  in 
the  same  sense  as  bacterium. 

Back,  Sir  George,  Arctic  explorer,  was  born 
at  Stockport  in  1796,  and  entering  the  navy  in 
1808,  next  year  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  French 
in  Spain.  With  Franklin  he  had  already  shared 
in  three  Polar  expeditions — to  the  Spitzbergen 
Seas  (1819),  the  Coppermine  river  (1819-22),  and 
McKenzie  river  (1822-27) — when  he  voluntereed  to 
go  in  search  of  Captain  Ross,  who  was  supposed  to 
liave  been  lost  in  his  attempt  to  discover  the  North¬ 
west  Passage.  He  left  London  in  Feb.,  1833,  and 
on  June  28th  started  from  a  station  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company,  on  his  journey  north.  After  pass¬ 
ing  a  terrible  winter  with  his  companions  near  the 
Great  Slave  Lake,  he  discovered,  in  1834,  Artil¬ 
lery  Lake,  and  the  Great  Fish  river,  or  Back’s 
river,  which  he  traced  to  the  Frozen  Ocean.  Hin¬ 
dered  by  the  ice  from  proceeding  along  the  coast, 
he  returned  by  the  river,  and  did  not  reach  Eng¬ 
land  till  the  autumn  of  1835,  when  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  Captain.  In  1836  and  1837  he  further 
explored  the  Arctic  shores;  and  of  this,  as  of  the 
preceding  voyage,  he  published  a  vivid  descrip¬ 
tion.  The  Geographical  Society,  in  the  latter 
year,  bestowed  both  its  medals  upon  him;  and  in 
1839  he  was  knighted.  He  was  made  Admiral  in 
1857,  and  died  June  23,  1878. 

Backgammon,  agame  of  considerable  antiquity 
in  England,  where,  until  the  seventeenth  century, 
it  was  known  by  the  appellation  of  “  the  tables.” 
Apparently  the  word  is  merely  “  back-game,”  and 
may  have  been  given  because  the  two  players  have 
to  bring  their  men  back  from  their  antagonist’s 
tables  into  their  own,  or  because  the  pieces  are 
sometimes  taken  up  and  obliged  to  go  back — i.  e., 
reenter  at  the  table  they  came  from.  The  French 
name  is  tric-lrac.  Backgammon  is  played  with  a 
board  or  tables,  men  or  pieces,  dice  and  dice-boxes. 
The  introduction  of  dice  into  the  game,  and  their 
constant  use  in  determining  moves,  makes  back¬ 
gammon  essentially  a  game  of  chance. 

Backliuysen,  oiBakiiuizen,  Ludolf,  afamous 
marine  painter  of  the  Dutch  school,  was  born  at 
Emden  in  Hanover,  in  1631,  and  died  in  1708. 

Bacolor,  a  town  of  the  Island  of  Luzon,  Philip¬ 
pines.  Pop.,  8,737. 

Bacon,  Delia,  American  authoress,  born  1811, 
died  1859.  She  was  a  teacher,  and  wrote  several 
stories,  but  is  now  remembered  only  as  an  advo¬ 
cate  of  the  theory  that  the  plays  of  Shakespeare 
were  written  by  Lord  Bacon.  She  herself  did  not 
originate  the  idea,  but  was  the  first  to  give  it  any 
currency,  in  her  Philosophy  of  the  Plays  of  Shake¬ 
speare  Unfolded  (1857). 

Bacon,  Sir  Nicholas,  was  born  in  1509,  and 
passing  from  the  abbey  school  at  Bury  to  Corpus 
College,  Cambridge  (1523),  was  ten  years  later 
called  to  the  bar.  In  1537  he  was  appointed  solic¬ 
itor  to  the  Court  of  Augmentations  ;  and  in  1546 
he  was  advanced  to  the  office  of  attorney  of  the 
Court  of  Wards.  During  Mary’s  reign  his  Pro¬ 


testantism  cost  him  all  his  public  honors  and  emol¬ 
uments  ;  but  on  her  death,  in  1558,  he  received 
from  Elizabeth  the  post  of  Lord  Keeper  of  the 
Great  Seal.  Elizabeth  left  to  him  and  to  Cecil 
“the  ordering  of  church  matters  for  the  most  part;” 
and  Parker  chiefly  owed  to  him  the  See  of  Canter¬ 
bury.  He  was  always  honestly  opposed  to  Catho¬ 
lics  generally,  above  all,  to  Mary  of  Scotland. 
He  died  at  York  House,  his  London  residence, 
Feb.  20,1579. 

Bacon,  Francis,  Lord  Verulam  and  Viscount 
St.  Albans,  born  at  York  House,  in  the  Strand, 
London,  Jan.  22,  1561,  is  usually  but  inaccurately 
spoken  of  as  Lord  Bacon.  He  was  the  younger 
son  of  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon  by  his  second  wife, 
Ann,  second  daughter  of  Sir  A  nthony  Cooke,  tutor 
to  Edward  VI.  Bacon  passed  his  boyhood  with 
his  elder  brother  Anthony  under  the  stern  disci¬ 
pline  of  his  mother,  a  woman  of  powerful  will 
and  a  zealous  Calvinist.  When  twelve  years  old 
(1573),  he,  with  Anthony,  entered  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  the  brothers  remained  till 
Christmas,  1575.  In  June,  1576,  they  began  to 
study  law  as  “ancients”  of  Gray’s  Inn.  A  year 
later,  Bacon  went  to  Paris  in  attendance  on  the 
ambassador,  Sir  Amias  Paulet,  but  his  father’s 
death  recalled  him  in  1579. 

From  an  early  age  Bacon  exhibited  extraordi¬ 
nary  intellectual  capacity,  lie  became  Member 
of  Parliament  for  Melcombe  Regis  in  1584,  for 
Taunton  in  1586,  and  for  Middlesex  in  1593. 
Meanwhile,  in  despair  of  obtaining  any  favor 
from  Burghley,  Bacon  attached  himself  to  the 
brilliant  and  impulsive  Earl  of  Essex,  Burghley’s 
rival  at  court,  through  whom  he  thought  to  put 
into  effect  some  of  his  political  schemes.  Essex, 
who  also  took  Bacon’s  brother  Anthony  into  his 
service,  strove  in  vain  to  obtain  for  Bacon,  in 
1593,  the  office  first  of  Attorney  and  then  of 
Solicitor-General,  and  in  1596  that  of  Master  of 
I  he  Rolls.  Bacon’s  disappointments  were  embit¬ 
tered  by  want  of  money,  and  he  gladly  accepted 
from  Essex  a  gift  of  land  at  Twickenham.  He 
advised  Essex  in  1598  (although  he  afterward 
denied  having  done  so)  to  undertake  the  sup¬ 
pression  of  Tyrone’s  great  rebellion  in  Ireland, 
and  when  the  Earl  returned  thence  in  disgrace 
(March,  1600),  and  was  tried  in  June,  Bacon,  at 
his  own  request,  acted  (in  a  subordinate  capacity) 
with  the  prosecuting  counsel,  in  the  hope,  as  lie 
said,  of  aiding  his  patron.  Essex  was  dismissed 
from  all  offices  of  State,  and  released  in  August. 
Bacon,  like  liis  brother  Anthony,  seemed  anxious 
for  his  reinstatement  in  the  Queen’s  favor,  but 
when  Essex  broke  into  open  rebellion  in  Jan., 
1601,  Bacon  voluntarily  endeavored  to  secure  his 
conviction  on  the  capital  charge  of  treason;  drew 
up  after  the  execution  the  official  declaration  of 
Essex’s  treasons;  and  apologized  in  another  paper 
for  his  own  conduct,  on  the  ground  that  the 
maintenance  of  the  State  is  superior  to  private 
ties  of  friendship. 

In  the  last  years  of  Elizabeth’s  reign,  Bacon 
tried,  in  and  out  of  Parliament,  to  act  the  part 
of  mediator  between  crown  and  commons,  and 
recommended  a  tolerant  policy  in  Ireland.  On 
the  accession  of  James  I.  (1603)  Bacon  sought  royal 
favor  by  extravagant  professions  of  loyalty  and 
by  making  speeches  in  Parliament,  in  which  he 
tried  to  prove  that  the  claims  of  the  King  and 
Parliament  could  be  reconciled  without  degrad¬ 
ing  either  estate.  For  these  services  he  was 
knighted  (July  23,  1603)  and  made  a  commis¬ 
sioner  for  the  union  of  Scotland  and  England. 
On  June  25,  1607,  he  became  Solicitor-General, 
after  a  delay  caused  partly  by  the  opposition  of 
Burghley’s  son  and  successor,  Sir  Robert  Cecil, 
and  partly  by  Bacon’s  unwillingness  to  serve 
under  Sir  Edward  Coke,  a  personal  enemy,  who 
was  Attorney-General  till  1607. 

In  the  last  session  of  James’  first  Parliament 
(Feb.,  1611)  the  differences  between  crown  and 
commons  grew  very  critical,  and  Bacon  assumed 
his  former  role  of  mediator,  although  he  confessed 
his  distrust  of  James’  Chief  Minister,  Cecil  (now 
created  Lord  Salisbury).  On  Salisbury’s  death,  in 
1612,  Bacon  informed  the  King  that  he  was  willing 
to  devote  himself  exclusively  to  politics,  and  of¬ 
fered  to  manage  Parliament  and  obtain  supplies 
without  making  undignified  bargains  after  Salis¬ 
bury’s  discredited  methods.  1  le  was  disappointed 
of  the  office  of  Master  of  the  Wards  at  this  time, 


BACON. 


110 


BACUP. 


but,  on  Oct.  27,  1613,  was  promoted  to  the  Attor¬ 
ney-Generalship. 

In  1615,  two  prosecutions  in  which  lie  engaged 
illustrate  his  servility.  In  one,  Oliver  St.  John 
was  prosecuted  for  denouncing  the  illegality  of 
benevolences,  and  made  his  submission.  In  the 
other,  Edmund  Peacham,  an  old  Somersetshire 
clergyman,  was  charged  with  having  written  a 
sermon,  which  he  had  not  preached,  justifying 
insurrection  under  certain  circumstances.  Tort¬ 
ure  was  applied,  with  Bacon’s  assent,  although 
not  at  his  suggestion,  and  Bacon  examined  the 
prisoner  while  undergoing  it. 

On  June  9,  1616,  Bacon  became  a  Privy  Coun¬ 
cillor,  and  on  March  7,  1617,  Buckingham,  whom 
Bacon  had  persistently  courted,  obtained  the 
Lord-keepership  for  him.  On  Jan.  7,  1618,  he  ! 
became  Lord  Chancellor,  and  on  July  12  he  was 
Taised  to  the  peerage  as  Lord  Verulam.  Bacon’s 
obsequiousness  was  now  more  marked  than  ever. 
He  accepted  the  King’s  policy  of  the  Spanish 
marriage,  although  it  was  hostile  to  all  his  prin¬ 
ciples,  and  by  exceptional  self-abasement  averted 
a  quarrel  with  Buckingham,  whose  brother’s 
marriage  with  Coke’s  daughter  Bacon  had  vin¬ 
dictively  opposed.  In  1620  he  advised  the  sum¬ 
moning  of  a  new  Parliament;  on  Oct.  12,  in  that 
year,  published  his  Novum  Organum;  and  on 
Jan.  26,  1621,  was  created  Viscount  St.  Albans. 
But  his  fall  was  now  at  hand.  The  Commons, 
led  by  Bacon’s  enemy,  Coke,  first  inquired  into 
a  recent  increase  of  monopoly-patents,  by  which 
Buckingham  had  enriched  his  relatives.  Bacon 
had  argued  for  their  legality,  and  Parliament 
was  anxious  to  call  him  to  account  for  this  opin¬ 
ion,  but  the  King  refused  to  sanction  the  step. 
Complaint  w'as  made  that  Bacon  was  in  the 
habit  of  taking  bribes  from  suitors  in  his  court, 
and  on  March  17,  1621,  charges  were  sent  to  the 
House  of  Lords  by  the  Commons  for  inquiry. 
That  he  took  presents  from  suitors  was  undeni¬ 
able,  but  that  he  allowed  these  gifts  to  influence 
his  judicial  decisions  has  been  disputed  with 
some  effect.  Nevertheless,  the  Steward  case 
shows  that  Bacon  was  guilty,  in  one  instance,  at 
least,  of  polluting  justice.  It  was  ordered  that 
he  be  fined  £40,000,  be  imprisoned  during  the 
King’s  pleasure,  and  be  banished  Parliament  and 
the  court.  In  June  he  was  released  from  the 
Tower,  and  retired  to  his  family  residence,  at 
Gorhambury,  near  St.  Albans.  In  September, 
the  King  pardoned  him,  but  declined  to  allow 
him  to  return  to  Parliament  or  the  court.  He 
died  April  9,  1626. 

As  a  writer  of  English  prose  and  a  student  of 
human  nature,  Bacon  is  seen  to  best  advantage 
in  his  Essays,  ten  of  which  were  first  published 
in  1597,  after  passing  through  new  editions  in 
1598,  1604,  1606,  and  1612,  they  reached  the 
final  number  of  fifty  eight  in  1625.  Full  of 
practical  wisdom  and  keen  observation  of  life, 
written  in  concise  language  of  extraordinary  pith 
and  dignity,  they  illustrate  the  worldly  shrewd¬ 
ness  of  their  author,  as  well  as  his  quickness  and 
accuracy  of  perception.  His  History  of  Henry 
VII.  (1622)  shows  scholarly  research,  besides  a 
direct  and  nervous  style.  In  his  fanciful  New 
Atlantis,  Bacon  suggests  the  formation  of  scien¬ 
tific  academies — a  suggestion  to  which  the  found¬ 
ation  of  the  Royal  Society  has  been  traced. 
Bacon’s  Apophthegms  (1625)  are  a  disappointing 
collection  of  witticisms. 

Ridiculous  attempts  have  been  made  to  identify 
Bacon  with  the  authorship  of  Shakespeare’s  plays, 
but  the  theory  has  no  basis  of  foundation. 

Bacon,  John,  sculptor,  was  born  in  London, 
Nov.  24,  1740,  and,  trained  as  a  modeler  and 
painter  on  porcelain,  in  1769  he  received  the  first 
gold  medal  for  sculpture  awarded  by  the  Royal 
Academy  of  which  next  year  he  was  made  an 
associate,  in  recognition  of  the  high  merit  of  his 
statue  of  Mars.  He  died  Aug.  4,  1799. 

Bacon,  Leonard,  an  American  clergyman  and 
professor  of  Yale,  born  in  Detroit  in  i.802.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  theological  books  and  edited 
religious  papers  and  magazines,  and  was  a  brother 
of  the  semi-crazed  Delia  Bacon,  who  held  a  theory 
that  Francis,  Viscount  St.  Albans,  was  the  author 
of  Shakspeare’s  plays.  He  died  Dec.  24,  1881. 

Bacon,  Roger,  a  monkish  philosopher  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  who,  through  the  force  of  his 
intellect,  reared  liimself  far  above  his  age,  made 


wonderful  discoveries  in  several  sciences,  and 
contributed  much  to  extend  the  theq  scanty 
knowledge  of  nature.  He  was  born  at  Ilcliester, 
Somersetshire,  about  the  year  1214.  He  studied 
at  Oxford,  where  he  seems  to  have  been  in  orders 
in  1233,  and  then  proceeded  to  Paris.  About 
1250  he  returned  to  Oxford,  and  may  then  have 
entered  the  order  of  the  Francisans.  Several 
times  Bacon  was  imprisoned  as  a  sorcerer  and 
blasphemer,  and  Jerome  forbade  the  reading  of 
his  books,  and  issued  an  order  for  his  imprison¬ 
ment,  which  was  sanctioned  by  Pope  Nicholas 
III.  This  new  imprisonment  lasted  ten  years. 
When  in  1288  Jerome  himself  became  Pope,  under 
the  name  of  Nicholas  IV.,  Bacon  sent  him  a 
treatise  on  the  means  of  warding  off  the  infirmities 
of  old  age,  with  a  view  of  convincing  him  of  the 
harmlessness  and  utility  of  his  labors,  but  in  vain. 
He  seems  to  have  at  last  recovered  his  freedom 
about  1292,  and  two  years  later  to  have  died  at 
Oxford.  He  believed  in  the  philosopher’s  stone 
and  in  astrology.  His  chief  invention  is  the  mag¬ 
nifying-glass.  There  are  also  in  his  writings 
other  new  and  ingenious  views  on  optics;  for 
example,  on  refraction,  on  the  apparent  magni¬ 
tude  of  objects,  on  the  great  increase  in  the  size 
of  the  sun  and  moon  in  the  horizon.  On  other 
subjects,  again,  he  fell  into  the  greatest  errors. 
He  made  several  chemical  discoveries  which  were 
wonders  at  that  time.  He  knew,  for  instance, 
that  with  sulphur,  saltpeter,  and  charcoal,  we 
may  produce  explosions.  Mathematics  applied 
to  observation  he  considered  to  be  the  only  means 
of  arriving  at  a  knowledge  of  nature.  He  studied 
several  languages,  and  wrote  Latin  with  great 
elegance  and  clearness. 

Bacon,  the  back  and  sides  of  a  pig,  cured  or 
preserved  for  eating  by  salting  and  drying. 

Bacsanyi,  Janos,  a  Hungarian  poet,  was  bom 
May  11,  1763,  at  Tapolcza.  In  1809,  Bacsanyi 
translated  Napoleon’s  proclamation  to  the  Hun¬ 
garians,  and  was  afterwards  obliged  to  take 
refuge  in  Paris.  After  the  peace  of  Paris,  lie 
lived  at  Linz,  and  there  he  died,  May  12,  1845. 
His  collected  poems  appeared  at  Pestli  in  1827. 

Bacs-Bodrog,  a  county  in  the  South  of  Hun¬ 
gary,  between  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss.  Area, 
4,260  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  638,063.  The 
capital  is  Zombor.  Bacs  is  a  village  of  3,000  in¬ 
habitants. 

Bacteria  (plural  of  the  late  Lat.  bacterium ,  Gr. 
bakterion,  dimin.  of  bahtron,  stick,  staff),  micro¬ 
scopic  infusoria  which  generate  in  stagnant  water. 
These  bacteria  multiply  with  extraordinary  rapid¬ 
ity  by  cross  division.  Whenever  organic  matter 


ress  was  made,  however,  till  about  1838,  when 
Ehrenberg  and  Dujardin  included  bacteria  in 
their  investigation  of  minute  organisms.  They 
referred  the  forms  which  they  described  to  the 
animal  series  among  Infusorians,  and  united  a 
large  number  under  the  general  title  Vibrionia. 
To  Cohn  (1853)  is  due  the  merit  of  having  estab¬ 
lished,  on  grounds  of  structure  and  life-history 
(morphology  and  development),  the  fact  that 
bacteria  are  plants,  and  all  succeeding  research 
has  confirmed  his  conclusion,  which  Nageli  (1857) 
corrected  in  detail,  however,  by  referring  the 
bacteria  or  schizomycetes  not  to  algae,  but  to  the 
parallel  class  of  fungi. 

Bacteria  are  found  practically  everywhere,  but 
especially  wThcre  there  is  disease,  death,  or  de¬ 
composition.  To  speak  of  the  “omnipresent 
bacillus  ”  is  hardly  an  exaggeration. 

Even  pure  water  contains  many  bacteria,  and 
always  more  than  occur  in  air.  The  minimum 
occurs  in  condensed  water-vapor  (900  to  the  litre), 
the  maximum  (80  millions  per  litre,  1%  pint),  of 
course,  in  sewer  water,  especially  if  there  be  the 
least  stagnation. 

Nor  is  soil  free  from  bacteria.  Spring-water 
fresh  from  the  source  carries  a  cargo  of  these 
micro-organisms.  Pasteur  found  that  the  germ  of 
splenic  fever  (Bacillus  anthracis)  occurred  in  great 
abundance  in  the  earth  round  about  the  pits  in 
which  diseased  cattle  had  been  buried. 

The  rancidity  of  butter,  the  putrefaction  of 
cheese,  the  game-flavor  and  high  odor  of  meat, 
the  yellowness  and  blueness  of  milk  kept  in  im¬ 
perfectly  scalded  vessels,  the  excessive  staleness 
of  bread,  and  a  crowd  of  other  unhealthy  con¬ 
ditions  in  food,  are  largely  due  to  the  presence  of 
bacteria.  Bloody  stains  on  bread,  meat,  paste, 
etc.,  have  also  been  traced  to  the  presence  of  a 
brightly-colored  micrococcus.  In  the  same  way 


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Different,  kinds  of  Bacteria  (mostly  after  Koch). 

A,  Micrococci,  in  drinking-water;  15,  in  splenic  fever;  C, 
in  cholera  (Koch);  D,  from  surface  of  water;  E,  in 
splenic  fever  (in  thread-form,  and  with  incipient  spores) ; 
F,  Spirillum,  from  putrefaction;  G,  Spirochiete,  from 
the  teeth;  H,  in  relapsing  fever,  from  blood;  I,  different 
forms  of  cholera  microbe  (Koch) . 

is  in  process  of  decomposition,  in  infusion  as 
above  indicated,  or  in  disease  or  death,  or  within 
the  living  and  healthy  organism,  there  these  bac¬ 
teria  are  to  be  found.  So  abundant  are  they, 
that  in  spite  of  their  minuteness  they  did  not  es¬ 
cape  the  enthusiastic  observation  of  the  early 
workers  with  the  microscope.  Not  much  prog¬ 


Multiplication  of  Bacteria  (after  Zopf). 
a,  b ,  c,  division  of  Coccus  (Credothrixl;  d,  round  zooloea 
of  the  same;  e,  oval  zoolaea  of  Beggiatoa ; /,  cubical 
packets  of  Sarcina;  <7,  ramified  zoolcea  of  Cladothrix. 

the  bitterness,  ropiness,  etc.,  of  bad  wine  are  due 
to  the  same  organisms. 

A  large  number  of  bacteria  are  known  to  occur 
in  direct  association  with  pathological  processes 
of  decomposition  in  plants  and  animals,  without 
apparently  having  any  direct  connection  wdtli  the 
decomposition.  These  are  saprophytes,  like  fungi 
generally.  Others,  however,  have  been  proved 
in  many  cases  to  be  the  causes  of  pathological 
conditions  in  men  and  animals,  a  profound  fact 
fundamental  to  the  germ  theory  of  disease. 

As  regards  the  shape  of  the  individual  units, 
four  principal  forms  may  be  distinguished — viz., 
spherical,  elliptical,  rod-like,  and  spirally  curved. 

See  Zopf’s  monograph  on  Bacteria,  Die  Spult- 
pilze;  De  Bary’s  Lectures  on  Bacteria-,  Klein’s  Mi¬ 
cro-organisms  and  Disease-,  Trouessart’s  Microbes, 
Ferments,  and  Moulds-,  Loffler’s  History  of  Bac¬ 
teriology;  Grookslianks’  Manual  of  Bacteriology. 

Bactria,  a  province  of  ancient  Persia,  lying 
north  of  the  Paropamisus  (Hindu  Kush) 
Mountains,  on  the  Upper  Oxus.  It 
corresponds  pretty  nearly  with  the 
modern  Balkh.  Here  many  scholars  locate 
the  original  home  of  the  Aryan  or  Indo- 
European  family  of  nations.  Its  capital, 

Bactra  or  Zariaspa,  was  the  cradle  of  the 
Zoroastrian  religion. 

Bactrites,  a  genus  of  fossil  Ammon- 
itidse,  with  a  straight  shell,  and  indented 
but  not  ramified  septa.  The  genus  ranges 
from  the  Lower  Silurian  to  the  Devonian. 

Bac'ulites,  a  genus  of  the  family  of 
Ammonitidse,  differing  from  the  true  Am¬ 
monites  in  the  straight  form  of  the  shell, 
which  tapers  to  a  point,  and  either  is 
round  or  compressed.  The  species,  like 
the  other  ammonitidse,  are  all  fossil.  Baculite. 

Bac'up,  a  prosperous  town  of  Lancashire, 
England.  Pop.  (1881),  25,030. 


BADAGRY. 


Ill 


BxVGDAD. 


Badagry,  a  small  British  port  on  the  Slave 
Coast,  Upper  Guinea.  At  one  time  it  carried  on  a 
large  slave  trade,  and  had  10,000  inhabitants. 

Badajoz capital  of  the  Spanish  province  of 
the  same  name.  It  is  live  miles  from  the  Portu¬ 
guese  frontier,  174  miles  from  Lisbon,  and  315 
from  Madrid.  Badajoz  is  a  fortress  of  the  first 
rank,  and  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  an  old 
cathedral  built  like  a  fortress,  with  a  splendid 
organ,  and  paintings  by  Cerezo  and  Morales. 
Pop.  (1884),  22,376.  It  was  thrice  besieged  by 
the  English  under  Wellington;  first  on  April  20, 
1811,  next  in  May  and  June  of  the  same  year, 
and  thirdly  in  the  spring  of  1812,  when  he  cap¬ 
tured  the  city  by  storm,  on  the  night  of  April  6. 
The  Province  of  Badajoz  has  an  area  of  8,687 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  (1884)  457,365. 

Badakhshan',  a  territory  of  Central  Asia, 
lying  between  36°  and  38®  N.  latitude,  and  69® 
and  72®  E.  longitude,  with  the  chain  of  the 
Hindu  Kush  on  the  south  and  the  Oxus,  or  Amu 
Darya,  on  the  north.  Marco  Polo  was  here  in 
1272-73;  and  Capt.  John  Wood  in  the  winter 
of  1837-38.  Matveyeff  saw  part  of  the  country 
in  1878.  Faizabad  is  the  capital.  Pop.  of 
province  about  100,000.  See  Yule’s  Marco  Polo 
(1871);  Wood’s  Journey  to  the  Source  of  the  Oxus 
(new  ed.  1872);  and  Vambdry’s  Central  Asia 
(1874). 

Badalona,  a  seaport  in  the  Spanish  Province 
of  Barcelona.  Pop.  (1878),  13,749. 

Badderlocks,  also  sometimes  Honeyware  or 
Henware  ( Alaria  esculenta),  an  olive-colored 
seaweed  belonging  to  the  Phceosporeie  and  allied 
to  the  common  Laminaria,  which  grows  on 
rocks  in  deep  water  on  the  shores  of  Britain, 
Iceland,  and  the  northern  part  of  Europe. 

Baden,  The  Grand  Duchy  of,  is  situated  in 
the  southwestern  corner  of  the  German  Empire 
between  Alsace-Lorraine  and  Wurtemburg,  and  is 
separated  from  Switzerland  by  the  Rhine.  Its 
area  is  5,824  square  miles. 

The  pop.  of  Baden  in  1880  amounted  to  1,570,- 
196,  and  in  1885  had  increased  to  1,600,839.  The 
Roman  Catholics  in  1885  numbered  1,005,704. 
Protestants  numbered  564, S71;  Dissenters  and 
Mennonites,  3,212;  and  Jews,  27,052. 

The  sovereign  is  limited  by  a  parliamentary 
constitution.  The  Parliament  consists  of  two 
chambers,  the  second  chamber  being  made  up  of 
sixty -three  representatives  chosen  for  four  years. 
The  highest  deliberate  and  executive  body  in  the 
country  is  the  Council  of  State.  The  military  af¬ 
fairs  of  Baden  are  now  exclusively  regulated  by 
the  imperial  power;  the  troops  of  Baden  form 
the  major  part  of  the  Fourteenth  Corps  d’Armfie  of 
the  Empire.  The  effective  war  strength  of  the 
army  is  45,000;  peace,  15,000.  Karlsruhe  is  the 
residence  of  the  sovereign;  the  capitals  of  the 
four  “  circles”  are  Constance,  Freiburg,  Karls¬ 
ruhe,  and  Mannheim;  and  besides,  there  are 
four  towns  each  with  a  pop.  of  above  20,000. 

In  the  conflict  between  Prussia  and  Austria  in 
1866,  Baden  took  her  place  with  Austria,  and  her 
troops  fought  in  two  ineffective  battles  against 
the  Prussians.  At  the  peace,  Baden  had  to  pay 
a  heavy  war  indemnity,  and  reorganize  her  army 
on  the  Prussian  model,  and  in  1867  enter  the 
North  German  Confederation.  In  1870-71  the 
troops  of  Baden  fought  with  distinction  in  the 
French  campaign,  and  the  Grand  Duchy  became 
a  part  of  the  restored  German  Empire.  The 
present  Grand  Duke  is  Friederich  I.  (b.  1826; 
sue.  1852). 

Baden,  a  town  in  the  Swiss  Canton  of  Aargau, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Limmat.  Pop.  (1880), 
3,692.  Baden,  from  the  fifteenth  to  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  eighteenth  century  was  the  seat  of 
the  Swiss  Diet. 

Baden-Baden,  a  town  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Baden,  situated  at  the  edge  of  the  Black  Forest, 
eight  miles  from  the  Rhine,  and  twenty-three 
south-southwest  of  Karlsruhe.  Pop.  (1885),  12,  - 
782;  but  its  visitors  during  the  season,  which  is 
at  its  height  in  July  and  August,  are  often  four 
times  the  number  of  the  settled  population.  It 
is  chiefly  celebrated  for  its  medicinal  springs, 
which  were  known  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. 

Baden  bei  Wien  (i.e.,  Baden  near  Vienna)  a 
much-frequented  watering-place  of  Austria,  on 
the  Schwechat,  sixteen  and  three-quarters  miles 
south-by-west  of  Vienna.  Pop.  (1880),  9,645. 


Ba'denocli,  a  Highland  district  in  the  south¬ 
east  part  of  Inverness-shire,  45  miles  long  by  19 
broad,  and  traversed  by  the  Spey. 

Badge  (etymology  unknown,  sometimes  given 
from  Lat.  bajulo,  1  carry;  more  probably  con¬ 
nected  with  badger),  a  figure  or  emblem  used, 


either  with  or  without  a  motto,  as  the  distinctive 
cognizance  of  a  family. 

Bad  ger  ( Meles ),  a  genus  of  carnivores  of  the 
Mustelidce  or  Weasel  and  Otter  family.  The 
skunks  ( Mephiies ),  sand-bears  (Arctonyx),  Ameri 
can  badgers  (Taxidea),  ratels  (3Iellivora),  etc., 
are  closely  related  genera  in  the  same  sub-family 
as  the  badger  (Melidce).  Badgers,  like  the  rest  of 
the  family  to  which  they  belong,  are  almost  plant¬ 
igrade — i.  e.,  they  walk  on  the  whole  sole  of  the 
foot,  and  not  merely  on  the  fore  part  of  it.  The 


Badger  ( Meles  vulgaris). 


body  is  thus  brought  nearer  to  the  ground  than 
it  otherwise  would  be  from  their  length  of  limb. 
The  lower  jaw  is  locked  into  its  socket  in  a  very 
remarkable  way,  which  explains  their  tenacious 
grip.  The  common  badger  ( M .  taxus  or  M.  vul¬ 
garis)  is  the  only  bear-like  quadruped  now  found 
in  the  British  Islands,  and  that  only  rarely.  It  is 
widely  diffused  over  Europe  and  the  middle  parts 
of  Asia.  The  habits  of  the  badger  are  extremely 
cleanly.  It  is  one  of  the  most  perfectly  omnivor¬ 
ous  of  animals,  in  a  wild  state  as  well  as  in  con 
finement;  fruits,  roots,  beech-mast,  eggs,  young 
birds,  small  quadrupeds,  frogs,  snails,  worms, 
and  insects  equally  constitute  its  natural  food. 
A  barbarous  sport,  called  badger-baiting,  or  dra  w¬ 
ing  the  badger,  was  formerly  common  in  England, 
but  has  been  prohibited  since  1850.  The  Ameri¬ 
can  badger,  or  Taxel  ( Taxidea  americana),  is  a 
distinct,  more  carnivorous  genus,  differing  in 
dentition  and  in  some  features  of  the  skull.  It 
chiefly  preys  on  small  animals,  such  as  marmots, 
which  it  pursues  into  their  holes  in  the  sandy 
plains  near  the  Missouri  river  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

Badgliis,  a  region  north  of  Herat,  comprising 
the  country  between  the  Murghab  and  the  Hari- 
rud  rivers,  as  far  northward  as  the  edge  of  the 
desert.  It  lies  just  to  the  south  of  the  boundary 
line  between  Afghanistan  and  the  Russian  terri¬ 
tories,  as  defined  in  1887. 

Badi'a-y-Lablicli,  Domingo,  an  enterprising 
traveler,  born  at  Barcelona,  in  1766.  In  1801  he 
crossed  to  Africa,  disguised  as  a  Mussulman, 
under  the  name  of  Ali-Bei.  From  his  youth  he 
had  been  a  student  of  Arabic,  and  his  knowledge 
of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people  was  so 
intimate  that  he  could  escape  detection,  while  to 
make  his  conformity  complete  he  had  even  cir¬ 
cumcised  himself.  After  a  two  years’  residence 
at  Morocco,  he  set  out  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 
and  traveled  through  Barbary,  Greece,  Egypt, 
and  Syria.  At  the  Holy  City  of  the  Moslems  he 


took  his  part  duly  in  all  the  solemn  rites,  and  has 
the  distinction  of  being  the  first  Christian  that 
had  visited  it  since  the  institution  of  Islam.  In 
1814  he  published  an  account  of  his  travels  under 
the  title  Voyage  d’  Ali-Bei  en  Afrique  et  en  Asie. 
He  died  in  Syria  Aug.  30,  1818. 

Badminton,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Beaufort, 
in  the  south  of  Gloucestershire,  England.  From 
it  have  been  named  a  kind  of  claret  cup,  and  a 
game,  a  predecessor  of  lawn-tennis,  played  with 
a  shuttlecock  instead  of  a  ball. 

Badrinath,  a  peak  of  the  main  Himalayan 
Range,  Garliwal  district,  Northwestern  Provinces, 
India,  22,901  feet  above  the  sea. 

Baedeker,  Karl,  a  German  publisher,  born 
in  1801,  at  Essen.  He  started  in  business  in  1827 
at  C’oblentz,  where  he  died,  Oct.  4,  1859.  He  is 
best  and  everywhere  known  as  the  originator  of 
a  series  of  admirable  guide-books. 

Baena,  a  Spanish  town  twenty-five  miles  south- 
southeast  of  Cordova.  In  the  castle  here,  Pedro 
the  Cruel  murdered  the  Moorish  King  of  Granada 
with  all  his  train.  Pop.  (1878),  13,336. 

Baer,  Karl  Ernst  von,  a  distinguished  Rus¬ 
sian  naturalist,  who  contributed  very  largely  to 
the  progress  of  natural  science,  especially  of  em¬ 
bryology,  was  born  Feb.  29,  1792,  in  Esthonia, 
and  died  Nov.  28,  1876.  His  works  are  distin¬ 
guished  by  lucidity  as  well  as  keen  observation 
and  brilliant  speculation. 

Baeza,  a  handsome  old  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
Province  of  Jaen.  The  Beatia  of  the  Romans, 
and  the  seat  of  Moorish  Califs  and  Kings,  with 
150,000  inhabitants,  it  never  fairly  recovered  from 
its  sack  by  the  Castilians  in  1228.  Pop.  (1878), 
14,377. 

Baffin,  William,  navigator  and  discoverer,  is 
believed  to  have  been  born  in  London  about  1584. 
In  1613-14  he  served  in  the  Spitzbergen  whale- 
fishery,  and  wrote  an  account  of  this  and  his 
previous  voyages.  In  1615  he  took  service  as  pilot 
of  the  Discovery  in  search  of  a  Northwest  Pas¬ 
sage,  and  made  a  careful  examination  of  Hudson's 
Strait;  his  recorded  latitudes  and  notes  of  the 
tides  are  in  remarkable  agreement  with  those  of  a 
later  date.  In  the  following  year,  with  Caplain 
Bylot,  he  discovered,  charted,  and  named  Smith’s 
Sound,  and  several  others,  and  explored  the  large 
inlet  now  associated  with  his  name.  Later  investi¬ 
gation  has  confirmed  his  descriptions.  His  latest 
voyages,  1616-21,  were  to  the  East.  At  the  siege 
of  Ormuz,  which  the  English  were  helping  the 
Shah  of  Persia  to  recover  from  the  Portuguese,  he 
was  killed  by  a  shot,  Jan.  23,  1622.  See  Voyages 
of  William  Baffin,  1612-22,  edited  by  C.  R.  Mark¬ 
ham  (1880). 

Baffin's  Bay,  a  gulf,  or  rather  sea,  on  the  north¬ 
east  coast  of  North  America,  extending  between 
Greenland  and  the  great  islands  northeast  of  Hud¬ 
son  Bay  (one  of  which  is  called  Baffin’s  Island),  in 
69°  to  78®  N.  latitude.  It  is  about  800  miles  long, 
with  an  average  breadth  of  280.  Baffin’s  Bay  com¬ 
municates  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  Davis 
Strait;  and  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  Smith  Sound 
on  the  north,  and  Lancaster  Sound  on  the  west. 

Bagamoyo,  a  village  on  the  east  coast  of  Equa¬ 
torial  Africa,  opposite  the  island  of  Zanzibar. 

Bagasse,  also  called  Cane-straw  or  Cane-trash, 
is  the  refuse  left  after  the  expression  of  the  sac¬ 
charine  matter  from  the  cane  in  the  manufacture 
of  sugar. 

Bagatelle  (Fr.  a  trifle),  a  game  somewhat  re¬ 
sembling  billiards.  A  bagatelle-board  is  usually 
about  7  feet  long  and  21  inches  broad;  it  is  of 
slate,  and  is  lined  with  cloth  and  cushioned  ;  and 
a  game  is  played  on  jt  with  nine  small  ivory  balls 
and  a  cue  or  mace.  The  player’s  object  is  to  put 
the  balls  down  in  nine  numbered  holes  at  the 
further  semicircular  end  of  the  board. 

Bagdad,  the  capital  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name  in  the  southeast  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  is 
situated  on  the  Tigris,  about  500  miles  from  its 
mouth,  in  33®  20'  N.  latitude,  and  44°  23'  E. 
longitude,  in  a  flat,  treeless  plain  of  considerable 
extent,  which  is  dotted  with  the  ruins  of  ancient 
buildings.  The  entire  city  is  surrounded  by  a 
brick  wall,  5  miles  in  circumference  and  40  feet 
high,  the  two  parts  are  connected  by  a  bridge  of 
boats,  220  yards  long,  and  the  communication  is 
guarded  by  a  citadel.  There  are  four  gates,  the 
finest  of  which,  bearing  date  1220,  has  remained 
closed  since  1638.  Bagdad  contains  upward  of 


BAGEIIOT. 


112 


BAIKAL. 


100  mosques,  though  barely  thirty  of  them  are  in 
use;  and  a  large  general  hospital  has  recently 
been  erected.  The  modern  buildings  are  mean 
and  the  streets  narrow  and  crooked.  Of  the 
population,  variously  estimated  at  from  60,000  to 
180,000,  the  greatest  part  are  Turks  and  Arabs. 
Bagdad  was  generally  believed  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Abbaside  Calif  Almansur,  764  a  .d.  , 
but  Rawlinson,  in  1848,  discovered  below  the 
normal  river-level  walls  of  brickwork,  each  brick 
bearing  the  name  and  titles  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 
In  the  ninth  century  it  was  greatly  enlarged  by 
Haroun  Al-Raschid,  and  under  his  son,  Al 
Mamun,  it  became  the  great  seat  of  Arabic  learn¬ 
ing  and  literature.  A  hundred  years  later,  Bagdad 
was  ravaged  by  the  Turks,  and  it  has  repeatedly 
been  besieged  and  taken  by  Tartars  and  Turko¬ 
mans.  The  Province  of  Bagdad,  lying  between 
Arabia  and  Persia,  comprises  the  greater  portion 
of  the  Basin  of  the  Lower  Euphrates  and  Tigris, 
and  is  estimated  to  have  a  population  of  4,000,000. 
The  part  between  the  two  rivers,  including 
ancient  Mesopotamia  and  Babylonia,  though  now 
mostly  a  barren  wilderness,  was  in  ancient  times 
luxuriantly  fertile,  the  scat  of  mighty  empires, 
and  inhabited  by  industrious  populations. 

Bagehot,  Walter,  English  economist  and 
journalist,  was  born  at  Langport  in  Somersetshire, 
England,  in  1826,  and  died  in  1877.  lie  edited  the 
Economist  newspaper,  and  wrote  extensively  on 
politics  and  economics.  His  English  Constitution 
is  a  well-known  text-book. 

Baggesen,  Jens,  a  well-known  Danish  poet, 
who  also  has  a  place  in  German  literature,  was 
born  at  Korsor,  in  the  Island  of  Zealand,  Feb.  15, 
1764,  and  died  Oct.  3,  1826. 

Baghal,  Bagul,  oi’Biiagul,  one  of  the  Pun¬ 
jab  hill  States  in  Northwest  India,  with  an  area  of 
124  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  20,633. 

Bnghelkliand,  the  name  of  five  native  States, 
under  the  political  superintendence  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernor-General’s  agent  for  Central  India,  lying  to 
the  south  of  the  districts  of  Mirzapur  and  Allaha¬ 
bad.  The  total  area  is  11,324  square  miles;  pop. 
(1881),  1,512,595. 

Bagheria,  or  Bag  aria,  a  town  of  Sicily.  Pop., 
12,650. 

Bagimont’s  Roll,  the  name  given  to  a  valua¬ 
tion  according  to  which  the  ecclesiastical  bene¬ 
fices  of  Scotland  were  taxed  from  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century  to  the  Reformation. 

Bagirmi,  or  Baghermi,  a  country  in  Central 
Africa,  bounded  on  the  west  by  Bornu  and  a  por¬ 
tion  of  Lake  Chad,  and  with  the  powerful  sultanate 
of  Wadai  to  the  northeast.  Its  area  is  estimated 
at  nearly  71,000  square  miles.  The  total  pop.  is 
about  1,500,000.  Dr.  Nacliligal  describes  the 
natives  as  of  the  Sonrhai  type,  of  low  stature, 
and  not  of  pleasant  features.  The  country  was 
first  visited  by  Dr.  Barth  in  1852,  afterward  by 
Dr.  Naclitigal  in  1872. 

Bagli'vi,  Giorgio,  an  illustrious  Italian  physi¬ 
cian,  born  at  Ragusa,  Sep'.,  1669,  and  died  in 
1707. 

Bagnacavallo,  an  old  town  of  Italy  eleven 
miles  west  of  Ravenna.  It  contains  a  beautiful 
cathedral.  Pop.,  2,843. 

Bagna'ra,  an  Italian  town,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Gioja,  sixteen  miles  northeast  of  Reggio.  Pop., 
6,749. 

Ba_>  neres,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  the  Pyr¬ 
enees,  France,  both  well  known  as  watering- 
places. 

Bagnes,  the  convict  prisions  of  France.  The 
name  is  from  the  Italian  bagno,  used  originally  of 
a  bath  in  the  Seraglio  at  Constantinople,  and  then 
apparently  of  a  prison  for  slaves  in  it  or  adjoin¬ 
ing  it.  The  bagnes  superseded  in  1748  the  old 
punishment  of  the  galleys;  but  in  1852  they  were 
themselves  abolished,  the  Imperial  Government 
substituting  for  them  deportation  to  Guiana. 
The  latest  existing  bagnes  were  those  at  Toulon, 
Brest,  and  Rochefort. 

Ragni  <li  Lucca,  a  bathing-place  of  Italy, 
seventeen  miles  north  of  Lucca.  Pop.,  900. 

Bagno  a  Ripoli,  an  Italian  village,  live  miles 
distant  from  Florence,  containing  baths,  around 
which  wealthy  Florentines  have  built  palaces  and 
villas. 

Bagno  in  Romagno,  an  Italian  batliing-place, 
thirty-five  miles  east-by-north  of  Florence.  Pop. 
(1881),  1,875. 


Bagpipe,  a  wind-instrument,  whose  fixed  char¬ 
acteristic  has  always  been  two  or  more  reed-pipes 
attached  to  and 
sounded  by  a 
wind-  chest  or 
bag;  which  bag 
has  in  turn  been 
supplied  either 
by  the  lungs  of 
the  performer  or 
a  bellows.  Some 
such  instrument 
seems  to  have 
been  generally 
known,  at  least 
throughout  Eu¬ 
rope  and  Asia, 
from  a  very  early 
period.  At  what 
time  it  was  in¬ 
troduced  to  Scot¬ 
land  is  uncer- 
t  dn.  The  earli¬ 
est  extant  speci¬ 
men  is  probably 
an  instrument 
bearing  the  date 
1409.  Except 
that  it  wants  the  TT.  , , 

large  drone,  Highland Bagp.pe. 

which  was  introduced  only  at  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  it  is  in  all  respects  simi 
lar  to  the  Highland  bagpipe  of  the  present  day. 
The  Scotch  Highland  bagpipe  is  the  only  form  of 
the  instrument  which  is  keeping  its  ground  in 
Britain,  and  is  still  used  by  the  Highland  regi¬ 
ments.  Its  so-called  music  is  harsh  and  shrill, 
but  forms  an  exciting  stimulus  on  the  battle  field, 
and  it  also  lends  itself  well  to  the  interpretation  of 
dirges  for  the  dead.  The  Irish  bagpipe  isa  superior 
instrument  but  is  now  little  used. 

Bagrat' i (las,  an  Armenian  royal  dynasty,  rul¬ 
ing  from  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  century. 

Bagration,  Peter  Ivanovich,  Piiixce,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  Russian  general,  was  born  in  1765. 
He  entered  the  Russian  service  in  1783,  and  was 
trained  under  Suvorof.  In  1788  he  was  engaged 
at  the  storming  of  Okzakof;  fought  in  1792  and 
1794  against  the  Poles;  in  1799,  in  Italy  and  Swit¬ 
zerland,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  Austro- 
Russian  war  of  1805  against  the  French.  Subse¬ 
quently,  he  was  engaged  in  the  battles  of  Aus- 
terlitz,  Eylau,  and  Friedland,  and  took  a  part  in 
the  Russian  campaign  against  the  Turks,  espe¬ 
cially  in  the  siege  of  Silistria,  1*09.  He  was  mor¬ 
tally  wounded  in  the  battle  of  Borodino,  and  died 
Oct.  7,  1812. 


Bagshot  Sands,  a  series  of  strata  overlying 
the  London  clay;  the  name  being  derived  from 
Bagshot  Heath,  near  Windlesliam,  Surrey,  Eng¬ 
land,  where  they  were  first  examined. 

Baha'inas,  or  Lucayos  (Span.  Los  Cayo*),  a 
chain  of  British  West  Indian  Islands,  stretching 
nearly  600  miles  in  a  northwesterly  direction  from 
the  neighborhood  of  the  north  coast  of  Hayti,  to 
that  of  the  cast  coast  of  Florida.  From  Florida 
they  are  separated  by  the  channel  through  which 
flows  the  Gulf  Stream;  and  from  Cuba,  by  the 
Old  Bahama  Channel.  These  are  the  principal 
passages  between  the  open  ocean  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  chain  extends  in  N.  latitude  from 
21p  42'  to  17°  34',  and  in  W.  longitude  from  72° 
40',  to  79°  5';  and  it  rests  mainly  on  two  shoals — 
the  Great  Bank  to  the  south,  and  the  Little  Bank 
to  the  north.  There  are  20  larger  islands,  653 
islets  or  cays,  and  2,387  reefs. 

The  area  is  5,390  square  miles;  and  in  1881  the 
pop.  was  43,521,  of  whom  about  6,500  are  Euro¬ 
peans. 

The  Bahamas  were  Columbus’  earliest  discovery 
(1492),  but  the  precise  spot  of  his  first  landing 
is  still  debated.  Cat  Island  was  generally  believed 
to  be  the  Guanaliari  or  San  Salvador  of  Colum¬ 
bus;  but  recent  investigators  transfer  the  honor 
toWatling’s  Island,  situated  a  little  farther  to  the 
east.  Nassau,  in  New  Providence,  is  the  seat  of 
government,  and  has  recently  been  greatly  im¬ 
proved  both  as  town  and  port.  During  the 
American  civil  war,  Nassau  became  the  station 
for  blockade-runuers. 

Bahawalpur,  capital  of  an  Indian  native  State 
in  political  connection  with  the  Punjab,  lies  near 


the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej.  Pop.  (1881),  13,635. 
The  great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  are  Moham¬ 
medans.  Area,  15,000  square  miles;  pop.  (1881) 
573,494. 

Bahi  a,  capital  of  the  Brazilian  province  of  the 
same  name,  next  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  the  largest 
city  of  the  fempire,  on  a  range  of  hills  stretching 
along  the  seashore.  It  is  otherwise  called  Sao 
Salvador.  The  bay,  which  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
America,  is  defended  by  forts,  with  the  Island  of 
Itaparica  (pop.,  16,000)  sheltering  the  entrance. 
Bahia  has  a  university,  an  exchange,  arsenal,  and 
imperial  dockyard,  over  sixty  churches,  and 
many  public  institutions;  is  the  seat  of  an  arch¬ 
bishop,  who  is  Primate  of  Brazil;  and  is  the  point 
of  departure  for  a  railway  line  to  tin;  interior.  It 
is  connected  by  submarine  telegraph  with  Per¬ 
nambuco,  Para,  and  Rio.  The  value  of  imports 
and  exports  each  exceeds  $5,000,000  annually. 
Behia  is  the  oldest  city  in  Brazil,  and  till  1763  was 
the  capital  of  the  colony.  The  bay  was  discovered 
by  Amerigo  Vespucci  in  1503,  and  the  city  was 
founded  by  a  Portuguese  navigator  named  Correa 
in  1510.  It  contained,  in  1883,  140,000  inhabi¬ 
tants,  pretty  equally  divided  between  whites, 
blacks,  and  mulattoes.  Bahia,  a  province  of 
Brazil,  about  the  middle  of  the  coast,  taking  its 
name  from  its  chief  city.  It  extends  in  S.  lati¬ 
tude  from  10°  to  16°,  and  in  W.  longitude  from 
37°  to  44°.  Area,  164,502  square  miles;  pop. 
(1883),  1,655,403. 

Baliia  Honda,  a  harbor  on  the  north  coast  of 
Cuba.  Pop.,  about  1,500. 

Balir,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  a  large  body 
of  water,  is  applied  both  to  lakes  and  rivers. — 
Bahr-el-Abiad  (the  White  river),  and  Balir-el- 
Azrak  (the  Blue  river),  are  the  chief  branches  of 
the  Nile. — Bahr-el-Ghazal  is  the*  name  of  the 
upper  branch  of  the  Nile,  constituted  bytheBahr- 
el-Arab  and  many  other  tributaries,  which  flows 
sluggishly  eastward  to  joip  the  Bahr-el-Jebel  and 
so  form  the  Bahr-el-Abiad.  The  Bahr-el-Ghazal 
gives  name  to  a  province  of  what  was  the  Egyp¬ 
tian  Sudan.  Bahr-el- Yemen  is  the  Red  Sea,  and 
Bahr-Lut  (Sea  of  Lot)  the  Dead  Sea. 

Balir,  Johann  Christian  Felix,  class’cal 
scholar,  was  born  at  Darmstadt  in  1798.  His  chief 
work  is  his  Geshichte  der  romischen  Litteratur 
(1828,  4th  ed.  1868-70).  His  edition  of  Herodotus 
(2d  ed.  1855-61)  is  also  noteworthy.  He  died  Nov. 
27,  1872. 

Bahraicli,  a  town  of  Oudh,  India.  Pop.  (1881), 
20,000.  The  area  of  the  district  of  Baliraich  is 
2,741  square  miles,  and  the  pop.  878,048. 

Bahrdt,  Karl  Friedrich,  a  German  theo¬ 
logian  and  freethinker,  was  born  in  1741,  and 
studied  at  Leipzig,  where  he  became  Professor  of 
Biblical  Philology  in  1766.  Two  years  later  he 
had  to  leave  Leipzig  for  his  immoral  conduct. 
At  Erfurt  he  was  placed  in  the  chair  of  Biblical 
Antiquities.  Here  lie  wrote  two  works  whose 
heterodoxy  involved  him  in  controversies.  Being 
inhibited  from  teaching,  he  betook  himself  to 
Halle  in  1779,  and  here  he  subsisted  for  ten  years 
by  keeping  a  public  house.  Two  political 
pamphlets  brought  him  a  year’s  imprisonment  at 
Magdeburgh,  He  died  at  Halle,  April  23,  1792. 
His  numerous  theological  writings  are  not  of  any 
value. 

Bahrein  Islands,  or  Aval  Islands,  a  group 
of  islands  lying  in  the  Pi  rsian  Gulf,  The  most 
important  of  these  is  Bahrein  (pop.,  40,000),  about 
33  miles  long  and  10  broad.  The  Bahrein  Islands 
are  chiefly  remarkable  for  their  pearl-fisheries, 
which  were  known  in  ancient  times,  and  which 
employ,  during  the  season,  from  1,000  to  2,000 
boats,  each  manned  with  from  eight  to  twenty 
men.  The  annual  value  of  the  pearls  is  estimated 
at  upward  of  $1,500,000.  Pop.,  about  70,000. 

Raise,  a  small  town  of  antiquity,  on  the  coast 
of  Campania,  ten  miles  west  of  Naples  and  oppo¬ 
site  Puteoli.  Julius  Caesar,  Piso,  Pompey,  Marius, 
Julia  Mammae  a,  and  others  had  country-houses  at 
Baiae.  Horace  preferred  Bake  to  all  other  places 
in  the  world.  The  ruins  of  three  supposed 
temples,  as  well  as  the  remains  of  a  few  thermal, 
or  warm  baths,  still  attract  the  attention  of  archae¬ 
ologists.  .  ,  ,  .  . 

Bai  kal  (in  Turkish,  Bei-kvl—i.  e.,  rich  lake) 
is,  after  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Aral,  the 
largest  lake  of  Asia,  with  an  area  of  some  13,500 
square  miles.  It  is  a  fresh-water  lake,  and  is 


BAIKIE. 


113 


BAIRAKTAR. 


situated  in  the  south  of  Siberia.  Its  length  is  330 
miles,  and  its  breadth  91  to  40  miles,  height 
above  the  sea,  1,360  feet;  mean  depth,  850  feet, 
but  in  some  places  as  much  as  4,500  feet,  more 
than  3,000  feet  below  sea-level.  The  volume  of 
water  is  calculated  accordingly  to  be  more  than 
double  that  of  Lake  Michigan,  which  has  a  very 
much  larger  area.  The  Baikal  Mountains,  a  spur 
of  the  Altai,  inclose  the  lake,  which  is  fed  by 
numerous  streams,  the  chief  of  which  are  the 
Selenga  and  Bargusin.  The  annual  value  of  its 
fisheries  is  estimated  at  200,000  roubles.  Salmon 
and  sturgeon  are  abundant,  the  former  coming 
up  the  Yenisei  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  large 
quantities  of  a  fish  resembling  herring  are  also 
caught  in  it.  It  is  one  of  the  few  lakes  contain 
ing  fresh-water  seals,  the  capture  of  which  em¬ 
ploys  most  of  the  Russian  settlers  throughout  the 
summer. 

Baikie,  William  Balfour,  traveler,  natural¬ 
ist,  and  philologist,  was  born  Aug.  27,  1825,  and 
entered  the  British  navy  as  assistant  surgeon  in 
1848.  He  was  appointed  surgeon  and  naturalist 
to  the  Niger  expedition  of  1854,  and  succeeding 
through  the  captain’s  death  to  the  command  of 
the  Pleiad,  in  his  first  voyage  he  penetrated  250 
miles  higher  than  any  previous  traveler;  but  in 
his  second  expedition  of  1857  the  Pleiad  was 
wrecked,  and  he  was  left  by  his  fellow-explorers 
to  continue  his  work  alone,  lie  died  while  at 
Sierra  Leone,  Dec.  12,  1861. 

Bail,  as  generally  understood,  means  the 
security  given  that  a  person  charged  with  a 
crime  or  offence  shall  appear  for  trial,  he  obtain 
ing  liberation  from  prison  in  tlie  meantime.  In 
the  United  States  bail  is  admitted  upon  all  arrests 
in  criminal  cases  when  the  offense  is  not  punish¬ 
able  with  death;  in  cases  of  treason  against  the 
government  it  may  be  admitted  in  the  discretion 
of  the  court.  When  the  punishment  is  death, 
bail  can  be  taken  only  by  the  supreme  or  circuit 
court,  or  by  a  judge  of  the  district  court  of  the 
United  States.  Tlie  bail  on  commercial  contracts 
is  not  discharged  by  death;  bail  for  appearance 
in  court  is  discharged  in  that  event.  The  en¬ 
forcement  of  recognizance  is  generally  similar  to 
that  under  the  common  law. 

Bailen',  or  BAylen,  a  town  of  Andalusia, 
Spain.  Pop,,  10,000  Here  the  Spaniards  won 
their  only  victory  over  the  French,  July  19,  1808, 
when  about  18,000  French  soldiers  laid  down 
their  arms. 

Bailey,  Nathan  or  Nathaniel,  an  early 
English  lexicographer,  whose  work  appeared  in 
172 1  under  the  title,  An  Universal  Etymological 
English  Dictionary,  to  which  a  supplementary 
volume  was  added  in  1727.  In  1802  it  hail 
reached  its  thirtieth  edition. 

Bailey,  Philip  James,  poet,  was  born  at  Bas- 
ford,  England,  April  22, 1816.  Festus,  the  poem 
by  which  he  is  best  known,  was  published  in 
1839,  and  reached  an  eleventh  edition  in  1887. 

Bailey,  Samuel,  an  industrious  writer  on 
political  and  mental  philosophy,  was  born  in  1791 
in  Sheffield,  England,  where  afterward  he  became 
a  banker.  He  twice  contested  his  native  city  as 
a  “philosophical  radical”  without  success,  and 
died  there  Jan.  18,  1870,  leaving  $400,000  as  a 
bequest  to  the  town. 

Bailey  (probably"  derived  from  the  middle  Lat. 
baUium,  frequently  confused  with  haillie;  the 
jurisdiction  of  a  bailie  or  bailiff),  the  whole  space 
enclosed  within  the  external  walls  of  a  castle,  with 
the  exception  of  that  covered  by  the  keep.  The 
word  has  survived  in  some  proper  names,  as  the 
OH  Bailey,  the  seat  of  the  Central  Criminal 
Court  in  London,  so  called  from  the  ancient 
bailey  or  ballium  of  I  he  city  wall  between  Lud- 
gate  and  Newgate,  within  which  it  was  situated. 

Bailie,  a  Scottish  term,  with  several  legal 
applications,  but  originally  a  mere  doublet  of 
bailiff.  It  popularly  signifies  a  superior  officer  or 
magistrate  of  a  municipal  corporation  in  Scot¬ 
land,  with  judicial  and  administrative  authority 
within  the  city  or  burgh.  See  Scott’s  clever 
picture  of  Bailie  Nicol  Jarvie  in  Bob  Hoy. 

BaililF  (Scotch  bailie,  Fr.  bnilli,  I  till,  balio; 
all  from  late  Lat.  bajulivvs,  an  adj.  from  bajulus, 
a  carrier,  then  a  manager),  an  officer  with  public 
authority  in  a  certain  district. 

In  the  United  States,  the  term  bailiff  is  seldom 
used  except  sometimes  to  designate  a  sheriff’s 


deputy  or  constable,  or  a  party  liable  to  account 
to  another  for  the  rents  and  profits  of  real  estate, 
as  in  some  cases  a  tenant  in  common  who  receives 
more  than  his  share.  The  duties  of  a  bailiff  are 
performed  by  a  deputy-sheriff,  constable  or  tip- 
staff,  who  are  officers  acting  under  the  orders  of 
the  sheriff  or  magistrate,  or  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  the  court. 

Bailiwick  legally  means  the  county  or  dis¬ 
trict  within  which  the  sheriff,  as  bailiif  of  the 
king,  may  exercise  jurisdiction.  It  is  often  ap¬ 
plied  by  English  writers  to  foreign  towns  or  dis¬ 
tricts  under  a  vogt  or  bnilli. 

Bailleul,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
the  Nord.  Pop.,  8,180. 

Bail  lie,  Lady  Ghizel,  born  in  1665,  was  the 
daughter  of  the  Scottish  patriot,  Sir  Patrick 
Hume,  afterward  first  Earl  of  Marchmont,  and  in 
1684  supplied  him  with  food  during  his  conceal¬ 
ment  in  the  vault  beneath  Polwarth  church. 
She  died  on  Dec.  6,  1746.  She  is  remembered  by 
her  songs,  the  best  of  which  is:  “And  werena 
my  heart  licht  I  wad  dee.” 

Baillie,  Joanna,  poetess,  was  born  in  Botli- 
well  manse,  in  Lancashire,  England,  Sept.  11, 1762. 
Her  father,  a  Presbyterian  minister,  in  1776  became 
Professor  of  Divinity  in  Glasgow;  her  mother  was 
the  sister  of  William  and  John  Hunter.  She 
received  a  superior  education,  and  soon  began  to 
manifest  those  talents  which  subsequently  excited 
the  admiration  of  the  public.  In  1806  she  and 
her  sister  took  a  house  for  themselves  at  Hamp¬ 
stead,  and  here  she  remained  till  her  death,  which 
occurred  Feb.  23,  1851,  when  she  had  attained 
the  venerable  age  of  88.  Agnes,  her  sister,  sur¬ 
vived  till  1861 ,  being  then  a  hundred  yd&rs  old.  No 
authoress  ever  enjoyed  a  larger  share  than  Joanna 
Baillie  of  the  esteem  and  affection  of  her  literary 
contemporaries.  The  most  popular  as  well  as 
the  most  powerful  of  her  works  is  the  tragedy  of 
De  Monfort.  It  was  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane 
in  1800,  Kemble  and  Mrs.  Siddons  taking  the 
leading  parts.  See  Miss  Thackeray’s  Book  of 
Sibyls  (1883). 

Baillie,  M  ATTHEW,  anatomist,  brother  of  the 
above,  was  born  in  1761.  His  mother  was  a  sister 
of  the  two  celebrated  anatomists,  William  and 
John  Hunter;  and  Matthew,  after  seven  years  at 
Glasgow  and  Oxford  (1773-80),  studied  anatomy 
under  his  uncle  William,  with  such  success,  that 
in  1783  he  was  found  qualified  to  succeed  to  his 
practice  and  lectureship.  He  died  in  1823. 

Baillie,  Robert,  Presbyterian  divine,  was 
born  at  Glasgow  in  1599.  In  1622  he  received 
Episcopal  ordination,  and  was  shortly  after 
presented  to  the  parish  church  of  Kilwin¬ 
ning.  In  1637  he  refused  to  preach  in  favor  of 
Laud’s  Service-Book;  and  in  1638  he  sat  in  that 
famous  General  Assembly  which  met  in  Glasgow 
to  protest  against  the  thrusting  of  Episcopacy  on 
an  unwilling  people.  He  soon  threw  himself 
eagerly  into  the  national  cause,  and  served  as  a 
chaplain  in  the  Covenanting  army  at  Duns  Law 
(1639).  In  1640  he  was  selected  by  the  Scottish 
leaders  to  go  to  London,  with  other  commission¬ 
ers,  and  draw  up  charges  against  Archbishop 
Laud.  In  1649  he  was  chosen  by  the  church  to 
proceed  to  Holland,  and  to  invite  Charles  II.  to 
accept  the  Covenant  and  crown  of  Scotland.  He 
performed  his  mission  skillfully;  and,  after  tlie 
Restoration,  through  Lauderdale’s  influence, 
he  was  made  principal  of  Glasgow  University. 
He  died  July,  1662. 

Baillie,  Robert,  of  Jerviswood,  the  “Scottish 
Sidney,”  was  a  native  of  Lanarkshire.  In  1683 
he  took  a  prominent  part  in  a  scheme  of  emigra¬ 
tion  to  South  Carolina,  as  he  saw  no  other  refuge 
from  the  degrading  tyranny  of  the  Government. 
About  the  same  time,  however,  he  entered  into 
correspondence  with  the  heads  of  Monmouth’s 
supporters  in  London,  Russell  and  Sidney,  and 
subsequently  repaired  there  to  concert  measures 
for  securing  adequate  reforms.  He  was  executed 
for  hicrli  treason  in  1684. 

BaiLly,  Jean  Sylvain,  a  famous  French 
astronomer,  President  of  the  National  Assembly 
of  1789,  and  Mayor  of  Paris,  was  bom  in  that 
city,  Sept.  15,  1736.  From  art  he  turned  to  litera¬ 
ture,  but  was  fortunately  induced  by  Lacaille  to 
study  astronomy,  which  proved  to  be  the  true 
sphere  of  his  genius.  He  was  early  admitted  to 
the  Academic  des  Sciences,  and  justified  his  I 


honors  by  a  succession  of  learned  and  elegantly 
written  treatises  on  astronomical  subjects,  which 
culminated  with  his  great  Ilistoirc  de  l'  Astronomie 
(5  vols.  1775-87).  Elected  to  the  Acad Gnie  Fran- 
9ai.se,  and  next  year  to  the  AcadGnie  des  Inscrip¬ 
tions,  he  was  thus  a  member  of  the  three  acade¬ 
mics  at  once,  an  honor  that  had  fallen  to  no  one 
before  him  save  Fontenelle.  The  revolution  inter¬ 
rupted  his  peaceful  studies.  Elected  President 
of  the  National  Assembly,  June  17,  1789,  and 
Mayor  of  Paris  on  July  15,  he  conducted  himself 
in  these  capacities  with  great  integrity  and  purily 
of  purpose,  but  lost  his  popularity  by  allowing 
the  National  Guard  to  fire  on  the  masses  who 
were  assembled  in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  July  17, 
1791,  to  demand  the  dethronement  of  the  king. 
He  was  accused  of  being  a  royalist  conspirator, 
condemed  and  executed  with  the  usual  Jacobin 
preliminary  of  savage  insult,  Nov.  11,  1793 

Bailment,  in  law,  means  the  delivery  of  goods 
in  trust  for  some  special  purpose,  on  a  contract, 
express  or  implied,  to  conform  to  the  purpose  of 
the  trust.  Deposits,  pledges,  or  pawns,  contracts 
for  hiring  goods,  and  gratuitous  loans,  are  all 
varieties  of  bailment.  Practically,  bailments  are 
of  three  kinds;  (1)  for  the  benefit  of  the  bailor  or 
his  representative;  (2)  for  the  benefit  of  the  bailee 
or  his  representative;  (3)  for  the  benefit  of  both 
parties.  In  the  first  case,  as  when  a  person  re¬ 
ceives  the  goodsof  another  to  keep  without  recom¬ 
pense, lie  is  responsible  only  for  gross  neglect ;  in  the 
second,  he  is  responsible  for  the  slightest  neglect; 
in  the  third  case,  the  bailee  is  bound  only  to 
ordinary  care  and  diligence.  Bailees,  such  as 
warehousemen,  innkeepers,  and  common  car¬ 
riers,  have  a  lien  on  the  property  bailed  for  their 
charges. 

Baily,  E  dward  Hodges,  sculptor,  was  born 
at  Bristol,  England,  March  10,  1788,  and  died  May 
22,  1867. 

Baily,  Francis,  astronomer,  was  born  at  New¬ 
bury,  England,  April  28,  1774.  He  published  a 
series  of  books  on  questions  involved  in  banking 
and  assurance.  At  51  he  retired  from  business  to 
devote  himself  entirely  to  astronomy.  Scientific 
honors  were  showered  upon  him  both  at  home 
and  abroad.  Among  the  chief  of  the  services 
rendered  to  his  chosen  subject  through  his  un¬ 
wearying  industry,  were  his  share  in  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  Astronomical  Society,  and  in  the  im¬ 
provement  of  the  Nautical  Almanac ,  his  laborious 
repetition  of  Cavendish's  experiment  to  measure 
the  density  of  the  earth  and  the  production  of  the 
Astronomical  Society’s  Star  Catalogue.  He  died 
in  London  Aug.  30,  1844. 

Baily’s  Beads,  the  name  given  to  a  phenome¬ 
non  in  connection  with  eclipses  of  the  sun,  first 
fully  described  by  Francis  Baily.  Just  before 
the  beginning  and  after  the  end  of  the  obscura¬ 
tion  by  the  moon  of  the  sun’s  disc,  the  thin,  cres¬ 
cent-shaped  unobscured  portion  of  the  sun  seems 
usually  to  become  suddenly  discontinuous,  and 
looks  like  a  belt  of  bright  points,  varying  in  size 
and  separated  by  dark  spaces.  The  resulting 
appearance  has  been  compared  to  a  string  of 
beads.  The  phenomenon  is  an  effect  of  irradia¬ 
tion  and  the  inequalities  of  the  moon's  edge.  To 
irradiation  it  is  also  due  that,  by  defect  of  the 
retina  of  the  eye,  bright  objects  seen  on  a  dark 
ground  seem  larger  than  they  really  are. 

Bain,  A  lexander,  writer  on  mental  philoso¬ 
phy,  was  born  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  in  1818. 
Educated  at  the  university  of  his  native  city,  he 
lectured  there  as  deputy-professor  for  a  few  years, 
afterward  taught  Natural  Philosophy  at  the 
Andersonian  University,  Glasgow,  and  was  ap¬ 
pointed,  in  1860,  to  the  Chair  of  Logic  in  Aber¬ 
deen.  He  resigned  in  1881,  and  the  same  year 
was  elected  Rector  of  his  university.  In  1859  he 
was  made  LL.D.  by  the  Edinburgh  University. 
Bain’s  chief  works  are  The  Senses  and  the 
Intellect  (1855),  anil  The  Emotions  and  the  Will 
(1859). 

Baini,  Giuseppe,  musician,  was  born  at  Rome 
in  1775,  and  was  director  of  the  Pope’s  choir  from 
1814  till  his  death,  in  1844. 

Bairaktar  (more  correctly  Bairak-dar),  signi¬ 
fying  “  standard-bearer,”  is  the  title  of  the  ener 
getic  Grand  Vizier  Mustapha.  Born  in  1755,  of 
poor  parents,  he  entered  the  military  service  at 
an  early  age,  and  soon  distinguished  himself  by 
his  valor.  When  he  was  Pasha  of  Rustchuk  in 


8 


BAINBRIDGE. 


114 


BAKU, 


1806,  lie  fought  with  some  success  against  the 
Russians.  He  killed  himself  in  1808. 

Bainbridge,  William,  Commodore,  was  born 
at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  May  7,  1774,  and  after  some 
years  spent  in  the  merchant  service,  received  a 
commission  in  the  United  States  Navy.  During 
the  war  with  Tripoli  (1803)  he  captured  a  Moor¬ 
ish  frigate,  but  afterward  lost  his  own  ship  by 
grounding  and  became  a  prisoner  of  war.  In 
Sept.,  1812,  he  was  made  Commodore  and  given 
command  of  a  small  squadron.  Three  months 
later  his  ship,  the  Constitution,  forty-four  guns, 
captured  the  British  frigate  Jana,  forty-nine  guns. 
The  Java  lost  her  captain  and  174  men;  the 
Constitution  thirty-three  men.  Bainbridge  was 
thanked  by  Congress  for  this  service,  and  after 
heading  an  expedition  to  Algiers,  and  command¬ 
ing  in  the  Mediterranean,  he  served  as  President 
of  the  Board  of  Navy  Commissioners,  and  died 
in  1833. 

Bair  am,  the  Persian  and  Turkish  name  for  a 
Mohammedan  festival  somewhat  analogous  to 
Easter.  It  commences  immediately  after  the  fast 
of  Ramadan,  or  Ramazan,  which  corresponds  in 
its  abstinence  to  Lent. 

Baird,  Sir  David,  Bart.,  British  general,  was 
born  Dec.  6,  17.17.  He  entered  the  service  in 
1772,  and  in  1779  sailed  to  India  as  captain  in  a 
Highland  regiment.  In  July,  1780.  Hyder  Ali 
burst  into  the  Carnatic  at  the  head  of  100,000 
men,  disciplined  and  commanded  by  French 
officers.  A  portion  of  the  English  army  fell  into 
an  ambuscade  and  was  cut  to  pieces.  Among  the 
few  who  remained  alive  to  be  taken  prisoners 
was  Baird,  lie  was  thrown  into  a  dungeon  at 
Seringapatam,  where  he  endured  a  captivity  of 
nearly  four  years.  In  March,  1784,  he  was  re¬ 
leased,  and  after  a  two  years’  visit  to  England 
(1789-91),  he  took  part  in  several  important 
sieges,  attacks,  and  skirmishes;  till  in  1799,  now 
a  major-general,  he  memorably  signalized  him¬ 
self  at  tiie  victorious  assault  of  Seringapatam. 
Pie  led  the  storm ing-party,  Colonel  Wellesley 
(afterward  Duke  of  Wellington)  commanding  the 
reserve.  In  1807  he  commanded  a  division  at  the 
siege  of  Copenhagen;  and  in  1808  was  sent  to 
Spain  with  an  army  of  10,000  men,  to  assist  Sir 
John  .Moore.  He  distinguished  himself  at  the 
battle  of  Corunna,  Jan.  16,  1809,  when  his  left 
arm  wTas  shattered  by  grape-shot,  and  had  to  be 
amputated.  On  the  death  of  Moore,  he  succeeded 
to  the  command.  He  retired  from  active  service 
in  1810,  and  in  1820  was  made  commander  of  the 
forces  in  Ireland.  He  died  Aug.  18,  1829.  See 
his  life  by  Theodore  Hook  (2  vols.,  1832). 

Baird,  James,  ironmaster,  was  born  at  Kirk¬ 
wood,  Lanarkshire,  Dec.  5,  1802.  Between  1842 
and  1864  his  blast  furnaces  at  Gartsherrie,  Eglin- 
ton,  Muirkirk,  and  elsewhere  increased  from  six¬ 
teen  to  between  forty  and  fifty,  capable  of  turn¬ 
ing  out  300,000  tons  of  iron  annually,  and  em¬ 
ploying  10,000  men  and  boys.  He  left  a  fortune 
of  $15,000,000  at  his  death,  in  1876. 

Baird,  Spencer  Fullerton,  LL.D.,  an 
American  naturalist,  was  born  at  Reading,  Pa., 
Feb.  23,  1823.  In  1850  he  was  elected  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institutional  Wash¬ 
ington,  and  in  1878  Secretary.  Dr.  Baird  pub¬ 
lished  numerous  paper  on  mammals,  birds,  rep 
tiles,  and  fishes.  In  1871  he  wras  appointed  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Fish  and  Fisheries.  His 
especial  work,  while  Assistant  Secretary  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  was  the  development  of 
the  National  Museum,  which  made  its  beginning 
under  his  direction  in  1850.  He  died  Aug.  19, 
1887. 

Baireuth,  or  Bayreuth,  capital  of  the  Bava¬ 
rian  Province  of  Upper  Franconia,  forty-three 
miles  north-northeast  of  Nuremberg.  Wagner’s 
chief  works  were  first  presented  in  the  theatre  at 
Bayreuth,  built  for  that  purpose,  and  the  great 
master  is  buried  here.  Jean  Paul  Richter  died 
here  in  1825,  and  a  monument  has  been  erected 
to  his  memory.  Pop.  (1885),  23,531;  of  whom 
only  15  per  cent,  are  Catholics. — The  wfitty  and 
accomplished  Wilhelmina,  Margravine  of  Bai¬ 
reuth  (1709-58),  was  the  favorite  sister  of  Fred¬ 
erick  the  Great,  and  in  1731  was  married  to  Fred¬ 
erick,  Margrave  of  Baireuth. 

Baitul',  or  Betul,  a  town  of  British  India,  in 
the  Central  Province,  fifty  miles  northeast  of 
Ellichpur.  Pop,  over  4,700.  Baitul  district  is  a 


highland  region,  rich  in  coal.  Area,  3,904  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  304,905. 

Baize  (old  Fr.  baies),  a  coarse,  woolen  cloth 
with  a  long  nap,  used  mainly  for  coverings,  cur¬ 
tains,  linings,  but  in  some  countries  for  clothing. 

Baja,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
Danube.  Pop.  (1880),  19,241. 

Bajazet  I.,  or  Bajazid,  Sultan  of  the  Turks, 
was  born  in  1347,  and  in  1389  succeeded  his 
father,  Murad  I.,  who  was  slain  on  the  battlefield 
of  Kosova.  He  inaugurated  his  rule  by  strangling 
his  younger  brother  Yakub,  lest  heshould  dispute 
the  succession.  In  three  years  he  conquered 
Bulgaria,  with  parts  of  Servia,  Macedonia,  and 
Thessaly;  he  also  subdued  the  greater  part  of 
Asia  Minor.  Bajazet  would  have  entirely  de¬ 
stroyed  the  Greek  Empire  if  he  had  not  been 
prevented  by  Timur,  who  attacked  his  pos¬ 
sessions  in  Asia  Minor,  and  completely  defeated 
him  (1402)  near  Angora.  Bajazet  himself  fell 
into  the  handsof  the  conqueror,  who  treated  him 
with  great  generosity.  Bajazet  died  in  1403,  in 
the  camp  of  Timur.  He  was  succeeded  in  the 
government  by  his  son  Soliman  I. 

Bajazet  II.,  son  of  the  Sultan  Mohammed  II., 
the  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  was  born  in 
1447,  and  ascended  the  Ottoman  throne  after  his 
father’s  death  in  1481.  His  reign,  which  lasted 
thirty-two  years,  was  a  succession  of  uninter¬ 
rupted  wars  against  Hungary,  Poland,  Venice, 
Egypt,  and  Persia.  Bajazet  abdicated  and  died 
in  exile  in  1512. 

Bajmok,  a  large  village  of  Hungary.  Pop. 
(1881),  6,661. 

Bajocco,  or  Baiocco  (pi.  Bajocciii),  was  a  cop¬ 
per  coin  in  the  Papal  States,  value  one  cent.  It 
was  1 -100th  of  the  scudo,  which  was  equal  to  a 
dollar. 

Bajus,  Michael  (properly  De  Bay),  a  great 
Catholic  theologian  in  the  sixteenth  century,  was 
born  in  1513  in  Hainault.  He  was  accused  of 
heresy,  and  maintained  a  long  controversy  with 
the  Jesuits.  He  died  Dec.  16,  1589.  He  may  be 
regarded  as  the  predecessor  of  the  Jansenists. 

Bajza,  Joseph,  a  Hungarian  poet  and  prose- 
writer,  was  born  Jan.  31,  1804,  and  died  at  Pestli, 
March  4,  1858. 

Bakacs,  Thomas,  Hungarian  statesman,  was 
the  son  of  a  peasant ,  born  about  the  middle  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  He  held  several  bishop 
rics  in  succession,  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Kingdom,  and  finally  Archbishop  and  Cardinal. 
He  died  in  1521. 

Bakalaliari,  the  name  of  a  Bechuana  tribe 
resident  in  the  Kalahari  desert,  between  the 
Orange  river  in  the  south  and  Lake  Ngami  in  the 
north,  in  Africa. 

Bakarganj,  a  British  district  in  the  Dacca 
division  of  India,  under  the  Lieutenant-Governor 
of  Bengal,  contains  3,649  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1881),  1,900,889. 

Bakau,  a  Roumanian  town,  on  the  Ri%-er  Bis- 
trisza,  187  miles  north  of  Bucharest.  Pop., 
13,000. 

Bakchiserai  (Turk.,  garden  palace),  a  town 
in  the  Russian  government  of  Taurida.  Pop. 
(1881),  13,377. 

Bake,  Jan,  a  distinguished  classical  scholar, 
was  born  at  Leyden  in  1787;  from  1817  to  1857 
was  Professor  of  Greek  and  Roman  Literature  in 
the  university  there,  and  died  March  26,  1864. 

Bakel,  a  town  with  a  strong  fort,  in  the  east  of 
the  French  Colony  of  Senegal.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Baker.  Mount,  an  active  volcano  in  the  north¬ 
west  of  Washington  Territory,  in  the  Cascade 
Range,  a  continuation  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  It 
is  in  eruption  from  time  to  time,  and  was  very 
active  in  1880.  Its  height  is  11,100  feet. 

Baker,  Henry,  naturalist,  born  in  London  in 
1698,  from  a  bookseller’s  apprentice  turned  a 
teacher  of  deaf  mutes,  and  in  1729,  married  De¬ 
foe’s  youngest  daughter.  In  1740  he  was  elected 
a  Fellow  both  of  the  Royal  Society  and  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries.  He  contributed  many 
papers  to  the  Transactions  of  the  former  society, 
received  its  Copley  gold  medal  (1744)  for  his 
microscopical  experiments,  and  published  a 
philosophical  poem  on  the  Universe.  He  was 
founder  of  the  Bakerian  lectureship,  and  died 
Nov.  25,  1774. 

Baker,  John  Gilbert,  botanist,  was  born  at 
Guisbrough,  Yorkshire,  Jan.  13,  1834.  He  was 


for  many  years  lecturer  on  botany  to  the  London 
hospital,  and  in  1882  he  received  a  like  appoint¬ 
ment  from  the  Apothecaries’  Company;  he  is 
also  a  member  of  the  Royal  and  Linmeau  So¬ 
cieties. 

Baker,  Sir  Richard,  author  of  the  Chronicle 
of  the  Kings  of  England,  a  work  without  which 
no  country  gentleman’s  library  was  complete,  and 
often  referred  to  by  “Sir  Roger  de  Coverley.” 
Notwithstanding  its  reputation,  however,  the 
book  had  no  lack  of  errors,  and  now  is  all  but 
forgotten.  Its  author  was  born  in  Kent  about 
the  year  1568,  and  died  in  1645. 

Baker,  Sir  Samuel  White,  an  African  trav¬ 
eler,  born  in  London,  June  8,  1821,  at  an  early 
age  went  to  Ceylon.  There,  along  with  his 
brother,  he  established  in  1847  an  agricultural 
settlement  and  sanitarium  at  Newera  Elba,  6,200 
feet  above  sea-level.  He  afterward  superin¬ 
tended  the  construction  of  the  railway  which 
connects  the  Danube  with  the  Black  Sea.  In 
1860  lie  married  a  young  Hungarian  lady  of  great 
talent  and  enterprise,  and  in  company  with  her 
he  undertook  a  journey  of  exploration  at  his  own 
cost  for  the  discovery  of  the  Nile  sources.  They 
set  out  from  Cairo  in  April,  1861,  reaching  Khar¬ 
toum  in  June,  1862,  and  arrived  on  March  14, 
1864,  on  the  top  of  lofty  cliffs,  from  which  they 
beheld  the  vast  inland  sea  to  which  Baker  gave 
the  name  of  the  Albert  Nyanza.  He  reached 
Gondokora  on  March  23,  1865.  In  1869-73  he 
commanded  an  expedition,  organized  by  the 
Pasha  of  Egypt,  for  the  suppression  of  slavery 
and  the  annexation  of  the  equatorial  regions  of 
the  Nile  Basin.  Baker  was  knighted  in  1866; 
on  his  return  from  the  Nile,  he  received  medals 
from  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  and  the 
French  Geographical  Society;  and  he  was  dec¬ 
orated  by  the  Khedive  of  Egypt.  He  is  a  Fel¬ 
low  of  the  Royal  Society  and  other  learned  so¬ 
cieties;  and  has  received  numerous  foreign 
distinctions. 

Baker,  Thomas,  antiquary,  was  born  1656, 
and  educated  at  St.  John’s  College,  Cambridge. 
As  a  non-juror,  he  lost,  in  1690,  t lie  rectory  of 
Long-Newton,  and  in  1717  his  fellowship,  but  he 
spent  the  last  fifty  years  of  his  life  at  his  old  col¬ 
lege,  dying  there  in  1740. 

Bakewell,  an  ancient  market-town  in  Derby¬ 
shire,  England.  Pop.  (1881),  2,502. 

Bakewell,  Robert,  grazier,  was  born  in  1725 
at  Dishley,  Leicestershire,  and  died  in  1795.  His 
fame  rests  on  his  successful  efforts  to  improve  the 
breed  of  domestic  animals. 

Bakhmut,  a  town  of  Southern  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Ekaterinoslav.  Pop.  (1881), 17, 674. 

Bakhtegan,  or  Niris,  a  salt  lake  in  the  Per¬ 
sian  Province  of  Farsistan,  forty-seven  miles 
east  of  Shiraz. 

Baking  is  the  mode  of  cooking  food  in  an  air¬ 
tight  chamber  or  oven.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  pottery,  etc.  The 
oven  that  forms  part  of  a  kitchen-range  is  simply 
an  iron  chamber,  with  flues  for  conveying  the 
heated  gases  of  the  fire  round  it.  In  baking,  strictly 
so  called,  the  oven  is  kept  close,  so  that  the  steam 
and  aroma  arising  from  the  inclosed  substances 
are  confined;  but  a  great  improvement  is  effected 
if  a  current  of  air  is  produced  by  ventilators. 

Baking  Powder  is  essentially  a  mixture  of 
tartaric  acid  and  bicarbonate  of  soda.  These  are 
carefully  dried  and  sifted  together,  some  flour 
being  usually  mixed  with  them  to  dilute  the 
strength.  When  added  to  flour  in  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  bread  or  biscuits,  carbonic  acid  gas  is  lib¬ 
erated  by  the  action  of  the  water  which  is  used, 
and  this  blows  or  puffs  up  the  doughy  mass,  giv¬ 
ing  it  the  requisite  lightness. 

Bakshish.  The  ordinary  meaning  of  this 
word,  in  Persian,  is  a  present;  but  in  the  East,  in 
modern  times,  it  has  acquired  the  special  signifi¬ 
cation  of  gratuity.  (Fr.  pourboire,  Ger.  Trinlc- 
geld,  Eng.  tip.) 

Baku,  an  important  seaport  of  Russian  Trans¬ 
caucasia,  on  the  Apsheron  Peninsula,  on  a  cres¬ 
cent-shaped  bay  in  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  whole 
soil  around  Baku  is  impregnated  with  petroleum, 
which,  monopolized  till  1872,  now  forms  the  staple 
branch  of  its  industry.  Some  of  the  fountains 
ignite  spontaneously,  and  this  natural  plienom- 
1  enon  has  caused  Baku  to  be  esteemed  as  a  holy 
.  city  by  the  Parsees  or  fire-worshipers.  There  is 


BAKUNIN. 


115 


BALANOGLOSSUS. 


evidence  that  petroleum  lias  been  flowing  from 
the  Apsheron  Peninsula  for  2,500  years.  Of  the 
500  petroleum  wells  at  Baku,  most  are  situated  on 
the  Balakhani  Peninsula,  eight  or  nine  miles  to 
the  north  of  the  town.  Lines  of  pipe  carry  the 
oil  into  the  “  black  town  ”  of  Baku,  which  is 
full  of  oil  refineries,  emitting  vast  volumes  of 
smoke,  black  and  greasy  buildings,  and  pools  of 
oil  refuse.  One  prolific  well,  tapped  in  Sept., 
1886,  began  to  spout  oil  with  extraordinary  force, 
deluging  the  whole  district.  Not  liing  could  be  done 
to  stop  the  outflow,  which  on  the  eighth  day,  had 
reached  a  daily  rate  of  1 1,000  tuns,  or  more  than  the 
entire  produce  of  the  world  at  the  time.  Another 
gigantic  naphtha  fountain  burst  out  in  March, 
1837,  rising  to  a  height  of  350  fret,  and  after 
forming  an  extensive  petroleum  lake,  forced  its 
way  into  the  sea.  The  production  of  crude  pe¬ 
troleum  in  1885  exceeded  420,000,000  gallons,  and 
]  20  firms  now  have  oil  refineries  there.  Pop.  about 
20,000.  Baku  is  capital  of  a  government  of 
Russian  Transcaucasia,  with  an  area  of  15,516 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1883),  of  569,992. 

Bakunin,  Michel,  a  leading  propagator  of 
Anarchism,  was  born  near  Moscow  in  1314  of  an 
aristocratic  family,  and  entered  the  Russian 
army,  but  during  service  in  Poland  conceived 
.such  a  hatred  of  despotism  that  he  resigned  his 
post.  After  1846  he  visited  Germany,  and  also 
Paris,  where  he  met  Proudhon  and  George  Sand, 
lie  took  part  in  the  German  revolutionary  move¬ 
ment  of  1848-49,  especially  at  Dresden,  and  was 
condemned  to  death.  He  wras,  however,  given  up 
to  Russia,  where  he  spent  several  years  in  prison, 
and  was  next  sent  to  Siberia  in  1855,  but  man¬ 
aged  to  escape  in  an  American  ship  to  Japan, 
leaving  behind  him  wife  and  child,  and  ar¬ 
rived  in  England  in  1861.  lie  was  the  founder 
of  the  Alliance  of  the  Social  Democracy, 
which  dissolved  in  order  to  enter  the  Interna¬ 
tional;  in  Sept.,  1870,  he  attempted  an  abortive 
rising  at  Lyons,  with  an  aim  somewhat  similar  to 
that  of  the  Paris  Commune  in  1871.  As  the  leader 
of  anarchism,  Bakunin  was,  in  the  International, 
the  opponent  of  Karl  Marx;  but  at  the  Hague 
Congress,  in  1872,  he  was  outvoted  and  expelled 
from  it.  He  died  at  Berne  in  1876.  Bakunin 
was  most  active  as  an  agitator.  In  connection 
with  his  propaganda,  he  wrote  several  works  in 
which  atheism,  materialism,  and  anarchism  are 
advocated. 

Ba'la,  a  town  of  Merionethshire,  North  Wales, 
near  the  foot  of  Bala  Lake,  twelve  miles  south¬ 
west  of  Corwen  by  rail.  Pop.,  1,653. — Bala 
Beds.  The  rocks  of  the  Bala  district,  North 
Wales,  contain  two  limestones,  separated  by  some 
1,400  feet  of  arenaceous  and  slaty  strata. 

Ba'laam,  the  name  of  a  prophet  not  of  Hebrew 
blood,  mentioned  in  Numbers,  xxii-xxiv.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  the  story,  Balak,  King  of  the  Moabites, 
alarmed  at  the  irruption  of  the  Hebrews  into  his 
territories,  formed  a  league  with  the  Midianites, 
and  sent  messengers  to  Balaam  with  the  rewards 
of  divination  in  their  hands.  Refused  permission 
from  God,  he  consented  to  go  only  after  a  second 
summons  from  the  king.  On  the  way  the  angel 
of  the  Lord  met  him.  The  Prophet’s  ass  saw  the 
apparition,  and  three  different  times  turned  aside, 
out  of  the  way,  in  terror.  Balaam,  not  seeing  the 
angel,  beat  his  ass  three  times,  whereupon  the 
beast  opened  his  mouth  and  “  spake  with  man’s 
voice,  and  stayed  the  madness  of  the  Prophet.” 
At  last  his  eyes  were  opened  to  see  the  angel,  and 
lie  was  denounced  for  his  sin.  Three  different 
times  he  tried  to  curse  Israel  for  Balak.  but  as 
often  the  curses  turned  to  blessings  in  his  mouth. 

Balachong,  a  condiment  much  used  in  China 
for  eating  with  rice.  It  is  made  of  putrid  shrimps, 
or  small  fisli,  pounded  with  salt  and  spices  and 
then  dried. 

Balaeniceps  (whale-lieaded),  or  Shoe-billed 
Stork,  is  a  gigantic  grallatorial  bird  found  only 
on  the  Upper  Nile. 

Balairhat'  (above  the  Ghats),  the  name  given 
to  a  large  tract  of  elevated  country  in  the  south  of 
India.  Also  the  name  of  a  British  district  in  the 
Central  Provinces.  Pop.  (1831),  340,554. 

Balakla’va,  a  small  Greek  fishing  village  with 
700  inhabitants,  in  the  Crimea,  eight  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Sebastopol.  From  Sept.,  1854,  to  June, 
1856,  it  was  the  British  headquarters  during  the 
Crimean  War,  and  the  famous  charge  of  the  Six 


Hundred  (Oct.  25,  1854,)  has  made  the  name 
historic. 

Balance  (from  Latin  bilanx),  an  instrument  for 
ascertaining  the  mass  of  bodies  in  grains,  ounces, 
pounds,  or  any  other  units  of  mass.  The  ordin¬ 
ary  balance  consists  of  a  level  called  a  beam,  sup¬ 
ported  in  the  middle  of  its  length,  and  having 
dishes  or  scales  suspended  from  either  extremity. 
Should  the  arms  be  of  different  lengths,  a  less 
mass  at  the  end  of  the  longer  arm  will  balance  a 
larger  mass  at  the  end  of  the  shorter  arm;  but 
when  transposed,  the  larger  mass  having  the 
longer  arm,  and  the  smaller  mass  the  shorter,  the 
beam  can  no  longer  remain  horizontal,  but  will 
incline  towards  the  larger  mass.  A  balance  witli 
unequal  arms  is  called  a  false  balance,  as  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  an  equal -armed  or  just  balance. 


In  one  form  of  the  delicate  balances  employed 
in  physical  and  chemical  researches,  the  beam  is 
constructed  of  aluminium,  so  as  to  combine  light¬ 
ness  with  strength,  and  rests  by  a  fine  agate  knife- 
edge  on  an  agate  plane.  The  pans  are  also  hung 
on.agate  knife-edges  and  planes.  In  the  upper  part 
of  the  beam  is  a  small  body  moving  on  a  screw, 
so  that  the  sensitiveness  may  be  increased  or 
diminished  according  as  the  body  is  raised  or  de¬ 
pressed.  In  order  that  the  knife-edges  mny  not 
become  blunted  by  constant  contact  with  the 
supporting  planes,  a  cross-bar,  with  projecting 
pins,  is  made  to  lift  the  beam  from  the  plane,  and 
the  pans  from  the  beam,  and  sustain  their  weights 
when  the  balance  is  not  in  play.  The  beam  is 
divided  by  lines  marked  upon  it  into  ten  equal 
parts,  and  a  small  piece  of  fine  wire  bent  into  the 
form  of  a  fork,  called  a  rider,  is  made  to  slide 
along  to  any  of  the  divisions.  If  the  rider  be, 
for  instance,  one-tenth  of  a  grain,  and  if,  after  the 
mass  of  a  body  is  very  nearly  ascertained,  it 
brings  the  beam,  when  placed  at  the  first  division 
next  the  centre,  exactly  to  its  horizontal  position, 
an  additional  mass  of  one  one-hundreth  of  a  grain 
will  be  indicated. 

The  Roman  balance,  or  Steelyard  (Ger.  Schnell- 
tcage),  is  more  portable  than  the  ordinary  balance. 
Its  construction  is  indicated  in  tlie  figure. 


J  |7  li  13  1*  Iff 

\S—17  li- 

Roman  Balance,  or  Steelyard. 

The  Bent  Lever  Balance  (Fr.  peson,  Ger.  Zeigcr- 
:  wage),  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  a  lever  of  unequal 
arms,  A,  C,  B,  mov-  A  c 
1  ing  round  the  pivot 
C,  having  a  scale,  Q, 
attached  to  the  shorter 
arm  AC,  and  a  fixed 
mass,  W,  tothelonger 
arm  CB.  The  longer 
arm  ends  in  a  pointer 
moving  in  front  of  a 
fixed  graduated  arc. 

When  a  body  is  put 
into  the  scale,  the 
pointer  rises  from  the  Bent  Lever  Balance, 

bottom  or  zero  point  of  the  arc,  and  rests  oppo¬ 


regard 

Sparta, 


site  the  mark  corresponding  to  its  weight.  The 
higher  the  mass  W  rises,  the  greater 
becomes  the  moment  of  its  weight,  and 
the  greater  must  be  the  mass  whose 
weight  it  balances.  The  arc  is  gener¬ 
ally  graduated  experimentally. 

The  commonest  form  of  the  spring- 
balance,  known  as  Salter’s  Balance,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  4.  It  consists  of  a  spring 
in  the  form  of  a  cylindrical  coil  in  a 
me  tal  case,  which  it  about  half  fills 
when  at  rest.  The  upper  end  of  the 
spring  is  fixed  through  the  top  of  the 
case  to  a  ring  by  which  it  is  suspended 
for  use.  To  the;  lower  end  of  the  spring 
a  rod  is  attached  having  an  index¬ 
pointerworking  through  a  slot  in  the 
front  plate  of  the  case.  The  substance 
to  be  weighed  is  fixed  on  a  hook  at  the 
bottom  end  of  the  rod,  and  the  weight 
as  indicated  by  the  stretching  of  the 
spring  is  read  oil  on  the  scale. 

Balance  of  Bower,  an  expression 
used  for  the  state  of  things  in  which  no 
one  of  the  European  States  is  per¬ 
mitted  to  have  such  a  preponderance 
as  to  endanger  the  independence  of  the 
others.  This  idea  is  not  confined  to 
modern  times.  The  Greeks  acted 
upon  it  more  or  less  distinctly  with 
to  the  relations  of  such  States  as 
Athens  and  Thebes.  It  was,  however,  more  dis 
tinctly  avowed  as  a  motive  of  political  conduct, 
and  more  systematically  acted  upon  after  the  time 
of  Charles  Y.  Under  the  pretence  of  maintain¬ 
ing  the  balance  of  power,  successive  irresponsible 
rulers  plunged  Europe  into  continued  wars,  and 
in  its  name  more  men  have  been  slain  than  even 
in  the  conflicts  growing  out  of  religious  feuds 
and  race  hatred.  For  some  time  the  balance  of 
power  in  Europe  was  embodied  in  a  pentarcliy  or 
virtual  leadership  of  the  five  great  powers,  who 
mutually  watched  one  another’s  movements.  The 
formation  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy  has  increased 
the  number  of  great  powers  to  six.  The  rise  of 
Germany  since  the  war  of  1870-71  has  given  it  a 
leading  place  in  maintaining  the  European  bal¬ 
ance.  Since  the  doctrine  of  non-intervention  has 
to  a  large  extent  gained  ground,  the  idea  of  a 
balance  of  power  lias  been  less  esteemed  in  Great 
Britain.  The  geographical  position  of  the  United 
States  happily  exempts  this  country  from  any 
consideration  or  care  as  to  the  ups  and  downs  of 
dynasties  in  Europe.  On  the  whole,  though  tlie 
idea  of  a  balance  of  power  in  its  old  form  has 
fallen  into  disrepute,  it  may  still  be  considered  a 
working  factor  in  politics.  The  subject  is  com¬ 
plicated  by  the  extension  of  European  influence 
and  European  possessions  all  over  the  world. 

Balance  of  Trade.  Tlie  theories  connected 
with  the  balance  of  trade  arose  out  of  the  “mer¬ 
cantile  system  ”  of  political  economy.  In  the 
mercantile  system,  Which  looked  upon  the  pos¬ 
session  of  gold  as  the  grand  aim,  it  not  unnat¬ 
urally  came  to  be  a  maxim  that  a  nation  becomes 
richer  in  proportion  as  the  money -value  of  its  ex¬ 
ports  exceeds  that  of  its  imports;  the  excess  being 
paid  in  gold,  was  thought  to  be  just  so  much 
added  to  the  national  wealth.  Now,  the  differ¬ 
ence  between  the  money-value  of  the  exports  and 
imports  of  a  State  is  called  the  “balance  of  its 
trade;”  and  by  the  adherents  of  the  mercantile 
system,  this  balance  was  said  to  be  “  in  favor  ”  of 
the  country  or  “against”  it,  according  as  the 
exports  or  the  imports  showed  the  excess.  As  a 
practical  result  of  this  theory,  every  sort  of 
device  was  adopted  in  order  to  bring  out  a  favor¬ 
able  balance.  Laws  were  enacted  prohibiting 
importation  of  foreign  manufactures,  or  imposing 
high  duties  upon  them,  and  giving  premiums 
and  other  protective  encouragements  to  exporta¬ 
tion.  The  aim  of  commercial  legislation,  in 
short,  was  to  promote  the  flow  of  the  precious 
metals  to  one’s  own  country,  and  to  keep  them 
there.  The  fallacies  of  the  balance  of  trade  were 
obviously  due  to  a  mistaken  conception  of  tlie 
nature  of  wealth,  and  must,  therefore,  be  traced 
to  the  errors  of  the  mercantile  system. 

Balanoglossus,  a  worm-like  animal  of  much 
zoological  interest  as  a  connecting  link  between 
invertebrates  and  vertebrates.  The  genus,  which 
includes  at  least  four  species,  occupies  so  unique 


BALASINOR. 


116 


BALIOL. 


a  position,  that  it  is  regarded  as  representative  of 
a  distinct  class  of  Entcropneusta  (gut-breathers). 


Young  Balanoglossus:  showing  proboscis,  collar,  gill- 
slits,  and  gastric  region  (from  Claus) . 

The  animals  live  in  tine  sand,  which  they  appear 
to  saturate  with  lime. 

Balasinor,  a  tributary  State  of  India,  in  the 
Province  of  Guzerat,  Bombay.  Area  about  150 
square  miles;  pop.,  42,000.  The  chief  town, 
Balasinor,  is  fifty-one  miles  north  of  Baroda. 
Pop.,  9,000. 

Bal  asor',  a  seaport  and  chief  town  of  a  district 
of  Bengal.  Pop.  (1881),  20,265. 

Ba'laton,  Lake  (Ger.  Platt.en-Sei),  a  lake,  the 
largest  in  Hungary,  about  fifty-five  miles  south¬ 
west  of  Pestli.  Lying  426  feet  above  sea-level,  it 
has  an  extreme  length  of  48  miles,  an  average 
breadth  of  10  miles,  and  an  area  of  245  square 
miles. 

Balhi,  Adriano,  geographer  and  statistician, 
was  born  in  Venice  in  1782.  Balhi  lived  in  Paris 
till  1832;  he  then  returned  to  Italy  and  settled  at 
Padua,  where  he  died  March  14,  1848. 

Balhi.  Gasparo,  a  Venetian  merchant  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  the  first  traveler  who  has  left 
an  account  of  India  beyond  the  Ganges. 

Balbo.  Cesare  Count,  an  Italian  statesman, 
and  author,  was  bom  Nov.  21,  1789,  at  Turin. 
During  the  years  1821-43,  he  produced  several 
works  of  a  politico-historical  nature.  His  Sper- 
anze  d’ Italia  (Hopes  of  Italy),  published  iu  1843, 
gave  a  vivid  and  intelligent  picture  of  the  politi¬ 
cal  condition  of  Italy.  He  died  June  3,  1853. 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  a  Spanish  con- 
querer,  born  at  Xeres-de-los-Caballeros  in  1475. 
After  rather  adissolute  youth,  he  took  part  in  the 
great  mercantile  expedition  of  Rodrigo  de  Bas- 
tidas.  He  established  himself  in  St.  Domingo, 
and  joined  the  expedition  to  Darien  in  1510,  com¬ 
manded  by  Francisco  de  Enciso.  An  insurrec¬ 
tion  which  took  place  obtained  for  Balboa  the 
supreme  command  in  the  new  colony.  Confused 
accounts  which  reached  him  of  a  great  western 
ocean,  impelled  him  in  1513  to  set  out  in  quest  of 
it.  On  Sept.  25  of  that  year,  lie  obtained  the  first 
sight  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  from  “a  peak  in 
Darien.”  The  governorship  of  the  territories 
conquered  by  Balboa  was  obtained  in  1514  by 
Pedrarias  Davila,  by  means  of  liis  intrigues  at  the 
Spanish  court.  Balboa  was  beheaded  on  a  false 
charge  of  treason  in  1517. 

Balbrig'gan,  a  watering-place  in  Dublin  county, 
twenty-one  miles  north  by  east  of  Dublin.  It  is 
a  seat  of  linen,  cotton,  calico,  and  stocking  manu¬ 
factures.  Pop.  (1831),  2,443. 

Bal 'cony  (till  about  1825  Balco'ny;  Ital.  Jog 
cone),  a  projecting  gallery  iu  front  of  a  window 
or  of  several  windows,  with  a  balustrade  or  para¬ 
pet  at  its  outer  edge,  and  supported  by  consoles, 
or  brackets  fixed  in  the  wall,  or  by  pillars  resting 
on  the  ground  below.  The  balcony  was  unknown 
in  Greek  and  Roman  architecture,  the  earliest  ex¬ 
amples  of  it  occurring  in  Italy,  to  the  climate  of 
which  country  it  is  peculiarly  adapted. 

Bal'dachin  (Ital.  baldaccliino),  a  canopy  of  the 
form  of  a  tent  or  umbrella,  made  of  costly 
materials  and  richly  adorned,  which  is  either  sup¬ 
ported  on  pillars  or  fastened  to  the  roof  over  a 
throne  or  couch,  or  over  a  pulpit,  an  altar,  or  other 
sacred  object.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  is  the 
baldachin  in  the  Church  of  St.  Peter’s  in  Rome, 
cast  in  bronze  by  Bernini,  which  is  supported  on 
four  large  twisted  columns. 

Balder,  or  Baldur,  the  hero  of  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  interesting  myths  in  the  Edda, 
was,  according  to  northern  mythology,  son  of 
Odin  and  Frigga,  and  the  husband  of  Nanna. 
Having  dreamed  evil  dreams  which  threatened 
Bis  life,  lie  related  them  to  the  gods,  whereupon 


,  they  held  a  council,  and  endeavored  to  secure  his 
safety.  Frigga  took  an  oath  from  everything  in 
nature,  animate  and  inanimate  alike,  that  it  would 
not  harm  Balder,  but  she  forgot  the  mistletoe, 
and  Balder  was  shot  with  an  arrow  made  from 
that  parasitical  plant. 

Baldness  (Gr.  alopecia,  fox-mange).  Congenital 
baldness  (complete  absence  of  hair  at  birth)  is 
sometimes  met  with;  but  in  most  cases  is  only 
temporary,  and  gives  place  in  a  few  years  to  a 
natural  growth  of  hair.  Occasionally,  however, 
it  persists  through  life. 

Senile  baldness  (calvities)  is  one  of  the  most 
familiar  signs  of  old  age.  It  is  more  common  is 
men  than  women.  A  precisely  similar  condition 
occurs  not  unfrequently  at  an  earlier  age  (presenile 
baldness).  Great  loss  of  hair  frequently  follows 
severe  illnesses  or  other  causes  which  produce 
general  debility.  As  health  returns,  the  hair 
usually  returns  with  it;  its  growth  may  be  pro¬ 
moted  by  the  use  of  lotions  containing  canthar- 
ides,  ammonia,  or  some  other  stimulating  agent. 
Baths  containing  common  salt,  and  brisk  rubbing, 
are  also  useful. 

Baldric  is  a  belt  or  sash  worn  partly  as  a  mili¬ 
tary  and  partly  as  a  heraldic  symbol. 

Bald  ling,  IIans,  called  also  Hans  Grim,  a  Ger¬ 
man  painter  and  engraver,  contemporary  with 
Albert  Durer,  to  whom,  in  expression,  coloring, 
and  finish  he  was  little  inferior.  He  was  born  at 
Grniind,  in  Swabia,  about  1476,  and  died  at  Stras- 
burg  in  1545. 

Baldwin  1.,  King  of  Jerusalem,  1100-18,  was 
born  in  1058.  He  was  the  youngest  brother  of 
Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  with  whom  he  took  part  in 
the  first  Crusade.  After  the  death  of  his  brother 
Godfrey,  in  1100,  lie  became  Protector  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre,  and  Baron  of  Jerusalem,  and 
immediately  assumed  the  regal  title,  which  his 
brother  had  refused,  lie  died  in  1118. — Bald¬ 
win  II.,  cousin  and  successor  of  Baldwin  I., 
reigned  from  1118-31.  During  his  reign  Tyre 
was  taken,  and  the  order  of  the  Templars  was 
instituted.  lie  died  in  1131. — Baldwin  III., 
King  of  Jerusalem,  1143-62,  the  son  and  suc¬ 
cessor  of  Foulques  of  Anjou,  was  born  in  1129. 
lie  died  in  1162,  and  will)  his  death  the  Christian 
power  in  the  East  began  to  decline.  He  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  the  government  by  his  brother  Amalric, 
who  died  in  1173. — Baldwin  IV.,  the  son  and 
successor  of  Amalric,  surnamed  the  Leper, 
reigned  till  1184,  when  lie  caused  Baldwin  V.,  a 
child  six  years  old,  the  son  of  his  sister  Sybilla, 
to  be  crowned.  The  child  died  in  1186. 

Baldwin  I.,  the  first  Latin  Emperor  of  Con¬ 
stantinople,  was  born  in  1171  A.o.,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father  as  Count  of  Hainault  and 
Flanders  in  1195  In  1200  he  joined  the  fourth 
Crusade,  and  as’sisten  in  the  recapture  of  Con¬ 
stantinople  for  the  Emperor  Isaac  II.  Alexis 
having  been  murdered  by  a  rising  of  the  citizens, 
Baldwin  was  chosen  Emperor,  and  crowned  in 
1204.  But,  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  by  the 
Bulgarian  King,  he  died  (1206)  in  captivity. 

Baldwin  II.,  Emperor  of  Constantinople,  was 
born  in  1217.  lie  was  but  eleven  years  old  when, 
by  the  death  of  his  brother  Robert,  lie  succeeded 
to  the  throne.  In  1261  his  capital  was  taken  by  one 
of  the  generals  of  Michael  Palaeologus;  and  Bald¬ 
win  fled  to  Italy.  With  him  terminated  the  Latin 
Empire  in  the  East,  after  it  had  lasted  fifty-seven 
years.  lie  died  in  1273. 

Bale,  John,  Bishop  of  Ossory,  was  born  at 
Cove,  near  Dunwich,  Suffolk,  England,  iu  1495, 
and  died  iu  1563. 

Balearic  Isles,  a  group  of  islands — .Mallorca 
(Majorca),  Minorca,  Iviza,  Formentera,  Cabrera, 
and  several  smaller  islets — lying  off  the  coast  of 
Valencia.  They  formed  from  1220  to  1344  the 
Kingdom  of  Mallorca,  which  was  united  in  1349 
with  the  crown  of  Aragon.  They  now  form  a 
Spanish  province,  and  together  have  an  area  of 
1,935  square  miles,  with  a  pop.  in  1884  of  306,847. 
The  Phoenicians  visited  the  Balearic  Isles  at  a 
very  early  date,  and  they  were  followed  by  the 
Greeks. 

Balfe,  Michael  William,  composer,  was  horn 
in  Dublin,  May  15,  1808.  In  1823  lie  went  to 
London,  and  during  1825-26  studied  iu  Italy 
under  Paer,  Galli,  Federici,  and  Rossini.  In  1826 
he  wrote  the  music  for  a  ballet,  La  Perouse,  per¬ 
formed  at  Milau.  Iu  1833  he  returned  to  England, 


and  in  1846  was  appointed  Conductor  of  the  Lon¬ 
don  Italian  Opera.  He  died  Oct.  20,  1870.  Of 
his  numerous  operas,  operettas,  and  other  com¬ 
positions,  produced  in  rapid  succession  from  1830, 
the  most  permanently  successful  have  been  The 
Bohemian  Girl  (1843),  The  Rose  of  Castile  (1857), 
and  II  Talismano  (1874). 

Balfour,  The  Right  Hon.  Arthur,  was  born 
in  1848,  educated  at  Eton  and  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  lie  entered  Parliament  in  1874  as 
Conservative  member  for  Hertford,  and  from 
1878  to  1880  wTas  private  secretary  to  liis  uncle, 
Lord  Salisbury,  whom  lie  accompanied  to  the 
Berlin  Congress.  For  a  while  an  unattached 
member  of  Lord  Randolph  Churchill's  “  Fourth. 
Party,”  be  led  off  the  attack  on  the  “  Kilmaiuliam 
Treaty  ”  (1882),  negotiated  with  Lord  Hartington 
the  franchise  compromise  (1884),  was  returned 
for  East  Manchester  (1885),  and  was  appointed 
President  of  the  Local  Government  Board  (1885), 
Secretary  for  Scotland  (1886),  and  Chief  Secretary 
for  Ireland  (1887).  liis  Defence  of  Philosophic 
Doubt  (1879)  is  a  clever  application  of  scientific 
methods  to  science,  its  theme  the  irrationality  of 
rationalism. 

Balfour,  F  iancis  Maitland,  a  distinguished 
embryologist,  brother  of  the  above,  was  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1851.  In  1878-83  appeared  his 
well-known  Comparative  Embryology ,  upon  which 
his  fame  chiefly  rests.  He  lost  his  life  climbing 
the  Alps  in  July,  1882. 

Balfour,  John,  of  Kinlocli,  or  of  Burley,  in 
Scott’s  Old  Mortality,  was  one  of  the  chief  actors 
in  the  assassination  of  Archbishop  Sharp  in  1679, 
for  which  his  e-tate  was  forfeited,  and  a  price  set 
on  his  head.  He  fought  at  Drumclog  and  Botli- 
well  Bridge,  and  is  said  afterward  to  have  escaped 
to  Holland.  By  one  account  he  died  on  a  home¬ 
ward  voyage  to  Scotland,  by  another  he  never 
left  the  country,  but  settled  in  the  parish  of 
Roseneatli,  Dumbartonshire. 

Balfour,  John  IIutton,  born  in  Edinburgh, 
Sept.  15,  1808.  From  1841  to  1845  he  was  Pro¬ 
fessor  of  Botany  at  Glasgow  University,  and  in 
the  latter  year  succeeded  to  the  same  chair  in  Ed¬ 
inburgh, and  was  nominated  Regius  Keeper  of  the 
Royal  Botanic  Garden.  In  1879,  after  being  for 
thirty  years  Dean  of  the  medical  faculty  he  re¬ 
signed  these  appointments,  the  Universities  of 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  and  St.  Andrews  confer¬ 
ring  on  him  the  degree  of  LL.D.  lie  died  at 
Edinburgh,  Feb.  II,  1884. 

Balfrush'  (or  more  correctly  Barfurush, 
mart  of  burdens),  a  town  iu  the  Persian  Province 
of  Mazanderan,  on  the  River  Bhawal.  The  pop. 
is  generally  stated  at  50,000,  but  some  put  it  as 
low  as  10,000. 

Balguy,  John,  a  liberal  divine,  was  born  at 
Sheffield,  England,  in  1686.  In  1718  lie  published 
two  pamphlets  in  defense  of  Bishop  Hoadly.  His 
latter  works  are  defenses  of  Dr.  Clark’s  views 
against  Shaftesbury,  Tindal,  and  other  deists. 
He  died  at  Harrogate  in  1748. 

Bali,  or  Little  Java,  one  of  the  Sunda 
Islands  lying  east  of  Java,  about  75  miles 
long  by  50  broad.  Its  area  is  2,300  square 
miles.  Pop.,  760,000.  A  chain  of  mountains 
crosses  tlie  island  from  east  to  west,  rising  in  the 
volcanic  peak  of  Gunungagung  to  12,379  feet. 

Baliol,  an  Anglo-Norman  family  that  played  a 
prominent  part  in  Scottish  history.  Its  founder, 
Guido  or  Guy,  held  Bailleul,  Harcourt,  and  other 
fiefs  in  Normandy,  and  from  Rufus,  whose  father 
he  had  followed  to  England,  received  broad  pos¬ 
sessions  in  Durham  and  Northumberland.  Ber¬ 
nard,  his  son,  built  the  fortress  of  Bernard  Castle, 
and  his  great-grandson,  John,  about  1263, founded 
Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  died  in  1269.  His 
son,  John  de  Baliol,  born  in  1249,  succeeded  to 
the  lordship  of  Galloway,  as  well  as  to  his  father’s 
vast  possessions  in  England  and  Normandy.  On 
the  death  of  the  Maid  of  Norway,  iu  1290,  he 
claimed  t lie  crown  of  Scotland,  and  his  claim  was 
pronounced  superior  to  that  of  Robert  Bruce. 
The  arbiter  was  Edward  I.  of  England,  who 
found  this  a  fit  opportunity  for  asserting  his 
claim  as  lord-paramount  of  Scotland,  and  consist- 
■ently  with  this  ignominious  submission,  Baliol 
swore  fealty  to  Edward  as  his  feudal  superior.  In 
1295  lie  made  an  alliance  with  France,  then  at  war 
with  England.  This  act  of  revolt  was  followed  by 
speedy  chastisement.  Edward  invaded  Scotland, 


BALISTES. 


117 


BALLAST. 


defeated  the  Scottisli  troops,  took  Baliol  prisoner, 
and  compelled  him  formally  to  surrender  his 
crown,  July  7,  1296.  Baliol  was  confined  for 
three  years  at  Hertford  and  in  the  Tower,  enjoy¬ 
ing,  however,  a  limited  freedom  and  something  of 
royal  state.  In  1302  he  was  permitted  to  retire  to 
his  estates  in  Normandy,  where  he  died  in  1313, 
the  year  after  Bannockburn .  The  estimate  by  his 
subjects  of  this  poor-spirited  prince  was  signifi 
cantly  indicated  by  the  nickname  of  “  Toom  Ta¬ 
bard,”  or  Empty  Jacket.  Edward,  his  son,  in 
1332  made  himself  momentarily  conspicuous  in 
history  by  his  daring  and  successful  invasion  of 
Scotland.  He  landed  with  3,400  followers  at  King- 
horn  in  Fife,  defeated  the  Earl  of  Fife,  and  at  Dup- 
plin  Moor  in  Perthshire,  on  Aug.  12,  surprised  and 
routed  30,000  men  under  the  new  regent  Mar,  who 
himself  was  slain  with  13,000  besides.  On  Sept. 24, 
seven  weeks  from  the  date  of  his  landing,  he  was 
crowned  King  of  Scotland  at  Scone.  He  was 
beaten  by  Douglas  three  months  later,  and  re 
.signed  the  crown,  lie  died  near  Doncaster  in 
1367,  and  with  him  ended  the  House  of  Baliol. 

Balis'tes,  or  File  Fish,  a  genus  of  bony  fishes 
of  the  order  Plectognatliiof  Cuvier.  The  type  of 
a  large  family,  Balistidae,  the  species  of  which 


Batistes  conspicillum. 


are  almost  all  inhabitants  of  tropical  and  subtrop¬ 
ical  seas,  frequenting  rocky  coasts  and  coral-reefs. 

Balkan  Peninsula  is  the  peninsula  in  South 
eastern  Europe  running  southwards  between  the 
Adriatic  and  the  iEgean.  The  northern  boundary 
is  the  Save  and  the  Lower  Danube,  though  histo¬ 
rically  and  politically  Roumania,  and  some  parts 
of  the  Austrian  dominions  are  closely  associated 
with  the  regions  south  of  the  Danube.  Greece  is 
a  peninsula  upon  a  peninsula,  but  is  not  usually 
accounted  one  of  the  Balkan  States.  In  a  general 
way,  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and  Balkan  States 
cover  the  area  of  Turkey  in  Europe  and  the  non- 
Turkish  States  either  now  or  lately  under  Turkish 
suzerainty,  with  the  exception  of  Roumania  and 
Greece.  The  Balkans  proper  (ancient  llama  a) 
form  the  boundary  between  Bulgaria  and  Eastern 
Roumelia.  They  are  highest  in  the  west,  where 
the  mean  height  is  6,500.  The  ridge  is  crossed 
by  some  thirty  passes,  of  which  the  Shipka,  be¬ 
tween  Kezanlik  and  Tirnova,  and  4,290  feet 
high,  is  the  most  noted  in  history — especially  as 
the  scene  of  severe  fighting  in  the  Russo-Turkisli 
Avar  of  1877-78. 

The  following  table,  compiled  from  official  re¬ 
turns,  gives  the  area  and  population  of  the  differ¬ 
ent  parts  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula: 


Political  Divisions. 
Immediate  Possessions  of  Turkey  in 

Europe . ’ 

Bulgaria  (tributary  principality) _ 

Eastern  Roumeliaiautonomous  prov 

Herzegovina'.  1  (inAth?  ocIc,uI’ation  of 

A  ovi-Bazar. . .  )  Austro-Il uugary) 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

J-  03  875 
24,609 
!■  13,861 

I 

j-  23,577  \ 


Population. 

4,500,000 

2.007,919 

97G.100 


1,336,091 

168,000 


Total.  Turkey  in  Europe .  126,012  8,988,110 

Sen  ia(  kingdom) .  18,757  1,902,419 

Montenegro  (principality) .  3,486  250,000 


Total,  Balkan  Peninsula .  148,255  11,140,529 

Greece  with  the  aid  of  the  Great  Powers,  ob¬ 
tained  her  independence  in  1836,  as  also  did  Ser- 
via  in  1830-67.  Walachia  and  Moldavia  (now 
united  in  the  kingdom  of  Roumania)  were  made 
tributary  principalities  by  the  Peace  of  Paris, 
1856.  Roumania  and  Servia  obtained  their  com¬ 
plete  independence  by  the  Berlin  treaty  of  1878 — 
the  former  receiving  the  Dobrudja  in  exchange  for 
a  portion  of  Bessarabia,  which  was  restored  to 
Russia,  the  latter  having  its  area  enlarged.  The 
same  treaty  handed  over  to  Austro-Hungary  the 


administration  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  and 
established  the  principality  of  Montenegro,  the 
principality  of  Bulgaria,  and  the  self-governing 
province  of  Eastern  Roumelia. 

Balkh,  a  district  of  Afghan  Turkestan,  the 
most  northerly  province  of  Afghanistan.  It  was 
for  some  time  subject  to  the  Khan  of  Bokhara. 
It  corresponds  to  ancient  Bactria,  and  lies  between 
35°  and  37°  N.  latitude,  and  64°  and  69°  E. 
longitude.  Balkh,  long  the  chief  town,  is  situ¬ 
ated  in  a  district  intersected  by  canals  and  ditches, 
by  means  of  which  the  Avaters  of  the  Balkh-ab, 
or  Delias,  are  dissipated  and  prevented  from 
flowing  toward  the  Amu-Daria,  only  forty- 
five  miles  distant. 

Balkhash '  (Kirghiz  Tengis;  Chinese  Sihni),  a 
great  inland  lake  near  the  eastern  borders  of 
Russian  Central  Asia,  between  44°  and  47°  N. 
latitude,  and  73°  and  79°  E.  longitude.  Lying 
780  feet  above  sea-level,  it  extends  323  miles 
west-southwest-;  its  breadth  at  the  west  end  is  50 
miles,  at  the  east  from  9  to  4  miles,  the  area  is 
8,400  square  miles. 

Ball,  John,  a  priest  who  was  one  of  the 
leaders  in  the  rebellion  of  Wat  Tyler  in  England 
in  1381. 

Ball,  Sir  Robert  Stawell  LL.D  ,  F.R.S., 
astronomer,  was  born  in  Dublin,  July  1,  1840, 
and  studied  at  Trinity  College.  He  was  appointed 
Lord  Rosse’s  astronomer  at  Parsoustown  in  1865, 
Professor  of  Applied  Mathematics  and  Mechanics 
at  the  Royal  Irish  College  of  Science  in  1873; 
and  in  1874  Professor  of  Astronomy  at  Dublin, and 
Astronomer  Royal  for  Ireland. 

Ball.  Games  witli  balls  Avere  among  the  most 
favorite  gymnastic  exercises  of  the  ancients. 
They  were  played  almost  daily  by  all,  young  and 
old  alike;  by  the  highest  statesman  equally  with 
the  lowest  of  the  people.  The  Greeks  prized 
the  game  as  a  means  of  giving  grace  and  elas¬ 
ticity  to  the  figure;  and  in  their  gymnasia,  as  in 
the  Roman  baths,  there  was  a  special  compart 
ment  for  ball-playing,  where  certain  rules  and 
gradations  of  the  exercises  were  to  be  observed 
according  to  the  state  of  health  of  the  player. 
The  balls  were  of  very  various  kinds;  they  were 
generally  of  leather,  filled  with  air:  others  were 
stuffed  with  feathers.  Ball  playing  seems  to  have 
been  of  great  antiquity  in  the  West  of  Europe, 
and  to  have  come  down  uninterruptedly  to  mod 
era  times.  In  the  sixteenth  century  itwasin  great 
favor  in  the  courts  of  princes,  especially  in  Italy 
and  France.  Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth 
century  it  went  out  of  fashion  in  the  higher  circles 
of  continential  society,  though  it  is  still  practiced 
by  the  people  in  Italy  and  Spain,  nowhere  with 
more  enthusiasm  than  among  the  Basques  at  the 
base  of  the  Pyrenees.  Forms  of  it,  more  or  less 
practiced,  are  Base-ball,  Croquet,  Fives,  Football, 
Golf,  Lacrosse,  Lawn-tennis,  Polo,  etc. 

Ballab  garll,  a  town  of  India,  the  former  eapi 
tal  of  a  native  State  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
Punjab.  Pop.,  7,000. 

Ballad.  The  word  ballad  is  derived  through 
the  medium  of  French  from  the  late  Latin  ballare, 
“  to  dance,”  and  thus  meant  originally  a  song  sung 
to  the  rhythmic  movement  of  a  dancing  chorus — 
a  dramatic  poem  sung  or  acted  in  the  dance,  of 
which  a  kind  of  survival  is  seen  in  the  ring-songs 
of  children’s  games  at  the  present  day.  Now 
the  name  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  simple  song 
usually  of  a  romantic  or  sentimental  nature,  in  two 
or  more  verses,  eacli  sung  to  the  same  melody. 
Such  a  ballad,  as  distinguished  from  a  song,  has 
something  of  the  narrative  or  dramatic;  and,  how¬ 
ever  ditiieult  it  may  be  to  bring  to  an  exact  defi 
nition  examples  on  the  border-line  between  the 
two,  this  distinction  is  not  obsolete  even  in  the 
musical  world,  in  spite  of  the  modern  looseness 
of  phrase.  It  is  obvious  that  such  a  form  of 
literary  expression  is  best  fitted  to  a  simple  and 
unlettered  age,  and  it  is  equally  obvious  that  in 
an  age  of  greater  refinement  and  complexity  in 
the  conditions  of  social  and  intellectual  life,  it  is 
difficult,  if  not  impossible,  for  an  artist  so  to 
divest  himself  of  the  effects  of  his  environment 
as  to  produce  it  Avitliout  affectation  and  unreality. 
Coleridge’s  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner,  Tenny¬ 
son’s  lirvenge.  Browning’s  Herve  Riel,  and  Ros¬ 
setti’s  King's  Tragedy,  preserve  the  best  traditions 
of  the  ballad,  while  they  are  as  genuine  nineteenth- 
century  poems  as  In  Memoriam  or  the  Ode  to  a 


Nightingale.  Scotland  and  the  North  of  England 
have  produced  more  fine  ballads  than  any  other 
countries,  Italy  and  Germany  probably  com¬ 
ing  next. 

Ballade,  a  term  applied  to  a  poem  consisting 
of  one  or  more  terns  or  triplets  of  seven  or  eight 
line  stanzas,  each  ending  with  the  same  line  as 
refrain,  and  usually  an  envoy,  as  Chaucer’s  Com- 
pleynt  of  Venus  and  To  His  Parse. 

Ballanche,  Pierre  Simon,  a  French  philoso¬ 
pher,  Avas  born  at  Lyons,  Aug.  4,  1776,  and  set¬ 
tled  at  Paris  in  1814,  having  attracted  some  notice 
by  his  essays  and  a  prize  poem,  Antigone.  His 
great  work  is  the  Palingenesie  Sociale  (1828).  His 
works  are  a  strange  mixture  of  mysticism,  social¬ 
ism,  and  the  philosophy  of  history.  Ballanche, 
who  Avas  a  member  of  the  Academy,  died  June 
12,  1847. 

Ballantine,  Jaaies,  (1808-77),  artist  and  poet, 
born  in  Edinburgh,  was  brought  up  as  a  house- 
painter.  Two  prose  volumes,  The  Gabeiiumie’s 
Wallet  (1843),  and  Miller  of  Deanhaagh  (1845), 
contain  some  of  his  best  known  songs  and  ballads. 
He  was  author  of  Poems  (1856  and  1865);  One 
Hundred  Songs  with  Music  (1865);  Life  of  David 
Roberts,  R.  A.  (1866),  and  Lilias  Lee  (1871). 

Ballantine,  William  (1812-87),  sergeant-at- 
law,  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1834,  and  soon  ob¬ 
tained  a  large  practice  chiefly  in  criminal  cases. 
He  was  created  a  sergeant  in  1856.  Amongst  the 
famous  trials  with  which  lie  was  associated  were 
the  Muller  murder  trial,  Tichborne  case,  and  the 
defense  of  the  Guicowar  of  Baroda.  He  died  Jan. 
9,  1887. 

Ballantyne,  JAMES(1772-I833)and  John  (1774— 
1821),  Scott’s  printers,  were  the  sons  of  a  merchant 
of  Kelso,  where  in  17S3  they  were  both  at  school 
with  Sir  Walter.  In  1805  Scott  became  a  secret 
partner  in  the  business,  which,  in  1808,  expanded 
into  the  printing,  publishing,  and  bookselling  firm 
of  John  Ballantyne  &  Co.,  Scott  having  one-half 
share,  and  each'  of  the  brothers  one-fourtli.  As 
early  as  1813  bankruptcy  threatened  the  firm,  and 
though  its  unsaleable  stock  (Scott’s  own  rash  A’en- 
tures,  mainly)  was  disposed  of  to  Constable  in  1818, 
it  was  hopelessly  involved  inConstable’sruin(1826). 

Ballantyne,  Robert  M.,  a  prolific  and  popu¬ 
lar  writer  of  tales  for  boys,  was  born  at  Edin¬ 
burgh  in  1825.  His  first  book,  issued  in  1848,  was 
a  record  of  personal  experiences  during  a  six  years’ 
residence  (1841-47)  in  the  territories  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  In  1856  lie  took  to  literature  as  a 
profession  and  has  since  written  some  seventy 
volumes  of  tales. 

Ballarat',  or  Ballaaiiat,  a  thriving  Austra¬ 
lian  town,  next  in  importance  to  Melbourne,  in 
the  Province  of  Victoria.  It  owes  its  rise  to  the 
discovery  of  the  gold  fields  there  in  June,  1851,  be¬ 
ing  the  oldest  of  the  Considerable  gold-fields  of 
Victoria.  The  “  Welcome  Nugget,”  the  largest 
ever  found,  was  discovered  in  1858  at  Bakery  Hill. 
It  weighed  2,217  oz.  16  dwt.  The  “Lady  Ho- 
tham,”  found  near  Canadian  Gully,  weighed 
1,158-oz.  2  ewt.  In  1866  about  7,000  meu  were 
employed  at  the  gold  fields,  1,000  of  whom  were 
Chinese.  Pop.  (1881)  Ballarat,  22,411;  Ballarat 
East,  14,849  ;  total,  37,260. 

Ballast  is  a  heavy  substance  employed  to  give 
a  ship  sufficient  immersion  in  the  water  to  insure 
her  safe  sailing  with  spread  canvas,  when  her  cargo 
and  equipment  are  too  light.  The  amount  of  bal¬ 
last  required  by  a  ship  depends  not  only  on  her 
size  and  cargo,  but  also  on  her  build  ,  some  forms 
of  construction  requiring  more  ballastthan  others. 
The  substances  used  as  ballast  are  various — chiefly 
iron,  stone, gravel, sand,  and  water.  In  ships  of  any 
considerable  size,  or  engaged  in  any  service  of  im¬ 
portance,  iron  lias  long  superseded  stone,  grav'd, 
or  other  variety  of  dry  ballast,  but  within  recent 
years  the  adoption  of  water  ballast  lias  become 
very  general  in  almost  all  classes  of  A'essels.  The 
practice  of  fitting  vessels  with  double  bottoms,  di¬ 
vided  into  cellular  spaces  by  continuous  longitudi¬ 
nal  keelsons  and  transverse  bracket  floors — of 
which  the  Great  Eastern  is  an  early  and  notable 
example — had  been  instituted  by  Mr.  Scott  Russell 
between  1850-58.  The  object  then  in  view,  how¬ 
ever,  was  that  of  enhanced  structural  strength, 
but  about  1874-78  several  vessels  Avere  built  on 
the  northeast  coast  of  England  on  the  cellular 
bottom  system,  t lie  end  in  vieiv  being  chiefly  the 
carriage  of  water  ballast. 


BALLATER. 


118 


BALLOON. 


Bal  'later,  a  village  of  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Dee.  Balmoral  Castle,  the 
Scottish  residence  of  Queen  Victoria,  and  Balla- 
trich  Farm,  connected  with  the  boyhood  of  Byron, 
are  in  the  neighborhood. 

Ballenstedt,  a  town  in  the  Duchy  of  Anhalt, 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Hartz  Mountains.  Pop. 
(1885),  4,852. 

Bal'leny  Islands,  a  group  of  five  small  vol¬ 
canic  islands,  nearly  on  the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  in 
longitude  164°  E.  One  contains  a  very  lofty 
mountain. 

Ballet  (Fr.  ball  t;  Ital.  balletto,  from  the  late 
Lat.  ballare,  to  dance,  possibly  connected  with 
late  Greek  ballizein,  to  throw  the  legs  about,  to 
dance),  a  theatrical  exhibition,  composed  of 
dancing,  posturing,  and  pantomimic  action.  Both 
the  religious  ceremonies  of  the  Greeks,  and  the 
dramatic  representations  which  sprang  from  them, 
were  largely  intermingled  with  dancing;  and  the 
Roman  pantomimes  bore  a  strong  resemblance  to 
our  Ballet  cl’ Action.  Catherine  de  Medicis  intro¬ 
duced  the  ballet  into  France,  and  encouraged 
lascivious  dances  by  females  to  distract  the  atten¬ 
tion  of  her  son,  Henry  III.,  from  state  affairs.  In 
Europe  ballets  form  the  staple  entertainments  in 
many  theatres,  especially  in  London  and  Paris, 
and  they  have  been  introduced  into  this  country. 

Ball-flower,  so  named  from  its  resembling  a 
ball  placed  in  a  circular  flower;  an  ornament 
peculiar  to  the  decorated  style  of  Gothic  archi¬ 
tecture  which  prevailed  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  ball-flower  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  an  imi¬ 
tation  of  a  pomegranate,  by  others  of  a  hawk’s 
bell. 

Ballina',  a  seaport  town  on  the  confines  of 
Counties  Sligo  and  Mayo,  Ireland.  In  1798  the 
French  landed,  and  took  Ballina,  but  were  three 
weeks  afterwards  defeated  at  Killala.  Pop. 
(1881),  5,760. 

Ballinasloe',  a  small  town  in  Connaught,  Ire¬ 
land.  A  fair  in  October  is  one  of  the  largest  in 
the  kingdom.  Pop.  (1881),  4,772. 

Ballista,  or  Bamsta  (Gr.  ballein,  to  throw),  a 
Roman  military  engine,  resembling  a  huge  bow, 
which,  like  the  catapnlta  and  the  onager ,  propelled 
large  and  heavy  missiles. 

Ballistic  Pendulum.  An  instrument  so  named 
was  invented  by  Benjamin  Robins  about  1742,  to 
ascertain  the  speed  of  projectiles,  and  to  prove 
the  quality  of  gunpowder. 

Balloon  (Fr.  ballon,  a  large  ball).  According 
to  the  principle  of  Archimedes,  bodies  immersed 
in  a  fluid  are  buoyed  upward  with  a  force  equiva¬ 
lent  to  the  weight  of  the  fluid  displaced  by  them. 
If  their  own  weight  is  not  sufficient  to  counter¬ 
balance  this  force — (hat  is,  if  they  are  lighterthan 
the  fluid — they  rise  upward  with  a  force  equal  to 
the  difference  between  the  weight  of  tliedisplaced 
fluid  and  their  own  weight.  A  balloon,  there¬ 
fore,  which  consists  of  an  integument  inclosing  a 
gas  within  it,  will  rise  in  the  air  in  the  same  way 
that  a  cork  rises  in  water,  provided  that  the  weight 
of  the  whole  be  less  than  that  of  an  equal  volume 
of  air.  If  one,  for  instance,  occupies  as  much  space 
as  1,000  lbs.  of  air,  but  weighs  itself — covering, 
gas,  and  appendages — 600  lbs.,  it  will  be  impelled 
upward  with  a  force  of  400  lbs.  The  gases  em¬ 
ployed  for  filling  balloons  are  either  hydrogen  or 
ordinary  coal-gas.  The  former,  when  pure,  is  be¬ 
tween  fourteen  and  fifteen  times  lighter  than 
atmospheric  air,  and  the  latter  generally  about 
two  and  one-half. 

A  balloon  of  the  common  type  is  best  made  of 
silk,  but  owing  to  the  cost,  either  alp^a  or  cotton 
is  more  usually  employed.  The  pieces  or  gores 
are  sewn  together,  and  the  whole  varnished  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  gas.  At  the  top  there  is  a 
valve  made  of  wood,  from  one  to  three  feet  in 
diameter.  This  is  kept  closed  by  a  spring,  but  it 
can  be  opened  at  will  by  a  valve-line  which  des¬ 
cends  through  the  interior  of  the  balloon  by  its 
neck  or  mouth  to  the  car.  A  network  of  cord 
extends  from  the  circumference  of  the  valve  over 
the  Surface  of  the  balloon,  and  supports  the  hoop 
from  which  the  car  is  suspended  by  six  or  more 
strong  ropes  about  four  or  five  feet  long.  These 
ropes  require  to  be  carefully  ad  justed  so  as  not  to 
strain  the  network.  The  furniture  of  the  car  is 
ballast  or  sand-bags;  the  barometer,  and  other 
scientific  instruments;  and  the  grappling-iron, 


tied  to  the  end  of  a  long  rope,  for  anchoring  the 
balloon  at  the  descent. 

The  art  of  traversing  the  air  by  means  of 
balloons,  generally  called  Aeronautics,  and  some¬ 
times  Aerostation,  is  of  comparatively  recent  date. 
The  French  missionary  Basson,  writing  in  1694, 
says  that  a  balloon  ascended  at  the  coronation  of 


Common  form  of  Balloon. 


Fo  Kien  at  Pekin,  in  1306.  There  is,  however, 
reason  to  believe  that  the  first  balloonist  was 
Padre  Guzman,  who  made  an  ascent  at  Lisbon  in 
1709,  using  heated  air.  But  the  germ  of  the  in¬ 
vention  of  gas-balloons  is  to  be  found  in  the  dis¬ 
covery  by  Cavendish,  in  1766,  of  the  remarkable 
lightness  of  hydrogen  gas,  then  called  inflammable 
air.  The  invention  of  the  balloon  is  usually 
ascribed  to  the  two  brothers,  Stephen  and  Joseph 
Montgolfier,  paper-makers  at  Anuonay,  in  France. 
At  Avignon,  in  Nov.,  1782,  Stephen  Montgolfier 
first  succeeded  in  causing  a  silk  parallelopiped,  of 
about  fifty  cubic  feet,  to  rise  to  the  roof  of  a 
room.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  the  brothers 
made  experiments  on  a  larger  scale  at  Annonay, 
with  an  equally  happy  result;  and  finally,  in 
June,  1783,  they  raised  a  balloon,  35  feet 
in  diameter,  to  a  height  of  1,500  feet.  This  last, 
nearly  spherical  in  shape,  was  made  of  packcloth 
covered  with  paper,  and  was  heated  by  an  iron 
chafer  placed  beneath  it,  in  which  ten  pounds  of 
moist  straw  and  wool  were  burned. 

Professor  Charles,  of  Paris,  fixed  upon  hydrogen 
instead  of  heated  air  for  his  balloon,  and  success¬ 
fully  overcame  the  difficulty,  then  very  great,  of 
filling  a  silk  globe  12  feet  in  diameter  with 
this  light  gas.  This  balloon  was  transferred  to 
the  Champs  de  Mars,  the  largest  open  space  in 
Paris,  where,  on  Aug.  27,  1783,  it  ascended  in  the 
presence  of  300,000  spectators.  Stephen  Mont¬ 
golfier  next  constructed  a  fire-balloon  72  feet 
high  and  41  feet  in  diameter.  It  ascended  on 
Sept.  12,  1783,  but  being  held  captive,  it  was 
much  injured  by  a  violent  wind  which  blew  at 
the  time,  and  after  it  descended  it  was  finally 
broken  up  by  heavy  rains.  Joseph  Montgolfier 
sent  up  a  balloon  at  Versailles  seven  days  later, 
carrying  a  cage  with  a  sheep,  acock,  and  a  duck. 
These  were  the  first  aerial  travelers. 

In  a  Montgolfi&re,  as  the  lieated-air  balloon  was 
called,  74  feet  high  and  48  feet  in  diameter,  sup¬ 
porting  at  its  base  a  gallery  of  wicker-work, 
Pilatre  ties  Rosiers,  in  company  with  the  Marquis 
d’Arlands,  made  the  first  aerial  voyage  in  a  free 
balloon,  Nov.  21,  1783.  They  remained  in  the 
air  twenty-five  minutes,  and  sailed  across  the 
Seine  and  over  a  considerable  part  of  Paris.  On 
Dec.  1,  Professor  Charles,  along  with  Robert, 
rose  from  the  Tuileries  Gardens  with  a  hydrogen 
balloon — then  called  a  Charliere — made  from  the 
proceeds  of  a  public  subscription. 

Balloons  have  been  enlisted  on  behalf  of  science. 
The  first  ascent  for  scientific  objects  was  made  at 
Hamburg,  July  18,  1803,  by  Robertson  and 
Lhoest,  and  a  notable  one  by  Gay  Lussac,  who, 
on  Sept.  16,  1804,  rose  to  the  height  of  23,000 
feet.  Later  scientific  ascents  were  made  by  Hum¬ 
boldt,  in  America;  by  Dir.  Rush  and  Mr.  Green  in 
1847-49;  and  by  MM.  Barral  and  Bixio  at  Paris 


in  1850.  The  most  important  ascents  for  this 
purpose  were  those  made  by  Mr.  Glaislier  between 
1862  and  1866.  He  went  up  twenty-eight  times, 
and  eleven  of  these  ascents  were  made,  like  those 
of  Mr.  Rush,  on  behalf  of  the  British  Association. 
An  ascent  of  fully  seven  miles  was  made  from 
Wolverhampton,  Sept,  5,  1862,  by  Messrs.  Glai- 
slier  and  Cox  well,  which  is  the  highest  on  record. 
At  this  great  height  the  cold  was  intense,  the 
thermometer  standing  at  — 12°  Fahr.  The  barom¬ 
eter  fell  to  7  inches,  as  compared  with  29  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  When  the  balloon  was 
29,000  feet  high  Dir.  Glaislier  became  insensible. 
In  1794,  during  the  wars  of  the  Revolution,  an 
aerostatic  Institution  was  formed  at  Meudon,  near 
Paris,  for  training  a  corps  of  “aerostiers,”  in 
order  to  observe  the  enemy  by  means  of  balloons. 
One  under  the  management  of  this  corps  was 
used  at  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  near  Charleroi, 
fought  against  the  Austrians.  Reconnoissances 
were  made  by  use  of  the  balloon  in  the  Italian 
war  of  1859,  and  in  the  American  civil  war. 
During  the  siege  of  Paris,  1870-71,  the  balloon 
was  extensively  employed.  Nearly  2,500,000 
letters  and  post-cards,  besides  several  persons  (in¬ 
cluding  Gambetta),  left  the  beleaguered  city  in 
balloons.  The  balloon  called  the  Ville  d’ Orleans, 
which  left  Paris  Nov.  21,  1870,  descended  fifteen 
hours  afterwards  near  Christiania,  in  Norway. 
One  supposed  to  be  lost  was  found  long  after¬ 
wards  in  Iceland.  The  balloon  was  used  at  Suakin 
in  DIarch,  1885,  which  was  the  first  instance  of  iis 
being  employed  by  a  British  force  in  war. 

A  captive  balloon  is  held  by  a  rope  to  a  wind¬ 
lass  on  the  ground.  A  very  large  captive  balloon 
|  was  used  to  make  ascents  from  the  Tuileries 
quadrangle  at  Paris  during  the  summer  of  1878. 
It  was  made  of  strong  canvas,  and  had  a  capacity 
of  about  25,000  cubic  metres.  The  car  held  a 
large  number  of  persons.  A  steam-engine  of  300 
horse-power  worked  the  winding  apparatus,  and 
the  rope  by  which  the  balloon  was  moored 
weighed  fully  6,000  pounds. 

Although  there  were  one  or  two  earlier  experi¬ 
ments  tried  in  the  way  of  steering  balloons  (e.  g  , 
by  Giffard  in  1852,  and  Dupuy  de  Lome  in  1872), 
M.  Gaston  Tissandier  is  the  first  aeronaut  who 
has  at  least  partially  solved  this  difficult  problem. 
His  controllable  electric  balloon  was  made  at 
Paris  in  1883.  It  is  of  a  peculiar  elongated  form, 
and  is  inflated  with  hydrogen  gas.  In  size  it  is 
91  feet  long,  and  29  feet  in  diameter  through  the 
middle.  The  envelope  is  made  of  thin  cloth, 
coated  with  an  impermeable  varnish.  There  are 
two  horizontal  shafts,  one  on  each  side,  fastened 
with  silk  belts  along  the  centre.  These  are  made 
of  walnut  laths,  and  are  flexible.  Over  the  bal¬ 
loon  a  netting  of  ribbons  is  placed,  and  the  c  ir  is 
connected  with  this  netting  by  twenty  suspension 
ropes — live  of  these  being  attached  to  each  of  its 
four  corners.  A  kind  of  rigging  connects  the  sus¬ 
pension  ropesabout  six  feet  above  the  car.  To  this 
rigging  the  guide  and  anchor  ropes  are  attached, 
and  the  rudder  of  unvarnished  silk  is  also  arranged 
behind. 

The  screw-propeller,  which  is  9  feet  3  inches  in 
diameter,  and  consists  of  two  blades,  is  driven  by 
electricity,  and  the  electrical  apparatus  consists  of 
a  bichromate  of  potassium  battery,  and  a  dynamo- 
electric  motor.  The  car  with  the  motor,  batteries, 
screw,  anchor,  and  other  fittings,  weighs  nearly 
1,200  lbs.,  the  ballast  usually  taken  up  weighed 
850  lbs. ,  and  the  balloon  itself  weighed  606  lbs.  In 
one  trial,  with  the  screw  making  180  re'  olutioiis 
per  minute,  Tissandier  was  able  to  keep  head  to  a 
wind  moving  at  the  rate  of  ten  feet  per  second, 
and  when  proceeding  with  the  current,  to-deviate 
from  the  line  of  wind  with  great  ease.  At  another 
time,  it  is  said,  he  was  able  to  attain  a  speed — no 
doubt  an  independent  speed — of  nine  miles  an 
hour. 

In  the  United  Stated  aerostation  has  been  prose¬ 
cuted  with  great  zeal.  A  remarkable  flight  was 
made  by  Dir.  .1.  Wise,  Dir.  La  Mountain,  and 
others,  who,  starting  from  St.  Louis  with  the  in¬ 
tention  of  reaching  New  York,  traveled  1,150 
miles  in  less  than  twenty  hours.  DI.  Nadar  made 
an  important  ascent  in  1863,  and  DI.  Godard  in 
1864.  In  1873  a  balloon  of  400,000  feet  of  cubic 
capacity  was  made  to  enable  Dir.  Wise  to  cross  the 
Atlantic;  but  the  balloon  burst.  The  United  States 
signal  service  has  initiated  a  series  of  ascents  in 


BALLOT. 


119 


BALTIMORE. 


the  interests  of  meteorology,  Mr.  S.  A.  King  being 
the  aeronaut  engaged.  In  1886  Mr.  Carl  Meyers 
made  at  Franklin,  Penn.,  the  first  ascent  known 
with  natural  gas.  The  balloon  rose  one  mile. 
Many  lives  have  been  lost  in  ballooning,  owing 
mostly  to  improper  manufacture  of  the  bal¬ 
loons,  which  are  often  used  as  additions  to 
circus  performances  and  are  managed  by  amateurs 
or  inexperienced  aeronauts. 

Ballot  (from  Fr.  bnllotte,  a  little  ball),  is  a  little 
ball  used  in  the  practice  of  secret  voting,  which 
is  thence  generally  called  “voting  by  ballot,” 
whether  it  be  a  ball  or  a  ticket  that  is  used. 
Votes  may  be  taken  by  ballot  in  various  ways — 
e.  (j.,  the  voter  may  deposit  a  ball  in  either  of  two 
boxes,  so  conjoined  that  no  one  shall  be  able  to 
say  into  which  he  drops  it ;  or  lie  may  be  presented 
with  two  balls— a  white  and  a  black — and  so  drop 
one  of  them  into  a  box  that  it  shall  be  unknown 
which  he  used.  Voting  by  ballot  is  now  the  gen¬ 
eral  method  at  the  elections  in  countries  where 
constitutional  government  prevails,  and  it  is 
usually  done  by  means  of  papers  or  cards.  Voting 
by  ballot,  however,  is  a  very  old  institution,  and 
was  the  common  form  in  the  historic  times,  both 
of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome.  The  system  of  vote 
by  ballot  is  much  in  use  among  moderns  in  private 
or  social  clubs,  and  in  the  election  of  officers  and 
other  acts  of  public  or  joint-stock  companies.  It 
required  a  couple  of  hundred  years  to  introduce 
the  vote  by  ballot  for  members  of  Parliament  into 
England.  In  the  New  England  colonies  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  secret  voting  wTas  in  vogue  from  the  very 
first,  and  it  has  now  "been  adopted  throughout 
the  United  States.  It  is  prevalent  also  in  the  self- 
governing  English  colonies,  in  Canada  and  Aus¬ 
tralia,  and  in  most,  if  not  all  the  countries  of 
Europe  which  have  adopted  parliamentary  insti¬ 
tutions — in  France,  Germany,  Italy,  etc. 

Ballou,  Hose  a,  a  clergyman  and  author,  born 
April  30,  1771,  died  June  7,  1852  at  Boston.  His 
grandnephew  of  the  same  name  was  also  a  Uni¬ 
versal  ist  minister,  and  President  of  Tuft  ’s  College. 
He  was  born  in  1796,  and  died  in  1861. — Matcrin 
Murray  Ballou,  born  in  Boston  in  1S22,  edited 
Ballou’s  Pictorial  and  the  Boston  Globe. 

Balm  ( Melissa  officinalis),  a  fragrant  perennial 
herb  belonging  to  the 
order  Labiatae,  a  na¬ 
tive  of  the  South  of 
Europe  and  Western 
Asia,  has  long  been 
cultivated  in  gar¬ 
dens.  A  variety  of 
the  common  Cat¬ 
mint  ( Nepeta  cata- 
ria),  with  a  smell 
like  that  of  balm,  is 
often  mistaken  for 
it.  Calammta  nepeta. 
is  sometimes  called 
Field-balm,  while 
Collinsonia  is  termed 
Horse-balm  in  this 
country.  Balm  like  properties  are  extremely 
common  among  the  Labiatae.  The  name  is  from 
the  late  Latin  balsamum. 

Baline,  Col  de,  a  mountain  pass  between  Mont 
Blanc  and  the  Dent  du  Midi.  The  summit  is 
7,200  feet  high. 

Balmcrino,  a  small  village  of  Fife,  on  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  three  and  a  half  miles  southwest 
of  Dundee  by  water.  The  sixth  and  last  lord 
(1638-1746)  was  beheaded  on  Tower  Hill  for  his 
share  in  the  ’45. 

Balmo'ral.  a  royal  residence  in  Braemer,  ] 
Aberdeenshire,  nine  miles  west  of  Ballater, 
and  fifty-two  and  one-half  of  Aberdeen.  It 
is  the  favorite  abiding  place  of  Queen  Victoria, 
and  the  only  palace  in  Scotland  now  occupied  by 
the  royal  family. 

Ba  I  rani  pur,  a  town  of  Oudli,  India;  near  the 
frontier  of  Nepaul.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Balsam,  a  name  formerly  comprehending 
medicines  compounded  by  resins  and  oils,  as 
well  as  many  resinous  substances  and  oils,  to 
which  important  medicinal  virtues  were  ascribed. 
When  the  term  balsam  is  now  used  without  addi¬ 
tion,  the  balsams  of  Peru  and  Tolu  are  generally 
intended  These  two  balsams  are  very  similar  in 
all  their  more  important  properties,  and  are  both 
produced  by  trees  of  the  genus  Myroxylon,  of 


the  natural  order  Leguminosae,  sub  order  Papilio- 
naceae,  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America. 
M.  pereirce,  the  source  of  balsam  of  Peru,  is  a 
tree  found  in  the  State  of  San  Salvador,  in  the 
district  called  Balsam  Coast.  M .  Tnluifera,  a 
native  of  Venezuela,  Ecuador,  and  Brazil,  fur¬ 
nishes  balsam  of  tolu. 

Balsam  is  the  common  name  of  a  genus  of 
succulent  herbaceous  plants,  of  which  the  beauti¬ 
ful  balsam  ( Im  - 
patiens  balsam- 
ina),  so  much 
cultivated  in 
gardens  a  n d 
greenhouses,  is 
a  familiar  exam¬ 
ple.  The  com¬ 
mon  balsam  is 
a  native  of  the 
East  Indies  and 
Japan.  Many 
fine  varieties, 
double  as  well  as 
single,  and  of  all 
varieties  of 
color  and  mark- 
i  n  g ,  have  r  e- 
sultedfrom  care¬ 
ful  cultivation, 
and  florists  dis¬ 
tinguish  pyra 
midiil,  dwarf, 
and  camellia- 

flowered  races.  Balsam  ( Impatiens  tracornis ). 

Balsam  or  Balm  of  Gilead,  is  a  liquid  resinous 
substance;  has  a  high  reputation  in  the  East  for  its 
fragrance  and  medicinal  virtues.  It  is  the  subject 
of  several  allusions  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  is 
celebrated  by  Strabo,  Pliny,  Diodorus  Siculus, 
and  other  ancient  writers,  as  a  cure  for  almost 
every  disease.  It  is  generally  believed  to  be  de¬ 
rived  from  a  species  of  balsamodendron.  The 
finest  balsam,  called  opobalsam,  or  Balm  of 
Mecca,  is  of  a  golden  yellow  color,  and  of  aeon 
sistence  like  honey.  Balm  of  Gilead  is  irritating 
when  applied  to  the  skin. 

Balsamoden'drou  (Gr.  balsam-tree),  a  genus 
of  small  trees  or  bushes  of  the  natural  order 
terebinthacea?.  Some  of  them  are  spiny;  they 
generally  exhibit,  a  scrubby  appearance,  and  have 
little  foliage,  but  are  remarkable  for  the  resins  or 
balsams  obtained  from  their  wood  and  fruit — as 
Balsam  of  Gilead,  myrrh,  bdellium,  and  elemi. 
The  known  species  are  mostly  natives  of  the  East 
Indies,  Arabia,  and  the  east  of  Africa. 

Balta,  atowninthe  government  of  Podolia, 
Russian  Poland.  Pop.  (1880),  22,440. 

Baltic  Provinces  (in  Russia).  This  term,  in 
a  wider  sense,  comprehends  the  five  Russian  gov¬ 
ernments  bordering  on  the  Baltic,  viz.,  Courlaud. 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Petersburg,  and  Finland;  in 
a  restricted  sense  it  often  designates  the  first 
three.  The  Baltic  provinces  once  belonged  to 
Sweden,  except  Courland,  which  was  a  depend¬ 
ency  of  Poland.  They  came  into  the  possession 
of  Russia  partly  in  the  beginning  of  the  eigh¬ 
teenth  century,  through  the  conquests  of  Peter 
the  Great,  partly  under  Alexander  in  1809.  The 
three  Baltic  governments  strictly  so  called  have 
an  area  of  36,500  square  miles,  and  (1882)  a  pop. 
of  2,196,396. 

Baltic  Sea  is  the  great  gulf  or  inland  sea  bor 
dered  by  Denmark,  Germany,  Russia,  and 
Sweden,  and  communicating  with  the  Kattegat 
and  North  Sea  by  the  Sound  and  the  Great  and 
Little  Belts.  Its  length  is  from  850  to  900  miles; 
breadth,  from  100  to  200;  and  area,  including 
the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  184,496  square 
miles,  of  which  12,753  are  occupied  by  islands. 
Its  mean  depth  is  44  fathoms,  and  the  greatest 
ascertained  depth,  between  Gottland  and  Cour¬ 
land,  140.  The  group  of  the  Aland  Islands 
divides  the  south  part  of  the  sea  from  the  north 
part  or  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  Gulf  of  Finland, 
branching  off  eastwards  into  Russia,  separates 
Finland  from  Esthonia.  A  third  gulf  is  that  of 
Riga  or  Livonia.  The  Kurisch  and  other  Haffs 
are  not  gulfs,  but  fresh  water  lakes  at  the  mouths 
of  rivers. 

The  water  of  the  Baltic  is  colder  and  clearer 
than  that  of  the  ocean  and  contains  only  a  fourth 


of  the  proportion  of  salt  found  in  the  Atlantic. 
Ice  hinders  the  navigation  of  the  Baltic  from 
three  to  five  months  yearly.  Rarely,  as  in  1658 
and  1809,  the  whole  surface  is  frozen  over.  Tides, 
as  in  all  inland  seas,  are  little  perceptible.  Up¬ 
ward  of  250  rivers  flow  into  this  sea,  which, 
through  them  and  its  lakes,  drains  rather  less  than 
one-fifth  of  all  Europe.  The  chief  of  these 
rivers  are  the  Oder,  Vistula,  Niemen,  Dwina, 
Narva,  Neva;  the  waters  of  Lake  Maeler,  and 
those  of  Wetter  and  other  lakes  reach  the  sea 
through  the  River  Motala.  The  principal  islands 
are  Zealand,  Funen,  Bornholm,  Samscie,  and  Laa 
land,  belonging  to  Denmark;  the  Swedish 
islands,  Gottland,  Oland,  and  Hveen  (in  the 
Sound);  the  Aland  islands,  belonging  to  Russia; 
and  Rugen,  to  Prussia 

In  June,  1887,  work  was  begun  on  a  very  im¬ 
portant  canal  extending  from  Briinsbuttel  at  the 


Map  showing  the  new  Baltic  ami  North  Sea  Canal, 
mouth  of  the  Elbe  to  Holtenau  and  Kiel,  a  dis¬ 
tance  of  sixty-one  miles  in  a  direct  line  and 
saving  nearly  600  miles  of  difficult  navigation. 
The  expense  of  this  great  work  will  be  at  least 
$40,000,000.  The  most  important  harbors  in  the 
Baltic  are:  in  Denmark,  Copenhagen;  in  Ger¬ 
many.  Kiel,  Lubeck,  Stralsund,  Stettin,  Danzig, 
Kdnigsberg,  and  Memel ;  in  Russia,  Riga,  Narva, 
Kronstadt,  and  Sveaborg;  and  in  Sweden,  Stock¬ 
holm  and  Karlskrona. 

Baltimore^  acity  of  about  400,000  inhabitants, 
is  the  commercial  capital  of  Maryland,  and  one  of 
the  handsomest  and  most  interesting  of  American 
cities.  It  was  founded  in  1729,  named  in  honor 
of  Lord  Baltimore,  and  became  a  city  in  1796. 
It  stands  on  an  arm  of  the  Patapsco  river,  a  few 
miles  from  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  thirty-eight 
miles  northeast  of  Washington,  D.  C.  Baltimore 
has  a  fine  and  well-fortified  harbor,  and  an  ex¬ 
tensive  export  trade.  It  is  regularly  laid  out. 
with  wide  streets  and  many  fine  buildings,  mostly 
of  marble  and  limestone.  From  the  number 
of  its  monuments  it  is  often  spoken  of  as  the 
“Monumental  City.”  It  has  more  than  200 
churches  and  contains  the  Johns  Hopkins  Univer¬ 
sity,  and  several  flourishing  colleges.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop,  and  of  a  Bishop 
of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church.  In  the  early 
days  of  the  Rebellion  the  Sixth  Massachusetts  and 
Seventh  Pennsylvania  Regiments,  which  had  been 
ordered  to  Washington,  were  attacked  while  pass¬ 
ing  through  the  streets  of  Baltimore  by  rebel 
sympathizers,  and  in  the  fight  which  followed 
many  persons  were  killed  on  both  sides.  A  month 
later  the  city  was  taken  military  possession  of  by 
Gen.  B.  F.  Butler,  and  Maryland  was  saved  to 
the  Union. 

Baltimore,  is  a  small  fishing-village  in  County 
Cork,  seven  miles  southwest  of  Skibbereen,  Ire¬ 
land. 

Baltimore,  George  Calvert,  first  Lord,  born 
at  Kipling,  Yorkshire,  England,  about  1580, 
entered  Parliament  in  1609,  was  knighted  in  1617, 
and  in  1619  became  Secretary  of  State.  In  1625 
he  declared  himself  a  Catholic,  and  resigning  his 
office,  received  the  rank  of  Baron  Baltimore  in 
the  Irish  peerage.  His  Irish  estates  were  at  the 
same  time  confirmed  to  him,  and  thither  he  re¬ 
tired.  As  early  as  1621,  Calvert  had  despatched 
colonists  to  a  small  settlement  in  Newfound¬ 
land,  and  in  1627  he  visited  the  place.  In  the 


BALTIMORE  BIRD. 


120 


BANANA. 


following  spring  be  returned  with  his  family,  and 
stayed  till  the  autumn  of  1629.  The  severe  win¬ 
ter  induced  him  to  sail  southward  in  search  of  a 
more  genial  country;  but  his  attempts  to  settle  in 
Virginia  led  to  disputes,  and  he  returned  home  to 
obtain  a  fresh  charter.  lie  died  April  15,  1632, 
before  the  completion  of  the  patent,  which  was 
granted  in  June  to  his  son,  Cecil,  second  Lord 
Baltimore. 

Baltimore  Bird  or  Oriole  (Icterus  Baltimorii), 
a  finch-like,  perching  bird  very  common  in  North 
America  from  Canada  to  Mexico.  They  settle 
near  houses  on  tulip-trees,  peavines,  and  the  like, 


Baltimore  Oriole. 


and  build  a  beautiful  hanging  nest  of  skillfully 
interwoven  moss  and  fibers.  The  name  “hang- 
nest,”  obviously  refers  to  this  habit.  The  pendu¬ 
lous  pouch  measures  6  to  7  inches  in  length,  and 
varies  somewhat  according  to  the  climate.  The 
bird  itself  is  somewhat  smaller  than  a  starling, 
measuring  about  seven  inches  in  length,  with  a 
sharp  conical  bill  longer  than  the  head,  long 
pointed  wings,  and  medium-sized  rounded  tail. 

Baltistan,  or  Littte  Tibet,  is  an  Alpine 
region  through  which  the  Upper  Indus  flows.  It 
lies  below  the  Kara-Korum  Mountains  and  the 
Himalayas,  with  a  mean  elevation  af  11,000  feet, 
and  contains  the  nameless  peak  marked  K1,  28,278 
feet  high,  next  to  Everest,  the  highest  on  the 
globe. 

Baltjik',  a  seaport  of  Bulgaria,  on  the  shore 
of  the  Black  Sea,  twenty  miles  northeast  of  Varna. 
Near  it  are  the  ruins  of  Torni,  whither  Ovid  was 
exiled.  Pop.,  4,000 

Balzac,  Honore  de,  -was  born  at  Tours,  May 
20,  1799.  He  was  educated  at  the  College  de 
Vendome  and  studied  law  at  the  Sorbonne. 
From  1819  to  1830  he  led  a  life  of  frequent  priva¬ 
tion  and  incessant  industry,  producing  stories 
which  neither  found,  nor  deserved  to  find,  readers, 
and  incurring  a  heavy  burden  of  debt,  which 
harrassed  him  to  the  end  of  his  career  lie  first 
tasted  success  in  his  thirtieth  year  on  the  publi¬ 
cation  of  Les  Berniers  Ghoun  ns,  which  was  soon 
afterward  followed  by  La  Peau  de  Chagrin.  After 
writing  several  other  novels,  he  formed  the  design 
of  presenting  in  the  Comedie  Humaine  a  complete 
picture  of  modern  civilization.  Among  the  mas¬ 
terpieces  which  form  part  of  Balzac’s  vast  scheme 
may  be  mentioned  La  Recherche  de  V Absolu,  Le 
l'ire  Goriot,  Les  Illusions  Perdues,  Les  Pay  sans, 
Les  Marana,  La  Femme detrente  Ans,  Les  Parents 
Pauvres,  and  Eugenie  Grandet.  The  Contes 
Drolatiques  (1833)  stand  by  themselves.  They 
are  a  series  of  gross  stories  in  the  vein  of  Rabe¬ 
lais,  Balzac  reproducing  with  masterly  skill  the 
French  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Balzac’s  indus¬ 
try  was  phenomenal.  He  wrote  eighty-five  novels 
in  twenty  years,  and  he  was  not  a  ready  writer, 
being  very  fastidious  in  regard  to  style,  and  often 
expending  more  labor  on  his  proof-sheets  than 
he  had  given  to  his  manuscript.  He  died  in  Paris 
in  1850. 

Balzac,  Jean  Louis  Guez  de,  born  at  An- 
gouleme  in  1594,  in  his  youth  was  secretary  to 
Cardinal  la  Valette  at  Rome.  He  was  a  favorite 
of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy,  a  Councillor  of  State,  and  historiog¬ 
rapher.  He  died  Feb.  18,  1654. 

Bambarra,  one  of  the  Soudan  States  of  West¬ 
ern  Africa,  lying  (where  5°  W.  longitude  and  12° 


N.  latitude  cross  one  another)  on  both  sides  of 
the  Upper  Niger.  The  inhabitants,  a  branch  of 
the  Mandingoes,  number  about  2,000,000,  and  are 
superior  to  their  neighbors  in  intelligence. 

Bamberg,  a  Bavarian  city,  in  Upper  Fran¬ 
conia,  thirty-three  miles  north  of  Nuremberg. 
Set  in  the  midst  of  vineyards,  orchards,  and  hop¬ 
gardens,  and  founded  about  769,  from  1007  to 
1802  it  wras  the  seat  of  independent  prince- 
bishops.  The  most  noteworthy  of  its  fourteen 
churches  is  the  cathedral,  a  magnificent  edifice  in 
the  Romanesque  style,  founded  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  II.,  in  1004,  and  thoroughly  restored  in 
1828-37.  Pop.  (1885),  31,295. 

Bambi'no  (Ital.  babe),  a  term  in  art  descrip¬ 
tive  of  the  swaddled  figure  of  the  infant  Saviour. 
The  Santissimo  Bambino,  in  the  Church  of  the 
Ara  Cceli  at  Rome,  is  held  in  great  veneration  for 
its  supposed  miraculous  power  of  curing  the  sick. 
It  is  carved  in  wood,  painted,  and  richly  decor¬ 
ated  with  jewels  and  precious  stones. 

Bamboo'  ( Bambusa ),  a  genus  of  grasses,  of 
which  most  of  the  species  attain  a  great  size, 
many  of  them  20  or  30  feet,  some  70  or  100  feet 
in  height.  The  species  are  numerous,  and  are 
found  in  tropical  and  subtropical  regions,  both 
of  the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres.  Some 
of  the  species  grow  to  the  height  of  only  a  few 
feet;  and  almost  all  of  them  are  slender  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  their  height,  although  B.  guada  has 
often  a  trunk  16  inches  in  diameter.  All  of 
them  have  a  jointed  subterranean  root-stock 
(rhizome),  which  throws  up  10-100  stems.  These 
are  generally  straight  and  erect;  although  one 
large  species ( B.  agrestis),  common  in  dry,  mount¬ 
ainous  situations  in  the  Southeast  of  Asia,  has 


a,  upper  portion  of  the  stem,  with  foliage;  b,  root-stem; 
c,  section  of  stem. 

crooked,  and  sometimes  creeping  stems.  The 
stems  grow  to  their  full  height  unbranclied,  but 
afterward  throw  out  straight,  horizontal  branches, 
especially  in  their  upper  parts,  forming  a  dense 
thicket;  some  of  the  smaller  kinds  are  often 
planted  as  hedges.  The  hairy  bamboo  is  one  of 
the  most  useful  in  China.  The  external  covering 
of  the  stem  is,  in  all  the  species,  remarkably 
siliceous;  the  stem  of  B.  tabacaria  is  so  hard  that 
it  strikes  fire  when  the  hatchet  is  applied.  There 
is  perhaps  scarcely  any  plant  that  serves  such  a 
variety  of  domestic  and  economical  purposes. 
It  wrnuld  be  difficult  to  point  out  an  object  in 
which  strength  and  elasticity  are  required,  and 
for  which  lightness  is  no  objection,  to  which  the 
stems  of  the  different  species  are  not  applied.  In 
the  whole  of  the  East,  in  Jamaica,  and  other 
parts  of  the  West  Indies,  and  some  parts  of  South 
America,  it  forms  the  sole  material  of  which  the 
houses  of  the  poor  are  built.  It  is  employed  for 
water-pipes,  for  which  purpose  its  hollow  stems 
render  it  eminently  well  fitted.  It  is  used  in  the 


building  of  bridges,  in  the  manufacture  of  furni¬ 
ture,  ladders,  masts  for  boats,  rails,  fences,  spear- 
shafts,  domestic  utensils,  and  agricultural  imple¬ 
ments.  The  stems  are  split,  up  finely  and  worked 
into  mats,  and  ropes,  and  into  the  sails  of  boats. 
From  both  the  external  and  internal  pellicles  of 
the  stems  an  excellent  paper  is  made  by  bruising 
and  steeping  it  in  water  till  it  becomes  a  paste. 
Large  quantities  of  bamboo  cane  are  exported  to 
Europe  for  various  purposes,  such  as  the  making 
of  walking-sticks,  stakes  for  flowers  and  the  train¬ 
ing  of  fruit-trees  in  nurseries,  and  the  manufact¬ 
ure  of  wicker-work.  The  leaves  of  some  kinds 
are  used  as  thatch  and  in  the  making  of  hats  and 
mats.  The  shoots  when  young  and  tender,  are 
eaten  in  the  same  way  as  asparagus,  or  boiled 
with  milk,  or  made  into  broth  with  the  addition 
of  animal  food,  spices,  and  salt;  also,  along  with 
the  young  root  stocks,  they  are  pickled  in  vine¬ 
gar  wherever  they  abound  in  the  East. 

Bamborougli  Castle,  an  ancient  fortress  on 
the  coast  of  Northumberland,  five  miles  east  of 
Belford,  and  sixteen  and  one-half  southeast  of 
Berwick.  Bamborougli  village,  near  the  castle, 
was  a  royal  borough  before  the  Conquest.  Grace 
Darling  is  buried  in  the  churchyard. 

Bambouk,  a  country  of  Senegambia,  Western 
Africa,  lying  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  Senegal 
and  Faleme  rivers. 

Bainian  is  a  mountain-valley  in  Afghanistan, 
on  the  chief  road  between  Kabul  and  Turkestan, 
and  near  the  northern  base  of  the  Koh-i-baba 
Range.  The  valley  itself  lies  8,500  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  stream  that  drains  it  ultimately 
finds  it  way  to  the  Oxus. 

Bampton  Lectures,  a  series  so-called  after  the 
name  of  their  founder,  the  Rev.  John  Bampton, 
a  minor  canon  of  Salisbury,  who,  at  his  death  in 
1751,  left  £120  per  annum  to  the  University  of 
Oxford,  for  the  endowment  of  eight  divinity  lecture 
sermons,  to  be  preached  at  Great  St.  Mary’s  every 
year. 

Ban,  a  Persian  title  meaning  “lord,”  “master,” 
or  “keeper,”  and  brought  into  Europe  by  the 
Avars. 

Ban,  a  word  occuring  in  most  of  the  modern 
languages  of  Europe,  and  primarily  signifying  “to 
proclaim”  or  “publish.”  This  meaning  it  retains 
in  Banns  of  marriage.  In  French  military  lan¬ 
guage,  ban  is  the  part  of  the  population  first  liable 
to  be  called  out  in  case  of  war;  the  arrien-ban  is 
the  reserve.  In  Germany,  the  acht  or  bannum  was 
a  sentence  of  outlawry  pronounced  in  the  middle 
ages  against  those  who  escaped  from  justice,  or 
refused  to  submit  to  trial.  We  often  read  of  re¬ 
fractory  princes,  and  even  cities,  being  placed  under 
the  ban  of  the  empire.  When  a  grant  of  land  was 
made  for  a  religious  purpose,  or  when  a  charter  of 
liberties  was  granted,  the  transaction  was  pro¬ 
claimed  in  public  with  certain  ceremonies,  and 
curses  were  denounced  against  any  one  who  should 
violate  the  deed.  Thus  banning,  or  publishing, 
came  to  be  associated  with  cursing;  and  hence  the 
origin  of  the  popular  use  of  the  word.  It  occurs 
in  this  sense  in  Shakespeare  and  Milton,  and  other 
old  writers. 

Bana'na,  the  fruit  of  Musa  sapientium,  a 
herbaceous  plant  of  arboreal  proportions  and  palm¬ 
like  aspect,  belonging  to  the  natural  ordir  Mu- 
saceie.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  originally  a 
native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  is  now  found,  along 
with  the  plantain, distributed  and  cultivated  by  man 
throughout  the  tropical  and  subtropical  regions 
of  the  globe.  The  banana  and  the  plantain  were 
formerly  regarded  as  distinct  species,  the  latter 
being  named  M.  paradisiaca,  but  there  is  no  rea, 
specific  distinction  between  the  two  forms. 
Though  really  herbs,  the  bananas  assume  all  the 
appearance  of  trees.  Their  stems,  formed  merely 
of  the  sheathing  bases  of  the  stalks  of  the  large 
palm-like  leaves,  are  soft,  spongy  and  destitute  of 
woody  structure,  yet  attain,  according  to  the 
different  species,  the  height  of  from  5  to  25  feet. 
In  the  tropics  the  stems  are  annual — that  is,  they 
die  after  perfecting  the  fruit,  and  fresh  stems  are 
developed  from  buds  in  the  root-stock,  which  is 
perennial.  These  stems,  or  rather  buds,  furnish 
the  common  means  of  propagating  and  making 
fresh  plantations,  and  the  growth  is  so  rapid  that 
the  fruit  is  usually  ripe  within  ten  months  of  the 
time  of  planting  the  offsets.  The  fruits  are  vari¬ 
ously  formed,  some  angular,  others  cylindrical 


BAN  AS. 


121 


BAN  DON. 


or  even  spherical,  and  they  vary  in  length  from 
4  to  12  inches,  and  in  diameter  from  1  to  11  inches. 
The  average  weight  of  a  bunch  is  about  25  lb., 
but  individual  bunches  often  exceed  40  lb. 

It  is  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  food  in 
tropical  countries,  taking  the  place  of  the  cereals 


Musa  paradisiaca.  a,  fruit. 


of  more  temperate  climates.  Its  productive 
powers  are  prodigious;  per  acre,  it  was  estimated 
by  Humboldt  to  produce  44  times  more  by  weight 
than  the  potato,  and  133  times  more  than  wheat. 
It  is  stated  that  the  fresh  core  of  the  fruit  yields 
about  40  per  cent,  of  dry  meal.  The  banana  is  in 
many  other  ways  useful  to  man.  The  stem  yields 
a  juice  that  is  employed  as  an  astringent,  and  its 
spongy  pith,  when  pounded  and  boiled,  forms  a 
tolerably  nutritious  food  of  a  starchy  character. 
In  Tonquin  the  stems  are  burned,  and  the  ash  used 
in  purifying  sugar. 

lianas,  or  Bunas,  the  name  of  three  rivers  of 
India. — (1)  A  river  of  Rajputana,  rising  in  the 
Aravalli  Mountains,  which  faUsintothe  Chambal, 
after  a  total  course  of  300  miles. — (2)  A  river 
which  also  rises  in  the  Aravalli  Mountains,  and 
after  a  southwestward  course  of  180  miles,  is  lost 
in  the  Iiunn  of  Cutcli. — (3)  A  river  of  Chutia 
Nagpur,  Bengal,  has  a  northwestward  course  of 
about  70  miles,  and  falls  into  the  Son,  near 
Rampur. 

Banat,  any  district  or  territory  under  a  Ban 
but  specially  applied  since  1718  to  a  part  of 
Hungary  which  has  no  separate  ban  or  governor. 
Bounded  west  by  the  Theiss,  south  by  the  Danube, 
and  north  by  the  Maros,  it  consists  of  the  three 
counties  of  Temesvar,  Torontal,  and  Ivrassova. 
Pop.  (1880),  1,308,341. 

Banbridge,  a  town  in  County  Down,  Ireland. 
Pop.,  5,609. 

Banbury,  a  small  town  of  Oxfordshire,  England. 
Its  strong  castle,  built  about  1125,  was  demolished 
during  the  Great  Rebellion.  Pop.  (1881),  3,600. 

Banc,  legally,  is  a  seat  or  bench  of  justice,  and 
in  this  sense  has  given  rise  to  the  expression  of  the 
English  courts  of  common  law  “sitting  in  banc,” 
or  in  banco— that  is,  sitting  together  on  the  bench 
of  their  respective  couits. 

Banca,  an  island  from  8  to  20  miles  broad  lying 
southeast  of  Sumatra,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Strait  of  Banca.  Together  with  a  few  con¬ 
tiguous  islands  it  forms  the  Dutch  Residency  of 
Banca.  with  an  area  of  4,977  square  miles,  and  a 
pop.  (1883)  of  70,877.  The  capit  l,  Muntok,  in 
the  northwest  part  of  the  island,  has  a  fort  and 
3,000  inhabitants. 

Banco  (It.),  a  commercial  term  meaning  the. 
st  mdard  money  in  which  a  bank  keeps  its  ac¬ 
counts,  as  distinguished  from  the  current  money 
of  the  place.  The  distinction  was  more  necessary 
when  the  currency  was  depreciated,  or  when  it 
consisted,  as  it  often  did,  of  clipped,  worn,  and 
foreign  coins. 

Bancroft,  George,  the  historian  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  Oct.  3, 
1800.  He  was  educated  at  Harvard,  Gottingen,  Ber¬ 
lin,  and  Heidelberg,  and  became  acquainted  with 
Goethe,  Niebuhr,  Bunsen,  Humboldt  and  other 
distinguished  men.  lie  taught  Greek  at  Harvard  | 


for  one  year  and  served  a  term  as  Collector  of  the 
Port  of  Boston.  In  1834  appeared  the  first  vol¬ 
ume  of  his  History  of  the  United  States,  not 
fully  completed  until  1884.  Mr.  Bancroft  was 
Secretary  of  the  Navy  under  Polk,  and  from 
1846  to  1849  was  Minister  to  London.  For  many 
years  he  remained  out  of  politics,  but  Andrew 
Johnson  sent  him  to  Berlin  iu  1867  and  he 
remained  in  the  diplomatic  service  until  recalled 
at  his  own  request  in  1874.  Mr.  Bancroft  was' 
made  a  member  of  many  American  and  foreign 
learned  societies  and  published  several  poems  and 
translations  fiom  the  German. 

Bancroft,  Hubert  Howe,  an  illustrious  North 
American  historian,  born  in  Ohio  in  1832,  settled 
at  San  Francisco  in  1852,  where  he  started  a 
bookshop,  and  soon  amassed  a  large  fortune. 
He  formed  at  a  vast  expense  a  library  of  40,000 
volumes,  mainly  on  old  American  history  and 
ethnography.  The  result  of  his  profound  studies 
is  his  well-known  work,  The  Native  Races  of  the 
Pacific  States. 

Bancroft,  Richard,  Archbishop  of  Canter 
bury,  and  a  bitter  opponent  of  the  Puritans,  was 
born  at  Farnworth,  Lancashire,  in  1544.  In  1597 
he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  London.  lie 
attended  Elizabeth  during  her  last  illness;  and 
at  the  famous  Hampton  Court  Conference  under 
James  I.,  he  was  one  of  the  chief  commissioners 
on  behalf  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  took 
the  lead  in  the  disputations.  He  succeeded 
Whitgift  as  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  in  1604, and 
died  November  2,  1610. 

Band,  in  Architecture,  is  the  name  given  to  any 


flat  fascia  or  ornament  which 
is  continued  horizontally 
along  a  wall,  or  by  which 
a  building  is  encircled. 

Band,  or  Bands,  linen 
pendants  from  the  neck, 
forming  part  of  a  clerical,  y 
legal,  and  academic  cos¬ 
tume.  It  is  a  moot  question 
whether  they  are  a  survival 
of  the  Amice,  or  immediate 
descendants  of  the  wide  fall¬ 
ing  collar  which  was  a  part  of 


I H 

i 

Hill 

Li. 

Band  of  a  Shaft 


the  ordinary  civilian  dress  in«he  reign  of  James  I. 

Band.  Military  Bands  differ  from  full  orches¬ 
tral  bands  in  being  wholly  composed  of  wind- 
instruments  and  drums. 

Banda,  chief  town  of  a  district  in  the  North¬ 
west  Provinces,  India.  Pop.  (1881),  28,974.  The 
district  of  Banda  contains  3.001  square  miles; 
its  chief  product  being  cotton.  Pop.  (1881), 


698,608. 


Bandages  are  used  by  surgeons  to  keep  a  part 
of  the  body  at  rest, 
to  apply  pressure,  or  % 
to  retain  dressings  or 
apparatus  in  positic 
There  are  two  ch 
varieties — the  roller, 
and  the  triangular 
handkerchief  band¬ 
ages.  The  former  is 
that  most  used  for 
a  pplying  pressure  and 
retaining  dressings; 
the  latter  for  fixing 
splints  and  as  slings, 
and  as  an  immediate 
surgical  appliance  in 
cases  of  accident  or  Roller  Bandage, 

emergency. 

Banda  Isles,  a  portion  of  the  Moluccas,  con¬ 
sisting  of  twelve  islands,  six  of  which  are  unin¬ 
habited,  about  fifty  miles  to  the  south  of  Ceram. 
Their  mean  latitude  and  longitude,  respectively, 
are  4=  30'  S.,  and  129°  50'  E.  Area,  17  square 
miles;  pop.,  estimated  at  500  Europeans  and  half- 
castes,  and  6,000  natives. 

Bandajan',  a  pass  over  a  range  of  the  Hima¬ 
layas,  in  Kashmir.  It  is  amidst  mountains  of 
gneiss,  and  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  The 
summit  of  the  pass  is  14,854  feet  above  the  sea. 

Bandan'a,  a  kind  of  printed  handkerchief  of 
Indian  origin,  now  extensively  made  in  Britain, 
usually  of  cotton.  The  cloth  is  first  dyed  Turkey 
red,  and  then  the  pattern  is  made  by  discharging 
the  color  with  bleaching  liquor  iu  a  powerful 
Bramah  press. 


Banda  Oriental,  a  state  of  South  America, 
originally  settled  by  Spaniards  from  Buenos 
Ayres,  claimed  by  Brazil,  but,  after  a  war,  made 
in  1825  into  the  independent  State  of  Banda  Orien¬ 
tal  del  Uruguay,  now  usually  called  simply  Uru¬ 
guay. 

Bandel,  Ernst  von,  sculptor,  was  born  in  1800 
at  Ansbacli,  studied  art  at  Munich,  Nuremburg, 
and  Rome,  and  worked  for  forty  years  on  his  great 
monument  of  Arminius,  near  Detmold,  90  feet 
high,  lie  died  near  Donauwortli,  Sept.  25,  1876. 

Ban-de -la-Roche,  or  Steinthai.,  a  valley  of 
Lower  Alsace,  in  the  Vosges  Mountains,  noted  as 
the  scene  of  the  labors  of  Oberlin. 

Bandrllo,  Matteo,  an  Italian  writer  of  tales, 
was  born  about  1480  at  Castelnuovo,  iu  Piedmont. 
He  was  in  1550  made  Bishop  of  Agen,  and  died  in 
1562.  Bandello’s  tales,  214  in  number  (4  vols. 
1554-73;  best  ed.  Milan,  1814),  rank  next  to  those 
of  Boccaccio  in  Italy. 

Band-fish  ( Cepola ),  a  genus  in  the  family 
Cepolkhe  in  theblenny-form  division  of  Acanthop- 
terygious  Fishes.  The  body  is  much  elongated 
and  latera’ly  compressed,  and  is  covered  by  very 
small  scales.  The  dorsal  fin  is  very  long,  and 
consists  like  the  anal  of  soft  rays.  The  tail  ver¬ 
tebra;  are  very  numerous,  and  the  whole  structure 
of  the  body  exhibits  unusual  delicacy. 

Bandicoot  ( Perameles ),  a  genus  of  small  mar 
supials,  occupying  in  the  fauna  of  Australia  a 
place  somewhat  analogous  to  that  of  the  much 
higher  shrews  in  Europe.  The  fur  is  short  and 


Bandicoot  ( Perameles  nasuta). 


rough.  The  long  head  forms  a  pointed  snout,  the 
tail  is  rather  short,  the  marsupial  pouch  is  com¬ 
plete  and  opens  backwards.  They  keep  to  the 
ground,  making  nests  in  the  hollows.  Their 
movements  and  habits  are  like  those  of  hares  or 
rabbits.  Numerous  species  occur  in  Australia 
and  New  Guinea. 

Bandicoot  Rat,  Malabar  Rat,  or  Pig-Rat 
(Mas  yic/anteus),  the  largest  known  species  of  rat. 
The  name  is  a  corruption  of  the  Telinga pandikolcu, 
literally  signifying  pig-rat.  The  animal  inhabits 
many  parts  of  India,  and  is  plentiful  in  Ceylon. 
It  attains  the  weight  of  two  or  three  pounds,  and 
is  24  to  30  inches  long,  including  the  tail,  which 
at  the  base  is  2i  inches  in  circumference. 

Bandiera,  Attilio  and  Emilio,  two  brothers 
of  a  Venetian  family,  lieutenants  in  the  Austrian 
navy,  who  attempted  a  rising  in  favor  of  Italian 
independence,  aud  were  shot  by  the  Austrians  in 
July,  1844. 

Bandinelli,  Baccio,  the  son  of  a  famous  gold¬ 
smith  of  Florence,  aud  one  of  the  best  sculptors 
of  his  time,  was  born  at  Florence  in  1493.  He 
was  an  angry  and  jealous  rival  of  Michael  Angelo. 
Among  his  best  works,  which  all  exhibit  power, 
vigor,  and  skillful  drawing,  are  his  colossal 
group  of  Hercules  with  Gacus  at  his  feet,  his 
Adam  and  Eve,  his  copy  of  the  Laocodn,  and  the 
exquisite  bassi-rilievi  which  adorn  the  choir  of  the 
Duomo  in  Florence,  where  he  died  in  1560. 

Band  of  Hope,  the  name  first  given  about  1847 
to  societies  of  young  people,  pledged  to  abstain 
from  all  intoxicating  liquors.  The  movement 
has  spread,  and  now  nearly  every  town  and  village 
of  the  United  Kingdom  contributes  its  quota  of 
adherents.  The  United  Kingdom  Band  of  Hope 
Union  (1855)  had  in  1887  affiliated  with  it  13,232 
societies  of  juvenile  abstainers,  having  1,623,033 
members. 

Bandoline  is  a  mucilaginous  substance  used 
for  stiffening  hair,  aud  keeping  it  in  shape  or 
form. 

Bandon,  or  Bandonbridge,  a  town  of  County 
Cork,  Ireland,  on  the  Bandon,  twenty  miles soutli- 
I  west  of  Cork.  Pop.,  4,000. 


BANDONG. 


122 


BANKING. 


Bandong,  or  Bandung,  a  flourishing  commer¬ 
cial  town  in  the  centre  of  the  western  end  of  Java. 

Banff  (pron.  Bamf),  a  seaport,  the  capital  of 
Banffshire,  Scotland.  Pop.  (1881),  7,871. 

Banffshire,  a  county  in  the  northeast  of  Scot¬ 
land,  bounded  north  by  the  Moray  Firth;  east 
and  south  by  Aberdeenshire;  west  by  Elgin  and 
Inverness  shires.  Its  length  is  59  miles,  its  breadth 
is  31,  and  its  area  is  045  square  miles. 

Banks,  Nathaniel  P.,  born  in  Massachusetts, 
Jan.  30,  1816,  was  elected  in  1849  to  the  State 
Assembly,  and  in  1852  to  Congress,  becoming 
speaker  of  the  House  in  1855.  From  1857  to 
1859  he  was  Governor  of  Massachusetts,  and  in 
1861  obtained  a  major-general’s  commi-sion  and 
was  assigned  to  the  Army  of  the  Potomac.  Jack- 
son  drove  him  back  from  Strasburg  in  May, 
1862,  and  after  Cedar  Mountain,  where  lie  com¬ 
manded  a  corps  under  Pope,  he  was  put  in  com¬ 
mand  of  Washington,  D.  C.  lie  took  Port  Hud¬ 
son  in  July,  1863,  but  his  expedition  up  the  lied 
river  proved  a  disastrous  failure.  In  Nov.,  1864, 
lie  was  elected  to  Congress  by  his  old  district  and 
sat  till  1870.  He  supported  Greeley  in  1872. 

Bangalore,  a  fortified  town  of  Mysore,  in  a 
district  of  the  same  name,  216  miles  west  of 
Madras.  It  was  a  favorite  residence  of  Hyder 
Ali;  and  in  1791  was  stormed  by  the  British  under 
Lord  Cornwallis.  Pop.  (1881),  155,857,  of  whom 
29,521  were  Mohammedans,  and  17,430  Christ¬ 
ians.  The  Mysore  district  of  Bangalore  has  an 
area  of  2,901  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  (1881), 
669,139. 

Bangkok,  the  capital  city  of  Siam,  situated  on 
both  banks  of  the  Mcnam,  about  t  wenty  miles  from 
its  mouth  in  13°  38'  N.  latitude,  and  100°  34' 
E.  longitude.  The  pop.  is  about  300,000, 
half  of  whom  are  Chinese,  in  whose  hands  is 
centred  nearly  all  the  trade  of  Bangkok,  which  is 
large,  as  is  shown  by  the  commercial  returns. 
The  exports  of  Bangkok  (almost  those  of  all  Siam) 
had  in  1885  a  value  of  $9,400,000;  and  the  imports, 
$6,800,000.  The  circumference  of  the  walls  of 
Bangkok,  which  are  15  to.  80  feet  high  and  12 
broad,  is  about  6  miles.  The  internal  traffic  of 
Bangkok  is  chiefly  carried  on  by  means  of  canals, 
there  being  only  a  few  passable  streets  in  the 
whole  city.  The  chief  interest  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Siam,  according  to  Sir  John  Bowring,  con¬ 
centrates  itself  in  Bangkok.  Bangkok  is  the  con¬ 
stant  residence  of  the  king.  The  palace  is  sur¬ 
rounded  by  high  walls,  and  is  nearly  a  mile  in 
circumference.  It  includes  temples,  public  offices, 
accommodation  for  some  thousands  of  soldiers, 
with  their  necessary  equipments,  a  theatre,  and 
rooms  for  about  3,000  females,  600  of  whom  are 
the  wives  of  the  king. 

Bangor,  an  Episcopal  city,  borough,  and  sea¬ 
port  of  Carnarvonshire,  North  Wales.  Pop., 
8,240. 

Bangor,  a  small  seaport  and  watering-place  in 
County  Down,  Ireland,  on  the  south  side  of  the 
entrance  to  Belfast  Lough.  Pop.  (1881),  3,006. 

Bangor,  a  city  and  port  in  the  State  of  Maine, 
346  miles  northeast  of  Boston  by  rail,  on  the 
Penobscot.  About  200,000,000  feet  of  lumber  are 
annually  shipped  from  Bangor  during  t lie  season 
of  eight  months.  Bangor  has  also  some  ship¬ 
building,  and  foreign  and  coasting  trade.  It  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1834.  Pop.  (1880), 
16,857. 

Bangsrings  (Tapaidce),  a  family  of  arboreal 
insectivorous  mammals,  sometimes  known  as 
squirrel  or  tree  shrews,  There  are  two  genera. 

Bangweo'lo  (also  called  Bemba),  a  great  Cen¬ 
tral  African  lake,  discovered  by  Livingstone  in 
1868,  which  is  150  miles  long  by  75  in  width,  and 
3,700  feet  above  the  sea. 

Baiiialii'ka,  a  town  of  Bosnia,  fifty-four  miles 
southeast  of  Vodi.  Pop  ,  10,000. 

Banian  (from  the  Sansk.  vanij,  a  merchant),  a 
member  of  a  Hindu  merchant-caste,  most  numer¬ 
ous  in  Bengal  and  the  Northwest  Provinces 
of  -  India.  The  name  was  originally  applied 
more  particularly  to  those  from  the  Province  of 
Guzerat. 

Banian  Days,  a  sailor’s  phrase,  meaning  days 
when  no  meat  is  served  out,  so  called  from  tiie 
abstinence  from' flesh  of  the  Banian  traders. 

Banin,  John,  Irish ’novelist,  born  at  Kilkenny 
in  1798.  llis  youth  was  darkened  by  an  unhappy 
love-affair;  but  having  achieved  some  success  as 


a  playwright  (1821),  he  married,  settled  in  London, 
and  produced,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother 
Michael,  several  stories  of  Irish  peasant  life  which 
1  attracted  some  attention.  He  died  in  1842. 

Banjennassin',  a  former  sultanate  on  the 
southeast  of  Borneo,  with  an  area  of  5,928  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  about  300,000,  chiefly  Moham¬ 
medans. — Banjeiimassin,  the  capital  of  the  resi¬ 
dency,  is  built  on  the  Island  of  Talas,  about  fif¬ 
teen  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Banjer  or  Barito. 
Pop.,  30,000. 

Banjo  (originally  a  mere  negro  mispronuncia¬ 
tion  of  bandore ,  derived  through  the  medium  of 
Spanish  or  Portuguese,  from  Lat.  pandura,  Gr. 
p/mdoara,  a  three-stringed  musical  instrument), 
an  instrument  of  the  guitar  kind,  played  with  the 
fingers,  but  without  frets  to  guide  the  stopping. 

Bank  Holidays,  appointed  by  Sir  John  Lub¬ 
bock’s  Act  of  1871,  fall  in  England  and  Ireland 
on  Easter  Monday,  Whit-Monday,  the  first  Mon¬ 
day  in  August,  and  December  *20.  In  Scotland 
on  Christmas  and  New-year’s  Days,  Good  Friday, 
and  the  first  Mondays  of  May  and  August. 

Banking.  The  term  bank  (Fr.  banque;  Ital. 
banco,  a  bench,  a  tradesman’s  stall,  a  bank)  de¬ 
notes  a  building  in  which  financial  business  is  car¬ 
ried  on,  and  is  also  applied  to  corporate  bodies 
conducting  that  business.  A  banker  is,  primar¬ 
ily;  a  person  engaged  in  that  business  on  his  own 
account  and  responsibility.  In  the  case  of  joint- 
stock  companies,  the  expression  is  applied  to  the 
principal  officers  in  charge  of  the  business.  Bank¬ 
ing  denotes  the  business  itself,  which  is  not  spe¬ 
cifically  either  a  profession  or  a  trade. 

There  were  bankers  in  Babylon  and  among  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  but  banking,  as  now 
understood,  did  not  commence  before  the  twelfth 
century,  when  the  Bank  of  Venice  was  estab¬ 
lished.  Sir  John  Lubbock  thinks  that  the  first 
real  bank  was  that  of  Barcelona,  founded  1401, 
and  that  the  “  Bank  of  Stockholm  (1668)  was  the 
first  bank  in  Europe  to  issue  bank-notes.”  Other 
early  banks  were  the  Bank  of  St.  George  at  Genoa 
(1407),  and  the  Bank  of  Hamburg  (1619).  The 
Bank  of  Amsterdam  (1609)  was  the  great  ware¬ 
house  for  bullion  during  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  era  of  real  modern  banking  commences  with 
the  eighteenth  century. 

A  banker  lends  money  at  interest,  usually  for 
short  periods,  on  satisfactory  security,  and  re¬ 
ceives  money  on  deposit,  for  which  he  sometimes 
allows  interest  and  sometimes  does  not.  A  banker 
does  not  hoard  all  the  money  deposited  with  him; 
lie  gives  the  greater  portion  out  on  loan. 

The  services  that  a  banker  performs  as  the 
cash  keeper  of  his  depositors  are  very  great.  In 
the  case  of  persons  not  themselves  in  business,  it 
is  usual  for  a  banker  to  make  all  their  money 
payments,  beyond  their  small  daily  expenditure, 
and  to  receive  the  money  payable  to  them.  The 
money  transactions  of  such  persons  are  thus  con¬ 
tained  in  their  banker’s  books.  This  is  effected 
by  the  depositor  giving  checks  or  orders  on  his 
banker  for  the  sums  he  has  to  pay;  and  by  hand¬ 
ing  to  him  all  the  checks  or  orders  the  depositor 
receives  for  sums  payable  to  himself. 

As  it  is  a  principle,  at  the  very  root  of  banking, 
that  money  deposited  shall  be  returned,  either  on 
demand,  or  punctually  at  the  expiry  of  a  stipu¬ 
lated  notice,  it  follows  that  banks  must  always 
have  in  their  coffers  as  much  of  the  money  depos¬ 
ited  with  them  as  there  is  the  least  likelihood  of 
being  called  for  by  depositors.  When  business 
is  in  its  ordinary  condition,  a  bank  can  approxi¬ 
mate  pretty  nearly  the  amount  of  the  greatest 
demand  for  a  return  of  deposits  throughout  the 
year,  and  provide  accordingly.  But  sometimes 
the  credit  of  a  bank  becomes  doubted,  either  from 
causes  peculiar  to  itself,  oron  occasions  of  a  panic 
or  general  distrust,  when  all  who  own  money 
wish  to  have  it  in  their  own  possession;  in  these 
cases,  there  is  a  run  on  the  bank  for  repayment  of 
its  deposits,  and  the. amount  called  for  may  be  far 
beyond  the  maximum  demanded  in  ordinary 
times.  If  the  bank  has  not  retained  in  its  coffers, 
or  held  otherwise,  available  funds  sufficient  to 
meet  the  demand,  it  is  said  to  suspend  payment; 
and,  as  a  general  rule,  it  must  wind  up  its  busi¬ 
ness;  the  confidence  of  the  public  that  it  will  in 
future  restore  its  deposits  on  demand  being  now 
destroyed. 

Banks  make  their  loans  chiefly  in  the  form  of 


discounts — that  is,  upon  bills  of  exchange.  Com¬ 
modities  in  the  wholesale  market  are  generally 
sold  on  credit.  The  buyer  promises  to  pay  the 
amount  at  a  certain  date  to  the  seller,  and  his 
promise  is  contained  in  a  bill  of  exchange.  The 
seller  transfers  it.  to  a  bank,  which,  on  the  faith 
of  it,  advances  the  amount  in  loan  to  him,  less 
discount,  that  is,  interest  of  the  money  till  the  bill 
be  due.  This  is  called  discounting .*  But  banks 
lend  on  other  securities.  A  holder  of  Govern¬ 
ment  stock,  for  example,  will  obtain  a  loan  on 
the  security  of  his  stock;  the  banker  being  entitled 
to  sell  it,  and  repay  the  loan  from  the  price,  if 
the  borrower  fail  to  make  punctual  payment.  So, 
also,  the  holder  of  stock  or  debentures  in  any 
public  company,  as  a  railway,  will,  where  the 
company  is  believed  to  be  in  a  sound  condition, 
or  the  security  is  saleable,  and  no  liability 
attaches  to  it,  obtain  a  loan  from  a  bank.  The 
owners  of  commodities  lying  in  a  public  ware¬ 
house  may  obtain  a  loan  on  depositing  with  the 
bank  the  warrants  or  certificates  of  ownership. 
Loans,  too,  are  occasionally  made  for  short  periods 
on  the  mere  note  of  hand  of  the  borrower,  when 
the  banker  is  sa^sfied  of  the  ability  of  the  bor¬ 
rower  to  repay  the  money. 

In  the  United  States  the  many  experiments  that 
have  been  made  in  banking  since  the  settlement 
of  the  country  afford  an  interesting  study  for  the 
financier.  As  early  as  1652,  in  the  Colony  of 
Massachusetts  Bay,  the  subject  of  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  a  bank  was  discussed,  and  thirty  four 
years  later  (1686)  permission  was  given  to  a  com¬ 
pany  to  issue  bills  of  credit  on  the  security  of 
real  and  personal  estate.  About  1712  an  institu¬ 
tion  known  as  the  Land  Bank  came  into  existence 
in  the  same  colony.  The  breaking  out  of  the 
Revolutionary  war  led  to  the  establishment,  by 
recommendation  of  Congress,  of  the  “Bank  of 
North  America,”  which  was  chartered  by  several 
of  the  States  simultaneously,  and  which,  though 
a  State  institution,  rendered  the  General  Govern¬ 
ment  efficient  assistance  during  the  war. 

In  1791,  at  the  instance  of  Alexander  Hamilton, 
Congress  established  the  first  “  United  States 
Bank,”  with  branches  in  several  States,  its  capital 
being  fixed  at  $10,000,000,  one-fiftli  of  which  be¬ 
longed  to  the  Government.  From  the  outset  this 
scheme  met  with  much  opposition,  particularly 
from  Mr.  Jefferson  and  his  political  adherents, 
and  at  the  expiration  of  the  twenty  years  for 
which  the  charter  was  granted,  Congress  refused 
to  renew  it,  and  the  institution  went  out  of  exist- 
ance.  Five  years  later  (1816)  a  second  United 
States  Bank  was  chartered  with  a  capital  of  $35,- 
000,000.  This  bank  was  the  depository  of  the 
Government  funds  until  the  accession  of  General 
Jackson  to  the  Presidency,  when  they  were  arbi¬ 
trarily  removed,  and  an  Act  of  Congress  re-charter¬ 
ing  the  institution  vetoed  by  the  President. 

Meanwhile,  numerous  State  banks  had  sprung 
up,  but  their  issues  as  a  circulating  medium  were 
at  times  subject  to  a  heavy  discount  as  compared 
with  gold;  and  the  high  rates  of  exchange  be¬ 
tween  the  various  sections  of  the  Union,  though 
affording  a  profit  to  dealers  in  funds,  were  a 
source  of  great  annoyance  in  mercantile  transac¬ 
tions.  Various  attempts  were  made  to  obviate 
these  inconveniencies,  such  as  the  establishment 
of  a  bank  of  redemption  in  Boston,  which  was 
expected  to  receive  deposits  of  the  issues  of  dis¬ 
tant  banks  in  exchange  for  its  own  notes;  the 
establishment  of  a  safety-fund  system  in  some  of 
the  States  (a  virtual  insurance  against  loss  by  the 
holders  of  the  issues  of  the  banks  doing  business 
under  the  laws  of  the  respective  States);  and 
finally  the  free  banking  system,  under  which 
speculation  ran  riot,  and  financial  disasters  fol¬ 
lowed  each  oilier  with  alarming  frequency.  In 
the  panic  of  1857  occurred  an  almost  universal 
suspension  of  specie  payments. 

The  occurrence  of  the  Civil  war  (1S61-65)  neces¬ 
sitated,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  (Mr.  Chase),  the  creation  of  a  National 
banking  system;  and  although  his  suggestion  met 
with  some  opposition  from  the  State  banks,  an 
act  was  finally  passed  authorizing  the  issue  of 
$300,000,000  iii  bank  notes  (afterward  increased 
to  $354,000,000)  based  on  United  States  interest- 
bearing  bonds,  to  be  purchased  by  the  banking 
institutions,  and  held  by  the  Government  as 
security  for  the  redemption  of  the  funds  furnished 


BANKNOTES. 


123 


BANYAN. 


to  the  former  for  circulation.  On  the  outset  new 
associations  were  for  the  most  part  organized  to 
conduct  this  busine-s,  but  subsequently  nearly  all 
of  the  old  State  banks  reorganized  under  the 
National  system,  and  the  result  has  been  to  furnish 
a  stable  currency  of  uniform  value  throughout 
the  Union.  See  National  Banks. 

See  Lawson,  History  of  Banking  (1855);  Gilbart, 
History  and  Principles  of  Banking  (2  vols.  1881); 
Hutchinson,  The  Practice  of  Banking  (3  vols. 
1880-87);  Palgrave,  Notes  on  Banking  (1873), 
Agar,  Questions  on  Banking  (1885);  Kerr,  History 
of  Banking  in  Scotland  (1884);  Iiae,  The  Country 
Banker  (1885). 

Bank-Notes,  Manufacture  of.  The  chief 
thing  to  attend  to  in  the  manufacture  of  bank¬ 
notes  is  the  rendering  of  their  forgery  impossible, 
or  at  least  easy  of  detection.  This  is  sought  to  be 
effected  by  peculiarity  of  paper,  design,  and 
printing.  Bank  of  England  notes  are  printed  in 
one  of  the  blackest  and  most  indelible  of  inks  on 
paper  expressly  made  for  the  purpose  by  one  firm 
only.  It  is  a  hand-made  paper,  remarkable  for 
strength,  lightness,  and  difficulty  of  imitation. 
Its  peculiar  water-mark  constitutes  one  of  the 
chief  safeguards  of  the  notes  against  forgery.  No 
Bank  of  England  notes  are  issued  twice,  so  that 
this  mark  is  rarely  indistinct,  and  the  paper  does 
not  lose  its  peculiar  crispness. 

In  the  United  States,  the  bank-notes  at  present 
in  circulation  are  manufactured  by  the  Govern 
ment  Bureau  of  Engraving  and  Printing,  the  paper 
being  made  by  a  private  concern  under  a  patented 
process,  the  chief  ingredients  being  a  mixture  of 
linen  and  cotton  fibre,  into  which  are  introduced 
threads  of  silk,  so  arranged  as  to  be  perceptible 
after  the  notes  are  printed.  This  style  of  paper  is 
furnished  only  to  the  Government.  Superior  skill 
is  exercised  in  engraving  the  plates,  nearly  all 
parts  of  them  being  executed  by  the  geometrical 
lathe  and  the  ruling-engine,  the  work  of  which  it 
is  impossible  to  imitate  successfully  by  hand.  The 
printing  of  the  notes  is  done  in  colored  inks  of  the 
best  quality,  sometimes  as  many  as  four  shades 
being  used.  The  great  expense  of  the  machines 
used  in  the  engraving,  and  the  superior  quality  of 
tile  work  generally,  renders  successful  counterfeit¬ 
ing  almost  impossible.  The  notes  when  badly 
worn  are  returned  to  the  United  States  Treasury, 
other  notes  being  issued  in  their  stead. 

Bankruptcy,  or  Insolvency,  is  the  state  of  a 
person  declared  to  be  unable  to  pay  his  debts. 
In  the  United  States,  the  several  States  have 
power  to  legislate  on  the  subject  of  bankrupt  and 
insolvent  laws,  subject  to  the  authority  conferred 
upon  Congress  by  the  Constitution  to  adopt  a 
uniform  system  of  bankruptcy,  which  authority, 
when  exercised,  is  paramount.  Such  State  laws, 
discharging  the  person  or  property  of  the  debtor, 
cannot  constitutionally  be  made  to  apply  to  con 
tracts  entered  into  before  they  were  passed  ;  and 
they  apply  only  to  contracts  made  within  the 
State  between  citizens  of  that  State.  The  power 
of  Congress  in  this  matter  has  been  exercised  by  a 
series  of  statutes,  the  latest  of  which  expired  in  1878, 
and  which  dealt  with  the  general  doctrines  of 
voluntary  and  involuntary  bankruptcy,  offences 
against  bankrupt  law,  and  the  constitution  of 
bankruptcy  courts.  It  is  unnecessary  to  describe 
the  practical  details  which  govern  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  Federal  and  State  bankruptcy  courts. 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph,  a  zealous  naturalist,  was 
born  in  London,  Feb.  13,  1744.  A  student  of 
botany  from  his  fifteenth  year,  in  1766  he  made  a 
voyage  to  Newfoundland,  collecting  plants  ;  and 
from  1768  to  1771  he  accompanied  Cook’s  expedi¬ 
tion  round  the  world  in  a  vessel  equipped  at  his 
own  expense.  In  1772  he  visited  the  Hebrides 
and  Iceland,  whence  he  brought  back  a  rich 
treasure  of  specimens  for  his  studies  in  natural 
history.  In  1778  he  was  elected  President  of  the 
Royal  Society,  an  office  which  he  held  for  forty- 
one  years  ;  in  1781  he  was  created  a  baronet  and 
1802  a  member  of  the  French  Institute.  He  died 
June  19,  1820. 

Banks,  T  homas,  sculptor,  born  in  Lambeth, 
England,  in  1735,  for  seven  years  was  apprenticed 
to  an  ornament  carver,  and  in  1763 gained  a  medal 
for  a  bas-relief  from  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  1770 
the  gold  medal  of  the  Royal  Academy.  He  be¬ 
came  a  member  of  the  Academy  in  1785  and  died 
in  1805. 


Banks,  in  Navagation,  are  shelving  elevations 
in  the  sea  or  the  bed  of  a  river,  rising  to  or  near 
the  surface,  composed  of  sand,  mud,  or  gravel. 
When  tolerably  smooth  at  the  top  they  constitute 
shallows,  shoals ,  and  flats  ;  but  when  rocky  they 
become  reefs,  ridges,  keys,  etc. 

Banksia,  a  genus  of  the  Australian  order  Pro 
teaceae,  named  in  honor  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks. 
Most  of  the  species  are  shrubs,  but  a  few  become 
small  trees. 


Banksia. 

A,  shoot;  B,  single  flower  enlarged;  C,  in  section. 


Banks  Land,  an  island  in  the  west  of  Arctic 
America,  discovered  by  Parry  in  1819,  explored 
by  Maclure  in  1850,  and  named  by  him  Baring 
Island.  It  is  separated  by  Banks  Strait  from  Mel¬ 
ville  Island,  lying  to  the  northwest,  and  by  Prince 
of  Wales  Strait  from  Prince  Albert  Laud,  lying 
eastward. 

Bank'ura,  a  capital  of  a  district  in  Bengal,  on 
the  north  bank  of  Dhalkisor  river.  Pop.,  17,000. 

Bann,  two  rivers  in  the  northeast  of  Ireland — 
the  Upper  Bann  flowing  into,  and  the  Lower 
Bann  out  of,  Lough  Neagh. 

Bamiatyne  Club,  a  literary  club  deriving  its 
name  from  George  Bannatyne  ( 1545-1608),  a  native 
of  Forfarshire,  and  burgess  of  Edinburgh,  to  whose 
manuscript,  compiled  during  the  pestilence  of 
1568,  we  are  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  much 
of  the  Scottish  poetry  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries.  The  Bannatyne  Club  was  instituted  in 
Edinburgh  in  1823  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Banner,  a  term  sometimes  loosely  used  to  signify 
any  military  ensign  or  standard,  but  in  a  more 
strict  sense  denoting  a  square  flag  charged  with 
the  coat  of  arms  of  the  owner.  The  banner  was 
borne  by  sovereigns,  princes,  barons,  and  banner¬ 
ets,  and  served  as  the  ensign  both  of  the  owner  of 
it  and  of  his  retainers  and  followers. 

Banneret,  a  higher  grade  of  knighthood  con¬ 
ferred  by  the  sovereign  for  some  heroic  act  per¬ 
formed  in  the  field,  and  so  called  because  the  pen 
non  of  the  knight  was  then  exchanged  for  the 
banner. 

Bannock,  a  cake  of  home-made  bread,  com 
mon  in  Scotland  and  the  North  of  England.  It 
is  usually  composed  of-  pease  meal  or  of  pease 
and  barley  meal  mixed;  prepared  without  any 
leaven,  it  is  baked  on  a  circular  plate  of  iron 
called  a  girdle. 

Bannockburn,  a  Stirlingshire  village  of  2,550 
inhabitants,  three  miles  south-southeast  of  Stir¬ 
ling,  on  the  Bannock  Burn,  a  little  affluent  of  the 
Forth.  In  the  great  battle  of  Bannockburn, 
fought  on  Monday,  June  24,  1314,  Robert  Bruce, 
witli  30,000  Scotch,  gained  a  signal  victory  over 
Edward  II.,  with  100,000  English,  and  secured 
his  throne  and  the  independence  of  Scotland. 
The  English  are  said  to  have  lost  30,000  and  the 
Scotch  8,000  men. 

Banns,  or  Bans  of  Marriage.  This  is  one 
of  three  alternative  preliminary  forms  now  essen¬ 
tial  to  the  legal  celebration  of  marriage  in  Eng¬ 
land,  the  other  two  being  Episcopal  license  and 
a  registrar’s  certificate.  Banns  of  marriage,  like 
many  ecclesiastical  regulations,  have  their 
origin  in  the  ancient  practice  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  which  the  reformers  wisely  re 
frained  from  abolishing.  By  the  publication  of 
these  banns  is  meant  the  legal  proclamation  or 
notification  within  the  parish,  district,  or  chap- 
elry,  and  in  the  proper  church  or  chapel,  of  the 


names  and  descriptions  of  the  persons  who  intend 
to  be  there  married;  the  object  being  that  all  who 
have  objections  to  the  marriage  may  be  enabled 
to  state  them  in  time. 

In  the  United  States,  banns  of  marriage  are 
not  required  inmost  States,  having  been  gradually 
superseded  by  the  marriage  license;  in  some 
States  even  this  is  not  required.  Each  State  has 
entire  jurisdiction  over  its  own  citizens  on  the 
subject  of  marriage. 

Banquette,  in  Fortification,  is  a  raised  ledge  or 
step  inside  the  parapet  of  a  rampart,  of  such  a 
height  that  musketeers,  when  standing  on  it,  may 
be  able  to  fire  over  the  crest  of  the  parapet  with¬ 
out  too  much  exposure  to  the  enemy. 

Banshee,  in  the  folklore  of  the  Irish  and  West 
ern  Highlanders  of  Scotland,  a  female  fairy  who 
makes  herself  known  by  wailings  and  shrieks, 
befote  a  death  in  a  family  over  which  she  exer¬ 
cises  a  kind  of  guardianship.  This  notion  is 
woven  into  many  folk-tales  of  rare  pathos  and 
beauty.  A  guardian  spirit  of  the  same  kind 
occurs  frequently  in  the  folklore  of  Brittany 
The  name  is  supposed  to  be  a  phonetic  spelling  of 
the  Irish  bean  sidhe,  old  Irish  ben  side,  “  woman 
of  the  fairies.” 

Banswara,  a  State  in  the  southwest  of  Raj 
putana  It.  has  an  area  of  1,500  square  miles. 

Bantam,  a  seaport,  now  decayed,  about  sixty- 
one  miles  west  of  Batavia,  in  a  residency  of  the 
same  name,  which  forms  the  west  end  of  Java. 
Pop.  of  residency,  760,000, 

Ban  'tain  Fowl  ( Gallus  bankiva),  a  well  known 
variety  of  the  common  domestic  fowl,  originally 
brought  from  the  East  Indies,  and  supposed  to 
derive  its  name  from  Bantam,  in  Java,  though 
they  probably  came  from  Japan.  It  is  remark¬ 
able  for  small  size,  being  only  about  a  pound  in 
weight,  and  for  a  disposition  more  courageous 
and  pugnacious  than  even  that  of  a  game-cock. 

Banteng  (Bos  sondaicus),  a  species  of  ox,  a 
native  of  Java  and  Borneo,  which,  in  color, 
shape,  horns,  and  absence  of  dewlap,  bears  some 
resemblance  to  the  Gaur(Res  gaums)  of  India. 

Bantry,  a  seaport  town  in  the  southwest  of 
County  Cork,  Ireland,  forty-four  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Cork.  Pop.  (1881),  2,632. 

Bantry  Bay,  a  deep  inlet  in  the  southwestern 
extremity  of  Ireland,  in  County  Cork.  It  is  25 
miles  long,  with  a  breadth  of  4  to  6  miles.  It  is 
one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  Europe,  affording 
safe  and  commodious  anchorage  for  ships  of  all 
sizes.  Here  a  French  force  attempted  to  land  in 
1796. 

Bantu  (people),  a  native  word  applied  by 
Friedrich  Muller  as  an  ethnographical  name  to  a 
large  group  of  African  languages  and  to  the 
peoples  speaking  the  same.  The  Bantu  races 
occupy  most  of  Africa  from  20°  S.  latitude  to  6° 
N.  latitude  northwards,  and  are  broadly  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  the  Negritos  and  Hottentots  to 
the  south  and  the  Soudanese  negroes  to  the  north. 

Banville,  Theodore  de,  a  French  poet  and 
prose-writer,  was  born  in  1820.  His  first  volume, 
Les  Caryatides,  issued  in  1841,  gave  him  a  stand¬ 
ing  as  a  poet  among  the  younger  members  of  the 
Romantic  school.  He  is  one  of  the  most  musical 
and  sparkling  of  lyrists;  one  of  the  gayest  and 
wittiest  of  parodists. 

Banyan,  or  Banian  ( Ficus  indica),  an  Indian 


Banyan  Tree. 


tree,  remarkable  for  its  vast  rooting  branches.  It 
is  a  species  of  fig;  has  ovate,  heart-shaped  entire 


BANYUMAS. 


124 


BARBAROUX. 


leaves,  about  five  or  six  inches  long;  and  pro¬ 
duces  a  fig  of  a  rich  scarlet  color,  not  larger  than 
a  cherry,  growing  in  pairs  from  the  axils  of  the 
leaves.  The  branches  develop  pendulous  adven¬ 
titious  roots,  which  soon  become  new  stems,  the 
tree  in  this  manner  spreading  over  a  great  sur¬ 
face.  By  the  Brahmins  the  banyan  is  held  in 
special  reverence,  as  is  its  congener  the  Sacred 
Fig,  also  called  peepul  and  bo-tree  ( F rtlighxa), 
by" the  Buddhists,  so  that  it  is  said  that  the  sites 
of  temples  can  be  readily  distinguished  as  Brah¬ 
min  or  Buddhist  by  the  presence  of  one  or  other 
tree. 

Banyumas,  a.  town  of  Java  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Serajo,  twenty-two  miles  from  the  south 
coast.  Pop.,  9,000.  The  area  of  the  province  is 
2,136  square  miles;  pop.  (1883),  1,046,405,  of 
whom  only  583  were  Europeans. 

Banyuwan'gi,  a  prosperous  seaport  town  and 
military  post  belonging  to  the  Dutch,  on  the  east 
coast  of  Java.  Pop.,  about  10,000. 

Banz,  once  one  of  the  richest  and  most  famous 
of  the  Benedictine  monasteries,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Maine,  three  miles  below  Lichtsnfels.  in 
1803  it,  was  broken  up. 

Baobab  ( Adansonice  digitata)  a  magnificent 
tree  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Sterculiacese, 
also  called  the  Monkey-bread  Tree,  is  a  native  of 
tropical  Western  Africa,  but  now  introduced  into 
the  East  and  West  Indies.  It  is  one  of  the  very 
largest  trees — not  rising  to  a  great  height,  but 
exceeding  almost  all  other  trees  in  the  thickness 
of  its  trunk  (20-30  feet).  Even  its  branches 
(60-70  feet  long)  are  often  as  thick  as  the  stems  of 
large  trees,  and  they  form  a  hemispherical  head 
of  120-150  feet  in  diameter;  their  outermost 
1  >oughs  drooping  to  the  ground,  with  large  horse- 
chestnut-like  leaves,  and  huge,  white,  solitary 
drooping  flowers.  The  fruit  (Monkey-bread)  is  of 
the  size  of  a  citron. 

Bapauine,  a  French  town,  department  of  Pas- 
de-Calais,  twelve  miles  south  of  Arras.  Here,  on 
Jan.  2  and  3,  1871,  took  place  two  bloody  strug¬ 
gles  between  the  French  Army  of  the  North  and 
it  lie  Prussian  “Army  of  Observation;”  the  French 
were  defeated,  with  a  loss  of  over  2,000.  Pop., 
3,190. 

Bapliomet,  the  alleged  name  of  a  mysterious 
idol  which  the  Templars  were  accused  of  worship¬ 
ing.  According  to  the  oldest  and  most  common 
interpretation,  the  word  is  a  corruption  of  Maho¬ 
met,  to  whose  faith  the  members  of  the  order 
were  accused  of  having  a  leaning. 

Baptism  (Gr.  baptismos,  from  baplizo,  frequent¬ 
ative  of  bapto,  I  dip  or  dye),  one  of  the  Sacra¬ 
ments  of  the  Christian  Church,  deriving  its  name 
from  the  rite  of  washing  with  water,  which  forms 
an  essential  part  of  it.  Baptism  is  almost  uni¬ 
versally  acknowledged  among  Christians. as  a 
sacrament,  and  is  referred  to  the  authority  of 
Christ  himself,  whose  express  command  to  ad¬ 
minister  it  is  recorded  in  the  Gospels  (Matt,  xxviii, 
19;  Mark  xvi,  16).  The  name  and  the  rite  were 
not  altogether  new,  however,  when  the  ordinance 
was  instituted  by  Christ. 

One  of  the  most  important  of  the  controversies 
which  have  agitated  the  Christian  church  as  to 
baptism  is  that  concerning  the  proper  subjects  of 
baptism,  whether  adults  only  who  profess  faith 
in  Christ  are  to  be  baptized,  or  if  this  ordinance 
is  to  be  administered  to  their  infants  also.  The 
baptism  of  adults  was  certainly  more  frequent 
in  the  apostolic  age  than  it  has  ordinarily  been  since. 
The  Anglican  and  Lutheran  churches,  like  the 
Roman  Catholic,  regard  the  baptism  of  infants 
as  admitting  them  into  the  church,  and  making 
them  members  of  Christ’s  body.  Other  reformed 
churches  hold  that  the  children  of  Christians  are 
included  in  the  visible  church  from  their  birth, 
and  therefore  entitled  to  baptism. 

Bap'tistery  (Gr.  baptist erion,  a  large  vase  or 
basin),  the  name  given  sometimes  to  a  separate 
building,  sometimes  to  the  portion  of  the  church 
in  which  the  ceremony  of  baptism  is  performed. 

The  celebrated  baptistery  of  Florence  is  an 
octagonal  structure,  measuring  about  100  feet  in 
diameter.  It  stands. detached  from,  but  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of,  the  west  end  of  the  cathe¬ 
dral.  It  is  built  of  black  and  white  marble,  in  the 
style  which  Giotto  is  said  to  have  introduced,  and 
which  is  still  peculiar  to  Tuscany.  The  maghifi- 


cent  bronze  doors,  with  their  beautiful  bas-reliefs, 
are  remarkable  features  of  this  famous  baptistery. 

Baptists,  a  body  of  Christians  sometimes  called 
Antipcedobaptists,  as  opposed  to  Pcedobaptists,  or 
those  who  advocate  Infant  Baptism.  They  reject 
the  name  of  Anabaptists,  as  expressing  what, 
from  their  point  of  viewg  is  not  their  practice — 
viz.,  the  re-baptizing  of  converts  from  Piedobap- 
tist  communions — for  they  regard  the  baptism  of 
professed  believers  alone  as  valid — and  also  as 
associating  them  with  the  scandals  of  the  German 
Anabaptists  of  the  sixteenth  century,  from  whom 
they  claim  to  be  historically  distinct.  Baptists 
refuse  to  acknowledge  any  great  name  as  founder 
of  their  sect.  They  trace  their  origin  to  the 
primitive  church  itself,  and  refer  to  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  and  the  Epistles  as  affording,  in 
their  opinion,  incontestable  evidence  that  their 
leading  tenets  have  the  sanction  of  inspiration. 

The  Baptists  hold  the  plenary  inspiration  and 
supreme  authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  a 
revelation  from  God;  the  equal  deity  of  the  Son 
and  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  unity  of  the  ever 
blessed  Trinity.  But  they  have  amongst  them 
many  shades  of  belief.  The  great  body  of  them 
in  Britain  and  America  hold  the  doctrine  of  Cal¬ 
vinism  in  a  modified  form. 

Particular  Baptists,  so  called  because  holding 
that  Christ  died  for  an  elect  number,  and  General 
Baptists  (called  in  America  Free-will  Baptists), 
who  maintain  that  he  died  for  all  men,  constitute 
the  two  leading  sects  into  which  the  body  is 
divided.  In  America,  the  following  communions 
baptize  by  immersion,  and  decline  to  administer 
the  rite  to  infants:  The  Seventh-day  Baptists,  who 
observe,  not  the  first  day  of  the  week,  but  the 
seventh,  as  the  day  of  rest;  the  Sir  Principle  Bap¬ 
tists,  so  called  from  the  circumstance  that  their 
creed  is  summed  up  in  the  six  points  named  in 
Heb.  vi,  1,  2;  the  Christian  Connection  Baptists, 
who  are  Unitarians;  the  Disciples  or  CampbelUtes, 
who  are  understood  to  teach  the  dogma  of  baptis¬ 
mal  regeneration;  the  Brethren  ox  Tankers,  and 
the  Anti-mission,  or  as  they  are  often  called, 
Hardshell  Baptists,  who  object  to  all  missionary 
societies  and  other  organized  schemes  of  benevo¬ 
lence,  as  not  having,  in  their  view,  the  sanction 
of  Scripture.  They  decline  to  hold  fellowship 
with  those  whoseek  by  such  means  to  further  the 
cause  of  truth  and  righteousness.  Their  numbers 
are  falling  off  from  year  to  year. 

In  1886  the  Baptists  had  in  the  United  States 
(where,  next  to  the  Methodists,  they  are  the  largest 
religious  body)  31,754  churches,  and  2,746,964 
members;  in  Great  Britain,  Ire  and,  andtheChan- 
nel  Islands,  2,742  churches,  with  302,615  mem¬ 
bers;  throughout  the  world,  37,478  churches,  and 
3,326,542  members,  besides  a  large  number  of 
regular  hearers. 

Bar,  in  Heraldry,  a  diminutive  of  the  Fess,  or, 
according  to  some  heralds,  a  distinct  ordinary, 
consisting  of  a  hori¬ 
zontal  stripe  across 
the  shield  not  ex¬ 
ceeding  one-fiftli  of 
its  width.  The  oc- 
casional  use  in 
popular  language 
of  “bar  sinister” 
for  baton  sinister  has  arisen  from  barre,  being  the 
French  equivalent  for  a  bend  sinister. 

Bar,  in  Hydrography,  is  a  bank  of  sand,  silt, 
etc.,  opposite  the  mouth  of  a  river,  which  ob¬ 
structs  or  bars  the  entrance  of  vessels.  The  bar 
is  formed  where  the  rush  of  the  stream  is  arrested 
by  the  water  of  the  sea,  as  the  mud  and  sand  sus¬ 
pended  in  the  river-water  are  thus  allowed  to  be 
deposited.  It  is  in  this  way  that  deltas  are  formed 
at  the  mouths  of  rivers. 

Bar,  in  Law.  This  word  has  several  legal 
meanings;  thus,  it  is  the  term  used  to  signify  an 
inelosure  or  fixed  place  in  a  court  of  justice  where 
lawyers  may  plead.  The  dock,  or  inclosed  space 
where  persons  accused  of  felonies  and  other 
offences  stand  or  sit  during  their  trial,  is  also 
called  the  bar;  hence  the  expression,  “  prisoner  at 
the  bar.”  It  has  also  a  general  meaning  in  legal 
procedure,  signifying  something  by  way  of  stop¬ 
page  or  prevention. 

Bar,  in  Mu-ic,  is  a  line  drawn  across  the  stave, 
to  divide  the  music  into  small  portions  of  equal 


duration;  and  to  indicate  the  accent,  each  of  these 
small  portions,  called  measures,  are  also  com¬ 
monly  but  improperly  termed  bars. 

Baraba',  a  steppe  of  Siberia,  in  the  government 
of  Tomsk,  occupying  more  than  100,000  square 
miles. 

Barabra,  a  Nubian  people  living  on  the  Nile 
from  Wady  Haifa  to  Assuan  (Egyptian  Soudan), 
They  are  about  40,000  in  number. 

Baraco'a,  a  decayed  seaport  of  Cuba,  founded 
in  1512,  and  the  capital  of  the  island  for  some 
years.  Pop.,  2,900. 

Baraguay  d’Hilliers,  Louis,  general,  was 
born  at  Paris  in  1764,  and,  receiving  an  appoint¬ 
ment  in  the  army  of  Italy  from  Napoleon,  shared 
all  the  successes  of  the  campaigns  of  1796-97. 
Made  a  general  of  division  and  commandant  of 
Venice,  in  1798  he  accompanied  the  expedition  to 
Egypt;  and  afterwards  successively  held  appoint¬ 
ments  on  the  Rhine,  in  the  Tyrol,  and  in  Cata¬ 
lonia.  He  died  in  1813. — Aciiille,  his  son,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1795,  and,  entering  the  army  in 
1812,  next  year  lost  his  left  hand  at  the  battle  of 
Leipzig,  lie  held  a  number  of  appointments  up 
to  1854,  when  he  received  the  command  of  the 
Baltic  expedition;  and  on  the  capture  of  Bomar- 
sund,  he  was  made  a  marshal.  In  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1859  he  distinguished  himself  at  Sol- 
ferino,  and  during  1870  he  was  for  a  brief  time 
commander  of  Paris.  He  died  at  AmClie-les- 
Bains,  June  6,  1878. 

Barante,  Aimable  Guillaume  Prosper 
Brugiere,  Baron  de,  a  French  historian  and 
statesman,  born  in  Auvergne,  June  10,  1782.  In 
1815  Louis  XVIII.  made  Barante  Secretary  of  the 
Ministry  of  the  Interior,  and  about  the  same  time 
lie  took  his  seat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies, 
where  he  voted  with  the  moderate  liberals.  In 
1819  he  was  raised  to  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  His 
principal  work,  a  Histoire  des  Dues  de  Bourgogne 
de  la  Maison  de  Valois,  1364-1477,  published  in 
12  vols.  1824-28,  has run  through  several  editions.- 
He  died,  Nov.  23,  1866. 

Baratynski,  Jevgeni  Abramovich,  an  emi¬ 
nent  Russian  poet,  was  born  in  1800.  His  first 
poem.  Eda,  is  a  mirror  of  Finnish  life  and  feel¬ 
ing;  his  greatest,  The  Gipsy.  He  died  in  1844  at 
Naples. 

Barbace'na,  a  flourishing  town  of  Brazil,  in 
the  Province  of  Minas  Geraes.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Barba 'does,  one  of  the  Windward  Islands, 
the  most  easterly  of  all  the  West  Indies,  lies 
seventy -eight  miles  east  of  St.  Vincent,  in  13°  4' 
N.  latitude,  and  59°  37'  W.  longitude.  Its  length 
is  21  miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  144  miles;  and  its 
area,  166  square  miles;  or  106,470  acres,  of  which 
no  less  than  100,000  are  under  cultivation.  Pop. 
(1881),  171,889,  of  whom  only  18,000  are  whites. 
Barbadoes  is  subject  to  earthquakes  aud  hurri¬ 
canes.  In  1780  one  of  them  destroyed  4,326  per¬ 
sons,  and  property  to  the  value  of  $7,000,000;  aud 
in  1831  another  destroyed  1,591  persons,  and 
property  to  the  value  of  $8,000,000. 

Barbadoes  Cherry,  the  name  given  in  the 
West  Indies  to  the  fruit  of  two  small  trees,  Mid- 
pig  hi  a  urens  and  M.  glabra. 

Barbadoes  Gooseberry  (PeresJcia  aculeata),  a 
pleasant  West  Indian  fruit,  produced  by  a  species 
of  Cactus,  with  a  round  stem,  thick,  flat  alternate 
leaves,  and  large,  strong  spines. 

Barbadoes  Leg,  the  same  as  Elephantiasis 
Arabum. 

Bar'bara,  St.,  suffered  martyrdom  at  Nico- 
media,  in  Bithynia,  in  240  or  306.  Her  festival  is 
Dec.  4. 

Barbara,  Celarent,  etc.,  mnemonic  words 
used  in  logic  to  denote  certain  syllogisms. 

Barbarian  (Gr.  barbaros),  among  the  Greeks, 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Homer,  signified  one  who 
could  not  speak  the  Greek  language;  and  this 
restricted  signification,  was  not  wholly  obsolete 
even  in  the  age  of  Plato,  for  the  latter  divides  the 
entire  human  race  into  Hellenes  and  Barbaroi.  By 
the  Chinese  to-day  all  foreigners  are  counted  bar¬ 
barians  or  “  foreign  devils.” 

Barbarossa,  Horuk  and  Khair-ed-din,  two 
brothers,  renegade  Greeks,  natives  of  Mitylene, 
who,  as  Turkish  corsairs,  were  the  terror  of  the 
Mediterranean  during  the  first  half  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century. 

Barbaroux,  Charles  Jean  Marie,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  the  Girondists,  was  born  at  Marseilles, 


BARBARY. 


125 


BARCELLONA. 


March  G,  1 767.  At  first  an  advocate  and  journalist 
at  Marseilles,  he  was  sent  by  that  city  to  the  Con¬ 
stituent  Assembly  at  Paris.  In  the  Convention  he 
adhered  to  the  Girondists,  and  belonged  to  the 
party  who,  at  the  trial  of  the  king,  voted  for  an 
appeal  to  the  people.  He  boldly  opposed  the 
party  of  Marat  and  Robespierre,  and  even  directly 
accused  the  latter  of  aiming  at  t he  dictatorship; 
consequently  he  was,  in  May,  1793,  proscribed  as 
a  royalist  and  an  enemy  of  the  republic,  and  he 
was'guillotined  at  Bordeaux,  June  25,  1794. 

Bar'bary,  an  extensive  region  in  Northern 
Africa,  comprising  the  countries  known  in  modern 
times  under  the  names  of  Barca,  Tripoli  Proper, 
Fezzan,  Tunis,  Algeria,  and  Morocco;  and  in 
ancient  times,  under  those  of  Mauritania,  Numidia, 
Africa  Propria,  and  Cyrenaica.  It  stretches  from 
Egypt  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  from  the  Medi¬ 
terranean  to  the  Desert  of  Sahara,  or  between  10° 
M  .  and  25°  E.  longitude,  and  25°  to  37°  N.  lati- 
di.de.  The  northwest  of  this  region  is  divided  by 
the  Atlas  Mountains  into  two  parts. 

Barbary  Ape,  Pigmy  Ape,  or  Magot  (Mnc- 
aus  st/lvanus,  or  I  mi  us  ecaudatus),  a  small  species 
of  tailless  monkey,  interesting  as  the  only  form 
now  found  in  Europe,  where  it  is  restricted,  how¬ 
ever,  to  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar. 


Barbary  Ape. 


Barbastelle,  a  bat  with  hairy  lips,  a  native  of 
England. 

Barbastro,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  Province 
of  Huesca.  Pop.  (1877),  8.164. 

Barbauld,  Anna  Letitia,  an  English  authoress, 
was  born  in  1743.  In  1773  she  published  her 
Poems,  which  rau  through  four  editions  in  the 
twelvemonth.  Encouraged  by  this,  she  the  same 
year,  conjointly  with  lier  brother,  John  Aikin, 
published  Miscellaneous  Pieces  in  Prose.  Next- 
year  she  married  the  Rev.  Rochemont  Barbauld. 
In  1792  she  commenced  with  the  same  brother  the 
well  known  series,  Evenings  at  Home.  In  1810 
she  published  a  collection  of  the  British  novelists, 
the  task  of  editing  which  she  had  undertaken  to 
divert  her  mind  from  the  suicide  of  her  husband 
two  years  before.  She  died  March  9  1825.  • 

Barbecue,  the  name  given  to  a  hog,  ox,  or  any 
large  animal  broiled  or  roasted  whole;  but  now 
applied  to  a  large  social  entertainment,  generally 
in  the  open  air,  where  animals  are  roasted  whole, 
and  food  and  drink  of  all  kinds  provided  on  a 
generous  scale. 

Barbed,  as  a  heraldic  term,  is  applied  to  an 
arrow  whose  head  is  pointed  and  jagged;  also  to 
the  five  green  leaves,  or  more  properly  sepals, 
which  are  shown  between  the  five  petals  of  the 
conventional  rose  of  heraldry. 

Barbel  {Barbus),  a  genus  of  fishes  in  the  family 
of  the  Cyprinidae  differing  from  Cyprinus  (Carp, 
Gold-fish,  etc.)  in  the  short  dorsal  and  anal  fins,  in 
having  one  of  the  rays  of  the  dorsal  fin  strong  and 


Barbel. 


serrated,  and  the  mouth  furnished  with  four  soft 
tactile  barbules  (whence  the  name  barbel,  from 
Lat.  barba,  a  beard),  two  near  the  point  of  the 
snout,  and  one  at  each  angle  of  the  leathery  mouth. 
The  upper  jaw  also  extends  considerably  beyond 
the  lower.  The  species  are  very  numerous. 


Barber,  a  shaver  of  the  beard  (Lat.  burba),  and 
usually  also  a  hair-cutter.  Barbers  are  of  great 
antiquity;  the  office  of  the  barber  is  referred  to 
by  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (v,  1).  In  all  Oriental 
countries,  including  China,  the  shaving  the  whole 
or  part  of  the  head  continues  to  be  performed  by 
barbers.  In  every  part  of  the  world,  the  profes¬ 
sional  barber  and  hairdresser  is  celebrated  for  his 
garrulity  and  general  obliging  qualities,  such 
being  required  by  those  who  place  themselves  in 
his  hands.  The  amusing  character  of  the  barber 
in  one  of  the  tales  in  the  Arabian  Nights,  and 
also  of  the  barber  in  Rossini’s  opera  of  Figaro 
will  readily  occur  to  recollection.  Barbers  at  one 
time  acted  as  a  kind  of  surgeons,  and  accordingly 
occupied  a  higher  social  position  than  they  now 
enjoy.  In  the  United  States,  the  business  of  the 
barber  is  largely  in  the  hands  of  the  colored  popu¬ 
lation.  Anciently,  one  of  the  utensils  of  the 
barber  was  a  brass  basin,  with  a  semicircular  gap 
in  one  side  to  compass  a  man’s  throat,  by  which 
means,  in  applying  the  lather  to  the  face,  the 
clothes  were  not  soiled.  Readers  will  recollect 
that  Don  Quixote  assumed  a  barber’s  basin  as  a 
helmet — Mambrino’s.  At  the  end  of  a  pole,  the 
brass  basin  is  still  hung  out  as  a  sign  at  the  door 
of  the  barber  in  Scotland,  Germany,  and  other 
countries.  Till  this  day,  on  the  barber’s  pole, 
there  is  represented  a  twisted  or  spiral  ribbon, 
which  symbolizes  the  winding  of  a  ribbon  around 
the  arm  previous  to  blood-letting. 

Barberini,  an  Italian  family,  originally  of 
Tuscan  origin,  that  acquired  wealth  by  trade  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  rose  to  the  front  rank  among 
the  Roman  nobility,  and  many  of  whom  were 
successively  cardinals.  The  family  rose  to  power 
and  influence  on  the  elevation  of  Maffeo  Barberini 
as  Urban  VIII.  to  the  papal  chair  in  1623.  His 
brother  Antonio  became  cardinal;  Carlo,  general 
of  the  papal  troops;  while  to  a  son  of  the  latter, 
Taddeo,  was  given  the  principality  of  Palestrina 
and  other  fiefs.  Francesco  (1597-1579),  brother 
of  Taddeo,  cardinal  and  vice-chancellor,  was 
founder  of  the  Barberini  Library;  another  brother, 
Antonio  ( 1608-71),  was  cardinal  and  high-cliam- 
berlain  under  Urban  VIII. 

Barberry  {Berberis),  a  genus  of  plants,  of  the 
natural  order  Berberideae.  All  the  species,  which 
number  about  100,  and  range  through  the  tem¬ 
perate  regions  of  the  world,  with  the  exception 
of  Australia  and  South  Africa,  are  shrubs  with 
yellow  flowers,  having  their  part s  usually  in 
multiples  of  three.  The  fruit  is  a  berry  with 
two  or  three  seeds.  The  common  barberry  (B. 
vulgaris )  is  a  native  of  the  Paltea retie  region, 
but  has  been  introduced  into  the  United  States; 
it  is  a  very  ornamental  shrub,  especially  when 
covered  with  its  brightly  colored  berries.  The 
fruit  of  the  ordinary  varieties  is  too  acid  to 
be  eaten,  but  makes  excellent  preserves  and  jelly, 
and  it  is  also  a  convenient  source  of  malic  acid. 


a,  Flowering  branch,  anrl  b,  fruit,  of  Common  Barberry 
(Berberis  vulgaris); 
c,  Branch  in  fruit  of  B.  Darwinii. 


Barberlon,  a  mining-town  of  the  Transvaal, 
at  the  De  Kaap  gold-fields. 

Barbet  (Bucco),  a  genus  of  birds  typical  of  a 
family  generally  placed  beside  the  Picidse,  or 
Woodpeckers,  and  also  exhibiting  points  of  resem¬ 


blance  to  the  cuckoos.  They  prey  on  insects, 
some  of  them  also  on  young  birds,  and  some  at 
least  are  partially  frugivorous. 

Barbette,  an  earthen  terrace  inside  the  parapet 
of  a  rampart,  serving  as  a  platform  for  heavy 
guns,  and  having  such  an  elevation  that  the  guns 
may  be  fired  over  the  crest  of  the  parapet  instead 
of  though  the  embrasures,  to  give  them  a  freer 
scope  by  swivelling  round  into  different  direc¬ 
tions. 

Barbican  (Old  Fr.  barbaeane,  also  in  Spanish, 
Portuguese,  and  Italian  forms;  perhaps  of  Arabic 
or  Persian  origin — the  usual  name  in  the  East  for 
a  towered  gateway),  a  projecting  'watch-tower 
over  the  gate  of  a  castle  or  fortified  town.  The 
term  barbican  was  more  specially  applied  to  the 
outwork,  intended  to  defend  the  drawbridge, 
which  in  modern  fortifications  is  called  the  tele 
du  ponl. 

Barbier,  (1)  Antoine  Alexandre,  a  French 
bibliographer,  born  Jan.  11,  1765.  In  1793  he 
became  librarian  to  the  Directory,  and  as  private 
librarian  to  Napoleon  (1807),  founded  the  libraries 
of  Fontainebleau,  Compi&gne,  St.  Cloud,  and 
the  Louvre.  He  held  the  same  appointment 
under  the  Bourbons  until  1822,  and  died  in  Paris, 
Dec.  5,  1825. — (2)  Henri  Auguste,  a  French  satir¬ 
ist,  born  at  Paris,  April  28, 1805.  He  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy  in  1869,  and 
died  Feb.  14,  1882.— (3)  Paul  J ui.es,  a  French 
dramatist,  born  March  8,  1825.  His  first  drama, 
Un  Poetc.  was  produced  with  considerable  suc¬ 
cess  at  the  Theatre  Fran^ais  in  1847.  Since 
then  he  has  written  numerous  dramas,  comedies, 
and  vaudevilles,  and  furnished,  often  with  the 
collaboration  of  Carre,  a  constant  succession  of 
libretti  for  Gounod,  Thomas,  Masse,  and 
Meyerbeer. 

Barbou,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  French 
family  of  printers,  the  descendants  of  John  Bar¬ 
bou  of  Lyons,  who  lived  in  the  sixteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  Ills  son,  Hugh  Barbou,  removed  from 
Lyons  to  Limoges,  where  among  other  works, 
his  celebrated  edition  of  Cicero's  Letters  to  Atticus 
appeared  in  1580.  Joseph  Gerard  Barbou,  a 
descendant  of  the  same  family,  settled  in  Paris, 
and  continued  in  1755  the  series  of  Latin  classics 
in  duodecimo — rivals  to  the  Elzevirs  of  an  earlier 
date — which  had  been  begun  in  1743  by  C’ous- 
telier. 

Barbour,  John,  the  father  of  Scottish  poetry 
and  history,  regarding  whose  life  but  little  is  on 
record  beyond  the  production  of  the  natioral  epic, 
Tin-  Brus.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  parentage, 
and  of  his  birth  it  can  only  be  conjectured  to 
have  been  about  1316.  The  ascertained  facts  of 
his  life  are  few.  Besides  The  lirvs,  Barbour 
wrote  other  two  poems,  one,  now  represented  only 
by  two  fragments,  on  the  Troy  legend,  and  The 
Book  of  Legends  <f  the  Saints. 

Barhu'da,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  West 
India  Islands.  It  is  about  10  miles  long  by  8 
broad,  with  an  area  of  75  square  miles,  and  a  pop. 
of  850. 

Barby,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  fifteen 
miles  southeast  of  Magdeburg.  Pop.  (1885), 
5,522. 

Barca,  a  country  extending  along  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa,  between  the  Great  Syrtis  (now 
called  the  Gulf  of  Sidra)  and  Egypt.  Bounded 
on  the  west  by  Tripoli,  and  on  the  south  by  the 
Libyan  Desert,  it  is  separated  from  Egypt  on  the 
east  by  no  definite  line.  It  nearly  corresponds 
with  the  ancient  Cyrenaica,  and  a  great  part  of  it 
is  a  high  plateau.  The  inhabitants  consist  of 
Arabs  and  Berbers.  Barca  was  formerly  a  de¬ 
partment  of  Tripoli,  but  in  1879  it  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  an  independent  province,  governed 
directly  from  Constantinople.  Its  area  is  60,700 
square  miles,  and  the  pop.  somewhat  exceeds 
300,000.  The  capital  is  Bengazi. 

Barcarolle  (Ilal.  bai-caivo’o,  a  boatman),  a 
species  of  song  supposed  to  have  originated 
amongst  the  gondoliers  of  Venice,  having  a  sim¬ 
ple,  regular  melody,  in  a  rythm  corresponding  to 
the  stroke  of  the  oar.  The  name  is  applied  to 
musical  compositions  for  voice  or  pianoforte  of  a 
similar  character,  and  its  form  has  been  freely 
used  by  Auber,  Mendelssohn,  and  Chopin. 

Barccllo'na  and  Pozzo  <li  Got  to,  two  towns 
of  Sicily,  in  the  Province  of  Messina,  standing 
close  together,  so  as  really  to  form  one  town, 


BARCELONA. 


126 


BARGE-BOARD. 


about  twenty-two  miles  west-southwest  of  Mes¬ 
sina.  Pop.  of  the  two  towns  (1881),  13,948. 

Barcelona,  the  second  largest  and  the  most 
important  manufacturing  city  in  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  the 
Mediterranean,  228  miles  east  of  Saragossa  and 
439  east-northeast  of  Madrid.  The  Castle  of 
Montjuich  commands  the  town  from  the  south, 
and  the  arsenals  near  by  comprise  infantry  and 
cavalry  barracks  for  7,000  men.  Barcelona  is 
divided  into  two  parts — the  old  town  and  the 
new — by  the  Rambla  (river-bed),  which  has  been 
formed  into  a  beautiful  promenade.  Barcelona 
is  the  see  of  a  bishop.  It  has  a  university  (1430, 
rebuilt  1873),  public  libraries,  in  one  of  which 
there  is  a  splendid  collection  of  MSS.;  several 
hospitals  and  other  charitable  institutions;  a  dozen 
theatres,  one  of  them  capable  of  holding  4,000 
spectators;  numerous  ancient  and  elegant 
churches;  eighteen  convents,  and  a  cathedral 
which,  begun  in  1298,  is  not  yet  completed. 
Next  to  Cadiz,  it  is  the  most  important  port  in 
Spain.  The  number  of  ships  annually  entering 
and  leaving  the  port  is  about  4,000,  with  a  ton¬ 
nage  of  1,700,000.  Pop.  (1887),  430,000.  The 
Province  of  Barcelona  has  an  area  of  2,950  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  (1884)  849.887. 

It,  is  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  associated 
with  many  historical  events.  Local  tradition 
fixes  the  date  of  its  foundation  400  years  before 
the  Romans,  and  it  is  said  to  have  been  refounded 
by  Hamilcar  Barca,  the  father  of  Hannibal,  from 
whom  its  ancient  name  Barcino  was  derived.  It 
has  often  been  besieged  and  stormed.  Of  late 
years  Barcelona  has  been  prominent  as  a  centre 
of  revolutionary  movements. 

Barcelona,  formerly  called  New  Barcelona,  a 
town  of  Venezuela,  capital  of  the  State  of  Ber¬ 
mudez,  160  miles  east  of  Caracas.  Pop.,  12,000. 
The  district,  formerly  a  separate  State,  has  since 
1881  formed  one  of  the  divisions  of  the  State  of 
Bermudez. 

Barclay,  Alexander,  a  poet  and  prose  writer, 
was  born  about  1475,  almost  certainly  in  Scot¬ 
land,  may  have  studied  at  either  or  both  of  the 
English  Universities,  and  then  traveled  in  France 
and  Italy.  He  wrote  the  Shyp  of  Folys,  a  satiri¬ 
cal  poem  of  some  merit,  and  died  in  1552. 

Barclay,  John,  was  born  in  1582  at  Pont-a 
Mousson,  in  Lorraine.  Hewrotea  political  satire 
called  Argenis,  and  died  at  Rome  in  1621. 

Barclay,  John,  M.D.,  anatomist,  was  born 
Dec.  10,  1758,  in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  and  died 
in  Edinburgh,  Aug.  21,  1826. 

Barclay,  Rev.  John  (1734-9S),  the  founder  of 
the  Bereans. 

Barclay,  Robert,  the  celebrated  apologist  of 
the  Quakers,  was  born  at  Gordonstown,  in  Moray¬ 
shire,  Dec.  23,  1648.  He  became  a  Quaker  in 
1667,  suffered  much  persecution  and  was  fre¬ 
quently  imprisoned,  but  at  last  found  protection 
in  the  favor  of  the  Duke  of  York,  afterward 
James  II.  He  made  several  journeys  into  Hol¬ 
land  and  Germany,  the  last  in  company  with 
William  Penn  and  George  Fox.  He  continued 
to  have  much  influence  with  King  James,  was 
one  of  the  twelve  Quakers  who  acquired  the  pro¬ 
prietorship  of  East  New  Jersey  in  1682,  and  was 
appointed  its  nominal  Governor.  He  was  a  fre¬ 
quent  visitor  to  London,  but  continued  to  live  at 
Erie,  where  he  died,  leaving  three  sons  and  four 
daughters,  Oct.  3,  1690. 

Barclay-Allardice,  Robert,  known  as  Cap¬ 
tain  Barclay,  the  pedestrian,  was  born  in  1779,  and 
succeeded  to  the  estate  of  Uric,  near  Stonehaven, 
England,  in  1797.  He  entered  the  army  (1805)  and 
served  in  the  Walcheren  Expedition  (1809),  but 
afterwards  devoted  himself  to  agriculture  and 
cattle-breeding.  He  died  May  8, 1854.  His  great 
feat  of  walking  1,000  miles  in  1,000  consecutive 
hours  took  place  at  Newmarket,  England,  in  June 
to  July,  1809. 

Barclay  de  Tolly,  Michael, Prince,  a  famous 
Russian  general,  was  born  in  1761  in  Livo¬ 
nia.  He  was  descended  from  the  same  Scottish 
family  to  which  Barclay  the  poet  and  the  Quaker 
apologist  both  belonged,  and  two  of  the  branches 
of  which  had  settled  in  Mecklenburg  and  Livonia. 
Entering  a  Russian  regiment  of  cuirassiers  as  a 
sergeant,  he  fought  with  great  bravery  in  the 
Turkish  war  of  1788-89,  in  the  campaign  against 
Sweden  in  1790,  and  in  those  against  Poland  in 


1792  and  1794,  and  rose  rapidly  in  rank.  He 
commanded  Benuingsen’s  advanced  guard  at  Pul- 
tusk  in  1806,  and  lost  an  arm  at  the  battle  of 
Eylau.  In  1812  he  was  made  Commander-in-chief 
of  the  Army  of  the  West.  Here,  though  face  to 
face  with  the  greatest  general  and  one  of  the 
finest  armies  of  modern  times,  he  showed  himself 
such  a  consummate  tactician  that  his  defeats  never 
became  disasters.  At  Moskwa  he  commanded 
the  right  wing:  at  Bautzen  he  commanded  the 
entire  army.  He  after ward  commanded  the  Rus¬ 
sian  army  in  Bohemia,  and  took  part  in  the  bat¬ 
tles  of  Dresden,  Kulm,  and  Leipzig.  He  was 
commander-in-chief  of  the  Russian  army  in 
France,  and  was  made  a  prince  and  a  field- 
marshal.  He  died  May  14,  1818. 

Bar-coch'ba,  Simon,  the  leader  of  the  Jews 
in  their  great  insurrection  against  the  Romans, 
under  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  from  131-135  a.d. 

Bard,  a  fortress  and  village  in  the  Italian  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Turin.  When  the  French  crossed  the 
St.  Bernard  in  1800,  the  fortress  of  Bard,  manned 
by  400  Austrians,  maintained  for  ten  days  a  resist¬ 
ance  to  their  further  advance  into  Italy. 

Bard,  the  name,  known  to  the  Romans  since 
200  b.c.,  by  which  the  Gauls  and  oilier  Celtic 
peoples  (British,  Welsh,  Irish,  and  Scotch)  desig¬ 
nated  their  minstrels. 

Bardesa'nes  (properly,  Bar-Daisan),  a  Syrian, 
the  “last  of  the  Gnostics,”  was  born  at  Edessa  in 
154,  and  died  in  222.  He  diffused  his  opinions 
through  the  medium  of  hymns,  of  which  he  is 
reckoned  the  earliest  writer  in  Syria. 

Bard  wan',  or  Burdwan  (but  correctly  Vard- 
hamana),  a  city  of  Bengal,  sixty-seven  miles  from 
Calcutta.  It  contains  a  palace  of  the  Maharajahs, 
and  a  large  collection  of  temples.  Pop.  (1881), 
34,080. — The  district  has  an  area  of  2,697  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (188J)  of  1,391,823  inhabitants. 
The  division  of  Bardwan  has  an  area  of  13,855 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881)  of  7,393,954. 

Barebone’s  Parliament,  the  “Little  Parlia¬ 
ment”  summoned  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  met  July 
4,  1653,  and  was  so  nicknamed  from  the  name  of 
one  of  its  members,  Praise-God  Barbon  or  Bare- 
bone,  a  leather  merchant.  It  consisted  of  139 
persons,  “faithful,  fearing  God,  and  hating  covet¬ 
ousness,”  but  mostly  of  very  destructive  social 
principles.  Cromwell  dissolved  it  Dec.  12,  1653. 

Bareges,  a  small  watering-place  in  France,  in 
the  department  of  Hautes  Pyrenees,  about  twelve 
miles  southeast  of  Pierrefitte. 

Bareges,  mixed  tissues  adapted  for  women’s 
dresses,  called  in  France  Crepe  de  Bareges ,  first 
manufactured  at  Luz,  in  the  Pyrenean  Valley  of 
Barhges. 

Ba'regine,  a  slimy  or  gelatinous  deposit  in  the 
hot  sulphurous  springs  at  Barfeges,  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle,  and  elsewhere,  which  is  found  on  micro¬ 
scopic  examination  to  consist  of  masses  of  rods 
and  filaments  of  Beggiatoa  mixed  with  grains  of 
reduced  sulphur. 

Bareilly,  or  Bareli,  the  chief  city  of  a  district 
in  Rohilkhand,  Northwest  Provinces  of  India, 
152  miles  east  of  Delhi.  Bareilly  was  a  centre  of 
disaffection  during  t lie  Mutiny,  but  was  taken  in 
May,  1858.  Pop.  (1881),  109,844. — The  district 
has  an  area  of  1,614  square  miles,  contains  (1881) 
1,030,936  inhabitants,  and  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Tarai,  and  on  the  east  by  Nepaul. 

Barentz  (or  Barents),  William,  a  Dutch 
navigator,  who  acted  as  pilot  in  connection  with 
several  expeditious  which  sailed  from  Holland  in 
search  of  a  northeast  passage,  and  who  died  off 
the  coast  of  Nova  Zembla,  June  20, 1597.  Captain 
Carlsen  found  Barentz’s  winter-quarters  undis¬ 
turbed  in  1871,  after  a  lapse  of  274  years,  and  in 
1875  part  of  his  journal  was  recovered  by  another 
explorer.  The  Barents  Sea  between  the  European 
mainland  and  Nova  Zembla,  Spitsbergen,  and 
Franz-Josef  Land,  still  preserves  the  name  of  this 
brave  mariner.  See  Van  Campen’s  Barents’  Relics 
(London  1877). 

Barere  (le  Vieuzac,  Bertrand,  a  French 
revolutionist  and  regicide,  born  at  Tarbes,  Sept. 
10,  1755.  First  an  advocate  at  Toulouse,  he  acted 
as  a  deputy  in  the  National  Assembly,  and  was 
sent  by  the  department  of  the  Ilautes- Pyr<?n£es  to 
the  National  Convention  in  1792.  He  attached 
himself  to  the  “Mountain,”  supporting  it  with 
eloquence  of  such  a  flowery  and  poetical  style  as 
afterward  earned  him  the  name  of  the  “Anacreon 


of  the  Guillotine.”  He  was  president  of  the  Con¬ 
vention  when  the  sentence  was  passed  upon  Louis 
XVI.  He  rejected  the  appeal  to  the  people,  and 
gave  his  vote  with  these  words;  “The  law  is  for 
death,  and  I  am  here  only  as  the  organ  of  the 
law.”  Though  a  supporter  of  Robespierre,  he 
concurred  in  his  downfall,  yet  this  did  not  save 
him  from  being  impeached  and  sentenced  to  trans¬ 
portation.  At  the  18tli  Brumaire  he  was  am- 
nesded.  He  lived  much  abroad,  and  died  Jan.  14, 
1841.  Barere  was  one  of  the  most  graceful  and 
consummate  liars  in  history.  His  masterpiece  in 
this  kind  is  his  famous  account  of  that  glorious 
suicidal  sinking  of  the  ship  Vengeur  in  1794,  which 
is  still  dear  as  a  heroic  story  to  the  French  people, 
and  was  described  in  glowing  words,  as  a  real 
historical  exploit,  by  Carlyle  in  the  first  edition 
of  his  French  Revolution.  See  Carlyle’s  Alisc<l- 
lanies. 

Baretti,  Guiseppe  Marc  Antonio,  an  Italian 
writer,  born  at  Turin  in  1719,  was  destined  for 
the  priesthood,  but  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
In  1751  he  established  himself  as  a  teacher  of 
Italian  in  London,  wherein  1757  he  published  the 
Italian  Library ,  giving  an  account  of  the  most 
eminent  Italian  authors  and  their  works.  He 
died  May  5,  1789. 

Barfleur,  a  seaport  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  La  Manclie,  from  which  in  1066, 
William  the  Conquerer  set  out  on  his  invasion  of 
England.  Pop.  (1881),  1,304.  Close  by,  on  the 
ill-famed  Rdnte  de  Barfleur,  stands  the  highest 
lighthouse  in  France,  271  feet  above  the  sea. 

Bargain  ami  Sale.  In  the  United  States,  bar¬ 
gain  and  sale  is  a  contract  to  sell  land  for  money 
or  its  equivalent,  whereupon  a  use  arises  in  favor 
of  the  bargainee  to  whom  the  seisin  is  transferred 
by  force  of  the  Statute  of  Uses;  it  is  the  most 
common  form  of  conveyance  of  land  in  the 
United  States.  All  things,  for  the  most  part,  which 
may  be  transferred  by  deed,  may  be  transferred 
by  this  mode  of  conveyance,  and  by  it  an  estate 
in  fee  for  life  or  for  years  may  be  created. 

Barga  Pass,  a  hill-pass  in  the  north  of  Bash- 
ahr  State,  Punjab,  leading  across  the  Himalayas. 
It  is  the  lowest  of  three  passes  within  a  mile’s  dis¬ 
tance,  and  its  highest  part  is  about  15,000  feet 
above  the  sea. 

Barge,  an  ancient  town  of  Piedmont.  Pop., 
2,074. 

Barge,  a  name  applied  to  vessels  of  various 
forms:  (1)  A  pleasure-boat  or  boat  of  state,  ele¬ 
gantly  fitted,  furnished  with  a  band  of  rowers, 
used  on  state  occasions.  The  college  “barges”  at 
Oxford  are  similar  boats,  but  are  permanently 
moored.  Such,  too,  are  the  “house-boats”  that 
have  come  so  much  into  vogue  on  the  Thames  of 
recent  years.  (2)  A  flat-bottomed  freight-boat, 
with  or  without  sails,  used  on  our  rivers  and 
canals,  either  in  conveying  goods  from  one  town 
or  quay  to  another,  or  to  aid  in  bringing  stores 
to  and  from  ships.  Barges  without  sails  are  often 
called  lighters.  (3)  A  long  narrow  boat  belonging 
to  a  man-of-war,  for  the  occasional  use  of  the 
superior  officers.  (4)  In  the  United  States  also,  a 
double-decked  passenger  and  freight  vessel,  with¬ 
out  sails  or  power,  and  towed  by  a  steamboat. 

Barge-board,  a  board  extending  along  the  edge 


BARHAM. 


127 


BARKING. 


often  very  richly  ornamented,  particularly  in  the 
fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 

Barham,  Richard  Harris,  author  of  the  In 
goldsby  Legends ,  was  born  at  Canterbury  in  1788. 
He  entered  Brasenose  College,  Oxford  (1807),  was 
ordained  (1813),  and  in  1811  received  a  minor  can- 
onry  of  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral,  three  years  later  be¬ 
coming  incumbent  of  a  city  church,  and  priest  in 
ordinary  of  the  chapels  royal.  His  first  novel, 
Baldwin  (1819),  fell  still-born  ;  his  second,  My 
Cousin  Nicholas  (1834),  appeared  in  Blackwood’s 
Magazine;  and  with  the  commencement  of  Bentley’s 
Miscellany,  in  1837,  he  began  a  series  of  inimitable 
burlesque  metrical  tales  under  the  pen-name  of 
Thomas  Ingoldsby.  They  were  first  collected  into 
a  volume  in  1840,  and  the  third  series  was  pub¬ 
lished  in  1847  with  a  brief  memoir  of  the  author 
by  his  son.  His  lyrics  were  published  separately 
iii  1881.  Barham  was  a  frequent  contributor  to 
the  Edinburgh  Review  and  Literary  Gazette.  He 
died  in  London,  June  17,  1845.  See  his  Life  and 
Letters  by  his  son  (2  vols.  1870  ;  3d  ed.  1880). 

Bari,  a  city  of  Italy,  capital  of  an  Italian  prov¬ 
ince,  is  situated  on  a  peninsula  in  the  Adriatic, 
277  miles  southeast  of  Ancona,  and  122  northwest  of 
Otranto.  The  massive  old  castle  is  of  Norman 
origin.  The  old  church,  San  Nicola,  a  noble  speci¬ 
men  of  the  Lombard  style  of  architecture,  founded 
in  1087,  contains  some  interesting  monuments  and 
relics.  Pop.  (188.),  58,206. 

Bari ,  a  race  of  Soudanese  negroes  on  both  sides 
of  the  White  Nile,  whose  chief  town  is  Gondokoro. 

Bariatinski,  Alexander  Ivanovich,  Prince, 
a  Russian  field-marshal,  born  in  1814,  and  edu¬ 
cated  with  the  future  czar,  Alexander  II.  His 
defeat  of  the  famous  Shamyl  secured  him  in  1852 
the  rank  of  Lieutenant-General.  On  theaccession 
of  Alexander  II.  he  returned  to  St.  Petersburg, 
and  in  1856  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the 
army  of  the  Caucasus,  and  was  made  a  field-mar¬ 
shal.  He  died  in  Geneva,  March  9,  1879. 

Barilla,  an  impure  carbonate  of  soda,  procured 
from  plants  which  grow  in  salt-marshes  or  other 
places  near  the  sea;  it  forms  a  considerable  article 
of  commerce,  being  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
soap  and  of  glass,  and  for  other  purposes  in  the 
arts.  The  greatest  quantities  of  barilla  are  pro¬ 
duced  in  Spain  and  the  Balearic  Islands  ;  but  the 
Canary  Islands,  Italy,  and  France  also  contribute 
a  part.  It  is  procured  by  burning  the  plants, 
much  in  the  same  way  that  seaweeds  once  were 
largely  burned  on  the  coasts  of  Scotland  for  kelp. 

Baring.  The  firm  of  Baring  Brothers  &  Co. 
is  one  of  the  greatest  financial  and  commercial 
houses  in  the  world.  The  father  of  its  founder 
was  John  Baring,  a  cloth  manufacturer,  who 
started  in  a  small  business  at  Larkbear,  near  Ex¬ 
eter,  England,  in  the  first  half  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  Two  of  his  sons,  Francis  and  John 
(1730-1816),  established  in  London  in  1770  the  now 
existing  house. 

Sir  Francis  (1740-1810),  was  born  at  Larkbear. 
He  became  a  director  of  the  East  India  Company, 
and  being  a  staunch  supporter  of  Pitt  was  created 
a  baronet  by  that  Minister  in  1793.  At  the  time 
of  his  death  he  was  reckoned  the  first  merchant 
In  Europe,  and  had  amassed  a  fortune  of  nearly 
$35,000,000. 

Sir  Thomas  Baring  (1772-1848),  eldest  son  of 
the  above,  succeeded  his  father  in  the  baronetcy. 
He  appears  to  have  taken  no  active  part  in  the 
business  of  the  firm,  being  chiefly  remarkable  as 
an  admirer  and  encourager  of  art.  His  fourth 
son,  Charles  Thomas  (1807-79),  Bishop  of  Dur¬ 
ham,  was  a  strong  Evangelical,  noted  for  his  piety 
and  personal  kindliness. 

Sir  Francis  Thornhill  Baring  (1796-1866), 
son  of  Sir  Thomas,  whom  he  succeeded,  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  Oxford,  where  in  1817  he  took  a  double 
first  class.  He  held  various  offices,  including  that 
of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  He  was  created 
Baron  Northbrook  in  1866,  and  died  at  Stratton 
Park  the  same  year.  His  son,  Thomas  George 
Baring,  the  second  Lord  Northbrook,  was  born  in 
1826,  and  was  successively  a  Lord  of  the  Admi¬ 
ralty,  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  India,  Under¬ 
secretary  of  War,  Governor-General  of  India 
(1872-76),  and  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty 
(1880-85). 

Thomas  Baring,  (1799-1873),  brother  of  the 
first  Lord  Northbrook,  devoted  himself  early  to 
commercial  pursuits,  and  also  to  politics.  Like  his 


I  brother  Lord  Ashburton  he  had  a  taste  for  pictures, 
i  He  was  much  more  widely  known  as  a  partner  of 
of  the  firm  of  Baring  Brothers  than  as  a  politician. 

In  1885,  the  then  head  of  the  firm,  Edward 
Charles  Baring,  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Revelstoke. 

Baring-Gould,  Sabine,  an  active  litterateur  in 
widely  different  fields,  was  born  at  Exeter  in  1834. 
In  early  life  he  lived  much  in  Germany  and  France. 
Educated  at  Clare  College,  Cambridge,  he  was 
appointed  incumbent  of  Dalton,  Thirsk,  in  1869  ; 
rector  of  East  Mersea,  Colchester,  in  1871 ;  and  in 
1881  rector  of  Lew  Trenchant,  Devonshire.  He 
attained  some  notoriety  by  the  production  of  vari¬ 
ous  novels,  which,  though  powerfully  written, 
have  not  become  popular. 

Baringo,  an  African  lake  lying  northeast  of  the 
Victoria  Nyanza,  and  half  a  degree  north  of  the 
equator.  It,  is  about  20  miles  long  and  lies  3,000 
feet  above  the  sea. 

Barita,  a  genus  of  large  Australian  birds,  more 
accurately  known  by  the  title  Gymnorhina,  and 
more  popularly  as  Piping  Crows.  The  common 
Barita  ( Gynnorhina  tibicen)  occurs  in  small  com¬ 
munities,  especially  in  cleared  places,  and  often 
near  the  settlements. 

Baritone,  that  species  of  the  human  voice 
which  lies  between  the  bass  and  the  tenor,  but 
whose  tone-character  is  more  allied  to  the  bass. 
The  compass  of  a  baritone  voice  is  from  A  on 
the  first  space  of  the  bass  clef  to  F  above  the  stave; 
but  the  principal  notes  of  the  voice  are  from  C  to 
E  within  that  compass;  and  these  should  possess 
the  energetic  character  of  a  bass  voice,  and,  above 
all,  be  produced  from  the  chest,  excepting  per¬ 
haps  the  highest.  In  former  times,  the  music  for 
this  species  of  voice  was  written  on  a  stave  with 
the  F  clef  placed  on  the  third  line.  The  name 
baritone  is  also  given  to  a  small  saxhorn  in  B 
flat  or  C. 

Barium  (sym.  Ba,  eq.  137)  is  the  metal  present 
in  heavy  spar  (sulphate  of  baryta)  and  baryta. 
It  was  regarded  as  a  white  metal,  until  the  re¬ 
searches  of  Dr.  Matthiessen  demonstrated  that  it 
possesses  a  yellow  color.  As  yet,  the  metal 
barium  has  not  been  obtained  in  mass,  but  only 
as  a  powder.  It  decomposes  water  readily  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  and  exposed  to  the  air, 
quickly  combines  with  oxygen,  forming  the  oxide 
of  barium,  BaO,  or  Baryta,  an  earth  resembling 
ordinary  caustic  lime.  The  sulphide  of  barium, 
BaS,  is  obtained  when  the  sulphate  of  baryta, 
BaS04,  in  powder  is  mixed  with  finely -pulver¬ 
ized  coal,  and  the  whole  being  placed  in  a  cruci¬ 
ble,  is  raised  to  a  red-heat  in  a  furnace.  The 
result  is,  that  4  atoms  of  the  carbon,  C,  of  the  coal 
carry  off  the  4  atoms  of  oxygen  in  the  sulphate  of 
baryta  as  carbonic  oxide,  CO,  whilst  the  barium 
united  solely  with  sulphur  is  left  behind  as  the 
sulphate  of  barium,  BaS.  The  chloride  of  barium 
is  prepared  by  adding  hydrochloric  acid,  HC1,  to 
a  solution  of  the  sulphide  of  barium,  BaS,  when 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  I  US,  escapes,  and  chloride 
of  barium  remains  behind,  and  on  evaporation 
of  the  liquid,  is  obtained  in  crystals. 

Bark.  The  hard  outer  covering  of  any  stem 


A,  Longitudinal  section  of  bark  of  Dicotyledon  (Alder). 
a,  epidermis  with  cuticle;  b,  cork  cells;  c,  thickened  , 
cells;  d,  green  cellular  layer  of  loosely-placed  cells  con¬ 
taining  chlorophyll;  e,  hard  bast  fibers;/,  thin-walled 
cells  of  soft  bast;  g,  vessels  with  sieve-plates  of  soft 
bast;  h,  cambium;  k,  wood  with  fibers  and  dotted  vessels. 

B,  The  same  in  transverse  section. 


is  often  popularly  called  bark,  or  by  botanical 
writers,  cortex.  Botanists  are  accustomed  to  re¬ 
strict  the  term  bark  to  the  outer  portion  of  the 
dicotyledonous  stem,  and  especially  to  that  of 
woody  and  perennial  stems. 

The  bark  of  many  trees  is  capable  of  being 
used  for  tanning,  but  those  kinds  are  usually  pre¬ 
ferred  which  are  rich  in  tannin,  although  other 
properties  besides  the  percentage  of  tannin  deter¬ 
mine  the  value  of  a  bark  for  preparing  leather. 
Oak  bark  from  Quercus  robur  and  pedunculata 
are  used  more  than  all  other  kinds  in  Europe,  and 
contain  from  7  to  11  per  cent,  of  tannin;  but  the 
barks  of  willow,  larch,  Scotch  fir,  birch,  and 
alder  are  likewise  employed  to  a  considerable  ex¬ 
tent.  That  of  the  chestnut  (Casianta  vcsco)  is 
much  esteemed.  From  both  bark  and  wood  of 
this  tree  an  extract  is 
made  in  France 
which  is  largely  used 
both  in  tanning  and 
dyeing.  In  Spain, 
tanners  employ  the 
inner  layer  of  the 
bark  of  the  cork  oak. 
Three  species  ol  oak 
are  used  for  tanning 
in  the  United  States 
— namely,  Quercus 

tinctoria,  prinus,  and 
falcata;  the  former 
two  contain  about  6 

„  „  per  cent.,  and  the 

stem  of  Laburnum,  showing  i„„.  o  c 

the  layers  of  the  bark.  fst  P®r  c'enIt'  ,ot 
a,  layer  of  cork  cells;  b ,  green  tannin.  \V  est  or  tli6 
cellular  layer:  c,  bast  fibers  with  Rocky  Mountains, 

soft  bast  cells  and  cambium  on  nfti,p  f)aer 

the  inner  surface;  d,  woody  ule  ,  , 

cylinder  transversed  by  medlil-  clls  densijlora ,  Which 
lary  rays,  with  cambium  cells  c  o  n  t  a  i  n  s  16.5  per 
on  its  outer  surface.  cent,  of  tannin,  is 

preferred.  But  the  bark  most  used  for  tanning, 
both  in  the  United  States  and  Canada,  is  that  of 
the  hemlock  spruce  (Abies  Canadensis).  It  con¬ 
tains  from  14  to  16  per  cent,  of  tannin.  This 
bark  lias  become  so  much  used  for  tanning,  and 
its  extract  for  both  dyeing  and  tanning,  that  the 
annual  production  of  it  in  the  United  States  has 
reached  tlie  enormous  amount  of  1,100,000 
tons,  while  the  quantity  of  oak  bark  used 
does  not  exceed  355,000  tons.  Hemlock  bark  is 
largely  exported  from  America. 

Bark-beetles,  a  name  loosely  applied  to  a  num¬ 
ber  of  Coleoptera  which  devour  the  bark  of  trees. 
Some  of  them  are  members  of  a  family  known  to 

’Ll 


a ,  Galleries  made  by  Elm-bark  Beetle  (Scoly/iis  destructor) ; 
b,  the  insect,  magnified;  c,  natural  size. 


entomologists  as  Xylopliaga,  or  wood-eaters. 
Many  beetles  eat  wood  and  such  substances,  but 
the  forms  in  question  are  of  special  importance  as 
forest  pests. 

Barker,  Edmund  Henry,  classical  scholar, 
was  born  in  1788  at  Hollym,  Yorkshire,  England, 
and  studied  at  Cambridge.  lie  prepared  editions 
of  several  Latin  classics,  a  translation  of  Butt- 
mann’s  Greek  Grammar,  and  numerous  contribu¬ 
tions  to  periodicals.  He  died  in  1839. 

Barker’s  Mill  (Fr.  Roue  d  reaction,  Ger.  Seg- 
ner’s  Wassemad),  a  water-wheel  invented  by  a 
Dr.  Barker  toward  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

Barking,  an  irregular 
market-town  of  Essex, 
seven  miles  northeast  of 
London.  It  has  a  fine  old 
I  church,  hut  scarce  any  remains  of  its  ancient 
|  abbey  (founded  670). 


BARLAAM  AXD  JOSAPHAT. 


128 


BAROMETER. 


Barlaam  and  Josaphat,  one  of  the  most 
widely-spread  religious  romances  of  the  middle 
ages,  relating  the  conversion  of  the  Indian  prince 
Josaphat  by  the  hermit  Barlaam,  his  subsequent 
resistance  of  all  forms  of  temptation,  and  his 
becoming  a  hermit.  The  story,  however,  has 
been  discovered  to  be  nothing  more  or  less  than 
a  Christianized  version  of  the  legendary  history 
of  Buddha,  agreeing  with  it  in  all  essentials  and 
many  details. 

Bar-le-Duc,  capital  of  the  French  department 
of  Meuse,  situated  on  the  River  Ornain  and  the 
Marne-Rhine  canal,  158  miles  east  of  Paris.  Pop. 
(1881),  17,421. 

Barletta,  a  seaport  of  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic. 
Pop.  (1881),  31,994. 

Barley  (' Hardeum ),  a  cereal  or  grass  crop. 
In  ordinary  cultivation  it  is  annual,  but  some 
hardy  varieties  are  sown  in  autumn,  and  except 
in  severe  winters,  survive  and  ripen  the  second 
year,  or  if  frequently  cut  green  and  not  allowed 
to  mature  seed,  may  continue  to  grow  for  several 
years.  It  is  better  adapted  than  any  other  grain 
to  the  most  northern  regions  of  the  grain-growing 
belt.  Some  of  its  varieties  are  cultivated  with 


advantage  where  the  climate  is  too  cold,  or  the 
summer  too  short,  for  any  other  cereal  crop.  It 
extends  over  a  wider  climatic  range  than  any  of 
the  other  grains.  Barley  meal  is  used  for  bread 
in  the  north  of  Europe,  but  in  other  parts  it  is 
used  as  a  horse-corn,  or  converted  into  malt  for 
the  making  of  beer,  or  deprived  of  its  outer 
husky  covering,  and  so  used  as  an  article  of 
human  food  called  pot  barley,  or  when  well 
rounded  and  polished  in  the  mill,  pearl  barley; 
this  is  sometimes  ground  into  a  tine  quality  of 
barley-meal. 

Barley  is  most  productive  where  the  climate  is 
moderately  dry  and  warm.  In  former  times 
this  grain  was  largely  employed  in  the  British 
Islands  as  human  food;  and  is  still  used  in  some 
parts  of  Ireland  and  in  the  Highlands  of  Scot¬ 
land.  Fine  malting  barley  always  commands  a 
ready  sale  as  well  as  a  high  price. 

Barlow,  Joel,  poet  and  politician,  born  in 
1755,  at  Reading,  Conn.  In  1787  lie  published  a 
poem  called  The  Vision  of  Columbus,  which 
abounds  in  beautiful  passages.  He  visited  Eng¬ 
land  and  Paris,  was  Consul  at  Algiers,  and  was 
appointed  Ambassador  to  France  in  1811.  He 
died  Dec.  22,  1812. 

Bar'mecides,  or  Barmekides,  a  Persian  fam¬ 
ily  descended  from  Barmak,  a  physician  and 
priest  of  Balkh,  in  the  Province  of  Khorasan,  the 
cradle  of  the  greatness  of  the  Abbaside  Califs, 
under  whom  the  Barmecides  rose  to  the  highest 
offices  in  the  State.  They  were  annihilated  by 
the  Calif  Haroun  al-Raschid. 

Barmecide’s  Feast,  an  imaginary  banquet, 
from  the  story  in  the  Arabian  Nights  of  one  of 
the  Barmecide  family  who  put  a  series  of  empty 
dishes  before  a  starving  beggar,  giving  them 
magnificent  names  one  after  another  as  he  did  so. 

Bar  nabas,  St.  (properly  Joses),  mentioned 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  as  a  fellow-laborer  of 
Paul,  and  even  honored  with  the  title  of  Apostle. 


He  is  also  supposed  to  have  founded  the  first 
Christian  community  at  Antioch.  According  to 
tradition,  lie  became  the  first  Bishop  of  Milan, 
lie  is  variously  reported  to  have  died  a  natural 
death,  or  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  in  Rome, 
Alexandria,  or  Cyprus,  in  01  a.d.  His  festival  is 
celebrated  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  on 
June  11. 

Barnabites,  a  congregation  of  regular  canons 
of  St.  Paul,  founded  at  Milan  in  1530,  and  sanc¬ 
tioned  by  Pope  Clement  VII.  two  years  later. 
Their  special  duties  were — to  attend  the  sick,  to 
preach,  to  instruct  the  young,  and  to  take  the 
charge  of  souls. 

Barnacle,  a  common  crustacean,  technically 
known  as  Lepas,  and  belonging  to  the  group  of 
stalked  Cirripedia.  Like  the  closely-allied  sessile 
acorn-shell,  a  barnacle  may  be  said  to  be  a  crusta- 


A,  Lepas  liilii:  B.  Sealpellum  rostratum 
(after  Danvin ) . 

cean  fixed  by  its  head,  and  kicking  the  food  into 
its  mouth  by  its  legs.  So  much  are  they  dis¬ 
guised,  however,  in  their  fixed  state,  that  they 
were  formerly  referred  to  the  class  of  molluscs. 

Barnacle  (or  Bernicle)  Goose  ( Anser  bernicla 
or  Bernicla  leucopsis),  the  bird  which  the  natural 
history  of  former  days  gravely  represented  as 
deriving  its  origin  from  a  crustacean — the  bar¬ 
nacle.  The  bird  is  in  size  smaller  than  the  com¬ 
mon  wild  goose,  being  a  little  more  than  2  feet 
long,  and  about  5  lb.  in  weight. 


Barnacle  Goose. 


The  Brent  (or  Brant)  Goose,  or  Brent  Barnacie 
{Anser  or  Bernicla  brenta  of  some  naturalists),  has 
frequently  received  the  name  of  barnacle  goose, 
and  no  little  confusion  has  thus  arisen.  It  is  a 
smaller  bird  with  much  darker  plumage,  remark¬ 
able  for  length  of  wing  and  powerful  flight,  and 
for  its  distant  migrations. 

Barnard,  Henry,  an  American  educationist, 
born  in  1811,  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  was  made  Gov¬ 
ernment  Commissioner  of  Education,  in  1867. 

Barnard,  Lady  Anne,  author  of  “Auld  Robin 
Gray,”  was  born  in  1750,  eldest  daughter  of 
James  Lindsay,  fifth  Earl  of  Balcarres,  and  died 
in  1825. 

Barnes,  Albert,  an  American  theologian  and 
celebrated  biblical  exposito",  was  born  at  Rome, 
N.  Y.,  on  Dec.  1,  1798.  At  one  time  he  was 
tried  for  heresy,  but  was  acquitted.  He  was  a 
strong  opponent  of  slavery.  He  died  at  Phila¬ 
delphia,  Dec.  24,  1870. 

Barnes,  William,  perhaps  the  greatest  of 
English  purely  pastoral  poets,  was  born  Feb.  22, 
1800.  He  died  in  1866. 

Barnett,  John,  composer,  was  born  at  Bel- 


ford,  England,  July  15, 1802,  and  was  forsome  time 
musical  director  of  the  Olympic  Theatre. — John 
Francis  Barnett,  born  in  1838,  his  nephew, 
was  also  a  composer. 

Barneveldt,  Jan  van  Olden,  Grand  Pension¬ 
ary  of  Holland,  who  played  a  great  part  in  the 
long  struggle  with  Spain,  was  born  at  Amers- 
foort,  in  Utrecht,  in  1547.  As  Advocate-General  of 
the  Province  of  Holland  (1585)  he  proved  equally 
his  insight  into  affairs  and  his  address  in  diplo¬ 
matic  management.  In  1618  Barneveldt  was 
illegally  arrested,  along  with Grotius and  Hooger- 
beets,  and  thrown  into  prison.  In  March,  1619, 
Barneveldt  was  brought  to  trial  before  a  special 
commission  of  twenty-four  judges,  who  con¬ 
demned  as  a  traitor  the  man  to  whom  his  country 
owed  its  political  existance.  On  May  13,  1619, 
l he  venerable  man  of  71  years  was  beheaded. 
His  two  sons  were  at  the  same  time  dismissed 
from  office.  Four  years  after  their  father's  death 
they  took  part  in  a  conspiracy  against  the  life  of 
the  prince,  which,  however,  was  discovered.  The 
elder  escaped  to  Antwerp,  the  younger  was  seized 
and  beheaded.  Bee  Motley’s  Life  of  Barnereldt 
(2  vols.  1874). 

Barnsley,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire.  Pop.  (1881),  29,789. 

Barnstable,  a  port  of  entry,  with  coasting 
and  fishing  trade,  in  Massachusetts,  situated  on  the 
south  side  of  Barnstable  Bay,  sixty-five  miles 
southeast  of  Boston.  Pop.  (1880),  4,242. 

Barn 'staple,  a  town  of  Devonshire,  England. 
Pop.  (1881),  12,282. 

Barnum,  Phineas Taylor,  was  born  at  Bethel, 
Conn.,  July  5,  1810,  and  in  1834  removed 
to  New  York,  where,  hearing  of  Joice  Heth,  the 
reputed  nurse  of  General  Washington,  he  bought 
her  for  $1,000,  and  with  the  aid  of  wholesale 
advertising,  exhibited  her  to  considerable  profit. 
He  continued  in  the  show  business  from  1836  to 
1839,  and  in  1841  bought  Scudder’s  American 
Museum  in  New  York,  where  he  exhibited  the 
dwarf  (Charles  S.  Stratton,  of  Bridgeport)  styled 
Gen.  Tom  Thumb,  whom  he  exhibited  in  Eu¬ 
rope  in  1844.  In  1847  he  offered  Jenny  Lind 
$1,000  anight  for  150  nights,  and  received  $700,- 
000 — the  concert  tickets  being  sold  at  auction,  in 
one  case  as  high  as  $650  for  a  single  ticket  .  Since 
1871  he  has  been  at  the  head  of  a  large  traveling 
circus. 

Baro  'da,  the  second  city  of  Guzerat,  and 
third  in  the  Presidency  of  Bombay,  capital  of  the 
Territory  of  the  Guicowar  (Gaekwar),  in  the 
State  of  the  same  name.  It  is  248  miles  north  of 
Bombay.  Pop.  (1881),  101,818.— The  Mahratta 
S  ate  of  Baroda  includes  the  Territories  of  the 
Guicowar  in  various  parts  of  the  Province  of 
Guzerat.  Area  of  these  territories,  8,570  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  2,185,005,  of  whom  1,852,- 
868  were  Hindus. 

Barometer  (Gr.  baros,  weight,  and  metren, 
a  measure),  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 


Barometers. 


weight  or  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  invented 
in  1643  by  Torricelli.  It  consists  essentially  of  a 


BARONS. 


129 


BARIIOT. 


column  of  mercury  sustained  in  a  glass  tube,  the 
height  varying  from  thirty  inches  as  the  atmos¬ 
pheric  density  varies. 

Barons,  in  early  days  in  England  possessed  a 
civil  and  criminal  jurisdiction,  and  were  liable, 
or  entitled,  to  take  part  in  the  general  council  of 
the  nation.  The  creation  of  barons  by  patent, 
first  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  made 
the  dignity  personal,  the  patent  limiting  the  suc¬ 
cession  to  it.  John  de  Beauchamp  of  Holt,  the 
first  baron  by  patent,  was  create  I  Baron  of  Kid¬ 
derminster  by  letters  patent,  dated  Oct.  10,  1387, 
to  himself  and  the  heirs  male  of  his  body.  The 
creation  of  barons  by  writ  has  now  been  long 
discontinued,  except  in  the  case  of  the  eldest  son 
of  a  peer  of  a  higher  grade,  who  is  occasionally 
summoned  to  Parliament  in  right  of  his  father’s 
barony. 

In  Germany,  the  term  baron  originally  meant, 
as  it  did  elsewhere,  a  tenant-in-chief  of  the 
crown;  but  its  signification,  instead  of  having 
become  restricted,  as  in  England,  has  become  ex¬ 
tended.  The  greater  barons,  or  dynasty-barons, 
who  had  seats  in  the  estates  of  the  realm,  were  all 
in  the  earlier  part  of  the  last  century  elevated  to 
higher  titles.  Every  descendant  of  the  Knights 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire,  who  ranked  among 
the  lower  nobility,  now  takes  the  style  of  baron; 
and  a  large  number  of  those  so  designated  are 
barons  in  virtue  of  a  diploma  from  some  reigning 
prince,  the  title  being  used  by  all  the  descendants 
of  the  patentee. 

In  France,  very  few  barons  belonging  to  the 
old  nob'es*e  remain;  most  of  the  titles  of  baron 
now  enjoyed  date  from  the  First  Empire  or  the 
Restoration.  A  very  few  were  creations  of  Louis 
Philippe.  French  barons  bear,  by  way  of  aug¬ 
mentation,  a  sinister  canton  in  their  arms. 

Baron  and  Femme,  or  Feme,  are  Norman- 
French  words,  used  in  English  law  to  denote 
husband  and  wife.  The  words  are  also  used  in 
heraldry  to  designate  the  bearing  by  which  the 
arms  of  husband  and  wife  are  carried  per  pale, 
or  marshalled  side  by  side  on  the  same  shield  (the 
husband’s  being  on  the  dexter  side). 

Baronet,  a  hereditary  title  which,  etymologi¬ 
cally  signifying  a  little  baron,  seems  to  have 
originated  in  a  misapprehension  of  the  derivation 
of  the  word  banneret,  sometimes  called  in  Latin 
bnronettus.  This  dignity  was  instituted  by  James 
I.  in  1611,  avowedly  for  the  defense  of  the  new 
plantation  of  Ulster,  but  really  to  replenish  the 
king’s  exchequer,  and  wras  bestowed  by  letters- 
patent.  The  recipientof  it  was  to  be  a  gentleman 
of  coat-armor  for  at  least  three  descents,  with  a 
clear  revenue  of  £1,000  from  lands.  His  patent 
specified  his  precedence  as  before  all  knights, 
including  Knights  of  the  Bath,  and  such  ban¬ 
nerets  as  were  not  made  in  the  field  in  presence 
of  the  King:  the  style  was  given  him  of  Baronet, 
and  the  prefix  “Sir”  before  his  name,  while  his 
wife  was  to  have  a  precedence  in  regard  to  other 
ladies  of  the  aristocracy  corresponding  to  his 
own,  with  the  style  of  “Lady,”  “ Madame,”  or 
“Dame.”  An  order  of  baronets  similar  to  that 
of  England  was  instituted  in  Ireland  in  1619,  the 
arms  of  the  Province  of  Ulster  being  also  allowed 
them,  and  the  money  going  to  replenish  the  Irish 
exchequer.  No  baronets  of  Scotland  have  been 
created  since  1707,  nor  of  Ireland  since  1801. 
Later  baronets  are  of  Great  Britain  or  of  the 
United,Kingdom.  Baronets  take  rank  immediately 
after  the  younger  sons  of  barons. 

Baron  of  Beef,  a  large  piece  of  beef,  con¬ 
sisting  of  both  sides  of  the  back,  or  a  double  sir¬ 
loin,  and  weighing,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
animal,  from  50  to  100  lb. 

Barony  is,  or  was,  a  manorial  and  hereditary 
right  arising  out  of  land,  known  to  the  law  both 
of  England  and  Scotland.  In  England,  manors 
were  formerley  called  baronies.  In  Ireland,  the 
barony  is  the  largest  subdivision  of  the  county. 

Baroque  (Portuguese  barrnco,  a  rough,  irregu¬ 
lar  pearl),  originally  a  mere  jewelers’  term,  but 
soon  extended  in  sense,  and  applied  in  art  to 
ornamental  designs  of  an  extravagant  or  incon¬ 
gruous  character. 

Barque,  or  Bakk,  a  general  name  frequently 
given  to  small  ships,  square-sterned,  without 
head-rails;  but  specially  applied  to  a  three-masted 
vessel  whose  mizzen-mast  is  “fore-and-aft” 
rigged  instead  of  being  square-rigged,  like  the 


fore  and  main  masts.  These  were  formerly  small 
vessels  only,  but  now  barques  of  over  3,000  tons 
are  frequently  built. 

Barquisime'to,  a  flourishing  town  of  Ven¬ 
ezuela.  Pop.  (1881),  28,918.  Barquisimeto  is 
also  the  name  of  one  of  the  two  sections  of  the 
State  of  Lara,  as  divided  in  1881;  it  has  an  area 
of  7,375  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881),  of 
176,079. 

Barra,  a  petty  Mandingo  kingdom  of  West¬ 
ern  Africa,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia,  with 
an  estimated  pop.  of  200,000. 

Barrackpur,  a  native  town  and  military 
cantonment,  Bengal,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Ilooghly,  and  fifteen  miles  up  the  stream  from 
Calcutta.  Pop.,  with  Nawabagani  (1881),  17,702. 

Barracks  (originally  derived  through  the  Fr. 
baraque,  from  the  Ital.  baracca,  or  the  Span 
bnrra'  d)  are  permanent  structures  for  the  accom¬ 
modation  of  soldiers,  sailors,  or  police. 

Barrafranca,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  Province 
of  Caltanisetta,  with  a  pop.  (1881),  of  9,052. 

Barra  Mansa,  a  town  of  Brazil,  on  the  Para- 
liiba,  seventy  miles  northwest  of  the  city  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Barranquilla,  the  principal  port  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  in  the  State  of  Boli¬ 
via.  Pop.,  about  20,000. 

Barras,  Paul  Jean  Francois  Nicolas, 
Comte  de,  a  prominent  figure  in  the  French 
Revolution,  was  born  June  30,  1755.  A  member 
of  the  Jacobin  Club  from  the  outset,  he  repre¬ 
sented  Var  in  the  National  Convention,  voted  for 
the  execution  of  the  King  without  delay,  and  had 
a  share  in  the  downfall  of  the  Girondists.  He 
conducted  the  siege  of  Toulon,  and  suppressed, 
not  without  great  cruelty,  the  revolt  of  the  South 
of  France.  Hated  by  Robespierre  as  not  decided 
enough,  he  attached  himself  to  his  opponents, 
and  played  the  chief  part  in  the  tyrant’s  down¬ 
fall,  being  appointed  by  the  terrified  Convention 
virtual  dictator  for  the  time.  In  this  capacity 
he  crushed  the  intrigues  of  the  Terrorists  with 
decision  and  vigor,  and  his  humanity  saved  the 
reaction  from  being  more  bloody  than  wTas  just. 
On  subsequent  occasions  he  acted  with  decision 
both  against  the  intrigues  of  the  Royalists  and  the 
excesses  of  the  Jacobins;  and  on  13th  Venddmiaire 
(Oct.  5),  1795,  being  again  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  by  the  Convention,  lie  called  his  young 
friend  Bonaparte  to  his  aid,  wdio  crushed  the  in¬ 
surgent  sections,  and  assured  his  own  future  with 
the  historical  “whiff  of  grape-shot.”  The  Direc¬ 
tory  being  appoint!  d  in  Nov.,  1795,  Barras  was 
nominated  one  of  the  five  members.  On  18th 
Fructidor  (Sept.  4),  1797,  he  wTas  again  made  dic¬ 
tator,  whereupon  he  removed  his  opponents, 
whom  he  accused  of  royalism,  from  both  councils. 
From  this  time  he  guided  the  State  almost  alone, 
until  his  covetousness  and  love  of  pleasure  had 
rendered  him  so  unpopular  that  Bonaparte,  with 
the  help  of  Si&yes,  was  able  to  overthrow  him 
easily  on  the  18tli  Brumaire  (Nov.  9),  1799.  He 
was  banished  under  the  Empire,  but  after  the 
Restoration  returned  to  Paris,  and  purchased  an 
estate  near  the  city  with  part  of  the  great  fortune 
he  had  acquired  in  the  Revolution.  Hedied  Jan. 
29,  1829; 

Barre,  Isaac,  British  soldier  and  politician, 
was  born  in  Dublin  in  1726.  He  wTas  wounded 
at  Quebec,  was  beside  Wolfe  when  he  fell,  and 
figures  in  West’s  picture  of  “The  Death  of 
Wolfe.”  He  entered  Parliament  in  1761,  and 
opposed  the  taxation  of  America.  He  died  in 
London,  July  20,  1802.  The  town  of  Wilkes- 
barre,  Penn.,  is  named  for  John  Wilkes  and 
Colonel  Barr 4. 

Barrel,  primarily  a  large  vessel  for  holding 
liquids;  next  a  measure  for  various  wares  and 
quantities.  The  barrel  of  ale  and  beer  should 
contain  32  to  36  imperial  gallons.  A  barrel  of 
flour  contains  196  pounds;  of  beef,  200  pounds. 

Barrel-organ,  a  mechanical  organ  whose 
music  is  produced  by  a  barrel  or  cylinder,  set 
with  pins  and  staples,  which,  when  driven  round 
by  the  hand,  opens  the  valves  for  admitting  the 
wind  to  the  pipes  according  to  the  notes  of  the 
music. 

Barren  Island,  a  small  volcanic  mass  in  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  lying  east  of  the  Andamans,  about 
94°  E.  longitude.  It  is  conical  in  shape,  about 
8,500  yards  in  diameter,  and  is  active. 


Barricades,  defense-works  formed  in  streets 
and  roads  of  beams,  chains,  chevaux-de  f  rise ,  and 
other  obstacles,  either  to  defend  a  town  against 
besiegers,  or  to  shelter  insurgents.  They  have 
been  used  in  street  fights  since  the  middle  ages, 
but  are  best  known  in  connection  with  insurrec¬ 
tions  in  the  city  of  Paris.  As  early  as  1358  its 
streets  were  barricaded  against  the  Dauphin, 
afterward  Charles  V.;  but  the  most  celebrated 
and  bloody  barricade-fight  was  that  between  the 
populace  and  the  Provisional  Government,  June 
23-26,  1848.  which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the 
people.  Napoleon  III.  widened  and  macada¬ 
mized  many  of  the  principal  streets  of  Paris, 
partly  with  the  express  purpose  of  rendering  the 
successful  erection  of  barricades  next  to  impos¬ 
sible;  but  in  the  second  siege  of  Paris  (1871),  the 
communists  threw  up  numbers  of  strong  barri¬ 
cades.  During  the  revolutions  of  1848  and  1849, 
barricades  were  successfully  carried  in  Paris, 
Berlin,  Vienna,  and  Dresden,  by  abandoning  the 
attack  in  front,  and  breaking  through  the  houses 
of  contiguous  streets,  so  as  to  take  their  defenders 
in  the  rear. 

Barriere,  Jean  Francois,  a  French  writer, 
born  in  1786  and  died  in  1868.  His  princi¬ 
pal  works  were  historical. — Theodore  Bar¬ 
riere,  an  active  French  dramatist,  born  in  1823 
at  Paris,  produced  a  long  series  of  dramas,  and 
died  Oct,  16,  1877. 

Barrier  Reef,  an  immense  coral-reef  extend¬ 
ing  along  the  northeast  coast  of  Australia  for 
over  1,000  miles,  at  a  distance  from  the  shore  of 
from  10  to  upward  of  100  miles.  The  reef  is,  in 
general,  precipitous,  and  in  many  places  rises 
out  of  great  depths,  lines  of  280  fathoms  having 
failed  to  reach  the  bottom  on  the  outer  side. 

Barring  Out,  a  practice  once  common  in 
schools,  which  consisted  in  the  scholars  fastening 
the  doors  against  the  master. 

Barrington,  George,  pickpocket,  and  author, 
was  born  in  1755  at  May nooth,  Ireland,  the  son 
of  a  silversmith  named  Henry  Waldron.  In  1771 
he  ran  away  from  school  to  London  and  turned 
pickpocket,  robbing  Prince  Orloff  of  a  snuff-box, 
set  with  brilliants,  valued  at  £30,000.  He  was 
sentenced  in  1790  to  transportation  to  Botany 
Bay,  but  having  on  the  voyage  out  frustrated  a 
conspiracy  amongst  the  convicts,  he  was  emanci¬ 
pated  in  1792.  He  became  superintendent  of  the 
convicts,  and  High  Constable  of  Paramatta, 
New  South  Wales,  where  he  died  at  great  age. 
His  prologue,  written  for  Young’s  tragedy. 
The  Revenge,  contained  the  famous  line, — 

“  We  left  our  country  for  our  country's  good." 

Barrister  is  the  distinctive  name  by  which 
the  advocates  or  pleaders  at  the  English  and  Irish 
bars  are  known. 

Revising  Barrister  is  a  barrister  appointed 
annually  by  the  English  judges  to  revise  the  lists 
and  settle  who  are  the  persons  entitled  to  vote  for 
members  of  Parliament. 

Barron,  Commander,  James,  born  in  Virginia 
in  1768,  died  in  1851.  He  became  lieutenant  in 
the  United  States  Navy  in  1798,  and  captain  the 
following  year.  In  1807  his  ship,  the  Chesapeake, 
thirty-eight  guns,  was  fired  into  by  the  British 
ship  Leopard,  and  four  men  claimed  as  deserters 
from  the  British  service  were  taken  from  her. 
Barron  was  court-martialed  and  suspended  for  five 
years.  An  attempt  to  reinstate  him  was  stren¬ 
uously  opposed  by  Stephen  Decatur,  who  had 
been  a  member  of  the  court-martial.  This  led  to 
a  duel  between  Barron  and  Decatur,  in  which  the 
latter  was  killed,  March  22,  1820.  Barron  after¬ 
ward  held  several  commands  and  declined  that 
of  the  Pacific  squadron. 

Barros,  Joao  de,  the  most  distinguished  of 
Portuguese  historians,  was  born  at  Vizeu  in  1496, 
and  died  in  1570.  He  wrote  an  historical  romance 
which  attracted  much  admiration,  and  in  1522 
was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Portuguese  settle¬ 
ment  in  Guinea,  in  1532  Treasurer  of  the  Indies. 

Barrot,  Camille  Hyacinthe  Odilon,  a  prom¬ 
inent  French  statesman,  born  at  Villefort, 
Lozere,  July  19,  1791.  He  became  President  of 
the  “  Aide-toi  ”  Society  in  1830,  and  at  the  July 
revolution  in  that  year,  was  one  of  t  he  three  com¬ 
missioners  appointed  to  conduct  the  dethroned 
Charles  X.  to  Cherbourg,  on  his  way  to  England. 
He  was  appointed  prefect  of  the  department  of 
the  Seine,  and  member  of  the  Council  of  State, 


9 


BARROW. 


130 


BARTLETT. 


but  resigned  his  offices  to  lead  the  opposition  to 
Casimir  Perier  and  the  reactionary  ministers  who 
followed  him.  He  supported  Thiers  from  his 
accession  to  office,  in  March,  1840,  to  his  fall  in 
October,  when  he  resumed  his  opposition  to  the 
ministry  of  Guizot.  He  took  a  conspicuous  part 
in  the  reform  movement  of  1847.  Made  president 
by  Thiers  in  his  short-lived  ministry,  he  advised 
the  king  to  withdraw  his  troops.  In  the  last 
sitting  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  lie  supported 
the  claim  of  the  Count  de  Paris  to  the  throne, 
and  the  regency  of  the  Duchess  of  Orleans.  He 
held  office  for  some  time  under  the  presidency  of 
Louis  Napoleon,  but  retired  from  active  political 
life  after  the  coup  d'etat,  Dec.  2,  1851.  In  July, 
1872,  lie  was  made  a  Councillor  of  State,  and  Vice- 
President  of  the  Council;  but  he  died  at  Bougival, 
near  Paris,  Aug.  6,  1873. 

Barrow,  a  sepulchral  mound  of  earth  or  stones 
raised  over  the  site  of  a  burial  as  a  mark  of  honor 
to  the  dead.  The  barrows  of  the  Stone  Age  in 
Europe  are  mostly  constructions  of  stones,  oblong, 
oval,  or  circular  on  the  ground-plan,  and  con¬ 
taining  chambers  for  the  reception  of  the  burials. 
The  chambered  barrows,  which  are  peculiar 
to  the  Stone  Age  of  Britain,  are  now  structureless 


Plan  of  Chambered  Barrow  or  Cairn,  at  Garrywhin, 
Caithness,  Scotland. 

heaps  in  external  appearance,  but  were  originally 
faced  with  dry- walling  on  the  external  outline  of 
the  ground  plan.  Barrows  or  tumuli  are  common 
in  the  United  States  and  Mexico. 

Barrow,  a  term  applied  to  three  prominent 
localities  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  in  honor  of  Sir 
John  Barrow. — (1)  Point  Barrow,  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Alaska,  in  71°  23'  N.  latitude,  and  156° 
31'  W.  longitude. — (2)  Cape  Barrow,  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Canada,  or  Coronation  Gulf, 
68°  N.  latitude,  1110  W.  longitude. — (3)  Barrow 
Strait,  the  earliest  of  Parry’s  discoveries,  leading 
to  the  west  out  of  Lancaster  Sound. 

Barrow,  a  river  in  the  southeast  of  Ireland. 
Of  the  Irish  rivers,  it  is  in  importance  next  to  the 
Shannon. 

Barrow,  Isaac,  a  mathematician  and  divine, 
was  born  in  1630  in  London.  He  was  appointed 
master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  to  him 
is  due  the  foundation  of  Trinity  library.  In  1675 
he  was  nominated  vice-chancellor  of  the  univer¬ 
sity;  in  1677  he  died  on  a  visit  to  London,  and 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey.  Of  his 
mathematical  works,  the  principal  are  his 
J.ectiones  Geometricce  and  Lectiones  Optica,  which 
show  him  as  an  immediate  precursor  of  Newton 
and  Leibnitz. 

Barrow,  Si  it  John,  was  born  at  Dragley  Beck, 
Lancashire,  in  1764.  In  1835  he  received  a 
baronetcy.  In  1845  he  retired  from  public  serv¬ 
ice,  and  died  in  London,  Nov.  23,  1848.  He 
suggested  and  promoted  several  Arctic  expedi¬ 
tions;  and  Barrow  Strait,  Cape  Barrow,  and  Point 
Barrow  preserve  his  memory,  lie  may  also  be 
claimed  as  the  founder  of  the  Geographical 
Society  (1830), of  which  he  was  Vice-President  till 
his  death. 

Barrow-in-Furness,  a  seaport  and  manufac¬ 
turing  and  iron-mining  town  of  North  Lancashire, 
situated  on  the  southwestern  coast  of  the  Peninsula 


of  Furness.  It  is  thirty-six  miles  west-nortliwest 
of  Lancaster,  and  268  nortli-nortliwest  of  Lon¬ 
don.  Pop.  (1881),  47,111. 

Barry,  Sir  Charles,  R.A.,  architect,  was 
born  at  Westminster  in  1795.  He  was  knighted 
on  the  opening  of  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament, 
which  he  designed.  He  died  May  12,  1860,  anil 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Barry,  James,  an  historical  painter,  born  at 
Cork,  Oct.  11,  1741.  He  was  a  prot<5g£  of  Ed¬ 
mund  Burke.  He  died  Feb.  22,  1806. 

Barry,  in  Heraldry,  the  term  applied  to  a  shield 
which  is  divided  transversely  into  four,  six,  or 


— - 

iillllbllii|iiiiiiiiiii!ii:;' 

llllllllllllllllllllllllllllll 

7  ^ 

ss 

' ' 

vi|iiimi|iiiiin*i|-iiiiiii, 

Em 

Barry.  Barry-bendy.  Barry-pily. 

more,  equal  parts,  the  tinctures  of  which  are  inter¬ 
changeably  disposed. 

Barter,  in  commerce  and  political  economy,  a 
term  used  to  express  the  exchange  of  one  com¬ 
modity  for  another,  as  contrasted  with  the  sale  of 
commodities  for  money.  It  is  simply  a  primitive 
form  of  exchange  carried  on  in  countries  in  which 
the  use  of  money  has  not  yet  been  introduced  or 
is  not  prevalent. 

Barth,  Heinrich,  one  of  the  greatest  modern 
scientific  travelers,  was  born  at  Hamburg,  Feb. 
16,  1821.  He  died  at  Berlin,  Nov.  25,  1865. 

Barth,  or  Bart,  Jean,  a  French  naval  hero, 
the  son  of  a  fisherman,  born  in  1651,  at  Dunkirk. 
The  peace  of  Ryswick  terminated  his  active 
career.  He  died  at  Dunkirk,  April  27,  1702. 

Barthelemy,  Auguste  Marseille,  a  French 
poet  and  politician,  was  born  at  Marseilles,  in 
1796.  He  was  a  strong  advocate  of  the  Napole¬ 
onic  dynasty.  He  died  in  1867. 

Barthelemy,  Jean  Jacques,  a  learned  French 
antiquary,  born  Jan.  20,  1716,  at  Cassis,  in  Prov¬ 
ence,  early  devoted  himself  entirely  to  the  study 
of  Oriental  antiquities,  especially  numismatics, 
but  retained  the  dress  and  title  of  an  abbfi.  He 
died  in  1795. 

Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire,  Jules,  French 
savant  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Paris,  Aug.  19, 
1805.  At  the  coup  d  etat  he  was  imprisoned.  On 
his  release  he  resigned  his  chair,  as  he  could  not 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Napoleon  III.,  and 
returned  to  his  studies,  especially  Sanskrit  and 
ancient  Indian  philosophy.  Elected  in  1871  to 
the  Assembly  at  Bordeaux,  he  gave  constant  sup¬ 
port  to  Thiers.  In  1876  he  was  elected  a  Life- 
Senator  by  the  Assembly;  and  he  held  the  Port¬ 
folio  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  Ferry’s  Ministry, 
1880-81. 

Bartliez,  Paul  Joseph,  an  illustrious  French 
physician,  was  born  Dec.  11,  1734,  at  Montpellier. 
Napoleon  heaped  honors  and  dignities  upon  him 
in  his  old  age.  He  died  Oct.  15,  1806. 

Bartholdi,  Auguste,  sculptor,  a  native  of 
Colmar,  Alsace,  of  Italian  ancestry,  was  trained 
in  the  studio  of  Ary  Scheffer.  In  Nov.,  1886,  his 
gigantic  bronze  statue,  220  feet  high,  of  “Liberty 
Enlightening  the  World,”  which  was  completed 
in  1884,  and  had  taken  two  years  to  get  into  posi¬ 
tion,  was  unveiled  on  Bedloe’s  Island,  New  York 
Harbor.  Bartholdi  received  the  Cross  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor,  in  1887. 

Bartliol'omew,  St.,  one  of  the  twelve  Apos¬ 
tles,  supposed  to  be  the  same  person  as  Nathanael. 
According  to  the  traditionary  record  of  Eusebius, 
he  carried  Christianity  into  India.  The  church 
at  Rome  bearing  his  name  claims  to  preserve  his 
relics.  The  Roman  Church  holds  his  festival 
Aug.  24;  the  Greek,  June  11. 

Bartholomew,  Massacre  of  St.  (Fr.  La 
St. -Barth elemy),  the  appellation  given  to  the  mas¬ 
sacre  of  the  Huguenots  in  Paris  on  the  night  of 
St.  Bartholomew’s  Day,  Aug.  24,  1572.  After 
the  death  of  Francis  II.  in  1560,  Catharine  de’ 
Medici  assumed  the  management  of  affairs,  as 
regent  for  her  son,  Charles  IX.,  and  showed 
throughout  a  more  than  Italian  craft  and  faith¬ 
lessness,  as  well  as  a  cruelty  almost  without  par¬ 
allel  in  modern  history.  In  order  to  annoy  the 
Catholic  party  of  the  Duke  Francis  of  Guise,  she 
granted  an  edict  of  toleration  to  the  Reformed, 
at  whose  head  was  the  Prince  of  Conde.  Both 


parties  took  up  arms,  and  there  ensued  a  war 
which  lasted  for  eight  years,  the  cruelties  of 
which,  through  mutual  exasperation,  are  almost 
incredible.  Guise  was  assassinated  and  CondC 
was  taken  prisoner  in  the  battle  of  Jarnac  and 
shot  (1569).  His  nephew,  young  Henry  of  Bearn, 
afterwards  Henry  IV.,  then  became  leader  of  the 
Huguenots,  along  with  Admiral  Coligny.  It  was 
not  till  the  strength  of  both  sides  was  exhausted 
that  the  peace  of  St.Germain-en-laye  was  made 
in  1570,  whereby  the  Huguenots  obtained  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion.  Catharine  de’  Medici 
now  expressed  much  friendliness  toward  them, 
and  even  endeavored  to  lull  them  into  negligence 
by  the  marriage  of  the  youthful  Henry  of  Bearn 
with  her  daughter  Margaret,  Aug.  18, 1572.  Ad¬ 
miral  Coligny  was  drawn  to  Paris,  and  the  King 
not  only  made  him  costly  presents,  but  gave  him 
an  important  office  in  the  Council  of  State.  When, 
by  means  of  the  marriage  of  Prince  Henry,  the 
most  eminent  of  the  Huguenots  had  been  allured 
to  Paris,  Admiral  Coligny  was  wounded  by  a  shot 
from  a  window  of  the  palace  on  Aug.  22,  1572. 
The  King,  indeed,  hastened  to  him  and  swore  to 
avenge  him;  but,  on  the  very  same  day  the  King 
was  persuaded  by  his  mother  that  the  Admiral 
sought  his  life.  “  By  God’s  death!”  he  exclaimed, 
“let  the  Admiral  be  slain,  and  not  him  only,  but 
all  the  Huguenots,  till  not  one  remains  that  can 
give  us  trouble!  ”  That  night  Catharine  held  a 
council,  and  appointed  St.  Bartholomew’s  Day 
for  carrying  into  effect  the  long-contemplated 
massacre.  After  Coligny  had  been  murdered  a 
bell  in  the  tower  of  the  royal  palace  at  the  hour 
of  midnight  gave  the  signal  to  the  assembled  com¬ 
panies  of  citizens  for  a  general  massacre  of  the 
Huguenots,  in  which  it  is  estimated  that  over 
4,000  perished.  The  King  himself  is  popularly 
represented  as  having  fired  from  his  palace  upon 
those  that  were  fleeing  past,  but  of  this  there  is 
no  proof.  The  Prince  of  ConiR  and  the  King  of 
Navarre  only  saved  their  lives  by  going  to  Mass, 
and  appearing  to  conform  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
The  Pope  celebrated  the  events  of  St.  Bartholo¬ 
mew’s  Day  by  a  procession  to  the  Church  of  St. 
Louis,  a  grand  Te  Deum,  the  striking  of  a  medal, 
and  the  proclamation  of  a  year  of  jubilee.  See 
White’s  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  (1867),  and 
the  works  cited  at  Huguenots. 

Bartholomew  Fair,  held  at  West  Smithfield, 
London,  from  1133  till  1855,  the  charter  for  it 
having  been  granted  by  Henry  I.  to  a  monk 
named  Rahere,  who  had  been  his  jester,  and  had 
founded  the  priory  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

Bartholomew’s,  (St.)  Hospital,  Smithfield, 
London,  was  founded  in  1123  by  Rahere,  the  first 
prior  of  the  Convent  of  Augustinian  Canons, 
which  he  also  founded  on  Smithfield.  An  ancient 
chapel  originally  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Cross  is 
now  the  parish  church  of  St.  Bartholomew  the 
Less.  The  hospital  received  fresh  charters  in 
1544  and  1547,  escaped  the  fire  of  1666,  and  was 
rebuilt  in  1729.  The  endowment  has  been  en¬ 
larged  from  public  and  private  sources,  and  the 
revenues  are  large  and  ample.  The  hospital  con¬ 
tains  675  beds,  and  affords  relief  to  about  150,- 
000  patients  annually. 

Bar'tizan,  asmall,  overhanging,  battlemented, 
parapet  turret,  projecting 
from  the  angles  on  the  top 
of  a  tower.  It  was  gener¬ 
ally  pierced  with  apertures 
for  crossbowmen,  called 
balistraria. 

Bartlett,  John  Rus 

sell,  American  author, 
was  born  at  Providence, 

ILL, Oct.  23,  1805.  He  was' 
employed  by  the  United 
States  Government  i  n 
1850-53  as  a  commissioner 
fordetermining  the  Mexican 
boundary  line,  and  in  1854 
published  an  account  of  his 
explorations  and  adven¬ 
tures  in  that  capacity.  In 
1855  he  became  Secretary 
of  State  of  Rhode  Island, 
and  in  1861-62  he  was  its 
acting  Governor.  He  died  May  28,  1886. 

Bartlett,  William  Henry,  artist,  born  in 
London  in  1809.  He  died  Sept.  13,  1854. 


Bartizan. 


BARTOLI. 


131 


BASE-BALL. 


Bar'toli,  Teddeo,  an  Italian  painter  of  the 
Siennese  school  (1362-1422).  Daniello  Bartoli, 
a  learned  Jesuit,  was  born  at  Ferrara  in  1608,  and 
died  Rector  of  the  Jesuit  College  at  Rome  in  1685. 
Pietro  Santo  Bartoli  (sometimes  called  Perug- 
ino),  born  1635,  died  1700.  lie  was  a  painter 
after  the  manner  of  Poussin,  and  a  skillful  etcher. 

Bartoli 'ui,  Lorenzo,  a  celebrated  Italian 
sculptor,  was  born  at  Vernio  in  Tuscany,  in  1777, 
His  chief  patron  was  Napoleon,  who  in  1808  sent 
him  to  Carrara  to  establish  a  school  of  sculpture. 
After  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he  repaired  to  Flor¬ 
ence,  where  he  died  in  1850. 

Bartolomme'o,  Fra  (properly  Baccio  della 
Porta),  one  of  the  most  distinguished  masters  of 
the  Florentine  school  of  painting,  was  born  at 
Florence,  in  Tuscany,  in  1469.  His  first  teacher 
was  Cosimo  Roselli,  but  he  owed  his  higher  cul¬ 
tivation  to  the  study  of  the  works  of  Leonardo  da 
Vinci.  His  subjects  are  mo-tly  religious,  and  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  his  pieces  belong  to  the 
later  years  of  his  life.  Bartolommeo  died  at 
Florence,  1517.  The  greater  number  of  his  works 
are  to  be  seen  at  Florence  in  the  gallery  of  the 
Pitti  Palace,  but  the  Louvre  possesses  a  fine  “  An¬ 
nunciation  ”  by  him. 

Bartolozzi,  Francesco,  an  eminent  engraver, 
was  born  in  Florence,  Sep.  21,  1727.  In  1769,  on 
the  formation  of  the  Royal  Academy,  Bartolozzi 
was  nominated  one  of  the  original  members,  and 
executed,  from  a  design  by  his  friend  Cipriani, 
the  diploma,  which  is  still  in  use,  and  ranks  as 
one  of  his  masterpieces.  In  1802  he  accepted  an 
invitation  from  the  Prince  Regent  of  Portugal, 
to  take  the  superintendence  of  a  school  of 
engravers  at  Lisbon,  whither  he  repaired  three 
years  afterward  in  his  seventy-eighth  year,  and 
there  resided  until  his  death,  March  7,  1815.  He 
was  the  grandfatlnr  of  the  celebrated  actress, 
Madame  Vestris.  His  prints  are  said  to  be  more 
numerous  than  those  of  any  engraver,  home  or 
foreign;  and  include  line  engravings  and  stippled 
works,  printed  in  brown  and  red. 

Barton,  Andrew,  a  famous  Scottish  naval 
commander  of  the  time  of  James  IV.,  was  killed 
in  an  engagement  with  two  English  ships  in  the 
Downs,  Aug.  2,  1511. 

Barton,  Benjamin  Smith  (1766-18151,  Ameri¬ 
can  naturalist  and  medical  practitioner,  studied 
the  natural  sciences  and  medicine  in  Philadelphia, 
Edinburgh,  and  London  (1782-88),  and  took  his 
degree  at  Gottingen.  He  practiced  medicine  in 
Philadelphia,  and  was  a  professor  in  the  Univer¬ 
sity  there. 

Barton,  Bernard,  the  Quaker  poet,  was  born 
at  Carlisle  in  1784,  and  died  Feb.  19,  1849.  His 
Metrical  Effusions  (1812)  brought  him  into  corre¬ 
spondence  with  Southey;  whilst  Poems  by  an 
Amateur  (1818),  Poems  (1820),  and  several  more 
volumes  of  verse,  increased  his  reputation,  and 
gained  him  the  friendship  of  Byron  and  Lamb. 

Barton,  Elizabeth,  commonly  called  the  Nun 
or  Maid  of  Kent,  was  born  in  1506.  About  the 
year  1525,  when  a  domestic  servant  at  Aldington 
in  Kent,  she  fell  into  a  strange  state  of  nervous 
derangement  and  religious  mania,  in  which  she 
uttered  hysterical  ravings.  When  her  illness  left 
her,  she  still  continued  her  trances  and  prophetic 
utterances,  which  drew  so  much  attention  that 
Archbishop  Warham  directed  that  two  monks 
should  be  sent  to  examine  her.  As  soon  as  the 
divorce  of  Henry  VIII.  began  to  be  discussed, 
the  nun  denounced  it  “in  the  name  and  by  the 
authority  of  God,”  and  threatened  the  King  with 
death  if  he  persisted  in  his  purpose.  The  King’s 
marriage  to  Anne  Boleyn  (1533)  and  his  subse¬ 
quent  immunity  from  the  awful  consequences  so 
confidently  foretold  destroyed  her  credit ;  and, 
meantime,  her  friend  Warham  had  died,  and 
Cranmcr  reigned  in  his  stead.  She  was  soon  “put 
to  the  question,”  and  repeated  examinations  drew 
a  full  confession  from  her  in  September  of  the  same 
year  that  “she  never  had  visions  in  all  her  life, 
but  all  that  she  ever  said  was  feigned  of  her  own 
imagination  only,  to  satisfy  the  minds  of  those 
which  resorted  to  her,  and  to  obtain  worldly 
praise.”  After  the  humiliation  of  a  public  recan¬ 
tation,  she  was  committed  to  prison;  but  soon 
after  the  close  of  the  year  was  put  on  trial  for 
high  treason,  condemned  and  executed  at  Tyburn 
with  Booking  and  four  other  accomplices  April  20, 
1534. 


Barton  Clay  is  the  name  given  to  a  series  of 
beds  which  form  the  upper  division  of  the  Eocene 
of  the  Hampshire  basin. 

Barton-upon-Humber,  an  ancient  town  of 
Lincolnshire,  England,  on  the  south  side  of  the 
Humber.  Pop.  (1881),  5,339. 

Baru,  a  fine  woolly  substance  found  at  the  base 
of  the  leaves  of  the  Saguerus  saccharifer  (also 
called  Arengae  saccharifera),  one  of  the  sago-palms 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  It  is  employed  in 
calking  ships,  in  stuffing  cushions,  and  for  other 
similar  purposes. 

Baruch  (the  Blessed),  the  son  of  Neriali,  the 
faithful  friend  and  secretary  of  the  prophet  Jere¬ 
miah.  During  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebu¬ 
chadnezzar  he  was  flung  into  prison  along  with 
the  prophet. 

Baryc,  Antoine  Louis,  a  French  sculptor,  dis¬ 
tinguished  mainly  for  his  bronze  statues  of  ani¬ 
mals  and  animal-groups,  was  born  at  Paris, 

Sept.  24,  1795,  and  died  June  27,  1875. 

Bary'ta,  or  Barytes,  or  Oxide  of  Bar¬ 
ium — symbolBaO — is  the  earth  present  in  the 
minerals  withente  (carbonate  of  barium)  and 
heavy  spar  (sulphate  of  barium).  It  may  be 
prepared  in  several  ways;  (1)  By  acting  upon 
the  carbonate  of  baryta,  BaCOs,  by  nitric 
acid,  HN03,  which  causes  the  disengage¬ 
ment  of  the  carbonic  acid,  C02,  and  the 
nitric  acid  combining  with  the  baryta  forms 
the  nitrate  of  barium,  Ba2N03.  On  evapor¬ 
ating  the  latter  substance  to  dryness,  and 
igniting  the  residue,  the  nitric  acid  volatil¬ 
izes,  and  leaves  the  baryta,  BaO.  (2)  An¬ 
other  mode  of  preparing  the  same  substance 
is  to  act  upon  a  solution  of  sulphide  of  - 
barium,  BaS,  by  the  black  oxide  of  cop¬ 
per,  CuO,  when  an  interchange  of  elements 
occurs,  the  sulphur  uniting  with  the  copper, 
producing  sulphide  of  copper,  Cu2S,  and  the 
oxygen  with  the  barium,  forming  baryta, 

BaO,  which  remains  dissolved  in  the  water,  / 
and,  on  evaporation,  deposits  crystals  in  the  / 
hydrated  condition,  BaH202,8II20.  Baryta  \ 
belongs  to  the  group  of  alkaline  earths,  ' 
and  has  the  property  of  acting  like  an  alkali 
on  coloring  matters.  It  has  a  very  harsh 
taste,  is  highly  caustic,  and  is  very  poison¬ 
ous.  A  solution  of  baryta  is  used  by  the 
chemist  as  the  best  indication  of  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the  atmos¬ 
phere,  for  when  a  plate  or  other  vessel  con¬ 
taining  the  solution  is  exposed  to  the  air, 
the  carbonic  acid  floating  across  the  surface 
combines  with  the  baryta,  and  forms  a  film 
of  white  carbonate  of  barium,  BaC03.  The 
compounds  of  baryta  are  of  considerable 
importance. 

The  sulphate  of  baryta ,  BaSO,,  otherwise  called 
ponderous  or  heavy  spar ,  is  found  in  the  mineral 
kingdom,  diffused  in  fissures  or  cracks,  passing 
through  other  rocks.  In  its  native  condition,  the 
sulphate  of  baryta  occurs  of  a  crystalline  texture, 
is  sometimes  found  pure  and  white,  but  generally 
presents  a  flesh-red  color,  from  the  red  oxide  of 
iron  (rust)  incorporated  in  it.  The  principal  use 
of  heavy  spar  is  as  a  pigment  under  the  name  of 
permanent  white;  but  having  little  opacity,  it  can¬ 
not  be  employed  by  itself,  but  only  when  mixed 
with  ordinary  white-lead.  Venice  While  contains 
1  part  sulphate  of  baryta  and  1  part  white-lead. 
Hamburg  White  contains  2  parts  sulphate  of  baryta 
and  1  part  white-lead.  Dutch  White  contains  3 
parts  sulphate  of  baryta  and  1  part  white-lead. 

Bar'yton  (Viola  di  Bardone),  an  old  chamber- 
instrument,  somewhat  like  the  viol  di  gamba  in 
tone. 

Bas,  or  Batz,  a  small  island  in  the  English 
Channel,  belonging  to  France,  and  situated  oif 
the  north  coast  of  the  department  of  FinistSre. 

Basalt.  Basalt  rocks  are  of  igneous  origin, 
and  are  composed  essentially  of  plagioclase  feld¬ 
spar,  augite,  olivine,  and  generally  magnetic  or 
titaniferous  iron.  They  show  all  varieties  of  text  ¬ 
ure,  from  smooth  compact  up  to  coarsely  crystal- 
lyne,  and  vary  in  color  from  pale  blue  up  to  dar!»- 
grayish  blue,  brownish,  and  black.  The  older 
basalt-rocks  have  frequently  undergone  some 
changes,  owing  to  the  chemical  action  of  perco¬ 
lating  water.  There  are  volcanic  masses  of  Ter¬ 
tiary  age  which  occur  in  such  regions  as  the 
Thltringer  Wald,  Erzgebirge,  the  Eifel,  Italy, 


etc.,  which  closely  resemble  basalt-rocks.  Basalt- 
rocks,  especially  the  compact  varieties,  often 
assume  a  columnar  structure.  This  structure, 
however,  is  not  confined  to  basalt-rocks.  The 
columns  vary  in  the  number  of  their  angles  from 
three  to  twelve,  but  they  have  most  commonly 
from  five  to  seven  sides.  In  some  cases  they  are 
more  or  less  perfectly  hexagonal.  Two  of  the 
best  known  and  finest  examples  of  columnar 
structure  in  basalt-rocks  are  Fingal’s  Cave  in  the 
Island  of  Staffa,  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland, 
and  the  Giant's  Causeway,  on  the  north  coast  of 
Ireland. 

Base-Ball.  The  national  game  of  America,  is 
an  evolution  of  the  old  English  school-boy  pastime 
known  as  “rounders.”  It  was  but  a  boy’s  game 
in  this  country  prior  to  about  1860,  but  has  been 
extended  throughout  the  United  States,  and 
has  secured  a  strong  foothold  in  Canada.  The  game 

Teit  *  High!. 

•  9 


Diagram  of  a  Ball  Ground. 


A  A— -Ground  reserved  for  Umpire,  Batsman,  and 
Catcher.  B  B— Ground  reserved  for  Captain  and 
assistant.  C — Players’  bench.  D— Visiting  Players’ 

Bat  rack.  E— Home  Players’  Bat-rack. 

needs  little  introduction  to  the  American  reader. 
It  is  played  on  a  level  field  of  convenient  size,  upon 
which  a  space  90  feet  square  is  marked  out  in  the 
form  of  a  diamond,  as  per  diagram.  Upcn  each 
angle  of  the  diamond  are  marked  the  bases — 
home,  first,  second,  and  third.  The  players,  nine 
on  each  side,  are  as  follows;  Pitcher,  catcher,  first 
baseman,  second  baseman,  third  baseman,  right- 
fielder,  left-fielder,  centre-fielder,  and  short¬ 
stop.  The  first  man  to  bat  takes  his  position, 
and  the  pitcher  of  the  opposite  party  delivers 
a  ball.  This  to  be  fair  must  pass  fairly  over 
the  home  base,  not  lower  than  the  batsman’s 
knee  nor  higher  than  his  shoulder.  If  three 
good  balls  are  delivered  he  must  strike  or 
go  out;  if  four  unfair  balls  are  pitched  he 
gets  a  base  and  the  second  man  comes  in. 
If  he  strikes  the  ball  he  must  run  to  at  least 
one  base,  and  if  the  hit  wall  allow  it  may  make 
all  four;  thus  achieving  a  home  run.  Supposing 
the  first  man  to  have  reached  first  base  he  must 
run  further  on,  when  his  successor  makes  a  strike, 
or  he  can  steal  a  run  to  another  base  if  the  fielders 
are  negligent.  The  pitcher’s  aim  is  to  so  deliver 
the  balls  as  to  bring  them  within  the  fair  line  and 
still  to  bother  the  batsman,  which  he  does  by 
putting  a  twist  or  curve  upon  the  ball  by  a 
peculiar  turn  of  the  wrist,  very  difficult  to  attain, 
and  answering  to  “side”  or  “English”  at  bil¬ 
liards,  or  to  the  “  inwick”  or  “outwick  ”  in  curl¬ 
ing.  But  in  this  case  the  pitcher  has  only  the 
resistance  offer,  d  to  the  ball  by  the  air  to  rely 
upon,  supplemented  of  course  by  his  own  skill  in 
giving  it  a  rotary  motion.  If  the  batsman  touches 


BASEDOW. 


132 


BASNAGE. 


the  ball  and  the  catcher  can  secure  it  before  it 
grounds,  the  batsman  is  out;  and  so,  too,  if  it  is 
taken  by  a  fielder  under  similar  circumstances. 
A  ball  hit  behind  the  lines  of  the  diamond  is 
“  foul,”  but  the  batsman  may  be  caught  out  on 
such  a  ball,  though  he  cannot  run  upon  it.  The 
nine  players  go  to  bat  in  succession,  but  when  three 
are  caught  out,  struck  out,  or  run  out,  the  innings 
is  over  and  the  opposite  side  take  their  turn  at  the 
bat;  the  first  team  supplanting  them  in  the  field. 
Two  men  may  be  nut  out  at  once — e.  g.,  the  bats¬ 
man  may  be  caught  and  the  man  on  base  may  fail 
to  reach  the  next  stopping  place.  Nine  innings 
are  played  by  each  side,  the  one  securing  the  most 
runs  winning  the  game.  If  there  is  a  tie  an  addi¬ 
tional  inning  or  more  is  played.  The  bat  used  in 
League  or  Association  matches  must  not  be  more 
than  42  inches  long,  nor  have  a  greater  diameter 
than  2i  inches.  The  ball  is  from  5  to  5£  ounces 
in  weight  ,  and  from  9  to  Of  inches  in  circum¬ 
ference. 

Basedow,  Johann  Bernhard,  a  teacher,  was 
born  Sept.  11,  1723,  at  Hamburg.  He  established 
in  1774  the  Philanthropin  at  Dessau;  but  his  rest¬ 
lessness  of  disposition,  and  his  quarrels  with  his 
colleagues,  led  to  his  withdrawal,  and  it  was 
finally  shut  up  in  1793.  Basedow  died  at  Magde¬ 
burg,  July  25,  1790. 

Bas'el  (Fr.  Bale;  older  Fr.  Bade),  a  city  and 
canton  of  Switzerland.  The  canton  was  divided 
in  1883  into  two  independent  lialf-cantons,  called 
Basel-city  and  Basel-country.  The  canton  of  Basel 
is  bounded  by  France  and  Baden,  and  has  an  area 
of  177  square  miles.  Lying  on  the  northern  slope 
of  the  Jura,  it  is  a  country  of  hills  and  valleys. 
The  mountains  attain  an  elevation  of  over  3,400 
feet.  The  chief  rivers  of  Basel  are  the  Rhine  and 
its  tributaries,  the  Birz  and  Ergloz.  Involved  in 
many  feuds  with  the  House  of  Hapsburg,  Basel 
formally  joined  the  Swiss  Confederacy  in  1501. 
From  1519  onward,  Luther’s  writ  ings  were  printed 
here;  and  at  the  end  of  twenty  years  from  that 
time,  the  reformed  doctrine  had  become  generally 
prevalent.  According  to  the  census  of  1880,  the 
lialf-canton  of  Basel-city  contained  65,101  inhabi¬ 
tants,  of  whom  44,236  were  Protestants;  and 
Basel-country,  59,271,  of  whom  46,670  were  Prot¬ 
estants.  The  capital  of  Basel-country  is  Liestal. 

The  City  of  Basel  was  much  more  important  in 
the  middle  ages  than  now;  and  this  though  its  pop¬ 
ulation  has  grown  from  29,555  in  1850  to  68,992 
in  1855.  The  minster,  a  cathedral  till  1528,  was 
founded  by  the  Emperor  Henry  II.  in  1010,  but 
not  completed  till  1500.  It  was  restored  in  1852-56, 
and  has  two  conspicuous  towers,  218  feet  high. 
Other  buildings  are  the  town-hall  (1508);  the  uni¬ 
versity,  founded  in  1460;  a  museum,  in  which 
there  are  thirty -two  pictures  by  the  younger  Hol¬ 
bein,  who  lived  thirteen  years  in  Basel,  and  a 
public  university  library  of  160,000  volumes  and 
4,000  manuscripts.  Erasmus  died  at  Basel. 

Basel,  Council  of  (1431-43),  the  last  of  the 
three  great  reforming  councils  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  was  summoned  by  Pope  Martin  V.,  and 
opened  under  his  successor,  Eugenius  IV.,  July 
23,  1431.  Its  first  session  was  held  at  Basel  on 
Dec.  14,  1431. 

Basella,  a  tropical  genus  of  Chenopodiacere. 
They  are  plants  with  twining  stems,  in  common 
use  as  pot-herbs  in  the  East  Indies,  and  cultivated 
in  China.  B.  rubra  yields  a  rich  purple  dye. 

Base  of  Operations,  in  warfare,  is  the  receiv¬ 
ing  depot  where  everything  required  for  prose¬ 
cuting  the  campaign  is  collected  and  organized 
before  being  forwarded  to  the  front,  and  to  which 
the  sick  and  wounded  can  be  sent  back  for  re¬ 
moval  to  their  homes  when  opportunities  occur. 

Bashahr,  one  of  the  Punjab  Hill-States,  on  the 
lower  slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  traversed  from 
east  to  west  by  the  Sutlej.  Area,  3,320  square 
miles. 

Ba'shan,  a  country  of  Northeastern  Palestine, 
situated  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan.  This  region  is 
a  volcanic  plateau  rising  in  the  Jebel-ed-Druz  to 
6,000  feet;  extends  60  miles  north  and  south,  and 
about  40  miles  east  and  west. 

Basil  i,  or  Bat anes  Islands,  the  most  northerly 
small  cluster  of  islets  in  the  Philippine  chain  of 
islands,  lying  between  Luzon  and  Formosa. 

Bashi-bazouks'  (mod.  Turk,  hot-brained)  are 
irregular  troopers  in  the  pay  of  the  Sultan.  Very 
few  of  them  are  Europeans;  they  are  mostly 


Asiatics,  from  some  one  or  other  of  the  provinces 
in  Asiatic  Turkey. 

Bashkirs,  a  Mongolian  people,  are  a  branch  of 
the  Ural-Altaic  stock,  and  inhabit  the  Russian 
Provinces  of  Perm,  Orenburg,  Viatka,  and  Ufa. 

Basil,  surnamed  The  Great,  and  called  St. 
Basil,  one  of  the  most  eminent  and  eloquent  of 
the  Greek  Fathers,  was  born  about  329  at  Caesarea, 
in  Cappadocia;  studied  under  the  heathen  phi¬ 
losophers  at  Athens,  founded  a  monastic  society; 
was  ordained  a  presbyter  in  364;  and  succeeded 
Eusebius  as  Bishop  of  Caesarea  in  370,  in  which 
office  he  continued  till  his  death  in  379.  His  anni¬ 
versary  is  celebrated,  in  the  Greek  Church,  on 
Jan.  1— the  day  of  his  death;  in  the  Latin  Church, 
on  June  14 — the  day  of  his  ordination. 

Basil  I.,  the  Macedonian  Byzantine  Emperor 
867-886,  came  to  Constantinople  when  still  a 
young  man,  and  was  in  861  appointed  chamber- 
lain  to  the  Emperor,  Michael  III.  After  the 
assassination  of  this  monarch  in  867,  Basil  be¬ 
came  sole  Emperor  of  the  East.  He  reigned  nine¬ 
teen  years. 

Bas'il  (O' cymun),  a  mainly  tropical  or  sub¬ 
tropical  genus  of  Labiatas,  characterized  by  a 
pleasant  aromatic  smell  and  taste,  and  reckoned 
among  sweet  herbs. — Sweet  Basil  (O.  basilicum) 
is  an  Indian  annual  which  has  long  been  culti¬ 
vated  in  Europe  for  seasoning  purposes.  The 
belief  that  it  thrives  especially  on  the  brains  of 
murdered  men  occurs  in  the  Decameron,  and  is  ren¬ 
dered  familiar  by  Holman  Hunt’s  picture. — Bush 
Basil  (O.  minimum)  is  of  similar  origin  and  uses. 
The  seed  of  both  species  should  be  sown  on  a  hot¬ 
bed,  and  subsequently  planted  out— Wild  Basil 
( Calamintha  clinopodium)  and  Basil  Thyme  (U. 
Acinos)  are  similarly  fragrant  and  aromatic. — 
Basil  Vinegar  is  made  in  the  same  manner  as  Mint 
Vinegar,  by  steeping  the  leaves  in  vinegar.  It  is 
used  for  seasoning,  in  winter,  when  the  fresh 
plant  can  not  be  obtained. 

Basil 'ica  (Gr.  Basilike ,  from Banleus,  a  king), 
a  market-place,  exchange,  and  place  of  meeting 
for  men  of  business  generally.  The  first  basilica 
we  hear  of  at  Rome  is  the  Basilica  Porcia,  in  182 
b.c.  From  this  period  till  the  time  of  Constan¬ 
tine,  they  were  constructed  in  great  numbers. 
The  large  churches  of  the  Christians,  erected  after 
the  religion  was  adopted  in  the  Empire,  had  a  gen¬ 
eral  resemblance  to  the  Roman  basilica,  and  those 
churches  have  always  gone  by  the  name  of  bas¬ 
ilicas.  A  large  number  of  basilicas  still  exist  in 
Rome,  dating  from  the  fifth  or  sixth  centuries  up 
to  the  tenth.  Churches  in  France  and  England 
were  sometimes  honored  by  the  Pope’s  permission 
to  assume  the  title  of  basilica. 

Basilica,  a  code  of  laws  of  the  Byzantine  Em¬ 
pire,  the  compilation  of  which  was  begun  in  the 
reign  of  Emperor  Basil  I.,  the  Macedonian,  com¬ 
pleted  by  his  son  Leo,  the  Philosopher,  and  first 
published  in  sixty  books  in  887. 

Basilicata,  one  of  the  sixteen  “compartimenti  ” 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  touching  the  Gulf  of 
Taranto. 

Basilicon  (Gr.  royal,  or  of  great  virtue),  a 
name  given  to  four  kinds  of  ointment,  all  of 
which  contain  the  substances  yellow  wax,  resin, 
and  olive  oil,  along  with  other  ingredients. 

Basilicon  Boron  (Gr.  the  royal  gift)  is  the 
name  of  a  work  written  in  1599  by  Janies  I.  of 
England  (then  James  VI.  of  Scotland)  for  his 
eldest  son,  Prince  Henry.  It  expounds  James’ 
views  as  to  thp  divine  right  of  kings. 

Basili'des,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Gnostics, 
who  flourished  at  Alexandria  about  the  year  125 
a.d.  Many  of  his  fantastic  speculations  bear 
greater  resemblance  to  the  doctrines  of  Zoroaster, 
and  in  some  points  to  Indian  philosophy,  than  to 
the  religion  of  Jesus. 

Basi  lisk  ( Basiliscus),  a  genus  of  Central  Amer¬ 
ican  lizards,  in  the  family  Iguankke,  differing, 
however,  from  the  Iguanas  in  the  absence  of  a 
dilatable  throat-pouch  and  of  thigh-pores,  and  in 
the  presence  of  a  continuous  movable  fin-like  crest, 
with  supporting  spines,  extending  from  the  back 
along  the  tail.  They  are  harmless,  lively  animals 
climbing  and  swimming  actively,  and  only  in  their 
quaint  form  suggesting  any  resemblance  to  the 
mythical  basilisk  of  the  ancients,  which  united  all 
the  fearsome  characteristics  that  wild  imagination 
could  invent.  The  common  hooded  basilisk  in¬ 
habits  Guiana,  Martinique,  and  tropical  South 


America  generally,  and  extends  northward  into 
Mexico.  Another  larger  species  ( B .  amboinesis ) 


inhabits  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and  its 
tender  flesh  is  much  used  for  eating. 

The  fabulous  Basilisk  (Gr.  basiliskos,  diminu¬ 
tive  of  basileus,  a  king,  so  named,  according  to 


The  Mythical  Basilisk. 


Pliny,  from  the  spot  on  the  head  like  a  crown) 
was  by  ancient  and  mediaeval  authors  believed  to 
be  hatched  by  a  serpent  from  an  egg  laid  by  a 
cock.  It  inhabited  the  deserts  of  Africa,  and,  in¬ 
deed,  could  inhabit  only  a  desert,  for  its  breath 
burned  up  all  vegetation  ;  the  flesh  fell  from  the 
bones  of  any  animal  with  which  it  came  in  contact, 
and  its  very  look  was  fatal  to  life. 

Basim,  or  Bassim,  a  town  in  India,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Berar,  413  miles  east-by-north  of  Bombay. 
Pop.  (1881),  11,576.  The  fertile  district  of  Basim 
has  an  area  of  2,958  square  miles,  and  358,883  in¬ 
habitants. 

Basin,  in  Geology,  is  a  term  applied  to  depres¬ 
sions  in  the  strata,  in  which  beds  of  a  later  age 
have  been  deposited.  Thus,  the  London  basin, 
consisting  of  tertiary  sands  and  clays,  occupies  a 
hollow  in  the  chalk,  which  is  bounded  by  the  North 
Downs  on  the  south,  and  by  the  chalk-hills  of 
Berks,  Wilts,  Bucks,  and  Herts  on  the  north.  The 
term  has  also  been  applied  to  synclinal  depressions 
of  strata,  as  the  coal-basin  of  South  Wales.  Such 
synclinal  basins  do  not  necessarily  give  rise  to  any 
corresponding  depression  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground. 

Basin  of  a  river,  in  Geography,  is  the  whole 
tract  of  country  drained  by  that  river.  The  line 
or  boundary  which  separates  one  river-basin  from 
another  is  called  the  water  shed. 

Basingstoke,  a  town  in  the  north  of  Hamp¬ 
shire,  forty -eight  miles  west-southwest  of  London. 
Pop.  (1881),  6,681. 

Baskerville,  John,  a  celebrated  English  printer 
and  letter-founder,  was  born  in  1706  at  Sion  Hill, 
Wolverly,  Worcestershire.  About  1750  he  began 
to  make  laborious  and  costly  experiments  in  letter¬ 
founding,  and  succeeded  in  making  types  which 
have  scarcely  yet  been  excelled.  The  quarto 
Virgil  printed  by  him  at  Birmingham  (1756),  in 
Macaulay’s  words  “  was  the  first  of  those  magnifi¬ 
cent  editions  which  went  forth  to  astonish  all  the 
librarians  of  Europe,”  and  which,  fifty-five  in 
number,  included  Milton,  Juvenal,  Congreve,  Ad¬ 
dison,  the  Bible,  a  Greek  New  Testament,  Horace, 
and  Catullus.  He  died  Jan.  8,  1775. 

Basket,  a  vessel  of  wickerwork,  made  of  wil¬ 
lows,  reeds,  cane,  straw,  bast,  or  other  materials, 
interwoven.  The  origin  of  the  word  is  very 
obscure.  It  is  found  in  English  since  the 
thirteenth  century,  but  it  does  not  occur  in  the 
Teutonic  or  Romance  tongues.  In  ancient  Britain 
the  shields  of  soldiers  were  formerly  made  of 
basket-work  as  well  as  their  coracles  or  boats;  the 
latter  were  made  water-tight  by  being  covered 
with  the  skins  of  animals.  Similar  boats  are  still 
used  for  crossing  some  of  the  rivers  of  India. 
Window-screens,  chairs,  pony -carriages,  and 
screens  are  made  of  basket-work.  Willows  are 
largely  grown  in  Holland,  France,  and  Germany, 
though  those  most  in  request  among  basket- 
makers  are  grown  in  England. 

Basnage,  Jaques,  the  son  of  an  advocate  in 


BASQUES. 


133 


BASTION. 


the  Parliament  of  Normandy,  was  born  in  1653 
at  Rouen,  where  he  became  pastor  of  the  Re¬ 
formed  church,  and  died  in  1723.  He  wrote 
several  historical  works. 

Basques  (Spanish  Vasco  ng  ados),  a  curious 
race  on  both  sides  of  the  Pyrenees,  forming,  in 
spite  of  its  small  numbers,  one  of  the  separate 
folk-stems  of  Europe.  Their  district  is  now 
limited  to  the  Spanish  Provinces  of  Biscaya, 
Guipuzcoa,  and  Alava — the  three  so-called  Basque 
Provinces — with  part  of  Navarra;  besides  the 
French  arrondissements  of  MauRon  and  part  of 
Bayonne,  forming  about  a  third  of  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  Basses  Pyr&Res.  During  the  last  fifty 
years,  but  especially  between  the  years  1805  and 

1875,  there  has  been  a  constant  stream  of  emigra¬ 
tion,  chiefly  to  South  America;  and  it  has  been 
estimated  that  no  fewer  than  200,000  Basques  are 
at  this  moment  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  in 
Mexico,  and  Cuba. 

The  Basque,  like  most  peasants  of  Southern 
France,  is  strongly  imbued  with  prejudices,  with 
ancient  superstitions,  which  Catholicism  has  not 
been  able  to  eradicate.  His  morals  are  pure  and 
simple;  his  religious  convictions  ardent  and  sin¬ 
cere — there  are  few  families  that  do  not  count  a 
priest  among  their  members.  His  stubborn  inde¬ 
pendence  is  shown  by  the  tenacity  of  his  assertion 
of  his  ancient  rights,  Fueros  (privileges);  and  the 
loyalty  of  his  nature  by  his  reckless  allegiance  to 
lost  causes,  notably  to  that  of  the  Carlists,  grand¬ 
father  and  grandson,  in  1833-37  and  1872-70, 
which  cost  the  Basques  the  last  of  their  ancient 
and  distinctive  privileges.  The  decree  of  July  9, 

1876,  destroyed  the  last  remnant  of  ancient 
Basque  nationality,  by  introducing  the  conscrip¬ 
tion  and  the  same  taxation  as  in  the  rest  of  Spain. 
They  have  produced  a  large  number  of  great  sea¬ 
men.  Ignatius  Loyola,  the  founder  of  the  Order 
of  Jesus,  and  Francis  Xavier,  the  most  devoted  of 
its  missionaries,  were  Basques.  The  wonderful 
language  of  the  Basques  stands  as  yet  absolutely 
isolated  from  all  the  tongues  of  Europe,  and 
furnishes  perhaps  the  only  example  of  a  con¬ 
sistently  incorporating  language.  Basque  has  no 
graphic  system  of  its  own,  but  employs  the 
Roman  character.  Its  general  alphabet  is  very 
complicated.  The  total  number  of  Basque  speak¬ 
ing  people  in  Europe  is  about  610,000;  of  these, 
65,000  are  in  the  arrondissement  of  Bayonne,  and 
60,000  in  that  of  MauRon,  while  150,000  are  found 
in  Navarra,  180,000  in  Guipuzcoa,  10,000  in 
Alava  and  145,000  in  Biscaya. 

Basra  (also  Bassora  or  Bussora),  a  town  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  is  situated  on  the  western  bank 
of  the  Euphrates,  fifty-six  miles  from  its  mouth 
in  the  Persian  Gulf.  Pop.,  40,000. 

Bass  (Labi  ax),  a  genus  of  marine  fishes  of  the 
Perch  family,  the  most  familiar  of  which  is  the 
black  bass,  inhabiting  both  salt  and  fresh  water. 
The  striped  bass  or  Rock-fisli  (L.  linea(ux)  very 
nearly  resembles  the  common  bass,  but  attains  a 
larger  size,  and  is  marked  by  seven  or  eight  long¬ 
itudinal  black  lines.  The  name  Stone  Bass  is 
given  to  various  forms,  but  especially  the  Poly¬ 
prion  cerninm ,  abundant  in  southern  parts  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  found  on  the  American 
coasts  and  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Bass,  or  Base,  in  Music,  is  the  deepest  or  low¬ 
est  part,  by  whatever  instrument  it  may  be  per¬ 
formed.  Bass  is  also  applied  to  the  lowest  and 
deepest  male  voice.  The  compass  of  a  bass  voice 
is  generally  from  F  below  the  bass  clef  to  D 
above  it. — Bass  or  Base  Viol  is  the  name  of  an 
old  stringed  instrument,  with  from  five  to  six 
strings,  tuned  variously  to  suit  the  music,  and 
played  with  a  bow.  Double  bass  (contra-bass)  is 
t he  deepest-toned  of  stringed  instruments,  and 
the  foundation  part  of  the  modern  orchestra. 

Bassadore,  the  principal  station  for  British 
ships  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  situated  at  the  west 
end  of  the  Island  of  Kishm. 

Bassa'no,  a  walled  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Vicenza,  on  the  Brenta,  thirty  miles  north- 
by-west  of  Padua.  In  the  neighborhood  Na¬ 
poleon  defeated  the  Austrian  Field  Marshal 
Wurmser  in  1796.  Pop.  (1881),  6,086. 

Bassa'no  (or  more  properly  Giacomo  da 
Ponte),  an  artist  of  eminence,  was  bom  at 
Bassano  in  1510,  and  died  in  1592. 

Basse-terre  (Fr.  lowland),  three  places  in  the 
West  Indies. — (1)  The  capital  of  St.  Christopher’s 


or  St.  Kitt’s.  Pop.,  8,500. — (2)  Capital  of  the 
French  Island  of  Guadeloupe,  giving  its  name  to 
the  larger  of  the  two  islets  into  which  Guadeloupe 
is  divided;  pop.,  about  9,500. — (3)  The  chief  town 
of  Marie  Galante,  a  dependency  of  Guadeloupe, 
which  is  about  twelve  miles  to  the  northwest. 

Basset  Horu(Ital.  cornocli  bassetlo),  the  richest 
and  softest  of  all  wind-instruments,  invented  in 
Passau  in  1770,  improved  by  Lotz  in  Presburg  in 
1782.  Itis similar  toa  clarionet  intone  and  finger¬ 
ing,  but  has  additional  low  keys,  extending  its 
compass  to  C  in  the  bass  clef,  sounding,  as  the 
instrument  is  tuned  in  F,  the  F  below. 

Bassompierre,  Francois  de,  Mar¬ 
shal  of  France,  was  bom  in  1579,  at 
Harouel,  in  Lorraine.  He  was  twelve 
years  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  and 
died  in  1646. 

Bassoon  fagotto),  an  important 
wind-instrument  of  the  reed  species, 
made  of  maple-wood  or  plane-tree.  The 
bassoon  is  an  Italian  invention;  its  name 
fagotto  meaning  “  a  bundle,”  probably 
from  its  being  made  in  different  pieces 
laid  one  against  the  other. 

Bass  Rock,  a  remarkable  island-rock 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Forth. 

It  is  about  a  mile  in  circumference, 
nearly  round,  and  313  feet  high. 

Bass  Strait,  the  channel  which 
separates  Tasmania  from  Australia.  It 
is  about  180  miles  long,  and  has  an 
average  breadth  of  about  140  miles. 

Bast,  or  Piilceum  (formerly  often 
called  Liber ,  Inner  Bark ,  or  Endoph- 
laium),  is  a  term  applied  by  botanists 
to  distinguish  that  portion  of  the  fibro- 
vascular  bundle  which  is  characterized 
by  the  presence  of  sieve-tubes,  from  the 
woody  portion  which  is  distinguished 
by  the  presence  of  vessels.  A  bast- 
fiber  has  frequently  a  breaking-strain 
greater  than  that  of  steel,  and  the  varied 
economic  applications  of  bast  essential¬ 
ly  depend  upon  the  fineness  and  the 
toughness  of  the  fiber;  thus  the  fibers  of  hemp, 
flax,  jute,  etc.,  are  nothing  else  than  bast.  The 
name  bast,  however,  is  more  usually  applied  to 
the  inner  bark  of  trees,  and  is  common  to  the 
Teutonic  languages,  designating  the  inner  bark  of 
the  Lime-tree  or  linden-tree,  which  is  employed 
for  making  a  coarse  kind  of  ropes,  mats  well 


Bastian,  Adolf,  German  traveler  and  anthro¬ 
pologist,  born  at  Bremen,  June  26,  1826. 

Bastian,  Heniiy  Charlton,  physiologist,  was 
born  at  Truro,  Cornwall,  England,  in  1837.  Dr. 
Bastian  is  notable  as  the  champion  of  the  doctrine 
of  spontaneous  generation. 

Bastiat,  Frederic,  an  eminent  French  political 
economist,  was  bora  at  Bayonne  in  1801.  He 
was  a  decided  opponent  of  the  system  of  pro¬ 
tection.  He  died  at  Rome,  Dec.  24,1850. 

Bastidc,  Jules,  a  French  journalist  and  poli¬ 
tician,  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  1848,  and 
member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  was  born 
at  Paris  in  1800.  Holding  a  command  in  the 
National  Guard,  he  took  part  in  an  insurrectionary 
movement  in  June  1832,  and  was  condemned  to 
death,  but  escaped  to  London.  Pardoned  in  1834, 
he  returned  to  Paris,  and  again  devoted  himself 
to  politics  in  the  columns  of  the  National,  and  in 
1847  founded  the  Revue  N ationale.  During  the 
revolution  of  1848,  he  was  a  supporter  of  General 
Cavaignac  and  an  opponent  of  socialism.  He 
died  March  3,  1879. 

Bastien-Lepage,  Jules,  French  painter,  born 
at  Damvilliers,  Nov.  1,  1848.  He  died  Dec.  10, 
1884. 

Bastille  was,  in  France,  a  general  term  for  a 
strong  fortress,  defended  by  towers  or  bastions, 
and  in  this  sense  it  was  used  in  England  also  after 
the  Norman  Conquest.  The  famous  prison  to 
which  the  name  was  latterly  appropriated,  was 
built  by  order  of  Charles  V.,  between  1370  and 


Bassoon. 


e,  bast  fibers;  f.  cells  of  soft  bast;  g,  vessel  of  soft  bast, 
with  four  perforate  sieve  plates  seen  on  the  surface  of 
an  oblique  septum;  g  ,  section  through  septum  and 
sieve-plates. 

known  as  bast-mats,  and  a  kind  of  shoes  much 
worn  by  the  Russian  peasantry. 

Bastard,  an  old  French  word  denoting  the 
“  son  of  a  bast,”  or  pack-saddle,  as  opposed  to  a 
child  of  the  lawful  marriage-bed.  Bastards,  as 
described  by  Blackstone,  are  such  children  as  are 
not  born  either  in  lawful  wedlock,  or  within  a 
competent  time  after  its  determination.  In  the 
United  States  a  bastard  has  no  right  of  inherit¬ 
ance  at  common  law,  and  the  principal  right  he 
has  is  that  of  maintenance  by  his  parents.  In 
some  States,  children  bom  before  the  marriage  of 
their  parents  are  made  legitimate  by  the  subse¬ 
quent  marriage  of  their  parents. 

Basti'a,  the  former  capital  of  Corsica,  is 
situated  on  the  slope  of  a  mountain,  rising  from 
the  sea  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  island,  ninety-five  miles 
north-northeast  of  Ajaccio.  Pop.  (1881),  19,696. 


The  Bastille. 

1383,  by  Hugo  Aubriot,  Prdvot  or  Provost  of 
Paris,  at  the  Porte  St.  Antoine,  as  a  defence 
against  the  English.  During  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  it  was  greatly  extended  and 
provided  with  strong  bulwarks.  On  each  of  its 
longer  sides  the  Bastille  had  four  towers,  of  five 
stories  each,  over  which  there  ran  a  gallery,  which 
was  armed  with  cannon.  It  was  partly  in  these 
towers,  and  partly  in  underground  dungeons,  that 
the  prisons  were  situated.  The  Bastille  wascapable 
of  containing  seventy  to  eighty  prisoners,  a  num¬ 
ber  frequently  reached  during  the  reigns  of  Louis 
XIV  and  Louis  XV.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
French  Revolution,  July  14, 1789,  the  fortress  was 
surrounded  by  an  armed  mob  eager  to  destroy  the 
stronghold  of  tyranny.  The  garrison  consisted 
of  forty-two  pensioners  and  thirty-two  Swiss.  A 
contest  took  place,  in  which  one  of  the  besieged 
and  150  of  the  people  were  killed  or  severely 
wounded;  but  the  arrival,  with  four  field-pieces, 
of  a  portion  of  the  troops  which  had  already 
joined  the  people  turned  the  fortune  of  the  con¬ 
flict  in  favor  of  the  besiegers.  Delaunay,  the 
Governor — who  had  been  hindered  by  one  of  his 
officers  from  blowing  the  fortress  into  the  air — 
permitted  the  second  drawbridge  to  be  lowered, 
and  the  people  rushed  in,  killing  Delaunay  him¬ 
self  and  several  of  his  officers.  The  destruction 
of  the  Bastille  commenced  on  the  following  day, 
amid  the  thunder  of  cannon  and  the  pealing  of 
the  Te  Deum. 

Bastina'do(from  Fr.  baston  or  baton,  a  cudgel), 
the  name  given  by  Europeans  to  the  punishment 
in  use  over  the  whole  East,  which  consists  in  blows 
with  a  stick,  generally  upon  the  soles  of  the  feet, 
but  sometimes  upon  the  back. 

Bastion,  part  of  a  system  of  fortification  in¬ 
vented  by  the  Italian  engineers  about  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  generally  used  until 
the  introduction  of  the  present  polygonal  system 


BASUTOS. 


134 


BATH. 


by  tlie  Germans  at  the  beginning  of  this  cen¬ 
tury. 

Basutos  arc  a  South  African  race  belonging  to 
the  great  Bantu  stock,  and  closely  allied  to  the 
Bechuanas,  if  not  really  a  subdivision  of  the  latter 
people.  Their  country  lies  between  the  Orange 
River  Free  State  and  Natal.  The  Bantu  stock,  as 
distinguished  from  negroes  on  the  one  hand  and 
Hottentots  and  Bushmen  on  the  other,  is  that  to 
which  the  Kaffirs  also  belong.  The  Basutos  are 
superior  to  the  Kaffirs  in  intelligence  and  industry, 
but  rank  below  them  in  bodily  development  and 
warlike  energy.  They  have  played  an  important 
part  in  South  African  history  for  the  last  fifty 
years. 

Bat.  Bats  form  an  order  of  mammals  in  which 
the  fore-limb  is  modified  for  flight.  To  this  fact 
their  technical  name  Chiroptera  (Gr.  liand- 
winged)  refers.  The  order  includes  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  widely-distributed  forms.  Though  often 
regarded  as  birds  by  those  who  are  careless  of 
zoological  system,  they  are  now  most  accurately 
described  as  a  special  order  of  much  modified 
insectivora. 

Since  bats  are  insectivora  modified  for  aerial 
locomotion,  the  most  striking  general  character 


almost  to  an  inflammation.  Bats  hibernate  in 
winter.  A  minority  feed  on  fruits,  but  most  are 
insect-eaters,  while  a  few  (not  including  the 
vampire)  suck  the  blood  of  small,  and  occasionally 
even  of  large,  mammals.  The  males  and  females 
often  live  apart. 

Among  the  large  fruit-eating  bats  the  Flying 
Foxes  (Pteropus),  the  Great  Kalong  (Pteropus 
edulis),  the  largest  of  the  bats  (14  inches  long); 
the  fig-eating  South  African  Epomophorus,  and 
the  destructive  Indian  Fruit-bat  (Cynopterus 
marginatus)  may  be  mentioned  as  representative. 
Some  of  these  do  great  damage  to  fruits  of  vari¬ 
ous  kinds.  Among  the  smaller  insectivorous 
forms,  the  Vespertilio  alliance  includes  the  horse¬ 
shoe  bats,  of  which  two  species  (llhinobphus  fer- 
rum-equinum and  It.  liipposider os)  occur  in  Britain; 
the  Lyre  Bat  ( Megaderma  lyra),  often  called  vam- 


The  Greater  Horseshoe  Bat  ( Rhino’ophus  femm-egui- 
num ),  Hying. 

concerns  the  structures  used  in  flight.  A  true 
wing  is  present,  and  consists  of  a  skin-expansion 
spread  out  between  the  four  fingers,  and  extend¬ 
ing  to  the  sides  and  to  the  liind-legs.  An  accessary 
membrane  extends  from  the  tail  to  the  hind-legs. 
The  fore  legs  are  much  better  developed  than  the 
hind  pair — a  marked  exception  to  the  general 
rule.  The  strong  shoulder-girdle,  the  capacious 
chest,  the  very  hollow  bones  of  the  limbs,  the 
keel  on  the  breast-bone,  the  position  of  the  teats  on 
the  breast,  the  simple  uterus  and  generally  single 
birth,  and  many  other  general  characteristics, 
are  to  be  interpreted  as  adaptations  associated  with 
the  flying  habits  of  these  mammals.  The  discoidal 

to  steer  their  way  '* 

adroitly  by  sense  of  Megaderma  gigas ,  sleeping. 

touch.  What  Cuvier  demonstrated  in  regard  to 
the  abundant  distribution  of  nerves  on  various 
parts  of  the  body  is  now  known  to  be  the  correct 
explanation  of  their  marvelous  sensitiveness.  It 
is  also  interesting  to  notice  that  the  circulation  of 
blood  in  the  wings  is  so  active  as  to  amount 


Barbastelle,  walking. 

pires  in  India,  and  said  sometimes  to  eat  smaller 
bats,  frogs,  fish,  etc.;  the  Desert  Bat  ( Nyctcris 
th.ebaica),  which  inflates  its  skin  with  air  so  as  to 
form  a  balloon;  the  common  Long-eared  Bat 
( Plecotvs  auritus),  often  in  church  towers;  the 
Barbastelle  (^ynotus  barbestellus);  the  Noctule 
Vesperugo  noctulu),  the  Pipistrelle  (  V.  pipistrella), 
and  two  other  species  of  Vesperugo  occurring 

along  with  the 
four  last-named 
bats  in  Britain ; 
one  of  the  two 
_____  New  Zealand  bats 
(C halin' dob  us  tub- 
erculatus) ;  the 
Whiskered  Bat 
( Vespertilio  mys- 
tacinus),  common 
in  Europe,  and 
ais0  recorded  in 
Head  of  Epomophorus  gambianus.  England.  The 
thick-legged  bats,  or  Emballonuridsc,  are  repre¬ 
sented  by  such  forms  as  the  Mountain  Bat  (Em- 
ballonurnmon- 
ticola),  living  a 
social  life  on 
the  solitary 
mountains  of 
the  Eastern 
Archipelago ; 
the  Tomb  Bat 
of  Egypt  (Ta- 
phozous  per-  TT  ,  „  „ 
foratus)-  the  Head  of  Pteropus  rodencen&w. 

curious  Egyptian  Rh i nopome (Bldnopoma  micro- 


Heads  of  (C)  Phyllorhina  tridens,  (D)  Chiromeles  torquatus 
(female),  (E)  Truchyops  cirrhosus,  (F)  Chceronycteris 
mexicana. 


pliyllum),  abundant  in  the  darkness  of  the  Py¬ 
ramids;  the  very  ugly  Collared  Bats  with  folded 
skin  ( Chiromeles  torquatus)-,  the  short-tailed  New 
Zealand  Bat  (Mystacina  tuberculata),  which  is 
fonder  of  walking  than  most  of  its  kind.  The 
“  vampires,”  or  Phyllostomidae,  include  a  number 
of  blood-sucking  forms,  but  the  chief  guilt  in 
this  connection  must  be  laid  to  the  charge  of 
Desmodus,  which  sometimes  attacks  mammals  of 
considerable  size,  and  even  man.  The  Vampire 
Bat  itself  ( Vampyrus  spectrum),  must  be  ac¬ 
quitted. 

Batangas,  a  seaport  town  of  the  Philippines, 
the  capital  of  a  province  in  the  southwest  of  the 
Island  of  Luzon.  Pop.  of  town  and  district,  27,- 
000;  of  province,  275,075. 

Bat'avi,  an  old  Teutonic  people  who  inhabited 
a  part  of  the  present  Holland. 

Bata’via,  properly  the  name  of  the  island 
occupied  by  the  ancient  Batavi,  became  at  a  later 
date  the  Latin  name  for  Holland  and  the  whole 
Kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  The  name  Batavian 
Republic  was  given  to  the  Netherlands  on  their 
new  organization  of  May  16,  1795,  and  they  con¬ 
tinued  to  bear  it  till  they  were  converted  into  the 
Kingdom  of  Holland,  under  Louis  Bonaparte, 
J  une  8,  180G. 

Bata 'via,  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  East  Indian 
possessions,  stands  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Java, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Tjiliwong,  frequently 
called  the  Jaccatra,  from  the  former  native  town, 
on  the  ruins  of  which  the  present  city  was  built. 
1  he  chief  exports  are  coffee,  rice,  indigo,  hides, 
arrack,  sugar,  palm  oil,  cajeput  oil,  tin,  pepper, 
teak,  buffalo  horns  and  hides,  tea,  cassia,  sapan 
wood,  tortoise-shell,  and  tamarinds.  The  imports 
comprise  cottons,  woolens,  silks,  machinery, 
iron  goods,  wine,  butter,  articles  of  luxury,  and 
ice  (from  America).  The  duties,  formerly  very 
high,  have  been  reduced  since  1866.  The  total 
value  of  exports  is  reckoned  at  $7,500,000;  of  the 
imports,  $10,000,000.  About  half  of  the  total 
trade  is  with  Holland.  Pop.  (1885),  92,193,  of 
whom  6,000  are  Europeans.  The  Province  of 
Batavia  is  low,  but  rises  gently  toward  the  south. 
Pop.,  nearly  1,000,000,  of  whom  8,000  are  Euro¬ 
peans,  70,000  Chinese,  and  the  remainder  mostly 
natives.  The  religion  is  chiefly  Mohammedan. 

Bata 'via,  a  post-village  of  Western  New 
York,  thirty-six  miles  northeast  of  Buffalo,  Pop. 
(1887),  7,000.  Also  a  manufacturing  town  in  East¬ 
ern  Illinois  on  the  Fox  river. 

Batchian',  or  Batjan,  one  of  the  Moluccas. 
Area,  835  square  miles.  Pop.  about  11,000. 

Bateman,  Kate  Josephine,  an  American 
actress,  born  at  Baltimore,  Oct.  7,  1842. 

Bath,  the  chief  city  of  Somersetshire;  England, 
t  he  springs,  which  are  famous,  were  known  to 
the  Romans,  who  here  in  the  first  century  a. d. 
built  baths,  of  which  extensive  remains  were  dis¬ 
covered  in  1755,  and  again  in  1881.  Pop.  (1881), 
54,790. 

Bath,  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  situated  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Kennebec  river,  thirty-five 
miles  south  of  Augusta,  Maine.  Bath  was  incor¬ 
porated  as  a  town"  in  1780,  and  as  a  city  in  1850. 
Pop.  (1880),  7,874. 

Bath,  Bathing.  Bathing  is  the  application  of 
water  in  some  form  to  the  body,  as  in  ordinary 
cold  baths,  hot  baths,  or  sea-bathing.  But  many 
other  substances,  liquid,  solid,  or  gaseous,  may 
be  subs1  it u ted  for  water — e.  g.,  mud,  seaweed, 
air;  and  the  baths  take  different  names  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  substance,  its  condition,  its 
methods  of  application,  or  the  part  of  the  body 
to  which  it  is  applied — e.  g. ,  salt-water  bath,  hot 
salt-water  bath,  salt-water  spray-bath,  salt-water 
arm-bath.  In  the  form  generally  known  as  the 
Turkish  bath,  there  are  usually  two  rooms  filled 
with  air  heated  by  stoves  placed  either  inside  or 
outside  the  rooms.  One  of  these,  the  tepidarium, 
has  a  temperature  of  about  120°  F.,  while  the 
other,  the  calidarium,  or  sudatorium,  runs  up  as 
high  as  220°  F.  or  even  higher.  In  these  the 
bather,  with  only  a  cotton  loin-cloth,  and  slippers 
to  protect  his  feet,  reclines  on  marble  benches 
covered  with  felt,  or  canvas-covered  chairs,  until 
the  perspiration  runs  from  every  pore.  He  then 
passes  into  the  lavacrum,  where  on  a  marble  slab 
he  undergoes  a  process  of  shampooing,  the  bath- 
man  kneading,  rubbing,  and  thumping  every 
part  of  his  body,  until  all  the  loosened  epidermis 


BATII. 


135 


BATTERY. 


or  outer  skin,  which  has  been  softened  by  the  hot 
air  perspiration,  is  removed.  He  is  then  soaped 
over  and  sprayed  or  douched  with  warm  water, 
which  is  gradually  cooled  down  till  it  runs  per¬ 
fectly  cold,  after  which  lie  plunges  through  a 
cold  bath  and  enters  the  frigidarium,  where  he 
lies  comfortably  on  a  couch  willi  a  soft  dry  sheet 
round  him,  and  reposes  for  half  an  hour  or  ionger, 
sipping  a  cup  of  coffee,  before  dressing  to  emerge 
into  the  outer  world  again.  That  commonly 
known  as  the  Russian  bath  consists  of  a  room 
tilled  with  steam,  where  the  bather  sits  on  benches 
arranged  as  in  an  amphitheatre,  so  as  to  give 
different  temperatures  according  to  the  height 
above  the  floor,  until  he  perspires  freely;  after 
which,  switching  with  birch-twigs  takes  the 
place  of  .shampooing,  and  then  free  application 
of  cold  water,  carried  to  the  length  even  of  roll¬ 
ing  in  the  snow,  completes  the  process. 

The  treatment  of  fevers  by  cold  baths,  espe¬ 
cially  those  cases  in  which  the  fever  runs  very  high, 
is  a  comparatively  new  method,  and  is  much 
esteemed,  particularly  in  Germany.  It  has  cer¬ 
tainly  worked  winders  in  many  instances.  The 
cold  may  be  applied  by  affusion,  wet  packs,  ice- 
bags,  or  baths.  The  last  method  is  probably  the 
safest  and  most  comfortable  for  the  patient.  He 
is  placed  in  a  bath  about  97°  F.,  and  the  water 
is  gradually  cooled  down  to  60’  F.  or  even  lower, 
after  which  his  body  is  wiped  dry  and  he  is 
replaced  in  bed,  the  process  being  repeated  when 
the  temperature  rises  again.  Baths  help  the 
eliminations  of  various  poisons,  such  as  lead 
and  mercury. 

It  may  be  laid  down  that  a  daily  bath  of  some 
form  or  other  is  useful  and  beneficial  to  everyone; 
but  all  persons  whose  health  is  not  up  to  the  nor¬ 
mal  standard  ought  to  obtain  competent  advice 
as  to  the  variety  of  bath  which  will  probably  suit 
them  best,  and  as  to  how  and  when  they  ought  to 
take  it.  Sea-bathing  is  probably  the  most  brac¬ 
ing  and  the  best  form  for  the  robust,  but  except 
for  a  very  short  time  of  the  year  when  the 
weather  is  exceptionally  fine,  it  is  unsafe  for  the 
non-robust,  and  absolutely  dangerous  for  the 
delicate.  Whatever  the  form  of  bath  chosen  may 
be,  it  should  never  be  taken  immediately  after  a 
full  meal,  but  should  be  indulged  in  either  after 
a  very  light  refreshment  in  the  morning,  or  after 
two  or  three  hours  have  elapsed  since  the  last 
meal,  the  time  varying  with  the  character  and 
quantity  of  the  food  which  has  been  eaten. 

The  terms  water-bath,  sand-bath,  and  electro¬ 
plating  bath  are  used  in  chemistry  and  the  various 
arts.  The  first  two  are  contrivances  by  which 
vessels  can  be  heated  without  immediate  contact 
with  the  fire,  an  obvious  advantage  in  many 
cases;  while  an  electro  plating  bath  is  a  solution 
of  silver  or  other  metals  which  will  deposit  the 
metal  on  suitable  substances  immerged  in  it. 

Bath,  Order  of  the.  The  name  of  this  Eng¬ 
lish  order  of  knighthood  is  derived  from  the  cere¬ 
mony  of  bathing,  which  used  anciently  to  be 
practiced  at  the  inauguration  of  a  knight,  as  an 
emblem  of  the  purity  henceforth  required  of  him 
by  the  laws  of  chivalry.  The  order  does  not 
seem  to  be  older  than  the  reign  of  Henry  IV., 
who,  at  his  coronation  in  1399,  made  forty-six 
esquires  Knights  of  the  Bath. 

B^th  'ori,  Elisabeth,  the  niece  of  Stephen 
Bathori,  King  of  Poland,  and  wife  of  the  Hun¬ 
garian  Count  Nadasdy,  was  born  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Her  diabolical 
cruelty  has  condemned  her  memory  to  eternal  in¬ 
famy.  It  is  said  that  she  used  to  cause  young 
girls  to  be  put  to  death  in  the  dungeons  of  her 
castle  that  she  might  renew  her  own  youth  from 
time  to  time  by  bathing  in  their  warm  blood. 
The  story  is  very  much  doubted,  but  she  was  cer¬ 
tainly  imprisoned  and  some  of  her  alleged  ac¬ 
complices  were  burnt. 

Ba'thos,  (Gr.  depth),  is  a  term  employed  by 
critics  to  designate  a  ludicrous  descent  from  the 
elevated  to  the  commonplace  in  writing  or  speech, 
or  a  sinking  below  the  ordinary  level  of  thought 
in  a  ridiculous  effort  to  aspire.  A  good  example 
of  bathos  is  the  well-known  encomium  of  the  cel¬ 
ebrated  Boyle:  “  Robert  Boyle  was  a  great  man, 
a  very  great  man;  lie  was  father  of  chemistry  and 
brother  to  the  Earl  of  Cork.” 

Bath-Stone,  a  building  stone  extensively  used 
in  England  on  account  of  its  beauty,  is  obtained 


from  quarries  in  the  Lower  Oolite,  in  Wiltshire 
and  Somersetshire. 

Bath'urst,  a  name  applied  to  various  locali¬ 
ties  in  honor  of  Earl  Bathurst,  British  Colo¬ 
nial  Secretary  (1812-28).  (1)  Bathurst,  in  New 
South  Wales,  the  first  country  .settled  beyond  the 
Blue  Mountains,  which  were  long  believed  to  be 
impassable.  The  chief  town  Bathurst,  on  the 
Macquarie  river,  144  miles  west  of  Sidney,  is 
now  the  third  in  New  South  Wales,  and  is  a  hand¬ 
some  city  with  numerous  elegant  public  build¬ 
ings.  Pop.  (1881)  of  city,  7,221;  of  district,  17,- 
391.  (2)  Bathurst  Island,  off  North  Australia, 
about  12°  S.  latitude  and  130°  E.  longitude. 
(3)  Bathurst,  the  principal  settlement  of  the 
British  colony  on  the  Gambia.  It  is  situated  on 
St.  Mary’s  Isle,  a  sandbank  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river.  Pop.,  about  8,000.  (4)  An  island  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean  intersected  by  the  100th  meridian, 
and  situated  immediately  beyond  the  75th  par¬ 
allel.  (5)  Bathurst  Inlet,  an  arm  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  projecting  due  south  for  about  seventy- 
five  miles  into  the  North  American  Continent, 
just  touching  the  Arctic  Circle  and  110°  W. 
longitude.  (6)  A  division  in  the  east  of  Cape 
Colony,  formed  from  the  district  of  Albany, 
contains  Port  Alfred,  Bathurst,  and  other  small 
towns. 

Bath'urst,  Earl,  a  title  conferred  in  1762  on 
Allen  Bathurst  (1684-1775),  a  Tory  statesman, 
and  the  friend  of  Pope,  Swift,  Congreve,  Prior, 
and  Sterne.  He  had  been  raised  to  the  peerage 
forty  years  before  as  Baron  Bathurst.  His  son 
Henry  (1714-94),  second  Earl,  sat  for  Cirencester 
from  1735  to  1754,  and  from  1771  to  1778  was 
Lord  Chancellor.  His  son  Henry  (1762-1834), 
third  Earl,  was  Secretary  for  the  Colonies  from 
1812  to  1828.  To  the  same  family  belonged 
Henry  Bathurst  (1744-1837),  from  1805  Bishop  of 
Norwich,  the  “only  Liberal  Bishop”  of  his  day; 
and  his  son  Benjamin  (1784-1809),  who  disap¬ 
peared  mysteriously  between  Berlin  and  Ham¬ 
burg,  as  he  was  traveling  with  dispatches  from 
Vienna. 

Bathybius  (Gr.  Bathos ,  deep,  and  Bios,  life), 
the  name  given  to  a  supposed  low  form  of  life 
found  at  the  bottom  of  some  parts  of  the  deep 
sea,  but  usually  regarded  with  much  skepticism. 
In  1857,  during  the  explorations  connected  with 
laying  the  Atlantic  cable,  attention  was  first  di¬ 
rected  to  the  presence  at  great  depths  of  a  slimy 
mass  which  was  first  described  by  Professor 
Huxley  in  1868,  and  called,  in  honor  of  Professor 
Haeckel,  Bathybius  haecktlii.  The  supposed  or¬ 
ganism  consisted  simply  of  formless  masses  of 
slime  without  any  detectable  structure,  and  con¬ 
taining  numerous  curious  limy  concretions.  Ap¬ 
parently  simpler  than  any  of  the  lowest  forms  of 
life  ( Mon  era )  which  had  been  previously  dis¬ 
covered,  bathybius  excited  great  interest.  From 
the  results  of  the  Porcupine  dredging  it  was  ex¬ 
pected  that  this  living  slime  would  be  found 
abundantly  diffused  in  the  great  depths,  but  dur¬ 
ing  the  prolonged  explorations  of  the  Challenger 
(1872-76)  the  bathybius  was  not  rediscovered. 
Nor  was  this  all,  for  Mr.  John  Murray  was  led  to 
suspect  that  what  had  been  regarded  as  living 
matter  was  only  a  gelatinous  precipitate  of  sul¬ 
phate  of  lime  from  sea  water  mixed  with  alcohol. 
So  strong  was  his  suspicion  that  he  withdrew  his 
previous  opinion  as  to  the  existence  of  any  such 
organism.  Huxley  regarded  this  step  as  justified, 
and  also  abandoned  bathybius  to  its  fate.  Haeckel , 
however,  refused  to  abandon  his  namesake,  and 
his  characteristic  constancy  of  opinion  has  been 
to  some  extent  justified  by  the  fact  that  in  a  later 
north  polar  expedition  (1876)  Dr.  Bessels  dis¬ 
covered  a  similar  quasi-organism,  which  he 
named  Proto- Bathybius . 

Bathymetry,  (Gr.  Bathos,  deep,  metron,  a 
measure),  the  art  of  measuring  depths  in  the  sea, 
especially  for  the  purpose  of  investigating  the 
vertical  range  of  distribution  of  plants  and  ani¬ 
mals.  An  extensive  series  of  such  bathymetric 
measurements  was  made  by  II.  M.  S.  Challenger 
(1872-76),  the  deepest  made  being  at  4,575 
fathoms. 

Batignolles,  a  northern  suburb  of  Paris. 

Baliste,  the  usual  French  name  for  cambric, 
applied  in  commerce  to  a  fine  texture  of  linen  or 
cotton. 

Batley,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the  West 


Riding  of  Yorkshire,  eight  miles  southwest  of 
Leeds.  Pop.  (1881),  27,514. 

Batn-el-Hajar  (Womb  of  Rocks),  a  stony  dis¬ 
trict  of  Nubia,  stretching  along  the  Nile  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  Third  cataract. 

Baton  is  the  name  of  a  short  staff,  presented 
by  the  sovereign  to  each  field-marshal,  as  the 
symbol  of  authority.  It  is  also  the  name  of  the 
long  staff  carried  by  the  drum-major  of  an  infan¬ 
try  regiment.  Baton  is  also  the  name  of  the 
policeman’s  truncheon,  and  of  the  rod  wielded 
by  the  conductor  of  an  orchestra.  (The  French 
baton  originally  meant  simply  a  stick.) 

Baton  Rouge,  a  city  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  129  miles  above  New  Orleans,  from 
1847  to  1862,  and  again  since  1880,  the  capital  of 
the  State  of  Louisiana.  It  was  one  of  the  earliest 
French  settlements.  Baton  Rouge  was  more  than 
once  the  scene  of  important  operations  during  the 
Civil  War.  It  was  occupied  by  Federal  troops 
after  the  capture  of  New  Orleans,  and  defended 
by  General  Williams,  who  fell  infighting  against 
the  Confederate  General  Breckinridge,  Aug.  5, 
1862.  Pop.  (1880),  7,197. 

Baton-sinister,  a  well-known  heraldic  indi¬ 
cation  of  illegitimacy.  It  is  a  diminutive  of  a 
Ben  d-sinister  one-fourth 
of  its  width,  and  couped 
at  the  ends — i.e.,  not  ex¬ 
tending  to  the  sides  of 
the  shield,  so  as  to  resem¬ 
ble  a  marshal’s  baton  or 
truncheon  laid  diagonal¬ 
ly  over  the  family  arms 
from  sinister  to  dexter. 

From  the  fifteenth  cen¬ 
tury  onward  it  has  been 
largely  assigned  in  Eng¬ 
land  to  the  illegitimate 
issue  of  the  royal  family.  In  the  example  repre¬ 
sented,  the  arms  of  the  Duke  of  Grafton  (de¬ 
scended  from  an  illegitimate  son  of  Charles  II.), 
the  baton-sinister  is  composed  of  six  pieces  argent 
and  sable.  The  terms  “  Bar-sinister  ”  and  “  Bas¬ 
tard  Bar”  are  often  erroneously  used  for  Baton- 
sinister;  the  former,  for  instance,  is  of  frequent 
occurence  in  Thackeray’s  Esmond. 

Batoum',  or  Batum',  a  town  of  Russian 
Transcaucasia,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Black 
Sea,  201  miles  east  of  Tiflis,  and  575  of  Baku,  by 
a  railway  completed  in  1883.  Pop.  (1882),  8,671, 
mostly  Russians.  Batoum  was  founded  as  Petra 
by  one  of  Justinian’s  generals  early  in  the  sixth 
century  A.D.,  and  figures  as  Vati  in  the  middle 
ages. 

Bat'rachomyomaehia  (the  War  of  the  Frogs 
and  the  Mice),  a  Greek  parody  on  the  Iliad,  erron¬ 
eously  ascribed  to  Homer,  with  whose  works  it 
has  been  generally  printed. 

Battalion,  an  infantry  unit  for  both  tactical 
and  administrative  purposes. 

Battas,  or  Bataks,  a  remarkable  race  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  Malay  stem,  inhabiting  the  part  of 
Sumatra  south  of  Atcheen.  According  to  Jung- 
hulin,  their  number  is  about  150,000. 

Batten,  or  Lathe,  is  the  swing  utensil  of  a 
loom,  by  which  the  weft  or  woof  is  struck  home, 
and  in  which  the  shuttle  runs. 

Battens,  sawed  fir  timber,  of  smaller  dimen¬ 
sions  than  the  kind  called  planks.  They  arc 
usually  from  12  to  14  feet  long,  7  inches  broad, 
and  2i  inches  thick. 

Batter,  in  Architecture,  used  as  a  verb  to 
express  the  manner  in  which  the  walls  of  towers, 
which  are  smaller  at  the  top  than  the  bottom, 
slope  inward.  The  walls  of  wharfs,  and  those 
built  to  support  embankments  and  the  like,  usually 
batter. 

Battering-rain,  an  engine  of  war  used  in 
ancient  and  mediaeval  times.  It  consisted  of  a 
beam  of  wood,  with  a  mass  of  bronze  or  iron  on 
one  end,  resembling  the  head  of  a  ram  (Lat.  aries). 
In  its  simplest  form,  it  was  borne  and  impelled 
by  the  hands  of  the  soldiers;  afterward,  it  was 
suspended  in  a  frame,  and  made  to  swing. 
Another  form  moved  on  rollers.  The  alternating 
motion  was  communicated  by  ropes. 

Battery,  a  group  of  guns,  whether  field  or 
siege,  under  the  command  of  one  immediate  supe¬ 
rior.  A  field  or  horse  battery  has  six  guns  in  all 
modern  armies  except  the  Russian,  in  which  it 
has  eight.  The  term  battery  includes  the  guns, 


BATTIIYANYI. 


136 


BAVARIA. 


wagons,  liorses,  men, -and  all  the  equipment;  but 
is  also  used  to  designate  the  men  only. 

Battliyanyi,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  pow¬ 
erful  of  the  noble  families  of  Hungary,  which 
traces  its  origin  as  far  back  as  the  invasion  of  Pan- 
nonia  by  the  Magyars,  in  884  a.d.,  and  has  given 
to  Hungary  many  distinguished  warriors,  states¬ 
men,  and  churchmen.  The  surname  is  derived 
from  lands  obtained  in  the  fourteenth  century. — 
Count  Casimir  Battliyanyi,  a  member  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  branch  of  the  family,  was  born  June  4,  1807. 
He  was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  in  Hungary 
during  the  insurrection  of  i849.  He  died  at  Paris, 
July  13,  1854. — Count  Louis  Battliyanyi,  belong¬ 
ing  to  another  branch  of  the  same  family,  and 
born  at  Presburg  in  1808,  having  espoused  the 
national  cause,  was  appointed  President  of  the 
Ministry,  when  Hungary  obtained  a  Ministry  of 
its  own,  in  March  1848.  After  the  Austrians  en¬ 
tered  Pesth,  he  was  arrested  in  Jan.,  1849,  and 
on  Oct.  6,  was  executed  by  sentence  of  martial 
law. — A  Prince  Battliyanyi  (1803-83)  occupied 
for  forty-five  years  a  prominent  position  on  the 
turf,  winning  the  English  Derby  In  1876. 

Battle,  a  town  in  Sussex,  six  miles  northwest 
of  Hastings,  England.  It  derives  its  present  name 
from  the  Battle  of  Senlac  or  Hastings,  fought 
here  on  Oct.  14,  1066,  when  the  Normans,  led  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  overthrew  the  old  English 
monarchy  under  King  Harold.  Battle  Abbey, 
founded  in  1067,  is  a  ruin. 

Battle  (Fr.  bataille,  akin  to  battre,  to  beat), 
a  hostile  encounter  on  land  or  sea.  In  1851 — the 
year  that  was  to  inagurate  a  universal  peace — Sir 
Edward  Creasy  published  2 be  Fifteen  Decisive 
Buttles  of  the  World.  His  list  is  as  follows: 
Marathon  (490  b.c.),  Syracuse  (413  b.c.),  Arbela 
(331  b.c.),  Metaurus  (207  b.c.),  defeat  of  Varus 
(9  a.d.),  Chalons  (451),  Tours  (732),  Hastings 
(1066),  Orleans  (1429),  defeat  of  Spanish  Armada 
(1588),  Blenheim  (1704),  Pultowa  (1709),  Saratoga 
(1777),  Valmy  (1792),  and  Waterloo  (1815). 
Actium  (31  b.c.),  Lepanto  (1571),  and  Trafalgar 
(1805)  might  fairly  have  been  included  in  the  list, 
to  which  should  now  be  added,  Gettysburg(1863), 
Kdniggratz  or  Sadowa  (1866),  and  Sedan  (1870). 

Battle,  Wager  of.  The  Wager  of  Battle,  or 
as  it  is  sometimes  called,  Trial  by  Combat,  was 
an  ancient  usage  in  English  law  which  permitted 
the  accused  and  the  accuser,  in  defect  of  sufficient 
direct  evidence,  to  challenge  each  other  to  mortal 
combat,  for  issue  of  the  dispute.  It  consisted  of 
a  personal  combat  between  the  parties  in  presence 
of  the  court  itself,  and  was  grounded  on  the  idea 
of  an  appeal  to  Providence,  the  expectation  being 
that  Heaven  would  give  the  victory  to  the  inno¬ 
cent  or  injured  party. 

Battle-axe  was  a  weapon  much  used  by  the 
early  Northern  nations,  Celtic  and  Scandinavian. 
Some  were  held  with  one  hand,  some  with  two; 
the  former  kind  could  be  wielded  equally  by 
horse  and  foot,  but  the  latter  was  for  foot-soldiers 
only.  The  battle-axe  had  a  longer  handle,  and 
a  broader,  stronger,  and  sharper  blade  than  the 
common  axe. 

Battle  Creek,  a  thriving  town  of  Michigan, 
on  the  Kalamazoo  river.  Pop.  (1884),  10,062. 

B.iltleford,  a  town  in  Saskatchewan,  North¬ 
west  Territories  of  Canada,  at  the  junction  of 
the  Battle  river  with  the  Saskatchewan. 

Battlement  (Fr.  bailment, building),  a  notched 
or  indented  parapet  formed  by  a  series  of  rising 
parts  called  cops  or  merlons,  separated  by  embra¬ 
sures  or  openings  called  crenelles.  Battlements 
were  intended  to  enable  the  soldier  to  shelter 
himself  behind  the  merlon,  whilst  he  shot  through 
the  embrasure.  Originally  military,  they  became 


freely  used  for  architectural  effect  in  other  build¬ 
ings.  In  churches,  the  battlements  are  frequently 
pierced  with  circles  or  trefoils. 

Battue  (from  Fr.  battre,  to  beat),  a  word 
less  used  by  real  sportsmen  than  by  writers  on 
sport.  The  battue  is  a  method  of  killing  game 
on  a  great  scale,  by  causing  animals  to  be  driven 


forward  to  a  point  where  a  number  of  gunners 
are  posted.  The  driving  is  effected  by  beating 
the  bushes;  hence  the  term  battue. 

Baturin',  a  town  of  Southwestern  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Tchernigov.  Pop.,  6,850, 

Baudelaire,  Chari.es,  a  French  poet,  was 
born  at  Paris  on  April  21,  1821,  and  died  in  Paris 
Aug.  31,  1867. 

Baudry,  Paul,  a  French  painter,  wras  born 
Nov.  7,  1828,  at  La  Roclie-sur-Yon.  Elected  a 
member  of  the  Academic  des  Beaux-Arts  in  1870, 
he  died  Jan.  15,  1886. 

Bauer,  Bruno,  one  of  the  most  audacious  of 
recent  biblical  critics,  was  born  at  Eisenberg,  in 
the  duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  Sept.  9,  1809. 
After  his  studies  at  Berlin,  he  became  a  privat-do- 
cent  in  the  university  there,  and  in  1839  at  Bonn; 
but  three  years  later  he  was  forbidden  to  deliver 
any  more  theological  lectures.  He  then  removed 
to  Berlin,  and  busied  himself  there  with  inces¬ 
sant  writing  of  a  more  or  less  violent  and  polem¬ 
ical  description  on  theological  and  political  sub¬ 
jects,  until  his  death,  at  Rixdorf,  near  Berlin, 
April  13,  1882. 

Bauer,  Caroline,  a  German  actress,  born  at 
Heidelburg  in  1807,  made  her  debut  in  1822,  and 
had  achieved  a  brilliant  success  in  comedy  and 
tragedy  alike,  when  in  1829  she  married  Prince 
Leopold,  afterward  King  of  the  Belgians.  Their 
morganatic  union  was  as  brief  as  it  was  Unhappy; 
in  1831  she  returned  to  the  stage,  which  she  quit¬ 
ted  only  in  1844,  on  her  marriage  to  a  Polish 
count.  She  died  at  Zurich,  Oct.  18,  1878. 

Bauhin  'ia,  a  genus  of  Leguininosse,  sub-order 
Cassalpinese.  The  leaves  are  generally  divided 
into  two  lobes,  which  led  Plunder  to  name  this 
genus  in  memory  of  the  united  labors  of  the 
brothers  John  and  Caspar  Bauhin,  two  botanists 
of  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The 
species  are  natives  of  the  warmer  regions  of  both 
hemispheres,  and  some  of  them  are  remarkable 
for  the  size  and  beauty  of  their  flowers. 

Baumgarten,  Alexander  Gottlieb,  a  clear 
and  acute  thinker  of  the  school  of  Wolf,  was 
born  at  Berlin,  July  17,  1714,  studied  at  Halle, 
and  in  1740  became  Professor  of  Philosophy 
at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  where  he  died  May 
26,  1762.  He  was  the  founder  of  aesthetics 
as  a  systematic  science  of  the  beautiful  and  an 
integral  part  of  philosophy. 

Baumgarten -Crusius,  Ludwig  Friedrich 
Otto,  a  German  theologian,  born  at  Merseburg, 
1788,  and  died  in  Jena,  May  31,  1843. 

Baur,  Ferdinand  Christian,  was  one  of  the 
most  eminent  and  influential  of  modern  German 
theologians.  Baur  was  born  at  Schmiden,  near 
Stuttgart,  June  21,  1792,  became  professor  in  the 
theological  seminary  at  Blaubeuren  in  1817,  and 
was  called  to  the  University  of  Tubingen  as  Pro¬ 
fessor  of  Theology  in  1826.  In  his  work  here  he 
spent  a  most  laborious  life,  being  known  as  the 
founder  of  the  “Tubingen  School,”  and  at  Tu¬ 
bingen  he  died  Dec.  2,  1860. 

Bautain,  Louis  Eugene  Marie,  a  French  phi¬ 
losopher  and  theologian,  born  in  Paris,  Feb.  17, 
1796.  A  pupil  of  Cousin,  he  became  in  1816 
Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  College  of  Slras- 
burg.  lie  took  orders,  and  in  1848  was  appointed 
Vicar  General  of  the  diocese  of  Paris;  in  1853  a 
Professor  of  the  Theological  Faculty.  He  died  at 
Paris,  Oct.  18,  1867. 

Bautzen  (Wendisli  Budissin),  an  important 
manufacturing  town  in  Saxony,  thirty-five  miles 
west  of  Gorlitz.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  an  ad¬ 
ministrative  district  of  the  same  name,  which  has 
a  pop.  (1885)  of  356,383,  including  50,000  Wends. 

Bava'ria  (Ger.  Bayern),  one  of  the  States  of 
the  German  Empire;  according  to  its  size  the 
second  in  importance.  Bavaria  is  divided  into  two 
unequal  parts,  which  are  separated  by  the  Baden 
and  Hesse-Darmstadt  dominions,  and  of  which 
the  eastern  comprises  fully  eleven-twelfths  of  the 
wdiole.  Its  frontiers  touch  also  on  Alsace-Lor¬ 
raine,  Prussia,  Bohemia,  Austria  and  the  Tyrol. 
Bavaria  is  divided  into  eight  districts.  Area 
29,375  square  miles;  pop. (1885),  5,416,180  Munich, 
the  capital,  had  261,981  inhabitants,  and  Nurem- 
burg  114,632;  Augsburg  and  Wurzburg  coming 
next  in  size. 

Bavaria  is  walled  in  on  the  southeast,  northeast 
and  northwest  by  mountains  ranging  from  3,000 
feet  to  close  on  10,000  feet  in  height.  The  highest 


elevation  is  reached  on  the  south,  the  Zugspitz  of 
the  Noric  Alps  being  9,665  feet  high. 

The  River  Rhine  flows  along  the  whole  eastern 
boundary  of  the  Palatinate,  which  is  also  watered 
by  the  Speyer,  the  Lauter,  and  the  Queicli.  The 
Danube  enters  Bavaria  proper  at  Ulm,  and  passes 
out  at  Passau  into  the  Austrian  dominions.  In¬ 
cluding  its  winding,  the  length  of  the  Danube  in 
Bavaria  is  about  270  miles,  which  can  be  navi¬ 
gated  throughout.  The  north  part  of  the  State  is 
in  the  Basin  of  the  Main.  Bavaria  has  alto¬ 
gether  3,200  miles  of  railway  in  operation,  9,000 
miles  of  public  roads,  and  over  5,300  of  tele¬ 
graphs. 

The  vine  is  cultivated  extensively  in  Franconia, 
and  the  wine  is  held  in  great  esteem.  Rhenish 
Bavaria  also  produces  good  wine.  The  quantity 
annually  produced  in  Bavaria  is  estimated  at  up¬ 
ward  of  16,000,000  gallons.  Cattle-rearing  forms 
the  exclusive  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  on  the 
slopes  and  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps.  The  forests  of 
Bavaria  furnish  large  quantities  of  timber.  The 
chief  minerals  are  salt — which  is  a  Government 
monopoly — coal  and  iron,  which  are  worked  almost 
everywhere  throughout  the  territory. 

The  manufacture  of  beer  is  carried  on  to  great 
perfection  in  Bavaria,  and  to  an  extent  unparal¬ 
leled  elsewhere  in  Europe.  There  are  upward  of 
5,400  breweries  in  Bavaria,  making  about  110,- 
000,000  gallons  of  beer  annually,  which  is  mainly 
consumed  in  the  country. 

In  1880  t lie  Roman  Catholics  numbered  3,748,- 
032;  Protestants,  1,477,312;  Jews,  53,526;  and 
other  minor  sects,  5,908.  The  State  allows  perfect 
toleration,  guaranteeing  the  same  civil  rights  to 
Catholic  and  Protestant  alike.  Bavaria  has  a  good 
system  of  education,  under  the  supreme  direction 
of  a  Minister  of  Public  Instruction.  The  three 
Bavarian  universities  are  at  Munich,  Wurzburg, 
and  Erlargen,  the  last  being  Protestant.  There 
are  several  extensive  libraries  in  Bavaria,  that  of 
Munich  being  one  of  the  largest  in  Germany. 

There  are  numerous  institutions  for  the  further¬ 
ance  of  painting,  sculpture,  and  music. 

Bavaria  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  the  throne 
hereditary  in  the  male  line.  Its  constitution  dates 
no  further  back  than  1818,  when  it  was  declared 
a  part  of  confederated  Germany.  When  Bavaria 
in  1870  became  one  of  the  States  of  the  German 
Empire,  she  still  retained  certain  independent  priv¬ 
ileges,  including  the  control  of  her  home  affairs, 
of  her  postal  system,  and  of  her  army  in  time  of 
peace.  The  King  is  the  executive,  but  his  minis¬ 
ters  are  responsible  for  all  his  acts.  The  legisla¬ 
ture  consists  of  a  Chamber  of  Senators  and  one  of 
Deputies.  The  Senators  are  hereditary;  the  King, 
however,  having  the  power,  within  certain  limits, 
to  nominate  life-members.  The  Chamber  of  Dep¬ 
uties  consists  of  representatives  in  the  proportion 
of  one  deputy  to  every  31,500  of  the  population. 

The  revenue  of  Bavaria  for  1886-87  amounted 
to  241,491,646  marks,  and  the  expenditure  for  the 
year  was  estimated  at  the  same  figure.  The  pub¬ 
lic  debt  in  1886  was  1,344,658,766  marks,  about 
two-thirds  of  it  having  been  contracted  for  rail¬ 
ways. 

The  army  system  was  in  1871  remodeled  on 
Prussian  lines.  On  the  peace-footing  it  consists  of 
52,863  men,  without  the  landwehr.  In  time  of  war 
this  force  is  rather  more  than  trebled. 

Bavaria  became  a  kingdom  in  1805.  In  1825 
Louis  I.  ascended  the  throne,  but  he  fell  under 
the  domination  of  the  notorious  Lola  Montez,  who 
was  looked  upon  as  an  agent  of  the  Ultramon- 
tanists.  In  March,  1848,  the  people  of  Munich 
seized  the  arsenal,  and  demanded  reforms  and 
the  expulsion  of  Lola  Montez.  The  King  had  to 
consent;  but  in  the  same  month  he  abdicated. 
Ilis  son,  Maximilian  II.  ascended  the  throne.  He 
died  in  1864,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son.  Louis 
II.  In  the  war  between  Austria  and  Prussia  in 
1866,  Bavaria  took  the  Austrian  side,  and  after  the 
short  struggle  had  to  pay  Prussia  30,000,000  florins 
($15,000,000),  and  to  cede  some  small  strips  of 
territory.  Munich  was  the  main  centre  of  the 
Old  Catholic  movement.  Bavaria  took  an  active 
part  in  the  Franco-German  war  in  1870,  and  in 
Nov.,  1870,  the  Government  agreed  on  the  grant¬ 
ing  of  certain  concessions,  to  become  part  of  the 
German  Empire.  A  month  later  the  King  of 
Bavaria,  at  Versailles,  proposed  that  the  imperial 
crown  should  be  conferred  on  the  Prussian  King. 


BAXTEII. 


137 


BAZARDJIK. 


King,-  Louis  was  the  patron  of  Richard  Wagner. 
He  finally  went  mad,  and  committed  suicide  by 
drowning,  June  13,  1886.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother,  Otho  (also  insane),  under  the  regency 
of  his  uncle,  Prince  Luitpold. 

Baxter,  Richard,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
Nonconformist  divines,  was  born  Nov.  12,  1615, 
at  Rowton,  Shropshire,  England.  When  the  civil 
war  broke  out,  in  1642,  he  found  his  political  views 
at  variance  with  the  public  feeling  of  Worcester¬ 
shire,  and,  some  disorder  arising,  he  retired  to 
Coventry,  where  he  ministered  for  two  years  to 
the  garrison  and  inhabitants.  His  health  continu¬ 
ing  very  uncertain  he  retired  from  the  army  to 
the  house  of  his  friend,  Sir  Thomas  Rouse,  where 
lie  wrote  the  first  part  of  the  best  of  all  his  works, 
The  Saints’  Everlasting  Rest ,  published  in  1650. 
In  1657  he  wrote  his  (Jail  to  the  Unconverted.  In 
1685,  after  the  accession  of  James  II.,  he  was 
brought,  for  alleged  sedition  in  his  Paraphrase  of 
the  New  Testament,  before  Judge  Jeffreys.  Con¬ 
demned  to  pay  500  marks,  and  to  be  imprisoned 
till  the  fine  was  paid,  he  lay  in  King’s  Bench 
Prison  for  nearly  eighteen  months.  He  died  on 
Dec.  8,  1691,  in  the  seventy-fifth  year  of  his  age. 

Bay,  an  indentation  of  the  sea  into  the  land, 
with  an  opening  wider  than  the  depth.  A  gulf  is 
understood  to  be  deeper  than  a  bay,  and  has  often 
a  narrow  opening.  These  terms  are  often  loosely 
applied;  Baffin’s  Bay  is  really  a  gulf.  When  the 
body  of  water  is  large,  and  the  entrance  narrow, 
it  becomes  a  shut  sea. 

Bay,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of  trees  and 
shrubs  more  or  less  resembling  the  Laurel  or  Vic¬ 
tor’s  Laurel  (Laurus  nobilits),  which  is  also  called 
Sweet  Bay;  the  name  Bay  (Fr.  bate ,  from  Lat. 
baccce,  berries),  which  was  once  exclusively  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  fruit,  having  been  extended  to  the 
whole  plant.  The  larger-leaved  hardy  evergreen 
common  in  shrubberies,  the  Common  Laurel  or 
Cherry  Laurel  ( Prunm  laurocerasus),  is  some¬ 
times  called  Bay  Laurel.  The  true  bay -leaves  are 
frequently  used  for  flavoring  puddings,  etc.,  but 
those  of  the  laurel  are  sometimes  substituted.  Bay- 
rum,  used  by  perfumers,  is  an  aromatic  liquid 
obtained  by  distilling  rum  in  which  bay-leaves 
have  been  steeped. 


Bay  a  ( Ploceus  macalatus,  P.  bay  a,  or  Loxia 
'philippina ,  Linn.),  the  common  Indian  and  Ceylon 
Weaver-bird,  so-called  in  reference  to  its  beauti¬ 
fully  woven  hanging  nest. 

Baya'mo,  or  San  Salvador,  a  town  in  the  in¬ 
terior  of  the  eastern  part  of  Cuba.  Pop.,  about 
7,500. 

Bayana,  or  Biana,  a  town  of  India,  in  the 
Rajput  State  of  Bhurtpur,  fifty  miles  southwest 
of  Agra.  Pop.  (1881),  8,758. 

Bayard,  the  name  of  four  Senators  of  the 
United  States  from  the  State  of  Delaware.  First 
was  James  Ashetox,  1767-1815;  (2)  Richard 
Bassett,  his  son,  1790-1868;  (3)  James  Asheton, 
brother  of  Richard,  who  served  from  1851  to 
1369;  (4)  Thomas  Francis,  son  of  James  A.,  born 
in  1828  became  Senator  in  1869,  and  from  March, 
1885,  to  March,  1889,  was  Secretary  of  State  in 
President  Cleveland’s  Cabinet. 

Bayard,  Pierre  dc  Tekrail,  Chevalier  de, 


“  the  knight  without  fear  and  without  reproach,” 
was  born  in  1476,  at  the  Chateau  Bayard,  near 
Grenoble.  He  won  his  spurs  at  the  battle  of  For- 
novo,  where  he  captured  a  standard  from  the 
enemy.  Early  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.,  in  a 
battle  near  Milan,  Bayard  followed  the  defeated 
and  retreating  forces  with  such  impetuosity  that 
he  entered  the  city  with  them,  and  was  made  a 
prisoner,  but  the  Duke  Ludovico  Sforza  released 
him  without  ransom.  At  Barletta,  in  1502,  Bay¬ 
ard  and  ten  other  French  knights  fought  a  tour¬ 
nament  with  an  equal  number  of  Spaniards,  and 
although  seven  Frenchmen  were  overthrown  in 
the  first  charge,  the  result,  chiefly  through  Bay¬ 
ard’s  bravery,  after  a  six  hours’  combat  was 
declared  equal.  When  Pope  Julius  II.  declared 
war  with  France,  Bayard  hastened  to  support  the 
Duke  of  Ferrara;  but  failed  in  his  scheme  for 
making  the  Pope  a  prisoner.  Subsequently,  he 
won  fresh  laurels  in  Spain.  In  1515,  when 
Francis  I.  ascended  the  throne,  Bayard  was  sent 
into  Dauphinfi  to  make  a  way  for  the  army  over 
the  Alps  and  through  Piedmont.  In  this  expe¬ 
dition  lie  made  Prosper  Colonna a  prisoner.  Next, 
at  Marignano,  he  gained  a  victory  for  the  King, 
who,  in  consequence,  submitted  to  receive  the 
honor  of  knighthood  from  Bayard.  When 
Charles  V.  broke  into  Champagne,  at  the  head  of 
a  large  army,  Bayard  defended  M&zithes  against 
all  assaults,  and  on  his  entry  into  Paris  lie  was 
hailed  as  the  saviour  of  liis  country,  was  made 
Knight  of  the  Order  of  St.  Michael,  and  appointed 
commander  in  his  own  name  of  100  men-at-arms, 
an  honor  till  then  confined  to  princes  of  the  blood 
royal.  He  was  mortally  wounded  while  defend 
ing  the  passage  of  the  Sesia,  April  30,  1524.  He 
died  with  his  face  to  the  foe,  reciting  the  Miserere. 

Bayazid',  or  Bayezeed,  a  town  of  Turkish 
Armenia.  Here  the  Russians  defeated  a  Turkish 
army  in  1854.  In  1877  it  was  seized  by  the  Rus¬ 
sians,  but  was  restored  by  the  Berlin  Congress  of 
1878.  Pop.,  about  5,000. 

Bay  City,  the  third  town  of  Michigan,  is  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Saginaw  river,  108  miles 
north-northwest  of  Detroit.  Pop.  (1887),  about 
32,000. 

Bayer,  Johann,  a  German  constructor  of 
charts  of  the  stars,  was  born  in  1572,  at  Rliain,  in 
Bavaria,  and  died  an  advocate  at  Augsburg  in 
1625. 

Bayenx,  an  ancient  city  of  Normandy,  in  the 
French  department  Calvados,  fifteen  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Caen.  Pop.  (1881),  8,006. 

Bayenx  Tapestry,  a  panorama  of  sewed  work, 
representing  the  invasion  and  conquest  of  Eng¬ 
land  by  William  the  Conqueror,  preserved  in 
the  public  library  of  Bayeux.  It  is  sewed  on  a 
band  of  linen  about  230  feet  long  by  20  inches 
wide,  and  is  divided  into  72  scenes,  which  are 
generally  separated  from  each  other  by  a  tree  or 
other  object.  Most  of  the  scenes  are  described 
by  Latin  inscriptions  sewed  along  the  upper 
margin  of  the  tapestry.  The  work  contains  figures 
of  623  persons,  762  horses,  dogs,  and  other  ani¬ 
mals,  37  buildings,  and  41  ships  or  boats.  To 
distinguish  objects  at  different  distances  from  the 
spectator,  different  colored  worsteds  are  em¬ 
ployed,  with  sometimes  curious  effect;  thus,  a 
blue  horse  may  have  its  off  legs  red,  or  a  yellow 
one  green,  and  so  on.  The  method  of  sewing  has 
been  to  cover  the  object  with  threads  laid  side  by 
side,  and  to  cross-stitch  at  intervals. 

Bay  Islands,  a  small  group  in  the  Bay  of  Hon¬ 
duras,  150  miles  southeast  of  Balize.  Total  pop., 
5,000. 

Bayle,  Pierre,  one  of  the  most  independent 
thinkers  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  born  in 
1647  at  Carlat,  near  Foix,  in  Languedoc.  The 
son  of  a  Calvinist  pastor,  he  studied  philosophy 
under  the  Jesuits  at  Toulouse,  and  became  a 
Catholic;  but  afterward  again  a  Protestant.  He 
became  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  Sedan  and 
Rotterdam,  and  engaged  in  theological  contro¬ 
versies  with  men  of  all  beliefs.  He  died  Dec.  28, 
1706. 

Bayly,  Thomas  Haynes,  an  English  song-writer 
and  author,  was  born  Oct.  13,  1797,  and  died  in 
1839. 

Bay  of  Islands,  a  safe  and  extensive  harbor  on 
the  east  coast  of  the  northernmost  portion  of  the 
North  Island  of  New  Zealand. 


Bayonet,  supposed  to  be  named  from  Bayonne, 
of  which  Pustjygur,  its 
alleged  inventor  (about 
1650),  was  a  native,  is 
a  dagger  or  small  spear 
fixed  at  the  end  of  a 
musket  or  similar 
weapon.  According  to 
some  authorities,  the 
bayonet  is  the  Malay 
creese,  introduced  by 
Dutch  soldiers  from 
the  East  Indies;  any¬ 
how,  it  is  certain  that 
bayonets  were  manu¬ 
factured  at  Bayonne  in 
1663.  Bayonets  are  of 
two  patterns.  That 
with  which  the  rank 
and  file  of  the  United 
States  infantry  a  r  e 
armed  is  triangular  in 
section,  fitting  around 
the  rifle  barrel  by 
means  of  a  socket,  is 
22  inches  long,  weighs 
151  oz.,  and  is  adapted 
only  for  thrusting; 
while  the  sword-bayo¬ 
net  is  a  cut-and-thrust 
weapon  of  the  same  A-  Bayonet, 

weight,  24  inches  long,  B’  Sword-bayonet, 
sharpened  on  its  front  edge,  and  sometimes  saw- 
backed;  its  hilt  fits  around  the  barrel,  and  its 
handle  on  to  a  button  at  the  side  of  it. 

Bayonne,  one  of  the  most  strongly  fortified 
towns  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Basses- 
PryrCn^es,  sixty-three  miles  west-northwest  of 
Pau.  The  Rivers  Adour  and  Hive  divide  the  town 
into  three  parts — Great  Bayonne,  Little  Bayonne, 
and  St.  Esprit.  Pop.  (1881),  20,957. 

Bayonne,  a  city  of  Hew  Jersey,  about  six 
miles  southwest  of  New  York.  Pop.  (1880), 
9,372. 

Bay-window,  or  (corruptly)  Bow-window,  a 
window  peculiar  to  late  Gothic  and  Renaissance 
architecture,  so  called  because  it  forms  a  bay  or 
projecting  space  outward  from  a  room. 

Baza,  an  old  town  of  Spain,  fifty  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Granada.  It  lies  in  a  fertile  plain, 
has  remains  of  Moorish  fortifications,  a  sulphur- 
spring  and,  in  1878,  12,992  inhabitants. 

Bazaar,  or  Bazar  (Pers.  bazar),  an  Oriental 
market-place,  either  open  or  covered,  where 
various  articles,  including  slaves,  are  exposed  for 
sale,  and  where  Eastern  merchants  meet  for  trans¬ 
action  of  business. 

Bazaine,  Francois  Achille,  a  marshal  of 
France,  born  at  Versailles,  Feb.  13,  1811.  Enter¬ 
ing  the  army  in  1831,  he -served  with  distinction 
in  Algeria,  in  Spain,  in  the  Crimea,  and  in  the 
Italian  campaign  of  1859.  He  took  part  in  the 
French  expedition  to  Mexico  in  1862,  and  from 
1863  till  the  end  of  the  war  held  supreme  com¬ 
mand  of  the  French  forces.  At  the  outbreak  of 
the  great  war  with  Germany,  Bazaine  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  third  army  corps  near  Metz. 
After  the  battle  of  Worth  and  Forbaeh  he  took 
command  of  the  main  French  armies,  and  on 
Aug.  14,  1870,  began  a  retreat  from  Metz.  De¬ 
feated  at  Mars-la  Tour  and  Gravelotte,  he  retired 
within  the  fortifications  of  Metz,  which  was  im¬ 
mediately  invested  by  Prince  Frederick  Charles. 
Attempts  to  escape  failing,  Bazaine  capitulated 
Oct.  27,  when  three  marshals,  over  6,000  officers, 
and  173,000  men  laid  down  their  arms  and  became 
prisoners  of  war.  In  1873  Bazaine  was  tried  by 
a  court-martial,  for  treason  and  cowardice,  and 
sentenced  to  degradation  and  death.  The  sentence 
was  commuted  to  twenty  years’  imprisonment. 
But  in  1874  Bazaine  contrived  to  escape  from  the 
fortress  on  the  lie  Ste.  Marguerite,  near  Cannes, 
where  he  was  confined,  and  ultimately  he  made 
his  way  to  Madrid,  where  he  died  in  1888  in  abject 
poverty. 

Hazard,  Saint  Amand,  a  French  Socialist,  was 
born  at  Paris  in  1791.  lie  was  the  leading  con¬ 
spirator  in  the  “plot  of  Belfort.”  Died  July  29, 
1832. 

Baznrdjik,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  twenty-six 
miles  north  of  Varna,  has  an  important  fair  in 
April.  Pop.  (1881),  9,545.  Founded  300  years 


BAZIGARS. 


138 


BEAR. 


ago,  it  was  stormed  by  the  Russians  June  2,  1774, 
and  June  3,  1810. — Tatar-Bazardjik,  a  town  of 
Eastern  ltoumelia,  on  the  Upper  Maritza,  twenty- 
three  miles  west  of  Philippopolis.  Pop.,  13,000. 

Bazigars,  a  tribe  of  natives  scattered  over 
India,  known  also  as  Panchpiri,  Kunjra,  or  Nats, 
most  of  whom  lead  a  nomadic  life.  They  do  not 
intermix  with  the  Hindus.  They  have  some 
features  of  resemblance  to  the  Gipsies  of  Europe 
and  Asia. 

Bazoche,  or  Basoche,  the  guild  of  the  clerks 
of  the  parliament  of  Paris,  under  a  mock  king, 
to  whom  Philip  the  Fair  granted  the  privilege 
of  performing  religious  plays  in  1303. 

Bdellium,  a  gum-resin  resembling  myrrh  in 
appearance  and  qualities,  but  weaker,  and  at 
the  same  time  more  acrid.  It  is  occasionally 
employed  as  an  ingredient  of  plasters. 

Beaches,  Raised.  Geology  teaches  that  the 
frame  of  the  land  is  liable  to  risings  and  depres¬ 
sions,  even  in  the  present  age.  Several  districts 
in  different  parts  of  the  world  have  been  raised, 
in  consequence  of  earthquakes,  within  the  mem¬ 
ory  of  the  present  generation;  and  there  is  evi¬ 
dence  to  show  that  the  coast  of  Siberia  east  of 
the  Lena,  Spitzbergen,  Nova  Zembla,  and  the 
Scandinavian  Penninsula  (with  the  exception  of 
Scania,  in  the  extreme  south),  have  been  recently 
elevated.  Some  of  the  most  remarkable  examples, 
occur  in  South  America,  where  Darwin  noticed 
them  at  various  levels,  from  61  feet  up  to  1,000, 
and  even  1,300  feet  (near  Valparaiso),  above  the 
existing  sea-level. 

Beachy  Head,  the  loftiest  headland  on  the 
south  coast  of  England;  projecting  into  the  Eng¬ 
lish  Channel.  It  consists  of  perpendicular  chalk- 
cliffs,  575  feet  high,  forming  the  east  end  of  the 
South  Downs. 

Beacon  denotes  any  signal  set  upon  a  height, 
but  especially  the  alarm-fires  at  one  time  used  to 
spread  the  intelligence  of  foreign  invasions  or 
other  great  events.  They  were  made  by  kind¬ 
ling  a  pile  of  wood  on  the  tops  of  lofty  mountains 
and  keeping  the  flame  bright  by  night,  or  having 
the  fire  so  covered  as  to  emit  a  dense  smoke  by  day. 
In  England  the  beacons  were  carefully  organ¬ 
ized  when  the  Spanish  Armada  was  looked  for. 

Beacon,  in  maritime  affairs,  is  an  erection  of 
stone,  timber, 
wrought-iron,  cast- 
iron,  or  concrete, 
placed  upon  a  rock 
or  bank  dry  at  low 
water,  but  covered 
at  high  water,  and 
lying  near  the 
track  of  shipping, 
either  on  the  open 
coast  or  in  navig¬ 
able  rivers  or  es¬ 
tuaries. 

Beaconsfleld,  a 

little  market-town 
o  f  Buckingham¬ 
shire,  England.  It 
is  noteworthy  as  the 

home  and  burial wat^h- 
place  of  the  poet 
Waller  and  of  Ed¬ 
mund  Burke,  and 
as  having  given | 

his  earl  s  t  itle  t_0  Elevation  of  a.  First-class  Cast-iron 
Benjamin  Disraeli.  Beacon;  total  height  above  high 
Pop.  of  parish  water,  36 feet. 

(1881),  1,635. 

Beaconsfield,  Benjamin  Disraeli,  Earl  of, 
statesman  and  novelist,  was  born  Dec.  21,  1804, 
in  London.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac 
DTsraeli  and  Maria  Basevi,  and  was  the  descend¬ 
ant  of  a  Jewish  family.  He  was  duly  circumcised 
at  the  Spanish  Synagogue  in  Bevis  Marks,  but 
in  1817,  a  boy  of  twelve,  was  baptized  at  St. 
Andrew’s,  Hoiborn,  with  the  poet  Rodgers  for 
godfather.  In  1832  he  was  a  candidate  for  Parlia¬ 
ment,  biit  failed  then,  as  an  advanced  Radical, 
as  he  failed  in  1835,  as  a  Tory.  But  in  1837,  the 
first  year  of  Victoria’s  reign,  he  entered  Parlia¬ 
ment,  as  member  for  Maidstone.  From  the 
hour  of  his  savage  onslaught  on  Sir  Robert  Peel 
in  the  Corn-law  debate  of  Jan.  22, 1846,  he  became 
the  real  leader  of  the  Tory  Protectionist  squires, 
though  their  nominal  chief  for  two  years  was 


Lord  George  Bentinck.  As  Chancellor  of  the  Ex¬ 
chequer  and  leader  of  the  Lower  House  in  the  brief 
Derby  administration  of  1852,  he  discarded  Pro¬ 
tection.  Mr.  Gladstone  succeeded  him,  in  the 
Aberdeen  coalition  ministry.  In  1858  he  returned, 
with  Lord  Derby,  to  power,  and  next  year  intro¬ 
duced  a  petty  measure  of  parliamentary  reform — 
his  “fancy  franchises”  bill — whose  rejection  was 
followed  by  resignation.  For  seven  years  the 
Liberals  remained  in  office;  and  Disraeli,  in  oppo¬ 
sition,  displayed  talents  as  a  debater,  and  a  spirit 
and  persistency  under  defeat  that  won  for  him 
the  admiration  of  his  adversaries.  On  his  return 
to  the  post  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  in 
the  third  Derby  administration  (1866),  he  intro¬ 
duced  and  carried  a  Reform  Bill  (1867),  far  more 
democratic,  more  sweeping  in  its  character,  than 
one  just  rejected  by  the  Conservatives  and  mal¬ 
content  Liberals.  In  February,  1868  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  Lord  Derby  as  Premier;  but,  in  the  face 
of  a  hostile  majority,  he  resigned  in  the  following 
December.  On  this  occasion,  Mrs.  Disraeli  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  as  Viscountess  Beacous- 
field. 

In  1874  Disraeli  entered  on  his  second  Premier¬ 
ship.  In  1875  he  made  Britian  half -owner  of  the 
Suez  Canal;  and  in  1876  he  conferred  on  the  Queen 
the  new  title  of  Empress  of  India,  himself  the 
same  year  being  called  to  the  Upper  House  as  Earl 
of  Beaconsfield.  lie  had  sat  for  Shrewsbury 
from  1841  to  1847,  and  thenceforward  for  Buck¬ 
inghamshire.  He  backed  Turkey  in  the  Crimean 
war;  but  the  Berlin  Congress  (1878),  which  Lord 
Beaconsfield  himself  attended  with  Lord  Salis¬ 
bury,  gave  back  to  Russia  all  she  had  lost.  The 
general  election  of  1880,  returning  a  large  Liberal 
majority,  the  Government  resigned  before  the 
meeting  of  Parliament.  His  novels,  which  are 
stilted  in  style,  and  are  seldom  read,  are  about  a 
dozen  in  number.  Of  these  Vivian  Grey , 
Lothair,  Henrietta ,  Temple,  Coningsby,  Tancred, 
and  Endymion — his  last — are  best  known.  On 
April  19,  1881,  he  died  at  his  London  residence 
and  was  buried  at  Hughenden,  near  Wycombe. 

Bead,  in  architecture,  a  small  round  moulding, 
sometimes  called  an  astragal.  It  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  architecture,  in  picture-frames,  and 
in  other  objects  carved  in  wood. 

Beadle,  in  England  is  an  inferior  parish-officer 
chosen  and  appointed  by  the  vestry. 

Beads,  a  variety  of  personal  ornaments,  made 
of  glass,  pottery,  metal,  bone,  ivory,  wood,  jet, 
amber,  coral,  etc.,  and  perforated  so  that  they 
can  be  strung  on  threads  and  made  into  necklaces, 
bracelets,  rosaries,  etc.,  or  worked  on  cloth  as  a 
kind  of  embroidery.  Their  use  is  of  great 
antiquity,  for  they  are  found  in  the  most  ancient 
of  the  Egyptian  tombs  as  decorations  of  the  dead. 
Ever  since  the  fourteenth  century,  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  glass  beads  has  been  chiefly  engrossed  by 
the  Venetians.  The  modern  phrase  “to  tell  one’s 
beads,”  literally  “  to  number  one’s  prayers,”  now 
means  simply  “to  say  one’s  prayers,”  from  the 
Old  English  word  “bede,”  signifying  a  prayer.  A 
certain  number  of  such  beads  strung  on  a  thread 
makes  a  Rosary.  A  bedesman  or  bedeswoman  is 
one  who  prays  for  another. 

Beagle  (probably  from  Fr.  begueule,  wide- 
throat),  the  smallest  variety  of  hound,  formerly 
much  used  in  England  for  hare-liunting. 

Beale,  Lionel  Smith,  a  distinguished  physi¬ 
cian  and  physiologist,  born  in  London  in  1828. 

Beam  ( A.S.  beam,  a  tree),  any  piece  of  wood, 
long  like  a  tree.  In  the  arts,  the  word  has  many 
special  technical  applications.  It  is  the  name  for 
part  of  a  weaving-loom,  of  a  balance,  and  of  a 
stationary  steam-engine.  Beam  in  engineering  is 
a  strong  stay  of  wood  or  iron,  for  supporting 
lateral  pressure.  In  ship-building  it  is  applied 
to  any  of  the  transverse  pieces  of  framing  extend¬ 
ing  across  the  hull.  In  ship  measurement  it 
means  breadth  at  the  wales.  The  position  of  the 
beams,  stretching  across  a  ship  at  right  angles 
to  (lie  keel,  has  given  origin  to  many  technical 
phrases  used  on  shipboard.  “  On  the  starboard 
beam  ”  is  applied  to  any  distant  point  out  at  sea, 
at  right  angles  to  the  keel,  and  on  the  starboard 
or  right  hand — as  viewed  from  the  stern — side  of 
the  ship.  “  On  the  port  beam  ”  similarly  applies 
to  the  left  hand.  “On  the  weather  beam”  is 
that  .side  of  the  ship  which  receives  or  is  toward 
the  wind.  “Before  the  beam ”  is  the  bearing  of 


any  object  when  seen  more  in  advance  than  on 
the  beam.  “  Abaft  the  beam  ”  is  the  reverse  of 
the  expression  just  noted.  “On  her  beam-ends” 
is  applied  to  the  position  of  a  ship  when  so  much 
inclined  to  one  side  that  the  beams  become  nearly 
vertical. 

Beaming  is  the  art  of  winding  the  web  on  the 
weaver’s  beam  in  a  manner  suitable  for  weaving 
with  regard  to  firmness  and  evenness. 

Beam-tree,  White  (Pyrus  aria),  a  tree  of  20- 
40  feet  in  height,  a  native  of  almost  all  parts  of 
Europe  and  of  corresponding  climates  in  Asia. 
It  has  been  variously  referred  by  botanists  to 
several  allied  genera — Sorbus,  Crataegus,  and 
Mespilus. 

Bean  is  a  term  used  to  designate  the  seeds  of 
various  plants,  but  is  generally  applied  to  those 
of  different  species  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Leguminosae,  as,  for  instance,  the  Common  Bean 
(Faba  vulgaris),  the  French,  Kidney,  or  Haricot 
Bean  ( Phaseolus  vulgaris),  the  Molucca  Bean 
( Guilandina  bomlvcdla),  the  Locust  Bean  ( Cera - 
tonia  siliqua),  the  Tonka  Bean  ( Diptei  i.v  odorata), 
and  others.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  seeds 
of  other  p'ants  widely  different  from  each  other  and 
from  the  Leguminosae,  suchasthePitchurim  Bean, 
St.  Ignatius  Bean,  the  seed  of  Igantia  amara,  the 
Egyptian  or  Sacred  Bean,  and  the  Calabar  Bean 
Pbysostig m  a  venenosv m . 

The  common  bean  is  a  valuable  source  of  food- for 
man  and  animals  in  most  of  the  temperate  climates 
of  the  globe.  It  is  of  Eastern  origin,  and  was 
cultivated  by  the  Egyptians,  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Romans,  who  introduced  it  into  Britain.  Beans 
grow  best  on  the  heavier  soils,  and  are  usually 
planted  after  wheat  or  some  other  grain  crop. 
The  most  common  method  of  preparing  the  land 
is  to  plough  in  farm-yard  manure  early  in  autumn. 

The  beans  grown  in  the  United  States  are  for 
the  most  part  either  haricots  or  closely  allied 
kinds. 

Bean-caper,  a  name  applied  to  Zygophyllum 
fabago,  whose  flower-buds  are  used  in  the  East  as 
a  substitute  for  capers. 

Bear  ( Ursus),  a  genus  of  large  mammals  in  the 
order  Carnivora.  They  differ  from  the  related 
cat  and  dog  types  in  being  much  less  markedly 
carnivorous  in  habit  and  structure.  The  genus, 
though  not  a  large  one,  is  widely  distributed  in 
cold  and  temperate  regions;  and  in  the  secluded 
uplands  of  some  warmer  countries.  About  tea 
species  frequent  various  parts  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  North  America,  while  the  African  bear  ( Ursus 
crowthcn)  of  the  Atlas  Mountains,  and  the  South 
American  Spectacled  Bear  (U.  ornatus)  of  the 
Andes,  are  the  only  two  representatives  known  to 
occur  on  these  two  Continents. 

From  the  Pliocene  strata  of  Europe  and  the  de¬ 
posits  of  the  Siwalik  Hills,  two  extinct  species 
of  bear  have  been  dug  up  ( U.  arvernensis)  and 
( U.  etruscus).  The  Post-pliocene  European  caves 
are  rich  in  remains  of  the  Great  Cave-bear  (U. 
spelceus),  along  with  those  of  the  still  abundant 
Grizzly.  None  of  the  above  extinct  forms  differ 


Common  Brown  Bear  )  Onus  arclOs) . 


markedly  from  existing  species,  but  related  genera 
like  Arctotherium  and  Hysenarctos  h  ad  back  to 
such  a  primitive  form  as  Amphieyon,  which  is 


BEAR-BAITING. 


139 


BEAUIIARNAIS. 


supposed  to  be  at  “  the  converging  point  of  the 
dog  and  bear  family  lines.” 

The  common  Brown  Bear  ( Ursus  aretos),  is  a 
variable  species,  inhabiting  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
regarded  by  some  as  identical  with  the  Black 
Bear  of  North  America.  It  measures  about  6 
feet  in  length,  and  stands  3  feet  or  so  high  at  the 
shoulders. 

The  American  Black  Bear  ( Ursus  americanus), 
differs  only  in  a  few  trivial  characteristics,  such  as 
blacker  fur,  more  slender  snout,  more  convex 
forehead,  and  the  like.  If  food  be  abundant  in 
the  late  autumn,  and  the  bears  in  consequence  in 
good  condition,  they  sleep  during  the  entire  winter. 
Quite  distinct  from  the  above  is  the  Grizzly  Bear 
(if.  horribilis,  cinereus,  or fer ox)  of  North  America 
(from  Mexico  to  61°  N.),  a  very  large,  strong, 
and  fierce  animal,  chiefly  at  home  on  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  dark  brown  fur  has  a  good  deal 
of  gray  about  the  head,  the  ears  are  short  and 
conical,  the  forehead  broad  and  flat,  the  tail  ex¬ 
tremely  short,  the  claws  long,  curved,  and  whit¬ 
ish.  The  adult  Grizzly  can  not  climb  trees.  It  is 
larger  and  stouter  than  the  brown  bear,  more 
markedly  carnivorous,  and  a  very  much  more  for¬ 
midable  beast  of  chase.  It  is  extraordinarily  ten¬ 
acious  of  life.  The  Malayan  Sun  Bear  ( Hilarctos 
or  Ursus  malayanus),  inhabiting  the  Malay  Ar¬ 
chipelago,  has  a  short,  broad  head,  long  extensile 
tongue,  short,  smooth,  black  fur,  and  remarkably 
long  claws.  Its  maximum  length  is  about  four 
and  one-half  feet.  The  Sloth  Bear  ( Melursus  or 
Ursus  labiatus),  which  is  still  more  divergent,  in¬ 
habits  the  mountainous  regions  of  Southern  Asia 
and  Ceylon.  Sloth  bears  are  clumsy,  uncouth 
animals,  five  to  six  feet  long,  with  shaggy,  black 
fur,  and  with  prolonged  snout  and  lips,  which 
are  utilized  in  sucking  white  ants  out  of  their 
nests.  The  Polar  or  White  Bear  of  the  Arctic 
regions  (over  the  whole  Polar  zone)  ( Thalassarctos 
or  Ursus  maritimus)  has  a  comparatively  narrow 
head,  a  pointed  snout,  small  rounded  ears,  and  a 


Polar  Bear  (Ursus maritimus). 


long  neck.  The  grinding  teeth  are  smaller  and 
narrower  than  usual,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet 
more  hairy.  They  feed  principally  on  fish  and 
seals,  rarely  attacking  terrestrial  quadrupeds,  and 
not  despising  vegetable  food  in  summer.  They 
are  the  largest  bears,  often  measuring  nine  feet  in 
length,  and  are  proportionately  strong. 

Bear-baiting.  In  different  countries,  bears 
were  formerly  made  objects  of  cruel  sport,  by 
being  baited  with  dogs.  In  England  it  was  a 
favorite  amusement  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry 
II.,  whilst  at  a  later  period  a  “  royal  bear-ward  ” 
was  an  officer  regularly  attached  to  the  royal 
household.  The  sport  is  frequently  alluded  to 
by  Shakspeare  and  Ben  Jonson,  and  it  was  not 
only  encouraged  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  but  it  was 
placed  under  the  particular  patronage  of  Her 
Majesty.  It  was  finally  prohibited  in  1835. 

Bearberry.  The  Red  Bear  berk  y  (Arcto- 
staphylos  ima  ursi)  is  a  small  trailing  evergreen 
shrub,  common  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe, 
Siberia,  and  North  America. 

Beard.  The  hair  of  the  beard,  moustache,  and 
whiskers,  is  usually,  though  not  always,  of  the 
same  color  as  the  hair  of  t lie  head,  but  somewhat 
shorter,  stronger,  and  more  wiry.  The  beard  is 
the  distinctive  sign  of  manhood.  In  women,  an 
incipient  beard  sometimes  appears  in  the  later 
years  of  life.  Instances  also  occur  of  women  with 
a  beard  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  male  sex,  the 


most  celebrated  “bearded  lady”  being  Margaret 
of  Parma,  Regent  of  the  Netherlands  (1559).  The 
beard  is  generally  luxuriant  in  persons  of  the 
Slavonic  and  Celtic  races.  The  aborigines  of 
America,  who  are  naturally  almost  beardless,  make 
themselves  entirely  so  by  plucking  out  the  hairs  of 
the  beard.  In  early  times  the  beard  was  con¬ 
sidered  by  almost  all  nations  a  sign  of  strength 
and  an  ornament  of  manhood,  was  carefully 
cherished,  and  even  regarded  as  sacred.  Among 
the  Turks,  Arabs,  and  Persians,  and  many  other 
nations,  the  removal  of  the  beard  was,  and 
is  yet  to  a  very  great  extent,  regarded  as  a  severe 
punishment,  and  an  extreme  degradation.  The 
Moslems,  who  are  accustomed  to  swear  by  the 
beard  of  the  prophet  and  by  their  own,  carry 
combs  constantly  about  with  them  for  the  purpose 
of  dressing  the  beard.  The  ancient  Jews  did  not 
dye  their  beards,  but  the  practice  was  common 
among  the  Arabs  and  Persians.  In  Greece  the 
beard  was  universally  worn  until  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  who  ordered  shaving,  that 
the  beards  of  his  soldiers  might  not  belaid  hold  of 
by  their  enemies  in  battle.  Shaving  was  intro¬ 
duced  among  the  Romans  about  300  b.c.  Peter 
the  Great  compelled  shaving  in  Russia  by  impos¬ 
ing  a  heavy  tax  upon  the  beard.  The  beard 
was  commonly  worn  in  France  till  the  time  of 
Louis  XIII.,  when,  because  the  monarch  was 
young  and  beardless,  the  fashion  changed  at  the 
court  and  throughout  the  kingdom.  A  similar 
change  took  place  in  Spain  on  the  accession  of 
Philip  V.  The  English  wore  beards  for  a  con¬ 
siderable  time  after  their  invasion  of  Britain;  and 
the  beard  appears  to  have  been  general  among 
the  people  at  the  time  of  the  Norman  Conquest. 
But  the  Normans  not  only  shaved  themselves,  but 
compelled  the  conquered  to  do  so  likewise;  and 
many  of  the  English  chose  rather  to  leave  the 
country.  In  the  time  of  Elizabeth  beards  were 
of  the  most  varied  and  fantastic  cut. 

Under  Charles  I.  were  worn  the  moustache  and 
peaked  beard,  familiar  through  Vandyke’s  por¬ 
traits;  in  Charles  II.’s  reign  moustaches  only 
were  worn;  and  the  practice  of  shaving  the  whole 
face  soon  became  general  all  over  Europe.  All 
the  Popes  were  bearded  from  1523  to  1691.  Now¬ 
adays  the  priests  of  the  Eastern  Church  go 
bearded;  those  of  the  Western,  closely  shaven. 
George  Washington  and  George  III.  were  alike 
clean-shaven,  and  eighteenth-century  portraits 
show  a  striking  uniformity  in  this  regard.  The 
growth  of  the  full  beard  dates  in  France  from  the 
capture  of  Algiers  (1830),  in  England  from  the 
Crimean  war  (1855).  In  France  during  the  second 
empire,  moustache  and  “imperial  ”  after  the  man¬ 
ner  of  Napoleon  III.  were  usual. 

Beard,  William  II.,  born  at  Painesville,  Ohio, 
April  13,  1825,  is  well  known  as  a  painter  of 
animals  and  has  designed  many  humorous 
sketches  for  engravings. 

Bearing,  of  a  ship  at  sea,  is  the  direction  in 
which  she  sails,  in  reference  to  the  points  of  the 
compass,  or  to  an  object  on  shore. 

Bear  Lake,  Great,  in  the  northwest  of 
Canada,  in  65°-67°  N.  latitude  and  117°-123°  W. 
longitude,  is  the  most  northerly  of  that  series  of 
fresh-water  seas — Huron,  Superior,  Winnipeg, 
Athabasca,  Great  Slave,  Great  Bear — which  mark 
a  continuous  depression  in  the  middle  of  the  con¬ 
tinent.  Lying  246  feet  above  sea-level,  Great  Bear 
Lake  is  irregular  in  shape,  with  a  surface  esti¬ 
mated  at  7,012  square  miles.  It  sends  forth  a 
river  of  its  own  name  to  the  Mackenzie.  The 
Arctic  Circle  passes  over  it. 

Bearn,  formerly  one  of  the  thirty-two  prov¬ 
inces  into  which  France  was  divided,  and  now 
forming  the  greatest  portion  of  the  department 
of  Basses-PyrCndes.  Henry  IV.,  of  Navarre,  who 
was  born  and  brought  up  in  Bearn,  was  derisively 
called  Le  Bearnois. 

Bear  River,  a  stream  of  Utah,  which  rises  in 
the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  east  of  Salt  Lake, 
flows  northwest  into  Idaho,  then  bends  round  and 
again  returns  into  Utah,  falling  into  Great  Salt 
Lake. 

Beas,  an  Indian  stream,  one  of  the  “Five 
Rivers”  of  the  Punjab,  rises  in  the  Snowy  Moun¬ 
tains  of  Kulu,  at  an  altitude  of  13,320  feet  above 
sea-level,  and,  after  a  course  of  230  miles,  flows 
into  the  Sutlej. 

Beast-fables,  rude,  allegorical  stories,  in  which 


animals  play  human  parts,  a  widely-spread  prim¬ 
itive  form  of  literature,  often  surviving  in  more 
or  less  developed  forms  in  the  more  advanced 
civilizations.  No  better  example  of  its  simplest 
form  could  be  found  than  those  stories  of  the 
negroes  within  the  Southern  States  of  America, 
which,  through  Harris’  Uncle  ltemus ,  are  now  so 
well  known  to  the  English-speaking  peoples. 

Beat,  in  Music,  the  English  name  of  a  grace 
or  ornament,  but  of  various  signification,  applied 
by  different  writers  to  the  acciacatura,  the  mor¬ 
dent,  and  the  reversed  shake.  From  this  uncer¬ 
tainty  the  word  is  now  in  disuse.  Beat  also 
means  a  signal  given  by  the  hand  or  foot  of  the 
conductor  to  insure  simultaneous  performance — 
the  hand  or  foot  being  raised  on  the  unaccented, 
and  lowered  on  the  accented  part  of  the  bar. 
Beats  are  a  wavy,  throbbing  effect  produced  by 
the  sounding  together  of  two  musical  notes  not 
in  perfect  unison  or  consonance,  and  arc  of  prac¬ 
tical  importance  in  the  art  of  tuning. 

Beatification  is  a  solemn  act  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  by  which  the  Pope,  after  scrutinizing 
the  virtues  and  miracles  of  a  deceased  person, 
pronounces  him  to  be  among  the  blessed.  Beati¬ 
fication  is  generally  a  step  toward  canonization. 

Beaton,  or  Betiiune,  David,  Cardinal  and 
Primate  of  Scotland  and  Resident  for  Scotland 
at  the  French  court,  from  1519,  was  born  in  1494. 
In  1525  he  took  his  seat  in  the  Scots  Parliament 
as  Abbot  of  Arbroath.  In  1528  Beaton  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Lord  Privy  Seal.  On  Queen  Mary’s  cor¬ 
onation,  in  1543,  Beaton  was  again  admitted  to  the 
council,  and  appointed  Chancellor.  After  severe 
persecutions  of  the  Reformers,  he  was  assassinated 
May  29,  1546. 

Beaton,  James,  an  uncle  of  the  Cardinal,  rose 
to  be  Archbishop  of  Glasgow  (1509)  and  of  St. 
Andrews  (1522).  He  was  one  of  the  Regents  dur¬ 
ing  the  minority  of  James  V.  He  died  at  St. 
Andrews  in  1539. 

Beattie,  James,  poet  and  essayist,  was  born  at 
Laurencekirk,  Kincardineshire,  in  1735,  and  died 
Aug.  18,  1803.  Among  his  writings,  his  long 
poem,  The  Minstrel,  is  best  known. 

Beaucaire,  a  town  in  the  French  department 
of  Gard.  Pop.  (1881),  8,309. 

Beauce,  (1)  a  district  in  France,  partly  in  the 
Departments  of  Loir-et-Clier  and  Eure-et-Loire, 
of  which  the  capital  is  Chartres.  (2)  A  southeast¬ 
ern  county  of  the  Province  of  Quebec,  Canada, 

Beauchamp,  Ai.piionsede,  historian  and  pub¬ 
licist,  born  at  Monaco  in  1767,  entered  the  Sar¬ 
dinian  military  service,  but  in  1792,  on  the  out¬ 
break  of  the  war  with  France,  refused  to  bear 
arms  against  the  Republic,  and  obtained  his  dis¬ 
charge.  He  died  in  1832. 

Beaufort,  an  Angevin  town  of  2,500  inhabi¬ 
tants,  in  the  French  department  of  Maine-et- 
Loire,  nineteen  miles  east  of  Angers. 

Beaufort,  (1)  a  town  and  port  of  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Newport  river.  Pop. 
(1880),  2,981.  (2)  A  town  and  port  of  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  on  Port  Royal  Island,  and  terminus  of  Port 
Royal  Railroad,  fourteen  miles  from  the  ocean. 
Pop.  (1880),  2,549. 

Beaufort,  Henry,  Cardinal,  born  in  1377,  was 
a  natural  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lan¬ 
caster,  by  Catherine,  widow  of  Sir  Hugh  Swyn- 
fort,  and  was  thus  half-brother  to  Henry  IV.  His 
parents  were  married  in  1396,  and  their  children 
were  legitimated  next  year  by  Richard  II.  He 
thrice  filled  the  office  of  Chancellor,  and  was  the 
wealthiest  man  in  England.  He  died  in  1447. 

Beaugeney,  an  ancient  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Loiret.  Here  the  French  army 
under  General  Chanzy  was  severely  defeated, 
Dec.  7-10,  1870,  by  the  German  force  under  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Mecklenburg.  Pop.,  3,860. 

Beauharnais,  Alexandre,  Vicomtede,  born 
in  1760  of  an  ancient  French  family  in  the  Island 
of  Martinique,  served,  in  the  American  War  of 
Independence,  and  in  1789  eagerly  embraced  the 
French  Revolution,  voting  for  the  abolition  of 
privileges  and  the  political  equality  of  all  citizens. 
He  was  named  Secretary  of  the  National  As¬ 
sembly,  and  in  1793  declined  the  office  of  Minister 
of  War,  and  tendered  his  resignation  as  General 
of  the  Army  of  the  Rhine,  because  it  had  been 
determined  to  exclude  the  nobility  from  the 
service.  During  the  Reign  of  Terror,  he  was 
brought  to  Paris,  tried  and  sentenced  to  death  by 


BEAUHA  RNAIS. 


140 


BECKER. 


the  revolutionary  tribunal  He  died  on  the  scaffold, 
July  23,  1794.  In  1779  hehad  married  Josephine, 
afterward  wife  of  the  great  Napoleon,  and  his 
daughter  Hortense  in  1802  married  Napoleon’s 
brother  Louis;  so  that  Beauliarnais  was  thus  the 
grandfather  of  Napoleon  III. 

Beauliarnais,  Eugene  de,  son  of  the  preced¬ 
ing,  was  born  in  1781,  and  after  his  mother’s 
(Josephine’s)  marriage  (1796)  with  Napoleon,  ac¬ 
companied  him  to  Italy  and  Egypt,  and  in  1805 
was  made  a  Prince  of  France  and  Viceroy  of  Italy. 
In  1806  he  married  the  Princess  Amelia  Augusta 
of  Bavaria,  was  created  Prince  of  Venice,  and  de¬ 
clared  by  Napoleon  his  adopted  son,  and  heir  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  His  military  talents  were 
displayed  particularly  in  the  Italian  campaigns, 
in  the  wars  against  Austria,  and  in  the  retreat 
from  Moscow,  in  which  he  divided  with  Ney  the 
honor  of  saving  the  French  army  from  total 
destruction.  The  victory  of  Ltitzen  was  decided 
by  his  conduct  in  that  battle.  Napoleon  sent  him 
from  Dresden  to  Italy,  which  he  ably  defended, 
after  Austria  had  joined  the  coalition,  and  Murat 
had  deserted  the  cause  of  the  French  Empire.  In 
the  Hundred  Days  he  took  no  part,  but  became 
Duke  of  Leuchtenberg,  and  died  at  Munich.  Feb. 
21,  1824.  II is  second  son,  Max  Eugene  Joseph 
Napoleon  (1817-52),  who  in  1835  succeeded  his 
elder  brother  as  Duke  of  Leuchtenberg,  married 
a  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas  of  Russia. 

Beaumarchais,  De,  the  name  assumed  by 
Pierre  Augustin  Caron,  next  to  Moli&re,  the 
greatest  French  comic  dramatist.  Caron  was  born 
in  Paris  in  1732.  llis  two  most  famous  comedies 
are  Le  Barbier  de  Senile  (1775),  and  La  Folle 
Journee,  ou  le  Manage  de  Figaro  (1784).  He  died 
in  1799. 

Beauina'ris,  a  seaport  and  chief  town  of 
Anglesey,  North  Wales.  Pop.  (1881),  2,241. 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  a  pair  of  the  greater 
dramatists  of  the  Elizabethan  age,  whose  joint 
work  forms  the  most  famous  of  literary  partner¬ 
ships.  Francis  Beaumont  was  the  younger  of  the 
two  by  about  five  years,  but  died  nine  years  earlier 
than  his  friend.  He  was  the  third  son  of  Sir 
Francis  Beaumont,  and  was  born  in  1584.  John 
Fletcher  was  born  at  Rye  in  Sussex,  in  Dec.,  1579. 
Beaumont  married  in  1613,  but  died  March  6, 
1616.  Fletcher  wrote  on  until  his  death,  in  his 
last  four  years  producing  no  less  than  eleven  new 
plays.  He  died  in  August,  1625. 

The  works  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher  comprise 
in  all  tifty-two  plays,  a  masque,  and  several  minor 
poems.  Fletcher  undoubtedly  had  a  share  in 
Shakespeare’s  Henry  VIII.,  and  Shakespeare 
probably  wrote  portions  of  The  Two  Noble 
Kinsmen. 

Beaumont,  Jean  Baptiste  Elie  de,  born  in 
1,798  at  Canon,  in  Calvados,  taught  geology  in  the 
Ecole  des  Mines  and  Collbge  de  France,  was 
elected  to  the  Academy  in  1835,  and  became  in 
1856  its  Perpetual  Secretary.  He  died  Sept.  22, 
1874. 

Beaumontague,  is  a  composition  of  iron  borings, 
brimstone,  pitch,  sal-ammoniac,  rosin,  and  bees¬ 
wax,  which  is  used  to  fill  up  cracks  and  Haws  in 
an  iron  casting,  to  give  an  appearance  of  solidity. 

Beaune,  a  town  in  the  French  department  Cote 
d’Or,  twent  v-three  miles  south-southwest  of  Dijon. 
Pop.  (1881),"  11,449. 

Beaune,  Floiiimond  de,  mathematician,  born 
in  1601  at  Blois,  in  France,  served  as  a  soldier, 
and  died  at  his  native  place  in  1852. 

Beauregard,  Pierre  Gustave  Toutant,  Con¬ 
federate  general,  born  in  1818,  near  New  Orleans, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1838,  served  in  the 
Mexican  War,  and  after  its  close  superintended 
the  engineering  works  on  the  Lower  Mississippi 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  He  was  appointed  by 
the  Confederate  Government  to  the  command  at 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  where,  April  12,  1861,  he  com¬ 
menced  the  war  by  the  bombardment  of  Fort 
Sumter.  He  was  virtually  in  command  at  die 
first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861;  and  sent 
to  the  West  in  spring  of  1862  as  second  to  Gen. 
A.  S.  Johnston,  he  succeeded  to  the  command 
when  the  latter  was  killed  in  the  first  day’s  battle 
of  Shiloh  or  Pittsburg  Landing.  Defeated  on  the 
second  day,  he  retreated  to  Corinth,  Miss.,  where 
he  reorganized  his  division;  but  on  the  approach 
of  the  Union  troops  he  evacuated  the  place,  and 
was  superseded  by  General  Bragg.  After  a  period 


of  inactivity  he  was  placed  (1864)  in  command  of 
the  Military  Division  of  the  West,  but  failed  to 
check  Sherman’s  march  to  the  sea.  He  became, 
after  the  war,  president  of  the  New  Orleans  and 
Mississippi  Railway  and  Adjutant-General  of 
Louisiana. 

Beauvais,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  de¬ 
partment  Oise,  situated  in  the  Valley  of  Thfrain, 
fifty-five  miles  north-northwest  of  Paris.  Pop., 
17,516. 

Beaver  (Castor),  a  familiar  rodent  mammal, 
allied  to  squirrels,  and  marmots,  and  represented 
by  a  single  widely  distributed  species  (Castor  fiber 
or  canadensis).  It  is  widely  known  for  its  aquatic 
habit,  its  sagacious  architectural  devices,  its  glossy 
fur,  and  its  fatty  castoreum  glands.  The  beaver 
is  usually  about  two  and  a  half  feet  in  length.  It 
stands  rather  under  a  foot  in  height,  and  the 
broad,  flat,  scaly  tail  is  about  ten  inches  long.  It 
is  widely  distributed  in  the  northern  parts  of  both 
the  Eastern  and  the  Western  Hemisphere.  The 
American  beaver  is  found  to  the  west  of  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  and  more  sparsely  to  the  east  of  the  same 
river,  to  the  south  of  the  Great  Lakes,  in  the 
Maine  and  Adirondack  wildernesses,  andyetmore 
sparsely  southward  to  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 
They  are  also  frequent  in  some  parts  of  Virginia 
and  Pennsylvania.  Several  extinct  species  of 
beaver  have  been  dug  up  from  Miocene  and  Plio¬ 
cene  strata.  Beavers  are  aquatic  animals,  and  are 
never  found  far  away  from  river  or  lake.  Their 
webbed  liind-feet  make  them  capital  swimmers. 
They  also  dive  well  and  can  remain  for  two  min¬ 
utes  under  water.  They  feed  mainly  on  the  bark 
of  trees.  Beavers  are  social  animals;  a  family  of 
half  a  dozen  is  frequently  found  within  a  single 
house,  and  where  food  is  abundant  and  the  local 
ity  secluded,  a  large  number  of  families  occur  in 
a  community.  The  young  beavers  leave  the 
parent  house  in  thesummerof  their  third  year,  find 
mates  for  themselves,  and  establish  new  home¬ 
steads.  The  simplest  beaver  home  is  merely  a 
burrow,  which  opens  outwards  under  the  water, 
and  is  thus  effectively  concealed.  The  so-called 
beaver  lodge  is  a  marvelous  structure.  The  island- 
lodge  is  constructed  on  a  small  island  in  the  pond 
or  dam.  It  consists  of  a  central  chamber,  with  its 
floor  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  water,  and  with 
two  entrances.  The  lodge  is  an  oven-shaped  house 
of  sticks,  grass,  and  moss,  woven  together  and 
plastered  with  mud.  They  are  not  oniy  comfort¬ 
able,  but  efficiently  protective  against  beasts  of 
prey.  The  room  inside  may  measure  eight  feet  in 
diameter,  and  two  or  three  feet  in  height.  1  he 
floor  is  comfortably  carpeted  with  bark,  grass, 
and  wood-chips,  and  there  are  sometimes  special 
store-rooms  adjoining.  The  entrances  open  into 
a  specially  deep  moat  surrounding  the  home,  and 
as  this  is  too  deep  to  freeze  readily,  the  inmates 
are  not  apt  to  be  imprisoned  even  by  a  very  keen 
frost. 


Beavers  and  Beaver  Lodge. 


Some  of  the  most  interesting  habits  of  beavers 
are  connected  with  the  way  in  which  they  procure 
and  store  their  food-material.  In  order  to  procure 
bark  they  cut  down  trees  by  gnawing  a  ring  round 
the  base.  This  they  cut  all  round,  but  more 
toward  the  side  nearest  the  water,  so  that  the 
tree  may  fall  as  conveniently  as  possible.  They 
can  cut  down  a  tree  ten  inches  or  so  in  diameter. 
The  smaller  branches  are  cut  off  in  the  same  way, 


and  cut  into  lengths  convenient  for  transport. 
The  heavier  pieces  are  ingeniously  rolled  along, 
often  for  a  considerable  distance,  to  the  water- 
edge.  Sometimes  the  tree  is  near  enough  to  fall 
at  once  into  the  water,  and  is  simply  left  till 
required.  Yet  more  marvelous  are  the  dams  by 
which  beavers  widen  the  area  and  increase  the 
depth  of  water  round  about  their  homes.  They 
are  either  made  of  sticks  and  poles,  with  a  slight 
embankment  of  earth,  not  enough  to  prevent  the 
surplus  water  flowing  freely  through,  or  are  con¬ 
structed  more  firmly  and  solidly  of  mud,  brush¬ 
wood,  and  stones,  with  a  special  outlet  on  the 
ridge  for  the  discharge  of  the  overflow.  When 
the  trees  near  the  water  are  exhausted,  and  when 
the  uneven  character  of  the  ground  makes  the 
rolling  of  the  logs  a  difficult  task,  canals  are  cut 
for  convenience  of  transport.  Mr.  Morgan  de¬ 
scribes  a  case  where  three  water-collecting  cres¬ 
cent-shaped  dams  have  been  made,  at  three  suc¬ 
cessive  sudden  ascents  of  the  ground,  and  the 
principle  of  locks  ingeniously  combined  with  that 
of  collecting  reservoirs,  and  short-cut  waterways 
are  sometimes  made  across  the  ground  inclosed  in 
a  loop  of  the  river,  so  as  to  lessen  conskh  rably  the 
distance  of  transport.  The  beaver  has  long  been 
hunted  for  the  sake  of  its  fur,  from  which  both 
hats  and  gloves  were  made. 

Beaver  Dam,  a  city  at  the  outlet  of  Beaver 
Lake,  Wisconsin,  sixty-one  miles  northwest  of  Mil¬ 
waukee.  Pop.  (18891,  4,184. 

Beaver  Falls,  a  village  of  Pennsylvania,  near 
the  junction  of  the  Beaver  river  with  the  Ohio. 
Pop.,  nearly  10,000. 

Bebee’rine,  or  Beberine,  is  an  alkaloid  ob¬ 
tained  from  the  greenheart  bark  of  bebeeru  of 
British  Guiana. 

Beaver  Islands,  a  group  of  small  islands  in 
the  northeastern  part  of  Lake  Michigan. 

Bee  Abbey,  the  ruins  of  which  are  at  Bec- 
Hellouin,  Normandy,  was  at  the  height  of  its 
fame  as  a  great  Benedictine  monastery  in  the 
middle  of  the  eleventh  century  when  the  famous 
Lanfranc  was  Prior.  The  great  Anselm,  entering 
it  in  1060,  was  Abbot  from  1078  to  1093,  when  he 
succeeded  Lanfranc  in  the  See  of  Canterbury. 

Beceafi'co  (Sylvia  hortensis,  or  Curruca  hor- 
tensis),  a  little  bird  of  the  family  of  the  Sylviadie, 
or  Warblers  abundant  in  some  of  the  more  south¬ 
ern  parts  of  Europe. 

Beccamosclii  no  (ltal.  fly-catcher;  Sulvia  cis- 
ticola ),  a  little  bird  of  the  family  of  Warblers, 
found  in  Italy.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  nest, 
which  resembles  that  of  the  tailor-birds. 

Beccari'a,  Cesare,  Marchese  de  Beccaria- 
Bonesana,  a  political  economist,  was  born  at 
Milan  March  15,  1735  (or  1738).  He  died  of 
apoplexy  Nov.  28,  1794.  Giacomo  Battista 
Beccaria  (1716-81)  did  much  to  forward  the 
science  of  electricity. 

Becher,  Joiiann  Joachim,  chemist,  was  born 
at  Spires  in  1635,  and  died  in  London  in  1682. 

Bechuanaland,  an  extensive  tract  in  South 
Africa,  extending  from  28°  S.  latitude  to  the 
Zambesi,  and  from  20°  E.  longitude  to  the  Trans¬ 
vaal  border.  The  Bechuanas  also  still  occupy  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  Transvaal.  British 
protection  extends  over  Bechuanaland  as  far  as 
22°  S.  latitude  since  1884;  more  northward  it  is 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  chief  of  Bamang- 
wato.  To  the  south  of  the  River  Molopo  the 
territory  has  been  an  English  colony  since  1885. 

Beck,  David,  a  Dutch  portrait  painter,  pupil 
of  Van  Dyck,  born  in  1621,  died  in  1656.  Karl 
Beck,  a  German  poet,  born  in  Hungary  in  1817 
of  Jewish  parentage,  wrote  novels  and  popular 
poems  of  Hungarian  life. 

Beck,  Theodoric  R.,  an  American  physician, 
born  in  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  in  1791,  died  in  1855. 
He  was  a  distinguished  writer  on  insanity  and 
medical  jurisprudence.  His  brother,  John  Brod- 
head  Beck,  born  1794,  died  1851,  was  also  a 
prominent  scientific  writer.  Lewis  C.  Beck, 
another  brother  (1798-1853),  was  a  leading  bot¬ 
anist  and  mineralogist. 

Becker,  Karl  Ferdinand,  German  philolo¬ 
gist,  was  born  at  Liser,  in  the  old  Electorate  of 
Treves  in  1775,  and  died  in  1849. 

Becker.  Karl  Ferdinand,  a  German  mu¬ 
sician,  was  born  at  Leipzig  in  1804,  and  died  Oct. 
26,  1877. 

Becker,  Wilhelm_ Adolf,  born  at  Dresden  in 


BECIvERATH. 


141 


BEE. 


1796,  in  1842  became  Professor  of  Archreology  at 
Leip'sig,  and  died  at  Meissen,  Sept.  30,  1846. 

Beckerath,  Hermann  von,  a  German  poli¬ 
tician  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Krefeld,  Prus¬ 
sia,  Dec.  13,  1801,  and  died  May  12,  1870. 

Becket,  Thomas,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
was  born  in  London  in  1118,  of  Norman  parent¬ 
age.  About  1142  he  entered  the  household  of 
Theobald,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  heaped 
preferments  on  him,  including  the  Archdeaconry 
of  Canterbury  (1154),  and  employed  him  in  sev¬ 
eral  important  missions.  In  1155,  the  year  after 
the  accession  of  Henry  II.,  he  received  the  office 
of  Chancellor.  In  1162  he  was  created  Arch¬ 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  and  became  a  zealous 
churchman.  Henry  charged  him  with  breach  of 
allegiance,  in  a  council  held  at  Northampton, 
confiscated  his  goods,  and  sequestered  the  reve¬ 
nues  of  his  see.  A  claim  was  also  made  on  him 
for  certain  revenues  from  the  church  holdings. 
Becket  appealed  to  the  Pope,  and  escaped  to 
France.  He  spent  two  years  in  retirement  at  the 
Cistercian  abbey  of  Poutigny,  in  Burgundy,  and 
then  went  to  Rome  and  pleaded  personally  before 
His  Holiness,  who  reinstated  him  intheseeof  Can- 
bury.  Becket  returned  to  France  and  thence 
threatened  several  bishops  of  Henry’s  party  with 
excommunication.  Several  efforts  were  made 
to  reconcile  him  with  Henry,  and  in  1170  an 
agreement  was  patched  up.  Becket  returned  to 
England,  entering  Canterbury  amid  the  rejoic¬ 
ings  of  the  people.  Fresh  quarrels  soon  broke 
out,  excommunications  were  renewed,  and  Henry 
exclaimed:  “  Of  the  cowards  that  eat  my  bread, 
is  there  none  will  rid  me  of  this  turbulent  priest?” 
Four  knights — Fitzurse,  Tracy,  Brito,  and  Mor- 
ville — overheard  the  hasty  words,  and  on  Dec.  29, 
1170,  entered  Canterbury  Cathedral,  and  slew  the 
Archbishop  before  the  altar  of  St.  Benedict. 
Henry  was  compelled  to  make  heavy  concessions 
to  avoid  the  ban  of  excommunication.  Two 
years  after  his  death  Becket  was  canonized,  and 
the  anniversary  of  his  death  set  apart  as  the  yearly 
festival  of  St.  Thomas  of  Canterbury.  In  1220 
his  bones  were  deposited  in  a  splendid  shrine  in 
the  Trinity  Chapel,  which  for  three  centuries 
continued  to  be  the  object  of  one  of  the  great  pil¬ 
grimages  of  Christendom,  and  which  still  lives 
in  English  literature  in  connection  with  Chaucer’s 
Canterbury  Tales. 

Beckmann,  Johann,  was  born  in  1739,  in 
Hanover.  After  holding  a  Professorship  of 
Physics  and  Natural  History  at  St.  Petersburg 
(1763-65),  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Philos¬ 
ophy  and  of  Political  Economy  at  Gottingen, 
where  he  died,  Feb.  4,  1811.  In  Germany  he 
was  the  first  scientific  writer  on  agriculture. 

Beckx,  Peter  John,  general  of  the  Jesuits, 
was  born  at  Sichem,  in  Belgium,  Feb.  8,  1795. 
As  head  of  his  order  from  1853,  he  displayed  an 
ability  and  tact  that  did  much  to  advance  the 
status  of  Jesuits  in  non-Catholic  countries.  He 
died  at  Rome,  March  4,  1887. 

Becqucrel,  Antoine  Cesar,  a  distinguished 
French  physicist,  was  born  in  1788,  and  died  Jan. 
19,  1878. — His  son,  Alexandre  Edmond,  also 
an  eminent  physicist,  was  born  at  Paris,  March 
24,  1820. 

Becse,  Old,  a  town  of  Hungary.  Pop.  (1880), 
15,040. — New  Becse,  on  the  east  bank,  348  miles 
south-southeast  of  Pesth,  has  a  pop.  of  6,348. 

Becskerek,  a  town  of  Hungary,  368  miles 
south-southeast  of  Pesth.  Pop.  (18'0),  19,529. 

Bed  (with  some  variations  in  spelling,  the  word 
is  common  to  all  Germanic  languages),  an  article 
of  household  furniture  on  winch  to  sleep.  In 
ancient  times  in  Palestine,  the  bed  was  a  simple 
kind  of  couch  for  reclining  on  during  the  day, 
and  sleeping  on  at  night.  In  Persia,  at  the 
present  day,  every  person  sleeps  on  a  rug  or  piece 
of  carpet  laid  on  the  floor,  or  during  the  summer, 
on  the  flat  roof  of  a  house.  It  is  the  custom  in 
India  to  sleep  on  a  bed  or  couch  raised  on  four  feet, 
called  a  charpoy.  In  hot  climates  few  bed-clothes 
arc  used — there  being  in  general  only  a  single 
•sheet;  care  is  taken,  however,  to  use  mosquito- 
curtains,  without  which  rest  would  be  impract¬ 
icable.  Representations  of  ancient  Greek  beds 
and  sofas  are  found  on  vases  and  on  some  pieces 
of  sculpture.  These  beds  differed  but  little  from 
the  simpler  modem  forms,  while  the  sofas  or 
couches  were  in  shape,  exactly  like  those  now 


used.  In  the  collection  of  Pompeian  bronzes 
forming  part  of  the  museum  at  Naples,  there  are 
three  of  these  beds,  partly  of  bronze  and  partly 
of  wood.  An  ancient  trundle  or  truckle-bed  was 
also  found  at  Pompeii  in  1868;  it  is  shown  in  the 
museum  under  one  of  the  three  larger  bedsteads. 
The  Etruscan  Museum  in  the  Vatican  at  Rome 
contains  an  ancient  bronze  bed  on  six  feet,  with 
a  bottom  formed  of  strips  of  metal  like  those  put 
on  brass  and  iron  beds  at  the  present  time.  In 
Homer’s  time  the  bedding  of  the  richer  classes 
consisted  of  a  longfibered  woollen  blanket  or  mat¬ 
tress,  and  that  of  the  poor  of  a  hide  spread  on 
the  hard  floor.  Linen  sheets  were  used  as  covers. 
When  Greece  had  introduced  more  luxurious 
habits  from  Asia,  mattresses  stuffed  with  wool  or 
feathers  became  common,  and  of  the  same  ma¬ 
terials  pillows  were  made.  The  Romans  stuffed 
their  bedding  with  wool  and  the  soft  down  of 
geese,  swans,  and  other  birds.  Their  blankets 
and  sheets  were  elaborately  ornamented  with 
patterns  in  colors  either  woven  or  embroidered. 

The  modern  bed  is  too  familiar  to  requTre 
description,  though  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
an  ordinary  woven  wire  spring  mattress  contains 
about  8,000  feet  of  wire. 

Bed,  or  Stratum,  is  a  layer  of  rock  or  similar 
materials,  and -of  some  thickness,  cohering  more 
or  less  firmly  together,  as  a  rule.  Beds  are  often 
composed  of  many  fine  laminae  or  plates.  The 
laminae  are  the  results  of  intermissions  in  the 
supply  of  materials,  produced  by  the  ebb  and 
flow  of  the  tide,  river -floods,  or  the  turbid  state  of 
the  water  under  which  they  were  deposited. 

Bedarieux,  a  town  of  France,  department  of 
Hthault.  Pop.  (1881),  6,397. 

Bedchamber,  Lords  of  the,  officers  in  the 
British  royal  household,  twelve  in  number,  who, 
in  the  reign  of  a  king,  wait  in  turn  upon  the 
sovereign’s  person. 

Bed  doe,  John,  an  English  anthropologist,  was 
born  at  Bewdley,  Worcestershire,  in  1826. 

Beddoe Thomas,  physician,  born  in  1760, 
married  Anna,  sister  of  Maria  Edgeworth.  In 
1798  he  opened  a  “pneumatic”  hospital  at 
Clifton.  He  died  Dec.  24,  1808. 

Beddoes,  Thomas  Lovell,  eldest  son  of  the 
above,  and  nephew  of  Maria  Edgeworth,  was 
born  at  Clifton,  July  20,  1803.  In  1822  he  pub¬ 
lished  The  Bride’s  Tragedy,  which  achieved  a 
brilliant  success.  He  died  Jan.  26,  1849. 

Bede,  or  B/eda,  the  Venerable,  the  greatest 
name  in  the  ancient  literature  of  England,  was 
born  in  Durham,  about  the  year  673  a.d.  He 
took  deacon’s  orders  in  his  nineteenth  year,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  his  thirtieth,  wrote 
homilies,  lives  of  saints,  hymns,  epigrams,  works 
on  chronology  and  grammar,  and  commentaries 
on  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 
When  laboring  under  disease,  and  near  the  close 
of  his  life,  he  engaged  in  a  translation  of  St. 
John’s  Gospel  into  Anglo-Saxon,  and  dictated  his 
version  to  his  pupils.  He  died  on  the  day  of  the 
Feast  of  the  Ascension,  May  26,  735,  and  was 
buried  in  the  monastery  of  Jarrow;  long  after¬ 
ward  (in  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century)  his 
bones  were  removed  to  Durham. 

Bedell,  William,  Bishop,  was  born  in  1571. 
The  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  into  Irish 
was  accomplished  under  his  direction.  He  died 
Feb.  7,  1642. 

Bedford,  the  county  town  of  Bedfordshire, 
England.  Pop.  (1881),  19,532.  Bedford  is 

mentioned  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  under  the 
name  of  Bedican-fortha,  as  the  scene  of  a  battle 
between  the  Britons  and  Saxons  in  571.  Bunyan 
was  for  twelve  years  a  prisoner  in  Bedford  gaol. 

Bedford,  John,  Duke  of,  third  son  of  Henry 
IV. ,  was  born  about  1389.  During  his  father’s  life¬ 
time  he  was  Governor  of  Berwick-upon-Tweed, 
and  Warden  of  the  Scottish  Marches.  In  1415 
his  brother,  Henry  V.,  created  him  Duke  of  Bed¬ 
ford,  and  during  the  war  with  France  he  was  left 
in  command  of  the  forces  in  England.  He  was 
defeated  by  the  French  under  Joan  of  Arc,  and 
died  in  1435. 

Bedfordshire,  a  midland  county  in  England. 

Bedlam  (now  officially  written  Bethlem),  the 
London  lunatic  asylum,  originally  founded  in 
1247. 

Bed  nor',  Bednur,  or  Nagar,  a  decayed  city, 
now  a  village,  of  Mysore,  India.  It  was  at  one 


time  the  seat  of  government  of  a  rajah,  and  its 
pop.  exceeded  100,000. 

Bed  of  Justice  (Fr.  lit  de  juttice),  the  seat  or 
throne  occupied  by  the  French  monarch  when  he 
was  present  at  the  deliberations  of  Parliament  .  The 
last  bed  of  justice  was  held  by  Louis  XVI.,  at 
Versailles,  in  Sept.,  1788,  when  the  whole  Parlia¬ 
ment  were  arrested  and  confined  in  prison. 

Bed'ouins  (Arab.  Bedawi,  dwellers  in  the 
desert,)  are  Arabs  who  lead  a  nomadic  life.  The 
most  ancient  notices  found  in  Scripture  agree,  in 
their  descriptions  of  the  manners  and  customs  of 
the  Bedouins,  with  the  facts  of  the  present  time. 
They  are  to  be  found  from  the  western  boundary 
of  Persia  to  the  Atlantic,  and  from  tbe  mountains 
of  Kurdistan  to  the  negro  countries  of  Soudan. 

Bed  -sores  are  a  troublesome  complication  of 
disease  to  which  a  patient  is  liable  when,  confined 
for  a  long  time  to  bed,  he  is  either  unable  or  is 
not  allowed  to  change  his  position. 

Bedstraw  {Galium),  a  genus  of  Rubiaceie. 
The  species  are  very  numerous,  natives  chiefly  of 
of  the  colder  parts  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  or 
of  mountainous  regions  within  or  near  the  tropics. 

Bee.  Bees  belong  to  the  order  Hymenoptera, 
and  to  the  same  sub-order  as  the  wasps  and  ants. 
Like  other  Hymenoptera,  they  possess  four  mem¬ 
branous  naked  wings,  with  well-developed  nerv- 
ures,  and  mouth  organs,  in  part,  at  least,  adapted 
for  biting.  The  head  is  freely  attached  to  the 
middle  part  of  the  body — the  thorax  and  the  first 
ring  of  the  latter  (the  prothorax)  is  much  reduced. 
The  life  history  exhibits  a  complete  metamorpho¬ 
sis.  In  the  special  sub-order  to  which  bees  be¬ 
long  (Aculeata)  the  imperfect  females  (workers) 
have  a  poisonous  sting  at  the  posterior  end  of  the 
body,  and  their  feelers  or  anteunae  have  twelve 
joints,  one  fewer  than  in  males.  The  larvte  are 
footless  grubs,  and  are  usually  hatched  in  special 
cells.  A  high  degree  of  social  life  and  intelli¬ 
gence  is  very  frequent. 

Many  kinds  of  bees  are  social,  and  live  in  com¬ 
munities.  The  ordinary  hive  contains  (1)  a  single 
queen  bee — the  fertile  female  and  mother  of  the 
next  brood,  (2)  the  males  or  drones,  and  (3)  the 
vast  majority  of  workers  or  imperfectly  developed 
females,  which  only  exceptionally  become  fertile. 
At  the  beginning  of  spring  the  hive  contains  a 
single  queen  and  a  much-reduced  contingent  of 
workers.  Their  first  care  is  to  restore  the  nor¬ 
mal  population.  Toward  this  end  the  queen 
lays  numerous  eggs  which  develop  into  workers. 
After  the  stock  has  been  thus  replenished,  eggs 
are  laid  which  turn  out  males  or  drones.  After 


€ 


Sting  of  Worker-Bee  (Apis  mellifica). 

(After  Kraepelin). 

<7,  poison  gland ;  b,  poison  bag ;  c,  accessary  gland;  d.d, 
outer  supporting  pieces;  e,  inner  sheath  inclosing  sting- 
proper . 

A,  sting  proper;  B,  sheath  in  which  rf.ing  works,  seen 
from  below. 

they  begin  to  appear,  eggs  are  laid  which  develop 
into  more  workers,  and  also  into  a  few  queens. 
The  rapid  increase  of  population  culminates  in 
the  emigration  known  as  sicarming,  when  the  old 
queen  leads  off  a  large  contingent  of  subjects. 
The  date  of  swarming  is  markedly  affected  by 


BEECH. 


142 


BEE-EATER. 


the  temperature  and  food-supply.  When  the 
pressure  and  excitement  has  reached  a  climax, 
the  emigrants  rush  out  with  great  rapidity.  They 
form  a  spreading  crowd,  concentrating  around 
the  egg-laden  queen,  who  is  rarely  able  to  fly  far. 
During  swarming,  the  bees  are  singularly  quiet, 
and  may  be  safely  handled.  Should  the  queen  be 
lost  or  removed  the  bees  return  to  their  old  home. 
A  populous  stock  will  often  send  off  three  swarms 
in  rapid  succession.  When  the  season  and  neces¬ 
sity  for  swarming  is  past  the  young  queens  that 
remain  imprisoned  are  liberated  at  once  and 
allowed  to  light  for  the  sovereignty.  The  sur¬ 
vivor  takes  her  nuptial  flight.  By  one  or  perhaps 
several  of  the  males  she  is  impregnated.  After 
impregnation  has  been  accomplished  the  young 
queen  settles  down  to  begin  her  egg-laying;  she 


B  0-' 


Honey-Bee  (Apis  mellifica)  A,  queen;  B,  drone;  C,  worker. 

continues  this  throughout  the  rest  of  the  summer. 
When  swarming  time  is  over  and  the  supply  of 
honey  decreases,  the  bees  rid  the  hives  of  the 
drones.  The  queen-bees  are  reared  from  special 
eggs  which  begin  to  be  laid  after  the  drones  ap¬ 
pear  on  the  scene.  They  develop  very  rapidly  in 
consequence  of  rich  nutrition,  attaining  their  ma¬ 
turity  in  about  sixteen  days.  The  queen  is 
always  treated  with  much  respect  and  care  unless 
she  become  old  or  barren. 

Bees  feed  principally  on  the  nectar  and  pollen 
of  flowers.  The  pollen  is  collected  by  the  hairs 
of  the  body,  from  which  it  is  cleaned  off  by  the 
feet  and  jaws,  damped  with  dew  or  other  moisture, 
mixed  with  a  little  honey  ejected  from  the  mouth, 
kneaded  into  pellets,  taken  up  by  the  brushes  on 
the  hind-legs,  and  deposited  in  the  baskets  in 
which  it  is  carried  home. 

The  wax  used  in  the  construction  of  the  comb 
is  manufactured  by  the  bees  themselves.  It  has 
been  shown  that  they  are  able  to  form  it  even 
when  fed  exclusively  on  honey.  After  a  heavy 
meal  they  often  hang  together  in  a  small  festoon, 
and  secrete  large  quantities  in  this  state  of  repose. 


A,  Honey-Bee  on  broom  flower;  B,  Wild-Bee  on  white 
dead  nettle. 

Another  secretion  of  a  very  different  nature  is  the 
poison.  This  consists  of  a  transparent  fluid  with 
much  formic  acid  and  other  irritant  components, 
and  is  secreted  by  workers  and  queens  in  a 
venom-bag  situated  near  the  end  of  the  alimen¬ 
tary  canal. 

During  winter  and  early  spring  the  bees  remain 
at  home.  In  March  or  April  the  work  of  the  year 
begins — the  hive  is  cleaned,  the  dead  bodies  are 
removed,  and  the  queen  begins  to  lay. 

The  bee  “  combs  ”  consist  of  a  series  of  waxen 
cells  constructed  by  the  workers  for  storing  honey 
and  as  cradles  for  the  young.  They  hang  per¬ 
pendicularly  within  the  hive,  firmly  fixed  to  the 
walls.  Each  consists  of  a  double  row  of  cells  dis¬ 


posed  at  right  angles  to  the  comb.  In  some  of 
the  cells  honey  is  placed  for  winter  use.  Bees 
have  been  seen  to  protrude  their  stings,  and  to  de¬ 
posit  drops  of  poison  on  the  honey.  This  has  an 
antiseptic  influence,  due  to  the  presence  of  formic 
acid,  without  which  the  honey  would  ferment. 
In  other  cells  pollen  is  stored  after  being  salivated 
and  compressed  by  indoor  workers. 

As  in  the  majority  of  insects,  the  life-history  is 
divisible  into  four  chapters — the  developing  egg, 
the  larva  or  grub,  the  pupa,  and  the  perfect  in¬ 
sect.  The  eggs  have  a  long  oval  shape,  and  a 
whitish  color.  They  are,  baring  an  exception 
already  noticed,  all  laid  by  the  so-called  queen. 
After  normal  fertilization  she  becomes,  in  fact, 
little  more  than  an  egg-producing  machine,  turn¬ 
ing  them  out  sometimes  at  the  rate  of  100  per  hour 
or  3,000  per  diem,  and  is  often  fed  while  at  her 
work,  so  that  the  expenditure  of  living  matter  is 
to  a  certain  extent  recouped.  If  the  queen  should 
be  lost,  and  there  be  no  royal  grubs,  a  new  queen 
mty  be  literally  manufactured.  A  young  worker- 
grub  is  simply  fed  up  to  the  required  pitch  in  an 
enlarged  cell. 


SgJU  —gay 


ipi 


Bar-frame  Hive  with  cover  raised  to  show  arrange¬ 
ment  of  bars. 

The  different  members  of  a  bee  community 
enjoy  lives  of  varied  duration.  The  drones  live 
from  May  till  August,  but  were  it  not  for  the 
massacre  would  doubtless  live  much  longer.  The 
workers  seem  to  have  in  summer  an  extremely 
short  but  hard-working  life,  which  probably 
averages  about  six  weeks.  Those  born  in  autumn 
live  on  till  the  next  spring,  though  many  perish 
in  the  hard  times  of  winter.  A  queen  will  live 
from  three  to  five  years. 

It  is  to  the  United  States  and  Canada  that  we 
must  turn  for  bee-farming  on  the  largest  scale, 
and  California,  especially  South  rn  California,  is 
the  paradise  of  bee-keepers.  In  1880  there  were 
said  to  be  700,000  hives  in  the  United 
States,  kept  by  35,000  persons,  of  whom  5,000 
were  professional  bee-keepers.  Some  bee-keepers 
have  from  2,000  to  3,000  hives,  and  as  much  as 
700  pounds  of  honey  have  been  obtained  from 
one  hive.  The  most  improved  hives,  honey-ex- 
tractors,  artificial  combs,  and  comb-foundations 
are  in  general  use.  In  California  the  bees  swarm 
in  March  or  April,  and  the  taking  of  the  honey 
begins  about  May  20. 

Beech  ( Fayas j,  a  genus  of  Cupuliferse.  There 


Branch  of  Common  Beech. 
a ,  flower;  6,  fruit. 

are  about  fifteen  species,  all  fore#!?  trees  of  great 
beauty.  The  Beech  is  one  of  the  stateliest  of 


forest  trees,  and  rivals  the  oak  in  its  dimensions 
and  outline.  Its  bark  is  smooth,  of  a  gray  color; 
and  it  is  remarkable  for  the  frequency  with  which 
hard  wooden  knobs — abortive  buds — occur  in  it. 
The  wood  is  very  hard  and  solid,  but  brittle.  It 
is  extensively  used  by  cabinet-makers  in  the  mak¬ 
ing  of  chairs,  tables,  and  bedsteads. 

Beecher,  Henry  Ward,  was  born  in  Litch¬ 
field,  Conn.,  June  24,  1813,  and  died  March  8, 
1887.  He  was  the  son  of  Lyman  Beecher,  and 
was  educated  for  the  ministry.  After  preaching 
several  years  in  Indiana  he  removed  to  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  in  1847,  and  became  the  first  pastor  of 
Plymouth  Congregational  Church,  with  which  he 
was  associated  for  almost  forty  years.  He  took 
an  active  interest  in  politics,  favored  the  Free-Soil 
party,  denounced  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Com¬ 
promise,  and  was  an  ardent  anti-slavery  man.  He 
supported  the  Republican  party  from  its  incep¬ 
tion,  and  was  a  friend  of  John  Brown  of  Ossa- 
wattomie.  For  many  years  he  was  the  principal 
contributor  to  the  Independent,  but  quarreled 
with  Bowen,  its  publisher,  and  in  1870  became 
editor  of  a  rival  publication,  the  Christian  Union. 
In  1863  Mr.  Beecher  went  to  Europe,  and  ad¬ 
dressed  immense  audiences  in  England  on  the 
subjects  of  slavery  and  the  maintenance  of  the 
Union.  He  wrote  voluminously,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  successful  lecturers  ever  known.  His 
church  in  Brooklyn  was  invariably  crowded,  and 
he  took  an  active  part  in  public  affairs  of  all 
kinds.  In  1875  Mr.  Beecher,  who  married  early 
in  life,  was  accused  of  adultery  with  the  wife  of 
Theodore  Tilton,  a  New  York  literary  man.  The 
trials,  both  in  the  civil  court  and  before  an  eccle¬ 
siastical  tribunal,  opened  the  flood-gates  of  scandal 
and  perjury,  but  resulted  practically  in  a  verdict 
of  “  not  proven.”  The  woman  who  was  accused 
first  confessed,  then  denied  on  the  witness-stand, 
and  some  time  later  again  confessed  her  guilt  and 
that  of  Beecher.  The  latter  was  strongly  sup¬ 
ported  by  his  church,  and  continued  to  preach 
there  until  his  death. 

Beecher,  Harriet  Elizabeth  (Mrs.  Harriet 
Beecher-Stowe),  a  sister  of  Henry  Ward,  was  born 
in  1812.  She  married  Rev.  C.  E.  Stowe  in  1836, 
and  in  1851  produced  her  great  work,  Unde  Turn’ s 
On  hin;  the  most  famous  and  widest -read  novel 
ever  published  in  America.  She  also  visited 
Europe,  and  published  an  account  of  her  trip, 
and  contributed  stories  and  sketches  to  many 
periodicals.  In  1870she  published,  in  an  English 
magazine,  what  purported  to  be  a  true  account  of 
Lord  Byron’s  domestic  troubles,  based  on  an 
alleged  statement  made  to  her  by  Lady  Byron 
sixteen  years  before.  The  abominable  allegations 
contained  in  this  story  were  received  with  the  con¬ 
tempt  which  they  deserved.  Mrs.  Stowe  con¬ 
tinued  to  write  up  till  1878,  and  afterward  lived 
in  retirement. 

Becclicr,  Lyman,  D.  I). .  father  of  Henry  Ward 
and  Harriet,  was  born  in  New  Haven,  Conn.,  Oct. 
12,1775.  Hebecamea  Presbyterian  minister,  and 
for  twenty  years  was  President  of  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  Ohio,  lie  was  the  father  of  thirteen 
children,  and  all  his  seven  sons  became  clergy¬ 
men.  He  died  Jan.  10.  1863. 

Bee-eater  (Meropidce),  a  family  of  birds  nearly 
allied  to  kingfishers.  Numerous  forms  occur, 


Common  Bee-eater  (Merops  apiaster). 
well-known  for  their  bee-eating  propensities,  and 
bright  plumage.  They  excavate  long  holes,  which 


BEEF-EATER. 


143 


BEHRING. 


lioney-comb  the  banks  of  rivers  like  the  Don  and 
the  Volga. 

Beef-eater  ( Buphaga ),  a  small  genus  of  African 
perching  birds  nearly  related  to  the  starlings.  The 
name  Ox  pecker  is  more  accurately  descriptive  of 
their  habit  of  feeding  on  the  larvae  of  gadflies  and 
the  like,  which  they  find  on  the  backs  of  cattle, 
camels,  rhinoceroses,  and  other  large  animals. 

Beef-eater,  a  term  applied  to  certain  function¬ 
aries  belonging  to  the  English  Yeomen  of  the 
Guard.  The  name  is  usually  regarded  as  a  cor¬ 
ruption  of  buffetier  (Fr.)  or  biauj'etier,  one  who 
attends  the  buffet  or  sideboard. 

Beef-tea  is  a  light  and  pleasant  article  of  stim¬ 
ulating  diet,  obtained  from  the  flesh  of  the  ox.  It 
is  best  made  as  follows:  A  pound  of  lean  beef  is 
cut  into  small  pieces  and  placed  in  a  closed  jar 
with  a  pint  of  cold  water;  after  an  hour  the  jar  is 
allowed  to  stand  for  a  other  hour  in  a  pan  of 
gently  boiling  water;  the  contents  are  then  strained 
through  a  coarse  sieve. 

Beehive  Houses.  The  beehive  plan  'of  con¬ 
struction  is  a  primitive  method  of  throwing  a  roof 
of  dry-stone  masonry  over  a  chamber  of  the  same. 

Beelzebub  (god  of  flies),  the  form  of  Baal 
worshiped  by  the  Philistines  at  Ekron.  As  the 
heathen  deities  were  all  regarded  as  demons  by 
the  Jews,  the  name  Beelzebub  became,  in  course 
of  time,  commonly  applied  to  the  chief  of  evil 
spirits,  and  in  this  sense  it  is  employed  in  the 
Gospels. 

Beer  and  Brewing,  Beer  is  the  popular  term 
applied  to  an  infusion  of  malted  barley  which  has 
been  boiled  with  hops  and  afterward  undergone 
fermentation.  Like  other  alcoholic  beverages,  it 
possesses  great  historical  antiquity  and  interest. 
Egyptian  manuscripts  written  at  least  3,000  years 
before  the  Christian  era  show  conclusively  that 
even  at  that  primitive  p1  riod  the  manufacture  of 
an  intoxicating  liquor  from  barley  or  other  grain 
was  extensively  carried  out  in  Egypt. 

The  difference  between  the  manufacture  of  lager 
and  ordinary  beer  lies  in  the  system  of  fermenta¬ 
tion,  the  type  of  yeast  used,  and  the  manner  of 
storage.  The  fermentation  is  carried  on  at  a  tem¬ 
perature  from  20°  to  25°  F.  below  the  ordinary 
average  for  other  beers,  and  the  yeast,  in  place  of 
rising  to  the  top,  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  fer- 
menting-square.  It  is  essentially  a  “bottom” 
yeast  fermentation  as  opposed  to  the  typical  “  top  ” 
fermentation  of  English  and  Scotch  beer,  while 
the  yeast-cell  is  rather  smaller  and  more  irregular. 
In  consequence  of  the  low  temperature  the  fer¬ 
mentation  is  naturally  more  prolonged,  occupying 
from  ten  to  twenty  days.  As  soon  as  the  lager 
fermentation  is  finished,  the  beer  is  stored  in  large 
vats  in  cellars  kept  at  a  temperature  of  from  38° 
to  42°  F.  In  about  four  months’  time  the  beer  is 
ready  for  consumption,  when  it  is  racked  into 
casks,  and  each  day’s  supply  sent  out  to  the  cus¬ 
tomers  fresh  from  the  brewery  every  morning. 
Very  little  real  lager  beer  is  made  in  the  United 
States. 

Beer’sh  ba,  now  Bir-es-Seb’a  (well  of  swear¬ 
ing,  or  well  of  seven,  so-called  because  of  the  cov¬ 
enant  Abraham  entered  into  here  with  Abim- 
elech,  the  Philistine  king,  which  he  ratified  with 
an  oath  and  a  gift  of  seven  ewe  lambs. 

Beestings  (technically  colostrum)  is  the  term 
applied  to  the  first  milk  yielded  by  inferior  animals 
after  parturition.  It  differs  not  a  little  from  ordi¬ 
nary  milk,  and  generally  appears  as  a  turbid, 
yellowish,  viscid  fluid, 
similar  to  soap  and  water. 

Beeswi  ng  (so-called  from 
itsappearance),  a  filmy  crust 
of  tartar  formed  in  some 
wines  after  long  keeping. 

Beet  {Iietn),  a  genus  of 
Chenopodiacese.  The  spe¬ 
cies  are  not  numerous;  they 
are  mostly  biennials,  with 
smooth,  ovate,  stalked  root- 
leaves,  and  tall,  leafy,  flow¬ 
ering  stems.  They  are  na¬ 
tives  of  the  temperate  parts 
of  the  Old  World.  The 
Common  Beet  ( B.  vulgaris) 
is  a  native  of  the  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean. 

Beet- 11  y  (Anthomyia  be-  Common  Beet, 
f®,)  a  dipterous  insect  which  sometimes  infests  crops 


of  beet  or  mangold-wurzel.  In  spring  the 
very  small  eggs  are  laid  in  patches  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  leaves.  The  hatched  mag¬ 
gots,  which  are  about  a  third  of  an  inch  long, 
devour  the  soft  parts,  and  after  about  a  month 
of  voracious  life  become  pupa.*,  which  are  usually 
buried  in  the  ground.  In  about  a  fortnight  the 
flies  appear,  measuring  about  half  an  inch  from 
tip  to  tip  of  expanded  wings. 

Beethoven,  Ludwig  van,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
musical  composers,  was  born  at  Bonn,  Germany, 
Dec  16,  1770.  Ludwig’s  teachers  were  his 
father,  Pfeiffer,  and  Van  den  Eeden,  and  Neefe, 
both  court-organists;  also  Ities  for  violin,  and  Zam- 
bona  for  letters.  He  was  soundly  and  solidly 
taught,  except  in  counterpoint,  but  was  not  pre¬ 
cocious.  Thus  his  first  symphony  dates  from  his 
thirty -first  year,  an  age  at  which  Mozart  had  writ¬ 
ten  forty-five,  including  many  of  his  greatest 
works.  Beethoven  became  totally  deaf  when  about 
forty  years  old,  but  in  spite  of  this  misfortune 
continued  the  work  of  musical  composition  until 
his  death,  in  1827.  He  wrote  one  opera,  Fidelis, 
which  still  keeps  the  stage,  and  many  sym¬ 
phonies,  sonatas,  overtures,  and  masses. 

Beetle,  the  name  of  an  order  of  insects  techni¬ 
cally  known  as  Coleoptera.  There  are  some  in¬ 
sects  popularly  called  “beetles”  which  are  not 
Coleoptera,  and  some  Coleoptera  which  would 
hardly  be  termed  ‘  ‘  beetles,”  but  for  practical  pur¬ 
poses  the  two  words  are  synonymous.  There  are 
probably  about  100,000  different  species. 

Beets,  Nicolaus,  Dutch  poet  and  writer,  was 
born  at  Haarlem,  Sept.  13,  1814. 

Befa’na,  a  corruption  of  Epiphania  (Epiphany), 
which  name  in  Italy  has  become  personified  for 
children  as  a  toy-bringing  old  woman  called  In 
Befana.  She  is  a  kind  of  female  counterpart 
of  the  Wandering  Jew  and  Santa  Claus  combined, 
and  is  employed  as  a  bugbear  to  frighten  naughty 
children. 

Beg,  now  always  Bet  (lord),  a  Turkish  title, 
rather  vague  in  its  import,  and  commonly  given 
to  superior  military  officers  and  distinguished 
foreigners.  In  rank  it  stands  between  Effendi 
and  Pasha. 

Begas,  Karl,  court-painter  to  the  King  of 
Prussia,  was  born  near  Aix-la-Cliapelle  in  1794, 
and  died  Nov.  23,  1854.  Of  his  four  sons, 
two  became  known  as  painters,  and  two  as  sculp¬ 
tors. 

Begg,  James,  D.D.,  an  English  theologian  and 
philanthropist,  born  in  1808  at  New  Monkland 
manse  in  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  and  died  Sept. 
29,  1883. 

Beggar-iiiy-neiglibor,  a  game  at  cards  played 
by  two  persons,  between  whom  the  pack  is  equally 
divided.  Holding  their  cards  back  upward,  the 
players  lay  down  a  card  alternately,  till  an  honor 
is  turned  up,  which  is  paid  for  by  the  adversary — 
four  cards  for  an  ace,  three  for  a  king,  two  for  a 
queen,  and  one  for  a  knave.  Such  payment  being 
made,  the  winner  lifts  the  trick;  but  if  an  honor 
is  laid  down  during  the  payment,  then  the  oppo¬ 
site  party  must  pay  for  that  in  the  same  way;  and 
so  on,  till  a  payment  is  made  without  an  honor. 
The  object  is  "to  win  all  the  cards  in  the  pack. 

Begonia.  This  genus  (which  gives  its  name  to 
a  small  order  of  doubtful  affinities)  contains  a 
large  number  of  species  which  are  cultivated 
in  greenhouses,  partly  on  account  of  their  usually 


Begonia  rex. 

pink  unisexuaLrfowers,  and  partly  for  their 
remarkable  un**  lal-sided  and  often  colored 


leaves,  to  which  they  owe  such  various  popular 
names  as  “  Elephant’s  ears  ”  in  the  East  Indies, 
or,  more  poetically,  “Angel’s  wings”  in  the 
Spanish  Antilles  and  Mexico.  They  are  almost 
all  tropical  plants. 

Beg'-Shehr,  or  Kekei.i  Gol,  an  extensive 
mountain  lake  in  Asia  Minor,  13,700  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  over  30  miles  long,  and  from  5  to 
10  miles  broad,  and  contains  several  islands. 

Beguines  (Beguin^e,  Beguttle),  a  sisterhood 
within  the  Catholic  Church,  first  formed  during 
the  twelfth  century  in  the  Netherlands.  The 
origin  of  the  word  is  doubtful.  The  Beguines 
were  not  restricted  by  vows,  nor  did  they  follow 
the  rules  of  any  order,  but  were  united  under  a 
superior  for  exercise  of  piety  and  benevolence, 
and  lived  generally  in  separate  small  cottages, 
which,  collectively,  formed  the  Beginagivm.  At 
Ghent,  there  is  still  a  celebrated  institution,  the 
Bdguinage  of  St.  Elizabeth,  containing  some  700 
sisters,  who  live  in  a  separate  quarter  of  the  town 
in  103  little  brick-built  cottages,  with  18  convents 
and  2  churches,  arranged  in  streets  and  squares 
within  a  common  wall,  open  to  the  visits  of 
strangers.  Living  here  a  life  of  retirement  and 
piety,  the  Beguines,  in  their  simple  dark  dresses, 
go  out  as  nurses  to  the  hospitals,  and  perform 
other  acts  of  kindness  among  the  poor.  See 
Hallmann’s  Geschichle  der  Belg.  Beghinen  (Berlin 
1843). 

Begnm  (a  feminine  form  corresponding  to  Beg), 
an  Indian  title  of  honor  equivalent  to  “  prin¬ 
cess,”  conferred  on  the  mothers,  sisters,  or  wives 
of  native  rulers. 

Behaim,  Martin,  a  famous  cosmographer, 
was  born  at  Nuremberg  about  1479.  He  early 
entered  into  mercantile  life,  and  in  1480  went  to 
Portugal,  where  he  acquired  a  reputation  as  a 
skillful  maker  of  maps.  Behaim  resided  in  Fayal 
from  1494  to  1506,  and  then  removed  to  Lisbon, 
where  he  died  in  the  same  year. — Michael 
Behaim  (1416-74)  was  a  German  meistersariger,  a 
native  of  Slilzbacli,  and  by  profession  a  weaver. 

Behatt),  two  brothers,  natives  of  Nuremberg, 
and  both  of  them  painters  and  engravers — Hans 
Sebald  ( 1500-50)  an  t  Barthel  (1502-40).  They  are 
reckoned  amongst  Durer’s  seven  followers,  the 
“  Little  Masters.” 

Behar,  or  Bahar  (also  spelt  Bihar,)  once  one 
of  the  three  subahs  or  provinces  under  the  Nawab 
of  Bengal,  now  one  of  the  four  great  provinces 
of  Bengal,  occupying  part  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Ganges,  comprising  the  two  divisions  of  Patna 
and  Bhagalpur,  and  subdivided  into  twelve  admin¬ 
istrative  districts.  Area,  44,139  square  miles; 
pop.  (1881),  23,127,104.  The  Ganges  divides  the 
province  almost  in  two  equal  parts;  it  is  watered 
besides  by  several  of  its  important  tributaries. 
Kooch  Behar  is  a  native  State  near  Bhotan,  under 
the  lieutenant-governor  of  Bengal;  area,  1,307 
square  miles;  pop,  602,604.  Its  capital  is  also 
Kooch  Behar,  or  Ivueli  Behar. 

Behar.  or  Bahar,  a  town  of  Bengal,  fifty-four 
miles  southeast-by-south  of  the  town  of  Patna, 
Pop.  (1881),  48,968. 

Behemoth  (Heb.  plural  of  b’hemah,  beast, 
a  word  of  Egyptian  origin;,  the  name  of  a  large 
and  strong  four-footed  beast,  referred  to  once  in 
the  Old  Testament  Scriptures,  Job  xl,  15-24. 

Behistnu,  or  Bisutun  (ancient  Baghistan),  the 
site  of  an  ancient  Persian  city,  noted  for  its 
famous  precipitous  rock,  anciently  known  as 
Mount  Bagistanus,  which  on  one  side  rises  perpen¬ 
dicularly  to  the  height  of  1,700  feet. 

Bell m,  Dr.  Ernst,  a  German  geographer,  was 
born  Jan.  4,  1830,  at  Gotha,  where  he  died 
March,  15,  1884.  In  1856  he  became  Dr.  Peter- 
mann’s  chief  assistant  in  editing  the  famous  geo¬ 
graphical  periodical,  MiUeilunqen,  to  the  edit¬ 
orship  of  which  he  succeeded  on  his  chief’s 
death,  in  1878. 

Bell ii,  Afra,  novelist  and  playwright,  was 
born  in  1640,  at  Wye,  in  Kent,  the  daughter  of 
one  Johnson,  a  barber.  Her  plays  and  some  of 
her  poems  are  better  than  her  novels,  but  all  are 
disfigured  by  impurity  of  tone;  and,  in  point  of 
intellectual  ability,  none  of  her  works  deserve  the 
high  praise  lavished  on  them  by  Dryden,  Otway, 
and  Southern.  She  died  April  16,  ifi89,  and  was 
buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Behring,  or  Bering,  Vitus,  a  famous  navi¬ 
gator,  born  in  1680,  in  Denmark,  lie  entered 


BEHRING  STRAIT. 


144 


BELGIUM. 


the  newly-formed  navy  of  Peter  the  Great,  and 
was  appointed  to  conduct  an  expedition  of  dis¬ 
covery  in  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka.  Sailing  in 
1728  from  a  port  on  Ihe  east  of  Kamtchatka,  he 
followed  the  coast  northward  until  he  believed, 
from  the  westward  trending  of  the  land,  that 
he  had  reached  the  northeast  point  of  Asia. 
After  some  years  spent  in  explorations  on  the 
coasts  of  Kamtchatka,  Okhotsk,  and  the  north  of 
Siberia,  he  sailed  in  1741  from  Okhotsk  toward 
the  American  Continent,  and  sighting  land  about 
581°  N.  latitude,  he  followed  the  coast  northward 
for  some  distance;  but  sickness  and  storms 
obliged  him  to  return,  and  being  wrecked  on  the 
desert  island  of  Avatclia,  since  called  Behring 
Island,  he  died  there  Dec.  19,  1741.  Among  the 
few  who  escaped,  in  a  boat  made  from  the  wreck, 
was  Steller,  the  naturalist,  who  has  left  an 
account  of  the  vojrage  (St.  Petersburg,  1793). 

Behring  Strait  separates  Asia  from  America, 
and  connects  the  Pacific  with  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
The  proof  that  the  two  continents  were  not  con¬ 
nected  was  given  by  a  Cossack  named  Desclinev, 
who  in  1648  sailed  from  a  harbor  in  Siberia,  in 
the  Polar  Ocean,  into  the  sea  of  Kamtchatka.  But 
his  voyage  was  long  regarded  by  Europeans  as  a 
fable,  until  Behring’s  expedition  in  1728.  The 
strait  was  explored  and  accurately  described  by 
Cook  in  1778.  The  narrowest  part  is  near  66° 
W.  latitude,  between  East  Cape  in  Asia,  and  Cape 
Prince  of  Wales  in  America,  where  the  capes 
approach  within  thirty-six  miles;  about  midway 
are  three  uninhabited  islands.  The  greatest  depth 
is  some  thirty  fathoms.  Haze  and  fogs  are  the 
normal  condition  of  the  atmosphere. — Behring 
Sea,  a  part  of  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  com¬ 
monly  known  as  the  Sea  of  Kamtchatka,  bounded 
west  by  Kamtchatka,  east  by  Alaska,  south  by  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  and  north  by  Behring  Strait. 
There  are  several  islands  in  this  sea  — Behring 
Island,  the  most  westerly  of  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
barren  and  destitute  of  wood,  but  an  important 
station  of  the  Alaska  fur  industry. 

Beil  an',  a  pass  in  the  northern  extremity  of 
Syria,  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Scanderoon, 
runs  across  the  mountain-range  of  Amanus.  The 
town  of  Beilan  (pop.,  5,000)  is  situated  at  an  ele¬ 
vation  of  1,584  feet  above  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

Beira,  a  Portuguese  province.  It  has  an  area 
of  about  9,222  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881)  of 
1,377,432.  In  1835  the  province  was  divided  into 
Upper  and  Lower  Beira,  and  at  present  embraces 
the  districts  of  Aveiro,  Castello  Branco,  Coimbra, 
Guarda,  and  Vizeu.  The  capital  is  Coimbra. 

Beit  is  an  Arabic  word,  signifying  “house,” 
“  abode,”  or  “  place,”  the  Hebrew  equivalent  of 
which  is  Beth. 

Beit-el-Fakili,  a  town  of  Yemen,  Arabia,  near 
the  Red  Sea,  eighty-seven  miles  north  of  Mocha. 
Hodeida,  on  the  Red  Sea,  is  the  port.  Pop.,  8,000. 

Beitullah  (Arab,  house  of  God),  the  spacious 
building  or  temple  at  Mecca,  which  contains  the 
Kaaba. 

Bej.i  (the  Pax  Julia  of  the  Romans),  a  town  in 
the  Province  of  Alemtejo,  Portugal,  101  miles 
southeast  of  Lisbon.  Pop.,  8,487. 

Bejar,  a  town  of  Spain,  forty-five  miles  south 
of  Salamanca.  Pop.  (1877),  11,099. 

Bek,  Antony,  Bishop  of  Durham  from  1283, 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Scottish  wars  of 
Edward  I.,  and  held  a  command  at  the  battle  of 
Falkirk.  Another  Antony  Bek  (1279-1343)  was 
Bishop  of  Norwich  from  1337;  a  Thomas  Bek 
(died  1293)  was  Bishop  of  St.  David’s  from  1280; 
and  a  second  Thomas  Bek  (1282-1347)  was  Bishop 
of  Lincoln  from  1342. 

Beke,  Charles  Tilstone,  Abyssinian  explorer 
and  biblical  critic,  was  born  in  London,  Oct.  10, 
1800,  and  devoted  a  great  part  of  his  attention  to 
ancient  history,  philology,  and  ethnography.  The 
results  of  these  studies  first  appeared  in  his  work 
Origioes  Biblicce,  or  researches  in  primeval  history. 
He  joined  in  Abyssinia  the  party  led  by  Major 
Harris,  and  distinguished  himself  (1840-43)  by 
the  exploration  of  countries  lying  to  the  south. 
He  fixed  the  latitude  of  more  than  seventy 
stations,  and  mapped  out  70,000  square  miles  of 
country.  He  also  collected  t  lie  vocabularies  of 
many  languages  and  dialects.  The  results  of 
these  researches  appeared  in  Abyssinia  (1845),  and 
in  various  journals.  Having  returned  to  Europe 
he  excited  tlm  attention  of  geographers  by  his 


Essay  on  the  Nile  and  Its  Tributaries  (1847).  In 
1874  Dr.  Beke  started  for  the  region  at  the  head 
of  the  Red  Sea,  where  he  claimed  (though  his 
views  are  disputed)  to  have  discovered  Mount 
Sinai,  east  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  and  not  west  as 
generally  supposed.  He  died  at  Bromley,  Kent, 
July  31,'  1874. 

Bekes,  or  Bekesvar,  a  town  of  Hungary,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Black  and  White  Koros. 
Pop.  (1880),  23,938. 

Bekker,  Immanuel,  a  scholar  distinguished 
by  his  recensions  of  the  texts  of  Greek  classics, 
was  born  at  Berlin  in  1785,  and  in  1811  became 
Professor  of  Philology  in  his  native  city,  where 
he  died  June  7,  1871. 

Bektaslii,  a  mendicant  order  of  Dervishes, 
which  had  its  origin  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

Bel  and  the  Dragon,  an  apocryphal  book  of 
the  Old  Testament,  originally  appended  to  the 
Book  of  Daniel. 

Belbeis  (ancient  Babastis  Agria),  a  town  situ¬ 
ated  on  the  east  arm  of  the  Nile,  Lower  Egypt. 
Pop.,  about  5,000. 

Belcher,  Sir  Edward,  admiral,  born  in  1799, 
entered  the  navy  in  1812,  and  in  1810took  part  in 
the  bombardment  of  Algiers.  In  1825  he  was 
appointed  assistant-surveyor  to  the  expedition 
about  to  explore  Behring  Strait  under  Captain 
Bcechey;  and  from  1836  to  1842  he  commanded 
the  Sulphur,  commissioned  toexplore  the  western 
coast  of  America.  Knighted  in  1843,  and  for  five 
years  employed  on  surveying  service  in  the  East 
Indies,  lie  was  in  1852  appointed  to  the  command 
of  the  unfortunate  expedition  sent  out  by  Govern¬ 
ment  to  search  for  Sir  John  Franklin.  Belcher 
published  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  Round  the  World 
in  the  Sulphur  ( 1843);  Narrative  of  a  Voyage  to 
the  East  Indies  (1848);  The  Last  of  the  Arctic 
Voyages  (1855),  etc.  In  1861  he  became  Rear- 
Admiral  of  the  Red,  in  1866  Vice-Admiral,  in  1867 
K.C.B.,  and  Rear-Admiral  in  1872.  He  died 
March  18,  1877. 

Belchi'le,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Aguas, 
twenty-two  miles  south-southeast  of  Saragossa. 
Here,  on  June  18,  1809,  the  French,  under 
Suchet,  completely  routed  the  Spanish,  under 
General  Blake.  Pop.,  3,262. 

Belem',  or  Para',  capital  of  the  Brazilian 
Province  of  Para. 

Bel'emnites  (Gr.  belnnnon,  a  dart  or  arrow), 
an  interesting  genus  of  fossil  cephalopodous  Mol- 
lusca,  the  type  of  a  family  called  Belemnitidae,  to 
the  whole  of  which  the  name  Belemnitcs  is  very 
generally  extended,  and  which  is  closely  allied  to 


Belemnites  pistiliformis. 


the  Sepidm,  or  Cuttle  family.  No  recent  species 
of  Belemnites  are  known ;  fossil  species  are  very 
numerous,  and  are  found  in  all  the  jurassic  and 
cretaceous  strata,  from  t  lie  lowest  lias  to  the  upper 
chalk,  some  of  which  are  filled  with  myriads  of 
their  remains. 

Belfast,  the  largest  and  most  prosperous  com¬ 
mercial  and  manufacturing  city  in  Ireland,  is 
principally  situated  in  the  County  of  Antrim,  of 
which,  since  1850,  it  has  been  the  county  town.  It 
is  12  miles  from  the  Irish  Sea,  101  north  of 
Dublin,  130 southwest  of  Glasgow,  and  156  north¬ 
west  of  Liverpool.  Belfast  stands  on  an  alluvial 
deposit  not  more  than  six  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
A  sight  of  Belfast  at  the  present  time  surprises 
those  who  have  been  taught  to  believe  in  the 
poverty  and  want  of  enterprise  in  Ireland.  There 
are  thirty-three  Presbyterian  churches;  twenty 
Protestant  Episcopalian;  fifteen  Methodist,  and 
six  Roman  Catholic.  The  Queen’s  College  was 
opened  in  1849.  The  Presbyterian  College  in 
1881  had,  in  conjunction  with  the  Magee  College 
of  Londonderry,  the  power  conferred  on  it  of 
granting  theological  degrees.  The  Catholics  and 
Methodists  have  colleges,  while  a  Royal  Aca¬ 
demical  Institution  and  the  Belfast  Academy, 
with  other  institutions  of  a  similar  character, 
supply  great  educational  facilities.  The  National 
schools  number  130;  the  Church  Educational 
Society  have  schools  of  their  own;  and  there  are 
a  number  of  excellent  private  schools.  In  the 
year  1821  the  population  wa<(^J7,117;  in  1888 


above  230,000,  of  whom  71  per  cent,  are  Protest¬ 
ants.  In  1886  the  port,  with  7,564  vessels,  showed 
1,595,509  tons.  The  revenue  collected  in  1886 
amounted  to  the  large  sum  of  $8,400,000,  an 
amount  exceeded  only  by  two  ports  in  the  United 
Kingdom. 

Belfast,  a  port  of  entry  in  Maine,  on  the  west 
side  of  Penobscot  Bay.  Pop.  (1880),  5,308. 

Belfort,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
French  remnant  of  the  department  of  Haut-Rhin, 
117  miles  east-northeast  of  Dijon.  Pop.  (1886), 
22,181;  of  territory  (1886),  79,758. 

Belfry  (old  Fr.  berfreri;  modern,  beffroi,  of 
Teutonic  origin;  lit.  a  place  of  safety).  Originally 
a  kind  of  movable  tower  used  for  defense  in 
sieges,  it  came  to  mean  a  tower  to  protect  watch¬ 
men,  a  watch-tower,  beacon  tower,  or  alarm-bell 
tower,  then  any  tower  where  a  bell  is  hung — a 
bell-tower  or  turret.  The  belfry  usually  forms 
part  of  a  church,  but  is  sometimes  detached  from 
it,  when  it  is  termed  a  campanile. 

Bel 'gm,  the  name  given  by  Caesar  to  the  war¬ 
like  tribes  which  in  his  time  occupied  that  one  of 
the  great  divisions  of  Gallia  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Rhine,  on  the  west  by  the  ocean,  on  the 
south  by  the  Sequana  (Seine)  and  Matrona 
(Marne),  and  on  the  east  by  the  territory  of  the 
Treviri.  They  seem  to  have  belonged  to  the 
Celtic  portion  of  the  Gallic  Belgae.  See  Rhys’ 
Celtic  Britain  (1882),  and  Elton’s  Origins  of  Eng¬ 
lish  History  (1882). 

Belgaril,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  Province  of 
Pomerania,  sixteen  miles  south-southwest  of  Kos- 
lin.  Pop.  (1885),  7,117. 

Belganm',  or  Belgam,  the  chief  city  of  a  dis¬ 
trict  of  the  same  name  in  the  presidency  of  Bom¬ 
bay.  Pop.  (1881),  32,697.  Area  of  district,  4,656 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  864,014. 

Belgiojos  'o.a  town  of  Lombardy,  North  Italy, 
nine  miles  east  of  Pavia.  Pop.,  4,000. — The 
Princess  Cristina  of  Belgiojoso,  authoress  and 
patriot,  was  born  at  Milan,  June  28,  1808,  and 
died  June  5,  1871. 

Belgium  (Fr.  Belgique),  one  of  the  smaller 
European  States,  consists  of  the  southern  portion 
of  the  former  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  (as 
created  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna),  lying  between 
France  and  Holland  ( i.e .,  the  present  kingdom  of 
the  Netherlands),  the  North  Sea  and  Rhenish 
Prussia.  Its  greatest  length  from  northwest  to 
southeast  is  173  miles;  and  its  greatest  breadth 
from  north  to  south,  105  miles.  The  whole  area 
of  Belgium  is  11,373  square  miles.  The  popula¬ 
tion  at  the  census  of  1880  was  5,520,009.  At  the 
close  of  1886  the  kingdom  contained  twenty-six 
towns  with  over  20,000  inhabitants.  Of  these,  the 
largest  were  Brussels,  the  capital,  438,843  (includ¬ 
ing  suburbs);  Antwerp,  198,174;  Ghent,  143,242; 
and  Li&ge,  135,371. 

The  population  of  Belgium  is  of  mixed  Ger¬ 
man  and  Celtic  origin.  The  Flemings  (of  Teu¬ 
tonic  stock)  and  Walloons  (Celtic  in  origin),  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  their  peculiar  dialects,  are  still  con¬ 
spicuous  among  the  pure  Germans,  Dutch,  and 
French.  Belgium  is  the  most  densely  peopled 
country  in  Europe,  the  population  being  514  to 
the  square  mile,  as  compared  with  303  in  Great 
Britain,  and  42  in  European  Russia.  Belgium  is 
a  level,  low-lying  country;  diversified,  however, 
by  hilly  districts.  In  the  southeast  a  western 
branch  of  the  Ardennes  highlands  separates  the 
basin  of  the  Maas  from  that  of  the  Moselle,  but 
attains  only  the  moderate  elevation  of  2,000  feet. 
In  Flanders  the  land  becomes  so  low  that  dikes- 
have  been  raised  to  check  the  encroachments  of  the 
sea.  The  water-system  of  Belgium  is  supplied  by 
the  navigable  rivers  Scheldt  and  Maas,  both  of 
which  rise  in  France,  and  have  their  embouchures 
in  Holland.  The  Scheldt,  like  the  Maas,  is  navi¬ 
gable  all  through  Belgium.  Its  tributaries  are  the 
Lys,  Dender,  Durme,  and  Ruppel.  The  Maas,  or 
Meuse,  receives  in  its  course  the  waters  of  the 
Sambre,  the  Ourthe,  and  the  Roer.  These  natural 
hydrographical  advantages  are  increased  by  a  sys¬ 
tem  of  canals  (44  in  number,  with  an  entire  length 
of  563  miles).  Belgium  contains*  nearly  7,278,000 
acres,  of  which  almost  two-thirds  are  in  ordinary 
cultivation,  while  gardening  occupies  not  less  than 
130,000  acres.  Belgium  is  rich  in  minerals,  in¬ 
cluding  lead,  copper,  zinc,  calamine,  alum,  peat, 
marble,  limestone,  granite,  slate,  iron,  and  coal. 
In  1885  there  were  in  Belgium  285  coal-mines, 


BELGOROD. 


145 


BELL. 


employing  103,035  persons,  and  producing 
17,437,600  tons,  the  total  value  of  which  was 
$32,000,000.  The  chief  manufactures  are  linen, 
woolens,  cotton,  silk,  lace,  leather,  and  metals. 
Flax  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  products  of  Bel¬ 
gium.  The  great  seats  of  the  linen  manufacture, 
the  oldest  in  Belgium,  are  in  Flanders;  it  employs 
some  350,000  persons.  The  lace  industry  em¬ 
ploys  150,000  workers,  and  a  capital  of  $10,000,- 
000.  Centers  of  the  woolen  manufacture  are 
Ypres,  Ghent,  Tournay,  and  especially  Verviers, 
which  alone  employs  20,000  workmen  in  this 
branch  of  industry.  Brussels  and  Louvain  have 
large  carpet  manufactures,  and  Hainault  sup¬ 
plies  a  considerable  amount  of  hosiery.  The  unit 
of  the  Belgium  monetary  system  is  the  franc,  and 
in  1865,  Belgium,  along  with  France,  Italy, 
Switzerland,  and  Greece,  entered  on  a  monetary 
league,  in  which  these  States  agreed  to  adopt  the 
French  decimal  system  of  coins,  weights,  and 
measures,  and  established  a  reciprocity  of  cur¬ 
rency.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  dominant  re¬ 
ligion.  Although  full  liberty  of  worship  is  guar¬ 
anteed  to  all,  and  the  ministers  of  each  denomina¬ 
tion  are  paid  by  the  State,  almost  the  entire  popu¬ 
lation  are.Roman  Catholics,  the  number  of  Pro¬ 
testants  being  about  15,000. 

The  organization  of  the  Belgian  army  is  estab¬ 
lished  by  a  law  of  1873,  under  which  the  peace- 
strength'  is  fixed  at  47,000  men,  to  be  raised  in 
time  of  war  to  103,000.  Besides  the  standing 
army,  there  is  a  Garde  Civique,  numbering  in 
1886,  30,954  men,  with  a  reserve  of  90,000. 

The  government  of  Belgium  is  a  limited  con¬ 
stitutional  monarchy,  and  was  established  in  its 
present  form  by  the  revolution  of  1830.  The 
succession  is  hereditary,  females  being  excluded. 
The  ministry  includes  departments  for  Home 
Affairs,  Foreign  Affairs,  Finance,  Justice,  Public 
Works  and  War.  The  administration  of  justice 
is  governed  by  the  Code  Napoleon.  The  legisla¬ 
tive  body  consists  of  two  chambers — the  Senate 
and  the  Chamber  of  Representatives.  The 
number  of  Representatives  in  1884  was  138,  sent 
by  forty-one  electoral  districts.  Electors  must  be 
Belgians  by  birth  or  naturalization  ;  must  have 
attained  twenty-five  years  of  age,  and  pay  taxes. 
Under  this  qualification  there  were  in  1886  but 
128,050  electors.  The  Senate  consists  of  half  the 
number  of  members,  and  is  elected  by  the  same 
constituency,  but  for  eight  years  instead  of  four. 
A  Senator  must  be  forty  years  of  age,  and  must 
pay  at  least  1,000  florins  of  direct  taxes. 

The  history  of  Belgium  properly  dates  from 
the  year  1831,  when  the  Southern  Netherlands 
parted  from  Holland  and  were  constituted  into  a 
separate  and  independent  kingdom.  In  January, 
1831,  a  National  Congress  elected  a  King  who  was 
not  acceptable,  and  finally  Prince  Leopold,  of 
Saxe-Coburg,  was  elected,  and  in  June  of  that 
year  entered  Brussels,  where  he  ascended  the 
throne  in  July.  The  Dutch  made  one  more 
armed  demonstration  on  the  country,  but  were 
induced  by  foreign  intervention  to  desist.  It  was 
not  until  after  the  treaty  of  London  was  signed, 
in  1839,  which  established  peace  between  Leopold 
I.  and  the  King  of  the  Netherlands,  that  all  the 
states  of  Europe  recognized  the  Kingdom  of 
Belgium.  Leopold  I.  died  in  December,  1865. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  eldest  sou,  Leopold  II. 
In  1875  Belgium  was  the  scene  of  serious  relig¬ 
ious  disturbances,  processions  being  attacked  by 
mobs  and  many  persons  injured.  See  also 
Flanders  and  The  Netherlands. 

Belgorod '  (Russian  Bjelyorod,  white  town), 
a  town  in  the  Russian  government  of  Kursk,  412 
miles  south  of  Moscow.  Three  important  fairs 
are  held  here  during  the  year.  Pop.  (1880) 
16,097. 

Belgrade'  (Serb.  Bie’gorod,  white  town),  an 
important  fortified  and  commercial  city,  the  cap¬ 
ital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Servia,  lies  opposite  Sem- 
lin,  215  miles  south-southeast  of  Peslh,  and  234 
miles  north-northwest  of  Vranja.  It  is  the  en¬ 
trepot  of  the  trade  between  Turkey  and  Austria. 
Pop  (P86),  36,994. 

Belgravia,  a  name  given  to  the  region  sur¬ 
rounding  Belgrave  Square,  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  West  End  of  London. 

Be'liai,  or  more  accurately,  Beli'al,  a  Hebrew 
word,  meaning  “  that  which  is  without  use  or 
profit,”  “  worthlessness,”  hence  “wickedness.” 
lo 


Belief  is  a  term  which  is  sufficiently  definite 
for  most  ordinary  purposes  ;  but  it  is  used  with 
some  variety  in  meaning,  and  psychologists  do 
not  always  agree  in  the  tests  they  give  for  distin¬ 
guishing  belief  from  other  states  of  mind.  The 
word  is  used  to  mean  the  acceptance  of  a  propo¬ 
sition,  statement,  or  fact  as  true  on  the  ground 
of  evidence,  authority,  or  irresistible  mental  pre¬ 
disposition  ;  the  state  of  trust  in,  and  reliance  on, 
a  person,  thing,  or  principle;  as  also  for  the  fact 
believed,  and  sometimes  specifically  for  the 
Apostle’s  Creed.  Belief  is  by  some  distinguished 
from  knowledge,  inasmuch  as  the  latter  rests  on 
evidence,  while  belief  rests  on  authority.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  psychologists  of  what  is 
called  the  intuitive  school  are  accustomed  to  re¬ 
gard  as  beliefs  the  fundamental  data  on  which 
reasoning  rests,  and  to  say  that  all  knowledge 
rests  ultimately  on  belief. 

Belisa'rius  (Slav.  Beli  tsar,  white  prince!,  to 
whom  the  Emperor  Justinian  was  principally  in¬ 
debted  for  the  glory  of  his  reign,  was  born  at 
Germania,  in  Illyria,  about  505  a.d.  Appointed 
to  the  command  of  the  Eastern  Army  of  the  Em¬ 
pire,  he  gained,  in  530,  a  victory  over  a  Persian 
army  nearly  twice  as  large  as  his  own.  The  mil¬ 
itary  career  of  Belisarius  may  be  divided  into 
two  great  epochs — the  war  against  the  Vandals  in 
Africa,  and  the  war  against  the  Goths  in  Italy. 
In  535  Belisarius  conquered  Sicily;  and  in  the 
autumn  of  536  he  occupied  Lower  Italy.  He 
drove  the  Goths  back  to  Ravenna,  which  he  cap¬ 
tured  in  540.  In  541-542  he  was  engaged  in  a 
campaign  against  the  Persians,  who  had  captured 
Antioch.  In  544  the  barbarians  under  Totila 
again  invaded  and  reconquered  Italy.  Belisarius 
was  sent  against  them  with  an  insufficient  army. 
In  548  he  gave  up  the  command,  Narses  being 
appointed  in  his  place.  In  559,  after  ten  years  of 
retirement,  Belisarius  came  forward  at  the  head 
of  an  army  hastily  collected,  and  overthrew  the 
Bulgarians  who  were  threatening  Constantinople. 
Here  he  was  accused  of  a  conspiracy  against  Jus¬ 
tinian,  and  imprisoned  (563);  but  Justinian  re¬ 
stored  him,  after  six  months,  to  all  his  honors. 
He  died  in  565. 

Bel  ize',  or  British  Honduras,  a  British  col¬ 
ony  on  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  in  the  Carribean 
Sea.  It  forms  the  southeast  part  of  the  Peninsula 
of  Yucatan,  and  measuring  180  by  60  miles,  has 
an  area  of  7,562  square  miles.  In  1881  the  pop. 
was  27,455,  of  whom  about  1,600  were  whites. 
The  chief  exports  are  mahogany  and  logwood, 
besides  sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  sarsaparilla,  bananas, 
plantains,  and  india-rubber.  Since  1862  Belize 
lias  been  a  British  colony,  with  a  Lieutenant-Gov¬ 
ernor,  whose  rank  was  raised  in  1884  to  that  of 
Governor.  Belize,  the  capital,  has  a  pop.  of  about 
6,600. 

Bell.  Though  there  has  been  some  variation 
from  time  to  time  in  the  substance  of  which  bells 


Great  Bell  at  Moseow  (from  a  Photograph). 


are  formed,  yet  in  all  ages  the  best-approved  has 
been  a  mixture  of  copper  and  tin,  called  bronze, 
in  the  proportion  of  13  parts  of  copper  to  4  of  tin. 
The  pitch  of  a  bell  is  regulated  by  the  thickness 
of  the  striking-place  in  proportion  to  the  diameter, 


Ancient  Crotal. 


the  ratio  being  about  1  to  12  in  a  bell  of  10  cwt. 
Some  mediaeval  bells  of  good  tone  are  remarkable 
for  the  thinness  of  the  sound-bow.  Church-bells 
are  suspended  either  in  the  steeples  or  church- 
towers  or  in  special  bell-towers.  These  were  long 
of  comparatively  small  size;  the  bell  which  a  king 
presented  to  the  Church  of  Orleans  in  the  eleventh 
century,  and  which  was  remarkable  in  its  age, 
weighed  only  2,600  lb.  In  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury  much  larger  bells  began  to  be  cast,  but  it  was 
not  until  the  fourteenth  century  thatthey  reached 
really  considerable  dimensions.  The  bell  “Jacque¬ 
line”  of  Paris,  cast  in  1400,  weighed  15,000  lb.; 
another  Paris  bell,  cast  in  1472,  weighed  25,000 
lb.;  the  famous  bell  of  Rouen,  cast  in  1501, 
weighed  36,364  lb.  The  largest  bell  in  the  world 
is  the  Great  Bell  or  Monarch  of  Moscow,  above 
21  feet  in  height  and  diameter,  and  weighing  193 
tons.  It  was  cast  in  1734,  but  fell  down  during  a 
fire  in  1737,  was  injured,  and  remained  sunk  in 
the  earth  till  1837,  when  it  was  raised,  and  now 
forms  the  dome  of  a  chapel  made  by  excavating 
the  space  below  it.  Another  Moscow  bell,  cast 
in  1819,  weighs  80  tons.  The  Great  Bell  a*  Pekin 
weighs  534  tons;  and  the  “  Kaiserglocke  ”  of 
Cologne  Cathedral  (1887),  144  feet  high,  1)4  in 
diameter,  is  made  of  twenty-two  French  cannon; 
and  weighs  26  tons  13  cwt. 

Bells  are  intimately  connected  with  the  services 
of  the  Christian  Church — so  much  so,  that  appar¬ 
ently  from  a  spirit  of  opposition,  the  Mohamme¬ 
dans  reject  the  use  of  bells, 
and  substit  ute  for  them  the  cry 
of  the  muezzin  from  the  top 
of  the  Mosques.  They  were 
consecrated  by  a  complete  bap¬ 
tismal  service;  received  names, , 
had  sponsors,  were  sprinkled' 
with  water,  anointed,  a n d 
finally  covered  with  the  while 
garment  or  chrisom  like 
infants.  Vesper  bell,  properly 
the  bell  that  summons  to  Ves¬ 
pers,  is  usually  a  popular  phrase  for  a  bell 
rung  at  evening  The  ringing  of  the  curfew 
bell,  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  into 
England  by  William  the  Conqueror,  was  a  cus¬ 
tom  of  a  civil  or  political  nature,  and  only  strictly 
observed  till  the  end  of  the  reign  of  William 
Rufus,  the  statute  being  abolished  by  Henry  I.,  in 
1100.  Its  object  was  to  warn  the  public  to  ex¬ 
tinguish  their  fires  and  lights  at  eight  o’clock  in 
the  evening. 

“Bells,”  on  shipboard,  is  a  term  having  a 
meaning,  not  exactly  equivalent  to,  but  serving  as 
a  substitute  for,  “time”  or  “o’clock”  inordi¬ 
nary  land-life.  The  day  is  divided  into  watches, 
usually  of  four  hours’  duration  each.  Each  half- 
hour  is  marked  by  striking  on  a  bell,  in  either 
single  or  double  strokes.  The  number  of  strokes 
depends  not  on  the  hour,  according  to  ordinary 
reckoning,  but  on  the  number  of  half-hours  which 
have  elapsed  in  that  particular  watch.  Thus, 
“  three  bells”  is  a  phrase  denoting  that  three  half- 
hours  have  elapsed,  but  it  does  not  in  itself  show 
to  which  particular  watch  it  refers,  and  may  in¬ 
dicate  either  half-past  one,  half-past  five,  or  half¬ 
past  nine  in  the  ordinary  watches,  or  half-past 
seven  in  the  dog-watch,  which  is  half  the  period 
of  the  ordinary  watch.  In  foggy  weather,  both 
steamers  and  sailing-vessels  when  at  anchor  sound 
their  bells. 

Bell,  Alexander  Melville,  was  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1819.  He  wras  engaged  for  more 
than  twenty  years  in  perfecting  his  phonetic  sys¬ 
tem;  and  in  1868  he  visited  the  LTnited  States,  and 
delivered  a  series  of  lectures,  In  1870  he  removed 
to  this  country.  His  son  Alexander  Graham 
Bell,  the  inventor  of  the  telephone,  was  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1847,  came  to  this  country,  where 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  teaching  of  deaf-mutes, 
and  to  spreading  his  father’s  system  of  “Visible 
Speech.”  His  inventions  of  the  articulating  tel 
ephone,  in  1872-76,  of  the  photophone,  in  18^0,  of 
the  graphophone  in  1887,  and  of  kindred  instru¬ 
ments  have  since  brought  him  both  wealth  and 
fame. 

Bell,  Andrew',  D.D.,  founder  of  the  “Madras 
System  of  Education,”  was  born  March  27,  1753. 
He  took  holy  orders,  served  as  an  army  chaplain, 
and  introduced  the  “  monitorial  system”  of  school 
government. 


BELL. 


146 


BELLOY. 


Bell,  Sir  Charles,  an  eminent  surgeon,  whose 
discoveries  in  the  nervous  system  have  given  him 
fame,  was  born  at  Edinburgh  in  1774.  In  1807  he 
made  the  discovery  of  the  existence  of  sensory  and 
motor  nerves  in  t lie  brain;  his  investigations  were 
completed  between  1821-29,  and  included  re¬ 
searches  on  the  cranial  nerves.  These  discoveries 
in  physiology  have  been  described  as  the  greatest 
since  Harvey  demonstrated  the  circulation  of  the 
blood.  In  1829  he  received  the  Royal  Society’s 
medal  for  discoveries  in  science.  In  1831  he  was 
knighted.  He  was  editor,  jointly  with  Lord 
Brougham,  of  Paley’s  Evidence*  of  Natural  Relig¬ 
ion.  He  died  suddenly,  April  2s,  1842. 

Bell,  Currer.  See  Bronte. 

Bell,  George  Joseph,  an  eminent  lawyer,  a 
brother  of  Sir  Charles,  was  bom  at  Edinburgh, 
March  26,  1770. 

Bell,  Henry,  the  father  of  steam-navigation  in 
Europe,  was  born  in  Linlithgow,  Scotland,  April 
7,  1767.  In  1786  he  conceived  the  idea  of  apply¬ 
ing  steam  to  navigation.  On  Jan.  12,  1812,  a  ves¬ 
sel  40  feet  in  length,  called  the  Comet,  built  under 
his  directions,  and  with  an  engine  constructed  by 
himself,  was  launched  on  the  Clyde  with  success — 
the  first  on  European  waters.  Bell  died  Nov.  14, 
1830. 

Bell,  IIenry  Glassford,  lawyer  and  man  of 
letters,  was  born  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  Nov.  8, 
1803.  He  died  Jan.  7,  1874. 

Bell,  Sir  Isaac  Lowthian,  was  born  in  1816. 
He  founded,  with  his  brothers,  the  Clarence  iron¬ 
smelting  works  on  the  Tees  river,  Scotland.  He 
lias  written  many  papers  on  metallurgical  and 
chemical  subjects. 

Bell,  John,  of  Antermony,  Scotland,  a  cele¬ 
brated  Asiatic  traveler,  born  in  1691,  in  Scotland. 
He  died  at  Antermony,  Scotland,  July  1,  1780. 

Bell,  John,  an  eminent  surgeon  and  anatomist, 
elder  brother  of  Sir  Charles,  was  born  in  Edin¬ 
burgh,  May  12,  1763.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1820. 

Bell,  John,  an  American  statesman,  born  near 
Nashville,  Tenn.,  Feb.  18,  1797,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  in  1816.  He  was  a  Member  of  Congress 
from  1827  to  1841,  and  was  made  Speaker  in  1834, 
and  Secretary  of  War  in  1841.  He  sat  in  the 
United  States  Senate  from  1847  to  1859,  and  in 
1860  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by  the 
“ Constitutional  Union”  party,  but  received  only 
39  electoral  votes,  cast  by  the  States  of  Tennessee, 
Kentucky,  and  Virginia.  He  died  Sept.  10,  1869. 

Bell,  John,  sculptor,  was  born  in  Norfolk, 
England,  in  1811. 

Bell.  T  homas,  a  naturalist,  was  born  in  Eng¬ 
land.  He  was  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society, 
President  of  the  Limuean  Society  (1853—61 ),  and 
first  President  of  the  Ray  Society  (1844).  He  died 
March  13,  1880. 

Bella,  Stefano  della,  designer  and  engraver, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1610.  He  died  in  1664. 

Belladonna,  Dwale,  or  Deadly  Nightshade 
( Atropa  belladonna;  Belladonna ,  Ital.  fair  lady; 
atropa,  Gr.  Atropos,  one  of  the  Fates),  a  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Solanaceie.  It  produces  berries  of  the 


Belladonna  ( Atropa  belladonna), 
a ,  flower  ;  b,  fruit. 


size  of  a  middle-sized  cherry  which,  when  ripe, 
are  of  a  shining  black  color,  and  of  a  sweetish  and 
not  nauseous  taste,  although  the  whole  plant  has  a 
disagreeable  heavy  smell.  All  parts  of  the  plant 
are  narcotic  and  poisonous.  Its  roots  have  some¬ 
times  been  mistaken  for  parsnips.  It  owes  its 
poisonous  properties  to  the  presence  of  the  alka¬ 


loid  Atropia,  which  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
plant. 

In  medicinal  doses  belladonna  and  atropia  are 
used  lo  relieve  spasm,  as  in  colic,  whooping-cough; 
to  check  exessive  secretions — e.  g.,  of  sweat,  milk, 
saliva — as  an  antidote  in  poisoning  by  opium,  Cal¬ 
abar  bean,  and  prussic  acid;  and  for  many  other 
purposes.  Local  application,  in  the  form  of  lini¬ 
ment,  ointment,  or  plaster,  is  often  more  effica¬ 
cious,  especially  in  the  relief  of  pain,  than  internal 
administration.  The  most  important  medicinal 
use  of  belladonna,  and  especially  its  alkaloid,  is 
in  the  treatment  of  diseases  of  the  eye.  Its  power 
of  enlarging  the  pupil  and  giving  a  bright,  glist¬ 
ening  appearance  to  the  eyes  has  long  been  in  use 
to  enhance,  the  the  charms  of  female  beauty;  hence 
the  name  Belladonna. 

Belladonna  Lily  ( Amaryllis  belladonna),  a 
beautiful  and  hardy  species  of  Amaryllis  with 
rose-colored  drooping  flowers  and  penciled  with 
crimson . 

Bcllaire,  a  town  of  Belmont  county,  Ohio. 
Pop.,  10,500. 

Bellamy,  George  Anne,  an  English  actress 
born  in  1727,  was  the  illegitimate  daughter  of 
Lord  Tyrawley,  by  whom  she  was  educated.  She 
died  in  1788. 

Bellamy,  Jacobus,  a  Dutch  poet,  born  at 
Flushing  in  1757.  11c  died  March  10,  1786. 

Bellarmine,  Robert,  one  of  the  most  cele¬ 
brated  Catholic  theologians,  was  born  at  Monte 
pulciano,  near  Siena,  in  1542.  He  was  made  a 
cardinal  in  1599,  and  in  1602  Archbishop  of 
Capua.  He  died  Sept.  17,  1621.  Bellarmine 
was  the  chief  defender  of  the  church  in  the  six¬ 
teenth  century. 

Bellary,  the  chief  town  of  Bellary  district, 
India,  305  miles  northwest  of  Madras.  Pop. 
(1881),  53,460.  The  district  in  the  Presidency  of 
Madras  has  an  area  of  5,904  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1881),  736,807. 

Bellay,  Joachim  du,  a  distinguished  French 
poet  and  prose  writer,  the  exact  date  of  whose 
birth  is  unknown,  probably  about  1525.  He 
died  in  1560. 

Bell-bird  ( Chasmarhynclni* ),  one  of  the  chat¬ 
terers  (Cotingidse),  found  in  South  America,  re¬ 
markable  for  the  metallic  resonance  of  its  cry, 
which  resembles  the  tolling  of  a  bell,  with  pauses 
varying  from  a  minute  to  several  minutes.  It  is 
about  the  size  of  a  jay. 

Bell,  Book  and  Candle.  “  To  curse  by  bell, 
book  and  candle,”  is  a  common  phrase  referring 
to  a  form  of  excommunication  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  which  closed  with  the  words,  “Do-tothe 
book,  quench  the  candle,  ring  the  bell.” 

Belle  de  Nuit  (Fr.  beauty  of  the  night),  a 
name  sometimes  given  to  t lie  Marvel  of  Peru 
(Mirabilis  jalapa),  sometimes  also  to  a  certain 
tropical  American  and  West  Indian  species  of 
Convolvulacea?,  with  extremely  beautiful  and 
fragrant  flowers  which  open  only  during  the 
night. 

Belle  Isle,  a  British  island  in  the  Atlantic  be¬ 
tween  the  northwest  of  Newfoundland  and  the 
eastern  point  of  Labrador.  About  twenty-one 
miles  in  circumference,  it  gives  name  to  the  adja¬ 
cent  strait,  on  the  southwest  which  separates  Lab¬ 
rador  from  Newfoundland.  There  is  another 
small  island  of  the  same  name  in  the  Bay  of  Con¬ 
ception,  Newfoundland. 

Belleisle,  Charles  Louis  Auguste  Fouquet, 
Due  de,  Marshal  of  France,  born  in  1684  at  Ville- 
franche,  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  in 
,  Italy  and  the  Low  Countries,  against  Spain,  and 
'  afterward  in  Poland.  He  died  Jan.  26,  1761. 

Belleisle-en-Mt-r,  a  French  island  in  the  At¬ 
lantic,  eight  miles  south  of  Quiberon  Point.  Pop. 

[  (1886),  10,219. 

Bellenden  (Ballantyne),  John,  of  Moray, 
a  Scottish  writer  in  the  reigns  of  James  V.  and 
Queen  Mary,  was  born  toward  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  The  date  of  his  death  is 
unknown. 

Belleiulen,  William,  a  Scottish  author,  was 
born  about  1555,  and  died  about  1633. 

Beller 'ophon  (originally  called  HiproNous') 
was  the  son  of  the  Corinthian  King  Glaucus,  and 
Eurymede,  daughter  of  Sisyphus.  Other  accounts 
make  Neptune  his  father.  Prcetus,  King  of  ^Ar¬ 
gos,  sent  him  to  his  father-in-law,  Iobates,  King 
of  Lycia,  with  a  sealed  message,  asking  Iobates  to 


slay  the  youth.  The  latter,  reluctant  to  do  so  di¬ 
rectly,  imposed  upon  Bellerophon  the  task  of 
slaying  the  Chimsera.  Mounted  on  the  winged 
steed  Pegasus  the  hero  succeeded  in  slaying  the 
monster  with  his  arrows.  He  was  next  sent 
against  the  Amazons  whom  he  also  defeated. 
He  at  last  drew  on  himself  the  hatred  of  the  gods, 
and  wandered  lonely  through  the  Aleian  field. 
Pindar  relates  that  Bellerophon  endeavored  to 
mount  to  Olympus,  when  Pegasus,  maddened 
by  Jove  through  the  agency  of  a  gadfly,  threw 
his  rider,  who  was  stricken  with  blindness. 


Bellerophon  tangeutialis. 

Bellerophon,  an  extinct  genus  of  molluscs. 
The  shell  is  spirally  coiled  in  one  plane,  and  the 
outer  margin  has  a  deep  notch. 

Belles-lettres,  a  term  adopted  from  the 
French.  It  designates  t lie  more  elegant  or  re¬ 
fined  departments  of  literature. 

Belleville,  an  eastern  suburb  or  outlying 
section  of  Paris. 

Belleville,  a  town  in  the  Province  of  Ontario, 
Canada,  situated  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte.  Pop. 
(1881),  9,516. 

Belleville,  a  city  of  Illinois,  situated  sixteen 
miles  southeast  of  St.  Louis,  with  coal-beds  in 
the  vicinity.  Pop.  (1885),  10,683. 

Bel  ley,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Ain,  forty  miles  east  of  Lyons.  Pop.,  5,221. 

Bellingham,  William,  the  assassin  of  Spen¬ 
cer  Perceval,  Prime  Minister  of  England,  May 
11,  1812. 

Bellingham,  Richard,  born  in  1592,  died  in 
1672.  He  was  one  of  the  original  patentees  of 
the  Colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  became 
its  governor  in  1641.  His  sister,  Mrs.  Anne  Hib- 
bens,  was  executed  at  Salem,  in  June,  1692, 
during  the  witchcraft  persecution.  See  Haw¬ 
thorne’s  Scarlet  Letter. 

Belli'ni,  the  name  of  a  Venetian  family  which 
produced  several  remarkable  painters.  The  earli¬ 
est  was  Jacopo  Bellini,  who  died  in  1470. 
His  elder  son,  Gentile  Bellini  (born  probably 
in  1424  ;  died  1507).  Giovanni  Bellini,  another 
son  (born  about  1428  ;  died  1516),  was  the  founder 
of  the  older  Venetian  school. 

Belli'ni,  Vincenzo,  operatic  composer,  was 
born  at  Catania,  in  Sicily,  Nov.  3,  1802  Among 
other  operas  he  wrote  I  Capuleti  ed  i  Montecchi 
(1830);  La  Sonnambula  (1831);  Norma  (1832), 
and  I Puritani  (1834).  He  died  Sept.  21,  1835. 

Bellinzo'na,  or  Beli.enz  is  the  chief  town  of 
the  Swiss  Canton  of  Ticeno,  109  miles  south- 
southeast  of  Lucerne.  Pop.  (1880),  2,436. 

Bello 'na,  the  goddess  of  war  among  the 
Romans,  was  described  by  the  poets  as  the  com¬ 
panion,  sister,  or  wife  of  Mars,  and  was  repre¬ 
sented  as  armed  with  a  bloody  scourge,  and  in¬ 
spiring  her  votaries  in  battle.  During  the  war 
with  the  Samnites,. 296  B.  C.,  the  consul  Appius 
Claudius  vowed  a  temple  to  Bellona,  which  was 
erected  afterward  in  the  Campus  Martins.  In 
this  temple  the  senate  gave  audience  to  embassies 
from  foreign  powers,  and  also  to  returning  con¬ 
suls,  whose  claims  to  a  triumph  and  entrance  into 
the  city  Mould  have  been  nullified.  The  priests 
of  the  goddess  Mrere  styled  Bellonarii,  and  at  their 
mystic  festivals,  especially  on  the  “day  of  blood  ” 
(March  20),  used  to  gash  their  own  arms  and 
shoulders,  and  thus  to  offer  their  blood). 

Bellot,  Joseph  Rene,  Arctic  explorer,  Mas 
born  in  Paris,  March  18,  1826.  In  May,  1851, 
lie  joined  the  expedition  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin,  sent  out  by  Lady  Franklin.  He  per¬ 
ished  in  the  expedition  under  Captain  Inglefield, 
Mar.  21,  1853,  and  the  English  erected  a  monu¬ 
ment  to  him  at  Greenwich. 

Bellot  Strait,  the  passage  on  the  north  coast 
of  North  America  M’hich  separates  North  Somer¬ 
set  from  Boothia  Felix,  and  connects  Prince 
Regent  Inlet  with  Franklin  Channel. 

Belloy,  Pierre  Laurent  Buirette  de,  one 
of  the  first  French  dramatists  Mho  ventured  to 
introduce  on  the  stage  native,  instead  of  classical, 


BELL  ROCK. 


147 


BENDA. 


heroes.  He  was  horn  at  St.  Flour,  in  Auvergne, 
in  1727,  and  died  at  Paris,  March  5,  1775. 

Bell  Kock,  or  Inchcape,  a  reef  of  old  red 
sandstone  rock  in  the  German 
Ocean,  nearly  opposite  the 
mouth  of  the  Tay.  The  reef 
is  2,000  feet  long  ;  and  for  100 
yards  around,  the  sea  is  only 
three  fathoms  deep.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  tradition,  the  Abbot  of 
A be rb rot  hock  (A  r  b  r  o  a  t  h) 
placed  a  bell  on  it,  “which 
rang  continually,  being  moved 
by  "the  sea.”  A  lighthouse, 

120  feet  high,  was  erected  in 
1807-10,  at  a  cost  of  $300,000. 

Belmont,  The  Battle  of, 
was  fought  Nov.  7,  1861, 
on  the  Mississippi  river  op¬ 
posite  Columbus,  Ivy.,  be¬ 
tween  the  Union  force  of  2,000 
men  under  General  Grant,  and 
a  much  larger  body  of  Con¬ 
federate  troops  commanded 
by  Generals  Polk  and  Pillow. 

Grant  was  unable  to  hold  the  Section  of  Bell  Rock 
little  town,  but  fought  his  way  Ll°  1  ouse' 
back  to  his  boats,  having  lost  84  killed,  288 
wounded  and  235  missing.  The  Confederate 
loss  was  much  larger. 

Bella  'no  (the  ancient  Belliunnn),  a  cathedral 
city  of  Venetia,  Northern  Italy.  It  is  the  capital 
of  a  province.  Pop.  (1881),  5,190. 

Beloit,  a  city  of  Wisconsin  on  Rock  river, 
seventy-five  miles  southwest  of  Milwaukee.  Pop. 
<1888),  5,309. 

Belon,  Pierre,  a  French  naturalist,  born  in 
1518  at  Soulletiere  in  Maine.  In  April,  1563,  he 
was  murdered  by  robbers  in  the  Bois  du  Boulogne. 

Belsham,  Thomas,  a  Unitarian  the  logian, 
was  born  at  Bedford,  England,  April  26,  1750, 
and  died  in  1829. 

Belsliaz'zar,  the  name  of  a  Babylonian  prince 
mentioned  in  the  book  of  Daniel  as  the  last 
Chaldean  King  of  Babylon,  slain  at  the  capture 
of  the  city  by  the  Medes  and  Persians.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  book  of  Daniel  he  had  a  vision  in 
which  an  invisible  hand  wrote  upon  the  wall, 
Mene,  M<  ne ,  I'ekel,  Upharsin  (lit.  numbered, 
numbered,  weighed,  and  divisions ). 

Belt,  the  name  given  to  two  straits,  the 
Great  and  the  Little  Belt,  which,  with  the 
Sound,  connect  the  Baltic  with  the  Cattegat. 
The  Great  Belt,  nearly  forty  miles  in  length, 
and  varying  in  breadth  from  about  ten  to  nearly 
twenty  mi’es,  divides  the  Danish  islands,  Zealand 
and  Laaland,  from  Fiinen  and  Langeland.  The 
Little  Belt  divides  the  Island  of  Fiinen  from 
Jutland.  It  is  equal  in  length  to  the  great  Belt, 
but  much  narrower.  Its  greatest  breadth  is 
about  ten  miles. 

Bel'tane,  Beltein,  or Bealtainn, the  name 
of  a  Celtic  heathen  festival. 

Belts  and  Belting.  Flexible  belts  for  the 
transmission  of  motion  in  machinery  are  made 
of  leather,  india-rubber,  cotton,  woven  hair, 
guttapeiclia  and  canvas,  and  other  materials. 
One  of  the  largest  leather  belts  yet  constructed 
was  made  for  a  paper-mill  at  Wilmington,  Del. 
It  is  186  feet  long,  5  feet  wide,  and  weighed 
2212  pounds.  A  belt  will  transmit  about  30  per 
cent,  more  power  with  a  given  tension  when 
the  grain  side  of  the  leather  is  in  contact 
with  the  pulley  than  when  the  flesh  side  is  turned 
inward.  Carefully  made  leather  belts  have  been 
known  to  last  in  daily  use  more  than  thirty 
years.  Leather  chain  belting  or  leather  link 
belting,  is  formed  of  short  pieces  or  links  of 
leather  joined  together  by  metal  rivets. 

India-rubber  belting  is  formed  of  several  plies 
of  cotton  duck  or  canvas,  each  overspread  with 
rubber  compositon,  and  then  subjected  to  a  vul¬ 
canizing  heat. 

Cotton  belting,  of  which  there  are  several  varie¬ 
ties,  is  now  a  good  deal  used  in  mills. 

Beluchistan  is  situated  between  latitude 
24  5  50'  and  30  20'  north,  and  longitude  60®  40' 
and  69°  18'  east;  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Afghanistan,  east  by  Sinde,  south  by  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  west  by  Persia;  has  an  area  of  about 
106,()(i0  square  miles,  and  a  population  estimated 
anywhere  from  400,000  to  four  times  that  number. 


It  is  a  rugged  and  barren  country,  with  few  rivers; 
a  sea  coast  of  600  miles  without  a  single  good 
harbor,  without  roads,  and  inhabited  by  a  preda¬ 
tory  horde  of  untamable  semi-savages,  governed 
nominally  by  a  Khan,  but  practically  in  a  state  of 
anarchy,  with  neither  literature  nor  laws,  and 
almost  unknown  to  the  civilized  world.  The 
people  consist  of  two  tribes,  the  Baluchees  and 
the  Brahoes,  who  differ  considerably  in  appear¬ 
ance  and  language,  and  who  are  subdivided  into 
an  infinite  number  of  minor  tribes.  Kilobit,  the 
nominal  capital,  is  near  the  frontiers  of  Afghan¬ 
istan,  and  contains  perhaps  10,000  inhabitants, 
Both  tribes  are  Mohammedans,  and  the  Baluchees 
are  supposed  to  be  of  Arabian  or  Syrian  descent; 
the  Brahoes  being  probably  descendants  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants  of  the  Punjaub.  Agriculture 
is  practiced  to  some  extent  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Klielat,  the  cereals,  dates,  cotton,  indigo,  and 
other  productions  similar  to  those  of  Bengal  and 
Northern  India,  attaining  great  perfection. 
Fruits  and  vegetables  of  all  kinds  thrive  in  the 
Province  of  Cutch,  but  most  of  the  hill  country 
is  sterile,  and  the  arid  plains  of  Khnran  are  unfit¬ 
ted  for  agriculture.  The  principal  wealth  of  the 
inhabitants  consists  in  their  flocks  of  sheep,  goats, 
and  other  animals,  and  in  herds  of  buffaloes 
and  black  cattle.  Camels,  asses,  horses,  and 
mules  are  plentiful. 

The  habits  of  the  natives  are  nomadic,  much 
resembling  those  of  the  Tartars  or  Bedouins, 
residence  in  a  town  or  a  settled  life  being  some¬ 
thing  unendurable.  They  live  generally  in  tents 
of  felt  or  canvas,  and  wear  a  woolen  cloth  on  their 
heads;  with  woolen  or  linen  outer  coats.  Polyg¬ 
amy  is  allowed,  but  is  not  much  practiced  except 
among  the  more  wealthy,  and  the  women  are 
allowed  more  freedom  than  is  generally  customary 
in  Asiatic  countries.  They  are  bigoted  adherents 
of  the  Sunnite  sect  of  the  Mohammedans,  and  are 
consequently  in  deadly  hostility  with  the  Persians, 
who  are  Shiites.  Physically  they  are  slight,  but 
active  and  wiry. 

The  British  troops  under  General  Willshire 
stormed  Klielat  in  1839,  and  the  then  ruler, 
Melirab  Khan,  fell  in  the  melee  which  ensued. 
The  troops  occupied  the  country  for  some  years, 
but  between  1843  and  1854  it  was  left  to  its 
native  rulers.  In  the  last-named  year  an  offen¬ 
sive  and  defensive  treaty  was  made  between 
Major  Outram  of  the  British  army  and  Meer 
Nusseer  Khan.  In  1877  England  occupied,  and 
ten  years  later  annexed,  Quetta.  British  Bei.u- 
chistan  is  a  chief-commissionership  of  British 
India,  so  constituted  in  1887. 

Belu'ga,  or  White  Wiiale  (Beluga  or  Bel- 
phinapterus  levcas),  one  of  the  dolphin  family, 
closely  related  to  the  narwhal.  The  body  is  from 
12  to  16  feet  in  length,  of  graceful  proportions, 
and  remarkable  for  its  cream-white  color,  anil 
for  the  absence  of  a  dorsal  fin,  which  is  represented 
only  by  a  slight  ridge.  The  white  whales  feed 
on  fishes. 

Bel'vedere  (It.  lit.  fine  view),  a  raised  turret 
or  lantern  on  the  top  of  a  house,  or  high  sum¬ 
mer-house  in  a  garden  or  park,  from  which  to 
look  out  on  the  surrounding  country. 

Belvedere  ( Kochia  salsola  scoparia),  an  annual 
belonging  to  the  Chenopodiacea\  a  native  of 
the  middle  and  south  of  Europe. 

Belzo'ni,  Giovanni  Battista,  a  famous  Ital¬ 
ian  traveler,  was  born,  at  Padua  in  1778.  He 
removed  the  colossal  bust  of  the  so-called 
“Young  Memnon,”  now  in  the  British  Museum, 
from  the  neighborhood  of  Thebes  to  Alexandria, 
and  was  the  first  who  opened  the  Temple  of  Abu- 
Simbel.  His  greatest  undertaking  was  his  open¬ 
ing  of  the  second  pyramid  of  Gizeh. 

Beni,  Joseph  a  Polish  leader  of  the  Hungarian 
insurgents,  was  born  in  1795  at  Tarnov,  in 
Galicia,  in  1848.  He  defeated  the  Austrians  in 
several  engagements,  announcing  his  victory  over 
Ban  Jellachich  in  the  laconic  despatch,  Bern  Ban 
Bum  (Bern  has  beaten  the  Ban).  He  was  finally 
overcome  and  made  his  escape  into  Turkey,  where 
he  embraced  Islamism,  and,  as  Amurat  Pasha, 
obtained  a  command  in  the  Turkish  army.  He 
died  of  fever,  at  Aleppo,  Dec.  10,  1850. 

Bembato  'ka,  Bay  ok,  a  bay  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  Madagascar.  The  River  Betsiboka,  with 
the  Ikiopa,  drain  into  it. 

Beinbex  ( i.e whirl),  a  genus  of  solitary  sand- 


wasps  (Sphcgidie),  represented  by  numerous 
species  in  most  parts  of  the  world. 

Bembo,  Pietro,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
Italian  scholars  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  born 
in  Venice,  May  20, 1470.  He  became  secretary  to 
Pope  Leo  X.,  and  in  1529  accepted  the  office  of 
historiographer  to  the  Republic  of  Venice,  and 
was  appointed  keeper  of  St.  Mark’s  Library.  In 
1539  he  was  made  a  cardinal  by  Pope  Paul  III. 
He  died  Jan.  18,  1547. 

Ben  (Heb.  and  Arab,  son),  often  used  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  father’s  name  to  form  Jewish  and 
Arabic  personal  names. 

Ben,  or  Beinn,  the  Gaelic  and  Irish  form 
(Welsh  Pen)  of  a  Celtic  word  signifying  “  moun¬ 
tain  ”  or  “mountain  head.”  It  occurs,  usually,  as 
a  prefix,  as  Ben  Nevis,  Ben  Macdhui,  and  appears 
in  many  continental  names,  as  the  Perm ine  Alps, 
the  Apennines,  and  /Yndus. 

Beil,  Oil  of,  or,  a  fluid  fixed  oil,  obtained  from 
the  seeds  of  a  tree  found  in  India  and  Arabia,  and 
known  as  the  Horse-radish  tree  (Moringa  ptery- 
gosperma).  The  seeds  are  called  Ben  Nuts,  and 
are  roundish,  with  three  membranous  wings. 

B  nares  (Banaras),  t  lie  most  sacred  city  of  the 
Hindus,  and  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  North 
India,  situated  outlie  left  or  northern  bank  of  the 
Ganges,  420  miles  from  Calcutta.  It  is  the  largest 
city  in  the  Northwest  Provinces  (excluding  Oudli). 
It  skirts  the  Ganges  for  three  miles.  Benares 
draws  immense  revenues  from  the  thousands  of 
pilgrims  who  visit  it  from  all  parts  of  India. 
Pop.  (1887),  200,000,  of  whom  160,000  are  Hindus. 
— A  city  of  great  antiquity,  Benares  (Sansk. 
Varanasi )  was  for  800  years  the  headquarters  of 
Buddhism.  The  district  has  an  area  of  998  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  892,684,  or  almost  900  to  the 
square  mile. 

Benaveu'le,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  Province 
of  Zamora.  Pop.,  4,107. 

Benbow,  John,  English  admiral,  was  born  in 
1653,  and  died  of  a  wound  received  in  a  fight 
with  the  French  at  Port  Royal,  on  Nov.  4, 1702. 

Bench,  the  high  seat  of  the  court-room  or 
chamber  where  judges  sit  to  administer  the  laws, 
or  the  platform  on  which  the  chairs  for  the  judges 
are  placed.  Applied  in  America  to  the  judges 
themselves  as  a  class. 

Bench-warrant  is  a  warrant  issued  by  the  court 
before  which  an  indictment  has  been  found  to 
arrest  the  accused,  that  he  may  appeal  and  find  bail 
for  bis  appearance  at  the  trial.  It  is  used  exten 
sively  in  the  United  States  to  bring  into  court  per¬ 
sons  who  have  neglected  to  obey  an  order  of  court, 
such  as  delinquent  jurymen. 

Bencoo 'leu,  capital  of  a  Dutch  residency  on 
the  southwestern  coast  of  Sumatra.  Bencoolen 
was  founded  by  the  English  (1686),  but  was  ceded 
to  the  Dutch  by  the  London  treaty  of  1825.  Pop. 
of  town,  12,000;  of  residency,  with  an  area  of 
9,682  square  miles  (1882),  146,007. 

Bend,  in  Heraldry,  one  of  the  figures  known  as 
Ordinaries,  consists  of  the  space  contained  between 


1,  Bend;  2,  bendlet;  3,  bend-sinister;  4,  palewise;  5,  parted 
per  bend. 

two  parallel  lines  crossing  the  shield  diagonally 
from  dexter  chief  to  sinister  base. 

The  Bend-sinisler  is  an  occasionally 
occurring  variety  of  the  bend, 
drawn  from  the  sinister  chief  lo 
dexter  base.  The  Scarpe  is  its 
diminutive;  and  that  well-known 
mark  of  illegitimacy,  the  Baton- 
sinister  is  also  so  accounted. 

Benda,  Georg,  born  in  Bo-  Bendy. 

I  hernia,  in  1721,  and  distinguished  as  a  pianist,, 


BENDER. 


148 


BENIN. 


violinist,  and  composer,  died  at  Kdstritz,  Bohemia, 
in  1795. 

Bender,  a  strongly  fortified  town,  with  a 
citadel,  in  the  Russian  Province  of  Bessarabia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Dniester;  eiglity-two  miles 
northwest  of  Odessa.  Pop.  (1880),  32,535. 

Ben'digo,  a  gold  mining  county  of  the  Loddon 
district,  Victoria,  Australia.  Pop.  of  Bendigo 
county  (1881),  56,653. 

Benedek,  Ludwig  von,  an  Austrian  general, 
born  in  1804  at  Oedenburg,  in  Hungary.  lie  was 
Governor  of  Hungary  in  1860,  and  soon  after 
Commander-in-Chief  in  Venice.  In  1866  lie  com¬ 
manded  the  Northern  Austrian  Army  in  the  war 
with  Prussia;  but  shortly  after  the  defeat  of 
Sadowa,  he  was  superseded,  and  brought  to  a 
court-martial.  He  died  April  27,  1881. 

Benedetti,  Vincent,  Count,  a  French  diplo¬ 
matist,  born  in  1817,  in  Corsica.  He  was  the 
writer  of  the  draft  of  a  secret  treaty  between 
France  and  Prussia,  published  in  1810. 

Bsnedi'cite,  or  The  Song  of  the  Three  Chil¬ 
dren,  a  canticle  from  the  Apocrypha,  forming 
part  of  the  prayer  of  Abednego  in  the  fiery  fur¬ 
nace.  It  was  sung  in  the  Christian  Church asearly 
as  the  time  of  St.  Chrysostom,  and  is  used  in  the 
Anglican  church  in  the  morning  service  when 
the  Te  Deum  is  not  sung. 

Benedict  is  the  name  of  fourteen  Popes. 
Benedict  VIII.,  son  of  Count  Gregory  of  Tus- 
coli,  was  elected  in  1012,  but  was  driven  from 
Rome  by  the  Anti-Pope  Gregory.  In  1014  he  was 
restored  by  the  Emperor  Henry  II.,  and  after¬ 
ward  defeated  the  Saracens,  and  took  from  them 
the  Island  of  Sardinia.  He  died  in  1024. — 
Benedict  IX.,  a  nephew  of  the  preceding,  ob¬ 
tained  the  Papal  throne  by  simony  in  1033,  at  the 
age  of  eighteen;  but  in  1038 the  Romans  banished 
him  on  account  of  his  licentiousness.  By  aid  of 
bribery  he  was  several  times  reinstalled.  He  died 
in  1056. — Benedict  XIII.,  is  a  title  assumed  by 
two  Popes,  Peter  de  Luna,  a  Spaniard,  chosen  bv 
the  French  Cardinals  in  1394,  and  recognized 
only  by  Spain  and  Scotland  up  to  his  death  in 
1424;  and  Vincenzo  Mareo  Ortdni  (1724-30). 
Benedict  was  instrumental  in  bringing  about  the 
Seville  treaty  of  1729. — Benedict  XIV.  (Pros- 
pero  Lambertini),  was  born  at  Bologna  in  1675. 
Succeeding  Clement  XII.,  in  1740,  he  was  the 
best  of  the  Popes  of  his  name.  He  died  in  1758. 

Benedict,  St.,  the  founder  of  western  mona- 
cliism,  was  born  of  a  wealthy  family  at  Nursia, 
near  Spoleto,  in  480  a.d.  When  a  mere  lad  he 
left  Rome  and  retired  to  a  cavern  in  the  wilder¬ 
ness.  Benedict  founded  twelve  monasteries.  His 
llegula  Monachorum  eventually  became  the  com¬ 
mon  rule  of  all  western  monachism.  St.  Benedict 
died  in  543. 

Benedict,  Sir  Julius,  a  musician  and  com¬ 
poser,  German  by  birth,  but  after  1836  resident 
in  England,  was*  born  Nov.  27,  1804,  at  Stutt¬ 
gart,  where  his  father  was  a  Jewish  banker.  In 
1850  he  conducted  at  Jenny  Lind’s  concerts  in  the 
United  States.  He  died  in  Loudon,  June  5,  1885. 

Benedict  Biscop,  a  great  churchman  of 
Anglo-Saxon  times,  was  born  about  628.  To  his 
careful  fostering  of  learning  we  owe  his  great 
pupil,  Bede.  He  died  Jan.  12,  690. 

Benedictines,  the  general  name  of  all  the 
monks  and  nuns  following  the  rule  of  St.  Bene¬ 
dict  (480-543).  St.  Gregory  the  Great  was  the 
first  (590-604)  of  the  fifty  Benedictines  who  have 
occupied  the  Papal  throne,  a  list  which  in¬ 
cludes  St.  Leo  IV.,  St.  Gregory  VII.,  and  St. 
Pius  VI L,  and  ends  with  Gregory  XVI.,  the 
predecessor  of  Pius  IX.  As  early  as  1354  the 
order  had  numbered  24  popes,  200  cardinals, 
7,000  archbishops,  15,000  bishops,  1,560  canonized 
saints,  and  5,000  holy  persons  worthy  of  canon¬ 
ization,  a  number  since  increased  to  40,000.  It 
had  possessed  37,000  monasteries,  20  emperors, 
10  empresses,  47  kings,  50  queens,  and  an  im¬ 
mense  number  of  royal  and  noble  persons.  In 
the  fifteenth  century  there  were  15,107  Benedict¬ 
ine  monasteries.  The  Reformation  left  not  more 
than  5,000;  and  at  the  present  day  the  list  would 
not  exceed  800.  St.  Benedict’s  twin-sister,  Scho- 
lastica,  is  supposed  to  have  lived  under  his  rule, 
and  Benedictine  nuns  have  always  been  as  num¬ 
erous  as  Benedictine  monks.  At  present  the  num¬ 
ber  of  their  convents  probably  much  exceeds 
that  of  the  monasteries. 


Benediction  (from  the  Lat.  benedicere,  lit. 
to  speak  well  of,  to  commend)  is  a  solemn  invo¬ 
cation  of  the  Divine  blessing  upon  men  or  things. 
In  Protestant  churches  a  form  of  benediction  is 
used  at  the  close  of  religious  services.  In  the 
Roman  Church  a  priestly  benediction  has  been 
defined  as  a  formula  of  imperative  prayer,  which, 
in  addition  to  the  desire  which  it  expresses, 
transmits  a  certain  grace  or  virtue  to  the  object 
over  which  it  is  pronounced. — Benediction  is 
also  the  name  given  in  some  countries  (in  French, 
Le  Salul)  to  a  brief  service  in  the  Roman  Church. 

Bcnedic  'tus,  the  canticle  of  Zacharias  (Lukei, 
68-79),  used  in  the  Roman  services  of  matin-lauds, 
and  thence  adopted  into  the  Anglican  morning 
service. 

Benedix,  Julius  Roderic,  a  German  actor, 
manager,  and  play-writer,  was  born  at  Leipzig  in 
1811,  and  died  there  Sept.  26,  1873. 

Benefice,  or  Beneficium,  was  first  applied  in 
the  Lombard  laws  and  the  constitutions  of  Char¬ 
lemagne  to  the  life-interests  in  land,  which  were 
the  reward  of  military  service,  and  afterward 
developed  into  hereditary  feudal  grants;  but  is 
now  used  in  England  to  denote  any  kind  of 
church  promotion  or  dignity,  but  specially  a 
“  benefice  with  cure  of  souls,”  such  as  rectories, 
vicarages,  and  other  parochial  cures,  as  distin¬ 
guished  from  bishoprics,  deaneries,  cathedral 
preferments,  and  other  ecclesiastical  dignities  or 
offices. 

Beneficiary  is  a  legal  term  used  to  denote  a 
person  who  is  in  the  enjoyment,  or  is  ultimately 
entitled  to  the  enjoyment,  of  any  interest  or  estate 
held  in  trust  by  others.  The  technical  term  in 
law  is  Cestui  que  trust. 

Benefit  of  Clergy.  This  expression  relates  to 
a  former  state  of  the  law  of  England.  If  a  priest 
or  “clerk”  was  imprisoned  by  the  secular  arm  on 
a  criminal  charge  or  capital  felony,  he  was,  on 
the  bishop’s  demand,  to  be  instantly  delivered 
up  without  any  further  inquisition.  The  test  of 
admission  to  this  privilege  was  the  clerical  dress 
and  tonsure.  The  statute  Pro  CTe?'o(1350),  how¬ 
ever,  extended  it  to  all  manner  of  clerks,  and  by 
later  practice  it  was  extended  to  all  who  could 
read ,  whether  of  the  clergy  or  laity.  But  lay¬ 
men  could  claim  it  only  once,  and  upon  so  doing 
were  burned  on  the  hand  and  discharged.  Ben¬ 
efit  of  clergy  was  abolished  in  England  in 
1827. 

Beneven'to  (ancient  Beneventum),  a  city  of 
Southern  Italy,  capital  of  a  Campanian  province 
of  the  same  name,  sixty-one  miles  northeast  of 
Naples.  It  is  an  archiepiscopal  see,  and  has  a 
pop.  of  (1881)  17,406.  The  province  of  Bene- 
vento  has  an  area  of  834  square  miles.  Pop. (1881), 
238,425. 

Ben  fey,  Theodor,  was  born  of  Jewish  parents 
near  Gottingen  in  Jan.,  1809.  In  1862  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  Chair  of  Sanskrit  and  Comparative 
Philology  in  the  L'niversity  of  Gottingen,  which 
he  held  till  his  death,  in  June,  1881. 

Bengal '  (old  Bangald;  the  Banc/a  of  Sanskrit 
topography),  a  name  given  to  part  of  British 
India,  but  variously  signifying — (1)  the  presi¬ 
dency  which,  in  pre-mutiny  times,  comprised  the 
greater  portion  of  Northern  India;  (2)  a  mod¬ 
ern  military  division  corresponding  in  extent  to 
the  old  presidency;  and  (3),  the  modern 
province,  sometimes  called  Lower  Bengal,  com¬ 
prising  Bengal  Proper,  Behar,  Orissa,  and 
Chliota  Nagpur.  The  modern  province,  ruled 
by  a  Lieutenant-Governor,  is  the  largest  and  most 
populous  of  the  twelve  divisions  of  British 
India.  The  census  of  1881  gives  a  pop.  of 
69,536,861,  the  density  over  the  whole  inhabited 
area  being  371  to  the  square  mile.  Bengal  com¬ 
prises  the  low-lying  deltas  of  the  Gauges  and 
Brahmaputra,  and  the  alluvial  plains  stretching 
along  their  lower  courses.  In  the  north  it  is 
hemmed  in  by  the  Himalayan  ramparts;  in  the 
southwest  angle  the  hilly  region  of  Chliota  Nag¬ 
pur  forms  a  continuation  of  the  Central  Indian 
plateau;  while  on  the  southeast  a  coast-line  of 
550  miles  extends  round  the  top  of  the  Bay  of 
Bengal .  to  the  point  at  which  Chittagong  is  ter¬ 
minated  by  the  Lower  Burmah  frontier.  Lying 
between  19°  18'  and  28°  15'  N.  latitude,  and  82° 
and  97'  E.  longitude,  it  is  bounded  landwards  by 
the  native  States  of  Nepaul,  Sikkim,  and  Bhutan 
on  the  north;  by  Assam  and  Upper  Burniah  on 


the  east;  by  the  Northwest  Provinces  and  the 
Central  Indian  Agency  on  the  west;  and  on  the 
south  by  Madras.  Calcutta,  the  capital,  is  one  of 
the  largest  cities  in  the  world,  having  a  pop. 
of  800,000,  the  next  largest  city  being  Patna, 
with  180, OoO  inhabitants.  Bengal  is  exposed  to 
the  heavy  sweep  of  the  monsoon,  while  cyclonic 
waves  and  river  inundations  are  frequent,  carry¬ 
ing  at  times  terrible  havoc  far  into  the  low  lying 
country.  At  the  same  time  earthquakes  are  not 
infrequent.  The  people  are  mostly  employed  in 
agriculture.  Opium  is  a  Government  monopoly, 
and  cinchona  is  chiefly  grown  at  the  Government 
plantation  at  Darjiling.  The  foreign  export  trade, 
chiefly  to  Great  Britain,  amounts  in  value  to 
£45,000,000  and  the  import  trade  to  £27,000,- 
000.  In  Burdwan,  coal,  iron,  and  copper  are 
worked  commercially.  The  jute  and  cotton 
mills  around  Calcutta  employ  over  40,000  hands. 
In  1888  Bengal  had  1,950  miles  of  railway,  and 
5,110  miles  of  telegraph  line.  The  total  number 
of  Europeans  (including  Eurasians)  in  1881  was 
39,473,  of  whom  25,566  were  in  Calcutta  and  its 
neighborhood.  A  large  portion  of  the  people  are 
descended  from  the  Aryan  stock.  Although 
essentially  a  Hindu  Province,  Bengal  has  22.000,- 
000  Moslem  inhabitants,  many  belonging  to  the 
upper  classes,  while  2,500,000  are  semi-savage 
tribesmen,  and  128,000  are  returned  as  Christian 
converts.  Bengalis  speaking  Bengali  number 
36,500,000;  Hindustani  speakers,  25,000,000, 

Bengal,  Bay  of,  a  portion  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
of  the  figure  of  a  triangle.  Its  southern  side, 
drawn  from  Coromandel  to  Malacca,  so  as  merely 
to  leave  on  the  right  both  Ceylon  and  Sumatra, 
may  be  stated  at  1,200  miles.  The  bay  receives 
many  large  rivers — the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmapu¬ 
tra  on  the  north,  the  Irawadion  the  east,  and  on  the 
west  the  Mahanadi,  the  Godavery,  the  Krishna, 
and  the  Cauvery.  The  islands  are  numer¬ 
ous,  and  include  the  Andaman,  Nicobar,  and 
Mergui  groups. 

Bengali  Language,  one  of  the  seven  great 
Aryan  vernaculars  of  India,  spoken  mainly  in  the 
basin  of  the  Lower  Ganges. 

Bengal  Light,  or  Blue  Light,  is  a  brilliant 
signal-light  used  at  sea  in  a  case  of  shipwreck,  and 
in  ordinary  pyrotecliny  for  illuminating  a  district 
of  country.  It  contains,  by  weight,  niter,  6  parts; 
sulphur,  2  parts;  black  sulphide  of  antimony,  1 
part. 

Benga'zi,  a  seaport  town  of  North  Africa, 
capital  of  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Barca,  situated 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Sidra,  Pop. 
about  7,000. 

Bengel,  Joiiann  Albrecht,  a  distinguished 
German  Protestant  theologian  and  commentator, 
born  in  Wurlemberg,  June  24,  1687.  He  died 
Nov.  2,  1752. 

Bengue'la  (also  Benguelta),  a  country  of  West¬ 
ern  Africa,  bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  between 
Angola  on  the  north  and  Mossamedes  on  the 
south,  and  the  eastern  limits  of  which  are  not 
very  definitely  fixed.  It  is  usually  represented 
as  lying  between  10°  and  15°  S.  latitude,  and 
12°  and  15°  E.  longitude.  Sao  Felipe  de  Ben- 
guela,  the  Portuguese  capital,  is  situated  on  a 
level  plain  near  the  sea.  It  was  once  a  great 
slave  station.  The  present  pop.  numbers  about 
2,000  natives  and  a  garrison  of  100  men. 

Beni',  a  river  of  South  America,  in  the  State 
of  Bolivia,  rises  in  the  La  Paz  Cordillera  of  the 
Andes,  at  a  height  of  almost  12,000  feet,  and 
falls  into  the  Madeira,  an  affluent  of  the  Ama 
zon. 

Benicar'lo,  a  town  of  Spain  in  the  Province 
of  Castellon,  eighty-four  miles  southwest  of 
Tarragona.  Pop.  nearly  8,000. 

Benicia,  capital  of  Solano  county,  Cal., 
and  formerly  capital  of  the  State.  Pop.  (1881), 
1,794. 

Beni-Hassan,  a  village  of  Upper  Egypt,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Nile,  remarkable  for  the 
catacombs  excavated  in  the  low  hills  that  rise  in 
this  part  of  the  valley. 

Beni-Israel  (sons  of  Israel),  a  remarkable 
settlement,  evidently  of  Jewish  origin,  existing 
in  the  west  of  India,  chiefly  in  Bombay  and  some 
coast  towns.  Their  number  is  about  5,000, 
mostly  artisans,  though  some  are  soldiers. 

Benin',  a  country  of  Western  Africa,  lying 
between  the  Lower  Niger  and  Dahomey.  It  is 


BENIN. 


149 


BERANGER. 


broken  up  into  several  States  of  small  importance. 
The  population  is  dense.  The  capital,  Benin,  is 
seventy-three  miles  inland  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Benin  river,  and  has  a  pop.  of  over  15,000. 

Beilin,  Bight  of,  that  portion  of  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  extending  from  Cape  Formosa  on  the 
east  to  Cape  St.  Paul  on  the  west,  a  distance  of 
about  390  miles,  with  a  coast-line  of  460  miles. 

Beni-Souef',  a  town  of  Central  Egypt,  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Nile,  about  seventy  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Cairo.  Pop.  (1882),  10,085.  At  the 
same  census,  the  pop.  of  the  province  was  219,- 
573  ;  area,  470  square  miles. 

Benitier,  the  vase  or  vessel  for  holy  water  in 
Roman  Catholic  churches,  known  in  America  as 
the  holy  water  font. 

Benjamin  (son  of  the  right  hand),  the 
youngest  and  most  beloved  son  of  Jacob.  His 
mother,  Rachel,  died  at  his  birth,  naming  the 
child  with  her  last  breath  Benoni  (son  of  my 
pain),  but  his  father  changed  this  ill-omened 
name  to  Benjamin.  He  was  the  eponymous 
founder  of  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 
Saul,  the  first  King  of  Israel,  was  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin,  which  remained  loyal  to  his  son,  Isli- 
bosheth.  After  the  death  of  Solomon,  Benja¬ 
min  along  with  Judah  formed  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  ;  and  on  the  return  from  the  captivity, 
these  two  constituted  the  principal  element  of  the 
new  Jewish  nation.  The  Apostle  Paul  was  a 
Benjamite. 

Benjamin  of  Tude'la,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  was 
born  in  Navarre,  Spain.  He  was  the  first  Euro¬ 
pean  traveler  who  gave  information  respecting 
the  distant  East.  He  died  in  1173,  the  last  year 
of  his  travels. 

Benjamin,  Judah  Philip,  Q.  C.,  born  in  1811 
at  St.  Croix,  West  Indies,  was  the  son  of  Anglo- 
Jewish  parents,  who  emigrated  to  the  United 
States,  where  he  practiced  as  a  lawyer  in  New 
Orleans.  He  sat  in  the  United  States  Senate 
from  1852  till  Louisiana’s  secession  in  1860,  and 
in  February,  1861,  became  Attorney-General  in 
the  Confederate  Cabinet.  He  was  for  a  few 
months  Secretary  of  War,  and  then  acted  as 
Secretary  of  State  until  Davis’ capture,  in  1865, 
when  he  escaped  to  England.  He  was  called  to 
the  English  bar  in  the  following  year.  He  died 
in  Paris,  May  6,  1884. 

Benjamin,  Park,  was  born  in  1809  and  died 
in  1864.  He  conducted  a  number  of  newspapers 
and  magazines,  and  contributed  both  prose  and 
verse  to  various  publications. 

Ben  Led'i,a  mountain  (2,875  feet)  of  Perth¬ 
shire,  Scotland,  four  and  one-half  miles  west-by¬ 
north  of  Callander. 

Ben  Lo'mond,  a  Scottish  mountain  in  the 
northwest  of  Sterlingshire,  on  the  east  side  of 
Loch  Lomond,  eighteen  and  one-half  miles  north 
of  Dumbarton.  It  is  3,192  feet  high. 

Ben  Macdhu'i,  a  mountain  (4,296  feet)  of 
Southwest  Aberdeenshire,  Scotland,  eighteen 
miles  west-northwest  of  Castletown-of-Braemar. 

Bennett,  James  Gordon,  founder  and  pro¬ 
prietor  of  the  New  York  Herald,  a  native  of 
Scotland,  was  born  Sept.  1,  1795.  Trained 
for  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood,  he  emigrated 
to  America  in  1819,  where  he  became  in  turn 
teacher,  proof-reader,  journalist  and  lecturer. 
The  first  number  of  the  New  York  Herald  ap¬ 
peared  May  6,  1835.  It  was  the  first  newspaper 
to  publish  the  stock  lists  and  a  daily  money 
article.  He  died  June  1,  1872.  His  son,  James 
Gordon  Bennett,  succeeded  as  proprietor  of  the 
Herald.  II.  M.  Stanley  was  sent  by  him  in  1870 
on  the  mission  which  resulted  in  the  finding  of 
Livingstone  ;  and  in  conjunction  with  the  Lon¬ 
don  Daily  Telegraph ,  he  supplied  the  funds  for 
the  same  explorer’s  extraordinary  journey  across 
Africa  by  way  of  the  Congo  (1874-78). 

Bennett,  John  Hughes,  was  an  eminent  physi¬ 
cian,  born  in  London,  Aug.  31,  1812.  In  1841  he 
first  recommended  cod-liver  oil  in  all  consump¬ 
tive  diseases.  He  died  Sept.  25,  1875. 

Bennett,  Sir  William  Sterndale,  Mus.D., 
D.C.L.,  English  pianist  and  composer,  was  born 
at  Sheffield,  April  13,  1816.  In  1838  he  was 
elected  member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Music, 
and  in  1856  became  Professor  of  Music  at  Cam¬ 
bridge.  In  1868  lie  became  Principal  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Music  ;  and  was  knighted  in  | 


1871.  He  died  Feb.  1,  1875,  and  was  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey. 

Ben  Nevis,  a  mountain  of  Inverness-shire, 
Scotland,  seven  miles  southeast  of  Fort  William. 
The  loftiest  summit  in  Great  Britain,  it  has  a 
height  of  4,406  feet. 

Bennigsen,  Levin  August  Theophil, 
Count,  a  general  in  the  Russian  service,  was 
born  at  Brunswick  in  1745.  He  gained  a  bril¬ 
liant  victory  over  Murat  at  Tarutino  on  Oct.  18, 
1812.  He  died  in  1826. 

Bennington,  a  town  in  Vermont  (pop. 
5,760),  capital  of  Bennington  county.  In  1777  a 
detachment  of  Burgoyne’s  army  was  defeated 
here  by  the  New  Hampshire  militia. 

Benson,  Edward  White,  Archbishop  of  Can¬ 
terbury  since  1882,  was  born  near  Birmingham, 
England,  in  1829. 

Bent  -grass  ( Agrostin ),  a  genus  containing 
about  sixty  species  of  grasses  widely  distributed 
through  temperate  and  cold  climates.  In  the 
United  States  and  Canada  some  of  the  bents  are 
important  as  pasture  and  forage  plants.  On  suit¬ 
able  soils  A.  vulgaris  and  alba  give  excellent  crops 
of  good  hay. 

Bentham,  George,  botanist,  nephew  of  the 
jurist,  was  born  in  I860.  His  Outlines  of  a  New 
System  of  Logic  (1827)  is  a  remarkable  book ;  herein 
for  the  first  time  is  clearly  set  forth  the  doctrine 
of  the  quantification  of  the  predicate,  in  which 
he  thus  anticipated  Sir  William  Hamilton.  From 
1863  to  1874  he  was  President  of  the  Linmean  So¬ 
ciety,  and  in  1878  received  a  Companionship  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George.  He  died  Sept.  10,  1884. 

Benthain,  Jeremy,  writer  on  jurisprudence 
and  ethics,  was  born  Feb.  15,  1784.  He  became 
the  greatest  critic  of  legislation  and  government 
in  his  day,  and  was  the  pioneer  of  utilitarian  phi¬ 
losophy.  He  died  at  the  age  of  eighty -four,  June 
6,  1832. 

Bentlia'inia,  a  sub-genus  of  Cornocece,  in 
which  the  many  small  drupes  grow  together. 
Benthamia  fragifera,  a  native  of  Nepaul,  is  a 
small  tree,  with  lanceolate  leaves,  fragrant  flowers, 
and  a  reddish  fruit,  not  unlike  a  mulberry,  but 
larger  ;  not  unpleasant  to  the  taste. 

Bentinck,  William,  first  Earl  of  Portland, 
born  in  Holland  in  1649,  was  the  favorite  and 
friend  of  William  III.  He  died  in  1709. — Wil¬ 
liam  Cavendish  Bentinck,  third  Duke  of  Port¬ 
land,  born  in  1738,  was  twice  Prime  Minister.  He 
died  Nov.  30,  1809. — Lord  William  Cavendish 
Bentinck,  Indian  statesman,  second  son  of  the 
third  Duke  of  Portland,  was  born  in  1774.  In 
1 833  he  became  the  first  Governor-General  of  India. 
He  died  at  Paris,  June  17,  1839. 

Lord  George  Bentinck,  sportsman  and  leader 
of  the  Protectionists,  the  third  son  of  the  fourth 
Duke  of  Portland,  was  born  Feb.  27,  1802.  In 
1826  he  was  elected  to  Parliament.  He  died  in 
1848. 

Bentley,  Richard,  scholar,  was  born  Jan.  27, 
1662.  In  1700  he  was  appointed  Master  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  lie  died  July  14,  1742. 

Benton,  Thomas  Hart,  was  born  in  North 
Carolina,  in  1782;  settled  in  Tennessee,  where  he 
studied  law,  and  was  elected  to  the  Legislature. 
In  1812  he  raised  a  regiment  of  volunteers,  and 
also  served  on  General  Jackson’s  staff.  After  the 
war  he  started  a  newspaper  in  St.  Louis.  On  the 
admission  of  Missouri  as  a  State,  he  was  chosen 
United  States  Senator  in  1820.  lie  died  in  W ash- 
ington,  April  10,  1858.  A  determined  opponent 
of  Calhoun’s  nullification  scheme,  he  aferwards 
supported  Jackson  in  his  war  on  the  United 
States  Bank,  and  earned  the  sobriquet  of  “  Old 
Bullion”  by  his  opposition  to  the  paper  currency. 

Be'ntie  (spelled  also  Binue,  and,  by  Dr.  Barth, 
Benuwe),  an  important  river  of  Central  Africa, 
forming  the  great  eastern  affluent  of  the  Niger. 

Benyowsky,  Maurice  Augustus,  Count  de, 
a  remarkable  Hungarian  adventurer,  born  in  1741. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Russians  in  1769, 
and  banished  to  Kamtchatka.  He  escaped  after 
a  fight  in  which  the  Governor  was  killed.  With 
ninety-six  companions  he  set  sail  in  a  ship  and 
reached  France  in  1772.  Invited  by  the  French 
Government  to  found  a  colony  at  Madagascar,  he 
arrived  on  the  island  in  February,  1774,  and  was 
made  King  in  1776  by  the  chiefs.  Involving  him¬ 
self  in  contention  with  the  government  of  Mauri¬ 
tius,  he  was  killed  in  battle,  May  23,  1786. 


Benzene,  a  compound  of  carbon  and  hydrogen, 
CoHn,  discovered  by  Faraday  in  1825,  in  a  tarry 
liquid  resulting  from  the  distillation  of  oil.  Ben¬ 
zine  is  an  entirely  different  product,  while  Benzoyl 
is  the  commercial  name  applied  to  a  mixture  of 
substances,  including  benzene  and  its  homologues. 
Benzol  is  synonymous  with  benzene,  while  benzo¬ 
line  is  a  name  applied  to  benzine  and  impure  ben¬ 
zene  indiscriminately.  Benzene  is  found  amongst 
the  products  of  the  destructive  distillation  of  a 
great  many  organic  bodies.  The  most  abundant 
source  of  benzene  is  coal-tar.  It  readily  dissolves 
in  alcohol,  ether,  turpentine,  and  wood-spirit, 
but  is  insoluble  in  water.  It  is  valuable  from  the 
powerit  possesses  of  dissolving  caoutchouc,  gutta¬ 
percha,  wax,  camphor,  and  fatty  substances.  Im¬ 
pure  benzene  is  used  in  removing  grease-stains 
from  woolen  or  silken  articles  of  clothing.  When 
heated,  benzene  also  dissolves  sulphur, phosphorus, 
and  iodine.  Chemically  benzene  is  a  compound 
of  surpassing  interest.  It  consists  of  twelve  parts 
of  carbon  by  weight,  with  one  part  of  hydrogen, 
and  might  therefore  be  represented  by  the  formula 
CH  ;  but  it  has  been  found  that  the  molecule 
weighs  six  times  as  much  as  this,  and  requires  the 
formula  C0H0.  The  number  of  compounds  de¬ 
rivable  from  benzene  is  practically  unlimited. 
The  so-called  coal-tar  colors  are  all  derivatives. 

Benzoic  Acid,  or  the  Flowers  of  Benzoin,  has 
been  known  since  the  beginning  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century,  and  occurs  naturally  in  many 
balsamiferous  plants,  and  especially  in  benzoin 
gum,  from  which  it  may  be  readily  obtained  by 
several  processes.  Benzoic  acid  is  always  in  the 
form  of  snow-white,  glistening,  feathery  crystals, 
having  a  warm,  acrid,  and  acidulous  taste.  It  is 
readily  dissolved  by  alcohol  and  ether,  but  spar¬ 
ingly  soluble  in  water,  which,  however,  dissolves 
it  readily  on  the  addition  of  borax  or  phosphate 
of  soda.  Benzoic  acid  has  been  administered  in 
chronic  bronchial  affections,  its  value  being  due 
to  its  locally  stimulating  properties.  It  has  also 
been  used  largely  in  genito-urinary  diseases.  It 
forms  a  numerous  class  of  compounds  with  the 
oxides  of  the  metals,  lime,  etc.,  called  benzoates. 
The  chemical  formula  for  crystallized  benzoic  acid 
is  CelLCOOH.  Oil  of  bitter  almonds  (hydride 
of  benzoyl)  is  the  aldehyde  of  benzoic  acid,  and 
the  corresponding  alcohol,  benzoic  or  benzylic 
alcohol,  is  also  known. 

Benzoin,  Benjamin,  or  Benzoic  Gum,  a  fra¬ 
grant  resinous  substance,  formed  by  the  drying  of 
the  milky  juice  of  the  Benzoin  or  Benjamin  Tree, 
a  native  of  Siam,  and  of  Sumatra  and  other  islands 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Benzoin  comes  in 
reddish-yellow  transparent  pieces.  It  is  obtained 
by  making  longitudinal  or  oblique  incisions  in  the 
stem  of  the  tree;  the  liquid  which  exudes  soon 
hardens  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and  air.  Benzoin 
contains  about  14  to  18  per  cent,  of  Benzoic  Acid, 
although  in  some  varieties  this  is  either  entirely 
wanting  or  replaced  by  11  per  cent,  of  cinnamic 
acid.  Benzoin  is  used  in  perfumery,  in  pastilles, 
and  for  incense.  The  milky  juice  of  Terminalia 
benzoin,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  of  Combre- 
taceiE,  resembles  benzoin,  and  is  used  as  incense 
in  the  churches  of  the  Mauritius. 

Benzoyl,  the  radical  of  the  benzoic  series,  rep¬ 
resented  by  the  formula  C7II50,  is  a  hypotheti¬ 
cal  substance  supposed  to  exist  in  benzoic  acid 
and  many  other  bodies.  Hydride  of  Benzoyl 
is  the  volatile  or  essential  oil  belonging  to  the 
benzoic  series.  It  is  represented  by  tiie  formula, 
C7II5OII. 

Beowulf,  the  name  of  an  Anglo-Saxon  poem 
of  epic  character,  which  relates  the  heroic  deeds 
of  Beowulf,  Prince  of  the  Geatas,  especially  his 
struggle  with  the  Grendel.a  grisly  monster  of  the 
fens  and  moors,  as  well  as  its  mother;  and  a  long 
time  after  with  a  dragon,  which  victory  cost  him 
his  life. 

Bequealli  (A.  S.  biewethan),  a  word  meaning 
originally  to  declare,  and  in  the  technical  language 
of  English  law,  to  leave  personal  property  by  will 
to  another. 

Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de,  the  greatest  song¬ 
writer  of  France,  was  born  Aug.  19, 1780,  in  Paris. 
In  1804  poverty  compelled  him  to  ask  aid  from 
Lucien  Bonaparte.  On  the  publication  of  the  first 
collection  of  his  songs  in  1815,  he  was  recognized 
as  the  lyrical  champion  of  the  opposition  to  the 
Bourbons.  His  popularity  with  the  working- 


BERAR. 


150 


BERKSHIRE. 


classes  was  immense.  Ilis  politics,  a  curious  com¬ 
pound  of  republicanism  and  devotion  to  the  Na¬ 
poleonic  legend,  exactly  hit  the  taste  of  the  mul¬ 
titude.  Fora  time  the  Government  did  not  inter¬ 
fere,  but  two  volumes  which  lie  published  in  1821 
led  to  a  trial,  and  he  was  fined  500  francs  arid 
sentenced  to  three  months’  imprisonment  in  St. 
Pelagie.  Another  volume,  issued  in  1825,  was 
the  cause  of  a  second  prosecution.  B Granger  was 
on  this  occasion  fined  10  000  francs,  and  con¬ 
demned  to  nine  months’  imprisonment  in  La 
Force.  In  1848  he  was  elected,  by  more  than 
200,000  votes,  to  represent  the  department  of  the 
Seine  in  the  Constituent  Assembly.  He  rejected 
sundry  offers  of  advancement  from  Napoleon  III., 
and  lived  in  retirement  during  his  last  years.  Ik- 
died  at  Paris  on  July  17,  1857. 

Berar',  or  Hydekabad  Assigned  Districts,  a 
province  of  Central  India,  forming  a  commis- 
sionership  under  the  Resident  of  Hyderabad  (Haid- 
arabad).  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by 
the  Central  Provinces,  on  the  west  by  Bombay, 
and  on  the  south  by  the  Nizam’s  dominions.  Its 
length  from  cast  to  west  is  about  150  miles,  and 
its  average  breadth  144  miles;  area,  17,711  square 
miles;  pop.  (1881),  2,072,073. 

Berat',  a  town  of  Albania,  Turkey,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Janina,  thirty  miles  northeast  of  Avlona. 
Pop.,  about  12,000. 

Berber,  a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile, 
below  the  confluence  of  the  Atbara.  "  It  is  a  sta¬ 
tion  on  the  route  from  Khartoum  to  Cairo,  and  a 
point  to  which  caravans  come  from  Suakinontlie 
Red  Sea.  Pop.,  8,000. 

Ber  'berah,  a  seaport  of  Somali,  Eastern  Africa, 
on  a  bay  of  the  Gulf  of  Aden.  In  1884  the  British 
Government  took  possession  of  it,  and  a  small 
Indian  force  is  now  stationed  here. 

Berberid'eae,  or  Berberidace-e,  a  natural 
order  of  thalamifloral  dicotyledons,  of  which  the 
different  species  of  Barberry  afford  the  best  known 
examples.  Many  of  the  plants  of  this  order  are 
spiny  shrubs;  others  are  herbaceous  perennials. 

Berbers,  the  general  name  usually  given  to 
the  tribes  inhabiting  the  mountainous  regions  of 
Barbary  and  the  northern  portions  of  the  Great 
Desert.  The  number  of  the  Berbers  is  estimated 
at  between  3,000,000  and  4,000,000.  They  are  of 
middle  stature,  sparely  but  strongly  built,  and  the 
complexion  varies  from  reddish  to  yellowish 
brown.  They  live  in  clay  huts  and  tents,  but  in 
their  larger  villages  they  have  stone  houses.  They 
have  herds  of  sheep  and  cattle,  and  practice  agri¬ 
culture.  They  are  adherents  of  Islam. 

Berbice',  the  eastern  division  of  British  Guiana, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Corentyn  and  Dutch 
Guiana.  Area  about  21,000  square  miles.  Once 
a  separate  colony,  Berbice  was  united  with  Esse- 
quibo  and  Demerara  under  one  government  in 
1831.  New  Amsterdam  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Berbice  river  (pop.,  9,000),  is  the  chief  town  and 
port  of  the  district. 

Berchem,  or  Berghem,  Nicholas,  an  eminent 
Dutch  painter,  was  born  at  Haarlem  in  1620,  and 
died  in  1683. 

Berch'ta  (modern  form  Bertha,  the  old  High 
German  Peralita,  the  bright),  a  goddess  of  South 
German  mythology. 

Berenice,  the  name  of  several  celebrated 
women  of  the  house  of  Ptolemy,  including  (1;  the 
wife  of  Ptolemy  I.,  celebrated  by  Theocritus;  the 
daughter  of  Ptolemy  II.;  and  the  wife  of  Ptolemy 
III.— (2)  Berenice,  also  called  Cleopatra,  daugh¬ 
ter  of  Ptolemy  IX.  (Lathyrus),  was,  on  her  suc¬ 
cession  to  the  throne,  married  to  Alexander  II., 
by  whom  she  was  murdered  nineteen  days  after 
marriage. — (3)  Berenice,  daughter  of  Ptolemy 
XI.  (Auletes),  eldest  sister  of  the  renowned  Cleo¬ 
patra,  was  raised  to  the  throne  after  her  father’s 
deposition,  58  n.c.,  but  was  put  to  death  when 
her  father  was  restored,  55  n.c.— There  were, 
besides,  two  Jewish  Berenices — the  one,  daughter 
of  Salome,  sister  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  mother 
of  Agrippa  I.;  the  other,  was  daughter  of  this  lat¬ 
ter  monarch. 

Beresford,  William  Carr  Beresford,  Vis¬ 
count,  general,  was  born  in  1768,  a  natural  son 
of  the  first  Marquis  of  Waterford.  For  his  ser¬ 
vices  at  Busaco  (1810)  he  was  made  a  Knight  of 
the  Bath;  and  for  his  victory  over  Soult  at  Albuera 
(1811)  he  received  the  thanks  of  Parliament.  In 
1814  he  was  created  Baron,  and  in  1823  Viscount, 


Beresford.  He  bore  the  title  of  Duke  of  Elvas  in 
Spain,  and  of  Conde  de  Trancoso  in  Portugal. 
He  died,  without  issue,  Jan.  8,  1854,  when  his 
title  became  extinct. 

Beresford,  Willtam  Charles  Delaroer, 
commonly  called  Lord  Charles  Beresford,  a  grand¬ 
son  of  the  fourth  Marquis  of  Waterford,  was 
born  Feb.  10,  1846,  near  Dublin,  and  entered  the 
British  navy  in  1859.  At  the  bombardment  of 
Alexandria,  July  11,  1882,  he  distinguished  him¬ 
self  by  running  a  gun-boat,  the  Condor,  under 
the  guns  of  the  Egyptian  forts.  In  February, 
1885,  he  commanded  a  naval  expedition  up  the 
Nile  to  Khartoum.  He  sits  in  Parliament  as  a  con¬ 
servative  member  for  a  London  district,  and  has 
served  a  term  as  Naval  Lord  of  the  Admiralty. 

Beresi  'na,  or  Berezina,  a  river  of  Russia,  hav¬ 
ing  its  rise  in  the  north  of  the  government  of 
Minsk  in  Lithuania.  It  flows  in  a  southward 
direction  for  about  350  miles  (over  200  of  which 
are  navigable)  to  tlu  Dnieper.  The  Bere.sina  is 
memorable  on  account  of  the  disastrous  pas¬ 
sage  of  the  French  army,  November,  1812,  during 
the  retreat  from  Moscow.  The  12,000  dead  bodies 
found  on  the  shores  of  the  river,  when  the  ice 
thawed,  attested  the  magnitude  of  the  French 
disaster.  The  Russians  took  16,000  prisioners  and 
25  pieces  of  cannon. 

Bereslav,  a  thriving  town  in  the  Russian  gov¬ 
ernment  of  Kherson.  Pop.  (1885),  11,093. 

Berezna,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  government 
of  Tchernigov.  Pop.  (1880),  10,827. 

Berezov'  (the  town  of  birch-trees),  a  town  of 
Siberia  in  the  government  of  Tobolsk.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Berezovsk,  a  village  in  the  Russian  Province 
of  Perm,  gives  name  to  a  famous  gold-field,  worked 
since  1744. 

Berg,  Christian  Paulsen,  Danish  politician, 
born  in  1829,  in  1865  entered  the  Folksthiug,  of 
which  he  was  chosen  president  in  1883.  In  1886 
his  fierce  attacks  on  one  of  the  ministry  brought 
on  him  six  months’  imprisonment. 

Ber'gama  (ancient  Pergamon),  a  city  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  forty  miles  north  of  Smyrna.  In  early 
times  the  city  was  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Pergamum.  Pop.  about  6,000. 

Ber'gaino  (the  ancient  Berr/omum),  a  fortified 
town  of  Lombardy,  thirty  four  miles  northeast  of 
Milan.  It  has  a  castle  occupying  the  most  elevated 
part  of  the  town.  Bernardo,  Tasso  (the  father  of  Tor¬ 
quato),  Tirabosclii,  and  Donizetti  were  natives  of 
Bergamo.  Pop.  (1881),  23,819.  Bergamo  is  the 
capital  of  a  province,  which  has  an  area  of  1,015 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881)  of  391,580. 

Bergamot  is  the  name  applied  to  a  group  of 
varieties  of  pear,  which  agree  in  more  or  less  com¬ 
pletely  resembling  an  apple  in  shape,  in  melting, 
juicy  pulp,  and  pleasant  flavor. 

Bergamot  is  also  the  name  of  a  species  or  vari¬ 
ety  of  the  genus  Citrus,  also  called  the  Bergamot 
Orange,  or  Mellarosa;  by  some  botanists  re¬ 
garded  as  a  variety  of  the  orange  (C.  Aurantium)-, 
by  others,  as  a  variety  of  the  lime  (C.  limetta );  and 
elevated  by  Rissoto  the  rank  of  a  distinct  species, 
under  the  name  of  C.  bergamca.  The  name  comes 
from  Bergama,  a  city  in  Asia  Minor,  the  ancient 
Pergamas.  From  the  rind  of  its  fruit,  the  well- 
known  Oil  of  Bergamot  is  obtained. 

Bergedorf,  a  district  and  town  of  Germany, 
ten  miles  southeast  of  Hamburg.  Area,  35  square 
miles;  pop.  (1885),  16,368.  Pop.  of  town  (1885), 
5,209. 

Bergen,  a  fortified  seaport  in  the  west  of  Nor¬ 
way,  and  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom,  in  the 
province  of  the  same  name.  It  was  the  birth¬ 
place  of  Holberg,  the  painter,  Dahl,  Welhaven, 
and  Ole  Bull.  Pop.  (1885),  46,552. 

Bergen-op-Zoom,  a  town  on  the  River  Zoom  in 
the  Dutch  Province  of  North  Brabant.  Pop. 
(1880),  10.419. 

Begenrolh,  Gustaf  Adolf,  historian,  was 
born  in  Prussia,  1813.  After  studying  law  he 
entered  the  army,  from  which  he  was  dismissed 
on  account  of  his  revolutionary  views,  in  1848. 
Becoming  further  compromised,  he  came  to 
America  in  1850,  but  settled  in  1857  in  England. 
He  died  in  Madrid,  Feb.  13,  1869. 

Bergerac,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Dordogne,  on  the  Dordogne,  sixty  miles  east  of 
Bordeaux.  Pop.  (1886),  11,867. 

Bergerac,  Savinien  Cyrano  de,  a  French 
author,  born  in  Paris,  1619,  who  fought  more 


than  a  thousand  duels,  most  of  them  on  account 
of  his  large  nose.  He  died  in  1655. 

Berghaus,  Heinrich,  an  eminent  geographer, 
was  born  at  Cleves,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  in  1797. 
He  died  at  Stettin,  Feb.  17,  1844. 

Bergk,  Theodor,  a  distinguished  German 
classical  scholar,  born  at  Leipzig,  May  22,  1812. 
He  died  July  20,  1881. 

Bergman,  Torbern  Olof,  a  celebrated 
Swedish  chemist,  born  at  Katharinaburg,  March 
20,  1735.  He  filled  successively  the  Chairs  of 
Physics  and  Chemistry  at  Upsala,  from  1758  till 
his  death,  July  8,  1784. 

Bergmehl,  or  Mountain-flour,  is  a  recent 
deposit  of  a  white  or  cream-colored  powder  of 
extreme  fineness,  composed  almost  entirely  of  the 
siliceous  frustules  or  cell-walls  of  Diatomacete. 
From  its  resemblance  to  flour,  it  has  been  mixed 
with  food  in  seasons  of  scarcity,  by  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  who  suppose  it  to 
be  nutritious. 

Bcrgues,  a  town  and  fortress  in  the  French 
department  of  Nord,  five  miles  south-southeast  of 
Dunkirk.  Pop.,  5,435. 

Bergylt  ( Sebastee  norvegieas),  a  common  fish  in 
northern  seas,  belonging  to  the  family  Scorpa-ni- 
dae,  in  the  great  order  of  fishes  with  spinous  rays 
(Acanthopterygii).  It  is  somewhat  like  a  perch 
in  appearance,  and  used  to  be  called  Perea  marina. 
It  is  also  called  Norway  Haddock. 

Berhampur,  the  name  of  two  towns  in  British 
India. — (1)  Berhampur,  in  Madras,  eighteen  miles 
southwest  of  the  town  of  Ganjam.  Pop.  (1881), 
23,599. — (2)  Berhampur,  in  Bengal,  five  miles 
below  Mursliidabad.  Pop.  (1881),  23,605. 

Beri,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  British  district  of 
Rohtak,  Punjab,  thirty-six  miles  west-by-north 
from  Delhi.  Pop.  (1881),  9,695. — The  State  of 
Beri,  in  Bundelkhand,  has  an  area  of  about  30 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  4,985. 

Berja,  a  town  of  Spain,  twenty-two  miles  west 
of  Almeria.  Pop.  (1887),  15,500. 

Berkeley,  a  small  town  of  Gloucestershire, 
England,  is  celebrated  for  its  dairies  and  cheese. 
Edward  II.  was  murdered  at  Berkeley  Castle  in 
1327.  Dr.  Jenner,  the  discoverer  of  vaccination, 
was  a  native  of  Berkeley,  and  is  buried  in  the 
parish  church. 

Berkeley,  a  village  of  Alameda  county,  Cali¬ 
fornia,  overlooking  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  is 
the  scat  of  the  State  University,  with  300  students. 

Berkeley,  George,  Bishop  of  Cloyne,  was 
born  near  Kilkenny,  March  12,  1685,  (N.S.)  In 
1713  Berkeley  went  to  London,  and  was  intro¬ 
duced  by  Swift  to  the  statesmen  and  men  of 
letters  who  there  formed  a  brilliant  society  in  the 
reign  of  Queen  Anne.  After  spending  nearly  a 
year  in  London,  he  gave  seven  years  to  travel  in 
France  and  Italy.  On  his  return  to  Ireland  in 
1721.  he  was  distressed  by  the  symptoms  of  social 
corruption  and  disorder  occasioned  by  the  South 
Sea  mania.  This  was  the  beginning  of  his  career 
as  a  missionary  philanthropist.  In  1724  he  was 
made  Dean  of  Derry.  He  labored  in  London  for 
three  years  to  interest  Sir  R.  ’Walpole  arid  other 
leading  politicians  in  his  project  for  founding  a 
missionary  college  in  Bermuda.  At  last  £20, 009 
was  voted  by  the  House  of  Commons  for  the 
endowment.  He  sailed  for  America  in  September, 
1728.  He  lived  nearly  three  years  in  Rhode 
Island.  Meanwhile  the  promised  grant  was  with¬ 
drawn,  and  Berkeley  returned  to  England.  In 
1734  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Cloyne,  Ireland,  lie 
died  in  1753. 

Berkeley,  Sir  William,  Governor  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  in  Colonial  times,  was  born  near  London, 
and  died  there  in  1677.  In  1641  he  became 
Governor  of  Virginia,  and  held  that  province  for 
the  Crown  until  1651,  so  that  Charles  II.  was 
proclaimed  King  in  Virginia  earlier  than  in  Eng¬ 
land.  Berkeley  was  removed  under  the  Com¬ 
monwealth,  but  reinstated  by  Charles  in  1660. 
He  became  unpopular  and  was  recalled  in  1677. 

Berkhamstead,  a  market-town  of  Hertford¬ 
shire,  England,  on  the  small  River  .  Bulburn, 
twenty-eight  miles  northwest  of  London.  The 
poet  Cowper  was  a  native.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Berkovitza,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in 
Western  Bulgaria.  Pop.  (1881),  5,445. 

Berkshire,  a  midland  county  of  England.  Its 
greatest  length  is  53  miles;  its  greatest  breadth  is 


BERLAD. 


151 


BERNOULLI. 


30;  and  the  area  is  705  squ  :re  miles,  Pop.  (1881), 
218,363. 

Berlad  (Roumanian  Barladu),  a  town  of 
Lower  Moldavia,  on  the  Berlad  river.  Pop.  (1886), 
26,567. 

Berlen'gas,  a  group  of  rocky  islands  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  off  the  west  coast  of  the  Portu¬ 
guese  Province  of  Estremadura. 

Berlin',  the  capital  of  Prussia,  and,  since 
1871,  of  the  German  Empire,  the  chief  residence 
of  the  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  seat  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  Reischstag  and  Prussian  Landtag,  and  third 
city  of  Europe,  is  situated  on  the  Spree,  in  52° 
30'  N.  latitude,  13°  24'  E.  longitude.  In  1885 
the  pop.  was  1,315,287.  Berlin  consists  of  six¬ 
teen  different  quarters,  containing  about  560 
streets,  65  squares,  48  bridges,  7U0  public  build¬ 
ings,  and  upward  of  25,000  private  houses  (com¬ 
prising  305,000  dwellings).  More  than  63,000 
families  live  in  dwellings  of  one  room  each.  At 
the  center  of  the  city  is  the  royal  palace,  with 
nearly  700  apartments,  including  the  richly 
adorned  staterooms,  the  finest  of  which  are  the 
magnificent  “WeisserSaal”and  the  palace  chapel. 
Near  this  are  the  Emperor’s  palace  and  that  of 
the  Crown  Prince;  the  royal  library,  which  con¬ 
tains  upward  of  1,000,000  volumes  and  30,000 
manuscripts;  the  old  and  new  museums,  the  na¬ 
tional  gallery,  the  arsenal,  the  royal  theatre,  the 
opera  house,  the  guard  house,  and  the  university. 
These  are  all  situated  between  the  Spree  and  the 
east  end  of  the  street  “  Unter  den  Linden”  (so 
called  from  its  double  avenue  of  limes),  one  of 
the  finest  streets  in  Europe,  about  a  mile  long 
and  almost  150  feet  broad.  The  city  is’  adorned 
throughout  with  numerous  statues  of  national 
heroes.  It  contains  more  than  twenty  theaters. 
Berlin  had,  in  1885,  24  classical  and  other  gym¬ 
nasia,  13  higher  boys’  and  55  higher  girls’  schools, 
and  213  middle  and  elementary  schools,  with  a 
total  of  170,000  pupils.  Besides  these  there  are 
23  kindergarten.  The  university,  established  in 
1809,  possesses  4  museums  and  a  library  of  300,- 
000  volumes.  The  celebrated  Brandenburg  Gate 
65  feet  high  and  205  feet  wide,  leads  from  Unter 
den  Linden  and  the  Pariser  Platztothe  Thiergar- 
ten,  a  park  of  370  acres,  the  largest  of  the  five 
parks  belonging  to  the  town.  To  the  southwest 
of  this  lies  the  Zoological  Garden,  which  has  re¬ 
cently  been  considerably  extended.  The  Botani¬ 
cal  Garden  (at  Schdneberg)  contains  25,000  species 
Berlin  ranks  among  the  most  important  mercan¬ 
tile  places  of  Europe.  The  traffic  is  carried  on 
by  the  Spree,  the  canals,  and  fourteen  railways, 
of  which  the  intra-mural  or  “city  railway,” 
opened  in  1882,  has  a  length  of  seven  miles,  and 
passes  through  the  middle  of  the  city  from  east 
to  west,  and  the  suburban  or  “  ring  railway,” 
twenty-three  miles  long,  forms  a  complete  circle 
round  its  outskirts.  In  respect  of  its  publishing 
trade,  Berlin  now  shares  with  Leipzig  the  first 
rank  amongst  German  cities. 

The  Congress  of  Berlin  met  at  Berlin  in 
June,  1878,  and  consisted  of  representatives  of 
Russia,  T urkcy,  Germany,  Great  Britain,  France, 
Austria,  and  Italy.  It  was  primarily  designed  to 
revise  the  preliminary  treaty  of  San  Stefano,  con¬ 
cluded  by  Russia  and  Turkey  after  the  war  of 
1877-78,  and  the  treaty  of  Berlin  began  a  new  era 
in  the  history  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Prince 
Bismarck  was  President  of  the  Congress,  and  the 
Earl  of  Beaconsfield  and  the  Marquis  of  Salisbury 
were  the  English  plenipotentiaries. 

Berlin,  a  town  of  Ontario,  Canada,  sixty-two 
miles  southwest  of  Toronto.  Pop.,  4,054. 

Berlin,  the  name  of  forty  different  towns,  vil¬ 
lages,  hamlets,  and  townships  in  the  United 
States.  The  largest  is  a  city  of  Green  Lake 
county,  Wis.,  on  the  Fox  river,  ninety-six  miles 
north-northwest  of  Milwaukee.  Pop.,  4,200. 

Berlin  Spirit,  a  coarse  whiskey  made  chiefly 
from  beet-root,  potatoes,  etc.  Because  of  its 
cheapness  it  has  been  largely  used  in  the  making 
of  brandy,  and  in  mixing  low  wines. 

Berlioz,  Hector,  composer,  was  born  at  Cote 
St.  Andre,  France,  Dec.  11,  1803.  lie  published 
some  twenty -five  works,  mostly  symphonies  and 
operas,  including  the  celebrated  Damnation  of 
Fount,  and  wrote  extensively  on  musical  sub¬ 
jects.  lie  died  in  1809. 

Berinn'das,  or  Somers’  Islands,  British  pos¬ 
sessions  in  Mid- Atlantic,  were  so  named  respect¬ 


ively  from  Bermudes,  a  Spaniard,  who  first 
sighted  them  in  1515,  and  from  Sir  George  Som 
ers,  an  Englishman,  whose  shipwreck  here  in  1609 
led  to  their  colonization  from  Virginia  in  1611. 
They  number,  perhaps,  100  islets,  and  more  than 
twice  that  number  of  rocks,  yet  contain  only 
about  12,000  acres  in  all,  the  whole  occupying  a 
space  of  about  14  miles  in  length  by  a  little 


more  than  5  in  breadth.  They  are  580  miles 
from  Cape  Hatteras  Ireland  Island  has  the 
Bermuda  Floating  Dock,  built  in  England  and 
towed  out  in  1869.  It  is  381  feet  in  length  by  124 
feet  in  breadth.  The  climate  is  tempered  by  an 
almost  constant  sea  breeze,  and  the  air  is  moist  at 
all  seasons.  The  thermometer  never  falls  below 
40°  F.,  and  seldom  rises  above  85°.  Pop.  (1881), 
14,314,  including  5,384  whites,  8,564  colored 
persons. 

Bermudez,  a  State  in  the  northeast  of  Vene¬ 
zuela,  between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  formed  in  1881  from  the  former  States  and 
present  sections  of  Barcelona,  Cumana,  and  Ma- 
turin.  Area,  32,128  square  miles;  pop.  (1884), 
55,677. 

Bern,  or  Berne,  a  Swiss  canton,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  France.  It  is  the  most  populous, 
and  next  to  the  Grisons  the  most  extensive  Canton 
of  Switzerland,  its  area  being  nearly  2,050  square 
miles,  and  its  pop.  (1880)  532,164.  Of  these 
66,000  were  Roman  Catholics  and  over  1,300 
Jews.  Bern  entered  the  Swiss  Confederation  in 
1352.  The  constitution  proclaimed  in  1874  is  one 
of  representative  democracy. 

Bern,  or  Berne,  capital  of  the  above  canton 
and  of  Switzerland,  is  situated  on  the  Aar 
sixty-eight  miles  south-southwest  of  Basle.  It 
is  the  finest  city  in  Switzerland.  Bern  has 
an  interesting  museum,  and  a  valuable  public 
library  of  50,000  volumes,  and  contains  a  univer¬ 
sity.  Pop.  (1885),  47,793.  Bern  was  founded  in 
1191,  is  (lie  residence  of  foreign,  ministers,  and, 
since  1849,  the  permanent  seat  of  the  Swiss  Gov¬ 
ernment  and  Diet. 

Bernadotte,  the  French  officer  who  became 
King  of  Sweden  as  Charles  XIV. 

Bernard,  Claude,  a  great  French  physiologist, 
born  July  12,  1813.  In  February,  1854,  lie  was 
appointed  to  the  Chair  of  General  Physiology  in 
the  College  (le  France,  and  in  1885  succeeded  to 
Magendie’s  Chair  of  Experimental  Physiology. 
Bernard  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1 869,  and 
died  at  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1878.  His  proof  that  the 
sole  use  of  the  pancreatic  juice  in  the  digestive 
system  is  so  to  modify  the  ingested  fats  as  to  ren¬ 
der  them  capable  of  being  absorbed  by  the  chyle 
ducts,  is  a  masterpiece  of  biological  demonstra¬ 
tion. 

Bernard,  St.,  of  Clairvaux,  one  of  the  most 
influential  theologians  of  the  middle  ages,  was 
born  near  Dijon,  in  Burgundy,  in  1091;  entered 
the  Cistercian  monastery  of  Citeaux  at  twenty -two; 
and  became  the  first  abbot  of  the  newly -founded 
monastery  of  Clairvaux,  in  Champagne.  He  died 
at  Clairvaux,  Aug.  20,  1153;  and  was  canonized 
by  Pope  Alexander  III.,  in  1174.  His  ascetic  life, 
solitary  duties,  and  stirring  eloquence  made  him 
during  his  lifetime  the  oracle  of  Christendom.  He 
fou  'ded  more  than  seventy  monasteries. 

Bernard  of  Morlaix,  a  monk  of  Cluny  about 
1140,  is  said  to  have  been  born  of  English  parents 
at  Morlaix,  in  Brittany.  He  is  the  author  of  the 
remarkable  poem  De  Ccntemptu  Mundi.  From 
this  “Jerusalem  the  Golden”  and  other  well- 
known  hymns  are  taken. 


Bernard,  Simon,  a  French  engineer,  born  in 
1779.  He  fought  at  Waterloo,  and  coming  to  the 
United  States,  devised  a  system  of  canals  and 
roads,  and  constructed  Fort  Monroe.  Under 
Louis  Philippe  he  built  the  fortifications  of  Paris. 
He  was  twice  French  Minister  of  War,  and  died 
in  1839. 

Bernardino,  St.,  of  Siena,  born  in  1360  at 
Massa-Carrara.  Restored  their  primitive  rule 
among  the  Franciscans.  In  1438  he  was  appointed 
Vicar-General  of  his  order  for  Italy.  He  founded 
the  Fratres  de  Observantia.  Bernardino  died  in 
1444,  and  was  canonized  in  1450. 

Bernardo  del  Carpo,  a  Spanish  knight  of  the 
ninth  century,  whose  romantic  adventures  form 
the  basis  of  many  old  ballads  and  plays.  He  is 
said  to  have  defeated  Roland  at  Iioncesvalles. 

Bernauer,  Agnes,  the  beautiful  daughter  of  a 
poor  surgeon  of  Augsburg,  secretly  married,  in 
1432,  to  Duke  Albrecht  of  Bavaria,  only  son  of 
the  reigning  Duke  Ernst.  In  her  husband’s 
absence,  Duke  Ernst  had  Agnes  tried  for  sorcery, 
and  drowned  in  the  Danube,  Oct.  12,  1425. 

Bernay,  a  French  town  in  the  department  of 
Eure,  twenty-five  miles  west-northwest  of  Evreux. 
One  of  the  largest  horse-fairs  in  France  is  held 
here  annually.  Pop.,  6,931. 

Bernays,  Jakob,  an  eminent  philologist,  born 
of  Jewish  parents  at  Hamburg  in  1824.  He  died 
May  26,  1881. 

Bernburg,  a  town  in  the  German  Duchy  of 
Anhalt,  till  1863  capital  of  Anhalt-Bernburg. 
Pop.  (1885),  21,464. 

Berners,  or  Barnes,  Dame  Juliana,  a  writer 
on  hunting  and  hawking  Tradition  has  it  that  she 
was  Prioress  of  Sopwell  Nunnery,  near  St.  Albans, 
and  daughter  of  Sir  James  Berners,  who  was 
beheaded  in  1388. 

Bernhard,  Duke  of  Weimar,  a  celebrated  Ger¬ 
man  general,  born  in  1604,  was  the  youngest  son 
of  John,  third  Duke  of  Saxe- Weimar.  In  the 
Thirty  Years’  War  he  took  the  side  of  Protest¬ 
antism.  He  took  a  very  important  part  in  the 
war  under  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and  after  a  bril¬ 
liant  career  died  at  Neuburg  on  the  Rhine,  July  8, 
1639. 

Bernhardt,  Rosine,  called  Sara,  a  French 
actress,  born  of  Jewish  parents  in  Paris,  Oct.  22, 
1844,  was  baptized  into  the  Christian  faith  by  her 
father’s  desire,  and  brought  up  in  a  convent  at 
Versailles.  Entering  the  Paris  Conservatoire  in 
1858,  she  gained  second  prizes  for  both  tragedy 
and  comedy,  and  1862  made  her  d^but  as  “Iphi- 
genie”  at  the  Theatre  Francais.  In  1867  she 
played  minor  parts  at  the  Odeon.  She  was  re¬ 
called  to  the  Theatre  Frampais  in  1872.  Her 
tours  in  North  and  South  America,  in  Italy,  Rus¬ 
sia,  etc.,  were  successful.  In  1882  she  was  mar¬ 
ried  to  M.  Jaques  Daria  or  d’Amala,  a  Greek 
actor,  from  whom  she  was  divorced  shortly  after¬ 
ward. 

Bernliardy,  Gottfried,  a  German  scholar, 
was  born  of  Jewish  parents  near  Frankfort  in 
1800.  Died  May  14,  1875. 

Berni  (also  Hernia),  Francesco,  an  Italian 
poet,  from  whom  comic  verse  lias  the  name  of 
Versi  Berneschi,  was  born  at  Lamporecchio,  in 
Tuscany,  about  1490.  lie  died  in  1536. 

Bernier,  Francois,  a  French  physician  and 
traveler,  was  born  at  Angers,  in  France.  He  died 
at  Paris,  in  1688. 

Berni 'na,  a  mountain  of  the  Rliaetian  Alps, 
13,290  feet  high,  in  the  Swiss  Canton  of  Grisons, 
with  remarkable  and  extensive  glaciers. 

Berni 'ni,  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  sculptor,  archi¬ 
tect,  and  painter,  was  born  at  Naples,  in  1598. 
Pope  Urban  VIII.  employed  him  to  produce 
designs  for  the  embellishment  of  St.  Peter’s  at 
Rome,  where  his  masterpiece  is  its  colossal  colon¬ 
nade.  He  died  in  1680. 

Bernoul'li,  or  Beknouii.li,  the  name  of  a 
family  who  became  famous  in  mathematical' and 
physical  science.  James  Bernoulli  was  born  at 
Basle,  Dec.  27.  1654,  where  healsodied,  Aug.  16, 
1705.  In  1687  he  became  Professor  of  Matlie- 
matliics  in  the  University  of  Basle.  John  Ber¬ 
noulli,  brother  of  the  preceding,  a  mathema¬ 
tician  and  chemist,  was  born  at  Basel,  July  27, 
1667.  He  and  James  were  the  first  two  foreigners 
elected  associates  of  the  French  Academy  of 
Sciences.  He  died  Jan.  1,  1748.  Daniel  Ber¬ 
noulli,  born  at  Groningen,  Feb.  9,  1700,  died  at 


BEROE. 


152 


BESSlilRES. 


Basle,  March  17,  1782,  was  a  son  of  John.  He 
became  Professor  of  Mathematics  at  St.  Peters¬ 
burg. 

Beroe,  one  of  the  commonest  representatives  of 
the  most  intensely  active  sub-class  of  Coelen- 
terates — the  Ctenophora.  These  are  free-swim¬ 
ming  pelagic  animals,  of  great  delicacy  and 
beauty,  generally  of  a  more  or  less  cylindrical 
form,  and  without  any  trace  of  skeleton. 

Bero'sus,  a  priest  of  Babylon,  who  had  a 
knowledge  of  the  Greek  language,  and  flourished 
about  260  b.c.  He  wrote,  in  Greek,  three  books 
of  Babylonian-Clialdean  history,  in  which  he 
made  use  of  the  archives  in  the  temple  of  Bel  at 
Babylon. 

Berri,  or  Berry,  formerly  a  province  of  Cen¬ 
tral  Fiance,  now  forming  the  departments  of 
Indre  and  Cher. 

Berri,  Charles  Ferdinand,  Due  de,  second 
son  of  the  Count  of  Artois  (afterward  Charles  X.), 
was  born  at  Versailles,  Jan.  24,  1778.  In  1816  he 
married  Caroline  Ferdinande  Louise  (born  1798), 
eldest  daughter  of  Francis,  afterward  King  of  the 
Two  Sicilies — a  marriage  on  which  depended  the 
continuance  of  the  elder  Bourbon  line.  The  Duke 
was  assassinated  Feb.  13, 1820,  by  a  fanatic  named 
Louvel. 

Berry  ( Bacon ),  a  term  employed  iii  popular 
language  to  designate  almost  any  small  succulent 
fruit,  but  restricted  in  botanical  language  to  sim¬ 
ple  fruits  with  pericarp  succulent  throughout, 
whether  developed  from  superior  (grape,  potato, 
bitternut,  belladona,  bryony,  asparagus,  tomato), 
or  more  commonly  inferior  ovary  (gooseberry, 
currant,  barberry,  bilberry,  etc.).  Strawberry, 
raspberry,  blackberry,  mulberry,  yewberry,  etc., 
are  thus  all  excluded  from  the  definition. 

Berrien,  John  M.,  was  born  in  New  Jersey  in 
1781,  and  died  in  1856.  In  1824  he  was  elected 
to  the  United  Slates  Senate  from  Georgia,  was 
Attorney-General  of  the  United  States  under  Jack- 
son,  and  from  1840  to  1852  again  sat  in  the 
Senate. 

Berryer,  Pierre  Antoine,  a  distinguished 
French  advocate  and  political  orator,  was  born  in 
Paris,  Jan.  4,  1790.  In  1829  he  was  chosen 
deputy,  and  afterward  steadily  represented  the 
rights  and  policy  of  the  elder  Bourbons.  After 
the  Revolution  of  1848,  he  represented  the 
Bouches-du-Rhone;  and  became  a  member  of 
Louis  Napoleon’s  privy-council.  In  1854  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  French  Academy.  He 
died  Nov.  29,  1868. 

Bersag'lie'ri  (Ital.  marksmen),  the  riflemen  or 
sharpshooters  of  the  Italian  army,  first  organized 
in  the  Sardinian  army  in  1836. 

Ber'serker,  a  redoubtable  heroin  Scandinavian 
mythology,  the  grandson  of  the  eight-handed 
Starkadder  and  the  beautiful  Alfhilde.  By  the 
daughter  of  King  Swafurlam,  whom  he  had  slain 
in  battle,  he  had  twelve  sons,  who  inherited  the 
name  of  Berserker,  along  with  his  frenzied,  war¬ 
like  fury  or  “  berserker-rage.” 

Bert,'  Paul,  French  statesman  and  physiologist, 
was  born  at  Auxerre,  in  1833.  Entering  political 
life  in  1870,  on  the  proclamation  of  the  Republic, 
he  was  four  times  reelected  to  the  Chamber.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  premiership  of  Gambetta  he  was  Minister 
of  Public  Instruction  and  Worship.  Appointed 
to  the  Governorship  of  Tonquin  and  Annam,  he 
went  there  in  1886,  but  died  November  lltli,  of 
the  same  year. 

Bertha,  the  name  of  several  famous  women  in 
the  legendary  history  of  the  middle  ages — St. 
Bertha,  whose  day  is  kept  on  July  4th,  a  Frank¬ 
ish  Princess  who  married  YEtlielbert,  King  of 
Kent  (560  a.d.),  became  the  means  of  his  conver¬ 
sion,  and  of  the  spread  of  Christianity  among  the 
Anglo-Saxons. — A  Bertha,  also,  is  said  to  have 
been  the  mother  of  Charlemagne. 

Berthelot,  Pierre  Eugene  Marcellin,  an 
eminent  French  chemist,  born  at  Paris,  Oct.  25, 
1827.  In  1876  he  was  named  Inspector-General  of 
Higher  Education,  and  in  December,  1886,  became 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction. 

Bertliier,  Alexander,  Prince  of  Neuchatel 
and  Wagram,  and  Marshal  of  the  French  Empire, 
was  born  at  Versailles,  Feb.  20,  1753.  He  entered 
the  army  in  1770,  and  fought  with  Lafayette  in 
the  American  War  of  Independence.  In  the 
French  Revolution  he  was  Chief  of  the  Staff  in 
the  Army  of  Italy  (1795),  and  in  1798  entered  the 


papal  territory,  and  proclaimed  the  Republic  in 
Rome.  He  accompanied  Napoleon  to  Egypt  as 
Chief  of  Staff.  At  the  Revolution  of  18th  Bru- 
maire  (1799),  he  became  War-Minister.  In  1807  he 
was  made  Sovereign  of  the  formerly  Prussian  Prin¬ 
cipality  of  Neuchatel,  Vice-Constable  and  Imperial 
Prince.  On  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  Bertliier  had  to 
surrender  the  Principality  of  Neuchatel;  and  sub¬ 
mitted  to  Louis  XVIII.,  who  continued  him  his 
rank  as  Peer  and  Marshal.  On  the  return  of  Na¬ 
poleon  from  Elba,  Berthier  retired  to  Bamberg,  in 
Bavaria,  to  his  father-in-law,  Duke  William.  He 
committed  suicide  July  1,  1815. 

Berthollet,  Count  Claude  Louis,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  theoretical  chemists  of  his 
time,  was  born  at  Talloire,  Savoy,  in  1748.  In 
1781  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  was  made  a  Senator  by 
Bonaparte,  who  also  made  him  a  Count.  On  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  created  a  Peer. 
He  died  at  Arcueil,  Nov.  6,  1822. 

Bertin,  Louis  Francois,  called  Bertin  VAine, 
an  eminent  French  journalist,  was  born  in  Paris, 
Dec.  14,  1766.  The  Revolution  made  him  a  jour¬ 
nalist,  and  in  1779  he  started  the  famous  Journal 
des  Debats.  Exiled  by  Napoleon  he  returned  in 
1805,  and  after  1814  gave  constant  support  to  the 
Ministerial  party.  He  died  Sept.  13,  1841. — Ar- 
mand  Louis  Marie  Bertin,  son  of  the  former, 
was  born  Aug.  22,  1801.  At  his  father’s  death  he 
assumed  the  chief  direction  of  the  Debats.  He 
died  at  Paris,  Jan.  11,  1854. 

Bertrand,  Henri  Gratien,  Count,  one  of 
Napoleon’s  generals,  was  born  at  Cliateauroux  in 
1773.  He  accompanied  the  expedition  to  Egypt, 
and  directed  the  fortification  of  Alexandria.  After 
the  battle  of  Aspern  in  1809,  he  was  created  Count 
and  Governor  of  Illyria.  He  retired  with  the  Em¬ 
peror  to  Elba,  and  finally  shared  his  banishment 
to  St.  Helena.  On  Napoleon’s  death  Bertrand  re¬ 
turned  to  France,  where  he  was  restored  to  all  his 
dignities.  He  died  at  Cliateauroux,  Jan.  31,  1844. 

Bervic,  Charles  Clement,  engraver,  born  at 
Paris  in  1756.  He  died  March  23,  1822. 

Berwick,  James  Fitz-James,  Duke  of,  was 
the  natural  son  of  James  II. ,  by  Arabella  Churchill, 
sister  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough.  The  title  of 
Duke  of  Berwick  was  conferred  on  him  in  1687, 
when  seventeen  years  old.  In  1706  he  was  created 
a  Marshal  of  France,  and  sent  at  the  head  of  an 
army  to  Spain,  where  he  established  the  throne  of 
Phillip  V.  by  the  decisive  victory  of  Almansa. 
He  was  made  a  Grandee  of  Spain,  under  the  title 
of  Duke  of  Liria  and  Xerica.  While  besieging 
Philippsburg,  he  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball,  June 
12,  1734. 

Berwiek-on-Tweed,  a  seaport  town  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Tweed,  on  the  frontiers  of  England 
and  Scotland,  fifty-eight  miles  east-southeast  of 
Edinburgh,  and  sixty-seven  north-by-west  of  New¬ 
castle.  Pop.  (1841),  12,689;  (1881)  13,995.  It  was 
annexed  to  England  in  1333,  and  was  finally  ceded 
by  Scotland  in  1482. 

Berwickshire,  a  maritime  and  border  county 
of  southeast  Scotland,  extends  from  east  to  west 
twenty-nine  miles,  from  north  to  south  twenty- 
one  miles,  and  has  an  area  of  464  square  miles,  or 
297,161  acres. 

Beryl  (silicate  of  alumina  and  glucina),  a 
mineral  which  scarcely  differs  except  in  color 
from  Emerald,  never  exhibiting  the  bright  rich 
green  which  characterizes  that  gem,  but  colorless, 
yellowish,  greenish-yellow  or  blue.  The  finer 
varieties,  which 
are  transparent 
and  of  beautiful 
color,  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  as 
Precious  Beryl, 
and  are  some¬ 
times  called 
Aquam  arine. 

Precious  Beryl 
is  found  in  vari¬ 
ous  parts  of  the  Beryl,  in  its  primary  form. 
United  States,  England,  Ireland,  Brazil,  Ceylon, 
and  Siberia. 

Berzelius,  JonAN  Jakob,  Baron,  one  of  the 
greatest  of  modern  chemists,  was  born  in  East 
Gothland,  Sweden,  Aug.  29,  1779.  From  1818 
till  his  death,  Aug.  7, 1848,  he  held  the  office  of  Per¬ 
petual  Secretary  in  the  Stockholm  Academy  of 


Sciences.  The  extent  of  his  researches  renders  it 
difficult  to  conceive  how  one  man  could  have 
accomplished  so  much. 

Besan<)on,  a  fortified  French  city,  the  capital 
of  the  department  of  Doubs,  is  situated  on  both 
sides  of  River  Doubs,  fifty-seven  miles  east  of 
Dijon.  Besaityon  is  considered  one  of  the 
strongest  places  in  France.  In  1875-85  Besan()on 
produced  between  400,000  and  450,000  watches 
annually,  worth  from  20,000,000  to  30,000,000 
francs.  Abel  Remusat  and  Victor  Hugo  were 
natives.  Pop.  (1886),  45,218. 

Besant,  Walter,  a  well-known  English 
novelist,  was  born  at  Portsmouth  in  1838.  In 
1871  he  entered  into  a  literary  partnership  with 
James  Rice,  with  whom  he  wrote  many  familiar 
novels. 

Besika  Bay,  a  bay  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  to  the  south  of  the  entrance  of  the 
Dardanelles. 

Bessarabia,  a  government  in  the  southwest  of 
Russia,  on  the  Roumanian  frontier.  The  area  is 
17,627  square  miles;  the  pop.  in  1882  was  1,419,- 
762,  composed  of  Russians,  Poles,  Roumanians, 
Bulgarians,  Greeks,  Armenians,  Jews,  Germans, 
and  Tartars,  with  a  sprinkling  of  Gipsies. 

Bessarion,  Johannes  (or  Basilius),  born  at 
Trebizond  in  1395,  was  one  of  the  earliest  of  those 
scholars  who  in  the  fifteenth  century  transplanted 
Greek  literature  and  philosophy  into  the  West. 
Twice  he  was  nearly  elected  Pope;  but  his 
partiality  for  the  heathen  philosophy,  or  his  Greek 
birth,  disqualified  him  with  the  sacred  college. 
He  died  at  Ravenna  in  1472. 

Besseges,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Gard.  Pop.  (1886),  9,169. 

Bessel,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  an  eminent 
Prussian  astronomer,  born  at  Minden  in  1784,  was 
in  1810  appointed  Director  of  the  Observatory  at 
Kbnigsberg,  and  Professor  of  Astronomy  there. 
In  the  years  1824-33  Bessel  completed  a  catalogue 
of  stars  (extending  to  the  ninth  magnitude)  within 
the  zone  from  15s  N.  to  15°  S.  declination.  He 
died  March  14,  1846. 

Bessemer,  Sir  Henry,  the  inventor,  was  born 
in  1813.  His  process  for  the  manufacture  of 
•steel  raised  the  annual  production  of  steel  in  Eng¬ 
land  from  50,000  tons  by  the  older  processes  to  as 
many  as  1,600,000  tons  in  some  years.  Bessemer 


Bessemer  Converting  Vessel. 
a,  a ,  a,  tuyeres;  b,  air-space;  c,  melted  metal. 

steel  is  largely  made  in  the  United  States  and 
Germany.  A  large  converting  vessel  with  open¬ 
ings  called  tuyeres  in  its  bottom,  is  partially  filled 
with  molten  pig-iron,  and  a  blast  of  air  is  forced 
through  this  metal  by  a  blowing  engine.  Pig- 
iron  contains  from  3  to  5  per  cent,  of  carbon,  and 
the  blast  is  continued  till  only  from  .25  to  1  per 
cent,  of  the  carbon  is  left,  steel  being  decarbonized 
iron. 

Bessieres,  Jean  Baptiste,  Duke  of  Istria  and 
Marshal  of  the  French  Empire,  was  born  Aug.  6, 
1768.  He  went  with  Napoleon  to  Egypt  in  1798, 
where  his  conduct  at  St.  Jean  d’ Acre  and  Aboukir 
covered  him  with  glory.  At  the  accession  of 
Napoleon  (1804)  to  the  throne,  he  became  Marshal 


BESTIARY. 


153 


BHILS. 


of  France.  He  showed  his  usual  conspicuous 
courage  at  Austerlitz,  Jena,  Eylau,  and  Fried- 
land,  and  was  made  Duke  of  Istria.  In  the 
Russian  campaign  lie  led  the  cavalry  of  the 
Guard.  On  the  morning  of  the  battle  of  Liitzen 
(May  1,  1813),  he  fell  mortally  wounded  by  a 
cannon-ball. 

Bes'tiary  (Fr.),  the  name  given  to  a  class  of 
written  books  of  great  popularity  in  the  middle 
ages,  describing  all  the  animals  of  creation,  real 
or  fabled. 

Betanzos,  a  town  of  Spain,  ten  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Corunna.  Pop.,  8, 1 22. 

Betel,  properly  the  leaf  of  the  betel-vine,  a 
plant  (Chavica  belle,  C.  siraboa ,  etc.)  of  the  natural 
order  Piperacese,  indigenous  to  the  East  Indian 
Archipelago,  and  cultivated  also  in  continental 
India,  Ceylon,  and  several  of  the  Indo-Chinese 
countries.  The  name  betel  (a  Malayalam  and 
Tamil  word  for  leaf)  is  frequently  applied  to  the 


bolus  of  areca-nut  and  shell-lime  ( chunam )  wrap¬ 
ped  round  with  betel-leaf,  employed  as  a 
masticatory  throughout  a  large  part  of  the  far¬ 
ther  East,  especially  by  the  Malay  and  Hindu 
races.  Its  principal  action  is  upou  the  salivary 
glands.  It  is  a  source  of  Catechu. 

Beth  any  (house  of  dates),  by  the  natives  of 
Palestine  called  “El’Azariyeh”  or  “  Lazariyeli,” 
(town  of  Lazarus),  is  situated  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  2,208  feet  above  the 
sea,  two  miles  east-southeast  of  Jerusalem.  The 
reputed  houses  of  Martha  and  Mary,  and  the  cave 
or  grave  of  Lazarus  are  shown  by  the  monks. 

Betli'el  (house  of  God),  now  called  Beitin, 
about  eleven  miles  north  from  Jerusalem,  men¬ 
tioned  in  Scripture  as  the  scene  of  Jacob’s  dream. 

Bethes'da,  Pool  of  (house  of  mercy  or  house 
of  the  stream),  since  1102  has  been  identified  with 
the  Birket  Israil,  near  St.  Stephen’s  Gate,  Jeru¬ 
salem. 

Bethlehem  (house  of  bread;  modern  Beitlnhm), 
the  birthplace  of  Jesus  Christ  and  of  King  David, 
and  the  Ephratah  of  the  history  of  Jacob,  is  now 
a  small  unwalled  village  of  white  stone  houses, 
six  miles  south  of  Jerusalem.  The  pop.  is 
about  3,000  souls,  and  wholly  Christian — Latin, 
Greek,  anti  Armenian.  The  Convent  of  the 
Nativity  was  built  by  the  Empress  Helena,  327 
a.d.,  but  destroyed  by  the  Moslems  in  1230,  and,  it 
is  supposed,  restored  by  the  Crusaders.  Within  it 
is  the  Church  of  the  Nativity,  which  is  subdivided 
among  the  Latins,  Greeks,  and  Armenians.  The 
church  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  At  the 
farther  end  of  that  section  which  forms  the  head 
of  the  cross,  a  passage  decends  to  the  crypt 
below,  where  the  blessed  Virgin  is  said  to  have 
been  delivered.  The  site  appears  to  have  been 
venerated  since  the  second  century,  a.d.,  and  St. 
Jerome,  a  monk  of  this  convent,  toward  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century,  found  the  grotto  in  pos¬ 
session  of  pagans,  who  celebrated  here  the  birth  of 
Adonis. 

Bethlehem,  a  post-borough  of  Northampton 
county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Lehigh  river,  is 
the  principal  settlement  in  America  of  the  Morav¬ 
ians,  by  whom  it  was  founded  in  1741.  Pop. 
(1880),  5,193;  with  South  Bethlehem,  10,118; 


present  estimated  pop.  of  the  boroughs,  with 
West  Bethlehem,  15,000. 

Bethlehemites,  (1)  a  monastic  order  existing 
in  England  in  the  thirteenth  century. — (2)  A 
military  order  established  by  a  bull  of  Pius  II., 
in  1459. — (3)  A  society  founded  in  Guatemala, 
about  1659,  and  raised  to  an  order  by  Innocent 
XI.,  in  1687. — The  followers  of  John  IIuss  were 
styled  Bethlehemites,  from  Bethlehem  Church  in 
Prague,  where  their  leader  preached. 

Betlileu-Gabor  (i.  e.,  Gabriel  Betiilen), 
descended  from  an  ancient  and  distinguished 
Protestant  family  of  Hungary,  was  born  in  1580. 
He  rose  to  prominence  during  civil  troubles  in 
Transylvania,  and  on  the  death  of  Gabriel  Bathori 
was  chosen  Sovereign  Prince  of  Transylvania. 
At  the  request  of  the  people  he  entered  Hungary 
and  was  subsequently  crowned  King  of  Hungary 
by  the  assembled  Diet,  Aug.  25, 1621.  A  peace  was 
in  1621  concluded  with  Ferdinand  II.  of  Austria, 
by  which  Gabor  gave  up  his  claims  to  Hungary  and 
the  title  of  King,  hut  obtained  large  accession  of 
territory,  and  the  dignity  of  Prince  of  the  Empire. 
This  treaty  was  soon  broken  by  the  Emperor; 
but  the  Prince  invaded  Moravia,  and  obtained 
a  renewal  of  the  treaty.  He  died  in  1629. 

Bethnal  Green,  an  eastern  suburb  of  London, 
since  1885  a  parliamentary  borough.  Pop.  (1881), 
126,961. 

Bethsaida,  a  village  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Lake  of  Galilee,  the  birthplace  of  Peter  and 
Andrew  and  Philip. 

Belhune,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Pas-de-Calais.  Pop.  (1886),  10,917. 

Beton,  a  concrete  or  artificial  stone,  composed 
of  hydraulic  cement  and  common  lime,  sand,  or 
coarser  material. 

Bet'ony  (Stachys  Betonica),  a  common  British 
labiate  plant  growing  in  woods,  of  great  repute 
in  ancient  and  mediaeval  medicine. 

Betterton,  Thomas,  actor,  was  born  in  Lon¬ 
don  about  1635,  and  died  April  28,  1710.  He 
was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Bettia,  a  municipal  town  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  Behar,  India.  Pop.  (1881),  21,263. 

Betty,  William  Henry  West,  better  known 
as  the  Young  Roscius,  was  born  at  Shrewsbury, 
England,  in  1791,  and  made  his  dtibut  at  eleven, 
lie  died  Aug.  24,  1874. 

Betwa,  a  river  in  Buudelkhund,  Northwest 
Provinces,  India. 

Beust,  Friedrich  Ferdinand,  Count  a’on, 
German  statesman,  one  of  the  most  prominent  of 
modern  politicians,  was  born  at  Dresden,  Jan. 
13,  1809.  He  entered  the  service  of  Austria,  and 
in  1867  rose  to  the  head  of  affairs.  A  zealous 
Protestant,  he  was  an  opponent  of  the  U 1 1 ra- 
montanes.  He  resigned  the  office  of  Chancellor 
in  1871.  He  died  Oct.  24,  1886. 

Beiithen.  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  121  miles 
southeast  of  Breslau.  Pop.  (1885),  26,484. 

Beverlaml,  Adrian,  a  Dutch  scholar,  was 
born  at  Middelburg,  in  Zeeland,  about  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  His  pamphlet,  Pec- 
catum  Originate,  was  burned  at  the  Hague  and 
its  author  was  banished  from  Utrecht  and  Leyden. 
He  became  insane,  and  died  in  England  soon  after 
1712. 

Beveridge,  John  L.,  born  in  New  York  in 
1824,  served  four  years  in  the  Union  Army,  in 
1872  was  elected  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Illinois, 
and  in  1 873  succeeded  General  Oglesby  as  Gover¬ 
nor.  He  afterward  held  a  Federal  office. 

Bev'erley,  the  chief  town  of  the  East  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  England.  Pop.  (1881),  11,442. 

Beverly,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  opposite 
Salem.  Pop.  of  township  (1880),  8,456. 

Bevis  of  Hampton,  the  hero  of  a  popular 
English  mediasval  romance. 

Bewick,  Thomas,  to  whom  the  modern  revival 
of  the  art  of  wood-engraving  is  mainly  due,  was 
born  at  Cherryburn,  Ovingham,  Northumber¬ 
land,  Aug.  12,  1753.  In  1776,  Bewick  settled 
as  an  engraver  in  London.  He  became  the  partner 
of  his  former  master,  and  took  his  brother  John 
Bewick  (born  1760,  died  1795)  as  an  apprentice. 
His  principal  works  were  illustrations  for  Select 
Fables  (1784),  History  of  Quadrupeds  (1790),  the 
famous  History  of  British  Birds,  generally  known 
as  Bewick's  Birds  (1797-1804,  and  yE sop's  Fables 
(1881).  He  died  at  Gateshead,  Nov.  8, -1828. 


Beyerland,  one  of  the  island-districts  of  South 
Holland.  It  is  15  miles  long. 

Beyle,  Marie  Henri,  a  French  author,  better 
known  by  his  nom  deplume,  “Stendhal,”  born  at 
Grenoble,  1783.  He  died  at  Paris,  March  23, 
1842. 

Beyrout,  or  Beirut,  believed  to  be  the  Bero- 
tliai  or  Berothah  of  the  Old  Testament  (2  Sam. 
viii,  8  and  Ezek.  xlvii,  16);  and  known  to  the  an¬ 
cients  under  the  name  of  Berytus,  is  a  flourishing 
commercial  town,  situated  on  the  coast  of  Syria, 
at  the  foot  of  Lebanon,  fifty-five  miles  from  Da¬ 
mascus,  and  147  from  Jerusalem.  Pop.  about 
80,000,  mostly  Christians. 

Beyschlag,  Wilibald,  a  German  Evangelical 
theologian,  born  at  Frankfort  in  1823,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Professor  of  Theology  at  Halle  in  1860. 

Beza,  Theodore  (properly  De  B&ze),  next  to 
Calvin,  the  most  active  and  influential  of  the 
Genevese  reformers,  was  born  in  Burgundy,  June 
24,  1519.  He  went  to  Geneva  in  October,  1548, 
and  shortly  after  was  appointed  Greek  Professor 
at  Lausanne,  an  office  which  he  held  for  ten 
years.  In  1559  he  returned  to  Geneva,  where  he 
was  appointed  a  Theological  Professor  and  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  College.  He  approved  of  the  burning 
of  Servetus.  He  died  Oct.  13,  1605. 

Bezants',  or  Byzantines,  coins  of  the  Byzan¬ 
tine  Empire. 

Bezique  (also  called  Besique),  a  game  of  cards, 
played  with  a  double  pack,  in  which  the  objects 
are  principally  to  promote  in  the  hand  certain 
combinations  which,  when  “declared,”  entitle  the 
holder  to  score,  and  to  win  certain  cards  of  a  par¬ 
ticular  value. 

Be'zoar  (through  Fr.  and  Span,  from  Persian 
pad-zahr,  counter-poison,  zahr,  poison),  a  con¬ 
cretion  found  in  the  stomachs  of  goats  or  ante¬ 
lopes,  and  formerly  much  valued  on  account  of 
imaginary  medicinal  virtues,  particularly  as  an 
antidote  to  poisons.  Concretions  of  various  kinds 
are  found  in  the  stomachs  of  herbivorous  quadru¬ 
peds,  very  generally  having  for  their  nucleus 
some  small,  indigestible  substance  which  has 
been  taken  into  the  stomach. 

Bhagalpur',  or  Boglifoor,  atownof  Bengal, 
265  miles  northwest  of  Calcutta.  Pop.  (1881),  68,- 
238.— The  long,  narrow  District  of  Bhagalpur  lying 
south  ofNepaul,  has  an  area  of  4,268  square  miles, 
and  is  divided  into  nearly  two  equal  portions  by 
the  Ganges.  Pop.  (1881),  1,966,158,  of  whom  90 
per  cent,  are  Hindus. — The  Division  of  Bhagalpur 
comprises  five  districts. 

Bhagavad  Gita  (The  Song  of  the  Adorable)  is 
the  title  of  a  tlieosopliical  poem  which  has  been 
incorporated  in  the  great  Indian  epic,  the  Maha- 
bhdrata,  its  composition  is  usually  assigned  to  the 
first  or  second  century  after  Christ.  The  leading 
theme  of  the  poem  is  the  exaltation  of  the  god 
Vishnu  in  his  human  form  or  avatar  of  Krishna, 
and  throughout  it  the  god  speaks  in  his  own 
person. 

Bliagiratlii,  a  branch  of  the  Ganges,  regarded 
as  sacred  by  the  Hindus,  leaves  the  Ganges  at 
Chhapghati,  and  joins  the  Jalangi  at  Nadiya 
town  to  form  the  Hooghly. — Also  the  name  of  a 
head-stream  of  the  Ganges,  which  joins  the  Alak- 
nanda  at  Deoprayag,  and  is  afterward  known  as 
the  Ganges. 

Bliamlara,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  Central 
Provinces.  Pop.  (1881),  11,150. — Bhandara  dis¬ 
trict  has  an  area  of  3,922  square  miles,  and  a  pop. 
of  683,779. 

Bhannagar,  a  town  of  Bombay,  the  capital  of 
a  native  State,  sixty  miles  northwest  of  Surat. 
Pop.  (1881),  47,792."  Area  of  State,  2,860  square 
miles;  pop.  400,323,  chiefly  Hindus. 

Bhartpur',  or  Bhurtpore',  the  capital  of 
the  protected  State  of  the  same  name  in  India,  is 
thirty -five  miles  west  of  Agfa.  Pop.  (1881),  06,163. 
— The  State  of  Bhartpur  has  an  area  of  1,974 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  645,540,  mostly  Jats. 

Bhartriliari  is  the  name  of  a  celebrated  In¬ 
dian  writer  of  apothegms,  of  whom  but  little  is 
known. 

Bhavabliuti,  surnamed  “  Sri-kantha,”  a  great 
Indian  dramatist,  who  flourished  in  the  first  half 
of  the  eighth  century. 

Bliils,  a  pre-Aryan  race  of  Central  India,  in¬ 
habiting  the  States  from  the  Cliandesh  district 
of  Bombay  to  the  wild  hilly  tracts  of  the  Vindliya 


BIinVANI. 


154 


BIDDLE. 


range,  north  of  the  Nerbudda  river.  They  num¬ 
bered  724,999  in  1881. 

Bhiwani,  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  India,  thirty- 
seven  miles  southeast  of  Hissar.  Pop.  (1881), 
33,762. 

Bhopal,  the  capital  of  a  native  State  in  Central 
India,  325  miles  southwest  of  Allahabad.  The 
State  of  Bhopal  has  an  area  of  6,874  square  miles. 
It  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  best-governed 
native  State  in  India.  Pop.  of  State  (1881),  954,- 
901;  of  Bhopal  agency,  1,291,358. 

the  capital  of  the  Indian  native  State  of 
Cutch,  180  miles  southeast  of  Hyderabad.  Pop. 
(1881),  22,308. 

Bhutan,  an  independent  State  in  the  eastern 
Himalayas,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Tibet, 
south  and  east  by  Assam,  and  on  the  west  by 
Sikkim.  Its  area  has  been  estimated  at  15,000 
square  miles.  With  summits  exceeding  24,000 
feet,  the  whole  surface  may  be  described  as 
mountainous.  The  winter  capital  is  Punakha  on 
the  Bugui  river,  ninety-six  miles  northeast  of 
Darjeeling.  The  summer  capital  is  Tasicliozong 
(Tassisudon),  on  the  Gudada  river,  a  center  of 
Lamaism. 

Bia'f'ra,  Bight  of,  a  large  bay  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 
The  principal  rivers  flowing  into  it  are  the  Niger, 
the  New  and  Old  Calabar  rivers,  the  Rio  del  Key, 
the  Cameroon,  and  the  Gaboon;  its  islands  are  Fer¬ 
nando  Po  (Spanish),  and  St.  Thomas’  and 
Prince’s  Islands  (Portuguese).  Opposite  Fer¬ 
nando  Po  are  the  Cameroons. 

Bial'ystok.  a  town  in  the  Russian  government 
of  Grodno,  fifty-live  miles  from  Moscow.  Pop. 
(1883)  39,926. 

Biancliini,  Francesco,  antiquary  and  astron¬ 
omer,  was  born  in  1662  at  Verona,  lie  died  at 
Rome  in  1729. 

Biard,  Auguste  Francois,  a  French  genre 
painter,  was  born  at  Lyons  in  1798.  He  died 
in  Paris,  June,  1882. 

Biarritz,  a  watering-place  in  the  French 
department  of  Basses-PyiVnc'es,  on  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  six  miles  southwest  of  Bayonne.  Pop. 
(1881),  6,488. 

Bias,  one  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,  a 
native  of  PriOne  in  Ionia,  flourished  about  the 
sixth  century  b.c.,  famous  for  his  eloquence,  his 
nobility  of  character,  and  his  apothegms. 

Bib,  also  called  Brassy,  Pout,  or  Whiting 
Pout  (Gadus  lusms),  a  fish  of  the  same  genus  as 
the  Cod,  Haddock,  and  Whiting,  quite  common 
on  many  parts  of  the  British  coasts,  found  also 
on  those  of  Norway,  Sweden,  Greenland,  etc.  It 
is  seldom  more  than  a  foot  long. 

Biberacli,  a  town  of  AVurtemberg,  situated  on 
the  Reiss  twenty-three  miles  south-southwest  of 
Elm.  Pop.  (1875),  7,938. 

Bible.  The  Bible  is  in  Gr.  T a  Biblia,  '‘The 
Books,”  'imr  excellence.  The  Bible  consists  of 
two  great  parts — the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
properly  Covenants.  As  early  as  the  second  cen¬ 
tury  of  our  era  the  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Covenants  are  spoken  of,  and  as  the  Greek  “cov¬ 
enant”  was  rendered  by  the  Latin  testamentum, the 
phrase  Old  and  New  Testaments  passed  into  most 
modern  languages.  The  ancient  versions  of  the 
Old  Testament  from  the  original  text  are:  the 
Septuagint,  Syriac,  Targum  or  Chaldee,  and  the 
Latin  (Vulgate).  The  ancient  versions  from  the 
Greek  of  the  New  Testament  are  more  numer¬ 
ous.  The  Latin  versions  are — (a)  The  old  Latin,  in 
the  Old  Testament,  from  the  Septuagint.  It  is 
usually  held  that  this  version  originated  in  North 
Africa,  in  the  second  century,  (h)  The  Vulgate,  a 
revision  of  the  old  Latin  texts  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment  made  at  the  solicitation  of  Pope  Damasus, 
by  Jerome,  about  383.  About  the  same  time 
Jerome  revised  the  Psalter.  This  “Roman  Psal¬ 
ter”  is  still  used  in  St.  Peter’s.  After  going  to 
Palestine  (385)  he  revised  the  Psalter  anew,  com¬ 
paring  the  Hebrew.  This  so-called  “Gallician 
Psalter”  is  the  present  Psalter  in  the  Vulgate. 
His  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the 
Hebrew  occupied  him  fifteen  years  (390-405). 

The  first  complete  version  in  English  was  that 
of  Wyclif  about  1382,  from  the  Vulgate  (  Wyclif’s 
Bible).  The  Old  Testament  and  Apocryphal  books 
were  translated  principally  by  Nicolas  de  Here¬ 
ford.  The  New  Testament  of  William  Tyndale 
was  issued  at  Worms  (1525);  later  editions  (1534- 


35).  Tyndale  also  translated  the  Pentateuch,  and 
some  other  parts  of  the  Bible.  The  first  complete 
English  Bible  was  that  of  Miles  Coverdale  (1535), 
which  is  based  upon  the  Swiss-German  version 
(Zurich,  1524-29),  with  the  use  of  Luther,  the 
Vulgate,  and  Tyndale.  In  1557  the  English  exiles 
who  had  found  refuge  in  Geneva  during  the  reign 
of  Mary,  produced  a  version  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment,  with  preface  by  Calvin,  and  in  1560  the 
whole  Bible.  This  is  known  as  the  Geneva  Bible, 
sometimes  popularly  as  the  “Breeches  Bible,” 
from  the  rendering,  Gen.  iii,  7.  Meantime  a  new 
version  had  been  in  preparation  under  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  Archbishop  Parker.  Separate  portions 
were  allotted  to  different  scholars,  chiefly  of  the 
Episcopal  Church ;  and  the  whole  was  then  revised 
by  Parker  and  other  learned  divines.  This  version 
(1568)  goes  by  the  name  of  the  Bishops’  Bible, 
vulgarly  the  “Treacle  Bible,”  from  t lie  rendering, 
Jer.  viii,  22,  “Is  there  no  tryacle  in  Giliad  ?”  In 
1582  a  New  Testament  was  issued  by  the  English 
Catholic  College  at  Rlieims,  and  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment  in  1609  at  Douai.  In  1604  King  James 
appointed  a  conference  at  Hampton  Court  for 
determining  of  things  said  to  be  “amiss  in  the 
church,”  and  six  committees  were  appointed  to 
make  a  new  translation.  The  version  appeared  in 
1611.  The  latest  revision  was  due  to  the  sugges¬ 
tion  of  the  Convocation  at  Canterbury.  Two 
companies  of  translators  were  appointed,  one  for 
the  Old  Testament,  and  the  other  for  the  New. 
They  began  to  sit  at  AVestminster  in  1870  ;  the 
New  Testament  was  issued  in  1'80,  and  the  Old 
in  1884.  After  the  work  had  been  some  time  in 
progress  a  number  of  American  scholars  were 
added  to  the  Revision  Company,  and,  according  to 
the  terms  of  agreement,  all  points  of  ultimate 
difference  of  opinion  between  the  English  and 
American  revisers  were  appended  to  the  versions 
issued  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  respect¬ 
ively. 

Bible  Society,  an  association  having  exclu¬ 
sively  for  its  object  the  diffusion  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  was  founded  in  1710  by  Baron 
Hildebrand  von  Canstein,  in  conjunction  with 
Francke,  at  Halle.  In  1802  the  first  steps  were 
taken  toward  the  formation  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  society  was  con¬ 
stituted  on  the  widest  possible  basis,  churchmen 
and  dissenters  being  alike  included  in  it.  The 
number  of  translations  of  the  Scripture,  complete 
or  partial,  which  have  been  printed  or  distributed 
by  the  Society  is  279.  The  Society  now  issues 
annually  above  4,000,000  copies  of  the  Bible; 
the  New  Testament,  and  portions  of  Scripture. 
The  whole  number  issued  from  the  formation  of 
the  Society  to  March  31,  1887,  was  112,253,547. 

The  American  Bible  Society  was  founded 
in  New  York  in  1816,  and  still  has  its  headquar¬ 
ters  in  that  city,  in  the  “Bible  House,”  a  large 
and  magnificent  building  erected  by  special  sub¬ 
scription.  Its  income  amounts  to  about  $524,000 
a  year.  The  American  Bible  Society  issues  annu¬ 
ally  about  1,500,000  Bibles,  New  Testaments,  and 
other  portions  of  Scripture,  and  has  in  all  dis¬ 
tributed  about  49,000,000  copies.  “The  Bible 
Association  of  Friends  in  America,”  founded  at 
Philadelphia  iii  1829,  has  also  distributed  the  Bible 
extensively. 

Biblia  Pauperum  (Bible  of  the  Poor)  was  a 
sort  of  picture-book  of  the  middle  ages,  giving, 
on  from  thirty-four  to  fifty  leaves,  the  leading 
events  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  each 
picture  being  accompanied  by  an  illustrative  text 
or  sentence  in  Latin. 

Bibliography,  a  word  which,  meaning  in 
Greek  merely  the  copying  or  transcription  of 
books,  was  for  a  long  time  employed  in  France 
for  skill  in  reading  ancient  manuscripts,  and  has 
been  generally  adopted  throughout  Europe  as  the 
technical  designation  of  that  department  of 
knowledge  which  deals  with  books  as  books,  and 
takes  account  of  their  literary,  scientific,  or 
artistic  contents  only  so  far  as  these  serve  for  the 
orderly  arrangement  of  books  or  descriptions  of 
them. 

Bibliomancy  (Gr.  la  biblia,  the  Bible,  and 
marteia,  divination),  a  mode  of  divination  by  j 
opening  the  Bible  haphazard,  and  observing  the  | 
first  passage  which  occurred,  or  by  entering  a 
church  and  notiug  the  first  words  of  the  Bible  j 


heard  after  entering  it.  The  Romans  used  the 
works  of  Virgil  for  a  similar  purpose. 

Bibliomania,  the  passion  of  the  book  miser, 
which  impels  to  the  gathering  and  hoarding  of 
rare  books  without  regard  to  their  literary  value 
or  practical  utility. 

Bibra,  Baron  Ernst  von,  a  German  chemist, 
explorer,  and  man  of  letters,  born  in  Franconia 
in  1806,  and  died  in  Nurnburg,  June  5,  1878. 

Bicarbonates  differ  from  carbonates  in  con¬ 
taining  twice  as  much  carbonic  acid.  In  recent 
chemical  nomenclature,  the  prefix  hi-  has  been 
superseded  by  di-. 

Bice  (Ger.  Beis,  Ital.  Biadetto),  the  name  of 
two  pigments  of  a  blue  and  green  color  respect¬ 
ively,  known  to  artists  from  the  earliest  times. 

Biceps  (double-headed),  an  anatomical  term 
applied  to  two  muscles,  the  one  belonging  to  the 
arm,  the  other  to  the  leg,  and  distinguished  from 
each  other  ns  the  biceps  flexor  cubiti  and  the  biceps 
flexor  cruris.  The  former  is  the  muscle  which 
gives  a  full  appearance  to  the  front  of  the  upper 
arm;  the  latter  is  situated  on  the  back  of  the 
thigh,  and  is  one  of  a  group  of  three  muscles 
known  as  the  “  hamstrings.” 

Bicctre,  a  celebrated  hospital  for  veteran 
soldiers,  in  the  southern  neighborhood  of  Paris. 
It  was  founded  by  Louis  IN.,  as  a  Carthusian 
monastery 

Bichat,  M  arie  Francois  Xavier,  an  epoch- 
making  anatomist  and  physiologist,  was  born  in 
1771  at  Tlieirette,  France.  He  died  of  fever,  in 
his  thirty -first  year,  July  22,  1802. 

Bickerstaffe,  Isaac,  popular  playwriter,  was 
born  in  Ireland  about  the  year  1735. — Under  the 
nom  de  plume  Isaac  Bickerstaff,  Swift  wrote  in 
1708-9;  and  the  same  name  was  used  by  Steele  in 
the  Taller. 

Bickerstctli,  Edw'ard,  evangelical  clergyman 
and  missionary,  born  at  Kirby,  England,  in  1786. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Evangelical 
Alliance.  His  son,  Edward  Henry  Bicker- 
stetii  (born  1825),  is  author  of  Yesterday , 
To-day ,  and  Forever,  and  other  poems. 

Bickmore,  Albert  Smith,  born  March  1, 
1839,  a  distinguished  geologist  and  Professor 
of  Natural  History  in  the  New  York  Museum. 

Bi 'cycle,  a  form  of  velocipede  or  lightly-built 
wheeled  vehicle,  propelled  by  the  person  who 
occupies  it.  The  bicycle,  as  its  name  (from  Latin 
bis,  twice,  and  Greek  kyklos,  wheel) imports,  has  but 
two  wheels;  and  as  these  are  placed  in  line  one 
behind  the  other,  the  machine  acquires  and  re¬ 
tains  its  stability  in  the  erect  position  only  in 
motion.  The  front  wheel  of  the  bicycle  is  gen¬ 
erally  about  twice  as  high  as  that  behind,  and 
may  be  as  much  as  sixty  inches  in  diameter. 
The  two  wheels  are  connected  by  a  “  backbone  ” 
which  rests  in  front  on  a  forked  bar  rising  per¬ 
pendicularly  from  the  axle  of  the  front  wheel. 
The  rider,  sitting  on  a  saddle  fixed  to  the  back¬ 
bone,  moves  the  bicycle  with  his  feet  by  means 
of  cranks  attached  to  the  axle  of  the  front  or 
driving  wheel,  and  steers  by  help  of  a  cross¬ 
handle  affixed  to  the  erect  bar.  The  bicyclist 
may  without  undue  exertion,  attain  a  pace  of 
nine,  ten,  or  more  miles  an  hour,  and  can  sustain 
this  pace  for  many  hours.  As  much  as  106  miles 
have  been  accomplished  in  less  than  eight  hours. 
The  whole  machine,  though  now  made  almost 
wholly  of  steel  and  iron,  need  not  weigh  more 
than  fifty  pounds.  The  earliest  form  of  bicycle 
introduced  from  France  about  1820,  had  two 
heavy  wooden  wheels  of  the  same  size,  and  was 
driven  by  the  rider  striking  his  feet  on  the 
ground. 

Bidar,  a  town  in  the  Nizam’s  Dominions, 
British  India,  seventy-five  miles  northwest  of 
Hyderabad.  The  district  of  Bidar  has  an  area  of 
4,884  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881),  of  793,309. 

Bid  asso'a,  a  river  which,  rising  in  Spain, 
forms  the  boundary  between  that  country  and 
France,  and,  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay. 

Biddeford,  a  town  of  Maine,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Saco  river,  ninety-three  miles  north- 
northeast  of  Boston.  Pop.  (1880),  12,651. 

Biddle,  John,  sometimes  called  the  founder  of 
English  Unitarianism,  was  born  in  1615,  in 
Gloucestershire,  England.  He  was  imprisoned, 
and  his  work  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  issued  in  1647, 
was  burnt  by  the  hangman  as  blasphemous. 
Cromwell’s  Act  of  Oblivion  gave  him  full  liberty, 


BIDDLE. 


BILL  OF  COSTS. 


155 


but  in  165o  he  was  banished  to  one  of  the  Scilly 
Isles.  In  1658  lie  was  released,  but  in  June,  1662, 
was  again  sent  to  jail,  where  lie  died  September 
22d  of  the  same  year. 

Biddle,  Clement,  born  in  Philadelphia,  1740; 
died  in  1814.  lie  fought  at  the  Brandywine  and 
at  Monmouth,  and  was  with  Washington  at  Val¬ 
ley  Forge. — James  Biddle,  born  in  1783,  died 
Oet.  1,  1848,  served  in  the  United  States  navy 
during  the  war  with  Tripoli,  and  that  of  1812-15, 
and  commanded  the  Mediterranean  squadron, 
1830-32. — Nicholas  Biddle,  born  1750,  also 
served  in  the  navy;  became  a  commander,  and  in 
March,  1778,  was  blown  up  with  his  ship,  the 
Randolph,  when  over  300  men  perished. 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  an  American  financier, 
born  at  Plii'adelpliia,  Jan.  8,  1786,  graduated  at 
Princeton  College,  and  became  an  energetic  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania.  In  1823 
he  was  appointed  President  of  the  United  States 
Bank,  and  held  that  post  till  1836.  lie  was  next 
chosen  President  of  the  United  States  Bank  of 
Pennsylvania,  but  resigned  in  1839;  two  years 
later  the  bank  became  insolvent.  He  died  Feb. 
27,  1844. 

Bidpai,  also  Pilpay,  the  reputed  author  of  a 
collection  of  fables  and  stories  widely  circulated 
both  in  the  East  and  West,  of  which  the  earliest 
extant  form  exists  in  an  Arabic  version  of  about 

750  a.d. 

Bieletf,  an  ancient  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Tula.  Pop.,  9,171. 

Bielitz,  a  town  of  Austrian  Silesia.  Pop. 
(1880),  13,060. 

Biella,  a  town  of  North  Italy,  in  the  Province 
of  Novara.  Pop.,  11,662. 

Bielo-oz'ero  (White  Lake),  a  lake  in  the 
government  of  Novgorod,  Russia,  of  432  square 
miles  area. — Bielozehsk  is  an  old  wooden  town 
on  the  south  shore  of  the  lake.  Pop.  (1881),  4,286. 

Bielo'pol,  a  town  of  Russia,  106  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Kharkov.  Pop.,  12,178. 

Bienne,  in  German  Biel,  a  town  of  Switzer¬ 
land,  in  the  Canton  of  Berne,  fifty  six  miles  south¬ 
west  of  Basle,  at  the  foot  of  the  Lake  of  Bienne. 
Pop.  (1880),  11,623. — The  Lake  of  Bienne,  lying 
1,424  feet  above  sea  level,  extends  nine  miles 
northeastward  along  the  base  of  the  Jura  Mount¬ 
ains,  its  greatest  breadth  being  three  miles. 

Biennials  are  plants  which  do  not  flower  in 
the  first  season  of  their  growth,  but  flower  and 
bear  fruit  in  the  second  season,  and  then  die. 
Many  of  our  cultivated  plants  and  garden  flowers 
are  biennials,  as  the  carrot,  turnip,  parsnip,  pars¬ 
ley,  celery,  stock,  wallflower,  foxglove,  etc. 

Bienville,  Jean  Baptiste,  born  in  1680,  died 
in  1768,  explored  Louisiana,  and  became  its  first 
French  Governor. 

Bierstadt,  Albert,  a  celebrated  American 
landscape  painter,  born  at  Dusseldorf  in  1830, 
was  brought  next  year  to  the  United  States, 
but  studied  in  Europe,  1853-57.  He  has  received 
many  decorations,  and  is  a  member  of  the  St. 
Petersburg  Academy. 

Bies-Boscli',  a  marshy  sheet  of  water  of  the 
Netherlands,  extending  over  an  area  of  77  square 
miles,  between  the  Provinces  of  North  Brabant  and 
South  Holland. 

Bigamy,  according  to  the  canonists,  consisted 
in  marrying  two  virgins  successively,  one  after 
the  death  of  the  other,  or  in  marrying  a  widow; 
and  persons  so  offending  were  held  to  be  after¬ 
ward  disqualified  for  holy  orders.  But  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  ordinary  English  use  of  the  word  since 
the  thirteenth  century,  bigamy  is  the  entering  into 
a  second  marriage  while  the  first  subsists;  and 
this  is  condemned  by  the  civil  law  and  the  church 
law  of  all  modern  civilized  states. 

In  the  United  States,  bigamy  is  everywhere 
treated  as  a  crime,  punishable  by  fine  and  im¬ 
prisonment.  It  is  punished  in  the  several  States 
by  State  laws  giving  the  courts  discretionary  power 
to  fix  the  punishment.  The  law  gives  the  mini¬ 
mum  and  maximum  punishment,  usually  from 
one  to  ihree  years’  imprisonment  and  $500  and 
$1,000  fine. 

Bigelow,  the  name  of  several  notable  Ameri¬ 
cans  of  whom  the  most  important  are — (1)  Eiias- 
Tus  Bkigham,  born  in  Massachusetts  in  1814;  in¬ 
vented  looms  for  weaving  suspender  webbing  and 
piping  cord,  and  constructed  a  machine  for  mak¬ 
ing  knotted  counterpanes,  and  a  loom  for  weaving  | 


carpets.  He  died  in  1879. — (2)  Jacob,  physician 
and  botanist,  born  in  Massachusetts,  1787.  He 
filled  several  chairs  at  Harvard,  and  died  Jan.  10, 
1879. — (3)  John,  born  at  Malden,  N.  Y.,  1817, 
was  managing  editor  of  the  New  York  Evening 
Pont  from  1850  to  1861,  when  he  went  as  consul  to 
Paris.  From  1865  to  1866  he  was  United  States 
Minister  in  France;  and  in  1875  he  was  elected 
Secretary  of  State  of  New  York.  He  has,  among 
other  works,  written  Lives  of  Fremont  (1856)  and 
William  Cullen  Bryant  (1886),  besides  editing 
Franklin’s  autobiography  from  the  original  MSS., 
which  he  found  in  France. 

“  Bigelow,  IIosea,”  the  nom  de  guerre  under 
which  James  Russell  Lowell  wrote  his  famous 
political  satires,  The  Bigelow  Papers. 

Big  Horn,  a  navigable  river  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  largest  affluent  of  the  Yellowstone, 
rising  near  Fremont’s  Peak  in  the  Rocky  Mount¬ 
ains,  in  the  northwest  of  Wyoming  Territory. 
It  has  a  northeast  course  of  about  350  miles,  and 
falls  into  the  Yellowstone. 

BignoniacPa>,  a  tropical  order  of  corollifloral 
dicotyledons,  closely  allied  to  the  Scrophulariacese, 


Bignonia  radicans. 


from  which  they  may  be  distinguished  by  the 
longitudinal  dehiscence  of  the  capsule,  and  by 
their  winged  exalbuminons  seeds. 

Bigorre,  a  mountainous  district  of  Southwest 
France,  in  the  department  of  Hautes-Pyren£es. 
Tarbes  has  been  the  chief  town  since  the  days  of 
the  Romans. 

Big  Sandy  River,  also  called  ChaUcrawah,  a 
navigable  affluent  of  the  Ohio,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  two  branches  which  rise  in  Virginia. 

Bihacz  (Bihatch),  a  strong  fortress-town  of 
Northwest  Bosnia.  Pop.,  3,097. 

Bilie,  a  fruitful  district  of  South  Africa,  east 
of  Benguela,  and  under  Portuguese  influence. 
Area,  2,500  square  miles;  pop.,  95,000. 

Bijamir',  a  decayed  city  in  the  Bombay  Presi¬ 
dency,  India,  160  miles  southeast  of  Poona.  Pop. 
(1881),  11,424. 

Bijawar,  a  petty  native  State  in  the  Bundel- 
khand  Agency,  India,  with  an  area  of  974  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  113,285. 

Bijbliarn,  or  Bijbaiiar,  the  second  city  in 
Kashmir  State,  India. 

Bijnaur a  town  of  the  Northwest  Provinces 
of  India.  Pop.  (1881),  15,147. — 1 The  District  of 
Bijnaur  has  an  area  of  1,868  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1881),  721,450. 

Bikaner,  the  capital  of  a  Rajput  Indian  State, 
lies  250  miles  west-southwest  of  Delhi.  Pop. 
(1881),  43,283. — The  State  contains  22,340  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  215,371. 

Bilbao,  a  town  of  Northern  Spain,  the  capital 
of  the  Basque  Province  of  Vizcaya  (Biscay),  is 
situated  in  a  mountain  gorge  on  the  Nervion,  eight 
miles  southeast  of  its  mouth  at  Portugalete, 
and  sixty-three  miles  north-by-east  of  Miranda. 
Pop.  (1884),  33,513. 

Bil'bilis,  an  old  Iberian  city  of  Spain,  chiefly 
celebrated  as  the  birthplace  of  the  poet  Martial. 

Bilderdijk,  Willem,  a  Dutch  poet  and  phi¬ 
lologist,  was  born  at  Amsterdam,  Sept.  7,  1756, 
and  died  in  1  s:’>1 . 

Bile  is  a  fluid  secreted  from  the  blood  by  the 
i  liver.  One  part  of  it  serves  in  the  process  of  di¬ 


gestion;  the  other  is  waste.  It  is  colored  yellow 
in  man,  and  in  carnivorous  and  omnivorous  ani¬ 
mals;  it  is  green  in  vegetable  feeders.  The  pri¬ 
mary  cells  of  the  liver  (the  hepatic  cells)  separate 
the  bile  from  the  blood  of  the  portal  vein,  and 
discharge  it  into  small  ducts,  which  unite  to  form 
larger  ones,  and  eventually  the  right  and  left 
hepatic  ducts.  The  latter  unite  to  form  the  com¬ 
mon  hepatic  duct,  which  is  soon  joined  by  that 
of  the  gall-bladder  (the  cystic  duct).  This  junc¬ 
tion  forms  the  common  bile  duct,  which  pierces 
the  second  part  of  the  duodenum,  and,  running 
obliquely  in  its  wall  for  a  short  distance,  opens  on 
its  mucous  surface. 

The  composition  of  human  bile  is  on  the  aver¬ 
age  of 

Water .  about  SO  per  cent. 

Bile-salts .  “  8  “ 

Mucin .  l;  2  “ 

Other  organic  substances .  “  3  “ 

Inorganic  substances  (ash) .  “  0.0  “ 


The  office  of  the  bile  is  to  assist  the  endosmosis, 
emulsif action,  and  solution  of  fats,  and  to  stimu¬ 
late  the  muscular  fiber  of  the  intestines. 

When  the  functions  of  the  liver  are  temporarily 
interfered  with  a  bilious  attack  results.  There  are 
pain  and  discomfort  in  the  abdomen,  usually 
headache,  and  a  yellowish  discoloration  of  the 
skin  and  the  whites  of  the  eyes;  the  tongue  is 
furred  and  the  appetite  impaired,  and  the  temper 
often  becomes  very  irritable.  Vomiting  and 
diarrhoea  often  occur,  and  are  in  such  a  case  salu¬ 
tary  processes.  The  administration  of  a  purga¬ 
tive,  especially  of  mercury  or  of  podopliyllin,  is 
beneficial. 

Bilge  (sometimes  spelled  Bulge)  is  the  part  of 
the  bottom  of  a  ship  nearest  to  the  keel,  and 
always  more  nearly  the  horizontal  than  vertical. 
A  ship  usually  rests  on  the  keel  and  one  side  of 
the  bilge  when  aground.  The  name  of  bilge-water 
is  given  to  water  which  finds  its  way  into  the 
bilge  or  lowest  part  of  a  ship,  and  which,  when 
not” drawn  off  by  the  pump,  becomes  dirty  and 
offensive. 

Bilharzia  ( Didonitm  or  Gyncecophorus  hcema- 
tobius),  a  parasitic  flat  worm  in  the 
fluke  or  Trematode  order,  and  be¬ 
longing  either  to  the  same  genus  as 
the  common  liver-fluke  (D.  hepati - 
cum),  or  to  one  very  closely  re¬ 
lated. 

Bilin',  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on 
the  Bila,  five  miles  southwest  of 
Teplitz,  famous  for  its  mineral 
springs.  Pop.,  5,604. 

Bill,  in  Natural  History,  the 
horny,  toothless,  and  lipless  jaws 
of  birds.  The  bill  is  chiefly 
used  in  seizing  and  dividing 
the  food,  but  also  for  fighting, 
preening,  and  nest-building, 
etc.  It  is  hardest  in  birds  which  live  on 
fruits,  seeds,  and  flesh;  sharpest  in  the 
birds  of  prey ;  more  delicate  in  insectivorous 
forms;  and  softest  in  those  which  pick  their  food 
out  of  the  mud.  It  is  shortest  in  the  graminivo¬ 
rous,  and  longest  in  the  marsh  birds.  In  birds 
of  prey  the  beak  is  hooked,  and  often  notched; 
in  fishing-birds  it  is  usually  very  large;  in  those 
which  catch  flying  insects  the  gape  is  particularly 
wide.  Water  birds  often  exhibit  cross  plates  at 
the  margins,  between  which  the  water  taken  in 
with  the  food  is  allowed  to  escape. 

Bill,  in  its  general  acceptation,  means  a  formal 
written  paper  or  statement  of  any  kind;  originally 
it  was  applied  to  any  sealed  document,  being 
derived  from  Lat.  bulla,  “a  seal”  (Middle  English, 
bilie;  English  Law  Latin,  billa). 

Bill,  in  criminal  law,  is  the  formal  name  of  a 
written  accusation  of  serious  crime  preferred 
before  a  grand  jury.  If  that  body  by  a  majority 
finds  “  a  true  bill,"  the  prisoner  or  party  accused 
is  thereupon  tried  upon  an  indictment  before  a 
petty  jury,  whose  verdict  determines  his  guilt  or 
his  innocence;  but  if  the  grand  jury  find  “no 
true  bill,”  the  accused  is  at  once  set  at  liberty. 

Bill-brokers  are  persons  who  engage  in  the 
purchase  and  sale  of  foreign  and  inland  bills  of 
exchange,  and  promissory  notes. 

Bill  of  Costs  is  an  account  stating  in  detail 
the  charges  and  disbursements  of  an  attorney  or 
solicitor  in  the  conduct  of  his  client's  business. 


BILL  OF  EXCEPTIONS. 


156 


BIOT. 


Bill  of  Exceptions.  In  the  United  States,  this 
phrase  is  used  for  a  statement  of  the  objections 
of  either  party  to  the  ruling  of  a  judge  during  a 
trial  before  a  jury.  Exceptions  must  be  taken  at 
the  time,  and  if  finally  sustained,  a  new  trial  is 
ordered. 

Bill  of  Exchange,  a  document  purporting  to 
be  an  instrument  of  pecuniary  obligation  for 
value  received,  and  which  is  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  settling  a  debt  in  a  manner  convenient 
to  the  parties  concerned.  The  original  and  sim¬ 
ple  purpose  of  a  bill  is  to  obviate  the  necessity  of 
cash  payments  in  the  settlement  of  accounts 
between  parties  at  a  distance  from  one  another. 

Bill  of  Health,  a  certificate  or  instrument, 
signed  by  consuls  or  other  proper  authorities, 
delivered  to  the  masters  of  ships  at  the  time  of 
their  clearing  from  ports  or  places  particularly 
subject  to  infectious  disorders,  certifying  the 
state  of  health  at  the  time  that  such  ship  sailed. 
A  dean  bill  imports  that  at  the  time  this  ship 
sailed  no  infectious  disorder  was  known  to  exist. 
A  suspectrd  bill  imports  that  there  were  rumors 
of  an  infectious  disorder,  but  it  had  not  actually 
appeared.  A  foul  bill,  or  the  absence  of  a  clean 
bill,  imports  that  the  place  was  infected  when  the 
vessel  sailed. 

Bill  of  Lading  is  a  receipt  from  the  captain 
of  a  vessel,  or  a  transportation  line,  to  the  shipper 
(usually  termed  the  consignor),  undertaking  to 
deliver  the  goods — on  payment  of  freight — to 
some  person  whose  name  is  therein  expressed,  or 
endorsed  thereon  by  the  consignor;  and  the 
delivery  of  this  instrument — independently  of  the 
actual  delivery  of  the  goods — will  suffice  to  trans¬ 
fer  to  the  party  so  named  (usually  termed  the 
consignee ),  or  to  any  other  person  whose  name  he 
may  think  fit  to  endorse  thereon,  the  property  in 
such  goods.  In  the  United  States  it  includes  a 
contract  to  carry  safely  and  deliver. 

Bill  of  Mortality  is  a  return  of  the  deaths 
within  a  certain  district,  specifying  the  diseases, 
and  giving  a  progressive  view  of  the  age  at  death. 

Bill  of  Rights,  a  document  setting  forth  the 
fundamental  and  inalienable  rights  of  the  people 
is  called  a  bill  of  rights. 

Bill  of  Sale  is,  in  the  law  of  England,  a 
formal  deed  assigning  personal  property.  In  the 
United  States,  the  effect  of  such  bill  is  to 
transfer  the  property  in  the  thing  sold.  By  an 
Act  of  Congress  of  1793,  every  sale  or  transfer  of 
a  registered  ship  must  be  accompanied  by  a  bill 
of  sale  setting  forth,  at  length,  the  certificate  of 
registry.  But  now  a  contract  to  sell,  accompa¬ 
nied  by  delivery  of  possession,  is  sufficient. 

Billardiera,  or  Appleberry,  a  genus  of 
twining  Australian  evergreen  shrubs  of  the  natu¬ 
ral  order  Pittosporacece.  The  fruit  is  generally 
bluish  when  ripe,  and  is  edible. 

Billaud-V avenue,  Jean  Nicolas,  one  of  the 
Terrorists  in  the  French  Revolution,  was  born  at 
La  Rochelle,  April  23,  1756.  During  the  Ter¬ 
ror,  he  was  the  unfeeling  President  of  the  Con¬ 
vention  and  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety.  He  joined  in  bringing  about  the  fall  of 
Robespierre,  but  was  transported  to  Cayenne 
(1795).  In  1816  he  went  to  New  York,  and  died 
at  Port  au  Prince,  Hayti,  June  3,  1819. 

Billet,  in  Ar¬ 
chitecture,  an  or¬ 
nament.  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  Nor¬ 
man  style.  It  is 
formed  by  cut-  Billet, 

ting  a  moulding  into  notches,  so  that  the  parts 
left  resemble  billets  of  wood. 

Billet,  in  Heraldry,  small  oblong  figures.  A 
field  or  charge  strewed  with  numbers  of  billets, 
is  called  Billety  or  Billettee. 

Billeting,  or  Cantoning,  is  a  mode  of  feed¬ 
ing  and  lodging  soldiers  and  their  horses  by  quar¬ 
tering  them  upon  the  inhabitants  of  a  town.  The 
Constitution  specifies  that  no  soldier  shall  in  time 
of  peace  be  quartered  in  any  house  without  the 
consent  of  the  owner,  and  in  time  of  war  only  as 
prescribed  by  law. 

Bill  i  arils  (probably  from  old  Fr.  billard,  a 
stick  with  a  curved  end).  Some  ascribe  the 
invention  of  the  game  to  Henrique  Devigne,  an 
artist  who  flourished  about  1570.  It  was  brought 
into  fashion  by  Louis  XIV.  as  a  hygienic  exer- 


|  cise.  The  earliest  description  of  billiards  in  Eng¬ 
lish  is  in  Cotton’s  Gomplent  Gamester  (1674). 

In  1734,  French  billiards  first  appears  in  Sey¬ 
mour’s  Court  Gamester.  Maces  tipped  with  ivory 
were  commonly  used.  Cues  had  no  tips  until  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century. 

About  1775,  the  carambole  game  is  first  heard 
of.  Early  in  the  present  century,  the  carambole 
game,  now  known  as  billiards,  ousted  all  other 
varieties  in  England.  It  is  played  on  a  table  12 
feet  by  6  feet,  surrounded  by  cushions,  and  hav¬ 
ing  six  pockets,  one  at  each  angle  of  the  two 
adjacent  squares  which  form  the  bed  of  the  table: 
three  balls,  diameter  2Jg  inches,  are  used.  The 
French  have  long  discarded  pockets  altogether, 
and  play  only  a  carom  game,  with  larger  balls 
and  a  smaller  table.  The  Americans  added  a 
fourth  ball,  and  abolished  the  side  pockets.  Of 
late  years  pocket-tables  have  been  but  little  used 
in  America,  except  for  pool;  and  the  size  of  the 
table  has  been  gradually  reduced  to  10  feet  by  5 
feet,  or  9  feet  by  4J^  feet;  balls  2%  inches  in  dia¬ 
meter.  The  four-ball  game  is  now  seldom  played 
by  experts,  the  French  carom  game  having  super¬ 
seded  it.  Each  carom  counts  one,  and  the  game  is 
usually  for  34,  50,  or  100  points.  The  game  of  bil¬ 
liards  lias  attained  to  great  perfection  in  this  coun¬ 
try.  In  order  to  prevent  experts  from  making  tedi¬ 
ously  long  runs,  the  rules  for  match-games  have 
been  made  much  more  stringent.  The  cushion- 
carom  game,  in  which  the  cue-ball  must  strike  the 
cushion  as  well  as  the  object  balls,  proved  if  any¬ 
thing  too  scientific.  The  latest  limitation  of  play 
consists  in  making  a  balk-line  fourteen  inches 
from  each  rail,  the  player  being  compelled  to  get 
one  of  the  object  b  ills  outside  this  line  after  mak¬ 
ing  one  carom  with  all  inside. 

Billings,  Josh,  the  familiar  pseudonym  of 
Henry  M.  Shaw  (1818-85).  a  land-agent  at  Pough¬ 
keepsie,  N.Y.,  who  published  facetious  almanacs 
and  collections  of  witticisms. 

Billingsgate,  a  gate,  wharf,  and  fish-market, 
a  little  below  London  Bridge,  to  the  west  of  the 
custom  house.  The  phraseology  native  to  this 
quarter  of  London,  has  given  rise  to  the  pro¬ 
verbial  use  of  the  name. 

Billington,  Elizabeth,  a  celebrated  singer, 
was  born  in  London  about  1768.  She  appeared 
as  an  infant  pianist  in  1774.  She  died  in  1818. 

Bil'liton,  or  Blitong,  an  island  in  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  between  the  southeast  of  Banca  and 
the  southwest  of  Borneo.  It  is  about  50  miles  in 
length  by  45  broad,  and  1,855  square  miles  in 
area.  Pop.  (1882),  32,210. 

Billon,  a  name  (originally  French)  for  a  mixed 
metal  sometimes  used  in  coinage,  consisting  of 
gold  or  silver,  with  a  large  .proportion  of  baser 
metal. 

Bilma,  a  town  of  the  Sahara,  Central  Africa, 
on  an  oasis  called  the  Wady  Kawar.  It  is  the 
capital  of  the  Tibu  country. 

Bilney,  Thomas,  martyr,  born  about  1495. 
He  was  burned  as  a  heretic  at  Norwich,  Aug.  19, 
1531. 

Bilston,  a  town  in  South  Staffordshire,  Eng¬ 
land.  Pop.  (1881),  22,730. 

Bima,  a  seaport  of  Sumbawa,  one  of  the  Sunda 
Isles,  and  capital  of  a  State  of  the  same  name. 

Bi'mana  (Lat.  two-handed),  a  term  first  em¬ 
ployed  by  the  Gottingen  anatomist  Blumenbacli 
(1752-1840)  to  describe  the  human  species  in  con¬ 
trast  to  other  mammals.  The  order  was  recog¬ 
nized  by  Cuvier,  but  in  1863  Huxley  showed  that 
the  title  is  deserved  by  some  of  the  higher  apes. 

Bimetallism  is  the  name  given  to  a  monetary 
system  in  which  both  gold  and  silver  are  on  pre¬ 
cisely  the  same  footing  as  regards  mintage  and 
legal  tender.  The  adoption  of  international 
bimetallism  is  advocated  not  only  as  a  partial 
remedy  for  the  appreciation  of  gold,  but  also  as 
a  preventive  of  fluctuations  in  the  relative  values 
of  gold  and  silver.  The  United  States  coins  a 
large  amount  of  silver  every  year,  and  it  is  in 
this  country  a  legal  tender.  France  and  other 
countries  hold  large  quantities  of  silver  which  can 
still  be  used  as  standard  money,  and  which  passes 
nominally  at  about  $1.20  per  ounce,  whilst  the 
market  value  may  be  only  86  cents.  Any  attempt  to 
adopt  gold  as  the  sole  standard  throughout  the 
world,  would,  in  Mr.  Goschen’s  opinion,  produce 
a  disastrous  crisis,  and  the  choice  seems  to  lie 
between  au  international  agreement  and  the  reli¬ 


ance  on  the  self-interest  of  each  particular  nation 
to  make  no  further  change. 

Bi'uary  Theory,  in  Chemistry,  assumes  that  all 
salts  contain  merely  two  substances,  which  either 
are  both  simple,  or  of  which  one  is  simple  and 
the  other  a  compound  playing  the  part  of  a  simple 
body.  This  theory  was  adopted  by  Liebig,  but  is 
now  abandoned. 

Bingen,  an  ancient  town  of  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
Germany,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine,  thirty-nine  miles  southeast  of  Coblenz. 
Pop.  (1885),  7,215. 

Binghamton,  a  flourishing  city  of  New  York, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Ohenango  and  Susquehanna 
rivers,  215  miles  northwest  of  New  York  City. 
Pop.  (1887),  25,000. 

Bingley,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York¬ 
shire,  England.  Pop.  (1881),  9,465. 

Binnacle,  a  wooden  box  or  case  for  containing 
a  ship’s  compass,  together  with  a  lamp  and  other 
necessary  apparatus. 

Binney,  Amos,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1803, 
and  died  in  1847.  He  was  President  of  the  Boston 
Society  of  Natural  History,  and  a  member  of 
many  scientific  societies,  being  specially  inter¬ 
ested  in  geological  investigations.  He  wrote  a 
valuable  work  on  American  mollusks,  which  was 
published  after  his  death. 

Binney,  Horace,  a  distinguished  lawyer,  born 
in  Philadelphia  in  1780;  was  a  Congressman  in 
Jackson’s  time,  and  wrote  largely  on  constitu¬ 
tional  law. 

Binney,  Thomas,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  Congrega¬ 
tional  preacher,  born  at  Newcastle,  England,  in 
1798.  He  died  Feb.  24,  1874. 

Binocular,  a  field-glass  or  opera-glass,  or 
microscope,  for  which  both  eyes  are  employed. 

Bino'mial,  in  Algebra,  is  a  quantity  consisting 
of  two  terms  or  parts — e.  g. ,  a-fb,  or  9  —  5;  a 
trinominal  consists  of  three  terms,  as  a-\-b-\-c, 
or  10  — (—  5  —  8.  The  Binomial  Theorem  gives  a 
remarkable  series  or  analytical  formula  by  which 
any  power  of  a  binomial  can  be  expressed  and 
developed.  Thus,  the  eighth  or  any  other  power 
of  a  -(-  b  can  be  written  without  the  actual  multi¬ 
plication  of  a  -(-  b  by  itself  for  the  given  number 
of  times.  Newton  was  the  first  to  demonstrate  its 
truth  for  all  exponents.  The  discovery  is  engraved 
on  his  tomb. 

Bintang,  an  island  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies, 
forty  miles  southeast  of  Singapore.  Area,  454 
square  miles.  Pop.,  18,000. 

Biii'turong  (Arctic<fs=bear-marten),  a  genus 
of  carnivores  in  the  civet  section. 

Biobio,  the  largest  river  of  Chili.  It  is  2  miles 
wide  at  its  mouth  at  Concepcion,  and  is  navigable 
for  100  miles. — The  river  has  given  name  to  a 
province  with  an  area  of  4,158  square  miles,  and 
a  pop.  (1885)  of  100,871. 

Biogen  esis,  as  opposed  to  Abiogenesis,  is  the 
name  used  by  Huxley  for  the  theory  that  living 
matter  always  arises  by  the  agency  of  preexisting 
living  matter. 

Biography  is  the  artistic  representation  in 
continuous  narrative  of  the  life  and  character  of 
a  particular  individual.  When  written  by  the 
subject  himself,  it  is  Autobiography.  Dr.  John¬ 
son  thought  every  man’s  life  could  be  best  written 
by  himself,  and  doubtless  so  it  could  if  every 
man  were  a  Dr.  Johnson,  and  yet,  probably,  the 
most  interesting  of  all  biographies  is  that  of 
Johnson,  as  written  by  Boswell. 

Biology  (Gr.  bios,  life;  logos,  discourse).  In 
its  accepted  meaning  biology  is  the  science  which 
seeks  to  classify  and  generalize  the  phenomena 
presented  by  and  peculiar  to  the  living  world. 

Bion,  the  second  of  the  three  Greek  bucolic 
poets,  was  a  native  of  Smyrna,  but  seems  to  have 
settled  in  Sicily,  where  he  was  poisoned  by  a  jeal¬ 
ous  rival  some  time  in  the  third  century  n.c. — Bion 
of  Borysthenes  flourished  about  250  b.c.  At 
first  a  slave,  after  gaining  his  freedom  he  studied 
philosophy  at  Athens,  and  afterwards  lived  at  the 
court  of  Antigonus  Gonatus. 

Bioplasm  is  a  word  introduced  by  Professor 
Beale  tor  the  germinal  matter  of  living  beings — 
i.e.,  living  protoplasm. 

Biot,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  distinguished  French 
physicist  and  astronomer,  born  at  Paris,  April 
21,  1774.  In  1800  became  Professor  of  Physics 
in  the  College  de  France.  For  his  researches  on 


BIPED. 


157 


BIRD. 


the  polarization  of  light,  lie  received  the  Rum 
ford  gold  medal  in  1840.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  Academy.  He  died  at  Paris,  Feb.  3,  1862. 
His  son,  Edouard  Constant,  a  distinguished 
Chinese  scholar,  was  born  at  Paris,  July  2,  1803. 
He  was  elected  to  the  Academy  in  1847,  and  died 
March  12,  1850. 

Biped  (Lat.  two-footed),  a  descriptive  term, 
sometimes  applied  to  man,  but  more  frequently 
to  birds. 

Bipiunaria,  the  technical  name  of  a  starfish 
larva.  It  is  a  curiously-shaped,  free-swimming 
form,  with  two  ciliated  bands,  and  with  a  tend¬ 
ency  to  develop  long,  stilt-like  processes.  It 
does  not  directly  turn  into  the  adult.  The  adult 
is  formed  within  the  bipinnaria. 

Birhhuni,  a  district  in  the  Bard  wan  Division 
of  Bengal,  with  an  area  of  1,756  square  miles. 
Birbhum  is  rich  in  copper.  Pop.  (1881),  794,428. 

Birch  ( Betula ),  a  genus  of  Betulaceae,  which 
contains  only  the  two  genera,  Birch  and  Alder, 
and  is  frequently  reckoned  as  a  sub-order  of 
Armentiferae.  The  twenty-five  species  of  birch 
are  all  trees  or  shrubs,  natives  of  northern,  tem¬ 
perate,  and  arctic  regions.  The  Common  Birch 
(B.  alb")  has  small,  long-stalked,  somewhat  trian¬ 
gular  doubly  serrated  leaves.  It  is  a  beautiful 
and  rapid-growing,  but  short-lived,  forest  tree, 
which  in  favorable  situations  attains  a  height  of 
50  to  60  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  1  to  li  feet,  but 
diminishes  in  size  toward  its  arctic  or  alpine  limit, 
at  last  becoming  a  mere  bush.  It  is  the  last  tree 
to  disappear  as  we  proceed  northward.  No  other 
tree  exists  in  Greenland.  The  bark  and  leaves  of 
the  birch  are,  in  some  northern  countries,  used 
medicinally  in  cases  of  fever  and  eruptions.  They 
are  also  used  for  dyeing  yellow.  The  bark  is 
sometimes  used  for  tanning  and  for  steeping 
nets,  sails,  and  cordage,  and  is  the  material  of 
which  the  North  American  Indians  made  their 


Flowering  Branch  of  the  Common  Birch. 

canoes.  The  'JVhite  Birch  of  North  America  ( B . 
p-'pidifi  lin)  very  nearly  resembles  the  common 
birch,  and  is  also  extensively  used.  The  Black 
Birch  of  more  southern  range  ( B .  nigra),  also 
sometimes  called  Red  Birch,  produces  very  hard 
and  valuable  timber.  But  the  name  Black  Birch 
is  also  given  to  another  species  somelimes  called 
the  Sweet  Cherry  Birch  (B.  Icnla),  itself  a  valu¬ 
able  timber-tree.  The  Yellow  Birch  of  Nova 
Scotia,  Maine,  etc.  (B.  cxcelsa),  is  a  large  tree 
with  leaves  3J  inches  long;  its  timber  is  used  in 
shipbuilding.  The  bark  of  the  Paper  Birch  (B. 
papyraced)  is  used  by  the  Indians  and  Frencli- 
Canadians  for  canoes,  boxes,  buckets,  baskets, 
etc.  B.  occidentals  is  found  on  the  Pacific  Slope. 

Birch,  Samuel,  Egyptologist,  was  born  in 
London,  Nov.  3,  1813.  In  1844  he  was  appointed 
Assistant  Keeper  of  Antiquities;  in  1861,  Keeper 
of  the  Egyptian  and  Oriental  Antiquities  in  the 
British  Museum.  Iledied  in  London,  Dec.  27,1885. 

Birch- Pfeiffer,  Charlotte,  a  German  act¬ 
ress,  dramatist,  and  novelist,  was  born  at  Stutt¬ 
gart  in  the  year  1800.  She  died  in  1868.  Her 
daughter  is  the  well-known  novelist,  Wilhelme 
von  Hillern,  whose  daughter  also  is  a  successful 
novelist. 

Bird.  Birds  are  in  some  ways  the  highest  of 


the  vertebrate  animals.  They  represent  the  climax 
of  that  passage  of  water  to  land  which  the  back¬ 
boned  series  illustrates.  Their  skeleton  is  more 


Skeleton  of  Fowl  (exhibited in  section). 
a ,  brain-cavity;  b,  hyoid  bone;  c ,  neck  vertebra;  d. 
clavicle;  e ,  interclavicle;/,  coracoid;  r/,  breast-bone ;  A, 
scapula;  i,  humerus;  k,  radius;  l,  ulna;  m ,  wrist;  n, 
thumb;  o,  united  metacarpals;  p,  second  finger;  q , 
third  finger;  r ,  ribs;  s,  ilium;  t ,  ischium;  v,  pubis;  v, 
ploughshare-bone;  w,  femur;  x,  tibia;  y,  united  meta¬ 
tarsals;  z,  separate  metatarsals;  1,  2,  3,  4,  toes. 

a  6  e 


Section  of  Fowl’s  Egg. 

a,  central  plug  of  white  yolk;  b ,  position  of  germinal 
area;  c,  yellow  yolk;  d,  whiteof  egg;  e,  “tread”  or 
chalaza;  /,  air-space  between  outer  membranes. 


Syrinx  of  Thrush. 
a,  trachea  (opened  below) ; 
b ,  bronchi  (with  rings);  c, 
internal  tympaniform 
membrane;  d ,  muscles;  e, 
nerve  supplying  muscles. 

modified  from  the  general  type  than  that  of  mam¬ 
mals;  their  arrangements  for  locomotion,  breath¬ 
ing,  and  nutrition  are  not  inferior;  their  tempera- 


Alimentary  Canal  of 
Pigeon. 

a,  crop;  6,  proventrieulus; 
c,  gizzard;  d,  d ,  intestine. 


ture,  higher  than  that  of  any  other  animals,  indi¬ 
cates  the  intense  activity  of  their  general  life; 
their  adaptive  intelli¬ 
gence  is  great,  while  in 
range  of  emotion  and 
sense  impressionsthey 
are  superior.  Birds 
and  mammals  repre¬ 
sent  two  divergent 
lines  of  progress,  and 
stand  in  no  close  con¬ 
nection,  but  the  affin¬ 
ities  between  birds 
and  reptiles  are  suffi¬ 
ciently  marked  to  war¬ 
rant  their  being  in¬ 
cluded  in  a  common 
class  (Sauropsida),  in 
contrast  to  the  am¬ 
phibians  and  fishes  Breastbone  and  Shoulder-girdle 

(Iclithyopsida)  on  the  ,  .  ,  ,  . 

v  i  i  i  r  cr,  clavicle;  b,  scapula:  c,  cora- 
one  hand  and  Mam-  coid;  c/,  keel  of  sternum; 
malia  on  the  other.  e,  ribs. 


Brain  of  Pigeon. 

a,  fore  brain;  b,  cerebellum;  c,  optic  lobes;  d,  medulla 
oblongata;  e,  spinal  cord;  /,  olfactory  lobe;  A,  pituitary 
body ;  i,  pineal  gland. 


Wing  of  Tigeon,  showing  primary  (a)  and  secondary  (6) 
feathers,  and  “bastard  wing”  (c)  at  thumb. 


Lungs  of  Bird. 

a,  base  of  trachea;  b,  b ,  bronchial  tubes;  c,  branches  of 
bronchi;  d,  blood  vessel. 


Head  of  Falcon,  showing  beak,  nostril,  eye,  and  ear; 
opening  exposed  by  removal  of  feathers. 


BIRD. 


158 


BIRON. 


Bird,  EmvAitn,  an  English  genre  painter  of 
considerable  celebrity,  was  born  at  Wolverhamp¬ 
ton  in  1772,  and  died  in  1819. 

Bird,  Robert  Montgomery,  physician  and 
author,  born  at  Newcastle,  Del.,  in  1805.  He 
wrote,  The  Gladiator  and  Virginias,  and  died  in 
1854. 

Bird,  W illiam,  a  distinguished  English  com¬ 
poser,  was  born  about  1540.  He  was  the  earliest 
English  composer  of  madrigals.  He  died  in  1623. 

Bird-catching  Spider,  a  name  originally 
given  to  a  large  spider,  Mygale  avicularia,  a  native 
of  Brazil,  Cayenne,  and  Surinam;  but  now  more 
extensively  applied  to  a  number  of  large  species 


decorations  occur  abundantly,  and  the  graceful¬ 
ness  of  the  plumage  is  enhanced  by  the  brilliant 
color  and  metallic  luster.  The  females  are 


Bird-catching  Spider  (from  Bates). 

of  Mygale,  Epeira,  and  perhaps  other  genera. 
The  body  of  M.  avicularia  is  nearly  2  inches 
long,  very  hairy,  and  almost  black.  When 
the  feet  are  stretched  out  the  animal  occupies  a 
surface  nearly  1  foot  in  diameter. 

Bird-cherry  (Prunus  Padus )  is  a  small  tree 
growing  wild  in  moist  woods  through  the  palae- 
arctic  region.  It  is  easily  recognized  by  its 
abundant  racemes  of  small  white  flowers  and 
deciduous  leaves. 

Bird-lice,  a  popular  name  for  a  family  of 
insects  (Mallophaga),  often  placed  beside  other 
lice  in  the  order  HemiptSra.  They  live  on  the 
skin  of  birds  and  mammals,  and  eat  young  feathers 
and  haiis,  and  also  blood. 

Birdlime,  is  a  viscid  and  adhesive  substance, 
which  is  placed  on  twigs  of  trees  or  wire-netting, 
for  the  purpose  of  catching  the  birds  which  may 
alight  thereon.  It  is  made  from  the  inner  bark  of 
holly -trees  or  from  ordinary  flour. 

Bird  of  Paradise,  the  common  name  of  a 
family  of  birds  (Paradiseidse),  found  chiefly  in 
New  Guinea  and  neighboring  islands,  and  re¬ 
markable  for  splendor  of  plumage.  They  are 
very  closely  allied  to  the  crow  family,  Corvidte, 
to  which  they  exhibit  a  great  similarity. 


King  Bird  of  Paradise  ( Paraclisea  regia). 
plain,  sober-colored  birds.  The  true  birds  of 
paradise  feed  on  fruits  and  insects,  and  are  prac¬ 
tically  omnivorous.  The  mode  of  life  is  more  or 
less  gregarious. 

Bird’s-eye  Limestone  (so  called  from  the 
crystalline  points  disseminated  through  the  rock) 
is  a  division  of  the  Trenton  group  of  the  Lower 
Silurian  of  North  America. 

Bird’s-foot  Trefoil  (Lotus),  a  genus  of  Legu- 
minosae,  suborder  Papilionacese.  It  is  eaten 
with  great  avidity  by 
cattle. 

Bird’s-nest  is  a 

name  applied  to  two 
or  more  distinct 
plants,  of  similar 
brownish  color  and 
leafless  habit,  which 
are  root-parasites, and 
grow  more  or  less 
concealed  under 
other  vegetation. 

Birds  of  Prey,  an 
order  of  birds  also 
known  as  Accipitres 
and  Raptor es.  Vul¬ 
tures,  eagles,  hawks, 
falcons,  and  owls  are 
familiar  examples. 

The  birds  of  prey 
form  a  well-defined 
series,  and  corre-z 
spond  to  the  group 
Aetomorphce  in  flux-  Bird's-foot  Trefoil, 
ley’s  anatomical  classification.  They  feed  for  the 
most  part  on  warm-blooded  animals.  They  are 
highly  developed  birds.  Their  senses  are  very 
acute,  their  flight  strong  and  rapid,  their  size  and 
strength  above  the  average.  The  beak  is  very 
strong  and  sharp,  the  upper  part  slightly  over¬ 
hangs  the  lower,  the  margins  are  well  adapted  for 
cutting.  The  toes  are  armed  with  strong,  bent 
claws,  and  the  feathers  come  down  to  the  angle 
of  the  foot.  The  females  usually  do  all  the 
brooding,  but  the  males  keep  up  the  food-supply 
for  the  young.  Their  nests  are  lofty.  The  dis¬ 
tribution  is  very  wide. 

Biretta(Ital.  berrttta;  dim.  of  birrus,  a  hooded 
cloak),  a  square  cap  worn  by  the  clergy  of  the 


The  Great  Bird  of  Paradise  (Paradisea  apoda  . 


The  Paradiseidse  are  comparatively  small  birds, 
but  their  spreading  feathers  are  often  of  great 
length.  The  adult  males  are  in  beauty  unsur¬ 
passed  even  by  humming-birds.  Tufts  of  bright 
feathers  spring  from  beneath  the  wings,  from 
the  tail,  or  from  the  head,  back,  or  shoulders. 
Trains,  fans,  and  exquisitely  delicate  tress-like 


Biretta. 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  by  some  in  the 
Anglican  Church. 

Birkbcck,  George,  M.D.,  distinguished  for 


the  leading  part  he  took  in  founding  mechanics’ 
institutions,  and  in  the  education  of  the  working- 
classes,  was  born  at  Settle,  in  Yorkshire,  in  1776. 
He  was  chosen  President  for  life  of  the  London 
Mechanics’  Institute,  which  is  called  the  Birk- 
beck  Institute  after  him.  He  died  in  Loudon, 
Dec.  1,  1841. 

Birkeni’eld,  a  German  principality  belonging 
to  Oldenburg;  area,  nearly  200  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1881),  38,685.  The  capital,  Birkenfeld,  has  a  pop. 
of  2,500. 

Birkenhead,  a  market-town,  seaport,  and  mu¬ 
nicipal  and  parliamentary  borough  of  Cheshire, 
England,  lies  opposite  Liverpool,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Mersey.  The  Birkenhead  Docks, 
including  the  Great  Float  with  an  area  of  over 
140  acres,  extend  a  distance  of  about  a  mile, with 
a  total  area  of  about  170  acres,  and  9)4  miles  of 
quayage.  The  Alabama  was  built  here,  by  the 
Messrs.  Laird.  Pop.  of  the  borough  (1888),  about 
100,000. 

Birket-el-Hadji  (lake  of  the  pilgrims),  a 
small  lake  ten  miles  northeast  of  Cairo,  where  the 
Mecca  pilgrims  assemble  and  separate. 

Birmingham,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  near  the  centre  of  England,  in  the  north¬ 
west  of  Warwickshire,  with  suburbs  extending 
into  Staffordshire  and  Worcestershire,  112)4  miles 
northwest  of  London.  The  name  appears  in 
Doomsday  as  Bermingeham.  In  fine  metal 
manufactures,  with  the  exception  of  cut¬ 
lery,  in  which  Sheffield  surpasses  it,  Birming¬ 
ham  is  umivaled  by  any  other  town  in  the 
world.  Near  Handsworth,  a  little  to  the  north  of 
Birmingham,  were  the  famous  Soho  Works, 
founded  by  Watt  and  Boulton,  where  steam  en¬ 
gines  were  first  made.  Birmingham  has  been 
remarkable  in  recent  times  for  its  “school  of  poli¬ 
tics,”  of  which  the  leading  principle  is  embodied 
in  the  familiar  phrase,  “government  by  the  people 
for  the  people.”  Since  1885  it  elects  seven  mem¬ 
bers  of  Parliament.  Pop.  (1888),  estimated  about 
510,000. 

Birmingham,  the  capital  of  Jefferson  county, 
Ala.,  and  the  most  important  seat  of  the  iron 
industry  of  the  Southern  States,  is  situated  at  the 
junction  of  several  railways,  ninety-five  miles 
north-northwest  of  Montgomery.  In  1889  the 
aggregate  value  of  its  property  was  estimated  at 
over  $30,000,000,  and  its  population  at  about  30,- 
000. 

Birnam,  a  Perthshire  hill,  1,324  feet  high,  near 
Dunkeld,  Scotland.  Birnam  Wood  is  immortal¬ 
ized  by  Shakespeare  in  Macbeth. 

Birney,  James  G.,  born  in  Kentucky  in  1792, 
died  in  1857.  He  studied  law  and  published 
anti-slavery  newspapers  in  Cincinnati,  where  his 
presses  were  several  times  destroyed  by  mobs, 
lie  became  secretary  of  i  he  American  Anti-Slavery 
Society,  and  was  twice  nominated  (1840-44)  for 
President  of  the  United  States,  but  got  no  electo¬ 
ral  vote.  Ilis  son,  David  B.,  served  in  the 
Union  army,  and  died  in  1864.  Another  son, 
William,  rose  to  be  Major-General  of  volunteers, 
and  a  third,  Eitzhugh,  died  a  colonel  in  the 
service. 

Biron,  the  title  of  a  family  that  has  given  sev¬ 
eral  marshals  to  France.  The  most  distinguished 
of  these  are:  (1)  Akmand  de  Gontaut,  "Baron 
de,  born  in  1524.  Rendered  great  service  to 
Henry  IV.,  and  was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Eper- 
nay  in  1592. — (2)  Charles  de  Gontaut,  Ducde, 
son  of  .the  preceding,  was  born  in  1562.  Con¬ 
victed  of  a  treasonable  correspondence  with  Spain, 
he  was  beheaded  in  the  Bastille  in  1602. — (3)  Ar- 
mand  Louis  de  Gontaut,  Due  de,  born  in  1753, 
fought  with  Lafayette  in  America,  joined  the 
Revolutionists  in  France,  and  defeated  the  Ven- 
deansat  Parthenay  in  1793.  Accused,  however, 
of  oppression  and  falsehood  by  two  fellow-gener¬ 
als,  he  was  guillotined  Jan.  1,  1794. 

Biron,  Ernest  John  de,  Duke  of  Courland, 
born  in  1690,  was  the  son  of  a  landed  proprietor 
in  Courland,  of  the  name  of  Biiliren.  lie  gained 
the  favor  of  Anna  Ivanovna,  niece  of  Peter  the 
Great,  and  when  she  ascended  the  throne  of 
Russia  in  1730,  Biron  was  loaded  with  honor, 
lie  assumed  the  name  and  arms  of  the  French 
Dukes  De  Biron.  and  soon  swayed  all  Russia 
through  his  royal  mistress.  More  than  a  thou¬ 
sand  persons  were  executed  by  his  orders,  ami  a 
far  greater  number  sent  into  banishment.  On 


BIRTH. 


159 


BISMARCK  SCTIONHAUSEN. 


the  death  of  the  empress,  Oct.  28,  1740,  Biron 
assumed  the  regency.  A  conspiracy  was  formed 
against  him,  and,  three  weeks  after,  he  was 
arrested,  and,  along  with  his  family,  conveyed  to 
Siberia.  On  Elizabeth’s  accession  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  year,  he  was  recalled,  and  spent  the  remainder 
of  his  life  in  retirement.  He  died  in  1772. 

Birth  is  generally  applied  to  the  delivery  of 
a  living  child,  and  not  to  the  mere  expulsion  of 
an  ovum,  or  foetus,  or  dead  child.  It  is  only  for 
about  eight  or  ten  days  after  birth  that,  in  the 
case  of  a  healthy  woman,  physicians  c  n  tell  cer¬ 
tainly  whether  or  not  delivery  has  just  taken 
place.  It  is,  however,  generally  possible  to  say 
whether  or  not  a  woman  has  had  a  child  at  some 
time  or  other;  so  that  feigned  delivery  can  gener¬ 
ally  be  detected  by  medical  jurists.  A  child 
reaches  maturity  about  nine  months  after  concep¬ 
tion,  when  the  head  is  covered  with  hair  and  the 
linger  nails  are  completely  formed;  the  average 
length  is  18  inches,  and  weight  between  6 
and  7  pounds,  but  wide  deviations  from  these 
figures  are  met  with.  It  is  very  rare  for  a  child 
to  live  more  than  a  few  hours  if  born  before  the 
end  of  the  seventh  month  from  conception.  With 
regard  to  questions  of  inheritance,  a  child  is  con¬ 
sidered  capable  of  taking  and  transmitting  prop¬ 
erty,  if  it  has  lived  for  an  instant,  although  it 
may  not  have  cried  or*  moved.  Concealment  of 
birth  is  a  criminal  offence  in  the  law  of  all  civil¬ 
ized  countries. 

Biru',  a  Kingdom  of  Soudan,  Western  Africa, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Niger.  The  capital 
is  Walata. 

Bis 'cay,  or  Vizcaya,  the  most  northerly  of  the 
Basque  Provinces  of  Spain,  is  bounded  north  by 
the  Bay  of  Biscay,  east  and  south  by  Guipuzcoa 
and  Alava,  and  west  by  Santander.  Area,  833 
square  miles;  pop.  (1885),  201,700.  Chief  town, 
Bilbao. 

Biscay,  Bay  of  (Fr.  Go’fe  de  Gascogne),  that 
portion  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  which  sweeps  in 
along  the  northern  shores  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula, 
in  an  almost  straight  line  from  Cape  Ortegal  to  St. 
Jean  de  Luz,  at  the  western  foot  of  the  Pyrfinfies, 
and  thence  curves  northward  along  the  west  shores 
of  France  to  the  island  of  Ushant.  Its  extreme 
width  is  about  400  miles,  and  its  length  much 
about  the  same.  The  depth  of  water  varies  from 
20  to  200  fathoms,  being  greatest  along  the 
north  shores  of  Spain.  Into  it  flow  the  Rivers 
Loire,  Charente,  Gironde,  and  Adour. 

Bi  'Ceglia,  a  seaport  town  of  Italy,  on  the 
Adriatic.  Pop.  (1881),  21,675. 

Bisehof,  Karl  Gustav,  a  distinguished  chem¬ 
ist  and  geologist,  born  near  Nuremberg  in  1792, 
in  1822  became  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  Bonn, 
where  he  died  Nov.  30,  1870. 

Bischoff,  Mount,  a  post-town  of  Tasmania, 
sixty  miles  west  of  Launceston,  near  which  are 
some  of  the  richest  tin  mines  in  the  world. 
Between  1884—86  more  than  20,000  tons  of  ore 
were  produced. 

Bischoff,  Theodor  Ludwio  Wilhelm,  an 
eminent  anatomist,  physiologist,  and  embryolog¬ 
ist,  was  born  at  Hanover,  Oct.  28,  1807.  lie  was 
in  turn  Ordinary  Professor  of  Anatomy  and 
Physiology  at  Heidelberg,  at  Giessen,  and  at 
Munich.  He  died  at  Munich,  Dec.  5,  1882. 

Bischweiler,  a  German  town  of  Alsace,  on  the 
Moder,  seventeen  miles  north  of  Strasburg.  Pop. 
(1885),  6,810. 

Biscuit,  in  Pottery,  is  the  name  given  to  por¬ 
celain  and  other  pottery  after  the  first  tiring. 

Biscuits  (Fr.  twice-baked);  in  this  country 
the  term  is  applied  to  small  tea-cakes  made 
with  flour,  milk,  and  baking-powder  or  carbonate 
of  soda.  What  are  called  biscuits  in  England  are 
known  here  as  “crackers”  Sea  biscuits  or 
hard  tack  are  made  of  flour,  water,  and  common 
salt.  Soft  or  sweet  cakes  are  properly  neither 
biscuits  nor  crackers. 

Bishop.  The  word  comes  to  us  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  bisrop,  an  abbreviated  form  of  the 
Greek  epi*copos — i.  e.,  “overseer.”  A  modern 
bishop  alone  ordains  presbyters  and  consecrates 
churches.  He  exercises  authority  over  clergy 
and  laity  alike.  To  him  the  duty  of  preaching 
and  instructing,  and  of  maintaining  sound  doc¬ 
trine,  is  specially  committed.  Roman  Catholic 
theologians  allege  that  modern  bishops  are  by 
Divine  right  the  successors  of  the  apostles.  The 


bishop,  like  the  apostle,  ordains  priests,  rules  over 
them  and  over  the  laity,  and  this  by  Divine  and 
unalterable  institution.  The  position  of  High 
Church  Anglicans  is  much  the  same.  Presby¬ 
terians,  however,  reject  modern  episcopacy  as  a 
corruption  of  primitive  Christianity.  The  Coun¬ 
cil  of  Trent  requires  the  bishop  to  preach  the 
word  of  God,  and  to  maintain  purity  of  doctrine 
among  clergy  and  people.  lie  has  to  superintend 
Divine  worship,  and  is  bound  to  visit  all  the 
churches  of  his  diocese  at  least  once  in  every  two 
years.  He  approves  priests,  and  gives  them 
faculties  to  hear  confessions.  He  makes  laws  for 
his  diocese,  without  power,  however,  to  alter  the 
common  law  of  the  church;  decides  ecclesiastical 
causes  in  the  first  instance;  can  suspend  his 
clerical  or  excommunicate  his  lay  subjects;  he 
collates  to  all  benefices,  except  those  reserved  to 
the  Pope;  he  directs  the  administration  of  tem¬ 
poral  goods  belonging  to  the  diocese;  he  can  dis¬ 
pense  from  his  own  laws,  and,  within  certain 
narrow  limits,  from  the  law  of  the  church.  He 
is  subject  by  Divine  law  to  the  councils  of  the 
church  and  to  the  Pope,  and  by  ecclesiastical  law 
he  is  in  subordination  to  patriarchs,  metropolitans, 
etc.  In  respect  of  orders  he  has  no  superior. 
He  alone  can  consecrate  other  bishops  and  ordain 
priests,  and  he  alone  is  the  ordinary  minister  of 
confirmation.  He  is  now  addressed  in  the  Latin 
Church  as  “  Most  Illustrious  and  Reverend  Lord.” 
His  insignia  are  the  ring,  pectoral  cross,  episcopal 
throne,  miter,  pontifical  vestments,  gloves,  and 
sandals. 

In  Austria,  Bavaria,  France,  Spain,  Portugal, 
Brazil,  and  Spanish  America,  the  head  of  the 
State  nominates  Bishops.  The  election  is  purely 
papal  in  Belgium,  also  in  Holland,  Great  Britain, 
and  Ireland,  North  America,  and  other  Protest¬ 
ant  countries.  A  right  of  recommendation, 
however,  is  conceded  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
chapters  in  Belgium,  Holland,  and  England,  to 
chapters  and  parish  priests  in  Ireland,  to  the 
Bishops  of  the  province  in  North  America.  The 
Gerarchia  Guttoiica  for  1886  enumerates  172archi- 
episcopal  and  729  episcopal  sees  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  In  Ireland  there  were  4 
archbishoprics,  23  bishoprics;  in  England,  1 
archbishopric,  14  bishoprics;  in  Scotland,  2  arch¬ 
bishoprics,  4  bishoprics.  In  the  United  States 
there  were  70  sees.  Besides  these,  there  are  the 
titular  bishops.  They  have  received  episcopal 
consecration,  but  have  no  regular  jurisdiction. 
They  assist  some  other  bishop,  or  are  delegates  of 
the  Pope  where  the  hierarchy  is  not  established. 

In  the  Anglican  Church  in  England  the  author¬ 
ity  of  the  crown  has  replaced  that  of  the  Pope. 
The  Anglican  bishop  claims  descent  in  direct  line 
of  consecration  from  his  predecessors  in  the  middle 
ages.  He  alone  can  ordain,  confirm,  and  conse¬ 
crate  churches.  He  institutes  to  benefices  and 
licenses  curates;  he  has  the  right  to  preach 
throughout  the  diocese,  to  inspect  the  churches 
and  churchyards.  He  can  withdraw  the  licenses 
of  curates,  who  may,  however,  appeal  to  the 
metropolitan.  There  are  in  England  and  Wales 
2  archbishops  and  31  bishops,  besides  4  suffragan 
or  assistant  bishops,  the  archbishops  and  24  of  the 
bishops  having  seats  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
There  are  2  archbishops  and  11  bishops  in  the 
disestablished  Church  of  Ireland;  7  bishops  in  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  Scotland,  one  of  whom  is 
called  Primus;  71  colonial,  9  missionary  bishops; 
and  64  bishops  in  the  Episcopal  Church  of  the 
United  States.  In  Germany  the  name  of  bishop 
fell  into  disuse,  and  the  Lutheran  Superintend¬ 
ent  is  a  mere  shadow  of  a  mediaeval  bishop.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  Lutheran  churches  of  Den¬ 
mark  and  Scandinavia  have  always  been 
Episcopal.  There  are  8  bishops  in  Denmark, 
nominated  by  the  crown,  1  archbishop  and  11 
bishops  in  Sweden;  6  bishops  in  Norway,  which 
last  are  chosen  by  the  clergy.  These  Lutheran 
bishops  have  the  sole  right  of  ordination,  but  in 
Sweden  their  disciplinary  power  is  exercised  in 
union  with  a  consistory,  the  majority  of  whose 
members  are  laymen. 

Bishop,  a  beverage  composed  of  red  wine 
(claret,  Burgundy,  etc.),  poured  warm  or  cold 
upon  ripe,  bitter  oranges,  sugared  and  spiced  to 
taste,  and  drank  either  hot  or  cold. 

Bishop,  Sir  Henry  Rowley,  composer,  was 
born  in  London,  Nov,  18,  1786.  In  1806  Bishop 


was  appointed  composer  of  ballet  music  at  the 
Opera.  Among  his  eighty-eight  operatic  enter¬ 
tainments  were  Guy  Mannering,  The  Miller  and 
his  Men,  Maid  Marian,  Native  Land,  and  The 
Virgin  of  the  Sun — all  less  remarkable  for  origin¬ 
ality  than  for  their  flowing  melodies  and  animated 
style.  The  famous  glee,  “The  Chough  and 
Crow,”  is  his;  many  of  the  most  popular  songs, 
such  as  “Should  lie  Upbraid,”  “My  Pretty 
Jane,”  are  by  him;  and  his,  too,  probably,  is  the 
setting  of  “  Home,  Sweet  Home.”  He  died  in 
1855. 

Bishop-Auckland,  a  town  in  the  county,  and 
nine  and  a  half  miles  southwest  of  the  city  of 
Durham,  England.  Its  abbey-like  palace  of  the 
bishops  of  Durham  was  founded  about  1300  by 
Bishop  Antony  Bek,  and  rebuilt  by  Bishop 
Co.sin  shortly  after  the  Restoration.  Pop.  (1881), 
10,097. 

Bisliopweed,  or  Goutweed,  also  Goatwced, 
or  Herb  Gerard  (h'gopodivm  Podagaria),  an 
umbelliferous  weed  common  in  hedges  and  grass 
plots.  It  is  eaten  by  cattle,  and  the  leaf  stalks 
were  formerly  boiled  and  eaten  as  greens. 

Bismarck,  a  thriving  city  of  South  Dakota, 
is  situated  on  the  east  side  of  the  Missouri,  here 
crossed  by  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway,  on  an 
iron  bridge  which  cost  $1,000,000.  It  is  named 
after  the  German  Chancellor.  Pop.  (1889),  about 
4,500. 

Bismarck  Archipelago  is  the  name  officially 
given  by  Germany  to  New  Britain,  New  Ireland, 
New  Hanover,  and  several  smaller  adjoining 
islands  in  the  South  Pacific,  since  1884  a  German 
dependency. 

Bismarck-Schiinhausen,  Otto  Eduard  Leo¬ 
pold,  Prince  von,  Chancellor  of  the  German 
Empire,  was  born  April  1,  1815,  at  Sclion- 
liausen  in  Brandenburg.  Bismarck  received  his 
education  at  Gottingen,  Berlin,  and  Greifswald, 
where  he  carefully  pursued  the  study  of  law  and 
agriculture.  About  1847  he  began  to  attract 
attention  in  the  Prussian  Parliament  as  an  ultra¬ 
royalist  and  a  fierce,  but  unsuccessful  opponent 
of  the  constitutional  demands  resulting  from  the 
March  revolution  of  1848.  His  diplomatic  career 
commenced  in  1851,  when  he  was  appointed 
Prussian  member  of  the  resuscitated  German  diet 
of  Frankfort.  In  1859  he  was  sent  as  Minister  to  St. 
Petersburg.  In  the  spring  of  1862  King  William 
transferred  Bismarck  as  ambassador  to  Paris.  In 
the  following  autumn,  when  the  King  could  not 
obtain  the  consent  of  the  lower  house  to  the  new 
military  organization,  Bismarck  was  recalled,  to 
take  the  portfolio  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and  the 
Presidency  of  the  Cabinet.  Not  being  able  to 
pass  the  reorganization  bill  or  the  budget,  he 
closed  the  Chambers  (October,  1862),  announcing 
to  the  deputies  that  the  Government  would  be 
obliged  to  do  without  their  sanction.  Accord¬ 
ingly  the  army  reorganization  went  on;  and  the 
next  four  sessions  of  Parliament  were  closed  in 
same  way.  When  the  death  of  the  King  of  Den¬ 
mark  reopened  the  Sleswick-Hplstein  question, 
Bismarck  was  adroit  enough  to  aggrandize  Prus¬ 
sia  by  the  acquisition  of  the  Elbe  Duchies,  and 
reconcile  his  opponents  to  his  policy  by  pointing 
to  the  success  of  the  newly-modeled  army. 
Throughout  the  events  which  ended  in  the 
humiliation  of  Austria  at  the  battle  of  Ivoniggriitz 
(1866),  and  the  reorganization  of  Germany  under 
the  leadership  of  Prussia,  Bismarck  was  the  guid¬ 
ing  spirit,  and  it  was  he  who  negotiated  the 
neutralization  of  the  Luxemburg  territory  (1867). 
The  action  of  France  in  regard  to  the  candi¬ 
dature  of  Prince  Leopold  of  Hohenzollern  for  the 
throne  of  Spain  gave  Bismarck  the  opportunity  of 
carrying  into  action  the  intensified  feeling  of 
unity  amongst  Germans.  During  the  war  of 
1870-71  Bismarck  was  the  spokesman  of  Ger¬ 
many;  he  it  was  who  in  February,  1871,  dictated 
the  terms  of  peace  to  France.  Having  been  made 
a  Count  in  1866,  he  was  now  created  a  Prince  and 
Chancellor  of  the  German  Empire. 

In  1884  Bismarck  inaugurated  the  career  of 
Germany  as  a  colonizing  power.  The  phrase, 
“  man  of  blood  and  iron,”  is  based  on  the  “  Iron 
Chancellor’s  ”  own  use  of  the  words  in  a  speech  in 
1862. 

Bismarck’s  life  has  been  twice  attempted — once 
at  Berlin  in  i860,  just  before  the  Bohemian  cam¬ 
paign,  by  Ferdinand  Cohen  (or  Blind);  and  again 


BISMARK. 


160 


BIVALVES. 


in  1874  at  Kissingen,  by  a  Catholic  tinsmith  named 
Kullmanu,  a  product  of  Ultramontane  fury  en¬ 
gendered  by  the  May  laws.  His  eldest  son,  Count 
Herbert,  is  a  distinguished  diplomatist. 

Bismark,  a  small  Prussian  town  of  2,000  in¬ 
habitants,  thirty-five  miles  north  of  Magdeburg; 
from  it  the  Bismarck  family  derive  their  name. 

Bismuth  (sym.  Bi.  eq.  210)  is  a  brittle  metal  of 
a  crystalline  texture,  and  of  a  white  color  tinged 
with  a  faint  red  hue.  It  is  found  native  in  Corn¬ 
wall,  France,  Germany,  Peru,  Siberia,  etc.  When 
pure,  it  crystallizes  more  readily  than  any  other 
metal;  and  it  exhibits  the  singular  anomaly  that 
when  it  has  been  exposed  to  great  pressure  its 


a,  example  of  native  bismuth  from  Redruth,  in 
Cornwall;  b,  crystal  of  bismuth. 

density  becomes  less.  Heated  in  air  it  burns  with 
a  blue  flame,  forming  yellow  fumes  of  oxide. 
Bismuth  unites  readily  with  other  metals,  form¬ 
ing  alloys.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  is 
called  fusible  metal,  consisting  of  2  of  bismuth, 
1  of  lead,  and  1  of  tin,  the  melting  point  of 
which  is  200.75°  F.  (93.75°  C.),  or  12°  below  the 
boiling  point  of  water.  Bismuth  has  a  specific 
gravity  of  9.83,  and  melts  at  507°  F.  (264°  C.) 

Bismuth  combines  with  oxygen  to  form  several 
oxides,  of  which  the  trioxide,  B;203,  is  the  most 
important.  It  is  employed  in  the  porcelain 
manufacture  as  an  agent  for  fixing  the  gilding, 
and  for  increasing  the  fusibility  of  fluxes,  at  the 
same  time  neutralizing  the  colors  which  are  often 
communicated  by  them.  The  sub-nitrate  or  basic 
nitrate  of  bismuth  receives  the  name  of  Pearl 
White,  Pearl  Powder,  Blanc  de  Fard,  and  Blanc 
d’  Espagne.  It  is  used  as  a  cosmetic,  and  as  a 
sedative  in  inflammation  of  the  digestive  organs. 

Bison  (Lat.;  Old  High  Ger.  Wisund),  a  genus 
of  wild  cattle,  represented  by  two  rapidly  disap¬ 
pearing  species  in  Europe  and  America.  The 
European  bison  (Bos  Europceus  or  Bon  a  ms)  was 
common  in  Europe  in  Roman  times,  but  has 
gradually  been  all  but  exterminated.  It  only 
persists  in  the  imperial  preserves  of  Lithuania 
and  in  the  wilds  of  the  Ural  and  Caucasus.  The 
bison  measures  about  10  feet  in  length,  stands 
about  6  feet  high,  and  is  extremely  strong,  espe¬ 
cially  in  its  fore  parts.  The  bison  is  the  largest 
quadruped  now  existing  in  Europe. 

The  American  bison  (Id.  Americanus)  is  inter¬ 
esting  as  the  only  living  species  of  the  ox  family 
indigenous  to  America,  except  the  Musk  Ox  of 
the  subarctic  regions.  It  is  commonly  called  Buf¬ 
falo,  but  must  be  distinguished  from  the  true 


American  Bison. 


Buffalo.  The  bison  was  within  recent  times  very 
abundant  in  the  prairies  beyond  t he  Mississippi, 
and  from  63°  N.  latitude  to  New  Mexico.  Now 
it  is  nearly  extinct — a  result  of  hard  winters, 
cattle-ranching,  railways  and  immigration.  A 
few  are  left  in  the  Yellowstone  Park,  and  a  few 
in  Montana  and  in  Texas.  The  Canadians  pre¬ 
serve  a  herd  or  two. 

The  difference  between  the  American  and  the 
European  bison  is  small.  The  former  is  slightly 
smaller,  shorter  in  limb,  and  blunter  in  horn. 
The  fore  parts  are  still  more  shaggy,  and  retain 
most  of  their  shagginess  in  summer. 

Bissa'gos  Islands,  a  group  of  small  volcanic 
islands,  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 


Bissell.  William  II. ,  was  born  in  Coopers- 
town,  N.  Y.,  April  25,  1811.  He  removed  to 
Illinois,  practiced  medicine  and  law,  entered  the 
Legislature,  and  took  part  in  the  Mexican  war. 
From  1849  to  1855  he  represented  his  district  in 
Congress,  lie  was  challenged  to  fight  a  duel  by 
Jefferson  Davis,  but  Davis  backed  out  when  Bis¬ 
sell  chose  muskets  at  short  range  as  weapons.  In 
1856  Bissell  was  elected  Governor  of  Illinois  on 
the  Republican  ticket,  but  died  in  March,  1860. 

Bisseii,  Wilhem,  a  Danish  sculptor,  was 
born  in  Sleswick  in  1798.  In  1850  he  was  made 
Director  of  the  Academy  of  Arts,  Copenhagen, 
where  he  died  March  10, 1868. 

Bis'tort  ( Polygonum  bisloita),  a  perennial 
plant,  1  to  14  feet  high,  with  a  simple  stem,  ovate, 
subcordate,  and  wavy  leaves.  The  root  is  about 


Bistort  (Poljgonurn  bistorta). 
a,b,  c,  flowering  stem  and  rootstock;  tf,  a  flower;  e,  a  fruit. 

(From  Bentley  &  Trimen). 

the  thickness  of  the  little  finger,  blackish-brown 
externally,  reddish  within,  and  tortuous  (whence 
the  name  bistort,  and  probably  the  popular  name 
snake-root). 

Bistre  is  a  pigment  of  a  warm  brown  color, 
prepared  from  soot,  especially  the  soot  of  beech - 
wood. 

Bitclie  (Ger.  Bitsch),  a  fortified  German  town  of 
Lorraine,  forty-nine  miles  north-northwest  of  Stras- 
burg.  Pop.  (1885),  2,849. 

Bitliur  ',a  town  in  India,  twelve  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Cawnpore.  Pop.  (1881),  6,685. 

Bithyuia,  an  ancient  division  of  Asia  Minor. 

Bitonto  (ancient  Butuntum),  a  town  of  Italy, 
ten  miles  west-southwest  of  Bari.  Pop.  (1881), 
22,726. 

Bitter  King  ( Soulamea  amara),  a  shrub  or  small 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Simarubapese  (see 
Quassia),  a  native  of  the  Moluccas  and  Fiji 
Islands. 

Bittern  ( Botaurus ),  a  genus  of  birds  nearly 


The  Common  Bittern. 


related  to  the  herons  (Ardea).  Bitterns  are 
chiefly  distinguished  from  herons  by  the  long, 


loose  plumage  on  the  front  and  sides  of  the  shorter 
neck,  and  by  the  greater  length  of  their  toes,  the 
middle  one  being  as  long  as  the  shank.  The 
feathers  can  be  erected  so  as  greatly  to  increase 
the  apparent  size  of  the  bird.  The  back  of  the 
neck  is  downy  or  almost  bare.  The  European 
bittern  (B.  stellaris )  is  distributed  very  widely 
over  the  Old  World.  The  American  bittern  ( B . 
lentiginosus),  a  species  almost  equal  in  size  to  the 
common  bittern,  and  very  similar  to  it  in  habits 
and  voice,  is  common  in  many  parts  of  North 
America,  migrating  northward  and  southward, 
according  to  the  season.  The  Least  bittern  (/?. 
exilm)  is  another  North  American  species,  of  very 
small  size.  The  Australian  bittern  (B.  australis ) 
is  generally  diffused  throughout  Australia. 

Bittern,  Bitter  Liquid,  or  Salt  Oil,  is  an 
oily  liquid  obtained  during  the  preparation  of 
common  Salt. 

Bitters  are  prepared  from  an  infusion  of 
herbs  containing  bitter  principles,  as  Angostura, 
Quassia,  Gentian,  or  Orange  Bitters. 

Bittersweet,  or  Woody  Nightshade  (Sola- 
mem  dulcamara),  a  plant  found  in  hedges  and 
thickets  throughout  the  paltearctic  region  of  Great 
Britain ;  also  introduced  into  North  America.  The 
root  is  perennial  and  creeping;  the  annual  stems 
climbing  and  trailing,  4  to  6  feet  in  length;  the 
flowers  purple,  in  drooping  corymbs,  much 


a,  a  flower;  b,  fruit. 

resembling  those  of  its  congener,  the  potato,  but 
much  smaller,  followed  by  ovate  red  berries  of 
tempting  appearance,  which,  although  by  no 
means  approaching  in  poisonousness  to  those  of 
the  true  nightshade,  contain  an  apparently  vari¬ 
able.  quantity  of  alkaloid. 

Bitterwood,  a  name  given  to  certain  species  of 
trees  and  shrubs  remarkable  for  the  bitterness  of 
their  wood,  particularly  the  West  Indian  X. 
glabra.  Furniture  made  of  this  wood  is  safe 
from  the  attacks  of  insects.  Bitterwood  is  also 
the  name  of  Picrcena  excelsa,  a  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Simarubacese,  a  native  of  Jamaica,  the 
wood  of  which  is  now  alone  used  in  medicine  as 
Quassia,  owing  to  the  scarcity  of  the  Quassia 
amara,  to  which  the  name  was  first  given. 

Bitu'men,  a  mineral  substance,  remarkable 
for  its  inflammability  and  its  strong  peculiar  odor; 
generally,  however,  supposed  to  be  of  vegetable 
origin.  The  name  is  variously  employed,  some¬ 
times  to  include  a  number  of  the  substances 
called  Mineral  Resins,  particularly  the  liquid  min¬ 
eral  substances, called  Naphtha  andPetroleum,  and 
the  solid  ones  called  Mineral  Pitch,  Asphalt, 
Mineral  Caoutchouc,  etc.  Asphalt  occurs  plenti¬ 
fully  on  the  shores  and  floating  on  the  surface  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  met  with  in  mass  in  many 
other  places,  as  in  Trinidad,  at  Limmer  in  Han¬ 
over,  at  Lobsan  in  Alsace,  at  Yal  de  Travers  in 
Switzerland,  etc.  Mineral  caoutchouc  is  elastic 
and  flexible  like  caoutchouc,  and  may  be  used  lor 
effacing  pencil  marks. 

Bitzius,  Albert,  better  known  under  the  nom- 
deplume  of  Jeremias  Gotthelf,  a  popular  Swiss 
author,  was  born  in  the  Canton  of  Freiburg,  Oct. 
4,  1797,  and  died  Oct.  22,  1854. 

Bivalves  form  a  class  of  shelled  animals  or 
molluscs  in  which  the  shell  consists  of  two  limy 


BIVOUAC. 


161 


BLACK  FLUX. 


plates  or  valves,  lying  one  on  each  side  of  the 
body.  Mussel,  oyster,  cockle,  and  clam  are  very 
familiar  examples.  The  great  majority  live  a 
sessile  life,  except  during  their  youngest  stages. 
To  Owen  is  due  the  designation  Lamellibranch- 
iata,  which  refers  to  the  plate  like  character  of 
their  gills,  and  it  is  by  this  title  that  they  are  now 
generally  known.  The  body  of  the  bivalve  can 
usually  be  split  along  the  middle  line  into  similar 
halves.  It  is  bilaterally  symmetrical.  The  shell 
is  an  organic  growth,  and  consists  of  three  layers 
— soft  and  cuticular,  prismatic,  and  mother-of- 
pearl.  The  growth  takes  place  on  the  internal 


Several  Forms  of  Bivalves. 


A  Avicula;  B,  Pectunculus,  with  extended  foot  (a);  C, 

Venus,  with  respiratory  siphons  (a,  6),  and  extended 

foot(e);  D,  .1 ft/a  truncata,  showing  respiratory  siphons 

(a,  b)  and  foot  (c) . 

surface,  and  at  the  margin  of  the  mantle.  The 
majority  of  bivalves  are  marine  forms,  but  not  a 
few  occur  in  fresh  water.  Many  bivalves  (oyster, 
mussel,  cockle,  clam,  etc.),  are  used  for  food. 
Pearls  and  mother-of-pearl  are  obtained  from 
Meleagrina  and  other  forms.  The  valves  of 
Placuna  are  sometimes  used  for  window-panes. 
Larger  shells  are  occasionally  calcined  for  lime. 

Biv'ouac  (through  Fr.  from  Ger.  beiwache: 
bet,  near,  and  icachcn,  to  watch)  is  the  encampment 
of  soldiers  in  the  open  air,  without  tents,  where 
everyone  remains  dressed  in  his  place,  and  with 
his  weapons  by  him. 

Bizerta,  or  Benzerta,  a  fortified  seaport  of 
Tunis.  It  is  the  most  northerly  town  in  Africa, 
being  thirty-eight  miles  northwest  of  Tunis. 
Pop.,  about  10,000. 

Bizet,  Georges,  a  French  composer,  was  born 
Oct.  25,  1838,  at  Paris.  Ilis  comic  opera,  Carmen 
(1875),  was  very  successful.  lie  died  June  3, 
1875. 

Bjornson,  Bjornstjerne,  a  celebrated  Nor¬ 
wegian  writer,  was  born  Dec.  8,  1832,  at  Kvikne. 
In  1857  he  was  appointed  manager  of  the  Bergen 
Theater  by  its  proprietor,  Ole  Bull.  Bjornson  was 
for  years  leader  of  the  “  Peasants’  party,”  and  was 
active  in  bringing  about  the  victory  of  parlia¬ 
mentary  government.  He  settled  in  Paris  in 
1883.  Both  as  a  poet  and  a  novelist  Bjornson 
stands  in  the  first  rank  among  living  Scandina¬ 
vian  writers. 

Bjornst jerna,  Magnus,  Count,  a  Swedish 
Liberal  Statesman,  born  in  1779.  He  died  at 
Stockholm,  Oct.  0,  1847. 

Black  may  be  considered  as  the  negation  of 
color,  resulting  fron  the  absorption  of  the  rays 
of  light  by  certain  substances.  Painters  produce 
it  approximately  by  an  unequal  combination  of 
red,  blue,  and  yellow.  Black  Pigments,  used  in 
painting,  are  derived  principally  from  animal  and 
vegetable  substances.  The  most  important  are: 
Lamp-black. — The  finer  kinds  are  prepared  from 
the  soot  of  burnt  resin,  or  resinous  woods.  The 
coarser  varieties  are  made  from  the  soot  of  oil, 
from  gas-tar,  etc. — Blue-black  consists  of  leviga¬ 
ted  charcoal  from  vine  twigs. — Bone-black  and 
Ivory-black  are  simply  animal  charcoal. — Indian 
ink  is  a  black  prepared  from  a  vegetable  carbon. 

Black,  Adam,  publisher,  was  born  in  Edin¬ 
burgh,  Feb.  20,  1784,  and,  with  a  nephew, 
established  the  firm  of  Adam  and  Charles  Black. 
The  firm  owned  the  copyright  of  the  Encyclo¬ 
pedia  Brittannica  and  Scott’s  novels.  Mr.  Black 
died  Jan.  24,  1874. 

Black,  John,  editor  of  the  London  Morning 
Chronicle ,  was  born  near  Duns,  Berwickshire. 
Scotland,  in  1783.  He  died  June  15,  1855. 

11 


Black,  Joseph,  an  eminent  chemist,  was  born  in 
1728,  at  Bordeaux;  in  1754  took  his  degree  at  Edin¬ 
burgh.  Between  1756  and  1761  he  evolved  the 
theory  of  “  latent  heat.”  He  died  at  Edinburgh, 
Dec.  6,  1799. 

Black,  J EREMiAn  S.,  a  distinguished  lawyer 
and  politician,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania,  Jan.  10, 
1810;  became  judge  of  the  State  Supreme  Court 
in  1851,  and  was  Chief  Justice  till  1857.  He  was 
Attorney-General  and  Secretary  of  State  under 
Buchanan,  and  for  many  years  was  prominent  in 
Pennsylvanian  and  National  politics.  He  died 
Aug.  19,  1883. 

Black,  William,  novelist,  was  born  in  1841  in 
Glasgow,  Scotland.  During  the  Prusso- Austrian 
war  of  1866  he  was  employed  as  special  war  cor¬ 
respondent,  on  the  staff  of  the  Loudon  Morning 
Star.  In  1876  he  visited  America. 

Black  Acts  are  a  collection  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Scottish  Parliament  from  1424  to  1594.  The  name 
was  also  given  to  an  Act  of  George  I.,  relating  to 
poachers  who  wore  black  masks,  passed  in  1723. 

Black  Assize,  the  popular  name  commemora¬ 
tive  of  a  fatal  pestilence  which  broke  out  at  Ox¬ 
ford,  England,  at  the  close  of  the  assizes,  July  6, 

lull. 

Black-band  Ironstone  is  an  ore  of  iron  found 
in  the  Carboniferous  system  in  regular  bands. 

Black  Beetle,  a  popular  term  applied  widely 
to  many  insects,  from  Blaps  to  the  Cockroach, 
which  is  not  a  beetle;  scientifically  it  is  restricted 
to  a  great  family  of  beetles  known  as  Melano- 
somata  in  the  Heteromerous  sub-order  of  Coleop- 
tera. 

Blackbird, or  Merle  ( T urdus  merula or  Merula 
vulgaris),  a  species  of  Thrush,  common  through¬ 
out  Europe;  found  also  in  the  north  of  Africa, 
and  in  the  Azores.  In  Asia  is  found  a  closely 
allied  species,  Turdus  pcecilopterus.  In  size,  the 
blackbird  is  intermediate  between  the  missel- 
thrush  and  the  song-thrush  or  mavis.  The  voice 
of  the  blackbird  is  very  powerful  and  mellow. — 


The  Ring  Ouzel  is  a  nearly  related  species  ( T .  tor- 
quatus). — The  Crow,  the  Redwing,  and  other 
blackbirds  of  America  are  entirely  different.  — The 
Savanna  Blackbird  of  the  West  indies  is  also  of  a 
different  family. 

Black  Book,  an  interesting  collection  of 
English  Admiralty  Law  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
relating  to  the  civil  law,  as  regards  trial  without 
jury,  torture,  etc. — Black  Book  is  also  a  term 
for  the  reports  to  Parliament  in  1536,  regulating 
the  dissolution  of  monasteries  and  the  seculariz¬ 
ing  of  their  revenues. 

Black-bully,  Bally -Tree  Wood,  or  Sapo- 
dilla  Plum  ( Sapota  Mulleri  or  Acliras  Sapota), 
a  South  American  tree,  belonging  to  the  Sapo- 
tacese.  Its  wood,  which,  is  greenish  and  very 
durable,  is  used  for  shipbuilding.  The  inspis¬ 
sated  juice  is  exported  as  gutta-percha. 

Blackburn,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  England, 
twenty -one  miles  north-nortliwest  of  Manchester. 
It  is  the  largest  and  most  important  cotton  manu¬ 
facturing  town  in  the  world.  The  inventor  of  the 
spinning-jenny,  James  Hargreaves,  was  a  native. 
Pop.  (1881;,  104,014. 

Blackburne,  Francis,  Lord  Chancellor  of 
Ireland,  was  born  Nov.  11,  1782.  He  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Attorney-General  for  Ireland  in  1830, 
and  again  in  1841,  Master  of  tlic  Rolls  in  1842, 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Queen’s  Bench  in  1846,  and 
Lord  Chancellor  of  Ireland  in  1852  and  1866.  He 
died  Sept.  17,  1867. 

Black  Cap,  the  cap  worn  by  English  judges  as  | 


a  part  of  full  dress,  and  so  put  on  by  them  when  a 
prisoner  is  condemned  to  death. 

Blackcap,  Blackcap  Warbler,  or  Blackcap 
Fauvette  ( Sylvia  alricapilta),  a  bird  of  the  great 


family  of  the  Sylviadae,  or  Warblers.  It  is  re¬ 
garded  as  the  sweetest  song-bird  in  Europe  except 
the  nightingale. 

Blackcap  Titmouse.  See  Chickadee. 

Blackcock,  Heath-Fowl,  or  Black-Grouse 
( Telrao  tetrix),  a  species  of  Grouse  abundant  on 
the  great  moors  of  Britain.  The  only  other 


Blackcock  (Male  and  Female) . 


British  species  is  the  Capercailzie  or  W ood-Grouse, 
which  is  common  in  Europe.  The  male  some¬ 
times  weighs  as  much  as  4  pounds,  while  the 
female  weighs  only  about  2  pounds.  They  also 
differ  very  much  in  plumage. 

Black  Deatli  is  a  name  given  to  a  fearful  epi¬ 
demic  which  desolated  the  world  from  China  to 
Ireland  in  the  fourteenth  century.  It  raged 
throughout  Europe  in  1348-49,  again  in  1361-62, 
and  in  1369.  It  is  believed  to  have  been  the 
Oriental  plague  with  some  special  symptoms, 
mainly  boils  or  buboes  on  the  thighs  and  arms, 
black  blotches,  and  putrid  inflammation  of  the 
lungs,  with  vomiting  of  blood.  In  most  cases 
the  victims  died  in  two  or  three  days,  and  some¬ 
times  within  a  day.  Boccaccio’s  Decameron  gives 
a  singularly  vivid  view  of  its  ravages  in  Florence. 

Black  Draught,  a  popular  purgative,  consist¬ 
ing  of  an  infusion  of  senna  with  sulphate  of 
magnesia. 

Black  Earth  ( Tchernozem  of  Russian  geolo¬ 
gists)  is  the  name  given  to  a  deposit  which  covers 
vast  areas  in  South  Russia.  It  is  composed  chiefly 
of  siliceous  sand  (about  70  per  cent.),  alumina  and 
other  ingredients  (23  per  cent.),  and  organic  mat¬ 
ter  (about  7  percent). 

Blackfeet  Indians,  a  tribe  of  Catholic  abori¬ 
gines,  living  in  Montana  and  British  America. 
Those  in  the  United  States  number  about  7,200. 

Black-fish  ( Cen trolophus  pompilus),  a  bony  fish 
af  the  family  Stromateidae,  in  the  division  with 
spinous  rays  (Acanthopterygii).  It  is  nearly 
allied  to  the  beautiful  Coryphaenae,  so  frequently 
called  dolphins.  It  is  found  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  on  the  western  coasts  of  Europe,  but  is  every¬ 
where  rare.  It  is  known  to  attain  a  length  of 
more  than  30  inches,  and  a  weight  of  14  pounds. 

Black  Flux  is  prepared  by  heating  in  a  covered 
crucible  ordinary  or  crude  cream  of  tartar,  the 


BLACKFLY. 


162 


BLADDER-NUT. 


bitartrate  of  potash,  KllC-JPOr,,  when  the  tar¬ 
taric  acid,  ILjCALOo,  is  decomposed  and  charred, 
forming  carbonic  acid,  C02,  which  remains  in 
combination  with  the  potaslx  as  carbonate  of  pot¬ 
ash,  K2C03,  accompanied  by  much  free  carbon. 
It  is  used  in  the  fluxing  of  metallic  ores. 

Blackfly,  a  small  dipterous  insect,  which 
appears  about  May  in  Maine  and  other  New  Eng¬ 
land  States,  and  is  known  as  the  midge  or  sand¬ 
fly.  They  come  in  countless  multitudes  and 
cause  great  annoyance  to  both  man  and  beast, 
their  bite  being  worse  than  that  of  the  mosquito. 

Black  Forest  (Ger.,  Schwarzwald),  a  wooded 
mountain-chain  in  Baden  and  Wurtemberg,  run¬ 
ning  parallel  with  the  course  of  the  Rhine  after 
its  great  bend  near  Basle,  and  often  only  a  few 
miles  distant  from  it.  The  Rhine  also  bounds  it 
on  the  south,  and  the  level  country  between  the 
Enz  and  the  confluence  of  the  Neckar  with  the 
Rhine  borders  it  on  the  north.  The  chief  rivers 
rising  in  the  Black  Forest  are  the  Danube,  Neckar, 
Murg,  Kinzig,  Elz,  Enz,  and  Wiessen.  The 
Black  Forest  Railway,  between  Freiburg  and 
Neustadt,  rises  2,000  feet  in  twenty-two  miles, 
and  at  some  parts  has  rails  on  the  rack  system. 

Black  Friars,  an  old  Dominican  monastery  in 
London,  dating  from  1276,  which  stood  near  the 
north  end  of  Blackfriars  Bridge. 

Black  Friday  is  a  name  given  to  May  11, 1866, 
from  a  commercial  panic  then  at  its  height,  caused 
by  the  stoppage  of  Overend,  Gurney  A  Co.,  Lon¬ 
don. 

Black  Guard  is  a  term  used  in  the  sixteenth 
century  for  the  lowest  menials  of  a  noble  house. 
It  was  also  used  of  the  hangers-on  of  an  army, 
camp-followers,  then  a  rabble,  vagabonds. 

Black  Hawk,  a  famous  chief  of  the  Sac  and 
Fox  Indians,  born  in  1767.  He  joined  the  Brit¬ 
ish  in  1812,  and  fought  against  the  United  States 
in  1831-32.  He  died  in  1838. 

Blackheath,a  high-lying  open  common  in  the 
County  of  Kent,  England,  seven  miles  southeast 
of  London. 

Black  Hills,  a  continuation  of  the  Big  Horn 
Mountains,  in  the  southwest  of  South  Dakota  and 
Northeast  Wyoming,  which  came  into  great  note 
about  1875,  on  the  discovery  of  minerals  there.  A 
town  called  Deadwood  was  founded  and  the 
country  settled  up  rapidly.  Deadwood  has  now 
(1889)  a  pop.  of  4,000. 

Black  Hole,  an  appellation  associated  with 
the  confinement  of  146  Englishmen  in  the  mili¬ 
tary  prison  of  Fort  William,  since  called  the 
“Black  Hole  of  Calcutta,”  on  the  night  of  June 
19,  1756.  They  comprised  the  garrison  of  the  fort 
connected  with  the  English  factory  at  Calcutta, 
who  were  captured  by  the  Nawab  of  Bengal, 
and  confined  in  an  apartment  18  feet  square. 
There  were  in  the  morning  only  twenty-three  sur¬ 
vivors. 

Blackie,  John  Stuatit,  a  versatile  Scotch 
writer,  born  in  Glasgow  in  1809.  In  1841  he  was 
appointed  to  the  Chair  of  Humanity  in  Marischal 
College,  Aberdeen,  which  he  held  until  1852, 
when"  he  was  elected  to  the  Greek  Chair  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh. 

Blacking  is  the  material  employed  for  pro¬ 
ducing  a  black  glazed  shining  surface  on  leather. 
The  chief  ingredient  is  bone-black,  mixed  with 
oil,  sugar,  and  a  little  sulphuric  acid. 

Black  Lead  (or  Blacklead),  Graphite,  or 
Plumbago,  a  mineral  consisting  chiefly  of  car¬ 
bon,  but  containing  also  more  or  less  of  alumina, 
silica,  lime,  iron,  etc.,  to  the  extent  of  1  to  47  per 
cent.,  apparently  mixed  rather  than  chemically 
combined.  No  lead  enters  into  its  composition. 
It  is  mined  in  Siberia,  Spain,  Canada,  New 
Brunswick,  United  States  (mines  at  Ticonderoga, 
N.  Y.,  supplying  almost  the  whole  output),  Cey¬ 
lon,  and  elsewhere.  Blacklead  is  employed  for 
making  pencils,  to  give  a  black  gloss  to  iron 
grates,  railings,  etc.,  and  as  a  lubricant. 

Black  Letter  Hie  name 

which  came  into  use  about  1600.  The  first, 
types  were  copies  of  the  letters  in  use  in  Ger¬ 
many  and  Holland  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  were  Gothic  or  “black  letter.”  The 
black  letter  was  long  retained  for  the  printing  of 
Bibles,  prayer-books,  proclamations,  acts  of  Par¬ 
liament,  etc.  The  Black-letter  Saints'  Days  of  the 
Anglican  calendar  were  so  called  from  being 


printed  in  old  calendars  in  black  letters,  whereas 
the  greater  feasts  were  usually  printed  in  red 
(hence  Red-letter  Days). 

Black  List.  A  name  familiarly  applied  in 
England  to  printed  lists  affecting  the  credit  of 
firms  and  individuals,  which  are  circulated  for 
the  private  guidance  of  the  mercantile  community. 
In  the  United  States  the  mercantile  agencies 
provide  information  of  this  kind. 

Blacklock,  Thomas,  D.D.,  poet,  was  born  at 
Annan,  Scotland,  in  1721,  and  lost  his  sight 
through  small-pox  before  he  was  six  months  old. 
He  died  in  1791. 

Blackmail,  a  rent  or  tribute  for  immunity 
formerly  exacted  by  l'reebooting  chiefs  from  the 
people  in  the  Border  counties  of  England  and 
Scotland,  and  along  the  Highland  border.  Rob 
Roy  was,  about  1730,  a  notable  levier  of  black¬ 
mail. 

Black  Monday,  Easter  Monday,  April  14, 1360, 
so  called  from  its  extraordinary  darkness  and  bit¬ 
ter  cold. 

Blackmore,  Richard  Doddridge,  a  well 
known  English  poet  and  novelist,  was  born  at 
Longworth,  Berkshire,  in  1825.  Lorna  Doone  is 
his  greatest  novel.  His  other  novels  are:  Clara 
Vaughan ;  Craddock  Nowell;  The  Maid  of  Sker ; 
Alice  Lorraine;  Cripps  the  Carrier;  Erema;  Mary 
Anerley;  Christoicell,  a  Dartmoor  Tale;  Tommy  Up- 
more,  and  Springliaven. 

Blackpool,  a  flourishing  watering-place  of 
Lancashire,  England,  on  the  coast  of  the  Irish 
Sea.  Pop.  (1881),  14,229. 

Black  Prince,  the  popular  name  of  Edward 
(1330-76),  eldest  son  of  Edward  III. 

Black  Quarter,  also  called  Black  Spald,  Black 
Leg,  Quarter  Evil,  Blood  Striking,  Symptomatic 
Charbon,  Chabert’s  Disease,  is  a  contagious  and 
infectious  diseas.e  of  cattle  due  to  the  presence  of 
a  specific  organism,  which  usually  exerts  its  malig¬ 
nant  influence  upon  the  tissues  immediately  be¬ 
neath  the  skin.  The  disease  is  almost  invariably 
fatal,  and  no  treatment  is  of  any  avail.  Preven¬ 
tion  is  of  two  kinds.  First,  to  render  the  pastures 
unfit  to  propagate  the  poison,  by  deep  draining, 
and,  secondly,  to  render  the  system  of  the  animal 
innocuous  to  the  poison  by  protective  inoculation. 

Black  Rod,  Gentleman-Usher  of  the,  an 
officer  of  the  English  House  of  Lords.  He  is  the 
chief  door-keeper  and  messenger  of  the  House. 

Black  Sea,  or  Euxine  (the  rout  us  Euxinus  of 
the  ancients),  is  an  inland  sea  lying  between 
Europe  and  Asia,  extending  from  41°  to  46°  38' 
N.  latitude,  and  from  27°  30'  to  41°  50'  E. 
longitude.  Its  greatest  length  from  east  to  west, 
on  "the  42d  parallel,  is  720  miles;  its  greatest 
breadth,  near  the  west  end,  380  miles;  and  its  area, 
exclusive  of  the  Sea  of  Azov,  is  163,711  square 
miles,  according  to  Strelbitsky.  On  the  south¬ 
western  extremity  it  communicates  by  the  Bos¬ 
porus,  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  and  the  Dardanelles, 
with  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  northeast  by 
the  Straits  of  Kertch,  or  Yenikale,  with  the  Sea 
of  Azov.  The  Black  Sea  drains  nearly  one-fourth 
of  the  surface  of  Europe,  and  also  about  114,000 
square  miles  of  Asia.  It  has  but  one  island — 
Adassi,  or  Isle  of  Serpents.  In  the  center  its 
depth  ranges  between  1,000  and  1,070  fathoms. 
The  specific  gravity  of  the  water  of  the  Black  Sea 
is  1,014  (fresh  water  being  =  1,000),  while  that  of 
the  Mediterranean  is  1,028.  The  shores  from 
Odessa  to  the  Crimea  are  ice-bound  during  Janu¬ 
ary  and  February.  There  is  no  tide  in  this  sea. 
There  is  a  strong  flow  out  through  the  Bosporus. 
'I’lie  most  important  ports  on  the  Black  Sea  are 
Kustendji,  Sulina,  Odessa,  Nikolaiev,  Kherson, 
Eupatoria,  Kertch,  Sebastopol,  Poti,  Batoum, 
Trebizond,  Samsun,  Sinope,  and  Varna.  The 
Bosporus  and  Dardanelles  are  still  closed  to  ships 
of  war  except  those  of  Russia  and  Turkey,  but 
the  Sultan  can  open  them  to  allies. 

Black  Snake  ( Bascanium  constrictor,  see  Col¬ 
uber),  a  species  of  snake  common  in  the  United 
States,  from  Louisiana  to  Connecticut.  Barring 
the  white  throat,  it  is  of  an  almost  uniform  leaden 
color,  is  one  of  the  largest  serpents  in  North 
America,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  great  speed. 
It  feeds  on  small  quadrupeds,  birds,  frogs,  and  is 
a  persistent  enemy  of  the  rattlesnake,  which  it 
crushes  in  its  coils.  It  has  no  poison  fangs. — The 
commonest  Australian  snake  (Pseudechis  porpliy- 
ricus),  found  in  marshy  places,  is  also  called  the 


Black  Snake.  It  may  measure  over  six  feet  in 
length,  is  very  venomous,  belongs  to  the  family 
Elapidae,  and  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Cobra. 

Blackstone,  Sir  William,  commentator  on 
English  law,  was  born  July  10,  1723,  and  in  1746 
was  called  to  the  bar.  In  1763  he  was  made 
Solicitor-General  to  the  Queen.  In  1765-69  he 
published  the  four  volumes  of  his  lectures,  which 
form  his  celebrated  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of 
England.  Four  years  later  he  declined  the 
solicitor-generalship,  and,  having  been  knighted, 
was  made  a  Justice  of  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas.  He  died  Feb.  14,  1780. 

Black  Match  (Gaelic  Freiceadan  Dubli),  the 
first  of  the  Highland  regiments.  I11  1743  the  reg¬ 
iment  first  went  into  action  at  Fontenoy,  since 
when  it  has  been  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
corps  in  the  British  army. 

Black  Water,  Red  Water,  Muir-ill,  or 
ILemo-Albuminuria,  is  a  dietetic  disease  of  cat¬ 
tle,  which  is  diagnosed  by  the  following  symp¬ 
toms:  Loss  of  condition,  loss  of  appetite,  obsti¬ 
nate  constipation,  dicrotonous  and  weak  pulse, 
yellow  mucous  membranes,  staring  dry  coat,  and 
the  frequent  passage  of  urine  of  a  red -brown  or 
almost  black  color,  and  having  a  strong  odor  of 
rotten  turnips.  It  is  a  rapidly  fatal  disease,  and 
most  frequently  seen  in  ill-fed  animals,  or  ani¬ 
mals  grazing  on  badly  drained,  poorly  cultivated 
land. 

Blackwell,  Elizabeth,  the  first  woman  that 
obtained  a  medical  diploma  in  the  United  States, 
was  born  at  Bristol,  England,  in  1821.  Her 
family  came  to  this  country  in  1832.  She  was 
graduated  from  the  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  Medical  Col¬ 
lege  in  1849,  and  visiting  Europe  to  continue  her 
studies,  was  admitted  into  the  Maternite  Hospital 
at  Paris,  and  St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospital  in 
London.  In  1851  she  returned  to  New  York 
and  established  herself  in  practice,  In  1869  she 
returned  to  England,  where  she  took  up  the  role 
of  social  reformer. 

Blackwell’s  Island,  an  island  in  the  East 
river,  New  York,  the  site  of  several  of  the  city’s 
penal  and  charitable  institutions. 

Blackwood,  William,  a  distinguished  Edin¬ 
burgh  publisher,  the  originator,  in  1817,  of  Black¬ 
wood’s  Magazine, was  born  in  Edinburgh,  Nov. 20, 
1776.  He  died  Sept.  16,  1834.  His  place  was  filled, 
between  1834  and  1852,  by  his  sons,  Alexander  and 
Robert.  John  (1818—79),  the  third  son,  was  editor 
from  1852.  All  but  one  of  “George  Eliot’s” 
novels  were  issued  by  this  house. 

Bladder  (urinary),  is  a  hollow  bag  for  the 
reception  of  the  urine.  When  moderately  dis¬ 
tended  it  has  a  capacity  of  about  a  pint,  but 
under  various  conditions  it  is  capable  of  holding 
far  more,  and  when  completely  paralyzed  there 
is  no  limit  to  its  distension.  In  general  zoological 
usage  the  term  is  applied  also  to  that  outgrowth 
from  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  gut  which  forms 
the  air  or  swim-bladder  of  many  fishes,  and  serves 
in  a  few  cases  as  an  incipient  lung. 

Bladder-Nut  ( Staphylea ),  a  very  widely  dis¬ 
tributed  genus  of  deciduous  shrubs  or  small 


Common  Bladder-nut  (Staphylea  pinnata). 
a,  a  flower;  b,  fruit. 


trees,  usually  referred  to  the  order  Celastraceae. 
The  North  American  S.  trifoliata  is  often  used  in 


BLADDER-SEED.  BLEACHING. 


shrubberies.  The  wood  is  firm  and  white,  well 
suited  for  turning. 

Bladder-Seed  ( Physospermum  cornvbiense),  an 
umbelliferous  weed,  noted  for  its  inflated  fruit. 

Bladder-senna  (Colutea  obarescens),  a  legu¬ 
minous  tree  of  Southern  Europe  with  inflated 
pods.  It  owes  its  name  partly  to  the  tradition  of 
the  use  of  its  leaflets  for  adulterating  senna. 

Bladder-worm,  the  asexual  stage  of  a  tape¬ 
worm  or  cestode.  It  is  found  encysted  in  flesh. 
The  stage  owes  its  name  to  the  bladder-like  form 
resulting  from  the  encysted  embryo.  _  Within  the 
bladder  a  “head”  is  developed  which  is  event¬ 
ually  turned  outwards,  and  retains  the  bladder 
bs  a  sort  of  appendage. 

Bladderwort  ( Utricularia)  a  genus  of  Lenti- 
bulariacese,  remarkable  in  being  insectivorous. 
The  120  species  are  often  aquatic  or  floating,  the 
leaves  frequently  floating  and  divided,  the 
flowers  generally  yellow.  The  stems  and  leaves 
bear  the  characteristic  insect-catching  pitchers. 

Bladensburg,  a  village  of  Maryland,  on  the 
east  branch  of  the  Potomac,  six  miles  northeast 
of  Washington.  Here  the  battle  which  decided 
the  fate  of  the  capital  was  fought  Aug.  24,  1812. 

Blaeu  (spelt  also  Baeuw  and  Blauw,  Lat. 
Cassius),  Willem  Janszoon,  a  map-drawer  and 
printer,  was  born  at  Alkmaar,  Holland,  in  1571. 
He  died  in  1638. — His  son,  Jan (died  1673),  began 
the  map  business  at  Amsterdam  in  1637,  after¬ 
ward  taking  into  partnership  his  brother,  Cor¬ 
nells  (died  1650). 

Blaine,  James  Gillespie,  was  born  at  West 
Brownsville,  Pa.,  Jan.  31,  1830,  was  graduated 
at  Washington  College,  in  1847,  and  became  a 
teacher  in  a  military  institute  in  Kentucky,  and 
afterward  in  the  Pennsylvania  Institution  for  the 
Blind.  In  1854  he  settled  as  a  journalist  at 
Augusta,  Maine,  and  served  in  the  State  Legisla* 
ture  from  1858  to  1862;  from  1862  to  1876  he  sat 
in  Congress,  being  Speaker  in  1869-74.  In  the 
Republican  nominations  of  1876  and  1880  he 
was  defeated  by  Hayes  and  Garfield.  Appointed 
United  States  Senator  for  Maine  in  1876,  he 
served  till  1881,  and  acted  as  Secretary  of  State 
under  Garfield,  but  resigned  on  Garfield's  assas¬ 
sination.  The  Republican  candidate  for  the 
presidency  in  1884,  he  was  defeated  at  the  polls 
by  Cleveland.  On  March  5,  1889,  he  became 
Secretary  of  State  in  President  Harrison’s 
cabinet. 

Blainville,  Henri  Marie  Ducrotay  de, 
French  zoologist  and  anatomist,  was  born  in 
1778,  near  Dieppe,  became  a  member  of  the  In¬ 
stitute;  and  in  1832  successor  of  Cuvier  in  the 
Chair  of  Comparative  Anatomy  in  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History.  He  died  May  1,  1850. 

Blair,  Robert,  author  of  The  Grave,  was  born 
in  1699  at  Edinburgh,  where  his  father  was  a 
clergyman.  He  died  Feb.  4,  1746. 

Blair-Athole,  a  village  in  Perthshire,  Scot¬ 
land.  Blair  Castle  is  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of 
Athole. 

Blair,  Francis  Preston,  born  in  Virginia, 
April  12,  1791;  edited  the  Washington  Globe  for 
many  years,  and  died  Oct.  18,  1876.— His  son 
Montgomery,  born  in  Kentucky^  May  10,  1813, 
died  July  27,  1883,  studied  at  West  Point  and 
served  in  the  Seminole  war.  He  became  a  lawyer 
and  was  counsel  for  the  plaintiff  in  the  famous 
Dred  Scott  case.  He  became  a  Republican  and 
was  Postmaster-General,  1861-64,  but  afterward 
acted  with  the  Greeley  faction. — Francis  Pres¬ 
ton  Blair,  Jr.,  born  in  Kentucky,  Feb.  19, 
1821,  served  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  elected 
to  Congress  in  1856  as  a  Republican  and  reelected 
in  I860  and  1862.  In  1861  he  entered  the  army 
as  Colonel  of  volunteers,  became  a  Major-General, 
commanded  a  division  at  Vicksburg,  and  in 
1864-65  had  command  of  the  17th  corps,  and 
marched  with  Sherman  from  Chattanooga  to 
Atlanta  and  thence  to  the  sea.  He  returned  to 
the  Democratic  party,  and  in  1868  was  its  candi¬ 
date  for  vice-president,  but  was  defeated.  In 
1870  he  became  one  of  the  Senators  from  Missouri, 
and  died  July  8,  1875. 

^  Blake,  Robert,  next  to  Nelson  the  greatest  of 
English  admirals,  was  born  at  Bridgewater,  in 
August,  1599.  In  various  battles  with  tlie  Dutch 
navy  under  Van  Tromp  and  others  he  maintained 
the  supremacy'  of  Britain  on  the  seas.  He  also 
made  the  arms  of  his  country'  respected  on  the 


Mediterranean,  by  the  Latin  nations  as  well  as  by 
the  Mohammedan  pirates  of  Algiers  and  Tunis. 
After  his  last  and  greatest  sea  fight  on  April  20, 
1657,  he  died  on  shipboard,  August  7th  of  the 
same  year. 

Blake,  William,  engraver,  painter,  and  poet, 
was  born  in  London,  Nov.  28,  1757.  He  believed 
his  poems  to  be  dictated  by  the  spirit  of  his  dead 
brother.  He  died  in  1827. 

Blanc,  Le,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Indre,  on  the  Creuse.  Pop.  (1886),  5,724. 

Blanc,  Jean  Joseph  Louis,  a  celebrated 
French  socialist  and  historian,  was  born  Oct.  29, 
1811,  at  Madrid.  His  chief  works  are  Organiza¬ 
tion  du  Travail,  Histoire  de  Dix  Am,  and  the  His- 
toire  de  la  Revolution  Frangaise.  His  great 
popularity  with  the  working  classes  led  to  his 
being  appointed  a  member  of  the  Provisional 
Government  in  1848,  and  he  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  the  commission  for  discussing  the  problem 
of  labor.  After  the  disturbances  of  that  year  he 
lived  in  London  until  the  fall  of  the  Empire,  when 
he  returned  to  France  and  was  elected  to  the 
National  Assembly  in  1871.  After  1876  he  was 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  died 
at  Cannes,  Dec.  6,  1882. 

Blanchard,  Edward  Laman,  journalist  and 
theatrical  writer,  a  son  of  William  Blanchard, 
the  comedian,  was  born  in  London,  Dec.  11, 1820. 
He  has  written  two  novels,  and  is  the  editor  of 
Bradshaw’s  Descriptive  Railway  Guides. 

Blanching,  or  Etiolation,  is  a  process  of 
culture  by  exclusion  of  light  resorted  to  by  gar¬ 
deners,  to  prevent  certain  acrid  secretions  which, 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  take  place  in  the  leaves 
of  plants,  and  so  to  render  them  more  pleasant 
and  wholesome  for  food. 

Blanc- mange  (Old  Fr.  blanc-manger,  white 
food),  a  dish  formerly  made  of  fowl,  meat,  eggs, 
etc. ;  now  of  gelatine  or  isinglass  and  milk,  or  of 
corn-flour  and  milk. 

Blanco,  Cape,  a  remarkable  headland  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  in  20°  47 '  N.  latitude,  and 
16°  58'  W.  longitude. 

Blamlrata,  Giorgio,  properly  Biandrata, 
the  founder  of  Unitarianism  in  Poland  and  Tran¬ 
sylvania,  was  born  in  Piedmont,  about  1515,  and 
died  about  1590. 

Blankenburg,  a  town  of  Brunswick,  on  the 
borders  of  the  Hartz  Mountains.  Pop.  (1885), 
6,010. — Also,  Blankenburg,  a  bathing  place  with 
2,120  inhabitants,  twenty -five  miles  south-by-west 
of  Weimar. 

Blankets.  The  best  qualities  are  wholly  of 
wool,  though  cheaper  grades  are  formed  of  cotton 
warp  and  woolen  weft  threads,  in  which  the  soft 
wool  is  spread  over  the  strong  cotton  web.  Cer¬ 
tain  of  the  finest  American  blankets  sell  at  from 
$30  to  $50  a  pair,  and  nothing  comparable  with 
them  in  weight,  thickness,  softness,  and  perfection 
of  face  had  ever  before  been  attempted.  Some 
of  the  American  Indians,  especially  the  Navajoes, 
make  blankets,  which  for  beauty,  warmth,  and 
durability,  have  never  been  surpassed.  Extraordi¬ 
narily  fine  woolen  blankets  are  made  in  Mysore  in 
India;  some,  it  is  said,  so  delicate  that,  though  as 
much  as  eighteen  feet  long,  they  can  be  rolled  in¬ 
side  a  hollow  bamboo. 

Blank  Verse,  or  verse  without  rhyme,  a  name 
applied  especially  to  the  iambic  pentameter  or 
unrhymed  five-foot  iambic  of  English  dramatic 
and  epic  poetry.  The  first  specimen  of  blank 
verse  in  English  is  a  translation  of  the  second  and 
fourth  books  of  Virgil’s  AEneid,  by  the  Earl  of 
Surrey.  Shakespeare’s  plays  are  nearly  all  in 
blank  verse.  Milton’s  Paradise  Lost  (1667)  was 
the  first  great  poem  written  in  blank  verse.  From 
Milton’s  time  blank  verse  has  been  common  for 
narrative,  didactic,  or  descriptive  poetry. 

Blanqui,  Jerome  .Adolphe,  a  French  polit¬ 
ical  economist,  was  born  in  1798  at  Nice.  He  was 
one  of  the  editors  of  the  Dictionnaire  de  V Indus¬ 
trie.  He  died  at  Paris,  Jan.  28,  1854.  His  most 
important  work  is  the  Histoire  de  V  Economie 
Politique  en  Europe  (1838). — His  brother,  Louis 
Auguste  Blanqui,  born  at  Nice  in  1805,  was  one 
of  the  foremost  fighters  in  all  the  French  revo¬ 
lutions  of  this  century.  For  his  share  in  the  dis¬ 
turbances  of  1848  he  was  rewarded  with  ten  years’ 
imprisonment  in  Belleisle,  and  in  1861  was  sen¬ 
tenced  to  four  years’  further  imprisonment.  In 
1871  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  forming  the 


Commune.  He  was  condemned  to  imprisonment 
for  life,  from  which  he  was  released  in  1879.  He 
died  Jan.  1,1881,  and  is  buried  in  Pere-la-Chaise. 

Blaps,  a  genus  of 
Black  Beetles,  with  more 
than  100  species.  They 
are  dark  and  darkness- 
loving  forms,  wingless, 
feeding  on  dead  vege¬ 
table  matter,  and  with 
the  power  of  ejecting  for 
several  inches  an  acrid 
fluid  of  pungent  odor. 

Blarney  (from  the 
name  of  a  castle  near 
Cork,  in  the  wall  of 
which  is  a  stone  that  is  maps, 

said  to  endue  any  one  who  kisses  it  with  heroic 
powers  of  cajolery),  an  Irish  colloquial  term 
characterizing  excessive  compliment. 

Blasius,  St.,  Bishop  of  Sebaste,  Cappadocia, 
suffered  martyrdom  in  316.  His  day  falls  on 
February  3d. 

Blasphemy,  according  to  the  canon  law,  was 
either  heretical  or  simple.  The  former  consisted 
in  denying  God  or  an  article  of  faith.  Simple 
blasphemy  consisted  in  making  untrue  and  un¬ 
becoming  statements  about  God,  the  Virgin,  or 
the  saints.  These  offenses  were  severely  punished 
both  at  Rome  and  in  the  Cismontane.  churches. 
An  English  statute  of  1698,  partly  repealed  in 
1813,  declares  it  an  offence  “  to  assert  that  there 
are  more  Gods  than  one,  to  deny  the  Christian 
religion  to  be  true,  or  the  Holy  Scriptures  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament  to  be  of  Divine 
authority.”  The  punishment  is  incapacity  to  hold 
office,  and  on  a  second  conviction  imprisonment 
for  three  years.  The  courts  of  the  United  States 
hold  that  one  who  maliciously  uses  language  cal¬ 
culated  to  sap  the  foundations  of  society  and 
public  order  may  be  punished;  but  evil  motive 
is  essential  to  the  offence,  and  discussion  of  re¬ 
ligious  doctrine  is  not  to  be  interfered  with. 

Blasting  is  the  method  of  loosening  or  shat¬ 
tering  masses  of  solid  frangible  matter  by 
means  of  explosive  compounds,  an  operation  of 
fundamental  importance  in  engineering  and 
mining. 

The  explosives  commonly  used  in  blasting  con¬ 
sist  of  gunpowder  and  preparations  of  nitro¬ 
glycerine,  nitro-cotton  or  gun-cotton,  and  of  sev¬ 
eral  nitrates  and  chlorates.  Blasting  powder 
contains  less  niter  than  ordinary  gunpowder. 
Free  nitro-glycerine  is  now  seldom  used.  As 
dynamite  it  is  absorbed  and  retained  by  porous 
ingredients  with  comparative  safety  and  little 
diminished  blasting  efficiency.  Gun-cotton  is 
employed  in  the  form  of  litliofracteur,  and  in 
combination  with  nitrate  of  barium,  under  the 
name  of  tonite.  Blasting-jelly  or  gelatine  con¬ 
sists  of  a  solution  of  gun-cotton  in  nitro¬ 
glycerine. 

In  the  removal  of  Flood  Rock,  at  Hell  Gate,  in 
the  East  river,  New  York,  the  greatest  blast  on 
record  was  used.  The  ledge  of  rock  was  about 
nine  acres  in  extent,  and  to  blow  it  up  there  were 
used  240,399  pounds  of  rackarock  and  42,331 
pounds  of  dynamite  in  a  single  blast  on  Ock  10, 
1885. 

Blastoderm,  an  embryological  term  applied  to 
the  layer  or  layers  of  cells  arising  from  the  germinal 
disc,  or  the  portion  of  a  partially  segmenting  egg 
which  undergoes  division. 

Blaye  (ancient  Blavia),  a  river-port  of  France, 
in  the  department  of  Gironde,  twenty  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Bordeaux.  Pop.  (1886),  3,376. 

Blazon,  or  Blason  (Ger.  blasen,  to  blow,  as 
with  a  horn),  a  heraldic  term  which  originated  in 
the  custom  of  blowing  a  trumpet  to  announce  the 
arrival  of  a  knight,  or  his  entrance  into  the. lists. 
Blazon  and  blazonry  thus  came  to  signify  the 
technical  art  of  describing  a  coat  of  arms. 

Bleaching  (A.S.  blcecan,  from  blase,  pale,  bleak) 
is  the  whitening  of  textile  materials  or  fabrics  by 
the  removal  of  colored  substances  nat  urally  present 
or  adhering  to  them  m  the  course  of  their  manu¬ 
facture.  Formerly  linen  goods  manufactured  in 
Scotland  were  bleached  in  Holland,  whence  the 
name  Holland,  still  retained.  Another  variety, 
which  was  spread  on  lawns,  received  the  name  of 
lawn. 

Boiling  cloth  with  caustic  lime  after  singeing, 


BLEACHING  POWDER. 


164 


BLIND-WORM. 


came  into  use  as  a  distinct  operation  in  bleaching 
about  1820.  Flax  fiber  contains  more  natural  im¬ 
purities  than  cotton,  hence  the  bleaching  of  linen 


M  M  manholes  for  introducing:  cloth;  P  perforated  plate; 
A  and  B  pipes  connecting  the  kiers;  V  V  valves  for 
closing  communication:  T  perforated  pipe  for  distribu¬ 
ting  steam;  SS  cock  for  draining  off  lime  water;  L 
pipe  for  introducing  milk  of  lime, 
is  a  much  more  tedious  process  than  what  is 
required  for  cotton,  and  exposure  on  grass  is  to 
some  extent  necessary  for  linen.  Rags, 
esparto  grass,  straw,  wood,  jute,  and  other 
materials  are  used  for  making  paper,  and 
these  are  bleached  with  chloride  of  lime,  after 
they  have  been  partly  reduced  in  the  beating  en¬ 
gine.  Straw  used  for  bonnets  is  bleached  with 
sulphurous  acid.  Wool  is  bleached  with  mild  al¬ 
kaline  carbonates,  the  actual  bleaching  or  whiten¬ 
ing  being  effected  by  the  fumes  of  sulphurous  acid. 
Silk  is  first  put  through  what  is  called  an  un¬ 
gumming  process,  which  consists  of  steeping  it 
in  very  dilute  muriatic  acid,  and  afterward 
washing  away  every  trace  of  the  acid.  The  silk 
is  then  boiled  with  a  strong  solution  of  olive-oil 
soap  if  it  is  to  be  made  white,  or  oleic-acid  soap 
if  it  is  to  be  dyed.  After  “boiling”  the  silk  is  ex¬ 
posed  to  the  action  of  sulphurous  acid. 

Bleaching  Powder,  a  compound  formed  by 
the  action  of  chlorine  on  dry  slaked  lime. 

Bleak  ( Alcurnus  lucidus),  a  little  fresh-water 
fish  belonging  to  the  great  Carp  family  (Cyprini- 
dse),  in  the  Pliysostomi  division  of  bony  fishes,  in 


which  the  air-bladder  (if  present)  opens  into  the 
gullet.  Roach,  dace,  and  minnow  are  allies. 

Bledsoe,  Albert  Taylor,  was  born  in  1809, 
was  graduated  at  West  Point,  became  Assistant 
Secretary  of  War  under  the  Confederacy,  and 
died  in  1877. 

Bleeding,  or  Hemorrhage,  is  one  of  the  most 
serious  accidents  which  can  happen  to  an  animal, 
and  constitutes  the  most  anxious  complication  in 
surgical  operations. 

Bleeding  may  be  either  from  a  wounded  artery 
or  vein,  or  from  a  raw  surface;  and  it  may  be  in 
the  form  of  a  general  oozing  from  the  surface  of 
a  sore  or  a  mucous  membrance. 

Arterial  bleeding  is  recognized  by  the  bright¬ 
ness  of  the  blood,  and  by  its  issuing  by  jerks. 
When,  however,  an  artery  lias  been  tied,  and 
bleeding  occurs  from  below  the  ligature,  the  flow 
of  blood  is  continuous,  and  of  a  dark  color. 

The  following  are  the  best  methods  for  check¬ 
ing  a  flow  of  blood : 

If  the  wound  is  situated  on  one  of  the  extrem¬ 
ities,  wrap  a  strip  of  dense,  strong  fabric  around 
the  injured  member,  and  inserting  a  stick  or  ruler 
between  the  bandages  and  tile  flesh,  twist  it 
around  several  times. 


In  a  lacerated  wound,  with  small  streams  of 
blood  issuing  from  several  points,  lint,  cold  water, 
and  ice  dipped  into  the  wound,  together  with 
slight  pressure  over  the  region  from  which  the 
blood  issues,  will  be  sufficient. 

Should  a  large  vein  or  an  artery  be  severed  in  a 
locality  where  a  pressure  bandage  can  not  be 
applied,  find  out  by  experiment  at  what  point  a 
pressure  with  the  finger  will  cut  off  the  supply 
of  blood,  and  continue  to  apply  such  pressure 
until  skilled  hands  have  tied  the  severed  vessel. 

Simple,  superficial  cuts  require  nothing  more 
than  cold  water  and  lint,  the  patient  remaining 
absolutely  quiet. 

Venous  bleeding  is  recognized  by  the  dark  color 
of  the  blood  and  its  continuous  flow.  Pressure 
is  generally  found  sufficient  to  arrest  it,  and  it 
should  be  applied  directly  over  the  wounded  part. 

Bleek,  Friedrich,  a  German  biblical  critic, 
was  born  July  4,  1793,  at  Alirensbok,  in  Holstein, 
and  died  at  Bonn,  Feb.  24,  1859. 

Bleek,  Wilhelm,  philologist,  son  of  the  pre¬ 
ceding,  born  in  Berlin,  March  8, 1827.  He  joined 
Bishop  Colenso,  at  Natal,  in  1855,  settled  at  Cape 
Town,  where  in  1861  he  was  appointed  Keeper  of 
the  Grey  Library.  He  died  Aug.  17,  1875. 

Blekiuge,  is  a  province  in  Sweden,  also  called 
after  Carlskrona. 

Blende,  (Ger.  blenen,  to  dazzle),  a  name 
given  to  a  number  of  minerals  composed  chiefly 
of  sulphur  and  of  certain  metals,  all  or  almost  all 
of  splendent  luster,  at  least  in  fractures  and  the 
faces  of  crystals.  The  chief  of  these  are  Zinc 
Blende,  Garnet  Blende,  or  Sphalerite — Sulphuret 
of  Zinc.  It  is  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the 
world,  and  is  often  associated  with  Galena,  or 
Lead  glance.  It  contains  about  66  parts  of  zinc 
and  33  of  sulphur.  Manganese  Blende  is  a  rare 
sulphuret  of  mangenese.  Antimony  Blende,  or 
Red  Antimony,  is  a  rare  sulphuret  of  Antimony, 
Ruby  Blende  is  a  name  sometimes  limited  to 
Pyrargyrite  or  Red  Silver,  sometimes  extended 
to  include  a  number  of  other  sulphurets,  as  Cin¬ 
nabar,  Realgar,  and  Orpiment. 

Blenheim  (Ger.  Blindheim),  a  village  of 
Bavaria,  twenty-three  miles  north-northwest  of 
Augsburg,  memorable  in  connection  with  Marl¬ 
borough’s  great  victory  over  the  French  and 
Bavarians,  Aug.  13,  1704,  at  Iloclistailt,  near  by. 

Blenheim  Dog,  or  Marlborough  Dog, a  small 
and  beautiful  variety  of  spaniel,  much  resem¬ 
bling  the  King  Charles  in  form  and  general  ap¬ 
pearance,  but  differing  in  the  color,  which  is 
white,  with  orange  or  flame-colored  markings. 
In  weight  it  should  not  exceed  five  pounds. 

Blennerhassett,  Harman,  was  born  in  Eng 
land  in  1764.  Coming  to  America  with  ample 
funds,  he  purchased  an  island  in  the  Ohio  river 
near  Parkersburg,  where  he  built  a  magnificent 
mansion.  Aaron  Burr  induced  him  to  provide 
arms  and  ammunition  for  a  projected  expedition 
against  Mexico,  his  real  intention  being  to  use 
them  in  carrying  out  his  own  treasonable  designs. 
He  absconded,  but  was  arrested,  and,  Burr  being 
acquitted,  the  other  conspirators  (if  Blennerhassett 
really  was  one)  were  discharged .  His  island  was 
taken  by  creditors  and  he  died  in  poverty  in  1831. 

Blennorrlioea  ( blenna  mucus,  rlieo  I  flow) 
is  a  seldom  used  medical  term  for  an  unusually 
copious  discharge  from  any  mucous  membrane. 

Bleimy  ( Blennius ),  a  genus  of  bony  fishes, 


The  Butterfly  Blenny  ( Blennius  ocellarie) . 
belonging  to  a  large  family  (Blenniidae),  in  the 
division  with  spinous  rays  (Acantliopterygii). 


Blessington,  Marguerite,  Countess  of, 
was  born  Sept.  1,  1789,  in  Ireland.  She  was 
famous  for  her  brilliancy,  her  connection  with 
Count  D’Orsay,  and  her  many  trivial  novels.  She 
died  in  1849. 

Bliclier,  Steen  Steensen,  Danish  poet  and 
novelist  and  preacher,  was  born  Oct.  11,  1782. 
He  died  March  26,  1848. 

Blida,  a  thriving  town  of  Algeria,  thirty-two 
miles  southwest  of  Algiers,  ceded  to  France  in 
1837.  Pop.  (1886),  11,435. 

Bligli,  William,  an  English  admiral,  born  in 
1753  or  1754,  and  celebrated  in  connection  with 
the  mutiny  of  the  Bounty  in  1787.  On  April  28tli, 
Bligli,  with  eighteen  men,  was  cast  adrift  from 
Tahiti  in  an  open  boat  23  feet  long,  with  a  small 
stock  of  provisions,  and  without  a  chart.  The 
mutineers  settled  on  Pitcairn’s  Island.  Bligli 
arrived  at  the  Island  of  Timor,  near  Java,  on 
June  14tli,  having  sailed  his  frail  craft  3,618  miles. 
In  1805  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  New  South 
Wales,  but  in  January,  1808,  the  civil  and  mili¬ 
tary  officers  of  the  colony  summarily  terminated 
his  government  by  imprisoning  him.  He  died  in 
London,  Dec.  7,  1817.— The  Bligli  Islands  are  a 
portion  of  the  Fiji  Archipelago,  in  nearly  186°  of 
longitude. 

Blight,  disease  in  cultivated  plants,  especially 
cereals  and  grasses. 

Blimhing,  or  Bilimbi  (Averrhon  Bilimbi\  an 
East  Indian  tree  belonging  to  the  Oxalidaceae, 
cultivated  in  the  Antilles  for  the  sake  of  its  fruit. 

Blind.  Blindness  may  arise  from  any  cause 
intercepting  the  rays  of  light  on  their  way  to  the 
optic  nerve,  or  from  disease  of  the  optic  nerve,  or 
of  that  part  of  the  brain  connected  with  it.  One 
of  the  most  frequent  causes  of  blindness  is  the 
inflammation  of  the  eyes  of  new-born  babies,  which 
generally  can  be  prevented,  and  always  cured. 
Amongst  famous  blind  men,  may  be  named 
Homer,  Belisarius,  John  Milton,  Dr.  Blacklock, 
Hiiber  the  naturalist,  Prescott  the  historian,  and 
Professor  Fawcett. 

Blind  persons  have  generally  some  compensa¬ 
tion  in  the  acuteness  of  the  other  four  senses,  and 
are  easily  taught  to  read  with  raised  type,  to  play 
musical  instruments  with  facility,  etc.  The 
Philadelphia  organist,  Wood,  is  blind,  as  is 
Emanuel  Geibel,  the  composer. 

At  the  census  of  1880  there  were  in  the  United 
States  in  all  48,928  blind  persons,  of  whom  26,748 
were  males  and  22,180  females.  There  were 
40,599  of  them  native,  8,239  foreign;  and  41,278 
were  white,  while  7,650  were  colored,  244  In¬ 
dians,  and  22  Chinese.  There  was  thus  one  blind 
person  in  every  1,023. 

In  the  United  States,  there  are  36  institutions 
for  the  blind,  with  about  2,500  inmates.  Every 
blind  child  has  a  right  to  be  educated  at  the  ex¬ 
pense  of  the  State. 

Blind,  Karl,  author  and  revolutionist,  was 
born  at  Mannheim,  Germany,  in  1826.  For  his 
share  in  the  risings  in  1848  he  was  sentenced  to 
eight  years’  imprisonment,  but  while  being  taken 
to  Mainz  was  liberated  by  the  populace,  and 
found  refuge  in  Belgium,  and  afterward  in  Eng¬ 
land. 

Blind  Fisli.  In  situations  where  light  is 
absent,  blind  animals  are  commonly  found;  the 
absence  of  the  normal  stimulus  suffers  the 


Blind  Fish  of  the  Kentucky  Caves  ( Amblyopsis  sjielceus). 


organs  of  sight  to  degenerate  into  a  merely  rudi¬ 
mentary  form.  The  blind  fish  of  Mammoth  Caves 
are  familiar  examples.  , 

Blindstory,  another  name  for  the  Trifonum, 
so  called  as  opposed  to  the  Clearstory  or  Clere¬ 
story  of  a  church. 

Blind-worm,  or  Slow-worm  {Angms  fragilis), 


ELIS3. 


165 


BLOODSTAINS. 


a  limbless  lizard,  in  the  Skink  family  found  in 
Europe,  North  Africa,  end  Western  Asia.  The 


Blind- worm. 

form  is  worm-like,  and  the  full  size  about  a  foot. 

Bliss,  Philip  Paul,  born  in  Fairfield,  Pa.,  in 
1838,  the  well-known  hymn  writer,  killed  at 
Ashtabula,  Ohio,  Dec.  29,  1876. 

Blister-beetle,  a  popular  name  for  a  number 
of  beetles  in  a  family  of  Coleoptera  known  as 
Vesicantia,  or  in  two  distinct  families,  Meloidae 
and  Cantharidse.  The  name  refers  to  the  vesi¬ 
cating  or  blister-raising  properties  of  their  body- 
juice.  The  Spanish  fly  and  the  Oil  beetle  are 
familiar  illustrations. 

Blisters  are  medicinal  agents  which,  when 
applied  to  the  skin,  raise  the  cuticle  into  vesicles 
filled  with  serous  fluid,  serving  as  counter-irri¬ 
tants.  The  common  blister  is  made  of  Canthar- 
ides  or  Spanish  fly  ( Cantharis  vesica'oria).  Mus¬ 
tard  (S inapis  nigra)  is  frequently  used- to  redden 
the  skin,  but  seldom  left  on  sufficiemly  long  to 
produce  blistering.  Tincture  of  cantharides, 
croton-oil,  strong  liquor  ammoniae,  turpentine, 
tartar  emetic  ointment,  and  many  other  drugs  are 
used  for  the  purpose. 

Blizzard  is  a  sudden,  fierce  storm  of  bitter 
frosty  wind  with  fine,  blinding  snow,  common  to 
our  Northwestern  States  and  Territories.  In  one 
which  visited  Dakota,  Montana,  Minnesota,  Ne¬ 
braska,  Kansas,  and  Texas,  in  January,  1888, 
some  235  persons  lost  their  lives.  The  word, 
which  seems  to  be  akin  to  blast,  bluster,  was  in 
colloquial  use  in  the  West  early  in  the  century. 

Bloch,  Marcus  Elieser,  a  celebrated  ichthy¬ 
ologist,  born  of  poor  Jewish  parents  at  Anspach, 
in  Bavaria,  in  1723.  He  died  Aug.  6,  1799. 

Block,  in  the  rigging  of  a  ship  the  block  com¬ 
prises  both  the  frame  or  shell  and  the  “  sheaves” 


«,  single  ‘  outside  ironbound  ”  block;  b,  double  “inside 
ironbound  ”  block  (with  swivel  hooks). 

contained  within  it,  used  for  raising  sails,  etc. 
A  tackle  includes  the  rope  as  well  as  the  block 
through  which  it  works. 

Blockade,  in  a  military  sense,  is  an  operation 
for  capturing  an  enemy’s  town  or  fortress  by  cut¬ 
ting  off  supplies,  in  order  that,  when  the  food  or 
the  ammunition  is  exhausted,  they  may  be  com¬ 
pelled  to  surrender.  The  blockade  of  Paris  by 
the  Germans  in  1870-71  is  the  most  notable  exam¬ 
ple  of  such  an  operation. 

Blockading,  in  a  naval  sense,  is  the  prevention 
of  the  entrance  or  exit  of  the  enemy’s  ships  at  a 
particular  port,  or  at  all  the  ports  on  a  stretch  of 
coast,  so  as  to  bring  pressure  to  bear  upon  the  in¬ 
habitants  by  obstructing  their  trade;  and  it  ren¬ 
ders  intercourse  with  the  enemy’s  ports  unlawful 
on  the  part  of  neutrals.  For  a  valid  blockade  it 
is  necessary  that  a  state  of  war  exist;  that  the 
blockade  be  really  effective;  and  neutral  nations 
must  be  informed  by  the  blockading  power. 

'I  he  most  memorable  of  recent  blockades  was 
f hat  maintained  by  the  United  States  during  the 
Civil  War.  It  was  begun  in  April,  1861,  and  cov¬ 
ered  the  whole  of  the  Southern  coast.  English 


vessel  owners  made  great  profits  in  the  enterprise 
of  blockade-running,  though  more  than  forty  out 
of  sixty-six  of  the  ships  in  the  trade  were  captured. 

Blockhouse  is  a  stockade  or  wooden  wall, 
roofed  in  and  looplioled  for  defense. 

Block  Islaud,  formerly  called  Manisees,  is 
situated  in  the  Atlantic  about  nine  miles  south 
from  Rhode  Island,  to  which  it  belongs. 

Block-printing,  the  method  of  printing  from 
wooden  blocks  (producing  block  books),  as  in  calico 
printing  and  in  making  wall-paper. 

Block -system  is  a"  method  of  working  rail¬ 
ways.  The  line  is  divided  into  sections,  and  no 
train  allowed  to  pass  into  a  section  till  the  section 
is  clear  of  other  trains. 

Bloemfontein,  the  capital  of  the  Orange 
Free  State,  on  the  Modder,  200  miles  west-by¬ 
north  of  Durban.  Pop.  (1880),  2,567. 

Blois,  the  capital  of  the  French  department 
Loir-et-Cher,  thirty-six  miles  southwest  of  Orleans. 
Louis  XII.  was  born  in  the  castle,  and  under  its 
roof  Charles,  Due  d’Aleu(;on,  and  Margaret  of 
Anjou,  and  Henri  IV.  and  Margaret  of  Valois 
were  married.  Here,  also,  the  Due  de  Guise  and 
his  brother,  the  cardinal,  were  murdered  by  order 
of  Henri  III.,  Dec.  23,  1588.  Isabella,  queen  of 
Charles  VI.,  here  found  a  retreat;  it  served  as  a 
prison  for  Mary  de’  Medici;  Catharine  de’  Medici 
died  within  its  walls;  and  Maria  Louisa  here  held 
her  court  in  1814,  after  Paris  had  capitulated. 
Pop.  (1886),  16,881. 

Blommaert,  Philip,  a  Flemish  author,  with 
Conscience  a  reviver  of  the  Flemish  tongue,  born 
at  Ghent  in  1809,  where  he  died,  Aug.  14,  1871. 

Blonde!,  a  celebrated  French  minstrel  of  the 
twelfth  century,  born  at  Nesle,  in  Picardy. 

Blondin,  Charles,  rope-dancer,  born  in  1824 
at  St.  Omer,  Pas-de-Calais.  On  June  30,  1859,  he 
crossed  the  Falls  of  Niagara  on  a  tight  rope;  on 
July  4th  he  crossed  blindfold,  trundling  a  wheel¬ 
barrow;  on  August  19th  he  carried  a  man  on  his 
back;  on  Sept.  14,  1860,  he  crossed  on  stilts. 

Blood,  the  nutritive  fluid  of  the  tissues  and 
the  great  carrying  tissue  of  the  body  which  fills 
during  life  the  arteries  and  veins  of  the  body. 
It  consists  of  an  almost  colorless  fluid,  the  liquor 
sanguinis  or  blood-plasma ,  in  which  float  a  large 
number  of  small  corpuscular  bodies,  the  blood- 
corpuscles  or  blood-globules ;  the  proportion  by 
weight  being  about  one-third  corpuscles  to  two- 
thirds  plasma.  The  blood  is  by  weight  about 
one-thirteenth  part  of  the  whole  body.  The  cor¬ 
puscles  are  of  two  kinds,  the  white  and  the  red; 
the  proportion  in  healthy  blood  being  about  1 
white  to  355  red. 

The  white  corpuscle  is  a  simple  cellular  body, 
resembling  the  amoeba  very  closely. 

The  red  corpuscles  owe  their  peculiar  color  to  a 
special  coloring  matter  ( hemoglobin ). 

In  all  mammalians, excepting  the  camel,  in  which 
the  shape  is  elliptical,  the  red  corpuscles  are  minute 
circular  discs  flattened  on  each  surface.  In  all 
other  vertebrate  ani¬ 
mals,  the  red  cor¬ 
puscles  are  oval  in 
shape,  and  contain  a 
large  central  oval 
nucleus. 

The  red  corpuscles 
of  the  blood  vary 
much  in  size  in  dif¬ 
ferent  animals.  In 
man  the  average  size 
of  the  red  corpuscles  a' 


Human  red  blood-corpuscles 
as  seen  from  the  surface  and 
the  side;  6,  human  red  blood- 
corpuscles  forming  rouleaux  ; 
c,  white  blood-corpuscles;  (l, 
red  corpuscles  of  the  frog's 
blood,  seen  from  the  surface; 
<!’ ,  the  same  as  seen  from  the 
side. 


inch.  The  largest 
corpuscle  of  all — 
about  of  an  inch 
in  diameter — is  to  be 
found  in  proteus. 

The  number  of  corpuscles  present  in  even 
a  drop  of  blood  is  to  be  estimated  by  millions. 
They  are  formed  in  the  spleen  and  red  bone-mar¬ 
row,  probably  also  in  the  lymph  glands,  their 
exact  mode  of  origin,  however,  being  as  yet  ob¬ 
scure.  In  (he  vessels  of  the  body  the  blood  is  in 
a  fluid  condition;  but  shortly  after  being  with¬ 
drawn  it  becomes  viscid,  and  finally  “  sets”  into 
a  jelly-like  mass. 

The  blood  is  the  great  carrying  tissue  of  the 
body.  It  conveys  the  food-material  to  all  the 
tissues  of  the  body;  removes  the  waste  products; 


and  its  red  corpuscles  are  the  carriers  of  oxygen. 
The  blood  going  to  the  tissues  carries  an  excess 
of  oxygen  obtained  in  the  lungs;  whereas  the 
blood  returning  from  the  tissues  to  the  heart  and 
lungs  (venous  blood)  isdeoxydized  and  laden  with 
carbonic  acid;  hence  arterial  blood  is  bright  red; 
venous  blood,  dark  purple. 

Blood,  Avenger  of.  In  the  primitive  society 
it  is  looked  upon  as  the  duty  of  the  next  of  kin 
to  avenge  a  murder.  The  Mosaic  law  recognized 
this  institution,  but  placed  it  under  regulations, 
and  appointed  cities  of  refuge  for  the  involuntary 
manslayer,  while  the  willful  murderer  was  to  be 
slain  by  the  nearest  relative  of  the  victim.  He 
was  called  Gael,  the  “redeemer,”  or  “avenger.” 

Blood,  Eating  of.  The  eating  of  blood  was 
prohibited  under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation, 
and  orthodox  Jews  still  kill  their  own  butcher- 
meat. 

Blood,  Thomas,  adventurer,  was  born  in  Ire¬ 
land  about  1618.  Among  his  enterprises  was  the 
seizure  of  the  Duke  of  Ormonde,  Lord  Lieutenant 
of  Ireland,  Dec.  6,  1670;  and  the  attempted  theft 
of  the  regalia,  May  9,  1671.  He  died,  Aug.  24, 
1680. 

Blood-bird  of  New  South  Wales  ( Myzomela 
sanguineolenta),  a  beautiful  little  species  of  Honey- 
eater  (Meliphagidae),  which  receives  its  name 
from  the  rich  scarlet  color  of  the  head,  neck, 
breast,  and  back  of  the  male. 

Blood-flower (Hcemanthus),  agenusof  Amaryl- 
lidaceae,  mostly  natives  of  South  Africa,  named 
from  the  color  of  their  flowers,  which  form  a 
crowded  umbel. 

Bloodhound,  a  variety  of  hound,  remarkable 
for  its  powers  of  scent,  and  for  the  eagerness 
with  which  it  tracks  a  bleeding  animal.  It  was 
formerly  called  sleut-houud  or  sleuth-hound,  from 
the  Middle-Englisli  sleuth,  “a  slot  or  track” 
[  (Icel.  sloth).  They  have  been  used  in  this  country 


Bloodhound. 


for  tracking  escaped  slaves.  The  bloodhound  is 
a  large  tan-colored  dog,  with  a  noble  head. — The 
Cuban  Bloodhound,  formerly  employed  in  the 
pursuit  of  felons  and  of  fugitive  slaves  in  Cuba 
and  elsewhere,  differs  considerably  from  the  true 
bloodhound,  being  fiercer  and  more  like  the  bull¬ 
dog. 

Blood-money,  a  reward  received  for  bringing 
about  the  death  of  another,  as  by  giving  evidence 
leading  to  a  conviction  in  a  capital  charge.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  the  compensation  for  a 
person’s  slaughter  paid  to  his  next  of  kin  in  primi¬ 
tive  society. 

Blood-poisoning  is  a  name  popularly  but 
loosely  used  of  Pyaemia  and  allied  diseases. 

Blood-rain,  which  doubtless  has  its  origin  in 
waterspouts  and  whirlwinds,  has  frequent ly 
fallen  in  Italy  and  Southern  Europe,  and  has  been 
repeatedly  traced,  through  the  microscope  and 
chemical  test,  to  the  sandy  deserts  of  Northern 
Africa  adjoining. 

Blood-stains,  Detection  of,  an  important 
subject  in  connection  with  forensic  medicine.  On 
criminal  trials  the  guilt  of  prisoners  has  fre¬ 
quently  been  established  by  the  discovery  of  these 
stains.  A  blood-stain  is  at  first  reddish-brown, 
but  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  it  becomes 
almost  black.  In  this  stain  the  corpuscles  are 
recognizable  with  the  microscope.  Blood  possesses 
also  a  distinct  spectrum,  so  that  it  is  possible  to 
prove  a  blood-stain,  though  the  corpuscles  may 
liave  been  destroyed.  All  stains  due  to  blood  are 
soluble,  and  this  fact  enables  us  at  once  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  them  from  insoluble  stains  which  resem- 


BLOODSTONE. 


166 


BLUE  RIDGE. 


ble  them.  There  are  also  sure  chemical  tests  for 


blood,  though  the  animal  from  which  it  came  can 
be  determined  only  by  the  microscope. 

Bloodstone,  a  dark  green  stone  spotted  with 
red.  Also  a  name  for  red  hematite  and  ironstone. 

Blood  worm,  a  name  given  by  anglers  and 
others  to  the  aquatic  larva  of  a  gnat-like  Dipterous 
insect  known  as  C/dronomus  plumosus. 

Bloomer  Costume,  a  semi-masculine  set  of 
garments  invented  by  a  woman  named  Bloomer 
about  1850. 

Bloomery,  the  first  forge  through  which  iron 
passes  after  it  has  been  melted  from  the  ore,  and 
where  it  is  made  into  blooms. 

Bloomfield,  Robert,  the  English  author  of 
The  Farmer’s  Buy  and  other  pastoral  pieces,  born 
Dec.  3,  1766.  He  died  Aug.  19,  1823. 

Bloomington,  capital  of  M’Lean  county,  Ill., 
126  miles  south  southwest  of  Chicago,  is  an  im¬ 
portant  railway  center  and  coal  center.  Near  it 
is  the  Illinois  Normal  University  (450  students), 
in  connection  with  which  there  is  a  State  Labor¬ 
atory  of  Natural  History.  Pop.  (1889),  23,500. — 
There  is  another  Bloomington  sixty  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Indianapolis,  seat  of  the  Indiana 
University. 

Blount,  Charles,  Deist,  was  born  in  London, 
April  27,  1654.  He  died  by  suicide,  in  1693. 

Blouse,  the  French  name  for  a  loose,  sacklike 
overgarment  somewhat  answering  to  the  English 
smock-frock. 

Blow-fly,  or  Flesh-fly  ( Sarcophaga  carnaria), 
an  insect  of 
the  order  Dip 
t  e  r  a  (t  w  o- 
winged),  and 
of  the  large 
family  M  u  s- 
cidae,  of  which 
the  common 
House-  fly, 

Blue-b  o  1 1 1  e, 
etc.,  are  famil¬ 
iar  examples. 

It  lays  its  eggs 
in  putrid  flesh 
upon  which  Blow-fly. 

the  larvae  (maggots)  feeds. 

Blowing-machines,  the  most  familiar  Blowing 
Machine  is  the  domestic  bellows.  For  iron-blast 
furnaces,  and  for  Bessemer  steel  converters,  steam 
blowing  engines  of  large  size  are  employed.  In  the 
former,  the  strength  of  the  blast  is  usually,  in 
England,  from  3  to  4  lb.  per  square  inch,  some¬ 
times  it  is  6  lb.,  and  in  the  United  States  it  is 
used  at  as  high 
as  10  lb.  For 
the  Bessemer 
Converter, 
where  a  much 
greater  p  r  e  s- 
sure  is  required 
it  occasionally 
reaches  30  lb. 
per  square  inch. 

The  rotary  fan 
is  employed  for 
such  purposes 
as  the  melting 
pig-iron  in  Fan  (vertical  section) . 

foundries  and  for  forge  fires.  It  is  also  used  to 
withdraw  foul  air  from  mines,  buildings,  and 


Root's  Rotary  Blower. 

ships.  The  winnowing  of  corn  is  another  appli¬ 
cation  of  it. 

Rotary  Pressure  Blowers  act  by  regular  dis¬ 


placement  of  the  air  at  each  revolution,  since 
their  pistons  or  drums  closely  fit  their  cases. 
These  rotary  blowers  produce  blasts  from  a  few 
ounces  up  to  three  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Blowpipe,  a  small  instrument  used  in  the  arts 
for  glass-blowing  and  soldering  metals,  and  in 
analytical  chemistry  and  mineralogy  for  deter¬ 
mining  the  nature  of  substances  by  the  action  of 
an  intense  and  continuous  heat.  It  acts  by  in¬ 
creasing  the  supply  of  oxygen,  and  thus  acceler¬ 
ating  combustion.  For  light  operations  the 
mouth  blowT-pipe  serves;  when  high  temperatures 
are  required  mechanical  blowr-pipes  are  resorted 
to.  The  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe  is  an  arrange¬ 
ment  by  which  a  jet  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in 
the  proportions  to  form  water,  is  ignited  and 
directed  against  an  object.  Most  of  the  metals 
are  volatilized  by  it  and  the  diamond  burns  when 
exposed  to  its  flame.  When  a  cylinder  of  (puck- 
lime  is  heated  by  it  the  dazzling  Drummond 
Light  is  produced. 

Bluclier,  Gebhard  Lebereciit  von,  Prince 
of  Wahlstadt,  Field-Marshal  of  Prussia,  was  born 
at  Rostock,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  Dec.  16, 
1742.  When  the  Prussians  rose  in  opposition  to 
France,'  Bliicher  was  appointed  to  the  chief  com¬ 
mand  in  Silesia,  and  at  the  battles  of  Liitzen, 
Bautzen,  and  Haynau,  displayed  heroic  courage. 
On  March  9th  he  defeated  Napoleon  at  Laon ;  and  at 
the  end  of  the  month  advanced  toward  Paris.  On 
March  31st  he  entered  the  French  capital.  Fred- 
erick-William  III.  created  him  Prince  of  Wahl¬ 
stadt,  in  remembrance  of  the  victory  at  the  Ivatz- 
bach,  and  gave  him  an  estate  at  Silesia.  His  oppor¬ 
tune  appearance  decided  the  victory  of  Waterloo. 
In  order  to  reward  Bliicher’s  services,  Frederick- 
William  III.  created  the  new  Order  of  the  Iron 
Cross.  He  died  Sept.  12,  1819,  at  his  estate  of 
Krieblowitz,  in  Silesia. 

Blue.  The  blue  pigments  in  common  use  by 
artists  are  few  in  number,  and  consist  of  native 
and  artificial  ultramarine,  cobalt,  indigo,  and  Prus¬ 
sian  blue.  Genuine  ultramarine,  prepared  from  the 
mineral  lapis  lazuli,  and  ordinary  cobalt  blue,  sold 
for  artists’  work,  are  permanent  colors.  Except¬ 
ing  indigo  these  pigments  are  all  mineral. 

Bluebeard,  the  hero  of  a  well-known  nursery 
tale,  so  named  from  the  colorof  his  beard.  Inthe 
common  version  Bluebeard  is  a  seigneur  of  great 
wealth,  wdio  marries  the  daughter  of  a  neighbor, 
and  a  month  after  the  wedding  goes  on  a  journey, 
leaving  his  wife  the  keys  of  his  castle,  but  forbid¬ 
ding  her  to  enter  one  room.  Yielding  to  her 
curiosity  she  opens  the  door  to  find  the  bodies  of 
all  of  Bluebeard’s  formerwives.  Bluebeard,  on  his 
return,  discovers  from  a  spot  of  blood  upon  the  key, 
that  his  wife  has  disobeyed,  and  tells  her  that  she 
must  die.  She  begs  for  a  short  respite  for  prayer, 
sends  her  sister  Anne  to  the  top  of  the  tower  to 
look  for  help,  and  finally,  in  the  nick  of  time,  her 
two  brothers  burst  in  and  despatch  Bluebeard. 
The  story  in  various  forms  is  widely  distributed. 

Blue-bell  is  the  English  popular  name  of  the 
common  wild  hyacinth  ( Scilla  nutans).  The 
“blue-bells  of  Scotland”  are  the  flowers  of 
Campanula  rolundifolia,  called  Hare-bell  in  Eng¬ 
land. 

Bluebird,  Blue  Warbler,  Blue  Redbreast, 
or  Blue  Robin  {Sylvia  or  Sialia  stalls),  a  favorite 


Bluebird  (Sylvia  sialis). 


American  bird,  which  appears  in  the  Northern 
States  early  in  the  spring,  and  frequents  inhabited 
regions. 


The  blue-bird  is  known  as  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Bermudas,  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  Guiana,  and 
Brazil. 

Blue-bottle  Fly  ( Musca  vomitoria),  an  insect 
of  the  same  genus  with  the  common  house-fly.  It 
much  exceeds  the  latter  in  size,  but  is  smaller 
than  the  blow-fly.  The  head  is  black,  with  rust- 
colored  cheeks,  the  thorax  grayish,  the  abdomen 
blue,  with  a  whitish  shimmer,  and  with  three 
black  bands.  The  expanse  of  wings  is  nearly 
one  inch.  It  deposits  its  ova  on  flesh. 

Blue-coat  School,  a  name  commonly  given  to 
Christ’s  Hospital  in  London,  and  to  similar 
schools  elsewhere  in  England,  from  the  uniform. 

Blue  Earth,  a  county  in  Minnesota.  Pop., 
about  20,000.  Capital,  Mankato. 

Blue-eye  (Entomyza  cyanotis),  a  beautiful  little 
bird,  abundant  in  New  South  Wales.  It  is  one 
of  the  honey-eaters. 

Bluefish  ( Pomatomus  saltatrix  or  Temnodon 
sallalor),  a  fish  of  the  family  Scomberidue,  of  a 
genus  having  no  detached  finlets,  no  isolated 
dorsal  spines,  and  no  lateral  armature  of  the  tail, 
two  dorsal  fins,  the  first  of  which  is  small,  and 
two  deeply-hidden  spines  in  front  of  the  anal  fin. 
The  only  known  species  is  abundant  on  the  east 
coast  of  North  America.  It  goes  southward  in 
the  winter,  and  migrates  northward  in  spring, 
and  is  widely  spread  in  tropical  and  subtropical 
seas.  The  upper  parts  are  of  a  bluish  color,  the 
lower  parts  whitish,  a  large  black  spot  at  the  base 
of  the  pectoral  fins.  The  mouth  is  crowded  with 
teeth,  the  jaws  are  furnished  with  large  ones. 
The  bluefish  preys  on  other  fishes,  such  as  the 
menhaden  and  mackerel,  the  shoals  of  which  it 
pursues.  It  is  very  swift,  strong,  and  voracious. 
It  sometimes  attains  a  length  of  3  or  even  5  feet, 
and  a  weight  of  14  pounds.  Trolling  for  bluefish 
is  a  very  popular  sport. 

Blue  Grass  (Poa  pratensis)  is  a  permanent 
grass  found  in  Europe  and  North  America.  By 
reason  of  its  creeping  root-stocks  it  forms  a  dense 
turf.  It  is  valued  for  pasture.  The  blue  grass 
pastures  of  Kentucky  have  long  been  celebrated. 

Blue-jay  {Cyanodtta  cristata),  a  common  North 
American  bird  of  the  Crow  family.  They  are 
mischievous  birds,  but  devour  large  numbers  of 
injurious  caterpillars.  The  length  is  almost  a 
foot;  the  color  is  “grayish  purple  above,  black 
on  the  neck,  lilac-browm  to  white  below.”  The 
long-tailed  blue-jays  belong  to  a  rarer  genus 
(Xanthura)  found  in  Central  and  in  South  America. 

Blue  Laws.  The  alleged  laws  regulating  social 
life  in  New  England  colonies,  said  to  have  been 
adopted  in  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
These  laws  were  said  to  have  been  of  the  most 
stringent  character;  for  instance,  there  was  a  pen¬ 
alty  for  shaving  on  the  Sabbath,  or  for  kissing 
one’s  wife  upon  that  day.  The  truth  is  that  no  such 
laws  were  ever  passed  in  any  of  the  colonies,  but 
the  term  is  applied  to  any  attempted  interference 
with  the  domestic  rights  and  liberties  of  the  indi¬ 
vidual. 

Blue  Mountains.  The  name  of  a  branch  of 
the  Dividing  Range,  New  South  Wales,  which 
run  very  nearly  parallel  with  the  coast,  about 
eighty  miles  inland.  The  highest  noint.  Mount 
Beemarang,  is  4,100  feet  high.  The  Blue  Mount¬ 
ains  in  the  center  of  Jamaica  attain  in  the  W  est 
Peak,  7,105  feet. 

Blue  Lick  Springs.  Celebrated  springs  in 
Nicholas  county,  Ivy. 

Blue  Pill  ( Pilula  hydrargyri )  consists  oi  two 
parts  of  mercury  rubbed  up  with  three  parts  of 
conserve  of  roses,  till  globules  of  mercury  can  no 
longer  be  detected  ;  to  this  is  added  one  part  of 
powdered  liquorice-root,  so  that  a  pill  of  three 
grains  contains  one  grain  of  mercury.  In  cases  of 
torpid  condition  of  the  liver  or  inflammation  of 
that  organ,  blue  pill  is  used  as  a  purgative,  either 
alone  or  combined  with  some  other  drug,  such  as 
rhubarb. 

Blue  Ribbon,  a  term  applied  to  any  great, 
prize  from  the  blue  ribbon  worn  by  Knights  of 
the  Garter. — Blue  Ribbon  Army  was  the  name 
adopted  in  England  for  the  “  Murphy  Temper¬ 
ance  Movement.” 

Blue  Ridge,  the  most  easterly  range  of  the 
Alleghanies.  It  forms  the  continuation  of  the 
chain  called  South  Mountain  in  Pennsylvania  and 
Maryland.  It  is  known  as  the  Blue  Ridge  till  it 
crosses  the  James  river;  thence  till  North  Caro- 


BLUE-STOCKING. 


167 


BOAT  FLY. 


lina  as  Alleghany  Mountains;  and  in  North  Caro 
lina  again  as  Blue  Ridge. 

Blue-stocking,  a  name  given  to  learned  and 
literary  women,  who  display  their  acquirements 
in  a  vain  and  pedantic  manner.  The  name  is 
derived  from  a  literary  coterie  formed  in  London 
about  1750,  of  which  a  certain  member,  Benjamin 
Stillingfleet,  was  in  the  habit  of  wearing  blue 
stockings.  Bas  Bleu  is  the  corresponding  French 
phrase. 

Bluethroat,  or  Bluebreast  ( Cyanecula 
suecicn),  a  beautiful  and  melodious  bird,  nearly 
allied  to  the  nightingale.  It  is  very  little  larger 
than  an  English  redbreast,  and  much  resembles  it. 

Blue-wing,  a  variety  of  duck,  either  a  sub- 
genus  of  Anas,  or  a  special  genus  Cyanopterus. 
The  best-known  species,  the  common  or  Lunate 
Blue-wing  (Anns  or  Cyanopterus  discors),  is 
generally  called  the  Blue-winged  Teal  in  this 
country,  where  it  is  very  abundant.  The  sum¬ 
mer  migrations  of  the  species  extend  as  far  north 
as  the  57th  parallel.  In  size  it  is  rather  larger 
than  the  common  teal.  The  flight  is  extremely 
rapid  and  well  sustained.  The  flocks  are  some¬ 
times  so  numerous  and  so  closely  crowded  together 
on  the  muddy  marshes  near  New  Orleans,  that 
Audubon  mentions  having  seen  eighty-four  killed 
by  the  simultaneous  discharge  of  the  two  barrels 
of  a  double-barrelled  gun.  There  are  other 
species  of  blue-wing,  also  American;  but  this 
alone  seems  to  visit  the  more  northern  regions. 
No  member  of  the  duck  tribe  is  in  higher  esteem 
for  the  table,  and  it  has  therefore  been  suggested 
that  the  blue-wing  is  particularly  worthy  of 
domestication,  of  which  it  seems  to  be  very  easily 
susceptible. 

Blum,  Robert,  a  leader  in  the  Revolution  of 
1848,  was  born  at  Cologne  in  1807.  He  was 
elected  one  of  the  vice-presidents  of  the  Provisional 
Parliament  at  Frankfort.  In  the  National 
Assembly  he  became  leader  of  the  Left.  lie  went 
to  Vienna  in  October  and  joined  the  insurgents, 
was  arrested,  and  was  shot  on  November  9tli. 

Blumenbacli,  Johann  Friedrich,  an  eminent 
naturalist,  was  born  at  Gotha,  May  11,  1752.  In 
1785,  he  anticipated  Cuvier  in  making  natural 
history  dependent  on  comparative  anatomy.  He 
died  Jan.  22,  1840. 

Bliunenthal,  Leonard  von,  General,  born  in 
1810,  is  Chief  of  the  General  Staff  of  the  Prussian 
Army,  and  one  of  the  most  distinguished  German 
strategists. 

Blunderbuss  (Dutch  donderbus,  thunder-gun)  a 
kind  of  short  musket  with  wide  bore,  capable  of 
firing  many  balls  at  once. 

Biuntschli,  Johann  Kaspar,  a  Swiss  jurist 
and  politician  and  historian,  was  born  March  7, 
1808,  at  Zurich,  where,  in  1833,  he  became  pro¬ 
fessor  in  the  newly -founded  university.  He  died 
suddenly  at  Karlsruhe,  Oct.  21,  1881. 

Blushing  is  a  sudden  reddening  of  the  skin, 
induced  by  various  mental  states,  particularly 
those  involving  shame  or  humiliation,  shyness  or 
modesty.  It  usually  affects  only  the  face  and 
neck;  rarely,  among  civilized  peoples,  the  breast 
and  other  parts  of  the  body.  The  phenomenon 
results  from  relaxation  of  the  control  exercised 
over  the  circulation  of  the  blood  by  the  nervous 
-ystem. 

Boa,  a  term  popularly  applied  to  the  large 


World  giants,  and  closely  resemble  one  another 
both  in  structure  and  habit.  Both  are  very  large, 
not  poisonous,  with  great  powers  of  crushing, 

I  with  an  expansible  gape,  with  prehensile  tails, 
with  rudimentary  traces  of  the  hind-legs  beside 
the  anus,  etc.  The  common  species  (Boa  con¬ 
strictor),  found  in  the  north  and  east  of  South 
America,  is  usually  about  12,  but  may  be  over 
20  feet  in  length.  It  crushes  large  animals  in 
its  powerful  folds,  and  laboriously  swallows 
them.  After  a  meal,  comes  a  period  of  digestion 
and  lethargy.  The  boa  bears  it  young  alive. 

Boabdil  (properly  Abu-Abdallah,  and  nick¬ 
named  Ez-Zogoiby,  the  unlucky),  the  last  Moorish 
King  of  Granada,  was  defeated  by  the  Castilians 
in  1491.  He  crossed  to  Africa  and  died  in 
battle. 

Boadice'a,  “  the  British  warrior-queen,”  wife 
of  Prasutagus,  King  of  the  Iceni.  On  the  death 
of  her  husband  about  the  year  60  a.d.,  the  Romans 
seized  her  territory.  The  Queen  was  scourged, 
her  daughters  were  outraged,  and  the  noblest 
among  the  Iceni  were  treated  as  slaves.  Boadicea, 
gathered  an  army  and  defeated  the  Romans  in 


Boar-fish  ( Capros ),  a  genus  of  fishes  in  the 
Carangidte  or  Horse-mackerel  family  of  Acauthop 


Boar-fish  (Capros  aper) . 

terygii,  or  bony  fishes,  furnished  with  a  number 
of  spinous  rays. 

Boat  is  the  general  name  for  a  small  open  ves¬ 
sel.  It  may  be  slight  or  strong,  sharp  or  flat 
bottomed  swift  for  despatch  or  roomy  for  cargo, 


Randan  Skin 


Four-oared  Racing  Boat. 


Head  of  Boa. 

snakes  of  the  Python  and  Boa  Constrictor  fami¬ 
lies.  The  former  are  Old-World,  the  latter  New- 


several  battles,  but  was  overcome  by  Suetonius 
Paulinus,  the  Roman  Governor  of  Britain.  Boad¬ 
icea  killed  herself  by  poison. 

Boar,  Wild  C?us  sert>/a),  a  non-ruminant,  even¬ 
toed  hoofed  mammal,  with  conical  teeth  (Ungu- 
lata,  Artiodactyla,  Bunodontia).  The  family 
(Suina)  to  which  the  boar  belongs,  and  which  also 
includes  the  river  hog,  the  babiroussa,  the  wart- 
hog,  the  peccari,  etc.,  is  characterized  by  the 
pointed  head  with  familiar  pig-snout,  large  ears 
and  small  eyes;  by  the  thin  legs,  often  curled  tail, 
bristly  hide;  by  the  four  toes  on  fore  and  hind 
feet,  of  which  only  the  two  inner  reach  the 
ground;  by  the  prominent  canines,  especially  in 
the  males. 


ornamental  for  pleasure  or  plain  for  hard  service, 
deep  or  light  of  draught  for  deep  or  shallow  water. 
Competition  among  oarsmen  has  brought  into 
existence  the  racing-boat  with  outrigged  row- 
locks.  These  boats  are  usually  built  of  cedar  for 
lightness,  canvas-covered,  and  so  light  in  con¬ 
struction  that  a  sculling-boat  (termed  a  wager- 
boat)  30  feet  long  weighs  no  more  than  30  lb. 

Boatbill  (Uancroma  cochlcarin),  a  bird  of  the 
Heron  family,  the  only  known  species  of  a  genus 
differing  from  the  true  herons  in  little  else  than 
the  form  of  the  brown  bill,  which  is  compara 
tively  short  and  very  broad.  The  boatbill  is 


Wild  Boar. 

The  wild  boar  measures  four  feet  or  more  in 
length.  They  are  savage  beasts,  and  boar  hunt¬ 
ing  has  been  popular  in  Europe  from  time  im¬ 
memorial.  In  some  partsof  India  “pig-sticking” 
is  the  chief  sport. 

Board,  the  general  name  for  a  body  of  persons 
officially  constituted  for  the  management  of  some 
public  office  or  department,  bank,  railway, 
charity,  or  other  business. 

Boarding  is  the  name  for  an  attack  by  one 
vessel  on  another,  a  company  of  armed  men  from 
the  one  forcing  their  way  on  board  the  other.  A 
boarding-net  is  a  framework  of  rope-netting  to 
obstruct  boarders. 

Boardman,  George  Dana,  Baptist  mission¬ 
ary  to  Burmah,  in  which  field  he  worked  from 
1827  until  liis  death,  in  1831,  was  born  in  the 
State  of  Maine  in  1801.  His  widow  married  the 
famous  Burmese  missionary,  Judson.  George 
Dana  Boardman,  his  son,  is  a  well-known 
Baptist  minister  and  theological  writer,  in  Phila¬ 
delphia. 


Boatbill  (Cancroma  cochlearia). 

about  the  size  of  a  domestic  fowl,  has  shorter 
limbs  than  most  of  the  herons,  but  resembles 
them  in  plumage,  and  is  abundantly  provided  on 
the  back  of  the  head  and  neck  with  elongated 
feathers,  which  it  erects  when  irritated. 

Boat-fly  (Notonecta),  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 
order  Hemiptera,  sub-order  Ileteroptera,  and 
family  Hydrocores,  or  Water  bugs.  They  swim 


Water  Boatman  ( Notonecta  glauca) . 

on  their  backs  and  rest  in  this  posture  suspended 
at  the  surface  of  the  water. 


BOAT-LOWERING. 


168 


BOG  MYRTLE. 


Boat-lowering'  and  Disengaging  Gear,  the 

system  of  ropes,  blocks,  and  davits  by  which 


Disengaging  Gear. 

ships’  small  boats  are  lowered  to  the  sea,  and  .sent 
clear  of  the  fastenings. 

Boat-plug,  a  wood,  cork,  or  metal  stopper, 
fitted  through  the  bottom  of  ships’  boats  where¬ 
with  to  drain  them. 

Boatswain  is  an  officer  on  board  ship,  who 
has  charge  of  the  boats,  sails,  rigging,  cables, 
anchors,  flags,  and  cordage. 

Bobadil,  a  braggadocio,  from  a  character  in 
Ben  Jonson’s  Every  Man  in  Ills  Humor  (1578). 

Bobbin-net,  or  Bobbinet,  machine-made  cot¬ 
ton  net,  an  imitation  of  bobbin-lace. 

Bobbins  are  small  wooden  reels  or  rollers, 
flanged  at  the  ends,  and  bored  through  the  center 
lengthwise,  so  that  they  can  be  placed  on  a  spindle 
or  skewer.  Bobbins  are  used  in  the  spinning 
processes  for  cotton,  flax,  and  wool. 

Bob-o-link,  or  Boblink,  Reed  Bird,  or  Rice 
Bird  ( Dolichonyx  oryzivorus  or  Icterus  acriperinis), 
a  common  American  bird  of  passage  found  from 
Paraguay  to  Canada,  the  only  one  of  its  kind. 
The  beak  is  short  and  straight;  the  nostrils  sur- 


are  stiff-pointed.  In  the  male  the  head,  lower 
surface  and  tail  are  black,  while  the  upper  sur¬ 
face  is  lighter,  yellowish  white  in  front,  black 
witli  yellow  streaks  behind.  The  female  is  much 
plainer — yellowish  brown  with  darker  streaks 
above,  and  pale  grayish  yellow  below. 

Boccaccio,  Giovanni,  an  illegitimate  son  of  a 
merchant  of  Certaldo,  was  born  either  at  Paris  or 
Florence  in  1313.  In  1358  he  completed  his  great 


work,  the  Decameron,  which  he  had  begun  some 
J  ten  years  before.  It  supplied  the  stories  of  sev¬ 
eral  well-known  English  poems  and  dramas,  as 
Chaucer’s  Knight's  Tale,  Shakespeare’s  Cymbelline, 
Keats’  Isabella,  etc.  During  his  last  years  he 
lived  principally  in  retirement  at  Certaldo,  and 
died  there  Dec.  21,  1375. 

Boccherini,  Luigi,  composer, wasborn  at  Lucca, 
Italy,  Jan.  14,  1740.  He  died  at  Madrid,  May 
23,  1805. 

Bochum,  a  town  of  Prussia,  thirty-five  miles 
northeast  of  Dnsseldorf.  Its  great  steel  works 
employ  over  5,000  hands,  and  produce  about 
150,000  tons  annually.  Pop.  (1885),  40,707. 

Bode,  Johann  Elert,  astronomer,  founder  of 
the  Astronomische  Jahrbucher,  was  born  at  Ham¬ 
burg,  Jan.  19,1747;  in  1772  became  Astronomer 
of  the  Academy  in  Berlin,  and  in  1780  Director 
of  the  Observatory  there.  He  died  Nov.  23,  1820. 

Bodensted',  Friedrich  Martin  von,  a  Ger¬ 
man  writer,  born  in  Hanover,  April  22,  1819. 
His  most  popular  work  is  the  Lieder  dcs  Mirza 
Schaffy.  _ 

Bodleian  Library,  the  public  library  of 
Oxford  University,  restored  by  Sir  Thomas 
Bodley  in  1598.  The  Bodleian  Library  is  partic¬ 
ularly  rich  in  biblical  codices,  rabbinical  litera¬ 
ture,  and  materials  for  British  history.  It  is  esti¬ 
mated  to  contain  about  400,000  volumes,  and 
between  20,000  and  30,000  manuscripts. 

Bodley,  Sir  Thomas,  the  restorer  of  the 
library  originally  established  at  Oxford  by  Hum¬ 
phrey,  Duke  of  Gloucester,  was  born  at  Exeter, 
March  2,  1545.  He  was  knighted  by  King  James, 
and  died  at  Oxford,  Jan.  28,  1013. 

Bodtcher,  Ludvig,  one  of  the  most  finished 
poets  Scandinavia  has  produced,  was  born  at 
Copenhagen  in  1793,  and  died  there  in  1874. 

Body-cavity,  the  space  inclosed  by  the  body- 
walls  of  an  animal,  and  inclosing  the  gut  and 
other  organs. 

Body  Color,  a  term  applied  to  opaque  pig¬ 
ments. 

Body’s  Island,  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  sand  off 
North  Carolina,  with  the  highest  lighthouse  (150 
feet)  in  the  United  States. 

Boece  (or,  more  properly,  Boyis),  Hector,  a 
distinguished  Scottish  historian,  was  born  about 
1465  at  Dundee.  He  died  in  1536. 

Boeckli,  Philipp  August,  classical  antiquary, 
was  born  at  Karlsruhe,  Nov.  24,  1785.  In  1800 
he  became  Professor  of  Philology  at  Heidelberg, 
and  in  1811  tookthe  Chair  of  Rhetoric  and  Ancient 
Literature  at  Berlin,  where  he  died  Aug.  3,  1867. 

Boehm,  Joseph  Edgar,  sculptor,  was  born  in 
Vienna,  July  6,  1834.  He  was  educated  in  Eng¬ 
land,  where  he  finally  settled  in  1862.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Florence,  an  A.R.A., 
and  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Rome. 

Boelime,  Jakob  (called  Boehmen  by  English 
writers),  a  German  theosophist  and  mystic,  was 
born  at  Altseidenberg,  in  Upper  Lusatia,  1575. 
He  died  in  1624. 

Boehmeria  a  genus  of  Urticaceie,  of  which 


Boehmeria  nivea. 

a,  male  flower;  b,  glomerule  of  female  flowers;  c,  single 
female  flower;  fit,  pericarp. 

two  species  are  cultivated  in  the  East.  The  In¬ 


dian  variety  was  called  by  Roxburgh  TJrticn 
tenacissima,  and  the  Chinese  one  Bcehmeria  nivea 
by  Gaudichaud.  The  fiber  (Rhea)  is  used  in 
Eastern  countries  for  ropes  and  cordage,  and  for 
cloth  in  China  and  Japan.  For  fineness,  strength, 
and  luster  Rhea  excels  any  other  known  fiber. 
Rhea  is  also  more  like  wool  than  other  plant- 
fibers,  and  it  can  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  long- 
stapled  wool. 

Ba'otia,oneof  the  ancient  political  divisions  of 
Greece,  extended  between  Attica  and  Megara  on 
the  south,  and  Locris  and  Pliocis  on  the  north, 
with  an  area  estimated  at  1,120  square  miles.  The 
Boeotians  excelled  as  cultivators  of  the  soil,  and 
were  brave  soldiers  both  on  foot  and  horseback. 
The  name  became  proverbial  for  illiterate  dull¬ 
ness.  Yet  Epaminondas,  Pindar,  and  Plutarch 
were  Boeotians.  The  fourteen  greater  cities 
formed  the  Boeotian  League,  with  Thebes  at  its 
head.  With  Attica,  Boeotia  now  forms  a  prov¬ 
ince  of  the  Kingdom  of  Greece,  with  an  area  of 
2,425  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1879)  of  185,364. 

Boerliaave,  Hermann,  the  most  celebrated 
physician  of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  born 
near  Leyden,  Germany,  Dec.  31,  1668.  In  1701 
lie  was  appointed  Lecturer  on  the  Theory  of  Medi¬ 
cine  at  Leyden.  In  1709  he  was  elected  Professor 
of  Medicine  and  Botany.  He  died  Sept.  23, 1738, 
worth  $1,000,000. 

Boers  (Dutch,  agriculturists,  farmers),  the 
name  applied  to  the  Dutch  colonists  of  South 
Africa  who  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  the 
care  of  cattle.  The  Boers  are  the  republican 
land  holders  of  South  Africa. 

Boelius  (less  correctly,  Boethius),  Anicius 
Manlius  Severinus,  a  Roman  statesman  and 
philosopher,  was  born  between  470  and  475  a.d. 
He  was  made  consul  in  510,  and  his  two  sons 
shared  the  same  honor  in  522.  He  was  accused 
of  treasonable  designs  against  Theodoric;  was 
stripped  of  his  dignities,  his  property  confiscated, 
imprisoned  at  Pavia,  and  finally  executed  in  525, 
with  circumstances  of  horrible  cruelty. 

Bog,  land  covered  with  peat,  the  spongy  text¬ 
ure  of  which  containing  water,  converts  it  into  a 
kind  of  quagmire.  A  considerable  part  of  the 
surface  of  Ireland  is  occupied  with  bogs.  The 
Bog  of  Allen  is  the  most  extensive  in  the  British 
Islands.  The  Solway  Moss,  on  the  western  border 
of  England  and  Scotland,  is  about  7  miles  in 
circumference.  Cliatmoss  in  Lancashire  is  10 
square  miles  in  extent. 

Bogardns,  James,  inventor  of  the  dry  gas- 
meter,  the  processes  used  in  England  for  making 
bank-note  plates,  and  for  manufacturing  postage 
stamps,  etc.,  born  in  Catskill,  N.  Y.,  March  14, 
1800.  He  died  at  New  York,  April  13,  1874. 

Bog  Asphodel  (Narlhecium  ossifragum),  a  lilia¬ 
ceous  herb,  with  small,  yellow,  star-like  flowers, 
common  in  early  autumn  on  boggy  mountain-sides 
in  northern  temperate  regions. 

Bogatzky,  Karl  Heinrich  von,  a  German 
devotional  writer,  author  of  Bogatzky’s  Golden 
Treasury,  was  born  at  Jankowe,  in  Lower  Silesia, 
Sept.  7,  1690,  and  died  June  15,  1774. 

Bog  Butter  (Butyrite  or  Butyrellite  of 
mineralogists),  a  peculiar  mineral  substance  of 
vegetable  origin  found  in  some  Irish  bogs.  In 
composition  and  qualities  it  exhibits  a  general 
agreement  with  bitumen,  asphalt,  amber,  and  the 
other  mineral  resins. 

Bogermann,  Johann,  the  principal  translator 
of  the  standard  Dutch  version  of  the  Bible,  was 
born  in  1576,  at  the  Frisian  village  of  Oplewert. 
He  died  in  1633. 

Boghead  Coal  (Torbanite  or  Bitumenite), 
a  seam  met  with  in  the  Carboniferous  system  in 
the  lands  of  Torbanehill,  Bathgate,  Scotland.  It 
is  closely  related  to  cannel  coal. 

Bog  Iron-ore,  a  mineral  of  variable  composi¬ 
tion,  consisting  essentially  of  preoxide  of  iron  and 
water.  It  occurs  chiefly  in  alluvial  soils,  and  is 
of  a  brown,  yellowish-brown,  or  blackish-brown 
color.  It  is  abundant  in  the  northern  countries  of 
Europe  and  in  North  America.  It  yields  good 
iron. 

Bog  Myrtle,  Gale,  or  Sweet  Gale  ( Myrica 
Gale),  an  aromatic  and  resinous  shrub  with  small 
lanceolate  and  serrate  gland-dotted  leaves,  the 


BOG-OAK  ORNAMENTS. 


169 


BOILER. 


only  genus  of  the  amenaceous  sub-order  myri- 


a,  male  catkin;  6,  female  Catkin. 


caceae.  It  covers  large  areas  of  bog  and  of  wet 
moorland  in  northern  regions. 

Bog-oak  Ornaments.  Black  oak,  found  buried 
in  bogs,  has  often  a  rich,  dark  color,  and  is  very 
suitable  for  turning  and  carving.  In  Dublin  a 
considerable  trade  is  carried  on  in  jewelry  and 
other  ornaments  from  this  material. 

Bogomi'li  (Slav,  lovers  of  God),  a  religious 
sect  which  arose  in  the  twelfth  century  within  the 
Greek  Church  in  Thrace  and  Bulgaria.  Their 
theology  resembled  that  of  the  Paulicians  and 
Cathari.  In  1118  Alexis  Conmenus  burned  their 
leader,  Basilius.  Most  of  the  renegade  Christians 
who  embraced  Islam  were  Bogomili. 

Bogota,  under  Spanish  rule  Santa  fe  de 
Bogota,  in  South  America,  the  federal  capital  of 
the  United  States  of  Columbia.  It  is  in  the 
Province  of  Cundinamarea.  The  table-land  on 
which  it  is  situated  is  8,604  feet  above  sea  level, 
and  has  an  area  of  about  400  square  miles,  and  is 
bounded  on  all  sides  by  mountains.  Bogota  is 
sixty-five  miles  from  its  port,  Honda,  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Magdalena;  in  1887  its  pop. 
was  officially  estimated  at  100,000.  The  River 
Bogota,  otherwise  called  theFuncha,  is  the  single 
outlet  of  the  waters  of  the  table-land.  At  the 
cataract  of  Tequendama  the  waters  plunge  over  a 
precipice  700  feet  high,  their  force  having  hol¬ 
lowed  out  a  well  130  feet  deep  in  the  rock  below. 

Bog  Spavin.  A  lesion  of  the  hock-joint  of 
the  horse,  consisting  in  distension  of  the  capsule 
inclosing  the  joint.  It  usually  arises  suddenly 
from  a  sprain  in  action.  The  hock  becomes 
swollen,  hot,  and  tender,  and  there  is  considera¬ 
ble  lameness,  and  on  subsidence  of  the  acute 
symptoms  a  firm,  tense  swelling  remains  toward 
the  front,  inner-lower  part  of  the  joint,  disappear¬ 
ing  during  exercise,  but  returning  with  repose. 
The  treatment  consists  in  the  application  of  a 
high-heeled  shoe,  without  a  toe  piece,  purging, 
soft  diet,  rest,  and  local  fomentations. 

Bohemia  (Ger.  Bohmeri),  formerly  one  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Europe,  now  the  most  northern 
province  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy, 
touching  Saxony  and  Prussian  Silesia,  Moravia, 
Upper  and  Lower  Austria,  and  Bavaria.  It  has 
an  area  of  19,980  square  miles.  Pop.  (1885), 
5,697,883.  It  contains  nearly  400  cities,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  Prague,  the  capital,  with 
177,026  inhabitants;  Pilsen  (38,883),  Reiclienberg 
(28,090),  Budweis  (23,845),  Leitmeritz  (10,854), 
and  Rumburg  (10,142).  The  country  is  sur¬ 
rounded  on  all  sides  by  lofty  mountain-ranges, 
the  principal  of  which  are  the  Iiiesengebirge, 
rising  in  Schneekoppe,  to  5,330  feet;  on  the  north¬ 
west,  the  Erzgebirge,  4,000  feet;  on  the  south¬ 
west,  the  Bohmerwald,  4,783  feet.  The  Elbe 
rises  in  the  Riesengebirge  Range,  and  the 
country  is  well  watered  by  the  affluents  of  that 
river,  the  Moldau,  the  Eger,  Iser,  Aupa,  Mettau, 
and  Biela.  The  mineral  wealth  consists  of  silver, 
tin,  copper,  lead,  iron,  cobalt,  bismuth,  antimony, 
alum,  sulphur,  graphite,  and  porcelain  clay, 
with  several  precious  and  ornamental  stones. 
More  coal  is  produced  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the 
Austrian  Empire.  The  swampy  plains  yield  peat, 


and  asphaltum  is  also  obtained.  No  salt  is 
found.  More  than  one-half  of  the  area  consists 
of  arable  land,  and  forests  cover  nearly  a  third. 
The  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats  raised  in  Bohe¬ 
mia  amount  to  more  than  a  sixth  of  the  produce 
of  the  whole  Austrian  Empire.  Flax  and  hops, 
and  fruits,  are  plentiful.  The  culture  of  the 
vine  is  confined  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Moldau  and 
the  Elbe.  Horned  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine 
are  reared  extensively;  bees  and  geese  form 
important  items  in  the  resources  of  the  country. 
Bohemia  is  a  great  center  of  dyeing  and  calico- 
printing.  Flax  spinning  employs  more  than 
235,000  spindles.  The  chief  seat  of  the  woolen 
manufacture  is  Reiclienberg.  Other  important 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  paper,  ribbons, 
lace,  chemicals,  porcelain  ware,  and  beer.  The 
glass-works  of  Bohemia  are  numerous,  affording 
employment  to  some  27,000  persons.  The  manu¬ 
facture  of  iron  is  considerable.  Its  position 
secures  Bohemia  a  large  transit-trade.  There  are 
good  roads  and  an  excellent  system  of  railways 
centering  in  the  capital,  Prague.  In  1885  there 
were  2,625  miles  of  railway,  beside  the  branch 
lines  for  mining  purposes.  The  Czechs,  a 
Slavonic  race,  forming  the  bulk  of  the  people, 
numbered  in  1880,  8,470,000.  The  German  pop. 
numbered  2,054,000.  There  are  about  100,000 
Jews.  The  vast  majority  of  the  pop.  (5,340,000), 
are  Roman  Catholics,  but  other  religions  are 
tolerated.  At  the  head  of  the  educational  estab¬ 
lishments  is  the  University  of  Prague,  where,  since 
1882,  all  subjects  are  taught  in  the  German  and 
the  Czech  languages.  There  are  50  higher 
schools,  2,200  German  and  2,500  Czech  public 
schools,  and  numerous  special  institutions. 
Bohemia  sends  fifty-four  members  to  the  Lower 
House  of  the  Austrian  Reichsrath.  After  1526, 
Bohemia  and  Hungary  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Ferdinand  I.  of  Austria,  who  had  married  the 
Hungarian  King  Louis’  sister.  The  Czech  lan¬ 
guage,  spoken  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and,  with 
variations,  among  the  Slovaks  in  the  north  of 
Hungary,  is  one  of  the  most  cultivated  dialects  of 
the  Slavonic. 

Bohemian  Brethren,  a  religious  society,  in¬ 
stituted  in  Prague  about  the  middle  of  the  fif¬ 
teenth  century ,  originally  composed  of  remnants 
of  the  Hussites. 

Bohn,  He  nky  George,  publisher,  was  born  in 
London,  Jan.  4,  1796.  In  1846  he  began  the 
issue  of  the  series  of  works  with  which  his  name 
is  identified,  and  which  finally  contained  over  six 
hundred  volumes.  He  died  Aug.  22,  1884. 

Bohtlingk,  Otto,  Sanskrit  scholar,  was  born 
in  1815,  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  settled  in  1868  at 
Jena. 

Boluin,  Tiie  Family  of,  was  founded  by  the 
Norman  Humphrey  de  Bohun,  and  in  1199  the 
head  of  the  house  became  Earl  of  Hereford. 

Boiardo,  Matteo  Maria,  Count  of  Scandiano, 
one  of  the  greater  Italian  poets,  author  of  Orlando 
Innamorato,  was  born  in  1434.  In  1481  he  was 
appointed  Governor  of  Modena,  and  in  1487  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  Reggio.  He  died  at  Reggio  in  1494. 

Boieldieu,  Adrien  Francois,  an  eminent 
French  composer,  was  born  at  Rouen  in  1775. 
His  best  known  works  are  Le  Caliplie  de  Bagdad 
and  La  Dome  Blanche.  He  was  elected  an  Acade¬ 
mician  in  1817,  and  died  Oct.  8,  1834. 

Boil,  a  powerful  Celtic  people  who  dwelt  orig¬ 
inally  in  Transalpine  Gaul,  part  of  whom  settled 
in  the  modern  Bohemia,  and  bequeathed  their 
name  to  that  country. 

Boil  (Old  Eng.  byl,  Middle  Eng.  bile;  akin  to 
prov.  Eng.  and  Scotch  be.nl,  to  suppurate;  its 
present  spelling  having  arisen  through  confusion 
with  the  verb  boil,  which  is  from  the  French) 
is  a  hard,  painful  swelling  of  the  skin.  The 
boil  starts  in  a  small  pimple,  which  grad¬ 
ually  increases  from  the  proportions  of  a  slight 
lump  in  the  flesh  until  it  has  attained  its  max¬ 
imum  size.  The  lump  consists  of  healthy  pus, 
which  is  thick  and  viscid,  and  sometimes  deeply 
imbedded  in  the  flesh,  in  which  case  a  poultice 
will  serve  to  soften  the  lumpy  matter,  rendering 
it  unhealthy  and  hastening  its  discharge.  A  thin 
slice  of  fat  meat  put  in  contact  with  the  boil  for 
about  twelve  hours  will  cause  a  yellow  spot  to 
appear  on  the  surface,  which  may  be  safely  punc¬ 
tured,  when  pressure  on  the  sides  of  the  boil  will 
expel  its  contents.  Should  the  boil  be  situated 


|  on  the  nose,  so  that  fat  meat  can  not  be  conven¬ 
iently  applied  during  the  day,  fasten  it  on  at 
night  with  strips  of  adhesive  plaster,  and  over 
them  place  a  piece  of  woolen  cloth  or  oil  silk,  to 
protect  the  bedclolhing.  Boils  are  sometimes 
erroneously  regarded  as  beneficial;  whereas,  they 
are  an  unhealthy  sign,  and  should  lead  the  person 
afflicted  with  them  to  correct  his  manner  of  living 
and  improve  the  state  of  his  blood.  For  the  latter 
purpose  the  compound  syrup  of  sarsaparilla  is  a 
time-honored  household  remedy,  which,  if  it  ren¬ 
ders  but  little  real  service,  is  at  least  harmless  and 
agreeable:  The  boil  itself  may  be  poulticed  with 
flaxseed,  or  bread  and  milk,  with  laudanum  if 
painful.  Lancing  is  recommended  as  soon  as  a 
“  head  ”  appears,  though  as  this  merely  prevents 
a  couple  of  days  of  additional  suffering,  it  is  not 
necessary,  should  the  patient  dread  the  knife. 
Some  physicians  recommend  ten  grains  of  quinine 
daily  for  a  week,  for  breaking  up  a  course  of 
boils.  It  sometimes  appears  to  be  effective,  but 
often  fails. 

Boileau,  Nicolas,  was  born  at  Paris  on  Nov. 
1,  1636.  In  1663  we  find  him  united  with 
Moli&re,  La  Fontaine,  and  Racine,  in  the  famous 
“  society  of  four,”  and  in  1677  he  was  appointed, 
with  Racine,  royal  historiographer.  He  died  on 
March  13,  1711. 

Boiler,  the  name  given  to  a  vessel  in  which 
steam,  usually  for  a  steam-engine,  is  generated. 
The  form  of  a  boiler  is  determined  by  two  con¬ 
siderations— strength  to  withstand  internal  pres¬ 
sure,  and  efficiency  iu  producing  steam.  The 
globular  form  is  best  adapted  for  strength,  and 
was  the  earliest  used.  But  as  it  presents  to 
the  fire  the  minimum  area  in  proportion  to 
its  contents,  it  has  a  minimum  efficiency.  At 
present  it  is  common  to  use  a  steam-pressure 
of  60  to  80  pounds  per  square  inch  in  ordin¬ 
ary  factory  boilers,  while  the  tendency  to  use 
higher  pressures  seems  to  grow  yearly.  In 
marine  work  and  elsewhere  pressures  of"  120  to 
150  pounds  per  square  inch  are  common.  Under 
these  pressures,  the  only  forms  of  boiler  which  can 
be  used  without  heavy  and  expensive  internal  stays 
to  prevent  the  danger  of  bursting,  are  the  globular 
and  the  cylindrical.  The  latter  form  is  used 
almost  invariably  in  the  construction  of  modern 
boilers.  Such  a  boiler  consists  essentially  of  a 
cylinder  formed  of  steel  plates  rivetted  together, 
and  either  with  or  without  a  flue  or  flues  travers¬ 
ing  its  length.  The  boiler  most  used  is  the  tubu¬ 
lar  or  flue  boiler, 
in  which  the  burn¬ 
ing  gases  from  the 
furnace  are  carried 
through  tubes 
which  traverse  the 
boiler,  and  are  con¬ 
sequently  surround-  o 
ed  by  water.  Such 
a  boiler  may  con¬ 
tain  one  or  several 
large  tubes,  in 
which  case  it  is  a 
“  flue  ”  boiler,  or  it 
may  contain  many  A  Tubular  Return  Flue  Boiler, 
small  tubes,  becom-  a>  outer  shell;  b ,  steam  dome;  c, 

ing  a  “tubular”  &a1kber1  T&&  oTflueli 
DOiler.  Locomotive  g ,  smoke  arch;  A,  smoke  stack; 
and  marine  boilers  water  line, 
are  always  multitubular.  The  boiler  of  a  single  lo¬ 
comotive  ofien  contains  1,500  or  1,800 square  feet  of 
heating  surface,  and  occasionally  as  much  as  2,000 
square  feet.  The  principal  test  of  the  efficiency 
of  a  boiler  is  the  quantity  of  water  which  it  will 
evaporate  with  the  consumption  of  one  pound  of 
coal.  A  good  locomotive  boiler  evaporates  from 
ten  to  eleven  pounds  per  pound  of  coal.  The 
common  material  for  boiler  construction  is 
“mild”  steel  made  by  the  open  hearth  process, 
and  having  a  tenacity  of  about  twenty -eight  tons 
per  square  inch. 

Everjr  boiler  has  a  number  oi  fitting*,  of  which 
the  following  are  the  principal;  A  glass  gauge 
to  show  the  level  of  the  water  inside  the  boiler, 
and  gauge-cocks  for  the  same  purpose;  a  gauge 
to  show  the  pressure  of  the  steam;  a  valve  for 
admitting  water;  a  cock  at  the  bottom  for  empty¬ 
ing  or  “blowing  off;”  a  valve  for  the  discharge 
of  the  steam;  one  or  two  safety-valves,  weighted 
so  that  when  the  pressure  of  steam  in  the  boiler 


BOILING. 


170 


BOLIVIA. 


reaches  a  certain  height,  they  open  and  allow  the 
steam  to  rush  into  the  air;  a  door  by  which  a  man 
can  get  in  to  clean  the  boiler,  etc. 

Boilimr,  Boiling-point.  When  heat  is  applied 
to  a  vessel  containing  a  liquid  (say  water)  at  ordi¬ 
nary  temperatures,  the  temperature  of  the  liquid 
gradually  rises.  Vapor  rises  from  its  surface; 
and,  after  a  time,  bubbles  of  vapor  form  in  the 
interior  and  move  upward,  but  disappear  before 
they  reach  the  surface.  The  disappearance  of 
the  bubbles  is  caused  by  the  condensation  of  the 
vapor,  and  is  accompanied  by  the  so-called  singing 
of  the  water.  This  noise  is  produced  by  the  fall¬ 
ing  in  of  the  walls  of  the  bubbles  when  the  vapor 
is  condensed,  and  increases  in  intensity  as  the 
number  of  the  bubbles  increases.  If  heat  be  still 
applied,  the  temperature  rises  till  the  bubbles 
pass  freely  to  the  surface  of  the  liquid,  which  is 
then  said  to  boil.  When  this  occurs,  the  temper¬ 
ature  remains  constant  until  all  the  water  is  evap¬ 
orated.  This  temperature  is  called  the  boiling- 
point.  Different  liquids  boil  at  different  temper¬ 
atures;  and  this  temperature  increases  with 
increase  of  the  atmospheric  pressure.  The  fol¬ 
lowing,  from  Regnault,  show  how  the  boiling- 
point  of  water  is  affected  by  pressure: 

Temperature.  Centigrade. 

0°  10°  20°  30°  40°  50°  60°  70°  80°  90°  100° 

Pressure  in  Atmospheres. 

0.006  0.012  0.013  0.042  0.072  0.121  0.196  0.306  0.466  0.691  1  000 

Since  the  atmospheric  pressure  depends  upon 
the  height  above  the  earth's  surface,  the  boiling- 
point  of  water  varies  with  the  height,  and  this 
fact  furnishes  one  method  of  measuring  heights. 

Boiling,  in  Cookery.  One  important  kitchen 
rule  rests  on  the  fact  explained  that  water  can  not 
be  heated,  in  an  open  vessel,  to  a  higher  point 
than  212°.  To  boil  meat  successfully,  it  must  be 
placed  in  water  already  heated  to  the  boiling- 
point,  in  order  that  the  albuminous  matters  may 
be  coagulated  at  once  to  prevent  the  escape  of 
the  nutritious  juices.  After  this  has  been  accom¬ 
plished,  the  pot  should  be  withdrawn  from  the 
lire,  so  as  to  allow  the  water  only  to  simmer. 
When  the  meat  is  intended  for  broth,  it  should 
be  placed  in  cold  water  and  slowly  brought  to 
the  boiling-point.  The  meat  from  which  broth 
has  been  made  has  no  nutritive  value. 

Bois  d’Arc  (sometimes  corrupted  intoBoDocic), 
also  bow-wood,  or  osage-orange  (Maclura  auran- 
tinen),  a  tree  belonging  to  the  Artocarpacese,  sub¬ 
order  Moiaceae,  is  a  native  of  the  Southern 
States.  Its  spines  make  it  useful  as  a  hedge 
point. 

Boise  City,  since  1865  capital  of  Idaho  Terri¬ 
tory,  stands  in  a  fertile  valley,  near  the  Boisd 
river,  520  miles  northeast  of  San  Francisco.  The 
public  buildings  include  a  United  States  assay 
office,  gold  being  the  principal  article  of  export. 
Pop.  (1889),  about  3,000. 

Boisgobey,  Fortune  du,  a  French  sensational 
novelist,  was  born  in  1824,  at  Granville  in  Nor¬ 
mandy. 

Bois  le-Duc  (Dutch,  ’$  Hertogenbosch ,  Duke’s 
Forest),  a  city  of  the  Netherlands,  capital  of 
North  Brabant.  Pop.  (1887),  25,906. 

Boissonade,  Jean  Francois,  Hellenist,  born 
at  Paris  in  1774,  became  in  1813  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Inscriptions,  and  in  1828  Professor 
of  Greek  Literature  in  the  College  of  France. 
He  died  at  Passy,  Sept.  8,  1859. 

Boissy  (l’Anglas,  Francois  Antoine,  Count, 
French  statesman,  born  in  Ardeche  in  1756.  He 
joined  the  conspiracy  against  Robespierre,  and 
was  elected  Secretary  of  the  Convention;  and 
shortly  after,  a  member  of  the  Committee  of 
Public  Safety.  He  was  afterward  President  of 
the  Council  of  Five  Hundred;  was  called  into  the 
Senate  by  Napoleon,  and  made  a  peer  by  Louis 
XVIII.  He  died  in  Pads,  Oct.  20,  1826. 

Boito,  Arrigo,  Italian  composer  and  poet,  was 
born  Feb.  24,  1842,  at  Padua.  His  most  impor¬ 
tant  work  is  the  opera  Mefistofele. 

Bojador',  Cape,  a  headland  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa,  in  26°  7'  N.  latitude,  14°  29'  W. 
longitude. 

Boker,  George  Henry,  was  born  in  Phila¬ 
delphia  in  1824,  and  graduated  at  Princeton.  He 
wrote  a  number  of  plays  and  poems,  and  in  1871 
was  appointed  Minister  to  Turkey,  where  he  re¬ 
mained  for  eight  years. 


Bokha'ra  is  the  name  given  to  the  countries 
of  Independent  Tartary  under  the  rule  of  the 
Khan  (or  Emir)  of  Bokhara.  The  pop.  has  been 
estimated  at  from  1,009,000  to  2,500,000;  its  area 
is  about  90,000  square  miles.  The  climate  is 
healthy,  but  subject  to  great  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold.  Minerals  are  scarce.  The  sands  of 
the  Oxus  yield  gold.  Salt  deposits  are  numer¬ 
ous.  Sheep  and  goats  form  a  great  source  of 
wealth.  Camels  are  numerous;  the  horses  are 
celebrated  for  strength  and  endurance;  and  the 
breed  of  asses  is  excellent.  Myriads  of  silk¬ 
worms  are  raised.  Bokhara  was  conquered  at 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century  by  the  Arabs, 
who  were  dispossessed  in  1232  by  Genghis  Khan. 
It  fell  into  the  hands  of  Timur  in  1403,  and  in 


1505  was  taken  by  the  Uzbegs,  its  present  masters. 
After  the  capture  of  Tashkend  by  the  Russians  in 
1865,  a  religious  war  was  preached  against  the 
Russians.  In  July,  1868,  Samarkand  was  ceded 
to  the  Czar,  and  stipulations  were  entered  into 
favorable  to  Russian  trade.  The  Moslems  rose  in 
rebellion,  but  were  defeated.  During  the  invasion 
of  Khiva  in  1873  the  Khan  assisted  Russia,  and 
was  rewarded  by  territory  from  the  Khivan  pos¬ 
sessions  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Oxus,  under  the 
treaty  between  Russia  and  Khiva  in  July,  1873. 

Bokhara,  capital  of  the  above  khanate,  is 
situated  on  a  plain  a  few  miles  from  the  Zarafshan, 
in  39°  48'  N.  latitude,  64°  26'  E.  longitude,  in 
the  midst  of  trees  and  gardens.  It  is  between 
eight  and  nine  miles, in  circumference,  and  sur¬ 
rounded  by  embattled  mud  walls  about  twenty- 
four  feet  high,  and  pierced  by  eleven  gates. 
Bokhara  is  the  most  important  commercial  town 
in  Central  Asia.  Its  most  striking  feature  is  its 
numerous  bazaars.  Bokhara  was  in  1888  con¬ 
nected  by  the  Transcaspian  Railway  with  Merv 
and  the  Caspian  ports.  Pop.,  70,000. 

Bulan'  Pass,  a  narrow,  precipitous  gorge  in 
Beluchistan,  between  Sind  and  Kandahar.  Its 
entrance  and  its  outlet  are  respectively  800  and 
5,800  feet  above  sea-level.  The  route  is  com¬ 
manded  by  the  British  fortress  at  Quetta. 

Bolas, *  (Span,  balls),  missiles  used  by  the 
natives  and  gauchos  of  southern  South  America, 
consisting  of  two  heavy  balls,  generally  of  stone 
covered  with  leather,  connected  by  a  plaited 
thong  6  to  8  feet  long.  One  bola  is  held  in  the 
hand,  while  the  other  is  swung  rapidly  round  the 
head,  and  both  are  discharged  at  an  animal  so  as 
to  entangle  its  feet. 

Bole  is  the  term  applied  to  an  earthy  mineral 
resembling  clay  in  structure,  and  consisting 
essentially  of  silica,  alumina,  red  oxide  of  bon, 
and  water.  It  occurs  in  nests  and  veins  in  basalt 
and  other  trap  rocks.  French  bole  is  pale  red; 
Bohemian  bole,  reddish  yellow;  Silesian  bole,  pale 
yellow;  and  Blois  bole  is  yellow. 

Bole'ro,  a  Spanish  national  dance,  danced  in 
moderately  quick  three- 
quarter  time  by  two  per¬ 
sons  to  the  accompani¬ 
ment  of  the  castanets  and 
the  guitar. 

Boletus,  a  genus  of 
Ilymenomycete  Fungi. 

It  includes  about  100 
European  species.  Most 
of  the  species  resemble 
the  common  mushroom  in 
general  form,  but  are  dis¬ 
tinguishable  by  the  pore¬ 
like  surface  occupying 
the  place  of  gills.  It  is  edible. 

Boleyu,  Anne,  second  wife  of  Henry  VIII., 
was  born  in  1507,  and  was  the  daughter  of  Sir 
Thomas  Boleyn,  afterward  Viscount  Rochford 
and  Earl  of  Wiltshire,  by  Elizabeth  Howard, 
daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  She  was 
crowned  in  great  splendor  in  Westminster  Hall. 
September,  1533,  she  bore  the  famous  Elizabeth. 
On  May-day,  1536,  the  King  rode  off  abruptly 
from  a  tournament  held  at  Greenwich,  leaving 
the  Queen  behind,  and  on  the  morrow  she  was 
arrested  and  brought  to  the  Tower.  A  special 
commission  had  been  secretly  engaged  in  examin¬ 
ing  into  charges  of  Anne’s  adultery.  She  was 
convicted  of  high  treason,  and  on  the  19th  was 
beheaded.  Henry  the  next  day  married  Jane 
Seymour. 

Bolgrad,  a  town  in  the  Russian  Province  of 


Boletus  edulis. 


Bessarabia,  twenty-eight  miles  northwest  of 
Ismail.  Pop.  (1880),  7,530. 

Bolide  is  a  name  given  to  a  large  meteor  which 
explodes  and  falls  in  aerolites;  a  fire-ball. 

Bolingbrokc,  Henry  St.  John,  Viscount, 
one  of  the  most  gifted  of  English  statesmen  and 
orators,  was  born  on  Oct.  1,  1678.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1701,  where  he  joined  the  Tories, 
and  gained  immediate  distinction  by  his  vigorous 
and  polished  eloquence.  From  1704  to  1708  he 
was  Secretary  for  War  in  the  Godolphin  ministry; 
in  1710  he  became  Foreign  Secretary.  He  was 
called  to  the  House  of  Lords  in  1712,  and  in  1713 
negotiated  the  Peace  of  Utrecht.  When  George 
I.  came  to  the  throne,  Bolingbrokc,  who  had 
intrigued  on  behalf  of  the  Stuart  cause,  fled  to 
France.  He  was  attainted  in  1715,  and  acted  for 
some  time  as  Secretary  of  State  to  the  Pre¬ 
tender.  He  died,  after  a  long  illness,  on  Dec. 
12,  1751. 

Bolivar,  the  name  of  several  States  and  Terri- 
toriesof  South  America. — (1)  A  State  of  Colombia, 
lying  west  of  the  Magdalena.  Area,  21,345 
square  miles;  pop.  (1887)  300,000.  Capital, 
Cartagena;  chief  port,  Barranquilla. — (2)  The 
largest  of  the  United  States  of  Venezuela,  extend¬ 
ing  across  the  center  of  the  country  from 
Colombia  to  the  Atlantic.  Aiea,  88,383  square 
miles;  pop.  (1884)  267,251.  The  State  is  better 
known  as  Guayana;  its  capital  is  Ciudad  Bolivar. 
— (3)  A  national  Territory  of  Columbia;  pop. 
7,751. — (4)  An  agricultural  settlement  of  Venez¬ 
uela,  thirty  miles  northeast  of  Caracas,  founded 
in  1874  to  receive  immigrants. — (5)  One  of  the 
new  Territories  of  Buenos  Ayres,  170  miles  south¬ 
west  of  the  capital.  Area,  2,070  square  miles; 
pop.,  2,055. 

Bolivar,  Simon  (named  El  T.ibertaclor)  was 
born  in  Caracas,  in  what  is  now  Venezuela,  July 
24,  1783.  On  the  declaration  of  independence 
by  Venezuela  on  July  5,  1811,  war  was  begun  by 
the  Spaniards,  and  Bolivar  fought  under  General 
Miranda  in  several  successful  engagements.  In 
September,  1812,  he  joined  the  insurgents  in  New 
Granada,  and  drove  the  Spaniards  beyond  the 
Magdalena.  On  Aug.  4,  1813,  he  entered  Cara¬ 
cas  as  a  conquerer,  and  proclaimed  himself  Dic¬ 
tator  of  Western  Venezuela.  Bolivar  was  com¬ 
pelled  to  retire  to  Cartagena  in  1814,  and,  after 
some  further  service  in  New  Granada,  to  King¬ 
ston  in  Jamaica.  Having  visited  Hayti,  and 
assembled  there  the  insurgent  refugees  (1816), 
Bolivar  twice  landed  in  Venezuela,  but  was 
finally  compelled  to  flee  to  Barcelona,  and  there 
formed  a  provisional  government.  In  1819  a 
congress  was  opened  at  Angostura,  and  Bolivar 
was  confirmed  in  the  supreme  power.  Having 
conducted  his  army,  of  which  the  British  legion 
formed  a  third,  over  the  almost  impassable  Cor¬ 
dilleras  to  New  Granada,  he  achieved  the  vic¬ 
tories  of  Tunja  and  Boyaca,  and  soon  afterward 
declared  New  Granada  united  with  Venezuela  as 
a  Republic,  under  the  name  of  Colombia.  The 
constitution  of  Colombia  was  adopted  on  Aug. 
30,  1821,  and  Bolivar  was  chosen  president. 

In  1822  Bolivar  added  Ecuador  to  the  republic, 
and  was  summoned  to  help  the  Peruvians.  Boli¬ 
var  was  named  Dictator  of  Peru,  from  which  pos¬ 
session  also  the  Spaniards  were  driven,  after  more 
than  two  years’  fighting.  In  1825  the  name  of 
Upper  Peru  was  changed  in  his  honor  to  Bolivia. 
His  assumption  of  supreme  power  in  August, 
1828,  roused  the  apprehension  of  the  republicans, 
and  in  November,  1829,  Venezuela  separated 
itself  from  Colombia.  In  consequence,  Bolivar 
laid  down  his  authority  in  April,  1830,  when  the 
congress  of  Bogota  voted  him  a  pension  of  $3,000 
on  condition  of  his  residing  abroad.  He  died  at 
San  Pedro,  near  Santa  Marta,  Dec.  17, 1830. 

Bolivia,  a  republican  State  on  the  west  side  of 
South  America,  formed  in  1825,  and  deriving  its 
name  from  Bolivar.  Formerly  called  Upper 
Peru,  it  was,  till  1825,  part  of  the  viceroyalty 
of  Buenos  Ayres.  It  extends  between  8°  and  23°  S. 
latitude,  and 57°  30' and  73®  W.  longitude,  and  is 
inclosed  by  Peru,  Brazil,  Paraguay,  the  Argentine 
Republic,  and  Chili.  A  portion  of  the  Argentine 
frontier  has  been  for  some  time  undetermined. 
Its  coast  provinces  Bolivia  lost  to  Chili  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  war  between  Bolivia  and  Peru  with 
Chili  in  1879-83.  The  area  of  the  republic— 842,- 
729  square  miles  in  1869 — was  estimated  in  1888 


BOLLANDISTS. 


171 


BOMBAY. 


at  only  438,175  square  miles;  meanwhile  the  pop¬ 
ulation  lias  risen  from  1,987,353  in  1858  to  2,303,- 
000,  rather  more  than  half  native  Indians. 

Prior  to  the  treaty  of  1884,  Bolivia  contained 
the  loftiest  and  most  mountainous  district  of 
America;  but  as  since  then  her  western  frontier 
has  been  bounded  by  the  Andes,  this  claim 
would  now  be  only  partly  true.  The  Peruvian 
frontier,  is,  however,  unchanged;  and  the  lofty 
plateau  of  Oruro,  with  an  average  height  of 
13,000  feet,  and  about  150  miles  broad,  is  inclosed 
between  the  Andes  proper  and  the  Cordillera 
Real,  to  the  east.  The  volcanoes,  confined  to  the 
western  region,  include  Saliama,  Illampu,  and 
Illimani,  all  over  21,000  feet  high.  The  Lake  of 
Titicaca,  with  an  area  of  more  than  3,200  square 
miles,  and  a  depth  of  120  fathoms,  incloses  sev¬ 
eral  islands,  the  largest  of  which  was  the  home 
of  the  founders  of  the  empire  of  the  Incas. 
Although  situated  entirely  within  the  tropics, 
Bolivia,  from  its  varied  elevation,  pos¬ 
sesses  a  wide  range  of  climate  and  pro¬ 
ductions.  The  regions  with  an  elevation  of 
over  11,000  feet  are  called  punas,  while  the  puna 
brava  is  the  region  of  snow  and  ice  above  12,500 
feet.  This  division  includes  the  whole  table-land 
of  Oruro  and  the  loftier  mountain  peaks.  There 
are  two  seasons;  the  wet,  continuing  from  No¬ 
vember  to  April,  and  the  dry,  or  winter  season, 
from  May  to  October. 

Among  the  dangerous  wild  animals  are  the 
puma,  jaguar,  ocelot,  and  bear.  The  llama,  alpaca, 
vicuna  and  guanaco  are  valuable  for  their  wool, 
and  purposes  of  transportation.  Other  animals 
are  the  sloth,  armadillo,  glutton,  wild  boar,  chin¬ 
chilla  and  peccary.  The  anaconda  and  rattle¬ 
snake  are  the  principal  reptiles  ;  caymans  abound 
in  the  rivers.  There  are  an  infinite  variety  of 
birds,  the  condor  being  the  largest. 

The  wonderful  silver  mines  of  Bolivia  have  for 
centuries  been  the  marvel  of  the  world.  It  is  es¬ 
timated  that  the  mines  of  Potosi  yielded,  from 
1545  to  1789,  $2,000,000,000.  The  annual  product 
of  this  remarkable  mountain  is  still  $2,250,000. 
The  deposits  are  of  great  richness.  Other  mines, 
thought  to  have  ores  of  equal  value,  have  been 
discovered  in  various  parts  of  the  republic.  With 
a  more  settled  government  and  better  means  of 
transportation,  this  would  be  the  great  silver-pro¬ 
ducing  country  of  the  world.  The  yearly  export 
of  this  one  metal  is  valued  at  $10,000,000.  Gold 
is  found  at  many  points  in  the  mountains,  and  in 
the  sands  of  all  the  rivers  flowing  from  the  Cor¬ 
dillera  Oriental.  The  tin  mines  of  Oruro  and  the 
copper  deposits  in  the  mountains  near  Corocoro 
are  very  rich.  The  quantity  of  these  three  min 
erals  exported  yearly  is  valued  at  $5,000,000. 
Lead,  salt,  sulphur,  niter,  etc.,  are  abundant. 

The  vegetable  productions  are  of  great  value. 
Cotton — yellow  and  white — grows  wild,  and  sugar 
cane,  coffee,  cacao,  and  tobacco  of  superior  qual¬ 
ity  are  raised.  The  most  important  produce, 
however,  is  coca,  which  grows  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Andes,  and  which  the  Indians  use  as 
a  stimulant.  Copaiba,  valerian,  jalap,  ipecacu¬ 
anha,  sarsaparilla  and  other  medicinal  drugs,  and 
many  varieties  of  gums,  such  as  the  caoutchouc, 
grow  in  abundance.  Ebony,  rosewood,  mahog¬ 
any,  cedar,  cinchona,  and  other  trees  are  found, 
together  wi  ll  many  valuable  dyewoods.  Indigo, 
cochineal,  flax,  corn,  etc.,  are  extensively  culti¬ 
vated.  'I'he  manufactures  are  limited  to  coarse 
cotton  cloths;  various  fabrics  made  from  the  wool 
of  the  llama  and  alpaca;  hats,  cordage,  and 
leather. 

Executive  power  is  entrusted  to  a  president, 
elected  for  four  years,  and  legislative  functions  to 
a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  elected  by 
universal  suffrage.  The  seat  of  the  executive 
government  is  at  Chuquisaca.  The  State  is 
divided  into  nine  departments,  which  are  sub¬ 
divided  into  thirty-seven  districts.  The  yearly 
revenue,  according  to  the  last  reports,  was  $2,929,- 
000,  and  the  expenditure,  $4,505,000.  There  is  a 
National  debt  of  $17,000,000,  a  large  portion  of 
which  consists  of  money  borrowed  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  constructing  railroads,  the  need  of  which 
is  greatly  felt.  Up  to  this  time  only  a  few  short 
lines  have  been  built.  The  Roman  Catholic 
religion  is  the  prevailing  one;  other  forms  of  faith 
an  merely  tolerated.  Education  is  in  a  back¬ 
ward  state.  Bolivia  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 


Spaniards  soon  after  the  conquest  of  Peru,  and 
remained  in  their  possession  until  1825,  when  it 
became  an  independent  State.  Since  then  revo¬ 
lution  has  succeeded  revolution,  and  one  military 
dictator  has  obtained  power  only  to  be  overthrown 
by  a  rival  soldier.  A  dispute  with  Chili  as  to  the 
ownership  of  the  valuable  guano  and  nitrate  of 
soda  beds  along  the  coast  led  to  a  war  with  that 
country,  in  which  Bolivia  was  badly  worsted. 

Bollandists,  an  association  or  succession  of 
Jesuits  by  whom  the  Acta  Sanctorum ,  or  Lives  of 
the  Saints  of  the  Christian  Church,  were  col¬ 
lected  and  published  (1643-1794).  They  received 
their  name  from  John  Bolland,  born  in  the 
Netherlands  1596,  died  1665,  who  edited  the  first 
5  vols. 

Bologna,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
Italy,  eighty-two  miles  north  of  Florence,  and  135 
southeast  of  Milan.  An  irregular  hexagon,  it  is 
inclosed  by  a  high  brick  wall,  five  to  six  miles  in 
extent,  with  twelve  gates,  and  is  intersected  by 
the  canal  of  Reno,  while,  on  either  side,  the 
Rivers  Reno  and  Savena  sweep  past  its  walls. 
Bologna  has  given  eight  popes  and  more  than  200 
cardinals  to  the  Church. 

Bologna  owes  its  origin,  which  is  said  to  be 
much  more  remote  than  that  of  Rome,  to  the 
Etruscans,  by  whom  it  was  called  F'elsina.  The 
Province  <f  Bologna  forms  part  of  the  camparti- 
mento  of  Emilia.  It  is  very  fertile,  and  its  numer¬ 
ous  small  streams  and  canals  are  largely  utilized 
in  the  irrigation  of  rice  fields.  Area,  1,380  square 
miles;  pop.  (1881),  457,474.  See  Burton’s  Etrus¬ 
can  Bologna  (1876). 

Bologna  Filial,  or  Philosophical  PniAL,  is 
a  short,  thick,  narrow  glass  vessel,  close  at  one 
end  and  open  at  the  other,  which  the  glass-blower 
prepares  from  each  pot  of  metal  before  employing 
it  in  the  fashioning  of  tumblers,  glasses,  and 
bottles. 

Bologna  Stone,  or  Bononian  Stone.  In  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  or  lhe  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  Vincent  Casciorlo,  a  shoe¬ 
maker  of  Bologna,  made  the  very  remarkable 
discovery  that  the  mineral  now  known  as  heavy 
spar  (barium  sulphate),  which  is  found  near 
Bologna,  when  reduced  to  a  fine  powder  and 
mixed  with  gum,  dried,  and  strongly  heated  in  a 
covered  crucible,  is  converted  into  a  substance 
having  the  property  of  shining  in  the  dark.  The 
Well-known  “luminous  paint”  is  made  up  of  this 
or  of  other-  similar  and  similarly  prepared  sul¬ 
phides. 

Bolometer,  an  instrument  invented  (1881)  by 
Professor  Langley  for  the  measurement  of  the 
intensity  of  radiant  heat.  It  consists  essentially  of 
a  Wheatstone’s  Bridge,  arranged  so  that  no  cur¬ 
rent  passes  through  the  galvanometer.  The 
instrument  may  be  made  much  more  sensitive 
than  a  thermopile.  A  good  one  can  measure 
variations  of  temperature  of  I5j(50  °f  il  degree 
centigrade,  and  can  detect  a  variation  of 

.  -  _ 

100000* 

Boise 'na  (ancient  Volsinii),  a  town  in  the  Pro¬ 
vince  of  Rome,  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Lake  of 
Bolsena.  It  has  now  2,200  inhabitants;  but  prior 
to  280  b.c.  it  was  a  place  of  great  importance, 
forming  one  of  the  twelve  Etruscan  cities. 

Bolton,  or  Bolton-le-Moohs,  an  important 
English  manufacturing  town  in  South  Lanca¬ 
shire.  It  was  celebrated  as  far  back  as  the  time 
of  Henry  VIII.  for  its  cotton  and  its  woolen  man¬ 
ufactures,  introduced  by  Flemish  clothiers  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  Bolton,  containing  more  than 
100  cotton  mills,  with  about  4,000,000  of  spindles, 
is  now  one  of  the  principal  seats  of  the  cotton  man¬ 
ufacture  in  Lancashire.  During  the  Civil  War 
the  Parliament  garrisoned  Bolton;  in  1644  it  was 
stormed  by  the  Earl  of  Derby.  A  canal  was 
made  from  Manchester  to  Bolton  in  1791.  Pop. 
(1881),  105,973. 

Bolton  Abbey,  Yorkshire,  is  situated  in  a  highly 
picturesque  district  on  the  River  Wliarfe,  six  miles 
east  of  Skipton,  and  eighteen  northwest  of  Leeds. 
Founded  for  Augustinian  canons  about  1150,  it 
has  been  celebrated  by  Wordsworth  in  The  White 
Doe  of  Rylsione  and  The  Force  of  Prayer.  The 
remains  range  from  Early  English  to  Perpendic¬ 
ular;  and  the  nave  of  the  church  has  been  restored 
for  service.  The  old  barn  of  the  abbey  is  still  in 
use;  and  the  gateway,  familiar  through  Landseer’s 


picture,  has  been  incorporated  in  Bolton  Hall,  a 
modern  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire. 

Bolus  (Gr.  bolos,  a  lump),  a  soft  mass  of  any 
kind  of  medicine,  intended  to  be  swallowed  at 
once.  It  differs  from  a  pill  in  being  larger. 

Boma,  the  capital  of  the  Congo  State. 

BoTnarsund,  a  Russian  fortress  on  Aland 
Island,  commanding  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  In 
August,  1854,  it  was  destroyed  by  an  Anglo-French 
force,  after  a  six  day’s  bombardment.  The  treaty 
of  Paris  bound  Russia  not  to  restore  it. 

Bomb,  Bomb- shell,  or  Shell,  is  a  hollow  pro¬ 
jectile,  usually  of  cast-iron,  fired  from  a  mortar  or 
other  large  piece  of  ordnance,  filled  with  gunpow¬ 
der,  and  fitted  with  a  time-fuse,  which  causes  it  to 
burst  at  any  required  instant  after  it  is  fired.  The 
fragments  are  most  destructive  both  to  men  and 
material,  and  the  flame  of  the  explosion  sets  fire 
to  anything  inflammable  with  which  it  comes  into 
contact — even  earthen  parapets  are  much  damaged 
by  bombs,  which,  lodging  in  them  and  then  burst¬ 
ing,  have  the  same  effect  as  a  mine  sprung  under 
them.  Such  projectiles  were  formerly  fired  from 
mortars  only;  but  all  modern  pieces  of  artillery 
now  fire  them.  The  name  shell  has,  however,  been 
generally  substituted  for  that  of  bomb,  especially 
since  the  int  roduction  of  rifled  guns  firingelongated 
projectiles.  The  13-inch  is  the  largest  spherical 
shell  in  ordinary  use.  It  weighs  about  195  pounds, 
with  a  thickness  of  metal  varying  from  li  to  2 
inches  at  different  parts;  it  bursts  with  about  8 
pounds  of  powder.  The  10-inch  bomb,  weighing 
about  90  pounds,  is  proportionately  less  in  all  di¬ 
mensions  than  that  just  described;  and  so  on  for 
those  of  smaller  diameters.  The  smallest  is  the 
hand-grenade  of  3  pounds  weight  . 

Bomba  was  an  opprobrious  epithet  bestowed 
in  Italy  on  Ferdinand  II.  of  Naples  (1810-59),  in 
consequence  of  his  cruel  bombardment  of  Naples, 
Messina,  and  other  cities  of  his  realm  during  the 
revolutionary  troubles  of  1849. 

Bom'bani,  a  kind  of  cannon  in  use  about  the 
close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  and  later,  short, 
thick,  and  wide  in  the  bore,  sometimes  capable  of 
throwing  balls  of  stone  of  200  and  even  500  lb. 
weight. 

Bombardier,  the  lowest  non-commissioned 
officer  in  the  Bi  itisli  artillery,  ranking  with  cor¬ 
porals  in  the  infantry  and  cavalry.  The  name 
was  applied  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  to  a  man  employed  about  the  mortars 
and  howitzers. 

Bombardier  Beetle,  a  name  given  to  several 
species  of  beetles,  of  the  genera  Bracliinus  and 
Aptinus,  in  the  sub-family  Carabidse.  The  name 
refers  to  their  offensive  and  defensive  habit  of 
discharging  an  acrid  volatile  fluid  with  explosive 
force  from  the  abdomen.  Some  ants  and  other 
insects  exhibit  the  same  curious  protective  device. 

Bombardment  is  an  attack  upon  a  fortress  or 
fortified  town  by  means  of  shells,  red-hot  shot, 
carcasses,  rockets, etc., to  destroy  the  fortifications, 
burn  the  houses  and  kill  the  people.  It  is  most 
likely  to  be  successful  against  a  place  destitute 
of  bomb-proof  cover;  or  one  having  a  large  civil 
population.  A  bombardment  is  more  frequently 
a  naval  than  a  military  operation,  and  in  that  case 
is  undertaken  without  an  investment,  or  any  in¬ 
tention  of  capturing  the  place,  but  simply  with 
the  object  of  destroying  it.  The  stores  required 
for  a  vigorous  bombardment  are  immense.  In 
January.  1871,  the  Germans  bombarding  Paris 
and  its  forts,  threw  10,000  shells  daily  into  the 
place,  of  which  500  fell  into  the  city  itself.  The 
siege  and  bombardment  of  Strasburg  in  August 
and  September  is  also  memorable.  The  bom¬ 
bardment  of  the  forts  of  Alexandria  by  the  Brit¬ 
ish  fleet  on  July  11,  1882,  is  a  recent  example  of 
the  effect  of  the  enormous  modern  shells.  It  was 
directed  against  the  fortifications  with  the  inten 
tion  of  destroying  them,  and  not  against  the 
town,  though  the  latter  was  set  on  fire  in  several 
places  by  these  far-ranging  projectiles.  The 
forts  were  silenced  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Bombay,  the  western  province  of  India,  with 
a  Governor  appointed  by  the  Crown,  a  Legislative 
Council,  and  a  European  and  native  garrison 
under  a  local  commander-in-chief.  Bombay,  in¬ 
cluding  Sind  and  Aden,  comprises  twenty-four 
British  districts,  and  nineteen  nalive  or  feuda¬ 
tory  States,  and  contains  197,887  square  miles,  of 
which  73,753  are  in  native  States.  The  Ner- 


BOMBAY. 


172 


BONAPARTE. 


budda  river  divides  the  Presidency,  as  in  accord¬ 
ance  with  the  old  name  it  is  still  often  called,  into 
two  portions.  In  the  north  is  Guzerat,  chiefly 
consisting  of  alluvial  plains,  with  the  Cutch  and 
Kathiawar  peninsulas;  to  the  south  is  the  Mah- 
ratta  country,  which  includes  parts  of  the  Deccan, 
Carnatic,  and  Konkan  or  coast  districts.  The 
political  control  of  Baroda  was  transferred 
in  1875  from  Bombay  to  the  supreme  govern¬ 
ment  of  India.  The  small  territories  of  the 
Portuguese — Goa,  Daman,  and  Diu — have  an 
area  of  1,002  square  miles.  The  coast  line  is  irreg¬ 
ular,  broken  by  the  Gulfs  of  Cambay  and  Cutch, 
with  several  tine  natural  harbors — Bombay  and 
Karachi  (Kurrachee)  being  the  most  important. 
Sind  is  watered  and  fertilized  throughout  its 
whole  length  by  the  Indus;  the  Subarmati  and 
Malii  flow" through  the  plains  of  North  Guzerat; 
the  Nerbudda  pursues  a  western  course  into  the 
Gulf  of  Cambay.  The  Tapti  flows  through 
Khandesh  district,  entering  the  sea  above  Surat. 
The  Runn  of  Cutch  in  the  west  of  Guzerat  covers 
an  area  of  about  8,000  square  miles,  and  is  the 
great  source  of  salt  supply  for  the  Presidency. 
'There  are  few  minerals  and  no  coal;  iron  is  mined 
at  Teagar  in  Dharvar,  and  there  is  gold  amongst 
the  quartz.  As  to  climate:  in  the  dry  sandy  dis¬ 
tricts  of  Sind  the  thermometer  has  reached  130° 
in  the  shade;  the  mean  temperature  of  Lower 
Sind,  during  the  hottest  months  in  the  year,  is  98Q 
in  the  shade.  In  Cutch  and  Guzerat  the  heat  is 
slightly  less.  The  coast  districts  are  hot  and 
moist,  with  a  heavy  rainfall  during  the  monsoon, 
which  sometimes  reaches  300  inches.  During  the 
mutiny  of  1857  the  local  army  remained,  on  the 
whole,  steady  and  faithful;  and  a  portion  of  it 
under  Sir  Hugh  Rose,  acted  in  suppression  of  the 
insurrection.  The  army  consisted  in  1888  of 
35,942  men,  of  whom  21,000  were  natives.  The 
headquarters  is  at  Poona.  The  first  railway  in 
India  was  opened  in  Bombay  in  1853;  the  Presi¬ 
dency  has  now  more  than  3,500  miles  of  railway, 
giving  communication  with  all  the  important 
towns  of  India.  Of  late  years  manufacturing 
industries  have  been  extremely  active  in  Bombay. 
Commanding  the  richest  cotton  fields  in  India,  it 
has  improved  to  the  utmost  its  natural  advantages. 
The  stoppage  of  the  American  cotton  supply  dur¬ 
ing  the  civil  war  gave  a  grand  impulse  to  the 
Bombay  trade,  the  exports  of  cotton  during  the 
five  years,  1861  to  1866,  averaging  in  value 
$105,000,000  a  year.  The  wealth  poured  into 
Bombay  at  this  period  led  to  a  vast  exten¬ 
sion  of  the  trade,  which  partly  continued 
after  the  period  of  inflation  had  passed. 
After  cotton,  the  other  great  staples  are  opium, 
wheat,  and  seeds.  The  trade  in  opium  is  worth 
nearly  $75,000,000,  $10,000,000  being  the  cleat- 
revenue  derived  by  government  from  a  pass  duty 
of  550  rupees  a  chest.  Although  of  recent  origin, 
the  wheat  trade  has  assumed  large  proportions. 
In  1887  the  exports  amounted  in  value  to 
$30,000,000.  Pop.  (1881)  of  native  states,  exclud¬ 
ing  Baroda,  6,941,249;  of  British  territory, 
16,489,274,  of  whom  nearly  18,000,000  were 
Hindus,  3,750,000  Mohammedans,  and  less  than 
1,000,000  aborigines,  etc. 

Bombay  (City)  occupies  the  entire  breadth  of 
the  southeast  end  of  Bombay  Island  or  Peninsula, 
bordering  at  once  on  the  harbor  inside,  and  on 
Back  Bay  outside.  The  island,  now  permanently 
■connected  by  causeways  and  breakwaters  with 
Salsette  Island  and  the  mainland,  is  over  11 
miles  long  by  from  3  to  4  broad.  For  adminis¬ 
trative  purposes  the  city  constitutes  a  dis¬ 
trict  by  itself,  with  an  area  of  22  square 
miles.  Its  harbor,  studded  with  islands  and 
•crowded  with  shipping,  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the 
world;  the  space  available  for  shipping  being 
about  14  miles  in  length  by  5  broad.  Bombay  is 
the  most  European  in  appearance  of  all  the  cities 
in  India.  In  the  business  part  there  are  several 
streets  continuously  lined  with  splendid  buildings. 
The  terminus  of  the  Great  Indian  Peninsular 
Railway,  opened  in  1876,  is  the  finest  building  in 
Bombay — probably  the  finest  structure  of  the 
kind  in  the  world,  costing  upward  of  $1,500,000. 
It  has  an  extensive  system  of  quays,  wharves,  and 
docks;  Princes  Dock  is  said  to  have  cost  over 
$5,000,000.  Mazagaon  Bay,  the  center  of 
shipping  activity,  is  at  the  head  of  the  harbor. 
Bombay  now  surpasses  Calcutta  in  the  amount  of 


her  trade;  in  1886-87,  36.9  per  cent,  of  the  trade 
of  India  was  done  through  Calcutta,  and  42.78 
through  Bombay.  With  sixty  large  steam-mills, 
Bombay  presents  the  appearance  of  a  city  in 
Lancashire.  The  population,  which  is  exceed¬ 
ingly  heterogeneous  and  dense — as  many  as  thirty- 


one  persons,  on  an  average,  inhabiting  each 
house — amounted  in  1881  to  773,196.  Less  than 
13,000  of  this  number  are  British  born.  In  1509, 
about  a  year  before  the  capture  of  Goa,  the 
Portuguese  visited  the  island;  and  by  1532  they 
had  made  it  their  own.  In  1661  they  ceded  it  to 
Charles  II.  of  England,  as  part  of  the  dowry  of 
his  bride,  the  Infanta  Catharine. 

Bombay  Duck,  or  Bummaloti  ( Saurus 
ophiodon),  a  fish  of  the  family  Scopelidae,  nearly 
allied  to  the  salmon  and  trout  family.  It  is  a 
small  but  voracious  fish  of  elongated  form,  with 
large  fins  and  a  very  large  mouth.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  coasts  of  India,  particularly  of  the  Bombay 
and  Malabar  regions,  from  which  it  is  exported  in 
large  quantities,  salted  and  dried,  to  other  parts 
of  India  and  elsewhere,  being  highly  esteemed 
for  its  rich  flavor,  and  often  used  as  a  relish. 

Bombazine  is  a  cloth  for  dresses,  in  which  the 
distinguishing  characteristic  is  that  the  warp  is 
silk,  and  the  weft  worsted.  The  cloth  has  thus  a 
bare  look.  It  is  rather  fine  and  light  in  the  make, 
and  may  be  of  any  color.  The  fabric  is  now  little 
used. 

Bomb-proofs  are  military  structures  of  such 
immense  thickness  and  strength  that  shells  can  not 
penetrate  them.  In  every  fort  the  barracks,  hos¬ 
pital,  stores,  and  magazines  are  covered  with 
masonry  and  earth,  or,  in  some  cases,  with  thick 
armor-plates,  so  as  to  be  impervious  to  the  fire 
of  the  most  powerful  siege-guns  and  mortars. 

Bona  (Fr.  Done),  a  seaport  town  of  Algeria,  in 
the  Province  of  Constantine,  220  miles  west  of 
Tunis.  Since  the  occupation  of  Bona  by  the 
French  in  1832,  the  town  has  been  much  im¬ 
proved,  and  the  exposed  roadstead  has  been  made 
into  a  fair  harbor.  There  are  iron  and  copper 
mines  near  Bona.  Pop.  (1886),  24,291. 

Bona  Bea  (the  good  goddess),  a  mysterious 
Italian  goddess  of  fertility,  who  is  variously  de¬ 
scribed  as  the  wife,  sister,  or  daughter  of  Faunus. 
She  was  worshiped  at  Rome  from  the  most 
ancient  times,  but  only  by  women,  even  her  name 
being  concealed  from  men. 

Bona  Fides,  a  Latin  expression  signifying 
good  faith,  enters  as  a  legal  doctrine  largely  into 
the  consideration  of  matters  of  agreement,  con¬ 
tract,  damage,  trusts,  and  other  departments  of 
.  law;  and  in  all  of  them  it  requires  the  absence  of 
fraud,  or  unfair  dealing.  It  is  the  foundation  of 
many  just  and  enlightened  maxims  in  the  Roman 
jurisprudence. 

Bonald,  Louis  Gabriel  Ambroise,  Vicomte 
de,  a  French  publicist,  born  in  1753  at  Monna, 
was  compelled  to  emigrate  during  the  French 
Revolution,  and  employed  his  pen  at  Heidelberg 
on  behalf  of  monarchy.  His  first  important  work, 
Theorie  du  Pouvoir  Politique  et  Religieux  (3  vols. 
1796),  was  seized  by  the  Directory.  It  prophesied 
the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons.  Having  returned 
to  France,  he  was  in  1808  appointed  by  Napoleon 


Minister  of  Instruction.  Raised  to  the  peerage 
by  Louis  XVIII.  in  1823,  he  retired,  under  the 
next  dynasty,  to  Monna,  where  he  died  Nov.  23, 
1840. — His  son,  Louis  Jacques  Maurice  (1787- 
1870),  became  Archbishop  of  Lyons  in  1839,  and 
a  cardinal  in  1841. 

Bonanza  (Span,  a  fair  wind,  prosperity),  a  term 
originally  applied  in  the  mining  territories  of  the 
United  States  to  the  discovery  of  a  rich  vein  or 
“  pocket”;  a  mine  was  said  to  be  in  bonanza  when 
producing  a  profitable  ore.  It  has  since  been  used 
colloquially  of  successful  enterprises  generally,  in 
the  sense  of  a  “  mine  of  wealth.” 

Bonaparte  (pronounced  in  Ital.  in  four  syl¬ 
lables;  in  Fr.  and  Eng.  in  three)  is  the  name  of  a 
famous  family,  and  was  spelt  Buonaparte  by  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  and  his  father  till  1796, 
though  the  more  usual  modern  form  also  occurs 
in  old  Italian  documents.  As  the  name  of  Bona¬ 
parte  occurs  in  Corsica  so  early  as  the  tenth  century 
it  is  probable  that  the  island  may  have  been  their 
original  home.  In  the  eighteenth  century  this 
family  was  represented  by  t  hree  male  descendants, 
all  residing  at  Ajaccio;  the  archdeacon,  Lucien 
Bonaparte;  his  brother,  Napoleon  Bonaparte;  and 
their  nephew,  Charles. — Charles  Bonaparte, 
father  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  was  born  at  Ajac¬ 
cio  in  1746;  and  married  in  1767  a  beautiful  young 
patrician  lady,  named  Letizia  Ramolino.  In 
1768  he  removed  with  his  family  to  Corte,  in 
order  to  assist  General  Paoli  in  defending  the 
island  against  the  French  invasion.  As  the 
French  prevailed,  Charles  Bonaparte  attached 
himself  to  the  French  interest,  and  in  1771  was 
included  by  Louis  XV.  in  the  election  of  400  Cor¬ 
sican  families  to  form  a  nobility.  In  1773 
Charles  Bonaparte  was  appointed  royal  coun¬ 
sellor  and  assessor  of  the  town  and  province  of 
Ajaccio.  In  1777  he  was  a  member  of  the  depu¬ 
tation  of  Corsican  nobles  to  the  court  of  France. 
He  resided  for  some  time  in  Paris,  where  he 
gained  for  his  son,  Napoleon,  a  free  admission 
into  the  military  school  at  Brienne.  In  1779  he 
returned  to  Corsica,  and  in  1785  went  to  Mont¬ 
pellier,  where  he  died  the  same  year.  By  his 
marriage  with  Letizia  he  left  eight  children: 
Joseph  Bonaparte,  King  of  Spain;  Napoleon, 
Emperor  of  the  French;  Lucien  Bonaparte, 
Prince  of  Canino;  Maria  Anna,  (afterward  named 
Elise),  Princess  of  Lucca  and  Piombino,  wife  of 
Prince  Baccioelii;  Louis  Bonaparte,  King  of  Hol¬ 
land;  Carlotta  (afterward  named  Marie  Pauline); 
Princess  Borghese  Annunciata  (afterward  named 
Caroline),  wife  of  General  Leclerc,  afterward  of 
Murat,  King  of  Naples;  Jerome  Bonaparte,  King 
of  Westphalia.  These  members  of  the  Bonaparte 
family,  with  the  children  of  Beauharnais,  adopted 
by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  when  he  married  Jose¬ 
phine,  are  distinguished  as  the  Hapoleonidce  of 
modern  French  history.  By  a  decree  of  the 
Senate  (1804)  the  right  of  succession  to  the 
throne  was  restricted  to  Napoleon  and  his 
brothers,  Joseph  and  Louis,  with  their  offspring. 
Lucien  and  Jerome  were  excluded  on  account  of 
their  unequal  marriages.  As  Joseph,  the  eldest 
brother  of  the  emperor,  had  no  son,  the  de¬ 
scendants  of  Louis  became  nearest  heirs  to  the 
throne. — Maria  Letizia  Ramolino,  mother  of 
Napoleon  I.,  lived  to  see  her  family  placed  on 
the  thrones  of  Europe,  and  also  witnessed  their 
downfall.  She  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1750. 
After  the  death  of  her  husband,  she  lived  for 
some  time  in  Corsica,  and  in  1793  removed  with 
her  family  to  Marseilles,  where  she  was  supported 
by  the  pension  given  to  Corsican  refugees.  After 
her  son  became  First  Consul  she  removed  to  Paris, 
and  when  her  son  was  crowned  in  1804,  received 
the  title  Madame  Mere,  and  was  made  patroness  of 
all  the  benevolent  institutions  of  the  empire. 
After  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  Letizia  lived 
with  her  step-brother,  Cardinal  Fesch,  in  winter 
at  Rome,  and  in  summer  at  Albano,  and  sub¬ 
mitted  to  her  change  of  fortune  with  remarkable 
dignity.  She  died  in  1836,  leaving  a  considerable 
property. 

Joseph  Bonaparte,  eldest  brother  of  Napo¬ 
leon,  was  born  at  Corte,  in  Corsica,  in  1768.  In 
1793  he  removed  to  Marseilles,  where  he  prepared 
for  the  bar.  1  n  1 797  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  in  the  same 
year  was  sent  as  ambassador  from  the  republic  to 
Rome.  In  1800,  after  he  had  proved  his  ability 


BONASIA. 


173 


BOND. 


in  several  offices  of  state,  lie  was  "chosen  by  the 
First  Consul  as  plenipotentiary  to  conclude  a 
treaty  of  friendship  with  the  United  States  of 
America.  He  signed  the  treaty  of  peace  at 
Luneville,  1801,  and  that  of  Amiens,  18U2;  and 
with  Cretet  and  Bernier  conducted  the  negotia¬ 
tions  relative  to  the  Concoidat.  After  the  coro¬ 
nation  of  Napoleon  new  honors  fell  to  the  share 
of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  who  was  made  Com- 
mander-in-Chief  of  the  army  of  Naples;  in  1805, 
ruler  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  in  180G,  King  of 
Naples.  In  1808  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  summarily 
transferred  by  his  brother  to  the  throne  of  Spain, 
and  Murat  took  his  place  as  King  of  Naples. 
After  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he  accompanied 
Napoleon  to  Rochefort,  whence  they  intended  to 
sail  separately  for  North  America.  Joseph  became 
an  American  citizen,  and  lived  for  some  years  at 
Bordentown,  in  New  Jersey,  where  he  em¬ 
ployed  himself  in  agriculture,  and  was  highly  es¬ 
teemed  by  his  neighbors.  In  1832  he  returned  to 
Europe,  and  he  died  at  Florence  in  1844. — His 
wife,  Julia  Marie  Clary,  born  in  1777,  was 
the  daughter  of  a  wealthy  citizen  of  Marseilles, 
and  the  sister-in-law  of  Bernadotte.  King  of 
Sweden.  She  died  at  Florence  in  1845.  By  her 
marriage  with  Joseph  Bonapaite  she  had  two 
daughters. 

Lucien  Bonaparte,  Prince  of  Canino,  and 
brother  of  Napoleon,  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1775. 
In  1798  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  Council  of 
Five  Hundred,  and  formed  a  party  favorable  to 
the  views  of  his  brother  Napoleon.  Shortly  be¬ 
fore  the  18th  Brumaire,  he  was  elected  President 
of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  was  the 
hero  of  that  day.  During  the  ferment  which  fol¬ 
lowed  Napoleon’s  entrance,  Lucien  left  his  seat, 
mounted  his  horse,  and  riding  through  the  ranks 
of  the  assembled  troops,  called  upon  them  to 
rescue  their  general  from  assassins.  Afterward 
appointed  Minister  of  the  Interior,  he 
was  active  in  the  encouragement  of  education, 
art,  and  science,  and  organized  the  prefectures. 
As  Ambassador  to  Madrid  (1800)  he  contrived  to 
gain  the  confidence  of  King  Charles  IV.  and 
his  favorite  Godoy,  and  to  undermine  the  British 
influence,  which  had  until  then  been  exercised 
at  the  court  of  Spain.  Lucien  was  a  republican 
in  opinion,  and,  therefore,  opposed  to  the  abso¬ 
lute  rule  of  his  brother.  On  condition  that  he 
would  divorce  his  wife,  the  crowns  of  Italy 
and  Spain  were  offered  him;  but  he  refused  them. 
In  1810  he  took  ship  for  America,  but  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  English.  After  the  defeat  at 
Waterloo,  Lucien  Bonaparte  alone  seems  to  have 
preserved  his  presence  of  mind.  He  immediately 
advised  his  brother  to  dissolve  the  chambers,  and 
assume  the  place  of  absolute  dictator.  After  the 
second  ascent  of  the  throne  by  Louis  XVIII., 
Lucien  lived  in  and  near  Rome,  and  died  at 
Viterbo  in  1840. 

His  eldest  son  was  Charles  Lucien  Jules 
Laurent  Bonaparte,  Prince  of  Canino  and 
Musignano,  born  at  Paris  in  1803.  He  acquired 
a  considerable  reputation  as  a  naturalist,  and 
especially  as  a  writer  on  ornithology.  He  died 
in  1857.  He  was  a  member  of  the  principal 
academies  in  Europe  and  America. — The  second 
son,  Paul  Marie  Bonaparte,  born  in  1808, 
took  a  part  in  the  Greek  war  of  liberation,  and 
died  by  the  accidental  discharge  of  a  pistol  in 
1827. — The  third  son,  Louis  Lucien  Bonaparte, 
born  in  1813,  at  Tliorngrove,  Worcestershire, 
England,  during  his  father’s  imprisonment  in 
England,  early  devoted  himself,  with  equal  ardor 
to  chemistry,  mineralogy,  and  the  study  of 
languages,  and  became  an  authority  of  the  first 
rank  in  Basque,  Celtic,  and  comparative  philol¬ 
ogy  generally.  His  election  for  Corsica  in  1848 
was  annulled,  but  he  was  sent  to  the  Constituent 
Assembly  for  the  Seine  department  next  year, 
and  was  made  Senator  in  1852,  with  the  title  of 
Highness  in  addition  to  that  of  Prince,  which  he 
already  possessed  from  his  birth. — The  fourth 
son,  Pierre  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  born  in 
1815,  passed  through  many  changes  of  fortune  in 
America,  Italy,  and  Belgium,  and  returned  to 
France  in  1818.  In  1870  he  murdered  a  journalist, 
Victor  Noir,  a  deed  which  created  great  excite¬ 
ment  in  Paris;  and  being  tried,  was  acquitted 
by  a  packed  jury,  but  condemned  to  pay  $5,000 
to  Victor  Noir’s  relatives.  He  died  in  1881. — 


The  youngest  son,  Antoine  Bonaparte,  born  in 
1810,  fled  to  America  after  an  affair  with  the 
Papal  troops  in  1836,  and  returned  to  France  in 
1848,  where  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Assem¬ 
bly  in  1849;  he  died  in  1883. 

Louis  Bonaparte,  third  brother  of  Napoleon, 
born  in  1778,  was  educated  in  the  artillery  school 
at  Chalons,  where  he  imbibed  anti-republican 
principles.  After  rising  from  one  honor  to 
another  he  was  made  King  of  Holland  in  1800; 
but,  in  fact,  was  never  more  than  a  French  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Holland,  subordinate  to  the  will  of  his 
bi  other.  He  resigned  in  favor  of  his  son  in  1810. 
He  returned  to  Paris  in  1814,  where  he  was 
coldly  received  by  the  Emperor.  After  living  for 
some  years  in  Rome — where  he  separated  from 
his  wife — he  removed  in  1820  to  Florence,  where 
he  lived  in  retirement.  He  died  at  Leghorn  in 
1846.  Louis  Bonaparte  was  married  in  1802  to 
Hortense  Beauharnais,  daughter  of  General  Beau- 
harnais  by  his  wife  Josephine,  afterward  Empress 
of  the  French. 

Hortense  Eugenie  Beauharnais,  the  adop¬ 
ted  daughter  of  Napoleon,  Queen  of  Holland  and 
Countess  St.  Leu,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1783.  After 
the  execution  of  her  father  she  lived  for  some  time 
in  humble  circumstances,  until  Napoleon’s  mar¬ 
riage  with  Josephine.  In  obedience  to  the  plans  of 
her  step-father  she  rejected  her  intended  husband, 
General  Desaix,  and  married  Louis  Bonaparte 
in  1802.  She  lived  mostly  apart  from  her  hus¬ 
band,  even  as  Queen  of  Holland ;  and  on  the  down¬ 
fall  of  t lie  Napoleons,  passed  her  time  in  various 
countries.  She  died  at  Arenenberg  in  1837,  and 
was  buried  near  the  remains  of  her  mother,  Jose¬ 
phine,  at  Ruel,  near  Paris.  She  composed  some 
deservedly  popular  airs;  among  others  the  well- 
known  Parlant  pour  la  Syrie,  which  the  late 
Emperor  of  the  French  made  the  national  air  of 
France,  Of  her  three  sons,  the  eldest,  Napoleon 
Louis  Charles,  born  1803,  died  in  childhood  in 
1807. — The  second,  Louis  Napoleon,  born  1804, 
Crown  Prince  of  Holland,  married  his  cousin 
Charlotte,  daughter  of  Joseph  Bonaparte,  and 
died  in  1831. — The  third,  Charles  Louis  Napo¬ 
leon,  became  Emperor  of  the  French. 

Jerome  Bonaparte,  youngest  brother  of 
Napoleon,  was  born  at  Ajaccio  in  1784.  When 
war  broke  out  between  France  and  England  in 
18> »3,  Jerome  was  cruising  off  the  West  Indies, 
and  was  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  the  port  of 
New  York.  While  in  America  he  married  Eliza¬ 
beth  Patterson  (1785-1879),  daughter  of  a  mer¬ 
chant  in  Baltimore.  He  fought  in  the  war 
against  Prussia,  and  in  1807  was  made  King  of 
Westphalia.  The  battle  of  Leipzig  brought  the 
reign  of  Jerome  to  a  close.  He  fought  by  the 
side  of  the  Emperor  at  Waterloo.  After  Ids 
brother’s  abdication  he  visited  Switzerland  and 
Austria,  but  ultimately  settled  in  Florence.  At 
the  outbreak  of  the  February  Revolution  (1848), 
Jerome  Bonaparte  was  in  Paris,  where  he  was 
appointed  Governor  of  the  Invalides,  and  in  1850 
was  made  a  French  Marshal.  He  died  in  1800. 
His  marriage  with  Elizabeth  Patterson  having 
been  declared  null  by  Napoleon,  Jerome  was 
forced,  after  he  had  gained  the  Westphalian 
crown,  to  marry  Catherine, daughter  of  King  Fred¬ 
erick  I.  of  Wurtemberg.  Jerome  Bonaparte  left 
in  America  one  son,  Jerome  Napoleon  (1805-70)  by 
his  first  marriage,  who  was  a  wealthy  resident, 
though  he  never  became  a  naturalized  citizen. 
By  his  second  wife  he  had  three  children.  The 
elder  son  by  Catherine,  Jerome  Bonaparte, 
born  1814,  died  in  1847.  Mathilde  Bonaparte, 
Princess  of  Montfort,  born  at  Trieste,  1820,  mar 
ried  the  Russian  Count  Anatol  Demidov,  and 
lived  at  the  court  of  Louis  Napoleon  during  his 
Presidency.  —  The  younger  son,  Napoleon 
Joseph  Charles  Paul  Bonaparte,  born  at 
Trieste  in  1822,  entered  the  military  service  of 
Wtirtemberg  in  1837,  afterward  traveled  in 
several  countries  of  Europe,  and  was  banished 
from  France  (1845)  on  account  of  his  intercourse 
with  the  Republican  party.  After  February, 
1848,  he  was  elected  to  the  Legislative  National 
Assembly.  He  commanded  an  infantry  division 
at  the  battles  of  Alma  and  Inkermann.  In  1859 
he  married  the  Princess  Clotbilde,  daughter  of 
Victor  Emmanuel,  by  whom  he  has  two  sons  and  a 
daughter.  After  the  fall  of  the  Empire  he  took 
up  liis  residence  in  England,  but  returned  to 


France  in  1872.  On  the  death  of  the  Prince 
Imperial,  son  of  the  Emperor  Louis  Napoleon, 
in  Zululand,  in  1879,  the  eldest  son  of  Prince 
Napoleon  became  the  heir  of  the  Bonapartist 
hopes.  When,  in  1886,  the  chiefs  of  the  Boui¬ 
llon  family  were,  by  a  vote  of  both  chambers, 
expelled  from  France,  Prince  Napoleon  and  his 
eldest  son  were  exiled  also  as  pretenders  to  the 
throne. 

Bonasia,  a  genus  or  sub-genus  of  gallinaceous 
birds  of  the  Grouse  family,  comprising  the  Hazel 
Grouse  of  Northern  Europe  and  the  Ruffed 
Grouse  of  North  America. 

Bonati,  Guiuo,  was  the  great  Italian  astrologer 
of  his  time,  and  died  in  1596.  His  works  were 
published  at  Augsburg  in  1591. 

Bonaventura,  St.,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
Catholic  theologians,  whose  real  name  was  John 
of  Fidenza,  was  born  in  1221  at  Bagnarea,  in 
Tuscany.  In  1243  he  became  a  Franciscan  monk; 
in  1253  a  theological  teacher  at  Paris,  where  ho 
had  studied ;  and  in  1256  General  of  his  order. 
His  influence  reconciled  the  differences  which  had 
sprung  up  among  the  cardinals  on  the  death  of 
Clement  IV.  in  1268,  and  procured  the  election  of 
Gregory  X.  The  new  Pope  created  him  Bishop 
of  Albano  and  Cardinal  in  1273,  and  insisted  on 
his  presence  at  the  Council  of  Lyons,  where  he 
died,  July  15,  1274. 

Bouchanip,  Charles,  Marquis  de,  one  of  the 
bravest  of  the  Vendean  leaders,  was  born  at  the 
chateau  of  Jouverteil,  in  Anjou,  May  10,  1760. 
He  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  American  Revolu¬ 
tionary  War,  and  was  a  Captain  in  the  French 
army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  French  Revolution. 
In  the  sanguinary  encounter  at  Cholet,  Oct.  17, 
1793,  Bonchamp  reeeived  a  fatal  shot  in  the  breast. 

Bond,  in  Law',  is  an  instrument  on  stamped 
paper,  by  which  the  party  granting  it  becomes 
bound  to  pay  a  sum  of  money,  or  perform  any 
act  or  duty,  according  to  the  terms  of  agreement. 
In  England  and  the  United  States,  a  bond  is  said 
to  be  an  instrument  under  seal,  whereby  one  per¬ 
son  becomes  bound  to  another  for  the  payment  of 
a  sum  of  money,  or  for  the  performance  of  any 
other  act  or  thing.  The  person  who  is  thus 
bound  is  called  the  obligor,  and  he  to  whom  the 
bond  is  given,  the  obligee;  and  this  obligation 
may  be  either  by  or  to  one  or  several  persons. 
The  bond  may  be  unconditional  simply  for  the 
payment  of  money,  or  it  may  be  accompanied 
with  a  condition,  the  performance  of  which  is 
secured  by  a  penalty;  but  in  any  event,  the  debt 
created  by  a  bond  is  a  Specialty  Debt,  which, 
however,  has  now  no  preference  over  simple 
debts,  the  only  distinction  being  that  a  specialty' 
debt  takes  twenty  instead  of  six  years  to  prescribe. 
In  the  United  States,  where  the  law  is  based  on 
that  of  England,  the  period  of  prescription  varies 
from  six  years  for  simple  contracts,  to  ten,  fifteen 
or  twenty  years  for  bonds  in  some  of  the  States. 
The  requisites  of  a  good  bond  are  as  follows : 
(1)  The  bond  must  have  an  obligor  and  obligee. 
In  regard  to  such  parties,  it  is  to  be  observed  that 
in  general  no  person  who  is  under  any  legal  disa¬ 
bility  to  contract  can  become  an  obligor,  though 
it  is  otherwise  with  an  obligee.  An  infant  can 
not  bind  himself  unless  the  bond  be  for  necessa¬ 
ries;  but  a  bond  may  be  given  to  an  infant,  a  luna¬ 
tic,  or  an  alien.  (2)  The  next  requisite  of  a  bond 
is,  that  it  must  state  the  precise  sum  in  which  the 
obligor  is  bound;  any  omission  in  this  respect  will 
invalidate  the  instrument.  If,  liow'ever,  the  sum 
be  merely  erroneously  stated,  the  courts  will  make 
the  necessary  correction,  and  construe  the  bond  so 
as  to  give  effect  to  the  intention  of  the  parties. 
The  penalty  stipulated  on  failure  to  pay  is  always 
now  reduced  to  the  debt  and  expenses.  (3)  A 
bond  must  be  so  expressed  as  to  create  a  clear 
legal  obligation.  But  for  this  purpose  no  par¬ 
ticular  form  of  words  is  necessary;  any  mode  of 
expression  by  which  the  intention  appears  will 
suffice.  A  bond,  again,  may  be  in  the  first  or 
third  person,  only  in  order  to  obtain  legal  facili¬ 
ties  it  must  be  expressed  in  the  English  language, 
and  not  in  Latin  or  French.  (4)  The  bond  must 
be  duly  executed.  Such,  in  general,  is  the  form 
and  structure  of  an  English  or  United  States 
bond,  and  it  is  used  in  an  infinite  variety  of  con- 
t racts.  A  bond  absolute  for  the  payment  of  money 
differs  from  a  promissory  note  only  by  being  un¬ 
der  seal.  The  name  bond  is  also  applied  to  many 


BOND. 


174 


BONIFACE. 


securities  or  general  charges  on  which  limited 
companies  are  in  the  habit  of  raising  money, 
whether  strictly  in  the  form  of  an  ordinary  bond 
or  not;  thus  also  Peruvian  bonds  or  Egyptian 
bonds  are  spoken  of.  The  legislatures  of  the 
United  States  authorize  municipal  corporations  to 
issue  bonds  in  aid  of  works  of  internal  improve¬ 
ment.  According  to  the  law  of  the  United  States, 
certain  bonds  are  void;  such  as  a  bond  conditioned 
•either  to  do  something  which  the  law  considers 
wrong  in  itself,  or  which  is  legally  prohibited,  or 
to  omit  doing  something  which  is  a  duty,  or  to 
encourage  the  performance  of  anything  which  is 
in  the  nature  of  a  crime  or  offence  against  the 
law  In  like  manner,  bonds  to  procure  marriage, 
called  marriage  brocage  bonds,  or  to  restrain 
marriage,  or  for  immoral  considerations,  or  in 
restraint  of  trade,  are  void.  A  bond,  however, 
may  be  valid  in  part,  or  void  in  part,  if  such  parts 
are  separable.  Joint  and  several  bonds  are  the 
bonds  of  two  or  more  obligors  who  bind  them¬ 
selves  severally  and  jointly;  if  one  pays  the  entire 
debt  he  is  entitled  to  contribution  from  the  other 
obligors.  In  some  States  a  married  woman’s  bond 
is  good. 

Bond,  Edward  Augustus,  born  at  Hanwell, 
Dec.  31,  1815,  entered  the  British  Museum  in 
1838,  became  Keeper  of  the  MSS.,  and  in  1878 
was  appointed  Principal  Librarian.  He  lias  pub¬ 
lished  catologues  of  MSS.  and  facsimile*  of 
Anglo-Saxon  charters  in  the  Museum;  and  other 
works. 

Bond,  William  Cranch,  an  American  astrono¬ 
mer,  born  1789  or  1790,  died  in  1859.  His  son, 
George  Philip,  born  in  1825,  died  in  1855,  was 
also  distinguished  in  astronomical  science. 

Bondi,  Clemente,  an  Italian  poet,  was  born 
June  27,  1742,  at  Mezzano,  in  Parma.  For  having 
celebrated  in  verse  the  abolition  of  the  Jesuit 
order,  he  was  compelled  to  fly  to  the  Tyrol ;  and 
after  his  return  he  lived  at  Venice,  at  Mantua, 
and  Milan.  Later  he  lived  in  Vienna,  where  he 
died,  June  20,  1821. 

Bondn,  a  country  of  Senegambia,  West  Africa, 
to  the  west  of  Bombouk,  lying  between  14°— 15° 
N.  latitude  and  12" — 13°  W.  longitude.  The 
inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  Fulahs,  profess  Mo¬ 
hammedanism,  but  they  trust  greatly  in  sorcerers. 
The  sovereign  is  absolute.  The  pop.  of  the  whole 
country  is  variously  estimated  at  from  30,000 
to  1,500,000. 

Bone  is  the  hard  material  of  the  skeleton  of 
mammalian  animals,  reptiles,  birds,  and  certain 
tislies.  When  the  different  bones  of  the  skeleton 
are  connected  together  they  form  a  framework 
which  affords  support  to  soft  parts,  and  protects 
delicate  organs  from  injury,  while  at  the  same 
time  preserving  the  shape  of  the  body.  Further, 
the  bones,  being  movably  joined  to  each  other, 
and  being  acted  upon  by  the  attached  muscles, 
become  a  series  of  levers  capable  of  executing 
various  movements,  and  thus,  in  the  case  of  the 
bones  of  the  lower  extremity,  they  are  the  passive 
instruments  of  locomotion.  In  color,  bone  is 
white,  but  in  the  living  body  it  has  in  addition  a 
pink  and  slightly  bluish  tint.  Besides  being 
hard,  it  possesses  a  certain  amount  of  toughness 
and  elasticity,  properties  which  are  well  marked  in 
the  ribs  and  clavicle.  It  consists  of  an  animal 
and  an  earthy  part  intimately  combined  together. 
The  following  table  shows  a  percentage  analysis 
of  adult  human  bones  by  Berzelius: 


Animal  Matter . . 

f  Phosphate  of  Lime . 

'  Carbonate  of  Lime . 

Fluoride  of  Calcium . 

Phosphate  of  Magnesium  . 

Soda  and  Chloride  of  Sodium  (Com¬ 
mon  Salt) . 


Earthy  Salts  { 


33.30 
51.04 
1 !  .30 
2.00 
1.16 

1.20 


100.00 

If  we  expose  a  bone  to  intense  heat,  the  animal 
matter  is  got  rid  of,  and  though  the  bone  retains 
its  original  form,  yet  the  slighest  touch  will  cause 
its  now  unsupported  earthy  matter  to  crumble 
away.  On  the  other  hand,  by  soaking  a  bone  in 
diluted  hydrochloric  acid,  the  earthy  matters  are 
gradually  dissolved  out,  leaving  a  tough,  some¬ 
what  transparent,  flexible,  and  even  elastic  sub¬ 
stance,  which  also  retains  the  original  figure  of 
the  bone  in  its  most  minute  details.  This  residue 
is  softer  and  more  flexible  than  cartilage,  and 
when  boiled  in  water  it  is  almost  wholly  resolved 
into  gelatin,  which  sets  or  gelatinizes  on  cooling. 


Bones  are  classified  according  to  their  shapes— 
viz.,  (1)  long — e.  g.,  thigh-bone  and  arm-bone  ;  (2) 
flat  or  plate-like — e.  g. ,  shoulder-blade  and  bones 
of  skull-cap  ;  (3)  short  nd  irregular  or  cubical — 
e.  g.,  those  of  the  wrist  or  the  vetebrse.  Compact 
bone  is  full  of  holes  which  are  very  small  and  re¬ 
quire  a  magnifying  glass  to  examine  them.  If  a 
.  transverse  section  be  examined  under  the  micro¬ 
scope,  these  round  openings  are  seen  to  be  the 
mouths  of  longitudinal  canals.  Blood-vessels  run 
in  them,  and  the  widest  also  contain  marrow. 
They  vary  in  diameter  from  ^ooo  t0  200  °f  an 
inch.  The  interior  of  the  shaft  of  long  bones  is 
hollow,  a  further  combination  of  strength  and 
lightness.  In  some  auimals  this  hollow  space  is 
filled  with  air,  but  in  mammals  there  are  no  air¬ 
spaces  in  any  bones  except  those  of  the  head. 
The  hollow  shaft  is  therefore  filled  with  marrow 
(medulla),  which  occupies  the  spacesof  the  spongy 
bone,  and  even  extends  into  the  widest  Haversian 
canals. 


Transverse  Section  of  Compact  Tissue  of  Humerus, 
magnified  about  110  diameters.  (From  Quain). 


The  uses  to  which  a  bone  may  be  put  are  various. 
In  the  cooking  of  soups,  bones  form  a  constant 
ingredient,  and  become  useful  in  supplying  gela¬ 
tin,  which  gives  a  body  to  the  soup  it  would  not 
otherwise  possess.  Bone  is  largely  used  in  mak¬ 
ing  the  handles  of  small  brushes,  table-knives 
and  forks,  and  pen-knives,  and  in  the  manufact¬ 
ure  of  combs.  Our  forefathers,  before  the  metals 
were  known,  fashioned  fish-hooks  out  of  bone, 
and  used  the  spines  in  the  tail  and  back-tin  of 
certain  fishes  for  pointing  arrows.  These  uses  of 
bone  coupled  with  the  employment  of  the  serrated 
teeth  of  sharks  as  a  war-weapon,  are  still  prac¬ 
ticed  by  many  uncivilized  tribes.  Bone  is  like¬ 
wise  serviceable  in  the  arts  in  yielding  bone-asli, 
bone-black,  bone-dust,  dissolved  bones,  phosphor¬ 
us,  superphosphates,  also  certain  oils  and  fats, 
which  are  employed  in  forming  lampblack,  and 
in  the  manufacture  of  soap.  Bone  may  suffer 
from  atrophy,  hypertrophy,  or  degeneration,  often 
from  constitutional  affections  due  to  Scrofula  or 
Syphilis ;  Caries  and  Necrosis  are  specific  bone 
diseases  ;  inflammation  of  the  bone  causes  Ostitis  ; 
of  the  periosteum,  Periostitis;  of  the  medulla, 
Osteo-myelitis. 

Bone-ash,  or  Bone-eartii,  is  obtained  by  the 
complete  combustion  of  bones  in  an  open  fur¬ 
nace,  when  the  oxygen  of  the  air  burns  away 
the  organic  matter  or  gelatin,  and  leaves  the 
earthy  constituents  as  a  white,  friable  mass,  the 
size  of  the  original  bone,  but  readily  reducible 
to  the  condition  of  coarse  powder  which  is  bone- 
ash.  A  very  large  quantity  of  bone-ash  is  ex¬ 
ported  from  South  America  to  other  countries. 
Bone-asli  of  good  quality  contains  about  80  per 
cent,  of  phosphate  of  lime,  and  20  per  cent, 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  phosphate  of  mag¬ 
nesia,  soda,  and  chloride  of  sodium  (common 
salt);  but  it  is  occasionally  found  mixed  with 
sand,  especially  that  procured  from  South 
America.  Bone-asli  is  employed  to  some  extent 
as  a  source  of  phosphorus,  and  in  the  making 
of  cupels  for  the  process  of  assaying,  but  the 
most  extensive  use  is  in  the  manufacture  of  ar¬ 
tificial  manures,  such  as  dissolved  bones  and 
superphosphates. 

Bone-beds,  the  name  given  by  geologists  to 
thin  beds  or  layers  which  are  largely  made  up 
of  the  debris  of  bones  of  reptiles,  fish,  etc. 

Bone-black,  the  product  of  the  carbonization 
of  bones,  used  as  a  pigment  and  as  a  deodorizer. 

Bone-Manures  are  applied  to  crops  on  account 
of  nitrogen — equivalent  to  4  or  5  per  cent,  of  am¬ 


monia — and  the  phosphates  of  lime  which  they 
contain — the  latter  amounting  to  nearly  half  their 
weight.  Their  value  has  only  recently  been  dis¬ 
covered.  Bones  in  an  altered  form  are  also  used 
in  making  up  concentrated  manure,  and  are  either 
ground  or  acted  upon  by  sulphuric  acid — for 
example: 

(1)  Steamed  bone,  or  deglutinized  bone,  results 
when  bone  is  made  friable  and  more  easy  of  as¬ 
similation  by  plants  through  the  action  of  super¬ 
heated  steam  (at  270°-280°  F.)  removing  the  fatty 
and  gelatinous  matter. 

(2)  Bone-ash  is  the  residue  from  bones  burnt  as 
fuel  used  in  the  “  rendering”  of  the  fat  of  cattle 
in  South  America, 

(3)  Bone-char  is  made  by  heating  in  a  close 
retort,  and  used  largely  for  refining  sugar  be¬ 
fore  it  goes  for  manure. 

(4)  Vitriolized  bone  is  a  material  only  partially 
acted  upon  by  acid. 

(5)  Dissolved  bone  is  bone  broken  into  half 
inch  size,  and  acted  upon  by  sulphuric  acid,  so 
as  to  change  a  portion  of  the  insoluble  tribasic 
phosphate  of  lime  into  the  soluble  monobasic 
phosphate  and  the  sulphate  of  lime;  thus, 
Ca3P20«  +  2H2S04  =Ca0,2H20,P205  +  2CaS04. 
Bone  meal  or  flour  is  the  most  valuable  form  for 
application  to  thin,  light,  or  hungry  soiL,  as  it 
decays  in  time  to  feed  the  growing  crop.  On 
heavy  lands  the  phosphate  of  lime  should  be 
used  in  the  soluble  form. 

Bonfire,  a  fire  kindled  in  celebration  of  some 
event  of  public  interest,  usually  in  an  open  con¬ 
spicuous  place,  as  the  top  of  a  hill,  or  the  center 
of  a  village  green. 

Bengal*,  or  Rock-snake  ( Bungarus ),  a  genus 
of  venomous  serpents,  allied  to  the  genera  Elaps 
and  Naja,  and  distinguished  by  the  compressed 
body,  which  bears  on  the  back  a  row  of  hexagonal 
scales  larger  than  the  rest.  The  head  is  broad  and 
depressed;  the  tail  is  short.  The  species,  which 
appear  to  be  few — only  two  being  certainly  known 
— are  natives  of  the  East  Indies. 

Bongardia,  a  peculiar  herbaceous  genus  of 
Berberideae,  natives  of  the  East.  One  species 
( B .  Rauwolfii)  produces  tubers  which  are  eaten 
in  Persia;  and  the  leaves  of  another  ( B .  Chryso- 
gonum)  are  eaten  as  a  salad. 

Bongo,  or  Obongo,  are  a  Negroid  people  in 
the  basin  of  the  Ogowe  river. 

Bonheur,  Rosalie  (more  commonly  called 
Rosa)  a  French  animal  painter,  born  at  Bordeaux, 
March  22,  1822.  Her  father,  Raymond  Bonheur, 
also  an  artist,  died  in  1853.  In  1853  she  became 
entitled  to  the  Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honor,  but 
because  of  her  sex  it  was  withheld  till  1865. 
During  the  siege  of  Paris  (18  i 0-71),  her  studio 
and  residence  at  Fontainebleau  were  spared  by 
special  order  of  the  Crown  Prince  of  Prussia. 

Boni,  a  State  on  the  east  coast  of  the  southwest 
peninsula  of  the  Island  of  Celebes,  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  with  an  estimated  area  of  935  square 
miles.  Since  1859,  it  has  been  practically  a 
Dutch  dependency.  The  capital,  Boni,  stands  on 
the  coast  of  the  southwest  peninsula. — The  Gulf 
of  Boni  separates  the  southeast  and  southwest 
peninsulas  of  Celebes.  It  is  200  miles  long,  and 
40-80  miles  broad. 

Boniface,  the  name  of  nine  popes. — Boniface  I. 
(418-22)  first  took  the  title  of  First  Bishop  of 
Christendom.  —  Boniface  III.,  pope  only  ten 
months  in  607,  was  the  first  to  whom  the  title  of 
Universal  Bishop  of  Christendom  was  conceded 
by  the  Greek  Emperor  (Pliocas). — Boniface  VIII., 
who  vigorously  asserted  the  papal  authority,  was 
elected  Pope  in  1294.  He  died  at  Rome  in  1303.— 
Boniface  IX.  (Peter  Tomacelli),  a  native  of  Naples, 
succeeded  Urban  VI.  as  Pope  at  Rome  in  1389, 
whilst  Clement  VII.  was  Pope  at  Avignon.  He 
died  in  1404. 

Boniface,  a  generic  name  for  an  innkeeper, 
like  “  mine  host  ”  or  “  landlord,”  from  the  name 
of  the  innkeeper  in  Farquhar’s  Beaux’  Stratagem 
(1707). 

Boniface,  St.  ,  “  the  Apostle  of  Germany, ”  whose 
original  name  was  Winfried,  was  born  at  Credi- 
ton,  in  Devonshire,  about  680.  He  seems  to  have 
adopted  the  name  Boniface  when  he  first  turned 
monk.  Winfried  took  the  resolution  (716)  of 
preaching  Christianity  to  the  Frisians,  among 
whom  it  had  not  yet  found  entrance.  He  re¬ 
paired  to  Rome  in  718,  and  received  the  autkori- 


BONIFACIO. 


175 


BONONCINI. 


zation  of  Pope  Gregory  II.  to  preach  the  Gospel 
to  all  the  tribes  of  Germany  He  went  to 
Thuringia  and  Bavaria,  then  labored  three  years 
in  Friesland,  and  traveled  through  Hesse  and 
Saxony,  everywhere  baptizing  multitudes,  and 
consecrating  their  idolatrous  groves  as  churches. 
In  723  Gregory  II.  consecrated  him  Bishop,  and 
furnished  him  with  letters  to  Charles  Martel  and 
all  princes  and  bishops,  requesting  their  aid  in 
his  pious  work.  Returning  to  Hesse  (724),  he 
destroyed  the  objects  of  heathen  worship.  In 
recognition  of  his  eminent  services,  Gregory  III. 
sent  him  (732)  the  pallium,  and  named  him  Arch¬ 
bishop  and  Primate  of  all  Germany,  with  power 
to  establish  bishoprics  wherever  he  saw  tit.  Boni¬ 
face  made  a  third  journey  to  Rome  (738),  and  was 
appointed  Papal  Legate  for  Germany.  The  bishop¬ 
rics  of  Ratisbon,  Erfurt,  Paderborn,  Wurzburg, 
Eichstitdt,  and  Salzburg  owe  their  establishment 
to  St.  Boniface.  The  famous  abbey  of  Fulda  is 
also  one  of  his  foundations.  Iu  746  he  was 
chosen  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  and  in  752  he  is 
said  to  have  consecrated  Pepin  as  King  of  the 
Franks  at  Soissons.  In  754  he  resigned  the  arch¬ 
bishopric,  and  had  resumed  his  apostolical  labors 
among  the  Friesians,  when  at  Dokkum,  eighteen 
miles  northeast  of  Leeuwarden,  in  West  Fries¬ 
land,  he  was  fallen  upon  by  a  band  of  armed 
heathens,  and  killed,  along  with  the  congrega¬ 
tion  of  converts  that  were  with  him  (June  5,  755). 

Bonifa'cio  Strait  of,  the  modern  name  of 
the  strait  between  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  the 
Freturn  Gallicnm  of  the  Romans.  At  the  nar¬ 
rowest  part  it  is  only  seven  miles  wide,  and  the 
navigation  is  difficult.  The  strait  receives  its 
name  from  the  small  town  of  Bonifacio  in  Cor¬ 
sica.  Pop.  (1886),  3,052. 

Bonin'  or  (Japanese)  Ogasawara  Islands,  a 
volcanic  group  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  700  miles 
south-southeast  of  Japan,  stretching  between 
26°  30' — 27°  45'  N.  latitude,  and  between  159° — 
155°  E.  longitude.  Area,  32  square  miles;  pop. 
(1881),  151.  Discovered  by  Quast  and  Tasman 
in  1639,  they  were  taken  possession  of  for  Britain 
in  1827  by  Captain  Beechey;  but  in  1878  the 
Japanese  reasserted  their  sovereignty,  with  the 
view  of  making  them  a  penal  settlement.  The 
harbor  is  named  Port  Lloyd. 

Bonington,  Richard  Parkes,  painter  in  oil 
and  water-colors,  was  born  near  Nottingham,  on 
Oct.  25,  18nl.  In  1822  he  began  to  exhibit  in  the 
Salon,  at  Paris,  and  received  a  premium  from  the 
Societfi  des  Amis  des  Arts  for  his  views  of  Havre 
and  Lillebonne;  and  two  years  later  he  was 
awarded  a  medal  at  the  Salon,  when  Constable 
and  Copley  Fielding  were  similarly  decorated. 
About  1825  he  took  to  oil-painting,  and  in  that 
year  visited  England,  accompanied  by  Delacroix, 
in  whose  studio  he  worked  after  his  return  to 
Paris;  and  having  visited  Italy,  he  produced  his 
splendid  Venice  views  of  the  “  Ducal  Palace  ” 
and  the  “Grand  Canal,”  which  figured  in  the 
Salon  of  1827,  along  with  his  “  Francis  I.  and  the 
Queen  of  Navarre,”  and  his  “  Henry  III.  receiv¬ 
ing  the  Spanish  Ambassador.”  He  also  exhibited 
in  the  Royal  Academy  and  the  British  Institution. 
He  died  Sept.  23,  1828. 

Boui'to,  a  name  common  to  several  fishes  of 
the  mackerel  family  (Scombridoe). — (1)  One  of 
these,  Thynnus  pelamys,  sometimes  called  the 
stripe  bellied  Tunny,  and  of  the  same  genus  with 


Bonito,  or  Stripe-bellied  Tunny, 
the  Tunny,  is  veil  known  to  sailors  as  an  inhabit¬ 
ant  of  the  tropical  parts  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Indian  Oceans,  and  as  one  of  the  fishes  most  fre¬ 
quently  seen  pursuing  the  flying-fish. — (2)  The 
Mediterranean  Bonito  (Pelamys  Hard  a)  is  closely 
allied.  It  has  the  same  blue  back  and  dark  trans¬ 
verse  bars  reaching  from  the  dorsal  ridge  to  the 
lateral  line.  It  is  plentiful  in  the  Black  Sea,  and 
has  been  found  in  the  North  Sea. — (3)  The  Plain 
Bonito  (A  axis  vulgaris  or  A,  rochei),  found  in  the 


Mediterranean,  may  be  distinguished  at  once  from 
both  of  these  by  its  more  uniform  blue  color, 
without  stripes  or  bands,  and  by  the  widely  sep¬ 
arated  dorsal  fins. — The  Sucking-fish  (Kcheneis 
remora ),  credited  with  retarding  ships,  the  gor¬ 
geous  John  Dory  (Zens  faber),  the  beautiful 
“  Dolphins”  (Coryphcena),  are  allied  genera  of  the 
same  family. 

Bonivard,  Francois  de,  a  younger  son  of  a 
family  which  held  large  possessions  under  the 
House  of  Savoy,  was  born  about  1496  at  Seyssel, 
on  the  Rhone,  and  in  1513  became  Prior  of  St. 
Victor  at  Geneva.  Falling  under  the  suspicion 
of  the  Duke  of  Savoy,  he  was  taken  prisoner  Dy 
him  in  1519.  After  twenty  months’  imprison¬ 
ment  he  was  set  free,  but  in  1530  he  was  again 
seized,  and  taken  to  the  castle  of  Cliillon  at  the 
east  end  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  where  he  was  im¬ 
prisoned  for  six  years,  the  last  four  in  that  sub¬ 
terranean  vault  which  the  genius  of  Byron  has 
made  famous  by  his  poem  on  t lie  sufferings  of 
The  Prisoner  or'  Chilian.  On  the  capture  of 
Cliillon  by  the  Bernese  and  Genevese  in  1536,  he 
was  liberated,  and  returned  to  Geneva,  where  he 
died  in  1570. 

Boil-mot  (Fr.  good  saying),  a  witty  saying;  a 
clever  repartee. 

Bonn,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  twenty-one  miles  south- 
southeast  of  Cologne.  The  minster,  said  to  have 
been  founded  by  the  Empress  Helena  in  320,  but 
dating  chiefly  from  the  eleventh  and  thirteenth 
centuries,  has  been  restored  since  1847.  Near  the 
minster  is  a  monument  to  Beethoven,  who  was 
born  in  the  Rlieingasse;  and  at  Bonn  are  buried 
Niebuhr,  Bunsen,  and  Schumann.  The  university 
had,  in  18S6,  124  professors  and  lecturers,  and 
1,331  students.  Among  its  professors  have  been 
Niebuhr,  A.  W.  Schlegel,  Arndt,  Welcker,  Dahl- 
mann,  Hermes,  and  Simrock;  whilst  Albert,  the 
Prince  Consort,  was  a  student  here.  It  has  a 
library  of  about  250,000  volumes,  a  splendid 
laboratory  (1868),  an  art  museum  (1884),  archaeo¬ 
logical  and  other  collections,  a  botanic  garden, 
and  an  observatory;  there  is  also  a  celebrated  agri¬ 
cultural  academy.  Pop.  (1885),  35,989. 

Bonnat,  Leon  Joseph  Florentin,  was  born 
at  Bayonne  (1883).  He  gained  the  second  Grand 
Prix  de  Rome,  lie  was  first  brought  into  notice 
by  his  “  Adam  and  Eve  Finding  the  Body  of 
Abel  ”  (1860),  now  in  the  gallery  at  Lille;  and  his 
“  Pasqua  Maria”  (1863)  was  much  praised. 

Bonner,  Edmund,  Bishop  of  London,  was  born 
about  1500  of  obscure  parentage.  His  zeal  in 
King  Henry’s  service,  after  Wolsey’s  fall,  earned 
him  promotion;  and  in  1533  he  was  deputed  to 
appear  before  the  Pope  at  Marseilles,  to  appeal  for 
the  excommunicated  monarch  to  a  general  coun¬ 
cil.  In  1540  he  was  made  Bishop  of  London, 
and  as  such  pronounced  sentence  on  several 
Protestant  martyrs,  though  it  is  certain  he  did  his 
best  to  befriend  Anne  Askew.  After  the  accession 
of  Edward  VI.,  lie  gave  evidence  of  his  luke¬ 
warmness  in  the  cause  of  reformation,  and  at 
length,  in  1549,  was  committed  to  the  Marshalsea, 
and  deprived  of  his  bishopric.  The  accession  of 
Queen  Mary  (1553)  restored  him  to  office;  and  by 
his  part  in  that  bloody  persecution  which  has 
made  her  reign  infamous,  lie  rendered  himself 
thoroughly  unpopular.  In  May,  1559,  he  was 
summoned  before  the  Privy  Council,  and  refused 
to  take  the  oath  of  supremacy.  He  was  accord¬ 
ingly  deposed  from  his  bishopric,  and  again  im¬ 
prisoned  in  the  Marshalsea,  where  he  died  in 
1569. 

Bonner,  Robert,  born  in  Ireland  in  1824, 
removed  to  the  Lnited  States  and  became  a 
printer.  In  1851  he  founded  the  New  York 
Ledger,  a  weekly  story  paper  which  lias  attained 
a  great  circulation.  Mr.  Bonner  is  best  known 
as  the  owner  of  valuable  trotting  horses. 

Bonnet,  a  covering  for  the  head,  of  which 
there  are  many  varieties.  The  French,  from  whom 
we  have  the  word,  apply  it  as  we  do  to  male  as 
well  as  female  head-dress.  The  bonnet  rouge,  or 
“cap  of  liberty”  of  the  Revolution,  was  shaped 
like  a  man’s  night-cap  (bonnet  de  nuit).  A  felt 
cap  of  this  shape,  such  as  was  worn  by  the  Phry 
gians,  was  amongst  the  Romans  the  emblem  of 
liberty,  and  was  assumed  by  slaves  when  manu¬ 
mitted.  The  English  bonnet  of  former  times  was 
made  of  cloth,  silk.,  or  velvet,  more  or  less  orna¬ 


mented.  It  was  generally  superseded  by  the  hat 
in  ihe  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century;  but  in 
Scotland,  bonnets  were  commonly  worn  for  two 
centuries  later.  The  genuine  old  bonnet  of  the 
Lowland  Scottish  peasantry  was  of  a  broad, 
round,  flat  shape,  overshadowing  the  face  and 
neck,  and  of  a  dark-blue  color,  excepting  a  red 
tuft  on  the  top.  The  fabric  was  thick,  milled 
woolen,  without  seam  or  lining,  and  exceedingly 
durable. 

Ladies’  Bonnets. — Those  made  of  the  fine 
stunted  wheat  straw,  grown  for  the  purpose  in 
Tuscany,  and  called  Leghorn  and  Tuscan  bou¬ 
nds,  are  everywhere  known  to  the  female  world. 
These  have  formed  an  important  trade  in  that 
province  for  nearly  two  centuries.  Split-straw 
plait  and  bonnets  formed  of  it  are  made  on  a 
large  scale  at  Luton  and  Dunstable,  England. 
Willow-chip  bonnets  are  made  extensively  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Modena.  Bonnets,  partly  or 
entirely,  of  richer  materials,  such  as  horsehair, 
crape,  velvet,  and  satin,  with  trimmings  of  feath¬ 
ers,  lace,  and  artificial  flowers,  are  made  on  a 
great  scale  in  Paris.  In  the  United  States  are 
large  manufactories  in  the  Eastern  and  North¬ 
western  States,  particularly  Massachusetts  and 
Wisconsin. 

Bonnet,  Charles  de,  an  eminent  naturalist 
and  philosopher,  born  at  Geneva,  March  13,  1720. 
A  dissertation  on  aphides  procured  his  election, 
in  1740,  as  a  corresponding  member  of  the  French 
Academy  of  Sciences;  and  in  1743  he  was  admitted 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  died  on  May 
20,  1793. 

Bonnet-piece,  a  gold  coin  of  James  V.  of  Scot¬ 
land,  so  called  on  account  of  the  King’s  head 
being  decorated  with  a  bonnet  instead  of  a 
crown,  as  was  usual.  His  bonnet  pieces  were 
struck  of  native  gold,  and  are  now  much  prized 
by  collectors. 

Bonneval,  Claude  Alexandre,  Count  de, 
also  called  Aclimed  Pasha,  a  French  adventurer, 
was  born  in  Limousin,  July  14,  1675,  and  entered 
the  army  in  his  thirteenth  year.  He  served  with 
distinction  in  Italy  and  the  Netherlands,  but  for 
extortion  and  insolence  was  condemned  to  death 
by  a  court-martial.  He  fled  to  Germany,  where 
he  obtained  employment  in  the  Austrian  service; 
fought  against  his  native  country,  distinguished 
himself  by  many  daring  exploits,  and  bore  a  prin¬ 
cipal  part,  under  Prince  Eugene,  in  the  war 
against  Turkey.  In  Holland,  he  quarrelled  with 
the  Governor,  was  brought  to  trial,  and  con¬ 
demned  to  death  by  a  court-martial.  The 
Emperor  commuted  the  sentence  to  one  year’s 
imprisonment,  upon  condition  of  his  never  after¬ 
ward  setting  foot  on  German  soil,  lie  went  to 
Constantinople,  became  a  Mohammedan,  was 
made  a  Pasha  of  Three  Tails,  and  achieved  suc¬ 
cess  as  general  in  the  war  of  the  Porte  with 
Russia,  and  in  Persia.  The  Sultan  appointed 
him  Governor  of  Chios;  but  his  own  imprudence, 
and  the  envy  of  others,  caused  his  banishment  to 
the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  He  dn  d  at  Constan¬ 
tinople  on  (March  27,  1747. 

Bonneville,  Nicolas  de,  one  of  the  earliest 
French  students  of  German  literature,  was  born 
at  Evreux,  March  13,  1760.  After  the  Revolution, 
he  founded  and  edited  several  newspapers;  but 
his  moderation  in  tone  and  his  liberality  rendered 
him  obnoxious  to  the  ruling  party,  and  on  the 
fall  of  the  Girondists  lie  was  thrown  into  prison. 
He  also  got  into  difficulties  with  Napoleon,  and 
died  Nov.  9,  1828. 

Bonny,  or  Boni,  a  town  and  river  of  Guinea, 
now  in  the  British  Niger  Protectorate.  The  river 
forms  an  eastern  debouchure  of  the  Niger,  and 
falls  into  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  in  about  4-’  30'  N. 
latitude,  and  7®  10 '  E.  longitude.  On  the  east  side, 
near  the  mouth,  is  the  town  of  Bonny,  notorious 
from  the  sixteenth  to  the  nineteenth  century  as 
the  rendezvous  of  slave-trading  ships. 

Bonomi,  Joseph,  architect,  was  born  at  Rome 
in  1739,  settled  in  England  in  1767,  became  an  Asso¬ 
ciate  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  died  on  March 
9,  1806. — His  son,  Joseph  Bonomi,  the  younger, 
born  in  Rome,  Oct.  9,  1796,  studied  art  in  London, 
and  became  famous  as  a  draughtsman,  especially 
of  Egyptiiin  remains.  He  published  a  work  of 
his  own  on  Nineveh,  and  at  his  death,  Mar.  3, 
1878,  he  was  Curator  of  Soane’s  Museum. 

Bonoucini,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  composer. 


BONPLAND. 


176 


BOOKBINDING. 


born  in  1070,  died  in  1752.  Although  a  very  poor 
artist,  lie  was,  for  a  time,  considered  a  rival  to 
Handel.  An  old  verse  says: 

Some  say  that  Signor  Bononcini 
Compared  with  Handel  is  a  ninny; 

While  others  say  that  to  him  Handel 
Is  hardly  fit  to  hold  a  candle; 

Strange  that  such  difference  should  be 
’Twixt  Tweedledum  and  Tweedledee. 

Bonpland,  Ai.me,  an  eminent  traveller  and 
botanist,  was  born  at  llochelle,  France,  Aug.  22, 
1773.  He  accompanied  Humboldt  in  1799  to 
South  America,  where  Bonpland  collected  0,000 
new  species  of  plants.  After  his  return,  he  pub¬ 
lished  several  splendid  and  valuable  botanical 
works.  He  went  to  Buenos  Ayres  in  1810,  and 
was  named  Professor  of  Natural  History.  Bon¬ 
pland  undertook  an  expedition  of  scientific  dis¬ 
covery  tip  the  Parana;  but  Dr.  Francia,  then  Dic¬ 
tator  of  Paraguay,  arrested  him,  and  kept  him 
prisoner  for  about  nine  years.  He  subsequently 
settled  near  San  Borje,  in  the  Province  of  Cor- 
rientes,  and  died  at  Santa  Anna  in  1858. 

Bonstetten,  Karl  Victor  von,  publicist,  born 
at  Bern,  Sept.  3.  1745,  entered  the  Council  of  Bern, 
and  became  District  Governor,  and  in  1795  a  judge 
in  Lugano.  He  lived  in  Italy  and  at  Copenhagen 
from  1796  to  1801,  and  after  his  return  settled  at 
Geneva,  where  he  died  Feb.  3,  1832. 

Bonus  (Lat.  good),  an  originally  jocular  use  of 
the  Latin  word  to  mean  “a  good  thing,”  specially 
for  an  extra  dividend  given  to  shareholders  of  a 
company  from  surplus  profits,  or  a  portion  of  the 
profits  of  an  insurance  company  distributed 
amongst  policy-holders.  Sometimes  used  for  a 
mere  douceur  or  bribe. 

Bony  Fishes  {lei  ostei)  form  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  sub-class  of  fishes,  and  include  the  vast 
majori  y  of  known  forms,  probably  8  500  out  of 
10,000  species.  The  following  key  is  from 
Leunis’  Synopsis  des  Thicrreiehs,  and  is  essential: 

I  Acan'liopterygii — e.  g.,  perch,  mullet,  beryx, 
mackerel,  bull-head,  lump-sucker,  goby,  blenny, 
gray-mullet,  stickleback. 

IL  ■  Acanthopterygii  Pharyngognathi — e.  g. , 
wrass. 

III.  Anacanthini —  e.  g.,  cod,  ling,  sand-eel, 
turbot,  flounder. 

IV.  Physostomi — e.  g.,  carp,  minnow,  tlying-fisli, 
pike,  salmon,  trout,  herring,  eel. 

V.  Lopliobranchii — e.  y.,  pipe-fishes  and  sea¬ 
horses. 

VI.  Plectognathi — e.  g. ,  file-fish,  coffer-fish, 
globe-fish,  sun-fish. 

Bony  Pike  (Lepidosteus),  also  called  Gar-Pike 
and  Gar  fish  (distinct  from  the  other  Gar-fish),  a 
genus  of  Ganoid  fishes,  found  in  widely  distrib¬ 
uted  fossil  form  as  early  as  Tertiary  times,  and 
still  surviving  in  temperate  America  and  Cuba. 
The  fish  measures  at  full  size  toward  five  feet  in 
length,  and  is  covered  with  a  complete  mail  of 
lozenge-shaped  enameled  and  bony  scales.  The 
bony  pike  or  gar-fish  lives  in  rapid  rivers,  swims 
with  great  force,  has  great  flexibility  in  the  neck 
region,  and  preys  voraciously  on  other  fishes. 
Formerly  more  widely  distributed,  it  is  now 
found  in  the  fresh  waters  of  North  and  Central 
America  and  Cuba. 

Bonze,  a  modified  Japanese  word  applied  by 
Europeans  to  the  Buddhist  priests  of  Japan  and 
of  China. 

Booby  (Sula  piscator),  a  species  of  Gannet, 
which  has  received  this  name  from  its  apparent 


Booby. 

stupidity  in  allowing  itself  to  be  knocked  down 
with  a  stick  or  taken  by  the  hand.  The  booby  is 


not  quite  so  large  as  its  congener,  the  common 
gannet  or  solan-goose,  but,  like  it,  is  a  bird  of 
powerful  wing.  It  feeds  on  fish,  which  it  takes 
by  diving  in  the  sea,  observing  its  prey  as  it 
sweeps  along  in  graceful  and  varying  flight, 
sometimes  at  a  height  of  only  a  foot  or  two  from 
the  surface  of  the  water,  sometimes  twenty  yards 
above  it.  The  bird  is  sometimes  taken,  like  the 
gannet,  by  means  of  a  fish  fastened  to  a  board, 
through  which  it  drives  its  bill,  as  it  dashes  at  the 
bait.  It  is  found  on  almost  all  tropical  and  sub¬ 
tropical  shores,  and  sometimes  even  200  miles 
from  land.  On  the  east  coast  of  North  America 
it  reaches  about  as  far  north  as  Cape  Hatteras, 
but  is  much  more  abundant  farther  south,  great 
numbers  breeding  on  the  low  islands  olf  the  coast 
of  Florida.  The  nest  is  often  placed  in  a  low  bush. 

Book.  The  volume  which  the  reader  has  at 
present  in  his  hands  is  a  normal  specimen  of  what 
is  now  understood  by  a  printed  book.  Printed 
matter  occupies  both  sides  of  a  certain  number  of 
leaves  of  paper,  which  are  so  arranged  that, 
beginning  at  the  upper  end  of  the  left  side  of  the 
first  page,  he  may  proceed  without  dislocation  of 
thought  always  from  left  to  right  till  he  reach  the 
lower  end  of  the  last  page.  To  understand  the 
historic  origin  of  this  normal  modern  book,  we 
must  go  back  to  a  remote  antiquity.  The  word 
“  book  ”  itself  (Saxon  hoc,  Ger.  buck,  Dutch  boek) 
appears  originally  in  Gothic  as  a  plural  noun 
meaning  primarily,  as  is  generally  believed,  the 
runes  inscribed  on  the  bark  of  separate  branches 
of  the  “  beech  ”  tree.  Liber ,  the  Latin  equivalent 
(which  has  been  adopted  by  all  the  Romance  and 
Celtic  tongues — Fr.  Here,  1 1 a  1 .  libr<>,  Gaelic 
leabliar,  Welsh  leor — and  is  the  source  of  our 
English  word  library),  properly  meant  bark,  and 
was  applied  to  prepared  papyrus  tissue  from  its 
bark-like  appearance.  The  Greek  biblia,  in  like 
manner,  is  associated  with  byblos — i.  e.,  papyrus. 
The  ancient  papyrus-book,  whether  Egyptian, 
Greek,  or  Roman,  was  got  up  very  much  like 
a  modern  mounted  map.  A  length  of  the  material, 
written  on  one  side  only,  was  fastened  to  a  wooden 
roller,  round  which  it  was  wound;  this  formed  a 
lama  (Egyptian),  kulindros  (Gr),  or  rolunvn 
(Latin);  hence  our  “volume.”  The  vellum,  and 
afterward  the  paper  book  of  medkeval  times  was 
made  up  in  the  following  way:  “Quires”  or 
“gatherings”  were  formed  sometimes  of  four 
sheets  folded  in  the  middle  and  placed  one  within 
the  other,  so  as  to  furnish  eight  leaves;  sometimes 
of  five  sheets,  yielding  ten  leaves;  sometimes  of 
six,  yielding  twelve.  This  same  method  was 
adopted  by  the  early  printers,  who  at  first  indeed 
only  printed  as  the  copyists  had  written,  one  page 
at  a  time.  In  the  colophons  (see  below)  of  many 
of  the  older  books,  a  register  or  collation,  as  it  is 
called,  of  all  the  quires — whether  ternions,  quar- 
ternions,  or,  so  on — is  supplied  for  the  guidance 
of  the  bookbinder.  When  it  became  usual  to 
print  a  certain  number  of  pages  at  once,  the  paper 
was  not  folded  and  cut  up  till  it  had  passed  tin  ougli 
the  press.  The  number  of  times  it  required  to  be 
folded  afforded  a  ready  means  of  distinguishing 
in  a  general  way  the  different  sizes  of  books  as 
long  as  the  paper  continued  to  be  made  by  hand, 
in  frames  the  size  of  which  did  not  greatly  vary. 
The  nomenclature  is  still  in  vogue,  though  it  has 
ceased  in  these  days  of  machine-made  paper  to  be 
a  correct  guide  to  the  real  sizes  of  books.  In 
America,  the  proposal  to  distinguish  sizes  by  an 
actual  measurement  of  height  and  breadth  of 
paper  has  met  with  some  acceptance;  but  the  old 
fashion  still  prevails  in  Europe.  A  sheet  being- 
folded  in  the  middle  forms  two  leaves  or  four 
pages;  and  a  book  composed  of  such  sheets  is 
styled  a  folio  whether  it  measure  li  feet  or  4  feet 
in  height.  When  the  sheet  is  again  folded  it 
makes  a  quarto.  In  hand-made  paper  ( i .  e. ,  the 
paper  used  in  nearly  all  books  of  purely  biblio¬ 
graphical  interest)  the  water-line  runs  either  across 
or  down  the  page,  according  to  the  number  of 
foldings.  The  following  scheme  is  serviceable: 

Folio,  folded .  2  times  =  4  passes,  water-line  perpendicular- 

Quarto . (4to)  4  “  8  ‘  *‘  horizon  al. 

Octavo . (Svo)  8  “  16  “  “  perpendicular. 

Duodecimo  (U'mo)  12  “  21  “  “  horizontal. 

Octodecimo  (18mo)  18  **  36  “  “  perpendicular 

Less  ordinary,  and  of  course  diminutive,  sizes 
of  books  are  produced  and  known  as  32mo 
(water-line  perpendicular),  36mo  (horizontal), 
48mo  (horizontal),  64-mo  (horizontal),  72mo  (per¬ 


pendicular),  96mo  (perpendicular),  128mo  (per¬ 
pendicular).  Among  books,  as  among  men, 
there  are  giants  and  dwarfs.  Certain  church- 
books  in  the  Escurial  are  described  as  6  feet 
in  height  by  4  in  breadth;  and  the  “  Antiquity” 
volumes,  for  example,  of  the  Napoleonic 
Description  de  VEgyple  measure  374  inches  in 
height.  The  Thumb  Bile  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
not  much  bigger  than  a  postage  stamp;  Pick¬ 
ering’s  Diamond  edition  of  Tasso  measures  34 
inches  high  by  If  wide;  and  Hoepli’s  1878  Dili  a 
Commedia  is' less  than  2i  inches  by  1).  Though 
Caxton’s  work  affords  no  instance  of  a  title  page 
— unless  The  Chastising  of  God's  Children  (1491  V) 
be  his,  and  it  contains  simply  three  lines  of  ordi¬ 
nary  print — this  does  not  represent  the  general 
stage  of  typographic  development.  In  the  dating 
of  their  books  the  early  printers,  like  the  scribes, 
were  extremely  negligent.  “Of  twenty-one 
works,”  says  Mr.  Blades  ( Carton ,  i,  p.  31), 
“  known  to  have  issued  from  the  press  of  Colarcl 
Mansion,  not  more  than  five  have  any  date  to 
them;  and  of  nearly  one  hundred  publications  at¬ 
tributed  to  Caxton’s  press,  considerably  more  than 
two-tliirds  appear  without  any  year  of  imprint.” 
In  many  cases  the  older  printers  indulged  in  curi¬ 
ous  chronograms;  sometimes  using  them  to  repeat 
in  the  preface  a  date  already  distinctly  stated  on 
the  title-page.  When  dates  are  wanting,  the  age 
of  a  book  may  often  be  approximately  determined 
by  certain  external  characteristics,  which  must, 
however,  be  used  with  caution.  W atermarks(Ger. 
icasscrzeichcn  ;  Fr.  flip  cartes),  for  example,  are  of 
importance,  but  their  evidence  has  been  frequently 
strained.  At  first  the  printed  book  was  issued 
like  the  manuscript  without  any  numbering  of  the 
pages.  Before  long  it  was  found  convenient  to 
number  the  leaves;  the  numbering  of  the  pages 
followed.  In  many  modern  books,  when  the 
page  contains  two  or  more  columns,  each  column 
is  numbered  consecutively.  The  preface  is  the 
introductory  address  of  the  author,  in  which  he 
explains  the  purpose  and  scope  of  his  book,  and, 
as  it  were,  introduces  himself  to  his  readers.  Form¬ 
erly  it  was  usually  headed  To  the  Header,  'Jo 
the  Gentle  Header,  To  the  Courteous  Reader,  etc. 
In  the  times  when  the  professional  author  de¬ 
pended  largely  on  the  patronage  of  some  person 
of  rank,  the  dedication  was  an  integral  and  indis¬ 
pensable  part  of  a  book.  If  he  made  sure  of  his 
Maecenas  he  could  let  the  many  go.  Leaving  out 
of  view  the  pictorial  illustration  devoted  to  the 
elucidation  of  the  subject  treated  of  in  a  book, 
there  are  certain  forms  Of  illustration  which  are 
merely  decorative  appendages  to  the  book  itself. 
Besides  the  ornamental  treatment  of  the  title- 
page  j^ith  peculiar  letters,  the  use  of  red  or  blue 
ink,  and  the  insertion  of  a  printer’s  emblem  or 
some  appropriate  vignette,  we  must  mention  the 
engraved  title-page  (in  the  sixteenth  and  seven¬ 
teenth  centuries  often  a  most  elaborate  and  costly 
piece  of  work),  the  frontispiece  or  engraving 
placed  opposite  the  title-page;  ornamental  initial 
letters  for  chapters;  headpieces  or  vignettes  for 
the  blank  space  generally  left  before  the  beginning 
of  a  new  chapter;  and  tailpieces  at  the  end  of  the 
chapters.  In  describing  second-hand  books  vari¬ 
ous  technical  expressions  are  employed.  Black 
Letter  is  explained  in  a  separate  article.  Uncut 
means  that  the  original  size  of  the  paper  has  not 
been  reduced  by  cropping  the  edges;  not,  as  is 
often  supposed,  that  the  paper  is  still  in  the  sheet, 
a  condition  for  which  there  is  no  generally  ac¬ 
cepted  term.  Foxed  means  that  a  book  is  damaged 
by  brown  or  yellow  spots.  Curious  is  used  eu¬ 
phemistically  for  “improper.”  “Unique,”  “rare,” 
anti  “very  rare,”  require  no  explanation,  but 
should  be  accepted  with  caution.  Many  books 
originally  printed  in  thousands  ( e .  g.,  school 
books)  have  become  rare  and  even  unique  in 
course  of  time;  others  have  been  so  from  the  first 
through  the  intentional  limitation  of  the  numbers 
issued.  A  common  device  to  enhance  the  market 
value  of  a  book  is  to  issue  only  a  few  copies  and 
promise  to  destroy  the  plates.  Thus  the  word 
edition  conveys  no  idea  of  number. 

Bookbinding  is  the  art  of  connecting  together 
in  a  durable  and  convenient  manner  the  several 
parts  of  a  book.  Before  the  invention  of  print¬ 
ing,  the  binding  of  manuscript  books,  which  in 
those  days  consisted  chiefly  of  bibles,  psalters, 
books  of'  hours,  and  other  works  of  an  eclesiasti- 


BOOK-CLUB. 


177 


BOOKPLATES. 


cal  character  was  performed  by  various  orders 
of  monks,  who  prepared  the  books  up  to  a  cer¬ 
tain  point  ready  for  ornamentation  by  the  gold¬ 
smith  and  jeweler  ;  and  the  earliest  works  from 
the  press  were  at  first  printed  and  bound  in 
direct  imitation  of  these  manuscript  volumes.  It 
was  not  till  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
when  the  printing-press  had  become  common  in 
Italy,  that  binding  took  rank  as  an  art  by  itself, 
and  it  was  probably  in  the  workshops  of  Aldo 
Manutio  (Aldus),  the  famous  printer  of  Venice, 
that  decorative  art  of  the  highest  character  was 
first  applied  to  the  ornamentation  of  book-covers. 
During  the  present  century  bookbinding  has  con¬ 
tinued  to  preserve  its  rank  as  a  fine  art,  especially 
in  France,  where  the  most  elaborate  work, 
executed  with  the  greatest  care  and  skill,  and 
often  very  beautiful  in  result,  is  more  sought 
for  than  in  other  countries.  In  Germany  and 
the  Netherlands  most  of  the  books  were  originally 
bound  in  vellum,  calf,  and  pigskin,  many  of  them 
stamped  with  ornament  in  blind-tool  (i.  e.,  with¬ 
out  gold),  and  fora  few  years  after  printing  was 
invented,  the  decorative  art  generally  employed 
was  of  the  most  primitive  description.  In  the 
seventeenth  century,  many  very  elaborate  blind 
tooled  bindings  were  executed;  and  during  the 
last  half-century,  German  binders  have  wakened 
from  their  long  sleep,  and  we  now  see  work  issu¬ 
ing  from  Berlin  and  Leipzig  that  deserves  unquali¬ 
fied  admiration.  In  England  the  history  of  the 
art  is  obscure,  and,  though  it  must  have  been 
extensively  practised,  the  names  of  few  of  its 
followers  are  known.  American  bookbinders  are 
beyond  question  the  most  original  in  style  as  well 
as  prolific  in  varieties  of  binding,  while  the  excel¬ 
lence  and  durability  of  their  ■work  place  them  at 
the  head  of  the  followers  of  the  art — at  once  the 
envy  and  despair  of  all  competitors. 

Bookbinding  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — 
viz.,  case  binding  or  “cloth-work,”  and  leather 
or  “  bound-work.”  The  former  was  introduced  by 
Pickering,  the  publisher,  and  Leighton,  the  binder, 
in  1822."  Before  that  time  books  wrere  issued 
by  the  publishers  bound  in  millboards  covered 
with  colored  paper.  Books  are  usually  supplied 
to  the  binder  in  sheets  of  sixteen  pages,  that  being 
the  number  most  easily  folded.  If  for  conven¬ 
ience  they  are  printed  in  larger  sheets  of  thirty- 
two  or  sixty-four  pages,  then  these  are  cut  into 
the  proper  size  before  going  to  the  binder.  Each 
sheet  has  its  pages  arranged  so  that,  when  folded, 
they  will  follow  one  another  in  their  proper  order; 
and  on  the  first  page  of  each  sheet  is  a  letter 
called  its  signature.  The  first  sheet  of  a  book  is 
1,  the  second  2,  and  so  on.  The  sheets  are  folded 
either  by  hand  or  by  any  one  of  a  variety  of  in¬ 
genious  machines  which  do  the  work  with  great 
expedition  and  accuracy.  When  folded,  bundles 
of  the  different  sheets  of  the  book  are  laid  in 
order  on  a  table,  and  a  sheet  is  ‘  ‘  gathered  ”  off 
each  bundle  till  a  book  is  completed,  and  so  on 
till  the  number  of  books  is  finished.  The  separ¬ 
ate  books  are  then  collated  or  revised  to  see  that 
the  signatures  follow  each  other  in  proper  order. 
They  are  then  pressed  in  a  machine  to  give  them 
a  little  solidity,  and,  being  put  straight,  are  passed 
over  a  table  having  three  or  four  (according  to 
the  size  of  the  book)  circular  saws  projecting 
slightly,  which  make  shallow  cuts  across  the 
back.  The  cuts  make  holes  in  the  sheets,  through 
which  they  are  stitched  on  a  cord  which  is  placed 
in  the  saw-cut.  The  stitching  is  either  done  by 
hand  in  a  frame  on  which  the  cords  are  stretched, 
or  by  machines.  Some  of  the  machines  sew  the 
sheets  on  tapes,  in  which  case  the  sawing  is  dis¬ 
pensed  with.  The  cords  or  tapes  on  which  the 
books  are  sewed  are  cut  with  a  little  piece,  half 
an  inch  or  so,  left  projecting,  and  this,  after  the 
end  or  “waste”  papers  are  tacked  on  with  paste  to 
each  side,  is  placed  down  on  the  outside  sheet. 
The  wrork  up  to  this  point  is  executed  by  girls. 
The  sewed  books  are  taken  to  the  forwarders, 
who  commence  operations  by  cutting  the  edges 
by  means  of  a  “guillotine,”  after  which  any  orna¬ 
mentation  of  the  edges,  such  as  sprinkling  with 
colors,  marbling,  or  gilding,  is  applied.  They  are 
then  rounded  on  the  back  by  hammering  on  a 
plate,  and  put  into  a  press  which  forces  a  piece  of 
the  back  over  the  sides,  forming  shoulders,  called 
the  joints,  which  grip  the  case.  A  piece  of  thin 
canvas  being  glued  over  the  back,  with  a  portion 

12 


overlapping,  the  book  is  ready  for  the  case,  which 
has  meanwhile  been  also  in  preparation.  The 
case  consists  of  two  pieces  of  millboard,  cut  to 
the  proper  size  by  a  most  ingenious  machine, 
which,  like  the  greater  part  of  the  machinery  used 
in  bookbinding,  is  of  American  invention;  the 
boards  are  separated  by  a  piece  of  paper  of  the 
proper  width  to  form  the  back  of  the  book,  and 
the  whole  covered  with  specially  prepared  cloth 
of  any  desired  color.  The  cases  are  made  with 
great  expedition  by  three  or  four  girls  working  in 
concert.  The  ornamentation  of  the  case  is  next 
executed.  The  designs  are  engraved  on  brass, 
the  gilt  portion  on  one  piece,  the  ink  or  blind  on 
another,  and  stamped  on  the  case  by  means  of  a 
press  worked  either  by  hand  or  steam.  Where 
gilt  work  is  intended,  gold-leaf  is  first  put  on  the 
case,  and  after  being  impressed  by  the  stamp, 
which  is  kept  hot  when  in  use,  the  superfluous 
gold  is  rubbed  off,  the  parts  stamped  only  adher¬ 
ing  to  the  case.  When  the  case  is  ready,  the  out¬ 
side  end-papers  of  the  book  are  pasted,  including 
the  pieces  of  cord  and  canvas  already  mentioned; 
the  case  is  carefully  placed  in  the  joints,  and  the 
whole  placed  in  a  hydraulic  press  till  dry,  when 
the  binding  is  finished.  Leather  or  bound  work 
differs  from  case  work  in  the  essential  particular 
that  the  boards  are  put  together  on  the  book.  In 
“calf”  binding,  a  differently  colored  piece  of 
leather  is  generally  pasted  on  the  title  panel,  but 
in  “  morocco  ”  work  this  is  dispensed  with.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  finishing  process  a  book  may  pass  through 
the  workman’s  hands  as  many  as  thirty  or  forty 
times,  a  separate  operation  being  performed  every 
time.  In  half-binding,  a  strip  of  leather  is  glued  or 
pasted  over  the  back  of  the  book  and  reaching 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  on  the  board  on  each 
side;  a  triangular  piece  of  leather  is  usually 
pasted  over  the  corners  to  strengthen  them.  The 
cloth  or  paper  to  cover  the  sides  is  then  put  on 
and  turned  over  the  boards,  the  marbled  or  other¬ 
wise  ornamented  end-papers  are  pasted  on  the  in¬ 
side,  and  after  being  pressed,  the  book  is  finished. 
In  magazine  parts,  or  other  books  covered  in 
paper,  the  sheets  are  stitched  together  arid  the 
paper  cover  pasted  on  the  back.  Sometimes  they 
are  fastened  with  two  or  three  wire  stitches 
clamped  through  by  means  of  a  machine.  In  what 
are  called  “  limp  ”  books, — i.  e.,  books  with  thin 
boards  which  do  not  project  beyond  the  leaves, 
the  cloth  is  generally  pasted  over  a  paper  cover 
stitched  along  with  the  book,  and  the  edges  cut 
afterward.  There  are  several  divisions  of  the 
bookbinding  profession.  Where  publishing  is  on 
a  large  scale,  as  in  London,  Edinburgh,  New 
York,  and  Philadelphia,  binding  for  publishers, 
which  is  principally  cloth  work,  is  carried  on  in 
extensive  factories,  fitted  up  with  costly  and  elab¬ 
orate  machinery  driven  by  steam.  The  binding 
of  account  books  is  a  separate  branch  “stationery 
binding.”  See  Manuel  Historique  et  Bib- 
liogiaphique  del’  Amateur  de  Reliures,  L£on  Gruel 
(4to,  Paris,  1887);  La  Reliure  Ancienne,  G.  Brunet 
(1880);  La  Reliure  de  Luxe,  L.  Derome  (1886);  La 
Reliure  Moderne,  O.  Uzanne  (1887);  Les  Reliures 
d’Art,  H.  Bouchot  (1888);  Facsimiles  of  Old  Book¬ 
binding  in  the  Collection  of  James  Gibson-C raig 
(privately  printed,  folio,  Edin.  1882);  On  Book 
Bindings,  Ancient  and  Modern,  edited  by  Joseph 
Cundall  (4to,  Lond.  1881);  Bookbinding:  A  Man¬ 
ual  of  the  Art  of  Bookbinding ,  J.  B.  Nicholson 
(cr.  8vo,  1882);  The  Art  of  Bookbinding,  J.  W. 
Zaelmsdorf  (post  8vo,  1880). 

Book-club  is  either  (1)  an  association  for 
purchasing  and  reading  new  books  as  they  issue 
from  the  press,  or  (2)  an  association  for  the  print¬ 
ing  of  books  relating  to  some  special  branch  of 
inquiry. 

Book-keeping  is  the  art  of  recording  commer¬ 
cial  and  financial  transactions  in  a  regular  and 
systematic  manner.  Its  object  is  to  preserve  a 
distinct  and  accurate  record  of  such  transactions, 
and  from  a  well-kept  set  of  books  a  merchant 
should  be  able  to  ascertain  at  any  time  the  state  of 
his  account  with  any  person  with  whom  he  has 
dealings,  and  the  profits  or  losses  resulting  from 
each  venture  or  department  of  his  business,  his 
assets  and  liabilities,  and  1  lie  exact  state  of  his 
affairs.  Many  a  bankruptcy  may  be  traced 
directly  to  the  errors  and  confusion  arising  from 
neglect  or  carelessness  in  this  department.  But 
these  considerations  are  far  from  being  universally 


realized  and  acted  upon  by  business  men.  Among 
the  class  of  small  traders  especially,  the  time 
required  for  keeping  books  in  proper  order  is 
grudged  as  being  unremunerative,  and  the  work, 
if  done  at  all,  is  performed  in  a  careless  and  inef¬ 
ficient  way,  frequently  with  the  disastrous  results 
above  referred  to.  It  may  fairly  be  said  that  a 
just  appreciation  of  the  terms  Debtor  and  Creditor, 
which,  abbreviated  to  Dr.  and  Cr.,  are  usually 
placed  at  the  tojr  of  the  left  and  right  hand  re¬ 
spectively  of  every  account,  affords  a  master-key  to 
the  whole  subject.  A  person,  or  his  account,  is 
regarded  in  book-keeping  as  debtor  for  what  he 
receives,  and  creditor  for  what  he  gives.  Thus  the 
value  of  goods  sold  to  a  person,  or  cash  paid  to  him, 
is  placed  to  the  debtor  or  left-hand  side  of  his  ac¬ 
count,  while  cash  or  goods  received  from  him  are 
entered  on  the  credit  or  right-hand  side.  The  de¬ 
tails  of  book-keeping  vary  largely  according  to  the 
nature  and  extent  of  the  transactions  which  are  to 
be  recorded.  Thus  the  shopkeeper’s  books  differ 
from  those  of  the  great  wholesale  merchant, 
and  these  again  from  the  books  of  banks, 
public  companies,  and  government  departments; 
but  the  same  general  principles  underlie  all,  and 
when  once  these  are  well  mastered,  they  may, 
with  the  exercise  of  a  little  intelligence  and  in¬ 
genuity,  be  applied  to  every  emergency.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  book-keeping  in  general  use — 
Single  Entky  and  Double  Entry.  In  the 
first  of  these,  the  only  accounts  kept  in  the  ledger 
are  those  of  the  persons  with  whom  there  are 
dealings,  and  a  statement  of  affairs  is  arrived  at 
by  adding  together  the  debts  due  to  the  trader, 
and  also  computing  those  due  by  him.  To  the 
former  is  added  the  value  of  any  stock-in-trade 
etc.,  he  may  have,  and  the  excess  of  these  assets,  as 
they  are  called,  over  the  liabilities,  is  the  amount 
of  his  capital.  By  comparing  this  figure  with  his 
capital  at  the  last  balancing  date,  and  taking  into 
account  any  sums  lie  may  have  paid  into  or  with¬ 
drawn  from  the  business,  he  estimates  liis  prefit 
or  loss  for  the  period.  Double  entry  is  the  true 
art  of  book-keeping,  and  it  completely  fulfills  the 
requirements  of  clearness,  completeness,  and  ac¬ 
curacy.  Its  theory  is  founded  upon  the  obvious 
fact  that  every  commercial  transaction  has  two 
sides;  if  it  is  a  giving  by  one  person,  it  must  be  a 
receiving  by  another.  Thus  every  sale  involves  a 
purchase,  every  debtor  must  have  a  corresponding 
creditor,  and  every  creditor  a  debtor,  and  the 
double  entry  system  derives  its  name  from  re¬ 
cording  both  sides  of  each  transaction.  If  an 
entry  is  made  to  the  credit  of  any  account  in  the 
ledger,  there  must  be  a  corresponding  entry  to 
the  debit  of  some  other  account.  In  this  way  the 
two  sides  of  the  ledger  must  always  agree,  or 
balance  one  another,  and  their  failure  to  do  so 
discloses  the  presence  of  an  error.  Many  are  de¬ 
terred  from  adopting  the  double-entry  system  by 
an  exaggerated  idea  of  its  complexity  and  labor¬ 
iousness;  and  it  would  no  doubt  be  most  unwise 
for  a  tradesman  with  a  small  business  to  plunge 
into  the  most  elaborate  form  of  the  system.  But 
if  his  books  are  accurately  kept  by  single  entry  it 
is  possible  to  convert  them  yearly  or  periodically 
into  double-entry  with  very  little  trouble.  This 
is  done  by  casting  up  the  purchases,  sales,  and 
expenses  for  the  period,  from  which  a  goods  ac¬ 
count  and  profit  and  loss  account  can  be  con¬ 
structed.  Thus  the  principle  of  double-entry  is 
carried  out,  though  roughly,  and  its  check  taken 
advantage  of  without  multiplication  of  books, 
accounts,  or  labor. 

Book-lice,  various  small  insects  which  damage 
books:  (1)  Thus  in  the  family  Psocidse,  in  the 
order  Orthoptera,  there  are  numerous  minute 
wingless  insects  which  shelter  in  books  and  among 
papers,  and  do  especial  damage  to  collections  of 
insects.  One  of  them  ( Atropos  pulsatorius)  wras 
long  credited  with  being  the  Death  watch.  (2) 
Among  beetles,  too,  in  the  wood-boring  family, 
Xlophaga,  Btilinus  pectinicornis  is  known  to  at¬ 
tack  books  with  wood  in  the  binding.  (3)  Very 
different  are  the  book-scorpions  (Cheliferidse)  in 
the  spider  class  (Arachnida). 

Bookplates.  This  is  the  somewhat  awkward 
English  name  for  labels  of  ownership  frequently 
placed  on  the  inside  covers  of  books.  In  Latin 
these  labels  are  styled  ex  libris.  The  use  of  book¬ 
plates  is  of  some  antiquity,  and  mention  lias  been 
made  of  one  dated  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 


BOOK-SCORPION. 


BOOKWORM. 


178 


century,  but  at  present  the  fine  bookplates  of  Bil- 
ibaldus  Pirckheimer  (1470-1530),  designed  by 
Albert  Di'trer,  bold  the  foremost  place  in  point  of 
time. 

Book  -scorpion  ( Ghelfer  cancroide*),  a  small 
Arachnid,  in  appearance  between  scorpion  and 
mite.  It  is  like  a  small  flat¬ 
tened  scorpion  without  a  tail. 

The  front  of  the  body  is  scor¬ 
pion-like,  and  bears  a  transverse 
dorsal  groove;  the  posterior 
body  is  flat,  with  ten  or  eleven 
rings.  There  are  two  eyes  ;  the 
respiration  is  by  means  of  air- 
tubes  ;  the  eggs  are  carried 
about  on  the  abdomen  of  the 
female.  The  book -scorpion 
lurks  among  old  books  and 
papers,  and  probably  helps 
their  preservation  by  killing  off  Book  ion. 
and  eating  book-lice,  mites, 
and  other  small  insects.  Upon  the  whole  it  likely 
does  more  good  than  harm. 

Book-trade.  The  business  of  dealing  in  books 
comprehends  three  classes  of  traders — Publishers, 
who  prepare  and  dispose  of  books  wholesale ; 
wholesale  booksellers,  who  distribute  books  to 
retail  dealers',  and  retail  booksellers,  who  sell 
books  to  the  public.  The  latter  class  may  again 
be  divided  into  dealers  in  new  books,  in  second¬ 
hand  books,  and  in  periodicals.  Although  ordin¬ 
arily  distinct,  these  classes  may  conveniently  be 
treated  together.  While  publishing,  apart,  from 
bookselling,  is  of  modern  date,  the  selling  of 
books  is  as  old  as  the  origin  of  literature.  Manu¬ 
script  copies  of  the  works  of  authors  were  sold 
in  the  ancient  Greek  cities  and  in  Rome.  The 
first  printers  acted  also  as  booksellers,  and  being 
mostly  learned  men,  they  were  generally  the 
editors,  and,  in  some  instances,  the  authors  of 
the  works  which  they  produced.  The  manufact¬ 
ure  of  books  had  become  such  an  important  item 
of  commerce  that  at  Bruges  (1454)  and  Antwerp 
(1450)  a  guild  of  booksellers,  copyists,  and  allied 
trades  was  formed.  Faust  and  Sliofifer,  the  part¬ 
ners  of  Gutenberg,  carried  the  productions 
of  the  Mainz  press  to  the  fair  of  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main  and  to  Paris.  Some  instances  of 
division  of  the  two  branches,  printing  and 
bookselling,  occurred  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
In  the  infancy  of  the  trade,  authors  frequently 
resorted  to  the  plan  of  getting  friends  and  patrons 
to  subscribe  for  copiesof  their  forthcoming  works; 
the  publisher  in  such  cases  acting  only  as  com¬ 
mission  agent.  Literature  has  now  risen  above 
this  degrading  system.  At  present  (1)  the  author 
sells  his  work  in  manuscript  to  the  publisher  for 
a  specified  sum  giving  him  an  assignment  of  the 
copyright  ,  and  leaving  him  to  bring  out  the  work 
according  to  his  own  taste;  or  (2)  the  author  re¬ 
tains  the  copyright  ,  pays  all  expenses,  undertakes 
all  risks,  and  gets  a  publisher  to  bring  out  his 
work;  or  (3)  the  author,  retaining  the  copyright, 
incurs  no  risk,  and  only  allows  the  publisher  to 
print  and  issue  an  edition  of  a  certain  number  of 
copies  for  a  sum  agreed  on;  or  (4)  the  author  and 
publisher  issue  the  work  at  their  joint  risk,  in 
that  case  sharing  equally  in  profit  or  loss,  or  on 
such  other  terms  as  are  mutually  agreeable;  or 
(5)  the  publisher  agrees  to  issue  the  works  of  a 
popular  author  at  his  own  risk  and  expense;  the 
clear  profits  are  divided  into  three  equal  shares, 
one  of  which  is  paid  to  the  author,  and  two  re¬ 
tained  by  the  publisher,  or  the  author  may  receive 
half-profits;  or  (0)  the  familiar  “royalty  ”  system, 
by  which  the  publisher  takes  whole  or  partial 
risk,  and  pays  the  author  a  certain  sum  per  copy, 
after  the  disposal  of  a  specified  number  of  copies. 

Publishing  is  an  exceedingly  hazardous  profes¬ 
sion,  and  those  engaging  in  it  must  possess  wide 
and  special  knowledge,  else  they  may  soon  lock  up 
their  capital  unprofitably,  and  fill  their  ware¬ 
houses  with  waste  paper.  This  is  especially  the 
case  in  dealing  with  literature  which  is  sold  at  a 
very  small  advance  upon  the  actual  cost  of  paper, 
print,  and  binding.  Attached  to  the  larger  pub¬ 
lishing  houses  are  men  who  read  and  give  judg¬ 
ment  on  the  manuscripts  submitted  to  their  care, 
when  this  is  not  undertaken  by  the  head  of  the 
firm.  Works  of  which  the  highest  expectations 
are  formed  may  not  pay  expenses;  and  books  of 
a  seemingly  worthless  kind  may  prove  exceed¬ 


ing^  remunerative.  Milton’s  agreement  with 
Simmons,  the  printer,  disposing  of  the  copyright 
of  Paradise  Lost  for  five  pounds,  is  an  oft-quoted 
but  inadmissible  argument  against  publishers,  as 
a  larger  sum  was  paid,  and  at  that  time  it  might 
even  have  been  a  losing  bargain.  It  would  be  easy 
to  cite  many  publishers’  blunders  in  at  first  refus¬ 
ing  works,  which,  when  issued,  have  taken  their 
place  amongst  the  classics  of  literature.  Pub¬ 
lishers  as  a  ride  are  high-minded,  fair,  though 
keen  men  of  business,  and  it  is  quite  to  their  ad¬ 
vantage  to  treat  an  author  well.  There  have  been 
cases  of  gross  injustice,  but  when  an  author’s 
books  find  a  ready  market,  he  reaps  a  ready 
benefit.  The  book  trade  of  the  United  States 
has  sprung  up  from  small  beginnings  within  the 
present  century.  Hezekiah  Usher  was  in  business 
|  in  Boston  in  1652;  bookselling  was  well  estab¬ 
lished  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Benjamin  Franklin  was  one  of  the  most  famous 
of  t lie  early  printers.  But  at  first  scholars  and 
libraries  were  mainly  supplied  with  books  from 
Europe  and  the  bulk  of  American  publications 
were  reprints  of  British  literature.  In  the  period 
1830-42  about  1,300  books  were  issued,  half  of 
them  being  original,  and  half  reprints;  in  1853 
there  were  879;  in  1855,  1,092;  in  1859-60,  1,350 
a  year;  and  in  1871,  3,000.  The  Publishers'  Weekly 
recorded  the  publication  of  4,676  new  books  in 
1886,  and  4,437  in  1887.  The  number  of  new 
books  entered  for  copyright  in  1878  was  5,632, 
and  in  1879,  6,580;  and  it  is  estimated  that,  of 
the  10,212  articles  in  the  form  of  books  entered 
in  1887,  about  three-fourths  may  be  reckoned  as 
properly  coming  under  that  designation.  There 
are  nearly  350  firms  in  the  United  States  which 
publish  books.  Of  these  New  York  has  130; 
Boston,  38;  Chicago,  35;  and  Philadelphia,  34. 
The  great  distributing  houses  are  located  at  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Chicago. 

Between  1820  and  1856  a  very  large  proportion 
of  American  books  were  reprints  of  English 
works.  But  as  Holmes  expresses  it,  “the 
Yankee  mind,  which  has  for  the  most  part  budded 
and  flowered  in  pots  of  English  earth,”  has  now 
asserted  its  own  individuality,  and  produced 
writers  of  genius  and  culture,  and  of  world-wide 
reputation,  such  as  Irving,  Hawthorne,  Motley, 
Holmes,  Prescott,  Emerson,  Longfellow,  Whit¬ 
tier,  Poe,  and  Lowell,  whose  works  have  lent 
dignity  and  importance  to  American  literature, 
and  given  an  impulse  to  the  book  trade.  Mrs. 
Stowe’s  Unde  Tom's  Cabin  had  a  phenomenal 
sale,  500,000  copies  being  sold  in  less  than  five 
years  in  the  United  States,  and  by  April,  1852, 
more  than  1,000,000  had  been  reprinted  in  Great 
Britain.  Of  Longfellow’s  poems,  without  taking 
into  account  unauthorized  English  reprints,  the 
American  sales  in  1839-57  amounted  to  325,550 
copies;  from  the  latter  date  till  1881,  194,000. 
Webster’s  Spelling  Book  had  reached  a  sale  of 
50,000,000  copies  in  1887,  and  is  said  still  to  sell 
at  the  rate  of  about  1,000,000  copies  a  year.  In 
spite  of  the  ruinous  competition  with  unpaid 
English  literature,  a  popular  American  author 
commands  a  high  figure  for  his  work.  C.  L. 
Webster  &  Co.  are  said  to  have  paid  Mrs.  Grant 
$200,000  as  liershareof  the  profits  of  the  first  vol¬ 
ume  of  General  Grant’s  Life,  probably  the  highest 
payment  for  a  single  volume  on  record.  Louisa 
M.  Alcott  is  reported  to  have  received  $100,000  for 
her  Little  Women  series.  Bonner  of  the  Ledger  paid 
Henry  Ward  Beecher  $30,000  for  his  Norwood, 
and  $5,000  to  Dickens  for  one  short  story.  The 
Harpers  gave  Longfellow  $1,000  for  his  “Kera- 
mos”  for  Harper’s  Magazine,  and  the  same  figure 
for  “Morituri  Salutamus.”  T.  B.  Aldrich  once 
received  $1,200  for  a  short  story,  and  W.  D. 
Howells  and  Mark  Twain  (Samuel  L.  Clemens)  can 
command  $500  or  $1,000  for  a  short  story  or  article. 
A  common  arrangement  between  the  American 
author  and  publisher  is  a  payment  of  10  per  cent, 
royalty  on  the  retail  price  of  all  sales;  sometimes 
a  lump  sum  is  paid,  and  the  publisher  secures  the 
copyright,  which  is  granted  for  twenty-eight 
years,  subject  to  renewal  by  the  author,  his  widow, 
or  children,  for  other  fourteen  years.  A  copy  of 
a  title-page  must  be  registered  with  the  Librarian 
of  Congress,  and  two  copies  of  the  best  edition  of 
the  book  lodged  there  within  ten  days  of  pub¬ 
lication.  The  entry  fees  are  50  cents,  and  50 
cents  additional  for  a  certificate  of  record.  A 


copy  of  any  new  edition  must  also  be  sent  to  the 
Librarian.  American  books  are  now  executed 
with  great  neatness  and  taste;  their  wood-engrav¬ 
ings  have  been  brought  to  a  pitch  of  remarkable 
beauty  both  in  design  and  in  printing,  largely  by 
help  of  improvements  in  the  process  of  engraving. 
All  these  magazines  have  gained  a  firm  footing  in 
Great  Britain.  The  Bookb oyer  (1888)  says  that 
the  seven  leading  magazines  in  New  York  have 
an  average  monthly  circulation  of  650,000  copies. 
The  Atlantic  Monthly  and  the  North  American 
Review  have  had  as  contributors  and  conductors 
the  most  eminent  literary  men  that  America  has 
produced.  Several  English  publishers  have  found 
it  to  their  interest  to  have  branch  establishments 
in  New  York,  while  several  American  publishers 
have  also  branches  in  London.  Owing  to  the 
prevalence  of  education,  and  the  abundance  of 
cheap  series  of  books  under  the  tide  of  libraries, 
book-buyers  in  a  humble  position  in  life  are  much 
more  numerous  than  they  are  in  the  United  King¬ 
dom. 

By  the  provisions  of  the  International  Copyright 
Act  (1886),  a  foreign  author’s  rights  are  protected 
in  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  France,  Germany, 
Ilayti,  Italy,  Spain,  Switzerland,  and  Tunis. 
Colonial  authors  can  also  secure  copyright  with¬ 
out  publication  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  a 
work  copyright  in  the  United  Kingdom  is  copy¬ 
right  in  Canada.  American  cheap  reprints  of 
British  books  are  admitted  to  Canada  subject  to  a 
customs  duty  of  12£  per  cent.,  to  be  paid  over  to 
the  British  author,  but  hitherto  the  returns  from 
this  source  have  been  very  small.  It  is  under¬ 
stood  that  an  American  author  by  prior  publica¬ 
tion  in  England  secures  British  copyright, 
although  the  matter  has  never  been  properly 
tested;  the  British  author  has  no  such  privilege  in 
the  United  States.  Therefore,  a  burning  question 
for  many  years  past  has  been  the  absence  of  any 
international  copyright  arrangement,  whereby  an 
English  author  and  his  publisher  may  reap  the 
benefit  of  an  American  sale,  and  vice  versa.  As 
the  matter  stands,  British  copyright  books  are 
freely  reprinted  to  a  public  of  more  than  sixty 
millions  at  a  price  from  a  few  cents  upward.  A 
book  which  sells  in  England  at  any  price  from  a 
couple  of  shillings  to  a  couple  of  guineas,  can 
thus  be  reprinted  and  sold  for  little  more  than 
the  price  of  paper  and  print.  This  presses  hard 
in  the  first  instance  on  the  American  author  and 
publisher,  who  are  forced  to  compete  with  the 
brightest,  freshest,  and  strongest  stream  of  good 
literature  the  world  has  ever  seen.  It  lias  dwarfed 
and  arrested  the  career  of  the  American  author 
not  a  little  Bills  have  been  introduced  into  the 
American  House  of  Representatives  and  the 
Senate  till  1888  without  effect.  The  American 
Copyright  League,  founded  by  G.  Parsons  La- 
tlirop  in  1882,  soon  attained  a  membership  of 
several  hundreds,  including  Mark  Twain,  Julian 
Hawthorne,  Will  Carleton,  Howells,  Stoddard, 
Boyesen,  and  other  well-known  authors,  and  has 
sought  to  influence  the  Legislature  in  favor  of 
some  equitable  arrangement.  Dickens,  Carlyle, 
Besant,  Lytton,  and  other  English  authors,  have 
also  spoken  strongly  on  the  subject.  The  Ameri¬ 
can  Publishers’  Copyright  League  (1888)  exists 
for  a  like  purpose. 

The  “  libraries,”  as  the  collections  of  books  are 
called  in  which  cheap  reprints  of  British  copy¬ 
rights  appear,  extend  some  of  them  to  more  than 
509  volumes.  The  best  known  perhaps  are 
Harper’s  Franklin  Square  Library  (new  series, 
1888),  Munro’s  Seaside  Library,  and  Lovell's 
Library.  Lord  Tennyson  has,  of  course,  suffered 
along  with  other  English  authors.  These  unau¬ 
thorized  reprints,  if  imported  into  the  United 
Kingdom,  are  liable  to  seizure  by  the  custom¬ 
house  officers.  We  have  many  examples,  on  the 
other  hand,  of  American  books  being  reprinted 
in  England  without  anything  being  paid  to  the 
author. 

Bookworm,  any  grub  that  feeds  on  the  paper 
of  books.  The  name  more  especially  belongs  to 
larva  of  ananobium  ( Anobium  pertinax,  A.  cnuli- 
tum,  etc.),  a  small  coleopterous  insect,  which  is 
one  of  the  Death-watch  insects;  though  the  larva 
of  QtJcophora  pseudospictella,  a  small  brown  moth, 
seems  to  have  nearly  an  equal  claim  to  it.  The 
latter  much  resembles  the  anobium,  save  that  it 
has  six  legs,  •while  the  anobium  has  none.  Most 


BOOLE. 


179 


BOOTS  AND  SHOES. 


people  are  familiar  with  the  effects  of  the  book 
worm’s  ravages.  It  is  also  a  cant  term  for  a 
studious  person. 

Boole,  George,  a  distinguished  mathematician 
and  logician,  was  born  at  Lincoln,  England,  Nov. 
2,  1815,  and  in  1849  became  Professor  of  Mathe¬ 
matics  in  Queen’s  College,  Cork,  a  post  he  held  till 
his  death,  Dec.  8,  1864.  He  had  long  been  one  of 
the  foremost  mathematical  thinkers  of  his  time. 
Among  his  publications  are  Anal ,  tical  Transform¬ 
ations  (1839),  General  Methods  in  Analysis  (1844), 
Mathematical  Analysis  of  Logic  (1847),  and  papers 
on  Probability.  His  fame  as  a  logician  chiefly 
rests  upon  his  Laws  of  Thought  (1854). 

Boom,  in  a  ship,  is  a  general  name  for  the  long 
spars  which  jut  out  from  certain  supports  or 
uprights,  to  stretch  or  extend  the  bottom  edge  of 
sails.  According  to  their  connections,  they  re¬ 
ceive  the  names  of  jib-boom,  flying  jib-boom, 
main-boom,  square-sail  boom,  etc.  (Modern  iron¬ 
clads  are  provided  with  a  number  of  booms  to  be 
fitted  at  intervals  along  their  sides,  from  which 
may  be  suspended  a  huge  net  encircling  the  ship 
at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  side  to  render  an 
explosion  from  an  enemy’s  torpedo  harmless. 
The  term  boom  is  also  applied  to  a  strong  iron 
chain  or  a  combination  of  spars,  etc.,  lashed 
together  with  chains  and  cables,  and  employed  in 
barring  the  navigable  passage  of  the  mouth  of  a 
harbor  or  river. 

Boom  is  a  word  frequently  used  of  late  in 
America  and  Britain  and  the  colonies  for  a  start 
or  rapid  development  of  commercial  activity  or 
speculation,  as  when  shares  go  off,  or  prices  go 
up  “  with  a  boom.”  The  word  is  assumed  to  be 
suggested  less  by  boom  in  the  sense  of  noise  than 
by  the  rushing  progress  the  noise  often  accom¬ 
panies. 

Boom'erang,  a  wooden  missile  used  by  the 
aborigines  of  Australia  in  hunting  and  in  war. 
It  is  of  hard  wood,  bent  in  a  curve,  and  is  from  2 
feet  to  2  feet  9  inches  long  by  from  2  to  3  inches 
broad.  It  has  one  side  convex,  the  other  flat, 
with  a  sharp  edge  along  the  convexity  of  the  curve. 
The  curve  varies  greatly  in  different  instruments 
When  to  be  thrown,  it  is  taken  in  the  hand  by 
the  handle  (which  has  cross  cuts  in  it),  and  held 
up  at  arm’s  length  over  the  shoulder.  With  the 
convex  edge  forward  and  the  flat  side  down,  it  is 
then  thrown  directly  onward  with  a  strong  quick 
fling,  as  if  to  hit  some  one  forty  yards  in  advance. 
The  hand  is  drawn  back  at  the  same  time,  with  a 
movement  like  that  in  the  “screw-back”  stroke 
at  billiards.  The  missile  slowly  ascends  in  the  air, 
whirling  round  and  round,  and  describing  a 
curved  line  of  progress  till  it  reaches  a  consider¬ 
able  height,  when  it  begins  to  retrograde,  and 
finally,  if  thrown  with  sufficient  force,  falls  eight 
or  ten  yards  behind  the  thrower,  or  it  may  fall 
near  him.  This  surprising  motion  is  produced  by 
the  bulged  side  of  the  missile.  The  air  imping¬ 
ing  thereon,  lifts  the  instrument  in  the  air,  exactly 
as  by  hitting  the  oblique  bars  in  a  windmill,  it 
forces  it  to  go  round.  It  should  be  added  that 
the  path  of  the  boomerang  can  be  varied  by  the 
will  of  the  thrower,  and  that  the  sweep  of  no  two 
boomerangs  exactly  agrees. 


Various  Forms  of  Boomerang. 


Boone,  Dan  tel,  a  famous  pioneer,  was  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  Feb.  11,  1735.  At  an  early  period 
of  his  life  he  emigrated  to  North  Carolina;  but 
his  love  of  the  wilderness  not  being  sufficiently 
gratified  there,  he  planned  an  expedition  into 
Kentucky,  then  almost  unknown.  In  June  1196, 
along  with  five  companions,  he  halted  on  the  Red  | 


river,  a  branch  of  the  Kentucky.  After  a  few 
months’  hunting,  he  was  captured  by  the  Indians, 
but  soon  escaped,  and  accidentally  falling  in  with 
his  brother,  who  had  pursued  his  track,  lived  with 
him  in  a  cabin  during  the  whole  winter.  In  May, 
1770,  his  brother  went  home,  and  Boone  himself 
was  left  alone  in  the  perilous  forest.  In  July  his 
brother  returned,  and  after  exploring  a  consider¬ 
able  portion  of  country,  they  returned  in  1771  to 
Carolina,  determined  to  emigrate  with  their 
families  to  Kentucky;  but  the  opposition  of  the 
Indians  rendered  the  attempt  unsuccessful. 
Shortly  after,  Boone  was  engaged  as  the  agent  of 
a  Carolina  company  in  purchasing  the  land  outlie 
south  side  of  the  Kentucky  river,  and  here  in  1775 
he  built  a  stockade  fort  on  the  site  now  occupied 
by  Boonesborough.  In  1777  the  place  was  twice 
attacked  by  a  swarm  of  Indians,  who,  however, 
were  repulsed.  In  1778  Boone  was  once  more 
captured,  but  once  more  managed  to  make  his 
escape  and  reach  the  fort  in  time  to  repel,  with 
his  little  garrison  of  fifty  men,  another  determined 
Indian  attack.  On  the  admission  of  Kentucky  to 
the  Union,  Boone  lost  his  property  for  want  of 
formal  titles,  and  retired  in  1798  in  disgust  into 
the  wilderness  of  Missouri,  which  did  not  become 
United  States  territory  until  1803.  In  1812  his 
claim  to  a  tract  of  land  was  allowed  in  recogni¬ 
tion  of  his  public  services.  Boone  died  at  Cha- 
rette,  on  the  Missouri  river.  Sept.  26,1820.  An 
account  of  his  life,  based  on  his  own  relation,  was 
written  by  Filson,  in  1784,  and  lives  have  been 
written  by  Flint,  Bogart,  and  J.  S.  C.  Abbott. 

Booueville,  a  town  of  Oneida  county,  New 
York,  thirty-five  miles  north  of  Utica.  Pop. 
(1880),  4,118.  There  is  another  Booneville,  or 
Boonville,  in  Missouri,  100  miles  east  of  Kansas 
City.  Pop.  3,854. 

B<  orde,  or  Borde,  Andrew,  facetiously  styled 
by  himself  “  Andreas  Perforatus,”  was  born  about 
1490,  nearCuckfield,  in  Sussex,  England,  and  died 
in  the  Fleet  prison  in  1549.  Boorde’scliief  works  are 
his  Dyetary  and  the  Fyrst  Bake  of  the  Introduction 
of  Knowledge,  edited  by  Dr.  Furnivall  for  the  Early 
English  Text  Society  in  1870.  His  Itinerary  of 
Europe  has  perished,  but  the  Handbook  of 
Europe  survives,  and  the  Itinerary  of  England,  or 
Peregrination  of  Doctor  Boorde  was  printed  by 
Hearne  in  1735.  The  earliest  known  specimen  of 
the  Gypsy  language  occurs  in  the  Introduction. 

Boot,  also  called  Boots,  or  Bootikin,  an  in¬ 
strument  of  judicial  torture,  formerly  used  in 
Scotland  to  force  confessions  from  persons  accused 
of  crimes;  or  answers  from  unwilling  or  suspected 
witnesses.  Bishop  Burnet  in  the  History  of  His 
Own  Time,  and  Sir  Walter  Scott  in  his  Old  Mor¬ 
tality,  speak  of  the  boot  as  made  of  iron;  but  the 
Rev.  Thomas  Morer  in  his  Short  Account  of  Scot¬ 
land  (1702),  written  from  personal  observation  of 
the  country  at  a  time  when  the  boot  was  still  in 
use,  describes  it  as  “  made  of  four  pieces  of  narrow 
boards  nailed  together,  of  a  fcompetent  length  for 
the  leg,  not  unlike  those  short  cases  we  use  to 
guard  young  trees  from  the  rabbits.” 

Bootes,  in  Greek  Mythology,  the  son  of 
DemOter  and  Iasion,  who  being  plundered  of  all 
his  possessions  by  his  brother,  invented  the  plow, 
and  cultivated  the  soil.  He  was  translated  to 
heaven  with  the  plow  and  yoke  of  oxen,  under 
the  name  of  Bootes  (ox-driver),  which  is  still 
borne  by  a  constellation  beside  the  Great  Bear  (or 
Wain).  According  toothers,  Bootes  was  the  son 
of  Lycaon  and  Callisto.  The  bright  star  Arc- 
turns  is  in  Bootes. 

Booth  (from  a  Scandinavian  word,  seen  in 
Danish  bod,  Icelandic  bua,  to  dwell,  and  perhaps 
in  German  bade),  a  covered  stall  or  hut  at  a 
market  or  fair,  from  which  goods  are  sold,  still 
much  used  in  the  east  of  Europe  and  in  Asia. 

Booth,  Barton,  a  celebrated  eighteenth-cen¬ 
tury  actor,  born  in  1681.  In  1708  lie  appeared  in 
Drury  Lane,  playing  the  “Ghost  ”  to  the  “  Hamlet  ” 
of  Wilks.  His  performanceof  “Cato”  in  Addison’s 
tragedy,  in  1713,  brought  him  to  the  height  of  his 
reputation,  and  yielded  wealth  as  well  as  honor. 
Other  great  parts  were  “  Henry  VIII.,”  “Othello,” 
“  Brutus”  in  Julius  Ccesar,  “Hotspur”  in  Ilenry 
IV.,  and  “Lothario”  in  Rowe’s  Fair  Penitent.  He 
died  May  10,  1733. 

Booth,  Junius  Brutus,  a  distinguished  Eng¬ 
lish  tragedian,  the  son  of  a  lawyer,  was  born  in 
London,  (May  1, 1796.  He  received  a  classical  edu¬ 


cation,  but  early  manifested  a  predilection  for  the 
stage,  and  when  seventeen  years  of  age  appeared 
in  some  unimportant  parts.  Subsequently  he 
played  Richard  HI.  at  Covent  Garden,  a  part 
in  which  he  suddenly  became  famous.  In  1821 
he  migrated  to  the  United  States,  where,  for  the 
ensuing  thirty  years,  he  followed  his  profession 
with  much  success.  He  died  suddenly  on  board 
a  Mississippi  river  steamer,  Nov.  12,  1852.  He 
had  long  been  subject  to  a  natural  eccentricity, 
which,  at  times,  when  aggravated  by  domestic 
affliction  or  habits  of  intemperance,  developed 
into  temporary  insanity.— His  son,  Edwin 
Thomas  Booth,  American  actor,  was  born  in 
Harford  county,  Maryland,  Nov.  13,  1833. 

When  sixteen  years  of  age,  lie  made  his  first 
appearance  on  the  stage,  in  the  part  of  “  Tressel.” 
his  father  acting  as  “Richard  III.”  Two  years 
later  lie  himself  successfully  assumed  the  part  of 
“  Richard  ”  in  place  of  his  father.  The  following 
year  the  two  went  to  California,  where  the  son 
remained  for  several  years,  visiting  Australia 
meanwhile.  In  1856  he  returned  to  the  Atlantic 
States,  and  from  that  time  forward  has  been 
recognized  as  a  leading  member  of  his  profession. 
He  visited  England  (1861-62),  and  in  1864  pro¬ 
duced  at  the  Winter  Garden,  in  New  York,  the 
play  of  Hamlet  for  100  nights  consecutively.  In 
1869  he  opened  a  splendid  theatre  in  New 
York,  whose  building  cost  over  $1,000,000,  but 
which  involved  him  in  pecuniary  ruin.  He  revis¬ 
ited  California  in  1876,  and  in  the  spring  of  1877 
was  able  to  settle  with  his  creditors,  having  earned 
during  the  season  over  $600,000.  Booth  visited 
Great  Britain  in  I860  and  1882,  extending  his  tour 
to  Germany  in  the  latter  year,  and  being  every¬ 
where  received  with  enthusiasm.  He  married  a 
daughter  of  Jas.  II.  McVicker,  a  Chicago  theatri¬ 
cal  manager. — John  Wilkes  Booth,  another  son 
of  Junius  Brutus  Booth,  was  born  at  Baltimore  in 
1839,  and  was  an  unsuccessful  actor.  In  1865  he 
entered  a  conspiracy  to  avenge  the  defeat  of  the 
Confederates,  and  shot  President  Lincoln.  He 
broke  his  own  leg,  but  managed  to  escape  to  Vir¬ 
ginia  and  conceal  himself  till  April  26th,  when  he 
was  tracked,  and,  refusing  to  surrender,  was  shot. 

Booth,  Rev.  William,  founder  and  “Gene¬ 
ral”  of  the  Salvation  Army,  was  born  at  Notting¬ 
ham,  England,  in  1829,  was  educated  there,  and 
from  1850  to  1861  acted  as  minister  of  the  Metho¬ 
dist  New  Connection.  From  the  first  he  was 
zealous  in  holding  evangelistic  services,  but  the 
new  departure  which  led  to  the  creation  of  the 
Salvation  Army  on  military  lines  began  in  1865 
with  mission  work  among  the  lower  classes  in  the 
East  End  of  London.  Since  1878  Booth’s  move¬ 
ment  has  been  known  as  the  Salvation  Army.  The 
property  of  the  Salvation  Ayny  is  held  for  its 
exclusive  use  by  Booth.  His  wife  has  been  asso¬ 
ciated  with  him  in  the  publication  of  several 
hymns  and  religious  works  dealing  with  the 
movement,  and  Booth  has  written  “What  is  the 
Salvation  Army  ?”  in  the  Contemporary  Review 
(vol.  xlii,  1882). 

Boothia  Felix,  a  peninsula  on  the  north  coast 
of  North  America,  in  which  is  the  most  northern 
part  of  the  continent,  Murchison  Point,  73°  54' 
N.  latitude.  It  was  discovered  by  Sir  John  Ross 
(  829-33),  and  named  after  Sir  Felix  Booth  (1775- 
1850),  a  London  distiller,  who  had  furnished 
£17,000  for  the  expedition.  Here,  on  the  western 
coast,  near  Cape  Adelaide,  Ross  discovered  the 
magnetic  pole,  70°  5'  17”  N.  latitude,  and  96°  46' 
45"  W.  longitude. 

Booton,  "or  Bouton,  an  island  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from 
the  southeastern  ray  of  the  Celebes,  and  from  the 
Island  of  Muna.  Area,  1,700  miles.  The  people 
are  Malays.  The  Sultan,  who  resides  at  Bolio,  is 
in  allegiance  to  the  Dutch,  an  under-resident 
being  stationed  on  the  island.  Pop.,  17,000. 

Boots  anil  Shoes.  The  foot-coverings  of  the 
human  family  are  exceedingly  varied  inform,  and 
they  are  not  less  diverse  in  the  material  out  of 
which  they  are  made.  These  differences  arc  not 
merely  due  to  the  caprices  of  fashion  and  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  traditional  costume  and  habit,  but  they 
owe  their  existence  in  large  measure  to  the  con¬ 
ditions  of  climate,  and  to  the  necessities  of  the 
daily  life  and  occupations  of  their  wearers.  It 
must  be  at  once  obvious  that  the  foot-coverings 
which  would  be  sufficient  and  healthy  amid  trop- 


BOOTY. 


180 


BORDEAUX. 


ical  sands,  would  be  most  unsuitable  for  with¬ 
standing  the  rigors  of  a  Greenland  winter.  The 
lightest  sandal,  which  simply  defends  the  sole  of 
the  foot,  is  appropriate  for  the  one  condition,  while 
the  other  demands  the  closest,  m  st  warm,  and 
water-tight  covering  which  can  be  devised.  The 
elementary  foot-covering  is  the  sandal,  which  con¬ 
sists  only  of  a  pad  or  sole  shaped  to  the  sole  of  the 
foot,  and  held  on  by  straps  or  thongs.  From  the 
sandal  grows  up  the  slipper,  in  which  straps  and 
lacing  are  dispensed  with,  and  a  sufficient  “  upper” 
of  leather  or  other  soft  material  is  provided  to 
keep  the  article  on  the  foot.  The  ordinary  short 
shoe  is  the  next  development,  it  being  laced,  but¬ 
toned.  or  otherwise  fastened  on  the  foot;  and  in  the 
hoot  the  upper  is  continued  so  as  to  embrace  more 
or  less  of  the  leg.  Sandals  and  slippers  continue  to 
this  day  to  be  the  staple  foot-gear  of  Oriental  com¬ 
munities,  and  great  wealth  of  ornamentation — in¬ 
laying  of  wood  in  sandals,  and  elaborate  embroid¬ 
ery  in  gold  and  colored  silks,  with  fantastic  curl¬ 
ing  of  the  toes — are  characteristics  of  the  richer  pro¬ 
ductions  of  the  Eastern  tradesmen.  In  mediaeval 
times,  shoes  with  long  pointed  toes  were  worn  by 
the  high-born;  and  toward  the  end  of  the  four¬ 
teenth  century  these  points  became  ridiculously 
elongated,  so  that  there  appeared  to  be  a  long 
strap  projecting  from  each  fool.  In  the  reign 
of  Charles  1.  a  species  of  boot,  exceedingly 
wide  at  the  top,  made  of  Spanish  leather, 
came  into  use;  and  with  Charles  II.  the  highly 
decorated  French  boot  was  introduced  as  an 
article  of  gay  courtly  attire.  Meanwhile,  the 
jack-boot,  as  it  is  called,  had  become  indispen¬ 
sable  in  the  costume  of  cavalry  soldiers  and 
horsemen  generally;  and  by  William  III.  and  his 
followers  it  was  regularly  naturalized  in  England. 
This  huge  species  of  boot  remained  in  use  in 
British  cavalry  regiments  until  comparatively 
recent  times,  and,  in  a  somewhat  polished  and 
improved  form,  it  is  still  worn  by  the  Horse- 
guards.  Among  jockeys  and  fox-hunters,  top- 
boots  are  likely  to  remain  in  permanent  use. 
What  perhaps  contributed  to  break  up  their  gen¬ 
eral  use  was  the  introduction  of  the  Hessian  boot 
as  an  article  of  walking-dress.  At  length  they 
were  superseded  by  the  well-known  Wellington 
boot,  which, as  its  name  imports, was  introduced  by 
the  great  Duke,  as  a  simplification,  under  the  loose 
military  trouser.  When  the  name  of  Blucherwas 
given  to  a  half-boot,  the  Wellington  was  almost 
entirely  abandoned  in  England  in  consequence  of 
the  universal  use  of  short  ankle-boots.  It  is  still 
largely  used  in  some  continental  countries  and  in 
the  United  States.  Both  in  the  United  Kingdom 
and  in  the  United  States  the  factory  trade  in  boots 
and  shoes  has  since  1860  undergone  a  remarkable 
development.  In  America  the  trade  is  generally 
distributed  throughout  the  New  England  States, 
with  its  headquaraters  at  Boston,  Mass. 

Booty  is  the  victors’  share  in  property  cap¬ 
tured  from  the  vanquished.  It  is  properly  a  mil¬ 
itary  term,  the  word  prize  being  more  generally 
used  in  the  navy. 

Bopp,  Franz,  the  distinguished  philologist, 
was  born  at  Mainz,  Sept.  14,  1791.  By  the  lec¬ 
tures  of  Windischmann,  he  was  led  to  devote 
himself  to  the  study  of  Oriental  languages,  a  study 
which  he  continued  under  Chfizy,  De  Sacy,  and 
A.  W.  Schlegel,  at  Paris.  He  composed  his  first 
work  on  The  Conjugation  of  the  Sanskrit  Verb. 
lie  returned  to  Germany  in  1821,  and  some  years 
after  received  the  appointment  of  Professor  of 
Oriental  Languages  at  Berlin,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death,  which  took  place  Oct.  23,  1867. 

Bora,  a  strong,  cold,  and  dry,  northeast  wind, 
which  often  rages  with  great  severity  in  the  Upper 
Adriatic,  especially  in  winter,  sometimes  foreight 
or  nine  days  together. 

Bora  Katiiarina  von,  the  wife  of  Luther, 
was  born  of  an  old  family  in  the  district  of  Meis¬ 
sen,  Jan.  29, 1499.  At  a  very  early  age  she  entered 
the  Cistercian  convent  of  Nimptsclien,  near 
Grimma.  Luther  obtained  the  services  of  Leon¬ 
hard  Koppe,  a  citizen  of  Torgau,  and  by  him  and 
a  few  associates  nine  nuns  were  liberated  from  the 
convent  in  April,  1523.  They  were  brought  to 
Wittenberg,  and  Katiiarina  became  an  inmate  of 
the  house  of  the  Burgomaster  Reicheubach. 
Luther,  through  a  friend,  Amsdorf,  offered  her 
the  hand  of  Dr.  Kaspar  Glaz.  She  declined  this 
proposal,  but  declared  herself  ready  to  marry 


Amsdorf  or  Luther  himself.  Her  marriage  with 
Luther  took  place  on  June  13,  1525.  She  died 
Dec.  20,1552,  at  Torgau.  See  Stein,  Katharina 
von  Bora  (Halle,  1879);  and  Bayne’s  Life  of  Luther 
(1887). 

Boracic  Acid,  or  Boric  Acid,  is  found  native 
(1)  in  the  steam  or  vapor  which  rises  from  certain 
volcanic  rocks  in  Tuscany,  (2)  as  the  mineral  Sas- 
solite,  occurring  largely  in  California,  and  (3)  as 
a  saline  Incrustation  in  the  crater  of  a  mountain 
in  the  Island  Volcano,  in  the  Lipari  group,  twelve 
miles  north  of  Sicily.  Boracic  acid  also  occurs 
in  combination  in  borax,  datholite,  boracite, 
ulexite,  and  other  minerals,  and  to  a  very  minute 
extent  in  trap  rocks  generally.  The  production 
of  boracic  acid  from  ulexite,  a  native  borate  of 
lime  and  soda  found  in  California,  has  of  recent 
years  assumed  importance.  Ulexite  is  found  as 
rounded  concretions,  white  in  color,  varying  in 
size  from  one-fourth  to  twelve  inches  in  diameter, 
and  is  locally  known  as  “cotton  balls.”  After 
being  broken  down,  it  is  heated  to  200°  F.  (93.3° 
C.)  along  with  three  times  its  weight  of  water,  and 
sulphurous  acid  gas  is  forced  in  till  saturation 
takes  place.  The  whole  is  allowed  to  settle,  and  the 
clear  solution  of  boracic  acid  run  off  and  crystal¬ 
lized.  Native  boracic  acid  is  employed  as  a  source 
of  borax,  and  contains  about  three-fourths  of  its 
weight  of  true  boracic  acid,  accompanied  by  one- 
fourth  of  water  and  impurities.  In  a  pure  con¬ 
dition  boracic  acid  may  be  prepared  by  dis¬ 
solving  40  parts  of  borax,  Na2B407,  in  100 
of  water,  and  acting  thereon  by  25  parts  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  HC1,  which  removes  the  soda, 
forming  chloride  of  sodium,  NaCl,  and  water, 
II20,  and  on  cooling  the  mixture,  the  boracic  acid, 
HB02,  crystallizes  out.  On  re-solution  in  water 
and  re-crystallization,  it  is  obtained  in  pure  white 
feathery  crystals.  These  crystals  have  the  com¬ 
position  of  HB02II20,  and  on  heating  lose  the 
whole  of  the  water  they  contain,  yielding  boracic 
anhydride,  B203,  thus: 

Boracic  Acid.  Boracic  Anhydride.  Water. 

2HB02H20  =  B203  +  2HoO. 

As  an  antiseptic  and  preservative  of  food, 
boracic  acid  is  extensively  employed  either  alone 
or  along  with  borax.  An  ointment  called  “Lis¬ 
ter’s  Ointment,”  of  great  antiseptic  power,  is  j>re- 
pared  from  boracic  acid,  wax,  and  paraffin.  In 
the  preservation  of  butter,  milk,  wine,  beer,  meat, 
and  fish,  it  is  probably  used  to  a  greater  extent 
than  any  other  antiseptic. 

Borage,  Bor  ago,  or  Borrago,  a  genus  of  Bora- 
ginaceae,  of  which  the  three  species  are  all  natives 


Common  Borage  (Borago  officinalis), 
a,  a  flower. 


of  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean.  The 
common  Borage  ( Borago  officinalis )  is  found  in 
waste  places  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  is 
pretty  frequent — no  doubt  naturalized— in  Britain. 
Borage  was  formerly  much  cultivated  and  highly 
esteemed,  being  reckoned  amongst  the  cordial 
flowers,  and  supposed  to  possess  exhilarating 
qualities,  for  which  it  no  longer  receives  credit. 

Boragi'neae,  or  Boragina'ce^e,  a  chiefly  her¬ 
baceous  order  of  cord i floral  dicotyledons,  the 
alternate  exstipulate  leaves  generally  rough  with 


hairs  which  proceed  from  a  thick  hard  base 
(whence  the  old  name  Asperifolise),  and  the  whole 
plant  mucilaginous  and  emollient.  There  are 
about  600  known  species  of  the  proper  Boragineae, 
and  about  300  of  Ehretiacese.  The  former  are 
natives  principally  of  temperate  climates,  and  are 
particularly  abundant  in  the  South  of  Europe  and 
in  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia;  the  latter  are  more 
tropical,  but  not  exclusively  so.  Borage,  al- 
kanet,  comfrey,  and  forget-me-not,  are  familiar 
examples  of  the  former;  the  exquisitely  fragrant 
heliotrope  is  the  best  known  of  the  latter.  "The 
drupes  of  some  species  of  eliretia  are  eatable. 

Borax,  or  Biborate  of  Soda,  is  found  native 
as  a  saline  incrustation  on  the  shores  of  certain 
lakes  in  Persia,  Thibet,  Nevada,  and  California, 
but  it  also  occurs  widely  scattered  over  the  world. 
It  has  been  long  known,  but  it  was  not  till  1732 
that  its  chemical  nature  was  ascertained.  In  1856 
the  Californian  sources  of  borax  were  discovered, 
the  bottom  of  a  lake  being  found  to  be  covered  to 
a  depth  of  about  eighteen  inches  with  a  mud  im¬ 
pregnated  with  borax,  and  containing  large 
crystals  of  it.  From  this  mud,  by  treatment  with 
hot  water  and  crystallization,  there  is  first  obtained 
concentrated  borax,  and  by  further  treatment  this 
yields  the  refined  borax.  In  other  places  in  Cali¬ 
fornia  the  borax  is  found  mixed  with  sand  in  a 
light  granular  form,  containing  about  j’g  of  the 
pure  salt,  while  large  crystalline  masses  of  it 
occur  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
importance  of  these  deposits  may  be  gathered 
from  the  figures  showing  the  production  of  borax 
in  the  Pacific  States — viz.,  in  1872,  280,000  pounds; 
in  1876,  5,140,000  pounds;  and  in  1884,  3,732,000 
pounds.  In  Europe,  large  quantities  of  artificial 
borax  are  prepared  from  the  boracic  acid  of 
Tuscany.  This,  mixed  with  carbonate  of  soda, 
is  heated  in  a  furnace,  carbonic  acid  being  liber¬ 
ated,  and  the  crude  salt  is  then  dissolved  in  water 
to  free  it  from  impurities,  and  crystallized.  The 
changes  which  take  place  in  this  operation  are 
represented  by  the  following  equation: 

Boracic  Acid.  Carbonate  of  Soda.  Borax. 

2B2033IL,0  -f  Na2C03  =  Na2B40,  4- 
Carbonic  Acid.  Water. 

C02  +  311,0. 

The  common  variety  of  borax  contains  ten 
equivalents  of  water,  Na2B4O7+10H2O,  and 
forms  prismatic  crystals;  but  another  variety 
exists,  known  as  octahedral  borax,  and  contain¬ 
ing  only  five  molecules  of  water.  Borax  is 
soluble  in  twelve  times  its  weight  of  cold 
water,  and  in  half  its  weight  of  boiling  water, 
yielding  a  clear  solution  with  a  slightly  sweetish 
taste.  It  is  of  great  use  in  the  chemical  arts 
owing  to  its  properties  of  dissolving  metallic 
oxides,  and  of  forming  a  flux  when  heated  with 
other  substances.  For  preserving  meat,  fish, 
hutter,  and  milk,  either  alone,  or  along  with 
boracic  acid,  borax  has  a  wide  application,  no 
less  than  20,000  lbs.  having  been  supplied  to  the 
Chicago  canning  works  in  one  year  for  the  pre¬ 
serving  of  meat  alone.  Besides  these  technical 
uses,  borax  is  much  used  in  medicine  as  an  anti¬ 
septic,  being  applied  either  in  powder  or  as 
lotion. 

Borda,  Jean  Charles  de,  mathematician  and 
astronomer,  was  born  in  1733  at  Dax,  in  the 
French  department  of  Landes.  As  early  as  1756 
his  Memoire  sur  les  Projectiles  procured  him 
admission  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences.  In 
1777-78  he  did  good  service  in  the  American  war; 
in  1782  lie  was  captured  by  the  English  on  the 
voyage  home  from  Martinique,  but  was  permitted 
to  return  on  parole  to  France,  where  he  entered 
the  Ministry  of  Marine.  He  died  at  Paris,  Feb. 
20,  1799. 

Bordeaux,  the  third  seaport  of  France,  and 
the  chief  town  in  the  department  of  Gironde,  is 
situated  in  a  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Garonne, 
359  miles  south-southwest  of  Paris.  Transatlan¬ 
tic  steamers  can  easily  ascend  with  the  flood  to 
Bordeaux,  which  is  accessible  at  all  times  to  ves¬ 
sels  of  600  tons.  The  commerce  both  by  the 
Garonne  and  by  railways  is  very  extensive,  and 
its  long  and  crescent-shaped  harbor,  providing 
anchorage  for  1,200  ships,  has  a  noble  appearance. 
The  river  is  crossed  by  a  fine  bridge  of  seventeen 
arches  and  532  yards  in  length,  erected  in  1811-21. 
The  old  town  has  narrow,  crooked  streets;  but  the 
newer  parts  of  the  city  and  the  suburbs  have  wide 


BORDELAIS. 


181 


BORGIA. 


streets,  fine  squares,  and  pleasant  promenades 
lined  with  trees,  The  cathedral  of  St.  Andre, 
which  was  consecrated  in  1096,  is  remarkable  for 
its  beautiful  towers.  St.  Croix  dates  from  the 
tenth  century,  and  St.  Seurin  is  also  very  ancient. 
The  Grand  ThCatre  is  one  of  the  largest  and  finest 
buildings  of  its  kind  in  France.  The  public 
library  has  upward  of  160,000  volumes.  Pop. 
(1886),  235,374.  Its  imports  and  exports  in  1885 
were  each  valued  at  $80,000,000.  Exceptjhose  of 
Champagne,  no  French  wines  have  been  so  much 
exported  to  foreign  countries  as  those  grown  in 
the  department  of  Gironde,  especially  the  Medoc, 
and  known  as  Bordeaux  wines.  Some  of  them 
are  red  (known  in  England  as  Claret),  others 
white.  The  finest  red  wines  are  produced  by  the 
vineyards  of  Chateau-Lafite,  Chateau-Margaux, 
Chateau-Latour  (all  Medoc  wines),  and  Haut- 
Brion,  the  best  of  the  vins  de  Graves.  St.  .Tulien 
and  St.  Est&phe  are  of  the  second  rank.  The  St. 
Emilion  winesare  a  distinct  group.  Of  the  white 
wines,  the  Chateau  d’Yquem  is  the  finest  of 
Sauternes,  others  being  Bommes,  Barsac,  Preig- 
nac.  Of  late  years,  however,  the  ravages  of  the 
phylloxera  have  seriously  diminished  the  vintages, 
and  large  quantities  of  wine  have  been  imported  in 
consequence  from  Spain  and  Sicily,  and  either 
mixed  with,  or  sold  as  Bordeaux  wines.  Bor¬ 
deaux  was  built  by  the  Romans,  and  suffered 
successively  from  Vandals,  Goths,  Franks,  and 
Moors.  It  was  taken  by  Charles  Martel  in  735;  but 
was  again  spoiled  by  Norman  plunderers  in  tlm 
ninth  century.  It  became  the  capital  of  the 
Duchy  of  Guienne;  and  in  1152  passed,  by  the  mar¬ 
riage  of  Eleanor  of  Guieune  with  Henry  of  Nor¬ 
mandy  (afterward  Henry  II.  of  England),  under 
the  dominion  of  England.  The  town  was  for  a 
considerable  time  the  seat  of  the  splendid  court 
of  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  but  was  restored  to 
France  in  1451.  During  the  Revolution  it  was 
the  principal  seat  of  the  Girondists,  and  suffered 
fearfully  at  the  hands  of  the  Terrorists.  Its  inhabit¬ 
ants,  disaffected  to  Napoleon’s  government,  were 
the  first  to  declare  for  the  Bourbons  in  1814. 
During  the  Franco-Prussian  war,  the  first  sittings 
of  the  National  Assembly  in  1871  were  held  here 
in  the  Grand  ThCatre.  Bordeaux  is  the  birth¬ 
place  of  Richard  II.  of  England,  the  poet  Auso- 
nius,  and  Rosa  Bonheur. 

Bordelais,  the  country  round  about  Bordeaux, 
was  a  recognized  division  of  the  Province  of 
Guienne. 

Borden,  Simeon,  born  in  Massachusetts  in 
1798,  died  in  1856,  became  a  practical  engineer 
and  surveyor,  and  completed  the  first  geodetic 
survey  ever  made  in  this  country.  He  also  con¬ 
structed  several  railroads. 

Bordentown.  a  town  of  Burlington  county, 
N.  J.,  on  the  Delaware,  six  miles  southeast  of 
Trenton.  Pop.  (1880),  5,334. 

Borders,  The,  as  denoting  the  tract  of 
country  lying  immediately  on  both  sides  of  the 
frontier  line  between  England  and  Scotland,  is  a 
term  somewhat  elastic  in  its  signification.  Geo¬ 
graphically,  the  frontier  line  runs  diagonally 
northeast  or  southwest,  between  the  head  of  the 
Solway  Firth  at  the  latter  extremity,  and  a  point 
a  little  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Tweed  at  the 
other  extremity;  the  counties  touching  upon  this 
line  being  Cumberland  and  Northumberland  on 
the  English  side,  and  Dumfries,  Roxburgh,  and 
Berwick  on  the  Scottish  side.  The  line  of  divis¬ 
ion  is  for  the  most  part  a  natural  one.  On  the 
western  Border,  near  tne  Solway,  was  a  tract  of 
country  claimed  by  both  kingdoms,  and  hence 
called  the  “Debatable  Land.”  The  Borders  have 
likewise  been  the  scene  of  some  great  historical 
battles.  Of  what  may  be  called  national  contests, 
in  which  Scots  and  English  armies  were  opposed 
to  each  other,  there  is  the  battle  of  Halidon  Hill 
(1333),  Otterburn  (1388),  Ilomildon  Hill  (1402), 
Piperden  (1435),  Flodden  (1513),  Solway  Moss 
(1542),  and  Ancrum  Moor  (1544). 

Border-warrant,  an  obsolete  form  of  diligence 
used  in  the  Border  counties  of  Scotland  for  de- 
taining  the  person  of  an  English  debtor.  It  was 
more  rigorous  than  the  general  inedilatio  fugee 
warrant. 

Bnrdure,  in  Heraldry,  a  border  surrounding 
a  shield,  generally  said  to  occupy  one-fifth  of  the 
field.  Though  sometimes  an  independent  bearing, 


it  is  often  a  difference  of  a  cadet.  There  is  a 
great  variety  in  bordures. 


Forms  of  Bordures. 


Bore,  a  tidal  phenomenon  at  the  estuaries  of 
certain  rivers,  also  called  Eagre.  When  a  river 
expands  gradually  toward  a  very  wide  mouth, 
and  is  subject  to  high  tides,  the  spring  flood-tide 
drives  an  immense  volume  of  water  from  the  sea 
into  the  river;  the  water  accumulates  in  the  estu¬ 
ary  more  rapidly  than  it  can  flow  up  into  the 
river;  and  thus  there  is  gradually  formed  a  kind 
of  watery  ridge  stretching,  across  the  estuary,  and 
rushing  up  toward  the  river  with  great  violence 
and  much  noise.  In  some  cases  this  ridge  or  bore 
is  many  feet  in  height.  The  most  celebrated 
bores  are  those  of  the  Ganges,  Brahmaputra,  and 
Indus;  in  the  Hoogly  branch  of  the  Ganges,  the 
bore  travels  70  miles  in  four  hours,  and  often 
appears  suddenly  as  a  liquid  wall  over  7  feet  high. 
That  at  Hang-choo-foo  is  very  dangerous;  and  the 
Bay  of  Fundy  is  remarkable  for  its  tidal  phe¬ 
nomena. 

Bore  is  the  internal  cavity  of  any  kind  of  fire¬ 
arm.  It  is  in  most  cases  cylindrical;  but  in  the 
Lancaster  gun  it  is  oval,  and  in  the  Whitworth 
hexagonal,  both  being  also  spiral;  while  in  all 
rifled  firearms  it  is  furrowed  with  spiral  grooves, 
and  for  the  same  reason — viz.,  to  give  that  rota¬ 
tion  which  enables  an  elongated  projectile  to  be 
used.  In  most  modern  guns  and  small  arms 
there  is  a  chamber  at  the  bottom  of  the  bore.  In 
breech-loading  weapons  this  chamber  is  larger  in 
diameter  than  the  bore,  in  order  that  the  cart¬ 
ridge  and  projectile  may  enter  it  easily.  In  muz¬ 
zle-loaders  it  is  generally  of  smaller  diameter,  but 
an  enlarged  chamber  has  been  tried  in  some  heavy 
guns  in  order  to  give  more  air  space  for  the  ex¬ 
pansion  of  the  gases  when  the  cartridge  is  fired. 
The  diameter  of  the  bore  is  called  the  “  calibre.” 
Heavy  iron  guns  were  formerly  cast  solid  and 
then  bored  out,  but,  as  it  is  essential  that  the 
surface  of  the  bore  should  be  extremely  hard  to 
prevent  its  being  “  scored”  by  the  shot,  endeav¬ 
ors  were  made  in  America  to  attain  this  object  by 
casting  them  hollow,  and  cooling  the  inner  sur¬ 
face  more  rapidly  than  the  rest  of  the  metal. 
Large  guns  of  modern  construction  are,  however, 
either  made  entirely  of  steel,  as  in  the  “  Kvupp  ” 
process,  or  as  in  the  Woolwich  and  Armstrong 
systems,  have  a  steel  tube,  toughened  in  oil,  for 
tiie  bore,  and  strengthened  outside  by  coils  of 
wrought  iron  shrunk  on  over  it,  so  that  the  hard¬ 
ness  of  the  bore  is  assured. 

Boreas,  the  Greek  name  of  the  northeast  wind, 
blowing  towards  Hellas  from  the  Thracian  mount¬ 
ains,  and  personified  in  mythology  as  the  son  of 
Astraeus  and  of  Eos  or  Aurora,  and  as  brother  of 
Notus,  Zephyrus,  and  Hesperus. 

Borelli,  Giovanni  Alfonso,  a  distinguished 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  and  the  founder 
of  the  iatro-mathematical  school;  born  at  Naples, 
Jan.  28,  1608,  became  Professor  of  Mathematics 
at  Pisa,  and  of  Medicine  at  Florence.  He  died 
Dec.  31,  1679.  He  carefully  observed  the  motions 
of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  then  little  known, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  to  recognize  the  para¬ 
bolic  paths  of  comets. 

Boi  •ers,  a  name  applicable  to  many  beetle-like  j 
or  coleopterous  insects  in  the  family  of  Wood- 
eaters  or  Xylophaga,  but  peculiarly  applicable  to 
the  genera  Ptinus  and  Anobium.  The  larvae  eat 
their  way  through  wood,  and  when  that  happens 
to  be  furniture, 
the  species  of 
Ptinus,  etc.  come 
to  have  some 
practical  human 
interest.  They 
are  mostly  incon¬ 
spicuous  animals,  Borer  (.Anobium  striatum)  ■ 

resting  during  the  Natural  size,  and  magnified, 
day  in  the  larval  tunnels,  active  and  roving  at 
night.  Other  species  ( A .  tesselatum  and  A.  per- 
linax),  also  found  in  furniture,  but  likewise,  as 


is  indeed  usual,  on  trees,  have  in  their  adult  stage 
some  importance  in  the  history  of  superstition  as 
insects  which  produce  a  knocking  noise,  regarded 
as  a  presage  of  the  approach  of  death.  The  adult 
is  wont  to  knock  against  the  wood  with  his  upper 
jaws,  but  these  “blows,  which  are  taken  for  the 
knocking  of  Death  himself,  are  nothing  but  the 
knocking  of  the  male  at  the  door  of  his  loved 
mate.” 

Borglie'se,  a  family  of  great  distinction  in  the 
Republic  of  Siena,  and  afterward  at  Rome.  One 
of  the  family,  Camillo  Bokghese,  ascended  the 
papal  throne  in  1605  as  Paul  V.— Camillo 
Filippo  Ludovico  Borgiiese,  Prince  Borghese, 
born  at  Rome  in  1775,  joined  the  French  army, 
and  in  1803  married  Pauline,  the  sister  of  Napo¬ 
leon  Bonaparte,  and  widow  of  General  Leclerc 
Under  the  French  Empire  he  was  for  some 
time  Governor-General  of  the  Provinces  beyond 
the  Alps,  and  held  his  court  at  Turin.  Lie  sold 
the  Borghese  collection  of  artistic  treasures  to 
Napoleon  for  13,000.000  francs,  r<  ceiving  in  part 
payment  the  Piedmontese  national  domains  ;  but 
when  these  were  reclaimed  by  the  King  of  Sar¬ 
dinia  in  1815,  he  received  back  some  of  the  works 
of  ancient  art.  After  the  overthrow  of  Napo¬ 
leon  he  separated  from  his  wife,  and  broke  off  all 
connection  with  the  Bonaparte  family.  Lie  died 
in  1832.  The  Borghese  Palace  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  at  Rome,  and  its  collection  of  paint¬ 
ings  is  remarkably  fine. 

Borghesi,  Bartolommeo,  Count,  a  distin¬ 
guished  Italian  antiquary,  born  at  Savignano,  in 
1781.  At  Bologna  and  Rome  he  devoted  himself 
to  archaeological  researches.  In  1821  he  fixed  his 
residence  in  the  little  republic  of  San  Marino, 
where  he  lived  devoted  entirely  to  study,  and 
died  April  16,  1860.  Borghesi  did  enormous  ser¬ 
vice  to  Roman  epigraphy  and  numismatics. 

Borgia,  a  family  originally  of  Jativa,  in  the 
Spanish  Province  of  Valencia,  where,  at  the  time 
of  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  (1238)  the  name 
figures  among  the  Caballeros  de  la  Conquista,. 
One  of  its  members,  Alfonso  de  Borja  (1378-1458), 
bishop  and  private  secretary  to  Alfonso  of  Aragon, 
accompanied  that  monarch  to  Naples,  where  he 
had  gone  to  establish  his  rule.  This  Borja,  chosen 
Pope  as  Calixtus  III.,  settled  a  number  of  his 
family  in  Italy.  Rodrigo  de  Borja  (1431-1503), 
his  nephew,  in  turn  ascended  the  papal  throne  in 
1492,  under  the  title  of  Alexander  VI.;  and  from 
that  time  the  principal  seat  of  the  family  was  in 
Italy,  while  its  name  took  the  Italian  form  of 
“Borgia.”  Two  of  his  children,  Caesar  and  Lu- 
crezia,  Duchess  of  Ferrara,  were  destined  to  play 
important  parts,  and  to  acquire  in  history  an 
unhappy  renown. — Chesar  Borgia  was  born  in 
April,  1476,  and  died  in  1507.  An  ambition  that 
knew  no  bounds,  energy  that  never  flagged,  and 
a  contempt  for  laws  Divine  and  human,  joined  to 
qualities  of  the  first  order  as  a  general  and  admin¬ 
istrator,  rendered  him  one  of  the  most  extra¬ 
ordinary  figures  of  the  Renaissance  period. 
Vowed  to  the  priesthood  from  his  birth,  and  from 
the  age  of  seventeen  invested  with  the  dignity  of 
cardinal,  he  early  resolved  to  surmount  all  ob¬ 
stacles  to  his  ambition;  he  shrank  from  neither 
sacrilege  nor  murder,  and  procured  the  assassin¬ 
ation  of  his  elder  brother,  Giovanni,  Duke  of 
Gandia,  His  father,  Alexander,  had  made  an  alli¬ 
ance  with  Louis  XII.,  of  France,  for  the  invasion 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples.  Caesar,  being  named 
Duke  of  Valentinois,  with  a  rich  pension  and 
the  promise  of  a  company  of  260  lances  for  the 
support  of  the  throne  of  St.  Peter,  went  to  con¬ 
tract  his  marriage  (May  11,  1499)  in  France,  and 
carried  in  exchange  to  Louis  the  papal  bull, 
which  was  indispensable  to  the  king  before  he 
could  espouse  his  predecessor’s  widow,  Anne  of 
Brittany.  Caesar’s  active  life  extended  over  no 
morethanfouryears.  Whilst  his  father  was  crush¬ 
ing  the  feudal  power  of  the  barons  of  the  Romagna 
he  made  himself  master  of  the  Romagna,  Perugia, 
Siena,  Piombino,  the  duchy  of  Urbino;  went  so  far 
as  to  threaten  Florence  itself,  and  was  planning  the 
reconstruction  of  a  kingdom  of  Central  Italy,  with 
himself  at  its  head,  when  a  powerful  league  was 
formed  against  him.  Named  Duke  of  Romagna 
by  the  Pope,  he  was  proceeding  to  menace  Bologna 
and  expel  the  family  of  Bentivoglio,  when,  on  the 
eve  of  his  departure  for  his  third  campaign,  both 
he  and  his  father  were  stricken  with  a  sudden 


BORGU. 


182 


BORNEO. 


illness  while  at  a  farewell  banquet  given  by  the 
Cardinal  of  Corneto.  There  was  talk  of  poison. 
The  old  man  succumbed  (Aug.  18,  1503),  but 
Caesar’s  youth,  and  his  extraordinary  force  of  will, 
triumphed  over  the  malady.  The  election  of 
Pius  111.,  a  Piccolomini,  gave  him  a  moment’s 
hope;  the  succession  of  Julius  II.  (Della  Rovere), 
his  bitterest  enemy,  after  Pius’  brief  reign  ot 
twenty-seven  days,  was  fatal  to  him.  Caesar  sur¬ 
rendered  at  Naples,  under  the  promise  of  a  safe 
conduct  from  the  King  of  Aragon.  After  an 
attempt  to  break  out  of  Chinchilla,  he  was  re¬ 
moved  to  Medina  del  Campo,  from  ■whence,  on 
Oct.  25,  150(1,  he  made  his  escape  to  the  Court  of 
Navarre.  Here  he  took  command  of  the  royal 
forces  for  the  King,  against  Luis  de  Beamonte, 
Constable  of  Navarre,  who  refused  to  surrender 
the  citadel  of  Viana,  which  he  held,  and  in  a  sortie, 
May  12,  1507,  at  the  age  of  thirty,  Caesar  Borgia 
fell,  after  heroically  defending  himself,  at  a  place 
called  Mendavia.  —  Luciiezia  Borgia,  born  at 
Rome  in  1480,  married  in  the  first  instance  Gio¬ 
vanni  Sforza,  Lord  of  Pesaro  (June,  1493),  hut  her 
father  annulled  this  marriage  (Dec.  20,  1497)  and 
gave  her  (June  20,  1498)  to  Alfonso,  Duke  of 
Bisceglia,  nephew  of  the  King  of  Naples.  The 
same  motive  induced  her  father  and  brother  to 
separate  her  from  her  new  husband,  who  was 
assassinated  Aug.  18,  1500,  by  Michelotto,  Caesar 
Borgia’s  bravo.  For  the  third  time  free,  the 
Pope’s  daughter  became,  in  spite  of  the  repug¬ 
nance  of  the  Duke  Ercole  d’Este,  the  wife  of  the 
latter’s  son,  Alfonso,  who  soon  after  inherited  § 
the  Duchy  of  Ferrara.  Lucrezia  has  been  repre¬ 
sented  as  placed  outside  the  pale  of  humanity  by 
her  wantonness,  her  vices,  and  her  crimes;  but  | 
the  recent  researches  of  most  accurate  and  unpre  / 
judiced  historians  have  demonstrated  that  in  her  111 
youth,  with  no  initiative,  no  choice  permitted  to 
her,  she  was  rather  the  too  pliant  instrument  in 
the  hands  of  Alexander  and  of  Caesar  Borgia. 

She  died  June  24,  1519,  enjoying  the  respect  of 
her  subjects,  a  generous  patroness  of  learning  and 
of  art,  whose  praises  were  sung  by  the  poets  of 
her  time;  the  closing  years  of  her  career  being  in 
singular  contrast  to  her  early  life  at  the 
Vatican. 

Borgu,  a  part  of  the  African  Kingdom  of 
Gando,  on  both  sides  of  the  Niger.  It  was  at 
Boussa,  one  of  the  chief  towTns,  that  Mungo  Park 
lost  his  life  in  1805. 

Boring  is  a  process  in  mechanical  and  engi¬ 
neering  operations,  variously  performed  accord  in 


to  make  the  hole  cylindrical.  The  addition  of  a 
little  water  serves  to  preserve  the  temper  of  the 
boring  tool,  and  makes  the  rock  more  easy  to  cut. 
In  soft  rock,  whenever  the  hole  is  to  be  vertical, 
a  “  jumper”  is  used.  This  is  a  weighted  drill, 
which  acts  merely  by  its  own  weight  when  let  fall 
from  about  a  foot  in  height.  The  powdered 
stone  is  removed  at  intervals  by  a  “scraper.” 
But  in  all  great  engineering  undertakings  rock- 
boring  machinery  now  supplants  hand  work. 
The  machines  are  principally  devised  to  imitate 
the  percussive  action  of  the  hand-drill,  the  boring 
chisel  being  worked  and  rotated  by  compressed 
air,  and  sometimes  directly  by  steam.  The 
earliest  practical  rock-boring  machine  was  that  of 
Sommeiller,  one  of  the  engineers  of  Mont  Cenis 
Tunnel,  at  which  undertaking  the  apparatus  was 
first  used.  Now  the  forms  of  percussion  ma¬ 
chines  are  very  numerous,  improvements  being 
directed  toward  lightness  and  simplicity  of 
parts,  and  to  the  method — automatic  or  other¬ 
wise — of  advancing  the  boring  tool  as  the  work 
proceeds.  Diamond  drills  working  in  the  manner 


to  the  medium  dealt  with, 
holes  in  soft  woods  and  like 
substances,  awls  are  employ 
ed,  which  merely  cut  and 
displace  a  portion  of  the 
yielding  material.  In  boring 
hard  woods  and  large  holes, 
carpenters  use  gimlets, 
augers,  and  the  brace  and 
bits,  which  all  cut  and 
scoop  out  the  material.  In 
the  jewelry  and  small  metal 
industries,  h  a  n  d-d  rills, 
which  consist  of  a  spindle 
with  steel  bits,  to  which  re¬ 
ciprocating  rotation  is  given, 
are  the  implements  for 
piercing  small  holes.  The 
boring  of  holes  in  metal 
plates  is  etfected  by  means 
of  drills  driven  by  mach¬ 
inery.  As  applied  to  the 
earth  and  to  rocks,  boring 
embraces  two  classes  of  op¬ 
erations  —  boring  of  shot- 
holes  for  blasting,  and  the 
sinking  of  bores  in  prospect¬ 
ing  for  minerals,  and  in 
forming  wells  for  water, 
salt-brine,  and  mineral  oils. 
Blast-holes  in  rocks  are 
made  from  one  to  two — 
sometimes  more — inches  in 
diameter,  and  may  pierce 
to  the  depth  of  nine  feet. 
Such  holes  are  most  simply 
made  in  hard  rock  by  a  steel- 
pointed  drill,  struck  by  a 


For  making  small 


Boring  Machine. 

,  vertical  spindle, 
driven  by  bevel- 
wheels  G;  O  N,  hand 
gear  for  raising  and 
lowering  spindle  by 
means  of  screw  M; 
L.  coupling  connect¬ 
ing  spindle  and  ele¬ 
vating  screw;  I,  set 
screw  for  throwing 
spindle  out  of  gear 
by  being  obtruded 
into  or  withdrawn 
from  grove  .1. 


described  below  are  also  used.  Brandt’s  rotatory 
borer  is  an  apparatus  similar  in  action  to  the 
diamond-drill,  but  with  a  crown  of  hardened 
steel  in  place  of  cutting  diamonds.  The  tool  is 
pressed  against,  and  rotated  by  water-power. 
An  apparatus  similar  in  principle  to  the  brace 
and  bit  of  the  carpenter  is  used  with  advan¬ 
tage  in  uniform  rock  such  as  slate.  For 
deep  well-sinking,  as  in  the  Pennsylvanian 
oil  region,  where  depths  of  2,000  feet  and  more 
have  to  be  reached,  and  for  mineral  prospecting, 
the  diamond-drill  has  of  late  years  largely  super 
seded  all  other  borers.  With  this  apparatus  the 
earth  can  be  pierced  at  any  angle,  which  is  a 
great  advantage  in  investigating  mineral  deposits; 
and,  moreover,  the  drill  produces  solid  and  con¬ 
tinuous  cores  of  the  strata  through  which  it  passes, 
so  that  a  complete  section  of  any  bore  can  be 
exposed  to  view.  The  diamond-drill  consists  of 
a  “crown,”  or  cylinder  of  steel,  around  one  edge 
of  which  are  fixed  a  series  of  black  diamonds. 
This  crown  is  screwed  to  lengths  of  iron  tubing 
as  it  cuts  its  way  by  rotation  into  the  rock 
makes  as  it  descends  an  annular  cutting  somewhat 
bigger  than  the  thickness  of  the  continuous  tube, 
which  the  crown  and  its  shaft  form.  Thus  a 
core  of  rock  is  cut  out  and  held  within  the  tube, 
and  the  pieces  may  be  lifted  out  from  time  to 
time  as  the  work  proceeds. 

Borlase,  William,  antiquary,  was  born  at 
Pendeen,  Cornwall,  Feb.  2,  1095.  He  devoted 
himself  to  a  study  of  the  natural  history  and 
antiquities  of  Cornwall,  and  in  1754  published 
his  Observations  on  ike  Antiquities  of  Cornwall. 
Ilis  Natural  History  of  Cornwall  appeared  in 
1758.  Soon  after  lie  presented  his  entire  collec¬ 
tions  to  the  Ashmolean  Museum.  He  had  been 
elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1750,  and 
in  1766  his  university  gave  him  the  diploma  of 
Doctor  of  Laws.  He  died  Aug.  31,  1772. 

Born,  Ignaz,  mineralogist,  born  at  Karls- 
burg  in  Transylvania,  in  1742,  wTas  trained  as  a 
Jesuit,  but  became  a  lawyer  and  judge,  and  ulti¬ 
mately  devoted  himself  to  mineralogy.  He  died 
in  1791. 


medicine  at  Berlin  under  the  guidance  of  the 
Jewish  physician  Marcus  Herz,  to  whose  wife  he 
addressed  the  letters  published  in  1861.  From 
1807  he  studied  law  and  political  economy  at 
Heidelburg  and  Giessen.  After  this  he  devoted 
himself  wholly  to  politics,  and  in  1818  he  had 
himself  baptized,  changing  his  name  from  Lob 
Baruch  to  Ludwig  Borne.  The  French  Revolu¬ 
tion  of  July,  1830,  drew  him  to  Paris,  where  he 
finally  settled  in  1832,  and  died  of  consumption, 
Feb.  13,  1837.  He  and  Heine  became  bitterly  hos¬ 
tile  to  each  other;  it  was  the  mutual  antipathy  of 
a  practical  enthusiast  and  an  esthetic  indiffer¬ 
ent  ist. 

Borneo,  next  to  Australia  and  Papua,  the 
largest  island  in  the  world,  is  situated  in  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  in  7°  3’  N. — 4°  10'  S.  latitude, 
and  108°  53' — 119°  22  E.  longitude.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Sea  of  Celebes  and  the  Macassar 
Strait,  south  by  the  Sea  of  Java,  west  and  north 
by  the  Gulf  of  Siam  and  the  China  Sea.  Its 
length  is  about  800  miles,  with  a  breadth  of  700, 
and  an  area  of  about  284,000  square  miles.  The 
population  is  roughly  estimated  at  1,865,000,  but 
may  be  more.  In  the  far  north  rises  the  magnifi- 
ent  structure  of  Kinabalu  (13,698  feet  high), 
built  of  porphyritic  granite  and  igneous  rocks 
— the  culminating  peak  probably  of  the  whole 
Indian  Archipelago,  and  not  unworthy  in  its 
picturesqueness  of  such  a  rank.  The  climate  in 
the  low  grounds  is  humid,  hot,  and  unhealthy 
,for  Europeans;  but  in  the  higher  parts  toward 
the  north  the  temperature  is  generally  moderate, 
the  thermometer  at  noon  varying  from  81°  to  91° 
F.  During  the  rainy  season,  from  November  to 
May,  heavy  storms  of  wind  with  loud  thunder 
are  experienced  on  the  west  coast.  The  influence 
of  the  land  and  sea  breezes  passes  inland  to  quite 
remarkable  distances  across  the  level  plains  and 
up  the  river  valleys.  Vegetation  is  extremely 
luxuriant.  The  camphor  of  Brunei'  is  the  best 
in  Asia.  Nutmegs,  cloves,  cinnamon,  pepper, 
betel,  ginger,  rice,  millet,  sweet  potatoes,  yams, 
cotton,  sugar-cane,  indigo,  tobacco,  coffee,  pine¬ 
apples,  cocoanuts,  etc.,  are  cultivated.  The  mount¬ 
ains  and  forests  contain  many  monkeys,  among 
which  is  the  orang-outang.  Tapirs,  a  small  kind 
of  tiger,  small  Malay  bears,  swine,  wild  oxen  or 
banteng,  and  various  kinds  of  deer  abound.  The 
elephant  is  only  found  in  the  north,  and  the 
rhinoceros  in  the  northwest.  The  rivers,  lakes, 


Borne,  Ludwig,  a  noted  German  writer,  was 
hammer,  and  turned  partly  round  after  each  blow  born  May  18,  1786,  at  Frankfort.  He  studied 


and  lagoons  swarm  with  crocodiles,  and  many 
kinds  of  snakes,  frogs,  lizards,  and  leeches.  Fish 
is  plentiful,  and  the  coasts  are  rich  in  tortoises, 
pearl-mussels,  oysters,  and  trepang.  Among  the 
mineral  products  are  coal,  gold,  and  copper, 
antimony,  iron,  tin,  platina,  nickel,  diamonds 
and  other  precious  stones,  rock-crystals,  porcelain- 
clay,  petroleum,  and  sulphur.  The  diamond 
mines  are  chiefly  in  Landak  and  Pontianak; 
Sambas  produces  the  greatest  quantity  of  gold; 
the  Kingdom  of  Brunei,  KuteV,  and  Banjermassin, 
the  largest  amount  of  coal.  The  Pengaron  coal¬ 
field,  worked  by  the  Dutch  Government,  is  one  of 
the  most  important.  The  population  consists  of 
three  classes:  the  Dayaks  or  Dyaks,  who  are  the 
aboriginal  heathen  inhabitants,  and  constitute  the 


BORNEO  CAMPHOR. 


183 


BOSTON. 


great  bulk  of  the  population;  the  Mohammedans 
or  “  Malays”  — for  this  name  is  extended  so  as  to 
include  all  professors  of  Islam,  whether  true 
Malays,  Buginese,  Javanese,  Dyaks,  or  Arabs; 
and  the  Chinese.  The  following  are  the  present 
political  divisions: 

(1)  Borneo  Proper. — This  originally  included 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  northwest  of  the  island. 
The  Sultan  has  absolute  authority.  In  1847  he 
undertook  not  to  surrender  any  of  his  territory  to 
any  other  power  without  the  sanction  of  the 
British  Government.  The  capital,  Brunei, 
twenty  miles  from  the  coast,  on  the  river 
of  the  same  name,  has  at  the  most  20,000  in¬ 
habitants.  The  total  population  of  the  country 
within  its  present  limits  is  125,000.  It  area  was 
reduced  by  the  erection  of 

(2)  Sara  teak  into  a  practically  independent  prin¬ 
cipality  by  Sir  James  Brooke  (1841-68),  and  by 
the  establishment  of 

(3)  The  British  North  Borneo  Company  as  a 
recognized  governing  body.  The  company’s 
charter,  granted  in  1881,  transferred  to  them  rights 
originally  obtained  by  an  American  adventurer 
in  1865. 

(4)  Dutch  Possessions. — By  far  the  largest  part 
of  the  island  is  ruled  directly  or  indirectly  by  the 
Dutch,  who  have  divided  it  into  the  Residency 
of  Western  Division  of  Borneo,  and  that  of  the 
Southern  and  Eastern,  the  former  having 
Pontianak  as  the  seat  of  government,  the  latter 
Banjermassin.  The  population  of  the  whole  of 
the  Dutch  portion  of  the  island  on  Dec.  31, 
1881,  was  959,491,  of  whom  799  were  Europeans, 
31,550  Chinese,  924,731  natives,  2,070  Arabs,  and 
341  miscellaneous  Orientals.  In  the  number  of 
natives  are  included  from  200,000  to  300,000 
Malays,  settled  along  the  coast,  who  used  form¬ 
erly  to  be  counted  amongst  the  strangers. 

(5)  The  Island  of  Labuan,  off  the  coast  of 
Brunei,  has  belonged  to  the  British  since  1846. 

The  chief  towns  in  Borneo  are  Sambas  (10,000), 
Pontianak  (9,000),  Banjermassin  (30,000),  Brunei 
(20,000),  and  Kuching  (12,000). 

Borneo  Camphor  is  a  variety  of  camphor 
obtained  from  the  tree  Dryabalanops  camphor  a, 
of  Sumatra  and  Borneo. 

Burning,  or  Boning,  a  process  of  judging  of 
the  straightness  or  level  of  a  surface  or  line  by 
the  eye,  which  looks  along  two  or  more  burning 
or  boning  rods  or  pieces  set  up  for  the  purpose. 
The  term  is  used  by  masons,  surveyors,  and 
gardeners. 

Bornu,  or  Bornoro,  a  powerful  but  declining 
State  of  Central  Africa,  bounded  on  the  east  by 
Lake  Tchad,  and  north  by  the  Sahara.  The  pop., 
which  is  estimated  at  about  5,000,000,  is  mostly  of 
Negro  race,  and  called  Bornuese  or  Kanuri.  The 
ruling  race,  called  Sliuwas,  are  of  Arab  descent, 
and  Mohammedan.  Kuka  or  Kukawa,  the  capital, 
on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Tchad,  has  a  pop.  of 
about  60,000.  Gornu,  to  the  southeast,  has  one 
of  the  most  important  markets  of  Central  Africa. 

Boro  Budor  (the  Great  Buddha),  the  ruin  of 
a  splendid  Buddhist  temple  in  Java,  near  the  junc¬ 
tion  of  the  Elio  and  Progo,  is  the  most  elaborate 
monument  of  the  Buddhist  style  of  architecture 
anywhere  existing.  It  probably  dates  from  be¬ 
tween  1400  and  1430. 

Borodino,  a  village  of  Russia,  seventy  miles 
west  of  Moscow,  which  gave  name  to  the  great 
battle  between  the  French  under  Napoleon  and  the 
Russians  under  Kutusoff,  Sept.  7,  1812. 

Boroglyceride,  an  antiseptic  compound  pre¬ 
pared  by  heating  together  62  parts  of  boracic 
acid  and  92  parts  of  glycerine. 

Boron  (sym.  B,  cq.  11)  is  a  non-metallic  ele¬ 
ment  present  in  boracic  acid  and  borax.  It  was 
discovered  in  1808  by  Gay-Lussac  and  Thenard 
in  France,  and  Davy  in  England.  In  some  re¬ 
spects  boron  resembles  carbon,  existing  like  it  in 
the  so-called  amorphus,  graphitoid,  and  diamond 
forms.  When  heated  in  air  it  takes  tire,  uniting 
with  oxygen  to  form  boric  anhydride,  B203. 
“Boron  diamonds”  are  very  indestructible,  but 
large  ones  have  not  been  obtained. 

^  Borough  (A.S.  byrig,  burg,  bur  A;  It.  borgo; 
Fr.  bourg;  Scot,  burgh).  The  original  meaning 
of  this  word,  by  which  we  now  designate  a  cor¬ 
porate  township,  seems  to  have  been  a  hill,  rising 
ground,  or  heap  of  earth.  In  the  United  States 
the  city  or  borough  organization  is  regarded  as  a 


grant  from  the  State  for  the  purpose  of  carrying 
out  minor  matters  of  civil  government  in  urban 
communities.  It  has  attached  to  it  the  general 
powers  inherent  in  all  corporate  bodies,  with 
powers  to  make  by-laws  consistent  with  the  ob- 
j  jects  of  the  incorporation. 

Borough  English  is  a  custom  that  prevails  in 
some  ancient  boroughs  in  England,  according  to 
which  the  youngest  son  inherits  the  heritable 
property  within  the  borough  in  preference  to  his 
elder  brothers. 

Borromean  Islands,  a  group  of  four  small 
islands  on  the  west  side  of  Lago  Maggiori,  North¬ 
ern  Italy. 

Borrome'o,  Carlo,  St.,  a  great  churchman 
and  saint  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  born  Oct. 
2,  1538,  at  his  father’s  castle  of  Arona,  on  the 
Lago  Maggiore.  In  1559  he  was  appointed  by 
his  uncle,  Pope  Pius  IV.,  Apostolic Protlionotary, 
Cardinal,  and  Archbishop  of  Milan.  As  coun¬ 
sellor  of  the  Pope,  he  played  an  important  part 
in  the  Council  of  Trent.  Borromeo  devoted  the 
greater  part  of  his  revenues  to  the  poor, and  during 
the  famine  of  1570,  and  the  plague  at  Milan  in 
1576,  showed  such  benevolence  and  devotion  as 
to  make  his  name  a  proverb  throughout  Christen¬ 
dom.  In  1570  lie  founded  the  Helvetic  College  at 
Milan,  and  he  brought  about  an  alliance  of  the 
seven  Catholic  cantons — the  Golden  Borromean 
League — for  the  united  defense  of  the  faith.  He 
died  Nov.  4,  1584,  and  was  canonized  by  Pope 
Paul  V.  in  1610. 

Borrow,  George  Henry (Invengro — theword- 
master),  was  born  at  East  Dereham,  Norfolk, 
England,  July  17,  1803,  and  died  in  1881.  With 
the  exception,  possibly,  of  Charles  G.  Leland, 
he  contributed  more  to  our  knowledge  of  the 
gypsies  than  any  other  writer. 

Borrowing  i)ays,  the  last  three  days  of  March 
(old  style),  supposed  in  Scotch  folklore  to  have 
been  borrowed  by  March  from  April,  and  to  be 
especially  stormy.  In  Cheshire,  the  first  eleven 
days  of  May  are  called  “  borrowed  days,”  because 
in  old  style  they  belong  to  April. 

Bory  de  St.  Vincent,  Jean  Baptiste,  a 
French  traveller  and  naturalist,  was  born  at  Agen 
iu  1780.  He  died  Dec.  22,  1846. 

Boscan-Alinogaver,  Juan,  a  Spanish  poet,  was 
born  about  1495  at  Barcelona,  and  became  tutor 
of  the  Duke  of  Alva.  He  died  in  1542. 

Boscawen,  Edward,  an  eminent  English  ad¬ 
miral,  third  son  of  Viscount  Falmouth,  was  born 
Aug.  19,  1711,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
wars  with  France  at  the  taking  of  Puerto  Bello, 
and  at  the  siege  of  Carthagena  in  1741.  He  died 
Jan.  10,  1761. 

Bos'cohel,  in  the  County  of  Shropshire,  Eng¬ 
land,  was,  after  t lie  defeat  of  Woicester,  Sept. 
23,  1651,  for  two  days  the  hiding  place  of  Charles 
II.  The  “Royal  Oak”  in  which  he  concealed 
himself,  is  represented  by  a  tree  grown  from  one 
of  its  acorns. 

Boscovicli,  Roger  Joseph,  a  celebrated  Jesuit 
mathematician  and  astronomer,  was  bom  at  Ra- 
gusa  in  1711.  lie  was  teacher  of  Mathematics 
and  Philosophy  in  the  Collegium  Romanum.  He 
died  insane  in  1787. 

Bosio,  Francois  Joseph,  Baron,  an  eminent 
sculptor,  was  born  March  19,  1769,  at  Monaco. 
He  died  Director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  in 
Paris,  July  29,  1845. 

Bosna-Serai or  Sf.raievo,  is  the  capital  of 
the  Province  of  Bosnia.  It  is  about  122  miles 
southwest  of  Belgrade.  Pop.  (1885),  26,268. 

Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  By  the  provisions 
of  the  Berlin  Treaty  of  1878  this  portion  of 
Turkey  in  Europe  was  handed  over  to  Austria- 
Hungary.  Although  not  formally  incorporated 
by  treaty,  these  provinces,  together  with  the 
sanjak  of  Novi-Bazar  (between  Montenegro  and 
Servia),  form  virtually  a  portion  of  the  empire- 
monarchy.  Bosnia,  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
Balkan  provinces,  is  rugged  and  mountainous. 
The  Dinaric  Alps,  here  attaining  a  maximum 
altitude  of  7,663  feet,  form  the  water-shed  be¬ 
tween  the  Adriatic  and  Danube  Basins;  and  four 
rivers — the  Unna,  the  Verbas,  the  Bosna,  and  the 
Drina — flow  northward  into  the  Save.  The  Her¬ 
zegovina  is  a  wild  district  overstrewn  with  Cyclo¬ 
pean  rocks,  and  watered  chiefly  by  winter 
streams,  which  lose  themselves  underground.  The 
!  area  of  Bosnia  is  about  16,142  square  miles;  of 


Herzegovina,  3,515,  and  of  Novi-Bazar,  3,522. 
According  to  the  census  of  1885  the  pop.  of 
the  former  two  was  1,336,091:  Mohammedans, 
492,710;  Greek-Orthodox,  571,250;  Roman  Cath¬ 
olics,  265,788,  Jews,  5,805;  the  remainder  belong¬ 
ing  to  different  faiths.  Novi-Bazar  had  in  1879  a 
pop.  of  168,000.  Bosnia,  at  first  dependent  on 
Hungary,  became  a  kingdom  in  1376,  under  Ti- 
vartko,  a  native  prince.  Occupied  by  the  Turks 
in  1401,  it  was  annexed  in  1463,  but  not  recog¬ 
nized  by  Europe  as  a  Turkish  province  till  1699. 
The  Christians  rebelled,  and  in  1849  and  1875  rose 
against  their  rulers,  when  the  province  was  occu¬ 
pied  by  the  Austro-Hungarians.  The  nominal 
supremacy  of  the  Sultan  was  recognized  in  1879. 

Bosporus  (also  Bosphorus,  Latinized  forms  of 
a  Greek  word  meaning  ox-ford),  the  ancient  name 
of  the  channel  which  separates  Europe  from  Asia, 
and  connects  the  Black  Sea  (Buxine)  with  the  Sea 
of  Marmora  ( Propontis ).  It  was  so  called,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  legend,  from  lo,  who  swam  across  in 
the  form  of  a  cow.  Its  shores  are  elevated,  and 
throughout  its  length  the  strait  has  on  either  side 
seven  bays  or  gulfs,  with  corresponding  promon¬ 
tories  on  the  opposite  side.  One  of  these  gulfs 
forms  the  harbor  of  Constantinople,  or  the  Golden 
Horn.  Across  the  Golden  Horn  is  Pera,  and  op¬ 
posite  the  imperial  city,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
Bosporus,  is  Scutari.  The  length  of  the  Bos¬ 
porus  is  about  17  miles,  its  breadth  from  i  of  a 
mile  to  2  miles,  and  its  average  depth  about  30 
fathoms.  The  Bosporus  lias  long  been  under 
Turkish  control,  and  none  but  Turkish  ships  of 
war  can  traverse  it  without  the  consent  of  the 
Ottoman  authorities.  The  name  of  Cimmerian 
Bosporus  was  given  by  the  ancients  to  the  Strait 
of  Kafla,  also  called  the  Strait  of  Yeuikale  or  of 
Theodosia. 

Bosquet,  Pierre  Francois  Joseph,  French 
marshal,  born  Nov.  8,  1810.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  Algeria,  and  in  the  Crimea.  He  died 
Feb.  5,  1861. 

Boss,  in  Architecture,  a  raised  ornament, 
covering  the  intersections  of  the  ribs  of  ceilings. — 
The  boss  of  a  bit  is  the  ornament  with  which  a 
bridle-bit  terminates  at  each  end. — The  boss  of  a 
shield  is  its  central  raised  plate  ornament. 

Boss,  a  modified  form  of  the  Dutch  baas, 
“master,”  is  used  for  an  employer  of  labor,  or  a 
local  political  chief. 

Bossuet,  Jacques  Benigne,  who  ranks  with 
Massillon  as  the  greatest  of  French  pulpit  orators, 
was  born  at  Dijon,  Sept.  27, 1627.  After  holding 
for  a  short  time  the  bisopric  of  Condom,  he  was 
appointed -tutor  to  the  Dauphin.  He  took  a 
leading  part  in  the  Gallican  controversy.  He 
was  made  a  member  of  the  Council  of  State  in 
1697,  and  died  at  Paris  April  16,  1704. — Jacques 
Bossuet,  Bishop  of  Troyes,  nephew  of  the 
above,  was  born  in  1644,  and  died  July  12,  1743. 

Bossut,  Charles,  mathematician,  born  at  Tar¬ 
tarus,  near  Lyons,  Aug.  11,  1730,  was  from  1752 
till  the  Revolution,  professor  at  MCzilrcs,  and 
under  the  Empire  in  the  Polytechnic  Schools  at 
Paris,  where  he  died  Jan.  14,  1814. 

Boston,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough 
and  seaport  in  Lincolnshire,  England.  Its  name 
is  a  contraction  of  “Botolph’s  town.”  A  chapel 
to  the  memory  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Cotton,  at  one 
time  vicar  of  Boston,  was  erected  at  the  expense 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Boston,  Mass.  Pop.  (1881), 
18,887. 

Boston,  the  capital  of  (Massachusetts,  and  accord¬ 
ing  to  Bostonians  “the  Hub  of  the  Universe,”  is 
situated  at  the  mouths  of  the  Charles  and  Mystic 
rivers,  in  Boston  Bay.  It  had  a  population  of 
390,393  it)  1885,  and  claims  to  be  the  fifth  largest 
city  in  the  United  States.  Founded  in  1630,  it 
was  named  after  Boston  in  Lincolnshire,  England, 
from  which  some  of  the  early  colonists  came.  It 
is  a  fine  city,  although  very  irregularly  built, 
and  contains  many  important  public  buildings. 
Notable  among  these  are  the  State  House  and 
Faneuil  Hall,  “  the  Cradle  of  Liberty.”  It  has  a 
magnificent  Public  Library,  a  Post  Office  and 
Sub-Treasury  which  cost  $6,000,000,  some  230 
churches,  and  numerous  educational  institutions. 
Its  ratable  valuation  (real  and  personal)  is  about 
$700,000,000.  Boston  has  been  very  prominent 
in  the  manufacture  of  American  history,  being 
identified  with  all  the  early  liberal  movements. 
Its  first  Puritan  settlers  executed  or  exiled  Quakers, 


BOSTON. 


184 


BOTANY. 


witches,  and  heretics  with  great  impartiality.  In 
1770  occurred  the  “  Boston  Massacre;”  three  years 
later  the  taxed  tea  was  thrown  into  the  harbor, 
and  in  March,  1775,  came  the  great  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  or,  rather,  Breed’s  Hill.  Boston  was 
the  center  of  the  anti-slavery  movement  for 


ground,  and  changes  into  an 
with  spiny  rings,  from  which  in 
perfect  insect  comes  forth. 


oval  black  pupa 
a  few  weeks  the 


Horse  Bot-fly. 

a,  a  horse  hair,  with  eggs  of  bot-fly;  b,  one  egg  mag¬ 
nified;  c,  larva;  </,  pupa;  e ,  perfect  insect  female, 
a  little  larger  than  life. 

(2)  The  Ox-bot  (Uypoderma  or  (Estrus  bovis), 
is  a  beautiful  insect,  notunlike  a  bumble-bee,  not 
quite  half  an  inch  long;  it  has  brown,  unspotted 
wings;  the  face  whitish,  the  crown  of  the  head 


Map  of  Boston  and  Vicinity. 

(Barter  of  a  cen'ury  prior  to  1860.  It  has  been 
several  times  ravaged  by  fire — the  last  great  blaze 
in  November,  1872,  being  the  most  destructive  ever 
known  in  the  United  States,  with  the  exception  of 
the  first  Chicago  fire  in  1871.  More  than  800  of 
the  finest  buildings  were  destroyed,  with  a  total 
loss  of  $80,000,000.  The  city  has  been  rebuilt  in 
modern  style  and  much  has  been  done  to  straighten 
the  thoroughfares. 

Boston,  a  game  of  cards,  played  by  four  per¬ 
sons  with  two  packs  of  cards.  It  was  a  favorite 
with  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  is  said  to  have 
introduced  it  into  France. 

Boswell,  James,  thecompanion and  biographer 
of  Dr.  Johnson,  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  Oct.  20, 
1780.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  Lord  Aucliin- 
leck,  a  judge  in  the  Court  of  Session.  In  April, 
1773,  he  was  elected,  through  Johnson’s  influence, 
a  member  of  the  famous  Literary  Club.  His  Life 
of  Johnson  appeared  in  the  May  of  1791.  He  died 
in  London,  after  a  brief  illness,  May  19,  1795. 
Boswell’s  eldest  son,  Alexander,  poet  and  pub¬ 
lisher,  was  born  at  Aucliinleck,  in  1175.  lie  was 
created  a  baronet  in  1821  for  a  loyal  song,  “  Long 
Live  George  the  Fourth.”  He  died  at  Balmuto, 
in  Fife,  March  27,  1822,  of  a  wound  received  the 
day  before  in  his  duel  with  James  Stuart,  of 
Dunearn. — James  Boswell,  his  younger  brother, 
a  Shakespearean  scholar,  was  born  in  1778.  He 
died  suddenly  in  the  Temple,  Feb.  24,  1822. 

Boswellia,  a  genus  of  Amyridacese,  of  which 
the  species  are  imperfectly  known,  although  the 
product  of  some  of  them — Olibapum,  generally 
believed  to  have  been  the  frankincense  of  the 
ancients — has  long  been  used  for  the  preparation 
of  incense. 

Boswortli,  or  Market  Boswortii,  a  small 
market  town  in  Leicestershire.  Two  miles  to  the 
south  was  fought  (1485)  the  last  battle  in  the 
Wars  of  the  Roses.  Pop.  of  parish  (1881),  3,978. 

Boswortli,  Joseph,  I). I).,  an  Anglo-Saxon 
scholar,  was  born  in  Derbyshire,  in  1789.  He 
died  May  27,  1876. 

Bot,  Bot-fly,  Gad-lly,  and  Warble-fly,  names 
common  to  many  insects  of  the  family  CEstridae, 
the  genus  (Estrus  of  Linnaeus.  The  name  bot  is 
sometimes  restricted  to  the  parasitic  larvae,  and  the 
name  gad-fly  to  blood -sucking  insects  of  the  very 
different  genus  Tabanus.  They  are  dipterous 
(two-winged)  insects,  nearly  allied  to  Muscides. 

(1)  The  Horse-bot  ( Qasleroplnlus  or  Gastrus  or 
(Estrus  equi),  is  not  quite  half  an  inch  in  length, 
woolly,  with  yellowish-gray  head,  rusty  thorax 
and  abdomen,  and  whitish  wings,  with  brownish- 
gray  spots.  The  female  hovers  about  horses,  and 
deposits  her  eggs  on  their  hairs,  whence  they  are 
licked  by  the  horse  to  mature  in  its  stomach.  In 
the  following  summer,  when  the  larva  is  about  an 
inch  long,  it  disengages  itself,  and  being  carried 
through  the  horse’s  intestines,  burrows  in  the 


Ox  Bot-fly. 

a,  larva,  full  grown,  natural  size:  b,  pupa;  c,  perfect 
insect,  a  little  larger  than  life. 

brown,  the  thorax  black,  the  abdomen  whitish, 
with  a  broad  black  band  around  the  middle,  and 
yellow  hairs  at  the  extremity,  where  also  the 
female  has  an  ovipositor,  formed  of  a  horny  sub¬ 
stance.  By  means  of  this  or¬ 
gan,  a  small  round  hole  is 
pierced  in  the  hide  of  an  ox’s 
back,  in  which  an  egg  is  de¬ 
posited.  The  fly  deposits  her 
egg  within  a  few  seconds.  The 


Ovipositor  of 
Bot-fly ; 

highly  magnified. 


larva  causes  a  swelling,  within 
which  it  lives  and  grows,  and  from  which  it 
finally  emerges,  and  undergoes  its  further  trans¬ 
formations  in  the  ground. 

(3)  The  Sheep-hot  (QSstrus  or  Cephalomyia  ovis) 
is  not  unfrequently  very  destructive  to  flocks. 
The  insect  is  smaller  than  the  ox-bot  or  horse-bot, 
is  of  a  yellowisli-gray  color,  with  a  large  head 
and  yellow  face,  and  is  most  abundant  in  damp 
situations  and  woody  districts.  It  is  in  the  nostrils 


Sheep  Bot-fly  (( Estrus  ovis). 
a,  larva  from  above;  b  and  c.  the  same  seen  from 
in  front  and  from  behind;  tf,  adult  insect. 

of  the  sheep  that  this  fly  deposits  its  eggs,  and 
the  larvae,  when  hatched,  make  their  way  into 
the  maxillary  and  frontal  sinuses,  feeding  upon 
the  juices  there,  until  they  are  ready  to  change 
into  the  pupa  state,  in  April  or  May  of  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year,  when  they  find  their  wap  again 
through  the  nostrils  to  the  ground.  Cephenomyia 
and  Pharyngomyia  are  two  others  with  several 
species  infesting,  in  their  larval  state,  deer,  goats, 
and  other  hoofed  mammals.  Elephants  are  also 
afflicted;  and  Cuterebra  deposits  its  eggs  under 
the  skin  of  hares  and  the  like.  The  eggs  of  one 
of  the  species  which  attack  the  deer  are  depos¬ 
ited  in  the  nostrils,  and  the  larvae  make  their  way 
in  large  numbers  to  a  cavity  near  the  pharynx. 
Reindeer  are  excessively  tormented  by  these  in¬ 
sects.  It  is  no  unfrequent  thing  for  a  large  part 
of  a  herd  to  be  destroyed  by  them.  Even  human 
beings  are  said  to  be  sometimes  afflicted  by  insects 
of  this  family. 


Botanic  Barden.  While  ordinary  gardens  are 
concerned  with  utility  or  beauty  only,  the  botanic 
garden  has  for  its  primary  aim  the  promotion  of 
botanical  science,  and  is  of  comparative  modern 
origin.  Like  the  science  itself,  the botaniegarden 
owes  its  bin h  to  the  needs  of  pharmacy;  thus  at 
the  earliest  European  school  of  medicine,  that  of 
Salerno,  we  find  record  in  1309  of  the  medical 
garden  of  Mattliaeus  Sylvaticus;  while  in  1333  a 
similar  garden  was  established  by  the  Republic 
of  Venice.  These  private  and  public  examples 
seem  to  have  been  more  or  less  widely  followed, 
At  Paris,  a  royal  garden  was  founded  in  1597, 
with  the  petty  aim  of  varying  the  bouquets  worn 
at  court;  in  1626,  however,  its  scientific  purposes 
were  defined;  in  1635  Chairs  of  Botany  and  Phar¬ 
macology  were  founded,  and  it  soon  became 
famous  as  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  The  establish¬ 
ment  of  physic  or  botanic  gardens  continued 
during  the  seventeenth  century,  and  those  of 
Oxford  (1632),  Chelsea  (1677),  and  Edinburgh 
(1680)  may  be  particularly  noted.  Most  Euro¬ 
pean  universities,  including  all  German  ones, 
have  now  their  botanic  gardens,  as  well  as  many 
purely  commercial  cities.  The  leading  American 
universities  and  cities  have  also  followed  suit,  the 
gardens  of  Washington,  St.  Louis,  and  Cam¬ 
bridge  being  especially  well  known.  Kew,  near 
London,  founded  in  1760,  is  the  largest,  richest, 
and  most  fully  organized  (except-  for  teaching 
purposes)  in  the  world;  those  of  Paris,  Berlin, 
Vienna,  and  Edinburgh  may  also  be  mentioned 
as  each,  in  certain  respects,  claiming  the  foremost 
rank.  For  the  literature  of  botanic  gardens,  see 
Jackson’s  Guide  to  the  Literature  of  Botany ,  pp. 
405-453.  On  Type  Botanic  Gardens,  see  Trans. 
Bot.  Soc.,  Edin.  (1884.) 

Botany  is  that  sub-science  of  biology  which  has 
for  its  special  province  the  phenomena  of  the 
vegetable  world.  The  special  history  of  the 
science  may  be  very  briefly  outlined.  Aristotle’s 
treatise  On  Plants,  if  indeed  it  was  Aristotle’s,  is 
lost,  but  the  writings  survive  of  his  pupil  Theo¬ 
phrastus,  who  describes  about  500  plants  and  dis¬ 
cusses  the  vegetable  world  with  something  of  his 
masters  philosophic  spirit.  Although  some 
knowledge  of  botany  must  have  been  conserved 
in  the  medical  traditions  of  the  following  cen¬ 
turies,  we  hear  nothing  of  it  until  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  who  was  a  liberal  patron  of  garden¬ 
ing  as  well  as  agriculture.  The  early  Greek 
knowledge  of  the  subject  found  its  way  through 
the  Herbal  of  Avicenna  into  Western  Europe. 
The  merit  of  initiating  the  independent  observa 
tion  of  plants  themselves  is  usually  ascribed  to 
Otto  Brunfels  of  Strasburg,  whose  Krauterbuch 
was  published  in  1537,  three  years  after  his 
death.  Botanic  Gardens  next  were  founded, 
classificatory  attempts  were  made,  with  more  and 
more  frequency,  and  the  advent  of  Linnaeus  was 
thus  fully  prepared  for.  The  later  portion  of 
the  seventeenth  and  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  is  memorable  for  the  fruitful  application 
of  the  microscope  to  the  study  of  plants  by 
Malpighi,  whose  discoveries  were  continued  and 
extended  by  his  English  exponent  Grew,  as  well 
as  by  the  enthusiasm  and  industry  of  Leeuwen¬ 
hoek.  The  study,  of  cryptogamic  plants  was 
thus  rendered  possible,  and  its  initiation  is  ascribed 
to  Micheli  and  Dillenius  during  the  second  quarter 
of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  rise  of  Vegetable 
Physiology  is  also  dated  from  the  classic  observa¬ 
tions  (1727)  of  Stephen  Hales  upon  the  movement 
and  pressure  of  the  sap.  The  story  of  this  long 
and  laborious  indexing  of  the  book  of  nature  is 
interesting.  The  wanderings  of  Clusius  were 
repeated  and  outdone  by  the  scholars  of  Linnaeus, 
a  generation  later  by  Humboldt,  and  again  bv  the 
younger  Hooker.  Nor  should  the  patient  toil,  of 
which  the  Prcdromus  Systematic  Naiuralis ,  the 
monument  of  three  generations  of  De  Candolles 
(Geneva,  20  vols.  1818-73),  pass  without  recogni 
tion.  The  place  of  botany  in  medical  education 
is  due  to  its  fundamental  relation  to  materia 
mediea,  and  since  pharmacy  is  becoming  com¬ 
pletely  distinguished  from  medicine,  the  teaching 
of  botany  is  being  abandoned  in  many  medical 
schools.  Yet  its  claims  reappear  in  a  far  stronger 
way  when  it  is  considered  as  a  preparation  in 
elementary  biology.  For  although  the  student  of 
medicine  may  justifiably  care  little  for  the  collec¬ 
tion  or  dissection  of  plants,  viewed  as  an  end  in 


BOTANY  BAY. 


185 


BOUCIIES-DU-RIIONE. 


themselves,  lie  can  never  dispense  with  that  train¬ 
ing  in  reading  the  processes  of  organic  life  which 
is  afforded  by  these,  their  simplest  manifestations. 
As  a  subject  of  general  education,  too,  the  im¬ 
portance  of  botany  has  long  been  recognized, 
and  now  that  the  dry  technical  teaching  of  the 
subject  is  being  superseded  by  a  more  living  and 
interesting  method,  its  reiuloption  into  the  cur¬ 
riculum  both  of  schools  and  colleges  is  in  progress, 
and  the  botanic  garden  is  becoming  a  familiar 
adjunct  of  the  school.  See  also  Vegetable 
Kingdom. 

Botany  Bay,  an  inlet  in  the  coast  of  New 
South  Wales,  five  miles  south  of  Sydney,  dis¬ 
covered  by  Cook  in  1770,  and  so  named  by  him 
from  the  great  number  of  new  plants  in  its  vicin¬ 
ity.  The  spot  where  Cook  landed,  on  the  south 
shore,  is  now  marked  by  a  monument. 

Both,  Andreas and  Jaw,  two  celebrated  Dutch 
painters,  brothers,  born  at  Utrecht  in  1609  and 
1610.  After  studying  under  Abraham  Bloeinaert, 
they  went  to  Italy,  .Tan  painting  landscapes  while 
Andreas  filled  in  the  figures  in  so  careful  a  manner 
that  the  picture  looked  like  the  woik  of  a  single 
hand.  Andreas  was  accidentally  drowned  in  1650; 
Jan  returned  to  Utrecht,  where  he  died  iu  1651, 
or,  some  say,  later  than  1662. 

Bothie  (perhaps  from  the  Gaelic  bothag)  signi¬ 
fied  originally  an  humble  cottage  or  hut,  but  for 
a  number  of  years  the  term  has  been  applied  to 
a  barely-furnished,  generally  uncomfortable  habi¬ 
tation  for  farm  servants  in  Scotland. 

Bothnia,  the  name  formerly  given  to  a  country 
of  Northern  Europe,  extending  along  the  east  and 
west  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  the  eastern 
portion  now  being  comprised  in  Finland,  the 
western  forming  part  of  the  Swedish  Province  of 
Norland. 

The  Gulf  of  Bothnia  is  that  part  of  the  Bal¬ 
tic  Sea  to  the  north  of  Aland  Islands,  having  on 
its  eastern  shore  Finland,  on  the  western  and 
northern,  Sweden  and  Lapland.  It  extends  from 
60°  to  66°  N.  latitude,  and  from  17  to  25°  35'  E. 
longitude,  its  greatest  length  being  415  miles,  and 
its  average  breadth  100  miles.  Its  depth  varies 
from  20  to  50  fathoms. 

Bothrioceph'aliis  (Gr.  bothrion,  a  little  pit, 
and  cephale,  the  head),  a  flat,  parasitic  worm  allied 
to  the  tapeworm  ( Tcenia ),  iu  the  class  Cestoda. 
In  its  adult  stage  it  is  chiefly  found  in  man  and 
dogs,  and  is  common  in  some  parts  of  Europe, 
sucli  as  Western  Switzerland,  Northern  and 
Northwestern  Russia,  Sweden,  etc.  It  some¬ 
times  attains  a  length  of  5  to  10  yards.  The  life 
history  of  the  common  Bothriocephalus  of  man 
(B.  latus)  is  not  fully  known.  Theembryo  which 
escapes  from  the  eggs  of  the  ripe  expelled  joints 
(proglottidei s)  differs  from  that  of  the  Taenia  in 
being  ciliated  and  devoid  of  hooks.  It  is  free- 
swimming,  and  passes,  according  to  Braun,  into 
a  fresh- water  fish — Pike  ( Esox )  or  Burbot  ( Lola 
mi! gar  in). 

Bothwell,  a  village  of  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Clyde,  eight  miles  southeast 
of  Glasgow.  The  parish  church  includes  the  choir 
of  the  old  collegiate  church,  founded  in  1398. 
The  river  is  crossed  here  by  Bothwell  Brig,  the 
scene  of  Monmouth’s  bloody  defeat  of  the  Cove¬ 
nanters  in  1679.  Bothwellhaugh,  about  two  miles 
east-southeast,  gave  designation  to  James  Hamil¬ 
ton,  assassin  of  the  Regent  Murray.  Joanna  Bail- 
lie  was  a  native  of  Bothwell.  Pop.  (1881),  1,520. 
See  Sir  W.  Fraser’s  Douglas  Book  (4  vols.  1885). 

Bothwell,  James  Hepburn,  Earlgf.  born  in 
1536  or  1537;  in  1556  succeeded  his  father  as  fourth 
earl  and  as  hereditary  Lord  High  Admiral.  He 
professed  adherence  to  the  Reformation,  but  stood 
stanchly  by  Mary,  who  in  1558  made  him  War¬ 
den  of  the  Border  Marches,  and  in  1560  sent  him 
on  a  mission  to  France,  lie  died  in  prison,  April 
14,  1578. 

Botocudos,  the  most  barbarous  of  the  Indian 
tribes  of  Brazil,  inhabiting  the  East  Coast  range, 
between  the  Rio  Pardo  and  the  Rio  Doce.  They 
generally  go  quite  naked,  and  have  no  fixed  settle¬ 
ments,  but  in  their  wanderings  through  the 
country  keep  the  routes  open  by  meansof  bridges 
of  creepers  woven  into  ropes.  Their  food  in¬ 
cludes  anything  not  poisonous  that  will  stay  their 
hunger;  even  soft  earth  is  eaten.  Their  speech 
is  distinct  from  that  of  the  other  Indian  nations; 
they  have  no  religion,  but  are  abjectly  afraid  of 


spirits,  and  worship  the  moon  as  creator  of  the 
world. 

Bo-tree,  the  name  given  in  Ceylon  to  the  Pi- 
pal  or  Peepul  of  India  ( Ficus  religiosa).  It  is 
held  sacred  by  the  Buddhists,  and  planted  close 
by  every  temple. 

Botry  M  is,  a  genus  of  Hyphomycete  Fungi  con¬ 
taining  many  of  the  plants  commonly  called 
mould  and  mildew.  The  silkworm  disease  known 
asmuscardine  is  caused  by  B.  Bassiana. 

Botta,  Carlo  Giuseppe  Guglielmo,  an  Ital¬ 
ian  poet  and  historian,  born  in  Piedmont  in  1766. 
In  1799  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  pro¬ 
visional  government  of  Piedmont.  He  died  in 
Paris,  Aug.  10,  1837. 

Botta,  Paul  Emile,  a  distinguished  archaeol¬ 
ogist  and  traveler,  the  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  at  Turin  in  1802.  After  extensive  travels  in 
the  New  World  and  in  Egypt,  he  became  in  1833 
French  consul  iu  Alexandria,  and  thence  under¬ 
taking  a  journey  to  Arabia,  published  the  results 
in  his  Relation  d’un  Voyage  dans  l’  Yemen  (1841). 
In  1843  he  began  digging  for  monuments  of  As¬ 
syrian  antiquity,  and  the  Journal  Asiatique  soon 
contained  accounts  of  his  enterprise  and  disqui¬ 
sitions  on  the  cuneiform  writing,  which  after¬ 
ward  appeared  as  a  separate  publication  under  the 
title Memoires del’ Ecriture  Cuneifoi me Assyrienne 
(1848).  In  1848  he  published  Inscriptions  decou- 
vertes  A  Khorsabad.  In  1846  Botta  wasappointed 
Consul-General  at  Jerusalem,  and  in  1857  at 
Tripoli.  He  returned  to  France  in  1868,  and 
died  April  18,  1870. 

Bottesini,  Giovanni,  contrabassist,  born  at 
Crema,  in  Lombardy,  Dec.  24,  1823.  From  1846 
he  was  Director  of  It  alian  opera  in  Havana,  Paris, 
Palermo,  and  Barcelona.  His  best  work  is  his 
standard  Methode  Complete  de  Contre-basse. 

Bottger,  Johann  Friedrich,  improver  of 
porcelain,  was  born  in  1682  or  1685  in  Reuss- 
Schleiz.  He  became  an  enthusiast  in  the  search 
for  the  philosopher’s  stone,  and  found  patrons  at 
the  court  of  Saxony.  Died  March  13,  1719.  See 
Pottery. 

Botticelli,  Sandro,  originally  Allesandro 
Filipepi,  an  eminent  painter  of  the  Tuscan  school 
of  the  fifteenth  century,  born  at  Florence  in  1447. 
Ilis  best  known  work  is  the  “  Birth  of  Venus,” 
in  the  Ufiizi,  and  his  “Venus  with  the  Graces,” 
in  the  Florence  Academy.  Two  smaller  exam¬ 
ples  of  this  style  are  in  the  London  National  Gal¬ 
lery.  In  age  Botticelli  became  lame,  decrepit, 
and  unfit  for  work,  and  he  died  in  1515,  a  pen¬ 
sioner  of  the  Medici  family. 

Bottl  ger,  Karl  August,  a  German  archaeolo¬ 
gist,  born  in  1760,  at  Reichenbacli,  in  Saxony, 
Was  successively  Rector  at  Guben  (1784)  and 
Bautzen  (1790),  and  Director  of  the  Gymna¬ 
sium  at  Weimar  (1791).  From  1804  he  delivered 
lectures  on  special  branches  of  classical  antiqui¬ 
ties  and  art  at  Dresden,  where  he  died  in  1835. 

Bottle  (Fr.  bouieille  [allied  to  Eng.  butt],  a 
vessel),  a  vessel  generally  of  a  round  shape,  with 
a  narrow  neck,  for  holding  liquids.  The  first 
bottles  were  probably  made  of  the  skins  of  ani¬ 
mals,  mostly  goals — of  this  kind  were  the  bottles 
spoken  of  in  Scripture.  Skin  bottles  are  still  used 
in  Southern  Europe  for  the  transport  of  wine, 
and  by  tribes  of  Africa  and  Asia  for  carrying 
water.  The  ancient  Egyptians  had  bottles  of 
alabaster,  stone,  gold,  ivory,  and  other  sub¬ 
stances.  Glass  bottles,  often  of  great  beauty, 
were  made  by  the  Phoenicians  and  Romans,  and 
in  the  middle  ages  at  Venice.  The  Chinese  have 
beautiful  small  bottles  of  jade,  rock-crystal,  agate, 
and  a  peculiar  glass  of  two-colored  layers. 

Bottle-brush  Plants,  a  name  applied  to 
species  of  Metrosideros,  Callistemon,  and  other 
genera  of  Myrtace®,  which  agree  in  having  ses¬ 
sile  crowded  flowers  with  reduced  floral  envel¬ 
opes,  but  large  conspicuous  compound  stamens; 
the  whole  inflorescence  thus  suggesting  a  red 
bottle-brush. 

Bottle  Chart  is  one  which  purports  to  show 
the  track  of  sealed  bottles  thrown  from  ships  into 
the  sea.  Lieutenant  Becher,  an  English  naval 
officer,  constructed  in  1843  a  chart  of  bottle-voy¬ 
ages  in  the  Atlantic,  to  illustrate  the  currents. 
The  time  which  elapses  between  the  launching  of 
the  bottle  from  the  ship  and  the  finding  it  on 
shore,  or  picking  up  by  some  other  ship,  has 
varied  from  a  few  days  to  sixteen  years;  while 


the  straight-line  distance  between  the  two  points 
has  varied  from  a  few  miles  to  5,000  miles.  The 
Bottle  Chart  has  been  reedited  from  time  to  time, 
and  republished. 

Bottle-gourd  (Lagenaria,  from  Lat.  lagena, 
a  bottle),  a  sub-genus  of  Cucurbita  (natural  order 
Cucurbitacese).  The  Common  Bottle-gourd,  or 
False  Calabash  (C.  lagenaria  or  L.  vulgaris)  is  a 
native  of  India,  but  is  now  common  almost 
everywhere  in  warm  climates.  The  fruit  has  a 
hard  rind,  and  when  the  pulp  is  removed  and  the 
rind  dried,  it  is  used  in  many  countries  for  liold- 


Bouches-du-Rhone  (mouths  of  the  Rhone),  a 
department  in  the  southeast  of  France,  formerly  a 


BOUCICAULT. 


186 


BOULDER-CLAY. 


part  of  Provence,  with  an  area  of  1,971  square 
miles.  It  is  divided  into  the  lliree  arrondisse- 
ments  of  Marseilles,  Aix,  and  Arles.  Through 
the  northern  and  eastern  districts  the  Maritime 
Alps  slope  gently  down  to  the  Basin  of  the  Rhone. 
Pop.  (1886),  604,857. 

Boucicault,  Dion,  dramatist  and  actor,  born 
at  Dublin,  Dec.  26,  1822;  educated  at  University 
College,  London,  and  in  1841  produced  his  first 
drama,  London  Assurance.  It  was  signally  suc¬ 
cessful,  and  its  success  determined  his  career. 
From  1853  to  1860  he  was  in  America.  On  his 
return  to  England  in  1860,  he  produced  The 
Qolleen  Baton,  the  first  of  several  Irish  dramas 
which  proved  among  the  most  successful  of 
modern  times.  This  was  followed  by  The  Octoroon 
(1861),  Arrah-na-Pogie  (1864),  and  The  Shaugh- 
raun  (1875 1.  For  a  time  he  was  joint-manager  of 
the  Adelphi,  and  in  1862  opened  a  new  theater  in 
London — the  Westminster,  which  caused  his 
financial  ruin.  He  afterward  reestablished  his 
fortunes  by  new  plays,  in  some  of  which  he  and 
his  wife  took  the  leading  parts.  The  Streets  of 
London,  Flying  Scud,  and  After  Dark  were  the 
most  notable  of  his  later  works.  He  has  written 
more  than  140  original  pieces  and  adaptations. 
In  1876  he  went  to  live  in  New  York,  but  in  1887 
visited  England,  taking  part  in  one  of  his  own 
plays,  rThe  Jilt,  lie  married  Agnes  Robertson,  a 
well-known  actress,  who  procured  a  divorce  from 
him. 

Bone,  Ami,  geologist,  was  born  at  Hamburg, 
March  16,  1794;  studied  at  Geneva,  Paris,  Edin¬ 
burgh,  and  Berlin;  lived  at  Paris,  and  then  at 
Vienna,  where  he  die  l  Nov.  22,  1881.  He  wrote 
many  works,  one  on  the  geology  of  Scotland 
(1820),  and  three  on  the  geology  of  Turkey  in 
Europe. 

Boufarik,  a  town  of  Algeria,  twenty-three 
miles  south  of  Algiers  by  rail.  Pop.,  3,621. 

Bonders,  Louis  Francois,  Due  de.  Peer  and 
Marshal  of  Fi  ance,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
generals  of  his  time,  was  born  in  1644,  of  an 
ancient  family  of  Picardy.  He  began  his  mili¬ 
tary  career  under  the  great  Condti,  Turenne,  and 
Catinat  in  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  received 
the  marshal’s  baton  in  1693.  His  famous  defense 
of  Namur  against  William  III.  in  1695,  and  of 
Lille  against  Prince  Eugene  in  1708,  made  him  a 
Duke  and  Peer  of  France.  After  the  defeat  of 
Malplaquet  in  1709,  he  conducted  the  French  re¬ 
treat  with  admirable  skill  and  success.  He  died 
at  Fontainebleau,  Aug.  20,  1711. — ILs  son, 
Joseph  Marie,  Due  de  Bonders  (1706-47),  was 
likewise  a  Marshal  of  France. 

Bouflers,  Stanislas,  Marquis  de,  commonly 
styled  the  Chevalier  de  Bouflers,  was  born  at 
Lunfiville  in  1737.  He  was  the  son  of  the  witty 
Marquise  de  Bouflers,  who  played  a  brilliant  part 
at  the  court  of  Stanislaus,  the  exiled  king  of 
Poland.  He  rose  to  the  rank  of  Marshal,  was  a 
poet  and  literary  man  of  some  note,  and  much 
admired  in  the  French  salons  of  his  time.  He 
died  in  1815. 

Bougainville,  Louis  Antoine  de,  navigator, 
born  at  Paris,  Nov.  11,  1729,  attained  great 
proficiency  both  in  languages  and  science.  In 
1755  he  went  as  Secretary  of  the  French  Embassy 
to  London;  in  1756  acted  as  Montcalm’s  aide-de- 
camp  in  Canada,  where  he  served  with  distinction, 
as  also  in  the  campaign  of  1761  in  Germany. 
After  the  peace  he  entered  the  naval  service,  in 
which  he  soon  signalized  himself.  He  undertook 
a  voyage  round  the  world  (1766-69),  with  a 
frigate  and  a  St.  Malo  transport,  the  first  of  the 
kind  which  the  French  ever  accomplished.  He 
gave  an  account  of  it  in  his  Description  d'un 
Voyage  autour  du  Monde  (1771-72).  In' I  lie  North 
American  war  Bougainville  commanded  several 
ships  of  the  line,  and  in  1779  was  made  chef 
d’escadre;  in  the  following  year  he  was  made  a 
field-marshal  in  the  army.  By  Napoleon  I.  he 
was  made  a  Senator,  Count  of-  the  Empire,  and 
member  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  After  him  are 
named  one  of  the  Solomon  Islands,  a  strait  in  the 
New  Hebrides,  and  a  bay  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Strait  of  Magellan.  He  died  Aug.  31,  1811. 

Bougainvillea,  a  neotropical  genus  of  Nycta- 
ginaceie,  frequently  trained  over  trellises  or  under 
the  roofs  of  greenhouses,  on  account  of  the  beauty 


of  its  peculiar  inflorescence,  the  small  flowers, 
which  grow  in  threes,  being  almost  concealed  by 


Bougainvillea,  foliage  and  flowering  branches. 
a,  two  sets  each  of  three  flower-buds,  with  colored  bracts. 


as  many  membraneous  bracts  of  splendid  rosy  or 
purple  color. 

Bough,  Samuel,  R.S.A.,  landscape  painter, 
born  Jan.  8,  1822,  at  Carlisle,  England.  In  1845 
he  was  a  scene  painter  in  Manchester,  and  later  in 
Glasgow,  where  Daniel  Macnee,  afterward 
P.R.S.A.,  encouraged  him  to  become  a  land¬ 
scape  painter;  and  he  shortly  produced  several 
sketches  in  Cadzow  Forest,  and  “  Shipbuilding  on 
the  Clyde.”  Among  the  more  important  of  his 
oil  pictures  are  “Edinburgh  from  the  Canal” 
(1862);  “Holy  Island”  (1863);  “In  the  Tros- 
sachs”  (1865);  “The  Vale  of  Leith”  (1866); 
“  Kirkwall  Harbor”  (1867) ;  “Borrowdale;  ”  “  St. 
Monance;  ”  “  London  from  Shooter's  Hill  ”  (1872). 
His  “  Royal  Volunteer  Review”  (1860)  is  in  the 
National  Gallery  of  Scotland.  In  1857  Bough 
was  elected  A.R.S.A.,  and  in  1875  R.S.A.  He 
settled  in  Edinburgh  in  1855,  where  he  died  Nov. 
19,  1878. 

Bougies  are  rods  of  metal,  or  other  substances, 
used  for  distending  contracted  mucous  canals,  as 
the  gullet,  bowels,  or  urethra.  For  the  urethra, 
they  are  frequently  of  German  silver  or  pewter, 
and  vary  from  to  f  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
Still  larger  sizes  are  used  by  many  surgeons.  For 
the  other  canals,  they  are  usually  made  of  plaited 
thread,  like  an  ordinary  riding-whip,  impregnated 
with  a  substance  called  gum-elastic,  of  which  the 
chief  constituent  is  india-rubber.  This  combina¬ 
tion  of  materials  possesses  a  degree  of  firmness 
united  with  flexibility,  and  a  smoothness  of  sur¬ 
face  suitable  for  the  purpose.  See.  Stricture. 

Bougtier,  Pierre,  a  French  physicist,  born  at 
Croisic,  in  Brittany,  Feb.  16,  1698.  In  1735  he 
was  sent  with  Godin,  La  Condamine,  and  Jussieu 
to  South  America  to  measure  a  degree  of  the 
meridian  at  the  equator.  He  published  an 
account  of  his  labors  in  the  Theorie  de  la  Figure 
de  la  Terre  (1749).  His  investigations  concerning 
the  intensity  of  light  laid  the  foundation  of  pho¬ 
tometry;  their  results  being  fully  embodied  in  his 
Traite  d’Optique  (1760).  In  1748  he  invented  the 
heliometer,  afterward  brought  to  greater  perfec¬ 
tion  by  Fraunhofer.  He  died  at  Paris,  Aug.  15, 
1758. 

Bouguereau,  William  Adolphe,  born  at  La 
Rochelle,  Nov.  30,  1825.  In  1849  he  produced 
his  dignified  and  austere  “  Angel  of  Death,”  but 
he  first  made  a  distinct  mark  in  1854  by  “The 
Body  of  St.  Cecilia  borne  to  the  Catacombs,” 
which,  with  his  “  Philomela  and  Procne”  (1861), 
is  now  in  the  Luxembourg,  and  his  “  Maria  Con- 
solatrix  ”  (1877)  was  also  a  government  commis¬ 
sion. 

Bouillc,  Franqois  Claude  Amour,  Marquis 
de,  a  French  general,  born  in  1739  in  Auvergne, 
entered  the  army  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  and 
served  with  distinction  in  Germany  during  the 
Seven  Years’  War.  In  1768  he  was  appointed 
Governor  of  the  Island  of  Guadeloupe,  and  after¬ 
ward  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  French  forces 
in  the  West  Indies.  In  1778,  he  successively  took 
from  the  British,  Dominica,  Tobago,  St.  Eus- 


taclie,  Saba,  St.  Martin,  St.  Christopher’s,  and 
Nevis.  Louis  XVI.  nominated  him  a  member  of 
the  Assembly  of  Notables  in  1787-88;  in  1790  he 
was  made  Commander-in-Cliief  of  the  Army  of 
the  Meuse,  the  Saar,  and  the  Moselle.  For  his 
share  in  the  attempted  escape  of  Louis  XVI.,  lie 
had  to  flee  from  France.  In  1791  he  entered  the 
service  of  Gustavus  III.  of  Sweden,  and  after¬ 
ward  served  in  the  corps  of  the  Prince  of  Conde. 
In  1793  he  declined  the  chief  command  in  La, 
Vendfe;  and  went  to  England,  where  he  wrote 
his  Memoiies  sur  la  Revolution  Franc/iise.  He 
died  in  London,  Nov.  14,  1800. 

Bouillon,  a  duchy,  originally  German,  now 
included  in  the  Belgian  Province  of  Luxemburg, 
consisting  of  a  woody  and  hilly  district  in  the 
Ardennes,  about  145  square  miles  in  extent. 
By  the  Revolution  of  1830,  Bouillon  and  Lux¬ 
emburg  were  separated  from  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  and  in  1837  united  to  Belgium. — The 
principal  town  is  Bouillon,  situated  nine  miles 
north-northeast  of  Sedan,  and  near  the  French 
frontier.  Pop.,  2,765. 

Bouilly,  Jean  Nicolas,  a  French  dramatist, 
born  at  La  Coudraye,  near  Tours,  Jan.  24,  1763. 
He  died  at  Par  s,  April  14,1842.  Of  his  plays 
the  following  deserve  mention:  The  comic  opera 
Pierre  le  Grand  (1790),  L’Ahbe  de  l’ Epee  (1795), 
L,es  Deux  Journees  (1800)  for  Cherubini’s  music, 
Fanchon  (1803),  Une  Folie  (1803),  Madame  de 
Sevigne  (1805).  He  wrote  many  popular  books 
for  the  young,  including  Contesd  rna,  Fille  (1809). 

Boulnc,  or  Bulak,  the  port  of  Cairo,  on  the 
Nile,  opposite  an  island  of  the  same  name,  about 
one  nule  northwest  from  that  city,  of  which  it 
forms  a  suburb.  It  contains,  among  other  objects 
of  interest,  the  National  Museum  of  Egyptian 
antiquities  founded  by  Mariette  Pasha,  in  which 
are  stored  the  results  of  extensive  excavations. 
Pop.,  20,000. 

Boulainvilliers,  Henry,  Count,  a  French 
author,  born  Oct.  11,  1658,  in  Normandy.  He 
resigned  the  military  profession  and  devoted  him¬ 
self  to  the  investigation  of  the  genealogy  of  the 
ancient  families  of  France.  His  writings,  which 
are  pervaded  by  extreme  aristocratic  sentiments, 
were  first  published  after  his  death,  which  took 
place  on  Jan.  23,  1722. 

Boulanger,  George  Ernest  Jean  Marie,  a 
French  general,  born  at  Rennes  in  1837,  educated 
at  St.  Cyr.  11c  served  in  Algeria,  Italy,  and 
Cochin-China;  was  with  Bazaine  at  Metz,  but 
escaped  to  Paris,  and  held  a  lieutenant-colonelcy 
under  the  Government  of  National  Defense;  in 
1876  headed  the  deputation  of  French  officers  at 
the  celebration  of  the  centenary  of  American 
Independence;  became  brigadier-general  in  1880, 
by  the  influence  of  the  Due  d’Aumale;  and  in 
1884—85  commanded  the  army  of  occupation  in 
Tunis  till  an  arbitrary  attempt  to  exalt  the  mili¬ 
tary  over  the  civil  authority  led  to  his  recall.  He 
was  wounded  in  action  in  Italy  and  during  the 
Commune.  Was  Minister  of  War  from  January, 
1886,  to  May,  1887,  urged  the  expulsion  of  the 
Due  d’Aumale  and  the  other  princes  from  France, 
and  through  the  introduction  of  some  desirable 
army  reforms  was  adopted  as  the  embodiment  of 
the  “revenge”  policy  of  the  Parisians.  In  1887, 
while  commanding  an  army  corps  at  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  he  was,  for  his  remarks  on  the  then 
War  Minister,  ordered  under  arrest  for  thirty 
days;  and  in  the  same  year  challenged  Jules  Ferry 
for  publicly  referring  to  him  as  a  caf<?  concert 
hero.  In  March,  1888,  for  disobedience  to  orders, 
lie  was  deprived  of  his  command,  and  placed  on 
the  retired  list,  and  in  April  was  elected  deputy 
for  Dordogne.  He  has  since  represented  the 
department  du  Nord,  and  on  Jan.  27,  1889,  was 
elected  deputy  for  Paris  by  an  enormous  majority 
over  all  competitors.  In  March,  1889,  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  began  a  prosecution  of  Boulanger  for 
attempting  to  subvert  the  Republic,  and  M.  Bou¬ 
langer  went  to  Brussels. 

Boulay  de  la  Meurthe,  Antoine,  Count,  a. 
French  statesman,  born  at  Cliaumouzey,  in  the 
Vosges,  in  1761.  He  died  at  Paris,  Feb.  2,  1840. 
He  published  an  essay  on  the  Commonwealth  in 
England  (1799),  and  Bourrienne  et  ses  Erreurs 
(1830).  His  son  Henri  (1797-1858)  made  some 
figure  as  a  social  reformer. 

Boulder-clay  is  a  stony  clay  of  glacial  origin, 
and  has  a  very  wide  geographical  distribution. 


BOULDERS. 


i87 


BOURBON. 


It  occurs  more  or  less  abundantly  in  the  British 
Islands,  as  far  south  at  least  as  the  Bristol  Chan¬ 
nel  and  the  Valley  of  the  Thames.  In  like  man¬ 
ner,  it  overspreads  extensive  areas  in  Norway, 
Sweden,  Denmark,  Sleswick-Holstein,  Holland, 
Hanover,  Prussia,  Saxony,  Poland,  and  Central 
and  Northern  Russia,  in  the  lower  va'leys  of  the 
Alps,  and  many  other  mountain  districts  of  Cen¬ 
tral  and  Southern  Europe,  in  British  America 
and  the  Northern  States  of  the  Union.  Boulder- 
clay  varies  in  thickness  from  a  few  feet  up  to 
twenty  or  thirty  yards — being  generally  thickest 
in  low-lying  regions,  and  thinning  away  as  it  is 
followed  up  toward  the  mountains. 

See  Glacial  Period,  Kaimes,  Moraines. 

Boulders,  Erratic,  are  large  masses  of  rock 
found  at  a  distance  from  the  formations  to  which 
they  belong.  The  term  is  generally  applied  when 
they  are  found  lying  detached  on  the  surface. 
Large  blocks  of  Scandinavian  rocks  are  scattered 
over  the  plains  of  Denmark,  Prussia,  and  North¬ 
ern  Germany.  Some  of  these  have  been  washed 
out  of  the  boulder-clay,  but  the  larger  number 
are  dotted  over  the  surface  of  the  terminal 
moraines  of  the  great  Northern  ice-sheet.  The 
pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  in  St. 
Petersburg,  was  hewn  out  of  a  large  erratic 
boulder,  1,500  tons  in  weight,  that  lay  on  a 
marshy  plain  near  that  city. 

See  Glacial  Period. 

Boulevard  (Fr.  also  spelt  boulevart;  appar¬ 
ently  a  corruption  of  a  Teutonic  word — Ger. 
bollwerk;  cf.  Span,  baluarte,  Ital.  baluardo,  bul¬ 
wark),  the  name  given  in  France  to  a  broad  street 
or  promenade  planted  with  rows  of  trees.  Orig¬ 
inally  it  was  applied  to  the  bulwark  portion  of  a 
rampart,  then  to  the  promenade  laid  out  on  a  de¬ 
molished  fortification.  The  boulevards  of  Paris 
are  the  most  famous.  The  Boulevards  de  la  Mad¬ 
eleine,  des  Capucines,  and  Montmartre  are  the  most 
notable.  The  Thames  Embankment  is  a  boule¬ 
vard  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  term.  Chicago 
lias  a  grand  system  of  boulevards  in  connection 
with  its  parks. 

Boulogne,  a  town  of  France  in  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  the  Seine,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
of  that  name,  about  five  miles  southwest  of  Paris, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Bois  de  Bou¬ 
logne.  It  has  numerous  villas,  and  over  400 
wash-houses  on  the  river,  which  is  here  crossed 
by  a  fine  stone  bridge  of  twelve  arches.  Pop. 
(1886),  30,084.  The  Bois  de  Boulogne  has  fine 
roads,  through  the  broadest  of  which  the  fashion¬ 
able  world  of  Paris  travels  in  Easter-week  to  the 
Abbey  of  Longchamp.  At  the  entrance  of  the 
wood  lies  Auteuil. 

Boulogne-sur-Mer,  a  fortified  seaport  in  the 
French  department  of  the  Pas-de-Calais,  situate  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Liane,  in  the  English  Channel, 
twenty-seven  miles  southwest  of  Calais,  and  158 
north-by-west  of  Paris.  The  town  consists  of  two 
parts — Upper  and  Lower  Boulogne.  The  upper 
town  was  in  former  times  strongly  fortified;  but  its 
ramparts  have  been  converted  into  beautiful  prom¬ 
enades.  The  upper  town  contains  the  Ilotel-de- 
Ville,  on  the  site  of  the  castle  where  Godfrey  de 
Bouillon  was  born  in  1061,  and  the  former  cathe¬ 
dral,  rebuilt  182T-66.  The  lower  town,  the  sea¬ 
port  proper,  is  newer,  more  populous,  inhabited 
chiefly  by  merchants,  mariners,  and  fishermen. 
Pop.  (1886),  49,916.  Boulogne  is  the  chief  sta¬ 
tion  in  France  of  the  North  Sea  fisheries.  It  has 
an  active  coasting  trade,  and  ranks  with  Calais  as 
one  of  the  nearest  and  most  frequented  places  of 
passage  between  France  and  England,  steamers 
plying  daily  to  London,  which  they  reach  in  from 
nine  to  ten  hours,  and  twice  a  day  to  Folkestone, 
which  they  reach  in  about  two  hours.  Paris  is 
reached  by  railway  in  four  and  a  half  hours. 
About  5,000  vessels,  most  of  them  English,  of  over 
1,000,000  tons’  burden,  enter  or  clear  the  port  an¬ 
nually,  their  cargoes  representing  a  value  of  some 
8 100,000,000.  Boulogne  wasknown  to  the  Roma  ns 
as  Partus  Gesoriacus,  but  after  the  time  of  Con¬ 
stantine  the  Great  it  was  called  Bononia,  and 
after  that  of  the  Carlovingians,  Bolorda.  In  1435, 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Duke  of  Bur¬ 
gundy,  and  was  united  with  the  crown  of  France 
by  Louis  XI.,  in  1477.  The  town  was  taken  by 
the  English  in  1544,  and  restored  to  the  French 
in  1550.  From  this  point  has  been  contemplated 
every  invasion  of  England  since  the  days  of 


Caligula;  and  here  Napoleon  encamped  180,000 
men  and  collected  2,400  transports,  to  swoop 
down  on  the  slioies  of  Britain;  but  after  months’ 
watching,  the  war  with  Austria  created  other  em¬ 
ployment  for  them.  As  a  memorial  of  this  great 
camp,  a  tall  marble  column  was  erected  on  the 
higher  grounds  and  in  1841  surmounted  by  a 
colossal  statue  of  Napoleon.  In  1840,  Boulogne 
was  the  scene  of  one  of  the  adventurous  expedi¬ 
tions  of  Louis  Napoleon,  who  was  imprisoned  in 
the  citadel.  The  poets  Churchill  and  Campbell, 
and  Le  Sage,  the  author  of  Gil  Bias,  died  here. 
See  Merridew’s  Boulogne-sur-Mer  ( Lond.,  1882). 

Boulton,  Matthew,  an  English  engineer,  born 
Sept.  3  1728,  at  Birmingham.  One  of  his  first 
inventions  was  a  new  mode  of  inlaying  steel. 
He  died  at  Soho,  Aug.  18,  1809.  See  Smiles’ 
Bovlton  and  Watt  (1865). 

Bound,  or  Boundary,  the  utmost  limits  of 
land  by  which  the  same  is  known  and  can  be  de¬ 
scribed.  These  are  recognized  in  various  ways — 
e.g.,  by  a  line  of  march  stones,  a  hedge,  a  ditch; 
by  reference  to  possession  of  tenants;  by  reference 
to  a  plan;  by  measurement. 

Bounds,  Beating  of  tiie,  or  Perambulation, 
the  popular  expression  in  England  for  those  peri¬ 
odical  surveys  or  perambulations  by  which  the 
ancient  boundaries  of  parishes  used  to  be  pre¬ 
served,  and  which  in  many  respects  resembles  the 
old  Roman  terminalia,  celebrated  every  year  on 
February  23d,  the  last  month  of  the  year. 

Bounty,  a  term  applied  to  any  sum  granted  by 
the  legislature  toward  creating  or  encouraging 
some  kind  of  undertaking  believed  to  be  of  na¬ 
tional  importance.  At  one  time  the  system  of 
granting  such  bounties  was  very  prevalent,  and 
it  still  continues  in  some  countries.  See 
Free  Trade.  Bounty  is  also  the  familiar 
name  for  the  sum  of  money  given  to  induce  men 
to  enter  the  army  or  navy.  In  time  of  peace, 
when  there  is  litile  or  no  need  to  augment  the 
forces,  the  bounty  sinks  to  a  minimum;  but  in 
C3ses  of  exigency,  it  is  raised  according  to  the  dif¬ 
ficulty  and  urgency  of  the  circumstances. 
Bounty,  in  the  United  States,  is  a  term  for  grants 
of  land  to  soldiers  and  sailors,  their  widows  and 
children,  for  services  in  the  army  and  navy.  It 
is  also  applied  to  sums  of  money  paid  by  Govern¬ 
ment  to  owners  of  fishing  vessels,  by  Act  of 
Congress  of  July  29,  1813,  for  the  encouragement 
of  that  industry,  and  to  sums  of  money  appropri¬ 
ated  by  different  State  Legislatures  for  the  de¬ 
struction  of  wild  beasts  and  destructive  birds, 
when  the  country  was  comparatively  new  and 
sparsely  settled.  During  the  Civil  War  extrava¬ 
gant  sums  were  paid  as  bounty  by  the  different 
States  in  order  to  fill  their  quotas  of  men.  Bounty- 
jumpers  were  a  class  of  scoundrels  who  accepted 
the  bounty  and  then  deserted,  sometimes  over  and 
over  again. 

Bounty,  Mutiny  of  the.  See  Pitcairns’ 
Island  and  Bligii. 

Bonrbaki,  Charles  Denis  Sauter,  French 
general,  born  at  Pan,  April  22,  1816,  entered  the 
army  in  1836,  and  fought  in  the  Crimea  and  Italy. 
Under  Gambetta  he  organized  the  Army  of  the 
North,  and  commanded  the  Army  of  the  Loire. 
His  attempt  to  break  the  Prussian  line  at  Belfort, 
though  ably  conceived,  ended  in  disastrous  failure; 
in  a  series  of  desultory  attacks  on  a  much  inferior 
force,  Jan.  15-17,  1871,  he  lost  10,000  men.  In 
the  wretched  retreat  to  Switzerland  that  followed 
on  the  27tli,  reduced  to  despair  by  the  ill-success 
of  his  plans,  he  attempted  to  commit  suicide. 
From  1873  to  1879  lie  commanded  the  Fourteenth 
Army  Corps  at  Lyons,  and  in  1881  he  retired  from 
active  service. 

Bourbon,  a  French  family  which  for  several 
generations  occupied  the  thrones  of  France  and 
Naples,  and  still  rules  in  Spain.  It  derived  its 
name  from  the  castle  and  seigniory  of  Bourbon, 
in  the  former  province  of  Bourbonnais,  in  the 
center  of  France.  The  first  member  of  the  family 
recorded  in  history  was  Adhemar,  sire  or  lord 
of  Bourbon,  at  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century, 
who  traced  his  descent  from  the  illustrious  Charles 
Martel.  After  several  changes  the  seigniory  of 
Bourbon  devolved  upon  an  heiress,  who  in  1272 
married  Robert,  the  sixth  son  of  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  and  the  name  and  possessions  of  the  house 
thus  passed  to  a  branch  of  the  royal  family  of  the 
Capets,  under  whom  it  was  converted  into  a  duchy. 


From  this  Robert  sprang  two  lines,  an  elder  and  a 
younger.  The  elder  line  had  many  eminent  rep¬ 
resentatives  among  the  nobles  of  France,  but 
ended  with  the  famous  Constable  of  Bourbon, 
who,  in  1583  was  deprived  of  his  possessions  and 
dignities  for  allying  himself  with  Charles  V 
against  his  own  country.  A  representative  of  the 
younger  line  inherited  the  possessions  of  the  Con¬ 
stable,  and  was  raised  to  the  Dukedom  of  Yen- 
dome.  His  son,  Antoine,  obtained  by  marriage 
(he  throne  of  Navarre,  and  Antoine’s  son  was  the 
famous  Henry  of  Navarre,  wdio,  in  1589,  on  the 
extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  House  of  Valois, 
fell  heir  to  the  crown  of  France.  Among  the 
many  collateral  and  less  eminent  branches  of  the 
Bourbon  house  among  the  French  nobility  may  be 
mentioned  those  of  Montpensier,  Condfi,  Conti, 
and  Soissons.  The  male  line  of  the  Valois  branch 
of  the  French  royal  family  died  out  in  1589,  and 
Henry  of  Navarre  of  the  Bourbon  line  became 
King  of  France  as  Henry  IV.  On  his  assassina¬ 
tion  in  1610  he  left,  by  his  second  wife,  Mary  de’ 
Medici,  five  legitimate  children  :  (1)  Louis  XIII. 
his  successor  on  the  throne  ;  (2)  J.  B.  Gaston, 
Duke  of  Orleans,  who  died  in  1660,  and  left  no 
male  heirs;  (3)  Elizabeth,  married  to  Philip  IV. 
of  Spain;  (4)  Christina,  married  to  Victor  Ama¬ 
deus,  afterward  Duke  of  Savoy;  (5)  Henrietta, 
married  to  Charles  I.  of  England. — Louis  XIII., 
on  his  death,  in  1643,  left  two  sons  by  his  queen, 
Anne  of  Austria:  (1)  Louis  XIV.  his  successor; 
and  (2)  Philip,  who  received  from  his  elder  brother 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Orleans,  and  wras  the  founder 
of  the  family  which  has  become  the  younger 
Bourbon  dynasty. — The  Dauphin  Louis,  styled 
Monsieur,  the  son  of  Louis  XIV.  by  his  marriage 
with  Maria  Theresa  of  Austria,  died  in  1711,  and 
left  three  sons  by  his  marriage  with  Maria  Anna 
of  Bavaria:  (1)  Louis,  Duke  of  Burgundy;  (2) 
Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou,  who  afterward  became 
King  of  Spain,  as  Philip  V.;  Charles,  Duke  of 
Beni,  who  died  in  1714. — Louis,  Duke  of  Bur¬ 
gundy,  died  in  1712.  By  his  wife,  Maria  Adelaide 
of  Savoy,  he  had  three  sons,  of  whom  two  died  in 
early  youth,  the  only  one  who  survived  being 
Louis  XV.,  who  succeeded  his  great-grandfather, 
Louis  XIV.,  in  1715. — Louis  XV.  having  married 
Maria  Leszcynska,  daughter  of  the  dethroned 
King  Stanislaus  of  Poland,  had  by  her  a  son,  the 
Dauphin  Louis,  who  married  Maria  Josepha  of 
Saxony,  and  died  in  1765,  leaving  three  sons;  (1) 
Louis  XVI.,  who  succeeded  his  grandfather,  Louis 
XV.,  in  1774;  (2)  Louis  Stanislaus  Xavier.  Count 
of  Provence,  afterward  Louis  XVIII.;  (3)  Charles 
Philippe,  Count  of  Artois,  afterward  Charles  X. 
Louis  XVI.  had  three  children  by  his  queen,  Marie 
Antoinette  of  Austria:  (1)  The  Dauphin  Louis, 
who  died  in  1789;  (2)  Louis,  called  Louis  XVII. 
who  died  in  1795;  (3)  Maria  Therese  Charlotte, 
styled  Madame  Royale,  afterward  Duchesse 
d’Angouleme. — Louis  XVIII.  had  no  children; 
but  Charles  X.  had  two  sons-  (1)  Louis  Antoine 
de  Bourbon,  Duke  of  Angouleme,  who  was 
Dauphin  prior  to  the  Revolution  of  1830,  and  died 
without  issue  in  1844;  (2)  Charles  Ferdinand, 
Duke  of  Berri,  who  was  assassinated  in  1820. 
The  Duke  of  Berri  left  two  children  :  (1)  Marie 
Louise  Therese,  styled  Mademoiselle  d’ Artois, 
married  to  the  Duke  of  Parma;  (2)  Henry  Charles 
Ferdinand  Marie  Dieudonnf,  Duke  of  Bordeaux, 
styled  Count  de  Cliambord;  he  died  childless  in 
1883,  when  the  Legitimists  of  France  accepted  in 
his  room  the  Orleanist  Comte  de  Paris  as  head  of 
the  House  of  Bourbon.  As  already  stated,  the 
founder  of  the  Orleans  or  younger  branch  of  the 
Bourbon  royal  family  of  France,  was  Philip,  Duke 
of  Orleans,  the  only  brother  of  Louis  XIV.  He 
died  in  1701,  leaving,  by  his  second  marriage  with 
Elizabeth  Charlotte  of  the  Palatinate,  a  son  of  his 
own  name  as  his  heir,  who  was  regent  of  France 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XV.  Ills  son, 
Louis  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans  (born  1703), 
married  a  princess  of  Baden,  and  died  in  1752, 
leaving  an  only  son  of  his  own  name,  whose  son 
and  heir  was  that  Louis  Joseph  Philippe,  Duke 
of  Orleans,  so  notable  in  the  French  Revolution, 
who  in  1792  renounced  his  rank,  taking  the  name 
of  Citizen  Egalitd,  and  died  by  the  guillotine  in 
1793.  He  lep,  four  children:  (1)  Louis-Philippe, 
who,  before  me  Revolution,  was  styled  Duke  of 
Chartres — that  being  the  ordinary  title  of  the 
eldest  sou  of  the  Orleans  family — became  after- 


BOURBON. 


188 


BOVIDA5. 


•ward  Duke  of  Orleans,  was  King  of  the  French 
from  1830  to  1848,  and  died  in  England,  1850;  (2) 
the  Duke  de  Montpensier,  who  died  in  England 
in  1807;  (3)  the  Count  de  Beaujolais,  who  died  at 
Malta  in  1808;  (4)  Adelaide,  born  1777,  died  1847. 

■ — Louis  Philippe  left  a  numerous  family  by  his 
queen,  Amelia  of  Naples;  but  his  eldest  son,  Fer¬ 
dinand,  Duke  of  Orleans,  lost  his  life  by  an  acci¬ 
dent  in  1842,  leaving  by  his  wife,  the  Princess 
Helen  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  two  sons,  the 
eldest  of  whom,  Louis  Philippe  Albert,  now 
styled  Count  of  Paris,  is  the  representative  of  the 
younger  or  Orleans  family,  and  the  acknowledged 
head  of  the  French  House  of  Bourbon.  As  this 
line  still  continued  to  urge  its  claims  to  the  throne 
of  France,  its  chiefs  were  expelled  from  the 
country  in  1886  by  a  vote  of  both  chambers. 

The  Spanish  branch  of  the  House  of  Bourbon 
was  founded  by  Philip,  Duke  of  Anjou,  grand¬ 
son  of  Louis  XIV.  lie  ascended  the  Spanish 
throne  in  1700  as  Philip  V. ;  and  was  succeeded  on 
the  Spanish  throne  by  his  son,  Ferdinand  VI., 
who  died  without  issue  in  1759.  The  crown  fell 
to  his  brother,  Charles  III.,  whose  son  and  suc¬ 
cessor,  Charles  IV.,  was  compelled  to  resign  it  in 
1808  in  favor  of  a  successor  nominated  by  Napo¬ 
leon,  and  died  at  Naples  in  1819.  The  two  eldest 
sons  of  Charles  IV.  by  his  marriage  with  Maria 
Louisa  of  Parma  were — (1)  Don  Fernando,  Prince 
of  Asturias,  who,  after  the  overthrow  of  Napo¬ 
leon,  reigned  as  Ferdinand  VII.,  whose  eldest 
daughter  was  Isabella  II. ,  the  mother  of  Alfonso 
XII.;  (2)  Don  Car’ os,  who,  on  the  death  of  his 
elder  brother,  in  1833,  became  pretender  to  the 
Spanish  throne.  Isabella  II. ,  who  succeeded  in 
1833,  was  expelled  in  1868;  but  the  Bourbon  line 
was  in  1874  restored  to  the  throne  of  Spain  in  the 
person  of  Alfonso  XII.  On  his  death,  in  1885,  his 
daughter  Maria  reigned  till  the  birth  of  a  posthu¬ 
mous  son,  Alfonso  XIII  ,  in  1886. 

On  the  elevation  of  Philip  of  Anjou  to  the 
throne  of  Spain,  Naples,  and  Sicily,  which  till 
that  time  had  been  Spanish  possessions,  were 
transferred  to  Austria.  By  the  Peace  of  Vienna 
in  1738,  however,  a  younger  son  of  Philip  V. 
became  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  under  the 
name  of  Charles  III.  Upon  his  accession  to  the 
throne  of  Spain  in  1759,  lie  gave  up  that  of  Sicily 
to  his  third  son,  Don  Fernando,  called  Ferdinand 

IV.  Ferdinand  IV.  was  compelled  to  yield  to 
French  arms  in  1806;  but  after  the  overthrow  of 
Napoleon  he  became  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies  as 
Ferdinand  I.  His  son,  Francis  I.,  left  the  throne 
in  1830  to  his  son,  Ferdinand  II. ,  whose  son, 
Francis  II.,  was  expelled  in  1860,  when  Naples 
was  incorporated  with  the  new  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

By  the  Peace  of  Aix-la  Chapelle  in  1748,  Aus¬ 
tria  made  over  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Pia¬ 
cenza  to  Don  Philip,  the  youngest  son  of  Philip 

V.  of  Spain.  Except  during  the  interval,  1814— 
47,  when  the  duchies  were  assigned  to  Marie 
Louise  of  Austria,  second  wife  of  the  first  Napo¬ 
leon,  Parma  and  Piacenza  were  under  Bourbon 
rulers  till  1859.  In  that  year  they  were  incorpo¬ 
rated  with  the  new  Kingdom  of  Italy. 

Bourbon,  Charles,  Due  du  Bourbonnais, 
styled  Constable  de  Bourbon,  born  1490,  was 
the  son  of  the  Count  of  Montpensier.  His  great 
ability,  bravery,  and  large  possessions  soon  made 
him  the  first  subject  of  France.  For  his  exploits 
at  the  battle  of  Marignano,  in  1515,  he  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  Constable  of  France  and  Governor 
of  Milan.  But  at  the  Frepcli  court  there  was  a 
strong  party  that  sought  to  undermine  him  in  the 
favor  of  the  King,  Francis  1.  He  renounced  the 
service  of  France,  and  concluded  a  private  alli¬ 
ance  with  the  Emperor  diaries  V. ,  and  with  Henry 
VIII.  of  England.  He  took  the  field  in  1524 
against  his  own  country,  and  invaded  France,  but 
failed  at  the  siege  of  Marseilles.  In  the  follow¬ 
ing  year,  however,  he  contributed  to  the  great 
victory  of  Pavia,  in  which  Francis  I.  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Spaniards.  Bourbon  was  made 
Duke  of  Milan  by  Charles,  and  appointed  Span¬ 
ish  commander  in  Northern  Italy.  With  George 
of  Frundsberg  he  led  the  army  of  Spanish  and 
German  mercenaries  that  stormed  and  plundered 
Rome  in  1527.  Bourbon  fell  in  the  struggle  by 
which  the  fortifications  were  carried. 

Bourbonnais,  a  gently  undulating,  terrace- 
formed  district  in  the  center  of  France.  From 
1327  to  1523  it  formed  the  Duchy  of  Bourbon, 


and  afterward  formed  a  separate  province  of 
France.  It  now  constitutes  the  department  of 
Allier  and  part  of  the  department  of  Cher.  The 
capital  was  Moulins. 

Bourdaloue,  Louis,  a  pulpit  orator  of  France, 
born  at,  Bourges,  Aug.  20,  1632.  At  sixteen  he 
entered  the  Order  of  Jesus,  and  afterward 
filled  in  succession  the  Chairs  of  Rhetoric,  Philos¬ 
ophy,  and  Moral  Theology  in  the  Jesuit  College 
of  Ins  native  place.  He  died  at  Paris,  May  13, 
1704. 

Bourdon  de  l’Oise,  Francois  Louis,  was  born 
in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  at  Saint 
Remy,  near  Compiegne.  He  was  a  revolutionist, 
took  an  active  part  in  the  storming  of  the  Tuiler- 
ies  on  Aug.  10,  1792,  and  under  a  false  name 
obtained  a  seat  in  the  Convention.  In  1797  the 
Directory  had  him  proscribed  and  transported  to 
Cayenne,  where  he  died  soon  afterward. 

Bourg-en-Bresse,  the  chief  town  of  the 
French  department  of  Ain,  thirty-seven  miles 
northeast  of  Lyons.  The  Church  of  Notre-Dame 
de  Brou  here  was  built  by  Margaret  of  Austria  in 
1505-36,  and  contains  a  superb  monument  to 
Philibert  of  Savoy.  Here  was  born  Lalande  and 
Edgar  Quinet,  and  in  the  Place  de  Grenette 
stands  a  statue  to  Bichat.  Pop.  (1886),  16,272. 

Bourgeoisie,  a  French  term,  originally  denot¬ 
ing  the  citizens  of  towns  as  a  rank  or  class  of 
society  as  opposed  to  the  nobility  and  the  work¬ 
ing-classes  proper.  The  French  communists  and 
socialists  (especially  since  Saint-Simon),  have 
widened  its  signification  to  express  the  comfort¬ 
able  middle-class  as  opposed  to  the  working-class 
and  the  proletariat;  and,  invariably  read  in  the 
name  a  selfish  devotion  to  the  interest  of  capital 
as  against  labor. 

Bourges,  the  capital  of  the  French  department 
of  Cher,  144  miles  south  of  Paris.  The  cathedral 
(1220-1538)  is  a  splendid  Gothic  edifice,  the  inte¬ 
rior  one  of  the  noblest  in  France,  being  405  feet 
long  and  117  high.  Chosen  in  1861  to  be  one  of 
the  military  arsenals  of  France,  Bourges  lias  a 
cannon  foundry,  and  has  greatly  increased  in 
strategical  importance  since  the  loss  of  Metz. 
Pop.  (1886),  37,341.  Louis  XI.  was  born  here. 

Bourget,  Le,  a  village  lying  about  six  miles 
northeast  of  Paris.  During  the  siege  of  the  capi¬ 
tal  in  1870  the  scene  of  a  series  of  bloody  struggles 
disastrous  to  the  French,  of  which  t  he  most  impor¬ 
tant  were  those  of  October  20  and  December  21 — 
The  Lac  du  Bourget,  the  largest  wholly  French 
lake,  in  the  department  of  Savoie  and  the  Basin  of 
the  Rhone,  lies  780  feet  above  sea  level,  and, 
measuring  7?  by  3  miles,  has  an  area  of  16  square 
miles. 

Bourget,  Paul,  French  novelist,  was  born  at 
Amiens,  Sept.  2,  1852.  After  a  brilliant  course 
at  the  Lyceum  of  Clermont-Ferrand,  where  his 
father  was  Professor  ^>f  Mathematics,  and  the 
College  of  Sainte  Barbe,  he  graduated  with  the 
highest  honors  in  1872.  His  Essais  (1883),  was 
the  first  indication  of  his  strength.  The  second 
series  Nouveaux  Essais  de  Psychologic  Contempor- 
aine  (1886),  was  a  singularly  subtle  and  searching 
inquiry  into  the  causes  of  pessimism  in  contem¬ 
porary  France.  Bourget’s  first  novel,  L’ Irrepar¬ 
able  (1884),  was  followed  by  Cruelle  Enigme 
(1885),  Un  Grime  d’ Amour  (1886),  Andre  Cornelis 
(1887),  and  Mensonges  (1887). 

Bourignon,  Antoinette,  a  celebrated  re¬ 
ligious  visionary,  born  at  Lille,  Jan.  13,  1616,  died 
at  Franeker,  Oct.  30,  1680. 

Bourmout,  Louis  de  Ghatsnes  Comte  de,  a 
French  marshal,  the  conqueror  of  Algiers,  born 
in  1773,  in  Anjou.  He  went  into  exile  at  the 
Revolution,  and  from  1793  to  1799  was  engaged 
in  the  anti-Revolutionary  struggle  in  La  Vendee. 
Subsequently,  he  obtained  the  favor  of  Napoleon, 
and  for  his  brilliant  services  in  Hie  campaigns  of 
1813-14  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  General,  lie 
was  appointed  Minister  of  War  in  1829,  in  1830 
received  the  command  of  the  expedition  against 
Algiers,  and  received  the  Marshall’s  baton,  but 
on  the  July  Revolution  was  superseded,  and  went 
to  England  to  share  the  exile  of  Charles  X.  Re¬ 
fusing  to  take  the  legal  oath,  he  was  struck  off 
the  lists  of  the  French  army  and  peerage  in  1832. 
In  1833  Dom  Miguel,  of  Portugal,  placed  him  at 
the  head  of  his  troops,  but  the  campaign  was 
brief  and  unsuccessful.  Bourmont  died  Oct.  27, 
1846. 


Bourne,  Hugh,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of 
Primitive  Methodists,  was  born  April  3,  1772,  at 
Fordhays,  Staffordshire,  England,  and  died  at 
Bemersley,  Oct.  11,  1852. 

Bourne,  Vincent,  Latin  poet,  born  in  1695, 
from  Westminister  passed  in  1714  to  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge,  and  after  obtaining  a  fellow¬ 
ship  in  1720,  became  a  master  in  his  old  school, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death,  Dec.  2,  1747. 

Bournemouth,  a  town  in  Hampshire,  England. 
Of  several  churches  the  finest  is  St.  Peter’s  (1864), 
by  Street,  with  memorial  windows  to  Iveble,  who 
died  at  Bournemouth.  It  is  noted  for  the  graves 
in  its  churchyard  of  Godwin,  Mary  Wollstone- 
craft,  and  Mary  Shelley.  Pop.  (1881),  16,858. 

Bourrieime,  Louis'  Antoine  Fauvelet  de, 
the  secretary  and  early  friend  of  Napoleon  I.,  was 
born  at  Sens  in  1769.  In  1792  he  became  Secre¬ 
tary  to  the  Embassy  at  Stuttgart.  Deprived  of 
this  office  through  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revo¬ 
lution  in  1797,  Napoleon  appointed  him  his  secre¬ 
tary.  He  accompanied  the  Emperor  to  Italy  and 
to  Egypt,  and  in  1801  was  nominated  a  Councillor 
of  State.  In  1802  he  was  dismissed  from  his 
office  for  being  implicated  in  the  dishonorable 
bankruptcy  of  some  army  contractors;  but  in  1804 
was  appointed  to  a  post  at  Hamburg.  He  was 
recalled  on  a  charge  of  peculation,  and  had  to 
refund  1,000,000  francs  into  the  public  treasury. 
He  joined  the  party  which  sought  the  overthrow 
of  the  Emperor  and  the  restoration  of  the  Bour¬ 
bons.  After  the  return  of  the  Bourbons  in  1815, 
he  sat  for  several  years  in  the  Chamber  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives.  He  was  also  for  a  short  time  Minister 
of  State.  He  died  in  a  lunatic  asylum  at  Caen  in 
1834.  His  memoirs  concerning  Napoleon,  the 
Directory,  the  Consulate,  the  Empire,  and  the 
Restoration  ( Memoires  sur  Napoleon,  etc.,  10  vols. 
Paris,  1829),  are  instructive  and  interesting,  but 
not  trustworthy. 

Boussa,  or  Bussa,  a  town  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Gando,  Soudan,  Central  Africa,  is  situated  on  au 
island  in  the  Niger,  in  10°  20'  N.  latitude.  Pop., 
10,000.  Mungo  Park  perished  here. 

Boussingault,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  agri¬ 
cultural  chemist,  born  at  Paris  in  1802;  went  to 
South  America,  where  he  served  as  a  colonel 
under  Bolivar,  became  Professor  of  Chemistry  at 
Lyons,  in  1839,  was  admitted  to  the  Institute,  and 
in  1857  was  made  Commander  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor.  He  died  in  1887. 

Bouts-rimes  (Fr.  rhymed  endings)  are  a  kind 
of  verse,  the  making  of  which  forms  a  social 
amusement.  Some  one  of  the  party  gives  out  the 
rhymes  or  endings  of  a  stanza,  and  the  others  fill 
up  the  lines  as  they  best  may. 

Bou tw  ell,  George  Sewall,  an  American 
statesman,  born  at  Brookline,  Mass.,  Jan.  28, 1818, 
was  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  (1842-51), 
and  Governor  of  Massachusetts  (1851  and  1852). 
Having  joined  the  Republican  party,  in  1862  lie 
organized  the  new  Department  of  Internal  Reve¬ 
nue,  and  sat  in  Congress  from  1862  to  1869,  taking 
a  leading  part  in  the  impeachment  of  President 
Johnson  (1868).  He  was  Secretary  of  the  Treas¬ 
ury,  1869-73,  and  for  two  years  after  represented 
Massachusetts  in  the  Senate. 

Bouviues,  a  village  in  the  French  department 
of  Nord,  the  scene  of  the  victory  of  Philip 
Augustus  of  France  over  the  Emperor  Otto  IV. 
in  1214,  and  of  a  series  of  struggles  in  1794  be¬ 
tween  the  Austrians  under  K insky  and  the  victo¬ 
rious  French  Army  of  the  North. 

Bovate  (Lat.  Bos,  ox),  or  Oxgang,  an  old  Eng¬ 
lish  land-measure;  as  much  as  an  ox  can  plough 
in  a  season — an  area  varying  according  to  circum¬ 
stances  from  eight  to  eighteen  or  sometimes  even 
twenty-four  acres.  It  was  the  eighth  of  a  cant- 
cate. 

Bovidte,  a  family  of  even-toed,  hollow-horned, 
ruminant,  hoofed  mammals  ( Artiodactyla  rumi- 
nantia  Cavicornia).  The  sheep  and  antelope  types 
form  the  other  division  of  the  same  series.  The 
Bovidae  include  the  various  varieties  of  ox  (Bos), 
the  buffalo  ( Bubalus  and  Caffer),  the  Thibet  ox 
(Poephagus),  and  perhaps  also  the  more  widely- 
separated  musk-ox  ( Ovibos ).  The  ancient  Bos 
primigeniits,  the  numerous  wild  species  such  as 
banteng  and  gaur,  the  abundant  varieties  of  do¬ 
mesticated  cattle,  the  Asiatic  buffalo  ( Bubalus 
buffelus),  the  giant  ami  ( Bubalus  ami),  the  wild 
and  also  domesticated  Thibetan  yak  ( Poephagus 


BOW. 


189. 


BOX-HAULING. 


grunniens),  the  ancient  and  still  extant  European 
bison  (B.  Europceus),  the  American  buffalo  or 
bison  ( B.  Americanus),  are  important  forms  of 
the  bos  type.  But  in  the  musk-ox  (Ovibos  mos 
chatus)  the  very  small  naked  portion  of  the  snout 
and  the  short  hair-covered  tail  are  marked,  though 
hardly  important  differences.  It  is  often  included 
among  the  sheep  and  goats  (Ovina).  Altogether 
there  are  about  thirteen  modern  species,  widely 
distributed  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  North 
America.  Numerous  fossil  forms  are  known 
from  the  Pliocene  upward. 

Bow  of  a  ship  is  the  general  name  for  the  stem 
and  fore-part,  or  that  which  cuts  the  water.  The 
word  is  often  used  in  the  plural,  the  ship  being 
considered  to  have  starboard  and  port  bows,  meet¬ 
ing  at  the  stem.  Starboard  is  applied  to  the  right 
side,  and  port  to  the  left  side,  looking  forward. 

Bowdich,  Thomas  Edwakd,  African  traveller, 
horn  at  Bristol,  June  20,  1791.  Selected  in  1810 
to  conduct  a  mission  to  the  King  of  Ashanti,  he 
succeeded  in  his  negotiation  and  thus  paved  the 
way  for  commerce  and  the  exploration  of  the  in¬ 
terior.  In  1822  he  sailed  for  Africa,  and  began  a 
trigonometrical  survey  of  the  Gambia,  where  he 
died  of  fever,  Jan.  10,  1824. 

Bo wd itch,  Nathaniel,  an  American  mathe¬ 
matician  and  astronomer,  born  March  20,  1773, 
at  Salem,  Mass.  He  showed  at  an  early  age 
an  inclination  for  mathematics,  in  which  he 
afterward  made  great  proficiency  without  ever 
attending  a  university.  His  New  American  Prac¬ 
tical  Navigator  (1802)  was  received  with  great 
favor.  He  published  also  a  translation  of  Lap¬ 
lace’s  Mecanique  Celeste  (1829-38),  to  which  he 
added  valuable  annotations,  and  upon  this  achieve¬ 
ment  his  fame  chiefly  rests.  He  died  at  Boston, 
March  16,  1838. 

Bowdler,  Thomas,  who  has  immortalized  him¬ 
self  unhappily  as  the  editor  of  the  “  Family  Shake¬ 
speare,”  was  born  near  Bath,  July  11,  1754.  He 
died  Feb.  24,  1825.  In  1818  he  published  “  The 
Family  Shakespeare,  in  ten  volumes,  in  which 
nothing  is  added  to  the  original  text;  but  those 
words  and  expressions  are  omitted  which  cannot 
with  propriety  be  read  aloud  in  a  family.”  The 
work  had  a  large  sale,  and  was  long  popular,  in 
spite  of  the  ridicule  it  brought  down  upon  the 
head  of  its  over-prudish  editor,  and  this  episode 
has  added  to  the  English  tongue  the  word  bowd- 
lerism  as  a  synonym  for  senseless  expurgation. 
He  also  expurgated  Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall. 

Bowdoin,  James,  an  American  statesman  of 
Huguenot  descent,  born  in  Boston  in  1727,  grad¬ 
uated  at  Harvard  in  1745,  was  elected  to  the  Con¬ 
tinental  Congress  in  1774,  and  in  1785-86  was 
Governor  of  Massachusetts.  He  published 
scientific  papers,  poems,  etc.;  was  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Societies  of  London  and  Edinburgh,  and 
LL.D.  of  Edinburgh;  and  in  his  honor  Bowdoin 
College  was  named.  He  died  in  1790. 

Bowdoin  College,  named  in  honor  of  Gov. 
James  Bowdoin,  of  Massachusetts,  was  chartered 
in  1794,  and  has  been  the  alma  mater  of  many 
distinguished  Americans.  Notable  among  its 
students  are  Hawthorne,  Longfellow,  William  Pitt 
Fessenden,  John  P.  Hale,  Franklin  Pierce,  and  S. 
S.  Prentiss.  The  college  is  located  at  Brunswick, 
Me.,  and  has  a  large  staff  of  professors,  some 
3oO  students,  and  a  fine  library  and  mu¬ 
seum.  It  is  practically  controlled  by  the 
Congregational  body. 

Bower,  or  Bowmaker,  Walter,  frequently 
spoken  of  as  “  the  continuator  of  Fordun,”  com¬ 
pleted  the  history  of  Scotland  which  is  known  as 
the  Scolv-hronicon,  and  which  was  begun  by  For 
dun.  Not  much  is  known  of  Bower’s  personal 
history.  We  know  from  his  own  statement  that 
he  was  born  in  1385,  and  he  died  in  1449. 

Bowen,  Francis,  born  Sept.  8,  1811,  edited 
the  North  American  Review,  and  has  written  ex¬ 
tensively  on  political  economy  and  philosophy. 

Bowerbankia,  a  common  genus  in  the  class  of 
Bryozoa  or  Polyzoa.  These  are  colonies  of 
minute  but  highly-organized  animals,  which  used 
to  be  included  among  the  hydroids  or  zoophytes, 
but  are  now  unanimously  placed  at  a  much  higher 
level. 

Bower-bird,  a  name  given  to  certain  Austra¬ 
lian  birds,  probably  in  the  great  family  of  Time- 
linse,  or  babbling  thrushes,  remarkable  for  their 
habit  of  making  bower-like  erections,  called 


runs,  and  for  adorning  them  with  gay  feathers, 
rags,  bones,  shells,  and  such  other  white  or 
brightly  colored  objects  as  they  can  pick  up. 


The  Spotted  Bower-bird  (.from  Brehnij . 


These  bowers  are  not  used  as  nests,  but  appear 
to  be  places  of  much  resort  at  the  breeding-season 
in  particular.  The  Regent-bird  ( Sericulus  mel- 
inus)  has  also  been  shown  to  form  bowers.  Mr. 
Coxen,  an  Australian  ornithologist,  to  whom 
many  interesting  observation's  on  bower-birds, 
are  due,  has  described  the  love-tent  of  the 
regent-bin].  It  is  less  dome-shaped  and  smaller 
than  that  of  the  bower-bird,  and  appears  to 
be  wholly  adorned  with  snail  shells. 

Bowie-knife,  an  American  hunting  dagger, 
named  after  its  inventor,  liezin  P.  Bowie,  and 
used  with  terrible  effect  in  an  affray  by  his 
brother,  Col.  Jim  Bowie,  who,  born  about  1790, 
fell  at  Fort  Alamo  in  the  Texan  War  (1836).  The 
weapon  has  a  curved,  doubled-edged  blade,  10  to 
15  inches  long,  and  above  an  inch  wide.  In 
earlier  days  it  was  occasionally  used  for  duelling. 

Bowles,  Samuel,  born  in  Springfield,  Mass., 
in  1826,  became  editor  of  the  Springfield  Repub¬ 
lican  in  1844,  and  was  well-known  as  one  of  the 
foremost  of  American  journalists.  He  died  in 
January,  1878. 

Bowles,  William  Lisle,  D.D.,  poet,  was  born 
Sept.  14,  1762,  in  Northamptonshire,  England. 
Educated  at  Winchester  School  and  at  Trinity 
College,  Oxford,  in  1804  he  became  a  Prebendary 
of  Salisbury  Cathedral  and  Rector  of  Bremhill,  in 
Wiltshire.  He  died  at  Salisbury  April  7,  1850. 

Bowling  Green,  a  town  of  Kentucky,  capital 
of  Warren  county,  on  the  Barren  river,  114 
miles  south-by-west  of  Louisville.  Pop.  (1880), 
5,114. 

Bowls,  or  Bowling,  is  an  English  pastime  of 
undoubted  antiquity.  Strutt,  in  his  Sports  and 
Pastimes,  reproduces  a  picture  of  two  men  play¬ 
ing  a  game  with  bowls  from  a  MS.  of  the 
thirteenth  century  (Royal  Library),  and  another 
from  a  MS.  of  the  fourteenth  century,  represent¬ 
ing  three  men  bowling  at  a  “  jack,”  very  much 
as  the  game  is  now  practiced,  except  that  the 
players  have  only  one  bowl  apiece. 

Bowling  is  the  name  applied  to  a  game  of  ten 
pins  in  the  United  States.  It  is  played  in  a 
covered  alley  on  a  prepared  board  60  feet  long  by 
4  feet  wide.  The  board  is  slightly  convex  in  the 
center,  and  bevelled  to  the  sides.  The  ten  pins, 
usually  of  ash,  andabout  onefoot  high,  are  arranged 
in  a  pyramidal  form.  Each  player  in  turn  rolls 
three  bowls  from  the  other  end  of  the  board,  try¬ 
ing  to  knock  over  as  many  pins  as  possible.  The 
otiier  players  then  have  their  turn.  A  game  con¬ 
sists  of  three  or  more  such  turns  of  three  bowls 
for  each  player;  he  who  knocks  over  most  pins 
being  the  winner.  The  bowls  are  usually  made 
of  lignum-vitae,  are  round,  and  of  unlimited  size, 
generally  varying  from  i  a  lb.  to  5  or  6  lb.  in 
weight.  When  the  player  knocks  all  the  pins 
down  with  one  or  two  bowls,  he  lias  what 
is  called  a  “spare”  or  a  “double  spare,”  i.  e., 
one  shot  or  two  shots,  as  the  case  may  be,  to 
spare.  To  save  time  he  does  not  get  the  pins  put 
up  again  immediately,  but  waits  for  his  next 
turn,  when,  in  the  case  of  a  “spare”  his  first 
shot,  and  of  a  “double”  his  first  two  shots,  are 
counted  double,  viz.,  once  for  the  spares  of  the 
turn  before,  and  once  for  the  current  turn.  lie 
may  even  have  another  double  or  single  spare, 


wheu  the  scoring  is  carried  over  into  the  third 
turn,  and  So  on.  In  the  last  turn  of  the  game, 
however,  the  spares  must  be  played  off  at  once. 

Bowman,  Sir  William,  English  oculist,  born 
July  20,  1816,  studied  chiefly  in  London, 

where  he  commenced  practice  as  a  surgeon,  and 
became  Curator  of  the  Anatomical  Museum.  He 
was  Professor  of  Physiology  at  King’s  College 
(1845-55),  received  honorary  degrees  from  Dublin, 
Cambridge,  and  Edinburgh;  is  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society;  became  Consulting  Surgeon  and 
Vice-President  of  King’s  College,  London  (1877), 
and  a  Baronet  (1884). 

Bowring,  Sir  John,  born  in  England  in  1792, 
knew  200,  and  could  speak  100,  languages.  In 
1824  became  the  first  editor  of  the  Westminster 
Review.  His  Sketch  of  the  Language  and  Litera,- 
ture  of  Holland  (1829)  procured  for  him  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Laws  from  the  University  of 
Groningen.  He  sat  in  Parliament  from  1835  to 
1837,  and  from  1841  to  1849,  and  actively  pro¬ 
moted  the  adoption  of  free  trade.  In  1849  he 
was  appointed  British  consul  at  IIong-Kong,  and 
Superintendent  of  Trade  in  China.  He  returned 
in  1853,  and  in  the  following  year  was  knighted 
and  made  Governor  of  Hong-Kong.  In  1855  he 
concluded  a  commercial  treaty  with  Siam,  in  1858 
made  a  tour  through  the  Philippine  Islands.  He 
died  at  Exeter,  Nov.  23,  1872. 

Bowsprit  is  a  strong  boom  or  spar  projecting 
over  the  stemhead  or  bows  of  a  sailing  ship,  and 
also  of  a  steamship  when  the  stem  of  t  he  latter  is 
of  the  curved  or  cut-water  description .  Its  use 
is  to  support  the  jib-boom,  a  longer  and  lighter 
spar,  forming  a  continuation  of  the  bowsprit, 
which  receives  the  lower  ends  of  the  foremast 
stay-ropes,  on  which  sails  are  carried. 

Bowstring  is  a  name  specifically  used  for  an 
old  Turkish  mode  of  execution,  the  offender  being 
strangled  by  means  of  a  bowstring. 

Bowstring  Hemp,  or  Moorva,  is  the  fiber  of 
a  species  of  Sanseviera  (especially  <8.  Zeglaniea),  a 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Liliaceae,  tribe  Ilcme- 
rocallese,  used  for  making  bowstrings  in  the  East 
Indies. 

Bowyer,  Sir  George,  born  in  1811  at  Radley, 
near  Oxford,  in  1839  was  called  to  the  bar. 
Converted  to  Catholicism  in  1850,  lie  represented 
Dundalk  1852-68,  and  (lie  County  of  Wexford 
1874—80,  when  his  Home  Rule  principles  estranged 
him  from  the  Liberal  party,  and  in  1876  led  to 
his  expulsion  from  the  Reform  Club.  He  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father  as  seventh  baronet  in  1860,  and 
died  June  7,  1883. 

Bowyer,  William,  an  eminent  English  printer 
and  classical  scholar,  born  in  London,  Dec.  19, 
1699.  Appointed  in  1729  printer  of  the  votes  of 
the  House  of  Commons,  he  subsequently  became 
printer  to  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  and  to  the 
Royal  Society,  and  in  1767  was  appointed  printer  of 
(he  Rolls  of  the  House  of  Lords  and  the  Journals 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  He  died  in  1777. 

Box  ( Buxus ),  a  genus  usually  reckoned  to- 
belong  to  the  Euphorbiaceae;  evergreen  shrubs  or 
small  trees,  with  greenish  inconspicuous  monoe¬ 
cious  flowers  in  little  axillary  spikes  or  fascicles. 
The  Common  Box  (B.  sempervirens)  grows  wild 
through  South  Europe,  North  Africa,  North  Asia 
to  Japan,  West  Asia  to  West  Himalaya.  The 


Branch  of  the  Common  Box  ( Buxus  sempervirens). 


box  of  commerce  comes  mainly  from  Caucasia, 
parts  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  and  Persia,  and  is  used 
for  turning  and  wood-engraving. 

Box-hauling  is  a  mode  of  turning  a  ship,  when 
the  swell  of  the  sea  renders  tacking  impossible,  or 
when  the  ship  is  too  near  the  shore  to  allow  room 


BOXING-DAY. 


190 


BRACKEN. 


for  veering.  The  operation  is  effected  by  hauling 
the  head-sheets  to  windward,  bracing  the  head- 
yards  aback,  and  squaring  the  after-yards,  the 
helm  at  the  same  time  being  put  alee. 

Boxing-day,  the  day  after  Christmas,  and  so 
called  in  England  from  being  the  day  on  which 
Christmas  boxes  or  presents  are  giveu'to  servants 
and  others. 

Box-thorn  (Lycium),  a  genus  of  Solanaceae, 
having  funnel-shaped  or  tubular  flowers,  and 
two-celled  berries.  L.  vulgar e has  been  sparingly 
naturalized  in  the  United  States.  L.  fuchsioides, 
although  destitute  of  spines,  is  used  as  a  hedge- 
plant  in  the  Andes  of  Quito. 

BoyacH,  a  department  of  Colombia,  touching 
Venezuela.  Area,  83,351  square  miles;  pop.  (1886), 
483,874.  Capital,  Tunja,  6,000  inhabitants. 

Boyar,  an  order  in  Old  Russia,  next  to  the 
knjazes  or  knjeses  (ruling  princes).  They  had 
their  own  p  rtisans,  and  gave  their  services  to  a 
prince  of  their  own  choice,  whom  they  left  again 
at  their  pleasure.  Peter  the  Great  finally  abol¬ 
ished  the  order  by  giving  them  a  place  among 
the  Russian  nobility,  but  at  the  same  time 
stripping  them  of  their  peculiar  privileges.  The 
higher  nobility  of  Roumania  are  also  called 
Boyars. 

Boy-bishop.  The  custom  of  electing  a  boy- 
bishop  on  St.  Nicholas’  Day  dates  from  a  very 
early  period.  It  spread  over  most  Catholic 
countries,  and  in  England  seems  to  have  pre¬ 
vailed  in  almost  every  parish.  Although  the 
election  took  place  on  St.  Nicholas’  Day  (Decem¬ 
ber  6th),  the  authority  lasted  to  Holy  Innocents’ 
Day  (December  28th).  The  boy-bishop  was  chosen 
from  the  children  of  the  church  or  cathedral 
•choir,  or  from  the  pupils  of  the  grammar-school. 
He  was  arrayed  in  episcopal  vestments,  and, 
attended  by  a  crowd  of  subordinates  in  priestly 
dress,  went  about  with  songs  and  dances  from 
house  to  house,  blessing  the  people. 

Boyce,  William,  composer,  born  in  London, 
1710,  appointed  composer  to  the  Chapel-royal  in 
1736,  and  organist  in  1758.  He  was  master  of 
the  King’s  band  from  1755.  He  died  at  Kensing¬ 
ton,  Feb.  7,  1779.  Boyce  holds  a  high  rank  as 
a  composer  of  church  music. 

Boycotting,  the  system  of  combining  to  hold 
no  relations,  social  or  commercial,  with  a  neigh¬ 
bor,  in  order  to  punish  him  for  differences  in 
political  opinion,  or  for  alleged  unjust  acts — a 
kind  of  social  excommunication.  It  was  first 
formulated  by  Mr.  Parnell,  the  Irish  leader,  at 
Ennis,  on  Sept.  19,  1880,  and  derived  its  name 
from  one  of  the  first  victims,  Captain  Boycott, 
a  Mayo  factor  and  farmer,  who  has  had  for  his 
sufferings  the  consolation  of  giving  a  new  word 
to  most  European  languages.  The  term  “exclu¬ 
sive  dealing”  has  been  applied  by  its  apologists 
to  boycotting,  which  was  brought  within  the  law 
by  the  Crimes  Act  of  1887. 

Boyd,  Rev.  Andrew  Kennedy  Hutchison, 
D.D.,  born  November,  1825.  He  first  became 
known  in  literature  by  his  familiar  essays  con¬ 
tributed  to  Fraser’s  Magazine  under  the  now 
well-known  initials  A. K. II. B.  He  is  the  author 
of  Recreations  of  a  Country  Parson  (three  series, 
1859-61)  and  of  many  volumes  of  sermons. 

Boyd,  Zachary,  a  Scottish  divine,  born  about 
1585,  was  educated  at  the  Universities  of  Glas¬ 
gow  and  St.  Andrews,  afterward  becoming  a 
Regent  or  Professor  of  the  Protestant  College  of 
Saumur  in  France.  The  persecution  of  the 
Huguenots  having  caused  him  to  return  to  Scot¬ 
land  in  1621,  he  was  two  years  later  appointed 
Minister  of  the  Barony  Parish,  Glasgow,  and 
was  thrice  elected  Rector  of  the  University.  He 
died  in  1653  or  1654,  leaving  numerous  MSS. 

Boydell,  John, engraver  and  publisher  of  prints 
was  born  at  Dorrington,  Shropshire,  England,  in 
1719,  and  in  1741  went  to  London,  where  he 
learned  engraving,  and  started  a  print-shop.  Un¬ 
der  Boydell’s  liberal  patronage  of  native  artists, 
the  importation  of  foreign  prints  not  only  almost 
ceased,  but  English  prints  were  exported  to  the 
Continent.  He  now  determined  to  do  for  English 
painting  what  he  had  done  for  engraving,  and 
selected  Shakespeare’s  works  for  illustration.  He 
secured  the  most  eminent  painters  in  the  kingdom, 
including  Opie,  Reynolds,  Northcote,  and  AVest. 
The  result  was  the  “Shakespeare  Gallery,”  from 
which  was  engraved  a  superb  volume  of  plates 


(1803)  to  accompany  a  splendid  edition  of  Shake¬ 
speare’s  works  in  9  vols.  fol.  (1792-1801).  He 
died  Dec.  12,  1804. 

Boyer,  Alexis,  Baron  de,  a  French  surgeon, 
was  born  in  1 757.  In  1802  he  was  appointed  first 
surgeon  to  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  who  raised  him 
to  the  rank  of  baron,  and  whom  he  accompanied 
on  his  campaigns  and  journeys.  After  the  Res¬ 
toration  he  became  Professor  of  Practical  Surgery 
in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  first  surgeon  at 
the  Hopital  de  la  CliaritC  He  died  Nov.  25, 
1833. 

Boyer,  Jean  Pierre,  President  of  the  Repub¬ 
lic  of  Hayti,  was  born  of  a  mulatto  family,  Feb. 
28,  1776,  at  Port-au-Prince.  He  distinguished 
himself  by  his  conduct  against  the  British  on  their 
invasion  of  his  native  isle,  and  afterward  joined 
the  party  which  aimed  at  the  complete  emancipa¬ 
tion  of  the  colony.  He  aided  Petion  in  over¬ 
throwing  the  bloody  tyrant  Dessalines  in  1806, 
and  establishing  an  independent  republic  in  the 
western  part  of  the  island.  He  governed  the  Re¬ 
public  of  Hayti  fifteen  years,  but  his  partiality  to 
the  mulattoes  made  him  unpopular  with  the  pure 
negroes,  and  they  rose  in  insurrection  in  1843. 
Boyer  fled  to  Jamaica,  and  subsequently  to  Paris, 
where  lie  died  July  9,  1850. 

Boyle,  Charles,  fourth  Earl  of  Orrery,  was 
born  in  1676,  succeeded  to  the  title  in  1703,  in 
1721  was  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  as  a  Jacobite, 
and  died  in  1731. 

Boyle,  John,  born  in  1707,  succeeded  as  fifth 
Earl  of  Orrery  in  1731,  and  of  Cork  in  1753. 

Boyle,  Richard,  the  founder  of  the  house  of 
Cork  and  Orrery,  was  born  Oct.  13,  1566.  In 
1631  he  was  made  Lord  High-Treasurer,  an  office 
which  remained  hereditary  in  his  family.  He  died 
Sep.  15,  1643. 

Boyle,  The  Hon.  Robert,  the  most  celebrated 
natural  philosopher  of  his  time,  seventh  son  and 
fourteenth  child  of  Richard  Boyle,  first  Earl  of 
Cork,  was  born  Jan.  25,  1627.  He  was  one 
of  the  first  members  of  that  association  which 
some  years  after  became  better  known  as  the 
Royal  Society.  He  died  in  1691. 

Boy  le,  Roger,  soldier  and  statesman,  was  born 
in  1621.  The  third  son  of  the  Earl  of  Cork,  he 
was  made  Baron  Broghill  in  1627.  He  became 
one  of  Cromwell’s  special  council,  and  a  member 
of  his  House  of  Lords.  After  Cromwell’s  death, 
he  tried  to  support  Richard  Cromwell,  but  fore¬ 
seeing  that  his  cause  was  hopeless,  crossed  to 
Ireland,  and  secured  it  for  the  king.  After  the 
restoration,  Broghill  was  made  Earl  of  Orrery. 
He  died  in  1679. 

Boyle  Lectures,  from  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle, 
who,  by  his  will  dated  July  28,  1691,  settled  £50 
a  year  for  “some  preaching  minister,”  who  shall 
preach  eight  sermons  in  the  year  for  proving  the 
Christian  religion  against  Atheists,  Theists  (/.  e. , 
Deists),  Pagans,  Jews,  and  Mohammedans,  not 
descending  to  any  controversies  among  Christians 
themselves.  They  are  now  preached  in  the 
Chapel  Royal,  AVhitehall,  London,  in  the  after¬ 
noon  of  some  of  the  Sundays  following  Easter- 
day. 

Boyle’s  Fuming  Liquor,  sulphide  of  ammon¬ 
ium,  obtained  by  distilling  slaked  lime,  sal-am¬ 
moniac,  and  sulphur. 

Boyne,  a  river  in  the  east  of  Ireland,  rises  in 
the  Bog  of  Allen,  and  flows  through  Kildare, 
Kings  county,  Meath,  and  Louth.  It  is  chiefly 
famous  for  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  July  1,  1690, 
in  which  William  III.  defeated  James  II. 

Bozrah  (modern  el  Busaireh),  a  strong  town  of 
Edom,  in  the  mountain  district,  to  the  southeast 
of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Bozzaris,  Marcos,  Greek  patriot,  born  about 
1788,  at  Suli,  in  the  mountains  of  Epirus.  In 
1820  Bozzaris  put  himself  at  the  head  of  some  800 
expatriated  Suliotes,  and  after  an  irregular  war¬ 
fare  joined  Prince  Mavrocordato.  In  1823  a 
Turco- Albanian  army  of  13,000  men  descended 
from  the  north  of  Epirus.  Bozzaris  advanced 
with  1,200  men  and  on  August  20th  reached 
Karpenisi,  where  4,000  Turks  were  encamped. 
At  night  350  Suliotes  surprised  the  Turks,  who 
were  routed  with  great  slaughter;  but  Bozzaris 
fell  at  the  head  of  his  band. 

Brabancotme,  the  patriotic  song  of  the  Bel¬ 
gians,  originally  sung  by  the  insurgents  during 
the  Revolution  of  September,  1830. 


Brabant'  was  the  name  formerly  given  to  an 
important  province  of  the  Low  Countries,  extend¬ 
ing  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Waal  to  the  sources 
of  the  Dyle,  and  from  the  Maas  and  the  Plain  of 
Limburg  to  the  Lower  Scheldt.  Brabant  was  made 
a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Holland,  at  the  Con¬ 
gress  of  Vienna;  but  since  1830  its  three  provinces 
have  been  divided  as  follows;  (1)  North  or  Dutch 
Brabant,  1,960  square  miles,  and  (1885)  495,277 
inhabitants;  (2)  the  Belgian  Province  of  Antwerp, 
1,094  square  miles,  and  (1885)  639,339  inhabitants; 
and  (3)  South  Brabant,  also  Belgian,  1,260  square 
miles,  and  (1885)  1,060,053  inhabitants.  The 
principal  towns  are  Brussels,  the  former  capital 
of  Brabant,  Bois-le-Duc  (Hertogenbosch),  Til¬ 
burg,  Breda,  and  Bergen-op-Zoom. 

Braccio,  Fortebracci,  Count  of  Montone, 
a  celebrated  Italian  free-lance,  born  at  Perugia,  in 
1368.  He  accepted  from  Queen  Joanna,  of  Naples, 
the  command  of  her  land  forces,  and  later  was 
created  Count  of  Foggia  and  Prince  of  Capua. 
In  1423.  by  the  queen’s  command,  he  was  crowned 
at  Perugia,  as  Prince  of  Aquila  and  Capua.  He 
died  June  5,  1424. 

Brace,  in  Carpentry,  an  oblique  piece  of  wood 
used  to  bind  together  the  principal  timbers  of  a 
roof  or  other  wooden  structure.  The  name  is  also 
used  of  the  curved  iron  tool  (holding  a  bit)  used 
by  carpenters  for  boring. 

Brace,  Charles  Loring,  an  American  author 
and  philanthropist,  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June 
19,  1826.  He  founded  the  Children’s  Aid  Society 
in  1853. 

Bracelet  (through  Fr.  from  Lat.  brachium,  the 
arm),  a  personal  ornament,  worn  on  the  arm, 
generally  at  the  wrist.  Bracelets  and  armlets 
(Lat,  armillce)  have  been  used  by  almost  every 
nation  from  the  earliest  periods. 

Braces,  on  shipboard,  are  ropes  attached  to  the 
yard-arms,  and  employed  to  turn  or  swing  the 
yards  round. 

Brachial  Artery  is  the  great  arterial  trunk 
supplying  the  upper  extremity  between  the  arm- 
pit  and  the  elbow;  it  is  the  continuation  of  the 
axillary  artery.  It  runs  down  the  front  and  inner 
side  of  the  upper  arm,  giving  off  several  named 
branches  as  it  proceeds,  and  at  a  point  about  an 
inch  below  the  bend  of  the  elbow  it  terminates  by 
dividing  into  radial  and  ulnar  arteries. 

Brachiopoda,  a  class  of  shelled  animals  having 
certain  affinities  with  worms  and  with  Polyzoa, 
but  less  with  molluscs,  though  often  included 
within  the  limits  of  the  last-named  group.  The 
presence  of  two  shells  gives  them  a  superficial 
resemblance  to  true  bivalves  (Lamellibranchs), 


Rhynclionella  psittacea  seen  from  the  dorsal  aspect  (a), 
and  from  the  side  (6). 

but  the  shells  lie  dorsally  and  ventrally  instead  of 
right  and  left,  and  the  anatomy  of  the  inclosed 
organism  is  quite  different.  Of  the  125  genera 
and  2,600  species  known,  only  17  genera  and  110 
species  are  still  extant.  Lingula  and  some  others 
have  persisted  from  the  earliest  times. 

Brachypterte  (i.  e.,  short-winged),  an  ornitho¬ 
logical  term  applied  to  such  peculiarly  aquatic 
birds  as  auks,  puffins,  penguins,  grebes,  guille¬ 
mots,  and  divers  proper  (Colymbus). 

Bracliyura,  a  technical  name  applied  to  the 
short-tailed  decapod  crustaceans  or  crabs,  in  con¬ 
trast  to  the  long-tailed  forms  like  the  lobsters. 
The  term  is  also  applied  to  a  family  of  bats, 
including  Mystacina  and  Noctilio,  in  which  the 
tail  is  very  short. 

Brack en,  or  Brake,  a  large  genus  of  Ferns  of 
the  division  Polypodae,  distinguished  by  spore- 
cases  in  marginal  lines  covered  by  the  reflexed 


BRACKET. 


191 


BRAIN 


margin  of  the  frond.  It  is  very  widely  distrib- 


Commoii  British  Brake. 

a,  end  of  a  branch,  much  reduced;  b.  end  of  a  pinnule 
lowi  r  side,  showing  fructification. 

uted  from  arctic  and  temperate  to  tropical  coun¬ 
tries. 

Bracket,  a  projection  from  a  wall,  used  for  the 
purpose  of  supporting  a  statue,  bust,  or  the  like. 
The  term  is  also  employed  in  joinery,  etc.,  to 


Ornamental  Brackets. 


designate  supports  in  the  form  of  a  bent  knee,  of 
shelves,  galleries,  etc.  It  is  also  generally  applied 
to  such  gas-lights  as  project  from  the  wall. 

Bract  is  a  term  applied  to  any  leaf  from  the 
axil  of  which  a  flower  or  a  floral  axis  is  produced, 
instead  of  an  ordinary  leaf-bud  or  branch. 

Braclon,  Henry  de,  English  ecclesiastic  and 
jurist;  in  1244  became  Archdeacon  of  Barnstable 
and  Chancellor  of  Exeter  Cathedral;  was  made 
Lord  Chief  Justice  in  1254,  and  held  the  office 
twenty  years.  He  died  in  1274. 

Braddock,  Edward,  a  British  General,  born 
in  Perthshire,  Scotland,  about  1(595,  entered  the 
Coldstream  Guards  in  1710,  and  was  appointed 
Major-General  in  1754.  He  came  to  this  country 
against  the  French  and  on  July  9,  1755,  invested 
Fort  Duquesne,  on  the  present  site  of  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.  His  advance  guard  was  attacked  by  a  party 
of  about  900  French  and  Indians  from  the  fort. 
After  two  hours’  fighting,  in  which  Braddock  had 
four  horses  shot  under  him,  and  was  mortally 
wounded  while  trying  to  rally  his  men,  the  sur¬ 
vivors  made  a  hasty  retreat  under  Washington, 
Braddock’s  aide-de-camp,  the  only  one  of  his 
staff  who  escaped  unhurt,  63  out  of  86  officers, 
and  914  out  of  1,373  men  engaged,  were  either 
killed  or  wounded.  Braddock  was  carried  from 
the  field,  and  died  July  13,  1755.  Although 
brave  to  rashness,  Braddock  was  extremely  obsti¬ 
nate,  and  lost  his  life  and  army  by  refusing  the 
advice  tendered  him  by  Washington. 

Braddon,  Mary  Elizabeth  (Mrs.  John  Max¬ 
well),  novelist,  was  born  in  London,  in  1837.  Of 
all  her  fifty  novels,  perhaps  the  be-t  is  Ishmael 
(1884).  She  was  for  some  years  editor  of  Belgravia. 

Bradford,  an  important  manufacturing  town 
and  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  191  miles  north-north- 
west  of  London.  It  is  the  chief  seat  in  England 
of  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  worsted  yarn,  and 
the  great  mart  for  the  long  wools  used  in  worsted 
fabrics.  There  are  more  than  300  mills,  support¬ 
ing  a  large  population.  Pop.  (1887),  224,507. 

Bradford,  an  oil-producing  town  of  M’Kcan 


county,  Pa.,  sixty -five  miles  south  of  Buffalo. 
Pop.  (1880)  9,197. 

Bradford  Clay,  a  subdivision  of  the  Great 
Oolite  (Lower  Oolite),  is  a  blue,  unctuous  clay, 
occurring  at  Bradford,  near  Bath,  England,  and 
extending  for  a  few  miles  around.  It  is  remark¬ 
able  for  the  occurrence  in  it  of  large  numbers  of 
Crinoidie,  Apiocrinites  Parkinsoni. 

Brad  ford-on- A.  von,  (Sax.  Bradanford,  broad 
ford),  a  town  of  Wiltshire,  England.  The  tiny 
church  of  St.  Lawrence,  built  by  St.  Auldhem 
between  675  and  709,  is  the  only  perfect  build¬ 
ing  of  pre-Norman  times  in  England. 

Bradford,  William,  second  governor  of 
Plymouth  colony,  born  in  England  in  1588,  died 
May  9,  1657.  He  was  one  of  the  Mayflower  im¬ 
migrants.  William  Bradford,  a  Quaker,  born 
1658,  died  1752,  was  the  first  printer  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania.  Another  William  Bradford  born  in 
1755,  died  1795,  was  Attorney-General  of  the 
United  States  1794.  Still  another  William 
Bradford,  born  in  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  in  1830, 
became  a  popular  painter  of  marine  subjects. 

Bradlaugli,  Charles,  a  social  reformer,  but 
a  vigorous  anti-socialist,  was  born  in  London  in 
1833.  He  became  editor  of  The  National  Ref ormer , 
and  in  1880  was  elected  Member  of  Parliament  for 
Northampton.  He  refused  at  first  to  take  the 
parliamentary  oath,  next  offered  to  take  it;  but 
the  House  refused  even  to  allow  him  to  affirm. 
He  continued  his  struggle  with  the  House,  was 
thrice  reelected  by  Northampton,  and,  in  1886, 
having  taken  the  oath,  was  allowed  to  take  his 
seat. 

Bradley,  Rev.  Edward,  much  better  known 
by  the  pseuydonym  of  “  Guthbert  Bede,”  was 
born  at  Kidderminster  in  1827.  His  Adventures 
of  Verdant  Oreen  (1853-57)  has  been  exceedingly 
popular. 

Bradley,  James,  English  astronomer,  was 
born  in  1693.  He  was  elected  to  the  Royal 
Society  in  1718.  In  1729  he  announced  the  im¬ 
portant  discovery  of  the  aberration  of  light.  In 
1848  lie  published  his  discovery  that  the  inclin¬ 
ation  of  the  earth’s  axis  to  the  ecliptic  is  not  con¬ 
stant,  a  fact  including  the  explanation  of  the 
procession  of  the  equinoxes  and  the  nutation  of 
the  earth’s  axis.  In  1742  he  succeeded  Halley  as 
Regius  Professor  of  Astronomy  at  Greenwich.  He 
died  July  13,  1762. 

Bradshaw,  John,  regicide,  was  born  near  Stock- 
port  in  1602.  On  Jan.  13,  1649,  he  was  appointed 
President  of  the  High  Court  of  Justice  for  the 
trial  of  Charles  I.  After  Cromwell’s  death  lie 
was  appointed  a  Commissioner  of  the  Great  Seal. 
He  died  Nov.  22, 1659,  and  his  body  wasburied  in 
Westminster,  but  after  his  posthumous  at¬ 
tainder,  it  was  disinterred  and  hung  on  a  gibbet, 
with  those  of  Cromwell  and  Ireton. 

Bradshaw’s  Railway  Guide,  derives  its  name 
from  George  Bradshaw(1801-53), originally  a  map- 
engraverin  Manchester,  England,  who  on  Oct.  19, 
1839,  commenced  the  issue  of  Bradshaw’s  Railway 
Time-tables,  since  1840  the  Railway  Companion. 

Bradstreet,  Anne,  born  in  1612  and  died  in 
1672;  married  the  Governor  of  Massachusetts, 
and  wrote  a  number  of  poems  over  the  signature 
of  “  The  Tenth  Muse.” 

Bradstreet,  Simon,  Governor  of  Massachu¬ 
setts,  was  born  in  1603  and  died  March  27,  1697. 
Was  in  public  service  62  years. 

Bradwardine,  Thomas,  English  theologian, 
was  born  not  later  than  1290.  In  1348  he  was 
elected  Archbishop  by  the  Chapter  of  Canterbury. 
He  died  in  1 349. 

Brady,  Nicholas,  with  Nahum  Tate,  versifier 
of  the  Psalms,  was  born  in  1659. 

Brngan<)a,  the  name  of  two  considerable  towns 
in  Brazil.— (1)  Bragan9a,  a  seaport,  100  miles 
northeast  of  Para,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Caite.  Pop. 
of  town  and  district,  6,000. — (2)  Braganc;a,  city  of 
about  10,000  inhabitants,  fifty  miles  northeast  of 
Sao  Paulo. 

Braganza,  or  Braganca,  a  city  of  Portugal, 
capital  of  the  Province  Traz-os-Montes.  This 
city  gives  its  name  to  the  House  of  Braganza,  the 
present  ruling  dynasty  in  Portugal.  Pop.,  5,495. 

Bragg,  Braxton,  Confederate  General,  born 
in  North  Carolina,  March  22,  1817,  was  graduated 
from  the  United  States  Military  Academy  in  1837, 
served  in  the  artillery  through  the  Seminole  and 


Mexican  wars,  rising  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  retired  in  1856.  He  was  for  a  time 
military  adviser  to  President  Davis.  He  died  in 
Galveston,  Tex.,  Sept.  27,  1876.— His  brother, 
Thomas,  born  in  1810,  was  Governor  of  North 
Carolina,  1854-58,  United  States  Senator,  1859-61, 
and  Attorney-General  in  Jefferson  Davis’  cabinet, 
1861-63.  He  died  in  Raleigh,  Jan.  21,  1872. 

Bragi,  in  Northern  Mythology,  son  of  Odin 
and  Frigga,  god  of  poetry  and  eloquence. 

Braham  (i.  e.  Abraham),  John,  tenor  singSr, 
born  in  London,  of  German-Jewish  parents, 
about  1774.  He  died  in  1856.  One  of  his 
daughters,  Frances,  in  1840  married  the  Earl  of 
Waldegrave.  She  died  July  5,  1879. 

Brah6,  Tycho,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  astronomers,  was  born  at  Knudstrup,  Sweden, 
Dec.  14,  1546.  With  a  globe  about  the  size  of  an 
orange,  and  a  pair  of  rude  compasses,  he  suc¬ 
ceeded,  as  early  as  1563,  in  detecting  grave  errors 
in  the  Alphonsine  tables  and  the  so-called  Prutenic 
(i.e.,  Prussian)  tables, and  set  about  their  correction. 
In  1572  he  discovered  a  new  and  brilliant  star  in 
the  constellation  Cassiopeia.  Frederic  II.  offered 
to  build  and  equip  for  Brahe  an  observatory  on 
the  island  of  Hven  or  Hoene,  in  the  Sound,  and 
in  1576  the  foundation-stone  of  the  castle  of  Uran- 
ienburg  (fortress  of  the  heavens)  was  laid.  Here 
for  twenty  years  Brahe  prosecuted  his  observa¬ 
tions  in  astronomy,  lie  died  at  Prague,  Oct.  24, 
1601. 

Brahma.  In  the  religion  and  philosophy  of 
the  Hindus,  this  word  has  two  meanings.  The 
crude  form  is  brahman,  the  etymological  signifi¬ 
cation  of  which  seems  to  be  expansion,  with  the 
secondary  meaning  of  religious  devotion.  Brahma 
(neuter)  designates  the  universal  spirit,  the  ground 
and  cause  of  all  existence;  which  is  not,  however, 
conceived  as  a  personal  deity,  but  only  as  an  ob¬ 
ject  of  contemplation.  Brahma  (masculine)  sig¬ 
nifies  an  offerer  of  prayer,  a  priest,  as  well  as  the 
Supreme  Being  regarded  as  a  person.  The  only 
spot  wliere  Brahma  is  periodically  adored  is  at 
Pushkara  in  Rajputana. 

Brahman,  or  Brahmin,  the  name  of  the  high¬ 
est  caste  in  the  system  of  Hinduism. 

Brahmanbarin,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  presi¬ 
dency  of  Bengal  on  the  Titus  river.  Pop.  (1881), 
17,438. 

Bralimapiitr  >  (son  of  Brahma),  one  of  the 
largest  rivers  of  India,  rises  in  Thibet,  and  after 
partially  mingling  with  the  Ganges,  flows  into 
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Length  including  its  tribu¬ 
tary,  the  Sanpo,  1,800  miles.  It  is  subject  to  dis¬ 
astrous  floods. 

Brahmo  Soinaj  (Brahma  Samdj — i.e.  Church 
of  the  one  God,  Tlieistic  Church),  a  religious 
and  social  association  in  India,  originated  by  the 
celebrated  Hindu  rajah,  Rommohun  Roy,  in  1830, 
under  the  title  Society  of  God.  Their  fundamental 
principles  are  that  there  is  but  one  Supreme  God, 
the  object  of  worship;  that  nature  and  intu¬ 
ition  are  the  sources  whence  our  knowledge  of 
God  is  derived;  they  reject  all  special  revelation, 
and  hold  that  religion  admits  of  progressive 
development. 

Brahms,  Johannes,  composer,  was  born  in 
Hamburg,  Germany,  May  7,  1833.  Of  all  modern 
composers  lie  is  held  to  approach  most  nearly  to 
Beethoven. 

Braid,  J  ames,  surgeon,  was  born  in  1795  in 
Fife,  and  died  March  25,  1850.  He  is  noted  for 
his  researches  in  Hypnotism. 

Braila,  or  Brahilov,  a  river-port  of  Rouma- 
nia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  142  miles 
northeast  of  Bucharest.  Pop.,  28,272. 

Brain  is  the  term  applied  to  that  part  of  the 
central  nervous  system  which  in  vetebrated  ani¬ 
mals  is  contained  within  the  cranium  or  skull, 
and,  in  the  invertebrata,  to  the  nervous  ganglia 
near  t  he  head  end  of  the  body.  The  brain  is  envel¬ 
oped  by  three  membranes,  named  the  Dura  inater, 
the  Aiachnoid,  and  the  Pia-mo ter.  These  support 
the  blood-vessels  which  nourish  the  cranium  and 
the  brain,  and  also  contain  a  clear  fluid — the  cere- 
bro-spinal  fluid — which  removes  the  products 
of  brain  waste,  and  at  the  same  time  serves  to 
diminish  the  effect  of  external  shocks.  Brain 
substance  is  composed  of  gray  matter  containing 
the  nerve  cells,  and  white  matter  composed  of 
nerve  fibers.  The  cerebrum  underlies  the  whole 
vault  of  the  cranium,  and  covers  all  the  rest  of 


BRAIN. 


192 


BRAIN. 


Under  Surface,  or  Base  of  Brain. 

F.L  .  T.L.,  O.L.,  frontal,  temporal,  and  occipital  lobes  of 
the  cerebrum;  cb,  cb.  cerebellum,  the  medulla  oblongata 
lying  between  its  two  lobes.  Cranial  Nerves.— 1,  olfact¬ 
ory  nerve  (the  nerve  of  smell) ;  2,  optic  nerve  (nerve  of 
sight)  ;  3,  third  or  oeulo-motor  nerve,  motor  nerve  to 
most  of  the  muscles  of  the  eye;  4.  fourth  or  trochlear 
nerve,  motor  nerve  to  the  superior  oblique  muscle  of  the 
eye;  5,  fifth,  trigeminus,  or  trifacial,  sensory  and  motor, 
the  large  root  sensory  to  the  face  and  eyes,  etc.;  the 
small  root,  motor  to  muscles  of  mastication;  6,  sixth  or 
abduceus  nerve,  to  external  rectus  muscle  of  eye,  turns 
eyeball  outwards;  7,  seventh  or  facial,  motor  to  muscles 
of  expression;  8,  eighth  or  auditory  nerve,  sensory  for 
hearing  (cochlea)  and  for  equilibration  (semi-circular 
canals);  9,  glosso-pharyngeal,  sensory  nerve  of  taste, 
and  motor  to  some  of  the  muscles  of  deglutition;  10, 
pneumogastric,  sensory  and  motor  to  larynx,  lungs,  heart, 
and  stomach;  11,  spinal  accessory,  motor  to  muscles  of 
heart  (inhibitory)  and  sterno-mastoid  and  trapezius;  12, 
hypoglossal,  motor  to  all  the  muscles  of  the  tongue;  cl. 
first  cervical  spinal  nerve. 

median  fissure,  at  the  bottom  of  which  lies 
ti  great  transverse  commissure,  the  corpus  cal¬ 
losum.  The  hemispheres  are  covered  with  a 
thin  layer  of  gray  matter  (or  nerve  cells), 
and  thrown  into  ridges  and  furrows  (techni¬ 
cally  called  convolutions  or  gyri,  and  fissures), 
There  are,  on  the  outer  surface,  W\e  fissure  of  Syl¬ 
vius  (fs),  W\q  fissure  of  Rolando  (//),  and,  on  the 
inner  surface,  the  parieto-occipital  ( po ).  These 
fissures  form  the  boundaries  of  the  various  lobes 
of  the  cerebrum. 

The  Cerebellum  possesses  a  median  and  two 
lateral  hemispheres.  These  lamina;  have  a  central 


N 


Median  Longitudinal  Section  through  Head  and  upper 
part  of  Neck,  to  show  relation  of  Brain  to  Cranium  and 
the  Spinal  Cord  (Original  drawing  from  preparation 
in  Anatomy  Rooms  at  Surgeons'  Hall,  Edinburgh), 
c,  cerebrum;  cb,  cerebellum;  sc,  spinal  cord;  spc,  spinal 
column;  mo,  medulla  oblongata,  passing  through  fora¬ 
men  magnum  into  the  spinal  cord ;  pv,  pons  Varolii;  rp, 
cerebral  peduncles,  or  crura  cerebri ;  cga,  anterior  cor¬ 
pora  quadrigemina;  cqp,  posterior  corpora  quadri- 
gemina;  pg,  pineal  gland;  pb,  pituitary  body;  cc,  corpus 
callosum,  divided  transversely;  f,  fornix;  mg,  marginal 
gyrus;  f/f,  gyrus  fornicatus;  cmg,  calloso-marginal 
suleus;  O,  occipital  lobe;po,  parieto-occipital  fissure;  cf, 
calcarine  fissure; dm. dura-mater,  separating  cerebrum 
from  cerebellum.  The  lines  AB  and  CD  show  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  transverse  and  vertical  sections. 

has  an  average  weight  of  49£  ounces,  that  of  the 
female  is  about  5  ounces  lighter.  Cuvier’s  brain 


Vertical  transverse  Section  of  Brain  in  direction  of  line 
AB  (from  same  plate  as  above)  (Original  drawing). 
The  shaded  outline  of  the  cerebrum  indicates  the  super¬ 
ficial  gray  matter. 

fe ,  fissure  of  Sylvius;  ir ,  island  of  Reil,  a  convolution  at 
the  bottom  of  the  fissure  of  Sylvius  concealed  .in  the 
adult;  cc,  corpus  callosum,  the  transverse  interliemi- 
spherical  commissure;  Iv.  lateral  ventricle;  f,  fornix, 
divided  transversely.  Between  the  fornix  and  the  cor¬ 
pus  callosum  are  seen  the  thin  septa  lucida;  cn,  caudate 
nucleus;  In.  lenticular  nucleus  (with  its  three  divisionsi; 
ot,  optic  thalamus;  ic.  internal  capsule;  ec,  external 
capsule,  and  outside  it  a  layer  of  gray  matter,  the 
claustrum;  pv,  pons  Varolii;  mo,  medulla  oblongata; 
oi.  inferior  olivary  body:  cb,  cerebellum;  l,  a,/,  s,  mark 
the  origin  of  the  dotted  lines  representing  motor  fibers 
passing  from  the  leg,  arm.  face,  and  speech  “centers,” 
through  the  internal  capsule,  cerebral  peduncles,  pons 
Varolii,  medulla  oblongata,  and  crossing  at  dp,  the 
decussation  of  the  pyramids  to  the  opposite  side  of  the 
spinal  cord  (to  explain  crossed  paralysis) .  Another 
dotted  line  passes  from  s  (speech  center)  to  hearing 
center  in  first  temporal  convolution. 

its  volition  and  its  intelligence.  We  may  leave 
it  capable  of  performing  very  complex  move¬ 
ments,  but  we  have  destroyed  its  power  to  initiate 
these  movements,  tve  reduce  it  to  the  condition  of 


the  brain  when  seen  from  above.  Below  its  pos¬ 
terior  extremity,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  fold 
of  dura-mater,  is  the  cerebellum.  Below  the 

F.L 


core  of  white  matter  with  a  thin  covering  of  gray 
matter. 

The  Medulla  Oblongata  is  the  lowest  division  of 
the  brain.  It  has  a  somewhat  conical  form,  with 
the  base  toward  the  pons  Varolii,  the  narrow  end 
toward  the  spinal  cord.  The  brain  of  the  male 

„  Sr  «/ 
aP 


weighed  1,861  grammes  (1  gramme  is  15i  grains;, 
Turgenieff’s  2;012  grammes.  On  the  other  hand, 
Virchow  has  found  a  brain  weighing  1,911 
grammes  in  a  man  without  any  specially  high 


Cerebrum— upper  surface  (Quain). 

To  show,  firstly,  division  into  two  nearly  equal  hemi¬ 
spheres  oy  the  great  median  fissure;  secondly,  general 
appearance  and  apparent  irregularity  of  arrangement 
of  the  convolutions  and  fissures;  F.L,  frontal  lobe; 
O.  L.,  occipital  lobe. 

cerebellum  lies  the  medulla  oblongata,  which  is 
continuous  through  the  foramen  magnum,  with 
the  Spinal  Cord.  The  cerebrum  consists  of  two 
nearly  equal  hemispheres ,  divided  by  a  deep 


Outer  aspect  of  Brain,  showing  relation  to  the  bonesof  the 
skull,  and  the  position  of  Ferrier’s  areas  (Landois) . 
fr,  fissure  of  Rolando;  f's,  fissure  of  Sylvius;  po.  parieto¬ 
occipital  fissure;  FI  superior,  F2  middle,  F3  inferior 
frontal ;  af,  ascending  frontal  convolution ;  up,  ascending 
parietal;  pp,  postero-parietal  convolution;  T1  superior, 
T2 middle,  T3  inferior  temporo-splienoidal  convolution; 
O,  occipital  lobe;  cb, cerebellum ;  1  (postero-parietal con¬ 
volution),  advance  of  the  opposite  leg.  as  in  walking;  2, 
3,  4  (round  upper  extremity  of  fissure  of  Rolando), 
complex  movements  of  opposite  leg,  arm,  and  of  the 
trunk,  as  in  swimming;  a,  b,  c,  d  (ascending  parietal 
convolution),  individual  and  combined  movements  of 
the  fingers  and  wrist  of  the  opposite  hand,  or  prehensile 
movements;  5  (posterior  end  of  superior  frontal  convo¬ 
lution),  forward  extension  of  opposite  arm  and  hand:  B 
(upper  part  of  ascending  frontal  convolution),  supina¬ 
tion  and  flexion  of  opposite  forearm;  7  (median  part  of 
ascending  frontal  convolution),  retraction  and  elevation 
of  opposite  angle  of  the  mouth ;  8  (lower  part  of  ascend¬ 
ing  frontal  convolution) ,  elevation  of  ala  nasi,  and  upper 
lip,  with  depression  of  lower  lip;  hand  10,  opening  of 
mouth  with  protrusion  and  retraction  of  tongue— on  t  he 
leftside  is  aphasic  region;  11,  between  lOand  lower  end 
of  ascending  parietal  convolution,  retraction  of  opposite 
angle  of  the  mouth,  the  head  turns  slightly  to  one  side; 
12,  posterior  part  of  the  superior  and  middle  frontal 
convolutions  (eyes  open  widely,  pupils  dilate,  head  and 
eyes  turn  toward  opposite  side) ;  13, 13' (supra  marginal 
and  angular  gyrus),  eyes  move  to  wards  oppositeside,  or 
upward  and  downward  (center  for  visioni;  14,  superior 
temporo-splienoidal  convolution  (center  for  hearing). 


Transverse  Section  of  Cerebrum  in  plane  of  line  CD  (pre. 

ceding  plate)  (Original  drawing). 

F.L  ,  frontal;  T.L.,  temporal;  O.L.,  occipital  lobes;  fs, 
fissure  of  Sylvius;  ir,  island  of  Reil;  cn,  caudate  nucleus; 
In  1,  In 2,  In'A,  the  three  divisions  of  the  lenticular  nucleus; 
ica,  anterior  limb  of  internal  capsule;  icp,  posterior  limb 
of  internal  capsule  (the  anterior  part  conveys  motor, 
the  posterior  sensory  fibers) ,  the  part  generally  injured 
in  cerebral  hemorrhage;  of,  optic  thalamus;  or,  optic 
radiation,  probably  conveys  sensory  fibers  to  occipital 
and  temporal  lobes;  ac,  anterior  commissure,  connects 
both  temporal  lobes;  f,  fornix:  pc,  posterior  commissure ; 
pg,  pineal  gland;  li\  lateral  ventricle  (posterior  horn). 

mental  development,  and  the  brains  of  some  very 
able  men  have  been  found  below  the  average 
weight.  Too  much  stress  lias  been  laid  upon 
the  connection  of  mental  capacity  with  brain 
weight  in  individual  instances.  Still  the  general 
fact  is  that  the  most  highly  developed  races 
have  the  heaviest  brains.  If  we  remove  the 
cerebral  lobes  from  an  animal,  we  deprive  it  of 


BRAIN  CORAL. 


193 


BRAN. 


a  responsive  machine.  Thus  a  frog  without  its 
cerebrum  will,  if  undisturbed,  remain  motionless 
for  an  indefinite  time.  If  it  be  placed  on  a 
board,  and  the  board  tilted,  it  will  change  its 
position  till  its  equlibrium  is  stable,  and  then  it 
becomes  motionless.  A  pigeon  similarly  treated 
becomes  drowsy  and  stupid.  If  food  be  placed 
before  it,  it  will  not  take  it;  it  exhibits  no  sign 


Medulla  Oblongata  with  Corpora  Quadrigemina  seen  from 
behind  (Cerebellum  cut  away)  (Landois). 
ol,  optic  thalamus;  pg,  pineal  gland;  cqa ,  anterior  corpora 
quadrigemina;  cqp,  posterior  corpora  quadrigemina; 
sp,  superior  cerebellar  peduncle;  mp.  middle  cerebellar 
peduncle,  goes  to  pons  Varolii;  ip,  inferior  peduncle,  or 
restiform  body,  goes  to  medulla  oblongata  and  spinal 
cord;  fg,  funiculus  gracilis,  or  column  of  Goll;  vfg, 
nucleus  of  the  funiculus  gracilis funiculus cuneatus, 
or  column  of  Burdaeh;  nfc,  nucleus  of  the  funiculus 
cuneatus.  The  lozenge-shaped  area  in  the  center  of  the 
figure  is  the  fourth  ventricle.  The  numbers  4  -12  indi¬ 
cate  the  superficial  roots  of,  the  corresponding  cranial 
nerves.  The  numbers  3'-12',  their  nuclei  of  origin. 

of  terror  at  what  would  otherwise  cause  it  alarm, 
further  than  to  start  slightly  at  a  loud  sound,  or  a 
bright  light.  But  if  thrown  into  the  air,  it  will 
fly  to  a  convenient  resting  place;  if  placed  on  its 
back,  it  will  regain  its  feet,  and  thereafter  become 
drowsy  again.  In  man  we  find  that  imperfect 
development  of  the  cerebrum  is  accompanied  by 
imbecility  and  idiocy,  and  that  the  races  that 
have  the  heaviest  cerebra  and  the  most  fully  de¬ 
veloped  convolutions  are  the  most  intelligent. 
Among  animals,  again,  the  degree  of  intelligence 
increases  with  the  increase  in  size  of  the  cere¬ 
brum  relatively  to  the  other  parts  of  the  brain. 
Flourens,  the  great  French  physiologist,  held  that 
the  whole  of  the  cerebrum  was  employed  in  every 
mental  process.  He  removed  parts  of  the  hemi¬ 
spheres  of  pigeons,  and  came  to  the  conclusion 
that  all  the  mental  functions  became  enfeebled, 
and  that  to  an  equal  degree,  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  brain  matter  removed,  no  matter  from 
what  part  of  the  cerebrum  it  were;  and  that  as 
long  as  any  part  of  the  gray  matter  remained,  so 
long  could  mental  functions  be  carried  on.  This 
doctrine  did  not  explain  all  the  facts.  The  con¬ 
dition  of  aphasia,  or  loss  of  articulate  speech, 
was  found  to  be  almost  constantly  associated  with 
a  certain  convolution,  and  certain  paralysis  and 
limited  convulsive  phenomena  were  found  by 
Ilughlings  Jack- on  to  be  apparently  due  to  defin¬ 
itely  localized  lesions.  A  knowledge  of  the  corre¬ 
spondence  between  the  convolutions  of  the  simian 
and  the  human  brain,  and  of  the  relation  of  the 
convolutions  of  the  latter  to  the  bones  of  the  skull, 
has  already  led  to  the  successful  removal  of 
tumors  whose  seat  was  indicated  bv  definite  motor 
disturbances.  When  these  areas  are  destroyed  by 
disease,  the  power  of  the  corresponding  voluntary 
movement  or  movements  is  lost.  When  they  are 
irritated,  corresponding  spasms  of  movements  are 
set  up  (Jacksonian epilepsy).  The  left  hemisphere 
controls  the  right  side  of  the  body,  and  as  we  are 
mostly  right-handed,  so  we  are  left-brained.  When 
the  posterior  end  of  the  third  frontal  convolution 
on  the  left  side  is  destroyed,  aphasia  results. 
An  aphasic  person  understands  what  is  said  to 
him,  but  has  lost  the  power  of  articulate  speech — 
the  words  wanted  are  either  forgotten  or  cannot  be 
uttered,  and  this  although  the  muscles  of  articula¬ 
tion  are  unimpaired.  They  can  not  be  coordinated. 

13 


The  Medulla  Oblongata  is  the  great  seat  of  the 
centers  for  the  functions  of  organic  life,  as  may 
be  understood  from  the  fact  that  it  gives  origin 
to  all  the  cranial  nerves,  except  the  first  four 
pairs.  The  various  centers  are:  (1)  The  center 
for  respiratory  movements,  near  the  lower  extrem¬ 
ity  of  the  fourth  ventricle;  (2)  for  the  inhibition 
(or  restraint),  and  for  the  acceleration  of  the 
movements  of  the  heart;  (3)  for  the  control  of  the 
blood  pressure  (vaso-motor  center),  including  the 
“diabetic”  center,  which  is  simply  the  vaso-motor 
center  for  the  liver;  (4)  center  for  swallowing;  (5) 
center  for  movements  of  the  gullet  and  stomach; 
and  the  vomiting  center;  (6)  for  movements  of 
articulate  speech ;  (7)  for  the  se¬ 
cretion  of  the  saliva.  The  term 
“center”  involves  the  following 
mechanism:  (1)  A  sensitive  end- 
organ  or  surface;  (2)  an  afferent 
nerve  going  to  (3)  a  nerve  cell, 
or  group  of  nerve  cells,  from 
which  passes  (4)  an  efferent  nerve 
fiber  to  (5)  a  muscle.  Abscess 
of  the  brain  is  a  collection  of 
pus  in  its  substance.  The  most 
common  causes  are  compound 
fractures  of  the  skull,  diseases  of 


is  the  invention  of  Mr.  Westinghouse,  of  Pitts¬ 
burgh.  In  the  Westinghouse  automatic  brake 
compressed  air  at  from  80  to  100  lb.  per  square 
inch,  is  st  Ted  in  a  reservoir  under  each  car,  and 
in  a  pipe  connecting  them,  also  under  each  car,  is 
a  brake-cylinder  with  pistons,  the  rods  of  which 
operate  the  brake-levers.  An  automatic  air-pump 
on  the  locomotive  maintains  the  pressure  constant. 
As  long  as  pressure  is  maintained  in  the  pipe  the 
brake  is  off,  but  if  air  escapes  intentionally  or 
otherwise  from  the  pipe  the  brakes  are  put  on. 
The  hose  couplings  for  pipes  between  the  cars 
contain  a  valve  which  opens  when  the  couplings 
are  made,  and  closes  if  they  are  disconnected 


the  middle  ear  and  temporal  Diagram  of  Westinghouse  Automatic  Brake,  showing  arrangement  for  one 
bone,  and  pyaemia.  Anaemia  of  ear. 

the  brain  is  a  deficiency  in  the  A,  reservoir;  B,  triple  valve;  C,  slide  valve;  D,  exhaust;  E,  brake-cylinder; 
oualitv  or  nuantitv  of  blood  in  F,  release  valve;  G,  spring;  II.  pistons;  I,  I,  communication  to  brake-lever; 
the  brain.  It  may  result  from  K,  main  pipe  extending  all  along  the  train;  L,  branch  pipe;  M,  cock. 


directloss  of  blood,  exhausting  diseases,  weakness 
of  the  heart,  or  from  the  pressure  of  growths  or 
fluids  within  the  skull.  Atrophy  of  the  brain  is 
a  wasting  of  its  substance,  and  is  either  congenital, 
or  a  condition  accompanying  old  age,  or  resulting 
from  exhausting  disease,  and  very  frequently 
from  alcoholic  excesses.  The  congenital  form 
produces  imbecility  or  idiocy.  Compression  of 
the  brain  is  pressure  upon  it  by  any  fluid,  such 
as  blood,  serum,  or  inflammatory  exudation  or 
tumor.  Concussion  is  the  result  of  shock  to  the 
brain  from  an  injury,  but  without  visible  effect 
on  its  .substance.  In  contusion  the  brain  sub¬ 
stance  is  more  or  less  lacerated.  Congestion  of 
the  brain  causes  headache,  giddiness,  mental  ex¬ 
citement,  and  sleeplessness.  If  long  continued, 
a  period  of  depression  follows,  with  drowsiness, 
mental  and  physical  Weakness.  Inflammation  of 
the  brain  substance  is  usually  the  result  of  injury 
or  disease  of  the  bones  of  the  skull,  and  is  accom¬ 
panied  with  more  or  less  meningitis.  Hemor¬ 
rhage  into  the  brain  leads  to  apoplexy.  It  is 
probably  always  preceded  by  disease  of  the  blood 
vessels,  more  especially  with  chronic  Bright’s 
disease  and  alcoholism.  Hydrocephalus  (or  water 
in  the  head),  epilepsy,  aphasia,  are  all  brain 
diseases.  Brain  Fever  is  an  indefinite  term  pop¬ 
ularly  used  to  include  congestion  of  the  brain  and 
its  membranes,  delirium  tremens,  and  inflamma¬ 
tion  of  the  brain  substance  itself.  Softening  is 
the  result  either  of  clotting  of  blood  in  the  vessels, 
disease  of  the  walls  of  the  arteries  (atheroma),  or 
embolism,  or  the  presence  of  tumors.  Tumors 
may  grow  from  the  membranes,  the  blood-vessels, 
or  the  connective  tissue  of  the  brain.  The  most 
common  symptoms  are  intolerable  headache, 
vomiting  (without  sickness),  giddiness,  convul¬ 
sions,  paralysis,  and  optic  neuritis. 

Brain-coral,  or  Brainstone  Coral,  a  popu¬ 
lar  name  for  massive  corals  belonging  to  the  fam¬ 
ily  Astnekhe.  The  name  is  suggested  by  their 
form. 

Braine-le-Comte,  a  town  of  the  Belgian  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Hainaut,  nineteen  miles  south-soutliwest 
of  Brussels.  Pop.  (1884),  8,176. 

Brainerd,  David,  missionary  to  the  Indians, 
was  born  at  Haddam,  Conn.,  April  20,  1718.  In 
1747  he  died  in  the  house  of  Jonathan  Edwards. 

Braintree,  a  town  of  Norfolk  county,  Mass., 
the  birthplace  of  John  Hancock,  John  Adams, 
and  John  Quincy  Adams.  Pop.  (1870),  3,948. 

Brakes,  Any  contrivance  for  controlling  by 
friction  the  speed  of  carriages,  wagons,  trains,  or 
revolving  drums  is  called  a  brake.  In  its  simplest 
form,  as  applied  to  road  vehicles,  wooden  blocks 
are  pressed,  through  the  medium  of  levers, 
against  the  tires  of  the  wheels.  Brakes,  however, 
find  their  most  important  application  on  trains. 
The  chief  types  now  used  are  chain,  vacuum,  and 
J  pressure  brakes.  The  best  known  pressure  brake 


(except  when  forcibly  torn  apart,  as  in  accidents). 
In  a  series  of  tests  made  at  Newark  in  1875,  the 
Westinghouse  brake  stopped  a  train  weigliing 
203  tons,  running  56  miles  an  hour,  in  1,020  feet. 
For  revolving  drums,  the  brake  is  usually  some 
form  of  strap  which  can  be  tightened  strongly 
against  the  drum.  Lately  the  word  brake  ’‘as 
been  used  for  any  form  of  engine  dynamometer 
which  measures  power  given  out  by  an  engine  by 
absorbing  it  in  overcoming  friction. 

Brama,  or  Ray’s  Beam  (Brama  rail),  a  bony 
fish  closely  related  to  the  Coryphaenas  or  “  dol¬ 
phins,”  and  therefore  belonging,  or  nearly  allied, 
to  the  mackerel  family. 

Bramah,  Joseph,  inventor,  was  born  at  Stain- 
brough,  Yorkshire,  England,  April  13,  1748.  His 
inventions  comprised  safety-locks,  improvements 
in  water-closets,  pumps  and  fire-engines,  the  con¬ 
struction  of  boilers  for  steam-engines,  processes  of 
making  paper,  the  construction  of  main-pipes, 
wheel-carriages,  a  beer  pump,  the  hydrostatic 
press  known  by  his  name,  and  a  machine  for 
printing  bank-notes.  He  was  among  the  first  to 
propose  the  application  of  the  screw-propeller. 
In  all,  he  took  out  eighteen  patents.  He  died 
Dec.  9,  1814. 

Brambanan,  a  district  of  the  Province  of  Sura¬ 
karta,  Java,  rich  in  remains  of  Hindu  temples. 

Bramble,  or  Blackberry  ( Rubus  fruticosus).  a 
plant  having  prickly  stems,  which  somewhat 
resemble  those  of  the  Raspberry.  The  flowers 


Branch  of  Common  Bramble. 
a,  a  flower ;  b,  a  fruit. 

appear  late  in  the  summer,  and  the  fruit  ripens 
toward  the  end  of  it,  continuing  till  frosts  set  in. 
Many  improved  varieties  have  been  produced  by 
cultivation. 

Brambling,  Bramble  Finch,  or  Mountain 
Finch  ( Fringilla  montifringilla)  one  of  the 
finches,  slightly  larger  and  with  a  more  forked 
tail  than  the  chaffinch. 

Bran  is  the  material  obtained  from  the  outer 
covering  or  husk  of  grain  during  the  process  of 


BRANCH. 


194 


BRAYOES. 


grinding,  and  which  is  separated  from  the  finer 
flour  before  the  latter  is  made  into  bread;  100 
parts  contain:  Water,  14;  fibrin,  etc.,  15;  starch, 
44;  fat,  4.  lignose  and  cellulose,  17;  ash,  6.  Bran 
contains  a  nitrogenous  body  called  cerealin, 
which  is  capable  of  producing  a  chemical  change 
in  the  starch,  dextrin,  etc.,  of  flour.  Bread  made 
of  flour  containing  bran  is  known  as  brown  bread. 
Bran  is  used  in  clearing  and  brightening  goods 
during  the  processes  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  print¬ 
ing.  In  medicine  bran  is  employed  in  warm 
poultice  in  abdominal  inflammation,  spasms,  etc., 
and  an  infusion  is  used  as  an  emollient  foot  bath. 

Branch,  Branching.  In  the  widest  sense  we 
may  speak  of  branching  whenever  one  part  gives 
rise  to  another  similar  one;  more  strictly,  how¬ 
ever,  the  term  is  restricted  to  the  ramification  of 


Mode  of  Branching  in  alternate-leaved  plants;  with  series 
of  modifications  brought  about  by  increasing  subordina¬ 
tion  of  the  main  axes  and  development  of  the  secondary 
ones. 

«,  unmodified  form,  or  racemose  type:  6,  secondary  axes 
lengthened  (corymbose  type) ;  c,  the  secondary  axes 
(arising  in  axils  of  leaves)  nearly  as  well  developed  as 
main  axis  (Umbellifers) ;  <1,  primary  axis  quite  arrested 
after  giving  off  its  first  axillary  bud;  this  develops  as  a 
secondary  axis,  its  bud  as  a  tertiary,  and  so  on,  the 
stem  being  thus  a  composite  or  “false  ’’  axis. 


stems.  Branches  then  “  are  secondary  stems  de¬ 
veloped  from  a  primary  one,  or  tertiary  from 
these,  and  so  on.”  The  growing  point  in  many 


Similar  modification  of  Branching  in  opposite-leaved 
plants. 

e ,  primitive  form;/,  equal  development  of  lateral  branches 
(Valerian);  <7,  arrest  of  main  axis  with  development  of 
secondary  alone,  and  consequent  resemblance  to  dichot¬ 
omy  (Mistletoe). 

cryptogams  forks  constantly,  while  in  the  higher 
plants  we  have  a  potential  branch  in  every  veg¬ 
etative  bud  except  the  terminal  one  which  con¬ 
tinues  the  main  axis. 

Brancliiop'oda,  a  sub-order  of  Crustaceans  in 
the  order  with  leaf-like  feet  (Phyllopods).  The 
name  (gill-footed)  refers  to  the  fact  that  many  of 
the  numerous  (10-40  pairs)  appendages  bear 
respiratory  appendages. 

Branco,  Rio,  a  river  of  Northern  Brazil,  rising 
in  the  Parima  Mountains  and  flowing  400  miles  to 
the  Rio  Negro. 

Brand  is  the  mark  made  upon  the  skins  of  cat¬ 
tle  for  the  purpose  of  identification,  as  in  cattle 
ranches,  or  a  mark  made  on  a  cask  or  box  for 
trade  or  excise  purposes.  The  name  brand  is 
given  to  the  fungoid  diseases  or  blights  of  grain 
crops. 

Braude,  William  Tiiomas,  chemist,  born  in 
London  in  1783.  He  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  in  1809,  and  in  1813  succeeded 
Davy  at  the  Royal  Institution.  He  resigned  in 
1854,  and  was  head  of  the  coinage  department  of 
the  Royal  Mint  until  his  death,  Feb.  11,  1866. 

Brandenburg,  a  central  Province  of  Prussia, 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  present  monarchy. 
Almost  the  whole  province  is  a  low  plain,  but 
becomes  slightly  hilly  toward  Silesia.  It  has 


numerous  rivers  and  canals.  The  inhabitants  are 
mostly  Germans,  mixed  with  French  and  Dutch 
I  colonists,  and  on  the  south  of  the  province  with 
I  people  of  Wend  extraction.  The  chief  manu¬ 
factures  are  cotton,  wool,  linen,  sugar,  glass, 
tiles,  and  machinery.  There  are  also  numerous 
distilleries.  The  province  is  divided  into  the  gov¬ 
ernments  of  Potsdam  and  Frankfurt — Berlin, 
which  is  the  capital,  forming  a  separate  jurisdic¬ 
tion.  Area,  15,410  square  miles;  pop.  (exclusive 
of  Berlin)  in  1885,  2,342,411,  of  whom  all  but 
58,343  Roman  Catholics  and  12,164  Jews,  are 
Protestants. 

Brandenburir,  the  ancient  Brennibor  of  the 
Wends,  thirty-eight  miles  west-southwest  of  Ber¬ 
lin.  The  Old  Town  and  the  New  are  on  either 
side  of  the  Havel;  on  an  island  in  the  river  stand 
the  castle  and  the  cathedral  (fourteenth  century). 
Pop.  (1885),  33,129. 

Bramles,  George,  a  Danish  literary  critic  of 
Jewish  family,  born  Feb.  4,  1842,  in  Copenhagen. 

Brauding  has  been  practiced  from  very  early 
times.  The  Greeks  marked  their  slaves  with  the 
ulic/ma;  in  Rome,  runaway  slaves  ( fngitivi )  and 
thieves  (furrs)  were  branded  with  the  letter  F; 
and  1  he  slaves  who  worked  in  the  mines,  and 
convicts  condemned  to  the  games  or  to  the  mines, 
were  also  branded  on  the  forehead  for  identifica¬ 
tion.  In  France  down  to  1832,  galley  slaves  were 
marked  T  F  (, travaux  force*).  Under  the  ancient 
law  of  England,  branding  was  practiced  for 
various  offences.  It  was  discontinued  in  England 
in  the  reign  of  George  III.,  and  finally  done  away 
with  in  1829.  Army  “  branding  ”  with  the  letter 
D.  or  B.  C.  (Deserter  or  Bad  Character),  by 
tattooing  was  abolished  in  1879. 

Brandis,  Christian  August,  was  born  in  1790 
at  Hildeslieim,  and  from  1822  till  his  death  on 
July  21,  1867,  was  Professor  of  Philosophy  at 
Bonn. 

Brandon,  a  town  on  the  Canadian  Pacific  Rail¬ 
way  in  Manitoba.  It  was  founded  in  1881.  Pop. 
(1887),  about  4,000. 

Brandt,  Sebastian,  author  of  the  Narrenscliiff, 
or  Ship  of  Fools,  was  born  at  Strasburg,  1458. 
The  Emperor  Maximilian  appointed  him  an  Im¬ 
perial  Councillor.  lie  died  at  Strasburg  in  1521. 

Brandy,  (Fr.  eau  de  vie)  is  a  term  properly 
restricted  to  the  liquid  obtained  b3r  distilling  the 
fermented  juice  of  the  grape.  About  1,000 
gallons  of  wine  give  by  distillation  from  100  to 
150  gallons  of  brandy,  which  is  generally  diluted 
with  water  till  it  contains  from  50  to  54  per  cent, 
by  weight  of  absolute  alcohol.  The  pleasant 
aroma  of  brandy  is  due  to  the  presence  of  more 
or  less  fusel  oil  accompanied  by  oenantliic 
ether  derived  from  a  volatile  oil  in  the  husk  of 
the  grape.  The  most  famous  brandy  is  that 
distilled  in  the  country  round  Cognac,  in  Charente, 
in  the  west  of  France,  from  the  choicest  wines. 
Armagnac  is  the  brandy  of  another  district. 
From  500,000  to  700,000  gallons  of  brandy  are 
annually  distilled  in  Portugal,  almost  exclusively 
from  white  grapes,  and  a  small  quantity  is  also 
made  from  grape  refuse  {marc).  The  Germans 
use  the  name  Branntwein  for  all  kinds  of  grain- 
spirit,  or  that  distilled  from  plums,  blue-berries, 
etc.  Kirschwasser  or  kirschbranntwein  is  distilled 
from  cherries  and  their  kernels.  In  England 
cherry-brandy  is  brandy  in  which  cherries  have 
been  steeped  and  preserved.  I11  the  United 
States,  brandy  is  also  made  from  cherries,  apples, 
pears,  and  peaches.  Brandy  is  frequently  ad¬ 
ministered  as  a  stimulant,  and  in  cases  of  sus¬ 
pended  animation,  exhaustion,  and  in  mild  diar¬ 
rhoea. 

Brandywine  Creek,  a  stream  rising  in  Chester 
county,  Penn.,  flowing  with  a  general  south- 
1  easterly  course  into  Delaware,  and  emptying  into 
Christiana  Creek  at  Wilmington.  During  the 
War  of  Independence,  a  battle  was  fought  on  its 
banks  near  Westchester,  Sept.  11,  1777. 

Brauk,  or  Branks,  an  instrument  formerly 
used  for  the  punishment  of  scolds  in  England 
and  Scotland,  and  often  in  the  former  country 
called  “  the  scold’s  bridle,”  or  “  gossip’s  bridle.” 
The  brank  in  its  simplest  form  is  a  hoop  of  iron, 
opening  by  hinges  at  the  sides,  so  as  to  inclose 
the  head,  and  fastened  by  a  staple  with  a  pad¬ 
lock  at  the  back;  a  plate  within  the  front  of  the 
hoop  projecting  inward,  so  as  to  fit  into  the 
mouth,  in  some  instances  this  mouth-plate  was 


armed  with  a  knife  or  point  which  cut  the 
tongue  if  moved. 

Brant,  Joseph,  chief  of  the  Mohawk  Indians, 
born  in  1742,  fought  on  the  side  of  the  British  in 
the  Indian  and  Revolutionary  wars.  In  later 
.years  lie  translated  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark  and 
the  English  Prayer-book  into  Mohawk,  and  in 
1786  visited  England  to  raise  funds  for  the 
erection  of  the  first  Episcopal  church  in  Canada. 
He  died  Nov.  24,  1807. 

Brantford,  a  town  and  port  of  entry  of  Brant 
county,  Ontario,  twenty-four  miles  southwest  of 
Hamilton.  Pop.,  9,616. 

Brantome,  Pierre  de  Bourdeilles,  Seig¬ 
neur  de,  one  of  the  most  notable  of  French 
memoir-writers,  was  born  about  1540  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Perigord.  In  1561  he  accompanied 
Mary  Stuart  from  France  to  Holy  rood  and  in 
1565  joined  the  expedition  sent  to  Malta  to  assist 
the  Knights  of  St.  John  against  the  Sultan.  He 
was  made  Chamberlain  io  Charles  IX.  and  Henry 
III.  and  took  part  against  the  Huguenots  in  the 
religious  wars  of  his  time.  He  died  July  15, 
1614. 

Brasidas,  the  greatest  Spartan  general  in  the 
earlier  years  of  Peloponnesian  War,  who  fought 
with  Cleon  and  was  killed  in  battle. 

Bi  •ass.  In  ancient  history  frequent  allusions 
are  made  to  the  employment  of  brass,  but  it  is 
doubtful  if  the  brass  of  the  ancients,  with  the 
exception  of  some  made  by  the  Romans,  was 
composed  of  copper  and  zinc.  Zinc  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  known  as  a  separate  metal 
in  Europe  till  the  sixteenth  century.  The  term 
brass  is  commonly  understood  to  mean  an  alloy 
of  copper  and  zinc  of  a  more  or  less  yellow 
color.  Bronze,  on  the  other  hand,  is  an  alloy  of 
copper  and  tin.  As  a  rule,  brass  is  easily  fusible 
and  very  malleable  and  ductile.  Brass  is  harder, 
so  stands  wear  better  than  copper,  resists  atmos¬ 
pheric  influences  as  well,  and  is  cheaper  than 
that  metal.  The  malleability  of  brass  varies 
with  its  composition,  with  the  temperature,  and 
with  the  presence,  even  in  minute  quantities,  of 
foreign  metals.  All  kinds  become  brittle  if 
heated  well  up  to  their  fusing-point.  Brass  is 
more  tenacious  than  any  of  the  common  metals, 
except  iron,  steel,  and  copper.  But  if  subjected 
to  a  continuous  tension  for  some  length  of  time, 
it  undergoes,  in  many  cases  at  least,  a  molecular 
change,  and  loses  its  tenacity.  The  surface,  if 
not  protected  by  lacquer,  soon  tarnishes  and  be¬ 
comes  black. 

Br  asses,  Monumental,  large  plates  of  brass, 
or  the  mixed  metal  called  latten  or  laton ,  inlaid 
on  slabs  of  stone,  aud  usually  forming  part  of 
the  pavement  of  a  church. 

Brassey,  Thomas,  English  railway  contractor, 
was  born  near  Chester,  Nov.  7,  1805.  Amongst 
his  chief  contracts  M  as  the  Great  Northern  Rail- 
way  (1847-51).  He  died  Dec.  8,  1870.— Baron 
Thomas  Brassey,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  born  at  Stafford  in  1836.  He  was  made 
K.C.B.  in  1880,  and  Mras  raised  to  the  peerage  in 
1886.  He  is  a  veteran  yachtsman.  Lady 
Brassey,  his  Mdfe,  the  author,  died  Sept.  14,  1887, 
on  board  the  yacht  Sunbeam ,  and  was  buried  at 
sea. 

Brassica,  the  turnip  and  cabbage  genus  of 
Crucifer*  contains,  when  M’e  include  the  mus¬ 
tards  (Sinapis)  as  a  sub-genus,  about  100  species, 
all  palsearctic.  The  Wild  Cabbage  (B.  oleracta) 
occurs  on  the  west  and  south  coasts  of  England, 
Ireland,  and  the  Continent,  particularly  on  sea- 
cliffs.  The  cultivated  forms  are  of  great  econo¬ 
mic  importance.  The  Turnip  {B.  campestris 
[polymorpha\ )  has  also  many  annual  or  biennial 
varieties. 

Brat  I  leboro,  a  manufacturing  village  of  Wind¬ 
ham  county,  Vt.,  110  miles  south  of  Montpelier. 
Pop.  (1888),  about  7,000. 

Braun,  Alexander,  born  at  Ratisbon  in  1805, 
was  Professor  of  Botany  at  Berlin  from  1852  till 
his  death,  March  29,  1877. 

Braun,  August  Emil,  archaeologist,  was  born 
at  Gotha  in  1809,  and  in  1833  went  to  Rome, 
where  he  was  made  Secretary  to  the  Archaeolo¬ 
gical  Institute.  He  died  Sept.  12,  1856. 

Bra' vo  (excellent!  well  done!),  an  Italian  ex¬ 
clamation  of  praise,  the  superlative  form  of 
which  is  Bravissimo! 

Bravoes  was  the  title  of  those  persons  in  Italy, 


BRAVURA. 


195 


BRAZIL. 


blit  especially  in  Venice,  who  undertook  to  per¬ 
form  any  dangerous  deeds  for  money. 

Brava  'ra,  Italian.  A  florid  air  or  song,  with 
many  difficult  and  rapid  passages.  Also  used  to 
describe  the  style  of  performance. 

Brawn  (muscle,  boar’s  flesh;  akin  to  Ger. 
brnten,  to  roast),  a  preparation  of  meat  made  from 
pig’s  head  and  ox-feet,  cut  up,  boiled,  pickled, 
and  pressed  into  a  shape. 

Braxton,  Carter,  one  of  the  signers  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Vir¬ 
ginia  in  1736,  and  died  in  1797.  He  was  a  dele¬ 
gate  to  the  Continental  Congress. 

Braxy,  or  Sickness,  is  a  name  loosely  used  to 
indicate  a  disease  in  sheep;  but  in  different  parts 
of  the  country  totally  different  disorders  are  in¬ 
cluded  under  this  head.  Of  the  two  most  gener¬ 
ally  recognized  as  braxy,  the  one  is  an  intestinal 
affection  attended  with  obstinate  diarrhoea;  the 
other  is  a  blood  disease,  and  the  result  of  plethora 
or  fullness  of  blood.  The  second,  which  is 
spoken  of  by  the  better  informed  shepherds  as  the 
true  braxy,  is  most  usually  seen  in  sheep  a  year 
old.  The  disease  is  most  prevalent  during  the 
mouths  of  October,  November,  and  December, 
and  occurs  almost  as  an  epidemic  after  a  dry  sum¬ 
mer  which  is  followed  by  an  autumn  after-growth. 

Bray,  a  small  English  parish,  near  Maiden¬ 
head,  of  which  Simon  Aleyn  was  vicar  from  1540 
to  1588,  during  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward 
VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth.  He  kept  his  vicarage 
by  changing  his  faith  according  to  that  of  the 
State  for  the  time  being,  becoming  a  Protestant 
with  Henry,  Catholic  again  in  the  reign  of  Mary, 
and  Protestant  again  on  the  accession  of  Eliza¬ 
beth.  His  principle  was  to  live  and  die  Vicar  of 
Bray,  and  to  it  he  adhered.  The  modern  ballad, 
Jn  Good  King  Charles’  Golden  Days ,  makes  the 
versatile  vicar  live  in  the  reigns  of  Charles  II., 
James  II.,  William  III.,  Anne,  and  George  I. 

Bray  is  a  district  of  Normandy,  now  the  south¬ 
eastern  part  of  Seine-Inff-rieure,  famous  for  its 
cattle  and  dairy  produce. 

Bray,  Ann  Eliza  (nee  Kempe),  author,  was 
born  in  London,  England,  Dec.  25,  1790,  was 
intended  for  the  stage,  and  in  1818  married  the 
artist,  Charles  Alfred  Stothard  (1786-1821).  In 
1825  she  married  the  Rev.  E.  A.  Bray  (1778-1857), 
Vicar  of  Tavistock;  and  after  his  death  she  settled 
in  London,  where  she  died,  Jan.  21,  1883.  Between 
1820  and  1874  she  published  a  score  of  romances, 
books  of  travel,  and  other  works. 

Bray,  Thomas,  divine  and  philanthropist,  born 
in  Shropshire,  in  1656.  He  devoted  himself  with 
energy  to  a  scheme  for  establishing  parochial 
libraries  in  England  and  America,  and  had  such 
success  that  before  his  death  eighty  had  been 
founded  in  England,  and  thirty-nine  in  America. 
Out  of  his  library  scheme  grew  the  Society  for 
Promoting  Christian  Knowledge;  and  he  may 
also  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel.  About  the  close 
of  1699  he  sailed  for  Maryland,  but  in  1706 
returned  to  England.  He  died  Feb.  15,  1730. 

Brazil,  the  largest  State  of  South  America,  and 
the  third  largest  political  division  of  the  Western 
Continent,  is  greater  in  area  than  European  Rus¬ 
sia,  Austria-Hungary,  Germany,  France,  Norway 
and  Sweden,  Denmark,  Italy,  and  Greece 
together.  It  extends  from  4°  30'  N.  to  33°  S. 
latitude,  from  35°  to  73°  W.  longitude,  having  a 
length  of  2,660  miles,  and  a  breadth  of  2,707  miles 
between  extreme  points.  Its  coast-line  extends 
from  Cape  Grange  on  the  north  to  Rio  C’huy  on 
the  south,  a  distance  of  nearly  4,000  miles.  It 
borders  on  every  State  in  South  America  except 
Chili,  but  the  boundary  lines  with  some  of  them 
are  still  in  dispute.  The  area  of  Brazil,  estimated 
by  some  as  high  as  3,288,000,  is  more  likely  about 
3,219,000  square  miles  (3,219,134  Carta  Gerald ), 
or  nearly  one-half  of  the  South  American  con¬ 
tinent.  Brazil  is  a  triangular-shaped  country, 
occupying  the  eastern  angle  of  the  continent.  It, 
lies  almost  wholly  within  the  tropics,  and  is  still 
in  great  part  unexplored  and  unsettled.  On  the 
north  and  west  are  the  great  depressions  of  the 
Amazon  and  Paraguay  rivers,  which  comprise 
large  areas  of  flood-plains  and  swamps,  heavily 
wooded,  and  almost  uninhabitable.  The  interior 
of  the  country  is  a  high  plateau,  with  a  general 
elevation  of  1,000  to  3,000  feet,  irregularly  ridged 
by  mountains  and  deeply  cut  by  large  rivers.  The 


mountainous  ranges  of  the  Maritime  system  form 
the  eastern  margin  of  this  plateau,  the  eastern¬ 
most  of  which  is  known  as  the  Serra  do  Mar. 
This  range  plays  an  important  part  in  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  Brazil,  for  it  is  a  costly  barrier  to  com¬ 
munication  with  the  interior,  and  turns  nearly  all 
the  great  rivers  inland  to  find  outlets  through  the 
distant  Amazon  and  La  Plata.  Brazil  possesses 
three  great  river-systems — the  Amazon,  La  Plata, 
and  San  Francisco.  The  Amazon  anil  its  tribu¬ 
taries  drain  fully  a  half  of  the  country.  The  La 
Plata  system  drains  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  country 
through  its  three  branches  —  the  Paraguay, 
Parana,  and  Uruguay.  The  San  Francisco  is  a 
tableland  river,  flowing  northeast  between  the 
Goyaz  and  Maritime  mountains,  and  then,  break¬ 
ing  through  the  latter,  southeast  to  the  Atlantic. 
The  other  coast  rivers  are  generally  short,  the 
longest  being  the  Parahyba,  and  have  but  little 
utility  for  navigation.  The  climate  of  Brazil 
varies  greatly — the  lowlands  of  the  Amazon  and 
a  great  part  of  the  coast  being  hot,  humid,  and 
unhealthy,  while  the  tablelands  and  some  districts 
of  the  coast  swept  by  the  trade-winds  are  tem¬ 
perate  and  healthy.  The  vast  forests  of  the  Ama¬ 
zon  contain  hundreds  of  species  of  trees,  draped 
and  festooned  by  climbing  plants,  lianas,  orchids, 
etc.  Rosewood,  Brazil-wood,  and  others  supply 
valuable  timber;  tropical  fruits  are  abundant,  and 
other  products  are  noted  in  the  section  on  com¬ 
merce.  The  number  of  species  of  animals  is  also 
very  large,  but  the  individuals  in  each  are  com¬ 
paratively  few.  Beasts  of  prey  are  the  jaguar, 
puma,  tiger-cat,  and  ocelot;  the  other  animals 
include  the  monkey,  tapir,  capybara,  peccary, 
ant-eater,  sloth,  and  boa-constrictor.  Alligators, 
turtles,  porpoises,  and  manatees  swarm  in  the 
Amazon;  and  among  birds,  the  parrots  and  hum¬ 
ming-birds  are  especially  numerous.  The  popu¬ 
lation  of  Brazil,  according  to  the  census  of  1872, 
was  9,930,478  of  all  races  and  classes,  not  includ¬ 
ing  about  250  000  wild  Indians,  and  is  now  over 
12,000,000.  The  African  slave  trade  was  pro¬ 
hibited  in  1831,  but  did  not  actually  cease  until 
1854.  In  1871  a  gradual  emancipation  law  was 
adopted,  which  declared  the  children  born  there¬ 
after  of  slave  mothers  to  be  free,  but  obliged  to 
serve  the  mother’s  master  until  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years.  It  also  provided  for  a  fund  with 
which  to  liberate  slaves  by  purchase.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  slaves  registered  in  1873  under  this  law  was 
1,540,796.  In  1885  a  second  law  was  adopted, 
providing  for  a  new  registry,  declaring  all  sexa 
genarians  free,  but  with  obligatory  service  until 
the  age  of  sixty-five  years,  and  fixing  an  official 
valuation  on  all  slaves,  to  prevent  further  abuses 
of  the  emancipation  fund.  Finally,  by  the  law  of 
May  13, 1888,  immediate  and  unconditional  eman¬ 
cipation  was  decreed,  although  Brazil  had  been 
unable  wholly  to  replace  the  system  of  slave  labor. 
The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  established  religion, 
and  is  supported  by  the  State;  but  all  other  sects 
are  tolerated.  There  are,  however,  less  than  30,000 
non-Catholics  in  the  country.  Education  is  com¬ 
pulsory  in  several  provinces,  but  is  still  in  a  very 
backward  condition ;  84  per  cent,  of  the  popula¬ 
tion  was  returned  as  illiterate  at  the  last  census. 
The  language  is  Portuguese,  with  dialectal 
varieties.  By  the  Constitution  of  Brazil,  which 
bears  date  of  1824,  four  powers  are  established 
in  the  State — Legislative,  Executive,  Judicial,  and 
the  “moderating”  power,  or  the  royal  preroga¬ 
tive.  A  general  Legislative  Assembly  has  con¬ 
trol  of  the  affairs  of  the  Empire,  and  Provincial 
affairs  are  regulated  in  the  Provincial  Assemblies. 
The  general  Legislature  comprises  two  houses — 
the  Senate  and  Congress,  the  members  of  both  of 
which  are  elected  by  the  people.  Senators  are 
chosen  for  life,  and  Members  of  the  House  for 
the  term  of  four  years.  The  qualification  for  a 
voter  is  an  annual  income  of  any  sort  of  $  100. 
When  a  citizen  is  once  registered  he  must  give 
his  vole  under  penalty  of  law.  Naturalized 
foreigners,  and  those  not  professing  the  Roman 
Catholic  religion  are  debarred  from  being  elected 
Deputies.  Executive  power  is  vested  in  the  Sov¬ 
ereign,  assisted  by  his  Ministers,  of  whom  there 
are  seven,  and  a  Council  of  State.  The  Ministers 
are  responsible  for  all  treason,  corruption,  abuse 
of  power,  and  all  acts  contrary  to  the  constitu¬ 
tion  or  the  liberty,  security  anil  property  of  the 
citizen.  At  the  lieud  of  each  province  is  a  Presi¬ 


dent,  appointed  by  the  Central  Government. 
Each  province  lias  also  its  local  Congress  or 
Provincial  Chamber  and  a  General  Council.  On 
a  peace  footing,  the  Army  of  Brazil  consists 
of  13,500  men,  and  the  navy  of  forty-three 
vessels,  of  all  classes,  with  5,788  officers  and 
men.  Impressment  and  the  enlistment  of  con¬ 
demned  criminals  are  still  employed  by  the  mili¬ 
tary  authorities,  though  laws  exist  for  uniform 
obligatory  service  (six  years  in  the  regular  army, 
and  three  in  the  reserve). 

Finance. —  The  revenue  of  Brazil  for  1884-85 
— the  latest  to  date  whose  accounts  are  balanced 
— was  about  $60,000,000.  Of  the  last  fifty  years 
not  more  than  two  have  yielded  a  surplus  of  rev¬ 
enue  over  expenditure.  For  the  decade  1875-76 
to  1884—85,  inclusive,  the  average  deficit  was 
about  $20,000,000  a  year.  The  public  debt  in 
1887  was  at  least  $500,000,000. 

The  industries  of  Brazil  are  confined  almost 
exclusively  to  agriculture,  mining,  and  forest 
products,  manufacturing  having  thus  far  been 
but  slightly  developed.  Of  agricultural  products, 
coffee  occupies  the  first  place,  and  furnishes 
about  two-thirds  of  the  total  exports  of  the  whole 
Empire.  The  Rio  and  Santos  export  in  1886-87 
was  5,871,170  bags  of  sixty  kilogrammes  each. 
The  normal  export  from  the  whole  Empire  is 
6,500,000  to  7,000,000  bags.  Sugar  ranks  sec¬ 
ond  in  importance  as  an  export,  and  is  now 
receiving  special  encouragement  from  the  State. 
The  production  of  cotton  and  tobacco  has  con¬ 
siderably  decreased,  and  that  of  tapioca  has 
entirely  disappeared.  Rice,  maize,  and  many 
other  products  are  easily  grown.  Gold  and  dia¬ 
monds  are  found  in  Minas  Geraes,  Parana,  and 
Bahia,  but  the  annual  production  at  present  is 
not  large.  Iron  ores  of  superior  quality  exist 
in  several  provinces,  but  there  are  no  large  mines 
in  operation,  the  absence  of  coal  being  a  serious 
obstacle  to  the  development  of  this  important  in¬ 
dustry.  Steam  communication  with  Europe 
was  opened  in  1850,  and  telegraphic  communi¬ 
cation  in  1874.  The  first  railway  was  opened 
in  1854;  Brazil  now  possesses  a  total  extension 
of  4,765  miles  under  traffic,  and  1,013  miles  in 
construction.  There  were  fifty-two  miles  of  street 
railways  in  Brazil  in  1887,  and  6,593  miles  of 
telegraph. 

After  Vasco  da  Gama  had  returned  to  Portugal 
with  his  story  of  the  marvelous  discoveries  he  had 
made  King  Emanuel  sent  out  Pedro  Alvares 
Cabral  (in  1500)  to  follow  up  the  same.  Adverse 
winds  drove  him  upon  the  shores  of  an  unknown 
country,  which  he  named  Vera  Cruz,  a  name 
afterward  changed  to  Santa  Cruz,  which  in  turn 
gave  way  to  the  present  one  of  Brazil.  Vespucci 
afterward  visited  it,  and  it  soon  became  the  favor¬ 
ite  resort  of  merchants  who  dealt  in  dyewoods. 
In  1549  John  III.  of  Portugal  appointed  a  gov¬ 
ernor  of  the  new  territory,  who  took  up  his  abode 
there,  and  founded  the  present  city  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro.  The  nations  then  hostile  to  Spain,  Port¬ 
ugal  having  been  annexed  to  Spain  in  1580,  made 
numerous  attempts  to  wrest  this  country  from  its 
possessor,  the  Dutch  and  French  being  notably 
pertinacious.  The  Dutch  succeeded  in  securing 
an  extensive  portion  of  the  territory,  but  it  was 
subsequently  taken  from  them  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  the  insignificant  strip  now  known  as  Suri¬ 
nam  or  Dutch  Guiana.  When  Napoleon  invaded 
Portugal  the  sovereign  fled  to  Brazil,  which  act 
was  instrumental  in  materially  modifying  the 
colonial  administration,  and  a  new  era  of  pros¬ 
perity  sprang  up.  In  1815  Brazil  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  a  kingdom  and  became  the  head  of 
its  own  mother  country.  In  1821  the  King  re¬ 
turned  to  Portugal,  leaving  his  son  Dom  Pedro  as 
regent  of  the  country.  This  same  year  a  revo¬ 
lution  took  place,  and  in  1822  Brazil  was  pro¬ 
claimed  an  independent  empire,  and  Pedro  was 
crowned  as  its  Emperor.  In  1824  a  constitution 
was  adopted,  and  the  independence  of  the  Empire 
acknowledged  by  the  Government  of  Lisbon. 
Singularly  enough,  Dom  Pedro,  who  had  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  setting  up  an  empire  for  himself  and 
wresting  it  from  his  father,  became,  in  1826,  King 
of  Portugal  as  well,  his  father  John  VI.  dying. 
Pedro,  however,  resigned  in  favor  of  his  infant 
daughter.  From  this  time  until  1831  Brazil  was 
largely  engaged  in  warfare  with  her  neighbors  in 
Souih  America,  and  given  over  to  internecine 


BRAZIL  CABBAGE. 


196 


BREAD. 


dissensions,  which  ended  in  Pedro’s  abdicating 
in  favor  of  his  son,  then  but  six  years  of  age. 
LTntil  1 S41  the  country  was  governed  by  a  regent. 
This  monarch,  Dom  Pedro  II.,  lias  enjoyed  a 
prosperous  reign.  Since  1841  several  political  up¬ 
risings  have  occurred,  and  war  has  been  carried 
on  against  neighboring  States,  the  most  severe 
struggle  being  that  against  Paraguay,  which  Lopez 
of  the  latter  country  had  precipitated.  The  con¬ 
flict  lasted  five  years,  and  cost  Paraguay  nine- 
tenths  of  her  male  population.  Of  late  years  the 
Empire  has  experienced  a  period  of  prosperity. 
Dom  Pedro  is  an  enlightened  sovereign,  and  has 
several  times  visited  the  United  Statesand  Europe. 

See  A  Journey  in  Brazil,  by  Professor  and  Mrs. 
Agassiz  (1870);  Hartt,  Geology  of  Brazil  (Boston, 
1870);  A.  R.  Wallace,  Travels  on  the  Amazon 
(1870);  Bates,  The  Naturalist  on  the  Amazon 
(1873);  Mulhall,  Handbook  of  Brazil  (Buenos 
Ayres,  1877);  Fletcher  and  Kidder,  Brazil  and  the 
Brazilians  (9th  ed.  Philadelphia,  1879);  II.  II. 
Smith,  Brazil,  the  Amazon  and  the  Coast  (1880); 
Sellin,  Das  Kaiserreich  Brasilien  (1882);  Zeller, 
Die  Deutschen  im  Brasilischen  Urwald  (1883); 
Wells,  Three  Thousand  Miles  Through  Brazil 
(1886);  and  for  the  history,  Southey’s  History  of 
Brazil  (1810-19),  and  the  Portuguese  works  of 
Costancio  and  Pereira  da  Silva. 

Brazil  Cabbage,  Ciiou  CaraJbe,  are  names 
somewhat  vaguely  applied  to  various  species  of 
Caladium  and  Colocasia  (natural  order,  Araceae), 
which  yield  edible  tubers,  and  are  largely  culti¬ 
vated  in  the  tropics. 

Brazilian  Grass,  an  incorrrcct  popular  name 
applied  to  a  substance  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
a  very  cheap  kind  of  hats,  known  as  Brazilian 
grass'hats,  and  also  as  chip  hats. 

Brazil  Nuts  are  the  seeds  of  the  Bertholletia 
excelsa,  a  majestic  and  beautiful  tree  belonging 
to  the  Lecythidaceae,  a  sub-order  of  Myrtaceae. 
The  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  100  or  120  feet, 
and  abounds  on  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco,  and  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Brazil.  It  produces  a  round 
■woody  seed-vessel,  almost  as  large  as  a  man’s 
head,  within  each  of  the  four  divisions  of  which 


Brazil  Nut. 


a,  the  fruit:  b,  the  same,  with  half  the  pericarp  removed 
to  show  the  nuts  or  seeds;  c,  a  single  nut  or  seed;  d ,  a 
nut  cut  across;  e ,  a  leaf. 

lie  six  or  eight  of  the  seeds.  Tiic  pericarp  is  very 
heavy  and  solid;  and  at  the  time  when  this  great 
fruit  is  ready  to  fall,  it  is  dangerous  to  walk 
under  the  tree.  The  seeds,  which  are  popularly 
called  nuts,  and  much  resemble  fruits  of  that  de¬ 
scription,  are  wrinkled  and  triangular,  having  a 
hard  shell  and  a  pure  white  kernel,  which,  when 
fresh  is  very  agreeable.  They  yield  as  much  as 
56  per  cent,  of  oil,  which  is  good  for  burning. 

Brazil-wood,  a  dark-red  or  yellowish  brown 
dye-wood,  which  forms  a  considerable  article  of 
export  from  Brazil.  It  is  the  produce  of  differ¬ 
ent  species  of  Csesalpinia. — Pernambuco  Wood 
is  the  produce  of  C.  echinata,  sometimes  regarded 
as  the  Brazilian  form  of  the  preceding  species. 
The  timber  is  called  Nicaragua-wood.  The  Sap 


pan-wood  ( C.  Sappan)  of  the  East  Indies  has  simi¬ 
lar  properties.  Brazil-wood  does  not  really  owe 
its  name  to  the  country  of  its  frequent  origin,  but 
the  country  to  its  abundance  of  red  dye-woods. 
U.  crista,  probably  yields  some  of  the  inferior 
West  Indian  Brazil-wood.  The  coloring  matter 
is  termed  brasilin;  strong  decoctions  of  Brazil¬ 
wood  are  used  by  the  dyer  and  calico-printer  in 
the  fabrication  of  reds,  browns,  etc. ;  it  is  also  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  red  ink. 

Brazing,  or  Soldering,  is  the  process  of 
uniting  together  two  pieces  of  brass,  two  pieces 
of  copper,  or  one  of  each,  by  means  of  a  hard 
solder,  partaking  more  or  less  of  the  composition 
and  properties  of  ordinary  brass.  The  edges  or 
parts  of  metal  to  be  joined  are  first  filed  bright, 
so  as  to  be  thoroughly  clean,  then  there  is  strewed 
over  the  joint  a  mixture  of  the  solder  and  borax. 
The  solder  employed  varies  in  composition  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  kind  of  work,  and  may  be  rendered 
more  fusible  by  the  addition  of  a  larger  amount 
of  zinc.  Hard  solder,  or  “spelter  solder,”  for 
brass  consists  of  1  part  of  copper  to  1  of  zinc;  for 
copper  or  iron  it  is  usually  1  part  of  copper  to 
%  of  a  part  of  zinc.  The  proportions,  however, 
vary,  3  of  copper  to  1  of  zinc  being  about  the 
hardest  solder. 

Brazos,  formerly  Brazos  de  Dros,  a  river  of 
Texas,  rising  in  a  tableland  called  the  Staked 
Plain,  in  the  northwest  of  the  State,  and  running 
950  miles  southeastward,  till  it  falls  into  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  about  forty  miles  southwest  of  Galves¬ 
ton. 

Brazza,  the  largest  and  most  populous  of  the 
Dalmatian  islands  of  the  Adriatic,  with  an  area  of 
152  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1880)  of  19,969. 
San  Pietro  is  the  chief  town. 

Brazza,  Pierre  Savorgnan  de,  a  French 
explorer  of  Italian  descent,  was  born  at  Rome  in 
1852.  He  studied  at  Paris,  entered  the  French 
navy  in  1870,  and  served  on  the  Gaboon  station. 
In  1876-78  he  made  a  famous  exploration  of  the 
Ogoway,  and  of  some  of  the  northern  tributaries 
of  the  Congo.  In  1878  the  French  Government 
gave  him  100,000  francs  for  exploration  and  the 
promotion  of  French  interests  in  the  country 
north  of  the  Congo,  where  he  secured  vast  grants 
of  land  for  France,  and  founded  several  stations, 
that  called  Brazzaville  being  on  the  northern 
shore  of  Stanley  Pool.  In  1883  he  again  returned 
to  extend  the  territory  secured  to  France,  this 
time  with  a  Government  grant  of  1,275,000  francs. 
The  securing  for  France  of  her  great  dependency 
lying  between  the  Gaboon  and  the  Congo  is 
mainly  his  work;  and  of  that  dependency  he  was 
made  Governor  in  1886. 

Breach,  in  a  military  sense,  is  a  gap  or  opening 
in  any  of  the  defenses  of  a  fortress,  effected  either 
by  mining  or  by  the  fire  of  guns  placed  in  what 
are  called  “  breaching-batteries.”  The  high 
earthen  ramparts  of  all  fortresses  are  surrounded 
by  deep  ditches.  In  order  to  support  the  weight 
of  the  rampart,  and  make  the  ditch  a  more  for¬ 
midable  obstacle,  its  sides  are  built  up  with 
retaining  walls  of  masonry,  technically  called 
“revetments,”  often  30  feet  high  and  15  feet 
thick  at  the  foot.  To  breach  by  mining,  the 
explosives  are  lodged  at  the  back  of  the  revet¬ 
ment  and  near  its  foot  under  the  parapet  in  suffi¬ 
cient  quantities  to  bring  down  the  greater  part  of 
the  whole  bank  of  earth  and  retaining  wall.  The 
debris  falling  into  the  ditch  forms  a  ramp  or 
slope,  up  which  the  assaulting  party  rush  into 
the  fortress.  At  the  same  time  the  wall  retaining 
the  far  side  of  the  ditch,  called  the  “counter¬ 
scarp,”  is  treated  in  a  similar  manner  to  facilitate 
the  descent  into  the  ditch.  The  same  result 
may  be  obtained  by  artillery  fire. 

Breach  is  a  legal  term  used  to  denote  the  viola¬ 
tion  of  a  legal  right  or  obligation.  The  most 
common  form  of  this  is  Breach  of  Contract.  A 
contract  may  be  broken  by  simple  failure  to  pay 
or  to  perform,  or  by  the  debtor  making  it  impos¬ 
sible  for  him  to  perform  before  the  time  arrives, 
or  by  his  seriously  declaring  that  he  will  not  per¬ 
form.  Breach  of  Trust  consists  in  the  violation 
of  the  express  or  implied  obligations  of  a  trustee 
— e.  g.,  making  an  investment  of  trust  funds  not 
sanctioned  by  the  trust  deed,  or  using  trust  funds 
in  the  business  of  the  trustee.  The  liability  so 
incurred  is  generally  to  replace  the  funds,  some¬ 


times  with  penal  interest.  Such  acts  are  often 
restrained  by  interdict  or  injunction  at  the  in¬ 
stance  of  the  beneficiaries.  Breach  of  trust  often 
takes  a  criminal  complexion,  and  is  punished  as- 
embezzlement.  Breaches  of  contract  are  very 
rarely  criminal — indeed  only  where  the  element 
of  conspiracy  occurs.  Breach  of  the  Peace  in¬ 
cludes  a  great  variety  of  criminal  acts,  from 
mobbing  and  rioting  down  to  small  police 
offences. 

Breaching  Tower,  or  Beffroi,  was  the  name 
of  a  tower  used  in  the  military  sieges  of  ancient 
and  mediaeval  times.  When  a  tower  was  to  be 
besieged,  a  movable  tower,  as  high  as  the  walls, 
was  brought  near  it;  and  this  tower  was  the 
beffroi.  Its  use  is  more  than  once  spoken  of  by 
Caesar  in  his  account  of  his  campaigns  in  Gaul. 
The  lower  stage  frequently  had  a  ram;  while  the 
others  were  crowded  with  bowmen  and  slingers; 
or  there  were  bowmen  on  all  the  stages  except  the 
top,  which  had  a  storming  or  boarding  party 

Bread.  The  earliest  and  most  primitive  way 
of  making  bread  was  to  soak  the  grain  in  water, 
subject  it  to  pressure,  and  then  dry  by  natural  or 
artificial  heat.  An  improvement  upon  this  was 
to  pound  or  bray  the  grain  in  a  mortar,  or  be¬ 
tween  two  flat  stones,  before  moistening  and 
heating.  In  the  East  Indies  (especially  the  Pun¬ 
jab  and  Afghanistan),  as  well  as  in  Scotland,  flour 
is  kneaded  with  water,  and  rolled  into  thin  sheets, 
as  scones  (although  this  term  is  usually  applied  to 
bread  lightened  with  butter-milk  and  baking- 
soda).  The  passover  cakes  of  the  Israelites  were 
also  prepared  in  this  way.  A  similar  preparation 
of  wheat-flour,  but  where  the  sheet  of  dough  is 
made  much  thicker,  forms  the  dampers  of  Aus¬ 
tralia.  The  Indian  cornmeal,  kneaded  with  water 
and  fired,  affords  the  corn-bread  of  America.  The 
kinds  of  bread  referred  to  above  are  designated 
unleavened ,  as  no  leaven  has  been  added  to  the 
dough  to  excite  fermentation.  No  chemical 
change  has  therefore  been  produced,  except  that 
the  starch  lias  been  rendered  more  soluble  by  the 
process  of  baking.  Even  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
however,  leaven  was  employed  in  making  bread. 
It  is  probable  that  the  Egyptians  were  the  first  to 
use  leaven;  that  the  secret  afterward  became 
known  to  the  Greeks;  and  that  the  Greeks  com¬ 
municated  the  process  to  the  Romans;  who  spread 
the  invention  far  and  wide  in  the  northern  coun¬ 
tries  during  their  campaigns.  The  grain  of  wheat 
is  generally  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
bread  among  the  better  classes  and  more  advanced 
nations,  though  rye,  barley,  Indian  corn,  and  rice 
are  also  extensively  used.  The  average  compo¬ 
sition  of  the  grain  of  wheat  is: 


Moisture .  140 

Mineral  matter . •• .  1-8 

Albuminous  bodies  (soluble  in  alcohol) .  7.2 

Nitrogenous  matter  (insoluble  in  alcohol) .  4.5 

Sugar .  2.2 

Cellulose .  3  0 

Starch .  65.8 

Fat .  15 

Total . 100.0 


The  proportion  of  these  ingredients,  however, 
varies  considerably.  Much  depends  on  soil  and 
climate.  Taken  as  a  general  rule,  to  which  there 
are  exceptions,  the  wheat  becomes  more  starchy 
as  we  proceed  southward.  The  strongest  flours 
{i.  e. ,  those  richest  in  gluten),  are  grown  in  Min¬ 
nesota,  Manitoba,  Hungary,  and  Russia.  The 
principal  constituents  of  wheat  may  be  separated 
from  each  other  without  much  difficulty.  Thus, 
if  wheat-flour  be  placed  in  a  cloth-bag  with  the 
mouth  well  closed,  and  the  whole  introduced  into 
a  basin  of  water,  and  pressed  by  the  fingers  for 
some  time,  the  starch  is  squeezed  through  the 
cloth  as  a  fine  white  powder,  and  the  gluten  is  left 
in  the  cloth  as  a  viscid  or  sticky  substance. 
Again,  if  wheat-flour  be  burned  on  a  porcelain 
plate  on  a  fire,  or  oven,  or  gas-lamp,  till  it  can 
burn  no  longer,  it  leaves  behind  a  small  amount 
of  ash  or  saline  matter.  Previous  to  being  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  fabrication  of  bread,  the  grain  of 
wheat  undergoes  the  process  of  milling,  with  the 
double  object  of  reducing  it  to  a  fine  state  of 
division,  and  separating  the  more  hard  and  indi¬ 
gestible  parts.  During  the  grinding  operations, 
the  wheat  as  it  passes  from  grain  to  flour  nearly 
doubles  its  bulk.  The  products  come  from  the 
dressing-machine  divided  into  different  qualities. 


W.  LEWIS,  Proprietor 

c  A.  s  11  M  B  R  C //AJjjJI 

Neil  St,  Odd  FelloW 

Opposite  City  Block 

I  hy  'S  Champaign,  Ills., . 


MANUFACTURED  UNDER 


BREAD-FRUIT  TREE. 


197 


BREAKWATER. 


a  sample  of  wheat  yielding  by  some  systems  of 
milling: 

Flour,  1st  and  2d  qualities . 71.86  per  cent. 

Bran  (small  and  large) . 23.91 

Orm  sweepings,  light  wheat,  exhaust  dust, 

etc . 1 .  3.23  " 

Waste .  1  00 

Total . 100.00 

In  the  making  of  good  bread  three  things  are 
absolutely  requisite — flour  or  meal,  yeast,  or 
leayen,  and  water  containing  salt.  The  yeast  or 
leaven  is  added  to  give  a  start  to  the  fermentation 
process,  thereby  supplying  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  communicates  a  spongy  or  light  texture  to 
the  bread.  Leaven  is  the  more  primitive  ferment, 
and  is  simply  a  portion  of  moistened  flour  or 
dough  in  which  the  putrefactive  agencies  have 
begun  to  work  On  the  Continent  of  Europe 
leaven  is  still  very  extensively  employed,  espe¬ 
cially  in  districts  far  from  breweries.  The  mate¬ 
rials'  being  at  hand,  and  the  proper  benches, 
utensils,  and  oven  being  within  reach,  the  baker 
takes  a  quantity  of  water  and  adds  to  it  the 
veast  and  salt;  after  which  the  flour  is  added, 
and  the  whole  thoroughly  and  laboriously 
kneaded  together  until  it  assumes  a  ropy  con¬ 
sistence.  It  is  then  called  the  sponge,  and  is 
placed  in  a  kneading-trough  in  a  warm  place, 
which  is  styled  setting  the  sponge.  In  a  short 
time,  the  yeast  begins  to  act  on  the  gluten,  starch, 
and  sugar  of  the  flour,  compelling  the  latter  to 
pass  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas  in  every 
part  of  the  dough,  which  thereby  becomes  in¬ 
flated  with  innumerable  air  cavities.  When  the 
fermentation  lias  sufficiently  advanced,  the  baker 
takes  the  sponge,  adds  more  flour,  water,  and 
salt,  a  second  time  subjects  the  whole  to  a 
thorough  process  of  kneading,  and  makes  it  into 
dough,  after  which  he  allows  the  mass  to  lie  in 
a  warm  place  for  from  one  to  two  hours.  The 
dough  swells  considerably  from  distension  by  gas, 
and  is  weighed  out  into  lumps  of  the  proper  size, 
which  are  shaped  into  loaves,  constituting  the 
batch,  or  placed  in  tin  pans,  and  allowed  to.lie  for 
a  short  time  till  they  get  further  distended. 
The  oven  has  previously  been  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  at  least  450p  F.,  which  is  the  lowest 
temperature  at  which  bread  can  be  baked,  and 
ranging  up  to  572°  F.;  when  it  has  been  thor¬ 
oughly  cleaned  out,  the  loaves  are  introduced,  and 
the  oven  shut  up.  Until  recent  years  bakers  had 
not  improved  upon  the  method  used  in  the 
bakeries  of  Pompeii — viz.,  by  burning  wood  in 
the  floor  of  the  oven  itself  until  the  proper  tem¬ 
perature  had  been  reached,  then  cleaning  out  and 
introducing  the  loaves.  Latterly,  however,  this 
inconvenient  method  has  been  improved  upon, 
and  many  large  bakeries  are  fitted  with  ovens 
heated  either  by  flues,  gas  (regenerator),  or  super¬ 
heated  steam.  The  heat  acts  in  dissipating  much 
of  the  water  from  the  dough,  in  distending  the 
air  cavities  more  fully,  and  in  partially  boiling 
the  starch  and  gluten  of  the  dough,  and  develop¬ 
ing  some  gum  from  tie  starch.  Indeed,  though 
the  temperature  of  the  oven  is  much  higher,  yet 
the  loaves  beyond  the  mere  crust  are  bathed  in  an 
atmosphere  of  steam,  and  are  never  heated  above 
215°  F.,  as  has  been  proved  by  direct  experi¬ 
ments  with  the  thermometer.  One  effect  of  the 
heat  is  to  arrest  any  further  fermentation.  After 
about  one  and  a  half  hours’ baking  in  the  oven,  the 
length  of  time  being  determined  by  the  tempera 
tuiv,  the  loaves  are  withdrawn,  and  allowed  to 
cool.  The  brown  appearance  of  the  crust  of 
loaves,  and  the  pleasant  taste  of  the  crusts,  are 
due  to  the  action  of  the  heat  on  the  starch  and  the 
formation  of  dextrin,  a  sort  of  gum.  Machinery 
has  now  superseded  manual  labor  in  many  of  the 
operations  of  bread-making.  Rye-bread  is  very 
extensively  used  in  northern  European  countries, 
where  the  soil,  being  sandy,  is  admirably  adapted 
for  the  growth  of  that  grain.  It  yields  a  flour 
darker  than  wheat-flour.  It  is  almost  equal  in 
nutritive  value  to  wheaten  bread.  Barley  and 
oats,  which,  when  used  as  bread,  are  generally 
made  into  cakes  or  bannocks,  possess  also  a  com¬ 
position  not  unlike  wheat.  Rice  is  occasionally 
employed  in  making  bread,  but  it  is  not  nearly  so 
nutritious  as  wheat. 

Aerated  Bread  is  prepared  by  a  process 
patented  by  Dr.  Dauglish  in  March,  1859,  and  was 
at  one  time  very  popular  in  England,  but  its  use 


is  now  almost  exclusively  confined  to  London  and 
district.  The  process  consists  in  placing  the  flour 
in  a  strong  inclosed  iron  box,  and  moistening  it 
with  carbonic  acid  water.  The  dough  is  then 
worked  up  by  machinery  for  ten  minutes  or  so 
inside  the  box,  from  which  it  is  dropped  into 
molds,  which  form  it  into  loaves.  It  is  then 
placed  in  an  oven,  when  the  carbonic  acid  gas, 
previously  introduced  with  the  water  within  the 
dough,  expands,  and  forms  a  light  palatable 
bread. 

Bread-fruit  Tree  ( Artocarpus  incisa),  a  tree 
of  the  sub-order  Artocarpacese  of  Urticacese,  a 
native  of  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago,  is  one  of  the  most  im¬ 
portant  gifts  of  nature  to  the  inhabitants  of  these 
regions,  its  fruit  supplying  the  principal  part  of 
their  food,  and  its  inner  bark  a  considerable  part 
of  their  clothing,  whilst  its  timber  and  its  milky 
juice  are  also  employed  for  economical  purposes. 
The  genus  to  which  it  belongs  (Gr.  Artocarpus, 
bread-fruit)  is  distinguished  by  having  the  male 
flowers  in  catkins,  with  a  two-leaved  perianth 
and  one  stamen;  the  female  flowers  naked,  the 
fruit  roundish,  fleshy,  and  tuberculated.  The 
bread-fruit  tree  is  rather  a  slender  tree,  40  to  50 
feet  high,  and  often  rises  almost  half  its  height 


Bread-fruit  ( Artocarpus  incisa). 


without  a  branch.  The  fruit  is  generally  oval, 
or  nearly  spherical,  and  about  the  size  of  a  child’s 
head,  and  three  or  four  pounds  in  weight.  It 
contains  a  somewhat  fibrous  pulp,  which,  when 
ripe,  becomes  juicy  and  yellow,  but  has  then  a 
rotten  taste.  At  an  earlier  stage,  when  the  fruit 
is  gathered  for  use,  the  pulp  is  white  and  mealy, 
and  of  a  consistence  resembling  that  of  new  bread . 
The  common  practice  in  the  South  Sea  Islands  is  to 
cut  each  fruit  into  three  or  four  pieces,  and  take 
out  the  core;  then  to  place  heated  stones  in  the 
bottom  of  a  hole  dug  in  the  earth;  to  cover  them 
with  green  leaves, ‘and  upon  this  to  place  a  layer 
of  the  fruit,  then  stones,  leaves,  and  fruit  alter¬ 
nately,  till  the  hole  is  nearly  filled,  when  leaves 
and  earth  to  the  depth  of  several  inches  are  spread 
over  all.  In  rather  more  than  half  an  hour,  the 
bread  fruit  is  ready.  It  has  little  taste,  but  is 
frequently  sweetish,  and  more  resembles  the 
plantain  than  bread  made  of  wheat-flour.  It  is 
slightly  astringent,  and  highly  nutritious.  There 
are  numerous  varieties  of  the  bread-fruit  tree  in 
the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  they  ripen  at  different 
seasons.  The  tree  produces  two,  and  sometimes 
three,  crops  a  year,  in  fact  is  bearing  during  eight 
or  nine  months  of  the  year.  The  fibrous  inner 
bark  of  young  bread-fruit  trees,  beaten  and  pre¬ 
pared,  is  used  for  making  a  kind  of  cloth,  which 
is  much  worn  by  the  common  people  in  the  South 
Sea  Islands.  The  timber  is  soft  and  light,  of  a 
rich  yellow  color,  and  assumes,  when  exposed  to 
air,  the  appearance  of  mahogany.  It  is  used  for 
canoes,  housebuilding,  furniture,  and  many  other 
purposes.  The  Jack  or  Jaca  (-4.  integri-folia)  is 
a  large  and  very  thick  tree,  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  but  cultivated  also  in  the  Antilles,  with 
large  entire  leaves  and  much  larger  fruits  (up  to 
twenty-five  pounds),  of  which  some  varieties  are 
as  eatable  as  those  of  the  eoipmoner  species. 

Bread-nut,  the  fruit  of  the  Brosivmm  aliens- 
trum,  a  native  of  Jamaica,  an  artocarpaceous  tree 
closely  allied  to  the  bread-fruit.  The  fruit  is  a 


one-seeded  drupe,  and  the  kernels,  boiled  or 
roasted,  form  an  agreeable  article  of  food,  and 
are  eaten  instead  of  bread.  Their  taste  resembles 
that  of  hazel  nuts. — The  Palo  de  Vaca,  or  Cow- 
tree,  of  Demerara  is  often  referred  to  the  same 
genus. 

Breadth  is  a  term  used  by  painters  and  critics 
to  indicate  that  artistic  quality  which  gives  con¬ 
centration,  repose,  and  harmony  of  effect  to  a 
picture.  In  a  work  distinguished  by  breadth, 
the  individual  component  parts  do  not  force 
themselves  unduly  upon  the  spectator,  the  eye  is 
not  tempted  to  wander  aimlessly  from  point  to 
point  of  the  canvas;  in  such  a  picture  we  do  not 
feel  inclined  to  count  the  several  bricks  of  the  art¬ 
istic  structure,  but  we  are  led  to  admire  the  gen¬ 
eral  proportion  and  total  effect  of  the  building. 
Breadth  of  effect  is  most  commonly  and  readily 
attained  by  massing  the  shadows,  and  skilfully 
leading  the  eye  through  the  half-tones  to  the 
brilliant  concentration  of  the  highest  lights;  and 
of  this  mode  of  treatment  the  portraits  and  figure- 
pieces  of  Rembrandt  are  typical  and  unsurpassa¬ 
ble  examples. 

Breakwater  is  a  barrier  intended  for  the  pro¬ 
tection  of  shipping  in  harbors  or  anchorages.  It 
sometimes  happens  that,  in  front  of  a  semi-circular 
bay,  a  small  island  is  so  situated  as  to  I  orm  a 
natural  breakwater.  In  many  other  places,  how¬ 
ever,  bays  and  harbors  are  without  such  screens. 
A  pier  may  be  so  placed  and  constructed  as  to 
serve  also  the  purpose  of  a  breakwater,  but  the 
term  breakwater  is  generally  confined  to  a 
structure  used  solely  for  protection,  and 
not  for  berthage  or  traffic,  and  breakwaters  are 
frequently  insulated,  so  as  to  be  cut  off  from  any 
communication  with  the  shore  unless  by  water. 
Plymouth  Breakwater,  England,  is  a  gigantic 
structure.  The  works  were  commenced  in  1812, 
from  designs  by  Rennie.  The  operat ions  consisted 
in  transporting  along  a  train-road  large  blocks  of 
limestone  got  from  a  neighboring  quarry,  ship 
ping  them  in  vessels  fitted  with  trap  doors,  and 
by  means  of  these  depositing  them  in  the  shape  of 
a  huge  mound  in  the  required  situation.  It  was 
not  until  1841  that  the  works  were  finally  com¬ 
pleted,  by  the  deposit  of  more  than  3,000,000  tons 
of  stone,  and  the  expenditure  of  nearly  $7,500,- 
000.  The  breakwater  ks  nearly  a  mile  long;  the 
central  portion  is  1,000  yards;  and  two  wings  of 
350  yards  each,  extend  from  the  ends  of  this  at  a 
slight  angle.  Holyhead  Breakwater  was  designed 
by  Mr.  Rendel  for  the  purpose  of  converting  Holy- 
head  Bay  into  a  harbor  of  refuge.  It  is  formed  of 
stone  quarried  from  Holyhead  Mountain,  the 
stone  being  run  out  upon  a  timber  staging  and 
dropped  into  the  sea.  It  was  begun  in  1847  and 
finished  in  1873.  is  2,620  yards  long  and  cost  $2,- 
400  per  yard.  Portland  Breakwater  is  of  very 
great  value,  in  converting  into  a  harbor  of  refuge 
the  expanse  of  water  between  Dorsetshire  coast 
and  the  Isle,  or  rather  Peninsula,  of  Portland.  It 
was  built  by  convict  labor  and  is  more  than  two 
miles  long.  The  breakwater  at  Dover,  England, 
cost  $3,500,000;  that  at  Alderney  more  than  $8,- 
000,000.  Cherbourg  Breakwat  er  is  the  greatest  and 
the  most  costly  ever  constructed.  More  than  100 
years  ago,  M.  de  Cessart  proposed  to  the  French 
Government  the  formation  of  a  breakwater  at 
Cherbourg.  It  was  completed  under  Napoleon 
III.  at  a  cost  exceeding  $12,500,000.  The  break¬ 
water  itself  was  finished  in  1853,  but  since  that 
year  large  fortifications  have  been  built  upon  the 
upper  works.  The  length  is  nearly  2£  miles;  the 
breakwater  is  300  feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and  31 
at  the  top.  Many  substitutes  have  been  proposed 
for  solid  breakwaters,  such  as  floating  breakwaters 
constructed  of  timber  framework,  open  iron 
screens,  etc.,  but  none  of  them  have  been  shown 
to  be  suitable  for  actual  service.  The  Delaware 
Breakwater,  protecting  Delaware  Bay,  was  begun 
in  1829,  consists  of  two  parts,  500  feet  and  1,200 
feet  in  length,  respectively,  and  defends  an  area  of 
300  acres.  Its  cost  to  date  has  been  over  $2,000,- 
000.  The  completed  harbor  of  Chicago  will  in¬ 
clude  a  sheltered  area  of  sixteen  feet  in  depth, 
covering  270  acres,  with  communicating  slips 
along  the  lake  front  covering  185  acres,  making  a 
total  of  455  acres  ;  this,  in  addition  to  the  river 
proper,  with  which  the  outer  harbor  communi¬ 
cates.  There  is,  also,  an  exterior  breakwater,  one- 
third  of  a  mile  north  of  the  end  of  the  north  pier. 


BREAM. 


198 


BREECH-LOADING. 


so  situated  as  to  protect  vessels  entering  the  mouth 
of  the  river.  The  length  of  this  outer  break wat  er 
is  5,436  feet.  The  north  pier,  measuring  from 
the  outer  end  of  the  Michigan  Street  slip,  is 
1,600  feet  long,  and  extends  600  feet  beyond  the 
easterly  breakwater,  which  latter,  beginning  at  the 
outer  end  of  the  south  pier,  extends  directly  south 
4,060  feet,  and  is  distant  3,300  feet  from  the  pres¬ 
ent  shore  line  south  of  Monroe  Street  A  channel 
800  feet  intervenes  between  this  and  the  north  end 
of  the  southerly  breakwater.  This  latter  break¬ 
water  continues  for  a  short  distance  due  south, 
then  turns  at  an  angle  of  30°,  and  extends  in  a 
southwesterly  direction  to  within  about  1,550  feet 
of  the  present  shore  line,  and  500  feet  from  the 
dock  line.  This  breakwater  is  3,950  feet  in  length. 

Bream,  a  popular  name  applied  to  three  very 
different  kinds  of  fish,  but  especially  to  the  first 
mentioned.  (1)  The  Fresh-water  Bream  ( Abrams 
brama),  a  common  little  fish  nearly  allied  to  the 
Bleak.  It  has  an  elongated,  laterally-compressed 
body,  a  short,  blunt  snout,  and  long  anal  fins. 
The  color  varies  from  silver-gray  to  brown.  It 
may  measure  over  a  foot,  and  usually  weighs 
between  two  and  four  pounds,  though  often  more. 
The  bream  is  frequent  in  North  Europe,  and  lives 
in  great  shoals,  in  quiet  waters.  They  are  shy  in 
habit,  hardy  in  constitution,  and  very  prolific. 
(2)  Quite  distinct  from  these  is  the  large  family  of 


Common  Sea-bream  ( Pagellus  cenlrodontus) . 


sea-breams  or  sparkles,  in  the  Acantliopterygii 
division  of  bony  fishes.  The  family  is  a  large 
one,  with  30  genera  and  about  160  species,  occur¬ 
ring  abundantly  along  the  tropical  and  temperate 
seas.  They  feed  on  flesh  or  algae,  and  are  for  the 
most  part  fit  for  eating.  The  solitary  black  sea- 
bream  or  old  wife  (Cantharus  Uneatus),  the  com¬ 
mon  sea-bream  (PageUus  eenlrodontus),  caught  in 
great  numbers  with  the  seine  net,  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  gilthead  ( Ghrysoplirys  aurala),  and  many 
others,  occur  in  varying  abundance.  (3)  The 
term  bream  is  also  applied  to  Drama  rati,  a  widely- 
distributed  fish  of  the  mackerel  family. 

Breastplate,  in  ancient  armor,  was  a  plate 
of  iron,  steel,  or  other  metal,  so  fastened  as  to  pro¬ 
tect  the  chest  of  the  wearer.  The  back-plate,  in 
like  manner,  protected  him  from  attack  from 
behind.  The  two  together  form  what  is  now 
called  the  cuirass,  worn  by  the  cuirassiers  of 
European  armies. 

Breasts,  or  mammary  glands,  are  the  organs 
which  secrete  milk  for  the  nourishment  of  the 
young  in  the  mammalia,  and  from  the  presence  of 
which  that  class  of  animals  takes  its  name.  In  the 


human  subject  they  are  two  in  number,  situated 
on  the  front  of  the  chest.  In  children  they  are 
small  and  rudimentary,  but  about  the  age  of 
puberty  they  enlarge.  In  boys  this  enlargement, 
if  it  occurs,  passes  off  after  a  few  days,  and  the 
breasts  remain  rudimentary  during  the  rest  of 


life;  but  in  girls  it  leads  to  the  full  development 
of  the  organ.  Over  the  center  of  the  gland  there 
is  a  circular  patch  of  skin,  thinner  and  darker 
than  the  rest  (the  areola)-,  and  from  it  rises  a  small 
conical  projection  (the  nipple).  On  the  apex  of  the 
nipple  the  milk-ducts  (from  fifteen  to  twenty  in 
number)  open  by  separate  orifices.  Each  of  these 
ducts  passes  outward  to  one  division  or  lobe  of  the 
breast,  dilating  beyond  the  nipple  into  a  sinus, 
and  then  branching  repeatedly  to  terminate  in 
the  lobules,  or  clusters  of  small  rounded  vesicles 
in  which  the  milk  is  secreted.  The  lobules  and 
lobes  are  bound  together  by  connective  tissue, 
and  well  packed  in  fat,  which  increases  some¬ 
times  to  an  enormous  extent  the  apparent  size  of 
the  organ.  In  the  adult  female  the  breasts  swell 
a  little  at  each  monthly  period.  During  preg¬ 
nancy  considerable  enlargement  . takes  place,  and 
shortly  after  the  birth  of  the  child  the  milk  begins 
to  be  freely  secreted. 

Diseases  of  the  Breast  are  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  women,  probably  on  account  of  the 
great  changes  in  activity  and  blood-supply  to 
which  the  organ  is  subject.  During  suckling, 
the  delicate  skin  of  the  nipple  often  becomes 
abraded.  The  ulcers  or  fissures  thus  formed  are 
usually  very  painful,  so  much  so,  it  may  be,  as  to 
render  nursing  impossible,  and  frequently  lead  to 
abscess  of  the  breast.  Acute  inflammation  of  a 
part  of  the  breast  or  of  the  adjacent  tissues  fre¬ 
quently  occurs  during  nursing,  rarely  at  other 
times. 

Chronic  inflammation  of  the  whole  or  a  part  of 
the  breast  sometimes  occurs,  and  may  closely 
resemble  a  true  tumor.  It  may  disappear  under 
the  prolonged  application  of  warmth  and  moist¬ 
ure.  or  other  remedies  which  favor  absorption,  or 
may  end  in  abscess. 

The  breast  may  be  the  seat  of  almost  any  of  the 
numerous  forms  of  tumor  met  with  in  the  body 
Far  the  most  common  varieties  in  this  situation, 
however,  are  glandular  tumors  and  hard  cancer. 
Glandular  tumors  (adenocele)  vary  much  in  size, 
form,  and  consistence,  but  present  in  their  inti¬ 
mate  structure  more  or  less  resemblance  to  the 
normal  structure  of  the  breast,  and  are  not  dan¬ 
gerous  to  life.  Their  removal  may  be  necessary 
on  account  of  the  pain  or  inconvenience  they 
cause  the  patient.  Cancer,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
all  but  invariably  fatal. 

Breastwork,  in  fortification,  is  a  hastily-con¬ 
structed  earthwork  of  sufficient  height  to  protect 
men  standing  on  the  natural  surface  of  the 
ground,  and  firing  over  it  without  requiring  a 
“  banquette  ”  to  stand  upon,  as  would  be  the  case 
with  the  more  carefully  constructed  work  called 
a  “parapet.”  The  ditch  in  front,  from  which 
the  earth  is  taken  to  form  the  breastwork,  affords 
a  slight  additional  obstacle  to  the  attack.  The 
inner  surface  of  a  breastwork  is  revetted  (that 
is,  faced  with  sods,  timber,  hurdles,  etc.),  in 
order  that  it  may  stand  at  a  steep  slope,  thus  im¬ 
proving  the  cover  it  gives  by  enabling  the  de¬ 
fenders  to  get  close  up  to  it. 

Breccia,  a  term  adopted  from  the  Italian  to 
designate  a  mass  composed  of  angular  fragments 
of  rocks  of  the  same  or -different  kinds,  cemented 
together  by  an  enveloping  paste,  as,  for  example, 
by  infiltrated  oxide  of  iron  or  carbonate  of  lime. 

Brechin,  a  town  of  Forfarshire,  Scotland. 
Pop.  (1881),  9,031. 

Breckinridge,  John  Cabell,  Vice-President 
of  theUnited  States,  was  born  Jan.  21,  1821,  near 
Lexington,  Ky.,  where  he  practiced  law  until 
1847,  when  he  was  chosen  major  of  a  volunteer 
regiment  for  the  Mexican  war.  He  sat  in  Con¬ 
gress  1851-55,  and  in  1856  was  elected  Vice-Pres¬ 
ident,  with  Buchanan  as  President.  In  1860  he 
was  the  Pro-Slavery  candidate  for  the  Presidency, 
but  was  defeated  by  Lincoln.  A  United  States 
Senator  from  March  to  December,  1861,  he  then 
entered  the  Confederate  army,  was  appointed  a 
major-general  in  1862,  and  held  some  important 
commands  during  the  Civil  War.  He  was  Secretary 
of  War  in  Jefferson  Davis’  cabinet  at  the  close  of 
the  struggle,  and  escaped  to  Europe,  whence  he 
returned  in  1868.  Hediedat  Lexington,  May  17, 
1875. 

Brecknockshire,  or  Brecon,  an  inland  county 
of  South  Wales,  to  the  south  of  Radnorshire, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Wye.  Pop., 
(1881),  57,746.  The  chief  towns  are  Brecon  (the 


county  town),  Builth,  Crickliowell,  Hay,  and 
Llanelly. 

Breda,  a  town  of  North  Brabant,  Holland,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Mark  and  Aa,  sixty  miles 
east -northeast  of  Flushing.  It  formerly  possessed 
the  means  of  laying  the  surrounding  country  under 
water  in  the  event  of  an  attack,  but  the  import¬ 
ance  of  the  town  as  a  military  position  lias  passed 
away,  and  in  1876  the  fortifications  were  removed. 
Pop.  (1883),  18,324.  Breda  is  celebrated  as  the 
place  where,  in  1566,  the  protest  of  the  Dutch 
nobles,  known  as  the  “Compromise  of  Breda,” 
against  the  measures  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  in  the 
Netherlands,  was  presented  and  rejected.  The 
“  Declaration  of  Breda”  (April,  1660),  was 
Charles  II. ’s  manifesto  prior  to  the  Restoration; 
whilst  by  the  “Treaty  of  Breda”  (1667)  between 
England,  France,  Holland,  and  Denmark,  Eng¬ 
land  got  St.  Christopher,  Antigua,  and  Montserrat, 
and  France,  Acadia.  Breda  lias  suffered  numer¬ 
ous  sieges,  having  been  captured  by  the  Spaniards 
(1581),  by  the  Dutch  under  Maurice  of  Orange 
(1590),  by  Spinola  (1625),  again  by  the  Dutch 
(1632),  and  twice  by  the  French  (1793-95),  who 
were  finally  driven  out  in  1813. 

Brederode,  Henry  Count  of,  born  in  Brus¬ 
sels,  in  December,  1531,  was  a  leader  of  the  dis¬ 
affected  nobility  in  the  struggle  against  Spain. 
He  died  Aug.  24,  1568. 

Bree,  Matthias  Ignatias  van,  a  Flemish 
painter,  was.  born  at  Antwerp  in  1773,  and  in 
1797  gained  the  prix  de  Rome  by  his  “Death  of 
Cato.”  In  1804  he  returned  to  Antwerp,  where 
he  became  Director  of  the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  and  died  Dec.  15,  1839. — His  brother, 
Philipp  Jacob  van  Bree  (1786-1871),  also  ac¬ 
quired  some  reputation  as  an  historical  painter. 

Breech-loading,  is  the  method  of  introducing 
the  charge  into  a  firearm  at  the  breech  instead  of 
the  muzzle.  The  breech  is  then  closed  by  a  block 
of  metal,  which  is  held  in  its  place  by  a  hinge 
and  lever,  or  by  a  bolt  with  a  bayonet  joint,  in 
the  case  of  small  arms,  and  in  that  of  heavy  guns 
by  a  screw  or  a  wedge.  The  advantages  of  the 
breech-loading  military  rifle  are  very  manifest.  It 
enables  a  recruit  to  fire  four  times  as  fast  as  the 
best  drilled  soldier  armed  with  a  muzzle-loader, 
and  a  cavalryman  to  load  his  carbine  even  at  a 
gallop.  The  absence  of  windage  renders  the 
action  of  the  powder  stronger  and  more  uniform, 
thus  increasing  the  range  and  accuracy  of  the 
weapon.  The  rapidity  of  fire  can  be  still  further 
increased  by  the  addition  of  a  magazine.  The 
Prussian  needle-gun  (1841)  was  the  first  breech¬ 
loading  rifle  carried  by  European  troops.  Its 
breech  is  closed  by  a  bolt  carrying  a  long  needle. 
The  French  Chassepot  (1866)  is  also  a  bolt-action 
breech-loader  firing  a  paper  cartridge  ignited  at 
the  base.  The  Sharp  breech-loading  carbine, 
long  used  by  the  cavalry  in  British  India,  has  a 
similar  consumable  cartridge.  The  Martini 


Enfield-Martini  Breech. 

A,  in  section;  B,  with  part  of  side  plate  removed. 


breech  action,  which  superseded  the  Snider  in 
1871-74,  and  which  is  retained  in  the  new  Enfield- 
Martini  rifle  issued  in  1888  to  the  British  army,  is 
a  block  and  lever  system.  The  principal  American 
breech-loading  rifles  are  the  Winchester,  Colt, 
Springfield  (U.  S.  Army),  Ballard,  and  Spencer, 
The  difficulty  of  closing  the  breech  in  a 
simple  and  effectual  manner,  especially  with 


BREED. 


199 


BREVE. 


heavy  guns,  the  structural  complications  involved, 
the  'impossibility  of  using  a  simple  time 


German  Mauser  Rifle. 


fuse  owing  to  absence  of  windage,  and  the 
greater  cost,  were  long  the  chief  objec¬ 
tions  to  breech-loading  artillery.  Krupp  (1812-87), 
in  Germany,  always  ad¬ 
vocated  this  construc¬ 
tion,  and  in  1859  the 
Armstrong  breech-load¬ 
ing  system  was  intro¬ 
duced  into  the  British 
service,  only,  however, 
to  be  abandoned  in  favor 
of  muzzle-loading  some 
six  years  later.  Other 
nations  gradually  re¬ 
armed  their  artillery 
with  breech-loaders,  and 
in  1880  breech-loading  Section  of  Krupp  Breech, 
field  guns  began  again  to  be  made  in  1888  the 
heaviest  guns  were  being  so  constructed. 

The  interrupted  screw  system  (Armstrong- 
Mitchell  gun)  consists  of  a  solid  steel  breech-block, 
with  a  screw-thread  fitting  into  a  female  screw  in 
the  gun.  The  surface  of  the  block  is  divided 
int )  six  or  eight  equal  parts,  and  the  screw-thread 
planed  away  from  alternate  portions.  In  the  gun 
the  parts  corresponding  to  the  smooth  portions 


Elevation  of  Breech  Armstrong-Mitchell  Gun  (open). 


are  left  and  those  between  them  slotted  away. 
A  turn  of  one-sixth  or  one-eiglith  of  a  circle  en¬ 
ables  thfe  block  to  be  drawn  out,  and  a  carrier, 
hinged  to  the  side,  swings  it  clear  of  the  bore. 

Breed,  a  term  applied  to  varieties  of  animals 
which  have  been  developed  under  human  control. 
When  useful  animals  are  subjugated  or  tamed  by 
man,  some  breeds  have  doubtless  arisen  unin¬ 
tentionally,  or,  as  we  say,  naturally;  others  have 
from  the  first  been  subject  to  man’s  purposeful 
improvement.  The  domesticated  cattle,  dogs, 
fowls,  horses,  pigs,  sheep,  etc.,  are  regarded  zool¬ 
ogically  as  variations  of  one  or  a  few  species. 
Their  history  in  general  terms  has  always  been 
t lie  same;  wild  forms  were  domesticated,  allowed 
to  breed  among  themselves,  further  variations 
were  selected  as  more  fit,  reversions  were  thrown 
out,  and  desired  forms  produced  by  controlled 
coupling.  Domestication  began  in  the  early 
savage  state.  Only  a  few  animals  were  tried,  be¬ 
cause  few  were  capable  of  taming,  few  promised 
direct  usefulness,  and  only  a  few  could  endure 
domestication  without  loss  of  fertility.  In  some 
cases,  different  wild  species  were  in  this  way 
subjugated  and  changed,  and  thus  we  have  dis¬ 
tinct  domestic  species. 

Brehon  Laws,  the  name  given  by  the  English 
to  the  system  of  jurisprudence  which  prevailed 
among  the  native  Irish  from  an  early  period  till 
toward  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 


The  breitheamhuin  (pronounced  brei-lioo-in  or 
brehon),  from  whom  the  laws  have  received  their 
name,  are  supposed  to  have  been  hereditary 
judges,  who  administered  justice  among  the 
members  of  their  tribe  seated  in  the  open  air  on 
the  ground. 

Breiteufeld,  a  village  of  Saxony,  five  miles 
north  of  Leipzig,  remarkable  for  three  battles 
fought  in  its  neighborhood. 

Bremen,  till  1888  one  of  the  three  free  cities  of 
Germany,  is  situated  on  the  Weser,  thirty-nine 
miles  by  rail  south-southeast  of  its  port,  Bremer- 
liaven,  and  seventy-six  miles  northwest  of  Han¬ 
over.  Pop.  (1885),  118,615,  or  with  suburbs,  130,- 
439,  nearly  all  Protestants.  Bremen  is  an  exceed¬ 
ingly  thriving  place,  and  now  ranks  as  the  second 
commercial  city  in  Germany.  Large  vessels  stop 
at  Bremerhaven,  and  only  ships  drawing  seven 
feet  of  water  or  less  can  come  up  to  the  town 
itself.  Bremen  first  became  of  historical  note  in 
the  eighth  century,  when  it  was  erected  into  a 
bishopric  by  Charlemagne.  It  soon  attained  con¬ 
siderable  commercial  importance,  and  became  one 
of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Hanseatic  League. 
It  frequently  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  French, 
and  was  in  1810  incorporated  with  that  empire; 
but  recovered  its  independence  in  1813,  and  by 
the  Congress  of  Vienna  was  admitted  in  1815  as 
one  of  the  Hanse  towns  into  the  Germanic.  Con¬ 
federation.  In  1867  it  became  a  member  of  the 
North  German  Confederation,  and  now  forms 
part  of  the  German  Empire.  The  area  of  the 
territory  is  about  i00  square  miles;,  pop.,  includ¬ 
ing  the  town  of  Bremen  (1885),  165,628. 

Bremer,  Fuediiika,  the  well-known  Swedish 
novelist,  was  born-  at  Tuorla  near  Abo,  in  Fin¬ 
land,  Oct.  17,  1801.  In  1828  appeared  the  first 
volume  of  her  Sketches  of  Everyday  Life ,  but  the 
second  volume,  The  H .  Family  (1883;  Eng.  trans. 
1884),  first  revealed  her  power.  She  spent  her 
last  years  at  Arsta,  and  died  there  Dec.  31,  1865. 
Her  best  stories  are;  The  Neighbors  (1837;  Eng. 
1844);  The  Diary ;  The  President’s  Daughters; 
Brothers  and  Sisters;  and  Strife  and  Peace,  or 
Scenes  in  Dalecarlia. 

Bremerhaven,  the  port  of  Bremen,  on  the  east 
shore  of  the  Weser  estuary,  nearly  ten  miles  from 
the  open  sea,  and  thirty-nine  north-nortliwest  of 
Bremen.  Bremerhaven  was  the  scene  in  1875  of 
a  dynamite  explosion  on  board  a  mail  steamship, 
by  w  hich  sixty  persons  wrere  killed.  Pop.  (1885), 
14,797. 

Brendan,  St.,  of  Clonfert,  born  at  Tralee,  Ire¬ 
land,  in  484,  studied  under  St.  Jarlath  of  Tuam, 
and  was  ordained  by  Bishop  Ere.  His  name  is 
memorable  chiefly  for  his  voyages  in  search  of 
“  the  mysterious  land  far  from  human  ken.”  He 
founded  a  monastery  at  w  hat  is  now  Clonfert, 
and  died  in  577  in  the  ninety-fourth  year  of  his 
age.  His  festival  is  on  May  16th. 

Brenner  Pass,  a  pass  in  the  Central  Tyrol 
Alps,  on  the  road  between  Innsbruck  andBotzen, 
connecting  Germany  with  the  northeast  of  Italy. 
It  is  the  lowest  pass  which  crosses  the  main  chain 
of  the  Alps,  the  summit  being  only  4,588  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Brennus,  the  Latinized  form  of  a  Celtic  royal 
title — (1)  The  leader  of  the  Senonian  Gauls  who, 
in  390  b.c.,  crossed  the  Apennines  and  overthrew 
on  the  banks  of  the  Allia  the  Roman  army.  (2) 
The  Gallic  chief  who  invaded  Greece,  279  b.c., 
at  the  head  of  150,000  foot  and  20,000  horse. 
After  desolating  Macedonia,  he  forced  his  way 
through  Thessaly  to  Thermopylae,  and  hurried  on 
to  Delphi  with  a  view  to  plunder.  The  Delphians 
bravely  resisted,  and  utterly  routed  the  Gauls, 
who  fled  in  dismay.  Brennus  was  taken  prisoner, 
and  drank  himself  to  death  in  his  despair. 

Brenta  ( 1  tedoacus  Major),  a  river  of  North 
Italy,  issuing  from  a  small  lake  in  the  Tyrol,  and 
flowing  120  miles  southward  and  eastward  through 
the  Venetian  territory  into  the  Gulf  of  Venice. 

Brentano,  Clemens,  romancist,  the  brother  of 
Goethe’s  “Bettina,”  born  at  Frankfort  in  1778. 
Save  for  the  six  years  1818-24  that  he  passed 
with  the  “Nun  of  Di'dmen,”  recording  her 
revelations,  he  led  a  restless  life,  and  died  at 
Aschaffenburg  on  June  28,  1842. 

Brentano,  Lujo,  political  economist,  born  at 
Aschaffenburg,  in  Bavaria,  Dec.  18,  1844.  Ilis 
best  known  works  are  The  History  and  Develop¬ 


ment  of  English  Guilds  and  Arbitergilden  der 
Gegenwart. 

Brent  Goose,  or  Brant  Barnacle  ( Bernicla 
brenta),  a  migratory  species  of  wild  goose,  breed¬ 
ing  in  the  far  northern  portions  of  Europe  and 
America. 

Brenz,  Johann,  Reformer,  born  June  24, 1499. 
Studied  at  Heidelberg,  became  an  adherent  of 
Luther,  and  in  1522  attached  himself  to  the 
Reformation.  He  died  Sept.  11,  1570. 

Brescia*  a  city  of  Italy,  in  Lombardy,  fifty- 
one  miles  east  of  Milan.  It.  is  for  the  most  part 
regularly  built,  and  besides  tw7o  cathedrals — the 
old  (dating  from  the  seventh  century) — it  has 
numerous  ancient  churches,  and  the  Tosi  Galleiy 
adorned  with  pictures  and  frescoes,  including 
many  by  masters  of  the  Venetian  school.  Pop. 
(1881),  43,354. 

Breslau,  the  capital  of  Prussian  Silesia,  150 
miles  southeast  of  Frankfort  on-Oder.  The 
library  contains  300,000  volumes.  Besides  a 
cathedral  (1148-1680;  restored  1875),  Breslau  has 
many  churches,  a  Jewish  synagogue,  and  a  bish¬ 
op’s  palace.  Next  to  Berlin,  it  is  the  most  pop¬ 
ulous  city  in  Prussia,  and  is  third  largest  in  the 
German  Empire.  Pop.  (1885),  299,405,  of  whom 
108,631  were  Catholics,  and  17,655  Jews. 

Brest,  a  strongly  fortified  city  in  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  Finist&re,  one  of  the  chief  naval  stations 
of  France,  is  situated  389  miles  by  rail  west  of 
Paris.  One  of  the  finest  harbors  in  Europe  is 
formed  by  the  Promontory  of  Finistere  on  the 
north  and  Kelerun  on  the  south.  The  splendid 
position  of  Brest  made  it  an  object  of  contention 
to  French,  English,  and  Spaniards.  The  Count 
of  Leon  ceded  Brest  to  the  first  Duke  of  Brittany 
in  1040;  it  was  given  up  to  the  English  by  Duke 
John  IV.  in  1372.  In  1694  the  English  under 
Lord  Berkeley  were  repulsed  herewith  great  loss. 
In  1794  the  French  fleet  under  Admiral  Villaret- 
Joyeuse  was  defeated  off  Brest  by  the  English 
fleet  under  Admiral  HowTe.  Pop.  (1886),  70,778. 

Breton,  Jules  Adolphe,  born  in  1827,  was 
trained  as  a  painter  under  Felix  Devigne  at 
Ghent  and  at  Paris.  In  1853  he  exhibited  “Le 
Iietour  des  Moissonneurs,”  and  in  1855  his  cele¬ 
brated  “Les  Glaneuses.”  He  is  represented  in  the 
Luxembourg  by  “La  Benediction  des  Bids”  (1857), 
“Le  Rappel  des  Glaneuses”  (1859),  and  “Le  Soir” 
(1861). 

Breton  de  losHerreros,  Don  Manuel,  Span¬ 
ish  dramatist,  born  in  1800  at  Quel,  and  died  at 
Madrid,  Nov.  13,  1873.  His  poems  fill  5  vols. 
(Madrid,  1850-52),  and  a  selection  appeared  in 
Paris  in  1875. 

Bretsclineider,  Heinrich  Gottfried  von,  a 
satirist,  born  at  Gera  in  1739,  and  at  seventeen 
entered  the  army.  In  1778  he  became  Librarian 
to  the  University  of  Ofen  (Buda),  and  in  1782 
Joseph  II.  gave  him  a  Government  appointment. 
He  died  in  1810. 

Bretsclineider,  Karl  Gottlieb,  a  German 
theologian,  born  Feb.  11,  1776,  at  Gersdorf,  in 
Saxony.  He  died  at  Gotha,  Jam  22,  1848.  He 
established  a  reputation  as  a  sound  and  judicious 
thinker  of  rationalistic  bias,  and  his  theological 
writings  are  admitted  to  have  a  permanent  value. 

Bretten,  a  town  of  Baden,  the  birthplace  of 
Melancthon,  sixteen  miles  east-northeast  of 
Karlsruhe.  The  house  in  which  the  reformer 
was  born  belongs  now  to  a  foundation  bearing 
his  name  for  the  support  of  poor  students,  estab¬ 
lished  in  1861.  Pop.  (1885),  3,932. 

Bretwalda,  a  title  of  supremacy  among  the 
early  Anglo-Saxon  kings,  the  exact  origin  and 
signification  of  which  is  uncertain. 

Breughel,  Peter,  founder  of  a  family  of 
Dutch  painters,  was  born  in  the  village  of 
Breughel,  in  1510,  died  at  Brussels  in  1569.  After 
traveling  through  Italy  and  France,  he  fixed  his 
residence  at  Antwerp,  where  he  was  elected  to 
the  Academy.  His  son,  Peter,  distinguished 
by  the  strange  title  “Hellish  Breughel,” — be¬ 
cause  he  loved  to  paint  scenes  in  which  the 
leading  characters  were  devils,  hags,  or  robbers — 
was  born  about  1559,  and  died  1637. — Jan, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  usually  called  “Velvet 
Breughel,”  from  his  rich  dress,  was  born  in  1569, 
and  died  in  1625.  He  was  chiefly  a  flower 
painter. 

Breve,  a  note  in  Music.  The  name  was  origin¬ 
ally  applied  to  the  shortest  of  the  three  notes  used 


BREVET. 


200 


BRIDGE. 


in  early  music,  but  now  designates  the  longest 
note  met  with,  and  it  occurs  but  seldom,  except 
in  church  music,  modern  music  being  divided 
into  bars  which  usually  fall  short  of  it  in  length. 

Brevet  (Fr.  a  writ  or  warrant),  in  the  army 
is  a  promotion  of  officers  by  selection  to  a  higher 
rank  irrespective  of  there  being  any  vacancies  in 
its  established  numbers.  In  the  United  States, 
brevet  rank  is  often  conferred  as  a  mark  of  recog¬ 
nition  for  gallant  and  meritorious  services,  but 
does  not  entitle  the  holder  to  the  higher  rate  of 
pay,  nor  to  corresponding  rank,  except  under 
special  circumstances  defined  by  law. 

Brev'iary.  A  Roman  Catholic  book  which 
contains  all  the  ordinary  and  daily  services  of 
that  church  except  those  connected  with  the  cele¬ 
bration  of  the  Eucharist,  which  are  contained  in 
the  Mix  al ,  and  those  for  special  occasions,  such 
as  baptisms,  marriages,  ordinations,  funerals,  etc. 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  an  eminent  Scottish 
natural  philosopher,  was  born  in  Jedburgh,  Dec. 
11,  1781.  He  became  editor  in  1802  of  the  Edin¬ 
burgh  Magazine  and  in  1808  of  the  Edinburgh 
Encyclopedia ,  to  which  he  contributed  many  im¬ 
portant  scientific  articles.  The  kaleidoscope  was 
invented  by  him  in  1810,  and  he  improved  Wheat¬ 
stone’s  stereoscope  by  the  introduction  of  lenses, 
and  produced  the  lenticular  instrument  now  in 
use.  In  1832  he  was  knighted,  and  had  a  pension 
conferred  upon  him;  in  1838  he  was  appointed 
Principal  of  the  united  colleges  of  St.  Salvador 
and  St.  Leonard,  St.  Andrews.  In  1859  he  was 
chosen  Principal  of  Edinburgh  University,  and 
filled  this  post  until  within  a  few  months  of  his 
death,  Feb.  10, 1868. 

Brian,  a  famous  king  of  Ireland,  the  Brian 
Boroimlieor  Boru  (“  Brian  of  the  tribute”)  of  the 
old  Irish  historians.  He  succeeded  his  elder 
brother  as  chief  of  the  Dal  Caison  the  murder  of 
the  latter  in  970,  and  after  much  fighting  became 
Ardrigh  na  Erenn,  chief  king  of  Ireland,  and 
such  he  remained  until  his  death.  He  was  killed 
in  battle  with  the  Danes  (April  23, 1014). 

Briareus  (also  called  JEgaeon),  in  Greek 
mythology  the  son  of  Uranus  and  Gaea,  who,  like 
his  two  brothers,  had  100  hands  and  50  heads.  He 
fought  for  the  gods  against  the  Titans. 

Briar-root,  a  fine,  hard  wood,  obtained  from 
the  roots  of  a  species  of  very  large  heath  ( Erica 
arbor ea)  which  grows  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  Corsica, 
in  Algeria,  and  in  America.  It  is  largely  used 
for  tobacco  pipes.  The  name  is  a  corruption  of 
the  French  bruyere,  ‘heath,”  and  has  nothing 
to  do  with  briar. 

Bribery,  as  a  system  affecting  all  social  rela¬ 
tions,  is  best  exemplified  among  Oriental  nations 
and  in  Russia.  It  forms  a  serious  difficulty  for 
government  in  the  latter  country,  and  is  said  to 
be  not  unknown  in  political  and  governmental 
circles  in  the  United  States.  Among  historic 
bribe-takers  Francis  Bacon,  Lord  Verulam,  the 
great  Duke  of  Marlborough,  Monk,  Duke  of 
Albemarle,  the  English  members  of  Parliament 
in  Walpole’s  time,  and  the  New  York  City  ring  in 
our  own,  may  be  noted. 

Brice,  St.,  Bishop  of  Tours  in  the  beginning 
of  the  fifth  century,  is  commemorated  as  a  con¬ 
fessor.  SI.  Brice’s  Day ,  in  1002,  in  the  reign  of 
Ethelred  II.,  is  noted  in  old  English  history  for 
a  great  massacre  of  the  Danes. 

Brick.  The  earliest  examples  of  this  branch 
of  the  ceramic  art  were  doubtless  the  sun-dried 
bricks  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  and  Babylonia.  Many 
of  these,  which,  in  a  northern  climate,  the  frosts 
of  a  single  winter  would  destroy,  have  been  pre¬ 
served  over  4,000  years  by  the  dry,  warm  atmos¬ 
phere  of  those  countries.  Sun-baked  bricks  of 
ancient  make  arc  also  found  in  the  mud  walls  of 
old  towns  in  India,  and  in  Mexico,  Arizona,  New 
Mexico,  and  Southern  Colorado.  They  are  still 
much  used  for  walls  of  houses  in  these  countries, 
in  many  cases  arc  faced  either  with  burnt  bricks 
or  with  plaster  of  paris.  Kiln-baked  bricks  must 
have  been  the  product  of  a  later  time;  but  they 
are  found  in  all  the  chief  ruins  of  ancient  Baby¬ 
lonia.  Burnt  bricks  were  employed  in  the  found 
ationsof  the  Tower  of  Babel.  Most  of  the  great 
ruins  of  Rome  are  built  of  brick,  and  the  Ro¬ 
mans  appear  to  have  introduced  the  art  into  Eng¬ 
land.  In  the  United  States  bricks  are  as  a  rule 
of  excellent  quality.  The  face  bricks  of  Phila¬ 


delphia  and  Baltimore  are  equal  to  any  made  in 
other  countries. 


HTTTT 


.j 


Old  English  Bond. 

N  J  dfiil 

T  i  T 

nr  7  . 

■'"’S  T'j  "7 

Flemish  Bond. 


ltzi 


Bricklaying.  In 

some  countries,  and 
in  large  portions  of 
others,  brick  is  the 
only  available  ma¬ 
terial  for  house¬ 
building.  Not  un¬ 
frequent  ly  brick 
has  to  be  resorted 
to  even  where  stone 
abounds,  if  it  be  of 
a  perishable  nature, 
or  has  other  faults 
which  render  it  un 
fit  for  building  pur¬ 
poses. 

B  ride  (A.  S. 
bryd),  a  newly-mar¬ 
ried  woman;  with 
the  addition  of  the 
word  groom  (a  corruption  of  A.S.  gurna,  a  man, 
allied  to  Lat.  homo),  the  newly-married  man  (A.S 
bryd-guma). 

Bridge  (A.S.  brycg;  Dutch  brug;  Ger.  brucke), 
a  structure  raised  over  a  river,  lake,  canal,  road, 
valley,  chasm,  or  other  impediment,  to  connect 
the  opposite  sides,  and  form  a  passage  across. 
The  earliest  known  form  of  bridge  is  that  by 
which  a  stream  was  crossed  by  laying  a  tree  on 
two  piles  of  stones,  or  on  the  banks,  at  opposite 
sides.  The  next  step  was  a  development  of  the 
simple  log  into  a  system  of  cantilever  bridge, 
which  affords  means  of  increasing  the  span,  as 
has  for  centuries  been  practiced  by  Japanese 
bridge-builders.  A  good  bridge  of  this  kind  was 
one  constructed  across  the  mountain-stream  flow¬ 
ing  through  Nikko,  which,  although  it  was  built 
200  years  ago,  is  known  as  the  “  temporary 
bridge,”  to  distinguish  it  from  the  more  elaborate 
structure  crossing  the  stream  near  it.  The  skill 
ful  construction  of  a  permanent  bridge,  with  a 
large  number  of  blocks  of  stone,  in  combination, 
held  together  mainly  by  the  force  of  gravitation, 
was  a  problem  of  another  order.  It  was 
thoroughly  grasped  by  the  practical  genius  of  the 
Romans,  to  whom  the  adoption  of  the  arch  as  a 
constructive  feature  in  wrorks  of  architecture  and 
of  engineering  is  attributed.  The  Roman  bridges 
generally  consisted  of  a  level  road  supported  on 
one  or  more  semicircular  arches,  exemplified  in 
the  Ponte  de  Rotto,  or  Senator’s  Bridge,  erected  by 
Caius  Flavius,  127  b.c. — probably  the  first  instance 
of  the  application  of  the  arch  in  bridge  design. 
The  Gothic  ‘  ‘  triangular  ”  bridge  of  Croyland,  Eng¬ 
land,  more  properly  “  trefoil  ”  or  three-way  bridge, 
now  usually  called  “  Trinity  Bridge,”  was  built 
about  1380  by  the  Abbot  of  Croyland  in  Lincoln¬ 
shire.  The  longest  bridge  built 
in  England  in  mediaeval  times, 
was  that  over  the  River  Trent, 
at  Burton,  in  Staffordshire, 
erected  in  the  twelfth  century, 
of  freestone,  consisting  of 
thirty-six  arches,  and  1,545  feet 
long.  It  was  superseded  by  a 
new  bridge  in  1864.  John  Ren¬ 
nie  led  the  way  to  the  adoption 
of  semi-elliptical  bridges.  His 
first  important  bridge — across 
the  Tweed,  at  Kelso — opened  in 
1803,  consists  of  five  semi-ellip¬ 
tical  arches  of  72  feet  span,  with 
a  rise  of  28  feet,  and  four  piers 
12  feet  thick,  with  a  level  road¬ 
way  234  feet  wide  between  the 
parapets,  and  29  feet  above  the 
ordinary  surface  of  the  river. 

The  foundations  were  laid  on 
solid  rock.  The  length  of  the 
bridge  between  the  abutments 
1,380  feet,  and  the  width 
between  the  parapets  is  42  feet 
4  inches.  The  development 
of  the  railway  system,  with 
command  of  plenty  of  capital,  has  afforded 
opportunities  for  the  construction  of  bridges 
on  a  grander  scale  than  for  common  roads. 
The  Congleton  Viaduct,  on  the  Manchester 
&  Birmingham  Railway,  is  amongst  the  longest 
in  Britain.  It  is  of  stone,  1,026  yards,  or 


more  than  half  a  mile  in  length,  and  106  feet  high. 
In  the  United  States  a  high  class  of  timber 
bridges  and  viaducts  have  been  introduced.  The 
“ inflexible  arched  truss”  invented  by  Mr.  D.  C. 
McCallum,  has  probably  been  in  more  general 
use  in  the  States  than  any  other  system  of  timber 
bridge.  The  high-level  bridge  over  the  deep 
ravine  through  which  the  Tyne  flows  between 
Newcastle  and  Gateshead  is  a  unique  structure  in 
cast-iron,  a  fine  example  of  the  bow-string  arch. 
It  formed  the  junction  between  railways  from 
York  and  from  Berwick.  It  was  proposed  by 
Mr.  Hudson,  the  railway  king,  and  designed  by 
Mr.  Robert  Stephenson  and  Mr.  T.  E.  Harrison. 
There  are  two  roadways — one  for  carriages  and 
foot-passengers,  level  with  the  Castlegartli,  and 
the  other,  22  feet  above  it,  for  railway  traffic. 
The  bridge  consists  of  six  spans  of  125  feet  each; 
the  piers,  16  feet  thick,  being  of  masonry,  the 
arched  ribs  of  cast-iron,  and  the  ties  of  wrought- 
iron.  The  soffit  or  under  side  of  the  roadway  is 
83  feet  above  high-water.  The  unsuitability  of 
cast-iron  as  a  m  terial  for  bridges  of  very  large 


Inflexible  Truss  Bridge— Half  Length. 

span — long-span  bridges  as  they  are  called— 
raised  the  question  of  the  sole  employment  of 
wrouglit-iron  as  the  material  for  the  crossing  of  the, 
Conway  and  the  Menai  Strait,  on  the  line  of  the 
Chester  &  Holyhead  Railway,  involving  spans  of 
400  feet  and  upward.  The  maximum  existing 
span  in  cast-iron — that  of  Southwark  Bridge — did 
not  exceed  240  feet;  and  for  the  greater  spans  Mr. 
Robert  Stephenson  conceived  the  idea  of  wrouglit- 
iron  tubes  for  crossing  the  Conway  river  and  the 
Menai  Strait  in  large  spans,  through  which  rail¬ 
way  trains  were  to  be  conducted.  The  Britannia 
Bridge  (so  called  after  the  Britannia  Rock  on 
which  the  central  pier  rests)  was  built  across  the 
Menai  Strait  .  It  consists  of  two  independent  con¬ 
tinuous  wrouglit-iron  tubular  beams,  1,510  feet  in 
length,  weighing  4,680  tons  each,  independent  of 
the  cast-iron  frames  inserted  at  their  bearings  in 
the  towers.  They  rest  on  two  abutments  and 
three  towers  of  masonry  at  a  height  of  100  feet 
above  high-water.  The  middle,  or  Britannia 
tower,  230  feet  high,  is  built  on  a  rock  in  the 
middle  of  the  strait.  The  bridge  is  thus  in  four 
spans,  of  which  there  are  two  of  460  feet  over  the 
water,  and  two  of  230  feet  over  the  land.  The 


The  Britannia  Bridge. 


weight  of  one  of  the  longer  spans,  single  tube,  is 
1,587  tons,  and  that  of  one  of  the  shorter  spans 
630  tons.  The  iron  lattice-bridge — so  called  from 
having  sides  constructed  with  cross-bars,  like  lat¬ 
tice-work — is  the  natural  outcome  of  the  tubular 
bridge  for  long  spans,  developing  equal  strength 


BRIDGE. 


201 


BRIDGE. 


■with  considerable  economy  of  material  and  labor. 
Lattice  bridges  of  timber  t  ere  first  used  in  Amer¬ 
ica.  Tlie  first  lattice-girder  in  iron  was  designed 
by  Sir  John  MacNeill,  and  erected  in  1843  on  the 
line  of  the  Dublin  &  Drogheda  Railway,  near  Dub¬ 
lin,  of  84  feet  span.  Lattice-girders  are  now  almost 
universally  adopted  for  iron  bridges  for  long 
spans.  One  of  the  best  examples  of  American 


Lattice  Bridge. 

long-span  iron-bridge  construction  is  the  bridge 
across  the  Kentucky  river  on  the  Cincinnati  South¬ 
ern  Railway,  designed  by  Mr.  C.  Shaler  Smith- 
noteworthy  for  the  economical  design  and  com¬ 
paratively  light  weight.  The  ironwork  of  the 
bridge  is  1,138  feet  in  length,  and  it  consists  of 
three  spans  of  375  feet  each.  It  crosses  a  lime¬ 
stone  canon  at  a  height  of  280  feet  above  the  bed 
of  the  stream.  The  piers  are  of  stone  to  a  height 
of  60  feet,  to  clear  the  highest  recorded  floods; 
and  are  about  34  feet  thick  at  the  flood-level. 


Bridge  across  the  Kentucky  River— Half  Length. 


Above  the  stonework  the  piers  are  of  iron.  The 
principle  of  the  cantilever  bridge  has  already 
been  noticed  as  applied  primitively  in  Japan  and 
India,  and  in  China  also.  The  bridge  in  course 
of  construction  across  the  River  Forth,  on  the 
North  British  Railway  system,  will  be,  when 
completed,  the  largest  and  most  magnificent 
bridge  in  the  world.  The  engineers  are  Sir  John 


garvie  Pier.  There  are  two  other  main 
shore-piers,  known  respectively  as  the  Fife 
and  Queensferry  piers.  On  these,  three  double 
lattice- work  cantilevers,  like  scalebeams,  1,360 
feet,  or  i  of  a  mile  in  length,  are  poised  in 
line,  reaching  toward  each  other,  and  connected 
at  their  extremities  by  ordinary  girders  350  feet 
long,  by  which  the  two  main 
spans  are  completed.  The  bridge 
consists  of  two  main  spans  of 
1,700  feet,  or  nearly  i  of  a  mile 
each;  two  of  675  feet  each,  being 
the  shore-ends  of  the  outer  canti¬ 
levers;  and  fifteen  spans  of  168 
feet  each.  The  total  length  of  the 
viaduct,  including  piers,  is  8,296 
feet,  or  a  little  over  14  miles,  of 
which  almost  exactly  1  mile  is 
covered  by  the  great  cantilevers. 

The  clear  headway  under  the  cen¬ 
ter  of  the  bridge  is  152  feet  at 
high-water,  and  the  highest  part 
of  the  bridge  is  361  feet  above  the 
same  level.  Each  of  the  three 
main  piers  consists  of  a  group  of 
four  cylindrical  columns  of  ma¬ 
sonry  36  feet  high,  each  49  feet 
in  diameter  at  the  top,  and  55  feet 
at  the  bottom,  founded  on  rock 
or  on  boulder-clay.  In  the  piers 
there  are  about  120,000  cubic 
yards  of  masonry,  and  in  the 
superstructure  44,500  tons  of  steel.  The  con¬ 
tract  was  let  for  the  sum  of  $8,000,000.  Sus¬ 
pension  bridges  are  those  in  which  the  road¬ 
way  is  suspended  from  chains,  links,  or  ropes, 
passing  over  piers  or  towers,  and  fixed  or 
anchored  at  their  extremities.  *  Another  line  of 
evolution  had  its  origin  in  the  principle  of  sus¬ 
pension.  The  simplest  form,  if  possible,  is  a 
rope,  traversed  by  a  pulley,  ring,  or  grooved 
block  of  wood,  from  which  a  rude  car  is  sus¬ 
pended,  or,  in  some  cases,  only  a  loop,  in  which 


Typical  Modern  Suspension  Bridge. 


the  passenger  sits,  and  either  works  himself  across 
with  his  own  hands,  or  is  drawn  from  side  to  side 
by  a  smaller  line  attached  to  the  car.  Such  ele¬ 
mentary  bridges  have  been  in  use  from  the  earliest 
ages.  When  the  weight  of  the  roadway  is  known 
by  the  stress  on  the  suspending  links,  the  problem 
of  statical  equilibrium  assumes  the  simplest  form 
and  the  conditions  of  strength  and  stability  are 
readily  determined. 
But  when  there  is  a 
shifting  or  rolling 
load  on  the  roadway, 
which  is  heavy  in 
proportion  to  the 
weight  of  the  bridge, 
as,  for  example,  a 
railway  train,  the  con¬ 
ditions  are  involved. 
When  the  train  occu¬ 
pies,  say,  only  one- 
half  of  the  bridge, 
the  chain  is  depressed 
on  that  side,  and  is 
raised  on  the  other 
side.  Thus  an  undu¬ 
lation  is  produced  in 
the  bridge,  which, 
especially  if  the  train 
be  moving  rapidly, 
may  seriously  disturb 
the  equilibrium,  and 
even  endanger  the 

General  View  of  the  Forth  Bridge  (looking  up  the  river).  Stability  of  the 


Fowler,  K.C'.M.G.,  and  Mr.  Benjamin  Baker. 
'I  he  site  of  the  bridge  is  at  Queensferry.  At  this 
place,  the  depth,  as  much  as  200  feet,  precluded 
the  construction  of  intermediate  piers.  Hence, 
two  large  spans  of  1,700  feet  each  were  adopted. 
Between  these,  the  central  pier  is  founded  on  the 
island  midway  across,  and  is  known  as  Inch- 


bridge.  Various  combinations  have  been  devised 
to  overcome  this  difficulty.  The  simplest,  and 
probably  the  best  course,  is  to  stiffen  the  road¬ 
way,  so  that  the  stress  of  flic  passing  load  maybe 
distributed  over  a  considerable  length  of  the 
chain.  In  this  manner  large  railway  bridges 
have  been  constructed  in  America — for  example, 


the  Roebling  bridge  (1885)  over  the  Niagara, 
2 i  miles  below  the  falls,  having  a  span  of 
822  feet,  and  being  245  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  stream.  A  hundred  yards  higher  up 
is  a  new  cantilever  railway  bridge  (1883). 
The  Brooklyn  Suspension  Bridge  across  the  East 
Iliver,  between  New  York  and  Brooklyn,  opened 


Suspension  Bridge  at  Clifton,  England. 

in  1883,  is  built  of  steel.  It  has  a  central  span  of 
1,595)4  feet,  and  two  land  spans  of  930  feet  each; 
making, with  the  approaches,  a  total  length  of  5,989 
feet.  The  anchorage  at  each  end  is  a  solid  cubical 
structure  of  stone,  measuring  1 19  feet  one  way  by 
132  feet  the  other,  rising  to  a  height  of  90  feet 
above  high-water  mark,  weighing  60,000  tons 
each.  The  towers  are  276  feet  high.  The  weight 
of  the  whole  structure  suspended  between  the 
towers  is  nearly  7,000  tons.  The  stress  of  suspen¬ 
sion  is  borne  by  four  cables,  of  5,000  steel  wires 
each,  15%  inches  in  diameter.  The  foundations 
of  the  towers  were  laid  by  means  of  caissons  and 
compressed  air,  at  a  level  of  about  80  feet  below 
high-water  mark.  The  roadway  presents  five  par¬ 
allel  avenues  of  an  average  width  of  16  feet  each. 
The  two  outmost  avenues,  19  feet  wide,  are  de¬ 
voted  to  vehicles;  the  central  avenue,  15%  wide, 
to  foot-passengers;  and  on  the  two  intermediate 
avenues  are  laid  tramways  for  car-traffic.  Movable 
bridges  are  usually  required  in  the  neighborhood 
of  rivers,  docks,  wharves,  canals,  and  like  situa¬ 
tions,  for  the  passage  of  ships  and  boats.  They 
are  variously  designed  and  adapted  to  particular 
situations,  and  may  be  classified  as:  (1)  Bascules 
or  drawbridges,  (2)  swing  bridges,  (3)  traversing 
bridges,  (4)  lift  bridges,  (5)  pontoon  bridges.  The. 
longest  floating  bridge  in  the  world,  probably,  is 
the  pontoon  bridge  across  the  river  Hooglily,  at 
Calcutta,  designed  and  constructed  by  Sir  Brad¬ 
ford  Leslie.  The  bridge  is  1,530  feet  long  between 
the  abutments,  and  is  carried  on  fourteen  pairs  of 
pontoons,  which  are  held  in  position  by  means  of 
chain-cables,  1%  inches  thick,  and  anchors  weigh¬ 
ing  three  tons  each,  laid  on  the  up-stream  and 
down-stream  sides,  900  feet  asunder.  By  their 
great  length,  the  cables  afford  the  necessary  spring 
to  allow  for  the  ordinary  rise  and  fall  of  the  river, 
the  stress  on  each  cable  varying  from  5  tons  to  25 
tons,  according  to  weather  and  tide.  An  opening 
200  feet  wide,  for  the  passage  of  ships,  is  made 
by  removing,  when  occasion  requires,  four  of  the 
pontoons  with  their  superstructure,  and  sheering 
them  clear  of  the  opening.  Of  the  rock  forma¬ 
tion  called  Natural  Bridges  the  most  remarkable 
is  the  natural  bridge  over  Cedar  Creek,  in  Virginia, 
125  miles  west  of  Richmond.  The  mass  of  sili¬ 
ceous  limestone  through  which  the  little  river  passes 
is  presumably  all  that  remains  of  a  once  extensive 
stratum.  The  cavern  or  arch  is  200  feet  high  and 
60  feet  wide.  The  solid  rock  walls  are  nearly  per¬ 
pendicular,  and  the  cr  <wn  of  the  arch  is  40  feet 
thick.  Sec  Edwin  Clark,  The  Britannia  and  Con¬ 
way  Tubular  Bridges  (1850);  James  Hodges,  Con¬ 
struction  of  the  Q  rent  Victoria  Bridge  in  Canada 
(1860);  Samuel  Smiles,  Lives  of  the  Engineers 
(1862-68);  J.  Gwilt,  An  Enn/clopcedia  of  Architec¬ 
ture  (1867);  J.  A.  L.  Waddell,  Iron  Highway 
Bridges  (1884);  C.  B.  Bender,  Design  of  Metallic 
Bridges  (1885);  Henry  Law  and  D.  K.  Clark,  Civil 


BRIDGE-HEAD. 


202 


BRIGHT. 


E ngineering  (18S1);  J.  Claxton  Fidler,  A  Practical 
Treatise  on  Bridge  Construction  (1887);  and  the 
Minutes  of  Proceedings  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers. 

Bridge-head,  or  Tete-du-Pont,  is  an  arrange¬ 
ment  of  defensive  works  on  the  far  bank  of  a  river 
which  runs  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  advance 
of  an  army.  It  consists  of  a  central  work  imme¬ 
diately  covering  the  bridge  or  bridges,  and  a  line 


of  detached  redoubts,  on  a  wide  arc,  at  some  dis¬ 
tance  from  it. 

Bridgeport,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Con¬ 
necticut,  fifty-three  miles  southwest  of  Hartford 
and  fifty-seven  northeast  of  New  York.  Pop. 
(1880),  27,643. 

Bridget,  St.  (properly  Birgitta,  afterward 
transposed  to  Brigilla),  a  Roman  Catholic  saint, 
born  at  Finstad,  in  the  district  of  Upland,  in 
Sweden,  in  1302  or  1303.  Her  parents  were  of 
the  blood-royal  of  Sweden.  When  fourteen  she 
married  Ulf  Gudmar.son,  afterward  Lagman 
(Provincial  Judge)  of  Nerike.  She  was  for  some 
years  mistress  of  the  royal  household,  and  made 
pilgrimages  to  the  shrines  of  St.  Olaf  at  Trondh- 
jem,  and  of  St.  Jago  de  Compostalla  in  Spain. 
In  1349  she  went  to  Rome,  where  she  founded  a 
hospice  for  Swedish  students  and  pilgrims  She 
died  at  Rome,  July  23,  1373.  Her  festival  is  on 
October  8tli.  Her  daughter  Catharine,  born 
about  1335,  died  in  1381,  and  was  canonized  in 
1489.  She  is  distinguished  as  “  St.  Catharine  of 
Sweden.”  Not  to  be  confounded  with  this 
Swedish  saint  is  the  Irish  St.  Brigit,  or  Bride  of 
Kildare  (453-523).  She  entered  a  monastery  at 
Meath  in  her  foui'teenth  year,  through  her  extra¬ 
ordinary  piety  and  beneficence  gained  great  fame 
and  influence,  and  founded  four  monasteries,  the 
first  and  chief  of  these  at  Kildare,  where,  after 
her  death,  she  was  buried,  and  a  perpetual  fire 
was  kept  up  in  her  memory.  Her  day  falls  on 
February  1st. 

Bridgeton,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  New 
Jersey,  thirty-eight  miles  south  of  Philadelphia. 
Pop.  '(1880),  8,729. 

Bridgetown,  the  capital  of  Barbadoes,  is 
situated  on  the  west  coast  of  the  island  along  the 
north  side  of  Carlisle  Bay,  which  forms  its  road¬ 
stead.  The  inner  harbor  is  protected  by  a  break¬ 
water  known  as  the  Mole  Head.  Pop.  (1881), 
21,385. 

Bridgewater,  Francis  Egerton,  third  Duke 
of,  the  “  father  of  British  inland  navigation,” 
was  born  in  1736,  and  succeeded  his  elder  brother 
as  Duke  in  1748.  In  1758-71  he  constructed,  after 
the  plans  of  Brindley,  the  earliest  canal  in  Eng¬ 
land,  forty  two  miles  long,  uniting  Worsley  with 
Manchester  and  Runcorn  on  the  Mersey  above 
Liverpool.  He  died  in  1803. 

Bridgewater,  Francis  Henry  Egerton, 
Earl  of,  son  of  John  Egerton,  Bishop  of  Durham, 
grandnephew  of  the  first  Duke  of  Bridgewater, 
was  born  Nov.  11, 1758,  and  succeeded  his  brother 
as  eighth  earl,  Oct.  21,  1823.  lie  died  unmarried, 
Feb.  11,  1829,  and  the  title  became  extinct.  He 
left  $40,000  to  be  paid  for  essays  on  various  scien¬ 
tific  subjects,  the  result  of  which  was  the  famous 
Bridgewater  Treatises. 

Bridgman,  Laura,  blind-mute,  born  in  Han¬ 
over,  N.  H.,  Dec.  21,  1829.  She  was  a  bright, 
intelligent  child,  but  at  two  years  of  age  was 
seized  with  a  violent  fever,  which  utterly  destroyed 
sight,  hearing,  and  sense  of  smell,  while  her  sense 
of  taste  was  also  impaired.  At  the  age  of  eight, 
Dr.  Howe  of  Boston  undertook  her  care  and  edu¬ 
cation  at  the  Perkins  Institution  for  the  Blind. 
The  first  attempt  was  to  give  her  a  knowledge  of 
arbitrary  signs,  by  which  she  could  interchange 
thoughts  with  others.  Then  she  learned  to  read 
embossed  letters  by  the  touch;  next,  embossed 
words  were  attached  to  different  articles,  and  she 
learned  to  associate  each  word  with  its  correspond¬ 


ing  object.  The  next  step  was  to  procure  a  set  of 
metal  types,  with  the  letters  cast  at  the  ends,  and 
a  board  with  square  holes  for  their  insertion,  so 
as  to  be  read  by  the  finger.  In  three  months  she 
could  write  down  the  name  of  most  common 
objects,  and  in  two  years  had  made  great  bodily 
and  mental  improvement.  Her  touch  grew  in 
accuracy  as  its  power  increased;  she  learned  to 
know  people  almost  instantly  by  the  touch  alone. 
In  a  year  or  two  more  she  was  able  to  receive 
lessons  in  geography,  algebra,  and  history;  and 
learned  to  do  needlework  and  various  household 
duties.  She  learned  to  write  a  fair,  legible  hand, 
and  to  read  with  great  dexterity.  She  afterward 
became  skillful  as  a  teacher  of  the  blind  and  of 
deaf-mutes.  Dickens  gives  an  account  of  her  in 
American  Notes;  and-  see  a  work  on  her  life  and 
education  by  her  teacher,  Miss  Lamson  (Boston, 
1878). 

Bridle  and  Bit,  that  part  of  a  horse’s  harness 
which  is  attached  to 
the  head  and  mouth, 
by  means  of  which  he 
is  governed  and  re¬ 
strained.  In  connec¬ 
tion  with  driving- 
bridles,  two  questions 
have  in  recent  years 
caused  considerable 
discussion — viz. ,  bi  ar- 
ing-reins  and  blinkers. 

The  bearing-rein,  in 
its  simple  form,  is 
intended  as  a  support 

to  the  horse’s  head,  '  IRSilS 

and  consists  of  il  Strap  a,  headstrap;  b,  front;  c,  cheek- 
hlickled  to  the  ring  of  piece;  d,  throat-band;  e,  nose 
the  bridoon-bit  of  a  band;/,  reins, 
double  bridle,  passed  through  a  swivel  on  the 
throat-band,  and  fastened  to  a  ring  on  the  saddle- 
pad.  In  its  severe  form,  known  as  the  “  gag,”  it 
is  attached  to  the  headpiece,  passes  through  the 


Varieties  of  Horse  Bits, 


bridoon  ring,  through  a  swivel  on  the  throat-band, 
and  then  to  the  saddle.  The  effect  is  to  cramp 
the  horse’s  neck,  and  prevent  him  throwing  his 
nose  forward,  but  is  supposed  to  improve  his  ap¬ 
pearance  in  a  carriage.  The  opponents  of  the 
bearing-rein  complain  of  the  torture  unnecessarily 
inflicted  on  the  horse,  and  hold  that  nature  sup¬ 
plies  all  the  support  necessary  for  the  head.  The 
blinker  question  is  not  so  important,  and  consists 
of  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  whether  a  horse 
would  or  would  not  be  more  easily  startled  with 
his  eyes  uncovered. 

Brief,  or  Breve,  Papal  (from  Lat.  brevis , 
short).  The  word  breve  was  originally  used  in 
the  low  Latin  of  the  middle  ages  for  ecclesiastical 
documents  of  various  kinds — e.g..  for  inventories 
of  church  goods.  It  now  signifies  such  papal 
documents  as  are  issued  without  some  of  the 
solemnities  proper  to  bulls,  and  which  assumed  a 
recognized  name  and  form  in  the  fifteenth  cen¬ 
tury. 

Brief,  in  the  practice  of  the  English  bar,  is 
the  name  given  to  the  written  instructions  on 
which  barristers  advocate  causes  in  courts  of  jus¬ 
tice.  It  is  called  a  brief  because  it  is,  or  ought  to 
be,  an  abbreviated  statement  of  the  pleadings, 
proofs,  and  affidavits  at  law,  or  of  the  bill,  answer, 
and  other  proceedings  in  equity,  with  a  concise 
narrative  of  the  facts  and  merits  of  the  plain¬ 
tiff’s  case,  or  the  defendant’s  defense. 

Uriel,  or  Brielle,  sometimes  the  Brill,  a 
fortified  seaport  town  of  South  Holland,  situated 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Island  of  Voorne,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Maas.  Pop.  (1883),  4,562.  Briel 
may  be  considered  as  the  nucleus  of  the  Dutch 


Republic,  having  been  taken  from  the  Spaniards 
by  William  de  la  Marck  in  1572.  This  event  was 
the  first  act  of  open  hostility  to  Philip  II.,  and 
paved  the  way  to  the  complete  liberation  of  the 
country  from  a  foreign  yoke.  The  celebrated 
admirals,  De  Witt  and  Van  Tromp,  were  natives. 

Brienne-le-Chhtean,  a  town  of  1.800  inhabit¬ 
ants  in  the  French  department  of  Aube.  At  the 
military  school  here  (suppressed  in  1790)  the  great 
Napoleon  spent  five  years. 

Briettz,  a  Swiss  town,  beautifully  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  Bernese  Alps.  Pop.  (1880),  2  758. 
— The  lake  of  Brienz,  which  is  8%  miles  long 
and  1  in  breadth,  is  an  expansion  of  the  River 
Aar,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  at  one  time 
united  with  Lake  Thun. 

Brig,  Brig'antine.  A  brig  is  a  square-rigged 
vessel  with  two  masts.  A  brigantine,  or  herm¬ 
aphrodite  brig,  is  a  two-masted  vessel,  with  the 
mainmast  of  a  schooner  and  the  foremast  of  a  brig. 


Brig. 


A  brig’s  mainsail  is  the  lowest  square-sail  on  the 
mainmast,  whereas,  the  mainsail  of  a  brigantine 
is  a  fore-and-aft  sail  like  that  of  a  schooner. 

Brigade,  in  its  proper  military  sense,  is  a  tacti¬ 
cal  group  of  regiments  or  battalions  acting 
together  under  one  commander.  In  most  Euro¬ 
pean  armies  an  infantry  brigade  consists  of  two 
regiments,  each  of  three  battalions;  but  in  the 
British  army  it  has  only  three  battalions.  There 
are  three  regiments  of  cavalry  in  all  cavalry 
brigades.  A  brigade  in  this  sense  has  no  exist¬ 
ence  during  peace  in  Great  Britain  or  the  United 
States,  except  at  camps  of  exercise.  In  the  U nited 
States  the  brigade  consists  of  two  to  four  regi¬ 
ments. 

Brigade-major  is  a  military  staff-officer  in  the 
British  army  who  exercises  duties,  in  a  brigade, 
analogous  to  those  of  the  adjutant  of  a  regiment. 

Brigadier,  or  Brigadier-General,  is  nomin¬ 
ally  the  commander  of  a  brigade.  His  rank  in  the 
United  Sates  army  is  next  below  major-general, 
but  in  most  foreign  armies,  and  in  the  British  army 
when  on  active  service,  it  is  that  of  major-general. 

Brigands  (Ital.  brigante ,  from  briga,  an  in¬ 
trigue  or  quarrel),  a  name  originally  given  to  the 
mercenaries  who  held  Paris  during  King  John’s 
imprisonment  (1358),  and  who  made  themselves 
notorious  for  their  ill-beliavior.  It  was  applied 
by  Froissart  to  a  kind  of  irregular  foot-soldiery, 
and  from  them  was  transferred  to  simple  robbers; 
it  is  now  used  especially  of  such  of  these  as  live 
in  bands  in  secret  mountain  or  forest  retreats.  In 
this  sense,  the  pest  has  been  common  to  most 
countries,  by  whatever  name  the  robbers  may 
have  been  known.  It  has  ever  flourished  under 
weak  or  corrupt  governments,  and  patriotism  at 
times  has  swelled  its  ranks,  always  largely  re¬ 
cruited  from  those  disposed  readily  to  join  in  any 
political  movement,  and  has  transformed  them 
into  guerilla  companies,  who  have  carried  on  a 
bitter  warfare  against  the  invader. 

Brigantes,  t  lie  most  powerful  of  theold  British 
tribes,  inhabiting  the  country  between  the  Hum¬ 
ber  and  the  Roman  wall. 

Bright,  John,  a  politician,  first  brought  into 
notice  by  the  Anti-Corn-Law  agitation,  son  of 
Jacob  Bright,  a  cotton-spinner  and  manufacturer 
at  Rochdale,  Lancashire,  England,  was  born  at 
Greenback,  near  that  town,  Nov.  16,  1811.  The 
family  were  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends, 
and  Bright  was  educated  at  a  Friends’  school 
at  Ack worth,  and  afterward  at  York  and  at 


BRIGHT. 


203 


BRINVILLIERS. 


Newton.  When  the  Anti-Co'rn-Law  League  was 
formed,  in  1839,  he  was  one  of  its  leading 
members,  and,  with  Cobden,  engaged  in  an 
extensive  free-trade  agitation.  He  became  in 
July,  1843,  Member  of  Parliament  for  Durham. 
At  all  times  an  animated  and  effective  speaker, 
Bright  was  incessant,  both  at  public  meet¬ 
ings  and  in  Parliament,  in  his  opposition 
to°tlie  Corn  Laws,  until  they  were  finally  re¬ 
pealed.  In  1845  he  obtained  the  appointment  of 
a  select  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  on 
the  Game  Laws,  and  also  one  on  the  subject  of 
cotton  cultivation  in  India.  At  the  general 
election  of  1847  he  was  elected  one  of  the  mem¬ 
bers  for  Manchester.  He  cooperated  with  Cob¬ 
den  in  the  movement  in  favor  of  financial 
reform.  On  the  formation  of  the  first  Derby 
ministry,  Feb.  27,  1852,  Bright  aided  in  the  tem¬ 
porary  reorganization  of  the  Corn-Law  League, 
in  favor  of  the  principles  of  free-trade;  and  at 
the  general  election  which  followed,  was  re¬ 
elected  for  Manchester.  Like  Cobden,  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Peace  Society,  he  energetically  de¬ 
nounced  the  policy  of  the  Crimean  war  (1854). 
A  severe  illness  compelled  him  to  withdraw  for 
a  time  to  the  Continent,  and  in  his  absence  he 
was  rejected  by  Manchester.  Elected  in  1857 
for  Birmingham,  he  seconded  the  motion  against 
the  second  reading  of  the  Conspiracy  Bill,  which 
led  to  the  overthrow  of  Lord  Palmerston’s  Gov¬ 
ernment.  Mr.  Bright  advocated  the  transference 
of  India  to  the  direct  Government  of  the  Crown, 
together  with  other  reforms  affecting  England’s 
Eastern  dependency.  When  the  Civil  War  in 
America  broke  out,  lie  warmly  supported  the  cause 
of  the  North,  although  his  own  business  and  the 
whole  of  the  Lancashire  cotton  trade  suffered 
severely  in  consequence.  His  name  became 
associated  with  the  movement  for  reforming  the 
electoral  representation,  which  resulted  in  the 
Reform  Act  of  1867.  In  1868  he  accepted 
office  as  President  of  the  Board  of  Trade,  but 
in  1870  was  again  obliged  to  retire  in  consequence 
of  severe  illness.  His  health  having  been  restored, 
he  took  office  in  1873,  and  again  in  1881,  as 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster;  he  was 
appointed  Lord  Rector  of  Glasgow  University  in 
November,  1880.  Mr.  Bright  retired  from  the 
Gladstone  ministry  in  1882,  being  unable  to  sup¬ 
port  the  Government  in  its  Egyptian  policy.  In 
1886-88  he  opposed  the  Home  Rule  policy  of 
Mr.  Gladstone.  Mr.  Bright  died  March  27, 
1889.  A  collection  of  his  Speeches  was  published  in 
1868;  a  Life  by  Robertson  (1877);  His  Life  and 
Speeches,  2  vols.,  by  G.  Barnett  Smith  (1881); 
and  his  Public  Letters,  edited  by  II.  J.  Leech 
(1885). 

Bright,  Jesse  D.,  was  born  in  New  York 
State  in  1812,  removed  to  Indiana  and  became 
State  Senator  and  Lieutenant-Governor.  In 
1845,  1851  and  1857  he  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate,  from  which  he  was  expelled  for 
disloyalty  in  1862.  He  died  in  1875. 

Bright,  Richard,  physician,  was  born  at 
Bristol,  England,  Sept.  28, 1789,  and  from  1820  was 
connected  with  Guy’s  Hospital.  He  died  Dec.  16, 
1858.  He  made  many  important  medical  observ¬ 
ations  (see  Bright’s  Disease)  and  wrote  numer¬ 
ous  medical  dissertations. 

Brighton,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough  and  fashionable  watering  place  in  Sus¬ 
sex,  England,  fifty -one  miles  south  of  London.  Its 
progress  has  been  very  rapid,  and  the  town  is  still 
steadily  increasing.  Brighton  is  for  the  most  part 
extremely  well  built,  as  becomes  a  favored  retreat 
of  wealth  and  aristocracy.  It  mostly  consists  of 
new  and  elegant  streets,  squares,  and  terraces. 
The  public  hotels  are  magnificent;  besides  these 
there  are  the  boarding-houses  and  nearly 
1,000  lodging-house  keepers.  A  range  of  splendid 
houses  fronts  the  sea  for  upward  of  three  miles, 
the  promenade — asphalted  from  end  to  end,  and 
exceptionally  well  lighted — being  almost  on  a 
dead,  level,  within  a  few  feet  of  the  sea,  but 
rising  at  the  east  end  of  the  town  to  a  height  of 
sixty  feet,  on  the  top  of  the  sea-wall  built  for 
protection.  Beneath  this  is  the  Madeira  Road,  a 
tine  drive  and  promenade  a  mile  in  length.  The 
population  is  greatly  increased  during. the  fash¬ 
ionable  season  by  the  influx  of  visitors, 
the  average  number  being  30,000,  chiefly  from 
London,  for  which  reason  it  is  sometimes  called 


London-super-Mare.  Near  the  center  of  the 
town  is  the  Royal  Pavilion  or  Marine  Palace,  a 
fantastic  Oriental  or  Chinese  structure,  with 
domes,  minarets,  and  pinnacles,  and  Moorish 
stables,  begun  for  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1784, 
and  finished  in  1827.  It  was  purchased  in  1850 
for  $265,000  by  the  corporation,  and,  with  its  fine 
pleasure-grounds,  it  is  devoted  to  the  recreation  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  concert-hall,  known  as  the 
“  Dome,”  formerly  the  royal  stables,  can  accom¬ 
modate  3,000  people.  There  are  two  piers  which 
are  used  as  promenades — the  Chain  Pier  (1823)  on 
the  east,  opposite  the  Marine  Parade  (as  the  east¬ 
ern  part  of  the  three  or  four  miles  of  esplanade  is 
called),  1,136  feet  in  length,  and  the  very  popular 
“West  Pier”  (1866),  1,115  feet  long,  but  much 
wider  and  grander  than  the  Chain  Pier,  which 
now  is  almost  neglected  by  the  public.  Pop. 
(1887),  118,186;  of  parliamentary  borough  (1881) 
128,425. 

Bright’s  Disease  (of  the  kidneys),  so  called 
after  Dr.  Richard  Bright,  who  first  investigated 
its  character.  In  1827  he  published  a  work  in 
which  he  showed  that  dropsy  is  frequently  asso¬ 
ciated  with  inflammatory  changes  in  the  kidneys, 
and  an  abnormal  condition  of  the  urine. 

Brihuega,a  town  of  New  Castile,  Spain,  on 
the  Tajuna,  twenty  miles  east-northeast  of  Guada¬ 
lajara.  Pop.,  4,140.  Here  in  1710,  during  the 
War  of  the  Succession,  the  English  General 
Stanhope,  was  defeated  by  the  Dukede  Vendome, 
and  compelled  to  surrender,  with  all  his  force. 

Bril,  the  name  of  two  landscape  painters,  both 
natives  of  Antwerp — Mattys  Bril  (1550—84 ' , 
went  during  his  youth  to  Italy,  and,  under  the 
patronage  of  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  painted  several 
frescoes  in  the  Vatican.  He  was  also  distin¬ 
guished  as  an  historical  and  landscape  painter. — 
His  more  celebrated  younger  brother,  Paul  Bril 
(1556-1626),  received  instruction  under  Mattys  in 
Rome,  and  soon  excelled  his  master. 

Brill  ( Rhombvs  Icevis),  a  common  flat  fish, 
belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  the  Turbot,  from 
which  it  is  distinguished  by  its  being  much  less 
high  in  proportion  to  length ,  by  the  absence  of  bony 
tubercles,  by  the  small,  almost  smooth  scales,  by 
the  different  curve  of  the  lateral  line,  by  the  red¬ 
dish-brown  spots  on  the  grayish-brown  of  the 
“upper  side,”  etc.  It  is  seldom  above  eight 
pounds  in  weight,  and  lacks  the  firmness  and 
delicacy  of  turbot. 

Brillat-Savariu,  Anthelme,  French  gas¬ 
tronomist,  born  at  Belley,  April  1,  1755,  was  a 
deputy  in  1789,  and  Mayor  of  Belley  in  1793;  he 
resided  for  a  time  in  Switzerland,  and  afterward 
in  America;  and  from  1796  until  his  death,  Feb. 
2,  1826,  he  was  a  member  of  the  Court  of  Cassa¬ 
tion.  Shortly  before  this  event,  appeared  his 
Physiologie  du  Gout  (1825),  an  elegant  and  witty 
compendium  of  the  art  of  dining,  to  which  he 
brought  the  experience  of  half  a  century. 

Brilliant  is  a  popular  name  given  to  the 
diamond  when  cut  in  a  particular  way. 

Brimstone  (a  stone  that  burns;  from  Anglo- 
Saxon  byrnan,  to  burn,  and  stone),  is  the 
commercial  name  for  Sulphur,  in  sticks  or  rolls. 

Brindaban,  or  Bindraban,  a  town  of  the 
Northwest  Provinces,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Jumna,  six  miles  north  of  Muttra.  It  is  one 
of  the  holiest  cities  of  the  Hindus,  and  crowds  of 
pilgrims  come  from  all  parts  of  India,  more  par¬ 
ticularly  in  honor  of  Krishna.  The  pop.  of 
Brindaban,  almost  exclusively  Hindu,  was,  in 
1881,  21,467. 

Brin'disi  (the  ancient  Brundisium  or  Brvn- 
dusium),  a  seaport  town  of  Southern  Italy,  in  the 
Province  of  Lecce,  is  situated  on  a  small  promon¬ 
tory  in  a  bay  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  346  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Ancona.  Since  the  establishment  of  the 
Overland  Route  to  India,  Brindisi  has  greatly 
increased,  and  as  the  terminus  of  the  Mont  Cenis 
and  other  railway  routes,  it  has  become  a  great 
point  of  departure  for  passengers  for  the  East.  It 
is  about  sixty  hours  from  London  by  rail,  and  the 
weekly  steamers  to  Alexandria  make  the  passage 
in  three  days.  About  1,000  vessels  annually  enter 
the  port,  of  upward  of  600,000  tons’  burden. 
Pop.  (1881),  14,508. 

Brindley,  James,  an  eminent  English  me¬ 
chanic  and  engineer,  born  in  Thornsett,  near 
Chapel-en-le-Firth,  Derbyshire,  England,  in  1716. 
He  was  apprenticed  at  seventeen  to  a  millwright, 


afterward  became  an  engineer,  and  in  1752  showed 
great  ingenuity  in  contriving  a  water-engine  for 
draining  a  coal-mine.  A  silk-mill  on  a  new  plan, 
and  several  others  of  his  works,  recommended 
him  to  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater,  who  employed 
him  to  execute  the  canal  between  Worsley  and 
Manchester.  This  difficult  enterprise  was  crowned 
with  success,  including  the  remarkable  aqueduct 
over  the  Irwell  at  Barton,  thirty-nine  feet  above 
the  river,  removed  in  1888,  to  give  place  to  a. steel 
aqueduct  in  connection  with  the  Manchester  ship 
canal.  He  constructed  or  laid  out  365  miles  of 
canals.  Up  to  the  last  he  remained  illiterate,  most 
of  his  problems  were  solved  without  writings  or 
drawings,  and  when  anything  specially  difficult 
had  to  be  considered,  he  would  go  to  bed  and 
think  it  out  there.  Once,  when  under  examina¬ 
tion  before  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons,  being  jocularly  asked  for  what  purpose  he 
supposed  rivers  to  have  been  created,  he  is  said  to 
have  replied:  “Undoubtedly  to  feed  navigable 
canals.”  He  died  at  Turnhurst,  Staffordshire, 
Sept.  30,  1772. 

Brine-shrimp  ( Artemia ),  a  genus  of  small  ani¬ 
mals  belonging  to  the  Branchiopod  (gill-footed) 
division  of  Crustacea.  They  have  leaf-like  swim- 


Side  View  of  JtlaleBrine-shrimp(.lrtcmiasffiKna),  enlarged. 


ming  and  respiratory  appendages;  the  last  eight 
rings  bear  no  legs.  They  are  hatched  at  the  lowest 
level  of  crustacean  life  as  Nauplii.  The  full- 
grown  animal  is  about  half  an  inch  long,  and, 
having  no  shell,  is  transparent.  In  respect  of 
habitat,  the  brine-shrimp  is  indeed  remarkable, 
occurring,  as  it  does,  in  myriads,  in  the  concen¬ 
trated  brine  of  salt-pans.  The  workmen  at  salt¬ 
pans  so  confidently  ascribe  to  it  the  rapid  clearing 
of  the  brine  in  which  it  occurs,  that  when  it  does 
not  appear  in  their  salterns,  they  transport  a  few 
from  other  pools. 

Brink,  Jan  ten,  a  Dutch  writer,  born  June 
15,  1834,  at  Appingadam,  studied  theology  at 
Utrecht,  but  early  devoted  himself  to  literary 
studies.  A  popular  novel  of  his  is  Het  Verloren 
Kind  (1879);  and  his  Causerien  Over  Aloderne 
Rovians  (1885)  is  a  valuable  critique  of  modern 
novels. — Bernard  ten  Brink,  philologist,  born 
at  Amsterdam  in  1841,  in  1870  became  Professor 
of  Modern  Languages  and  Literature  at  .Mar¬ 
burg,  in  1873  at  Strasburg.  He  has  devoted  him¬ 
self  largely  to  English  philology. 

Brinvilliers,  Marie  Madeleine  Marquise 
de,  poisoner,  was  the  daughter  of  Dreux 
d’Aubray,  Lieutenant  of  Paris,  and  in  1651,  while 
still  young,  was  married  to  the  Marquis  de  Brin¬ 
villiers.  A  gay  and  careless  spendthrift,  he  al¬ 
lowed  her  to  do  very  much  as  she  pleased,  and 
even  introduced  to  her  a  handsome  young  offi¬ 
cer,  the  Seigneur  de  Sainte  Croix,  who  inspired 
her  with  a  violent  passion.  Her  father  caused 
Sainte  Croix  to  be  arrested  and  imprisoned  in  the 
Bastille,  where  he  learned  from  an  Italian  the 
properties  of  arsenic.  On  his  release  he  imparted 
his  fatal  knowledge  to  his  mistress,  who  resolved 
to  destroy  her  father,  and,  to  test  the  efficacy  of 
the  poison,  tried  its  effects  on  patients  in  the 
Hotel  Dieu.  Having  satisfied  herself,  she  com¬ 
menced  operations  on  her  parent,  kissing  and 
poisoning  him  continually  for  eight  months,  until 
her  diabolical  patience  was  exhausted,  and  she 
was  at  last  induced  to  administer  a  very  violent 
dose.  He  died,  and  no  one  suspected  his  daugh¬ 
ter,  who,  aided  by  Sainte  Croix  and  a  domestic, 
Jean  Amelin  or  Chaussfo,  next  poisoned  her  two 
brothers  and  her  sisters;  her  object  being  to  find 
means  of  supporting  her  extravagant  style  of 
living  with  her  paramour.  She  made  several  at¬ 
tempts  to  poison  her  husband;  but  Sainte  Croix 
is  said  to  have  given  him  antidotes,  dreading  that 
he  should  be  compelled  to  marry  the  widow. 
Sainte  Croix  died  suddenly  in  1672 — his  glass 
mask  having  fallen  off  while  he  was  engaged  in 
preparing  a  poison — and  left  documents,  incul¬ 
pating  the  marchioness.  She  escaped  to  England, 
afterward  traveled  into  Germany,  and  next  took 
refuge  in  a  convent  at  Liege.  From  this,  how¬ 
ever,  she  was  decoyed  by  an  officer  of  justice 


BRIQUETTE. 


204 


BRITISH  MUSEUM. 


disguised  as  an  abbe,  and  conveyed  to  Paris. 
Among  her  papers  was  found  a  general  con¬ 
fession  of  her  crimes,  whose  truth  she  acknowl¬ 
edged  after  having  been  put  to  the  torture,  ;yid  on 
July  16,  1676,  she  was  beheaded  and  burned  at 
Paris.  Scribe  made  her  the  subject  of  a  comic 
opera,  and  Albert  Smith  of  a  romance  (1856). 

Briquette'  is  the  name,  originally  French 
(small  brick),  given  to  a  comparatively  new  form 
of  fuel,  made  mostly  from  waste  coal-dust,  and 
used  not  merely  for  household  purposes,  but  in 
various  industries.  A  briquette  is  simply  an  ad¬ 
mixture  of  coal-dust  with  pitch,  moulded  under 
pressure  and  heat,  the  pitch  or  some  similar  sub¬ 
stance  being  introduced  to  form  the  cementing 
material. 

Brisbane,  the  capital  of  Queensland,  a  seaport 
and  chief  seat  of  trade  in  the  colony,  is  sit¬ 
uated  about  500  miles  north  of  Sidney,  in 
Moreton  district.  It  stands  about  twenty-five 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  a  river  of  its  own  name, 
which  falls  into  Moreton  Bay,  and  it  is  divided 
into  the  four  divisions  of  North  Brisbane,  South 
Brisbane,  Kangaroo  Point,  and  Fortitude  Valley. 
Pop.  (1886),  32,571,  or,  with  suburbs,  51,683. 
Brisbane  was  settled  as  a  penal  station  in  1825  by 
Sir  T.  Brisbane,  Governor  of  New  South  Wales, 
when  a  batch  of  desperate  and  incorrigible  char¬ 
acters  were  landed  at  Eagle  Farm,  near  the  pres¬ 
ent  town  of  Brisbane.  The  era  of  progress  began 
in  1842,  when  the  colony  was  opened  to  free 
settlers.  At  first  an  appanage  of  New  South 
Wales,  the  Moreton  district  was  erected  into  an 
independent  colony  in  1859,  when  the  city  was 
incorporated,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  town  and 
district  became  more  steady  and  rapid.  The 
Brisbane  river  rises  in  the  Burnett  Range,  and  re¬ 
ceives  the  Bremer  and  other  rivers  before  its 
entrance  into  Moreton  Bay,  below  the  town  of 
Brisbane. 

Brisbane,  Gen.  Sir  Tiiomas  Macdougael, 
soldier  and  astronomer,  was  born  in  Ayrshire, 
Scotland,  July  23,  1773.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
entered  the  army  and  served  with  distinction  in 
Flanders,  the  West  Indies,  Spain,  and  North 
America.  In  1821,  on  Wellington’s  recommenda¬ 
tion,  he  was  appointed  Governor  of  New  South 
Wales,  a  position  he  held  for  four  years,  during 
which  time  he  introduced  many  wise  reforms  in 
penal  treatment.  Brisbane  holds  a  high  place  as  a 
man  of  science.  While  in  Australia  he  catalogued 
no  less  than  7,385  stars,  for  which  work  he  re¬ 
ceived  the  Copley  Medal  from  the  Royal  Society. 
On  his  return  to  Scotland  he  had  an  astronomical 
and  a  magnetic  observatory  established  at  his 
residence.  He  was  President  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh  after  Sir  Walter  Scott.  He  was  made 
a  baronet  in  1836,  and  a  G.C.B.  in  1837.  He  died 
Jan.  27, 1860. 

Brissot,  Jean  Pierre,  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  French  Revolution  in  its  early  stage,  and 
afterward  numbered  among  its  victims,  was 
born  at  Chartres  in  1754,  and  educated  for  the 
bar.  He  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille  on  the 
false  charge  of  having  written  a  brochure  against 
the  queen;  but  after  four  months  was  liberated 
through  the  intervention  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans. 
He  visited  North  America  as  representative  of 
the  Societe  des  Amis  des  Noirs.  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Revolution  in  1789  he  returned  to  France, 
and  was  elected  by  the  citizens  of  Paris  their  rep¬ 
resentative  in  the  National  Assembly,  where  he 
■exercised  a  predominant  influence  over  all  the 
early  movements  of  the  Revolution.  He  also  es¬ 
tablished  a  journal  called  La  Patriote  Franqah, 
which  became  the  recognized  organ  of  the  earliest 
Republicans.  As  the  Revolution  proceeded, 
Brissot  was  recognized  as  the  head  of  the  party 
usually  called  Girondists,  from  Gironde,  the 
province  to  which  most  of  them  belonged,  but 
also  named  Brissotins  after  their  leader.  Brissot 
contributed  powerfully  to  the  fall  of  the  French 
monarchy,  and  strongly  enjoined  war  against 
Austria  and  England,  and  the  diffusion  of  repub¬ 
lican  principles  throughout  Europe.  In  the  Con¬ 
vention,  his  moderation  made  him  suspected  as  a 
friend  of  royalty,  as  he  opposed  the  “men  of 
September,”  and  the  trial  and  condemnation  of 
the  king.  Brissot  and  his  party,  perhaps  the 
purest  in  principle  and  the  weakest  in  action, 
ultimately  fell  before  the  fierce  accusations  of 
the  Mountain  or  Jacobin  parly,  which  believed, 


or  at  least  pretended  to  believe,  that  the  virtuous 
Brissot  had  received  money  from  the  court  to 
employ  against  the  Revolution.  With  twenty 
other  Girondists,  Brissot  was  guillotined,  Oct.  31, 
1793.  See  his  Memoir? (L-gs  d  Mei  Enfants,  a d. 
by  Lescure,  1885). 

Bristles,  the  strong  hairs  growing  on  the  back 
of  the  hog  and  wild-boar,  and  extensively  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  brushes,  and  also  by  shoe¬ 
makers  and  saddlers.  The  quality  of  bristles 
depends  on  the  length,  stiffness,  color  and 
straightness — white  being  the  most  valuable. 
The  best  bristles  are  produced  by  hogs  that  in¬ 
habit  cold  countries.  The  Russian  hog  is  a  long 
spare  animal,  and  the  thinner  the  hog,  the  longer 
and  stiffer  the  bristles. 

Bristol,  England,  a  mercantile  city  six  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Avon,  and  at  its  junction 
with  the  Frome,  is  located  partly  in  Gloucestershire 
and  partly  in  Somerset.  South  of  the  river  is  St. 
Mary  Redcliff,  justly  declared  by  Queen  Eliza¬ 
beth  to  be  the  “fairest  and  most  famous  parish 
church  in  England.”  Of  the  church  rebuilt, 
“from  the  cross  aisles  downward,”  by  William 
Canynges,  Sr.,  merchant  {circa  1376);  only  the 
south  transept  and  south  wall  of  nave  remain; 
the  rest  was  wrecked  by  the  fall  of  the  spire,  and 
was  built  by  Canynges’  grandson  and  namesake 
(circa  1470);  it  is  vaulted  throughout,  and  is  a  mag¬ 
nificent  specimen  of  perpendicular  architecture. 
The  truncated  spire  was  completed,  280  feet  from 
ground,  and  170feet  from  top  of  tower,  in  1872.  In 
the  muniment-room  is  the  chest  in  which  Cliatter- 
ton  (1752-70)  pretended  to  have  found  the  Rowley 
poems.  Among  the  ancient  houses  of  the  town  are 
Canynges’  house,  Redcliff  Street,  Spicer’s  (or  Back) 
Hall,  and  St.  Peter’s  Hospital.  Bristol  first  ap¬ 
pears  in  history  on  a  coin  (circa,  1000).  In  1497 
John  Cabot  sailed  from  the  port,  and  was  the 
first  to  discover  North  America;  his  son,  Sebastian, 
declared  that  he  was  born  in  Bristol,  and  sailed 
thence  on  his  voyage  of  1498.  Bristol  men  col¬ 
onized  Newfoundland,  engaged  in  several  early 
attempts  to  colonize  Maine,  and  established  a 
large  trade  with  the  West  Indies  and  American 
colonies.  The  city  was  taken  by  Prince  Rupert, 
in  1643,  and  by  Fairfax  in  1645.  Colston,  the 
philanthropist  (1636-1721),  founded  many  char¬ 
ities,  and  his  “day”  is  annually  kept  in  Bristol. 
Southey  (1774-1843)  was  a  native  of  Bristol,  and 
he  and  Coleridge  were  much  there  in  their  younger 
days.  Burke  was  returned  for  the  city  in 
1774,  and  declined  the  poll  in  1780.  The  first 
steamship  for  the  transatlantic  voyage,  the  Great 
Western,  was  built  in  the  port  in  1838.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  imports  are  grain,  provisions,  oils,  hides, 
tallow,  sugar,  and  petroleum;  the  exports  'coal, 
salt,  tin-plates,  cotton,  piece-goods,  chemical  pro¬ 
ducts,  manufactured  oils,  and  sundries.  The 
tonnage  of  vessels  entering  the  port  during  1886 
was  returned  as  1,285,090  tons;  in  1847  it  was 
546,753  tons.  Bristol  is  on  the  Great  Western 
and  Midland  railways.  Pop.  within  municipal 
boundaries  G887),  223,695.  Clifton  is  mentioned 
in  Domesday ,  but  has  little  history  till  it  appears 
as  a  “beautiful  village”  in  1760;  ii  is  now  a  large 
and  handsome  suburb  of  Bristol,  of  which  it 
forms  part  for  municipal  and  parliamentary  pur¬ 
poses.  It  stands  above  St.  Vincent’s  Rocks, 
which  rise  majestically  from  the  Avon.  The 
river  is  spanned  245  feet  above  high-water  by  a 
suspension  bridge. 

Bristol,  (1)  a  town  of  Bucks  county,  Penn., 
on  the  Delaware  river,  twenty  miles  north 
northeast  of  Philadelphia.  Pop.,  5,273. — (2)  A 
port  of  entry,  and  capital  of  Bristol  county, 
R.  1.  Pop.,  5,063. 

Bristol  Bay,  an  arm  of  Behring  Sea,  lying  im¬ 
mediately  to  the  north  of  the  Peninsula  of  Aliaska, 
receives  the  waters  of  two  large  lakes,  by  which 
communication  with  the  interior  is  opened  up  for 
a  considerable  distance. 

Bristol  Channel,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  in  the  southwest  of  England,  between 
South  Wales  on  the  north,  and  Devon  and  Somer¬ 
set  shires  on  the  south,  or  it  may  be  regarded  as 
an  extension  of  the  estuary  of  the  River  Severn. 
It  is  about  80  miles  long,  and  5  to  43 
miles  broad;  the  depth  ranging  from  5  to 
40  fathoms.  It  is  the  largest  inlet  or  estuary  in 
Britain,  having  a  very  irregular  coast-line  of  220 
miles.  The  tides  in  it  rise  to  an  extraordinary 


height — at  Bristol,  35  feet;  at  King’s  Road,  40; 
and  at  Chepstow,  sometimes  70. 

Britannia,  the  name  applied  by  Caesar  and 
other  Roman  writers  to  the  Island  of  Great  Britain; 
Aristotle  having  referred  to  the  Nesoi  Bretannikai 
(“British  isles”)  as  early  as  the  fourth  century 
B.C. 

Britannia  Metal.  The  composition  of  Britan¬ 
nia  metal  varies.  Much  of  it  is  90  tin,  8  anti¬ 
mony,  and  2  copper.  Another  formula  is  81  tin, 
16  antimony,  1  copper,  and  2  zinc.  But  most  of 
the  alloys  passing  under  this  name  have  between 
80  and  90  per  cent,  of  tin  with  varying  propor¬ 
tions  of  antimony  and  copper.  Britannia  metal 
forms  a  good  ground  or  basis  for  electroplating 
with  silver.  Britannia  metal  spoons  and  ladles, 
made  by  casting,  stamping,  and  burnishing  have 
been  nearly  driven  out  of  the  market  by  German 
silver;  but  the  former  metal  is  more  largely  used 
than  ever  for  liot-water  jugs,  coffee-pots,  sugar- 
basins,  soup-tureens,  gravy-dishes,  vegetable  and 
side  dishes,  dram  bottles,  drinking-cups,  wine- 
coolers,  soap-boxes,  liquor-frame5,  cruets,  waiters, 
trays,  etc.;  and  as  a  basis  for  electroplate. 
Sheffield  and  Birmingham  are  the  chief  seats  of 
the  manufacture.  After  electroplating  came  into 
general  use  in  the  decade  1840-50.  it  lie  trade  in 
Britannia  metal  wares  became  double  what  it  was 
previously. 

Briticisms.  This  term  was  coined  by  Richard 
Grant  White  to  designate  the  corruptions  of  the 
English  language  that  are  peculiar  to  the  British 
isles.  The  word  is  a  quid  pro  quo  for  the  term 
“Americanisms”  (which  see)  bestowed  upon  our 
localisms  by  English  critics.  There  is  this  to  be 
said  in  favor  of  the  so-called  Americanisms — that 
they  are  generally  specimens  of  conservation  of 
the  original  meanings  of  words,  or  coinages  added 
to  the  language;  while  the  so-called  Briticisms 
are  generally  perversions  of  the  mother  tongue. 
Of  this  class  are  the  restriction  of  “ride”  to 
locomotion  on  horseback,  and  “  drive  ”  to  locomo¬ 
tion  in  a  carriage,  whether  the  driver  drive  or 
not;  the  rhetorical  misuse  of  such  words  as 
“directly,”  “immediately,”  etc.,  as  in  the  con¬ 
struction  familiar  in  English  novels,  “  Directly  he 
arrived  he  commenced  physician;”  the  misuse  of 
“commenced”  and  words  of  allied  meaning,  as 
in  the  sentence  just  quoted;  the  use  of  the  word 
“ill”  to  the  exclusion  of  “sick”  to  serve  the 
uses  of  the  latter  (that  is,  the  displacement  of  the 
adjective  by  the  adverb);  the  use  of  the  phrase 
“as  well”  for  “all  the  same”  or  “nevertheless,” 
as  in  the  following  sentence:  “He  treated  her 
kindly,  but  just  as  well  she  hated  him;”  “awful, 
awfully”  for  very, — as  “awfully”  or  “awful 
jolly;”  “  stop  ”  for  stay,  as  “  I  will  stop  at  home,” 
etc.  Not  many  years  ago  these  corruptions  were 
practically  unknown  in  American  speech  and 
literature;  but  the  absence  of  an  international 
copyright  law  and  the  consequent  piracy  of 
foreign  writings,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent,  have 
made  the  language  of  the  third-rate  British 
novelists  familiar  to  us,  and  our  own  writers  of 
the  same  grade  have  caught  the  infection.  The 
result  is  that  our  language  now  bears  not  only  the 
reproach  of  its  native  Americanisms,  but  of  the 
imported  Briticisms  also.  Fortunately,  however, 
we  do  not  yet  say  “  basin  ”  when  we  irfean  bowl, 
nor  “jar”  when  we  mean  jug  or  pitcher;  but  the 
future  is  before  us,  and  we  may  some  day  read  in 
an  American  book  of  some  one  who  eats  his  soup 
out  of  a  “basin”  or  calls  for  a  “jar”  of  warm 
water  to  shave  with. 

Britann'icus,  Claudius  Tiberius  Britannicus 
Caesar,  Nero’s  half  brother,  was  the  son  of  the 
Emperor  Claudius  and  his  wife  Messalina,  and 
was  born  42  a.d.  Nero  caused  him  to  be  poisoned 
in  55. 

British  Association,  an  association  formed 
to  assist  the  progress  of  discovery,  and  to  diffuse 
the  latest  results  of  scientific  research.  Its 
founder  was  Sir  David  Brewster.  The  first  meet¬ 
ing  was  held  at  York  in  the  year  1831.  Meetings 
are  held  every  two  years.  In  1884  the  place  of 
meeting  was  at  Montreal,  Canada.  Some  of  the 
addresses  made  to  this  body  have  been  memorable 
in  the  history  of  speculative  science. 

British  Museum.  The  British  Museum,  an 
important  national  institution  in  London,  origin¬ 
ated  in  a  bequest  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  in  accordance 
with  which  his  extensive  collection  of  objects  of 


BRITTANY. 


205 


BROKEN  WIND. 


natural  history,  works  of  art,  books  and  manu¬ 
scripts,  was  offered  in  1753  to  the  Government, 
for  the  sum  of  $100,000,  or  two-fifths  of  its  origi¬ 
nal  cost.  The  institution  was  opened  in  1759. 
The  present  building  was  not  completed  till  1847. 
Its  principal  front  faces  Great  Russell  Street,  and 
presents  a  columnar  fapade,  370  feet  in  length. 
The  library  building  cost  $750,000.  The  reading- 
room  is  circular,  and  will  accommodate  over  300 
readers.  It  is  constructed  principally  of  iron, 
with  brick  arches  between  the  main  ribs.  The 
dome  is  106  feet  in  height,  and  its  diameter  140 
feet.  It  has  three  miles  lineal  of  bookcases  8  feet 
high.  In  addition,  the  reading-room  has  accom¬ 
modation  for  60,000  volumes.  The  Natural  His¬ 
tory  building  stands  on  the  site  occupied  by  the 
International  Exhibition  of  1862.  The  whole  cost 
of  the  new  museum  very  nearly  reached  the  sum 
of  $2,000,000.  This  elegant  terra-cotta  edifice  is 
situated  at  Kensington,  in  the  Cromwell  Road. 
There  are  eleven  departments:  Printed  Books 
(with  the  sub-department  of  Maps),  Manuscripts, 
Prints  and  Drawings,  Oriental  Antiquities,  Greek 
and  Roman  Antiquities,  Coins  and  Medals,  British 
and  Mediaeval  Antiquities  and  Ethnography,  Zo¬ 
ology,  Botany,  Geology,  and  Mineralogy.  The 
library  at  present  contains  about  1 ,500,000  printed 
volumes.  There  are  over  50,000  published 
and  20,000  manuscript  maps  in  the  Museum.  The 
manuscripts  are  contained  in  several  rooms  in  the 
southeast  angle  of  the  building.  Amongst  the 
most  valuable  treasures  here  are  the  (Jodex  Ale. x- 
andrinus,  a  manuscript  of  the  Bible  written  in 
uncial  Greek,  before  the  close  of  the  fifth  century, 
and  the  Basilican  Boron  of  James  I.,  in  his  own 
handwriting.  In  18S7  the  department  contained 
upward  of  50,000  volumes,  47,000  charters  and 
rolls,  nearly  10,000  detached  seals  and  casts  of 
seals,  and  upward  of  100  ancient  Greek,  Coptic, 
and  Latin  papyri.  Among  the  drawings  are  fine 
examples  of  Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  Leonardo 
da  Vinci,  Albert  Diirer,  and  Claude;  among  the 
water-colors,  of  David  Cox,  Girtin,  and  W.  Mid¬ 
ler.  The  collections  of  etchings  by  Rembrandt 
and  of  engravings  by  Hogarth  are  unrivaled. 
The  Egyptian  monuments  date  from  a  period  as 
remote  as  2,000  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  come  down  to  the  Mohammedan  invasion  of 
Egypt,  (640  a.d.)  The  key  to  the  Hieroglyphics 
was  furnished  by  the  celebrated  Rosetta  Stone, 
which  is  placed  in  the  center  of  the  gallery. 
The  Elgin  Gallery  contains  the  sculptures  from 
Athens  and  Attica,  the  greater  portion  of  which 
were  obtained  by  the  Earl  of  Elgin,  and  pur¬ 
chased  from  him  by  Parliament  in  1816  for  $175,- 
000.  In  1856  the  trustees  united  the  Natural  His¬ 
tory  departments  under  Professor  Owen,  who  was 
then  appointed  Superintendent  of  Natural  His¬ 
tory.  In  the  spring  of  1881  the  new  building 
erected  at  South  Kensington,  for  the  reception  of 
the  zoological,  mineralogical,  geological,  and  bot¬ 
anical  departments,  was  opened  to  the  public. 

Brittany  (Fr.  Bretagne),  the  great  North¬ 
western  Peninsula  of  France,  extending  in  tri¬ 
angular  form  into  the  sea,  its  base  resting  on 
Normandy,  Maine,  Anjou,  and  Poitou,  its  sides 
washed  by  the  Channel  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
In  earlier  times  it  formed,  with  the  name  of 
Duchy,  cftie  of  the  provinces  of  France;  now  it 
forms  the  five  departments  of  Finistere,  Cotes-du- 
Nord,  Morbihan,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  and  Loire-In- 
ferieure,  with  a  total  area  of  13,130  square  miles, 
and  a  pop.  (1886)  of  3,136,400.  In  ancient  times, 
Brittany,  under  the  name  of  Armorica,  was  the 
center  of  the  confederated  Armorican  tribes,  who 
were  of  Celtic  origin.  Later  it  was  known  as 
Provincia  Lugdunensis  Tertia.  Already  entirely 
liberated  in  the  fourth  century,  it  became  divided 
into  several  allied  republican  States,  which  after 
ward  passed  into  petty  monarchies.  Brittany  be¬ 
came  subject  to  the  Franks  in  the  reign  of  Char¬ 
lemagne,  and  was  handed  over  by  Charles  the 
Simple  to  the  Northmen  in  the  tenth  century. 
The  duchy  of  Brittany  was  incori  orated  with 
France  in  1532  by  Francis  I.,  to  whom  it  had 
come  by  marriage.  During  the  Revolution 
Brittany  accordingly  became  the  arena  of  a  long 
and  bloody  struggle  against  dominant  republic¬ 
anism,  its  Cliouans  almost  rivaling  the  Vend  Gins 
in  the  heroic  stubbornness  of  their  opposition. 
Abelard,  Duguesclin,  the  Conru'-table  de  Riche¬ 
mont,  Jacques  Cartier,  Michel  Columb,  Dom 


Lobineau,  Duclos,  Surcouf,  Broussais,  Laennec, 
Jules  Dupr6,  Duguay-Trouin,  KVratry,  Mauper- 
tuis,  Chateaubriand,  Lamennais,  Jules  Simon, 
and  Renan,  were  Bretons.  The  Breton  ( Brezonek, 
Brezounek;  Fr.  Bus  Breton),  the  ancient  language 
of  Brittany,  still  called  sometimes  Armorican,  is 
one  of  those  small  Celtic  tongues  which  are 
languages  down  to  the  present  time.  It  is  at  the 
present  day  spoken  chiefly  in  the  department  of 
FinistCre  and  the  western  parts  of  Cdtes-du-Nord, 
and  in  Morbihan,  and  is  still  the  ordinary  lan¬ 
guage  of  about  1,322,000  persons,  of  whom  679,- 
700  know  no  other. 

Brittle-  s  ars  (Opliiurpidea),  one  of  the  classes 
of  Echinodermata,  including  forms  not  far  re¬ 
moved  from  starfishes  (Asteroids),  but  differing 
markedly  in  the  more  centralized  body,  more 
sharply  defined  arms,  and  more  active  habit. 

Britton,  John,  English  topographer  and  anti¬ 
quary,  was  born  in  1771.  He  died  in  Loudon, 
Jan.  1,  1857. 

Broad  Arrow,  a  Government  mark,  fixed  on 
all  solid  materials  used  in  English  ships  or  dock¬ 
yards  and  on  Government  stores  of  all  kinds  like 
the  “  U.  S.  ”  used  for  a  similar  purpose  in  this 
country. 

Broad-bottom  Administration,  a  name  deris¬ 
ively  applied  to  the  English  ministry  formed  by 
Henry  Pelham  in  1744,  because  it  professed  to  in¬ 
clude  all  parties  in  a  grand  coalition,  and  com¬ 
prised  nine  dukis. 

Broads,  The  Norfolk,  in  .England,  are  a 
series  of  inland  lakes  usually  said  to  be  formed 
by  the  widening  or  “broadening”  out  of  the 
rivers. 

Broadside,  the  simultaneous  discharge  of  all 
the  guns  on  one  side  of  a  ship  of  war.  With  iron¬ 
clad  turret-ships  the  term  is  inapplicable. 

Broadsword,  a  sword  with  a  broad  blade, 
usually  for  cutting  only. 

Broca,  Paul,  a  distinguished  French  surgeon 
and  anthropologist,  was  born  at  Sainte-Foy-le- 
Grande,  Gironde,  in  1824.  He  founded  the  Paris 
Anthropological  Society,  of  which  he  was  the 
secretary  until  his  death.  Elected  a  member  of 
the  Academy  of  Medicine  in  1866,  he  was  deco¬ 
rated  with  the  Legion  of  Honor  in  1868.  In  1878 
he  presided  over  the  International  Congress  on 
Anthropology  in  Paris.  He  died  July  9,  1880. 

Brocade  (Span,  brocado).  This  term  is  applied 
to  a  kind  of  figured  silk  resembling  a  damask, 
and  a  piece  of  embroidery.  The  name  was  origi¬ 
nally  applied  to  a  piece  of  silk,  woven  on  the  old 
hand  loom  with  a  slightly  raised  pattern.  The 
name  is  now  applied  to  a  figured  silk  with  a  satin 
or  cord  ground  in  which  several  colors  are  used, 
and  ,in  which  a  colored  thread  is  put  in  by  a 
shuttle  traveling  only  a  short  distance,  or  just 
the  width  of  a  flower  or  figure.  Old  brocades 
are  generally  composed  in  part  of  gold,  silver,  or 
gilt  silver  threads. 

Broccoli,  a  well-known  and  much-esteemed 
garden  vegetable,  one  of  the  many  varieties  which 
cultivation  has  produced  of  the  Brass ica  oleracca, 
the  common  kale  or  cabbage.  Its  name  is  Italian. 
It  is  a  variety  of  the  Cauliflower. 

Brock,  Isaac,  General  in  the  British  Army, 
killed  at  the  Battle  of  Queenstown,  Canada,  Oct. 
13,  1812.  In  August  of  the  same  year  he  had 
received  the  surrender  of  Hull’s  entire  force  at 
Detroit. 

Brocken  ( Mons  Brnctervs  of  the  Romans), 
popularly  known  as  the  Blocksberg,  the  highest 
summit  of  the  Hartz  Mountains,  is  situated  in 
Prussian  Saxony,  about  twenty  miles  west-south¬ 
west  of  Halberstadt,  and  has  an  elevation  of  3,740 
feet  above  the  sea.  There  the  pagan  worship 
lingered  long  after  the  introduction  of  Chris¬ 
tianity. 

Brock  haus,  Friedrich  Arnold,  the  founder 
of  the  well-known  firm  of  Brockhaus  in  Leipzig, 
and  publisher  of  the  Oonversa.tions-Lexikon,  was 
born  at  Dortmund,  May  4,  1772.  He  died  Aug. 
20,  1823. — Hermann  Brockhaus,  third  son  of 
F.  A.  Brockhaus,  was  born  at  Amsterdam,  Jan. 
28,  1806,  From  1848  till  his  death,  he  held  the 
Chair  of  Ordinary  Professor  of  the  Sanskrit  Lan¬ 
guage  and  Literature  at  Leipzig,  where  he  died 
Jan.  5,  1877. 

Brockton,  formerly  called  North  Bridgewater, 
is  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  twenty  miles  south 
of  Boston.  Pop.,  20,783. 


Brockville,  a  town  of  Ontario,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  125  miles  southwest  of  Mont¬ 
real.  It  took  its  name  from  Gen.  Isaac  Brock 
(1769-1812,)  who  fell  in  the  Battle  of  Queenstown. 
Pop.  (1881),  7,609. 

Broderick,  David  C.,  born  in  1818,  elected 
Senator  from  California  in  1856,  was  killed  in  a 
duel  with  Judge  David  S.  Terry  at  San  Francisco 
Sept.  21,  1859. 

Brodliead,  Joiin  R.,  historian,  was  born  in 
1814,  died  May  6,  1873.  lie  held  various  diplo¬ 
matic  and  Federal  offices,  and  wrote  a  history  of 
the  State  of  New  York. 

Brodie,  Sir  Benjamin  Collins,  Bart.,  an 
eminent  English  surgeon,  was  born  in  1783.  In 
1810  he  was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society.  In  1834  he  was  created  a  baronet.  He 
was  made  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  in  1850;  and  was 
President  of  the  Royal  Society.  lie  died  Oct.  21, 
1862. — His  son,  Sir  B.  C.  Brodie,  born  in  1817, 
was  in  1855  appointed  Professor  of  Chemistry  at 
Oxford.  He  was  the  discoverer  of  graphitic  acid. 
He  died  Nov.  24,  1880. 

Brody,  a  town  of  Galicia,  eiglity-niue  miles 
east-northeast  of  Lemberg.  Pop.  (1880),  20,071, 
nearly  all  Jews. 

Broglie,  a  prominent  French  family,  of  Pied¬ 
montese  origin;  its  most  important  members  have 
been  the  four  dukes  of  the  name:  (1)  Francois 
Marie,  first  Due  de,  Marshal  of  France,  born 
1671,  took  part  in  every  campaign  from  1689, 
and  died  in  1745. — (2)  Victor  Francois,  his  son, 
born  1718,  was  the  most  capable  of  the  French 
commanders  in  the  Seven  Years’  War.  Made  a 
Marshal  in  1759,  he  entered  the  Russian  service 
after  the  Revolution,  and  died  in  1804. — (3) 
Achille  Charles  Leonce  Victor,  grandson  of 
the  last,  and  son  of  Prince  Claude  Victor  (born 
1757,  guillotined  1794),  born  in  1785,  was  distin¬ 
guished  as  a  Liberal  politician  and  an  earnest  ad¬ 
vocate  for  the  abolition  of  slavery.  He  was  For¬ 
eign  Secretary  (1832-34)  and  Prime  Minister 
(1835-6)  under  Louis  Philippe.  He  died  in  Paris 
Jan.  25,  1870.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Academy. 
— (4)  Jacques  Victor  Albert,  his  eldest  son, 
born  June  13,  1821,  was  elected  an  Academician 
in  1862.  He  was  a  deputy  in  1871,  and 
till  May,  1872,  Ambassador  at  London,  lie  was 
twice  Premier — in  1873-74  and  in  1877 — resigning 
both  times  on  account  of  Gambetta’s  exposure  of 
his  reactionary  tactics. 

Brogue  (Irish  and  Gaelic  brog),  a  light  shoe 
formed  of  one  pieceof  hide  or  half-tanned  leather, 
gathered  round  the  ankle  which  was  formerly  much 
in  use  among  the  native  Irish  and  the  Scottish 
Highlanders,  and  of  which  there  were  different 
varieties. — The  term  brogue  is  also  used  to  sig 
nify  the  peculiar  pronunciation  of  English  that 
distinguishes  natives  of  Ireland. 

Broiling  is  a  convenient  and  expeditious  mode 
of  cooking  meat  by  exposing  it  to  the  direct  action 
of  fire,  usually  by  means  of  a  gridiron.  The  al¬ 
bumen  of  the  outside  being  coagulated,  the  meat 
is  cooked  in  its  own  juices  and  rendered  extremely 
nutritious. 

Broke,  Sir  Philip  Bowes  Vere,  English  Rear 
Admiral,  born  Sept.  9,  1776.  In  the  Shannon  he 
fought  the  memorable  duel  with  the  Chesapeake, 
off  Boston,  June  1,  1813.  He  died  in  London, 
Jan.  2,  1841. 

Broken  Knees.  The  part  commonly  termed 
the  knee  of  the  horse  corresponds  to  the  carpus  or 
wrist  of  man.  By  broken  knee  is  meant  the  abra¬ 
sion  or  more  serious  injury  of  the  front  of  the 
joint  by  a  fall.  If  the  wound  be  merely  super¬ 
ficial,  unless  the  skin  is  much  bruised,  the  hair 
will  grow,  and  the  animal  not  be  permanently 
blemished.  The  sheath,  however,  through  which 
the  tendon  passes  may  be  opened,  and  the 
tendon  itself  injured.  The  wound  is  then  gaping, 
and  heals  rather  slowly.  Lastly,  the  joint  -itself 
may  be  opened,  and  this  is  indicated  by  a  dis¬ 
charge  of  the  synovial  fluid,  and  by  the  bones 
being  seen.  The  worst  form  is  that  which  involves 
fracture  of  the  bones.  Nothing  can  be  done  for 
such  a  case,  and  the  horse  should  be  killed. 

Broken  Wind  is  a  disease  or  unsoundness  of 
the  respiratory  organs  of  the  horse.  The  nature 
of  the  malady  is  of  a  reflex,  nervous  origin,  and 
appears  in  the  form  of  difficulty  in  the  act  of 
expiration,  the  horse  making  an  extraordinary  or 
second  effort  to  expel  from  the  lungs  the  air  which 


BROKER. 


206 


BRONZINO. 


has  readily -entered  them  during  inspiration.  A 
broken- winded  horse  is  usually  an  animal  that 
does  not  thrive,  is  lean,  and  lias  a  dependent 
belly,  the  muscles  of  which  are  unusually  active 
as  expiratory  muscles.  The  characteristic  symp¬ 
toms  are  best  observed  when  the  horse  is  exer¬ 
cised,  the  breathing  becoming  very  labored ;  the 
nostrils  dilated,  the  eyes  bloodshot,  and  even 
blue.  A  broken-winded  horse  has  a  low  cough, 
which  is  usually  accompanied  by  the  passage  of 
flatus  from  the  anus.  There  is  no  cure.  The 
only  treatment  is  care  in  feeding,  rest,  and  the 
like. 

Broker,  an  agent  employed  to  make  bargains 
and  contracts  between  other  persons,  in  matters 
of  commerce,  for  a  compensation  commonly 
called  brokerage.  A  broker  usually  confines  his 
attention  to  one  particular  market.  The  broker 
is  strictly  a  middle-man,  finding  buyers  or  sellers 
as  required.  He  does  not  act  in  hisown  name,  nor 
lias  lie  generally  the  custody  of  the  goods  in  which 
lie  deals,  and  lie  can  not  sell  publicly  like  an 
auctioneer.  Besides  ordinary  commercial  brokers, 
there  are  such  special  brokers  as  stock-brokers, 
ship-brokers,  insurance-brokers,  and  bill-brokers. 
The  business  of  a  pawn-broker  is  of  a  different 
nature. 

Bi  •omo,  Richard,  a  minor  dramatist,  in  his  i 
earlier  days  servant  to  Ben  Jonson.  He  wrote 
twenty-four  popular  plays.  He  died  about  1652. 

Brome-grass  ( Bromus ;  Gr.  brdmos,  a  kind  of 


Brome-grass. 


oat),  a  genus  of  grasses,  very  nearly  allied  to 
Fescue.  The  species  are  numerous. 

Bromelia  'ceae,  an  order  of  monocotyledonous 
plants,  allied  to  Amaryllulaceaeand  Iridaceae,  and 
of  course  to  Liliacese,  of  which,  in  the  large  sense, 
many  systematists  reckon  all  these  mere  sub¬ 
orders.  They  most  resemble  Amaryllidaceaa  (with 
which  they  are  practically  continous  through 
Agave),  but  are  usually  distinguished  by  their 
perianth-whorls  differentiated  as  calyx  and  corolla, 
and  by  their  habit.  The  speciesare  all  natives  of 
the  warmer  parts  of  America,  though  some  are 
naturalized  in  Asia  and  Africa.  The  best  known 
of  the  order  is  the  pine-apple,  Tillandsia  vsneoidex. 
Beard  Moss  or  Spaniard’s  Beard  of  the  West 
Indies  and  of  the  southern  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Mexico,  hangs  from  the  trees  in  cypress 
groves.  The  produce  of  different  species  of 
Bromelia  is  often  included  along  with  that  of  the 
American  Aloe  or  Agave,  under  the  name  of  Pita 
fiber  or  Pito  flax. 

Bromic  Acid,  IIBr03,  is  the  best-known  com¬ 
pound  of  bromine  and  oxygen.  It  is  prepared 
pure  by  acting  on  bromine  (Br.)  with  bromate  of 
silver,  AgBr03.  It  is  a  very  unstable  acid,  and 
forms  a  series  of  salts  called  Bromates. 

Bromine  (Gr.  brbmos,  disagreeable  smell:  sym. 
Br. ;  atomic  weight,  SO),  one  of  the  elements, 
occurs  in  combination  in  sea  water  to  the  extent 
of  about  one  grain  to  the  gallon.  It  is  found  more 
abundantly  in  certain  saline  springs,  especially 
those  at  Kreuznaeh  and  Ivissingen  in  Germany. 
It  is  also  present  in  marine  and  land  plants  and 
animals.  Bromine  is  a  deep  red  liquid  of  density 
2.98  at  59°  F.  (15  C.),  which  readily  evolves  red 


fumes  of  a  very  irritating  and  suffocating  nature. 
It  is  very  poisonous,  acting  by  destroying  the 
animal  tissues.  In  medicine  it  lias  been  found  of 
service  internally  in  scrofulous  diseases,  and  as 
an  application  to  ulcers,  or  in  hospital  gangrene. 
It  is  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  more  so  in  alcohol 
and  ether,  and  its  watery  solution  possesses  great 
bleaching  properties.  It  boils  at  1  to. 4°  (63°  C.), 
and  freezes  at  9.5°,  ( — 12.5°  G.)  Treated  with 
sulphureted  hydrogen,  it  yields  hydrobromic 
acid,  HBr.,  the  analogue  of  hydrochloric  acid. 
Bromine  combines  rapidly  with  most  of  the 
metals,  and  forms  a  class  of  salts  usually  known 
as  bromides,  though  perhaps  they  are  rather 
hydrobromides.  Bromide  of  silver,  which  is  very 
sensitive  to  the  sun’s  rays,  is  used  in  photography. 
Bromide  of  potassium  is  much  used  as  a  sedative 
in  medicine  It  is  obtained  in  colorless,  cubical 
crystals,  possessing  a  pungent,  saline  taste,  and 
is  very  soluble  in  water. 

Bronchi  are  the  subdivisions  of  the  trachea  or 
windpipe.  Opposite  the  third  dorsal  vertebra, 
the  windpipe  divides  into  two  branches  or 
bronchi,  of  similar  structure  to  itself.  Of  these 
bronchi  one  goes  to  each  lung,  the  right  being- 
little  more  than  an  inch;  the  left,  about  two 
inches  in  length.  On  entering  the  substance  of 
the  lung,  the  bronchi  divide  into  smaller  branches, 
which  again  subdivide,  until  they  diminish  to 
gL,  to  of  an  inch,  and  terminate  in  small  poly¬ 
hedral  sacs.  These  are  the  air-cells;  they  consist 
of  elastic  tissue,  with  a  lining  of  mucous  mem¬ 
brane,  and  beneath  the  latter,  a  layer  of  minute 
blood-vessels  of  the  lung. 

Bronchitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  lining  mem¬ 
brane  of  the  bronchial  tubes,  is  a  disease  of  very 
common  occurrence  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
an  extremely  common  complication  in  other  dis¬ 
eases.  It  is  usually  caused  by  exposure  to  cold, 
but  may  arise  from  mechanical  irritation.  A  pa¬ 
tient  who  has  once  had  acute  bronchitis  is  liable 
to  other  attacks,  and  the  disease  may  become 
chronic.  Chronic  bronchitis  leads  to  important 
structural  changes  in  the  lungs,  especially  em¬ 
physema,  to  consequent  embarrassment  of  the 
respiration  and  circulation,  with  secondary 
changes  in  other  organs,  and  is  generally  fatal, 
though  it  may  not  be  for  many  years.  The  pa¬ 
tient  is  always  liable  to  severer  attacks,  much  re¬ 
sembling  acute  bronchitis,  and  often  induced  by 
very  slight  causes. 

Brongniart,  Alexandre,  an  eminent  French 
scientist,  born  at  Paris,  1770,  became  in  1797  pro¬ 
fessor  of  Natural  History  at  the  tj  ole  des  Quatre 
Nations,  and  afterward  in  the  Museum  of 
Natural  History.  Appointed  in  1800  director  of 
the  porcelain  manufactory  at  Sevres,  he  held  that 
office  for  the  remainder  of  his  life,  and  revived 
the  almost-lost  art  of  painting  on  glass.  He  died 
Oct.  7,  1847. — His  son,  Adolphe  Theodore,  a 
botanist  of  some  note,  was  born  in  Paris,  1801; 
in  1833  became  Professor  of  Botany  at  the  Jardin 
des  Plantes,  and  in  1852  Inspector-General  of 
the  Scientific  Faculties  of  France.  He  died  in 
1876. 

Broun,  Heinrich  Georg,  a  German  naturalist, 
born  at  Ziegelhausen,  1800.  In  1833  he  was  nomi¬ 
nated  Professor  of  Physics,  and  was  afterward 
appointed  to  the  zoological  lectureship  at  Heidel- 
burg.  He  died  July  5,  1862. 

Bronte,  a  town  of  Sicily,  situated  at  the  western 
base  of  Mount  yEtna,  thirty -three miles  northwest 
of  Catania.  Lord  Nelson  was  created  Duke  of 
Bronte  by  the  Neapolitan  Government  in  1799, 
Pop.  (1881),  16,422. 

Bronte,  Charlotte,  one  of  the  most  gifted 
English  novelists,  was  born  at  Thornton,  in  York¬ 
shire,  England,  April  21,  1816.  In  1846  she  and 
her  two  sisters  published  a  volume  of  poems  bear¬ 
ing  the  names  of  Currer,  Ellis,  and  Acton  Bell — 
Currer  Bell  being  the  pseudonym  of  Charlotte, 
Jane  Eyre  was  published  in  1847.  Her  other  novels 
are  The  Professor,  Shirley,  and  ViUette.  She  was 
married  in  1854.’  She  died  on  March  31,  1855. 

Bronze.  It  is  usual  to  speak  of  bronze  as  an 
alloy  of  copper  and  tin.  But  neither  ancient  nor 
modern  bronzes  consist  always  of  only  these  two 
metals.  In  many  instances,  zinc,  lead,  and  even 
silver,  are  found  in  Greek  and  Roman  bronze 
objects.  Much  of  our  modern  statuary  consists 
of  bronze  varying  from  10  parts  copper  and  1  of 
I  tin  to  8  parts  copper  and  2  of  tin.  Some  zinc  or 


lead,  or  both,  as  well  as  other  metals,  are  occa¬ 
sionally  substituted  for  part  of  the  tin.  The 
bronze  used  in  casting  the  various  guns  tested  by 
the  United  States  Government  in  1856  was  cop¬ 
per,  8  parts;  tin,  1  part.  It  had  a  mean  density  of 
8,519,  and  an  average  tenacity  of  27,793  pounds 
per  square  inch.  The  brass  referred  to  in  the- 
Bible  was  no  doubt  bronze.  It  is  believed  that 
both  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  for  such  objects  as 
swords,  spears,  saws,  razors,  and  othertools,  were 
able  to  make  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin  which 
surpassed  modern  bronze  in  some  properties;  and 
that  they  possessed  some  method  of  tempering 
bronze,  the  secret  of  which  has  been  lost.  It  is 
difficult  to  make  ordinary  bronze  a  quite  homo¬ 
geneous  compound.  An  alloy  more  perfect  in 
this  respect  is  formed  when  copper  is  mixed  with 
tin  phosphide  instead  of  metallic  tin.  Phosphor- 
bronze  is  used  for  beari  gsof  shafts,  piston-rings, 
pump-rods,  propellers,  boiler-fittings,  and  other 
parts  of  engineering  work. 

Bronze  Age,  a  term  in  archaeology,  denoting 


a,  Tanged  bronze  spear-head.  10%  inches  in  length:  b, 
socketed  bronze  spear-head,  It)  inches;  c,  looped  bronze 
spear-head,  9  inches  in  length;  d,  Danish  battle-axe,  15 
inches. 


isl 


the  condition  or  state  of  culture  of  a  people  using 
bronze  as  the  material  for  cut¬ 
ting  implements  and  weapons. 

As  a  stage  of  culture,  it  comes 
in  between  the  use  of  stone  and 
the  use  of  iron  for  these  pur¬ 
poses. 

Bronze-wing,  and  Bronze 
Pigeon,  names  given  in  the 
Australian  colonies  to 
kinds  of  wild  pigeons, 
count  of  the  lustrous 
color  with  which  their  wings  are 
marked.  In  other  respects  also 
they  are  beautiful  birds. — The 
common  bronze-wing  or  bronze¬ 
winged  ground  dove  (Phops 
rlwleo  plern)  is  distributed  over 
all  the  Australian  colonies.  The 
brush  bronze-wing,  or  little 
bronze  pigeon  (P.  ebgans),  is 
found  chiefly  in  Tasmania  and 
the  southern  parts  of  Australia. 

The  harlequin  bronze-wing  (I‘. 
histrionica)  is  found  in  the  north¬ 
western  parts  of  New  South 
Wales  in  great  flocks,  feeding  on 
seeds. 

Bronzing.  An  imitation  of 
bronze  may  be  produced  on  the 
surface  of  other  alloys  and  metals 
by  corrosive  chemical  solutions, 
or  by  coating  them  with  varnish 
and  bronze  powder.  Bronzing 
is  largely  applied  to  brass-works 
of  various  kinds,  and  especially 
to  gas-fittings.  Iron  castings  are 
bronzed  by  covering  them  with  an  electro 
deposit  of  copper  in  the  form  of  a  thin  film 
or  layer,  which  can  then  be  darkened  by  any  of 
the  chemical  bronzing  solutions,  and  either  lac¬ 
quered  or  varnished.  Many  beautiful  statuettes 
in  zinc  are  also  bronzed  in  this  way.  A  brown 
color,  sometimes  called  a  bronzing,  is  given  to  the 
surface  of  gun  barrels  and  other  iron  and  steel 
objects  by  a  concentrating  solution  of  trichloride 
of  antimony  ( liquid  hatter  of  antimony),  having 
a  specific  gravity  of  1  35. 


Bronze  sword 
found  in  Edin¬ 
burgh,  20  inches 
in  length;  b,  Dan¬ 
ish  bronze  dag¬ 
ger,  13  inches  in 
length . 


BRONZITE. 


207 


BROTH. 


Bronzite,  silicate  of  magnesia  and  ferrous 
oxide,  a  rock-forming  mineral  belonging  to  the 
Pyroxene  group. 

Brooch  (to  pierce;  comp.  Eng.  to  broach;  Fr. 
brocher,  to  spit,  or  to  stitch;  Wei.  proc,  to  stab), 
an  ornamental  pin  or  instrument  for  fastening  the 
dress,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of  a  ring  or 


The  Tara  Brooch. 


disc,  or  of  a  semi-circle,  there  being  a  pin  in 
either  case  passing  across  it,  fastened  at  one  end 
with  a  joint  or  loop,  and  at  the  other  with  a  hook. 
The  oldest  known  brooches  are  those  found  in 
graves  assigned  to  the  early  iron  age  of  Southern 
Europe.  They  are  made  of  bronze,  and  consist 
of  a  bent  or  bow-shaped  body,  with  a  spring  pin 
coming  from  a  spiral  twist  at  one  end,  and  its 
point  fitting  into  a  loop  of  the  bow  at  the  other 
end,  like  the  modern  “safety”  pin. 

Brooke,  Henry,  dramatist  and  novelist,  born 
about  1703,  at  Rantavan,  County  Cavan,  Ireland. 
His  poem,  Universal  Beauty  (1735),  is  supposed 
to  have  supplied  the  foundation  for  Erasmus  Dar¬ 
win’s  Botanic  Garden.  In  1739  he  published  a 
play  called  Gustavus  Vasa,  and  later  several 
books.  He  died  Oct.  10,  1783. 

Brooke,  Sir  James,  Rajah  of  Sarawak,  in 
Borneo,  and  Governor  of  Labuan — a  man 
strongly  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  the  old  ad¬ 
venturers  of  the  Elizabethan  time,  born  April  29, 
1803.  He  entered  the  East  India  army  (1819), 
was  seriously  wounded  in  the  Burmese  war,  and 
returned  home  on  furlough  (1826).  He  was  cre¬ 
ated  a  K.C.B.  in  1848,  anil  later  appointed  Gov¬ 
ernor  and  Commander-in-Chief,  and  British  Com¬ 
missioner  and  Consul-General  in  Borneo.  Brooke 
died  June  11,  1868,  and  was  succeeded  at  Sara¬ 
wak  by  his  nephew.  See  Letters  of  Sir  James 
Brooke  (1853);  Jacob’s  Raja  of  Sarawak  (1876), 
St.  John’s  Life  of  Sir  James  Brooke  (1879). 

Brooke,  Stopford  Augustus,  writer  and 
preacher,  born  in  1832.  After  a  brilliant  course 
at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  he  was  incumbent  of 
St.  James  Chapel  from  1866  to  1875,  thereafter  of 
Bedford  Chapel,  Bloomsbury.  In  1872  he  was 
appointed  Chaplain-in-Ordinary  to  the  Queen.  In 
1880  he  seceded  from  the  Church  of  England, 
but  continued  to  preach  in  his  proprietary  chapel 
in  Bloomsbury. 

Brook  Farm,  a  community  on  Fourier’s  princi¬ 
ples,  eight  miles  southwest  of  Boston,  organized  in 
1840  by  George  Ripley,  and  largely  an  outcome 
of  the  Transcendental  movement  of  the  time. 
Hawthorne  was  one  of  the  founders,  and  lived 
for  some  moDths  on  the  farm.  See  his  Blithedale 
Romance. 

Brooklime,  (Veronica  Beccabunga),  a  species 
of  speedwell,  having  a  superficial  resemblance  to 
watercress,  which  it  also  slightly  resembles  in 
taste,  if  not  also  in  anti-scorbutic  properties. 

Brookl  iite,  a  suburban  town,  about  four  miles 
southwest  of  Boston,  witli  numerous  handsome 
villas  and  parks.  Pop.  (1885),  9,196. 


Brooklyn,  the  capital  of  King’s  county,  N.  Y., 
is  the  third  city  in  the  United  States,  having  a  pop. 
estimated  (1889)  at  800,000.  It  lies  opposite  New 
York  City,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
East  river.  Since  1883  the  two  cities  have  been 
connected  by  a  mag¬ 
nificent  suspension 
bridge,  the  largest 
in  the  world  [see 
bridge  ante], 

Brooklyn  has  an 
area  of  20  square 
miles.  It  is  often 
called  the  “  City  of 
Churches,”  as  it 
contains  a  great 
many  places  of  wor¬ 
ship,  the  chief  of 
which  is  Plymouth 
Church,  so  long  the 
scene  of  Beecher’s 
ministrations.  The 
Greenwood  Ceme¬ 
tery,  Prospect  Park, 
and  the  magnifi¬ 
cent  boulevard  sys¬ 
tem  are  among  the 
objects  of  interest 
in  Brooklyn.  The 
United  States  has  a 
navy  yard  and 
arsenal  here. 

Brooklyn  was 
first  settled  in  1636, 
but  did  not  become 
a  city  until  1851,  when  its  pop.  was  about 
100,000.  Its  growth  lias  been  phenomenal. 

Brooks,  James,  journalist  and  politician,  born 
in  Maine,  Nov.  10,  1810,  died  in  1873.  He  estab¬ 
lished  in  1836  the  New  York  Express,  and  from 
1847  to  1853  sat  in  Congress.  He  joined  the 
Democratic  party  in  1864,  and  from  that  time  to 
his  death  represented  a  New  York  District  in 
Congress. — Erastus  Brooks,  his  brother,  born 
1815,  was  associated  with  James  in  newspaper 
work,  sat  in  the  State  Senate,  and  was  an  unsuc¬ 
cessful  candidate  for  the  Governorship. 

Brooks,  James  Gordon,  born  in  1801,  died 
1841,  poet  and  journalist.  He  was  assisted  in  his 
literary  labors  by  his  wife,  Mary  Elizabeth 
(Aikin),  who  was  also  a  skilled  artist. 

Brooks,  Preston  S.,  born  in  South  Carolina  in 
1819,  died  in  1857,  achieved  an  unenviable 
notoriety  in  May,  1856,  by  a  cowardly  assault 
which  lie  made  upon  Charles  Sumner  in  the 
United  States  Senate  chamber. 

Brooks,  Charles  William  Shirley,  editor  of 
Punch,  born  in  London,  April  29,  1816.  In  1851 
lie  formed  a  connection  with  Punch  which  lasted 
during  his  lifetime.  He  wrote  its  “  Essence  of 
Parliament,”  and  on  Mark  Lemon’s  death,  in  1870, 
succeeded  him  as  editor.  He  died  in  Londou, 
Feb.  23,  1874. 

Broom,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of  species  of 
shrubs  of  the  closely-allied  genera  Cytisus, 
Genista,  and  Spartium,  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminoste,  sub-order  Papilionaceae — all  of  them 
having  long  slender  branches,  along  which  are 
produced  axillary  flowers.  Common  Broom, 
Cytisus  (Sarothamnus)  scoparius,  is  a  well-known 
native  of  Europe  and  Northern  Asia,  ranging  also 
as  far  as  the  Canaries  and  the  Azores.  The 
lower  leaves  have  three  oblong  leaflets,  the  upper 
ones  are  simple;  the  branches  are  angular  and  of 
a  very  dark  green,  very  tough,  and  much  in  use 
for  making  besoms,  as  also  in  Belgium,  etc.,  for 
baskets.  They  have  also  been  used  for  tanning 
and  dyeing,  and  their  fibre  has  been  woven  into 
a  coarse,  strong  cloth,  and  even  made  into  paper. 
In  South  Germany  it  is  sometimes  planted  on 
sandy  wastes  for  the  sake  of  its  fibers,  while  its 
a.dies  are  also  valuable  additions  to  the  soil  on 
account  of  their  high  percentage  of  potash.  Irish 
Broom  (Cytisus  or  Sarothamnus  patens),  not  in¬ 
frequent,  as  an  ornamental  plant  in  British  shrub¬ 
beries,  is  not  a  native  of  Ireland,  but  of  Spain 
i  and  Portugal.  Portugal  Broom  or  White  Broom 
(O.  a, thus),  is  a  native  of  the  countries  bordering 
I  on  the  Mediterranean.  Spanish  Broom  (Spartium 
ljunceum)  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe. 


Dyer’s  Broom  (Genista  tinctoria )  is,  with  other 
members  of  the  same  genus,  a  well-known  source 
of  yellow  coloring  matter.  This  European 
shrubby  plant  is  thoroughly  naturalized  in  some 
parts  of  North  America.  The  name  broom  is  not 


given  to  those  species  of  Cytisus  and  Genista 
which  do  not  display  in  a  marked  degree  the 


o,  flowering  branch. 

character  of  having  long  slender  twigs.  Butcher’s 
Broom  is  a  plant  of  an  entirely  different  family. 

Broom-corn,  (Soryhum  Volga  re)  a  plant  cul¬ 
tivated  in  North  America  for  the  manufacture 
of  brooms  and  whisks,  which  are  made  of  the 
tops  of  the  culms  and  the  branches  of  the  pan¬ 
icle. 

Brosses,  Charles  de,  historian,  was  born  at 
Dijon,  France,  in  1709,  and  died,  President  of  the 
Parliament  of  Burgundy,  May  7,  1777.  His  best 
known  works  are  Historiodes  Navigations  aux 
Torres  Australes  and  Histoire  de  la  Republicpie 
Romaine. 

Broth  is  an  infusion  or  decoction  of  vegetable 
and  animal  substances  in  water.  It  is  customary 
to  use  more  or  less  meat  with  bone  and  certain 
vegetables.  These  are  mixed  together  in  cold 
water,  heat  applied,  and  the  materials  allowed  to 
simmer  for  some  hours.  The  meats  yield  up 


Brooklyn  Suspension  Bridge. 


BROTHERHOODS. 


208 


BROWN. 


certain  ingredients,  whilst  others  are  retained  in 
the  residual  tiesli. 

Brotherhoods,  Religious,  were  societies  in¬ 
stituted  fur  pious  and  benevolent  purposes,  and 
were  numerous  in  the  middle  ages.  Where  the 
rules  of  monastic  life  appeared  too  narrow  and 
severe,  the  Romish  Church  favored  a  freer  form 
of  consecrated  life  without  vows  other  than  those 
of  devotion  to  good  works  or  penitential  exercises, 
but  in  many  other  respects,  as  in  living  together 
and  the  like,  resembling  the  spiritual  orders. 
Such  brotherhoods  were,  in  earlier  times,  those 
of  Mary,  of  the  Scapular,  and  of  the  Rosary;  in 
later  times,  that  of  the  Sacred  and  Immaculate 
Heart  of  Mary  for  the  conversion  of  sinners,  that 
of  Francis  Xavier  or  the  Mission  Brotherhood, 
and  that  of  Christian  Learning  ( Freres  ignoran- 
tius)  for  the  education  of  the  people.  In  modern 
times  certain  trade  and  labor  organizations  are 
also  known  as  Brotherhoods. 

Brothers,  a  name  given  to  three  isolated 
mountains  near  the  coast  of  New  South  Wales, 
between  Harrington  Inlet  and  Port  Macquarie. 
They  are  valuable  as  landmarks.- — The  name  is 
also  common  to  several  groups  of  small  islands. 

Brothers,  Lay,  an  inferior  class  of  monks,  not 
in  holy  orders,  but  bound  by  monastic  rules,  and 
employed  as  s  rvants  in  monasteries. 

Brothers,  Richard,  the  originator  of  the 
Anglo-Israelite  movement,  was  born  in  New¬ 
foundland  in  1757,  and  in  1772  entered  the 
British  navy,  which  he  quitted  with  a  lieutenant’s 
half-pay  in  1789.  In  1793  he  announced  himself 
as  the  apostle  of  a  new  religion,  “The Nephew 
of  the  Almighty,  and  Prince  of  the  Hebrews, 
appointed  to  lead  them  to  the  land  of  Canaan;” 
and  in  1794  published  a  book,  A  Revealed  Knowl¬ 
edge  if  the  Prophecies  and  Times.  He  was  con¬ 
fined  eleven  years  in  a  lunatic  asylum,  and  died 
in  1824. 

Brougham,  Henry,  Lord  Brougham  and 
Vaux,  born  Sept.  19,  1778,  and  received  his  edu¬ 
cation  at  the  High  School  and  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  In  1802  he  helped  to  found  the 
Edinburgh  Review,  to  whose  first  twenty  numbers 
he  contributed  eighty  articles.  In  1810  he  entered 
Parliament,  and  four  months  later  brought  in  and 
carried  his  first  public  measure — an  act,  making 
participation  in  the  slave-trade  felony.  In  1812 
lie  effected  the  repeal  of  the  obnoxious  Orders  in 
Council,  and  then  contested  the  membership  for 
Liverpool  against  Canning.  He  was  defeated, 
and  remained  without  a  seat  till  1816,  when  he 
was  returned  for  Winchelsea,  and  again  became 
an  active  member  of  the  opposition.  To  his 
activity  was  due,  in  great  measure,  the  establish¬ 
ment  of  the  London  University.  Later  he  was 
raised  to  the  Peerage  and  the  Chancellorship.  He 
took  his  seat  in  the  Lords  in  November,  1830.  As 
an  orator,  more  especially  as  a  debater  in  Parlia¬ 
ment,  Brougham  was,  among  the  men  of  his  time, 
inferior  only  to  Canning.  His  miscellaneous 
writings  fill  11  vols.  in  the  collected  edition 
(1855-61 ,  2d  ed.  1873).  Brougham  was  the  author 
of  the  criticism  in  the  Edinburgh  R  vow  on 
Byron's  Hours  of  Idleness,  which  called  forth  the 
poet’s  stinging  satire,  English  Bards  and  Scotch 
Heviewers.  He  died  May  7,  1 8" 8 .  Two  daughters 
had  long  pre  deceased  him,  and  the  title  passed 
to  his  brother  William  (1795-1886).  Brougham’s 
memoir  of  his  own  Life  and  Times  (3  vols.,  1871) 
was  written  in  extreme  old  age,  and  is  very  un¬ 
trustworthy. 

Brougham,  John,  born  in  Ireland  in  1810, 
began  his  dramatic  career  in  London  about  1830; 
came  to  America  in  1842,  and  for  many  years 
played  in  New  York,  where  he  owned  or  man¬ 
aged  several  theaters.  He  wrote  several  comedies 
and  adapted  portions  of  Dickens’  novels  to  the 
stage.  He  died  in  1880. 

Broughton,  Riioda,  a  popular  novelist,  was 
the  daughter  of  a  clergyman,  and  was  born  Nov. 
29,  1840.  One  of  her  first  novels,  and  perhaps 
her  best,  is  Not  Wisely,  but  Too  Well  (1867). 
Others  are  Cometh  Up  as  a  Flower  (1S67),  Red  as 
a  Rose  is  She  (1870),  Nancy  (1873),  Joan  (1876), 
Belinda  (1883),  and  Doctor  Cupid  (1886). 

Broussa,  Brusa,  or  Boursa,  the  ancient  Prusa, 
where  the  Kings  of  Bithynia  usually  resided,  sit¬ 
uated  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Olympus,  in  Asia  Minor,  thirteen  miles  south  of 
the  Sea  of  Marmora.  It  contains  about  200 


mosques,  four  Greek  and  Armenian  churches,  and 
several  synagogues.  The  old  citadel  stands  on  a 
rock  in  the  center  of  the  town.  Prusa  was  built 
by  Prusias,  King  of  Bithynia.  The  Sultan  Otli- 
man  besieged  it  in  1317,  and  in  1327  his  son  Ork- 
lian,  the  second  Emperor  of  Turkey,  captured  it, 
and  made  it  the  capital  of  his  Empire,  and  it 
continued  so  until  in  1453.  The  first  six  Sultans 
of  the  Ottoman  Empire  are  buried  here.  Pop., 
37,000,  of  whom  5,600  are  Greeks. 

Broussais  Francois  Joseph  Victor,  founder 
of  a  theory  of  medicine,  born  in  1772.  In  1830  he 
became  Professor  of  General  Pathology  in  the 
Academy  of  Medicine  in  Paris,  and  later  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Institute.  He  died  in  1838.  Ilis  pecu¬ 
liar  views  are  explained  in  his  chief  work — the  Ex- 
amen  de  la  Doctrine  Medicale  Generalement  Adoptee 
(1816). 

Brouwer  (sometimes  written  Brauwer), 
Adrian,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at  Oudenarde 
(now  in  Belgium)  in  1605  or  1606,  studied  at 
Haarlem  under  Franz  Hals.  His  favorite  subjects 
were  scenes  from  tavern  life,  country  merrymak¬ 
ings,  card-players,  smoking  and  drinking  groups, 
and  roisterers  geneially.  He  died  of  t lie  plague 
in  1638.  His  best  pictures  are  at  Munich,  St. 
Petersburg,  Madrid,  Dresden,  and  Vienna. 

Brown,  Mount,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  near 
the  source  of  the  Columbia  river,  and  on  the  bor¬ 
ders  of  British  Columbia  and  Alberta,  is  16,000 
feet  high. 

Brown,  Benjamin  Gratz,  born  in  Lexington, 
Ky.,  May  28,  1826,  became  a  newspaper  editor, 
and  member  (1852-58)  of  the  Legislature  of 
Missouri.  He  was  a  Republican  in  early  days,  and 
commanded  a  brigade  of  militia  in  the  Civil  War. 
From  1863  to  1867  he  was  United  States  Senator 
from  Missouri,  and  in  1870  was  elected  Governor 
of  the  State.  In  1872  he  received  the  Democratic 
and  Liberal  Republican  nominations  for  the  Vipe- 
Presidency,  with  Horace  Greeley  at  the  head  of 
the  ticket.  He  died  in  1885. 

Brown,  Charles  Biiockden,  an  American 
novelist,  born  at  Philadelphia,  Jan.  17,  1771.  He 
was  the  first  American  to  adopt  literature  as  a 
profession.  His  best  known  works  are  Wieland 
and  Ormund ,  or  the  Secret  Witness.  He  died 
Feb.  22,  1810.  ’ 

Brown,  Ford  Madox,  historical  painter,  grand¬ 
son  of  the  founder  of  the  Brunonian  system  of 
medicine,  was  born  at  Calais  in  1821.  Among 
the  most  important  works  in  his  fully  developed 
manner  are  “  Cornelia  and  Lear,”  “  t  hrist  Wash¬ 
ing  Peter’s  feet,”  “  Work.”  “  The  Last  of  Eng¬ 
land,”  “Romeo  and  Juliet,”  “The  Entomb¬ 
ment,”  “  Cromwell  Dictating  the  Vaudois  Des¬ 
patch  to  Milton,”  and,  in  landscape,  the  “Eng¬ 
lish  Summer  Afternoon.” — His  son,  Oliver 
Madox  Brown,  author  and  artist,  was  born  Jan. 
20,  1855.  “Margaret  of  Anjou  and  the  Robber,” 
“Chiron,”  and  “Exercise”  are  his  best  known 
pictures.  In  1871-72  he  wrote  his  first  novel, 
Gabriel  Denver,  afterward  republished  under  the 
title  of  The  Black  Swan.  He  died  Nov.  5,  1874. 

Brown,  Goold,  author  of  The  Grammar  of 
English  Grammars,  was  born  at  Providence, 
R.  I.,  March  7,  1791,  and  died  March  31,  1857. 

Brown,  Sir  George,  British  General,  was 
born  in  1790.  He  served  through  the  Peninsular 
campaign  (1808-13),  and  in  18i4  joining  Ross’ 
expedition  against  the  United  States,  was 
wounded  at  the  battle  of  Bladensburg,  and  was 
promoted  to  a  lieutenant-colonelcy.  In  the  Cri¬ 
mean  war  ( 1 854-55)  he  commanded  the  Light 
Division,  and  was  wounded  at  Inkermann.  In 
1860  he  became  commander-in-chief  in  Ireland, 
and  died  at  Linkwood,  Aug.  27,  1865. 

Brown,  GeorgeLoring,  American  artist,  born 
in  Boston,  Feb.  2,  1814,  spent  more  than  twenty 
years  in  the  art-centers  of  Europe,  and  returned 
to  America  in  1860.  Among  his  more  impor¬ 
tant  works  are  “The  Crown  of  New  England” 
(1861),  and  “  Niagara  by  Moonlight”  (1876). 

Brown,  Henry  Kirke,  sculptor,  born  at  Ley¬ 
den,  Mass.,  in  1814.  In  1846  he  executed  the  first 
bronze  statue  ever  cast  in  America.  His  notable 
works  include  statues  of  Lincoln  in  Brooklyn  and 
New  York,  an  equestrian  statue  of  General  Scott 
in  Washington,  and  a  colossal  equestrian  statue 
of  General  Washington  in  Union  Square,  New 
York.  He  died  July  10,  1886. 

Brown,  John,  of  Haddington,  author  of  the 


Self -interpreting  Bible,  was  born  in  1722  at  Carpow, 
near  Abernethy,  Perthshire,  Scotland.  He  was 
a  man  of  great  learning,  knowing  Latin,  Greek, 
Hebrew,  Arabic,  Syriac,  Persic,  and  Ethiopic, 
French,  Spanish,  Dutch,  German,  and  Italian. 
He  died  June  19,  1787.  Of  his  twenty-seven 
ponderous  works,  published  between  1758  and 
1804,  the  most  widely  known  are  the  Diction¬ 
ary  of  ihe  Bible  (1768)  and  the  Self-interpreting 
Bible  (2  vols.  1778). — John  Brown,  D.D.,  his 
grandson,  born  in  1784,  wasson  of  the  Rev.  John 
Brown  of  Whitburn  (1754-1832),  and  nephew  to 
the  Rev.  Ebenezer  Brown  of  Inverkeitliing.  His 
son,  Dr.  John  Brown,  the  essayist,  was  born  at 
Biggar,  Sept.  22,  1810.  He  died  May  11,  1882. 
Almost  all  Dr.  John  Brown’s  writings  are  com¬ 
prised  within  three  volumes — the  two  Horce  Sub- 
secim  (Leisure  Hours,  1858-61),  and  John  Leech 
and  Other  Papers  (1882). — Samuel  Brown,  M.D., 
chemist,  was  born  in  1817,  was  a  grandson  of  the 
“founder  of  the  Brunonian  dynasty,”  and  a  son 
of  Provost  Samuel  Brown,  of  Haddington  (1779— 
1839).  He  devoted  his  life  to  the  study  and 
leaching  of  the  atomic  theory  in  chemistry. 

Brown,  John,  M.D.,  founderof  the  Brunonian 
system  of  medicine,  born  in  1736.  In  1779  he 
took  the  degree  of  M.D.  at  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews,  and  in  1780  published  his  Elementa 
Medicinal.  He  died  in  1788. 

Brown,  John,  of  Ossawatomie,  was  born  in 
Torrington,  Conn.,  May  9,  1800,  went  to  Ohio 
with  his  family  and  engaged  in  the  wool  business, 
but  was  unsuccessful,  and  removed  to  New  York 
State,  where  Gerrit  Smith,  the  Abolitionist,  gave 
him  a  tract  of  land.  He  removed  again  to  Ohio, 
now  having  a  large  family,  and  several  of  his 
sons  went  thence  to  Kansas  in  1854.  They  were 
all  ardent  anti-slavery  men,  and  soon  became 
obnoxious  to  the  pro-slavery  Missourians.  Brown 
went  on  to  help  them,  anil  speedily  came  to  the 
front  as  a  leader  of  the  Free-State  party.  He 
raised  a  company  of  determined  men,  including 
most  of  his  own  family,  and  with  some  fifteen 
men  held  the  town  of  Ossawatomie  against  500 
Missourians,  a  feat  which  gave  him  a  national 
reputation.  It  was  the  Thermopylae  of  the  border 
war.  From  this  time  Brown,  who  had  lost  some 
of  his  sons  in  the  battles  which  followed,  devoted 
all  his  energies  to  combating  for  the  liberation  of 
the  negro  race.  He  formed  a  plan  to  free  the 
slaves  in  Virginia,  and  on  the  night  of  Sunday, 
Oct.  16,  1859,  surprised  the  United  States  arsenal 
at  Harper’s  Ferry,  being  then  at  the  head  of 
eighteen  men.  Some  slaves  were  set  free,  and  up 
to  noon  of  the  17th  Brown  held  the  town.  Militia 
from  the  neighborhood  invested  the  arsenal,  and 
fighting  continued  during  the  day,  several  being 
killed  and  wounded  on  both  sides.  On  the  morn¬ 
ing  of  the  18th  the  engine-house,  in  which  Brown 
had  sought  refuge,  was  captured  by  United  States 
Mt  irines  under  Col.  (afterward  General)  Robert 
E.  Lee.  Two  of  Brown's  sons  had  been  killed 
in  the  fight,  and  he  himself  several  times 
wounded.  Brown  and  his  three  surviving  com¬ 
panions  were  captured  and  indicted  forconspiring 
with  negroes  to  produce  insurrection,  for  treason 
against  the  Commonwealth  of  Virginia,  and  for 
murder.  During  his  imprisonment  and- trial  he 
behaved  with  dauntless  courage,  and  went  to  the 
scaffold  on  December  2d,  with  perfect  composure, 
and  the  step  of  a  conqueror.  Six  of  his  associates 
were  hanged.  See  his  life  by  Redpatli  (1860),  and 
by  Sanborn  (1885),  also  Whittier’s  poem  on  his 
execution. 

Brown,  Robert,  an  eminent  botanist,  the  son 
of  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  was  born  at  Mont¬ 
rose,  Scotland,  Dec  21,  1773.  While  a  student 
of  medicine  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  he 
evinced  a  strong  taste  for  botanical  studies.  In 
1801  he  was  engaged  as  naturalist  in  the  expedi¬ 
tion  sent  out  under  Captain  Flinders  for  the 
survey  of  the  Australian  coasts.  He  collected 
nearly  4,000  species  of  Australian  plants,  a  large 
proportion  of  which  were  new  to  science.  Soon 
after,  he  was  elected  an  associate  and  appointed 
Librarian  to  the  Linnean  Society.  Sir  Robert  Peel 
granted  him  a  pension  on  the  Civil  List  of  £200  a 
year.  He  was  President  of  the  Linnean  Society 
from  1849  to  1853.  Brown  died  in  London,  June 
10,  1858. 

Brown,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  metaphysician, 
born  in  1778,  died  in  1820.  At  the  age  of  twenty 


BROWN. 


209 


BRUCE. 


lie  had  published  a  refutation  of  Darwin's  Zodno- 
mia,  and  lie  contributed  at  the  outset  to  the  Edin¬ 
burgh  Reviiw.  In  1804  appeared  his  essay  on 
Cause  and  Effect. 

Brown,  Tom,  was  born  at  Shiffnal,  Shropshire, 
in  1003.  His  studies  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
were  probably  cut  short  by  his  irregularities,  but 
are  remembered  by  his  clever  extempore  transla¬ 
tion  and  application  to  Dr.  Fell,  the  dean  of  Christ 
Church,  of  Martial’s  epigram,  “  Non  amo  te, 
Sabidi:”  “  I  do  not  love  thee,  Dr.  Fell,  the  reason 
why  1  cannot  tell.”  He  wrote  satirical  pamphlets, 
led  a  disreputable  life,  and  died  June  10,  1704. 

Brown,  Sir  William,  founder  of  the  Liver¬ 
pool  Free  Library,  was  born  at  Ballymena,  County 
Antrim,  in  1784,  and  sailed  in  1800  with  his  par¬ 
ents  for  Baltimore,  Md.  Returning  in  1809,  he 
established  at  Liverpool  a  branch  of  his  father’s 
linen  business,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  one  of 
the  largest  mercantile  firms  in  the  world.  He  was 
chosen  a  member  of  Parliament  from  South  Lan¬ 
cashire  in  1846,  and  was  thrice  afterward  reelected. 
In  1857,  at  a  cost  to  himself  of  £40,000,  he  founded 
the  Free  Public  Library  of  Liverpool.  He  was 
made  a  baronet  in  1863,  and  died  March  3,  1864. 

Browne,  Charles  Farrar,  known  to  the 
English-speaking  world  as  “Artemus  Ward,” 
was  born  at  Waterford,  Maine,  April  26, 1834,  and 
died  in  England  March  6,  1867.  He  was  a  com¬ 
positor  and  reporter  on  a  Cleveland,  Ohio,  paper 
where  he  first  produced  his  inimitable  sketches. 
Unlike  most  of  his  imitators,  who  copied  his  bad 
spelling  without  his  humor,  he  was  a  fellow  of 
infinite  jest  and  a  master  of  pleasant  satire.  His 
greatest  success  was  as  a  lecturer,  in  which  capa¬ 
city  he  visited  Utah,  California,  and  England. 

Browne,  Edward  Harold,  divine,  was  born 
March  6,  1811.  He  became  Professor  of  Hebrew 
at  Lampeter  (1S41),  and  Norrisian  Professor  of 
Divinity  at  Cambridge  (1854);  was  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Ely  in  1864,  and  translated  to  Winches¬ 
ter  in  1873. 

Browne,  IIablot  Knight,  artist,  the  “Phiz” 
of  many  clever  and  humorous  book-illustrations, 
was  born  June  15,  1815.  In  1836  he  succeeded 
Seymour  and  R.  W,  Buss  as  illustrator  of 
Dickens’  Pickwick,  competing  successfully  against 
Thackeray  for  the  work;  and  he  soon  enjoyed  a 
reputation  which  was  continued  and  preserved  by 
his  designs  to  Nicholas  Nickhby,  Master  Humph¬ 
rey’s  Clock,  Marlin  Chuzzlewit,  Dombey,  David 
Copperfield,  Bleak  House,  Little  Dorrit,  and  A  Tale 
of  Two  Cities.  He  also  illustrated  many  of 
Lever’s  and  several  of  Ainsworth’s  novels.  He 
died  July  8,  1882.  His  son,  W.  Gordon  Browne, 
is  also  known  as  a  book-illustrator. 

Browne,  Robert,  founder  of  the  Brownists, 
was  born  about  1550.  In  1580  he  attacked  the 
order  and  discipline  of  the  Established  Church, 
and  soon  after  formed  a  distinct  church  on  con¬ 
gregational  principles  at  Norwich.  lie  died  in 
jail  in  1633. 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  author  of  the  Religio 
Medici,  was  born  in  London,  Oct.  19,  1605. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  graduating  B.A.  in 
1626  and  M.A.  in  1629.  He  studied  medicine, 
traveled  in  Ireland,  France,  and  Italy;  graduated 
as  Doctor  of  Medicine  at  Leyden  about  1633,  and 
at  Oxford  in  1637,  settling  the  same  year  at 
Norwich.  He  was  knighted  by  Charles  II.  on  his 
visit  to  Norwich  in  1671.  He  died  Oct.  19,  1682. 

Browne,  Ulysses  Maximilian,  Count,  born 
Oct.  23,  1705,  entered  the  Austrian  service  at  the 
age  or  twelve,  and  became  one  of  the  foremost 
field-marshals  in  the  army  of  Maria  Theresa, 
lie  was  mortally  wounded  at  the  battle  of 
Prague,  and  died  June  26,  1757. 

Browne,  William,  English  pastoral  poet,  was 
born  at  Tavistock  in  1591,  and  died  in  1643. 

Brownie,  a  kind  of  domestic  spirit  in  the 
folklore  of  Scotland,  represented  as  a  good-hu¬ 
mored,  drudging  goblin,  who  attached  himself  to 
farm-houses  and  other  dwellings  in  the  country, 
and  was  supposed  to  have  occupied  himself  over 
night,  while  the  family  were  in  bed,  in  doing  any 
kind  of  work,  as  churning,  thrashing  corn,  etc. 

Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett,  the  most 
distinguished  of  female  poets,  was  born  at  Carl¬ 
ton  Hall,  Durham,  England  March  6,  1806.  At 
fourteen  years  of  age  she  wrote  an  epic  on  The 
Battle  of  Marathon.  Her  Essay  on  Mind,  and 
Other  Poems,  was  published  when  she  was  nine¬ 


teen  years  of  age.  This  was  succeeded  by 
The  Seraphim,  and  Other  Poems  (1838),  in 
which  volume  was  republished  the  fine  poem 
on  Cowper’s  grave.  In  1844  appeared  Poems  by 
E.  Barrett,  which  contained,  amongst  other  stir¬ 
ring  lyrics,  The  Cry  of  the  Children,  a  noble  out¬ 
burst  over  the  wrongs  of  young  children  employed 
in  factories.  Iu  1847  she  was  married  to  Robert 
Browning.  Poems,  by  E.  B.  Browning,  appeared 
in  1850.  The  Brownings  settled  in  Florence, 
where  a  son,  Robert  Barrett,  was  born  to  them  in 
1849.  In  1851  Mrs.  Browning  wrote  her  poem 
entitled  Casa  Guidi  Windows.  Aurora  Leigh, 
published  in  1851,  the  authoress  described  as  the 
most  mature  of  her  works.  In  Poems  Before 
Congress,  which  appeared  in  1860,  Mrs.  Browning 
again  manifested  her  interest  in  public  affairs,  and 
especially  in  the  development  of  Italian  freedom. 
Mrs.  Browning  died  at  Florence  on  June  30,  1861. 
In  1862  the  Last  Poems  of  the  deceased  were  pub¬ 
lished  by  her  husband.  Mrs.  Browning’s  Greek 
Christian  Poets  and  the  English  Poets,  also  pub¬ 
lished  posthumously  by  Mr.  Browning,  appeared 
in  1863. 

Browning,  Robert,  the  most  subtle  and  intel¬ 
lectual  of  contemporary  English  poets,  was  born 
at  Camberwell,  May  7,  1812.  Pauline,  a  dra¬ 
matic  poem,  written  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  was 
published  in  1833.  Two  years  later  appeared 
liis  Paracelsus,  which  revealed  a  greater  force.  In 
1837  he  wrote  (for  Macready)  his  first  tragedy, 
Strafford.  Sorddlo  appeared  in  1840.  A  series  of 
plays,  tragedies,  and  dramatic  lyrics  was  issued 
under  the  collective  title  of  Bells  and  Pomegranates 
(1841-46).  The  plays  included  Pippa  Passes, 
King  Victor  and  King  Chailcs,  and  Colombe's 
Birthday;  and  the  tragedies  The  Rtturn  of  the 
Druses,  A  Blot  on  the  ’Scutcheon  (produced  at 
Drury  Lane),  Luria,  and  A  Soul’s  Tragedy. 
Amongst  the  lyrics  were  How  They  Brought  the 
Good  News  from  Ghent  to  Air,  Saul,  The  Lost 
Leader,  and  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin.  Men  and 
Women,  which  appeared  in  1855,  contained  some 
of  its  author’s  finest  work,  including  the  stirring 
poems  of  Fra  Lippo,  Childe  Roland,  Andrea  del 
Sarto,  Evelyn  Hope,  Holy  Cross  Day,  and  Up  at  a 
Villa.  Dramatis  Personee,  issued  in  1864,  again  at¬ 
tested  the  strength  of  Browning’s  dramatic  gifts  in 
monologue.  His  generally-accepted  masterpiece, 
The  Ring  and  the  Book,  was  published  in  1869. 
IIerve  Kiel,  a  poem  upon  a  French  sailor  hero, 
was  published  in  1871.  From  1S71  onward,  works 
by  Browning  appeared  in  rapid  succession.  The 
“Browning  Society”  was  established  in  1881  for 
the  purpose  of  promoting  the  study  and  influ¬ 
ence  of  the  poet’s  works,  and  the  example  of  Lon¬ 
don  has  been  followed  by  many  other  large  centers 
in  Great  Britain,  the  colonies,  and  the  United 
States.  Mr.  Browning’s  son,  R.  B.  Browning 
(born  1849),  is  a  promising  artist. 

Brown  Pigments,  those  substances  in  which 
the  three  primary  colors  unite  in  unequal  propor¬ 
tions,  red  being  in  excess.  Brown  pigments  are 
chiefly  mineral,  and  are  used  sometimes  in  a  raw, 
but  usually  in  a  burned,  state. 

Brown-Sequard,  Edouard,  physiologist  and 
physician,  born  in  Mauritius  in  1818,  his  father 
being  a  sea-captain  from  Philadelphia,  who  mar¬ 
ried  on  the  island  a  lady  called  Sdquard.  The 
son  studied  at  Paris,  and  graduated  M.D.  in  1846. 
In  1864  lie  became  Professor  of  Physiology  at 
Harvard,  but  in  1869  returned  to  Paris  as  Profes¬ 
sor  of  Pathology  in  the  School  of  Medicine.  In 
1873  he  became  a  medical  practitioner  in  New 
York,  treating  specially  diseases  of  the  nervous 
system;  and  in  1878  succeeding  Claude  Bernard 
as  Professor  of  Experimental  Medicine  at  the 
College  de  France. 

Brownlow,  William  G.,  born  in  Virginia  in 
1805.  He  became  a  Methodist  preacher,  and 
afterward  edited  various  newspapers  in  Tennessee. 
Was  Governor  of  that  State  in  1864,  and  in  1869 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  He  died 
in  1877. 

Brownson,  Orestes  Augustus,  born  at  Stock- 
bridge,  Vt,.,  in  1803.  In  turn  a  Presbyterian,  a 
Universalist,  and  next  a  Unitarian  pastor,  in  1844 
lie  found  rest  in  the  Roman  Catholic  communion. 
He  died  at  Detroit,  April  17,  1876. 

Broun  Spar,  a  name  often  given  by  mineral 
ogists  to  certain  varieties  of  dolomite,  or  magne¬ 
sian  limestone,  of  not  infrequent  occurrence,  dis¬ 


tinguished  by  a  brownish  or  reddish  color,  and 
a  pearly  luster,  on  account  of  which  they  are 
also  sometimes  called  pearl  spar. 

Brownsville,  a  port  of  entry  and  capital  of 
Cameron  county,  Tex.,  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  opposite  Matamoros,  about  thirty- 
five  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  May,  1846,  the  town  was  oc¬ 
cupied  and  fortified  by  a  few  United  States 
troops,  who  maintained  their  position  in  the  face 
of  a  heavy  bombardment  that  lasted  for  160  hours. 
Pop.  (1880),  4,038. 

Bruce,  the  surname  of  a  family  illustrious  in 
Scottish  history,  descended  from  Robert  de  Bruis, 
a  Norman  Knight,  who  accompanied  William 
the  Conquerer  to  England  in  1066.  The  first 
Robert  de  Bruis  received  extensive  lands  in 
Yorkshire.  His  son,  the  second  Robert,  was  a 
companion  in  arms  of  Prince  David  of  Scotland, 
afterward  David  I.,  from  whom  he  received  a 
grant  of  the  lordship  of  Aunandale. 

Robert  de  Bruce,  fifth  lord  of  Aunandale, 
son  of  the  fourth  lord,  and  the  competitor  with 
John  Baliol  for  the  crown  of  Scotland,  was  born 
in  1210.  In  1264  he  led,  with  Comyn  and  Baliol, 
the  Scottish  auxiliaries  to  the  assistance  of  the 
English  monarch  at  the  battle  of  Lewes,  where  he 
was  taken  prisoner.  He  died  in  1295. 

Robert  de  Bruce,  Earl  of  Garrick,  eldest  son 
of  the  preceding,  accompanied  King  Edward  I. 
of  England  to  Palestine  in  1269.  On  his  return 
to  Scotland,  he  married,  in  1271,  Marjory,  Count¬ 
ess  of  Garrick,  and  in  her  right  became  Earl  of 
Garrick.  In  1292  he  resigned  the  Earldom  of 
Garrick  to  his  eldest  son,  Robert,  the  future  King 
of  Scotland,  then  a  minor,  and  died  in  1304. 

Robert  Bruce,  the  most  heroic  of  the  Scottish 
Kings,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1274.  In  1296,  as  Earl  of  Carrick,  he  swore 
fealty  to  Edward  I.,  at  Berwick,  and  the  following 
year  renewed  his  oath  of  homage  at  Carlisle. 
Shortly  after,  he  abandoned  the  cause  of  Edward, 
and  with  his  Carrick  vassals  joined  the  Scottish 
revolt  under  Wallace.  In  1298,  the  year  of  the 
Scottish  defeat  at  Falkirk,  Bruce  again  rose 
against  Edward,  liis  lands  were  wasted  by  the 
English,  and  he  burned  the  town  of  Ayr. 
Though  Bruce  was  one  of  the  four  regents  of 
Scotland  in  1299,  he  did  not  again  fight  against 
Edward  till  the  final  rising  in  1306.  But  while 
publicly  an  adherent  of  the  English  King,  Bruce 
liad  entered  into  a  secret  alliance  with  Lamber- 
ton,  Bishop  of  St.  Andrews,  one  of  the  most 
patriotic  of  the  Scottish  clergy,  and  in  1306  mur¬ 
dered  John  Comyn.  Then  he  hastened  to  Loeli- 
maben  castle,  assembled  his  vassals,  and  asserted 
liis  right  to  the  throne.  Two  months  later,  he 
was  crowned  King  at  Scone.  An  English  army, 
under  the  Earl  of  Pembroke,  took  possession  of 
Perth,  and  surprised  Bruce  in  the  wood  of  Metli- 
ven,  compelling  him  to  retreat  into  the  wilds  of 
Atliole.  He  fled  to  Ireland,  and  in  his  absence, 
the  English  took  the  castle  of  Kildrummie, 
hanged  Nigel  Bruce  and  other  chiefs  who  had 
defended  it,  and  tore  the  Queen  and  Princess  Mar¬ 
jory  from  the  sanctuary  of  St.  Duthac,  at  Tain. 
All  Bruce’s  estates  were  confiscated,  and  himself 
and  adherents  excommunicated  by  the  Pope’s 
legate  at  Carlisle.  In  the  spring  of  1307  Bruce 
landed  in  Carrick,  and  at  midnight  surprised  the 
English  garrison  in  his  own  castle  of  Turnbcrry. 

The  death  of  King  Edward,  in  1307,  was  the 
turning  point  in  the  struggle  of  Bruce.  In  the 
following  years  the  English  were  cleared  out  of  the 
country  and  all  the  great  castles  recovered,  with 
the  exception  of  that  of  Stirling.  It,  too,  was 
closely  pressed  by  Edward  Bruce,  who  entered 
into  an  arrangement  with  the  governor,  Sir  Philip 
Mowbray,  by  which  the  latter  bound  himself  to 
surrender  it,  if  not  relieved  before  June  24th  fol 
lowing.  This  led  to  the  memorable  battle  of 
Bannockburn,  June  24, 1314.  The  English,  under 
Edward  II.,  amounting,  it  is  said,  to  about 
100,000  men  were  totally  routed  by  Bruce  with 
an  army  less  than  one-third  that  number.  The 
war  was  at  last  closed  by  the  treaty  of  North¬ 
ampton  (1328),  recognizing  the  independence  of 
Scotland  and  Bruce’s  right  to  the  throne.  He 
died  in  1329. 

Edward  Bruce,  King  of  Ireland,  brother  to 
the  above,  was  actively  engaged  in  the  struggle 
for  Scotland’s  independence;  and  in  1308  made 


14 


BRUCE. 


210 


BRUSHES. 


himself  master  of  Galloway.  In  1315,  the  chief¬ 
tains  of  Ulster  tendered  to  him  the  crown  of  Ire¬ 
land  on  condition  of  his  assisting  them  to  expel 
the  English  from  the  island.  With  an  army  of 
6,000  men  he  embarked  at  Ayr.  His  rapid  vic¬ 
tories  soon  made  him  master  of  the  Province  of 
Ulster,  and  he  was  crowned  King  of  Ireland  in 
1316,  but  was  slain  at  the  battle  of  Dundalk  in 
1318. 

Bruce,  James,  “the  Abyssinian,”  was  born  at 
Kinnaird  House,  Stirlingshire,  Scotland,  Dec.  14, 
1730.  In  1763  lie  was  appointed  Consul-General  at 
Algiers.  In  June,  1768,  he  went  to  Alexandria,  and 
from  Cairo  set  out  on  liis  famous  journey  to  Abys¬ 
sinia,  which  forms  an  epoch  in  t lie  annals  of  dis¬ 
covery.  Sailing  up  the  Nile  to  Syene,  he  crossed  the 
desert  to  Cosseir,  arid  arrived  at  Jeddah  in  April, 
1769,  and  later  at  Gondar,  the  capital  of  Abyssinia. 
In  the  same  year  he  reached  the  source  of  the 
Abawi,  then  considered  the  main  stream  of  the 
Nile.  He  remained  about  two  years  in  Abyssinia, 
and  returning  by  way  of  Seminar  and  the  desert  of 
Assouan,  after  great  hardship  reached  Alexandria, 
whence  he  embarked  (March,  1773)  for  Marseilles. 
His  Travels  to  Discover  the  Sources  of  the  Nile  in 
the  Tears  1768-73  were  published  in  1790,  in  live 
large  quarto  vols.,  with  plates  and  charts.  Bruce 
died  April  27,  1794. 

Brucea,  a  genus  of  Terebintliacese,  named  after 
the  famous  Abyssinian  traveler. 

Bruchsal,  a  town  of  Baden,  twelve  miles  north¬ 
east  of  Karlsruhe.  Pop.  (1885),  11,657. 

Brucin  is  one  of  the  alkaloids  present  in 
Strychnos,  Nux  Vomica,  and  St.  Ignatius’ bean, 
with  strychnine,  etc.  In  action  it  resembles 
strychnine,  but  it  is  only  about  one-twelftli  of  its 
strength,  and  on  this  account  is  seldom  employed. 

Brack,  (1)  a  walled  town,  dating  from  the  third 
century,  on  the  Lower  Austrian  bank  of  the 
Leitha,  twenty-six  miles  southeast  of  Vienna. 
Pop.  (1880),  4,236 — (2)  A  town  of  Upper  Styria, 
on  the  Mur,  108  miles  southwest  of  Vienna.  Pop. 
(1880),  3,795. — (3)  A  market  town  of  Bavaria, 
fifteen  miles  west  of  Munich.  Pop.  (1885),  3,418. 

Bruges  (Flem.  Brugge),  a  city  of  Belgium, 
capital  of  the  Province  of  West  Flanders,  is 
situated  in  a  fertile  plain  about  eight  miles  from 
the  sea.  Among  the  most  interesting  buildings 
are  Les  Halles  (1364)-  the  Gothic  liotel-de-ville 
(1377),  with  a  library  of  100,000  volumes;  the 
Church  of  Notre  Dame,  and  monuments  of 
Charles  the  Bold  and  his  daughter  Mary,  wife  of 
the  Emperor  Maximilian;  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Sauveur,  and  St.  John’s  Hospital,  with  Hans 
Memling’s  masterpieces  adorning  the  reliquary  of 
St.  Ursula’s  arm.  Pop.  (1886),  46,406. 

Brugscli,  Heinrich  Karl,  an  eminent  Egypt¬ 
ologist,  born  at  Berlin,  Feb.  18,  1827.  His  works 
are  of  great  value,  among  which  are  Geographische 
Inschriften  Altogyptischer  Denkmdter  (1857-60)  and 
Geschichte  Egyptens  Unter  den  Pharaonen  (1877). 

Briihl,  Heinrich,  Count  Von,  Prime-Minister 
of  Augustus  III.,  King  of  Poland  and  Elector  of 
Saxony,  born  in  1700  at  Weissenfels,  became 
Prime  Minister  of  Saxony;  and  died  in  1763. 

Bruise,  or  Contusion.  Flesh  is  said  to  be 
braised  when  the  smaller  blood  vessels  are 
mangled  so  that  the  blood  escapes  from  its  proper 
channels  into  the  cellular  tissue  of  the  true  skin. 
The  normal  color  and  condition  are  gradually 
restored  to  the  parts  through  the  agency  of  little 
vessels  known  as  absorbents.  Treatment  enters 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  effusion  of  blood 
into  the  cellular  tissue.  To  this  end  cold  water 
serves  admirably,  aided  by  the  elevation,  if  possi¬ 
ble,  of  the  injured  parts  above  the  level  of  the 
body.  If  the  bruised  flesh  be  situated  over  a 
bone,  the  effusion  of  blood  is  slow;  elsewhere  it 
is  slow  or  rapid,  as  the  injury  is  limited  or  exten¬ 
sive.  When  the  bruise  reaches  its  maximum 
density  of  color,  the  object  of  treatment  should 
be  to  hasten  the  absorption  of  the  clotted  blood; 
and  to  reduce  the  swelling.  Tincture  of  iodine 
will  assist  absorption,  and  puncturing  the  large 
dark-brown  blisters  may  permit  the  blood  to 
escape  externally. 

Brumaire  (Fr.  foggy  month),  a  division  of 
the  year  in  the  Republican  calendar  of  France.  It 
includes  the  time  from  October  22d  to  November 
20th.  The  celebrated  18th  Brumaire,  which  wit¬ 
nessed  the  overthrow  of  the  Directory  and  the 
establishment  of  the  sway  of  Napoleon,  corre- 1 


sponds  with  Nov.  9,  1799,  of  the  Gregorian 
calendar. 

Brununell,  George  Bryan,  better  known  as 
“  Beau  Brummell,”  born  in  London,  June  7,  1778, 
the  son  of  Lord  North’s  private  secretary.  He 
was  distinguished  for  the  exquisiteness  of  his  dress 
and  manners;  and  after  four  years  in  the  army, 
liavingcome  into  a  fortune  of  $150,000,  he  entered 
society  as  arbiter  of  elegancies.  He  died  March 
30,  1840. 

Brunai,  an  independent  Mohammedan  terri¬ 
tory  in  the  northwest  of  Borneo,  whose  Sultan 
was  formerly  overlord  of  the  whole  island.  Area, 
about  18,000  squ  .re  miles;  pop.  estimated  at  from 
125,000  to  225,000.  The  capital,  Brunai,  is  built 
on  piles,  and  has  30,000  to  35,000  inhabitants. 

Brune,  Guillaume  Marie  Anne,  a  French 
marshal  of  the  First  Empire,  born  March  13, 
1763.  In  1792  he  entered  the  army,  fought  in  the 
Vendean  war  and  in  Italy  under  Massena,  and 
after  Rivoli,  was  made  General  of  Division.  Sent 
by  the  Directory  to  Switzerland  in  1798,  he  exe¬ 
cuted  his  orders  with  brilliant  success.  In  1799 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Army  of 
Holland.  He  defeated  the  Duke  of  York  at 
Bergen,  September  19th,  and  forced  him  to  capit¬ 
ulate  at  Alkmaar.  In  1803  he  was  embassador  to 
Turkey;  next  he  obtained  the  dignity  of  Marshal. 
In  1807  he  became  Governor-General  of  the  Han¬ 
seatic  towns.  After  the  return  from  Elba  he 
joined  the  Emperor,  and  was  made  a  peer.  On 
Aug.  2,  1815,  he  was  murdered  by  an  infuriated 
royalist  mob  at  Avingnon. 

Brunei',  Isambard  Kingdom,  engineer,  only 
son  of  the  following,  was  born  at  Portsmouth,  Eng¬ 
land,  April  9, 1806.  He  aided  in  the  construction  of 
the  Thames  Tunnel,  and  in  1829-31,  planned  the 
Clifton  Suspension  Bridge,  lie  designed  the 
Great  Western  (1838),  the  first  steamship  built  10 
cross  the  Atlantic,  and  the  Great  Britain  (1845), 
the  first  ocean  screw -steamer.  The  Great  Eastern 
the  largest  vessel  ever  built  in  the  world,  was 
constructed  under  his  direction  in  1853-58.  In 
1833  he  was  appointed  engineer  to  the  Great 
Western  Railway,  made  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1830,  chosen  on  the  Council  of  the 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  in  1845,  and  its 
Vice-President  from  1850.  He  died  Sept.  15, 
1859.  See  his  Life  by  his  son  (1870). 

Brunei',  Sir  Mark  Isambard,  engineer,  was 
born  April  25,  1769.  His  most  remarkable  under¬ 
taking  was  the  Thames  Tunnel,  which,  com¬ 
menced  in  March,  1825,  was  opened  in  March, 
1843.  He  was  knighted  in  1841;  and  died  Dec. 
12,  1849. 

Brunelleschi,  Filippo,  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Florence  in  1377.  He  designed  the  dome 
for  the  Cathedral  of  Santa  Maria  del  Fiore,  founded 
in  1296,  but  died  (in  1446)  before  its  completion. 

Brunliilila,  (1)  in  the  Nibelungcnlied,  the  young 
Queen  of  Iceland,  wife  of  Gunther,  the  Burgun¬ 
dian  King.  She  hated  Kriemhild  and  her  hus¬ 
band,  Siegfried,  who  had  once  been  her  own  lover; 
and  caused  his  murder  by  the  hands  of  Hagan. 
(2)  The  daughter  of  the  Visigothic  King  Atliana- 
gild,  married  King  Sigbert  of  Austrasia  in  567,  and 
afterward  as  Regent  for  her  two  grandsons,  The- 
odebert  II.,  King  of  Austrasia,  and  Tlieodoric  II. , 
King  of  Burgundy,  divided  the  government  of 
the  Frankish  world  with  her  rival  Fredegond, 
who  governed  Neustria  for  the  youthful  Clotaire 
II.  She  was  overthrown  in  613  by  a  combination 
of  the  Austrasian  nobles  under  the  nominal  leader¬ 
ship  of  Clotaire  II.,  and  put  to  death. 

Bruni,  Leonardo,  a  native  of  Arezzo,  and 
hence  styled  Aretino,  was  born  in  1369.  In  1405 
he  became  Papal  Secretary.  His  Ilistoria  Flor- 
entina  procured  for  him  the  rights  of  citizenship, 
and  at  a  later  period  he  was  appointed  State  Secre¬ 
tary.  He  died  March  9,  1444. 

Brnui  Island  (North  and  South)  lies  off  the 
south  part  of  the  east  coast  of  Tasmania,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  D’Entrecasteaux  Channel. 
It  has  a  length  of  32  miles,  a  varying  breadth  of 
1  to  11  miles,  and  an  area  of  160  square  miles. 

Bri’nn,  a  city  of  the  Austrian  Empire,  the 
capital  of  Moravia,  ninety-three  miles  north  of  Vi¬ 
enna.  Near  the  city  is  the  castle  of  Spielberg, 
formerly  the  citadel,  and  notorious  as  the  State 
prison  where  Silvio  Pellico  was  confined  from 
1 1822  to  1830.  Briinu  is  one  of  the  most  important 


manufacturing  towns  in  the  Austrian  dominions. 
Pop  82,660,  40  percent,  of  whom  are  Czechs. 

Brunnow,  Philipp,  Count  von,  a  Russian 
diplomatist,  born  at  Dresden  in  1797,  and  entered 
the  Russian  service  in  1818.  He  was  in  the  cam¬ 
paigns  of  1828  and  1829  against  the  Turks,  and 
in  1839  was  sent  on  a  special  mission  to  London. 
Retiring  from  London  on  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  in  1854,  he  represented  Russia  in  Frankfort, 
and  along  with  Count  Orloff,  was  sent  to  the  Con¬ 
ference  of  Paris  in  1856.  He  was  raised  to  the 
rank  of  Count  in  1871.  He  died  April  12,  1875. 

Bruno,  Giordano,  born  at  No  a,  in  the  King¬ 
dom  of  Naples,  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century.  He  entered  at  an  early  age  the  Order  of 
the  Dominicans,  but  soon  began  to  express  his 
doubts  in  regard  to  the  doctrines  of  Transub- 
stautiation  and  of  the  Immaculate  Conception,  in 
consequence  of  which  he  was  obliged  to  fiee  from 
his  convent.  He  fixed  his  residence  at  Padua; 
but  venturing  to  settle  in  Venice,  he  was  arrested 
by  the  officers  of  the  Inquisition,  and  conveyed 
to  Rome  in  1593.  He  was  subjected  to  a  long  im¬ 
prisonment  and  persecution,  and  was  burned  at 
the  stake  Feb.  17,  1600,  as  an  obstinate  heretic. 
His  writings  include  the  Gena  delle  Ceneri,  the 
Spaccio  delta  Bestia  Trionfante,  the  Della  Causa 
Principio  ed  Uno,  and  the  Del  Difinilo  Universo  e 
Mondi, 

Bruno,  St.,  the  founder  of  the  Carthusian 
order,  was  born  at  Cologne  about  1040,  and  sub¬ 
sequently  became  Rector  of  the  Cathedral  School 
at  Rheims.  In  1086,  with  six  friends,  he  founded 
the  order  of  the  Carthusians,  one  of  the  most  aus¬ 
tere  of  all  the  monkish  orders  ;  he  died  in  1101. 
He  was  canonized  in  1628;  his  festival  is  on  Octo¬ 
ber  6tli. 

Bruno  the  Great,  born  about  925,  the  third 
son  of  Henry  the  Fowler.  He  became  Archbishop 
of  Cologne  and  Chancellor  of  the  Empire  under 
his  brother  Otto  I.,  and  afterward  Duke  of  Lor¬ 
raine.  He  died  at  Rheims,  Oct.  11,  965. 

Brunswick,  Duchy  of  (Ger.  Biaunschwciy),  a 
State  of  Northern  Germany,  consisting  of  three 
larger  and  five  smaller  distinct  parts.  Total  area, 
1,423  square  miles.  Pop. (1885),  372,388.  Of  the 
three  larger  parts,  the  principal  one,  forming  the 
circle  of  Wolfenblittel,  and  including  the  capital, 
lies  between  Prussian  Saxony  and  Hanover;  the 
second, extending  westward  from  Prussian  Saxony 
to  the  Weser,  divides  Hanover  into  two  parts; 
and  the  third,  the  Blankenburg  district,  lies  to 
the  southeast,  between  Hanover,  Anhalt,  and 
Prussian  Saxony.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly 
Saxons,  and  with  the  exceptions  of  about  3,000 
Reformed,  10,000  Roman  Catholics,  and  1,400 
Jews,  all  adhere  to  the  Lutheran  Church.  The 
people  in  the  rural  districts  speak  a  very  broad 
Low-German  dialect;  but  High-German  is  spoken 
by  the  educated  classes.  The  Government  is  a 
limited  monarchy,  the  Duke’s  power  being 
restricted  by  the  Legislature. 

Brunswick,  the  capital,  stands  on  the  Oker,  in 
a  level  and  fertile  district,  143  miles  west-south¬ 
west  of  Berlin.  The  cathedral  (1173-1469),  and 
the  churches  of  St.  Martin,  St.  Catharine,  and  St. 
Andrew  with  its  steeple  341  feet  high,  are  among 
the  principal  buildings.  Pop.  (1885),  85,174. 

Brunswick,  (1)  a  port  of  entry  and  capital  of 
Glynn  county,  Ga.  Pop. (1880), 2, 891. — (2)  A  town 
of  Cumberland  county,  Maine,  twenty-nine  miles 
northeast  of  Portland.  It  is  the  seat  of  Bowdoin 
College  (1794),  at  which  Nathaniel  Hawthorne 
and  Longfellow  graduated.  Pop.  of  township 
(1880),  5,384. 

Brunswick  Black  is  a  varnish  employed  for 
coating  over  coarsely-finished  iron  grates,  fend¬ 
ers,  etc.,  and  is  prepared  by  melting  together 
asphalt,  linseed  oil,  and  oil  of  turpentine. 

Brunswick  Green  is  a  pigment  used  in  the 
arts,  the  composition  of  which  is  variable.  The 
native  varieties  sometimes  consist  of  carbonates 
of  copper,  but  the  artificial  compounds  fre¬ 
quently  contain  arsenite  of  copper,  Prussian 
blue,  indigo,  or  chrome  yellow. 

Brushes.  The  materials  used  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  brushes  are:  Hog’s  bristles,  horse  hair, 
strips  of  whalebone,  and  to  a  smaller  extent 
goat’s  hair,  badger’s  hair,  fitch  (polecat),  sable, 
and  camel’s  hair.  Certain  vegetable  fibers  as 
well  as  steel  and  brass  wire  are  used  for  brushes 
for  special  purposes.  A  liair-brush  may  be  taken 


BRUSSELS. 


211 


BUCHANAN. 


Hand-made  “drawn” 
brush. 

and  otherwise  fixed. 


as  an  example  of  how  “drawn”  brushes  are 
made.  With  the  assistance  of  a  perforated  lead 
or  wood  gauge  the  stock  is 
drilled  with  holes  for  the 
tufts.  These  are  formed 
by  doubling  the  bristles, 
and  are  then  drawn  into “jg 
their  place  by  thin  brass 
wire,  which  loops  in  tuft 
after  tuft,  and  is  continu¬ 
ous  all  through  the  filling 
of  a  single  brush.  A  back 
which  conceals  this  wire 
looping  is  then  glued  on 
A  hair-brush  has  the  points  of  the  bristles  of  un¬ 
equal  length  in  order  to  penetrate  the  hair.  The 
brushes  used  by 
artists  are  for 
large  sizes  made 
of  hog’s  hair,  and 
for  small  sizes  of 
sable  and  camel 
hair.  A  sable- 
hair  pencil  is  the 
most  costly  brush 
for  its  size  that 
is  made.  There  are  several  kinds  of  mechanism  in 
use  for  making  brushes.  The  Woodbury  machine, 
which  has  been  extensively  used  in  America,  is  the 
best  known.  Its  chief  parts  are  a  comb  with 


the  two  plungers  concerned  in  preparing  and 
inserting  the  tuft. 

Brussels  (Fr.  Bruxelles),  the  capital  of  Belgium, 
is  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the  Senne,  twenty- 
seven  miles  south  of  Antwerp,  and  193  northeast 
of  Paris.  The  city  has  a  circumference  of  about 
five  miles,  and  is  built  partly  on  t lie  side  of  a  hill. 
Though  some  of  the  streets  are  so  steep  that  they 
can  be  ascended  only  by  means  of  stairs,  Brussels 
may  be  pronounced  one  of  the  finest  cities  in 
Europe.  The  Upper  Town  is  the  newest  and 
most  fashionable  quarter,  and  is  the  residence 
chiefly  of  the  wealthy.  The  King’s  palace,  public 
offices,  chief  hotels,  and  mansions  of  foreign 
ministers  are  here.  It  is  also  much  more  healthy 
than  the  Lower  Town,  which  is  greatly  subject  to 
fogs.  Among  the  churches  the  largest  and  finest 
is  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Gudule,  which  dates  from 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  is  built  in  the  pointed 
Gothic  style,  with  many  richly-painted  windows, 
and  a  pulpit  considered  the  masterpiece  of  Ver¬ 
bruggen.  In  the  Palais  de  Beaux  Arts  is  the 
picture-gallery,  containing  the  finest  specimens  of 
the  Flemish  school  of  painting;  a  valuable 
museum;  and  the  public  library,  with  234,000 
volumes  and  22,000  MSS. ,  many  of  the  latter  being 
beautifully  illuminated.  The  new  Palais  de  Jus¬ 
tice,  built  in  1866-83,  from  designs  by  Poelaert,  at 
a  cost  of  more  than  $10,000,000,  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  buildings  in  Europe.  Pop.  (1885), 
171,751;  with  suburbs,  450,000. 

Brussels  Sprouts,  a  sub-variety  of  Brassica 
oleracea  (B.  0.  bullata  gemmifera),  so  named  on 
account  of  its  peculiar  habit,  producing  a  bud¬ 
like  cluster  of  leaveson  the  axil  of  each  leaf  from 
the  base  to  the  top  of  the  stem.  These  buds  or 
sprouts  are  the  parts  of  the  plant  that  are  eaten, 
and  are  highly  esteemed  for  their  delicate  flavor 
and  wholesome  quality. 

Brut,  or  Brutus,  the  Trojan  hero  who  gave 
his  name  to  the  Island  of  Britain.  The  great- 
grandson  of  vEnea.s,  he  was  banished  from  Italy, 
and,  after  many  adventures,  found  his  way  to  Al¬ 
bion,  then  the  abode  of  giants,  who  were  not 
destroyed  without  desperate  fighting. 

Brutus,  Lucius  Junius,  in  the  legendary  his¬ 
tory  of  early  Rome,  the  hero  who  overturned  the 
monarchical  and  established  the  republican  form  of 
government.  The  son  of  a  rich  Roman,  on  whose 
death  Tarquin  the  Proud  seized  his  property  and 


put  his  elder  brother  to  death,  he  himself  only 
escaped  the  same  fate  by  feigning  idiocy,  whence 
the  name  Brutus  (stupid).  When  the  popular  in¬ 
dignation  was  roused  at  the  brutal  outrage  upon 
Lucretia,  lie  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
people,  and  drove  the  royal  family  fromRome.  He 
was  then  elected  one  of  the  two  first  Consuls,  (509 
u.c.)  With  stern  justice  he  sentenced  to  death 
his  own  two  sons,  detected  in  a  conspiracy  to  re¬ 
store  the  monarchy;  and  at  last  fell  repelling  an 
attack  led  by  one  of  the  sons  of  Tarquin. 

Brutus,  Marcus  Junius,  born  85  dc.,  spent 
the  early  years  of  manhood  in  exclusive  devotion 
to  literary  pursuits.  When  the  civil  war  broke 
out  between  Pompey  and  Caesar,  lie  sided  with 
the  former,  but  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia made 
his  submission  to  (lie  latter,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  appointed  Governor  of  Cisalpine  Gaul. 
The  influence  of  Cassius  prevailed  upon  him  to 
join  the  conspiracy  which  ended  in  the  murder  of 
Caesar.  The  efforts  of  Brutus  to  retain  popular 
favor  being  unavailing,  he  was  forced  to  leave 
first  Rome,  and  then  Italy.  The  remainder  of  his 
life  was  spent  in  Athens,  and  in  Asia  Minor,  partly 
as  the  leader  of  a  marauding  force,  which  main¬ 
tained  itself  by  plundering  the  inhabitants  of  the 
eastern  shores  of  the  Adriatic.  Defeated  by  An¬ 
tony  and  Octavian  (Augustus)  at  Philippi  (42  u.c.), 
he  put  an  end  to  his  life  by  falling  upon  his 
sword. 

Bryant,  William  Cullen,  born  Nov.  3, 1794, 
and  died  June  12, 1878.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
three  he  published  Thnnatopsis.  He  became  edi¬ 
tor  of  the  New  York  Evening  Post,  and  for  many 
years  was  accounted  the  foremost  of  American 
journalists,  at  least  so  far  as  literary  ability  was 
concerned.  He  wrote  many  poems,  all  of  which 
are  generally  considered  inferior  to  liis  first  pro¬ 
duction,  and  was  an  ardent  anti-slavery  agitator. 

BrydgeS,'  Sir  Samuel  Egerton,  a  learned 
antiquary,  was  born  at  Wootton  House,  Kent, 
England,  in  1762,  and  died  in  1837. 

Bryennios,  PiiilotheoB,  Metropolitan  of  Nico- 
media,  born  at  Constantinople  in  1833,  studied  at 
the  theological  school  in  Chalce,  and,  after  being 
ordained  deacon,  attended  lectures  at  Leipzig, 
Berlin,  and  Munich  (1856-61).  He  was  for  some 
years  a  teacher  at  Chalce,  and  presided  over  the 
great  Greek  school  in  Constantinople  from  1867 
to  1874. 

Bryony,  an  English  weed,  sometimes  used  in 
medicine. 


Common  Bryony  ( Bryonia \  dioica). 
a,  flowering,  and  b ,  fruiting  branch. 


Bryopliyllum  (Gr.  bryon, blossom,  and p/iyllon, 
leaf),  a  genus  of  Crassulacese.  B.  calycinum,  a 
succulent  shrubby  plant  of  flowers,  is  not  in¬ 
frequent  in  hothouses,  being  regarded  as  an  object 
of  interest  on  account  of  its  producing  buds. 

Bryum  (Gr.  bryon,  moss),  a  large  genus  of 
common  mosses.  They  are  all  small,  and  gen¬ 
erally  grow  in  dense  patches  of  a  beautiful  bright 
green. 

Buache,  Philippe,  a  French  geographer,  born 
1700,  became  in  1729  Royal  Geographer,  in  1730  a 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences;  died  in  1773. 


He  published  both  atlases  and  geographical  works. 
— His  nephew,  Jean  Nicolas  Buache  (1741-1821), 
was  also  a  celebrated  geographer. 

Bubalis,  a  genus  in  the  Antelope  division  of 
Ruminants.  The  species  of  Bubalis  are  among 
the  more  ox-like  antelopes,  and  one  of  them  is 
supposed  to  be  the  Bubalis  of  the  ancients.  In 
this  genus  the  head  is  elongated,  the  snout  broad. 


the  horns  twisted  and  present  in  both  sexes,  the 
tear-pits  small,  the  back  sloping  off  behind,  the 
teats  two  in  number.  The  Hartebeest  (B.  caamn) 
is  found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  has  a  general 
gray-brown  color  (black  on  the  outside  of  the 
legs  and  on  middle  of  forehead,  with  large  white 
spots  on  haunches),  and  is  at  home  on  the  mount¬ 
ains. 

Bubastis,  (the  Pi  beieth  of  Ezek.  xxx,  17;  now 
Tel  Basi),  a  ruined  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the 
Eastern  main  arm  of  the  Nile,  near  Zagazig, 
named  from  the  lion-lieaded  and  cat-lieadetl 
goddess  Bast,  who  was  worshipped  here  with 
peculiar  reverence.  She  was  daughter  of  Ra,  and 
bride  of  Ptali,  and  symbolized  sexual  passion. 

Bubo,  an  inflammatory  swelling  of  the  glands 
in  the  groin;  used  occasionally  also  of  the  armpit. 

Buc  cancers  (through  the  Fr.  verb  boucaner, 
and  noun  boucanicr,  from  the  Caribbean  boucan, 
smoke  dried  meat),  a  name  given  to  the  celebrated 
associations  of  piratical  adventurers,  who,  from 
the  commencement  of  the  second  quarter  of  the 
sixteenth  century  to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth, 
maintained  themselves  in  the  Caribbean  seas,  at 
first  by  systematic  reprisals  on  the  Spaniards, 
latterly  by  less  justifiable  and  indiscriminate 
piracy.  Henry  Morgan,  afterward  Governor  of 
Jamaica,  was  preeminent  among  them. 

Buccinator  (Lat.  from  buccinare,  to  sound  a 
trumpet),  the  name  of  a  flat  muscle  in  the  cheeks, 
so  called  because,  when  the  cheeks  are  distended 
with  air,  the  contraction  of  the  buccinator  mus¬ 
cles  forces  it  out. 

Bucen'taur  (Ital.  bncentoro),  the  name  of  the 
state-galley  in  which  the  former  Doges  of  Venice 
used  to  sail  out  every  year  on  Ascension-day,  in 
order,  by  sinking  a  ring  into  the  sea,  to  wed  it  in 
token  of  perpetual  sovereignty. 

Bucepli 'alus  (Gr.  ox-liead),  the  name  of  the 
favorite  charger  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was 
probably  also  the  name  of  a  peculiar  breed  of 
horses  in  Thessaly. — The  town  Bucepiialia,  on 
the  River  Hydaspes  (Jhelum),  in  India,  was 
founded  near  the  grave  of  Bucephalus,  who  died 
dining  Alexander’s  Indian  expedition. 

Buchanan,  James,  was  born  in  Pennsylvania, 
April  23,  1791,  of  Irish  parents.  He  became  a 
lawyer,  served  in  the  State  Legislature,  and  in 
1820  was  elected  to  Congress,  to  which  he  was 
five  times  reelected.  In  1832  he  went  to  Russia 
to  negotiate  a  commercial  treaty,  and  the  follow¬ 
ing  year  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
in  which  he  sat  till  1845.  He  was  Secretary  of 
State  under  Polk,  and  Minister  to  England  from 
1853  to  1856.  In  the  latter  year  he  was  elected 
President  on  the  Democratic  ticket,  defeating 
John  C.  Fremont.  His  administration  was  char¬ 
acterized  by  indecision  and  uncertainty.  He 
sympathized  with  the  slave-owners,  and  refused 
to  reinforce  Fort  Sumter.  Probably  no  man 
more  than  Buchanan  helped  the  Southern  States 
on  the  path  to  secession.  He  left  the  forts,  navy- 
yards,  and  arsenals  unprotected,  and  permitted 
Southern  sympathizers,  like  Cobb  and  Floyd,  to  so 


BUCHANAN. 


212 


BUCOLIC. 


place  troops  and  arms  that  the  Confederacy 
could  capture  them  at  their  leisure.  A  weaker 
man  never  occupied  the  Presidential  Chair. 
Buchanan  died  June  1,  1868. 

Buchanan,  Robert,  a  versatile  writer  in 
verse  and  prose,  born  in  Warwickshire,  Aug. 
18,  1841.  Buchanan’s  first  work,  Undertones,  a 
volume  of  verse,  published  in  1863,  was  well  re¬ 
ceived.  The  Idylls  and  Legends  of  Inverburn 
followed  in  1865,  and  next  year  London  Poems. 
Later  volumes  of  verse  are  a  translation  of  Danish 
ballads  and  Wayside  Posies  (1866),  North  Coast 
Poems  (1867);  Napoleon  Fallen  (1871);  The  Drama 
of  Kings  (1871);  Ballads  of  Love,  Life,  and  Ilumor 
(1882);  anti  The  City  of  Dream  (1888).  Buchanan 
has  written  several  plays,  borrowing  his  subjects 
from  novels  such  as  “  Tom  Jones.” 

Bucharest  ( Bucuresti ),  the  capital  of  the 
former  principality  of  Wallachia  and  of  the  pres¬ 
ent  Kingdom  of  Roumania.  Bucharest  is  the 
entrepot  for  the  trade  between  Austria  and  the 
Balkan  Peninsula.  It  has  been  several  times 
besieged;  and  between  1793  and  1812  suffered 
twice  from  earthquakes,  twice  from  inundations, 
once  from  fire,  and  twice  from  pestilence.  Pop., 
221,805. 

Buchez,  Pmi.ipPE  Benjamin  Joseph,  a  French 
physician  and  publicist,  was  born  March  31,  1796, 
and  died  in  1865. 

B licit uer,  Ludwig,  physician  and  materialist 
philosopher,  was  born  at  Darmstadt,  March  29, 
1824.  lie  became  a  lecturer  at  Tubingen  Uni¬ 
versity,  and  in  1855  published  Kraft  und  Staff 
(14th  ed.  1876;  Eng.  trans.  Force  and  Matter, 
1870).  His  brother,  George  (1830-37),  made  a 
name  for  himself  as  a  poet;  and  his  sister,  Luise, 
(1823-77),  was  a  poetess  and  novelist. 

Buck,  a  name  distinctively  appropriated  to  the 
adult  male  of  the  Deer,  the  female  of  which  is  a 
Doe. 

Buck-bean,  or  Marsh  Trefoil  ( Menyantlies 
trifoliata ),  a  species  of  Gentianaceae,  widely  dis¬ 
tributed  in  all  the  colder  parts  of  the  northern 


Buck-bean  (Menyanthes  trifoliata) : 


a,  fruit;  b,  a  flower. 

hemisphere.  It  is  easily  recognized  by  its  tre- 
foiled  leaves,  and  its  small  white  or  pink  shaggy 
flowers. 

Buck-eye,  a  chestnut,  more  especially  applied 
to  sE.  Glabra  and  its  varieties.  Pav/a  rubra  and 
its  varieties  are  known  as  red  buck-eye,  FE.  flava 
as  sweet  buck-eye,  etc.  Ohio  is  known  as  the 
“  Buckeye  State.” 

Buckingham,  the  county  town  of  Bucking¬ 
hamshire,  England,  sixty-one  miles  northwest 
of  London.  An  ancient  place  fortified  by 
Edward  the  Elder  (918).  Pop.  (1881),  3,585. 
Stowe  House,  the  princely  seat  of  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham,  three  miles  to  the  northwest,  was 
rebuilt  toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury. 

Buckingham,  George  Yilliers,  Duke  of, 
third  son  of  Sir  George  Yilliers,  was  born  in 
1592.  In  1614,  he  was  knighted,  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Viscount  Villiers  in  1616,  and  be¬ 
came  Marquis  of  Buckingham  in  1618.  In  1620, 
he  married  the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Rutland. 
After  the  ill-fated  expedition  against  Cadiz,  he 
became  odious  to  the  nation,  was  impeached  by 
the  Commons,  and  only  saved  by  the  King  dis¬ 
solving  Parliament.  In  1627,  he  appeared  with 
an  armament  before  Rochelle,  then  in  the  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  Huguenots,  and  in  revolt  against  the 
French  crown,  but  was  defeated  and  returned 
in  disgrace  to  England.  He  soon  after  undertook 
a  second  expedition  to  Rochelle,  and  had  gone 


|  down  to  Portsmouth  for  embarkation,  when  on 
Aug.  23,  1628,  he  was  assassinated  by  a  discon¬ 
tented  subaltern,  John  Felton,  who  was  hanged 
for  the  crime. 

Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  second  Duke 
of,  was  born  Jan.  30,  1627,  and  after  his  father’s 
assassination,  was  brought  up  with  Charles 
I.’s  children.  He  married  in  1657  the  daugh¬ 
ter  of  Lord  Fairfax,  to  whom  his  forfeited 
estates  had  been  assigned.  The  Restoration  gave 
them  back  to  Buckingham  and  brought  him  to 
court,  where  for  twenty-five  years  lie  was  the 
wildest  and  wickedest  rou(5  of  them  all.  In  1671, 
he  killed,  in  a  duel,  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury, 
whose  countess,  his  paramour,  looked  on,  dis¬ 
guised  as  a  page.  •  He  was  mainly  instrumental 
in  Clarendon’s  downfall;  was  a  member  of  the 
infamous  “  Cabal  ;”  and  on  its  break-up,  in  1673, 
passed  over,  like  Shaftesbury,  to  the  popular 
side.  He  died  on  April  16,  1688.  lie  is  best 
remembered  by  Dryden’s  portraiture  of  him  as 
Zimri  in  Absalom  and  Achitophel. 

Buckingham,  James  Silk,  traveler  and  lec¬ 
turer,  born  in  1786.  In  London  he  established 
the  Oriental  Ihratd  (1824),  and  the  Athenceum 
(1828).  Subsequently  he  traveled  through  the 
United  States,  and  from  1832  to  1837  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  Parliament  for  Sheffield.  He  died  June 

30,  1855.  His  youngest  son,  Leicester  (1827-65), 
was  a  skillful  dramatic  adapter. 

Buckinghamshire,  or  Bucks,  a  south-midland 
county  of  England.  Thirty-third  in  size  of  the 
English  counties,  it  has  a  maximum  length  of  57 
miles,  a  varying  breadth  of  8i  to  27  miles,  and 
an  area  of  730  square  miles.  Many  events  of  his¬ 
torical  interest  have  occurred  in  this  county.  It 
was  the  scene  of  contest  in  the  civil  wars  of 
■Stephen  and  John.  At  Chalfont  St.  Giles,  Milton 
finished  his  Paradise  Lost,  and  at  Horton  he  wrote 
L’ Allegro.  At  Hampden  lived  the  great  patriot 
of  that  name;  Atterbury  was  born  at  Milton; 
Stoke  Poges  Churchyard  suggested  Gray’s  Elegy, 
and  is  the  place  of  his  burial;  at  Olney,  Cowper 
lived.  Beaconsfield  Manor  was  the  seat  of  Waller; 
Gregories,  near  Beaconsfield,  of  Edmund  Burke; 

I  Bradenham,  of  the  elder  D 'Israeli;  and  Huglien- 
I  den,  of  the  Earl  of  Beaconsfield.  Pop.  (i881), 
176,323. 

Buckland,  William,  D.D.,  geologist,  born  at 
Tiverton,  Devonshire,  England,  in  1784.  In  1825 
:  he  was  appointed  a  Canon  of  Christ  Church, 
j  Oxford;  in  1832,  President  of  the  British  Associa¬ 
tion  at  Oxford;  and  in  1836  he  published  his 
Bridgewater  Treatise,  Geology  and  Mineralogy  Con- 
!  sidered  with  Reference  to  Natural  Theology.  In  1845 
he  was  made  Dean  of  Westminster;  and  in  1856  he 
died.  His  son,  Francis  Trevelyan  Buckland, 
was  born  Dec.  17,  1826,  at  Christ  Church  College, 
Oxford.  From  his  boyhood  he  took  a  deep 
interest  in  natural  history,  and  wrote  several  val¬ 
uable  books  on  quadrupeds  and  fishes.  He  died 
Dec.  19,  1880. 

Buckle,  Henry  Tiiomas,  was  born  at  Lee,  in 
Kent,  England,  Nov.  24,  1821.  At  the  age  of 
thirty  he  knew  eighteen  foreign  languages,  and 
had  amassed  a  library  of  22,000  volumes,  chosen 
mostly  to  help  him  in  a  magnum  opus,  which 
gradually  took  shape  as  The  History  of  Civiliza¬ 
tion  in  England.  He  died  May  29,  1862.  His  Mis¬ 
cellaneous  and  Posthumous  Works  were  edited  by 
Miss  Helen  Taylor  (1872;  new  ed.  by  Grant  Allen, 
1880);  and  his  life  has  been  written  by  A.  H. 
Iluth  (2  vols.  1880). 

Buckles,  metal  instruments,  consisting  of  a 
rim  and  tongue,  used  for  fastening  straps  or  bands 
in  dress,  harness,  etc. 

Buckram.  This  name  isnow  applied  to  a  coarse, 
open-woven  fabric  of  cotton  or  linen  made  very 
stiff  with  size.  It  is  used  for  the  framework  of 
ladies’  bonnets,  for  the  inside  of  belts  and  collars 
of  dresses,  and  for  bookbinding.  The  buckram 
of  olden  times  was  an  entirely  different  kind  of 
stuff. 

Buckskin  is  a  soft  leather  made  of  deerskin; 
also  a  strong,  twilled  woollen  cloth,  cropped  of 
nap  and  carefully  finished. 

Buckstone,  John  Baldwin,  comedian  and 
dramatic  writer,  born  in  1802.  For  many  years 
he  was  connected  with  the  Surrey,  Adelplii,  Drury 
Lane,  and  Hay  market  Theaters  in  London,  and 
visited  the  United  States  in  1840.  He  died  Oct. 

31,  1879. 


Buckthorn  ( Rhamnus ),  a  genus  of  Rhamnacese, 
including  sixty  species,  all  shrubs  or  trees,  widely 
distributed  through  temperate  and  tropical 
regions,  but  absent  from  Australia. — The  Com¬ 
mon  Buckthorn  (R.  cartharticus)  is  characterized 
by  its  spinous  and  cross-like  branchlets,  serrate 
leaves,  and  yellow-green  dioecious  flowers. — The 
Alder  Buckthorn,  or  Breaking  Buckthorn  (R. 
frangula),  also  (wrongly)  called  Black  Alder,  or 
Berry-bearing  Alder,  is  spineless,  with  oval  entire 
leaves,  and  small,  whitish,  axillary  flowers.  Dyer’s 
Buckthorn  (II.  infectorius )  is  a  low  shrub,  abund¬ 
ant  in  the  south  of  Europe,  whose  unripe  fruit 
yields  a  brilliant  yellow  dye.  Of  North  American 
buckthorns  there  are,  besides  the  common  one, 
six  or  more  peculiar  species.  The  most  important 
is  the  R.  purshiantt  of  the  northwest  Pacific 
slope  (especially  southwest  Oregon),  the  cathartic 


Alder  Buckthorn  ( Rhamnus  frangula). 
a,  a  flower. 


bark  of  which  is  used  in  medicine  under  the  name 
of  Cascara  Sagrada. — The  Sea  Buckthorn  (Ilip- 
pophae  rhamnoides)  is  a  shrub  of  a  different  genus 
and  order  (Elcagneee).  It  is  occasionally  planted 
as  an  ornamental  shrub. 


Bucku,  or  Buchu,  a  Hottentot  name  common 
to  several  small  aromatic  evergreen  rutaceous 
shrubs  of  the  genus  Barosma  (Diosma),  natives  of 
the  Gape  of  Good  Hope,  the  leaves  of  which 
( folia  Buchu)  have  enjoyed  considerable  medicinal 
repute,  especially  as  a  diuretic. 

Buckwheat  ( Fagopyrum  esculentum,  or  Poly¬ 
gonum  Fagopyrum)  is*a  native  of  the  basin  of  the 
Volga,  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  many 
parts  of  Central 
Asia.  Buckwheat 
is  a  common  crop 
in  some  parts  of 
the  United  States. 

It  is  said  to  be 
very  nutritious, 
containing  about 
10  per  cent,  of 
gluten  and  52  per 
cent,  of  starch, 
besides  about  6 
per  cent,  of  gum 
and  sugar.  It  is 
said  to  be  as  good 
as  barley  for  fat¬ 
tening  cattle,  and 
better  for  horses 
than  oats;  but  as 
the  seed  is  cov¬ 
ered  with  a  very 
hard  rind  or  thin 
shell,  it  must  al¬ 
ways  be  shelled 
bef  ore  being  used 
as  feed  for  cattle.  As  green  fodder,  it  is  said  to 
be  more  nutritious  than  clover. 

Bucolic,  a  term  derived  from  the  Greek, 
“  belonging  to  herdsmen,”  nearly  equal  to  Pas¬ 
toral,  from  Latin.  It  is  specially  used  of  a  kind 
of  Pastoral  Poetry.  The  great  bucolic  poets 
were  Theocritus,  Bion,  Moschus;  and  Virgil’s 
Eclogues  are  sometimes  called  Bucolicu. 


Buckwheat  ( Fagopyrum  escultntum). 
a,  a  flower;  6,  a  seed;  c,  root. 


BUD. 


213 


BUG. 


Bud.  The  bud  is  the  rudiment  of  an  axis  with 
its  appendages.  Starting  with  the  seed,  we  may 


*9  '9 

Longitudinal  section  through  the  apical 
region  of  an  upright  shoot  of  Hip  pur  is 
vulgaris.  • 

s,  growing  point  of  the  stem;  b ,  b ,  b,  the 
wliorled  leaves;  k,  k,  the  buds  in  their 
axils,  which  all  develop  into  flowers;  g.  g. 
the  first  vessels  (the  dark  parts  of  the  tis¬ 
sue  indicate  the  inner  cortex  with  its  in¬ 
tercellular  spaces).  (After  Sachs). 

trace  the  continued  upgrowth  of  the  primeval  bud 
or  plumule  in  germination.  In  some  hardy  shrubs 


budding  is  preferred  for  fruit  trees  with  gummy 
sap,  such  as  the  plum,  cherry,  peach,  and  apricot. 


a,  petiolar  bud-scales  of  horse-chestnut,  showing  transi¬ 
tions  to  the  two  true  leaves  above;  i>,  opening  ends  of 
beech,  showing  stipular  bud-scales. 

and  trees  the  buds  are  quite  inconspicuous  in  win¬ 
ter,  being  so  minute  as  to  be  hidden  under  an 
apical  coating  of 
bark  (e.  g.,  Tax- 
odium,  Pldladel 
phus);  gener¬ 
ally,  however, 
the  buds  are 
well  formed  be¬ 
fore  autumn, 
and  are  thus  “A 

flllh  exposed  to  Bryophyllum  Leaf,  from  the  edges  of 
the  Severity  of  which  two  new  plants  have  budded, 
winter.  . 

Budtens  (the  Latinized  form  of  Guillaume 
Bude)  a  French  scholar,  born  in  Paris  in  1467. 
His  best  known  works  are  the  De  Asse  et  Parti- 
bus  Ejus  (1514),  and  the  Vommentarii  Linguae 
Grcecie  (1519).  He  died  in  1540. 

Bu'ilapest,  the  official  designation  of  the  capi¬ 
tal  of  Hungary,  which  consists  of  Buda  (Ger. 
Ofen)  on  the  right,  and  Pest  or  Pesth  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Danube,  the  two  cities  having  formed 
a  single  municipality  since  1872.  See  Pestii. 

Bud  aim,  a  town  of  India,  giving  name  to  a 
district  of  the  lioliilcund  division  of  the  North¬ 
west  Provinces.  Pop.  (188 1),  33,680. — The  dis¬ 
trict  contains  an  area  of  2,002  square  miles,  and  a 
pop.  (1881), of  906,451,  of  whom  nearly  six-sev¬ 
enths  are  Hindus. 

Buddhism,  the  religion  known  as  Buddhism 
(from  the  title  of  The  Buddha,  meaning  the 
awakened,  the  enlightened,  acquired  by  its 
founder)  has  existed  over  2,400  years.  In  India, 
it  has  now  little  hold,  except  among  some  north¬ 
ern  tribes;  but  it  bears  full  sway  in  Ceylon,  and 
over  the  whole  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula;  it  divides 
the  adherence  of  the  Chinese  with  the  systems  of 
Confucius  and  Lao-tse,  claiming  perhaps  a 
majority  of  the  population;  it  prevails  also  in 
Japan  (although  not  the  established  religion);  and 
north  of  the  Himalayas,  it  is  the  religion  of  Tibet 
(where  it  assumes  the  form  of  Lnmaism),  of  the 
Mongolian  population  of  Central  Asia  and  South¬ 
ern  Siberia,  and  of  the  Tatar  tribes  on  the  Lower 
Volga.  Its  adherents  are  estimated  at  more  than 
340,000,000 — or  nearly  a  fourth  of  the  whole 
human  race. 

Buddin1/'.  A  process  in  the  propagation  of 
ligneous  plants  analogous  to  grafting.  It  con¬ 
sists  in  transferring  a  bud  from  one  shoot  to  an¬ 
other  on  the  same  or  different  plants.  Sliield- 


a,  bud  with  shield  of  bark  attached;  h.  stock  with  slit  in 
bark  to  receive  shield  and  bud;  c,  bud  inserted,  leaf  cut 
away. 

On  account  of  the  uncertain ty*of  its  results,  bud' 
ding  has  been  largely  superseded  by  grafting. 

Budget,  from  the  same  source  as  the  French 
bougette,  means  a  small  bag,  and  has  been  used 
metaphorically  to  express  a  compact  collection  of 
things,  as  a  budget  of  news,  etc. 

Buenaventura,  a  town  on  ihe  Pacific  coast  of 
the  Republic  of  Colombia.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Buena  Vista,  a  village  of  Mexico,  seven  miles 
south  of  Saltillo,  where,  on  Feb.  22-23,  1847, 
5,000  United  States  troops  under  Taylor  defeated 
20,h00  Mexicans  under  Santa  Anna. 

Buen-Ayrfe,  (Span.),  Fr.  Bonaire,  a  West  In¬ 
dian  island,  sixty  miles  from  the  coast  of  Vene¬ 
zuela,  and  thirty  east  of  Curat^ao.  Area,  127 
square  miles;  pop.  (1886),  4,043. 

Buenos  Ay 'res  (Buenos  Aires),  the  largest  and 
most  important  province  of  the  Argentine  Repub¬ 
lic  in  South  America,  extending  along  the 
Atlantic,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Plata  to  that  of 
the  Rio  Negro.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  63,000 
square  miles,  with  a  pop.  of  (1885),  648,140  (esti¬ 
mated  in  1888  at  800,000).  Several  railways,  with 
about  1,000  miles  of  road,  traverse  Buenos  Ayres; 
and  there  are  6,150  miles  of  telegraph  wires  in 
the  province. 

Buenos  Ayres,  the  federal  capital  of  Argentine 
Republic,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Plata.  The 
city,  including  suburbs,  contains  459,663  inhabit¬ 
ants — about  a  third  of  whom  are  of  European  birth 
or  descent.  Among  the  Europeans  the  vast 
majority  are  Italian;  the  rest  are  principally 
Spanish,  French,  and  British. 

Buffalo,  the  third  city  of  New  York  State,  is 
situated  at  the  east  end  of  Lake  Erie,  at  the  head 
of  the  Niagara  river,  and  has  a  pop.  (estimated 
1889),  of  240,000.  It  is  a  handsome  and  well- 
built  town,  with  wide  streets  and  some  very  fine 
public  buildings.  The  city  was  first  settled  in 
1801,  and  suffered  severely  during  the  war  of 
1812-14,  being  burned  by  "the  British  and  their 
Indian  allies.  The  opening  of  the  Erie  Canal  in 
1825  gave  a  great  impetus  to  its  trade;  it  is  now 
an  immense  grain-shipping  point,  and  ranks  third 
among  American  cities  as  a  live-stock  market.  It 
has  also  a  very  large  trade  in  iron,  coal,  oil,  and 
lumber,  and  is  the  center  point  of  many  railroads. 
There  are  more  than  thirty  grain  elevators,  and 
the  shipping  trade  is  very  large.  Several  million 
dollars  have  been  expended  here  on  harbor  im¬ 
provements  by  the  United  States  Government. 

Buffalo,  a  name  often  applied  to  two  distinct 
bovine  genera  or  sub-genera — viz.,  the  Asiatic  Buf¬ 
falo  (Bubal us)  with  the  Cape  Buffalo;  and  the 
American  Buffalo,  properly  called  Bison,  and  dis¬ 
cussed  under  that  head.  The  genus  or  sub-genus 
Bubalus  has  the  usual  bovine  characteristics.  The 
J  horns  rise  from  the  posterior  side  corners  of  the 
skull,  are  thick  at  the  base,  and  irregularly  ridged, 
though  smooth  toward  the  points;  the  forehead  is 
short  and  arched;  the  covering  of  hair  is  compar¬ 
atively  sparse.  The  common  or  Asiatic  Buffalo 
(Z>.  bvffelus)  has 
beautifully  twisted 
horns,  thick  and 
broad  at  the  base, 
rough  on  to  the 
middle,  somewhat 
triangular  in  sec¬ 
tion.  The  animal 
measures  about  7 
feet  in  length,  and 
stands  about  4  fee 
high  at  the  shoul 
.  der.  ft  is  a  native 
j  of  the  East  Indies, 

|  has  been  domesticated  in  India,  and  thence  intro- 


Heatl  of  the  Asiatic  Buffalo 
( Bubalus  bvffelus). 


duced  into  Egypt,  Greece,  Italy,  Hungary, 
and  other  countries. 

In  domestication  the  female  yields  a  much 
greater  quantity  of  milk  than  a  cow,  and  of  ex 
ccllent  quality.  It  is  from  buffalo  milk  that  the 
gliee  or  semi-fluid  butter  of  India  is  made.  The 
hide  is  greatly  valued  for  its  strength  and  dura¬ 
bility,  but  the  flesh  is  decidedly  inferior  to  that 
of  the  ox. 

The  Cape  Buffalo  (Bus  coffer)  is  generally  re¬ 
garded  as  a  distinct  species.  The  horns  are  very 
large,  spreading  horizontally  over  the  top  of  the 
head,  and  are  bent  down  laterally,  and  turned 
upward  at  the  point.  The  head  is  carried,  as  by 
the  common  buffalo,  with  projecting  muzzle  and 


The  Cape  Buffalo  ( Bos  caffer). 


reclining  horns,  but  the  bases  of  the  horns  nearly 
meet  on  the  forehead,  where  they  are  from  8  to  10 
inches  broad.  The  length  of  a  full-grown  Cape 
buffalo  is  about  8  feet  from  the  root  of  the  horns 
to  the  tail,  and  the  height  is  5bj  feet.  This  animal 
is  regarded  as  more  formidable  than  any  other  in 
South  Africa. 

Buff  Leather,  or  Oil-dressed  Leather,  is 
usually  made  of  light  ox  and  cow  hides.  After 
being  limed  in  the  usual  way,  they  are  unliaired 
and  rounded,  so  that  only  the  best  part  of  the  hide 
is  made  into  leather.  The  grain  and  flesh  being 
then  scraped  of  cut  off,  the  true  cuticle,  which  is 
of  a  flexible,  fibrous  nature,  alone  remains. 

Buffon,  George  Louis  Leci.erc,  Comte  de, 
born  Sept.  7,  1707.  Early  in  life  he  gained  dis¬ 
tinction  as  a  writer  on  scientific  subjects,  and, 
being  admitted  to  the  Academy,  was  in  1739 
appointed  Director  of  the  Jardin  du  Roi,  a  post 
which  gave  him  command  of  the  Royal  museums 
and  collections  of  living  animals  and  plants.  His 
Ilistoire  Naturelle,  in  fifteen  volumes,  appeared 
between  1749  and  1767,  in  the  preparation  of 
which  he  was  assisted  by  Daubenton,  the  Abb6 
Bexon,  Guesneau  de  MontbGiard,  and  others. 
After  receiving  various  high  honors,  he  was 
made  Comte  de  Buffon  by  Louis  XV.  He  died 
at  Paris  on  April  16,  1788.  See  A.  Richard's 
edition  of  his  Oeuvres  Completes  (1825-28),  his 
Correspondence  (2  vols.,  1860) ;  Flouren’s  Buffon; 
Ilistoire  de  Ses  Travavx  et  de  Ses  Etudes  (1844); 
and  II.  Nadaidt  de  Buffon’ $  Buffon,  SaFamille  et 
ties  Familiers  (1860). 

Buffoon  is  a  Jester,  from  the  Ital.  buffa,  “a 
trick.”  From  the  same  word  comes  buffo,  “a 
comic  actor  or  singer;”  and  the  French  name, 
opera-bovffe,  for  comic  opera. 

Bug,  the  name  of  two  Russian  rivers.  The 
Western  Bug  rises  in  Austrian  Galicia,  and  joins 
the  Vistula,  near  Warsaw.  The  Eastern  Bug, 
the  Hypanis  of  the  ancients,  rises  in  Podolia,  and 
flows  520  miles  southeast  into  the  estuary  of  the 
Dnieper. 

Bug,  a  popular  name  for  insects  in  the  order 
Hemiptera,  and  in  the  subdivision  with  unequal 
wings — Heteroptera.  It  may  be  widely  applied 
to  the  whole  of  this  subdivision,  including  land- 
bugs  and  water-bugs — the  former  to  the  number 
of  almost  8,000  species,  the  latter  much  less 
numerous.  The  Boat-fly  or  Water-boatman  has 
been  already  described,  and  may,  with  the  water- 
scorpions  (Nepidat),  serve  to  illustrate  the  water- 
bugs.  The  Geocores  or  land-bugs  vary  consider¬ 
ably,  but  have  long  feelers  with  four  or  five 
joints,  are  especially  at  home  in  warm  countries, 
are  often  brightly  colored,  have  an  unpleasant 
smell,  and  usually  eat  other  insects  or  sometimes 


BUGBANE. 


214 


BULB. 


also  the  juices  of  plants.  The  bug  pa<-  erc< lienee, 
however,  is  the  Gimex, 
or  Acanlhia  lectularia, 
the  well-known  bed-bug. 

Thu  bed-bug  is  said  to 
have  come  from  the 
East,  and  it  certainly 
follows  human  migra¬ 
tion. 

Bugbane,  or  Bug- 
wort  ( Oimicifuga),  a  fe¬ 
tid  genus  of  Ranuncu- 
laceaj,  allied  to  Bane- 
berry  (Actcea),  of  which 
both  the  European  and  Cimex  lectularia. 
American  species  are  said  to  drive  away  insects. 

Bugeaud,  Thomas,  French  marshal,  was  born 
in  1784,  entered  the  army  in  his  nineteenth  year, 
and  by  1814  earned  a  colonelcy.  Recalled  from 
a  fifteen  years’  retirement  to  active  life  by  the 
July  Revolution  of  1830,  he  was  elected  Deputy; 
in  1836  was  despatched  to  Algeria,  where  he  dis¬ 
tinguished  himself  against  Abd-el-Kader;  and  in 
1840  was  appointed  Governor-General.  lie  was 
made  a  Marshal  in  1843,  and  his  victory  at  Isly  in 
1844  over  the  Emperor  of  Morocco’s  forces  gained 
him  the  title  Due  d’Isly.  In  the  revolution  of 
February,  1848,  he  commanded  the  army  in  Paris. 
He  died  in  Paris,  June  9,  1849. 

Bugenliagen,  Johann,  surnamed  Doctor  Pome- 
ranus  or  Pommer,  one  of  Luther’s  chief  helpers 
in  the  Reformation,  was  born  in  1485,  and  in 
1503  became  Rector  of  the  Treptow  Academy.  In 
1520  he  went  to  Wittenberg,  where  he  preached. 
He  established  churches  in  Brunswick,  Hamburg, 
Liibeck,  and  Pomerania.  He  died  April  20,  1558. 
Bugenliagen  aided  Luther  in  his  translation  of 
the  Bible. 


Bugge,  Elsens  Sophlts,  a  Norwegian  philolo¬ 
gist,  born  Jan.  5,  1833;  in  1866  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Comparative  Philology  and  Old 
Norse  at  the  University  of  Christiania.  His  Old 
Norse  Ballads  (1858)  and  historical  legends 
(1864-65),  place  him  in  the  first  rank  of  living 
philologists. 

Buggy  (an  Indian  word)  is  a  gig  with  a  hood 
in  India;  in  England  it  is  a  light  two-wheeled 
vehicle  without  a  hood;  in  the  United  States  a 
four-wheeled  vehicle  with  or  without  a  hood. 

Bugle  (Ajuga)  a  palaearctic  genus  of  Labiatte. 
The  Common  Bugle  (A.  replans)  is  abundant  in 
moist  pastures  and  woods  of  Europe.  Its  flowers 
are  generally  blue,  but  white  and  purplish  varie¬ 
ties  are  sometimes  grown  in  flower-borders.  A. 
alpina  is  one  of  the  beautiful  flowers  of  the  Swiss 
Alps. 

Bugle  (Fr.  bugle ;  Ger.  fliigelhorn;  Ital.  tromba), 
a  treble  musical  instrument.  The  bell  is  less  ex¬ 
panded  than  the  trumpet,  and  the  tube  is  shorter 
and  more  conical.  This  form  gives  it  that  peculiar, 
penetrating,  and  far-reaching  sound  which  renders 
it  so  admirably  suited  for  its  sole  purpose — viz.,  a 
military  signaling  instrument.  It  is  made  in  the 


Bugle. 


key  of  B  flat,  and  its  notes  are  the  open  notes  of 
the  tube — C  (below  the  stave),  G,  C,  E,  G.  It  has 
also  C,  octave  lower,  and  B  flat,  and  C  above.  It 
is  provided  with  two  rings,  to  which  a  cord  is 
attached  for  suspension  to  the  shoulder  of  the 
bugler.  Bugle  calls,  as  the  military  signals  are 
called,  are  all  written  within  the  compass  of  the 
five  principal  notes  of  the  bugle.  They  vary  in 
character  from  a  single  note  G,  meaning  “  right  ” 
(two  G’s  being  center,  and  three  left),  to  the  in¬ 
fantry  “reveille,”  or  morning  call,  which  may  be 
said  to  have  some  pretensions  to  being  a  musical 
composition,  as  it  has  five  movements,  a  largo,  a 
allegretto,  vivace,  adagio,  and  presto. 

Bugle  is  a  name  for  a  slender,  elongated  kind 
of  bead,  usually  black. 


Bugloss,  a  name  popularly  applied  to  many 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Boragineae,  more 
strictly  to  Anchusa  (  Lycopsis)  arvensis,  a  common 
weed  in  cornfields.  The  beautiful  Echmmmlgare 
bears  the  English  name  of  Viper’s  Bugloss. 

Buhl  or  Boule  IV  ork,  the  name  applied  to  a 
sort  of  inlaying  of  brass  scrolls  and  other  orna¬ 
mental  patterns  in  wood.  The  name  is  derived 
from  its  inventor,  Charles  Andr<5  Boule  (1642- 
1732),  an  Italian  cabinet-maker  in  the  service  of 
Louis  XIV.  He  employed  veneers  of  dark- 
colored  tortoise-shell,  inlaid  with  brass. 

Bulirstone,  a  variety  of  quartz,  containing 
many  small  empty  cells,  which  give  it  a  peculiar 
roughness  of  surface,  particularly  adapting  it 
for  millstones.  The  name  is  given  without  refer¬ 
ence  to  geological  relations,  but  it  is  vein  quartz , 
rather  than  true  quartz  rock,  which  ordinarily 
assumes  the  character  of  bulirstone.  Bulirstones 
are  quarried  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and 
North  Carolina.  But  the  finest  millstones  are 
obtained  from  quarries  near  Paris. 

Building.  The  walls  of  a  house  may  be  built 
of  wood,  stone,  brick,  brick  and  timber,  iron, 
mud,  turf,  and  even  snow.  In  the  arctic  regions 
a  house  with  snow  walls  is  felt  to  be  fairly  com¬ 
fortable.  In  the  tropics  a  strong  tent,  constructed 
of  posts  and  palm-leaves  suffices  for  an  abode. — 
For  buildings  such  as  churches,  and  houses 
in  civilized  countries,  walls  are  usually  con¬ 
structed  of  brick  or  stone,  but  many  houses 
and  some  churches,  are  erected  entirely  of  wood. 
Another  way  of  constructing  walls  has  recently 
been  adopted.  This  consists  of  a  concrete  formed 
of  sand,  pebbles,  broken  stone,  and  lime  mixed 
with  water.  It  is  a  revival  of  an  ancient  Roman 
method. — On  the  ground-floor,  and  whenever 
strength  of  construction  is  required,  partitionsare 
best  formed  of  brick,  usually  44  to  9  inches  thick. 
They  are  occasionally  built  of  hollow  bricks. 
The  lowest  floor,  if  formed  of  wood,  should  be 
above  the  level  of  the  ground,  should  have  a  space 
below  (lie  joists,  and  air  should  be  admitted  by 
openings  through  the  walls  for  ventilation.  For 
large  spans  iron  roofs  are  a  feature  of  the  age,  and 
the  French  have  been  particularly  successful  in 
the  artistic  treatment  of  this  material.  Wooden 
roofs  are  still,  however,  in  general  use.  Where 
available,  slate  is  used  to  cover  sloping  roofs. 
Tiles  of  red,  blue,  and  other  colors  are  now  some¬ 
times  chosen,  even  for  the  roofs  of  public  build¬ 
ings,  in  preference  to  slate  when  color  effect  is 
sought  after.  Flat  roofs  are  covered  with  lead, 
tin,  sheet-iron,  or  zinc,  the*former  being  the  more 
durable.  The  gutters,  flushings,  and,  generally, 
also  the  ridges  of  roofs,  are  likewise  formed  of 
lead;  but  are  also  frequently  made  of  zinc.  Much 
of  the  comfort  of  a  house  depends  upon  the  effi¬ 
ciency  with  which  the  plumbing  is  done.  The 
lead  water-pipes  should  be  placed  in  situations 
protected  from  frost,  and  should  be  of  sufficient 
thickness  to  withstand  the  required  pressure.  All 
the  fittings  of  cisterns,  baths,  and  water-closets, 
and  soldered  jointseverywhere,  require  the  utmost 
care  and  attention.  The  gas-pines  of  a  house 
should  be  of  iron  and  should  be  placed  in  pro¬ 
tected  channels,  and  not  exposed  on  the  surface 
of  walls.  Windows  of  houses  are  glazed  with 
sheet-glass  varying  in  weight  from  15  to  26  ounces 
per  superficial  foot.  Thicker  kinds  are  made  for 
very  large-sized  panes.  When  plate-glass  is  used, 
it  is  generally  about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  thick. 

Building  L  eases.  In  the  United  States,  build¬ 
ing  leases  include  repairing  leases,  and  may  con¬ 
tinue  for  any  term  of  years  agreed  upon  by  the 
parties,  no  time  being  specified  by  State  or  United 
States  law. 

Building  Societies  are  societies  established 
for  the  purpose  of  raising,  by  periodical  subscrip¬ 
tions,  a  fund  to  assist  members  in  obtaining  herit¬ 
able  property,  freehold  or  otherwise.  In  the 
United  States  the  number  of  building  associations 
is  large,  and  they  afford  a  profitable  and  popular 
means  of  investing  small  savings.  The  usual 
periodical  installment  paid  for  shares  of  stock  is 
$1  per  share  each  month.  The  funds  are  lent  to 
members,  a  premium  for  the  privilege  being  paid, 
in  addition  to  interest.  Experience  shows  that  in 
well-managed  associations,  the  earnings  are  con¬ 
siderably  in  excess  of  simple  interest. 

Building  Stone.  No  artificial  building  material 
such  as  brick,  terra-cotta,  or  cement  can  give  such 


dignity  and  beauty  to  a  building  as  is  imparted  by 
ordinary  limestone  or  sandstone,  which  can  be  cut 
by  a  chisel.  By  far  the  most  common  kinds  of 
building  stone  are  sandstones  and  limestones. 
The  term  freestone  is  applied  to  such  kinds  as 
dress  freely  with  masons’  tools.  Both  are  bedded 
on  sedimentary  rocks,  and  both  as  a  rule,  when 
cut  up  into  blocks  for  building,  should  be  laid  on 
their  natural  beds.  Many  excellent  building  stones 
are  found  in  America.  The  quarries  of  Maine 
have  been  an  important  source  of  the  supply  of 
granites.  The  granite  from  Ilallowell,  Me.,  is 
remarkable,  as  its  dressed  surfaces  are  nearly  as 
white  as  marble.  New  Hampshire,  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  Wis¬ 
consin,  and  several  other  States  also  contain 
granite.  Sandstones  constitute  the  most  valuable 
group  of  building  stones  in  the  United  States,  as 
they  have  a  wide  distribution,  have  much  diversity 
of  tint  and  texture,  and  can  be  cheaply  produced. 
White  marble  has  been  quarried  on  a  considerable 
scale  for  important  public  buildings.  That  from 
Lee,  Mass.,  which  is  strong  and  durable,  was 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  Capitol  at  Wash¬ 
ington,  and  for  the  City  Hall  at  Philadelphia. 
From  Stockbridge,  in  the  same  State,  the  marble 
was  procured  for  the  State  House  at  Boston  and 
the  City  Hall  of  New  York.  Tuckahoe  marble, 
which  is  pure  white,  strong,  and  coarse-grained, 
has  been  employed  for  some  of  the  finest  buildings 
in  New  York.  For  St.  Patrick’s  Cathedral  a  pure 
white  dolomite  called  “snowflake  marble,”  from 
Pleasant  ville,  N.  Y.,  has  been  chiefly  used.  Rut¬ 
land  County,  Vt.,  is  the  great  center  of  the 
marble  industry  for  purely  decorative  purposes. 
Numerous  beds  of  marble  have  been  discovered 
in  the  United  States  during  the  last  few  years, 
some  of  which  are  located  in  the  Rocky  Mount¬ 
ains. 

Bukowina  (beech  land),  a  province  in  the 
extreme  east  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  empire, 
surrounded  by  Galicia,  Russia,  Moldavia,  and 
Hungary.  Area,  4,035  square  miles;  pop.  (1885), 
610,335,  of  whom  42  per  cent,  are  Ruthenians, 
33  Moldavians,  and  12  Jews,  while  71  per  cent, 
belong  to  the  Greek  Church.  Czemowitz  is  the 
capital. 

Bulnndsliahr,  a  British  district  in  the  Meerut 
division,  Northwest  Provinces  of  India,  with  an 
area  of  1,915  square  miles,  lying  between  the 
Jumna  and  the  Ganges.  There  are  twelve  towns 
with  a  pop.  of  over  5,000,  of  which  the 
most  important  are:  Klmrja  (27,190),  Sikan- 
darabad  (16,479),  and  Bulandshahr  or  Baran. 
This  last,  the  administrative  headquarters,  is  a 
place  of  great  antiquity,  coins  of  Alexander  the 
Great  being  still  found  here.  Pop.  of  town  (1881), 
17,863;  of  district,  924,822. 

Bull).  Perennial  herbs  which  die  down  dur¬ 
ing  the  winter,  have  always  accumulated  during 
the  summer  some  store  of  reserve  material  (starch 
and  nitrogenous  matters)  which  serves  as  capital 
upon  which  to  draw  for  their  new  and  rapid  start 
’n  sPring.  This  sub- 
Bill  a  terranean  store  may 
be  deposited  in  roots 
f>  Wmtl  (e.  g.,  orchis),  in  an 
mm]  underground  creeping 
JjMl  stem  (e.  g.,  rhizome  of 
mm  iris  or  primrose),  in 
If.jH  definite  portions  of 
H|HB  rhizome  which  are 
then  called  tubers 
WHB  ('’•  J7->  potato,  Jcru- 
'mSS  salem  artichoke),  or 
Jplp  in  the  lower  portion 
YfVof  the  main  axis  (corn 
/  ’°f  crocus),  which  thus 

I  '  assumes  a  bulbous 
s  a  form.  The  term  bulb 
’  is,  however,  restricted 

„  „  „  n  by  botanists  to  those 

a,  side  view;  b,  front  view;  cases  in  which  the 
c,  section.  store  is  deposited  in 

the  leaf-bases,  or  in  modifications  of  entire  leaves. 
The  incipient  bulb  is  best  seen  in  the  common 
wood-garlic  ( Allium,  vrsinum),  in  which  the  store 
is  deposited  in  the  swollen  spindle-shaped  latse  of 
a  foliage  leaf.  The  first  leaf  of  the  following 
year’s  growth  is  not  swollen,  but  almost  com¬ 
pletely  inslieathes  the  developing  flower  axis,  the 
first  foliage  leaf  of  which  again  thickens  as  the 


BULBUL. 


215 


BULLDOG. 


bulb,  and  develops  in  its  axil  the  bud  of  next 
year.  The  use  of  the  bulb  to  the  plant,  as  afford¬ 
ing  at  once  a  citadel  of  refuge  during  the  severity 
of  the  winter  of  cold  climates,  or  of  the  dry  sea¬ 
son  of  warmer  ones,  and  a  store  of  materials  for 
a  vigorous  start  in  spring  before  the  competition 
of  other  plants  has  become  active,  will  be  suffi¬ 
ciently  obvious;  and  the  importance  of  bulbous 
plants  in  such  peculiar  climates  as  that  of  Siberia 
or  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  thus  readily  ac¬ 
counted  for. 


a,  Tunicated  bulb  of  onion:  6,  onion  leaf  dissected  off: 
c,  bulb  of  LU'ium  canditlum,  showing  a  reduction  of 
leaves  toward  scaly  bulb. 

Bulbul,  a  Turkish  name  (used  also  in  Persian) 
for  the  nightingale. 

Bulgaria,  a  principality  in  the  Balkan  Penin¬ 
sular  lying  between  the  Danube  and  the  Bal¬ 
kans,  was  created  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin,  July 
13,1878.  The  area  of  Bulgaria  is  24,699  square 
miles;  that  of  Eastern  Roumelia,  13,861.  The 
north  of  Bulgaria  is  fertile  plain  and  hilly  coun¬ 
try;  the  south  is  w'ooded  and  mountainous. 
Pop.  (1881),  2,007,919,  of  whom  70  per  cent, 
were  Greek-Orthodox,  28.79  percent.  Mohamme¬ 
dan,  and  0.72  per  cent.  Jews.  Since  1850  zealous 
efforts  by  American  missionaries  have  forwarded 
education,  but  made  few  converts.  Sofia  is  the  cap¬ 
ital.  Other  important  towns  are  Varna,  Rustchuk, 
Widin,  Tirnova,  and  Plevna. — Eastern  Rou¬ 
melia — now  incorporated  with  Bulgaria — is,  in 
many  respects,  in  advance  of  the  sister  country. 
It  obtained  administrative  autonomy  by  the  Treaty 
of  Berlin.  The  census  of  1885  gives  the  total  pop¬ 
ulation  of  the  Province  at  975,030  divided  as 
follows:  Christian  Bulgarians,  681,734;  Turks 
and  Moslem  Bulgari  ms,  200,498;  Greeks,  53,028; 
Gypsies,  27,190;  Jews,  6,982;  Armenians,  1  865; 
foreigners,  3,733.  The  figures  show  the  prepon¬ 
derating  numbers  of  the  Bulgarians.  Philip- 
popolis  is  the  capital.  The  Bulgarians  extend 
far  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  two  Bulgarian 
States.  In  a  great  part  of  Macedonia  they  con¬ 
stitute  the  bulk  of  the  people;  in  Bessarabia 
they  are  numerous;  and  in  the  Banat  they  number 
some  26,000,  all  Catholics.  They  are  estimated 
to  number  5,000,000  to  7, 000, 000.  The  Monarchy 
is  hereditary,  and  under  the  sovereignty  of 
the  Porte.  Military  service  is  obligatory.  The 
army  of  Bulgaria  (with  Eastern  Roumelia)  con¬ 
tained  in  1888  about  29,000  men  on  a  peace  foot¬ 
ing,  while  the  war  strength  is  100,000.  The 
fleet  comprises  three  ships  of  war,  ten  armed  gun- 
sloops,  and  some  other  small  craft.  The  coun¬ 
try  now  known  as  Bulgaria  was  originally  in¬ 
habited  by  Thracians,  and  under  the  Romans 
formed  the  Province  of  Mtrsia.  During  the 
ninth  and  tenth  centuries  the  Bulgarians  were 
victorious  in  their  wars  against  the  Magyars  in 
the  North  and  the  Greeks  in  the  South,  and  had 
reached  the  height  of  their  power.  Their  Prince, 
Simeon,  assumed  the  title  of  “Autocrat  or  Czar 
of  all  the  Bulgarians  and  of  the  Greeks.”  They 
dominated  the  greater  part  of  the  peninsula,  in¬ 
cluding  Macedonia,  Thessaly,  Epirus,  and  Al¬ 
bania.  The  Servians  finally  succumbed  at  the 
battle  of  Kossovo  in  1389,  and  Tirnova,  the  Bul¬ 
garian  capital,  was  taken  four  years  later  by  the 
son  of  Bajazet.  From  that  time  the  Ottoman 
power  commenced  to  dominate.  The  first  Bul¬ 
garian  school  was  opened  in  1835,  and  a  news¬ 
paper  appeared  in  1844.  During  the  troubles  in 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  in  1875,  excitement  in 
Bulgaria  began,  but  two  or  three  ill-organized 
local  risings  in  1876  were  suppressed  by  Turkish 


troops.  The  Tuikish  inhabitants  of  Bulgaria 
rose  against  their  unarmed  Christian  neighbors, 
assisted  by  the  notorious  Baslii  Bazouks,  or  irreg¬ 
ular  troops.  In  the  Provinces  of  Philippopolis 
and  Tirnova  fifty-eight  villages  were  destroyed, 
and  12,000  men,  women,  and  children  slain; 
Russia,  in  its  assumed  capacity  of  guardian  of 
the  Slavic  races  of  Turkey,  declared  war  (1877), 
and  in  time  suppressed  the  insurrection.  In  1878 
Prince  Alexander  of  Battenberg,  a  cousin  of  the 
Grand  Duke  of  Hesse,  was  chosen  ruler  and  in 
1879  became  Alexander  I.  of  Bulgaria.  In  the 
autumn  of  1885,  the  outbreak  of  a  revolution  in 
Eastern  Roumelia,  and  Prince  Alexander’s  accept¬ 
ance  of  its  union  to  Bulgaria,  provoked  the  jeal¬ 
ousy  of  Scrvia;  and  on  November  14,  King  Milan 
invaded  Bulgaria.  In  the  fourteen  days’  war  which 
ensued,  the  Bulgarians  suffered  temporary  defeat  , 
till  Prince  Alexander  turned  the  tide  of  fortune, 
and,  driving  the  Servians  back,  entered  Servian 
Territory  at  the  head  of  50,000  men,  and  captured 
Pirot.  In  March,  1886,  peace  was  concluded  be¬ 
tween  Serviaand  Bulgaria;  and  Prince  Alexander 
was  ultimately  recognized  by  the  Porte  as  Gover¬ 
nor-General  of  Eastern  Roumelia.  At  the  same 
time  he  fell  into  disfavor  with  Russia  and  the 
Czar.  In  the  summer  of  1886  he  was  kidnapped 
by  Russian  partisans  and  carried  into  Russia. 
Returning  immediately,  he  received  an  enthusi¬ 
astic  reception;  but  owing  to  the  hostility  of 
Russia,  was  compelled  to  abdicate.  A  Provisional 
Government  was  formed,  and  firmly  maintained 
the  national  cause  in  defiance  of  strong  Russian 
pressure.  In  the  summer  of  1887  Prince  Ferdin¬ 
and  of  Saxe-C’oburg  accepted  an  invitation  by  the 
regency  to  fill  the  vacant  throne. 

Bulgarin,  Fadde5£  Venediktovich,  Russian 
author  and  journalist,  born  in  IMin.sk  in  1789. 
Died  in  1859.  He  was  a  witty  and  versatile 
writer,  and  published  travels,  histories,  novels, 
and  statistical  works,  some  of  them  of  value. 
His  Memoirs  appeared  in  6  vols.  in  1846-50  (Ger. 
trans.  Jena,  1858-61). 

Bulkheads,  in  a  ship,  are  the  partitions  between 
the  several  portions  of  the  interior,  whether  to 
separate  it  into  compartments  to  suit  the  exigen¬ 
cies  of  stowage  or  loading,  or  as  a  safeguard 
against  foundering.  Bulkheads  are  either  trans¬ 
verse — i.  e. ,  running  athwart  the  vessel — or  longi¬ 
tudinal — i.  e.,  in  the  direction  of  the  vessel’s  length, 
and  should  be  watertight,  thus  dividing  the 
interior  of  the  vessel  into  three,  four,  or  more 
compartments,  each  of  which  is  self-contained, 
and  watertight  in  reference  to  its  neighbors. 

Bull,  the  word  is  derived  from  the  Lat.  bulla , 
“a  bubble  of  water,”  and  then  “a  round  ball  of 
any  kind.”  In  the  middle  ages  it  came  to  signify 
the  capsule  of  the  seal  appended  to  letters  from 
emperors  or  popes,  next  it  was  used  for  the  seal 
itself,  and  lastly  for  the  document  to  which  the 
seal  was  appended.  Its  use  is  now  commonly 
restricted  to  papal  documents  issued  with  certain 
indispensable  formalities. 

Bull,  a  ludicrous  blunder  in  speech  implying 
some  obvious  absurdity  or  contradiction.  Bulls 
in  their  best  form  are  usually  alleged  to  be  an 
especial  prerogative  of  Irishmen — at  least  it  is 
certain  that  the  best  examples  have  come  from 
Ireland.  The  bull  consists  in  the  bringing 
together  of  two  incompatible  thoughts,  with  the 
sensation  but  without  the  sense  of  their  connec¬ 
tion.  See  the  Essay  on  Irish  Bulls  (1803)  by 
Miss  Edgeworth  and  her  father. 

Bull.  George,  D.D.,  divine,  was  born  at 
Wells,  Somersetshire,  England  in  1634,  and 
studied  at  Exeter  College,  Oxford.  Ordained  in 
1655,  he  obtained  the  rectory  of  Siddington, 
Cirencester(1658),  that  of  Avcning,  Stroud  (1685), 
the  arch-deaconry  of  Llandaff  (1686),  and  the 
bishopric  of  St.  Davids  (1705).  lie  died  Feb.  17, 
1710. 

Bull,  Joiin,  a  generic  name  for  an  English¬ 
man  as  a  personification  of  what  is  supposed  to 
be  the  English  type,  from  Arbutlmot’s  use  of 
the  name  in  his  History  of  John  Bull  (1712);  re¬ 
printed  complete  in  Pope’s  “Miscellanies”  in 
1728. 

Bull,  Oi.e  Bornemann,  a  famous  violinist, 
was  born  Feb.  5,  1810,  at  Bergen,  in  Norway. 
In  1829  he  went  to  study  under  Spohr,  at  Cassel. 
Music  soon  asserted  its  mastery  over  him,  and  an 
acquaintance  with  Paganini  gave  him  the  im- 1 


laying  was 
was 


Gaster- 


Bulla  Aperta. 


pulse  that  he  needed.  His  style  of  playing 
in  some  respects  like  that  of  Paganini.  He 
received  in  Italy  With  enthusiasm,  and  after  vis¬ 
iting  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  he  made  a 
tour  of  triumph  through  Russia,  Germany,  and 
Norway.  In  1844  he  came  to  America  whence 
lie  returned  three  years  later.  He  afterward 
paid  several  visits  to  the  United  States,  but  re¬ 
turned  to  end  his  days  in  Europe.  He  died  at 
his  villa  near  Bergen,  Aug.  17, 

Bulla,  or  Bubble-shell,  a 
opod  Molluscs,  formerly  some¬ 
what  ambiguous,  but  now  de¬ 
fined  as  one  of  the  Tecti- 
branchs  or  “snails”  with 
concealed  posterior  gills. 

Bui  lace,  ( Brunus  iusilitia), 
a  shrub  or  small  tree,  larger 
and  much  less  spiny  than  the 
sloe,  but  very  closely  allied  to  it,  as  it  is  also  to 
the  plum,  so  that  many  botanists  regard  them  all 
as  one  species. 

Bullace-pluin,  the  Jamaican  name  of  the 
pleasant  fruits  of  Melicocca  bijuga,  a  sapindaceous 
tree  introduced  from  Guiana  and  New  Granada. 

Bui  lie,  or  Blebs,  are  collections  of  serous 
fluid  of  considerable  size,  situated  immediately 
beneath  the  cuticle,  and  raising  it  from  the  true 
skin.  They  differ  from  vesicles  only  in  size,  and 
no  very  definite  line  can  be  drawn  between  a 
large  vesicle  and  a  small  bulla. 

Bull-baiting,  a  barbarous  sport,  once  very 
popular  in  England,  and  in  which  all  classes  of 
society  delighted  equally.  A  number  of  dogs  were 
set  on  to  attack  a  bull ;  and  in  order  that  he  might 
be  made  as  furious  as  possible,  his  nose  was  some¬ 
times  blown  full  of  beaten  pepper  before  lie  was 
turned  loose.  Another  form  of  the  sport  was  to 
fasten  a  bull  to  a  stake,  by  a  rope  of  some  yards’ 
length,  and  to  set  bulldogs  on  him,  one  at  a  time, 
which  were  trained  to  seize  him  by  the  nose— 
which,  when  accomplished,  was  called  pinning 
the  bull.  Bull-baiting  was  declared  illegal  in 
England  in  1835. 

Bulldog,  a  breed  which  is  regarded  as  pecu¬ 
liarly  English.  The  bulldog  disputes  with  the 
greyhound  the  honor  of  being  the  oldest  known 
dog.  The  general  appearance  of  the  bulldog  is 
that  of  a  smooth-coated,  compact  dog,  low  in 


Bulldog. 

stature,  but  broad  and  powerful,  with  a  massive 
head,  large  in  proportion  to  its  body,  which  is 
short  and  well  knit.  The  bulldog  should  convey 
an  impression  of  determination  and  strength,  with¬ 
out  unwieldiness.  The  , 
bulldog  was  formerly 
used  for  bull-baiting, 
whence  he  derives  his 
name.  The  Bull-ter¬ 
rier,  was  originally  a 
cross  between  the  bull¬ 
dog  and  the  terrier, 
but  is  now  a  distinct 
breed.  He  combines 
l  lie  courage  of  the  bull¬ 
dog  with  the  activity 
of  the  terrier.  From 
his  quickness  and  sa¬ 
gacity  he  makes  a  good 
companion ,  though 
s  o  m  e  w  h  a  t  quarrel¬ 
some.  Head  long,  with  Bull-terrier, 

pointed  muzzle;  ears  naturally  large,  but  gen¬ 
erally  cut  to  a  fine  point,  standing  erect;  body 


BULLER. 


216 


BULWER. 


lightly  ribbed  but  powerful;  its  color  is  pure 
white. 

Duller,  Charles,  born  in  Calcutta  in  1800, 
was  educated  partly  at  Harrow  and  at  Cambridge, 
but  during  1822-24  was  Carlyle’s  pupil  at  Edin¬ 
burgh.  lie  was  called  to  the  English  bar  in 
1831,  and  entering  Parliament  before  the  Reform 
Bill,  continued  a  member  of  the  Lower  House  till 
his  untimely  death,  Nov.  29,  1848. 

Bullet  is  the  leaden  projectile  discharged  from 
a  rifle  or  pistol.  Case-shot  or  canister  and  shrap¬ 
nel  shell,  are  also  filled  with  spherical  bullets, 
hardened  by  the  addition  of  antimony  to  the 
lead.  Formerly  all  bullets  were  spherical,  and 
cast  in  moulds.  Now  nearly  all  rifle-bullets  are 
elongated.  A  machine  unwinds  a  leaden  rod  of 
the  proper  thickness,  cuts  it  into  the  required 
length,  and  swages  the  bullets  into  shape  by 
mean's  of  steel  dies,  dropping  them  into  a  box 
when  finished.  Each  machine  can  turn  out  7,000 
per  hour,  and  one  man  can  attend  to  four.  Bul¬ 
lets  partially  hollow,  which  expand  in  the 


Modern  Ritle-Bullets. 


Prussian 

Snider.  Needle-gun. 
Length,  1.065"  in.  1.08" 
Diameter,  .573"  .533' 

Weight,  480  grs.  430  grs. 


French  Martini- 

Chassepot.  Henry. 

1"  1.31" 

.463"  .45  at  base.  .439 

at  shoulder; 
380  grs.  480  grs. 


Bullfinch. 

bird  of  the  great  finch  family  Fringillidae,  a  little 
larger  than  the  common  linnet,  and  of  a  genus 


wound,  are  sometimes  used  for  shooting  large 
game.  Hollow-headed  explosive  bullets  were 
formerly  used  for  shooting  such  game  as 
elephants  and  tigers,  but  are  now  nearly  obsolete. 
Their  use  in  war  is  forbidden  by  the  Convention 
of  Geneva. 

Bulletin,  an  authenticated  report,  is  a  diminu¬ 
tive  of  Bull. 

Bullet-t  ree,  or  Bully-tree  ( Mimusopsb  il>ita) 
a  sapotaceous  tree  found  in  Guiana,  and  valued  for 
its  wood,  which  is  solid,  heavy,  close-grained  and 
durable,  and  also  for  its  delicious  cherry-like 
fruit.  It  yields balata-gum,  a  valuable  substitute 
for  india-rubber. 

Bull-light.  Combats  of  men  with  bulls  for 
the  entertainment  of  the  public  were  common  in 
Greece,  particularly  in  Thessaly,  and  in  Rome 
under  the  emperors,  though  in  latter  times  they 
were  forbidden  both  by  emperors  and  popes. 
They  are  still  a  common  spectacle  in  Spain  and 
Mexico,  where,  indeed,  the  corrida  de  toros  is  the 
national  pastime.  In  Madrid  the  bull-fighting 
season  commences  in  April  and  lasts  until 
November.  During  that  time  there  is  at  least 
one  Sunday  or  Saint’s-day  afternoon  in  every 
week  devoted  to  the  sport.  From  six  to  ten  bulls 
are  usually  despatched  in  a  single  day,  twenty 
minutes  being  about  the  time  taken  to  slay  one. 

Bullfinch,  (Pyr  rhula  rubriciUa  or  vulgaris),  a 


closely  allied  to  the  grosbeaks  and  crossbills. 
The  genus  is  particularly  characterized  by  the 
short,  thick,  rounded  bill,  of  which  the  sides  are 
inflated  and  bulging,  and  the  tip  of  the  upper 
mandible  overhangs  that  of  the  lower  one.  The 
bird  is  not  unfrequent  in  England,  and  is  found 
in  most  parts  of  Europe.  It  frequents  woods  and 
gardens,  and  builds  its  nest  in  trees  or  bushes  a 
few  feet  from  the  ground. 

Bullfrog  {liana  mugiens),  a  species  of  frog 
found  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  but  chiefly  abundant  in  the  Southern 
States.  It  is  of  a  large  size,  8  to  12  inches  long. 
The  color  is  olive  green  or  reddish  brown,  with 
large  brown  or  black  spots,  and  with  a  yellow 
line  along  the  back.  The  under  surface  is  yel¬ 
lowish.  It  receives  its  name  from  its  remarkable 
voice,  which  may  be  distinctly  heard  at  a  distance 
of  forty  or  fifty  yards.  Its  flesh  is  tender,  white, 
and  affords  excellent  eating,  the  hind  legs,  how¬ 
ever,  being  the  only  part  used. 

Bullhead,  or  Miller’s  Thumb  ( Gottus  gobio), 
a  small  fish  in  the  Acanthopterygii  subdivision, 
abundant  in  clear  rivers  and  streams,  in  some 


Bullhead. 


parts  of  the  British  Islands,  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  Europe,  and  in  the  north  of  Asia. 
It  seldom  exceeds  three  or  four  inches  in  length. 

Ballinger,  Heinrich,  a  Swiss  reformer,  was 
born  July  18,  1504.  In  1529  he  married  a  former 
nun,  and  two  years  later  became  pastor  of  the 
principal  church  at  Zurich,  and  Zwingli’s  suc¬ 
cessor  as  leader  of  t lie  reformed  party  in  iis 
struggle  with  the  Catholics,  as  well  as  with  the 
Zealots  and  the  Lutherans.  He  took  a  principal 
part  in  drawing  up  the  first  Helvetic  Confession 
at  Basle  in  1536,  and  died  Sept.  17,  1575. 

Bullion  usually  means  uncoined  gold  and  silver 
in  bars  or  other  masses,  though  occasionally  it  is 
used  as  practically  synonymous  with  the  precious 
metals,  coined  and  uncoined.  The  origin  of  the 
word  seems  to  be  the  Latin  word  bulla,  around 
boss  or  stud,  or  stamp,  or  the  verb  bullare,  to  boil 
or  bubble,  and  it  came  in  England  to  signify  the 
standard  metals  of  which  coins  are  made. 

Bull  Run,  a  small  stream  separating  Fairfax 
and  Prince  William  counties  in  Virginia,  about 
twenty-five  miles  west-by-soutli  of  Washington, 
and  giving  its  name  to  a  famous  battlefield,  where 
two  battles  were  fought  during  the  civil  war  on 
July  21,  1861,  and  Aug.  29,  18C2.  In  the  first 
the  Union  army  lost  2,950  men,  while  the  Con¬ 
federates’  loss  was  1,652.  In  t lie  second  the  Union 
loss  was  11,000,  that  of  the  Confederates  7,241. 

Bulls  and  Bears.  In  the  slang  of  the  Stock 
Exchange,  a  bull  is  a  person  who  seeks  artificially 
and  unduly  to  raise  the  price  of  stock,  and 
speculates  on  a  rise.  On  the  other  hand,  a  bear 
is  one  who  speculates  on  a  fall;  who  sells  stock 
for  delivery  at  a  future  date,  in  the  hope  that 
meanwhile  prices  will  fall,  so  that  he  will  buy 
at  a  lower  price  what  he  has  sold  at  the  higher 
price. 

Bull  Trout  ( salmo  cambricus  or  grise.ua),  a 
species  of  the  Salmon  genus,  and,  like  it,  migra- 


Bull  Trout  ( Salmo  cambricus). 


tory  in  its  habits,  ascending  rivers,  in  which  it 
deposits  its  spawn,  but  living  chiefly  in  the  sea. 


Billow,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  Baron  von, 
Prussian  general,  horn  in  1755.  When  Prussia 
declared  war  with  France  in  1813,  Billow  com¬ 
manded  in  the  first  successful  encounter  with  the 
French  at  Mockern.  His  victories  over  Oudinot 
and  Ney  at  Grossbeeren  and  Dennewitz  saved 
Berlin  and  inflicted  severe  loss  on  the  enemy. 
He  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  of  Leip¬ 
zig,  and  by  taking  possession  of  Montmartre,  fin¬ 
ished  the  campaign  of  1814.  The  king  acknowl¬ 
edged  his  services  by  an  estate  and  the  title  of 
“  Countof  Dennewitz.”  In  the  campaign  of  1815 
he  joined  Bluclier  and  headed  the  column  that 
first  came  to  the  aid  of  Wellington  at  Waterloo. 
He  died  at  Konigsberg,  Feb.  25, 1816. 

Billow,  IIans  Guido  von,  pianist  and  com¬ 
poser,  horn  at  Dresden,  Jan.  8,  1830,  the  son 
of  Karl  Eduard  von  Billow  (1803-53),  poet  and 
author.  Hans  studied  music  with  zeal,  and  hav¬ 
ing  spent  some  time  with  Richard  Wagner,  he,  in 
1857,  became  the  pupil  of  Liszt,  whose  daughter 
he  married.  In  1854  lie  became  Prussian  court- 
pianist,  in  1864,  pianist  to  the  Bavarian  court,  and 
head  of  a  music-school  at  Munich.  Subsequently 
he  made  concert  tours  through  which  lie  became 
known  in  England  and  America.  In  1880,  he 
settled  as  director  of  music  to  the  court  at  Mein- 
ingen. 

Bulrush,  a  popular  name  for  large  reed-like 
plants  growing  in  marshes,  not  strictly  limited  to 
any  particular  kind.  The  application  of  the  term, 
both  in  literature  and  botany,  has  hesitated  par¬ 
ticularly  between  two  distinct  plants  of  tolerably 
similar  vegetative  habit -^Typlta  latifolia  and 
Scirpus  lacustris.  The  former  of  these,  also 


Bulin  sh. 

a,  Common  Cat's-tail  ( Typha  latifolia)-,  b,  Common 
Bulrush  ( Scirpus  lacustra). 

called  Reed-mace  or  Cat’s-tail,  belongs  to  the 
Typhaceae;  it  is  a  large,  handsome  plant  of  grass¬ 
like  habit,  and  reaching  a  height  of  five  to 
seven  or  eight  feet.  The  other,  and  apparently 
rightful  claimant  of  the  name  bulrush  belongs  to 
the  Cyperacese.  There  are  about  fifty  species  of 
Scirpus,  widely  distributed  through  all  climates. 
One  species,  S.  tuberosus,  is  cultivated  in  India 
as  a  source  of  starch. 

Bnlwer,  Henry  Lytton,  born  Feb.  13, 
1801,  the  second  son  of  General  Bulwer,  and  an 
elder  brother  of  Lord  Lytton.  In  1830,  he  was 
returned  to  Parliament.  In  1837,  he  became 
Secretary  of  Embassy  at  Constantinople.  In 
1843,  he  was  made  Minister  Plenipotentiary  to 
the  Court  of  Madrid,  and  negotiated  the  peace 
between  Spain  and  Morocco  in  the  following 
year.  He  was  made  a  K.C.B.  in  1848,  a  G.C.B. 
in  1851.  In  1849,  he  concluded  the  Clayton-Bul- 
wer  Treaty.  From  1858  to  1865  he  was  ambassa- 
dorto  the  Ottoman  Porte.  In  1871,  he  exchanged 
the  familiar  title,  “  Sir  Henry  Bulwer”  for  that 


BULWER-LTTTON. 


217 


BUPRESTRIB. 


of  “Lord  Dulling  and  Buhver.”  He  died  at 
Naples  May  23,  1872.  Among  liis  writings  were: 
An  Autumn  in  Greece  (1826)  and  France,  Social , 
Literary,  and  Political  (1834—1836). 

Balwer-Lyttou,  Sir  Edward.  See  Lytton. 

Bumboat,  a  boat  employed  to  carry  provisions 
and  other  articles  from  harbors  and  ports  to  ves¬ 
sels  lying  at  some  distance  from  the  shore.  The 
term  is  also  applied  in  the  United  States  to  a 
class  of  floating  dives  that  infest  the  harbors  of 
large  cities;  carry  on  their  nefarious  traffic  in 
defiance  of  law,  and  in  many  cases,  evade  the 
payment  of  taxes  on  the  liquors  they  sell. 

Banbury,  Henry  William,  caricaturist,  was 
the  son  of  the  Rev.  Sir  William  Bunbury,  and 
was  born  at  Mildenhall  in  Suffolk  in  1770.  He 
early  became  distinguished  for  his  humorous 
designs,  which  gave  him  rank  after  Rowlandson 
and  Gillray.  He  died  in  1811.  His  son,  Sir 
Henry  Edward  Bunbury,  seventh  Bart.  (1778- 
1860),  wrote  several  historical  works,  including 
one  on  the  Peninsular  War. 

Buncombe,  a  southwestern  county  of  North 
Carolina,  from  which  the  phrase  “  talking  for 
Buncombe”  originated  witli  a  member  of 
Congress. 

Bumleliesli  is  the  name  of  a  book  in  the  Peh- 
levi  language,  one  of  the  most  important  sources 
of  information  as  to  the  Zoroastrian  system  of 
belief.  There  are  translations  by  Justi  (1868)  and 
West  (1S79). 

Bnndelkhand,  a  region  of  Upper  India,  having 
the  River  Chambal  on  the  north  and  west,  and 
the  Jumna  on  the  northeast.  The  area  known  as 
Bnndelkhand  includes  five  districts  belonging  to 
the  British  Northwestern  Provinces  (Banda, 
Jalaun,  Jhansi,  Lalitpur,  and  Hamirpur),  and 
also  the  “  Bundelkhand  Agency,”  a  subdivision 
of  the  Central  Indian  Agency,  which  is  a  group 
of  some  thirty  native  States  and  petty  jaghires 
under  native  princes.  The  area  of  the  agency  is 
10,332  square  miles,  and  the  pop.  (1881)  2,206,402. 
The  principal  towns  of  Bundelkhand  are  Ivalpi, 
Jhansi,  Kalinjar,  Banda,  Jalaun,  Chhatarpur, 
and  Datia. 

Bundi,  a  native  State  of  Rajputana.  Area, 
2,300  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  254,701,  nearly 
all  Hindus.  The  chief  town  is  Bundi  (pop., 
20.744. 

Bungalow,  the  species  of  house  occupied  by 
Europeans  in  India,  and  commonly  provided  for 
officers’  quarters  in  cantonments.  Bungalows  are 
usually  of  one  story,  with  a  veranda,  and  a  pyram¬ 
idal  roof,  generally  of  thatch,  although  tiles  are 
sometimes  used;  houses  of  masonry,  with  terraced 
roofs,  are  distinguished  as  pucka  homes. 

Bunins,  a  small  genus  of  Cruciferse.  The 
leaves  of  B  orientalis  are  eaten  in  Russia,  and  are 
cultivated  in  Western  Europe  as  a  fodder  plant. 

Bunion  is  a  term  applied  in  Surgery  to  enlarged 
bursae,  or  synovial  sacs,  situated  on  any  part 
of  the  foot,  but  most  common  over  the  metatarso¬ 
phalangeal  joint  of  the  first  or  the  fifth  toe,  and 
accompanied  by  more  or  less  distortion  of  the 
joint.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases,  bunions 
are  directly  produced  by  the  pressure  of  badly- 
fitting  boots  or  shoes.  The  best  preventive  is 
roomy  boots  or  shoes.  Poultices  may  be  applied 
and  the  application  of  iodine  or  mercurial  oint¬ 
ment  is  suggested. 

Bunker  Hill,  an  elevation  (112  feet),  on  the 
Peninsula  of  Charlestown,  now  part  of  Boston, 
Mass. ,  connected  by  a  ridge,  700  yards  long, 
with  Breed’s  Hill  (75  feet).  The  two  heights 
were  the  scene  of  the  first  hard-fought  battle  of 
the  American  Revolution  (June  i  7,  1775),  in 
which  the  Americans,  from  behind  works  con¬ 
structed  during  the  preceding  night,  repulsed 
two  attacks  by  General  Gage’s  forces,  and  were 
dislodged  only  after  reinforcements  had  been 
brought  up,  and  their  ammunition  was  spent.  The 
British  loss  was  1,054,  that  of  the  Americans  449. 
A  granite  obelisk,  221  feet  high,  marks  the  siteof 
the  redoubt. 

Bunsen,  Christian  Karl  Josias,  Baron, 
diplomatist  and  scholar,  born  Aug.  25,  1791, 
at  Korbach,  in  the  principality  of  Waldeck.  His 
prize  essay,  Be  Jure  Atheniensium  Ilereditario , 
appeared  in  1813.  He  was  appointed  Resident 
Minister  at  Rome,  in  1827.  Being  recalled  from 
Rome  in  1838,  he  was  appointed  in  1839  Prussian 


Ambassador  at  Bern.  In  1841  lie  was  sent  on  a 
special  mission  to  London,  to  negotiate  the  erec¬ 
tion  of  an  Anglo-Prussian  bishopric  in  Jerusalem, 
and  in  the  next  year  was  appointed  Ambassador 
at  the  English  Court.  He  died  Nov.  28,  1860. 
In  1857  he  was  created  a  baron. 

Bunsen,  Robert  Wilhelm,  German  chemist, 
born  at  Gottingen,  March  31,  1811.  He  filled  the 
Chair  of  Chemistry  in  succession  at  Marburg, 
Breslau,  and  from  1852  at  Heidelberg.  His  papers 
on  physics  and  geology,  as  well  as  on  chemistry, 
are  numerous.  That  the  hydrate  of  oxide  of  iron 
is  an  antidote  to  arsenic  is  an  important  fact 
which  was  made  known  by  him,  with  his  friend 
Bertliold,  in  1837.  Bunsen  was  the  first  to  pro¬ 
duce  magnesium  in  large  quantities;  and  in  1860 
lie  invented  the  magnesium  light,  which  has 
proved  so  important  to  photography.  But  the 
greatest  discovery  with  which  his  name  is  associ¬ 
ated,  is  that  of  the  spectrum  analysis — made  in 
conjunction  with  his  friend  Kirchoff — which  has 
been  the  means  of  working  so  many  wonders  in 
chemistry,  and  revealing  so  much  to  astronomers. 
Its  first  result  was  the  discovery  of  two  new 
metals.  Besides  his  original  work  in  chemistry, 
Bunsen  proved  himself  also  one  of  its  most  suc¬ 
cessful  teachers,  with  a  singularly  happy  manner 
of  demonstration. 

Bunsen  Burner,  so  named  after  the  dis¬ 
tinguished  chemist.  Prior  to  its  introduction,  the 
heating  by  gas  or  oil  had  been  unsatisfactory, 
owing  to  the  imperfect  combustion  of  the  carbon 
causing  the  deposit  of  soot  on  any  body  in  contact 
with  the  flame.  Applying  the  principle  of  the 
blowpipe,  a  plentiful  supply  of  air  was  caused  to 
mingle  with  the  gas  before  ignition,  so  that  a 
smokeless  flame  of  low  luminosity,  but  great  heat¬ 
ing  power,  was  the  result.  The  simplest  form 
consists  of  an  ordinary  gas-jet,  over  which  is 
placed  a  piecS  of  metal  tube,  four  to  six  inches 
long,  and  perforated  with  holes  at  the  bottom. 
The  gas  having  been  turned  on,  air  rushes  in  at 
the  holes,  so  that  when  a  light  is  applied  to  the 
upper  end  of  the  tube,  a  greenish-blue  flame  is 
obtained.  If  the  air  is  in  excess,  the  flame  in¬ 
clines  to  green;  if  deficient,  a  yellow  flame  results. 

Bunting  (Emberiea),  a  genus  of  birds  in  the 
great  finch  family  F'ringillidae.  They  are  nearly 
allied  to  the  crossbills.  The  most  marked  charac¬ 
teristics  are  a  short,  straight,  conical  bill,  a  curved 
form  of  the  gape,  produced  by  a  narrowing  of  the 
sides  of  the  upper  jaw,  and  a  corresponding  en¬ 
largement  of  the  under  one;  and  a  hard,  rounded 
knob  on  the  palate  or  inner  surface  of  the  upper 


Reed  Bunting  ( Emberiza  schoeniclus). 
jaw.  This  knob  probably  aids  in  crushing  the 
seeds,  which  are  a  principal  part  of  the  food  of 
these  birds.  The  species  of  bunting  are  numerous. 
To  this  genus  belong  also  the  Ortolan  (E.  hortu- 
lanus),  and  the  Yellow-hammer  (E.  citrinella). 
The  Snow  Bunting,  or  Snowflake  (E.  nivalis  of 
many  authors),  has  been  placed  in  the  new  genus 
Plectroplianes.  North  America  has  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  species  of  bunting. — The  Black-throated 
Bunting  {E.  Americana)  is  extremely  plentiful  on 
the  prairies  of  Texas  and  other  southwestern  parts 
of  the  Unit' d  States;  extending  as  far  as  Mas¬ 
sachusetts.  In  the  Middle  and  Northern  States  it 
occurs  only  as  migratory  bird. 

Bunting,  or  Buntine.  is  a  thin  woollen 
material  of  which  flags  and  signals  of  ships  are 
usually  made. 


Banyan,  JonN,  author  of  the  Pilgrim’s  Prog¬ 
ress ,  was  born  at  Elstow,  near  Bedford,  England, 
in  1628.  Bunyan  joined  a  church  in  1653,  and  about 
1655  was  asked  by  the  brethren  to  address  them  in 
their  church  gatherings.  This  led  to  his  begin¬ 
ning  to  preach  in  the  villages  around  Bedford,  and 
in  1658  lie  was  brought  into  discussion  with  the 
followers  of  George  Fox.  This  resulted  in  the 
publication  of  his  first  book,  Some  Gospel  Truths 
Opened.  Two  other  works  were  published  by 
him,  after  which,  in  the  month  of  November, 
1660,  he  was  arrested  while  preaching.  The  im¬ 
prisonment  which  followed  upon  this  arrest  lasted 
for  twelve  years,  during  which  Bunyan  wrote 
Profitable  Meditations,  Praying  in  the  Spirit, 
Christian  Behavior,  The  Holy  City,  The  Resurrec¬ 
tion  of  the  Dead,  Grace  Abounding ,  and  some 
smaller  works.  This  imprisonment  was  in  the 
county  gaol  of  the  town  of  Bedford.  Bunyan 
was  released  in  1672,  and  became  a  licensed 
preacher,  having  been  chosen  by  the  church  to 
which  he  belonged  as  their  pastor.  In  1675  he 
was  again  arrested,  and  brought  to  trial  at  the 
midsummer  sessions  under  the  Conventicle  Act. 
He  was  sent  to  prison  for  six  months  in  the  town 
gaol  on  Bedford  Bridge.  It  was  during  this  later 
and  briefer  imprisonment  that  he  wrote  the  first 
part  of  his  memorable  work,  the  Pilgrim’s  Prog¬ 
ress.  This  was  followed  by  the  Life  and  Death  of 
Mr.  Badman  in  1680;  by  the  Holy  War,  his  most 
memorable  work  after  the  Pilgrim’s  Progress,  in 
1682;  and  by  the  second  part  of  the  Pilgrim, 
containing  the  story  of  Christiana  and  her  chil¬ 
dren,  in  1684.  Bunyan  had  been  pastor  of  the 
Bedford  Church  for  sixteen  years,  when  he  died, 
on  Aug.  31, 1688.  The  Pilgrim’ s  Progress  sprang 
at  once  into  fame,  100,000  copies  being  sold  during 
the  subsequent  ten  years  of  its  author’s  life,  and  it 
has  gone  through  more  editions  than  any  book 
except  the  Bible. 

Buol-Scliauenstein,  Karl  Ferdinand, 
Count,  Austrian  statesman,  born  May  17,  1797, 
was  Minister  in  succession  at  Karlsruhe,  Stuttgart, 
Turin,  and  St.  Petersburg.  He  was  second  Aus¬ 
trian  plenipotentiary  to  the  Dresden  Conference 
(1850),  after  which  he  was  minister  at  London. 
He  presided  at  the  Vienna  Conference  in  1855, 
and  represented  Austria  at  the  Congress  of  Paris. 
He  died  Oct.  28,  1865. 

Buononcini,  or  Bononcini,  is  the  name  of 
three  Italian  composers.  The  elder,  Giovanni 
Maria  (1640-88)  wrote  instrumental  pieces,  songs, 
and  church  music.  His  sons,  Marc  Antonio 
(1660-1726),  and  Giovanni  Ballesta  (1667-1750), 
were  known  as  composers  of  operas.  The  latter 
settled’  in  London  in  1720,  and  for  some  years 
was  very  famous  and  popular. 

Buoy,  in  nautical  affairs,  is  a  floating  mark 


places. 

Buprestis,  a  genus  of  beetles,  typical  of  a  large 


BUR. 


218 


BURIAL. 


family — Buprestidae.  Those  occurring  in  warmer 
countries  are  conspicuous  for  lively  color  and 


Buprestis  Bicolor.  Larva  of  Buprestis  gigas. 

metallic  sheen.  Some  of  them  are  popularly 
known  as  golden  beetles.  B.  g:gas,  found  in 
Cayenne,  is  about  two  inches  long. 

Bur,  in  an  engraving,  is  a  slight  ridge  of  metal 
raised  on  the  edges  of  a  line  by  the  graver  or  the 
dry  point.  It  produces  an  effect  like  a  smear, 
and  is  therefore  usually  regarded  as  a  defect, 
and  scraped  off.  Some  etchers,  however,  take 
advantage  of  it  to  deepen  their  shadows,  and 
Rembrandt  made  use  of  it  in  this  way  with  telling 
effect, 

Burbage,  Richard,  an  English  actor,  born 
about  1567.  Richard  made  his  dCbut  early,  by 
1588  having  already  earned  some  reputation,  and 
during  the  next  ten  years  outstripped  all  compet¬ 
itors,  and  earned  the  title  of  “Roscius.”  He  was 
a  partner  with  Shakespeare  in  the  famous  Globe 
Theater,  and  died  in  1618. 

Burbot  (Lota  vulgaris),  a  fish  closely  allied  to 


Burbot. 


the  ling,  and  remarkable  as  the  only  fresh-water 
species  of  the  cod  family  (Gadidae). 

Burdekin,  a  river  of  Queensland,  Australia, 
draining  the  district  of  North  Kennedy.  It  was 
discovered  by  Leichhardt  in  1845  and  explored 
by  Dalrymple  and  Smith  in  1859-60. 

Burdett,  Sir  Francis,  Bart.,  an  English  poli¬ 
tician,  born  Jan.  25,  1770.  In  1793  he  married 
Sophia,  youngest  daughter  of  Coutts,  the  wealthy 
London  banker  ;  in  1796  was  elected  member  of 
Parliament  for  Boroughbridge,  Yorkshire,  and  in 
1797  succeeded  to  the  Baronetcy.  In  May,  1807, 
he  was  returned  for  Westminster,  which  lie  rep¬ 
resented  till  1837.  Burdett  having  in  1810  pub¬ 
lished  a  Letter  to  his  Constituents,  declaring  the 
conduct  of  the  House  of  Commons  illegal  in  im¬ 
prisoning  a  radical  orator,  the  Speaker’s  warrant 
was  issued  tor  his  apprehension,  as  being 
guilty  of  a  breach  of  privilege.  He  was  arrested 
and  imprisoned,  but  the  prorogation  restored  him 
to  liberty.  In  1820  a  letter  ou  the  “  Peterloo 
Massacre”  involved  him  in  three  months’  im¬ 
prisonment  and  a  fine  of  £1,000.  In  1837  he  was 
returned  for  Wiltshire,  which  he  represented  till 
his  death,  on  Jan.  23,  1844. 

Burdett-Coutts,  The  Right  Hon.  Angela 
Georgina,  Baroness,  daughter  of  Sir  Francis 
Burdett,  was  born  April  21,  1814.  In  1837  she 
inherited  much  of  the  property  of  her  grandfather, 
Thomas  Coutts,  and  the  liberal  and  philanthropic 
use  she  made  of  this  wealth,  in  her  efforts  to  mit¬ 
igate  the  sufferings  of  her  fellow-creatures  and  of 
the  lower  animals,-  has  rendered  her  deservedly 
popular.  Besides  spending  large  sums  of  money 
in  building  and  endowing  several  churches  anil 
schools,  she  endowed  three  colonial  bishoprics  and 
established  a  fishery  school  at  the  Irish  village  of 
Baltimore  (1887),  and  lias  performed  many  other 
acts  that  denote  a  most  generous  and  philanthropic 
nature.  In  1881  she  was  married  to  Mr.  William 
Ashmead-Bartlett. 

Burdock  (Arctium),  a  genus  of  Composite 
familiarly  characterized  by  the  bracts  of  the  in¬ 
volucre  which  are  hooked  inwards  at  the  point. 
By  means  of  these  hooks  the  flower-head,  popu¬ 
larly  called  a  bur,  readily  lays  hold  of  the  clothes 


of  a  passer-by,  wool  of  a  sheep,  or  similar  ob¬ 
jects,  and  thus  the  seed  is  transported  from  one 


Greater  Burdock  Arctium  Lappa,  var.  mrj'is. 
a,  section  of  flower-head  showing  hooked  bracts, 
place  to  another,  the  short  hairy  pappus  being  in¬ 
sufficient  to  waft  them  far  on  the  wind. 

Bureau,  a  French  word,  signifying  a  writing- 
table  or  desk ;  also  an  office  for  transacting  busi¬ 
ness,  a  department  of  government,  or  the  officials 
that  carry  it  on.  Bureaucracy  is  a  name  often 
given  to  signify  the  kind  of  government  where  the 
administration  is  centralized  in  regularly  graded 
series  of  government  officials,  who  interfere  with 
and  control  every  detail  of  public  and  private  life. 

Burger,  Gottfried  August,  German  lyric 
poet,  was  born  Dec.  31,  1747.  11*  wrote  Lenore, 

the  Wild  Huntsman,  and  other  ballads,  and  led  a 
very  irregular  life.  He  died  at  Gottingen,  June 
8,  1794. 

Burgliley,  William  Cecil,  Lord,  English 
statesman,  born  Sept.  13,  1520.  In  1550  he  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  State,  and  in  1551  was 
knighted.  During  his  second  Secretaryship, 
Cecil  effected  most  important  and  beneficial 
changes  in  the  commercial  policy  of  the  country. 
Elizabeth,  on  her  accession  to  the  throne  (1558), 
appointed  him  Chief  Secretary  of  State.  She 
created  him  Baron  Burgliley  in  1571,  and  con¬ 
ferred  on  him  the  Order  of  the  Garter  in  the  suc¬ 
ceeding  year,  when  he  was  also  made  Lord  High 
Treasurer,  an  office  he  held  till  his  death,  on  Aug. 
4,  1598. 

Burglary  (an  old  Fr.  law  term,  made  up  of 
bourg,  a  town,  and  teres  a  robber,  from  Lat. 
htro),  in  the  criminal  law  of  England,  is  defined 
to  be  a  breaking  and  entering  a  dwelling-house  by 
night,  with  intent  to  commit  some  felony  therein, 
whether  such  intent  be  executed  or  not. 

In  the  United  States,  burglary  is  punished  by 
State  laws,  but  the  common  law  is  generally  fol¬ 
lowed,  except  where  modified  by  statute  or,  as  in 
Iowa  or  New  York,  where  criminal  codes  prevail. 
Some  States  include  breaking  into  shops,  offices, 
warehouses,  factories,  and  meeting-houses  as 
burglary.  An  Act  of  Congress  of  1825  expressly 
includes  breaking  into  boats  and  vessels  with 
intent  to  commit  a  felony.  In  some  States,  the 
same  deed  done  in  the  daytime  is  defined  as  burg¬ 
lary  in  the  second  degree.  The  night  is  the  time 
between  one  hour  after  sunset  and  one  hour  before 
sunrise,  or  when  the  features  of  a  man  can  not  be 
clearly  discerned. 

Burglen,  a  village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  Can¬ 
ton  of  Uri,  about  a  mile  from  Altorf,  is  the  tradi¬ 
tional  birthplace  of  William  Tell.  The  supposed 
site  of  the  patriot’s  house  is  now  occupied  by  a 
chapel,  erected  in  1522,  upon  the  walls  of  which 
are  represented  certain  mythical  scenes  from  his 
history.  Pop.,  1,478. 

Burgomaster,  the  Anglicized  form  of  the 
Dutch  burgemcester  (German  biirgermeister),  the 
title  of  the  chief  magistrate  of  a  city  or  town, 
analogous  to  the  French  maire,  the  English  and 
American  mayor,  and  the  Scotch  provost. 

Burgos,  a  city  of  Spain,  the  ancient  capital  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Old  Castile,  stands  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  River  Arlanzon,  225  miles  north  of 
Madrid.  Burgos,  which  is  the  see  of  an  arch¬ 


bishop,  was  founded  in  884.  Many  of  the  gloomy 
old  houses  of  its  early  history  still  remain.  In 
the  castle,  Edward  I.  of  England  was  espoused 
to  Eleanor  of  Castile.  The  cathedral  is  a  mag¬ 
nificent  structure,  rich  in  fine  sculpture  and 
tombs,  of  which  there  are  upward  of  60, 
with  44  altars,  and  fully  100  full-length  statues. 
The  church  of  Agueda  is  associated  with  the 
legend  of  the  Cid;  that  of  San  Esteban  was  form¬ 
erly  a  convent.  Burgos  was  the  birthplace  of 
the  Cid,  whose  bones  are  preserved  at  the  town- 
liall,  as  also  those  of  Pedro  the  Cruel,  San  Julian, 
and  San  Lesme.  The  city  was  greatly  injured  in 
November,  1808,  by  the  French,  who  sacked  it. 
In  1812  the  castle  was  four  times  unsuccessfully 
besieged  by  Wellington,  who  took  it  in  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year,  when  the  French  blew  it  up,  as  well 
as  the  fortifications.  Pop.  (1884),  28,781.  The 
Province  of  Burgos  has  an  area  of  7,082  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1884)  of  348,152. 

Bum  oy no,  .John,  British  general  and  drama¬ 
tist,  was  born  in  1723,  and  entered  the  army  in 
1740.  He  distinguished  himself  in  Portugal  by 
the  capture  of  Alcantara  (1762).  In  1774  he  was 
sent  to  America,  and  in  the  summer  of  1777  led 
an  expedition  from  Canada  into  the  provinces. 
On  July  6th  he  took  Ticonderoga;  but  on  October 
17th,  after  two  engagements,  he  was  forced  to  sur¬ 
render  to  General  Gates  at  Saratoga,  He  returned 
to  England  and  in  1782  was  made  commander-in- 
chief  in  Ireland.  He  was  the  author  of  some 
pamphlets  in  defense  of  his  conduct,  of  The 
Maid  of  the  Oaks  (1775),  and  of  The  Heiress  ( 1786), 
a  successful  comedy.  In  1787  he  was  one  of  the 
managers  for  conducting  the  impeachment  of 
Warren  Hastings.  He  died  June  3,  1792. 

Burgoyne,  Sir  John  Fox.  Bart.,  engineer 
officer,  son  of  the  above,  was  born  in  1782.  He 
entered  the  Royal  Engineers  in  1798;  from  1800  to 
1807  served  in  the  Mediterranean;  was  with  Moore 
at  Corunna  in  1809;  and  served  under  Wellington 
through  all  the  Peninsular  War.  In  1814  he  was 
commanding  engineer  of  the  expedition  to  New 
Orleans,  and  in  1826  of  Clinton’s  to  Portugal.  In 
the  Crimean  War  he  was  chief  of  the  engineering 
department  of  the  British  army.  He  was  made 
a  Baronet  in  1856,  Constable  of  the  Tower  in 
1865,  and  a  Field-Marshal  in  1868.  He  died  Oct. 
7,  1871. 

Burgundy,  once  an  independent  kingdom  of 
wide  extent,  and  later  a  French  province  (Fr. 
Bourgogne).  The  ancient  Burgundians  (Bur- 
guiulii  or  Burgundioncs)  were  originally  a  Ger¬ 
man  tribe,  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Oder  and 
the  Vistula,  who  afterward  extended  themselves 
to  the  Rhine  and  the  Neckar,  and  in  406  pen¬ 
etrated  into  Roman  Gaul.  In  mediaeval  times  the 
name  of  Burgundy  is  best  known  as  associated 
with  the  dukedom  founded  by  Richard,  Count  of 
Autun.  Its  brilliant  period  began  when  John  of 
France  in  1363  conferred  the  dukedom  on  his  son, 
Philip  the  Bold,  who  was  appointed  Regent  of 
France  during  the  insanity  of  Charles  VI.  Charles 
the  Bold  (1467—77)  was  one  of  the  most  power¬ 
ful  princes  in  Christendom.  The  possession  of 
the  flourishing  cities  of  Flanders  made  him  the 
wealthiest  monarch  of  Europe.  He  was  slain  at 
Nancy  (1477).  Louis  XI.  of  France,  as  overlord, 
appropriated  the  dukedom,  and  the  domains  of 
Burgundy  were  finally  incorporated  with  France, 
while  its  possessions  in  the  Low  Countries  re¬ 
mained  with  the  House  of  Hapsburg. 

Burgundy  Pitch,  a  resinous  substance  pre¬ 
pared  from  common  frankincense,  the  spontaneous 
exudation  of  the  Norway  spruce-fir  (Abies  Ex- 
cclsa),  by.  inciting  it  in  hot  water.  Burgundy 
pitch  is  of  a  yellowish-white  color,  hard  and 
brittle  when  cold,  but  softening  by  the  heat  of 
the  hand.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as  an  external 
application  only,  and  acts  as  a  mild  irritant. 

Burgundy  Wines  rank  amongst  the  finest  in  the 
world.  The  finest  white  Burgundy  is  Mont 
Rachet;  Chablis  is  a  white  wine  of  Lower  Bur¬ 
gundy.  Beaune  is  the  center  of  the  trade.  The 
most  celebrated  red  wines  of  Burgundy  are  Rom- 
anee-Conti,  Cliambertin,  Richebourg,  Clos-Vou- 
geot. 

Burlianpur,  a  town  of  India,  280  miles  north¬ 
east  of  Bombay.  The  city  was  taken  by  General 
Wellesley  in  1803.  Pop.  (1881),  30, 017. 

Burial,  a  word  of  Teutonic  origin  (A.  S. 
byrgan,  to  bury),  is  applied  to  the  prevalent 


BURIAL  SOCIETIES. 


219 


BURMAH. 


method  among  civilized  nations  of  disposing  of 
the  dead  by  committing  them  to  the  earth. 
During  the  persecutions  of  the  second  century 
the  Catacombs  were  used  as  places  of  assemby 
for  worship;  and  the  association  of  the  church 
and  cemetery  thus  established  has  continued 
ever  since.  It  was  not  till  the  ninth  century  that 
the  formal  consecration  of  churchyards  became 
customary.  Some  of  the  grandest  buildings  in 
the  world  have  been  tombs;  such  are  the  Pyra¬ 
mids,  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  the  tomb  of  Cte- 
cilia  Metella,  and  many  temples  in  Eastern  coun¬ 
tries.  In  the  Christian  countries,  too,  the  denial 
of  the  rite  of  Christian  burial  formerly  involved 
a  judgment  on  the  life  of  the  deceased;  this  fate 
was  frequently  reserved  for  the  unbaptized,  non- 
Calholics,  excommunicated  persons,  notorious 
mockers  at  religion  and  evil  livers,  unre¬ 
pentant  sinners,  persons  who  did  not  take  the 
Eucharist  at  least  once  a  year,  executed  criminals, 
suicides,  persons  who  fell  in  duels;  and  till  the 
Revolution  every  French  stage-player  was  buried 
in  unconsecrated  ground.  Not  till  1823  was  the 
barbarous  mode  of  burying  suicides  at  cross¬ 
roads,  with  a  stake  driven  through  the  body, 
abolished  in  England.  In  burial  at  sea,  usually 
the  dead  body  is  sewn  up  in  a  hammock,  with  a 
weight  attached  to  the  feet,  and  a  modified  form 
of  the  burial  service  is  read  before  the  body  is 
committed  to  the  deep.  In  some  places  the  dead 
are  kept  for  a  time  in  mortuary  houses  specially 
fitted  up  for  the  purpose.  But  these  precautions 
have  always  proved  needless;  a  corpse  has  never 
revived  under  such  circumstances.  In  the  United 
States,  neglect  to  bury  a  dead  body  by  any  one 
whose  duty  it  is  to  bury  it,  and  having  sufficient 
means  to  do  so,  is  a  misdemeanor,  it  is  also  a 
misdemeanor  to  fail  to  notify  a  coroner  that  a 
body  on  which  an  inquest  ought  to  be  held  is 
lying  unburied;  or  to  bury  or  otherwise  dispose 
of  such  body  without  giving  notice  to  the  coro¬ 
ner. 

Burial  Societies  are  benefit  societies  consti¬ 
tuted  with  the  object  of  supplying  a  fund  for 
paying  the  funeral  expenses  of  the  members  on 
their  death. 

Buriats,  a  Mongol  race,  with  several  branches, 
in  East  Siberia,  on  both  sides  of  Lake  Baikal, 
numbering  about  208,000. 

Burin,  or  Graver  (Er.  burin,  from  Ital.  borino; 
but  originally  cognate  with  English  bore),  the 
principal  instrument  used  in  copper-engraving  is 
made  of  tempered  steel,  and  is  of  prismatic  form, 
the  graving  end  being  ground  off  obliquely  to  a 
sharp  point 

Buriti  Palm  ( Mnuritin  Sag  vs  vinifera),  a 
beautiful  palm  which  grows  in  the  swamps  of 
Northern  Brazil.  It  is  one  of  the  loftiest  of 
palms,  reaching  100  feet.  The  stem  yields  a  kind 
of  sago,  which  is  eaten  like  bread;  the  pulp  and 
seed  of  the  fruit  are  eaten  and  made  into  sweet 
meats — and  the  sap  is  drank  fresh,  or  fermented 
by  the  natives. 

Burke.  Edmund,  a  celebrated  orator  and  philo¬ 
sophic  politician,  was  born  in  1729  at  Dublin.  In 
1756  he  married  a  daughter  of  Dr.  Nugent.  In 
1765  he  became  Private  Secretary  to  the  Marquis 
of  Rockingham,  at  that  time  Premier,  and  was 
returned  to  Parliament  as  member  from  Wen- 
dover.  His  eloquence  at  once  gained  him  a  high 
position  in  the  Whig  party  and  in  the  House  of 
Commons.  Among  his  first  efforts  were  the 
speech  on  American  Taxation  (1774),  the  speech 
on  Conciliation  with  America  (1775),  and  the  Let¬ 
ter  to  the  Sheriffs  of  Bristol  (1777),  in  which  he 
advocated  justice  to  the  colonies.  In  1774  Burke 
had  to  retire  from  his  seat  for  Wendover,  but  the 
constituency  of  Bri-tol  elected  him  as  its  repre¬ 
sentative.  He  lost  theseat  in  1780,  and  from  that 
time  till  1794  he  represented  Malton.  Under 
Lord  Rockingham  in  1782  Burke  held  the  post  of 
Payma  ter  of  the  Forces,  and  resumed  it  under 
tlie  Dukeof  Portland  in  1783  In  1788  he  opened 
the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings  by  the  celebrated 
speech  which  will  always  rank  among  the  master¬ 
pieces  of  English  eloquence.  He  died  July  9, 
1797.  J 

Burke,  Sir  John  Bernard,  herald  and  gene¬ 
alogist,  the  son  of  John  Burke  (1787-1848),  born 
in  London  in  1815.  In  1853  he  was  appointed 
Lister  King-of- Arms,  was  knighted  in  1854,  be¬ 
came  LL.D.  of  Dublin  in  1867,  and  C.B.  in  1868, 


and  in  1874  was  appointed  Governor  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  Gallery  of  Ireland. 

Burke,  Robert  O’Hara,  one  of  the  first  white 
men  to  cross  the  Australian  Continent  from  south 
to  north,  was  born  in  1820.  He  died  June  28, 
1861. 

Burke,  Rev.  Thomas  Nicholas,  better  known 
as  “  Father  Tom,”  a  distinguished  preacher  of 
the  Dominican  order,  was  born  in  Galway,  in 
1830.  From  1871  to  1873  he  preached  and  lect¬ 
ured  in  the  United  States,  and  realized  large 
sums  for  charitable  purposes.  During  this  time 
Father  Burke  had  a  public  controversy  with  the 
historian,  Fronde,  in  which,  as  many  think,  the 
priest  had  a  good  deal  the  best  of  the  argument. 
Father  Burke  died  July  10,  1883. 

Burke,  William,  born  in  1792,  the  partner 
with  William  Hare  in  a  series  or  infamous  mur¬ 
ders.  With  the  help  of  their  wives,  they  had 
already  murdered  fifteen  persons  for  dissection 
and  received  from  Dr.  Knox  for  the  bodies  sums 
varying  from  .$40  to  $70,  when  their  infamous 
trade  was  discovered.  Hare  was  admitted  King’s 
evidence,  while  Burke  was  hanged  Jan.  28,  1829. 
The  word  “  burking  ”  is  from  his  name. 

Burkitt,  William,  commentator,  was  born  at 
Ilitcham,  Suffolk,  England,  in  1650.  He  died  in 
1703. 

Burlesque  (through  Fr.  from  Ital.  burla,  a  jest), 
denoting  a  ‘style  of  speaking,  acting,  writing, 
drawing,  is  a  low  and  rude  grade  of  the  comic. 
The  legitimate  comic  brings  together  contrasts 
with  a  final  view  to  harmonizing  and  reconciling 
them;  the  burlesque  distorts  and  caricatures,  and 
brings  the  incongruities  into  stronger  relief.  The 
farce  is  the  burlesque  of  comedy. 

Burlingame,  Anson.  American  diplomatist, 
born  in  1820  at  New  Berlin,  N.  Y.  Elected  to  the 
Massachusetts  Senate  in  1853,  he  entered  Congress 
in  1854.  He  was  sent  as  United  States  Minister 
to  China  by  President  Lincoln;  and  when,  in 
1867,  he  was  returning  home,  the  regent,  Prince 
Kung,  made  him  special  Chinese  Envoy  to  the 
United  States,  and  the  great  powers  of  Europe. 
As  such  he  succeeded  (1868)  in  securing  the 
acceptance  and  ratification  by  the  United  States 
and  China  of  the  Burlingame  Treaty,  by  which 
China  officially  accepted  the  principles  of  inter¬ 
national  law.  He  subsequently  visited  England, 
France,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Holland,  Prussia, 
and  Russia,  as  Chinese  envoy,  and  died  at  St, 
Petersburg,  Feb.  23,  1870. 

Burlington,  the  name  of  three  cities  in  the 
United  States;  (1)  The  capital  of  Des  Moines 
county,  Iowa,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi,  207  miles  west-southwest  of  Chicago.  It  is 
an  important  center.  Pop.,  23,459. — (2)  A  port 
of  entry  of  Burlington  county,  N.  J.,  on  the  Del¬ 
aware,  twenty  miles  above  Philadelphia.  Pop., 
6,653. — (3)  A  port  of  entry  and  capital  of  Chitten¬ 
den  county,  Vt.,  and  the  most  populous  city  in 
the  State,  situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake 
Champlain.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State  Agricul¬ 
tural  College  (1865),  and  of  the  Vermont  Univer¬ 
sity  (1800  .  It  is  one  of  t he  largest  lumber  markets 
in  the  United  States.  Pop.,  11,365. 

Burmah  is  the  largest  province  of  the  Indian 
Empire.  It  stretches  from  28°  latitude,  on  the 
confines  of  Thibet,  southward  for  1,100  miles,  to 
10°  latitude,  far  down  the  Malay  Peninsula,  and 
from  103°  longitude,  on  the  Chinese  border,  700 
miles  westward  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  It  is  co¬ 
terminous  with  China  and  Siam  on  the  east; 
and  for  the  rest  it  is  bounded  by  the  Indian 
Provinces  of  Bengal  and  Assam,  and  by  the 
ocean.  Its  total  area  is  about  280,000  square 
miles,  of  which  one-third  belongs  to  the  old 
Province  of  Lower  Burmah,  and  two-thirds  to  the 
new  Province  of  Upper  Burmah.  The  country 
consists  of  the  great  Basin  of  the  Irawadi  and  its 
affluents;  the  rugged  country  drained  by  the  Sal¬ 
ween  and  Sittang  rivers,  on  the  upper  waters  of 
which  are  situate  the  Shan  States;  and  thenar- 
row  maritime  Provinces  of  Arakan  and  Tenas- 
serim.  The  level  cultivable  plains  probably  do 
not  exceed  50,000  square  miles  in  all.  The  rest 
of  Burmah  is  hilly,  broken  country,  covered  for 
the  most  part  with  forest.  The  principal  hill- 
ranges  arc  the  Patkoi  Mountains,  reaching  12,000 
feet;  the  China  Hills,  culminating  in  perpetual 
snow-peaks  15,000  feet  high;  the  Arakan  Yoma 
Range;  the  Pegu  Yoma  Range;  the  Tenasserim 


Range,  and  the  Shan  States,  a  vast  upland,  cleft 
by  deep  chasms,  in  which  flow  the  Salween 
and  the  Cambodia  rivers,  and  their  feeders. 
The  chief  river  of  Burmali  is  the  navigable 
Irawadi,  with  a  course  of  1,100  miles  from  its 
source  in  the  snowsof  Thibet  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
From  the  middle  of  November  to  the  end  of  Jan 
nary  the  climate  is  cool,  and  the  thermometer  at 
dawn  sometimes  falls  as  low  as  60°  F.  From 
February  to  the  end  of  April  the  climate  of  the 
delta  is  dry  and  hot,  and  the  thermometer  reaches 
100°  in  the  shade;  but  the  nights  are  cool.  The 
most  important  and  valuable  tree  is  the  Teak 
(Tectona  grand  is).  Not  the  least  useful  of  the 
products  of  the  forests  is  the  bamboo.  Among 
the  wild  animals  are  the  elephant,  three  species  of 
rhinoceros,  tapir,  buffalo,  gayal.  many  kinds  of 
deer,  small  wild  cattle,  hog,  tiger,  leopard,  bear, 
and  wild  dog.  Among  domestic  animals,  the 
buffalo,  oxen,  elephants,  and  ponies  are  all  good. 
Pythons  and  cobras  abound;  and  the  hamadryad, 
the  most  deadly  of  Eastern  snakes,  is  occasionally 
met.  The  peacock  of  Burmah  is  larger  and  more 
gorgeous  than  its  Indian  congener;  the  argus 
pheasant,  the  golden  and  the  silver  pheasant,  are 
the  most  brilliant  of  the  gallinaceous  birds;  aquatic 
birds,  from  the  pelican  and  wild  goose  down  to 
the  snipe,  abound,  as  do  fish.  Gold  is  found  in 
small  quantities  by  washing  river-sand;  silver  is 
extracted  in  the  Shan  States,  but  not  in  great 
quantity.  Iron,  copper,  lead,  and  tin  exist  in 
great  quantity,  but  none  of  these  pay  for  working, 
except  tin,  which  is  worked  by  Chinese  settlers  in 
the  Mergui  district.  Petroleum  is  found  at  many 
points  on  the  Irawadi  river  and  in  Arakan.  Jade 
and  amber  are  both  found  and  worked  in  the 
country  north  of  Bhamo,  on  the  feeders  of  the 
Chindwin  river.  Coal  exists  at  several  places  in 
the  Shan  States,  at  Kal<5,  and  at  Thingadaw.  The 
ruby  mines  north  of  Mandalay  yield  the  best 
rubies  in  the  world.  The  ruby-yielding  area 
stretches  over  about  200  square  miles.  Rubies  are 
found  by  sinking  holes  down  to  the  ruby -bearing 
stratum,  and  then  sifting  or  washing  the  earth 
raised  therefrom.  The  census  of  February,  1881, 
showed  the  population  of  Lower  Burmah  to  be 
3,736,771,  and  in  1888  it  was  about  4,750,000. 
The  population  of  Copper  Burmah,  including  the 
Shan  States,  is  estimated  at  4,500,000.  Probably 
the  population  may  be  distributed  thus; 


Burmahns . 5,450,000 

Shans . 2,000,000 

Karens .  700,000 

Other  hill  tribes .  800,000 

Indians,  Chinese,  Europeans,  and  others _  ....  300,000 

Total . 9.250,000 


The  Burmahns  are  a  short-statured,  thick-set 
people;  they  wear  long  hair  on  their  heads,  but 
have  little  hair  on  their  faces.  They  are  flat- 
featured,  and  nearer  the  Chinese  than  the  Aryan 
type.  Dacoity,  or  robbery  with  violence,  by  gangs 
is  a  common  crime.  The  staple  food  of  the  peo¬ 
ple  is  rice.  Burmahns  eat  fish  or  meat  daily,  and 
have  more  liberal  diet  than  Indians  of  the 
same  class.  They  are  Buddhists,  and  their  form 
of  Buddhism  is  purer  than  in  any  other  country 
except  Ceylon.  There  are  no  large  land-owners, 
and  there  is  no  aristocracy  except  the  officials. 
The  most  influential  and  respected  class  are  the 
Buddhist  monks.  The  Shans  resemble  the  Bur¬ 
mahns;  but  being  highlanders,  are  poorer,  hardier, 
and  more  courageous.  The  Karens  used  to  be 
nature- worshipers;  they  were  despised  and 
oppressed  by  the  Burmahns  among  whom  they 
lived.  A  large  number  have  embraced  Christian¬ 
ity,  and  now  there  are  over  500  parishes  of  Christian 
Karens,  containing  nearly  200,000  souls.  The 
Chins  live  in  the  uplands  between  Arakan  and 
the  Chindwin  river;  they  make  yearly  raids  upon 
the  peaceful  villages  of  the  Kubo  and  Chindwin 
Valleys.  The  Burmese  language  is  monosyllabic; 
it  is  written  from  left  to  right;  the  shape  of  the 
letters  is  circular;  and  most  of  the  letters  are  per¬ 
haps  rounded  modifications  of  Sanskrit  letters. 
The  primary  schools  of  the  country  are  the 
Buddhist  monasteries,  in  which  every  Burmahn 
lad  must,  according  to  custom  sanctioned  by 
religion,  spend  a  part  of  his  boyhood  as  pupil 
and  acolyte.  The  external  sea-borne  trade  of 
Lower  Burmah  is  valued  at  $70,009,000.  Most  of 
this  trade  centers  in  Rangoon.  The  chief  export 
items  are  rice,  teak  timber,  cutch,  hides,  cotton; 


BURMANN. 


220 


BURNS. 


while  the  chief  import  items  are  cotton  piece- 
goods  and  yarns,  silk  goods,  coal,  hardware,  salt, 
and  metals.  The  great  staple  of  Lower  Burmah  is 
rice,  of  which  as  much  as  1, lot), 000  tons  are  ex¬ 
ported  in  one  year.  The  arts  in  which  Burmese 
excel  are  wood-carving,  silver  repoussfi  work, 
woven  silk  fabrics  of  many  colors,  and  lacquer- 
ware.  Much  lacquer-ware  is  made  on  delicate 
woven  bamboo  frames.  Excellent  boats  are  built 
on  all  the  larger  rivers.  Everybody  in  Burmah 
lives  in  either  a  wooden  house  or  a  bamboo  hut, 
save  in  the  large  towns  where  a  few  rich 
people  have  built -masonry  houses.  Every  house 
is  built  on  posts  or  piles,  so  that  the  lowest 
floor  is  from  one  to  twelve  feet  off  the  ground. 
Burmah  is  governed,  in  behalf  of  the  Viceroy  of 
India,  by  a  chief-commissioner,  whose  headquar¬ 
ters  are  mainly  at  Rangoon.  The  territory  is  di¬ 
vided  into  eight  provinces,  over  each  of  which  a 
commissioner  is  the  supreme  judicial  and  execu¬ 
tive  officer;  and  each  commissionership  is  again 
divided  into  districts.  The  district  administration 
is  supported  by  a  strong  police  force,  partly 
Burmahnsand  partly  Indians,  who  are  commanded 
by  European  officers.  A  military  garrison,  con¬ 
sisting  in  January,  1888,  of  about  20,000  troops,  oc¬ 
cupies  the  country.  The  royal  chronicles  kept  by 
the  Kings  of  Ava  derive  the  earliest  Burmese 
dynasty  from  Buddhist  monarchs  in  India.  It  is 
conjectured  that  the  Burmakins  came  into  the  Ira- 
wadi  Valley  from  the  highlands  of  Central  Asia 
about  2,000  years  age,  and  amalgamated  with  the 
races  then  living  in  the  country.  In  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries  Burmese  Kings  had  their 
capital  at  Pagan  on  the  Irawadi,  about 
400  miles  from  the  sea.  The  Empire  was 
wrested  from  the  Burmalins,  and  held  for  a  short 
time  by  the  Shans,  and  by  the  Talaings,  a  race 
who  had  preceded  the  Burmalins  in  the  Irawadi 
Delta.  During  the  later  part  of  the  eighteenth 
century  Siam  revolted,  and  Burmah  suffered  three 
invasions  by  Chinese  armies  from  the  north. 
Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  Burmese  con¬ 
quered  Assam,  and  about .1820  they  first  came  into 
contact  with  the  British  power  in  India,  and  like 
all  other  native  races  were  gradually  deprived  of 
their  territory  by  the  English.  In  1879  King 
Mindoon  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Tliebaw,  whose  accession  was  signalized  by  the 
massacre  of  his  brothers,  sisters,  and  relatives. 
The  Brit  ish  Resident  protested  against  these  bar¬ 
barities,  and  in  October,  1885,  anultimatumwasde- 
spatched  to  Mandalay,  the  terms  of  which  were 
refused.  Early  in  November,  King  Tliebaw  pub¬ 
lished  a  proclamation  calling  all  Burmalins  to  join 
him  in  driving  the  English  into  the  sea.  On 
November  15th  a  British  force  crossed  the  frontier 
and  steamed  up  the  Irawadi.  By  November  28th 
the  Burmese  troops  had  laid  down  theirarms,  and 
the  King  was  carried  captive  to  India.  Early  in 
1886  the  whole  of  Upper  Burmah  was  incorporated 
with  British  India  dominions. 

B uniiann,  a  Dutch  family  of  scholars,  origin¬ 
ally  from  Cologne. — (1)  Peter  “the  elder,”  born 
at  Utrecht  in  1668;  became  Professor  of  History 
and  Rhetoric  in  the  University  of  Utrecht,  after¬ 
ward  of  Greek  at  Leyden,  where  he  died  in  1 741. 
(2)  Peter  “the  younger,”  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1714  at  Amsterdam,  became  in  succession 
professor  at  Franeker,  professor  at  the  Amsterdam 
Athenaeum,  and  Keeper  of  the  public  library  there. 
He  retired  from  active  life  in  1777  and  died  the 
year  after. 

Bur-marigold  ( Bidens ),  a  widely  distributed 
genus  of  composite  annuals. 

Burnaby,  Fredeiuck  Gustaves,  a  daring 
traveler,  and  dashing  sabreur,  was  born  at  Bed¬ 
ford,  England.  March  3,  1842.  He  joined  the 
Royal  Horse  Guards  Blue  in  1859,  and  became 
■colonel  in  1881.  His  travels  in  Central  and  South 
America,  his  experiences  in  the  Carlist  camp  in 
1874,  and  with  Gordon  in  the  Soudan  in  1875, 
prepared  him  for  his  ride  to  Khiva,  across  the 
steppes  of  Tartary,  in  the  winter  of  1875.  In 
1876  he  traveled  in  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia.  In 
Graham’s  expedition  to  the  Eastern  Soudan  he 
was  attached  to  the  Intelligence  Department,  and 
was  badly  wounded  at  El  Teb;  and  in  1884  he 
made  his  way  without  leave  to  join  Sir  Herbert 
Stewart’s  column  in  the  Nile  expedition,  and  was 
killed  by  an  Arab  spear-thrust  in  the  first  battle, 
that  of  Abu  Elea,  Jan.  17,  1885.  Burnaby 


crossed  the  English  Channel  to  Normandy  in 
1882  in  the  balloon  “Eclipse.” 

BurnamL  Francis Cowi.ey,  author  and  dram¬ 
atist,  was  born  Nov.  29,  1836.  He  has  produced 
between  80  and  100  pieces.  lie  became  editor  of 
Punch  in  1880. 

Burnham,  Shelbourne  W.,  astronomer,  born 
in  1840,  was  for  many  years  a  resident  of 
Chicago,  but  is  now  (1889)  connected  with  the 
Lick  Observatory  in  California.  His  special  line 
of  study  is  double  stars,  of  which  he  has  discov¬ 
ered  more  than  1,000,  a  larger  number  than  has 
been  discovered  by  any  other  person,  and  he  is 
recognized  throughout  the  scientific  world  as  the 
best  living  authority  on  that  subject.  He  is  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Astronomical  Society,  and 
his  numerous  contributions  to  its  “Memoirs” 
have  been  of  the  greatest  value  to  science. 

Bu  rue -Jones,  Edward,  A. R. A.,  was  born  at 
Birmingham,  England,  Aug.  28,  1833.  About 
1370  he  began  to  be  known  as  an  oil-painter.  In 
1855  he  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the  Royal 
Academy. 

Barm  s,  Sir  Arexander,  was  bom  in  1805  at 
Montrose,  Scotland.  In  1821  he  entered  the  In¬ 
dian  army.  Starting  from  Lahore  in  1832,  in 
Afghan  dress,  lie  passed  through  Peshawur  and 
Kabul,  and  crossed  the  Indian  Caucasus  to  Balkh. 
Thence  he  passed  on  to  Bokhara,  Astrabad,  and 
Teheran,  and  journeying  through  Ispahan  and 
Shiraz,  reached  Bushirc  cu  the  Persian  Gulf, 
whence  he  embarked  for  India.  In  September, 
1839,  he  was  appointed  political  resident  at 
Kabul,  where  he  was  murdered  by  the  Afghan 
mob,  Nov.  2,  1841. 

Burnet,  Gilbert,  Bishop  of  Salisbury;  theo¬ 
logical  writer  and  historian,  was  born  at  Edin¬ 
burgh,  Sept.  18,  1643.  In  1669  he  became  Pro¬ 
fessor  of  Divinity  in  Glasgow  University;  but  in 
1674  he  resigned.  In  1683  he  attended  the  execu¬ 
tion,  and  vindicated  the  memory  of  his  friend 
Lord  William  Russell.  In  1 684  he  was  introduced 
to  the  Prince  of  Orange,  with  whom  he  became 
a  great  favorite.  When  William  came  over,  Bur¬ 
net  accompanied  him  as  royal  chaplain,  and  in 
1689  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  In  1698 
lie  was  appointed  preceptor  to  the  Duke  of  Glou¬ 
cester;  in  1699  he  published  his  Exposition  of  the 
Thirty-nine  Articles,  which  was  condemned  as 
heterodox  by  the  Lower  House  of  Convocation. 
He  died  March  17,  1715. 

Buruet,  John,  painter,  engraver,  and  author, 
was  born  near  Edinburgh,  in  1784,  and  died 
April  29,  1868. 

Burnet,  the  English  name  of  two  closely  allied 
and  often  united  genera  of  Rosacea? — Poterium 
and  Sanguisorba. — Great  Burnet  ( Poterium  [<Sa«- 
guisorba ]  officinale)  is  common  in  meadows  in  all 
parts  of  Europe.  The  root-stock  is  astringent, 


and  was  formerly  used  in  medicine. — Common 
Burnet  ( Poterium  Sanguisorba)  grows  in  dry 


pastures,  and  has  also  been  cultivated  as  a  fod¬ 
der  plant.  It  grows  wild  in  the  United  States. 

Bum*t-saxifrage  ( Pimpinella  Scixifraga )  is  an 
umbelliferous  plant,  which,  on  account  of  its 
general  similarity,  has  been  associated  or  confused 
with  buruet  from  the  earliest  times. 

Burnett,  Frances  Hodgson,  novelist,  was 
born  at  Manchester,  England,  Nov.  24,  1849. 
About  the  close  of  the  civil  war  she  emigrated 
with  her  parents  to  the  United  States,  and  settled 
in  Tennessee.  She  married  Dr.  Burnett  in  1873, 
and  settled  in  Washington.  Her  first  great  success 
was  with,  That  Lasso’  Loicne’s  (1877).  Haworth’s, 
appeared  in  1879.  The  chief  later  novels  are  A  Fair 
Barbarian  (1882),  Ihrovgh  One  Administration 
(1883),  Louisiana  (1880),  Little  Lord  Fauntleroy 
(1886),  and  The  Pretty  Sister  of  Jose,  (1889). 

Burnett’s  Disinfecting  Liquid  is  a  liquid 
introduced  by  Sir  William  Burnett  (1779-1861) 
for  deodorizing  the  bilge  water  of  ships,  sewage- 
water,  etc.  It  is  a  strong  solution  (sp.  gr.  2)  of 
chloride  of  zinc,  accompanied  by  a  small  quantity 
of  chloride  of  iron.  When  used  it  is  mixed  in 
the  proportion  of  one  pint  to  five  gallons  of  water. 
The  liquid  acts  only  as  a  deodorizer  and  antiseptic 

Burney,  Dr.  Charles,  musician  and  author, 
was  born  in  1726  at  Shrewsbury,  England.  He 
wrote  nearly  all  the  musical  articles  in  Rees’ 
Cyclopaedia.  He  died  April  12, 1814.  His  daughter 
Fanny,  was  the  famous  Madame  D’Arblay. — His 
son,  Charles  Burney,  D  D.  (1757-1817),  was  a 
schoolmaster  and  classical  critic.  His  library  was 
purchased  for  the  British  Museum  for  £13,500 

Burnham  Beeches,  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
forest  in  Buckinghamshire,  twenty-five  miles 
northeast  of  London. 

Burning  Bush  (Euonymus  at)  o-purpurcus)  fe 
a  small  ornamental  shrub  of  North  America,  with 
oblong  leaves,  deep  purple  flowers,  and  scarlet 
smooth  capsules;  its  congener,  E.  americanus,  has 
scarlet  prickly  capsules.  The  French  Buisson 
ardent  is  a  red  hawthorn  (Cratcegus  Pyracantha). 

Burnley,  a  thriving  cotton  and  woolen  manu¬ 
facturing  town  of  Lancashire,  England.  Pop. 
(1881),  63,638. 

Burnouf,  Jean  Louis,  French  philologist,  born 
at  Urville,  Sept.  14,  1775,  became  Professor  of 
Rhetoric  at  the  College  de  France  in  1817,  and 
subsequently  in  succession  Inspector  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity,  General  Director  of  Studies,  and  Libra¬ 
rian.  Elected  a  member  in  1836  of  the 
Academic  des  Inscriptions,  he  died  in  Paris,  May 
8,  1844. — Eugene,  a  great  Orientalist,  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  at  Paris,  April  1,  1801.  In 
1832  he  became  a  member  of  the  AeadGnie  des 
Inscriptions,  and  succeeded  to  Chdzr’s  Chair  of 
Sanskrit  at  the  Coll&gede  France,  which  he  filled 
until  his  death,  at  Paris,  May  28,  1852. — Emile 
Louis,  also  an  eminent  Orientalist,  nephew  of 
Jean  Louis,  born  at  Valognes,  Aug.  25,  1821, 
lectured  on  ancient  literature  at  Nancy,  and  was 
for  a  time  Director  of  the  French  school  at  Athens. 

Burns,  Robert,  the  national  poet  of  Scotland, 
was  born  at  Alloway,  near  Ayr,  Jan.  25,  1759. 
Even  in  boyhood  the  education  and  native  genius 
of  Burns  soon  made  him  friends  among  people 
born  to  a  better  place  at  the  table  of  life  than  his 
own.  He  became  a  kind  of  a  rural  Don  Juan. 
The  death  of  Burns’  father  in  1784  left  him  to  try 
to  farm  for  himself.  Burns  husbandry  went  ill, 
he  met  Jean  Armour,  the  entanglement  began, 
and  out  of  his  poverty,  his  passion,  his  despair, 
and  his  desperate  mirth,  came  the  poetic  harvest  of 
1785.  In  this  year  there  was  abundant  trouble 
with  Jean  Armour;  there  was  the  betrothal  to 
Highland  Mary,  and  her  death.  Looking  about 
him  for  money,  that  he  might  emigrate  to 
Jamaica,  Burns  published  the  famous  Kilmarnock 
edition  of  his  poems  (600  copies,  1786).  Burns 
got  a  few  pounds,  and  was  just  setting  sail,  when 
the  praises  and  promises  of  admirers  induc  ed  him 
to  stay  in  Scotland.  In  winter  he  went  to  Edin¬ 
burgh  and  played  the  lion.  In  1788 Burns  married 
Jean  Armour.  He  took  a  lease  of  Ellisland  farm, 
on  the  Nitli,  near  Dumfries,  and  next  year  re¬ 
ceived  an  appointment  in  the  Excise.  The 
following  year  (1790)  saw  the  birth  of  Tam 
O’Shanter,  written  in  one  day.  By  1790  Ellisland 
proved  a  failure.  Burns  left  his  farm,  withdrew 
to  Dumfries  and  to  gauging,  flirted  with  the 
French  Revolution,  drank,  wrote  songs,  ex¬ 
pressed  opinions  then  thought  Radical,  and  made 


BURNS— SCALDS. 


221 


BUSH  ANTELOPE. 


himself  unpopular  with  the  local  lairds;  until  on 
July  21,  1796,  he  died  in  poverty.  Some  of  his 
poetry  is  among  the  truest,  the  simplest,  the 
sweetest,  and  the  most  exquisite  of  any  language 
or  any  age. 

Burns  and  Scalds  are  injuries  to  the  body 
caused  by  excessive  heat  or  by  chemical  agents. 
In  any  burn,  serious  or  superficial,  some  coating 
material  should  be  spread  over  the  injured  sur¬ 
face,  such  as  sweet  oil,  or  molasses  thickened 
with  flour.  At  any  rate,  those  in  attendance 
should  employ  the  best  means  at  hand  to  exclude 
air.  Carbonate  of  soda,  sprinkled  on  the  burned 
parts,  and  dampened  with  water,  is  an  excellent 
curative  agent  in  burns  or  scalds.  It  will  allay 
pain,  and  prevent  a  sore.  If  intense  pain  and  ex¬ 
haustion  follow  the  injury  some  stimulant  should 
be  administered.  Flesh  coming  in  contact  with 
heated  oil,  water,  gas,  steam,  or  other  fluids,  is 
reduced  to  an  unhealthy  condition  known  as 
scald.  In  ordinary,  mild  cases  of  scalding,  the 
skin  is  marked  by  redness  and  slight  swelling, 
and,  if  a  blister  has  not  been  produced,  the  burn¬ 
ing  sensation  may  be  relieved  by  the  application 
of  cold  water.  In  an  extensive  scald  the  free  use 
of  ice  and  cold  water  will  afford  relief.  Scald 
and  burn  are  very  different  in  this  respect,  since 
burns  require  a  warm  treatment  and  scalds  a  cold 
one.  Mix  salt  or  saltpeter  with  the  cold  water, 
and,  with  a  view  to  increasing  the  cold  still  more, 
add  an  evaporative  substance  to  the  solution, 
applying  it  freely.  When  blisters  “raise”  cut 
them  open  and  apply  vaseline  with  floss  silk  or 
absorbent  cotton  around  the  wound. 

Burnside,  Ambrose  Everett,  was  born  at 
Liberty,  Ind.,  May  23,  1824,  was  graduated  from 
West  Point  in  1847.  lie  left  the  army  as  first- 
lieutenant  in  1852,  but  returned  as  Colonel  of 
Volunteers  in  1861,  commanded  a  brigade  at 
Bull  Run,  and  in  February,  1862,  captured 
Roanoke  Island.  In  November  he  superseded 
McClellan.  On  December  13tli,  he  crossed 
the  Rappahannock,  and  attacked  Lee  near 
Fredericksburg,  but  was  repulsed  and  was 
soon  after  transferred  to  the  department  of 
Ohio.  In  November,  1863,  he  successfully 
held  Knoxville  against  a  superior  force,  and 
in  1864  he  led  a  corps  under  Grant  through  the 
Battles  of  the  Wilderness  and  Cold  Harbor.  Re¬ 
signing  in  April,  1865,  he  was  elected  Governor 
of  Rhode  Island  (1866-68),  and  United  States 
Senator  in  1875  and  1881.  He  died  Sept.  13, 
1881. 

Burnt  Sienna,  a  fine  orange-red  pigment,  ob¬ 
tained  by  burning  the  ferruginous  ocherous  earth 
known  as  Terra  di  Siena. 

Burnt  Stones,  antique  carnelians  found  in 
ruins,  and  seeming  to  have  been  acted  upon  by 
fire,  having  a  dull  appearance  externally,  but  ex¬ 
hibiting  a  beautiful  red  color  when  held  up  to 
the  light. 

Burr,  Aaron,  an  American  statesman,  grand¬ 
son  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  born  at  Newark,  N.J., 
Feb.  6,  1756.  In  1775  he  joined  the  patriot  army, 
and  in  1777  he  became  Lieutenant-Colonel.  He 
was  Attorney-General  in  1788-90,  United  States 
Senator  in  1791-96,  and  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States  in  1800-4.  His  defeat  in  a  contest 
for  the  Governorship  of  New  York  led  him  to 
force  a  duel  (July  7,  1804)  on  the  most  active  of 
his  opponents,  Alexander  Hamilton,  who  fell 
mortally  wounded  at  the  first  fire.  Burr  fled  to 
South  Carolina,  and  though  indicted  for  murder, 
returned  later  and  completed  his  term  as  Vice- 
President.  He  now  prepared  to  raise  a  force  to 
conquer  Texas,  and  establish  there  a  Republic, 
which  might  detach  the  Western  territory  from  the 
Union.  Burr  was  tried  for  treason  in  i807.  He 
died  in  poverty  and  disgrace  Sept.  14,  1836. 

Burra  Burra  is  the  name  of  a  famous  copper 
mine  in  South  Australia,  101  miles  north-by-east 
of  Adelaide.  From  1844,  when  it  was  discovered, 
to  1875,  215,000  tons  of  ore,  valued  at  $20,000,000 
were  raised. 

Bur-reed  ( Sparganium ),  a  genus  of  Typhacem 
closely  allied  to  the  Bulrush,  and  of  similar  habitat 
and  distribution,  but  readily  distinguished  by  its 
globose  flower-heads. 

Burritt,  Eliiu,  a  distinguished  advocate  of  the 
doctrines  of.  the  Peace  Society,  and  widely  known 
as  "the  learned  blacksmith,”  was  born  at  New 
Britain,  Conn.,  Dec.  8,  1810.  He  studied  mathe¬ 


matics  and  languages  while  working  at  his  forge, 
and  became  familiar  with  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Arabic,  and  other  Oriental  tongues,  and  almost 
all  modern  European  languages.  At  Worcester  he 
edited  the  Christian  Citizen.  For  many  years  lie 
resided  in  England,  from  1865  to  1870  as  United 
States  Consul  at  Birmingham,  lie  died  at  New 
Britain,  March  6.  1879. 

Burroughs,  John,  an  author,  popular  on  both 
sides  of  the  Atlantic,  born  in  Roxbury,  N.  Y., 
April  3,  1837.  His  writings  on  natural  history 
are  as  valuable  from  a  literary  as  from  a  scientific 
point  of  view. 

Burroughs,  George,  a  clergyman,  of  Salem, 
Mass.,  who  was  executed  for  alleged  witchcraft  at 
that  town  in  1692. 

Burroughs,  William,  born  Oct.  6,  1785,  en¬ 
tered  the  United  States  navy  at  fifteen  and  rose  to 
be  Lieutenant.  On  Sept.  5,  1813,  he  was  in  com¬ 
mand  of  the  sloop  Enterprise  and  captured  the 
British  brig  Boxer,  after  a  short  but  desperate  fight. 
Lieutenant  Blyth  of  the  Boxer  was  killed  and  Bur¬ 
roughs  mortally  wounded.  Both  commanders 
were  buried  side  by  side  at  Portland.  See  Long¬ 
fellow’s  poem. 

Bursary  (Late  Lat.  bursarius,  a  treasurer,  from 
Gr.  burse,  a  skin),  the  annual  proceeds  of  a  sum 
permanently  invested  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
student  at  a  Scotch  secondary  school  or  university. 
Elsewhere  a  bursar  is  merely  the  treasurer  of  a 
college  or  monastery. 

Bursclienschaft.  (from  Bunch,  a  student  or  a 
young  fellow),  a  club  of  students  who  had  fought 
in  the  great  war  of  liberation,  was  founded  at 
Jena  in  1813.  The  aim  was  to  cherish  the  higher 
ideals  of  patriotism,  and  especially  of  German 
national  unity.  In  1819  the  bursclienschaft  was 
dissolved  by  the  Prussian  and  other  governments. 
The  result  was  the  formation  of  numerous  secret 
and  revolutionary  associations,  in  consequence  of 
which  hundreds  of  students  were  prosecuted  and 
imprisoned,  and  several  condemned  to  death 
(though  not  executed).  Prussia  gave  them 
amnesty  in  1840. 

Burslem,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  England,  in 
which  the  manufacture  of  pottery  was  established 
about  1644.  Josiali  Wedgwood  (1730-95)  was 
born  here.  Pop.  (1881),  26,522. 

Burton,  Sir  Frederic  William,  water-color 
painter,  was  born  in  County  Clare,  Ireland,  in 
1816.  In  1856  he  became  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Water  Color  Painters;  in  1874,  Director  of  the 
National  Gallery,  and  in  1884  was  knighted. 

Barton,  John  Hill,  historian,  was  born  at 
Aberdeen,  Scotland,  Aug.  22,  1809.  He  held  the 
office  of  Historiographer  Royal  for  Scotland.  He 
died  Aug.  10,  1881. 

Burton,  Sir  Richard  Francis,  one  of  the 
most  daring  of  modern  travelers,  was  born  in 
1821.  In  1842 he  entered  the  Indian  service,  and 
served  in  Sind  under  Sir  Charles  Napier.  In 
1856  he  accompanied  Speke  to  the  great  lake  of 
Tanganyika,  and  afterward  traveled  in  North 
America.  In  1861  he  married,  and  was  appointed 
Consul  at  Fernando  Po.  He  was  subsequently 
Consul  at  Santos  in  Brazil,  and  at  Damascus;  and 
in  1872  he  succeeded  Charles  Lever  in  the  post  of 
British  Consul  at  Trieste.  He  is  master  of  thirty- 
five  languages  and  dialects.  Lady  Burton,  the 
author,  lias  been  the  companion  of  his  wanderings 
since  1861.  In  1885-88  Burton  published  a  new 
and  literal  translation  of  the  Arabian,  Nights  in 
sixteen  volumes,  of  which  his  wife  issued  an  ex¬ 
purgated  edition. 

Burton,  Robert,  author  of  the  Anatomy  of 
Melancholy ,  was  born  at  Lindley,  England,  in  1577, 
and  died  Jan.  25,  1639.  The  first  edition  of  the 
Anatomy  of  Melancholy  appeared  in  1621.  The 
final  form  of  the  book  was  the  sixth  edition  (1651- 
52).  It  is  the  greatest  cento  ever  compiled. 
Boswell  tells  us  that  Dr.  Johnson  said  it  was  the 
only  book  that  ever  took  him  out  of  bed  two 
hours  sooner  than  he  wished  to  rise. 

Burton,  William  Evans,  born  in  London  in 
1804,  died  in  New  York,  Feb.  9,  1860.  His  first 
appearance  as  an  actor  was  in  English  Provincial 
theaters,  and  after  some  years  in  London  he  re¬ 
moved  to  this  country  in  1834.  He  became  lessee 
and  manager  of  theaters  in  New  York,  Baltimore, 
and  Philadelphia,  and  afterward  appeared  as  a 
star  in  the  leading  cities.  He  was  a  clever 
comedian  and  a  good  scholar. 


Burton-on-Treut,  a  municipal  borough  of  East 
Staffordshire  and  South  Derbyshire,  England.  It 
lias  thirty  breweries,  including  the  famous  es¬ 
tablishments  of  Bass  and  Allsopp.  These  thirty 
breweries  employ  about8,000  hands.  Pop.  (1881), 
39  285. 

Burn,  or  Boer  k  an  island  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  in  the  residency  of  Amboyna.  Area, 
with  the  small  isladci  of  Amblau,  3,360  square 
miles;  pop.  variously  estimated  at  from  10,000  to 
50,000. 

Bury,  a  flourishing  manufacturing  town  of 
southeast  Lancashire,  England.  Pop.  (1881), 
49,746. 

Burying  Beetle,  (Necrophorus),  a  genus  of 
Coleopterous  insects,  of  the  family  Silpliidse, 
with  short  club-shaped  antennae,  remarkable  for 
their  habit  of  burying  the  bodies  of  mice,  moles, 
and  other  small  animals,  in  which  to  deposit 
their  eggs.  They  all  produce  a  chirping  noise 
caused  by  rubbing  the  fifth  abdominal  ring 


Burying  Beetle. 

against  the  wing-covers.  When  touched  they 
give  off  a  fluid  with  an  extremely  fetid  and  per¬ 
sistent  smell. — The  known  species  are  mostly 
natives  of  Europe  and  of  North  America.  Silpha 
and  other  genera  of  the  same  family  are  common 
forms  on  dead  and  putrefying  bodies. 

Bury  St.  Edmunds,  or  St.  Edmundsbury,  a 
clean,  well-built  town  of  West  Suffolk,  England. 
It  received  its  name  from  Edmund  the  Martyr, 
who  on  Christmas  day,  856,  was  crowned  here. 
The  grammar  school  was  founded  in  1550  by  Ed¬ 
ward  VI.  Donaldson  was  one  of  its  head-masters, 
and  among  its  scholars  have  been  Sancroft,  Cum¬ 
berland,  Blomfield,  Fitzgerald,  and  Spedding. 
Defoe,  Wollaston,  and  “Mr.  Pickwick”  were  resi¬ 
dents.  Pop.  (1881),  16,111. 

Busa'co,  a  ridge  (1,826  feet),  in  the  Portuguese 
Province  of  Beira.  Here  Wellington,  with  40,000 
British  and  Portuguese  troops,  repulsed  the 
attack  of  Massena  with  65,000  French,  Sept.  27, 
1810. 

Busbecq,  Ogier  Giiiselinde,  a  Flemish 
diplomast,  born  at  Commines  in  1522,  is  best 
known  as  Ambassador  of  Ferdinand  (1556-62),  at 
Constantinople.  He  died  in  1592. 

Bushy,  Richard,  a  great  English  school¬ 
master,  was  born  at  Lutton,  otherwise  Sutton  St. 
Nicholas,  Lincolnshire,  England,  in  1606.  In  1640 
he  was  appointed  head-master  of  Westminster 
School,  in  which  office  lie  continued  until  his 
death  in  1695.  Among  his  pupils  were  Dryden, 
Locke,  South,  Atterbury,  Philip  Henry,  and 
Bishop  Hooper. 

Busby,  a  military  head-dress  worn  by  hussars 
and  by  horse-artillerymen  in  the  British  army. 
It  consists  of  a  fur  hat  with  a  short  bag  hanging 
down  from  the  top  on  its  right  side,  of  the  same 
color  as  the  facings  of  the  regiment,  and  an  up¬ 
right  plume  in  front. 

Busch,  Wilhelm,  German  comic  artist,  was 
born  near  Hanover,  in  1832. 

Buscliing,  Anton  Friedrich,  geographer, 
was  born  in  1724  in  Schaumburg  Lippe,  and  died 
May  28,  1793.  His  son,  Johann  (1783-1829), 
published  many  works  on  old  German  literature, 
art,  and  antiquities. 

Busenbaum,  Hermann,  theologian,  was  born 
in  1600  in  Westphalia,  and  died  rector  of  the 
Jesuit  College  at  Munster,  Jan.  31,  1678. 

Bush  Antelope,  also  called  Bush  Buck  and 
Bush  Goat,  names  common  to  a  number  of 
species  of  Antelope,  natives  chiefly  of  the  south¬ 
ern  and  western  parts  of  Africa.  They  have 
short,  straight,  or  slightly  curved  horns,  situated 
far  back,  and  often  peculiar  to  the  male  sex,  with 
usually  a  long  tuft  of  hair  between  them.  Among 


BUSHEL. 


BUTLER. 


the  numerous  species  the  pigmy  form  or  Kleene- 
bok(C.  pygmcea),  abundant  in  Cape  Colony,  de¬ 
serves  mention. 

Bushel  (Old  Fr.  boissel,  through  low  Lat. 
forms  from  Gr.  pyxis,  a  box),  a  dry  measure  used 
for  grain,  fruit,  etc.  The  Imperial  bushel  has  a 
capacity  of  2218.2  cubic  inches. 

Bushire,  or  Abushehr  (father  of  cities,  also 
variously  written  Bushahr;  in  Persian,  Bender- 
sliehr),  a  principal  port  of  Persia,  on  a  sandy 
peninsula  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
n  the  Province  of  Fars.  Pop.,  27,000,  chiefly 
Persians,  Arabs,  and  Armenians. 

Bushmen,  or  Bosjesmas,  are  a  nomadic  race 
of  South  Central  Africa,  numerous  in  the  Kala¬ 
hari  Desert.  They  are  thin  and  wiry  but  not 
dwarfish;  poor  and  debased  near  the  Cape,  but 
of  improved  appearance  and  intelligence  farther 
north. 

Buslniell,  Horace,  an  eminent  American 
Congregational  divine,  born  at  New  Preston, 
Conn.,  in  1802.  In  1849  a  charge  of  heresy  was 
brought  against  him  for  certain  views  about  the 
Trinity,  but  the  charges  were  dropped.  He  died 
Feb.  17,1876. 

Bushrangers,  in  Australia,  originally  runaway 
convicts  who  had  taken  to  the  “bush”  and 
become  robbers.  In  1814  two  officials  of  Port 
Dalrymple  absconded,  and  put  themselves  at  the 
head  of  twenty-seven  profligate  and  disorderly 
persons,  including  one  Michael  Howe,  who  after¬ 
ward  assumed  the  title  of  “  King  of  the  Rangers.” 
In  1815  martial  law  was  proclaimed  in  the  dis¬ 
trict  by  the  Lieutenant-Governor,  and  under  Gov¬ 
ernor  Arthur,  (1824-36)  103  criminals  were  exe¬ 
cuted  within  two  years.  In  1830  a  drastic  Bush- 
ranging  Act  was  passed  in  New  South  Wales. 
Ten  men  were  executed  and  the  Act,  which  was 
renewed  in  1834, put  a  stop  to  organized  buslirang- 
ing  though  the  term  still  has  a  meaning  in  Aus¬ 
tralia. 

Bush-shrike  is  the  name  of  a  sub-family  of 
Formicariidae,  all  American.  They  resemble  the 
Butcher  bird  or  Shrike  in  their  habits;  and  haunt 
the  interior  of  bushes,  where  they  seek  for  in¬ 
sects,  larva?,  and  ants.  Their  song  is  specially 
vociferous. 

Busk,  IIans,  one  of  the  chief  originators  of 
the  English  volunteer  movement,  was  born  May 
11,  1815.  He  was  chosen  high-sheriff  of  Radnor¬ 
shire  in  1847.  He  died  March  11,  1882. — Rachel 
H.  Busk,  his  sister,  is  a  well-known  folklorist 
and  traveler. 

Buskin,  a  kind  of  half-boot  lacing  tight  to  the 
leg.  The  ancient  tragedians  wore  buskins 
{cothurni),  with  thick  soles  to  increase  their 
height. 

Bussu  Palm  {Manicaria  saccifera),  a  palm 
growing  in  the  tidal  swamps  of  the  Amazon. 
The  stem  is  only  10  to  15  feet  high,  but  the 
immense  undivided  coarsely  serrate  leaves  are 
often  30  feet  in  length  by  4  or  5  in  width. 

Bust  (Fr.  buste,  Ital.  busto,  Low  Lat,  bustuni) 
is  the  sculptural  representation,  in  the  round,  of 
the  head  and  shoulders  of  a  person,  usually  set 
upon  abase  or  pedestal;  and  may  be  made  of 
marble,  stucco,  clay,  metal,  wood,  or  wax. 

Bustard  {Otis)  a  genus  of  birds,  sometimes 
made  the  type  of  a  family,  Otididse,  usually 
ranked  in  the  order  of  marsh  birds  like  the  cranes 
(Gralhe).  They  are  birds  of  bulky  form,  with 
long  neck  and  lank  naked  legs,  and  are  mostly 
inhabitants  of  dry  open  plains.  They  are  shy 
but  cunning,  not  well  adapted  for  flight,  live  in 
companies,  and  feed  on  green  parts  of  plants,' 
seeds,  insects,  worms,  etc.  The  nests  are  simple 
excavations  in  the  ground. — The  Great  Bustard 
{Otis  tarda),  is  common  in  the  south  and  east  of 
Europe,  and  in  the  steppes  of  Tartary.  It  is  the 
largest  of  European  birds,  the  male  sometimes 
weighing  nearly  thirty  pounds. — The  Little  Bus¬ 
tard  {O.  tetrax),  frequent  in  the  south  of  Europe 
and  north  of  Africa,  is  not  half  the  size  of  the 
G  re  at  Bustard. — The  Collared  Bustard  or  Hu- 
bara,  a  separate  genus  {Evpodotis  undulata), 
occurs  in  North  Africa  and  Arabia. — The  Black¬ 
headed  Bustard  (  O.  nigriceps)  is  found  in  large 
flocks  in  the  open  plains  of  the  Mahratta  country. 
— The  Ivori  Bustard  {O.  kori',  of  South  Africa,  is 
upward  of  5  feet  in  height. — Australia  possesses 


among  its  birds  a  bustard  (O.  u us tr ataxia n u s) 
somewhat  exceeding  the  Great  Bustard  of  Europe 


in  stature.  It  is  the  Wild  Turkey  of  New  South 
Wales. 


Busto-Arsizio.  a  town  of  Northern  Italy, 
twenty  miles  northwest  of  Milan.  Pop.,  9,291. 

Butcher  Bird,  a  name  for  various  members  of 
the  Shrike  family  (Laniidae)  of  perching  birds. 
They  have  the  habit  of  impaling  on  thorns  the 
insects,  mice,  and  small  birds  they  catch.  The 
family  is  represented  throughout  the  world,  with 
the  exception  of  South  America.  The  Great 
Grap  Shrike  {Lanius  excubitov)  is  one  of  the  com¬ 
monest  of  these  butcher  birds.  See  Shrike. 

Butcher's  Broom  {Ruscus),  a  genus  of  ever¬ 
green,  usually  dioecious,  shrubs  of  the  asparagus 
group  of  Liliaceae,  remarkable  for  their  reduced 
leaves,  which  are  mere  scales.  R.  Aculeatus  is  the 


Butcher's  Broom  ( Ruscus  aculeatus).  a,  fruit. 


common  butcher’s  broom,  so  called  because  used 
by  butchers  to  sweep  their  blocks. 

Bute,  an  island  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  Scot¬ 
land,  separated  from  the  coast  of  Argyll  by  a 
narrow  winding  strait  called  the  Kyles  of  Bute. 
It  is  15i  miles  long,  1)4  to  6*4  miles  broad,  and 
49  square  miles  in  area.  Pop.  (1881),  10.998. 

Buteshire,  a  Scotch  county  comprising  the 
Isles  of  Bute,  Arran,  the  Cumbraes,  Holy  Isle, 
Pladda,  Inclimarnock,  and  other  smaller  islands. 
The  area  of  the  whole  is  225  square  miles,  or  143,- 
977  statute  acres.  Pop.  (1881),  17,657. 

Bute,' John  Stuart,  third  Earl  of,  born  in 
1713,  succeeded  his  father  in  1723.  He  became 
Groom  of  the  Stole  to  George  III.,  over  whose 
mind  he  obtained  a  strong  influence.  In  March, 
1761,  he  was  appointed  one  of  the  principal  Secre¬ 
taries  of  State,  and  from  May  29,  1762,  to  April 
8,  1763,  he  was  Prime  Minister.  He  died  March 
10,  1792. — His  fourth  descendant,  John  Patrick 
Crichton-Stuart,  born  at  Mount  Stuart,  in  Bute, 
Sept.  12,  1847,  in  1848  succeeded  his  father  as 
third  Marquis  of  Bute.  In  1868  he  was  admitted 
into  the  Catholic  Church  by  Monsignor  Capel. 
He  is  the  original  of  Disraeli’s  Lothair. 


Butea,  an  Indian  genus  of  Leguminosae,  sub¬ 
order  Papilionaceae,  with  long  standard  and  com 
pressed  one-seeded  pod.  The  best-known  species 
are  B.  Frondosa  (Dhak-tree)and  B.  superba.  In 
bloom  they  arc  covered  with  racemes  of  large 
orange-scarlet  flowers.  They  yield  a  resinous 
exudation,  which  occurs  in  the  form  of  lurid  red 
tears,  sometimes  also  called  Bengal  Kino. 

Butler,  a  flourishing  town  and  capital  of  But¬ 
ler  county,  Penn.  Pop.  estimated  (1888),  7,000. 

Butler,  Alban,  Catholic  hagiographer,  was 
born  at  Appletree,  Northampton,  England,  in 
1710.  lie  was  educated  at  Douai,  and  became 
professor  there;  and  at  his  death  (May  15,  1773) 
was  head  of  the  English  College  at  St.  Omer. 
His  nephew,  Charles  Butler  (1750-1832),  a 
lawyer,  wrote  on  legal  and  theological  subjects. 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  born  at  Kinder- 
book,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  15,  1795,, died,  in  Paris,  Nov. 
8,  1858.  He  practiced  law,  and  was  Attor¬ 
ney-General  of  the  United  States  under  Jackson, 
and  acting  Secretary  of  AVar  1836-1837.  Prior 
to  the  passage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  bill  he  had 
acted  with  the  Democratic  party,  but  in  1856  he 
became  a  Republican,  and  voted  for  Fremont. 

Butler,  Benjamin  Franklin,  born  at  Deer¬ 
field,  N.  H.,  Nov.  5,  1818,  became  a  lawyer  and 
politician,  sitting  in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature 
as  a  Democrat.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the  Charles¬ 
ton  Convention,  in  1860,  and  withdrew  from  the 
meeting  afterward  held  at  Baltimore  by  a  part  of 
the  delegates.  He  was  the  Democratic  candidate 
for  Governor  of  Massachusetts  in  1860,  but  was 
defeated.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  war  he  was  a 
brigadier-general  of  militia,  and  on  May  16, 1861, 
was  appointed  major-general  of  volunteers,  with 
command  of  the  Department  of  Virginia.  In  this 
capacity  he  refused  to  deliver  up  slaves  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  “  contraband  of  war.”  He 
held  Baltimore  in  spite  of  the  rebel  sympathizers 
of  Maryland,  and  saved  the  State  to  the  Union. 
He  was  transferred  to  a  Southern  command,  and 
after  Farragut  had  run  the  gauntlet  of  the  forts 
Butler  was  appointed  May  1,  1862,  to  command 
New  Orleans.  His  administration  was  extremely 
vigorous,  and  has  been  much  abused.  The 
women  of  the  city,  forgetful  that  they  were  at 
the  mercy  of  the  conquerors,  behaved  themselves 
in  a  manner  objectionable  to  the  soldiers,  and  But¬ 
ler  met  this  by  issuing  an  order  that  women  who 
deliberately  insulted  Federal  soldiers  “should  be 
treated  as  women  of  the  town  plying  their  voca¬ 
tion.”  For  this  he  was  rewarded  by  the  title  of 
“Beast  Butler,”  but  his  energetic  action  had  the 
desired  effect,  and  the  soldiers  were  no  more 
molested.  Butler  was  removed  in  November, 
1862,  and  afterward  had  command  of  the  Army 
of  the  James.  There  Beauregard  proved'  too 
much  for  him,  and  his  Dutch  Gap  canal  failed  to 
achieve  the  end  expected.  The  Fort  Fisher  ex¬ 
pedition  was  also  disastrous  and  Butler  returned 
to  Massachusetts.  He  was  now  a  full-fledged 
Republican,  and  as  such  was,  in  1866,  elected  to 
Congress  from  his  district,  and  served  for  twelve 
years.  He  became  the  leader  of  the  Greenback 
party  in  Congress,  and  was  the  most  prominent 
manager  of  the  futile  impeachment  proceedings 
against  Andrew  Johnson.  In  1878  and  1879  lie 
was  nominated  for  Governor  of  Massachusetts  by 
the  National  Labor  and  Greenback  organizations 
and  received  the  Democratic  indorsement,  but 
was  defeated.  In  1882  he  attained  his  aim,  and 
for  one  year  occupied  the  Gubernatorial  chair, 
but  was  defeated  for  reelection.  In  1884  he  cap¬ 
tured  a  Presidential  nomination  from  some 
obscure  body  of  professional  politicians,  but  got 
no  electoral  votes. 

Butler,  Joseph,  author  of  the  Analogy,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  of  English  divines,  was  born 
May  18, 1692,  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  England. 
The  Analogy  was  published  in  1736.  In  1738  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Bristol;  in  1740  Dean  of  St. 
Paul’s;  in  1747  he  is  said  to  have  been  offered  the 
primacy;  and  in  1750  he  was  transferred  to  the 
See  of  Durham.  He  died  at  Bath,  June  16,  1752. 

Butler,  Samuel,  authorof  Hudibras,  was  born 
in  Worcestershire,  in  February,  1612.  He  became 
clerk  to  a  Puritan  gentleman,  Sir  Samuel  Luke, 
of  Cople  IIoo,  near  Bedford,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  sat  for  the  portrait  of  Hudibras.  After  the 
Restoration  he  was  secretary  to  the  Earl  of  Car- 
bery,  Lord  President  of  the  Principality  of  Wales, 


BUTLER. 


223 


BUTTER-TREE. 


by  whom  lie  was  appointed  steward  of  Ludlow 
Castle.  The  first  part  of  Iludibms  appeared  iu 
1663;  the  second  part  in  1664;  and  the  third  part 
in  1678.  It  is  said  to  have  been  a  special  favorite 
of  Charles  II.  Butler  died  of  consumption,  Sept. 
25,  1680.  In  1721  a  monument  was  erected  to 
him  in  Westminster  Abbey,  at  the  expense  of 
John  Barber,  a  citizen  of  London. 

Butler,  William  Archer,  a  religious  and 
philosophical  writer,  was  bom  in  1814,  at  Anner- 
ville,  near  Clonmel,  Ireland.  He  died  July  5, 
1848. 

Butler,  Major-General  William  Francis, 
C.B.,  born  in  County  Tipperary,  Ireland,  in 
1838;  became  Lieutenant-Colonel  of  the  army  in 
1880.  He  served  on  the  Red  River  Expedition, 
was  seut  on  a  special  mission  to  the  Saskatchewan 
(1870-71),  served  on  the  Ashanti  Expedition 
(1873),  as  Staff  Officer  in  Natal  (1879),  and  took  a 
prominent  part  under  Lord  Wolseley  in  the  Sou¬ 
dan  Campaign  (1884-85).  In  1877  he  married 
Miss  Elizabeth  Southerden  Thompson,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  painter  of  battle-scenes,  born  at 
Lausanne  about  1843. 

Butouius,  a  genus  of  Helobiae,  an  order  of 


Butomus. 


aquatic  monocotyledons  sometimes  called  Marsh- 

lilies. 

Butt,  I  saac,  the  first  to  make  political  use  of 
the  phrase  “  Home  Rule,”  was  the  son  of  a 
Protestant  rector,  and  was  born  in  County  Done¬ 
gal,  Ireland,  in  1813.  He  edited  the  Dublin  Uni¬ 
versity  Magazine  from  1834  to  1838,  and  filled  the 
Chair  of  Political  Economy  in  the  University 
from  1836  to  1841.  In  1852  lie  was  returned  as  a 
“Liberal  Conservative  ”  for  Youghal,  for  which 
constituency  he  sat  until  1865.  He  defended 
Smith  O'Brien  and  others  in  the  State  trials  of 
1848,  and  all  the  Fenian  prisoners  between  the 
years  1865  and  1869.  In  1871  Butt  was  returned 
for  the  City  of  Limerick.  He  died  May  5,  1879. 

Butter,  (Lat.  butyrum),  is  the  fat  of  cow’s 
milk  which  after  separation  in  the  form  of 
cream,  from  the  watery  portion,  has  by  means  of 
agitation  been  gathered  into  a  solid  greasy  mass; 
the  concussion  produced  by  the  operation  of 
churning  breaking  the  outer  skin  of  the  butter 
globules,  and  thereby  enabling  them  to  cohere. 
When  milk  is  permitted  to  stand,  the  oil  globules 
rise  to  the  surface  and  form  cream.  The  cream 
is  skimmed  off  and  usually  kept  for  twelve  hours 
at  a  temperature  of  about  60°  F.,  being  frequently 
stirred  to  prevent  clotting.  In  this  process  of 
ripening  incipient  acidity  is  induced  by  the  for¬ 
mation  of  lactic  acid.  When  the  proper  condition 
lias  been  secured,  the  cream  should  “break” 
from  about  thirty  minutes’  churning,  when  the 
butter  collects  in  a  granular  form;  the  small 
pieces  being  about  as  large  as  wheat  grains.  The 
buttermilk  is  then  strained  off,  and  water  put 
into  the  churn  sufficient  to  wash  off  the  butter¬ 
milk  remaining.  A  second  washing  cools  and 
consolidates  the  butter.  Finally  the  butter  is 
taken  from  the  churn  and  “worked”  with 
wooden  paddles  to  remove  the  last  traces  of 
buttermilk,  and  salt  is  added  to  prevent  fermen¬ 
tation.  Butter  from  moderately  ripe  cream  has 
a  fine  flavor,  and,  when  well  made,  it  ought  to 
remain  good  and  sweet  for  a  week.  Annatto  is 


frequently  used  to  give  the  golden  color  which  is 
regarded  as  belonging  to  good  grass  butter. 
Butter-making  in  America  is  carried  on  largely  in 
creameries,  run  on  the  cooperative  plan  by  which 
farmers  can  afford  to  employ  trained  operators 
and  to  purchase  the  best  machinery  and  appliances 
for  securing  uniformly  good  results. 

Butterine  is  a  substance  which,  when  well 
made,  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  good  butter, 
except  by  chemical  analysis.  It  is  made  from  the 
finest  ox-fat,  which  is  passed  through  an  elaborate 
process  of  chemical  purification.  It  is  then 
mixed  with  a  proportion  of  real  butter,  and  flav¬ 
ored  by  washing  with  milk.  It  is  largely  manu¬ 
factured  in  America,  Chicago  being  a  great  pro¬ 
ducing  point.  In  many  States  it  is  required  that 
all  imitation  butter  shall  be  legibly  stamped. 

Buttermilk  is  the  residue  of  cream  after  the 
butter  has  been  removed  by  churning.  It  con¬ 
tains  nearly  all  excepting  the  fatty  constituents  of 
milk,  and  forms  a  nourishing  summer  drink. 

Butter,  in  Chemistry,  is  often  applied  generic- 
ally  to  any  substance  of  the  consistence  of  butter, 
and  is  therefore  used  to  designate  palm,  cocoa- 
nut,  shea,  and  nutmeg  oils,  it  is  also  applied  to 
certain  metallic  substances  which  resemble  melted 
butter,  as  butter  of  antimony  (SbCl3),  bismuth, 
zinc,  and  tin, 

Butter  (Rock),  or  Halotrichite,  a  mineral 
which  may  be  regarded  as  an  iron  alum,  appear¬ 
ing  as  a  pasty  exudation  from  rocks  that  contain 
alum  or  its  constituents,  particularly  alum-slate 
and  other  schistose  rocks. 

Butter-bur,  ( Petasites  vulgaris)  is  a  perennial 
composite,  common  in  wet  meadows  and  beside 
streams,  of  which  the  huge  simple  and  somewhat 
rhubarb-like  leaves  form  a  very  characteristic 
foreground  in  such  landscapes. 

Buttercup  is  a  name  given  to  one  or  more 
species  of  Ranunculus. 

Butterfly,  a  general  name  for  any  of  the  day¬ 
light  Lepidoptera,  in  contrast  to  the  twilight  and 
nocturnal  forms  similarly 
grouped  together  under  the 
popular  name  Moth.  The 
Lepidoptera,  as  a  whole, 
form  an  immense  order, 
with  probably  more  than 
20,000  species.  Butterflies 
vary  in  size  from  less  than 
an  inch  to  almost  a  foot 
across  the  expanded  wings. 

The  three  joints  of  the  mid¬ 
dle  portion  or  thorax  are 
fused  together;  the  abdomen 
especially  is  slender.  The 
anatomy  of  the  internal  or¬ 
gans  does  not  differ  in  any  j 
conspicuous  way  from  that ...  _  , , 

of  typical  insects.  Butter- Mou^Sy0^taebrbage 
flies  feed  on  the  nectar  of  Leunis). 

flowers.  Their  long  tongues  a,  suctorial  tube  formed 
are  thrust  into  the  honey-  fromfirst  pair  of  max- 
secreting  organs;  the  action 
of  the  muscular  sucking 
stomach  or  crop,  helped  by 
capillary  attraction,  causes 
the  fluid  to  ascend  into  the 
mouth.  While  rifling  the 
flowers,  like  other  insects  of  similar  habit,  they 
carry  the  fertilizing  pollen  from  one  flower  to  an¬ 
other.  Many  orchids  are  thus  fertilized  by  Lepidop¬ 
tera.  In  many  cases  the  male  and  the  female  butter¬ 
fly  resemble  one  another  in  their  external  characters, 
but  differences  in  size,  form,  and  especially  in 
color,  very  frequently  occur.  The  male  is  usually 
the  more  gorgeous,  though  in  exceptional  cases  the 
reverse  is  true.  Butterflies  pass  through  a  com¬ 
plete  metamorphosis.  The  egg  develops  into  a 
caterpillar,  naked  or  hairy,  white  or  colored.  The 
caterpillar,  after  its  voracious  active  life,  rarely 
forms  a  cocoon,  but  hangs  itself  by  a  tine  silken 
thread  to  a  twig  or  the  like,  and  passes  the  pupa 
stage  from  which  the  winged  insect  emerges.  The 
frequent  golden  color  of  the  pupa  has  given  origin 
to  the  term  chrysalis  (Gr.  chrysos,  gold).  The 
leaves  of  the  plant  on  which  the  eggs  are  laid 
usually  form  the  peculiar  food  of  the  resulting 
caterpillar.  The  adult  insect  is  comparatively 
short-lived.  Butterflies  are  distributed  all  over 
the  world,  but  are  especially  abundant  in  the 
warmer  regions.  Some  species,  like  Cynthia  car- 


illae ;  b,  the  labial  palps 
belonging  to  the  sec¬ 
ond  pair  of  maxilla'. 
At  the  base  of  the  for¬ 
mer,  hints  of  upper 
lip,  mandibles,  and 
second  maxilla;  can  be 
seen, 


dui,  whose  caterpillar  feeds  on  thistle-leaves, 
occur  over  a  wide  area;  others  again  are  more 
local.  The  dis¬ 
tribution  of  the 
favorite  plants 
must  obviously 
determine  the 
range  of  the  but¬ 
terflies.  Bates 
found  550  dis¬ 
tinct  species  at 
Ega,  in  the  Up¬ 
per  Amazon 
country.  But- 
terfliesare  of  im¬ 
portance  to  man 
in  their  work  of 
fertilizing  flow¬ 
ers  and  in  the 
ravages  of  their 
caterpillars. 

There  is  one 
small  species 
( Euplcea  liuma- 
ta)  which  affords 
a  supply  of  food 
to  some  of  the 
wretched  abor¬ 
igines  of  Aus¬ 
tralia.  Butter¬ 
flies  of  this  spe-  Seasonal  Dimorphism— Two  forms  of 
cies  congregate  the  same  species  (Papilio  ajax) . 
in  such  vast  a<  winter  form  (var.  Telamonides) . 
numbers  on  the6-  summer  form  (var.  Marcellus). 
masses  of  granite  in  the  mountains,  that  they  are 
collected  by  simply  making  smothered  fires  under 


Kallima  Inachus  (from  Carus Sterne), 
a,  flying;  b,  at  rest. 


the  rocks,  in  the  smoke  of  which  tney  are  suffo¬ 
cated. 

Butterfly  Orchis  (Oncidium  Papilio),  an  orchid 
of  Trinidad  and  Venezuela,  of  which  the  flowers 
have  an  extraordinarily  close  resemblance  to  a 
brown-spotted  yellow  butterfly.  Phalcenopsis  am- 
abilis  is  also  sometimes  called  Indian  Butterfly 
Orchis. 

Butterfly  Weed,  or  Pleurisy  Root  ( Aselepias 
tuberosa,  a  plant  common  in  the  United  States,  of 
which  the  root  has  medicinal  repute,  the  infusion 
being  used  as  a  diaphoretic  and  expectorant. 

Butternut  (/ws-tos  cinerea),  a  North  American 
species  of  Walnut. 

Butter-tree  ( Bassia )  is  a  genus  of  tropical  or 
subtropical  trees  of  the  natural  order  Sapotacese, 
remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  oil  or  butyrace- 
ous  fat  which  the  seeds  contain,  and  which  is  used 
for  many  purposes  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun¬ 
tries  where  they  are  indigenous.  The  butter-tree 
described  by  Mungo  Park  as  growing  in  the  in¬ 
terior  of  Africa,  in  the  country  of  Bambarra,  be¬ 
longs  to  this  or  a  nearly  allied  genus.  The  Maliwa- 
tree  of  India  ( B.  latif cilia)  attains  a  height  of  40  to 
60  feet,  like  a  good  oak  in  size,  and  is  a  valuable 
timber-tree.  Its  flowers  last  two  or  three  weeks, 
and  then  fall;  they  are  eaten  raw,  and  have  a 
luscious  taste  when  fresh;  when  dry,  they  re¬ 
semble  figs  in  flavor.  The  Indian  Butter-tree,  or 
Phulwara  or  Fulwa  Tree  (B.  bniyracea),  a  native 
of  Nepal,  attains  a  height  of  50  feet.  Its  timber 
is  light  and  of  no  value.  The  fruit,  though  eaten, 
is  not  much  esteemed.  The  seeds  of  B.  lungifolia, 
a  native  of  Coromandel,  yield  a  large  quantity  of 
oil,  which  isused  for  lamps,  for  soap-making,  and 
in  cookery. 


BUTTERWORT. 


224 


BYRON. 


Common  Butterwort 
( Pinguicula  vulgaris), 
a,  a  flower. 


Butterwort  ( Pinguicula ),  a  genus  of  Lcntibu- 
lariacete,  small  plants,  the  members  of  whose 
family  are  possessed  of  a 
characteristic  rosette  of 
large  spreading  entire 
radical  leaves,  and  are 
common  in  bogs  and 
marshes  through  many 
far-separated  latitudes. 

The  Common  Butterwort 
( vulgaris)  is  abundant 
in  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe,  and  grows  in 
Canada.  Its  leaves  are 
covered  with  a  multitude 
of  stalked  glands,  which 
yield  a  viscous  insect-, 
catching  secretion  (hence4 
pinguicula ,  “  greasy”), 

which  also  contains  acid 
and  pepsin,  and  has  active 
digestive  properties,  It 
has  also  the  power  of 
coagulating  milk,  and  is 
used  for  this  purpose  by 
the  Laplanders.  Some 
species  possess  flowers  of 
much  beauty,  especially 
P.  gmndiflora.  North 
and  South  America  have  several  species  of  butter¬ 
wort. 

Buttmann,  Philipp,  was  born  at  Frankfort 
in  1764.  He  became  in  1789  assistant  in  the 
Royal  Library  at  Berlin,  and  rose  to  be  Secretary 
and  Librarian  (1811).  He  held  at  the  same  time 
(1800-8)  a  professorship  in  the  Joachimsthal 
Gymnasium  in  Berlin.  He  died  June  21,  1829. 
Buttmann  is  best  known  by  his  Greek  grammar. 

Button.  Button-making  dates  as  a  distinct 
trade,  from  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  Great 
Britain,  Birmingham  has  always  been  the  princi¬ 
pal  seat  of  the  button-manufacture.  Early  in  the 
present  century,  Mr.  B.  Sanders  introduced  the 
cloth-covered  button,  which  has  succeeded  those 
made  of  metal.  Ilis  sou  in  1825  effected  the 
improvement  of  making  it  with  a  canvas  tuft 
instead  of  a  metal  shank.  Buttons  are  now  made 
of  every  conceivable  material,  from  nacre,  vege¬ 
table  ivory,  vulcanized  rubber,  and  glass,  to 
corozo  nuts,  metals  covered  or  uncovered,  pre¬ 
cious  stones  and  minerals,  and  many  kinds  of 
wood.  Porcelain  buttons  were  a  few  years  ago 
nearly  all  of  French  manufacture,  but  they  are 
now  made  principally  at  Prague.  The  plastic 
clay  is  pressed  into  moulds  of  plaster  of  paris. 
In  the  United  States,  buttons  are  made  chiefly  in 
New  York  and  Philadelphia. 

Butti  •ess  a  projection  for  the  purpose  of  giving 
additional  support  or  strength  to  a  wall.  In  early 


Buttresses,  Amiens  Cathedral. 
a,  buttresses;  b,  flying  buttress. 

Romanesque  architecture,  the  buttresses  fre¬ 
quently  presented  the  form  of  a  pillar,  after  the 
tradition  of  classic  art.  The  Norman  buttress 
was  generally  broad,  with  slight  projection,  and 


finished  on  lop  with  a  splay  against  the  wall;  but 
it  was  also  occasionally  semi-circular,  like  a  half 
column  applied  to  the  wall.  Early  English  but¬ 
tresses  project  much  more  boldly,  and  are  con¬ 
siderably  narrower  than  the  Norman. 

Butyric  Acid,  CJLOOII,  is  a  volatile  fatty 
acid,  first  prepared  by  Chevreul,  by  treating  butter 
with  an  alkali.  It  possesses  the  disagreeable 
odor  of  rancid  butter,  and  it  is  to  it,  in  part  at 
least,  that  the  perspiration  of  animals  owes  its 
unpleasant  smell.  It  is  a  mobile  liquid,  specific 
gravity  .974,  the  vapor  of  which  is  inflammable, 
burning  with  a  blue  flame.  It  is  readily  soluble 
in  water  and  alcohol,  possesses  a  sour,  burning 
taste,  and  corrodes  the  skin.  Butyric  acid  forms 
a  whole  series  of  salts. 

Butyric  Ether,  or  Pine  apple  Oil,  is  an  ex¬ 
ceedingly  fragrant  oil  obtained  by  distilling  buty¬ 
ric  acid  (or  the  butyric  of  lime),  alcohol,  and 
sulphuric  acid.  It  is  mixed  with  alcohol  and 
sold  as  artificial  pine  apple  oil.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  pine  apples  owe  their  flavor  to  the 
presence  of  natural  butyric  ether.  Butyric  ether 
is  the  butyrate  of  ethyl,  C.JU,  C4H7O2. 

Buxbanmia,  a  small  genus  of  mosses. 

Buxton,  a  town  in  Derbyshire,  England,  famous 
for  its  calcareous  and  its  chalybeate  springs. 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  lived  here  for  some  time 
when  in  the  custody  of  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury. 
Pop.  (1881),  6,021. 

Buxton,  Silt  Thomas  Fowell,  English  philan¬ 
thropist,  was  born  in  1786  at  Earls  Colne,  Essex. 
In  1807  he  married  a  sister  of  the  celebrated  Mrs. 
Fry,  and  in  1808  entered  business  as  a  brewer. 
The  relief  of  the  Spitalfield  weavers  and  the 
reform  of  prison  discipline  were  among  his  early 
philanthropic  efforts.  In  1824,  at  Wilberforce’s 
request,  he  succeeded  him  as  head  of  the  anti- 
slavery  party..  In  1840  was  made  a  baronet.  He 
died  Feb.  19,  1845,  and  a  statue  has  been  erected 
to  him  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Buxtorf.  Johann,  Hebraist,  was  born  in  1564 
at  Kamen,  in  Westphalia;  in  1591  became  Pro¬ 
fessor  of  Hebrew  at  Basle,  and  died  there  of  the 
plague  in  1629. 

Buys-Ballot,  Christoph.,  meteorologist,  born 
at  Rloetingen  in  Zeeland,  Oct.  10,  1817,  became 
Professor  of  Mathematics  (1847),  and  of  Experi¬ 
mental  Physics  at  Utrecht  (1870),  and  in  1854 
Director  of  the  Royal  Meteorological  Institute. 

Buzzard  ( Buteo ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  prey,  in 
the  family  Fal- 
conidte,  having 
a  rather  small 
and  weak  bill, 
which  bends 
from  the  root, 
and  is  not 
notched,  as  in 
falcons.  Buz¬ 
zards  may  be 
regarded  as  an 
inferior  kind  of 
eagles.  They 
are  large  birds, 
the  common 
buzzard  [B.  vul¬ 
garis  or  fuscus) 
measuring  a  1  - 
most  four  feet 
from  tip  to  tip 
of  its  out- 

It  is  plentiful  in  Common  Buzzard  (Buteo  vulgaris.) 
Europe,  and  is  found  in  North  Africa,  and  in 
Western  Asia.  It  is  a  most  useful  bird  of  prey, 
feeding  on  mice,  adders,  etc.  The  red-tailed 
hawk  or  chicken-hawk  of  North  America  is  a 
buzzard  ( buteo — according  to  some  Valeo — bore¬ 
alis).  The  so-called  turkey  buzzard  of  North 
America  ( cathartes  [rhinogryplius]  aura),  is  not 
a  buzzard,  but  is  properly  called  the  American 
vulture. 

Bybios,  an  ancient  city  of  Phoenicia,  now  a 
village  of  60  )  inhabitants,  called  Jubeil. 

By-laws, in  England,  are  the  private  regulations 
which  are  usually  made  by  corporate  bodies 
for  the  control  and  government  of  the  corpor¬ 
ation,  including  what  are  called  in  the  United 
States  municipal  ordinances.  Unlike  statutes, 
all  by-laws  must  be  distinctly  published  before 
they  acquire  binding  effect;  the  mode  of  publi¬ 


cation  being  generally  specified  by  statute.  By¬ 
laws  must  not  conflict  with  the  law  of  the  land, 
or  State  law.  In  stock  corporations  the  by-laws 
are  made  by  the  members,  not  by  the  directors  or 
managers. 

Byng,  George  Viscount  Toriiington,  Admi¬ 
ral,  was  born  in  1663  at  Wrotham,  Kent,  England. 
Made  Rear-Admiral  of  the  Red  in  1703,  he  next 
year  captured  Gibraltar,  was  knighted  by  Queen 
Anne.  In  1708  he  became  Admiral  of  the  Blue. 
In  1718  he  commanded  the  English  fleet  sent  to 
Sicily  for  the  protection  of  the  neutrality  of  Italy, 
on  July  31st  utterly  destroying  the  Spanish  fleet 
off  Messina.  Soon  after,  he  was  appointed  Treas¬ 
urer  of  the  Navy  and  Rear-Admiral  of  Great  Brit¬ 
ain.  He  represented  Plymouth  in  Parliament 
from  1706  until  1721,  and  died  Jan.  17,  1733. 

Byng,  John,  fourth  son  of  George,  was  born  in 
1704,  and  became  Rear-Admiral  in  1745.  He  went 
as  second  in  command  to  the  (Mediterranean  in  1747. 
In  March,  1756,  he  was  made  Admiral  of  the  Blue, 
and  sent  to  relieve  Minorca,  at  that  time  blockaded 
by  a  French  fleet  under  La  Gallissoni&re.  He  was 
defeated  in  an  engagement  off  the  Castle  of  St. 
Philip  on  May  19tli,  and  left  Minorca  to  its  fate. 
He  was  brought  back  under  arrest  and  tried  by 
court-martial.  He  was  found  guilty  of  neglect  of 
duty  and  was  condemned  to  death  and  shot  on 
board  the  Monarque  at  Portsmouth,  March  14, 
1757. 

Bynkershoek ,  Cornells  Van  (1673-1743),  a 
Dutch  jurist,  who  in  1724  became  President  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Holland. 

Byrd  (sometimes  spelled  Birde),  William,  an 
English  composer,  was  born  in  1538,  and  died  July 
4,  1623. 

Byrgius,  Justus,  or  Jost  Bukgi,  inventor  of 
various  astronomical  instruments,  was  born  in 
1552,  at  Lichtensteig,  in  the  Swiss  Canton  of  St. 
Gall.  He  died  in  1633. 

By  rom,  John,  poet  and  stenographer,  was  born 
near  Manchester,  England,  Feb.  29,  1692,  and 
died  Sept.  26,  1763. 

Byron,  George  Gordon,  sixth  Lord,  was 
born  in  Holies  street,  London,  on  Jan.  22,  1788. 
Ilis  mother  was  Catharine  Gordon;  his  father 
was  John  Byron,  nephew  of  the  fifth  Lord  Byron, 
and  son  of  Admiral  John  Byron  (1723-86).  The 
Bunins,  or  Byrons, 'appear  immediately  after  the 
Conquest  as  holding  lands  in  most  of  the  Northern 
Counties  of  England.  Captain  Byron,  the  poet’s 
father,  seduced,  borrowed  money  from,  eloped 
with,  married,  and  ill-treated  the  Marchioness  of 
Carmarthen;  the  only  offspring  of  this  marriage 
who  lived  being  Augusta,  afterward  Mrs.  Leigh. 
After  his  first  wife’s  death  he  married  Catharine 
Gordon,  whose  fortune  he  spent.  At  Lord  Byron’s 
death  in  1798,  Mrs.  Byron  and  her  son  removed 
to  England,  and  in  1801  Byron  was  sent  to  Har¬ 
row,  and  thence  in  1805  to  Trinity  College,  Cam¬ 
bridge.  Ilis  first  work,  Hours  of  Idleness,  ap¬ 
peared  in  March,  1807.  This  book  was  savagely 
“cut  up ”  by  Brougham  in  the  Edinburgh  Review 
a  year  later.  Byron  rejoined  with  English  Bards 
and  Scotch  Reviewers.  Meanwhile,  in  1809,  he 
came  of  age,  and  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  He  published  English  Bards,  and  soon 
afterward  started  on  a  tour  of  the  Continent,  and 
remained  two  years  in  Greece.  Almost  imme- 
diatelv  on  his  return  his  mother  died.  Childe 
Harold  appeared  on  Feb.  20,  1812,  and  before  the 
end  of  March  ran  through  seven  editions.  The 
Giaour  and  the  Bride  of  Abydos  appeared  in  the 
same  year  (1813),  the  Corsair,  Lara,  and  the 
Hebrew  Melodies  in  1814,  the  Bride  of  Corinth  and 
Parisina  in  1815.  During  these  years  he  was  the 
darling  of  society,  and  among  his  most  devoted 
admirers  was  Lady  Caroline  Lamb.  On  Jan.  2, 

1815,  he  married  Anne  Isabella  Milbanke,  heiress 
in  her  own  right  of  the  barony  of  Wentworth 
and  of  a  considerable  fortune.  His  daughter  Ada 
was  born  in  December,  1815,  and  in  January, 

1816,  Lady  Byron  left  her  husband’s  house  for 
ever.  Hardly  any  recent  event,  not  concerning 
politics  or  religion,  has  ever  exercised  pens  and 
tongues  like  this.  Forty -five  years  after  the  poet’s 
death,  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe  informed  the 
world  that  Lady  Byron  had  informed  her  that  the 
separation  was  due  to  her  discovery  of  a  more 
than  sisterly  affection  between  the  poet  and  liis 
half-sister  Augusta.  But  the  account  is  open  to 
grave  objections.  The  obloquy  heaped  upon 


BYRON. 


225 


CABANIb. 


posterior  furrow,  is  at  first  fluid,  but  soon 
hardens  into  silky  threads. 

Byssus  (Or.  a  fine  flaxen  or  silky  substance), 
a  genus  established  by  Linnaeus  to  include  some 
of  the  lowest  and  most  obscure  forms  of  vegeta¬ 
tion,  and  defined  as  having  a  substance  like  fine 
down  or  velvet,  simple  or  feathered. 

Bystrom,  Johann  Nikolas,  a  Swedish 
sculptor,  was  born  in 
1783,  and  died  at 
Rome  March  13, 1848. 

Byttneriaceae,  a 
chiefly  tropical  or  sub¬ 
tropical  order  of  thal- 
amifloral  dicotyle¬ 
dons,  closely  allied  to 
malva'cese  and  tilia- 
cere,  and  frequently 
including  sterculia- 
cese.  They  arc  chiefly  ' 
trees  or  shrubs,  and 
often  have  beautiful  I 
flowers.  The  most 
important  product  of  | 
the  order  is  cocoa. 

Byzantine  Arclii- 1 
tecture  is  the  style  ] 
practiced  in  Byzan¬ 
tium  and  the  East- 


walls  are  lined  with,  the  richest  marbles,  while 
the  domes  are  adorned  with  splendid  mosaics. 

Byzantine  Aiit  in  general,  developed  at  Con¬ 
stant  inople  under  the  same  influences  as  Byzantine 
architecture,  was  mainly  used  for  the  decoration 
of  churches.  From  the  sixth  century  onward  for 
several  centuries  the  most  interesting  remains  of 
pictorial  art  were  mosaics  in  the  churches  and 


ern  Empire  from  the  time  of  Constantine  till 
the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks 
in  1453.  The  grandest  example  of  this  de¬ 
sign  is  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Con¬ 
stantinople,  built  under  Justinian,  in  the  first 
half  of  the  sixth  century.  The  interior  is 

composed  of  a  central  dome,  107  feet  in  diameter 
and  182  feet  in  height,  carried  on  four  piers,  with 
the  addition  of  a 
semidome  at  either 
end.  The  lower 
part  of  the  build¬ 
ing  is  divided  up 
with  small  pillars 
and  arches,  which 
have  the  effect  of 
enhancing  the  size 
and  grandeur  of 
the  simple  dome. 

The  latter  is 
pierced  with  a 
row  of  windows 
round  its  base. 

One  striking  char¬ 
acteristic  of  the 
Byzantine  style  is 
the  extensive  use  of 
colored  decoration. 

This  is  a  notable  Byzantine  Capital 
feature  in  St. 


Section  of  St.  Sophia,  Constantinople. 


from  the  nave 
of  St.  Demetrius,  Thessalonica. 


Sophia,  where  the  pillars  are  formed  of,  and  the 


miniature  illustrations  of  Bibles  and  religious 
books. 

Byzantine  Empire,  also  styled  the  East 
Roman,  Eastern,  Greek,  or  Lower  Empire, 
was  founded  in  395  a.d.,  when  Theodosius  the 
Great,  at  his  death,  divided  the  Roman  Empire 
between  his  two  sons,  Areadius  and  Honorius. 
The  Empire  had  previously  for  a  time  been 
divided  into  East  and  West,  but  the  division  then 
made  by  Theodosius  was  final.  The  Empire  thus 
formed  lasted  more  than  a  thousand  years.  It 
took  the  name  Byzantine  Empire  from  Byzan- 
tium,  the  ancient  name  of  its  capital,  which  after 
330  was  usually  called  Constantinople  or  New 
Rome. 

Byzantine  Historians  are  those  Greek  writers 
who  have  handled  the  history  of  the  Byzantine 
Empire.  The  principal  Byzantine  histories  were 
collected  and  published  at  Paris  in  36  vols.,  with 
Latin  translations,  under  the  editorship  of  P. 
Phillippe  Labbf;  and  his  successors  (1654M711). 

Byzantium,  a  city  on  the  Thracian  Bosporus, 
founded  by  emigrants  from  Megara  in  667  b.c. 
It  was  subject  to  the  Persians  (515-478  b.c.),  was 
freed  by  Pausanias,  and  was  alternately  Athe¬ 
nian  and  Lacedaemonian  during  the  Peloponnesian 
War.  Thrasybulus  expelled  the  Spartans  in  390, 
and  the  city  long  enjoyed  a  kind  of  independence, 
It  was  taken  by  Severus  in  196  a.d.,  and  in  330, 
under  the  name  of  New  Rome,  or  Constantinople, 
it  was  made  the  metropolis  of  the  Roman  Empire, 


him  drove  him  out  of  England  forever.  In 
Switzerland  he  met  the  Shelleys,  with  whom  he 
connected  himself  by  friendship  with  the  poet, 
and  by  a  liaison  with  Jane  or  Claire  Clairmont, 
daughter  of  the  second  Mrs.  Shelley’s  stepmother 
by  her  first  husband,  lie  lived  at  Venice  two 
years  a  life  of  wild  debauchery.  At  the  end  of 
1818  he  entered  upon  a  comparatively  regular  ex¬ 
istence  by  becoming  the  accepted  lover  of  the 
Countess  Teresa  Guiccioli,  with  whom  he  lived 
during  1819  and  1820  at  Ravenna.  In  the  summer 
of  the  latter  year  he  removed  to  Pisa;  in  1822  he 
was  present  at  Shelley’s  funeral,  and  engaged 
with  Leigh  Hunt  in  the  Liberal.  From  Pisa  he 
went  in  1822  to  Genoa.  In  1823  he  received  pro¬ 
posals  through  his  friends  Kinnaird  and  Hob- 
house  to  join  the  movement  for  recovering  the 
independence  of  Greece,  and  he  set  out  for 
Greece  on  July  14,  1823.  He  landed  at  Misso- 
longlii  on  Jan.  5,  1824,  and  endeavored  to  organ¬ 
ize  the  patriots,  but  caught  rheumatic  fever,  and 
died  on  April  19th.  His  body  was  taken  to  Eng¬ 
land  and  buried  in  the  Church  of  Hucknall- 
Torkard,  near  Newstead,  the  Dean  and  Chapter 
of  Westminster  refusing  permission  to  inter  it  in 
the  Abbey.  Only  two  children  of  Byron  are 
known  Allegra,  his  illegitimate  daughter  by 
Glaire  Clairmont,  died  before  him.  His  daughter 
Ada  married  Lord  Lovelace,  and  left  two  children, 
Lord  Wentworth  and  Lady  Anne  Blunt. 

Byron,  Henry  James,  the  adopted  name  of  an 
English  dramatist,  who  wras  born  in  Manchester, 
-January,  1834.  His  most  successful  play,  Our 
Boys,  ran  in  London  from  Jan.  16,  1875,  to  April 
18,  1879.  Byron  died  in  London,  April  11,  1884. 

Byron,  Admiral  John,  grandfather  of  the 
poet,  was  born  in  1723,  and  died  in  1786.  He 
was  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  English  navy, 
and  took  part  in  many  expeditions  (notably  with 
Anson),  but  wTas  uniformly  unlucky,  was  ship¬ 
wrecked  and  cast  away  on  desolate  islands,  and 
became  known  among  sailors  as  “'Foul  Weather 
Jack.” 

Byssus,  an  old  name  for  silk-like  threads  se¬ 
creted  by  the  “foot”  or  muscular- ventral  pro¬ 


trusion  of  many  bivalve  molluscs.  The  secretion 
is  manufactured  by  a  gland  opening  in  a  median 


Cthe  third  letter  in  our  alphabet,  has,  during 
the  last  3,000  years,  undergone  trifling 
•changes  in  its  form,  but  has  varied  considerably 
in  value.  Originally  this  symbol  had  the  sound 
of  g,  it  then  took  that  of  k,  and  finally,  in  some 
languages,  has  become  equivalent  to  s.  In  Anglo- 
Saxon,  as  in  Latin,  the  letter  c  was  originally 
sounded  as  k.  The  soft  sound  of  c  began  to  come 
into  use  about  the  eighth  century,  the  letter  retain¬ 
ing  its  old  sound  before  the  vowels  a,  o,  u,  but 
passing  through  ch  to  s  before  e,  i,  y.  When  the 
A-sound  was  retained  before  e,  i,  or  y,  the  letter  k 
was  ultimately  substituted  for  e  to  avoid  confu¬ 
sion.  Latin  c  has  become  ch  in  many  English 
words  owing  to  their  having  passed  through  the 
French.  In  German,  the  Latin  c  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  k  instead  of  by  c,  which  only  appeals 
in  words  which,  like  cardinal ,  have  been 
borrowed  from  the  Romance  languages.  C,  in 
Music,  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  notes  cf  the 
gamut.  C  is  also  the  sound  on  which  the  system 
of  music  is  founded,  and  from  which  the  mathe¬ 
matical  proportions  of  intervals  are  taken.  The 
scale  of  C  major  has  neither  flats  nor  sharps,  and 
therefore  is  called  the  natural  scale. 

baaing  Whale  ( Globkephalus  melas),  one  of  the 
Cetacea,  in  the  dolphin  family,  belonging  to  a 
genus  common  in  all  seas,  and  oftener  stranded 


than  any  other  “whale.”  The  total  length 
varies  from  16  to  24  feet,  the  maximum 


Caaing  Whale. 

girth  is  about  10  feet.  The  caaing  whale  is  very 
gregarious,  and  vast  shoals  of  50  to  100  some¬ 
times  impetuously  follow  their  leader  ashore,  when 
alarmed  and  surrounded  in  a  bay  or  fiord.  They 
feed  chiefly  on  cuttle-fishes.  Many  names  are  given 
to  them:  as  Pilot-whale,  Black-fish,  Social  Whale, 
Grindhval,  etc. 

Cab.  See  Cabs. 


Cabal',  a  term  now  employed  to  denote  a  small, 
intriguing,  factious  party,  united  for  political  or 
personal  ends.  It  had  been  previously  used  to 
denote  a  secret  committee  or  cabinet,  when,  dur¬ 
ing  1667-73,  it  was  specially  applied  to  Charles 
II. ’s  ministry,  consisting  of  five  members,  whose 
initials  made  up  the  word  Cabal — viz.,  Clifford, 
Ashley  (Shaftesbury),  Buckingham,  Arlington, 
and  Lauderdale. 

Caballero,  Fernan,  the  pseudonym  of  one  of 
the  most  popular  of  more  recent  Spanish  writers. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Nikolas  Biilil  von  Faber 
(1770-1836),  a  German  merchant  in  Spain,  and 
was  born  at  Morges  in  Switzerland  in  1797.  In 
her  seventeenth  year  she  married  a  merchant 
named  Planell,  whom  she  accompanied  to 
America.  A  few  years  later  she  became  a  widow, 
and  soon  after  married  the  Marques  de  Arco 
Ilermoso,  two  years  after  whose  death  in  1835 
she  married  an  advocate  named  Arron,  to  be¬ 
come  a  third  time  a  widow  in  1863.  She  died  at 
Seville,  April  7,  1877. 

Cub  an  is,  Pierre  Jean  Georges,  a  French 
physician  and  philosophical  writer,  born  at  Cos¬ 
mic,  Charante-InfG'ieure,  in  1757.  He  furnished 
Mirabeau  with  material  for  his  speeches  on  pub¬ 
lic  education;  and  Mirabeau  died  in  his  arms. 
He  became  a  teacher  in  the  medical  school  at 


15 


CABBAGE. 


CACHE. 


226 


Paris,  a  member  of  the  Council  of  Five  Hundred, 
then  of  the  Senate.  He  died  near  Meulan,  May 
5,  1808. 

Cabbage  ( Brassica  oleraeea;  see  Brassica),  a 
plant  in  general  cultivation  for  culinary  purposes, 
and  for  feeding  cattle.  The  common  cabbage  is 
said  to  have  been  introduced  into  England  by  the 
Romans.  The  cabbage  is  biennial,  consecpiently 
the  main  crop  must  be  sown  the  autumn  previous 
to  that  in  which  it  is  to  be  reaped.  In  the  north¬ 
ern  parts  of  the  United  States,  cabbages  for  the 
early  summer  market  are  sown  about  September, 
kept  under  glass  or  frames  during  winter,  and 
planted  out  in  spring.  Cabbages  are  preserved 
for  winter  by  inverting  and  burying  them  in  the 
ground. 

Cabbage  Butterfly  a  name  common  to  several 
species  of  butterfly,  the  larvae  of  which  (cabbage 
worms)  devour  the  leaves  of  cruciferous  plants, 
especially  of  the  cabbage  tribe. — The  Small  Cab¬ 
bage  Butterfly,  or  Small  White,  sometimes  called 
the  Turnip  Butterfly  ( pieris  rupee),  lias  a  wing  ex¬ 
panse  of  about  two  inches. 

Cabbage-tty  ( Anlhomyia  brassicce),  a  dipter¬ 
ous  insect  in  the  same  family  as  the  horse-fly, 
flesh  fly,  etc.,  and  belonging  to  a  very  large  genus 
with  about  480  European  species,  many  of  which 
are  in  their  larval  state  very  injurious  to  vege¬ 
tables. 

Cabbage-moth  (Mamestra  brassicce),  a  species 
of  moth,  the  caterpillar  of  which  feeds  on  cab¬ 
bage  and  turnip  leaves,  and  is  sometimes  very 
destructive.  The  caterpillar  is  greenish  black, 
and  changes  to  a  chestnut  chrysalis  in  autumn. 

Cabbage-pal  tn,  or  Cabbage-tree,  a  name 
given  in  different  countries  to  different  species  of 
palm,  the  great  terminal  bud  of  which  is  eaten 
cooked  like  cabbage,  or  sometimes  also  raw  in 
salads.  The  cabbage-palm  of  Brazil  and  the 
West  Indies  is  Areca  {Euterpe)  oleraeea.  In  the 
Southern.  States  of  America  the  Palmetto  is  also 
used  the  same  way. 

Cabbala.  The  word  (which  is  also  written 
Cabala,  Caballa,  Qabbalah)  means  “  that  which  is 
received” — i.  e.,  “tradition”  and  is  from  the  He¬ 
brew;  kabbalah,  which  again  is  from  the  verb 
kdbal,  “  to  receive.”  In  its  technical  sense  the 
cabbala  signifies  a  secret  system  of  theology, 
metaphysic,  and  magic  prevalent  among  the 
Jews.  The  chief  cabbalistic  writers  flourished 
between  the  thirteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 
Of  these  R.  Moses  ben  Nachman  (1195-1270), 
better  known  as  Ramban,  is  the  most  eminent. 
Cabbalistic  sects  attached  themselves  to  pretended 
Messiahs,  such  as  Sabbatai  Zevi,  born  at  Smyrna 
in  1640. 

Caber,  Tossing  tiie,  a  Scottish  athletic  exer¬ 
cise  or  feat,  in  which  a  large  beam  or  young  tree, 
heavier  at  one  end  than  the  other,  is  held  perpen¬ 
dicularly  balanced  against  the  chest,  small  end 
downward,  and  tossed  so  as  to  fall  on  the  heavy 
end  and  turn  over,  the  farthest  toss  and  straiglitest 
fall  winning. 

Cabet,  "Etienne, a  French  communist,  was  born 
at  Dijon  in  1788.  Under  the  Restoration,  he  was 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Carbonari,  and  in  1831 
was  elected  deputy  for  the  department  of  Cote 
d’Or.  Soon  afterward  he  published  a  History  of 
the  July  devolution  (1832),  started  a  Radical 
Sunday  paper,  Le  Populaire  (183S),  and  on  account 
of  an  article  in  this  paper,  he  was  sentenced  to 
two  years’  imprisonment,  but  escaped  to  London. 
After  the  amnesty,  1839,  he  returned  to  Paris.  In 
1848  he  sent,  whither  Cabet  himself  led,  an 
“Icarian  colony”  to  the  Red  river  in  Texas. 
On  his  arrival  he  learned  that  the  Mormons  had 
just  been  expelled  from  Nauvoo,  leaving  their  city 
deserted.  The  Icarians  established  themselves 
there  in  1850.  He  was  finally  obliged  to  leave 
Nauvoo  and  retire  to  St.  Louis,  where  he  died  in 
1850. 

Cabinda,  a  small  Portuguese  territory  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  delimited  in  1886,  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Congo  State.  Capital,  Cabinda, 
pop.,  8,000. 

Cabinet,  in  Great  Britain,  is  the  body  of  min¬ 
isters  who  carry  on  the  Government.  In  former 
times  the  Privy-Council  were  the  advisers  of  the 
crown,  but  as  the  Privy-Council  was  a  large  body, 
a  small  informal  council  of  royal  advisers  grew 
up  within  it.  With  regard  to  the  Cabinet  gener¬ 
ally,  it  may  be  said  that  while  composed  of  mem¬ 


bers  of  both  Ilousesof  Parliament,  it  must  depend 
on  the  majority  of  the  House  of  Commons;  it 
must  be  united  on  the  leading  questions  of  the 
day,  and  must  follow  a  common  policy;  and  it 
acknowledges  a  collective  responsibility  to  Par¬ 
liament  for  its  principal  acts.  But  the  cabinet 
has  no  formal  place  in  the  Constitution,  and  its 
functions  are  not  governed  by  written  rules.  The 
English  cabinet  now  always  includes:  The  First 
Lord  of  the  Treasury,  the  Lord  Chancellor,  the 
Lord  President  of  the  Council,  the  Lord  Privy 
Seal,  the  five  Secretaries  of  State,  the  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer,  and  the  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty.  In  the  United  States  the  Cabinet 
consists  of  the  Secretary  of  State,  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  the  Secretary  of  War,  the  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  the 
Attorney-General,  the  Postmaster-General,  and 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  These  are  the 
heads  of  their  respective  departments,  and  act 
as  an  Advisory  Board  to  the  President.  They  are 
appointed  by  the  President,  but  their  appoint¬ 
ments  must  be  confirmed  by  the  Senate,  and  they 
generally  hold  office  until  their  successors  are 
appointed  and  confirmed.  The  salary  of  members 
of  the  cabinet  is  $8,000  a  year. 

Cable,  George  Washington,  a  popular 
American  author,  was  born  in  New  Orleans,  Oct. 
12,1844,  and  at  nineteen  volunteered  into  the  Con¬ 
federate  service.  In  one  action  he  was  severely 
wounded.  His  sketches  of  Creole  life  made  his 
reputation.  Among  his  books  are  Old  Creole 
Days  (1879),  1  he  Grandissimes  (1880),  Madame 
Delphine(l881),  Dr.  Sevier  (1883),  The  Creoles  of 
Louisiana) 1884),  The  Silent  South  (1885),  Bona- 
venture  (1888),  and  Strange  'True  Stories  of 
Louisiana  (1889). 

Cable  is  a  large  rope  or  a  chain  of  iron  links, 
chiefly  employed  on  shipboard  to  suspend  and  re¬ 
tain  the  anchors.  Rope  cables  are  made  of  the 
best  hemp  or  of  wire,  twisted  into  a  mass  of  great 
compactness  and  strength.  The  circumference 
of  hemp  rope  varies  from  about  3  inches  to  26. 
A  certain  number  of  yarns  are  laid  up  left-handed 
to  form  a  strand;  three  strands  laid  up  right- 
handed  make  a  hawser  ;  and  three  hawsers  laid 
up  left-handed  make  a  cable.  The  strength  of  a 
hemp  cable  of  eighteen  inches  circumference  is 
about  sixty  tons;  and  for  other  dimensions  the 
strength  is  taken  to  vary  according  to  the  cube  of 
the  diameter.  Wire-rope  has  within  compara¬ 
tively  recent  times  been  to  a  certain  extent  taking 
the  place  of  hemp  for  tow-line  and  hawsers  on 
board  ship.  Chain  cables  are  made  in  links, 
having  a  length  of  about  6  diameters  of  the 
iron  of  which  they  are  made,  and  the  breadth 
about  8 i  diameters.  There  are  two  distinct  kinds 
of  chain  cables — the  stud-link  chain,  which  has  a 
tire  or  stud  welded  from  side  to  side,  and  the  short 
link  or  unstudded  chain.  One-inch  diameter 
chain  cable  is  equivalent  to  1 0  1  inches  circumfer¬ 
ence  hemp;  li  inches  to  134  inches,  14  inches  to 
16  inches,  li  inches  to  18  inches,  and  2  inches  to 
24  inches. 

Caboclied.  In  Heraldry,  when  the  head  of 
an  animal  is  born  without  any  part 
of  the  neck,  and  exhibited  full  face, 
it  is  described  as  caboclied. 

Cabot,  or  Cabotto,  Giovanni,  a 
Venetian  pilot,  the  discoverer  of  the 
mainland  of  North  America,  settled 


probably  as  early  as  1472,  in  Bristol,  Stag’s  Head 
where  he  is  supposed  to  have  died  caboehed. 
about  1498.  Under  letters-patent  from  Henry  VIE, 
dated  March  5,  1496,  he  set  sail  from  Bristol  in 
1497,  with  two  ships,  accompanied  by  Lewes,  Se- 
bastyan,  and  Sancto,  his  sons,  and  on  June  24tli 
sighted  Cape  Breton  Island  and  Nova  Scotia. 
Sebastian,  his  second  son,  was  probably  born  at 
Bristol  in  1474.  In  1512  lie  entered  theservice  of 
Ferdinand  V.  of  Spain,  as  a  cartographer.  In 
1519  Cabot  was  appointed  pilot-major  of  the 
kingdom  by  Charles  V..  for  whom,  in  1526,  he 
commanded  an  expedition  which  examined  the 
coast  of  Brazil  and  La  Plata,  where  he  endeav¬ 
ored  to  plant  colonies.  The  attempt  ending  in 
failure,  lie  was  imprisoned  for  a  year  in  1530,  and 
banished  for  two  years  to  Oran,  in  Africa.  In 
1533  he  obtained  his  former  post  in  Spain;  but 
in  1547  he  returned  to  England.  Edward  VI. 
made  him  inspector  of  the  navy,  and  gave' him  a 
pension.  In  1553  he  was  the  prime  mover  and 


director  of  1  lie  expedition  of  Merchant  Advent¬ 
urers  which  opened  to  England  an  important 
commerce  with  Russia.  He  is  believed  to  have 
died  in  London  in  1557. 

Cabral,  or  Cabera,  Pedro  Alvarez,  the 
discoverer — after  Pinzon  —  of  Brazil,  was  born 
about  1460  of  a  Portuguese  family.  After 
Vasco  da  Gama’s  first  voyage,  the  King  ap¬ 
pointed  Cabral  to  the  command  of  a  fleet  of 
thirteen  vessels,  carrying  1,200  men,  and 
bound  for  the  East  Indies.  He  took  a 
course  too  far  westerly,  and  was  carried  to 
the  coast  of  Brazil,  of  which,  on  April  23th, 
he  claimed  possession  for  the  King  of  Portugal, 
naming  the  new  country  “Terra  da  Santa  Cruz.” 
After  sending  home  one  vessel,  Cabral  sailed  for 
India;  but  losing  seven  of  his  vessels,  lie  landed 
at  Mozambique,  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  of 
which  he  first  gave  clear  information,  and  sailed 
thence  to  Calicut,  where  he  established  the  first 
commercial  treaty  between  Portugal  and  India. 
He  returned  with  a  considerable  booty,  and 
dropped  anchor  at  Lisbon,  July  31,  1501. 

Cabrera,  one  of  the  Balearic  Isles,  unculti¬ 
vated,  but  producing  wild  olives.  Area,  8 
square  miles.  It  is  used  by  the  Spanish  Govern¬ 
ment  as  a  penal  settlement. 

Cabrera,  Don  Ramon,  Carlist  leader,  was  born 
at  Tortosa,  Catalonia,  in  1810.  Cabrera  joined 
the  absolutists,  or  partisans  of  Don  Carlos.  In 
1839  Don  Carlos  created  liiyi  Count  of  Morelia, 
and  Governor-General  of  Aragon,  Valencia,  and 
Murcia;  but  Marotto’s  treachery  obliged  him  to 
act  solely  on  the  defensive;  and  in  July,  1840,  he 
was  driven  across  the  French  frontier.  In  1845 
he  opposed  Don  Carlo’s  abdication;  and  in  1848 
renewed  the  struggle  for  absolutism  in  Spain; 
but  the  adventure  failed,  and  early  in  1849  he  had 
to  recross  the  Pyrenees.  When  Alfonso  was  pro¬ 
claimed  King  of  Spain  in  1875,  Cabrera  pub¬ 
lished  a  manifesto  advising  the  C'arlists  to  submit 
to  him,  as  a  good  son  of  the  church.  He  died 
May  24,  1877. 

Cabs  derive  their  name  from  the  cabriolets  de 
place  introduced  into  England  from  Paris  at  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century.  In  Paris  the 
cabriolet  de  place  was  introduced  about  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  seventeenth  century  by  Nicholas 
Sauvage,  whose  residence  in  the  Rue  St.  Martin 
at  l’Hotel  St.  Fiacre  has  given  the  name  of  fiacres 
to  the  public  carriages  of  that  city.  In  1805 
Messrs.  Bradshaw  and  Rotch  obtained  licenses  for 
eight  cabriolets  which  were  started  in  London. 
They  speedily  acquired  great  popularity,  and  in 
1832,  when  all  restrictions  as  to  numbers  were 
removed,  had  reached  a  total  of  sixty-five. 
Ultimately  they  displaced  the  hackney  coaches 
(public  vehicles  are  still  officially  designated 
hackney  carriages).  The  introduction  of  the 
hansom  patent  safety  cab,  named  after  the  inven¬ 
tor,  the  architect  of  Birmingham  towm-liall, 
marked  a  new  era  in  rapid  street  locomotion. 
The  patent  was  taken  out  in  1834,  and  originally 
consisted  of  a  square  body,  the  two  wheels,  about 
7}.£  feet  in  diameter,  being  the  same  height  as  the 
vehicle.  Numerous  improvements  were  made 
upon  this,  and  in  1836,  afresh  patent  being  taken 
out  by  Messrs.  Gillett  &  Chapman,  a  company 
was  formed  for  establishing  hansom  cabs.  Since 
that  time  there  has  been  a  steady  advance  made 
in  the  construction  and  appointments  of  the 
“hansom.”  Cabs  have  been  introduced  in  the 
larger  cities  of  this  country. 

Cticeres,  the  second  largest  province  of  Spain, 
in  the  north  of  Estremadura.  Area,  8,014  square 
miles;  pop.  (1885),  325,953. — ' The  capital,  Caceres, 
was  the  Castra  Ctncilia  of  the  Romans,  by  whom 
it  was  founded  in  74  b.c.  ;  and  here  the  allied 
forces  defeab  d  the  rear-guard  of  the  Duke  of 
Berwick,  April  7,  1706.  Pop.  (1885),  14,173. 

Cacliar,  a  district  of  British  India  in  the 
chief-commissionership  of  Assam,  bordering  on 
Manipur.  Area,  3,750  square  miles;  pop.  (18S1), 
313,858.  The  staple  crop  is  rice,  yielding  three 
harvests  in  the  year.  The  tea-plant  was  dis¬ 
covered  growing  wild  here  in  1855.  The  town 
of  Silchar  (pop. ,6, 567)  is  the  administrative  head¬ 
quarters. 

Cache  (Fr.  hiding-place),  in  Canada  and  the 
Western  States,  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground  for 
concealing  provisions  and  other  articles  cum¬ 
brous  to  carry. 


CACHEXIA. 


227 


CADIZ. 


Cachexia  (Gr.  kakos  bad;  hexis,  habit),  a  term 
used  in  medicine  of  an  obviously  unhealthy  con¬ 
dition  of  the  body.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  regard 
to  chronic  diseases,  where  the  general  nutrition  is 
defective,  and  the  blood  in  an  unhealthy  state. 

Cacholong,  a  beautiful  mineral,  regarded  as  a 
variety  of  semi-opal.  It  is  sometimes  called 
pearl  opal,  or  mother-of-pearl  opal.  It  is  gen¬ 
erally  of  a  milk-white  color,  rarely  with  a  yellow¬ 
ish  or  reddish  tinge. 

Cacique,  or  Cazique,  the  designation  given  to 
the  chiefs  of  Indian  tribes  in  works  relating  to 
Central  and  South  America.  The  word  was 
formed  by  the  Spaniards  from  a  native  Ilaytian 
word. 

Caeodyle,  or  Kakodyle,  is  an  organic  sub¬ 
stance  containing  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  arsenic, 
((CH3)aAs)5,  The  oxide  of  caeodyle,  ((CH3)2As)aO, 
otherwise  known  as  Cadet’s  fuming  liquor  or 
alkarsine,  has  the  remarkable  properly  of  taking 
fire  spontaneously  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and 
evolving  abundant  and  exceedingly  poisonous 
fumes  of  arsenic. 

Cactaeesc,  an  order  of  calycifloral  dicotyle¬ 
dons,  consisting  of  succulent  shrubs  of  very 
singular  appearance.  Linnaeus  included  all  the 
Gactaeeae  in  the  single  genus  Cactus,  which  is 
now  divided  into  a  number  of  genera,  with  about 
1,000  species,  the  name  Cactus,  however,  still 
continuing  in  popular  use,  common  to  the  whole 
order.  The  cacti  are  almost  without  ex¬ 
ception  natives  of  America,  and  their  extraordi¬ 
nary  forms  give  a  remarkable  character  to  the 
vegetation  of  its  warmer  regions.  One  is  found 
in  Ceylon,  and  one  is  a  probable  native  of  West 
Africa.  The  stem  may  become  flattened,  as  in 
the  Prickly  Pear  ( Opunlia ),  or  more  frequently 
be  thrown  into  ridges  and  furrows,  so  as  to  in¬ 
crease  the  vegetative  surface.  Protected  by  its 
dense  and  continuous  epidermis,  the  bulky 
stem  of  the  cactus  is  thus  enabled  to  store  a  vast 
supply  of  water  in  the  spongy  bark  and  pith,  and 
thus  withstand  the  drought  and  sun  of  the  most 
rocky  and  desert  situations,  ot  which  they  often 
cover  large  tracts.  On  this  account  they  are 
often  of  great  value  as  sources  of  water-supply 
to  man  and  animals;  and  travelers  upon  the 
Mexican  plateau  have  described  how  the  herds  of 
half-wild  horses  break  down  branches  of  Cereus 
with  their  hoofs,  or  kick  open  the  spheroidal  Melo- 
cactus,  to  quench  their  thirst.  The  cultivation 
of  the  cactus  family  has  long  been  increasingly 


Cacti . 

a,  Cereus  giganteus;  b,  Opuntia  coccinellifera;  c,  Mam- 
millaria  pectinata;  d,  Phyllocactus  anguliger. 


popular,  not  so  much  on  account  of  the  frequent 
beauty  or  rarity  of  their  flowers  as  the  bizarre 
nnd  often  grotesque  vegetative  forms,  of  which 
the  effect  is  heightened  by  the  spines,  which 


often  densely  clothe  the  whole  plant,  especially 
in  the  spheroidal  forms,  where  they  may  also  be 
replaced  or  supplemented  by  a  thick  growth  of 
woolly  or  silky  hairs.  The  flowers  are  often  of 
great  size  anti  beauty,  and  are  remarkable  for 
their  floral  envelopes,  of  which  the  constituent 
leaves  run  in  spirals  instead  of  whorls,  and  are 
thus  insensibly  gradated  from  small  green  foliage 
leaves  with  axillant  spiny  buds  into  large  and 
splendid  petals.  The  stamens  are  also  indefinite, 
the  style  single,  and  the  stigma  three-lobed.  The 
flowers  are  usually  very  short-lived;  in  some 
night-flowering  species,  such  as  the  well-known 
Cereus  Qrandiflorus,  common  in  hot  houses,  the 
flower  only  opens  after  dark,  and  perishes  before 
morning. 

Cacus,  a  son  of  Vulcan,  was  a  giant  who  lived 
in  a  cave  on  Mount  Aventine.  Having  stolen 
and  dragged  into  his  cave  some  of  the  cattle 
which  Hercules  had  carried  away  from  Geryon 
in  Spain,  he  was  killed  by  that  hero,  who  discov¬ 
ered  his  place  of  hiding  by  the  lowing  of  the 
oxen  within. 

Cadastral  Maps  are  maps  on  a  large  and  com¬ 
plete  scale.  Properly  a  cadastral  survey  is  made 
by  the  Government  for  fiscal  purposes. 

Caddis-fly  (Pit  ryganea,  etc.),  a  name  common 
to  the  members  of  a  very  distinct  family  of 
Neuropterous  insects.  The  family  (Pliryganeida?) 
is  coextensive  with  a  special  division  of  the  order 
known  as  Trichoptera,  and  regarded  by  some  as 
a  foreshadowing  of  Lepidoptera.  The  adult 


Caddis-fly. 


a,  Perfect  insect  ( Phrt/ganea  striata)-,  b,  larva  and  case; 

c,  larva  of  Limnophilus  subpunctulatus  removed  from 

case;  d,  case  of  same. 

insects  are  somewhat  moth-like,  and  the  larvae 
often  not  unlike  caterpillars.  The  Caddis-flies 
form  the  largest  family  of  Neuroptera;  some  800 
species  are  known ;  Mr.  M’Lachlan,  in  his  mono¬ 
graph,  enumerates  474  European  forms. 

Cade,  Jack,  leader  of  the  English  insurrection 
of  1450,  was  by  birth  an  Irishman.  Assuming 
the  name  of  Mortimer,  and  the  title  of  Captain  of 
Kent,  he  marched  on  London  with  upward  of 
15,000  followers,  and  encamped  at  Blackheath. 
The  answer  was  an  army,  before  which  Cade  re¬ 
treated  to  Sevenoaks;  there  he  defeated  a  detach¬ 
ment,  and  killed  its  two  leaders.  On  July  2d 
he  entered  London,  where  for  two  days  he  main¬ 
tained  strict  order,  though  he  forced  the  Lord 
Mayor  to  pass  judgment  on  Lord  Say,  one  of  the 
King’s  detested  favorites,  whose  head  Cade’s  men 
cut  off  in  Cheapside.  On  the  third  day  some 
houses  were  plundered;  and  that  night  the  citi¬ 
zens  held  London  Bridge  against  the  insurgents. 
A  promise  of  pardon  now  sowed  dissension 
among  them;  they  dispersed,  and  a  price  was 
set  upon  Cade’s  head.  He  attempted  to  reach 
the  coast,  but  was  followed  by  one  Alexander 
Idea,  a  Squire  of  Kent,  who  on  July  12th  fought 
and  killed  him  in  a  garden,  near  Ileathfield  in 
Sussex. 

Cadell,  Francis,  born  at  Cockenzie,  near 
Edinburgh,  in  1822,  became  an  East  India  mid¬ 
shipman,  and  is  best  known  as  the  explorer  of  the 
Murray  river  with  a  view  to  its  navigation 
(1850-59).  He  wras  murdered  by  a  mutinous 
crew  when  commanding  a  ship  sailing  from  Am- 
boyna  in  1879. 

Cadelle  ( Trogosita  mnuritanica),  acoleopterous 
insect  sometimes  found  in  granaries  in  Britain, 


but  seemingly  imported  from  more  southerly 
countries,  where,  as  in  France,  its  larvae  often 
commit  great  ravages  among  stored  corn  and 
meal.  They  also  live  on  bread,  almonds,  and 
even  rotten  wood. 

Cademosto,  Aloys  da,  explorer,  born  in  Venice 
about  1432,  traded  along  the  Mediterranean  and 
Atlantic  coasts,  and  in  1455,  for  the  Infante 
Henry,  undertook  a  voyage  to  the  Canaries  and 
as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia.  In  1456  he 
made  a  second  voyage  to  Senegambia,  and  died 
about  1480.  II is  account  of  his  discoveries  was 
published  at  Vicenza  in  1507. 

Cadenahhia,  a  health  resort,  beautifully  situ¬ 
ated  among  orange  and  citron  groves,  on  the  west 
shore  of  Lake  Como.  Its  famous  Villa  Carlotta 
contains  works  by  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen. 

Cadence,  in  Music,  is  the  close  of  a  phrase;  the 
term  being  generally  applied  to  the  final  two 
chords  of  the  phrase.  There  are  three  principal 
species — viz.,  the  perfect,  the  imperfect,  and  the 
interrupted  cadence.  The  perfect,  also  called  the 
whole  or  final  cadence,  is  generally  used  at  the 
end  of  a  composition  or  of  an  important  section. 
Its  final  chord,  either  major  or  minor,  must  be  on 
the  tonic(in  the  sol  fa  notation,  doll) — i.  e.,  it  must 
have  the  key-note  for  its  bass. 

Cadency,  Mark  of,  in  Heraldry,  an  addition 
to,  or  variation  from,  the  original  coat-armorial  of 


1.  2.  3.  4.  5.  G. 

Marks  of  Cadency. 

1,  label;  2,  crescent:  3,  mullet;  4,  martlet;  5,  annulet; 

6,  fleur-de-lis. 

a  family,  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  distinguish¬ 
ing  a  cadet  from  the  head  of  the  house. 

Cadenza,  an  ornamental  flourish  introduced  by 
a  soloist  toward  the  close  of  a  piece  of  music  or  a 
section  of  one. 

Cadet,  Military.  Cadet  (Fr.,  through  some 
low  Lat.  diminutive  form,  from  Lat.  caput,  head) 
is  a  term  applied  in  a  general  sense  to  the  younger 
son  of  a  noble  house  as  distinguished  from  the 
elder;  and  in  France,  any  officer  junior  to  another 
is  a  cadet  in  respect  to  him.  In  England,  how¬ 
ever,  the  term  is  generally  applied  to  a  youth 
studying  for  the  army  at  one  of  the  military  col¬ 
leges,  or  for  the  navy  on  board  the  Britannia 
training-ship;  and  in  the  United  States,  pupils  at 
the  West  Point  Military  Academy  and  at  the 
Naval  Academy  at  Annapolis  are  termed  cadets. 

Cadi,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  a  judge  or 
person  learned  in  the  law,  the  title  of  an  inferior 
judge  among  the  Mohammedan  nations.  Like  the 
Mollah,  or  superior  judge,  he  must  becliosen  from 
the  higher  ranks  of  the  priesthood,  as  all  law-  is 
founded  upon  the  Koran. 

Cadiz,  an  important  commercial  city  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name.  On 
the  west  and  south  the  Atlantic  Ocean  washes  the 
city,  and  on  the  north  and  northeast  the  Bay  of 
Cadiz,  a  deep  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  forming  an 
outerand  an  inner  bay.  The  town,  which  is  walled, 
is  about  two  miles  in  circuit ,  presents  a  remarkably 
bright  appearance,  with  its  shining  granite  ram¬ 
parts,  and  its  whitewashed  houses  crowned  with 
terraces  and  overhanging  turrets.  Cadiz  has  few 
public  buildings  of  note;  its  two  cathedrals  are 
indifferent  specimens  of  ecclesiastical  architecture, 
but  possess  some  excellent  pictures  by  Murillo.  It 
reached  its  highest  prosperity  after  the  discovery 
of  America,  when  it  became  the  depot  of  com¬ 
merce  with  the  New  World;  declined  greatly  as  a 
commercial  city  after  the  emancipation  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  South  America;  but  again 
revived,  owing  partly  to  the  extension  of  the 
Spanish  railway  system,  and  partly  to  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  new  lines  of  steamers.  The  number 
of  ships  annually  entering  the  port  is  about  3,  >00, 
with  a  tonnage  of  over  1,200,000.  Pop.  (1885), 
58,042.  Cadiz  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns 
in  Europe,  having  been  built  by  the  Phoenicians, 
under  the  name  of  Gaddir  (fortress),  about  1100 
b.c.  In  1587  Drake  destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet  in 
the  bay;  nine  years  later,  Cadiz  was  pillaged  and 
burned  by  Essex;  and  in  1625  and  1702  it  was 
unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  English.  From 
1808  the  headquarters  of  the  Spanish  patriots, 
Cadiz  was  blockaded  by  the  French  from  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1810,  until  Aug.  25,  1812,  when  the  vie- 


CADMIA. 


228 


CiESAR. 


tories  of  Wellington  forced  them  to  raise  the  siege. 
It  was  captured  in  1823  for  Ferdinand  VII.  by 
the  French,  who  held  it  till  1828;  and  it  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  Spanish  revolution  of  1868, 
as  well  as  the  scene  in  1813  of  an  Intransigente 
rising. 

Cadinia  is  the  term  applied  to  the  crust  formed 
in  zinc  furnaces,  and  which  contains  from  10  to 
20  per  cent,  of  cadmium. 

Cadmium  (sym.  Cd.,  atomic  weight  112)  is  a 
metal  which  occurs  in  zinc  ores.  In  the  prepara¬ 
tion  of  zinc,  when  heat  is  applied,  the  cadmium, 
being  more  volatile  than  the  metal,  rises  in 
vapor,  and  distills  over  with  the  first  portions  of 
the  metal.  Cadmium  is  a  white  metal,  somewhat 
resembling  tin,  but  denser,  its  specific  gravity 
being  8.6.  It  is  very  soft,  and  is  malleable  and 
ductile,  crackling  like  tin  when  a  rod  of  it  is  bent. 
It  fuses  at  442°  (227.8°  C.),  and  volatilizes  a  little 
below  the  boiling-point  of  mercury.  There  are 
alloys  of  cadmium,  with  various  other  metals. 
The  sulphide  of  cadmium,  CdS,  occurs  naturally 
as  the  mineral  Greenockite,  and  when  prepared 
artificially,  is  of  a  bright  yellow  color.  It  is 
known  as  Cadmium  Yellow,  and  is  of  great  value 
to  the  artist.  A  great  variety  of  tints  are  produced 
by  mixing  it  with  white-lead. 

Cadmus,  in  Greek  Mythology,  the  son  of 
Agenor  and  Telephassa,  and  brother  of  Europa. 
When  the  latter  was  carried  off  by  Zeus,  be  was 
sent  by  Agenor  in  quest  of  her,  with  injunctions 
not  to  return  without  her.  The  search  was  vain, 
and  the  oracle  at  Delphi  told  Cadmus  to  relinquish 
it,  but  to  follow  a  cow  of  a  certain  kind  which  he 
should  meet,  and  build  a  city  where  it  should 
lie  down.  He  found  the  cow  in  Phocis,  followed 
her  to  Bceotia,  and  built  there  the  city  of  Thebes. 
Intending  to  sacrifice  the  cow  to' Athena,  he  sent 
some  men  to  the  well  of  Ares,  hard  by,  for  water, 
but  they  were  killed  by  the  dragon,  a  son  of  Ares, 
who  guarded  it.  Cadmus  then  slew  the  dragon, 
and  sowed  the  monster’s  teeth  in  the  ground. 
From  these  at  once  sprung  up  armed  men  who 
set  upon  and  slew  each  other  until  none  were  left 
but  five,  who  became  the  progenitors  of  the  The¬ 
ban  families.  To  Cadmus  is  ascribed  the  intro¬ 
duction  into  Greece  of  an  alphabet  of  sixteen  let¬ 
ters  derived  from  Egypt  or  Phoenicia,  and  the 
discovery  of  brass  or  introduction  of  its  use. 

Cadoudal,  Georges,  a  distinguished  leader  of 
the  Chouans,  was  born  near  Auray,  in  Lower 
Brittany,  where  his  father  was  a  miller,  in  1771. 
He  was  among  the  first  to  take  up  arms  against 
the  Republic,  and  soon  acquired  great  influence 
over  the  peasants.  After  an  apparent  submission 
in  1796,  he  renewed  the  revolt  in  Brittany  in  1799, 
but  was  compelled  to  submit,  and  to  dismiss  his 
forces  in  February,  1800.  Bonaparte  recognized 
his  energy  and  force  of  character,  and  endeavored 
to  secure  his  services,  but  Cadoudal  refused  his 
offers,  and  passed  over  to  England  where  the 
Comte  d’Artois  appointed  him  a  Lieutenant-Gen¬ 
eral,  and  where,  in  1802,  he  conspired  with  Piclie- 
gru  for  the  overthrow  of  the  First  Consul.  With 
this  design  he  went  to  Paris,  but  was  arrested, 
condemned,  and  guillotined,  June  25,  1804. 

Cadu'ceus,  the  winged  staff  of  Hermes 
(Mercury),  which  gave  the  god  power  to  fly. 
Originally  a  simple  olive  branch,  its 
stems  were  afterward  formed  into 
snakes,  and  several  poetical  tales  de¬ 
vised  by  the  my  Biologists  to  explain 
this,  as,  that  Hermes  having  found 
two  snakes  fighting,  divided  them 
with  his  rod,  and  thus  they  came  to 
be  used  as  an  emblem  of  peace.  It 
is  the  staff  or  mace  carried  by  heralds 
and  ambassadors  in  time  of  war. 

Csecillia  (Lat.  ccecus,  blind),  a 
genus  of  serpent-like  amphibians, 
type  of  a  small  order  of  Gymno- 
pliiona,  in  which  the  body  is  worm¬ 
like,  without  tail  or  limbs,  with  Caduceus. 
transversely  furrowed  skin,  and  usually  with 
small  hidden  scales.  Gsecilia  itself  is  a  South 
American  genus,  about  twenty  inches  in  length 
and  the  thickness  of  a  large  worm;  Epicrium  is 
found  in  Ceylon,  Mexico,  and  Brazil;  and  Sipho- 
ops  (over  two  feet  in  length)  buries  deeply  in  the 
soft  earth  of  Brazil  and  elsewhere.  The  genera, 
of  which  eleven  altogether  are  distinguished,  are 
peculiarly  divided.  Thus  five  species  of  Dermo- 


phis  are  American,  and  one  is  African.  These 
animals  should  hardly  be  called  blindworms. 

Caecum  (Lat.  emeus,  blind),  a  general  term  for 
any  blind  sac  arising  from  the  gut.  Such  out¬ 
growths  are  common  in  many  different  classes  of 
animals. 

Caedmon  was  the  first  English  writer  of  note 
who  used  his  own  Anglo-Saxon  language,  and 
the  first  religious  poet  of  the  Teutonic  race.  All 
that  we  know  of  him  is  from  Bede,  who  devotes 
to  him  a  chapter  of  his  History  (book  iv,  24).  He 
died  about  680  a.d. 

Cadwalader,  John;  born  in  1743  in  Philadel¬ 
phia,  died  in  1786.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Convention  of  1775,  became  a  brigadier-general 
in  the  Revolutionary  War  and  fought  at  Brandy¬ 
wine  and  Monmouth.  He  fought  a  duel  with 
General  Conway. 

Caen,  the  chief  town  in  the  French  department 
of  Calvados,  and  the  former  capital  of  Lower 
Normandy,  ife  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
navigable  Orne.  Among  its  fifteen  churches  are 
those  of  St.  Etienne  and  La  Sainte  Trinity,  both 
Romanesque  in  style,  founded  in  1066  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  his  queen  Matilda,  and  con¬ 
taining  their  graves,  which  the  Huguenots  violated 
in  1562;  St.  Pierre  (1308-1521),  with  an  exquisite 
spire  242  feet  high;  St.  Nicholas,  now  desecrated, 
and  St.  Jean.  The  castle,  founded  by  the  Con¬ 
queror,  and  finished  by  Henry  I.  of  England,  was 
dismantled  in  1793,  and  now  serves  as  a  barrack. 
In  1793  several  of  the  Girondist  chiefs,  proscribed 
by  the  Jacobins,  went  to  Caen,  and  organized  an 
unsuccessful  revolt  against  the  “Mountain.” 
Malherbe,  Marot,  Iluet,  and  Auber  were  natives 
(a  marble  statue  of  the  last  was  unveiled  in  1883); 
Charlotte  Corday  lived  here;  and  Beau  Brummell 
died  in  the  lunatic  asylum.  Pop.  (1886),  42,041. 

Catsalpin'ia,  a  large  genus  of  leguminous 
trees,  the  type  of  the  essentially  tropical  sub-order 
Ctesalpineae.  The  sub-order  contains  about  1,500 
species,  largely  trees,  among  which  many  are 
notable  for  their  purgative  properties,  as  senna; 
some  produce  edible  fruits,  as  the  tamarind,  the 
carob,  and  the  West  Indian  locust  tree;  some 
yield  resinous  and  balsamic  products,  as  copaiba, 
aloes.-wood,  etc.;  some  produce  important  dye- 
woods,  as  logwood,  Brazil-wood,  camwood,  etc.; 
and  some  are  trees  of  great  size,  and  very  valuable 
for  their  timber.  The  genus  contains  a  number 
of  important  trees,  notably  C.  ec/iinata  ( brasili - 
ensi x),  which  yields  the  Brazil-wood,  Pernambuco- 
wood;  and  6’.  sappan ,  the  sappan-wood  of  com¬ 
merce;  also  C.  eoriaria,  which  supplies  the  astrin¬ 
gent  pods  called  dividivi,  used  in  tanning. 

Caesar,  the  title  of  the  Roman  Emperors  and  of 
the  heirs  to  the  throne,  was  originally  the  name 
of  a  patrician  family  of  the  Julia  Gens,  one  of  the 
oldest  in  the  Roman  State,  claiming  to  be 
descended  from  lulus,  the  son  of  rEneas.  Octa- 
vian  bore  the  name  as  the  adopted  son  of  Julius 
Ciesar,  and  handed  it  down  to  his  own  adopted 
son,  Tiberius;  after  whom  it  was  borne  by  Cali¬ 
gula,  Claudius,  and  Nero.  Although  the  Caesarian 
family  proper  became  extinct  with  Nero,  the  title 
of  Caesar  was  part  of  the  style  of  the  succeeding 
emperors,  usually  between  Imperator  and  the  per¬ 
sonal  name,  as  “Imperator  Caesar  Vespasianus 
Augustus.”  The  name  reappears  in  the  Czar  (or 
Tsar)  of  Russia,  in  the  Kaiser  of  the  “  Holy 
Roman  Empire  ”  and  the  modern  Empire  of  Ger¬ 
many,  and  in  the  Kauav-i-Hind  or  Empress  of 
Hindustan. 

Caesar,  Caius  Julius,  son  of  a  Roman  Praetor 
of  the  same  name,  was  born  July  12,  100  b.c.  In 
74  b.c.  he  was  elected 
Pontifex,  soon  became 
an  active  leader  of  the 
Democratic  party,  and 
had  a  large  share  in  ef¬ 
fecting  the  agreement 
by  which  Pompey  and 
Crassus  accepted  the 
popular  policy.  The 
result  was  the  over¬ 
throw  of  the  Sullan 
constitution  in  70  b.c., 
and  the  restoration  of 
popular  institutions,  such  as  the  tribunate.  In  68 
b.c  Ciesar  obtained  a  quaestorsliip  in  Spain.  On 
his  return  to  Rome  (67  b.c.),  he  married  Pompeia, 
a  relative  of  Pompey.  In  65  b.c.  he  held  the 


curule  aedileship,  and  lavished  vast  sums  of 
money  on  games  and  public  buildings’  by  which 
he  increased  his  popularity.  In  63  b.c.  he  was 
elected  Pontifex  Maximus,  and  shortly  after,. 
Praetor.  In  63  b.c.  Caesar  obtained  the  Province  of 
Hispania  Ulterior.  On  his  return  he  was  elected 
Consul,  with  Calpurnius  Bibulus.  Ca?sar  recon¬ 
ciled  the  two  most  powerful  men  in  Rome,  who 
were  then  at  Variance,  Pompey  and  Crassus,  and 
formed  ;m  alliance  with  them,  known  in  history 
as  the  First  Triumvirate,  (60  b.c.)  Caesar’s  pro¬ 
ceedings  during  his  consulship  were  marked  by 
this  policy  of  friendship  to  Pompey;  he  passed  an 
agrarian  law  by  which  Pompey’s  veteran  soldiers 
chiefly  profited,  and  he  obtained  the  ratification 
of  that  general’s  acts  in  the  East.  On  the  expira¬ 
tion  of  his  term  of  office,  Caesar  obtained  for  him¬ 
self  the  Province  of  Gallia  Cisalpina  and  Illyri- 
cum  for  five  years,  to  which  the  Senate  added  the 
Province  of  Gallia  Transalpina.  In  58  b.c.  Caesar 
repaired  to  his  provinces,  and  during  the  next 
nine  years  conducted  those  splendid  campaigns 
in  Gaul  by  which  he  completed  the  subjugation 
of  the  West  under  the  dominion  of  Rome.  In  his 
first  campaign  he  defeated  the  Helvetii,  and  also 
Ariovistus,  who,  with  a  large  number  of  Germans, 
had  settled  west  of  the  Rhine.  In  57  b.c.  Caesar 
broke  up  the  Belgic  confederacy  and  subdued  the 
various  tribes  composing  it,  the  greatest  struggle 
being  with  the  Nervii.  During  the  winter  and 
spring  following,  Caesar  stayed  at  Lucca,  where 
he  had  a  meeting  with  Pompey  and  Crassus,  and 
agreed  upon  a  common  policy.  It  was  decided 
that  Pompey  and  Crassus  should  be  consuls  for 
the  year  55  b.c,,  while  the  government  of  Caesar 
in  Gaul  was  to  be  prolonged  for  a  second 
term  of  five  years  till  49  b.c.  He  now  under¬ 
took  a  fourth  campaign  against  two  German 
tribes  who  were  about  to  enter  Gaul.  He 
was  again  successful,  and  pursuing  the  fleeing 
enemy  across  the  Rhine,  spent  eighteen  days  in 
plundering  the  district  inhabited  by  the  Sigambri. 
In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  (55  b.c.)  he  in¬ 
vaded  Britain;  but  after  a  brief  stay  in  the  island, 
returned  to  Gaul.  In  54  b.c.  Caesar  opened  his 
fifth  campaign  by  a  second  invasion  of  Britain,  in 
which  he  crossed  the  Thames,  and  enforced  the 
submission  of  the  British  tribes  in  the  southeast  of 
the  island.  On  his  return  to  Gaul,  Caesar  dis¬ 
persed  his  forces  into  winter  quarters,  and  this 
encouraged  some  of  the  Gallic  tribes  to  revolt.  It 
led  to  the  first  serious  reverse  which  Caesar  sustained 
in  Gaul;  a  division  of  fifteen  cohorts  was  entirely 
destroyed  by  the  Eburones.  But  he  was  speedily 
master  of  the  insurrection,  and  wreaked  a  terrible 
vengeance  on  its  authors.  Caesar  now  returned  to 
Northern  Italy,  when  there  broke  out  a  general 
rebellion  of  the  Gauls,  headed  by  a  young  warrior 
of  the  Arverni  named  Vercingetorix.  It  was  in 
the  dead  of  winter  when  the  news  came  to  Caesar. 
Without  delay  he  crossed  the  Cevennes  Mountains, 
though  they  were  covered  with  snow  to  the  depth 
of  six  feet.  At  Gergovia,  the  capital  of  the 
Arverni,  Caesar  was  defeated,  and  for  a  time  his 
affairs  seemed  in  a  desperate  condition.  But  he 
managed  to  unite  his  forces,  and  at  the  siege  of 
Alesia  (52  b.c.)  crushed  the  whole  hosts  of  the 
Gauls.  Vercingetorix  surrendered  himself,  and 
the  independence  of  Gaul  was  at  an  end.  Only 
some  isolated  tribes  continued  to  resist;  and  next 
year  (51  b.c.)  Caesar  proceeded  to  quell  them. 
This  he  successfully  accomplished.  Crassus  had 
fallen  in  Asia  in  53  b.c.,  and  thus  Caesar  and 
Pompey  were  left  alone,  the  two  most  powerful 
men  of  Rome.  Pompey  was  jealous  of  his 
younger  rival.  His  natural  tendency  was  to 
adhere  to  the  old  Aristocratic  party.  He  now  cast 
in  his  lot  with  it,  and  it  was  decided  to  break  the 
power  of  Caesar.  With  this  view  it  was  necessary 
to  deprive  him  of  his  command  in  Gaid.  Under 
the  direction  of  Pompey  the  Senate  summarily 
called  upon  him  to  resign  the  command  and  dis¬ 
band  his  army.  The  Senate  intrusted  Pompey 
with  the  duty  of  providing  for  the  safety  of  the 
State.  His  "  forces  far  outnumbered  Caesar’s 
legions,  but  they  were  scattered  over  the  provinces 
of  the  Empire,  and  the  Italian  levy  was  unpre¬ 
pared.  Perceiving  that  the  time  for  energetic 
action  had  at  length  arrived,  Caesar  harangued  his 
victorious  troops,  who  were  willing  to  follow  him 
anywhere;  crossed  the  Rubicon  (a  small  stream 
which  separated  his  province  from  Italy  Proper), 


CH5SAR. 


229 


CAIRNS. 


and  moved  swiftly  southward.  Pompey  fled  to 
Brundusium,  pursued  by  Caesar,  but  contrived  to 
reach  Greece  in  safety,  March  17,  49  b.c.  The 
Italian  cities  opened  their  gates  to  the  conqueror. 
In  three  months  Caesar  was  master  of  all  Italy. 
Caesar  next  subdued  Pompey 's  legates  in  Spain, 
who  were  at  the  head  of  considerable  forces.  On 
his  return,  he  took  Massilia,  where  he  learned 
that  he  had  been  chosen  Dictator  of  the  Republic 
— a  function  which  at  this  time  he  retained  only 
for  eleven  days,  but  these  were  honorably  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  the  passing  of  several  humane  enact¬ 
ments.  Pompey  had  gathered  in  Egypt,  Greece, 
and  the  East,  a  powerful  army,  while  his  fleet 
swept  the  sea.  Caesar,  crossing  the  Adriatic  at  an 
unexpected  season,  made  a  rush  for  Dyrrhachiuin, 
where  Pompey’s  stores  were;  but  was  outstripped 
by  his  opponent.  Pompey  intrenched  his  army 
on  some  high  ground  near  the  city,  where  he  was 
besieged  by  Caesar.  The  flrst  encounter  was 
favorable  to  Pompey,  who  drove  back  Caesar’s 
legions  with  much  loss.  The  latter  now  advanced 
into  Thessaly,  followed  by  his  enemies.  A  second 
battle  ensued  on  the  Plains  of  Pharsalia,  Aug.  9, 
48  b.c.  The  senatorial  army  was  utterly  routed; 
and  Pompey  himself  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  was 
murdered.  No  sooner  had  tiie  news  reached 
Rome  than  Caesar  was  again  appointed  Dictator 
for  a  year.  Consul  for  five  years,  invested  with 
tribunician  power  for  life.  He  did  not,  however, 
return  to  Rome  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalia,  but 
went  to  Egypt.  Out  of  love  for  Cleopatra  (who 
subsequently  bore  him  a  son),  he  entered  upon 
the  “  Alexandrine  War,”  in  which  he  was  success¬ 
ful,  and  which  he  brought  to  a  close  in  March,  47 
b.c.  He  next  overthrew  a  son  of  Mithridates, 
nearZela,  inPontus,  August  2d,  of  the  same  year, 
and  arrived  in  Rome  in  September.  He  was  once 
more  appointed  Dictator, and  before  the  close  of  the 
year  had  set  out  for  Africa,  where  his  campaign 
against  the  Pompeian  generals,  Scipio  and  Cato, 
was  crowned  with  victory  at  the  battle  of  Thapsus, 
April  6,  46  b.c.  Cato  committed  suicide  at  Utica, 
and  by  the  end  of  the  summer  Caesar  was  once 
more  in  Rome.  He  declared  that  henceforth  lie 
had  no  enemies,  that  he  could  make  no  difference 
between  Pompeians  and  Caesarians.  His  victories 
in  Gaul,  Egypt,  Pontus,  and  Africa  were  cele¬ 
brated  by  four  great  triumphs,  during  which  the 
whole  Roman  populace  was  feasted  and  feted  by 
the  liberality  of  the  Dictator.  During  the  year 
46  b.c.  he  conferred  a  benefit  on  Rome  and  on  the 
world  by  the  reformation  of  the  calendar,  which 
had  been  greatly  abused  by  the.  pontifical  college 
for  political  purposes.  After  quelling  an  insur¬ 
rection  which  broke  out  in  Spain,  he  received  the 
title  of  “Father  of  his  Country,”  and  also  of 
Imperator,  was  made  Dictator  and  Prcefectva 
Morum  for  life,  and  Consul  for  ten  years;  his 
person  was  declared  sacred,  and  even  divine;  lie 
obtained  a  body-guard  of  knights  and  senators; 
his  statue  was  placed  in  the  temples;  his  portrait 
was  struck  on  coins;  the  month  Quintilis  was 
called  Julius  in  his  honor;  and  on  ail  public  oc¬ 
casions  he  was  permitted  to  wear  t lie  triumphal 
robe.  In  the  midst  of  his  vast  designs  he  was  cut 
off  by  assassination  on  the  Ides  (15th)  of  March,  44 
b.c  Of  Caesar’s  works  the  Commentaries  on  the 
Gallic  and  Civil  Wars  alone  have  been  preserved. 
Among  recent  accounts  of  his  life  the  most  valu¬ 
able  are  to  be  found  in  Mommsen’s  Rinnan  His¬ 
tory  (Eng.  trans.  1866),  and  Drumann’s  Geschichte 
Rorns.  See  also  the  works  of  Merivale  and 
Arnold,  Fronde’s  Ccesav,  and  Ilisloire  cle  Jules 
Cesar,  by  Stoffel  (1888). 

Caesar,  Sir  Julius,  Judge,  was  born  at  Totten¬ 
ham,  England,  in  1558,  was  the  son  of  Cesare  Adel- 
mare,  physician  to  Queen  Mary.  He  wasappointed 
Judge  of  the  Admiralty  Court  in  1584,  Chancellor 
of  the  Exchequer  in  1606,  and  Masterof  the  Rolls 
in  1614.  He  sat  in  six  Parliaments,  was  knighted 
in  1603,  and  died  April  18,  1636. 

Caesarc'a,  now  called  by  the  natives  “  Kaisar- 
ieh,”  was  built  by  Herod  about  22  b.c.,  and 
named  in  honor  of  Caesar  Augustus.  It  was 
a  Greek  town,  with  its  temples,  amphitheater, 
baths,  etc.,  imported  into  Syria.  CLksarka 
Philippi. — This  town,  mentioned  in  Matt,  xvi, 
13,  and  Mark  viii,  27,  was  situated  about  ninety- 
five  miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  near  the  source  of 
the  Jordan.  It  is  now  a  heap  of  ruins ;  the  mod¬ 


ern  village  of  Paneas,  or  Banais,  on  its  site,  com¬ 
prises  about  150  houses,  with  traces  of  a  temple. 

Caesarean  Operation  (ccedo,  I  cut — caisus  has 
from  ancient  times  been  the  popular  name  for 
Hysterotomy  (hysteria ,  uterus;  tome,  section).  Pliny 
distinctly  alludes  to  it  in  his  Natural  History  (Lib. 
VIII.  Cap.  IX.),  saying  that  Caesar  was  so  called 
from  being  taken  by  excision  out  of  the  womb  of 
his  mother,  and  that  such  persons  were  called 
Cues  ones.  In  the  case  of  Julius  Caesar,  however,  the 
statement  must  be  regarded,  to  say  the  least,  as 
extremely  doubtful. 

Caesium,  an  alkaline  metal,  almost  always  found 
with  rubidium,  was  discovered  by  Bunsen  and  Kir- 
choff  in  1860  by  spectrum  analysis.  The  metal, 
isolated  for  the  first  time  in  1882,  is  silver  white, 
soft  and  extensile,  and  like  rubidium  is  analogous 
to  potassium.  Its  symbol  is  Cs,  and  its  atomic 
weight  133.  Its  melting  point  is  26.5°C.,  and  its 
specific  gravity  1.88.  If  ignites  spontaneously  in 
the  air,  and  when  thrown  on  water,  acts  like  sodi¬ 
um,  potassium,  and  rubidium. 

Caesura,  in  Prosody,  a  pause  or  stop  in  the 
line,  on  the  variations  in  the  position  of  which 
much  of  the  effect  of  the  rytlim  of  verse  depends. 

Caffeine,  or  Thki.ve,  CeILoN,02II20,  is  the 
alkaloid  or  active  principle  of  coffee  and  tea. 
When  isolated,  it  forms  beautiful  white  crystals, 
with  a  silky  luster,  which  are  soluble  in  chloro¬ 
form,  water,  alclioliol,  and  ether.  In  large  doses 
caffeine  proves  fatal  to  the  lower  animals,  causing 
convulsions  and  death.  In  man,  doses  of  8  to  12 
grains  produce  diuresis,  great  excitement,  anxiety, 
and  even  delirium;  but  it  has  been  of  late  used 
medicinally  as  a  powerful  stimulant  of  the  heart’s 
action.  Caffeine  forms  a  series  of  salts,  of  which 
the  citrate  has  come  largely  into  use.  One  grain 
given  every  hour  is  often  found  to  give  great 
relief  in  sick-headaches. 

Cage-Birds.  Birds  have  been  kept  from  the 
earliest  history  of  the  world  to  the  present  time 
by  savages  as  well  as  by  civilized  races.  Alexan¬ 
der  the  Great  kept  a  ring-necked  parrakeet  in  a 
golden  cage  of  fabulous  value;  and  these  birds 
still  bear  the  name  of  the  famous  Greek  Emperor. 
The  best  talking  parrot  is  the  double-fronted, 
yellow-faced  Amazon  ( Chrysalis  ochrocephala) 
which  is  much  hardier  than  the  African  gray 
birds,  of  which  latter  species  more  than  95  per 
cent,  die  in  the  process  of  acclimatization.  There 
are  two  varieties  of  grays — small,  from  the  soutn 
coast,  and  a  larger  kind  from  the  west  or  Africa; 
these  latter  are  the  best. 

Cagliari  (pronounced  Cal'yari ),  the  capital  of  i 
Sardinia,  at  the  head  of  a  spacious  bay,  on  the 
south  coast  of  the  island.  Pop.  (1881),  35,588. 

Cagnola,  Luigi,  Marquis,  an  Italian  architect, 
was  born  at  Milan  in  1762,  and  died  in  1833.  A 
follower  of  Palladio,  he  belonged  to  the  revivers 
of  Classical  architecture.  His  masterwork  is  the 
triumphal  Arvo  Della  Pare,  of  white  marble,  in 
Milan,  commenced  in  1807,  finished  in -1838. 

Cagots  (Basque  Agntac),  a  name  given. to  a  dis¬ 
tinct  tribe  of  people,  who  are  found  scattered  in 
the  district  of  the  western  Pyrenees.  Formerly 
they  were  usually  said  to  be  the  descendants  of 
the  Visigoths,  who  remained  in  France  after  their 
defeat  by  Clovis  in  the  fifth  century,  and  the 
name  was  explained  as  a  corruption  of  canis 
gothus  (Gothic  dog). 

Cahors  (anciently  Divonnl),  the  chief  town  in 
the  department  of  Lot,  in  the  south  of  France. 
Cahors  contains  many  Roman  remains,  including 
those  of  a  magnificent  aqueduct.  The  famous 
Fenflon  was  a  student  at  the  university  here,  and 
here  were  born  the  poet  Claude, Marot,  and  Leon 
Gambetta,  to  whom  a  monument  was  raised  in 
1*884.  The  town  was  taken  and  pillaged  by  Henry 
of  Navarre  in  1580.  Pop.  (1886),  14,196. 

Caicos,  a  group  of  islands  belonging  geograph¬ 
ically  to  the  Bahamas,  but  annexed  in  1874  to 
Jamaica.  The  North,  West,  East,  Grand,  and 
other  Caicos,  have,  together  with  Turk’s  Islands, 
an  area  of  223  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881)  of 
4,778.  Salt  and  sponges  are  their  chief  products. 

Cailliauil,  Frederic,  a  French  traveler,  born 
June  9,  1787.  In  examining  the  mineral  resources 
of  Egypt,  he  rediscovered  the  ancient  emerald 
mines  of  Jebel  Zobara,  near  the  Red  Sea;  and  his 
report  of  a  journey  to  Siwali  led  to  its  annexation 
by  Egypt  in  1820.  In  1821-22  he  accompanied 
Ibrahim  Pasha’s  expedition  to  the  White  Nile.  In 


1827  he  settled  as  Conservator  of  the  Natural 
History  Museum  at  Nantes,  where  he  died,  May 

1,  1869. 

Caillie,  Rene  or  Auguste,  a  French  traveler, 
was  born  Sept.  19,  1799._  He  learned,  about  1826, 
that  the  Geographical  Society  of  Paris  had  offered 
a  premium  of  10,000  francs  to  the  first  traveler 
who  should  reach  Timbuctco.  Provided  with  a 
stock  of  goods  for  barter,  and  dressed  in  Moorish 
garb,  Caillif,  who  had  learned  Arabic,  started 
from  Kakondy  in  Sierra  Leone,  April  18,  1827, 
and  after  some  delay  caused  by  illness,  reached 
the  mysterious  city,  April  20,  1828.  He  died 
May  7,  1839. 

Cain,  the  first-born  of  Adam  and  Eve.  He 
appears  in  the  book  of  Genesis  as  the  prototype 
of  human  wickedness  descending  swiftly  into 
inhuman  wickedness,-  and  Cain  and  his  family 
are  contrasted  with  the  husbandman  Abel,  as  the 
founder  of  settled  life  and  worldly  culture. 

Caiuozoie  (Gr.  recent  life),  a  geological  term, 
synonymous  with  Tertiary.  It  exhibits  fossil 
remains  of  recent  forms  of  life,  and  stands 
opposed  to  Mesozoic,  including  intermediate  and 
Palaeozoic,  ancient  and  extinct,  forms. 

Caird,  Sir  James,  born  in  1816,  published  in 
1849  a  treatise  on  High  Farming  as  the  Best  Sub¬ 
stitute  for  Protection,  and  among  later  works, 
English  Agriculture  in  1850-51  (1852).  Appointed 
chairman  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Sea  Fish¬ 
eries  in  1863,  he  was  made  a  K.C.B.  in  1882. 

Caird,  John,  a  Scottish  preacher,  born  at 
Greenock  in  1820.  He  received  the  degree  of 
D.I).  in  1860,  was  appointed  Professor  of  Divinity 
in  1862,  and  in  1873  Principal  of  Glasgow  Uni¬ 
versity.  In  1880  he  published  An  Introduction  to 
the  Philosophy  of  Religion,  which  revealed  a  strong 
Neo-Hegelian  leaning. — His  brother,  Edward, 
was  born  in  1835.  In  1866  he  was  appointed 
Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  at  Glasgow  Uni¬ 
versity. 

Cairn,  or  Carn,  a  Celtic  word  signifying  a  pro¬ 
tuberance,  a  heap,  a  pile.  In  that  sense  it  appears 
in  the  names  of  hills  and  other  natural  objects  in 
Scotland,  Ireland,  Wales,  Cornwall,  and  Brittany. 
It  is  also  applied  to  artificial  heaps  of  unhewn 
stones,  which,  among  arclueologists,  have  come 
to  be  generally  known  as  “  Cairns.” 

Cairnes,  John  Elliot,  economist,  born  Dec. 
26,  1823.  In  1856  he  was  appointed  Whately 
Professor  of  Political  Economy  at  Dublin.  In 
1S59  he  was  elected  to  the  Chair  of  Political  Econ¬ 
omy  and  Jurisprudence  in  Queen’s  College,  Gal¬ 
way.  He  published,  in  1862,  his  book  on  the 
Slave  Powir,  which  made  a  profound  impression. 
In  1866  he  was  called  to  the  Chair  of  Political 
Economy  in  University  College,  London.  He 
published  hisSEssetys  on  Political  Economy,  Theo¬ 
retical  and  Applied  in  1873,  and  in  1874  Some  Lead¬ 
ing  Principles  of  Political  Economy  Ntwly  Ex¬ 
pounded.  He  died  July  8,  1875. 

Cairngorm  Stone,  or  simply  Cairngorm,  a 
name  often  given  by  jewelers,  particularly  in 
Scotland,  to  brown  or  yellow  quartz  or  rock- 
I  crystal,  because  found  among  the  Cairngorm 
Mountains,  in  Southwest  Aberdeenshire.  It  is 
much  used  as  an  ornamental  stone.  The  .yellow 
variety  is  not  unfrcquently  called  topaz,  although 
quite  different  from  the  true  topaz,  which  it 
resembles  chiefly  in  color,  having  neither  its  hard¬ 
ness  nor  its  brilliancy. 

Cairns,  Earl.  Hugh  MacCalmont  Cairns, 
a  lawyer  and  parliamentary  debater, born  in  1819. 
He  was  elected  to  Parliament  for  Belfast  in  1852, 
and  became  Q.C.  in  1856;  in  1858  Solicitor-Gen¬ 
eral,  and  in  1866  Attorney-General  under  Lord 
Derby.  Later  in  the  same  year  he  was  made  a 
Judge  of  Appeal,  and  in  1867  was  created  Baron 
Cairns.  He  became  Lord  Chancellor  in  1868, 
and  again  in  1874,  and  was  created  Viscount  Gar- 
moyle  and  Earl  Cairns  in  1878.  He  died  April 

2,  1885. 

Cairns,  John,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  theologian,  was 
born  at  Ayton  Law,  Berwickshire,  Scotland, 
Aug.  23,  1818,  was  ordained  at  Berwick  in  1845, 
where  he  remained  till  1876,  having  since  1867 
been  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  United  Presby- 
I  tcrinn  Church.  He  became  principal  in  1879. 

Cairo,  the  capital  of  Egypt,  is  situated  in  30° 
6'  N.  latitude,  and  31°  26  E.  longitude,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile,  131  miles  from  Alexan- 
|  dria,  and  near  the  apex  of  the  Delta.  In  the 


CAIRO. 


230 


CALATAFIMI. 


present  day  it  covers  about  1 1  square  miles,  and 
extends  from  Mount  Mukattam'to  the  port  of 
Boulak  (Bulak);  but  only  a  small  part  of  the 
modern  city  belongs  to  the  Cairo  of  history,  which 
consisted  originally  of  little  more  than  an  im¬ 
mense  palace  with  its  attendant  buildings.  Mod¬ 
ern  Cairo  is  built  on  tlie  remains' of  four  distinct 
cities.  The  course  of  the  ^ralls  can  still  be  traced 
in  the  heart  of  the  modern  city  by  the  names  of 
ancient  gates.  Since  the  accession  of  Mohammed 
Ali  and  his  dynasty  in  the  present  century,  Cairo 
has  been  greatly  enlarged  on  the  west  side,  and 
the  space  between  the  City  of  Saladin  and  the 
Nile  has  been  covered  with  villas  and  palaces  of 
European  construction.  The  mediaeval  city,  how¬ 
ever,  may  still  be  seen  in  something  of  its  former 
picturesqueness  in  the  streets  and  bazaars,  which 
occupy  and  surround  the  site  of  the  original 
palace-inclosure  of  El-Kahira.  The  modern  por¬ 
tion  of  the  city  consists  partly  in  a  few  broad 
streets  or  “  boulevards,”  which  pierce  the  mediae¬ 
val  quarters,  and  have  destroyed  many  priceless 
monuments  of  art,  but  chiefly  in  the  western 
suburb  of  Ismailia,  formed  by  new  villas,  built 
along  broad  avenues  lined  with  trees,  and  ex¬ 
tending  from  the  square  called  the  Ezbekiya, 
near  or  in  which  are  the  principal  hotels,  the 
opera-house,  theater,  and  the  European  shops.  In 
this  suburb  are  some  of  the  numerous  palaces  of 
the  Khedive,  notably  Abdin,  where  all  official 
receptions  take  place;  others  are  situated  on  the 
bank  of  the  Nile,  where  are  also  barracks  and  a 
hospital.  Boulak,  whence  the  steamboats  and 
d  diabiyas  start  for  the  Nile  voyage,  is  note¬ 
worthy  for  its  active  printing-press  and  for  the 
splendid  collection  of  Egyptian  antiquities  ac¬ 
cumulated  in  the  museum.  Modern  Cairo,  in 
eluding  the  whole  circuit,  old  and  new,  is  the 
largest  city  in  Africa,  and  second  only  to  Con¬ 
stantinople  in  the  Turkish  Empire.  Its  pop.  at 
the  last  census  (1882)  was  estimated  at  361,000; 
about  21,000  are  Europeans,  among  whom  Ital¬ 
ians  and  Greeks  predominate.  After  the  battle 
of  Tel-el-Kebir  in  1882,  British  troops  occupied 
Cairo,  and  thenceforward  it  was  the  center  of 
English  influence  in  Egypt. 

Cairo,  capital  of  Alexander  county,  Ill.,  is  an 
important  center  of  railway  and  steamboat 
traffic.  A  steel  bridge (1888),  costing  $5,000,000. 
connects  the  railways  north  and  south  of  the 
Ohio.  It  is  said  to  be  the  Eden  of  Dickens’ 
Martin  Chuzzleicit.  Pop.  (1888,  estimated),  14,000. 

Caisson,  ill  engineering  construction,  is  a  chest 
used  in  “  laying  ”  the  foundations  of  the  piers  of 
bridges,  quays,  and  like  structures,  in  deep  and 
rapid  rivers.  It  consists  of  a  very  strong  platform 
of  timber  or  of  metal  plates,  to  which  the  sides  are 
attached.  The  site  of  the  pier  being  leveled  by 
dredging  or  otherwise,  the  caisson  is  brought  over 
the  spot,  and  moored  in  the  proper  position.  Two 
or  three  of  the  lower  courses  of  masonry  are  then 
built  upon  the  platform  of  the  caisson,  and  the 
water  is  slowly  admitted  by  a  sluice,  in  order  to 
cause  the  caisson  to  settle  into  its  place.  When 
the  foundations  are  laid  with  concrete,  the  caisson 
may  consist  of  a  simple  frame  of  wooden  walls, 
floated  into  position  to  form  an  enclosure,  into 
which  the  concrete  can  be  shot,  and  can  set  undis¬ 
turbed  by  the  wash  of  the  water. 

Caisson,  in  relation  to  shipping,  is  an  apparatus 
for  lifting  a  vessel  out  of  the  water  for  repairs  or 
inspection.  It  is  usually  a  hollow  structure,  sunk 
by  letting  water  into  it.  There  is  an  air-chamber 
inside,  which  allows  it  to  sink  only  to  a  certain 
depth;  In  that  state  it  is  hauled  under  the 
ship’s  bottom,  the  traps  or  openings  are  closed, 
the  water  is  pumped  out,  and  the  caisson  rises 
with  the  ship  upon  it.  Pontoon  is  another  term 
for  the  same  apparatus.  The  mime  caisson  is  also 
given  to  the  pontoon  or  floating  gate  used  to  close 
a  dry  dock  or  similar  place. 

Caisson,  in  its  military  sense,  means  a  tumbril 
or  ammunition  wagon. 

Caithness,  a  county  in  the  extreme  northeast  of 
the  Scottish  mainland.  Its  length  from  northeast 
to  southwest  is  43  miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  28 
miles;  and  its  area,  701  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881), 
38,865. 

Cains,  Dr.  John,  physician  and  scholar,  born 
at  Norwich,  England,  in  1510.  (Caius,  pronounced 
Keys,  is  probably  a  Latinized  form  of  the  English 
name  Kaye  or  Key.)  In  1547  he  was  admitted  a 


Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians,  of  which  he 
was  subsequently  nine  times  elected  President.  lie 
also  became  physician  to  Edward  VI.,  Queen 
Mary,  and  Queen  Elizabeth.  Caius  College,  Cam¬ 
bridge,  was  named  after  him,  and  he  was  its  first 
Master.  He  died  July  29,  1573. 

Cajabamba,  capital  of  the  Province  of  Chim¬ 
borazo,  in  Ecuador,  102  miles  south  of  Quito,  at 
an  elevation  of  9,480  feet.  Pop.,  16,000.  The 
former  town  of  Itiobamba,  founded  on  this  site  in 

1533,  was  in  1797  overwhelmed  by  an  earthquake, 
in  which  30,000  lives  were  lost. 

Cajeput  ( Melaleuca  leucodenclron  or  minor),  a 
tree  of  the  order  Myrtaceae,  sub-order  Leptosper- 
mese,  from  the  leaves  of  which  the  pungent, 
aromatic,  volatile  oil,  called  Oil  of  Cajeput,  is  ob¬ 
tained  by  distillation.  The  cajeput-tree  is  com¬ 
mon  on  the  mountains  of  the  Moluccas.  The 
name  is  sometimes  given  in  California  to  Umbellu- 
laria  Calif or  nicer,  a  handsome  evergreen  laurace- 
ous  tree  affording  a  valuable  cabinet-wood. 

Cajetan,  Cardinal,  properly  Thomas  de  Vio, 
was  born  at  Gaeta  in  1469,  and  died  at  Rome  in 

1534. 

Calabar',  the  name  of  a  coast  district  of  Upper 
Guinea,  Africa,  now  embraced  in  the  Niger  Pro¬ 
tectorate  (a  British  Protectorate  since  1884),  the 
limits  of  which  are  not  clearly  defined;  but  it  is 
usually  understood  to  extend  from  the  Nun  mouth 
of  the  Niger  to  the  Cameroon  district.  The  chief 
towns  are  Duke  Town,  Creek  Town,  and  Old 
Town. 

Calabar  Bean,  or  the  ordeal  bean  of  Old 
Calabar,  is  the  seed  of  Physostiqma  venenosum ,  of 
the  order  Leguminosse.  It  is  a  climber  nearly 


allied  tothe  scarlet  runner  (Phaseolusmultifl-a'us), 
but  reaches  a  height  of  50  feet  or  more,  and  is 
perennial,  with  a  slender  woody  stem.  It  yields 
its  virtues  to  alcohol,  and  imperfectly  to  water. 

Calabash  Tree  ( C  rescentia  cujete),  a  Snail  tree 
belonging  to  the  Bignoniacese,  common  in  tropical 
America,  but  said  to  have  been  introduced  from 
Guinea.  The  wood  of  the  tree  is  tough  and  flex¬ 
ible,  but  by  far  the  most  useful  part  is  the  hard 
shell  of  the  fruit,  which,  under  the  name  of  cala¬ 
bash,  is  much  used  in  place  of  bottles  for  holding 
liquids,  and  for  goblets,  cups,  water-cans,  etc., 
and  in  fact  furnishes  most  of  the  domestic  utensils 
of  the  natives. 

Calabria,  the  southwest  peninsula  of  the  King¬ 
dom  of  Italy,  bounded  north  by  the  Province  of 
Basilicata.  Area,  6,637  square  miles;  pop.  (1886), 
1,317,173.  It  is  traversed  throughout  its  entire 
length  of  160  miles  by  the  Apennines. 

Calaliorra,  a  town  of  Spain,  thirty  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Logrono.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Calagurris,  the  birth-place  of  Quintilian, 
celebrated  for  its  obstinate  but  .Unsuccessful  re¬ 
sistance  to  Pompey’s  legate,  (78  b.c.)  It  has  an 
old  cathedral,  and  (1878)  8,134  inhabitants. 

Calais,  a  seaport  town  of  France,  in  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  Pas-de-Calais,  on  the  Strait  of  Dover, 
here  21  miles  wide,  is  184  miles  north  of  Paris. 
It  ranks  as  a  fortress  of  the  first  class,  the  old 
walls  dividing  it  from  its  suburb.  Saint  Pierre, 
having  been  demolished  since  1883,  and  their 
place  supplied  by  a  ring  of  exterior  forts.  The 


gate  built  by  Richelieu  in  1635,  and  immortalized 
by  Hogarth,  has  disappeared;  but  the  cardinal’s 
citadel  (1641)  still  stands  on  the  west  of  the  town. 
The  fisheries,  once  important,  have  greatly  de¬ 
clined.  Pop.  (1886),  54,714. 

Calais,  a  town  of  Washington  county,  Maine, 
eiglity-two  miles  east-northeast  of  Bangor,  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  tlie  St.  Croix  river,  which 
is  part  of  the  boundary  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada.  Pop.  (1880),  6,173. 

Calamary,  or  Squid,  a  popular  name  applied 
to  numerous  forms  of  Cuttle-fish  or  Cephalopoda, 
but  more  especially  to 
t  he  common  l.oligo 
vulgaris.  About  two 
dozen  species  of  Lo- 
ligo  are  known  from 
all  seas,  and  some  fos¬ 
sil  forms  occur  in  the 
Jurassic  strata.  The 
Common  Calamary 
(Loligo  vulgaris),  has  a 
pinkish  or  yellowish- 
white  color,  with  pur¬ 
plish-brown  spots,  and 
measures  a  foot  and  a 
half  or  more  in  length, 
not  including  the 
arms.  It  is  common 
in  the  Atlantic  and 
Mediterranean,  swims 
actively  in  shoals  and 
is  sometimes  eaten,  or 

used  as  bait.  Common  Calamary  ( Loligo 

Calamine,  an  ore  vulgaris)'. 

consisting  essentially  of  carbonate  of  zinc.  The 
name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the  Greek  and 
Latin  calamus,  “a  reed,”  because  when  fused  it 
adheres  to  the  base  of  the  furnace  in  a  reed-like 
form. 

Calamint  ( Calamintha ),  a  genus  of  Labiatae, 
nearly  allied  to  balm  and  thyme.  G .  clinopodium 
is  Wild  Basil ,  and  C.  Acinos,  Basil  Thyme.  The 
common  calamint  is  found  in  North  America, 
with  several  native  species. 

Calami  'tes,  a  group  of  fossil  plants  which 
make  their  first  appearance  in 
the  Devonian,  occur  abundantly 
in  the  Carboniferous,  and  seem 
to  die  out  in  the  Permian  strata. 

Calamus,  the  reed  pen  which 
the  ancients  used  in  writing, 
was  made  of  the  stem  of  a  reed 
growing  in  marshy  places,  prob¬ 
ably  Arundo  Dona.r,  of  which 
the  best  were  obtained  from 
Egypt.  The  stem  was  first 
softened,  then  dried,  and  cut 
and  split  with  a  knife  ( scalprum  Lower  part  of  Cala- 
librarium),  as  quill  pens  are  mites  cannxformis. 
made.  To  this  day  the  Orientals  generally  write 
with  a  reed  (Arab  Kaldm). 

Calamus,  the  traditional  name  of  the  Sweet 
Flag  ( Acorns  Calamus),  which  is,  no  doubt,  the 
“  Calamus  Aromaticus  ”  of  Roman  authors,  and 


ovule. 

probably  the  sweet  calamus  and  sweet  cane  of 
Scripture. 

CaJatali'mi,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  Province 
of  Trapani.  Here  in  1860,  Garibaldi’s  troops 
defeated  the  Neapolitan  soldiers.  Pop.  (1881), 
9,785. 


CALATAYUD. 


231 


CALENDAR. 


Calatayud '  (Arab.  Ayud’s  Castle),  a  city  of 
Aragon,  Spain.  It  is  built  out  of  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Bilbilis,  Ihe  birthplace  of  Martial.  Pop. 
(1877),  11,512. 

Calatrava  la  Yiega,  a  ruined  city  of  Spain, 
on  the  Guadiana.  Is  famous  on  account  of  the 
Order  of  the  Knights  of  Calatrava,  which  was 
instituted  in  1158,  by  King  Sancho  III.  of  Cas¬ 
tile. 

Calave'ras,  an  inland  county  of  California, 
east  from  San  Francisco,  containing  a  grove  of 
mammoth  trees  that  attracts  many  visitors.  Area, 
about  !)00  square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  9,094. 

Calcareous,  in  Chemistry,  is  a  term  applied  to 
substances  containing  much  lime  (Lat.  calx). 
Thus  Calcareous  waters  are  those  which  hold  in 
solution  much  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime, 
and  which  are  generally  known  as  hard  waters, 
and  form  a  deposit  in  kettles  and  other  vessels 
when  heated  therein. — Calcareous  rocks  are  those 
in  which  lime  forms  the  prevailing  element. 

Calcareous  Tufa,  or  Calc-sinter,  consists  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  is  a  deposition  from 
springs,  streams,  or  underground  water,  from 
which  it  is  precipitated  partly  by  the  escape  of 
carbonic  acid  which  acts  as  a  solvent,  and  partly 
by  evaporation  of  the  water.  It  is  usually  white, 
treamy-white,  yellowish,  or  brownish  in  color, 
■but,  other  hues  occur,  and  variegated  and  mottled 
varieties  are  not  uncommon.  Calcareous  tufa  is 
abundantly  deposited  from  thermal  springs,  as  in 
the  Yellowstone  Region.  The  calcareous  incrus¬ 
tations  so  commonly  seen  in  caverns  in  limestone 
rocks  are  varieties  of  calcareous  tufa.  They  are 
known  as  Stalactites  and  Stalagmites. 

Calceolaria  (Lat.  clceolus,  a  little  shoe),  a 
South  American  genus  of  Scroplmlariacese  rang¬ 
ing  along  the  western  slope  of  the  Andes  and 
southward  to  the  islands.  Several  species  have 
reached  the  Falkland  Islands,  and  two  reached 
New  Zealand. 

Calelias,  the  famous  soothsayer  of  the  Greeks 
in  the  Trojan  war,  was  the  son  of  Thestor  and 
Mycene.  He  foretold  the  length  of  the  siege, 
and  when  the  fleet  was  detained  at  Aiilis  by 
adverse  winds,  demanded  the  sacrifice  of  Iphi 
genia. 

Calciferous  Epoch,  one  of  the  subordinate 
divisions  of  the  Lower  Silurian  System  of  North 
America.  The  division  is  characterized  by  the 
presence  of  calcareous  sandstones  and  limestones. 

Calcination,  or  Calcining,  is  the  process  of 
heating  or  roasting  in  furnaces,  or  in  heaps,  the 
various  metallic  ores.  It  is  resorted  to  as  the  first 
stage  in  the  extraction  of  the  majority  of  the  com¬ 
mon  metals  from  their  ores,  and  is  essentially  a 
process  of  oxidation. 

Calcite,  Calcareous  Spar,  or  Calc-spar,  the 
name  usually  given  by  mineralogists  to  carbonate 
of  lime,  rhomboliedral  in  its  crystallization.  It 
differs  from  aragonite  only  in  crystallization. 
Calcite  is  one  of  the  commonest  minerals. 
Marble,-  for  example,  is  composed  of  small  crys¬ 
talline  granules  of  this  mineral. 

Calcium  (sym.  Ca;  atomic  weight,  40)  is  the 
metal  present  in  chalk,  stucco,  and  other  com¬ 
pounds  of  lime.  It  maybe  obtained  by  passing 
a  powerful  current  of  electricity  through  fused 
chloride  of  calcium,  CaCl2,  when  the  metal  sepa¬ 
rates  in  minute  globules. 

Calculating  Machines.  From  early  times  the 
necessity  of  aids  to  calculation  has  been  felt  and 
has  been  met  by  simple  contrivances,  such  as  the 
Abacus,  Shwanpan,  Napier’s  Bones,  the  Vernier, 
Sliding  Rules,  and  so  on.  Many  of  these  are  very 
interesting,  but  they  can  not  properly  be  classed 
with  calculating  machines.  About  1855  M. 
Thomas  of  Colmar  produced  a  calculating 
machine  of  a  high  degree  of  excellence,  which 
performs  the  four  rules  of  arithmetic  witli  sur¬ 
prising  speed,  and  is  in  extensive  use.  In  1883 
Mr.  J.  Edmonson  of  Halifax,  England,  patented 
a  circular  machine  on  the  general  lines  of 
Thomas’,  but  modified  to  suit  the  circular 
arrangement.  Besides  the  beauty  and  ingenuity 
of  its  contrivance,  it  has  several  considerable 
recommendations:  the  computer  is  able  to  deal 
with  one  result  after  another,  without  the  neces¬ 
sity  of  repeated  transfers,  every  one  of  which, 
done  by  hand,  is  a  fertile  source  of  error. 

Calculus,  or  Stone  (in  Medicine),  a  hard  con¬ 
cretion  formed  within  the  animal  body,  in  conse¬ 


quence  of  the  deposition  in  the  solid  form  of  mat¬ 
ters  which  usually  remain  in  solution.  The  cal¬ 
culi  most  commonly  met  with  and  of  most  impor¬ 
tance  are  those  formed  in  the  kidneys  or  bladder 
( Urinary  Calculus),  and  those  formed  in  the  gall¬ 
bladder  or  biliary  ducts  {Biliary  Calculus).  Urin¬ 
ary  Calculus  is  a  disease  of  all  ages,  but  most  com¬ 
mon  in  early  and  in  advanced  life  and  in  the  male 
sex.  It  is  also  frequent  in  gouty  persons,  or  among 
those  who  pursue  sedentary  occupations  and  live 
freely.  It  is  rare  among  those  who  live  much  in 
the  open  air,  or  who  take  much  violent  exercise, 
and  use  little  animal  food  and  wine.  Among 
sailors  it  is  peculiarly  rare.  The  chief  varieties 
of  urinary  calculus  are — (1)  uric  acid  (red  sand) 
and  urate  of  ammonia;  (2)  oxalate  of  lime;  and 
(3)  phosphates  of  ammonia,  magnesia,  lime,  etc. 
Calculi  formed  of  other  substances  do  occur,  but 
much  less  frequently.  When  calculus  has  once 
fairly  formed  in  the  urinary  passages,  it  seems 
probable  that  no  absolute  cure  exists  except  the 
removal  of  it,  if  possible,  from  the  body;  but  in 
the  stage  of  gravel,  and  still  more  in  the  earlier 
stages  detected  by  careful  examination  of  the 
urine,  much  may  be  done  to  check  the  tendency 
of  this  distressing  and  dangerous  malady.  The 
chief  remedies  consist  in  careful  regulation  of  the 
diet  and  mode  of  living,  together  with  the  use  of 
solvents  adapted  to  the  particular  form  of  deposit 
found  to  habitually  present. 

Calculus,  Differential  and  Integral, 
sometimes  called  the  Infinitesimal  Calculus.  The 
scope  of  the  calculus  ranges  over  the  whole  field 
of  applied  mathematics.  The  invention  of  the 
calculus  culminated  with  Leibnitz  and  Newton  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  After 
considerable  fluctuation  of  opinion  as  to  the 
proper  foundation  for  the  theory  of  the  calculus, 
the  method  of  Limits,  a  modification  of  Newton’s 
methods,  is  now  almost  universally  adopted. 
The  differential  calculus  seeks  to  find  the  derived 
function  when  the  primitive  function  is  given, 
while  the  integral  calculus  seeks  conversely  to 
find  the  primitive  function  when  the  desired 
function  is  given.  If  there  be  a  fixed  magnitude 
to  which  a  variable  magnitude  can  be  made  as 
nearly  equal  as  we  please,  and  if  it  be  impossible 
that  the  variable  magnitude  can  ever  be  exactly 
equal  to  this  fixed  magnitude,  the  fixed  magni¬ 
tude  is  called  the  limit  of  the  variable  magni¬ 
tude.  If  two  variable  magnitudes  be  always 
equal  to  one  another  while  each  approaches  its 
limit,  then  their  limits  are  equal  to  one  another. 
The  purely  mathematical  part  of  the  calculus  is 
concerned  largely  with  the  devices  for  finding  the 
limits  of  all  sorts  of  functions,  and  it  is  only 
when  the  calculus  is  to  he  applied  to  an  actual 
problem  that  the  use  of  these  limits  becomes  ap¬ 
parent. 

Calcutta,  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Ben¬ 
gal,  and  metropolis  of  British  India,  is  situated  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Hugh  (Ilooghly),  an  arm  of 
the  Ganges,  in  22°  34'  N.  latitude,  and  88°  24'  E. 
longitude,  about  eighty  miles  from  the  sea  by 
the  river.  Calcutta  was  founded  by  Governor 
Charnock  in  1686,  by  the  removal  hither  from 
Hugh  of  the  factories  of  the  East  India  Company. 
In  1756  a  great  misfortune  befell  the  rising  town. 
It  was  unexpectedly  attacked  by  Suraj-ud-Daula 
(Surajah  Dowlah),  the  Nawab  of  Bengal,  and 
yielding  after  a  two  days’  siege,  was  the  scene  of 
the  tragedy  of  the  “  Black  Hole.”  The  city  re¬ 
mained  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy  until  seven 
months  afterward,  when  Clive  and  Admiral 
Watson  recaptured  it,  and  afterward  concluded  a 
peace  with  the  Nawab.  Soon  after  this,  and  sub¬ 
sequent  to  the  important  victory  of  Plassey,  the 
possessions  of  the  East  India  Company  were 
greatly  extended  by  granjs  made  by  the  Emperor 
of  Delhi.  In  1772  it  superseded  Murshidabad  as 
a  seat  of  the  central  government  in  India;  in  1852 
it,  was  erected  into  a  municipality.  In  1837  the 
pop.  of  the  town  proper  amounted  to  229,700;  in 
1876  it  had  increased  to  409,036,  in  1881  to  411,- 
671,  or  with  port  and  suburbs,  but  exclusive  of 
Howrah  684,658 — with  Howrah,  789,864.  Of  the 
inhabitants  62  per  cent,  are  Hindus,  32.2  Moham¬ 
medans,  and  4.4  Christians.  About  20,000  are 
Europeans.  The  city  extends  about  5  miles 
along  the  river,  and  is  less  than  2  miles  in 
breadth,  the  area  being  nearly  8  square  miles 
(30  with  suburbs),  and’is  comprised  for  the  most 


part  between  the  river  and  the  Circular  Road,  a 
spacious  roadway  which  marks  the  landward 
boundary  of  the  city  proper.  Here  are  the  Botan¬ 
ical  Gardens,  destroyed  by  the  cyclones  of  1867 
and  1870,  but  since  replanted;  the  palace  in  which 
the  ex-Iving  of  Oudh  resided  from  the  time  of  the 
annexation  of  his  territory  till  his  death  in  1887; 
the  government  dockyards  and  the  arsenal;  the 
Maidan  Esplanade,  the  favorite  place  of  resort 
of  the  elite  of  Calcutta  for  their  evening  drive. 
Here,  near  the  river,  lies  Fort  William,  the  largest 
fortress  in  India,  constructed  (1757-73)  at  a  cost 
of  .$10,000,000,  and  occupying,  with  the  outworks, 
an  area  of  2  square  miles.  It  is  garrisoned  by 
European  and  native  soldiers,  mounts  619  guns, 
and  its  armory  contains  80,000  stands  of  small  arms. 
Facing  the  Esplanade,  among  other  fine  build¬ 
ings,  is  the  Government  House,  a  magnificent 
palace  erected  (1799-1804)  by  the  Marquis  of 
Wellesley.  Navigation  on  the  llugli  has  been 
greatly  improved,  and  an  extensive  scheme  of 
docks  is  in  course  of  construction  at  Ividderpur, 
at  an  estimated  cost  of  £2,750,000,  to  be  com¬ 
pleted  in  1895.  The  river  adjacent  to  the  city 
varies  in  breadth  from  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to 
nearly  a  mile.  Ships  of  5,000  tons  ascend  to  Cal¬ 
cutta  in  the  usual  course,  the  main  difficulty  to 
shipping  being  the  James  and  Mary  shoal  half 
way  down  the  river.  Calcutta  maybe  regarded 
as  the  great  commercial  center  of  Asia.  In 
1886-87  the  sea-borne  trade  of  the  province,  includ¬ 
ing  treasure,  amounted  to  $370,000,000.  About 
95 1  per  cent,  of  this  trade  belongs  to  Calcutta. 
As  a  great  central  depot  for  the  richest  parts  of 
India,  including  the  Ganges  Yallev  and  Assam, 
Calcutta  has  an  extensive  inland  trade.  In  18b7 
the  imports  by  rail,  steamer  and  country  boat, 
amounted  to  $300,000,000,  and  the  exports  to 
$120,000,000.  The  mean  temperatures  of  Calcutta 
for  December  and  May,  the  coldest  and  hottest 
months,  are  68.0°  and  86.1°  respectively. 

Caldecott,  Randolph,  artist,  was  born  at 
Chester,  England,  March  22, 1846,  died  on  Feb.  12, 
18S6.  Randolph  Caldecott  was  without  an  equal  as 
the  exponent  of  the  humors  of  animal  life  and  the 
joys  of  the  country-house  and  hunting-field.  In 
1882  he  became  a  member  of  the  Institute  of 
Painters  in  Water-colors. 

Calderon,  Philip  Hermogenes,  R.  A. ,  artist, 
born  at  Poitiers  of  Spanish  parentage  in  1833, 
studied  in  London  and  Paris,  and  regularly  con¬ 
tributed  to  the  Royal  Academy  from  1853,  his 
subjects  being  chiefly  historical  or  imaginative. 
He  was  elected  an  Associate  in  1S64,  and  an 
Academician  in  1867.  His  son,  of  the  same  name, 
is  a  rising  artist, 

Calderon  de  la  Barca,  Pedro,  Spanish  drama¬ 
tist,  born  Jan.  17,  1600.  In  1014  he  wrote  his 
first  play,  and  at  the  poetical  contests  of  1620  and 
1622  won  Lope  de  Vega’s  praises.  He  afterward 
entered  the  priesthood,  but  continued  to  produce 
dramas  and  poems  until  his  death  in  1681. 

Calderwood,  David,  an  eminent  Scottish  divine 
and  ecclesiastical  historian,  was  born  in  1575,  and 
died  in  1650. 

Caledonia,  the  name  applied  by  the  Romans 
to  the  country  north  of  the  Wall  of  Antoninous 
which  ran  between  the  Firths  of  Forth  and  Clyde. 
By  Scott  and  others  the  name  Caledonia  has  been 
poetically  applied  to  the  whole  of  Scotland. 

Caledonian  Canal,  a  chain  of  natural  lakes 
united  by  artificial  canals,  running  straight  across 
the  north  of  Scotland  in  a  southwesterly  line  from 
the  North  Sea  to  the  Atlantic,  through Glenmore, 
or  the  Great  Glen  of  Albin,  in  Inverness-shire; 
and  touching  Argyllshire  at  its  southern  extremity. 

Calendar  (from  Calends),  the  mode  of  adjust¬ 
ing  the  natural  divisions  of  time  with  respect  to 
each  other  for  the  purposes  of  civil  life.  The 
earliest  standard  interval  was  the  day,  marked 
out  by  the  alternation  of  light  and  darkness,  and 
determined  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis.  For  longer  periods,  the  lunar  month,  from 
new  moon  to  new  moon,  an  interval  of  about  29J 
days,  wasthe’standard  next  fixed  upon;  and  finally 
the  recurrence  of  the  seasons  suggested  the  year. 
The  duration  of  the  year  was  determined  in  vari¬ 
ous  ways  by  the  nations  of  antiquity,  one  of  the 
earliest  ways  being  to  make  it  include  a  certain 
number  of  lunar  months.  Twelve  lunar  months, 
giving  a  year  of  354  days,  were  taken  as  a  near 
approach  to  a  course  of  the  seasons.  In  time  it 


CALENDER. 


232 


CALICO  PRINTING. 


was  discovered  that  with  this  rough  approxima¬ 
tion  to  the  true  Value  of  a  year,  the  seasons  did 
not  correspond  to  the  same  months,  and  it  was 
necessary,  in  order  to  prevent  them  gradually 
making  the  round  of  the  whole  year,  to  make 
some  adjustment.  For  this  purpose  the  Jews  and 
t lie  Greeks  employed  much  the  same  expedients; 
they  intercalated  a  month  from  time  to  time,  the 
former  seven  times  in  a  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  the 
latter  three  times  in  a  cycle  of  eight.  The  Romans 
are  said  to  have  had  originally  a  year  of  ten 
months,  beginning  with  March  and  ending  with 
December,  which  means  “  tenth”  period.  Early 
in  their  history,  however,  they  adopted,  from  their 
belief  in  the  luck  attendant  on  odd  numbers,  a 
lunar  year  of  355  days,  and  added  two  new 
months,  January  and  February.  Rut,  like  the 
Greeks,  they  were  compelled,  in  order  to  accom¬ 
modate  their  lunar  year  to  the  solar  year,  to  make 
occasional  intercalations.  To  clear  away  all  con¬ 
fusion,  Caesar,  with  the  help  of  Sosigenes,  an 
Alexandrian  astronomer,  undertook  a  thorough 
reform  of  the  calendar.  He  effected  it  by  making 
the  year  now  called  46  b.c.,  “  the  year  of  confu¬ 
sion,”  consist  of  445  days,  and  the  succeeding 
years  of  365  days,  with  the  exception  of  every 
fourth  year,  which  was  to  consist  of  366.  This 
method  of  adjusting  the  days  to  the  year  is  called 
the  Julian  calendar.  The  number  of  days  in  the 
mont  hs  from  January  to  December  before  Caesar's 
time,  had  been  respectively  29,  28,  31,  29,  31,  29, 
31,  29,  29,  31,  29,  29.  These  numbers  Caesar 
changed  to  31  and  30  alternately,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  February,  which  was  to  have  29  in  ordinary 
years  and  30  in  leap  years.  In  honor  of  himself 
lie  also  changed  to  July  the  name  of  the  month 
which  followed  June. 

The  Julian  calendar  assumes  the  length  of 
the  solar  year  to  be  365£  days,  whereas  it  is 
1 1  minutes  and  a  few  seconds  less.  This  annual 
error  accumulated  as  years  rolled  on,  and  began 
to  be  fully  recognized  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  but  the  matter  was  not  taken 
up  in  earnest  till  1577,  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 
As  in  1582  the  vernal  equinox  occurred  at  a  date 
(March  1 1th)  ten  days  earlier  than  it  didat  the  time 
of  the  Council  of  Nice  in  325  a.d.,  Gregory  pub¬ 
lished  a  bull,  dated  March  1,  1582,  annulling  ten 
days,  so  that  what  would  have  been  reckoned  Oct. 
5,  1582,  was  to  be  reckoned  October  15th.  In  order 
also  that  the  displacement  might  not  recur,  it 
was  further  ordained  that  three  of  the  leap  years 
which  occur  in  400  years  should  be  considered 
common  years.  The  three  leap  years  selected  to 
be  reduced  to  common  years  were  those  which 
close  the  centuries  (i.  e. ,  which  end  with  00)  and 
are  not  divisible  by  400.  Thus,  1600  was  leap 
year,  1700  and  1800  were  common  years,  1900  will 
be  a  common  year,  2000  will  be  leap  year,  and  so 
on.  This  method  of  adjusting  the  days  to  the 
year  is  called  the  Gregorian  calendar,  or  the  new 
style.  The  new  style  was  adopted  exactly  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  mandate  of  the  Pope  in  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  part  of  Italy;  in  France  and  some  of  the  prov¬ 
inces  of  the  Low  Countries  it  was  adopted  in  the 
same  year  by  calling  the  10th  of  December  the 
20th,  and  the  15th  of  December  the  25th;  and  by 
continental  Catholics  generally  before  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  Scotland  adopted  the 
new  reckoning  in  1600.  It  was  not  till  1751  that 
an  act  was  passed  (24  Geo.  II.)  “  for  regulating 
the  commencement  of  the  year,  and  for  correcting 
the  calendar  now  in  use.”  It  was  then  enacted 
that  eleven  days  should  be  omitted  after  Sept. 
2,  1752,  so  that  the  ensuing  day  should  be  the 
14tli.  The  enactment  was  not  carried  out  with¬ 
out  provoking  discontent  among  uneducated 
people,  many  of  whom  imagined  that  they  were 
defrauded  of  the  omitted  days,  and  assailed 
unpopular  statesmen  with  the  cry,  “  Give  us  back 
our  eleven  days.”  At  present,  since  1800  was  a 
leap  year  according  to  old  style,  and  a  common 
year  according  to  new  style,  there  is  a  difference 
of  twelve  days  between  the  styles.  Russia, 
Greece,  and  the  smaller  states,  such  as  Servia, 
belonging  to  the  Greek  Church,  are  now  the  only 
countries  which  still  adhere  to  the  old  style.  The 
same  act  which  introduced  the  new  reckoning  in 
1752  shortened  by  nearly  tln-ee  months  the  year 
1751.  For  it  had  been  the  practice  to  commence 
the  year  with  the  25th  of  March,  the  Feast  of  the 
Annunciation,  and  the  year  1751  so  commenced, 


but  the  year  1752  and  all  subsequent  years  began 
with  the  1st  of  January.  In  1793  the  National 
Convention  of  the  First  French  Republic  decreed 
that  the  common  era  shou  d  be  abolished  in  all 
civil  affairs,  and  that  a  new  era  should  com¬ 
mence  from  the  foundation  of  the  Republic, 
Sept.  22,  1792  The  year  was  to  be  divided  into 
twelve  months  of  t hirty  days  each,  with  live  com¬ 
plimentary  days  at  the  end,  which  were  to  be  cele¬ 
brated  as  festivals.  Every  fourth  or  “  Olympic  ” 
year  was~to  have  a  sixth  complimentary  day  to  be 
called  “  revolution  day,”  and  every  period  of 
four  years  was  to  be  called  a  Franciade.  The 
first,  second,  and  third  centuria!  years— viz , 
100,  200,  300  were  to  be  common  years,  the 
fourth  centurial  year  400  was  to  be  a  leap  year, 
and  this  was  to  continue  till  the  fortieth 
centurial  year  4000,  which  was  to  be  a  common 
year.  The  months  were  to  be  divided  into  three 
parts  of  ten  days  each,  called  decades.  The 
names  of  the  months  and  days  of  the  Gregorian 
calendar  to  which  they  corresponded  were  as 
follows; 


Vendemiaire  (Vintage) . Sept.  22  to  Oct.  21 

Bruniaire  (Foggy) . Oct.  21  “  Nov.  20 

Frimaire  (Sleety; . Nov.  21  “  Dec.  20 

Xivose  (Snowy) . Dec.  21  “  Jan.  1!) 

Pluviose  (Rainy) . Jan.  21  “  Feb.  18 

Ventose  (Windy) . Feb.  1!)  “  Mar  20 

Germinal  (Budding) . Mar.  21  “  April  19 

Floreal  (Flowery) . April20  “  May  19 

Prairial  (Pasture) . May  20  “  June  18 

Messidor  (Harvest) . June  19  “  July  18 

Thermidor  (Heat) . July  19  “  Aug.  17 

Fructidor  (Fruit) . *. . Aug.  18  “  Sept.  16 


By  Napoleon’s  command  this  new  system  was 
abolished,  and  the  use  of  the  Gregorian  calendar 
resumed  on  Jan.  1,  1806. 

Calender  is  a  Persian  word  (meaning  greater) 
used  somewhat  loosely  for  dervishes  in  Persia  and 
Central  Asia. 

Calendering  is  the  process  of  finishing  by 
pressure  the  surface  of  linen,  cotton,  and  other 
textile  fabrics,  as  well  as  paper.  It  is  usually  done 
by  passing  the  fabric  between  cylinders  pressed 
together  with  great  force.  The  familiar  domestic 
processes  of  starching  and  ironing  afford  the 
simplest  illustrations  ot  the  object  and  result  of 
calendering. 

Jute  and  strong  linen  cloth  are  sub¬ 
jected  to  heavy  calendering,  the  pres¬ 
sure  being  applied  to  the  cylinders 
either  by  levers  or  hydraulic  power. 

One  kind  of  hydraulic  Calender  for 
these  goods  works  under  a  total  pres¬ 
sure  of  eighty-five  tons.  Calenders 
are  now  used  at  most  paper-mills  for 
putting  a  smooth  finish,  or  it  may  be  a 
high  glaze,  upon  paper. 

Calends  (Lat.  K (deaden),  the  first 
day  of  each  Roman  month,  which  was 
divided  into  Calends,  JSnnes,  and  Ides. 

The  Calends  always  fell  upon  the  1st 
of  the  month;  in  March,  May,  July, 
and  October,  the  Nones  on  the  7th, 
and  the  Ides  on  the  15th;  and  in  the 
remaining  months,  the  Nones  on  the 
15tli,  and  the  Ides  on  the  13th. 

Ca'lenture,  an  old  term  of  Spanish 
origin  for  a  species  of  temporary  de¬ 
lirium  or  fever  occurring  on  board 
ship  in  hot  climates,  and  probably 
due  to  the  effect  of  exposure  to  the 
direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

Calhoun,  John  Caldwf.ll,  born 
in  South  Carolina,  March  18,  1782, 
and  died  March  31,  1850.  He  gradu¬ 
ated  at  Yale,  became  a  lawyer,  and 
in  1811  was  elected  to  Congress  from  his  native 
State.  He  supported  the  war  of  1812  against 
England,  and  favored  a  protective  tariff  and 
the  creation  of  a  national  bank.  In  1817  he 
became  Secretary  of  War  under  Monroe,  and 
submitted  plans  for  internal  improvements  and 
fortifications.  In  1824  Calhoun  became  Vice- 
President,  and  was  reelected  four  years  later  but 
resigned  to  become  Senator  from  South  Carolina. 
From  this  time  the  chief  topic  in  Congress  and 
the  country  was  the  famous  nullification  resolu¬ 
tions,  of  which  Calhoun  was  the  author  and 
which  Jackson  so  sternly  opposed.  Calhoun  ac¬ 
cepted  the  compromise  tariff  of  1833  and  became 
the  leader  of  the  States  Rights  party  and  the 
champion  of  all  pro-slavery  measures.  He  left 


the  Senate  in  1843  and  became  Secretary  of  State 
under  Tyler  the  next  year,  returning  to  the 
Senate  in  1845.  He  strongly  opposed  the  Mexican 
war  and  favored  a  peaceable  settlement  ot  the 
Oregon  question. 

Cali'  (Santiago  de),  a  town  of  Colombia,  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Rio  Cauea,  3,300  feet  above  the 
sea,  about  fifty  miles  southeast  of  Buenaventura. 
Pop.,  13,000. 

Calibre,  or  Caliber,  is  a  technical  name  for 
the  diameter  of  the  bore  of  a  firearm,  whether  a 
piece  of  ordnance  or  a  small-arm.  If  the  weapon 
is  rifled  its  calibre  is  measured,  not  from  the 
bottom  of  the  grooves,  but  from  the  smooth  sur¬ 
face  between  them,  technically  called  the  “lands.” 
Ordnance  firing  solid  shot  were  formeily  denoted 
by  the  weight  of  each  shot,  as  24-pounder, 
68-pounder,  etc.;  mortars  and  shell-guns  by  their 
calibre,  as  13-inch  mortar,  10-inch  shell-gun,  etc.; 
but  now  that  all  guils  fire  shell,  this  rule  is  not 
always  observed.  It  has  become  usual  to  desig¬ 
nate  guns  heavier  than  the  80-pounder,  together 
with  all  howitzers  and  mortars,  by  their  calibre, 
and  lighter  ones  by  the  weight  of  the  shell;  but 
usually  the  weight  of  the  gun  itself  is  also 
specified.  Machine  guns  and  rifles  are  always 
classified  by  their  calibres. 

Calico-Printing.  In  its  widest  sense  this  is 
the  art  of  imprinting  colors  on  textile  surfaces, 
but  the  term  is  almost  restricted  to  the  printing 
of  the  colored  patterns  on  cotton  cloth  or  calico. 
Except  in  the  use  of  steam  printing-machines 
with  engraved  rollers  and  other  modern  improve¬ 
ments,  the  ancient  Egyptians  printed  colors .  upon 
cloth  in  much  the  same  way  as  it  is  done  at  the 
present  day.  Calico-printing  is  also  an  ancient 
art  in  India,  Persia,  and  China.  Calico  derives 
its  English  name  from  Calicut,  a  town  in  the 
Indian  district  of  Malabar,  where  cotton-printing 
was  formerly  carried  on  extensively.  The  art 
seems  to  have  been  practiced  for  centuries  in  Asia 
Minor  and  the  Levant  before  we  first  hear  of  it 
as  an  industry  in  Holland,  at  Hamburg,  and  at 
Augsburg.  There  are  some  bits  of  block-printed 
silk  stuff  known,  which  experts  consider  to  be 
Sicilian  work  of  the  thirteenth  century.  About 
the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  Augsburg 


had  become  celebrated  for  its  printed  cotton  and 
linen  fabrics,  and  by  that  time  the  art  had  also 
been  introduced  into  Switzerland  and  Alsace. 
The  first  calico  print-work  in  England  was  estab¬ 
lished  near  Richmond,  about  the  year  1676.  by  a 
Frenchman.  In  the  process  of  textile-printing 
the  first  step  is  the  drawing  out  of  a  design.  The 
workmen  of  Eastern  nations  then  cut  this  out  on 
a  block  of  wood  if  the  pattern  is  simple,  or  on  a 
series  of  blocks  if  it  is  complex,  a  different  block 
being  used  for  each  color.  But  where  the  print¬ 
ing  requires  to  be  done  with  great  accuracy  and 
speed,  engraved  copper  rollers  are  used.  Block- 
printing  is,  however,  sometimes  employed  to  fill 
in  additional  colors  on  a  print  mainly  produced 
by  engraved  cylinders,  and  special  patterns  are 


Calico  1  rint.ng  Machine. 


CALICUT. 


233 


CALIXTUS. 


to  a  small  extent  entirely  obtained  from  blocks. 
Machines  are  now  made  to  print  as  many  as  sixteen 
colors  at  one  operation.  When  a  white  pattern  is 
to  be  produced  on  an  indigo-blue  ground,  it  is 
printed  in  resist-paste  on  the  calico  before  it  is 
dyed.  This  paste  varies  in  composition,  one  kind 
being  made  up  with  sulphate  of-  zinc,  nitrate  of 
copper,  and  soap,  thickened  with  gum.  On  the 


Primitive  Cloth-printing  Frame  of  the  Fiji  Islands. 


resist  being  removed  after  dying,  the  white  device 
appears.  Since  1883  a  process  has  been  to 
some  extent*  employed  for  printing  patterns  in 
indigo,  which  for  this  purpose  is  made  into  a  thick 
paste  with  caustic  soda  and  Indian-corn  starch, 
and  then  printed  upon  calico  previously  padded 
in  a  solution  of  glucose.  In  the  presence  of 
alkalies  and  in  contact  with  steam,  glucose  is  an 
energetic  reducing  agent.  In  t his  process  the 
ordinary  blue  indigo  is  also  reduced  to  white 
indigo,  and  is  immediately  fixed  on  the  cotton 
fiber.  It  then  becomes  blue  in  contact'  with  air. 
Artificial  indigo,  which  was  first  made  in  1878,  is 
owing  to  its  high  price,  not  much  employed  in 
printing,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  useful,  such  as 
with  light  shades  and  small  designs.  Chrome 
yellow,  catechu,  logwood,  and  many  other  pig¬ 
ments,  are  used  for  printing  calicos.  The  dis¬ 
tribution  of  calico-printing  machines  throughout 
the  world  in  1882  was:  England,  640;  Scotland, 
280;  Ireland,  22;  America,  '500;  Russia,  150; 
Germany,  including  Mulliouse  (Mulhausen),  100; 
France,  50;  Austria,  25;  Switzerland,  24;  Portu¬ 
gal,  15,  and  Holland,  5. 

Cal  'icut,  a  seaport  of  Malabar,  Madras  Presi¬ 
dency,  six  miles  north  of  Beypur.  It  was  the 
first  spot  in  India  visited  by  Covilham  (1486),  and 
Vasco  da  Gama  (1498).  if  twice  repulsed  the 
Portuguese,  slaying  their  commander  in  1509,  and 
expelling  Albuquerque  himself,  after  a  momen¬ 
tary  success  on  his  part,  in  1510.  Pop.  (1881), 
5/, 085. 

Calif  (also  spelt  Caliph  and  Khalf),  was  the 
title  borne  by  the  successor  of  Mohammed  in 
temporal  and  religious  authority  (Arab.  sing. 
Khalifah;  fully  Khalifat  Rasul  Iliah,  successor  of 
the  Apostle. of  God).  The  Prophet  leaving^  no 
son,  Abu-bekr,  father  of  his  favorite  wife  Aye- 
shah,  was  elected  by  an  assembly  of  the  faithful, 
(632  a.d.)  On  Omar’s  death  (644),  a  council  of 
six  appointed,  as  third  calif,  Othman,  the 
Prophet’s  secretary  and  son-in-law.  Abu-bekr  at 
his  death  (634)  nominated  Omar,  another  father- 
in-law.  Under  him  t lie  war  was  continued. 
Jerusalem,  after  a  sharp  conflict  ,  surrendered(637), 
and  Omar  rode  thither  from  Medina,  with  all  his 
provisions  and  baggage,  on  a  camel,  to  ratify  the 
terms.  Omar  was  stabbed  by  a  Persian  slave  in 
644.  Othman  was  succeeded  by  Am,  son  of  the 
Prophet’s  uncle  Abu  Taleb.  The  califate  was 
made  hereditary  by  Moawiya  in  661  a.d. 
Moawiya  (661-79)  was  the  first  calif  of  the  line 
called  Ommiades,  from  one  of  his  forefathers. 
Their  seat  was  Damascus.  There  were  thirteen 
califs  of  this  line.  The  first  Ommiade  united  the 
califate;  the  first  Abbaside  divided  it.  One 
Ommiade,  Abdurrahman,  escaped  from  the  mas¬ 
sacre  by  Abdallah,  and,  crossing  the  strait  into 
Spain,  founded  the  Ommiade  califate  of  Spain  or 
Cordova.  AbOl  Abbas  (750-54)  was  followed  by 
hb  brother  Abc.Jaakar  Ai.mansou  (754-75).  The 
$150,000,000  left  by  him.  his  son,  Abmahdi 
(775-85),  and  grandson,  Aliiadi  (785-86),  vain¬ 


gloriously  squandered.  The  califate  continued 
until  1258,  arid  a  correlative  branch  existed  in 
Spain  for  200  years. 

California,  the  largest  State  in  the  Union, 
with  the  exception  of  Texas,  is  situated  between 
latitude  32°  32'  and  42Q  north,  and  longitude 
114°  8'  and  124°  25'  west  from  Greenwich.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Oregon;  east  by 
j  Nevada  and  Arizona,  following  the  Sierra  Neva- 
das  on  the  120th  meridian  to  latitude  39p,  thence 
southeast  to  the  River  Colorado,  on  the  35th 
|  parallel,  and  thence  by  the  course  of  that  river  to 
the  southern  boundary  line;  south  by  Lower 
California;  and  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Its 
coast  line  is  irregular,  and  extends  over  700  miles. 
The  general  direction  of  the  State  is  northwest 
and  southeast;  its  extreme  length  is  770  miles; 
extreme  breadth,  330  miles;  least  breadth,  150 
miles;  estimated  area,  158,360  square  miles,  or 
101,350,400  acres.  The  Sierra  Nevadas  and  the 
Coast  Range  of  mountains  run  northwest  and 
southeast,  generally  parallel,  and  are  connected 
in  the  north  and  south  by  transverse  ranges. 
The  Sierra  Nevadas  have  a  general  elevation  of 
from  8,000  to  15,000  feet,  a  length  within  the 
State  of  450  miles,  and  a  breadth  of  eighty  miles; 
the  western  slope  being  gradual,  and  the  eastern 
abrupt.  The  passes  are  at  an  elevation  of  from 
4,200  to  6,700  feet.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
main  range  is  Mount  Whitney,  15,000  feet  high, 
with  its  surrounding  peaks  ranging  from  10,000 
to  13,000  feet;  Mount  San  Bernardino,  12,000  feet 
high,  being  the  southern  connection  with  the 
Coast  Range.  In  the  north,  Mount  Shasta,  a 
bare  volcanic  peak  of  14,400  feet  in  height,  is  the 
best  known.  Mounts  Tyndall,  Dana,  and  Brewer, 
Lassen’s  Peak  and  Castle  Peak,  are  all  from  1 1 ,000 
to  14,300  feet  high.  The  Coast  Range  is  inferior 
in  grandeur  to  the  Sierras,  having  an  average  ele¬ 
vation  of  2,500  to  4,000  feet,  with  a  few  peaks 
reaching  to  7,000  feet.  The  principal  rivers  are 
the  Sacramento,  San  Joaquin,  Klamath,  and  the 
Colorado.  The  largest  lakes  are  Tulare,  Mono, 
Tahoe,  Klamoth,  and  Goose.  The  principal  bay 
is  that  of  San  Francisco,  which  is  40  miles  long 
and  9  miles  wide.  The  Bay  of  Suisun  and  that 
of  San  Pablo  are  connected  with  this,  and  those 
of  San  Diego,  Santa  Barbara,  Monterey,  Bodega, 
and  Humboldt,  afford  passable  anchorage.  Cape 
Mendocino,  the  most  western  projection,  is  nearly 
3°  north  of  San  Francisco,  and  Point  Concepcion 
about  the  same  distance  south.  There  are  a  few 
unimportant  islandsoff  theGolden  Gate  and  south 
of  Point  Concepcion.  The  Yosemite  Valley  is  one 
of  the  important  features  of  the  State.  It  is  in 
the  midst  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  and  consists  of  a 
deep,  almost  level  depression,  about  6  miles  in 
length,  and  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile  in ’width, 
hemmed  in  by  almost  perpendicular  walls  of 
granite.  Immense  masses  of  rock  tower  above 
it,  to  a  height  of  3,000  to  4,000  feet,  and  it  con¬ 
tains  one  waterfall,  the  Yosemite,  which  makes  a 
descent  of  2,600  feet.  It  has  been  transferred  to 
the  State  by  the  General  Government.  The  varia¬ 
tion  in  climate,  owing  to  the  differences  in  eleva¬ 
tion  and  latitude,  is  great.  On  the  coast  the  win¬ 
ters  are  mild,  and  the  summers  pleasant,  owing  to 
the  constant  cool  breeze  from  the  Pacific.  At 
San  Fransisco  the  summer  mean  is 60°  F.;  that  of 
winter,  51°;  and  of  the  year,  56°.  The  rain-fall, 
at  the  same  city,  varied  from  7  to  50  inches  per 
annum,  and  extreme  variability  in  the 
amount  of  precipitation,  from  year  to 
year,  is  shown  in  other  parts  of  the  State. 
The  forest  trees  of  California  include  some  of  the 
largest  known  varieties  in  the  world,  the  mam¬ 
moth  tree  and  the  redwood.  Many  of  these  trees 
arc  over  300  feet  high,  and  from  twenty-five  to 
forty  feet  in  diameter,  while  some  which  have 
been  felled  have  been  ascertained  by  counting 
the  rings  to  be  from  2,000  to  2,500  years  old. 
The  Sierra  Nevadas  and  the  western  slope  of  the 
Coast  range,  north  of  lat  tude  35°  north,  are  cov¬ 
ered  with  fine  forests.  The  spruce,  pine,  fir,  oak, 
and  the  mammoth  tree  of  California  (Sequoia 
(j igantea )  grow  on  the  Sierras,  and  redwood, 
spruce,  and  pine  on  the  Coast  mountains.  The 
sugar  pine,  Douglas  spruce,  white  cedar,  white 
oak,  cottonwood,  chestnut,  willow,  sycamore,  and 
many  other  trees,  are  found  in  the  State.  Gold  is 
the  chief  mineral  production  of  California  and  in 
thirty-five  years  the  value  of  its  output  was  more 


than  $1,200,000,000.  At  first,  it  was  found  in 
“placers,”  but  now  the  greater  quantity  is 
extracted  from  the  quartz,  the  present  annual 
production  being  over  $20,000,000.  The  largest 
quicksilver  mines  in  the  world  are  at  New  Alma- 
den.  Lead  and  silver  ore  are  abundant.  Copper, 
iron,  antimony,  and  other  metals  are  found.  The 
coal  is  poor,  but  there  are  vast  quantities  of  pe¬ 
troleum.  The  agricultural  resources  of  California 
are  great  and  varied.  The  vine  culture  is  widely 
distributed  and  the  best  native  American  wines 
are  made  here.  Pears,  raisins,  almonds,  olives, 
oranges,  and  figs  grow  luxuriantly.  Silk-growing 
and  bee-keeping  are  extensively  carried  on.  Cali¬ 
fornia  wheat  ranks  with  the  best  and  the  produc-' 
t ion  of  wool  of  the  best  quality  is  large.  Sacra¬ 
mento  is  the  capital,  but  San  Francisco,  with  a 
population  (18S8)of  280,000,  is  the  only  very  large 
city.  The  State  has  a  population  of  over  1,000,000. 
The  first  discovery  of  the  territory  now  known  as 
California,  was  made  about  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century  but  it  was  not  settled  to  any 
great  extent  until  1848,  when  the  discovery  of 
gold  in  El  Dorado  county  caused  a  vast  immigra¬ 
tion  from  the  Eastern  States.  California  was 
admitted  into  the  Union,  Sept.  9,  1850.  The 
Indian  population  has  almost  disappeared,  the 
Mexicans  are  few  in  number,  the  further  influx 
of  Chinese  has  been  prevented  by  special  legisla¬ 
tion  within  the  last  few  years. 

California,  the  Gulf  of,  is  an  arm  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  700  miles  in  length,  and  from  40 
to  100  miles  wide.  It  lies  between  Mexico  and 
Lower  California.  The  latter  peninsula  extends 
southward  from  California,  and  has  an  estimated 
area  of  about  60.000  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of 
30,000.  Its  capital  is  LaPaz. 

Calig'ula.  Caius  Caesar  Augustus  Germani- 
cus,  Roman  Emperor  (37-41  a.d.),  the  youngest 
son  of  Germanicus  and  Agrippina,  was  born 
August  31,  12  a.d.  I^e  banished  or  murdered  his 
relatives,  excepting  Ins  uncle  Claudius  and  sister 
Drusilla  (with  whom  he  carried  on  incestuous  in¬ 
tercourse);  filled  Rome  with  executions,  confis¬ 
cating  the  estates  of  his  victims;  amused  himself 
while  dining  by  having  victims  tortured  and 
slain  in  his  presence;  and  uttered  the  wish  that 
all  the  Roman  people  had  but  one  neck,  that  he 
might  strike  it  off  at  a  blow.  His  favorite  horse 
he  made  a  member  of  the  College  of  Priests,  and 
afterward  raised  to  the  Consulship.  Finally,  he 
declared  himself  a  god,  and  had  temples  erected 
and  sacrifices  offered  to  himself.  To  gratify  his 
insane  desires  he  shrank  from  no  infamy;  he 
robbed,  plundered,  and  taxed  his  subjects  to  a 
degree  which  seems  almost  incredible;  he  estab¬ 
lished  a  brothel  in  his  own  palace,  and  sent  out 
his  slaves  to  solicit  the  public  patronage  for  it. 
At  length  a  conspiracy  was  formed  against  him, 
and  he  was  assassinated  January  24,  41  a.d. 

Callstlienics,  or  Callisthenics  (Gr.  halos, 
beautiful,  and  sthenos ,  strength),  is  a  name  for 
exercises  for  promoting  gracefulness  and  strength , 
and  comprises  the  more  gentle  forms  of  gymnas¬ 
tics,  especially  for  girls. 

Calixtines  were  the  more  moderate  section  of 
the  Hussites,  or  followers  of  John  Huss.  They 
took  their  name  from  their  contending  for  the 
giving  of  the  cup  (Lat.  calix)  in  communion  to 
the  laity. 

Calixtus,  the  name  of  three  Popes;  Calixtus 

I.  (properly  Callistus),  Bishop  of  Rome  under 
Ileliogabalus  and  Alexander  Severus. — Calixtus 

II. ,  formerly  Guido,  Archbishop  of  Vienna,  was 
elected  Pope  at  Clugnv,  Feb.  2,  1119.  In  1121  he 
overcame  the  Antipope  Burdinus  (Gregory 
VIII.),  who  was  supported  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  V.,  and  in  1122  concluded  with  the  Em¬ 
peror  the  Concordat  of  Worms,  which  settled  the 
investiture  controversy.  He  died  on  Dec  13  or 
14,  1124. — Calixtus  III.,  formerly  Alfonso  de 
Borja  (Ital.  Borgia),  born  at  .Tati va,  near  Valencia 
in  Spain,  was  successively  Counsellor  to  Alfonso 
V.  of  Aragon,  Bishop  of  Valencia,  Cardinal,  and 
(from  April  8,  1455)  Pope.  He  raised  to  the 
Cardinalate  his  nephew,  Rodrigo  Borgia  (after¬ 
ward  Pope  Alexander  VI.),  and  died  Aug.  6, 
1458  (see  Alexander  VI.). — The  name  Calixtus 

III.  was  also  assumed  by  an  Antipope  whom  the 
Emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  set  up  in  1 168  in 
opposition  to  Alexander  III.,  and  supported  for 
nine  years. 


CALIXTUS. 


234 


CALVERLEY. 


Calixtus,  Georg  (properly  Cnllisen),  t  heologian 
of  the  Lutheran  Church,  borp  Dec.  14,  1586.  be¬ 
came  Professor  of  Theology  at  Helmstedt  in 
1614.  Although  acknowledged  by  learned  Catho¬ 
lics  to  be  one  of  the  ablest  of  their  opponents,  ho 
was,  on  account  of  some  statements  which  seemed 
favorable  to  Catholic  dogmas,  and  of  others  which 
approached  too  near  to  the  Reformed  or  Calvin- 
istic  standpoint,  declared  guilty  of  heresy  by  the 
orthodox  and  dogmatically  rigid  Lutherans. 
Calixtus  was  accused  of  apostasy,  llis  friends, 
however,  stood  firmly  by  him,  and  lie  retained 
liis  professorial  chair  till  his  death,  March  19, 
1656.  See  Henke,  Georg  Calixtus  tend  Seine  Zeit 
(1853-60). 

Cal  la,  an  aquatic  genus  of  Aracese,  with  beauti¬ 
ful  white  spathes, 
cordate  leaves, 
flowers  crowded 
up. to  the  extrem¬ 
ity  of  the  spadix, 
and  red  berries. 

Calla  palustris  is 
widely  distributed 
through  the 
marshes  of  palte- 
arctic  and  neo- 
arctic  regions,  and 
acquires  some 
economic  impor¬ 
tance  in  Lapland 
and  parts  of  Rus¬ 
sia  (V  i  t  e  b  s  k), 
being  used  in 
b  r  e  a  d-m  a  k  i  n  g, 
after  its  acrid  and 
poisonous  proper¬ 
ties  have  been  re-  Calla  palustris. 

moved  by  washing  and  cooking.  The  well-known 
and  beautiful  Ilicardia  cethiopica,  often  popularly, 
called  “.Lily  of  the  Nile,”  Was  formerly  included 
in  this  genus,  and  is  often  still  called  Calla. 

Callander,  a  Perthshire  village,  Scotland,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Teith.  It  lies  in  a  beautiful 
and  romantic  situation  described  in  Scott’s  Lady 
of  the  Lake,  and  is  surrounded  by  high  mountains 
and  Highland  lakes.  Pop.,  1,522. 

Calla 'o,  the  Port  of  Lima,  Peru,  lies  seven 
miles  southwest  of  Lima,  on  a  small  bay.  Pop. 
(1876),  33,502.  The  present  Callao  dates  only  from 
1746,  when  the  original  city,  a  short  distance  to 
the  south,  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  and  an 
invasion  of  the  sea.  Callao  was  bombarded  in  1880 
during  the  war  between  Chili  and  Peru,  and  the 
annexation  by  the  former  of  the  guano-producing 
islands  materially  decreased  the  exports  of  this 
manure. 

Callcott,  John  Wall,  composer,  was  born  in 
1760,  iu  1785  was  made  Bachelor,  in  1800  Doctor, 
of  Musicat  Oxford,  England.  In  ISOOhe  published 
his  Musical  Grammar.  The  year  after,  his  mind 
gave  way.  He  recovered  in  1812,  but  only  for  four 
years,  when  he  relapsed,  and  continued  insane  till 
his.  death,  near  Bristol,  May  15,1821 . — His  brother, 
Stu  Augustus  Wall  Callcott,  landscape 
painter,  was  born  at  Kensington  in  1779.  In  1799 
lie  exhibited  a  portrait  at  the  Academy,  and  from 
1804  devoted  himself  to  landscape  painting.  He 
became  an  A. II.  A.  in  1806,  an  R.A,  in  1810,  was 
knighted  in  1837,  and  died  Nov.  25,  1844.  His 
wife,  Lady  Maria  Callcott  (1785-1842),  was  author 
of  I.ittle  Arthur’s  History  of  England,  and  fourteen 
less-known  works. 

Callichtliys  (Gr.  halos,  beautiful;  ichthys,  a 
fish),  a  genus  of  physostomatous  bony  fishes  of 
the  family  Siluridae,  having  the  body  almost 
entirely  covered  by  four  rows  of  large,  hard, 
narrow,  scaly  plates;  The  head  is  also  protected 
by  bony  plates.  The  twelve  species  of  this  fresh¬ 
water  genus  are  natives  of  South  America. 

Caliigoiuun,  a  genus  of  leafless  Polygonaceae 
with  large  four  winged  nuts  or  achenes.  C. 
Pal'asia  is  a  succulent  shrub  common  on  sandy 
steppes  near  the  Caspian,  where  its  acid  shoots 
and  fruits  often  serve  to  allay  thirst.  A  nutritous 
gum  is  prepared  from  its  root. 

Callim  'aelius,  an  eminent  poet,  grammarian, 
and  critic  of  the  Alexandrian-  period,  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  b.c. 

Call!  ope  (the  sweet-voiced)  the  muse  of  epic 
poetry  and  of  knowledge  in  general.  She  was 
the  mother  of  Orpheus. 


Cal'lipers,  a  kind  of  compasses  with  curved 
legs,  used  by  turners  and  other  workmen  for 
measuring  the  diameters  of  cylindrical,  spherical, 
and  other  curved  work. 

Cillir'rhoe,  daughter  of  Aclielous  and  wife 
of  Alcmaton. 

Callis'thenes  of  Olyntiius,  a  kinsman  and 
pupil  of  Aristotle,  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  natural  and  political  history,  and  accompanied 
Alexander  the  Great  in  his  expedition  to ’India. 
He  was  put  to  death  on  a  pretended  charge  of 
treason,  328  b.c.  Only  a  few  fragments  of  his 
historic  works  remain,  and  these  are  not  valu¬ 
able. 

Callis'tratns,  an  Athenian  orator,  whose  elo¬ 
quence  is  said  to  have  fired  the  imagination  of 
the  youthful  Demosthenes.  For  his  Spartan 
sympathies  he  was  condemned  to  death  by  the 
Athenians  in  361,  and  on  his  return  from  ex’ile  in 
Macedonia,  was  executed.  Another  Callistratus 
was  a  grammarian  and  critic. 

Callot,  Jacques,  an  engraver,  was  born  in 
1594.  He  twice  visited  Italy,  and  the  second 
time  (about  1612)  became  Thomassin’s  pupil  at 
Rome  in  drawing  and  engraving.  Afterward  he 
repaired  to  Florence,  where,  by  numerous  spirited 
etchings  he  gained  great  fame,  and  engraved  for 
Cosmo  II.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  a  series  of 
plates  of  court  festivals,  etc.  He  died  in  1635. 

Callus,  a  term  employed  in  old  surgical  works 
and  still  used  popularly  to  indicate  the  exuded 
material  by  which  fractures  of  bones  are  consoli¬ 
dated. 

Calmet,  Augustine,  a  learned  Benedictine, 
was  born  at  Mesnil-la-Horgue,  Feb.  26,  1672,  and 
he  died  at  Paris,  Oct.  25,  1757. 

Calms,  or  Calm  Latitudes,  are  those  tracts  of 
the  ocean  on  the  confines  of  the  trade-winds  which 
are  subject  to  total  absence  of  wind  for  long 
periods  together.  Their  northern  limit  varies 
from  5°  to  12°  N.  and  their  southern  limit  from 
1°  to  3s  N.  latitude. 

Calomar'de,  Dun  Francisco  Tadeo,  Duke,  a 
Spanish  statesman,  was  born  in  1775,  in  Aragon, 
and  becoming  Minister  of  Justice  under  Ferdi¬ 
nand  VII.,  persecuted  the  Liberals,  recalled  the 
Jesuits,  reopened  the  monasteries,  and  closed  the 
universities.  He  died  at  Toulouse  in  1842. 

Calomel,  mercurous  chloride,  or  mild  chloride 
of  mercury  (HgCl),  is  a  compound  of  mercury  of 
great  value  in  medicine.  Calomel  is  a  dull,  heavy, 
white,  nearly  tasteless  powder,  which  is  rendered 
yellowish  by  trituration  in  a  mortaror  when  heated. 
It  is  entirely  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether, 
and  volatilizes,  below  a  red  heat,  without  fusion. 
Calomel  is  one  of  the  mildest  and  most  frequently 
employed  of  all  mercurial  preparations,  produc¬ 
ing  its  effects  with  little  local  irritation.  It  exer¬ 
cises  a  powerful  influence  on  the  secreting  organs, 
stimulating  the  liver  and  intestinal  glands  to  in¬ 
creased  activity,  on  which  account  it  is  much  re¬ 
lied  on  in  cases  of  functional  derangement  of  the 
I  liver. 

Calonne,  Charles  Alexandria  de,  Control¬ 
ler-General  of  Finance  in  France  under  Louis 
XVI.,  born  at  Douay  in  1734.  He  was 
made  in  1783  Controller-General  of  the  Treasury. 
In  1786,  Calonne  advised  the  King  to  convoke  the 
Assembly  of  the  Notables,  and  proposed  to  abol¬ 
ish  many  of  the  privileges  of  the  nobles.  The 
people  and  the  aristocracy  demanded  a  convoca¬ 
tion  of  the  States  General,  instead  of  the  Assem¬ 
bly  of  the  Notables;  but  Calonne  proceeded  with 
his  plan,  opened  the  Assembly  of  the  Notables  in 
1787,  described  the  general  prosperity  of  French 
industry  and  commerce,  closed  by  confessing 
that  the  annual  deficit  of  the  treasury  had  risen  to 
$23,000,000,  and  that  during  the  time  from  1776 
to  1786  the  Government  had  borrowed  $250,- 
000,000 !  The  Notables  demanded  from  him  a 
statement  of  accounts.  Not  being  able  to  give 
this,  he  was  banished  to  Lorraine.  Calonne  re¬ 
sided  chiefly  in  England,  until  in  1802  he  obtained 
from  Bonaparte  permission  to  return  to  France, 
where,  on  October  30th  he  died. 

Calopliylliun  (Gr.  beautiful  leaf),  an  impor¬ 
tant  genus  of  Guttifene.  Some  yield  valuable 
timber — e.  g.,  C.  angustifolium  of  Penang — and 
are  a  source  of  resins,  C.  inophyllum  supplying 
Tacamahaca.  C.  Calaba  of  tiie  West  Indies 
yields  oil  from  its  seeds,  and  is  also  a  serviceable 
timber-tree. 


Caloric,  a  term  given  to  a  supposed  imponder¬ 
able  fluid  which  was  the  cause  of  heat,  and  used 
loosely  for  heat. 

Calorim'eter  is  an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  specific  heat  of  a  body;  the  determination 
being  effected  by  ascertaining  the  quantity  of  ice 
at  zero  which  is  turned  into  water  by  the  trans¬ 
ference  to  it  of  heat  from  the  body-  (at  a  known 
temperature)  under  examination. 

Calotype  (Gr.  halos,  beautiful;  typos  impres¬ 
sion). was  the  name  given  in  1840  by  Dr.  Fox  Tal¬ 
bot  to  the  method  of  photographing  by  the  action 
of  light  on  nitrate  of  silver,  invented  by  him 
about  that  date. 

Calovius,  Abraham  (originally  Kalau),  born 
April  16,  1612,  was  successively  professor  at 
Kdnigsberg(1637),  preacher  at  Danzig  (1643),  and 
professor  at  Wittenberg  (1650).  He  died  Feb.  25, 
1686. 

Caloyers  (mod.  Gr.  halogeri,  good  old  men),  a 
general  name  for  the  monks  of  the  Greek 
Church. 

Calpe,  one  of  the  Pillars  of  Her¬ 
cules,  identified  with  Gibraltar. 

Caltrop,  a  four-pronged  piece 
of  iron,  each  prong  about  four 
inches  in  length,  formerly  thrown 
down  in  warfare  to  check  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  the  enemy’s  cavalry  over  Caltrop, 
a  plain,  or  of  besiegers  in  the  ditch  of  a  fortifica¬ 
tion. 

Calnmba,  or  Colombo,  used  in  medicine,  is 
the  root  of  Jnteorhiza  palmata,  a  Menispermaceous 
climber  of  Eastern  Africa.  Sliced  and  dried  it 
has  a  greenish-yellow  tint,  a  very  bitter  taste,  and 
a  faint  aromatic  odor.  American  Calumba 
Root  is  obtained  from  Fra  sera  Walteri,  a  gen- 
tianaceous  biennial,  and  has  properties  like  those 
of  gentian. 

Cal'umet,  the  “peace  pipe”  of  the  North 
American  Indians,  is  a  pipe  having  a  stem  of 
reed  or  painted  wood,  decorated  with  feathers, 
with  a  large  bowl,  usually- of  red  soapstone.  It 
is  smoked,  in  turn,  by  each  member  of  a  council 
or  other  important  gathering.  The  presentation 
of  it  to  strangers  is  a  mark  of  hospitality,  and  to 
refuse  it  would  be  considered  ah  act  of  hostility. 

Calumet,  a  mining  town  of  Houghton  county, 
Mich.,  on  a  peninsula  of  Lake  Superior,  forty-two 
miles  north  of  L’Anse.  The  Calumet  and  Hecla 
copper  mine  here  is  the  richest  in  the  world;  its 
annual  produce  ranging  from  31,675,239  pounds 
in  1880,  to  50,518,222  pounds  in  1886.  Pop., 
5,000, 

Calumet,  a  river  and  lake  on  the  borders  of 
Indiana  and  Illinois,  twelve  miles  south  of 
Chicago. 

Calvados,  a  French  maritime  department  of 
Normandy.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Touques, 
Orne,  Dives,  Seulles,  Aure,  and  Vire.  The  chief 
towns  are  Caen  (the  capital),  Bayeaux,  Falaix, 
Ilonfleur,  Lisieux,  and  Trouville.  Area,  2,130 
square  miles;  pop.  (1861),  480,992;  (1886),  437,267. 

Calvaert,  Denis,  called  also  Dionisio  Fiam- 
mingo,  painter,  was  born  at  Antwerp  about 
1540,  and  settled  at  Bologna.  Many  excellent 
|  pictures  by  him  are  still  preserved  at  Bologna. 
He  died  in  1619. 

Calvary,  Vulgate  calvaria,  the  Latin  rendering 
of  the  Greek  kranion,  as  that  again  of  the  Hebrew 
golgotha  or  gulgalta,  all  three  words  meaning  “a 
skull.”  It  lay-  beyond  but  near  to  the  city,  and  is 
identified  with  the  Old  “House  of  Stoning,”  or 
place  of  public  execution  according  to  the  laws 
of  Moses,  on  the  top  of  the  remarkable  knoll  out¬ 
side  the  Damascus  gate,  on  the  north  side  of 
Jerusalem.  In  Catholic  countries  the  term 
Calvary  is  applied  to  an  eminence  crowned  with 
one  or  three  crosses  bearing  life-sized  figures  of 
Christ  and  the  thieves,  and  surrounded  sometimes 
by  a  number  of  figures,  representing  the  various 
personages  who  took  part  in  the  crucifixion. 
Along  the  approach  to  suph  a  Calvary — the  Via 
Dolorosa,  the  Way  of  the  Cross — are  sculptured 
representations  of  the  Stations  of  the  Cross. 

Calverley,  Charles  Stuart,  the  prince  of 
modern  English  parodists,  was  the  son  of  the  Rev. 
Henry  Blayds,  who  in  1852  took  the  name  of 
Calverley,  and  was  born  on  Dec.  22,  1831.  He 
died  at  Folkestone  on  Feb.  17.  1884.  Calverley 
will  be  remembered  by  his  two  little  volumes, 
Verses  and  'Translations  (1862),  and  ’  Fly  Leaves 


CALVIN. 


2H5 


CAMBODIA. 


particularly  that  of  Jean  Church  of  Scotland,  with  the  other  Presbyterian 
appeared  since  I  Churches  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the  large 
bodies  of  Presbyterians  in  America,  all  hold  to  the 


(1872).  His  parodies, 

Ingelow,  are  the  best  that  have 
the  Rejected  Addresses. 

Calvin,  John,  born  July  10,  1509.  At  twelve 
years  of  age  he  was  appointed  to  a  chaplaincy  in 
tiie  cathedral  Church  of  Noyon.  Later  he  studied 
law,  and  was  sent  to  the  University  of  Orleans. 
He  went  to  Paris,  and,  taking  an  active  part  in 
t  lie  religious  uprising  ( 1533),  incurred  the  hostility 
of  the  King,  and  with  others  was  compelled  to 
flee  for  his  life.  After  this  he  repaired  to  liis 
native  place,  resigned  the  preferment  he  held  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  for  a  year  or 
two  led  a  wandering  life.  Persecution  against 
the  Protestants  raged  so  hotly  that  Calvin  was  no 
longer  safe  in  France,  and  went  to  Basle.  Finally, 
he  revisited  Ins  native  town;  sold  his  paternal 
estate,  and  set  out  for  Strasburg.  In  Geneva 
(1536)  he  engaged  in  the  work  of  promoting  the 
Reformation,  and  soon  infused  an  energy  into  it 
which  crowned  the  struggling  efforts  of  his  friend 
Farel  with  success.  A  Protestant  Confession  of 
Faith  was  drawn  out,  approved  by  the  Council  of 
Two  Hundred;  and  proclaimed  in  the  Cathedral 
of  St.  Peter.  A  spirit  of  rebellion  against  the 
rule  of  Calvin  and  Farel  broke  out,  and  they  were 
both  expelled  from  the  city  after  less  than  two 
years’  residence.  Calvin  retreated  to  Strasburg,  and 
devoted  himself  to  theological  study.  Here  in 
October,  1539,  he  married.  The  Genevans  found, 
after  a  short  time,  that  they  could  not  well 
get  on  without  Calvin,  and  invited  him  to 
return.  After  some  delay  on  his  part,  he  acceded 
to  their  invitation,  and  in  the  autumn  of  1541, 
once  more  went  to  Geneva.  Now  he  succeeded 
in  establishing  his  plan  of  church-government. 
Bv  his  College  of  Pastors  and  Doctors  and  his 
Consist orial  Court  of  Discipline,  he  founded  a 
theocracy,  which  aimed  virtually  to  direct  all  the 
affairs  of  the  city,  and  to  control  and  modif  y  both 
the  social  and  individual  life  of  the  citizens. 
The  Libertines  still  remained  a  strong  party, 
which  was  even  augmented  after  Calvin’s  return. 
The  struggle  with  this  party  lasted  fifteen  years, 
and  was  only  terminated  in  1555,  after  a  somewhat 
ridiculous  emeute  in  the  streets.  The  reformer’s 
authority  from  this  date  was  confirmed  into  an 
absolute  supremacy.  During  the  long  struggle 
with  the  Libertines  occurred  also  Calvin’s  contro¬ 
versies  with  Sebastian  Castellio,  Jerome  Bolsec, 
and  Michael  Servetus.  Of  all  these  contests, 
however,  the  most  memorable  is  that  writh  Serve¬ 
tus.  He  had  sent  Calvin  various  documents  con¬ 
taining  the  views  fully  developed  in  his  work 
.subsequently  published  under  the  title  of  Resti¬ 
tutio  Christianismi  (1553).  Calvin  never  con¬ 
cealed  his  abhorrence  of  these  views,  and  in  a 
letter  to  Farel,  as  early  as  1546,  he  threatened  that 
if  Servetus  should  come  to  Geneva,  he  would  do 
what  he  could  to  bring  him  to  condign  punish¬ 
ment.  Finally,  Calvin  betrayed  him  to  the 
authorities,  and  Servetus  was  sentenced  to  be 
burned,  but  effected  liisescape,  and,  after  several 
months’  wandering,  he  was  found  at  Geneva. 
Having  ventured  to  church,  according  to  the 
common  account,  he  was  recognized,  appre¬ 
hended,  and  conveyed  to  prison  by  Calvin’s  order, 
just  as  he  was  about  to  leave  the  city.  The  trial 
lasted,  with  various  interruptions,  for  two  months. 
At  length,  on  Oct.  16,  1553,  sentence  was  passed 
upon  Servetus,  condemning  him  to  death  by  fire. 
On  the  next  morning,  the  sentence  was  put  into 
execution.  After  the  execution  of  Servetus,  and 
the  expulsion  of  the  Libertines  two  years  later, 
Calvin’s  power  in  Geneva  was  firmly  established, 
and  he  used  it  vigorously  for  the  defense  of 
Protestantism  throughout  Europe.  He  died 
May  27,  1564. 

Calvinism  is  the  system  of  religious  doctrine 
associated  with  the  name  of  Calvin,  and  supposed 
to  distinguish  the  churches  more  particularly 
called  the  Reformed,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Lutheran  and  Anglican  Churches.  Calvin’s  doc¬ 
trinal  views  are  laid  down  at  length  in  his 
Inxtitutio  Christianas  Religionis.  Predestination, 
and  Irresistible  Grace  are  the  key-notes  of  Calvin¬ 
ism.  Puritanism  was  nothing  else  than  a  move¬ 
ment  to  reduce  the  Church  of  England  to  a  Cal- 
vini-tic  model,  and  Calvinism  still  retains  a 
powerful  influence  over  many  minds  in  the 
Anglican  Establishment,  while  it  is  the  professed 
creed  of  a  great  proportion  of  the  Dissenters.  The 


Westminster  Confession  ot  Faith,  the  most  elabor¬ 
ate  and  formal  expression  of  Calvinistic  doctrine 
that  exists. 

Calx  is  the  Latin  term  for  quicklime.  As 
quicklime  is  produced  by  burning  limestone,  the 
alchemists  applied  the  term  calx  to  the  substance 
of  a  metal  or  mineral  that  remains  after  being 
subjected  to  extreme  heat,  and  calcination  to  the 
process. 

Calycantlms  (Gr.  calyx-flower),  a  genus  of 
Calycanthacese,  a  small  order  connecting  Ranun- 
culaceie  with  Rosaceae,  and  of  which  only  a  few 
species  are  known,  natives  of  North  America  and 
Japan. 

Calyciflorse,  those  natural  orders  of  dicoty¬ 
ledons  in  which  the  sepals  and  petals  are  separate, 
as  in  Tlialamiflorse,  but  in  which  the  stamens, 
instead  of  being  hypogynous,  are  perigynous  or 
epigynous. 

Calydonian  Boar.  According  to  a  Greek 
myth,  (Eneus,  King  of  Calydon,  the  ancient 
capital  of  kEtolia,  omitted  a  sacrifice  to  Artemis, 
whereupon  the  goddess,  when  he  wras  absent  on 
the  Argonautic  expedition,  sent  a  frightful  boar  to 
lay  waste  his  fields.  No  one  dared  to  face  the 
monster,  until  Meleager,  the  son  of  (Eneus,  with 
a  baud  of  heroes,  pursued  and  slew  him. 

Calypso,  according  to  Homer,  a  daughter  of 
Atlas,  inhabiting  the  solitary  wooded  Isle  of  Ogy- 
gia,  far  apart  from  all  gods  and  men.  Odysseus 
being  thrown  upon  her  island  by  shipwreck,  she 
treatedliim  kindly,  and  promised  him  immortality 
if  he  would  marry  her.  He  was  fascinated  by 
her  charms,  but  unwilling  to  desert  his  wife  and 
his  native  land;  she  detained  him,  however,  seven 
years,  and  bore  him  two  sons.  On  his  departure, 
she  died  of  grief. 

Calyptraea,  a  genus  of  molluscs,  among  Pro.so- 
branch  Gastropods,  and  sometimes  popularly 
known  as  Chambered,  Cup  and  Saucer,  Bonnet, 
or  Slipper  Limpets. 

Calyx.  Allhough  in  some  flowers  the  transi¬ 
tion  from  ordinary  foliage  leaves  to  the  floral 
envelopes  surrounding  the  stamens  and  carpels  is 
a  gentle  one,  we  can,  in  the  majority  of  cases, 
recognize  t lie  floral  envelopes  as  clearly  defined. 
The  outer  circle  or  whorl  of  these  is  what  we 
term  the  calyx,  the  inner  being  the  corolla;  and 
the  separate  leaves  of  the  calyx  are  termed  sepals, 
corresponding  to  the  petals. 

Cam,  or  Granta,  a  sluggish  river  of  England, 
which,  rising  in  Essex,  flows  forty  miles  north¬ 
west  and  northeast  through  Cambridgeshire,  and 
falls  into  the  Ouse,  three  and  one-lialf  miles  above 
Ely.  It  gives  name  to  the  town  of  Cambridge. 

Cam,  Diooo,  a  Portuguese  explorer  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  who  in  1484  discovered  the 
mouth  of  the  Congo. 

Camarilla  (Sp.  a  little  chamber),  a  word  first 
employed  in  the  time  of  Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain 
( 1 814—33),  and  which  now  signifies  throughout 
Europe  the  influence  exercised  on  the  State  by 
the  court-party. 

Camayeu  is  a  term  by  which  painting  in  one 
color,  or  monochrome,  is  designated.  Pictures 
of  several  tints,  but  where  the  natural  colors  of 
the  objects  are  not  copied,  are  also  said  to  be  en 
camayeu. 

CambacereS,  Jean  Jacques  Regis  de,  Duke 
of  Parma,  and  High  Chancellor  of  t lie  French 
Empire  under  Napoleon,  was  born  Oct.  18,  1753. 
In  1791  he  was  appointed  President  of  the  Crim¬ 
inal  Court.  In  1794,  as  President  of  the  Com¬ 
mittee  of  Public  Safety,  he  was  active  in  procur¬ 
ing  peace  with  Prussia  and  Spain.  He  assisted 
in  the  Revolution  of  the  18th  Brumaire  (Nov. 
9,  1799),  was  appointed  Second  Consul,  and 
attached  himself  to  the  interests  of  Napoleon, 
by  whom  lie  was  made  High  Chancellor  of  the 
Empire,  and  in  1808,  Duke  of  Parma.  In  1813, 
when  Napoleon  took  the  field  against  the  allies, 
he  was  left  as  President  of  the  Regency.  He 
voted  for  the  abdication  of  Napoleon.  During 
the  Hundred  Days  he  was  Minister  of  Justice  and 
President  of  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  In  1816  he 
was  exiled  for  having  taken  part  in  the  execution 
of  Louis  XVI.;  but  in  1818  his  civil  and  political 
rights  were  restored,  and  he  returned  to  Paris, 
where  he  died  March  5,  1824. 


Cambaluc,  ( Khan-Buliyli ,  City  of  the  Em¬ 
peror),  the  name  by  which,  during  the  middle 
ages,  Pekin  became  known  to  Europe,  and 
rendered  familiar  by  Marco  Polo’s  travels. 

Cambay  {Khambhat),  the  port  and  capital  of  a 
small  Indian  feudatory  State  of  Bombay  Presi 
dency,  lies  in  the  northwest  portion  of  the  penin¬ 
sula,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Cambay.  Pop. 
(1881),  36,007;  at  one  time  200,000.  The  area  of 
Cambay  is  350  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  86,074, 
of  whom  12,417,  including  the  Nawab,  are  Mo¬ 
hammedans.  The  Gulf  of  Cambay  is  a  large  inlet 
about  80  miles  long  and  25  broad. 

Camberwell  Beauty  (Vanessa  antiopa),  one 
of  the  largest  and  most 
beautiful  of  British 
butterflies,  common  in 
the  central  and  south¬ 
ern  parts  of  Europe, 
and  having  an  exten¬ 
sive  range  in  North 
America,  where  there 
are  also  two  varieties, 
very  close  to  the  typi¬ 
cal  form.  The  wings 
are  of  a  deep  purplish- 
brown  with  a  band  of 
black,  and  an  outer*^T 
band  or  margin  of 
pale  yellow;  the  black 
band  containing  a  low 
of  large  blue  spots,  the 
yellow  margin  dappled 

with  black  or  brown  Camberwell  Beauty, 
specks,  all  the  colors  a,  larva  or  caterpillar ;  b,  pupa, 
rich  and  velvety. 

Cambium  (Lat.  cambio,  I  change).  The  grow¬ 
ing  point  of  any  stem  is  composed  of  one  or 
more  actively  dividing  cells.  In  the  growing 
point  of  a  fern  a  single  apical  cell  can  still, 
though  with  difficulty,  be  distinguished  amid  the 
mass  of  embryonic  cells  from  which  the  future 
tissues  are  forming,  but  in  higher  plants  all  the 
cells  of  this  “meristem,”  as  it  is  termed,  are 
equally  endowed  with  the  power  of  division.  As 
the  plant  grows,  the  new  cells  constantly  formed 
behind  the  apex  are  modified  at  first  into  the  em¬ 
bryonic  layers  from  which  epidermis,  fibro-vascu- 
lar  bundles,  and  parenchyma  are  developed,  but 
these  are  no  longer  capable  of  continued  growth, 
and  the  bundles  are  said  to  be  definite. 

Cambodia,  or  Camboja,  nominally  a  state  in 
Indo-Cliina  under  a  French  protectorate,  but  prac¬ 
tically  a  French  dt  pendency,  between  10°  30' 
and  14°  10'  N.  latitude,  and  102°  45'  and  106: 
45'  E.  longitude,  220  miles  from  northeast  to 
southwest,  and  150  miles  broad,  comprising  an 
area  of  32,390  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
southeast  and  south  by  French  Cochin-China;  on 
the  southwest  by  the  Gulf  of  Siam;  on  the  north 
by  Siam;  on  the  east  toward  Annam,  where  the 
frontier,  traversing  imperfectly-explored  terri¬ 
tories,  is  vague,  by  the  territories  of  independ¬ 
ent  Mois  tribes.  The  coast,  156  miles  long,  in¬ 
dented  about  the  middle  by  the  Bay  of  Kom- 
pong-Som,  offers  but  one  port,  Kampot.  The 
natural  products  are  more  numerous  and  varied 
than  in  French  Cochin-China — rice,  cotton, maize, 
pepper,  cinnamon,  vanilla,  cardamoms,  sugar¬ 
cane,  indigo,  manioc,  ramee;  sesame,  gutta-percha, 
etc.  The  forests  contain  excellent  timber.  The 
fauna  of  Cambodia  comprise  the  elephant,  tiger, 
panther,  bear,  rhinoceros,  ape,  buffalo,  etc.  Cam¬ 
bodia  supplies  Cochin-China  with  a  large  part  of 
the  cattle  it  consumes.  The  horses  of  Cambodia 
are  small  and  robust,  with  remarkably  largo 
heads.  Wading  birds  abound,  and  crocodiles  are 
found  in  most  of  the  rivers.  Pop.  (1874),  946,000, 
of  whom  nearly  800,000  wrere  Cambodians  and 
107,000  Chinese.  Pnom-Penh,  the  capital,  at  the 
junction  of  the  “  Four- Arms,”  has  a  population 
of  35,000  of  mixed  races.  The  ancient  Kingdom 
of  Cambodia  or  Khmer  formerly  extended  over  a 
large  part  of  Indo-China,  In  1858  France  first 
appeared  in  Indo-China.  Having  made  herself 
mistress  of  the  Annam  Provinces  of  the  Delta  of 
the  Mekliong,  France,  on  Aug.  11,  1863,  con¬ 
cluded  a  treaty  with  the  new  King  of  Cambodia, 
Norodom,  placing  Cambodia  under  a  French  pro¬ 
tectorate.  This  treaty  has  been  superseded  by 
that  of  June  17,  188U  under  which  the  King  of 
Cambodia  accepts  all  the  reforms,  administrative. 


CAMBRAI. 


236 


CAMERA  LUCID  A. 


judiciary,  financial,  and  commercial,  which  the 
Government  of  France  may  deem  advisable. 

Cambrai,  a  city  and  fortress  of  the  French 
department  of  the  Nord,  on  the  Scheldt,  128  miles 
north-northeast  of  Paris.  Among  the  principal 
public  buildings  are  the  town-house,  arcliiepisco- 
pal  palace,  and  cathedral.  Its  predecessor  was 
paftially  destroyed  in  1793  by  the  revolutionists. 
They  also  disentombed  the  remains  of  Fc'nelon, 
who  was  Archbishop  here,  and  melted  his  lead 
cofiin  into  bullets.  Pop.  (1872),  22,897;  (188G), 
17,729. 

Cambria,  the  ancient  name  of  Wales,  the 
Britannia  Seen nda  of  the  Romans.  It  is.  derived 
from  the  word  Cymry,  or  Kymry,  the  name  by 
which  the  Welsh  have  always  called  themselves, 
and  appears  in  “Cambrian  Mountains,”  and 
“  Cambrian  System.”  Cumbria,  the  name  of  the 
old  British  kingdom,  also  called  Strathelyde,  and 
Cumberland  are  other  derivatives. 

Cambrian  System.  This  is  the  name  given 
to  the  great  series  of  sedimentary  deposits  which 
comes  next  in  order  of  succession  to  the  Archaean 
System.  Wherever  the  base  of  these  deposits 
can  be  seen,  the  beds  are  found  to  rest  unconform- 
ably  upon  the  Archaean,  or  as  they  are  sometimes 
termed,  the  pre-Cambrian,  rocks.  There  is  some 
diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  upper  limits  of  the 
Cambrian.  The  British  Cambrian  rocks  are  best 
developed  in  North  Wales,  and  are  also  well 
represented  in  Shropshire,  etc. 

Cambric,  a  general  term  applied  to  the  finest 
and  thinnest  of  linen  fabrics,  said  to  be  derived 
from  Cambrai, where  such  goods  were  first  made. 
Some  of  the  finest  cambrics  of  the  present  day 
are  produced  in  Switzerland.  Scotch  cambric  is 
really  a  muslin,  being  made  of  cotton  with  the 
fiber  twisted  very  hard,  to  imitate  real  or  linen 
cambric. 

Cambridge,  the  county  town  of  Cambridge¬ 
shire,  lies  on  the  Cam,  fifty-eight  miles  north-by- 
east  of  London.  The  town,  as  distinguished 
from  the  university,  has  not  many  features  of 
interest.  Pop.  (1886),  42,374. — The  University 
of  Cambridge  is  one  of  t lie  two  ancient  institu¬ 
tions  of  the  kind  existing  in  England.  Authentic 
records  relating  to  its  origin  are  entirely  want¬ 
ing,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  true  history  of  the 
university  begins  in  the  twelfth  century.  Certain 
writs  of  Henry  III.,  of  1231,  are  the  earliest 
record  of  an  attempt  to  introduce  discipline 
amongst  the  students  attending  the  lectures. 
Peterhouse,  the  oldest  college  in  the  university, 
was  founded  in  1286;  and  between  the  middle 
of  the  thirteenth  and  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
centuries,  with  one  exception,  all  these  royal  and 
religious  foundations  were  endowed  which 
superseded  the  hostels  and  now  constitute  the 
university.  It  is  by  the  possession  of  the  college 
system  that  the  sister  universities  of  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  are  distinguished  from  those  of  the 
Continent.  The  final  abolition  of  restrictions  as 
to  marriage  and  as  to  holy  orders  (except  in 
the  case  of  ofiices  with  clerical  functions)  took 
place  in  1881,  when  new  statutes  were  issued  by 
the  Cambridge  commissioners  under  the  Univer¬ 
sities  of  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Act,  1877.  The 
endowment  of  university  professorships  dates 
from  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1502,  Lady  Mar¬ 
garet,  mother  of  Henry  VII.,  founded  the  Lady 
Margaret  professorship  of  Divinity.  Henry  VIII. 
in  1540  founded  the  five  regius  professorships  of 
Divinity,  Civil  Law,  Physic,  Hebrew,  and  Greek. 
The  earliest  mathematical  professorship  was  that 
founded  by  Henry  Liicas  in  1663.  The  univer¬ 
sity  has  thirty-five  professors,  increased  to  forty 
by  the  statutes  of  1881,  in  addition  to  readers, 
demonstrators,  and  assistants.  About  half  of  the 
total  number  of  undergraduates  have  rooms  in 
college;  the  remainder  reside  in  lodgings,  but 
under  the  same  rules  as  to  discipline.  Residence 
is  usually  commenced  in  t lie  October  term. 
The  Ordinary  B.  A.,  or  Bachelor  of  Arts,  de¬ 
gree  may  be  taken  in  the  ninth  term  of  residence 
— viz,  in  the  third  June  after  entering.  The 
library  contains  over  400,000  volumes  and  MSS. 
The  chief  treamre  amongst  them  is  the  “Codex 
Bezie,”  or  “Cantabrigiensis,”  presented  to  the  uni¬ 
versity  by  Theodore  Bazie  in  1581. 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  is  the  seat  of  Harvard  Uni¬ 
versity.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  New 
England,  having  been  settled  in  1630.  Pop., 


(1888),  59,660.  Longfellow  lived  here  from  1836 
till  his  death. 

Cambridge  Greensand,  a  name  given  to  cer¬ 
tain  “coprolite  beds”  met  with  in  Cambridge¬ 
shire,  England,  which  were  at  one  time  supposed 
to  represent  the  “Upper  Greensand.” 

Cambridgeshire,  an  inland  eastern  county  of 
England,  48  miles  long,  lli  to  33  miles  broad, 
and  821  square  miles,  or  535,440  acres  in  area. 
As  much  as  92  per  cent,  of  that  area  consists  of 
arable  land,  meadow,  and  pasture,  the  rest  being 
swamps.  The  chief  towns  of  Cambridgeshire  are 
Cambridge,  (the  county  town),  Ely,  Wisbeach, 
51  arch,  Thorney,  Linton,  Soliam,  Newmarket,  and 
Royston.  Pop.  (1881),  185,594. 

Camby'ses  ( Kambujiya ),  second  king  of  the 
Medes  and  Persians,  wars  the  son  of  Cyrus,  and 
succeeded  his  father  in  529  n.c.  lie  put  his 
brother  Smerdis  to  death,  and  in  527  or  525  in¬ 
vaded  Egypt,  defea'ed  its  king,  Psammenitus,  at 
Pelu.sium,  and  in  six  months  made  himself  master 
of  the  whole  country. 

Cambronne,  Pierre  Jacques,  born  at  Nantes, 
Dec.  6, 1770;died  there  Jan.  8,  1842.  He  served  in 
La  Vendfe  under  Hoc-lie,  in  Switzerland  under 
Mass  (mil,  and  followed  Napoleon  to  Elba.  At 
Waterloo  he  commanded  the  Imperial  Guard,  and 
when  summoned  to  surrender  refused,  with  an 
expletive  well  known,  thanks  to  Victor  Hugo,  as 
the  “  mot  de  Cambronne.”  He  fell  covered  with 
wounds,  and  after  1830  was  reinstated  in  his 
military  rank. 

Camden,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  New  Jersey, 
and  county  seat  of  Camden  county,  stands  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Delaware  river,  opposite  Phila¬ 
delphia.  Pop.  (1840),  41,659. 

Camden,  Charles  Pratt,  Eari,  of,  a  younger 
son  of  Sir  John  Pratt,  born  in  1713,  died  in  1794. 

Camden,  William,  scholar,  antiquary,  and  his¬ 
torian,  born  in  London,  May  2,  1551.  In  1575  he 
was  appointed  second  master  of  Westminster 
School;  and  it  was  while  he  was  discharging  the 
dut  es  of  this  office  that  he  undertook  the  work 
which  has  made  his  name  famous,  his  Britannia, 
a  survey  of  the  British  Isles.  He  died  on  Nov.  9, 
1623. 

Camel  (L  it.  camelus;  Heb.  gamal )  a  genus  of 
even-toed  ruminant  Ungulates  (Artio- 
dactyla,  Ruminantia),  and  type  of  a 
small  family — Camelidiae  or  Tylopoda. 

The  stomach  has  three  compartments, 
the  manyplies  or  psalterium  being  ab¬ 
sent;  the  placenta  is  diffuse.  The  fam¬ 
ily  includes  two  genera — the  camels 
proper  (Camelus)  and  the  various  forms 
of  alpaca  ( q .  v. ,  Auchenia).  The  camels 
are  well  known  for  their  large  size,  dor¬ 
sal  humps,  callosities  on  knees,  breasts, 
etc.,  for  the  common  sole  uniting  the 
two  toes.  One  species  (U.  dromadarius ) 
is  usually  spoken  of  as  the  dromedary, 
though  the  title  properly  belongs  only 
to  a  special  breed.  It  liasa  single  hump 
and  a  generally  reddish-gray  color.  Its 
home  is  in  Arabia,  but  it  is  bred  in  West 
Asia  and  Nort  h  Africa.  There  arc  many 
breeds,  and  the  dromedary  par  excellence 
is  the  most  agile.  The  other  camel  -isBoneoftne 
known  as  C.  bactrianu «,  and  is  distin-  1  ^nd 
guislied  by  its  larger  size,  two  dorsal  foot  of 
humps,  and  finer  brown  or  reddish  hair,  camel. 
This  camel  is  bred  in  Central  Asia,  and  in  its  adapt- 


Camel  (Camelus  baclrianus). 

ability  to  domestication,  as  well  as  its  natural  i 


adaptation  to  desert  life,  is  a  most  useful  animal. 
The  Bactrian  camel 
can  carry  1,000  lbs. 
weight  or  more,  and 
the  dromedary  proper 
can  cover  100  miles  in 
a  day.  The  ordinary 
gait  of  a  camel  is 
about  two  and  a  half 
miles  an  hour,  but  this 
can  be  kept  up  for 
many  days  with  little 
food  and  less  drink. 

A  swift  dromedary 

may  go  ten  miles  an  Part  of  the  inside  of  Stomach- 
hour.  Many  doubtful  paunch  of  Camel,  showing  the 
stories  are  told  of  the  water-cells, 
performance  of  some  of  these  beasts. 

Camel,  a  caisson-like  apparatus  for  enabling 
large  vessels  to  navigate  shoal  waters.  It  was 
invented  by  the  Russian  engineer,  De  Witte 
(1790-1854),  and  is  often  used  between  Kronstadt 
and  St.  Petersburg. 

Camellia,  a  genus  of  Ternstroemiacca;,  named 
after  Camellus,  a  Moravian  Jesuit,  who  in  1689 
collected  plants  in  the  Philippine  Islands.  The 
species  are  all  Oriental  evergreen  shrubs,  and 
have  long  been  cultivated  in  China  and  Japan, 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  singular  beauty  of  their 
flowers.  The  best  known  and  most  esteemed  of 
these  is  C.  japonica;  in  the  wild  state  ihis  has  red 


Camellia  Japonica. 


flowers,  recalling  those  of  the  wild  rose.  It  was 
introduced  into  Europe  by  Lord  Petre  in  1739; 
but  double  varieties  were  only  brought  from 
China  from  1792  onward;  many  have  also  been 
raised  by  European  florists,  and  the  multitude  of 
beautiful  hybrids  and  varieties  is  now  endless. 
Camellias  may  be  propagated  also  by  cuttings  or 
layers,  as  well  as  by  grafting  or  inarching. 

Camelopard  (Cana  lopardalis  giraffa),  an  old 
name  for  the  giraffe,  which  recalls  the  curious  old 
notion  that  certain  strange  animals  originated 
simply  by  crossing.  The  giraffe  was  supposed 
on  account  of  its  shape  and  coloring  to  spring 
from  the  camel  and  the  leopard  ( pardalis ). 

Camelot,  a  name  applied  in  the  mediaeval 
romances  to  the  splendid  “City  of  Legions” 
which  grew  up  out  of  the  permanent  quarters  of 
the  Second  Augusta  Legion  at  Caerleon-upon-Usk, 
but  was  built  earlier  by  the  mythical  Belinus. 

Camel’s  Thorn  (Alhdgi),  a  genus  of  Legu- 
minosae.  The  species  are  herbs  or  undershrubs, 
and  chiefly  inhabit  the  deserts  of  the  East,  where 
they  are  of  great  importance  as  affording  food 
for  camels. 

Cameo,  an  engraved  gem  in  which  the  figure 
or  subject  is  carved  in  relief.  Stratified  agates 
are  chiefly  employed  for  cameos,  the  relief  being 
formed  in  one  band  or  stratum  of  the  agate,  with 
a  background  of  contrasting  color.  These  banded 
agates  are  known  generic-ally  as  onyx  stones ; 
when  the  alternate  layers  are  simply  white  and 
dark  neutral  tint  or  black  they  are  called  simply 
onyxes;  a  sardonyx  consists  of  strata  of  white 
and  ruddy  brown  sard. 

Camera  Lncida  (so  named  in  contrast  to 
Camera  Obscura),  an  optical  instrument  con- 


CAMERA  OBSCURA. 


CAMORRA. 


61 


structed  of  various  forms  and  for  various  pur¬ 
poses.  Dr.  Robert  Hooke  invented  one  about 
1674;  whilst  Dr.  Wollaston's  (1807),  intended  to 
facilitate  the  perspective  delineation  of  objects, 
consists  of  a  small  quadrilateral  prism  of  glass, 
of  which  AB  is  the  perpendicular  section,  held  in 
a  brass  frame,  which  is  attached  to  an  upright 
rod,. having  at  its  lower  end  a  screw-clamp.  The 
prism  being  at  the  height  of  about  a  foot  from 
the  table,  lias  its  upper  face  horizontal.  Two  of 
its  faces  are  at  a  right  angle  at  A;  the  contiguous 


faces  make  respectively  with  them  angles  of  674°; 
so  that  the  remaining  obtuse  angle  at  B  contains 
135  .  Rays  coming  from  an  object  PQ,  and  falling 
nearly  perpendicularly  on  the  first  surface,  enter 
the  prism,  and  undergo  total  reflection  at  the  con¬ 
tiguous  surface;  they  then  fall  at  the  same  angle 
on  the  next  surface,  and  are  totally  reflected 
again;  finally,  they  emerge  nearly  perpendicularly 
to  the  remaining  surface.  An  eye,  as  in  the 
figure,  then  receives  the  emergent  pencil  through 
one  part  of  the  pupil,  so  that  an  image,  pg,  of 
the  object  is  seen  projected  upon  a  sheet  of  paper 
upon  the  table.  The  rays  from  the  drawing- 
pencil  passing  the  edge  of  the  prism,  enter  the 
other  part  of  the  pupil;  and  the  pencil  and  image 
being  seen  together  upon  the  paper,  a  sketch  of 
the  latter  can  be  taken. 

Camera  Obscura  (lit.  a  dark  chamber),  an 
instrument  described  by  Giambattista  della  Porta 
in  his  Magia  Natural  is  (1569).  It  is  known  in  its 
simplest  form  as  a  familiar  toy,  consisting  of  a 
rectangular  box,  furnished  at  one  end  with  a  lens 
whose  focal  length  is  equal  to  the  length  and 
depth  of  the  box;  at  the  opposite  end  of  which  a 
plane  reflector  is  placed  at  an  angle  of  45°,  which 
throws  the  image  of  any  objects  to  which  the 
lens  may  be  directed  on  a  piece  of  ground-glass 
on  the  top  of  the  box  in  a  non-inverted  position, 
so  that  they  may  be  viewed  or  sketched  from  as 
in  nature.  For  the  photographic  camera,  see 
Photography. 

Camerarius,  Joachim — originally  Liebhard, 
which  name  he  changed  into  Camerarius,  because 
his  forefathers  had  been  Edmmever  (Chamber¬ 
lains)  at  the  court  of  the  Bishop  of  Bamberger — 
was  born  at  Bamberg,  April  12,  1500,  and  died  at 
Leipz'g,  after  a  life  devoted  to  literature,  April 
17,  1574.  Ilis  son,  Joachim  Camerarius  (1534- 
98),  was  one  of  the  most  learned  physicians  and 
botanists  of  his  age. — Rudolf  Jakob  Camera- 
Rius  (1665-1721)  was  also  a  physician  and  botanist. 

Cameri'no  (ancient  Cameiinum),  a  town  of 
Central  Italy,  41  miles  southwest  of  Ancona. 
It  has  a  cathedral  occupying  the  site  of  a  temple 
to  Jupiter.  Pop.,  4,342". 

Camerlengo  (Ital.  chamberlain),  the  cardinal 
with  the  control  of  the  papal  treasury,  who  in 
t  he  days  of  the  temporal  power,  administered 
justice,  and  during  an  interim  stood  at  the  head 
of  the  Government. 

Cameron,  John,  scholar  and  divine,  born  at 
Glasgow  about  1579.  In  1600  he  went  to  the 
Continent,  where  his  ability  and  erudition  secured 
for  him  several  appointments  at  Bergerac,  Sedan, 
Saumur,  and  other  seats  of  learning.  He  died  in 
1625. 

Cameron,  Richard,  a  Scottish  Covenanter, 
born  in  Falkland,  in  Fife,  where  he  became 
precentor  and  schoolmaster  under  an  Episcopal 
incumbent.  In  1678  he  went  to  Holland,  and 
returned  in  1680  in  time  to  take  a  prominent  part 
in  publishing  the  Sanquhar  Declaration.  Retir¬ 
in'.:  then,  with  some  sixty  armed  comrades,  to  the 
hills  between  Nithsdale  and  Aryshire,  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  evading  capture  for  a  month,  though 


a  price  of  5,000  merks  was  set  on  his  head  by  Gov¬ 
ernment.  On  July  20,  1680,  however,  they  were 
surprised  by  a  body  of  dragoons  in  Airds  Moss, 
near  Auchinleck,  and  after  a  brave  fight,  Cameron 
was  killed.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  Camer- 
onian  sect,  so  vividly  depicted  and  so  much,  mis¬ 
represented  by  Sir  Walter  Scott. 

Cameron,  Simon,  born  in  Lancaster  county, 
Penn.,  March  8,  1799,  became  an  editor  and 
bank  president.  In  1845  he  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate as'a  Democrat  and  supported 
the  Mexican  War.  After  the  repeal  of  the 
Missouri  Compromise  he  affiliated  himself  with 
the  Republican  party,  and  in  1857  was  again 
chosen  Senator.  At  the  Chicago  convention  in 
1860  he  was  a 'formidable  candidate  for  the  Pres¬ 
idency,  but  threw  his  strength  to  Lincoln,  who 
on  his  inauguration  made  Cameron  Secretary  ot 
War.  In  January,  1862,  Mr.  Cameron  resigned, 
being  succeeded  by  Edwin  M.  Stanton.  For  a 
short  time  he  was  Minister  to  Russia,  and  in  1866 
was  again  elected  Senator.  He  was  reelected  in 
1873  and  followed  Sumner  as  Chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Foreign  Relations.  Ilis  son, 
James  Donald  Cameron,  was  elected  Senator 
on  his  retirement  and  still  holds  that  position. 

Cameron,  Verney  Lovett,  African  explorer, 
born  July,  1,  1844.  He  entered  the  navy  in  1857, 
and  served  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  West  Indies, 
and  the  Red  Sea,  and  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa, 
taking  part  in  the  Abyssinian  expedition,  and  in 
the  suppression  of  the  slave-trade.  In  1872  he 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  an  east-coast 
expedition  to  relieve  Livingston,  and  starting 
from  Bagamoyo  in  March,  1873,  in  August,  at 
Unyanyembe,  he  met  Livingstone’s  followers 
bearing  his  remains  to  the  coast.  After  making 
arrangements  for  their  safe  arrival,  he  proceeded 
to  Ujiji,  where  he  found  some  of  Livingstone’s 
papers  and  a  map,  which  he  forwarded  to  Zanzi¬ 
bar.  He  then  made  a  survey  of  Lake  Tanganyika, 
which  he  found  to  be  disconnected  with  the  Nile 
system.  He  has  since  made  other  explorations  in 
Africa.  Among  his  works  are  Across  Africa, 
(1877),  Our  Future  Highway  to  India  (1880),  and 
several  boys’  books. 

Cameronian  Regiment,  since  1881  Cameron- 
ians  (Scottish  Rifle'-),  long  the  Twenty-sixth  In¬ 
fantry  regiment,  had  its  origin  in  a  body  of  Cam- 
eronians  (1689).  Taking  advantage  of  their  zeal 
and  courage,  the  Convention  which  sat  at  Edin¬ 
burgh  induced  a  number  of  them  to  assist  in  the 
Revolution,  which  it  was  imagined  by  some  was 
to  reestablish  the  reign  of  the  Covenant. 

Cameronians,  the  religious  body  in  Scotland 
named  after  Richard  Cameron,  but  officially 
called  Reformed  Presbyterians. 

Cameroon,  a  German  colony  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  extending  along  9°  8’  E.  longitude 
from  the  Cross  river  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  del 
Rey,  and  from  thence  south  to  a  point  slightly  be¬ 
low  3°  N.  latitude;  the  limits  in  the  interior,  which 
is  almost  unexplored,  have  not  been  fixed.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  Cameroon  river,  which 
enters  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  opposite  Fernando  Po. 

Camillus,  Marcus  Furius,  a  Roman  patrician 
who  was  a  censor  (consular  tribune,  says  Livy)  in 
403  b.c.  He  finished  the  war  against  Yeii,  tak¬ 
ing  the  town  in  396,  after  a  siege  of  ten  years, 
and  in  394  besieged  the  Falerii,  who,  after 
bravely  defending  themselves,  were  led  by  his 
magnanimous  restoration  of  their  children  to 
yield  unconditionally.  Condemned  nominally  on 
a  charge  of  misappropriating  the  booty,  but 
really  because  of  his  patrician  haughtiness,  he 
banished  himself  from  Rome  (391),  and  lived  in 
retirement  at  Ardca  until  Brennus  had  captured 
and  destroyed  the  whole  of  Rome  except  the 
Capitol.  Recalled  and  appointed  Dictator,  he 
raised  an  army,  and  appearing — according  to  the 
legend — just  at  the  moment  when  the  garrison 
were  about  to  purchase  the  departure  of  the  Gauls, 
defeated  and  drove  them  from  the  town.  He 
afterward  obtained  new  victories  over  the  yEqui, 
the  Yolsci,  and  the  Etrusci;  and  in  367  b.c.,  when 
war  broke  out  with  the  Gauls,  lie,  though  eighty 
years  old,  accepted  the  Dictatorship  for  the  fifth 
time,  defeated  the  barbarians  near  Alba,  and  made 
peace  between  patricians  and  plebeians.  He  died  j 
of  the  plague  365  b.c. 

CamUarda,  the  insurgent  Huguenots  of  the 
Cevennes,  so-called  from  the  camise  or  blouse  , 


worn  by  the  peasants.  The  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIY.  in  1685  fired  their 
zeal.  At  first  their  rage  was  directed  against  the 
tax-collectors,  several  of  whom  were  murdered 
and  their  houses  razed;  but  after  an  armed  rising 
in  1689,  a  wider  movement  was  brought  on  in 
1702,  by  the  cruelty  of  the  Abb 5  du  Chaila,  who 
tracked  out  the  retreats  of  the  persecuted  people, 
surprised  them  at  worship,  hung  some  and 
imprisoned  others.  His  murder  gave  the  signal 
for  a  general  insurrection;  the  Camisards’  ranks 
swelled  to  thousands,  while  Louis’  difficulties 
were  increased  by  the  commencement  of  the  War 
of  the  Spanish  Succession,  and  by  the  encourage¬ 
ment  afforded  to  the  insurgents  by  his  enemies. 
Several  detachments  of  soldiers  had  been  beaten 
back  or  cut  off  when,  in  1708,  Marshal  Montrevel 
was  sent  into  the  district  at  the  head  of  60,000 
men.  This  man,  once  a  Huguenot,  now  perse¬ 
cuted  his  former  co-religionists;  large  numbers 
were  shot  down,  and  436  villages  were  destroyed. 
The  Camisards  retaliated  with  equal  ferocity;  in 
the  diocese  of  Nimes  alone  eighty-four  priests 
were  strangled,  and  some  200  churches  burned. 
The  skill  of  their  principal  leader,  Jean  Cavalier, 
his  plan  to  pass  into  Dauphin 5  and  unite  with  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  and  the  undoubted  spread  of  the 
revolt,  caused  great  anxiety.  In  April,  1704, 
Montrevel  was  superseded  by  Marshal  Villars, 
who  promised  a  free  pardon  to  all  who  might 
surrender,  and  released  all  prisoners  who  were 
willing  to  swear  allegiance,  while  he  had  every 
person  taken  inarms  shot,  and  broke  up  his  army 
into  flying  columns,  which  scoured  the  country 
on  all  sides.  One  band  after  another  submitted; 
on  May  10th  Cavalier  accepted  the  amnesty;  and 
by  the  end  of  1704  the  zealots  who  persevered  in 
the  war  had  all  been  taken  and  shot.  The  severity 
of  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  however,  who  succeeded 
Villars  in  1705,  occasioned  a  fresh  outbreak;  but 
this  was  put  down  in  April  of  that  year. 

Camlet,  originally  a  fabric  made  of  camel’s  hair, 
is  now  as  a  rule  made  from  the  hair  of  the  Angora 
goat,  of  wool,  or  of  wool  mixed  with  silk,  cotton, 
or  linen. 

Camoens  (Camden),  Luis  de,  Portuguese  poet, 
born  in  1524.  While  still  a  student  he  wrote  his  Am- 
phit rides,  which  was  acted  before  the  authorities  of 
the  university.  In  1572  he  published  The  Lusiads, 
with  a  dedication  to  King  Sebastian.  It  had  an 
immediate  and  brilliant  success,  but  did  little  for 
the  fortunes  of  its  author,  who  died  in  a  public 
hospital,  June  10,  1580. 

Camomile,  or  Chamomile  ( Anthemis ),  a  genus 
of  Confpositse.  The  species  are  annual  and  per¬ 
ennial  herbs,  all  palaearctic.  The  most  important 
species  of  the  genus  is  A.  nobilis,  which  has  long 
been  known  for  the  medicinal  virtues  of  an  in- 


Camomile  (Anthemis  nobilis). 


fusion  of  its  flowers  ( Flores  Anthemediss)  as  a  bit¬ 
ter  stomachic  and  tonic.  These  properties  seem 
mainly  due  to  an  essential  oil  which  is  prepared 
by  distillation;  a  bitter  principle  is  also  present, 
but  no  alkaloid. 

Camorra,  the  name  of  a  secret  society  in  the 
former  Kingdom  of  Naples,  the  members  of 
which  were  called  Camorrisli,  and  which  for 


CAMP 


288 


CAMPEGGIO. 


many  years  plundered  and  terrorized  the  country, 
undertaking  also  the  transport  of  smuggled  goods 
and  contracting  for  the  commission  of  serious 
crimes. 

Camp  (Lat.  castrci;  the  English  name  camp 
being  from  campus,  a  plain).  The  arrangement 
of  a  Roman  Camp  was  according  to  a  fixed  and 
regular  plan,  and  an  army  never  halted  for  a 
single  night  without  throwing  up  an  intrench- 
ment  capable  of  containing  the  whole  of  the 
troops  and  their  baggage.  Of  course  such  a  camp 
for  the  night  was  much  slighter  in  construction 
than  the  castra  station,  or  stationary  camp,  which 
was  to  shelter  an  army  for  some  time.  The  most 
complete  account  of  the  Roman  camp  is  furnished 
to  us  by  Polybius,  the  companion  in  many  cam¬ 
paigns  of  the  younger  Scipio. — The  principles 
of  castrametation,  or  camp-formation,  underwent 
much  change  after  the  invention  of  gunpowder. 
Camps  are  now  collections  of  tents  or  huts,  in 
which  soldiers  are  lodged  during  a  campaign  or 
field  manoeuvres. 

Campagna  di  Roma,  an  undulating,  mostly 
uncultivated  and  unhealthy  plain  of  Raly  sur¬ 
rounding  Rome,  including  the  greatest  part  of 
ancient  Latium,  with  a  length  (supposing  the 
name  to  apply  to  the  district  extending  from 
Cape  Linaro,  south  of  Civita  Vecchia,  to  Terra- 
cina,  beyond  the  Pontine  Marshes)  of  about  90 
miles,  and  an  extreme  breadth  inland  to  the 
Alban  and  Sabine  hills  of  40  miles.  The  ground 
is  almost  entirely  volcanic,  the  lakes  being  formed 
by  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  the  broad 
Tiber  winds  across  the  plain  between  banks  of 
tufa,  of  which  the  seven  hills  of  Rome  are 
composed. 

Cam  pan,  Jeanne  Louise  Henriette,  born 
Oct.  6,  1752,  from  1770  till  1792  was  Marie 
Antoinette’s  confidant.  After  the  fa’l  of  Robes¬ 
pierre,  she  opened  a  boarding-school  at  St.  Ger- 
main-en-Laye;  and  in  1806  was  appointed  by 
Napoleon  head  of  the  institution  at  Ecouen  for 
the  education  of  the  daughters  of  the  officers  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor.  At  the  Restoration  this 
institution  was  suppressed,  and  Madame  Campan 
retired  to  Mantes,  where  she  died,  May  16,  1822. 
She  wrote  memoirs  of  Marie  Antoinette  and 
Queen  Hortense. 

Campanella,  Tommaso  (properly  Giovan 
Domenico),  born  Sept.  5,  1658,  at  Stilo  in  Cala¬ 
bria,  became  a  Dominican  monk  in  his  fif¬ 
teenth  year.  The  results  of  his  first  studies  were 
given  in  his  Philosophia  Sensibus  Demonstrata, 
etc.  (Naples,  1591.)  He  was  compelled  to  flee 
from  Naples.  In  1599,  being  suspected  of 
conspiracy,  he  was  seized  and  confined  in  a  Nea¬ 
politan  dungeon  for  twenty-seven  years;  tried  five 
times,  and  tortured  seven;  accused  of  heresy,  and 
declared  the  author  of  a  book  which  had  been 
published  thirty  years  before  he  was  born.  In 
1626  Pope  Urban  VIII.  had  him  brought  to  the 
prison  of  the  Inquisition  at  Rome,  and  three 
years  afterward  gave  him  his  liberty  and  a  yearly 
pension.  After  being  again  persecuted  by  the 
Spanish  Government,  Campanella  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  graciously  received  by  Louis  XIII. 
and  Richelieu.  He  died  in  the  Dominican  mon¬ 
astery  of  St.  HonortS,  near  Paris,  May  21,  1689. 

Campania,  anciently  a  province  on  the  west 
coast  of  Italy,  having  Capua  as  its  capital  (now 
subdivided  into  the  Provinces  of  Benevento, 
Naples,  Salerno,  Avellino,  and  Caserta),  lying 
between  Latium,  Samnium,  and  Lucania.  It  was 
one  of  the  most  productive  plains  in  the  world, 
yielding,  in  extraordinary  abundance,  corn,  wine, 
and  oil. 

Campanile  (Ital.  from  low  Lat.  campana,  a 
bell),  a  name  adopted  from  the  Italian  to  signify 
a  bell-tower  of  the  larger  kind,  and  usually  ap¬ 
plied  only  to  such  as  are  detached  from  the 
church.  Campaniles  are  found  at  Rome,  Bologna, 
Padua,  Ravenna,  Cremona,  Venice.  Perhaps  the 
most  remarkable  are  the  ‘  ‘  leaning  tower  ”  of  Pisa, 
and  the  campanile  of  Florence.  The  former, 
which  is  circular  iu  form,  is  decorated  with  col¬ 
umns  and  arcades  to  the  summit  of  its  eight 
stories.  There  is  a  fine  campanile  at  Seville,  275 
feet  in  height,  the  lower  part  of  which  (185  feet) 
was  built  as  a  minaret  by  Abu  Yusuf  Yakub  in 
1196,  while  the  upper  was  added  in  1568.  The 
origin  of  the  campanile  as  an  adjunct  to  Christian 
structures  is  unknown. 


Campan 'ula  (Lat.  a  little 
Campanulaceae 
commonly  known 
as  bell-flowers  or 
bells.  The  species 
number  about  200, 
chiefly  palsearctic, 
but  found  as  alpine 
plants  in  warmer 
and  southern  re¬ 
gions.  The  flowers 
are  generally  beau¬ 
tiful,  and  many  are 
cultivated.  The 
common  wild  G. 
rolundifolia  is  more 
familiar  than  any 
other  species,  both 
on  account  of  its 
commonness  and 
simple  beauty,  and 
as  the  harebell  of 
English  poetry,  and 
bluebell  of  Scottish 
song.  Canterbury  Bell. 

Campanulaceat,  an  order  of  corollifloral  di¬ 
cotyledons,  herbs,  or  rarely  shrubs,  with  bitter 
milky  juice,  acrid  and  often  poisonous;  dieuretic. 

Campanularia,  a  common  genus  of  Hydroids 
and  type  of  a  family, 

Campanularid*.  The 
delicate  stem  bearing 
the  colony  of  polyps 
may  be  simple  or 
branched;  the  nutri¬ 
tive  individuals  are  sur¬ 
rounded  by  transparent 
bell-sliaped  sheaths, 
within  which  they  may 
be  retract  ed.  The  genus 
is  common  in  North 
European  seas  and  in 
the  Mediterranean.  Al¬ 
lied  genera  are  Cam 
panularia,  Clytia, 

Hincksia,  L aomede a 
(with  sporosacs),and  Eu- 
cope  and  Obelia  (with 
free  swimming-bells).  a<  nutritfv™ividuais;  b,  re- 

Carapbell,  an  ancient  productive  individuals 
and  illustrious  Scottish  orsporosac. 

family,  to  which  genealogists  have  chosen  to 
assign  an  Anglo-Norman  origin,  deriving  its  sur¬ 
name  from  the  Latin  De  Campo  Bello.  Accord¬ 
ing,  however,  to  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  it  is  purely 
Celtic,  of  Scoto-Irish  origin;  and  L'ambel,  as  the 
name  was  always  formerly  written,  is  just  the 
Celtic  cam  beul,  “curved  mouth.” 

Campbell,  Alexander,  founder  of  the  sect 
known  as  the  “Disciples  of  Christ,”  or  more 
commonly  the  “  Campbellites,”  was  born  near 
Ballymena,  in  County  Antrim,  in  1788,  but  immi¬ 
grated  to  the  United  States  in  1807.  Though  at 
first  a  Presbyterian,  in  1812  he  formed  a  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  Baptists,  and  for  some  time  he 
labored  as  an  itinerant  preacher,  principally  in 
Western  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  Ohio.  In 
1826  he  published  a  translation  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment,  in  which  the  words  “  baptism”  and  “  bap¬ 
tist”  gave  place  to  immersion  and  immerser. 
Campbell  gradually  formed  a  large  party  of  fol¬ 
lowers,  who  began  about  1827  to  form  themselves 
into  a  sect  under  the  designation  of  “The  Dis¬ 
ciples  of  Clirist,”  which  in  1881  had,  in  the 
United  States,  as  many  as  5,100  churches  and 
591,821  members.  In  1841  Campbell  founded 
Bethany  College  in  West  Virginia,  and  died  there 
March  4,  1866.  The  late  President  Garfield  was, 
in  early  life,  a  Campbellite  preacher. 

Campbell,  Sir  Colin,  Lord  Clyde,  English 
soldier,  born  in  Glasgow,  Oct.  20,  1792.  He  was 
gazetted  an  ensign  in  1808,  and  by  1813  had  been 
promoted  to  a  captaincy,  serving  on  the  Wal- 
cheren  expedition  (1809),  and  in  the  Peninsular 
War,  where  he  was  wounded.  He  took  part  in 
the  expedition  to  the  United  States  (1814),  and 
then  passed  nearly  thirty  years  in  garrison  duty 
at  Gibraltar,  and  other  places,  in  1837  becoming 
Lieutenant-Colonel  of  the  Ninety-eighth  Foot.  For 
the  brief  Chinese  campaign  of  1842  lie  was  made 
a  C.  B.,  and  for  his  brilliant  services  in  the 
second  Sikh  war  (1848-49)  a  K.  C.  B.,  thereafter 


commanding  for  three  years  at  Peslmwur  against 
the  frontier  tribes.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
Crimean  War  in  1854  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Highland  Brigade;  the  victory 
of  the  Alma  was  mainly  his;  as  was  the  repulse 
of  the  Russians  by  the  “  thin  red  line”  in  the 
battle  of  Balaklava.  He  was  rewarded  with  a 
K.  G.  C.  B.,  and  with  a  sword  of  honor  from  his 
native  city,  and  with  several  foreign  orders,  and 
in  1856  was  appointed  Inspector-General  of  In¬ 
fantry.  When  on  July  11,  1857,  the  news  reached 
England  of  the  Sepoy  Mutiny,  Lord  Palmerston 
offered  him  the  command  of  the  forces  in  India, 
and  he  started  next  day  for  Calcutta.  He  reached 
it  in  August;  on  November  17th,  with  4,700  men, 
effected  the  final  relief  of  Lucknow;  and  on  Dec. 
20,  1858,  having  five  months  earlier  been  created 
Lord  Clyde,  announced  to  the  Viceroy  that  the 
rebellion  was  ended.  He  was  made  a  Field 
Marshal,  and  received  a  pension  of  £2,000.  He 
died  Aug.  14,  1863,  and  was  buried  in  West¬ 
minster  Abbey. 

Campbell,  George,  divine,  was  born  in  1719 
at  Aberdeen.  His  first  book  was  his  famous 
Dissertation  on  Miracles  (1762),  in  answer  to 
Hume,  a  work  which  in  its  own  day  was  greatly 
admired.  In  1771  Campbell  was  elected  Professor 
of  Divinity  in  Marischal  College.  In  1776  he 
published  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  in  1789  a 
Translation  of  the  Gospels.  He  died  April  6,  1796. 

Campbell,  John,  Baron,  of  Stratheden,  and 
Lord  Chancellor  of  England,  born  Sept.  15,  1779. 
The  publication  of  the  first  volume  of  his  elabor¬ 
ate  nisiprius  “Reports ”(1808),  brought  him  into 
notice,  and  by  the  end  of  1824  he  became  leader 
of  the  Oxford  circuit,  which  he  had  joined  iu 
1810.  He  became  King’s  Counsel  in  1827.  In 
1832  he  was  made  Solicitor-General,  knighted, 
and  returned  to  Parliament  for  Dudley.  Upon 
his  promotion  to  the  Attorney  Generalship  in  1834 
Campbell  was  defeated  at  Dudley,  but  was  re¬ 
turned  three  months  later  for  Edinburgh.  In 
1841  he  became  Lord  Campbell  of  Stratheden, 
and  was  raised  to  the  Lord- Chancellorship  of 
Ireland.  He  was  made  Chancellor  of  the  Duchy 
of  Lancaster  in  1846,  Chief  Justice  of  the  Queen's 
Bench  in  1850,  and  Lord  Chancellor  of  England 
in  1859.  He  died  on  June  22,  1861. 

Campbell,  John  Francis,  of  Islay,  a  great 
folklorist,  was  born  Dec.  29,  1822.  Educated  at 
Eton  and  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  he  held 
offices  at  court,  and  was  afterward  Secretary  to 
the  Lighthouse  and  Coal  Commissions.  He  died 
at  Cannes,  Feb.  17,  1885. 

Campbell,  Thomas,  poet,  born  July  27,  1777. 
In  1797  he  wrote  The  Pleasures  of  Dope.  It  was 
published  in  1799,  and  ran  through  four  editions 
in  a  year.  In  1803  he  settled  in  London,  and 
contributed  articles  to  The  Edinburgh  Encyclo¬ 
paedia,  and  compiled  The  Annals  of  Great  Brit¬ 
ain  from  George  II.  to  the  Peace  of  Amiens.  In 
1806,  through  Fox’s  influence,  he  received  a  pen¬ 
sion  of  £200  per  annum  from  Government.  In 
1809  appeared  Gertrude  of  Wyoming.  In  1818 
he  published  his  Specimens  of  the  British  Poets. 
Iu  1827  he  was  elected  Lord  Rector  of  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Glasgow,  and  received  the  honor  of 
reelection  the  two  following  years.  He  died  at 
Boulogne,  June  15,  1844.  llohenlinden,  Ye  Mari¬ 
ners  of  Engla  nd,  and  The  Battle  of  the  Baltic  are 
regarded  as  among  his  best  poems. 

Campbell  Island  lies  to  the  south  of  New 
Zealand,  in  52°  34'  S.  latitude,  and  169°  12'  E. 
longitude.  It  is  volcanic,  and  displays  a  rich  and 
rare  flora.  Discovered  in  1810,  it  served  as  an 
observatory  during  the  Transit  of  Venus  in  1874. 

Cans  peachy  (San  Francisco  de  Campeche),  a  sea 
port  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Peninsula  of  Yucatan, 
on  a  bay  of  the  same  name.  It  has  a  citadel, 
university,  naval  academy,  and  shipbuilding 
docks.  Pop.  (1880t,  12,600.  Campeacliy  gives 
name  to  a  State  of  Mexico. 

Campeggio,  Lorenzo,  Cardinal,  born  in 
1472.  He  was  made  Bishop  of  Feltri,  and  sent 
by  Leo  X.  on  a  mission  to  the  Emperor  Maxi¬ 
milian,  being  created  a  Cardinal  in  his  absence 
(1517).  Next  year  he  visited  England  as  Papal 
Legate  to  incite  Henry  VIII.  against  the  Turks, 
and  was  well  received.  In  1524  he  obtained  the 
Bishopric  of  Salisbury  and  the  Archbishopric  of 
Bologna,  and  he  presided  the  same  year  at  the 
Ratisbon  Diet.  In  1528  lie  was  dispatched  to 


CAMPER’. 


239 


CANADA 


England  to  hear  the  famous  divorce  suit  of  Henry 
VIII.  against  Catharine.  Campeggio  died  at 
Rome  in  1539. 

Camper,  Peter,  anatomist,  horn  at  Leyden 
May  11,  1722,  and  became  Professor  of  Medicine 
in  1750  at  Franeker,  in  1755  at  Amsterdam,  and 
in  1765  at  Groningen.  In  1773  lie  resigned  his 
post,  and,  on  being  elected  a  member  of  the  State 
council  in  1787,  removed  to  the  Hague,  where  lie 
died,  April  7,  1789. 

Camperdowii  (Dutch  Gamperduin),  a  broad 
tract  ot  low  dunes  in  North  Holland,  is  famous 
for  the  victory  obtained  off  the  coast  here  by 
Admiral  Duncan  over  the  Dutch  fleet  under  Ad¬ 
miral  Van  Winter,  Oct.  11,  1797.  Duncan  was 
created  Viscount  Duncan  of  Camperdown,  his 
son  (in  1831)  Earl  of  Camperdown. 

Camp  Followers  are  the  sutlers  and  servants 
who  follow  an  army.  They  are  at  all  times  under 
the  control  of  the  commanding  officer,  but  only 
subject  to  military  law  when  in  the  field. 

Camphatisen,  Wilhelm,  a  German  painter, 
born  Feb.  8,  1818,  at  Diisseldorf,  and  from  1859 
professor  in  the  art  academy  there.  He '  was 
specially  famous  for  battle-pieces — scenes  from 
Cromwell’s  battles,  the  Thirty  Years’  War,  the 
wars  of  1866  and  1870 — and  painted  many  notable 
portraits  of  soldiers  and  equestrian  figures.  He 
died  June  16,  1885. 

Camphene,  or  Camphilene,  is  an  artificial 
variety  of  camphor  obtained  from  turpentine,  by 
acting  thereon  with  the  dry  vapor  of  hydro¬ 
chloric  acid,  and  keeping  the  whole  at  a  low  tem¬ 
perature  by  immersing  the  vessel  in  a  freezing 
mixture. 

Camphine  is  the  name  applied  to  a  variety  of 
spirit  of  turpentine  obtained  from  the  Pinvs  aus¬ 
tralis  of  the  Southern  States  of  America,  and  form¬ 
erly  used  as  an  illuminant.  It  is  very  volatile, 
burning  freely  with  a  pure  white  brilliant  light. 
Its  vapor  forms  with  air  a  very  explosive  mix¬ 
ture. 

Camphor  is  a  solid  essential  oil  which  is  found 
in  many  plants,  and  may  be  separated  from  many 
essential  oils.  It  particularly  abounds  in  certain 
species  of  Lauraceae.  The  principal  source  of  the 
camphor  of  commerce  is  the  Camphor  Laurel 
( Cinnamomum  ( Laurus )  Caviphora),  a  tree  of 
China,  Japan,  Formosa,  and  Cochin-China,  arid 
which  has  been  introduced  into  Java  and  the 
West  Indies.  Camphor  is  chiefly  imported  in  the 
crude  or  unrefined  state  from  Formosa  and  Japan, 
where  the  wood  is  cut  into  chips  and  distilled 
with  water,  the  vapor  of  camphor  rising  with  the 
steam,  being  collected  in  the  head  of  the  still. 
After  collection  camphor  oil  drains  off,  which  is 
used  in  China  for  rheumatism.  Camphor  was 
unknown  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  but  has 
been  highly  valued  since  ancient  times  in  the 
East,  and  was  first  brought  to  Europe  by  the 
Arabs.  It  is  a  white,  tough  solid,  slightly  lighter 
than  water,  •  and  having  the  formula  CmlLcO. 
It  is  very  sparingly  soluble  in  water,  but  freely 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  acetic  acid,  and  the 
essential  oils.  It  fuses  at  347°  (175°  C.),  and  boils 
at  399°  (204°C.),  but  volatilizes  somewhat  rap¬ 
idly  at  ordinary  temperatures.  When  set  fire 
to,  it  burns  with  a  white,  smoky  flame.  Thrown 
upon  water,  it  floats,  and  may  be  set  fire  to.  It 
has  a  peculiar  hot,  aromatic  taste,  and  an  agree¬ 
able,  characteristic  odor.  Camphor  is  used  alike 
in  European  and  Oriental  medicine,  both  inter¬ 
nally  and  externally,  as  a  temporary'  stimulant. 
It  is  frequently  employed  in  gout  and  rheuma¬ 
tism.  In  small  doses  it  acts  as  an  anodyne  and 
antispasmodic;  in  very  large  doses  it  is  an  irritant 
poison.  It  is  generally  reckoned  an  anaphrodisiac, 
although  some  maintain  that  it  lias  an  opposite 
action.  The  Borneo  or  Sumatra  Camphor  of 
commerce,  sometimes  called  Hard  Camphor,  is 
the  produce  of  Dryobalanops  aromatica,  a  large 
tree  of  the  order  Dipterocarpeae.  The  camphor 
is  obtained  by  cutting  down  the  tree,  and  split¬ 
ting  it  into  small  pieces,  being  found  in  crystal¬ 
line  masses  in  natural  cavities  of  the  wood. 
Although  the  form  of  camphor  earliest  known,  it 
no  longer  appears  in  commerce.  Its  composition 
is  Ci oil i  ,,0,  and  it  can  be  converted  into  common 
camphor  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid.  The  same 
tree  also  yields  a  “  camphor  oil,”  isomeric  with 
oil  of  turpentine,  C.JLc.  This  is  collected  by 
tapping  or  felling  the  tree. 


Cam  pi,  a  family  of  artists  of  some  note  at 
Cremona,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Giui.io 
Campi,  the  oldest  brother  (1500-72),  studied  paint¬ 
ing,  sculpture,  and  architecture  under  Giulio 
Romano,  and  has  left  a  fine  altar-piece  at  Cre¬ 
mona. — Antonio  Campi  was  a  successful  imita¬ 
tor  of  Correggio,  and  had  some  merit  as  an 
architect  and  engraver,  lie  died  after  1591. — 
Vincenzo  Campi  (died  1591)  excelled  in  small 
figures;  some  of  his  portraits  and  paintings  of  fruits 
also  are  highly  valued. — Bernardino  Campi 
(1522-90)  was  the  son  of  a  goldsmith,  and  possi¬ 
bly  a  kinsman  of  the  three  brothers  Campi.  Many 
of  his  works  are  found  in  Mantua  and  Cremona, 
and  are  highly  valued. 

Campion  is  the  common  name  of  plants  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  generic  Lychnis  and  Silene. 

Campion,  Edmond,  the  first  of  the  English 
Jesuit  martyrs,  nicknamed  “the  Pope’s  cham¬ 
pion,”  born  in  1540,  and  executed  for  treason  in 
1581. 

Camp-meetings  are  out-door  gatherings  of 
devout  persons,  continued  for  several  days  at  a 
time,  with  the  view  of  securing  prolonged  and 
uninterrupted  religious  exercises.  Assemblies  of  a 
like  kind  have  been  more  or  less  usual  at  various 
periods  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  Church; 
but  it  was  in  connection  with  Methodism  in 
America  that  such  meetings  became  especially 
prominent. 

Campobasso,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  among  the 
Apennines,  fifty-two  miles  north  of  Benevento. 
Pop.,  13,594. — The  province  (formerly  Molise)  is 
very  mountainous,  and  little  of  the  land  is  cul¬ 
tivable.  Area,  1,764  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
365,434. 

Campo-Formio,  a  village  of  Northern  Italy, 
celebrated  for  the'treaty  of  peace  here  concluded 
on  Oct.  17,  1797,  between  Austria  and  the  French 
Republic,  whose  army,  under  Bonaparte,  after 
subjugating  Italy  (1796),  had  crossed  the  Noric 
Alps,  and  threatened  Vienna. 

Cam poma 'lies,  Pedro  Rodriguez,  Count  of, 
Spanish  statesman  and  writer,  born  in  Asturias 
in  1723,  held  many  posts  under  Charles  III.,  and 
in  1789-91  was  President  of  the  Council  of  State. 
He  died  Feb.  3,  1802. 

Campo  Santo  (holy  field)  is  the  Italian  and 
Spanish  name  for  a  cemetery  or  buryiug-ground, 
especially  for  one  inclosed  by  an  arcade. 

Campus,  a  public  park  in  Roman  times.  The 
term  is  now  generally  applied  in  the  United  States 
to  the  field  or  play-ground  surrounding  a  college 
building,  and  devoted  to  the  recreation  of  the 
students. 

Camuccini,  Vincenzo,  painter,  was  born  at 
Rome  in  1775.  The  school  of  which  he  became 
the  head  was  founded  on  the  theatrical  antique 
style  of  the  French  painter,  David.  He  died  at 
Rome,  Sept.  2,  1844. 

Camus,  Armand  Gaston,  French  revolution¬ 
ist,  born  at  Paris  in  1740.  A  zealous  and  ascetic 
Jansenist,  and  a  master  of  ecclesiastical  law,  he 
was  elected  Advocate-General  of  the  French 
clergy,  and  in  1789  member  of  the  States-General 
by  the  people  of  Paris.  He  died  in  1804. 

Camwood,  a  dyewood  obtained  from  Baphia 
nitida,  a  leguminous  tree  (sub-order  Caesalpinieai) 
a  native  of  Angola.  It  is  at  first  white,  but 
turns  red  on  exposure  to  air.  It  produces  a  finer 
and  richer  red  than  Brazil-wood,  and  is  very  per¬ 
manent.  Barwood,  very  similar  in  its  properties, 
but  yielding  a  duller  color,  is  said  to  be  produced 
by  the  same  tree. 

Cana  of  Galilee,  the  scene  of  our  Lord’s  first 
miracle,  and  the  birthplace  of  Nathanael,  was 
situated  in  the  neighborhood  of  Capernaum,  to 
the  west  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  Two  modern  vil¬ 
lages  claim  to  represent  the  sacred  site,  and  good 
authorities  are  divided  as  to  the  mdentificalion. 

Canaan  (low-land)  was  the  name  originally 
applied  to  the  low  coast-land  of  Palestine  on  the 
Mediterranean,  inhabited  by  the  Canaanites 
(strictly  so  called),  as  opposed  to  the  mountain- 
land  (cf.  Numbers  xiii,  29);  and  in  this  original 
sense  the  name  is  still  applied  in  Isa.  xxiii,  11,  to 
the  Phoenician,  and  in  Zeph.  ii,  5,  to  the  Philis¬ 
tine  coast-line.  Just  as  with  the  name  Palestine 
(  -  Philistia)  at  a  later  period,  the  name  Canaan 
became  extended  to  the  whole  country,  yet  only 
to  the  part  west  of  the  Jordan,  the  part  east  of 


Jordan  being  contrasted  with  it  as  the  “Land  of 
Gilead.” 

Canaanites,  in  the  Old  Testament,  a  name 
frequently  used  to  include  all  the  heathen  inhab¬ 
itants  of  the  country  between  the  Jordan  and  the 
Mediterranean.  In  the  time  of  the  Patriarchs  they 
appear  a  people  in  some  degree  civilized,  cultivat¬ 
ing  their  lands  and  living  in  towns;  and,  by  the 
time  of  Joshua,  their  country  -was  thickly  peopled, 
and  studded  with  walled  towns,  each  under  its 
own  king.  Their  religion  wasa  licentious  worship 
of  Baal  and  Ashtoreth,  as  the  productive  powers 
of  nature.  Their  subjugation  by  Joshua  was 
merely  temporary,  and  it  was  only  by  degrees  that 
they  were  made  tributary.  The  tenacity  of  the 
Canaanite  race  is  seen  from  the  fact  that  the 
fortress  of  the  Jebusites  (Jerusalem)  was  not  con¬ 
quered  till  the  time  of  David,  and  that  the  re¬ 
mainder  of  the  Canaanites  were  first  reduced  to 
vassalage  by  Solomon.  The  Canaanites  were  said 
io  be  descendants  of  Ham,  who  was  cursed  by  his 
father  Noah.  Froin  the  sentence  of  servitude 
imposed  upon  his  descendants,  many  people  held 
that  the  negro  race  were  sons  of  Canaan,  and  that 
to  free  them  would  be  unscriptural. 

Canada.  The  derivation  of  the  name  is  obscure, 
but  it  is  believed  to  have  its  origin  in  an  Indian 
word  kannalha,  meaning  a  village  or  collection  of 
huts.  The  supposition  is  that  Jacques  Cartier, 
hearing  the  term  used  by  the  Indians  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  their  settlements,  applied  it  to  the  whole 
of  the  country.  Canada  originally  comprised  the 
extensive  range  of  territory  as  far  west  as  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  including  the  great  lakes,  which  was 
ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  France  in  1763.  Subse¬ 
quently,  at  the  termination  of  the  War  of  Inde* 
pendence,  it  was  limited  to  fhe  region  now  occu¬ 
pied  by  the  Provinces  of  Ontario  and  Quebec, 
described  prior  to  1867  as  Upper  and  Lower  Can¬ 
ada,  respectively.  The  Dominion  of  Canada  is  a 
confederation  of  the  Colonies  of  British  North 
America,  constituted  in  1867  bv  the  British  North 
America  Act  of  that  year  (30  Viet.  chap.  3).  The 
Hudson  Bay  Territory  was  acquired  from  the 
company  of  that  name,  a  portion  of  it  formed  into 
the  Province  of  Manitoba,  the  remainder  desig¬ 
nated  the  Northwest  Territories.  Both  were  ad¬ 
mitted  into  the  confederation  in  1870.  Part  of  the 
Northwest  Territories  was  subsequently  divided 
into  districts,  as  follows;  In  1876  Keewatin;  in 
1882  Assiniboia,  Saskatchewan, Alberta,  and  Atha¬ 
basca.  In  1871  British  Columbia,  and  in  1873 
Prince  Edward  Island,  became  parties  to  the 
union,  which  now  includes  the  whole  of  British 
North  America,  except  Newfoundland. 

Canada  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  and  Alaska,  on 
the  east  by  Newfoundland  and  the  Atlantic,  and 
on  the  sou Ui  by  the  United  States.  On  the  Atlan¬ 
tic  the  principal  bay  is  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  remark¬ 
able  for  its  high  and  rushing  tide,  the  water  rising 
from  12  to  70  feet;  there  is  also  the  Hudson  Bay, 
connected  with  the  Atlantic  by  Hudson  Straits, 
really  an  inland  sea  with  an  area  of  350,000  square 
miles,  and  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  80,000  square 
miles  in  extent.  The  most  striking  physical  feat¬ 
ures  of  Canada  are  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Lau- 
rentian  Range,  and  the  chain  of  fresli-water  lakes. 
Westward  of  Lake  Superior,  between  the  49th 
and  55th  parallels  of  latitude,  there  is  an  immense 
plain,  suitable  for  general  agriculture  and  graz¬ 
ing  (the  eastern  end  being  about  600  feet,  and  the 
western  about  3,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea),  extending  nearly  to  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
the  highest  peaks  in  this  range  being  Mount 
Brown  (16,000),  Mount  Murchison  (15,789),  and 
Mount  Hooker  (15,700).  The  average  height  of 
the  chain  is  from  7,000  to  8,000  feet.  Canada  is 
well  watered,  the  map  presenting  a  network  of 
lakes  and  rivers.  The  system  of  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence  alone,  with  the  great  lakes  Superior, 
Huron,  Michigan,  Erie,  and  Ontario,  drains  an 
area  in  Canada  of  330,000  square  miles.  The  area 
of  tlie  lakes  is  about  90,000  square  miles. — Lake 
Superior  is  630  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and  Lake 
Ontario,  234  feet — and  with  their  outlet  they 
form  the  greatest  fresh-water  way  in  the  world. 

'  Other  important  lakes  are  Winnipeg (9, 000  square 
miles),  Winnipegosis  (3,000),  Manitoba  (2,100), 
Lake  of  the  Woods  (1,500),  Great  Slave  (12,000), 
Great  Bear  (10,000),  and  Athabasca  (3,000). 
Next  to  the  St.  Lawrence  the  chief  rivers  are  the 


CANADA  BALSAM. 


240 


CANAL. 


Saskatchewan  and  the  Winnipeg,  flowing  into 
Lake  Winnipeg,  and  the  Nelson,  flowing  from  it 
into  Hudson  Bay;  the  Assiniboine  and  the  Red 
river,  which  join  their  waters  to  flow  into  Lake 
Winnipeg;  the  Albany  and  the  Churchill,  empty¬ 
ing  into  Hudson  Bay;  the  Athabasca  and  Peace 
rivers,  flowing  into  Lake  Athabasca;  the  Slave 
river,  from  it  into  the  Great  Slave  Lake;  the 
Mackenzie,  fed  from  both  the  Great  Slave  and  the 
Great  Bear  lakes,  and  emptying  into  the  Arctic 
Ocean;  the  Fraser  and  Thompson,  in  British  Co¬ 
lumbia,  emptying  into  the  Pacific;  and  in  the 
Eastern  provinces,  the  Ottawa,  chief  tributary  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  itself  fed  by  the  Gatineau  and 
Matawan;  the  Saguenay,  and  the  St,  John,  which 
flows  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  after  a  course  of  500 
miles  in  New  Brunswick,  which  it  partly  sepa¬ 
rates  from  the  State  of  Maine.  The  principal 
islands  are:  On  the  east,  Cape  Breton,  Prince  Ed¬ 
ward,  and  Magdalen  islands,  and  Anticosti  in  the 
Gulf  of  St,  Lawrence;  and  on  the  west  coast, 
Vancouver  Island  and  Queen  Charlotte  Islands. 
Lying  along  the  north  in  the  Arctic  Archipelago 
are  large  islands,  all  of  which,  excepting  Green¬ 
land,  belong  to  Canada.  The  cold  in  winter  is 
intense  and  the  summers  are  shorter  than  in  the 
United  States.  The  rainfall  in  summer  is  abund¬ 
ant  and  snow  falls  to  great  depths  in  winter,  but 
the  climate  is  a  healthy  one.  The  area  of  the 
different  provinces  and  districts  of  Canada  is  as 
follows:  Ontario,  144,600  square  miles;  Quebec, 
193,355;  Nova  Scotia,  21,731;  New  Brunswick, 
27,322;  Prince  Edward  Island,  2,133;  Manitoba, 
60,500;  British  Columbia,  390,344;  Provisional 
Districts,  As.siniboia,  89,700;  Saskatchewan, 
106,700;  Alberta,  106,500;  Athabasca,  105,500; 
remaining  territory,  2,144,937;  total  3,393,320. 


According  to  the  census  returns  of  1871,  the  pop¬ 
ulation  of  the  Dominion  numbered  3,635,024 

(males  1,842,174,  and  females  1,792,850). 

In  1881 

it  was  as  follows: 

Males. 

Females. 

Prince  Edward  Island  . 

.  54,739 

54,162 

Nova  Scotia . 

. 230,5:38 

22  1,034 

New  Brunswick  . 

. 164.119 

157,114 

Quebec . 

. 678,175 

680,852 

Ontario . 

. 976,470 

946,758 

Manitoba  . 

28,747 

British  Columbia . 

.  29,503 

19,956 

The  Territories . 

.  28,113 

28,333 

2.188  854 

V _ 

2.135,956 

Total . 4,334,810 


English  is  generally  spoken  in  the  Dominion,  but 
in  some  parts  of  the  Province  of  Quebec,  French 
is  the  only  language  understood.  According  to 
the  census  returns  of  1881  there  were  108,547 
Indians  in  Canada.  According  to  the  census  of 
1881,  the  population  included  1,791,982  Catholics, 
of  whom  1,170,718  were  in  Quebec,  and  320,829 
in  Ontario;  574,818  Church  of  England;  676,165 
Presbyterians;  742,981  Methodists;  296,525  Bap¬ 
tists;  46,350  Lutherans ;  26,900  Congregationalists. 
The  value  of  the  imports  in  Canada  for  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1887,  was  $112,892,236; 
$105,639,428  being  entered  for  consumption. 
The  duty  collected  amounted  to  $22,469,705, 
equal  to  $4.63  per  head  of  the  population.  In 
1887  the  imports  from  the  United  States  were  42.7 
per  cent,  of  the  whole,  from  Great  Britain  42.5, 
the  balance  of  the  imports  being  from  foreign 
countries  and  other  colonies.  The  exports  of 
Canada  in  1887  were  valued  at  $89,515,811,  made 
up  of  Canadian  produce,  $77,964,020,  other  pro¬ 
duce,  $8,549,333,  coin  and  bullion  and  estimated 
short  returns,  $3,002,458.  The  Canadian  produce 
is  subdivided  as  follows:  The  mine,  $3,805,959; 
the  fisheries,  $6,875,810;  the  forest,  $20,484,746; 
animals  and  their  produce,  $24,246,937;  agricul¬ 
tural  products,  $18,826,235;  manufactures, 
$3,079,972;  miscellaneous,  $644,361.  Theprinci- 
pal  countries  to  which  goods  were  exported  in 
1887  were — Great  Britain  (49.6  per  cent.),  the 
United  States  (41.3  per  cent.),  Newfoundland, 
West  Indies,  South  America,  and  Australasia. 
The  Canadian  fisheries  are  the  most  extensive  in 
the  world,  embracing  nearly  5,600  miles  of  sea 
coast,  in  addition  to  inland  seas,  lakes,  and  rivers. 
The  products  of  the  fisheries  exported  and  sold  in 
the  Dominion  markets  in  1886  amounted  to 
$18,679,288.  Gold  mines  have  been,  and  are  being, 
worked  in  Nova  Scotia,  Quebec,  Ontario,  and 
British  Columbia.  Silver  mines  are  being  worked 


in  Ontario;  and  that  at  Silver  Islet,  Thunder  Bay 
(on  Lake  Superior),  has  been  the  richest  yet  dis¬ 
covered  in  Canada.  Iron  ore  is  found  all  over 
the  Dominion.  Copper  has  been  mined  to  a  con¬ 
siderable  extent  both  in  Quebec  and  Ontario,  and 
the  deposits  of  the  ore  are  of  great  extent.  There 
are  very  large  coal  deposits  in  Nova  Scotia.  The 
forest  products  of  Canada  constitute  one  of  her 
most  important  sources  of  wealth.  Exports  in¬ 
clude  lumber,  grain,  fruit,  live  animals,  meat, 
butter,  cheese,  eggs,  furs,  hides  and  skins,  and 
wool.  There  are  about  12,000  miles  of  railway 
in  Canada  at  the  present  time.  The  three  princi¬ 
pal  systems  are  the  Canadian  Pacific  (4,319  miles), 
Grand  Trunk  (2,600  miles),  and  the  Inter-colonial 
(1,190  miles).  The  net  debt  since  confederation 
lias  increased  by  $151,585,270. 

Canada  Balsam  is  a  kind  of  Turpentine 
obtained  from  the  Balm  of  Gilead  Fir  (Abies  or 
Pimis  balsamea),  a  native  of  Canada  and  the  north¬ 
ern  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  exists  in  the 
tree  in  vesicles  between  the  bark  and  the  wood, 
and  is  obtained  by  making  incisions,  and  attach¬ 
ing  bottles  for  it  to  flow  into.  It  is  a  transparent 
liquid,  almost  colorless,  and  with  an  agreeable 
odor  and  acrid  taste.  It  pours  readily  out  of  a 
vessel  or  bottle,  and  shortly  dries  up,  and  becomes 
solid.  When  fresh,  it  is  of  the  consistence  of  thin 
honey,  but  becolnes  viscid,  and  at  last  solid  by 
age.  It  consists  mainly  of  a  resin  dissolved  in  an 
essential  oil,  and  its  composition  is  approximately: 
Essential  oil,  24  parts;  resin,  soluble  in  boiling 
alcohol,  60;  resin,  soluble  only  in  ether,  16. 

Canadian  River  rises  in  the  northeast  part  of 
New  Mexico,  and  runs  generally  eastward  through 
Texas  and  Indian  Territory  to  the  Arkansas.  Its 
length  is  about  900  miles,  but  it  is  rather  shallow 
and  not  important  for  navigation.  Its  largest 
tributary  is  the  Rio  Nutria,  or  North  Fork  of  the 
Canadian,  which  runs  parallel  to  the  main  stream 
for  about  600  miles. 

Canal.  A  canal  is  an  artificially-formed  chan¬ 
nel  filled  with  water,  whether  used  for  navigation, 
for  drainage,  or  for  irrigation.  A  drainage  canal 
is  an  artificial  watercourse  formed  to  supplement 
the  rivers,  which  are  the  natural  drains  of  a 
country,  where  the  rivers  are  inadequate  for  dis¬ 
charging  the  surplus  rainfall  in  wet  seasons.  The 
object  of  an  irrigating  canal  is  to  lead  the  waters 
of  a  river,  flowing  t  hrough  a  dry  country,  to  lands 
remote  from  the  river  banks.  Irrigation,  by  this 
means,  is  extensively  practiced  in  various  parts  of 
the  world.  Navigation  canals  are  level  still-water 
channels  solely  constructed  to  serve  as  waterways 
for  vessels,  and  where  they  pass  through 
other  than  level  countries  their  sections 
are  connected  at  their  extremities  by  locks 
or  other  means  of  transferring  boats  from 
one  reach  to  the  level  of  the  adjoining  reach. 
A  lock  is  a  watertight  chamber  closed  by  gates 
at  each  end,  separating  two  adjacent  reaches  of 
a  canal,  which  by  means  of  sluices  -can  be  filled 
with  water  from  the  upper  reach  to  the  level 
of  the  upper  reach,  or  emptied  to  the  level  of 
the  lower  reach;  so  that  vessels  can  be  admitted 
from  either  reach,  and  raised  or  lowered  to  the 
level  of  the  other  reach  by  merely  filling  or 
emptying  the  lock-chamber.  Where  the  differ¬ 
ence  of  level  is  considerable,  a  series  of  locks  are 
placed  end  to  end  in  steps,  forming  what  is  termed 
a  flight  of  locks.  Occasionally,  where  water  is 
scarce,  and  the  lift  large,  vessels  are  conveyed  on 
an  incline  from  one  reach  to  the  next,  in  a 
special  car  running  on  rails  laid  on  the  incline, 
and  controlled  by  a  cable.  On  the  Morris  Canal, 
in  New  Jersey,  there  are  twenty-three  inclines, 
with  an  average  rise  of  58  feet,  on  which 
boats  of  80  tons  are  drawn  in  cars  up  a  gradient  of 
1  in  10.  Caissons  were  first  adopted  for  inclines 
on  the  Chard  Canal,  in  Somersetshire,  England, 
and  subsequently,  on  a  large  scale,  on  the  Monk- 
land  Canal,  near  Glasgow.  The  largest  caisson, 
weighing  390  tons  when  full,  was  put  on  the  in¬ 
cline  at  Georgetown  in  1876,  which  replaced 
two  locks  connecting  the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio 
Canal  with  the  Potomac.  The  incline  is  1  in  12, 
and  39  feet  high;  and  boats  of  115  tons  are 
readily  transferred  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
reach  in  from  eight  to  sixteen  minutes,  the  haul¬ 
age  being  effected  by  iron-wire  cables  moved  by 
a  turbine.  A  canal  lift  consists  of  two  iron 
troughs,  filled  with  water,  which  counterbalance 


one  another,  one  going  up  as  the  other  descends 
vertically,  and  thus  raising  or  lowering  a  boat 
from  one  reach  to  another.  The  Erie  Canal  in 
New  York,  connecting  Lake  Erie  with  the  Hud¬ 
son  river,  is  3654  miles  long,  with  a  total  rise  and 
fall  of  6564  feet;  it  is  from  53  to  79  feet  wide  at 
the  bottom,  from  70  to  98  feet  at  the  surface, 
varies  from  74  to  94  feet  in  depth,  can  be 
traversed  by  vessels  of  240  tons.  The  Chesa¬ 
peake  and  Oliio  Canal,  of  about  the  same  size  as 
the  Erie  Canal,  was  begun  near  Georgetown  on 
the  Potomac  in  1828,  and  carried  for  186  miles, 
as  far  as  Cumberland,  by  1850;  but  its  completion 
to  Pittsburgh,  a  total  distance  of  341  miles,  has 
not  yet  been  effected,  though  it  was  proposed, 
in  1875,  to  cross  the  Alleghany  Mountains  with  a 
series  of  inclines,  and  a"  tunnel  at  the  summit, 
3f  miles  long.  The  connection  between  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  large  lakes  of  North  America 
has.  been  completed  by  the  St.  Lawrence  canals 
between  Lake  Ontario  and  Montreal,  and  by  the 
Welland  Canal  for  avoiding  the  falls  and  rapids 
of  Niagara.  The  size  of  these  canals  has 
been  increased  thrice  since  1825;  and  locks  270 
feet  long,  45  feet  wide,  and  14  feet  deep, 
were  decided  upon  in  1875.  The  Welland 
Canal  having  been  deepened  to  14  feet,  widened 
to  100  feet  at  the  bottom,  and  provided  with 
locks  of  the  above  dimensions,  was  reopened  in 
1882;  and  by  the  completion  of  the  works  on  the 
St.  Lawrence  canals,  vessels  of  1,000  to  1,500 
tons  will  be  able  to  go  from  Lake  Erie  to  Mon¬ 
treal.  The  Morris  Canal  connects  the  Delaware 
at  Philipsburg  with  the  Hudson  at  Jersey  City, 
crossing  a  spur  of  the  Alleghanies  by  the  inclines 
already  mentioned;  it  is  102  miles  long,  and  ac¬ 
commodates  vessels  of  eighty  tons. 

The  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal  furnishes  a  passage 
for  the  largest  vessels  around  the  falls  of  the 
Sault  Ste.  Marie  river  in  Northern  Michigan. 
This  canal  was  first  built  by  the  Slate  of  Miclih 
gan,  but  was  subsequently  enlarged  and  improved 
by  the  United  States  Government.  It  is  one  mile 
long,  with  a  lock  and  basin  515  feet  long,  80  feet 
wide,  and  18  feet  deep.  An  appropriation  has 
been  made  for  enlarging  it  to  a  length  of  800  feet, 
a  depth  of  21  feet,  and  a  width  of  100  feet.  The 
canal  cutting  through  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  con¬ 
necting  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Red  Sea,  was 
commenced  in  1860,  and  completed  in  1869.  The 
Suez  Canal  is  about  100  miles  long,  and  has  a  bot¬ 
tom  width  of  72  feet  and  a  depth  of  26  feet,  with 
passing  places  at  suitable  intervals.  The  traffic, 
however,  of  the  canal  has  so  much  increased,  and 
the  advantages  of  an  increased  draught  for  ves¬ 
sels  has  been  so  clearly  established,  that  the  canal 
is  about  to  be  widened  to  a  bottom  width  of 
about  229J4  feet,  and  deepened  to  28  feet,  and 
eventually  to  294  feet.  The  route  preferred  by  M. 
de  Lesseps  for  connecting  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans  by  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
is  at  about  the  narrowest  part  of  the  isthmus, 
between  Aspinwall  (Colon)  and  Panama,  nearly 
along  the  line  of  the  Panama  Railway.  A  canal 
along  this  route,  forty-seven  miles  long,  was  com¬ 
menced  in  1882,  known  as  the  Panama  Canal, 
which  was  designed  to  be  level  throughout,  like 
the  Suez  Canal,  and  to  traverse  the  Culebra 
Range  in  a  cutting  of  300  feet  maximum  depth; 
but  the  increased  cost  of  the  work,  and  the  diffi¬ 
culty  of  raising  sufficient  additional  capital,  has 
compelled  M.  de  Lesseps  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
cutting  by  resorting  to  a  locked  canal,  which 
Originally  he  had  rejected  as  inadequate  for  the 
anticipated  traffic.  The  canal  is  to  be  72  feet 
wide  at  the  bottom,  with  side  slopes  of  about  If 
to  1,  and  a  depth  of  water  of  27  feet,  except 
through  the  rock  cutting  of  the  Culebra,  where 
the  depth  and  width  are  to  be  increased.  Work 
upon  this  is  now  (1889)  stopped  for  want  of  funds. 
Another  plan  for  crossing  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
by  water,  designed  by  Capt.  James  B.  Eads,  an 
American  engineer,  and  for  which  a  concession  was 
granted  in  1887,  and  acompany  formed,  consists  in 
uniting  Lake  Nicaragua  by  a  canal  with  the  San 
Juan  river,  and  thus  with  the  Atlantic,  and  forming 
another  portion  of  canal  connecting  the  lake  with 
the  Pacific.  This  route  will  be  180  miles  long; 
and  it  will  be  necessary  to  rise  to  the  summit- 
level  at  or  near  the  lake,  which  is  to  be  effected 
by  two  or  three  locks,  on  either  side,  having  each 
a  lift  of  from  50  to  120  feet,  and  to  improve  the 


CANALETTO. 


241 


CANCER. 


San  Juan  river.  A  canal  was  proposed  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Corinth  long  before  the  Christian 
era;  and  works  for  it  were  actually  commenced  in 
the  reign  of  Nero,  of  which  traces  still  remain. 
The  canal,  which  will  shorten  the  distances 
between  several  of  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Black  Sea,  has  been  again  undertaken, 
the  works  having  been  commenced  in  1882.  The 
canal  is  four  miles  long;  and  the  central 
portion  traverses  a  cutting  in  rock  of 
which  the  maximum  depth  will  be  285  feet. 
Though  the  canal  connecting  Amsterdam  with 
the  North  Sea  severs  the  Peninsula  of  North  Hol¬ 
land,  and  unites  Zuider-Zee  with  the  North  Sea, 
its  object  was  to  afford  more  direct  outlet  for  the 
trade  of  Amsterdam  to  the  ocean  than  the  shallow 
Zuider-Zee  and  the  North  Holland  Canal  could 
give.  The  route  lay  through  Lake  Y  and  Wyker 
Meer,  so  that  only  a  narrow  neck  of  dry  land, 
three  miles  wide  and  of  small  elevation,  had  to  be 
excavated  between  Velsen  and  the  North  Sea;  and 
the  reclamation  of  these  lakes,  by  banks  formed 
along  the  canal  by  dredged  material  raised  from 
the  botton  for  deepening,  defrayed  a  portion  of  the 
cost  of  the  work.  It  is  22  feet  deep  throughout; 
it  has  a  bottom  width  of  207  feet  for  the  first 
portion,  enlarging  to  275  feet.  A  plan  has  been 
devised  for  flooding  a  vast  depression  in  the 
African  desert,  south  of  Algeria  and  Tunis,  by 
cutting  a  canal  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  thus 
creating  an  inland  sea  3, 160  scpiare  miles  in  extent, 
which  would  transform  the  climate  of  the  adja¬ 
cent  lands,  and  afford  them  easy  access  to  the  sea. 

Canaletio,  or  Canale,  the  name  of  two  Vene¬ 
tian  painters,  celebrated  for  their  landscapes  and 
views  of  towns.  The  elder,  Antonio,  was  born 
in  1697,  and  studied  at  Rome.  lie  painted  a  series 
of  views  in  Venice,  among  which  those  of  the 
Grand  Canal  are  especially  admirable  for  their 
fresh  coloring,  faithfulness,  and  the  invention  dis¬ 
played  in  accessory  objects.  lie  died  in  liis 
native  city  Aug.  20,  1768. — His  nephew,  Ber¬ 
nardo  Bellotto,  surnamed  Canaletto,  was 
born  in  1720,  and  attained  high  excellence  as  a 
painter  and  also  as  an  engraver  on  copper. 

Canandaigua,  the  capital  of  'Ontario  county, 
N.  Y.,  at  the  north  end  of  Lake  Canandai¬ 
gua,  twenty-eight  miles  southeast  of  Rochester. 
Pop.  (1880),  5,726. 

Canarium,  an  oriental  genus  of  Amyridaceoe 
(see  Terebinthace^e).  G.  commune  is  a  native 
of  the  Mollucas,  but  introduced  into  many  parts 
of  tropical  Asia.  It  grows  to  a  height  of  about 
fifty  feet;  its  fruit  is  a  drupe,  of  which  the  large 
kernel  is  eaten  raw,  roasted,  or  made  into  a  kind 
of  bread. 

Canary  Bird,  a  beautiful  but  very  common 
cage-bird,  much  esteemed  for  its  musical  powers. 
It  is  one  of  the  family  of  finches  (fringillidie),  and 
is  Fringilla  Canaria  of  Linnaeus).  It  is  found  in 


Norwich  Canary. 


Madeira,  the  Canary  and  Cape  Verd  Isles;  fre¬ 
quents  the  neighborhood  of  human  habitations; 
builds  its  nest  of  moss,  feathers,  hair,  etc.,  in 
thick,  bushy,  high  shrubs  or  trees,  and  produces 
from  two  to  four  broods  in  a  season.  In  its  wild 
state  its  plumage  is  olive-green  or  greenish-yellow, 
tinged  with  brown,  and  the  yellow  cage-birds 
have  been  produced  by  selective  breeding  in 

16 


domestication.  It  breeds  readily  in  confinement, 
often  three  or  four  times  a  year,  laying  from  four 
to  six  eggs  each  time.  The  eggs  are  pale  blue. 
The  male  assists  the  female  in  building  the  nest 
and  in  feeding  the  young.  Besides  canary  and 
millet  seed,  canaries  are  very  fond  of  flowering 
groundsel  and  cliickweed,  a  very  small  supply  of 
which  is  necessary  for  their  health;  and  one  of 
their  favorite  luxuries  is  sugar.  The  canary  not 
unfrequently  lives  fifteen  or  sixteen  years.  It 
can  be  taught  various  notes  and  airs,  and  can 
even  learn  to  articulate  words.  The  canary 
hybridizes  readily  with  some  other  species  of 
finch,  producing  “  mules,”  some  kinds  of  which 
are  valued  as  song-birds. 

Canary  Grass  ( Phalaris  canariensis),  a  grass 
of  which  the  seed  is  much  used,  under  the  name 
of  canary-seed  as  food  for  cage-birds.  It  is  largely 
grown  for  seed  in  Southern  California.  The  large 


Canary  Grass  ( Phalaris  canariensis) . 


Reed  Canary  Grass  (P.  arundinacea),  common  on 
river  banks,  is  an  abundant  source  of  coarse  fod¬ 
der.  A  striped  variegated  variety  is  cultivated  as 
“gardeners’  garters”  or  “ribbon  grass.” 

Canary  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  belonging 
to  Spain  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  off  the  northwest 
coast  of  Africa,  in  27°  40' — 29°  25'  N.  latitude, 
and  13°  25' — 18°  16'  W.  longitude,  forming  a 
Spanish  province.  The  group  consists  of  seven 
large  and  several  small  islets,  with  a  joint  area  of 
about  2,800  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1887)  of 
280,000.  The  principal  islands,  proceeding  from 
east  to  west,  are  Lanzarote,  Fuerteventura,  Gran 
Canaria,  Tenerife,  Gomera,  Palma,  and  Hierro  or 
Ferro. 

Canary  Wine,  also  known  as  Tenerife,  is 
the  produce  of  the  Canary  Islands,  the  best  known 
being  called  Bidogne  or  Vidonia  wine,  which  is 
a  dry  white  wine  resembling  Madeira,  but  with 
less  body  and  perfume.  It  is  produced  chiefly  on 
the  Island  of  Tenerife.  The  name  Canary  was 
formerly  applied  generally  to  dry  white  wines, 
which  were  frequently  seasoned  with  sugar,  cin¬ 
namon,  nutmeg,  roasted  apples,  and  eggs. 

Canby,  Edward  Richard,  born  in  Kentucky 
in  1819,  graduated  at  West  Point,  fought  in  the 
Florida  and  Mexican  Wars,  and  in  1861  became  Col¬ 
onel  of  the  Nineteenth  United  States  Infantry.  He 
was  made  Brigadier-General  of  Volunteers  March, 
1862,  and  commanded  in  New  York  City  during 
the  draft  riots  of  1863.  In  May,  1864,  he  became 
Major-General,  captured  Mobile,  April  12,  1865, 
and  received  the  surrender  of  the  last  Confederate 
forces  in  the  field.  On  July  28,  1866,  he  became 
’Brigadier-General  in  the  regular  army,  and  in 
1869  commanded  the  Department  of  the  Colum¬ 
bia.  He  was  murdered  by  Captain  Jack,  a 
Modoc  chief,  early  in  1873.  The  Indian  and 
several  of  his  followers  were  hunted  down  and 
hanged.  See  Modocs. 

Cancale,  a  town  and  bathing-place  in  the 
French  department  of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  eight  miles 
east-northeast  of  St.  Malo,  on  the  bay  of  the 
same  name,  famous  for  its  oysters.  Pop.  (1886), 
3,610. 

Cancan,  a  dance,  something  of  the  nature  of  a 
quadrille,  but  accompanied  by  leaps  and  contor¬ 
tions  of  the  body. 


Cancellaria,  or  Lattice-shell,  a  large,  genus 
of  Gasteropods  (snails)  in  the  order  Prosobranclii- 
ata.  and  not  far  removed  from  the  cone-shells. 
The  shell  is  usually  whelk-like,  but  the  trans¬ 
verse  lines  are  crossed  by  longitudinal  bars, 
which  produce  a  pretty  lattice-like  pattern.  The 
animal  differs  from  its  neighbors  in  being  vege¬ 
tarian.  There  are  115  living  species,  and  more 
than  half  as  many  fossil  in  the  Tertiary  strata. 
C.  reticulata  is  a  common  South  Atlantic  species. 

Cancelling  of  Deeds  and  Wills.  The 
word  cancel  comes  from  the  Lat.  cancelli  (lattice- 
work),  and  a  deed  was  formerly  said  to  be  can¬ 
celled  when  lines  were  drawn  over  it  in  the  form 
of  lattice-work.  The  word  cancel  is  now  used  to 
signify  any  sort  of  obliteration,  as  where  a 
banker  cancels  a  paid  cheque. 

Cancer,  the  Crab,  the  fourth  of  the  twelve  con¬ 
stellations  of  the  zodiac. 

Cancer  (Lat.  a  crab),  or  Carcinoma  (Gr.),  is 
the  medical  name  for  an  important  group  of  ma¬ 
lignant  tumors.  The  term  cancer  used  to  be  ap¬ 
plied  to  malignant  tumors  generally,  but  recent 
research  has  led  to  their  division  into  two  groups — 
Carcinomata  and  Sarcomata,  and  cancer  is  now 
used  only  of  the  first.  To  prevent  confusion, 
carcinoma  is  generally  used  in  preference  to  can¬ 
cer  in  scientific  works.  Cancer  may  be  defined 
as  a  tumor  consisting  of  masses  of  cells  of  an 
epithelial  type,  grouped  together  irregularly 
within  the  spaces  of  a  framework  of  fibrous  tissue. 
Flat-celled  cancer  or  epithelioma  occurs  most  com¬ 
monly  as  a  primary  tumor  on  the  lips,  tongue, 
penis,  and  near  the  anus;  Columnar-cell  or  adenoid 
(gland-like)  cancer,  in  the  stomach  and  intestines. 
tScirrhus  or  hard,  and  encephaloid  or  soft  cancer, 
have  cells  of  less  characteristic  form,  but  usually 
more  or  less  rounded,  and  differ  from  each  other 
structurally  only  in  the  greater  or  less  abundance 
of  the  fibrous  framework.  They  are  most  com¬ 
mon  as  primary  tumors  in  the  female  breast,  the 
womb,  and  certain  parts  of  the  alimentary  canal. 
Colloid  cancer  is  a  hard  or  soft  cancer  in  which 
the  cells  undergo  rapid  and  extensive  degenera¬ 
tion  into  a  gelatinous  mass.  These  different 
forms  of  cancer  differ  widely  in  their  rate  of 
growth  and  degree  of  malignancy.  Epithelioma 
is  the  slowest  in  its  progress,  and  comparatively 
rarely  gives  rise  to  growths  in  internal  organs. 
Soft  cancer  usually  grows  with  great  rapidity, 
and  secondary  tumors  in  internal  organs  are  apt 
to  appear  early.  The  general  structure  of  the 
secondary  tumors  usually  corresponds  to  that  of 
the  primary,  but  I  hey  are  often  softer  and  show 
greater  activity  of  growth,  so  that  when  they 
appear  the  progress  of  the  disease  is  accelerated. 
The  symptoms  attending  the  early  development 
of  cancer,  even  cancer  affecting  the  same  part  of 
the  body,  are  very  variable.  It'  the  disease  affect 
an  external  organ  or  tissue,  the  tumor  is  generally 
noticed  at  an  early  stage;  if  an  internal  organ,  on 
the  other  hand,  some  disturbance  of  its  functions, 
or  pain,  or  general  deterioration  of  the  health 
often  appears  before  the  presence  of  a  growth  is 
suspected.  But  wherever  or  however  it  begins 
a  cancerous  tumor  always  tends  to  increase,  with 
breaking  down  of  the  older  portions,  ulceration, 
and  fetid  discharge,  to  encroach  upon  neighbor¬ 
ing  tissues,  to  set  up  secondary  growths,  and  ulti¬ 
mately  to  cause  the  death  of  the  patient.  The 
cases  where  an  undoubtedly  cancerous  tumor  has 
spontaneously  disappeared  are  so  very  rare  that 
the  above  statement,  for  practical  purposes, 
hardly  needs  qualification.  The  duration  of  the 
case  may  be  a  few  months  or  many  years,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  part  affected  and  the  malignancy  of 
the  tumor.  The  symptoms  produced,  and  the 
mode  in  which  the  disease  causes  death  are  almost 
as  various  as  the  organs  affected.  But  in  the 
later  stages  there  is  nearly  always  loss  of  appetite, 
flesh,  and  strength,  and  a  peculiarly  unhealthy, 
sallow  appearance.  Cancer  is  popularly  believed 
to  be  an  intensely  painful  disease,  and  in  many 
cases  really  is  so;  but  it  is  most  important  that  it. 
should  be  known  that  it  may,  and  often  does,  run 
its  whole  course  to  the  fatal  issue  without  any  pain. 
The  causation  of  cancer  is  a  most  complex  and 
obscure  problem.  It  is  rare  before  middle  life, 
and  after  that  period  becomes  increasingly  fre¬ 
quent  as  age  advances.  The  tendency  to  its 
development  is  frequently  hereditary.  It  is  more 
common  in  the  female  sex,  because  the  womb 


CANCER  ROOT. 


242 


CANKER. 


and  female  breasts  are  its  most  common  situations; 
excluding  these  organs,  it  is  probably  more  com¬ 
mon  in  the  male  than  the  female.  It  sometimes 
occurs  in  situations  where  an  injury  has  been 
sustained,  and  more  frequently  where  there  has 
been  long-continued  irritation.  It  has  been 
maintained  by  some  that  cancer  is  always  from 
the  first  a  constitutional  disease;  that  the  local 
tumor  is  merely  an  expression  of  a  vitiated  state 
of  the  constitution,  or  cachexia,  and  therefore 
that  its  removal  is  useless.  But  it  is  undoubted 
that  in  the  vast  majority  of  cases  the  patient’s 
health  is  otherwise  good  when  the  growth  begins, 
and  that  it  remains  for  a  time  limited  to  its 
original  seat;  moreover,  cases  are  not  uncommon 
where  early  removal  of  the  primary  tumor  has 
been  followed  by  no  return  of  the  disease.  It 
seems  reasonable  therefore  to  conclude  that 
cancer  is  at  first  a  merely  local  process,  at  least 
in  many  cases,  and  only  secondarily  becomes  a 
constitutional  disease. 

The  leading  charact  er  of  cancer  being  a  tumor 
or  morbid  growth  in  a  part,  it  is  important  to 
observe  that  not  all,  nor  even  the  majority,  of 
morbid  growths  are  cancerous.  A  very  large 
proportion  of  growths,  involving  swelling  or 
change  of  structure  in  a  part,  are  either  deter¬ 
mined  by  a  previous  process  of  inflammation — 
leading  to  chronic  abscess  and  induration — or 
belong  to  the  simple  or  non-malignant  order  of 
tumors.  Generally  speaking,  a  tumor  may  be 
said  to  fall  under  the  suspicion  of  being  cancer 
when  it  more  or  less  completely  infiltrates  the 
texture  in  which  it  arises,  and  passes  from  it  into 
the  surrounding  textures;  when  it  invades  the 
lymphatic  glands  adjoining  the  part  first  affected; 
when  it  is  attended  by  stinging  or  darting  pains, 
or  by  obstinate  and  slowly  extending  ulceration, 
not  due  to  pressure;  when  it  occurs  in  a  person 
having  impaired  health,  or  past  the  middle  period 
of  life,  and  is  not  traceable  to  any  known  cause 
of  inflammatory  disease  or  local  irritation,  nor  to 
any  other  known  constitutional  disease,  such  as 
syphilis  or  scrofula.  The  probabilities  are  of 
course  increased  if  the  tumor  be  in  one  of  the 
habitual  seats  of  cancer,  or  if  it  be  attended  by 
evidence  of  disease  in  some  internal  organ  known 
to  be  frequently  thus  affected.  But  it  is  hardly 
necessary  to  point  out  that  the  very  complex 
elements  of  diagnosis  here  referred  to  ought  to  be 
always  submitted  to  the  scrutiny  and  judgment 
of  a  well-educated  medical  adviser,  before  the 
disease  has  assumed  such  a  form  as  to  be  beyond 
the  reach  of  remedial  procedure.  The  occasional 
spontaneous  disappearance  of  cancerous  tumors 
warrants  the  hope  that  a  means  may  be  found  of 
inducing  by  drugs  or  otherwise  the  occurrence 
of  a  curative  process  thus  shown  not  to  be  beyond 
the  possible.  As  yet,  however,  it  is  only  a  hope; 
for  none  of  the  many  remedies  suggested  has  ever 
stood  the  test  of  experience.  The  only  means  of 
cure  yet  recognized  is  complete  removal  of  the 
tumor  by  operation  or  by  caustics.  It  is  only 
in  the  earliest  stage  of  the  disease  that  there  is 
any  prospect  of  a  successful  result;  and  unfor¬ 
tunately  the  majority  of  patients  present  them¬ 
selves  to  the  surgeon  when  that  stage  has  passed. 
Moreover,  even  in  cases  where  the  tumor  has 
been  early  and  freely  removed,  recurrence  too 
often  disappoints  the  hopes  of  the  patient  and  the 
surgeon.  But  when  the  tumor  is  seen  early, 
when  there  are  no  secondary  growths,  and  when 
the  patient’s  health  is  good,  it  is  considered  by 
the  great  majority  of  surgeons  that  he  should  be 
given  the  chance  of  cure  which  an  operation 
affords.  Among  the  lower  animals  this  disease 
is  more  rare;  nevertheless,  cases  are  not  infre¬ 
quent,  presenting  the  same  maligant  character¬ 
istics  as  those  observed  in  the  human  subject. 

Cancel'  Root,  or  Beech-drops  ( Epiphegus 
virginiana),  a  parasitic  herb  of  the  order  Oroban- 
ehese),  a  native'  of  North  America,  growing  on 
the  exposed  roots  of  beech-trees.  The  whole 
plant  is  powerfully  astringent,  and  the  root  is 
especially  bitter  and  nauseous.  In  conjunction 
with  arsenious  acid,  it  is  believed  to  have  formed 
a  medicine  once  famous  in  North  America  under 
the  name  of  Martin’s  Cancer  Powder. — Another 
American  plant  of  the  same. order,  Phelipcea 
biflora,  sometimes  shares  the  same  name  and 
repute  in  popular  medicine. 

Cancione'ro  (Span.;  Port,  cancioneiro,  song- 


book),  in  general  a  collection  of  lyrical  pieces  by 
one  or  more  authors;  in  particular,  the  designa¬ 
tion  of  the  official  collections  of  the  poetic  guilds 
which  flourished  in  the  middle  ages  at  the  courts 
of  Spain  and  Portugal. 

Cancriun  Oris,  known  also  as  Noma,  Water- 
cancer,  and  Water-canker,  is  a  peculiar  form  of 
mortification  or  gangrene,  arising  apparently 
from  defective  nutrition.  The  disease  seldom  oc¬ 
curs  except  between  the  second  and  eleventh 
years,  and  is  usually  preceded  by  measles,  remit¬ 
tent  or  intermittent  fever,  or  some  other  serious 
disease. 

Candelabrum  (Lat.  candela,  a  candle)  is  prop¬ 
erly  a  candlestick,  but  is  regularly  used  also  for 
a  lamp-stand.  There  were  hardly  any  articles  of 
furniture  more  beautifully  wrought  than  the 
finer  forms  of  the  ancient  Roman  candelabra. 
Often  from  three  to  ten  feet  high,  they  were  of 
great  variety  of  form,  and  were  made  of  marble, 
bronze,  and  the  precious  metals.  The  bronze 
candelabra  of  the  Renaissance  are  also  notable  art 
objects. 

Candia  is  the  name  of  the  capital  of  the  Island 
of  Crete,  and  was  long  the  only  name  by  which 
the  island  was  known  in  Western  Europe.  The 
city  stands  on  the  north  coast  of  the  island,  north 
of  Mount  Ida,  and  has  many  old  fortifications 
dating  from  the  time  of  the  Venetian  supremacy. 
Pop.,  12,000. 

Candle,  a  cylinder  of  wax,  paraffin,  or  fatty 
matter,  inclosing  a  central  wick,  and  intended  for 
giving  light.  The  materials  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  candles  are  wax  and  spermaceti 
for  the  more  expensive  kinds,  and  tallow,  palm 
oil,  and  paraffin  for  those  in  general  use.  Candles 
are  made  in  three  ways — by  basting  and  rolling, 
by  dipping,  and  by  moulding.  The  first  method 
is  employed  in  the  case  of  wax,  which  can  not  be 
moulded"  satisfactorily  on  account  of  its  great  con¬ 
traction  on  cooling  and  the  tenacity  with  which  it 
adheres  to  the  moulds.  Dipping  is  employed  in 
the  case  of  tallow  dips  and  the  more  modern 
“  snuffless  dip  ”  candles,  both  of  which  are  used 
when  a  large  flame  is  desired  that  is  not  readily 
extinguished  in  a  draught.  The  bulk  of  the  can¬ 
dles  in  use  are  made  by  the  third  method — mould¬ 
ing. 

Caudleberry,  Candleberry  Myrtle,  Wax 
Tree,  Wax  Myrtle,  Tallow  Tree,  or  Bay- 
berry  ( Myrica  cerifera),  a  small  tree,  or,  more 
generally,  a  low,  spreading  shrub,  a  native  of  the 
United  States,  most  abundant  in  the  South.  The 
evergreen  leaves  are  dotted  with  resin-glands,  and 
are  fragrant  when  bruised.  The  drupes— popu¬ 
larly  called  berries — when  ripe,  are  covered  with 
a  greenish-white  wax;  the  wax  is  collected  by 
boiling  them  and  skimming,  and  is  afterward 
melted  and  refined.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  candles, 
which  burn  slowly  with  little  smoke,  and  emit  an 
agreeable  balsamic  odor,  but  do  not  give  a  strong 
light.  An  excellent  scented  soap  is  made  from  it  . 

Candle-fish  (Thaleichthys  pacificus  or  Osmerus 
thaleichthys),  a  remarkable  fish  of  the  family  Sal- 
monida?,  nearly  allied  to  the  smelt  ( Osmerus  eper- 
lanus),  if  not  in  the  same  genus  with  it.  It  in¬ 
habits  the  Pacific  Ocean,  near  the  western  shores 
of  America,  from  Vancouver’s  Island  northward, 
and  is  common  in  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco.  It 
is  probably  the*f attest  or  oiliest  of  fishes,  if  not 
of  animals,  and  is  used  by  the  Indians  not  only  as 
an  article  of  food,  but  for  making  oil.  The  ex¬ 
traction  of  its  oil  is  now  a  regular  business.  To 
broil  or  fry  it  is  nearly  impossible,  because  it 
alnost  completely  melts  into  oil.  When  dried  it 
may  be  burned  as  a  candle.  It  is  also  known  as 
Eulachon  or  Oulachon. 

Candlemas,  an  ecclesiastical  festival  observed 
on  February  2d,  in  honor  of  the  Purification  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  when  she  presented  the  infant  Jesus 
in  the  temple.  The  great  feast  of  expiation  and 
purification  ( Februa )  in  ancient  Rome  was  held  on 
February  15th,  and  the  origin  of  the  Christian 
festival  is  explained  by  some  as  a  mere  turning  to 
Christian  account  of  the  ancient  heathen  rite.  At 
any  rate,  the  festival  seems  to  have  been  instituted 
by  the  Emperor  Justinian  in  541  or  542.  A  prin¬ 
cipal  part  of  the  celebration  is  a  procession  with 
many  lighted  candles,  and  those  required  for  the 
service  of  the  ensuing  year  are  also  on  that  occa¬ 
sion  consecrated;  hence  the  name  Candlemas  Day. 

Camlle-nut  (Aleurites  triloba),  a  small  tree  of 


the  order  Euphorbiacese,  a  native  of  the  South 
Sea  Islands,  Madagascar,  Molucca,  Java,  etc., 
which  produces  a  heart-shaped  nut  with  a  very 
hard  shell,  and  a  kernel  good  to  eat  when  roasted, 
although  in  a  raw  state  it  possesses  in  a  slight  de¬ 
gree  some  of  the  active  properties  so  common  in 
the  Euphorbiacese,  and  is  apt  to  cause  purging 
and  colic.  It  is  about  as  large  as  a  walnut. 

Candlisli,  Robert  Smith,  a  Scottish  ecclesi¬ 
astic,  born  in  Edinburgh,  in  1806,  and  licensed  as 
a  preacher  in  1828.  In  1834  he  became  minister 
of  St.  George’s,  Edinburgh.  After  the  disruption 
he  cooperated  with  Dr.  Chalmers  in  organizing, 
consolidating,  and  extending  the  newly-formed 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  and  from  the  time  of 
Chalmer’s  death  down  to  his  own,  was  its  virtual 
leader.  In  1847  he  was  chosen  to  succeed  Chal¬ 
mers  in  the  Chair  of  Divinity  in  the  New  College, 
Edinburgh,  but  did  not  assume  the  functions  of 
this  office.  He  was  Moderator  of  the  Assembly 
in  1861,  was  made  in  1862  Principal  of  the  New 
College,  and  in  1865  D.  D.  by  Edinburgh  Univer¬ 
sity.  lie  died  at  Edinburgh,  Oct.  19,  1873. 

Candytuft  ( Iberis ),  a  genus  of  Cruciferae, 
familiarly  distinguished  by  unequal  petals,  the 
two  larger  being  toward  the  circumference  of  the 
dense  corymbs.  The  species  are  chiefly  found  in 
the  Mediterranean  countries,  and  the  name  is 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  that  of  the  Island 
of  Candia  (Crete),  the  name  Iberis  from  Iberia 
(Spain). 

Cane,  a  term  sometimes  indiscriminately  ap¬ 
plied  to  any  small  and  smooth  rod,  used  as  a  walk¬ 
ing-stick,  but  more  correctly  limited  to  the  stems 
of  the  smaller  palms  and  the  larger  grasses.  We 
thus  speak  of  sugar-cane,  bamboo-cane,  etc., 
among  the  latter;  while  among  the  former  this 
name  is  particularly  appropriated  to  the  species 
of  the  genus  Calamus,  also  called  rattan.  To 
this  genus  belong  the  canes  largely  imported 
from  the  tropical  regions  of  the  East  for  making 
bottoms  of  chairs,  couches,  etc. 

Canea  (Gr.  Khania ),  the  chief  commercial 
town  of  Crete,  situated  on  the  northwest  coast, 
with  a  fine  harbor.  Pop.,  12,000,  of  whom  about 
5,000  are  Mohammedans. 

Cane-brake  (Ludotfla  ( Arundinaria )  macro- 
sperma),  a  colossal  reed,  nearly  allied  to  the  bam¬ 
boo,  which  reaches  a  height  of  30  or  40  feet,  and 
forms  dense  swamp-jungles  (sometimes  of  wide 
area)  in  marshy  places,  and  along  the  banks  of  the 
Red  river,  the  Arkansas,  and  the  Mississippi,  and 
their  tributaries. 

Canella  ( Canella  alba),  a  small  tree  belonging 
to  the  gamboge  order  (Clusiacese),  common  in  the 
West  Indies,  where  it  is  often  called  Wild  Cinna¬ 
mon.  The  bark  of  the  young  branches  is  the 
C.  Bark  (White  Cinnamon)  of  apothecaries,  and 
is  imported  from  the  Bahamas.  It  is  aromatic  and 
stimulant,  but  now  seldom  employed  in  medicine; 
in  the  West  Indies  it  is  used  as  a  condiment. 

Cang,  or  Cangue,  an  instrument  by  means  of 
which  petty  offenders  in  China  are  punished.  It 
consists  of  a  large  wooden  collar  fitting  closely 
round  the  neck,  varying  in  size  and  weight,  but 
not  to  be  removed  by  day  or  night  during  the 
whole  period  of  punishment,  which  may  vary  in 
length  from  a  fortnight  to  three  months.  Its 
form  prevents  the  victim  from  stretching  himself 
at  full  length,  and  upon  this  depends  in  great 
part  the  severity  of  the  punishment.  He  is  left 
also  to  be  starved  or  fed  by  the  public  at  their 
pleasure. 

Canicular  Days,  named  from  Canicula  Sirius, 
or  the  Dog-star,  are  the  Dog  Days.  Canicula 
is  in  the  southern  constellation  of  Canis  Major, 
near  which  was  that  of  Canis  Minor. 

Canidse,  or  Cynoidea,  a  family  or  section  of 
Carnivora,  occupying  a  position  midway  between 
the  cats  on  the  one  hand  and  the  bears  on  the 
other.  The  number  and  disposition  of  the  teeth 
is  less  specialized  than  that  of  other  carnivora. 
Professor  Huxley  divides  the  family  into  two 
parallel  series:  (a)  Ihdoid  or  Lupine  types — e.g., 
dogs,  wolves,  jackals;  and  (b)  Alopecoid  or  Vul- 
pine  types — e.g.,  fox,  fennec,  lycaon  or  Cape 
hunting  dog,  and  the  primitive  otocyon.  Some 
fossil  Canidse  such  as  amphicyon  and  cynodictis 
are  still  more  generalized  carnivores. 

Canker,  a  disease  of  the  horse’s  foot.  It 
usually  attacks  horses  which  have  large,  fleshy 
frogs,  and  commences  by  discharge  from  the 


CANKER. 


243 


CANNULA. 


he  made  a  reputation  as  an  orator  and  statesman, 
by  his  speeches  in  favor  of  the  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade  and  against  Tierney’s  motion  regarding 
peace  with  the  French  Directory.  In  1801  Pitt 
resigned  office,  and  Canning  joined  the  opposition 
from  the  ministerial  side  of  the  House  against  the 
Addington  ministry.  In  1804,  Canning  was  made 
Treasurer  of  the  Navy,  which  office  he  held  until 
1806.  In  1807,  Canning  was  appointed  Minister 
for  Foreign  Affairs.  In  1812  he  was  elected  for 
Liverpool,  which  seat  he  exchanged  for  Harwich 
in  1822.  In  1814  he  went  as  Ambassador  to  Lis¬ 
bon,  returned  in  1816,  and  was  made  President 
of  the  Board  of  Control.  In  1820  he  resigned. 
Nominated  Governor-General  of  India  in  1822,  he 
was  on  the  eve  of  departure  when  the  suicide  of 
Castlereagh  called  Canning  to  the  head  of  Foreign 
Affairs.  In  February,  1827,  he  was  called  upon 
to  form  a  new  Administration,  which  he  did  with 
the  aid  of  the  Whigs.  lie  died  August  8th  of  the 
same  year,  and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Cannou  is  a  general  name  for  large  pieces  of 
ordnance  or  artillery,  as  distinguished  from  those 
weapons  which  can  be  held  in  the  hand  while 
being  fired.  The  first  cannons  were  clumsy, 
wider  at  the  mouth 
than  at  the  chamber, 
and  made  of  iron 
bars  hooped  together 
with  iron  rings.  The 
balls  fired  from  them 
were  first  stone,  after¬ 
ward  iron.  Various 
names  for  these  early 
guns  were  bombards, 
culverins,  serpentines, 
etc.  At  what  exact 
date  cannon  were  first 
used  is  not  known, 
but  they  were  em¬ 
ployed  by  Edward 
III.  against  the  Scots 
in  1327,  by  the  French 
at  the  siege  of  Puy 
Guillaume  in  1338, 
and  by  Edward  III. 
at  Crecy  and  at  Calais 
in  1346.  Bombards 
of  great  length  and 
power  were  employed 
by  Louis  XI .  during 
his  Flemish  campaign 
in  1477  ;  and  as  early 
as  1401  cannon  had  been  cast  in  bronze  at  Nurem¬ 
berg,  Ausburg,  and  Marienburg  in  West  Prussia. 
They  were  not  cast  in  iron  until  the  latter  half  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  Recently  the  use  of  steel 
in  their  manufacture  has  enabled  much  more 
powerful  guns  to  be  made.  The  application  of 
rifling  to  cannon  has  made  it  possible  to  fire 
from  them  elongated  projectiles,  which  are  at 
the  same  time  heavier  than  the  spherical  shot 


which  is  entirely  of  s' eel,  has  no  trunnions,  but 
is  tied  to  its  carriage  by  a  strong  steel  band.  Both 
are  surpassed  by  the  150-ton  gun  undertaken  in 
1888  by  Krupp.  Some  of 
the  most  powerful  modern 
cannon  are  sighted  for  8,700 
yards,  and  at  that  distance 
may  be  relied  upon  to  strike 
an  object  ten  feet  high.  The 
newest  pattern  field-gun,  the 
12-pounder,  is  sighted  for 
6,000  yards,  and  the  little  7- 
pounder  mountain-gun  for 
3,185  yards.  Experiments 
have  been  carried  on  with 
a  pneumatic  gun,  designed 
by  Lieutenant  Zalinski  of 
the  United  States  Artillery, 
to  throw  a  shell  charged  with 
dynamite.  Such  a  gun,  eight 
inches  in  caliber,  was  fired  in  1887  at  a  vessel 
2,000  yards  off,  which  its  second  shell,  charged 
with  fifty-five  pounds  of  nitro-gelatine,  com¬ 
pletely  destroyed.  This  weapon  is  forty  feet  long, 
but  light.  The  barrel,  which  is  not  rilled,  is 


made  of  three-eighths  inch  wrought-iron,  lined 
with  one-eighth  inch  seamless  brass  tubing.  The 
air  reservoirs  have  a  capacity  of  137  cubic  feet. 
The  projectile  is  made  of  seamless  brass  40  inches 
long,  with  a  conical  cast-iron  point  12  inches 
long,  and  spiral  vanes  attached  to  the  base  to  give 
it  rotation.  It  is  exploded  by  an  electric  fuse 
which  can  be  adjusted  so  as  to  act  an  instant  be¬ 
fore  impact,  or,  if  the  object  is  missed,  an  instant 


Krupp’s  15.6  inch  Breech-loading  Gun  (breech  open) ;  Hydraulic  Elevating  Gear. 


Whitworth  Forsed 
Shell  and  Sec¬ 
tion. 


heels  or  the  cleft  of  the  frog.  The  horn  becomes 
soft  and  disintegrated,  and  the  vascular  struc¬ 
tures  beneath  become  inflamed.  Though  there  is 
no  constitutional  fever,  the  horse  becomes  ema¬ 
ciated  and  unfit  for  work.  During  wet  weather, 
and  on  damp  soil,  the  symptoms  increase  in 
severity.  The  sore  structures  bleed  on  the  least 
touch,  and  considerable  fungoid  granulations 
form  rapidly,  and  there  is  a  continuous  discharge 
of  a  whitish  colored  fluid,  which  has  an  offensive 
smell.  This  disease  is  occasionally  hereditary, 
and  it  is  most  frequently  seen  in  lowbred 
draught  or  coach  horses,  though  it  also  affects 
thoroughbred  Clydesdale  and  other  stallions. 
Dirt,  cold,  and  wet  favor  the  production  of  the 
disease,  and  there  is  always  a  tendency  to  relapse 
wheh  once  an  animal  has  been  affected.  The 
animal  requires  to  be  treated  constitutionally  by 
periodical  purgatives  and  alteratives.  Good 
food,  fresh  air,  and  exercise  often  aid  much  in 
the  treatment  of  the  disease. 

Canker,  a  disease  of  plants  especially  fatal  to 
fruit-trees  in  many  gardens.  The  canker-worm 
of  the  Bible  is  also  translated  caterpillar. 

Cannabinacese,  a  sub-order  of  Urticaceae,  con¬ 
taining  only  two  plants,  both  of  them  valuable — 
hemp  and  hop. 

Cannae,  an  ancient  town  of  Apulia,  in  South¬ 
ern  Italy.  Here,  in  the  summer  of  216  b.c., 
Hannibal,  with  50,000  men,  defeated  a  Roman 
army  of  86,000  men  under  HSmilius  Paulus  and 
Terentius  Varro. 

Cannes,  a  watering-place  in  the  French  depart¬ 
ment  of  Alpes-Maritimes,  situated  on  a  bay  of  the 
Mediterranean,  nineteen  miles  southwest  of  Nice 
Napoleon  landed  here  when  he  returned  from 
Elba.  The  town  in  April,  1886,  contained  15,002 
inhabitants,  but  in  winter  has  upward  of  twice 
that  number,  including  the  visitors.  These  are 
of  all  kindreds  and  tongues.  Alexis  de  Tocque- 
ville,  Prosper  Merimie,  Louis  Blanc,  Victor 
Cousin,  Auerbach,  and  J.  B.  Dumas  died  in 
Cannes.  The  Duke  of  Albany  died  at  the  Villa 
Nevada  in  the  spring  of  1884. 

Cannibalism,  or  Antiikopopiiagy,  the  act  of 
eating  human  flesh  as  food,  a  practice  widely 
spread  among  many  of  the  lowerraces,  but  which 
has  at  times  held  its  place  even  among  peoples  at 
a  high  level  of  culture.  The  ancient  Mexicans 
were  addicted  to  cannibalism,  as  are  at  the  pres¬ 
ent  day  the  Monbuttus,  Zandehs,  Fans,  and  other 
tribes  in  Central  Africa.  The  New  Guineans,  the 
Battas  of  Sumatra,  and  the  Maoris  of  New  Zea¬ 
land,  were  cannibals  but  half  a  century  since. 
The  practice  was  widespread  in  Polynesia,  but 
of  late  years  it  has  nearly  disappeared  there. 
North  Australian  tribes  eat  their  slain  friends,  but 
not  their  enemies,  'while  others  eat  their  newborn 
children,  or  in  some  cases  only  the  eldest.  In  the 
case  of  one  tribe,  the  Dieri,  a  mother  eats  her 
own  children,  and  the  children  their  mother; 
while  the  father  does  not  eat  his  offspring,  nor 
the  offspring  their  father. 

Canning,  Charles  John,  Earl,  third  son  of 
George  Canning,  born  Dec.  14,  1812.  He  entered 
Parliament  in  1836,  and  next  year  was  raised  to 
the  Upper  House  as  Viscount  Canning.  In  1841 
he  became  Under-Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign 
Affairs  in  Sir  Robert  Peel's  Government,  and 
afterward  Commissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests. 
When  Lord  Aberdeen  came  into  office,  he  was 
made  Postmaster-General;  and  in  the  beginning  of 
1856  succeeded  Lord  Dalhousie  as  Governor-Gene¬ 
ral  of  India.  The  first  important  event  of  his 
government  was  a  war  with  Persia,  which  was 
brought  to  a  successful  close  in  1857.  In  the  same 
year  (May  10,  1857)  the  Indian  Mutiny  began  with 
the  outbreak  at  Meerut.  In  1858  he  became  the 
first  Viceroy;  next  year  he  wTas  raised  to  an  earl¬ 
dom.  He  retired  from  office  in  March,  1862.  He 
died  on  June  17th,  in  the  same  year.  As  he  left 
no  children,  his  title  became  extinct. 

Canning,  George,  a  distinguished  British 
statesman  and  orator,  born  April  11,  1770.  He 
was  sent  to  Eton,  from  which  he  passed  at  theage 
of  eighteen  to  Christ  Church  College,  Oxford, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  in  classics.  From 
Oxford  he  went  in  1790  to  Lincoln’s  Inn,  but 
soon  relinquished  the  bar  for  a  parliamentary 
career.  lie  entered  the  House  in  1794,  as  the 
prottlgd  and  supporter  of  Pitt.  In  1796  he  was 
appointed  an  Unaer-Secretary  of  State.  In  1798 


English  Breech-loading  Field  ( 

suited  to  the  same  weapon  and  are  better  adapted 
by  their  form  to  penetrate  the  armor  of  ships. 
Until  1888  the  largest  cannon  was  the  119-ton 
Krupp  made  in  1884  for  Italy.  With  615 
pounds  of  powder  this  gun  sends  a  shell  1,632 
pounds  in  weight  through  29.3  inches  of  wrought- 
iron  at  a  distance  of  1,000  yards.  The  most 
powerful  was  the  110  ton  Elswick  gun  in  II.M.S. 
Victoria.  It  penetrates  30.5  inches  of  armor  at 
the  same  distance  with  a  shell  1,800  pounds  in 
weight  and  900  pounds  of  powder.  This  gun, 


Gun  and  Limber,  12-pounder. 

after  striking  the  water,  by  which  means  the 
maximum  effect  is  obtained  in  both  cases. 

Cannon-ball  Tree  (Lecytliis  bracteata  or  Cou- 
roupita  guianemix),  a  large  tree  of  the  order 
Lecythidacese,  a  native  of  Guiana,  but  introduced 
into  the  West  Indies;  the  fruit  is  large,  nearly 
round,  and  is  sweet,  fragrant,  and  wholesome. 

Cannula  (dim.  of  Lat.  canna,  a  reed;  often  in¬ 
correctly  written  canula),  a  term  applied  to  small 
tubes  of  different  kinds  used  in  surgery;  especially 
to  a  tube  inclosing  a  trocar ,  or  perforator  (with- 


CANOE. 


244 


CANTON. 


drawn  after  it  has  effected  the  introduction  of 
the  tube),  used  for  evacuating  air  or  fluid  from 
any  cavity  in  the  body;  and  to  the  tube  for  the 
patient  to  breathe  through,  which  is  inserted  into 
the  windpipe  after  the  operation  of  Tracheotomy. 

Canoe  (from  a  Caribbean  word  through  the 
Span,  canoa), 
originally, 
a  light  narrow 
boat,  made  of 
the  hollowed 
stem  of  a  tree 
or  o  f  bark, 
and  propelled 
b  y  paddles. 

The  Canadian 
birch-bark  ca¬ 
noe  is  a  light, 
buoyant,  frail 
looking,  but 
serviceable 
bark.  In  Canadian  Trapper’s  Canoe, 

building  it  a  skeleton  is  made  of  light  wood,  the 
casing  of  birch-bark  is  put  on  transversely,  with 
the  broadest  strips  amidships,  and  sewed  together 
with  the  fibrous  roots  of  fir-trees,  while  the  seams 
are  dressed  with  gum.  It  has  no  keel,  and  neither 
stem  nor  stern,  but  runs  to  a  point  at  each  end; 
and  neither  nails  or  pegs  are  used  in  its  construc¬ 
tion.  The  birch-bark  canoes  of  South  America 
and  the  native  Australian  gum-tree  bark  canoe 
are  made  of  one  piece  of  bark.  Esquimaux  ca¬ 
noes  are  generally  of  seal  or  walrus  skin  stretched 
over  whalebones;  some  Labrador  canoes  have  a 
round  hole  or  well  in  the  center  for  the  occupant, 
and  are  light  enough  to  be  carried  on  the  head. 
The  canoe  of  Greenland  and  Hudson  Strait  is 
flat-bottomed  and  flat-sided.  Many  of  the  Poly¬ 
nesian  canoes,  and  those  made  by  some  of  the 
North  American  Indian  tribes,  are  hollowed  out 
of  a  single  log.  Others  are  of  planks  cunningly 
fastened  together,  and  fitted  with  outriggers. 
The  Malay  and  Dyak  canoes  are  long  and  narrow, 
The  largest  Fiji  canoes  are  100  feet  long,  and  the 
double  ones — with  deck  placed  between  them — 
of  70  feet,  can  carry  from  forty  to  fifty  persons. 
Those  of  the  Solomon  Islands  have  a  palette¬ 
shaped  sail  made  of  a  mat.  The  war  canoes  have 
often  elaborately  carved  ends.  Mr.  Stanley  in 
his  descent  of  the  Congo  encountered  a  war  canoe 
with  forty  men  rowing  on  each  side,  and  ten  in 
the  bow,  while  eight  men  guided  at  the  stern  with 
ivory-tipped  paddles.  Two  or  three  of  his  own 
canoes  for  exploring  purposes,  were  of  teak,  70 
feet  long,  and  very  heavy.  Others,  on  the  inland 
African  lakes,  are  made  of  reeds.  Canoes  made 
of  two  or  more  layers  of  veneer,  glued  together, 
are  light  and  strong,  and  in  great  favor  with 
American  canoeists. 

Canon,  a  word  originally  Greek,  connected 
with  kanna,  a  “cane  or  reed,”  and  (like  the 
Hebrew  ganeli)  signifying  a  straight  staff  used  as 
a  measuring-rod,  is  applied  in  various  arts  and 
sciences  to  what  serves  for  a  rule  or  standard. 
From  this  general  sense,  which  it  bears — e.  g.,  in 
Galatians  vi,  16,  the  word  by  the  middle  of  the 
third  century  had  come  to  mean  the  type  of 
Christian  doctrine  recognized  as  orthodox  by  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  afterward  employed  to  des¬ 
ignate  the  Scriptures  accepted  by  the  Christian 
Church  as  the  standard  or  rule  of  faith. 

Canon  (Lat.  canonicus),  an  ecclesiastical  digni¬ 
tary  (so  called  as  living  under  a  rule,  or  as  follow¬ 
ing  the  rule  or  canon  of  divine  service,  or  again, 
most  probably,  as  inscribed  on  the  canon  or  roll 
of  ecclesiastical  officers)  holding  a  prebend  in  a 
cathedral  or  collegiate  church. 

Canon,  in  Music  (from  the  Gr.  knnon,  a  rule), 
is  the  species  of  imitation  most  strictly  according 
to  rule.  The  melody  given  out  by  one  part  is 
repeated  note  for  note  by  the  successive  parts 
which  follow  at  any  interval  of  time  and  position 
in  the  scale.  When  produced  between  two  parts 
it  is  called  “two  in  one,”  when  between  three, 
“  three  in  one,”  at  the  octave,  fifth,  or  any  other 
interval. 

Canon  (sometimes  spelled  canyon;  Span,  a  can¬ 
non,  tube,  gorge),  the  name  given  to  a  deep  gorge 
or  ravine,  between  high  precipitous  cliffs. 

Canoness  (canonica).  The  title  of  Canoness  was 
given  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  century  to  a  class 
of  women  living  in  common  under  a  somewhat 


laxer  rule  than  that  of  nuns,  and  originating  in 
the  Frank  Empire  in  imitation  of  the  chapters  of 
canons  then  recently  instituted.  They  took  the 
vows  of  chastity  and  obedience,  but  not  that  of 
poverty,  and  were  not  cloistered,  though  they  had 
a  common  table  and  dormitory,  and  were  bound 
to  the  recitation  of  the  breviary,  as  were  nuns. 
Their  occupations  were  chiefly  education  of  girls, 
transcription  and  embellishment  of  church  office- 
books,  and  embroidery  of  vestments. 

Canonical  Hours  are  the  hours  of  day  and 
night  fixed  for  the  reciting  or  chanting  of  the 
several  parts  of  the  divine  office  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  but  they  are  no  longer  strictly  adhered  to 
except  in  certain  monastic  orders. 

Canonicals,  a  term  used  to  describe  the  proper 
ecclesiastical  dress  of  the  clergy. 

Canonization,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
is  a  solemn  act  by  which  the  Pope  publicly  pro¬ 
claims  the  sanctity  of  a  servant  of  God,  whom  he 
thereupon  proposes  to  the  veneration  and  cultus 
of  the  Universal  Church.  As  a  rule,  it  is  the 
final  act  of  a  lengthy  juridical  process,  of  which 
a  former  stage  has  been  completed  by  the  decree 
of  beatification. 

Canon  Law  (jus  canonicum ) 
is,  strictly  speaking,  only  that 
part  of  ecclesiastical  legislation 
in  and  by  synods  of  spiritual 
persons  which  is  concerned 
with  the  moral  and  discipli¬ 
nary  government  of  the  Christ¬ 
ian  Church,  and  is  embodied 
in  the  form  of  canons  or  rules. 

_  Canopus,  or  Canobus,  a 
city  of  ancient  Egypt,  from 
which  the  Canopic  mouth 
of  the  Nile  derived  its  name, 
was  situated  on  the  sea  coast 
fifteen  miles  east  of  Alex¬ 
andria. 

Canopy  (Lat.  canopeum;  Gr. 
konopeion,  from  kbnops,  gnat 
or  mosquito)  was  originally 
a  mosquito-curtain.  Subse¬ 
quently  the  same  term  came 
to  be  used  for  the  projecting 
covering  and  hangings  of  a 
bed,  and  latterly  for  any  pro¬ 
jecting  covering  of  a  similar 
form  to  whatever  use  it  might  be 
adapted,  or  of  whatever  mate¬ 
rial  it  might  be  formed.  Canopy  is  thus  used 
to  signify  the  covering  which  is  borne  over  the 
heads  of  kings  and  other  persons  of  distinction, 
and  still  more  frequently  over  the  Holy  Sacra¬ 
ment  and  the  image  of  Christ  in  processions  in 
Roman  Catholic  countries.  In  Gothic  architect¬ 
ure,  canopy  is  the  term  applied  to  the  stone  cov¬ 
erings  usually  projected  over  statues,  both  on 
the  exterior  and  in  the  interior  of  buildings  to 
protect  them  from  the  rain  and  dust.  The  term 
canopy  is  also  applied  to  the  gable-shaped  and 
crocheted  mouldings  frequently  placed  over 
doors,  windows,  niches,  etc.;  also  to  ornamental 
stone  coverings  placed  over  tombs,  of  which  fine 
examples  may  be  seen  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
The  wooden  coverings  erected  over  the  preben¬ 
daries’  stalls  in  Cathedrals,  are  also  called  cano¬ 
pies,  as  well  as  the  lofty  ornamental  tops  which 
are  often  introduced  over  bishops’  thrones,  pul¬ 
pits,  and  altars. 

Canossa,  a  ruined  castle  of  Northern  Italy, 
twelve  miles  southwest  of  Reggio.  In  its  court¬ 
yard  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  stood  shivering, 
bareheaded,  and  barefooted,  for  three  whole  days 
(Jan.  25-28,  1077)  before  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  who 
was  staying  here  with  the  Countess  Matilda  of 
Tuscany. 

Canova,  Antonio,  the  founder  of  a  new  school 
of  Italian  sculpture,  born  Nov.  1,  1757,  was  one 
of  the  greatest  sculptors  of  modern  times.  He 
died  Oct.  13,  1822. 

Caurobert,  Francois  Certain,  Marshal  of 
France,  born  June  27,  1809.  He  commanded  the 
first  division  of  the  French  army  under  Marshal 
St.  Arnaud,  sent  to  the  Crimea  in  1854;  and  at 
the  battle  of  the  Alma  was  wounded.  On  St. 
Arnaud ’s  death  Can robert  assumed  the  chief  com¬ 
mand.  He  participated  in  the  war  in  Italy 
against  the  Austrians  (1859)  and  in  the  Franco- 
German  war  of  1870. 


Canso,  Cafe,  the  eastern  extremity  of  Nova 
Scotia,  at  the  entrance  of  Chedabucto  Bay. 

Canta'bile,  in  Music,  is  a  term  placed  over 
sections  of  easy  and  flowing  melody,  in  contradis¬ 
tinction  to  brilliant  passages  or  rapid  executive 
runs,  as  well  in  instrumental  as  vocal  music. 

Can'tabri,  a  rude  race  of  mountaineers  in  the 
north  of  ancient  Spain,  who  inhabited  the  region 
south  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  named  from  them 
the  Oceanus  Cantabricus, 

Cantata,  in  Music,  was  originally  the  name  ap¬ 
plied  to  a  sort  of  musical  narrative  by  one  person, 
accompanied  by  a  single  instrument.  Subse¬ 
quently  an  air  was  introduced,  repeated  at  inter¬ 
vals  during  the  recitative.  The  name  is  now  ap¬ 
plied  to  choral  works,  either  sacred  (and  similar 
to,  but  shorter  than  the  oratorio)  or  secular,  either 
lyric  or  dramatic,  but  not  intended  for  the  stage. 

Cauteen,  in  the  United  States  army  a  tin  ves¬ 
sel  with  a  strap  attached,  also  a  refreshment-house 
in  a  barrack  for  the  use  of  the  soldiers. 

Canterbury,  a  municipal  borough,  the  seat  of 
the  Metropolitan  Sec  of  England,  "fifty-six  miles 


Canterbury  Cathedral. 

east-southeast  of  London.  The  important  feature 
of  the  town  is  its  cathedral,  dating  from  a.d.  1070. 

Canterbury,  a  district  of  New  Zealand  in  the 
center  .of  the  South  Island.  Area,  about  13,000 
square  miles.  It  lias  a  coast  line  of  about  200 
miles,  a  breadth  of  150. 

Can'tharis,  a  genus  of  vesicant  coleoptera  or 
blister-beetles,  familiarly  represented  by  the  Span¬ 
ish  fly  of  Southern  Europe  ( Cant/iaris  or  Lytta 
vesicatorid). 

Canticles,  literally  songs,  but  specially  applied 
to  a  poetical  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  called 
in  Hebrew  the  Song  of  Songs. 

Cantilever,  or  Cantaliver  (probably  from 
old  Fr.  cant,  angle, 
and  lever,  raise),  a 
large  bracket  used  in 
architecture  for  sup¬ 
porting  cornices,  bal 
conies,  and  even 
stairs.  Cantilevers 
are  often  highly  or-  Cantilever, 

namented.  For  can¬ 
tilever  as  used  in  bridge-building,  see  Bridge. 

Canton,  capital  of  Stark  county,  Ohio,  56  miles 
south  southeast  of  Cleveland.  Pop.  (1880),  12,258. 

Canton  (Fr.),  in  Switzerland,  a  State;  in  France, 
a  collection  of  communes,  forming  a  subdivision 
of  an  arrondissement. 

Canton,  in  Heraldry,  the  dimin¬ 
utive  of  the  Ordinary  called  a 
Quarter,  being  a  square  occupying' 
generally  the  dexter,  sometimes 
tlie  sinister,  chief  of  the  field;  if 
the  latter,  it  must  be  styled  a  Can¬ 
ton-sinister. 

Canton,  John,  electrician,  born 
July  31,  1718.  lie  invented  an  Canton-sinister, 
electroscope  and  an  electrometer;  he  was  the  first 
to  make  powerful  artificial  magnets;  and  in  1762 


CANTON. 


245 


CAPETIAN  DYNASTY. 


demonstrated  the  compressibility  of  water.  He 
died  March  22,  1772. 

Canton,  called  also  Yang-Cliing  (i.  e.,  city  of 
rams),  a  city  and  port  in  the  south  of  China,  and 
capital  of  the  Province  of  Kwang-tung  (of  which 


the  name  Canton  is  merely  a  corruption),  is 
situated  in  23^  7'  10''  N.  latitude,  and  113°  14'  30" 
E.  longitude,  on  the  north  or  left  side  of  the  Shu- 
kiangor  Pearl  river,  seventy  miles  north  of  Macao 
and  ninety  miles  northwest  of  Hong  Kong. 

Cantonments  are  buildings  in  which  troops 
are  temporarily  lodged. 

Canute,  a  Latinized  form  of  Cnut,  king  of  the 
English,  Danes,  and  Norwegians,  born  about 
994.  He  was  chosen  by  his  fleet  King  of  England 
in  1014.  He  died  at  Shaftesbury,  Nov.  12,  1035. 

Canvas,  Artists’,  the  material  upon  which 
oil  paintings  are  made. 

Canvas-back  Duck  ( Fuligula  vallimeria),  a 
wild  duck  common  on  our  Atlantic  coasts.  It  is 
a  handsome  bird,  especially  the  male.  The  pop¬ 
ular  name  refers  to  the  ashy  white  color  of  the 
male’s  back,  which  resembles  coarse  canvas.  F. 
americana  or  Red  head  Duck  is  closely  allied. 

Canzo'ne  one  of  the  most  important  forms  of 
Italian  lyric  poetry. 

Capacity,  Legal,  the  power  to  alter  one’s 
rights  or  duties  by  the  exercise  of  free  will,  or 
responsibility  to  punishment  for  one’s  acts.  Civil 
capacity  depends  on  age  and  mental  condition, 
but  civil  incapacity  is  often  imposed  as  a  punish¬ 
ment  on  persons  of  full  age  and  undoubted 
mental  capacity. 

Cap-a-pie'  (Fr.  head  to  foot),  armed  at  all 
points,  or  from  head  to  foot. 

Cape  Ann,  a  rocky  peninsula  of  Massachusetts, 
thirty-one  miles  northeast  of  Boston.  Its  inhab¬ 
itants  are  mostly  fishermen,  and  it  contains  valu¬ 
able  stone  quarries. 

Cape  Breton,  a  rocky  island  of  irregular  form 
in  British  North  America,  at  the  eastern  extrem¬ 
ity  of  Nova  Scotia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  Gut  of  Canso,  one  mile  broad.  Extreme 
length,  100  miles,  breadth,  85  miles;  area,  3,120 
square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  84,500. 

Cape  Coast  Castle,  a  settlement  of  Great 
Britain  in  the  Gold  Coast  Colony,  in  Upper 
Guinea,  315  miles  west  of  Lagos.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Cape  Cod,  a  narrow  peninsula  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  in  form  somewhat  like  the  letter  L, 
which,  with  a  length  of  65  miles,  forms  the 
southeast  boundary  of  the  great  bay  of  that  State. 
The  northern  extremity  is  in  42°  3'  40"  N.  lat¬ 
itude,  and  70°  14'  48"  W.  longitude. 

Cape  Colony,  or  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  This 
extensive  tract  of  country,  forming  the  southern 
part  of  the  Continent  of  Africa,  and  which  since 
18‘ >G  has  been  the  property  of  Great  Britain,  lies 
between  28'  and  34'  50'  S.  latitude,  and  16° 
30'  and  29°  50'  E.  longitude.  On  the  north  the 
Orange  river  forms  the  natural  limits,  separating 
it  from  Great  Namaqua  Land,  the  Kalahari 
Desert,  and  the  Orange  River  Free  State;  on  the 
east  it  extends  from  the  Tees  river,  a  head  stream 
of  the  Orange,  along  the  Storm  Bergen  and  down 
the  Kei  river,  from  its  most  easterly  source 
stream  to  its  mouth,  which  line  separates  the 
colony  from  Free  Kafirland,  and  includes  within 
it  the  divisions  of  British  Kaffraria  added  to  the 
•colony  in  1865;  on  the  south  and  west  it  is  bounded 


by  the  Indian  and  Atlantic  Oceans.  A  number 
of  provinces  have  of  late  years  been  acquired  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  Cape  Colony,  among  which  are 
the  Agency  of  Basuto  Land,  Herschel,  No  Man’s 
Land,  St.  John’s  Territory,  Fingo  Land,  the 
Idutywa  Reserve,  and  Tambookie  Land.  West 
Griqua  Land,  better  known  as  the  district  of  the 
South  African  diamond  fields,  lying  north  of  the 
Orange  river  and  west  of  the  Free  State,  was 
annexed  to  the  British  Empire  in  1871.  It  is  a 
strictly  independent  colony,  but  is  so  intimately 
connected  with  Cape  Colony  as  to  be  necessarily 
described  along  with  it.  Cape  Colony  embraces 
an  area  of  231,276  square  miles,  with  a  pop. 
of  720,984.  The  entire  pop.  of  the  Colony 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  is  about  1,500,- 
000.  The  country  is  mountainous,  the  summits 
of  many  of  the  peaks  rising  from  6,000  to  10,000 
feet  above  sea  level.  Along  the  south,  the  coast 
is  bold  and  rocky;  the  Atlantic  coast  is  generally 
low  and  sandy.  There  are  numerous  bays  and 
inlets,  some  of  which  afford  good  harbors.  The 
principal  ports  are  East  London,  Port  Alfred, 
Port  Elizabeth,  Plettenberg  Bay,  Mossel  Bay, 
False  Bay;  Table  Bay,  the  Harbor  of  Cape  Town; 
Saldanha  Bay,  one  of  the  finest  natural  harbors 
in  the  world;  and  Port  Nolloth,  in  Namaqua 
Land.  The  area  of  occupied  country  is  upward 
of  40,000,000  acres,  but  not  over  500,000  acres  are 
under  cultivation.  The  flora  of  the  fertile  regions 
is  varied.  In  the  forests,  which  lie  along  the 
southern  coastland,  are  found  yellow  wood, 
black  ironwood,  and  the  assegai  or  Cape  lance- 
wood.  Many  beautiful  species  of  bulbous  plants 
are  found.  There  are  few  indigenous  fruits,  but 
almost  all  those  of  Northern  and  Southern  Europe 
grow  in  abundance.  Vines  have  been  success¬ 
fully  introduced,  and  the  grapes  are  among  the 
finest  in  the  world.  Wheat,  barley,  oats,  rye,  corn, 
rice,  and  millet  are  grown;  while  potatoes,  melons, 
pease,  beans,  and  tobacco  are  leading  products. 
The  chief  riversof  Cape  Colony  are  the  Kei, Great 
Fish, Sunday, Gamtoos,  Gauritz.Breede,  Berg,  and 
Olifants.  In  Namaqua  Land,  north  as  well  as 
south  of  the  Orange  river,  extensive  deposits  of 
copper  have  been  discovered.  One  mine  in  the  dis¬ 
trict  Springbokfontein  yields  an  average  of  nearly 
8,000  tons  of  ore  yearly.  Copper  is  also  known 
to  exist  in  the  Amapondo  country  of  Kaffraria. 
While  silver  veins  have  been  uncovered  in  Nama¬ 
qua  Land,  they  have  not  as  yet  been  advantage¬ 
ously  worked.  Diamond  mining  constitutes  the 
chief  industry  of  South  Africa.  The  precious 
gems  were  discovered  north  of  the  Orange  river 
in  1867,  and  the  result  was  to  create  a  stampede 
from  all  sections  of  the  world.  The  fields,  as  they 
are  called,  lie  in  the  eastern  portion  of  that  terri¬ 
tory  known  as  West  Griqua  Land.  It  was  by 
reason  of  the  diamond  discoveries  that  this  region 
became  annexed  to  Great  Britain  in  1871.  The 
mining  for  precious  stones  has  now  become  a 
fixed  industry  and  the  population  permanent  and 
settled,  so  that  cities  are  rapidly  growing  up  and 
social  life  developing.  The  diamond-producing 
rock  is  found  in  fragments  mixed  with  the  detri¬ 
tus  of  other  rocks  occupying  vast  depressions 
known  as  “  pans,”  or  in  the  deep  torrent  beds  of 
the  rivers.  We  have  by  this  means  a  distinguish¬ 
ing  characteristic  of  the  two  classes  of  mines:  the 
wet,  lying  principally  along  the  Lower  Vaal 
river,  and  which  are  almost  entirely  abandoned; 
and  the  dry  mines,  which  are  clustered  about 
Kimberly,  Du  Toits  Pan,  and  Bull  Fontein,  far¬ 
ther  south.  One  of  the  largest  diamonds  ever 
found  in  this  region  weighed  eighty-three  carats, 
and  was  sold  for  $57,000  in  its  rough  state.  Be¬ 
sides  copper,  silver,  coal,  and  diamonds,  iron 
ores,  hematite,  and  magnetite  abound,  the  latter 
three  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  diamond  fields. 
Fuel  is  very  scarce  there,  and  this  prevents  the 
working  of  mines  of  great  richness.  The  Euro¬ 
pean  inhabitants,  of  which  there  are  in  Cape 
Colony  proper  236,783,  consist  in  part  of  English 
officials  and  English  settlers;  but  the  majority  are 
of  Dutch,  German,  and  French  origin,  mostly 
descendants  of  the  original  settlers.  The  natives 
are  Hottentots  and  Kaffirs.  The  present  form  of 
government  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  or  Cape 
Colony,  was  established  in  1853.  The  authority 
is  vested  in  the  Governor  and  an  Executive  Coun¬ 
cil  composed  of  certain  officeholders  appointed  by 
the  crown.  There  is  a  Legislative  Council  presided 


over,  ex-officio,  by  the  Chief  Justice;  and  a  House 
of  Assembly  elected  for  five  years,  representing 
the  country  districts  and  towns  of  the  Colony. 
To  become  a  member  of  the  Council  requires  the 
possession  of  immovable  property  worth  $10,000, 
or  movable  property  worth  $20,000.  The  Gov¬ 
ernor  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  within 
the  Colony.  His  salary  is  $25,000  as  Governor, 
$5,000  as  her  Majesty’s  High  Commissioner,  and 
an  allowance  of  $1,500  for  country  residence. 

Capelin  ( Mallotus  villoms),  a  genus  belonging 
to  the  salmon  family,  and  nearly  related  to  the 
smelt.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  members  of  the 
family,  lives  on  the  sea-bottom  off  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Atlantic,  comes  to  the  surface  to 
spawn,  and  furnishes  one  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  the  cod’s  food  in  northern  regions. 

Capell,  Edward,  Sliakesperean  commentator, 
born  in  1713,  died  in  1781.  His  studies  resulted 
in  1768  in  his  edition  of  Shakespeare  in  ten  vol¬ 
umes,  the  work  of  twenty  years.  In  1774  he 
published  the  first  volume  of  his  commentary, 
but  this  part  was  recalled,  and  the  whole  pub¬ 
lished  in  1783,  as  Notes  and  Various  Readings  to 
Shakespeare,  (3  vols.) 

Cape  Fear,  the  south  point  of  Smith’s  Island, 
North  Carolina;  a  dangerous  place  for  ships. 

Cape  Farewell,  the  southern  extremity  of 
Greenland,  perhaps  the  most  exposed  portion  of 
land  in  the  world,  being  often  surrounded  with 
Arctic  ice,  extending  100  miles  to  sea. 

Cape  Hnisterre,  the  most  westerly  point  of 
Spain  (the  end  of  the  earth,  according  to  ancient 
geographers).  Two  naval  battles  were  fought 
near  here  between  the  French  and  English. 

Cape  Hatteras,  the  easternmost  point  of  North 
Carolina,  and  the  dread  of  all  mariners. 

Cape  May,  a  watering  place  in  New  Jersey  at 
the  entrance  of  Delaware  Bay. 

Capella,  a  bright  star  on  the  left  shoulder  of 
the  northern  constellation  of  Auriga. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  popularly  regarded  as 
the  most  southerly  promontory  of  Africa,  though 
it  is  half  a  degree  to  the  north  of  Cape  Agulhas, 
which  forms  the  turning  point  from  south  to  east 
on  the  voyage  from  Europe  to  India.  It  is  in 
34°  22'  S.  latitude,  and  18°  29'  E.  longitude.  On 
the  north  it  forms  Table  Bay;  on  the  west  it  shuts 
in  False  Bay  and  Simon’s  Bay.  The  Cape  was 
discovered  by  Diaz,  a  Portuguese  navigator,  in 
1486. 

Capercailzie,  or  Capercaillie,  also  called 
Wood-grouse,  or  Cock  of  the  Woods  {Telraouro- 


Capercailzie. 


f/alhis),  the  largest  of  the  gallinaceous  birds  of 
Europe. 

Capernaum,  meaning  “the  village  of  Nahum,” 
was  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  a  prosperous  place, 
and  though  called  “his  own  city,”  was  one  of 
the  three  which  he  upbraided  “because  they 
repented  not.” 

Capers  are  the  pickled  flower-buds  of  the 
caper-bush  (Capparis  spinosd). 

Capetian  Dynasty,  the  third  Frankish  dy¬ 
nasty,  founded  by  Hugo  Capet  in  987.  The  sur¬ 
name  Capet  has  been  derived  from  cappa,  the 
“monk’s  hood,”  which  he  wore  as  lay  abbot  of 
St.  Martin  de  Tours.  Soon  after  the  rise  of  the 
Capetian  dynasty,  Paris  became  its  capital.  With 
the  House  of  Capet  the  history  of  France  may 
really  be  said  to  begin;  and  it  ruled  France  till 
1328,  when  the  crown  passed  to  the  House  of 
I  Valois. 


CAPE  RACE. 


240 


CAPRICCIO. 


Cape  Race,  the  southeastern  extremity  of  New¬ 
foundland,  in  latitude  46°  40'  N.;  longitude 
52°  54'  W. 


Cape  Sable,  the  southern  point  of  Nova 
Scotia.  Another  promontory  of  the  same  name 
forms  the  southeast  extremity  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  southern  point  of  Florida. 

Capetown,  the  capital  of  Cape  Colony,  is 
situated  between  the  north  base  of  Table  Mount¬ 
ain  and  Table  Bay,  in  33°  55'  S.  latitude,  18°  28' 
E.  longitude.  Pop.  (1888),  60,000. 

Cape  Verd,  the  most  westerly  headland  in 
Africa,  jutting  out  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  be¬ 
tween  the  Rivers  Gambia  and  Senegal,  in  14°  53' 
N.  latitude,  17°  34'  W.  longitude. 

Cape  Verd  Islands  (Ilhas  do  Cabo  Verde),  a 
group  of  Portuguese  islands,  lying  in  14°  45' — 
17°  30'  N.  latitude,  and  22°  30' — 25°  10'  W. 
longitude,  and  distant  350  miles  west  of  the  cape 
from  which  they  take  their  name.  They  com¬ 
prise  ten  inhabited  islands,  besides  several  rocky 
islets,  the  chief  being  Santiago,  Sao  Antao, 
Fogo,  Brava,  and  Sao  Nicolao.  Total  area, 
1,486  square  miles;  pop.  (1834),  55,833;  (1885), 
110,926. 


Cape  Wrath,  a  pyramidal  promontory  of 
granite  gneiss  forming  the  northwest  extremity 
of  Scotland  and  of  Sutherland,  sixty-nine  miles 
northwest  of  Lairg.  It  is  523  feet  high,  and  on 
it  is  a  lighthouse,  built  in  1828. 

Capias,  in  the  practice  of  the  common  law,  is 
a  writ  directed  against  the  person,  and  so  called 
from  the  commencement  of  the  process  in  the  old 
Latin  form.  It  has  various  applications,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  following:  Capias 
ad  Respondendum  a  writ  still  used  sometimes, 
instead  of  a  justice’s  warrant,  for  the  arrest  of 
one  against  whom  an  indictment  for  misdemeanor 
has  been  found. — Capias  ad  Satisfaciendum, 
or  Ca.  Sa.,  one  of  the  writs  by  which  a  plaintiff 
can  put  a  judgment  recovered  by  him  in  execu¬ 
tion.  The  object  of  it  is  to  imprison  the  debtor 
till  satisfaction. 

Capillaire,  a  medicinal  syrup,  used  as  a  pec¬ 
toral  in  chronic  catarrhs,  formerly  prepared  by 
adding  sugar  and  orange-flower  water  to  an  in¬ 
fusion  of  the  maidenhair  fern,  now  more  gener¬ 
ally  applied  to  any  flavored  syrup. 

Capillaries.  The  tubes  which  convey  the 
blood  from  the  heart  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
body  are  termed  arteries, 
while  those  which  return  it 
to  the  heart,  after  it  has  dis¬ 
charged  its  various  func¬ 
tions  in  the  body,  are 
known  as  veins.  The  name 
of  capillary  (from  capillus, 
a  hair)  is  given  to  the 
minute  vessels  which  form 
the  connection  between  the 
terminal  branches  of  the  a 
arteries  and  the  commence¬ 
ments  of  the  trunks  of  the 
veins.  These  little  vessels 
are  of  various  sizes,  some 
admitting  only  one  blood- 
corpuscle  at  once,  while 
others  are  large  enough  to 
allow  of  the  simultaneous 
passage  of  two,  three,  or 
more  corpuscles. 

Capillarity.  When  a 
number  of  clean  glass  tubes 
of  very  fine  bore,  each  open 
at  both  ends,  are  immersed 
in  water,  or  in  any  other  a,  the  artery;  6,  the  vein; 
liquid  capable  of  wetting  c,  the  intervening  ca- 
them,  the  water  rises  in  pillaries. 
each  to  a  higher  level  than  that  at  which  it  stands 
outside,  and  the  finer  the  bore  the  greater  is  the 
height  of  the  water.  Moreover,  the  surface  of 
the  water  is  always  concave  outward.  When 
similar  tubes  are  immersed  in  mercury  the  results 
are  just  the  opposite  of  the  above.  The  mercury 
now  stands  at  a  lower  level  inside  than  outside 
each  tube,  and  the  mercury-surface  is  always 
concave  downward.  In  both  cases  the  curvature 
of  the  surface  of  the  fluid  is  greater  the  finer  the 
bore  of  the  tube. 

Capistrano,  Giovanni  da,  a  celebrated  Fran¬ 
ciscan,  born  June  24,  1386.  When  Belgrade  was 
besieged  by  Mohammed  II.  in  1456,  he  led  a  rabble 


Capillaries. 


of  60,000  to  its  relief.  He  died  Oct.  23,  1456.  He 
was  canonized  in  1690. 

Capita,  Distkibution  per,  an  expression  in 
the  law  relating  to  wills  and  succession.  It  means 
that,  where  the  persons  claiming  under  a  will  con¬ 
sist  of,  e.  (j. ,  three  families  of  grandchildren,  the 
estate  or  fund  is  divided  equally  among  all  the 
grandchildren,  and  not  equally  among  the  three 
families.  The  opposite  principle  of  division — viz., 
among  families,  is  called  distribution  per  stirpes. 

Capital,  in  the  ordinary  sense,  is  the  means 
with  which  business  is  carried  on,  and  may  con¬ 
sist  either  of  money  or  of  property  convertible 
into  money.  In  the  language  of  political  economy, 
capital  is  wealth  appropriated  to  reproductive  em¬ 
ployment.  It  is  wealth  used  for  producing  more 
wealth.  That  which  distinguishes  capital  from 
other  forms  of  wealth,  is  the  purpose  to  which  it 
is  applied.  Capital  is  one  of  the  three  requisites 
of  production,  the  other  two  being  land  and  labor. 
Capital  is  usually  divided  into  two  classes — circu¬ 
lating  capital,  which  consists  of  the  wages  paid  to 
the  workmen,  and  of  the  raw  material  used  up  in 
the  processes  of  industry,  etc.;  and  fixed  capital, 
consisting  of  buildings,  machines,  tools,  railways, 
telegraphs,  canals,  shipping,  etc. 

Capital  Account  is  the  name  given  to  what 
concerns  the  capital  stock  of  a  railway  or  other 
public  company.  In  chartering  a  railway  com¬ 
pany,  Congress  or  the  State  Legislature  gives 
power  to  raise  so  much  money  by  shares,  and  so 
much  by  borrowing.  This  money  forms  the  cap¬ 
ital  of  the  company,  and  constitutes  the  capital 
account. 

Capital  Punishment  in  criminal  jurisprudence 
is  the  punishment  of  death  (Lat.  c  ipitispcena).  In 
this  country  each  State  has  jurisdiction  over  its 
own  territory,  and  the  laws  punishing  crime  differ 
in  many  respects.  In  most  of  the  States,  murder 
is  by  statute  divided  into  different  degrees.  Death 
by  hanging  is  the  usual  penalty  for  murder  of  the 
first  degree,  but  in  a  few  States  imprisonment  for 
life  is  substituted  for  capital  punishment.  In  some 
States,  as  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Rhode  Island,  and 
Maine,  capital  punishment  has  been  done  away 
with.  In  the  States  of  New  York  and  Iowa,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  legislatures,  having  abolished 
the  death  penalty,  were  compelled  by  the  conse¬ 
quent  increase  of  crime  to  restore  it.  Various 
methods  of  execution  are  in  use,  as  hanging  in 
England  and  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  be¬ 
heading  by  sword  or  guillotine  in  Germany  and 
France,  garroting  in  Spain,  and  death  by  electri¬ 
city  in  New  York. 

Capitals  ( majuscvla ),  in  contradistinction  to 
small  letters  (minuscula),  are  larger  and  differently 
shaped  letters  employed  in  writing  and  printing 
to  help  the  eye,  to  relieve  the  uniformity  of  the 
page,  to  increase  the  facility  of  keeping  and  find¬ 
ing  the  place,  to  mark  die  beginning  of  sentences, 
proper  names,  etc.  Among  the  ancients,  and  dur¬ 
ing  the  earlier  part  of  the  middle  ages,  no  distinc¬ 
tion  between  capitals  and  small  letters  was  known; 
writing  was  originally  all  capitals;  and  after  the 
practice  had  been  introduced  of  beginning  books 
and  chapters  with  great  letters,  often  adorned  or 
illuminated  with  much  artistic  ability,  it  waslong 
before  capitals  were  employed  in  such  a  way  as 
could  afford  much  real  advantage  to  the  reader. 
At  the  preseut  day  they  are  almost  universally  in 
use,  even  in  the  printing  of  Greek  and  Latin 
books. 

Capitol  (Lat.  Capitolivm,)  the  great  national 
temple  of  ancient  Rome,  situated  on  the  southern 
summit  of  the  Mans  Capilolinus,  the  smallest  but 
most  famous  of  the  seven  hills  on  which  Rome 
was  built.  The  hill  is  an  irregular  oblong  in  fig¬ 
ure,  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  in  circumfer¬ 
ence  at  its  base,  running  from  northeast  to  south¬ 
west  and  terminating  at  its  southern  extremity 
within  250  yards  of  the  river  in  a  precipice  with 
an  abrupt  fall  of  80  feet — the  “Tarpeian  Rock,” 
over  which  state-criminals  were  thrown.  The 
Capitol  was  founded  by  Tarquinius  Priscus,  and 
completed  by  Tarquinius  Superbus.  It  was 
burned  during  the  civil  wars  (83  b.c.),  was  rebuilt 
by  Sulla,  was  burned  again  by  the  soldiers  of 
Vitellius  (69  a.d.),  rebuilt  by  Vespasian,  but 
burned  a  third  time  in  the  reign  of  Titus  (80),  and 
restored  by  Domitian,  whose  structure  lasted  to  a 
late  period  of  the  Empire.  The  modern  Capitol 
(Campidoglin,)  built  on  the  site,  and  part  of  the 


basement  of  the  ancient  Capitol,  was  designed  by 
Michael  Angelo.  It  is  used  as  a  kind  of  Hotel-de- 
Ville  and  museum.  On  the  Capitoline  Mount 
there  was  also  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  built 
by  the  Emperor  Augustus;  and  the  Tabuluriuvi 
(built  by  Quintus  Catulus,  73  b.c.),  containing 
archives.  For  the  United  States  Capitol,  see 
Washington. 

Capitularies  (Lat.  capitularia),  the  name 
given  to  the  laws  or  royal  enactments  issued  by 
the  Frankish  kings.  The  most  famous  are  those 
of  Charlemagne  and  of  St.  Louis. 

Capitulation,  a  treaty  consisting  of  several 
specified  conditions  (Lat.  capitula,  heads).  In 
the  military  sense  of  the  word,  a  capitulation  is. 
a  treaty  of  surrender  to  an  enemy.  The  mildest 
form  of  a  capitulation  is  a  convention,  agreed  to 
when  the  conqueror  is  not  strong  enough  to  insist 
on  stringent  conditions.  The  capitulation  of  Metz 
on  Oct.  27,  1870,  was  the  most  notable  of  recent 
times.  Capitulation  is  also  the  name  given  to  an 
arrangement  by  which  foreigners  receive  certain 
immunities  in  the  state  within  which  they  reside; 
thus  the  grant  made  in  the  seventeenth  century 
by  the  Porte  to  France  is  so  called,  as  is  also  the 
right  of  foreigners  in  Egypt  and  Japan  to  be  sub¬ 
ject  to  their  own  consular  jurisdictions,  and  ex¬ 
empted  from  the  native  judicatories. 

Capo  d’Istria,  a  fortified  seaport  of  Austria, 
situated  on  a  rocky  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Trieste, 
nine  and  one-half  miles  south-southwest  of  the- 
city  of  Trieste.  Pop.  (1880),  8,646.  In  ancient 
times  it  was  known  as  JEgida,  and  afterward  as 
Justinopulis,  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Justin  II., 
who  restored  it. 

Capo  d’Istrias,  Ioannes  Antonios,  Count, 
president  of  the  Greek  Republic  from  1828  to 
1831,  born  Feb.  11,  1776.  In  1809  he  entered 
the  diplomatic  service  of  Russia.  In  1828  he  en¬ 
tered  on  a  seven  years’  Presidency  of  Greece;  but 
aroused  discontent  by  his  autocratic  measures; 
and  on  Oct.  9,  1831,  was  assassinated.  His  feeble 
brother,  Iony  Augostinos  (1778-1857)  succeeded 
him,  but  resigned  in  the  following  April. 

Capon,  a  cock-chicken  castrated  in  order  to 
improve  the  flesh  for  table. 

Cappadocia,  the  name  of  a  district  of  Asia 
Minor,  the  signification  of  which  differed  widely 
at  different  periods  in  its  history.  Under  the 
Persian  rule  it  included  the  whole  northeastern 
part  of  Asia  Minor  from  Mount  Taurus  to  the 
Euxine;  but  later  the  central  and  inland  came  to 
be  called  Cappadocia  proper;  the  other  Cappa¬ 
docia  ad  Pontum,  gradually  shortened  to  Pontus. 
In  the  former  and  stricter  sense  Cappadocia  wa4 
bounded  by  Galatia  and  Lycaonia  on  the  west,  by 
Cicilia  and  Syria  on  t lie  south,  by  Armenia  on 
the  east,  and  by  Pontus  on  the  north. 

Capparidese,  or  Capparidace^:,  a  tlialami- 
floral  order  allied  to  Crucifene,  including  about 
350  known  species,  herbaceous  plants,  shrubs, 
and  trees,  mostly  natives  of  tropical  and  sub¬ 
tropical  countries.  Many  of  the  species  possess, 
stimulant  properties. 

Cappel,  a  village  of  Switzerland,  in  the  Canton 
of  Zurich,  four  and  one-half  miles  north  of  Zug. 
Here  the  reformer  Zwingli  was  killed  in  a  con¬ 
flict  with  troops  of  the  Catholic  cantons,  Oct.  11, 
1531. 

Capping  Verses,  an  amusement  that  consists 
in  A’s  quoting  a  Latin  line  which  B  has  to  “cap” 
with  another  line,  whose  initial  letter  is  identical 
with  the  last  letter  of  A’s  line. 

Caprera,  one  of  a  group  of  small  islands,  in 
the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  to  the  east  of  the  north¬ 
ern  extremity  of  Sardinia.  Measuring  6  by  2 
miles,  and  10£  square  miles  in  area,  it  is  rocky, 
bare,  and  unfertile.  In  former  times  it  was  the 
abode  only  of  wild  goats — whence  its  name  (Lat. 
and  Ital.  copra ,  a  goat) — and  rabbits,  and  was 
occasionally  visited  by  goat-lierds  and  fishermen. 
In  1885  the  island  was  purchased  from  the  heirs 
of  Garibaldi  by  the  Italian  Government, 

Capri,  (the  ancient  Capreee),  a  charming  island 
in  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bay 
of  Naples,  three  and  three-fourths  miles  from 
Cape  Campanella,  and  twenty-one  miles  south  of 
Naples.  Only  334  square  miles  in  area.  Pop. 
(1881),  4,539. 

Capriccio,  in  Music,  is  a  species  of  free  com¬ 
position,  not  subject  to  rule  as  to  form  or  figure. 


CAPRICORNUS. 


247 


CARACAS. 


Capricornus,  the  Goat,  the  tenth  sign  of  the 
Zodiac. 

Capridae,  a  term  sometimes  used  to  denote  the 
Sheep  and  Goat  family  (Ovis  and  Capra)  as  dis¬ 
tinguished  on  the  one  hand  from  Cattle  (Bovina), 
and  on  the  other  from  all  sorts  of  Antelopes 
(Antelopina).  The  term  Ovina  is  more  frequent, 
and  has  the  same  content. 

Caprillcalion,  a  curious  ancient  custom  of 
hanging  the  fig-branclies  of  the  so-called  goat-fig 
or  Caprificus  on  the  fig-trees  which  produce  the 
edible  figs. 

Capri fol iaceaj,  a  natural  order  of  corollifloral 
dicotyledons,  nearly  allied  toRubiaceae  (sub-order 
Cinchonacese),  from  which  they  are  mainly  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  the  absence  of  stipules,  and  con¬ 
taining  about  200  species  of  shrubs  and  herbs, 
natives  of  the  north  temperate  zone.  Many  are 
cultivated — e.  <j.,  the  Honeysuckles  (Lonicera),  the 
Snowberry  ( Symphoricarpus  raceniosus),  the  Guel¬ 
der  Rose  or  Snowball,  etc. 

Caprimulgidae,  or  Night-Jars,  a  family  of 
birds,  nearly  allied  to  the  Swallows,  but  differing 
from  them  in  the  greater  width  of  gape,  and  in 
having  bristles  at  the  base  of  the  bill.  They  are 
twilight  insectivorous  birds,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Oil-bird  Steatornis.  They  have  a  very 
short  triangular  beak  and  broad,  low  head,  very 
long  wings,  and  short  legs.  The  family  includes 
the  Whip-poor-will  and  Night-hawk. 

Caproic,  Caprylic,  and  Capric  Acids  are  rep¬ 
resented  by  the  formula!  HCsHn02,  HC8Hi503, 
and  HCioHiaOs,  and  are  members  of  the  acetic  or 
fatty-acid  series.  They  derive  their  name  from 
capra,  “  a  goat,”  in  consequence  of  their  more  or 
less  resembling  in  smell  the  odor  of  that  animal. 
They  may  all  be  obtained  from  butter  by  pressing 
out  the  portion  which  remains  liquid  at  60° 
(15.5°  C.),  saponifying  this  oil,  and  distilling  the 
soap  which  is  thus  formed  with  sulphuric  acid. 
The  liquid  which  passes  over  contains,  along  with 
butyric  acid,  these  three  acids,  which,  by  being 
converted  into  baryta  salts,  are  separable  from  one 
another. 

Capsicum,  a  genus  of  Solanacere,  yielding  the 
powerful  condiment  variously  known  as  pod 


pepper,  red  pepper,  Guinea  pepper,  chillies, 
capsicum,  etc. 

Capstan  (Fr.  cabestan),  on  shipboard,  is  an 
apparatus  on  the  principle  of  wheel  and  axle;  its 
barrel  or  axis  is  vertical,  and  in  the  simplest  form 
is  turned  by  levers  working  horizontally,  the  ends 
of  which  are  inserted  in  the  top  or  head  of  the 
axis.  The  rope  or  chain  attached  to  the  weight 
to  be  lifted  is  coiled  around  the  body  of  the 
capstan,  and  is  drawn  in  by  its  motion.  In 
large  vessels,  capstans  are  generally  worked  by 
steam;  on  shore  they  are  useful  for  hauling  up 
boats.  The  gin  for  lifting  coals  from  a  pit  is  a 
similar  appliance. 

Capsule,  in  Botany,  a  dry  fruit,  formed  of 
several  united  carpels  (syncarpous).  When  the 
placentation  is  parietal  or  free-central,  the  capsule 
is  of  course  one  celled;  when  axile,  it  is  two  or 
more  celled.  The  word  is  also  applied  to  gum 
envelopes  for  medicines,  to  metallic  covers  for 
bottles,  and  to  little  saucers  used  in  chemistry. 

Captain, Mil  itaky,  originally  a  head  or  leader, 
irrespective  of  the  number  of  men  under  him, 
but  now  a  company  or  troop  commander. 


Captain,  Naval,  is  the  general  designation  for 
the  officer  in  command  of  a  ship  of  the  navy, 
although  some  vessels  of  war  are  commanded  by 
officers  lower  in  rank  than  captain.  Captains 
rise  to  the  command  of  larger  ships,  with  increase 
of  pay,  according  to  length  of  service.  A  captain 
in  the  United  States  navy  ranks  with  a  colonel 
in  the  army. 

Capliou  in  the  United  States  means  the  title  of 
a  deposition  taken  before  a  magistrate,  the  certifi¬ 
cate  of  the  taking  of  a  commission  subscribed 
before  the  commissioners,  and  in  criminal  law, 
that  part  of  the  record  which  precedes  the  recital 
of  the  indictment. 

Capua,  a  fortified  city  of  Italy,  twenty-seven 
miles  north  of  Naples.  It  lias  a  tine  cathedral, 
an  antiquarian  museum  (1874) ;  and  a  tower  com¬ 
memorating  the  storming  of  the  city  by  Caesar 
Borgia  in  1501.  Pop.  (1881),  11,291.  Its  present 
name  was  derived  from  the  Samnites,  who  cap¬ 
tured  it  in  423  b.c. 

Cap'ucliiu  Monkey,  or  Cai,  a  name  often 
given  to  Cebus  capuchinus,  and  some  other 
species  of  the  genus  cebus,  South  American 
monkeys,  which  have  the  head  covered  with  short 
hair,  so  disposed  as  to  resemble  the  cowl  of  a  capu- 


Capuchin  Monkey. 


chin,  the  face  being  almost  naked,  or  only  covered 
with  a  little  down.  PUhecia  Ghiropotes,  a  South 
American  monkey  of  a  genus  allied  to  cebus, 
is  also  sometimes  called  the  capuchin  of  the 
Orinoco.  Cebus fatuellus  is  known  as  the  brown 
capuchin. 

Capuchins,  a  branch  of  the  order  of  Francis¬ 
cans,  so  designated  from  the  capuche  or  cowl 
worn  by  them  as  their  head-dress. 

Capuletsand  Montagues,  the  English  spelling 
of  the  names  of  the  Cappelletti  and  Montecclii, 
two  noble  families  of  Northern- Italy,  according 
to  tradition,  of  Verona,  chiefly  memorable  from 
their  connection  with  the  legend  on  which  Shake¬ 
speare  has  founded  his  tragedy  of  Romeo  and 
Juliet.  They  both  belonged  to  the  Ghibelline 
faction,  as  we  see  from  a  reference  in  Canto  VI.  of 
Dante’s  Puryatorio. 

Caput  Mortuuiu  (Lat.  dead  head),  phrase 
used  by  the  old  chemists  for  the  residuum  of 
chemicals  after  the  volat  ile  substances  had  escaped. 
It  is  still  used  metaphorically  for  a  thing  or  insti¬ 
tution  which  has  been  really  destroyed,  though 
the  form  is  left,  the  essence  and  valuable  charac¬ 
teristics  having  been  removed. 

Capyba'  ra  ( Ilydroc/wirus  copy  bar  a),  the  largest 


Capybara  (Hydrochoerus  capybara). 


living  rodent,  nearly  allied  to  the  guinea-pig.  It 
is  aquatic  in  its  habits,  vegetarian  in  its  diet,  and 
often  does  great  damage  in  sugar-cane  planta¬ 
tions. 


Caralmlse,  a  tribe  of  beetles,  or  coleopterous 
insects,  of  the 
section  Pentamera. 

The  Carabida!  oc¬ 
cur  everywhere, 
even  in  the  arctic 
regions,  and  blind 
forms  are  found 
in  caves.  With 
extremes  of  tem¬ 
perature  they  be¬ 
come  readily  dor¬ 
mant. 

C arabo'b o ,  a 

State  of  Venezuela, 
between  the  Carib¬ 
bean  Sea  and  the 
State  of  Zamora. 

Area,  2,974  square 
miles;  pop.  (1886),  Mormolyce  Phyllodes. 
167,499.  Capital,  Valencia;  chief  port,  Puerto 
Cabello. 

Caracal  ( Felis  or  Lynx  caracal),  a  species  of 
Lynx  found  in  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia  and 


throughout  the  whole  of  Africa;  and  probably 
the  lynx  of  the  ancients. 

Caracalla,  Roman  Emperor  from  211-17  a.d., 
the  son  of  the  Emperor  Septimius  Severus. 
Born  at  Lyons,  188  a.d.  lie  wns  originally 
named  Bassianus,  but  his  legal  name  was  M. 
Aurelius  Antoninus.  Caracalla  was  a  nickname 
given  him  from  his  favorite  dress,  a  long,  hooded 
tunic.  After  his  father’s  death  at  Eboracum 
(York)  in  211  a.d.,  he  ascended  the  throne  as  co¬ 
regent  with  his  brother,  whom  he  afterward 
caused  to  be  murdered.  After  almost  exhausting 
Italy  by  his  extortions,  he  turned  to  the  provinces, 
which  had  been  in  a  great  measure  spared  by  the 
tyranny  of  former  Emperors.  In  214  he  visited 
Gaul,  Germany,  Dacia,  and  Thrace;  and  after  a 
campaign  against  the  Alemanni,  assumed  the 
surname  Alemannicus.  He  wns  assassinated  April 


8,  217. 

Caracara,  a  Brazilian  name  applied  to  several 
of  the  falcon-like 
hawks,  and  espe¬ 
cially  to  Polyborus 
braziliensis.  T  h  e 
name  refers  to  the 
hoarse  cry. 

Caracas,  the  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  Republic  of 
Venezuela  and  of  the 
Federal  District,  is 
situated  in  10°  31 ' 

N.  latitude,  and  67° 

5'  W.  longitude,  six 
miles  south  of  La 
G  u  a  i  r  a ,  its  port . 

Built  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Avila 
(8,635  feet),  it  is  3,025 
feet  above  the  tide  Caracara. 

level,  and  enjoys  (Polyborus  braziliensis) . 
from  this  elevation  a  healthy  air  and  a  tempera¬ 
ture  ranging  between  48°  and  100°  F.  The 
streets,  built  at  right  angles,  are  broad  and  well 
paved.  Pop.  (1886),  55,819. — The  Federal  Dis¬ 
trict,  with  an  area  of  forty-five  square  miles, 
includes,  besides  Caracas,  six  boroughs  with  a 
joint  pop.  of  14,259;  total  (1886),  70,078.  The 
neighborhood  is  subject  to  earthquakes;  in  that 
of  1812,  12,000  citizens  perished. 


CARACCI. 


248 


CARBONIC  ACID. 


Caraeci,  or  Carracci,  a  celebrated  family  of 
Italian  painters,  the  founders  of  the  Bolognese 
school  of  painting. 

Ludovico  Caracci,  the  son  of  a  butcher,  was 
horn  at  Bologna  in  1555.  In  conjunction  with 
two  of  his  cousins  he  founded  the  Eclectic  S  liool 
which  afterward  became  famous  in  the  history 
of  painting.  So  great  was  their  success,  that  all 
other  schools  of  painting  were  closed  in  Bologna. 
Some  of  his  finest  works  are  preserved  at  Bologna 
— among  others,  the  “Madonna  and  Child 
Throned,”  “  Madonna  and  Child  Standing,”  the 
“Transfiguration,”  and  the  “Nativity  of  St. 
John  the  Baptist.”  He  also  engraved  and  etched 
a  few  of  his  own  designs.  Ludovico  died  in  1619. 

Agostino  Caracci,  cousin  of  Ludovico,  was 
born  (1558)  in  Bologna.  As  an  engraver,  he  holds 
an  important  position  in  Italian  art.  lie  left  Rome, 
and  went  to  Parma,  where  he  died  in  1602. 

Annibale  Caracci,  brother  of  Agostino,  was 
born  (1560)  in  Bologna.  Ilis  picture  of  “St. 
Roche  Distributing  Alms”  first  gained  for  him  a 
wide  reputation.  He  was" employed  to  paint  the 
Farnese  Gallery,  which  is  considered  his  greatest 
work,  and  the  manner  of  which  partakes  some¬ 
what  of  Raphael  and  Correggio.  He  died  in  1609. 

Antonio  Marziale  Caracci  (1583-1618),  natu¬ 
ral  son  of  Agostino,  was  a  pupil  under  Annibale, 
and  painted  some  excellent  pictures. 

Francesco  (styled  Francesciiino)  Caracci, 
nephew  of  Agostino  and  Annibale,  born  in  1595, 
and  distinguished  himself  as  a  designer.  He 
died  1622. 

Carac'tacus,  a  king  of  the  Britons,  for  nine 
years  (41-50  A. d.)  warred  against  the  Roman  in¬ 
vaders,  but  was  overthrown  by  Ostorius  in  a  bat¬ 
tle  near  the  border  of  South  Wales.  He  was 
carried  to  Rome,  51  a.d.,  and  exhibited  in  a  tri¬ 
umphal  procession  by  the  Emperor  Claudius,  who 
was  greatly  impressed  by  his  dauntless  bearing 
and  language.  He  died  at  Rome  about  54  a.d. 

Caraffa  is  the  name  of  an  ancient  Neapolitan 
family,  to  which  several  Cardinals  and  Pope  Paul 
IV.  belonged.— Carlo  Caraffa,  nephew  of  Paul 
IV.,  was  born  in  1517,  fought  in  the  Netherlands, 
joined  the  Knights  of  Malta,  and  was  made  Car¬ 
dinal  by  his  uncle.  Paul  had  ultimately  to  ban¬ 
ish  the  Cardinal  and  his  brothers  from  Rome  for 
extortion;  and  in  1561  Pope  Pius  IV.  caused  him 
to  be  put  to  death. 

Carambola,  or  Coromandel  Gooseberry,  is 
the  fruit  of  Averrhoa  Carambola,  a  small  East 
Indian  evergreen  tree  belonging  to  the  Oxalida- 
ceae.  Its  congener,  A.  Bilimbi,  yields  the  acid 
fruit  known  as  the  Bilimbi  or  Blimbing. 

Caramel,  the  Highly-flavored,  dark-brown  sub¬ 
stance  produced  by  the  application  of  heat  to 
sugar.  It  is  formed  during  the  roasting  of  all 
materials  containing  sugar,  such  as  coffee, chicory, 
and  malt,  and  is  one  cause  of  the  dark  color  of 
porter  and  infusions  of  coffee.  It  is  employed  in 
the  coloring  of  whisky,  wines,  vinegar,  etc. 

Carapa,  a  genus  of  Meliaceae,  found  in  tropi¬ 
cal  America  and  Guinea.  The  stem  of  C.  e/uian- 
ensis  is  used  for  masts;  its  bark  is  a  febrifuge, 
and  its  seeps  yield  a  lamp  oil  called  carapa  (often 
corrupted  into  crab)  oil. 

Carapace,  a  term  applied  to  the  shield  on  the 
back  of  such  crustaceans  as  crab  and  lobster,  of 
the  unique  king  crab  or  limulus,  or  of  chelonians 
like  tortoise  and  turtle.  In  the  former  cases  it  is 
a  horny  and  limy  modification  of  the  outer  por¬ 
tion  of  the  skin;  in  the  last  it  is  mainly  due  to 
backbone  and  ribs. 

Carat.  Goldsmiths  and  assayers  divide  the 
trov  pound,  ounce,  or  any  other  weight  into 
twenty-four  parts,  and  call  each  a  carat,  as  a 
means  of  stating  the  proportion  of  pure  gold  con¬ 
tained  in  any  alloy  of  gold  with  other  metals. 
Thus,  the  gold  of  English  coinage  and  of  wed¬ 
ding-rings,  which  contains  ||  of  pure  gold,  is 
called  “  22-carats  fine,”  or  “  22-carat  gold.”  This, 
however,  is  not  the  case  with  the  jewelry  carat 
used  for  weighing  diamonds  and  other  precious 
stones,  pearls,  etc.,  which  has  a  fixed  weight  equal 
to  3£  troy  grains,  and  is  divided  into  quarters,  or 
“  carat  grains,”  eighths, sixteenths,  thirty-seconds, 
and  sixty-fourths. 

Caravaggio,  a  town  in  the  Italian  Province  of 
Bergamo,  three  miles  southeast  of  Treviglio. 
Pop.,  6,089. 

Caravaggio,  Miciiel  Angelo  Amerigi,  or 


Morigida,  a  celebrated  Italian  painter,  born  in 
1569.  One  of  his  best  paintings,  “The  Fraudu¬ 
lent  Gamblers,”  is  preserved  in  the  Sciarra 
Gallery  at  Rome.  An  earlier  and  less  celebrated 
Italian  painter,  Polidoro  Caldara  da  Cara¬ 
vaggio,  was  born  about  1492,  and  murdered  in 
1543.  He  aided  Raphael  in  the  subordinate  parts 
of  his  frescoes  in  the  Vatican.  His  celebrated 
picture  of  “Christ  bearing  the  Cross,”  is  in  the 
Naples  Museum. 

Caravan  (Persian  kdrwdn),  a  large  company  of 
travelers  associated  for  mutual  help  and  pro¬ 
tection.  Caravanserais,  or  Khans,  the  build¬ 
ings  erected  in  the  East  generally  as  a  pious 
charity,  for  the  shelter  of  caravans  or  travelers; 
they  are  unfurnished,  water  only  being  provided. 

Caraway  ( Carum  Carvi  or  Carui ),  a  species 
of  Umbelliferse,  valued  and  cultivated  in  Europe 
for  the  sake  of  the  well-known  aromatic  caraway 
seeds  or  mericarps  which  it  bears. 

Carbides,  formerly  termed  carburets,  are  the 
compounds  of  carbon  with  the  various  metals. 

Carbine  is  a  short  rifle.  In  the  United  States 
army  all  cavalry  soldiers  carry  the  Springfield 
carbine. 

Carbineers,  or  Carabineers,  meant  formerly 
light  horsemen,  used  chiefly  to  watch  and  harass 
the  enemy,  defend  narrow  passes,  and  act  as 
skirmish'  rs. 

Carbolic  Acid,  Phenol,  or  Phenic  Acid, 
CnHsOH,  is  one  of  the  most  important  sub¬ 
stances  derived  from  coal-tar.  Although  called 
an  acid,  and  forming  salts,  it  is  neutral  to  test- 
paper,  and  lias  more  in  common  with  the  alco¬ 
hols  than  with  the  acids.  It  is  obtained  by  dis¬ 
tilling  coal-tar,  reserving  the  portion  passing  over 
between  356°  and  374°.  (180Q-190°  C.)  After 
rectification,  this  constitutes  the  crude  carbolic 
acid  used  so  largely  for  disinfecting  purposes. 
By  careful  purification  it  can  be  obtained  pure, 
when  it  forms  minute  white  or  colorless  plates  or 
needles,  possessing  a  burning  taste,  and  an  odor 
resembling  that  of  creosote.  By  exposure  to 
the  air  it  becomes  pinkish,  but  it  is  not  otherwise 
injured.  It  rapidly  absorbs  water  from  the  air, 
forming  an  oily  liquid,  which  does  not  readily 
mix  with  water  until  about  fifteen  volumes  have 
been  added,  when  it  forms  a  solution.  Carbolic- 
acid  is  readily  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  chloro¬ 
form,  glycerin,  olive  oil,  and  volatile  oils.  Al¬ 
though  called  an  acid,  it  forms  but  very  weak 
combinations  with  the  alkalies,  some  of  the  so- 
called  carbolates  used  for  disinfecting  purposes 
being  probably  only  earthy  substances  mixed 
with  carbolic  acid.  In  solution  carbolic  acid 
coagulates  albumen,  arrests  fermentation,  de¬ 
stroys  parasites,  whetlieranimal  or  vegetable,  and 
prevents  mouldimr  or  putrefaction.  Owing  to 
these  valuable  pr™-rties  it  has  come  largely  into 
use  as  an  antiseptic  and  disinfectant.  Taken 
internally,  concentrated  carbolic  acid  acts  as  an 
irritant  poison,  accompanied  by  a  numbing  of  the 
stomach,  which  prevents  the  action  of  emetics. 
Medicinally,  carbolic  acid  may  be  given  in  doses 
of  one  to  three  grains  dissolved  in  glycerine  or 
water. 

Carbon  (sym.  C.;  atomic  weight  12)  is  one  of 
the  elementary  substances  most  largely  diffused 
in  nature.  It  occurs  uncombined  in  the  mineral 
graphite  or  black  lead,  and  in  the  diamond, 
which  is  pure  crystallized  carbon.  It  is  much 
more  abundant,  however,  in  a  state  of  com¬ 
bination.  United  with  oxygen,  it  occurs  as  Car¬ 
bonic  acid,  C02,  in  the  atmosphere,  in  natural 
waters,  in  limestone,  dolomite,  and  iron-stone.  In 
coal  it  is  found  combined  with  hydrogen  and  oxy¬ 
gen,  and  in  plants  and  animals  it  occurs  as  one  of 
the  elements  building  up  wood,  starch,  gum, 
sugar,  oil,  bone  (gelatin),  and  flesh  (fibrin).  In¬ 
deed  there  is  no  other  element  which  is  so  char¬ 
acteristic  of  plant  and  animal  organisms,  and  it 
ranks  as  the  only  element  never  absent  in  sub¬ 
stances  obtained  from  the  two  kingdoms  of  or¬ 
ganic  nature.  Wood  charcoal,  coke,  lampblack, 
and  animal  charcoal  are  artificial  varieties,  more 
or  less  impure,  of  carbon.  The  specific  gravity 
of  the  different  forms  of  carbon  greatly  varies; 
that  of  the  diamond  being  3.330  to  3.550,  while 
graphite  is  only  about  2.300.  Carbon,  in  its 
ordinary  forms,  is  a  good  conductor  of  electricity; 
in  the  form  of  diamond,  it  is  a  non-conductor. 
Of  heat,  the  lighter  varieties  of  carbon,  such  as 


wood  charcoal,  are  very  bad  conductors;  graph¬ 
ite  in  mass  has  very  considerable  conducting 
powers.  At  ordinary  temperatures,  all  the  varie¬ 
ties  of  carbon  are  extremely  unalterable;  so  much 
so,  that  it  is  customary  to  char  the  ends  of  piles 
of  wood  which  are  to  be  driven  into  the  ground, 
so  as  by  this  coating  of  non-decaying  carbon  to 
preserve  the  interior  wood.  Wood  charcoal  takes 
fire  with  the  greatest  readiness,  bone-black 
(animal  charcoal)  less  so;  then  follow  in  order  of 
difficulty  of  combustion — coke,  anthracite,  lamp¬ 
black,  black  lead,  and  the  diamond.  Indeed, 
black  lead  is  so  non-combustible,  that  crucibles  to 
withstand  very  high  temperatures  for  prolonged 
periods  without  breakage  or  burning,  are  made 
of  black  lead;  and  the  diamond  completely  re¬ 
sists  all  ordinary  modes  of  setting  fire  to  it.  In 
the  property  of  hardness  carbon  ranges  from  the 
velvet-like  lampblack  to  diamond,  the  hardest  of 
gems.  In  1879  it  was  announced  that  a  method 
of  producing  pure  crystallized  carbon  or  dia¬ 
mond  had  been  discovered,  but  so  far,  the  arti¬ 
ficial  crystals  obtained  have  only  been  of  micro¬ 
scopic  size.  Besides  the  physical  properties 
already  alluded  to,  carbon  possesses  very  remark 
able  absorbent  powers,  enabling  it  not  only  to  de¬ 
colorize  syrupy  liquids,  but  also  to  absorb  gases. 
Thus,  freshly  ignited  wood  charcoal  will  absorb 
ninety  times  its  own  volume  of  ammonia  gas, 
and  sixty -five  times  its  volume  of  sulphurous 
anhydride  gas.  Owing  to  this  property  it  has 
many  important  uses.  When  employed  in  the 
construction  of  respirators,  so  arranged  that  the 
air  is  drawn  through  a  layer  of  charcoal,  it  is 
possible  to  breathe  an  atmosphere  which  other¬ 
wise  would  be  irrespirable.  Water  and  wine 
which  have  become  tainted  may  be  readily  ren¬ 
dered  wholesome  by  means  of  charcoal.  When 
it  is  mixed  with  potting-soil  it  prevents  the  sour¬ 
ing  of  the  S' 41,  which  is  so  injurious  to  the  finer 
varieties  of  plants.  -Most  filters  for  the  purifi¬ 
cation  of  water  contain  charcoal,  which  not 
only  removes  organic  matter,  but  lessens  the 
hardgte-s  of  the  water.  For  decolorizing  liquids 
bone-black  is  preferable.  The  varieties  of  carbon, 
as  mentioned  above,  differ  very  considerably  in 
the  readiness  with  which  they  combine  with  oxy¬ 
gen;  but  when  burned  they  all  yield  carbonic 
anhydride,  C02.  Carbon  forms  another  oxide, 
called  carbonic  oxide  CO,  when  it  is  burned  with 
only  a  limited  supply  of  air.  When  heated  with 
sulphuric  acid  carbon  decomposes  it.  forming  car¬ 
bonic  oxide  and  sulphurous  anhydride.  Thus; 

Sulphuric  Sulphurous  Carbonic 
Carbon  Acid.  Anhydride.  Oxide.  Water. 

c  +  h.,so4  =  s'o2  +  co  +  ii2o. 

Carbon  unites  with  metals  to  form  carbides,  the 
chief  of  which  are  those  of  iron.  With  lpydro- 
gen  carbon  forms  a  very  important  class  of  or¬ 
ganic  compounds,  including  such  unlike  sub¬ 
stances  as  turpentine,  oil  of  lemon,  Ciollis,  and 
marsh  gas,  CII2.  As  carbon  unites  with  nearly 
all  the  elements  to  form  chlorides,  bromides,  etc., 
the  number  of  carbon  compounds  is  virtually 
unlimited. 

Carbona'do,  a  form  of  carbon  resembling 
hematite,  but  akin  to  the  diamond,  used  like 
black  diamonds  in  boring. 

Carbonari  (literally  colliers  or  charcoal-burn¬ 
ers),  the  name  of  certain  secret  societies,  which 
flourished  both  in  Italy  and  France  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  this  century.  The  Carbonari  played  a 
considerable  part  in  Italian  history.  Murat,  the 
Bonapartist  King  of  Naples,  repressed  them  for  a 
time,  their  leader,  Capobianco,  being  put  to  death; 
yet  they  helped  to  overthrow  French  rule  in 
Southern  Italy.  After  the  Bourbon  restoration 
in  1815,  the  discontent  continued,  and  Carbona- 
rism  attained  to  its  greatest  degree  of  prosperity. 
Priests,  officers  of  the  army,  and  even  women, 
joined  the  organization,  which  included  among 
its  members  Charles  Albert  (afterward  King  of 
Sardinia),  Lord  Byron,  Silvio  Pellico,  and  Maz- 
zini.  In  1820  its  membership  was  estimated  at 
300,000  and  700,000.  But  its  strength  was  broken 
through  the  unsuccessful  risings  of  1820  and  1821. 

Carbonated  or  Acidulous  Waters  are  those 
which  contain  a  great  excess  of  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Carbondale,  a  town  of  Lackawanna  county, 
Penn.,  sixteen  miles  north-northeast  of  Scranton. 
Pop.  (1880),  7,714. 

Carbonic  Acid,  Carbon  Dioxide,  or  Carbon 


CARBONIC  OXIDE. 


249 


CARDS. 


Anhydride,  also  called  Fixed  AirorCliokedamp, 
exists  as  a  normal  constituent  of  the  atmosphere, 
of  which  it  forms  about  25'poth  part.  Carbonic 
acid  also  exists  in  combination  as  carbonate *,  the 
most  largely  distributed  of  which  are  the  carbo¬ 
nate  of  lime,  CaC03,  either  alone,  or  in  combi¬ 
nation  with  magnesium  as  dolomite,  the  black- 
band  ironstone  (carbonate  of  iron,  FeC03),  mal¬ 
achite  (basic  carbonate  of  copper  CuH202,CuC03), 
etc.  The  term  carbonic  acid  is  hardly  a  correct 
one,  and  it  is  better  to  call  the  gas,  C02,  carbon  di¬ 
oxide  or  carbonic  anhydride,  reserving  the  term 
carbonic  acid  for  the  solution  in  water.  The  gas¬ 
eous  carbonic  acid  is  represented  by  the  formula 
CO2,  and  contains  12  parts  of  carbon  and  32 
parts  of  oxygen  by  weight.  It  is  a  very  dense 
gas,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  1.529,  that  of  air 
being  1.000.  Carbonic  acid  is  a  colorless  gas, 
possessing  a  pleasant,  acidulous  taste.  Under  a 
pressure  of  about  forty  atmospheres  (600  lb.  per 
square  inch)  it  becomes  condensed  to  a  liquid. 
When  the  liquid  carbonic  acid  is  allowed  to  es¬ 
cape  through  a  smalT  jet,  it  rapidly  evaporates 
and  produces  intense  cold,  with  the  result  that  a 
certain  portion  becomes  frozen  into  a  solid  resem¬ 
bling  snow.  When  pressed  on  the  skin  it  produces 
the  sensation  of  burning,  and  when  thrown  into 
a  hot-  crucible  along  with  mercury,  the  latter 
(under  suitable  conditions)  becomes  frozen  into  a 
solid  mass.  At  ordinary  pressures  carbonic  acid 
is  soluble  in  about  its  own  bulk  of  water,  its  sol¬ 
ubility  increasing  with  increased  pressure.  This 
property  is  taken  advantage  of  in  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  Aerated  Waters,  the  sparkling  appearance 
of  which  is  due  10  the  liberation  of  carbonic  acid. 
Carbonic  acid  is  non-combustible,  and  it  does  not 
support  combustion  or  animal  life.  A  lighted 
taper  is  immediately  extinguished  when  plunged 
into  a  vessel  containing  carbonic  acid.  The  French 
suicides  who  make  use  of  a  charcoal  fire  to  ter¬ 
minate  their  existence,  are  partly  poisoned  by 
the  carbonic  acid,  and  partly  by  the  carbonic 
oxide  produced  by  the  burning  carbon.  Car¬ 
bonic  acid  may  be  very  readily  prepared  from 
chips  of  marble,  water,  and  hydrochloric  acid. 
Carbonic  acid  is  the  principal  product  of  combus 
tion;  the  carbon  of  the  burning  substance  (wood, 
coal,  paper,  coal-gas,  etc.)  uniting  with  the  oxy¬ 
gen  of  the  air  to  form  carbonic  acid.  It  is  also  a 
product  of  respiration,  and  is  evolved  more  or 
less  largely  by  all  animals  not  only  by  the  lungs, 
but  also  by  the  skin.  During  the  fermentation 
of  beer  or  wine  it  is  liberated,  while  decaying 
vegetable  or  animal  matters  give  off  the  gas  in 
quantity.  There  is  a  popular  prejudice  against 
having  plants  in  a  bedroom  during  the  night-time. 
This  is  based  on  the  fact  that  plants  give  off  car¬ 
bonic  acid  in  the  dark,  while  they  absorb  it 
during  the  day.  Carbonic  acid  forms  two  classes 
of  salts,  called  carbonates  and  bic  irbonates.  The 
bicarbonates  differ  from  the  carbonates  in  con¬ 
taining  twice  as  much  caroonic  acid  gas  relatively 
to  the  base.  Thus,  carbonate  of  soda,  Na2C03, 
may  be  regarded  as  consisting  of  soda,  Na20,  and 
carbonic  acid,  C02;  while  the  bicarbonate,  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  same  way,  would  be  NA20-|-H20-|- 
2C02,  or  shortly,  2NaHC03.  The  bicarbonates 
verv  readily  lose  the  extra  molecule  of  carbonic 
ackj ,  yielding  then  the  ordinary  carbonate.  The 
bicarbonate  of  lime  is  interesting  as  being  the 
form  in  which  most  of  the  lime  present  in  drink¬ 
ing  water  is  held  in  solution.  AVhen  the  rain, 
impregnated  with  carbonic  acid  from  the  atmos¬ 
phere,  or  charged  with  the  gas  from  subterranean 
sources,  percolates  down  through  a  chalky  soil,  it 
dissolves  the  chalk,  or  carbonate  of  lime,  CaC03, 
forming  a  bicarbonate,  and  thus  becomes  what  is 
known  as  a  hard  water.  Such  a  water  may  be 
readily  softened  by  boiling,  when  the  carbonic 
acid  escapes,  and  the  chalk,  no  longer  soluble, 
falls  to  the  bottom.  This  gives  rise  to  the  domes¬ 
tic  phenomenon  known  as  the  furring  of  the  ket¬ 
tle. 

Carbonic  Oxide  is  the  lower  oxide  of  carbon 
and  is  represented  by  the  formula  CO.  It  con¬ 
sists  of  twelve  parts  by  weight  of  carbon  and  16 
parts  of  oxygen.  It  does  not  occur  naturally,  but 
may  be  observed  burning  with  a  pale-blue  flame 
in  fireplaces  and  stoves,  especially  in  frosty 
weather.  During  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  at 
the  lower  part  of  the  grate  the  oxygen  of  the  air 
unites  with  the  carbon  of  the  fuel  to  form  car¬ 


bonic  acid,  C02;  and  this  gas  rising  up  through 
red-liot  coal  or  carbon,  C,  has  part  of  its  oxygen 
abstracted  by  the  carbon,  and  two  molecules  of 
carbonic  oxide,  CO,  are  produced,  which,  taking 
fire  on  the  top  of  the  coals,  burn  with  the  charac¬ 
teristic  blue  flame,  abstracting  more  oxygen  from 
the  air,  and  reforming  carbonic  acid,  C02.  Car¬ 
bonic  oxide  is  a  transparent,  colorless  gas,  with  an 
oppressive  odor.  It  is  rather  lighter  than  air,  its 
specific  gravity  being  only  .968.  "  In  this  it  differs 
very  markedly  from  carbonic  acid.  For  many 
years  it  resisted  all  attempts  to  liquefy  it,  but  at 
last  it  yielded  to  the  modern  methods  of  combined 
cold  and  pressure.  It  burns  with  a  blue  flame, 
but  is  a  non-supporter  of  combustion,  and  at  once 
extinguishes  a  lighted  caudle  introduced  into  it. 
It  is  very  poisonous,  and  even  when  largely  di¬ 
luted  with  air,  if  inhaled,  it  produces  a  sensation 
of  oppressing  and  tightness  of  the  head,  and  ulti¬ 
mately  acts  as  a  narcotic  poison. 

Carboniferous  System.  The  strata  included 
under  this  system  rest  upon  those  belonging  to 
the  Devonian  and  Old  Red  Sandstone  system,  and 
are  overlaid  by  the  Permian.  The  system  derives 
its  name  from  the  amount  of  coal  and  carbon¬ 
aceous  matter  which  itcontains.  InNorth  Amer¬ 
ica  the  system  is  extensive.  The  carboniferous 
strata  here  are  divided  into  two  groups:  the  lower 
or  sub-carboniferous,  and  the  carboniferous,  com¬ 
prising  the  millstone  grit  and  the  coal  measures. 
According  to  Professor  Dana  the  coal-bearing  area 
of  the  North  American  Continent  is  approximately 
as  follows: 

Sq.  Miles. 


Rhode  Island  area .  500 

Alleghany  area . 59.000 

Michigan  area  . . G.700 

Illinois,  Indiana.  West  Kentucky . . 47,000 

Missouri,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Arkansas,  Texas . 78,000 

Nova  Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  . 18,000 


Carboniferous  strata  have  likewise  been  de¬ 
tected  in  the  arctic  regions,  as  in  Melville  Island, 
the  northern  coast-lands  of  Baffin  Bay,  in  Bear 
Island,  and  Spitzbergen. 

Carbuncle  (Lat.  carbunculus ,  a  little  coal),  a 
name  given  by  lapidaries  to  a  mineral  of  a  deep 
red  and  scarlet,  called  Pyrope  by  mineralogists. 

Carbuncle,  so  called  from  the  two  prominent 
symptoms — a  fiery  redness,  and  a  burning  pain — 
is  closely  allied  to  boil,  but  the  symptoms,  both 
local  and  general,  are  much  more  severe.  It  con¬ 
sists  of  an  inflammation  caused  by  some  vitiated 
condition  of  the  blood,  or  some  atmospheric  in¬ 
fluence,  attacking  the  shoulders,  nape  of  the  neck, 
or  other  parts  of  the  body. 

Carburetted  Hydrogen  is  a  term  in  chemistry 
applied  to  several  compounds  of  carbonUnd  hydro¬ 
gen.  Thus,  light  carburetted  or  monocarbu- 
retted  hydrogen,  CH4,  is  the  gaseous  compound 
popularly  known  as  marsh  gas  and  fire-damp,  and 
is  the  principal  constituent  of  coal-gas.  Heavy 
carburetted  or  bi-carburetted  hydrogen,  C2H4,  is 
otherwise  known  as  Olefiant  Gas. 

Car  'cauet,  a  jeweled  collar  or  necklace.  Venice 
was  famous  for  the  manufacture  of  carcanets  in 
fifteenth  century. 

Carchar'odon,  an  extinct  genus  of  sharks,  the 
teeth  of  which  are  not  uncommon  fossils  in  the 
tertiary  deposits. 

Cardamoms  are  the  capsules  of  certain  species 
of  Zingiberacese,  particularly  Elettaria  Carda- 
momum,  a  flag-like  perennial,  abundant  in  the 
moist,  shady  mountain  forests  of  the  Malabar  coast. 

Cardan  (Ital.  Cardano;  Latinized  Cardanus), 
Jerome,  a  celebrated  mathematician,  naturalist, 
physician,  and  philosopher,  was  born  at  Pavia 
Sept.  24,  1501.  He  died  Sept.  2,  1576,  a  few  weeks 
after  finishing  his  remarkably  candid  and  interest¬ 
ing  autobiography,  l)e  Prop/ia  Vila. 

Cardboard,  or  Card,  was  formerly  made  by 
pasting  or  pressing  together  several  layers  of 
paper,  according  to  the  thickness  aijd  quality 
required,  the  outside  sheet  s  being  generally  white. 
It  is  now  made  from  pulp,  the  product  of  rags  or 
other  material,  which  is  passed  through  rollers 
under  high  pressure. 

Cardia  (Gr.),  the  heart;  also  the  upper  orifice 
of  the  stomach,  called,  on  account  of  its  vicinity 
to  the  heart,  by  the  same  Greek  name. — Cardial- 
oia  is  the  name  commonly  applied  to  the  par¬ 
ticular  variety  of  pain  called  heartburn,  arising 
from  a  disordered  stomach  and  accompanied  by 
acid  eructations. 


Cardiff  ( Caer-Tajf ,  fort  of  the  Taff),  a 
parliamentary  and  municipal  borough  and  sea¬ 
port,  the  county  town  of  Glamorgan,  South 
Wales,  situated  on  the  river  Taff.  Pop.  (1888), 
130,500.  The  Bute  docks,  with  an  area  of  1101- 
acres,  constructed  at  the  expense  of  the  Butte 
estate,  have  cost  nearly  $20,000,000,  and  belong 
to  the  Marquis  of  Butte. 

Cardigan,  James  Thomas  Brudenell, 
seventh  Earl  of,  born  in  1797,  sat  in  the  House 
of  Commons  from  1818  to  1837,  when  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father.  From  1836  to  1847  he  com¬ 
manded  the  Eleventh  Hussars.  He  commanded 
a  cavalry  brigade  under  Lord  Lucan  in  the 
Crimea,  and  led  the  famous  charge  of  the  Six 
Hundred  at  Balaclava.  He  was  Inspector-Gen¬ 
eral  of  cavalry  1855-60,  and  died  March  28, 
1868. 

Cardigan  Bay  is  a  semicircular  bend  of  St. 
George’s  Channel,  on  the  west  coast  of  Wales, 
54  miles  wide  from  north  to  soutli*  and  35  miles 
in  indentation,  with  a  sweep  of  coast  of  130 
miles. 

Cardiganshire,  a  maritime  county  in  South 
Wales,  with  a  coast  line  of  forty -eight  miles,  a 
width  of  thirty-two  miles,  and  an  area  of  693 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  70,270. 

Cardinal. 

The  word  was 
formerly  used  of 
any  cleric  regu¬ 
larly  settled  ( in - 
cardinatus,  in- 
hinged)  in  any 
church,  then  of 
the  clergy  in 
the  cathedral, 
the  bishop  be¬ 
ing  regarded  as 
the  car  do,  or 
“hinge”  of  the  Cardinal’s  Hat. 

diocese,  but  now  applied  only  to  the  counsellors  of 
the  Pope. 

Cardinal  Bird,  or  Red  Bird  (Cardinalis 
virginianus), 
also  spoken  of 
as  Cardinal 
Finch,  Car¬ 
dinal  Gros¬ 
beak,  and 
Vi r  gi  n  i  a  n 
Nightingale, 

The  color  of 
the  male  is 
usually  red, 
the  head  be¬ 
ing  vermil¬ 
ion,  and  only 
a  small  por¬ 
tion  of  the 
pi  u  m  age 
around  the 
base  of  the 
bill  and  on 
the  u  p  pe  r 
throat  being 
black.  The 
feathers  of  the  crown  are  long,  and  erected  into 
a  conical  crest,  like  a  fed  cap.  The  cardinal 
abounds  in  Texas,  Florida,  and  the  Southern 
States  of  America  generally,  migrating  north¬ 
wards  in  spring. 

Cardinal  Virtues  (Lat.  cardinalis,  chief,  from 
cardo,  a  hinge).  The  cardinal  virtues  of  the 
ancients  were  Justice,  Prudence,  Temperance, 
Fortitude. 

Carding'  is  the  process  of  disentangling  and 
arranging  in  parallel  rows  the  fibers  of  cotton  or 
wool  in  order  for  spinning. 

Cardinia,  a  genus  of  fossil  Lamellibranchs. 

Carditis,  or  inflammation  of  the  heart,  a  form 
of  disease  of  very  rare  occurrence,  if  the  term  be 
limited  in  its  application  to  cases  of  true  acute 
inflammation  of  the  muscular  structure  of  the 
heart  alone  (myocarditis). 

Cardoon  ( Cynara  Cardunculvs),  a  perennial 
composite  of  the  same  genus  with  the  artichoke, 
a  native  of  the  South  of  Europe  and  the  North  of 
Africa.  It  much  resembles  the  artichoke,  but  is 
larger,  while  the  flower-heads  are  smaller. 

Cards.  The  history  of  playing-cards  dates 
from  about  1390.  Some  writers  claim  that  they 


Cardinal  Finch. 
(Cardinalis  virginianus). 


CARDUCCI. 


250 


CARLYLE. 


originated  in  tlie  East  and  were  transported  to 
Europe;  others  that  their  appearance  in  Europe  is 
due  toan  original  invention.  Soon  after  t lie  first 
quarter  of  the  fifteenth  century  cards  spread  rap¬ 
idly  all  over  Europe.  Meantime  the  pack  under¬ 
went  a  variety  of  modifications,  but  the  fifty-two 
card  pack  has  remained  much  the  same  as  it  now 
is  ever  since  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
In  Russia  the  manufacture  of  playing-cards  is  a 
Government  monopoly,  and  is  carried  on  at  the 
imperial  factory  in  St.  Petersburg,  where  an 
enormous  number  of  packs  are  produced.  In  the 
United  States  the  manufacture  lias  attained  fabu¬ 
lous  proportions;  the  average  number  made  an¬ 
nually  is  calculated  at  from  14,000,000  to  15,000,- 
000  packs. 

Carducci,  Giosue,  the  foremost  of  contempo¬ 
rary  Italian  poets,  was  born  in  1836.  His  earliest 
poems,  Juvenilia  and  Levia  Gravia,  were  written 
in  imitation  of  Mauzoniand  Alfieri.  His  greatest 
works  are  the  Djtcennalia,  and  the  Nuove  Poesie. 

Cardwell,  Edward,  Viscount,  born  July  24, 
1813.  He  entered  Parliament  in  1842,  as  a 
Peelite,  held  portfolios  in  four  Cabinets,  and  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1874.  He  was  one  of 
Peel’s  literary  executors,  and  edited  his  Memoirs 
(1856-57).  He  died  Feb.  15,  1886. 

Careening,  heaving  down  a  ship  on  one  side, 
in  order  to  expose  the  other  side  for  cleaning. 
In  sea-phrase,  a  vessel  is  said  to  “careen”  when 
she  leans  over  very  much  through  press  of  sail. 

Caret  (Lat.  it  is  wanting),  a  character  of  this 
form,  A,  denoting  that  something  lias  been  omitted 
and  is  interlined. 

Carew,  Thomas,  poet,  bom  about  1589.  He 
seems  to  have  died  in  1639.  The  best  edition  of 
his  poems,  which  first  appeared  in  1640,  is  by  W. 
C.  Hazlitt  (1870). 

Carex,  a  genus  of  Cyperacese,  commonly 
known  as  Sedges,  including  about  1,000  species, 
which  are  distributed  throughout  temperate  and 
arctic  climates.  There  are  nearly  200  species 
found  in  the  United  States,  east  of  the  Mississippi. 

Carey,  Henry,  poet  and  musician.  The  date 
of  his  birth  is  unknown,  but  his  first  volume  of 
poems  (1713)  was  produced  when  he  was  very 
young.  He  died  suddenly,  by  his  own  hand 
apparently,  in  1743. 

Carey,  Henry  Charles,  political  economist. 
He  died  Oct.  13,  1879.  His  Principles  of  Political 
Economy  (3  vols.  1837-40)  had  a  marked  influence 
on  economic  speculation. 

Caria,  in  ancient  geography,  the  southwestern- 
most  country  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  north  by 
Lydia,  east  by  Phrygia,  southeast  by  Lycia,  and 
west  and  southwest  by  the  Mediterranean.  The 
most  important  river  was  the  Mseander.  Among 
the  chief  towns  were  Cnidus,  Halicarnassus,  and 
Miletus, 

Cariacou,  or  C’arjacou;  also  called  Virginian 
Deer  ( Cervusvirginianus ),  a  species  of  deer  found 
in  all  parts  of  North  America,  from  Mexico  to 
about  43°  N.  latitude,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  The  color  is  light  reddish  brown 
in  spring,  slaty  blue  in  autumn,  and  grey  in  win¬ 
ter;  the  belly,  throat,  chin,  and  inner  parts  of  the 
limbs  white.  The  horns  of  the  adult  male  are  of 
moderate  size,  bent  backward,  and  then  forward, 
so  as  to  bring  their  tips  nearly  above  the.  nose; 
they  have  several  prongs.  The  fawn  is  decked 
with  white  spots,  arranged  in  lines,  and  some¬ 
times  running  into  stripes.  The  Virginian  deer 
is  timid,  but  easily  domesticated. 

Cariama  (Dicholophus  cristatus),  a  South  Ameri¬ 
can  bird,  regarded  by  some  as  allied  to  cranes, 
and  referred  to  the  order  Grallae,  by  others  as  a 
game  bird,  and  placed  among  the  Gallinace.se,  but 
most  properly  ranked,  along  with  the  Secretary, 
among  the  birds  of  prey. 

Caribbean  Sea,  lying  between  the  Antilles  and 
the  South  and  Central  American  mainland,  s.nd 
communicating  with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  the 
Yucatan  Channel,  120  miles  wide.  The  sea 
forms  the  turning-point  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 

Caribbee  Bark,  or  Piton  Bark,  is  the  bark  of 
Exostemma  caribceum  and  other  species,  small 
West  Indian  trees  of  the  order  Cinchonacese, 
growing  also  in  Southern  Florida.  It  was  form¬ 
erly  imported  as  a  variety  of  or  substitute  for  cin¬ 
chona  bark,  but  contains  none  of  its  characteristic 
alkaloids. 


Caribs,  an  American  Indian  race,  found  by 
Columbus  in  possession  of  a  large  number  of  the 
West  Indian  Islands,  from  which  they  have  since 
been  either  exterminated  or  expelled,  but  who 
still  form  a  considerable  family  along  the  shores 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  from  the  Isthmus  of  Darien 
nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon. 

Caricature  is  a  branch  of  satire,  and  the  word 
is  equally  used  to  express  either  a  pictorial  or  a 
descriptive  representation,  in  which,  while  a  gen¬ 
eral  likeness  is  retained,  peculiarities  are  exagge¬ 
rated  so  as  to  make  the  person  or  thing  ridiculous. 
Monnier  has  secured  his  own  immortality  in  that 
of  his  creation,  Joseph  Prudhomme.  Grandville 
is,  by  universal  consent,  superb  in  portraiture 

Caries  (rottenness)  is  a  disease  of  bone  analo¬ 
gous  to  the  ulceration  of  soft  tissues.  It  is 
characterized  by  a  gradual  loss  of  substance,  from 
the  particles  of  bone  being  absorbed,  or  being 
cast  off  and  washed  away  in  a  purulent  discharge. 

Carigna'no,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  eleven  miles 
south  of  Turin.  It  gives  the  title  of  prince  to  the 
reigning  branch  of  the  House  of  Savoy.  Pop., 
4,270. 

Carinaria,  a  genus  of  free-swimming  marine 
snails  (Gasteropods),  belonging  to  the  small  order 
Heteropoda.  They  are  transparent,  with  a  thin, 
brittle  shell. 

Carinate  Birds,  the  technical  name  for  the 
ordinary  flying  birds,  in  which  the  muscles  work¬ 
ing  the  wings  are  partly  inserted  on  a  prominent 
keel  (Lat.  carina),  on  the  breast-bone. 

Carintllia  (Ger.  Karnthen ),  a  crown-land  of 
Austria,  forming  part  of  the  old  Kingdom  of 
Illyria,  with  an  area  of  4,005  square  miles,  and  a 
pop.  of  (1869)  337,694;  (1886),  355,185. 

Carisbrooke,  a  village  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
one  mile  southwest  of  Newport.  In  its  ruined 
castle  Charles  I.  was  imprisoned  (1647-48),  as 
were  also  his  children,  Prince  Henry  and  the 
Princess  Elizabeth,  the  latter  of  whom  died  here. 

Carissa,  a  genus  of  Apocynacese.  C.  Garandas 
is  a  thorny  shrub, used  for  fences,  and  the  fruits 
for  tarts  and  preserves.  Some  species  are  bitter, 
notably  C.  xylopicron ,  the  Boh  amere  of  Mauri¬ 
tius. 

Carissimi,  Giacomo,  composer,  born  in  1604 
at  Marino,  near  Rome,  was  organist  from  1628  in 
Rome,  and  died  there  in  1674.  His  greatest  service 
was  the  development  of  the  sacred  cantata. 

Carita  (Ital.)  in  Art,  the  technical  name  for  a 
representation  of  maternal  love. 

Carleton,  Sir  Guy,  afterward  Lord  Dor¬ 
chester,  born  in  Ireland  in  1724,  entered  the 
British  army,  fought  at  Louisburg  and  Quebec, 
and  in  1772  became  Governor  of  the  latter  city, 
was  made  Lieutenant-General,  and  succeeded  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  in  the  command  of  the  British 
forces  in  America  in  1781.  He  died  in  1808. 

Carleton,  Will,  American  poet,  born  in  Hud¬ 
son,  Mich.,  Oct.  21,  1845.  His  best-known  works 
are  Farm  Ballads  (1873),  Farm  Legends  (1875), 
Farm  Festivals  { 1881),  and  City  Ballads  (1885). 

Carleton,  W illiam,  Irish  novelist,  born  in 
1794.  His  Traits  and  Stories  of  the  Irish  Peas¬ 
antry,  and  Fardorougha  the  Miser  (1839),  are 
best  known. 

Carline  Thistle  ( Carlina ),  a  very  beautiful 


Car’ine  Thistle  {Carlina  acaulis). 


genus  of  Composite,  closely  allied  to  the  true 
thistles. 


Carlisle,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  bor¬ 
ough,  the  county  town  of  Cumberland,  England. 
During  the  Great  Rebellion  it  twice  surrendered 
to  the  Parliamentarians  (1645-48);  and  in  ’45 
it  was  held  for  a  time  by  the  Jacobites,  thirty-one 
of  whom  were  afterward  executed  on  Harraby 
Hill. 

Carlisle,  capital  of  Cumberland  county, 
Penn.,  nineteen  miles  west-southwest  of  Har¬ 
risburg.  It  is  the  seat  of  Dickinson  College 
(Methodist).  It  was  shelled  by  the  Confederates, 
July  1,1863.  Pop.  (1880),  6,209. 

Carlisle,  George  William  Frederick  How¬ 
ard,  seventh  Earl  of,  K.  G.,  born  April  18, 
1802,  sat  in  Parliament  several  years,  was  raised  to 
the  peerage  in  1848.  He  was  appointed  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1855,  and  again  in  1859. 
He  died  Dec.  5,  1864. 

Carlisle,  John  Griffin,  was  born  in  Kentucky, 
Sept.  5,  1835.  He  was  a  member  of  the  State 
Legislature,  1859-61;  State  Senate,  1866-71,  and 
Lieutenant-Governor,  1871-75.  In  1877  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  and  by  successive  reelections 
until  this  writing  (March,  1889).  He  is  a  Demo¬ 
crat  and  Free-Trader,  and  in  1883  was  chosen 
Speaker  of  the  House  and  reelected  in  1885  and 
1887. 

Carlists,  the  supporters  of  the  Spanish  pre¬ 
tender,  Don  Maria  Isidor  Carlos  de  Bourbon,  who 
was  born  March  29,  1788,  the  second  son  of 
Charles  IV.  of  Spain,  and  was  educated  chiefly 
by  priests. 

Carlo  Dolce.  See  Dolce. 

Carlos,  Don,  son  of  Philip  II.  by  his  first 
marriage  with  Maria  of  Portugal,  born  at  Valla¬ 
dolid,  July,  1545.  He  conspired  to  murder  his 
father,  the  King,  was  tried  and  convicted,  but 
never  formally  sentenced.  He  died  July  24,  1568. 

Carlovingians,  or  Karlings,  the  second 
dynasty  of  Frankish  kings.  The  family  came 
from  the  eastern  part  of  the  Frankish  kingdoms, 
and  its  origin  traced  to  Arnulpli,  Bishop  of  Metz, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century. 

Carlo  vitz,  or  Karlo'witz,  a  town  of  the 
Austrian  Empire,  in  Slavonia,  thirty  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Belgrade.  Pop.,  4,919. 

Carlow,  a  small  inland  county  of  Ireland,  in 
the  Province  of  Leinster,  with  an  area  of  346 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  46,508.  Carlow, 
the  county  town,  stands  at  the  influx  of  the  Bur- 
ren  to  the  Barrow,  fifty-six  miles  southwest  of 
Dublin.  Pop.  (1881),  7,185. 

Carlsbad,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  116  miles  west- 
by-north  of  Prague.  Pop.  (1880),  10,579. 

Carlskrona,  the  capital  of  a  Swedish  Province, 
is  built  on  five  rocky  islets  in  the  B;fltic,  240  miles 
south-southwest  of  Stockholm.  It  was  founded 
in  1680  by  Charles  XI.  Pop.  (1886),  19,497. — The 
coast  Province  of  Blekinge  or  Carlskrona  has  an 
area  of  1,164  square  miles,  with  a  pop.  (1886)  of 
140,980. 

Carlsruhe,  or  Karlsruhe,  capital  of  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Baden,  is  situated  five  miles  east  of  the 
Rhine.  Pop.  (1885),  01,066. 

Carlstad,  a  town  of  Sweden,  on  the  Island  of 
Tingvalla,  205  miles  west-southwest  of  Stock¬ 
holm.  Pop.,  7,737. 

Carlstadt,  a  town  of  Croatia,  Austro-Hungary. 
Pop.,  5,824. — Carlstadt,  in  Bavaria,  on  the 
Maine,  is  fifteen  miles  north-northwest  of  Wurz¬ 
burg;  pop.,  2,320. 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  born  Dec.  4,  1795.  His  first 
important  literary  work  was  the  writing  of  articles 
for  the  Edinburgh  Eiicyclopcedia,  chiefly  biograph¬ 
ical  and  geographical.  Next,  he  translated 
Legendre’s  Elements  of  Geometry  from  the  French. 
The  marriage  between  Carlyle  and  Miss  Welsh 
took  place  on  Oct.  17,  1826,  and  they  at  once 
settled  in  Edinburgh.  Here  Carlyle  completed 
four  volumes  of  translations  from  Tieck,  Musseus, 
and  Richter,  which  were  published  under  the 
title  of  German  Romance,  and  commenced  a  didac¬ 
tic  novel,  but  burned  his  manuscript.  In  June, 
1822,  he  became  a  contributor  to  the  Edinburgh 
Review,  and  later  to  the  Westminster,  the  Foreign 
Quarterly,  and  Fraser’s  Magazine.  He  also  wrote 
a  J history  of  German  Literature,  the  best  parts  of 
which  were  subsequently  published  in  the  form 
of  essays;  and  in  1833-34  there  appeared  by  in¬ 
stalments  in  Fraser’s  Magazine,  Sartor  Resartus, 
bis  most  characteristic  work.  His  French  Revolu¬ 
tion  appeared  in  1837.  This  enterprise  was  almost 


CARMARTHEN. 


251 


CARP. 


put  an  end  to  in  1835,  owing  to  the  destruction, 
by  a  servant  girl,  of  all  but  four  or  five  leaves  of 
the  manuscript  of  the  first  volume,  which  had 
been  lent  to  John  Stuart  Mill.  Carlyle  accepted 
£100  from  Mill  as  compensation  for  his  loss.  In 
183S  Sartor  llesartus  appeared  in  book-form,  as 
did  the  first  edition  of  his  Miscellanies.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  year  Carlyle  published  the  first  of  a  series 
of  attacks  on  the  shams  and  corruptions  of  modern 
society,  under  the  title  of  Chartism.  This  he  fol¬ 
lowed  in  1843  with  Past  and  Present,  and  in  1850 
with  Latter-day  Pamphlets.  In  1851  be  published 
a  biography  of  his  friend  John  Sterling.  From 
this  time  Carlyle  gave  himself  up  entirely  to  his 
largest  work,  The  History  of  Friedrich  II.,  com¬ 
monly  called  Frederick  the  Great.,  the  first  two  vol¬ 
umes  of  which  were  published  in  1858,  and  which 
was  concluded  in  1865.  On  Nov.  11,  1865,  Car¬ 
lyle  was  elected  Lord  Rector  of  Edinburgh  Uni¬ 
versity  by  a  majority  of  657  votes  over  310 
recorded  for  Mr.  Disraeli.  Mrs.  Carlyle  died  in 
April,  1866,  and  Carlyle  wrote  no  important  work 
after  his  wife’s  death,  although  in  1867  he  par¬ 
tially  composed  his  personal  Reminiscences.  He 
died  Feb.  5,  1881. 

Carmarthen  (Welsh  Oner  Fyrddyn,  the  Mari- 
dunum  of  Ptolemy),  the  capital  of  Carmarthen¬ 
shire,  thirty-nine  miles  northwest  of  Swansea. 
Pop.  (1881),  10,512. 

Carmarthenshire,  a  maritime  county  of  South 
Wales.  It  has  a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of 
45 y/2  and  26  miles,  and  an  area  of  947  square 
miies.  The  principal  towns  are  Carmarthen  (the 
county  town),  Llanelly,  Llandilo-vawr,  Llando¬ 
very,  and  Newcastle-Emtyn.  The  chief  manu¬ 
factures  are  woolens  and  leather.  Pop.  (1881), 
124,864,  largely  Welsh-speaking. 

Carmel  is  a  limestone-ridge  which  runs  from 
southeast  to  northwest  fourteen  miles,  forming 
the  only  great  promontory  on  the  low  coast  of 
Palestine.  It  attains  a  height  of  1887  feet.  On 
theeist  are  the  River  Kishon  and  the  Plain  of 
Esdraelon. 

Carmelites,  or  Order  of  Otjr  Lady  of 
Mount  Carmel,  a  monastic  order  founded  as 
an  association  of  hermits  on  Mount  Carmel  by 
Bertliold,  a  pilgrim  or  crusader  from  Calabria, 
about  1156.  A  legend,  however,  ascribes  the 
foundation  of  the  order  to  the  prophet  Elijah; 
and  another  makes  the  Virgin  Mary  to  have  been 
a  Carmelite  nun. 

Carmen  Sylva,  the  pen-name  of  Elizabeth, 
Quec-n  of  Roumania,  who  was  born  Dec.  29,  1843, 
the  daughter  of  Prince  Hermann  of  Wied  Neu- 
wied,  and  Maria  of  Nassau,  and  married  King 
(then  Prince)  Charles  of  Roumania  in  1869.  Her 
only  child,  a  daughter,  died  in  1874,  and  out  of 
this  great  sorrow  of  her  life  arose  her  literary 
activity. 

Carminatives  (From  Lat.  carmen,  a  charm), 
medicines  to  relieve  flatulence  and  pain  in  the 
bowels,  such  as  cardamoms,  peppermint,  ginger, 
and  other  stimulating  aromatics. 

Carmine  (Arabic  Kermes)  is  the  red  coloring 
matter  obtained  from  the  cochineal  insect.  The 
method  by  which  it  is  prepared  is  said  to  have 
been  accidentally  discovered  by  a  Franciscan 
monk  at  Pisa,  while  compounding  a  medicine 
containing  cochineal;  and  in  1656  its  manufacture 
was  begun. 

Carnac,  a  village  in  the  French  department  of 
Morbihan,  twenty  miles  sou'heast  of  Lorient. 
Pop.  about  700.  It  is  remarkable  on  account  of 
the  number  and  variety  of  the  Celtic  monuments 
and  Gallo-Roman  ruins,  consisting  of  Menhirs, 
Dolmens,  and  Tumuli,  with  which  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  is  studded. 

Carnahiiba,  or  Caraniba  Palm  ( Copernira 
cerifem ),  a  beautiful  and  usefid  palm,  which 
abounds  in  the  northern  parts  of  Brazil,  in  some 
places  forming  vast  forests.  It  attains  a  height 
of  only  20-40  feet. 

Carnarvon  ( Caer-yn-ar-Fun ,  fort  opposite  Mon 
or  Anglesea),  a  parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough  and  seaport  in  North  Wales,  the  capital 
of  Carnarvonshire,  stands  near  the  south  end  of 
ili'1  Menai  Strait,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seiont, 
sixty-nine  miles  west  of  Chester.  Pop.  (1881), 
10,237. 

Carnarvonshire,  a  maritime  county  of  North 
Wales,  bounded  east  and  southeast  by  Denbigh 
and  Merioneth  shires,  and  on  all  other  sides  by 


the  Irish  Sea  and  the  Menai  Strait.  Withamaxi- 
mum  length  and  breadt  h  of  34  and  23  miles,  it 
has  an  area  of  379  square  miles,  of  which  50.7 
per  cent,  is  under  cultivation.  The  surface  is 
mountainous,  traversed  by  the  highest  ranges  in 
South  Britain.  Pop.  (1881),  119,349. 

Carnatic,  a  region  on  the  east  coast  of  India, 
now  included  in  the  Province  of  Madras,  extend¬ 
ing  inland  to  the  Eastern  Ghats,  and  from  Cape 
Comorin  to  16°  N. 

Carnation,  a  double-flowering  variety  of  the 
Clove  Pink  (Dianthus  caryophyllus,  see  Pink). 
Carnations  are  propagated  in  summer  either  by 
layers  or  by  pipinys,  which  are  short  cuttings 
of  shoots  that  have  not  yet  flowered,  each  having 
two  joints. 

Carneades,  a  Greek  philosopher,  born  at  Cy- 
rene,  in  Africa,  about  213  b.c.  He  was  founder 
of  the  Third  or  New  Academy.  He  died,  129  b.c. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  iron-master,  born  in  Scot¬ 
land,  Nov.  25,  1835.  After  tending  a  small 
stationary  engine  for  a  time,  he  passed  through 
the  grades  of  telegraph  messenger  and  operator 
to  railway  clerk,  and  finally  superintendent. 
Fortunate  speculations  in  oil  were  followed  by 
the  establishment  of  a  rolling-mill,  from  which  has 
been  built  up  the  largest  system  of  iron  and  steel 
works  in  the  world.  He  added  a  laboratory  to 
Bellevue  Hospital,  in  New  York,  and  gave  $500,- 
000,  $250,000,  and  £50,'  00  respectively  to  Pitts¬ 
burg,  Allegheny  City,  and  Edinburgh  for  free 
libraries.  He  published  Triumphant  Democracy 
(1886). 

Carnelian,  or  Cornelian,  in  Mineralogy,  the 
name  given  to  some  of  the  finer  varieties  of  Chal¬ 
cedony.  The  color  is  blood  red  or  flesh-color, 
reddish  brown,  reddish  white,  yellow,  or  milk 
white.  The  finest  specimens  are  brought  from 
the  East,  but  it  is  found  in  Scotland  and  in  many 
parts  of  Europe  and  America. 

Carniola  (Ger.  Krain ),  a  southwest  crownland 
of  the  Austrian  Empire,  has  an  area  of  3,856 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1886)  of  494,912,  of 
whom  30,000  are  Germans  and  16,000  Croats,  the 
rest  being  Slavs  of  the  Slovenian  branch.  It  is 
traversed  in  the  north  by  a  continuation  of  the 
Carinthian  Alps,  and  in  the  south  by  the  Ju'ian 
Alps,  the  loftiest  summit  being  the  Terglou  (9,393 
feet).  Laibach  is  the  capital.  Carniola  received 
its  present  name  (from  the  Slav  krai,  frontier) 
after  the  settlement  here  of  the  Slovenians. 

Carnival  (Ital.  Car  novale;  from  late  Lat. 
carnelevamen,  a  solace  of  the  flesh;  incorrectly  ex¬ 
plained  as  if  meaning  farewell  to  flesh,  as  in 
Byron’s  Beppo),  a  festival  which  originally  began 
on  the  day  following  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany, 
and  continued  till  midnight  on  Shrove-Tuesday. 
With  Ash- Wednesday  began  the  fast  of  Lent, 
which  made  an  end  of  the  preceding  feasting, 
masquerading,  and  buffoonery.  In  later  times, 
the  Carnival  was  limited  to  the  time  of  from  three 
to  eight  days  before  Ash- W ednesday. 

Carnivora,  a  well-defined  order  of  mammals, 
and  including  most  of  the  forms  known  as  beasts 
of  prey.  It  partly  corresponds  with  the  Order 
Ferae  defined  by  Linnaeus,  but  the  latter  included 
also  marsupials  and  insectivora.  Most  carnivora 
have  in  each  jaw  six  pointed  cutting  teeth,  two 
strong  sharp  recurved  canines,  and  molar  teeth 


Skull  of  Tiger. 


often  adapted  for  cutting.  The  skull  issliort  and 
dense.  The  lower  jaw  works  up  and  down  in  a 
deep  transverse  semi-cylindrical  groove,  and  there 
are  deep  hollows  on  the  sides  and  prominent 


crests  on  the  roof  of  the  skull  for  the  reception 
and  insertion  of  the  powerful  muscles  which 
work  the  jaw.  The  toes  are  clawed,  with  more 
or  less  pointed  nails, almost  always  well  developed. 

Carnot,  Lazare  Nicolas  Marguerite,  the 
“organizer  of  victory”  during  the  early  wars  of 
the  French  Revolution,  horn  at  Nolay,  Burgundy, 
in  1753.  In  1791  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Legislative  Assembly,  and  in  the  Convention 
voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XYI.  He  gained 
the  victory  at  Wattignies,  and  on  his  return  was 
elected  into  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  and 
entrusted  with  the  organization  of  the  armies  of 
the  Revolution.  In  a  short  time  he'  raised  four¬ 
teen  armies,  and  drew  up  a  plan  of  operations, 
by  which  the  forces  of  the  European  reaction 
were  repelled  from  the  frontier.  He  was  accused 
of  royalist  sympathies  and  deported,  but  returned 
to  Paris,  and  was  made  Minister  of  War  in  1800. 
Napoleon  gave  him  the  command  of  Antwerp  in 
1814.  During  the  Hundred  Days  he  was  Minis¬ 
ter  of  the  Interior.  He  died  in  1823. — His  son, 
Nicolas  Leonard  Sadi,  founder  of  the  science 
of  thermo  dynamics,  was  born  June  1,  1796,  and 
died  Aug.  24, 1832. — Another  son, Lazare  Hipfo- 
lyte  Carnot,  was  born  April  6,  1801.  In  1863 
he  entered  the  Corps  L£gislatif,  and  the  National 
Assembly  in  1871.  He  was  elected  a  Senator  for 
life  in  ls75,  and  died  March  16,  1888. — Marie 
Francois  Sadi  Carnot,  President  of  the  French 
Republic,  born  Aug.  11,  1837,  is  the  eldest  son  of 
the  last  named.  In  1871  he  was  chosen  to  the 
National  Assembly,  and  was  Finance  Minister  in 
1879  and  1887.  In  December,  1887,  he  was  chosen 
President  of  the  Republic. 

Carnunttim,  a  Celtic  town  of  Pannonia,  on 
the  Danube,  was  destroyed  by  the  Magyars  in  t  he 
ninth  century. 

Carob,  Algaroba,  or  Locust-tree  (Cera Ionia 
siliqua),  a  tree  of  the  order  Leguminosse,  sub-order 
Caesalpinieae,  a  native  of  the  Mediterranean  coun¬ 
tries.  In  size  and  manner  of  growth  it  resembles 


Branch  of  Carob. 

the  apple-tree,  but  with  abruptly  pinnate  dark 
evergreen  leaves,  which  have  two  or  three  pair  of 
large  oval  leaflets.  The  locust-tree  of  America  is 
quite  distinct  from  this. 

Carol,  originally  a  term  for  a  dance,  or  for 
songs  intermingled  with  dancing,  came  to  signify 
festive  songs,  particularly  such  as  were  sung  at 
Christmas. 

Caroline,  Amelia  Elizabeth,  wife  of  George 
IV.,  second  daughter  of  Charles  William,  Duke 
of  Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel,  and  of  George  III. ’s 
sister,  the  Princess  Augusta  of  Britain.  She  was 
born  May  17,  1768.  In  1795  she  was  married  to 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  but  they  separated  soon  after, 
and  she  died  Aug.  7,  1821. 

Carotid  Artery,  the  great  artery  which  on 
each  side  distributes  bloodjo  the  different  parts- 
of  the  head,  appears  to  have  derived  its  Greek 
name  carat  is  from  Gr.  /car  os,  “  sleep,”  there  being 
an  old  idea  that  deep  sleep  was  caused  by  the 
increased  flow  of  blood  through  the  carotids. 

Carouge,  a  Swiss  town,  one  and  three-quarter 
miles  south  of  Geneva.  Pop.,  5,889. 

Carp  ( Cyprinius  carpio),  a  fish,  in  the  pliysos- 
tomatous  division,  and  type  of  the  family  Cypri- 
nidse.  The  body  is  wholly  or  partially  covered 
with  scales;  the  head  naked;  the  mouth  toothless, 
but  there  are  teeth  in  the  throat;  the  dorsal  tin  is 
long,  the  anal  short;  the  hind  fins  lie  about  the 


CARPACCIO. 


252 


CARRION  FLOWERS. 


middle  of  the  ventral  surface.  The  hack  is 
blackish  gray  or  brown,  the  sides  yellowish 
brown,  the  belly  yellow.  The  usual  length  is 


Carp  ( Cyprinus  carpio). 

a ,  fore-fin;  b,  hind-fin;  c,  anal  fin;  d,  large  barbule. 


between  1  and  2  feet,  but  it  has  been  known  to 
attain  a  length  of  5  feet.  The  carp  is  mainly 
vegetarian,  but  also  eats  larvse  and  worms.  A 
single  ovary  of  a  moderate-sized  carp  contains 
700.000  eggs. 

Carpaccio,  Vittore,  a  painter  of  the  early 
Venetian  school,  born  in  Istria  about  1450.  His 
latest  dated  works  are  inscribed  1519;  and  he  is 
believed  to  have  died  about  1522. 

Carpathian  Mountains,  the  second  great 
range  of  Central  Europe,  extend  over  a  space  of 
880  miles  from  Presburg  to  Orsova.  They  lie 
within  the  Austrian  dominions,  partly  in  Hungary 
and  partly  in  Transylvania. 

Carpel  (Gr.  Jcarpos,  fruit),  in  Botany,  a  modi¬ 
fied  leaf  forming  the  whole  or  part  of  the  gyna?- 
cium  or  female  (ovule-bearing)  organs  of  a  flower. 

Carpentaria,  Gulf  of,  a  broad  and  deep  in¬ 
dentation  of  the  north  coast  of  Australia,  stretch¬ 
ing  from  11°  to  17°  30'  S.  latitude,  and  from 
136°  to  142°  E.  longitude. 

Carpenter,  Matthew  Hale,  born  in  Ver 
mont.  Dec.  2,  1824;  studied  law  under  Rufus 
Choate,  and  practiced  successfully  in  Wisconsin, 
from  which  State  he  was  elected  United  States 
Senator  in  1869.  In  1873  he  became  President 
pro  tern,  of  that  body.  In  1879  he  was  reelected 
to  the  Senate,  and  he  died  Feb.  24,  1881.  He 
was  one  of  the  leading  constitutional  lawyers  of 
the  United  States. 

Carpenter  Bee,  a  name  given  to  various  bees 
which  excavate  their  nests  in  wood.  This  is  most 


Carpenter  Bee  iXylocopa). 

Showing  the  cells  for  eggs  and  larvae,  excavated  in  dead 
wood. 


economically  performed  by  those  which  choose  a 
pithy  branch  such  as  bramble  and  briar.  Cera- 
tina  al'dlabris  carves  out  a  canal  about  a  foot 
long,  divided  by  partitions  of  glued  pith  parti¬ 
cles  into  a  series  of  perhaps  a  dozen  chambers. 
More  than  a  score  of  Hymenoptera,  including 
not  a  few  true  bees,  have  a  similar  habit. 

Carpentras,  a  town  in  the  French  department 
of  Vaucluse, seventeen  miles  northeast  of  Avignon. 
It  was  the  Carpentoracte  of  the  Romans,  and  a  tri¬ 
umphal  arch  attests  their  former  presence  here. 
Pop.,  7,563. 

Carpentry,  the  art  of  combining  and  fram¬ 
ing  together  pieces  of  timber  in  the  construction 
of  ships,  bridges  (and  centering),  roofs,  scaffold¬ 
ing:,  etc.,  while  joinery  is  the  art  of  framing  or 
joining  woodwork  for  the  finishing  of  houses, 
making  doors,  windows,  stairs,  etc. 

Carpet-bagger,  a  term  applied  by  Southern 
people,  alter  the  Civil  War,  to  Northern  men  ap¬ 
pointed  to  federal  offices  in  the  South,  and  to  po¬ 
litical  adventurers  from  the  North  who  tried  to 
secure  the  vote  of  the  negroes  in  the  South.  The 


term  implied  that  they  had  no  property  in  the 
dislrict  save  the  contents  of  their  carpet-bags. 

Carpets.  The  manufacture  of  Persian  carpets 
goes  back  to  a  very  remote  period.  It  appears 
that  pile  carpets  were  first  made  in  Persia,  and 
from  that  country  introduced  into  India. — Both 
cotton  and  woolen  carpets  are  made  in  India. 
Those  composed  of  cotton  are  chiefly  made  in 
Bengal  and  Northern  India,  and  are  usually  in 
two-colored  stripes,  such  as  red  and  blue.  They 
are  often  further  ornamented  with  squares  and 
diamond  shapes,  and  occasionally  with  gold  and 
silver. — Like  the  carpets  of  Persia,  India,  and 
North  Africa,  Turkey  carpets  are  made  on  rude, 
simple  looms,  by  knotting  tufts  of  woolen  yarn 
on  the  warp  threads  across  the  width  of  the  car¬ 
pet,  and  firmly  binding  the  rows  of  tufts  by  the 
weft. — Kidderminster  is  the  oldest  kind  of  ma¬ 
chine-made  carpet.  It  has  no  pile,  the  yarn  lying- 
flat  upon  the  surface  like  an  ordinary  worsted 
cloth.  In  some  respects  it  resembles  a  woolen 
damask  of  two  colors,  and,  like  it,  is  reversible. — 
In  Brussels  carpets  the  worsted  threads  are  ar¬ 
ranged  in  the  warp,  and  are  interwoven  into  a 
network  of  linen.  Still  the  bulk  of  the  carpet 
consists  of  wool.  A  six-frame  “Brussels”  con¬ 
sists  of  six  layers  of  colored  worsted  yarn,  but 
there  are  also  five,  four,  and  three  frame  carpets 
of  this  kind,  each  formed  of  a  corresponding 
number  of  worsted  threads. — Velvet  Pile  or  Wil¬ 
ton  carpet  differs  from  Brussels  carpet  in  having 
the  raised  loops  cut  so  as  to  give  it  a  velvet-like 


Section  of  Brussels  Carpet,  showing  Wires  of 
Jacquard  Loom. 

surface. — Tapestry  carpets  resemble  the  “Brus¬ 
sels”  make,  inasmuch  as  the  surface  is  formed  of 
loops  of  worsted  yarn,  but  instead  of  each  thread 
being  of  a  single  color,  it  is  of  several  colors  in  the 
tapestry  carpet. 

Carpi,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  ten  miles 
north  of  Modena.  Pop.,  5,987. — Carpi  is  also  the 
name  of  a  village  twenty-eight  miles  southeast  of 
Verona. 

Carpo'crates  of  Alexandria  flourished  in 
the  first  decades  of  the  second  century  a.d.,  and 
founded  the  Gnostic  sect  of  Carpocratians. 

Carpolites,  the  fossil  fruits  of  certain  Carbon¬ 
iferous  trees. 

Carpophore.  In  the  fruit  of  geraniums  and 
umbelliferse  the  ripe  carpels  split  away  from  the 
central  axis  from  below  upward;  but  remain 
attached  at  top;  hence  in  technical  phraseology 
they  are  said  to  be  suspended  from  a  carpophore. 

Car 'rageen,  often  called  Carrageen  Moss,  or 
Irish  Moss,  the  Irish  name  of  Chonclrus  crispus, 
and  some  other  allied  species  of  seaweeds.  The 


Carrageen  ( Chonclrus  crtepiis). 

A,  B,  C,  different  forms  of  growth. 

true  carrageen  is  Ghondrus  crispus  (order  Flori- 
dese,  family  Gigartinese).* 

Carrara,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  thirty 
miles  northwest  of  Leghorn.  Pop.,  12,000. 

Carriage  is  a  general  name  for  any  vehicle  in¬ 
tended  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  either  on 
roads  or  railways.  The  origin  of  the  term  is,  of 
course,  the  same  as  carry,  late  Lat.  carricare,  to 


convey  in  a  cart;  carr-us,  “a  car,”  a  word  of 
Celtic  origin. 

Carrickfergus,  an  Irish  seaport  town  and 
county  on  the  north  side  of  Belfast  Lough,  on 
the  southeastern  border  of  County  Antrim,  nine 
and  one-half  miles  north  of  Belfast  and  twelve 
miles  south  of  Larne.  Pop.  (1881),  10,009;  of 
town  proper  (1881),  4,792. 

Carrier,  Jean  Baptiste,  an  infamous  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  French  National  Convention,  born  in 
1756.  Entering  the  National  t  onvention  in  1792, 
he  took  an  active  part  in  the  formation  of  the 
Revolutionary  Tribunal,  voted  for  the  death  of 
the  King,  and  assisted  in  the  overthrow  of  the 
Girondists.  At  Nantes,  whither  he  was  sent  on 
a  mission  against  the  Moderates  in  1793,  he 
caused  the  death,  by  shooting  and  drowning,  of 
16,000  political  prisoners.  He  was  beheaded 
Dec.  16,  1794. 

Carrier  Pigeon,  a  fancy  variety  of  domestic 
pigeon,  large  in  size,  long  in  body  and  neck,  bred 
in  several  different  colors.  According  to  Darwin, 
the  carrier  is  of  Eastern  origin,  and  is  probably 
a  descendant  of  the  Persian  messenger  pigeon. 
The  pigeons  now  made  use  of  for  long-distance 
flying  and  as  message-bearers  are  called  homers, 
or  homing  Antwerps,  and  are  very  different  in 
appearance  from  carriers.  They  are  of  medium 


A,  English  Show  Carrier  Pigeon;  B,  Homer  or 
Messenger  Pigeon. 

size,  somewhat  similar  to  the  common  pigeon  in 
appearance,  but  heavier,  stronger,  and  have 
larger  heads. 

Carriers  are  those  who  undertake  the  carrying 
of  goods  from  place  to  place  by  land  or  sea.  In 
many  parts  of  the  East,  carrying  is  done  mainly 
by  camels,  in  South  America  by  llamas,  in  various 
parts  of  Europe,  and  in  the  mountainous  portions 
of  Western  North  America  by  mules  and  pack- 
horses,  but  in  most  civilized  countries  by  rail¬ 
ways,  steamboats,  steamships,  canals,  or  teams. 
In  the  United  States,  carriers  are  treated  as  (1) 
carriers  without  hire;  (2)  carriers  for  hire,  but  not 
common  carriers;  and  (3)  common  cai  riers.  Those 
who  carry  without  hire  are  held  to  ordinary  care 
and  diligence  in  performance  of  the  undertaking; 
the  confidence  reposed  in  them  being  a  sufficient 
consideration  to  create  this  liability.  The  second 
class,  which  may  be  termed  private  carriers  or 
bailees  for  hire,  are  held  to  a  greater  degree  of 
responsibility;  they  are  held  to  such  diligence  as 
every  prudent  man  commonly  takes  of  his  own 
goods,  and  are  responsible  for  that  ordinary  negli¬ 
gence  which  is  a  want  of  such  diligence.  The 
liability  of  this  private  carrier  depends  upon  a 
difference  of  facts,  rather  than  a  difference  of 
legal  principles;  and  may  be  increased  or  dimin¬ 
ished  by  a  special  contract,  which  does  not,  how¬ 
ever,  change  his  character  as  carrier. 

Carrion  Crow.  The  name  is  sometimes  applied 
in  America  to  a  species  of  vulture. 

Carrion  Flowers,  a  name  which,  on  account 


Carrion  Flower  (Stapelia  variegata). 
of  their  smell,  resembling  that  of  putrid  meat, 
has  been  given  to  the  flowers  of  many  species  of 


CARROLLTON. 


253 


CASABLANCA. 


Stapelia,  a  genus  of  Asclepiadese,  otherwise 
remarkable  for  the  succulent  development  of  the 
cellular  tissue  of  the  stem  and  reduction  of  the 
leaves,  resulting  in  a  general  aspect  like  that  of 
the  Cactus  family.  There  are  about  100  species, 
all  natives  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Carrollton,  a  town  of  Louisiana,  on  the  Missis¬ 
sippi,  seven  miles  above  New  Orleans,  of  which 
city  it  has  formed  part  since  1873.  Pop.  (1880), 
6,168. 

Carroll,  Charles,  of  Carrollton,  the  last  sur¬ 
vivor  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde¬ 
pendence,  born  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  in  1737,  died 
Nov.  14,  1832.  He  was  the  richest  man  in  North 
America  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary 
War.  He  took  an  active  part  in  the  movements 
which  preceded  the  Declaration,  and  when  he 
signed  it  a  delegate  observed  that  there  were  a 
number  of  Charles  Carrolls,  and  the  British 
might  not  know  which  one  was  meant.  Carroll 
immediately  added  his  territorial  designation 
“ of  Carroliton,”  so  that  George  III.,  if  it  ever 
came  to  hanging  anybody,  should  make  no  mis¬ 
take.  Mr.  Carroll  afterward  served  in  the  Senate 
of  his  native  State,  and  in  both  houses  of  Con¬ 
gress.  In  1826  he  participated  in  the  funeral 
ceremonies  of  Jefferson  and  John  Adams,  who 
both  died  on  July  4th  of  that  year.  Their 
deaths  left  him  the  sole  surviving  signatory  of 
that  immortal  document. 

Carroll,  John,  born  in  1735,  died  in  1815, 
the  first  Catholic  Bishop  and  Archbishop  of  Balti¬ 
more. 

Carronades  are  short  cast-iron  guns,  of  all 
calibers  from  6-pouuders  to  68-pounders,  invented 
by  Mr.  Gascoigne,  and  named  after  the  Carron 
Ironworks  in  Scotland,  where  they  were  first 
made  in  1779. 

Carrot  ( Davcue ),  a  genus  of  Umbellifene,  con¬ 
taining  about  twenty  species;  mostly  natives  of 
the  Mediterranean  countries.  The  common  car¬ 
rot  (D.  Carota)  is  a  biennial  plant.,  which  ranges 
as  far  as  India  in  the  wild  state,  and  is  cultivated 
for  the  sake  of  its  root. 

Carse  is  a  term  applied  in  Scotland  to  low 
lands  adjoining  rivers. 

Carson,  Christopher,  commonly  known  as 
Kit  Carson,  born  in  Kentucky,  Dec.  24,  1809, 
emigrated  to  Missouri,  where  for  many  years  he 
led  the  life  of  a  trapper  and  hunter.  His  inti¬ 
mate  acquaintance  with  Indian  habits  and  lan¬ 
guages  secured  his  selection  as  a  guide  in 
Fremont’s  explorations,  and  as  Indian  agent  in 
New  Mexico,  to  which  post  he  was  appointed  in 
1853.  For  services  in  this  quarter  during  the 
Civil  War,  he  was  made  a  colonel  and  breveted 
brigadier-general.  He  died  at  Fort  Lynn,  Col., 
May  23,  1868.  See  his  Life,  by  Charles  Burdett 
(Pliila.  1869). 

Carson  City,  capital  of  Nevada,  near  the  foot 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  178  miles  east-northeast  of 
San  Francisco.  Pop.  (1880),  4  227. 

Carstens,  Asmus  Jakob,  a  Danish  artist,  born 
neai  Sleswick,  May  10,  1754,  and  died  in  1798. 

Cart,  a  species  of  carriage  with  two  wheels. 

Cartage 'na,  a  fortified  seaport  of  Spain,  on  a 
bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  326  miles  southeast  of 
Madrid.  Pop.  (1884),  75,980. 

Cartagena,  capital  of  the  Colombian  State  of 
Bolivar,  stands  on  a  sandy  island  off  the  north 
coast,  to  the  southwest  of  the  mouth  of  the  Mag- 
dclina.  Pop.,  12,000. 

Cartago,  (1)  a  riverand  lagoon,  communicating 
with  the  Caribbean  Sea,  near  the  northern  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  Mosquito  Coast. — (2)  A  town  of 
Costa  Rica,  twelve  miles  east  of  the  present 
capital,  San  Jose,  on  a  plain  to  the  south  of  the 
volcano  of  Irazu  (11,500  feet).  Pop.,  8,000. — (3) 
A  town  of  Cauca,  in  Colombia,  founded  in  1540, 
on  the  Rio  Viejo,  three  miles  above  its  junction 
with  the  Cauca.  Pop.  (1880),  3,000. 

Carte,  Thomas,  historian,  was  born  in  1686 
and  died  in  1754. 

Carte  Blanche,  a  “blank  paper”  authenti¬ 
cated  with  an  authoritative  signature,  and  in¬ 
trusted  to  some  one  to  be  filled  up  as  he  may 
think  best. 

Cartel  (dim.  of  carta,  paper),  means  variously 
a  challenge  and  a  written  agreement  between 
belligerents  for  an  exchange  of  prisoners.  Cartel 
ship  is  a  vessel  commissioned  to  convey  exchanged 

prisoners. 


Carteret,  John,  Earl  Granville,  British 
diplomatist  and  statesman,  born  April  22,  1690. 
In  1719  he  was  appointed  Ambassador  Extraor¬ 
dinary  to  Sweden,  and  in  1724  Lord-Lieutenant  of 
Ireland.  He  died  in  1763. 

Carthage,  a  city  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa, 
the  capital  of  one  of  the  great  empires  of  the 
ancient  world.  It  was  situated  on  a  peninsula  at 
the  northeast  corner  of  the  region  now  known  as 
Tunis,  and  was  founded  about  the  middle  of  the 
ninth  century  b.c.,  by  Phoenicians. 

Carthage,  Cape,  a  headland  of  North  Africa, 
jutting  out  into  the  Mediterranean,  in  36°  52'  N. 
latitude,  10°  22'  E.  longitude,  with  traces  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Carthage  to  the  north  of  the  Tunis 
lagoon. 

Cartliamine,  or  Carthameine.  The  dye  so 
called  is  obtained  by  a  chemical  process  from  C’ar- 
tlianius  tinclorius,  or  Safflower,  in  crystals  which 
are  insoluble  in  water,  slightly  soluble  in  ether, 
and  which,  with  alcohol,  readily  form  a  purple-red 
solution.  When  newly  precipitated  cartliamine 
immediately  and  permanently  attaches  itself  to 
cotton  or  silk  (but  not  to  wool),  requiring  no  mor¬ 
dant.  It  dyes  the  fabric  a  fine  red,  which  is 
changed  to  yellow  on  the  addition  of  alkalies,  and 
may  be  returned  to  red  again  on  being  treated 
with  acids. 

Carthusians,  a  monastic  order  which  owes  its 
origin  to  St.  Bruno,  who  retired  in  1086  with  six 
companions  to  the  solitude  of  La  Chartreuse, 
where  they  built  hermitages,  wore  rude  garments, 
and  lived  upon  vegetables  and  coarse  bread. 

Cartier,  Jacques,  a  French  navigator,  born 
Dec.  31,  1494,  between  1534  and  1541  made  three 
voyages  of  discovery  to  North  America. 

Cartilage,  or  Gristle,  is  a  firm,  elastic  sub¬ 
stance,  of  a  pearly  whiteness,  presenting  to  the 
unaided  eye  a  uniform  and  homogeneous  appear¬ 
ance. 

Cartilaginous  Fishes,  a  designation  which 
may  be  usefully  restricted  to  that  sub-class  of 
fishes  to  which  sharks  and  skates  belong,  and  to 
which  the  technical  titles  of  Elasmobrancliii  and 
Chondropterygii  are  usually  applied.  The  primi¬ 
tive  lancelet  (Amphioxus),  and  the  round-mouths, 
or  Cyclostomata  (Hagfish  and  Lamprey),  are  also 
cartilaginous,  but  these  form  classes  by  them¬ 
selves,  and  in  nowise  deserve  the  title  of  fishes. 

Car.oon  (Ital.  cartone,  pasteboard;  from  Lat. 
charta,  paper).  In  the  fine  arts  a  cartoon  is  a 
design  on  strong  paper,  of  the  full  size  of  a  work 
to  be  afterward  executed  in  fresco,  oil  color,  or 
tapestry;  and  prepared  in  order  that  the  artist 
may  adjust  the  drawing  and  composition  of  his 
subject  where  alterations  can  be  readily  effected. 
The  design  when  completed  is  transferred,  by 
tracing  or  pouncing,  to  the  surface  finally  to  be 
worked  on.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  full 
page  comic  pictures.  See  Caricature. 

Cartoucli  (Fr.  cartouche,  Ital.  cnrtoccio,  a  roll 
of  paper;  cart  ridge  is  a  mere  corruption),  formerly 
a  name  for  a  portable  wooden  case  for  holding 
cannon-balls  or  musket-bullets.  A  gun  cartoucli 
now  means  merely  a  waterproof  canvas  case  for 
holding  the  cartridges  of  a  field-battery,  one  to 
each  ammunition  box. 

Cartouche,  the  name  given  by  Champollion  to 
the  ovals  on  monuments  and  in  papyri  on  which 
the  hieroglyphic  characters  for  the  names  of  Egyp¬ 
tian  kings  are  inscribed.  In  architecture,  car¬ 
touche  signifies  a  tablet,  so  formed  as  to  resemble 
a  sheet  of  paper  or  parchment,  with  the  edges 
and  ends  rolled  up. 

Cartridge,  a  cylindiical  case  containing  the 
powder  charge  only  in  the  case  of  cannon,  but 


Central-fire  Shot  Cartridge  Section  (full  size). 


powder,  cap,  and  shot,  or  bullet  in  that  of  small- 
arms;  or  the  missile  may  be  omitted,  when  it 
is  called  “blank  cartridge.”  Those  for  large 
guns  are  bags  usually  of  serge  or  flannel,  filled 
with  the  proper  weight  of  powder,  tied  round  the 


neck,  and  strengthened  by  worsted  hoops.  A 
cartridge  for  breech-loading  small-arms,  as  con- 


Rifle  Cartridge, 
structed  in  1888,  is  a  cylinder  of  solid  brass, 
with  a  strong  base,  in  the  center  of  which  is 
the  fulminate. 

Cartridge-paper,  a  light-colored,  strong 
paper,  originally  manufactured  for  cartridges,  is 
extensively  used  in  art,  its  rough  surface  being 
useful  for  certain  kinds  of  drawing. 

Cartwright,  Edmund,  the  inventor  of  the 
power-loom,  was  born  in  1743.  In  1790  Cart¬ 
wright  took  out  a  patent  for  combing  wool,  and 
secured  patents  for  various  other  improvements 
in  connection  with  manufactures.  He  joined 
Robert  Fulton  in  his  experiments  for  applying 
steam  to  navigation.  In  1809,  in  consideration 
of  the  benefits  derived  from  his  invention  of  the 
power-loom,  the  English  Government  made  him 
a  grant  of  $50,000.  "lie  died,  Oct.  30,  1823. 

Cartwright,  John,  the  “Father  of  Reform,” 
was  born  in  1740,  and  died  Sept.  23,  1824. 

Cartwright,  Peter,  Methodist  preacher,  born 
in  Virginia,  Sept.  1,  1785,  ordained  in  Kentucky 
in  1806,  and  in  1823  removed  to  Illinois,  where 
he  labored  for  nearly  half  a  century.  He  sat  in 
the  State  Legislature  there,  and  in  1846  was  de¬ 
feated  by  Abraham  Lincoln  in  an  election  for 
Congressman.  He  died  Sept.  25,  1872. 

Cartwright,  Thomas,  Puritan  divine,  born  in 
Hertfordshire,  England,  about  1535,  and  died  in 
1603. 

Carucate  (Lat.  carruca),  originally  an  amount 
of  land  such  as  one  team  of  eight  oxen  could 
plow  in  a  season.  It  varied  in  size  from  80  to  144 
acres.  The  carucage  was  a  tax  on  the  carucate, 
first  imposed  by  Richard  I.  in  1198. 

Cams,  Julius  Victor,  zoologist,  born  at  Leip¬ 
zig,  Germany,  Aug.  25,  1823. 

Carver,  .John,  born  about  1575,  was  the  leader 
of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  and  died  at  New  Plym¬ 
outh,  Mass.,  in  April;  1621. 

Carving.  Carving  has  been  from  the  earliest 
times  a  ready  means  of  ornamentation.  It  pre¬ 
sents  the  advantages  of  relief  and  permanency. 
The  carvings  of  India,  Persia,  Japan,  and  China 
show  the  wide-spread  love  of  this  art,  as  well  as 
the  great  perfection  that  has  been  attained  in  it. 

Cary,  Alice,  the  poet,  was  born  April  26, 1820, 
near  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  removed  in  1850  to  New 
York,  where  she  died  Feb.  12,  1871. — Her  sister, 
PncEBE,  born  Sept.  4,  1824,  joined  Alice  in  New 
York  in  1851,  and  died  in  1871. 

Caryat'ides  (pi.  of  Caryatid,  lit.,  a  woman  of 
Caryae),  a  name  given  to  female 
figures,  in  Greek  architecture, 
when  used  instead  of  columns 
to  support  an  entablature. 

Caryocar,  a  genus  of  large 
trees  of  the  sub-order  Rhizobo- 
laceae,  of  Ternstrcemiaceai,  all 
natives  of  Guiana  and  Brazil. 

Caryopliyllaceai,  a  natural 
order  of  thalamifloral  dicotyle- : 
dons,  containing  from  800  to 
1,000  known  species,  mostly 
herbaceous  plants. 

Caryopsis,  a  fruit  in  which 
the  seed  and  pericarp  are  insep¬ 
arable.  •  The  grain  or  fruit  of 
grasses,  as  wheat,  barley,  rye, 
maize,  etc.,  is  a  caryopsis. 

Caryota,  a  genus  of  palms, 
natives  of  the  East  Indies, 
having  twice  pinnate  leaves. 

Casabiauca,  Louis,  a  French 
naval  officer,  born  about  1755, 
was  captain  of  the  flagship . 


Caryatis. 


L’ Orient  in  the  expedition  to  Fon  Appian  Road— 
Egypt.  He  was  mortally  height,  V  feet  10 
wounded  at  the  Battle  of  the  inches. 

Nile,  Aug.  1,  1798;  the  ship  caught  fire;  his -ten- 
year-old  son  refused  to  leave  him,  and  both  per¬ 
ished  in  the  final  explosion. 

Casablanca  (Arab.  Bar  el  Beida),  a  port  of 
Morocco  on  the  Atlantic,  162  miles  southwest  of 
Fez. 


CASA  GRANDE. 


254 


CASSEL. 


Casa  Grande,  a  town  of  4,000  in  the  State  of 
Chihuahua,  Mexico.  It  contains  many  ruins  of 
ancient  adobe  buildings  of  great  size,  supposed  to 
have  been  constructed  by  the  Aztecs. 

Casanova  do  Seingalt,  Giovanni  Jacopo, born 
at  Venice  in  1725,  was  in  turn  abb6,  secretary  to 
Cardinal  Aquaviva,  ensign,  and  violinist  in  an 
orchestra.  His  irregularities  drove  him  from 
Venice,  but,  after  roaming  through  Northern  Italy 
and  France,  he  was  back  there  in  1755,  and  was 
then  condemned  to  five  years’  imprisonment  in  the 
“  Piomfoi.”  lie  effected  a  daring  escape,  and  for 
nearly  twenty  years  wandered  through  Europe, 
visiting  most  of  its  capitals,  and  making  the  ac¬ 
quaintance  of  the  greatest  men  and  women  of  the 
day.  In  1785  he  established  himself  with  the 
Count  of  Waldstein,  at  his  Castle  of  Dux,  in  Bo¬ 
hemia,  and  there  died,  June4,  1798. — Two  of  his 
brothers  were  painters — Giovanni  Battista 
(1722-95),  who  in  1764  became  Director  of  the 
Dresden  Academy;  and  Francesco  (1727-1805), 
who  was  born  in  London,  and  died  near  Vienna. 

Casareep,  or  Cassiripe,  a  sauce  or  condiment 
made  from  the  juice  of  the  Bitter  Cassava  or 
Manioc  root,  which  also  furnishes  tapioca. 

Cascade  Range,  a  chain  of  mountains  in  Oregon 
and  Washington  Territory,  extending  into  British 
Columbia.  The  highest  peaks  are  Mt.  Pitt,  9,600 
feet;  Mt.  Jefferson,  10,200;  Mt.  Hood,  11,225;  Mt. 
Baker,  10,700;  St.  Helen’s,  12,000;  and  Tacoma, 
14,445  feet.  They  are  of  volcanic  origin,  contain 
most  romantic  scenery,  and  give  rise  to  the  enorm¬ 
ous  Cascades  of  the  Columbia  river,  which  break 
through  the  range  through  vast  canons. 

Cascarilla  Bark  (Span,  cascara,  bark),  the 
tonic  and  astringent  bark  of  Croton  Eluteria,  a 
small  tree  cultivated  in  the  Bahamas,  where  it 
is  known  as  the  Sweet-wood  and  the  Seaside  Bal¬ 
sam. 

Case  has  numerous  technical  meanings  in  law. 
In  the  United  States,  'while  the  word  case  is,  like 
cause,  applied  to  every  question  contested  in 
court,  it  also  retains  a  limited  meaning — e.  ;/.,  an 
action  of  damages  for  tort,  where  the  older  forms 
are  unsuitable,  and  an  action  for  negligence 
against  a  corporation. 

Case-hardening  is  the  process  of  converting 
the  surface  of  certain  kinds  of  malleable  iron 
goods  into  steel,  thereby  making  them  harder, 
less  liable  to  rust,  and  capable  of  taking  on  a 
better  polish.  Fire-irons,  gun-locks,  keys,  and 
other  articles  of  limited  size  are  often  so  treated, 
but  the  process  is  sometimes  applied  to  large  ob¬ 
jects,  such  as  iron  railway  bars.  The  articles  are 
first  formed  and  heated  to  redness  with  powdered 
charcoal  or  cast-iron,  the  malleable  iron  taking 
carbon  from  either  of  these  to  form  a  skin  of 
steel  upon  it;  the  heated  objects  are  then  cooled 
in  cold  water,  or  in  oil  when  they  are  of  a  delicate 
nature. 

Casei’n  is  an  organic  compound  allied  to  albu¬ 
men,  found  in  the  milk  of  the  mammalia.  It 
also  exists  in  peas,  beans,  and  other  leguminous 
seeds,  and  is  then  known  as  legumin.  The  pro¬ 
portion  of  casein  in  milk  varies,  but  averages 
about  3  per  cent.  The  elementary  bodies  which 
enter  into  the  composition  of  casein,  and  the  pro¬ 
portion  in  which  these  are  present  in  100  parts, 
are — carbon  53.83;  hydrogen,  7.15;  nitrogen, 
15.65;  oxygen,  22.52;  and  sulphur,  0.85. 

Casemate,  originally  a  loopholed  gallery,  since 
called  a  “  caponier,”  from  which,  without  risk  of 
loss  to  themselves,  the  garrison  of  a  fort  could 
lire  upon  an  enemy  who  had  obtained  possession 
of  the  ditch.  The  term  is  now  applied  to  any 
bomb-proof  vaulted  chamber,  even  when  merely 
used  as  quarters  for  the  garrison.  Casemates  are 
utilized  to  cover  guns,  magazines,  stores,  or  hos¬ 
pitals,  from  high-angle  or  vertical  fire. 

Case-shot,  or  Canister,  is  an  artillery  pro¬ 
jectile  for  use  at  close  quarters,  and  consists  of  a 
sheet-iron  or  tin  cylinder  filled  with  bullets  vary¬ 
ing  from  half  an  ounce  to  one  pound  in  weight, 
and  in  number  according  to  the  size  of  the  gun. 

Cash  (old  Ft.  Casse,  a  chest  for  containing 
money)  is  used  for  money  as  distinguished  from 
produce,  in  which  sense  it  includes  all  immedi¬ 
ately  negotiable  paper — bills,  drafts,  checks,  and 
bonds,  as  well  as  coin  and  bank  notes.  At  other 
times  it  is  used  in  a  limited  sense  to  denote  coin 
and  bank  notes,  as  distinguished  from  negotiable 
instruments  which  pass  by  indorsation.  In  China 


cash  is  the  name  of  a  copper  coin  of  trifling 
value. 

Cash  Account,  or  Cash  Credit,  a  form  of  ac¬ 
count  with  a  bank  by  which  a  person  is  entitled 
to  draw  out  sums  as  required  by  way  of  loan  to  a 
stipulated  amount. 

Cashel,  a  town  of  Ireland,  in  County  Tip¬ 
perary,  100  miles  southwest  of  Dublin.  Pop. 
(1881),  3,961. 

Cashew  Nut  ( Aracardium  occidental e),  a  tree  of 
the  sub-order  Anacardiacese,  of  Terebinthaceae, 


Cashew  Nut  (Anacardium  Occident  ale). 


cultivated  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  It  is  a 
spreading  tree  of  no  great  height.  It  abounds  in 
a  clammy,  milky  juice,  which  turns  black  on  ex¬ 
posure  to  the  air,  and  is  used  for  varnishing,  but 
is  so  acrid  as  to  produce  painfid  inflammation  of 
the  skin. 

Cashiering  is  a  punishment  for  officers  in  the 
army  and  navy. 

Cashmere  is  the  familiar  form  of  the  name  now 
usually  spelled  by  the  Indian  authorities  Kashmir. 
The  native  State  of  Cashmere  embraces  an  irregu¬ 
lar-shaped  mountainous  region,  part  of  the  Hima¬ 
layan  System,  between 32°  30'  and  36  N.  latitude, 
and  73°  30'  to  76°  E.  longitude.  Within  its 
borders  are  included  the  valleys  of  many  snow-fed 
streams,  but  chief  among  them  is  the  Valley  of 
the  Upper  Jhelum  at  Srinagar — “the  Vale  of 
Kashmir” — celebrated  in  literature  and  history 
for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery  and  the  charm  of  its 
climate.  It  extends  for  about  120  miles  from 
northwest  to  southeast,  with  a  mean  breadth  of 
75  miles,  at  a  distance  of  about  130  miles  from 
Rawal  Pindi,  in  the  Punjab.  The  natural  product¬ 
iveness  of  the  country  is  remarkable.  Fruit  of 
almost  every  description  is  found  nearly  wild  in 
the  lower  valleys,  and  is  largely  cultivated  for 
the  manufacture  of  wine. 

Cashmere  Goat,  a  variety  of  the  goat  (Capra 
hircus,  var.  laniger),  remarkable  for  its  long,  fine, 
and  silky  hair,  from  which  the  famous  Cashmere 
shawls  are  made.  It  is  found  in  Thibet  and  Bok¬ 
hara,  whence  the  finest  goat-hair  is  imported  into 
Cashmere,  to  be  there  manufactured.  It  has 
been  bred  in  the  United  States  to  a  limited 
extent. 

Casia,  or  Poet’s  Casia  ( Osyris  alba),  a  South 
European  shrub  of  the  order  Santalacese,  with 
white  flowers  and  small  red  drupes. 

Casimir,  properly  Kazimierz  (founder  "of 
peace),  was  the  name  of  many  Polish  princes  and 
kings.  The  most  distinguished  of  this  name  was 
Casimir  III.,  called  Casimir  the  Great,  who  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father,  Vladislav  Loketek,  as  King  of 
Poland  in  1333.  He  died  Nov.  5,  1370. 

Casino,  an  Italian  diminutive  of  casa,  “a 
house,”  a  place  for  social  reunions.  The  name  is 
usually  applied  in  Italy  to  a  place  where  musical 
or  dancing  soirees  are  held. 

Caspa'ri,  Karr  Paul,  church  historian,  born 
in  1814.  His  Arabic  grammar  (4th  ed.  Halle, 
1875)  is  in  high  repute,  and  his  contributions  to 
the  study  of  the  Old  Testament  include  works  on 
Obadiah,  Isaiah,  Micali,  and  Daniel. 

Caspian  Sea,  an  inland  sea  or  salt  lake,  on  the 
boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia,  extending 
from  36°  40'  to  47°  20'  N.  latitude,  and  46°  50' 


to  55°  10'  E.  longitude.  Its  length  from  north 
to  south  is  680  miles,  and  its  breadth  varies 
between  130  and  270  miles.  Its  total  area  is  esti¬ 
mated  at  170,000  square  miles.  From  the  west, 
the  naphtha-impregnated  Peninsula  of  Apsheron 
stretches  into  the  Caspian  opposite  the  Balkan 
Gulf;  Mount  Caucasus  also  rises  on  its  west  side. 
On  the  south  rises  the  lofty  range  of  the  Elburz 
Mountains.  On  the  north  it  is  bordered  by  great 
steppes,  the  surface  of  which  is  below  that  of  the 
ocean. 

Cass,  Lewis,  born  Oct.  9,  1782.  In  1812  he 
entered  the  army,  and  rose  rapidly  to  the  rank  of 
general.  Left  in  command  of  Michigan  at  the 
close  of  the  war,  he  was  for  eighteen  years  civil 
Governor  of  the  Territory,  which  under  his 
administration  became  a  State.  From  1831  to 
1836  Cass  was  Secretary  of  War,  and  from  1836 
to  1842  he  was  United  States  Minister  at  Paris. 
In  1844  he  was  spoken  of  for  the  Presidency,  and 
in  1848  received  the  Democratic  nomination,  but 
was  defeated  by  General  Taylor;  in  1852  he  lost  the 
nomination.  He  sat  in  the  Senate  from  1845  to 
1857,  when  he  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State, 
resigning  in  1860  in  consequence  of  President 
Buchanan’s  refusal  to  reinforce  Fort  Sumter.  He 
retired  from  active  life,  and  died  at  Detroit,  June 
17,  1866.  He  published  a  work  on  the  history 
and  languages  of  the  United  States  Indians  (1823), 
and  France:  Its  King,  Court,  and  Government 
(1840).  See  his  Life  by  W.  L.  Smith  (New  York, 
1856). 

Cassagnac,  Adolphe  Granier  de,  French 
journalist,  born  in  1806,  and  in  1832  went  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  employed  on  several  journals,  and 
where  his  vehement  style  of  writing  soon  brought 
him  considerable  prominence  and  a  number  of 
duels  and  law  suits.  He  founded  several  papers, 
and  ultimately  became  the  chief  editor  of  Le  Pays. 
He  died  Jan.  31,  1880. — His  son,  Paul  Adolpiie 
Marie,  born  in  1843,  joined  him  on  Le  lays 
(1866).  Having  joined  a  Zouave  regiment  in 
1870,  as  a  volunteer,  he  was  captured  at  Sedan, 
and  imprisoned.  He  returned  to  Paris  in  1872, 
and  renewed  his  association  with  Le  Pays.  In 
1876  he  was  elected  a  deputy,  wras  imprisoned  in 
1877,  and  urged  McMahon  to  a  coup  d'etat. 

Cassander,  King  of  Macedonia,  born  about 
354  b.c.,  and  died  about  297.  He  founded 
Thessalonica,  and  rebuilt  Thebes. 

Cassandra,  according  to  Homeric  legend,  was 
the  fairest  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and 
the  twin  sister  of  Ilelenus.  The  two  children 
were  left  one  night  in  the  sanctuary  of  Apollo, 
and  during  their  sleep  their  ears  were  touched 
and  purified  by  two  snakes,  so  that  they  could 
understand  the  meaning  of  the  language  of  birds, 
and  thus  know  the  future.  Cassandra  afterward 
attracted  the  love  of  Apollo  by  her  beauty,  and 
he  taught  her  the  secrets  of  prophecy;  but  dis¬ 
pleased  by  her  rejection  of  his  suit,  laid  upon  her 
the  curse  that  her  prophesies  should  never  be 
believed.  So  she  prophesied  in  vain  the  treachery 
of  the  Grecian  horse  and  the  destruction  of  Troy, 
and  was  looked  on  by  the  citizens  as  a  mere  mad 
woman,  whose  words  had  no  value  whatever. 

Cassandra,  the  most  western  of  the  three 
tongues  of  the  Chalcidice  Peninsula,  between  the 
Gulfs  of  Salonica  and  Cassandra.  Its  ancient 
name  was  Pallene.  The  Gulf  of  Cassandra 
(ancient  Toronaicus  Sinus)  extends  thirty-five 
miles  northwestward,  and  is  8  to  16  miles  broad. 

Cassano,  a  town  of  Southern  Italy,  thirty-four 
miles  north  of  Cosenza.  Pop.,  7,407. — Cassano, 
on  the  Adda,  sixteen  miles  east-northeast  of  Milan, 
was  the  scene  of  two  sanguinary  battles— a  defeat 
in  1705  of  the  Imperialists  under  Prince  Eugene, 
by  the  French  under  Vendome;  and  a  defeat  in 
1799  of  the  French  under  Moreau,  by  the  Rus¬ 
sians  and  Austrians  under  Suwaroff.  Pop.,  3,554. 

Cassation,  Court  of.  In  the  law  of  France, 
the  act  of  annulling  the  decision  of  a  court  or 
judicial  tribunal  is  called  cassation,  from  the  verb 
casser,  “to  break  or  annul  ”  (Lat.  quatere-,  Eng. 
quash). 

Cassa'va,  a  West  Indian  name  of  the  plant 
also  called  manioc,  and  of  the  starch  produced 
from  it,  which  is  otherwise  called  Brazilian  arrow- 
root,  and  is  popularly  known  as  tapioca. 

Cassel,  or  Kassel,  chief  town  of  the  Prussian 
Province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  and  the  old  capital  of 
the  former  electorate  of  Hesse-Cassel,  is  situated 


CASSIA. 


255 


CASTLE. 


on  the  navigable  Fulda,  120  miles  north-northeast 
of  Frankfort-on-Main,  and  233  west-southwest 
of  Berlin.  Pop.  (1885),  04,083.  Cassel  appears 
to  have  existed  as  early  as  the  tenth  century 
under  the  name  of  Chaasula.  From  1807  to  1812 
it  was  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Westphalia. 
The  gardens  of  Wilhclmshohe  (1787-90)  assigned 
to  Napoleon  III.  as  a  residence  after  liis  fall  at 
Sedan,  are  three  miles  from  Cassel. 

Cassia,  a  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  a  kind 
of  aromatic  bark,  is  identified  with  the  Cassia 
bark  or  Cassia  lignea  (sometimes  also  China  Cin¬ 
namon  of  the  shops).  This  spice  is  largely  im¬ 
ported  from  China,  Calcutta,  Java,  etc.— Cassia 
Buds  are  the  immature  fruit  of  the  same  tree. 
— Cassia  is  also  the  botanical  name  of  a  large 
genus  of  Leguminosae  (sub-order  Csesalpineae), 
trees,  shrubs,  and  even  herbs. 

Cassican  (Cassinis),  a  genus  of  American  birds 
allied  to  starlings,  but  more  closely  to  the  Hang- 
nests  or  IcteridiE.  They  exhibit  marvelous  skill 
in  knitting  together  the  shreds,  etc.,  which  form 
their  hanging  nests. 

Cassidaria,  a  genus  of  molluscs — class  Gas¬ 
teropoda,  order  Prosobranchiata,  family  Cassidae. 
The  shell  is  roughly  oval,  with  a  wide  mouth,  a 
fairly  long  siphon  canal,  and  without  a  closing 
lid.  There  are  six  modern  Mediterranean  species, 
and  five  times  as  many  extinct  in  the  Upper 
Chalk  and  Tertiary  strata. 

Cassi'ni,  the  name  of  a  family  distinguished 
for  their  services  in  astronomy  and  geography. 
Giovanni  Domenico  Cassini,  born  June  8, 1025. 
His  first  work  related  to  the  comet  of  1052.  In 
1664-65  he  determined  the  period  of  Jupiter’s  ro¬ 
tation.  He  discovered  four  of  the  satellites  of 
Saturn,  as  well  as  the  dual  character  of  that  plan¬ 
et’s  ring,  and  was  the  first  who  carefully  ob¬ 
served  the  zodiacal  light.  He  died  Sept.  14, 
1712. — Jacques  Cassini,  his  son,  born  Feb.  18, 
1677,  and  died  April  16,  1756.  He  wrote  several 
treatises  on  electricity,  the  barometer,  and  astro¬ 
nomical  subjects. — His  son,  Caesar  Cassini 
(1714-84),  was  also  engaged  in  scientific  pursuits. 
Caesar’s  son,  Jean  Dominique,  Compte  de  Cas¬ 
sini,  born  June  30,  1748,  succeeded  to  the  charge 
of  the  observatory,  and  completed  in  1793  the 
great  topographical  map  of  France  begun  by  his 
father.  He  subsequently  became  a  member  of 
the  Institute.  He  died  Oct.  18,  1845. 

Cassino,  a  game  of  cards  played  by  two  or 
more  players.  Each  receives  four  cards,  and  four 
are  dealt  face  up  on  the  board.  The  first  object 
is  to  get  most  cards,  value  three  points;  next 
most  spades,  one  point.  The  ten  of  diamonds  is 
grand  cassino  and  counts  two;  the  two  of  spades 
is  little  cassino,  one  point;  and  each  ace  counts 
one.  A  player  may  in  his  turn  take  from  the 
board  any  card  corresponding  to  one  in  his  hand 
or  any  number  of  cards  whose  combined  spots 
equal  the  number  on  any  card  he  may  hold. 
When  each  player  has  used  his  four  cards,  each 
gets  four  more,  and  so  to  the  end.  The  only  part 
of  the  game  requiring  skill  is  the  process  of 
“  building.  ”  Thus  the  player  finds  on  the  board 
a  four,  king,  jack,  and  ten.  He  has  in  his  hand 
a  seven,  a  three,  and  two  more  cards.  Placing 
his  three  upon  the  four,  he  “makes  it  seven’’ 
and  it  can  only  be  taken  by  a  seven.  His  op¬ 
ponent,  however,  may  “spoil  the  build”  by 
putting  an  ace  or  deuce,  for  example,  upon  it, 
and  making  it  eight  or  nine.  This,  of  course, 
only  if  he  has  the  superior  card  then  in  hand.  If 
two  sevens  or  sets  are  built,  the  build  can  not  be 
spoiled.  Twenty-one  points  is  game. 

Cassiope'ia,  the  Lady  in  her  Chair,  a  constella¬ 
tion  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  near  Ceplieus, 
and  not  far  from  the  north  pole,  named  after  the 
mother  of  Andromeda.  It  is  marked  by  five  stars 
of  the  third  magnitude,  forming  a  figure  like  a 
W.  In  the  year  1572  there  all  at  once  appeared 
in  Cassiopeia  a  new  star,  which,  when  first 
noticed  by  Tycho  Brahe,  exceeded  in  brightness 
all  the  fixed  stars,  and  nearly  equaled  Venus. 
The  star  gradually  diminished  in  luster,  and  dis¬ 
appeared  in  March,  1574. 

Cassiquia'  r6,  or  Cassiqutari,  a  river  of  Vene¬ 
zuela,  South  America,  forming  the  south  bifur¬ 
cation  of  the  Orinoco,  which  joins  the  Bio  Negro 
in  2°  5'  N.  latitude,  67°  40'  W.  longitude,  near 
San  Carlos. 

Cassis,  a  genus  closely  allied  to  Cassidaria, 


with  a  shorter  siphon  canal,  and  with  a  closing 
lid.  It  is  a  much  larger  genus,  with  forty-two 
living  species,  but  with  fewer  (twenty-five)  known 
fossils  in  the  Tertiary  epoch.  Some  large  species 
are  used  for  cameos. 

Cassiter  ides,  the  “Tin  Islands,”  first  men 
tioned  by  Herodotus,  where  the  merchant-sailors 
of  Carthage  bartered  their  wares  for  tin.  The 
islands  appear  on  Ptolemy’s  map  as  olf  North¬ 
western  Spain,  but  they  were  afterward  identified 
with  the  Scilly  Islands,  or  with  Cornwall. 

Cassiterite,  oxide  of  tin  or  common  tin  ore, 
occurs  massive  or  in  the  form  of  crystals,  which 
are  often  quadrangular  prisms  terminated  by 
four-sided  pyramids.  It  appears,  however,  in 
many  other  complex  crystalline  forms.  It  has 
been  worked  from  a  very  remote  period  in  Corn¬ 
wall,  and  is  met  with  in  many  other  countries. 
Stream,  tin  is  the  name  given  to  round  fragments 
of  cassiterite  which  occur  in  alluvial  deposits  in 
the  valleys  of  Cornwall. 

■  Cassius,  a  Roman  gens,  which,  originally  of 
patrician  rank,  afterward  became  plebeian.  Its 
most  famous  members  wrere  (1)  Spurius  Cassius 
V iscellinus,  who  was  thrice  consul,  first  in  502 
b.c.,  and  the  promoter  of  the  first  agrarian  law  at 
Rome  (486). — (2)  Caius  Cassius  Longinus,  the 
most  active  of  the  conspirators  against  Caesar. 
In  44  b.c.,  through  the  influence  of  Caesar,  he 
was  made  praetor,  and  was  promised  the  govern¬ 
orship  of  Syria  in  the  following  year.  The 
pseudo-patriotic  conspiracy  was  matured,  and  on 
March  15,  44  b.c.  Caesar  fell  by  the  daggers  of 
his  assassins. 

Cassivellaumis,  a  British  chief  who  fought 
against  Caesar  during  his  second  invasion  of  the 
island,  54  b.c. 

Cassock,  a  long  loose  robe  or  outer  coat,  for¬ 
merly  in  common  wrear,  but  now  worn  only  by 
the  clergy  and  choristers. 

Cassowary  ( Casuarius ),  a  genus  of  running 
birds  (Ratitae),  nearly  related  to  the  true  ostrich, 
and  nearer  to  the  American  rhea.  Eight  species 
of  cassowary  are  known  in  Ceram,  New  Guinea, 


Casowary  ( Casuarius  galeatus). 


and  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  a  ninth  in  North 
Australia.  The  best -known  species  are  the 
Mooruk  of  New  Britain  (C.  bennetti )  and  C . 
galeatus ;  the  Emu  or  Dromaeus  is  a  nearly  allied 
genus. 

Cast,  an  object  formed  by  pouring  molten  or 
liquid  material  into  a  mould,  in  which  the  sub¬ 
stance  sets  or  hardens,  assuming  the  form  and 
outlines  of  the  mould. 

Castalia,  a  fountain  on  the  slope  of  Parnassus, 
a  little  above  Delphi,  in  Phocis,  sacred  to  Apollo 
and  the  Muses. 

Castanets,  a  musical  instrument  of  percussion 
in  the  form  of  two  hollow  shells  of  ivory  or  hard 
wood,  bound  together  by  a  band  fastened  on  the 
thumb,  and  struck  by  the  fingers  to  produce  a 
sound  in  keeping  with  the  rhythm  of  the  music. 

Castanos,  Don  Francisco  Xaver  de,  Duke 
of  Bailen,  a  Spanish  general,  born  in  1756,  held 
important  commands  in  the  Napoleonic  wars,  and 
died  Sept.  24,  1852. 

Caste,  a  term  applied  to  social  distinctions  of 
an  exclusive  nature.  In  India  the  system  has 
received  its  fullest  development,  and  the  mass  of 


the  population  is  divided  into  innumerable  classes, 
of  which  the  highest  is  the  Brahmin  and  the  low¬ 
est  the  Sudrah  class.  The  Pariah  is  the  lowest  of 
the  mixed  classes,  which  stand  below  all  the  rest. 

Castelar,  Emilio,  a  Spanish  orator,  statesman, 
and  writer,  born  at  Cadiz,  Sept.  8,  1832.  In  1864 
he  started  La  Democracia .  After  the  rising  of 
1866  he  was  condemned  to  death,  but  escaped  to 
Paris,  returning  when  the  revolution  of  1868 
began.  In  September,  1873,  he  was  made  Dic¬ 
tator,  but  resigned  in  1874.  In  1876  he  was  Re¬ 
turned  to  the  Cortes,  and  in  1879  In;  was  elected 
to  the  Spanish  Academy. 

Casteifranco,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  eight 
miles  southeast  of  Modena.  Pop  ,  1,900. — Also  a 
town  of  Italv,  fifteen  miles  west  of  Treviso.  Pop., 
3,758. 

Castel  Gandolfo,  a  village  twelve  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Rome.  Pop.,  1,684. 

Castellama're,  a  fortified  city  and  seaport  of 
South  Italy,  seventeen  and  one-lialf  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Naples;  pop.,  22,207. — Castellamare,  in 
Sicily,  at  the  head  of  a  gulf  of  the  same  name, 
forty-one  miles  west-southwest  of  Palermo. 
Pop.,  15,303. 

Castellan,  or  Chatelain,  the  keeper  of  a  castle 
in  the  middle  ages. 

Castellon'  de  la  Plana,  a  town  of  Spain,  five 
miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  forty-three 
miles  north-northeast  of  Valencia.  Pop.,  23,393, 
The  Province  of  Castellon  has  an  area  of  2,446 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  (1885)  295,839. 

Castelnaudary,  a  town  in  the  French  depart¬ 
ment  of  Aude,  thirty-four  miles  southeast  of 
Toulouse.  Pop.  (1886),  8,641. 

Casti,  Giambattista,  an  Italian  poet,  poet- 
laureate  of  Austria,  born  probably  in  1721.  He 
died  in  Paris,  Feb.  6,  1803. 

Castiglio'ne,  a  town  of  Sicily,  on  the  north 
slope  of  Mount  Hitna,  thirty-five  miles  southwest 
of  Messina.  Pop.,  8,114.  "Castiglione  delle 
Stivie're,  a  town  of  North  Italy,  twenty-two 
miles  northwest  of  Mantua.  Pop.,  3,123. 

Castiglione,  Baldasarre,  Count,  Italian 
author,  was  born  in  1478,  and  died  Feb.  2,  1529. 

Castile  (Span.  Castilla,  so  named  from  the 
great  number  of  its  frontier  castles,  the  central 
district  of  the  Spanish  Peninsula,  divided  by  the 
Castilian  Sierras  (8,730  feet)  into  Old  and  New 
Castile — Castilla  la  Vieja  and  Castilla  la  Nucva. 
The  former  district  extends  north  to  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  is  walled  in  onall  other  sides  by  mountain 
ranges.  Old  Castile  is  now  divided  into  the  eight 
Provinces  of  Palencia,  Valladolid,  Avila,  Segovia, 
Soria,  Burgos,  Logrono,  and  Santander.  The 
plateau  of  New  Castile,  to  the  south,  is  also  in¬ 
closed  by  mountains.  It  embraces  the  Provinces 
of  Madrid,  Toledo,  Guadalajara,  Ciudad  Real, 
and  Cuenca.  Area  of  Old  Castile,  25,280  square 
miles;  pop.  (1885),  1,730,295;  area  of  New  Castile, 
27,755  square  miles;  pop.  (1885),  1,671,739;  total 
53,035  square  miles,  with  3,402,034  inhabitants. 

Castille.jo,  Cristoval  de,  the  last  of  the  old 
Spanish  court  poets,  born  at  Ciudad  Rodrigo 
about  1490,  and  d  ed  at  Vienna,  June  12,  1556. 

Castillon,  a  town  of  2,686  inhabitants  in  the 
French  department  of  Gironde,  thirty-three  miles 
east  of  Bordeaux. 

Casting-vote,  the  vote  by  which  the  chairman 
or  president  of  a  meeting  is  generally  empowered 
to  cast  the  balance  on  the  one  side  or  the  other, 
where  the  other  votes  are  equally  divided.  In 
Congress  the  Speaker  does  not  vote  unless  this 
state  of  things  occurs. 

Castle.  Castles  or  fortified  places  for  defense 
are  common  to  all  nations.  Under  the  Normans, 
during  the  eleventh  century,  a  style  of  castle  was 
introduced,  familiar  as  the  Norman  “  keep.”  This 
consisted  of  a  square  or  oblong  tower,  the  walls 
of  which  were  built  with  stone  and  mortar,  and 
were  of  great  thickness.  In  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury  improved  methods  of  attack  and  defense 
necessitated  the  system  of  strengthening  the  walls 
of  enceinte  of  the  courtyards,  and  of  construct¬ 
ing  all  around  them  a  series  of  towers.  The 
whole  structure  thus  became  a  great  “  castle,” 
each  portion  serving  as  a  defense  to  the  rest. 
Each  tower  was  so  arranged  as  to  form  an  inde¬ 
pendent  fort,  capable  of  maintaining  a  separate 
defense,  and  the  keep  was  still  preserved  as  the 
residence  of  the  commander,  and  as  a  last  refuge 
in  case  of  need.  The  invention  of  gunpowder 


CASTLEBAR. 


256 


CAT. 


finally  ended  both  the  feudal  system  and  private 
fortifications.  In  the  fifteenth  century  the  castles 


Castle  of  Couci  (from  Viollet-le-Duc). 

of  the  nobles  became  not  only  impregnable  fort¬ 
resses,  but  splendid  palaces. 

Castlebar',  the  capital  of  County  Mayo,  Ire¬ 
land.  Pop.  (1881),  3,855. 

Castleford,  a  glass  manufacturing  center  in 
the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Aire,  ten 
miles  southeast  of  Leeds.  Pop.  (1881),  10,530. 

Castle  Carden,  originally  Castle  Clinton,  a 
round  fort  (1807)  built  300  yards  out  from  the 
south  end  of  Manhattan  Island,  was  in  1824  con¬ 
verted  into  a  place  of  amusement,  in  1839  planted 
with  trees,  turf,  and  flowers,  in  1847  transformed 
into  an  opera-house,  and  in  1858  made  the  immi¬ 
gration  depot  of  New  York.  Here  steerage 
immigrants  are  landed,  questioned  on  behalf  of 
the  omcialCommissioners,  and  advised  where  they 
are  likely  to  find  employment. 

Castlemaine,  a  town  of  Victoria,  seventy-seven 
miles  north-northwest  of  Melbourne.  The  gold 
diggings  here  were  among  the  first  discovered  in 
Australia.  Pop.  (1881),  5,787. 

Castlereagh,  Robert  Stewart,  Viscount, 
was  born  June  18,  1769,  the  son  of  an  Ulster 
proprietor,  who  in  1789  was  created  Baron 
Londonderry,  in  1795  Viscount  Castlereagh,  in 
1796  Earl,  and  in  1816  Marquis,  of  Londonderry. 
In  1790  he  entered  the  Irish  Parliament,  in  1795 
he  became  Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal,  and  in  1797 
Chief  Secretary.  He  was  a  strong  supporter  of 
Pitt’s  union  measures.  In  1822  lie  became 
President  of  the  Board  of  Control,  and  in  1805 
War  Minister  under  Pitt.  On  Sept.  21,  1809, 
he  had  a  dm  1  with  Canning,  in  which  the  latter 
was  wounded.  From  March,  1812,  he  was  Foreign 
Secretary.  He  represented  England  at  I  he  con¬ 
gresses  of  Chatillon  and  Vienna  in  1814—15,  at 
the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1815,  at  the  congress  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1818;  and  was  preparing  to 
start  for  a  congress  at  Verona,  when,  on  Aug.  12, 
1822,  he  commitcd  suicide  with  a  penknife. 

Castletown  (Manx,  Bailey  Gashtal),  a  seaport 
and  former  capital  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  on  Castle¬ 
town  Bay,  eleven  miles  southwest  of  Douglas. 
Pop.,  2,243. 

Castor  and  Pollux,  often  called  Dioscuri  or 
“sons  of  Zeus,”  were,  according  to  Homer,  the 
sons  of  Leda  and  Tyndareus,  and  so  brothers  of 
Helen  of  Troy.  Another  tradition  made  both  of 
them  sons  of  Zeus  and  Leda;  a  third  made  only 
Pollux  Zeus’  son,  and  so  alone  immortal.  Castor 
was  famous  for  his  skill  in  managing  horses,  Pol¬ 
lux  for  his  powers  in  boxing.  Both  received 
divine  honor  at  Sparta  as  patrons  of  travelers  by 
sea;  t  he  Romans  they  assisted  at  the  Battle  of  Lake 
Regillus.  Zeus  placed  the  brothers  among  the 
stars  as  Gemini,  and  their  names  are  attached  to 
the  principal  stars  in  that  constellation.  Their 


Castor-oil  Plant  ( [Sicinus  communis) . 

naturalized  in  most  tropical,  subtropical,  and  even 
warm  temperate  countries. 

Castration  is  the  method  by  which  animals, 
both  male  and  female,  are  deprived  of  parts  of 
their  generative  organs  (testicles  and  ovaries).  A 
castrated  horse  is  called  a  gelding;  a  castrated 
bull,  a  bullock  or  steer;  a  castrated  boar,  a  pig; 
a  castrated  ram,  a  wether;  and  a  castrated  cock, 
a  capon.  Castration  of  females  is  called  “  spay¬ 
ing,”  and  is  frequently  performed  upon  sows, 
which  are  then  called  gelts. 

Castreu,  Mathias  Alexander,  the  founder 
of  Ural-Altaian  philology,  was  born  in  1813  at 
Tervola,  in  the  North  of  Finland,  lie  died  May 
7,  1852. 

Castres,  a  town  in  the  French  department  of 
Tarn,  is  situate  d  on  the  River  Agout,  forty-six 
miles  east  of  Toulouse.  Pop.  (1886),  22,098. 

Castro,  the  modern  name  of  the  capital  of 
several  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelego — Les¬ 
bos,  Tamotlirace,  Melos,  Lemnos,  etc. 

Castro,  Guillen  de,  a  Spanish  dramatist, 
born  in  Valencia  in  1569,  died  in  1631 

Castro,  Ines  de,  mistress  of  and  afterward 
wife  of  Don  Pedro  of  Portugal  (1345-1354),  in 
1340  came  to  Portugal  in  the  train  of  her  cousin, 
Costan9a,  the  bride  of  the  young  Infante,  Dom 
Pedro.  Her  beauty  captivated  him.  The  secret 
of  the  marriage  was  revealed  to  Alfonso  IV., 
Pedro’s  father,  and  Ines  was  stabbed  to  death  in 
January,  1355. 

Castro,  Jo ao  de,  a  famous  Portuguese  soldier 
and  traveler,  born  at  Lisbon  in  1500.  He  died  in 
the  arms  of  Francis  Xavier  on  June  6,  1543. 

Castrogiovanni,  a  town  in  the  middle  of 
Sicily,  fifty-six  miles  east  of  Catania,  occupies 
the  site  of  the  ancient  Enna.  Pop.,  18,450. 

Casuarina,  a  peculiar  genus  of  Amentaceae, 
forming  the  sub-order  Casuarinese.  Of  the  thirty 
species,  the  great  majority  are  restricted  to  Aus¬ 
tralia  and  the  adjacent  islands.  Some  of  them  are 


names  are  also  given  to  the  electric  phenomenon 
known  as  St.  Elmo’s  Fire. 

Castorcum,  a  soft  brown  substance,  of  peculiar 
smell,  secreted  by  two  glands,  associated  with  the 
reproductive  organs  in  both  sexes  of  beaver.  It 
is  used  chiefly  by  perfumers. 

Castoridae,  a  family  of  rodent  mammals,  in  the 
squirrel-like  section,  represented  by  the  genus 
Castor  with  a  single  species,  the  familiar  beaver 
(Gusto)-  fiber). 

Castor-oil,  a  fixed  oil  obtained  from  the  seeds 
of  the  castor-oil  plant.  The  seeds  are  bruised 
between  heavy  rollers,  and  pressed  in  hempen 
bags  under  a  hydraulic  or  screw  press.  The  best 
variety  of  oil  is  obtained  by  cold  pressure,  and  is 
known  as  cold-drawn  castor-oil;  but  if  the  bruised 
and  pressed  seeds  be  afterward  steamed ,  and  again 
pressed,  a  second  quality  of  oil  is  obtained,  which 
is  apt  to  become  partially  solid  in  cold  weather. 
In  eit her  case,  the  crude  oil  is  heated  with  water 
to  212°  (100°  C.),  which  coagulates,  and  separates 
the  albumen  and  other  impurities.  Pure  cold- 
drawn  castor-oil  is  of  alight-yellow  color;  but  the 
inferior  oil  has  a  greenish,  and  occasionally  a 
brownish,  tinge.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  960. 
It  is  miscible  with  alcohol  or  spirits  of  wine  and 
ether.  The  commoner  qualities  have  a  nauseous 
smell,  and  an  acrid,  disagreeable,  and  sickening 
taste,  but  the  fine  article  is  frequently  almost  free 
from  objectionable  properties.  It  contains  a 
peculiar  oily  acid,  called  Ricinoleic  Acid,  Ci  eH3403. 
Castor-oil,  in  doses  of  one  or  two  teaspoonfuls, 
is  one  of  the  most  convenient  of  purgatives. 

Castor-oil  Plant  ( Ricinus  communis;  natural 
order  Euphorbiaceae)  is  a  native  of  India,  but  now 


large  trees,  producing  timber  of  excellent  quality, 
the  Beefi-wood  of  the  Australian  colonists.  C.  qu<'d- 


Brancb  of  Casuarina  equiselifotia 


With  male  and  female  flowers,  the  former  in  catkins  at 

tiie  end  of  the  shoots,  the  latter  (a)  crowded  in  cone- 

like  heads.  At  b,  note  single  female  flower,  and  at  c,  a 

group  of  male  flowers.  A  section  of  the  fluted  stem, 

with  reduced  leaves,  is  represented  at  d. 

rivalvis  is  the  she  oak  of  New  South  Wales,  and 
C.  lorulosa  the  forest  oak  of  Queensland.  Casso¬ 
wary  tree  is  a  popular  generic  name  of  the 
Casuarinse. 

Casuistry,  in  the  widest  sense,  is  the  reason¬ 
ing  which  enables  a  man  to  decide  in  a  particular 
case  between  conflicting  or  apparently  conflict¬ 
ing  duties.  Instances  of  it  may  be  found  in  the 
Gospels  (Matt,  xxii,  17;  Luke,  xiv,  3),  in  the 
Epistles  of  St.  Paul  ( e .  g.,  1  Cor.  vii,  viii,  x), 
and  in  the  early  fathers.  The  greatest  of  the 
Catholic  casuists  was  St.  Alfonso  Liguori,  who 
wrote  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century; 
and  the  “Sacred  Penitentiary”  at  Rome  has 
declared  that  every  confessor  may  safely  fol¬ 
low  all  his  opinions.  The  casuistry  of  the 
Reformers  was  similar  in  origin  to  that  of  the 
early  fathers;  and,  with  the  marked  exception  of 
the  question  of  celibacy,  the  two  systems  greatly 
resemble  one  another  in  their  severity. 

Casus  Belli,  an  occasion  of  war,  is  the  reason 
alleged  by  one  power  for  going  to  war  with 
another. 

Caswall,  Henry,  D.D.  (1810-1870),  was  born 
at  Yateley,  Hampshire,  England.  At  the  age  of 
eighteen  he  came  to  the  United  States,  and  was 
graduated  in  arts  at  Kenyon  College,  Ohio.  After 
being  engaged  for  several  years  as  a  parish  min¬ 
ister  and  a  professor  of  theology  in  America,  he 
returned  to  England  in  1842,  obtained  a  private 
Act  of  Parliament  recognizing  the  validity  of  his 
ordination  in  the  United  States,  was  appointed  to 
the  vicarage  of  Figheldean,  Wiltshire,  and  became 
proctor  in  Convocation  for  the  diocese  of  Sarum, 
and  prebendary  of  Salisbury  Cathedral.  He  re¬ 
ceived  the  honorary  degree  of  M.A.  from  the 
University  of  Oxford,  and  that  of  D.D.  from 
Trinity  College,  Hartford,  Conn.  Caswall  came 
back  to  the  United  States  about  two  years 
before  his  death,  which  occurred  at  Franklin, 
Penn.,  Dec.  17,  1870. 

Cat,  a  name  applied  in  its  widest  sense  to  all 
feline  animals,  but  generally  restricted  to  a  few  of 
the  smaller  species  which  approximate  more  or 
less  closely  to  the  domestic  form.  Of  undomes- 
ticated  species  the  best  known  is  the  wild  cat 
(Felis  catus),  inhabiting  the  deepest  recesses  of 
the  forests  of  Central  and  Northern  Europe  and 
Asia.  It  attains  a  length  of  three  feet,  including  the 
tail,  is  of  a  yellowisli-gray  color  above  and  whitish 
beneath,  with  a  dark  streak  extending  along  the 
back  to  the  origin  of  the  tail,  and  with  indistinct 
transverse  bands  on  the  sides.  Its  tail  is  bushy 
and  of  equal  thickness  throughout,  annulated 
and  tipped  with  black.  It  forms  its  nest  in 
rocky  crevices,  or  in  the  hollows  of  trees.  It  is 
nocturnal  in  its  habits,  prowling  by  night  in 


CATACLYSMAL  ACTION. 


257 


CATARACT. 


search  of  the  mammals  and  birds  which  form  its 
food.  The  fierceness  of  its  disposition,  its  strength 
and  its  agility  are  well  known;  and  when  brought 


Wild  Cat. 


with  great  accuracy  in  the  decorations  in  the  cat¬ 
acombs.  Extensive  catacombs  of  similar  charac- 


to  bay  it  will  attack  man.  In  country  districts 
specimens  of  the  domestic  cat  run  wild  are  by  no 
means  uncommon.  The  offspring  of  such  semi¬ 
wild  forms  gradually  assume  a  uniform  coloring 
not  unlike  that  of  the  wild  cat — a  similarity 
which  led  to  the  supposition  that  the  house  cat 
was  but  a  domesticated  form  of  Felis  catus. 
Among  the  New-World  species,  the  puma,  cou¬ 
gar  or  American  panther  (F.  concolor),  the 
jaguar,  the  pardal  (F.  pardalis),  the  pampas  cat, 
are,  common  forms.  The  term  lynx  is  applied 
to  several  different  species,  and  the  name 
cat  is  used  with  equal  width.  The  Chee¬ 
tah  is  often  regarded  as  a  distinct  genus.  Our 
common  cat,  familiar  in  many  varieties  of  color, 
is  not  a  tamed  descendant  of  the  wild  cat 
(F.  catus),  but  is  usually  regarded  as  the  descend¬ 
ant  of  the  Egyptian  cat  (F.  caligata  or  manicu- 
lata),  which  was  certainly  domesticated  in 
Egypt  thirteen  centuries  b.c.  Many  domestic 
cats  are  highly  valued.  A  true  tortoise-shell 
tom-cat  fetches  a  big  price.  The  royal  Siamese 
cat  is  fawn-colored,  with  blue  eyes  and  small 
head;  the  Carthusian  or  blue  cat  has  long 
dark  grayish-blue  fur,  with  black  lips  and  solesj 
the  Angora  or  Persian  cat  is  large,  finely  furred, 
generally  white,  tending  to  yellow  or  gray, 
and  possibly  derived  from  the  Asiatic  species. 
The  Malay  cat,  in  Pegu,  Siam,  and  Burmah,  has  a 
tail  only  half  the  normal  length;  the  Manx  cat  of 
the  Isle  of  Man  is  tailless  and  has  longer  hind-legs. 
The  cat  is  very  prolific,  mature  by  the  end  of  her 
first  year,  fecund  till  the  ninth,  bringing  forth 
often  three  or  four  times  in  a  year.  The  sexual 
emotions  of  catsare  wellknowm  to  be  very  strong, 
and  their  maternal  kindness  and  solicitude  are 
equally  pronounced.  They  sometimes  show  great 
power  of  finding  their  way  home  under  the  im¬ 
pulse  of  home-sickness,  and  often  show  much 
careful  love  in  concealing  and  transplanting  their 
young.  In  Egypt  cats  were  held  in  the  highest 
reverence;  temples  were  erected  in  their  honor; 
sacrifices  and  devotions  were  offered  to  them;  and 
it  was  customary  for  the  family  in  whose  house  a 
cat  died  to  shave  their  eyebrow's.  In  the  middle 
ages  they  were  regarded  as  the  familiars  of 
witches. 

Cataclysmal  Action,  a  term  applied  by  geolo- 
ists  to  the  effects  or  destructive  power  of  sudden 
deluges  or  debacles,  which  are  supposed  by  some 
writers  to  have  swept  over  certain  countries. 

Catacombs.  The  subterranean  burial  places  of 
the  early  Christians  in  Rome  and  other  cities;  and 
in  times  of  persecution  their  place  of  refuge  and 
worship.  The  Homan  catacombs  are  incompara¬ 
bly  the  most  important.  They  are  to  be  found  on 
•almost  all  the  roads  leading  out  of  the  city,  at  a 
distance  of  two  or  three  miles  outside  the  walls, 
wherever  the  nature  of  the  soil  allowed  of  their 
being  made.  More  than  forty  are  known  to  have 
existed,  and  if  extended  in  a  straight  line  the 
passages  would  reach  at  least  300  or  400  miles. 

As  a  rule  also  the  catacombs  had  more  than  one 
entrance,  and  frequently  communicated  with  an 
arenaria  or  sand-quarry;  so  that  while  one  entrance 
was  carefully  watched  the  pursued  might  escape 
in  a  totally  different  direction  by  another.  It  was 
not  until  1578  that  an  accidental  landslip  brought 
to  light  the  existence  of  these  vast  caves,  which 
for  eight  centuries  or  more  had  been  lost  sight  of. 
The  history  of  earlier  Christian  art  may  be  traced 


Plan  of  the  Catacomb  of  St.  Agnes,  Rome. 

ter  have  been  found  at  Syracuse,  in  Malta,  Sicily, 
Egypt,  and  Sidom,  while  the  modern  catacombs 


A  Gallery  with  Tombs. 


of  Paris  are  known  to  all  visitors  to  that  city. 

Catafalque  (Ital.  catafalco,  a  scaffold),  a  tempo¬ 
rary  structure  of  carpentry,  a  kind  of  baldachin, 
intended  to  represent  a  tomb,  and  placed  over 
the  coffin  of  distinguished  persons  during  the 
funeral  rites  that  precede  interment,  as  also 
sometimes  over  the  grave,  where  it  was  usually 
left  for  several  months.  The  most  splendid  on 
record  was  Michael  Angelo’s,  which  wras  adorned 
by  the  greatest  architects,  sculptors,  and  painters 
of  the  day. 

Catalani,  Angelica,  an  Italian  singer,  born 
in  1779  at  Sinigaglia,  near  Ancona,  made  her 
debut  at  Venice  in  1797.  She  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1827,  and  died  of  cholera,  in  Paris,  June 
13,  1849. 

Catalepsy  {katalepsis,  a  taking  possession  of), 
a  state  of  more  or  less  complete  insensibility, 
with  absence  of  the  power  of  voluntary  motion, 
and  statue-like  fixedness  of  the  body  and  limbs 
in  the  attitude  immediately  preceding  the  attack, 
or  in  any  position  in  which  they  may  be  placed 
by  another  person,  for  a  considerable  period, 
often  until  the  return  of  consciousness.  The  at¬ 
tack  may  last  only  a  few  minutes,  or  any  longer 
period.  The  patient  is  usually  in  good  health 
at  the  time  of  seizure,  or  subject  only  to  nervous 
affections,  such  as  hysteria.  In  all  cases  of  cata¬ 
leptic  rigidity  with  insensibility,  it  may  be  pre¬ 
sumed  that  the  brain  is  disturbed;  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  in  any  considerable  proportion  there 
is  structural  disease.  Patients  rarely  die  during 
the  attack. 

Catalonia  (Span.  Gatahina),  an  old  principality 
of  Spain,  occupying  the  northeast  portion  of  the 
Peninsula,  and  now  divided  into  the  Provinces 
of  Barcelona,  Tarragona,  Lerida,  and  Gerona. 
Total  area,  12,306  square  miles.  Pop.  (1885), 
1,800,428.  Catalonia,  under  the  name  of  Hispania 
Tarraconensis,  was  considered,  from  its  position, 
an  important  province  of  Roman  Spain.  It  was 
invaded  and  captured  by  the  Alani,  who  were 
followed  by  the  Goths,  hence  its  name,  Gothalania, 
changed  into  Gotlialunia  or  Catalonia.  In  the 
eighth  century  the  Arabs  gained  possession  of  the 


southern  part.  When  Charlemagne  in  788  sub¬ 
jugated  Spain  as  far  as  the  Ebro,  Catalonia 
formed  the  central  portion  of  the  Spanish  mark. 
In  1137  Earl  Ramon  Berengar  IV.,  by  his  mar¬ 
riage  with  the  heiress  of  Aragon,  united  Catalonia 
with  that  kingdom;  and  the  marriage  of  Ferdi¬ 
nand  and  Isabella  united  both  with  Castile. 

Catalpa,  an  interesting  genus  of  hardy  trees  of 
the  order  Bignoniaceae,  of  which  two  species  are 
natives  of  the  United  States,  and  two  others  (de¬ 
cidedly  distinct)  of  Japan.  The  genus  was  named 
by  Catesby,  probably  from  the  Catawba  river, 
where  he  first  found  them,  in  1726.  The  com¬ 
mon  Catalpa  (O.  bignonioid.es)  known  also  as  the 
beantree,  catawba,  Indian  bean,  and  cigar  tree,  is 
a  low  and  much  branched  tree,  seldom  more  than 
30  or  40  feet  high;  extensively  grown  in  the 
Northern  States  and  in  Southern  Europe  for 
ornament,  but  naturally  found  chiefly  in  the 
Gulf  States. 

Catalysis  (Gr.  dissolution)  is  a  term  applied  in 
Chemical  Physics  to  a  force  supposed  to  be  ex¬ 
erted  by  one  substance  upon  a  second,  whereby 
the  latter  is  subjected  to  change  or  decomposition, 
whilst  the  former  remains  comparatively  un¬ 
altered.  Fermentation  is  an  example  of  this 
force. 

Catamaran '  (a  Tamil  word)  is  a  raft  formed 
usually  of  three  pieces  of  wood  lashed  together, 
the  middle  piece  being  longer  than  the  others, 
and  serving  as  a  keel;  on  this  the  rower  kneels,  or 
squats,  and  works  a  paddle.  The  vessels  are  used 
by  the  natives  of  Madras. 

Catamarca,  a  western  province  of  the  Argen¬ 
tine  Republic,  sinking  southeast  from  the  Andes 
to  the  Salt  Marshes,  which  separate  it  from  Cor 
doba.  Area,  42,018  square  miles;  pop.  (1882), 
102,000.  Catamarca,  the  capital,  lies  eighty-two 
miles  northeast  of  Rioja.  Pop.,  8,000. 

Catania,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Sicily,  near  the 
foot  of  Mount  AStna,  fifty-nine  miles  south-south 
west  of  Messina,  and  fifty-four  north-northwest 
of  Syracuse.  Pop.  (1881),  96,017. 

Catapulta,  an  engine  of  war  resembling  the 
Ballista,  but  used  to  discharge  an  arrow,  not  a 
stone. 

Cataract,  an  opaque  condition  of  the  lens  of 
the  eye.  It  is  readily  distinguished  from  opaci 
ties  of  the  cornea  by  its  position  just  behind  the 
pupil.  Cataract  may  effect  the  lens  alone  (lentic¬ 
ular  cataract),  or  the  front  or  back  of  the  capsule 
of  the  lens  (capsular  cataract),  or  both  lens  and 
capsule  (capsulo-lenticular  cataract).  Its  color 
varies  from  pearly  white  to  dark  amber.  Cataract, 
especially  congenital  cataract,  may  remain  con 
fined  to  one  part  of  the  lens,  but  in  the  vast  ma¬ 
jority  of  cases  it  gradually  extends  till  the  whole 
of  the  lens  substance  has  become  opaque.  Cata¬ 
ract  is  painless,  and  unaccompanied  by  inflamma¬ 
tion.  It  occasions  blindness  simply  by  obstruct¬ 
ing  the  passage  of  the  light.  With  regard  to  the 
causes  of  cataract  much  is  still  uncertain.  It  is 
known  that  it  results  from  injuries  to  the  lens 
and  from  many  serious  diseases  of  other  struc¬ 
tures  in  the  eye;  that  it  is  a  common  result 
of  diabetes,  and  possibly  of  other  constitutional 
diseases;  that  when  it  comes  on  without  any  such 
obvious  cause  the  tendency  to  it  is  often  heredi¬ 
tary,  but  rarely  manifests  itself  before  forty-five, 
and  that  after  that  age  it  becomes  more  and  more 
common  with  advancing  years.  No  medical  or 
other  treatment  yet  known  has  any  influence  in 
arresting  the  progress  of  cataract,  nor  can  it  be 
cured  but  by  a  surgical  operation.  In  cases  where 
the  cataract  begins  in  the  center  of  the  lens,  some 
improvement  of  vision  can  be  effected  in  the  earlier 
stages  by  enlarging  the  pupil,  and  so  allowing  the 
rays  of  light  to  enter  the  eye  through  parts  of 
the  lens  still  transparent.  This  is  sometimes 
done  by  the  use  of  dark  glasses,  but  usually  by 
means  of  belladonna  or  atropia  dropped  into  the 
eye.  Till  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century 
the  only  recognized  operation  for  cataract  was 
depression  or  couching  in  which  the  opaque  lens 
was  pushed  downward  and  backward  into  the 
vitreous  humor,  leaving  the  pupil  free.  This 
method  is  now  abandoned  in  favor  of  solution  and 
extraction.  The  former  is  generally  preferred  in 
patients  below  thirty,  in  whom  the  cataract,  like 
the  healthy  lens,  is  usually  so  soft  that  it  can  be 
readily  broken  up;  and  the  latter  at  more  ad¬ 
vanced  ages.  In  solution  the  front  of  the  capsule 


17 


CATARRH. 


258 


CATHARINE  I. 


is  broken  up  by  a  delicate  needle,  and  the  opaque 
lens  torn  up.  The  vitreous  humor  dissolves  the 
lens.  In  extraction  the  lens  is  removed  bodily. 

Catarrh  (from  latarrheo,  to  flow  down)  is  a 
term  employed  to  describe  a  state  of  irritation  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  air  passages,  or 
what  is  called  in  popular  language  a  cold.  It 
usually  begins  as  a  nasal  catarrh  with  a  feeling  of 
weight  about  the  forehead  and  difficulty  in 
breathing  through  the  nose,  increased  on  lying 
down.  Fits  of  sneezing  accompanied  with  a  pro¬ 
fuse  watery  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  eyes 
follow,  while  the  sense  of  smell  and  to  some 
extent  that  of  taste,  becomes  considerably  im¬ 
paired.  There  is  usually  present  some  sore  throat 
and  bronchial  irritation,  causing  hoarseness  and 
cough.  Sometimes  the  vocal  apparatus  becomes 
so  much  inflamed  (laryngeal  catarrh)  that  tempo¬ 
rary  loss  of  voice  resuits.  There  is  always  more 
or  less  feverishness  and  discomfort,  and  fre¬ 
quently  an  extreme  sensitiveness  to  cold.  After 
two  or  three  days  the  symptoms  begin  to  abate, 
the  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  chest  becom¬ 
ing  thicker  and  of  purulent  character,  and  pro¬ 
ducing,  when  dislodged,  considerable  relief  to  the 
breathing.  On  the  other  hand,  the  catarrh  may 
assume  a  more  severe  aspect  and  pass  into  some 
form  of  pulmonary  inflammation.  A  peculiar 
catarrhal  affection  occasionally  occurs,  in  an 
epidemic  form,  to  which  the  name  influenza  is 
applied.  Confinement  to  the  house,  and,  in 
severe  cases,  to  bed,  or  to  the  sofa,  for  a  day  of 
two;  a  warm  hip  or  foot  bath,  to  remove  the 
chill;  light  farinaceous  diet,  and,  if  the  stomach 
and  bowels  are  at  all  loaded,  a  dose  or  two  of 
some  gentle  laxative,  are  commonly  sufficient  to 
subdue  the  disease.  The  term  catarrh  is  now 
used  in  medical  nomenclature  in  a  still  wider 
sense  than  that  above  mentioned,  being  employed 
to  describe  a  state  of  irritation  of  any  mucous 
surface  in  the  body  which  is  accompanied  with 
abnormal  discharge  of  its  natural  secretion. 

Catawhas,  an  American  Indian  tribe  in  North 
and  South  Carolina,  which  has  now  become  al¬ 
most  extinct,  but  was  able  at  the  time  of  the 
War  of  Independence  to  furnish  a  valuable  con¬ 
tingent  to  the  South  Carolina  troops.  They  then 
occupied  a  number  of  small  towns  on  the  river 
which  still  preserves  their  name;  but  they  after¬ 
ward  leased  their  land  and  removed  to  the  terri¬ 
tory  of  the  Cherokees.  They  Aid  not  long  re¬ 
main,  but  returned  to  a  reservation  in  their 
original  district.  The  present  representatives  of 
the  tribe  are  all  half-castes.  The  Indian  name  is 
more  familiar  in  its  application  to  the  white  wine, 
which  bears  the  name.  The  grape  from  which  it 
is  obtained  was  first  discovered  about  1801,  near 
the  banks  of  the  Catawba  river,  but  it  is  now 
cultivated  extensively  in  Illinois,  Ohio,  and  New 
York,  and  especially  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie. 
Catawba  is  the  name  of  a  county  in  North  Caro¬ 
lina.  The  Great  Catawba  river  rises  in  the  Blue 
Ridge  and  flows  through  North  and  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  until  it  joins  the  Santee. 

Cat-bird  (Turdus  felivox),  an  American  thrush, 
of  the  same  group  with  the  mocking-bird,  which 
it  resembles  in  its  vocal  powers.  It  is  a  bird  of 
passage.  It  feeds  on  fruit  and  berries  of  all 
kinds,  worms,  and  insects;  builds  a  large  nest  of 
dry  twigs,  weeds,  etc.,  without  any  attempt  at 
concealment,  in  a  bush  or  tree,  often  in  the  im¬ 
mediate  vicinity  of  human  habitations,  and  shows 
extraordinary  boldness  in  the  defense  of  its 
young.  It  has  its  name  from  a  mewing  cry 
which  it  utters  when  annoyed  by  any  intruder 
approaching  too  near  its  nest. 

Catch,  a  species  of  musical  composition  pecu¬ 
liar  to  England,  and  in  the  canon  style.  The 
words  of  the  Catch  are  generally  humorous,  and 
intended  to  be  sung  in  social  parties  over  a  glass. 

Catchfly,  the  common  English  name  of  several 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Caryorphyllacece— as 
Silene  Armeria,  S.  Anglica,  Lychnis  Wiscaria, 
etc. — which  being  clammy,  in  consequence  of  a 
peculiar  exudation,  on  the  calyx,  on  the  joints  of 
the  stem,  etc.,  often  prove  fatal  to  insects  settling 
upon  them. 

Cateau,  Le,  or  Cateau-Cambresis,  a  town  of 
France,  in  the  department  of  Nord,  situati  d  four¬ 
teen  miles  east-southeast  of  Cambrai.  Pop. 
(1876),  9,444. 


Cat'ecliisin,  from  a  Greek  word,  kateched, 
which  means  to  resound,  or  sound  into  one’s  ears; 
hence  to  instruct  by  word  of  mouth.  Persons 
undergoing  instruction  in  the  principles  of  Chris¬ 
tianity  were  hence  called  catechumens  (katechou- 
menoi),  and  the  teacher  appointed  for  this  purpose 
was  called  a  catechist.  Hence,  any  system  of 
teaching  by  question  and  answer  is  called  a  Cate¬ 
chism.  Catechisms  have  long  formed  one  of  the 
principal  means  employed  for.  popular  instruction 
in  the  Christian  religion.  In  1529,  Luther  pub¬ 
lished  his  Larger  and  Smaller  Catechisms,  which 
found  a  place  among  the  symbolical  books  or 
standards  of  the  Lutheran  churches.  The  Zurich 
Catechism  is  received  as  a  standard  in  the  Church 
of  Zurich.  The  Heidelberg  or  Palitinate  Cate¬ 
chism  is  of  greater  importance  than  any  other  as 
a  standard  of  the  Swiss  Reformed  Churches.  In 
the  Church  of  Rome,  the  Romish  or  Tridentine 
Catechism  is  of  high  authority.  It  was  prepared 
in  accordance  with  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Trent.  The  Catechism  of  the  Orthodox  Greek 
Church  was  prepared  by  Peter  Mogilas,  Metrop¬ 
olitan  in  Kicw.  The  Catechism  of  the  Church  of 
England  is  the  smaller  one  published  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer.  The  Larger  and  Shorter 
Catechisms,  which,  with  the  Westminster  Con¬ 
fession  of  Faith,  constitute  the  standards  or  sym¬ 
bolical  books  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches 
throughout  the  British  Empire  and  the  United 
States  of  America,  were  compiled  by  the  Assem¬ 
bly  of  Divines  at  Westminster. 

Catechu,  or  Cutch,  is  an  extract  obtained 
principally  from  the  wood  of  two  species  of 
Acacia  (A.  Catechu  and  A.  Sumo),  both  natives  of 
India.  The  extract  obtained  from  these  plants  is 
also  known  as  black  catechu,  Pegu  cutch,  and 
Terra  japonica.  Pale  catechu  (Catechu  pallidum ), 
or  Garnbir,  is  produced  from  the  leaves  of 
Uncaria  Garnbir  and  U.  acida ,  Rubiaceous  plants 
growing  in  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  A  third 
catechu  is  obtained  from  the  fruits  of  the  areca  or 
betel  palm,  Areca  Catechu;  but  it  is  not  chemi¬ 
cally  the  same  as  the  other  two. 

Catechu 'mens  (Gr.  persons  undergoing  a 
course  of  instruction),  the  appellation  given,  in 
the  early  Christian  Church,  to  those  converted 
Jews  and  heathens  who  had  not  yet  received  bap¬ 
tism,  but  were  undergoing  a  course  of  training 
and  instruction  preparatory  to  it. 

Categories.  This  designation  has  come  down 
to  us  from  Aristotle.  One  of  the  books  of  his 
Organon  or  Logical  System  is  so  named.  The  cate¬ 
gories  or  predicaments,  as  the  schoolmen  called 
them,  are  to  be  understood  as  an  attempt  at  a 
comprehensive  classification  of  all  that  exists,  for 
the  purposes  of  logical  affirmation,  proof,  or  dis¬ 
proof. 

Catenary  is  the  curve  formed  by  a  flexible 
homogeneous  cord  hanging  freely  between  two 
points  of  support,  and  acted  on  by  no  other  force 
than  gravity. 

Cateni 'pora,  a  genus  of  fossil  lamelliferous 
corals  peculiar  to  Palaeozoic  strata,  confined  in 
Britain  to  the  Silurian  measures. 

Caterpillar,  the  name  given  to  the  larvae  of 
lepidopterous  insects — butterflies,  moths,  and 
hawk-moths.  The  body  is  generally  long,  nearly 
cylindrical,  soft,  and  consisting  of  twelve  rings  or 
segments  besides  the  head,  with  nine  spiracles  or 
small  openings,  for  respiration,  on  each  side.  The 
head  is  much  harder  than  the  rest  of  the  body,  of 


a,  Chocrocampa  tersa ,  showing  eye-like  spots;  6,  young 
caterpillar  of  Deilephila  Euphorbide  (after  Weismann). 

a  sort  of  almost  horny  substance,  and  has  six 
small  shining  points  on  each  side,  which  are  re¬ 
garded  as  simple  or  stemmalic  eyes,  and  is  also 
furnished  with  two  very  short  rudimentary 


antennae.  The  mouth  is  adapted  for  tearing,  cut¬ 
ting,  and  masticating.  It  is  provided  with  two 
strong  mandibles,  or  upper  jaws;  two  maxilla’,  or 
lower  jaws;  a  labium,  or  lower  lip;  and  four 
palpi,  or  feelers.  In  the  mouth  also  is  situated 
the  spinneret  of  those  species  which,  when  they 
change  into  the  chrysalis  or  pupa  state,  envelop 
themselves  in  silken  cocoons.  The  skin  of 
some  caterpillars  is  naked,  that  of  others  is  cov¬ 
ered  with  hairs,  spines,  or  Lb  ercles.  Some 
make  for  themselves  nests  of  silk.  Many  con- 


a,  Caterpillar  of  Sphinx  Convolvuli ;  b.  larva  of  Macro- 

c/lossa  Stellatarum,  showing  lines  and  spots  (after 

Weismann). 

struct  cases  or  sheaths  by  agglutinating  various 
substances  together.  Some  roll  together  leaves, 
and  fix  them  by  threads,  so  forming  a  dwelling 
for  themselves;  and  a  few  burrow  and  excavate 
galleries  in  the  substance  of  leaves.  Many  feed 
on  leaves;  many  being  limited  to  a  particular 
kind  of  plant,  or 
to  a  few  nearly 
allied  plants. 

Some  feed  on 
flowers,  some  on 
seeds,  some  on 
roots,  and  some 
even  on  the 
woody  portions 
of  stems;  some 
on  wool,  hides, 
furs,  and  other 
animal  sub-  Terrifying  attitude  of  larva  of  .Di¬ 
stances  ;  a  few  on  cranura  vinula  (after  Poulton). 
lard,  and  other  kinds  of  fat. 

Catgut  is  a  cord  of  great  toughness  and  te¬ 
nacity  prepared  from  the  intestines  of  sheep.  It 
is  used  for  the  strings  of  harps  and  violins,  and 
other  stringed  musical  instruments,  for  hanging 
the  weights  of  clocks,  for  bow-strings,  and  many 
other  purposes  where  toughness,  flexibility  and 
durability  are  required. 

Catharine  is  the  name  of  several  saints  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  simple  designa¬ 
tion  of  Saint  Catharine,  however,  is  given  to  a 
virgin,  said  to  have  been  of  royal  descent  in  Alex¬ 
andria,  who,  publicly  confessing  the  gospel  at  a 
sacrificial  feast  appointed  by  the  Emperor  Max¬ 
iminus,  was  put  to  death  in  307  a.d.,  after  being 
tortured  on  a  wheel.  Hence  the  name  of  “  St. 
Catharine’s  wheel.” — St.  Catharine  of  Siena 
was  the  daughter  of  a  dyer  in  Sfera,  and  was  born 
there  in  1347  a.d.  She  became  a  Dominican,  and 
afterward  a  patron  saint  of  the  Order. 

Catharine  I.,  Empress  of  Russia,  was  the 
posthumous  daughter  of  John  Rabe,  a  Swedish 
Quartermaster  in  Livonia.  In  1701  she  married  a 
Swedish  dragoon,  who  next  year  was  called  to 
active  service;  and  Marienburg  being  taken  by 
the  Russians,  she  became  for  some  time  the  mis¬ 
tress  of  General  Bauer;  and  afterward  entering 
the  service  of  Prince  Menscliikoff,  she  at¬ 
tracted  the  notice  of  Peter  the  Great.  In  1703 
she  went  over  to  the  Greek  Church,  and  took  the 
name  of  Catharina  Alexiewna.  After  being  for 
some  years  the  Emperor’s  mistress,  she  was  pri¬ 
vately  married  to  him  in  1711;  she  was  proclaimed 
Empress  in  1718,  and  was  crowned  at  Moscow  in 
1724.  She  bore  eight  children  to  the  Emperor, 
all  of  whom  died  in  childhood,  except  two  daugh¬ 
ters,  Anne  and  Elizabeth,  the  latter  of  whom 
was  afterward  Empress  of  Russia,  and  the  former 
married  the  Duke  of  Holstein,  and  was  the  mother 
of  the  Emperor  Peter  III.  When  Peter  the 
Great  and  his  army  seemed  entirely  in  the  power 


CATHARINE  II. 


259 


CATO. 


•or  the  Turkish  army  on  the  Pruth  in  1717,  Cath¬ 
arine,  who  was  with  him,  sought  an  interview 
with  the  Grand  Vizier,  and  by  employing  her 
jewels  to  bribe  his  attendants,  procured  the  de¬ 
liverance  of  the  Russians.  On  Jan.  28,  1726,  Peter 
the  Great  died,  and  Catharine  was  acknowledged 
as  Empress  and  sole  Ruler  of  all  the  Russias. 
She  lived  a  debauched  life,  and  died  May  17, 1727. 

Catharine  II.,  Empress  of  Russia,  was  born 
at  Stettin  April  25,  1729.  Her  father,  the  Prince 
of  Anhalt-Zerbst,  was  a  Prussian  Field-Marshal, 
and  Governor  of  Stettin.  In  1745  she  married  the 
prince  who  afterward  became  Peter  III.  After 
his  dethronement  she  became  Empress.  He  was 
murdered  in  1762.  Under  Catharine  the  govern¬ 
ment  was  carried  on  with  great  energy;  and  her 
reign  was  remarkable  for  the  rapid  increase  of  the 
extent  and  power  of  Russia.  She  died  of  apo¬ 
plexy  on  Nov.  9,  1796.  She  was  a  woman  of 
great  ability;  but  devoid  of  principle,  and  excess¬ 
ively  sensual. 

Catharine  de’ Medici,  the  queen  of  Henri  II. 
of  France,  was  the  daughter  of  Lorenzo  de’  Med¬ 
ici,  Duke  of  Urbino,  and  was  born  at  Florence 
in  1519.  In  her  fourteenth  year,  she  was  mar¬ 
ried  to  Henri,  the  second  sou  of  Francis  I.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  reign  of  her  eldest  son,  Francis  II.,  in 
1559,  she  engaged  in  politics,  on  the  side  of  the 
Huguenots,  and  on  the  accession  of  Charles  IX., 
(1560)  the  government  fell  entirely  into  her  hands. 
She  became  alarmed  at  the  increase  of  the  Hu¬ 
guenots  and  entered  into  a  secret  treaty  with 
Spain  for  the  extirpation  of  heretics;  and  subse¬ 
quently  into  a  plot  with  the  Guises  which 
resulted  in  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew’s 
Day.  She  died  at  Blois,  on  Jan.  5,  1589. 

Catharine  of  Aragon,  Queen  of  England,  the 
first  wife  of  Henry  VIII.,  and  fourth  daughter  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  King  and  Queen  of 
Castile  and  Aragon,  was  born  December,  1485. 
Having  been  married  to  Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales, 
son  of  Henry  VII.,  it  required  the  Pope’s  dispen¬ 
sation  to  enable  her  to  marry  her  brother-in-law 
Henry.  The  dispensation  was  obtained  by  Henry 
VII.,  in  1503,  and  the  marriage  took  place  in 
June,  1509,  immediately  after  Henry’s  accession 
to  the  crown  as  Henry  VIII.  Henry,  about  1527, 
conceived  a  passion  for  Anne  Boleyn,  and  ex¬ 
pressed  doubts  as  to  the  legality  of  his  marriage, 
and  set  about  obtaining  a  divorce.  After  investi¬ 
gation  the  Pope  summoned  the  King  to  Rome, 
but  Henry  refused  to  appear  either  himself,  or  by 
deputy,  and  in  defiance  married  Anne  Boleyn; 
Cranmer,  shortly  afterward  (1.533),  declared  the 
first  marriage  void,  and  Pope  Clement  annulled 
Cranmer’s  sentence,  making  the  separation  from 
Rome  complete.  Catharine  led  an  austere  relig¬ 
ious  life  until  her  death  in  January,  1536. 

Catharine  Parr,  thesixth  wife  of  Henry  VIII., 
was  the  daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Parr,  and  was 
born  in  1513.  On  July  12,  1543,  she  became  Queen 
of  England  by  marriage  with  Henry  VIII.  After 
Henry’s  death,  she  married,  1547,  Sir  Thomas 
Seyniour. 

Catharine's  St.,  College  or  Hall,  Cambridge, 
England,  was  founded  by  Robert  Wo  lelarke,  pro¬ 
vost  of  King’s  College,  1473.  There  are  twenty- 
five  scholars. 

Cathar'tics  (Gr.  kathairo,  I  purify),  a  name 
originally  for  all  medicines  supposed  to  purify 
the  system  from  the  matter  of  disease.  Ultimately 
the  term  cathartic  became  limited  to  remedies 
acting  on  the  bowels.  The  principal  cathartics 
are  aloes,  gamboge,  colocynth,  rhubarb,  scam 
mony,  jalap,  senna,  Epsom  and  other  salts,  and 
castor  oil.  Croton  oil,  elaterium  and  black 
hellebore  are  powerful  cathartics. 

Cathartine  or  Bitter  of  Senna,  is  the  essential 
principle  in  senna  which  possesses  purgative 
properties.  Three  grains  are  a  full  dose. 

Cath 'cart,  William  Shaw,  Eaisl,  a  British 
general  and  diplomat,  son  of  Baron  Catheart, 
was  born  Sept.  17,  1755.  He  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  American  war.  In  1801,  he  was  made 
Lieutenant-General,  and  in  1803,  Coinmander-in- 
Cidef  for  Ireland.  He  died  June  7.  1843. 

Catheart,  Sir  George,  son  of  William,  Earl 
Catheart,  was  born  in  London,  1794,  and  became 
eminent  by  the  part  he  took  in  various  campaigns, 
especially  that  of  the  Crimea,  where  he  was 
killed. 

Catlic'dral,  from  a  Greek  word  cathedra,  sig¬ 


nifying  a  seat.  Thus,  “  to  speak  ex  cathedra,”  is 
to  speak  as  from  a  seat  of  authority.  The  cathedral 
city  is  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  and 
his  throne  is  placed  in  the  cathedral  church, 
which  is  the  parish  church  of  the  whole  diocese. 

Catherine  of  Braganza  (1638-1705),  queen 
of  Charles  II  of  England,  was  born  in  Portugal, 
Nov.  25,  1638.  Being  a  Roman  Catholic,  she 
was  an  object  of  suspicion  and  calumny  during 
the  Popery  panics.  She  returned  to  Portugal  in 
1692.  Some  little  time  before  her  death  (at  the 
close  of  1705),  she  acted  in  the  capacity  of  regent 
to  her  brother,  Don  Pedro. 

Catherine  did  Valois  (1401-1437),  daughter  of 
Charles  VI.  of  France,  consort  of  Henry  V.  of 
England,  was  born  at  Paris  in  1401.  In  the  in¬ 
vasion  of  France  which  ensued,  Henry  proved 
himself  quite  able  to  assert  liis  claims,  and  as  he 
had  already  seen  and  loved  Catherine,  re 
ceived  her  in  marriage  at  Troyes  in  1420.  Early 
next  year  Catherine  was  solemnly  crowned  at 
London.  In  December,  1421,  Henry  VI.  was 
born  at  Windsor.  Catherine  was  in  France  when 
her  husband  died  in  1422.  Her  second  husband, 
Owen  Tudor,  was  an  officer  in  the  Queen’s  house¬ 
hold.  He  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  high 
character.  She  died  in  1437.  Her  eldest  son  by 
Owen  Tudor  was  created  Earl  of  Richmond,  and 
became  the  father  of  Henry  VII.,  and  the  an¬ 
cestor  of  the  Tudor  line  of  kings,  and  through 
the  Stuarts,  of  the  present  reigning  monarch  of 
Great  Britain. 

Catlielineau,  Jacques,  general  of  the  army 
in  La  Vendee,  was  born  Jan.  5,  1759,  in  Lower 
Anjou.  He  died  July  11,  1793. 

Cat herine-Wheel  (see  Catharine,  St.)  is 
frequently  used  as  a  charge  in  coats  of  arms, 
when  it  is  represented  with  teeth. 

Catheter  (Gr.  katliievii,  to  thrust  into),  is  the 
name  given  to  tubes,  through  which  fluids  or  air 
may  pass,  and  which  may  give  free  exit  to  the 
accumulated  contents  of  such  organs  as  the 
urinary  bladder.  Catheters  are  gem  rally  of 
silver,  or  of  vulcanized  rubber.  The  urinary 
catheter  for  the  male  varies  in  length  from  10  to 
11  inches;  the  female  catheter  need  not  be  more 
than  4  to  5  inches.  Flexible  catheters  are  made 
of  gum  elastic. 

Catholic  (Gr.  Eatholikos,  general,  universal),  a 
designation  adopted  at  a  very  early  period  by  the 
Christian  Church  to  indicate  its  universality  in 
contrast  with  the  national  particularism  of  Juda¬ 
ism,  and  in  a  special  sense  as  ort  hodox  in  contradis¬ 
tinction  to  heretical.  The  title  is  claimed  on  the 
ground  of  historic  continuity  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church. 

Catholic  Apostolic  Church,  a  religious  com¬ 
munity  often  called  “  Irvingites,”  founded  by 
Edward  Irving. 

Cali  line,  Lucius  Sergius,  Roman  conspir¬ 
ator,  born  about  the  year  108  b.c.  During  his 
youth,  he  attached  himself  to  the  party  of  Sulla. 
In  the  year  68  b.c.  he  was  elected  praetor;  in  67 
b.c. ,  governor  of  Africa.  Disappointed  in  his 
ambition,  he  entered  into  conspiracy,  including 
many  other  young  Roman  nobles.  The  plot  was 
revealed  to  Cicero  by  Fulvia,  mistress  of  one  of 
the  conspirators.  In  the  night  of  Nov.  6  (63 
b.c. ),  Catiline  assembled  his  confederates,  and 
explained  to  them  a  plan  for  assassinating  Cicero; 
for  bringing  up  the  Tuscan  army  (which  he  had 
seduced  from  its  allegiance),  under  Manlius,  from 
the  encampment  at  Fsesul®;  for  setting  fire  to 
Rome,  and  putting  to  death  the  hostile  senators 
and  citizens.  In  the  course  of  a  few  hours, 
everything  was  made  known  to  Cicero.  Accord¬ 
ingly,  when  the  chosen  assassins  came  to  the 
house  of  the  consul,  on  pretence  of  a  visit,  they 
were  immediately  repulsed.  Catiline  was  exposed 
by  Cicero  in  the  Senate,  tied  to  Etruria,  and  in 
January,  62  b.c.,  was  killed  in  battle. 

Catlin,  George  (1796-1872),  a  writer  on  the 
North  American  Indians,  was  born  at  Wilkes- 
barre,  Luzerne  County,  Pa.,  in  1796.  In  1832, 
his  attention  having  been  called  to  the  fact  that 
the  pure  American  race  was  disappearing  before 
the  march  of  civilization,  he  resolved  to  rescue 
from  oblivion  the  types  and  customs  of  this  sin¬ 
gular  people.  With  this  object  in  view  lie  spent 
many  years  among  the  Indians  in  North  and  South 
|  America.  He  lived  with  them,  acquired  their 
languages,  and  studied  very  thoroughly  their 


habits,  customs,  and  modes  of  life,  making  copious 
notes  and  many  studies  for  paintings.  In  1841, 
he  published  at  London  a  work  on  the  Manners, 
Customs,  mid  Condition  of  the  Aorth  American 
Indians,  in  two  volumes,  illustrated  with  300 
engravings. 

Catkin  (amentum),  in  Botany,  a  spike  of 
numerous  small,  unisexual  flowers,  destitute  of 
calyx  and  corolla,  and  furnished  with  scale-like 
bractese  instead,  the  whole  inflorescence  Anally 


1,  Shoot  of  Birch  in  spring,  bearing  large  terminal  Male 

(6)  and  Female  (a)  Catkins.  2,  Shoot  of  Birch  in 

autumn  with  ripe  Female  Catkin.  3,  Female  Catkin 

of  Willow. 

falling  off  by  an  articulation  in  a  single  piece. 
Examples  are  found  in  the  willow,  hazel,  oak, 
birch,  alder,  and  other  trees  and  shrubs,  forming 
the  natural  order  Amentacece.  In  some,  as  in 
the  oak  and  hazel,  the  male  flowers  only  are  in 
catkins. 

Cat 'mint  (Nepeta  cataria ),  a  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Luhiutce,  widely  diffused  through¬ 
out  Europe  and  the  middle  latitudes  of  Asia,  and 
of  North  America;  remarkable  for  the  fondness 
which  cats  display  for  it.  It  appears  to  act  upon 
them  in  a  similar  way  to  Valerian  root;  and  when 
its  leaves  are  bruised  so  as  to  be  highly  odorifer¬ 
ous,  they  are  at  once  attracted  to  it,  rub  them¬ 
selves  on  it,  tear  at  it,  and  chew  it. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porcius,  surnamed  Censorius 
and  Sapiens  (the  wise),  afterward  known  as  G'ato 
Priscus  or  Cato  Major — to  distinguish  him 
from  Cato  of  Utica — was  born  at  Tusculum  in  234 
b.c.  In  184  b.c.  Cato  was  elected  Censor,  and 
discharged  so  rigorously  the  duties  of  his  office, 
that  the  epithet  Censorius,  formerly  applied  to  all 
persons  in  the  same  station,  was  made  his  perma¬ 
nent  surname.  Many  of  his  acts  were  highly 
commendable.  In  the  year  175  b.c.  Cato  was 
sent  to  Carthage  to  negotiate  on  the  differences 
between  the  Carthaginians  and  the  Numidian  King 
Masinissa;  but  having  been  offended  by  the  Car¬ 
thaginians,  he  returned  to  Rome,  where,  ever 
afterward,  he  described  Carthage  as  the  most 
formidable  rival  of  the  empire,  and  concluded  all 
his  addresses  in  the  senate-house — whatever  the 
immediate  subject  might  be — with  the  well  known 
words:  “Ceterum  censeo,  Carthaginem  esse  delen- 
dam”  (For  the  rest,  I  vote  that  Carthage  must  be 
destroyed).  Though  Cato  was  acquainted  with 
the  Greek  language  and  its  literature,  his  severe 
principles  led  him  to  denounce  the  latter  as  inju¬ 
rious  to  national  morals.  He  died  149  b.c.,  at 
the  age  of  eighty-five.  Cato  was  twice  married. 
In  his  eightieth  year,  his  second  wife,  Salonia, 
bore  him  a  son,  the  grandfather  of  Cato  of  Utica. 
Cato  treated  his  slaves  with  shocking  harshness 
and  cruelty.  In  his  old  age,  he  became  greedy 
of  gain,  yet  never  once  allowed  his  avarice  to 
interfere  with  his  honesty  as  a  state  functionary. 

Cato,  Marcus  Porcius,  named  Cato  the 
Younger,  or  Cato  Uticensis  (from  the  place 
of  his  death),  was  born  95  b.c.  In  the  year  72 
b.c.  he  served  with  distinction  in  the  campaign 
against  Spartacus.  From  Macedonia,  where  he 
was  Military  Tribune  in  67,  he  went  to  Perga- 
mus  in  search  of  the  Stoic  philosopher,  Atlieno- 
dorus,  whom  he  induced  to  proceed  with  him 


CATOPTROMANCY. 


260 


CAYAIGNAC. 


to  Rome,  where  lie  spent  the  time  partly  in 
philosophical  studies,  and  partly  in  forensic  dis¬ 
cussions.  Immediately  after  his  election  as  Quaes¬ 
tor  he  introduced,  in  spite  of  violent  opposition 
from  those  interested,  a  rigorous  reform  into  the 
treasury  offices.  In  63  u.c.,  lie  was  elected  Tri¬ 
bune,  and  also  delivered  his  famous  speech  on 
the  Catiline  conspiracy,  in  which  he  denounced 
Caesar  as  an  accomplice  of  that  political  desperado, 
and  determined  the  sentence  of  the  Senate.  Cato 
was  a  noble  but  strait-laced  theorist,  who  lacked 
the  intuition  into  circumstances  which  belongs  to 
men  like  Caesar  and  Cromwell.  His  first  opposi¬ 
tion  to  Pompey  was  successful;  but  his  opposition 
to  Caesar’s  consulate  for  the  year  59  not  only  failed, 
but  even  served  to  hasten  the  formation  of  the 
first  triumvirate  between  Caesar,  Pompey,  and 
Crassus.  He  was  afterward  forced  to  side  with 
Pompey.  After  the  battle  of  Pharsalia  (43  b.c.), 
Cato  intended  to  join  Pompey,  but  hearing  the 
news  of  his  death,  escaped  into  Africa,  where  he 
was  elected  commander  by  the  partisans  of 
Pompey,  and  undertook  the  defense  of  Utica. 
Here,  when  he  had  tidings  of  Caesar’s  dec  isive 
victory  over  Scipio  at  Thapsus  (April  6,  46  b.c.), 
Cato,  finding  that  his  troops  were  wholly  intimi¬ 
dated,  advised  the  Roman  senators  and  knights 
to  escape  from  Utica,  and  make  terms  with  the 
victor,  but  prohibited  all  intercession  in  his  own 
favor.  He  resolved  to  die  rather  than  surrender, 
and,  after  spending  the  night  in  reading  Plato’s 
Phcedo,  committed  suicide  by  stabbing  himself 
in  the  breast. 

Catop'tromancy,  divination  by  the  mirror  or 
looking-glass.  At  Patras,  in  Greece,  the  sick 
foretold  their  death  or  recovery  by  means  of  a 
mirror  let  down  with  a  thread  until  its  base 
touched  the  water  in  a  fountain  before  the  tem¬ 
ple  of  Ceres.  The  face  of  the  sick  person  ap¬ 
pearing  healthy  in  the  mirror,  betokened  recovery; 
if  it  looked  ghastly,  then  death  was  sure  to  en¬ 
sue.  More  modern  superstitions  attach  ill-luck 
to  the  breaking  of  a  looking-glass,  and  seeing 
one’s  face  in  a  glass  by  candle-light. 

Cats,  .Jacob,  a  Dutch  statesman  and  poet, 
born  at  Brouwershaven,  in  Zealand,  in  1577.  He 
rose  to  high  offices  in  the  State,  and  was  twice 
sent  as  ambassador  to  England,  first  in  1627,  and 
again  in  1652,  while  Cromwell  was  at  the  head 
of  affairs.  He  died  in  1660.  As  a  poet ,  he  enjoyed 
the  highest  popularity. 

Cat’s-Eye,  a  beautiful  mineral,  a  variety  of 
quartz  receiving  its  name  from  the  resemblance 
which  the  reflection  of  light  from  it,  especially 
when  cut  in  a  convex  form,  is  supposed  to  ex¬ 
hibit  to  the  light  which  seems  to  emanate  from 
the  interior  of  the  eye  of  a  cat. 

Cat'skill  Mountains,  a  group  of  the  Alle¬ 
ghany  chain,  situated  near  the  right  bank  of  the 
Hudson  and  the  Mohawk,  in  the  State  of  New 
York.  The  loftiest  points,  Round  Top  and  High 
Peak,  are  respectively  3,800  and  3,720  feet  above 
tide-water;  and,  on  a  third  eminence,  a  terrace  of 
2,500  feet  above  the  same  level  presents  Catskill 
Mountain  House,  a  favorite  retreat  in  summer. 
The  group  is  drained  chiefly  by  Catskill  Creek, 
which,  at  a  village  of  its  own  name,  enters 
the  Hudson  111  miles  above  its  mouth,  and 
thirty-four  below  the  confluence  of  the  Mohawk. 

Cat'tegat,  or  Kattegat  (Sinus  Codanu.s),  the 
bay  or  arm  of  the  sea  situated  between  the  east 
coast  of  Jutland  and  the  west  coast  of  Sweden,  to 
the  north  of  the  Danish  islands.  It  is  connected 
with  the  Baltic  Sea  by  the  Great  and  Little  Belt, 
and  by  the  Sound.  The  Skager  Rack  connects 
it  with  the  North  Sea.  The  length  of  the  Catte- 
gat  is  about  150  miles,  and  its  greatest  breath  85 
miles.  The  principal  islands  are  Lasoe,  Samsoe, 
and  Anhalt. 

Cat/termole,  George,  one  of  the  most  distin¬ 
guished  of  English  painters  in  water-colors,  was 
born  at  Dickleburgli,  Norfolk,  in  1800.  His  pic¬ 
tures  are  remarkable  for  their  striking  originality 
of  conception,  vigorous  execution,  and  fine  color 
and  tone.  One  of  his  best  known  and  greatest  pic¬ 
tures  is  “  Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Spires,”  contain¬ 
ing  thirty-three  portraits  of  the  principal  charac¬ 
ters,  copied  from  the  authentic  originals.  He 
died  in  1868. 

Cattle,  the  various  races  of  domesticated  ani¬ 
mals  belonging  to  the  genus  Bos.  They  have 
been  divided  into  two  primary  groups — the 


humped  cattle  or  zebus  ( Bosindicus )  of  India  and 
Africa,  and  the  straight-backed  cattle  (Bos  taunts), 
which  are  common  everywhere.  Oxen  appear  to 
have  been  among  the  earliest  of  domesticated  ani- 


Shorthorn  Bull  and  Cow. 


mals,  as  they  undoubtedly  were  among  the  most 
important  agents  in  the  growth  of  early  civiliza¬ 
tion.  Oxen  have  come  to  be  regarded  as  dull  and 
stupid  animals,  but 
this  is  only  true  of 
such  breeds  as  are 
reared  solely  for  fat¬ 
tening  and  killing. 

The  wild  cattle  of 
Chillingham,  and  the 
semi-wild  herds  that 
abound  on  the  plains 
of  South  America, 
show  no  lack  of  sa¬ 
gacity  in  avoiding 
threatened  danger,  c 
a  common  foe.  W1 

ployed  as  a  beast  of  Luiulu  u.  u.  umu^u.,  <mu 
it  is  so  in  most  countries,  its  intelligence  is 
scarcely  inferior  to  that  of  the  horse,  while  it  sur¬ 
passes  the  latter  in  docility  and  in  the  patient  en¬ 
durance  of  toil.  Among  the  Swiss  mountains 
there  are  herds  of  cows  whose  leaders  are  adorned 
with  bells,  the  ringing  of  which  keeps  the  cattle 
together,  and  guides  the  herdsman  to  their  pasture 
grounds.  The  period  of  gestation  in  the  cow  is 
nine  months,  when  she  usually  produces  a  single 
calf;  occasionally,  however,  two  are  born. 

Catul'lus,  Gaius  Vale'rius,  a  celebrated 
Roman  lyrist,  was  born  at  Verona,  87  b.c.  In 
early  life  he  went  to  Rome,  where  his  career  was 
that  of  an  epicurean.  When  he  died  is  unknown. 
His  poems,  116  in  number,  chiefly  consist  of 
lyrics  and  epigrams. 

Caul),  a  town  of  Nassau,  North  Germany,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  twenty-one  miles 
west-northwest  of  Wiesbaden.  It  is  noteworthy 
as  the  place  where  Bliicher  crossed  the  Rhine  with 
his  army,  Jan.  1,  1814. 

Caucasia,  a  governor-generalship  of  the  Rus¬ 
sian  Empire,  extends  from  about  38°  40'  to  46° 
40'  N.  latitude,  and  includes  the  whole  range  of 
the  Caucasus,  the  vast  steppes  that  lie  to  the  north 
of  the  mountains  between  the  Sea  of  Azoff  and 
the  Caspian,  and  all  the  Russian  territory  to  the 
south.  The  principal  division  is  into  Cis-Caucasia 
or  the  European  portion,  and  Trans-Caucasia  or 
the  Asiatic — the  watershed  of  the  Caucasus  is  the 
line  of  partition.  The  total  area  is  172,837  square 
miles,  and  the  population  is  estimated  at  4,893,- 
332.  The  highest  peaks  of  the  Caucasian  Mount¬ 
ains  are  in  the  most  central  ridge  or  chain,  at  least 
six  of  them  well  over  16,000  feet,  much  exceeding 
the  highest  Alps.  Mount  Elburz  attains  an  eleva¬ 
tion  of  18,000  feet;  Cazbek  reaches  a  height  of 
more  than  16,500  feet;  and  between  these  come 
Koslitan-tau  and  Dikh-tau.  The  waters  of  the 
Caucasus  flow  into  four  principal  rivers — the 
Kuban  and  the  Rion  or  Faz  (the  Plums  of  the 
ancients),  which  flow  into  the  Black  Sea;  and  the 
Terek  and  the  Kur,  which  flow  into  the  Caspian. 
Kuban  and  Terek  are  north,  Rion  and  Kur,  or 
Kura,  south  of  the  mountains. 

Caucus,  a  political  term  applied  to  a  meeting 
of  citizens,  the  object  of  which  is  to  secure  con¬ 
cert  of  action  at  an  approaching  election. 

Camlebec-les-Elbeuf,  a  town  of  France  in  the 
department  of  Seine-Inf£rieure,  twelve  miles 
south  of  Rouen.  Pop.,  11,338. — Caudebec  is 
also  the  name  of  a  town  in  the  same  department, 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  twenty- 
six  miles  east  of  Havre.  Pop.  (1876),  1,951. 

Cau'dine  Forks  (Fur culm  Oaudinct),  two  high, 
narrow,  and  wooded  mountain  gorges  near  the 
town  of  Caudium,  in  ancient  Samnium,  on  the 


boundary  towards  Campania.  These  gorges  a~e 
celebrated  on  account  of  the  defeat  here  suffered 
by  the  Romans  in  the  second  Sanmitc  war,  (321 
B.C.) 

Caul  is  a  thin  membrane  encompassing  the 
heads  of  some  children  when  born.  It  was  the 
popular  belief  that  children  so  born  would  turn 
out  very  fortunate,  and  that  the  caul  brought 
fortune  to  those  purchasing  it. 

Caulaincourt,  Arman  d  Augustin  Louis  de, 
Duke  of  Vicenza,  a  statesman  of  the  French  Em¬ 
pire,  was  born  Dec.  9,  1772.  He  entered  the 
army  at  the  age  of  fifteen,  rapidly  attained  pro¬ 
motion,  and,  as  colonel  of  a  regiment  of  car¬ 
bineers,  distinguished  himself  in  the  campaign  of 
1800.  He  was  made  general  of  division  in  1805, 
and  created  Duke  of  Vicenza.  In  1807,  he  was 
appointed  ambassador  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1811 
asked  permission  to  resign  his  post,  and  received 
an  appointment  in  the  army  of  Spain.  In  No¬ 
vember  of  1813,  he  was  made  Minister  for  For¬ 
eign  Affairs,  and  attended  the  congress  at  Cliat- 
illon,  January,  1814.  During  the  Hundred  Days, 
Caulaincourt  resumed  office  as  Minister  of  For¬ 
eign  Affairs,  and  was  made  a  peer.  On  the  sec¬ 
ond  restoration,  he  retired  to  private  life.  He 
died  in  Paris,  Feb.  19,  1827. — His  brother, 
August  Jean  Gabriel,  Count  of  Caulaincourt, 
born  1777,  served  with  distinction  in  all  the  cam¬ 
paigns  from  1792  to  1812,  when  he  fell  in  battle. 

Cau'liflower,  a  variety  of  the  common  kale 
or  cabbage,  affording  one  of  the  most  esteemed 
delicacies  of  the  table.  It  was  cultivated  as  a 
culinary  vegetable  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
Its  culture  was,  however,  little  attended  to  in 
England  till  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  cauliflower  is  entirely  the  product  of  cultiva¬ 
tion.  The  leaves  are  not  in  this,  as  in  other 
varieties  of  the  same  species  generally,  the  part 
used,  nor  are  they  so  delicate  and  fit  for  use  as 
those  of  most  of  the  others,  but  the  flower-buds 
and  their  stalks,  or,  properly  speaking,  the  in¬ 
florescence  of  the  plant  deformed  by  cultivation, 
and  forming  a  head  or  compact  mass  generally  of 
a  white  color. 

Caulkiug  is  the  operation  of  driving  oakum  or 
untwisted  rope  into  the  seams  of  a  ship,  to  render 
them  water-tight.  The  quantity  thus  driven  in 
depends  on  the  thickness  of  the  planking;  it  varies 
from  one  to  thirteen  double  threads  of  oakum, 
with  one  or  two  single  threads  of  spun-yarn.  The 
fibers  are  driven  in  until  they  form  a  densely  hard 
mass,  which  not  only  keeps  out  water,  but 
strengthens  the  planking.  The  seam  is  finally 
coated  with  hot  pitch  or  resin. 

Caulo'pteris,  a  generic  name  for  the  stems  of 
fossil  tree-ferns  found  in  the  Carboniferous  and 
Triassic  measures.  They  are  hollow,  and  covered 
with  markings  similar  to  the  leaf-scars  on  recent 
tree-ferns.  Twelve  species  have  been  described. 

Cau'stic  (Gr.  burning),  in  Medicine  and  in 
Chemistry,  the  term  applied  to  such  substances 
as  exert  a  corroding  or  disintegrating  action  on 
the  skin  and  flesh.  Lunar  caustic  is  nitrate  of 
silver,  and  common  caustic  is  potash. 

Cavaignac,  Louis  Eugene,  was  born  in  Paris, 
1802,  and  was  educated  in  the  Polytechnic  School, 
and  the  Ecole  d' Application  at  Metz.  He  first 
served  in  the  Morea,  and  afterward  in  Africa, 
where  he  acquired  great  distinction  by  his  energy, 
coolness,  and  intrepidity.  He  was  made  Chef  de 
Bataillon  in  1837,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  Brigade- 
General  in  1844.  In  1848  he  was  appointed  Gov¬ 
ernor-General  of  Algeria.  In  the  insurrection  of 
June  which  followed,  Cavaignac,  as  Minister  of 
War,  displayed,  during  the  four  days  and  nights 
of  the  contest,  remarkable  presence  of  mind, 
firmness,  and  activity.  His  operations  were  suc¬ 
cessful,  and  his  clemency  was  as  remarkable  as 
his  generalship.  When  he  had  the  power  of 
assuming  the  dictatorship,  he  resigned  it  into  the 
hands  of  the  National  Assembly,  which  appointed 
him  President  of  the  Council.  As  a  candidate 
for  the  presidency  of  the  Republic,  when  Louis 
Napoleon  was  elected,  he  received  about  1,500,000 
votes.  On  the  coup  d’etat  of  December,  1851, 
Cavaignac  was  arrested,  but  released  after  a  short 
detention;  and  though  lie  consistently  refused  to 
give  in  his  adhesion  to  the  Empire,  he  was 
permitted  to  reside  in  France  without  molestation. 
He  died  in  October,  1857 


CAVAJJER. 


261 


CAVOUR. 


Cavalie'r,  in  Fortification,  is  a  defense-work 
constructed  on  the  terre-plein  or  level  ground  of  a 
bastion.  It  rises  to  a  height  varying  from  8  to 
12  feet  above  the  rampart,  and  has  a  parapet 
about  6  feet  high.  Its  uses  are  to  commaud  any 
rising  ground,  held  by  the  enemy,  within  cannon- 
shot;  and  to  guard  the  curtain,  or  plain  wall, 
between  two  bastions,  from  being  enfiladed. 

Cavalie'r  (Fr.  chevalier;  Ital.  cavalier e;  Span. 
caballero  probably  from  the  Latin  caballus,  a 
horse),  originally  meant  any  horse-soldier,  but  in 
English  history  is  the  name  given  to  the  party 
which  adhered  to  King  Charles  I.  in  opposition 
to  the  Roundheads,  or  friends  of  the  Parliament. 

Cavalier,  Jean,  the  Chief  of  the  Camisards, 
who  rose  in  rebellion  against  the  Government  of 
Louis  XIV.,  was  born  in  Languedoc  about  1680, 
and  died  in  1740.  He  was  one  of  the  most  dis¬ 
tinguished  leaders  of  irregular  troops,  and  was 
conspicuous  alike  for  his  bravery  and  good  judg¬ 
ment.  See  Camisards,  ante. 

Cavalry.  From  the  earliest  dates,  cavalry  has 
always  formed  an  integral  part  of  every  army, 
although  the  relative  size  and  importance  of  the 
arm  has  varied,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
country  and  the  peculiarities  of  its  inhabitants. 
Egypt  probably  affords  the  earliest  historical 
records  of  any  distinct  attempt  at  military  organi 
zation.  In  that  country  cavalry  and  horseman¬ 
ship  were  held  in  high  repute,  according  to  the 
prophet  Isaiah.  Diodorus  of  Sicily  tells  us  that 
Osymandias  led  20,000  cavalry  against  the  rebels 
in  Bactriana,  certainly  long  prior  to  the  Trojan 
War.  In  early  times  chariots  appear  to  have 
been  associated  with  the  horsemen  of  an  army, 
although  perfectly  distinct  from  them.  Frequent 
references  are  made  in  the  Bible  to  “chariots 
and  horsemen;”  and  Josephus  states  that  the  army 
of  Israelites  that  escaped  from  Egypt  numbered 
50,000  horsemen  and  600  chariots  of  war.  The 
first  authentic  account  that  we  have  of  cavalry 
being  regularly  organized  is  given  by  Xenophon, 
who  states  that  in  the  first  Messenian  War,  743 
b.c.,  Lycurgus  formed  his  cavalry  in  divisions. 
Some  hundred  years  later,  in  371  b.c.,  Epaminon- 
das  raised  a  corps  of  5,000  cavalry.  Philip  and 
Alexander  of  Macedon  were  indebted  for  several 
of  their  greatest  successes  to  the  prowess  of  their 
cavalry;  and  the  exploits  of  Alexander’s  7,000 
horsemen  at  the  Battle  of  Arbela,  331  b.c.,  in 
which  he  signally  defeated  Darius,  may  well 
serve  as  an  example  for  future  generations.  In 
modern  armies,  the  effectiveness  of  cavalry  in 
actual  fighting,  that  is,  in  pitched  battles,  has 
been  largely  interfered  with  by  the  changed  con¬ 
ditions  which  have  followed  the  introduction  of 
fire-arms  of  precision  and  heavy  artillery.  It  is 
rare  that  two  bodies  of  cavalry  stand  to  fight  each 
other;  the  weaker  of  the  two,  or  the  less  resolute, 
usually  turns  and  gallops  olf.  Tiie  work  to  be 
done  by  the  horse  is  to  pursue,  to  overwhelm,  to 
cut  down.  The  infantry  and  artillery  more  fre¬ 
quently  win  the  victory;  but  the  cavalry  prepare 
the  way  for  doing  this,  capture  prisoners,  pursue 
the  flying  enemy,  and  cover  the  retreat  of  infan¬ 
try  and  artillery,  if  retreat  be  necessary.  Cavalry 
is  necessary  to  finish  off  work  mainly  done  by 
others,  and,  without  its  aid,  signal  success  is  sel¬ 
dom  obtained  on  the  field.  Many  of  the  brilliant 
achievements  of  the  British  in  1857  and  the  fol¬ 
lowing  year,  in  India,  were  rendered  almost  nuga¬ 
tory  by  the  paucity  of  cavalry,  while,  as  a  con¬ 
trast,  the  German  victories  of  1870  were  enhanced 
bv  the  splendid  services  of  their  Uhlans  and  other 
light  cavalry.  Among  the  chief  exploits  of  the 
American  Civil  War,  where  the  conditions  dif¬ 
fered  largely  from  those  of  European  fighting, 
were  the  daring  deeds  of  Sheridan.  Under 
“  Little  Phil,”  the  Murat  of  America,  the  cavalry 
won  deathless  fame. 

Cavan,  an  inland  county  in  the  south  of  Ulster, 
Ireland.  It  lies  in  the  narrowest  part  of  Ireland, 
eighteen  miles  from  the  Atlantic,  and  twenty  from 
tin;  Irish  Sea.  Area,  746  square  miles.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Erne,  the  Woodford,  and  the 
Annalee.  Pop.,  129,476,  of  whom  104,328  arc 
Roman  Catholics,  and  18,990  Episcopalians. 
Chief  towns — Cavan,  Bailieborough,  and  Bel- 
turbet. 

Cavati'na,  a  short  form  of  operatic  air,  of  a 
soft  character,  differing  from  the  ordinary  aria  in 
consisting  only  of  one  part,  and  that  spun  out 


more  in  the  form  of  a  song.  The  most  perfect 
specimens  of  the  cavatina  is  that  in  Meyerbeer’s 
opera  of  Robert  the  Devil. 

Cave,  Edward,  the  founder  of  the  Gentleman’s 
Magazine,  the  first  literary  journal  of  the  kind 
ever  established.  He  was  born  at  Fewton,  in 
Warwickshire,  England,  in  1691;  obtained  a  good 
education  at  Rugby;  and  after  many  vicissitudes, 
became  apprentice  to  a  printer.  He  was  the 
friend  and  patron  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  and 
died  in  1754. 

Caveat,  a  notice  not  to  do  an  act,  given  to  a 
judicial  or  ministerial '  officer  by  a  party  having 
an  interest  in  the  matter.  Caveat,  in  patent  law,  is 
a  notice  not  to  issue  a  patent  until  the  party  filing 
the  notice  can  be  heard  as  to  priority  of  inven¬ 
tion. 

Cavendisli,  Henry,  a  chemist  and  philosopher 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  son  of  Lord  Charles 
Cavendish,  and  nephew  of  the  third  Duke  of 
Devonshire,  was  born  at  Nice,  Oct.  10,  1731.  He 
studied  at  Cambridge,  and  devoted  his  whole  life 
to  scientific  investigations.  The  large  fortune 
which  was  bequeathed  to  him  by  an  uncle  en¬ 
abled  him  to  follow  uninterruptedly  his  favorite 
pursuits.  He  died  in  February,  1810,  leaving 
considerably  more  than  $5,000,000  to  his 
relatives.  As  a  philosopher,  Cavendish  is  entitled 
to  the  highest  rank.  To  him  we  owe  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  pneumatic  chemistry.  In  1760  he  dis¬ 
covered  the  extreme  levity  of  inflammable  air, 
now  known  as  hydrogen  gas — a  discovery  which 
led  to  balloon  experiments,  and  projects  for  aerial 
navigation;  and  later,  he  ascertained  that  water 
resulted  from  the  union  of  two  gases — a  discovery, 
however,  to  which  Watt  is  supposed  to  have  an 
equal  claim.  The  accuracy  and  completeness  of 
Cavendish’s  processes  are  remarkable.  Cavendish 
also  wrote  on  astronomical  instruments;  and  his 
Electrical  Researches  (1771-1781)  were  edited  by 
Prof.  Clerk  Maxwell  (18791. 

Cavendish,  Lord  Frederick,  a  son  of  the 
seventh  Duke  of  Devonshire,  was  born  Nov.  30, 
1836.  On  May  6, 1882,  he  reached  Dublin,  having 
been  appointed  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland.  The 
same  evening,  as  he  was  walking  in  the  Phoenix 
Park  with  liis  subordinate,  Mr.  Burke,  assassins 
set  upon  them  and  stabbed  both  of  them  to  death. 
Eightmonths  later,  twenty  so-called  “invincibles” 
were  tried  for  the  crime.  The  principal  evidence 
was  furnished  by  an  informer  named  James  Carey, 
who  had  been  a  Town  Councilor  of  Dublin.  Five 
of  the  accused  were  hanged,  and  others  impris¬ 
oned.  Carey  was  shipped  by  the  British  Govern¬ 
ment  to  Cape  Colony,  but  was  killed  on  board 
ship  by  one  O'Donnell,  who  was  taken  back  to 
England  and  hanged. 

Cavendish,  Thomas  (1560-1592),  the  third  cir¬ 
cumnavigator  of  the  globe,  was  born  in  Suffolk, 
in  1560  He  fitted  out  a  ship  in  which  he  accom¬ 
panied  the  expedition  sent  to  Virginia  in  1585 
under  the  command  of  Sir  Richard  Grenville. 
On  his  return  he  made  a  predatory  expedition 
against  the  Spaniards  in  the  New  World.  July  21, 
1586,  he  sailed  from  Plymouth  with  three  small 
vessels,  passed  through  the  Straits  of  Magellan, 
cruised  along  the  coasts  of  Chili,  Peru,  and 
Mexico,  and  burnt  and  sunk  nineteen  ships,  in¬ 
cluding  the  Santa  Anna,  a  vessel  belonging  to 
the  King  of  Spain, with  a  cargo  of  immense  value, 
which  he  captured  off  the  coast  of  California. 
Returning  home  with  his  plunder  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  he  reached  Plymouth,  Sept.  9,  1588, 
having  circumnavigated  the  globe.  On  a  second 
voyage  he  died  at  sea  in  1592. 

Cavendish,  William,  Duke  of  Newcastle,  a 
distinguished  loy^alist  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
son  of  Sir  Charles  Cavendish,  younger  brother  of 
the  first  Earl  of  Devonshire,  was  born  1592.  In 
1620,  he  was  made  a  peer  of  the  realm.  Charles 
I.,  about  1628,  gave  him  the  title  of  Earl  of  New¬ 
castle-upon-Tyne,  and  in  1638  intrusted  him  with 
the  tuition  of  his  son,  afterward  Charles  II.  liis 
support  of  the  King  during  the  contest  with  the 
parliamentary  forces  was  munificent.  He  con¬ 
tributed  £10,000  to  the  treasury,  and  raised  a 
troop  of  200  knights  and  gentlemen,  who  served 
at  their  own  cost.  After  the  battle  of  Marston 
Moor,  Cavendish  retired  to  t  he  Continent,  where 
he  resided,  at  times  in  great  poverty,  until  the 
Restoration.  On  his  return  he  was  created  Duke 
I  of  Newcastle.  He  died  Dec.  25,  1676. 


Cavendish,  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Newcastle, 
second  wife  of  the  above,  born  about  the  end  of 
the  reign  of  James  I.,  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  instances  on  record  of  a  person 
afflicted  with  the  cacoethes  scribemH,  who  had  no 
capacity  whatever  for  writing.  She  produced  no 
less  than  13  folio  volumes,  ten  of  which  were 
printed,  treating  of  every  possible  subject,  and 
treating  each  one  equally  ill.  She  died  in  1673. 

Caves,  or  Caverns  (Lat.  cavns,  hollow),  are 
hollow  places  in  the  earth.  They  are  either  nat¬ 
ural  or  artificial.  Natural  caves  have  been  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  fracture  and  dislocation  consequent 
on  the  upheaval  of  the  strata,  by  water,  or  by 
both  causes  combined.  The  denuding  or  eroding 
power  of  water,  which  has  produced  the  mate¬ 
rials  of  stratified  rocks,  has  formed  caverns  in  the 
courses  of  rivers  and  on  the  coast-line  of  the  sea. 
In  limestone  rocks,  the  destroying  power  of  water 
is  increased  when  it  contains  chemical  agents 
which  have  the  power  of  dissolving  the  substance 
of  the  rock,  and  so  causing  it  to  be  carried  off  in 
solution  by  the  water.  Caves  most  frequently 
occur  in  limestone  rocks.  Caves  are  interesting, 
scientifically,  from  the  many  remains  of  extinct 
animals  found  in  them.  No  less  than  thirty- 
three  species  of  mammals,  and  five  species  of 
birds  have  been  discovered  in  the  caves  of  the 
British  Islands,  of  which  about  the  half  still  sur¬ 
vive  in  Europe,  while  the  remainder  are  extinct. 
The  mammals  are  species  of  ox,  deer,  horse,  wolf, 
dog,  hare,  fox,  weasel,  water-rat,  mole,  bat,  hip¬ 
popotamus,  and  rhinoceros,  besides  the  hyena 
and  bear;  and  the  birds  are  species  of  lark,  part¬ 
ridge,  goose,  and  crow.  The  wonderful  limestone 
caverns  of  Kentucky  will  be  found  described 
under  the  head  of  Mammoth  Cave.  See  also 
Stalagmites  and  Stalactites. 

Ca'viare,  the  salted  roes  of  the  common  stur¬ 
geon  ( Accipenser  Sturio)  and  other  fishes  of  the 
same  genus.  It  is  chiefly  prepared  in  Russia, 
where  it  is  greatly  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food. 

Cavite,  a  town  on  the  Island  of  Luzon,  one  of 
the  Philippines.  It  is  situated  on  the  Bay  of 
Manila.  It  is  the  chief  naval  d£p6t  of  the  Spanish 
possessions  in  the  East,  and  gives  name  to  a  prov¬ 
ince  with  a  pop.  of  57,000.  The  pop.  of  the  town 
is  some  6,000  or  7,000. 

Cavo-Rilie'vo,  (Ital.)  In  this  peculiar  kind  of 
rilievo,  which  was  extensively  employed  by 
Egyptian  artists,  the  highest  surface  of  the  object 
represented  is  only  on  a  level  with  the  plane  of 
the  original  stone,  the  rounded  sides  being  cut 
into  it.  The  effect  resembles  that  of  a  concave  seal. 

Cavour,  Count  Camilla  Benso  di,  a  distin¬ 
guished  Italian  statesman,  was  born  at  Turin, 
Aug.  10,  1810.  On  his  suggestion  the  King  was 
petitioned  for  a  constitution,  which  was  granted 
in  February,  1848.  In  the  Marquis  d’Azeglio’s 
Ministry,  formed  soon  after  the  fatal  battle  of 
Novara,  Cavour  was  successively  Minister  of  Agri¬ 
culture  and  Commerce,  Minister  of  Marine,  and 
Minister  of  Finance;  and  in  1852  he  was  appointed 
to  succeed  D’Azeglio  as  Premier.  From  this  time 
until  his  resignation  in  1859,  in  consequence  of 
the  conclusion  of  the  peace  of  Yillafranca,  Cavour 
was  the  originator  as  well  as  the  director  of  the 
Sardinian  policy.  Taking  upon  himself  at  differ¬ 
ent  times,  in  addition  to  the  Premiership,  the 
duties  of  Ministers  of  Finance,  Commerce,  and 
Agriculture,  and  latterly  of  Home  and  Foreign 
Affairs,  he  greatly  improved  the  financial  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  country,  introduced  free-trade,  consol¬ 
idated  constitutionalism,  weakened  clerical  influ¬ 
ence,  and  made  Sardinia  a  power  in  Europe.  In 
January,  I860,  Cavour  was  again  called  upon  to 
preside  over  the  Sardinian  Government.  The 
unification  of  Italy  seemed  to  be  impossible,  when 
Garibaldi  stepped  forward  to  cut  the  knot.  It 
was  certainly  not  against  the  will  of  Cavour  that 
the  hero  set  out  on  his  adventurous  enterprise. 
He  carefully  watched  the  progress  of  the  expedi¬ 
tion,  ready  to  own  or  disown  it,  according  to  the 
event.  Accordingly,  on  Garibaldi's  triumphant 
arrival  at  Naples,  the  Piedmontese  army  occupied 
the  Marches  and  Umbria,  crossed  the  Apennines, 
and  on  the  Plains  of  Campania  shook  hands  with 
the  volunteers  of  Garibaldi.  The  hero  saluted 
Victor  Emmanuel,  King  of  Italy.  Next  spring 
the  first  Italian  Parliament  met  at  Turin,  at  d 
Cavour  saw  the  dream  of  his  life  realized.  He 
had  seen  a  new  Italy  spring  from  the  ashes  of  the 


CAVY. 


262 


CEDAR,  BARBADOES. 


old,  an  Italy  of  representative  government  and  of 
enlightened  progress,  the  mistress  of  her  own  des¬ 
tinies,  and  a  worthy  member  of  t  lie  commonwealth 
of  nations.  Cavour  died  June  (i,  1861.  With 
Mazzini  and  Garibaldi  he  occupies  the  foremost 
position  among  Italian  patriots  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

Ca'vy  ( Cavia ),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
order  Rodentia,  regarded  as  a  type  of  a  family, 
Cavalier,  differing  from  the  Hare  family  (Legoridee) 
in  the  complete  want  of  clavicles,  in  the  want  of 
growing  roots  to  the  molar  teeth,  and  in  having 
the  incisors  situated  as  in  other  quadrupeds  gen 
erally,  and  not  in  the  peculiar  manner  so  charac¬ 
teristic  of  the  hares.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
Common  Cavy,  or  Restless  Cavy,  but  much  more 
frequently  receives  the  name  of  Guinea  pig,  al¬ 
though  it  is  neither  early  related  to  pigs,  nor  a  na¬ 
tive  of  Guinea.  The  Guinea-pig  multiplies  with  a 
rapidity  <  xceeding  that  of  any  other  known  quad¬ 
ruped,  producing  young  ones  when  only  two 
months  old,  and  afterward  at  intervals  of  two 
months,  and  from  four  to  twelve  in  a  litter. 

Cavrk,  a  popular  name  for  a  massive  variety  of 
the  mineral  called  Heavy  Spar  or  Sulphate  of 
Baryta. 

Cawnpo're,  a  city  of  the  Doab,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ganges,  about  140  miles  above  Alla¬ 
habad,  at  the  junction  of  the  Jumna,  being  sep¬ 
arated  by  the  river  from  Oude,  whose  capital, 
Lucknow,  lies  fifty-three  miles  to  the  northeast. 
During  the  mutiny  of  1857  Cawnpore  was  the 
scene  of  Nana  Sahib’s  massacre  of  his  English 
captives.  Pop.  (1881)  of  Cawnpore  (spelt  also 
Khanpur),  119,603. 

Cawnpore,  the  district  of  the  above-described 
city,  in  the  Lieutenant-Governorshipof  the  North¬ 
west  Provinces.  With  a  pop.  in  1831  of  1,181,- 
396,  it  has  an  area  of  2,370  square  miles. 

Caxamar'ca,  or  Cajamarca,  a  province  in  the 
northwest  of  Peru,  withacapital  of  itsown  name. 
The  province  has  214,000  inhabitants,  and  the 
city  (1886),  7,215. 

Caxton,  William,  who  int  roduced  printing  into 
England,  was  born  about  1422.  In  1471  Caxton 
entered  the  service  of  Margaret,  the  Duchess  of 
Burgundy,  formerly  an  English  princess;  and 
toward  the  end  of  1476  set  up  his  wooden  print¬ 
ing-press  at  the  sign  of  the  Red  Pale  in  the  Al¬ 
monry  at  Westminster.  The  art  of  printing  he 
had  acquired  during  his  sojourn  in  Bruges, 
doubtless  from  Colard  Mansion,  a  well-known 
printer  of  that  city;  and  in  1474  he  put  through 
the  press  there  the  first  book  printed  in  the  English 
tongue,  the  Recuyell  of  the  History  ex  of  Troye ,  a 
translation  of  Raoul  le  Fevre’s  work.  The  Game 
and  Playe  of  the  Chesse  was  another  of  Caxton’s 
earliest  publications;  but  the  Dictcs  and  Notable 
Wise  Sayings  of  the  Philosophers,  published  in 
1477,  is  the  first  book  which  can  with  certainty 
be  maintained  to  have  been  printed  in  England. 
All  the  eight  founts  of  type  from  which  Caxton 
printed  may  be  called  Black  Letter.  Of  the  nine¬ 
ty-nine  known  distinct  productions  of  Caxton's 
press,  no  less  than  thirty-eight,  survive  in  single 
copies  or  in  fragments  only.  Caxton,  who  was 
an  accomplished  linguist,  and  translated  many  of 
the  works  that  issued  from  his  press,  was  diligent 
in  the  exercise  of  his  craft,  or  in  translation,  till 
his  death,  which  seems  to  have  happened  about, 
the  close  of  the  year  1491. 

Cayenne,  a  fortified  seaport,  capital  of  French 
Guiana,  chiefly  known  as  a  great  French  penal 
settlement.  The  island,  32  miles  in  circumference, 
is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  chan¬ 
nel;  its  soil  is  fertile,  but  the  climate  is  extremely 
unwholesome  for  Europeans,  large  numbers  of  the 
convicts  having  been  carried  off  by  various  malig¬ 
nant  fevers.  Cayenne  became  a  French  colony 
about  1635;  deportation  hither  began  during  the 
first  French  Revolution.  Pop.,  about  8,000. 

Cayenne  Pepper  consists  of  the  powder  of  the 
dried  pods,  and  more  especially  of  the  dried  seeds 
of  different  species  of  Capsicum,  particularly 
of  C .  fruteseens. 

Cay 'man,  a  name  somewhat  variously  used, 
either  as  the  distinctive  appellation  of  some,  or  as 
a  common  name  for  all  the  Crocodilidae  of  South 
America.  The  genus  Alligator  is  by  some  natur¬ 
alists  of  t  lie  present,  day  divided  into  three  genera, 
to  one  of  which  the  name  Cayman  ( Caiman )  is 
appropriated. 


Cay ’mans— in  English,  alligators — three  low 
islets  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  which  form  a  depend¬ 
ency  of  Jamaica.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  they 
were  by  him  called  Tortugas,  from  the  abundance 
of  turtle — still  the  staple  production  of  the  group. 
On  an  area  of  about  2,000  acres,  the  pop.  does 
not  exceed  1,500  or  1,600. 

Cayuga  Lake,  in  Central  New  York,  is  38  miles 
long  and  from  1  to  3  miles  wide.  Cayuga  county, 
N.  Y.,  has  an  area  of  752  square  miles,  and 
a  pop.  of  60,000.  Auburn  is  the  capital.  The 
Cayuga  Indians,  one  of  the  tribes  included  in  the 
Six  Nations,  are  now  almost  extinct. 

Ce'bus  (Gr.  an  ape  or  monkey),  a  genus  of 
American  monkeys,  characterized  by  a  round 
head  and  short  muzzle,  a  facial  angle  of  about 
sixty  degrees,  long  thumbs,  and  a  long  prehensile 
tail  entirely  covered  with  hair.  The  species  are 
numerous,  all  of  very  lively  disposition  and  gre¬ 
garious  habits,  living  in  trees.  The  names  Sajou 
and  Sai  are  also  given  to  some  of  them,  and 
some  are  called  Capuchin  monkeys.  One  of  the 
most  common  species  in  Guiana  is  the  Weeper 
Monkey,  or  Weeper  Sapajou  (C.  Apellu). — The 
name  Uebider  is  sometimes  given  to  the  American 
monkeys  collectively,  as  a  family  or  tribe.  See 
Monkey. 

Cecidomy'ia  (Gr.  Icekidion,  a  gall-nut;  and  my  in, 
a  fly  or  gnat),  a  genus  of  dipterous  (two-winged) 
insects  of  the  family  Tipularice — the  guat  and 
mosquito  family.  The  species  are  numerous.  All 
are  of  small  size,  but  some  of  them  are  very 
important  on  account  of  the  ravages  which  their 
maggots  effect  in  grain-crops.  The  wheat-fly  and 
the  Hessian  fly  belong  to  this  genus. — Some  of  the 
species  of  cecidomyia  deposit  their  eggs  in  the 
young  buds  of  trees,  which  the  larvae  transform 
into  galls. 

Cecil,  William,  Lord  Burleigh,  one  of 
England’s  greatest  statesmen,  was  born  Sept.  15, 
1520.  Entering  Gray’s  Inn  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one,  he  devoted  himself  assiduously  to  the  study 
of  law.  Henry  VIII.  presented  him  with  the 
reversion  of  the  custos  brevium,  an  office  of  value 
in  the  Common  Pleas.  During  his  second  secre¬ 
taryship,  Cecil  effected  most  important  and  bene¬ 
ficial  changes  in  the  commercial  policy  of  the 
country.  When  Queen  Mary  ascended  the  throne, 
Cecil,  being  a  Protestant,  resigned  his  official 
employment;  but  he  maintained  good  relations 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  party,  and  was  one  of 
the  few  eminent  Protestants  who  escaped  in  purse 
and  person  during  that  short  but  infamous  reign. 
His  freedom  from  persecution  has  given  rise  to 
the  charge  that  lie  was  a  “trimmer.”  Prior  to 
Mary’s  death,  Cecil,  foreseeing  her  end,  had  entered 
into  correspondence  with  Elizabeth,  who,  on  her 
accession  to  the  throne  (Nov.  16,  1558),  at  once 
recognizing  Cecil’s  capacity  for  government, 
appointed  him  Secretary  of  State.  A  biography 
of  Cecil  from  this  time  until  his  death  would  be  a 
forty  years’  history  of  England,  for  he  was  alike 
the  originator  and  director  of  that  policy  which 
has  made  Elizabeth’s  reign  memorable  above  that 
of  any  other  English  sovereign.  The  Queen 
created  him  Baron  Burleigh  in  1571,  and  con¬ 
ferred  on  him  the  Order  of  the  Garter  in  the  sue 
ceedmg  year,  when  he  was  also  made  Lord  High 
Treasurer,  an  office  he  held  until  his  death,  Aug. 
15,  1598. 

Cecil,  Robert,  Earl  op  Salisbury,  son  of  the 
above,  was  born  about  1550.  On  the  death  of  his 
father,  having  previously  held  important  State 
offices,  he  succeeded  to  what  would  now  be  called 
the  premiership.  On  the  accession  of  James  I. 
Cecil,  who  had  carried  on  a  private  correspondence 
with  that  monarch  before  Elizabeth’s  death,  was 
confirmed  in  his  office,  and  received  many  high 
honors,  culminating  in  that  of  Earl  of  Salisbury. 
In  1608,  he  was  made  Lord  High  Treasurer.  He 
died  May  24,  1612. 

Ceci'lia,  St.,  the  patroness  of  music,  suffered 
martyrdom  in  230  a.d.  Her  heathen  parents 
belonged  to  a  noble  Roman  family,  and  betrothed 
their  daughter,  who  had  been  converted  to  Chris¬ 
tianity,  to  a  heathen  youth  named  Valerian. 
This  youth  and  his  brother  Tiberius  became 
Christian  converts,  and  suffered  martyrdom. 
Cecilia,  when  commanded  to  sacrifice  to  idols, 
firmly  refused,  and  was  condemned  to  death. 
Her  persecutors,  it  is  said,  first  threw  her  into  a 
boiling  bath,  but  on  the  following  day  they  i 


found  her  unhurt.  The  executioner  next  at¬ 
tempted  to  cut  off  her  head,  but  found  it  impos 
sible.  Three  days  later  she  died. — Another  St. 
Cecilia  was  born  in  Africa,  and  suffered  martyr¬ 
dom  by  starvation  under  Diocletian.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Church  celebrates  her  festival  on  Feb¬ 
ruary  lltli. 

Cecro'pia,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Artocarpac.ce.  C.  peltata,  a  native  of  the  West 
Indies  and  of  South  America,  is  sometimes  called 
Trumpet-wood  and  Snake-wood. 

Ce 'crops,  the  first  King  of  Attica,  figures  in 
Greek  mythology  as  an  Autochthon,  half-man, 
and  half-dragon.  Tradition  declared  him  to  be 
the  founder  of  marriage,  the  author  of  the  politi¬ 
cal  division  of  Attica  into  twelve  States,  and  the 
introducer  of  agriculture,  of  navigation,  and 
commerce. 

Cedar  or  Cedar  of  Le'banon,  a  tree  much 
celebrated  from  the  most  ancient  times  for  its 
beauty,  its  magnificence,  its  longevity,  as  well  as 
for  the  excellence  and  durability  of  its  timber. 
It  is  often  mentioned  in  Scripture;  it  supplied  the 
wood-work  of  Solomon’s  temple;  and  in  the 
poetry  of  the  Old  Testament  it  is  a  frequent 
emblem  of  prosperity,  strength,  and  stability.  It 
belongs  to  the  natural  order  Con  feree ,  and  is  the 
Pinas  Ccdrus  of  the  older  botanists.  Of  the 
celebrated  Cedars  of  Lebanon,  only  a  few  now 
remain.  They  consist  of  a  grove  of  some  400 
trees.  These  trees  ajre  more  remarkable  for  girth 


Cedars  of  Lebanon. 


than  stature,  their  height  hardly  exceeding  fifty 
feet.  Their  age  is  variously  estimated;  the  rules 
by  which  botanists  determine  the  age  of  trees  are 
not.  applicable  to  them,  for  their  stems  have  ceased 
to  grow7  in  regular  concentric  rings;  they  owe 
their  prolonged  existence  to  the  superior  vitality 
of  a  portion  of  their  bark,  which  has  survived 
the  decay  of  the  rest.  Russeger  is  inclined  to 
admit  that  these  trees  may  possibly  number  some 
2,000  years.  A  resinous  substance,  called  Cedar 
Resin,  or  Cedria,  flows  spontaneously  from  the 
trunk  of  the  cedar,  or  from  incisions;  it  resembles 
mastic,  and  was  anciently  used  along  with  other 
resins  in  the  embalming  of  the  dead.  The  Deodar, 
or  Himalayan  cedar  ( Ccdrus  Deodara),  a  tree  held 
in  great  veneration  by  the  Hindus,  and  of  which 
the  name  is  said  to  be  properly  Devadara,  and  to 
signify  god-tree,  is  common  in  the  Himalaya 
Mountains,  at  elevations  of  7,000  to  12,000  feet, 
forming  magnificent  forests,  and  attaining  a  great 
size,  a  height  sometimes  of  150  feet,  with  a  trunk 
thirty  feet  or  more  in  circumference,  an  ample 
head,  and  spreading  branches. 

Cedar,  Barbadoes  ( Cedrela  odorata),  a  tree 
of  the  natural  order  Cedrelacece,  and  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  toon  of  India,  a  native  of  the 
West  Indies  and  warm  parts  of  America.  It  is 
simply  called  Cedar  in  the  West  Indies.  It  is 
often  upwards  of  eighty  feet  high,  with  a  trunk 
remarkable  for  thickness.  Havana  cigar-boxes 
are  very  generally  made  of  it.  In  France,  it  is 
used  in  making  black-lead  pencils. 


CEDAR  CREEK. 


263 


CELLULOID. 


Cedar  Creek,  is  a  river  of  Virginia,  which 
gives  name  to  a  battle  fought  October  19,  1862, 
when  the  Federals  under  Generals  Sheridan  and 
Wright  defeated  the  Confederates  under  General 
Early. 

Cedar  Mountains,  a  range  of  the  Cape  Colony, 
parallel  with  the  Atlantic,  and  nearly  half-way 
between  it  and  the  dividing  ridge  of  the  country. 

Cedrela'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  very  nearly  allied  to  Meliactas,  and  chiefly 
distinguished  by  the  wing  seeds,  numerous  in 
each  cell  of  the  fruit,  which  is  a  capsule.  To  this 
order  belong  mahogany,  satin-wood,  toon,  Barba- 
does  cedar,  the  yellow-wood  of  New  South 
Wales,  etc. 

Cedar  Rapids  is  a  city  in  Linn  county,  Iowa, 
about  219  miles  west  of  Chicago,  on  the  Chicago, 
Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul  Railroad,  and  the  Bur¬ 
lington,  Cedar  Rapids  &  Northern  Railroad. 
Pop.,  15,426. 

Ceiling  (Fr.  del;  Lat.  caelum,  heaven).  This 
term  seems  to  have  been  suggested  by  the  use  of 
arched  coverings  for  churches,  and  even  for  rooms, 
which  prevailed  in  the  middle  ages,  and  was  not 
unknown  to  the  Romans.  Whether  the  term  was 
further  suggested  by  the  habit  of  tinting  ceilings 
of  a  blue  color,  and  decorating  them  with  stars, 
or  whether  that  usage  arose  from  the  use  of  the 
term  already  introduced,  is  more  doubtful. 
Arched  ceilings  among  the  Romans  were  known 
by  the  name  camerce  or  camera,  the  Greek  origin 
of  which  seems  to  furnish  an  argument  in  favor 
of  the  view  that  the  arch  was  known  to  the  latter 
people.  The  oldest  flat  ceiling  in  existence  is 
believed  to  be  that  of  Peterborough  Cathedral, 
England. 

Celandine  ( Ghelidonium ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Papaveracece  (the  Poppy 
family),  having  a  corolla  of  four  petals,  and  a 
podlike  capsule.  The  common  celandine  (C. 
majus)  is  a  perennial,  with  pinnate  leaves,  lobed 
leaflets,  and  yellow  flowers  in  simple  umbels, 
frequent  under  hedges,  in  waste  places,  etc.,  in 
most  parts  of  Europe.  It  flowers  from  May  to 
September.  The  root,  stem,  and  leaves,  when 
fresh,  have  a  disagreeable  smell,  and  are  full  of 


Celandine  (Chelulonium  majus).  a 
a,  a  flower. 

a  yellow  juice,  which  is  very  acrid,  causing 
inflammation  when  applied  to  (lie  skin.  Celand¬ 
ine  is  sometimes  used  in  medicine;  it  is  a  drastic 
purgative,  and  in  large  doses  an  active  poison. 
The  fresh  juice  applied  externally  to  warts,  corns, 
etc.,  removes  them  by  stimulating  them  beyond 
what  their  languid  vital  powers  can  bear.  Mixed 
with  milk,  is  is  applied  to  the  eye  for  the  cure  of 
opacities  of  the  cornea,  but  is  a  remedy  that 
requires  great  caution  in  its  use. 

Celebes,  a  large  island  in  the  eastern  Archi¬ 
pelago,  east  of  Borneo,  between  5°  45'  S.  latitude 
— 1°  45'  N.  latitude  and  118° — 126°  E.  longitude. 
Area,  37,485  square  miles.  Celebes  is  covered  with 
mountains  and  valleys;  a  chain  running  through¬ 
out  it  sends  spurs  into  the  peninsulas.  Some  are 
active  volcanoes,  and  earthquakes  are  frequent. 
The  peak  of  Bonthaim  is  9,788  feet  high.  The 
island  has  a  rich  soil  and  extensive  pastures. 
The  minerals  are  gold,  iron,  coal,  and  salt.  The 
people  spin  and  weave  cottons.  Pop.  of  various 
races,  is  reckoned  at  3,000,000,  of  whom  about 
600, 000,  including  2,000  Europeans,  are  under 
Dutch  rule.  The  chief  town  is  Macassar,  which 
names  the  strait  between  Celebes  and  Borneo.  In 


November,  1874,  a  fire  destroyed  774  houses  of  the 
town. 

Celery  ( Apium ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Umbelliferae,  distinguished  by  a  mere  rudi¬ 
mentary  calyx,  roundish  entire  petals,  very  short 
styles,  and  roundish  fruit.  The  common  celery 
(.4.  graveolem)  is  found  wild  in  most  parts  of 
Europe,  in  ditches,  brooks,  etc.,  especially  near 
the  sea  and  in  saline  soils.  Its  leaves  are  dark 
green  and  smooth,  its  petals  involute  at  the  tip. 
By  cultivation  it  is  so  much  changed  that  its 
taste  becomes  agreeably  sweetish  and  aromatic, 
whilst  either  the  leaf-stalks  much  increase  in 
thickness,  or  the  root  swells  in  a  turnip-like  man¬ 
ner.  These  parts,  blanched,  are  much  used  as  a 
salad,  or  to  impart  flavor  to  soups,  etc.,  and 
sometimes  as  a  boiled  vegetable.  Two  principal 
varieties  of  celery  are  cultivated,  that  most  com¬ 
mon  having  long,  thick  leaf -stalks,  which  are  more 
or  less  tubular,  sometimes  almost  solid,  and  after 
blanching,  either  white  or  more  or  less  tinged 
with  red;  whilst  the  other,  called  turnip-rooted 
celery,  or  celeriac,  is  chiefly  remarkable  for 
its  swollen  turnip-like  root;  and  is  in  most  general 
cultivation  on  the  Continent  of  Europe. 

Ce'lestines,  an  order  of  hermits  of  St.  Damia- 
nus,  founded  by  Peter  de  Morrone  about  1264, 
and  confirmed  as  a  monkish  order  by  Urban  IV. 
in  1264  and  1274.  They  called  themselves  Celes- 
tines  when  their  founder  ascended  the  papal  chair 
under  the  name  of  Celestine  V.  They  are  re¬ 
garded  as  a  branch  of  the  great  order  of  St. 
Benedict,  whose  rule  they  follow;  they  wear  a 
white  garment  with  black  hood  and  scapulary, 
and  live  a  purely  contemplative  life.  The  French 
Celestines  were  secularized  by  order  of  Pope 
Pius  VI.  in  1776-1778;  so  also  were  the  Neapoli¬ 
tan  Celestines.  In  the  present  day,  the  order  is 
almost  extinct. 

Ce'Iibacy,  from  Lat.  coelebs,  unmarried.  Not¬ 
withstanding  the  divine  commendation  of  mar¬ 
riage  given  in  the  Jewish  Scriptures  (Gen.  i,  28), 
the  opinion  had  become  prevalent,  even  before 
the  time  of  Christ,  that  celibacy  was  favorable 
to  an  intimate  union  with  God.  Among  the 
Jewish  sect  of  the  Essenes,  accordingly,  a  life  of 
celibacy  was  held  to  be  the  chief  road  to  sancity. 
While,  in  the  first  Christian  churches,  every  one 
was  left  at  liberty  to  marry  or  not  as  he  thought 
fit,  the  objection  to  those  who  married  a  second 
time  had  become  so  generally  spread,  that  the 
Apostle  Paul  saw  occasion  to  counsel  such  Christ¬ 
ian  converts  as  were  in  widowhood  to  remain  so. 
The  Church  of  Rome  continued  its  endeavors  to 
enforce  the  law  of  celibacy;  though,  for  several 
centuries,  they  were  attended  with  only  partial 
success.  There  still  continued  to  be  numbers  of 
priests  with  wives,  although  the  councils  were 
always  issuing  new  orders  against  them.  Popes 
Leo  IX.  (1048-1054)  and  Nicolas  II.  (1058-1061) 
interdicted  all  priests  that  had  wives  or  concu¬ 
bines  from  the  exercise  of  any  spiritual  function, 
on  pain  of  excommunication.  Alexander  II. 
(1061-1073),  decreed  excommunication  against  all 
who  should  attend  a  mass  celebrated  by  a  priest 
having  a  wife  or  concubine.  A  priest  that  mar¬ 
ries  incurs  excommunication,  and  is  incapable  of 
any  spiritual  function.  If  a  married  man  wishes 
to  become  a  priest,  he  receives  consecration  only 
on  condition  that  he  separate  from  his  wife, 
and  that  she  of  her  free  will  consent  to  the 
separation  and  enter  a  religious  order,  or  take  the 
vow  of  chastity.  Notwithstanding  these  decis¬ 
ions,  the  contest  against  clerical  celibacy  has 
again  and  again  been  resumed,  in  recent  times, 
both  within  and  without  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  In  fact,  all  attempts  at  innovation 
within  the  bosom  of  Catholicism,  connect  them¬ 
selves  with  the  attack  on  celibacy,  the  abolition 
of  which  would  deeply  affect  the  constitution  and 
position  of  that  Church.  Between  1817  and  1848, 
the  propriety  of  putting  an  end  to  compulsory 
celibacy  had  been  discussed  publicly  in  most 
European  countries,  either  by  clergy,  legislatures, 
or  the  press.  The  German  Catholics  abolished 
celibacy.  In  Austria  the  State  took  the  side  of 
the  Pope,  who,  in  a  bull  of  1847,  had  added  fresh 
stringency  to  the  rule  of  celibacy.  The  permis- 
I  sion  of  marriage  to  the  clergy  was  one  of  the 
principal  contentions  of  the  Old  Catholics  in 
Germany  in  1874,  and  is  maintained  by  the 
I  Separatist  Church.  Pitre  Ilyacinthe  in  France 


identified  himself  with  the  demand  for  legitimat¬ 
ing  clerical  marriages. 

Cell,  Cell-theory.  In  the  latter  half  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  Malpighi  and  Leeuwenhoek 
on  the  Continent,  and  Hooke  and  Grew  in  England, 
commenced  the  application  of  the  simple  micro¬ 
scope  to  the  examination  of  the  minute  structure 
of  plants  and  animals;  but,  although  their  labors 
in  this  department  of  biology  were  continued  by 
Swammerdam  and  others  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  the  foundation  of  scientific  histology  was 
not  laid  until  the  appearance,  in  1801,  of  the  Ana- 
tomie  Gene  rale  of  Bichat.  In  this  epoch-making 
work,  the  conception  of  the  tissue  theory,  as  it 
may  be  termed,  is  first  stated.  The  invention  of 
achromatic  lenses  (see  Lens,  Microscope),  and 
their  combination  into  the  compound  microscope, 
enabled  anatomists  to  inquire  into  the  composition 
of  the  tissues  themselves  with  ever-increasing  suc¬ 
cess.  “Fibers”  and  “globules,”  “laminae,”  “nu¬ 
clei,”  and  even  “  cells,”  were  described,  the  latter 
with  some  distinctness  among  plants;  but  the  first 
clear  idea  of  their  nature  and  relations  was  emitted 
by  Johannes  Muller,  in  1835.  The  cellular  nature 
of  epidermis,  and  the  presence  of  nuclei  therein, 
were  next  ascertained,  and  the  like  discoveries 
were  made  for  several  other  tissues.  Robert  Brown 
discovered  the  nucleus  in  plant-cells;  and,  in  1838, 
Schleiden  proved  that  a  nucleated  cell  is  the  only 
original  component  of  a  plant  embryo,  and  that 
the  development  of  all  tissues  might  be  referred  to 
such  cells.  In  the  following  year,  Schwann  pub¬ 
lished,  at  Berlin,  his  famous  Microscopic  Investi¬ 
gations  on  the  Accordance  in  the  Structure  and 
Growth  of  Plants  and  Animals  (trans.  Sydenham 
Soc.,  1847;,  in  which  the  cell-theory  was  definitely 
constituted,  the  accordance  asserted  in  the  struct¬ 
ure  and  development  of  the  most  different  parts 
of  plants  and  animals  alike  being  their  cellular 
composition  and  origin. 

Celli'ni,  Benvenu'to,  a  celebrated  Italian 
gold-worker,  sculptor,  founder,  and  medailleur, 
remarkable  not  only  for  his  skill  as  an  artist,  but 
also  for  his  checkered  life,  was  born  at  Florence 
in  the  year  1500,  and  first  displayed  skill  as  a 
chaser  and  gold-worker.  His  reckless  conduct 
for  some  years  compelled  his  constant  shifting 
between  Rome  and  Florence,  Mantua,  and 
Naples.  In  1537  he  went  to  the  court  of  France, 
where  he  was  honorably  received.  Illness,  how¬ 
ever,  induced  him  to  return  yet  once  more  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  imprisoned  on  a  charge  of 
plundering  the  treasures  in  the  Castle  of  St. 
Angelo  during  the  siege  of  Rome.  He  was  liber¬ 
ated,  through  the  intercession  of  the  Cardinal  of 
Ferrara,  for  whom  he  executed,  out  of  gratitude, 
a  fine  cup,  and  various  other  works.  He  accom¬ 
panied  his  deliverer  to  France,  and  entered  the 
service  of  Francis  I.;  but  having  incurred  the 
displeasure  of  the  ruling  favorite,  Madame 
d’Estampes,  he  returned  to  Florence — not,  how¬ 
ever,  until,  as  usual,  he  had  settled  some  matters 
with  his  “sword” — where,  under  the  patronage 
of  Cosmo  de’  Medici,  he  executed  several  tine 
works  in  metal  and  marble — among  them,  the 
celebrated  bronze  group  of  “Perseus  with  the 
Head  of  Medusa.”  In  his  fifty-eighth  year  he 
began  to  write  his  autobiography,  and  died  in 
1570  or  1572.  In  1876,  a  number  of  Cellini’s  ori¬ 
ginal  papers  were  found.  See  the  magnificent 
monograph  on  Cellini  by  Eugene  Plon  (1882). 

Cellular  Plants.  It  was  attempted  by  De 
Candolle,  and  others,  to  unite  all  the  lowest 
plants  destitute  of  vascular  tissue  under  the  gene¬ 
ral  title  of  Cellulares,  as  opposed  to  the  Vascvlares, 
including  all  the  higher  plants.  Although  this 
classification  is  long  disused,  the  term  “  cellular 
plants  ”  is  often  employed  to  distinguish  the 
Fungi,  Algae,  Lichens,  Characese,  Liverworts, 
and  Mosses,  from  the  higher  or  vascular  crypto¬ 
gams — ferns,  horsetails,  lycopodiacese,  and  sela- 
ginelleae,  and  isoetese.  (See  Sachs’,  Prantl’s,  or 
other  recent  Manual  of  Botany .) 

Celluloid,  a  hard,  perfectly  homogeneous, 
compact  substance,  closely  resembling  ivory,  is 
produced  by  the  action  of  strong  nitric  acid  upon 
cellulose.  Cotton,  wool,  linen,  paper,  or  other 
substance  largely  consisting  of  cellulose,  is 
immersed  in  nitric  acid;  and  the  result  is  a  mix¬ 
ture  of  two  nitro-celluloses.  This  product,  of 
which  collodion  is  a  solution  in  alcohol,  may  be 
dissolved  under  pressure  at  moderately  high  tern- 


CELLULOSE. 


264 


CENTAURS. 


peratures  in  camphor,  when  celluloid  is  obtained. 
Celluloid  becomes  plastic  at  1 25v'.  If  coloring 
matter  be  mixed  with  the  celluloid  during  manu¬ 
facture,  artificial  coral,  amber,  malachite,  etc., 
result.  Celluloid  is  an  excellent  material  for 
making  backs  of  brushes,  handles  of  knives  or 
umbrellas,  combs,  and  the  like. 

Cellulo'se  is  the  substance  secreted  by  the 
living  protoplasm  of  a  vegetable  cell  to  form  its 
investing  membrane  or  cell-wall.  Pure  cellulose 
consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  in  the 
proportionsof  C6H10O5(more  probablyC,  dRoOis). 
(See  Sachs’  or  Prantl’s  Botany.) 

Celsus,  an  Epicurean  philosopher,  but  tinged 
with  Platonism,  lived  in  (lie  second  century  after 
Christ,  and  wrote,  after  150  a.d.,  under  the  title 
Lugos  Alelhes  (the  True  Word),  the  first  consider¬ 
able  polemic  against  Christianity.  The  book 
itself  has  perished;  but  considerable  fragments 
have  been  preserved  as  quotations  given  by  Ori- 
gen  in  his  answer,  Contra  Celmm,  in  eight  books. 
He  entirely  denied  the  divinity  of  Christ. 

Celsus,  Aunts  Cornelius,  a  Latin  physician 
and  writer,  who  flourished  probably  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus.  He  was  called  the  Roman  Hippo¬ 
crates,  because  he  generally  followed  the  great 
“  Father  of  Medicine,”  and  introduced  the  Hippo¬ 
cratic  system  among  the  Romans.  Celsus  wrote 
not  only  on  medicine,  but  also  on  rhetoric,  his¬ 
tory,  philosophy,  the  art  of  war,  and  agriculture. 

Celt  (Lat.  celtis  (?),  a  chisel),  the  name  by 
which  certain  weapons  or  implements  of  the  early 
inhabitants  of  Western  Europe  are  known  among 
archaeologists.  Celts  are  either  of  stone  or  of 
bronze.  Stone  celts  vary  in  length  from  about 
1  inch  to  22  inches;  but  the  most  common  size  is 
from  0  to  8  inches  in  length,  and  from  2  to  3J4 
inches  in  breadth.  They  are  made  of  almost 
every  kind  of  stone,  and  show  considerable  di¬ 
versity  of  shape,  almost  all,  however,  having 
more  or  less  resemblance  to  the  mussel-shell. 
The  ruder  celts  are  generally  of  slate,  shale, 
schist,  or  grit;  the  finer,  of  flint,  porphyry, 
greenstone,  syenite,  or  agate.  Many  of  the  finer 
celts  are  beautifully  shaped  and  highly  polished. 
Bronze  celts  vary  in  length  from  about  1  inch  to 
8  to  10  inches,  the  most  common  length  being 
about  6  inches.  They  are  sometimes  ornamented 
with  rudely-incised  lines  or  circles,  and  have  oc¬ 
casionally  been  found  wrapped  up  in  linen,  or 
inclosed  in  bronze  cases  or  sheaths.  They  show 
much  greater  diversity  of  shape  than  the  stone 
celt.  As  many  as  four  classes  have  been  distin¬ 
guished  by  archaeologists. 

Celtibe'ri,  a  powerful  people  of  ancient  Spain, 
supposed  to  have  sprung  from  a  blending  of  the 
Iberians  or  Spanish  aborigines  with  Celtic  in¬ 
vaders  from  Gaul. 

Celtic  Nations,  one  of  the  groups  of  the  great 
Aryan  family.  It  used  to  be  held  that  the  Celts 
were  the  first  inhabitants  of  Britain.  Now  it  is 
held  by  many  that  there  always  was,  and  still  is, 
in  Britain,  a  large  element  of  pre-Celtic  and  non- 
Aryan  blood,  variously  called  Ivernian,  Silurian, 
or  Euskarian. — In  addition  to  the  English,  and 
retreating  before  it,  there  are  at  present  four  lan¬ 
guages  spoken  in  the  British  Isles — the  Irish,  the 
Highland  Scotch  (or  Gaelic),  the  Manx,  in  the 
Isle  of  Man — all  three  nearly  related  to  one  an¬ 
other,  and  constituting  the  northern  (Erse,  Gad- 
helic)  branch  of  the  Celtic  languages;  whilst  the 
fourth  language,  the  Welsh,  constitutes,  together 
with  the  Cornish  of  Cornwall  (extinct  since  1778) 
•and  the  Bas  Breton  of  Brittany,  the  southern 
(Briton,  Cymric,  Cambric)  branch. 

Cements,  substances  employed  to  unite  to¬ 
gether  by  tlieir  solidification  from  a  soft  or  liquid 
state,  and  without  mechanical  rivets,  things  of 
tthe  same  or  different  kinds.  Stony  cements  may 
be  natural,  as  the  lime  employed  for  mortar,  and 
the  so-called  Roman  cements;  or  they  may  be 
artificial,  as  Portland  cement,  made  by  calcining 
mixtures  of  chalk  with  clay  or  river-mud. 
Roman  contains  more  clay  than  Portland  cement, 
and  sets  more  rapidly.  A  good  artificial  water 
cement  is  obtained  by  heating  for  some  hours  to 
redness  a  mixture  of  3  parts  of  clay  and  1  part  of 
slaked  lime  by  measure.  Another  hydraulic 
cement  may  be  made  by  mixing  powdered  clay 
and  oxide  of  iron  with  water.  A  very  hard 
stone  cement  is  prepared  from  20  parts  of  clean 
river  sand,  2  of  litharge,  1  of  quicklime,  worked 


into  a  paste  with  linseed-oil.  Paper-pulp,  mixed 
with  size  and  plaster  of  paris,  is  used  for  moulded 
ornaments.  Keene’s  marble  cement  is  plaster  of 
paris  which  has  been  steeped  in  a  strong  solution 
of  sulphate  of  potash,  and  calcined  and  ground. 
It  is  slaked  with  alum  solution  when  used.  In 
Martin’s  cement,  pearl-ash  is  employed  as  well  as 
alum.  Parian  cement  contains  borax.  Selenitic 
cement  is  a  mixture  of  calcined  gypsum,  sand, 
and  hydraulic  lime.  A  cement  used  for  cracks 
in  boilers  is  a  mixture  of  clay  6  parts  and  iron 
filings  1  part  with  linseed-oil.  For  steam-joints, 
ox  blood  thickened  with  quicklime  is  employed. 
The  iron-rust  cement  consists  of  100  parts  of  iron 
turnings,  with  1  part  of  sal-ammoniac;  this  is  an 
excellent  cement  for  iron-work. 

Cemetery  ( koimeterion ,  from  koimao,  to  sleep), 
literally  a  sleeping-place,  was  the  name  applied 
by  the  early  Christians  to  the  places  set  apart  for 
the  burial  of  their  dead.  They  were  generally 
extra-mural  and  unconnected  with  churches,  the 
practice  of  interment  in  churches  or  churchyards 
being  unknown  in  the  first  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era.  The  term  cemetery  lias,  therefore, 
been  adopted  for  all  extra-mural  burying  grounds. 
The  fine  burial-grounds  of  the  Turks,  extending 
over  large  tracts  adorned  by  cedars  and  other 
trees,  may  have  suggested  the  plan  to  Europeans. 
It  was  first  exemplified  on  a  great  scale  in  Paris, 
in  which,  as  the  largest  walled  town  in  Europe, 
the  disposal  of  the  dead  was  long  a  matter  of 
extreme  anxiety  and  difficulty.  One  of  the  old¬ 
est  established  and  most  celebrated  of  the  Euro¬ 
pean  cemeteries,  is  that  of  Pere  la  Chaise  near 
Paris,  the  arrangements  of  which  have  been  gen¬ 
erally  followed  in  the  cemeteries  of  London  and 
other  English  cities.  In  the  United  States,  as  at 
Philadelphia  and  New  York,  thereare  cemeteries 
equal  in  point  of  arrangement  to  any  in  Europe. 

Cenci,  Beatrice,  called  “the  beautiful  parri¬ 
cide,”  was  the  daughter  of  Francesco  Cenci,  a 
wealthy  Roman  nobleman.  According  to  the 
Muratori  (Annates,  lib.  x.)  Francesco  was  twice 
married,  Beatrice  being  his  daughter  by  the  first 
wife.  After  his  second  marriage,  he  treated  the 
children  of  his  first  wife  in  a  revolting  manner, 
and  was  even  accused  of  hiring  bandits  to  murder 
two  of  his  sons  on  their  return  from  Spain.  The 
beauty  of  Beatrice  inspired  him  with  the  horrible 
and  incestuous  desire  to  possess  her  person;  with 
mingled  lust  and  hate,  he  persecuted  her  from 
day  to  day,  until  circumstances  enabled  him  to 
consummate  liis  brutality.  The  unfortunate  girl 
besought  the  help  of  her  relatives,  and  of  Pope 
Clement  VII.  (Aldobrandiui),  but  did  not  receive 
it;  whereupon,  in  company  with  her  step-mother 
and  her  brother,  Giacomo,  she  planned  and  exe¬ 
cuted  the  murder  of  her  unnatural  parent.  The 
crime  was  discovered,  and  both  she  and  Giacomo 
were  put  to  the  torture;  Giacomo  confessed,  but 
Beatrice  persisted  in  the  declaration  that  she  was 
innocent.  All,  however,  were  condemned,  and 
put  to  death,  August,  1599,  in  spite  of  efforts 
made  on  their  behalf.  Others  allege  that  Beatrice 
was  the  innocent  victim  of  an  infernal  plot. 

Cenis,  Mont,  or  Monte  Cenisio,  a  mountain 
pass  of  the  Alps,  between  Savoy  and  Piedmont. 
The  culminating  point  of  the  pass  reaches  an 
elevation  of  6,775  feet  above  the  sea  Over  the 
pass  a  road  was  constructed  (1803-1810)  under 
Napoleon’s  orders,  at  an  expense  of  $1,500,000. 
This  is  the  safest  and  most  frequented  road  across 
the  Alps.  Near  the  pass  a  railway  tunnel,  seven 
and  one-half  miles  long,  was  finished  in  1870. 

Cen'otapll  (Gr.  kenotajion,  from  kenos,  empty, 
and  infos,  a  tomb),  a  monument  which  does  not 
contain  the  remains  of  the  deceased.  They  were 
originally  erected  for  those  whose  bones  could  not 
be  found — e.  g.,  who  had  perished  at  sea. 

Ce'nser  (Fr.  encensoir,  from  Lat.  incendo,  to 
burn),  a  vase,  or  other  sacred  vessel,  used  for 
burning  perfumes.  Censers  were  much  used  in 
the  Hebrew  service  of  the  temple,  but  their  form 
is  not  accurately  ascertained,  and  it  is  probable 
that  they  varied  in  this  respect,  according  to  the 
occasions  on  which  they  were  used.  The  censer, 
called  also  a  thurible  (Lat.  thuribulum,  from  thus, 
frankincense),  is  used  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  at  mass,  vespers,  and  other  offices.  It 
is  suspended  by  chains,  which  are  held  in  the 
hand,  and  is  tossed  in  the  air,  so  as  to  throw  the 
smoke  of  the  incense  in  all  directions. 


Censors,  the  name  of  two  Roman  officers  of 
State.  The  office  was  established  by  Servius 
Tullius,  the  fifth  King  of  Rome,  After  the  ex¬ 
pulsion  of  the  Kings,  it  was  held  by  the  Consuls, 
special  magistrates  not  being  appointed  till 
443  b.c. 

Censorship  of  the  Press,  the  term  generally 
applied  to  the  arrangements  for  regulating  what 
may  be  printed,  in  countries  where  the  press  is 
not  free.  The  simplest  form  of  censorship  or 
the  press  is  when  a  public  officer — the  censor,  of 
licenser,  as  he  is  sometimes  called — reads  over 
the  manuscript  to  be  printed,  and  after  striking 
out  any  objectionable  passages,  certifies  that  the 
work  may  be  printed.  Thence  it  is  common  in 
old  books  to  see  the  word  imprimatur — let  it  be 
printed,  followed  by  one  or  more  signatures. 
Though  it  has  its  name  from  an  analogy  with  the 
functions  of  the  Roman  Censor,  the  censorship  of 
the  press  did  not  come  into  operation  until  the 
invention  of  printing.  It  was  common  to  all 
European  countries,  Great  Britain  included,  but 
has  been  abolished  in  the  latter.  It  still  prevails 
in  Russia,  Germany,  Spain,  and  other  autocratic 
governments. 

Cen 'sus  means  the  periodical  counting  of  the 
people.  It  is  a  Latin  word  applied  by  the 
Romans  to  one  of  the  functions  of  their  Censors. 
They  had  to  enumerate  the  people,  but  only  for 
immediate  purposes  of  taxation,  so  that  no  ac¬ 
count  of  the  results  of  such  enumerations  has 
been  preserved.  The  idea  of  ascertaining  the 
numbers  of  the  people,  and  the  proportions  in 
which  they  are  divided  according  to  sex,  age, 
profession,  rank,  and  the  like,  as  statistical  inform¬ 
ation,  is  of  late  origin.  The  first  census  of 
Britain  was  taken  in  the  first  year  of  the  present 
century — 1801.  Most  civilized  nations  take  a 
census  at  regular  intervals — Great  Britain  every 
ten  years,  (1881,  ’91  etc.);  France,  every  five  years 
(1876,  1881,  etc.);  Belgium,  every  ten  years  (1866, 
1876,  etc.);  Austria,  every  ten  years  (Dec.  31, 1880, 
etc.);  the  United  States,  the  same  (1870,  1880, 
etc.);  in  Germany,  every  five  years  (Dec.  1,  1870, 
1875,  1880,  etc.)  The  first  census  of  the  United 
States  was  provided  for  by  the  Constitution  of 
1787,  and  was  taken  in  1790.  The  United  States, 
therefore,  present  a  phenomenon  without  paral¬ 
lel  in  history — that  of  a  people  who  instituted 
the  statistics  of  their  country  on  the  very  day 
when  they  founded  their  Government,  and  who 
regulated  by  the  same  instrument  the  census  of 
inhabitants,  their  civil  and  political  rights,  and 
the  destinies  of  the  nation.  As  a  matter  of  un¬ 
doubted  history,  the  provision  for  a  national 
census  was  incorporated  in  the  Constitution  solely, 
from  political,  not  at  all  from  philosophical,  con¬ 
siderations.  Pending  the  actual  accomplishment 
of  the  first  enumeration,  an  estimate  of  the 
population  of  the  several  States  was  adopted  as  a 
provisional  basis  of  representation  in  Congress. 

Cent,  and  Centi'me,  (Lat.  centum,  a  hundred), 
names  of  coins.  The  Dutch  cent  is  a  copper  coin 
=  rir»th  of  the  guilder,  which  is  equal  to  40  cents. 
In  the  United  States  of  America,  the  cent  is  a 
copper  coin  =  1J5th  part  of  the  dollar,  or  nearly 
i  penny  English.  The  Centime  is  the  lOOtli  of  tiie 
French  franc,  and  is  of  the  value  of  }5  of  a  cent. 

Ceutau 'rea,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Composite,  sub-order  Cynaractce,  contain¬ 
ing  many  species  of  annual  and  perennial  her¬ 
baceous  plants  chiefly  natives  of  the  temperate 
and  cold  regions  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere. — 
The  Blue-bottle,  or  Corn  Blue-bottle  (G\  cyanvs), 
is  common  in  cornfields  in  Europe,  and  has  now 
become  frequent  also  in  similar  situations  in 
America,  and  indeed  over  the  greater  part  oi  the 
world. 

Cen'taurs  (bull -killers),  a  wild  race  of  men 
who  inhabited,  in  early  times,  the  forests  and 
mountains  of  Thessaly,  and  whose  chief  occupa¬ 
tion  was  bull-hunting.  Homer,  the  first  who 
mentions  them,  describes  them  merely  as  savage, 
gigantic,  and  covered  with  hair.  They  do  not 
appear  as  monsters,  half-man  and  lialf-horse, 
until  the  age  of  Pindar.  The  Centaurs  are  cele¬ 
brated  in  Greek  mythology  on  account  of  their 
war  with  the  Lapithce,  and  their  contest  with 
Hercules.  The  fact  lying  at  the  bottom  of  Pin¬ 
dar’s  myth  may  refer  to  the  impression  which  the 
old  bull-hunters  of  Thessaly,  who  spent  almost 
their  whole  life,  it  is  said,  on  horseback,  first 


CENTAURUS. 


265 


CERAMIC. 


made  on  some  of  the  neighboring  tribes — viz., 
that  the  man  and  the  horse  were  one  creature; 
which,  at  least,  we  know  was  the  opinion  enter¬ 
tained  by  the  Mexicans  of  t lie  Spanish  cavalry. 

Cental! 'rus,  the  Centaur,  one  of  the  constella¬ 
tions  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  represented  on 
the  celestial  globe  by  a  form  half-man  and  lialf- 
horse.  The  stars  in  this  constellation  are,  accord¬ 
ing  to  Ptolemy’s  catalogue,  thirty-seven  in  num¬ 
ber;  according  to  the  Britannic  catalogue,  thirty- 
five.  It  contains  the  stars  a  Centauri  and  b  Cen- 
tauri,  both  of  the  first  magnitude. 

Center  of  Gra'vity  is  that  point  in  the  body  or 
system  of  bodies  rigidly  connected,  upon  which 
the  body  or  system  acted  upon  only  by  the  force 
of  gravity,  will  balance  itself  in  all  positions. 

Cen 'ter  of  Gyra'tion  is  the  point  at  which,  if 
the  whole  mass  of  a  body  rotating  round  an  axis 
or  point  of  suspension  were  collected,  a  given 
force  applied  would  produce  the  same  angular 
velocity  as  it  would  if  applied  at  the  same  point 
to  the  body  itself. 

Cen  'ter  of  Mag  'nitmle  or  Fig  'ure  is  the  point 
on  which  plane  figures  and  curved  surfaces  would 
balance  themselves,  supposing  their  areas  to  have 
weight.  Thus,  the  center  of  a  circle  is  its  center 
of  magnitude. 

Cen 'ter  of  Oscilla'tion.  The  time  of  a  pendu¬ 
lum’s  vibration  increases  with  its  length,  being 
always  proportioned  to  the  square  root  of  its 
length.  This  is  strictly  true  only  of  the  simple 
pendufum,  in  which  the  pendulous  body  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  no  determinate  magnitude,  and  to 
be  connected  with  the  point  of  suspension  by  an 
inflexible  wire  without  weight.  If  the  vibrating 
body  has  a  determinate  magnitude,  then  the  time 
of  vibration  will  vary,  not  with  the  square  root  of 
its  length,  but.  with  the  square  root  of  the  distance 
from  the  axis  of  suspension  to  a  point  in  the  body 
called  its  center  of  oscillation. 

Center  of  Percussion  of  a  body  or  a  system 
of  bodies  revolving  about  a  point  or  axis  is  that 
point  in  it,  which  striking  an  immovable  object, 
the  whole  mass  shall  not  incline  to  either  side, 
but  rest,  as  it  were,  in  equilibrio,  without  acting 
on  the  center  or  axis  of  suspension.  If  the  body 
is  moving  freely,  then  the  center  of  percussion  is 
that  point,  in  it  at  which  its  whole  impetus  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  concentrated. 

Center  of  Pressure  of  any  surface  immersed 
in  a  fluid  is  the  point  in  which  the  resultant  of 
the  pressures  of  the  fluid  on  the  several  points 
meets  the  surface. 

Centipedes  and  Millepedes,  the  popular  names 
of  the  two  orders  of  articulate  animals  which, 
until  lately,  formed  the  entire  class  of  Muriapoda. 
They  were  formerly  classed  with  insects,  which 
they  resemble  in  their  jointed  limbs  and  antennse, 
and  in  their  respiratory  system,  but  they  have 
also  points  of  contact  with  annelid  worms,  with 
crustaceans,  and  with  spiders,  by  which  they  are 


Giant  Centipede.  tSrolopendra  gigas). 


marked  as  a  transition  group,  intermediate  be¬ 
tween  the  lower  and  higher  articulata.  Myria¬ 
pods  (muria*  ten  thousand,  and  pous,  a  foot)  are 
elongated  worm  like  creatures,  cylindrical  or 
flattened,  and  composed  of  numerous  segments, 
each  bearing  one  or  two  pairs  of  jointed  legs — 
those  on  the  anterior  segments  being  modified,  as 
in  the  Crustacea,  so  as  to  form  the  organs  of  the 
mouth. 

Centering,  the  framework  upon  which  an  arch 
or  vault  of  stone,  brick,  or  iron  is  supported  dur-  i 
ing  its  construction.  The  simplest  form  of  cen¬ 
tering  is  that  used  by  masons  and  bricklayers  for 
the  arches  of  common  windows  and  doors.  This 
is  merely  a  deal-board  of  the  required  shape,  upon 
the  curved  edge  of  which  the  bricks  or  stones  of  ] 


the  arch  are  supported  until  they  are  keyed  in.  In 
building  bridges  or  other  structures  where  arches 
of  great  span  are  to  be  constructed,  the  centering 
is  usually  made  of  framed  timbers,  or  timbers  and 
iron  combined. 

Centlivre,  Susanna,  an  English  dramatic 
authoress,  was  the  daughter  of  a  Lincolnshire 
gentleman,  named  Freeman,  born  (most  probably) 
in  Ireland,  about  1670.  After  producing  a  tragedy 
called  The  Perjured  Husband  (performed  first  in 
1700),  she  made  her  appearance  on  the  stage.  She 
afterward  married  (1706)  Joseph  Centlivre,  prin¬ 
cipal  cook  to  Queen  Anne,  with  whom  she  lived 
happily  until  the  time  of  her  death,  Dec.  1,  1723. 
Her  plays — The  Busybody  ( of  which  the  leading 
character,  “Marplot,”  is  highly  amusing),  A  Bold 
Stroke  for  a  Wife  (1717),  and  The  Wonder — still 
keep  a  place  on  the  stage. 

Cen 'to  (from  Gr.  kentron,  patchwork),  a  name 
applied  to  literary  trivialities  in  the  form  of  poems 
manufactured  by  putting  together  distinct  verses 
or  passages  of  one  author,  or  of  several  authors,  so 
as  to  make  a  new  meaning. 

Cento,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  sixteen  miles 
northwest  of  Bologna,  celebrated  as  the  birthplace 
of  the  famous  painter  Guercino.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Central  Forces  are  those  which  cause  a  moving 
body  to  tend  toward  some  point  or  center,  called 
the  center  of  force  or  motion.  The  doctrine  of 
Central  Forces  has  for  its  starting-point  the  first 
law  of  motion — viz.,  that  a  body  not  acted  on  by 
any  external  force  will  remain  at  rest,  or  move 
uniformly  in  a  straight  line.  It  follows  from  this 
law  that,  If  a  body  in  motion  either  changes  its 
velocity  or  direction,  some  external  force  is  acting 
upon  it.  The  doctrine  of  central  forces  owes 
more  to  Kepler  and  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  of  whose 
philosophy  it  makes  a  considerable  branch,  than 
to  all  the  rest  of  the  philosophers,  though  almost 
all  the  leading  mathematicians  have  contributed 
to  it.  The  doctrine  of  centrifugal  forces  was  first 
mentioned  by  Huygens,  at  the  end  of  his  Ilorilo- 
gium  Oscillator ium,  published  in  1673;  but  New¬ 
ton  was  the  first  who  fully  handled  the  doctrine, 
at  least  so  far  as  regards  the  conic  sections. 

Centralization,  a  term  which  has  lately  come 
into  general  use  for  expressing  a  tendency  to 
administer  by  the  central  or  sovereign  government 
matters  which  had  been  previously  under  local 
management.  The  legitimate  application  is  to  a 
state  of  change  from  local  to  central  management 
— a  change  in  the  opposite  direction,  would,  on 
the  same  principle,  be  called  localization. 

Centrifugal  and  Centripetal  are  terms  used 
in  botany  to  designate  two  different  kinds  of 
inflorescence,  or  modes  of  flowering  of  plants. 
When  the  flower-bud  which  terminates  the  floral 
axis,  and  is  central  in  the  inflorescence,  is  the 
first  to  expand — in  which  case  the  others  are 
developed  in  succession  from  the  center  outward 
— the  inflorescence  is  said  to  be  centrifugal. 
When  the  outermost  flowers  expand  first,  the 
inflorescence  is  centripetal,  as  is  the  case  in  cat¬ 
kins,  spikes,  and  racemes,  in  which  the  flowers 
nearest  the  base  are  the  first  to  expand,  and  those 
nearest  the  apex  the  last. 

Cephalaspis,  a  genus  of  fossil  Ganoid  fishes, 
of  which  six  species  have  been  described,  two 
belonging  to  the  upper  Silurian,  and  four  to  the 
Devonian  measures. 

Centumviri,  among  the  Romans,  were  judges 
appointed  to  decide  common  causes  among  the 
people,  of  whom  three  were  chosen  out  of  each 
tribe. 

Centurion,  among  the  Romans,  an  officer  in 
the  infantry  who  commanded  originally  a  hun¬ 
dred  men  (whence  the  name),  but  afterward  an 
indefinite  number — the  sixtieth  part,  of  a  legion. 
Centurions  were  of  two  grades,  and  were  chosen 
by  the  tribunes.  Their  duties  were  to  drill  the 
soldiers  and  appoint  their  tasks,  and  they  had 
power  to  punish  minor  offenses. 

Cephalotliscus,  one  of  the  most  curious  and 
interesting  organisms  dredged  by  the  Challenger 
expedition.  It  was  found  in  the  Strait  of  Magellan, 
was  first  supposed  to  be  a  compound  Ascidian, 
was  monographed  (1887)  by  Professor  M’lntosh 
as  one  of  the  Polyzoa  (section  Aspidophora),  but 
is  regarded  by  Mr.  Ilarmer  as  closely  allied  lo 
that  marvellous  verterbrate-like  worm,  Balanoglos- 
sus.  The  organisms  form  a  spreading  seaweed¬ 


like  brownish  colony,  measuring  in  some  cases  9 
inches  by  6,  and  including  a  great  number  of  little 


Cephalodiscus. 


individuals,  protected  by  membranous,  flexible 
investment  or  house. 

Cephaloid,  the  head  of  a  cephalopod  is  round¬ 
ish,  generally  furnished  with  two  large  and  prom¬ 
inent  eyes,  very  similar  in  structure  to  those  of 
vertebrate  animals.  There  are  also  ears,  but  they 
consist  merely  of  little  cavities,  one  on  each  side 
of  the  brain,  in  each  of  which  is  suspended  a 
membranous  sac  containing  a  small  stone.  The 
organs  of  smell  are  not  well  known,  but  it  ap¬ 
pears  that  the  cephaloid  possesses  this  sense,  as 
well  as  that  of  taste,  of  which  the  character  of 
the  tongue  is  much  more  indicative  than  in  many 
vertebrate  animals.  The  brain  forms  a  ring 
around  the  gullet.  The  whole  nervous  system  is 
more  complex  than  in  the  lower  molluscs.  The 
mouth  opens  in  the  midst  of  the  circle  of  arms. 
It  is  furnished  with  a  strong  horny  beak  of  two 
mandibles,  moving  vertically,  not  unlike  the  bill 
of  a  parrot,  but  the  tipper  mandible  is  the  shorter 
of  the  two.  The  digestive  apparatus  is  very  com¬ 
plicated. 

Oephalonia,  or  Cefalonia,  the  largest  of  the 
seven  Ionian  Islands,  is  situated  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto  or  Corinth,  in  latitude 
38°  3 ' — 38°  30 '  N. ,  and  longitude  20°  21 '  —20°  49 ' 
E.  It  is  irregular  in  shape.  Its  greatest  length  is 
about  thirty  miles,  and  its  total  area  348  square 
miles.  Its  surface  is  mountainous,  the  soil,  for 
the  most  part  thin,  and  water  very  scarce. 
Pop.,  77,832. 

Ceplialop'tera  (Gr.  head-wing),  a  genus  of 
cartilaginous  fishes  of  the  ray  family,  the  type  of  a 
sub-family,  Uephalopteridce.  The  pectoral  fins  are 
very  much  elongated,  so  as  to  give  great  breadth 
to  the  fish.  The  tail  is  slender  and  without  fin, 
but  armed  near  its  origin  with  a  great  spine.  The 
head  is  terminated  in  front  by  a  straight  line,  and 
on  each  side  of  it  there  projects  a  membrane  rolled 
upon  itself,  and  resembling  in  shape  a  pointed 
horn.  The  name  horned  ray  has  therefore  some¬ 
times  been  given  to  these  creatures. 

Ce'pheus,  a  constellation  of  the  Northern  Hemi¬ 
sphere,  containing  thirty-five  stars.  Its  principal 
star  is  Alderamiu,  of  the  third  magnitude. 

Ceram',  an  island  in  the  Moluccas  Archipel¬ 
ago.  Area,  7,140  square  miles.  Pop.,  195,000. 

Cerambyx,  a  Linnsean  genus  of  coleopterous 
insects,  included  among  those  which,  on  account 
of  the  length  of  their  antennse,  are  usually  known 
as  long-horned  beetles,  and  now  generally  re¬ 
garded  as  the  type  of  a  tribe  or  family. 

Cerainia'cese,  a  sub-order  of  Alger,  also.called 
Florideae,  and  consisting  of  sea-weed  of  a  rose  or 
purplish  color,  with  fronds  formed  of  cells  ar¬ 
ranged  in  rows,  sometimes  in  a  single  row.  A 
considerable  number  furnish  agreeable  articles  of 
food  of  a  gelatinous  nature,  as  Dulse,  Carrageen, 
or  Irish  Moss,  and  certain  species  of  Plocaria. 
The  edible  swallows’  nests  of  the  East  are  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  formed  of  a  sea-weed  of  this  sub-order, 
a  species  of  Gelidium. 

Ceram'ic  (Gr.  keramos,  potter’s  clay,  from  kaio, 
to  burn,  and  era,  earth),  a  term  used  to  designate 
the  department  of  plastic  art  which  comprises  all 


CERASTES. 


266 


CEYLON. 


objects  made  of  clay,  such  as  vases,  cups,  bassi 
rilievi,  cornices,  and  the  like. 

Ceras'tes,  or  Horned  Viper,  a  genus  of  ser¬ 
pents  of  the  family  Viperidce,  distinguished  by  a 
broad  depressed  heart-shaped  head,  the  scales  of 
which  are  similar  to  those  of  the  back,  and  par- 


Horned  Viper  ( Cerastes  vulgaris). 


ticularly  remarkable  for  the  development  of  one 
of  the  scales  of  each  eyelid  into  a  spine  or  horn, 
often  of  considerable  length.  The  tail  is  very 
distinct  from  the  body.  This  genus  is  exclu¬ 
sively  African,  and  venomous. 

Ce'rate  (Lat.  cera,  wax),  a  compound  of  wax 
with  other  oily  and  medicinal  substances  in  such 
proportions  as  to  have  the  consistence  of  an  oint 
ment. 

Ce'ratites,  a  genus  of  Ammonitidse,,  peculiar 
to  and  characteristic  of  the  Trias.  They  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  the  other  members  of  the  family 
by  having  the  lobes  of  the  sutures  serrated,  while 
the  intervening  curves,  directed  toward  the 
aperture,  are  simple.  Twenty -six  species  have 
been  described. 

Cer 'herns  (Gr.  Kerberos),  in  Greek  mythology, 
the  many-headed  dog — the  offspring  of  Typhon 
and  Echidna — who  guarded  the  portal  of  the 
infernal  regions. 

Cereal 'ia,  or  Cereal  Grasses,  so  named  from 
Ceres,  the  plants  which  produce  grain  or  corn; 
in  other  words,  all  the  species  of  grass  (Gram- 
inece),  cultivated  for  the  sake  of  their  seed  as  an 
article  of  food.  The  most  extensively  cultivated 
grains  are  Wheat  ( Tritieum ),  Barley  ( Hordeum ), 
Rye  (Secede),  Oats  {Averin),  Rice  ( Oryza ),  Maize 
or  Indian  corn  ( Zea ),  different  kinds  of  Millet 
( Setaria ,  Panicum ,  Paspalum,  Pennisetum,  and 
Penicillarid),  and  Durra  or  Guinea  Corn  ( Sorghum 
or  Andropoyon).  Maize  has  the  greatest  range  of 
temperature. 

Ce'rehrine  or  Ce'rehric  Acid,  is  an  organic 
acid  of  complex  composition,  found  iu  the  liver, 
blood,  and  nerves,  but  especially  the  brain  of 
animals. 

Ce'rehro-Spi'nal  Fluid.  There  is  an  inter¬ 
val,  termed  the  sub-arachnoid  space,  lying 
between  the  two  innermost  of  the  membranes  of 
brain  and  spinal  cord — viz.,  the  arachnoid  and  the 
pia  mater.  This  space,  which  is  narrow  on  the 
surface  of  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  but  is  com¬ 
paratively  wide  at  the  base  of  the  brain  between 
the  two  middle  lobes  of  the  cerebrum,  and.  pos¬ 
teriorly,  between  the  hemispheres  of  the  cere¬ 
bellum  and  the  medulla  oblongata,  is  occupied 
by  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid — which  tills  up  the 
interval  between  the  arachnoid  and  pia  mater, 
and  keeps  the  opposed  surfaces  of  the  former 
membrane  (which  is  a  closed  serous  sac)  in  con¬ 
tact.  The  cerebro-spinal  fluid  is  a  clear,  limpid, 
slightly  albuminous  fluid,  having  a  saltish  taste, 
and  a  faintly  alkaline  reaction,  andnot  containing 
more  than  1.5  per  cent,  of  solid  matters.  It 
varies  in  quantity  from  two  to  ten  ounces,  and  is 
said  to  be  most  abundant  in  aged  persons.  Its 
chief  use  is  to  afford  mechanical  protection  to 
the  nervous  centers,  and  to  prevent  the  effects  of 
external  shocks  or  concussions. 

Ce 'rebruin,  Cerebellum.  Cerebrum  (Lat.  the 
brain),  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  whole  contents 
of  the  cranium  or  skull;  but  more  usually  it 
denotes  the  upper  portion,  while  the  under  and 
posterior  portion  is  called  the  Cerebellum,  or 
little  brain. 

Ce'remouy  (Fr.  ceremonie-,  Lat  ccerimonia,  a 
sacred  rite.)  Almost  any  act,  when  performed  in 
a  regular,  orderly,  and  formal  manner,  and  when 
viewed,  not  with  reference  to  its  object,  but  the 
mode  of  its  performance,  becomes  a  ceremony, 
Ceremonies  may  be  divided  into  four  classes: 
Religious,  social,  state,  and  international  cere¬ 
monies. 

Cereo'psis  (Gr.  wax-face),  a  genus  of  birds  of 


the  family  Anatidce,  to  which  the  New  Holland 
goose  (C.  Novae  Hollandice),  belongs. 

Ce '  res,  among  the  Greeks  named  Demeter, 
daughter  of  Ghronos  (Saturn),  by  Rhea  (Ops), 
sister  of  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Juno,  etc. 

Ceres,  one  of  the  Planetoids,  and  the  first  of 
them  discovered.  It  was  first  seen  by  Piazzi,  at 
Palermo,  Jan.  1,  1801. 

Ce'reus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Cactecp.,  containing  about  100  known  species. 

Cerignolu,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Province  of 
Foggia,  twenty-three  miles  southwest  of  Fogsia. 
Pop.  (1881),  22,659. 

Cerigo,  one  of  the  smaller  of  the  seven  Ionian 
Islands,  now  known  by  its  old  name,  Greek 
Cythera,  is  situated  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is 
separated  from  the  coast  of  Morea  by  a  narrow 
strait.  Area,  107  square  miles.  Pop.  (1879), 
13,259. 

Cerostro'tum,  or  Cestro'tum  (Lat.),  a  species 
of  encaustic  painting  upon  horn  or  ivory,  the 
lines  of  the  design  being  burned  in  with  the  cest- 
rum  or  burning  needle,  and  wax  introduced  in 
the  furrows  thus  made. 

Cer'ro  Gor'do,  the  name  of  several  localities  of 
Spanish  America. — 1.  A  plateau  in  Mexico  the 
most  easterly  on  the  route  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the 
capital. — 2.  A  city  of  Peru,  the  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Pasco,  in  the  department  of  Junin. 
Cerro  Gordo  is  140  miles  to  the  northeast  of 
Lima. 

Certhindse,  a  family  of  birds,  generally  placed 
in  the  great  order  lusessores  or  Passerince,  and 
tribe  Tenuirostres,  although  some  naturalists 
have  ranked  them  in  the  order  Scansores. 

Certificate,  a  written  testimony  to  the  truth  of 
a  certain  fact  or  facts. 

Certiorari,  a  writ  for  the  purpose  of  removing 
the  record  of  a  case  from  an  inferior  to  a  superior 
tribunal. 

Ceru'men,  yellow  waxy  matter  secreted  by 
certain  glands  lying  in  the  external  auditory 
canal,  or  the  passage  that  leads  from  the  external 
opening  of  the  ear  to  the  membrane  of  the  tym¬ 
panum.  It  is  popularly  known  as  ear-wax. 

Ce  ruse  or  White-lead,  the  basis  of  white  oil- 
paint,  is  a  carbonate  of  lead. 

Cervan'tes  Saave'dra,  Miguel  de,  Spanish 
author,  born  Oct.  9,  1547.  His  best  known  work 
is  Don  Quixote,  published  in  1605. 

Cerviu,  Mont  (Ger.  Matterhorn;  Ital.  Monte 
Silvio),  a  mountain  of  the  Pennine  Alps,  about 
forty  miles  east-northeast  of  Mont  Blanc. 

Cesarot'ti,  Melciiiore,  Italian  poet,  born  May 
15,  1730,  died  Nov.  3,  1808.  He  gained  a  reputa¬ 
tion  by  the  vigor  and  originality  of  his  style, 
especially  in  his  translation  of  Macplierson’s 
Ossian  (2  vols.  Padua,  1763). 

Cesnola,  Liugi  Palma  di,  Count,  born  in 
Italy,  June  29,  1832,  came  to  New  York  in  I860, 
and  became  a  Colonel  during  the  Civil  War. 
From  1865  to  1877  he  was  United  States  Consul  at 
Cyprus.  While  there  he  made  valuable  discoveries 
of  Cypriote  antiquities,  now  in  the  Metropolitan 
Museum  of  Art  at  New  York,  of  which  Cesnola 
has  been  Director  for  many  years. 

Ces  'tius,  Pyramid  of,  a  Roman  monument  of 
the  Augustan  age,  situated  close  to  the  Porta  San 
Paolo,  partly  without  and  partly  within  the  walls 
of  Aurelian. 

Ces'toid  Worms  (Lat.  cestus,  a  band  or  thong), 
a  family  of  entozoa,  or  intestinal  worms,  of  the 
order  Ccelelmintha,  consisting  of  tape-worms  and 
other  creatures  which  resemble  them  in  structure 
and  habits. 

Cestra'cion,  a  genus  of  sharks,  regarded  as 
constituting  a  distinct  family,  Cestraciontidce, 
although  not  more  than  two  species  are  known  as 
now  existing.  It  is  characterized  by  having  two 
dorsal  fins  and  one  anal,  the  first  dorsal  situated 
over  the  space  between  the  pectorals  and  ventrals; 
a  spine  forming  the  front  of  each  dorsal;  a  short, 
wide  tail,  with  its  upper  lobe  strongly  notched 
beneath;  the  mouth  at  the  fore-end  of  the  snout, 
spout-holes  distinctly  visible,  rather  behind  the 
eyes. 

Ces'trum,  the  style  or  spatula  used  by  the 
ancients  in  encaustic  painting  in  wax  and  ivory. 

Ces'tui  Qne  Trust,  a  person  who  possesses  the 
equitable  right  to  deal  with  property,  the  legal 
estate  in  which  is  vested  in  a  trustee. 

Ces'tus  (Gr.  kestos,  embroidered),  a  girdle  worn 


by  Greek  and  Roman  women  close  under  the 
breasts,  and  so  distinguished  from  the  zone,  worn 
round  the  loins.  The  cestus  of  Venus  was  cov¬ 
ered  with  alluring  representations,  so  that  Juno 
borrowed  it  when  she  desired  to  win  the  love  of 
Jupiter. — Cestus — or,  more  correctly,  Cvestus, 
from  the  Lat.  cade  re,  to  slay — is  also  the  name 
for  the  covering  for  the  hands  worn  by  Roman 
pugilists. 

Cetacea  (from  the  Greek  word  Ketos,  a  whale), 
the  important  order  of  mammals  which  contains 
the  whales  and  dolphins.  These  mammals  are 
aquatic  in  their  habits,  and  possess  a  fish-like 
form.  They  differ  from  fishes  in  breathing  by 
lungs  and  not  by  gills,  in  being  viviparous  and 
not  oviparous,  and  in  suckling  their  young  with 
a  pair  of  milk-secreting  glands  or  mammae.  This 
order  was  formerly  divided  into  two  groups,  the 
herbivorous  cetacea  and  the  carnivorous  cetacea. 
By  modern  zoologists  the  herbivorous  cetacea, 
which  include  the  animals  called  dugong,  mana¬ 
tee,  and  rytina,  are  not  regarded  as  whales,  but 
are  referred  to  a  distinct  order  named  Sirenia. 
The  order  Cetacea,  therefore,  in  its  present 
acceptation,  is  limited  to  the  toothed  whales  or 
Odontoceti  and  the  whalebone  whales  or  Myslaco- 
ceti. 

Cetewayo,  the  last  King  of  (he  Zulus,  who,  in 
1S79,  several  times  defeated  the  British  forces 
under  Lord  Chelmsford.  He  died  in  captivity  in 
1884. 

Cetotolites,  a  name  given  by  Owen  to  fossil 
cetacean  teeth  and  ear-bones,  which  occur  in 
great  abundance  in  the  Red  Crag  in  Suffolk,  a 
member  of  the  Pleiocene  period.  They  are 
rubbed  and  water-worn,  and  have  evidently  been 
washed  out  of  some  earlier  strata,  which  remain 
yet  unrecognized. 

Ceu'ta,  a  town  belonging  to  Spain,  situated  in 
the  Kingdom  of  Fez,  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa, 
and  opposite  to  Gibraltar,  in  latitude  35°  54'  N., 
and  longitude  5°  16'  W.  It  is  strongly  fortified, 
and  defended  by  a  citadel  and  forts  erected  on 
Mount  Ilacho,  the  ancient  Abyla,  or  South  Pillar 
of  Hercules.  Pop.,  8,200. 

Cevennes,  a  mountain  chain  in  the  South  of 
France,  dividing  the  valleys  of  the  Lower  Saone 
and  Rhone  from  those  of  the  Loire  and  the 
Garonne.  On  the  north,  the  Cevennes  are  a  con¬ 
tinuation  of  the  Lyonnais  Mountains;  and  they 
end  on  the  south  at  the  Canal  du  Midi,  which 
separates  them  from  the  Pyrenees. 

Ceylon.  This  island  lies  about  sixty  miles 
south  of  the  southern  extremity  of  Hin¬ 
dustan.  It  has  a  length  of  270  miles, 
an  average  breadth  of  nearly  100  miles,  and 
an  area  of  25,364  square  miles.  The  island  which, 
it  is  believed,  was  formerly  connected  with  the 
mainland,  consists  of  an  elevated  plain,  with 
mountain  ranges  of  considerable  size  in  the  cen¬ 
ter  and  south.  It  has  good  harbors  at  Trincoma- 
lee  in  the  northeast,  and  Point  de  Galle  in  the 
south,  the  latter  being  an  important  coaling 
station.  There  are  no  iarge  rivers  or  lakes,  but 
numerous  small  ones,  and  the  climate  is  much 
pleasanter  than  that  of  Southern  India,  although 
situated  nearer  the  equator.  Adam’s  Peak,  7,420 
feet  high,  is  a  conical  mountain  of  peculiar 
shape,  and  receives  its  name  from  a  depression  in 
a  rock  at  the  summit,  somewhat  resembling  a 
gigantic  footprint,  which  the  Mohammedans  claim 
was  made  by  Adam,  although  the  Cingalese, 
who  are  mostly  Buddhists,  declare  that  the  foot¬ 
print  is  that  of  Boodli,  made  when  lie  stepped 
over  into  Siam.  The  consequence  is,  that  the 
spot  is  held  sacred  by  both  sects,  and  thousands 
of  pilgrims  resort  to  it.  Ceylon  is  rich  in  min¬ 
erals,  including  iron,  lead,  I  in,  plumbago,  and 
quicksilver,  and  precious  stones  are  often  found. 
The  pearl  fisheries  of  the  western  coast  are  famous. 
The  domestic  animals  are  those  of  Hindu¬ 
stan,  and  wild  elephants  are  numerous.  In  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  ordinary  forest  trees  there  are  the  cocoa- 
nut,  palm,  sandalwood,  and  ebony.  The  bread¬ 
fruit,  cinnamon,  coffee,  pepper,  rice,  cotton,  and 
tobacco  are  among  the  chief  products,  and  the  ex¬ 
ports  of  these  articles  are  valued  at  $25,000,000 
annually.  The  island  is  a  dependency  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  crown,  technically  known  as  a  crown  colony, 
and  its  affairs  are  administered  by  a  governor  and 
colonial  legislature.  Roads,  railroads,  and  tele¬ 
graph  lines  have  been  greatly  extended  of  late 


CHADBOUIINE. 


267 


CHAMBER. 


years,  and  the  commerce  of  Ceylon  has  increased 
to  an  enormous  extent  during  the  last  quarter  of 
a  century.  The  Cingalese  are  mostly  Buddhists, 
though  Christian  missionaries,  especially  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  faith,  have  made  many  converts. 
Much  attention,  is  paid  to  education,  and  the 
schools  receive  l.beral  assistance  from  the  Govern¬ 
ment.  The  inhabitants  number  2,406,062,  and 
except  the  V'eddahs,  who  are  savages,  are  a  quiet 
race,  devoted  to  agriculture,  and  peaceable  even  to 
the  verge  of  cowardice.  Ceylon, once  known  as  Ser- 
andib  and  of  old  time  as  Taprobane,  was  visited 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  by  Marco  Polo,  and 
by  the  early  Portuguese  navigators.  After  nearly 
150  years’  possessi  n  the  Portuguese  were  expelled 
in  1656  by  the  Dutch,  and  in  i 796  the  latter  gave 
way  to  the  British,  who  have  since  extended  their 
rule  over  the  whole  island.  The  chief  towns  are 
Colombo,  the  capital  (pop.,  95,843),  Galle  (47,059), , 
and  Jaffna  (34,864). 

Chad  bo  ii  rue,  Paul  Ansel,  born  in  1823,  died 
in  1883;  a  popular  educator,  and  President  of 
Williams  College. 

Clueronei'a,  a  city  of  Boeotia,  in  ancient 
Greece,  on  ihe  borders  of  Phot  is. 

Chaetodon'tidne,  a  family  of  acanthopterous 
fishes,  nearly  corresponding  to  the  genus  Chreto- 
don  (Gr.  hair-tooth)  of  Linnaeus;  and  also  named 
Squamipennes  (Lat.  scaly-finned),  because  of  the 
distinctive  character  of  the  family. 

Chaf'er,  a  common  name  of  those  beetles  or 
coleopterous  insects  which,  either  in  the  perfect 
or  larva  state,  are  destructive  to  plants;  particu¬ 
larly  those  which  devour  the  wood,  bark,  or 
roots  of  trees. 

Chaff' -cutter,  an  implement  used  by  farmers 
for  cutting  hay  and  straw. 

Chaffinch  ( Fringilla  Calebs),  a  species  of  Finch, 
and  probably  that  to  which  the  name  Finch,  now 
so  extended  in  its  signification,  originally  be¬ 
longed. 

Chag  res,  a  seaport  of  Colombia,  in  the  State  of 
Panama. 

Chaillu,  Paul  Belloni  du,  a  distinguished 
traveler,  born  in  Paris,  July  31,  1835.  In  1855 
he  sailed  to  West  Africa,  where  he  spent  four 
years  in  explorations,  making  many  interesting 
discoveries,  and  traveling  about  8,000  miles,  al¬ 
ways  on  foot,  and  unaccompanied  by  other  white 
men.  The  results  he  published  in  his  work,  Ex¬ 
plorations  and  Adventures  in  Equatorial  Africa 
(1861)  containing  very  important  contributions 
to  geographical,  ethnological,  and  zoological 
science.  In  1864  Du  Chaillu  revisited  Africa  and 
gave  an  account  of  his  second  expedition  in  A 
Journey  to  AJiango- Land  (1867).  Other  works 
are  My  Apingi  Kingdom  (1870);  and  The  Country 
of  the  Dwarfs  (1872). 

Chain,  in  surveying  (called  Gunter’s  Chain 
■from  its  inventor),  is  a  measure  of  22  yards  long, 
composed  of  100  iron  links,  each  of  which  is  thus 
7.92  inches  long.  As  an  acre  contains  4,840 
square  yards,  i0  square  chains  (22x22x10 =4, 840 
square  yards),  or  100,000  square  links  make  an 
acre. 

Chain-mail,  or  Chain-armor,  much  used  in 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  consisted  of 
hammered  iron  links,  connected  one  to  another 
in  the  form  of  a  garment. 

Chains,  on  shipboard,  are  strong  iron  links  or 
plates,  bolted  at  the  lower  end  to  the  ship-timbers, 
and  having  a  block  or  dead-eye  at  the  upper  end. 
Their  purpose  is  to  fasten  down  the  shrouds 
tightly.* 

Chains,  Hanging  in.  In  atrocious  cases,  it 
was  usual  for  courts  of  justice,  in  former  times, 
to  direct  the  bodies  of  malefactors,  after  execu¬ 
tion,  to  be  hung  in  chains,  upon  a  gibbet  near  the 
spot  where  the  crime  was  committed. 

Chala'za,  in  Botany,  a  membrane  which  unites 
the  nucleus  and  integuments  at  the  base  of  an 
ovule.  It  is  traversed  by  vessels  which  supply 
nourishment  to  the  ovule. 

Chalcedon,or  Calchedon,  an  ancient  maritime 
town  of  Bithynia,  in  Asia  Minor,  called  also  Pro- 
cerastis  and  Colpusa,  almost  directly  opposite 
Byzantium,  to  the  south  of  the  present  town  of 
Scutari. 

Chalce'dony,  a  mineral  of  the  quartz  family,  or 
rather  a  variety  of  quartz,  from  which  it  does 
not  differ  in  chemical  composition  or  in  any 
essential  character.  It  derives  its  name  from 


Clialcedon  in  Bithynia,  near  which  it  is  found  in 
considerable  abundance,  and  has  been  known  by 
the  same  name  from  ancient  times. 

Chalce'donyx  (or,  erroneously,  Cah-edonyx), 
agates  formed  of  cacholong,  or  a  white  opaque 
chalcedony,  alternating  with  a  grayish  translucent 
chalcedony. 

Clial 'cis,  the  capital  town  of  the  island  and 
government  of  Euboea,  Greece,  situated  on  the 
Euripus,  a  strait  separating  the  island  from 
Boeotia,  and  which  at  this  point  is  only  120  feet 
wide.  Pop.  (1870),  6,447. 

dial 'cis,  a  genus  of  Saurian  reptiles,  the  type 
of  a  family  called  Chalcidce,  some  of  which  are 
popularly  termed  snake-lizards,  because  of  the 
resemblance  to  snakes  in  the  elongated  form  of 
the  body,  the  limbs  being  also  remarkably  small, 
so  that  this  family  forms  one  of  the  transition 
links  between  the  saurian  and  the  ophidian 
reptiles. 

Clialeog'rapliy,  a  term  used  to  signify  engrav¬ 
ing  on  copper,  compounded  of  the  Greek  words 
chalkos ,  brass  or  copper,  and  grapho,  I  write. 

Clial 'dron  (Lat.  caldavium,  a  vessel  for  water), 
an  old,  dry  measure  used  in  selling  coal,  and  con¬ 
taining  thirty-six  heaped  bushels. 

Chaleur  Bay,  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Law¬ 
rence,  between  Gaspe,  a  district  of  Lower  (  anada, 


and  New  Brunswick,  bavin 
miles  from  east  to 
west,  and  a  width 
varying  fro  m 
twelve  to  twenty. 

The  Ristigouche, 
which  enters  the 
A u If  from  New 
Brunswick  at  its 
head,  marks,  at 
its  mouth,  the 
inter -pro  vincial 
boundary. 

Clial  'ice  (Lat. 
calix ,  a  cup),  an 
ancient  name  for 
an  o  r  d  i  n  a  ry 
drinking-cup  and 
retained  for  the 
vessels  used  for 
the  wine  in  the 
holy  sacrament 


g  a  depth  of  ninety 


Chalice  (1459)  at  Nettlecombe, 
County  Somerset. 

(From  Cripps’  Old  English  Plate.) 


Challoner,  Richard,  born  at  Chichester,  Eng¬ 
land,  Sept.  29, 1691,  died  Jan.  12, 1781.  He  became 
a  Roman  Catholic,  was  educated  at  Douai,  and 
vice-president  of  t  hat  college  1720-30.  He  acted  as 
vicar-apostolic  iu England,  and  wasindicted  under 
the  penal  laws.  His  edition  of  the  Bible  (5  vols. 
12  mo.)  is  still  a  standard  among  Catholics.  Chal¬ 
loner  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  theology. 

Chalk,  a  soft  earthy  variety  of  limestone  or 
carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  generally  of  a  yellowish- 
white  color,  but  sometimes  snow-white.  It  is 
easily  broken,  and  has  an  earthy  fracture,  is 
rough  ami  very  meager  to  the  touch,  and  adheres 
slightly  to  the  tongue.  It  generally  contains 
silica,  alumina,  or  magnesia,  sometimes  all  of 


these. 

Chalk,  Black,  a  mineral  different  from  com¬ 
mon  chalk,  and  apparently  receives  its  name  from 
resembling  it  in  meagerness  to  the  touch,  in  soil¬ 
ing  the  fingers,  and  in  being  used  for  drawing, 
writing,  etc.  It  is  also  called  drawing-slate.  It 
is  of  a  slaty  structure,  of  a  bluish  or  grayish- 
black  color,  easily  cut  and  broken,  and  make -s  a 
perfectly  black  mark  on  paper.  Brian^-on  chalk 
and  French  chalk  are  popular  names  for  soap¬ 
stone. — Red  chalk  is  Ochry  lied  Clay  Iron-ore,  con¬ 
sisting  of  clay  and  much  peroxide  of  iron. 

Chalky  Island,  in  New  Zealand,  near  the 
southwest  extremity  of  Middle  Island,  about 
latitude  46°  S.,  and  longitude  166°  20'  E.  It 
takes  its  name  from  being  composed  of  a  mass  of 
white  limestone,  and  imparts  the  name  to  the 
adjacent  bay  of  sixteen  miles  in  length,  and  also 
to  one  of  the  harbors  of  the  inlet. 

Challemel-Lacour,  Paul  Aiimand,  a  French 
Senator  and  editor  of  the  Republique  Fran  prise, 
born  May  19,  1827,  has  served  as  Ambassador  to 
London  and  in  various  ministries. 

Challenge,  in  law,  an  exception  to  jurors, 
taken  either  by  the  State  or  by  the  defense. 
Challenges  may  be  for  cause  or  peremptory,  and 
the  number  is  limited  by  statute. 


Challenger,  the  voyage  of,  an  interesting 
scientific  expedition  made  by  a  British  war  vessel 
1872-76,  when  many  new  species  of  deep-sea 
products  were  discovered.  Seethe  Voyage  of  the 
Challenger. 

Chalmers,  Alexander  (1759-1834),  was  born 
in  Aberdeen.  Besides  editions  of  the  works  of 
Shakespeare,  Beattie,  Fielding,  Johnson,  Warton, 
Pope,  Gibbon,  Bolingbroke,  and  others,  he  pub¬ 
lished  A  Geneial  Biographical  Dictionary  in 
32  vols.  (1812-1817);  a  Glossary  to Shakspeare ;  an 
edition  of  Shakspeare,  and  the  British  Essayists, 
commencing  with  the  Taller  and  ending  with  the 
Observer. 

Chalmers,  George,  historical  antiquary,  born 
in  1742,  and  died  in  1825.  His  great  work  is  his 
Caledonia;  an  Account,  Historical  and  Topographi¬ 
cal  of  Korth  Britain. 

Chalmers,  Thomas,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  the  greatest 
pulpit  orator  of  Ins  time,  and  the  organizer  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  was  born  March  17, 
1780.  He  became  a  minister  of  the  Established 
Church  (Presbyterian)  and  for  eight  years  (1815-22) 
had  charge  of  the  largest  parish  in  Glasgow.  He 
then  held  professional  chairs  in  Edinburgh  and 
St.  Andrew’s  Universities,  and  became  a  corres¬ 
ponding  member  of  the  French  Institute  and  a 

D. C.L.  of  Oxford.  Owing  to  a  difference  with 
the  governing  body  of  the  Church  in  regard  to 
patronage,  Dr.  <  halmers  and  470  other  ministers 
gave  up  their  livings  on  May  18,  1843,  and  formed 
the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  He  died  May  30", 
1847.  He  wrote  one  of  the  Bridgewater  Treaties 
and  many  theological  and  philosophical  works. 

Clialon-'iir-Saone,  a  town  of  France,  capital 
of  an  arrondissemcnt  in  the  department  of  Saone- 
et-Loire,  eighty-one  miles  north  of  Lyons.  Pop., 
,20,055. 

Clialons-sur-Marne,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Marne,  107  miles  east  of  Paris,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  River  Marne.  Pop.  (1881), 
23,192.  In  1284,  the  pop.  was  60,000. 

Chalybse'us,  a  genus  of  birds,  natives  of  New 
Guinea,  and  closely  allied  to  the  Baritalis,  but  hav¬ 
ing  a  rather  thicker  bill,  and  the  nostrils  pierced  in 
a  broad,  membranous  spaoe.  They  are  sometimes 
included  under  the  name  of  birds  of  paradise; 
and  the  skin  of  C.  paradisceus,  deprived  of  its 
feet,  is  sold  as  that  of  a  bird  of  paradise. 

Chalyhseus,  Heinrich  Moritz,  a  German 
philosopher,  born  July  3,  1796,  at  Pfaffroda  in 
Saxony,  and  educated  at  Leipzig.  He  was  ap¬ 
pointed  in  1839  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Kiel,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death,  iu  1862. 

Chaly'beate  Waters  are  those  which  contain 
a  considerable  proportion  of  iron  in  solution. 
They  are  of  two  kinds,  Carbonated  and  Sul- 
phated.  The  Carbonated  Chalybeate  Waters  con¬ 
tain  carbonate  of  iron  (FeO,G02)  dissolved  in  ex¬ 
cess  of  carbonic  acid,  and  may  be  recognized  by 
forming  an  ochry  deposit  of  red  oxide  of  iron 
(Fe203)  on  the  surface  of  the  stones  near  the 
mouths  of  the  springs,  owing  to  the  escape  of 
the  carbonic  acid  on  exposure  to  the  air.  The 
Sulphated  Chalybeate  Waters  contain  sulphate  of 
iron  (FeO,S03)  dissolved  in  them.  Chalybeate 
waters  are  characterized  by  a  more  or  less  inky 
or  styptic  taste;  by  becoming  of  a  purplish  black 
tint  when  infusion  of  galls  or  tea,  and  some 
varieties  of  wine,  are  added;  and  by  giving  a 
pale-blue  color  on  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium  (yellow  prussiate  of 
potash). 

Clia'ma,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate  mol- 
lusks.  The  shell  consists  of  two  unequal  valves, 
having  two  liinge-teeth  in  the  one  valve,  and  one 
in  the  other.  The  general  form  of  the  shell  ap¬ 
proaches  to  orbicular. 

Cliaime'ropSj  a  genus  of  palms,  with  fan- 
shaped  leaves,  less  exclusively  tropical  than 
palms  are  in  general,  and  of  which  one  species 
G.  hurniiis,  is  the  only  palm  truly  indigenous  to 
Europe.  It  extends  as  far  north  as  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Nice.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
palmetto. 

Cliainala'ri,  a  peak  of  the  Himalayas  between 
Thibet  and  Bhutan,  in  28°  4'  N.  latitude  and  90° 

E.  longitude,  said  to  have  an  elevation  of  27,200 
feet,  or  more  than  five  miles  and  a  furlong. 

Cliam'ber  of  a  piece  of  artillery  or  small  arm 


CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE. 


268 


CHANGELING. 


is  a  contracted  part  of  the  bore,  at  the  breech  end, 
for  the  reception  of  the  charge  of  powder. 

Chamber  of  Commerce,  a  body  of  merchants 
and  traders,  associated  for  the  purpose  of  promot¬ 
ing  the  interests  of  its  own  members,  of  the  town 
or  district  to  which  the  society  belongs,  and  of  the 
community  generally,  in  so  far  as  these  have  ref¬ 
erence  to  trade  and  merchandise. 

Chamberlain  (Lat.  earner ariu*,  from  camera,  a 
chamber;  Fr.  chambellari),  etymologically  and  his¬ 
torically  an  officer  who  superintends  the  arrange¬ 
ment  of  domestic  affairs.  Such  were  the  chamber¬ 
lains  of  monasteries,  and  the  chamberlains  of 
cathedrals,  who  had  charge  of  the  finances,  gave 
notice  of  chapter  meetings,  and  provided  the 
materials  required  for  various  services. 

Chamberlain,  Joseph,  The  Rt.  IIon.,  born  in 
London  in  July,  1836.  For  three  years  he  was 
Mayor  of  Birmingham,  and  in  June,  1876,  became 
member  of  Parliament  for  one  of  its  divisions.  In 
1880  he  was  again  elected  and  accepted  a  seat  in 
Mr.  Gladstone’s  cabinet.  In  1886  he  joined  the 
Marquis  of  Hartington,  in  opposition  to  Mr.  Glad¬ 
stone’s  Home  Rule  policy.  He  was  reelected  as  a 
Liberal  Unionist  in  that  year. 

Chambers,  Ephraim,  the  compiler  of  the  first 
English  encyclopaedia,  was  born  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  first  edition  of 
the  work,  in  two  volumes,  folio,  appeared  in  1728; 
ten  years  later  the  second  appeared;  and  in  the 
year  following,  t  he  third.  The  fourth  was  issued 
in  1741,  a  year  after  the  editor’s  death.  A  fifth 
appeared  in  1746,  and  a  sixth,  with  new  matter, 
in  1750. 

Chambersburg,  the  county-seat  of  Franklin 
county,  Penn.,  is  situated  about  135  miles  west  of 
Philadelphia.  In  1864  a  large  part  of  the  town 
was  burned  by  the  Confederates  under  Early. 
Pop.  in  1870,  6,308. 

Chambord,  Henri  Charles  Ferdinand  Marie 
Dieudonne  d’ Artois  Due  de  Bordeaux,  Comte 
de,  l  lie  last  representative  of  the  elder  branch  of  the 
House  of  Bourbon,  and  of  its  claims  to  the  French 
throne,  born  in  Paris,  Sept.  29,  1820;  died  in  1883. 
Since  his  death  the  Comte  de  Paris  is  recognized 
by  the  Bourbon  element  as  the  heir  presumptive 
t  o  the  throne  of  France. 

Cliambre  Ardente  (the  fiery  chamber),  a  name 
given  in  France  to  an  extraordinary  court  of  jus¬ 
tice,  probably  on  account  of  the  severity  of  the 
punishments  which  it  awarded,  the  most  common 
being  that  of  death  by  fire. 

Chame'leon,  a  southern  constellation  within 
the  antarctic  polar  circle,  and  containing  nine  stars. 

Chameleon,  (Chamtvleo),  a  genus  of  saurian 
reptiles,  constituting  a  distinct  family,  of  peculiar 
form  and  structure.  The  body  is  much  com¬ 
pressed;  the  dorsal  line  sharp,  in  some  of  the 
species  rising  into  an  elevated  crest;  the  back  of 
the  head  is  also  elevated  into  a  sort  of  cone.  The 


Chameleon. 


neck  is  very  short  and  the  head  cannot  be  turned, 
but  the  large,  prominent  eyes  move  independently 
of  one  another,  and  are  covered  with  a  membrane 
pierced  only  with  a  small  hole  for  the  pupil  to 
look  through.  A  peculiarity  of  the  chameleon 
is  that  it  often  changes  color  with  its  surroundings. 

Cham  'fering.  In  Architecture,  an  angle  which 
is  slightly  pared  off,  is  said  to  be  chamfered.  The 
chamfer  is  sometimes  made  slightly  concave,  in 
which  case  it  is  called  a  hollow  chamfer.  Cham¬ 
fers,  in  Gothic  architecture,  have  frequently  orna¬ 
mental  terminations  of  various  kinds.  The  term 
chamfering  is  applied  to  wood-work  as  well  as 
stone. 


Cliamier,  Frederic,  an  English  novelist,  born 
1796.  His  best  romances  are — Life  of  a  Sailor 
(3  vols.  Loud.  1834),  Ben  Brace  (3  vols.  Loud. 
1835),  The  Avethuxi  (3  vols.  Lond.  1836).  He 
died  on  Nov.  1,  1870. 

Chamisso,  Adelbert  von,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  of  German  lyric  poets,  was  born  in 
1781,  and  died  in  1838.  • 

Cham'ois  ( Antilope  rupicapra,  Ger.  Oemse),  a 
species  of  antelope  inhabiting  the  Alps  and  other 
high  mountains  of  Central  and  Southern  Europe, 
as  the  Pyrenees,  the  Carpathians,  and  the  mount¬ 
ains  of  Greece;  also  those  of  some  of  the  Med¬ 
iterranean  islands,  Caucasus,  Taurus,  and  other 
mountains  of  the  West  of  Asia.  The  Chamois  is 


Chamois. 


about  the  size  of  a  large  goat,  but  the  neck  is 
longer  in  proportion;  and  the  body  shorter;  the 
horns  seldom  more  than  six  or  seven  inches  long. 
The  color  is  brown,  deeper  in  winter  than  in  sum¬ 
mer;  the  tail  is  black;  the  head  is  of  a  pale-yellow 
color,  with  a  dark-brown  band  along  each  cheek. 

Cham'omile,  or  Cam'omile  ( Anthemis ),  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Composite, 
sub-order  Corymbiferce.  The  species  are  annual 
and  perennial  herbaceous  plants,  chiefly  natives 
of  Europe  and  other  temperate  parts  of  the  world. 

Chamoreril,  a  lake  of  Ladakh  or  Middle  Thibet, 
in  latitude  32°  55'  N.  and  longitude  78°  15' 
E.  It  lies  at  a  height  of  15,000  feet  above  the 
sea. 

Chamouni,  or  Chamonix  (Lat.  Campvs  mun- 
itus),  a  valley  and  village  among  the  Alps  in 
Savoy.  It  lies  at  a  distance  from  all  the  high 
roads,  at  an  elevation  of  about  3,400  feet ;  is  about 
13  miles  long  and  2  broad. 

Cham'pac  (Michelia,  Champaca),  an  Indian 
tree,  possessing  great  beauty  both  of  foliage  and 
flowers,  and  much  venerated  both  by  Brahmauists 
and  Buddhists. 

Champagne,  formerly  a  province  of  France, 
now  forming  the  departments  of  Seine-et-Marne, 
Aube,  Yonne,  Haute-Saone,  and  Ardennes.  The 
province  was  about  180  miles  long  by  150  broad. 
Upon  its  hills  are  grown  the  grapes  from  which 
champagne  wine  is  made. 

Champagne'  Wine  is  the  produce  of  vine¬ 
yards  in  the  above-mentioned  Province  of  Cham¬ 
pagne.  There  are  white  and  red  champagnes;  and 
the  white  is  either  sparkling  or  still.  Sparkling 
or  effervescent  (mousseux)  champagneistlie  result 
of  a  peculiar  treatment  during  fermentation.  In 
December,  the  wine  is  racked  off,  and  fined  with 
isinglass,  and  in  March  it  is  bottled  and  tightly 
corked.  The  fermentation  being  incomplete 
when  the  wine  is  bottled,  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
generated  in  a  confined  space  dissolves  in  the 
wine  and  communicates  the  sparkling  property 
to  it. 

Cliam'pion  (from  Gothic  root  signifying  to 
contend,  fight;  Ang.-Sax.  camp,  fight).  In  the 
judicial  combats  of  the  middle  ages,  it  was  al¬ 
lowed  to  women,  children,  and  aged  persons,  ex¬ 
cept  in  cases  of  high  treason  or  of  parricide,  to 
appear  in  the  lists  by  a  representative.  Such  a 
hired  combatant  was  called  a  champion.  Those 
who  followed  this  profession  were  generally  of 
the  lowest  class,  and  were  held  disreputable;  for 
besides  the  perils  of  the  combat,  they  were  liable 
to  be  executed  as  well  as  their  clients.  They  were 
obliged  to  wear  a  peculiar  dress  of  leather,  and 
peculiar  armor,  which  was  also  held  disreputable. 
They  were  not  allowed  to  fight  on  horseback, 
and  appeared  in  the  lists  with  their  hair  and  nails 


cut  short.  In  modern  times  the  term  is  used  to 
designate  any  man  or  organization  of  men  who 
excel  in  any  game  or  occupation  in  which  a  num¬ 
ber  compete  for  supremacy. 

Champlain',  a  lake  separating  the  States  of 
New  York  and  Vermont,  and  penetrating,  at  its 
north  end,  about  six  miles  into  Lower  Canada. 
It  empties  itself  into  the  St.  Lawrence,  about 
forty-five  miles  below  Montreal,  by  the  Sorel  or 
Richelieu.  It  stretches  in  latitude  from  43°  30' 
to  45°  6'  N.,  and  in  longitude  from  73°  to  73°  30' 
W. ;  its  breadth  never  exceeding  fifteen  miles. 

Champlain,  Samuel  de,  the  Governor  of  the 
first  French  settlers  in  Lower  Canada,  was  born  in 
1567,  and  died  in  1635. 

Champollion,  Jean  Francis,  Egyptian 
archaeologist,  was  born  Dec.  23,  1790.  He  formu¬ 
lated  the  alphabet  which  now  forms  the  basis  of 
modern  Egyptian  archaeology.  He  died  in  1832. 

Chance  is  defined  as  that  which  determines  the 
course  of  events,  in  the  absence  of  law,  ordinary 
causation,  or  Providence. 

Chan' cel  (Lat.  cancellus,  a  screen).  The  chan¬ 
cel,  choir,  or  eastern  part  of  a  church,  was  often 
separated  from  the  nave  by  a  screen  of  lattice- 
work.  As  it  was  in  this  part  of  the  church  that 
the  service  was  performed  previous  to  the  Reform¬ 
ation,  the  clergy  were  held  to  have  a  special 
right  to  it. 

Chan'cellor  (Lat.  cancellarius).  It  is  said  that 
the  chief  notary  or  scribe  of  the  Roman  Emperor 
was  called  chancellor  because  he  was  intrusted 
with  the  power  of  obliterating,  canceling,  or 
crossing  out  ancellare,  to  make  lattice-work), 
such  expressions  in  the  edicts  of  the  prince  as 
seemed  to  him  to  be  at  variance  with  the  laws,  or 
otherwise  erroneous.  From  this  the  title  has 
descended,  and  now  designates  certain  high 
officials  under  various  forms  of  government.  The 
Lord  Chancellor  of  England  is  the  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  the  highest  judicial  officer 
in  the  kingdom.  The  Chancellor  of  the  Ex¬ 
chequer  in  England  answers  to  our  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  or  to  the  French  Minister  of 
Finance. 

Chancellovsville,  The  Battle  of,  was  fought 
May  2,  3,  and  4,  1863,  at  Spotsylvania,  Va., 
between  the  Union  Army  of  the  Potomac,  under 
Hooker,  and  the  Confederate  Army  of  Northern 
Virginia,  led  by  Robt.  E.  Lee.  The  fight  was  a 
bitter  one,  and  the  Union  forces  lost  17,000  men; 
the  Confederates,  13,000.  Here  Gen.  T.  J.  (Stone¬ 
wall)  Jackson  was  mortally  wounded. 

Chancery,  Courts  of,  formerly  had  exclusive 
equity  jurisdiction  in  England,  but  have  been 
consolidated  with  the  common  law  courts.  In 
the  United  States,  the  distinction  is  still  preserved 
in  many  cases.  In  some  States,  especially  those 
acting  under  a  code,. it  is  abolished. 

Chandler, William  E.,  born  at  Concord,  N.H., 
Dec.  28,  1835.  From  1865  to  1867,  he  was  First 
Assistant  Secretary  of  the  United  States  Treasur}'. 
In  1882  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Navy  under 
President  Arthur,  and  in  1883  was  elected  to  the 
United  States  Senate. 

Chandler,  Zachariah,  born  Dec.  10,  1813, 
and  died  Nov.  1,  1879.  In  1856  he  became 
United  States  Senator  from  Michigan,  and  served 
three  terms.  He  became  Secretary  of  the  Inte¬ 
rior  under  President  Grant,  and  in  1876  was 
Chairman  of  the  Republican  National  Committee. 
He  was  again  elected  to  the  Senate  in  1879. 

Changarnier,  Nicolas  Anne  Theodule,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1793.  In  1830,  he  went 
as  Lieutenant  to  Algeria,  where  he  rose  to  the 
rank  of  General  of  Division.  In  1848  lie  Was  ap¬ 
pointed  Governor-General  of  Algeria.  Deserved 
in  the  Franeo-Prussian  War,  was  in  Metz  with 
Bazaine;  entered  the  Assembly,  in  1871  assisted 
M.  Thiers  in  reorganizing  the  army,  and  died  in 
1877. 

Chang  ehow-foo,  or  Chaotj-chow,  a  city  of 
China,  and  capital  of  a  department  of  the  same 
name,  in  the  Province  of  Keang-su,  in  30°  50'  N. 
latitude,  and  3°  24'  longitude  E.  of  Pekin.— 
Ciiang-chow-foo,  a  city  of  China,  and  capital 
of  a  department  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Full-keen,  in  24°  31'  N.  latitude,  and  1° 
24'  longitude  E.  of  Pekin. 

Changeling.  It  was  at  one  time  a  common 
superstition  that  infants  were  taken  from 
their  cradles  by  fairies,  who  left  instead  their  own 


CHANNEL. 


269. 


CHARLES. 


weakly  and  starveling  elves.  The  children  so 
left  were  called  changelings,  and  were  known  by 
their  peevishness,  and  their  backwardness  in 
walking  and  speaking. 

Channel,  English — the  Mare  Britannicurn  of 
the  ancients — is  that  arm  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
which  divides  England  from  France,  gradually 
narrowing  to  the  Strait  of  Dover.  It  is  often 
called  the  Channel;  and  the  Fleet  stationed  in  it 
the  Channel  Fleet.  The  French  call  the  Channel 
“La  Manche.” 

Channel  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  belong¬ 
ing  to  Great  Britian,  lying  off  the  northwest  coast 
of  France,  between  Normandy  and  Brittany. 
They  are  about  120  miles  southwest  of  South¬ 


ampton,  and  the  nearest  distance  from  the  French 
coast  is  about  ten  miles.  Area,  112  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  87,731. 

Channing,  William  Ellery,  D.D.,  a  Unitar¬ 
ian  preacher  and  author,  born  April  7,  1780.  In 
1803,  he  was  ordained  minister  of  a  church 
in  Boston,  and  for  many  years  was  rec¬ 
ognized  as  one  of  the  ablest  and  most  eloquent 
preachers  in  the  United  States.  In  1821,  he  re¬ 
ceived  the  title  of  D.D.  from  Harvard  Univer¬ 
sity.  He  died  Oct.  2,  1842. 

Channing,  Walter,  physician,  born  in  1786, 
died  1876;  was  a  prominent  writer  on  medical 
science.  His  brother,  Edward  Tyrrell  Chan¬ 
ning  (1790-1866),  edited  the  North.  American 
Review  for  some  years.  William  Ellery,  son 
of  Dr.  Walter,  bom  in  1818,  studied  at  Har¬ 
vard,  married  a  sister  of  Margaret  Fuller,  con¬ 
tributed  to  the  Dial,  and  published  several  prose 
and  poetical  works.  His  cousin,  William 
Henry,  bom  in  1810,  was  a  prominent  Unitarian 
minister,  and  died  in  1883. 

Chantilly,  a  town  of  France,  about  twenty- 
three  miles  north-northeast  of  Paris.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Chantilly,  a  post  town  in  Fairfax  county,  Ya., 
the  scene  of  a  severe  battle  on  Sept.  3,  1862, 
between  Union  forces  under  Gen.  Phil.  Kearney, 
and  Confederates  under  General  Stuart,  in  which 
the  former  general  was  killed. 

Chantrey,  Sir  Francis,  an  English  sculptor, 
born  April  7,  1781.  In  1816  he  was  elected 
an  Associate,  and  in  1818  a  Member  of  the  Royal 
Academy.  He  died  in  1841. 

Chan 'try  (Fr.  Cliantererie,  from  Chanter,  to 
sing).  The  term  is  applied  alike  to  endowments 
or  benefices,  to  provide  for  the  chanting  of  masses, 
and  to  the  chapels  in  which  the  chanting  takes 
place. 

Chanzy,  Antoine,  born  in  1823,  died  1883, 
commanded  the  French  Army  of  the  Loire  after 
the  capitulation  of  Metz  and  distinguished  him¬ 
self  by  his  bravery  and  generalship. 

Cha'os  signified,  in  the  ancient  cosmogonies, 
that  vacant  infinite  space  out  of  which  sprang  all 
things  that  exist.  Some  poets  make  it  the  single 
original  source  of  all ;  others  mention  with  it  Ga;a, 
Tartaros,  and  Eros.  Later  cosmogonists,  such 
as  Ovid,  represent  it  as  that  confused,  shapeless 
mass  out  of  which  the  universe  was  formed  into  a 
kosm/js,  or  harmonious  order. 

Chaos,  or  Bird  Islands,  several  rocky  islets 
situated  at  the  entrance  of  Algoa  Bay,  South  Af¬ 
rica,  about  thirty-five  miles  cast  of  Port  Elizabeth. 


On  one  of  these  islands  Bartholomew  Diaz,  the 
navigator,  died  in  1500. 

Chapa 'la,  the  largest  lake  in  Mexico,  contain¬ 
ing  about  1,300  square  miles,  it  is  about  latitude 
20u  20'  N.  and  ranges  in  W.  longitude  from 
102°  to  103°  25'.  It  is  an  expansion  of  the  Rio 
Grande  de  Lerma,  which  enters  the  Pacific  at 
San  Blax. 

Chap  Books,  a  variety  of  old  and  scarce  tracts 
of  a  homely  kind,  which  at  one  time  formed  the 
only  popular  literature,  and  are  reputed  to  have 
been  sold  by  chapmen  or  peddlers;  hence  their 
designation. 

Clia'pel  (Fr.  chapelle),  a  word  derived  from 
capa,  which  originally  signified  a  case  or  chest  in 
which  were  contained  the  relics  of  a  saint,  and 
afterward  the  place  where  the  chest  was  kept. 
The  term  now  signifies  a  building  erected  for 
the  purposes  of  public  worship,  but  not  possess 
ing  the  full  privileges  and  characteristics  of  a 
church. 

Chapin,  Edwin  Hubbell,  D.D.,  born  Dec. 
29,  1814,  died  Dec.  27,  1880,  was  a  prominent 
Universalist  minister  and  lecturer. 

Cliap'eron,  a  hood  or  cap  worn  by  Knights  of 
the  Garter.  Such  a  hood  was  at  one  time  in 
general  use,  but  was  latterly  appropriated  to 
doctors  and  licentiates  in  colleges.  A  person  who 
acts  as  a  guide  and  protector  to  a  lady  at  public 
places,  is  called  a  chaperon,  probably  from  this 
particular  piece  t>f  dress  having  been  used  on 
such  occasions.  The  name  was  also  applied  to 
devices  which  were  placed  on  the  heads  of  horses 
at  pompous  funerals. 

Chap 'lain  was  originally  the  title  of  the 
ecclesiastic  who  accompanied  an  army,  and  car 
ried  the  relics  of  the  patron  saint.  It  has  now 
come  to  signify  a  clergyman  not  having  charge  of 
a  parish;  but  employed  to  officiate  at  court,  in 
the  household  of  a  nobleman,  or  in  an  army  gar¬ 
rison,  ship,  etc.  Generally  a  chaplain  is  attached 
to  each  regiment  and  ship  of  war  of  the  United 
States,  and  one  to  each  penitentiary  and  indus¬ 
trial  school.  Each  branch  of  the  Federal  and 
State  Legislatures  lias  a  chaplain,  who  opens  the 
proceedings  of  each  day  with  prayer. 

Chap 'man,  in  England,  is  used  to  designate  a 
trader,  but  properly  applied  in  a  more  limited 
sense  to  a  dealer  in  small  articles,  who  travels  as 
a  peddler  or  attends  markets.  Chapman  is  from 
chap,  equivalent  to  cheap,  a  word  which  in  its 
origin  signified  a  market  or  place  for  trading; 
hence  Cheap  side,  Eastcheap. 

Chapman,  George,  dramatist  and  translator, 
born  in  1557.  His  first  play,  entitled  The  Blind 
Beggar  of  Alexandria,  was  primed  in  1598.  His 
translation  of  Homer  is  very  celebrated.  He  died 
in  1634. 

Chapped  Hands,  a  form  of  disease  of  the  skin, 
produced  by  undue  exposure  to  extremes  of  cold 
and  heat,  and  affecting  chiefly  the  joints,  the  skin 
over  which  swells  and  cracks,  with  itching,  pain, 
and  heat.  To  cure,  use  tepid  water  in  washing, 
and  pure  castile  soap;  cover  the  hands  with  glycer¬ 
ine,  collodion,  or  sweet  oil,  in  which  a  little  sul¬ 
phate  of  zinc  (2  gr.  to  an  oz.  of  mixture)  has  been 
incorporated.  Wear  gloves  out  of  doors  and  in  bed. 

Chap'ter-House  (Fr.  chapitre),  ue  building 
in  which  the  monks  and  canons  of  monastic 
establishments,  and  the  dean  and  prebendaries  of 
cathedral  and  collegiate  churches,  meet  for  the 
transaction  of  business. 

Chajmltepec,  a  fortress  about  two  miles  from 
the  City  of  Mexico,  which  was  besieged  and 
stormed  by  General  Scott  in  September,  1847. 

Chara  'se®,  aquatic  plants,  forming,  according 
to  some  botanists,  a  distinct  natural  order  of  aco- 
tyledonous  plants;  according  to  others,  a  sub-order 
of  algae. 

Charade,  a  form  of  amusement,  which  may  be 
defined  as  a  punning  enigma  propounded  in  a 
series  of  descriptions.  A  word  is  taken  of  two  or 
more  syllables,  each  forming  a  distinct  word;  each 
of  these  is  described  in  verse  or  prose,  as  aptly 
and  enigmatically  as  possible;  and  the  same  pro¬ 
cess  is  applied  to  the  whole  word. 

Charcoal,  the  form  of  carbon  obtained  from 
various  vegetable  and  animal  materials  by  their 
ignition  out  of  contact  with  air.  Wood  charcoal 
is  a  hard  and  brittle  black  substance  that  retains 
the  form  and  external  structure  of  the  wood  from 
which  it  is  made. 


Charente,  a  department  of  France,  formed 
chiefly  of  the  old  Province  of  Angoumois,  and 
situated  from  45°  10'  to  46°  8'  N.  latitude  and 
from  0°  50'  E.  longitude  to  0°  30'  W.  longitude. 
Area,  about  2,200  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881), 
367,451. 

Charente-Inferieure,  a  maritime  department 
of  France,  which  includes  the  former  Province  of 
Angoumois, with  the  greater  part  of  Saintonge,and 
a  small  portion  of  Poitou.  It  lies  in  45°  5'  to  46* 
19'  N.  latitude,  and  0°  7'  E.  to  1°  13'  W.  longi¬ 
tude.  The  Bay  of  Biscay  washes  its  western 
boundary,  and  the  coast  line  measures  about  100 
miles.  Area,  2,740  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881), 
462,659. 

Charenton-le-Pont,  a  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Seine,  five  miles  southeast  of  Paris. 
Pop.,  9,000. 

Charge,  in  Heraldry.  The  figures  represented 
on  a  shield  are  called  charges,  and  a  shield  with 
figures  upon  it  is  said  to  be  charged  (Fr.  charge). 

Charge,  in  Military  Warfare,  is  a  sudden  and 
impetuous  attack  on  the  enemy,  by  horse  or  foot, 
or  both.  Its  object  usually  is  to  drive  the  enemy 
from  a  particular  position;  but,  if  made  with  a 
much  stronger  force,  it  may  result  in  his  actual 
destruction. 

Charge,  in  Military  Pyrotechny,  is  sufficient 
combustible  material  for  one  firing  or  discharge. 
It  is  applicable  to  all  kinds  of  firings,  fireworks, 
and  explosions;  but  the  name  is  generally  given  to 
the  quantity  of  gunpowder  requisite  for  firing  off 
a  gun,  etc. 

Charger,  a  name  sometimes  given  to'  a  war- 
horse. — An  instrument  used  for  measuring  charges 
of  powder  for  muzzle-loading  fire-arms  is  also 
called  a  charger. 

Charges  d’ Affaires  are  diplomatic  agents, 
empowered  by  an  ambassador  to  act  in  his 
absence. 

Cha'riot,  in  ancient  times,  was  a  kind  of  car¬ 
riage  used  either  for  pleasure  or  in  war.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  Greeks,  it  was  invented  by  Minerva. 

Charivari  is  a  French  term  used  to  designate 
a  wild  tumult  and  uproar,  produced  by  the  beat¬ 
ing  of  pans,  kettles,  and  dishes,  mingled  with 
whistling,  bawling,  groans,  and  hisses,  and  occa¬ 
sionally  directed  in  back-woods  districts  against 
newly  married  couples. 

Charlemagne,  i.  e.,  Charles  the  Great,  King  of 
the  Franks  (768-814  a.d.),  and  Roman  Emperor 
(800-814  a.d. ),  was  born  April  2,  742,  and  became 
King  of  the  Franks  in  768.  He  crossed  the  Alps, 
from  Geneva,  with  two  armies,  by  the  Great  St. 
Bernard  and  Mount  Cenis,  in  773,  and  overthrew 
the  Kingdom  of  the  Lombards  in  774.  The  Lom¬ 
bard  Dukes  acknowledged  him  as  their  king.  In 
775,  he  was  again  employed  in  the  northern  part 
of  his  dominions,  reducing  the  Saxons  to  subjec¬ 
tion;  in  776,  he  suppressed  an  insurrection  in 
Italy;  in  777,  he  so  completed  his  victory  over  the 
Saxons,  that  their  nobles  generally  acknowledged 
him  as  their  sovereign.  He  participated  in  the 
wars  of  the  Arabs  and  Moors  in  Spain  in  778,  and 
added  to  his  dominions  the  regions  between  the 
Pyrenees  and  the  Ebro.  The  Saxons  destroyed 
a  Frankish  army  on  the  Siintel  in  782,  which 
Charlemagne,  after  a  new  victory,  revenged  by 
causing  no  fewer  than  4,500  prisoners  to  be 
executed.  In  800,  he  undertook  a  campaign, 
to  support  Pope  Leo  III.  against  the  rebel¬ 
lious  Romans.  When  Charlemagne,  on  Christ¬ 
mas  day,  800,  was  worshiping  in  St.  Peter’s 
Church,  the  Pope  set  a  crown  upon  his  head,  and, 
amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  people,  saluted 
him  as  Carolus  Augustus,  Emperor  of  the 
Romans.  He  died  Jan.  28,  814,  and  was  buried 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  a  church  which  he  had 
built  there.  He  is  styled  Charles  I.  in  the  enu¬ 
meration  both  of  the  French  Kings  and  of  the 
German  or  Roman  Emperors. 

Charles,  surnamed  Martel,  i.  e.,  the  Ham¬ 
mer,  born  about  690  a.d.  He  was  much  engaged 
in  wars  against  the  revolted  Alemanni  and  Bava¬ 
rians,  the  Saxons,  etc.,  but  his  importance  as  a 
historic  personage  is  chiefly  due  to  his  wars 
against  the  Saracens.  He  defeated  them  between 
Tours  and  Poitiers  in  732,  in  a  great  battle,  in 
which  their  leader,  Abd-ur-Rahman,  fell,  and  a 
stop  was  put  to  their  progress  in  Europe,  which 
had  filled  all  Christendom  with  alarm.  Charles 
died  Oct.  22,  741. 


CHARLES. 


270 


CHARLES  XV. 


Charles,  Archduke  of  Austria,  third  son  of 
the  Emperor  Leopold  II.,  was  born  Sept.  5,  1771. 
He  was  intrusted,  in  171)6,  with  the  chief  com¬ 
mand  of  the  Austrian  army  on  the  Rhine.  He 
fought  against  Moreau  at  Rastadt,  defeated  Jour- 
dan  in  several  battles,  drove  the  French  over  the 
Rhine,  and  took  Kelil.  In  1799,  he  was  victorious 
over  Jourdan,  protected  Swabia,  and  successfully 
opposed  Massena.  In  1805,  he -commanded  the 
army  opposed  to  Massena  in  Italy,  and  fought  the 
battle  of  Caldiero.  In  1809,  he  won  the  great 
battle  of  Aspern,  which  first  showed  that 
Napoleon  was  not  invincible.  He  died  April  30, 
1847. 

Charles  I.,  King  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland  (1625-1649),  was  born  at  Dunfermline, 
Nov.  19,  1600,  and  was  the  second  son  of  James 
I.  of  England  (VI.  of  Scotland).  On  the  death 
of  his  elder  brother,  Henry,  in  1612,  he  became 
Prince  of  Wales,  and  heir  apparent  to  his  father’s 
throne;  to  which  he  succeeded  in  1625.  In  1626 
he  threw  into  prison  two  members  of  Parliament, 
Elliot  and  Digges,  who  had  opposed  his  wishes; 
dissolved  Parliament;  and,  to  procure  money,  had 
recourse  to  the  arbitrary  measures  of  forced  loans, 
and  a  tax  upon  the  seaports  (ship-money),  imposed 
by  the  exercise  of  royal  authority.  In  1628  Charles 
summoned  a  Parliament;  and  the  Parliament, 
presented  the  petition  known  in  history  as  the 
“Petition  of  Right.”  Charles  temporized,  con¬ 
ceded,  and  finally  dissolved  the  Parliament, 
March  10,  1629.  He  now  governed  for  eleven 
years  without  a  Parliament,  obtaining  for  his 
edicts  the  semblance  of  a  legal  sanction  by  means 
of  the  Star  Chamber.  In  1639,  the  King  having 
assembled  an  army  for  the  purpose  of  reducing 
Scotland  to  subjection,  the  Scottish  Con venanters 
took  up  arms,  and  advanced  to  the  English  border, 
many  of  the  English  regarding  their  approach 
with  joy.  Charles  summoned  another  Parliament 
in  1640,  which,  instead  of  listening  to  his  demands, 
began  to  draw  up  a  statement  of  public  griev¬ 
ances.  He  dissolved  it  and  assembled  an  army  to 
resist  the  Scots,  who  had  entered  England;  but 
his  army  was  defeated  by  them,  and  they 
advanced  southward,  with  the  sympathy  and 
good-wishes  of  no  small  part  of  the  King’s  Eng¬ 
lish  subjects.  Charles  was  now  compelled  again 
to  call  a  Parliament,  known  as  the  “  Long  Parlia¬ 
ment,”  whose  memorable  sittings  began  on  Nov. 
3,  1640.  They  began  by  the  impeachment  of  the 
ministers  and  high  officers  of  state,  and  declared 
the  decrees  of  the  Star  Chamber  and  Court  of 
High  Commission  to  be  null  and  void.  They 
passed  a  bill  in  favor  of  triennial  Parliaments;  and 
the  King,  in  trepidation,  gave  it  his  assent,  lie 
also  consented  to  the  execution  of  Strafford;  and 
even  gave  his  assent  to  an  act  which  provided  that 
the  present  Parliament  should  not  be  dissolved, 
prorogued,  or  adjourned,  without  its  own  con¬ 
sent.  Hoping  to  win  the  favor  of  the  Scots,  he 
now  visited  Scotland;  but  whilst  he  was  there,  a 
rebellion  broke  out  in  Ireland,  accompanied  with 
a  fearful  massacre  of  Protestants.  On  Jan.  4, 
1642,  Charles  suddenly  appeared  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  accusing  five  members — Pym,  Hamp¬ 
den,  Hollis,  Hazelrig,  and  Stroud — of  high  trea¬ 
son,  and  demanding  that  they  should  be  delivered 
up  to  him.  Both  Houses  of  Parliament  espoused 
their  cause,  and  the  City  of  London  showed  a 
determination  to  defend  them  by  arms.  Charles 
left  London  with  his  family.  After  the  battle  of 
Naseby,  on  June  15, 1645,  he  was  delivered  up  to  the 
English  Parliamentary  army.  Finally  he  escaped 
and  fled,  was  retaken,  refused  the  ultimatum  of 
the  army,  and  so  enraged  Cromwell  and  the 
Independents  that  Parliament  was  obliged  to  pass 
an  act  declaring  all  negotiation  with  the  King  to 
be  treason.  The  Presbyterians  of  England  and 
the  Scots,  who  believed  that  there  was  something 
sacred  and  inviolable  in  monarchy,  attempted  to 
rescue  the  King  from  the  hands  of  the  Independ¬ 
ents,  but  were  defeated,  and  all  the  Presby¬ 
terians  were  expelled  from  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons,  which,  now  consisting  only  of  about  sixty 
members — the  Rump  Parliament — appointed  a 
court  composed  of  seventy  persons  from  the  army, 
the  House  of  Commons,  and  the  City  of  London, 
to  try  the  King.  The  court  was  opened  in  West¬ 
minister  Hall  on  Jan.  20,  1649.  On  January 
27th  Charles  was  condemned  to  death  as  a 
tyrant,  murderer,  and  enemy  of  the  nation.  On 


Jan.  30,  1649,  he  was  beheaded  in  front  of  the 
palace  of  Whitehall. 

Charles  II.,  King  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland  (1649-1685),  the  eldest  son  of  Charles  I , 
was  born  May  29,  1630.  lie  was  at  the  Hague 
at  the  time  of  his  father’s  execution,  and  immedi¬ 
ately  assumed  the  title  of  King.  He  was  crowned 
at  Scone  in  the  beginning  of  1651.  After  the  de¬ 
feat  of  the  Scots  at  Dunbar,  he  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  their  army,  but  was  defeated  by  Crom¬ 
well,  at  Worcester,  on  Sept.  3,  1651.  He  escaped 
to  France,  and  afterward  to  the  Netherlands. 
After  Cromwell’s  death,  which  led  to  the  restora¬ 
tion  of  the  House  of  Stuart,  he  landed  at  Dover 
on  May  26,  1660,  and  at  once  ascended  the 
throne.  The  persons  immediately  concerned  in 
the  death  of  Charles  1.  were  brought  to  the  scaffold, 
and  the  bodies  of  the  dead  leaders,  Cromwell,  Ire- 
ton,  and  Bradshaw,  were  dug  up  and  hanged  at 
Tyburn.  The  King  was  extravagant.  The  story 
of  the  Popish  plot  against  the  life  of  the  King 
caused  great  excitement,  and  Lord  Stafford  ami 
many  other  persons  were  brought  to  the  scaffold. 
The  Parliament  of  1679,  very  much  against  the 
will  of  the  court,  enacted  the  Habeas  Corpus  Act. 
The  Itye-House  Plot,  a  widely  extended  conspir¬ 
acy,  in  which  the  King’s  son,  the  Duke  of  Mon¬ 
mouth,  was  concerned,  was  discovered  in  1683, 
and  cost  the  lives  of  a  number  of  persons,  among 
whom  were  Lord  Russell  and  Algernon  Sidney. 
Charles,  however,  appears  to  have  recognized  the 
necessity  of  a  more  liberal  policy,  when  he  was 
carried  off  by  death  on  Feb.  6,  1685. 

Charles  V.,  surnamed  The  Wise,  King  of 
France  (1364-1380),  was  the  son  of  King  John, 
and  was  born  Jan.  21,  1337.  His  father  being 
made  prisoner  by  the  English  at  the  battle  of 
Poictiers,  on  Sept.  19,  1356,  he  assumed  the 
Regency.  The  most  significant  events  which 
occurred  under  his  rule,  were  the  efforts  of  the 
bourgeoisie  to  deliver  themselves  from  t  he  tyranny 
of  the  nobles  and  the  court,  and  the  Peasant  War, 
called  the  Jacquerie.  He  died  Sept.  16,  1380. 

Charles  VI.,  King  of  France  (1380-1422),  born 
at  Paris,  Dec.  3,  1368,  was  the  son  and  successor 
of  Charles  V.  In  1388  Charles  assumed  active 
control  of  affairs,  but  his  reign  was  a  feeble  one, 
and  terminated  in  war  with  England,  in  the  midst 
of  which  he  died  Oct.  21,  1422. 

Charles  VII.,  King  of  France  (1422-1461),  the 
son  and  successor  of  Charles  VI.,  was  born  on 
Feb.  22,  1403.  On  his  father's  death  lie  was  at 
the  head  of  an  army,  with  which  he  held  posses¬ 
sion  of  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Kingdom; 
Paris  and  the  North  being  in  the  hands  of  the 
English,  who  proclaimed  Henry  VI.  of  England 
King  of  France,  and  appointed  the  Duke  of  Bed- 
ford  Regent.  Charles  was  compelled,  in  1424,  to 
evacuate  Champagne,  and,  in  1425,  Maine.  In  1426 
the  Count  Dunois  gained  the  first  victory  over  the 
English  at  Montargis;  but  in  the  year  following 
they  besieged  Orleans.  Joan  of  Arc,  the  Maid  of 
Orleans,  came  to  his  aid  and  roused  the  fervor  of  the 
nobles  and  people.  The  siege  of  Orleans  was  raised 
in  May,  1429;  the  English  retired  and  gradually 
lost  their  acquisitions  in  France.  In  1436  Charles 
entered  Paris;  and  during  the  further  progress  of 
the  war  the  English  lost  all  their  strongholds  ex 
cept  Calais.  In  1452  they  were  finally  defeated  at 
Castillon.  He  died  July  22,  1461. 

Charles  VIII.,  King  of  France  (1483-1498), 
was  born  at  Amboise,  June  30,  1470,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
Louis  XI.  For  some  time  the  government  was 
carried  on  under  the  regency  of  his  sister,  Anne 
of  Beaujeu.  The  most  important  incident  of  his 
career  was  his  conquest  of  Naples  in  1495,  to  the 
throne  of  which  he  believed  he  had  a  claim.  He 
died  April  7,  1498. 

Charles  IX.,  King  of  France  (1560-1574),  the 
second  son  of  Henry  II.  and  of  Catharine  de’ 
Medici,  was  born  June  27,  1550,  and  on  Dec.  5, 
1560,  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
brother,  Francis  II.  He  is  seldom  mentioned 
except  in  connection  with  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew’s,  Aug.  24,  1572,  which  resulted  in 
a  disastrous  civil  war.  Charles  died  May  30, 
1574. 

Charles  X.,  King  of  France  (1824-1830),  third 
son  of  the  Dauphin  Louis,  and  grandson  of 
Louis  XV.,  was  born  Oct.  9,  1757.  He  resided 
|  abroad  until  the  Restoration,  became  Lieutenant- 


General  of  the  Kingdom  under  Louis  XVIII.,  and 
succeeded  to  the  crown  in  1824.  His  measures 
were  arbitrary,  and  his  attempts  to  break  up 
parliamentary  government  resulted  in  a  revolu¬ 
tion  and  street  fighting  in  Paris.  On  Aug.  2, 
1830  he  abdicated,  and  in  1836  he  died. 

Charles  IV.,  German  Emperor  (1346-1378),  was 
born  in  1316,  and  wars  the  son  of  King  John  of 
Bohemia,  of  the  House  of  Luxembourg,  who  fell 
in  the  Battle  of  Crecv.  At  the  instigation  of 
Pope  Clement  VI.,  lie  was  elected  Emperor  by  a 
portion  of  the  electors  on  July  11,  1346,  although 
Louis  IV.  then  actually  filled  the  imperial  throne. 
He  was  crowned  King  of  Italy  at  Milan  in  1354, 
and  Emperor  at  Rome  in  1355.  He  died  at 
Prague,  Nov.  29,  1378. 

Charles  V.,  German  Emperor,  was  born  at 
Ghent  on  Feb.  24,  1500.  He  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Philip,  Archduke  of  Austria,  and  of  Joanna, 
the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain. 
In  1516,  Charles  took  possession  of  the  throne  of 
Spain  by  the  title  of  Charles  I.  On  the  death  of 
Maximilian  in  1519,  he  was  elected  German 
Emperor.  On  Oct.  22,  1520,  he  was  crowned  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  and  received  from  the  Pope  the 
title  of  Roman  Emperor.  In  1522  he  reduced  to 
subjection  the  towns  of  Castile.  He  was  success¬ 
ful  in  his  war  against  the  Turks  under  Solyman 
the  Great.  Charles  wTas  involved  also  in  a  strug¬ 
gle  of  long  duration  with  France,  in  which  his 
armies  tit  last  drove  the  French  from  the  greater 
part  of  their  conquests  in  Italy;  and  Francis  I.  of 
France  fell  into  liis  hands  as  a  prisoner,  after  a 
battle  by  which  the  siege  of  Pavia  was  raised  on 
Feb.  24,  1525.  The  Pope  allied  himself  with 
France  and  the  principal  Italian  States,  and 
released  the  King  of  France  from  the  obligations 
under  which  he  had  come  by  his  treaty  with 
Charles.  It  was  the  Pope’s  object  to  exclude 
Charles  from  all  dominion  in  Italy;  but  the 
Emperor’s  forces  under  Charles  of  Bourbon,  the 
former  Constable  of  France,  took  Rome  itself  by 
storm,  plundered  it  and  made  the  Pope  prisoner. 
Peace  was  concluded  in  1529,  on  terms  most 
favorable  for  the  Emperor.  His  reign  was  char¬ 
acterized  by  a  succession  of  wars  with  Spain, 
France,  and  Italy.  In  1555  he  resigned  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  his  dominions  to  his  son,  and  died 
Sept.  21, 1558. 

Charles  VI.,  German  Emperor  (1711-40),  the 
last  of  the  male  line  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg, 
wras  the  second  son  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  I., 
and  born  1685.  He  became  Emperor  of  Germany 
in  1711.  He  died  Oct.  20,  1740. 

Charles  VII.,  German  Emperor  (1742-45), 
w'as  born  at  Brussels  in  1697,  and  was  the  son  of 
Maximilian  Emmanuel,  Elector  of  Bavaria,  and 
for  some  time  governor  of  the  Spanish  Nether¬ 
lands.  He  died  Jan.  20,  1745. 

Charles  XII.,  King  of  Sweden  (1697-1718), 
was  the  son  of  Charles  XI.,  and  was  born  at 
Stockholm,  June  27,  1682.  On  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1697,  he  ascended  to  the  throne.  His 
reign  was  characterized  by  a  series  of  wars  with 
neighboring  powers,  in  which  his  fortunes  varied. 
He  was  defeated  by  the  Russians  at  Pultowa, 
June  27,  1709,  and  killed  in  the  siege  of  Fried- 
richshald,  Nov.  30,  1718. 

Charles  XIII.,  King  of  Sweden  (1809-1818), 
born  Oct.  7,  1748,  was  the  second  son  of  King 
Adolphus  Frederick,  and  of  the  sister  of  Freder¬ 
ick  the  Great  of  Prussia.  Having  no  child,  he 
concurred  with  the  States  of  the  kingdom  in 
choosing  as  his  successor  the  French  General, 
Bcrnadotte,  who  became  Crown-Prince  of  Sweden 
and  ascended  the  throne  on  rlie  death  of  Charles, 
Feb.  5,  1818. 

Charles  XIV.,  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway 
(1818-1844),  originally  Jean  Baptiste  Jules 
Bernadotte,  was  born  at  Pau,  in  the  south  of 
France,  Jan.  26,  1764.  He  became  King  of  Swe¬ 
den  on  the  death  of  Charles  XIII.,  Feb.  5,  1818. 
He  died  March  8,  1844,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son  Oscar. 

Charles  XV.  (Luuis  Eugene)  (1826-1872), 
King  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  was  born  May  3, 
1826.  He  was  grandson  of  Marshal  Bernadotte, 
who  was  made  King  of  Sweden  in  1818,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father,  Oscar  I.,  July  8,  1859.  He 
was  crowned  at  Stockholm,  May  3,  1860,  and  at 
Trondhejm,  Norway,  Aug.  5,  1860.  He  died  at 
Malmo,  Sept.  18,  1872,  deeply  regretted  by  the 


CHARLES  ALBERT. 


271 


CHATEAUBRIAND. 


•whole  nation.  His  only  child,  Princess  Louise 
Josephine  Eugenie,  born  Oct.  31,  1851,  was  mar¬ 
ried  to  Christian  Frederic,  Prince-Royal  of  Den¬ 
mark,  July  28,  1869. 

Charles  Albert,  King  of  Sardinia  (1831-1849), 
born  Oct.  2,  1798,  was  the  son  of  the  Prince 
Charles  Emmanuel  of  Savoy-Carignan.  On  the 
death  of  Charles  Felix,  April  27,  1831,  he 
ascended  the  throne.  After  the  fatal  battle  of 
Novara,  March  23,  1§49,  he  was  obliged  to  resign 
the  crown  in  favor  of  his  son,  Victor  Emmanuel 
II.,  and  he  died  at  Oporto  on  July  28tli  of  the 
same  year. 

Charles  the  Bold,  Duke  of  Burgundy  (1467- 
1477),  son  of  Philip  the  Good,  of  the  House  of 
Valois,  and  of  Isabella  of  Portugal,  was  born  at 
Dijon  on  Nov.  10,  1435.  In  1467,  he  succeeded 
his  father  as  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  for  years 
waged  disastrous  wars  against  his  King,  Louis 
XI.,  and  against  Switzerland.  He  was  killed  in  a 
battle  at  Nancy,  Jan.  5,  1477. 

Charles  Edward,  or,  in  full,  CiiarlesEdward 
Louis  Philip  Casimir,  was  born  Dec.  31, 
1720.  He  was  the  eldest  son  of  James,  known 
as  the  Pretender,  and  the  Chevalier  St.  George. 
Grandson  of  James  II.  and  nephew  of  Anne,  lie 
was  heir  of  line  of  both  these  sovereigns;  but  the 
hereditary  rights  of  his  father  and  himself  had 
been  declared  null  under  the  Proclamation  of 
Rights  and  other  Parliamentary  enactments  which 
followed  and  completed  the  Revolution  of  1688. 
He  struggled  through  many  years,  in  which  civil 
and  foreign  wars  devastated  both  England  and 
Scotland,  to  secure  recognition  as  the  rightful 
heir  to  the  throne  of  England;  but,  failing  in  this, 
owing  to  the  confirmation  of  the  Protestant  suc¬ 
cession,  and  being  repeatedly  defeated  in  his  cam¬ 
paigns,  he  finally  withdrew  to  France  where  he 
lived  a  life  of  dissipation  and  idleness,  and  died 
there,  in  1788. 

Charles  Emnian'uell.,  Duke  of  Savoy  (1580- 
1630),  called  the  Great,  was  born  Jan.  12,  1562, 
and  succeeded  his  father,  Emmanuel  Philibert  in 
1580.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Philip  II.  of 
Spain,  and  died  July  26,  1630. 

Charleston,  a  city  in  South  Carolina,  and  the 
commercial  capital  of  the  State,  is  situated  in 
latitude  32°  46'  N.,  and  longitude  79°  57'  W. 
It  occupies  the  fork  of  the  Cooper  and  the  Ashley, 
which,  as  deep  tideways  of  the  respective  widths 
of  1,400  and  2,100  yards,  here  unite  with  their 
common  estuary  of  seven  miles  in  length  to  form 
Charleston  Harbor.  This  passage  is  commanded 
by  Fort  Moultrie  and  Fort  Sumter. 

Charlestown,  once  an  independent  seaport  of 
Massachusetts,  and  now  part  of  Boston,  from 
which  it  is  separated  on  the  south  by  the 
Charles  river.  It  occupies  a  peninsula  two  miles 
long,  and  is  connected  with  Boston  proper  by  two 
bridges.  In  1880  its  pop.  was  17,000.  Its  most 
prominent  height  is  Bunker’s  Hill,  celebrated  as 
the  first  battle-field  in  the  Revolutionary  W ar,  and 
surmounted  by  a  granite  monument  220  feet  in 
height. 

Charles’  Wain,  a  common  English  name  for 
the  constellation  of  Ursa  Major.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  known  as  “The  Dipper.” 

Charlet,  Nicolas  Toussaint,  a  French  painter 
and  engraver,  born  in  Paris,  1792.  Among  his 
paintings,  the  most  remarkable  are:  “  An  Episode 
in  the  Russian  Campaign  ”  (in  the  Museum  at  Ver¬ 
sailles);  “ Moreau’s  Crossing  of  the  Rhine”  (at 
Lyons);  and  a  “  Procession  of  the  Wounded”  (at 
Bordeaux).  He  died  in  1845. 

Char'lotte  Town,  the  capital  of  Prince  Ed¬ 
ward  Island,  in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  in  lati¬ 
tude  46°  15'  N.,  and  longitude  63°  7'  W.  Pop., 
11,485. 

Charm  (Lat.  carmen,  a  song),  properly  a  form 
of  words,  generally  in  verse,  supposed  to  possess 
some  occult  power  of  a  hurtful,  a  healing,  or  a 
protective  kind.  Charms  exert  their  influence 
either  by  being  recited,  or  by  being  written  and 
worn  on  the  person,  anil  in  this  latter  case,  they 
may  be  classed  with  amulets. 

Char  nel-House(Fr.  charnier;  Lat.  earn,  flesh), 
a  chamber  situated  in  a  churchyard  or  other 
burying  place,  in  which  the  bones  of  the  dead 
which  were  thrown  up  by  the  grave-diggers 
were  deposited. 

Clia'ron,  in  classical  mythology,  the  son  of 
Erebus  and  Nox,  is  first  mentioned  by  the  later 


writers  of  Greece.  His  duty  was  to  ferry  the 
shades  of  the  buried  dead  across  the  rivers  of  the 
under-world.  For  this  service  he  exacted  an 
obolus  from  each,  and  in  consequence,  a  coin  of 
this  kind  was  placed  in  the  mouth  of  the  dead. 
If  this  rite  was  neglected,  Charon  refused  to  con¬ 
vey  the  unhappy  shade  across,  and  it  was  doomed 
to  wander  restlessly  along  the  shores  of  Acheron. 

Charr  ( Salmoumbh ),  a  fish  of  the  same  genus 
with  the  salmon,  occurring  in  the  lakes  of  Britain 
and  of  the  Continent  of  Europe. 

Chart,  a  marine  or  hydrographical  map  ex¬ 
hibiting  a  portion  of  a  sea  or  other  water,  with 
the  islands,  coasts  of  contiguous  land,  soundings, 
currents,  etc. 

Cliarta,  Magna.  The  Great  Charter  which 
was  granted  by  King  John  of  England  to  the 
barons,  and  has  been  viewed  by  after-ages  as  the 
basis  of  English  liberties.  The  oppressions  and 
exactions  of  a  tyrannical  and  dastardly  Sovereign 
called  into  existence  a  confederacy  of  the  barons 
or  tenants-in-chief  of  the  Crown,  who  took  up 
arms  for  the  redress  of  their  grievances.  Their 
demand  was  for  the  restoration  of  the  laws  of 
Henry  I. ;  laws  which  might  probably  be  char¬ 
acterized  as  an  engrafting  of  Norman  feudalism 
on  the  “ancient  custom  of  England.”  A  confer¬ 
ence  between  the  Sovereign  and  the  barons  was 
held  at  Runnymede.  King  and  barons  encamped 
opposite  each  other;  and  after  several  days’ 
debate,  John  signed  and  sealed  the  charter  with 
great  solemnity  on  June  15,  1215.  The  copy  pre¬ 
served  in  Lincoln  Cathedral  is  regarded  as  the 
most  accurate  and  complete;  and  a  fac-simile  of 
it  was  engraved  by  order  of  the  late  Board  of 
Commissioners  on  the  public  records.  The  Great 
Charter  and  Charter  of  the  Forests  are  printed  with 
English  translations,  and  prefixed  to  the  edition 
of  the  Statutes  of  the  Realm  published  by  the 
Record  Commission. 

Cha'rter  (Lat.  cliarta;  Gr.  chartes,  paper,  or 
anything  written  upon,  from  charasso,  to  scratch 
or  write).  In  its  most  general  signification,  it  is 
nearly  synonymous  with  deed  and  instrument,  and 
is  applied  to  almost  any  formal  writing,  in  evi¬ 
dence  of  a  grant,  contract,  or  other  transaction 
between  man  and  man.  In  another  sense  it  signi¬ 
fies  an  instrument  by  which  powers  and  privi¬ 
leges  are  conferred  by  the  State  on  a  select  body 
of  persons  for  a  special  object. 

Charter-house  (a  corruption  of  Chartreuse, 
i.  e.,  Carthusian)is  thenameof  a  famous  hospital, 
chapel,  and  schoolhouse  in  London. 

Char'ter-party  (Fr.  ckarlre-partie,  so  called 
from  such  documents  being  at  one  time  divided 
— in  Fr.  parti — and  one-half  given  to  each  party 
concerned),  the  title  given  to  a  contract  in  which 
the  owner,  or  master  of  a  ship,  with  consent  of 
the  owner,  lets  the  vessel,  or  a  portion  of  her,  to 
a  second  party,  for  the  conveyance  of  goods  from 
one  port  to  another;  hence  the  vessel  is  said  to  be 
chartered.  In  this  country  cars  are  also  chartered 
to  carry  freight  or  passengers  from  one  point  to 
another. 

Chart'ism,  a  movement  in  Great  Britain  for 
the  extension  of  political  power  to  the  great  body 
of  the  people,  arising  in  a  great  measure  out  of 
wide  spread  national  distress  and  popular  disap¬ 
pointment  at  the  results  of  ‘lie  Reform  Bill. 

Chartier,  Alain,  a  Frenchman  of  letters,  born 
probably  between  1380  and  1390,  and  died  in  the 
City  of  Avignon,  in  1449. 

Chartres,  a  city  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Eure-et-Loire,  forty-seven  miles  southwest  of 
Paris.  Pop.  (1876),  20,067. 

Chartreuse,  La  Grande,  a  celebrated  mon¬ 
astery  in  France,  in  the  department  of  Isere, 
famous  for  the  manufacture  of  a  liqueur  named 
after  it. 

Char'tulary  (Lat.  chartvlaria,  chartologia)  is  a 
collection  of  charters.  So  soon  as  anybody, 
ecclesiastical  or  secular,  came  to  be  possessed  of 
a  number  of  charters,  they  were  copied  into  a 
book  or  roll.  Such  book  or  roll  has  generally 
received  the  name  of  a  Chart ulary. 

Chase,  in  a  gun,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
greater  portion  of  the  length  between  the  muzzle 
and  the  trunnions. 

Chase,  Pliny  Earle,  born  Aug.  18,  1820,  be¬ 
came  Professor  of  Philosophy  at  Harvard,  and 
Secretary  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society. 
He  died  in  1886. 


Chase,  Salmon  Portland,  was  born  in 
Cornish,  N.  II.,  Jan.  13,  1808.  He  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  anti-slavery  convention 
which  met  in  Columbus  in  1841,  in  the  first 
“National  Liberty  Convention ”  of  1843,  in  the 
■  ‘  Southern  and  Western  Liberty  Convention”  of 
1845,  and  in  the  second  “National  Liberty  Con¬ 
vention”  of  1847.  He  also  presided  over  the 
“National  Convention”  of  1848,  which  nomi¬ 
nated  Van  Buren  for  President  and  Adams  for 
Vice-President.  In  1849  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Senate;  in  1855  he  was  elected  Governor  of 
Ohio,  and  was  reelected,  two  years  after.  He  was 
also  three  times  nominated  for  the  presidency, 
though  he  never  attained  that  dignity.  On  the 
accession  of  Lincoln  to  the  presidency,  in  March, 
1861,  Chase  became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury. 
It  was  under  his  management  that  Congress 
passed  the  Banking  Law  of  February,  1863, 
which,  as  amended  in  June,  1864,  is  still  in 
force.  In  December  of  the  year  in  which  he  re¬ 
signed  the  Secretaryship  of  the  Treasury,  Chase 
was  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States.  In  June,  1870,  he 
suffered  a  shock  of  apoplexy,  and  on  .May  7, 
1873,  he  died  at  New  York. 

Chase,  Samuel,  born  in  Maryland  in  1741, 
(died  in  1811),  became  a  lawyer  and  a  member  of 
the  early  Congresses,  and  signed  the  Declaration 
of  Independence.  He  was  afterward  Chief 
Justice  of  the  General  Court  of  Maryland,  and  in 
1796  Washington  appointed  him  Associate  Jus¬ 
tice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court. 

Chasidim  (Pietists),  this  name  anciently  de¬ 
noted  a  whole  class  of  Jewish  sects.  After  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  the  Jews,  with  regard  to 
their  observance  of  the  law  of  Moses,  were  di¬ 
vided  into  two  classes — Chasidim  and  Zadildm. 

Chasing,  the  art  of  working  raised  or  half- 
raised  figures  in  gold,  silver,  bronze  or  other 
metal. 

Cliasse,  music  composed  in  imitation  of  the 
chase,  and  performed  chiefly  by  horns,  occasion¬ 
ally  combined  with  other  wind  instruments. 

Cliasse,  David  Hendrik,  Baiion,  born  in 
Tied,  March  18,  1765;  became  a  Lieutenant  in 
1781,  and  Captain  in  1787.  As  Lieutenant-General 
of  the  Dutch  forces  in  1815,  he  added  to  his 
laurels  on  the  field  of  Waterloo.  After  the 
peace,  he  was  made  Governor  of  Antwerp  in 
1830,  and  defended  it  against  the  united  Belgians 
and  French  from  Nov.  29  till  Dec.  23,  1832,  when 
he  was  forced  to  surrender.  HediedinMay,  1849. 

Chasseurs  (Fr.  hunters)  is  a  name  used  for 
two  important  forces  in  the  French  army.  The 
mounted  chasseurs  ( chasseurs-a-clieval )  are  a  body 
of  light  cavalry  designed  for  service  in  advance  or 
on  the  flanks  of  the  army.  The  infantry  chasseurs 
( cliasseurs-d-pied )  are  a  light  infantry  force,  in 
many  respects  corresponding  with  the  cavalry 
chasseurs,  and  like  them  intended  for  detached 
service. 

Chasuble  (Lat.  casula,casubuln,  and  cassibula), 
the  uppermost  garment  worn  by  priests  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  when 
robed  for  the  celebration  of  the 
mass. 

Chastelard,  Pierre,  a 
French  poet,  born  in  1540, 
who  became  a  favorite  with 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  and 
was  executed  in  1563  for  hav¬ 
ing  concealed  himself  in  the 
Queen’s  bedroom. 

Chat  ( Saxi'cola ),  a  genus  of 
small  birds  of  the  very  numer¬ 
ous  family  of  frylviadce.  The 
yellow-breasted  chat  of  the 
United  States  ( Ideria  poly- 
glotta)  is  a  larger  bird,  and  be¬ 
longs  to  the  family  Tierdidas  or 
Merulida. 

Chat  Moss,  a  bog  in  Lanca¬ 
shire,  the  largest  in  England, 
about  7,000  acres  in  extent, 
and  celebrated. as  having  been 
the  scene  of  the  first  great  and 
successful  efforts  for  the  re¬ 
claiming  of  bogs. 

Chateaubriand,  Francois  Auguste,  Vicomte 
de,  French  author,  born  Sept.  4,  1769.  He 
became  a  Peer  of  France  and  Minister  of  State, 


CHATELOT-LOMONT. 


272 


CHE-KEANG. 


refused  to  take  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  Louis 
Philippe,  and  died  July  4,  1848. 

Cliatelot-Lomont,  Gabrielle  Emilie,  Mar¬ 
quise  du,  a  learned  French  woman,  notorious  for 
her  intimacy  with  Voltaire,  was  bom  at  Paris, 
Dec.  17,  1706;  died  Sept.  10,  1749. 

Chat 'ham  (Sax.  Ceteham  or  Ccetlham,  under¬ 
stood  to  signify  the  village  of  cottages),  a  parlia¬ 
mentary  borough  of  Kent,  England.  Pop.  (1881), 
46,806. 

Chatham  Islands,  a  small  group  in  the  Pacific, 
lying  about  450  miles  east  of  t lie  South  Island  of 
New  Zealand,  to  which  they  belong.  There  are 
three  islands— of  which  the  largest,  Chatham 
Island,  is  twenty-five  miles  long — and  some  rocky 
islets.  Total  area,  628  square  miles;  pop.  about 
200,  mostly  Maoris  and  Europeans,  with  a  few 
aborigines. 

Chatham,  William  Pitt,  Earl  of,  sometimes 
styled  Pitt  the  Elder,  English  statesman, 
born  Nov.  15,  1708.  In  1735  he  entered  Par¬ 
liament  for  Old  Sarum.  In  1756  lie  became 
nominally  Secretary  of  State,  but  was  virtually 
Premier.  He  resigned  in  April,  1 757,  was  recalled 
in  June,  and  again  resigned  in  1761.  Until 
1766  Pitt  remained  out  of  office.  In  1766  he 
received  the  royal  commands  to  form  a  minis¬ 
try.  He  undertook  the  task,  choosing  for  himself 
the  office  of  Privy  Seal,  with  a  seat  in  the  House 
of  Lords  as  Viscount  Pitt  and  Earl  of  Chatham. 
Ill  health  prevented  him  from  taking  any  active 
part  in  this  ministry,  of  which  he  was  nominally 
the  head,  and  he  resigned  in  1768.  He  died  May 
11,  1778. 

Chattalioo'chee  River  rises  in  the  northeast 
corner  of  Georgia,  becomes  the  boundary  between 
it  and  Alabama,  and  finally,  after  receiving  the 
Flint,  crosses  Florida,  under  the  name  of  Appa- 
lachicola,  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Total  length 
550  miles;  navigable  for  300. 

Chattanooga,  a  city  in  the  southeast  corner  of 
Tennessee,  a  shipping  center  on  the  Tennessee 
river,  with  good  railway  connections.  Pop, 
20,000. 

Chattanooga,  Battle  of.  This  important  Fed¬ 
eral  victory  was  gained  on  the  evening  of  Nov. 
25.  1863,  and  was  the  last  of  the  great  series  of 
fights  which  practically  put  an  end  to  the  war 
in  Tennessee  for  a  year.  The  Union  forces  under 
Thomas  had  beenbesieged  in  Chattanooga,  and 
had  much  difficulty  in  obtaining  supplies.  Grant 
arrived  with  reinforcements,  and  the  lines  of 
supply  were  opened.  The  Confederate  forces 
under  Bragg  occupied  a  commanding  position  on 
Lookout  Mountain  and  Mission  Ridge.  On  No¬ 
vember  24th,  Hooker  (Fighting  Joe)  with.  10, 000 
men,  stole  up  Lookout  Mountain  in  the  fog, 
drove  the  enemy  out,  took  2,000  prisoners,  and 
camped  for  the  night  “  above  the  clouds.”  Next 
day  Sherman  assailed  the  Confederate  left,  which 
was  strongly  intrenched  on  Mission  Ridge.  The 
fight  was  a  most  desperate  one,  but  in  the  after¬ 
noon  three  divisions  of  Thomas’  army  under 
Sheridan,  T.  J.  Wood,  and  Baird,  stormed  the 
Ridge,  captured  the  enemy’s  cannon  and  turned 
them  on  the  flying  foe.  In  the  three  days’  fight¬ 
ing  the  Union  loss  was  750  killed,  and  about 
4,900  wounded  and  missing.  The  Confeder¬ 
ates  lost  about  4,000  killed  and  wounded, 
but  more  than  6,000  prisoners  were  taken  and  40 
cannon  and  7,000  stand  of  small  arms. 

Cliat'tel  (Fr.  chatel,  Old  Fr.  chaptel,  from 
Lat.  capitals,  corrupted  into  captale  and  catallum, 
meaning  the  capital  or  principal  sum  in  a  loan; 
hence  goods  in  general,  especially  cattle,  as  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  land)  is  a  term  used  to  designate 
any  kind  of  property  which,  with  reference  either 
to  the  nature  of  the  subject  or  the  character  of 
the  interest  possessed  in  it,  is  not  freehold. — Chat¬ 
tel  mortgage  is  a  mortgage  on  personal  property 
or  movable  chattels.  It  is  usually  given  for  col¬ 
lateral  security. 

Chat'terer,  a  significant  popular  name,  often 
applied  to  the  birds  of  the  family  Ampelidce,  a 
family  of  the  order  Insessores  and  tribe  Denti- 
rostres,  having  a  depressed  bill  like  that  of  the 
Fly-catcliers  (Muscicapidce),  but  somewhat  shorter 
and  broader  in  proportion  and  slightly  arched. 
To  this  family  belong  the  cotingas,  wax-wings, 
piauliaus,  caterpillar-hunters,  etc. 

Chat  terton,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  born 
at  Bristol,  Nov,  20,  1752,  and  died  Aug.  25, 


1770.  He  exhibited  to  his  friends  copies  of  old 
poems,  which  he  said  were  composed  by  one 
Thomas  Rowley,  a  monk  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
JEd«,  and  the  i  ragedy  of  Godwin  are  his  greatest 
and  best-known  works. 

Chau'cer,  Geoffrey,  the  father  of  English 
poetry,  was  born  about  1340.  While  at  the  uni¬ 
versity  he  wrote  The  Court  of  Love,  and  The  Book 
of  Troilus  and  Gresseide.  He  espoused  Philippa, 
youngest  daughter  of  Sir  Payne  Roet,  whose  es¬ 
tate  lay  in  Hainault.  His  wife’s  sister,  Kather¬ 
ine,  ultimately  became  the  wife  of  John  of  Gaunt, 
Duke  of  Lancaster.  He  was  sent  on  an  embassy 
to  Genoa  in  1372,  and  on  that  occasion,  has  been 
supposed  by  some  to  have  had  an  interview  with 
Petrarch,  then  residing  at  Padua,  and  to  have 
heard  from  his  lips  the  story  of  Qriselda.  Where 
he  spent  his  closing  years,  can  not  now  be  ascer¬ 
tained.  Godwin  surmises  that  in  his  distress  lie 
retired  to  Woodstock,  and  composed  there  Jlie 
Canterbury  Tales.  He  died  Oct.  25,  1400. 

Cliauncey,  Isaac,  born  in  Connecticut  in  1872, 
enteredthe  United  StatesNavy,  and  in  the  War  of 
1812commanded  the  fieeton  the  lakes.  On  Oct.  5, 
1813,  lie  captured  five  English  vessels,  and  later 
blockaded  Kingston.  He  had  command  of  the 
New  York  navy  yard,  and  the  Mediterranean 
squadron,  and  died  in  1840. 

Clianncy,  Charles,  born  in  England  in  1592, 
became  a  professor  at  Cambridge,  and  minister  of 
the  Church  of  England.  Adopting  Puritan  ten¬ 
ets,  he  was  prosecuted  and  fined,  then  came  to 
America,  become  a  pastor  in  Massachusetts,  and 
was  second  President  of  Harvard  College.  He 
died  in  1672. — Charles,  his  great-grandson,  born 
1705,  died  1787,  was  sixty  years  minister  of  one 
parish. — Another  Charles,  born  1747,  died  1823, 
was  Judge  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Connecticut. 
His  son,  of  the  same  name  (1777-1849)  was  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  lawyer. 

Chautauqua,  a  village  on  the  lake  of  the  same 
name  in  Western  New  York,  built  for  a  summer 
resort,  under  the  auspices  of  an  assembly  of  evan¬ 
gelical  ministers  and  laymen.  It  has  several 
hundred  cottages,  fine  hotels,  and  public  build¬ 
ings,  and  in  the  season  is  the  assembling  place  of 
thousands  of  visitors. 

Chauvenet,  William,  born  in  Pennsylvania, 
May  24,  1819,  was  a  distinguished  mathematician 
and  astronomer,  and  Chancellor  of  the  University 
of  St.  Louis.  He  died  in  1870. 

Chaux  de  Fouds,  a  town  of  Switzerland,  in 
the  Canton  of  Neuchatel.  Pop.  (1880),  22,456. 

Cliay  Root,  Choya,  or  Sayan  ( Oldenlandia 
umbellata),  a  perennial  herbaceous  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Cinchonaceee,  said  to  be  a  native 
both  of  India  and  of  Mexico,  is  highly  valued  for 
its  coloring  matter. 

Cheating.  In  the  technical  language  of  the 
law,  cheating  means  the  offense  of  fraud¬ 
ulently  obtaining  the  property  of  another  by  any 
deceitful  or  illegal  practice  short  of  felony,  but  in 
such  a  way  as  that  the  public  interest  may  pos¬ 
sibly  be  affected. 

Check,  a  variegated  cloth,  the  pattern  of  which 
consists  of  rectangular  spaces  like  a  chess-board 
(Fr.  echec,  chess),  in  black  and  white,  or  of  vari¬ 
ous  colors.  Also  an  order  for  money  on  a  banker 
or  other  party  having  funds  of  the  drawer. 

Checkers.  See  Draughts. 

Chedu'ba,  an  island  off  Aracan,  in  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  stretching  from  latitude  18°  40'  to  18° 
56'  N.,  and  from  longitude  93°  31 '  to  93°  50'  E. 
Area  about  250  square  miles.  Pop.,  9,000. 

Cheese,  the  common  form  in  which  the  caseine 
of  milk  is  used  in  a  separate  state  as  an  article  of 
food.  In  the  preparation  of  cheese  the  milk  is 
gently  heated  to  a  temperature  of  110°  to  112Q  F., 
and  placed  in  a  large  wooden  tub,  where  the 
rennet  is  added,  and  the  operation  of  earning  goes 
on.  In  about  half  an  hour  the  curd  is  sufficiently 
formed.  The  liquid  whey  being  pressed  out,  the 
curd  is  chopped  into  small  pieces  of  the  size  of  a 
walnut  by  a  knife,  called  a  curd-cutter,  salt  is 
added,  and  the  fragments  of  curd  introduced  into 
a  cloth  placed  in  a  cheese-vat  or  cliessart,  which 
is  a  wooden  tub  of  varying  size  and  shape,  per¬ 
forated  at  the  sides  and  bottom.  The  whole  is 
then  put  under  a  cheese-press,  and  subjected  to 
great  pressure,  which  consolidates  the  curd  or 
caseine,  and  at  the  same  time  squeezes  out  the 
remaining  portions  of  whey.  After  two  or  three  I 


hours,  the  half-formed  cheese  is  turned  and  re¬ 
turned,  each  time  being  subjected  to  renewed 
pressure,  till  in  about  two  days  it  is  sufficiently 
compact.  It  is  then  removed  from  the  clieese- 
vat  and  placed  on  a  shelf  in  a  dry.  airy  room, 
where,  being  repeatedly  turned,  it  gradually 
dries,  and  gets  aged  or  seasoned  sufficiently  for 
market  in  about  six  months. 

Cheese'-hoppcr,  the  larva  of  Piophila  casei  or 
Tyrophaga  casei,  a  small  dipterous  (two-winged) 
fly,  of  the  large  family  muscides,  the  same  to 
which  the  house  fly,  blow-fly,  etc.,  belong.  It  is 


Cheese-hopper. 

a,  larva,  natural  size;  b,  larva,  magnified,  preparing  to 
spring;  c,  perfect  insect,  natural  size;  d,  magnified, 
a  pest  of  dairies  and  store-closets,  laying  its  egg 
in  cracks  or  crevices  of  cheese,  the  destined  food 
of  its  larvae. 

Cheetah,  an  animal  of  the  feline  family;  but 
differing  from  the  rest  of  that  family  in  its 
longer  and  narrower  feet  and  less  retractile  claws, 
which  are  also  more  blunt  and  and  less  curved. 
With  these  peculiarities  are  associated  a  greater 
length  of  limbs  than  is  usual  in  feline  animals, 
adapting  it  to  take  its  prey  by  running  rather 
than  by  leaping,  and  an  intelligent  and  tractable 


Cheetah. 


disposition,  constituting  an  additional  point  of 
resemblance  to  dogs;  with  which,  however,  the 
form  of  the  head  and  the  internal  anatomy  have 
nothing  in  common,  but  are  entirely  feline.  The 
cheetah  is  in  size  about  equal  to  a  leopard,  but 
the  body  and  limbs  are  longer.  It  is  widely  dis¬ 
tributed,  being  found  in  Senegal,  South  Africa, 
Persia,  India,  Sumatra,  etc. 

Clie-foo  ( Chi-fu ),  a  Chinese  treaty  port  on  the 
north  side  of  the  Peninsula  of  Shan-tung. 

Cheiro'Iepis,  a  genus  of  fossil  ganoid  fish, 
peculiar  to  the  Devonian  measures. 

Cheiromancy  (Gr.  cheir,  the  hand;  manteia, 
prophecy),  or  Palmistry,  a  form  of  divination 
that  professes  to  read  the  destiny  of  an  individual 
by  the  lineaments  of  the  hand. 

Cheironec'tes,  a  genus  of  marsupial  quadru¬ 
peds,  differing  from  the  opossums  chiefly  in  hav¬ 
ing  webbed-feet  and  aquatic  habits.  C.palmalus 
or  C.  Yapock,  sometimes  called  the  Yapock 
Opossum,  or  simply  the  Yapock,  from  the  South 
American  river  of  that  name,  is  common  in  many 
rivers  of  Brazil  and  Guiana. 

Cheirothe'rium,  the  name  given  by  Dr.  Kaup 
to  the  animal  which  produced  the  peculiar  hand¬ 
like  impressions  (hence  the  name,  hand-beast) 
on  the  Triassic  rocks  of  England  and  Germany. 

Clieke,  Sir  John,  one  of  the  revivers  of  classi¬ 
cal  literature  in  England  during  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  born  at  Cambridge,  June  16,  1514. 
He  labored  earnestly  to  advance  the  study  of 
the  Greek  language  and  literature;  and  when  the 
first  professorship  of  Greek  was  founded  in  Cam¬ 
bridge  by  King  Henry  VIII.,  about  1540,  Cheke 
was  appointed  professor.  He  died  in  1557. 

Clie-keang,  one  of  the  eastern  and  maritime- 
provinces  of  China,  the  smallest  of  the  eighteen. 
Pop.,  according  to  the  Chinese  census  of  1812, 
26,256,784.  Area,  39,150  square  miles. 


CHELICERiE. 


273 


CHERRY. 


Chelicei’ae,  or  antennal  claws,  modified  an¬ 
tennae,  which,  in  some  of  the  crustaceans,  and 
in  most  of  the  arachnida,  serve  a  purpose  cor¬ 
responding  with  that  of  the  mandibles  of  insects 
in  the  cutting,  tearing,  or  bruising  of  food. 

Chelonia  (Gr.  chelone,  a  tortoise),  an  order  of 
reptiles,  corresponding  in  extent  with  the  genus 
Testudo  of  Linnaeus,  and  of  which  the  most  obvi¬ 
ous  distinguishing  character  is  the  enclosure  of 
the  whole  body  in  a  protectivecovering  connected 
with  the  skeleton,  so  that  only  the  head,  the 
tail,  and  the  limbs  are  protruded;  the  limbs,  four 
in  number,  and  all  formed  on  the  same  plan,  are 
used  by  some  as  feet  for  walking  on  dry  ground, 
by  others  as  paddles  for  swimming.  The  bony 
covering  consists  of  two  principal  parts,  called 
carapace  and  the  plastron;  the  carapace  serving  as 
a  buckler  for  the  upper  parts,  and  the  plastron 
for  the  under  parts  of  the  body.  The  flesh  of 
some  kinds  of  turtle  is  well  known  as  an  excellent 
article  of  food.  The  eggs  of  some  are  equally  an 
esteemed  delicacy.  Tortoise-shell  and  the  oil  are 
the  only  other  valuable  products  of  the  order. 

Chel  'sea,  a  suburb  of  London,  England,  four 
and  one-lialf  miles  west-southwest  of  St.  Paul’s. 
Pop.  (1881),  366,516. 

Chelsea,  a  city  of  Suffolk  county,  Mass.,  prac¬ 
tically  a  suburb  of  Boston.  Pop.,  25,709. 

Cheltenham,  an  English  watering-place  in 
Gloucestershire.  Pop.,  45,000. 

Cheltenham,  a  suburb  of  Chicago,  nine  miles 
south  of  the  city,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 

Chemical  Nomenclature  andNotalion.  In 
early  times,  chemical  substances  -were  named 
according  to  the  fanciful  theories  of  alchemy. 
In  1787,  Lavoisier  founded  the  system  of  nomen¬ 
clature  which  is  followed  still  by  chemists.  At 
first,  it  was  intended  that  the  names  of  simple  as 
well  as  compound  substances  should  be  regulated 
by  system.  Hence  such  terms  as  oxygen  (from 
oxus,  acid,  and  gennao,  to  produce),  the  acid-pro¬ 
ducer ,  given  from  the  notion  then  held  that  no 
acid  was  without  oxygen.  But  with  the  advance 
of  chemistry,  a  more  rational  nomenclature  has 
prevailed  and  the  systematized  nomenclature  is 
restricted  to  compound  substances.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  chemical  name  of  an  elementary  sub¬ 
stance  does  not  convey  any  scientific  meaning, 
and  must  be  regarded  as  a  simple  mark  or  desig¬ 
nation.  The  ancient  and  more  common  metals 
retain  their  popular  titles,  such  as  gold,  silver, 
and  copper;  but  the  more  recently  discovered 
metals  have  names  given  which  end  in  urn.  The 
symbol  of  an  element  is  obtained  from  the  first 
letter  of  its  Latin  name,  as  O  for  oxygen;  PI  for 
lead  (Lat.  plumbum).  When  the  names  of  two  or 
more  elements  commence  with  the  same  letter  a 
second  letter  is  attached.  Such  as  S  for  sulphur, 
Se  for  selenium,  and  Si  for  silicon.  The  name  of 
a  compound  substance  generally  indicates  the 
elements  of  which  it  is  composed,  as  Oxide  of 
Iron  composed  of  oxygen  and  iron.  When  two 
elements  combine  with  each  other  in  more  than 
one  proportion  or  equivalent  the  names  of  the 
compound  bodies  are  contrived  so  as  to  express 
this,  as  monoxide,  dioxide,  etc.  If  a  symbol  be 
employed  alone,  it  represents  one  equivalent  of 
the  element.  Thus,  O  signifies  one  equivalent, 
or  16 parts  by  weight,  of  oxygen;  C,  one  equiva¬ 
lent,  or  12  parts  by  weight,  of  carbon;  H,  one 
equivalent,  or  one  part  by  weight,  of  hydrogen. 
The  combination  of  two  elements  is  represented 
by  placing  the  symbols  for  those  elements  side  by 
side;  thus  H20  signifies  2  equivalents  of  hydrogen 
and  one  equivalent  of  oxygen  in  a  state  of  chem¬ 
ical  combination  (viz.,  water).  In  the  construc¬ 
tion  of  the  formulas  of  complex  substances,  the 
period (.)  and  plus  sign  (-)-)  are  often  introduced; 
the  former  to  separate  the  symbols  of  substances 
which  are  united  in  molecules  and  the  latter  to 
express  addition.  Large  figures  placed  at  the 
left  hand  of  a  formula  multiply  all  the  symbols 
till  a  period  or  plus  sign  appears.  Thus,  3II2S04 
represents  three  equivalents  of  sulphuric  acid. 
When  a  compound  substance  requires  to  be  mul¬ 
tiplied,  it  is  enclosed  within  parentheses,  and  a 
small  figure  placed  immediately  after  it;  thus, 
FeK  (S04)2.12H20,  representing  potassio-ferric 
sulphate  of  aluminium,  or  potassium-iron 
alum,  which  contains  one  equivalent  each  of  iron 
(Fe)  and  potassium  (K),  two  equivalents  of  sul¬ 
phuric  tetroxide  (S04)  forming  the  sulphate 


of  iron  and  potassium;  and  12  parts  of  water 
(H20). 

Chemistry  may  be  defined  as  that  branch  of 
natural  science  which  considers  (1)  The  combina¬ 
tion  of  two  or  more  substances  to  form  a  third 
body,  with  properties  unlike  either  of  its  compo¬ 
nents;  and  (2)  The  separation  from  a  compound 
substance  of  the  more  simple  bodies  present  in  it. 
Inorganic  Chemistry  takes  cognizance  of  dead 
matter,  and  the  changes  it  undergoes,  whilst  Or¬ 
ganic  Chemistry  considers  the  substances  ob¬ 
tained  from  plants  and  animals.  Practical  chem¬ 
istry  is  subdivided  into  Analytical  Chemistry, 
which  is  occupied  with  the  separation  of  simple 
substances  from  more  complex,  and  to  the  esti¬ 
mation  of  the  quantities  of  the  several  ingredi¬ 
ents;  and  Synthetical  Chemistry,  which  has  for  its 
object  the  union  of  simpler  bodies  to  form  more 
complex.  The  Egyptians  appear  to  have  pos¬ 
sessed  more  of  chemical  knowledge  than  any 
other  nation  of  antiquity.  The  prosecution  of 
chemical  knowledge  was  taken  up  by  the  Arabs 
before  the  eighth  century,  and  was  carried  on  by 
them  and  their  European  scholars,  the  alchemists. 
But  the  first  germs  of  a  real  science  of  chemistry 
appear  about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth,  and  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  eighteenth  centuries  in  the  specula¬ 
tions  of  Beclier,  and  the  phlogistic  theory  of 
Stahl.  After  this,  chemistry  rapidly  advanced. 
In  1770,  Priestley  began  to  announce  his  discover¬ 
ies  of  oxygen,  ammonical,  hydrochloric,  and  sul¬ 
phurous  acid  gases,  etc.  In  1773-1786,  Scheele 
contributed  chlorine,  hydrofluoric,  prussic,  tar¬ 
taric,  and  gallic  acids;  also  baryta,  phosphoric 
acid  from  bones,  etc.,  and  gave  tile  first  hints  re¬ 
garding  a  new  doctrine  of  combustion.  About 
the  same  time  Bergman  and  Cavendish  enlarged 
our  knowledge  of  the  gases.  Lavoisier,  between 
1770  and  1794,  reorganized  much  of  the  then 
known  chemistry,  and  founded  a  system  of  chem¬ 
istry  which  still  remains  as  the  skeleton  of  the 
science.  Richter  devoted  himself  to  the  doctrine 
of  combining  proportion,  which  was  afterward 
perfected  by  Dalton.  The  discovery  of  galvanic 
electricity  by  Galvani,  and  its  advancement  by 
Volta,  led  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  and  others,  to  im¬ 
portant  researches  in  the  metals  and  gases.  Gay 
Lussac  and  Thenard  advanced  our  knowledge  re¬ 
garding  organic  substances  and  the  chemical  re¬ 
lations  of  heat.  Berzelius  made  laborious 
researches  in  mineral  chemistry,  and  gave  an  ex¬ 
actness  to  this  department  which  is  matter  of 
astonishment  to  the  chemists  of  the  present  day. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  the  electro-chemical 
theory,  which  has  been  almost  perfected  by  the 
labors  of  Faraday,  De  la  Rive,  Becquerel,  and 
others.  The  science  of  chemistry  is  to-day  one  of 
the  most  exact  sciences,  and  enters  largely  into 
almost  every  department  of  industry  and  art. 

Chemnitz,  a  town  of  Saxony,  is  situated  at 
the  base  of  the  Erzgebirge,  and  at  the  confluence 
of  the  River  Chemnitz  with  three  other  rivers,  in 
latitude  50°-  50'  N.,  and  longitude  17°  55'  E. 
Pop.  (1880),  95,123. 

Chemnitz,  Martin,  a  distinguished  German 
Protestant  theologian,  was  born  Nov.  9,  1522. 
His  greatest  ecclesiastical  achievement  was  induc¬ 
ing  the  Saxon  and  Swabian  churches  to  adopt  as 
their  confession  of  faith  the  Concordienformcl,  and 
thus  extending  and  consolidating  the  creed  of 
Luther.  He  died  at  Brunswick,  April  8,  1586. 

Chemnitzia,  a  genus  of  gasteropodous  mollus- 
ca.  It  is  a  slender,  elongated,  many-whorled 
shell;  the  whorls  striated;  a  simple  semi-oval  aper¬ 
ture;  and  a  horny  operculum. 

Chenub,  the  largest  of  the  five  rivers  which 
give  name  to  the  Punjab. 

Chenopodi'aceae,  or  Salsolacese,  a  natural  order 
of  exogenous  plants.  The  fruit  is  membranous, 
inclosed  in  the  perianth,  which  sometimes 
becomes  fleshy.  The  seed  has  a  curved  or  spiral 
embryo.  There  are  about  360  known  species,  in¬ 
cluding  beet  and  spinach. 

Chenopo'dium,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Chenopodiacece,  of  which  some  of 
the  species  are  known  by  the  name  of  Goosefoot, 
as  weeds  growing  in  gardens. 

Cher,  a  tributary  of  the  River  Loire,  which  it 
joins  below  Tours.  Its  whole  length  is  about  200 
miles. — Cher,  the  central  department  of  France, 
to  which  the  above  river  gives  its  name,  is  situated 


in  latitude  46°  25' — 47°  39'  N.,  and  in  longitude 
1°  55' — 3°  10'  E.  Area,  2,700  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1876),  345,613. 

Cherbourg,  a  fortified  seaport  town  and 
arsenal  of  France  in  the  department  of  Manche, 
at  the  head  of  a  bay  on  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  Peninsula  of  Cotentin,  on  the  English  Chan¬ 
nel,  and  opposite  the  west  coast  of  t lie  Isle  of 
Wight,  in  latitude  49°  40'  N.,  and  longitude 
1°  35'  W.  Pop.,  36,000. 

Cherimoy'er,  or  Chirimoya  ( Anona  Cheri- 
molia),  the  most  esteemed  fruit  of  Brazil  and  Peru, 
now  common,  and  even  naturalized  in  some  parts 
of  the  East  Indies,  and  in  tropical  countries  of  the 
Old  World. 

Cherokee  Indians.  A  North  American  tribe, 
which  formerly  inhabited  the  upper  Valley  of  the 
Tennessee  and  portions  of  the  Carolinas  and 
Georgia.  They  first  came  in  conflict  with  the 
white  settlers  in  1759-63,  and  in  the  Revolution¬ 
ary  War,  acted  with  the  English.  Most  of  them 
were  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory  in  1838, 
but  several  thousands  still  occupy  reservations  in 
North  Carolina. 

Cherokee  Strip,  or  Outlet,  the  gateway  to 
Oklahoma,  extends  from  the  96th  to  the  100th 
parallel  of  W.  longitude,  and  from  36°  11'  to 
37°  N.  latitude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Kansas;  east  by  the  Cherokee  Nation;  south  by 
the  Creek  country,  Oklahoma,  and  the  Seminole 
lands;  and  west  by  Texas  and  the  strip  of  public 
land,  known  as  “  No  Man’s  Land.”  The  Strip  is 
crossed  from  northwest  to  Southeast  by  the 
Arkansas  river,  the  main  branch  of  which  enters 
it  a  few  miles  east  of  Arkansas  City,  Kan.  The 
Salt  Fork  of  the  Arkansas  enters  it  about  98°  50' 
and  at  97°  W.,  joins  the  main  river,  near  the 
center  of  the  strip.  The  Cimmaron  river  has  a 
general  course  from  northwest  to  southeast 
through  the  strip.  A  branch  of  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  A  Santa  Fe  Railroad  extends  from  Arkan¬ 
sas  City  south  to  Purcell,  and  a  branch  of  the 
Chicago,  Rock  Island  &  Pacific  runs  south  from 
Caldwell,  Kan.,  to  Pond  Creek.  In  the  west 
the  Panhandle  division  of  the  Atchison,  Topeka 
&  Santa  Fe  Railroad  runs  from  about  98°  30' 
southwest  to  the  Texas  border.  The  aborigines 
scattered  throughout  this  strip  of  land  include 
Osages,  Pawnees,  Kansas,  Arapahoes,  Cheyennes, 
and  other  treaty  tribes.  The  area  is  6,022,244 
acres,  and  the  land  was  leased  by  the  Cherokee 
Nation  July  7,  1883,  to  the  Cherokee  Strip  Live 
Stock  Association  for  a  term  of  five  years,  at  an 
annual  rental  of  $100,000.  A  new  lease  or  “  con¬ 
tract  for  grazing,”  was  made  in  October,  1888, 
the  rental  being  increased  to  $200,000  a  year. 
Secretary  Villas  notified  the  Principal  Chief  of 
the  Cherokees  that  this  arrangement  was  subject 
to  cancelation  under  the  Act  of  Congress  of 
March  2,  1889,  which  created  a  Commission  to 
arrange  for  the  purchase  of  the  lands  from  the 
Indians. 

Cherry  ( Cerasus ),  a  genus  or  sub-genus  of 
plants,  of  which  the  best  known  yields  one  of  our 
most  esteemed  stone-fruits.  This  is  usually  re¬ 
garded  as  a  sub-genus  of  Prumts,  but  is  erected 


Common  Cherry, 
a,  blossom. 


by  some  botanists  into  a  distinct  genus  on  very 
slender  grounds;  the  most  obvious  distinction 
between  the  species  of  Cerasus  and  the  true 
species  of  Prunus  being  that,  in  the  former,  the 
young  leaves  are  conduplicate,  or  folded  up,  and 
in  the  latter  they  are  convolute,  or  rolled  together. 
Two  species  are  generally  regarded  as  the  parents 


18 


CHERRY-LAUREL. 


274 


CHEVRONS. 


of  the  garden  cherries,  Prunus or  Cerasus  Avium, 
and  P.  cerasus  or  C.  vulgaris — the  former  having 
the  underside  of  the  leaves  hairy  and  a  small 
austere  fruit;  the  latter  having  smooth  shining 
leaves  and  a  more  juicy  fruit.  C.  Avium  attains 
a  height  of  40 — 50  feet.  C.  vulgaris  is  a  smaller 
tree. 

Cher  'ry- Laurel,  or  Lau'rel-Cherry,  a  name 
given  to  those  species  of  Prunus  or  Cerasus , 
which  have  evergreen  leaves. 

Chersone'sus,  the  ancient  name  of  several 
peninsulas  and  promontories  in  Europe,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  Crimea,  C.  Tamiea; 
Gallipoli,  C.  Thracia;  and  Jutland,  C.  Cimbrica. 

Chert  or  Horn 'stone,  a  variety  of  quartz, 
always  massive,  and  having  a  kind  of  granular 
appearance  and  structure.  It  is  common  in  the 
Mountain  Limestone,  Oolite,  and  Green-sand 
formations,  sometimes  from  rocks;  and  often  con¬ 
tains  petrifactions.  It  passes  into  common  quart z 
and  chalcedony,  also  into  flint  and  flinty  slate. 
Its  colors  are  gray,  white,  red,  yellow,  green,  or 
brown. 

Clier'ub,  in  the  plural  Cherubim  or  Cherubs ,  is 
the  Hebrew  name  of  a  winged  creature  with  a 
human  countenance,  which  in  the  Scriptures  is 
almost  always  represented  in  connection  with 
Jehovah,  and  especially  as  drawing  his  chariot- 
throne. 

Cherubi'ni,  Maria  Luigi  Carlo  Zenotsi  Sal¬ 
vador,  Italian  composer,  born  Sept.  8,  1760,  and 
died  March  15,  1842. 

Cheru'sci,  a  German  tribe  first  mentioned  by 
Caesar.  They  dwelt  north  of  the  Silva  Bacencis, 
or  Hartz  Forest,  buttheexact  boundaries  of  their 
territories  can  not  be  ascertained. 

Cher'vil  ( Anthviscus  Cerefolium ),  an  umbel¬ 
liferous  plant,  which  has  been  long  cultivated  as  a 
pot-herb,  and  used  in  soupsand  for  a  garnish,  etc., 
in  the  same  manner  as  parsley. 

Ches'apeake  Bay,  the  largest  inlet  on  the  At¬ 
lantic  coast  of  the  United  States,  being  200  miles 
long,  and  from  4  to  40  broad  Its  entrance,  12 
miles  wide,  has,  on  the  north,  Cape  Charles,  in 
37°  3'  N.  latitudeand  76°  2'  W.  longitude;  and, 
on  the  south.  Cape  Henry,  in  36°  56'  N.  latitude 
and  76  4'  W.  longitude,  both  promontories  being 
in  Virginia. 

Cites  'hire,  a  maritime  county  in  the  west  of 
England,  bounded  north  by  the  River  Mersey,  and 
partly  also  by  the  Irish  Sea,  in  52°  56'— 53°  04' 
N.  latitude  and  1°47'— 3°  11 '  W.  longitude.  Its 
greatest  length  is  58  miles;  greatest  breadth,  32; 
area,  1,052  square  miles. 

Ches'iiut,  or  Chestnut  (Caslanea),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  CupulHerce,  closely 
allied  to  the  Beech  ( Fagus ),  and  distinguished 


liranchlet,  with  Catkins,  of  Common  Chestnut 
(Castanea  vutgansyP'' 
a ,  fruit;  l>,  seed. 


from  it  by  long  male  catkins,  longitudinally  set 
with  groups  of  flowers,  a  5-8  celled  ovary,  and 
compressed  rounded  nuts.  The  name  is  derived 


from  the  town  of  Castanum,  near  Magnesia,  in 
Asia  Minor. 

Chess  (Fr.  echecs,  Ger.  schach).  This  game  is 
played  on  a  square  board  marked  out  into  sixty- 
four  square  divisions,  colored  alternately  black 
and  white.  In  placing  the  board  for  play,  each 
player  must  have  a  white  corner  square  at  his 
right  hand.  There  are  two  sets  of  pieces,  of 
opposite  colors,  of  sixteen  men  each  and  of 
various  powers  according  to  their  rank.  These 
sets  of  men  are  arrayed  opposite  to  each  other, 
and  attack,  defend,  and  capture.  The  accompany¬ 
ing  diagram  will  show  the  form  and  place  of 
each  piece  at  the  beginning  of  the  game. 

.Black. 


x  an 

—  sHf 

A 

ill 

■*N 

/////////„ /  ~  \V////////dZ'. 

WjM 

HJ 

i 

k 

m 

i  m 

i 

|jjj 

§§ 

in 

jj§ 

11 

B 

§U 

jj§ 

11 

n 

jj 

u 

B 

B 

111 

& 

i 

iff 

IMI 

m 

vP777?P777?/. 

SUP 

d////////d 

i  pj 

i 

White.' 

The  following  diagram  will  show  how  each 
square  is  named: 

TtOVTa 


•bsgb 

bsmb 

•bagb 

•bs  b 

-bs  a 

•bsaa 

b«iaa 

bn  as 

Q  R  8 

Q  Kt  8 

Q  B  8 

Q8 

K  8 

KBS 

K  Kt  8 

K  R  8 

Z  H  6 

Z  1H  b 

sab 

Z  b 

z  a 

z  a  a 

z  ta  a 

s  a  a 

Q  R7 

Q  Kt  7 

Q  B  7 

Q  7 

K  7 

K  B  7 

K  Kt  7 

K  R  7 

£  H  b 

£  13  b 

cab 

fib 

s  a 

£  a  a 

£  ia  a 

£  a  a 

Q  R  6 

Q  Kt  6 

Q  B  0 

Q0 

K  0 

K  BO 

k  Kte 

K  H8 

tub 

nab 

tab 

tb 

i  a 

tea 

OSS 

tan 

Q  R  5 

Q  Kt  5 

Q  B  6 

Q5 

K  5 

K  B  5 

K  Kt  5 

KBS 

S3  5 

g  ta  b 

sab 

S  b 

s  a 

s  a  a 

9ta  a 

sa  a 

Q  R  4 

Q  Kt  4 

Q  B  4 

Q  4 

K  4 

K  B  4 

K  Kt  4 

K  R« 

sab 

9  13  b 

9  a  b 

9  b 

9  a 

9  a  a 

9ia  a 

9a  a 

Q  R  3 

Q  Kt  3 

Q  B  3 

Q  3 

K  3 

K  B  3 

K  Kt  3 

K  R  8 

IHb 

I  ta  b 

l  a  b 

tb 

l  a 

l  a  a 

t  »a  a 

ta  a 

Q  R  2 

Q  Kt  2 

Q  B  2 

Q2 

K  2 

K  B  2’ 

K  Kt  2 

K  R  2 

83b 

8  13  b 

8  a  b 

8  b 

8  a 

8  a  a 

8ia  a 

sa  a 

QRsq. 

QKtsq 

QBsq. 

Qsq. 

E  sq 

KBsq. 

KKtsq 

KRsq. 

ribs.  The  contents  of  the  chest  are  the  heart,  the 
great  arteries  and  veins,  the  lungs,  the  trachea  or 
wind-pipe,  the  bronchi  or  branches  of  the  trachea, 
leading  to  the  lungs,  the  oesophagus  or  gullet, 
and  the  thoracic  duct,  or  general  terminus  of  the 
lymphatic  system  of  vessels,  by  which  the  chyle 
and  lymph  are  discharged  into  the  blood. 

Chester,  an  ancient  city,  the  capital  of  Cheshire, 
England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dee,  twenty-two 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  its  estuary,  sixteen  miles 
southeast  of  Liverpool.  Pop.,  36,778. 

Chester,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  ten  miles 
from  Philadelphia.  Pop.  (1889),  about  20,000. 

Chesterfield,  Earl  of  (Philip  Dormer  Stan¬ 
hope),  an  English  statesman  and  author, 
born  in  London,  Sept.  22,  1694.  In  Oc¬ 
tober,  1746,  he  became  one  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  Secretaries  of  State.  He  is  now 
best  known  by  his  Letters  to  His  Son, 
Philip  Dormer,  written  for  the  improve¬ 
ment  of  his  manners.  Lord  Chesterfield 
died  March  24,  1773. 

Chesterfield  Inlet,  along  and  narrow 
gulf,  penetrating  to  the  westward  from 
the  northwest  of  Hudson’s  Bay.  Its  ex¬ 
treme  dimensions  are  250  and  25  miles : 
and  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  its 
mouth  are  63°  30'  N.,  and  90“  40'  W. 

Chev'alier  (Fr.  cheval,  a  horse),  in 
Heraldry,  a  horseman  armed  at  all 
points.  '  In  its  more  general  acceptation 
it  signifies  a  knight. 

Chevalier,  Michel,  a  French  econo¬ 
mist,  born  Jan.  13,  1806.  He  was  named, 
successively,  Chevalier  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor,  Councillor  of  State  (1838),  a 
member  of  the  Superior  Council  of  Com¬ 
merce,  and  of  the  Royal  Council  of  the 
University;  and,  in  1840,  Professsor  of 
Political  Economy  in  the  College  of 
France.  He  became  a  Grand  Officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  1861,  and  died 
Nov.  28,  1879. 

Cheval-de-Frise,  in  Fortification,  is 
a  substitute  for  a  regular  abattis,  to  stay  the  prog¬ 
ress  of  an ad vanc- 
ingenemy.  It  may 
be  constructed  of 
wood  or  iron,  pro¬ 
vided  it  presents 
an  array  of  sharp 
or  ragged  points 
toward  the  en-  Cheval-de-Frise. 

emy.  Sometimes  it  is  made  of  barrels  or  centers 
of  timber,  with  spears  springing  out  from  all 
sides,  in  such  a  way  as  to  constitute  both  a  sup¬ 
port  and  a  defense. 

Cheviot  Hills,  a  mountain  range  occupying 
contiguous  parts  of  the  Counties  of  Northumber¬ 
land  and  Roxburgh,  on  the  English  and  Scotch 
borders. 

Chevreul,  Michel  Eitg^ne,  a  French  chemist, 
born  Aug.  31,  1786,  at  Angers.  In  1826,  he  was 
made  a  member  of  the  Academy;  and  in  1830, 
Professor  of  Applied  Chemistry  in  the  Museum 
of  Natural  History.  He  died  April  8,  1889. 

Chev'roii,  in  Heraldry,  an  ordinary  represent¬ 
ing  the  couples  or  rafters  of  a  house,  and  sup- 

T 


BLACK. 

1.  King's  Pawn  two. 

2.  King's  Bishop  to  Queen’s 

Bishop  4th. 

3.  King’s  Knight  to  King's 

Bishop  3d. 


WHITE. 

The  playing  over  of  the  following  short  game 
will  give  a  little  initiatory  practice: 

white. 

1.  King's  Pawn  two. 

2.  King's  Bishop  to  Queen's 

Bishop's  4th. 

3.  Queen  to  King's  Rook's 

5th. 

4.  Queen  takes  King’s  Bish¬ 

op’s  Pawn,  giving  Black 
checkmate. 

Chess,  a  grass  or  weed  found  in  wheat  fields 
and  ignorantly  believed  to  be  wheat  which  has 
deteriorated.  The  converse  proposition  that  chess 
could  be  developed  into  wheat  is  equally  base¬ 
less. 

Chest,  or  Tiio'rax,  in  anatomy,  is  that  part  of 
the  body  that  lies  beneath  the  neck  and  above  the 
abdomen,  constituting  the  uppermost  of  the  two 
divisions  of  the  trunk,  or  that  which  contains  the 
heart  and  lungs,  and  is  bounded  externally  by  the 


Chevron.  ChevroneL  Per  Chevron. 

posed  to  betoken  the  accomplishment  of  some 
memorable  work,  or  the  completion  of  some  busi¬ 
ness  of  importance,  generally  the  foundation  of 
his  own  family  by  the  bearer. 

Chevron,  in  Architecture,  a  moulding  in  the 
form  of  a  succession  of  chevrons,  otherwise  called 
a  zigzag  mold- 
mg.  •  • 

Chevrons  ' 
are  braids  or 
bands  of  lace, 
worn  as  distin- 
g  u  i  s  li  i  n  g 

marks  by  the  „  .  , 

non-  com-  Chevron  or  Zigzag,  Andover.  Hants. 

missioned  officers  of  the  army. 


CHEYENNE. 


275 


CHICAGO. 


Cheyenne,  the  capital  of  Wyoming  Territory, 
on  a  wide  plain  6,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Pop. 
<1889),  5,000. 

Cheyenne  Indians,  a  tribe  of  the  Algonquins, 
or  Dakotas,  first  met  with  by  Lewis  and  Clarke 
in  1803,  where  they  occupied  the  Black  Hills 
country.  The  United  States  Government  made 
many  treaties  with  them,  in  spite  of  which  they 
have  been,  until  recently,  in  constant  conflict  with 
the  whites.  In  1864  a  massacre  of  100  of  them 
by  a  body  of  Colorado  militia  brought  on  a  war 
which  lasted  many  months,  and  cost  hundreds  of 
lives  and  $30,000,000.  In  1867  there  was  more 
fighting  with  them  and  their  allies,  the  Arapahoes, 
but  finally  they  were  subdued  by  General  Custer. 
When,  in  1877,  it  was  decided  to  remove  the 
northern  remnant  to  the  Indian  Territory  there 
was  much  dissatisfaction.  The  next  year  several 
hundred  of  them  broke  aw'ay  and  the  story  of 
their  heroic  attempt  to  reach  their  old  home  in 
the  North  forms  one  of  the  most  romantic  chapters 
in  Indian  history. 

Chia 'na  (in  ancient  times,  Clan  in),  a  river  in 
Tuscany,  formed  by  several  streams  from  the 
Apennines,  and  falling  into  the  Arno  a  few  miles 
below  Arezzo. 

Cilia 'pa,  or  Chiapas,  a  State  in  the  southeast 
of  the  Mexican  Confederation,  lying  to  the  south¬ 
west  of  Y ucatan.  It  contains  about  19,000  square 
miles.  Pop.,  194,000. 

Chiar-oscu'ro  (Ital.),  an  artistic  term,  com¬ 
posed  of  two  Italian  words,  one  of  which  signifies 
light,  the  other  darkness  or  shadow.  But  chiar 
signifies  neither  light  nor  shadow;  neither  is  it 
adequately  described  by  saying  that  it  is  the  art  of 
disposing  of  both  the  lights  and  shadows  in  a 
picture,  so  long  as  either  is  regarded  apart  from 
the  other.  It  is  rather  the  art  of  representing 
light  in  shadow  and  shadow  in  light,  so  that  the 
parts  represented  in  shadow  shall  still  have  the 
clearness  and  warmth  of  those  in  light,  and  those 
in  light  the  depth  and  softness  of  those  in  shadow. 

Cliica,  a  red  feculent  substance,  valuable  as  a 
dye-stuff,  giving  an  orange-red  color  to  cotton. 
It  is  obtained  by  boiling  the  leaves  of  a  species  of 
Bignonia  (B.  Chica),  a  native  of  the  banks  of  the 
Cassiquiare  and  the  Orinoco. 

Cliica,  Pito,  Poso,  or  Maize  Beer,  is  a  fer¬ 
mented  liquor  made  from  maize  or  Indian  corn. 

Cliicaco'le,  a  town  of  the  district  of  Ganjam, 
in  the  presidency  of  Madras.  Pop.,  15,587. 

Chicago,  the  fourth  city  in  the  United  States 
in  point  of  population;  the  greatest  primary  grain 
and  cattle  market  in  the  world,  and  the  commer¬ 
cial  metropolis  of  the  Western  and  Northwestern 
States,  is  situated  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  in  latitude  41°  52'  N.  and  longitude 
87°  35'  AY.  Its  phenomenal  growth  transcends 
that  of  any  other  cily,  ancient  or  modern.  Only 
fifty-two  years  ago  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city, 
and  six  years  before  that  it  contained  but  twelve 
houses.  Now  it  has  a  pop.  of  fully  850,000, 
and  a  trade  of  hundreds  of  millions.  The  earliest 
visit  by  a  white  man  to  the  site  of  Chicago  is 
supposed  to  have  been  made  by  Joliet  and  Perc 
Marquette  in  1674.  It  was  not  until  1803  that 
the  United  States  built  a  fort  (Fort  Dearborn)  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Chicago  river.  This  was  aban¬ 
doned  in  1812,  when  the  retiring  garrison,  with 
most  of  the  few  settlers  who  had  found  their  way 
to  the  place,  were  massacred  by  Indians.  The 
fort  was  rebuilt  in  1816,  and  again  abandoned  in 
1837.  In  1835  a  small  village  had  grown  up,  and 
in  1841  it  was  a  city  with  a  pop.  of  4,170. 
Even  in  1848,  when  the  first  railroad  out  of  the 
city  was  opened,  it  possessed  but  12,000  people. 
With  the  opening  of  railroad  communication 
with  the  East  in  1852  Chicago  began  to  grow  rap¬ 
idly,  and  by  1871  it  had  become  the  talk  the 
world.  On  the  night  of  October  8th,  of  that  year 
occurred  the  great  catastrophe  of  its  existence. 
The  fire  which  burned  over  more  than  three 
square  miles,  and  destroyed  $200,000,000 of  prop¬ 
erty,  will  go  down  in  history  as  one  of  the  most 
stupendous  conflagrations  of  all  time.  But  neither 
this  nor  the  financial  troubles  which,  in  com¬ 
mon  with  the  entire  nation,  Chicago  had  to 
undergo  in  1873,  could  stunt  its  growth,  or  de¬ 
press  the  enterprise  of  its  citizens.  To-day  Chi¬ 
cago  presents  every  feature  of  a  great  metropolis. 
Its  trade  is  larger  than  ever,  and  constantly  in¬ 
creasing;  it  has  been  rebuilt  with  every  im¬ 


provement  modern  science  can  suggest,  and 
by  the  next  census  will  have,  in  ail  proba¬ 
bility,  a  million  souls  within  its  borders. 
The  site  of  Chicago  was  by  no  means  a  desirable 
one,  owing  to  the  marshy  condition  of  its  soil, 
but  the  advantages  of  location  on  the  lake  and 
river  outweighed  this  consideration  in  the  minds 
of  the  first  settlers.  As  the  city  grew  it  became 
evident  that  for  drainage  purposes  and  the  health 
of  the  people  the  grade  must  be  raised.  This 
was  accordingly  done,  and  the  city  now  stands  at 
a  sufficient  height  above  the  water  to  afford 
facilities  for  an  effective  system  of  sewerage. 
Chicago  extends  nine  miles  along  Lake  Michigan, 
and  has  a  breadth  of  about  four  miles.  The  area 
within  the  city  limits  thirty-six  square  miles,  and 
with  additions  made  in  the  spring  of  1889,  is 
over  forty  miles  The  Chicago  river,  which  has 
been  made  to  flow  out  of  Lake  Michigan,  divides 
the  city  into  three  sections,  known  as  the  South, 
North,  and  West  Sides.  The  main  stream  and 
two  branches  of  the  river  are  crossed  by  thirty-four 
swing-bridges,  and  there  are  two  tunnels,  one 
under  the  main  branch,  and  one  leading  to  the 
West  Side,  which  are  used  for  vehicle  and  pas¬ 
senger  traffic.  The  park  and  boulevard  system 
of  Chicago  is  one  of  the  most  extensive  in  the 
world.  To  the  north  lies  Lincoln  park,  310 
acres,  the  oldest  and  most  popular.  The  West 
Side  has  three;  Douglas  and  Garfield,  each  185 
acres,  and  Humboldt  225.  These  are  connected  by 
boulevards.  The  South  Park  system,  which  is 
reached  by  way  of  Michigan  avenue  boulevard, 
contains  two  divisions  of  372  and  593  acres  respect¬ 
ively.  The  latter  has  a  frontage  on  Lake  Michi¬ 
gan  of  one  and  one-half  miles,  and  the  two  em¬ 
brace  fourteen  miles  of  interior  drives,  and  thirty 
miles  of  walks.  The  larger  of  the  two  is  to  have 
a  series  of  interior  lakes  connected  with  Lake 
Michigan,  and  protected  by  a  pier  several  hun¬ 
dred  feet  long,  so  that  they  may  be  reached  by 
boats  from  the  lake.  The  approaches  to  these 
two  parks  are  two  roadways,  each  200  feet  wide, 
known  as  Grand  and  Drexel  boulevards.  The 
former  may  be  compared  to  the  Rotten  Row  in 
Hyde  Park,  London;  the  latter  is  modeled  after 
the  Avenue  l’lmpSratrice,  Paris,  with  a  con- 
tinuous  stretch  of  floral  ornamentation  in  the  center. 
All  these  parks  are  connected  by  roadways  vary¬ 
ing  from  150  to  300  feet  in  width,  and  affording  a 
continuous  drive  of  thirty-five  miles.  The  public 
buildings  are  all  new,  and  in  keeping  with 
the  present  needs  of  the  city.  The  County 
Building  and  City  Hall  is  a  double  building 
covering  a  large  block  in  the  business  center  and 
is  one  of  the  finest  structures  devoted  to  county 
and  municipal  purposes  in  the  world.  In  style  a 
free  treatment  of  the  French  Renaissance,  it  is  built 
of  upper  Silurian  limestone,  quarried  mainly 
along  the  Desplaines  river,  anti  adorned  with 
massive  columns  of  the  finest  granite.  The  length 
of  each  of  the  two  trades  is  340  feet,  the  width 
of  the  entire  building  280  feet,  and  its  height 
from  the  ground  line  124  feet.  The  interiors  of 
the  two  buildings  differ  somewhat  in  arrange¬ 
ment,  the  City  Hall  being  finished  in  white  oak 
and  much  coloring,  while  the  interior  of  the 
County  Building  is  plain  but  rich.  The  notable 
apartments  are  the  Council  chamber,  on  the 
fourth,  and  the  Public  Library,  on  the  fifth  floor. 
The  twin  buildings  cost,  completed,  $4,400,000. 
The  Custom  House  and  Post  Office  is  one  of  the 
largest  buildings  of  its  kind  in  the  country,  being 
342  feet  long  by  210  feet  in  width.  The  handsome 
interior  court  198  feet  by  83  feet,  open  to  the 
roof,  with  the  whole  of  the  rooms  on  the  first 
floor,  and  the  entire  basement,  are  occupied  by  the 
Post  Office  department.  The  amount  of  business 
transacted  annually  by  this  department  is  im¬ 
mense.  In  1887  its  receipts  were  $2,327,077,  and 
the  total  number  of  pieces  of  mail  matter 
delivered  within  the  city  limits  by  the  401  carriers, 
during  the  year  1887,  was  no  less  than  162,908,988. 
The  second  and  third  floor  offices  are  occupied  by 
the  Customs,  Internal  Revenue,  Sub-Treasury, 
Pension,  and  Interior  departments.  During  1887, 
duties  to  the  amount  of  $4,734,951  were  collected 
by  the  customs  on  merchandise  valued  at  $13,145,- 
563.  The  internal  revenue  collections  for  the 
same  period  amounted  to  $9,259,909,  of  which 
sum  $7,795,963  represented  beer  and  spirit  stamps, 
and  $853,105  cigars  and  tobacco.  The  entire  cost 


of  the  commodious  and  elegant  building  devoted 
to  these  various  purposes  was  about  $6,000,000. 
The  Inter-State  Exposition  building  on  the  Lake 
front,  has  a  national  reputation  as  the  place  of 
meeting  of  the  memorable  Republican  Convention 
of  1880,  and  the  conventions  of  both  the  great  parties 
in  1884.  For  a  number  of  years  the  exhibitions 
given  here  every  fall  have  made  this  structure 
famous.  It  is  nearly  800  feet  in  length,  240  feet 
wide,  and  110  feet  high.  The  new  Board  of 
Trade  building  covers  a  space  of  225  by  174  feet, 
and  its  tower  is  303  feet  high.  The  main  trading 
room  is  174  by  155  feet,  and  80  feet  high.  Chief 
however,  among  the  public  buildings,  is  the  new 
Auditorium,  in  which  the  Republican  Conven¬ 
tion  of  1888  was  held.  This  tremendous  build¬ 
ing  occupies  nearly  an  entire  square,  having 
frontages  of  187  feet  on  Michigan  avenue,  361 
feet  on  Congress  street,  and  161  feet  on  Wabash 
avenue.  It  is  a  colossal  structure  of  granite  and 
brick,  comprising  ten  stories.  The  height  of  the 
main  building  is  144  feet;  of  the  large  square 
tower  on  the  Congress  street  front,  225  feet,  the 
lateral  dimensions  of  this  tower  being  40  by  71  feet. 
The  auditorium,  which  was  designed  to  accommo¬ 
date  conventions  and  similar  gatherings,  contains 
5,000  seats  and  has  a  total  capacity  for  8,000.  It 
is  fire-proof,  has  a  stone  frontage  of  709  feet,  and 
cost  about  $2,000,000.  It  will  contain  a  theater 
and  smaller  halls  and  a  hotel.  Of  other  impor¬ 
tant  buildings  the  chief  are  the  Criminal  Court 
on  the  North  Side;  the  Cook  County  Hospital, 
Rush  Medical  College,  Presbyterian  Hospital, 
College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  and  others 
connected  with  it.  The  banking,  insurance,  and 
other  commercial  buildings  of  Chicago  are  un¬ 
equaled  by  those  of  any  other  city.  London,  Paris, 
and  New  York  can  show  nothing  approaching  the 
massive  solidity  of  the  mercantile  structures  of 
Chicago.  They  are  largely  built  of  stone,  and 
tower  ten,  twelve,  and  even  fourteen  stories  in 
height.  Vast  improvements  have  been  made  in 
the  paving  and  lighting  of  the  city,  and  the  down¬ 
town  streets  are  lighted  by  electricity,  as  are  also 
the  great  railway  depots,  hotels,  and  theaters.  Of 
the  latter  there  are  nearly  twenty,  besides  innu¬ 
merable  halls  and  lecture  rooms.  Chicago  is  pre¬ 
eminently  the  hotel  city  of  the  world,  and  accom¬ 
modates  without  difficulty  the  largest  conventions 
and  popular  gatherings.  There  are  twenty-five 
large  hotels  and  hundreds  of  smaller  ones. 

In  provision  for  education  the  city  ranks  fore¬ 
most.  Eiglity-one  primary,  grammar,  and  high 
schools;  fifteen  colleges  of  law,  medicine,  and 
theology;  half-a-dozen  academies  of  art  and 
science;  and  two  universities  are  within  its  limits. 
The  foundations  of  this  magnificent  educational 
system  are  laid  in  the  public  schools  of  the  city, 
which,  controlled  by  a  board  of  education  con¬ 
sisting  of  fifteen  members,  enjoying  the  oversight 
of  an  active  and  scholarly  superintendent,  and 
conducted  by  a  staff  of  1,446  teachers,  are  main¬ 
tained  in  the  highest  state  of  efficiency.  During 
the  year  1886  the  number  of  enrolled  pupils  was 
88,022,  of  whom  65,483  were  attending  the  primary 
schools,  15,517  the  grammar  schools,  and  1,486 
the  high  schools  at  the  end  of  the  year,  June  30th. 
The  school  buildings  numbered  98,  to  which  addi¬ 
tions  have  since  been  made.  The  last  school 
census  showed  142,293  children  of  school  age. 
There  were  52,987  children  in  private  or  parochial 
schools. 

Foremost  among  the  public  works  of  Chicago 
is  the  costly  and  unique  contrivance  by  which 
it  draws  its  supply  of  water  from  the  lake.  Two 
miles  from  the  shore  there  is  fixed  a  substan¬ 
tial  structure,  known  as  the  “Crib,”  within 
which  is  an  iron  cylinder,  9  feet  in  diameter,  going 
down  31  feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  lake,  and 
connecting  with  two  distinct  tunnels,  leading  to 
separate  pumping  works  on  shore.  The  first  tun¬ 
nel  constructed,  communicating  with  the  pumping 
works  at  the  foot  of  Chicago  avenue,  is  five  feet 
in  diameter;  the  second  tunnel,  conveying  water 
to  the  West  Side  works,  at  the  corner  of  Blue 
Island  avenue  and  Twenty-second  street,  is  7 
feet  in  diameter  and  6  miles  in  length.  At  the 
shore  end  of  each  tunnel  the  water  is  forced  by 
enormous  engines  to  the  top  of  a  lofty  tower, 
from  which  its  own  weight  distributes  it  through 
the  city.  The  quantity  consumed  by  the  city 
in  1886  was  359,693,242,885  gallons,  averaging 


CHICKAHOMINY 


276 


CHILOE. 


98,000,000  gallons  per  clay.  The  water  estate  is  val¬ 
ued  at  $10,931,398,  and  the  collections  in  1886 
were  $1,475,071.  A  new  tunnel  extending  four 
miles  out  into  Lake  Michigan,  in  connection  with 
which  there  are  two  central  pumping  stations,  is 
rapidly  approaching  completion. 

There  are  211  miles  of  street-car  tracks  in  the 
city,  a  considerable  portion  of  which  is  operated 
by  the  cable  system.  The  fire  department -is  the 
most  complete  in  the  world.  It  has  45  steam  fire 
engines,  12  chemical  engines,  13  hook  and  ladder 
trucks,  2  steam  fire  boats,  and  a  stall  of  over  500 
men.  The  fire  and  police  alarm  system  has  been 
extended  to  the  extreme  limits  and  the  insurance 
patrol  forms  a  useful  adjunct  to  the  city  depart¬ 
ment.  The  police  force  numbers  1,255  men.  The 
total  income  of  the  city  for  1888  was  $15,261,712; 
the  amount  of  its  bonded  debt,  December  30th, 
$12,561,500.  The  city  owned  on  Jan.  1,  1889, 
property  in  real  estate,  buildings,  the  water  works, 
etc.,  valued  at  $24,342,015. 

The  prosperity  of  Chicago  is  derived  from  two 
sources;  its  superlative  position  as  a  port  and 
shipping  point,  and  the  extent  and  variety  of  its 
manufacturing  interests.  More  than  12,000  vessels 
arrive  and  about  the  same  number  clear  from  the 
port  of  Chicago  during  the  season,  the  average 
being  more  than  fifty  each  way  per  day.  The  ag¬ 
gregate  tonnage  of  arrivals  during  one  year  was 
4,328,292,  and  of  clearances,  4,421,560  tons,  and 
the  duties  collected  on  foreign  imports  (Chicago 
being  a  port  of  entry)  were  $4,349,237.  In  1888 
4,958  new  buildings  were  constructed  at  a  cost 
of  $20,360,800.  They  occupied  a  frontage  of 
116,419  feet,  or  more  than  twenty-two  miles. 
The  receipts  of  grain  and  flour  for  the  year  1888 
aggregated  (reducing  flour  to  wheat)  177,344,348 
bushels.  The  shipments  of  grain  were  (reducing 
flour  to  wheat),  157,022,173  bushels.  The  re¬ 
ceipts  of  cattle  numbered  2,611,543;  hogs,  4,921,- 
712;  sheep,  1,515,014;  and  the  aggregate  value  of 
live  stock  received  was  $182,203,000.  The 
amount  of  lumber  received  was  2,012,000,000 
feet,  and  more  than  800,000,000  feet  were  ab¬ 
sorbed  by  the  local  demand.  Chicago  is  the 
largest  bituminous  coal  mart  in  the  United 
States,  and  handled  in  1888,  6, 777,000  tons  of  coal 
and  coke.  The  shipments  of  dressed  meats  in 
1888  were  773,728,255  pounds,  and  in  the  year- 
ending  March  1,  1888,  there  were  1,963,051  cattle 
slaughtered  for  dressed  beef  packing.  Direct 
shipments  of  produce  to  Europe  aggregated  449,- 
056  tons.  The  number  of  miles  of  railway  tribu¬ 
tary  to  Chicago  is  of  main  lines,  33,510;  branches, 
32,624.  The  clearing  house  statement  for  1888 
shows  a  total  of  clearings  of  $3,163,774,462.  Chi¬ 
cago  has  twenty  National  banks,  with  a  total 
capital  and  surplus  of  $22,120,559.  They  held 
deposits  amounting  to  $85,558,842,  and  their  loans 
were  $65,030,101."  In  1888  the  total  trade  of 
Chicago  was  reported  at  $1,123,000,000.  There 
are  twenty-nine  registered  grain  elevators  with  a 
total  capacity  of  over  30,000,000  bushels.  The 
number  of  manufacturing  establishments,  in¬ 
cluding  those  of  food  products,  was  2.396,  em¬ 
ploying  134,615  workmen,  and  paying  $74,567,000 
in  wages.  The  capital  employed  was  $113,960,- 
000,  and  the  value  of  products  $403,109,500.  The 
Union  Stock  Yards  are  the  largest  in  the  world, 
and  cover  350  acres  of  ground.  In  3,300 
pens,  1,800  covered  and  1,500  open,  provision  is 
made  for  handling  at  one  time  25,000  head  of 
cattle,  14,000  sheep,  and  150,000  hogs.  The 
yards  contain  20  miles  of  streets,  20  miles  of 
water  troughs,  50  miles  of  feeding  troughs,  and 
45  miles  of  water  and  drainage  pipes.  Five  arte¬ 
sian  wells,  having  an  average  depth  of  1,230  feet, 
afford  an  abundant  supply  of  water.  There  are 
also  87  miles  of  railroad  tracks,  all  the  great  roads 
having  access  to  this  vast  market.  The  entire 
cost  was  $4,000,000. 

The  Government  harbor,  when  completed,  will 
include  a  sheltered  area  sixteen  feet  in  depth, 
covering  270  acres,  with  communicating  slips 
along  the  Lake  front  covering  185  acres,  making  a 
total  of  455  acres;  this,  in  addition  to  the  river, 
with  which  the  outer  harbor  communicates. 
There  is,  also,  an  exterior  breakwater,  one-third 
of  a  mile  north  of  the  end  of  the  north  pier,  so 
situated  as  to  protect  vessels  entering  the  mouth 
of  the  river.  The  length  of  this  outer  breakwater 
will  be  5,436  feet,  of  which  3,136  feet  has  been 


completed.  The  north  pier,  measuring  from  the 
outer  end  of  the  Michigan  street  slip,  is  1,600  feet 
long,  and  extends  600  feet  beyond  the  easterly 
breakwater,  which  latter,  beginning  at  the  outer 
end  of  the  south  pier,  extends  directly  south 
4,060  feet,  and  is  distant  3,300  feet  from  the  pres¬ 
ent  shore  line  south  of  Monroe  street.  A  channel 
800  feet  wide  intervenes  between  this  and  the 
north  end  of  the  southerly  breakwater.  This 
latter  breakwater  continues  for  a  short  distance 
due  south,  then  turns  at  an  angle  of  30°,  and  ex¬ 
tends  in  a  southwesterly  direction  to  within  about 
1,550  feet  of  the  present  shore  line,  and  500  feet 
from  the  dock  line.  This  breakwater  is  3,950 
feet  in  length.  There  is  a  lighthouse  on  the  shore 
end,  and  a  beacon  light  on  the  lake  end  of  the 
north  pier,  and  a  beacon  light  on  the  south  end 
of  the  easterly  breakwater.  Chicago  has  238 
places  of  public  worship,  many  of  the  church 
edifices  being  extremely  handsome.  Its  public 
libraries  are  large  and  extensively  used.  There 
are  eighty-four  newspapers  (daily  and  weekly), 
and  numerous  publishing  houses.  Of  seminaries, 
academies,  asylums,  and  charitable  institutions 
there  are  scores.  As  an  educational  center,  Chi¬ 
cago  is  assuming  a  very  important  position,  es¬ 
pecially  so  as  a  center  of  theological  education, 
the  leading  religious  bodies  all  having  well- 
equipped  institutions  here.  Among  them  are  the 
Northwestern  University  (Methodist),  at  Evans¬ 
ton,  the  McCormick  Theological  Seminary 
(Presbyterian),  the  Western  Theological  Semin¬ 
ary  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  St. 
Ignatius  College  (Catholic),  the  Baptist  Union 
Theological  Seminary  at  Morgan  Park,  the  Chi¬ 
cago  Theological  Seminary  (Congregational),  and 
the  German  Lutheran  Theological  Seminary. 

Chickahominy,  a  river  in  Eastern  Virginia, 
near  which  several  battles  of  the  Civil  War 
occurred  From  April  until  July  of  1862  the  two 
contending  forces  confronted  each  other  in  the 
swamps  and  morasses  of  this  river.  Among  the 
battles  recorded  are  those  of  Williamsburg, 
Hanover  Court  House,  Fair  Oaks,  Seven  Pines, 
Cold  Harbor,  Savage’s  Station,  and  Malvern 
Hill.  In  the  seven  days’  fight  at  the  end  of  June, 
the  Confederate  loss  was  double  that  of  the 
Northern  army,  and  if  McClellan  had  but  fol¬ 
lowed  up  his  advantage  he  coidd  have  taken 
Richmond  and  ended  the  war.  Two  years  later, 
in  June,  1864,  Grant  drove  Lee  back  upon  the 
Chickahominy.  Lee  turned  to  bay,  and  in  the 
second  battle  of  Cold  Harbor  more  than  held  his 
own,  his  loss  not  being  half  that  of  the  Federal 
chief. 

Chickaniauga,  The  Battle  of,  was  fought 
Sept  19-20,  1863,  at  a  point  about  twelve  miles 
from  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  between  the  Union 
Army  of  the  Cumberland  under  Rosecrans,  and 
the  Confederates  under  Bragg.  Rosecrans  was 
beaten,  but  Thomas  held  his  own  and  saved 
Chattanooga.  Nominally  the  victory  rested  with 
the  Confederates,  but  they  were  unable  to  im¬ 
prove  it,  and  after  Rosecrans’  supercession,  Grant 
and  Thomas  evened  matters  up  at  Chattanooga, 
November  23-25,  of  the  same  year.  See  Chat¬ 
tanooga. 

Chickasaw  Bayou,  Battle  of,  was  fought 
Dec.  29,  1862,  when  Phil.  H.  Sheridan,  who  was 
besieging  Vicksburg,  made  an  attack  upon  that 
city  from  the  rear.  He  was  repulsed  with  heavy 
loss. 

Chickasaw'S,  a  tribe  of  Indians  originally 
found  by  De  Soto  in  Northern  Mississippi.  They 
fought  against  the  French  and  made  a  treaty 
with  the  United  States  in  1786.  Being  removed 
undertreaty  to  the  Choctaw  country  they,  in  1861, 
joined  forces  with  the  Confederates  and  lost 
most  of  their  lands  and  all  their  slaves.  They 
are  now  settled  on  reservations  and  are  flourishing. 

Chicken-pox,  a  contagious  febrile  disease, 
chiefly  of  children,  and  bearing  some  resemblance 
to  a  very  mild  form  of  small-pox.  Chicken-pox  is 
distinguished  by  an  eruption  of  vesicles  or  blebs, 
which  sometime  become  pustular  or  yellow,  and 
leave  only  a  very  slight  incrustation,  -which  falls 
off  in  a  few  days,  rarely  leaving  a  permanent  mark 
or  pit,  as  in  small-pox. 

Chickweed  (Stellaria  media),  one  of  the  most 
common  weeds.  It  is  used  as  food  for  cage- 
birds.  / 

Chicopee,  a  town  'of  Massachusetts,  on  the 


Connecticut  river,  ninety-five  miles  west-south- 
west  of  Boston.  Pop.  (1880),  11,325. 

Chicory,  or  Succory  ( Ciehorium),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Gompositce,  sub-order 


Chicory  ( Ciehorium  ititybvg). 
a,  single  flower;  b,  a  separate  floret. 


Cichoracece.  Chicory  has  been  used  as  a  substi¬ 
tute  for  coffee,  or  to  mix  with  coffee,  for  at  least 
a  century. 

Chih-le,  or  Pechili-ie,  one  of  the  northern 
provinces  of  China,  containing  Pekin,  the  impe¬ 
rial  capital,  the  residence  of  the  emperor  and 
court.  Pop.  about  28,000,000;  area  58,949  square 
miles. 

Chihua'hua,  a  city  of  the  Mexican  confedera¬ 
tion,  with  12,000  inhabitants,  and  a  considerable 
trade.  It  is  in  latitude  28°  40'  N.,  and  longitude 
105°  33'  W.  The  territory  stretching  in  latitude 
from  27°  to  32°  N.,  and  in  long,  from  104°  to  108° 
40'  W.,  is  divided  from  Texas,  in  the  United 
States,  by  the  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte.  Pop.  (1882), 
225,941. 

Childermas,  or  Holy  Innocents’ Day  (Decem¬ 
ber  28tli),  is  observed  by  the  Church  of  Rome 
with  masses  for  the  children  killed  by  Herod. 

Child,  Lydia  Maria,  born  in  1802,  and  died 
in  October,  1880.  She  published  a  number  of 
books  for  juveniles  and  housekeepers,  and  be¬ 
came  a  prominent  anti-slavery  agitator. 

Cliildebert,  one  of  the  Merovingian  Kings  of 
the  Franks,  third  son  of  Clovis,  was  born  in  495 
and  died  in  558  a.d. 

Childers,  The  11t.  Hon.  Hugh,  C.  E.,  born 
June  25,  1827,  and  held  various  official  positions, 
including  those  of  Home  Secretary  and  Chancel¬ 
lor  of  the  Exchequer  under  Mr.  Gladstone. 

Childs,  George  W.,  born  May  12,  1829,  be¬ 
came  engaged  in  the  publishing  business  in  1849. 
In  1864  he  purchased  the  Philadelphia  Public 
Ledger,  which  he  still  publishes. 

Chili,  or  Chile,  is  one  of  the  great  South  Amer¬ 
ican  Republics.  Till  of  late,  Chili  was  separated 
from  Peru  by  a  Bolivian  coast  territory.  Since 
the  war  of  1879-80,  Chili  has  annexed  this  district 
(including  the  Desert  of  Atacama),  and  has  ac¬ 
quired  by  treaty  (1883)  the  southernmost  Peruvian 
province,  Tarapaca  (19,868  square  miles,  with  20, 
000  inhabitants).  Within  the  nominal  limits  of  Chili 
lies  the  virtually  independent  Araucania,  compris¬ 
ing  most  of  the  mainland  south  of  the  Biobio; 
while  the  southern  settlements  are  confined  chiefly 
to  Chiloe  and  its  archipelago.  In  1884  the  pop. 
was  estimated  at  2,377,949.  Santiago  is  the  capital 
of  Chili;  Valparaiso,  the  chief  port. 

Chillicothe,  a  city  of  Ohio,  capital  of  Ross 
county.  Pop.,  10,938. 

Cliillon,  a  celebrated  castle  and  fortress  of 
Switzerland,  in  the  Canton  of  Vaud,  six  miles 
southeast  of  Vevay.  It  is  situated  at  the  east  end 
of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  on  an  isolated  rock,  almost 
entirely  surrounded  by  deep  water,  and  is  con¬ 
nected  with  the  shore  by  a  wooden  bridge.  The 
castle  is  said  to  have  been  built  in  1238,  by  Ama¬ 
deus  IV.  of  Savoy,  and  it  long  served  as  a  state 
prison.  It  is  famous  as  the  prison  of  Bonnivard. 

Chiloe',  the  insular  province  of  Chili,  is  an 
archipelago  on  the  west  side  of  South  America, 
which  takes  its  name  from  its  principal  island.  It 


CHIMERA. 


277 


CHINESE  EMPIRE. 


is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  Republic,  or 
Tather  from  Patagonia,  by  the  Gulf  of  Ancud. 
The  Province — which,  in  1875,  numbered  64,536 
inhabitants — contains,  in  addition  to  Cliiloe 
Proper,  about  sixty  islets,  of  which  about  thirty 
are  uninhabited. 

Chimse'ra,  a  genus  of  cartilaginous  fishes, 
ranked  by  Cuvier  with  the  Sturgeons  ( Sturionida ?), 
but  now  generally  regarded  as  the  type  of  a  dis¬ 
tinct  family,  of  which  only  two  or  three  species 
are  known. 

Chimaera,  a  mythical  monster,  described  by 
Homer  as  having  a  lion's  head,  a  goat’s  body, 
and  the  tail  of  a  dragon. 

Cliimhora'zo,  a  conical  peak  of  the  Andes, 
in  Quito,  21,510  feet  above  the  sea,  but  only 
about  12,000  above  the  level  of  its  own  table-land. 

Chimere',  the  upper  robe  worn  by  a  bishop, 
to  which  the  lawn-sleeves  are  now  generally 
attached. 

Chimes,  music  performed  on  bells  in  a  church 
tower,  either  by  the  hands  of  a  performer  or  by 
mechanism. 

Chim 'ney  (Fr.  cheminee,  Lat.  caminus).  There 
seems  reason  to  believe  that  the  chimney  in  its 
present  sense  of  a  funnel  from  the  hearth  or  fire¬ 
place  to  the  roof  of  the  house,  is  a  modern  inven¬ 
tion.  In  Greek  houses  it  is  supposed  that  there 
were  no  chimneys,  and  that  the  smoke  escaped 
through  a  hole  in  the  roof.  In  England,  there  is 
no  evidence  of  the  use  of  chimney-shafts  earlier 
than  the  twelfth  century.  The  action  of  a 
chimney  depends  upon  the  simple  principle,  that 
a  column  of  heated  air  is  lighter  than  a  cooler 
column  of  equal  height;  when,  therefore,  a  flue 
full  of  heated  air  communicates  freely  by  the 
lower  part  with  the  cooler  air  around  it,  the 
greater  weight  of  the  latter  pushes  the  warm  air 
upward,  and  thus  au  ascending  current  is  pro¬ 
duced. 

Cliiinpan  'zee  (Troglodytes  niger ),  a  species  of 
ape;  one  of  those  which  in  form  and  structure 
exhibit  the  greatest  resemblance  to  man.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  warmest  parts  of  Africa;  to  which 


Chimpanzee. 

also  the  gorilla,  a  larger  species  of  the  same 
genus,  belongs.  The  chimpanzee  is  sometimes 
called  the  black  orang. 

China  Bark,  a  name  of  Cinchona  Bark,  often 
to  be  met  in  books.  It  is  derived,  not  from  the 
Empire  of  China,  but  from  kina  or  quina,  the  Pe¬ 
ruvian  name  of  cinchona. 

China  Grass,  or  Chinese  Grass,  the  popular 
name  of  a  fiber  used  in  China  for  the  manufac¬ 
ture  of  a  fabric  known  as  grass-cloth. 

China  Root,  the  root,  or  rather  the  rhizome 
(root-stock)  of  Smilax  china,  a  climbing  shrubby 
plant,  closely  allied  to  sarsaparilla,  and  belonging 
to  the  same  genus;  a  native  of  China,  Cochin- 
China,  and  Japan. 

Chinch-hug  (Blissus  leucopterus.  Say).  This  is 
an  insect  usually  not  exceeding  A50  of  an  inch  iu 
length  and  less  than  one-half  its  length  in  width. 
With  a  slender,  needle-like  seta?  inclosed  within 
its  beak;  this  insect  punctures  the  stems  and  leaves 
of  plants  and  sucks  their  juices. 

Chinchilla  (Chinchilla,  Eriomys,  or  Callomys), 
a  genus  of  South  American  quadrupeds,  of  the 


A  Chinese  School  when  the  master  has  gone  out  (Peking) . 


provinces.  The  bamboo,  palm,  chestnut,  pine, 
and  many  other  trees  grow  in  the  lowlands,  and 
oak,  cedar,  walnut  ,  and  camphor  trees  flourish  on 
the  mountains.  Mulberry  trees  furnish  food  for 
silk-worms,  whose  culture  is  one  of  the  leading 
industries  of  China.  The  fruit  trees  common  in 
Central  Europe  are  supplemented  by  the  plantain, 
orange,  lemon,  cocoanut,  mango,  pineapple,  per¬ 
simmon,  and  many  other  varieties  peculiar  to 
southern  climates.  The  rain  fall  is  large  near 
Canton  and  Shanghai,  and  light  in  the  north  and 
west.  Of  domestic  animals  the  hog,  sheep,  and 


From  a  Chinese  Picture. 

long  before.  China  was  known  to  Europeans 
as  Cathay.  The  English  forced  their  way  into 
China  early  in  the  present  century,  introduced 
the  opium  trade  and  precipitated  a  war  in  1842. 
The  result  of  this  was  the  opening  of  the  ports  of 
Canton,  Amoy,  Fu-chow,  Ning-po,  and  Shanghai 
for  commercial  purposes.  The  English  also  seized 
the  island  of  IIong-Kong,  which  they  still  hold. 
In  1856  another  fight  was  started  and  Canton 
stormed  by  the  English  and  French.  The  Pe-hio 
forts  were  taken  in  1858  and  the  Chinese  again 
compelled  to  pay  a  war  tribute.  In  1860  the 


order  Rodentia;  the  type  of  a  family,  Chinchillidce, 
allied  to  Cavies  (Cavidce),  but  differing  from  them 


Chinchilla. 

in  possessing  clavicles.  The  general  aspect  is 
somewhat  rabbit-like.  There  are  several  genera  of 
Chinchillidce. 

Chinchon a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  Province  of 
Madrid.  Pop.  (1877),  4,771. 

Chinese  Empire.  The  Empire  of  China,  with 
its  important  dependencies  of  Mongolia,  Mant- 
churia,  Chinese  Turkestan,  Koko-nor  and  Thibet, 
occupies  an  area  of  at  least  5,000,000  square 
miles,  or  about  one-tliird  of  Asia  and  one-tenth  of 
the  habitable  globe.  China  proper,  or  the 
“Middle  Kingdom,”  extends  from  longitude 
98°  to  123°  E.,  and  from  latitude  18°  to  43° 
N.,  and  includes  eighteen  provinces  with  an 
area  of  nearly  1,300,000  square  miles.  It  has  a 
coast  line  of  2,500  miles.  In  no  country  has  so 
much  attention  been  paid  to  the  construction  of 
canals,  which,  in  the  absence  of  railroads  and 
even  of  decent  wagon-roads,  are  almost  the  only 
means  of  internal  communication.  The  climate 
is  diversified,  that  of  Shanghai  resembling  that  of 
Louisiana  and  Florida,  while  the  northern  dis¬ 
tricts  have  short  summers  and  long,  cold  winters. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  well  cultivated.  The  pop. 
is  estimated  at  from  360,000,000  to  450,000,000. 
The  Middle  Kingdom  is  more  thickly  peopled 
than  any  other  country  in  the  world.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  food-crop  is  rice,  which  grows  in  every 
division.  Wheat,  barley,  corn,  millet,  oats,  and 
other  cereals  flourish  in  many  parts,  and  the 
sugar  cane,  sorghum,  tobacco,  and  tea  plant  are 
cultivated  all  over  the  southern  and  central 


goat  are  the  most  common ;  horned  cattle  and 
buffaloes  are  used  for  draught,  and  in  the  north 
the  camel  is  used  as  a  pack  animal.  Among  the 
wild  animals  are  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  tiger, 
leopard,  panther,  bear,  and  deer.  Birds  of 
all  species  known  to  Europe  and  Asia  are  abund¬ 
ant.  The  rivers  and  other  waters  swarm  with 
fish,  the  artificial  propagation  of  which  has  been 
practiced  by  the  Chinese  for  many  centuries. 
Northwestern  China  abounds  with  all  kinds  of 
minerals,  including  gold,  silver,  lead,  copper, 
zinc,  iron,  and  coal.  Petroleum,  quicksilver, 
sulphur,  and  salt  are  widely  distributed,  and 
many  precious  stones  are  found.  The  national 
religion  is  Buddhism,  but  Jesuit  missions  have 
existed  since  the  sixteenth  century,  and  it  is 
alleged  that  there  are  from  500,000  to  1,000,000 
Catholic  Chinese.  According  to  the  most  authentic 
of  reports  the  total  receipts  of  the  Government 
of  China  in  recent  years  averaged  $125,000,000. 
The  expenditure  of  the  Government  is  mainly  for 
Hie  army,  and  averages  $75,000,000  per  annum. 
The  Chinese  navy  includes  some  eight  foreign- 
built  ironclads  for  coast  defense,  and  about  2,000 
war  junks,  useless  against  modern  artillery. 

With  the  sole  exception  of  the  Hebrews,  no 
people  possess  a  history  reaching  back  into  an- 


Foot  of  Chinese  Girl  (aged  16  years) ,  in  three  positions  ; 
copied  from  a  cast  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

(Length  of  foot,  4»  inches.) 

tiquity  so  far  as  that  of  the  Chinese.  Many  of 
their  chronicles  are  of  course  little  bettertlian  em¬ 
bodied  traditions,  but  the  regular  historical  records 
date  from  2,400  years  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  it  has  been  sought  to  identify  a  great  flood 
which  occurred  in  the  reign  of  Yau  (2357  b.c.) 
with  the  Noachian  deluge.  Apparently  the  gov¬ 
ernment  has  always  been  monarchical,  although 
the  crown  has  changed.  The  Great  Wall  was 
erected  250  b.c.  The  Spaniards  and  Portuguese 
visited  China  for  trading  purposes  in  the  six¬ 
teenth  century,  and  Marco  Polo  had  been  there 


CHINESE  SEA. 


278 


CHLOROFORM. 


Taku  forts  were  captured  and  the  French  occupied 
and  looted  Pekin  and  the  Emperor’s  summer 
palace.  Since  that  time  the  English  have  held 
the  treaty  ports.  The  Tae-ping  rebellion,  which 
lasted  from  1852  to  1864,  came  near  breaking 
up  the  Empire,  but  was  finally  suppressed  by  Gen¬ 
eral  Gordon,  the  British  officer  who  was  after¬ 
ward  killed  by  the  Mahdi’s  troops  at  Khartoum. 

Chinese  Sea,  or  China  Sea,  that  portion  of 
the  Pacific  Ocean  which  has  China  and  Siam  on 
the  west,  the  Island  of  Formosa  on  the  north,  the 
Philippines  on  the  east,  and  Borneo  on  the  south, 
and  which  forms  the  great  Gulfs  of  Tonquin  and 
Siam. 

Chinese  White.  The  white  oxide  of  zinc  has 
been  introduced  into  the  arts,  under  this  name, 
as  a  pigment  in  place  of  t  he  preparations  of  white 
lead. 

Chingleput '.  1.  A  fort,  with  a  town  adjacent, 
in  latitude  12°  41'  N.,  and  longitude,  80°  2'  E., 
thirty -six  miles  to  the  southwest  of  Madras.  Pop. 
of  town  (officially  spelled  Ghengalpat)  in  1871, 
7,979.-2.  A  district  taking  its  name  from  the 
town  above  mentioned.  It  stretches  in  N.  latitude 
from  12°  14'  to  14°  and  in  E.  longitude  from  79® 
35'  to  80°  25',  and  contains  2,753  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1871),  938,184. 

Chin-keang-foo  (River-Guard  City),  a  Chinese 
city  and  port  on  the  Yang-tze-kiang,  at  the  junc¬ 
tion  of  the  Grand  Canal  with  that  river,  and 
about  150  miles  from  its  mouth,  was  opened  to 
European  commerce  by  the  treaty  of  Tien  tsin 
(1858),  and  a  British  settlement  was  begun  in 
1804. 

Chinon,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Indre  et-Loire,  twenty-five  miles  southwest  of 
Tours,  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where  Joan  of 
Arc  commenced  her  historical  career,  and  as  the 
birthplace  of  Rabelais.  Pop.  (1876),  4,536. 

Chintz,  a  highly-glazed,  printed  calico,  with  a 
pattern  in  many  colors  on  a  white  or  light-colored 
ground. 

Chiococ'ca,  a  genus  of  tropical  and  sub-trop¬ 
ical  plants,  of  the  natural  order  Cinchonacece,  of 
which  two  species  in  particular,  C.  anquijuga  and 
C.  densifulia,  the  former  a  trailing  herb,  the  latter 
a  bushy  shrub,  enjoy  a  high  reputation  in  their 
native  country,  Brazil,  as  cures  for  snake  bites. 

Chiog'gia,  or  Ciiioz'za,  a  commercial  town  and 
seaport  of  Northern  Italy  in  the  Province  of 
Venice,  stands  on  an  island  of  the  same  name  in 
the  Adriatic,  and  is  connected  with  the  mainland 
by  a  stone  bridge  of  forty-three  arches.  Pop., 
26,336. 

Chipmunk,  a  small  rodent  found  in  the  north- 


— - — ■* — J  ».-•-> 

Chipmunk  ( Tamius  striatus). 


ern  part  of  the  United  States  and  familiarly  known 
as  the  ground-squirrel. 

Chiquichiqui  Palm  ( Lenpoldinia  fymnbu), 
the  piassaba  of  the  North  of  Brazil,  and  one  of 
the  palms  which  yield  the  piassaba  fiber,  used 
for  making  brushes.  The  piassaba  fiber  exported 
from  Para  is  all  obtained  from  it. 

Chiqnimu'la,  Isthmus  of,  in  Central  Amer¬ 
ica,  to  the  southeast  of  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan, 
in  longitude  89°  W.  Its  breadth  from  the  Car- 
ribean  Sea  to  the  Pacific  is  about  150  miles — the 
greatest  elevation  not  exceeding  2,000  feet. 

Chirata,  Cliiretta,  or  Chireeta  (Agathotes 
chirayla,  also  known  as  Ophelia  chirata),  an 
officinal  plant  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Gentianece,  and  possessing  properties  similar  to 
those  of  the  gentian,  the  centaury,  and  other 
plants  of  that  order.  It  is  a  native  of  the  mount¬ 
ains  of  the  North  of  India. 


Chiriqui',  a  name  of  various  application  in 
Central  America. — 1.  A  province  on  the  Isthmus 
and  in  the  State  of  Panama,  Colombia;  area  500 
square  miles;  pop.,  18,000. — 2.  A  river  flowing 
toward  the  north — the  latitude  and  longitude  of 
its  mouth  being  about  9°  N.,  and  82°  30'E. — 3. 
A  lagoon  with  three  entrances,  and  with  a  depth 
of  water  for  the  largest  ships,  which  receives  the 
river.  It  measures  90  miles  along  the  coast, 
and  40  or  50  in  width. — 4.  An  archipelago 
between  the  lagoon  and  the  Carribean  Sea. 

Chi 'rou,  or  Cheiron,  the  most  famous  of  the 
centaurs  In  the  ancient  works  of  art,  he  ap¬ 
pears  as  half-man,  half-animal;  but  his  features, 
instead  of  expressing  mere  savage  and  sensual 
strength,  as  those  of  the  centaurs  generally  do, 
are  marked  by  a  mild  wisdom,  in  harmony  with 
the  character  and  deep  knowledge  attributed  to 
him  by  the  Greek  mythologists. 

Chi'ru  {Antilope  hodgsoni),  a  species  of  ante¬ 
lope,  inhabiting  the  pine-forests  and  elevated  open 
plains  of  Thibet,  in  regions  bordering  on  the  limits 
of  perpetual  snow.  It  is  much  larger  than  the 
chamois,  being  about  5  feet  in  length,  and  the 
height  at  the  shoulder  about  3  feet. 

Chi 't  in  forms  the  skeleton  of  all  insects  and 
crustaceans.  In  insects,  it  constitutes  not  merely 
the  external  skeleton,  the  scales,  etc.,  but  also 
forms  their  tracheae,  and  thus  penetrates  into  the 
most  remote  portions  of  tlieir  organs;  indeed,  one 
of  the  layers  of  their  intestinal  canal  consists  of 
cliitin. 

Chi 'ton,  a  Linnsean  genus  of  mollusks.  Lin¬ 
naeus,  regarding  merely  the  shell,  placed  them  in 
the  class  of  mu  bivalves,  a  class  entirely  artificial. 
They  are  now  regarded  as  constituting  a  family 
( Chitonidce )  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  of  the 
order  Cyclobranchiata  of  Cuvier,  and  as  occupying 
a  place  in  systematic  arrangement  close  to  limpets. 

Chittagong', or  Islamabad'  (the  second  name 
having  been  conferred  by  Aurungzebe,  who  cap¬ 
tured  it  toward  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  cen¬ 
tury),  a  city  of  India,  in  latitude  22®  20'  N.,  and 
longitude  91°  54'  E.  It  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  British,  with  Bengal  proper,  in  1760-1765. 
Pop.  (1881),  20,969. 

Chittagong,  a  maritime  district  in  Lower  Ben¬ 
gal,  taking  its  name  from  its  capital  above  men¬ 
tioned.  It  has  an  area  of  2,567  square  miles, 
with  a  pop.  (1881)  of  1,132,341.  Chittagong 
(properly  Chattagram)  also  gives  name  to  a  divi¬ 
sion;  area,  12,118  square  miles;  pop.,  3,574,  048. 

Chittenden,  Thomas,  born  in  Connecticut  in 
1730,  died  in  Vermont  1797.  He  filled  various 
offices  in  Vermont  and  was  its  Governor  for 
eighteen  years.  1 1  is  son  Martin  (1766-1840)  was 
five  times  member  of  Congress  and  two  years 
Governor  of  the  Slate. 

Cliitty,  Joseph,  born  in  1766,  died  in  1841, 
was  a  distinguished  English  writer  of  legal  text¬ 
books,  many  of  which  are  still  authorities  in  this 
country. 

Chive,  orCive(A/Zm7?i  schceno'  prasum),  a  plant 
of  the  same  genus  with  the  leek  and  onion  (see 
Allium),  a  perennial,  i  to  1  foot  in  height,  with 
very  small,  flat,  clustered  bulbs,  increasing  by  its 
bulbs,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  turf. 

Chizerots  and  Burins  form  one  of  those  pecu¬ 
liar  races  in  France  that  live  isolated  in  the  midst 
of  the  rest  of  the  population,  and  are  despised 
and  hated  by  their  neighbors.  According  to  tra¬ 
dition,  they  are  descended  from  the  Saracens. 

Chladni,  Ernst  Florens  Friedrich,  founder 
of  the  science  of  acoustics,  was  born  Nov.  30, 
1756.  He  died  in  Breslau,  April  3,  1827.  His 
writings  include,  Discoveries  Co  n  cernin  g  (he  Theory 
of  Sound,  (1787),  Acoustics  (1802),  New  Contribu¬ 
tions  to  Acoustics  O-HYi). 

Chlamypli 'orus  (Gr.  chlamys-bearing;  chla- 
mys,  a  soldier’s,  cloak),  a  very  remarkable  genus 
of  mammalia  of  the  order  Edentata,  ranked  by 
naturalists  in  the  same  family  with  the  armadil- 
loes,  but  differing  in  important  respects  from  them, 
and  from  all  other  known  quadrupeds.  Only 
one  species  is  known,  G.  truncatus,  5  or  6  inches 
long. 

Chlopicki,  Joseph,  a  Polish  general,  and  dic¬ 
tator  of  Poland  during  the  revolution  of  1830, 
was  born  in  1772,  and  died  in  1854. 

Chloral  is  a  limpid,  colorless,  oily  liquid,  with 
a  peculiar,  penetrating  odor,  and  is  formed  when 
anhydrous  alcohol  is  acted  on  by  dry  chlorine  gas. 


It  dissolves  sulphur,  phosphorus,  bromine,  and 
iodine,  and  is  closely  allied  to  aldehyde.  With  a 
small  quantity  of  water  it  produces  chloral  hydrate, 
which  forms  in  large  monoclinic  crystals,  readily 
soluble  in  water,  having  a  sharp,  biting  taste,  and 
producing  a  somnolent  effect.  It  is  a  dangerous- 
drug  except  in  the  hands  of  a  skilled  physician, 
its  excessive  use  producing  insanity  and  paralysis. 

Chlorantha'cie,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  closely  allied  to  the  peppers ;  herbaceous 
and  half-shrubby  plants.  The  number  of  known 
species  are  small;  all  of  them  are  tropical,  or 
natives  of  China  and  Japan. 

Chloric  Acid  (1IC103)  is  a  compound  of  one 
atom  of  chlorine  and  five  atoms  of  oxygen,  and  is 
generally  met  with  in  combination  with  potash, 
as  the  white  crystalline  salt,  chlorate  of  potash 
(KC103).  This  salt  is  mainly  interesting  from 
the  readiness  with  which  it  parts  with  its  oxygen 
to  combustibles,  as  when  thrown  on  red-hot  char¬ 
coal,  when  it  causes  violent  deflagration.  The 
salt  is  employed  in  the  fabrication  of  certain  kinds 
of  lucifer-matches,  which  give  a  slight  explosion 
when  struck. 

Chlorim'etry,  or  Chlom'etry,  is  the  process 
of  estimating  the  proportion  of  available  chlorine 
in  bleaching  powder,  which  may  vary  from  20  to 
36  per  cent.  The  process  depends  upon  the  great 
power  with  which  chlorine,  in  the  act  of  being 
liberated  from  its  compounds,  causes  the  oxida¬ 
tion  of  many  substances. 

Cklo'rine  (Gr.  chloros,  pale  green),  is  a  non-me- 
tallic  element  discovered  by  Scheele  in  1774,  and 
named  by  him  dephlogisticated  marine  air.  After¬ 
ward,  in  1810,  Davy  proved  it  to  be  an  elementary 
body,  and  gave  it  the  name  which  it  now  bears. 
In  nature  it  is  always  found  in  a  state  of  combina- 
tion.  United  with  sodium  (Na),  it  occurs  very 
largely  as  the  chloride  of  sodium  (NaCl) — common 
salt — in  the  ocean;  in  large  beds,  as  rock-salt;  in 
all  natural  waters,  including  even  rain-water;  in 
clays,  soils,  limestone;  in  volcanic  incrustations; 
and  in  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms. 

Chlo'rite  (Gr.  chloros,  green),  an  abundant 
mineral,  consisting  of  silica,  alumina,  magnesia, 
and  protoxide  of  iron,  in  somewhat  variable  pro¬ 
portions.  It  is  of  a  green  color,  rarely  occurs 
crystallized  in  hexagonal  crystals,  sometimes  foli¬ 
ated  like  talc.  It  is  rather  soft,  and  is  easily 
broken  or  scratched  with  a  knife.  Before  the 
blowpipe,  it  is  with  difficulty  fused  on  thin  edges. 
It  is  readily  distinguished  from  talc  by  yielding 
water  in  a  closed  tube, 

Clilo'rite-schEt,  or  Clilorite-slate,  a  green, 
•slaty  rock,  in  which  chlorite  is  abundant  in  foli¬ 
ated  plates,  usually  blended  with  minute  grains 
of  quartz,  and  sometimes  with  feldspar  or  mica. 

Chlo'roform  (of  late  years  Metiienyl  Chlo¬ 
ride)  (CHCL)  was  originally  discovered  by 
Soubeiran,  and  experimented  upon  by  Dumas, 
and  was  long  known  only  to  scientific  chemists  as 
a  rare  organic  body,  possessing  interest  from 
being  one  of  a  series  of  organic  substances,  but 
n  t  known  to  possess  any  properties  likely  to  call 
it  into  use,  or  even  likely  to  let  it  be  known  by 
name  to  the  general  public.  The  remarkable 
power,  however,  which  it  possesses  of  producing 
anaesthesia,  has  led  to  the  preparation  of  chlo¬ 
roform  on  a  very  extensive  scale.  The  materials 
employed  are  alcohol,  water,  and  bleaching  pow¬ 
der,  and  the  proportions  are  4  parts  of  bleaching 
powder,  to  which  sufficient  water  is  added  to 
make  a  thin  paste,  and  thereafter  1  part  of  spirits 
of  wine;  the  whole  is  introduced  into  a  capacious 
retort,  which  must  not  be  more  than  half  filled, 
and  heat  being  applied,  the  chloroform,  accom¬ 
panied  by  water  and  a  little  alcohol,  distils  over. 
As  the  chloroform  is  heavier  than  water,  and  is 
not  readily  miscible  therewith,  two  layers  of 
liquid  are  obtained  in  the  receiver — the  upper 
being  water  and  alcoho1,  and  the  lower  being 
chloroform.  The  upper  liquid  being  cautiously 
poured  off,  the  chloroform  is  agitated  with  fused 
carbonate  of  potash,  which  abstracts  the  remain¬ 
ing  traces  of  water,  and  on  subsequent  redistilla¬ 
tion  the  chloroform  is  obtained  pure  and  ready 
for  use.  Chloroform  is  a  highly  limpid,  mobile, 
colorless  liquid,  which  is  very  volatile,  has  a  char¬ 
acteristic  and  pleasant  odor,  and  an  agreeable, 
sweetish  taste.  It.  has  a  specific  gravity  of  nearly 
1,500  (wat,er=l,000),  being  thus  half  as  heavy 
again  as  water,  and  boils  at  140®  F.  It  is 


CHLOROPHYLL. 


279 


CHRIST. 


slightly  soluble  in  water,  but  more  readily  mixes 
with  alcohol  and  ether.  It  dissolves  camphor, 
amber,  copal,  and  other  resins,  wax,  caoutchouc, 
black  and  red  sealing  wax,  iodine  and  bromine, 
as  well  as  strychnine  and  other  alkaloids.  Chloro¬ 
form  is  a  substance  that  cau  not  be  too  cautiously 
dealt  with,  and  should  never  be  administered 
except  in  the  presence  and  by  the  sanction  of  a 
medical  practitioner.  When  skillfully  given,  it 
is  among  the  safest  of  all  anaesthetics,  and  the 
greatest  boon  that  chemistry  has  bestowed  on 
suffering  humanity. 

Chlo  rophyll  (Gr.  chloros,  green,  and  phyllon, 
a  leaf),  the  substance  to  which  the  leaves  and 
other  parts  of  plants  owe  their  green  color.  It  is 
somewhat  analogous  to  wax,  is  soluble  in  alcohol 
and  ether,  but  insoluble  in  water,  and  floats  in  the 
fluid  of  the  cells  in  the  form  of  minute  granules. 

Cliloro  'sis  (Gr.  chloros,  pale  green),  a  peculiar 
form  of  ansemia  or  bloodlessness;  common  in 
young  women,  and  connected  with  the  disorders 
incident  to  the  critical  period  of  life.  It  has  been 
called  the  yreen  sickness,  from  the  peculiar,  dingy, 
greenish-yellow  hue  of  the  complexion ;  the  green 
color,  however,  is  not  always  characteristic.  The 
disease  is  attended  with  very  great  debility,  and 
often  with  breathlessness,  palpitation,  and  other 
distressing  or  even  alarming  symptoms. 

Chloro  sis,  a  diseased  state  of  plants,  in  which 
a  sickly  green  or  greenish-yellow  color  takes  the 
place  of  the  natural  lively  hue. 

Choate,  Rufus,  born  in  Essex,  Mass.,  Oct.  1, 
1799,  died  in  1859.  He  attained  high  rank  as  a 
lawyer,  and  served  in  Congress  and  the  United 
States  Senate. 

Choctaws,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians,  first 
met  with  by  DeSoto  in  Mississippi  and  Alabama, 
They  assisted  the  French  against  the  Natchez, 
and  Chickasaws,  and  supported  the  United  States 
troops  in  the  war  of  1814  and  the  troubles  with 
the  Creeks.  Up  to  1861  they  held  some  5,000 
negro  slaves,  but  they  joined  the  Confederacy 
and  lost  both  slaves  and  lands.  They  are  now 
settled  in  the  Indian  Territory,  and  number  about 
15,000. 

Chocard,  or  Choqnard  ( Pyrrhocorax ),  a  genus 
of  birds  of  the  crow  family  ( Corvidae ),  differing 
from  the  choughs  in  having  a  shorter  bill,  which 
however,  is  arched  like  theirs,  but  resembling 
them  in  their  habits.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
jackdaw,  of  a  brilliant  black,  with  yellowish  bill 
and  red  feet. 

Chocks  are  pieces  of  wood  employed  on  ship¬ 
board  to  aid  in  the  support  of  various  articles. 
Amongst  them  are  anchor-chocks,  rudder-chocks, 
boat-chocks,  stow-wood  chocks,  and  chocks  to 
support  the  ends  of  the  beams. 

Choc 'date  is  made  from  the  seeds  of  Tlieo- 
hroma  cacao  reduced  to  a  fine  paste  in  a  heated 
iron  mortar,  or  by  a  machine,  and  mixed 
with  pounded  sugar  and  spices,  as  cinnamon, 
cloves,  cardamom,  vanilla,  etc.  The  paste  is 
then  poured  into  moulds  of  white  iron,  in  which 
it  is  allowed  to  cool  and  harden.  It  is  sometimes 
made  without  spices,  but  is  then  more  generally 
called  cocoa.  The  paste  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  flour,  and  with  carrageen  or  with  Iceland 
moss,  and  for  medicinal  purposes  with  cinchona, 
etc.  Chocolate  is  used  as  a  beverage,  and  for 
this  purpose  is  dissolved  in  hot  water  or  milk.  In 
France  and  the  United  States  it  is  extensively 
used  in  confectionery. 

Choir  (Lat.  chorus).  In  its  literal  sense  is  the 
portion  of  the  church  devoted  to  singers;  and  in 
all  descriptions  which  concern  the  ritual  it  is  so 
limited.  The  singers  of  the  choral  service  are  also 
termed  the  choir. 

Choir-screen,  or  Choir-wall,  the  screen  or 
wall  which  divides  the  choir  and  presbytery  from 
the  side  aisles. 

Choiseul-Amboise,  Etienne  Francois,  Due 
de.  Minister  of  Louis  XV.,  was  born  on  June  18, 
1719.  lie  was  made  Lieutenant-General  in  1748, 
Ambassador  to  the  Courts  of  Rome  and  Vienna  in 
1756,  and  Due  de  Choiseul  in  1758.  lie  died 
May  7,  1785. 

Choke-cherry,  a  name  given  to  certain  nearly 
allied  species  of  cherry,  of  the  bird-cherry  section 
of  the  genus  or  sub-genus,  natives  of  North 
America,  having  small  fruit  in  racemes,  and  the 
fruit  at  first  rather  agreeable,  but  afterward 
astringent,  in  the  mouth. 


Choking.  The  spasmodic  effort  on  the  part  of 
the  muscles  of  the  throat  to  throw  out  a  substance 
which  is  too  large  to  pass  into  the  oesophagus,  or 
which  has  entered  the  windpipe,  is  known  as 
choking.  If  far  enough  up  the  object  may  be 
caught  between  the  fingers  and  withdrawn,  but  if 
it  has  passed  beyond  reach  of  the  fingers  some 
instrument,  like  a  piece  of  whalebone,  should  be 
used  to  push  it  down  into  the  gullet.  A  sudden 
blow  on  the  back,  or  tickling  the  back  of  the  throat 
with  a  feather,  may  produce  involuntary  gasping, 
and  dislodge  the  intruding  substance.  In  case  un¬ 
consciousness  follows  close  upon  the  application  of 
these  remedies,  some  irritating  substance  should  be 
held  to  the  nostrils,  while  the  methods  for  artifi¬ 
cial  respiration  are  employed.  The  windpipe  is 
situated,  with  reference  to  the  food  passages,  so 
that  some  particle  of  solid  or  fluid  material  may 
escape  from  its  proper  channel  into  the  respiratory 
tube,  exciting  a  distressful  cough,  spasmodic  con¬ 
traction  of  the  muscles  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
windpipe,  and  impeding  respiration.  Under  such 
circumstances  no  direct  aid  can  be  given  the  suf¬ 
ferer,  except  to  keep  him  quiet. 

Cliol  'era,  a  Greek  term  used  in  the  Hippocratic 
writings,  but  of  indeterminate  etymology,  being 
derived,  perhaps,  from  chole,  bile,  or  from  cholera, 
a  water-spout  or  gutter.  It  is  now  universally 
employed  in  medicine  as  indicating  one  of  two  or 
three  forms  of  disease,  characterized  by  vomiting 
and  purging,  followed  by  great  prostration  of 
strength,  amounting  in  severe  cases  to  fatal  col¬ 
lapse.  The  variety  called  cholera  sicca  (dry  chol¬ 
era)  by  ancient  writers  (in  which  collapse  and 
death  take  place  without  discharges)  is  compar¬ 
atively  rare.  The  milder  forms  of  cholera  occur 
almost  every  summer  and  autumn,  even  in  tem¬ 
perate  latitudes,  and  are  hence  termed  summer 
cholera;  while  the  more  devastating  and  fatal 
forms  of  the  disease  arc  generally  supposed  to 
originate  only  in  tropical  countries — especially  in 
India — and  thence  to  be  propagated  epidemically 
over  vast  populations,  usually  through  Persia,  the 
steppes  of  Tartary,  Russia,  and  the  Baltic,  at  the 
same  time  extending  to  Egypt,  Turkey,  and  the 
south  of  Europe.  These  very  fatal  forms  of  the 
disease  are  commonly  called  Asiatic,  Oriental,  or 
epidemic  cholera;  sometimes  cholera  morbus,  or 
pestilential  cholera.  The  milder  forms  are 
sometimes  also  called  bilious  cholera;  and  the  se¬ 
verer,  spasmodic  cholera,  from  the  character  of 
the  symptoms  in  each. 

Choles'terine  is  one  of  those  bodies  which  are 
termed  by  chemists  lipoids,  or  non-saponifiable 
fats.  It  was  originally  discovered  in  gall-stones, 
but  is  now  recognized  as  an  ordinary  constituent 
(although  occurring  in  very  minute  quantity)  of 
bile,  blood,  and  the  tissue  of  the  brain.  It  like¬ 
wise  occurs  in  pus,  the  contents  of  cysts,  and  other 
morbid  fluid  products. 

Chopin,  Frederick,  composer, was  born  March 
1,  1809,  near  Warsaw,  Poland.  In  all  he  pro¬ 
duced  about  eighty  works,  mostly  adapted  for 
concerts.  He  died  in  Paris,  Oct.  i 7,  1849. 

Choral  Service,  the  musical  service,  celebrated 
by  a  full  complement  of  clergymen  and  choristers 
in  a  cathedral  church. 

Chora 'le,  a  musical  term  adopted  from  the 
German,  means  a  melody  to  which  sacred  hymns 
or  psalms  are  sung  in  public  worship  by  the 
whole  congregation  in  unison. 

Chord,  of  an  arc  of  a  curve  is  a  straight  line 
joining  its  two  extremities.  A  scale  of  chords  is 
used  in  laying  off  angles. 

Chord,  in  Music,  is  the  simultaneous  and  har¬ 
monious  union  of  different  sounds,  at  first  intu¬ 
itively  recognized  by  the  ear,  and  afterward 
reduced  to  a  science  by  the  invention  of  the  laws 
or  rules  of  harmony. 

Chore 'a  (Gr.  chorda,  a  dancing  or  jumping),  a 
disease  popularly  called  St.  Vitus’  dance,  and 
consisting  of  a  tendency  to  involuntary  and  irreg¬ 
ular  muscular  contractions  of  the  limbs  and  face, 
the  mind  and  the  functions  of  the  brain  generally 
being  quite  unaffected. 

Chor'ley,  a  town  in  Lancashire,  England.  Pop. 
(1884),  19,472. 

Cho'rus,  among  the  ancients,  meant  a  band  of 
singers  and  dancers  employed  on  festive  occasions 
of  great  pomp,  and  also  in  the  performance  of 
tragedy  and  comedy  on  the  stage.  In  modern 
times,  by  it  is  understood  the  union  of  singers  or 


musicians  for  the  joint  performance  of  a  musical 
work.  Chorus  is  also  the  name  given  to  a  musical 
composition  for  numerous  voices. 

Chose  in  Action,  in  Law,  is  that  kind  of  prop¬ 
erty  which  consists  not  in  possession,  but  in  the 
legal  right  to  possess.  As  this  right  can,  in  gen¬ 
eral,  be  vindicated  and  made  available  only  by 
means  of  an  action,  the  property  to  which  it  re¬ 
lates,  whether  real  or  personal,  is  called  a  thing 
(res  or  chose)  in  action,  to  distinguish  it  from  a 
thing  already  in  possession.  Money  due  upon 
bonds  and  bills,  goods  bought  and  not  yet  deliv¬ 
ered,  are  examples  of  clioses  in  action,  as  is  also 
the  right  to  compensation  for  damage  occasioned 
by  breach  of  contract. 

Cho'ta  fiagpore',  or  Nangpore the  Less,  one 
of  the  lower  provinces  of  Bengal,  containing  five 
British  collectorates.  besides  seven  tributary  minor 
States.  The  area  of  the  British  divisions  is  26,966 
square  miles,  and  in  1881  the  pop.  was  4,225,989. 

Chouans  were  bands  of  insurgent  Royalists, 
who,  during  the  French  Revolution,  organized  a 
reactionary  movement  in  Brittany.  They  obtained 
their  name  from  their  leader,  Jean  Cottereau. 

Chough  ( Fregilus ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  crow 
family  (Corvidae)  but  approaching  to  the  clnir- 


Chough. 


acter  and  appearance  of  the  starlings  (Sturnidce). 
The  length  of  the  bill  has  induced  some  natural¬ 
ists,  among  whom  was  Cuvier,  to  place  them 
beside  the  hoopoes,  but  this  is  now  generally 
regarded  as  an  error;  they  agree  with  crows  in 
having  their  nostrils  covered  with  stiff  bristles 
directed  forward,  and  in  their  habits.  The  beak 
is  longer  than  the  head,  strong,  arched,  and 
pointed.  The  tail  is  slightly  rounded. 

Chouteau,  Auguste  and  Pierre,  were  born, 
the  first  in  1739,  the  other  in  1749,  in  New  Or¬ 
leans.  They  engaged  in  the  fur  trade  and  in 
1753-54  established  a  trading-post  on  the  Missis¬ 
sippi,  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of  St.  Louis. 
Auguste  died  in  1829,  and  Pierre  lived  to  be  a 
hundred  years  old. 

Chrism  (Gr.  chrisma,  ointment)  is  the  name 
given  to  the  oil  consecrated  on  Holy  Thursday, 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek  Churches,  by 
the  bishop,  and  used  in  baptism,  confirmation, 
orders,  and  extreme  unction. 

Chris' ome,  the  name  of  the  white  vesture  laid 
by  the  priest  on  the  child  in  former  times  at 
baptism,  to  signify  its  innocence. 

Christ,  a  title  of  our  Saviour,  now  in  general 
use  almost  as  a  name  or  as  part  of  his  name.  It 
is  originally  Greek,  signifies  anointed,  and  cor¬ 
responds  exactly  in  meaning  and  use  with  the 
Hebrew  word  Messiah;  so  that  this  title  given  to 
Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  an  acknowledgment  of 
him  as  the  Saviour  long  promised  to  the  house  of 
Jacob  and  to  the  human  race. 

Christ,  Order  of,  in  Portugal.  An  order  of 
knighthood  of  a  semi-clerical  character,  founded 
in  1317.  It  is  said  that  the  order  still  possesses 
26  villages  and  farms,  and  434  prebends.  It  is 
very  numerous — consisting  of  6  knights  of  the 
Grand  Cross,  450  commanders,  and  an  unlimited 
number  of  knights. 

Christ,  The  Papal  Order  of.  This  is  a  branch 
of  the  Portuguese  order,  created  by  Pope  John 
XXII.  It  has  only  one  class. 

Christ,  Pictures  of.  To  represent  the  form 
and  countenance  of  Christ  in  a  manner  that  shall 


CHRIST. 


280 


CHRONOLOGY. 


even  approximate  to  the  latent  ideal  in  the 
minds  of  men,  is  unquestionably  the  most  sub¬ 
lime  and  the  most  difficult  work  which  an  artist 
can  undertake.  It  is  the  highest  pictorial  effort 
of  tne  creative  faculty.  From  a  very  early 
period  in  the  history  of  the  church,  we  can  trace 
the  growth  of  the  endeavor.  At  first,  indeed,  the 
horror  entertained  for  the  idols  of  the  pagans, 
must  have  inspired  Christians  with  an  aversion 
to  images  or  pictures  of  the  Saviour.  Gradually, 
however,  as  paganism  disappeared  and  time 
removed  Christ  further  from  His  people,  this  feel¬ 
ing  would  subside,  and  the  longing  would  arise 
to  possess  some  representation  of  Him  on  which 
the  eye  might  rest  with  pious  delight.  Among 


Supposed  earliest  Picture  of  Christ. 

From  a  Ceiling  in  the  Catacombs  of  St.  Calixtus  at  Rome. 

the  most  ancient  representations  of  Christ  which 
profess  to  be  portraits,  are  the  two  paintings  in 
the  Calixtine  and  Pontine  catacombs  near  Rome, 
and  which  are  given  in  Ariglii’s  Roma  Subter- 
ranea  Nova.  The  Saviour  is  there  represented 
with  an  oval  visage,  a  straight  nose,  arched  eye¬ 
brows,  and  high  forehead.  The  expression  is 
earnest  and  mild;  the  hair  is  parted  on  I  lie  fore¬ 
head,  and  falls  over  the  shoulders  in  waving 
locks;  the  beard  is  short  and  scattered. 

Christ  (oi-Cris)  Cross  Row,  the  alphabet  ar¬ 
ranged  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  for  the  use  of 
children;  and  so  printed  in  old  “horn”  books, 
or ‘primers.  The  letter  A  was  at  the  top,  and 
Z  at  the  foot  of  the  cross. 

Christ  Church,  Tiie  Cathedral  op  (Oxford, 
England),  has  had  three  foundations:  the  first  in 
1526,  the  second  in  1532,  and  the  third  in  1546. 

Chris'tening,  a  term  often  used  as  equivalent 
to  baptism.  It  is  disliked  by  some,  and  of  course 
liked  by  others,  as  favoring  the  doctrine  of  bap¬ 
tismal  regeneration;  being,  indeed,  according  to 
its  derivation,  expressive  of  the  notion  that  a 
person  is  made  a  Christian  in  baptism. 

Chris'tiau  II.,  King  of  Denmark,  Norway, 
and  Sweden,  born  at  Vyborg,  in  the  island  of 
Funen,  July  2,  1481.  He  ascended  the  throne 
of  Denmark  in  1513,  conquered  Sweden,  and 
proclaimed  himself  King,  but  was  driven  out  by 
Gustavus  Vasa.  He  landed  in  Norway  again  in 
1531;  but  at  the  battle  of  Aggerhuus,  in  1532, 
he  was  defeated,  and  made  prisoner  in  the  castle 
at  Sonderburg,  from  which  he  was  liberated  after 
twelve  years  of  confinement.  He  died  Jan.  28, 
1559. 

Christian  IV.,  King  of  Denmark  and  Norway, 
and  Duke  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  born  in  Zealand, 
April  12,  1577,  and  elected  successor  to  the 
throne  in  1580.  He  assumed  the  scepter  in  1593. 
From  1610  he  carried  on  a  war  against  Charles 
IX.  of  Sweden,  and  his  successor,  Gustavus 
Adolphus,  which  ended  in  1613.  As  leader  of  the 
Protestants  in  the  Thirty  Years’  War,  Christian 
was  not  successful.  He  died  in  1648. 

Christian  VI?.,  King  of  Denmark,  son  of 
Fredrick  V.  and  Louisa  of  England,  born  Jan. 
29,  1749.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne  Jan.  14, 
1766,  and  died  March  13, 1808. 

Christian  IX.,  the  reigning  King  of  Denmark, 


was  born  April  8,  1818.  His  second  son  is  King 
of  Greece.  His  daughter  Alexandra  is  Princess 
of  Wales,  and  another  daughter,  Dagmar,  is 
Czarina  of  Russia.  A  younger  daughter,  Thyra, 
Duchess  of  Cumberland,  is  insane. 

Christian  Connection,  a  denomination  of 
Christians  which  originated  about  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century,  and  is  diffused  over 
all  the  United  States. 

Christian  Knowledge,  Society  for  Pro¬ 
moting,  one  of  the  great  religious  associations 
connected  with  the  Church  of  England,  and  the 
oldest  of  them  all. 

Christian  'ia,  capital  of  Norway,  is  situated  in 
the  province  of  Aggerhuus,  on  the  north  side  of 
the  Christiania  Fiord.  Pop.  (1885),  128,301.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  Norwegian  Government,  the  supe¬ 
rior  courts,  and  the  Storthing. 

Christianity,  the  religion  professed  by  some 
300,000,000  people  and  founded  primarily  upon 
the  divinity  of  Jesus.  Its  chief  principles  as  to 
which  most  professing  Christians  are  agreed  are 
that  there  is  but  one  God;  that  Christ  is  the  Son 
of  God ;  that  man  placed  upon  earth  in  a  state  of 
innocence  fell  into  sin  and  became  liable  to  ever¬ 
lasting  punishment;  that  Christ  by  His  sacrifice 
upon  the  cross  redeemed  man  from  sin;  and  that 
by  faith  in  God  and  in  Christ  as  the  Redeemer 
mankind  will  inherit  everlasting  bliss.  Different 
sects  and  denominations  of  Christians  hold  many 
contradictory  opinions  as  to  minor  points  of  be¬ 
lief,  but  practically  they  are  as  one  with  regard  to 
the  elemental  principles  of  religion. 

Chris 'tiansand,  the  principal  town  of  the 
province  or  stift  of  that  name  in  Norway,  is  situ¬ 
ated  at  the  mouth  of  l  he  Torridalself ,  in  the  Bay 
of  Christiansand.  Pop.  (1875),  12,137. 

Chris'tianstad,  the  strongly-fortified  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name  in  the  south  of 
Sweden.  Pop.  9,203  The  province  has  an  area 
of  2,400  square  miles,  Pop.,  230,619. 

Chris 'taiusted,  the  chief  town  of  the  Danish 
Island  of  St.  Croix,  in  the  West  Indies.  Pop., 
5,700. 

Christ! 'ua,  Queen  of  Sweden,  born  December, 
1626,  and  succeeded  her  father  in  1632.  During 
her  minority,  the  Kingdom  was  governed  by  the 
five  highest  officers  of  the  State.  In  1644,  she 
assumed  the  reins  of  power,  and,  in  1650,  was 
crowned  with  the  title  of  King.  She  had  previ¬ 
ously  declared  her  cousin,  Charles  Gustavus,  her 
successor.  Four  years  later  she  abdicated  in 
favor  of  her  cousin,  and  died  April  19,  1689. 

Christ 'mas,  the  day  on  which  the  nativity  of 
the  Saviour  is  observed.  The  institution  of  this 
festival  is  attributed  by  the  spurious  decretals 
to  Telesphorus,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Antoninus  Pius  (138-161  a.d.),  but  the  first  certain 
traces  of  it  are  found  about  the  time  of  the  Em¬ 
peror  Commodus,  (180-192  a.d.)  In  the  reign  of 
Diocletian  (284-305  a.d.),  while  that  ruler  was 
keeping  court  at  Nicomedia,  he  learned  that  a 
multitude  of  Christians  were  assembled  in  the 
city  to  celebrate  the  birthday  of  Jesus,  and  having 
ordered  the  church-doors  to  be  closed,  lie  set  fire 
to  the  building,  and  all  the  worshipers  perished 
in  the  flames.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that 
there  was  any  uniformity  in  t  lie  period  of  observing 
the  nativity  among  the  early  churches;  some  held 
the  festival  in  the  month  of  May  or  April,  others 
in  January.  It  is,  nevertheless,  almost  certain 
tiiat  December  25th  can  not  be  the  nativity  of  the 
Saviour,  for  it  is  then  the  heightof  the  rainy  season 
in  .1  udea,  and  shepherds  could  hardly  be  watching 
their  flocks  by  night  in  the  plains.  The  observ¬ 
ance  of  Christmas  in  the  United  States  has 
of  late  years  become  much  more  general  than 
it  was  of  old.  Probably  much  of  the  feeling 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  older  (except  the  Puri¬ 
tan)  States  were  settled  by  members  of  the  Church 
of  England,  by  whom  its  observance  was  trans¬ 
mitted  to  their  posterity. 

Christmas-box,  a  small  money-gift  to  persons 
in  an  inferior  condition  on  the  day  after  Christmas, 
which  is  hence  popularly  called  Boxing-day.  The 
term,  and  also  the  custom,  are  essentially  English. 
In  France  the  system  takes  the  form  of  New 
Year’s  gifts,  and  all  servants  expect  presents  at 
that  time.  The  custom  has  been  introduced  into 
this  country  and  appears  to  be  on  the  increase. 

Christmas  Carols.  The  word  carol  (Ital. 
carola,  and  Fr.  carole,  a  round  dance — probably 


from  Lat.  corolla;  Welsh,  co'roli,  to  reel,  to  dance; 
the  name  is  thence  applied  to  tlie  music  or  song 
accompanying  such  a  dance  :  carillon  is  probably 
allied)  signifies  a  song  oi  joy.  The  practice  of 
singing  carols,  or,  at  all  events,  sacred  music,  in 
celebration  of  the  nativity  of  Christ,  dates  as  early 
as  the  second  century. 

Christol'ogy  is  the  doctrine  of  the  Person  of 
Christ.  The  word  itself  is  to  be  found  once  or 
more  in  the  divines  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
but  the  department  of  scientific  theology  which 
it  now  represents  is  almost  entirely  the  growth  of 
modern,  and  particularly  of  German,  inquiry. 

Christophe,  Henri,  King  of  Hayti,  born  Oct. 
6,  1767.  In  1790  he  joined  the  black  insurgents 
against  the  French,  and  became  a  leader  among 
them.  He  was  appointed  Brigadier  General,  and 
employed  to  suppress  an  insurrection.  In  1802 
he  gallantly  defended  Cape  Town  against  Gen¬ 
eral  Leclerc, and  effected  his  retreat  with  3,000  men 
after  having  burned  the  greater  part  of  the  town. 
In  1806  he  became  General-in-Chief  of  the  Hay- 
tian  army.  In  February,  1807,  he  was  appointed 
President  of  Hayti  for  life.  On  March  28,  1811, 
Christophe  was  proclaimed  King  of  Hayti,  by  the 
name  of  Henri  I.,  and  solemnly  crowned,  June  2, 
1812.  He  was  deposed  by  a  negro  bearing  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Marmalade,  and  shot  himself 
Oct.  8,  1820. 

Christopher,  St.,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  and  Greek  Churches,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
suffered  martyrdom  about  the  middle  of  the  third 
century,  by  being  shot  to  death  by  poisoned 
arrows. 

Christopher’s,  St. ,  or  properly  St.  Kitt’s,  an 
island  near  the  northeast  bend  of  the  great  arch 
of  the  Antilles,  forty-six  miles  west  of  Antigua, 
and  two  miles  north  of  Nevis.  It  is  twenty  miles 
long  from  southeast  to  northwest,  containing 
about  44,000  acres,  and  (1881)  29,137  inhabitants. 
The  chief  towns,  both  of  them  seaports  with  open 
roadsteads,  are  Basse-Terre,  defended  by  Fort 
Smith,  and  Sandy  Point,  protected  by  Fort 
Charles  and  Brimstone  Hill. 

Christ’s  College,  Cambridge,  was  originally 
founded  by  Henry  VI.,  under  the  name  of  God’s 
House,  and  was  intended  by  him  to  consist  of  a 
master,  twelve  fellows,  and  forty-seven  scholars. 

Christ’s  Hospital,  London,  was  founded  on 
the  site  of  the  Greyfriars’  Monastery,  by  Edward 
VI.,  June  26,  1553,  as  a  hospital  for  orphans  and 
foundlings. 

Chromat'ic,  in  Music,  is  a  term  applied  to  a 
series  of  notes  at  the  distance  of  a  semitone  from 
each  other.  Such  a  series  is  produced  by  divid¬ 
ing  the  whole  tones  of  the  diatonic  scale  into 
semitones,  so  that  with  the  two  diatonic  semitones, 
already  in  the  natural  scale,  the  octave  is  divided 
into  twelve  semitones.  The  word  chromatic  is 
from  the  Greek  and  means  colored. 

Chromatics  is  that  part  of  the  science  of 
optics  which  explains  the  properties  of  the  colors 
of  light  and  of  natural  bodies. 

Chronograph,  an  automatic  time -measuring 
instrument  used  by  astronomers,  and  for  timing 
horse-races. 

Chro'mium  ( chrome ,  color)  is  a  metal  so  called 
from  the  many  colored  compounds  it  produces. 
It  was  discovered  by  Vauquelin  in  1797.  Chro¬ 
mium  occurs  naturally  as  the  chromate  of  lead 
(PbO,Cr03),  and  the  chromite  of  iron,  chrome  iron 
ore  (Fe0,Cr203),  at  llnst  and  Fetlar  in  the  Shet- 
lands,  and  Portsoy  in  Banffshire,  etc.  The  metal 
has  been  obtained  in  powder  and  in  scales,  but  as 
a  metal  it  possesses  no  interest.  The  principal 
compound  of  chromium  is  the  bichromate  of 
potash,  obtained  by  heating  chrome  iron  ore  in 
powder  with  one-fourth  of  its  weight  of  niter, 
and  then  digesting  in  water,  which  dissolves  out 
the  chromate  of  potash  (K20,Cr03),  a  yellow 
salt,  and  when  this  is  acted  upon  by  sulphuric 
acid,  it  is  converted  into  bichromate  of  potash 
(K20,2Cr03). 

Chron '  iele  (from  chronos,  time)  denotes  a  his¬ 
tory  in  which  events  are  treated  in  the  order  of 
time.  It  is  understood  to  differ  from  annals  in 
being  more  connected  and  full,  the  latter  merely 
recording  individual  occurrences  under  the  suc¬ 
cessive  years  or  other  dates. 

Chronol  'ogy  is  the  science  of  the  divisions  of 
time.  It  has  two  main  branches — mathematical 
and  historical.  Mathematical  chronology  is  en- 


CHRONOMETER. 


281 


CICERONE. 


gaged  with  such  of  the  units  for  the  measure¬ 
ment  of  time  as  begin  and  end  with  the  period  of 
complete  evolution  of  recurring  celestial  phenom¬ 
ena.  Historical  chronology  uses  these  units 
among  others  to  measure  the  distance  in  point  of 
time  between  events,  and  to  fix  their  dates. 

Chronom  'eter,  or  time-measurer,  is  the  name 
given  principally  to  such  time-keepers  as  are  used 
for  determining  the  longitude  at  sea.  The  mechan¬ 
ism  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  the  common 
watch;  only  the  size  is  generally  greater,  and 
additional  precautions  are  taken  to  secure  regu¬ 
larity  under  changes  of  temperature  and  other 
deranging  influences. 

Chron'oscope,  an  instrument  contrived  by  Sir 
Charles  Wheatstone  to  measure  the  duration  of 
certain  short-lived  luminous  phenomena,  such  as 
the  electric  spark,  of  which  the  eye  itself  can  be 
no  judge,  owing  to  the  persistence  of  impressions 
of  light  on  the  eye  after  the  cause  of  sensation  has 
ceased. 

Chrysa'lis,  or  Chrysalid,  a  name  originally 
Greek,  and  strictly  belonging  to  those  pupae  of 


Chrysalids. 

■a.  Orange-tip  Butterfly ;  b,  Black-veined  White  Butterfly; 
c,  Swallow-tailed  Butterfly;  rf,  Purple  Emperor;  e,  Silver- 
washed  Fritillary;  /,  Duke  of  Burgundy  Fritillary. 

butterflies  which  are  adorned  with  golden  spots, 
but  extended  to  the  pupae  of  lepidopterous  insects, 
generally,  and  even  of  other  orders  of  insects. 

Clirysan  'themum, 

(Gr.  gold-flower),  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Com¬ 
posite,  sub-order 
Corymbifarm.  The 
species  of  this  genus 
are  annuals,  peren¬ 
nials,  or  shrubby,  and 
all  have  leafy  stems. 

They  are  natives 
chiefly  of  the  temper¬ 
ate  parts  of  the  old 
world.  G.  leucan- 
themum,  the  Ox-eye, 
or  Ox-eye  Daisy,  is 
abundant  in  fields, 
meadows,  and  grassy 
places  of  woods,  in 
most  parts  of  Europe. 

Chryselephantine 
(Gr.  from  chrysos, 
gold,  and  elephas, 
ivory),  the  art  of  mak¬ 
ing  images  of  gold 
and  ivory,  was  exten¬ 
sively  practiced 
amongst  the  Greeks.  ., 

The  colossal  works  Chrysanthemum. 

executed  by  Phidias  at  Athens,  in  the  time  of 
Pericles,  are  the  most  famous  of  this  class,  the 
greatest  being  the  Pallas  of  the  Parthenon. 

Chrys'ippus,  an  eminent  Stoic  philosopher, 
was  born  about  280  n.c.,  at  Soli  in  Cilicia.  Only 
fragments  of  his  writings  are  extant. 

Chrys'is,  a  Linnsean  genus  of  hymenopterous 
insects,  now  constituting  a  family,  Chrysiddce, 
allied  to  the  Ichneumonidae,  and  forming  a  connect¬ 
ing  link  between  them  and  bees,  wasps,  etc. 

Chrys'oberyl,  a  gem  almost  as  hard  as  sap¬ 
phire,  and  the  finer  specimens  of  which  are  very 


beautiful,  particularly  those  which  exhibit  an 
opalescent  play  of  light. 

Chrysocol'la,  or  Copper-green  (Gr.  gokl- 
glue),  an  ore  of  copper,  found  in  Cornwall  and  in 
many  parts  of  the  world,  but  particularly  in  Wis¬ 
consin  and  Missouri,  where  it  is  so  abundant  as  to 
be  worked  for  copper.  As  a  pigment,  it  was 
much  used  by  the  ancients. 

Chryso'lite  (Gr.  golden-stone),  a  mineral  com¬ 
posed  of  silica,  magnesia,  and  protoxide  of  iron; 
of  a  fine  green  color,  with  vitreous  luster ;  trans¬ 
parent,  and  having  double  refraction;  in  hardness 
about  equal  to  quartz;  and  with  concLoidal  fract¬ 
ure; 

Clirys  'oprase  is  merely  a  variety  of  chalcedony, 
but  is  valued  far  above  common  chalcedony,  as 
an  ornamental  stone.  It  is  occasionally  found  in 
Vermont. 

Chrys'ostom,  John  (Gr.  golden-mouth;  so 
named  from  the  splendor  of  his  eloquence),  was 
born  at  Antioch  in  347  a.d.,  and  died  Sept.  14, 
407  a.d.  He  is  one  of  the  most  famous  of  the 
early  Christian  fathers. 

Chub  ( Leuciscus  cephalus),  a  fish  of  the  family 
Cyprinidce,  of  the  same  genus  with  the  roach,  dace, 
bleak,  minnow,  etc. 

Chuck-wiH’s-widow  ( Antrostomns  carolinensis), 
a  bird  of  the  Goatsucker  family  (Caprimulgidat), 
a  native  of  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States. 
It  has  received  its  singular  name  from  its  note, 
which  resembles  these  words  or  syllables  articulat  ed 
with  great  distinctness,  and  is  repeated  like  that 
of  the  cuckoo,  or  of  its  own  congener  the  whip- 
poor-will. 

Chuuargurh',  or  Chunar,  a  fortified  town  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  sixteen  miles  to  the 
southwest  of  Benares,  and  in  the  division  of  that 
name.  Pop.,  10,000. 

Chuquisa'ca,  or  Su'cRE,tlie  largest  city  of  the 
State  of  Bolivia,  in  latitude  19°  20'  S.,  and  longi¬ 
tude  65°  30'  W.  Pop.,  12,000. 

Church,  a  word  which  signifies  either  a  place  of 
Christian  worship,  or  a  collective  body  of  Christian 
people.  It  is,  in  all  probability,  derived  from  the 
Greek  adjective  Icyriakos  (from  kyrios,  lord),  the 
place  of  worship  having  been  called  the  Lord’s 
house,  and  the  worshipers  the  Lord’s  people.  The 
Scottish  kirk,  the  German  kirche,  etc.,  are  merely 
different  forms  of  it. 

Church,  Frederick  Edwin,  landscape  painter, 
was  born  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  in  May  182(3, 
and  is  best  known  by  his  “Niagara.”  He  has 
also  painted  a  number  of  mountain  scenes. 

Churchill,  Charles,  English  poet,  born  in 
1731,  and  died  in  1764.  He  took  holy  orders, 
but  was  soon  compelled  to  resign  his  curacy,  and 
became  a  drunkard  and  a  profligate.  He  was  a 
bitter  satirist  and  no  mean  poet.  Byron  rated 
him  highly,  and  wrote  a  poem  on  his  grave. 

Churchill,  Randolph  Henry  Spencer,  The 
Rt.  Hon.  (by  courtesy  Lord  Randolph  Churchill), 
is  the  second  son  of  the  seventh  (and  brother  of 
the  present)  Duke  of  Marlborough.  By  his 
mother,  daughter  of  the  third  Marquis  of  Lon¬ 
donderry,  he  is  connected  with  the  Castlereagh 
family.  He  was  born  Feb.  13,  1849,  and  entered 
Parliament  in  1874.  Possessed  of  unlimited  con¬ 
fidence  and  some  natural  ability,  he  forced  him¬ 
self  to  the  front,  and  as  the  leader  of  the  so-called 
“Fourth  party,”  which  consisted  of  himself  and 
three  other  members,  rendered  himself  so  obnox¬ 
ious  to  succeeding  Governments  that  when  the 
Tories  attained  power,  in  1885,  he  was  made 
Secretary  of  State  for  India.  When  Lord  Salis¬ 
bury  took  office  again  he  was  made  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer,  but  this  position  he  only  held  a 
few  months,  resigning  without  ever  preparing  a 
budget.  He  is  still  in  Parliament. 

Churn,  a  machine  for  agitating  milk  or  cream 
for  the  production  of  butter. 

Cliusan',  an  island  on  the  east  coast  of  China, 
forty  miles  northeast  from  Ningpo,  in  30°  40'  N. 
latitude,  and  121?  48'  E.  longitude,  of  an  oblong 
shape,  and  about  fifty  miles  in  circumference. 
Pop.,  about  200,000. 

Chusan  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  scattered 
round  the  one  described  above.  The  most  re¬ 
markable  of  these  is  the  sacred  island  of  Pu-tu, 
lying  east  from  Chusan.  It  is  covered  with 
Buddhist  temples,  pagodas,  and  monasteries, 
which  latter  are  inhabited  by  a  great  number  of 
Bonzes,  as  the  Chinese  priests  are  called. 


Clnit'nee,  or  Chut'ny,  a  condiment,  very 
largely  used  in  India.  It  is  a  compound  of  man¬ 
goes,  chillies,  or  capsicum,  and  lime-juice,  with 
some  portion  of  other  native  fruits,  such  as  tama¬ 
rinds,  etc.,  the  flavor  being  heightened  by  garlic. 

Chyle.  T  he  food  undergoes  various  changes 
in  the  alimentary  canal.  One  of  these  changes  is 
its  conversion  in  the  stomach  into  a  pulpy  mass 
termed  chyme.  The  chyme,  which  passes  onward 
into  the  small  intestine,  is  acted  upon  by  the  bile, 
pancreatic  fluid,  and  intestinal  juice,  and  through 
their  influences  is  separated  into  the  chyle,  which  is 
absorbed  or  sucked  up  by  the  lacteals  and  into 
matters  unfit  for  nutrition,  which  ultimately 
find  their  way  out  of  the  system  by  the  intestinal 
canal. 

Churiibusco,  a  village  near  the  City  of  Mexico, 
where  on  Aug.  20, 1847,  General  Scott  defeated  the 
Mexicans  under  Santa  Anna.  The  Battle  of  Con¬ 
treras  was  fought  the  same  day.  Chapultepec  fol¬ 
lowed  September  13th,  and  closed  the  campaign. 

Cialdini,  Enrico,  Duke  d’Gaeta  was  born  in 
Modena,  Aug.  10,  1811.  He  fought  in  Spain 
against  the  Carlists  in  1835;  and  for  Sardinia 
against  the  Austrians  in  1849.  In  the  campaign 
of  1860  he  defeated  the  Papal  army  under  Lamorb 
cifere,  and  next  year  besieged  and  took  Gaeta, 
being  ennobled  therefor.  In  the  war  against 
Austria  in  1866  he  held  high  command,  and  was 
afterward  ambassador  to  Paris. 

Cibber,  Colley,  was  born  Nov.  6,  1671,  in 
London,  became  an  actor,  and  wrote  several  suc¬ 
cessful  comedies,  and  in  1730  he  was  appointed 
poet  laureate.  He  died  Dec.  12,  1757. 

Cica'da,  a  genus  of  insects 
of  the  order  Hemiptera,  sub¬ 
order  Homoptera,  remarkable 
for  the  sounds  which  they 
emit,  the  loudness  of  which  is 
very  extraordinary,  when  con¬ 
sidered  with  reference  to  the 
size  of  the  creatures  producing 
them.  The  largest  European 
species  are  only  about  an  inch 
long. 

Cicatriza'tion  (Lat.  cica¬ 
trix,  a  scar),  the  process  of 
healing  or  skinning  over  of  an 
ulcer  or  broken  surface  in  the 
skin  or  in  a  mucous  membrane,  Cicada, 
by  which  a  fibrous  material,  of  a  dense  resisting 
character,  is  substituted  for  the  lost  texture.  The 
new  tissue,  in  such  a  case,  is  called  the  cicatrix, 
and  usually  resembles,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
the  structure  which  it  replaces. 

Cic'ely  ( Myrrlds ),  a  genus  of  umbelliferous 
plants,  nearly  allied  to  chervil,  of  which  one 
species,  sweet  cicely  ( M odorata),  is  common  in 
the  central  and  southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  in 
similar  climates  in  Asia.  It  is  sometimes  called 
sweet  chervil,  and  in  Scotland  myrrh. 

Cic 'ero,  Marcus  Tullius,  Roman  statesman 
and  orator,  was  born  at  Arpinum,  on  January 
3d,  in  the  year  106  b.c.  With  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  a  brief  campaign  under  Sulla,  in  the  Social 
War,  he  passed  his  time  in  preliminary  studies 
until  his  twenty-sixth  year,  when  he  began  to 
plead  in  public.  In  one  of  his  earliest  causes,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  defending  the  rights  of 
Roscius,  a  private  citizen,  against  one  of  the 
favorites  of  Sulla,  who  was  then  Dictator.  Hav¬ 
ing  been  elected  Quaestor  (76  b.c.),  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  by  lot  to  a  government  in  Sicily,  a  post 
which  he  filled  with  great  ability.  Some  years 
after  his  return,  he  laid  the  Sicilians  under  still 
greater  obligations  by  his  successful  prosecution 
of  their  Praetor,  Verres.  Passing,  at  short  inter¬ 
vals,  through  the  offices  of  HDdile  (69  b.c.)  and 
Praetor  (66  b.c.),  he  was  at  length  elected,  by  an 
overwhelming  majority,  to  the  consulship.  His 
tenure  of  office  was  rendered  memorable  by  the 
conspiracy  of  Catiline,  which  he  frustrated  with 
admirable  skill  and  promptitude.  He  pursued  a 
wavering  course  during  the  conflict  between 
Pompey  and  Caesar,  and  after  the  death  of  the 
latter  delivered  his  celebrated  Philippics  against 
Antony.  He  was  beheaded  by  order  of  Antony, 
in  43  b.c. 

Cicero 'ne  (from  Cicero,  the  orator  or  speaker), 
a  guide,  usually  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the 
curiosities  and  works  of  art  in  a  town  to  strangers. 


CID  CAMPEADOR. 


282 


CIRCLE. 


Citl  Campeador  is  the  name  given  in  histories, 
traditions,  and  songs  to  the  most  celebrated  of 
Spain’s  national  heroes.  He  died  in  1099. 

Cide  r  is  the  juice  of  apples,  and  is  extensively 
prepared  in  England,  Ireland,  the  northern  dis¬ 
tricts  of  France,  and  in  North  America.  It  is 
used  as  a  beverage,  and  is  palatable  and  refresh¬ 
ing.  It  contains  from  5£  to  9  per  cent,  of  alco¬ 
hol  after  fermentation,  and  is  therefore  intoxi¬ 
cating  when  drunk  in  quantity. 

Cigars'.  See  Tobacco. 

Ci'goli,  Ludovico  Caiidi  da,  a  painter  of  the 
later  Florentine  school,  was  born  at  Empoli,  in 
1559.  He  was  invited  by  Clement  VII.  to  Rome, 
where  he  died  in  1013.  Among  Cigoli’s  most 
famous  pictures  may  be  mentioned  “  The  Healing 
of  the  Lame  Man”  (St.  Peter’s,  Rome),  “The 
Martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen  ”  (Uffizi  Gallery,  Flor¬ 
ence),  “  Tobias  in  the  Act  of  Thanking  the 
Angel”  (St.  Petersburg),  and  “ St.  Francis,”  a 
favorite  subject  with  Cigoli  (Pitti  Palace,  Flor¬ 
ence). 

Cilia  (Lat.  eyelashes),  a  term  variously  em¬ 
ployed  in  botany  and  zoology  to  designate  fring¬ 
ing  hairs  or  hair-like  processes.  Thus,  the  mar¬ 
gins  or  nerves  of  leaves,  petals  etc.,  are  often  de¬ 
scribed  as  ciliated  or  furnished  with  cilia. 

Cilicia.  an  ancient  division  of  Asia  Minor, 
now  included  in  the  Turkish  eyalet  of  Koniah. 
The  Taurus  Range,  which  separated  it  from  Capa- 
docia,  bounded  it  on  the  north,  the  Gulf  of  Issus 
and  the  Cilician  Sea  on  the  south,  while  the  Ama- 
nus  and  Pamphylia  bounded  it  respectively  on 
the  east  and  west. 

Ciniabu'e,  Giovanni, one  of  the  restorersof  the 
art  of  painting  in  Italy,  was  born  in  1240.  Two 
remarkable  pictures  of  the  Madonna  by  Cimabu" 
are  still  preserved  in  Florence — one  in  the  Acad¬ 
emy,  the  other  in  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria 
Novella.  His  greatest  pupil  was  Giotto. 

Cim'bri,  or  Kim'bri,  a  people  who  issued 
from  the  North  of  Germany  in  conjunction  with 
the  Teutons,  and  first  came  into  hostile  contact 
with  the  Romans  in  the  Eastern  Alps  in  113  b.c. 

Ci'mon,  an  Athenian  commander,  was  the  son 
of  Miltiades,  the  conqueror  of  Marathon.  In  con¬ 
junction  with  Aristides  he  was  placed  over  the 
Athenian  contingent  to  the  allied  fleet,  which, 
under  the  supreme  command  of  the  Spartan  Pau- 
sanias,  continued  the  war  against  the  Persians, 
(477  b.c.)  He  effected  the  conquest  of  Eton. 
Later,  when  Commander-in-Chief,  he  encountered 
a  Persian  fleet  of  350  ships  at  the  River  Euryme- 
don,  destroyed  or  captured  200,  and  defeated  the 
land  forces  on  the  same  day.  He  succeeded  like¬ 
wise  in  driving  the  Persians  from  Thrace,  Caria, 
and  Lyeia. 

Cincho'na,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  <  'mchonacece ,  yielding  the  bark  so  much 
valued  in  medicine,  known  as  Peruvian  bark, 
Jesuits’  bark,  China  bark,  quina,  quinquina,  cin¬ 
chona  bark,  etc.,  and  from  which  the  important 
alkaloids  quinta  or  quinine  and  \inchonvi  or  cin¬ 
chonine,  are  obtained.  They  are  natives  of  South 
America,  between  S.  latitude  20°  and  N.  latitude 
10  ,  and  chiefly  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  second 
range  of  the  Cordilleras.  All  the  cinchonas  are 
evergreen-trees,  with  laurel-like,  entire,  opposite 
leaves. 

Cinchona 'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous 
plants,  with  simple,  entire,  opposite,  or  whorled 
leaves,  and  stipules  between  their  foot-stalks. 

Cincinna'ti,  the  commercial  capital  of  Ohio, 
is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  which  gives  name 
to  the  State,  and  separates  it  from  West  Virginia 
and  Kentucky.  It  stands  in  latitude  39°  6 '  30”  N. , 
and  in  longitude  84°  26'  W.  Though  founded  in 
1788,  yet,  in  1800  it  had  only  750  inhabitants.  In 
1870 it  had  216,289;  in  1880,  255,139,  including  a 
large  proportion  of  Germans  and  Irish.  Its  popu¬ 
lation  (1889)  exceeds  280,000.  On  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  river,  in  the  State  of  Kentucky,  are 
Covington  and  Newport.  Communication  be¬ 
tween  these  cities  and  Cincinnati  is  afforded  by 
two  bridges  and  three  steam  ferries.  The  wire 
suspension  bridge,  which  is  1,057  feet  long  be¬ 
tween  the  towers  (or,  including  the  approaches, 
2,252  feet),  with  a  height  of  100  feet  above  low 
water,  was  completed  in  1867  at  a  cost  of  nearly 
$2,000,000.  The  corporate  limits  have  been 
much  extended  in  recent  years  by  the  annexation 


of  numerous  villages,  the  most  important  being 
Columbia,  Walnut  Hills,  Mount  Auburn,  and 
Cumminsville.  Among  the  most  notable  build¬ 
ings  is  that  of  the  Federal  Government,  county 
court  house,  the  city  offices,  city  workhouse, 
Cincinnati  Hospital,  Masonic  Temple.  Pike’s 
Opera  House,  the  Public  Library,  St.  Xavier’s 
College,  the  Wesleyan  Female  College,  and  the 
Hughes  High  School.  Cincinnati  is  one  of  the 
most  important  commercial  and  manufacturing 
centers  of  the  West.  The  six  railroads  entering 
the  city  are  used  by  twelve  companies,  and  be¬ 
sides  these  two  lines  terminate  at  Covington  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  About  303  pas¬ 
senger  and  freight  trains  arrive  and  leave  daily 
on  these  roads.  Boat-building  was  formerly  a 
prominent  industry,  but  it  has  recenily  declined. 
Prior  to  1863,  Cincinnati  was  the  chief  center  in 
the  United  States  for  the  slaughtering  of  swine 
and  the  packing  of  pork.  Since  that  year  this 
supremacy  has  been  held  by  Chicago,  Cincinnati 
taking  the  second  rank.  There  are  more  than 
seventy  establishments  in  the  latter  city  employed 
in  this  industry.  The  United  Railroads  Stock- 
yards,  for  the  reception  of  live  pigs,  occupy  about 
sixty  acres.  After  this  important  industry,  the 
brewing  of  lager  beer  ranks  next.  Distillation  is 
also  carried  on  to  a  very  considerable  extent  .  The 
leading  commercial  organization  is  the  Chamber 
of  Commerce  and  Merchants’  Exchange,  which 
has  about  1,200  members,  and  holds  daily  ses¬ 
sions.  The  Board  of  Trade  has  about  900  mem¬ 
bers,  chiefly  manufacturers.  The  city  is  divided 
into  twenty-five  wards,  and  is  governed  by  a 
mayor,  a  board  of  twenty-five  aldermen,  and  a 
board  of  fifty  councilmen.  The  city  is  supplied 
with  water  obtained  by  pumping  from  the  Ohio 
river  by  means  of  three  immense  reservoirs,  two 
of  which,  with  a  capacity  of  100,000,060  gallons 
each,  are  in  Eden  Park.  Cincinnati  has  a  large 
number  and  variety  of  well-organized  charitable 
institutions.  The  chief  educational  institutions  are: 
The  public  schools,  Roman  Catholic  parochial 
schools,  the  University  of  Cincinnati,  Cincinnati 
Wesleyan  College,  St.  Xavier  College,  Mount  St. 
Mary’s  of  the  West,  one  law,  six  medical,  and  two 
theological  schools,  four  commercial  colleges,  and 
two  schools  of  music.  Three  of  the  medical 
schools  are  classified  as  regular,  one  as  pharma¬ 
ceutic,  one  as  homoeopathic,  and  one  as  dental. 
There  are  eleven  public  libraries  in  the  city. 
There  are  published  in  the  city  seventy  news¬ 
papers  and  periodicals — nineappearingdaily,  one 
twice  a-week,  thirty-three  weekly,  three  fort¬ 
nightly,  twenty-one  monthly,  and  three  quarterly. 
Of  these  three  daily,  nine  weekly,  one  fortnightly, 
and  two  monthly,  are  published  in  German.  The 
city  contains  160  churches. 

Cincinna'ti  (the  Cincinnatuses),  a  society  or 
order  established  by  the  officers  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tionary  army  in  1783,  “to  perpetuate  their 
friendship,  and  to  raise  a  fund  for  relieving  the 
widows  and  orphans  of  those  who  had  fallen 
during  the  war.”  It  was  so  named  because  it 
included  patriots,  headed  by  Washington,  who  in 
many  instances  had  left  rural  affairs  to  serve  their 
country  (see  Cincinnatus). 

Cinciima'tns,  Lucius  Quintius,  a  Roman 
Consul  regarded  by  the  later  Romans  as  the 
model  of  anticpie  virtue  and  simple  manners. 
About  460  b.c.  he  was  chosen  Consul,  and  two 
years  later,  was  made  Dictator.  After  a  dicta¬ 
torship  of  sixteen  days,  he  returned  to  his  farm 
on  the  Tiber.  When  eighty  years  old,  he  was 
once  more  made  Dictator  (439  b.c.),  and  sup¬ 
pressed  a  threatened  plebian  insurrection. 

Cinera'ria,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Composites,  sub-order  Corymbiferce,  very 
nearly  allied  to  Senecio  (groundsel,  ragwort, 
etc.),  from  which  it  differs  only  in  having  the  in¬ 
volucre  formed  of  one  row  of  equal  erect  scales. 

Cin'na,  Lucius  Coknelius,  a  Roman  noble, 
was  one  of  the  principal  supporters  of  the  faction 
of  Marius,  became  Consul,  impeached  Sulla,  en¬ 
deavored  to  form  an  interest  among  the  citizens 
who  had  been  added  to  Rome  after  the  Social 
War,  and  agitated  for  the  recall  of  Marius.  After 
a  cruel  massacre  of  the  Roman  citizens,  Marius 
and  Cinna  declared  themselves  Consuls;  China 
was  killed  by  his  disaffected  troops  at  Brun- 
dusium. 


Cin'nabar,  an  ore  of  mercury,  from  which  al¬ 
most  all  the  mercury  of  commerce  is  obtained. 
Chemically,  it  is  a  bisulpliuret  of  mercury,  con¬ 
taining  86.2  parts  of  mercury  and  13.8of  sulphur. 
It  occurs  both  crystallized  and  massive,  not  infre¬ 
quently  disseminated. 

Cin'namon  is  the  spicy,  aromatic,  and  stimu¬ 
lating  bark  of  certain  species  of  the  genus  Cinna- 
momum.  This  genus  belongs  to  the  natural  or¬ 
der  Laurncce,  and  was  formerly  included  in 
Laurvs.  It  contains  a  considerable  number  of 
species,  natives  of  tropical  and  sub  tropical  parts 
of  the  East. 

Cin'nanion-storie,  a  precious  stone,  of  which 
the  finer  specimens  are  highly  esteemed;  it  is 
regarded  as  a  variety  of  garnet.  Its  color  varies 
from  hyacinth  red  to  orange  yellow,  and  when 
pure  it  is  transparent. 

Cin  que  Cen'to  (Ital.  five  hundred).  A  tech¬ 
nical,  or  rather  slang  term,  used  to  designate  the 
style  of  art  which  arose  in  Italy  after  the  year 
1500 — and  which  therefore  belongs  to  the  sixteenth 
century — i.  e.,  after  the  fall  of  all  the  great  schools. 

Cin'quefoil,  a  common  bearing  in  heraldry.  It 
is  usually  depicted  with  the  leaves  issuing  from  a 
ball  as  a  center  point.  In  architecture  it  is  an 


Cinquefoil .  Cinquefoil . 

In  Heraldry.  In  Architecture. 

ornamental  foliation  in  five  compartments,  used  in 
the  tracery  of  windows,  panelings,  etc. 

Cinque  Ports  (Fr.  five  ports).  The  ports  of 
Sandwich,  Dover,  Ilythe,  Romney  and  Hastings 
were  in  ancient  times  constituted  a  county  pala¬ 
tine  and  governed  by  a  Warden.  The  office  has 
been  retained  as  a  title  of  honor,  and  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  held  it  until  his  death.  Earl  Gran¬ 
ville  is  the  present  Lord  Warden. 

Cipria'ni,  Giambattista,  painter  and  copper- 
engraver,  was  born  in  Florence,  1732,  or,  accord¬ 
ing  toothers,  in  1727,  and  when  nineteen  years  old 
went  to  Rome,  where  he  chose  Correggio  as  a 
model,  and  soon  gained  a  high  reputation.  The 
artist  went  to  London  about  1754,  where  he  was 
one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Royal  Academy 
(founded  1769),  and  died  in  1785. 

Circse'a  (from  Circe),  a  genus  of  herbaceous 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Onayracce,  with  a 
deep  two-cleft  calyx,  a  corolla  of  two  petals,  and 
two  stamens.  It  bears  the  name  of  enchanter’s 
nightshade,  and  in  Germany  it  is  called  Hexenkraut 
(witches’  herb). 

Circassia,  a  division  of  the  Western  Caucasus, 
comprising  the  north  and  also  a  portion  of  the 
south  slope  of  that  mountain  range  extending  in 
latitude  42°-  45°  N.  and  longitude  37^-  47°  E. 

Circassians  is  the  name  given  to  the  independ 
ent  tribes  of  the  Caucasus;  in  a  narrower  sense  it 
denotes  the  tribes  who  inhabited  the  western  part 
of  the  range  which  is  called,  in  consequence,  Cir¬ 
cassia.  The  Circassians  proper,  however,  occu¬ 
pied  only  the  northwestern  wing  of  the  Caucasus, 
with  the  exclusion  of  Abasia,  or  the  portion  be¬ 
tween  the  Black  Sea  in  the  west  and  the  lower 
bank  of  the  River  Kuban  in  the  north. 

Cir'ce,  a  fabulous  sorceress,  is  described  by 
Homer  as  “  fair-haired,  a  clever  goddess,  possess¬ 
ing  human  speech,”  sister  of  “all-wise  HCaetes,” 
daughter  of  “  the  Sun,  who  gives  light  to  mortals, 
and  of  Perse,  whom  Ocean  begot  as  his  daughter.” 

Cir'cle,  a  plane  figure  bounded  by  a  curved 
line  which  returns  into  itself,  called  its  circum¬ 
ference,  and  which  is  everywhere  equally  distant 
from  a  point  within  it  called  the  center  of 
the  circle.  The  circumference  is  sometimes  itself 
called  the  circle,  but  this  is  improper;  circle  is 
truly  the  name  given  to  the  space  contained  within 
the  circumference.  Any  line  drawn  through 
the  center,  and  terminated  by  the  circumference, 
is  a  diameter. 

Circle,  Magic,  a  space  in  which  sorcerers  were 
wont,  according  to  the  ancient  popular  belief,  to 
protect  t  hemselves  from  the  fury  of  the  evil  spirits 
they  had  raised. 


CIRCLE. 


283 


CITIZEN. 


Circle,  Mural,  an  instrument  used  for  deter¬ 
mining  the  meridian  altitude  or  zenitli  distance  of 
a  star.  It  consists  of  an  astronomical  telescope 
firmly  fixed  to  a  graduated  circle,  which  moves 
about  a  horizontal  axis,  fixed  in  a  strong  vertical 
wall  running  north  and  south.  In  the  common 
focus  of  the  eye-piece  and  object-glass  of  the  teles¬ 
cope  is  a  system  of  cross-wires  (spider  lines  are 
generally  used  for  the  purpose),  one  being  hori¬ 
zontal,  and  five  vertical,  with  equal  spaces 
between.  The  line  joining  the  optical  center  of 
the  object-glass  with  the  intersection  of  the  hori¬ 
zontal  and  middle  vertical  wires,  is  called  the  line 
of  collimation  of  the  telescope,  and  when  the 
instrument  is  in  perfect  adjustment,  this  line 
moves  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian. 

Cit  'cuits  (Fr.  circuit;  Lat.  circuitus,  a  going 
round).  Most  States  in  the  Union  are  judicially 
divided  into  so-called  circuits,  in  which  circuit 
courts  are  held  by  circuit  judges.  The  jurisdic¬ 
tion  of  these  courts  is  fixed  by  the  Legislatures, 
and  varies  in  different  States,  but  nearly  every 
State  has  a  court  of  higher  authority,  yet  below 
its  supreme  court.  The  United  States  lias  both 
circuit  and  district  courts. 

Circular  Notes  are  bank-notes  specially  adapted 
for  the  use  of  travelers  in  foreign  countries;  and 
being,  in  fact,  bills  personal  to  the  bearer,  they 
are  believed  to  be  more  safe  as  traveling  money 
than  ordinary  notes  or  coin. 

Cir'cular  Num'bers  are  numbers  whose 
powers  end  on  the  same  figure  as  they  do  them¬ 
selves;  such  are  numbers  ending  in  0,  1,5,  6. 

Circular  Parts,  the  name  given  to  a  rule  in 
spherical  trigonometry,  invented  by  Lord  Napier. 
It  is  to  be  found  in  any  treatise  on  that  subject. 

Circulating  Library,  a  collection  of  books 
lent  out  on  hire — circulating  from  hand  to  hand. 
The  plan  of  lending  books  on  hire  is  not  new;  in 
fact,  it  existed  in  Europe  during  the  middle  ages. 

Circulation  is  the  term  used  to  describe  the 
course  of  the  blood  from  the  heart  through  the 
arteries  to  the  most  remote  portions  of  the  body 
and  smallest  blood-vessels  (capillaries)  and  its  re¬ 
turn  to  the  heart,  for  purification  and  oxygen¬ 
ation,  through  the  venous  system.  The  heart, 
the  great  motor  of  the  circulation,  consists  of 
two  parts  (the  venous  or  pulmonary — right — heart 
and  the  arterial  or  systemic — left — heart)  inclosed 
in  a  bag  or  sac,  the  pericardium.  These  two 
parts  are  again  subdivided  into  two  cavities 
each,  called  right  and  left  auricles  and  right  and 
left  ventricles.  The 
blood  enters  the  heart 
at  and  through  the  right 
auricle,  which  contracts 
and  forces  its  contents 
through  an  opening  into 
the  right  ventricle.  The 
entrance  to  this  ven¬ 
tricle  is  guarded  by  a 
triple  (tricuspid)  valve, 
which  prevents  (when 
it  is  not  weakened,  as 
occurs  someti  m e s  i n 
some  forms  of  heart  dis¬ 
ease)  a  return  of  the  o  n 

blood  (or  regurgitation)  Theoretical  Section  of  the 
to  the  auricle.  The  human  heart, 
viol  it  ventricle  then  rnn-f'  the  two  vence  cuter,  open- 
fl8  „  ing  into  d,  the  right  auricle; 

"  ""  c,  the  tricuspid  valve;  a,  the 


tracts  and  forces  the 
blood  through  the  chan¬ 
nel  of  the  pulmonary 
artery  into  the  lungs, 
where  it  is  d  i  s  t  r  i  b- 
uted  throughout  the 
entire  tissue  of  I  hose 
organs  by  means  o  f 
the  capillaries,  and  parts 
with  its  carbonic  acid 
and  is  oxygenated  and 
rendered  fit  for  its  pro¬ 
pulsion  throughout  the 
entire  system.  The  en- 


right  ventricle,  from  which 
proceeds  the  pulmonary  ar¬ 
tery,  dividing  into  branches 
g  and  i,  going  to  the  right 
and  left  lung  respectively; 
e,  e,  the  pulmonary  veins 
(two  from  either  lung), 
entering  into  the  left  auricle, 
k;  l,  the  mitral  valve;  w, 
the  left  ventricle,  from 
which  proceeds  the  aorta, 
whose  arch  is  indicated  by 
h,  and  the  descending  por¬ 
tion  by  n,  none  of  its 
branches  being  indicated  in 
this  figure;  o,  the  partition, 
or  sept  urn,  between  the  right 
and  left  hearts. 


trance  to  the  pulmonary 
artery  is  guarded  by  valves  of  a  crescent  shape, 
which  prevent  here  again  a  regurgitation  of  blood 
into  the  ventricle.  After  the  blood  has  been 
driven  throughout  the  entire  struct me  of  thelungs 
by  means  of  the  capillaries  lining  the  interior  of 
the  air  cells  of  its  substance  it  is  collected  into 
the  pulmonary  veins  which  the  capillaries  unite  to 


form,  and  is  carried  along  through  them  into  the 
left  auricle.  From  the  left  auricle  it  is  passed 
into  the  left  ven'ricle,  which  is  also  guarded  by  a 
double  (bicuspid)  valve.  The  contraction  of  the 
left  ventricle  drives  the  blood  into  the  great  artery 
(aorta)  which  supplies  the  various  parts  of  the 
body  with  the  purified  blood.  In  its  course 
through  the  arteries  and  into  the  capillaries  it 
parts  with  its  oxygen  and  takes  up  impurities 
from  the  waste  of  tissue,  and  is  then  ready  for 
its  return  to  the  heart  for  purification,  which  is 
accomplished  by  its  collection  into  larger  veins, 
which  the  capillaries  unite  to  form,  and  they 
in  turn  unite  to  form  two  large  venous  trunks — 
the  superior  and  inferior  vcncecavoe — which  empty 
into  the  right  auricle.  The  blood  has  thus  been 
returned  to  itsoriginal  starting  point.  The  venous 
system  of  the  digestive  organs  is  of  akind  peculiar 
to  itself,  inasmuch  as  the  blood  which  circulates 
in  these  organs  by  means  of  the  coeliac  and  two 
mesenteric  arteries  does  not  return  directly  to  the 
inferior  vena  cava,  but  enters  the  liver  through 
the  portal  vein  after  passing  through  several  other 
veins.  There  in  the  capillaries  it  undergoes 
various  modifications  in  connection  with  the 
functions  of  the  liver,  and  then,  with  the  blood 
received  into  the  liver  from  the  hepatic  artery, 
enters  the  inferior  vena  cava  through  the  hepatic 
veins.  The  digestive  circulation  is  still  further 
complicated  by  the  office  of  the  lymphatics, 
which  conduct  the  products  of  digestion  into  the 
circulatory  system.  The  circulation  of  the  head 
(brain  and  skull)  is  carried  on  by  means  of  the 
carotid  arteries  and  the  jugular  veins.  The  caro¬ 
tids  are  divided  into  two  parts:  the  external  (sup¬ 
plying  the  larynx,  pharynx,  tongue,  face,  and 
scalp  with  blood) — whose  principal  branches  are 
the  superior  thyroid,  lingual,  facial,  occipital, 
posterior  auricular,  the  internal  maxillary,  and 
the  temporal — and  the  internal  carotid  (entering 
the  cranium  through  the  temporal  bone,  passing 
through  the  dura  mater,  separating  into  the  oph¬ 
thalmic  artery,  and  then  into  the  anterior  and 
middle  cerebral  arteries  which  are.  the  principal 
arteries  of  the  brain.  The  blood  is  returned  to 
the  heart  by  way  of  the  jugular  veins,  one  of 
which  runs  contiguous  to  the  carotid,  and  the 
other  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  neck.  The  cir¬ 
culation  is,  of  course,  subject  to  many  modifying 
influencesarising  from  irregularities  of  the  action 
of  the  heart,  the  principal  causes  for  which  are 
usually  found  in  nervous  disturbances  of  the  sys¬ 
tem,  or  these  influences  may  arise  from  disease  in 
the  veins  and  arteries  superinduced  by  other 
causes. 

Cirenmei'sion  (Lat.  a  cutting  around),  the 
cutting  off  the  foreskin  (prmpMtium),  a  rite  widely 
diffused  among  ancient  and  modern  nations.  The 
time  for  circumcision  among  the  Jews  is  the 
eighth  day  after  the  birth  of  the  child;  among 
the  Arabians,  the  thirteenth  year;  among  the 
Kaffirs,  at  a  still  later  period,  marking,  in  fact, 
the  transition  from  youth  to  manhood.  The 
Abyssinians  are  the  only  people  professing  Chris¬ 
tianity  among  whom  circumcision  is  practiced. 
The  circumcision  of  females,  or  what  is  equiva¬ 
lent  to  such,  is  not  unknown  among  various  Afri¬ 
can  nations. 

Circiun'ference,  or  Periph'ery,  the  curve 
which  incloses  a  plane  figure:  thus  we  speak  of 
the  circumference  of  a  circle,  or  of  an  ellipse;  but 
in  figures  bounded  by  straight  lines,  as  the  tri¬ 
angle,  square,  and  polygon,  the  term  perimeter  is 
employed  to  designate  the  whole  bounding  lines 
taken  together. 

Circumuaviga  'tion,  the  term  usually  applied 
to  the  act  of  sailing  round  the  world,  its  literal 
meaning  being  simply  a  sailing  round. 

Circumvalla'tion,  in  Fortification,  is  a  series 
of  works  surrounding  a  place  when  under  siege; 
not  to  serve  offensively  against  the  place,  but  to 
defend  the  siege-army  from  an  attack  from  with¬ 
out.  It  usually  consists  of  a  chain  of  redoubts, 
either  isolated  or  connected  by  a  line  of  parapet. 

Circus,  The,  of  ancient  Rome,  was  a  large, 
oblong  building,  adapted  for  chariot-races  and 
horse-races,  and  used  also  for  the  exhibition  of 
athletic  exercises,  mock-contests,  and  conflicts  of 
wild  beasts.  The  modern  traveling  circus,  as 
the  term  is  used  in  this  country,  consists  of  a 
combination  of  gymnastic  and  horseback  exer¬ 
cises,  with  a  menagerie  and  exhibition  of  more  or  | 


less  doubtful  curiosities.  Some  of  these  aggrega¬ 
tions  are  extremely  costly  and  require  a  whole 
train  of  cars  to  convey  them  from  place  to  place, 
while  a  small  army  of  performers  and  canvas- 
men  are  employed. 

Cirrho'poda,  or  Cirri ' pEda  (Gr.  or  Lat.  cir- 
rhus-footed)  the  animals  which  formed  the  genus 
Lepas  of  Linnaeus,  ranked  by  him  among  the 
mullivalve  Testacea,  and  by  subsequent  natural¬ 
ists  generally  regarded  as  an  order  of  mollusks, 
until,  in  consequence  of  recent  discoveries,  a  place 
ha3  been  assigned  them  among  the  Articulata, 
either  as  a  distinct  class  of  that  division,  or  as  a 
sub-class  of  Crustacea.  Barnacles  and  Balani  or 
aeorn-shells.(see  Balanus)  are  the  most  familiar 
examples  of  cirrliopoda. 

Cir'rhus,  Cir'rus  (Lat.  a  curl,  or  lock  of  hair), 
or  Ten'dril,  in  Botany,  a  leaf  altered  into  a  slen¬ 
der  spiral,  which,  by  twisting  around  such  objects 
as  it  comes  in  contact  with,  attaches  the  plant  to 
them,  and  enables  it  to  climb. 

Cis,  a  Latin  proposition,  meaning  “on  this 
side,”  which  is  often  prefixed  to  names  of  rivers 
and  mountains  to  form  adjectives:  Cisalpine, 
Cispadane,  “  on  this  side  of  the  Alps,”  “of  the 
Po.”  As  most  of  these  words  are  of  Roman 
origin,  Rome  is  considered  the  point  of  departure. 

Cisal'pine  Republic.  After  the  battle  of 
Lodi,  in  May,  1796,  Bonaparte  proceeded  to  organ¬ 
ize  two  States — one  on  the  south  of  the  Po,  the 
Cispadane  Republic,  and  one  on  the  north,  the 
Transpadane.  These  two,  however,  were  in  1797 
united  into  one  under  the  title  of  the  Cispadane 
Republic,  which  embraced  Lombardy,  Mantua, 
Bergamo.  Brescia,  Cremona,  Verona,  and  Rovigo, 
the  Duchy  of  Modena,  the  Principality  of  Massa 
and  Carrara,  and  the  three  legations  of  Bologna, 
Ferrara,  and  the  Romagna.  The  republic  had  a 
territory  of  more  than  16,000  square  miles  and  a 
pop.  of  3,500,000.  Milan  was  the  seat  of  the 
Government  or  Directory. 

Cissam'pelos  (Gr.  ivy-vine),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Menispermacece,  of  which 
some  of  the  species  possess  valuable  medicinal 
properties;  particularly  C.  pareira,  a  native  of 
the  West  Indies  and  warm  parts  of  America,  the 
root  of  which  is  known  by  the  names  of  Pareira 
Brava  and  Bulua  Root.  The  plant  is  called  Vel¬ 
vet  Leaf  in  the  West  Indies,  from  the  peculiar 
and  beautiful  appearance  of  the  leaves. 

Cissoid  of  Diodes,  a  curve  first  employed  by 
Diodes,  the  mathematician,  whose  name  it.  bears, 
for  the  purpose  of  solving  two  celebrated  prob¬ 
lems  in  geometry — viz.,  the  trisection  of  a  plane 
angle,  and  the  construction  of  two  geometrical 
means  between  two  given  straight  lines. 

Cister  'cians,  a  religious  order,  taking  its  name 
from  the  parent  monastery  of  Citeaux  (Cister- 
cium),  near  Dijon,  which  was  founded  in  1098  by 
the  Benedictine  abbot,  Robert  of  Moleme. 

Cis 'tem,  a  tank  for  holding  water.  In  places 
where  the  supply  of  water  is  intermittent,  or 
where  rain-water  is  used,  every  house  requires  a 
cistern  or  water-butt.  Cisterns  are  much  used  for 
the  supply  of  steam  engine  boilers  at  railway 
stations. 

Cis'tus  (Gr.),  cr  Rock-rose,  a  genus  of  exog¬ 
enous  plants,  which  gives  its  name  to  the  natural 
order  (Jistacece,  an  order  allied  to  Cruciferce  and 
Capparidea’,  and  containing  about  200  known 
species  of  shrubs  and  herbaceous  plants,  chiefly 
natives  of  the  South  of  Europe  and  North  of  Af¬ 
rica.  The  flowers  have  genera  ly  five  petals,  very 
delicate;  the  stamens  are  numerous,  the  style  sim¬ 
ple,  the  fruit  a  capsule.  Many  species  of  this 
order  are  more  or  less  resinous,  and  from  the 
twigs  of  some  species  of  Cisivs,  natives  of  the 
south  of  Europe  and  the  Levant,  particularly  C. 
creticus,  C.  cyprius  and  C.  ladaniferous,  the 
resinous  substance  called  ladanum  is  obtained. 

Citadel  (from  the  Ital.  cittaddlo,  a  little  city) 
is  a  fort  of  four  or  five  bastions  in  or  near  a  town. 

Cita'tion,  the  act  of  calling  a  party  into  court 
to  answer  to  an  action,  to  give  evidence  or  to  per¬ 
form  some  other  judicial  act. 

Citizen  (Fr.  citoyen,  Lat.  civis).  Aristotle  defines 
a  citizen  to  be  one  to  whom  belongs  the  right  of 
taking  part  both  in  the  deliberative  or  legislative, 
and  in  the  judicial  proceedings  of  the  community 
of  which  he  is  a  member.  All  persons  born  or  nat¬ 
uralized  within  the  United  States  are  citizens  of 
|  the  United  States  and  of  the  State  in  which  they 


CITRIC  ACID. 


284 


CLARET. 


reside.  Indians  who  have  retained  their  tribal 
relations  are  not  citizens.  Children  born  of  Amer¬ 
ican  parents  temporarily  residing  abroad  or  em¬ 
ployed  abroad  in  the  service  of  the  country  have 
the  same  rights  as  if  born  within  the  limits  of  the 
United  States. 

Ci'tric  Acid  is  an  organic  acid  present  to  a  con¬ 
siderable  extent  in  limes  and  lemons,  and  to  a  less 
extent  in  gooseberries,  currants,  raspberries,  straw¬ 
berries,  and  other  fruits. 

Citron  ( Citrus  medico;  see  Citrus),  a  tree  cul¬ 
tivated  in  the  south  of  Europe,  and  other  warm, 
temperate,  or  sub-tropical  countries  for  its  fruit; 
a  native  of  the  forests  of  the  North  of  India.  By 
many  botanists  it  is  regarded  as  a  mere  variety  (or 
perhaps  the  original  type)  of  the  species  which 
produces  also  the  lemon,  sweet  lemon,  lime,  and 
sweet  lime;  by  others,  these,  or  some  of  them,  are 
regarded  as  distinct  species. 


Citron  (Citrus medico), 
a,  fruit;  b,  transverse  section  of  fruit. 


Citros'ma,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Monimiacece,  of  which  the  leaves  abound  in  an  oil 
resembling,  if  not  identical  with,  oil  of  citron. 
They  are  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  South 
America. 

Cit'rus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Aurcintincea ,  consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  natives 
of  India  and  other  warm  parts  of  Asia,  but  many 
of  which  are  now  commonly  cultivated  in  all  warm 
climates  on  account  of  their  fruit.  To  this  genus 
belong  the  orange,  citron,  lemon,  lime,  bergamot, 
shaddock,  pompelmoose,  forbidden  fruit,  etc. 

City  (Fr.  cite,  Lat.  civitas).  In  the  sense  in  which 
it  was  first  used  in  the  Romanic  languages  of  mod¬ 
ern  Europe,  the  word  city,  like  its  Latin  original, 
was  probably  equivalent  to  State  (respublica)  rather 
than  to  town  or  borough  (urbs,  municipium).  In 
England  the  term  is  said  to  be  confined  to  bor¬ 
oughs  containing  a  cathedral,  but  this  distinction 
is  not  strictly  adhered  to.  In  the  United  States 
all  towns  incorporated  and  governed  by  a  mayor 
and  aldermen  are  cities.  In  some  States  there  is  a 
requirement  that  the  city  shall  contain  a  certain 
population  before  organization. 

City  of  Refuge.  The  Jewish  law  (Numb, 
xxxv,  Deut.  iv.  Josh,  xx,)  set  apart  six  cities, 
three  on  each  side  of  Jordan,  as  cities  of  refuge 
for  the  man  slayer,  in  which  he  might  find  an 
asylum,  and  be  safe  from  the  avenger  of  blood. 
These  cities  were  Hebron,  Sliechem,  and  Kadesh- 
Naphtali  on  the  west  of  Jordan;  Bezel',  Ramoth- 
Gilead,  and  Galan,  on  the  east. 

Ciudad '  (from  the  Lat.  civitas)  is  the  Spanish 
word  for  “  city ;  ”  and  is  used  as  a  prefix  cor¬ 
responding  to  the  English  alfix  town,  as  in  Ciudad 
Bolivar. 

Ciudad  Real',  a  town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name  situated  about  100 
miles  south  of  Madrid.  Pop.  (Ib77),  13,580. 

Ciudad  Rodri'go  (Roderic’s  town),  a  fortified 
town  of  Spain  in  the  province  of  Salamanca, 
about  fifty  miles  southwest  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  Pop.  (1877),  6,856. 

Civ  'et  ( Vivtrra),  a  genus  of  carnivorous  quad¬ 
rupeds,  of  the  family  Vvoerridw,  having  the  bod}’ 
elongated,  in  some  of  the  species  as  much  as  in 
the  weasel  tribe;  the  head  is  also  long,  and  the 
muzzle  sharp.  Between  the  anus  and  sexual  or¬ 
gans  in  both  the  male  and  female,  there  is  a 


large  double  pouch,  in  which  is  secreted  a  pecul¬ 
iar  odoriferous  fatty  substance,  called  Civet, 


Civet. 


much  used  as  a  perfume.  The  use  of  this  pouch 
and  its  secretion  to  the  animal  is  not  very  well 
known. 

Civil  List,  the  amount  voted  in  Great  Britain 
for  the  support  of  the  Crown.  It  amounts  to 
about  $2,000,000  per  annum. 

Civil  Rights,  the  rights  of  an  individual  as  a 
member  of  a  community  guaranteed  to  him  by 
the  Constitution  and  the  amendments  thereto. 

Civil  Service  Reform,  The,  a  general  name 
for  all  duties,  aside  from  those  relating  to  naval 
and  military  service,  rendered  to  and  paid  for  by 
the  General  Government.  The  reform  of  that  serv¬ 
ice  has  been  sought  for  many  years,  and  legisla¬ 
tion  has  been  adopted  with  the  ostensible  object 
of  securing  at  least  a  modification  of  the  evils 
which  have  crept  into  the  system.  Under  Presi¬ 
dent  Grant  a  commission  was  appointed  to  pre¬ 
pare  rules  regulating  admission  to  the  civil  serv¬ 
ice,  and  so  far  as  some  of  the  subordinate  posi¬ 
tions  are  concerned  these  rules  have  been  adopted 
and  are  in  operation  to  a  certain  extent. 

Civilization.  This  is  a  general  term  to  desig¬ 
nate  the  condition  of  the  more  advanced  nations, 
as  contrasted  with  those  that  are  looked  upon  as 
barbarians  or  savages.  We  term  our  country  and 
the  leading  nations  of  Europe  civilized;  the 
Chinese  and  Tartars  less  so;  the  Red  Indians, 
Australians,  Esquimaux,  least  of  all. 

Civ'ita  Castella'na,  a  town  of  Central  Italy, 
about  thirty  miles  northeast  of  Rome.  Pop.,  4,500. 
It  is  chiefly  remarkable  on  account  of  the  vast 
number  of  its  Etruscan  remains. 

Civita  Vec'chia,  an  Italian  city  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Rome,  on  the  Mediterranean.  Its  an¬ 
cient  name  was  Centum  Cello.  Pop.,  about 
10.500.  It  is  a  free  port,  and  the  majority  of 
travelers  visiting  Rome  land  here. 

Civil  War,  in  America.  See  Confederate 
States. 

Claiborne,  William  Charles  Cole,  born  in 
1773,  died  in  1817,  was  the  first  American  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  the  Territory  of  Louisiana. 

Clair,  St.,  a  river;  that  part  of  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence,  in  its  largest  sense,  which  carries  into  Lake 
St.  Clair  the  waters  of  Lake  Huron.  It  is  30 
miles  long,  and  i  mile  broad,  and  easily 
navigable,  its  depth  being  50  feet.  Lake  St. 
Clair  measures  30  miles  in  length  by  12  in  average 
width,  and  communicates  at  its  southwest  end 
with  Lake  Erie  by  means  of  the  Detroit  river. 

Clairant,  Alexis  Claude,  French  mathe¬ 
matician,  born  May  7,  1713.  He  wrote  a  great 
number  of  scientific  papers,  but  his  fame  now 
rests  on  his  Figure  of  the  Earth,  his  explanation 
of  the  motion  of  the  lunar  apogee,  and  on  his 
computation  of  the  time  of  the  return  of  Halley’s 
comet.  He  died  May  17,  1765. 

Claire,  St.  ,  or  Santa  Clara,  born  in  1 193.  She 
founded  an  order  of  nuns  in  1212;  died  Aug.  11, 
1253.  Two  years  afterward,  she  was  canonized 
by  Alexander  IV. 

Claire,  St.,  Nuns  of  the  Order  of,  a  relig¬ 
ious  order  founded  by  St.  Claire  in  1212.  At  first, 
the  nuns  observed  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  but  in 
1224  the  austerity  of  this  rule  was  mitigated  by 
St.  Francis,  and  again  modified  by  Urban  IV.  in 
1264.  The  order  rapidly  increased;  and  convents 
are  numerous  to  the  present  day  in  Italy,  France, 
Belgium,  Bavaria,  Asia,  and  America. 


Clam,  in  Heraldry,  is  a  term  for  an  escalop  or 
cockleshell,  and  is  supposed  to  indicate  that  the 
bearer  has  been  a  crusader,  or  has  made  long 
voyages  by  sea. 

Clam,  Bear’s  Paw  ( Ilippopus  maculatus),  a 
bivalve  mollusk  of  the  South  Seas,  of  the  family 
Tridacnidee. 

Clam  (Venus  mercenaria)  is  found  along  the 
Atlantic  coast,  from  Massachusetts  to  North  Caro¬ 
lina.  The  common  land-clam  of  the  coast  is  the 
My  a  arenaria. 

Clau  (Gael,  clann,  Manx  cloan,  meaning  chil¬ 
dren — i.  e. ,  descendants  of  a  common  ancestor). 
This  word  became  incorporated  with  the  English 
language  at  least  as  early  as  the  seventeenth  cent¬ 
ury,  to  mean  a  body  of  men  confederated  by 
common  ancestry  or  any  other  tie,  and  in  this 
sense  it  is  used  both  by  Milton  and  Dryden.  It 
came  to  be  applied  almost  exclusively  to  the  sev¬ 
eral  communities  of  the  Scottish  Highlanders,  as 
divided  from  each  other  topographically  and  by 
distinctive  surnames.  The  word  has  sometimes 
been  applied  to  those  great  Irish  septs  which  at 
one  time  were  a  sort  of  separate  states. 

Clandes'tine  Mar'riage.  A  marriage  con¬ 
tracted  without  the  knowledge  or  consent  of  par¬ 
ents  or  guardians,  and  without  due  observance  of 
ecclesiastical  ceremonies,  even  where  concealment 
was  not  the  chief  or  only  object  of  the  parties,  is 
generally  called  a  clandestine  marriage. 

Clap'perton,  Hugh,  born  in  Scotland  in  1788. 
He  made  important  explorations  in  Central  Af¬ 
rica,  and  died  there  April  13,  1827. 

Claque  (from  Fr.  claquer,  to  clap  the  hands,  or 
applaud)  is  the  name  given  to  a  contrivance  some¬ 
times  resorted  to  in  Europe  for  securing  the  suc¬ 
cess  of  a  public  performance  or  production,  by 
bestowing  upon  it  preconcerted  applause,  and 
thus  giving  the  public,  who  tire  not  in  the  secret, 
a  false  notion  of  the  impression  it  has  made.  It 
was  in  Paris  that  it  was  first  regularly  organized 
and  turned  into  a  trade.  One  Sauton,  in  1820, 
established  an  Office  for  the  Insurance  of  Dramatic 
Success  (Assurance  des  Succes  Dramatiques),  and 
was  thus  the  organizer  of  the  Parisian  “  claque.” 

Clare,  a  maritime  county  in  the  Province  of 
Munster,  Ireland,  bounded  north  by  Galway  and 
Galway  Bay;  east  and  south  by  the  Shannon  and 
its  expansion  Lough  Derg,  separating  it  front 
Tipperary,  Limerick,  and  Kerry;  west  by  the 
Atlantic.  The  chief  towns  are  Ennis  (the  coun¬ 
ty  town),  Kilrusli,  Ennistymon,  and  Killaloe. 
Pop.  (1881),  141,457. 

Clare  College,  Cambridge,  England,  founded 
1 326,  undertlienameof  University  Hall ,  by  Richard 
Badew,  was  burned  in  1338,  and  rebuilt  and  en¬ 
dowed  by  Elizabeth,  Countess  of  Clare.  Chaucer 
calls  this  college  “  Solere  ”  Hall. 

Clare  Island,  an  island  of  Ireland  situated  in 
the  Atlantic,  at  the  entrance  of  Clew  Bay.  It  has 
a  length  of  4 miles,  with  a  breadth  of  2  miles. 

Clar'endon,  Constitutions  of,  were  laws 
made  by  a  parliament,  or  rather  by  a  general 
council  of  the  nobility  and  prelates,  held  at  Clar¬ 
endon,  England,  in  1164,  whereby  King  Henry  II. 
checked  the  power  of  the  church  and  narrowed 
the  total  exemption  which  the  clergy  had  claimed 
from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  secular  magistrate. 

Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,  Earl  of,  English 
historian  and  statesman,  born  Feb.  18,  1608.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Long  Parliament  and  in 
1642  was  appointed  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer, 
knighted,  and  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council.  In 
1657,  Charles  II.  appointed  him  High  Chancellor 
of  England.  In  November,  1660,  he  was  created 
Baron  Hyde,  and  in  April  following,  Viscount 
Cornbury,  and  Earl  of  Clarendon.  He  died  at 
Rouen,  December,  1694. 

Clarendon,  George  William  Frederick 
Villiers,  Earl  of,  an  English  statesman,  born 
Jan.  12,  1800.  In  1847  he  was  appointed  Lord- 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  and  in  1852  was  intrusted 
with  the  seals  of  the  foreign  office.  He  held  the 
same  seals  from  1855  to  1858;  resumed  them  in 
1865;  retired  in  1866;  and  taking  the  same  office 
once  more  in  1868,  he  retained  it  till  he  died  in 
June,  1870. 

Claret  (Fr.  Clniret ),  a  term  originally  applied 
to  wines  of  a  light-red  color,  but  which  is  now 
used  as  a  general  name  for  the  red  wines  of  Bor¬ 
deaux. 


CLARIFICATION. 


285 


CLEMATIS. 


Clarification  is  the  process  of  clearing  a  fluid 
from  a  turbid  condition,  as  in  the  case  of  beer,  or 
in  the  action  of  gelatine  in  fining  British  wines. 

Clarinet,  or  Clarionet,  a  wind- 
instrument  of  the  reed  kind,  in¬ 
vented  by  Joseph  Christoph  Den- 
ner  in  Niirnberg,  in  1690. 

Clarion,  or  Clarin,  a  species  of 
trumpet,  more  shrill  in  tone  than 
the  ordinary  one;  also  the  name 
of  an  organ-stop  of  four  feet 
pitch. 

Clark,  Abraham,  one  of  the 
signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde¬ 
pendence,  was  born  in  New  Jersey, 

Feb.  15,  1726,  and  diedinl794. 

Clark,  Alvan,  was  born  in  Ash- 
field,  Mass.,  in  1804,  and  became  dis¬ 
tinguished  as  an  optician  and  astron¬ 
omer.  He  and  his  sons  have  manu¬ 
factured  the  largest  object-glasses  for 
telescopes  in  existence. 

Clark,  George  Rogers,  born 
Nov.  19,  1752.  At  the  head  of  a 
force  of  militia  he  defeated  the 
French  at  Kaskaskia,  111.,  and  Vin¬ 
cennes,  Ind.,  in  1778  and  1779.  He 
became  a  Brigadier-General  in  the 
Continental  army,  and  captured  five 
Indian  towns  on  the  Miami  and  Scio¬ 
to.  He  died  in  poverty  at  Louis¬ 
ville,  Ky.,  Feb.  13,  1818. 

Clark,  Thomas  March,  born  | 

July  4,  1812,  became  a  Presbyterian^  mouthpiece, 
and  afterward  an  Episcopalian  back  view, 
minister  and  in  December,  1854,  witl1  reed  re- 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Rhode  ^  Vith 
Island.  reedattached. 

Clark,  Lewis  Gaylord  and  Willis  Gaylord, 
twin  brothers,  born  at  Otisco,  N.  Y.,  in  1810. 
Lewis,  who  died  in  1873,  was  for  twenty-five 
years  editor  of  the  Knickerbocker  Magazine.  Wil¬ 
lis  was  proprietor  of  the  Philadelphia  Gazette, 
and  died  in  1841. 

Clarke,  Charles  Cowden,  born  in  England, 
Dec.  15,  1787;  died  in  1877;  published,  in  con¬ 
nection  with  his  wife,  Mary  Victoria,  born  in 
London,  1809,  a  concordance  to  Shakespeare  and 
an  annotated  edition  of  the  plays. 

Clarke,  Adam,  LL.D.,  born  about  1762  in 
Ireland.  The  great  work  of  his  life  was  his 
edition  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  English,  illus¬ 
trated  with  a  commentary  and  critical  notes,  into 
which  were  compressed  all  the  results  of  his  va¬ 
ried  reading.  The  first  volume  appeared  in  1810, 
the  eighth  and  last  in  1826.  He  died  Aug.  26, 
1832. 

Clarke,  Henri  Jacques  Guillaime,  Duke  de 
Feltre,  born  Oct.  17,  1765;  died  in  1818.  He 
was  Minister  of  War  under  Napoleon,  and  was 
made  Marshal  in  1817. 

Clarke,  James  Freeman,  born  at  Hanover, 
N.  H.,  April  4,  1810;  wrote  extensively  on  the¬ 
ology  and  other  subjects,  and  was  many  years 
connected  with  the  Governorship  of  Harvard 
College. 

Clarke,  William,  born  Aug.  1,  1770;  died 
Sept.  1, 1838.  He  entered  the  United  States  army, 
and,  in  company  with  Capt.  Meriwether  Lewis, 
led  an  exploring  expedition  from  St.  Louis  across 
the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  mouth  of  the  Colum¬ 
bia  in  1802—4.  He  was  afterward  Governor  of 
Missouri  Territory  and  (1822-38)  Superintendent 
of  Indian  Affairs.  Clarke’s  Fork  river,  a  branch 
of  the  Columbia,  was  named  after  him. 

Clarke,  John  S..  born  in  Maryland  in  1835, 
and  has  played  old  English  comedy  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic  with  great  success.  His  “Doctor 
Pangloss,”  “Dr.  Allapod,”  and  “Major  Welling¬ 
ton  de  Boots  ”  are  inimitable.  He  married  a  sis¬ 
ter  of  Edwin  Booth. 

Clarkson,  Thomas,  born  March  28,  1760.  He 
spent  nearly  fifty  years  in  a  crusade  against  Afri¬ 
can  slavery,  and  lived  to  see  it  abolished  in  the 
English  dependencies.  He  died  Sept.  26,  1846. 

Clary  ( Salvia  sclarea),  a  plant  of  the  same  genus 
with  sage,  a  native  of  Italy  and  other  southern 
countries  of  Europe. 

Classics.  The  term  classici  was  originally  ap¬ 
plied  to  those  citizens  of  Rome  that  belonged  to 
the  first  and  most  influential  of  the  six  classes  into 


which  Servius  Tullius  divided  the  population. 
As  early  as  the  second  century  after  Christ  it  is  ap¬ 
plied  figuratively  by  Gellius  to  writers  of  the 
highest  rank,  and  this  mode  of  designation  has 
since  been  very  generally  adopted  both  in  litera¬ 
ture  and  art. 

Claude  Lorraine  (properly  Claude  Gelee), 
a  painter,  born  in  1600.  He  died  in  1682.  Four  of 
his  best  works — the  landscapes  known  as  “Morn¬ 
ing,”  “  Noon,”  “  Evening,”  and  “Twilight” — are 
in  the  Royal  Gallery  at  St.  Petersburg. 

Claudia'nus,  Claudius,  a  Latin  poet  of  Alex¬ 
andria,  lived  in  the  end  of  the  fourth  and  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  fifth  century. 

Claudi  'us  I.,  Tiberius,  a  Roman  Emperor,  the 
youngest  son  of  Nero  Claudius  Drusus,  step-son 
of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  was  born  at  Lyon,  IOb.c. 
and  died  54  a.d. 

Claus,  Santa,  a  mythical  personage  who  is 
supposed  to  bring  toys  for  good  children  at  Christ¬ 
mas.  He  is  identified  with  St.  Nicholas,  the  patron 
of  children. 

Clause],  Bertrand,  a  French  marshal,  born  in 
1772,  and  obtained  distinction  in  the  Italian  and 
Austrian  campaigns  of  Napoleon;  but  more  es¬ 
pecially  as  commander  in  Spain,  after  the  battle  of 
Salamanca,  in  1812.  He  died  in  1842. 

Clausewitz,  Karl  von,  a  Prussian  General, 
whose  writings  prepared  the  way  for  a  revolution 
in  the  theory  of  war,  was  born  June  1,  1780,  and 
died  in  November,  1831.  Of  his  works,  the  best 
known  are  Vom  Krieg  (3  vols.),  and  his  Life  of 
Scharnhorst. 

Clavagel  'la,  or  Club-shell,  a  genus  of  Lam- 
ellibranchiate  mollusks  of  the  same  family  with 
aspergillum,  of  which  fossil  species  were  first 
known  to  naturalists,  but  existing  species  have 
also  been  discovered. 

Clav'icle,  or  Collar-bone,  a  bone  which,  in 
conjunction  with  the  scapula  or  blade-bone,  forms 
the  shoulder.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  Latin 
word  clams,  in  consequence  of  its  resemblance  to 
the  key  used  by  the  Romans. 

Clay  (Ang.-Sax.  dmg ;  of  the  same  root  as  clag, 
claggy),  a  term  applied  to  those  kinds  of  earth  or 
soil  which,  when  moist,  have  a  notable  degree  of 
tenacity  and  plasticity.  The  clays  are  not  easily 
distinguishable  as  mineral  species,  but  they  all  ap¬ 
pear  to  owe  their  origin  to  the  decompositon  of 
other  minerals,  and  to  consist  chiefly  of  alumina  in 
combination  with  silica  and  with  a  certain  amount 
of  water. 

Clay,  Cassius  M.,  born  in  Kentucky,  1810,  in 
1835  was  elected  to  the  Legislature  of  his  native 
State,  and  1862  was  appointed  United  States  Min¬ 
ister  to  Russia,  a  post  he  held  till  1869. 

Clay,  Henry,  born  April  12,  1777,  in  Virginia. 
In  1806  he  was  elected  to  Congress,  and  in  1809 
was  chosen  Senator.  In  1811  he  was  sent  to  the 
House  of  Representatives,  where  he  was  elected 
Speaker.  He  is  best  known  as  the  author  of  the 
famous  “  Missouri  Compromise,”  restricting 
slavery  to  the  States  south  of  36°  30'  N.  latitude; 
and  for  the  compromise  of  1850,  known  as  Clay’s 
“  Omnibus  ”  measure.  He  died  June,  1 852. 

Clay  borne  (or  Claiborne),  William,  one  of 
the  early  settlers  of  Virginia,  who  was  several 
times  engaged  in  war  with  Calvert,  Lord  Balti¬ 
more,  over  his  claims  to  Kent  Island  in  Chesa¬ 
peake  Bay. 

Claymore  (the  great  sword),  the  Gaelic  name 
for  a  kind  of  sword  at  one  time  much  used,  but 
not  so  well  known  at  present.  It  had  a  double- 
edged  blade  about  43  inches  long  by  2  inches  broad ; 
its  handle  was  often  12  inches  long,  and  its  weight 
6  or  7  pounds. 

Clayton,  John  Middleton,  born  in  Delaware, 
July  24,  1796;  died  in  1856.  He  was  several 
times  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  and 
while  Secretary  of  State  in  1850  he  negotiated  the 
Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  with  England. 

Clazom  'erne,  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Ionia. 

Clean 'tlies,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  born  at  Assos, 
in  Troas,  about  300  b.c.  He  died  of  voluntary 
starvation  when  about  80  years  old. 

Clear,  Cape,  a  headland  of  Clear  Island,  the 
most  southerly  extremity  of  Ireland,  is  elevated 
more  than  400  feet  above  the  sea,  latitude  51°  26' 
N.,  longitude  9°  29'  W. 

Clearance,  in  the  mercantile  marine,  is  a  per¬ 
mission  from  the  custom-house  officers,  or  the 
emigration  officers,  or  both,  for  the  departure  of 


a  ship  from  a  port,  denoting  that  all  the  formali¬ 
ties  have  been  observed,  and  all  dues  paid.  If  a 
foreign  vessel,  she  must  also  be  certified  by  the 
Consul  of  the  nation  to  which  she  belongs.  Hence 
the  expression  cleared  out,  in  reference  to  the  de¬ 
parture  of  a  ship. 

Clear 'ing-limise,  in  Banking.  The  facilities 
afforded  by  bankers  in  collecting  bills,  checks, 
etc.,  early  imposed  the  necessity  for  an  organized 
form  of  interchange  of  such  securities,  which 
would  at  once  save  labor  and  curtail  the  amount 
of  floating  cash  requisite  to  meet  the  settlements 
of  the  bankers  if  effected  singly.  This  necessity 
led  to  the  establishment  of  clearing-houses,  at 
which  all  the  banks  are  represented  directly  or  by 
agents,  and  through  which  collections  on  one 
another  are  made  by  a  comprehensive  system  of 
debits  and  credits. 

Clearing-nut  ( Strychnos  potatorum),  a  small 
tree  of  the  same  genus  with  the  mix  vomica, 
abundant  in  the  forests  of  India,  and  o£  which 
the  seeds  are  much  used  for  clearing  water. 

Clearn  ess,  a  quality  of  art  which  is  realized 
by  a  skillful  arrangement  of  colors,  tints  and 
tones. 

Clear '-story,  or  C’lere-story.  Originally  this 
term  was  applied  to  the  upper  part  of  any  build¬ 
ing,  which  was  lighted  by  several  windows,  or  by 
a  row  of  small  windows  or  openings  in  the  wall. 
Latterly,  it  came  to  be  applied  exclusively  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  central  aisle  of  a  church,  in 
which  windows  were  placed  above  the  roof  of 
the  side  aisles. 

Cleats,  in  Ship  building,  are  pieces  of  wood 
fastened  to  various  parts  of  the  vessel,  and  hav¬ 
ing  holes  or  recesses  for  fastening  ropes.  There 
are  several  kinds,  applied  to  various  purposes, 
and  bearing  the  names  of  belaying,  comb,  mast, 
shroud,  single,  stop,  thumb,  etc.,  cleats. 

CleavaiM*,  or  Slaty'  Cleavage,  is  a  condition 
of  rocks  in  which  they  split  easily  into  thin 
plates.  The  direction  of  these  laminae  may  be 
in  the  plane  of  stratification,  but  it  frequently 
differs  from  it.  Cleavage  is  the  result  of  an  oper¬ 
ation  which  is  subsequent  to,  and  entirely  inde¬ 
pendent  of,  the  original  stratification  of  the  rocks. 

Cleavers,  or  Goose-grass  ( Galium  aparine),  a 
species  of  bed-straw,  a  coarse  annual,  with  whorls 
of  six  to  eight  leaves,  both  stem  and  leaves  rough 
with  reflexed  bristles,  the  fruit  also  hispid. 

Clef,  a  musical  character  placed  on  the  staff, 
by  which  the  names  of  the  notes  are  fixed.  There 
are  three  kinds  of  clefs — viz.,  the  G,  the  C,  and 
the  F  clef. 

Cleg,  a  name  given  to  some  insects  of  the  dip¬ 
terous  family  Tabanidce,  the  females  of  which  are 
extremely  troublesome  to  horses,  cattle,  and  hu¬ 
man  beings  in  summer,  piercing  their  skins  by 
means  of  a  curious  apparatus  of  small  lancets 
with  which  the  mouth  is  furnished,  and  drinking 
their  blood. 

Clem'atis  (Gr.  clema,  the  shoot  of  a  vine),  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Ranunculacece, 
having  four  colored  sepals,  no  corolla,  and  for 
fruit  numerous  one-seeded  achaenia  with  long — 


Clematis  montana. 


generally  feathery — awns.  The  species  are  numer¬ 
ous,  herbs  or  shrubs,  generally  with  climbing 
stems,  and  much  scattered  over  the  world.  They 
possess  more  or  less  active  caustic  properties. 


CLEMEN CEAU. 


286 


CLINTON. 


Clt*in'*nceau,  Eugene,  a  French  physician,  the 
chief  representative  of  the  Advanced  Left  in  the 
French  Chamber  of  Deputies.  He  was  born  Sept. 
28,  1841.  After  the  Revolution  of  Sept.  4,  1870,  he 
became  Mayor  of  the  eighteenth  arrondissement, 
and  afterward  Representative  in  (lie  Chamber. 
Although  an  extreme  Radical,  he  nearly  lost  his 
life  by  attempting  to  save  Generals  Lecomte  and 
Clement  Thomas,  the  hostages  murdered  by  the 
Commune.  He  is  the  editor  and  chief  proprietor 
of  the  leading  Radical  journal,  La  Justice,  and  is 
a  cousin  of  Gen.  Ernest  Boulanger. 

Clemens,  Samuel  Langhorne  (Mark  Twain), 
was  horn  in  Missouri,  Nov.  30,  1835.  In  1067  he 
joined  a  pleasure  excursion  to  Europe  and  Pales¬ 
tine,  which  he  described  in  the  Innocents  Abroad 
(1869).  In  1874  lie  wrote  The  Gilded  Arje.  Other 
noted  works  of  Mark  Twain  are  Roughing  Tt,  Tom 
Sawyer,  The  l  rince  and  the  Pauper,  and  The  Ad¬ 
ventures  of  Huckleberry  Finn. 

Clenu'ens,  Titus  Flavius,  flourished  at  the 
close  of  the  second  and  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century.  In  202  a.d.  the  persecution  of  the 
Christians  under  Severus  compelled  him  to  flee  to 
Palestine.  He  is  supposed  to  have  returned  to 
Alexandria  about  206,  and  in  211  succeeded  Pan- 
taenus.  lie  died  about  213  a.d.  His  most  dis¬ 
tinguished  pupil  was  Origen. 

Cleme  is,  or  Clement,  is  the  name  of  seventeen 
Popes.  Clemens  Romanus,  probably  the  Clement 
mentioned  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians,  is 
assumed  as  the  first  of  the  series.  He  is  accounted 
one  of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  and  ii  said  to  have 
died  as  Bishop  of  the  church  in  Rome,  in  the  year 
102. 

Clement  XIV.,  Giovanni  Vincenzo  Antonio 
Ganganelli,  was  born  in  1705,  at  St.  Arcangelo, 
near  Rimini.  Benedict  XIV.  appointed  him  to 
the  important  post  of  Counsellor  to  the  Inquisition, 
and  under  Clement  XIII.  he  was  made  a  Cardinal. 
On  the  death  of  Clement  XIII.,  he  succeeded  to 
the  Papal  chair,  May  19,  1769.  He  died  in  1774. 

Cleome'des,  a  Greek  writer  on  astronomy. 
His  treatise  is  entitled  The  Circular  Theory  of  the 
Heavenly  Bodies,  and  is  remarkable  as  containing, 
amid  much  error  and  ignorance,  several  truths  of 
modern  science — such  as  the  spherical  shape  of 
the  earth,  the  revolution  of  the  moon  about  its 
axis,  its  revolution  round  the  earth,  etc. 

Cle'Oll,  an  Athenian  demagogue,  who  flour¬ 
ished  during  a  part  of  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
He  first  became  prominent  in  the  discussion  re¬ 
garding  the  fate  of  the  Mytilenoean  prisoners,  427 
b.c.  He  advocated  the  massacre  of  the  males, 
carried  his  point,  and  more  than  2,000  perished; 
the  re~t  were  saved  through  the  remorse  of  the 
Athenians.  In  422  b.c.  he  was  sent  to  oppose 
Brasidas,  the  Spartan  general,  in  Macedonia  and 
Thrace.  Brasidas  made  an  unexpected  sally,  and 
in  the  battle  which  ensued  both  leaders  were 
slain.  The  Athenian  army,  however,  was  de¬ 
feated,  and  obliged  to  retreat. 

Cleopatra,  daughter  of  the  Egyptian  King, 
Ptolemy  Auletes,  was  born  69  b.c.,  and  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  will  of  her  father,  should  have  inher¬ 
ited  the  throne  with  her  brother,  Ptolemy  Dio¬ 
nysus,  who  was  also  her  husband.  Her  claim, 
however,  being  opposed,  Julius  Caesar  went  to 
Alexandria,  48  b.c.,  to  interpose  in  the  quarrel, 
and  in  the  Alexandrian  War,  Ptolemy  Dionysus 
fell,  and  Cleopatra,  who  was  now  married  to  her 
younger  brother,  Ptolemy,  a  boy  of  eleven  years, 
was  established  upon  the  throne  of  Egypt.  She 
bore  a  sou  to  Caesar,  who  was  named  Claesarion. 
On  her  visiting  Rome,  Caesar  received  her  with 
great  magnificence,  and  placed  her  statue  in  the 
temple  which  he  had  built  to  Venus  Genitrix. 
After  the  battle  of  Philippi,  Antony  summoned 
her  to  appear  before  him  at  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia, 
to  give  account  of  her  conduct.  Cleopatra, 
who  had  in  the  mean  time  got  rid  of  the  youthful 
Ptolemy  by  poison,  appeared  in  the  character  of 
Venus  Anadyomene,  and  so  fascinated  Antony, 
that  he  remained  devoted  to  her.  They  spent 
the  winter,  41-40  b.c. ,  in  Alexandria,  in  revelry; 
and  Antony,  although  he  had  in  the  meantime 
married  Octavia,  the  sister  of  Octavianus,  re¬ 
turned  to  the  embraces  of  Cleopatra,  who  met  him 
at  Laodicea,  in  Syria,  36  b.c.,  and  accompanied 
him  to  the  Euphrates.  His  general  residence 
from  this  time  was  with  her  at  Alexandria.  He 
became  the  object  of  great  detestation  at  Rome, 


and  war  was  declared  against  Cleopatra,  Antony  1 
being  now  regarded  as  her  general.  At  her  insti¬ 
gation  he  risked  the  great  naval  battle  of  Actium; 
and  when  she  fled  with  sixty  ships,  he  forgot 
everything  else,  and  hastened  after  her.  When 
Octavianus  appeared  before  Alexandria,  Cleopa¬ 
tra  entered  into  private  negotiations  with  him  for 
her  own  security,  which  treachery  becoming 
known  to  Antonv,  he  vowed  revenge;  but  a  re¬ 
port  coming  to  him  that  she  had  committed  sui¬ 
cide,  he  thought  it  impossible  to  survive  her,  and 
fell  upon  his  sword.  Mortally  wounded,  and 
learning  that  the  report  which  he  had  heard  was 
false,  lie  caused  himself  to  be  carried  into  her 
presence,  and  died  in  her  arms.  Octavianus,  by 
artifice,  succeeded  in  making  her  his  prisoner. 
Failing  to  make  any  impression  upon  him,  and 
finding  that  he  spared  her  life  only  that  she 
might  grace  his  triumph  at  Rome,  she  took 
poison,  or,  as  is  said,  killed  herself  by  causing  an 
asp  to  bite  her  arm.  Her  death  took  place  in 
August,  30  b.c.  Her  body  was  buried  beside 
that  of  Antony,  and  Octavia  brought  up  the 
children  whom  she  had  borne  to  Antony  as  it  they 
had  been  her  own.  For  Cleopatra's  Nceole,  see 
Obelisk.  See  also  Shakespeare’s  Antony  and 
Cleopatra. 

Clepsy 'dra,  an  ancient  Greek  musical  instru¬ 
ment,  having  pipes  which  were  made  to  produce 
a  soft  sound  by  the  agitation  of  water  forcing  air 
into  them.  There  were  levers  for  admitting  the 
water,  thus  forming  a  kind  of  hydraulic  organ. 

Clepsydra  (Gr.  klepto,  I  conceal,  hydor,  water), 
an  instrument  for  measuring  time  by  the  efflux  of 
water  through  a  small  orifice.  Two  kinds  have 
been  in  use — one  wherein  the  fluid  is  simply  al¬ 
lowed  to  escape  through  the  orifice;  the  other, 
in  which  the  uniformity  of  the  flow  is  secured  by 
maintaining  the  fluid  at  a  constant  level  in  the 
instrument. 

Clerc,  Jean  Le,  better  known  as  Johannes 
Clericus,  born  at  Geneva,  March  29,  1657. 
Finally,  he  was  appointed  Professor  of  Philoso¬ 
phy,  Classical  Literature,  and  Hebrew  at  the 
Remonstrant  Seminary  of  Amsterdam.  He  died 
Jan.  8,  1736.  His  writings  are  numerous;  but 
his  greatest  service  to  posterity  was  the  publica¬ 
tion  of  a  quarterly,  the  Bibliotheqve  Univcrselle 
et  Historique  (1686 — 1693,  25  vols.,  in  8  vo). 

Cler'gy  (Gr.  Cleros,  a  lot,  an  inheritance),  a  term 
generally  applied  to  the  ministers  of  the  Christian 
religion,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Laity.  The 
term  secular  clergy  is  the  designation  of  priests 
of  the  Church  of  Rome  who  are  not  of  any  re¬ 
ligious  order,  but  have  the  care  of  [parishes. 
Monks  who  are  in  holy  orders  are  designated 
regular  clergy. 

Clermont  (in  the  middle  ages,  Clarus  Mans,  or 
Clarimontium),  is  the  name  of  several  towns  in 
France.  The  most  important  is  the  capital  of  the 
department  of  Puy-de-Dome,  Clermont-Ferrand. 
Pop.  (1881),  38,103. 

Cle'rus,  a  genus  of  insects  of  the  order  Coleop- 
tera,  section  Pentamera,  and  of  the  great  family 
or  sub-section  Serricornes.  They  are  beautiful 
beetles,  generally  found  on  flowers,  and  often  on 
those  of  umbelliferous  plants,  but  their  larvae 
feed  on  the  larvae  of  different  kinds  of  bees. 

Cleveland,  next  to  Cincinnati  the  most  im¬ 
portant  commercial  city  in  Ohio,  stands  on  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Cuyahoga,  in  latitude  41°  30'  N.,  and  longitude 
81°  47'  W.  Pop.,  180,000. 

Cleveland,  Grover,  twenty-second  President 
of  the  United  States,  born  at  Caldwell,  N.  J., 
March  18,  1837.  He  was  appointed  Assistant  Dis¬ 
trict  Attorney  for  the  County  of  Erie,  N.  Y.,  1863; 
for  three  years  served  as  Sheriff  of  that  county,  and 
was  elected  Mayor  of  Buffalo  in  1881.  In  1882 
he  was  chosen  Governor  of  the  State  of  New  York, 
and  in  1884  elected,  by  the  Democratic  party,  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  United  States.  He  was  renominated 
in  1888,  but  defeated  at  the  polls  by  Harrison. 

Cleves  (Ger.  Kleve),  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
forty-eight  miles  northwest  of  Dtisseldorf.  It 
has  a  fine  old  castle,  partly  built  on  a  command¬ 
ing  rock,  in  which  Anne  of  Cleves,  one  of  the 
wives  of  Henry  VIII.,  >vas  born.  Pop.  (1880), 
10,000. 

Click '-beetle,  the  popular  name  of  many  spe¬ 
cies  of  coleopterous  insects  of  the  tribe  Elateri- 
des.  They  derive  the  name  from  the  souyd  which 


they  make  when,  being  laid  on  their  back  on  any 
hard  substance,  they  regain  their  feet  by  a  spring. 

Cliff-dwellings,  humanabodes,  constructed  or 
excavated  wholly  or  in  part  in  rocks  or  cliffs. 
Many  are  found  in  Mexico,  Utah,  and  Arizona. 

Climac'tcric  Year.  It  was  long  believed  that 
certain  years  in  the  life  of  man  had  a  peculiar 
significance  to  him,  and  were  the  critical  points, 
as  it  were,  of  his  health  and  fortunes.  The  mys¬ 
tical  number  7  and  its  multiples  (e.  g.,  35,49) 
constituted  crises  of  this  kind.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  of  all  was  the  sixty-third  year,  called 
by  way  of  eminence,  the  “climacteric  year” 
or  “grand  climacteric,”  which  was  supposed 
to  be  fatal  to  most  men,  its  influence  being 
attributed  to  the  fact,  that  it  is  the  multiple  of 
the  two  mystical  numbers  7  and  9. 

Climate  (from  the  Gr.  Mima,  a  slope  or  incli¬ 
nation,  afterward  applied  to  a  tract  of  country, 
with  reference  to  its  supposed  inclination  to  the 
pole,  and  the  effect  of  the  obliquity  of  the  sun’s 
rays  upon  the  temperature),  a  term  now  employed 
as  including  not  merely  the  conditions  of  a  place 
or  country  with  regard  to  temperature,  but  also 
its  meteorological  conditions  generally,  in  so  far 
as  they  exercise  an  influence  on  the  animal  and 
vegetable  kingdoms. 

Cli  'max,  a  Greek  word  signifying  primarily  a 
stair,  and  in  rhetoric,  that  artifice  which  consists 
in  placing  before  the  mind  of  the  reader  or  hearer 
a  series  of  propositions  or  objects  so  arranged 
that  the  least  forcible  strikes  it  first,  and  the 
others  rise  by  successive  gradations  in  impress¬ 
iveness. 

Climbers  ( Scansores ),  in  ornithology,  an  order 
of  birds  generally  characterized  by  having  two 
toes  before  opposed  by  two  toes  behind,  so  as  to 
adapt  their  feet  in  a  remarkable  degree  for  the 
purpose  of  grasping  the  branch  of  a  tree  or  any 
similar  object.  Many  have  not  two  toes  perma¬ 
nently  directed  backward,  but  have  the  power 
of  turning  one  of  the  front  toes  backward  at 
will.  Some  have  only  three  toes,  but  yet  on  other 
accounts  are  unhesitatingly  ranked  in  this  order. 

Climbing  Perch  ( Andbas  scandens),  the  only 
well-ascertained  species  of  a  genus  of  fishes,  from 
which  the  family  Anabasidw,  derives  its  name.  It 
is  a  native  of  rivers  and  ponds  in  most  parts  of 
the  East  Indies.  It  is  about  six  inches  long.  In 
general  form,  it  somewhat  resembles  a  perch,  and 
the  resemblance  is  increased  by  the  large  scales 
and  the  spiny  dorsal  fin.  That  this  fish  climbs 
trees,  has  been  asserted  by  observers  whose  verac- 


Ctimbing  Perch. 


ity  and  accuracy  can  not  well  be  cpiestioned;  yet 
others,  who  have  enjoyed  ample  opportunity  of 
observation,  express  doubt  concerning  this  habit. 
There  is  no  doubt  that  it  often  leaves  pools,  when 
they  are  in  danger  of  being  dried  up,  and  travels 
in  search  of  water. 

Climbing  Plants,  or  Climbers,  are  those 
plants  which,  having  weak  stems,  seek  support 
from  other  objects,  chiefly  from  other  plants,  in 
order  to  ascend  from  the  ground.  Some  climb 
by  means  of  small,  root-like  processes  growing 
from  the  stem,  as  the  ivy;  some  by  means  of 
cirri  or  tendrils,  which  twine  rouud  branches  of 
trees. 

Clinton,  DeWitt,  born  March  2,  1769;  died 
in  1828.  In  1801  he  was  chosen  United  States 
Senator,  and  two  years  later  resigned  to  become 
Mayor  of  New  York  City.  He  held  this  office 
twice  in  twelve  years,  and  also  served  as  State 
Senator  and  Lieutenant-Governor.  In  1812  he 
was  the  Federal  candidate  for  the  presidency,  but 
was  defeated  by  Madison. 

Clinton,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Clinton 
county,  Iowa;  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  river,  and  is  an  important  manufacturing 
point.  Pop.  (1885),  12,012. 


CLINTON. 


287 


CLOVES. 


Clinton,  George,  fourth  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States  during  the  Presidency  of  both  Jef¬ 
ferson  and  Madison,  was  bom  in  1739  and  died 
in  1812.  He  had  been  six  times  Governor  of  New 
York. 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  an  English  General,  born 
in  1738,  died  in  1793.  He  was  present  at  Bunker 
Hill,  and  in  1778  superseded  General  Howe  as 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  British  forces.  He 
evacuated  Philadelphia,  fought  an  indecisive  bat¬ 
tle  against  Washington  at  Monmouth  Court¬ 
house,  June  28,  1778,  captured  Charleston  in 
May,  1780,  and  attempted,  by  means  of  Benedict 
Arnold,  to  secure  West  Point.  He  was  super¬ 
seded  by  Sir  Guy  Carleton,  in  1782. 

Cli'o,  in  Grecian  Mythology,  the  daughter  of 
Jupiter  and  Mnemosyne,  the  mother  of  Hyacin- 
tlius  and  Ilymenseus.  She  was  the  Muse  of  His¬ 
tory  ami  Epic  Poetry,  and  was  represented  as 
bearing  a  half-opened  roll  of  a  book. 

Clio,  a  genus  of  shell  less  Pteropodous  mol- 
lusks,  of  which  one  species,  C.  borealis,  is  ex¬ 
tremely  abundant  in  the  Arctic  seas,  and  consti¬ 
tutes  a  principal  part  of  the  food  of  whales,  so 
that  the  name  whale’s  food  is  often  given  to  it 
by  whale-fishers. 

Clipper  is  a  name  familiarly  given  to  a  ship 
built  expressly  for  speed. 

Clive,  Robert,  Lord,  Baron  of  Plassey.  born 
1725.  Iu  August,  1751,  with  200  English  infantry 
and  300  Sepoys,  he  attacked  Arcot,  a  city  of 
100,000  inhabitants,  and  garriso  ed  by  1,200  or 
1,500  of  Chunda  Sahib’s  troops,  and  after  a  deci¬ 
sive  battle  captured  it,  a  d  established  the  power 
of  England  in  India.  He  returned  to  England  in 
1760,  and  received  an  Irish  peerage  from  the 
Government  for  his  services.  He  died  Nov.  22, 
1774.  See  Malleson’s  Clive  (1882). 

Cloaca  Maxima.  This  was  a  subterranean  pas¬ 
sage  of  vast  extent,  by  which  the  whole,  or  a  great 
part,  of  the  sewage  of  ancient  Rome  was  conveyed 
to  the  Tiber. 

Clock  Bell '-metal  is  principally  an  alloy  of 
copper  and  tin,  with  smaller  quantities  of  bismuth, 
antimony,  lead,  and  zinc.  A  common  alloy  is  80 
parts  of  copper,  10  tin,  zinc,  and  4i  lead. 

Clocks.  The  origin  of  clock-work  is  involved 
in  great  obscurity.  Notwithstanding  the  state¬ 
ments  by  many  writers  that  clocks,  horologia, 
were  in  use  so  early  as  the  ninth  century,  and  that 
they  were  then  invented  by  an  archdeacon  of 
Verona,  named  Pacificus,  there  is  no  surviving 
description  of  a  clock  resembling  in  any  way  those 
of  the  present  day,  until  the  thirteenth  century, 
when  it  appears  that  a  horologium  was  sent 
by  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  in  1232  to  the 
Emperor  Frederick  II.  In  1292  one  is  men¬ 
tioned  in  Canterbury  Cathedral,  and  another 
at  St.  Albans,  by  11.  Wallingford,  the 
abbot,  in  1326.  A  description  of  one  in  Dover 
Castle,  with  the  date  1348  on  it,  was  published  by 
the  late  Admiral  Smyth,  P.Ii.A.S.,  in  1851,  and 
the  clock  itself  was  exhibited,  going,  in  the  Scien¬ 
tific  Exhibition  of  1876.  The  general  construction 
of  the  going  part  of  all  clocks,  except  large  or 
turret  clocks,  is  substantially  the  same.  All  the 
ornamental  French  clocks,  and  all  the  short 
“  dials,”  as  those  clocks  are  called  which  look  no 
larger  than  the  dial,  or  very  little,  and  many  of 
the  American  clocks,  are  made  with  springs. 
Indeed  we  might  omit  the  word  “  French  ”  after 
“  ornamental,”  for  the  manufacture  of  ornamental 
clocks  has  practically  ceased  in  England,  which  is 
unable  to  compete  with  the  much  more  systematic 
manufacture  of  clocks  and  watches  by  machinery 
in  America.  French  clocks  have  also  been  greatly 
improved,  and  are  now,  at  least  some  of  them, 
quite  different  both  in  construction  and  execution 
from  the  old-fashioned  French  drawing-room 
clock. 

Clois  ter  (Fr.  cloitre,  damtrum,  an  inclosure), 
a  covered  passage,  or  ambulatory,  running  round 
the  walls  of  certain  portions  of  monastic  and  col¬ 
legiate  buildings. 

Clonmel' (Vale  of  Honey),  a  borough  in  Tip¬ 
perary  county,  Ireland,  with  a  portion  in  Water¬ 
ford,  on  both  banks  of  the  Suir,  and  two  islands, 
fourteen  miles  south-southeast  of  Cashel. 

Clontarf',  a  town  of  Ireland  in  the  County  of 
Dublin.  Pop.  (1881),  4,210. 

Cloots,  Jean  Baptiste,  Baron,  better  known  as 
Anacliarsis  Cloots,  was  born  near  Cleves, Germany, 


in  1755.  The  confederation  of  all  nations  was 
the  ultimate  aim  of  his  schemes.  In  1792  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Convention,  and  con¬ 
tinued  to  weary  the  House  with  his  extravagant 
motions.  He  was  excluded  from  the  club  of  the 
Jacobins,  on  the  ground  that  he  was  wealthy  and 
a  nobleman.  Robespierre  hated  and  feared  the 
enthusiast;  and  when  St.  Just  brought  his  im¬ 
peachment  against  Herbert  and  his  adherents, 
Cloots  was  involved  in  it,  was  condemned  to 
death,  and  executed  March  23,  1794. 

Clothes-moth,  a  name  common  to  a  number  of 
species  of  small  moths  of  the  genus  Tinea,  the 
larva;  or  caterpillars  of  which  are  destructive  to 
woolen  clothes,  furs,  etc.  See  Motii. 

Clotilda,  Sainte  (475-545),  was  thedaughter of 
Chilperic,  King  of  Burgundy,  and  the  wife  of 
Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks.  She  was  cauonized 
by  Pelagius  I. 

Cloud,  St.,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Seine-et-Oise,  near  the  Seine,  five  miles  west 
of  Paris.  Pop.  (1881),  4,081. 

Cloud  'berry  (Rubua  Chanter, morns),  a  plant  of 
the  same  genus  with  the  bramble,  although  of 
different  appearance,  having  a  herbaceous  single- 
flowered  stem  destitute  of  prickles.  The  plant  is 
of  humble  growth,  8  to  10  inches  in  height. 

Clouds  are  masses  of  fog.  consisting  of  minute 


Cirrus. 


particles  of  water,  often  in  a  frozen  state,  floating 
in  the  atmosphere.  When  air  saturated,  or  nearly 


Cumulus. 


so,  with  vapor,  has  its  temperature  lowered, 
either  by  ascending  and  becoming  rarer,  or  by 


Stratus. 


meeting  a  colder  current,  a  portion  of  the  vapor 
loses  its  gaseous  form,  and  becomes  condensed 
intp  minute  specks  of  water.  A  cloud,  therefore, 


does  not  consist  of  vapor,  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word,  but  of  water  in  the  form  of  dust,  as  it 
were. 

Clouted,  or  Clotted  Cream  is  obtained  by 
heating  milk  in  a  shallow,  wide  pan  on  a  hot  plate, 
or  over  a  slow  charcoal  fire. 

Clo'ver,  or  The 'foil  ( Trifolium ),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Legwninosce,  sub-order 
Papilionaceat,  containing  a  great  number  of  species, 
natives  chiefly  of  temperate  climates,  and  some  of 
them  very  important  in  agriculture  as  affording 


A.  White  Clover  (Trifolium  repens). 

B.  Red  Clover  ( Trifolium  jrratense). 


pasturage  and  fodder  for  cattle.  The  name  clover 
is  popularly  extended  to  many  plants  not  included 
in  this  genus,  but  belonging  to  the  same  natural 
order,  and  agreeing  with  it  in  having  the  leaves 
formed  of  three  leaflets,  particularly  to  those  of 
them  which  are  cultivated  for  the  same  purposes, 
and  sometimes  collectively  receive  from  farmers 
the  very  incorrect  designation  of  artificial  grasses, 
in  contradistinction  to  natural  grasses — i.e.,  true 
grasses.  The  true  clovers  ( Trifolium )  have  herba¬ 
ceous,  not  twining  stems;  roundish  heads  or  ob¬ 
long  spikes  of  small  flowers;  the  corolla  remain¬ 
ing  in  a  withered  state  till  the  ripening  of  the  seed; 
the  pod  inclosed  in  the  calyx;  and  containing  one 
or  two,  rarely  three  or  four,  seeds. 

Cloves  (Fr.  clou,  a  nail)  are  the  flower-buds  of 
the  clove-tree  ( Caryophyllns  aromaticus).  The 
genus  to  which  this  tree  belongs  is  of  the  natural 


Cloves. 


a,  a  branch  with  leaves,  buds,  and  flowers;  b.  a  bud. 

order  Myrtacece.  The  clove-tree  is  from  15  to  40 
feet  high,  with  a  beautiful  pyramidal  head.  The 
leaves  are  large,  ovate-oblong,  acuminated  at  each 
end,  evergreen  ;  the  flowers  are  small,  but  pro¬ 
duced  in  great  profusion  in  cymes.  Leaves,  flow¬ 
ers,  and  bark  have  an  aromatic  odor. 


CLOVIS. 


288 


COAT  OF  ARMS. 


The  flower-buds  themselves  are  the  principal 
product  of  the  tree.  They  are  gathered,  aud  are 
dried  by  exposure  to  the  smoke  of  wood  fires,  and 
afterward  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  or  by  the  latter 
alone.  The  clove-tree  is  a  native  of  the  Moluccas, 
aud  the  Amboyna  cloves  are  still  esteemed  the 
best;  but  the  tree  is  now  cultivated  in  Sumatra, 
Bourbon,  Maritius,  and  some  parts  of  the  West 
Indies,  and  will  probably  soon  be  common  in 
many  other  tropical  countries. 

Clovis  (old  Ger.  Clilodwig — i.  e. ,  famous  warrior; 
modern  Ger.  Lvclwig,  Fr.  Louis),  King  of  the 
Franks,  was  born  405  a.d.,  and  by  the  death  of 
his  father,  Childeric,  became  King  of  the  Salian 
Franks,  whose  capital  was  Tournay.  His  first 
achievement  was  the  overthrow  of  the  Gallo-Ro- 
mans  under  Syagrius,  near  Soissons.  Later  he  de¬ 
feated  the  Allemanni,  near  Cologne,  the  Visigoths 
in  the  Southwest,  and  died  at  Paris  in  511. 

Club.  The  word  is  probably  allied  to  cleave 
(Ger.  kleben),  “  to  adhere,”  so  as  to  form  one  body 
or  mass.  It  is  used  to  mean  a  company  or  asso¬ 
ciation  met  for  some  common  purpose,  whether 
of  hilarity,  literature,  politics,  or  economy.  In 
its  usual  acceptation,  it  means  a  body  of  persons 
meeting  for  social  or  recreative  purposes,  and 
consisting  of  members  belonging  for  the  most 
part  to  some  one  class  or  occupation.  Social 
and  political  clubs  have  recently  become  an 
established  institution  in  the  larger  cities  of  the 
United  States.  New  York,  Philadelphia  and 
Chicago  have  many. 

Clubbing,  in  cabbages,  turnips,  and  other 
plants  of  the  genus  Brassica,  a  diseased  growth 
of  tubercular  excrescences  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  root  or  lower  part  of  the  stem,  caused  by  the 
larvae  of  the  cabbage-fly  and  other  insects,  by 
which  the  vigorous  growth  of  the  plant  is  pre¬ 
vented,  and  crops  are  often  much  injured.  Lime, 
paris  green,  dalmatian  insect  powders,  etc.,  are 
preventives. 

Club '-foot  (Lat.  talipes)  is  a  distortion  or 
twisting  of  the  foot  by  one  or  more  of  its  muscles 
being  permanently  shortened.  It  may  exist  from 
birth,  or  occur  in  early  childhood  after  convul¬ 
sive  fits.  Surgeons  recognize  four  varieties  of 
club-foot:  turning  inward  (varus),  outward  (val¬ 
gus),  downward  with  elevation  of  the  heel  (equi- 
nus),  or  upward  with  depression  of  the  heel 
(calcaneus). 

Clupe'idse,  an  important  family  of  malacopter- 
ous  fishes,  nearly  allied  to  the  Salmonidce,  and 
differing  from  them  chiefly  in  the  want  of  an 
adipose  fin. 

Clupeso  'cidae,  a  family  of  mala-copterous 
fishes,  so  named  from  being  regarded  as  exhibit¬ 
ing  characters  intermediate  between  those  of  the 
Glupeidce  (herring,  etc.)  and  of  the  Esocidie,  (pike, 
etc.)  Some  of  them  are  marine,  and  some  are 
fresh -water  fishes.  They  are  mostly  tropical. 

Clu  'sia  (named  in  honor  of  the  great  botanist, 
L’Ecluse  or  Clusius),  a  genus  of  tropical  trees 
and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Guttiferce  or 
Clusiacem,  some  of  which  are  commonly  called 
balsam  trees,  from  their  resinous  or  balsamic 
products. 

Cluseret,  Gustave  Paul,  born  June  13, 1823. 
He  entered  the  French  army,  afterward  fought 
under  Garibaldi,  and  in  1862-63  served  under 
McClellan  and  Fremont  in  the  Shenandoah  Val¬ 
ley.  Returning  to  France,  lie  became  Minister  of 
War  under  the  Commune,  and  was  condemned  to 
death,  but  escaped.  In  1888  he  wTas  elected  to 
the  French  Chamber  of  Deputies. 

Clus'tered  Col  'unins,  or  as  they  are  sometimes 
called,  Compound  Piers,  form  one  of  the  richest 
features  in  Gothic  ecclesiastical  architecture.  The 
columns  or  shafts  are  sometimes  attached  to  each 
other  throughout  their  whole  length,  sometimes 
only  at  the  base  and  capital. 

Clyde,  a  river  in  the  South  of  Scotland,  the 
only  great  British  river,  besides  the  Severn,  flow¬ 
ing  wrcst.  Commercially  it  is  the  most  important 
river  in  Scotland.  At  high  water  the  Clyde,  upon 
the  deepening  of  which  vast  sums  have  been 
spent,  is  navigable  to  Glasgow  by  the  largest 
class  of  merchant  vessels. 

Clys'ter(Gr.  from  klyzo,  I  wash  out),  called 
also  enema,  a  medicine  administered  in  the  liquid 
form  by  the  rectum,  or  lower  end  of  the  intestine. 
It  is  used  either  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
evacuation  of  the  bowels,  or  of  conveying  stimu¬ 


lating  or  nourishing  substances  into  the  system. 
For  the  latter  purpose,  wine  and  beef-tea,  or  milk, 
in  quantities  of  a  few  ounces  at  a  time,  are  em¬ 
ployed;  for  the  former,  simple  warm  or  cold 
water  in  sufficiently  large  quantity  to  distend  the 
bowels,  and  produce  the  evacuation;  or  in  special 
cases,  various  cathartics  may  be  used  in  addition, 
such  as  colocynths,  aloes,  castor  oil,  or  turpentine 
made  into  an  emulsion  with  yolk  of  egg,  and 
sometimes  carminatives,  to  expel  air.  Narcotic 
clysters  are  also  employed,  but  should  only  be 
used  under  medical  superintendence.  An  inject¬ 
ing  syringe,  with  a  flexible  tube,  aud  a  double- 
action  valve,  is  usually  employed  for  the  admin¬ 
istration  of  this  remedy. 

Clytemnes'tra,  in  Homeric  legend,  the  daugh¬ 
ter  of  King  Tyndareus  and  of  Leila,  and  the 
twin-sister  of  Helena,  became  the  wife  of  Aga¬ 
memnon,  and  bore  him  a  son,  Orestes,  and  two 
daughters,  Iphigenia  and  Electra.  During  the 
absence  of  Agamemnon  on  his  expedition  to 
Troy,  she  formed  a  connection  with  iEgistlius, 
murdered  her  husband  on  his  return,  and  reigned 
for  seven  years  with  ^Egisthus,  till  she  was  mur¬ 
dered  by  her  own  son,  Orestes. 

Cni'dus,  or  Gnidos,  a  city  on  the  promontory 
of  Triopion  (now  Cape  Krio),  in  Caria,  Asia 
Minor,  a  Lacedaemonian  colony,  and  one  of  the 
six  cities  of  the  Doric  League. 

Coach  is  a  general  name  for  a  vehicle  drawn  by 
horses,  designed  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers, 
as  distinguished  from  a  wagon  or  cart,  for  the 
conveyance  of  goods.  Coaches  or  inclosed  car¬ 
riages,  drawn  on  wheels,  and  intended  for  pas¬ 
sengers,  were  invent  ions  which  have  been  claimed 
by  Hungary,  England,  Italy,  France,  Spain,  and 
Germany.  The  name  is  derived  by  W edgwood 
from  Fr.  couclier,  to  lie,  which  becomes  in  Dutch 
koetsen,  whence  koetse  or  koets-wagen,  a  litter  or 
carriage  in  which  you  may  recline.  The  earliest 
record  found  by  Beckmann  relates  to  about  the 
year  1280,  when  Charles  of  An  jou  entered  Naples, 
and  his  Queen  rode  in  a  caretta.  It  is  believed 
that  most  of  these  vehicles  had  broad  wheels,  the 
only  form  suited  for  the  wretched  roads  of  those 
ages;  and  it  is  certain  that  all  those  of  early  date 
were  open  overhead.  In  this  country  railway 
cars  are  also  called  coaches. 

Coacli-dog,  or  Dalmatian  Dog,  a  variety  of 
dog  apparently  allied  to  the  hounds,  although  it 
is  said  to  be  deficient  both  in  keenness  of  scent 
and  in  sagacity.  It  is  often  kept  in  stables, 
becomes  attached  to  the  horses,  and  may  be  seen 
running  after  carriages. 

Coadju'tor(Lat.),  a  fellow-worker  not  as  prin¬ 
cipal  but  as  second,  an  assistant.  Technically,  it 
is  applied  in  ecclesiastical  law  to  one  appointed  to 
assist  a  bishop,  whom  age  or  infirmity  has  dis¬ 
abled. 

Coagula'tion,  the  amorphous  solidification  of  a 
liquid,  or  part  of  a  liquid,  as  when  the  caseine  of 
milk  is  solidified  by  rennet  in  making  cheese,  or 
the  white  of  an  egg  by  boiling. 

Cdahni'la,  a  State  of  the  Mexican  Confedera¬ 
tion,  separated  from  Texas  by  the  Rio  Bravo  del 
Norte,  in  latitude  24° — 30°  N.,  and  longitude 
100° — 103°  E.  It  contains  50,890  square  miles, 
and  (1882)  130,026  inhabitants.  The  capital  is 
Saltillo,  with  a  pop.  of  8,105;  there  are  besides  the 
towns  of  Coahuila  and  Santa  Rosa. 

Coal,  in  the  sense  of  a  piece  of  glowing  fuel 
(and  hence  a  piece  of  fuel,  whether  dead  or  alive), 
is  a  word  common  to  all  the  languages  of  the 
Gothic  stock  (Icel.  kol,  Ger.  kohle),  and  seems  allied 
to  the  Lat.  cohere,  to  be  hot,  as  also  to  glow,  and 
kiln.  The  different  sorts  of  fuel  are  distinguished 
by  prefixes,  as  charcoal,  pit-coal,  and  sea-coal. 
Coal  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  all  minerals; 
it  consists  chiefly  of  carbon,  and  is  of  vegetable 
origin.  It  generally  occurs  in  strata  or  beds;  is 
always  of  a  black  or  blackish-brown  color;  some  of 
the  varieties  have  a  very  considerable  degree  of  vit¬ 
reous  or  resinous  luster,  and  someare  very  destitute 
of  luster;  some  have  a  sliell-like  fracture,  and  some 
have  a  sort  of  slaty  structure,  and  are  readily 
broken  into  cubical  or  rhomboidal  fragments. 
In  North  America  the  carboniferous  strata  are 
divided  by  geologists  into  two  principal  groups 
— the  lower,  or  sub-carboniferous,  which  corre¬ 
sponds  to  the  carboniferous  limestone  of  Europe, 
and  the  carboniferous,  which  includes  the  mill¬ 
stone  grit  and  coal  measures.  The  first  of  these  is 


about  5,000  feet  thick  in  Pennsylvania,  consisting- 
mainly  of  shales  and  sandstones;  but  in  the  Mis¬ 
sissippi  Valley,  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  Missouri,  a 
considerable  thickness  of  limestone  is  developed 
in  this  part  of  the  series.  In  the  former  region 
some  thin  coal  seams  are  found.  The  coal  meas¬ 
ures  proper  cover  a  large  area  in  the  United 
States.  First  in  importance  is  the  Appalachian 
coal-field,  covering  about  60,000  square  miles,  ex¬ 
tending  through  parts  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
Virginia,  Eastern  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  and  Ala¬ 
bama.  The  maximum  thickness  of  strata  is  from 
2,500  to  3,000  feet;  that  of  included  coal  is  120 
feet  near  Pottsville,  62  feet  at  Wilkesbarre, 
and  about  25  feet  at  Pittsburgh,  showing  a 
gradual  diminution  to  the  westward.  The  most 
persistent  coal  is  the  Pittsburgh  seam,  which  is 
known  over  an  area  measuring  225  miles  by  100 
miles,  but  with  a  thickness  varying  from  2  to  14 
feet.  The  anthracite  district  of  central  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  occupies  an  area  of  abou£  650  miles  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Susquehanna  river.  The  strata 
between  Pottsville  and  Wyoming,  which  belong 
to  the  lowest  portion  of  the  coal  measures,  are 
probably  about  3,000  feet  thick,  but  it  is  difficult 
to  arrive  at  an  exact  estimate,  owing  to  the  nu¬ 
merous  folds  and  contortions.  There  are  from  10 
to  12  seams  above  3  feet  in  thickness;  the  princi¬ 
pal  one,  known  as  the  Mammoth  or  Baltimore 
vein,  is  29i  feet  thick  at  Wilkesbarre,  and  in 
places  even  exceeds  60  feet.  The  Illinois  and 
Missouri  Basin  covers  a  considerable  part  of  these 
States,  as  well  as  of  Indiana  and  Kentucky,  Iowa, 
Kansas,  and  Arkansas.  Its  area  is  estimated  at 
60,000  square  miles,  the  thickness  varying  from 
600  feet  in  Missouri  to  3,000  feet  in  Western  Ken¬ 
tucky.  The  aggregate  thickness  of  coal  is  about 
70  feet.  A  good  furnace  coal  is  obtained  in  In¬ 
diana,  the  so-called  block  coal  of  Brazil  near 
Indianapolis,  which,  like  the  splint  coals  of  Scot¬ 
land  and  those  of  Staffordshire,  can  be  used  in 
the  blast  furnace  without  coking.  In  Michigan 
a  nearly  circular  area  of  coal  measures  of  about 
5,000  square  miles  occurs  in  the  lower  peninsula, 
between  Lakes  Huron  and  Erie.  The  thickness 
is  only  120  feet,  and  the  coals  unimportant. 

Coal 'brook  Dale,  an  English  coal-field  in  the 
valley  of  the  Severn,  which  supplies  considerable 
quantities  of  coal  and  iron. 

Coal '-fish  (Merlangus  carbon arius),  a  fish  of 
the  same  family  with  the  cod  and  haddock 
(Gadidce),  and  of  the  same  genus  with  the  whit¬ 
ing. 

Coiili'tion,  in  Politics,  is  applied  to  the  union 
of  two  parties,  or,  as  it  generally  happens,  por¬ 
tions  of  parties,  not  of  the  same  opinion,  who  yet 
agree  to  sink  their  differences,  and  act  in 
common. 

Coam 'ings,  in  a  ship,  are  small  frameworks 
on  the  deck  to  prevent  sea  and  rain  water  from 
running  down  the  hatchways,  ladderways,  and 
scuttles. 

Coan'za,  a  river  of  Lower  Guinea,  Western 
Africa,  which,  after  a  course  of  about  500  or  600 
miles,  enters  the  Atlantic  south  of  St.  Paul  de 
Loando,  in  latitude  about  9°  10'  S. 

Coast '-guard,  an  organization  formerly  in¬ 
tended  to  prevent  smuggling  merely,  but  now 
constituted  so  as  to  serve  as  a  defensive  force  for 
the  English  coast.  There  are  4,000  men  em¬ 
ployed,  at  an  annual  cost  of  $2,300,000. 

Coastiug-trade,  the  commerce  carried  on  by 
sea  between  the  different  ports  of  the  same 
country. 

Coast  Range,  a  mountain  range,  reaching 
from  Washington  to  the  lower  Peninsula  of  Cali¬ 
fornia,  and  running  nearly  parallel  with  the 
Pacific  Coast.  Some  of  its  peaks  attain  a  height 
of  nearly  8,000  feet. 

Coast  Survey.  This  important  branch  of 
Government  work  had  its  beginning  in  1807,  and 
is  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  engineer 
officers  appointed  for  the  purpose.  Its  impor¬ 
tance  to  navigation  can  not  be  over-estimated. 

Coat  of  Arms,  in  the  military  trappings  of  the 
middle  ages,  held  the  place  of  the paludamenlum 
of  the  ancient  Roman  captains.  It  was  a  coat 
worn  by  princes  and  great  barons  over  their 
armor,  and  descended  to  the  knee.  The  “coat 
of  arms,”  as  understood  by  heraldry  in  the  pres¬ 
ent  day,  is  nothing  more  than  a  relic  of  the 


COAT  OF  MAIL. 


289 


COCKROACH. 


ancient  armorial  insignia,  divested  of  the  coat  on 
which  it  used  to  be  embroidered. 

Coat  of  Mail,  in  the  armor  of  the  middle  ages, 
was  a  suit  made  of  metal  scales  or  rings,  linked 
one  within  another. 

Co'ati,  or  Coati-mondi  (Nasua),  a  genus  of 
quadrupeds  of  the  family  Ursidie  (the  bear 
family);  by  some  naturalists  referred  to  Viver- 
ridcs  (the  civet  family),  although  their  plantigrade 
character  allies  them  rather  to  the  former.  They 
are  most  nearly  allied  to  the  raccoons,  and,  like 
them,  are  exclusively  American. 

Co'balt  (from  Cobalua,  a  malicious  sprite  or 
gnome)  is  a  metal  of  no  use  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures,  but  which  forms  compounds  of 
commercial  importance. 

Cobb,  Howell,  born  Sept.  7,  1815,  died  in 
New  York,  Oct.  9,  1868.  He  sat  in  Congress  for 
his  Georgian  district  from  1843  to  1851,  and  was 
Speaker  of  the  House  in  the  thirty-first  Congress. 
In  1851  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Georgia,  in  1855 
again  entered  Congress,  and  in  March,  1857,  be¬ 
came  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  under  Buchanan. 
In  February,  1861,  he  became  President  of  the 
Confederate  Congress,  and  afterward  held  a 
Major-General’s  commission,  but  saw  no  active 
military  service. 

Cob'bett,  William,  English  political  writer, 
born  in  March,  1762.  In  January,  1802,  appeared 
the  first  number  of  his  Weekly  Political  Register, 
which  he  continued  to  publish  until  his  death,  in 
1835.  In  1832  he  was  returned  to  the  first  Re¬ 
formed  Parliament  as  one  of  the  members  for 
Oldham.  He  died  June  18,  1835. 

Cob 'den,  Richard,  an  English  politician,  born 
June  3,  1804.  He  became  a  partner  iu  a  Man¬ 
chester  house.  He  was  a  vigorous  advocate  of 
free  trade,  was  elected  to  Parliament  in  1841,  and 
secured  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws  in  1846.  Soon 
after  this  the  public  testified  its  gratitude  to  him 
for  the  services  he  rendered  in  this  matter  by  sub¬ 
scribing  for  him  a  testimonial  of  $300,000.  In 
1859  he  was  elected  for  Rochdale.  He  died  April 
2,  1865.  See  his  Life  by  John  Morley  (1880). 

Cobi'ja,  a  town  of  Bolivia,  the  only  seaport  of 
the  Republic.  It  is  in  latitude  22°  34'  S.,  longi¬ 
tude  70°  21 '  W.,  and  forms  the  capital  of  the  de¬ 
partment  La  Mar.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Coblenz,  a  city  of  Rhenish  Prussia.  Pop. 
(1880),  36,240. 

Cob '-nut,  a  name  given  to  some  of  the  largest 
and  finest  cultivated  varieties  of  the  hazel-nut. 

Cobra  da  Capello  (hooded  snake),  the  Portu¬ 
guese  name  of  Naja  tripu- 
dians  (sometimes  extended 
to  the  whole  genus  Naja), 
venomous  serpents  of  the 
sub-order  Colubrina,  re¬ 
markable  for  the  faculty 
of  dilating  the  back  and 
sides  of  the  neck,  which 
they  do  when  excited.  It 
is  usually  three  or  four  feet 
long,  of  a  pale  rusty-brown 
color  above,  and  bluish  or 
yellowish-white  below,  and 
is  characterized  by  a  singu¬ 
lar  mark  on  the  back  of  the 
neck,  closely  resembling 
the  figure  of  an  old- 
fashioned  pair  of  spectacles 
from  which  the  animal 
Head  of  Cobra.  sometimes  receives  the  name 

of  the  spectacle  snake.  Its  venom  is  extremely 
powerful,  its  bite  causing  death  in  two  hours  or 
less. 

Co 'burg,  a  town  of  Central  Germany,  in  the 
Duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha.  Pop.  (1880),  15,791. 

Cobnrg  Peninsula,  the  most  northerly  part  of 
Australia  to  the  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
runs  out  in  a  northwest  direction  toward  Mel¬ 
ville  Island,  from  which  it  is  divided  by  Dundas 
Strait. 

Co'ca  ( Erythroxylon  Coca),  a  shrub  of  the  natural 
order  Erythroxylacem , o f  which  the  leaves  arc  much 
used  by  the  inhabitants  of  Peru  and  Bolivia  as  a 
narcotic  and  stimulant.  The  dried  leaves  arc 
chewed  with  a  little  finely-powdered  unslaked 
lime,  or  with  the  alkaline  ashes  of  the  quinoa,  or 
certain  other  plants.  An  infusion  is  also  occasion¬ 
ally  used.  The  properties  and  effects  of  coca 
resemble  those  of  opium,  although  it  is  less  nar¬ 


cotic,  while  it  possesses  the  property  of  dilating 
the  pupil  of  the  eye,  which  opium  does  not  possess. 
It  also  lessens  the  desire  for  ordinary  food,  and 
for  some  time,  at  least,  enables  the  person  who 
uses  it  to  endure  greater  and  more  protracted 
exertion  than  he  otherwise  could,  and  with  less 
food. 

Coc  'co,  Co  'coa  Root,  or  Ed  'does,  plants  of  the 
genus  Colocasia,  and  of  the  nearly  allied  genus 
Caladium,  of  the  natural  order  Aracem,  cultivated 
iu  tropical  and  sub  tropical  countries  for  their 
roots,  or  fiat  underground  corms,  which  abound 
in  starch,  and  are  used  as  food,  being  deprived  by 
roasting  or  boiling  of  the  characteristic  acridity  of 
the  order,  which,  indeed,  some  of  them  possess  in 
a  comparatively  small  degree.  They  are  some¬ 
times  included  under  the  name  Yam,  but  are 
totally  different  from  the  true  yams. 

Coccos'teus,  a  genus  of  fossil  fishes,  peculiar  to 
the  Devonian  measures. 

Coc 'cuius  In'dieus,  the  name  given  com¬ 
monly,  and  in  the  pharmacopoeias,  to  a  poisonous 
seed,  brought  from  the  East  Indies,  which  is  used 
for  various  medicinal  purposes,  and  as  an  adult¬ 
erant  in  the  preparation  of  malt  liquors.  It 
possesses  acrid  and  intoxicating  qualities. 

Coc'cus  (Gr.  kokkos,  kermes),a  genus  of  insects 
of  the  order  Hemipterg,  sub-order  Homoptera, 
the  type  of  a  family,  Coccidce,  allied  to  the  Aphis 
family,  although  in  many  respects  very  distinct. 
The  Coccidce  are  sometimes  called  scale  insects, 
and  by  the  French  gallinsectes  (Latinized  by  some 
entomologists  into  Gallinsecta),  but  they  are  not 
to  be  confounded  with  the  insects  called  gall  flies 
(Cynipidce  or  Gallicolce)  which  produce  galls  or 
nut-galls. 

Cochabam  'ba,  a  name  of  various  application 
in  Bolivia. — 1.  A  river  which  forms  one  of  the 
head-waters  of  the  Amazon. — 2.  A  city  on  the 
foregoing  river,  containing  about  15,000  inhabit¬ 
ants. — 3.  A  department,  of  which  the  city  just 
described  is  the  capital,  in  latitude  17°— 19S  S., 
longitude  65°-68°  W.,  with  an  area  of  26,000 
square  miles.  Pop.,  about  380,000. 

Cochin,  a  protected  State  of  Hindustan  under 
the  presidency  of  Madras,  latitude  9°  48 '-10°  50' 
N.,  longitude  76°  5 '-76°  58'  E.  With  Malabar 
on  its  northwest  and  north,  and  Travancore  on 
its  east  and  south,  it  fronts  the  Arabian  Sea  on 
the  southwest,  and  meets  Coimbatore  toward 
the  northeast  on  the  water  shed  of  the  Western 
Ghauts.  It  contains  1,361  square  miles,  and 
(1881)  601,114  inhabitants. 

Cochin,  once  the  capital  of  the  principality 
above  described,  but  now  a  seaport  of  the  dis¬ 
trict  of  Malabar,  in  the  Presidency  of  Madras, 
stands  in  latitude  9°  58'  N.,  and  longitude  76° 
18'  E.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Cochin-China.  See  Annam. 

Cocli'ineal,  a  dyestuff  employed  in  dyeing 
scarlet  and  crimson,  and  in  the  preparation  of 
carmine  and  lake.  Cochineal  consists  simply  of 


Cochineal  ( Coccus  cacti) . 

a,  living  on  cactus  (Opunlia) ;  b,  male;  c,  female, 
the  bodies  of  the  females  of  a  species  of  Coccus 
called  C.  cacti,  because  it  feeds  upon  plants  of  the 
Cactus  family,  particularly  on  one,  therefore 
designated  the  cochineal  plant,  but  known  in 
Mexico  as  the  Nopal. 

Cock,  properly  the  name  of  the  male  of  the 


common  domestic  fowl  (see  Fowl),  but  generally 
extended  to  the  males  of  other  kinds  of  gallina¬ 
ceous  birds,  and  not  infrequently  employed  as  a 
distinctive  appellation  of  the  males  even  of  some 
kinds  of  small  birds. 

Cockatoo'  ( Plyctolophus ),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  parrot  family,  or  Psittacidce,  distinguished 
from  parrots  by  the  greater  height  of  the  bill,  and 
its  being  curved  from  the  base,  and  by  the  length¬ 
ened,  broad,  and  rounded  tail.  The  head  is 
large,  and  in  the  true  cockatoos  is  surmounted 
by  a  crest  of  long  aud  pointed  feathers,  with 
their  tips  directed  forward,  which  can  be  erected 
and  expanded  like  a  fan  or  depressed  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  bird.  The  true  cockatoos  are  of 
generally  whitish  plumage,  but  often  finely  tinged 
with  red,  orange,  and  other  colors,  or  mixed  with 
these  colors  iu  more  brilliant  display. 

Cock'atrice,  one  of  the  fabulous  monsters,  a 
belief  in  the  existence  of  which  prevailed  among 
the  ancients  and  during  the  middle  ages.  It 
was  sometimes  distinguished  from,  and  some¬ 
times  identified  with,  the  basilisk.  In  Heraldry 
the  cockatrice  is  an  imaginary  monster,  with  the 
wings  of  a  fowl  and  the  tail  of  a  serpent. 

Cock 'chafer  {Melolontha  vulgaris),  a  beetle  of 
the  family  Lamellicornes  and  section  Phyllo- 
phagi  (leaf-eaters),  common  in  most  parts  of 
Europe,  famous  for  the  ravages  which  it  com¬ 
mits,  both  in  the  grub  state  and  in  that  of  the 
perfect  insect — the  winged  beetle  feeding  on  the 
leaves  of  fruit-trees,  and  of  many  forest  trees,  the 
grub  devouring  the  roots  of  plants,  particularly 
of  pasture  grasses  and  corn. 

Cock  of  the  Plains,  properly  Sage  Grouse 
( Tetrao  or  Centrocercus  uropliasianus),  the  largest 
of  the  North  American  species  of  grouse.  It  is 
about  one-third  smaller  than  the  European  caper¬ 
cailzie,  or  cock  of  the  woods. 

Cock  of  the  Woods.  See  Capercailzie. 

Cock'le  ( Agrostemma ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Caryophyllece,  in  which  the  flower  has 
ten  stamens  and  five  styles;  the  five  teeth  of  the 
leathery,  naked  calyx  are  much  longer  than  the 
tube  of  the  corolla,  and  the  capsule  is  perfectly  one- 
celled.  The  common  cockle  or  corn  cockle, 
{A.  Githago),  is  a  frequent  weed  amongst  crops  of 
grain. 

Cockle  ( Cardium ),  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate 
mollusks,  having  a  shell  of  two  equal  ventricose 
valves,  more  or  less  heart-shaped.  The  animal 
has  two  adductor  muscles  for  drawing  the  valves 
closer  together;  its  foot  is  remarkably  large,  and 
bent  in  the  middle,  and  is  capable  of  being  sud¬ 
denly  straightened,  so  that  the  animal  may  move 
by  a  jump. 

Cockney.  The  oldest  form  of  this  woid  is 
cokeney  or  cokenay  (trisyllabic),  and  is  used  of  an 
effeminate  person.  Skeat  thinks  it  may  be  Celtic 
and  connected  with  coax.  Now  it  is  used  of  Lon¬ 
doners  especially,  and  implies  the  defects  of  town- 
bred  persons,  who  know  only  the  sights  and  insti¬ 
tutions  of  the  town,  and  conceitedly  despise  what 
they  are  not  familiar  with. 

Cock 'pit,  in  a  ship  of  war,  is  a  room  near  the 
after-hatchway,  under  the  lower  gun-deck;  it  ad¬ 
joins  the  surgeon’s  cabin  and  the  surgery.  It  con¬ 
tains  the  medicine  chests  and  is  the  place  where 
wounded  men  are  attended  to  during  an  action. 

Cock 'roach  ( Blatta ),  a  genus  of  orthopterous 
insects,  having  an  oval  or  orbicular  flattened 


Common  Cockroach. 
a,  female;  b,  male. 


body,  the  head  hidden  beneath  the  large  plate  of 
the  prothorax,  long  thread  like  antennae,  and  wings 
folded  only  longitudinally.  Cockroaches  are  most 


19 


COCKSCOMB. 


290 


COFFEE. 


numerous  in  warm  countries,  and  are  often  called 
black  beetles. 

Cockscomb  ( Celosia  cristata),  an  annual  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Amarantacew,  a  native  of  the 
East  Indies. 

Cock’s-foot  Grass  (Dactylis),  a  genus  of 
grasses,  having  the  panicle  of  flowers  much  on 
one  side  of  the  stem,  its  secondary  branches  so 
short  that  the  spikelets  are  much  crowded  into 
clusters;  the  glumes  unequal,  the  larger  one 
keeled;  each  spikelet  containing  two  to  seven 
florets,  each  of  which  has  two  lanceolate,  scarcely- 
awned  paleae. 

Cock  'swain,  or  Coxswain  (pronounced  Cosn), 
on  board  a  ship,  is  the  steersman  of  a  boat,  and 
commander  of  the  boat’s  crew.  He  is  expected  to 
have  his  men  always  ready  for  service  at  short 
notice,  and  is  furnished  with  a  whistle  to  summon 
them. 

Co'coa,  Caca'o,  or  Co’co.  The  different  kinds 
of  cocoa  either  consist  of,  or  are  prepared  from, 
the  seeds  of  trees  of  the  genus  Theobroma.  The 
genus  Theobroma  (Gr.  food  of  the  gods)  belongs 
to  the  natural  order  Byttneriacece ,  and  contains  a 
number  of  species,  trees  of  moderate  size,  with 
large,  undivided  leaves  and  clustered  flowers,  all 
natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America.  The 
seeds  of  several  species  yield  more  or  less  of  the 
cocoa  of  commerce.  For  dietetic  use,  cocoa  is 


Cocoa  ( Theobroma  cacao). 


a,  branch  with  leaves;  b,  fruit  (part  in  section), 
prepared  in  several  ways.  It  is  made  into  choco¬ 
late;  it  is  crushed  into  cocoa  nibs,  the  purest  state 
in  which  cocoa  can  be  purchased  in  shops;  or  the 
unshelled  bean  is  powdered  in  a  hot  mortar,  or 
between  hot  rollers,  which  yields  a  paste  capable 
of  being  mixed  with  sugar,  honey,  starch,  etc., 
sold  in  shops  under  the  name  of  soluble  cocoa, 
rock  cocoa,  and  common  cocoa. 

Co'coa-nut,  or  Co'co-nut,  the  well-known 
fruit  of  a  species  of  palm.  Cocos  nucifera,  perhaps 
originally  a  native  only  of  the  Indian  coasts  and 
South  Sea  Islands,  but  now  diffused  over  all 
tropical  regions.  The  cocoa  palm  belongs  to  a 
genus  having  pinnate  leaves,  and  male  and  female 
flowers  on  the  same  tree,  the  female  flowers  at 
the  base  of  each  spadix.  The  cocoa-nut  affords 
to  the  inhabitants  of  many  tropical  coasts  and 
islands  great  part  of  their  food;  it  is  not  only  eaten 
as  it  comes  from  the  tree,  both  ripe  aud  unripe, 
being  tilled  in  a  young  state  with  a  pleasant  milky 
fluid,  but  is  also  prepared  in  a  variety  of  ways, 
as  in  curries,  etc. 

Cocoa-nut  Beetle  {Batocera  rubus),  a  large 
beetle  of  the  family  Longicornes ,  tribe  Lamiarice, 
the  larvae  of  which  are  very  destructive  in  cocoa- 
nut  plantations,  eating  their  way  in  all  directions 
in  the  stems  of  the  younger  trees. 

Cocoon',  a  silken  envelope  which  the  larvae  of 
many  insects  spin  for  themselves  immediately  be¬ 
fore  their  transformation  into  the  pupa  state,  and 
which  serves  for  the  protection  of  the  inactive  and 
helpless  pupa.  Many  insects  mix  foreign  mate¬ 
rials  of  various  kinds  with  their  silken  cocoons; 
some  caterpillars,  as  those  popularly  called  woolly 
bears,  working  into  them  the  hairs  with  which 
their  own  bodies  were  previously  covered ;  and 
others  fastening  together  the  sides  of  a  leaf  or  of 
several  adjacent  leaves.  The  cocoon  of  the  com¬ 


mon  silk  worm  exhibits  externally  a  loose  gauze¬ 
like  covering,  within  which  is  a  close  and  com¬ 
pact  oval  ball ;  yet  all  is  of  one  continuous  thread, 
which  may  be  unwound  from  it  1 ,000  feet  long. 

Cod  (Morrhua  vulgaris),  a  well-known  species 
of  Gadidce,  a  family  of  anacanthine  fishes,  pos¬ 
sessing,  in  common  with  the  other  members  of 
the  genus,  three  dorsal  and  two  anal  tins,  and  a 
single  barbel  at  the  chin.  It  is  a  widely  distrib¬ 
uted  species,  being  found  throughout  the  north¬ 
ern  and  temperate  seas  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America,  extending  as  far  south  as  Gibraltar,  but 
not  entering  the  Mediterranean,  and  inhabits 
water  from  25  to  50  fathoms  deep,  where  it  al¬ 
ways  feeds  close  to  the  bottom.  It  is  exceedingly 
voracious,  feeding  on  small  fish,  crustaceans, 
worms,  and  mollusks,  and  greedily  taking  almost 
any  bait  the  fisherman  chooses  to  employ.  The 
cod  spawns  in  February,  and  is  exceedingly  pro¬ 
lific,  the  roe  of  a  single  female  having  been 
known  to  contain  upward  of  8,000,000  ova 
and  to  form  more  than  half  the  weight  of  the 
entire  fish.  As  an  article  of  food  the  cod-fish  is 
in  greatest  perfection  during  the  three  months 
preceding  Christmas.  The  most  important  cod- 
fishery  of  the  world  is  that  which  has  been  pros¬ 
ecuted  for  more  than  a  century  on  the  Newfound¬ 
land  banks,  where  it  is  not  uncommon  for  a  single 
fisherman  to  take  over  500  of  these  fish  in  ten  or 
eleven  hours. 

Code  (Lat.  codex  and  caud ex),  the  primary 
meaning  of  the  Latin  word  was  the  trunk  or  stem 
of  a  tree;  latterly  it  came  to  signify  more  espe¬ 
cially  wooden  tablets  bound  together,  and  covered 
with  a  coating  of  wax,  which  were  used  for 
writing  on.  After  parchment  and  paper  were 
substituted  for  wood,  the  name  code  was  still  re¬ 
tained.  Cicero  applies  it  to  a  bill;  but  it  was  not 
till  still  later,  in  the  times  of  the  emperors,  that 
it  was  used  to  express  a  collection  of  laws  and 
constitutions.  Perhaps  the  best-known  code  is 
that  prepared  under  the  direction  of  Napoleon 
and  named  after  him.  In  the  LTnited  States  the 
laws  have  been  codified  in  many  States  and  Terri¬ 
tories. 

Codex  (pi.  Codices;  for  derivation  see  preced¬ 
ing  article),  the  name  applied  to  ancient  manu¬ 
script  copies  of  the  Scriptures. 

Cod ' icil,  a  supplement  to  a  will,  whereby  any¬ 
thing  omitted  is  added,  or  any  change  demanded 
by  the  altered  circumstances  of  the  testator  or 
the  beneficiaries  is  effected. 

Coilifica'tiou,  the  act  of  forming  a  code  or 
systematic  collection  of  laws.  Though  a  code, 
in  the  wider  sense,  comprehends  frequently  the 
whole  legislation  of  a  country,  there  is  a  nar¬ 
rower  sense  in  which  the  term  is  applied  to  a 
particular  branch  of  legislation,  such  as  com¬ 
mercial  law,  criminal  law,  marine,  etc. 

Codlin,  the  name  given  to  a  number  of  varie¬ 
ties  of  apple,  chiefly  used  for  culinary  purposes. 

Codlin  Moth  {Py  rails  pomona),  a  small  moth 
which  is  very  injurious  in  apple-orchards. 

Cod-liver  Oil  is  generally  obtained  from  the 
livers  of  the  common  cod,  but  likewise  from 
allied  species,  as  ling,  dorse,  coal-fish,  torsk,  etc. 
As  a  remedy,  cod-liver  oil  has  a  great  reputation 
for  the  treatment  of  scrofulous  and  tubercular 
diseases,  and  especially  in  consumption;  it  has 
also  been  used  extensively  in  chronic  rheumatism, 
in  rickety  affections,  and  in  other  diseases  of  the 
bones  and  joints.  The  virtues  of  cod-liver  oil 
have  been  ascribed  to  iodine,  bromine  and  other 
specific  ingredients;  but,  on  the  whole,  the  most 
probable  view  of  its  action  is  that  it  is  simply  a 
fattening  agent — a  fatty  food — and  that  it  acts 
by  nourishing  the  system  in  cases  attended  with 
emaciation,  just  as  new  milk,  cream,  and  butter, 
or  fat  bacon,  will  sometimes  act  in  similar  cases. 

Co'drus,  the  last  king  of  Athens,  was  the  son 
of  Melanthus,  and,  according  to  Grecian  legend, 
sacrificed  his  life  for  his  country  about  the  year 
1008  n. c. 

Coeffi  'cient  (Lat.  together-making)  is  the  name 
given  in  Algebra  to  the  known  or  constant  factor 
of  an  unknown  or  variable  quantity.  Thus,  in 
the  expressions  4x  (4  times  x),  bz  (b  times  z),  4  and 
b  are  coefficients  of  x  and  z,  b  being  supposed 
known  as  well  as  4,  and  x  and  z  unknown  or  va¬ 
riable.  Strictly  speaking,  in  a  product,  such  as 
3  X  5,  4  X  x,  or  b  X  z  (=&z),  either  of  the  two 
factors  is  a  coefficient,  since  they  “together  make” 


the  product;  but  in  practice,  the  meaning  is  re¬ 
stricted  as  above  explained. 

Coe  'horns,  named  from  the  military  engineer 
who  invented  or  introduced  them,  are  small  how¬ 
itzers  or  mortars,  generally  4|  inches  in  caliber. 
These  implements  of  war,  being  easily  moved 
and  adjusted,  and  taking  little  powder,  are  found 
very  useful  in  sieges,  if  grouped  in  great  number. 

Cce'lelmin'tha  (Gr.  hollow  worms),  the  name 
given  by  Owen  to  one  of  the  two  orders  of  en 
tozoa,  or  intestinal  worms,  having  a  distinct  ab¬ 
dominal  cavity  and  intestinal  canal,  the  Vers  in- 
testinaux  cavitaires  of  Cuvier.  Examples  of  this 
order  are  Ascaris  strongylus  and  Filaria. 

Coelentirata,  a  great  division  of  the  animal 
kingdom,  long  specifically  called  a  sub-kingdom. 

Coe'le-sy 'ria  (Hollow  Syria),  now  called  by 
the  natives  El-Buka’a,  “the  deep  plain,”  a  valley 
of  Syria,  extending  between  the  ranges  of  the 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  In  this  valley  stand 
the  ruins  of  Baalbek  and  the  village  of  Zahleh. 

Cce 'nobites  (Gr.  koinos,  common,  and  bios, 
life),  or  Synodites,  the  name  given  to  those 
monks  who  live  together,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  Anchorites,  or  hermits,  who  withdraw  from 
all  society,  and  live  in  a  solitary  fashion. 

Coerevidag  a  species  of  passerine  bird,  found 
in  the  West  Indies. 

Coffee  (Fr.  Cafe;  Ger.  Kajfce)  is  the  produce 
chiefly  of  Coffea  arabica,  a  rubiaceous  plant  in¬ 
digenous  to  Abyssinia,  which,  however,  as  culti¬ 
vated  originally,  spread  outward  from  the  south¬ 
ern  parts  of  Arabia.  The  name  is  probably  de¬ 
rived  from  the  Arabic  K’hawah,  although  by 
some  it  has  been  traced  to  Caffa,  a  province  in 
Abyssinia,  in  which  the  tree  grows  wild.  In  the 
genus  Coffea,  to  which  the  common  coffee  tree 
belongs,  from  fifty  to  sixty  species  were  formerly 
enumerated,  scattered  throughout  the  tropical 
parts  of  both  hemispheres;  but  by  referring  the 
American  plants  to  a  different  genus,  the  list  is 
now  restricted  to  about  twenty-two  species.  Of 
these  seven  belong  geographically  to  Asia;  and  of 
the  fifteen  African  species  eleven  are  found  on 


Coffee;  branch  with  fruit. 

the  west  coast,  two  in  Central  and  East  Africa, 
and  two  are  natives  of  Mauritius.  Besides  being 
found  wild  in  Abyssinia,  the  common  coffee  plant 
seems  to  be  widely  disseminated  in  Africa,  having- 
been  seen  on  the  shores  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza 
and  in  Angola  on  the  west  coast.  Within  the  last 
few  years  considerable  attention  has  been  devoted 
to  a  West  African  species,  C.  liberica,  belonging 
to  the  Liberian  coast.  The  common  coffee  shrub 
or  tree  is  an  evergreen  plant,  which  under  nat¬ 
ural  conditions  grows  to  a  height  of  from  18  to 
20  feet,  with  oblong-ovate,  acuminate, _  smooth, 
and  shining  leaves,  measuring  about  6  inches  in 
length  by  2%  wide.  The  fruit  is  a  fleshy  b.erry, 
having  the  appearance  and  size  of  a  small 
cherry,  and  as  it  ripens  it  assumes  a  dark  red 
color.  The  seeds  which  constitute  the  raw  coffee 
of  commerce  are  plano-convex  in  form,  the  flat 
surfaces  which  are  laid  against  each  other  within 
the  berry  having  a  longitudinal  furrow  or  groove. 


COFFEE  BUG. 


291 


COLLOT  D’HERBOIS. 


They  are  of  a  soft,  semi-translucent,  bluish  or 
greenish  color,  hard  and  tough  in  texture.  The 
regions  found  to  be  best  adapted  for  the  cultiva¬ 
tion  of  coffee  are  well-watered  mountain  slopes  at 
an  elevation  ranging  from  1,000  to  4,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  in  latitudes  lying  between  15°  N. 
and  15°  S.,  although  it  is  successfully  cultivated 
from  25  N.  to  30°  S.  of  the  equator  in  situations 
where  the  temperature  does  not  fall  beneath  55° 
F.  It  is  believed  that  more  than  500,000  tons  of 
coffee  are  annually  produced,  and  of  this  amount 
the  United  States  consumes  fully  one-third.  The 
active  principle  of  coffee  is  caffein,  a  stimulant, 
sedative  alkaloid,  which  is  identical  in  composi¬ 
tion  and  properties  with  the’in,  the  alkaloid  of  tea. 

Coffee  Bug  (Lecaninmcoffece),  an  insect  of  the 
coccus  family,  which  lives  on  the  coffee  tree,  and 
is  often  extremely  destructive  to  it. 

Coffer,  a  deep  panel  in  a  ceiling,  also  called  a 
caisson. 

Coffer,  a  casket  for  keeping  jewels  or  other 
valuables.  Caskets  and  chests  were  sometimes 
made  of  iron,  but  more  frequently  of  wood. 

Cof'  ferdam,  a  water-tight  structure  used  in 
engineering  for  excluding  the  water  from  the 
foundations  of  bridges,  quay -walls,  etc.,  so  as  to 
allow  of  their  being  built  dry.  Their  use  has 
been  largely  superseded  by  that  of  caissons. 

Cof'fin  (Lat.  cophinus,  Gr.  kofinos,  in  both 
languages  signifying  a  basket,  coffer,  or  chest, 
but  never  a  coffin).  In  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word  a  coffin  is  a  chest  or  box  in  which  dead 
bodies  are  buried  or  deposited  in  vaults. 

Cognac,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
of  Cliarente,  celebrated  as  a  place  where  brandy 
is  manufactured.  Pop.  (1881),  13,317. 

Cognoscen'ti  (Ital.  from  Lat.  cognosce),  I 
know)  persons  professing  a  critical  knowledge  of 
works  of  art,  and  of  a  somewhat  more  preten¬ 
tious  character  than  amateurs. 

Cogno  vit — viz.,  actionem  (he  has  confessed 
the  action),  in  law,  is  the  defendant’s  written  con¬ 
fession  that  the  plaintiff’s  cause  against  him  is 
just  and  true. 

Cohe'sion  is  the  name  given  to  that  species  of 
attraction  by  which  the  particles  of  matter  are 
held  together  so  as  to  form  bodies,  and  its 
measure  is  the  resistance  which  bodies  offer  to  any 
mechanical  force  tending  to  separate  their  parts. 

Cohoes,  a  city  of  New  York,  eight  miles  north 
of  Albany.  Pop.  (1880),  19,417. 

Co'liort,  in  the  ancient  Roman  armies,  was  a 
portion  of  a  legion,  consisting  usually  of  600  men. 
Generally,  there  were  ten  cohorts  to  a  legion. 

Coif  (Fr.  coiffe,  Ital.  enffia,  a  cap),  a  covering 
for  the  head,  but  more  especially  for  the  circular 
portion  on  the  crown,  which  the  Roman  Catholic 
clergy  are  in  the  habit  of  shaving,  and  which  is 
thence  called  the  tonsure. 

Coif,  among  the  armor  of  the  middle  ages 
was  a  sort  of  defensive  hood,  surmounted  by  a 
helmet,  sometimes  continuous  with  the  hauberk, 
and  sometimes  separate. 

Coimbato're,  a  city  in  the  Province  of 
Madras,  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name. 
Pop.,  40,000. 

Coim  bra,  a  city  of  Portugal,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Beira.  Pop.,  13,200. 

Coin'cidence.  If,  when  two  geometrical 
figures  are  laid  upon  one  another,  the  boundaries 
of  the  one  fall  everywhere  exactly  upon  those  of 
the  other,  the  figures  are  said  to  coincide.  Such 
figures  are  considered  as  identical;  and  this  co¬ 
incidence  is  taken  by  Euclid  as  the  test  of 
equality,  or,  rather,  as  the  definition  of  equality. 

Coining,  in  Law.  The  privilege  of  coining 
money  being  an  exclusive  prerogative  of  the 
Government,  the  crime  of  counterfeiting  the 
money  is  a  felony  under  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States. 

Coir,  or  Cocoa-nut  Fiber  (See  Cocoa-nut), 
the  fiber  of  the  husk  of  the  cocoa-nut,  much  used 
for  making  ropes,  mats,  etc. 

Cojutepec',  a  town  of  San  Salvador,  Central 
America.  It  is  situated  fifteen  miles  to  the  east 
of  the  City  of  San  Salvador,  destroyed  by  earth¬ 
quake  in  1854,  and  was  the  seat  of  government 
from  that  year  until  1858.  Pop.,  10,000. 

Coke  is  obtained  by  the  heating  of  coal  in 
ovens,  or  other  arrangements  where  little  air  is 
admitted.  Caking  coal  is  most  suitable  for  the 
manufacture  of  coke 


Coke,  Sir  Edward,  English  lawyer  and  judge, 
born  Feb.  1,  1551-52.  In  1593  he  was  elected 
member  of  Parliament  for  the  County  of  Norfolk, 
and  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Com¬ 
mons.  In  1594  he  was  made  Attorney-General, 
an  office  he  continued  to  hold  until  1606,  when  he 
was  appointed  Chief-Justice  of  the  Common  Pleas. 
He  became  Chief  Justice  of  the  King’s  Bench, 
but  was  removed,  took  an  active  part  in  framing 
the  Bill  of  Rights  (1628)  and  died  Sept.  3,  1633. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  law  treatise,  Coke  upon 
Littleton,  which  is  still  a  standard  work. 

Coke,  Thomas  (1747-1814),  the  first  Bishop 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church. 

Col  (Fr.  neck),  in  Geography,  is  a  depression  or 
pass  in  a  mountain  range.  In  those  parts  of  the 
Alps  where  the  French  language  prevails,  the 
passes  are  usually  named  cols — as  the  Col  de 
Balme,  the  Col  du  Geant,  etc. 

CoPAr'co,  in  Music,  xvith  the  bow,  in  contra¬ 
distinction  to  Pizzicato. 

Co 'la  Nut,  or  Kola  Nut  the  seed — not  prop¬ 
erly  a  nut — of  Cola  acuminata  or  Sterculia  acu¬ 
minata,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Sterculiacece,  a 
native  of  the  tropical  parts  of  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  and  cultivated  in  other  tropical  countries. 

Col 'berg,  or  Kolberg,  a  fortified  seaport  of 
Prussia,  in  the  Province  of  Pomerania,  on  the 
Persante,  near  its  mouth  in  the  Baltic.  Pop. 
(1880),  16,027. 

Colbert,  Jean  Baptiste,  Minister  of  Finance 
to  Louis  XIV.,  was  born  in  1619.  In  1661  he  was 
appointed  Controller-General  of  Finances.  Made 
Minister  of  Marine  in  1669,  he  found  France  with 
a  few  old  rotten  ships;  three  years  later  she  had 
a  fleet  of  60  ships  of  the  line,  and  40  frigates.  He 
improved  the  civil  code,  introduced  a  marine  code 
of  laws,  as  well  as  the  so-called  Code  Noir  for  the 
colonies;  and  statistical  tables  of  the  population 
were  first  made  out  by  his  orders.  He  died  Sept. 
6,  1683. 

Col 'Chester,  a  very  ancient  town  in  Essex, 
England.  Pop.,  28,395. 

Colchester,  Charles  Abbot,  Lord,  born 
October,  1757.  He  was  returned  to  Parliament  in 
1795,  waselected  Speaker  in  1802,  and  held  that 
office  fifteen  years,  dying  in  1829. 

Col 'chis,  a  province  of  ancient  Asia,  on  the 
east  coast  of  the  Pontus  Euxinus  or  Black  Sea, 
north  of  Armenia,  and  south  of  the  Caucasus.  It 
now  forms  the  Russian  Province  of  Imerethia, 
with  the  districts  of  Mingrelia  and  Guria. 

Cold  is  the  term  by  which  we  signify  a  rela¬ 
tive  want  of  sensible  heat.  There  are,  therefore, 
no  determinate  boundaries  between  cold  and 
heat,  and  it  is  a  mere  arbitrary  distinction  to 
call  the  degrees  of  the  thermometer  below  the 
freezing  point,  degrees  of  cold.  When  the  atmos¬ 
phere,  or  any  substance  which  comes  in  contact 
with  our  body,  contains  less  heat  than  the  body, 
it  absorbs  heat  from  the  body,  and  we  call  it  cold. 

Cold  Cream  is  the  term  applied  to  a  prepara¬ 
tion  of  fatty  substances,  which  is  used  as  a  mild 
and  cooling  dressing  for  the  skin.  It  may  be  pre¬ 
pared  by  heating  gently  four  parts  of  olive-oil, 
and  one  part  of  white  wax,  till  a  uniform  liquid 
mass  is  obtained,  when  a  little  color  and  scent  may 
be  added. 

Cold  Harbor,  The  Battle  of,  was  fought  on 
June  3,  1864,  near  Cold  Harbor,  Va.,  between  the 
Federal  army  under  Grant  and  the  Confederates 
under  Lee.  It  was  indecisive  in  its  results. 

Cold  Pit,  or  Cold  Frame,  in  Gardening,  is  a 
simple  contrivance  for  the  preservation  of  half 
hardy  plants  throughout  winter,  and  consists  of  a 
pit,  walled  or  unwalled,  and  covered  with  a  frame, 
either  thatched  or  glazed. 

Colenso.  See  Natal,  Bisiiop  of. 

Coleop'tera,  or  Coleop'terous  Insects  (Gr. 
koleos,  a  sheath;  and  pteron,  a  wing),  an  order  of 
insects,  sometimes  collectively  called  beetles, 
although  that  name  is  generally  more  limited  in 
its  application,  and  many  of  them  are  known  by 
other  names,  as  weevils,  lady-bugs,  etc.  The 
glow-worm  and  the  blistering-fly  ( cantharis )  belong 
to  this  order. 

Cole 'ridge,  Samuel  Taylor,  English  poet, 
born  0(4.  21,  1772.  His  chief  works  were  Chris- 
tabel,  The  Ancient  Manner,  the  Hymn  Before 
Sunrise,  and  his  magnificent  translation  of  Schil¬ 
ler’s  Wallenstein.  He  died  in  1834.  His  daugh¬ 


ter,  Sara,  born  1802,  died  1852,  inherited  much 
of  her  father’s  genius. 

Cole 'wort,  a  name  given  to  some  of  the  many 
cultivated  varieties  of  Brassica  oleracea,  and 
applied,  like  the  names  borecole  and  kale,  to 
varieties  differing  from  the  cabbage  in  their  open 
heads  of  leaves,  which  are  used  as  greens 
especially  in  the  winter  months. 

Colfax,  Schuyler,  born  March  23,  1823.  He 
entered  Congress  from  Indiana  in  1854,  and  was 
reelected  for  six  consecutive  terms.  In  1868  he  was 
elected  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  with 
President  Grant,  having  previously  served  three 
terms  as  Speaker  of  the  House.  He  died  Jan.  17, 
1885. 

Colic  (from  colon — see  Alimentary  Canal), 
a  name  employed  by  the  later  Greek  and  the 
Roman  physicians  to  denote  diseases  attended 
with  severe  pain  and  flatulent  distension  of  the 
abdomen,  without  diarrhoea  or  looseness  of  the 
bowels. 

Coligny,  or  Colignt,  Gaspard  de,  a  French 
admiral  and  general,  born  Feb.  16,  1517.  Under 
Henry  II.  he  was  made  an  infantry  colonel,  and  in 
1552,  Admiral  of  France.  On  the  death  of  Henry 
II.,  Coligny  became  one  of  the  great  leaders  of 
the  Huguenots.  At  the  battles  of  Dreux  and 
Jarnac  his  skill  saved  the  remains  of  the  Protest¬ 
ant  army.  He  was  murdered  in  the  massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  Aug.  24,  1572. 

Coli'ma,  a  name  of  various  application  iu 
Mexico. — 1.  A  volcano  of  the  Cordilleras,  with  an 
elevation  of  about  12,000  feet,  in  latitude  20°  N., 
and  not  far  from  the  western  coast. — 2.  A  terri¬ 
tory  of  the  Confederation,  with  (1868)  63,333 
inhabitants,  extending  about  100  miles  along  the 
coast;  area  about  3,400  square  miles. — 3.  The 
capital  of  the  territory,  comprising  nearly  the 
half  of  its  population. — 4.  A  seaport  on  the 
Pacific,  about  forty  miles  to  the  southwest  of  the 
capital. 

Col'lar-beam,  Strain'ing-beam,  etc.,  the  hori¬ 
zontal  tie  connecting  a  pair  of  rafters.  Large 
roofs  have  two  or  more  collar-beams. 

Collaring,  the  cylindrical  part  of  the  capital  iu 
the  Doric  and  Tuscan  orders.  It  is  often  termed 
the  neck. 

Collateral  Security  is  an  additional  and  sepa¬ 
rate  security  for  the  performance  of  an  obligation, 
or  the  implement  of  a  bond  or  covenant. 

Col'lect,  a  name  of  uncertain  origin,  given  to 
certain  short  prayers  in  different  church-liturgies. 

Collier,  J.  Payne,  born  in  London  in  1789. 
His  Notes  and  Emendations  to  the  1632  folio 
Shakespeare  created  much  excitement  in  the  liter¬ 
ary  world.  He  died  Sept.  17,  1883. 

Col'lingwood,  Cutiibert,  Admiral  Lord, 
born  Sept.  26,  1750.  Among  the  great  naval  vic¬ 
tories  in  which  he  bore  a  prominent  part,  were 
those  of  Lord  Howe  off  Brest  in  June,  1794;  of 
Lord  Jervis  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  in  1797;  and  of 
Trafalgar  in  1805,  where  he  held  the  second  com¬ 
mand,  and  after  Nelson  was  wounded  became 
chief.  A  peerage  was  his  reward  for  his  gallant 
conduct  in  this  battle.  Collingwood  died  at  sea, 
March  7,  1810. 

Collins,  William,  poet,  author  of  the  ode  to 
The  Passions,  was  born  Dec.  25,  1721,  at  Chiches¬ 
ter,  England,  and  died  there  in  1756. 

Collins,  W illiam,  R.A.,  an  English  artist,  born 
iu  London,  Sept.  18, 1787.  Hedied  Feb.  17,  1847. 

Collins,  William  Wilkie,  son  of  the  preced¬ 
ing,  was  born  in  1825.  He  is  widely  known  as  a 
novelist  and  miscellaneous  writer.  His  best 
known  works  are  After  Dark,  The  Dead  Secret, 
The  Moonstone,  and  The  Woman  in  White. 

Collo'ilion  (Gr.  kollao,  to  stick).  This  sub¬ 
stance,  on  its  first  introduction,  employed  in  sur¬ 
gery  as  a  preservative  of  wounds,  etc.,  from  con¬ 
tact  of  air  by  means  of  the  tenacious  arid  trans¬ 
parent  film  which  it  leaves  on  evaporation — and 
now,  also,  in  a  slightly  modified  form  as  the  basis 
of  a  highly  sensitive  process  for  taking  pictures 
by  the  agency  of  light — may  be  defined  as  a  solu¬ 
tion  of  pyruxyline  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and 
ether,  to  which  is  added,  for  photographic  opera¬ 
tions,  a  small  quantity  of  some  soluble  iodide, 
bromide,  or  chloride. 

Collot  D’Herbois,  Jean  Marie,  born  in  Paris 
in  1750.  Originally  a  provincial  actor,  the  revo¬ 
lutionary  movement  attracted  him  to  Paris,  where 
his  impudence,  his  loud  voice,  and  his  Almanack 


COLLUSION. 


292 


COLORADO  RIVER. 


du  Pere  Gerard,  which  obtained  the  prize  of  the 
Jacobin  Club,  secured  for  him  public  recogni¬ 
tion,  and  he  was  elected  to  the  National  Conven¬ 
tion  as  one  of  the  deputies  for  Paris.  He  was  ap¬ 
pointed  President  of  the  Convention  June  13, 1793, 
and  took  bloody  revenge  on  the  inhabitants  of 
Lyons  for  having  once  hissed  him  off  the  stage  in 
the  theater.  Not  less  than  1,600  persons  were  de¬ 
stroyed  by  the  guillotine  and  by  discharges  of 
grape-shot.  In  1794  he  was  expelled  from  the 
Convention,  and  in  March,  1795,  was  sentenced 
to  deportation  to  Cayenne,  where  he  died  Jan.  8, 
1796. 

Collu'sion,  an  agreement  between  two  or  more 
persons  to  defraud. 

Collyer,  Robert,  born  in  England  in  1823,  the 
son  of  a  blacksmith,  came  to  the  United  States  in 
1850,  and  worked  at  his  trade  for  nine  years.  He 
became  a  Methodist  preacher  (1849-59),  and  later 
a  Unitarian.  He  was  the  first  pastor  of  Unity 
Church,  Chicago,  where  he  remained  until  1879, 
and  then  went  to  New  York. 

Col'man,  George,  commonly  called  “the 
Elder,”  was  born  at  Florence  about  1733,  was  a 
successful  English  playwright  and  theatrical  man¬ 
ager.  He  died  Aug.  14,  1794. 

Colman,  George,  “  the  Younger,”  son  of  the 
preceding,  was  born  Oct.  21,  1762,  and  held,  for 
a  considerable  time,  the  office  of  examiner  of  plays. 
In  industry  he  rivaled  his  father,  and  he  received 
large  sums  for  his  dramatic  writings,  some  of 
which  continue  in  possession  of  the  stage.  He 
died  Oct.  26,  1826. 

Colmar,  a  city  ceded  to  France  in  1697,  and 
repossessed  by  Germany  since  1870,  the  capital  of 
Upper  Alsace,  stands  on  a  plain  near  the  Vosges, 
forty-one  miles  north-northeast  of  Strasburg.  Pop. 
(1880),  26,106. 

Col'ocyntli  (Qr.kolokyntliie),  a  medicine  used  as 
a  purgative,  is  the  dried  and  powdered  pulp  of  the 
Colocynth  gourd,  Coloquintida,  Bitter  apple,  or 
Bitter  cucumber,  a  globose  fruit  about  the  size  of 
an  orange,  of  a  yellow  color,  with  a  smooth,  thin, 
solid  rind.  The  plant  which  produces  it,  Oucumis 
(or  Citrullus)coloeynthis,  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Cu¬ 
cumber.  It  is  common  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Spain. 

Cologne'  (Ger.  Koln,  the  Golonia  Agrippina 
of  the  Romans),  a  city  and  free  port  on  the  Rhine, 
in  latitude  50°  56'  N.,  longitude  6°  58'  E.  For¬ 
merly  an  independent  city  of  the  German  Empire, 
it  is  now  the  capital  of  Rhenish  Prussia.  Pop. 
(1880),  144,751.  The  chief  object  of  interest  in  the 
city  is  the  cathedral,  one  of  the  noblest  specimens 
of  Gothic  architecture  in  Europe.  It  is  said  to 
have  had  its  origin  in  an  erection  by  Archbishop 
Hildebold,  during  the  reign  of  Charlemagne  in 
814.  The  present  structure,  however,  was  begun 
in  1243  and  was  not  completed  till  1880. 

Colombia.  The  United  States  of  Colombia, 
formerly  known  as  New  Granada,  is  one  of  the 
most  progressive  of  the  South  American  repub¬ 
lics.  It  lies  in  the  extreme  northwestern  angle  of 
the  continent,  embracing  territory  between  lati¬ 
tude  12°  20'  N.  and  2°  30'  S.  and  longi¬ 
tude  65°  50'  and  83°  5'  W.  On  the  north  is 
the  Caribbean  Sea;  on  the  northeast  and  east, 
Venezuela;  on  the  southeast  and  south,  Brazil 
and  Ecuador;  and  on  the  west,  the  Pacific  and 
Costa  Rica.  Its  extreme  length  from  north  to 
south  is  1,000  miles,  and  the  extreme  breadth 
from  east  to  west  760;  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
however,  the  breadth  is  but  28  miles.  It  has  an 
area  estimated  at  from  480,000  to  520,000  square 
miles.  Pop.,  2,880,633.  Of  these,  less  than 
1,000,000  are  whites,  and  about  an  equal  number 
have  Indian  blood.  The  remainder  are  civilized 
Indians,  mulattoes,  savage  Indians,  and  crosses 
between  whites,  Indians,  and  negroes.  Three 
mountain  ranges  traverse  the  country;  but 
between  these  are  some  fertile  valleys  and  table¬ 
lands.  The  most  important  river  is  the  Magda¬ 
lena,  which  empties  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  It  is 
navigable  for  steam  vessels  to  Honda,  and  thus 
furnishes  a  means  of  reaching  the  very  heart  of 
the  republic.  The  Atrato,  which  falls  into  the 
Gulf  of  Darien,  is  navigable  for  180  miles.  The 
Chagres  river,  a  small  stream  which  flows  into  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  is  of  special  interest,  as  being  the 
line  of  the  proposed  inter-oceanic  ship  canal  of 
Count  de  Lesseps.  Rice,  cotton,  sugar,  tobacco, 
and  cocoa  are  grown  on  the  coast,  and  the  cereals 
on  the  uplands,  but  agriculture  is  in  a  backward 


condition.  The  exports,  which  are  valued  at 
$11,111,000,  consist  chiefly  of  the  natural  prod¬ 
ucts  of  the  State,  such  as  cinchona,  cochineal, 
India-rubber,  gold,  etc.  The  mineral  wealth  is 
great,  and  has  been  developed  to  a  limited  extent. 
There  are  many  silver  mines  near  Bogota,  and 
gold  washings  in  the  entire  Atlantic  region.  The 
yearly  exports  of  gold  and  silver  are  about 
$3,600,000.  Coal,  copper,  iron,  and  salt  are  pro¬ 
duced  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  capital.  Lead, 
quicksilver,  and  amethysts  are  also  found.  The 
first  railway  built  in  the  country  was  the  one 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  Efforts  are  now 
making  to  construct  roads  leading  into  the  in¬ 
terior.  Large  sums  have  been  borrowed  for  this 
purpose,  and  the  railways  are  being  pushed  to 
completion.  Colombia  is  composed  of  the  nine 
States  of  Antioquia,  Bolivar,  Boyaca,  Cauca, 
Cundinamarca,  Magdalena,  Panama,  Santander, 
and  Tolima;  and  the  form  of  government  estab¬ 
lished  by  the  Constitution  of  i863  resembles  in 
many  respects  that  of  the  United  States. 

Colom  bo,  the  capital  of  Ceylon,  is  on  the 
western  side  of  the  island,  in  6°  59'  N.  latitude, 
and  80°  4'  E.  longitude,  the  Jovis  Extremum 
of  Ptolemy,  by  which  the  mariners  of  antiquity 
steered  for  the  port  of  Galle.  Pop.  (1881),  111,942. 
The  mean  annual  average  of  temperature  at  Co¬ 
lombo  is  80°. 

Colon.  See  Aspinwall. 

Colon,  that  portion  of  the  large  intestine  which 
extends  from  the  caecum  to  the  rectum,  which  is 
the  terminal  portion  of  the  intestinal  canal. 
Whether  it  is  derived  from  koilon,  “hollow,”  or 
kolao,  “I  arrest”  (because  the  faeces  are  retained 
for  a  considerable  time  in  it),  is  uncertain.  It  is 
divided  into  the  ascending,  the  transverse,  and 
the  descending  colon,  and  the  sigmoid  flexure. 

Colonel  (from  the  Italian  colonello,  the  leader 
of  a  column)  is  the  highest  officer  of  a  regiment; 
any  grade  above  this  converts  him  into  a  general- 
otficer  belonging  to  the  army  collectively,  rather 
than  to  any  one  regiment. 

Colo'nia  do  Santis 'simo  Sacramen 'to,  a  port 
of  Uruguay  or  Banda  Oriental,  stands  on  the 
north  or  left  bank  of  the  Plata,  nearly  opposite 
to  Buenos  Ayres,  and  about  100  miles  above 
Monte  Video,  the  capital  of  the  State. 

Colon  'na,  a  village  in  Central  Italy,  is  noticed 
because  it  gives  its  name  to  the  most  celebrated 
and  powerful  of  all  the  Roman  aristocratic  fami¬ 
lies — the  Colonna — from  which  have  sprung  a 
Pope,  several  cardinals,  generals,  statesmen,  and 
noted  scholars.  The  Colonna  palace,  situated  at 
the  base  of  the  Quirinal  (Rome),  is  celebrated  for 
its  splendid  gallery  and  treasures  of  art. 

Colonna,  Cape  (ancient  Sunium  Promonto- 
riurri),  a  headland  of  Greece,  forming  the  south¬ 
ernmost  point  of  Attica,  in  latitude  37°  38' N., 
longitude  24°  1'  E. 

Colonnade',  a  series  of  columns  placed  at  cer¬ 
tain  intervals  from  each  other,  and  arranged  in 
various  ways,  according  to  the  rules  of  art  and 
the  order  employed. 

Col'ony  (Lat.  eolonia,  from  colonus,  a  hus¬ 
bandman;  the  first  inhabitants  of  a  colony  being 
generally  people  of  agricultural  pursuits).  The 
term  is  loosely  used  to  embrace  various  classes  of 
distant  territories  subordinate  to  or  dependent  on 
a  parent  state.  A  colony,  however,  properly 
means  a  body  of  people  formed  by  migration  to 
a  distant  region,  where  they  support  themselves 
by  industry  and  the  produce  of  the  soil. 

Col'ophon,  an  Ionian  city  of  Asia,  about  nine 
miles  north  of  Ephesus,  and  near  the  sea-coast. 
It  claims  to  be  the  native  city  of  Homer.  The 
Greek  proverb,  “To  put  the  colophon  to  it,” 
meaning  to  terminate  an  affair,  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  the  boast  of  the  famous  Colophonian 
cavalry,  that  their  charge  was  usually  the  finisli- 
ing-stroke  in  battle.  Hence,  in  old  books,  the 
conclusion,  in  which  were  stated  the  name  of  the 
author,  and  the  place  and  year  of  printing,  was 
called  a  colophon. 

Colorado,  the  thirty-eighth  State,  was  admit¬ 
ted  into  the  Union  Aug.  1,  1876,  under  an  Act 
passed  March  3,  1875.  Its  organization  as  a  Ter¬ 
ritory  was  effected  in  February,  1861,  when  parts 
of  Kansas,  Nebraska,  Utah,  and  New  Mexico, 
were  set  off  to  form  the  new  district.  The  first 
American  expedition  to  explore  the  territory  was 
that  under  command  of  Maj.  Z.  M.  Pike,  in 


1806,  when  the  mountain  region  was  par 
tially  explored,  and  the  mountain  named  Pike’s 
Peak,  discovered.  Col.  S.  H.  Long  visited  the 
Territory  fourteen  years  later,  and  in  1842-44,  the 
“  Pathfinder,”  Gen.  John  C.  Fremont,  made  his 
celebrated  journey  across  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  first  settlements  were  made  in  1858-59,  by 
miners,  gold  having  been  discovered  in  what  is 
now  Gilpin  county,  and  within  a  few  miles  of 
Denver.  From  1860  to  1862,  the  stream  of  immi¬ 
gration  continued,  and  towns  and  cities  grew  up 
around  the  mines.  It  was  interrupted  by  the 
Civil  War,  but  after  1865  increased,  and  the 
growth  of  the  Territory  was  rapid.  Colorado  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Wyoming  and  Ne- 
bras.ka;  east  by  Nebraska  and  Kansas;  south  by 
New  Mexico  and  the  Indian  Territory;  and  west 
by  Utah.  It  is  situated  between  latitude  37°  and 
41°  N.  and  longitude  102°  and  109°  W.  It 
has  an  average  length  east  and  west  of  380  miles; 
a  breadth  of  280  miles;  and  an  area  of  106,500 
square  miles,  divided  into  thirty-three  counties. 
It  consists  of  three  natural  divisions;  the  mount¬ 
ain  range,  the  foot-hills,  and  the  plains.  The 
Rocky  Mountains  run  north  and  south  through 
the  center  of  the  State,  and  consist  of 
three  parallel  ranges  with  many  peaks 
over  13,000  feet  high.  Within  the  space 
inclosed  by  these  immense  mountains 
are  the  “Parks,”  which  constitute  the  most  re¬ 
markable  natural  feature  of  Colorado.  These 
consist  of  extensive  plateaus  at  an  elevation  of 
9,000  to  10,000  feet  above  the  sea  level,  hemmed 
in  on  all  sides  Dy  the  mountains,  and  containing 
some  valuable  agricultural  land.  The  plains  oc¬ 
cupy  the  eastern  part  of  the  State,  and  comprise 
about  one-third  of  its  area.  The  great  ‘ 1  divide  ” 
traverses  Colorado  northwest  and  southeast;  sep¬ 
arates  the  waters  of  the  South  Platte  and  Arkan¬ 
sas,  and  forms  the  water  shed  of  many  of  their 
tributaries.  Colorado  has  numerous  streams,  the 
principal  ones  being  the  North  and  South  Platte, 
and  the  Arkansas,  Snake,  White,  and  Green  riv¬ 
ers,  most  of  which  flow  through  rocky  canons 
and  are  not  navigable.  The  South  Platte  has  a 
fall  of  6,000  feet  between  Montgomery  and  Den¬ 
ver,  and  one  of  the  canons  of  the  Arkansas  is 
1,500  feet  in  depth.  The  Rio  Grande  del  Norte 
rises  in  the  Saguache  range  of  mountains,  and 
flows  south  through  the  San  Luis  Park,  but  the 
Colorado  river  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  be¬ 
longing  to  the  State  from  which  it  derives  sev¬ 
eral  of  its  principal  tributaries,  and  to  which  it 
gave  a  name.  This  is  essentially  a  mining  State, 
and  is  extremely  rich  in  useful  minerals.  The 
gold-bearing  strata  extend  north  and  south 
through  the  center  of  the  State,  the  belt  being 
about  fifty  miles  in  width.  Gold  is  found  in 
lodes  and  fissure  veins,  and  also  in  gulches  and 
placers  in  Gilpin,  Clear  Creek,  Boulder,  Park, 
and  Lake  counties.  Since  1867  extensive  and 
valuable  silver  mines  have  been  discovered  and 
worked,  the  most  important  deposits  being  in 
Lake  county,  or  the  Leadville  district.  Iron  ores 
of  good  quality  have  been  found;  copper,  zinc, 
and  galena  are  abundant.  Large  beds  of  lignitic 
coal  occur  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  mount¬ 
ains,  some  of  the  veins  containing  thirteen  feet  of 
workable  coal.  The  chief  towns  are  Denver 
(the  capital),  Pueblo  City,  Leadville,  and  Central 
City.  The  pop.  in  1880  was  194,649,  and  is  now 
(1889)  about  260,000. 

Colora'do  Potato  Beetle  (Doryphora  decem- 
lineata ),  a  small  beetle,  which,  since  1861, 
has  done  great  harm 
to  the  potato  crops  of 
the  United  States.  It 
is  of  a  yellowish- 
cream  color,  with  ten 
black  lines  running 
down  the  wing-covers. 

The  larvae,  which  do 
the  principal  mischief, 

e  at  first  reddish-brown,  and  get  paler  with 
increasing  age. 

Colorado  River,  or  Rro  Colorado,  a  large 
river  which  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
falls  into  the  Gulf  of  California.  The  main 
stream,  known  as  the  Green  river,  has  its  source 
in  Fremont’s  Peak  on  the  western  borders  of 
Wyoming,  so  that  the  whole  extent  of  its  course 
must  be  upward  of  2,000  miles.  After  receiv- 


Colorado  Beetle . 
a,  beetle,  natural  size;  6,  cater¬ 
pillar. 


COLOSSUS. 


293 


COLUMBUS. 


ing  the  waters  of  the  Yampuh  and  the  White 
river,  it  flows  south  about  150  miles  without  any 
important  augmentation  till  it  meets  with  the 
great  rival  stream  of  the  Grand  river,  which. by 
means  of  its  numerous  confluents  drains  so  large 
a  portion  of  the  western  versant  in  the  State  of 
Colorado.  The  canons  through  which  the  Colo¬ 
rado  and  several  of  its  confluents  force  their  way, 
render  this  one  of  the  most  remarkable  river 
systems  of  the  world.  The  Grand  Canon  alone 
extends  a  distance  of  about  200  miles  westward 
from  the  junction  of  the  Colorado  Chiquito,  and 
its  walls  rise  almost  sheer  from  the  water’s  edge 
to  a  height  of  from  4,000  to  7,000  feet.  Further 
down  is  Black  Canon,  with  a  length  of  25  miles 
and  a  height  of  1,000  or  1,500  feet. 

Colos'sus,  a  Greek  word  of  unknown  origin, 
used  to  denote  a  statue  very  greatly  beyond  the 
size  of  life.  Of  modern  colossi  the  most  import¬ 
ant  is  Bartholdi’s  Statue  of  Liberty,  which  stands 
on  Bcdloe’s  Island,  in  the  harbor  of  New  York. 

Colos'truui  is  the  term  applied  to  the  first 
milk  yielded  by  some  mammalia  after  delivery. 
It  differs  very  materially  from  ordinary  milk,  and 
generally  appears  as  a  turbid,  yellowish,  viscid 
fluid,  similar  to  soap  and  water. 

Color,  in  Art,  means  either  the  pigment  em¬ 
ployed  to  produce  a  certain  effect  to  the  eye,  or 
the  effect  thus  produced — i.  e.,  the  tint  of  a  pict¬ 
ure.  Recent  investigation  tends  to  regard  as 
simple  or  primary  colors,  red,  green,  and  violet. 
It  is  found  impossible  to  resolve  red,  green,  and 
violet  (or  blue)  light  into  any  other  colors;  whereas 
a  yellow  ray  may  be  resolved  into  red  and  green, 
or  compounded  by  mingling  red  and  green  light. 
But  in  popular  acceptation,  as  in  the  scientific 
works  of  Brewster  and  others,  the  primaries  are 
red,  blue,  and  yellow.  Compounded  in  various 
proportions,  pigments  of  the  three  last  men¬ 
tioned  colors  produce  every  tint  that  is  physically 
possible,  and  in  this  respect  may  still  be  called 
primary.  First,  when  combined  in  twos,  they 
produce  the  three  colors  usually  termed  second¬ 
ary — that  is  to  say,  blue  and  red  make  purple  or 
violet;  yellow  and  red,  orange;  blue  and  yellow, 
green.  The  grays  and  browns,  again,  are  com¬ 
pounds  of  all  three  of  the  primary  colors.  A 
colorist  is  an  artist  in  whose  works  success  in 
color  is  the  prominent  excellence.  The  greatest 
colorists  are  Titian,  Correggio,  Paul  Veronese, 
Rubens,  and  perhaps  his  pupil,  Vandyck. 

Color,  in  Heraldry.  The  colors  used  are 
generally  red,  blue,  black,  green,  and  purple; 
which  are  called  Gules,  Azure,  Sable,  Vert  or 
Sinople,  and  Purpure.  Tenne  or  tawny,  and 
Sanguine  or  blood-color,  sometimes  occur,  but 
they  are  not  common.  Yellow  and  white,  again, 
are  not  colors  in  the  heraldic  sense,  but  metals; 
they  are  called  Or  and  Argent,  and  are  always 
represented  by  gold  and  silver. 

Col  'or  blind  'ness,  a  term  introduced  by  Sir 
David  Brewster  to  denominate  a  defect  of  vision, 
owing  to  which  certain  persons  are  either  unable 
to  discern  a  single  color,  such  as  red,  or  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  between  two  colors,  such  as  green  and  red, 
so  that  they  may  be  said  to  be  blind  to  red,  or  to 
be  blind  to  one  of  two  colors  presented  simultane¬ 
ously  to  the  eye.  One  phase  of  the  defect  is  chro- 
mato-pseudopsis—i.e. ,  false  vision  of  colors ;  the  other 
Daltonism,  after  Dalton  the  chemist,  who  suffered 
under  it.  It  occurs  in  eyes  whose  power  of  vision, 
as  to  form  and  distance,  is  otherwise  perfect. 

Colors,  Military,  are  certain  kinds  of  flags 
carried  with  the  army.  Standards,  banners,  pen¬ 
nons,  guidons,  ensigns,  colors — all  are  military 
flags,  each  originally  having  a  distinct  meaning, 
now  to  some  extent  departed  from. 

Colt,  Samuel,  born  at  Hartford,  .Conn.,  in 
1814,  died  Jan.  10,  1862.  From  his  earliest  youth 
he  devoted  himself  to  inventions,  and  after  many 
years’  work  produced  the  revolver  named  after 
him,  the  prototype  of  all  pistols  having  a  revolv¬ 
ing  breech-chamber. 

Colum'ba,  St.  (called  also  St.  Colum-cille 
and  St.  Colm),  was  born  in  the  North  of  Ireland, 
Dec,  7,  521.  In  546  he  founded  Derry,  and,  six 
or  seven  years  afterward,  Dtnrow,  the  greatest 
of  all  his  Irish  monasteries.  In  568  he  planted  a 
monastery  on  the  Island  of  Iona,  and  set  himself 
to  the  great  work  of  his  life,  the  conversion  of 
the  Pictish  tribes  beyond  the  Grampians.  He 
died  in  597. 


Colmnbar'ium  (Lat.),  a  dove  cot  or  pigeon- 
house.  When  used  in  the  singular  it  also  signified 
a  particular  kind  of  sepulchral-chamber  used  by 
the  Romans  to  receive  the  ashes  of  bodies  which 
had  been  burned. 

Columbia,  the  capital  of  South  Carolina,  is  a 
city  of  nearly  10,000  inhabitants.  It  lies  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Congaree  river,  just  below  its 
junction  with  the  Broad  and  Saluda,  and  is  124 
miles  north-northwest  of  Charleston,  the  principal 
seaport  of  the  State. 

Columbia,  British.  This  province,  the  west¬ 
ernmost  of  those  composing  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  lies  between  latitude  48°  20'  and  60°  N., 
and  longitude  113°  and  136°  W.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  sixtieth  parallel,  on  the  east 
by  the  Rocky  Mountains,  on  the  south  by  the 
United  States,  and  on  the  west  by  Alaska  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Its  area  is  356,000  square  miles, 
and  its  population,  by  the  census  of  1881,  was 
49,459,  of  whom  25,661  were  Indians.  Prior  to 
1858,  this  province,  comprising  the  territories 
then  known  as  New  Caledonia,  New  Norfolk, 
New  Georgia  and  New  Cornwall,  was  under  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company.  In  the  year  named  above, 
British  Columbia  was  organized,  and  Vancouver 
Island  was  annexed  to  it  in  1866.  In  1871  the 
province  joined  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The 
capital  is  Victoria,  on  Vancouver  Island.  The 
form  of  Government  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
other  provinces.  Vancouver  Island  lies  between 
latitude  48°  18'  and  50°  55'  N.,  and  longitude 
123°  15'  and  128°  30'  W.  Its  greatest  length 
is  278  miles,  and  its  breadth  varies  from  50  to 
65  miles.  Its  area  is  estimated  to  be  16,000 
square  miles.  Its  pop.,  by  the  last  census,  was 
9,991.  The  island  was  for  some  time  claimed  by 
the  United  States  as  constituting  a  part  of  the 
Louisiana  purchase,  but  its  possession  was,  by  the 
treaty  of  1846,  confirmed  to  Great  Britain.  The 
island  is  separated  from  the  continent  by  the  Gulf 
of  Georgia,  30  miles  in  width,  which  commu¬ 
nicates  with  the  ocean  by  Johnson’s  Strait  on  the 
north,  and  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca  on  the 
south.  The  principal  rivers  of  British  Columbia 
are  the  Fraser,  which  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mount¬ 
ains,  and,  after  a  sinuous  course  of  about  700 
miles,  for  100  of  which  it  is  navigable,  empties 
into  the  Gulf  of  Georgia;  and  the  Stachine  and 
Simpson  on  the  north.  The  Columbia  rises  in 
this  province,  in  latitude  50°  30',  and  flows  north 
to  latitude  52°  10',  where  it  turns  to  the  south; 
its  length  is  about  1,200  miles,  and  nearly  800 
miles  of  its  course  is  in  British  territory.  The 
climate  is  much  milder  than  that  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  in  the  same  latitude,  the  winters  being  mod¬ 
erated  by  the  warmer  waters  of  the  Pacific, 
though  on  the  uplands,  back  from  the  coast,  the 
thermometer  often  falls  to  40°  below  zero.  The 
eastern  portion  of  the  country  is  occupied  by  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  the  highest  summits  being 
Mount  Brown,  16,000  feet,  and  Mount  Hooker, 
15,700  feet;  and  the  Cascade  Mountains  traverse 
the  province  from  north  to  south  at  a  distance  of 
100  miles  from  the  coast.  There  are  large  tracts 
of  fertile  land  along  the  seashore  and  in  several 
valleys.  The  fisheries  of  British  Columbia  are 
among  the  richest  in  the  world,  and  have  been 
largely  developed  in  some  departments.  The 
salmon  of  the  Fraser  river  are  extensively  canned. 
Candle-fish,  cod,  herring,  halibut,  anchovies, 
haddock,  etc.,  are  caught  in  great  quantities. 

Columbia  College,  originally  known  as  King’s 
College,  is  situated  in  New  York  City,  and  re¬ 
ceived  its  first  charter  in  1754.  It  is  a  wealthy  in¬ 
stitution,  and  has  connected  with  it  schools  of 
law,  mineralogy,  and  medicine  in  addition  to  the 
classical  and  mathematical  departments. 

Columbia,  District  of,  the  seat  of  the  Na¬ 
tional  Government,  as  originally  formed  in  1789, 
occupied  an  area  of  100  square  miles.  It  included 
60  square  miles  of  Maryland  and  40  square  miles 
of  Virginia,  those  States  ceding  the  territory  and 
all  jurisdictional  rights  to  the  General  Government. 
In  1846  the  portion  on  the  Virginia  side  of  the 
Potomac  was  retroceded  to  that  State.  The  Dis¬ 
trict  as  now  constituted,  lies  between  latitude  38° 
51'  and  39"  N.,  and  longitude  76"  58'  and  77°  6' 
W.  It  is  bounded  on  the  southwest  by  the  Poto¬ 
mac,  and  on  all  other  sides  by  Maryland.  Con¬ 
gress  first  met  in  Washington  on  Nov.  17,  1800, 
the  city  having  been  laid  out  in  1791.  On  Aug.  24, 


1814,  after  the  Battle  of  Bladensburg  the  British 
took  possession  of  Washington,  which  was  at 
that  time  entirely  unprotected,  and  burned  the 
Capitol,  Presidential  Mansion,  and  Congressional 
Library.  From  1802  to  1871  Washington  and 
Georgetown  possessed  Municipal  Governments, 
while  the  legislative  power  over  the  entire  Dis¬ 
trict  was  exercised  directly  by  Congress.  In  1871 
a  territorial  form  of  Government  was  given,  but 
this  was  abolished  by  the  Act  of  June  20,  1874, 
modified  by  the  Act  of  June  11,  1878,  which 
placed  the  District  under  three  commissioners  ap 
pointed  by  the  President.  Under  the  Constitu¬ 
tion  of  the  United  States,  inhabitants  of  the  Dis¬ 
trict  have  no  vote  for  presidential  electors.  Dur 
ing  the  Civil  War  Washington  was  several  times 
threatened  by  the  Confederate  armies  and  was 
nearly  captured.  For  further  information  see 
Washington,  City  of. 

Columbidae,  a  family  of  birds,  often  compre¬ 
hended  under  the  general  English  names  dove 
and  pigeon,  and  forming  the  genus  Columba  (Lat. 
pigeon)  of  Linnaeus.  They  are  generally  ranked 
among  gallinaceous  birds,  but  exhibit  points  of 
resemblance  to  the  order  Insessores,  and  have  by 
some  naturalists  been  constituted  into  a  distinct 
order,  intermediate  between  these. 

Col'umbiue  ( Aquilegia ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  RanuncuUicece,  having  five  col¬ 
ored  sepals,  which  soon  fall  off,  and  five  petals 
each  terminating  below  in  a  horn-shaped  spur  or 
nectary.  They  are  natives  of  the  temperate  and 
colder  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  One, 


Common  Columbine  (Aquilegia  vulgaris). 


the  common  columbine  (A.  vulgaris),  is  found  in 
woods,  and  has  long  been  familiar  as  an  inmate  of 
flower-gardens.  It  is  a  perennial,  generally  three 
or  four  feet  high,  with  flowers  of  curious  struct¬ 
ure  and  considerable  beauty. 

Colum'bium,  or  Tan'talum  (symbol.  Ta),  is  a 
rare  metal  found  in  the  mineral  tantalite,  obtained 
from  Bodeumais,  in  Bohemia,  and  from  Sweden. 

Colum'bus,  Christopher  (the  Latinized  form 
of  the  Ital.  Colombo,  and  the  Span.  Colon),  the 
great  navigator,  is  supposed  to  have  been  born  at 
or  near  Genoa,  in  the  year  1436,  or,  as  others  say, 
1446.  While  in  Lisbon  constructing  maps  and 
charts  for  the  livelihood  of  his  family,  lie  im¬ 
bibed  that  idea  of  land  to  the  westward  which  he 
was  destined  after  long  years  to  establish  as  fact. 
With  the  view,  apparently,  of  better  qualifying 
himself  for  his  great  enterprise,  Columbus  made 
several  voyages  to  the  Azores,  the  Canaries,  and 
the  coast  of  Guinea — then  the  limit  of  European 
navigation  in  this  direction.  He  tried  to  obtain 
assistance  from  the  King  of  Portugal,  and  finally 
obtained  three  small  vessels,  with  120  men,  from 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain.  On  Aug.  3, 
1492,  Columbus  set  sail  from  the  bar  of  Saltes, 
near  Palos.  On  October  12th  he  sighted  land, 
which  proved  to  be  one  of  the  Bahama  Islands. 
Here  he  solemnly  planted  the  cross,  giving  the 
island  the  name  of  San  Salvador.  After  discov¬ 
ering  several  other  of  the  West  India  Islands,  in¬ 
cluding  Cuba  and  Hayti,  or  San  Domingo,  at  the 
latter  of  which,  called  by  him  Hispaniola,  he  set¬ 
tled  a  small  colony,  Columbus  set  sail  again  for 


COLUMBUS. 


294 


COMET. 


Spain;  where  he  arrived  on  March  15,  1493.  In 
September  of  the  same  year  he  set  sail  from  Cadiz 
on  a  second  expedition,  with  seventeen  ships  and 
1,500  men.  In  this  voyage,  he  discovered  the 
Caribbee Islands,  Jamaica,  etc.;  but  calumnies  at 
home  forced  him  to  return  in  1496.  Having 
cleared  himself  with  his  sovereigns,  he,  in  1498, 
set  out  on  a  third  expedition.  This  time,  steer¬ 
ing  more  to  the  southward,  he  discovered  Trin¬ 
idad,  and  the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco,  and  landed 
at  Paria,  on  the  coast  of  South  America.  He  re¬ 
turned  to  Spain,  and  on  May  9,  1502,  sailed  on  an¬ 
other  expedition,  which,  however,  was  unevent¬ 
ful,  and  returning  once  more  to  his  native  laud, 
he  died  in  poverty  at  Valladolid,  May  20,  1506. 

Columbus,  capital  of  Ohio,  stands  near  the 
center  of  the  State,  100  miles  northeast  of  Cincin¬ 
nati.  The  chief  public  institutions  of  the  State 
are  situated  here — the  capitol,  the  penitentiary, 
the  State  arsenal,  and  the  asylums.  Pop.  (1880), 
51,645. 

Columbus,  a  city  of  Georgia,  stands  on  the 
Chattahooche  river,  300  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Pop.  (1880),  10,123. 

Columel'la. — 1.  The  central  axis  which  re¬ 
mains,  formed  of  the  placentas,  when  the  carpels 
of  some  fruits  have  separated  from  each  other 
and  from  them. — 2.  The  central  axis  of  the 
spore-cases  (capsules)  of  mosses. — 3.  The  central 
axis  around  which  the  whorls  of  many  spiral 
univalve  shells  are  closely  wound. 

Columella,  Lucius  Junius  Moderatus,  the 
most  learned  of  Roman  writers  on  agriculture, 
was  born  at  Cadiz,  in  Spain,  and  flourished  in  the 
earlier  part  of  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
era. 

Col 'limn  (Lat.  columna),  a  pillar  or  post, 
usually  cylindrical  in 
form,  employed  for 
the  purpose  of  sup¬ 
porting  a  roof,  en¬ 
tablature,  or  other 
superstructure.  As 
the  Doric  style  of 
architecture  was  the 
earliest  of  the  classi¬ 
cal  styles,  the  Doric 
is  naturally  the  sim¬ 
plest  and  most  severe 
of  the  classical  col¬ 
umns.  In  almost  all  j 
columns  the  shaft 
tapers  gradually 
from  the  bottom  to 
the  top,  thus  imi¬ 
tating  the  natural 
growth  of  a  tree, 
and  at  the  same  time 
conforming  to  a  me¬ 
chanical  rule  for  ob¬ 
taining  the  greatest 
amount  of  strength 
in  upright  bodies. 

When  in  order  to 
support  the  roof 
which  covered  the  Tuscan  Column, 

gallery  or  any  other  superstructure,  a  second  row 
of  columns  was  introduced,  it  was  usually  of  the 


Corinthian. 


Doric.  ,  Ionic, 

lighter  styles,  Ionic  or  Corinthian,  the  lower  col¬ 
umns  being  commonly  Doric. 


Column,  in  Military  Evolutions,  is  a  mass  of 
soldiers  several  ranks  in  depth,  presenting  a  for¬ 
mation  different  from  that  which  arises  from 
spreading  them  out  in  line.  There  may  be  col 
uinns  of  brigades,  of  regiments,  of  battalions,  or 
of  companies,  presenting  a  front  of  limited  width, 
but  a  depth  depending  on  the  number  of  elements 
in  the  column. 

Colym'bidae,  a  family  of  web-footed  birds, 
distinguished  by  short  wings,  legs  placed  so  far 
back  that  the  bird  always  assumes  an  erect  po¬ 
sition  when  standing,  broad,  flat  tarsi  (shanks), 
and  a  compressed  bill,  pointed  sit  the  tip.  They 
are  all  extremely  aquatic  in  their  habits,  and  pos¬ 
sess  great  powers  of  diving  as  well  as  of  swim¬ 
ming. 

Col  'za  Oil  is  a  non-drying  oil  obtained  from  the 
seeds  of  Brassica  napus,  var.  oleifera,  a  variety 
of  the  plant  which  produces  Swedish  turnips. 
Colza  is  extensively  cultivated  in  France,  Bel¬ 
gium,  Holland,  and  Germany;  and,  especially  in 
the  first-named  country,  the  expression  of  the  oil 
is  an  important  industry.  In  commerce  colza  is 
classed  with  rape  oil,  to  which  both  in  source  and 
properties  it  is  very  closely  allied.  It  is  a  com¬ 
paratively  inodorous  oil  of  a  yellow  color,  having 
a  specific  gravity  at  60Q  F.  of  0.9128,  and  it 
solidifies  at  22°  F.  The  cake  left  after  expres¬ 
sion  of  the  oil  is  a  valuable  feeding  substance  for 
cattle.  Colza  oil  is  extensively  used  as  a  lubri¬ 
cant  for  machinery. 

Co'raa,  a  Greek  word  used  in  medicine,  to  sig¬ 
nify  a  state  of  more  or  less  profound  insensibility, 
allied  to  sleep,  but  differing  from  natural  sleep  in 
its  characters,  as  well  as  in  the  circumstances  un¬ 
der  which  it  occurs.  In  coma  the  patient  lies  on 
his  back,  and  is  either  simply  insensible  to  exter¬ 
nal  impressions,  or  has  a  confused  and  dull  per¬ 
ception  of  them,  with  restlessness  and  low  delir¬ 
ium.  The  former  kind  of  coma  occurs  in  apo¬ 
plexy,  epilepsy,  and  also  in  many  other  organic 
diseases  of  the  brain  and  its  membranes,  of  which, 
indeed,  it  may  be  said  to  be  the  natural  termina¬ 
tion.  It  is  also  seen  in  narcotic  poisoning,  and 
most  characteristically  in  poisoning  by  opium. 

Co 'ma  Bereni'ces  (Lat.  Berenice’s  hair),  a 
small  and  close  cluster  of  stars  near  the  equinoc¬ 
tial  colure,  south  of  the  tail  of  the  Great  Bear. 

Comae 'cliio,  a  fortified  town  of  Central  Italy, 
in  the  Province  of  Ferrara,  and  three  miles  from 
the  Adriatic.  Pop.,  8,000. 

Comauclies,  a  tribe  of  North  American  In¬ 
dians,  so  called  by  the  Spaniards,  but  known  to 
the  French  as  Padouques,  and  among  themselves 
as  Natini.  They  belong  to  the  Shoshone  family, 
and,  when  first  met  by  white  men,  occupied  the 
regions  between  the  upper  waters  of  the  Brazos 
and  Colorado  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Arkansas 
and  Missouri  on  the  other.  They  were  brought 
to  nominal  submission  in  1783  by  the  Spanish 
General  Anza,  who  killed  thirty  of  their  chiefs. 
Their  total  numbers,  estimated  in  1847  as  10,000 
or  12,000,  are  now  reduced  to  little  more  than 
3,000  or  4,000. 

Comayagua,  a  city  of  Central  America,  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  Republic  of  Honduras,  and  of  the  de¬ 
partment  of  Comayagua,  is  situated  in  14°  28'  N. 
latitude,  and  87°  39'  W.  longitude,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ilumuya  or  Ulua  river. 

Comb  (Sax.  camb).  Combs  seem  to  have  been 
used  by  the  ancients  rather  for  adjusting  than 
for  fastening  the  hair,  the  pin  or  bodkin  (acus) 
having  been  chiefly  employed  for  the  latter  pur¬ 
pose.  Both  the  Greek  and  Roman  combs  were 
generally  made  of  boxwood,  which  was  obtained 
from  the  shores  of  the  Euxine;  but,  latterly, 
ivory  combs  came  into  general  use  among  the 
Romans,  as  they  had  long  before  been  amongst 
the  Egyptians.  The  precious  metals  were  also 
used  for  the  purpose,  as  we  may  infer  from  the 
golden  combs  ascribed  to  the  goddesses.  The  sides 
are  hog -backed,  and  between  them  are  set  the 


riveted.  By  this  contrivance,  any  damaged  por¬ 
tion  could  easily  be  replaced.  Many  combs  are 


Fine  Tooth  Comb.  Royal  Irish  Academy. 

now  made  by  an  economical  method  called  “  part¬ 
ing.”  By  the  old  process  of  cutting  the 
material  corresponding  to  the  spaces  between 
the  teeth  was  wasted;  by  the  method  of  part¬ 
ing,  this  is  made  available  to  form  the  teeth  of 
a  second  comb.  The  plate  of  horn,  tortoise 
shell,  etc.,  is  cut  through  by  means  of  a  stamp¬ 
ing-cutter,  consisting  of  two  thin  chisels  in¬ 
clined  to  each  other.  By  simple  machinery,  the 
table  carrying  the  plate  is  made  to  advance  a  dis¬ 
tance  equal  to  the  thickness  of  one  tooth  while 
the  cutter  is  rising,  and  thus  the  successive  cuts 
are  made  as  represented.  A  slight  pull  is  now 
sufficient  to  part  the  plate  into  two  combs,  the 
teeth  of  which  only  require  filing  and  finishing. 

Combe,  George,  phrenologist  and  moral  phi¬ 
losopher,  born  Oct.  21,  1788.  His  most  important 
production  is  The  Constitution  of  Man  Considered 
in  Relation,  to  External  Objects  (1828;  9th  cd.  1860). 
He  died  in  1858. 

Combe,  Andrew,  DI  D.,  brother  of  the  preced¬ 
ing,  was  born  Oct.  27,  1797,  and  died  Aug.  9,  1847. 
His  principal  works  are  Observations  on  Menial  De¬ 
rangement  (1831)  and  The  Principles  of  Physiology 
Applied  to  the  Preservation  of  Health,  etc. (1834). 

Combina'tion  means  the  act  of  uniting  or  com¬ 
bining  certain  active  elements;  and  it  has  come 
lately  to  mean  the  uniting  together  of  persons  hav¬ 
ing  a  common  interest,  with  a  view  to  promoting 
that  interest.  Thus,  it  may  refer  to  employers 
uniting  together  to  keep  up  prices  or  keep  down 
wages;  or  it  may  apply  to  workmen  uniting  to¬ 
gether  to  keep  up  wages. 

Combretacese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  all  natives 
of  tropical  countries.  It  contains  about  200 
known  species,  most  of  which  are  characterized 
by  astringency. 

Combus'tion  is  the  term  applied  to  the  process 
of  burning,  which  usually  consists  in  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  uniting  with  the  constituents  of  the  com¬ 
bustible  substance.  Thus,  thecombustion  of  coal 
is  due  to  the  oxygen  of  the  air  passing  into  a  state 
of  chemical  union  with  the  carbon  and  the  hydro¬ 
gen  of  the  coal,  forming  carbonic  acid  (C02)  and 
water-vapor  (H20). 

Coinedie  Framjaise,  or  Theatre  Fran^ais, 
the  National  Theater  of  France,  subsidized  by  the 
State  for  the  advancement  of  Dramatic  Art.  The 
history  dates  officially  from  1680,  when  Louis  XIV. 
amalgamated  by  a  decree  the  two  rival  companies 
of  the  Hotel  de  Bourgogne  and  of  the  Hotel  Giff- 
negaud,  the  latter  being  a  fusion  after  Moliere’s 
death  in  1673  of  the  Tiff* litre  du  Marais  and  the 
Troupe  de  Mol i ere. 

Coin'et.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
koine,  hair,  a  title  which  had  its  origin  in  the 


ramiiiiniiiiimiiiii1 

Ancient  Irish  Long  Rack  Comb  Museum  of 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy. 

pectinated  portions,  varying  in  breadth  from  half  comet  of  I8ti 

an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  quarter,  according  to  the 

size  of  the  bone  out  of  which  they  were  cut.  hairy  appearance  often  exhibited  by  the  haze  or 
The  "whole  is  fastened  together  with  brass  pins  luminous  vapor,  the  presence  of  which  is  at  first 


COMFREY. 


295 


COMNENUS. 


sight  the  most  striking  characteristic  of  the  celes¬ 
tial  bodies  called  by  this  name.  The  general 
features  of  a  comet  are  a  definite  point  or  nucleus, 
a  nebulous  light  surrounding  the  nucleus,  and  a 
luminous  train  preceding  or  following  the  nu¬ 
cleus.  There  are  three  comets  whose  periodicity 
is  established,  and  whose  paths  are  accurately 
known:  1.  That  of  Encke,  with  a  short  period 
of  1,204  days.  Its  orbit  does  not  extend  so  far  as 
the  orbit  of  Jupiter,  and  a  slight  acceleration  in 
its  periodic  times  of  return  has  suggested  the  pos¬ 
sibility  of  the  space,  within  our  solar  system  at 
least,  being  occupied  by  a  resisting  medium, 
though  of  extreme  rarity.  2.  That  of  Biela  or 
Gambart,  having  a  period  of  six  years  and  three- 
quarters.  During  the  visit  of  this  comet,  in  1846, 
it  was  seen  to  separate  into  two  distinct  comets, 
which  kept  moving  side  by  side  till  they  disap¬ 
peared.  On  the  return  of  the  comet  in  the 
autumn  of  1852,  the  distance  between  the  tw  o 
nuclei  had  much  increased.  Since  then,  although 
repeatedly  due,  it  has  not  again  been  seen.  3. 
That  of  Faye,  with  a  period  of  seven  years  and  a 
•nlf.  The'  orbits  of  both  these  last  mentioned 
extend  beyond  the  orbit  of  Jupiter,  but  none  so 


Donati’s  Comet,  1858. 


far  as  that  of  Saturn.  In  the  present  century 
the  most  brilliant  comets  have  been  tlioseof  1811, 
1843,  1858  (Donati’s),  1861,  1880,  1881,  and  the 
great  comet  of  1882. 

Com 'trey  (Symphytum),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Bornginece,  distinguished  by  a 
five-cleft  or  five-partite  calyx,  and  a  corolla  en- 


Comfrey  (Symphytum  officinale) . 


larged  upward,  its  throat  closed  by  awl-shaped 
scales.  The  species,  which  are  not  numerous,  are 
natives  of  Europe  and  the  North  of  Asia.  The 
prickly  comfrey  ( S .  asperrimum),  a  native  of 
Siberia,  6  to  10  feet  in  height,  has  been  highly 
recommended  for  feeding  cattle.  It  has  also  been 
ascribed  some  anti-spasmodic  properties,  and  is 
much  used  in  domestic  cough-candies. 

Comi'tia  (Lat.  cum,  with  or  together,  and  ire, 
to  go)  were  the  legal  or  constitutional  meetings  of 
the  Roman  people,  convened  by  a  magistrate,  for 
the  purpose  of  putting  a  question  to  the  vote. 

Com'ity  of  Na'tions — more  frequently  men¬ 
tioned  by  its  Latin  equivalent,  comitas  gentium — 


is  that  species  of  international  legal  courtesy  by 
which  the  laws  and  institutions  of  one  country 
are  recognized  and  given  effect  to  by  those  of 
another.  See  Story’s  Conflict  of  Laws. 

Comma  (,)  The  shortest  punctuation  mark 
used  in  orthography.  It  denotes  a  pause,  an  elis¬ 
ion,  or  a  parenthesis;  and  is  also  used  before  a 
supplementary  phrase  in  a  sentence. 

Commandant',  in  Military  Matters,  is  a  tem¬ 
porary  commander,  in  place  of  the  real  chief; 
such  as  a  captain-commandant,  lieutenant-com¬ 
mandant,  etc. 

Command 'et%  in  the  Navy,  is  an  officer  next 
under  a  captain  in  rank,  and  serves  either  as 
second  in  command  in  a  large  ship,  or  in  inde¬ 
pendent  command  of  a  small  vessel. 

Commander-in-Chief  is  the  highest  staff  ap¬ 
pointment  in  the  British  army.  In  the  United 
States  the  President  is  commander-in-chief  of 
both  the  land  and  sea  forces.  Governors  of  States 
are  commanders-in-chiefs  of  the  State  troops. 

Commelyna'ce®,  a  natural  order  of  endoge¬ 
nous  plants,  consisting  of  herbaceous  plants, 
with  flat,  narrow  leaves,  usually  sheathing  at  the 
base.  The  order  contains  more  than  260  known 
species,  natives  chiefly  of  w  arm  climates;  but  a 
few  occur  in  North  America.  Tradescantia  Vir¬ 
ginian,  or  spider-wort,  common  in  flower-gardens, 
is  a  familiar  example  of  the  order.  Commelyna 
ccelestis  is  an  ornament  of  flower-gardens. 

Common 'surable.  Two  quantities  or  num¬ 
bers  are  said  to  be  commensurable  which  are  of 
the  same  kind,  and  each  of  which  contains  a 
third  quantity  or  number  a  certain  number  of 
times  without  remainder. 

Commerce,  in  its  general  acceptation,  is  the 
international  traffic  in  goods,  or  what  constitutes 
the  foreign  trade  of  all  countries  as  distinct  from 
their  domestic  trade. 

Commina'lion  is  from  the  Lat.  comminor,  to 
threaten,  and  is  the  name  given  to  a  penitential 
service  used  in  the  primitive  church.  See  Bing¬ 
ham’s  Antiquities. 

Commissa'riat  is  a  name  for  the  organized 
system  whereby  armies  are  provided  with  food, 
and  daily  necessaries  other  than  those  connected 
with  actual  warfare. 

Commis'sion,  a  writing,  in  the  form  of  a  war¬ 
rant  or  letter-patent  (see  Patent),  authorizing  one 
or  more  persons  to  perform  duties  or  exercise 
powers  belonging  to  another,  or  to  others.  Another 
class  of  commissions  are  those  granted  by  Congress 
or  State  authority  to  a  body  of  persons,  either  to  in¬ 
quire  into  the  condition  of  certain  institutions  or 
branches  of  the  public  service,  or  to  exercise  cer¬ 
tain  powers,  or  execute  certain  measures  for  their 
improvement.  Persons  holding  such  commissions, 
deriving  no  other  title  from  their  appointment, 
are  called  commissioners — such  as,  for  instance, 
the  Inter-State  Commerce  Commission. 

Commission  Merchant,  or  Agent,  is  a  person 
employed  to  sell  goods  consigned  or  delivered  to 
him  by  another  wdio  is  called  his  principal,  for  a 
certain  percentage,  commonly  called  his  commis¬ 
sion. 

Commissionaires  are  a  class  of  attendants  at 
European  hotels,  who  perform  certain  miscellane¬ 
ous  services. 

Commitment  is  the  imprisonment  of  any  per¬ 
son  by  warrant  or  order.  When  commitment  is 
by  warrant  of  a  magistrate  after  examination  and 
before  trial,  the  confinement  of  the  accused,  being 
for  safe  custody  and  not  for  punishment,  is  reg¬ 
ulated  by  special  statutes  as  to  diet,  optional  em¬ 
ployment,  visits,  etc.  Commitment  may  be  for 
trial  or  further  examination. 

Committee  (Fr.  comite),  a  portion,  generally 
consisting  of  not  less  than  three  members, 
selected  from  a  more  numerous  body,  to  whom 
some  special  act  to  be  performed,  or  investigation 
to  be  made,  is  committed.  But  though  a  com¬ 
mittee  usually  consists  of  several  members  of  the 
body  by  which  it  is  appointed,  it  may  consist  of 
one  member,  or,  what  is  more  frequent,  of  the 
whole  members  acting  in  a  different  capacity 
from  that  which  usually  belongs  to  them. 

Commodore,  in  the  navy  of  the  United  States 
ranks  between  a  rear-admiral  and  a  captain,  the 
grade  corresponding  with  that  of  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  army.  A  commodore  usually 
commands  a  squadron  of  ships  on  special  service. 

Com 'modus,  Lucius  Aukelius,  a  Roman 


Emperor,  born  161  a.d.,  was  the  son  of  Marcus 
Aurelius  Antoninus.  He  was  summoned  to  the 
throne  on  his  father’s  decease,  March  17,  180. 
He  was  a  glutton,  a  libertine,  a  debauchee,  who 
wallowed  in  the  most  sensual  abominations.  He 
was  despised  by  all  good  people,  and  was  strangled 
by  Narcissus,  a  famous  athlete,  Dec.  31,  192. 

Common  Law, the  ancient  law  of  England  as  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  the  statute  law  and  from  equity. 
In  the  United  States  it  prevails  except  where 
overruled  by  statute  or  superseded  by  the  code. 
For  example  in  Illinois  the  common  law  prevails 
except  where  modified  by  statute. 

Common  Prayer-book.  This  book  contains 
the  forms  of  public  worship  and  administration 
of  the  sacraments  and  other  rites  and  ceremonies 
according  to  the  use  of  the  United  Church  of 
England  and  Ireland.  It  is,  for  the  most  part,  a 
translation  of  such  portions  of  the  services  of  the 
ancient  Catholic  Church  as  were  considered  by 
the  Reformers  free  from  all  objection.  The  Epis¬ 
copal  Church  in  the  United  States  uses  the  Com¬ 
mon  Prayer-Book  with  some  minor  modifications. 

Commons,  House  of.  See  Parliament. 

Communion,  Holy.  The  Lord’s  Supper. 

Commonwealth,  the  style  and  title  of  the 
Government  of  England  under  Oliver  Cromwell 
from  Dec.  16,  1653,  to  Sept.  3,  1658,  and  under  his 
son  and  successor,  Richard  Cromwell,  until  the 
restoration  of  Charles  II.  Various  States  of  the 
American  Union  are  known  as  commonwealths, 
e.  g. ,  Massachusetts. 

Common  Schools.  In  the  United  States  the 
public  or  free  schools  are  so-called  in  distinction 
from  colleges  and  universities.  The  common 
school  is  at  once  the  greatest  glory  of  the  country, 
and  the  greatest  safeguard  of  its  liberties.  The 
earliest  settlers  of  New  England  recognized  the 
importance  of  primary  education  and  made  due 
provision  for  it.  When  the  Northwestern  Terri¬ 
tories  were  formed  it  was  provided  that  every 
sixteenth  section  of  the  public  lands  should  be  set 
apart  for  the  maintenance  of  common  schools. 
The  land  thus  granted  amounts  to  70,000,000  acres, 
in  addition  to  which  many  grants  have  been  made 
by  State  Governments.  Since  the  close  of  the  Civil 
War  the  common  school  system  has  been  largely 
developed  in  the  South.  It  is  estimated  that  over 
$100,000,000  per  annum  is  expended  on  these 
public  schools.  In  several  States  attendance  at 
the  common  schools  is  compulsory  on  all  children 
of  school  age.  In  addition  to  the  endowments  of 
land  furnished  by  the  National  and  State  Govern¬ 
ments,  school-taxes  are  levied  in  every  township, 
and  every  American  child  has  the  opportunity 
afforded  him  or  her  to  obtain  instruction  in  at 
least  the  rudimentary  branches  of  education. 

Com  munism,  the  name  given  to  one  class  of 
the  arrangements  by  which  ceitain  speculators 
have  proposed  to  dispense  with  those  laws  of  so¬ 
cial  and  political  economy  which  are  supposed  to 
keep  society  together,  through  the  influence  of 
the  domestic  affections  and  the  spirit  of  compe¬ 
tition,  and  to  substitute  in  their  stead  a  set  of  arti¬ 
ficial  rules  for  the  government  of  mankind.  The 
word  Socialist  lias  generally  been  applied  to  those 
who  propose  to  interfere  only  with  labor  by  abol¬ 
ishing  competition  and  wages,  lea  ving  men  to  work 
under  the  influence  of  public  spirit,  and  making 
an  equal  division  of  the  produce.  See  Socialism. 
The  term  Communist,  on  the  other  hand,  has  been 
applied  to  those  who  go  a  step  further,  and  pro¬ 
pose  to  abolish  the  relation  of  husband  and  wife, 
with  the  system  of  domestic  government  which  is 
founded  on  the  parental  authority.  While  Louis 
Blanc  may  be  considered  the  head  of  the  Social¬ 
ists — though  his  ultimate  aim  was  work  accord¬ 
ing  to  capacity,  and  payment  according  to  wants 
— the  representatives  of  the  Communists  are  Rob¬ 
ert  Owen,  St.  Simon,  Fourier,  Proudhon,  and 
Enfantin. 

Connie 'mis,  the  name  of  a  family,  originally 
Italian,  of  which  many  members  occupied  the 
throne  of  the  Byzantine  Empire  from  1057  to  1204, 
and  that  of  Trebizond  from  1204  to  1461. — Anna 
Comnena,  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
twelfth  century,  is  both  of  historic  and  literary 
celebrity. — David  Comnenus,  the  last  representa¬ 
tive  of  the  imperial  race  in  Trebizond,  was  exe¬ 
cuted  at  Adrianople  in  1462,  with  all  his  family, 
by  command  of  Mohammed  II. 


COMO. 


296 


CONCEPCION. 


Como,  a  city  of  Lombardy,  Northern  Italy, 
beautifully  situated  at  the  southwest  extremity  of 
the  Lake  of  Como.  Pop.,  25,560. 

Como,  Lake  of  (Ital.  Lago  di  Como,  ancient 
Larins  Lacus),  in  Lombardy,  Northern  Italy,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Lepontineand  Rhsetian  Alps, chiefly 
formed  by  the  River  Adda,  which  enters  it  at  its 
north,  and  issues  at  its  southeastern  extremity. 
The  total  length  is  about  35  miles. 

Comodo an  island  in  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
35  miles  in  length,  by  16  in  average  breadth. 

Comorin Cape,  the  most  southerly  extremity 
of  the  Peninsula  of  Hindustan,  being,  in  fact,  a 
sandy  accret  ion  to  the  termination  of  the  Western 
Ghauts. 

Co'inoro  Isles,  a  group  of  four  islands  in  the 
Mozambique  Channel,  between  Africa  and 
Madagascar,  in  latitude  11° — 13°  S.,  longitude 
43° — 45°  30 '  E.  The  islands,  which  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  are  called  Angaziya  or  Great  Comoro, 
Anjouan  or  Johanna,  Mayotta,  and  Mohilla.  They 
are  mountainous,  the  highest  peaks  rising  above 
6,000  feet.  Pop.,  about  80,000. 

Compar'ison,  in  Grammar,  and  as  applied  to 
adjectives,  is  that  which  marks  the  degree  in 
which  the  quality  is  attributed  to  the  object,  as 
compared  with  other  objects.  There  are  three 
degrees  of  comparison.  The  positive  indicates 
the  quality  generally,  without  comparison;  the 
comparative,  a  higher  degree  of  the  quality  than 
is  attributed  to  other  things;  and  the  superlative, 
the  highest  degree  that  is  attributed  to  any  of  the 
things  under  consideration.  There  are  two  ways 
of  expressing  these  degrees.  1.  By  an  inflection 
or  change  of  the  word;  as,  hard,  harder,  hardest; 
happy,  happier,  happiest.  This  mode  prevails 
almost  exclusively  in  Greek  and  Latin.  2.  By  an 
additional  word,  as  more  happy,  most  happy. 
This  may  be  called  logical  comparison;  the  other, 
grammatical. 

Com  'pass,  Mariner's,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
instrument  by  which  sailors  are  enabled  to  steer 
their  course  on  the  ocean  out  of  sight  of  land,  and 
when  neither  sun  nor  stars  are  visible.  The 
ancients,  to  whom  it  was  unknown,  could  seldom 
venture  to  lose  sight  of  the  coast.  The  directive 
power  of  the  magnet  seems  to  have  been  unknown 
in  Europe  till  late  in  the  twelfth  century.  It 
appears,  however,  on  very  good  authority,  that 
it  was  known  in  China,  and  throughout  the  East 
generally,  at  a  very  remote  period.  The  Chinese 
annals  indeed  assign  its  discovery  to  the  year  2634 


b.c.,  when,  they  say,  an  instrument  for  indicating 
the  south  was  constructed  by  the  Emperor  Hou- 
ang-ti.  For  a  mariner’s  compass  the  needle  is 
fixed  to  a  circular  card,  on  which  there  isa  star  of 
thirty-two  rays,  marking  the  thirty-two  points  of 
the  heavens.  The  north  point  of  the  card  is 
immediately  over  the  north  end  of  the  needle,  and 
the  card  moves  with  the  needle.  The  cardinal 
points  are  marked  with  the  letters  N.,  S.,  E.,  W.; 
and  the  intermediate  points,  by  an  ingenious 
system  of  notation,  the  principle  of  which  is  read¬ 
ily  seen  by  inspection  of  the  figure. 

Compasses,  instruments  for  transferring  and 
marking  off:  distances,  or  for  drawing  circles, 
ellipses,  etc.  The  common  compasses  or  dividers 


are  simply  two  rods  or  “  legs”  joined  together  at 
one  end  by  a  pivot-joint,  and  pointed  at  the 
other;  when  used  for  drawing  circles,  the  lower 
part  of  one  of  the  legs  is  replaced  by  a  pen  or 
pencil. 

Compensation  of  Errors,  in  Physics,  a  method 
of  neutralizing  errors  which  can  not  be  avoided, 
by  introducing  ot  hers  into  the  experiment  or  obser¬ 
vation,  of  an  opposite  nature,  and  equal  in 
amount.  The  compensation  pendulum  illustrates 
the  principle. 

Competi'tion  (Lat.  a  seeking  together),  “the 
act  of  endeavoring  to  gain  what  another  endeavors 
to  gain  at  the  same  time.”  Its  most  apt  exempli¬ 
fication  is  a  race,  where  all  are  going  to  the  same 
point,  and  all  strive  to  be  first  there,  while,  though 
only  one  can  achieve  this  object,  some  others  will 
have  the  satisfaction  of  being  nearer  to  success 
than  the  competitors  who  are  behind  them. 
The  most  important  practical  use  of  the  word 
competition  is  in  the  political  economy  of  com¬ 
merce,  where  it  is  the  great  motive  power  of  pro¬ 
duction  and  enterprise.  As  an  alternative  to  com¬ 
petition  in  modern  times  cooperation  between 
producers  and  consumers  has  been  introduced,  and 
to  acertain  extent  successfully.  See  Cooperation. 

Compiegne,  a  town  in  France,  in  the  depart¬ 
ment,  of  the  Oise.  Pop.  (1881),  13,567. 

Com  'plement  is  that  which  completes  or  makes 
up  a  given  magnitude  to  some  fixed  magni¬ 
tude.  It  is  most  commonly  used  in  mathematics, 
to  signify  the  arc  or  angle  by  which  a  given  arc  or 
angle  falls  short,  of  a  quadrant  or  right  angle  : 
thus,  t  he  complement  of  an  arc  of  60°  is  one  of  30°; 
and  that  of  30”  is  one  of  60".  The  arithmetical 
complement  of  a  number  is  the  number  by  which 
it  falls  short  of  the  next  higher  number  expressi¬ 
ble  by  tens;  thus:  the  arithmetical  complement  of 
64  is  100— 64=36. 

Complement,  in  Music,  the  quantity  required 
to  be  added  to  any  interval  tocomplete  the  octave; 
for  example,  a  fourth  is  the  complement  of  a  fifth, 
a  third  is  that  of  a  sixth,  etc. 

Compos'itte  (called  by  Lindley  Asterace.e, 
and  by  some  botanists  Rynanther/E),  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  distinguished  by  com¬ 
pound  or  composite  flowers — i.  e.,  heads  of  flowers 
which  are  composed  of  a  greater  or  smaller  num¬ 
ber  of  florets  (generally  of  small  size) congregated 
upon  a  common  receptacle,  and  surrounded  by 
bracts  which  form  a  leafy  or  scaly  involucre,  so  as 
to  resemble  single  flowers,  which  name  they  ordi¬ 
narily  receive.  The  order  contains  both  herba¬ 
ceous  plants  and  shrubs;  those  which  are  natives 
of  cold  climates  being  generally  herbaceous,  and 
those  found  in  warm  regions  shrubby,  or  even 
arborescent. 

Composi  'tiou,  in  Art,  signifies  such  an  arrange¬ 
ment  of  the  separate  objects  represented  as  that 
they  shall  all  manifestly  tend  to  bring  out,  the  cen¬ 
tral  thought  or  idea  which  animates  the  whole. 

Composition,  in  Bankruptcy,  a  certain  sum 
which  creditors  agree  to  receive  from  a  bankrupt 
in  lieu  of  full  payment  of  his  debts,  and  the  accept¬ 
ance  of  which  operates  as  a  discharge  to  the  bank¬ 
rupt,  and  reinvests  him  in  his  estate. 

Compostel  'la,  Military  Order  of  St.  James 
of.  St.  James,  the  elder,  was  adopted  as  the 
Patron  Saint  of  Spain,  after  the  victory  of  Clavijo, 
and  his  relics  were  preserved  at  Compostella  and 
an  order  named  after  him  was  founded  in  1175. 

Com'posts  are  a  kind  of  manure,  consisting  of 
mixtures  of  substances  adapted  to  the  fertilization 
of  the  soil,  which  being  allowed  to  ferment,  and 
undergo  chemical  changes  for  a  considerable  time 
in  heaps,  become  more  valuable  than  they  were  at 
first,  or  ever  could  have  been  if  applied  separately. 
Composts  were  formerly  made  of  farm-yard  ma¬ 
nure,  and  earth  or  lime  in  addition.  Road- 
scrapings,  peat  moss,  leaves,  and  clearings  of 
ditches,  also  formed  materials  for  the  purpose.  By 
allowing  these  to  lie  in  heaps,  for  six  mouths,  of 
from  3  to  4  feet  in  depth,  food  was  prepared  for 
plants. 

Com  pound  Animals  are  those  animals,  ex¬ 
clusively  of  the  lowest  classes,  in  which  individu¬ 
als  distinct  as  to  many  of  the  powers  of  life,  are 
yet  united  in  some  part  of  their  frame  so  as  to 
form  one  living  system.  Examples  of  this  union 
are  found  in  many  animalcules  and  zoophytes, 
also  in  cestoid  worms  and  ascidian  mollusks. 

Compound  Common  Time,  that  species  of 


measure  containing  the  value  of  two  dotted  min¬ 
ims  in  a  bar,  or  two  dotted  crotchets. 

Compound  Interest,  See  Interest. 

Compound  Triple  Time  denotes  a  measure  of 
nine  crotchets  or  quavers  (beats)  in  a  bar. 

Compounding  of  Felony  is  the  offense  of 
taking  value  for  forbearing  to  prosecute  a  felony, 
and  is  punishable  with  fine  and  imprisonment. 

Compressed-air  Bath,  a  large  chamber  in 
which  patients  sit  under  increased  atmospheric 
pressure  for  a  greater  or  shorter  period.  An  at¬ 
tempt  at  this  kind  of  treatment  was  made  as  early 
as  1662  by  Dr.  Henshaw,  but  failed,  owing  to  the 
imperfection  of  the  apparatus.  The  apparatus,  as 
now  used,  is  the  invention  of  M.  Emile  Laburie, 
of  Paris. 

Compressed-air  Engine.  The  air  engine  is 
used  principally  in  connection  with  rock  drills  in 
mines  and  other  underground  work  where  the 
supply  of  oxygen  is  limited.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  electric  motor  will  eventually  supersede 
it.  Although  compressed  air  has  been  used  for 
working  small  engines  in  confined  situations,  it  is 
not  at  all  likely  that  it  will  ever  come  into  extensii™ 
use,  owing  to  the  great  waste  of  power  attending  it. 
This  waste  arises  from  two  causes — first,  the 
friction  due  to  forcing  the  compressed  air  along  a 
great  length  of  pipe,  and  secondly,  the  loss  from 
tlie  dissipation  of  the  great  heat  which  results 
from  its  compression.  In  boring  the  Mont  Cenis 
and  Hoosac  tunnels  compressed  air  was  used  to 
work  the  rock-drills. 

Compressible  Bodies.  All  bodies  are  com¬ 
pressible,  but  in  different  degrees.  Many  solids, 
especially  those  of  a  compact  structure,  have  this 
property  only  in  a  slight  degree.  It  was  believed 
at  one  time  that  liquids  were  incompressible; 
more  accurate  experiments,  however,  have  proved 
that  this  is  not  the  case;  water,  for  instance, 
subjected  to  a  pressure  of  15,000  lbs.  to  the 
square  inch,  loses  ,}„  of  its  volume. 

Compurga'tors  were  twelve  persons  whom 
the  law  of  our  Saxon  ancestors  permitted  the  ac¬ 
cused  to  call  in  proof  of  his  innocency,  and  who 
joined  their  oaths  to  his.  They  were  persons 
taken  from  the  neighborhood,  or  otherwise 
known  to  the  accused.  It  was  rather  in  the 
character  of  jurymen  than  of  witnesses  that  the 
compurgators  acted,  for  what  they  swore  to  was 
not  their  knowledge,  but  their  belief. 

Comte,  Auguste,  the  founder  of  the  “Positive 
Philosophy,”  was  born  at  Montpelier,  France,  in 
1795  or  1797  and  died  at  Paris,  September,  1857. 
He  published  several  works  on  his  favorite  theme, 
the  best  known  of  which  is  Cours  de  Philosophic 
Positive  (1830 — 1842;  translated  into  English,  by 
Harriet  Martineau,  2  vols.  1853). 

Comus  (from  xdjjuoi,  komos,  revel,  or  a  company 
of  revelers)  was,  in  the  later  mythology  of  the 
Greeks,  the  god  of  festive  mirth.  In  classic 
mythology  the  personification  does  not  exist. 

Concan,  a  territory  in  the  Presidency  of  Bom¬ 
bay,  lies  between  the  Arabian  Sea  and  the  water¬ 
shed  of  the  Western  Ghauts,  in  latitude  15°  44'  — 
20°  22'  N.,  and  longitude  72°  52' — 73°  45'  E.  Its 
length  is  330  miles,  and  it  varies  in  breadth  from 
25  to  50  miles. 

Con'ca  ve.  A  surface  is  said  to  be  concave  when 
lines  drawn  from  point  to  point  in  it  fall  petween 
the  surface  and  the  spectator;  and  convex,  when 
the  surface  comes  between  him  and  such  lines. 

Concealment,  in  Criminal  Law.  The  con¬ 
cealment  of  an  offender,  after  the  commission  of 
(he  crime,  with  the  view  of  shielding  him  from 
justice,  is  an  offense  which  may  be  punished 
arbitrarily;  but  concealment,  in  consequence  of 
an  agreement  before  the  crime  was  committed, 
involves  the  concealer  in  a  charge  of  complicity 
in  the  principal  crime. 

Concen  'trie.  Circles  are  concentric  when  they 
have  the  same  center,  but  radii  of  different 
lengths. 

Concepcion.  1.  A  city  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Biobio,  the  principal  river  of  the  Republic  of  Chili, 
in  latitude  36°  50 'S.  and  longitude  73°  5'W.  Pop., 
20,000.-2.  The  bay  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  which 
forms  the  harbor  of  the  city  above  mentioned.  It 
affords  good  anchorage. — 3.  The  province  of  which 
the  city  above  mentioned  is  the  capital.  Occupy¬ 
ing  the  entire  breadth  between  the  Andes  and  the 
coast,  it  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Independent 


CONCEPTION  OF  OUR  LADY. 


297 


CONE. 


Araucania,  and  contains  3,850  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1875),  151,365. 

Conception  of  Our  Lady,  an  order  of  nuns, 
founded  in  1484,  in  honor  of  the  immaculate  con¬ 
ception,  by  Beatrix  de  Sylva,  sister  of  James, 
the  first  Count  of  Poralegro,  in  Portugal  It  was 
confirmed  in  1489  by  Pope  Innocent  VIII.,  who 
granted  the  sisterhood  permission  to  follow  the 
rule  of  the  Cistercians. 

Con 'cert,  a  musical  entertainment  of  concerted 
pieces,  symphonies,  etc.,  sometimes  interspersed 
with  songs,  performed  by  an  orchestra  of  many 
instruments. 

Concerti  na,  a  musical  instrument  of  modern 
invention,  the  sounds  of  which  are  produced  by 
free  vibrating  springs  of  metal,  as  in  the  accor¬ 
dion.  The  scale  of  the  concertina  begins  with 
the  lowest  note  of  the  violin,  G,  and  ascends 
chromatically  three  and  a  half  octaves  to  C. 

Concer  to,  a  musical  composition  for  a  solo 
instrument,  with  orchestral  accompaniments,  cal¬ 
culated  to  give  the  performer  an  opportunity  to 
display  the  highest  mechanical  skill,  as  well  as 
intellectual  cultivation  in  the  art.  It  consists  of 
three  movements,  each  of  which,  like  the  whole, 
has  a  certain  character,  and,  like  the  symphony  or 
the  sonata,  requires  a  clear  development  and 
treatment  of  the  motives,  and  a  strict  adherence 
to  the  rules  of  form.  When  the  form  is  in  any 
way  abridged  it  is  then  called  a  concertino. 

Conchif'era  (Lat.  shell-bearing),  in  Lamarck’s 
arrangement  of  mollusks,  a  class  containing  those 
which  have  bivalve  shells;  Lamcllibranchiata  and 
Brachiopoda.  The  term  is  still  sometimes  used. 

Coucli'oid  of  Nicome'des,  a  curve  invented 
by  Nicomedes,  with  the  view  of  trisecting  an 
angle,  of  constructing  two  geometrical  means 
between  two  given  straight  lines,  and  of  “  doub¬ 
ling  the  cube.” 

ConchoTogy  (Gr.  novxv,  konehe,  a  shell, 
AoyoS,  logos,  a  discourse),  the  science  which 
treats  of  shells  and  of  animals  inhabiting  them. 

Conclave  (Lat.),  either  the  place  where  the  car¬ 
dinals  assemble  for  the  choice  of  a  Pope,  or  the 
assembly  itself. 

Concord,  the  capital  of  New  Hampshire — called 
Rumford  before  the  Revolution,  from  which 
Count  Rumford  took  his  title — is  on  the  Merrimac 
river,  fifty-nine  miles  northwest  of  Boston.  Pop. 
(1880),  13,836. 

Concord,  a  town  in  Middlesex  county,  Mass., 
twenty  miles  northwest  of  Boston,  is  noted  as  the 
scene  of  one  of  the  first  battles  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tionary  War. 

Con 'cord,  by  writers  on  music,  is  defined  as  the 
relation,  harmony,  or  agreement  between  two  or 
more  consonant  sounds. 

Concord  'ance,  a  book  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order  and  showing  in  how  many  passages  all,  or 
at  least  all  the  more  important,  words  in  any  work 
occur. 

Concor'dat  (Lat.  concordalum,  a  thing  agreed 
on),  although  sometimes  used  of  purely  secular 
treaties,  is  now  almost  exclusively  employed  to 
designate  a  compact  on  ecclesiastical  affairs  be¬ 
tween  the  Pope,  as  head  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  the  temporal  ruler  of  a  particular 
kingdom  or  state. 

Concordia,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Cloud 
county,  Kansas,  is  on  the  Republican  river,  in 
the  center  of  a  rich  agricultural  district,  and  is  an 
important  railway  center.  Pop.  (1885),  3,445. 

Con 'crete  (Lat.  concrescere,  to  grow  together) 
is  opposed  to  abstract.  A  concrete  notion  is  the 
notion  of  an  object  as  it  exists  in  nature,  invested 
wilhall  its  qualities,  as  any  particular  flower,  leaf, 
or  tree;  an  abstract  notion  is  the  notion  of  any 
attribute  of  that  flower,  leaf,  or  tree,  such 
as  its  color,  form,  or  height  ;  qualities  which 
may  be  thought  of  independently  of  the  objects 
in  which  they  inhere,  though  they  can  not  so  exist. 
The  abstract  method  of  handling  a  subject  is 
adapted  to. speculation  and  reasoning;  the  concrete 
to  poetic  effect  and  impressive  illustration. 

Concrete,  a  mixture  of  hydraulic  or  other  mor 
tar  with  gravel  or  shingle,  which,  on  hardening, 
forms  an  artificial  conglomerate.  The  best  con¬ 
crete  is  made  by  mixing  hydraulic  mortar  with 
sand  and  sufficient  water  for  complete  hydration, 
and  then  adding  the  shingle  or  screened  ballast, 
and  then  mixing  them  well  together.  An  infe¬ 
rior  concrete  may  be  made  by  laying  the  shingle 


into  the  foundation  or  other  place  where  the  con¬ 
crete  is  required,  and  then  pouring  mortar  upon 
it  to  fill  the  interstices  bet  ween  the  pebbles. 

Coucre'tion,  in  Medicine,  a  formation  of 
solid,  unorganized  masses  within  the  body,  either 
by  chemical  precipitation  from  the  fluids,  or  by 
the  accidental  aggregation  of  solids  introduced 
into  the  system  from  without  .  In  the  former  case, 
a  concretion  is  termed  a  calculus;  in  the  latter, 
the  concretion  may  be  either  wholly  composed  of 
solids  foreign  to  the  body,  or  these  may  be 
mingled  with  the  elements  of  the  secretions,  as 
with  mucus,  or  calcareous  matter.  Thus  beans, 
peas,  needles,  etc.,  introduced  into  the  cavities  of 
the  body,  have  become  the  nuclei  of  concretions, 
by  attracting  around  them  mucus,  or  crystalline 
deposits  from  the  urine.  The  most  remarkable 
forms  of  concretion,  however,  are  perhaps  those 
formed  in  the  stomach  and  intestines  of  man  and 
the  lower  animals,  from  the  more  solid  and  indi¬ 
gestible  parts  of  the  food,  or  of  substances 
improperly  swallowed. 

Concu' (linage.  The  earliest  Roman  laws  were 
distinguished  for  the  strictness  with  which  they 
treated  marriage.  They  not  only  upheld 
thoroughly  the  principle  of  monogamy,  but  they 
fettered  marriage  itself  with  many  burdensome 
forms.  Hence  arose  the  practice  of  a  free  unmar¬ 
ried  man  entering  into  a  less  strict  relation  with  a 
single  woman — a  sort  of  permanent  cohabitation. 
The  offspring  of  such  a  connection,  called  nat¬ 
ural  children,  had  not  the  rights  of  legitimate 
children,  but  they  were  recognized  by  the  father. 

Concur'rent  Jurisdic'tion.  Jurisdiction  is 
said  to  be  concurrent,  or  cumulative,  when  it  may 
be  exercised  in  the  same  cause  by  any  one  of  two 
or  more  courts. 

Conde,  a  French  family  which  takes  its  name 
from  the  town  of  Condd,  in  the  department  of 
Nord. 

Condd,  Louis  de  Bourbon,  Prince  de,  born 
May  7,  1530.  He  engaged  in  an  armed  rebellion 
against  his  sovereign,  was  captured,  released,  and 
again  took  up  arms;  was  captured  a  second  time, 
and  on  March  13, 1569,  was  murdered  by  a  guard. 

Conde,  Louis  II.  of  Bourbon,  Prince  of, 
“  the  Great  Conde,”  was  the  great-grandson  of 
the  preceding,  and  was  born  Sept.  8,  1621.  He 
commanded  the  army  against  the  Spaniards  in 
the  Netherlands,  where  he  almost  extirpated  the 
foe  in  the  Battle  of  Rocroi,  May  19,  1643.  At  the 
head  of  troops  collected  in  the  Netherlands,  he 
gained  the  Battle  of  Bleneau,  in  April,  1652,  and 
immediately  marched  upon  Paris.  A  bloody 
struggle  took  place  in  the  street  s  of  Paris.  Many 
of  Conde’s  ablest  adherents  were  killed,  and  he 
had  to  make  peace.  He  afterward  joined  the 
Spanish  forces  and  fought  against  his  native 
country,  but  was  pardoned  and  died  in  1686. 

Conde,  LouisHenry  Josefh(1756-1830),  Duke 
of  Bourbon,  and  last  Prince  of  Conde,  was  the 
son  of  Louis  Joseph,  Prince  of  Condfi.  He  died 
in  1830. 

Condenser,  a  part  of  the  compound  steam-en¬ 
gine,  in  which,  by  condensation  of  the  steam 
already  used  under  pressure,  a  partial  vacuum  is 
formed,  which  enables  the  resistance  of  the  at¬ 
mosphere  to  be  decreased.  Supposing  the  mean 
steam  pressure  in  the  cylinder  to  be  sixty  pounds, 
and  the  atmospheric  resistance  to  be  fifteen 
pounds,  it  is  obvious  that  the  effective  steam 
pressure  is  but  forty  five  pounds.  By  interpos¬ 
ing  the  condenser,  the  resistance  is  reduced  to 
four  or  five  pounds  (ten  or  eleven  pounds  below 
atmospheric  pressure),  and  the  effective  pressure 
isthus  increased  to  forty-nine  or  fifty  pounds.  In 
its  general  meaning  the  term  condenser  is  given 
to  many  appliances  of  similar  application. 

Condi 'tion,  in  Logic,  denotes  that  which  must 
precede  the  operation  of  a  cause.  It  is  not 
regarded  as  that  which  produces  an  effect,  but  as 
that  which  renders  the  production  of  one  possible. 

Condor  (Sarcorhamphus  grgphus),  a  vulture, 
and  the  largest  of  existing  birds.  It  usually 
measures  about  4  feet  from  the  point  of  the 
beak  to  the  extremity  of  the  tail,  and  9  feet  be¬ 
tween  the  tips  of  its  wings,  while  it  is  probable 
that  the  expanse  of  wing  never  exceeds  12  feet. 
The  head  and  neck  are  destitute  of  feathers,  and 
the  former,  which  is  much  flattened  above,  is  in 
the  male  crowned  with  a  caruncle,  or  comb,  while 
the  skin  of  the  latter  in  the  same  sex  lies  in  folds, 


forming  a  wattle,  dilatable  at  pleasure.  The 
condor  is  a  native  of  South  America,  where  it  is 
confined  to  the  region  of  the  Andes,  from  the 
Straits  of  Magellan  to  4s  N.  latitude.  It  is  often 
seen  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  especially  during 
the  rainy  season,  but  its  favorite  haunts  for  roost¬ 
ing  and  breeding  are  at  elevations  of  from  10,000 


Condor. 


to  16,000  feet.  It  deposits  two  white  eggs,  from 
three  to  four  inches  in  length,  its  nest  consisting 
merely  of  a  few  sticks  placed  around  the  eggs. 
By  preference  the  condor  feeds  on  carrion,  but  it 
does  not  hesitate  to  attack  sheep,  goats,  and  deer. 

Coinlorcet,  Jean  Antoine  Nicolas  de  Cari- 
tat,  Marquis  de,  French  author,  born  Sept.  17, 
1743.  At  the  Revolution  he  was  elected  member 
for  Paris  in  the  Legislative  Assembly,  of  which 
he  was  President  in  1792.  Accused,  in  October, 
1793,  he  concealed  himself,  and  consequently  was 
outlawed.  He  was  captured,  and  poisoned  him¬ 
self  April  9,  1794. 

Condott'ie'ri,  the  name  given  in  the  fourteenth 
century  to  the  leaders  of  certain  bands  of  mili¬ 
tary  adventurers  who,  for  booty,  offered  their  ser¬ 
vices  to  any  party  in  any  contest,  and  often  prac¬ 
ticed  warfare  on  their  own  account  purely  for  the 
sake  of  plunder. 

Conduct 'or,  on  American  railways,  an  officer 
who  has  charge  of  the  train,  collects  fares,  gives 
orders  for  stopping  and  starting,  looks  after  the 
welfare  of  passengers,  and  occupies  a  position 
somewhat  analogous  to  the  guard  on  European 
trains. 

Conductors  and  Non-Conductors  of  Elec¬ 
tricity.  If  a  rod  of  metal  be  made  to  touch  the 
prime  conductor  of  an  electrical  machine  immedi¬ 
ately  after  the  plate  has  ceased  to  rotate,  every 
trace  of  electricity  immediately  disappears.  But 
if  the  rod  were  of  shellac,  little  or  no  diminution 
would  be  perceptible  in  the  electrical  excitement 
of  the  conductor.  The  metal  in  this  case  leads 
away  the  electricity  into  the  body  of  the  experi¬ 
menter,  and  thence  into  the  ground,  where  it 
becomes  lost,  and  it  receives  in  consequence  the 
name  of  a  conductor.  The  shellac,  for  the  oppo¬ 
site  reason,  is  called  a  non  conductor.  Different 
substances  are  found  to  possess  the  power  of  con¬ 
ducting  electricity  in  very  different  degrees  The 
following  series  classifies  the  more  common  sub¬ 
stances  according  to  their  conducting  powers, 
beginning  with  the  best,  and  ending  with  the 
worst  conductors.  Conductors  —  The  metals, 
graphite,  sea-water,  spring-water,  rain-water. 
Semi-conductors — Alcohol  and  ether,  dry  wood, 
marble,  paper,  straw,  ice  at  32°  F.  Non-conduct¬ 
ors — Dry  metallic  oxides,  fatty  oils,  ice  at  13°  F., 
phosphorus,  lime,  chalk,  caoutchouc,  camphor, 
porcelain,  leather,  dry  paper,  feathers,  hair,  wool, 
silk,  gems,  glass,  agate,  wax,  sulphur,  resin, 
amber,  shellac.  See  Electricity. 

Cone.  There  are  various  kinds  of  cones,  but 
the  term  is  usually  applied  only  to  those  having 
circular  bases.  The  most  common  kind  of  circu¬ 
lar  cone  is  the  right  cone,  which  may  be  con¬ 
ceived  as  being  generated  by  the  revolution  of  a 
right-angled  triangle  round  one  of  its  legs.  The 
line  from  the  apex  of  a  cone  to  the  center  of  the 
base  is  called  the  axis,  and,  in  the  right  cone,  it  is 


CONE-SIIELL. 


298 


CONFIRMATION. 


Cone-shell. 


perpendicular  to  the  base.  In  the  oblique  cone, 
the  axis  is  inclined  to  the  plane  of  the  base  at  an 
angle  other  than  a  right  angle.  A  truncated  cone 
is  the  lower  part  of  a  cone  cut  by  a  plane  parallel 
to  the  base. — Four  curves,  called  the  conic  sec¬ 
tions,  may  be  formed  by  cutting  the  right  cone  in 
different  directions. 

Cone- shell  {Coitus  and 
Conidai),  a  genus  and  family 
of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  of 
the  order  Pectinibranchiata, 
having  a  shell  of  remarkably 
regular  conical  form. 

Coney  Island,  a  watering- 
place  on  Long  Island,  a  very 
popular  resort  for  New  York¬ 
ers  in  the  summer.  Brighton 
and  Manhattan  Beaches  are 
known  for  their  immense 
hotels,  and  for  the  races  and 
other  entertainments  given 
there  during  the  season. 

Confectionery,  a  term  of 
rather  vague  application,  but  which  may  be  held 
to  embrace  all  preparations  which  have  sugar  for 
their  basis  or  principal  ingredient. 

Confarrea' lion  was  a  peculiar  mode  of  mar¬ 
riage  in  use  among  the  Romans,  and  supposed  to 
have  been  originally  that  practiced  by  the  patri¬ 
cians.  Its  specialty  consisted  in  the  employment 
of  certain  words  in  the  presence  of  ten  witnesses, 
and  in  the  performance  of  a  religious  ceremony  in 
which  panis  farreus  (bread  made  of  spelt)  was 
used. 

Confederate  States,  The  “Confederate  States 
of  America,”  although  a  misnomer,  is  the  title 
popularly  given  to  the  quasi-political  organi¬ 
zation  which,  from  early  in  1 861  until  April, 
1865,  maintained  an  armed  rebellion  against  the 
United  States.  In  1801  several  of  the  United 
States  armed  against  the  General  Government, 
maintained  armies  in  the  field  and  privateers  on 
the  sea,  obtained  partial  recognition  from  cer¬ 
tain  European  Governments;  and  the  armed 
bodies  thus  set  in  motion  were,  at  great  cost  of 
blood  and  treasure,  finally  subdued,  peace  and 
order  restored,  and  the  recognized  machinery  of 
Government  again  set  in  motion.  Of  the  military 
features  which  distinguished  this  interregnum, 
the  reader  will  find  details  under  the  headings  of 
the  various  battles.  In  this  place  we  design  to 
speak  onl}'  of  the  manner  in  which  the  rebellious 
movement  was  inaugurated,  and  of  the  semblance 
of  Government  maintained.  When  in  November, 
1860,  Mr.  Lincoln  was  elected  President,  the 
Legislature  of  South  Carolina,  in  session  to 
choose  Presidential  electors,  called  a  State  Conven¬ 
tion.  On  Dec.  20,  1860,  that  body  unanimously 
adopted  an  ordinance  repealing  the  ratification  by 
South  Carolina  of  the  Constitution  of  1788,  and 
in  its  own  words  “dissolving  the  union  between 
the  State  of  South  Carolina  and  other  States 
under  the  name  of  the  United  States  of  Amer¬ 
ica.”  Similar  ordinances  were  passed  by  State 
Conventions  in  Mississippi,  Jan.  9,  1861;  Florida, 
January  10th;  Alabama,  January  11th;  Georgia, 
January  19th ;  Louisiana,  January  25th  and  Texas, 
February  1st.  These  ordinances  of  secession 
were  not  submitted  to  the  people  for  ratifi¬ 
cation,  except  in  the  case  of  Texas.  Seven 
States  having  thus  irregularly  constituted  them¬ 
selves  separate  commonwealths,  each  elected 
delegates  to  a  Congress  which  began  its  sessions 
at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  February  4th.  A  provis¬ 
ional  Constitution,  being  that,  of  the  United  States 
with  some  notable  changes,  was  adopted,  but 
was  superseded  by  a  permanent  one  on  March 
11th.  This  Constitution  asserted  the  sovereignty 
and  independence  of  each  State,  prohibited 
protection,  recognized  slavery,  provided  for 
a  President  and  Vice-President,  with  a  term  of 
six  years,  and  in  most  other  details  closely  fol¬ 
lowed  the  lines  of  the  United  States  Constitution 
of  1789.  Meantime,  the  delegates  of  six  States 
(those  from  Texas  not  being  present)  had  elected 
Jefferson  Davis,  of  Mississippi,  President,  and 
Alex.  H.  Stephens,  of  Georgia,  Vice-President, 
of  what  was  termed  the  Confederate  States.  Acts 
of  rebellion  occurred  in  most  States  south  of 
Mason  and  Dixon's  line;  forts,  arsenals,  navy- 
yards  and  custom-Houses  were  seized  by  mobs  or 
by  the  newly-constituted  authority,  and  Federal 


soldiers  were  captured  and  sent  North.  When  on 
March  4, 1861,  Abraham  Lincoln  was  inaugurated 
the  sole  semblance  of  Federal  authority  in  t  lie  se¬ 
ceding  States  was  to  be  found  at  Fort  Pickens, 
Fla.,  and  Fort  Sumter,  S.  C.  On  April  12th-14th 
the  Carolinian  troops  fired  on  Sumter,  thus 
beginning  the  war.  Next  day  President  Lincoln, 
by  proclamation,  announced  the  existence  of 
an  armed  rebellion  and  called  for  75,000  vol¬ 
unteers  to  suppress  it.  A  convention  in  Vir¬ 
ginia  passed  an  ordinance  of  secession  April  17th; 
Arkansas  did  the  same  May  6th;  North  Carolina, 
May  21st;  Missouri,  Kentucky,  Maryland,  and  Del¬ 
aware  did  not  secede  either  by  action  of  conven¬ 
tions  or  popular  vote,  but  in  the  two  first  some 
sections  went  with  the  South  and  a  border  war 
began.  Forty  counties  in  the  western  part  of 
Virginia  repudiated  the  ordinance  of  secession, 
held  a  convention  at  Wheeling  June  1 1  th,  and  pro¬ 
claimed  themselves  a  new  State,  which  was  ad¬ 
mitted  to  the  Union,  under  the  name  of  West 
Virginia,  June  19,  1863.  The  war,  which  began 
with  the  firing  on  Sumter,  in  April,  1861,  practi¬ 
cally  ending  at  Appomattox  Court  House,  Va., 
four  years  later,  cost  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
lives  and  thousands  of  millions  of  treasure.  As 
to  the  political,  financial,  and  diplomatic  history 
of  the  Confederacy,  it  was  characterized  by  fail¬ 
ure  on  all  hands.  The  first  election  of  President 
and  Congressmen  under  the  new  Constitution 
was  held  Nov.  6,  1861.  Davis  and  Stephens 
were  chosen  to  the  respective  offices  then  held  by 
them  for  a  term  intended  to  run  to  February, 
1868.  The  provisional  Congress  gave  way  to  a 
permanent  Congress,  in  which  thirteen  States 
were  represented.  Stephens  presided  over  the 
Senate,  which  numbered  26  members,  and  Thos. 
S.  Bocock,  of  Virginia,  wasSpeakerof  the  House, 
which  had  106  members.  The  representation  in 
the  House  was  as  follows:  Alabama,  9;  Arkan¬ 
sas,  4;  Florida,  2;  Missouri,  7;  North  Carolina, 
10;  South  Carolina,  6;  Georgia,  10;  Kentucky, 
12;  Texas,  6;  Virginia,  16;  Mississippi,  7;  Lou¬ 
isiana,  6;  and  Tennessee,  11  =  106.  Of  these,  the 
delegation  from  Missouri  and  Kentucky  were 
fictitious.  The  provisional  Congress  held  four 
sessions  and  finally  adjourned  Feb.  17, 1862.  The 
first.  Congress  held  four  sessions,  adjourning  finally 
Feb.  18,  1864.  Thesecond  Congress  sat  from  May 
2  to  June  15, 1864,  and  from  Nov.  7, 1864,  to  March, 
1865.  The  seat  of  Government  was  changed  from 
Montgomery  to  Richmond,  Va.,  early  in  1862. 
Of  Davis’  cabinets,  provisional  and  permanent, 
the  following  were  members;  State  Department — 
Robert  Toombs,  of  Georgia,  Feb.  21,  1861;  IL 
M.  T.  Hunter,  of  Virginia,  July  30,  1*61;  Judah 
P.  Benjamin,  of  Louisiana,  Feb.  7,  1862.  Treas¬ 
ury — Chas.  G.  Memminger,  South  Carolina,  Feb. 
21,  1861;  Jas.  L.  Trenholm,  South  Carolina,  June 
13,  1864.  War— L.  P.  Walker,  Mississippi,  Feb. 
21,  1861;  J.  P.  Benjamin,  Nov.  10,  1861;  Jas.  A. 
Seddon,  Virginia,  March  22,  1862;  Jno.  C.  Breck- 
enridge,  Kentucky,  Feb.  15,  1865.  Navy — 
Stephen  II.  Mallory,  Florida,  March  4,  1861. 
Attorney-General — J.  P.  Benjamin,  Felt.  21, 1861; 
Thos.  H.  Watts,  Alabama,  Sept.  10,  1861;  Geo. 
Davis,  North  Carolina,  Nov.  10,  1863.  Postmas¬ 
ter-General — Henry  J.  Ellet,  Mississippi,  Feb.  21, 
1861 ;  John  II.  Reagan,  Texas,  March  6, 1861.  The 
dates  given  are  those  of  the  respective  appoint¬ 
ments.  The  South  had  the  advantage  of  able 
leaders  in  t  lie  field;  the  disadvantage  of  over  rated 
and  incompetent  men  of  affairs.  Its  Congress 
met  principally  in  secret,  and  itsactual  government 
was  an  ill-balanced  military  despotism.  From 
almost  the  beginning  the  blockade,  which  de¬ 
stroyed  at  once  all  legitimate  foreign  commerce, 
pressed  with  iron  heel  upon  the  isolated  South. 
Its  financial  difficulties  began  with  its  conception, 
increased  with  its  adolescence,  and  culminated 
with  its  military  downfall.  Its  paper  currency, 
based  on  cotton  which  could  not  be  sold,  became 
utterly  worthless  long  before  the  close  of  the 
struggle.  Its  diplomatic  transactions  were  a  fail¬ 
ure  from  the  beginning.  So,  too,  with  the  attempt 
to  raise  a  navy.  The  piratical  Alabama  and  her 
congeners  destroyed  many  Northern  merchant¬ 
men,  and  were  the  means  of  diverting  much  trade 
into  neutral  bottoms,  and  the  Confederacy  achieved 
little  success  at  sea.  When  the  war  ended,  the 
States  which  had  been  in  rebellion  laid  down 
their  arms,  order  was  restored,  and  in  a  compara¬ 


tively  short  period  the  traces  of  the  struggle  were 
obliterated.  The  institution  of  human  slavery 
was  doomed  when  the  first  gun  was  fired  at  Sum¬ 
ter,  and  with  this  disturbing  element  removed 
the  interests  of  North  and  Souili  are  bound  to¬ 
gether  closer  than  ever  before.  The  interests  of 
all  sections  are  now  identical,  and  the  men  who 
fought  for  secession  recognize  and  acknowledge 
the  benefits  which  have  followed  the  downfall  of 
disuionism. 

Confederation  of  tlie  Rhine.  During  the  war 
of  1805  several  German  princes,  too  weak  to  re¬ 
main  neutral,  were  forced  to  ally  themselves  with 
France.  The  first  to  do  so  were  the  electors  of 
Bavaria  and  Wurtemberg,  who,  in  recompense  of 
their  services,  were  elevated  to  the  dignity  of 
kings  by  the  Peace  of  Presburg,  Dec.  26,  1805. 
Some  months  after  (May  28,  1806)  the  Arch- 
Chancellor  of  tlie  Empire  announced  at  the  Diet 
that  he  had  chosen  as  his  coadjutor  and  succes¬ 
sor  Cardinal  Fesch,  the  uncle  of  Napoleon,  a 
thing  entirely  contrary  to  the  constitution  of  the 
Germanic  Empire.  Finally,  at  Paris,  on  July  12, 
1806,  sixteen  German  princes  formally  signed  an 
act  of  confederation,  dissolving  their  connection 
with  the  Germanic  Empire,  and  allying  them¬ 
selves  with  France.  These  sixteen  princes  were 
— the  Kings  of  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg,  the 
Arch-Chancellor,  the  Elector  of  Baden,  the  new 
Duke  of  Cleves  and  Berg  (Joachim  Murat),  the 
Landgraf  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  the  Princes  of 
Nassau-Usingen,  Nassau-Weilburg,  Holienzol- 
lern-Hechingen,Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen,Salm- 
S.dm,  Salm-Kyrburg,  the  Duke  of  Arenberg, 
the  Princes  of  Isenburg-Birstein  and  Lichten¬ 
stein,  and  the  Count  of  Leyeu.  During  the 
years  1806-1808,  several  other  petty  German 
sovereigns,  alarmed  at  the  triumphs  of  Napoleon, 
hastened  to  enroll  themselves  members  of  this 
league;  and  at  the  close  of  1808  it  embraced  a 
territory  of  122,236square  miles,  contained  a  pop. 
of  14,608,877  souls,  and  kept  up  an  army  of  119,- 
180  men.  The  utter  ruin  which  overtook  the 
French  army  in  the  Russian  campaign  acted  like 
a  solvent  on  the  Confederation,  and  tlie  year  1813 
saw  it  vanish  like  mist  in  the  sudden  outburst  of 
German  patriotism. 

Confession  is  the  verbid  acknowledgment  of 
sin.  Among  the  Jews  it  was  the  custom,  on  the 
annual  feast  of  expiation,  for  the  High  Priest  to 
make  confession  of  sins  to  God  in  the  name  of 
the  whole  people.  In  the  Christian  Church  public 
offenders  were  from  an  early  period  put  to  open 
penance.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  confes¬ 
sion,  in  order  to  be  fruitful,  must  be  accompanied 
by  contrition  and  a  purpose  of  amendment.  It 
commonly  embraces  the  sins  committed  since  the 
last  confession,  but  may  include  a  longer  period, 
and  even  the  entire  life.  Confession  is  prescribed 
in  the  ritual  of  the  Greek,  the  Russo-Greek,  the 
Coptic,  the  Syrian,  and  the  other  Oriental 
churches.  The  Lutheran  Church  professes  (ac¬ 
cording  to  the  11th  Art.  of  the  Augsburg  Confes¬ 
sion)  “  that  private  confession  must  lie  retained  in 
the  church;  but  that  full  and  particular  statement 
of  all  sins  is  not  necessary.”  The  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land  employs  a  general  form  of  confession  and 
absolution  in  its  morning  and  evening  .services, 
but  retains  private  confession  in  the  rubric  for 
visitation  of  the  sick.  The  Scotch  churches  do 
not  recognize  it  at  all. — Confession,  in  Law,  is 
the  admission  of  his  guilt  by  an  accused  person. 

Confession,  Judgment  by,  is  judgment  against 
a  defendant  on  his  confessing  both  the  facts  and 
law  alleged  by  the  plaintiff.  An  agreement  to 
confess  judgment  in  case  of  default  in  payment 
is  a  common  mode  of  securing  money  on  loan, 
but  is  subject  to  strict  technical  regulations. 

Confes’sional,  the  seat  or  recess  in  which  the 
priest  sits  to  hear  confession  in  a  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 

Confirmation,  a  Latin  word  which  signifies 
strengthening.  In  the  ancient  church,  the  rite 
so  named  was  administered  immediately  after 
baptism,  if  the  bishop  happened  to  be  present  at 
the  solemnity,  which  is  still  the  custom  in  the 
Greek  and  African  churches.  In  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  for  the  last  300  or  400  years, 
the  bishops  have  interposed  a  delay  of  seven  years 
after  infant  baptism;  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  the 
rite  is  usually  delayed  for  from  thirteen  to  sixteen 
years;  and  in  the  English  Church,  from  fourteen 


CONFISCATION. 


299 


CONNECTICUT. 


to  eighteen  years.  There  is,  however,  in  the  lat¬ 
ter  church  no  limit  to  the  period.  The  ceremony 
consists  in  the  imposition  of  hands  by  the  bishop, 
accompanied  by  an  invocation  of  the  Iloly  Ghost 
as  the  Comforter  and  Strengtliener.  But  both  in 
the  Lutheran  and  English  Churches,  the  cere¬ 
mony  is  made  the  occasion  of  requiring  from 
those  who  have  been  baptized  in  infancy,  a  re¬ 
newal  in  their  own  persons  of  the  baptismal  vow 
made  for  them  by  their  godfathers  and  god¬ 
mothers,  who  are  thereby  released  from  their  re¬ 
sponsibility. 

Conftsea'tion,  forfeiture  of  lands  or  goods  to 
the  Government;  as  part  of  the  punishment  for 
certain  crimes. 

Confu'cius,  a  Chinese  sage,  born  June  19,  551 
b.c.  His  own  name  was  Kong,  but  his  disciples 
called  him  Kong-fu-tse  (i.  e.,  Kong,  the  Master  or 
Teacher),  which  the  Jesuit  missionaries  Latinized 
into  Confucius.  Confucius  traveled  throughout 
the  country,  preaching  his  system  of  morals,  for  it 
is  in  no  sense  a  religion,  and  died  in  479  b.c. 

Cou'ger,  or  Con'ger-Eel  {Conger),  a  genus  of 
marine  fishes  of  the  eel  family  ( Murcenidaf),  having 
the  tail  more  elongated  and  pointed  than  the 
fresh  water  eels,  the  dorsal  fin  commencing  much 


Conger-Eel. 


nearer  the  head,  and  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw, 
although  slender,  placed  so  close  together  as  to 
form  a  cutting  edge.  The  species  are  not  numer 
ous.  Its  form  much  resembles  that  of  a  fresh¬ 
water  eel;  its  color  is  brown  above,  passing  into 
dull  white  beneath,  the  fins  whitish,  edged  with 
black,  and  the  lateral  line  almost  white.  It  at¬ 
tains  a  large  size,  often  5  or  (5  feet  long,  some¬ 
times  10  feet,  and  18  inches  in  circumference, 
weighing  more  than  100  pounds. 

Conges'tion  of  Blood,  also  called  Fullness  of 
Blood,  Vascular  Turgescence,  Hypersemia  (vrep, 
hyper,  excess;  aijua,  aima,  blood),  is  described  as 
being  either  active  or  passive.  Active  congestions 
are  always  parts  of  a  morbid  process,  such  as 
inflammation,  tumor,  or  softening  of  texture; 
while  passive  congestions  are  almost  always  deter¬ 
mined  by  some  mechanical  cause  of  obstructed  or 
retarded  circulation. 

Conglomerate,  or  Plumpud  'ding-stone,  a 
rock  consisting  of  round,  water-worn  pebbles,  com¬ 
pacted  together  into  stone.  These  pebbles  consist 
of  portions  of  hard  rock,  frequently  of  quartz. 
They  can  sometimes  be  traced  to  their  parent 
rock. 

Con'go,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  name, 
includes  all  the  countries  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  lying  between  the  equator  and  latitude  18° 
S. ;  but  more  definitely  the  name  is  given  to  the 
territory  lying  between  the  Rivers  Dando  and 
Congo,  or  Zaire.  At  its  mouth,  on  the  Atlantic 
seaboard,  the  Congo  is  nearly  10  miles  wide  and 
over  160  fathoms  in  depth.  Its  upper  course 
remained  unknown  till  Mr.  Stanley  identified  the 
Congo  with  the  Lualaba,  and  so  connected  it 
immediately  with  the  great  system pf  lakes  south 
and  west  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  and  less  directly 
with  Tanganyika  itself.  The  former  chain  of 
lakes,  examined  by  Livingstone  in  the  hope  that 
here  he  might  finally  fix  the  sources  of  the  Nile, 
were  long  suspected  to  drain  toward  the  Congo — 
a  suspicion  confirmed  by  Cameron.  But  Dir. 
Stanley  and  his  followers,  striking  the  Lualaba 
(known  higher  up  as  Chambezi  and  Luapula)  at 
Nyangwe  in  November,  1876,  followed  its  course 
persistently  in  the  face  of  enormous  difficulties, 


fighting  no  less  than  thirty-two  battles;  till  in 
August,  1877,  he  found  it,  after  “changing  its 
name  scores  of  times,”  reach  the  Atlantic  as 
Congo,  Kwango,  and  Zaire.  From  the  Cliibale 
Mountains  to  its  mouth  it  has  a  length  of  2,900 
miles,  and  is  said  by  Stanley  to  drain  an  area  of 
1,300,000  square  miles.  It  brings  down  a  volume 
of  water  exceeded  only  by  the  Amazon.  After 
1878,  Mr.  Stanley,  as  representative  of  the  Inter¬ 
national  African  Association,  under  the  presi¬ 
dency  of  the  King  of  the  Belgians,  proceeded  to 
open  up  the  Congo  to  commerce  and  civilization; 
and  by  1884  had  established  thirty  stations  on  the 
river,  had  made  roads  at  Yellala,  and  launched 
steamers.  The  Congo  Free  State  was  organized 
in  1884. 

Congregation  (Lat.  con,  together;  grex,  a 
flock),  an  assembly,  generally  a  religious  assem¬ 
bly;  in  its  most  ordinary  use,  an  assembly  of 
Christians  met  in  one  place  for  worship. 

Con'grcss,  an  assembly  either  of  sovereign 
princes,  or  of  the  delegated  representatives  of 
sovereign  States,  for  the  purpose  of  considering 
matters  of  international  interest.  (See  United 
States.) 

Congreve,  Richard,  an  English  essayist;  born 
Sept.  4,  1818.  Is  well-known  by  his  writings  on 
positive  philosophy  and  religion. 

Congreve,  Sir  William,  Bart.  (1772-1828), 
the  inventor  of  the  Congreve  rocket,  procured  a 
commission  in  the  artillery,  became  Lieutenant- 
General,  and  assisted  the  Duke  of  York  in  the 
changes  introduced  by  him  into  the  management 
of  the  army. 

Congreve,  William,  an  English  dramatist, 
born  about  1672.  He  produced  a  number  of 
successful  plays,  and  held  various  public  offices. 
He  died  Jan.  19,  1729. 

Conic  Sections.  A  conic  section  is  the  curve 
in  which  a  plane  cuts  a  cone,  which  is  defined  in 
Euclid’s  Elements  as  a  “solid  figure  described  by 
the  revolution  of  a  right-angled  triangle  about 
one  of  the  sides  containing  the  right  angle,  which 
side  remains  fixed.” 

Couif'era;  (Lat.  cone-bearers),  an  important 
nat  ural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  containing  the 
pines,  firs,  juniper,  yew,  etc. 

Coniros'tres,  a  tribe  or  section  of  the  order  of 
birds  called  I  uses  sores,  and  characterized  by  a 
strong  conical  bill,  without  notches.  Among 
them  are  finches,  sparrows,  buntings,  linnets, 
larks,  plantain-eaters,  colies,  crows,  birds  of 
paradise,  starlings,  and  even  liornbills. 

Conjuga'tion  (Lat.  a  connecting  or  yoking 
together),  a  term  in  grammar  applied  to  a  con¬ 
nected  view  or  statement  of  the  changes  of  form 
that  a  verb  undergoes  in  its  various  relations. 
The  forms  usually  included  under  this  term  are 
those  that  serve  to  mark:  1.  Person,  or  the  dis¬ 
tinction  between  the  speaker,  the  spoken-to,  and 
the  spoken-about;  as,  (I)  write,  (thou)  writest,  (he) 
writes.  2.  Number;  as  (John)  writes,  (they) 
write.  3.  Tense,  or  time;  as  (I)  write,  wrote, 
have  written,  will  write  4.  Mood,  or  the  man¬ 
ner  in  which  the  action  is  presented.  When  the 
action  is  simply  asserted,  it  is  the  indicative 
mood,  as  (he)  wrote;  when  put  as  a  supposition 
or  condition,  it  is  the  conditional  (subjunctive) 
mood,  as,  if  he  wrote.  The  potential  mood  ex¬ 
presses  the  power  of  doing  the  action,  as,  he  can 
write;  and  the  imperative  commands  the  doing 
of  it — (you)  write.  The  infinitive  mood  expresses 
the  action  without  limitation  of  any  kind — to 
write;  as  it  makes  no  affirmation,  it  is,  strictly 
speaking,  not  a  verb,  but  a  kind  of  abstract  noun. 
The  two  participles,  the  one  expressing  the  action 
as  in  progress  (writing),  the  other  as  completed 
(written),  may  be  classed  with  the  infinitive,  as  not 
affirming  anything.  In  opposition  to  the  infinitive 
and  the  participles,  the  other  parts  of  the  verb  are 
called  finite.  5.  Voice,  or  the  distinction  be¬ 
tween  active  and  passive  subject,  as— -active,  (he) 
wrote  (the  letter);  passive,  (the  letter)  was  written 
(by  him). 

Conjugation  of  Cells,  a  union  of  two  distinct 
cells  of  a  plant  in  order  to  reproduction.  It  has 
been  observed  only  in  the  Confervacem  and  THatom- 
acece.  Two  cells  come  in  contact,  as  by  two 
filaments  of  a  Conferva  being  brought  together, 
and  little  projections  are  formed  from  each,  the 
points  of  which  are  absorbed,  and  thus  a  tube  is 
formed  through  which  one  of  the  cells  empties 


itself  into  the  other.  The  latter  then  becomes  a 
mother-cell,  and  produces  spores. 

Coujunc'tion,  in  Astronomy,  is  one  of  the 
aspects  of  the  planets.  Two  heavenly  bodies  are 
in  conjunction  wdien  they  have  the  same  longi¬ 
tude — that  is,  when  the  same  perpendicular  to 
the  ecliptic  passes  through  both.  If  they  have, 
at  the  same  time,  the  same  latitude — that  is,  if 
they  are  both  equally  far  north  or  south  of  the 
ecliptic — they  appear  from  the  earth  to  be  in  the 
same  spot  of  the  heavens,  and  to  cover  one 
another.  The  sun  and  moon  are  in  conjunction 
at  the  period  of  new  moon. 

Conjunctions,  one  of  the  “parts  of  speech,” 
or  classes,  into  which  grammarians  divide  words. 
Conjunctions  serve  the  purpose  of  connecting 
sentences,  parts  of  sentences,  and  single  words; 
as,  “Day  ends,  and  night  begins.  William  and 
John  learn  Latin.  Charles  and  James  carried  the 
basket  between  them.”  In  the  first  sentence,  and 
connects  two  separate  affirmations  into  one  com¬ 
pound  sentence.  The  same  is  true  in  the  second 
—  the  separate  affirmations  being,  “William 
learns  Latin,”  and  “  John  learns  Latin.”  In  the 
third  sentence,  and  connects  only  the  two  words, 
“Charles”  and  “James,”  as  it  can  not  be  affirmed 
of  either  of  them  alone  that  he  “carried  the  bas¬ 
ket.”  In  most  cases,  however,  it  can  be  shown 
that,  logically  at  least,  two  affirmations  are  in¬ 
volved,  and  that  the  conjunction  really  connects 
the  affirmations. 

Conkling,  Roscoe,  born  at.  Albany,  N.Y.,  Oct. 
30, 1829.  He  served  in  Congress  from  1858  to  1862. 
In  1864  he  was  again  elected  to  the  Lower  House, 
and  reelected  in  1866,  but  the  following  year  was 
sent  to  the  Senate.  In  1876  he  was  a  prominent 
candidate  for  the  Republican  nomination  for  Pres¬ 
ident,  but  was  defeated.  In  1880  he  nominated 
General  Grant  at  the  Chicago  convention,  and  took 
a  leading  part  in  the  historic  struggle  which  fol¬ 
lowed.  Defeated  on  this  point,  he  was  conceded 
the  selection  of  Vice-President,  and  named  Chester 
A.  Arthur,  of  New  York,  for  the  place.  When 
Garfield  became  President,  Conkling  demanded 
the  control  of  Federal  appointments  in  New  York, 
and,  this  being  refused,  he  and  his  colleague, 
Thos.  Platt,  resigned  from  the  Senate  and  solicited 
reelection.  After  a  long  contest  in  the  New  York 
Legislature  they  were  defeated.  Mr.  Arthur,  suc¬ 
ceeding  to  the  Presidency  after  Garfield’s  murder, 
offered  Mr.  Conkling  a  Supreme  Court  judgeship, 
which  he  declined.  In  1884  Mr.  Conkling  made 
a  bitter  fight  against  Blaine  in  the  nominating 
convention.  He  died  on  April  17,  1888. 

Coimara  'c6se,  a  natural  order  of  dicotyledonous 
or  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  sometimes  climbing,  with  compound 
alternate  leaves,  destitute  of  stipules;  the  flowers 
in  racemes  or  panicles.  The  best  known  product 
of  this  order  is  called  zebra  wood,  the  wood  of 
a  large  tree  which  grows  in  Guiana,  Omplutlobium 
lamberti. 

Con 'naught,  the  westernmost  and  smallest  part 
of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland.  It  is  bounded 
north  and  west  by  the  Atlantic;  east,  by  Ulster 
and  Leinster,  from  the  latter  of  which  it  is  sepa¬ 
rated  by  the  Shannon;  and  south,  by  Munster.  It 
contains  the  Counties  of  Galway,  Leitrim,  Mayo, 
Roscommon,  and  Sligo.  Greatest  length  from 
north  to  south,  105  miles;  greatest  breadth,  not 
including  Achil  Island,  92  miles.  Area,  6,863 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  817,197,  having  dimin¬ 
ished  by  more  than  600,000  since  1841. 

Connaught,  Arthur,  Duke  of,  third  son  of 
Queen  Victoria,  was  born  May  1,  1850,  and  mar¬ 
ried  the  Princess  Margaret  Loui  e  of  Prussia  in 
1879. 

Connecticut,  the  largest  river  to  the  east  of 
the  Hudson  in  the  United  States,  rises  on  the  south 
border  of  Lower  Canada,  near  45°  N.  latitude, 
and,  after  a  fall  of  1,600  feet  and  a  south-south - 
west  course  of  at  least  400  miles, enters  Long  Island 
Sound,  in  41°  16'  N.  latitude. 

Connecticut,  the  most  southwesterly  State  of 
New  England,  is  situated  in  latitude  41° — 42°  3' 
N.,  and  longitude  71®  55' — 73®  50'  W.  Area, 
4,990  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880),  622,700.  About 
one-fourth  of  the  population  is  employed  in  man¬ 
ufacturing,  mechanical  trades,  and  mining;  about 
44,000  in  agriculture,  and  51,000  in  professional 
and  personal  services.  The  climate  of  the  State, 
though  changeable,  is  mild  and  healthful.  During 


CONNEMARA. 


300 


CONSTITUTION. 


the  Civil  War,  Connecticut  furnished  55,864  men 
to  the  army.  Respectively  to  the  west  and  east  of 
the  Connecticut  river  are  the  Housatonic  and  the 
Thames,  of  which  the  former  is  navigable  twelve 
miles  and  the  latter  fourteen .  Many  smaller  streams 
afford  valuable  water-power.  The  chief  towns 
are  Hartford,  New  Haven,  Bridgeport,  New  Lon¬ 
don,  and  Norwich,  the  second  and  fourth  being 
the  principal  ports,  and  all  of  them  being  accessi¬ 
ble  from  the  sea.  The  colleges  are  three  in  num¬ 
ber,  and  the  schools  of  every  grade  may  stand  a 
comparison  with  any  in  the  Union.  The  soil  is 
better  fitted  for  pasturage  than  for  tillage.  The 
minerals  are  iron,  plumbago,  marble,  and  free¬ 
stone.  The  staple  productions  are  butter,  cheese, 
wool,  maize,  oats,  barley,  wheat,  flax,  hemp,  to¬ 
bacco,  and  cider.  In-1880,  there  were  4,488  man¬ 
ufactories  in  the  State,  employing  113,000  hands 
(annual  produce  worth  $185,680,000);  the  cotton 
manufactories  alone  employed  15,500  persons. 

Connema'ra,  a  district  in  the  west  of  Galway, 
Ireland,  indented  by  numerous  bays  from  the 
Atlantic,  whence  it  derives  its  name. 

Connoisseur,  the  French  term  by  which 
we  designate  persons  who,  without  being  them¬ 
selves  artists,  are  supposed  to  possess  a  discrimi¬ 
nating  knowledge  of  the  merits  of  works  of  art. 

Co'noid,  a  solid  formed  by  the  revolution  of  a 
conic  section  round  its  axis;  such  are  the  sphere, 
paraboloid,  ellipsoid,  and  hyperboloid. 

Consanguin 'ity  is  relationship  by  blood,  as 
distinguished  from  affinity,  or  connection  by 
marriage. 

Conscription  is  not  properly  synonymous  with 
compulsory  military  service.  Littre  defines  it, 

“  The  call  to  military  service  by  the  drawing  of 
lots.” 

Consecration,  the  act  of  devoting  anything  to 
sacred  uses.  The  .Mosaic  law  ordained  that  all 
the  first-born  both  of  man  and  beast  should  be 
consecrated  to  God. 

Cousec'utive,  a  term  in  Music,  applied  to  oc¬ 
taves  and  fifths,  which,  according  to  the  rules  of 
harmony,  are  strictly  forbidden. 

Conservatory  (Jfal.  Conservatorio,  Fr.  Conser- 
vatorie ,  Ger.  Conservatorium \  a  name  applied  to 
institutions  for  training  in  music  and  for  preserv¬ 
ing  the  true  theory  and  practice  of  the  art.  The 
principal  conservatories  are  those  of  Milan,  Paris, 
Brussels,  Prague,  Vienna,  and  Leipsig. 

Conserv'atory,  in  Horticulture,  a  house  for  the 
cultivation  of  tender  plants,  which,  although  re¬ 
quiring  protection  from  frosts,  and  a  little  assist¬ 
ance  of  artificial  heat,  do  not  need  the  heat  of  the 
hot-house  or  stove. 

Con'serves  are  described  by  Cooley  in  his 
Cyclopcedia  of  Practical  Receipts,  to  be  “  recent  veg¬ 
etable  matter,  as  flowers,  herbs,  roots,  fruit,  and 
seed,  beaten  with  powdered  sugar  to  the  consist¬ 
ence  of  a  stiff  paste,  so  as  to  preserve  them  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  their  natural  freshness.” 
They  are  made  by  druggists  as  vehicles  for  more 
active  medicines,  and  by  confectioners  as  sweet¬ 
meats. 

Consign 'ment,  in  Mercantile  Law,  is  the  term 
applied  to  goods  which  are  placed  in  the  hands  of 
an  agent  or  factor,  for  sale,  or  for  some  other 
specified  purpose. 

Consist'ory  (Lat.  Consistorium),  properly,  a 
place  of  assembly,  but  in  the  later  Latin  the 
word  came  to  signify  the  particular  place  where 
the  Privy-Council  or  Cabinet  of  the  Roman  Em 
peror  met,  and  after  the  time  of  Diocletian  and 
Constantine,  the  Council  itself. 

Con 'sole  (Fr.),  in  Architecture,  a  projection 
resembling  a  bracket, 
frequently  in  the 
form  of  a  letter  S, 
used  to  support  cor¬ 
nices,  or  for  placing 
busts,  vases,  or  fig¬ 
ures  on. 

Con 'sols,  a  con¬ 
traction  of  consoli¬ 
dated  annuities.  In 
incurring  the  na¬ 
tional  debt,  the  English  Government 


Console. 


borrowed 

money  at  different  periods  on  special  conditions, 
being  generally  the  payment  of  an  annuity  of  so 
much  per  cent,  on  the  sum  borrowed.  Great 
confusion  arose  from  the  variety  of  stocks  thus 
created,  and  it  was  thought  expedient  to  strike 


an  average  of  their  value,  and  consolidate  them 
into  one  fund,  kept  in  one  account  at  the  Bank 
of  England.  The  Consolidated  Annuities’  Act 
was  passed  in  1757. 

Con'sonance,  in  Music,  a  term  applied  to  com¬ 
binations  of  sounds,  whose  vibrations  when  heard 
together  so  satisfy  the  ear  that  no  other  sound  is 
wished  for,  or  expected  to  follow. 

Con'sort,  literally,  one  who  throws  in  his  life 
with  another.  In  English  constitutional  law,  the 
term  is  applied  to  the  husband  or  wife  of  the 
reigning  sovereign,  viewed  not  in  a  private  but  a 
public  capacity,  as  participating  to  a  certain 
limited  extent  in  the  prerogatives  of  sovereignty. 

Conspiracy,  in  Law,  is  an  agreement  between 
two  or  more  persons  to  do  certain  wrongful  acts, 
which  may  not,  however,  be  punishable  when 
committed  by  a  single  person,  not  acting  in  con¬ 
cert  with  others. 

Constable  (Lat.  Conslabulus),  an  officer  of  the 
peace. 

Con 'stance,  Lake  (called  by  the  Germans 
Bodensee  or  Bodmansee,  from  the  old  castle  of 
Bodman — the  Lacus  Brigantinus  of  the  Romans), 
lies  on  the  north  side  of  the  Alps  of  Switzerland, 
and  forms  a  meeting-point  of  the  five  territories — 
Baden,  Wurtemberg,  Bavaria,  the  Tyrol,  and 
Switzerland.  It  has  an  elevation  variously  esti¬ 
mated  at  from  1,250  feet  to  1,385  feet  above  the 
sea.  Lake  Constance  is  traversed  by  the  Rhine 
from  east  to  west;  its  greatest  length  is  about  44 
miles,  utmost  breadth,  9  miles,  and  depth  964  feet. 

Constance,  or  Kostnitz  (anciently  (Jonstantia), 
a  city  of  Baden,  on  the  south  shore  of  the  Lake  of 
Constance,  at  the  place  where  the  Rhine  connects 
the  upper  and  lower  lakes.  Pop.  (1880),  13,372. 

Con'stant  is  the  name  given,  in  mathematical 
analysis,  to  a  quantity  which  remains  the  same 
for  all  cases  of  the  problem,  in  opposition  to  a 
variable. 

Constant,  Benjamin,  painter,  was  born  in 
Paris,  June  10,  1845,  and  is  one  of  the  most  suc¬ 
cessful  artists  of  the  modern  French  school. 

Constantine',  the  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name  (the  easternmost  province  of  the  French 
colony  of  Algeria).  Latitude  36°  22'  N.,  longi¬ 
tude  6°  37'  E.  It  is  830  feet  above  the  river,  and 
162  feet  above  the  sea.  Pop.  (1881),  38,379,  of 
whom  some  7,000  are  Europeans. 

Con'stantine  I.,  Flavius  Valeiiius  Aure¬ 
lius,  surnamed  “  the  Great,”  a  Roman  Emperor, 
born  272  or  274  a.d.,  at  Naissus,  in  Mcesia.  He 
first  distinguished  himself  by  his  military  talents 
under  Diocletian,  in  that  monarch’s  famous 
Egypt  ian  expedition,  296;  subsequently  he  served 
under  Galerius  in  the  Persian  War.  He  became 
Emperor  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  306,  and 
after  several  years’  fighting  secured  the  crown  in 
312.  In  323,  Constantine  defeated  Licinius  in 
battle,  and  ultimately  put  him  to  death.  Constan¬ 
tine  was  now  the  sole  governor  of  the  Roman 
world.  He  chose  Byzantium  for  his  capital,  and 
in  330  solemnly  inaugurated  it  as  the  seat  of 
government,  under  the  name  of  Constantinople, 
or  City  of  Constantine.  In  324,  he  put  his  son, 
Crispus.  to  death  on  a  charge  of  treason.  Con¬ 
stantine  died  July  22,  337. 

Constantine,  Paulowitch,  a  Russian  Grand- 
Duke,  born  May  8,  1779,  was  the  second  son  of 
the  Emperor  Paul  I.  After  the  Congress  of 
Vienna,  the  Government  of  Poland  was  intrusted 
to  him  by  his  brother,  the  Emperor  Alexander. 
In  January,  1822,  he  executed  a  private  deed  by 
which  he  resigned  his  claims  to  the  throne  in  the 
event  of  Alexander’s  death;  and  when  that  event 
took  place,  in  1825,  he  adhered  to  this  resigna¬ 
tion,  although  he  had  meanwhile,  in  his  absence, 
been  proclaimed  Emperor  in  St.  Petersburg.  The 
succession  thus  fell  to  his  younger  brother, 
Nicholas.  Constantine  died  of  cholera  at  Vitebsk, 
on  June  27,  1831. 

Constantine,  Nicolaewitcii,  Grand-Duke  of 
Russia,  born  Sept.  21,  1827,  is  the  second  son  of 
the  late  Emperor  Nicholas,  and  the  uncle  of 
Alexander  III.  He  is  Grand-Admiral  of  the  Rus¬ 
sian  fleet,  and  holds,  besides,  innumerable  mili¬ 
tary  offices.  During  the  Crimean  War,  lie  com¬ 
manded  the  Russian  fleet  in  _  the  Baltic,  and 
directed  the  defensive  preparations  which  held 
the  English  and  French  armaments  in  check 
before  Cronstadt.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Polish 
insurrection  in  1862,  he  held  the  office  of  Viceroy 


of  Poland  for  three  months.  In  January,  1865, 
he  was  appointed  President  of  the  Council  of  the 
Empire. 

Constantinople,  called  by  the  T inks  Stamboul 
or  lstamboul,  was  originally  called  Byzantium. 
In  330  a.d. ,  the  Emperor  Constantine  made  it  the 
capital  of  the  Roman  Empire,  and  called  it  after 
his  own  name,  Constantinople.  It  continued 
thenceforth  to  be  the  residence  of  the  Roman,  and 
afterward  of  the  Byzantine  Emperors,  till  in  1453 
it  was  taken  by  the  Turks.  Since  that  time  it 
has  been  the  capital  of  Turkey,  and  the  principal 
residence  of  the  Sultans,  it  is  situated  in  latitude 
41°  N.,  and  longitude  28°  59'  E.,  on  the  European 


side  of  the  Channel  of  Constantinople  or  Thra¬ 
cian  Bosporus,  near  to  its  opening  into  the  Sea  of 
Marmora.  The  pop.  in  1886  was  873,565. 

Constella'tion  (Lat,  con,  together,  and  Stella,  a 
star),  a  group  of  stars.  The  stars  have  been 
formed  into  artificial  groups,  which  have  received 
names  borrowed  from  fancy  or  fable.  These 
groups  are  called  constellations.  This  traditional 
grouping  is  found  a  convenient  classification,  and 
is  the  basis  of  nomenclature  for  the  stars  among 
astronomers. 

Constipa'tion,  a  state  of  the  system  marked 
by  an  irregular  and  sluggish  action  of  the  bowels 
upon  their  contents,  due  either  to  defective  secre¬ 
tion  of  the  juices  of  the  intestinal  mucous  mem¬ 
brane,  or  to  an  imperfection  of  the  peristaltic 
movements.  The  use  of  brown  bread,  or  of  len¬ 
tils,  oatmeal  porridge,  of  green  vegetables  and 
salads,  or  of  ripe  fruits;  the  plentiful  employment 
of  salt,  or  of  saline  drinks,  or  of  many  natural 
mineral  waters,  and  active  exercise,  especially  by 
walking  or  riding  on  horseback  in  the  open  air, 
tend  to  avert  this  disease. 

Constitution,  in  Politics  (constitutio,  from  Lat. 
constituere,  to  setup,  or  establish).  In  its  modern 
acceptation  it^ignifics  a  system  of  law  established 
by  the  sovereign  power  of  a  State  for  its  own 
guidance.  The  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
drawn  up  by  a  convention  in  1787,  is  contained 
in  a  code  of  articles.  It  was  ratified  separately 
by  each  State,  and  thenceforward  became  the 
positive  and  exclusive  statement  of  the  Constitu¬ 
tion.  It  reads  as  follows : 

We,  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a 
more  perfect  union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tran- 
auillltv,  provide  for  the  common  defense,  promote  the  gen¬ 
eral  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves 


CONSTITUTION. 


301 


CONSTITUTION. 


and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  Constitution 
lor  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I. 

Section  1.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be 
vested  In  a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist 
of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

Sec.  2.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed 
of  members  chosen  every  second  year,  by  the  people  of  the 
several  States;  and  the  Electors  in  each  State  snail  have  the 
qualifications  requisite  for  Electors  of  the  most  numerous 
branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected, 
be  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  lu  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned 
among  the  several  States  which  may  be  included  within  the 
Union,  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  which  shall  be 
determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons, 
including  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and 
excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  three-fifths  of  all  other 
persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within  three 

ears  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United 

tates,  and  within  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in 
such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  oi 
Representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thou¬ 
sand,  but  each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  Representative; 
and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be  made,  the  State  of  New 
Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  t  liree,  Massachusetts 
eight;  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one;  Con¬ 
necticut  five;  New  York  six;  New  Jersey  four;  Pennsylvania 
eight;  Delaware  one;  Maryland  six;  Virginia  ten;  North 
Carolina  five;  South  Carolina  five;  Georgia  three. 

Wheu  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any 
State,  the  executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of 
election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker 
and  other  officers,  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeach¬ 
ment. 

Sec.  3.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed 
of  two  Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature 
thereof,  for  six  years;  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of 
the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided,  as  equally  as  may  be, 
into  three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class 
shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year  ;  of  the 
second  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year;  and  of  the 
third  class  at  the  expiration  of  the  sixth  year ;  so  that  one- 
third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year  ;  and  if  vacancies  hap¬ 
pen,  by  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the 
Legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make 
temporary  appointments,  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  Legis¬ 
lature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United 
States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of 
that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  President 
of  the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally 
divided. 

The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,  and  also  a  Pres¬ 
ident  pro  tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or 
when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of  President  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments ; 
when  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affir¬ 
mation.  When  the  Pr<  sident  of  the  United  States  is  tried,  the 
Chief  Justice  shall  preside  ;  and  no  person  shall  be  convicted 
without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members 
present. 

Judgment,  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  not  extend  fur¬ 
ther  than  to  removal  from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold 
and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or  profit,  under  the  United 
States;  but  the  party  Convicted  shall,  nevertheless,  be  liable 
and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment,  and  punishment, 
according  to  law. 

Sec.  4.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections 
for  Senators  and  Representatives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each 
State  by  the  Legislature  thereof;  but  Congress  may  at  any 
time,  by  law,  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the 
places  of  choosing  Senators. 

The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year;  and 
such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless 
they  shall,  by  law,  appoint  a  different  day. 

Sec.  5.  Each  House  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections, 
returns,  and  qualifications  of  its  own  members;  and  a  majority 
of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business;  but  a  smaller 
number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized 
to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner, 
and  under  such  penalties,  as  each  House  may  provide. 

Each  House  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings, 
punish  its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  con¬ 
currence  of  two-thirds,  expel  a  member. 

Each  House  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may,  in 
their  judgment,  require  secreci ;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the 
members  of  either  House,  on  any  question,  shall,  at  the  desire 
of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

Neither  House,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  with¬ 
out  the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three 
days,  nor  tojany  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  Houses 
shall  be  sitting. 

Sec.  6.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a 
compensation  for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and 
paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall,  in 
all  cases,  except  treason,  felony,  and  bieach  of  the  peace,  be 
privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session 
of  their  respective  Houses,  and  in  going  to  or  returning  from 
the  same;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate  in  either  House,  they 
shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for 
which  he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under 
the  authority  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been 
created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  in¬ 
creased,  during  such  time;  and  no  person  holding  any  office 
under  the  United  States,  shall  be  a  member  of  either  House 
during  his  continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  7.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives;  but  the  Senate  may  propose,  or 
concur  with,  amendments,  as  on  other  bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Represent¬ 
atives  and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  become;  a  law,  be  pre¬ 
sented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States;  if  he  approve, 
he  shall  sign  it;  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objec¬ 
tions,  to  that  House  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who 
shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their  journal,  and  pro¬ 
ceed  to  reconsider  it.  If,  after  such  reconsideration,  two- 
thirds  of  that  House  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be 
sent,  together  with  the  objections,  to  the  other  House,  by 
which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and,  if  approved  by 
two-thirds  of  the  House,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But,  in  all 
such  cases,  the  votes  of  both  Houses  shall  be  determined  by 
yeas  and  navs,  and  the  names  of  the  persons  voting  for  and 
against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  Journal  of  each  House 
respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  Presi¬ 
dent  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have 
been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  in  like  manner 


as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress,  by  their  adjourn¬ 
ment,  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote,  to  which  the  concurrence 
of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary 
(except  on  a  question  of  adjouruinent)  shall  be  presented  to 
the  President  of  the  United  States,  and  before  the  same  shall 
take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or,  being  disapproved 
by  him,  shall  be  passed  by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules  and  limitations  pre¬ 
scribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Sec.  8.  Congress  shall  have  pow-  r— 

To  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties,  imposts  and  excises,  to  pay 
the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defense  and  general 
welfare  of  the  United  States;  but  all  duties,  imposts  and  ex¬ 
cises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United  States: 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States: 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes: 

To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform 
laws  on  the  subject  cf  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United 
States: 

To  coin  money;  to  regulate  the  value  thereof;  and  of  foreign 
coin;  and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures: 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securi¬ 
ty  s  and  current  coin  of  the  Unit*  d  States: 

To  es  ablish  post  offices  and  post  roads: 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by 
securing,  for  limited  times,  to  authors  and  inventors,  the  ex¬ 
clusive  right  to  their  respective  writings  and  discoveries: 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court: 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the 
high  seas,  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations: 

To  declare  war;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  and 
make  rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water: 

To  raise  and  support  armies;  but  no  ppropriation  of  money 
to  that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years: 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy: 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the 
land  and  naval  forces: 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws 
of  the  Union,  suppress  insurrections,  and  repel  invasions: 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming  and  disciplining  the  mili¬ 
tia  and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  In 
the  service  of  the  United  States;  reserving  to  the  States  re¬ 
spectively,  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority 
of  training  the  militia,  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed 
by  Congress: 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever, 
over  such  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may, 
by  cession  of  paiticular  States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Con¬ 
gress,  become  the  seat  of  Government  of  the  United  States, 
and  to  exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  purchased  by  the 
consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the  State  in  which  the  same 
shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals,  dock¬ 
yards,  and  other  needful  buildings:  And, 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for 
carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other 
powers  vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

Seo.  9.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as 
any  of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit, 
shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  eight- 
teen  hundred  and  eight;  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed 
on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  S10  for  each  person. 

The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  sus¬ 
pended,  unless  when,  in  case  of  rebellion  or  invasion,  the  pub¬ 
lic  safety  may  require  it. 

No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  post  facto  law  shall  be  pas’  ed. 

No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  census  or  enumeration  herein  uefore  directed 
to  be  taken. 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any 
State.  No  preference  shall  be  given,  by  any  regulation  of 
commerce  or  revenue,  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of 
another;  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to  or  from  one  State  be 
obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  appropriations  made  by  law;  and  a  regular  state¬ 
ment  and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  ail  pub¬ 
lic  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States; 
and  no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them 
shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  pres¬ 
ent,  emolument,  office,  or  title  of  any  kind  whatever,  from 
any  king,  prince,  or  foreign  State. 

Sec.  10.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance  or 
confederation;  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin 
money;  emit  bills  of  credit;  make  anything  but  gold  and  sil¬ 
ver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;  pass  any  bill  of  attain¬ 
der,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  con¬ 
tracts;  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be 
absolutely  necessarvfor  executing  its  inspection  laws,  and  the 
net  produce  of  all  duties  and  imposts  laid  by  any  State  on 
imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the 
United  States;  and  all  such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revis¬ 
ion  and  control  of  the  Congress.  No  State  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,  keep 
troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any 
agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign 
power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such 
imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE  II. 

Section  1.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Uniied  States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office 
during  the  term  of  four  years,  and,  together  with  the  Vice- 
President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected  as  follows: 

Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature 
thereof  may  direct,  a  number  of  Electors,  equal  to  the  whole 
number  of  Senators  and  Re  *resentatlves  to  which  the  State 
may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress;  but  no  Senator  or  Repre¬ 
sentative,  or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under 
the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed  an  Elector 

The  Electors  shad  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote 
by  ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be 
an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves.  And  they 
shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  num¬ 
ber  of  votes  for  each,  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify, 
and  transmit,  sealed,  to  the  seat  of  Government  of  the  United 
States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate.  The  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the 
votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electois  appointed;  and  if 
there  be  more  than  one  who  have  such  a  majority,  and  have 
an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the  House  of  Representatives 
shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  Presi¬ 
dent;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then,  from  the  five 
highest  on  the  list,  the  said  House  shall,  in  i i k« ■  maimer, 
choose  the  President.  But,  in  choosing  the  President,  the 
votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each 
State  having  one  vote:  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  con¬ 
sist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds  of  the  States, 
and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  Electors,  shall  be 


the  Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more 
I  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  lrom  them,  by 
1  lallot,  the  Vice-President. 

(By  the  12th  article  of  amendment,  the  above  clause  has 
been  repealed.) 

The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  Elec¬ 
tors,  and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes,  which 
day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

No  person,  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution, 
shall  be  eligible  to  the  Office  of  President;  neither  shall  any 
person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident 
within  the  United  States. 

In  ease  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and 
duties  of  the  said  ottice,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice- 
President,  and  the  Congress  may,  by  law,  provide  for  the  c>  se 
of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  Pres¬ 
ident  and  Vice-President,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act 
as  President;  and  such  officer  shall  act  accordingly,  until  the 
disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  lie  elected. 

The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  service* 
a  compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  dimin¬ 
ished  during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected; 
and  he  shall  not  receive,  within  that  period,  any  other  emolu¬ 
ment  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

Before  he  eater  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take 
the  following  oath  or  affirmation: 

“  I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute 
the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States;  and  will,  to  the 
best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect,  and  defend  the  Constitu¬ 
tion  of  the  United  States.” 

Sec.  2.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army  and  navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the 
several  States,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the 
United  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the 
principal  officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments,  upon 
any  subject  relating  to  the  duties  of  their  respective  offices; 
and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons  for 
offenses  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeach¬ 
ment. 

He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  Sena¬ 
tors  present  concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassa¬ 
dors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Su¬ 
preme  Court,  and  all  other  officers  of  the  United  States,  whose 
appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided  for,  and 
which  shall  be  established  by  law;  but  the  Congress  may,  by 
law,  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior  officers  as  they 
think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts  of  law,  or 
in  the  heads  of  departments. 

The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that 
may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting 
commissions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  ses¬ 
sion. 

Sec.  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time,  give  to  the  Congress 
information  of  the  state  of  the  Union;  and  recommend  to  their 
consideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and 
expedient.  He  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene 
both  Houses,  or  cither  of  them;  and,  in  case  of  dieagr'*ement 
between  them,  with  respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he 
may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall  think  proper.  He 
shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers.  He 
shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed;  and  shall 
commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 

Sec.  1.  The  President.  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers 
of  the  United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeach¬ 
ment  for,  and  conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high 
crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE  III. 

Section  t.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be 
vested  in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  a* 
the  Congress  may,  from  time  to  time,  ordain  and  establish. 
The  judges  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts  shall 
hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior;  and  shall,  at  stated 
times,  receive  for  their  services  a  compensation,  which  shall 
not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in  office. 

Sec.  2.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  c  ases  in  law 
and  equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the 
United  States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made, 
under  their  authority;  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other 
public  ministers,  and  consuls;  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and 
maritime  jurisdiction;  to  controversies  to  which  the  United 
States  shall  be  a  party,  to  controversies  between  two  or  more 
States,  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another  State,  between 
citizens  of  different  States,  between  citizens  of  the  same  State 
claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between 
a  State,  or  the  citizens  thereof  and  foreign  States,  citizens  or 
subjects. 

In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers,  and 
consuls,  and  those  in  which  a  State  shall  be  a  party,  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  case* 
before  mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate 
jurisdiction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions, 
and  under  such  regulations  as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment, 
shall  be  by  jury,  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where 
the  said  crimes  shall  have  been  committed;  but  when  not  com¬ 
mitted  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or 
places  as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

Sec.  3.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only 
in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies, 
giving  them  aid  and  comfort.  No  person  shall  be  convicted 
of  treason,  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses  to  the 
same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of 
treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of 
blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  at¬ 
tainted. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

Section  1.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given,  in  each 
State,  to  the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of 
every  other  State.  And  the  Congress  may,  by  general  laws, 
prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and  proceed¬ 
ings  shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

Sec.  2.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  the 
privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another 
State,  shall  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the 
State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to 
the  State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the 
laws  thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of 
any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service 
or  labor;  but  shall  be  delivered  upon  claim  of  the  party  to 
whom  such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

Sec.3.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into 
this  Union;  but  no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  State,  nor  any  State  be 
formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or  parts  of 
States,  without  the  consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States 
concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  Congress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of,  and  make  all 
needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other 


CONSUL. 


302 


CONTINENTAL  SYSTEM. 


property  belonging  to  the  United  States;  and  nothing  in  this 
Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims 
of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Sec.  4.  The  United  States  shall  guaranty  to  every  State  in 
this  Union  a  republican  form  of  Government;  and  shall  pro¬ 
tect  each  of  them  against  invasion,  and  on  application  of  the 
Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the  Legislature  can  not 
be  convened)  against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE  V. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  Houses  shall 
deem  it  necessary,  shall  propose  amendments  to  this  Consti¬ 
tution,  or  on  the  application  of  the  Legislatures  of  two-thirds 
of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing 
amendments  ;  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all 
intents  and  purposes,  as  part  of  this  Constitution,  when  rati¬ 
fied  by  the  Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  several  States, 
or  by  conventions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the 
other  mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress  : 
Provided,  that  no  amendment  which  may  be  made  prior  to 
the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  shall  in  any 
manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section 
of  the  first  article  ;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent, 
shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

All  debts  contracted,  and  engagements  entered  into,  before 
the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the 
United  States  unuer  this  Constitution,  as  under  the  confedera¬ 
tion. 

This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which 
shall  be  made  in  pursuance  thereof,  and  all  treaties  made  or 
which  shall  be  made  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States, 
shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land,  and  the  judges  in  every 
State  shall  be  bound  i hereby,  any  thing  in  the  Constitution  or 
laws  of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and 
the  members  of  the  several  State  Legislature,  and  all  execu¬ 
tive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the 
several  States  shad  be  bound,  by  oath  or  affirmation,  to  sup¬ 
port  this  Constitution;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be 
requirea  as  a  qualification  to  any  office  or  public  trust  under 
the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be 
sufficient  for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between 
the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States 
present,  the  seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of 
Our  Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and 
of  the  Independence  or  the  United  States  of  America,  the 
twelfth.  In  witness  whereof  we  have  subscribed  our 
names.  GEORGE  WASHINGTON, 

President,  and  Delegate  from  Virginia. 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  John  Langdon.  Nicholas  Gilman. 
MASSACHUSETTS.  Nathaniel  Gorham,  Rufus  King. 
CONNECTICUT.  Wm.  Samuel  Johnson,  Roger  Sherman. 
NEW  YORK.  Alexander  Hamilton. 

NEW  JERSEY.  William  Livingston,  William  Paterson, 
David  Brearly,  Jonathan  Dayton. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  Benjamin  Franklin,  Robert  Morris, 
Thomas  Fitzsimons,  James  Wilson,  Thomas  Mifflin,  George 
Clymer,  Jared  Ingersoll,  Gouverneur  Morris. 

DELAWARE.  George  Read,  Gunning  Bedford,  Jr.,  John 
Dickinson,  Richard  Bassett,  Jacob  Broom. 

MARYLAND.  James  M’Henry,  Daniel  of  St.  Tho.  Jenifer, 
Daniel  Carroll. 

VIRGINIA.  John  Blair,  James  Madison,  Jr. 

NORTH  CAROLINA.  William  Blount,  Richard  Dobbs 
Spaight,  Hugh  Williamson. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA.  John  Rutledge,  Charles  Pinckney, 
Pierce  Butler,  Chas.  Cotesworth  Pinckney 
GEORGIA.  William  Few,  Abraham  Baldwin. 

Attest,  William  Jackson,  Secretary. 


AMENDMENTS. 

Article  I.  Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an 
■establishment  of  religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise 
thereof;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech  or  the  press;  or 
the  t  ight  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition 
the  Government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 

Art.  II.  A  well  regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the 
security  of  a  free  State,  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and 
bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

Art.  III.  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered 
in  any  house  without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of 
war.  but  in  a  manner  to  be  prescribed  by  law. 

Art.  IV.  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  per¬ 
sons,  houses,  papers, and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches 
and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated;  and  no  warrant  shall  issue, 
but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affirmation, 
and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the 
persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 

Art.  V.  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital  or 
other  infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment 
of  a.  grand  jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval 
forces,  or  in  the  militia  when  in  actual  service,  in  time  of 
war  or  public  danger;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject,  for  the 
same  offense,  to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb;  nor 
shall  be  compelled,  in  any  criminal  case,  to  be  witness  against 
himself,  nor  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without 
due  process  of  law;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for 
public  use,  without  just  compensation. 

Art.  VI.  In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall 
enjoy  the  right  to  a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial 
jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have 
been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously  as¬ 
certained  by  law;  and  to  beduformed  of  the  nature  and  cause 
of  the  accusation ;  to  be  confronted  with  the  witnesses  against 
him;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining  witnesses  in 
his  favor;  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his 
defense. 

Art.  VII.  In  suits  at  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy 
shall  exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be 
preserved;  and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury,  shall  be  otherwise  re¬ 
examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States,  than  according  to 
the  rules  of  the  common  law. 

Art.  VIII.  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  ex¬ 
cessive  fines  imposed,  nor  cruel  nor  unusual  punishments  in¬ 
flicted. 

Art.  IX.  The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain 
rights  shall  not  be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  re¬ 
tained  by  the  people. 

Art.  X.  The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by 
the  Constitution,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  re¬ 
served  to  the  .States  respectively,  or  to  the  people. 

Art.  XI.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not 
be  construed  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  com¬ 
menced  or  prosecuted  against  one  of  the  1  nited  States  by  cit¬ 
izens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any  foreign 
State. 

Art.  XII.  The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective 
States,  and  vote,  by  ballot,  for  President  and  Vice-Presideul, 
one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  tin?  same 
State  with  themselves;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the 
person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots,  the  per¬ 
son  voted  for  as  Vice-President;  and  they  shall  make  distinct 


lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President;  and  of  all  persons  ! 
voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for 
each;  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit, 
sealed,  to  the  seat  of  Government  of  the  United  States, 
directed  to  the  President  of  the  Senate;  the  President  of  the 
Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Rep¬ 
resentatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then 
be  counted;  the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes 
for  President  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed;  and  if 
no  person  have  such  majority,  then,  from  the  persons  hav¬ 
ing  the  highest  numbers,  not  exceeding  three,  on  the  list  of 
those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representatives 
shall  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in 
choosing  the  President,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the 
representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum 
for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from 
two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall 
be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if  the'House  of  Representa¬ 
tives  shall  hot  choose  a  President,  whenever  the  right  of 
choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of 
March  next  following,  then  the  Vice-President  shall  act  as 
President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  constitutional 
disability  of  the  President. 

The  person  raving  the  greatest  number  of  votes  as  Vice- 
President,  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a 
majority  of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  appointed;  and  if 
no  person  have  a  majority,  then,  from  the  two  highest  num¬ 
bers  on  the  1  st,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-President;  a 
quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  number  of  Senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  num¬ 
ber  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 

But.no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of 
President,  shall  be  eligib  e  to  that  of  Vice-President  of  the 
United  Stages. 

Art.  XIII.  Neither  slavery,  nor  involuntary  servitude, 
except  as  a  punishment  for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall 
have  ffien  duly  convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United 
States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

art.  X  i  V  All  persons  born,  or  naturalized,  in  the  United 
States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of 
the  United  States,  and  of  the  States  wherein  they  reside.  No 
State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the 
privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  Uuited  States;  nor 
shall  any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  prop¬ 
erty,  without  due  process  of  law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  with¬ 
in  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
States,  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the 
whole  number  of  persons  in  each  State,  including  Indiat-s  not 
taxed;  but  whenever  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the 
choice  of  Electors  for  President  and  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  Representatives  in  Congress,  the  executive 
and  judicial  officers  of  the  State,  or  members  of  the  Legisla¬ 
ture  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such 
State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridge,  except  for  participation 
in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein 
shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such 
male  citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens 
twenty-one  years  of  age,  in  such  state. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  Senator  or  Representative  in  Congress 
or  Elector  of  the  t  resident  or  Vice-President,  or  hold  any 
office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any 
State,  who,  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of 
Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  any  State  Legislature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial 
officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against 
the  same,  or  given  aid  and  coin  fort  to  the  enemies  thereof; 
but  Congress  may  by  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  each  House,  re¬ 
move  such  disability. 

4.  The  validity  of  tho  public  debt  of  the  United  States 
authorized  by  law,  including  debts  incurred  for  the  payment 
of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services  in  suppressing  insurrec¬ 
tion  or  rebellion  shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the 
United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or 
obligation  incurred  in  aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against 
the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of 
any  slave;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations,  aud  claims  shall  be 
held  illegal  and  void. 

5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropri¬ 
ate  legislation,  the  provision  of  this  article. 

Art.  XV.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by  any 
State,  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of 
servitude. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation. 

Con ' sul,  the  title  of  the  two  highest  ordinary 
magistrates  in  the  Roman  Republic.  In  public 
assemblies,  they  occupied  a  sort  of  throne  {sella 
curulis),  and  in  the  senate  they  presided  and  sat 
on  elevated  seats.  They  made  peace  and  nego¬ 
tiated  foreign  alliances,  had  the  supreme  com¬ 
mand  of  the  army,  and  appointed  the  public 
treasurers.  They  likewise  exercised  the  judicial 
functions  of  royalty.  In  their  capacity  of  su¬ 
preme  judges  they  continued  to  be  known  as 
praetores,  until  ultimately  separate  magistrates 
with  that  title  were  appointed.  Under  The  Em¬ 
pire  the  Consuls  became  mere  appointive  officers. 
The  title  was  revived  under  the  first  French 
Republic,  and  Napoleon  was  First  Consul  until 
he  made  himself  Emperor. 

Consul,  Mercantile,  the  name  given  to  those 
officers  whom  the  State  maintains  in  foreign  coun¬ 
tries  for  the  protection  of  its  trade,  and  vindica¬ 
tion  of  the  rights  of  its  merchants,  and  to  whom 
the  further  duty  is  assigned  of  keeping  the  Home 
Government  informed  of  all  facts  bearing  on  the 
commercial  interests  of  the  country. 

Consulate  (Lat.  consulalus,  consulship),  (in 
France).  This  supreme  magistracy  of  the  French 
Republic  was  established  after  the  revolution  of 
the  eighteenth  Brumaire,  and  lasted  to  the  coro¬ 
nation  of  Napoleon.  On  the  overthrow  of  the 
Directory  with  the  constitution  of  the  year  III., 
the  members  of  the  Council  of  the  Ancients  and 
the  Five  Hundred,  appointed  three  consuls — 


SRyes,  Bonaparte,  and  Roger  Ducos.  This  ap¬ 
proach  to  a  Monarchical  Government  was  con¬ 
firmed  Dec.  13,  1799,  by  the  constitution  of  the 
year  VIII.,  by  which  Bonaparte  was  made  First 
Consul,  with  Cambaceres  and  Lebrun  as  Second 
and  Third;  each  was  elected  for  ten  years,  and 
was  reeligible.  In  May,  1804,  Bonaparte  became 
Emperor. 

Consump'tion,  in  Medical  Language,  phthisis, 
tabes,  marasmus,  and  more  particularly  phthisis 
pulmonalis,  or  pulmonary  consumption,  is  a 
disease  of  great  frequency  and  severity,  which 
produces  from  one-sixth  to  one-tenth  of  the  total 
mortality  in  ordinary  times. 

Con 'tact.  In  Geometry,  two  lines,  one  of 
which  at  least  is  curved,  are  said  to  be  in  contact 
when  they  have  a  common  point  from  which  they 
recede,  in  such  a  way  that  the  deflection  of  the 
one  from  the  other  will,  if  a  sufficiently  small  de¬ 
parture  be  taken,  become  as  small  a  fraction  as 
we  please  of  that  departure. 

Conta'giou,  the  communication  of  a  disease 
from  the  sick  to  the  healthy,  either  by  direct  con¬ 
tact  of  a  part  affected  with  the  disease,  or  through 
the  medium  of  the  excretions  and  exhalations  of 
the  body.  Some  authorities  have  employed  the 
term  infection  to  designate  this  latter  method  of 
communication. 

Contari'ni,  the  name  of  a  noble  family  in 
Venice,  one  of  the  twelve  that  elected  the  first 
Doge.  Between  1041  and  1074,  seven  Doges  were 
furnished  by  this  family,  and  several  of  its  mem¬ 
bers  were  men  of  note.  Ambrogio  Contarini 
was  sent  as  ambassador  from  Venice  to  Persia, 
1473-77,  and  gave  an  account  of  his  travels  in  his 
Viaggi  Faiti  da  Vinetia,  Alla  Tana,  in  Persia,  in 
India,  et  in  Cans! ant inopoli  (Veil.  1487).  Car¬ 
dinal  Gasparo  Contarini  distinguished  him¬ 
self  as  Venetian  ambassador  at  the  court  of 
Charles  V.,  and  was  Papal  Legate  at  the  Diet  of 
Ratisbon,  1541,  where  he  displayed  great  moder¬ 
ation.  Giovanni  Contarini  born  1549,  was  one 
of  the  most  famous  painters  of  his  time;  he 
painted  the  Resurrection,  in  San  Francisco  di 
Paolo’s,  in  Venice.  Vincenzo  Contarini,  born 
1577,  had  acquired,  at  the  age  of  twenty-six,  such 
a  fame  for  learning,  that  the  magistrates  of  Padua, 
in  order  to  secure  him  for  their  university,  estab¬ 
lished  an  extraordinary  professorship  of  Greek 
and  Latin  Eloquence. 

Contempt,  of  Court  is  any  insult  offered  to  a 
court  of  justice,  or  any  defiance  or  resistance  to 
its  authority. 

Conti,  LIouse  of,  a  branch  of  the  House  of 
Conde.  Armand  de  Bourbon,  first  prince  of 
Conti,  and  brother  of  the  great  Conde,  was  born 
at  Paris  in  1629.  He  took  his  title  from  the  little 
town  of  Conti,  situated  five  leagues  from  Amiens. 
He  died  at  Pezenas  in  1666. — Louis  Armand, 
Prince  de  Conti,  Comte  de  Pezenas,  and  peer  of 
France,  eldest  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
1661 .  After  a  short  career  in  arms,  he  died  Nov. 
5,  1685.  He  left  no  children,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  brother  Franijois  Louis,  Prince  de  la 
Roche-sur-Yon  et  de  Conti,  who  was  born  at 
Paris  in  1664.  He  served  under  the  Due  de  Lux 
embourg,  who  was  warmly  attached  to  him,  and 
took  a  brilliant  part  in  the  victories  of  Steinkirk 
and  Neerwinden.  He  received  the  command  of 
the  Army  of  Flanders  in  1709,  but  died  on  Febru¬ 
ary  22d  of  the  same  year. — The  last  member  of  the 
House  of  Conti  was  Louis  Francis  Joseph, 
born  1734,  died  in  Spain  in  1807. 

Continent.  The  usage  of  geographers  has  gen¬ 
erally  designated  five  great  masses  or  divisions  of 
land  as  continents — Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  Ameri¬ 
ca,  and  Australia.  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa 
form  properly  one  great  continent,  the  second 
was  discovered  by  Columbus;  and  the  third  made 
its  appearance  at  the  antipodes  of  Europe  in  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Continental  System;  Berlin  Decree;  Orders 
in  Council.  The  continental  system  was  the 
name  given  to  Napoleon’s  plan  for  shutting  Eng¬ 
land  out  from  all  connection  with  the  Continent 
of  Europe,  and  thus  compelling  her  at  least  to 
acknowledge  the  maritime  law  established  at  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht.  This  system  began  with  Napo¬ 
leon’s  famous  “  Berlin  Decree”  of  Nov.  21,  1806, 
which  declared  the  British  Islands  in  a  state  of 
blockade,  and  prohibited  all  commerce  and  cor¬ 
respondence  with  them.  England  was  not  long 


CONTINGENCY. 


303 


COOPERATION. 


in  making  reprisals.  By  “order  in  council,” 
issued  Jan.  7,  1807,  all  neutral  vessels  were  pro¬ 
hibited  from  entering  any  port  belonging  to 
France  or  her  allies,  or  under  her  control.  Every 
neutral  vessel  violating  this  order  was  to  be  con¬ 
fiscated  with  its  cargo.  Still  more  oppressive  for 
neutral  commerce  was  a  second  order  in  council 
of  Nov.  11,  1807,  by  which  all  harborsand  places 
of  France,  and  her  allies  in  Europe  and  the  col¬ 
onies,  as  well  as  of  every  country  with  which 
England  was  at  war,  and  from  which  the  English 
flag  was  excluded,  were  placed  under  the  same 
restrictions  as  if  strictly  blockaded 

Contin  'g'ency,  in  Law,  an  event,  the  occurrence 
of  which,  though  uncertain,  is  sufficiently  proba¬ 
ble  to  be  provided  for. 

Contin  'gent  is  the  quota  of  troops  furnished  to 
the  common  army  by  each  member  of  an  alliance 
or  confederation  of  States. 

Contor'niate  (Ital.  contorno,  Fr.  contour),  a 
term  applied  to  a  class  of  antique  medals,  which 
have  a  deep  line  cut  around  the  edge,  like  a  fur 
row. 

Contort  'ed  Strata  are  beds  of  rock  or  other 
component  parts  of  the  earth,  which  are  bent  and 
twisted  so  that  in  a  section  their  edges  would  be 
seen  to  follow  crooked  and  curved  lines,  often 
doubling  back  and  running  altogether  out  of 
their  former  course. 

Con'tra,  a  term  in  Music,  meaning  opposite, 
lower,  and  applied  to  the  alto  and  tenor  parts  when 
they  form  the  lowest  part  in  the  harmony. 

Contra  Bass,  or  Violone,  the  largest  species 
of  stringed  instrument,  commonly  called  the 
double  bass. 

Con'traband  of  War  (Lat.  contra  bannum, 
against  the  proclamation),  is  a  name  applied  to 
certain  commodities,  or  the  rules  relating  to  them 
during  hostilities  between  States  which  acknowl¬ 
edge  what  are  called  the  laws  of  nations  One 
such  law  is,  that  neutral  nations  must  not  carry 
on,  for  the  advantage  of  either  of  the  belligerent 
powers,  any  branches  of  commerce  from  which 
they  are  excluded  in  time  of  peace.  Another  is, 
that  the  name  of  contraband  of  war  shall  be  given 
to  such  articles  as  pertain  to  military  or  naval 
warfare — guns,  ammunition,  and  stores  of  all 
kinds.  Unless  there  are  special  treaties,  defining 
exactly  what  articles  are  contraband  of  war,  the 
interpretation  of  this  law  often  leads  to  much 
embarrassment.  During  the  Civil  War,  Gen.  B. 
F  Butler  refused  to  give  up  fugitive  slaves,  on 
the  ground  that  they  were  contraband  of  war 

Coil  veil 'tide  (Lat.  conventiculum,  a  diminutive 
of  conventus),  originally  meant  a  cabal  among  the 
monks  of  a  monastery,  formed  to  secure  the 
election  of  a  favorite  as  abbot. 

Conven'tional,  in  Art,  is  that  which  is  in  ac¬ 
cordance,  not  with  the  absolute  principles  of 
beauty  in  form  and  color,  but  with  the  opinions 
and  sentiments  with  reference  to  forms  and  colors, 
which  chance  to  prevail  at  a  particular  time,  in 
a  particular  country,  or  social  class.  Convention¬ 
ality  in  art  holds  the  same  relation  to  the  beautiful 
that  conventionality  in  morals  does  to  the  good, 
or  in  speculative  opinion  to  the  true. 

Converging,  or  Convergent,  is  applied,  in 
Geometry,  to  straight  lines  that  meet  or  tend  to 
meet  in  a  point;  looked  at  in  a  direction  from 
the  point,  they  are  divergent,  or  separating. 

Con  verse  and  Conversion,  are  terms  in 
Logic,  signifying  that  one  proposition  is  formed 
from  another  by  interchanging  the  subject  and 
predicate;  as,  “Every  A.  is  B;”  the  converse  of 
which  is,  “Every  B  is  A.’  This  example  is 
termed  a  case  of  simple  conversion;  beside  which, 
however,  logicians  recognize  two  other  kinds  of 
conversion — viz.,  limited  conversion,  and  conver¬ 
sion  by  contraposition 

Convey  ance,  in  Law,  is  the  deed  or  writing 
by  which  property  is  conveyed  or  transferred 
from  one  person  to  another.  The  term,  though 
strictly  applicable,  is  not  generally  applied  to  the 
act  of  transferring  personal  property. 

Con'vict  (from  the  Latin),  means  a  person  con¬ 
victed  of  any  criminal  charge.  The  term  came 
by  custom  to  be  applied  to  persons  subject  to 
punishment  for  the  more  serious  class  of  offenses. 

Convoca'tions  (from  Lat.  convocare,  to  call 
together)  were  originally  synods  of  the  clergy  or 
the  ancient  ecclesiastical  councils  of  the  arch¬ 
bishop,  but  became  incorporated  into  the  English 


constitution  of  church  and  state,  and  endued  with 
certain  Parliamentary  privileges. 

Convol'vulus(Lat.  convolvo,  to  twine  together), 
a  genus  of 
natural  o  r 
Convolvula 
This  order 
tains  nearly 
known  spei 
herbaceous 
shrubby;  i 
erally  with 
twining  stem 
milky  j  u  i 
large  and  be; 
ful  flowers; 
partite  ealy: 
mono petal 
corolla,  with 
u  1  a  r  5-1  o 
and  plaited  li 
five  stamens; 
ovary  free, 
one  to  four 
and  few  ov 
the  fruit  a 
sule,  some) 
succulent. 

plants  of  this  order  are  very  abundant  in  the 
tropics  but  comparatively  rare  in  cold  climates. 
Many  are  cultivated  as  ornamental  plants,  par¬ 
ticularly  species  of  Convolvulus  and  Ipomoea 

Cou'voy  (Fr.  convoi)  is  the  name  given  to  one 
or  more  ships  of  war  appointed  to  protect  a  fleet 
of  merchant  vessels  against  the  attacks  of  an 
enemy  or  of  pirates.  The  name  is  sometimes 
applied  to  the  merchant  vessels  so  escorted.  In 
the  military  service,  a  convoy  is,  properly  speak¬ 
ing,  a  train  of  wagons  laden  with  provisions  or 
warlike  stores;  the  term,  however,  is  applied  also 
to  the  detachment  of  troops;  or  escort,  appointed 
to  protect  such  a  train. 

Convul'sions,  a  form  of  disease  frequently 
affecting  infancy,  in  which  the  body  is  thrown 
into  violent  spasmodic  contractions,  the  sensi¬ 
bility  and  voluntary  motion  being  for  a  time  sus¬ 
pended.  The  first  symptom  observed  is  often  a 
twitching  of  particular  muscles  or  groups  of  mus¬ 
cles,  and  a  change  in  the  habitual  expression  or 
color  of  the  face,  with  distension  of  the  features, 
and  turning  of  the  globes  of  the  eyes  suddenly 
upward.  The  fingers  are  sometimes  clenched  in 
the  palm,  and  the  feet  turned  inward;  sometimes, 
however,  convulsions  occur  without  warnings  of 
this  kind,  and  even  in  the  midst  of  apparent 
health.  They  result  from  disordered  dentition, 
worms  in  the  intestine,  whooping-cough,  etc. 
When  a  child  is  seized  with  convulsions  it  should 
be  placed  in  a  free  current  of  air,  with  its  feet 
toward  the  fire;  the  extremities  should  be  kept 
warm,  and  a  cold  lotion  may  be  applied  to  the 
head,  especially  if  there  is  much  flushing  of  the 
face;  a  little  castor  oil  may  be  given  if  the  bowels 
are  confined;  and  if  there  is  flatulence,  the  belly 
may  be  rubbed  with  a  warm  hand,  or  with  some 
simple  stimulating  liniment,  such  as  camphor¬ 
ated  oil. 

Conway,  Hugh,  the  pseudonym  of  Frederick 
John  Fargus,  who  was  born  in  1847.  He  is  best 
known  by  his  novels,  Called  Back,  Dark  Days, 
and  A  Family  Affair.  He  died  May  15,  1885. 

Conway,  Moncuke  Daniel,  born  in  Stafford 
county,  Va.,  in  1832,  became  a  Unitarian  minister, 
and  in  1863  went  to  England.  There  he  preached 
in  the  Church  of  the  People,  a  liberal  organiza¬ 
tion,  and  has  contributed  to  newspapers  and  mag¬ 
azines. 

Conway,  Thomas,  born  in  Ireland,  in  1733, 
became  a  Major-General  in  the  Continental  army, 
and  died  in  1800. 

Con '  way,  or  Abercon  '  way,  a  seaport  town  of 
Caernarvonshire,  North  Wales,  on  the  estuary  of 
the  Conway,  twenty-two  miles  northeast  of  Caer 
narvon.  Pop.,  3,179. 

Conway,  a  river  in  North  Wales,  thirty  miles 
long. 

Cony,  an  old  English  name  for  the  rabbit. 

Cook,  Eliza,  an  English  poetess,  born  about 
1818.  She  was  a  voluminous  writer,  principally 
upon  domestic  subjects.  One  of  her  favorite 
poems  is  “  The  Old  Armchair.” 

Cook,  Captain  James,  a  celebrated  navigator. 


born  Oct.  27,  1728,  at  Marlon,  in  Yorkshire,  Eng 
land  In  1769—71  he  explored  the  coasts  of  New 
Zealand  and  New  South  Wales,  and  discovered 
the  pass  between  New  Guinea  and  Australia,  lie 
circumnavigated  the  world  three  times  and  V>n 
Feb.  14,  1779,  was  murdered  by  savages  on  the 
Island  of  Hawaii. 

Cook,  Joseph,  born  at  Ticonderoga,  N.  Y  , 
Jan.  26,  1838,  has  attained  considerable  notoriety 
as  a  lecturer  and  preacher. 

Cook,  Mount,  the  highest  peak  of  Australasia, 
is  one  of  the  Southern  Alps  in  the  South  Island  of 
New  Zealand.  It  is  14,000  feet  high,  is  covered 
with  perpetual  snow,  is  difficult  of  access,  and 
was  scaled  for  the  first  time  in  1882. 

Cooke,  Jay,  born  in  Ohio,  Aug  10,  1821,  be¬ 
came  prominent  in  financial  circles,  negotiated 
several  war  loans,  and  was  practically  the  founder 
of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad.  The  failure  of 
his  banking-firm  in  1873  precipitated  the  great 
panic  which  for  some  years  unfavorably  affected 
business  in  the  United  States. 

Cook’s  Strait,  discovered  by  Captain  Cook  on 
his  first  voyage,  separates  the  North  and  South 
Islands  of  the  New  Zealand,  group,  and  varies 
from  80  to  100  miles  in  width 

Cooktown,  on  the  extreme  north  of  Queensland , 
1,050  miles  north  of  Brisbane,  is  one  of  the  chief 
ports  of  the  colony,  though  only  founded  in  1873. 
Pop  ,  about  5,000,  of  whom  3,000  are  Chinese. 

Cool  'ies,  or  Coui.ies,  originally  the  name  of  one 
of  the  aboriginal  or  hill  tribesof  Hindustan.  From 
the  circumstance  that  many  of  this  tribe  are  em¬ 
ployed  as  laborers  and  porters  in  Bombay  and 
other  places,  the  name  is  now  used  to  denote  emi¬ 
grant  laborers  from  India  and  China  to  other 
countries. 

Cooley,  TnoM.\s  McIntyre,  was  born  at  Attica, 
N.  Y.,  Jan.  6, 1824,  became  a  lawyer  in  Michigan 
and  ultimately  Chief  Justice  of  that  State  He 
has  written  extensively  on  constitutional  law  and 
is  now  (1889)  Chairman  of  the  Inter-State  Com 
merce  Commission. 

Coomas'sie,  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Ashantee,  Western  Africa,  is  situated  about  120 
miles  north-northwest  of  Cape  Coast  Castle  in 
N.  latitude  6°  35',  W.  longitude  2°  12'.  Pop. 
estimated  at  20,000. 

Cooper,  James  Fenimore,  an  American  nov¬ 
elist,  born  at  Burlington,  N  J  ,  Sept.  15,  1789. 
In  1822  he  published  The  Spy,  a  tale  which  at 
once  secured  for  him  a  place  in  the  first  rank  of 
novelists,  and  followed  it  with  a  series  of  stories 
of  frontier  life  known  as  the  Leather stockiny 
Tales,  on  which  his  fame  chiefly  rests.  He  died 
at  Coopcrstown,  N,  Y.,  Sept.  14,  1851. 

Cooper,  Sir  Astley,  an  English  surgeon,  born 
in  August,  1768.  He  was  the  first  to  attempt  the 
tying  of  the  carotid  artery,  an  attempt  which, 
though  unsuccessful  in  his  hands,  has  since 
proved  effectual  in  the  hands  of  other  practition¬ 
ers.  In  1823  he  received  the  appointment  of  Ser¬ 
geant-Surgeon  to  the  King,  and  in  1830  was  made 
Vice-President  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  died  in 
1841. 

Cooper,  Peter,  born  in  New  York,  Feb.  12, 
1791,  died  April  4,  1883,  well-known  as  inventor, 
merchant,  and  philanthropist.  He  built,  after  his 
own  design,  the  first  locomotive  ever  constructed 
in  America.  At  an  expense  of  nearly  $1,000,000 
he  built  and  endowed  the  Cooper  Institute, 
which  is  devoted  to  the  working  people  of  New 
York  City. 

Coop  'erage,  the  art  of  making  vessels  of  pieces 
of  wood  bound  together  by  hoops.  Barrels  are 
now  largely  made  by  machinery, 

Cooperation  is  the  term  applied  to  a  system 
of  united  effort  for  commercial  or  industrial  pur¬ 
poses.  It  refers  to  a  joint-stock  copartnery  on 
ordinary  commercial  principles,  but  possesses 
some  distinct  features.  Usually,  a  cooperative 
society  consists  of  a  body  belonging  to  the  man¬ 
ual  laboring  classes,  clerks,  salesmen,  etc.,  the 
object  being  the  distribution  of  articles  of  daily 
consumption  among  the  members.  A  store  is 
sometimes  established  under  a  manager  and  as¬ 
sistants;  goods  are  purchased,  and  retailed  to 
members  at  such  an  advance  on  cost  as  will  pay 
expenses  and  leave  a  small  profit.  To  carry  out 
any  such  principle  of  cooperation  with  advan 
tage,  there  must  be  a  large,  intelligent  population. 


COORG. 


304 


CORACOID  BONES. 


•with  mutual  trust  and  a  considerable  similarity 
of  tastes. 

Coorg,  a  province  under  the  Government  of 
India,  bounded  by  Mysore,  Malabar,  and  Canara, 
is  situated  in  latitude  11°  56' — 12°  45'  N.,  longi¬ 
tude  75°  25' — 76°  13'  E.  It  contains  about  2,000 
square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  178,283. 

Coo'sy  is  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  India.  It 
rises  in  latitude  28°  25'  N.,and  longitude  86°  11' 
E.,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Himalayas. 

Coot  ( Fulica ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order 
Grallce,  either  ranked  in  the  family  Ilallidoz  (rails, 
crakes,  etc.),  or  in  a  separate  family,  Lobipedidce, 
which  differs  chiefly  in  having  the  toes  edged  with 
a  scalloped  membrane,  thus  making  an  approach 
to  the  web-footed  birds.  Coots  have  a  strong, 


Common  Coot  ( Fulica  atra) . 


straight,  and  somewhat  conical,  bill.  The  tail  is 
short.  They  are  aquatic.  The  American  coot  ( F. 
amencana),  or  mud-hen,  is  found  in  all  parts  of 
North  America,  from  the  West  Indies  to  the  Sas¬ 
katchewan. 

Copai'va,  or  Copaiba,  Balsam  of,  a  valuable 
medicinal  substance,  consisting  chiefly  of  a  resin 
(Resin  of  Copaiva)  and  a  volatile  oil  (Oil  of  Co- 
paivn).  It  flows  from  incisions  made  in  the  stems 
of  trees  of  the  genus  Copaifera,  trees  with  pin¬ 
nate  leaves,  of  the  natural  order  Leguminosce,  sub¬ 
order  Cmalpiniece,  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of 
America. 

Co'pal,  a  resinous  substance  used  for  a  variety 
of  purposes  in  the  arts.  It  appears  in  commerce 
in  smooth,  rounded  masses,  colorless  or  lemon- 
yellow,  translucent  or  transparent,  brittle,  taste¬ 
less,  and  is  used  in  varnishes. 

Copal 'cite  Bark,  a  bark  resembling  cascarilla 
bark  in  its  properties,  and  produced  by  shrubs  of 
the  same  genus,  Croton  pseudo-china  and  C. 
suberosum,  natives  of  Mexico.  The  former  yields 
a  variety  in  small  quills;  that  produced  by  the 
latter  is  in  larger  quills,  and  has  a  corky  epider¬ 
mis.  Copalche  bark  is  much  used  as  a  substitute 
for  Cinchona  in  the  cure  of  intermittents  in 
Mexico. 

Cope,  an  ecclesiastical  vestment,  worn  during 
the  celebration  of  mass,  at  processions,  vespers, 
and  other  solemnities.  It  was 
originally  a  cloak  worn  for 
ordinary  purposes.  In  form  it 
is  a  semi-circle,  without  sleeves, 
and  with  a  hood.  It  is  fastened 
across  the  breast  with  a  clasp  or 
morse. 

Cope,  Sir  John,  an  English 
General  of  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  is  known 
through  his  ignominious  defeat 
at  the  Battle  of  Prestonpans  by 
the  Highlanders,  under  Prince 
Charles  Edward  Stuart,  Sept. 

21,  1745,  and  more  widely 
through  a  sarcastic  Jacobite 
song. 

Co 'pec,  a  Russian  coin,  the 
oldest  kind  in  Russia,  and  the 
first  substitute  for  furs  as  a 
medium  of  exchange.  It  is  the 
100th  part  of  a  silver  ruble, 
which  is  worth  about  75  cents. 

Copenlia'gen  (Dan.  Kjoben- 
havn,  Merchants’  Haven),  the 
capital  of  Denmark,  is  situated 
on  the  Island  of  Sjaelland,  in  the 
Sound,  which  is  here  about  fifteen  miles  broad, 
and  includes  the  Island  of  Amager  or  Amak, 


which  is  separated  from  Sjaelland  by  a  narrow 
arm  of  the  sea,  forming  a  fine  and  capacious 
harbor.  Latitude  55°  41'  N.,  longitude  12°  35' 
E.  Pop.  (1880),  235,254. 

Copernican  System,  The,  is  that  which  rep¬ 
resents  the  sun  to  be  at  rest  in  the  center,  and  the 
earth  and  planets  to  move  round  it  in  ellipses;  in 
other  words,  it  is  that  which  we  now  know,  on 
unquestionable  evidence,  to  be  the  true  system  of 
the  world.  It  got  its  name  from  Copernicus,  but, 
in  point  of  fact,  it  may  be  described  as  being  a 
growth  to  which  he  was  only  one  of  many  con¬ 
tributors. 

Coper  'mens,  Nicolas,  founder  of  the  modern 
astronomy,  was  born  Feb.  19,  1473,  at  Thorn,  in 
West  Prussia.  The  Be  Revolutionibus  he  com¬ 
pleted  in  1530,  but  could  not  be  prevailed  on  to 
give  it  to  the  press  till  close  on  the  end  of  his  life. 
He  died  May  24,  1543. 

Cop'ley,  John  Singleton,  a  historical  painter, 
born  at  Boston,  Mass.,  July  3,  1737.  In  1774  he 
went  to  England,  and  settled  permanently  in  Lon¬ 
don.  In  1783  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Academy,  and  died  in  1815.  His  best  work 
is  the  “  Death  of  Lord  Chatham,”  now  in  the 
National  collection. 

Cop'per  is  one  of  the  most  anciently  known 
metals,  and  its  name  is  derived  from  t  he  Island  of 
Cyprus,  where  it  was  first  obtained  from  the 
Greeks.  In  the  earlier  times,  copper  does  not  ap¬ 
pear  to  have  been  employed  by  itself,  but  always 
in  admixture  with  other  metals,  principally  tin, 
forming  what  is  now  called  bronze. 

Copper  In'digo  is  an  ore  of  copper  found  in 
spheroidal  masses  of  an  indigo  blue  color,  in 
Thuringia  and  Vesuvius,  and  is  very  nearly  pure 
sulphuret  of  copper.  Its  composition  in  100  parts, 
is-  Copper,  64%;  sulphur,  32%;  iron,  %;  and  lead,l. 

Cop'peras  is  the  commercial  term  for  the  sul¬ 
phate  of  iron. 

Coppered,  Coppering,  in  Shipbuilding,  are 
terms  used  in  reference  to  the  sheathing  applied 
to  the  bottom  of  timber-built  ships.  The  copper 
so  used  is  in  sheets,  weighing  from  18  to  32 
ounces  per  square  foot,  and  usually  measuring  48 
inches  by  14.  A  layer  of  felt,  paper,  or  coarse 
linen,  is  first  applied  to  the  planking;  and  the 
copper  is  nailed  upon  it. 

Cop'permine  River — so  named,  in  common 
with  the  mountains  to  the  west  of  it,  from  the 
metallic  products  of  the  vicinity — enters  a  bay  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  about  latitude  68°  N.,  and  longi¬ 
tude  116°  W.  Its  overland  discovery  by  Lieu- 
teuant  Hearne,  then  in  the  Hudson’s  Bay  Com¬ 
pany’s  service,  in  June,  1771,  excited  considerable 
interest,  as  proving  that  the  supposed  Strait  of 
Anian  had  its  eastward  outlet,  if  any,  only  in  the 
Icy  Sea.  The  Coppermine  river  rises  near  a 
feeder  of  Great  Bear  Lake,  which  itself  is  tribu¬ 
tary  to  the  Mackenzie. 

Cop'rolites  (from  Gr.  xorr/jot,  kopros,  dung, 
and  A  idoS,  lithos,  a  stone),  are  the  fossilized  ex¬ 
crements  of  animals  found  in  the  secondary  and 
tertiary  strata  of  the  earth’s  crust.  Their  true 
nature  was  first  inferred  from  their  occurrence  in 
the  bodies  of  several  species  of  Ichthyosaurus,  in 
the  region  where  was  situated  the  intestinal  tube. 
It  has  been  since  shown  that  they  are  the  voidings 
chiefly  of  saurians  and  of  sauroid  fishes.  They 
often  contain  portions  of  scales,  bone,  teeth,  and 
shells,  the  indigestible  parts  of  the  food  on  which 
the  animals  lived. 

Cops,  Coping  (Ang.-Sax.  cop,  Ger.  kopf,  the 
head).  The  merlons  or  rising  parts  of  battle¬ 
ments  are  sometimes  called  cops,  but  the  term 
coping  is  usually  applied  to  the  covering  course 
of  a  wall,  which  is  made  either  sloping  or  round, 
so  as  to  throw  off  water. 

Copts,  the  Christian  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians.  Various  derivations  have  been  given 
of  the  name,  which,  however,  is  most  probably 
from  the  same  root  as  E -gypt.  They  number 
about  150,000,  only  about  a  fourteenth  of  the 
population  of  the  country.  There  are  about  10,- 
000  of  them  in  Cairo.  They  are  not  of  great 
stature,  have  black  eyes,  and  rather  curly  hair, 
and,  in  a  number  of  points,  resemble  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  from  whom  also  they  have  inherited 
the  custom  of  circumcision.  They  dress  like  the 
Moslems,  but  are  generally  distinguished  by  a 
black  turban.  Their  character  is  in  general 
gloomy,  deceitful,  and  avaricious. 


Cop '  ula  (Lat.  band)  is  a  term  employed  in  Logic 
to  designate  the  word  which  unites  the  two  notions 
of  a  sentence — viz.,  the  subject  and  predicate,  into 
one  judgment  or  thought. 

Cop'y,  in  the  Fine  Arts,  is  a  reproduction  of  a 
work,  whether  painting,  statue,  or  engraving,  not 
by  the  original  artist.  A  copy  made  by  the  master 
himself  is  called  a  repetition  (in  French,  a  doab- 
lelte). 

Copying,  a  term  applied  in  Photography  to 
the  reproduction  of  paintings,  engravings,  manu¬ 
scripts,  maps,  etc. 

Copying  Machines.  The  various  contrivances 
for  procuring  duplicates  of  writings  without  the 
labor  of  transcribing  them,  may  be  reduced  to 
two  classes.  In  the  one,  the  writing  is  first  made, 
and  then  copied;  in  the  other,  the  copy  and  the 
original  are  produced  at  the  same  time. 

Copy 'right,  an  author’s  exclusive  right  of  prop¬ 
erty  in  any  work  which  he  writes,  and  which, 
under  certiiin  limitations,  is  transferable  to  his 
heirs  and  assigns.  Such  is  ihe  chief  or  general 
meaning  of  the  term,  which  now,  however,  em¬ 
braces  several  varieties  of  right.  Copyright  in  the 
United  States,  as  regulated  by  legislation  from 
1790  to  1870,  is  extended  only  to  citizens  or  resi¬ 
dents.  It  can  be  secured  by  any  citizen  of  the 
UnitedStates,  or  resident  therein,  who  is  the  author 
of  any  book,  map,  chart,  dramatic  or  musical 
composition,  engraving,  cut,  print,  photograph, 
painting,  statue,  etc.  The  term  of  copyright  is 
twenty-eight  years  from  date  of  recording;  but  at 
the  end  of  that  term,  the  author,  if  living,  or,  if 
dead,  his  widow  or  child,  may  record  it  for  an 
additional  term  of  fourteen  years.  In  cases  of 
renewal,  record  to  be  published  in  one  or  more 
newspapers.  The  first  step  in  securing  copyright 
is  to  send  a  copy  of  the  title  of  book  or  other 
article,  or  a  description  of  the  painting,  statue, 
etc.,  to  the  Librarian  of  Congress  before  publica¬ 
tion,  and  two  copies  of  the  book  (a  photograph  in 
the  case  of  paintings,  etc.)  must  be  sent  to  the 
Librarian  within  ten  days  after  publication.  The 
Librarian  makes  the  proper  record,  receiving  a 
small  fee.  It  is  requisite  that  notice  including 
the  year  of  entry  of  copyright  be  stated  in  each 
book  or  on  each  other  article.  All  pirated  copies 
of  copyright  works  are  to  be  forfeited,  independ¬ 
ently  of  claims  for  damages,  by  action  at  law. 
International  copyright  is  a  mutual  convention 
between  two  countries  to  protect  each  other’s 
copyright,  translations  included.  Great  Britain 
made  such  arrangement  with  Spain,  Austria,  Bel¬ 
gium,  Saxony,  Prussia,  France,  Italy,  etc.  For¬ 
merly  the  United  States  had  refused  to  enter  into 
any  international  law  of  copyright  with  Great 
Britain;  but  in  1880  the  draft  of  an  international 
copyright  treaty  was  laid  before  the  British  Gov¬ 
ernment  for  consideration.  No  settlement  of  this 
question  has  ever  been  reached,  and  it  forms  a 
standing  grievance  with  both  American  and  Eng¬ 
lish  authors. 

Coquil'la  Nut,  the  fruit  of  a  palm,  Attalea 
funifera.  It  forms  an  article  of  export  from 
South  America,  being  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  the  manufacture  of  buttons  and  in  tur¬ 
nery,  as  for  making  knobs  of  walking-sticks, 
umbrella  handles,  handles  of  bell-pulls,  etc. 

Coquim'bo,  the  name  of  a  river,  department, 
and  city  of  Cliili. — 1.  The  river,  rising  in  the 
Andes,  enters  the  Pacific  about  latitude  29°  55' 
S.,  and  longitude  71°  25'  W.,  and  forms,  at  its 
mouth,  one  of  the  best  harbors  in  the  republic. — 
2.  The  department,  extending  in  latitude  from 
25°  30'  to  31°  S.,  and  in  longitude  from  69°  to 
72°  W.,  occupies  the  entire  breadth  of  the 
country  between  Aconcagua  on  the  south 
and  Atacama  on  the  north.  The  pop.  in  1881  was 
165,474. — 3.  The  City  of  Coquimbo,  also  called 
La  Serena,  is  the  capital  of  the  department.  It 
stands  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  has  13,000 
inhabitants.  The  Port  of  Coquimbo  is  on  the 
bay,  several  miles  away,  and  is  one  of  the  best 
harbors  in  Chili. 

Cor 'acoid  Bones.  In  the  mammalian  skeleton, 
the  scapula  or  blade-bone  presents  a  projecting 
bony  process  termed  the  coracoid  process,  from 
its  supposed  resemblance  to  a  crow's  beak  (Lat. 
korax,  a  crow) ;  and  from  the  idea  that  the  bones 
correspond  anatomically  with  the  comparatively 
slightly  developed  coracoid  process,  they  have 


Cope. 


CORAL 


305 


CORIOLANUS. 


received  the  name  which  is  now  universally 
assigned  to  them 

Cor'al,  a  calcareous  secretion  or  deposit  of  the 
Coralligena;  a  sub-class  of  Actinozoa.  This 
deposit  assumes  various  and  often  beautiful 


A,  branch  of  Dendrophyllia;  B,  part  of  a  stock  of  red  coral, 
with  (a)  fuliy  extended  polyp,  and  (b,  b)  two  polyps, 
partly  extended. 


forms,  according  to  the  differing  gemmation  of 
the  polyps  of  the  different  species.  The  coral- 
producing  zoophytes  are  compound  animals, 
which  increase  by  gemmation,  young  polyp 
buds  springing  from  the  original  polyp,  but, 
remaining  in  the  same  spot,  even  when  the  origi¬ 
nal  or  parent  polyp  has  ceased  to  exist,  and  pro¬ 
ducing  buds  in  their  turn.  The  calcareous  depo 
sition  begins  when  the  zoophyte  is  still  a  simple 
polyp — owing  its  existence  to  oviparous  repro¬ 
duction — adhering  to  a  rock  or  other  substance, 
to  which  the  calcareous  matter  becomes  affixed, 
and  on  which  the  coral  grows  or  is  built  up,  the 
hard  deposits  of  former  generations  forming  the 
base  to  which  those  of  their  progeny  are  attached 
The  calcareous  framework  is  analogous  to  the 
cartilaginous,  leathery,  or  fibrous  framework  of 
many  other  compound  zoophytes,  as  Acyonium, 
or  Dead  Man’s  Fingers.  The  polyps  of  the 
common  red  coral  (Cor allium,  rubrum),  indeed 
very  much  resemble  those 
In  '  the  Madre- 
poridce ,  the  gen¬ 
eral  structure 
more  nearly  re¬ 
sembles  that  of 
Ale  yonium . 

Many  of  them, 
however,  have 
the  whole  calca¬ 
reous  framework 
covered  as  in  the 
Corallidat ,  by  a 
gelatinous  living 
substance  which 
unites  all  the 
polyps.  The 
whole  living 
part  soon  de- 


of  Alcyonium. 


Caryophyllia  borealis ,  single 
individual. 


composes  and  disappears,  when  the  coral  is  taken 
out  of  the  water,  in  some  species  almost  imme¬ 
diately  running  from  the  calcareous  part  as  a 
watery  slime.  Corals  chiefly  abound  in  the  seas 
of  the  warmer  latitudes,  where  they  form  exten¬ 
sive  banks  at  no  very  great  depth,  and  their 
various  and  bright  colors  present  the  appearance 
of  submarine  flower-gardens. 

Coral  Flower,  or  Coral  Tree  (Erythrina),  a 
genus  of  trees  and  shrubs,  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosce,  sub-order  Papihonacece ;  of  which 
the  species,  natives  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
regions,  generally  produce  long  spikes  of  beauti¬ 
ful  flowers  of  a  rich,  dull  crimson  or  a  scarlet 
color,  resembling  coral. 

Coral  Islands  exist  most  abundantly  in  the 
tropical  and  sub  tropical  part  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  formation  of  coral  goes  on  with  wonderful 
rapidity,  for  masses  of  coral  have  been  found  to 
increase  in  height  several  feet  in  a  few  months; 
and  a  channel  cut  in  the  reef  surrounding  a  coral 
island,  to  permit  the  passage  of  a  schooner,  has 


been  choked  up  with  coral  in  ten  years.  It  was 
at  one  time  supposed  that  the  coral  polyps  began 
their  labors  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  and  reared 
their  pile  from  its  greatest  depths;  but  it  has  been 
ascertained  that  none  of  them  live  at  depths  of 
more  than  twenty  or  thirty  fathoms,  and  most  of 
them  are  inhabitants  of  much  shallower  water. 
It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  foundation  of  their 
structures  must  be  on  rocks  that  do  not  reach 
the  surface,  probably  in  most  cases  volcanic  rocks 
similar  to  those  which,  being  further  upheaved, 
form  the  volcanic  and  often  mountainous  islands 
of  Polynesia. 

Coral  Sea,  so  called  from  the  substance  of  its 
numerous  reefs,  is  that  section  of  the  Pacific 
which  stretches  between  Australia  on  the  west  and 
the  New  Hebrides  on  the  east. 

Cor  'alline  ( Corallina  and  Corallinaceae),  a  genus 
and  family  of  marine  Algae,  of  the  sub-order  Cera- 
miaeece,  remarkable  for  rigidity,  which  is  mostly 
owing  to  a  calcareous  incrustation. 

Cor 'anacli,  Coranich,  Cronach,  etc.,  a  funeral 
dirge,  formerly  in  use  among  the  Irish  and  Scot¬ 
tish  Celts.  The  word  is  probably  derived  from 
the  Gaelic  cornh-rdnaich,  a  crying  together.  See 
Scott’s  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

Cor'bel  (Fr.  cor- 
beille,  a  basket).  In 
Architecture,  this 
term  originally  sig¬ 
nified  an  ornament 
in  the  form  of  a 
basket,  like  those 
sometimes  set  on  the 
heads  of  caryatides. 

In  Gothic  architec¬ 
ture,  to  which  it  is 
now  almost  pecu¬ 
liar,  it  is  applied  to 
any  kind  of  orna¬ 
mental  projection 
used  for  supporting 
pillars  or  other 
superincumbent  weights. 

Cord 'age,  a  seaman’s  name  for  the  running 
rigging  of  a  ship,  as  distinguished  from  the  stand¬ 
ing  rigging.  The  name  is  also  given  to  the  store 
of  rope  kept  in  reserve. 

Corday  D’Armans,  Marie  Anne  Charlotte, 
known  as  Charlotte  Corday,  was  born  at  St. 
Saturnin,  in  the  department  of  Orne,  in  1768. 
She  assassinated  Murat,  July  13,  1793,  for  which 
she  was  guillotined  July  17tli,  of  the  same  year. 

Cordeliers  (cord-wearers)  was  the  name 
applied,  in  France,  to  the  strictest  branch  of  the 
Franciscan  friars,  on  account  of  their  wearing  a 
girdle  of  knotted  cord. 

Cord '-grass  (Spartina),  a  genus  of  grasses 
having  compound  spikes,  the  spikelets  arranged 
on  one  side,  and  having  only  one  perfect  floret, 
and  very  unequal  glumes. 

Cordia'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  closely  allied  to  Boraginea ,  from  which  it 
differs  chiefly  in  its  drupaceous  4—8  celled  fruit. 
It  consists  of  trees  with  rough  leaves,  chiefly  na¬ 
tives  of  the  tropics,  although  some  are  found  in 
cool  parts  of  South  America.  The  fruits  called 
Sebesten  or  Sebesten  Plum  belong  to  this  order 
and  to  the  genus  Cordia;  which  also  contains 
some  valuable  timber-trees,  particularly  the  Span¬ 
ish  Elm,  Prince  Wood,  or  Bois  de  Chypre  of  the 
West  Indies  (C.  Gerasacanthus). 

Cordil'leras  (Span.  Cordille'ra).  The  word 
literally  signifies  a  chain,  and  is  applied  in  Span¬ 
ish  America  to  a  chain  of  mountains.  The  cor¬ 
dilleras  of  South  America  are  described  under 
Andes.  Those  of  Central  America  extend  from 
the  commencement  of  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  to 
die  North  of  Mexico  and  California,  and  spread 
themselves  from  sea  to  sea,  presenting  many  di¬ 
versities,  and  occupying  the  States  of  New  Gran¬ 
ada,  Costa  Rica,  Nicaragua,  Honduras,  San  Sal¬ 
vador,  Guatemala,  the  Mexican  Confederation,  and 
New  Mexico.  They  gradually  increase  in  elevation 
from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  where  at  one  point 
they  are  only  260  feet  high,  until,  in  Mexico,  they 
reach  a  height  of  more  than  17,000  feet,  and  form 
magnificent  plateaux. 

Cor'don,  in  Military  Operations,  is  a  line  of 
sentries  inclosing  or  guarding  any  particular 
space  of  ground,  to  prevent  the  passage  of  per¬ 
sons  other  than  those  belonging  to  the  army. 


The  sentries  are  placed  within  sight  of  each 
other.  If  intended  to  guard  against  contagious 
diseases,  it  is  called  a  cordon  sanitaire. 

Cordon  Bleu,  originally  the  blue  ribbon  which 
in  France  supported  the  insignia  of  the  Order  of 
the  Holy  Ghost;  but  playfully  transferred  to  good 
cooks,  who  after  examination  received  a  medal, 
also  suspended  from  a  blue  ribbon. 

Cor'dova,  or  Cor'doba,  a  city  of  Spain,  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  Province  of  Cordova,  is  situated  on  the 
Guadalquiver.  Pop.,  49,000.  The  Province  of 
Cordova  has  an  area  of  5,159  square  miles,  and  a 
pop.  (1877),  of  385,582 

Cordova,  the  capital  of  a  State  of  the  same 
name  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  is  situated  on 
the  Rio  Priinero,  a  tributary  of  the  Parana,  near 
the  center  of  the  State.  It  was  founded  in  1573, 
and  is  an  important  commercial  and  ecclesiastical 
city,  with  a  pop.  of  40,000,  The  State  of  Cor¬ 
dova  is  situated  near  the  center  of  the  Republic, 
and  contains  about  55,000  square  miles,  with  a 
pop.  (1882),  of  320,000. 

Cor'dovan,  a  species  of  leather  prepared  from 
goat-skins.  It  was  originally,  and  at  one  time 
exclusively,  manufactured  by  the  Moors  of  Cor¬ 
dova,  and  hence  its  name.  The  best  still  comes 
from  the  Levant.  It  is  used  in  book-binding,  and 
in  the  finer  kinds  of  boot  and  shoe  making. 

Core  a,  a  peninsular  kingdom  of  Eastern  Asia, 
tributary  to  China;  N.  latitude  34°  40'  to  42°  30', 
and  E.  longitude  125°  to  129°,  with  an  area  esti¬ 
mated  at  91,000  square  miles.  It  is  bounded  east 
by  the  Sea  of  Japan;  south  by  the  Yellow  Sea; 
west  by  the  Yellow  Sea  and  Gulf  of  Pechili;  and 
north  by  the  rivers  Ya-lu  and  Tu-men,  which 
separate  Corea  from  Chinese  and  Russian  Mant- 
cliuria  respectively.  The  pop.  is  variously  esti¬ 
mated  at  from  7,000,000  to  13,000,000. 

Corfu  ,  the  ancient  Corey ra,  an  island  of  Greece, 
in  the  Ionian  Sea,  off  the  coast  of  Albania  or 
Epirus,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait 
varying  in  breadth  from  less  than  2  to  about  15 
miles.  Its  extreme  length  is  about  40  miles  and 
its  greatest  breadth  about  20  miles.  Area,  127 
square  miles.  Pop.  about  72,500.  Corfu,  the 
capital,  has  a  pop.  of  25,000. 

Coriander,  the  fruit,  improperly  called  seed, 
of  an  umbelliferous  plant  (Conundrum  sativum), 
a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe  and  Asia  Minor. 

Coriglia'no,  a  town  of  Italy,  in  the  Province 
of  Cosenza;  about  four  miles  from  the  Gulf  of 
Taranto.  Pop.,  10,600. 

Corin'na,  a  Greek  lyric  poetess,  famous  alike 
for  her  beauty  and  genius,  was  born  at  Tanagra, 
in  Breotia,  about  500  b.c.  She  lived  principally  at 
Thebes,  and  hence  is  sometimes  called  a  Theban. 
.(Elian  states  that  on  five  different  occasions  she 
vanquished  her  contemporary,  Pindar,  in  a  poetic 
contest. 

Co'rinth  (originally  called  Ephyre),  a  famous 
city  of  antiquity  situated  on  the  isthmus  connect¬ 
ing  the  northern  division  of  Greece,  or  Hellas 
Proper,  with  the  Peloponnesus.  Pop. ,  about  2,000. 

Covintli,  Gulf  of,  or  Gulf  of  Lepan'to.  An 
arm  of  the  Mediterranean  extending  from  west  to 
east  through  the  center  of  Greece,  from  the 
Ionian  to  within  about  five  miles  of  the  .Egean 
Sea,  thus  almost  dividing  the  kingdom  into  two 
parts,  the  Morea  forming  the  southern  portion. 
Its  greatest  length  is  about  75  miles,  with  an  aver¬ 
age  breadth  of  15  miles. 

Corinth,  Siege  of,  was  a  series  of  operations 
by  the  Confederates  under  Van  Dorn  and  Price 
against  the  Union  general,  Rosecrans,  in  which  the 
former  were  defeated. 

Corinthians,  Epistles  to  the,  were  written 
by  St.  Paul,  57  or  58  a.d.  The  first  was  com¬ 
posed  at  Ephesus;  the  second,  according  to  gen¬ 
eral  opinion,  at  Philippi,  but  this  is  doubtful. 
The  genuineness  of  both  is  all  but  universally 
recognized.  From  the  contents  of  I  Cor.,  chap, 
v,  verse  9,  it  has  been  concluded  by  many  theo¬ 
logians  that  Paul  must  have  written  a  previous 
epistle,  now  lost. 

Coriola'nus,  Caius  or  Cnasus  Marcius,  a 
Roman  patrician,  surnamed,  according  to  the 
lialf-fabulous  legend,  Coriolanus,  on  account  of 
his  capture  of  the  town  of  Corioli,  belonging  to 
the  Volsci,  (493  b.c.)  On  one  occasion,  during  a 
famine,  he  argued  in  the  Senate  against  a  gratu 
itous  distribution  of  the  corn  which  had  arrived 
from  Sicily,  and  insisted  that  t lie  plebeian  trib- 


20 


CORK. 


306 


CORNICE. 


unes,  lately  instituted,  should  first  he  discharged 
from  ollice.  For  this  he  was  impeached  and 
banished.  He  took  refuge  among  the  Volscians, 
whom  he  aided  in  their  war  with  the  Romans. 
His  victories  at  the  head  of  his  Yolscian  troops 
alarmed  the  Romans,  who,  on  his  approach  to 
their  city,  sent  a  variety  of  deputations  to  plead 
with  him.  He  was  de  if  to  every  entreaty.  At  last, 
the  noblest  matrons  of  Rome,  headed  by  his  old 
mother  and  his  wife,  Volumnia,  leading  her  two 
children,  came  to  his  tent.  His  desire  to  be  re¬ 
venged  on  those  who  had  dishonored  him  was 
cooled  by  the  tears  of  his  relatives,  and  he  led 
back  the  Volsci  to  their  own  territories,  where  he 
lived  to  an  advanced  age.  Shakespeare  has  writ¬ 
ten  a  play  on  the  subject. 

Cork  (Span,  corcho,  from  Lat.  cortex),  is  the 
unusually  developed  epiphloeum  of  the  bark  of 
the  cork-tree  or  cork-oak  ( Quercus  suber),  the 
Alcornoque  of  the  Spaniards,  a  species  of  oak,  a 
native  of  the  South  of  Europe  and  North  of  Africa. 

Cork,  a  city  of  Ireland,  capital  of  the  county 
of  the  same  name,  and  a  county  in  itself,  on  the 
Lee,  eleven  miles  above  its  mouth.  It  is  built  in 
part  on  an  island,  formerly  a  swamp,  which  the 
word  cork,  corcoch  or  carcagli  implies.  Pop. 
(1831),  80,124;  Pari.  bor.  104,490.  The  County 
of  Cork  is  the  largest  in  Ireland,  and  has  an 
area  of  1,849,083  acres  and  a  pop.  of  500,000. 

Corliss,  George  II.,  a  mechanical  engineer, 
born  June  2,  1817,  inventor  of  the  steam  engine 
which  bears  his  name.  Its  special  superiority 
over  the  ordinany  engine  is  owing  to  the  form  and 
method  of  working  the  steam  valves.  Prompt¬ 
ness  of  admission  and  cut  off,  independent  of  the 
piston,  are  obtained  by  a  special  gear.  The  Cor¬ 
liss  engine  is  economical. 

Conn  (Gr.  noppoi,  a  stump) — sometimes  called 
a  solid  bulb— the  short  and  bulb-like  subterranean 
stem  of  many  endogenous  plants.  It  produces 
buds  in  the  form  of  small  conns,  either  from  its 
summit  or  its  side;  and  these  gradually  exhaust 
and  destroy  it.  Examples  may  be  seen  in  the 
tulip,  crocus,  gladiolus,  colcMcum,  and  arum. 

Cormorant  (Phalocrocorax;  Fr.  cormorant; 
Ital.  corvo  marino;  Bret,  morvrau,  a  sea-crow; 
Welsh,  mor,  sea,  and  bran,  a  crow),  a  genus  of 
web-footed  birds  of  the  family  Pelecanidce  or 
Totipnlmati,  having,  like  the  rest  of  that  family, 


Cormorant. 


the  hind-toe  united  in  a  single  membrane  with 
the  other  toes.  It  lives  on  fish,  and  in  China  is 
domesticated  and  trained  to  catch  them  for  its 
owners. 

Corn  (Ger.  Korn)  meant  primarily  any  small, 
round,  hard  body,  like  a  seed.  This  general 
meaning  is  still  seen  in  its  application  to  con 
cretions  on  the  feet.  It  is  allied  to  the  Lat. 
granum,  grain;  and  to  Ger.  Kern,  kernel. 

Corn  Aphis, oi- 

Wheat  Aphis, 

( Aphis  granaria), 
a  species  of  Aphis, 
o  r  plant  louse  v. 
which  is  s  o  m  c- 
times  injurious  to  a 
cor  n-c  r  o  p  s,  ap¬ 
pearing  in  great 
numbers  on  the 
ears,  sucking  the 
juices  of  the  plant 
and  so  impover¬ 
ishing  the  grain. 

Corn  Beetle  ( Cucujus  testaceus),  a  minute 
beetle,  which  inhabits  granaries  and  mills,  and  of 


Corn  Aphis, 
a,  natural  size. 


which  the  larva  often  does  much  mischief,  feed¬ 
ing  on  gtain,  particularly  on  wheat.  The  per 
feet  insect  is  of  a  bright,  fulvous  color;  the  larva 
ochreous,  with  a  forked  tail. 

Corn-fly,  the 
common  name  of  a 
number  of  small 
dipterous  (two 
winged)  insects,  of 
the  large  f  a  m  i  1  y 
Muse  ides,  particu 
larly  of  the  genera 
Chlorops  and  Os- 
ctnis,  which  do 
great  injury  to  corn 
crops.  The  m  a  g- 
gots  living  on  the 
juices  of  the  plant 
produce  the  disease 
which,  from  the 
swelling  of  the  joint, 
is  called  gout;  and 
the  plant  impover¬ 
ished,  either  p  r  o- 
duces  no  ear,  or  an 
i  m  p  e  r  f  e  c  t  and 
partially  shriveled 
one. 

Corn  Ground  Beetle  {Zabrus  gibbus),  an  insect 
of  the  order  Goleoptera,  section  Pentamera.  It  is 
about  six  lines  in  length,  of  a  shining,  pitchy- 
black  color,  with  rusty  jaws  and  legs,  very 


Corn-fly  (Chlorops  tceniopus). 
a,  a  portion  of  a  culm  or  stem  of 
wheat  with  a  swollen  joint, 
caused  by  larva  of  corn-fly; 
b,  larva;  c,  pupa;  d,  fly,  natu¬ 
ral  size:  e,  fly,  magnified. 


Corn  Ground  Beetle. 

1,  larva,  magnified;  2  natural  size  of  larva;  3,  perfect  in¬ 
sect,  female,  slightly  magnified ;  4,  a  cell  containing 
pupa;  5,  a  burrow. 

broad  and  convex,  the  wings  large,  the  antennae 
short  and  slender. 

Corn  Moth  {Tinea  granella),  a  small  species  of 
moth  of  the  same  genus  with  the  clothes  moths. 
This  moth  is  satiny  and  of  a  cream-white  color; 
the  superior  wings  marbled  with  gray,  brown, 
and  black,  and  when  at  rest  sloping  like  the  roof 
of  a  house,  their  fringe  turned  up  behind  like  a 
tail.  It  abounds  in  spring  and  summer,  and  lays 
its  eggs  either  among  stored  grain  or  in  sheaves 
in  the  field.  The  eggs  are  so  small  as  to  be  in¬ 
visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

Corn  Saw' fly  {Gephus  pygmaeus),  a  species  of 
the  s  a  w  fl  y 
which  sometimes 
does  much  mis¬ 
chief  in  fields, 
particularly  t  o  c 
wheat. 

Corn  Tlirips 

( Th  rips  cerealiu  m) 
a  minute  insect, 
often  abund¬ 
ant  o  n  fl  o  w- 
ers,  a  n  d  which 
does  much  mis¬ 
chief  to  grain 
crops,  particu 
larly  late-sown 
wheat,  insinuat¬ 
ing  itself  bet  ween 
the  chaff  and  the  Corn  Sawfly 

i m mature  e-rain  a,  maggot,  natural  size;  6.  maggot, 
* S  if  magnified;  c,  the  maggot  in  its 

which  it  causes  ear  in  the  stem  of  the  corn;  d, 
to  shrivel.  female  insect,  magnified;  e,  female 

Col’ll  Wee'vil  insect,  natural  size. 

(Calandr a  granaria),  a  coleopterous  insect  of  the 
family  Curculionidce,  which,  although  small,  is 
often  extremely  destructive  to  grain  stored  in 


granaries.  Of  the  same  genus  are  the  rice  weevil 
( Calandra  orysce),  and  a  large  South  American 
insect (O  .palmarum),  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  the 
grub  of  which  lives  in  the  stems  of  palms,  and  is 
eaten  as  a  delicacy  both  by  Indians  and  Creoles. 

Corna'ceae,  a  small  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  containing  about  forty  known  species, 
chiefly  trees  and  shrubs,  with  a  few  herbaceous 
plants.  The  fruits  of  some  are  eatable;  the  bark 
and  leaves  of  some  are  medicinal;  some  are  val 
ued  as  ornamental  plants.  Cornel,  dogwood, 
aucuba,  and  benthamia  are  examples. 

Corn'braslt,  a  member  of  the  lower  oolite, 
consists  chiefly  of  a  rubbly  cream-colored  lime¬ 
stone  in  thin  layers,  always  nodular  and  concre¬ 
tionary,  each  fragment  having  a  deep-red  coat¬ 
ing. 

Cor'nea,  the  third  coat  of  the  eye;  so-called 
from  its  resemblance  to  horn  (Lat.  cornu).  Pop¬ 
ularly  called  the  “white”  of  the  eye.  See  Eye. 

Corneille,  Pierre,  the  creator  of  French 
tragedy,  was  born  June  6,  1606.  He  studied  for 
the  legal  profession.  A  love  adventure,  in  which 
he  became  the  rival  of  a  friend,  first  prompted 
him  to  write  verses,  and  Melite,  the  comedy 
founded  on  this  incident,  was  performed  with 
success  in  1629.  This  was  followed  by  other 
dramatic  pieces,  and  the  greater  portion  of  his 
life  was  devoted  to  the  writing  of  plays,  many  of 
which  rank  with  the  best  in  his  native  language. 
He  died  Oct.  1,  1684. 

Cor  'nel,  or  Corne 'li an  Cherry  {Cornus mas), 
the  Cornus  of  the  ancients,  a  tree  or  shrub  of  15 
to  20  feet  high,  of  the  natural  order  Cornactce,  a 
native  of  the  Middle  and  South  of  Europe,  and 
of  a  great  part  of  Asia.  The  fruit  is  oblong, 
about  the  size  of  a  small  plum,  shining,  red,  or 
rarely  yellow  or  white.  It  is  late  in  ripening, 
and  until  quite  ripe  is  very  austere,  but  when 
perfectly  mellow,  lias  an  agreeable,  vinous,  acid 
taste;  it  is  either  eaten  as  it  conies  from  the  tree, 
or  is  made  into  a  preserve,  which  is  said  to  be 
tonic,  and  useful  in  diarrhoea. 

Cornelia  was  the  younger  daughter  of  Scipio 
Africanus  the  Elder,  the  conqueror  of  Carthage, 
and  mother  of  the  two  great  Tribunes,  Tiberius 
and  Caius  Gracchus,  and  of  Cornelia,  the  wife  of 
Scipio  Africanus  the  Younger.  On  her  death  a 
statue  was  erected  to  her  memory,  bearing  the 
inscription — “Cornelia,  Mother  of  the  Gracchi.” 
See  Plutarch’s  Lives  of  Tib.  and  C.  Gracchus. 

Corne 'litis,  Peter  Von,  one  of  the  first 
masters  of  the  modern  German  school  of  paint¬ 
ing,  was  born  at  Diisseldorf,  Sept.  23,  1787.  At 
the  age  of  twenty-three  he  gave  proof  of  a  crea¬ 
tive  fancy  in  his  illustrations  of  Gdthe’s  Faust, 
and  the  Nibelunyen  Lied.  His  “Judgment”  is 
the  largest  fresco  in  the  world.  In  1841  he  was 
invited  by  the  King  of  Prussia  to  Berlin,  where 
he  was  appointed  Director  of  the  Berlin  Academy. 
He  died  March  6,  1867. 

Cornell  University,  named  from  its  founder, 
Ezra  Cornell  (1807-1874),  possesses  numerous 
buildings,  and  more  than  200  acres  of  University 
grounds.  It  is  situated  at  Ithaca,  N.  Y.,  and  was 
opened  in  1868.  Students  unable  to  defray  the 
expense  of  their  curriculum  are  required  to  pro¬ 
vide  for  their  support  by  manual  labor  on  the 
farm  or  in  the  factory  attached,  for  which  they 
receive  the  current  rate  of  wages.  They  also  re¬ 
ceive  an  allotment  of  300  acres,  the  produce  of 
which  helps  to  supply  the  university  table.  Ac¬ 
cording  to  its  charter,  Cornell  University  is  in¬ 
cluded  wit  hin  the  educational  system  of  the  State, 
and  is  visited  by  the  regents  of  the  New  York 
University. 

Cor'net,  a  stop,  or  series  of  pipes,  in  an  organ, 
intended  to  imitate  the  tone  of  an  obsolete  wind- 
instrument  which  has  been  superseded  by  the 
oboe. — The  Cornet-a-Piston,  a  modern  wind- 
instrument  of  the  trumpet  kind,  has  two  or  three 
valves,  and  in  brass  bauds  takes  the  soprano  and 
contralto  parts. 

Corne 'to,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  about  twelve 
miles  north  of  Civita  Yecchia.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Cor 'nice.  In  Classical  Architecture,  the  cornice 
is  the  uppermost  member  of  the  entablature,  sur¬ 
mounting  the  frieze.  Each  of  the  orders  has  its 
peculiar  cornice;  but  these,  with  their  relation  to 
the  other  portions  of  the  entablature,  will  be 
better  understood  when  explained  in  conjunction 
with  that  term.  In  the  Gothic  styles,  the  form  of 


CORNS. 


307 


CORSO. 


the  cornice  varies  greatly.  In  the  Norman  style, 
a  plain  face  of  parapet,  slightly  projecting  from 
the  wall,  is  frequently  used  as  a  cornice,  and  a 
row  of  blocks  is  often  placed  under  it,  sometimes 
plain,  sometimes  moulded  or  carved  into  heads 
and  other  ornaments,  when  it  is  called  a  corbel 


Cornice. 

Ensham  Church,  Oxon.,  circa  1450. 


table.  These  blocks  have  commonly  a  range  of 
small  arches  over  them.  In  some  cases  a  small, 
plain  string  is  used  as  a  cornice.  The  corbel  table 
continued  to  be  used  as  a  cornice  in  the  Early 
English  style;  but  it  was  generally  more  orna¬ 
mented  than  in  the  Norman,  the  arches  being 
commonly  trefoils  and  well  moulded.  The  term 
cornice  is  also  used,  in  a  general  sense,  to  signify 
any  horizontal  moulded  projection,  terminating  a 
building,  or  the  component  parts  of  a  building. 
It  is  in  this  sense  that  we  speak  of  the  cornice  of 
a  room. 

Corns  are  small,  hard  growths,  resulting  from 
an  increase  in  the  thickness  of  the  cuticle  or  epi¬ 
dermis,  which  is  generally  caused  by  the  irritation 
of  some  excessive  pressure  or  friction  on  the  part. 
They  occur  most  commonly  on  the  toes  as  a  result 
of  tight  shoes.  The  treatment  of  corns  consists 
in  the  removal  of  all  undue  pressure  or  friction, 
either  by  removing  the  shoe  altogether,  or  protect¬ 
ing  the  corn  by  surrounding  it  with  a  border  of 
some  soft  material,  as  amadou  or  soft  leather;  or 
the  hardened  cuticle  may  be  softened  by  the  ap¬ 
plication  of  some  alkaline  lotion,  and  then  scraped 
or  filed  away;  or  it  may  be  extracted.  A  lotion 
of  soda  or  potash  is  often  found  very  useful.  The 
cuticle  composing  a  soft  corn  should  be  clipped 
off  with  scissors,  and  a  small  piece  of  cotton  wool 
be  placed  between  the  toes.  In  all  serious  cases, 
Application  should  be  made  to  a  chiropodist. 

Cornucopia  (Lat.  cornu,  a  horn,  and  copia, 
plenty).  The  horn  of  plenty — regarding  the 
origin  of  which  several  fables  are  told  by  the 
ancient  poets— is  generally  placed  in  the  hands  of 
emblematical  figures  of  Plenty,  Liberality,  etc., 
who  are  represented  as  pouring  from  it  an  abund¬ 
ance  of  fruits,  corn,  etc.  It  is  frequently  used 
both  in  architecture  and  heraldry. 

Cornwall,  the  most  westerly  county  in  Eng¬ 
land,  is  also  that  which  extends  farthest  to  the 
south.  The  extreme  western  point  of  the  main 
land  is  the  Land’s  End,  5°  41'  31"  W.  longitude; 
the  extreme  southern  point  is  the  Lizard  Head,  in 
49°  57'  30"  N.  latitude.  It  is  bounded  on  all 
sides  by  the  sea,  except  on  the  east,  where  it  joins 
Devonshire.  Cornwall  is  a  long  promontory, 
which  gradually  narrows  toward  the  Land’s  End, 
and  has  one  deeply  projecting  spur  ending  in  the 
Lizard.  The  greatest  length  of  the  county,  from 
the  Tamar  to  the  Land’s  End,  is  80  miles.  It 
covers  an  area,  including  the  Scilly  Islands,  of 
869,878  acres,  or  1,359  square  miles.  In  1881  it 
had  329,984  inhabitants  It  is  famous  for  its 
tin  mines 

Cornwal'lis,  Charles,  Marquis,  an  English 
gi-neral  and  statesman,  born  Dec.  31,  1738. 

Though  personally  opposed  to  the  war  in  Amer¬ 
ica,  he  accompanied  his  regiment  thither,  and 
participated  in  the  Battles  of  Camden  and 
Guilford  He  surrendered  with  all  his  troops  at 
Yorktown,  Va  In  1786  Cornwallis  wasappointed 
Governor-General  of  India  and  Commander-in 
Chief,  and  in  this  double  capacity  distinguished 
himself  by  his  victories  over  Tippoo  Saib.  He 
returned  from  India  in  1793,  when  he  was  raised 
to  the  rank  of  Marquis.  He  was  appointed  Lord 
Lieutenant  of  Ireland  in  1798.  Reiippointcd  Gov 
ernor-General  of  India  in  1804,  he  died  at  Ghazi- 
pore,  in  October,  1805. 

Corel  'la,  in  Botany,  the  inner  floral  envelope  of 
the  greater  number  of  phanerogamous  plants;  the 
second  of  those  whorls  of  modified  leaves  which 
form  the  flower. 

Cor'ollary,  a  proposition  the  truth  of  which 
appears  so  clearly  from  the  proof  of  another 
proposition  as  not  to  require  separate  demonstra 

tion. 

Coroman  'del  Coast,  often  vaguely  taken  as  the 


whole  of  the  west  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
extends,  in  its  proper  acceptation,  from  Point 
Calimere,  in  latitude  10°  17'  N.,  longitude  79° 
56'  E.,  toGondegam,  in  latitude  15°  20'  N.,  longi¬ 
tude  80°  10'  E.  It  is  nearly  co  extensive  with 
the  districts  of  Tanjore,  Arcot,  Cliingleput,  and 
Nellore. 

Coro'na,  or  Crown,  in  Botany,  an  appendage 
of  the  corolla  in  some  flowers;  sometimes  assuming 
the  appearance  of  an  interior  corolla  very  differ¬ 
ent  from  the  true  corolla,  and  either  divided  into 
parts  resembling  petals,  or  consisting  only  of  one 
piece,  and  surrounding  the  organs  of  fructifica¬ 
tion  like  a  monopetalous  corolla;  sometimes  as¬ 
suming  very  peculiar  forms.  A  familiar  example 
may  be  seen  in  Narcissus;  forms  very  different 
may  be  seen  in  Stnpelia,  and  other  genera  of  the 
natural  order  Asclepiadacece. 

Corona  (Lat.  a  crown),  in  Architecture  the 
drip,  or  lower  member  of  the  projecting  part  of  a 
classical  cornice.  The  term  corona  is  also  applied 
to  the  apse  or  semicircular  termination  of  the 
choir,  especially  by  ecclesiastical  writers.  Corona 
is  also  applied  in  ecclesiastical  nomenclature,  to 
a  chandelier,  in  the  form  of  a  crown  or  circlet, 
suspended  from  the  roof  of  a  church,  or  from  the 
vaulting  of  the  nave  or  chapels,  to  hold  tapers 
which  are  lighted  on  solemn  occasions. 

Corona  Boreal 'is,  a  small  and  bright  constel¬ 
lation  near  Hercules. 

Corona 'tion.  The  practice  of  placing  a  crown 
on  the  head  of  a  monarch  at  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  is  very  ancient,  and  there  is  scarcely  any 
country  in  which  it  has  not  been  followed  in 
one  form  or  another.  Generally  it  has  been  ac¬ 
companied  by  what  was  regarded  as  the  still  more 
solemn  rite  of  anointing  with  oil,  a  ceremony 
which,  from  the  times  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  to 
our  own,  has  been  peculiarly  significant  of  conse¬ 
cration  or  devotion  to  the  service  of  God. 

Coroiiel'la,  a  genus  of  non- venomous  serpents 
of  the  family  Colubridw,  of  a  small  size,  having  a 
compressed  and  pentagonal  body,  and  rather 
long,  conical  tail.  They  inhabit  the  warm  and 
temperate  parts  of  the  world.  One  species,  V. 
Ice, vis,  is  found  in  the  Center  and  South  of  Europe. 

Cor 'oner  (Lat.  coronator,  corona,  a  crown),  an 
ancient  officer  in  England,  dating  at  least  from 
Saxon  times.  The  duty  of  a  coroner  in  the  present 
day  is  to  inquire  into  all  cases  of  sudden  or  violent 
death.  Coroners  have  also  ministerial  functions 
as  the  sheriff’s  substitute  in  cases  where  the  sheriff 
is  connected  with  parties  to  a  suit,  or  where, 
as  in  habeas  corpus  cases,  the  sheriff  is  himself  a 
defendant.  In  the  different  states  the  functions 
of  the  coroner  are  varied  by  statutory  enactments. 

Cor 'poral  (Fr.  caporal,  Ital.  caporale;  from  Lat. 
caput)  is,  in  the  United  States  army,  the  lowest 
grade  of  non-commissioned  officer.  When  the 
regiment  is  formed  as  a  corps,  he  has  no  function 
different  from  the  private  soldier.  In  barracks, 
in  camp,  or  on  guard  or  fatigue  duty,  he  exer¬ 
cises  certain  disciplinary  control  over  the  pri¬ 
vates. 

Corporal  (Lat.  corpus,  a  body,  because  of  the 
belief  that  the  bread  and  wine  are  the  body  and 
blood  of  our  Saviour),  a  name  given  to  the  cloth 
with  which  the  minister  covers  what  is  left  of  the 
consecrated  elements  in  the  Lord’s  Supper  until 
the  service  is  concluded.  It  is  also  called  the 
pall. 

Corporation.  A  corporation  is  an  association 
of  persons  which  the  law  treats  in  many  respects 
as  if  it  were  itself  a  person.  It  has  rights  and 
duties  of  its  own  which  are  not  the  rights  and 
duties  of  the  individual  members  thereof.  Thus 
a  corporation  may  own  land,  but  the  individual 
members  of  the  corporation  have  no  rights 
therein. 

Corpus  Cliristi  Fes'tival,  a  festival  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  It  was  instituted  in 
1264,  in  honor  of  the  Consecrated  Host,  and  with 
a  view  to  its  adoration,  by  Pope  Urban  IV.,  who 
appointed  for  its  celebration  the  Thursday  after 
the  festival  of  the  Trinity,  and  promised  to  all  the 
penitent  who  took  part  in  it,  indulgence  for  a 
period  of  from  40  to  100  days. 

Correg'gio,  Antonio  Allegri,  an  Italian 
painter,  called  Correggio  from  the  place  of  his 
birth,  a  small  town  near  Modena,  now  called 
Reggio.  He  was  born  in  1493-1494.  He  was 
the  founder,  or  rather  his  imitators  for  him,  of 


what  is  called  the  Lombard,  or  Parma  school  of 
painting.  He  died  March  5,  1534. 

Correg'idor  is  the  name  given  in  Spain  to  the 
principal  magistrate  of  a  town.  He  is  appointed 
by  the  King.  The  corregidor  is  also  a  Portu¬ 
guese  functionary, but,  unlike  his  Spanish  brother, 
does  not  possess  the  double  power  of  governing 
and  administering  justice,  but  only  the  latter. 

Correze,  a  department  of  France,  formed  of 
part  of  the  old  province  of  Limousin,  and  taking 
its  name  from  an  affluent  of  the  Vezere — the 
Corr&ze,  which  traverses  the  department  from 
northeast  to  southwest.  Correze  extends  between 
latitude  44°  55'  and  45°  40'  N.,  and  longitude 
1°  13'  and  2°  22'  E.  Area,  2,300  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  311,478.  The  chief  rivers  of  Correze 
are  the  Dordogne,  the  Vez&re,  and  the  Correze. 
The  department  is  divided  into  the  three  arron- 
dissements  of  Tulle,  Brive,  and  Ussel.  Tulle  is 
the  chief  town. 

Cor'ridor,  is  a  gallery  or  passage  running  (It. 
correre,  Bp.  correr,  to  run)  or  leading  to  several 
rooms,  each  of  which  has  a  door  opening  into  it. 

Cornell  'tes  (in  English  currents)  is  a  name  of 
various  application  in  Spanish  America.  It  in¬ 
dicates  several  capes  in  Cuba,  Mexico,  and  New 
Granada,  is  connected  with  one  of  the  States  of 
the  Argentine  Confederation,  and  with  the  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  same.  1.  CorrTentes,  the  city,  stands  in 
latitude  27®  27'  S.,  and  longitude  58®  46'  W., 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Parana  and  the  Para¬ 
guay.  Pop.,  11,000.  2.  Corricntes,  the  province 
lies  between  Entre  Rios  on  the  south,  and  the 
Republic  of  Paraguay  on  the  north,  having  the 
Parana  on  the  north  and  west.  Latitude  27® — 
30'  S.,  and  longitude  57° — 59®  W.  Area,  60,000 
square  miles;  pop.  (1882),  204,000. 

Corro'sive  Snb'limate.  This  mercurial  salt 
(the  bichloride)  is  an  intensely  corrosive  poison, 
which  produces  bloody  discharges  from  the  stom¬ 
ach,  small,  quick  pulse,  thirst,  and  difficult 
breathing.  It  is  used  extensively  as  a  vermin  and 
insect  poison,  and  accidents  often  accompany  its 
use.  Fortunately  the  antidote  is  always  at  hand, 
being  the  white  of  egg.  Vomiting  should  be  in¬ 
duced  by  taking  large  draughts  of  sugar  and 
warm  water,  and  by  tickling  the  back  part  of  the 
throat.  Meanwhile,  having  mixed  the  whites  of 
a  dozen  eggs  in  a  quart  of  water,  administer  a 
wine-glass  full  every  two  or  three  minutes.  Milk 
is  also  useful. 

Cor ' rugated  Iron  (Lat.  ruga,  a  wrinkle). 
Common  sheet-iron,  and  what  is  improperly 
called  “galvanized  iron  ”  ( i .  e.,  sheet-iron  coated 
with  zinc  by  immersion  in  a  bath  of  the  fused 
metal),  have  of  late  been  made  available  for 
many  purposes,  by  virtue  of  the  additional 
strength  imparted  to  the  sheets  by  corrugation, 
which  is  merely  an  application  to  metallic  sub¬ 
stances  of  the  old  contrivance  of  “  goffering  ”  or 
“crimping,”  by  means  of  which  the  f  i  ills  of  the 
olden  time  were  made  to  keep  their  shape. 

Corry.  a  city  of  6,800  inhabitants,  in  Erie 
county,  Penn.,  which  owes  its  existence  and  its 
prosperity  to  the  petroleum  wells  discovered  in 
1861.  Its  incorporation  as  a  city  dates  from 
1866. 

Cor 'sac  ( Cams  or  Cynalopex  corsac),  an  animal 
of  the  dog  family  (Canidce),  found  in  the  deserts 
of  Tartary  and  in  India.  In  size,  it  resembles  a 
small  fox  but  is  more  slender  in  body  and  limbs. 

Cor'sair  (Ital.  cor  so,  a  race),  a  pirate  or  sea-rob¬ 
ber,  but  generally  limited  in  its  application  to  the 
pirates  who  in  former  times  sailed  from  Algiers, 
Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  the  ports  of  Morocco,  and 
were  the  terror  of  merchantmen  in  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  and  the  neighboring  parts  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean 

Cor'sica,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  sep¬ 
arated  from  the  Island  of  Sardinia  by  the  Strait  of 
Bonifacio  on  the  south,  and  sit  uated  in  latitude  41° 
20' — 43°  N.,  and  longitude  8°  30' — 9"  30'  E.  It 
forms  the  French  department  of  Corse.  Area, 
3,350  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  258,440.  Corsica 
is  divided  into  the  five  arrondissements  of  Ajaccio, 
Bastia,  Calvi,  Corte,  and  Sartene.  Ajaccio  is  the 
capital. 

Cors'let  was  the  body-covering  of  pikemen.  It 
was  made  chiefly  of  leather,  and  was  pistol- 
proof. 

Cor 'so  (literally,  course  or  running)  is  an  Italian 
word  used  to  express  not  only  the  racing  of 


CORT. 


308 


COTTON. 


horses  (without  riders),  but  also  the  slow  driving 
in  procession  of  handsome  equipages  through  the 
principal  streets  of  a  town,  such  as  almost 
always  takes  place  iu  Italy  on  festivals. 

Cort,  Coknelis,  a  Dutch  engraver,  horn  in 
1536.  Ilis  works  had  a  favorable  influence  on  the 
graver’s  art  in  the  Netherlands.  He  died  at 
Rome  in  1578. 

Cortes  is  the  name  given  in  Spain  and 
Portugal  to  the  assembly  of  representatives  of  the 
nation. 

Cortes,  Hern  an,  the  conqueror  of  Mexico, 
was  born  in  1485,  at  Medellin,  a  village  of  Estre- 
madura,  Spain.  In  1511  he  distinguished  himself 
under  Diego-Velasquez  in  the  expedition  against 
Cuba.  In  1518  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  was  in¬ 
trusted  to  him  by  Velasquez,  who  was  then 
Governor  of  Cuba.  A  force  of  between  600  and 
700  men,  with  only  ten  field-pieces  and  two  or 
three  smaller  pieces  of  cannon  were  all  the  means 
at  Ccrtes’  disposal,  when,  early  in  1519,  he  landed 
in  Mexico.  With  this  force  and  with  1,000  men, 
sent  later  from  Cuba  to  compel  his  surrender  to 
the  Governor,  but  which  force  he  captured  and 
made  his  allies,  and,  aided  by  many  native 
Indians,  who  joined  him,  Cortes,  after  a  series 
of  brilliant  victories,  subjugated  the  whole  Aztec 
Nation,  and  added  Mexico  to  the  domain  of  the 
Spanish  crown.  He  returned  to  Spain  and  died 
there  Dec.  2,  1547.  See  his  Life  by  Helps  (2  vols. 
1871). 

Corto'na,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  about  fifty 
miles  southeast  of  Florence. 

Coruii'a  (English,  Corunna),  a  fortified  seaport 
of  Spain,  situated  on  a  small  headland  in  the 
Atlantic,  formed  by  the  three  bays  of  Betanzos, 
Coruna,  and  El  Ferrol,  about  midway  between 
Capes  Finisterre  and  Ortegal,  in  latitude  43°  22' 
N.,  longitude  8°  22'  W.  Here  Sir  John  Moore 
was  killed.  Pop.  (1877),  33,735. 

Corun 'dum,  a  mineral  consisting  essentially 
of  mere  alumina,  yet  of  great  specific  gravity — 
about  four  times  that  of  water — and  of  remark¬ 
able  hardness,  being  inferior  in  this  respect  only 
to  the  diamond.  Mineralogists  regard  the  sap¬ 
phire  as  a  variety  of  corundum,  and  along  with 
it  the  gems  popularly  known  as  Oriental  ruby, 
Oriental  topaz,  Oriental  emerald,  and  Oriental 
amethyst. 

Corvette,  is  a  flush-decked  vessel,  sliip-rigged, 
but  without  a  quarter-deck,  and  having  only  one 
tier  of  guns. 

Cor'vidte,  a  family  of  birds  of  the  order 
Insessores,  tribe  Conirostres,  having  a  strong  bill, 
compressed  toward  the  point,  and  covered  at  the 
base  with  stiff,  bristly  feathers,  which  advance  so 
far  as  to  conceal  the  nostrils.  The  plumage  is 
dense,  soft,  and  lustrous,  generally  dark,  but 
sometimes  of  gay  colors,  more  particularly  in  the 
tropical  species.  The  birds  of  this  family  are 
widely  distributed.  The  crow,  raven,  rook,  jack¬ 
daw,  magpie,  jay,  chough,  and  nut-cracker  are 
included  among  the  corvidae. 

Cor  vo,  the  most  northerly  of  the  Azores,  is  the 
smallest  among  the  inhabited  islands  of  the  group. 
It  measures  only  6  miles  by  3,  the  latitude  of 
its  southern  point  being  39°  42'  N. 

Corvus,  M.  Valerius,  Roman  General,  born 
about  370  b.c.  The  legend  which  accounts  for 
his  cognomen  of  Corvus  (the  raven)  tells  how, 
while  fighting  with  a  gigantic  Gaul,  he  was  assisted 
by  a  raven,  which  baffled  his  enemy  by  fluttering 
in  his  face.  He  was  twice  Dictator,  six  times 
Consul,  and  occupied  the  curule  chair  twenty- 
one  times.  In  his  various  campaigns  he  defeated 
successively  the  Gauls,  the  Volsci,  the  Samnites, 
the  Etruscans,  and  the  Marsi.  His  most  impor¬ 
tant  victory  was  that  which  he  won  over  the  Sam¬ 
nites  at  Mount  Gaurus,  (343  b.c.)  He  died  about 
270  b.c. 

Corwin,  Thomas,  born  in  Kentucky,  July  29, 
1794,  died  Dec.  18, 1865;  became  a  member  of  the 
Ohio  Legislature,  and  in  1830  member  of  Con¬ 
gress,  where  he  served  ten  years.  In  1840  he  was 
elected  Governor  of  Ohio,  and  in  1845  United 
States  Senator.  In  1850  he  became  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury.  In  1858  was  again  elected  to  Con¬ 
gress  and  served  till  1861,  when  he  was  appointed 
Minister  to  Mexico. 

Cor'ymb,  in  Botany,  a  form  of  indefinite  and 
centripetal  inflorescence,  in  which  the  flowers  are 
arranged  as  in  a  raceme,  but  the  lower  flower- 


stalks  are  elongated  so  as  to  bring  the  flowers 
almost  to  the  level  of  those  of  the  upper.  The 
corymb  is  a  very  common  form  of  inflorescence. 

Coryphaeus  (from  nopvpj],  koruphe,  the  top  of 
the  head),  in  ancient  tragedy,  was  the  leader  of  the 
chorus.  Hence  coryphaeus  passed  into  a  general 
name  for  the  chief  or  leader  of  any  company  or 
movement. 

Cor'yphene  ( Coryphcma ),  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  family  Scomberridoe,  to  which  the  name  dol¬ 
phin,  properly  belonging  to  a  genus  of  Cetacea, 
lias  been  popularly  transferred.  The  coryphenes 
are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and  metallic  bril¬ 
liancy  of  their  colors,  which  change  as  the  fish  dies. 

Cos  (more  anciently,  Meropis),  an  island  of  the 
Grecian  Archipelago  belonging  to  Asiatic  Turkey. 
Its  modern  name  is  Stanko  or  Stanchio.  Length 
23  miles,  breadth  5  miles.  Pop.,  20,000  to 
30,000. 

Cos 'mas,  surnamed  Indicopleustes,  a  mer¬ 
chant  of  Alexandria,  who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century.  He  wrote  a  Christian  Topography , 
in  twelve  volumes,  in  the  Greek  language,  con¬ 
taining  much  information  about  many  countries, 
and  particularly  about  India. 

Cosmet'ics  (Gr.  xoSpi/oo,  kosmeo,  I  adorn)  are 
chemical  preparations  employed  for  improving 
the  appearance  of  the  skin  and  hair. 

Cosmog  ony  (Gr.  xoS/ioS,  kosmos,  the  uni¬ 
verse;  yeveiv,  genein,  to  generate)  is  the  (so- 
called)  science  of  the  formation  of  the  universe. 
It  is  thus  distinguished  from  cosmography,  which 
is  the  science  of  the  parts  of  the  universe  as  we 
behold  it  (a  science  embodied  in  the  work  of 
Humboldt,  entitled  Cosmos),  and  from  cosmology, 
which  reasons  on  the  actual  and  permanent  state 
of  the  world  as  it  is.  Geogony,  which  confines 
itself  to  the  formation  of  the  earth,  and  speculative 
geology,  are  but  subdivisions  of  cosmogony. 

Cossacks,  certain  Russian  tribes  originally 
settled  on  the  southern  frontiers  of  Russia  in 
Europe,  but  now  distributed  through  various 
parts  of  the  Empire,  and  largely  modified  by  suc¬ 
cessive  intrusions  of  alien  blood. 

Costa,  I  saac  da,  poet  and  religious  writer,  born 
at  Amsterdam,  Jan.  14,  1798.  His  Buttle  of 
Nieuwpoort,  the  last  of  his  poems,  is  one  of  his 
masterpieces.  He  died  April  28,  1860. 

Costa,  Sir  Michael,  a  musician  and  composer, 
born  at  Naples,  February,  1810.  He  was  sent  to 
the  Conservatoire  in  his  nat  ive  city  for  education, 
where  he  greatly  distinguished  himself.  In  1829 
his  fame,  though  he  was  then  but  nineteen,  having 
reached  England,  he  was  invited  to  take  part  in 
the  Birmingham  Musical  Festival.  His  oratorio 
Eli  raised  him  to  eminence  as  a  composer.  His 
most  successful  opera  was  Don  Carlos.  He  died 
April  29,  1884. 

Costa  Rica,  the  most  southeasterly  State  of 
Central  America.  It  occupies  the  entire  breadth 
from  sea  to  sea  between  N  icaragua  on  the  one  side 
and  New  Granada  on  the  other,  stretching  in 
N.  latitude  from  8°  to  10°  40',  and  in  W.  longitude 
from  83°  to  85°.  Area,  19,976  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1884),  210,177. 

Cos  ’  ter,  Laurens  Janszoon,  according  to  the 
Dutch,  the  inventor  of  printing,  was  born  at 
Haarlem  about  1370.  The  time  of  the  invention 
ascribed  to  him  must  have  fallen  between  the 
years  1420  and  1426.  At  first,  for  his  own  amuse¬ 
ment  and  the  instruction  of  his  grandchildren,  he 
cut  letters  out  of  the  bark  of  the  beech-tree, which 
he  inverted,  and  employed  to  print  short  senten¬ 
ces.  Afterward,  he  discovered  a  more  glutinous 
kind  of  ink,  which  did  not  spread  in  using,  and 
succeeded  in  printing  with  it  entire  pages  with 
cuts  and  characters.  He  also  replaced  his  wooden 
types  by  types  cast  out  of  metal,  at  first  using 
lead  for  this  purpose,  but  afterward  pewter, 
which  he  found  harder  and  more  suitable. 

Costs.  In  Law  it  is  deemed  just  that  the 
defeated  party  in  an  action,  by  reason  of  having 
been  in  the  wrong,  should  pay  the  costs  of  State, 
and  judgments  are  usually  given  in  accordance 
with  this  principle. 

Costume' (Ital.  costume;  Fr.  coustume,  coutume 
from  Lat.  consuetudo,  use  and  wont)  is  another 
form  of  the  word  custom,  and,  in  its  wider  sense, 
signifies  the  external  appearance  which  the  life  of 
a  people  presents  at  a  particular  epoch  of  its  his¬ 
tory.  In  its  narrower  and  more  usual  sense,  it 
signifies  the  customary  modes  of  clothing  and 


adorning  the  person  in  any  particular  age 
or  country.  In  this  sense  it  includes  the  prevail¬ 
ing  fashion  in  jewelry,  weapons,  and  other 
personal  equipments,  in  both  senses,  costume 
plays  an  important  part  in  art. 

Cot,  on  shipboard,  is  an  officer’s  hammock.  It 
is  made  of  canvas,  in  the  form  of  a  kind  of  chest, 
6  feet  long,  2i  wide,  and  1  deep.  This  recep¬ 
tacle  is  kept  out  at  full  length  by  means  of  a 
square  wooden  frame.  The  bed  or  mattress  is 
placed  within  the  cot,  and  the  arrangement  is 
more  comfortable  than  that  of  a  sailor’s  ham¬ 
mock;  but  both  are  alike  slung  from  the  rafters 
or  beams  of  the  cabin. 

Cote-d’or,  a  department  in  the  east  of  France, 
formed  of  part  of  the  old  Province  of  Burgundy, 
in  latitude  46°  55' — 48°  10'  N.,  longitude  4°  2' 
— 5°30'E.  Area,  3, 350 square  miles;  pop. (1881), 
380,548.  It  is  divided  into  four  arrondissements, 
— viz.,  Beaune,  Chatillon-sur-Seine,  Dijon,  and 
Seraur,  with  Dijon  for  a  capital. 

C6tes-du-Nonl,  a  maritime  department  of  the 
Northwest  of  France,  formed  from  the  northern 
part  of  the  Province  of  Brittany.  Area,  2,658 
square  miles;  pop.,  622,295.  St.  Brieuc  is  the 
chief  town. 

Cotil'lon  (Fr.  under-petticoat),  the  name  of 
a  brisk  dance,  of  French  origin,  performed  by 
eight  persons.  The  quadrille,  which  superseded 
it,  is  only  a  new  variety  of  the  cotillon. 

Cotinga  ( Ampelis ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Ampelidce,  or  chatterers,  having  a  rather 
feeble  and  deeply-cleft  bill,  and  feeding  both  on 
insects  and  fruits. 

Cotopax'i,  the  loftiest  active  volcano  in  the 
world,  is  in  Ecuador,  iu  the  eastern  chain  of  the 
Andes,  and  about  fifty  miles  south  of  the  equator. 
Humboldt  gave  the  height  at  18,880  feet;  Reiss, 
the  first  to  ascend  it  (in  1872)  found  it  to  be 
19.500  feet  above  the  sea. 

Cottage,  a  small  dwelling-house,  detached 
from  other  buildings,  and  usually  of  one  story  in 
height  .  Originally  applied  to  an  humble  order  of 
dwellings  in  the  country,  the  term  now  embraces 
a  wide  variety  of  structures,  from  the  cottage 
orne  of  the  French,  to  the  simple  but  not  unat¬ 
tractive  cabin  in  the  English  rural  districts,  and 
the  mountain  chalet  of  Switzerland. 

Cottin,  Sophie  (1773-1807)  nee  Restaud,  born 
at  Tonneins,  Lot-et-Garonne.  Her  second  romance, 
Malvina  (1800),  was  anonymous;  but  the  success 
of  Amelie  Mansfield  (1802)  induced  the  authoress 
to  reveal  her  identity.  Ini  805  appeared  Math  ilde, 
and  in  1806  she  produced  her  last  story,  the 
famous  Elisabeth,  ou  les  Exiles  de  Siberie. 

Cotton,  an  indigenous  product  of  all  inter- 
tropical  regions,  consists  of  the  down  or  fine  cel¬ 
lular  hair  attached  to  the  seeds  of  plants  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  genus  Gossypium,  natural  order  Mal¬ 
vaceae.  The  method  of  cultivation  is  much  the 
same  in  various  countries  where  the  fiber  is 
grown;  but  the  most  perfect  system  is  that 
which  obtains  in  this  country.  Picking  gen¬ 
erally  commences  in  August,  occasionally  in 
July,  and  continues  until  the  occurrence  of  frost 
puts  a  stop  to  the  further  growth  of  the  plant. 
When  the  crop  has  been  secured  it  is  spread  out 
and  dried,  and  then  separated  from  the  seeds. 
The  following  table  shows  the  production  and 
exports  of  United  States  cotton  for  a  series  of 
years: 


Year  ended 
June  30. 

Production. 

Bales. 

Total 

Productions, 

and 

Imports, 

Pounds. 

Exports, 

Domestic 

and 

Foreign. 

Pounds. 

1872 . 

2,974.351 

1,386,978,677 

993,825,710 

1873 . 

3,930.508 

1,837,614,455 

1,200,398,178 

1874 . 

4,170,388 

1,944,274.182 

1,358,979,913 

1875 . 

3,827,845 

1,785,793  364 

1,260,851,944 

1876  . 

4,632,313 

2,160,409,561 

1,491,629,831 

1877 . 

4,474,069 

2,098,557,864 

1,445,647,079 

1878 . 

4,773,865 

2,263,317,679 

1,608,469,052 

1879 . 

5,074,155 

2,407,404,050 

1.628,875,912 

1880 . 

5,761,252 

2,775,344,948 

1 .822.295,843 

1881 . 

6,605,750 

3,204,272,548 

2,192,169,348 

1882 . 

5.465,048 

2,592,580,002 

1.741,819,451 

1883 . 

6,949,756 

3,409.152.355 

2,291,313.992 

1884 . 

5,713,200 

2,764,563,914 

1.863,926,466 

1885 . 

5,706,165 

2,748,081,691 

1.893,268,732 

1886 . 

6,575,691 

3,187,377.993 

2  059,314.405 

1887 . 

6,505,087 

3,161.298,608 

2.170,173,701 

Cotton  seed  is  rich  in  oil,  now  used  as  a  substitute 


COTTUS. 


309 


COVENT  GARDEN, 


for  olive  oil,  us  a  lubricant,  and  for  many  other 
purposes. 

Cot'tus,  a  genus  of  acanthopterygious  fishes, 
of  the  Mailed  cheek  family  or  Sclerogenidai,  having 
a  large,  depressed  head,  armed  with  spines  or 
tubercles,  a  tapering  body  destitute  of  scales,  and 
two  dorsal  fins.  Some  of  the  species  are  marine, 
others  inhabit  fresh  water.  Of  the  latter,  the 
bull  head  is  an  example. 

Cotyle'don  (Gr.  a  cup  or  cup-shaped  hollow), 
or  Seed-Lobe,  in  Botany,  a  principal  part  of  the 
embryo  in  phanerogamous  or  flowering-plants. 
Cryptogamous  plants  are  acotyledonoux;  their 
seeds  or  spores  have  no  cotyledons.  Phanerog¬ 
amous  plants  are  divided  according  to  their 
seeds  into  monocotyledon/ ms,  having  only  one 
cotyledon,  and  dicotyledonous,  having  two  cotyle¬ 
dons.  With  the  latter  are  ranked  some  Coniferas 
remarkable  for  having  more  than  two  cotyledons, 
which  form  a  sort  of  whorl 

Couch'ant,  in  Heraldry,  a  beast  lying  down, 
with  his  head  up,  is  coucliant.  If  the  head  is 
down,  he  is  dormant. 

Couch  Grass  ( Triticum  repens ),  also  called 
wheat  grass,  dog  grass,  quickens,  and  squitch  or 
quitch,  a  grass  which,  although  of  the  same 
genus  with  wheat,  is  chiefly  known  to  farmers  as 
a  troublesome  weed.  It  is  common  in  most  parts 
of  Europe  and  North  America. 

Cones,  Elliott,  born  Sept.  9,  1842,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  naturalist  and  Professor  of  Anatomy 
in  the  National  Medical  College,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

Coulomb,  Charles  Augustin  de.  celebrated 
French  physicist,  inventor  of  the  electrical  tor¬ 
sion  balance.  Born  at  Angouleme,  in  1736,  and 
died  Aug.  23,  1806. 

Cou ' marin,  or  Ton  'ka  Stearof  'ten,  is  a  cam- 
phor-like  substance  of  a  very  agreeable  smell, 
which  gives  their  fragrance  to  the  well-known 
touqua  bean  ( Dipterix  odorata),  so  much  used 
for  flavoring  snuff:  the  woodruff  ( Asperula  odo¬ 
rata);  the  melilot  ( Melil/tus  officinalis);  and  a  num¬ 
ber  of  grasses. 

Coun'cil,  or  Syn'od,  is  an  assembly  of  eccle¬ 
siastical  dignitaries  held  for  the  purpose  of  regu¬ 
lating  the  doctrine  or  discipline  of  the  church. 

Council  of  War  is  a  conference  of  officers,  in 
military  or  naval  warfare,  on  some  matter  in  which 
the  commander  wishes  to  fortify  his  judgment  by 
an  appeal  to  that  of  others. 

Council  Bluffs,  a  town  of  Iowa,  near  the  left 
bank  of  the  Missouri,  opposite  to  Omaha,  in 
Nebraska.  Pop.,  21,557. 

Count  (Fr.  comte,  Lat.  comes),  a  title  much  in 
use  in  Continental  Europe,  and  bearing  different 
rank  in  different  countries.  Of  old  time  some 
counts  were  sovereign  princes,  but  the  title  has 
become  degraded  by  extensive  creations,  and  is 
held  in  little  repute. 

Conn  'ter  Approach ',  in  Military  Engineering, 
is  a  trench  or  passage,  cut  by  the  defenders  of  a 
fortified  post  from  some  of  the  outworks  toward 
the  besiegers,  and  leading  to  a  battery  in  a  small 

work. 

Coun'ter-cbanged,  or  Con'ter-changed,  in 
Heraldry.  When  several  metals  and  colors  are 
intermixed,  one  being  set  against  the  other,  they 
are  said  to  be  counter-changed. 

Counterfort,  in  Fortification,  is  a  mass  of  stone 
or  brickwork  added  to  the  revetment  of  a  ram¬ 
part,  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  buttress  for 
resisting  the  pressure  of  the  mass  of  earth. 

Counter-guard,  is  an  outwork  design'd  to 
defend  the  two  faces  of  a  bastion  or  ravelin  from 
a  direct  fire,  so  as  to  retard  a  breach  being  made. 

Counter-irritant^,  agents  applied  to  the  skin 
so  as  to  redden  (rubefacients),  to  vesicate  (blisters 
or  vesicatories),  or  to  produce  pustules,  purulent 
issues,  or  even  sloughs  of  skin  and  of  the  sub¬ 
cutaneous  textures.  The  milder  counter-irritants 
are  mustard,  turpentine  applied  on  warm  cloths, 
and  spirit  or  acetic  acid  in  lotion.  The  stronger 
are  blistersof  cant  halides,  or  of  ammonia;  croton- 
oil  or  tartar-emetic,  in  ointment;  setons,  caustic 
or  pea-issues,  and  the  moxa;  and  above  all,  the  \ 
actual  cautery,  or  hot  iron.  None  of  the  stronger 
counter-irritants  should  be  used  without  careful 
consideration  and  medical  advice;  great  mischief 
is  often  done  by  their  careless  or  improper  use. 
Counter-irritants  relieve  internal  pain,  and  tend  j 
to  promote  the  absorption  of  morbid  effusions. 


Coun'termine,  in  Military  Engineering,  is  a 
gallery  or  chamber  excavated  under  some  part  of 
a  defense-work  of  a  fortress,  to  foil  a  besieger. 

Counter-passant,  in  Heraldry,  when  two 
beasts  are  passing  each  other  the  contrary  way. 

Coun'terpoint,  in  Music,  means  the  setting 
of  a  harmony  of  one  or  more  parts  to  a  melody. 

Counterscarp,  in  Fortification,  is  the  vertical 
or  nearly  vertical  side  of  the  ditch  nearest  to  the 
besiegers,  and  opposite  to  the  scarp  or  escarp. 

Countersign,  in  Military  Discipline  or 
Maneuvers,  is  a  word  exchanged  between  senti¬ 
nels,  inspectors  of  posts  going  their  rounds,  or  per- 
s  >ns  having  business  with  the  soldiers  in  camp  or 
garrison  The  countersign  in  use  at  any  particular 
time  is  supposed  to  be  known  only  to  those 
immediately  concerned,  and  is  generally  a  simple 
word. 

Countersign,  the  signature  of  a  secretary, 
minister,  or  other  subordinate,  to  any  writing 
signed  by  the  principal  or  superior,  as  a  guarantee 
for  its  authenticity. 

Counter-tenor',  the  highest  adult  male  voice, 
and  the  lowest  female  voice. 

Coun '  ter  valla 'tion,  in  Military  Engineering, 
is  a  chain  of  posts  constructed  by  the  besiegers  of 
a  fortified  place. 

Coun'ty.  In  England  and  Scotland,  the  shires 
are  also  called  counties;  but  in  Ireland,  the  term 
county  seems  to  be  exclusively  employed.  In  the 
United  States,  the  county  is  the  largest  subdivis¬ 
ion  of  the  State.  It  is  again  subdivided  into 
townships.  Louisiana  is  the  only  State  which  is 
divided  into  parishes  instead  of  counties. 

Coup  is  a  French  word  signifying  “stroke.” 
Coup  d'etat,  “stroke  of  state,”  a  sudden  arbitrary 
encroachment  upon  the  constitution  of  the  state. 
—  Coup  de  main,  “a  stroke  of  the  hand,”  in  the 
language  of  war,  a  sudden  and  successful  attack. 
— Coup  d’ ceil,  “a  stroke  of  the  eye,”  a  compre¬ 
hension  of  all  the  relations  of  a  complicated 
matter  at  one  survey;  or  the  general  effect  of  a 
picture  or  group  at  first  sight. —  Coup  de  theatre, 
a  trick  of  the  stage,  hence  applied  to  anything 
calculated  for  theatrical  effect. 

Cou  peel  (Fr.  coupe),  in  Heraldry,  is  used  to 
describe  the  head,  or  any  limb  of  an  animal  cut 
off  from  the  trunk,  and  smooth.  It  is  distin¬ 
guished  from  erased — i,  e.,  forcibly  torn  off,  and 
therefore  ragged  and  uneven. 

Coup 'les,  the  name  given  in  statics  to  pairs  of 
equal  parallel  forces  acting  in  opposite  directions, 
and  at  different  points  of  a  body.  When  two 
parallel  forces  act  in  opposite  directions  on  a 
body,  they  may  be  replaced  by  one  equal  to  their 
difference  acting  parallel  to  them  in  the  direction 
of  the  greatest,  at  a  point  not  between  but  beyond 
the  points  where  they  are  applied;  and  which 
point  recedes  the  further  from  their  points  of  ap¬ 
plication  the  nearer  they  approach  equality,  get¬ 
ting  to  an  infinite  distance  when  they  become 
equal,  and  when  their  resultant  accordingly  is 
zero.  In  this  limiting  case,  the  forces  constitute 
a  couple;  they  have  no  tendency  to  translate  the 
body ;  their  action  goes  wholly  to  make  it  rotate 
about  an  axis  passing  through  its  center  of 
gravity,  and  perpendicular  to  the  plane  in  which 
the  couple  acts.  Such  being  the  case,  a  couple 
can  not  be  replaced  or  counteracted  by  any  single 
force,  for  such  a  force  would  produce  translation: 
it  can  only  be  replaced  or  balanced  by  other 
couples.  The  length  of  the  straight  line  which 
meets  the  lines  of  action  of  the  forces  at  right 
angles  is  called  the  “arm”  of  a  couple,  and  the 
product  of  the  force  into  its  arm  is  called  its 
“  moment.” 

Coup 'let.  Any  two  lines  which  rhyme 
together  may  be  called  a  couplet;  but  the  term  is 
more  frequently  used  by  critics  to  denote  two 
lines  which  contain  the  complete  expression  of  an 
idea,  and  are,  therefore,  to  a  certain  extent  inde¬ 
pendent  of  what  goes  before  or  what  follows. 
The  poetic  witsof  theageof  Queen  Anne  excelled 
in  this  kind  of  aphoristic  versification.  Pope,  it 
has  been  said,  reasons  in  couplets.  For  example: 

“  Tis  with  our  judgments  as  our  watches;  none 
Go  just  alike,  yet  each  believes  his  own.” 

Coupling,  an  organ  register,  by  which  two  or 
more  rows  of  keys  can  be  connected  by  a  mechan¬ 
ism,  so  that  they  can  be  played  together. 

Coupon  (Fr.  couper,  to  cut),  a  term  signifying 
any  billet,  check,  or  other  slip  of  paper  cut  off 


from  its  counterpart.  It  is,  however,  applied 
chiefly  to  a  dividend  or  interest  warrant,  which  is 
presented  for  payment  by  holders  of  debentures. 

Courant',  ill  Heraldry,  always  used  for  run¬ 
ning,  which  is  its  meaning  in  French. 

Cou  Tiers.  There  are  two  classes  of  couriers. 
The  first  are  employed  by  Government  to  carry, 
securely  and  expeditiously,  important  dispatches 
to  and  from  ambassadors  at  foreign  courts  The 
other  class  of  couriers  are  those  whose  services 
are  limited  to  the  carrying  of  dispatches  in  mili¬ 
tary  operations  and  private  parties. 

Courlan,  a  wading  bird  found  in  Florida  and 
the  West  Indies,  related  to  cranes  and  rails.  It  is 
upward  of  two  feet  in  length. 

Cour'land.oi  Kurland, a  Russian  Government, 
and  one  of  the  Baltic  provinces,  in  latitude  56  — 
58°  N.,  longitude  21° — 27°  E.  It  was  formerly 
an  independent  duchy — properly,  indeed,  consist¬ 
ing  of  two  duchies,  Courland  and  Semgall — and 
belonged,  with  Livonia,  to  the  Teutonic  Knights. 
It  contains  about  10,500  square  miles,  with  a 
population  in  1880  of  682,000,  mostly  Protestants. 
The  capital  is  Mitau;  but  the  most  flourishing 
town  is  Libau. 

Course,  in  Building,  is  a  continuous  range  of 
stones  or  bricks  of  uniform  thickness. 

Courses,  on  shipboard,  is  a  name  given  col¬ 
lectively  to  all  the  lower  sails;  above  them  is  the 
group  of  topsails;  and,  highest  of  all,  the  group  of 
top-gallant  sails.  The  courses  comprise  the  main¬ 
sail,  foresail,  main-staysail,  guy-staysail,  and 
mizzen-staysail. 

Coursing,  a  method  of  hunting  deer,  antelopes, 
hares,  etc.,  by  greyhounds,  in  which  the  dogs 
follow  the  game  by  sight  instead  of  by  scent. 
Within  the  last  twenty  years  its  popularity  as  a 
sport  has  greatly  increased,  and  the  breed  of  the 
greyhound  is  now  studied  with  nearly  the  same 
care  and  zest  as  that  of  the  race-horse. 

Court.  This  name  is  now  usually  restricted 
to  judicial  tribunals,  almost  the  only  exception 
being  the  household  of  a  Ring,  which  is  still 
called  his  court. 

Cour  tesy,  or  Curtesy,  in  Law,  is  the  life 
interest  which  the  surviving  husband  has  in  the 
real  or  heritable  estate  of  the  wife. 

Courtesy  Titles.  Titles  of  honor  are  imparted 
by  the  sovereign,  or  other  competent  authority. 
Independently  of  these,  there  are  courtesy  titles 
assumed  by  or  given  to  individuals,  and  which 
have  no  validity  in  law.  The  term  courtesy  title 
is  best  known  in  connection  with  the  titles  given 
by  popular  consent  to  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
certain  peers  in  England.  Thus,  the  oldest  son  of 
the  Duke  of  Devonshire,  bears  the  courtesy  title 
of  Marquis  of  Hartington. 

Court  Fool.  From  ancient  times  monarchs 
and  princes  had  attached  to  their  courts  a  fool  or 
jester.  It  was  only  in  the  middle  ages  that  this 
singular  and  repulsive  vocation  became  fully  de¬ 
veloped,  and  that  the  office  of  jester  or  fool 
became  a  regular  and  indispensable  court  office. 
The  symbols  of  such  a  personage  were — the  shaven 
head;  the  fool’s  cap  of  gay  colors,  with  asses’ ears 
and  cock’s  comb;  the  fool’s  scepter,  which  was 
variously  formed;  the  bells,  which  were  mostly 
attached  to  the  cap,  but  likewise  to  other  parts  of 
the  dress,  and  a  large  collar.  The  rest  of  the 
costume  was  regulated  by  the  taste  of  the  master. 

Court-mar  'tial,  a  court  for  the  trial  of  any 
one  belonging  to  the  army  or  navy,  for  some 
breach  of  military  or  naval  law.  The  members 
of  the  court  fill  the  functions  both  of  judge  and 
jury. 

Covenant  (Lat.  convenire,  to  come  together),  a 
contractor  agreement;  a  term  much  used  by  theol¬ 
ogians,  and  nearly  equivalent  to  the  Hebrew  berith, 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  Greek  Siddyuy,  of 
the  New.  Applied  to  relations  established  between 
God  and  men,  the  term  covenant  must  be  under¬ 
stood  with  a  certain  modification  of  the  meaning 
which  it  bears  when  employed  concerning  the 
relations  of  men  to  one  another,  when  two  inde¬ 
pendent  parlies  enter  into'a  covenant,  which  they 
have  equal  right  to  make  or  to  refuse  to  make. 

Cov'ent  Gar' den  (properly  Convent  Garden, 
from  having  been  originally  the  garden  of  West¬ 
minster  Abbey)  is  a  square  in  London,  celebrated 
for  its  great  market  of  fruit,  vegetables,  and 
flowers. 


COVENTRY. 


310 


CRANE-FLY. 


Cov 'entry  (Convent  Town),  a  city  in  the  north 
of  Warwickshire,  England. 

Cov'ert  Way,  or  Covered  Way,  in  Fortifica¬ 
tion,  is  a  road  or  broad  path  outside  the  ditch  of 
a  fortified  place,  between  the  counterscarp  and 
the  glacis. 

Covington,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio 
river,  opposite  Cincinnati.  Pop.  (1880),  29,720. 

Cow  Pars 'nip  (Ilemcleum),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  tlie  natural  order  Umbelliferce,  having  petals 
bent  in  at  the  middle,  and  fiat,  compressed  fruit. 

Cow 'ley,  Abraiiam,  an  English  poet,  born  in 
1618,  and  died  in  July,  1067. 

Cow-pen  IJird  ( Molothrus  pecori ■«),  also  called 
cow  bird,  cow  troopial,  cow  blackbird,  cow 
bunting,  etc.,  a  bird  nearly  allied  to  the  Baltimore 
birds  and  troopials,  having  a  short,  conical  beak, 
and  remarkable  for  its  habit  of  depositing  its  eggs, 
like  the  cuckoo,  in  the  nests  of  other  birds.  It  is 
a  native  of  North  America,  common  in  some  of 
the  Southern  States  in  winter,  and  migrating 
northward  in  spring. 

Cowpens,  a  village  in  South  Carolina,  near 
which  the  British  forces  under  General  Tarleton 
were  defeated,  Jan.  17.  1781,  by  the  American 
troops  under  Morgan.  The  British  loss  was  about 
900,  including  prisoners;  the  Americans  had  12 
killed,  and  60  wounded. 

Cow' per,  W illiam,  an  English  poet,  born  Nov. 
26, 1731.  His  translation  of  Homer  and  his  story 
of  John  Gilpin  are  among  his  most  popular  works. 
The  best  edition  of  Cowper’s  works  (accompanied 
by  an  admirable  biography)  is  that  of  Southey, 
15  vols.  12  mo,  Loud.  1837-38.  lie  died  April  27, 
1800. 

Cow  ry  (Cyprcea),  a  genus  of  gasteropodous 
mollusks  of  the  r_ 
order  Pect  ini-  /Ooi/N 
branchiata  —  the  J  Ik 

type  of  a  family,  U  jjji£f  uj 
Cypraiidce,  to  all  of  \  j§ 

which  the  name  I  |j 

cowry  is  often  ex-  V  f®§  Im 
tended.  if 

Cow 'slip  (Pri-  \]m/ 
mulct  veris),  a 
delicate  flower,  a  Money  Cowry, 

favorite,  both  for  its  beauty  and  its  many  associa¬ 
tions.  The  flowers  are  small,  in  an  umbel  at 
the  top  of  the  scape,  the  limb  of  the  corolla  short 
and  concave. — The  name  Virginia  Cowslip  is 
given  to  the  Dodecatheon  meaclia,  a  perennial 
plant,  also  of  the  natural  order  Priinalacece,  a 
native  of  North  America,  with  a  stalk  about  eight 
inches  high,  bearing  an  umbel  of  gracefully  pen¬ 
dent  lilac  flowers,  the  petals  reflexed  over  the 
calyx,  the  stamens  and  pistil  long,  and  the 
anthers  of  a  golden  color.  It  is  very  ornamental 
in  the  flower-border,  flowering  in  the  end  of 
April  or  beginning  of  May. 

Cow-wheat  (Melampyrum),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Scrophulariacece,  having  an 
oblong  two-celled  capsule,  with  a  few  seeds  some¬ 
what  resembling  grains  of  wheat.  The  species 
are  natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  northern 
hemisphere. 

Cox,  David  (1783-1859),  an  English  landscape- 
painter,  well  known  for  the  excellence  of  his 
water  colors.  His  “Peace  and  War”  sold  after 
his  death  for  $17,000. 

Cox,  Samuel  Sullivan,  born  at  Zanesville, 
Ohio,  September  30th,  served  in  Congress  from 
Ohio,  1856-62,  and  removing  to  New  York  State, 
was  elected  Congressman  in  1868,  and  again  in 
1870.  In  1872  he  was  defeated,  but  afterward 
again  elected. 

Coxe,  Arthur  Cleveland,  Protestant  Epis¬ 
copal  Bishop  of  New  York,  was  born  in  New 
Jersey,  May  10,  1818.  He  has  published  numer¬ 
ous  books  and  collections  of  sermons. 

Coy'pu  {Myopotamus  coypu),  a  rodent  quad¬ 
ruped  nearly  allied  to  the  beaver,  with  which  it 
agrees  in  the  number  and  character  of  its  teeth, 
in  its  short  limbs,  in  its  feet  having  five  toes  each, 
the  hinder-feet  webbed  and  the  fore-feet  not 
webbed,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in  its  habits. 
It  is  the  only  known  species  of  its  genus,  and  in¬ 
habits  a  great  part  of  South  America,  on  both  sides 
of  the  Andes,  burrowing  in  the  banks  of  t  he  rivers, 
and  sometimes  in  forests  near  the  sea-beach. 

Crab,  the  popular  name  of  all  the  crustaceans 
of  the  order  Decapoda  (the  highest  order  of  crus¬ 


taceans,  characterized  by  great  concentration  of 
the  nervous  system,  and  corresponding  general 


Great  Crab  (Cancer  pagurus). 

concentration,  by  five  pairs  of  thoracic  limbs,  and 
by  having  the  gills  inclosed  in  a  special  cavity  on 
each  side  of  the  thorax,  covered  by  the  carapace). 

Crabbe,  George,  an  English  poet,  born  Dec. 
24,  1754,  and  died  Feb.  3,  1832. 

Crack  'lin,  a  kind  ofchinaware,  the  glazing  of 
which  is  purposely  cracked  in  the  kiln,  as  an 
ornament. 

Cracovicnne  ( krakowiak ),  the  national  dance 
of  the  Polish  peasantry  around  Cracow.  It  has  a 
rather  melancholy  than  lively  melody  in  |  time, 
and  is  accompanied  by  singing. 

Cra  'cow  (Pol.  Krakov),  formerly  the  capital  of 
a  small  Polish  Republic,  and  anciently  the  capital 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland,  is  now  an  Austrian 
city,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula, 
where  it  becomes  a  navigable  river.  Latitude 
50°  4'  N.,  longitude  19°  52'  E.  Pop.  (1880),  66,- 
095,  of  whom  14  000  are  Jews. 

Craft  is  a  general  designation  for  lighters  and 
barges  employed  in  loading  or  unloading  large 
ships. 

Craik,  Mrs.  (before  her  marriage  Miss  Dinah 
Maria  Mulock),  well  known  as  the  author  of  John 
Halifax,  Gentleman,  and  other  popular  novels, 
was  born  at  Stoke-upon-Trent  in  1826. 

Crake  (Gre x),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  rail  fam¬ 
ily  ( Rattidce ),  differing  from  the  true  rails  in 
having  the  bill  shorter  than  the  head  and  com¬ 
paratively  thick.  The  wings  are  also  armed  with 


Corn  Crake  ( Crex  pratensis  . 


a  small  concealed  spine.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  harsh  call-note  of  the  male.  The  best 
known  species  is  the  common  corn-crake  or  land¬ 
rail. 

Cramp,  an  irregular,  involuntary,  and  painful 
contraction  of  a  voluntary  muscle,  without  in¬ 
sensibility  or  other  disturbance  of  the  general 
system.  To  cure  use  a  bath  as  hot  as  can  be 
borne.  Stimulate  circulation  internally  and  by 
friction  of  part  effected.  Give  in  severe  cases 
Potassium  Bromide  or  Belladonna  Extract,  also 
more  rarely  Tartar  Emetic  or  Ipecacuanha.  In 
extreme  cases  hypodermic  injections  of  morphia 
or  atropia  must  be  given,  but  only  by  an  experi¬ 
enced  person. 

Cra H '  berry  (Oxycoccus),  a  genus  of  small  ever¬ 
green  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Vaccinece,  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  the  genus  Vaccinium  by  the 
wheel-shaped  corolla,  with  segments  rolled  back 
and  the  filaments  leaning  to  the  pistil.  The  spe¬ 
cies  are  few,  natives  of  the  colder  regions  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere. — The  American  cranberry 
{0 .  macrocarpa)  is  a  much  larger  and  more  up¬ 


right  plant,  with  leaves  much  larger  and  less 
rolled  back  at  the  margin.  The  berries  are  also- 


Cranberry  (Oxycoccus  paluetris).  a ,  flower:  b,  fruit, 
larger  and  of  a  brighter  red. 

Crane,  a  machine  employed  for  the  purpose  of 
lifting  weights.  Cranes  are  of  various  kinds,  but 
the  most  common  consist  of  an  upright  revolving 


Steam  Crane. 


shaft,  with  a  projecting  arm  or  jib,  having  a 
fixed  pulley  at  the  extremity,  over  which  is  passed 
one  end  of  the  rope  or  chain  to  receive  the 
weight. 

Crane  ( Grus ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order 
Grallutores ,  the  type  of  the  family  Gniidce.  This, 
family  differs  from  herons,  bitterns,  storks,  etc., 
in  having  the  hind  toe  placed  higher  on  the  leg' 


Crane  ( Grus  cinerea). 


than  the  front  ones.  It  consists  also  of  birds  less 
addicted  to  marshy  places,  and  which  feed 
not  only  on  animal,  but,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
on  vegetable  food.  They  are  all  large  birds,  long- 
legged,  long-necked,  and  of  powerful  wing,  al¬ 
though  their  wings  are  rounded  and  not  elongated : 
some  of  them  performing  great  migrations,  and 
flying  at  a  prodigious  height  in  the  air. 

Crane-fly  (Tipi/la),  a  genus  of  dipterous  (two¬ 
winged)  insects  of  the  family  Tipulidce,  to  the 
whole  of  which  the  name  crane-fly  is  often  ex¬ 
tended,  nearly  allied  to  the  gnat  family  (Citlicidce). 
which  they  resemble  in  their  beautifully-feathered 
and  tufted  antennae,  but  from  which  they  differ 
in  having  a  comparatively  short  proboscis.  The 
true  crane-flies  are  also  of  comparatively  large- 
size.  They  have  lanceolate  spreading  wings,  and 


CRANK. 


311 


CREMONA. 


very  long  legs.  One  species  ( T .  oleracea)  is  the 
well-known  Daddy  (or  Harry,  or  Peter)  long-legs. 

Crank,  in  machinery,  is  an  arm  or  a  bend  on 
an  axle  or  shaft,  which  may  be  driven  by  a  con¬ 
necting-rod  or  by  the  hand,  its  use  being  to  convert 
an  alternating  straight  motion  into  a  continuous 
revolution. 

Cran'mer,  Thomas,  one  of  the  chief  reform¬ 
ers  of  the  English  Church,  and  the  first  Protest¬ 
ant  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  born  .July  2, 
1489.  In  his  fourteenth  year,  he  went  to  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1523  he  took  his  degree 
of  D.D  ,  and  was  appointed  lecturer  on  theology. 
He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  divorce  pro¬ 
ceedings  of  Henry  VIII.  against  Catharine,  lie 
married  the  King  to  Anne  Boleyn  and  assisted 
again  at  her  downfall.  On  Henry’s  death  Cran- 
mer  was  appointed  one  of  the  regents  of  the 
kingdom,  and  contributed  to  the  advance  of  the 
Protestant  cause  during  the  reign  of  Edward. 
On  the  accession  of  Mary,  he  was  committed  to 
the  Tower.  On  March  21,  1556,  he  suffered 
martyrdom. 

Crannoges,  the  name  given  in  Ireland  and  in 
Scotland  to  the  fortified  islands  in  lakes  which 
were  in  common  use  as  dwelling-places  and  places 
of  refuge  among  the  Celtic  inhabitants. 

Crape,  a  thin  fabric  made  of  raw  silk,  which 
lias  been  tightly  twisted,  without  removing  the 
viscous  matter  with  which  it  is  covered  when 
spun  by  the  worm.  It  is  simply  woven  as  a 
thin  gauze,  then  dressed  with  a  thick  solution  of 
gum,  which  in  drying  causes  the  threads  partially 
to  untwist,  and  thus  gives  a  wrinkled  and  rough 
appearance  to  the  fabric.  It  is  usually  dyed 
black,  and  used  for  mourning  apparel. 

Crape  Myrtle,  an  ornamental  shrub,  found  in 
the  Southern  States.  It  is  the  Lageristromia 
indica  of  botany. 

Crassula'ceas,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  some  of  them  shrubby,  and  some  herba¬ 
ceous,  all  remarkable  for  their  succulency.  About 
300  species  are  known,  among  which  are  house- 
leeks,  stone-crops,  rose-root,  etc. 

Cras'sus,  the  surname  of  several  old  Roman 
families,  among  which  that  of  the  Licinii  was 
most  remarkable. — Crassus  (Lucius  Licinius), 
born  in  140  b.c.,  was  the  best  orator  of  his  age, 
and  was  as  distinguished  for  his  wit  as  for  his 
rectitude  in  the  capacity  of  Proconsul.  In  95  b.c. 
he  was  elected  Consul. 

Crassus,  Marcus  Licinius,  the  Triumvir,  was 
born  some  time  before  115  b.c.  He  joined  Sulla 
in  83  b.c. ,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the 
battle  against  the  Samnites  at  the  gates  of  Rome. 
As  Prietor  he  crushed  the  Servile  revolt,  by  the 
conquest  of  Spartacus  at  the  Battle  of  Lucania 
(71  b.c.),  and  in  the  following  year  was  made 
Consul  with  Pompey,  a  colleague  whom  he 
hated.  On  the  other  hand,  Caesar  valued  the 
friendship  of  Crassus,  the  most  wealthy  of  Roman 
citizens. 

Cratae'gus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Rosacece,  sub-order  Pomece,  very  nearly 
allied  to  Mespilus  (medlar),  and  Pyrus  (pear, 
apple,  etc.),  but  distinguished  by  the  acute 
calycine  segments,  and  by  the  round  or  oval 
fruit,  closed  at  the  apex,  and  concealing  the 
upper  cud  of  the  bony  cells.  Perhaps  the  most 
common  is  the  cock’s-spur  thorn  ( G .  crus-galli), 
a  native  of  North  America  from  Canada  to 
Carolina. 

Cra'ter  (Gr.  a  cup),  the  central  cup-shaped 
cavity  in  the  summit  of  a  volcano,  through 
which  the  lava,  stones,  scoriae,  etc.,  are  for  the 
most  part  ejected. 

Crati  'nus,  a  Greek  poet,  born  about  519  b.c. 

Cratip 'pus,  a  philosopher,  native  of  Mitylene, 
and  a  contemporary  of  Cicero.  Cicero  calls  him 
the  prince  of  all  the  philosophers  whom  he  had 
known. 

Crawford,  Francis  Marion,  a  distinguished 
novelist,  son  of  Thomas  Crawford,  the  American 
sculptor,  was  born  in  Italy  in  1845.  Mr.  Isaacs,  Dr. 
Claudius,  Princess  Cassimissima,  A  Homan  Singer, 
and  An  American  Politician  are  his  principal  works. 

Crawford,  William  Harris,  born  in  Virginia 
Feb.  24,  1772,  died  Sept.  15,  1834.  In  1807  he 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  Reelected 
in  18il  he  became  President  pro  tern,  of  the  Sen¬ 
ate,  and  in  1813  went  as  Minister  to  Paris.  In 
1816  he  became  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  under 


Madison  and  continued  in  that  office  under  Monroe. 
He  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency  in  1824,  re¬ 
ceived  forty-one  electoral  votes,  but  was  defeated. 

Crayer,  Caspar  de,  a  Flemish  painter,  horn  in 
1582,  and  died  in  1669.  For  the  churches  at  Ghent 
he  executed  twenty-one  altar  pieces. 

Cray'flsh,  or  Craw'fisii  (Astacus  fluvialilis),  a 
crustacean  of  the  order  Decapoda.  sub-order  M ti¬ 
er  our  a  (i.  e. ,  long-tailed — characterized  by  the 
elongation  of  the  abdomen,  and  its  termination  in 
a  sort  of  tin  composed  of  five  pieces  and  expanded 
laterally);  nearly  allied  to  the  lobster,  from  which, 
however,  it  differs  in  having  the  middle  plate  of 
the  tail-tin  transversely  divided  by  a  suture.  See 
Huxley’s  Crayfish  (1879). 

Crayon  (Fr.  a  pencil).  The  word  is  usually  ap¬ 
plied  to  small  cylinders  of  charcoal,  or  of  pipe-clay, 
or  chalk  colored  with  various  pigments,  which  are 
used  for  drawing. 

Cream,  the  butyraceous  and  richer  portion  of 
milk,  which,  as  it  is  lighter,  rises  and  settles  on  the 
surface. 

Cream  of  Tartar  exists  naturally  in  grape 
juice,  but  being  insoluble  in  alcohol,  it  is  gradually 
deposited,  in  the  form  of  argol,  as  the  sugar  of  the 
juice  becomes  converted  into  alcohol  by  fermen¬ 
tation.  It  is  used  in  medicine  to  some  extent  as 
a  refrigerant,  and  is  also  used  by  housekeepers  for 
making  bread. 

Cre'asote,  or  Kre'asote,  isan  artificial  organic 
substance,  generally  obtained  from  the  products 
of  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood.  It  is  pro¬ 
cured  incidentally  as  one  of  the  constituents  of 
wood-tar,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  tedious 
process.  Sometimes  used  in  medicine  as  an  anti¬ 
septic.  It  is  used  by  some  persons  as  a  remedy 
for  toothache. 

Creasy,  Sir  Edward  Shepherd,  born  in  Eng¬ 
land  Sept.  12,  1812,  and  died  Jan.  27,  1878.  He 
served  as  Chief  Justice  of  Ceylon  and  wrote  many 
historical  works,  the  most  notable  of  which  is  his 
Fifteen  Decisive  Battles  of  the  World. 

Cre  atine,  or  Kre'atine  (Gr.  xpiat,  kreas, 
flesh), was  discovered  in  1835  by  Chevreul.but  little 
was  known  about  it  till  Liebig  published  his 
Researches  on  the  Chemistry  of  Food,  in  1847.  It 
forms  transparent,  glistening  crystals,  belonging 
to  the  clinorliombic  system,  and  usually  occurring 
in  groups,  the  character  of  which  is  exactly  similar 
to  that  of  sugar  of  lead.  It  is  constantly  present 
in  the  juice  both  of  voluntary  and  involuntary 
muscles.  The  quantity  differs  in  the  flesh  of  dif¬ 
ferent  kinds  of  animals,  and  even  in  different 
muscles  of  the  same  animal,  but  is  always  very 
small;  and  lean  animals  yield  relatively  more 
than  fat  ones.  According  to  Liebig,  the  flesh  of 
hens  yields  the  largest  amount — viz. ,  0. 32  per  cent . , 
the  average  quantity  from  horse  or  ox  flesh  being 
0.07  per  cent  . 

Creat'inine  is  closely  allied  in  its  chemical  and 
physiological  relations  to  creatine.  Liebig  found 
that,  when  heated  with  a  strong  mineral  acid,  a 
solution  of  creatine  no  longer  yields  crystals  of 
that  substance,  but  a  new  body  of  totally  differ¬ 
ent  chemical  properties,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  creatinine. 

Crebillon,  Prosper  Jolyot  de,  French 
dramatist,  born  in  1674.  Uhadamiste  (1711),  a 
tragedy,  was  regarded  as  his  masterpiece,  and 
established  his  reputation.  He  died  June  17, 
1762. 

Crebillon,  Claude  Prosper  Joi.yot  de,  the 
younger,  son  of  the  dramatist,  was  born  Feb  14, 
1707.  lie  acquired  popularity  by  a  series  of 
romances,  principal  of  which  are  Le  Sopha,  he 
Ilasard  du  Coin  da  Feu,  Les  Egaremenfs  du  Cceur 
et  de  l' Esprit.  He  died  in  Paris,  April  12,  1777. 

Crecy,  or  Cressy,  asmall  town  of  France,  in  the 
department  of  Somme,  situated  on  the  Maye, 
about  twelve  miles  north  of  Abbeville. 

Cre  'deuce,  a  small  table  beside  the  altar  or 
communion-table,  on  which  the  bread  and  wine 
are  laid  before  being  consecrated.  In  the  Greek 
Church  this  is  called  t  lie  trapeza  prothesis. 
There  are  credences  in  various  Anglican  churches. 

Credentials,  papers  given  to  an  ambassador, 
or  other  public  officer  or  agent,  to  enable  him  to 
claim  the  confidence  of  the  court  or  body  to 
which  he  is  sent. 

Cred'it,  in  Political  Economy,  is  one  of  many 
terms  of  which  it  is  said  that  we  yet  possess  no 
scientific  definition.  The  real  power  of  credit, 


properly  resting  on  capital,  is  that  it  enables  that 
capital  to  be  devoted  to  more  than  one  purpose. 
A  bank  is  an  emporium  of  credit;  that  is  to  say, 
it  consists  of  a  certain  amount  of  capital,  which 
can  be  operated  on  by  a  whole  community. 

Credit,  L  etter  of.  This  is  the  term  applied 
to  accounts,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  letter, 
addressed  by  one  party  to  another,  whereby  the 
former  requests  the  latter  to  pay  a  sum  therein 
specified  to  the  bearer  of  the  letter,  or  some  other 
third  party  named  in  it,  and  authorizes  him  to 
reimburse  himself  for  such  payment,  either  by 
debiting  it  in  account  before  the  parties,  or  by 
drawing  on  t  lie  first  party  for  the  amount.  This 
arrangement  may  take  place  between  merchants 
or  others,  but  in  general  it  occurs  between  bankers 
residing  in  different  places. 

Credit  Foncier,  a  peculiar  method  of  borrow¬ 
ing  money  in  France  on  the  security  of  landed 
property.  It  was  established  by  an  edict  of  Feb. 
28,  1852.  Its  peculiarity  is,  that  the  repayment 
of  the  loan  is  by  an  annuity  terminable  at  a  cer¬ 
tain  date;  the  date  and  the  amount  of  annuity 
being  so  calculated,  that  when  the  last  payment 
is  made,  the  loan  and  the  interest  on  it  will  be 
extinguished.  Another  method  of  describing  it 
is  as  a  loan  repayable  by  installments. 

Credit  Mobilier,  an  institution  of  the  same 
character  as  the  foregoing,  but  differing  from  the 
Credit  Foncier  in  that  it  made  advances  upon 
movable  property,  shares,  etc.,  instead  of  land. 
One  was  established  in  France  in  1854,  and  nego¬ 
tiated  several  loans  and  paid  large  dividends,  but 
speculated  too  rashly  and  became  embarrassed. 
The  Credit  Mobilier  of  America  was  chartered  by 
the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  in  1859  under  the 
name  of  the  “  Pennsylvania  Fiscal  Agency.”  In 
1864  a  company,  including  T.  C.  Durant  and 
others,  purchased  the  franchise  and  reorganized 
the  corporation  under  the  name  given  above. 
Its  purpose  was  to  aid  in  the  construction  of  the 
Union  Pacific  Railway. 

Creeds  and  Conf>  ssions  are  the  names  given 
to  the  authorized  expressions  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  Church  at  large,  or  of  the  several  main  .sec¬ 
tions  into  which  it  is  divided.  The  principal 
Christian  creeds  are  the  Nicene,  the  Athanasian , 
and  the  Apostles'. 

Creek,  or  Muscogee  Indians,  a  tribe  origin¬ 
ally  found  in  Alabama,  and  now  settled  in  the 
Indian  Territory. 

Creep 'er  ( Certhia ),  a  genus  of  birds,  the  type 
of  the  family  Certhiadw,  having  a  longish,  slen¬ 
der,  arched,  and  pointed  bill;  a  long,  narrow, 


Common  Creeper  {Cert  /dado;  Jlmiiliaris) . 


sharp-pointed  tongue,  jagged  near  its  tip;  the  tail 
rather  long,  and  the  tips  of  the  tail-feathers  firm 
and  pointed,  extending  beyond  the  webs. 

Creeps,  a  miner’s  term  for  the  depression 
which  takes  place  on  the  surface  from  the  re¬ 
moval  of  bedsof  coal  beneath.  Masses  of  the  coal 
seam,  like  huge  pillars,  are  left  by  the  miners  for 
the  support  of  the  superincumbent  strata;  the 
pressure,  however,  of  these  beds  is  so  great  that, 
in  course  of  time,  the  ceiling  gradually  sinks. 

Cremation  is  a  name  given  to  the  act  of 
reducing  the  dead  human  body  to  ashes  by  tire. 
The  custom  was  wide-spread  in  olden  times,  and 
has  been  revived  to  some  extent  within  the  past 
few  years  in  Europe  and  America. 

Cremo'na,  an  important  city  of  Northern  Italy, 


CRENELLE. 


812 


CRINED. 


situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Po,  about 
forty-eight  miles  southeast  of  Milan.  Pop.  (1881), 
31,930.  Cremona  is  the  capital  of  a  province  of 
the  same  name;  area,  650  square  miles;  pop. 
(1881),  302,064. 

Crenelle',  sometimesused  fora  battlement,  or 
the  embrasures  in  a  battlement. — Crenelle,  in 
Heraldry,  embattled,  signifies  that  any  ordinary 
is  drawn  like  the  battlements  of  a  wall. 

Creu'ic  Acid  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  veg¬ 
etable  mold,  and  is  produced  wherever  leaves 
and  other  plant  matter  are  decaying,  especially 
in  peat-bogs  and  marshes. 

Cre 'ole  (Span.  criollo)  is  a  word  used  of  the 
inhabitants  of  portions  of  North  and  South  Amer¬ 
ica,  the  West  Indies,  and  Mauritius.  In  its  widest 
sense,  it  designates  any  one  born  in  the  country, 
but  of  a  race  not  native  to  it.  It  is  usually 
applied,  however,  to  persons  born  in  the  colony 
or  country,  and  of  pure  European  blood,  as  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  immigrant  Europeans,  and  also 
from  the  offspring  of  mixed  blood. 

Crescen  'do,  in  Music,  means  a  gradual  increas¬ 
ing  of  sound,  or  changing  from  piano  to  forte 

and  fortissimo.  It  is  marked  thus  — - or 

with  the  abbreviation  cresc.  The  swell  of  a  good 
organ  produces  a  most  perfect  crescendo. 

Cres'cent.  A  representation  of  the  lialf-moon 
with  the  horns  turned  upward,  is  often  used  as 
an  emblem  of  progress  and  success.  It  was  the 
emblem  of  the  Greek  before  it  became  that  of  the 
Turkish  rule,  and  at  the  present  day  is  frequently 
to  be  seen  on  churches  in  Moscow,  and  elsewhere 
in  Russia,  generally  surmounted  by  the  cross. 

Crescent,  Turkish  Order  op.  ‘  In  1799,  after 
the  battle  of  Aboukir,  the  Sultan,  Selim  III., 
testified  his  gratitude  to  Nelson  by  sending  him  a 
crescent  richly  adorned  with  diamonds.  It  was 
not  intended  as  an  order,  but  Nelson  wore  it  on 
his  coat,  and  called  himself  the  Knight  of  the 
Crescent.  Selim  was  flattered  by  the  value  at¬ 
tached  to  his  gift,  and  resolved,  in  1801,  to  found 
the  Order  of  the  Crescent.  Mohammedans 
being  forbidden  in  the  Koran  to  carry  such 
marks  of  distinction,  the  order  is  conferred  only 
on  Christians  who  have  done  service  to  the  state. 
There  was  an  old  Order  of  the  Crescent,  instituted 
by  Rene,  Duke  of  Anjou,  in  1464. 

Crescent,  ill  Heraldry,  is  used  both  as  a  bear¬ 
ing  or  charge,  and  as  a  difference,  or  mark  of 
cadency.  In  the  latter  case,  it  designates  the 
second  son,  and  those  that  descend  from  him. 

Cress,  a  name  given  to  many  plants,  of  which 
the  foliage  has  a  pungent,  mustard-like  taste,  and 
is  used  as  a  salad. 

Cresset  (Fr.  croisette,  diminutive  of  croix, 
cross),  a  name  given  to  a  great  light  on  a  beacon 
or  watch-tower,  to  a  lamp,  or  torch,  or  a  light 
fixed  on  a  pole.  The  name  owes  its  origin  to  the 
fact  that  formerly  beacons  were  usually  sur¬ 
mounted  by  a  cross. 

Crest  (Lat.  crista,  a  tuft,  from  cresco,  to  grow 
up).  Though  popularly  regarded  as  the  most 
important  feature  in  heraldic  emblems,  the  crest, 
in  the  eyes  of  heralds,  is  an  external  adjunct  to 
the  shield,  wit  hout  which  the  bearing  is  complete, 
and  which  may  consequently  be  altered  without 
materially  affecting  its  significance. 

Crest-e,  in  Architecture,  an  ornamental  finish¬ 
ing,  either  carved  in  stone,  or  of  tiles  running 
along  the  top  of  a  wall,  or  the  ridge  of  a  roof. 

Crested,  in  Heraldry.  When  a  cock  or  other 
bird  has  its  comb  of  a  different  tincture  from  its 
body,  it  is  said  to  be  crested  of  such  a  tincture, 
naming  the  tincture. 

Cres'wick,  Thomas.  R.A.,an  English  painter, 
born  1811.  Among  his  greatest  works  are  “  Eng¬ 
land,”  “London  Road  a  Hundred  Years  Ago,” 
and  the  “  Weald  of  Kent.”  He  died  in  1869. 

Creta'ceous  Group,  or  Chalk  Formation, 
the  upper  strata  of  the  secondary  series,  imme¬ 
diately  below  the  tertiary  beds,  and  resting  on 
the  oolite.  This  group  is  separated  from  the 
eocene  tertiary  beds  by  a  decided  change  in  both 
the  rocks  and  fossils. 

Crete,  or  Candia,  one  of  the  largest  islands  in 
the  Mediterranean,  situated  between  34u  50'  and 
35°  40'  N.  latitude,  and  between  23°  30'  and  26° 
20'  E.  longitude.  Candia  is  the  capital. 

Cretinism,  from  cretin  (Fr.),  an  idiot  of  the 
Alps,  and  this  again  probably  from  chretien,  a 
Christian,  one  who,  from  his  state  of  fatuity, 


could  not  sin,  and  was  viewed  with  some  degree 
of  religious  respect.  The  name  of  cretinism  is 
now  applied  in  a  more  general  sense  to  idiocy,  or 
defective  mental  development  depending  upon 
local  causes,  and  associated  with  bodily  deform¬ 
ity  or  arrested  growth. 

Creuse,  a  river  and  a  department  in  the  center 
of  France.  The  river  rises  in  the  mountains  on 
the  southern  border  of  the  department  of  Creuse, 
and  is  150  miles  in  length.  The  department  to 
which  the  river  gives  its  name  lies  in  latitude  45° 
39'— 46Q  26'  N.,  and  longitude  1°  24'—  2°  36'  E. 
On  an  area  of  about  2,200  square  miles,  it  had  a 
pop.,  in  1872,  of  247,663;  at  the  census  of  1881, 
the  pop.  was  268,131 .  Creuse  is  divided  into  the 
arrondissemenls  Aubusson,  Bourgaueuf,  Boussac, 
Guf-ret,  with  Gueret  for  its  capital. 

Creuzot,  Le,  a  town  of  France,  department  of 
Saone-et-Loire,  twelve  miles  south -southeast  of 
Autun.  It  has  the  most  extensive  iron  works  in 
France,  rivaling  those  of  Birmingham,  Essen, 
or  Liege,  and  since  1837  has  gathered  round  these 
a  pop.  of  (1872)21,408. 

Crew,  of  a  ship,  is  a  collective  name  for  all  the 
persons  employed  therein,  but  usually  limited  to 
designate  petty  officers  and  seamen  only. 

Crewe,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Cheshire,  Eng¬ 
land.  Pop.  (1881),  24,372. 

Crib'bage  is  a  game  with  cards,  played  by 
two,  three,  or  four  persons,  the  whole  pack  being 
used.  When  three  are  engaged,  each  plays  for 
himself;  when  four,  they  take  sides.  There  are 
no  trumps.  The  number  of  cards  dealt  is  five  or 
six,  the  mode  of  playing  the  game  varying 
slightly  with  the  number  of  cards  used.  The 
points  are  scored  on  a  board  with  holes  for  pegs, 
and  sixty-one  constitutes  game.  The  terms  used 
in  the  game  are  as  follows;  Crib,  the  cards  laid 
out  by  each  party,  the  points  made  by  them 
being  scored  by  the  dealer.  Pairs  are  two  similar 
cards,  as  tivo  aces  or  two  kings.  Pairs  royal  are 
three  similar  cards.  Double  pairs  royal  are  four 
similar  cards.  Sequences  are  three,  four,  or  more 
successive  cards,  a  double  sequence  is  a  duplica¬ 
tion  of  any  one  of  the  cards  in  a  sequence. 

Crib-biting  is  a  habit  to  which  some  horses 
become  addicted.  The  act  consists  in  the  animal 
seizing  with  his  teeth  the  manger,  or  any  such  ob¬ 
ject,  and  taking  in  a  deep  inspiration,  popularly 
called  wind-sucking.  It  may  be  caused  by  ner¬ 
vous  irritation  from  tickling  in  grooming,  or  it 
may  proceed  from  indigestion.  When  acquired 
from  bad  grooming  the  best  preventive  is  a  muz¬ 
zle  or  throat  strap,  but  when  from  indigestion 
corrective  measures  in  regard  to  stomachic  dis¬ 
orders  should  be  used,  such  as  Bicarbonate  of  Soda 
for  acidity,  and  pepsin  and  tonics  to  assist  digestion. 

Cricli'ton,  James,  surnamed  the  “Admir¬ 
able,”  was  a  native  of  Scotland,  where  he  was 
born  in  1551,  or  according  to  others,  in  1560. 
Before  he  reached  his  twentieth  year  he  had  ran 
through  the  whole  circle  of  the  sciences,  mastered 
ten  different  languages,  and  perfected  himself  in 
every  knightly  accomplishment.  At  Paris,  Rome, 
Venice,  Padua,  Mantua,  he  achieved  the  most 
extraordinary  victories  in  disputation  on  all 
branches  of  human  knowledge,  and  excited  uni¬ 
versal  applause.  The  beauty  of  his  person  and 
the  elegance  of  his  manners  made  him  a  great 
favorite  with  women.  He  vanquished  in  a  duel 
the  mo  t  famous  gladiator  in  Europe.  The  Duke 
of  Mantua  appointed  him  preceptor  to  his  son, 
Vincentio  di  Gonzago,  who  soon  afterward  mur 
dered  his  tutor  in  a  street  brawl. 

Crick  'et  (of  doubtful  derivation),  a  well-known 
game  of  ancient  origin.  The  requirements  for 
carrying  on  the  game  are — 1st,  a  piece  of  level 
lawn  an  acre  or  two  in  extent;  2d,  a  sufficient 
number  of  players  to  form  two  sides  of  eleven 
each,  for  double  wicket,  and  a  lesser  number  for 
single  wicket;  3d,  for  double  wicket  (the  mode  in 
which  t lie  game  is  usually  played),  two  bats,  two 
sets  of  wickets,  and  bails,  and  a  ball.  Wickets 
consist  of  six  wooden  stumps,  twenty-seven 
inches  high,  and  are  placed  In  the  ground  in  sets  of 
three,  at  a  distance  of  twenty -two  yards  apart .  On 
the  top  of  each  set  of  stumps  are  placed  two  small 
pieces  of  wood  called  bails.  The  rival  sides  next 
toss  forfirst  “innings,”  and  the  director  of  the  side 
that  is  to  go  in  first,  places  two  of  his  men  at  the 
wickets  as  batters;  while  a  bowler,  wicket-keeper, 

\  long-stop,  and  fielders,  are  placed  in  their  several  j 


positions  by  the  director  of  the  opposite  side. 
When  these  arrangements  are  made,  and  the 
markers  or  scorers  are  at  their  post,  the  umpires 
take  their  places  and  the  game  begins.  The  rela¬ 
tive  merits  of  rival  sides  are  decided  by  the  total 
number  of  runs  made  by  each  eleven  batters 
during  two  innings — the  side  whose  players  score 
the  most  being  victorious.  The  bowler’s  object 
is  to  direct  his  ball,  by  a  swift  movement  of  the 
arm,  toward  the  opposite  wickets,  at  which  one  of 
the  batsmen  stands,  and,  if  possible,  to  strike 
down  the  stumps  or  knock  off  the  bails;  while 
the  object  of  the  batsman,  on  the  other  hand,  is 
to  protect  his  wickets  from  the  bowler’s  attack, 
by  either  stopping  the  ball  when  it  reaches  him 
(blocking),  or  driving  it  out  to  the  field. 

Cricket  (Gryllus;  A  chela  of  some  naturalists), 
a  genus  of  orthopterous  insects,  of  the  segtion 
SaUaloria  (in  which  the  hinder  legs  are  long, 
strong,  and  formed  for  leaping),  allied  to  locusts 
and  grasshoppers,  and  the  type  of  a  family  Gryl- 
lidee  or  Aclietidce).  It  is  supposed  to  be  by  the 
friction  of  the  wing-covers  against  each  other, 
and  from  a  peculiarity  of  their  structure,  that  the 
males  produce  the  stridulous  sound  which  makes 


these  insects  so  well  known.  The  antenme  are 
long  and  thread  like,  inserted  between  the  eyes. 
The  best  known  species  is  the  house  cricket  ( G . 
domesticus),  which  is  about  an  inch  long,  with 
antennae  of  almost  an  inch  and  a  half,  of  a  pale, 
yellowish  color,  mingled  with  brown. 

Crime,  in  its  legal,  as  opposed  to  its  moral  or 
ethical  sense,  is  an  act  done  in  violation  of  those 
duties  for  the  breach  of  which  the  law  has  pro¬ 
vided  that  the  offender,  in  addition  to  repairing, 
if  it  be  possible,  the  injury  done  to  the  individual, 
shall  make  satisfaction  to  the  community.  A 
private  wrong,  or  civil  injury,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  an  infringement  on  the  rights  of  an  individual 
merely,  for  which  compensation  to  him  is  held, 
in  law,  to  be  a  complete  atonement. 

Crimea,  the  ancient  Tauric  Chersonese,  called 
by  the  Russians  by  the  Tatar  name,  Krym,  or 
Grim,  a  peninsula  in  the  Black  Sea  forming  part 
of  the  Russian  Government  of  Taurida,  with  the 
mainland  of  which  it  is  connected  by  the  Isthmus 
of  Perecop,  about  6  miles  wide.  It  is  situated 
bet  ween  44°  22'  and  46°  10'  N.  latitude,  and  32° 
30'  and  36°  40'  E.  longitude;  is  rhomboid  in 
form,  the  angles  being  directed  to  the  cardinal 
points;  measures  125  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  200  miles  from  west  to  the  east  extremity  of 
the  Peninsula  of  Kertch,  at  the  east  angle  of  the 
quadrilateral,  and  contains  an  area  of  between 
9,000  and  10,000  square  miles. 

Crimean  War.  In  1854  the  allied  armies,  of 
England,  France,  Sardinia,  and  Turkey,  num¬ 
bering  65,000  men,  with  eighty  pieces  of  artillery, 
landed  at  Eupatoria,  and  encountered  the  Russian 
forces  on  September  20th,  when  a  bloody  battle 
was  fought.  The  Russians  occupied  Sebastopol, 
and  on  October  9th  the  siege  of  that  fortress  com¬ 
menced.  Desperate  fighting  occurred  at  Balak- 
lava,  Inkerman,  Malakhoff,  Redan,  and  other 
points,  at  intervals,  up  to  the  autumn  of  1856, 
when  the  allies  withdrew  from  the  territory.  See 
Kinglake,  History  of  the  Crimean  War. 

Crineil  (Lat.  crinis,  the  hair),  a  term  in  Her¬ 
aldry.  When  the  hair  of  a  man  or  woman,  or  the 
|  inane  of  a  horse,  differs  in  tincture  from  the  rest 


CRINGLES. 


313 


CROMWELL. 


of  the  charge,  the  object  is  said  to  be  crined  of 
such  a  metal  or  color. 

Crin'gles,  short  pieces  of  rope,  with  each  end 
spliced  into  the  bolt  rope  of  a  sail;  commonly 
confining  an  iron  or  brass  ring  or  thimble. 
Smaller  ropes  are  passed  through  them,  to  aid  in 
managing  the  sails. 

Criniod'effi  (Gr.  lily-like)  an  order  or  family  of 
radiate  animals  of  the  class  Echinodermaln ,  of 


Free  Adult,  showing  wreath  of  anchoring  hooks. 


which  the  recent  species  are  few  but  the  fossil 
species  so  numerous  as  to  constitute  great  tracts 
■of  the  dry  land  as  it  now  appears. 

Crin'oline  (Fr.,  from  Lat.  crinis,  hair),  was 
the  name  originally  given  by  the  French  modistes 
to  a  fabric  made  of  horse  hair,  capable  of  great 
stiffness,  and  employed  to  distend  women’s  attire; 
it  is  now  applied  in  a  general  way  to  those  struct¬ 
ures  of  steel  wire  or  hoops,  by  means  of  which 
women  some  years  ago  attained  such  overwhelm¬ 
ing  dimensions. 

Crisis  (Gr.  a  judgment,  from  xpivoo,  krino ,  I 
judge),  a  name  used  by  the  ancient  physicians  to 
denote  the  rapid  or  sudden  determination  of  an 
acute  disease  in  the  direction  of  convalescence  or 
•of  death.  It  was  opposed  in  signification  to  lysis 
(Xvco,  luo,  I  relax),  which  denoted  the  gradual 
subsidence  of  the  symptoms  noticed  in  most 
chronic,  and  in  some  acute,  diseases. 

Crisis,  in  the  commercial  world,  is  the  result 
■of  an  artificial  scarcity  of  money.  One  occurred 
in  Jackson’s  time  when  the  Government  deposits 
were  withdrawn  from  the  United  States  Bank, 
one  in  1857,  and  one  in  1873. 

Crispin,  a  saint  and  martyr,  who  fled  from 
Rome  into  Gaul,  where  he  worked  as  a  shoe¬ 
maker.  His  benevolence  was  said  to  be  so  great 
that  he  even  stole  leather  to  make  shoes  for  the 
poor!  From  this,  charities  done  at  the  expense 
of  others  have  been  called  Crispinades.  In 
287,  he  and  his  brother  suffered  martyrdom. 
Both  brothers  are  commemorated  on  October 
25  th. 

Crispi,  Francesco,  born  in  Sicily,  Oct.  4, 
1819,  took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1848,  and 
fought  under  Garibaldi  in  1859-60.  In  1861 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Italian  Parliament, 
and  in  1876  was  elected  President  of  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies.  Early  in  1889  he  became  Prime 
Minister. 

Crittenden,  John  Jordon,  born  in  Kentucky, 
Sept.  10,  1787,  died  July  26,  1863.  In  1817  lie 
was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  In  1835  he 
again  became  Senator;  in  1841  Attorney-General  of 
the  United  States;  in  1842  again  Senator,  and  in 
1848  Governor  of  his  State.  In  1850  he  was  Attor¬ 
ney-General  of  the  United  States;  in  1855  again 
elected  Senator.  In  June,  1861,  he  was  elected  to 
Congress.  One  of  his  sons,  George  B.,  became 
a  general  in  the  Confederate  army,  and  another, 
Thomas  L.,  a  brevet  brigadier-general  in  the 
Union  service. 

Croa'tia,  a  kingdom  forming  part  of  the 
Austrian  Empire.  With  Slavonia  it  forms  one  of 
the  administrative  divisions  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Hungary,  and  their  joint  pop.  was  (1880),  1,191,- 
845;  their  area,  8,757  square  miles.  Croatia  lies 
to  the  northeast  of  the  Adriatic,  and  borders  on 
one  side  of  Turkey. 

Crochet  (a  French  word  signifying  a  hook),  a 
species  of  handiwork,  which  may  be  described  as 
an  extensive  system  of  looping,  by  means  of  hooks 
made  for  the  purpose. 


Crockett,  David,  born  in  Tennessee  in  1786, 
died  at  the  Alamo,  Tex.,  March  6,  1836.  He  lived 
a  wild  life  on  the  Tennessee  frontier,  but,  in  1827 
and  1829,  was  elected  to  Congress.  Afterward  he 
removed  to  Texas,  and  was  prominent  in  the 
revolt  against  Mexico.  He  was  murdered  by  order 
of  Santa  Anna  after  t  he  Alamo  had  been  captured. 

Crock  'ets,  in  Gotl'ic  Architecture,  are  project¬ 
ing  leaves,  flowers,  or  bunches  of  foliage,  used  to 
decorate  the  angles  of  spires,  canopies,  pinnacles, 
etc. 

Crifc  'udile  ( Crocodilns ),  a  genus  of  saurian 
reptiles,  the  typeof  the  familjCrocodilidte;  which 
some  naturalists  have  erected  into  a  distinct  order 
of  reptiles  (Loricata),  on  account  of  the  square 
bony  plates  with  which  their  bodies  are  covered, 
instead  of  the  scales  of  the  other  saurians,  the 


Crocodile. 


greater  solidity  of  the  skull,  the  lungs  not  de¬ 
scending  into  the  abdomen,  and  the  approach 
which  they  make  to  mammalia  and  birds  in  the 
structure  of  the  heart.  The  Crocodilidce  are  lizard¬ 
like  in  form,  with  the  tail  flattened  at  the  sides. 
The  fore  feet  have  five  toes,  the  hind-feet  four, 
the  three  inner  ones  only  being  armed  with  claws; 
the  feet  are  more  or  less  webbed.  Each  jaw  has 
a  single  row  of  large  teeth,  which  are  conical  and 
directed  backward.  The  names  crocodile  and 
alligator  are  often  indiscriminately  used  in  pop¬ 
ular  language. 

Cro'cus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Iridacece.  The  species  have  much  general  simi¬ 
larity,  and  are  natives 
chiefly  of  the  South  of 
Europe  and  of  the 
East.  Saffron  is  the 
produce  of  Crocus  sn- 
tivus.  Some  of  the 
species  are  cultivated 
in  gardens. 

Crocus  of  Anti¬ 
mony  is  the  oxysul- 
phide  of  antimony. 

Crocus  of  Mars  is 
the  finely-divided  red 
oxide  of  iron. 

Croe'sus,  last  King 
of  Lydia,  succeeded 
his  father,  Alyattes,  in 
560  b.c.  From  his 
conquests,  his  mines, 
and  the  golden  sand 
of  the  Pactolus,  he 
accumulated  so  much 
treasure  that  his 
wealth  has  become 
proverbial.  He  was  Spi-in<i  Crocus  (Crocusver  nus.) 
defeated  by  Cyrus  in  546  b.c. 

Croft  (Ang.-Sax.  croft),  a  small  piece  of  land 
connected  with  an  humble  kind  of  dwelling,  whose 
inhabitant,  the  renter  of  the  land,  is  called  a 
crofter.  In  Scotland,  where  the  crofting  system 
is  common,  it  is  usual  for  the  crofter  to  have, 
besides  his  cottage,  a  small  patch  of  land  for 
tillage;  while  the  crofters  of  the  township,  col¬ 
lectively,  have  a  right  of  pasturage  on  the  adjoin¬ 
ing  hill  pasture  or  moorland. 

Croix,  Ste.,  or  Santa  Cruz,  in  English, 
IToly  Cross,  Ilolyrood,  or  St.  Cross ,  an  island 
of  the  Virgin  Group,  in  the  West  Indies.  Area, 
about  100  square  miles.  Pop.,  about  25,000. — 
St.  Croix  is  also  the  name  of  a  river,  other¬ 
wise  known  as  the  Schoodie  or  the  Passa¬ 
nt  aquoddy,  which  falls  into  Passamaquoddy 
Bay,  on  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  It  is  the  boundary 
throughout  between  the  State  of  Maine  and  New 
Brunswick. 


broker,  T.  Crofton,  born  in  Cork,  Jan.  15, 
1798.  Was  well  known  for  his  writings  on  Irish 
history  and  legends.  He  died  Aug.  8,  1854. 

Croly,  Rev.  Dr.  George,  an  "English  poet, 
romance-writer,  and  preacher,  born  about  1785, 
and  died  in  1860.  His  best  work  is  Snlntldel. 

Crom  'arty,  a  Parliamentary  burgh  and  seaport 
in  the  United  Counties  of  Ross  and  Cromarty, 
Scotland. 

Cromarty  Firth,  a  land-locked  inlet  of  the 
North  Sea  on  the  northeast  coast  of  Scotland, 
just  northwest  of  the  Moray  Firth,  and  inclosed 
by  parts  of  the  Counties  of  Cromarty  and  Ross. 

Crom 'arlyshire,  a  county  of  the  north  of 
Scotland,  connected  with  Ross-shire,  and  con¬ 
sisting  of  ten  detached  portions  in  the  interior, 
and  along  the  northern  borders  of  Ross-shire. 
Area,  344  square  miles. 

Crom 'lecli,  a  name  formerly  applied  to  a 
rude  structure  of  two  or  more  stones,  placed 
erect  in  the  earth,  and  supporting  a  larger  one. 
It  is  now  considered  the  proper  term  for  circles 
of  erect  stones  like  Stonehenge,  England. 

Cromp'tou,  Samuel,  the  inventor  of  the  spin¬ 
ning-mule,  was  born  in  Lancashire,  England,  Dec. 
3,  1753,  and  died  in  1827. 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  Lord  Protector  of  the 
British  Commonwealth,  was  born  at  Hunting¬ 
don,  April  25,  1599,  and  died  on  Sept.  3,  1658. 
In  1620  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  but  was 
dismissed  by  the  King.  In  1640  he  was  sent 
again  as  member  for  Cambridge.  When  all  hope 
of  reconciliation  between  King  and  Parlia¬ 
ment  failed,  Cromwell  was  among  the  first 
to  offer  aid  in  defense  of  the  State.  In  July, 
1642,  he  moved  in  Parliament  for  permission  to 
raise  two  companies  of  volunteers  in  Cambridge, 
having  been  careful  to  supply  the  necessary 
arms  beforehand  at  his  own  cost.  In  the  follow¬ 
ing  month,  he  seized  the  magazine  in  Cambridge¬ 
shire,  and  prevented  the  Royalists  from  carrying 
off  the  plate  (valued  at  $100, 0C0)  in  the  university 
there.  Soon  promoted  to  the  rank  of  Colonel, 
and  then  to  that  of  Lieutenant-General,  he  in  the 
fight  of  Winceby  (July  2,  1644),  and  in  the  second 
Battle  of  Newbury  (Oct.  27,  1644),  gained  sub¬ 
stantial  advantages  for  the  Parliamentary  cause. 
He  commanded  the  right  wing  of  the  Parliament¬ 
ary  army  at  Naseby,  June,  1645.  The  Royalists 
in  the  west  were  speedily  reduced.  Bristol  was 
stormed,  and  Charles  in  May,  1646,  escaped  from 
Oxford  in  disguise,  and  threw  himself  into  the 
arms  of  the  Scotch  army  at  Newark  (May  5, 1646), 
by  whom  he  was  given  up  to  the  Parliamentary 
commissioners.  In  January,  1649,  the  King  was 
tried,  condemned,  and  executed.  The  abolition 
of  the  House  of  Lords  followed,  and  Cromwell 
became  a  member  of  the  new  Council  of  State. 
The  Royalists  being  still  strong  and  rebellious  in 
Ireland,  he  went  thither  in  August,  with  the  title 
of  Lord-Lieutenant,  and  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  army  there,  and  subdued  the  country  so  far, 
that  it  might  be  safely  left  to  the  keeping  of  his 
son-in-law,  Ireton.  Affairs  in  Scotland  now 
claimed  Cromwell’s  attention.  He  arrived  in  the 
North  of  Scotland  June  23,  1650,  and  was 
appointed  Commander-in-Chief  of  all  the  Parlia¬ 
mentary  forces.  On  July  15th  Charles  Stuart  had 
signed  the  Covenant,  and  was  fully  accepted  as 
King.  On  September  3d,  following,  .Cromwell 
routed  the  Scotch  army  at  Dunbar.  Charles, 
with  what  force  remained,  and  other  accessions, 
afterward  marched  southward,  and  had  pene¬ 
trated  to  Worcester,  when  Cromwell  came  up 
with  him,  and  utterly  overthrew  the  Royalists  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  battle  of  Dunbar.  This 
battle  placed  Cromwell  avowedly  at  the  head  of 
public  affairs  of  England.  On  April  20,  1653,  he 
dissolved  the  Rump  Parliament  and  henceforth 
was  ruler  in  England.  He  immediately  sum¬ 
moned  a  Parliament  of  140,  but  found  it  necessary 
to  dissolve  it  December  12th,  its  one  great 
work  having  been  the  legal  investiture  of  Crom¬ 
well  with  the  supreme  power  and  the  title  of 
Lord  Protector.  He  died  Sept.  3,  1658.  He  is 
now. regarded  as  one  of  England’s  greatest  men. 

Cromwell,  Richard,  son  of  Oliver  Cromwell, 
Lord  Protector  of  England,  was  born  at  Hunting¬ 
don,  Oct.  4,  1626.  When  thirty-two  years  of  age 
he  succeeded  his  father  as  Lord  Protector,  but 
resigned  his  office  seven  months  later.  He  died 
in  1712. 


CROMWELL. 


314 


CROWBERRY 


Cromwell,  Thomas,  an  English  statesman  ai*l 
ecclesiastical  reformer,  of  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.,  was  born  about  1490.  About  1520  lie  was 
received  into  the  household  of  Wolsey.  As  a 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons  he  defended 
the  fallen  minister  against  the  bill  of  impeach¬ 
ment.  Henry  VIII.  unde  him  his  own  Secretary; 
knighted  him  in  1531,  and  made  him  a  Privy- 
Councillor.  In  1534  he  had  become  Chief  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State,  and  Master  of  the  Rolls,  and  Keeper 
of  the  Privy  Seal  in  1530.  In  1539  he  had  risen 
to  be  Earl  of  Essex  and  Lord  Chamberlain  of 
England.  But  the  stern,  almost  savage  manner 
in  which,  in  the  carrying  out  of  his  policy,  he 
disposed  of  all  who  opposed  him,  led  to  many  and 
loud  complaints,  which  damaged  somewhat  his 
popularity  with  the  King.  In  order  to  retrieve 
his  lost  ground,  he  was  zealous  in  promoting  the 
marriage  of  Henry  with  Anne  of  Cleves,  from 
whom,  on  account  of  her  known  Lutheran  tend¬ 
encies,  he  expected  strong  support.  The  suc¬ 
cess  of  his  efforts  in  this  matter  proved  the  utter 
ruin  of  Cromwell,  for  the  King,  early  conceiving 
a  strong  aversion  to  his  unlovely  queen,  extended 
that  dislike  to  the  minister  who  had  so  strenuously 
promoted  the  marriage.  For  having  promot¬ 
ed  the  marriage  of  the  King  with  Anne  of 
Cleves,  of  whom  the  King  soon  tired,  Cromwell 
incurred  the  hatred  of  his  sovereign,  and  was  be¬ 
headed  July  28,  1540. 

Cron 'stadt  (Hung.  Brasso),  a  town  of  Transyl¬ 
vania,  situated  in  the  East  Carpathians.  Lati¬ 
tude  45°  36'  N.,  longitude  25°  33'  E.  Pop. 
(1880),  29,584. 


Cronstadt,  a  seaport  twenty  miles  west  of  St. 
Petersburg,  on  an  island  of  about  live  miles  in 
length,  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the  Gulf  of  Fin¬ 
land,  and  over  against  the  mouth  of  the  Neva 
Latitude  59°  59'  46"  N.,  longitude  29u46' 38' '  E 
Pop.,  50,000. 

Crook,  belonging  to  musical  instruments,  such 
as  the  French  horn  or  trumpet,  is  a  circular  tube, 
which  fits  into  the  end  of  the  instrument  next  the 
mouth-piece,  for  the  purpose  of  making  the  pitch 
of  the  instrument  suit  the  key  of  the  music. 

Crook,  George,  an  American  general,  born 
near  Dayton,  Ohio,  Sept.  8, 1828.  He  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1852.  In  1861  liewas  made  Colonel 
of  the  Thirty-sixth  Ohio  Volunteers.  He  ren¬ 
dered  valuable  service  during  the  war,  and  was 
promoted  several  times.  After  the  war  he  was 
successful  as  an  Indian  fighter,  and  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  District  of  Arizona.  He  was 
promoted  to  the  rank  of  Brigadier-General,  in 
October,  1873,  and  is  now  in  command  of  the 
Department  of  the  Missouri,  with  headquarters 
in  Chicago  and  rank  of  Major  General. 

Crooked  Islaud,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  contains 
160  square  miles,  and  about  630  inhabitants. 

Crop,  or  Out-crop,  is  the  edge  of  a  stratum 
where  it  rises  to  the  surface. 

Crop  Reports  are  prepared  by  the  National 
Department  of  Agriculture,  which,  since  Feb¬ 
ruary,  1889,  has  been  presided  over  by  a  Cabinet 
officer,  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 

Croquet,  an  open-air  game,  in  which  two  or 
more  players  endeavor  to  drive  wooden  balls,  by 
means  of  mallets,  through  a  series  of  arches  set- 
in  the  ground.  The  player  who  first  makes  the 
complete  circle  of  the  hoops  or  arches  wins  the 
match;  but  during  the  progress  of  the  game,  each 
player  may  have  the  progress  of  his  ball  retarded 
by  his  adversaries,  or  assisted  by  his  allies;  and 
these  friendly  aids  and  hostile  attacks  constitute 
the  chief  interest  of  croquet.  A  full-sized  croquet- 
ground  measures  40  yards  by  30  yards. 

Crosier,  a  staff  surmounted  by  a  cross,  which 
is  carried  before  a  bishop  on  solemn  occasions. 

Cross,  a  common  instrument  of  capital  punish¬ 
ment  among  the  ancients;  and  death  on  the  cross 
was  esteemed  so  dishonorable  that 
only  slaves  and  malefactors  of  the 
lowest  class  were  subjected  to  it  by 
the  Romans.  The  death  of  Christ 
by  crucifixion  led  Christians  to  re¬ 
gard  the  cross  with  peculiar  feel¬ 
ings  of  reverence,  and  to  make 
frequent  use  of  the  sign  of  the  st  George's 
cross  in  church  decoration,  as  insig-  Cross, 
nia  of  rank,  orders,  etc.  Various  forms  of  the 
cross  appear  in  the  insignia  of  different  countries, 
as  the  cross  of  St.  George  in  the  flag  of  England. 


Cross,  Invention  of  the,  the  name  given  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  a  festival  which 
commemorates  the  finding  of  the  alleged  true 
cross  of  our  Saviour,  and  which  is  celebrated  on 
May  3d. 

Cross,  The  Order  of  the,  originally  a  spirit¬ 
ual  order  of  knighthood,  ^hicli  sprang  up  in 
Palestine  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  and  was 
then  called  the  Bethlehemite  Order. 

Cross,  The  Southern,  the  most  conspicuous 
constellation  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  naarthe 
Antarctic  Circle,  and  therefore  never  visible  to 
our  latitude.  It  consists  of  four  bright  stars,  to 
which  the  fancy,  aided  by  Christian  associations, 
readily  gives  the  cruciform  shape. 

Cross,  Victoria,  an  order  instituted  on  the 
termination  of  the  Crimean  campaign  in  1856, 
that  may  be  granted  to  a  soldier  of  any  rank,  and 
for  a  single  act  of  valor.  The  badge  is  in  the 
form  of  a  Maltese  cross,  and  is  made  of  bronze. 
The  decoration  is  accompanied  by  a  pension  of 
$50  a  year. 

Cross  Bill  in  Chancery  is  a  suit  brought  by 
the  defendant  against  the  plaintiff  in  the  original 
suit,  for  the  purpose  of  setting  up  some  claim  or 
defense  which  could  not  be  maintained  in  the 
original  suit. 

Crossbill  ( Loxia ),  agenus  of  birdsof  the  family 
FringillidcB.  The  two  mandibles  cross  each  other 
at  the  points,  when  the  bill  is  closed.  Only  three 
species  are 
known.  It  is 
a  native  of 
Europe,  Asia, 
and  North 
A  m erica  , 
dwelling  chief¬ 
ly  in  pine  for¬ 
ests,  and  ex¬ 
tending  as  far 
north  as  they 
do.  An  ancient 
tradition,  based 
upon  the  pe¬ 
culiar  arrange-  Crossbill  (Loxia  curvirostra). 
merit  of  the  mandibles,  is  that  the  cross-bill  tried 
to  pull  out  the  nails  which  held  the  Saviour  to  the 
cross. 

Crossopo'dia,  a  genus  of  annelids,  determined 
from  markings  on  the  surface  of  Silurian  slates. 

Crotala'ria  (Gr.  krotalon,  a  rattle),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Leguminosce,  sub-order 
Papilwnncm ,  deriving  its  name  from  the  inflated 
pods  in  which  the  seeds  rattle  when  ripe. 

Crotal  irhe,  a  family  of  venomous  serpents, 
agreeing  with  Viperidm  in  their  general  form  and 
appearance;  in  their  large  head,  which  is  broad 
behind  and  has  a  short  muzzle;  in  their  short  tail; 
and  in  having  long  fangs  in  the  front  of  the  upper 
jaw,  which  is  destitute  of  other  teeth;  but  differ¬ 
ing  from  them  in  having  a  large  pit  on  each  side  of 
the  face  between  the  nostril  and  the  eye;  and  in 
having  the  tail  terminated  by  a  sort  of  horny 
spine  or  by  a  rattle.  Many  of  the  most  danger¬ 
ous  serpents  of  the  warm  parts  of  Asia  and 
America  belong  to  this  family,  which  receives  its 
name  from  the  rattlesnake  (Gr.  crotalus,  a  rattle) 
of  America,  and  contains  also  the  genera  Trig- 
onocephalus,  Craspedocephalus,  Lachesis,  etc. 

Croton  Oil  is  of  an  unctuous  consistence,  and 
varies  in  color  from  a  pale  yellow  to  a  dark  red¬ 
dish-brown  or  deep  sherry  color.  It  is  not  miscible 
with  water,  but  dissolves  in  alcohol  and  in  ether. 
It  has  an  acrid  taste,  and  an  unpleasant  but  char¬ 
acteristic  odor,  and  is  a  powerful  purgative,  one 
drop  of  the  pure  oil  being  a  sufficient  dose.  When 
rubbed  upon  the  skin,  it  produces  rubefaction  and 
pustular  eruption,  and  thereby  tends  to  relieve 
some  affections  of  the  internal  organs.  It  is  used 
either  by  itself  in  the  unmixed  state,  or  diluted 
with  olive  oil,  soap  liniment,  alcohol,  etc.  It  is 
not  to  be  employed  except  with  caution.  Used 
internally  it  is  a  powerful  drastic  cathartic. 

Cro'ton,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Euphorbiacece ,  having  male  and  female  flowers 
generally  on  the  same  plant;  the  male  flowers  with 
five  petals;  the  female  flowers  with  three  styles, 
which  are  either  forked  or  divided  into  many 
branches;  the  capsules  three-celled,  with  one  seed 
in  each  cell.  The  species  are  numerous,  mostly 


tropical  or  sub  tropical  trees  or  shrubs,  a  few  her¬ 
baceous. 


Croton . 


Cvotoph 1  aga  (Gr.  tick-eater),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  order  Scanwes,  or  climbers,  allied  to  tro- 
gons  and  toucans,  and  of  which  some  of  the 
species  are  known  by  the  names  ani  and  keel- 
bird,  the  former  from  their  cry,  the  latter  from 
the  high,  blade-like  ridge  which  surmounts  the 
short,  much-compressed,  arched  bill.  The  tail  is 
fan-shaped.  C.  ani,  often  called  the  Savanna 
blackbird,  is  common  in  the  West  Indies  and  warm 
parts  of  America. 

Croup,  a  disease  confined  principally  to  chil¬ 
dren.  The  symptoms  are  a  short,  dry  cough, 
accompanied  by  hoarseness,  which  often  increases 
in  severity  until  the  breathing  becomes  difficult 
and  labored,  requiring  all  the  child’s  strength  to 
sustain  respiration.  When  croup  appears, instantly 
summon  a  physician  and,  pending  liis  arrival,  put 
into  practice  these  directions:  Apply  a  mustard 
draught  to  the  feet  and  throat  of  the  patient  until 
the  flesh  is  fairly  reddened,  and  administer  some 
drink  to  produce  vomiting.  To  this  end  give 
warm  water  with  salt  in  solution,  or  a  dose  of 
ipecac,  or,  better  still,  alum  and  water,  repeating 
the  dose  every  three  hours,  so  as  to  keep  the 
patient  on  the  point  of  vomiting.  Should  this 
fail  to  afford  free  breathing,  give  one  teaspoonful 
of  molasses  and  vinegar  every  half-hour. 

Crow  ( Goivus ),  a  genus  of  birds,  the  type  of 
the  family  Corvidce.  The  largest  species  of  this 
genus  is  the  raven.  The  rook  also  belongs  to  it. 
Besides  these  and  the  jackdaw  there  are  two  other 
species,  the  common  or  carrion  crow  (C.  cor  one), 
and  the  royston  or  hooded  crow  (G.  cornix).  The 


Heads  of  Crows. 


crow  of  North  America  (C.  americanim)  is  simi¬ 
lar  to  the  carrion  crow,  but  rather  smaller,  and 
after  the  breeding  season  is  over,  congregates  into 
flocks;  it  is  also  partially  migratory,  great  numbers 
from  the  more  northerly  parts  moving  to  the 
south  on  the  approach  of  winter. 

Crow  Indians,  originally  inhabited  the  Yellow¬ 
stone  Valley,  now  settled  on  reservations  in  Mon¬ 
tana.  They  number  about  4,200. 

Crow 'berry  or  Crakeberry  ( Empetrum  ni¬ 
grum),  a  small  procumbent  shrub,  of  the  natural 
order  Empetracea1,  a  native  of  the  northern  parts 
of  the  world.  The  order  consists  of  a  few  heath¬ 
like  shrubs.  The  berries  of  the  crowberry  are 


CROWN. 


315 


CUBEBS. 


nearly  black;  fermented  or  vinous  liquor  is  pre¬ 
pared  from  them  in  some  northern  countries. 


Crowberry  ( Empetrum  nigrum), 
a,  flowering  branch;  b,  flowers  enlarged;  c,  fruit. 


E.  rubrum,  a  native  of  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Horn, 
differs  little  from  the  northern  plant,  except  in 
having  red  berries.  The  berries  of  the  camarin- 
heira  (Corema  alba)  are  employed  in  Portugal  for 
the  preparation  of  an  acidulous  liquor,  which  is 
used  as  a  drink  in  fevers. 

Crown  (Lat.  corona.,  Wcl.  crwn,  and  Gael. 
cruinn,  round).  Crowns  were  originally  gar¬ 
lands  of  leaves,  and  in  this  form  have  probably 
been  used  as  an  ornament  for  t  lie  head  by  almost 
every  people.  Among  the  Greeks,  the  crown 
(stephanos,  dre/pavoS)  was  sometimes  used  as  an 
emblem  of  office,  as  in  the  case  of  the  archons; 
sometimes  as  an  ornament  for  the  heads  of  the  vic¬ 
tors  in  the  public  games;  and  sometimes  as  a  mark 
of  distinction  for  citizens  who  had  merited  well  of 
their  country.  Crowns  of  the  latter  class  were 
made  at  first  of  twigs  of  laurel,  but  latterly  of 
gold.  The  Romans  made  use  of  crowns  to  a 
greater  extent  than  the  Greeks,  chiefly  as  rewards 
for  valor.  As  the  emblem  of  sovereignty  in 
modern  Europe,  the  crown  was  borrowed  rather 
from  the  diadem  than  from  the  crowns  of  anti¬ 
quity.  This  decoration  was  originally  Oriental. 

Crown-work,  in  Fortification,  is  formed  to 
strengthen  a  weak  front  or  to  occupy  ground 
which  might  facilitate  the  enemy’s  operations.  It 
consists  of  two  faces  inclined  to  each  other  at  an 
angle,  with  a  bastion  in  the  middle,  and  half¬ 
bastions  at  the  ends;  and  it  is  connected  with  the 
main  body  of  the  wTork  by  twro  long  sides. 

Crov'don  (Fr.  croie  dune ,  chalk-hill),  a  town  in 
the  northeast  of  Surrey,  England.  Pop.  (1881), 
78,947. 

Crozel '  Islands,  a  volcanic  group  to  the  south 
of  the  Indian  Ocean,  lie  between  Kerguelen’s 
Land  on  the  east  and  Prince  Edward’s  Islands  on 
the  west.  They  are  about  latitude  46°  S.,  and 
longitude  52°  E. 

Cru'cian  (Cyprinus  carassius),  a  fish  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  carp,  from  which  it  differs  in 
the  want  of  barbules  at  the  mouth,  in  the  greater 
depth  of  body,  and  in  the  almost  square  tail. 

Cru'cibles  are  vessels  employed  for  the  heat¬ 
ing  and  fusing  of  glass,  metallic  ores,  etc.,  and  are 
generally  made  of  materials  capable  of  resisting 
high  temperatures,  such  as  fire  clay,  plumbago, 
porcelain,  platinum,  and  silver. 

Crucif'erae  (Lat.  cross-carrying), a  natural  order 
of  exogenous  plants,  including  about  1,600  known 
species,  and  corresponding  with  the  class  Tetrady- 
namia  of  the  Linnaean  system.  The  general  charac¬ 
ter  of  the  order  is  antiscorbut  ic  and  stimulant,  with 
more  or  less  acridity.  It  contains  many  plants 
extensively  cultivated  for  the  food  of  man  and 
of  domestic  animals,  or  valuable  in  medicine,  as 
kale  (cabbage,  cauliflower,  broccoli,  colewort, 
etc.),  turnip,  rape,  radish,  cress,  horse-radish, 
scurvy  grass,  mustard,  sea-kale),  gold  of  pleas¬ 
ure,  etc.  It  includes  also  a  number  of  garden- 
flowers  highly  esteemed  for  their  beauty  and 
fragrance,  as  wallflower,  stock,  rocket,  etc. 

Cru'cifix  (Lat.  crux,  the  cross,  and  jigo,  I  fix), 


a  cross  with  the  effigy  of  Christ  fixed  to  it.  The 
principal  cross  in  Roman  Catholic  churches  stands 
in  the  center  of  the  high  altar. 

Cru 'den,  Alexander,  born  at  Aberdeen,  Scot¬ 
land,  May  31,  1700;  is  well  known  as  the  author 
of  Complete  Concordance  of  the  Iloh/  Scriptures  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament.  lie  died  in  1770. 

Cruik  'shank,  George,  one  of  the  most  gifted 
of  English  pictorial  satirists,  was  born  in  London, 
Sept.  27,  1792.  In  Points  of  Humour,  and  the 
designs  for  Grimm's  German  Tales,  Tom  Thumb, 
Peter  Schlemihl,  Punch  and  Judy,  My  Sketchbook, 
Boz,  Oliver  Twist,  and  the  Comic  Almanac,  his 
comic  genius  first  found  ample  manifestation; 
while  in  his  Sunday  in  London,  his  Gin-shop,  The 
Upas  'Tree,  and  especially  The  Bottle,  he  showed 
himself  a  moral  teacher  possessed  of  a  grim, 
Hogarthian  earnestness  and  force.  He  died  Feb. 
1,  1878. 

Cruis'er,  a  war  vessel,  designed  for  offensive 
and  defensive  operations.  They  are  built  for 
great  speed,  and  are  frequently  used  in  recon- 
noitering. 

Crusades',  the  name  given  to  the  religious 
wars  carried  on  during  the  middle  ages  between 
the  Christian  nations  of  Europe  and  the  Moham¬ 
medans.  The  first  of  these  was  undertaken 
simply  to  vindicate  the  right  of  Christian  pilgrims 
to  visit  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  On  the  conquest  of 
Palestine,  however,  the  object  of  the  crusades 
changed,  or  at  least  enlarged,  and  the  efforts  of 
the  subsequent  crusaders  were  directed  to  the 
rescue  of  the  whole  land  from  the  Saracens,  who 
had  repossessed  themselves  of  it.  There  were 
in  all  ten  crusades.  In  1096,  Peter  the  Hermit 
led  40,000  men,  women  and  children  to  de¬ 
struction.  In  1099  Jerusalem  was  taken  from 
the  Saracens,  and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon  was  made 
its  King.  Of  European  celebrities  who  took  part 
in  succeeding  crusades  the  chief  were:  Frederick 
Barbarossa;  Philip  Auguste  of  France;  Richard 
Coeur  de  Lion;  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders;  Leo¬ 
pold  of  Austria;  Frederick  I.  of  Germany; Edward 
I.  of  England;  and  Louis  IX.  (St.  Louis)  of  France. 
The  chief  leader  of  the  Saracens  was  Saladin. 
For  the  history  consult  the  following  authorities; 
Gibbon,  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire-,  Michaud,  Histoire  des  Croisades; 
Mills,  History  of  the  Crusades;  William  of 
Malmesbury,  and  Joinville,  Memoirs  of  the  Cru¬ 
sades  of  St.  Louis. 

frusta 'ceans  ( Crustacea ),  a  class  of  articulated 
animals,  agreeing  with  insects,  araclinida,  and 
myriapoda,  in  having  articulated  limbs;  but 
differing  from  them  in  important  respects,  par¬ 
ticularly  in  the  adaptation  of  the  organs  of  res¬ 
piration  to  an  aquatic  life,  even  those  of  them 
which  live  ou  land  being  generally  inhabitants  of 
damp  places;  and  breathing  by  a  kind  of  gills. 
Some  of  the  lowest  and  minute  aquatic  crusta¬ 
ceans  are  not  provided  with  gills,  but  the  aera¬ 
tion  of  the  blood  is  supposed  to  take  place 
through  the  surface  of  the  body.  For  an  outline 
of  the  classification  of  the  group  see  The  Crayfish; 
(Int.  Sci.  Series);  Huxley,  Anat.  of  Invert.  Ani¬ 
mals;  and  Muller,  Facts  and  Arquments  for 
Darwin. 

Cruys,  Cornelis,  born  June  14,  1657.  He 
was  a  Rear-Admiral  in  the  Dutch  service  when,  in 
1698,  Peter  the  Great  made  him  Vice-Admiral  of 
Russia.  To  Cruys  Russia  owed  its  first  dock¬ 
yards,  canals,  and  charts,  the  organization  of  its 
navy,  and  its  victories  over  Sweden  and  Turkey 
in  1708-1710.  Hedied  in  1727. 

Cry'olite  is  a  double  fluoride  of  aluminium 
and  sodium  (A1F3,  3NaF),  and  is  important  as  a 
source  of  the  metal  aluminium. 

Cryopli'orns  (Gr.  KpvoS,  kryos,  cold,  and 
q>epo,  phero,  I  carry)  is  an  instrument  consisting 
of  a  glass  tube  with  a  bulb  at  both  ends.  Water 
is  placed  in  one  of  the  bulbs,  and  when  the  second 
bulb,  containing  only  water-vapor,  is  placed  in  a 
freezing  mixture,  the  vapor  condenses,  which 
causes  more  vapor  to  rise  from  the  water  in  the 
first  bulb.  The  result  of  this  evaporaton  from  the 
first  bulb  is  the  abstraction  of  much  heat,  and 
ultimately  the  remaining  water  passes  into  a 
frozen  state. 

Crypt  (Gr.  -np-vitm,  krypto,  I  hide),  a  vault 
under  a  church.  Crypts  were  formerly  used  as 
chapels,  and  provided  with  altars  and  the  other 
furniture  requisite  for  the  celebration  of  religious 


services;  and  they  were  also  frequently  used  as 
places  of  sepulture. 

Cryptog 'amous  Plants  (Gr.  xpvnroi,  kryptos, 
concealed,  and  ydpy/,  game,  marriage)  are  those 
which  have  no  true  flowers, and  no  known  male  or 
female  organs  of  fructification,  and  whose  seeds, 
called  spores,  consist  only  of  a  single  cell,  and 
contain  no  embryo,  but  germinate  indifferently 
from  any  point. 

Cryptog 'raphy,  the  art  of  secret  writing,  more 
commonly  called  the  art  of  writing  in  cipher 
(from  Arabic  sifr,  void),  has  been  in  use  from  an 
early  date  in  correspondence  between  diplomatists 
and  others  engaged  in  important  affairs  requiring 
secrecy.  Modes  of  secret  communication  be¬ 
tween  persons  using  the  telegraph  wire  are  fre¬ 
quently  resorted  to  in  order  to  prevent  the 
employes  of  the  telegraph  company  from  learn¬ 
ing  the  import  of  messages.  One  of  the  most 
simple  methods  of  Cryptography  is  to  use,  instead 
of  each  letter  of  the  alphabet,  a  certain  other 
letter  at  a  regular  interval  in  advance  of  it  in  that 
series.  As  a  variety  upon  this  plan,  the  alphabet 
is  used  invertedly — z  for  a,  y  for  b,  x  for  c,  and  so 
on.  Or,  while  the  first  seven  letters  are  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  second  seven,  the  next  six  may  be 
represented  by  the  last  six,  and  many  other 
variations  may  be  adopted. 

Crys'talline  Rocks,  a  name  given  to  all  rocks 
having  a  crystalline  structure. 

Crystal  log  raphy.  A  crystal  is  a  piece  ot 
matter  that,  by  the  action  of  molecular  forces, 
has  assumed  a  definite  geometrical  form  of  some 
kind,  with  plane  faces.  Crystallography  is  the 
science  which  classifies  the  forms  and  shows  the 
relations  that  subsist  among  them. 

Crystal  loin  'ancy,  a  mode  of  divination  by 
means  of  transparent  bodies,  at  one  time  very 
popular.  A  precious  stone,  crystal  globe,  or  other 
transparent  object,  was  employed,  but  a  beryl  was 
deemed  most  effective. 

Cte'noid  Fishes,  an  order  of  fishes,  according 
to  a  classification  proposed  by  Agassiz,  character¬ 
ized  by  ctenoid  scales— i.  e.,  imbricated  scales, 
generally  rounded  or  ovoid,  with  teeth  or  sharp 
projections  on  their  hinder  margin.  The  name  is 
from  the  Greek  xriii,  kteis  (gen.  ktenos),  a  comb. 

Ctenopliora,  an  order  of  Actinozoa,  of  which 
the  Beroe  may  be  taken  as  the  type. 

Ctesib'ius,  a  Greek  who  lived  about  250  years 
ij.c.  We  owe  to  him  and  his  pupil,  Hero  Alex- 
andrinus,  the  pump,  the  bent  siphon,  and  also  the 
discovery  of  the  elastic  force  of  air,  and  its  appli¬ 
cation  as  a  motive  power. 

Cu'ba,  the  largest  of  the  Antilles,  and  most  im¬ 
portant  transmarine  possession  of  Spain,  stretches 
in  N.  latitude  from  19°  50'  to  23®  9',  and  in  W. 
longitude  from  74°  8'  to  84°  58'.  It  has  a  length 
of  rather  more  than  750  miles,  and  an  average 
width  of  50  miles,  its  area  being  about  45,700  square 
miles.  The  climate  is  tropical.  There  is  no  dis¬ 
tinction  of  dry  and  rainy  seasons  here,  and  there 
are  showers  every  month.  Sugar  is  the  chief 
product  of  the  island,  and  the  exports  of  this 
article  are  valued  at  $60,000,000  annually.  The 
pop.  of  Cuba,  in  1872,  was  1,370,211. 

Cube,  a  solid  with  six  square  faces,  each  of 
which  is  parallel  to  the  one  opposite  to  it.  In 
arithmetic,  the  cube  of  a  number  is  the  product 
of  its  multiplication  twice  times  by  itself. 

Cube  Root  is  a  mathematical  rule  in  great  use 
by  engineers  in  determining  the  dimensions  a  cer¬ 
tain  amount  of  material  will  occupy.  Nearly 
every  modern  work  on  engineering  gives  a  table 
of  numbers  and  their  cubes  and  cube  roots.  In 
some  cases  however  the  use  of  logarithms  is  the 
best  way  of  extracting  a  cube  root. 

Cu  'bebs,  or  Cubed  Pepper,  the  dried  berries 
of  Gubeba  officinalis  and  other  species  of  Cubeba,  a 
genus  of  climbing  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Piperacece,  very  closely  allied  to  the  true  peppers. 
C.  ofiicinalis  is  a  native  of  Penang,  Java,  New 
Guinea,  etc.,  and  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Java. 
C.  canina,  a  native  of  the  Sunda  and  Molucca 
Islands,  is  supposed  also  to  yield  part  of  the 
cubebs  of  commerce,  and  the  berries  of  C.  wal- 
lichii  possess  similar  properties.  They  are  used  in 
inflammations  of  the  mucous  membranes,  and 
are  of  peculiar  virtue  in  disorders  of  the  urinary 
tract — particularly  where  the  affection  is  of  a 
catarrhal  nature. 


CUBIC  EQUATIONS. 


316 


CUP. 


Cubic  Equations.  A  cubic  equation,  contain¬ 
ing  but  one  unknown  quantity,  is  one  in  which 
the  highest  exponent  of  the  quantity  in  any  term 
is  3.  Every  such  equation  can  be  reduced  to 
the  general  form  x3  -f  px  -)-  q  =  o,  in  which  the 
coefficient  of  x3  is  1,  and  that  of  a2  is  zero.  Every 
cubic  equation  of  this  form  has  three  roots,  all  of 
which  may  be  real,  or  one  only  may  be  real,  and 
the  other  two  imaginary. 

Cu ' bical  N i  'ter  is  a  commercial  name  applied 
to  the  nitrat  e  of  soda  (NaNOa). 

Cu'bit  (Lat.  cubitus),  a  measure  employed  by 
the  ancients,  equal  to  the  length  of  the  arm  from 
the  elbow  to  the  tip  of  the  middle-finger.  The 
cubit  of  the  Romans  was  about  17g  inches,  and 
that  of  the  Hebrews  22  inches,  but  its  length  is 
now  generally  stated  at  18  English  inches. 

Click 'oo  (Cuculus),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
order  of  climbers,  the  type  of  a  family,  Cucul- 
idee,  which  contains  a  large  number  of  species, 
mostly  confined  to  the  warmer  regions  of  the 
globe,  although  some  of  them  are  summer  visit- 


Cuckoo. 


ants  of  cold  climates.  Among  the  Ouculidce  of 
North  America,  one  of  the  most  interesting  is  the 
yellow-billed  American  cuckoo,  sometimes  called 
from  its  note  the  cow-cow  or  cow-bird  ( Coccyzus 
americanu *). 

Cu  'cumber  (Gucumis),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Gucurbi/acece.  The  common  cucum¬ 
ber  (C.  satin  us),  distinguished  by  heart-shaped 


Common  Cucumber  ( Cucumis  satims). 


a,  fruit. 

leaves,  which  are  rough  with  hairs  approaching  to 
bristles,  and  oblong  fruit,  is  a  native  of  the 
middle  and  south  of  Asia,  and  has  been  cultivated 
from  tlie  earliest  times.  Some  varieties  possess 
cathartic  and  refrigerant  properties,  and  the  com¬ 
mon  cucumber  is  used  in  cases  of  dysentery  and 
diarrhoea. 

Cucurbita'cca?,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  chiefly  of  herbaceous  plants, 
natives  of  the  warmer  regions  of  the  globe,  hav¬ 
ing  succulent  stems  which  climb  by  means  of 
lateral  tendrils.  To  this  order  belong  the  cucum¬ 
ber,  melon,  gourd  (of  many  kinds),  pumpkin, 
squash,  vegetable  marrow,  bottle  gourd,  etc. 

Cud 'bear,  a  dyestuff  similar  to  archil  and 
litmus,  and  obtained  from  lichens  by  the  action 
of  ammoniacal  liquids.  It  is  chiefly  employed 
as  a  purple-dye  for  woolen  yarn,  but  the  color  is 
fugitive. 


Cuddalore',  a  town  in  the  southern  division 
of  Arcot,  a  seaport  on  the  Coromandel,  or  east 
coast  of  Hindustan.  Pop.  (1881),  43,545. 

Cud  'dy,  a  name  first  applied  in  East  India 
trading  ships  to  a  cabin  under  the  poop,  where 
the  men  messed  and  slept,  and  afterward  given 
to  the  only  cabin  in  very  small  vessels,  and  some¬ 
times  to  the  cooking-room. 

Cueu'ca,  a  city  of  Spain,  about  midway  be¬ 
tween  Valencia  and  Madrid.  Pop.,  8,200.  The 
Province  of  Cuenca  lias  an  area  of  6,722  square 
miles.  Pop.,  237,497. 

Cuenca,  a  city  of  Ecuador,  in  South  America, 
85  miles  south  southwest  of  Quito,  in  latitude  1J° 
S.  Pop.,  30,000. 

Cuichiuichul'li  ( Tonidium  parniflorum),  a 
Peruvian  plant  of  the  natural  order  Viotacece, 
half-shrubbery,  with  minute  leaves,  possessing 
active  emetic  and  purgative  properties. 

Cuirass',  as  its  name  (Fr.  cuir,  leather)  im¬ 
plies,  was  originally  a  jerkin,  or  garment  of 
leather  for  soldiers.  The  name  was  afterward 
applied  to  a  portion  of  armor  made  of  metal, 
consisting  of  a  back-plate  and  breast-plate,  fas¬ 
tened  together;  with  a  piece  jointed  to  the  back 
called  a  culet,  or  garde  de  reines. 

Cuirassiers',  in  the  time  of  Queen  Mary, 
were  heavy  horsemen  wearing  bodv-armor  over 
buff  coats.  They  carried  swords  and  pistols,  and 
the  reins  were  strengthened  with  iron  chains.  In 
modern  armies,  the  name  is  often  given  to  the 
heaviest  cavalry. 

Culiacan,  a  city  of  Mexico,  and  the  capital  of 
the  State  of  Sinaloa.  Pop.,  about  12,000. 

Culilawan  Bark,  also  called  Clove  Bark,  a 
valuable  aromatic  bark,  the  product  of  the  Ginna- 
momum  culilawan,  a  tree  of  the  same  genus  with 
the  cinnamon  tree,  growing  in  the  Molucca 
Islands.  It  is  used  in  cases  of  stomach  trouble 
and  is  valuable  as  an  astringent  in  simple 
diarrhoea. 

Cullom,  Siielry  M.,  born  in  Kentucky,  Nov. 
22,  1829.  In  1856,  1860,  1862,  1872,  and  1874,  he 
was  elected  to  the  State  Legislature,  and  was 
Speaker  of  the  House  in  1861  and  1873.  He  served 
in  Congress  from  Dec.  4,  1865,  to  March  3,  1871, 
and  was  elected  Governor  of  Illinois  in  1876,  re¬ 
elected  in  1880,  and  served  until  Feb.  5,  1883, 
when  he  became  United  States  Senator.  He  was 
reelected  to  this  position  in  February,  1889.  He 
is  the  author  of  the  law  under  which  interstate 
commerce  is  regulated. 

Cullo'den,  or  Drummos'sie  Moor,  a  level 
table-land,  now  partly  cultivated,  in  the  northeast 
of  Inverness-shire,  Scotland. 

Culm,  in  Botany,  the  peculiar  cylindrical,  hol¬ 
low  and  jointed  stem  of  grasses. 

Culmina'tion,  an  astronomical  term,  signify¬ 
ing  the  passage  of  a  star  across  the  meridian.  The 
star  is  then  at  the  highest  point  ( culmeu )  of  its 
course;  hence  the  name.  The  sun  culminates  at 
midday,  or  12  o'clock. 

Cultriros'tres  (Lat.  knife-billed  or  plow- 
share-billed),  a  tribe  of  birds  of  the  order  Gralla- 
tores;  distinguished  by  a  long,  thick,  stout,  and 
generally  pointed  and  trenchant  bill,  and  contain¬ 
ing  cranes,  herons,  bitterns,  storks,  adjutants,  etc. 

Cul'verin,  among  the  earlier  forms  of  cannon, 
was  a  very  long  gun.  It  was  generally  an  18- 
pounder,  weighing  about  5,000  pounds;  the  demi- 
culverin  was  a  9-pounder,  weighing  1,500  pounds. 

Cul'vert  is  the  name  given  to  a  channel  of 
masonry  or  wood,  for  the  conveyance  of  water 
underground  or  under  a  railway  or  wagon-road. 

Cu'niae,  an  ancient  city  on  the  coast  of  Cam¬ 
pania,  famous  as  the  home  of  the  Sybil. 

Cumana',  the  oldest  European  city  in  South 
America.  It  was  originally  named  New  Toledo.  It 
is  in  the  province  of  the  same  name  in  Venezuela, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco,  a  long  and  narrow  arm 
of  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Latitude  10°  30'  N.  and 
longitude  64°  15'  W.  Pop.,  12,000. 

Cum'berlanil,  the  northwesternmost  county  of 
England,  bounded  north  by  Scotland  and  the  Sol¬ 
way  Firth,  west  by  the  Irish  Sea,  south  by  Lanca¬ 
shire,  east  by  Westmoreland,  Durham  and  North¬ 
umberland.  Greatest  length,  75  miles  ;  greatest 
average  breadth,  22  ;  75  miles  of  coast.  Area,  1,523 
square  miles.  Pop.,  250,630.  Carlisle  isthe  capital. 

Cuiu'berland,  a  township  of  Rhode  Island,  ten 
miles  north  of  Providence.  Pop.  (1880),  6,445. 


Cumberland,  a  city  of  Maryland,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Potomac  river,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alle¬ 
ghenies.  Pop.  (1880),  10,693. 

Cumberland,  river,  rises  in  Kentucky,  and 
after  a  course  of  600  miles,  of  which  the  lower 
half  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  400  tons,  enters  the 
Ohio  at  Smithland,  a  few  miles  above  the  point 
where  the  Tennessee  also  joins  the  Ohio  from  the 
same  side. 

Cumberland,  Army  of  the,  one  of  the  great 
divisions  of  the  Union  forces  during  the  Civil 
War,  identified  with  its  great  commander,  General 
Thomas,  and  the  victories  at  Chattanooga  and 
elsewhere. 

Cumberland  Gap,  a  narrow  pass  in  the  mount¬ 
ains  of  the  same  name,  fifty  miles  from  Knoxville, 
Teun.  It  was  of  great  strategetic  importance 
during  the  Civil  War, 

Cumberland,  William  Augustus,  Duke  of, 
second  son  of  George  II.,  was  born  in  1721.  He 
was  defeated  at  Fontenoy  by  Marshal  Saxe  in 
1745.  In  1746  he  defeated  the  Young  Pretender  at 
Culloden.  In  1747  he  was  again  defeated  by  Saxe 
(at  Lafeldt),  and  in  1757  surrendered  at  Kloster- 
Zeven.  He  died  in  1765.  He  was  popularly 
known  as  “The  Butcher,”  from  his  treatment  of 
prisoners  and  non-combatants  after  Culloden. 

Cumberland  Presbyterians,  a  religious  de¬ 
nomination  which  sprung  up  in  1810  in  Kentucky 
in  consequence  of  a  dispute  between  the  Presby¬ 
tery  of  Cumberland,  in  that  State,  and  the  Ken¬ 
tucky  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Amer¬ 
ica,  concerning  the  ordination  of  persons  who  had 
not  passed  through  the  usual  educational  curricu¬ 
lum,  but  whose  services  the  Presbytery  regarded 
as  demanded  for  the  ministry  by  the  exigencies  of 
the  times.  In  1880  this  church  had  26  synods, 
about  1,320  ministers,  and  107  000  members.  Its 
doctrines  agree  with  those  of  the  other  branches 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  except  that  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  universal  redemption  is  held,  and  the 
predestination  of  sin  denied. 

Cum'bre,  La,  the  Spanish  for  top  or  height, 
is  one  of  the  principal  passes  across  the  Andes,  on 
the  road  between  Santiago  in  Chili  and  Mendoza 
in  the  Argentine  Republic.  The  altitude  of  its 
crest  is  12,454  feet. 

Cum'bria,  an  ancient  British  principality,  com¬ 
prising  Cumberland  in  England,  and  that  part  of 
Scotland  which  is  now  divided  into  the  shires  of 
Dumbarton,  Renfrew,  Ayr,  Lanark,  Peebles,  Sel¬ 
kirk,  Roxburgh,  and  Dumfries. 

Ciim'brian  Mountains,  a  knot  of  mountains, 
nearly  fifty  miles  in  length  and  breadth,  in  the 
northwest  of  England,  occupying  part  of  Cumber¬ 
land,  Westmoreland,  and  Lancashire.  Here  are 
the  lakes  of  Windermere,  Ulleswater,  Conistone, 
and  Derwentwater. 

Cum'min,  or  Cu'min  ( Cuminum ),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Umbelliferce,  contain¬ 
ing  only  one  known  species (G.  cyminum),  a  native 
of  Egypt  and  the  neighboring  countries.  The 
fruit  (seeds)  has  an  odor  resembling  that  of 
caraway,  but  stronger  and  less  pleasant.  It  is 
employed  as  a  carminative  in  many  parts  of  the 
world;  in  Germany,  it  is  often  put  into  bread;  in 
Holland,  sometimes  into  cheese.  It  is  also  used 
with  resin  for  discutient  plasters,  but  its  use  is 
now  chiefly  confined  to  veterinary  practice.  It 
contains  a  peculiar  volatile  oil  (oil  of  cummin). 

Cundinamar'ra,  the  central  State  of  Colombia 
(formerly  New  Granada),  has  an  area  of  79,000 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (excluding  Indians)  of 
about  410,000. 

Cunei'form,  Cuneatic,  Wedge-shaped,  Ar¬ 
row-headed  (Fr.  tete-d-clou,  Ger.  keilformig),  are 
terms  for  a  certain  form  of  writing,  of  which  the 
component  parts  may  be  said  to  resemble  either 
a  wedge,  the  barb  of  an  arrow,  or  a  nail.  It  was, 
in  ancient  times,  used  for  monumental  records, 
and  was  either  hewn  or  carved  in  rocks  and  sculpt¬ 
ures,  or  impressed  on  tiles  and  bricks. 

Cup,  Divination  by,  a  mode  of  foretelling 
events,  practiced  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and 
still  prevailing  in  some  of  the  rural  districts  of 
England  and  Scotland.  One  of  the  Eastern 
methods  consisted  in  throwing  in  small  pieces  of 
gold  or  silver  leaf  into  a  cup  of  water,  in  which 
also  were  placed  precious  stones,  with  certain 
characters  engraved  upon  them.  'Flic  infernal 
powers  were  then  invoked,  and  returned  answer, 
either  in  an  intelligible  voice,  or  by  signs  on  the 


CUPELLA  TION. 


317 


CURTIUS. 


surface  of  the  water,  or  by  a  representation  in  the 
cup  of  the  person  inquired  about. 

Cupella'tion  is  the  process  of  the  separation  of 
one  metal  from  another  (as  lead  from  silver)  by  the 
use  of  a  cupel  of  porous  material,  as  bone  ash, 
highly  heated  in  a  furnace.  The  principle  of  the 
separation  is  dependent  on  the  different  fusing 
points  of  two  metals,  and  also  in  a  measure  up¬ 
on  the  volatiziug  of  some  of  the  constituents  of 
various  ores. 

Cu'pid,  one  of  the  gods  of  the  classic  myth¬ 
ology,  whose  name  in  Latin  signifies  desire. 

Cu'pola  (Ital.  from  the  root  of  cup),  a  spherical 
vault,  or  concave  ceiling,  on  the  top  of  a  build¬ 
ing.  Cupolas  are  hemispherical,  or  of  any  other 
curve,  and  often  consist  of  glass,  so  as  to  form 
a  window  in  the  roof. 

Cupping.  One  of  the  methods  adopted  by 
surgeons  to  draw  blood  from  an  inflamed  part  in 
order  to  relieve  the  inflammation.  The  apparatus 
required  is  a  spirit  lamp  and  a  glass  cup  with  a 
rounded  edge.  The  skin  is  washed  and  dried; 
the  air  is  rarefied  in  the  cup  by  the  flame  of  the 
lamp;  the  cup  is  then  firmly  applied  to  the  skin. 
A  partial  vacuum  forms  within  the  cup  as  the  air 
cools,  and  the  blood  rushes  from  the  neighboring 
parts  to  the  skin  under  the  cup.  Either  the  blood 
is  drawn  from  the  patient’s  body  through  a  num¬ 
ber  of  small  wounds  which  are  made  in  the  skin, 
with  a  special  instrument,  before  the  cup  is 
applied;  or  the  cup  is  simply  applied  to  the  un¬ 
broken  skin  and  the  blood  drawn  into  t  he  subcu¬ 
taneous  tissue  within  the  circumference  of  the 
cup.  The  result  of  both  methods  is  the  same — 
namely,  a  withdrawal  of  blood  locally  from  the 
inflamed  part.  The  former  is  called  moist 
cupping,  the  latter  dry  cupping.  Moist  cupping 
is  inapplicable  on  exposed  surfaces,  as  the  mark 
of  the  small  skin  wounds  is  indelible. 

Cu'pule  {Cupula),  in  Botany,  a  sort  of  cup 
formed  by  a  number  of  cohering  bracts,  and  sur¬ 
rounding  the  fruit  or  the  base  of  the  fruit  in 
certain  plants;  as  the  oak,  in  which  it  is  the  cup 
of  the  acorn,  and  the  hazel,  in  which  it  is  the  husk 
of  the  nut. 

Cupulif'erje  {i.  e.,  cupule  bearing),  or  Cory- 
lace M,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  con¬ 
sisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  temperate 
climates. 

Cura^a'o  is  the  most  important  of  the  Dutch 
West  India  Islands,  which  lie  near  the  northern 
coast  of  Venezuela,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Pop. 
(1880),  Curat^ao,  24,146;  Bonaire,  4,906;  Aruba, 
6, '204;  Netherlands  part  of  St.  Martin,  3,142;  St. 
Eustatius,  2,097;  and  Saba,  1,955.  Entire  pop., 
42,530.  The  capital  is  Willemstad;  pop.,  13,000. 

Curatjo'a  is  a  liquor,  made  either  from  or¬ 
anges,  or  from  orange-peel,  by  digesting  in 
sweetened  spirits,  with  a  little  cinnamon,  and 
often  a  little  mace  or  cloves. 

Curatjoa  Oranges,  small  oranges  which  have 
fallen  from  the  tree  long  before  maturity.  They 
have  properties  similar  to  those  of  orange-peel, 
but  are  more  bitter  and  acrid,  and  are  used  for 
the  same  purposes. 

Curari,  Ourari,  Woorali,  or  Woorara,  a 
poison  used  by  some  tribes  of  South  American 
Indians  for  poisoning  their  arrows.  It  is  com¬ 
posed  of  poisons  which  act  by  direct  absorption 
into  the  circulatory  system,  and  which  are  harm¬ 
less  in  the  stomach.  Its  use  has  been  suggested 
in  cases  of  hydrophobia  by  some  physicians,  but 
no  definite  results  have  been  as  yet  obtained. 

Curas 'sow,  or  IIoc'co  (Crax),  a  genus  of 
large  gallinaceous  birds  of  the  family  Cracidw, 
natives  of  South  America.  Its  plumage  is  al¬ 
most  entirely  black. 

Cur’ ate,  literally,  one  who  has  the  cure  (Lat. 
cxira,  care)  of  souls,  in  which  sense  it  is  used  in 
the  prayer-book,  but  is  generally  used  to  denote 
the  humblest  degree  in  the  Church  of  England. 

Curb  (in  horses)  consists  of  strain  of  the  straight 
ligament  which  runs  down  the  back  of  the  hock; 
is  most  common  in  animals  with  straight,  small 
hocks  and  that  conformation  known  as  sickle 
hams,  while  like  other  strains,  it  occurs  from 
sudden  and  violent  exertion,  often  resulting  from 
leaping  or  galloping  on  rough  ground,  from  the 
effort  of  keeping  back  a  load  while  going  down 
a  steep  incline.  Swelling  appears  on  the  inner 
and  back  part  of  the  joint,  generally  causing 
lameness,  and,  in  slight  cases,  usually  wears  off 


after  the  animal  has  been  out  a  short  time.  Fo¬ 
mentations  must  first  be  used  to  allay  the  irri¬ 
tation  and  inflammation ;  when  heat  and  tenderness 
disappear,  cold  applications  will  be  advisable; 
when,  after  ten  days,  the  enlargement  still  con 
tinues,  a  blister  may  be  necessary.  No  animal 
should  be  worked  while  suffering  from  curb. 

Curculio,  Plum  ( Conotrachelus  nenuphar, 
Ilerbstl,  sometimes  called  the  “  Little  Turk,  ”  is 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  and  also 
in  the  Mississippi  Valley  where  the  plum  is  culti¬ 
vated.  It  feeds  on  the  fruit  of  the  plum,  nectar 
ines,  peach,  apricot,  cherry,  apple,  pear,  and 
quince  as  long  as  they  last,  and  will  also  eat  the 
leaves,  and  even  tender  twigs. 

Curen'ma(Arab.&wA;;m),  a  genusof  plantsof 
the  natural  order  Scilaminece ,  having  the  tube  of 
the  corolla  gradually  enlarged  upward,  and  the 
limb  two-lipped,  each  lip  three-parted.  The  dried 
roots  of  some  are  the  zedoary  of  the  shops;  the 
roots  of  others  yield  turmeric;  and  some  yield  a 
kind  of  arrow-root.  The  same  species  often 
yields  both  arrow-root  and  turmeric,  the  former 
being  obtained  from  the  young  roots,  the  latter 
from  the  old  — Curcuma  amada  is  called  mango 
ginger.  Its  root  when  fresh  has  the  smell  of  a 
mango,  and  in  its  qualities  resembles  ginger.  It 
is  a  native  of  Bengal. 

Cur' few  (Fr.  couvre-feu,  cover-fire).  To  Wil¬ 
liam  the  Conqueror  is  ascribed  the  introduction  of 
the  curfew  bell  into  England,  the  object  of  which 
was  to  warn  the  people  to  cover  up  their  fires, 
and  retire  to  rest.  The  time  for  ringing  these 
bells  was  sunset  in  summer  and  about  8 
o’clock  in  winter;  and  certain  penalties  were 
imposed  upon  those  who  did  not  attend  to  the 
signal. 

Cur'lew  {Numenius),  a  genus  of  birds  of  t  he 
order  Grallalores ,  and  of  the  same  family  (Scolo- 
pacidce)  with  the  snipe,  woodcock,  avocet,  stilt, 
godwit,  etc.  The  bill  is  long,  slender,  curved, 
and  compressed;  the  face  and  head  are  feathered; 
the  legs  are  slender,  and  part  of  the  tibia  is  naked 
as  well  as  the  shank;  the  tail  is  short,  and  the 
folded  wings  extend  about  as  far  as  the  tail. 


Common  Curlew  (Numenius  arquata). 


The  common  curlew  ( N .  arquata),  is  a  bird 
of  wide  geographical  distribution,  being  found 
in  tropical,  temperate,  and  arctic  regions  of  the 
Old  World,  and  in  Australia.  Its  peculiar  cry  or 
whistle  is  among  the  well-known  characteristics  of 
many  upland  scenes.  This  country  has  several 
species  some  of  which  extend  their  summer  mi¬ 
grations  to  very  northerly  regions.  The  Esqui¬ 
maux  curlew  (A.  borealis)  is  sometimes  seen 
migrating  in  dense  flocks. 

Curling,  a  sport  common  in  Scotland,  where  it 
is  played  by  all  classes  of  people  in  winter.  Lat¬ 
terly  it  has  migrated  to  England,  the  United 
States,  Canada,  and  other  countries  where  Scots¬ 
men  can  find  ice  of  sufficient  strength  and  keen¬ 
ness.  It  is  played  with  flatfish,  round  stones, 
about  nine  inches  in  diameter,  each  stone  weigh- 
from  thirty  to  forty-five  pounds.  Each  of  the 
players  has  a  pair.  The  stones  are  provided  with 
handles  to  enable  the  player  to  hurl  them  on  the 
ice  with  the  proper  degree  of  force.  As  at  bowls, 
the  stones  are  hurled  to  an  assigned  point  or  mark. 

Cur'rach,  Couracii,  or  Coracle  (Celt,  corwg, 
curach;  Lat.  curuca,  carrocium,  carabus ),  the 
name  given  to  a  canoe  or  boat,  made  of  a  slender 
frame  of  wood,  covered  with  skins. 

Curragh,  a  level  stretch  of  open  ground  in  the 
County  of  Kildare,  in  Ireland,  famous  for  its  race¬ 
course  and  its  military  camp.  It  has  an  area  of 
upward  of  4,800  acres.  It  is  capable  of  accom¬ 
modating  10,000  men. 


Cur 'ran,  John  PnrLPOT,  a  legal  and  Parlia¬ 
mentary  orator,  born  in  the  County  of  Cork,  Ire¬ 
land,  July  24,  1750.  In  1782  he  obtained  a  seat  in 
the  Irish  Parliament.  He  was  appointed  Master 
of  the  Rolls  in  Ireland  in  1806,  an  office  he  held 
until  1813,  when  he  resigned.  He  died  Oct.  14, 
1817. 

Currant,  a  name  originally  belonging  to  a 
small  kind  of  grape,  aud  transferred  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  similar 
size  of  the  fruit,  to 
many  species  of  the 
genus  Rib  ex,  the  most 
important  and  al¬ 
most  the  only  genus 
of  the  natural  order 
Groxsulariacece.  The 
species  known  as 
currants  are  desti¬ 
tute  of  spines,  and 
have  the  flowers  in 
racemes;  the  spiny 
species  are  known 
by  the  name  goose¬ 
berry.  Among  the 
fruit  shrubs  most 
generally  cultivated 
is  the  red  currant 
(R.  rubrum),  Grosse- 
ille  of  the  French, 
a  native  of  woods  and 
and  North  America. 

Currants,  a  small  kind  of  raisin  (PassulcB 
minores),  are  the  dried  red  or  blue  berries  of  a 
small-fruited  seedless  variety  of  the  common 
vine,  which  is  cultivated  in  the  East,  and  espe¬ 
cially  in  Greece.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
city  of  Corinth,  in  the  neighborhood  of  which 
they  were  first  cultivated.  They  are  very  small, 
round,  with  a  thin  skin,  without  seeds,  and  very 
sweet.  Those  brought  from  the  Island  of  Zante 
are  most  esteemed. 

Cur'rency  means  originally  the  capacity  of 
being  current,  or,  as  Johnson  defines  it,  “the 
power  of  passing  from  hand  to  hand.”  It  is  ap¬ 
plied  in  practice  to  the  thing  that  is  so  current, 
and  generally  to  whatever,  by  being  current 
among  any  nation  or  class  of  persons,  serves  as 
the  money  with  which  they  buy  commodities  or 
pay  their  debts. 

Currents,  Ocean,  are  produced  by  the  heat  of 
the  sun’s  rays,  the  motion  of  the  earth  and  the 
currents  of  the  air.  Their  course  is  largely"  de¬ 
termined  by  the  configuration  of  the  land  or 
solid  portion  of  the  earth. 

Cur'ry-comb.  A  kind  of  scraper  used  Un¬ 
dressing  horses.  It  consists  of  a  number  of  iron 
plates  notched  on  one  edge  to  form  rough  teeth. 
These  plates  are  fastened  in  parallel  lines  to  an 
iron  back,  to  which  a  handle  is  attached,  and  t He 
horse  is  “  curried  ”  by  scrubbing  with  the  teeth. 


Red  Currant, 
thickets  in  Europe,  Asia, 


Curry-powder,  or  Curry-paste,  is  a  compound 
of  turmeric  and  various  spices;  it  is  used  to  a 
large  extent  in  India  and  elsewhere  as  a  seasoning 
for  a  variety  of  dishes. 

Cur'tain,  in  Fortification,  is  the  portion  of 
rampart  or  wall  between  two  bastions  or  two 
gates. 

Curtin,  Andrew  Gregg,  born  at  Belle- 
fonte,  Penn.,  April  22,  1817.  Was  Governor  of 
Pennsylvania  from  1860  to  1867,  and  afterward 
Minister  to  Russia.  In  1880  was  elected  and  in 
1882  reelected  to  Congress. 

Curtis,  George  Ticknor,  a  writer  on  law  and 
history,  born  in  Massachusetts,  Nov.  28,  1812. 

Curtis,  George  William,  born  Feb.  24,  1824, 
many  years  editor  of  Harper's  Weekl y  and  a  volu¬ 
minous  contributor  to  magazines. 

Cur'tius,  Mettus  or  Metius,;!  noble  Roman 
youth  who  (according  to  tradition)  heroically  sac¬ 
rificed  his  life  for  the  welfare  of  his  country,  362 
b.c.  A  chasm,  it  is  said,  had  opened  in  the 
Forum,  and  the  soothsayers  predicted  that  some 
great  calamity  would  happen  if  there  were  not 
thrown  into  it  the  best  wealth  of  the  State.  While 
it  was  proposed  to  consult  the  oracles,  and  deter¬ 
mine  what  this  best  wealth  could  be,  Curtius  ap 
peared  on  horseback  and  in  full  armor,  and  ex¬ 
claimed:  “  Rome  has  no  greater  riches  than  cour 
age  and  arms.”  He  then  rode  into  the  chasm, 
which  immediately  closed  over  him. 


CURTIUS. 


318 


CYCLOPES. 


Curtins,  Rufus  Quintus,  a  Roman  historian, 
author  of  the  work  De  Rebus  Geslis  Alexandn 
Magni ,  in  ten  books,  of  which  the  first  two  have 
been  lost,  and  the  text  of  the  remainder  has  come 
down  to  us  in  a  damaged  condition. 

Cur'vature.  The  curvature  of  a  plane  curve 
at  a  point  is  its  tendency  to  depart  from  a  tangent 
to  tlie  curve  at  that  point.  In  the  circle,  this 
tendency  is  the  same  throughout,  for  the  curve  is 
perfectly  symmetrical  round  its  center;  in  other 
words,  the  curvature  of  a  circle  is  constant. — 
Curvature  of  the  Spine,  is  a  term  applied  to  a 
disease  in  which  the  vertebral  column  is  dis¬ 
torted. 

Curve  means,  in  common  language,  a  crooked 
line  that  departs  gradually  from  the  straight 
direction;  in  Mathematics,  however,  it  is  usually 
restricted  to  lines  that  follow  some  law  in  their 
change  of  direction.  Thus,  the  law  of  the  circle 
is  that  all  points  of  it  are  equally  distant  from  a 
fixed  point,  called  the  center. 

Curves,  Anticlinal  and  Synclinal,  are  terms 
applied  to  the  elevations  or  depressions  in  undu¬ 
lating  strata.  The  ridge-wave  is  called  the  anti¬ 
clinal  curve,  and  the  top  of  the  ridge  is  known  as 
the  anticlinal  axis;  while  the  trough  is  the  syn¬ 
clinal  curve,  and  the  bottom  of  the  trough  the 
synclinal  axis. 

Cushing,  Caleb,  born  in  Essex  county, 
Mass.,  Jan.  17,  1800,  became  a  member  of  the 
State  Legislature,  and  in  1834  was  elected  to 
Congress,  where  he  served  four  terms.  In 
1844,  he  negotiated  the  first  treaty  of  the 
United  States  with  China,  and  in  1847  served 
in  the  Mexican  War,  with  the  rank  of  Briga¬ 
dier-General.  lie  again  entered  the  State  Legis¬ 
lature,  became  Justice  of  the  Massachusetts 
Supreme  Court,  and  in  March,  1853,  Attorney- 
General  of  the  United  States,  retiring  March  4, 
1857.  In  1872  he  was  of  counsel  for  the  United 
States  at  the  Geneva  Conference,  for  the  settle¬ 
ment  of  the  Alabama  claims.  He  died  Jan.  2, 
1879. 

Cusliman,  Charlotte  S.,  born  at  Boston,  in 
July,  1816,  began  her  career  as  an  actress  in  1835, 
and  was  considered  one  of  the  best  interpreters  of 
tragic  parts.  She  died  Feb.  18,  1876.  Her  sister, 
Susan,  was  also  a  popular  actress. 

Cusp  (Lat.  cuspis,  the  point)  is  a  point  in  a 
curve  at  which  its  two  branches  have  a  common 
tangent. 

Cusp,  in  Architecture,  is  the  point  formed  by 
the  meeting  of 
two  small  arches 
or  foils,  in  fod 
arches  or  tra¬ 
cery.  Cusps 
often  terminate 
in  rich  bosses 
of  flowers  and 
leaves. 

Cusso,  Ivosso, 
or  Cabotz 
( Bray  era  anthel - 
mintica,  or  Hagenia  abyssinica),  a  small  Abys¬ 
sinian  tree  of  the  natural  order  Rosacece,  sub¬ 
order  Spiracece,  the  dried  flowers  of  which  have 
been  long  used  in  Abyssinia  as  an  anthelmintic, 
and  have  been  found  so  efficacious  in  the  removal 
of  tape-worm  that  they  are  now  a  much  valued 
medicine  in  Europe. 

Cus'tard,  a  composition  of  milk  or  cream, 
eggs,  etc.,  sweetened  with  sugar,  and  flavored 
with  extracts,  etc. 

Custard  Apple,  the  name  commonly  given  in 
the  West  Indies  and  other  tropical  countries  to 
the  fruits  of  certain  species  of  Anona,  a  genus  of 
trees  of  the  natural  order  Anonacece.  Some  of  the 
fruits  of  this  genus  are  among  the  most  delicious 
produced  in  tropical  countries,  as  the  cheri- 
moyer. 

Custer,  George  A.,  Major  General  of  Volun¬ 
teers  and  Colonel  in  regular  army,  born  in  Ohio  in 
1839,  educated  at  West  Point,  and  became  one  of 
the  most  noted  cavalry  commanders  in  the  United 
States  army.  On  June  25,  1876,  lie,  with  his 
entire  command,  numbering  about  240  men,  was 
annihilated  by  the  Sioux  Indians  at  the  battle  of 
the  Little  Big  Horn,  in  Montana. 

Custom  House,  the  office  where  the  customs 
duties  are  paid,  and,  if  a  seaport,  where  vessels 
are  entered  and  cleared,  etc. 


Customs  Unties,  the  portion  of  the  revenue 
derived  from  a  tax  on  imports. 

Cutch,  a  principality  under  the  Presidency  of 
Bombay,  stretches  along  the  gulf  of  its  own  name 
and  the  Indian  Ocean  between  Guzerat  and 
Sinde. 

Cutli'bert,  St.,  of  Durham,  one  of  the  three 
great  saints  of  England  in  the  middle  ages,  the 
other  two  being  St.  Edmund  of  Edmundsbury, 
and  St.  Thomas  a  Becket  of  Canterbury.  St. 
Cuthbert  was  born  about  635.  He  died  in  687. 

Cut/lass  is  a  sword  about  three  feet  long,  broad 
and  straight,  with  a  japanned  hilt. 

Cut'lery,  the  general  name  for  all  kinds  of 
cutting  instruments,  such  as  knives,  forks,  scis¬ 
sors,  razors,  etc.  The  workman  who  makes  these 
is  called  a  cutler;  the  sword-maker,  a  sword-cut¬ 
ler;  but  the  manufacturer  of  workmen’s  tools  is 
called  a  “  tool-maker,”  or  a  “  steel  toy-maker,"  not 
a  cutler. 

Cut 'tack  (royal  residence),  the  capital  of  a  dis¬ 
trict  of  its  own  name  in  the  Province  of  Orissa, 
Presidency  of  Bengal,  below  the  bifurcation  of 
the  Mahanuddee,  thus  occupying  the  apex  of  the 
delta  of  that  river.  Pop.  (1881),  42,656. 

Cuttack,  the  district,  is  in  the  Province  of 
Orissa,  on  the  northwest  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Ben¬ 
gal,  area,  3,517  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
1,738,165.  It  includes  the  three  districts  of  Cut¬ 
tack,  Pooree,  and  Balasore,  with  a  joint  area  of 
8,056  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881)  of  3,571,932. 

Cutter  is  a  name  given  to  two  kinds  of  small 
vessels.  The  cutters  used  by  yachtsmen,  smug¬ 
glers,  and  revenue  cruisers,  and  which  are  built 
with  especial  reference  to  speed,  have  a  single 
mast,  and  a  straight  running  bowsprit  that  can 
be  run  in  on  board.  They  are  much  like  sloops  in 
rig,  but  have  larger  sails.  Such  small  vessels 
occasionally  venture  on  long  voyages.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  light  sleighs. 

Cuttings  are  branches  or  portions  of  branches 
of  trees  or  shrubs,  employed  to  produce  new 
plants,  by  the  insertion  of  the  lower  end  into  the 
earth. 

Cut 'tie-fish  (Sepia  and  Sepiada),  a  genus  and 
family  of  cephalopodous  mollusks  of  the  order 
Dibranchiata.  The  common  cuttle-fish  (Sepia 
officinalis)  is  abundant  on  the  British  coasts.  Its 
skin  is  smooth,  whitish,  and  dotted  with  red.  It 
attains  the  length  of  a  foot  or  more.  The  ink  of 
the  cuttle-fish  furnishes  the  valuable  pigment 
called  Sepia,  which  is  said  to  contain  a  peculiar 
animal  principle  called  melanine  (Gr.  melas , 
black),  and  is  wonderfully  indestructible. 

Cuvier,  Georges  Chretien  Leopold  Dago- 
bert,  Baron,  was  born  Aug.  23,  1769,  at  Mont- 
beliard,  in  the  department  of  Doubs,  a  town 
which  then  belonged  to  WUrtemberg.  Shortly 
before  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  Cuvier  was  admitted 
into  the  Council  of  State.  The  Restoration  did 
not  deprive  him  of  his  honors;  he  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  and  received 
from  time  to  time  new  rewards  for  his  services  to 
science.  He  was,  in  1819,  admitted  into  the 
cabinet  by  Louis  XVIII ,  and,  in  1826,  was  made 
Grand  Officer  of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  Under 
Louis  Philippe,  he  was  made  a  peer  of  France  in 
1831,  and  died  May  13,  1832.  He  laid  the  founda¬ 
tion  of  the  now  universally  recognized  method  of 
classification  in  zoology,  and  raised  comparative 
anatomy  to  the  dignity  of  a  science. 

Cuyp,  orKuvp,  Jacob  Gerritse,  a  German  art¬ 
ist  born  in  1575.  His  fame  rests  principally  upon 
his  excellent  portraits.  He  died  in  1650. — Ael- 
bert  Cuyp,  Jacob’s  son,  was  born  in  1605,  and 
died  in  1691.  He  excelled  in  the  painting  of 
cattle  grazing  or  reposing,  moonlights,  wintry 
landscapes,  still  waters  with  ships,  horse-markets, 
hunts,  camps,  and  cavalry-fights. — Benjamin 
Cuyp,  a  nephew  of  Aelbert,  lived  at  Dordrecht, 
and  painted  biblical  pieces  in  Rembrandt’s  style. 

Cuz  'CO,  the  name  of  a  city,  a  province,  and  a 
department  in  Peru.  1.  Cuzco,  the  city,  the 
center  of  an  empire,  which,  besides  the  territory 
of  the  existing  republic,  comprised  Bolivia,  most 
of  Ecuador,  and  portions  of  Chili  and  the  Argen¬ 
tine  Confederation;  is  fourth  of  Peruvian  cities; 
pop.,  20,000. — 2.  The  province,  otherwise  styled 
the  Cereado,  embraces  nothing  beyond  the  city 
but  the  suburb  of  San  Jeronimo. — 3.  The  depart¬ 
ment,  subdivided  into  eleven  provinces,  lies 
wholly  in  the  Sierra  or  Andine  region  of  the 


country,  having  the  coast  on  the  west,  and  the 
Montana,  or  Transandine  territory,  on  the  east. 
Pop.  (1883),  250,000. 

Cyan'ic  Acid  is  a  compound  of  cyanogen  and 
oxygen  along  with  water,  and  is  represented  by 
the  symbol  CIINO. 

Cy'anite,  Ivyanite  (Gr.  kyanos,  blue),  Dis- 
thene,  or  Sappare,  a  mineral  composed  of  alu¬ 
mina  and  silica.  It  often  occurs  crystallized, 
and  generally  in  broad  prisms. 

Cyan'ogen  (CN)  is  a  compound  organic  salt 
radical,  which  is  mainly  interesting  as  being  the 
principal  component  of  hydrocyanic  or  prussic 
acid. 

Cyano'sis  (Gr.  kyanos,  blue),  lividity  of  com 
plexion,  with  fullness  of  the  capillaries  and  mi¬ 
nute  veins,  especially  of  the  face  and  lips.  A 
name  applied  to  the  color,  in  certain  cases,  of 
congenital  disease  or  malformation  of  the  heart. 

Cyan'otype  Processes,  in  Photography,  are 
those  in  which  the  compound  radical  cyanogen 
is  employed. 

Cyaim  'ric  Acid  is  an  organic  acid  allied  to  cyz- 
anic  acid,  and  having  the  formula  C3N3H3O3. 
It  is  obtained  by  heating  urea  to  expel  ammonia, 
or  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  uric  acid. 

CyaThea,  a  genus  of  ferns  of  the  sub-order 
Polypodiacece ,  containing  many  species,  natives  of 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  regions,  both  of  the  Old 
and  of  the  New  World.  They  are  tree-ferns,  and 
some  of  them  have  lofty  stems  and  gigantic  fronds. 

Cyathophyl'lum,  a  genus  of  fossil  stony  corals, 
with  a  simple  or  branched  polyparium,  internally 
lamellated,  the  lamella  having  a  quadripartite 
arrangement. 

Cycada'ceae,  or  Cyca'de.e,  a  natural  order  of 
exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  small  trees  and 
shrubs,  somewhat  resembling  palms  in  their  gen¬ 
eral  appearance,  but  more  nearly  allied  to  Con¬ 
ifer  m  (pines,  firs,  etc.)  in  their  botanical  charac¬ 
ters;  cycadaceae  being  one  of  the  few  orders 
placed  by  Bindley  with  Coniferce  in  his  class  of 
(j  ymnogens. 

Cyclades,  the  southern  group  of  islands  in  the 
.Egean  Sea  belonging  to  Greece,  as  distinguished 
from  the  northern  Sporades  of  the  Greek  archi¬ 
pelago,  and  the  southern  Sporades  of  the  Asiatic 
portion  of  the  archipelago,  belonging  to  Turkey. 

Cycla'men,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Primulaccce,  having  a  wheel-shaped  corolla, 
with  a  long,  reflexed  limb,  and  flower-stalks 
twisted  spirally  downward  after  flowering. 
The  species  are  herbaceous  perennials,  not 
numerous,  and  chiefly  natives  of  the  South  of 
Europe. 

Cycle  (Gr.),  which  means  circle,  is  a  term  used 
in  chronology  to  denote  an  interval  of  time  in 
which  certain  phenomena  always  recur  in  the 
same  order.  Cycles  have  chiefly  arisen  from  the 
periods  of  revolution  of  the  earth  and  other  celes¬ 
tial  bodies  not  being  commensurable. 

Cyclobranchia'ta  (Gr.  circle-gilled),  an  order 
of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  in  which  the  gills 
usually  form  a  series  of  lamellae,  surrounding  the 
body  between  the  foot  and  the  mantle.  To  this 
order  belong  the  univalve  Patellidoe ,  or  limpets, 
and  the  multivalve  Chitonidw,  or  chitons. 

Cy'cloitl  (Gr.  circle-like).  If  a  circle  roll 
along  a  straight  line  on  its  own  plane,  a  point 
on  the  circumference  describes  a  curve  which  is 
called  a  cycloid.  The  curve  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting  we  know  in  respect  both  of  its  geo¬ 
metrical  properties  and  its  connection  with  dyna¬ 
mics.  The  curve  was  discovered  by  Galileo  in 
1615. 

Cy'cloid  Fishes,  an  order  of  fishes,  according 
to  the  classification  proposed  by  Agassiz,  having 
cycloid  scales  (Gr.  kyclos,  a  circle) — scales  formed 
of  concentric  layers,  not  covered  with  enamel, 
and  not  spinous  on  the  margins. 

Cy'clones  are  excessive  storms. 

Cyclope'an  Architecture,  or  Masonry,  the 
name  which  has  come  to  be  generally  used  for  a 
wall  of  large,  irregular  stones,  unhewn  and  un¬ 
cemented.  The  term  originated  in  Greece, where 
structures  of  this  kind  were  fabled  to  have  been 
the  work  of  the  Cyclopes,  or  one-eyed  giants. 

Cyclo'pes  (Gr.  kyklopes,  the  round-eyed),  in 
Greek  mythology,  are  of  three  kinds.  1.  The 
Homeric  Cyclopes,  a  wild,  lawless,  gigantic 
race  inhabiting  the  sea-coasts  of  Sicily,  the  most 
prominent  of  whom  is  Polyphennis.  2.  The 


CYCLOPS. 


319 


CZERNY. 


three  Cyclopes  mentioned  by  Hesiod,  Brontes, 
Stereopes,  and  Arges,  each  having  one  eye  in  the 
middle  of  his  forehead;  these  were  sons  of  Uranus 
and  Ga?a, belonged  to  the  race  of  Titans,  and  forged 
thunderbolts  for  Zeus.  3.  The  Cyclopes  men¬ 
tioned  by  Strabo,  as  a  people  who  had  come  from 
Thrace  or  Lycia  to  Argolis,  and  were  distin¬ 
guished  for  their  skill  as  builders.  Their  con¬ 
structions  are  known  as  the  Cyclopean  walls,  and 
many  of  them  still  exist  in  parts  of  Greece  and 
Italy. 

Cy 'clops,  a  genus  of  minute  entomostracous 
crustaceans  of  the  order  Brnnchiopoda,  having  a 
soft  and  rather  gelatinous  body  divided  into  two 
portions,  one  consisting  of  the  head  and  thorax, 
the  other  forming  the  tail.  There  is  only  one 
eye,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the  forehead,  and 
generally  of  a  bright  crimson  color,  sparkling 
like  a  gem  when  the  animal  is  viewed  through  a 
microscope.  The  species  of  cyc-lops  are  numer¬ 
ous;  they  inhabit  both  the  sea  and  fresh  waters, 
generally  residing  among  or  upon  aquatic  plants. 
They  are  extremely  active,  and  dart  about  with 
great  rapidity. 

Cyclora'ma,  a  series  of  views,  which,  being 
wound  round  cylinders,  are  made  to  pass  in  con¬ 
secutive  order  before  the  spectator,  so  as  to  pro¬ 
duce  the  effect  of  motion  on  his  part,  as  the 
banks  of  a  river  are  seen  from  a  steam-boat ,  or 
the  country  from  a  railway. 

Cyg'net,  a  young  swan. — Cygnet-royal,  in 
Heraldry,  a  swan  gorged  with  a  ducal  coronet, 
having  a  chain  thereunto  affixed,  and  reflexed 
over  its  back. 

Cygnus  (Lat.  the  swan),  a  constellation  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  between  Lyra  and  Cassio¬ 
peia. 

CyUiuder  (Gr.  hvAivSeiv,  kylindein,  to  roll)  is 
the  name  of  a  genus  of  geometrical  solid  figures, 
of  which  there  may  be  endless  species.  The  most 
common  kind  of  cylinder  is  that  which  is  generated 
by  the  revolution  of  a  rectangular  parallelogram 
about  one  of  its  sides,  which  line  is  called  the 
axis  of  the  cylinder. 

CyTna  (Lat.),  in  Architecture,  a  molding- 
consisting  of  a  hollow  and  round  conjoined. 
When  hollow  in  the  upper  part,  it  is  termed 
■cyma  recta-,  when  hollow  in  the  lower  part,  it 
is  called  cyma  reversa. 

CynCbals  are  instruments  of  percussion, 
which,  when  struck  one  against  the  other,  pro¬ 
duce  a  loud,  harsh  sound  of  no  fixed  pitch. 

Cymeo,  ill  Botany,  a  common  form  of  cen¬ 
trifugal  inflorescence,  in  which  the  rachis  or 
floral  axis  disappears  by  separating  into  irregular 
branches,  and  these  are  short  and  corymbose.  It 
is  of  very  general  occurrence  in  the  Caryophyl- 
laceae. 

Cynan'che  (Gr.  hvodv,  lcuon,  a  dog,  and  avx 
ancho,  I  suffocate),  a  term  applied  to  the  severer 
forms  of  sore  throat. 

Cynan'chum,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Asclepiadweit,  having  a  wheel-shaped 
corolla,  and  a  lobed  or  cleft  corona. 

CyiTics  (Gr.  hvqov,  a  dog),  the  name  applied 
to  a  sect  of  Greek  philosophers,  who  were  distin¬ 
guished  mainly  for  their  morose  and  snarling 
ethics. 

CyiTodon,  a  genus  of  grasses.  The  most 
important  species  is  cynodon  dactylon,  a  grass 
veryT  widely  diffused,  being  the  principal  fodder 
grass  and  best  pasture  grass  of  India. 

Cynomo'rium,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  para¬ 
sitic  natural  order  lihizantheae.  C.  coccineum,  a 
plant  of  a  strange  funguslike  appearance,  is 
found  in  the  islands  of  Malta  and  Gozo,  most 
abundantly  on  a  particular  rock  in  Gozo.  It 
was  long  known  as  Fungus  mclitensis,  and 
enjoyed  the  highest  reputation  as  a  styptic, 
besides  being  used  as  an  astringent  in  dysentery 
and  other  maladies. 

Cyno'sure  (Gr.  xvvodovpa,  kynosoura,  the 
tail  of  the  dog;  Ursa  Minor,  the  Little  Bear)  is 
the  constellation  of  which  the  pole  star  is  the 
principal  star. 

Cypera'ce®,  or  Carici'ne/e,  sometimes  popu¬ 
larly  called  sedges,  a  natural  order  of  plants, 
akin  to  grasses,  but  having  generally  a  triangular 
stem,  which  is  without  joints,  or  almost  so,  and 
often  leafless. 

Cyp'erus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Cyperacuz,  scales.  It  contains  a  great  num¬ 


ber  of  species,  chiefly  tropical,  and  gradually 
decreasing  in  number  toward  the  colder  parts  of 
the  globe. 

Cy '  press  ( Gupressus),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
order  Goniferae,  the  species  of  which  are  ever¬ 
green  trees  or  shrubs,  with  small  leaves,  and 
almost  globular  cones,  the  scales  of  which  bear 
numerous  hard  seeds.  The  best  known  species 


Branch  of  Cypress. 

is  the  common  cypress  ( G .  sempervirens),  a  native 
of  the  Levant,  the  North  of  Africa,  and  the  South 
of  Europe.  It  is  a  tree  of  no  great  height,  with 
quadrangular  twigs.  Cypress  is  the  name  im¬ 
properly  applied  to  a  species  of  willow,  growing- 
in  American  swamps.  The  wood  is  useful  in  mak¬ 
ing  wooden-ware  for  the  reception  of  liquids. 

Cy'prian,  Thascius  C^ecilius,  an  illustrious 
Father  of  the  African  Church,  was  born  in 
Carthage  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  cen 
tury,  and  was  beheaded  in  258  a.d. 

Cyprin'id®,  a  family  of  malacopterous  fishes. 
To  this  family  belong  the  carp,  dace,  tench, 
bleak,  bream,  barbel,  minnow,  gold  fish,  roach, 
loach,  etc. 

Cyprinodon'tidae,  a  family  of  malacopterous 
fishes,  allied  to  Gyprinidce,  with  which  they  were 
formerly  ranked,  but  differing  from  them  in  hav¬ 
ing  the  jaws  more  protractile  and  toothed.  Some 
of  them  are  American,  some  Asiatic;  some  in¬ 
habit  fresh,  and  some  salt  water. 

Cy'prus,  one  of  the  largest  islands  in  the  Medi¬ 
terranean,  situated  in  the  easternmost  basin  of 
that  sea,  at  nearly  equal  distance  from  the  coasts 
of  Asia  Minor  to  the  north,  and  of  Syria  to  the 
east.  The  headland  of  Cape  Kormakiti  in  Cyprus 
is  distant  about  forty-six  miles  from  Cape  Ana- 
mur  in  Cilicia,  and  its  northeast  point,  Cape  St. 
Andrea,  is  about  sixty  miles  from  Latakieh  in 
Syria.  It  lies  between  34°  30'  and  35°  40'  N. 
latitude,  and  between  32°  15'  and  34°  35'  E. 
longit  ude,  so  that  it  is  situated  in  almost  the  same 
latitude  as  Crete.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  145 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  nearly  60  miles. 
See  works  on  Cyprus,  published  in  1878  and  1879 
by  R.  II.  Lang,  Hepworth  Dixon,  E.  G.  Raven 
stein,  Sir  Samuel  Baker,  and  Mrs.  Stevenson,  also 
the  Report  by  II.  M.  Commissioner  for  1879  (1880); 
and  for  archaeology ,  Cesnola’s  Cyprus  (1877). 

Cyr,  St.,  the  name  of  several  places  in  France, 
the  most  important  of  which  is  St.  Cyr,  in  the 
department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  about  three  miles 
west  of  Versailles,  at  which  is  situated  the  great 
French  Military  Training  School.  Pop.  (1876), 
1,695. 

Cyrena'ica,  the  name  of  the  district  whose 
capital  was  Cyrene.  At  one  period  it  nominally 
stretched  from  Carthage  to  Egypt,  and  extended 
inland  as  far  south  as  the  Oasis  of  Fezzan. 

Cyre'ne,  the  capital  of  Cyrenaica,  was  founded 
631  b.c.,  by  a  colony  of  Spartans  under  Battus, 
whose  dynasty  lasted  for  nearly  two  centuries. 

Cyril,  St.,  Bishop  of  Alexandria,  was  one  of 
the  most  energetic,  but  least  amiable  of  the  Church 
Fathers. 

Cy'ril,  St.,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem,  an  eminent 
Church  Father,  born  about  315  a.d.,  and  on  the 
death  of  Maximus,  in  351,  was  elected  bishop  of 
his  native  city.  lie  died  in  386  a.d. 

Cyril,  the  apostle  of  the  slaves  (in  the  ninth 
century).  Ilis  labors  as  an  evangelist  were  very 
successful.  He  die  I  in  869. 

Cy'rus,  the  founder  of  the  Persian  monarchy, 
commonly  called  Cyrus  tiie  Elder,  was,  accord¬ 
ing  to  Herodotus,  the  son  of  Cambyses,  a  Persian 
noble.  Cyrus  armed  the  Persians  and  defeated 
the  forces  of  Astyages,  (559  b.c.)  The  Kingdom 


of  Lydia  next  yielded  to  him  (546  b.c.),  and  its 
king,  the  famous  Croesus,  fell  into  his  hands. 
But  the  crowning  triumph  of  Cyrus  was  his  cap¬ 
ture  of  the  city  of  Babylon,  the  metropolis  of  As¬ 
syria  (538  b.c.),  whose  king  was  Labynetus,  the 
Belshazzar  of  Daniel.  Through  the  instrumen¬ 
tality  of  Cyrus  the  Jews  were  delivered  from  their 
captivity,  and  allowed  to  return  to  Palestine.  He 
began  an  unjust  war  with  the  Massagetae,  a  nation 
or  tribe  who  dwelt  to  the  northeast  of  the  Caspian, 
beyond  the  Araxes.  At  first  he  was  successful, 
but  he  was  defeated  and  slain,  (529  b.c.) 

Cyrus,  tiie  Younger,  the  second  of  the  sons 
of  Darius  Nothus,  orOclius,  lived  about  130 years 
after  the  great  Cyrus.  He  conspired  against  his 
brother  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  who  had  succeeded 
to  the  throne  (404  b.c.),  was  discovered,  sentenced 
to  death,  but  afterward  pardoned  and  restored  to 
his  dignity  as  a  satrap  of  Asia  Minor.  In  the 
spring  of  401  b.c.  he  invaded  Pisidia  at  the  head 
of  a  large  army,  where  he  encountered  Artaxerxes, 
was  defeated  and  slain. 

Cyst  (Gr.  Kvdrti,  kystis,  a  bladder),  a  word 
sometimes  used  in  the  original  sense  as  applied  to 
hollow  organs  with  thin  walls,  as  the  urinary  blad¬ 
der  and  gall  bladder;  but  commonly  applied  to 
new  formations  within  the  body,  having  the  blad¬ 
der  form.  Such  are  the  cysts  of  the  kidney,  and 
still  more  distinctly,  the  immense  complex  cystic 
structures  which  form  in  the  ovary. 

Cystic  Worms,  an  order  of  Entozoa,  or  intes¬ 
tinal  worms,  according  to  the  system  of  Zeder 
and  Rudolphi,  for  some  time  generally  received 
by  naturalists,  characterized  by  the  body  ending 
in  a  transparent  cyst  or  bladder  filled  with  pel¬ 
lucid  fluid,  this  body  having  sometimes  only  one 
head,  as  in  Cysticercus,  sometimes  many,  as  in 
Gcenurus. 

Cysticer'cus  (Gr.  bladder-tail),  according  to 
many  naturalists,  a  irenus  of  cystic  worms  char¬ 
acterized  by  a  dilated  cyst  with  a  single  head, 
which  has  four  suckers  and  a  circlet  of  hooks. 

Cys 'tin,  or  Cys'tic  Oxide,  t lie  old  name  for  a 
species  of  urinary  calculus  rarely  met  wi  li  and 
whose  constituents  have  never  been  definitely 
determined. 

Cysti'tis.  Inflammation  of  the  urinary  blad¬ 
der. 

Cyt'isus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Lt guminosce,  sub-order  Rapilionacece,  of  which 
some  of  the  species,  having  long,  twiggy  branches, 
are  popularly  called  broom,  others  are  called 
laburnum,  whilst  others  still  are  generally  known 
by  the  name  cytisus. 

Czar,  more  properly  Zar,  often  spelled  Tsar,  is 
a  title  of  the  Russian  Emperor.  The  word  is  de¬ 
rived  from  the  old  Slavonic  language,  and  signi¬ 
fies  much  the  same  as  Ger.  Kaiser,  Lat.  Caesar,  to 
which  it  probably  owes  its  origin. 

Czartory 'ski,  Adam  George,  son  of  Prince 
Adam  Casimir  Czartoryski,  sometimes  said  to  be 
sprung  from  the  Jagellons,  was  born  at  Warsaw, 
Jan.  14,  1770.  In  1830  he  was  elected  president 
of  a  provisional  government,  summoned  a 
national  diet,  which  met,  and  in  January,  1831, 
declared  the  Polish  throne  vacant,  and  elected 
Czartoryski  head  of  the  national  government. 
The  Poles  were  crushed,  and  Czartoryski — espe¬ 
cially  excluded  from  the  general  amnesty,  and  his 
estates  in  Poland  confiscated — escaped  to  Paris. 
In  1848  he  liberated  allliis  serfs  in  Galicia.  He 
died  July,  1861. 

Czechs,  the  most  westerly  branch  of  the  great 
Slavic  family  of  nations.  About  451-495  a.d., 
the  Czechs  migrated  from  their  lands  in  Carpathia, 
on  the  Upper  Vistula,  and  came  into  the  country 
now  known  as  Bohemia.  Here,  in  Moravia,  and 
in  other  parts  of  Austria,  the  Czechs  now  number 
in  all  above  6,000,000. 

Czer'nowitz,  capital  of  Bukowina  in  Austria. 
Pop.  (1880),  45,600. 

Czer'ny,  Georg  (Turkish,  Karadjnrdje — i.e., 
Black  George),  the  leader  of  the  Servians  in  their 
struggles  for  independence,  was  born  in  1770.  In 
1801  he  collected  a  band  of  malcontents,  and  com¬ 
menced  a  sort  of  guerilla  war,  which  culminated 
in  his  election  as  Governor,  July  8,  1808,  and  in  his 
being  recognized  as  Prince  of  Serviaby  the  Sul 
tan.  In  1812  hostilities  recommenced;  the  Turks 
were  successful,  and  Czerny  fled  to  Russia.  In 
July,  1817,  lie  returned,  when  he  was  murdered 
at  the  instigation  of  Prince  Miloscli. 


D. 


320 


DAIS. 


Dis  the  fourth  letter  in  the  English  alpha¬ 
bet,  the  third  consonant,  and  represents  the 
dental  sonant  side,  to  which  T  is  the  correspond¬ 
ing  surd  (see  B).  It  is  the  fourth  letter  also  in  the 
Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Samaritan,  Syriac,  Greek,  and 
Latin  alphabets.  The  form  of  our  D  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Latins;  and  the  Latin  D  is  no  other 
than  the  Greek  a  ;  in  old  Latin,  and  in  several  of 
the  Greek  alphabets,  including  those  of  South¬ 
western  Italy,  from  which  the  Roman  alphabet 
was  borrowed,  we  find  the  form  t> ;  the  right 
hand  corner  was  rounded  for  convenience  of 
writing.  The  Greek  symbol,  again,  is  borrowed 
from  the  ancient  Phoenician  character,  called  in 
Hebrew  Daleth.  In  pnenomens  D  stood  for 
Decimus,  and  in  the  titles  of  emperors  for  Divus. 
It  is  also  a  numeral  letter,  representing  five  hun¬ 
dred.  This  may  arise  from  the  circumstance  that 
the  letter  D  is  analagous  in  form  to  ID,  the  half 
of  CIO,  which  is  t lie  Roman  numeral  expression 
for  a  thousand.  With  a  dash  placed  on  the  top 
thus,  d,  its  value  is  increased  tenfold,  or,  in  other 
words,  it  stands  for  five  thousand.  Used  as  an 
abbreviation,  D  has  various  significations. 

1),  in  Music,  is  the  second  note  in  the  natural 
scale,  and  is  a  whole  tone  above  C,  to  which  it 
stands  in  mathematical  proportion  as  9  ;  8,  that  is, 
when  C  vibrates  eight  times,  D  vibrates  nine 
times.  The  whole  tone  from  C  to  D  is  called  the 
greater  whole  tone,  being  a  comma  larger  than 
the  next  whole  tone  from  D  to  E 

Da  Ca'po  (Ital.  from  the  beginning),  a  term  in 
Music,  frequently  placed  at  the  end  of  a  part  or 
movement,  indicating  that  the  performer  must 
return  to  the  beginning  of  the  movement,  or  to 
some  other  part  of  if  usually  marked  with  the 
sign  and  finish  where  the  word  fine  is  placed. 
Dab  (Plates* a  limnnda),  a  fish  of  the  same  genus 


Dab  (Platessa  limancla). 


with  the  plaice  and  flounder,  and  very  much  re¬ 
sembling  them. 

Dac'ca,  a  city  of  Bengal  proper,  stands  about 
190  miles  to  the  northeast  of  Calcutta,  in  latitude 
23°  43'  N.,  and  longitude  90'-'  25'  E.  Pop.  (1881), 
79,076. 

Dacca,  the  district  of  which  the  above-men¬ 
tioned  city  is  the  capital,  extends  in  N.  latitude 
from  23°  12'  to  24°  17',  and  in  E.  longitude  from 
90°  11"  to  90°  58',  containing  2,797  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  2,116,350. 

Dace,  Dake,  or  Dart  ( Leuciscus  vulgaris),  a 


Dace  ( Leuciscus  vulgaris). 


fresh-water  fish  of  the  family  Cyprinidce,  and  of 
the  same  genus  with  the  roach,  ide,  chub,  bleak, 
minnow,  etc. 

Dacia,  or  the  country  of  the  Daci,  the  ancient 
name  of  that  district  of  Europe  which  lies  to  the 
north  of  the  Danube  between  the  Theiss  on  the 
west  and  the  Dniester  on  the  east.  It  thus  com¬ 
prehended  the  modern  Provinces  of  Transylvania, 
Wallachia,  and  Moldavia,  the  Bukowina,  the 
banat  of  Temeswar  and  other  parts  of  Hungary, 
as  well  as  the  southern  portions  of  Galicia. 

Dacoits’,  a  name  used  for  brigands  herding  in 
gangs  in  various  parts  of  India,  and  living  by 
dacoity  or  systematic  robbery. 


I) 


Dacryd'ium,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Tuxacece,  having  male  and  female  flowers 
on  separate  trees. 

Dac'tyl  (Gr.  dactylos ,  the  finger),  the  name  of  a 
measure  or  “foot”  in  Greek  and  Latin  versifica¬ 
tion,  consisting  of  a  long  and  two  short  syllables, 
as  in  the  word  omnibus.  It  was  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  finger,  which  consists  of 
three  joints — one  long  and  two  short.  The  same 
name  is  sometimes  applied  to  a  trisyllabic  measure 
in  English  verse,  consisting  of  one  accented  syl¬ 
lable  and  two  unaccented  syllables,  as  in  destiny. 
Dactylic  verses  consist  of  dactyls  and  equivalent 
feet. 

Dactylol  ogw,  the  art  of  communicating, 
thoughts  by  the  fingers.  See  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

Da  'do  (Ital.  a  die),  in  Classical  Architecture,  the 
term  applied  to  the  cubic  block  which  forms  the 
body  of  a  pedestal.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  plane 
face  and  the  series  of  moldings  which,  in  the 
interiors  of  buildings,  form  a  continuous  pedestal. 
The  interior  dado  is  formed  of  wood,  and,  run¬ 
ning  round  the  bottom  of  the  walls  of  a  room, 
serves  to  protect  the  plaster  or  paper  from  injury. 

Dicd'alus,  according  to  the  Greek  myths, 
sprang  from  the  old  Athenian  race  of  kings,  the 
Erechtheidse,  and  was  a  contemporary  of  Theseus 
and  Minos.  He  was  famous  for  his  ability  as  an 
artist  and  mechanician.  Among  the  numberless 
works  which  he  is  said  to  have  executed,  may  be 
mentioned  the  Cretan  labyrinth,  the  Colymbethra, 
or  reservoir,  near  Megaris  in  Sicily,  the  temples  of 
Apollo  at  Capua  and  0111111*,  that  of  Artemis 
Britomartis  in  Crete,  and  an  altar  sculptured 
with  lions  on  the  Libyan  coast. 

Daf'fodil  (corrupted  from  Lat.  asphodelus), 
the  English  name  of  those  species  of  Narcissus 
which  have  a  large 
bell-shaped  cor o  11  a . 

The  common  daffodil 
(N.  pseudo-narcissus)  is 
a  native  of  England 
and  of  most  parts  of 
Europe,  growing  in 
woods  and  hedges. 

Dag'ger,  a  weapon 
resembling  a  sword, 
but  considerably 
smaller,  used  for  stab¬ 
bing  at  close  quarters. 

Daggers  are  generally 
two-edged,  and  very 
sharp  toward  the  point. 

Originally,  it  had  no 
guard  for  the  hand,  and 
was  worn  at  the  girdle 
in  a  sheath. 

Daghestan '  (Tartar, 

Tagh  stan,  signifying 

mountainous  country),  ,  . 

a  province  of  Asiatic  (.Narcissus  pseudo-narcissus). 

Russia  (called  also  Derbend),  between  the  Cau¬ 
casus  and  the  west  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Area  about  10,000  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880), 


Common  Daffodil. 


482,000. 

Da'gon  (Heb.  dag,  a  fisb),  the  national  idol  of 
the  Philistines,  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scrip¬ 
ture;  in  profane  history,  the  name  by  which  it  is 
known  is  Derceto.  It  is  always  represented  on 
ancient  medals  as  half -fish,  half -woman,  but  the 
Hebrew  writers  speak  of  it  as  a  masculine  being. 

Da  guerre 'otype  Process,  the  name  given  to 
the  original  photographic  process  as  introduced 
by  its  inventor,  M.  Daguerre,  in  1839. 

Daguerre',  Louis  Jacques  Mande,  French 
painter  and  physicist,  born  at  Cormeilles,  1789,  and 
died  July  12,  1851.  He  invented  what  is  known 
as  the  daguerreotype  process  in  photography. 

Dahl,  Johann*  Christian  Clausen,  a  Nor¬ 
wegian  landscape  painter,  born  Feb.  24,  1788. 
Among  his  more  famous  works  are  a  “View  of 
Naples,”  “Winter  in  Zeeland,”  and  “View  of 
Bergen.”  He  died  Oct.  14,  1857. 

Dalil'gren,  John  Adolph,  born  in  November, 
1809,  died  July  12,  1870.  He  entered  the.  United 
States  navy  in  1826,  rose  to  be  Rear-Admiral  and 
Commander  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  South  Pa¬ 


cific  Squadrons.  His  son,  Ulric  (1842-64), 
fought  bravely  during  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
killed  in  a  cavalry  raid. 

Dahlgren  Gun,  named  after  the  foregoing.  It 
was  a  serviceable  cannon  for  many  years,  but  is 
now  practically  obsolete. 

Dahl  'ia,  a  genus  of  large  perennial  herbaceous 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Composite?,,  sub-order 
Corynibiferce,  natives  of  Mexico.  All  the  varie¬ 
ties  in  cultivation  in  flower-gardens,  of  which  not 


Dalilia. 

A.  single;  B,  double  varieties. 


fewer  than  2,000  have  been  carefully  enumerated, 
are  derived  from  two  species,  1>.  variabilis  and 
D.  coccinea,  and  chiefly  from  the  former.  The 
name  was  given  in  honor  of  Dahl,  a  Swedish 
botanist. 

DahUmanii,  Friedrich  Christoph,  German 
historian,  born  May  17,  1785,  and  died  Dec.  5, 
1860.  W\s  Researches  in  German  History  \s  con¬ 
sidered  his  most  important  work. 

Daho'mey,  an  independent  State  of  Guinea, 
Western  Africa,  extending  along  the  coast  from 
Fort  Badagry  on  the  east,  to  the  River  Volta, 
which  separates  it  from  Ashantee  on  the  west ; 
and  lying  between  latitude  0U — 8°  50'  N.,  and 
longitude  0°  30' — 3°  E.  Its  breadth  is  about  200, 
and  its  length  180  miles.  Pop.,  180,000.— Abomey, 
or  Agbome,  the  capital,  is  situated  about  latitude 
7°  30'  N.,  longitude  1°  40'  E.  It  is  stated  to  be 
four  miles  in  circumference.  Pop.,  20,000. 

Dali'ra,  a  district  of  Algeria,  once  inhabited 
by  the  Ouled-Riahs,  a  Kabyle  tribe. 

Dairy,  all  that  concerns  milk  and  its  manage¬ 
ment  on  a  farm;  or  the  place  or  house  where  the 
milk  is  kept,  cheese  made,  etc.  (The  old  word 
dey,  the  milkmaid  who  presided  over  the  deyry  or 
dairy,  is  probably  allied  to  dug,  a  teat,  and  to 
Lat.  due,  to  draw,  or  milk;  in  Polish,  dote  is  to 
milk;  and  Sw.  deja  is  a  dairymaid.  The  es¬ 
tablishment  of  large  creameries  and  cheese 
factories  in  the  United  States  has  caused  a 
rapid  growth  in  the  dairying  interests  of  the 
country.  Within  the  past  few  years  the  num¬ 
ber  of  milch  cows  has  greatly  increased,  and 
dairying  is  now  one  of  the  chief  industries  in 
many  States.  A  marked  improvement  is  noted 
in  the  quality  as  well  as  quantity  of  butter  and 
cheese  now  produced,  over  that  usually  found  in 
our  markets  ten  years  ago. 

Da'is,  (Fr.)  This  term  -was  used  with  consid¬ 
erable  latitude  by  mediaeval  writers.  Its  usual 
significations  are  the  following;  1.  A  canopy 
over  an  altar,  shrine,  font,  throne,  stall,  chair, 
statue,  or  the  like.  2.  The  chief  seat  at  the  high 
table  in  a  hall,  with  the  canopy  which  covered  it, 
from  which  probably  the  word  in  all  its  significa¬ 
tions  was  introduced,  its  French  meaning  being 
a  canopy.  3.  The  high  table  itself.  4.  The 
raised  portion  of  the  floor,  or  estrade,  on  which 
the  high  table  stood,  and  by  which  the  upper  was 
divided  from  the  lower  portion  of  the  hall;  and 
5.  A  cloth  of  state  for  covering  a  throne  or  table. 


DAISY. 


321 


DANA. 


Dai  'sy  (Beilis),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Composites,  sub  order  Corymbiferce. — The 
common  daisy  (B.  perennis),  flowers  almost  all 
the  year  in  pastures,  meadows,  and  grassy  places. 
What  are  called  double  varieties,  with  flowers  of 
various  and  often  brilliant  colors,  are  very  com¬ 
monly  cultivated  in  gardens,  the  flowers  consist¬ 
ing  entirely  of  florets  of  the  ray.  A  variety  called 
the  Hen-and-chiclcens  daisy  has  the  flower  (head 
of  flowers)  surrounded  by  smaller  ones,  the  short 
stems  of  which  grow  from  the  summit  of  the 
scape  or  leafless  stem. 

Dakot '  a.  Among  the  recent  additions  to  the 
United  States  the  two  Dakotas,  North  and  South, 
are  the  most  prominent.  The  necessary  legis¬ 
lation  for  the  admission  of  these  two  States  was 
adopted  in  the  last  session  of  the  Fiftieth  Con¬ 
gress,  and  the  bill  was  signed  by  President  Cleve¬ 
land  just  before  he  retired  from  office,  March, 
1889.  The  dividing  line  between  the  two 
States  is  the  46th  parallel,  but  in  speaking  of 
Dakota  we  shall  deal  with  it  as  a  whole.  The 
Territory  of  Dakota  was  organized  March  2, 
1861,  and  included  the  present  Territories  of 
Wyoming  and  Montana.  Several  important 
changes  were  made  in  the  boundaries,  when 
Idaho,  Wyoming  and  Montana  were  organized. 
The  first  permanent  settlements  were  made  in 

1859,  between  Sioux  City  and  Yankton,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Missouri,  but  Indian  troubles  and 
the  Civil  War  checked  immigration  until  1866. 
The  first  Legislature  met  in  March,  1862,  at  Yank¬ 
ton.  Dakota  is  situated  between  latitude  42°  30 ' 
and  49Q  N.,  and  longitude  96°  20'  and  104° 
W.  It  is  bounded  north  by  the  British  Posses¬ 
sions;  east  by  Iowa  and  Minnesota;  south  by 
Nebraska,  and  west  by  Wyoming  and  Montana. 
It  has  an  average  extent  north  and  south  of  450 
miles,  and  a  breadth  of  350  miles,  with  an  area 
of  149,100  square  miles,  or  95,424,000  acres. 
There  are  still  27,550  Indians  in  Dakota,  seven- 
eighths  of  the  whole  number  being  Sioux.  The 
amount  of  land  held  by  them  in  the  form  of  reser¬ 
vations,  is  41,999,456  acres,  of  which  over  5,000,- 
000  acres  is  good  farming  land.  The  general  ele¬ 
vation  of  Dakota  is  from  1,000  to  2,500  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Black  Hills 
are  nearly  7,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The  Mis¬ 
souri  river  crosses  Dakota  from  the  northwest  to 
the  southeast  corner,  and  is  navigable  through¬ 
out.  It  receives  the  Yellowstone  on  the  Montana 
border,  in  latitude  48°  N.,  and  has  also  as  tribu¬ 
taries  the  Little  Missouri,  White,  Big  Cheyenne, 
and  Niobrararivers,  the  latter  having  most  of  its 
course  in  Nebraska.  There  are  a  large  number 
of  lakes,  mostly  in  the  east  and  north.  Devil’s 
lake,  the  water  of  which  is  brackish,  is  40  miles 
long,  and  from  4  to  12  miles  wide.  Other  im¬ 
portant  lakes  are  Albert,  Poinsett,  Tchanchicaha, 
Traverse,  Wliitewood,  and  Big  Stone.  Dakota  is 
a  great  wheat-growing  country,  and  produced  in 
1887  over  52,000,000  bushels;  its  corn  crop  that 
year  was  20,992,000  bushels;  oats  37,266,000 
bushels.  The  total  value  of  its  cereals,  grasses, 
and  roots  in  1886  was  $31,906,140.  The  fertile 
lands  of  Dakota  are  being  rapidly  settled  by  emi¬ 
grants  from  other  parts  of  the  United  States  and 
Europe.  Statistics  obtained  (1889)  in  view  of  its 
admission  to  statehood,  show  that  its  population 
is  at  least  500,000.  The  principal  towns  are  Fargo 
(10,000),  Yankton  (5,000),  Bismarck  (4, 500),  Water- 
town  (5,000),  Jamestown  (4,000),  and  Deadwood 
(1,768).  In  the  Black  Hills  minerals  of  nearly  all 
kinds  are  found.  The  railroad  system  is  large, 
and  rapidly  extending. 

Dalberg,  Karl  Tiieodor,  Baron  von,  Cham¬ 
berlain  of  Worms  and  Archbishop  of  Regens¬ 
burg,  born  at  Hernsheim,  Feb.  8,  1744,  died  in 
1817. 

Dal  her 'gi  a,  a  genus  of  trees  and  climbing 
shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Leguminosee,  sub¬ 
order  Papilionacece. 

Dalecar'lia,  or  Dalarne  (signifying  valley- 
country),  an  old  province  of  Sweden,  now  form¬ 
ing  the  Ian  or  County  of  Fahlun  or  Falun. 

Dalhon'sie,  Marquis  of,  James  Andrew 
Broun-Ramsay,  born  April  22,  1812.  In  1847 
he  was  appointed  Governor-General  of  India, 
held  his  position  for  eight  years,  and  died  in 

1860. 

Dallas,  a  city  in  Texas,  on  the  Trinity  river. 


Its  growth  in  the  past  few  years  has  been  phe¬ 
nomenal.  Pop.,  10,358. 

Dallas,  Alexander  James,  born  in  1759,  died 
in  1817;  was  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  and  Secre¬ 
tary  of  War  in  1815. 

Dal 'las,  George  Mifflin,  an  American  states¬ 
man  and  diplomatist,  born  July  10,  1792.  In 
1831  he  represented  Pennsylvania  in  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States.  In  1837  he  was  appointed 
American  Minister  at  St.  Petersburg.  In  1844 
he  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the  United 
States,  and  held  that  office  until  1849.  In  1856 
he  succeeded  Mr.  Buchanan  as  American  Minister 
at  the  Court  of  St.  James.  He  died  in  1864. 

Dalles,  romantic  and  perilous  rapids  on  the 
Columbia,  form,  with  the  chutes  above  them  and 
the  cascades  below  them,  an  interruption  between 
the  tide-water  of  the  river  and  its  long  reach — 
about  400  miles — of  comparatively  practicable 
navigation  toward  the  interior.  Government 
engineers  have  been  employed  for  several  years 
in  cutting  a  canal  around  these  rapids,  but  the 
work  is  not  yet  completed. 

Dalma'tia,  a  narrow  strip  of  territory,  extend¬ 
ing  along  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Croatia;  on  the  east  by  Bosnia,  Herze¬ 
govina,  and  Montenegro.  Latitude  42°  15' — 44° 
54'  N.,  longitude  14®  30' — 19°  E.  It  forms, 
with  its  adjacent  islands,  the  most  southern 
province  of  the  Austrian  Empire.  Area,  4,881 
square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  476,101.  Dalmatia  is 
divided  into  four  circles — Zara,  Spalatro  (or  Spa- 
lato),  Ragusa,  and  Cattaro.  These  are  also  the 
names  of  the  chief  towns. 

Dalling  and  Bulwer,  Baron  (1801-1872). 
William  Henry  Lytton  Earle  Bulwer,  better 
known  as  Sir  Henry  Bulwer,  was  born  Feb.  13, 
1801 .  He  was  a  brother  of  Edward,  Lord  Lytton, 
the  great  novelist.  Lord  Dalling  was  many  years 
in  the  British  diplomatic  service,  and  negotiated 
the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty.  He  died  May  23,  1872. 

Dalmat'ic  ( Dalmatica ),  the  deacon’s  robe,  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It  was  originally 
of  linen,  but  it  is  now  generally  made  of  the  same 
heavy  silk  as  the  planeta,  worn  by  the  priest. 

Dalton,  John  (1766-1844),  physicist,  and 
founder  of  the  atomic  theory  of  chemistry,  was 
born  Sept.  5,  1766.  His  researches  in  chemistry 
and  natural  philosophy  have  been  of  the  greatest 
value  to  science,  but  the  most  important  of  his 
numerous  investigations  are  those  concerned  with 
the  atomic  theory  of  chemistry.  He  is  entitled  to 
the  honor  of  having  discovered  and  developed  the 
principle  of  the  multiple  combining  proportions 
of  the  elements.  He  was  made  a  member  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  the  Paris  Academy,  D.C.L.  of 
Oxford,  LL.D.  of  Edinburgh,  and  died  July  27, 
1844. 

Damasce'nus,  Joannes,  the  author  of  the 
standard  text-book  of  dogmatic  theology  in  the 
Greek  Church,  was  born  at  Damascus  about  700 
a.d.,  and  died  about  756. 

Damascus  (Arabic,  Dimishkesh-Sham),  a  city 
of  Syria,  the  largest  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  is  fifty- 
three  miles  east-southeast  of  Beyrout,  which 
forms  its  port,  latitude  33®  27'  N.,  longitude  36° 
23'  E.  it  is  the  oldest  inhabited  city  in  the 
world,  and  has  for  ages  been  noted  for  the  supe¬ 
rior  quality  of  the  steel  made  there.  Pop.,  150,- 
000;  130,000  are  Mohammedans,  15,000  Chris¬ 
tians,  and  5,000  Jews.  Josephus  attributes  the 
foundation  of  Damascus  to  Uz,  the  great  grand¬ 
son  of  Noah;  but  whether  it  dates  so  far  back  or 
not,  it  is  certain  that  it  was  a  place  of  conse¬ 
quence  in  the  days  of  Abraham. 

Dam'ask,  the  name  given  to  all  textile  fabrics 
in  which  figures  of  flowers,  fruits,  or  others  not 
of  geometrical  regularity,  are  woven.  The  word 
is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  the  city  of  Damas¬ 
cus,  having  been  an  early  seat  of  these  manufact¬ 
ures. 

Dam'askeen'ing,  or  Damascening,  is  the  art 
of  producing  upon  ordinary  steel  certain  orna¬ 
mental  appearances  resembling  those  observed 
on  the  famous  Damascus  blades. 

Dambool',  a  vast  rock-temple  of  the  Bud¬ 
dhists  in  Ceylon,  containing,  among  a  profusion 
of  carvings,  figures  of  Buddha  of  extraordinary 
magnitude 

Dame  (Lat  domina,  a  mistress),  a  title  of  honor 
which  long  distinguished  high-born  ladies  from 
the  wives  of  citizens,  and  of  the  commonalty  in 


general.  In  consequence  of  the  greater  courtesy 
shown  toward  women  of  higher  rank,  arose  the 
custom  of  prefixing  the  word  rna  to  dame,  as  a 
special  proof  of  veneration  and  homage.  Hence, 
too,  the  Virgin-mother  was  called  in  France 
Notre-Dame  ( Our  Mistress,  or  Lady,  as  if  no  one 
Christian  could  exclusively  claim  the  privilege  of 
serving  her  with  the  homage  of  his  heart).  "The 
daughters  of  the  King  of  France,  as  soon  as  they 
came  into  the  world,  were  called  madame;  and 
this  was  also  the  sole  title  of  the  wife  of  the 
King’s  eldest  brother.  Madame  is  shortened  into 
madam,  which  is  still  a  term  of  honor,  applicable 
in  particular  cases,  to  majesty  itself. 

Damiens,  Robert  Franqois,  born  in  1714. 
On  Jan.  5, 1757,  he  attempted  to  assassinate  Louis 
XV.  of  France,  but  failing,  was  seized  and  tor¬ 
tured  to  death. 

Damietta,  a  town  of  Lower  Egypt,  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  chief  of  the  Nile’s  eastern 
branches,  about  eight  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the 
Mediterranean,  in  latitude  31®  25'  N.,  longitude 
31®  49'  E.  Pop.,  37,100. 

Dam  'ocles,  one  of  the  courtiers  and  sycophants 
of  the  elder  Dionysius,  the  tyrant  of  Syracuse. 
It  is  recorded  by  Cicero  that  Damocles,  having 
lauded  the  grandeur  and  happiness  of  royalty, 
was  reproved  by  Dionysius  in  a  singular  manner. 
The  sycophant  was  seated  at  a  table,  richly  spread 
and  surrounded  by  all  the  furniture  of  royalty, 
but  in  the  midst  of  his  luxurious  banquet,  on 
looking  upward,  he  saw  a  keen-edged  sword 
suspended  over  his  head  by  a  single  horse-hair. 
A  spectacle  so  alarming  instantly  altered  his 
views  of  the  felicity  of  kings. 

Da'monand  I’yth'ias.  oi-Phin'tias,  two  noble 
Pythagoreans  of  Syracuse,  who  have  been  remem¬ 
bered  as  models  of  faithful  friendship.  Pythias, 
having  been  condemned  to  death  by  Dionysius, 
the  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  begged  to  be  allowed  to 
go  home,  for  the  purpose  of  arranging  his  affairs, 
Damon  pledging  his  own  life  for  the  re-appear¬ 
ance  of  his  friend.  Dionysius  consented,  and 
Pythias  returned  just  in  time  to  save  Damon 
from  death.  Struck  by  so  noble  an  example  of 
mutual  affection,  the  tyrant  pardoned  Pythias, 
and  desired  to  »be  admitted  into  their  sacred  fel¬ 
lowship. 

Damper,  a  door  or  valve,  which,  by  sliding, 
rising  and  falling,  turning  on  a  hinge, or  otherwise, 
diminishes  the  aperture  of  a  chimney  or  air-flue; 
this  lessens  the  quantity  of  air  that  can  pass 
through  a  furnace  or  other  tire,  and  thus  checks 
the  combustion. — The  damper  of  a  pianoforte  is 
that  part  of  the  mechanism  which,  after  a  key  is 
struck,  and  the  linger  is  lifted  up  from  a  key, 
checks  the  vibration  of  the  string. — Damper  is 
also  the  name  given  in  Australia  to  a  simple  kind 
of  unleavened  bread  formed  of  wheat-flour. 

Dam 'pier,  William,  an  English  navigator, 
born  in  1652.  With  a  party  of  buccaneers  he 
crossed  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  in  1679,  and  em¬ 
barking  on  the  Pacific  in  canoes  and  similar 
small  craft,  captured  several  Spanish  vessels,  in 
which  they  cruised  along  the  coast  of  Spanish 
America,  waging  war  with  the  Spanish  subjects. 
In  1684  Dampier  engaged  in  another  buccaneering 
expedition,  in  which  he  coasted  along  the  shores 
of  Chili,  Peru,  and  Mexico,  sailing  thence  to  the 
East  Indies,  touching  at  Australia.  In  1691  he 
published  an  account  of  the  expedition,  entitled 
A  Voyage  Round  the  World. 

Dampier  Archipelago  and  Strait  take  their 
names  from  the  navigator  and  buccaneer.  The 
straight,  which  is  thirty -five  miles  wide,  separates 
the  Island  of  Waygioufrom  the  northwest  extrem¬ 
ity  of  Papua  or  New  Guinea.  The  archipelago 
is  off  the  northwest  coast  of  Australia,  about  lati¬ 
tude  21®  S.,  and  longitude  117®  E.  The  princi¬ 
pal  islands  of  the  cluster  are  Enderby,  Lewis, 
Rosemary,  Legendre,  and  Depucli. 

Dam 'son,  a  rather  small  variety  of  the  common 
plum. 

Dan,  a  town  of  ancient  Judea,  near  the  head¬ 
waters  of  the  Jordan,  inhabited  at  the  time  of  the 
Israelitisli  conquest  by  a  peaceful  and  commercial 
population  whose  name  for  their  city  was  Laish, 
or  Lesliem. 

Dana,  the  name  of  an  American  family  of 
which  several  members  have  attained  eminence. 
Richard  Dana  (1699-1772)  was  a  leading  barrister 
of  Boston,  and  a  prominent  opponent  of  the 


21 


DANA. 


322 


DARLING. 


Stamp  Act.  His  son,  Francis,  born  in  1743,  also 
began  life  as  a  barrister.  In  1774  be  was  chosen 
to  the  first  Provincial  Congress  of  Massachusetts. 
From  1776  to  1780  he  was  a  member  of  the  Mas¬ 
sachusetts  Council,  and  in  1777  and  1778  he  rep¬ 
resented  Massachusetts  in  the  National  Congress. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  committee  appointed  to 
administer  military  affairs.  In  1779  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Secretary  of  Legation  to  John  Adams,  the 
Ambassador  to  England,  and  for  two  years  (1781- 
1783)  he  was  envoy  to  St.  Petersburg.  In  1791 
he  was  appointed  Chief  Justice  of  Massachusetts, 
and  died  April  25,  1811.  Francis  Dana  was  the 
father  of  Richard  Henry  Dana  (born  1787,  died 
1879),  who  was  the  author  of  The  Buccaneer  and 
Other  Poems,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
North  American  Review.  The  latter’s  son,  also 
named  Richard  Henry  Dana,  was  an  authority 
on  maritime  matters,  and  the  author  of  'Two 
Tears  Before  the  Mast,  and  The  Seaman’s  Friend, 
or  The  Seaman’s  Manual.  He  was  born  in  1815 
and  died  1882. 

Dana,  Charles  Anderson,  born  Aug.  8, 
1819,  was  for  many  years  connected  with  the 
New  York  Tribune ,  and  has  been  since  1868 
editor  of  the  New  York  Sun. 

Dana,  James  Dwight,  born  in  Utica,  N. 
Y.,  in  1813,  a  well-known  naturalist,  geologist, 
and  mineralogist,  and  the  author  of  many  scien¬ 
tific  works. 

Da'nae,  the  daughter  of  Acrisius,  King  of 
Argos,  and  Ocaleia.  xln  oracle  had  announced 
that  she  would  one  day  give  birth  to  a  son,  who 
should  kill  his  grandfather.  Acrisius  took  every 
precaution  to  keep  her  a  virgin.  He  shut  her  up 
in  a  dungeon,  where  she  was  visited  by  Zeus  in 
a  shower  of  gold,  and  became,  in  consequence, 
the  mother  of  Perseus,  who  accidentally  slew  his 
grandfather. 

Da'naiis,  a  mythical  personage,  the  son  of 
Belus  and  Anchinoe,  brother  of  iEgyptus,  and 
originally  ruler  of  Libya.  Forty -nine  of  his  fifty 
daughters,  the  Danaides,  slew  their  husbands  on 
their  bridal-night,  and  were  condemned  to  draw 
water  in  sieves  forever. 

Danbury,  a  town  in  Fairfield  county,  Connecti¬ 
cut,  on  the  Still  river,  about  fifty-three  miles 
north-northeast  of  New  ATork.  Pop.,  9,000. 

Dance  of  Death  (Lat.  Chorea  machabceorum, 
Fr.  La  danse  macabre),  a  name  given  to  a  certain 
class  of  allegorical  representations,  illustrative  of 
the  universal  power  of  Death,  and  dating  from 
the  fourteenth  century. 

Daneette',  one  of  the  lines  of  partition  in  Her¬ 
aldry,  which  differs  from  indented  only  in  the 
greater  size  of  the  notches. 

Dancing  may  be  defined  as  the  expression  of  in¬ 
ward  feelings  by  means  of  rhythmical  movements 
of  the  body,  especially  of  the  lower  limbs,  usually 
accompanied  by  music.  As  a  social  amusement 
and  a  healthful  exercise,  dancing  has  much  to  rec¬ 
ommend  it.  By  many  it  is  unfavorably  regarded 
in  a  moral  point  of  view;  but  this  sentiment  is 
rapidly  giving  way  under  the  influence  of  modern 
progressive  thought  and  teaching. 

Dancing  Ma'nia,  a  form  of  epidemic  disorder 
common  in  Germany  during  the  middle  ages, 
allied  to  hysteria,  and  evidently  the  result  of  imi 
tative  emotions  acting  upon  susceptible  subjects, 
under  the  influence  of  a  craving  for  sympathy  or 
notoriety. 

Dan  delion  ( Leontodon  taraxacum,  or  Tarax¬ 
acum  officinale),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Com¬ 
posite,  sub-order  Cichoracece,  common  throughout 
many  parts  of  North  America.  The  plant  abounds 
in  a  milky  juice,  containing  a  peculiar  crystalline 
principle  called  taraxacin;  has  a  bitter  taste;  and 
is  tonic,  deobstruent,  and  diuretic.  The  root  is 
employed  in  medicine,  in  the  form  of  an  infusion. 
When  roasted  and  ground  it  is  also  sometimes 
used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

Dan'dolo,  a  famous  Venetian  family,  which 
has  given  four  Doges  to  the  republic.  The  most 
illustrious  of  its  members  was  Enrico  Dandolo, 
born  about  1110  or  1115  a.d.  In  1173  he  was 
sent  as  Ambassador  to  Constantinople,  and  in 
1192  was  elected  Doge.  When  the  Emperor  Alex¬ 
ius,  who  had  been  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  ex¬ 
ertions  of  Dandolo,  was  murdered  by  his  own 
subjects,  Dandolo  laid  siege  to  Constantinople, 
and  took  it  by  storm  April  13,  1204.  He  then  es¬ 
tablished  there  the  empire  of  the  Latins,  and 


caused  Count  Baldwin  of  Flanders  to  be  chosen 
Emperor.  Dandolo  died  in  1205. 

Dan'ebrog,  Order  of,  the  second  of  the 
Danish  orders,  was  instituted  by  King  Waldemar 
in  1219.  The  word  brog  in  old  Danish  signifies 
“  cloth,”  and  thus  Dancbrog  is  equivalent  to  the 
cloth  or  banner  of  the  Danes. 

Dan'iel,  a  Hebrew  prophet,  who  flourished 
about  600  b.c.  He  was  a  contemporary  of 
Ezekiel,  and  was  carried  captive  to  Babylon  in 
the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim.  He  rose  to  be 
Governor  of  the  Province  of  Babylon  under  Neb¬ 
uchadnezzar;  and  under  Darius,  the  Mede,  to  be 
first  President  of  the  whole  Medo-Persian  Empire. 
The  time  and  the  place  of  his  death  are  alike 
unknown.  He  was  alive,  however,  in  the  first 
year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  but  did  not  return  to 
Judea  with  his  countrymen  on  their  release  from 
captivity. 

Dan't6  (properly,  Durante) degli  Aligliie'ri, 
the  great  Italian  poet,  was  born  in  1265,  and  died 
Sept.  14,  1321.  His  immortal  work,  the  Divina 
Commedia,  composed  of  three  parts — the  Inferno, 
the  Purgatorio,  and  the  Paradiso,  of  which  the 
best  known  is  the  Inferno,  has  been  translated 
into  nearly  all  European  languages  and  more  than 
500  editions  of  it  have  been  printed.  The  English 
translation  by  the  poet  Longfellow,  if  one  of  the 
finest  pieces  of  sympathetic  interpretation  extant 
in  any  language. 

Dantou,  Georges  Jacques,  was  born  at  Arcis- 
sur-Aube,  Oct.  28, 1759.  lie  took  an  active  part 
in  the  agitation  that  led  up  to  the  French  Revolu¬ 
tion.  On  July  17,  1791,  he  and  others  assembled 
the  people  of  Paris  in  the  Champ-de-Mars,  and 
goaded  them  on  by  furious  declamation  to  sign 
a  petition  for  the  deposition  of  the  King.  Some 
time  after,  he  became  procureur-subs'.itut  for  the 
city  of  Paris.  He  led  the  rabble  that,  on  Aug. 
10,  1792,  stormed  the  Tuileries,  and  was  rewarded 
by  being  made  Minister  of  Justice.  Incited  by 
his  eloquence  and  the  influence  of  his  big  office,  a 
mob  perpetrated  the  September  massacres.  Danton 
publicly  thanked  the  assassins,  “not  as  the  Minister 
of  Justice,  but  as  the  Minister  of  the  Revolution.” 
Elected  a  deputy  to  the  National  Convention, 
he  resigned  his  judicial  office  and  participated  in 
the  trial  of  the  King.  On  March  10,  1793,  he 
established  the  “extraordinary  criminal  tribunal,” 
and  became  President  of  the  “  Committee  of 
Public  Safety.”  He  lost  favor  with  the  Jacobins 
and  on  March  30,1794  was  arrested,  brought  before 
that  revolutionary  tribunal  which  he  himself 
had  established,  was  summarily  condemned,  and, 
with  Camille  Desmoulins  and  others,  was  guillo¬ 
tined  on  April  5th. 

Dan'ube  (Ger.  Donau),  the  second  of  European 
rivers,  inferior  only  to  the  Volga,  has  its  origin 
in  the  Brege  and  Brigach,  two  mountain-streams 
rising  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Black  Forest,  in 
Baden,  in  latitude  48°  6'  N.,  and  in  longitude 
8°  9'  E.  The  total  length  of  the  Danube  is  about 
1,750  miles  and  the  area  which  it  drains  is  esti¬ 
mated  at  250,000  square  miles.  The  Danube  is 
joined  in  its  course  by  sixty  navigable  rivers,  and 
falls  into  the  Black  Sea,  pouring  into  it  a  volume 
of  water  nearly  equal  to  that  of  all  the  other 
rivers  that  empty  there. 

Dan '  zig  (Polish  Gdansk),  seaport  of  Prussia, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  western  branch  of  the 
Vistula,  about  three  and  one-lialf  miles  from  its 
mouth  in  the  Baltic.  Pop.,  108,000. 

Danvers,  a  town  in  the  County  of  Essex,  Mass, 
two  miles  from  Salem  and  fifteen  miles  north- 
northeast  of  Boston.  Pop.,  5,600. 

Danville,  a  city  in  Montour  county,  Penn., 
fifty  miles  northeast  of  Harrisburg.  Pop., 
9,000. 

Danville,  a  city  in  Vermilion  county,  Ill., 
Pop.,  7,500. 

Danville,  Pittsylvania  county,  Va.,  is  one  of 
the  largest  tobacco  markets  in  the  world.  Pop., 
about  8,000. 

Dapli'ne,  a  grove  and  sanctuary  in  ancient 
times,  near  Antioch.  The  grove  was  laid  out  in 
walks  of  cypress  and  bay  trees,  and  as  the  chief 
resort  of  all  the  dissolute  persons  in  the  city, 
became  the  scene  of  the  greatest  debauchery.  In 
the  center,  surrounded  by  gardens,  fountains, 
baths,  and  colonnades,  stood  the  temple  of  Apollo 
and  Diana,  which  was  invested  with  the  privileges 


of  an  asylum,  and  became  a  place  of  heathen 
pilgrimage. 

Daphne,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Thy- 
meleacem,  having  a  four  -cleft, 
funnel-shaped  perianth,  the 
throat  of  which  is  destitute 
of  scales,  eight  stamens,  and 
a  one-seeded  succulent  fruit. 

All  the  species  are  shrubs 
or  small  trees,  some  having 
deciduous,  and  some  having 
evergreen  leaves. 

Daph'nine  is  a  bitter, 
astringent,  crystalline  sub¬ 
stance  present  in  different  Daphne  cneorum. 
species  of  Daphne.  It  is  analogous  to  aspara¬ 
gine. 

Dardanelles'  (ancient  Hellespont),  a  narrow 
channel  separating  Europe  from  Asia,  and  unit¬ 
ing  the  Sea  of  Marmora  with  the  Grecian  Archi¬ 
pelago.  It  has  a  length  of  about  40  miles,  and  a 
breadth  varying  from  less  than  1  to  4  miles. 
From  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  a  strong  current  runs 
through  the  strait  to  the  Archipelago. 

Darfur',  a  country  of  Africa,  east  of  Soudan,  is 
generally  said  to  be  situated  in  latitude  10° — 16® 
N.,  and  in  longitude  22° — 28°  E.,  but  its  limits 
are  not  clearly  defined.  Its  pop.  is  under  4,000,000. 

•  Darien,  the  name  of  a  gulf  on  the  northern 
coast  of  South  America,  and  of  the  isthmus  con¬ 
necting  the  grand  northern  and  southern  divis¬ 
ions  of  the  New  World. — 1.  Gulf  of  Darien, 
the  most  southerly  portion  of  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
about  70  miles  in  length  from  north  to  south, 
and  25  from  east  to  west. — 2.  The  Isth¬ 
mus  of  Darien  is  a  term  commonly  used  as 
interchangeable  with  that  of  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
now  the  more  usual  name.  Darien  was  also  the 
name  given  to  a  province  in  the  Republic  of  New 
Granada,  corresponding  to  what  is  now  the  State 
of  Panama  in  Colombia. 

Darien  Scheme,  The.  In  1695  the  Darien 
Company  was  established  by  Act  of  the  Scottish 
Parliament,  sanctioned  by  royal  authority,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  plant  a  colony  on  the 
Atlantic  side  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  so 
form  a  commercial  entrepot  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Hemispheres.  Important  concessions 
were  made  to  the  company,  and  five  ships  with 
1,200  men  sailed  from  Leith  for  Panama,  July 
25,  1698.  But  the  climate,  which  was  tolerable 
in  winter,  became  unbearable  in  summer,  and 
many  sickened  under  it;  their  supplies  also  failed 
before  they  could  derive  a  return  from  the  soil; 
and  on  sending  to  the  British  colonies  in  Am¬ 
erica  for  provisions,  they  learned  that  the  British 
American  colonies,  having  been  informed  that 
King  William  had  not  given  his  sanction  to  the 
expedition,  had  resolved  to  hold  no  intercourse 
with  the  new  colony  at  Panama.  At  length, 
having  waited  eight  months  for  assistance,  the 
colony  broke  up,  not  more  than  thirty  of  the  peo¬ 
ple  ever  getting  back  to  Scotland. 

Dari 'us,  or  Dareius,  is  the  name  of  several 
Persian  kings,  and,  like  the  Egyptian  word 
Pharaoh,  is  titular  and  not  personal. — Darius  I. 
succeeded  to  the  throne  by  the  death  of  Smerdes, 
521  is.c.— Darius  II.  became  King  by  the  death  of 
Sogdiams,  in  424  b.c.,  and  Darius  III.,  the  last  of 
the  Persian  monarchs,  succeeded  Artaxerxes  III. 
(Ochus)  336  b.c. 

Darjiling,  or  Darjeeling,  a  district  of  Brit¬ 
ish  India,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  independ 
ent  Sikkim,  on  the  east  and  south  by  Jalpaiguri 
district,  and  on  the  west  by  Nepal,  and  has  an 
area  of  1,234  square  miles.  Pop.,  94,712. 

Darling,  Grace,  a  young  English  woman  who, 
when  twenty-two  years  of  age,  distinguished  her¬ 
self  by  rescuing  in  an  open  boat  and  in  the  midst 
of  a  terrible  storm  nine  shipwrecked  persons. 
She  died  in  1842,  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine. 

Darling,  a  river  in  West  Australia.  Its 
length  is  850  miles,  and  it  is  estimated  to  drain  an 
area  of  198,000  square  miles.  (2)  The  Darling 
Range,  in  AYestern  Australia,  runs  parallel  to  the 
west  coast  and  has  a  height  of  from  1,500  to  2,000 
feet.  (3)  The  Darling  district  at  the  southwest¬ 
ern  corner  of  New  South  AVales,  has  an  area  of 
50,000  square  miles.  (4)  The  Darling  Downs 
form  the  richest  pastoral  district  of  Queensland, 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  colony. 


DARLINGTON. 


323 


DAVID. 


Darlington,  or  Darnton,  a  borough  in  the 
County  of  Durham,  England.  Pop.  (1881),  35,- 
102. 

Darm'stadt,  a  town  of  Germany,  capital  of 
the  Grand-duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  is  on  the 
River  Darm,  fifteen  miles  south  of  Frankfort-on- 
tlie-Main.  Pop.,  48,153. 

Dar'nel  ( Lolium  temulentum),  a  grass  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  valuable  rye-grass, 
an  annual,  common  in  cornfields  in  Eng¬ 
land  and  many  parts  of  Europe. 

Darn'Iey,  Henry  Stewart,  Lord, 
husband  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  was 
born  .in  1546,  in  England.  lie  was 
murdered  in  1567.  He  was  the  putative 
father  of  James  I. 

Darter  (Plotus),  a  genus  of  birds  allied 
to  cormorants,  but  having  a  bill  longer 
than  the  head,  straight,  slender,  and 
sharp-pointed;  and  also  remarkable  for  ‘  alue  • 
the  great  length  of  the  neck,  which  has  obtained 
for  them  the  name  of  sliake-birds.  They  derive 


Darter  (P/otus  anhinga). 

the  name  darter  from  darting  their  bill  at  their 
prey  by  means  of  their  long,  flexible  neck.  They 
are  found  in  warm  climates. 

Dart 'moor,  a  granitic  table-land  in  the  south¬ 
western  part  of  the  County  of  Devon,  England. 

Dartmouth  is  a  municipal  borough  and  sea¬ 
port  in  Devonshire,  England.  Pop.,  5,580. 

Dartmouth  College,  chartered  in  1769,  is  at 
Hanover,  N.  H.,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important 
institutions  of  learning  fn  New  England. 

Dar'win,  Erasmus,  M.D.,  an  English  physi¬ 
cian,  natural  philosopher,  and  poet,  born  Dec.  12, 
1731,  and  died  April  18,  1802.  His  chief  works 
are  his  Botanic  Garden,  in  verse  (1781),  and  his 
Zoonomia,  or  the  Laws  of  Organic  Life  (1793). 

Darwin,  Charles,  F.R.S.,  an  English  natu¬ 
ralist,  born  Feb.  12,  1809.  His  entire  life,  so  far  as 
his  health  permitted,  was  devoted  to  scientific 
researches.  In  1859  liis  name  became  famous 
through  the  publication  of  his  work,  The  Origin 
of  Species  by  Means  of  Natural  Selection,  or  the 
Preservation  of  Favored  Races  in  the  Struggle  of 
Life,  a  work  t  hat  has  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
civilized  world,  and  the  theories  therein  adduced 
have  many  apostles  among  the  most  profound 
thinkers  of  the  age.  The  best  known  among  his 
other  works  is  The  Descent  of  Man  and  Selection  in 
Relation  to  /Sea?  (1871).  He  died  April  19,  1882. 

Das'yiire  (Dasyu'rm),  a  genus  of  carnivorous 
marsupial  quadrupeds,  nearly  allied  to  the  opos¬ 
sums.  All  the  species  are  Australian.  The  ur¬ 
sine  dasyiire,  or  ursine  opossum  (D.  Ursinus), 


Tasmanian  Devil  (Das  gurus  ursinus). 
was  abundant  in  die  north  of  Van  Diemen’s 
Land,  when  first  colonized,  and  very  destructive 
to  sheep  and  poultry.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 


badger,  of  a  stout  form,  with  a  tail  half  as  long 
as  the  body;  the  body  and  tail  covered  with  coarse 
black  hair,  marked  with  white  bands.  It  burrows 
in  the  ground.  The  spotted-tailed  dasyiire  (D. 
mncrovrus)  is  about  as  large  as  a  cat,  has  a  tail 
fully  as  long  as  the  body,  is  of  a  rich  brown  color 
with  white  spots,  and,  as  well  as  a  rather  smaller 
species  (D.  maugii),  the  wild  cat  of  Australia,  is 
destructive  to  poultry  in  Van  Diemen’s  Land. 

Date  (Lat.  datum,  given),  the  precise  time  at 
which  a  document  was  written,  or  an  event 
happened. 

Date  Palm  ( Phoenix ),  a  genus  of  palms,  the 
most  important  species  of  which  is  the  common 
date  palm,  the  palm  tree  of  Scripture  ( Ph .  dac- 
tylifera),  a  native  of  the  northern  half  of  Africa, 
the  southwest  of  Asia,  and  some  parts  of  India. 
The  stem,  which  is  straight  and  simple,  reaches 
a  height  of  30  to  60  feet,  and  bears  a  head  of  40 
to  SO  glaucous  pinnated  leaves,  of  8  to  10  feet 


Date  Palm. 

a,  bunch  of  dates  dependent  from  their  spathe;  b,  por¬ 
tion  of  leaf. 


long,  with  lanceolate,  acuminated  leaflets,  very 
much  closed  up,  and  a  number  of  branching- 
spadices,  each  of  which  on  the  female  tree  bears 
in  general  180  to  200  fruits  (dates,  dactyli).  A 
bunch  of  dates  weighs  20  or  25  pounds.  This  is 
one  of  the  most  important  and  useful  of  all  the 
palms  on  account  of  the  supply  of  food  which  it 
affords. 

Date  Plum  ( Diospyros ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Ebenaceat,  consisting  of  decidu¬ 
ous  trees,  whose  fruit  is  a  globose  berry,  natives  of 
warm  or  temperate  climates.  The  black  heart- 
wood  of  some  species  is  ebony,  and  the  hard  tim¬ 
ber  of  others  is  known  as  ironwood.  Some  are 
valued  for  their  fruit.  The  common  date  plum, 
or  pishamin,  also  called  the  European  lotus  and 
the  date  of  Trebisond  (D.  lotus ),  is  a  tree  of  20  to 
40  feet  in  height.  The  Virginian  date  plum,  or 
persimmon  (D.  mrginiana),  is  a  tree  of  30  to  60 
feet  high,  with  ovate-oblong  leaves  and  pale-yel¬ 
low  flowers,  a  native  of  the  Southern  States, 
where  one  tree  often  yields  several  bushels  of 
fruit.  The  fruit  is  reddish,  with  six  to  eight  oval 
seeds.  It  is  not  palatable  till  mellowed  by  frost, 
and  is  sweet  and  astringent.  A  kind  of  beer  or 
cider,  and  an  ardent  spirit  are  made  from  it. 

Dath'olite,  a  mineral  of  a  grayish  or  greenish 
white  color,  occurring  both  massive  and  crystal¬ 
lized  in  rhombic  prisms,  the  edges  and  angles  of 
which  are  cut  off  by  planes. 

Datisca'cese,  a  small  natural  order  of  plants, 
allied  to  Begonia cew,  and  consisting  of  herbs  and 
trees,  chiefly  natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of 
the  Northern  Hemisphere.  Datisca  cannabina,  a 
plant  resembling  hemp  in  its  general  appearance, 
a  native  of  Crete,  possesses  very  marked  tonic 
properties.  It  contains  also  an  amylaceous  sub¬ 
stance,  called  datiscin,  resembling  inulin.  It 
affords  a  yellow  dye. 

Daubenton,  Louis  Jean  Marie,  a  French 
naturalist,  born  May  29,  1716,  assisted  Buffon 
with  the  first  fifteen  volumes  of  the  Histone 
Nnturelle.  During  the  Revolution,  the  Conven¬ 
tion  appointed  him  Professor  of  Mineralogy  in 
the  Museum  of  Natural  History.  He  died  Jan. 
1, 1800. 

Daudet,  Alphonse,  French  novelist;  born  in 
1840.  liis  great  successes  in  his  longer  works  have 


been  portraits  of  known  individuals.  Fromonl 
Jeune  et  Risler  Aine,  Le  Nabob,  Les  Rois  en  Exit, 
and  Numa  Roumestan,  are  galleries  of  contempo¬ 
rary  Parisian  figures.  Many  of  his  works  have 
been  translated,  and  he  has  thousands  of  readers 
in  America. 

Dann,  Leop.  Jos.  Maria,  Graf  von,  Com¬ 
mander-in-chief  of  the  Imperial  troops  during  the 
Seven  Years’  War,  was  born  at  Vienna,  Sept.  25, 
1705.  He  fought  successfully  in  the  Austrian 
War  of  Succession  and  the  Seven  Years’  War. 
On  Nov.  25,  1759,  at  Maxen,  lie  compelled  Fink, 
the  Prussian  General,  with  11,000  men,  to  sur¬ 
render.  He  died  Feb.  5,  1766. 

Dating,  a  tract  in  the  Presidency  of  Bombay, 
contains  950  square  miles  and  70,300  inhabitants. 

Dau'phin  (Lat.  Dclphinus ),  formerly  the  title 
of  the  eldest  son  of  the  French  King,  was  origin¬ 
al  ly  that  of  the  Sovereign  Lords  of  the  Province 
of  DaupliinC. 

Da  uphill  6,  formerly  a  frontier  province  in  the 
Southwest  of  France,  now  comprises  the  depart¬ 
ments  Drome,  IsSre,  and  llautes  Alpes. 

Dauw  ( Equus  burchellii),  a  South  African 
quadruped,  which  may  be  regarded  as  inter¬ 
mediate  between  the  zebra  and  the  quagga,  and 
is  sometimes  called  the  zebra  of  the  plains,  and 
by  the  Cape  Colonists  the  bonte  quagga,  or 
striped  quagga.  In  the  language  of  the  Bechu- 
anas,  it  is  called  peetsi. 

D’Avenant,  Sir  William,  English  poet  and 
playwright,  born  in  1605  or  1606.  He  began  to 
write  for  the  stage  in  the  year  1628,  and  ten  years 
after,  on  the  death  of  Ben  Jonson,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Poet-Laureate.  He  afterward  became 
manager  of  Drury  Lane  Theater.  After  the 
Restoration,  he  was  favored  by  royal  patronage, 
and  continued  to  write  and  superintend  the  per¬ 
formance  of  plays  until  his  death,  April  7,  1668. 
—  Charles  D’Avenant,  son  of  the  preceding 
(born  1656,  died  1714),  distinguished  himself  as 
a  writer  on  political  economy  and  finance. 

Davenport,  a  city  of  Iowa,  on  the  Mississippi, 
160  miles  west  of  Chicago.  Pop.  (1885),  23,830. 

David  (Heb.  beloved),  King  of  Israel,  be¬ 
longed  to  the  tribe  of  Judah.  He  first  publicly 
signalized  himself  by  slaying  Goliath  of  Gath,  a 
gigantic  Philistine,  who  had  defied  the  armies  of 
Israel.  By  Samuel  he  was  anointed  King  during 
the  life-time  of  Saul,  who  soon  began  to  regard 
him  as  a  dangerous  enemy,  and  persecuted  him. 
A  kind  of  intermittent  war  between  the  two  was 
the  consequence,  in  which  David  was  often  re¬ 
duced  to  great  straits.  It  lasted  several  years  and 
was  only  closed  by  the  death  of  Saul,  where¬ 
upon  David  ascended  the  throne  of  Judah,  with 
the  city  of  Hebron  as  his  capital.  The  other 
tribes  elected  Ishboslieth,  a  son  of  Saul,  to  be 
their  King,  after  whose  murder  David  first  ac¬ 
quired  possession  of  the  entire  kingdom,  over 
which  he  ruled  from  1055  until  his  death  in  1015 
b.C.  His  first  undertaking  in  his  new  office  was 
a  war  against  the  Jebusites.  He  took  their  chief 
city,  Jerusalem,  and  made  it  his  residence,  as  also 
the  center  of  the  religious  worship  of  the 
Hebrews.  Subsequently,  he  subjugated  the 
Philistines,  Amalekites,  Edomites,  Moabites, 
Ammonites,  and,  after  a  long  war,  the  Syrians. 
His  kingdom  now  stretched  from  the  Euphrates 
to  the  Mediterranean,  and  from  Syria  to  the  Red 
Sea,  and  contained  a  pop.  of  5,000,000. 

David  I.  (often  called  St.  David),  King  of 
Scotland,  was  born  about  the  year  1080,  and  died 
in  1153. 

David,  Jacques  Louis,  founder  of  the  modern 
French  school  of  painting,  was  born  Aug.  30, 
1748.  As  a  member  of  the  Convention,  he  voted 
for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.;  was  a  hot  Jacobin, 
and  a  member  of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety. 
To  the  period  of  the  Revolution  belong  his 
“  Murder  of  Marat,”  "  Murder  of  Pelletier,”  and 
his  “  Oath  Taken  in  the  Tennis  Court. His 
genius  culminated  in  the  “  Rape  of  the  Sabines” 
(1799).  In  1804,  Napoleon  appointed  him  his 
First  Painter,  and  gave  him  a  number  of  commis¬ 
sions,  and  among  his  best  and  most  celebrated 
works  are  several  historic  portraits  of  the  Em¬ 
peror,  such  as  “Napoleon  Crossing  the  Alps.” 
As  one  of  the  regicides  of  Louis  XVI.,  he  was 
banished  in  1816  from  France,  and  died  in  exile 
at  Brussels,  Dec.  29,  1825. 


DAVID. 


324 


DEAF  AND  DUMB. 


David,  Pierre  Jean,  a  French  sculptor,  com¬ 
monly  called  David  d’ Angers,  was  horn  March 
12,  1789.  In  1811,  his  “  Death  of  Epaminondas” 
obtained  the  first  prize  for  sculpture  given  by  the 
Academy  of  Arts.  In  1826  he  was  named  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Institute,  and  appointed  a  professor  in 
the  School  of  the  Fine  Arts.  lie  died  Jan.  5. 
1856. 

David  (or  Dewei)  St.,  the  patron  saint  of 
Wales,  was  born  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  or  be¬ 
ginning  of  the  sixth  century. 

Daviess,  Joseph  Hamilton,  an  eccentric  law¬ 
yer,  born  in  Virginia  in  1774.  lie  was  made 
United  States  Attorney  for  the  District  of  Ken¬ 
tucky.  As  such  he  prosecuted  Burr  for  treason. 
Daviess  was  killed  at  the  Battle  of  Tippecanoe, 
Nov.  7,  1811.  Jo  Daviess  county,  Illinois,  is 
named  after  him. 

Davis,  David,  born  in  Cecil  county,  Maryland, 
March  9, 1815.  In  1862  he  became  Associate  Jus¬ 
tice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  and  in 
1877  resigned  to  become  United  States  Senator 
from  Illinois.  He  became  Acting  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States  when  Mr.  Arthur  assumed 
the  Presidency,  retired  March  4,  1883,  and  died 
June  26,  1886. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  born  in  Kentucky,  June  3, 
1808.  He  was  educated  at  West  Point,  and 
served  several  years  in  the  regular  army.  He 
acquired  distinction  in  the  Mexican  War,  rising  to 
the  rank  of  Brigadier-General  of  Volunteers. 
When  Pierce  was  elected  President  in  1853,  Davis 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  War.  When  Buchanan 
became  President,  he  left  the  Cabinet,  but  was 
returned  to  the  Senate  by  the  Legislature  of  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  which  position  he  retained  until  the  seces¬ 
sion  of  his  State.  On  Feb.  18,  1861,  Davis  was 
chosen  President  of  the  Confederate  States,  and 
reelected  for  six  years  in  1862  After  the  fall  of 
Richmond,  Davis  was  captured  when  endeavoring 
to  escape  in  1865,  and  was  kept  a  prisoner  in  Fort¬ 
ress  Monroe  for  two  years.  He  was  released  on 
bail  in  1867,  and  finally  set  at  liberty  by  the 
general  amnesty  of  Dec.  25,  1868. 

Davis,  John,  a  navigator,  is  distinguished  for 
having,  between  1585  and  1588,  undertaken  three 
voyages  to  the  northern  seas  in  search  of  a  north¬ 
west  passage.  In  the  first  voyage  he  sailed  as  far 
north  as  latitude  73°,  and  discovered  the  strait 
which  bears  his  name.  He  was  killed  on  the  coast 
of  Malacca  in  1605. 

Da'vis’  Strait,  so  called  from  the  navigator 
who  discovered  it,  forms  the  southern  part  of 
that  inlet  of  the  Atlantic  which  washes  the 
western  coast  of  Greenland.  It  thus  connects 
Baffin’s  Bay,  and  also,  in  some  sense,  Hudson’s 
Strait,  with  the  open  ocean.  At  its  narrowest 
point  it  measures  160  miles  across. 

Davis,  Jefferson  C.,  born  in  Indiana,  March 
2,  1828,  fought  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  one 
of  the  garrison  of  Fort  Sumter  when  it  was  fired 
upon.  In  1862  he  killed  General  Nelson  in  a  hotel 
at  Louisville,  but  was  held  blameless  and  restored 
to  duty.  He  commanded  a  division  at  Cliicka- 
mauga,  and  marched  with  Sherman  to  the  sea. 
He  commanded  the  troops  which  defeated  the 
Modocs  in  1873. 

Davis,  Nathan  Smith,  born  in  New  York 
State,  Jan.  9,  1817,  removed  to  Illinois,  and  prac¬ 
ticed  medicine  in  Chicago.  He  was  twice  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  American  Medical  Association,  and 
founded  the  Chicago  Medical  College.  Doctor 
Davis  has  written  extensively  on  medical  science. 

Dav'its  are  pieces  of  timber  or  iron  which 
project,  or  may  be  made  to  project,  over  a  ves¬ 
sel’s  quarter  or  stern,  and  are  used  as  a  kind  of 
crane  to  hoist,  suspend,  or  lower  a  boat. 

Davitt,  Michael,  a  member  of  the  Irish 
National  Party,  was  born  in  County  Mayo,  Ire¬ 
land,  in  1846.  He  was  convicted  of  treason-fel¬ 
ony  in  1870  and  sentenced  to  fifteen  years  penal 
servitude,  but  was  released  on  ticket-of -leave  in 
1877.  In  1879  he  took  part  in  organizing  the 
Land  League,  in  1880  distributed  the  Land 
League  relief  fund,  and  in  1881  was  again  con¬ 
signed  to  prison  on  his  old  sentence.  While  in 
prison  he  was  elected  member  of  Parliament  for 
Meath,  but  was  rejected  by  the  House. 

Davout  (not  Davoust,  as  commonly  written), 
Louis  Nicolas,  a  French  Marshal,  was  born 
May  10,  1770.  During  the  Revolutionary  War, 
he  rose  to  the  rank  of  General.  He  accompanied 


Bonaparte  to  the  East,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  both  in  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt.  On 
his  return  to  France,  he  was  named  General  of 
Division  in  1800,  Commauder-in-Chief  of  the  Con¬ 
sular  Grenadier  Guards  in  1801,  and  Marshal  of 
the  Empire  in  1804.  In  the  campaigns  of  1805, 
1806,  and  1807,  he  acted  a  brilliant  part  in  the 
victories,  obtained  by  the  French  at  Ulm,  Auster- 
Iitz,  Jena,  Auerstadt,  Eylau,  and  Friedland.  In 
reward  of  his  bravery,  Bonaparte  created  him 
Duke  of  Auerstadt  (July  2,  1808).  In  the  Rus¬ 
sian  campaign  of  1812,  lie  gathered  fresh  laurels 
on  the  fields  of  Mohilow  and  Borodino.  On  the 
return  of  Bonaparte  from  Elba,  Davout  was  ap¬ 
pointed  War  Minister.  After  the  Battle  of 
Waterloo,  he  received  the  command  of  the  relics 
of  the  French  army  under  the  walls  of  Paris. 
He  died  June  1,  1823. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  chemist,  born  Dec.  17, 
1778.  *  He  discovered  the  singular  exhilarating 
effect  of  nitrous  oxide  when  breathed.  The  dis¬ 
coveries  on  which  Davy’s  fame  as  a  chemist 
chiefly  rests,  were  developed  in  1806,  in  his  lect¬ 
ure,  On  Some  Chemical  Agencies  of  Electricity . 
This  essay  obtained  the  prize  of  the  French  In¬ 
stitute.  Following  out  his  principle,  he  was  led 
to  the  discovery,  that  the  alkalies  and  earths  are 
compound  substances,  formed  by  oxygen  united 
with  metallic  bases.  It  was  potash  that  he  first 
succeeded  in  decomposing,  on  Oct.  8,  1807.  He 
next  discovered  the  new  metals — sodium,  barium, 
strontium,  calcium,  and  magnesium.  In  1815, 
he  entered  on  the  investigation  of  the  na'ure  of 
tire-damp,  which  is  the  cause  of  explosions  in 
coal  mines.  This  resulted  in  the  invention  of 
the  safety-lamp,  one  of  the  most  valuable  pres¬ 
ents  ever  made  by  science  to  humanity.  On  the 
death  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks  in  1820,  Sir  Humphry 
Davy  was  elected  President  of  the  Royal  Society. 
He  (lied  May  29,  1829. 

DawalUa  ( Hypophthalmus  dawalla),  a  fish  of 
the  family  Siluridce,  found  in  the  rivers  of 
Guiana.  It  is  sometimes  two  and  one-half  feet  long 
and  has  a  snout  like  that  of  a  pike,  but  the 
mouth  is  furnished  with  minute  teeth. 

Dawk,  or  Dak,  a  method  of  traveling  in  India 
which  consists  of  posting  by  palanquin  from 
station  to  station,  or  for  any  distance. 

Day  (probably  allied  to  the  Lat.  dies,  day, 
divum,  the  sky,  from  the  root  div,  to  shine)  origi¬ 
nally  meant  the  apace  of  time  during  which  it  is 
light,  in  opposition  to  the  space  of  darkness  or 
night;  it  now  more  usually  denotes  a  complete 
alternation  of  light  and  darkness. 

Day-lily  ( Hemerocallis ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Liliacece,  having  a  perianth  with 


bell-sliaped  limb,  and  sub-cylindrical  tube,  and 
globose  seeds  with  soft  testa. 

Day 'ton,  a  city  of  Ohio,  stands  at  the  conflu¬ 
ence  of  the  Miami  and  the  Mad  river  in  latitude 
39°  44'  N.,  and  longitude  84°  11'  W.  Pop. 
(1885),  38,688.  Dayton  is  noted  for  the  Soldier’s 
Home,  which  provides  for  2,500  veterans  of  the 
Civil  War. 

Dayton,  William  Lewis,  born  in  New  Jersey, 
Feb.  17,  1807,  died  Dec.  1,  1864.  From  1842  to 


1851  he  served  in  the  United  States  Senate,  in 
1856  he  was  the  Republican  nominee  for  Vice- 
President,  and  from  1861  until  his  death  was 
Minister  to  Paris. 

Dea'cons,  literally  servants,  meant,  in  apos¬ 
tolic  times,  those  officers  of  a  congregation  or 
church  that  had  the  charge  of  collecting  and  dis¬ 
tributing  the  alms,  and  of  taking  care  of  the  poor 
and  the  sick.  In  Protestant  churches,  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  deacons  varies.  Among  Presbyterians, 
their  place  is  usually  supplied  by  the  elders;  but 
in  some  Presbyterian  churches  ( e .  g. ,  the  Free 
Church  of  Scotland),  the  offices  of  elder  and 
deacon  are  kept  distinct.  In  the  Episcopal  Church 
a  deacon  is  a  clergyman,  receiving  a  special  form 
of  ordination,  but  differing  in  effect  from  a  regu¬ 
lar  priest  only  in  not  being  allowed  to  consecrate 
the  elements  at  the  communion,  or  pronounce 
the  absolution  or  benediction.  For  this,  as  wTell 
as  for  holding  any  benefice  or  church  preferment, 
priest’s  orders  are  necessary. — Dea'conesses 
ancillce,  ministree,  viduce,  virgines,  episcopal,  pres- 
byterai)  female  ministers  or  servants  of  the  church 
or  Christian  society  in  the  time  of  the  apostles 
(Rom.  xvi,  1).  They  cooperated  with  the  deacons, 
showed  the  women  their  place  in  the  church  as¬ 
semblies,  assisted  at  the  baptism  of  persons  of 
their  own  sex,  instructed  those  who  were  about  to 
be  baptized  as  to  the  answers  they  should  give  to 
the  baptismal  questions,  arranged  the  a  gap  a.  or 
love-feasts,  and  took  care  of  the  sick. 

Dead,  in  Seafaring  Language,  is  frequently 
employed  as  part  of  a  designation  or  phrase  hav¬ 
ing,  in  general,  a  meaning  somewhat  opposite  to 
that  of  active,  effective,  or  real.  The  chief  of 
such  phrases  are  the  following  :  Dead  eyes  are 
circular,  flattisli  wooden  blocks,  which,  with 
other  apparatus,  form  a  purchase  or  tackle  for 
extending  the  standing  rigging  and  other  pur¬ 
poses.  Dead  flat  is  the  name  for  one  of  the  mid¬ 
ship-timbers.  Dead  lights  are  strong  wooden 
shutters  to  close  cabin  windows;  on  the  approach 
of  a  storm,  it  is  customary  to  take  out  the  glass 
windows,  as  being  too  fragile,  and  replace  them 
with  dead  lights.  Dead  rising  is  a  name  for  that 
part  of  a  ship’s  bottom  where  the  floor-timbers 
terminate,  and  the  lower  futtocks  or  foot-hooks 
begin.  Dead  ropes  are  such  as  do  not  run  in 
blocks.  Dead  wood  consists  of  blocks  of  timber 
laid  upon  the  keel,  especially  fore  and  aft;  it  is 
piled  up,  and  fastened  to  the  keel  with  iron  spike- 
nails;  the  chief  object  is  to  give  solidity  and 
strength  to  the  ends  of  the  ship.  To  these  may 
be  added  dead  wind,  a  seaman’s  designation  for 
a  wind  blowing  directly  against  a  ship’s  course, 
and  dead  calm,  a  time  when  there  is  no  wind. 

Dea(l-reck 'oiling,  a  term  in  Navigation,  sig¬ 
nifying  the  calculation  of  a  ship’s  place  at  sea, 
made  independently  of  celestial  observations. 
The  chief  elements  from  which  the  reckoning  is 
made  are:  The  point  of  departure — i.  e.,  the  lati¬ 
tude  and  longitude  sailed  from,  or  last  deter¬ 
mined;  the  course  or  direction  sailed  in  (ascer¬ 
tained  by  the  compass);  the  rate  of  sailing — 
measured  from  time  to  time  by  the  log;  and  the 
time  elapsed. 

Dead  Sea  (ancient  Lacus  asphaltites),  called  by 
the  Arabs  Bahr  Loot,  or  Sea  of  Lot,  is  situated 
in  the  southeast  of  Palestine,  in  latitude  31Q  10' — 
30°  47'  N.,  and  occupies  a  central  position  be¬ 
tween  longitude  35°  and  36°  E.  It  is  about  forty 
miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  nine  miles. 
The  depth  varies,  the  greatest  being  220  fathoms. 

Deaf  and  Dumb.  Persons  who  are  born  deaf, 
or  who  lose  their  hearing  before  they  learn  to 
speak,  are  dumb  also;  hence  the  compound  term 
deaf-and-dumb.  But  the  primary  defect  is  deaf¬ 
ness;  dumbness  is  only  the  consequence  of  it. 
Children  ordinarily  hear  sounds,  and  then  learn 
to  imitate  them;  that  is,  they  learn  to  repeat  what 
they  hear  other  persons  say.  It  is  thus  that  every 
one  of  us  has  learned  to  speak.  But  the  deaf 
child  hears  nothing;  can  not  therefore  imitate, 
and  remains  dumb.  Persons  who  lose  their  hear¬ 
ing  later  in  life  are  not  to  be  classed  among  the 
deaf  and  dumb.  Having  learned  to  speak  before 
their  hearing  was  lost,  they  can  readily  com¬ 
municate  with  others,  though  deaf  themselves. 
A  class  thus  cut  off  from  all  communication 
through  the  ear,  can  only  be  addressed  through 
the  eye;  and  the  means  employed  in  the  instruc¬ 
tion  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  are:  1.  The  visible 


DEAF  AND  DUMB. 


325 


DEBACLE. 


language  of  pictures,  and  of  signs  and  gestures; 
2.  The  finger-alphabet  (or  dactylology)  and 


One-handed  Alphabet. 


■writing,  which  make  them  acquainted  with  our 
own  written  language;  and,  in  some  cases,  3. 
Articulation,  and  reading  on  the  lips,  which  in¬ 
troduce  them  to  the  use  of  spoken  language. 


Two-handed  Alphabet. 


The  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  must  be 
twofold — you  must  awaken  and  inform  their 
minds  by  giving  them  ideas  and  knowledge,  and 
you  must  cultivate  them  by  means  of  language. 
The  use  of  signs  will  give  them  a  knowledge  of 
things;  but  to  this  must  be  added  a  knowledge  of 
words.  The  course  of  instruction  is  very  much 
the  same  as  in  all  the  public  schools,  but  a  vigor¬ 
ous  effort  is  now  being  made,  by  the  advocates 
of  what  is  called  the  “German  system,”  to  teach 
by  oral  instruction  only.  If  they  can  produce, 
on  an  extensive  scale,  the  results  which  have  been 
obtained  in  some  special  and  exceptional  cases, 
they  will  assuredly  deserve  all  the  success  they 
hope  for,  and  merit  the  highest  commendation. 


Deaf  and  Dumb  (in  Law).  From  the  imper¬ 
fect  methods  formerly  in  use  for  the  education  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  they  were  almost  everywhere 
held  to  be  legally  in  the  same  position  as  idiots 
and  madmen.  The  Roman  law  held  them  to  be 
incapable  of  consent,  and  consequently  unable  to 
enter  into  a  legal  obligation  or  contract. 

Deafness  may  be  complete  or  partial,  may 
affect  both  ears  or  only  one,  may  date  from  birth, 
be  permanent  or  only  temporary,  and  is  often  one 
of  the  distressing  symptoms  of  advancing  age. 
The  causes  of  deafness  are  numerous.  Exposure 
to  cold  affects  the  auditory  nerve,  and  gouty 
persons,  or  those  who  are  suffering  from  the 
poisons  of  typhus  fever,  scarlatina,  measles, 
mumps,  etc.,  frequently  become  deaf.  Some 
medicines,  as  quinine,  produce  nervous  deafness; 
so  do  debility  and  mental  excitement;  but  all 
these  causes  seem  to  act  in  one  way — viz,,  to  in¬ 
crease  the  flow  of  blood  to  the  ear,  and  should  be 
treated  accordingly.  The  solid  conductors  of 
sound  to  the  auditory  nerve  may  be  injured  or 
diseased,  so  that  the  vibrations  are  interrupted. 
There  are  numerous  “  cures  for  deafness  ”  adver¬ 
tised  from  time  to  time;  some  are  harmless  if 
useless,  others  are  useless,  but  very  dangerous, 
owing  to  the  readiness  with  which  inflammation 
may  be  set  up,  and  the  liability  of  the  latter  to 
extend  to  the  brain  or  its  membranes.  The  dis¬ 
eases  which  affect  the  ear  are  the  same  as  affect 
other  organs;  and  require  to  be  treated  upon  the 
same  principles.  It  is  advisable,  as  soon  as  the 
first  symptoms  of  approaching  deafness  are  felt, 
to  apply  to  one  of  the  regularly  qualified  practi¬ 
tioners  who  devote  themselves  entirely  to  the  sub¬ 
ject,  and  to  have  nothing  to  do  with  these  so- 
called  cures,  which  benefit  only  the  venders. 

Deak,  Franz,  Hungarian  politician,  born  in 
1803;  died  in  1876. 

Deals,  the  English  trade-name  for  fir-boards 
exceeding  6  feet  in  length  and  7  inches  in  width. 
They  are  also  occasionally  called  “  planks,” 
though  this  term  is  now  somewhat  loosely 
applied.  Deals  are  usually  3  inches  thick,  and 
when  sawed  into  thinner  pieces,  these  are  called 
“boards.” 

Dean,  in  the  English  and  Catholic  Churches, 
is  secretary  to  the  bishop,  and  presides  over  the 
chapter. 

Dearborn,  Henry,  born  in  New  Hampshire 
in  March,  1751;  died  June  6,  1829.  He  marched 
to  Cambridge  at  the  head  of  sixty  volunteers  on 
hearing  of  the  fight  at  Lexington,  was  present  at 
Bunker  Hill,  and  captured  at  Quebec.  Later,  he 
took  part  in  the  Battles  of  Monmouth,  Yorktown, 
and  Saratoga;  was  twice  member  of  Congress, 
and  for  eight  years  Secretary  of  War  under  Jef¬ 
ferson.  During  the  War  of  1812  he  became 
senior  Major-General,  with  command  of  the 
Nort  hern  Department,  and  captured  Fort  George 
and  York.  He  was  appointed  Minister  to  Portu¬ 
gal  in  1822.  Fort  Dearborn,  at  the  entrance  to 
the  Chicago  river,  was  named  in  his  honor,  as 
were  Dearborn  street  and  Dearborn  park,  Chicago. 

Death.  Throughout  the  whole  body  there  is  a 
continuous  removal  of  effete  or  worn-out  tissues, 
and  a  corresponding  deposition  of  new  matter. 
Even  the  bones  and  teeth  (to  a  less  extent)  are 
perpetually  being  thus  renewed.  Every  blow  we 
strike,  every  thought  we  think,  is  accompanied 
by  the  death  and  disintegration  of  a  certain 
amount  of  muscular  or  nervous  tissues.  Every 
physical  or  mental  action  consumes  au  amount 
of  organized  st  ructure.  This  is  termed  molecular 
death,  and,  within  its  proper  limits,  is  obviously 
essential  to  the  life  and  well-being  of  the  organ¬ 
ism.  The  cessation  of  the  circulation  and  respi¬ 
ration  may  be  regarded  as  constituting  somatic 
death,  or  the  death  of  the  entire  organism,  which 
must  obviously  be  shortly  followed  by  the  mole¬ 
cular  death  of  every  portion  of  the  body.  Death 
occurs  either  from  the  natural  decay  of  the  organ¬ 
ism,  as  in  old  age,  or  (and  much  more  frequently) 
from  some  of  those  derangements  or  lesions  of 
the  vital  organs  which  occur  in  the  course  of  the 
diseases  and  injuries  to  which  we  are  liable. 
These  derangements  of  the  vital  organs  may  occa¬ 
sion  various  modes  of  dying  Through  the  im¬ 
paired  function  of  the  heart,  the  brain,  or  the  lungs, 
the  tendency  to  death  is  expressed.  When  a  person 
loses  blood  to  such  an  extent  that  a  state  of  fainting 
I  or  syncope  continues,  and  the  heart’s  action  ceases, 


the  cause  of  death  here  is,  not  that  the  heart  is 
unable  to  contract,  but  because  its  natural  stimu¬ 
lus,  the  blood,  does  not  enter  it  in  sufficient  quan¬ 
tity  to  excite  contraction.  This  is  termed  death 
by  ancemia.  In  other  cases,  the  stimulus  from 
blood  may  be  sufficient,  but  the  heart  may  have 
lost  its  contractile  power.  Such  a  mode  of  death 
is  said  to  be  by  asthenia  (Gr.  want  of  power). 
Death  may  likewise  be  produced  by  suspension 
of  the  functions  of  respiration,  either  from  exter¬ 
nal  mechanical  obstruction  or  when  the  muscles 
of  respiration  are  paralyzed.  The  first  of  these 
modes  is  known  as  suffocation,  or  apncea,  and  we 
have  examples  of  it  in  drowning,  strangulation, 
etc.  Forcible  pressure  upon  the  chest  will  cause 
death  in  a  few  minutes,  if  movement  of  the  lungs 
is  prevented.  Tetanus  and  the  poison  of  strych¬ 
nine  prove  fatal  by  the  strong  contractile  power 
exerted  on  the  muscles  of  respiration.  Death  by 
coma,  or  beginning  at  the  brain,  is  caused  by 
obstruction  to  the  circulation  through  that  organ 
by  pressure;  by  clots  of  blood  within  the  vessels; 
by  various  narcotic  poisons,  such  as  opium,  alco¬ 
hol  in  excessive  quantity,  carbonic  acid,  etc.  The 
signs  of  approaching  death  require  a  brief  notice. 
The  mind  may  be  affected  in  various  ways,  there 
may  be  dullness  of  the  senses,  vacancy  of  the 
intellect,  and  extinction  of  the  sentiments,  as  in 
natural  death  from  old  age;  or  there  may  be  a 
peculiar  delirium,  closely  resembling  dreaming, 
which  usually  is  of  a  pleasing  and  cheerful  char¬ 
acter.  The  discrimination  of  true  from  apparent 
death  is  obviously  not  a  matter  of  mere  physiolog¬ 
ical  interest.  A  French  author  of  the  last  cen¬ 
tury,  Bruhier,  in  a  work  On  the  Danger  of  Pre¬ 
mature  Interment,  collected  54  cases  of  persons 
buried  alive,  4  of  persons  dissected  while  still 
living,  53  of  persons  who  recovered  without 
assistance  after  they  were  laid  in  their  coffins, 
and  72  falsely  considered  dead. 

Death's  Head  Moth  (Acker  mitia  atropos),  a 
species  of  hawk-moth,  or  lepidopterous  insect  of 
the  family  Spkinyidce,  very-  widely  distributed 
over  the  world,  being  found  in  Africa,  the  Mau¬ 
ritius,  the  East  Indies,  and  also  in  Europe.  It 
measures  about  five  inches  from  tip  to  tip  of  the 


Death's  Head  Moth  and  Caterpillar. 


extended  wings;  is  of  a  dark  color,  the  body 
yellow  with  dark  markings,  the  thorax  with  pale 
markings  which  have  some  resemblance  to  a  skull, 
and  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 

Death'-watch,  a  ticking  sound  produced  by 
certain  insects,  inmates  of  human  dwellings,  and 
which,  being  most  readily  heard  in  that  stillness 
which  attends  times  of  sickness  and  anxiety,  has 
become  associated  with  superstitious  nolions  and 
fears,  being  regarded  as  indicative  of  an  ap¬ 
proaching  death  in  a  house.  The  term  death- 
watch  is  also  applied  to  the  guard  placed  over 
criminals  who  have  been  condemned  to  death  and 
who  await  execution  of  their  sentences  in  jails. 

Debacle,  a  French  word,  meaning  the  break¬ 
ing  up  of  the  ice  in  a  harbor  or  river,  but  intro¬ 
duced  into  English  by  geologists  to  express  any 
sudden  flood  of  water,  which  bears  before  it  op¬ 
posing  obstacles,  and  leaves  its  path  marked  with 
confused  and  scattered  fragments  of  rocks,  stone, 
and  other  debris. 


DEBATE. 


326 


DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 


Debate'  is  an  exchange  of  opinions,  differing 
from  conversation  in  this,  that  the  speakers  suc¬ 
ceed  one  another  according  to  certain  regulations, 
and  that  the  subject  is  treated  formally,  and  in 
general  with  a  view  to  coming  to  some  practical 
conclusion.  The  term  ,  is  usually  understood  of 
the  discussions  of  political  representative  bodies. 

Deb 'or ah  (Heb.  signifies  a  bee),  a  Hebrew 
prophetess,  the  wife  of  Lapidoth. 

Debouch 'ing,  in  Military  Tactics  is  the  march¬ 
ing  out  of  a  body  of  troops  from  a  wood,  defile, 
or  other  confined  spot,  into  open  ground. 

Debt,  that  which  one  person  owes  to  another, 
or  the  duty  which,  as  responsible  beings,  all  owe 
toward  God. 

Debt,  National,  is  the  amount  which  any 
State  admits  itself  to  owe  to  those  who  may  have 
advanced  money  for  the  use  of  the  Government 
on  occasions  when  its  expenditure  lias  exceeded 
its  ordinary  income.  The  national  debt  of  Eng¬ 
land  amounts  in  round  numbers  to  $3,815,000,000. 
It  is  now  exceeded  by  that  of  France.  The  debt  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Italy  is  very  large  in  proportion 
to  its  resources,  amounting  to  $1,950,000,000  at 
the  end  of  1878.  That  of  "the  Austrian  Empire, 
exclusive  of  the  special  debt  of  Hungary, 
amounted  on  July  1,  1881,  to  $1,580,000,000. 
The  separate  debt  of  Hungary  amounted  to  $215,- 
000,000.  Spain,  the  most  heavily  indebted  country 
in  Europe,  in  proportion  to  its  resources,  had  in 
1881  a  debt  of  about  $2,550,000,000,  an  increase 
of  $455,000,000  since  1875.  Turkey  is  believed 
to  have  a  debt  of  about  $1,300,000,000,  of  which 
$920,000,000  consist  of  foreign  loans.  The  debt 
of  Russia  is  estimated  at  $2, 125,000,000.  Holland 
had  not  long  since  a  debt  of  $500,000,000;  it  has 
been  reduced  from  year  to  year,  and  now  amounts 
to  $395,000,000.  The  Belgian  debt  is  $305,000,- 
000.  The  debt  of  Prussia  in  1880  was  close  on 
$500,000,000  ;  that  of  the  annexed  states,  which  it 
was  arranged  on  the  enlargement  of  Prussia 
should  bear  only  the  burden  of  the  obligations 
incurred  on  their  behalf,  $35,000,000.  At  the 
end  of  1871  the  German  Empire  had  a  debt  of 
$175,000,000,  incurred  for  extraordinary  expendi¬ 
ture  on  the  army  and  navy,  but  in  1881  the  total 
debt  was  over  $415,000,000.  The  debt  of  the 
United  States  of  America  in  1862  was  $535,000,- 
000.  In  1866,  at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  it  had 
mounted  up  to  $2,905,000,000.  A  constantly  in¬ 
creasing  surplus  of  revenue  has  characterized  the 
financial  condition  of  the  United  States,  and  to¬ 
day  it  occupies  the  peculiar  position  of  being  too 
rich  to  pay  off  its  indebtedness.  In  other  words, 
holders  of  United  States  bonds,  especially  those 
having  a  number  of  years  to  run,  will  not  part 
with  them  except  at  an  exorbitant  premium,  and 
although  the  United  States  Treasury  is  full  of 
money  its  creditors  will  not  call  for  payment. 
The  interest  guaranteed  on  its  bonds  is  more  (not 
to  speak  of  the  absolute  certainty  of  the  invest¬ 
ment)  than  could  be  obtained  elsewhere,  so  that 
the  United  States  will  have  to  stay  nominally  in 
debt  until  the  time  when  the  compulsory  redemp¬ 
tion  of  the  bonds  as  provided  for  arrives. 

The  Banker’s  Monthly  (Rand,  McNally  A  Co., 
Chicago),  gives  the  total  debt  of  the  United 
States  on  Feb.  1,  1889,  as  follows  : 

Total  Debt  Feb.  1, 18S9 . St, 635, 203, 059 

Created  under  the  following  heads : 

WAR  DEBT  BEARING  INTEREST. 

Bonds  at  4^  per  cent.  Loan  of  1391 .  .$173  238,100 

Bonds  at  4  per  cent.  Loan  of  1907 _  681,266,230 

Navy  pension  fund .  14,000.000 

Accrued  interest . .  6,058,492 

Total  interest  debt . $874,562,822 

NOT  BEARING  INTEREST. 

Legal-tender  notes . $346,737,824 

Fractional  currency .  6,918,129 

Principal  due,  not  claimed .  2,226,742 

- $355,882,695 

Total  war  debt .  $1,230,445,517 

OTHER  OBLIGATIONS. 

Gold  coin  certificates  . $130,986,592 

Silver  coin  certificates .  245,337,438 

Legal-tender  currency  certificates  ...  13,915,000 

- $390,239,030 

Pacific  Railway  bonds  assumed .  .  64,623,512 

Total  debt  as  above .  $1,685,308,059 

Available  lor  reduction  of  War  debt : 

Reserve  for  legal-tenders . $100,000,000 

Surplus,  net .  58.556,883 

Debut'  [debut),  ;i  French  word,  signifies  specially 


the  first  appearance  of  an  actor  or  actress  on  the 
stage. 

Dec'acliord,  a  kind  of  guitar  with  ten  strings. 

Deca'dence  (Fr.),  a  term  used  to  indicate  de¬ 
terioration,  especially  in  artistic  creations. 

Dec 'agon  is  a  plane  geometrical  figure  of  ten 
sides.  When  the  sides  are  equal,  the  figure  is 
called  a  regular  decagon. 

Decaisnea,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Lardizabalacece,  nearly  allied  to  Slauntouia. 
It  contains  only  one  known  species. 

Dec'alogue  (Gr.  Dekalogos,  ten  discourses)  is 
the  term  usually  applied  by  the  Greek  Fathers  to 
the  law  of  the  two  “tables  of  testimony”  given 
by  God  to  Moses  on  Mount  Sinai. 

’  Decandolle,  Augustin  Pyrame,  one  of  the 
most  eminent  of  botanists,  was  born  at  Geneva, 
Feb.  4,  1778,  and  died  in  1841. 

Decatur,  a  village  in  DeKalb  county,  Georgia, 
a  few  miles  from  which  the  Battle  of  Stone  Mount¬ 
ain  was  fought  July  20,  1864,  between  General 
Thomas,  with  a  portion  of  Sherman’s  army,  and 
General  Hood,  in  command  of  the  Confederate 
forces.  The  latter  were  defeated  with  heavy  loss. 
Decatur  is  also  the  name  of  the  capital  of  Macon 
county,  Illinois.  Pop.,  18,000. 

Decatur,  Stephen,  born  in  Rhode  Island, 
1751,  became  Captain  in  the  navy  and  commanded 
a  squadron  in  the  West  Indies,  and  died  Nov. 
14,  1808. — Stephen  Decatur,  Jr.,  son  of  the 
preceding,  born  in  Maryland,  Jan.  5,  1779, 
entered  the  navy  in  1797,  bore  a  distinguished 
part  in  the  attack  on  Tripoli  in  1804,  and  on  Oct. 
5,  1812,  with  the  frigate  United  Slates,  captured 
the  British  frigate  Macedonian,  of  forty-nine  guns. 
In  January  1S15,  he  had  a  disastrous  fight  with  a 
British  squadron,  and  a  few  months  later  cap¬ 
tured  and  destroyed  a  number  of  Algerian  vessels 
and  forced  the  Dey  of  Algiers  to  make  peace. 
Decatur  was  killed  in  a  duel  with  Commodore 
Barron,  March  22,  1820. 

Dec'cau  '(Sans.  Daksliina,  the  south),  a  term 
applied  sometimes  to  the  whole  peninsula  of 
Hindustan. 

Decern 'her,  the  last  month  of  the  year.  In  the 
old  Roman  calendar,  before  the  time  of  J  ulius 
Caesar,  the  year  began  with  March,  and  that  which 
is  now  the  twelfth,  was  then  the  tenth  month; 
hence  the  name  ( decern ,  ten). 

Decern 'viri.  The  most  famous  body  known 
under  this  title  were  the  ten  persons  who  were 
appointed  as  a  sort  of  legislative  committee,  to 
draw  up  a  code  of  laws  at  Rome. 

Deeid'uous  Trees  (Lat.  de,  and  carlo,  falling 
off)  are  those  which  annually  lose  and  renew  their 
leaves. 

Dec'imal  Fractions  (Lat.  decern,  ten),  are  such 
as  have  for  their  denominator  any  of  the  numbers 
10,  100,  1,000,  etc. — i.  e.,  any  power  of  10.  Only" 
the  numerator  of  such  fractions  is  written,  the 
denominator  being  always  some  power  of  10,  this 
being  determined  by  the  position  of  the  decimal 
point  (.). 

Decimal  Sys'tem.  This  name  is  applied  to 
any  system  of  weights,  measures,  money,  etc.,  in 
which  the  standard  unit  is  divided  into  tenths, 
hundredths,  etc.,  for  the  denominations  below  it, 
and  multiplied  by  10,  100,  etc.,  for  those  above  it. 

Decima'tion,  an  ancient  form  of  military  pun¬ 
ishment.  When  a  considerable  body  of  troops 
committed  some  grave  military  offense,  which 
would  be  punished  with  death  if  committed  by 
an  individual,  the  punishment  was  awarded  to 
one-tenth  of  them  by  lot,  instead  of  to  the  whole 
number,  in  order  that  the  army  might  not  be  too 
much  weakened. 

De'cimi,  in  Music,  is  an  interval  of  ten  diatonic 
degrees,  as  from  C  to  E,  or  third  above  the  octave, 
as  which  it  is  always  treated  in  harmony. 

Deck,  is  a  nearly  flat  planked  covering  to  a 
ship,  forming  a  flooring  to  the  persons  above  it, 
and  a  shelter  to  those  below  it.  There  may  be 
several  such  in  a  ship,  one  under  another.  Where 
there  are  several  decks  in  the  ship,  they  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  different  names.  Thus,  the  upper 
or  spar  deck,  open  to  the  sky,  stretches  from  stem 
to  bow,  and  is  conventionally  divided  into  quarter¬ 
deck,  waist,  and  forecastle.  The  main  or  gun 
deck  is  immediately  below  the  upper  deck.  The 
middle  deck  is  next  under  the  main  deck,  and  is 
rather  thicker  and  stronger.  The  lower  deck  is 
in  the  broadest  part  of  the  ship,  and  is  made  very 


strong,  to  receive  the  heaviest  guns.  The  orlop- 
deck  is  the  lowest  of  all,  and  is  often  only  tem¬ 
porary;  it  is  chiefly  occupied  as  store-rooms.  A 
flush  deck  is  a  continued  floor  from  stem  to  stern 
upon  one  range,  without  any  break. 

Declama'tion  (Lat.  declamare,  to  speak  loudly), 
is  the  art  of  speaking  according  to  rules,  whereby 
the  sense  of  the  words,  as  well  as  the  feeling  and 
sentiment,  is  naturally  and  characteristically  rep¬ 
resented. 

Declaration  of  Independence.  On  July  4, 

1776,  the  Continental  Congress,  then  in  session  in 
the  State  House  at  Philadelphia,  which  is  now 
known  as  Independence  Hall,  adopted  the  Decla¬ 
ration  of  Independence  as  drafted  by  Thomas 
Jefferson.  It  is  as  follows: 

When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  neces¬ 
sary  for  one  people  to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have 
connected  them  with  another,  and  to  assume,  among  the 
powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which 
the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature’s  God  entitle  them,  a  decent 
respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should 
declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident;  that  all  men  are 
created  equal,  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  inalienable  rights;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty, 
and  the  pursuit  of  happiness.  That  to  secure  these  rights, 
governments  are  instituted  among  men,  deriving  their  just 
powers  from  the  consent  of  the  governed;  that  whenever 
any  form  of  government  becomes  destructive  of  these  ends, 
it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  in¬ 
stitute  anew  government,  laying  its  foundation  on  such  prin¬ 
ciples,  and  organizing  its  powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them 
shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and  happiness. 
Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate,  that  governments  long  estab¬ 
lished  should  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient  causes; 
and  accordingly  all  experience  hath  shown,  that  mankind  are 
more  disposed  to  suffer,  while  evils  are  sufferable,  than  to 
right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are 
accustomed.  But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpations, 
pursuing  invariably  the  same  object,  evinces  a  design  to  re¬ 
duce  them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right,  it  is 
their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  government,  and  to  provide  new 
guards  for  their  future  security.  Such  has  been  the  patient 
sufferance  of  these  colonies;  and  such  is  now  the  necessity 
which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  systems  of  gov¬ 
ernment.  The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is 
a  history  of  repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in 
direct  object  the  establishment  of  an  absolute  tyranny  over 
these  States.  To  prove  this,  let>facts  be  submitted  to  a  candid 
world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and 
necessary  for  the  public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  Governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate 
and  pressing  importance,  unless  suspended  in  their  opera¬ 
tion  till  his  assent  should  be  obtained;  and  when  so  sus¬ 
pended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them.  He  has 
refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large 
districts  of  people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the 
right  of  representation  in  the  Legislature— a  right  inestimable 
to  them,  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual, 
uncomfortable,  and  distant  from  the  depository  of  their  pub¬ 
lic  records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing  them  into  com¬ 
pliance  with  his  measures. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for 
opposing,  with  manly  firmness,  his  invasions  of  the  rights  of 
the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  ta 
cause  others  to  be  elected;  whereby  the  legislative  powers, 
incapable  of  annihilation,  have  returned  to  the  people  at 
large  for  their  exercise,  the  State  remaining,  in  the  mean¬ 
time,  exposed  to  all  the  dangers  of  invasion  from  without 
and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  emleavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these 
States;  for  that  purpose  obstructing  the  laws  for  naturaliza¬ 
tion  of  foreigners  ;  refusing  to  pass  others  to  encourage  their 
migration  hither,  and  raising  the  condition  of  new  appro¬ 
priations  of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refus¬ 
ing  his  assent  to  laws  for  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone,  for  the 
tenure  of  their  offices,  and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their 
salaries. 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither 
swarms  of  officers,  to  harass  our  people,  and  eat  out  their 
substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us,  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies* 
without  the  consent  of  our  Legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and 
superior  to,  the  civil  power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction 
foreign  to  our  Constitution,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws, 
giving  his  assent  to  their  acts  of  pretended  legislation  : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  ;-mong  us  : 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment .  for 
any  murders  which  they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of 
these  States: 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world  : 

For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent : 

For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by 
jury: 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas  to  be  tried  for  pretended 
offenses: 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neigh¬ 
boring  province,  establishing  therein  an  arbitrary  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  enlarging  its  boundaries,  so  as  to  render  it  at  once 
an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same  abso¬ 
lute  rule  into  these  colonies: 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable 
laws,  and  altering,  fundamentally,  the  forms  of  our  Govern¬ 
ments: 

For  suspending  our  own  Legislatures,  and  declaring  them¬ 
selves  invested  with  power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases 
whatsoever: 

He  has  abdicated  Government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of 
his  protection,  and  waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burnt  our 
towns,  and  destroyed  the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mer¬ 
cenaries  to  complete  the  works  of  death,  desolation  and 
tyranny,  already  begun  with  circumstances  of  cruelty  and 
perfidy,  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and 
totally  unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow  citizens,  taken  captive  on 
the  high  seas  to  bear  arms  against  their  country,  to  become 
the  executioners  of  theii  friends  and  brethren,  or  to  fall  them¬ 
selves  by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrections  among  us,  and  has 
endeavored  to  bring  on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers,  the 


DECLENSION. 


327 


DELACROIX. 


merciless  Indian  savages,  whose  known  rule  of  warfare  is  an 
undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions. 

in  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for 
redress  in  the  most  humble  terms:  our  repeated  petitions 
have  been  answered  only  by  repeated  injury.  A  prince,  whose 
character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may  define  a 
tyrant,  is  unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  at  tentions  to  our  British  breth¬ 
ren.  We  have  warned  them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by 
their  Legislature  to  extend  an  unwarrantable  jurisdiction 
over  us.  We  have  reminded  them  of  the  circumstances  of 
our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We  have  appealed  to 
their  native  justice  and  magnanimity,  and  we  have  conjured 
them  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kindred  to  disavow  these 
usurpations  which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connections 
and  correspondence.  They,  too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice 
of  justice  and  consanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce 
in  the  necessity  which  denounces  our  separation,  and  hold 
them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind— enemies  in  war,  in 
peace,  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  in  general  congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the 
Supreme  Judge  of  the  world,  for  the  rectitude  of  our  inten¬ 
tions,  do,  in  the  name,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  good  people 
of  these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare,  that  these 
united  colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  inde¬ 
pendent  States;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all  allegiance  to 
the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between 
them  and  the  State  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be  totally 
dissolved;  and  that,  as  free  and  independent  States,  they  have 
full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude  peace,  contract  alliances, 
establish  commerce,  and  do  all  other  acts  and  things  which 
independent  States  may  of  right  do.  And  for  the;  support  of 
the  declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance  on  the  protection  of 
Divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our 
lives,  our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor. 

JOHN  HANCOCK, 
President  of  Congress,  and 

Delegate  from  Massachusetts. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  Joshia  Bartlett,  William  Whipple 
Matthew  Thornton. 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY.  Samuel  Adams,  John  Adams, 
Robert  Treat  Paine,  Elbridge  Gerry. 

RHODE  ISLAND,  ETC.  Stephen  Hopkins,  William  Ellery. 

CONNECTICUT.  Roger  Snermau,  Samuel  Huntington, 
William  Williams,01iver  Wolcott, 

NEW  YORK.  William  Floyd,  Philip  Livingston,  Francis 
Lewis,  Lewis  Morris. 

NEW  JERSEY.  Richard  Stockton,  John  Witherspoon, 
Francis  Hopkinson,  John  Hart,  Abraham  Clark. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  Robert  Morris,  Benjamin  Rush,  Benja¬ 
min  Franklin,  John  Morton,  George  Clymer,  James  Smith, 
George  Taylor,  James  Wilson,  George  Ross. 

DELAWARE.  Ca?sar  Rodney,  Georg t  Read,  Thomas  M’- 
Kean. 

MARYLAND.  Samuel  Chase,  William  Paca,  Thomas  Stone, 
Charles  Carroll,  of  Carrollton 

VIRGINIA.  George  Wythe,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  Thomas 
Jefferson,  Benjamin  Harrison,  Thomas  Nelson,  Jr.,  Francis 
Lightfoot  Lee,  Carter  Braxton. 

NORTH  CAROLINA.  William  Hooper,  Joseph  Hewes,  John 

Penn. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA.  Edward  Rutledge,  Thomas  Heyward, 
Jr.,  Arthur  Middleton. 

GEORGIA.  Button  Gwinett,  Lyman  Hall,  George  Walton. 

Attest,  Charles  Thompson,  Secretary. 

Declen'sion,  a  grammatical  term  applied  to  the 
system  of  modifications  called  cases,  which  nouns, 
pronouns,  and  adjectives  undergo  in  many 
languages.  The  number  of  cases  is  very  different 
in  different  languages. 

Declination.  If  a  great  circle  be  drawn 
through  the  pole  of  the  heavens  and  any  star, 
the  declination  of  the  star  is  the  portion  of  the 
circle  intercepted  between  the  star  and  the 
equator. 

Declination  Needle.  When  a  magnetic  needle 
is  suspended  or  made  to  rest  on  a  point  so  as  to 
be  free  to  move  in  a  horizontal  plane,  it  finds  its 
position  of  rest  in  a  line  joining  two  fixed  points 
on  the  horizon;  and  when  made  to  leave  that 
position,  after  several  oscillations,  it  returns  to 
it  again.  At  certain  places  on  the  earth’s  sur¬ 
face,  these  two  points  are  the  north  and  south 
points  of  the  horizon;  but  generally,  though  near, 
they  do  not  coincide  with  these.  A  vertical 
plane  passing  through  the  points  on  the  horizon 
indicated  by  the  needle,  is  called  the  magnetic 
meridian,  in  the  same  way  that  a  similar  plane, 
passing  through  the  north  and  south  points,  is 
known  as  the  astronomical  meridian  of  the  place. 
The  angle  between  the  magnetic  and  astronomical 
meridians  is  termed  the  declination  or  variation 
of  the  needle. 

Decoc'tion  is  the  term  applied  in  pharmacy  to 
the  solution  procured  by  boiling  an  organic  sub¬ 
stance  witli  water. 

Decolori'meter  is  an  instrument  for  determin¬ 
ing  the  power  of  portions  of  bone-black  or  animal 
charcoal  to  abstract  coloring  matter. 

Decomposi'tion  is  a  term  employed  in  chem¬ 
istry  to  signify  the  separation  of  more  simple 
substances  from  a  compound. 

Decoration  Day.  May  30th  is  celebrated  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  in  memory 
of  those  who  fell  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion. 
On  that  day  hundreds  of  thousands  visit  the 
cemeteries  in  which  the  heroes  of  the  war  are 
laid,  and  strew  flowers  upon  their  graves.  It  is  a 
public  holiday. 

Decorated  Style  of  Gothic  Architecture  was  a  | 


higher  development  of  the  Early  English  style 
and  flourished  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth 


Column,  Collegiate  Decorated  Capital,  York 

Church,  Manchester,  Cathedral. 

fourteenth  century. 

centuries.  The  accompanying  illustrations  are 
samples  of  the  style. 

Decrescen'do,  in  Music,  is  the  reverse  of  cres¬ 
cendo — viz. ,  a  gradual  diminishing  of  the  sound. 
It  is  written  — -- 

Deduction,  in  Logic,  is  a  particular  kind  of 
reasoning  or  inference,  and  consists  of  reasoning 
from  generals  to  particulars. 

Deed,  in  Law,  is  a  formal  written  expression  of 
something  done  by  the  party  or  parties  from 
whom  it  proceeds. 

Deer,  a  Linnaean  genus  of  ruminant  quad¬ 
rupeds,  now  constituting  the  family  Cervuhe. 
Deer  are  animals  of  graceful  form,  combining 
much  compactness  and  strength  with  slenderness 
of  limb  and  lieetness.  They  have  a  long  neck,  a 
small  head,  which  they  carry  high,  large  ears,  and 
large,  full  eyes.  They  are  distinguished  from  all 
other  ruminants  by  their  branching  horns  (antlers), 
which  in  most  of  the  species  exist  in  the  male  sex 
only.  Deer  are  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
globe  except  Australia  and  the  South  of  Africa, 
their  place  in  the  latter  region  being  supplied  by 
antelopes  in  extraordinary  number  and  variety. 

Deermouse,  or  Jumping  Mouse  ( Meriones ),  a 
genus  of  American  rodent  quadrupeds  allied  to 
mice  and  to  jerboas. 

Deer-stalking  is  the  art  of  following  the 
deer  by  cautious  maneuvering,  for  the  purpose  of 
shooting  it  with  the  rifle. 

Defamation,  saying  or  writing  something  of 
another,  calculated  to  injure  his  reputation  or  ex¬ 
pose  him  to  public  hatred,  contempt,  and  ridicule. 

Default',  Judgment  by.  Where  the  defendant 
in  a  cause  has  failed  to  make  appearance  or  to 
lodge  a  sufficient  plea,  or  other  pleading,  in  due 
time,  the  plaintiff  may  proceed  to  sign  judgment 
by  default.  Judgment  by  default  is  not  neces¬ 
sarily  final.  In  case  of  non-appearance,  it  will  be 
set  aside  on  the  defendant  making  affidavit  as  to 
the  cause  of  non-appearance,  and  disclosing  a 
ground  of  defense  on  the  merits.  If  judgment 
have  been  for  want  of  a  plea,  etc.,  it  may  also  in 
general  be  set  aside  on  an  affidavit  of  merits.  But 
in  both  cases,  the  defendant  must  suffer  the  costs 
of  the  proceedings. 

Defender  of  the  Faith  ( Fidei  Defensor'),  a 
peculiar  title  belonging  to  the  Sovereign  of  Eng¬ 
land.  It  appears  to  have  been  first  conferred  by 
Leo  X.  on  Henry  VIII.,  in  1521,  for  writing 
against  Luther. 

Deli  'cient  Numbers.  A  number  is  said  to  be 
deficient  whose  aliquot  parts,  or  factors,  added 
together,  make  a  sum  less  than  the  number  itself. 

Defilad'in  g  is  that  part  of  the  art  of  fortification 
which  consists  in  determining  the  directions  and 
heights  of  the  lines  of  rampart  ,  so  that  the  interior 
may  not  be  commanded  by  the  fire  of  any  works 
which  the  enemy  may  raise. 

Defile'  ,  in  Military  Language,  is  the  name  given 
to  any  passage  which  is  of  such  a  nature  that  it 
must  be  traversed  by  troops  only  in  column  with 
a  narrow  front. 

Deftni  'tion  is  the  explanation  or  statement  of 
the  meaning  of  a  word. 

Defiagra'tion  is  applied  to  the  rapid  combus¬ 
tion  of  ignited  charcoal  when  a  nitrate  (such  as 
nitrate  of  potash)  or  a  chlorate  (such  as  chlorate 
of  potash)  is  thrown  thereon. 

Deflec'tion  is,  generally,  a  change  of  course 
or  line  of  motion  of  a  moving  body. 

Deflux'iou  (Lat.  defluxio),  a  discharge  from  a 
mucous  membrane. 

De  Foe,  Daniel,  was  born  in  London,  1601. 


The  prefix  De  was  not  added  to  the  family  name 
of  Foe  by  the  author  until  he  had  reached  man 
hood.  In  1682,  he  began  his  career  as  author. 
In  1683,  he  published  a  pamphlet,  entitled  A 
Treatise  Against  the  Turks,  and  in  1701,  his  satiri¬ 
cal  poem,  The  True-horn  Englishman.  His  other 
works  are:  The  Shortest  Way  with  Dissenters, 
History  of  the  Union,  the  famous  Robinson  Cru¬ 
soe,  Mull  Flanders,  Journal  of  the  Plague,  Colonel 
Jack,  Adventures  of  Roxana,  and  The  Memoirs  of 
a  Cavalier.  He  also  wrote  A  Hymn  to  the  Pillory, 
and  conducted  for  nine  years  a  periodical  called 
The  Review.  He  died  in  April,  1731. 

Deform 'ities.  Abnormal  varieties  of  form 
which  mar  the  external  appearance,  and  which 
may  be  congenital  or  acquired,  according  as 
they  occur  before  or  after  birth.  It  is  a  com¬ 
mon  belief  that  the  mind  of  the  female  parent 
has  an  influence  over  the  shape  of  her  infant;  but, 
although  some  singular  coincidences  have  oc¬ 
curred,  there  is  no  scientific  proof  that  such  is 
really  the  case. 

Degree',  in  a  college  or  university  (Fr.  degre, 
from  Lat.  gradus,  a  step),  is  a  recognition  of  the 
student  having  made  a  certain  step  in  advance, 
and  having  attained,  as  it  were,  to  a  certain  rest¬ 
ing  place  in  his  academical  career. 

Degree,  in  Music,  is  the  difference  of  position 
or  elevation  of  the  notes  on  the  lines  and  spaces. 

Degree  of  Lat'itiule  is  the  space  along  the 
meridian  through  which  an  observer  must  pass  to 
alter  his  latitude  by  one  degree — i.  e.,  in  order  to 
see  the  same  star  one  degree  nearer  to  or  further 
from  the  zenith.  Its  length,  at  latitude  45°, 
usually  conceived  to  be  69  English  miles,  is  one 
of  the  proofs  of  the  earth’s  spheroidicity. 

Degree  of  Lon'gitude  is  the  space  between 
two  meridians  that  make  an  angle  of  1°  at  the 
poles,  measured  by  the  arc  of  a  circle  parallel  to 
the  equator  passing  between  them.  The  annexed 
table  shows  the  lengths  of  a  degree  of  longitude 
for  places  at  everv  degree  of  latitude  from  0°  to 
90°. 


Degree 

lat. 

English 

Miles. 

Degree 

lat. 

English 

Miles. 

Degree 

lat. 

English 

Miles. 

0 

69.07 

31 

59.13 

61 

33.45 

1 

69  06 

32 

58.51 

62 

32.40 

2 

69.03 

33 

57.87 

63 

31.33 

3 

08.97 

34 

57  20 

64 

31.24 

4 

68.90 

35 

56.51 

65 

29.15 

5 

08.81 

36 

55.. SI 

66 

28.06 

G 

68.62 

37 

55.10 

67 

26  96 

7 

68. 48 

38 

54.37 

68 

25 . 85 

8 

68.31 

39 

53  62 

69 

24  73 

9 

68.15 

40 

52.  S5 

70 

23.60 

10 

67.95 

41 

52.07 

71 

22.47 

11 

67.73 

42 

51  27 

72 

21.32 

12 

67  48 

43 

50.46 

73 

20.17 

13 

67  21 

44 

49.63 

74 

19.02 

14 

G6 . 95 

45 

48.78 

75 

17.86 

15 

6G .  65 

46 

47.93 

76 

16.70 

1G 

66  31 

47 

47.06 

77 

15.52 

ir 

65.98 

48 

46.16 

78 

14.35 

18 

05.62 

49 

45.26 

79 

13.17 

19 

65.24 

50 

44.35 

80 

11.98 

20 

64.84 

51 

’  43.42 

81 

10.79 

21 

64.42 

52 

42.48 

82 

9.59 

22 

63.91 

53 

41.53 

83 

8.41 

23 

63.51 

54 

40 . 56 

84 

7.21 

24 

63.03 

55 

39.58 

85 

6  00 

25 

62  53 

56 

38.58 

86 

4.81 

20 

62.02 

57 

37.58 

87 

3.61 

27 

61.48 

58 

36.57 

88 

2.41 

28 

60.93 

59 

35.54 

89 

1.21 

29 

60.35 

60 

34.50 

90 

0.00 

30 

59.75 

De'ism  is  generally  understood  to  imply  the 
denial  of  a  revelation;  and  a  Deist  is  one  who 
holds  the  existence  and  providence  of  God,  but 
grounds  his  belief  on  reason  and  evidence. 

De  Kalb,  Baron  John,  born  in  Alsace,  June 
29,  1721,  accompanied  Lafayette  to  the  United 
States  in  1777,  fought  under  Washington,  and 
was  killed  at  the  battle  of  Camden  at  the  head  of 
his  forces,  August,  1780. 

De  Kay,  Charles,  poet  and  prose  author,  was 
born  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1848. 

Del  (Arlocarpus  pubescens),  a  tree  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  bread-fruit,  indigenous  to  the  for¬ 
ests  of  Ceylon,  and  valuable  on  account  of  its 
timber. 

Delacroix,  Ferdinand  Victor  Eugene,  a 
modern  French  painter,  was  born  at  Charenton- 
Saint-Mauriee,  near  Paris,  April  26,  1799,  and 
died  Aug.  13,  1863. 


DELANE. 


328 


DEMULCENTS. 


Delane,  John  Tiiaddeus,  late  editor  of  the 
Times  newspaper,  was  born  in  Loudon  in  1815 
and  died  Nov.  22,  1879. 

De  la  Ramee,  Louisa,  known  as  “Ouida,” 
the  authoress  of  numerous  novels,  was  born  in 
England  in  1840.  Her  best  works  are  Chandos, 
Under  Two  Flags,  Puck ,  and  Alotlis.  Her  style 
is  extravagant  and  sensational,  but  her  works  are 
widely  read. 

Delaroclie,  Paul,  a  historical  painter,  the  head 
of  the  modern  Eclectic  School  of  Art  in  France, 
was  born  at  Paris  in  1797  and  died  Nov.  4,  1856. 
The  characteristic  excellences  of  Delaroche 
are  delicacy  of  treatment,  picturesqueness  of 
conception,  harmony  of  color,  and  accuracy  of 
drawing. 

Del 'aware,  a  term  of  various  application  in 
the  United  States,  indicates  a  river,  a  bay,  and  a 
State,  to  say  nothing  of  counties  and  less  impor¬ 
tant  localities.— 1.  The  Iliver  Delaware  rises  in 
New  York,  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Catskill 
mountains,  and  flowing  in  a  southerly  direction; 
it  divides  New  York  State  and  New  Jersey  from 
Pennsylvania  and  the  State  of  its  own  name. 
With  a  course  of  fully  300  miles,  it  is  navigable 
for  large  ships  to  Philadelphia,  and  for  steam- 
vessels  to  the  head  of  tide- water,  at  Trenton . — 2. 
Delaware  Bay,  the  estuary  of  the  river,  meas¬ 
ures  about  60  miles  in  length;  the  greatest  width 
being  30  miles.  It  has  New  Jersey  on  the  left, 
and  Delaware  on  the  right,  its  entrance  being 
between  Cape  May  in  the  former  State,  and  Cape 
Henlopen  in  the  latter. — 3.  The  State  of  Dela¬ 
ware,  stretching  in  N.  latitude  from  38°  29'  to 
29p  47',  and  in  W.  longitude  from  75°  to  75° 
45',  issit  uated  between  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
and  its  own  bay  and  river.  With  the  single 
exception  of  Rhode  Island,  it  is  the  least  consid¬ 
erable  member  of  the  Union.  Its  area  is  2,050 
square  miles,  and  its  pop.,  according  to  the 
census  of  1880,  is  146,608,  having  been,  in  1870, 
125,015.  Of  this  population,  the  greater  number 
(120,160)  are  white,  and  the  remainder  (26,442) 
colored. 

Delhi  (ancient  name  Indraprestha  or  Inderpul ; 
Mohammedan  name,  Shahjehunabad),  a  celebrated 
city  of  Northern  India,  in  28°  39’  N.  latitude,  and 
77°  18'  E.  longitude,  capital  of  the  province  and 
district  of  the  same  name.  The  modern  city, 
which  was  founded  by  Shah  Jehan  in  1631,  has  a 
circumference  of  about  seven  miles.  Pop.,  at 
census  of  1868,  154,417;  at  that  of  1881,  173,393, 
of  whom  about  one-half  are  Hindus,  and  the 
other  half  Mohammedans.  Delhi  was  the  cen¬ 
tral  point  of  the  Indian  Mutiny,  and  was  taken 
by  storm  by  the  British,  in  September,  1857. 

Delia,  a  festival  of  Apollo  held  in  Delos.  It 
included  athletic  and  musical  contests,  for  which 
the  prize  was  a  branch  of  the  sacred  palm. 

Deli 'lull  (Heb.  the  languishing)  is  the  name  of 
a  Philistine  woman  whom  Samson  loved.  After 
having  deprived  him  of  his  strength  by  cutting 
his  hair  while  asleep,  she  betrayed  him  to  his 
enemies. 

Deliques'cence  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
property  which  certain  substances  have  of  absorb¬ 
ing  moisture  from  the  air,  and  becoming  damp, 
and  even  running  into  liquid. 

Delir'ium  (from  Lat.  deliro,  I  am  furious),  a 
state  of  deranged  mind,  in  which  the  intellect 
and  judgment  are  perverted  or  lost,  while  the 
imagination  and  the  passions  are  often  excited,  or 
at  least  left  without  control. — Delirium  tremens  is 
the  mania  which  results  from  long-continued 
alcoholism,  and  may  occur  after  some  time  has 
elapsed  from  the  cessation  of  indulgence.  Its 
best  treatment  consists  in  the  use  of  opium  to 
secure  .sleep,  a  gradual  diminution  of  stimulants, 
and  general  tonic  measures.  The  bowels  should 
be  kept  open,  and  the  liver  stimulated  with 
podopliyllin,  calomel,  etc.,  so  as  to  eliminate 
alcoholic  poison. 

Delorme,  Marion,  a  notorious  Frenchwoman, 
whose  lovers  were  successively  almost  all  the  dis¬ 
tinguished  men  of  Paris,  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Born  in  1612,  she  died  at 
the  age  of  thirty-nine. 

De  los  (called  also  in  ancient  times  Asteria, 
Ortygia,  Cynthus,  etc.),  an  island  in  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  Die  smallest  of  the  Cyclades,  is  situ¬ 
ated  in  latitude  about  37°  23'  N.,  and  longitude 
25°  17'  E. 


Del' phi  (now  Castri),  an  ancient  town  of 
Phocis,  Greece,  celebrated  chiefly  for  its  famous 
oracle  of  Apollo. 

Delpliinap'tera,  a  genus  of  Cetacea,  of  the 
family  Delphinidce.  D.  peronii,  the  right 
whale-porpoise  of  the  South  Sea  whalers,  is  an 
inhabitant  chiefly  of  the  seas  of  high  southern 
latitudes.  D.  commersonii,  also  found  in  high 
southern  latitudes,  is  about  the  size  of  a  porpoise, 
silvery  white;  the  snout,  tail,  and  pectorals  tipped 
with  black.  D.  borealis  was  discovered  by  the 
United  States  Exploring  Expedition  in  the  North 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Delta  is  the  alluvial  deposit  formed  at  the 
mouth  of  a  river  from  the  deposition  of  the  parti¬ 
cles  which  it  has  held  in  suspension.  The  term 
arose  from  the  delta  of  the  Nile,  which  was  in 
the  form  of  the  Greek  letter  a  . 

Delta  Metal  is  a  valuable  alloy,  made  of  the 
same  ingredients  as  brass,  with  the  addition  of 
iron. 

Del'ilge  (through  the  French,  from  Lat.  dilu¬ 
vium,  a  washing  away,  a  flood).  That  the  No- 
achian  deluge,  recorded  iu  Scripture,  covered  the 
whole  earth,  was  the  universal  opinion  until 
toward  the  close  of  the  last  century.  The  pres¬ 
ent  tendency  of  opinion  among  writers  like  the 
late  Hugh  Miller,  is  to  regard  the  flood  of  Noah 
as  partial  and  local,  although  the  universality 
seems  to  be  implied  in  the  biblical  description. 

Dembin'ski,  Heinrich,  a  Polish  General,  was 
born  in  1791.  He  served  in  the  Polish  and  French 
armies  and  was  made  Captain  in  the  latter  by 
Napoleon.  He  took  part  in  the  Polish  revolution 
of  1830,  and  was  made  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  national  army.  He  died  in  1864. 

Demera'ra,  a  district  and  river  of  British 
Guiana.  The  River  Demerara  is  upward  of  200 
miles  iu  length,  and  is  navigable  by  ships  of  con¬ 
siderable  burden  for  100  miles. 

Dem'i-bas'tion,  in  Fortification,  is  a  kind  of 
half-bastion  which  frequently  terminates  the 
branches  of  a  crown-work  or  horn-work,  and 
which  is  also  occasionally  used  in  other  places. 

Dem '  id  off,  a  Russian  family  of  capitalists  who 
are  not  more  celebrated  for  their  wealth  than  they 
are  for  their  beneficence. 

Demi-lune,  in  Fortification,  is  a  work  con¬ 
structed  to  cover  or  defend  the  curtain  or  wall  of 
a  place,  and  the  shoulders  of  the  adjoining  has 
tions. 

Dem  'isem  iquaver,  half  a  semiquaver,  or  the 
thirty-second  part  of  a  semibreve. 

Democ'racy  (Gr.  Se/uoi,  people,  apxeiv,  to 
rule),  in  Greece,  whence  we  derive  the  name, 
was  understood  to  mean  a  commonwealth  so  con¬ 
stituted  that  the  power  was  exercised  by  the  body 
of  the  citizens  (the  SejuoS),  and  not  by  an  individ¬ 
ual,  or  by  a  dominant  caste.  Democracy,  there¬ 
fore,  stood  opposed  both  to  monarchy  and  aris¬ 
tocracy.  Among  the  ancient  German  nations,  we 
find  an  almost  perfect  equality  of  all  freemen,  and 
real  self-government  exercised  by  these  freemen  in 
each  separate  tribe.  This  condition  of  general 
liberty  and  equality  gave  place  gradually  to  one 
of  a  quite  opposite  kind.  Through  the  growth 
of  the  feudal  system  the  majority  fell  into  a 
more  or  less  abject  dependence  upon  a  privileged 
minority.  The  mass  of  former  freemen,  now 
sunk  into  serfdom,  were  hardly  distinguishable 
from  those  properly  slaves,  whose  position,  on  the 
contrary,  was  become  less  dependent.  In  France, 
the  feudal  principle,  instead  of  a  timely  compro¬ 
mise  with  the  democratic,  came  to  a  struggle  with 
it  of  life  and  death.  The  consequence  was  that 
victorious  democracy,  instead  of  seeking  to 
satisfy  the  practical  wants  of  society  first,  and 
leaving  the  theoretical  to  be  attained  gradually, 
undertook  to  reorganize  at  one  stroke  the  whole 
political  and  social  fabric.  In  Germany,  things 
took  lately  a  similar  course.  The  case  of  America 
is  peculiar.  Here  the  foundation  of  the  state 
structure  was  to  be  laid  on  a  clear  site,  and  the 
first  page  of  the  history  to  be  written.  Those 
who  came  together  to  form  the  new  community 
were  personally  perfectly  free  and  equal,  and  the 
local  circumstances  were  such  as  to  favor  the 
exercise  of  this  liberty  and  equality,  by  rendering 
any  very  great  disparity  in  material  means  impos¬ 
sible.  In  such  circumstances,  the  construction  of 
a  perfectly  democratic  order  of  society  could  be 
carried  out  without  a  struggle,  and  without  any 


dangerous  straining  of  the  principle.  In  the  de¬ 
velopment  of  democracy  in  modern  times,  circum¬ 
stances  have  directed  its  attacks  rather  against  the 
aristocratic  than  against  the  monarchical  principle. 
In  a  purely  democrat  ical  state,  the  people  may  exer¬ 
cise  their  power  in  either  of  two  ways — directly,  or 
through  delegates;  in  the  one  case,  the  democracy  is 
said  to  be  absolute;  in  the  other,  representative.  The 
absolute  or  direct  form  prevailed  in  the  republics 
of  antiquity;  political  representation,  in  fact, 
seems  to  be  a  modern  idea.  The  same  is  the  case 
with  the  original  Swiss  Cantons,  where  almost  all 
public  business  is  discussed  in  a  full  assembly  of 
the  people.  In  Switzerland  generally,  the  repre¬ 
sentative  form  is  now  preferred.  It  is  also  carried 
out  in  the  United  States  of  America,  and  was 
adopted  in  the  French  Republic  of  1848. 

Democ'ritus,  an  illustrious  Greek  philosopher, 
was  born  at  Abdera,  in  Thrace,  about  470  or  460 
b.c.  Of  his  life,  little  is  known. 

Demoiselle'  ( Anthropoides ),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  family  Cruidce  (cranes),  having  the  head 
and  neck  quite  feathered,  and  the  tertials  of  the 
wing  elongated  and  hanging  over  the  tail,  so  as 
in  some  species  to  reach  the  ground.  The  Dem¬ 
oiselle,  or  Numidian  Demoiselle  (A.  virgo),  is 


about  three  feet  in  length  from  the  point  of  the 
bill  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  and  the  top  of  its  head  is 
about  three  and  one-half  feet  from  the  ground.  It 
is  remarkable  for  elegance  and  symmetry  of  form 
and" grace  of  deportment. 

Deino'niacs  ( deemoniaci ,  obsessi,  or,  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  supposed  influence  of  the  moon,  lun- 
atici),  the  name  given  by  the  Jews  to  persons 
afflicted  with  epilepsy,  hypochondria,  or  insanity, 
diseases  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  East.  The 
name  originated  in  the  belief,  that  persons  so 
aiflicted  had  been  taken  possession  of  by  evil 
spirits  or  demons.  In  the  synoptic  gospels 
Christ  is  reported  to  have  cast  out  devils  and  un¬ 
clean  spirits 

De'mons  (Gr.  daimones,  Lat.  genii)  are,  ac¬ 
cording  to  superstitious  belief,  spirits  which 
exercise  an  influence  on  the  fortunes  of  men. 

Demonstra'tion  (Lat.  demonstrare,  to  point 
out,  to  cause  to  see),  in  Mathematics,  is  a  proof  of 
any  proposition  which  excludes  doubt. 

Demonstration,  in  Military  Operations,  is  an 
apparent  movement  or  maneuver,  to  deceive  the 
enemy,  and  induce  him  to  divide  his  force. 

Demos'tlienes,  the  greatest  orator  of  Greece, 
and  indeed  of  the  ancient  world,  was  a  native  of 
Athens.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  doubtful,  either 
the  years  382  b.c.,  or  385  b.c.  Demosthenes  first 
began  to  take  part  iu  public  affairs  in  the  106th 
Olympiad,  when  he  was  between  twenty-seven 
and  thirty  years  of  age,  and  from  that  time  till 
his  death,  his  history  is  the  history  of  Athens. 
His  greatest  efforts,  both  as  an  orator  and  as  a 
politician,  were  directed  against  Philip  of  Mace- 
don,  and  his  splendid  orations  were  chiefly 
directed  to  the  vain  task  of  enthusing  his  country¬ 
men  to  resist  the  encroachments  of  that  monarch. 
He  died  in  322  b.c.,  probably  by  poison,  self- 
administered. 

Deiniil  'cents  (Lat.  demulceo,  I  soften),  bland 
and  lubricating  liquid  substances,  taken  by  the 
mouth,  for  the  purpose  of  soothing  irritation  of 
the  mucous  membranes,  and  promoting  the  dilu¬ 
tion  of  the  blood,  and  the  increase  of  the  secre¬ 
tions.  Demulcents  are  chiefly  composed  of  starchy. 


DEMURRAGE. 


329 


DEPIIAL. 


gummy,  oleaginous,  or  albuminous  substances, 
largely  diluted. 

Demurrage,  in  the  Law-Merchant,  is  an  allow¬ 
ance  made  to  the  master  or  owners  of  a  ship,  by 
the  freighter,  when  she  is  detained  in  port  by  the 
latter  beyond  the  specified  time  of  sailing,  for  his 
own  convenience. 

Demur 'rer,  in  Law,  is  an  exception  by  one 
party  in  a  suit  or  action  to  the  sufficiency  in  point 
of  law  of  the  case  of  the  opposite  party. 

Dena'rius  {deni,  ten  each),  the  principal  silver 
coin  among  the  Romans,  whose  value  varied  at 
different  periods  from  about  14  to  Id  cents. 

Den'drite,  the  name  given  to  a  peculiar  branch¬ 
ing  mineral  crystallization  on  the  surfaces  of  the 
fissures  and  joints,  or  in  the  substance  of  rocks, 
having  the  appearance  of  moss,  and  often  mistaken 
for  fossil  plants, 

Demlro  'lites,  petrified  stems  of  trees  or  shrubs, 
which  occur  universally  in  the  secondary  forma¬ 
tions,  especially  in  the  coal  formation. 

Dendrol'ogy  is  that  part  of  systematic  botany 
which  deals  with  the  natural  history  of  trees  and 
shrubs. 

Den'drophis  (Gr.  tree-snake),  a  genus  of  ser¬ 
pents  of  the  family  Colubridce,  remarkable  for 
their  extremely  slender  form,  their  beautiful 
colors,  and  the  liveliness  of  their  movements. 

Dengue,  or  Break-bone  Fever,  also  called 
Dandy  and  Bucket  Fever  is  a  disease  known  in 
the  Southern  States  of  North  America  and  in  the 
West  Indies,  where  it  was  first  described  as  having 
appeared  in  the  years  1827  and  1828.  It  was  very 
violent  in  its  access,  but  not  often  fatal,  and  con¬ 
sisted  chiefly  of  a  severe  attack  of  inflammatory 
fever,  with  great  heat  and  redness  of  the  surface, 
and  well-marked  rheumatic  pains  of  the  limbs 
both  in  the  joints  and  muscles.  Treatment  should 
be  directed  toward  producing  profuse  sweating, 
such  substances  as  fluid  extract  of  jaborandi  or 
boneset  tea  being  given  internally,  or  the  patient 
given  a  thorough  sweat-batli.  Quinine  should 
be  given  as  a  tonic  during  convalescence. 

Denis,  St.  ,  according  to  tradition,  the  Apostle 
of  France  and  first  Bishop  of  Paris,  suffered 
martyrdom  in  the  third  century. 

Denis,  St.,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart¬ 
ment  of  Seine,  six  miles  north  of  Paris.  Pop. 
(1881),  43,127. 

Den'mark  (Dan.  Danmark),  capital,  Copen¬ 
hagen,  the  smallest  of  the  three  Scandinavian  king¬ 
doms,  is  situated  between  54°  and  57°  44'  50"  N. 
latitude  and  8°  5'  and  12°  45'  E.  longitude, 
excepting  the  small  Island  of  Bornholm  in  the 
Baltic,  about  ninety  miles  east  of  Seeland,  which 
lies  in  15°  E.  longitude.  Denmark  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Skagerak,  a  gulf  of  the  North 
Sea;  on  the  east  by  the  Cattegat,  the  Sound  and 
the  Baltic;  on  the  south  by  the  States  of  the  Ger¬ 
man  Empire;  and  on  the  west  by  the  North  Sea, 
which  the  Danes  call  the  “Western  Ocean.”  The 
number  of  square  miles  of  territory  under  Danish 
dominion  (including  colonies)  is  79,013,  and  the 
pop.  is  2,099,800.  The  pop.  of  Denmark  proper 
in  1870  wasl, 784,741.  Copenhagen  (Dan.  Kjosben- 
havn),  the  capital,  had,  in  1880,  235,234  inhabit¬ 
ants.  In  1880,  there  were  five  towns  in  Den¬ 
mark,  besides  the  capital,  in  which  the  pop. 
exceeded  10,000.  The  continental  portion  of 
Denmark,  which,  since  the  treaty  of  Vienna  of 
Oct.  30,  1864,  has  been  almost  wholly  limited  to 
Jutland,  is,  in  point  of  fact,  the  northwestern 
extremity  of  the  German  continent.  The  entire 
coast-line  of  Denmark,  along  the  North  Sea, 
Skagerak,  Cattegat,  Sound,  Baltic,  and  Little 
Belt,  exceeds  800  miles.  Seeland,  or  Scelland,  the 
largest  of  the  islands,  and  the  seat  of  the  metrop¬ 
olis,  Copenhagen,  has  an  area  of  about  2,000 
square  miles.  F  linen  (Dan.  Fyn),  the  island  next 
in  extent,  with  an  area  of  about  900  square  miles, 
is  divided  from  Seeland  by  the  Great  Belt,  and 
from  Jutland  by  the  Little  Belt.  The  smaller 
Islands  of  Laaland,  Langeland,  Falster,  and  Moen, 
with  an  area  of  2,000  square  miles,  are  grouped 
to  the  south  of  Fiinen  and  Seeland,  and  exhibit 
the  same  physical  and  geological  characters. 
Denmark  has  no  rivers  properly  so  called.  Inter¬ 
communication  is,  moreover,  facilitated  in  the 
islands  and  in  Jutland  by  the  various  canals. 
The  high-roads  and  lesser  country  roads  are  in 
general  in  excellent  condition.  In  1880,  there 


were  upward  of  1,000  miles  of  railway  in  the 
kingdom  (of  which  more  than  900  miles  belonged 
to  the  State),  and  the  telegraphic  lines  extended 
to  a  length  of  2,195  miles.  The  climate  of  Den¬ 
mark  is  modified  by  vicinity  to  the  sea,  and  is 
considerably  milder,  and  the  air  more  humid, 
than  in  the  more  southern  and  continental  Ger¬ 
many.  During  the  last  half-century,  the  culti¬ 
vation  of  wheat  lias  increased  nearly  200  per 
cent,  while  that  of  rye  and  barley  has  decreased 
rather  than  augmented.  Rye  is  more  extensively 
used  for  bread  than  any  other  of  the  cereals,  the 
average  returns  for  the  last  ten  years  showing 
that  about  3,000,000  of  tons  were  raised  in 
the  kingdom  annually,  valued  at  nearly  19,- 
000,000  of  rix-dollars;  while,  in  spite  of  the 
relatively  increased  cultivation  of  wheat,  the 
quantity  and  value  of  the  latter  scarcely  reached 
the  half  of  the  above  figures.  Barley  and  oats, 
for  which  the  Danish  climate  seems  to  be  specially 
well  adapted,  yield  the  largest  annual  average 
returns.  The  Danish  fisheries  are  not  so  import¬ 
ant  a  branch  of  industry  as  might  be  expected, 
when  we  consider  the  extended  coast-line  of  the 
country.  Beech  and  birch  are  the  prevalent 
trees,  but  oak,  pine,  and  larch  are  also  indig¬ 
enous,  anti  grow  to  perfection.  Agriculture  has 
been  steadily  improving  in  Denmark  of  late  years, 
but  the  land  is  too  much  subdivided  to  admit  of 
the  expenditure  of  great  capital ;  and,  moreover, 
is  seldom  cultivated  by  the  owners.  The  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  laboring  classes  is  happy;  they  are 
roomily  and  warmly  lodged,  and  their  dwellings 
are  always  clean.  The  peasants  still  continue  to 
manufacture  much  of  what  they  require  within 
their  own  homes.  Almost  two-tliirds  of  the  entire 
area  of  the  country  is  arable  land.  There  are  a  few 
good  porcelain  and  glass  works,  and  iron  found¬ 
ries,  chiefly  in  Seeland  and  near  Copenhagen, 
and  of  late  years  the  manufacture  of  cards  and 
ornamental  paper  has  been  brought  to  great  excel¬ 
lence  in  Copenhagen,  andatSilkeborg,  in  Jutland. 
Linen  is  the  principal  article  of  domestic  manu¬ 
facture  in  Zeeland,  but  the  supply  does  not  suf¬ 
fice  for  the  home  demand.  The  principal  articles 
of  export  are  grain,  butter,  cheese,  smoked  and 
salted  meats,  brandy,  liquors,  horned  cattle, 
horses,  skins,  hides,  tallow,  bristles,  etc.  About 
two-thirds  of  the  export  trade  is  carried  on  in 
native  vessels.  According  to  law,  all  able-bodied 
adult  Danes  are  liable  to  serve  for  eight  years  in 
the  regular  army,  and  for  a  similar  period  in  the 
army  of  reserve.  Exclusive  of  the  reserve,  the 
army  on  the  peace-footing  numbers  37,850  men 
and  officers;  and  on  the  war-footing,  49,253.  The 
navy  is  now  represented  by  a  small  but  well-ap¬ 
pointed  force  of  thirty-three  steamers  (of  which 
eight  are  iron-clads),  with  a  horse-power  of 
30,554.  Education  is  compulsory  for  children 
between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen  years,  and 
poor  parents  pay  only  a  nominal  sum  toward  the 
Government  or  parochial  schools,  of  which  there 
are  about  3,000  in  Denmark.  There  are  three 
public  libraries  in  Copenhagen,  of  which  the 
Royal  Library,  with  500,000  volumes,  is  especially 
rich  in  Oriental  and  Icelandic  MSS.  The  estab¬ 
lished  religion  of  Denmark  is  Lutheran,  to  which 
the  King  must  belong;  but  complete  toleration  is 
enjoyed  in  every  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  suc¬ 
cession  to  the  crown  was  not  necessarily  heredi¬ 
tary  till  1660,  when  the  people  and  the  clergy 
constituted  themselves  into  a  National  Assembly, 
which  invested  the  Sovereign  (Frederick  III.)  for 
himself  and  his  heirs  with  absolute  power,  and 
declared  the  succession  to  the  throne  hereditary. 
In  1831  Frederick  VI.  granted  a  constitution  to 
his  people.  The  National  Assembly,  or  Rigsdag, 
consists  of  the  Folkething  and  Landsthing.  The 
Landsthing  is  composed  of  sixty-six  members,  of 
whom  twelve  are  chosen  for  life  by  the  King, 
while  the  remainder  are  elected  for  a  term  of  eight 
years  by  certain  municipal  and  rural  electoral 
bodies,  who  represent  the  large  tax-payers  of  the 
kingdom.  The  members  of  the  Folkething,  whose 
number  (which  is  now'  102)  varies  with  t  he  popula¬ 
tion,  are  elected  for  three  years  by  universal  suf¬ 
frage.  The  Rigsdag  must  meet  every  year.  The 
King’s  person  is  inviolable;  t  he  ministry  is  respon¬ 
sible,  and  with  the  King  as  president,  constitutes 
the  Executive  Royal  Privy  Council.  The  seven 
members  of  this  body,  who  preside  over  seven 
distinct  ministerial  departments,  are  individually 


and  collectively  responsible  to  the  Rigsdag  for 
their  acts. 

Denouement  (Fr.  from  denouer,  to  untie,  w'hich 
again  is  from  nosud,  a  knot),  in  literary  composi¬ 
tion  designates  the  train  of  circumstances  solving 
the  plot,  and  hastening  the  catastrophe. 

Dens'ity.  When  of  two  bodies  of  equal  bulk 
or  volume,  the  one  contains  more  matter  than  the 
other,  it  is  said  to  have  greater  density  than  that 
other.  The  quantity  of  matter  is  measured  by 
the  weight. 

Dentalium  (Lat.  dens,  a  tooth),  a  genus  of 
marine  gasteropodous  mollusks,  of  the  order 
Tubulibranchiata,  having  two  symmetrical  bran¬ 
chial  (gills),  which  are  inclosed,  along  with  all 
the  other  soft  parts  of  the  body,  in  an  elongated 
shelly  tube. 

Dentex,  a  genus  of  acantliopterous  fishes  of  the 
family  of  Sparidce  (sea-breams,  etc.),  having  a 
deep,  compressed  body,  and  generally  perch-like 


Dentex. 


form;  a  single  dorsal  fin,  the  anterior  rays  of 
which  are  spinous;  scaly  cheeks;  and  many  small, 
conical  teeth,  among  which  are  in  each  jaw  at 
least  four  large  canine  teeth,  elongated  and  curved 
inward. 

Dentifrices  are  substances,  generally  powders, 
which  are  employed  as  aids  in  cleaning  the  teeth. 
Charcoal  and  cuttle-fish  bone-powder  are  useful 
as  detergents;  chalk  as  a  soft  powder;  and  pumice 
as  a  hard,  gritty  substance  for  occasional  use, 
when  the  teeth  are  more  than  ordinarily  colored. 
Catechu,  cinchona,  and  rhatany  are  employed  to 
give  astringency  to  the  tooth-powder;  myrrh,  to 
impart  odor,  and  bole  armeniac,  to  communicate 
a  red  color.  Common  salt,  cream  of  tartar,  phos¬ 
phate  of  soda,  and  sulphate  of  potash,  are  occa¬ 
sionally  used;  and  where  the  breath  has  an  un¬ 
pleasant  odor,  the  addition  of  four  parts  of 
bleaching-powder  (chloride  of  lime)  to  the  100 
of  the  tooth-pow'der,  removes  the  foetid  character 
of  the  breath,  and  also  tends  to  whiten  the  teeth. 

Den'tils  (Lat.  de/is,  a  tooth),  in  the  Ionic,  Cor¬ 
inthian,  and  composite  orders  of  architecture, 
are  ornaments  resembling  teeth. 

Dentine  is  the  thin  layer  of  cement  or  enamel 
which  more  or  less  coats  the  teeth  of  the  mam¬ 
malia. 

Den  'tistry,  the  art  of  the  dentist,  or  that  of 
treating  disease  in  the  teeth  {dental  surgery),  and 
of  replacing  these  organs  w'hen  lost  {mechanical 
dentistry). 

Den'tition,  Period  of  (Lat.  dentitio,  the  pro¬ 
cess  of  teething,  from  dens,  a  tooth).  The  period 
during  which  the  primary  or  milk  teeth  in  man 
and  most  mammals  are  grown,  shed,  and  replaced 
by  the  permanent  teeth.  See  Teeth. 

Denver,  James  W.,  born  in  Virginia  in  1881, 
went  to  California  in  1849,  •was  elected  to  Con¬ 
gress  in  1854,  and  in  1857-1858  was  Governor  of 
Kansas.  In  1861  he  was  commissioned  Brigadier- 
General  of  Volunteers.  He  introduced  in  Con¬ 
gress  the  first  Dill  looking  to  the  construction  of  a 
transcontinental  railroad.  The  city  of  Denver, 
Col.,  was  named  after  him. 

Denver,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Colorado,  fif¬ 
teen  miles  from  the  east  base  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  5,267  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Pop.  (1885),  78,000. 

Deo'dorizers  are  chemical  substances  em¬ 
ployed  to  obliterate  odors  arising  from  decaying 
organic  matter. 

Deoxida'tion  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
process  of  withdrawing  the  oxygen  from  a  com¬ 
pound. 

Department  (Fr.  departement),  a  term  used  to 
denote  a  territorial  division  in  France. 

De  Peyster,  John  Watts,  born  in  New  York, 
March  9,  1821,  wrote  several  historical  works, 
and  an  account  of  the  battles  of  the  Civil  War. 

Deplial  {Artocarpus  lakoocha),  a  tree  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  bread-fruit,  and  jack,  a 
native  of  the  south  of  India. 


DEPILATORIES. 


330 


DEUCALION. 


Depil'  atories,  or  Epil' atories  (Lat.  depilo, 
to  pull  out  the  hair),  are  chemical  agents  em¬ 
ployed  for  removing  superfluous  hair  from  the 
skin. 

Deploy',  as  a  military  movement,  is  a  spreading 
out  of  a  body  of  troops  in  such  a  way  that  it  shall 
display  a  wider  front  and  a  smaller  depth  than  it 
did  before  the  deploying. 

Depon'ent,  a  term  in  Latin  Grammar  applied 
to  verbs  having  a  passive  form  but  an  active  sig¬ 
nification. 

Depos'it  was  a  real  contract  of  the  civil  or 
Roman  law.  It  was  the  simplest  of  all  contracts, 
and  consisted  merely  in  the  delivery  of  an  article 
by  one  person  to  another,  to  be  kept  without  re¬ 
muneration,  and  to  be  restored  in  specie  as  soon  as 
the  depositor  should  require. 

Deposit,  a  term  much  used  in  Geology,  to 
characterize  those  rocks  which  have  been  formed 
from  matter  that  has  settled  from  suspension  in 
water. 

Deposition,  the  testimony  of  a  witness  set 
down  in  writing. 

Depot,  in  Military  matters,  is  a  name  some¬ 
times  given  to  a  place  where  army-stores  are  de¬ 
posited  during  war.  The  term  is  also  applied  to 
railway  stations,  but  improperly  so  if  used  exclu¬ 
sively  for  passengers. 

Depression,  or  Dip  of  tiie  Horizon,  is  the 
angle  through  which  the  sea-horizon  appears  de¬ 
pressed  in  consequence  of  the  elevation  of  the 
spectator.  The  true  dip  measured  in  minutes  is 
equal  to  the  distance  in  nautical  miles  of  the  visi¬ 
ble  horizon. 

De  (Juincey,  Thomas,  a  distinguished  English 
writer,  was  born  in  Manchester,  England,  Aug. 
15,  1786.  He  wrote  several  works,  the  most  noted 
of  which  is  the  Confessions  of  an  Opium  Eater. 
He  died  Dec.  8,  1859. 

Derby,  Edward  Geoffrey  Smith-Stanley, 
14th  Earl  of,  was  born,  1799,  at  Knowsley  Park, 
Lancashire,  England.  He  was  elected  member  of 
Parliament  for  Stockbridge,  in  1820;  and  1826,  he 
represented  Preston,  but  lost  his  scat  in  1830,  on 
becoming  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland  under  the 
administration  of  Earl  Grey.  A  seat  was  then 
found  for  him  at  Windsor.  He  took  a  distin¬ 
guished  part  in  the  debates  in  favor  of  the  Re¬ 
form  Bill,  and  signalized  his  Irish  administration 
by  two  bold  measures,  one  for  National  Educa¬ 
tion  in  Ireland,  and  another  relative  to  the  Irish 
Church  Temporalities.  In  1833  he  became  Sec¬ 
retary  of  State  for  the  Colonies,  and  in  the  same 
year  carried  the  bill  for  emancipating  slaves  in 
the  West  Indies,  and  providing  a  compensation  of 
$100,000,000  tot-lie  planters.  In  1834,  Lord  Stan¬ 
ley  seceded  from  the  Grey  ministry,  carrying 
with  him  Sir  James  Graham,  the  Duke  of  Rich¬ 
mond,  and  the  Earl  of  Ripon.  He  ever  afterward 
adhered  to  the  Conservative  party,  although,  in 
1834,  upon  the  dismissal  of  the  Melbourne  minis¬ 
try  by  William  IV.,  he  declined  to  join  the 
administration  of  Sir  Robert  Peel.  After  acting 
in  concert  with  the  opposition  for  seven  years,  he 
accepted  the  colonial  seals  in  the  Peel  administra¬ 
tion  of  1841,  and  held  them  for  four  years.  In 
December,  1845,  when  Sir  Robert  Peel  deter¬ 
mined  to  repeal  the  Corn  Laws,  he  retired  from 
the  Cabinet.  In  1846,  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  Protectionist  opposition,  which  waged  opposi¬ 
tion  to  the  free-trade  measures  of  Sir  Robert  Peel. 
He  was  now  regarded  as  the  leader  of  the  great 
Conservative  party.  In  1851,  on  the  death  of  his 
father,  lie  succeeded  to  the  Earldom.  In  Febru¬ 
ary,  1852,  on  the  resignation  of  Lord  John  Rus¬ 
sel,  he  was  entrusted  with  the  formation  of  an 
administration,  which  was,  however,  displaced 
in  December  following  by  a  hostile  vote  of  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  February,  1858,  he 
again  became  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury.  In 
June,  1859,  he  resigned.  He  returned  to  power 
in  1866,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Disraeli, 
passed  the  reform  measure  of  1867.  In  1868, 
lie  resigned  the  Premiership  in  favor  of  Mr.  Dis¬ 
raeli.  His  last  speech  in  Parliament  was  made 
(1869)  in  opposition  to  the  disestablishment  of  the 
Irish  Church.  He  died  Oct.  23,  1869,  and  was 
succeeded  in  the  earldom  by  his  son,  Edward 
Henry  Smith-Stanley.  The  present  Earl,  born 
in  1826,  has  held  cabinet  offices  in  both  Conserva¬ 
tive  and  Liberal  ministries. 


Dcr'by,  the  capital  of  Derbyshire,  England. 
Pop.,  80,000. 

Derby  Day  is  the  second  day,  the  Wednesday, 
of  the  summer  meeting  of  English  horsemen, 
which  takes  place  at  Epsom  in  Surrey,  usually 
toward  the  end  of  May,  but  sometimes  early  in 
June.  Upon  this  day,  the  most  important  on  the 
list,  and  that  on  which  the  best  three-year-old 
horses  run,  the  famous  Derby  stakes,  instituted 
by  the  Earl  of  Derby  in  1780,  and  which  consist 
of  fifty  sovereigns  each,  are  contended  for. 

Dermatol'ogy  (Gr.  dsp/ta,  the  skin,  JoyoS, 
a  discourse),  the  science  of  the  management  of 
the  skin  and  of  its  diseases. 

Dermatophytes  (Gr.  Seppa,  the  skin,  and 
< pvrov ,  a  growth  or  plant),  vegetable  growths, 
chiefly  of  the  lowest  of  cryptogamia,  inhabiting 
the  cuticle  or  epidermis,  and  giving  rise  to 
some  forms  of  skin-disease,  as 
favus  pityriasis,  ringworm. 

Deriues'tes,  a  genus  of  cole¬ 
opterous  insects  of  the  section 
1'entamera,  and  of  the  family 
Clavicornes.  Their  larva  feed 
mostly  on  dry  and  decaying 
animal  matter,  and  are  very 
voracious,  committing  great 
ravages  among  furs,  collections 
of  natural  history,  etc.  Dermestes  lardarius. 

Dermop  terous  (Gr.  skin-finned)  Fishes,  an 
order  of  fishes  with  cutaneous  vertical  fins,  in 
which  the  rays  are  extremely  soft  and  delicate,  or 
altogether  imperceptible,  and  further  character¬ 
ized  by  the  want  of  pectoral  and  ventral  fins. 

Der'rick,  a  mechanical  contrivance  similar  to 
the  crane,  but  able  not  only  to  raise  a  body,  but 
to  transport  it  from  one  place  to  another. 

Der'vish  is  a  Persian  word  signifying  poor, 
corresponding  to  the  Arabic  fakir.  In  Moham¬ 
medan  countries,  a  class  of  persons  resembling  in 
many  respects  the  monks  of  Christendom. 

Dervish  Pasha,  born  in  Servia  in  1817,  became 
one  of  the  most  prominent  generals  in  the  Turkish 
army,  and  equally  distinguished  in  the  diplo¬ 
matic  field. 

Der '  went  water,  or  Kes'wick  Lake,  a  lake  in 
the  south  of  Cumberland,  England. 

Denventvrater,  James,  Earl  of,  a  leader  in 
the  rebellion  of  1715,  and  the  last  Earl  of  Derwent- 
water,  was  the  descendant  of  an  ancient  North¬ 
umberland  family  named  Radclifle.  He  was  born 
in  1688,  and  executed  for  treason  in  1716. 

Desaix  de  Veygoux,  Louis  Charles  Antoine, 
a  general  of  the  first  French  Republic,  was  born 
at  St.  Hilaire-d’Ayat,  in  Auvergne,  Aug.  17,  1768. 
His  greatest  achievement  was  the  conquest  of 
Upper  Egypt  in  1799.  He  was  killed  at  Marengo 
in  June,  1800. 

Descartes,  Rene  (Latinized  into  Renatus  Car- 
tesius),  one  of  the  reformers  of  philosophy,  was 
born  March  31,  1596,  at  La  Haye,  in  Touraine, 
and  died  in  1650.  The  grand  object  toward  which 
Descartes  directed  his  endeavors  was  the  attain¬ 
ment  of  a  firm,  philosophical  conviction.  Hallam 
characterized  him  as  “the  pride  of  France,  and 
wonder  of  his  contemporaries.” 

Descent',  Line  of  the  Swiftest,  is  that 
by  which  a  body  falling  under  the  action  of 
gravity,  passes  most  quickly  from  one  point  to 
another. 

Des'ert-  (desertus,  solitary),  a  term  used  to  denote 
any  portion  of  the  earth’s  surface  which,  from  its 
barrenness,  is  unfitted  to  be  the  site  of  great  com¬ 
mercial  and  industrial  communities.  The  oases, 
which  are  occasional  spots  in  the  desert  where 
springs  arise,  and  where  the  waste  is  enlivened 
by  the  presence  of  vegetation,  are  usual!}’  lower 
than  the  general  level  of  the  surrounding  plain. 

Deser'tas,  three  rocky  islands  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  situated  to  the  southeast  of  Madeira,  in 
latitude  32^  31'  N.,  longitude  16C)  30'  W. 

Desic' cants,  in  Medicine,  are  substances  with 
astringent  properties,  which  are  serviceable  in 
checking  secretion  and  exhalation. 

Desicca'tion  is  the  process  of  drying  by  the 
employment  of  heat,  dry  air,  or  chemical  agents 
which  have  an  affinity  for  water. 

Design',  a  preliminary  work,  either  in  outline 
or  color,  in  which  the  conception  of  the  artist  is 
indicated,  and  more  or  less  fully  expressed.  An 
architectural  design  is  consequently  scarcely 
intelligible  on  first  sight. 


Desirade',  or  Dhsider'ade,  or  Desea'da,  the 
first  of  Columbus’  discoveries  during  his  second 
voyage,  lies  about  four  miles  to  the  east  of 
Guadeloupe,  of  which,  under  France,  it  is  a  politi¬ 
cal  dependency.  It  has  an  area  of  above  10 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  about  2,000. 

Des  Moines,  the  capital  of  Iowa,  situated  in 
Polk  county,  on  the  Des  Moines  and  Raccoon 
rivers.  The  new  capitol  is  a  very  handsome 
structure.  Pop.  (1888),  35,000. 

Desmon'cus,  a  genus  of  palms,  with  slender 
stems,  climbing  over  shrubs  and  trees,  like  the 
rattans  (Calamus)  of  the  East  Indies.  They  are 
the  only  American  palms  of  this  character. 

Desmoulins,  Camille,  one  of  the  prominent 
personages  of  the  French  Revolution,  was  born 
in  1762  at  Guise,  in  Picardy.  To  his  exaggerated 
denunciation  was  owing  that  outburst  of  popular 
fury  which  resulted  in  the  destruction  of  the 
Bastile  on  the  night  of  July  14,  1789.  In  the 
events  of  the  Champ  de  Mars,  Aug.  10,  1792, 
Desmoulins  took  a  leading  part,  but  was  less  im¬ 
plicated  in  the  September  massacres.  Elected  to 
the  National  Convention  by  the  people  of  Paris, 
he  voted  for  the  death  of  Louis  XVI.  Toward 
the  end  of  1793,  he  began  to  publish  Le  Vieux 
Corddier,  a  journal  which  recommended,  among 
other  things,  that  the  forms  of  justice  should  be 
restored,  and  attacked  the  members  of  the 
Comite  de  Salut  Public.  Twice  accused  before 
the  Jacobin  Club,  he  was  at  length,  on  the  night 
of  March  30,  1794,  along  with  Danton,  arrested, 
and  brought  before  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal. 
When  asked  his  age,  Desmoulins  replied:  “  J’ai 
l' dye  du  sans-culotte,  Jesus,  e’est-d-dire  trente-trois 
ans,  dye  fatal  aux  revolulionnairts.”  “I  am 
the  age  of  the  beggar,  Jesus — that  is  to  say,  thirty- 
three,  a  fatal  age  to  revolutionists.”  He  was  con¬ 
demned  without  a  hearing,  and  mounted  the  scaf¬ 
fold  along  with  Danton,  April  5,  1794.  His  wife, 
the  beautiful  Lucile  Duplessis,  vainly  endeav¬ 
ored  to  excite  an  insurrection  in  his  favor,  and 
a  fortnight  after  she  also  was  executed. 

De  Soto,  Fernando,  born  about  1500,  served 
under  Pizarro  in  Peru,  discovered  the  Mississippi, 
and  died  in  Louisiana  in  1542. 

Dessalines,  JAquES,  some  time  Emperor  of 
the  Island  of  Hayti  (St.  Domingo),  was  imported 
into  that  island  from  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa  as 
a  slave.  He  followed  the  fortunes  of  Toussaint 
1’Ouverture  till  his  chief  was  captured,  when  he 
took  advantage  of  the  amnesty  offered  the  rebels. 
After  heading  another  and  successful  insurrec¬ 
tion,  he  was  crowned  Emperor,  but  was  assasin- 
ated  by  his  successor,  Emperor  Henri  I. 

Des 'sail,  a  town  of  Northern  Germany,  and 
capital  of  the  Duchy  of  Anhalt.  Pop.  (1880), 
23,266. 

Detach  'rnent,  in  Military  matters,  is  a  small 
and  indefinite  number  of  troops,  sent  for  some 
special  duties  away  from  the  regiment,  brigade, 
division,  or  army,  as  the  case  may  be.  In  a  fleet, 
also,  a  detachment  of  one  or  more  ships  may  be 
told  off  in  a  similar  way. 

Deter 'minants,  the  name  given  to  a  new 
method  of  great  use  in  the  solution  of  equations 
embracing  several  unknown  quantities,  whereby 
the  student  can  almost  on  inspection  write  down 
the  values,  in  terms  of  the  known  quantities,  of 
each  of  the  unknown. 

Detona'tion  is  the  phenomenon  of  combus¬ 
tion  with  explosive  rapidity,  accompanied  by 
sound  and  light. 

Detri'tus,  applied  in  Geology  to  accumula¬ 
tions  formed  by  the  disintegration  of  rocks. 

Detroit  (French  for  strait)  is  that  part  of  the 
St,  Lawrence  which  discharges  Lake  St.  Clair 
into  Lake  Erie. 

Detroit,  the  chief  city  of  Michigan,  was 
founded  by  the  French  of  Canada  in  1670.  As 
late  as  1830,  Detroit  contained  only  2,222  inhabit¬ 
ants.  It  now  has  230,000.  Detroit  extends  for 
seven  miles  along  the  bank  of  the  Detroit  river, 
which  connects  Lakes  Erie  and  St,  Clair. 

Deuca'lion,  son  of  Prometheus,  and  husband 
of  Pyrrlia.  When  Zeus  had  resolved  to  destroy 
the  race  of  men  by  a.flood,  Deucalion  built  an 
ark  or  ship.  The  flood’ came.  Deucalion  floated 
about  for  nine  days,  and  on  the  subsidence  of  the 
waters,  the  ark  rested  on  Mount  Parnassus.  To 
repeople  the  world,  Deucalion  and  Pyrrlia  were 
told  by  the  goddess  Themis  to  throw  behind  them. 


DEUTERONOMY. 


331 


DIARRHCEA. 


the  bones  of  their  mother.  Understanding  by 
this  the  stones  of  the  earth,  they  obeyed  the  in¬ 
junction,  and  from  those  thrown  by  Deucalion 
sprang  up  men,  and  from  those  by  Pyrrha, 
women.  The  myth  is  a  comparatively  late  one. 

Deuteron'omy  (Gr.  Sevrepovopiov — i.e.,  the 
second  law)  is  the  name  given  to  the  fifth  book  of 
the  Pentateuch,  because  it  contains  a  repetition  of 
the  laws  which  had  been  already  promulgated. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  Moses  him¬ 
self,  excepting  the  last  four  chapters,  which  nar¬ 
rate  the  closing  events  of  liis  life. 

Development,  or  Embryology,  is  that  portion 
of  biological  science  which  seeks  to  investigate 
the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  organisin' 
during  the  whole  period  included  between  its 
first  coming  into  being  and  its  attainment  to  the 
adult  state. 

Device  (from  the  middle-age  Lat.  divisa ,  a 
drawing  or  design)  is  a  motto  expressed  by 
means  of  a  pictorial  emblem.  The  motto  proper 
originated  in  the  emblem,  a  written  inscription 
coming  to  be  added  to  the  pictorial  design. 

Devil,  or  Satan  (Gr.  5z«5oAos,  false  accuser; 
Heb.  satan ,  adversary),  designates  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  a  spirit  of  evil  who  has,  during 
unknown  ages,  ruled  over  a  kingdom  of  evil 
spirits,  and  is  in  constant  and  restlessly  active 
opposition  to  God. 

Dew,  moisture  from  the  atmosphere  condensed 
by  cool  bodies  on  their  surfaces,  particularly  at 
night. 

Dewberry  ( Rubug  ccesius),  a  plant  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  bramble,  and  nearly  allied  to  it. 
The  dewberry  of  this  country  (A.  procu mbens),  is 
a  delicious  fruit.  The  plant  is  of  humble  growth, 
scarcely  rising  above  the  ground.  It  contains  a 
useful  astringent  principle,  and  is  a  valuable  food 
for  infants  in  cholera  infantum. 

Dex'trine,  a  substance  made  by  heating 
starch  to  a  high  temperature  and  treating  it  with 
acids.  •  It  is  often  used  as  a  substitute  for  gum- 
arabic  in  the  processes  of  calico-printing,  and 
for  stiffening  different  goods;  it  is  also  applied  to 
the  back  of  postage  stamps. 

Dey,  a  word  of  doubtful  origin,  but  appro¬ 
priated  by  the  ruler  of  Tripoli,  and  also  of 
Algiers  until  its  conquest  by  the  French.  At  one 
period  Tunis  was  governed  by  a  Dey,  but  this 
title  has  been  supplanted  by  that  of  Bey. 

Dhuleep  Singh,  the  Maharajah,  an  Indian 
prince  born  in  1838.  He  became  nominally  a 
Christian,  was  pensioned  by  the  British  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  resided  many  years  in  England.  In 
1885  he  quarreled  with  the  English  Government, 
repudiated  Christianity,  sought  an  alliance  with 
Russia  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  restora¬ 
tion  of  his  dominions  in  the  Punjaub,  and 
attempted  to  return  to  India,  but  was  prevented. 

Dhwalagi'ri,  once  supposed  to  be  the  highest 
peak  of  the  Himalayas,  but  now  ascertained  to  be 
at  most  only  the  third  in  point  of  altitude,  is 
stated  at  26,826  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  latitude 
and  longitude  are  28°  42'  N.,  and  82°  32'  E. 

Diabe'tes(Gi\,  literally  a  syphon,  from  Sia, 
through,  and  (iaiveiv,  to  flow),  a  disorder  of  the 
general  system,  of  which  the  principal  symptom 
is  an  increased  flow  of  urine.  Diabetes  is  of  two 
distinct  kinds;  in  one  there  is  merely  excessive 
flow  of  urine  without  radical  change  of  constitu¬ 
ents;  m  the  other,  there  is  an  excessive  secretion 
and  excretion  of  saccharine  matter.  The  treat¬ 
ment  is  almost  entirely  dietetic  and  hygienic, 
medication  having  only  slightly  modifying  influ¬ 
ence. 

Diabet'ic  Sug'ar  is  a  variety  of  sugar  found 
in  the  blood  and  secretions  of  the  higher  animals, 
especially  when  afflicted  with  the  disease  called 
diabetes.  It  is  a  variety  of  grape-sugar  or  glu¬ 
cose. 

Diach'ylon  (Gr.,  literally,  from  juices — i.e., 
vegetable  juices,  a  deceptive  etymology,  as  the 
plaster  has  really  no  such  composition),  the  com¬ 
mon  healing  or  adhesive  plaster,  made  by  com¬ 
bining  litharge,  or  the  red  oxide  of  lead,  with 
olive-oil,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  soap. 

Di'adcm  was  the  name  given  to  the  fillet  of 
silk,  woolen,  or  linen  which  served  as  the  distin¬ 
guishing  ornament  of  kings.  It  was  generally 
narrow,  being  only  a  little  broader  on  the  fore 
head. 

Diaer'esis  (Gr.  Sicupo,  I  divide),  a  term  used  in  . 


grammar  to  signify  the  resolution  of  a  diphthong, 
or  of  a  contracted  syllable,  into  two  S3dlables;  as 
Latin  aurce  into  aural.  The  name  is  also  given  to 
j  the  mark  (”)  placed  above  a  vowel  letter,  to  indi¬ 
cate  that  it  is  to  be  independently  pronounced, 
and  not  in  conjunction  with  a  preceding  vowel; 
as  in  the  above  example,  or  in  the  word  aerial. 

Diagnosis  (Gr.  Sia,  through,  and  yvodi?, 
knowledge),  the  through-knowledge  or  thorough 
knowledge  of  a  disease,  embracing  its  points  of 
distinction  from  other  diseases,  its  symptoms, 

I  their  relation  to  one  another,  and  to  the  state  of 
the  different  organs  and  functions  of  the  body 
in  so  far  as  this  can  be  appreciated  during  life. 
Diagnosis  includes  the  study  of  all  the  vital  phe¬ 
nomena  of  diseases,  and  also  of  their  appearances 
after  death,  in  so  far  as  this  can  aid  their  discov¬ 
ery  during  the  life  of  other  patients. 

Diagonal,  in  Plane  Geometry,  is  a  straight 
line  joining  any  two  angles,  not  adjacent,  of  a 
rectilinear  figure.  A  line  drawn  between  two 
adjacent  angles  would  coincide  with  the  boun¬ 
dary-line. 

Dia  gonal  Scale,  a  system  of  lines  by  means  of 
which  hundredths  of  units  may  be  laid  down  or 
measured  with  compasses. 

Di'al.  A  sun-dial  is  an  instrument  for  meas¬ 
uring  time  by  means  of  the  motion  of  the  sun’s 
shadow  cast  by  a  stile  erected  on  its  surface. 

Dia'lect.  A  variety  or  peculiar  form  which 
the  language  of  a  people  assumes  in  various  por¬ 
tions  of  the  country  occupied  by  the  people. 

Di  'alogue,  a  conversation  between  two  or  more 
persons,  implying  greater  unity  of  subject  and 
formality  than  an  ordinary  conversation. 

Diam'eter,  in  Geometry,  is  generally  used  in 
speaking  of  curves,  and  its  most  general  defini¬ 
tion  is,  a  straight  line  bisecting  all  parallel  chords 
in  a  curve. 

Dia'iuond  (corrupted  from  Gr.  addpav r,  un¬ 
tamable,  refractory),  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
precious  stones,  and  the  hardest  of  all  known 
substances.  It  consists  of  carbon,  a  simple  or  ele¬ 
mentary  substance,  crystallized,  and  in  its  great¬ 


est  purity.  Diamonds  are  commonly  colorless 
and  clear  like  water;  although  sometimes,  from 
some  slight  foreign  intermixture,  they  are  white, 
gray,  yellow,  green,  brown,  and  more  rarely 
orange,  red,  blue,  or  black.  The  luster  is  ada¬ 
mantine  and  very  high;  the  transparency  perfect 
in  specimens  perfectly  free  from  foreign  substan¬ 
ces,  the  presence  of  which,  however,  even  in  very 
small  quantity,  mars  it,  and  sometimes  almost 


Rose-cut  Diamond. 


produces  opacity.  Diamonds  are  cut,  into  various 
forms,  but  principally  into  brilliants  and  rose 
diamonds.  The  brilliant  cut  is  the  most  expen¬ 
sive  and  difficult,  but  is  also  that  which  best 
brings  out  the  beauty  of  the  stone ;  it  has  an  upper 
or  principal  octagonal  face,  surrounded  with 
many  facets,  and,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
greater  the  number  of  facets  the  more  valuable  is 
the  diamond.  The  lapidaries  of  the  East  some¬ 
times  multiply  facets  to  hide  imperfections  of  the 


Square-cut  Brilliant. 

stone.  Rose  diamonds  have  a  flat  base,  above 
which  are  two  rows  of  triangular  facets,  the  six 
uppermost  uniting  in  a  point.  The  price  of  dia¬ 
monds  varies  according  to  the  supply  and  changes 
in  fashion,  and  is  now  lower  than  formerly. 


Dia'na,  a  Roman  goddess  corresponding  in 
most  of  her  attributes  to  the  Grecian  Artemis. 
According  to  the  myths,  she  was  the  daughter 
of  Jupiter  and  Latona,  and  the  twin-sister  of 
Apollo. 

Diapa'son,  a  term  in  music  by  which  the  an¬ 
cient  Greeks  designated  the  octave.  In  modern 
music,  diapason  is  used  to  denote  the  range,  or 
compass  of  the  voice,  or  of  an  instrument.  The 
French  use  the  term  as  equivalent  to  pilch. 

Di'aper  (Ital.  diasp  ro),  a  term  derived  from 
jasper  or  diasper,  which  stone  being  much  used  in 
ornamenting  jewelry,  originated  the  Middle  Latin 
name  diasprus,  for  a  texture  ornamented  or  varie¬ 
gated  in  an  analogous  way. 

Diaphan'oscope(Gr.  Sidpavovs,  transparent; 
dnoneo,  I  see),  a  dark  box,  suitably  constructed 
for  exhibiting  transparent  photographs  or  other 
pictures. 

Diaphoretics,  remedies  to  excite  the  secre¬ 
tions  of  the  skin.  The  simplest  of  all  external 
diaphoretics  are  baths,  which  may  be  either  warm 
baths  of  water,  or  of  vapor,  either  simple  or 
medicated.  Internal  diaphoretics  are  jaborandi, 
boneset,  antipyrene,  etc.,  and  any  hot  drinks. 

Di'apliragm  (Gr.  Sidcppaypa,  a  partition). 
This  is  the  name  applied  in  anatomy  to  designate 
the  transverse  muscle  which,  in  man  and  the 


The  lower  part  of  the  Thorax,  opened  to  show  the  upper 
side  of  the  Diaphragm  from  before. 
a,  sixth  dorsal  vertebra;  b,  fourth  lumbar  vertebra;  c , 
ensiform  cartilage :  del',  aorta;  e,  (Esophagus ;/,  open¬ 
ing  for  inferior  vena  cava.  1,  2,  3,  trefoil  tendon;  4, 
5,  central  portions  of  diaphragm;  6,  right,  and  7,  left 
crus  of  diaphragm. 

mammalia  generally,  separates  the  cavity  of  the 
thorax  or  chest  from  that  of  the  abdomen  or 
belly. 

Diarrhoe'a  (Gr.  Sia,  through,  and  peo,  I  flow), 
a  disease,  or  rather  a  tribe  of  diseases,-  character¬ 
ized  by  an  increase  in  the  discharges  from  the 
bowels,  which  are  usually  unduly  liquid,  some¬ 
times  overcharged  with  bile,  and  sometimes  the 
contrary.  Diarrhoea  has  many  varieties  and  many 
causes;  but  the  whole  tribe  of  diarrhoeal  diseases 
present  certain  relations  in  common,  which  have 
been  studied  to  a  considerable  extent  from  the 
preventive  or  sanitary  point  of  view.  Diarrhoea 
is  either  simple,  bilious,  or  choleraic.  Dysentery 
is  a  form  of  diarrhoeal  disease,  as  is  the  form  of 
fever  called  gastric,  typhoid,  or  enteric  fever. 
Simple  and  bilious  diarrhoea  often  differ  only  in 
degree.  When  diarrhoea  is  plainly  the  conse¬ 
quence  of  improper  food  or  drink,  when  it  is  very 
recent,  when  the  strength  of  the  patient  is  not 
much  impaired,  when  there  is  much  griping  pain 
or  distension  of  the  belly,  when  the  evacuations  are 
very  unnatural  in  character,  and  especially  when 
they  are  dark  colored  and  very  fetid;  when  the 
disease  has  been  preceded  by  habitual  constipation 
and  when  there  is  no  organic  disease  to  be  dis¬ 
covered,  it  is  well  to  let  diarrhoea  run  its  course,  at 
all  events  for  a  time,  and  either  to  aid  it  by  small 
doses  of  calomel,  podophylliu,  etc.,  or  to  abstain 
from  hastily  checking  the  discharge,  which 
in  these  cases  is  a  curative  and  beneficent  pro¬ 
cess,  calculated  to  disburden  the  system  of  some 
poisonous  or  deleterious  substance,  and  only 
requiring  time  for  the  restoration  of  the  patient  to 


DIARY. 


332 


DIGESTION. 


health.  In  other  cases,  especially  of  febrile 
diarrhoea,  an  emetic  of  ipecacuanha  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  will  sometimes  remove  the  disease;  and  in 
most  forms  of  diarrhoea  it  may  be  alleged  that 
this  medicine  (in  doses  of  from  one  to  five  or  even 
ten  grains)  is  well  borne.  Sometimes  it  is  com¬ 
bined  with  opium  in  the  form  of  Dover’s  powder. 
Vegetable  astringents,  as  catechu,  kino,  tannin, 
matico,  logwood,  are  also  much  employed 
in  chronic  cases;  some  prefer  the  acetate  of 
lead,  with  opium  (-which,  however,  is  perhaps 
more  suitable  to  dysentery).  In  some  forms  of 
diarrhoea  the  use  of  opium,  though  a  most  power¬ 
ful  remedy,  is  contraindicated  by  the  state  of  the 
constitution;  it  should  in  no  case  be  largely  given 
without  medical  advice. 

Di'ary  (Lat.  dia/rium,  from  dies,  a  day),  means 
simply  a  daily  record.  It  does  not,  however, 
comprehend  every  sort  of  daily  record,  but  only 
such  as  have  reference  to  the  writer  personally. 

Dlaschis'ma,  the  Greek  name  of  a  small  musi¬ 
cal  interval  which  only  appears  in  the  mathemati¬ 
cal  calculation  of  greater  intervals. 

Di'astase  is  a  peculiar  ferment  developed  dur¬ 
ing  the  germination  of  all  seeds. 

Diath  'esis  (Gr.  Sia,  through,  and  rtOepi,  I 
place  or  arrange),  a  Greek  word,  signifying  a  dis¬ 
position  or  arrangement,  and  applied  by  the  old 
medical  authors  to  the  predispositon  or  constitu¬ 
tion  of  the  body  which  renders  it  prone  to  certain 
diseased  states. 

Diatoma'cese,  or  Di' atoms,  a  group  of  organ¬ 
ized  beings,  now  generally  regarded  as  belonging 
to  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  ranked  as  a  sub¬ 
order  of  Algos;  but  formerly  reckoned  among  the 
animalcules,  a  view  of  their  nat  ure  still  entertained 
by  some  naturalists. 

Diaton'ic,  a  term  used  in  music,  from  the 
Greek,  meaning  “by  tones,”  or  “from  tone  to 
tone.” 

Di'atribe  (Gr.  Siarpifie,  a  disputation,  or  crit¬ 
ical  exercise),  was  a  name  originally  given  to  a 
critical  examination  of  a  literary  work,  and  at  a 
later  period  to  a  bitter  and  violent  criticism,  either 
written  or  spoken,  on  any  subject,  in  any  depart¬ 
ment  of  literature 

Diaz,  Bartolommeo,  a  Portuguese  navigator 
who  flourished  during  the  latter  half  of  the  fif¬ 
teenth  century.  He  took  a  great  interest  in  geo¬ 
graphical  discovery,  and  sailed  farther  south  .than 
any  former  navigator,  first  approaching  land  in 
20^  S  latitude.  He  sailed  round  the  southern 
extremity  of  Africa  without  suspecting  it,  and  cast 
anchor  at  the  mouth  of  the  Great  Fish  river,  a 
little  to  the  east  of  Algoa  bay.  He  was  lost  in  a 
storm  May  29,  1500. 

Diaz,  Porfirio,  three  times  President  of  the 
Republic  of  "Mexico,  was  born  in  1830,  fought 
under  Santa  Anna,  and  has  been  prominent  in 
revolutionary  movements. 

Dice  (plural  of  die),  small  cubes  of  bone  or 
ivory,  marked  on  their  six  sides  with  black  dots, 
from  one  up  to  six  in  number.  They  are  em¬ 
ployed  in  certain  games  of  chance,  the  throwing 
being  effected  by  means  of  a  small  tubular  box, 
which,  held  in  the  hand,  is  shaken  at  will  by  the 
player. 

Dichlamyd'eons  (Gr.  8iS,  twice,  and 
a  covering),  a  term  in  botany,  applied  to  those 
flowers  which  have  both  a  calyx  and  a  corolla. 
Flowers  in  which  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  very 
similar,  and  unite  to  form  a  perianth,  are  dichla- 
mydeous,  as  well  as  those  in  whictt  they  are  very 
different. 

Dichot 'onions  (Gr.,  divided  into  two  equal 
parts),  a  term  often  used  in  botanical  description 
to  designate  branching  by  repeated  forkings. 

Dickens,  Charles,  an  English  novelist,  born 
in  February,  1812.  He  served  for  a  time  as  a  re¬ 
porter  on  the  True  Sun,  and  later  attached  him¬ 
self  to  the  staff  of  the  Morning  Chronicle.  In 
this  newspaper  he  gave  the  first  evidence  of  his 
talents  in  the  essays  entitled  Sketches  by  Bos,  pub¬ 
lished  in  1836,  and  from  thence  devoted  his  life 
to  literary  work.  He  was  one  of  the  most  prolific 
writers  of  modern  times;  a  man  of  vivid  imagina¬ 
tion,  a  great  fertility  of  ideas,  and  his  numerous 
works  are  known  and  read  throughout  the  civil¬ 
ized  world.  He  died  on  June  9,  1870.  See  his 
Life,  by  Forster,  (3  vols.  1871-1874.) 

Diclinous  (Gr.  <5zS,  twice,  and  u\ ivy,  a  bed), 
.11  term  in  botany,  signifying  that  flowers  are  uni¬ 


sexual,  having  stamens  only,  or  pistils  only,  and 
opposed  to  monoclinous  or  hermaphrodite. 

Dicotyled'onous  Plants  are  those  of  which 
the  embryo  is  ordinarily  furnished  with  two  seed- 
lobes  or  cotyledons,  opposite  to  one  another,  or 
with  more  than  two,  which  in  that  case  are  verti- 
cillate.  In  general  there  are  only  two  cotyledons, 
a  greater  number  being  of  rare  occurrence,  but 
being  found  in  some  of  the  Comferm,  as  spruce, 
fir,  larch,  etc.,  in  Ceratophyllum,  etc. 

Di'cramun,  a  genus  of  mosses,  having  a  single 
peristome  of  sixteen  equidistant  bifid  teeth,  and 
the  cnlyplra  splitting  up  on  one  side  ( dimidiate ). 

Dicta 'tor,  in  the  earliest  times,  was  the  name 
of  the  highest  magistrate  of  the  Latin  Confedera¬ 
tion,  and  in  some  of  the  Latin  towns  the  title  was 
continued  long  after  these  towns  were  subjected 
to  the  dominion  of  Rome.  In  the  Roman  Re¬ 
public  the  dictator  was  an  extraordinary  magis¬ 
trate,  irresponsible;  and  endowed  with  absolute 
authority,  whose  original  name  was  maqister 
populi. 

Dictionary,  a  book,  the  words  in  which  are 
arranged  according  to  the  order  of  the  alphabet, 
with  explanations  or  definitions  attached  to  each. 

Dicy'nodon,  a  genus  of  fossil  reptiles,  whose 
remains  have  been  found  in  South  Africa. 

Didactic  Poetry,  that  kind  of  poetry  which 
aims,  or  seems  to  aim,  at  instruction  as  its  object, 
making  pleasure  entirely  subservient  to  this. 

Diderot,  Denis,  a  French  encyclopedist  and 
philosophical  writer,  wras  born  Oct.  5,  1713,  and 
died  July  30,  1784.  His  great  W'ork  was  the 
Encyclopedic,  of  w'hicli  he  and  D’Alembert  were 
the  joint-editors. 

Di'do,  or  Elis'sa,  according  to  the  legend,  the 
foundress  of  Carthage.  To  avoid  being  com¬ 
pelled  to  marry  Hiarbas,  she  stabbed  herself  on  a 
funeral  pile,  which  she  had  caused  to  be  erected, 
and  after  her  death  was  honored  as  a  deity  by  her 
subjects. 

Dieffenbacli.  Joh.  Fried.,  a  Prussian  surgeon, 
was  born  in  1792,  and  died  in  1847.  He  intro¬ 
duced  many  improvements,  particularly  in  the 
art  of  forming  new  noses,  lips,  eyelids,  and  the 
like,  as  wrell  as  in  cutting  the  muscles  for  squint¬ 
ing  and  stammering. 

Dieppe,  a  seaport  town  of  France,  in  the  De¬ 
partment  of  Seine-Inferieure,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
River  Arques,  on  the  English  Channel,  latitude 
49°  55',  longitude  1°  5'  E.  Pop.  (1881),  21,585. 

Die '-sinking,  the  art  of  engraving  the  die  or 
stamp  used  for  striking  the  impression  on  coins, 
etc.,  and  for  stamping  thin  plates  of  metal  into 
various  devices. 

Di  'es  Iraq  the  name  generally  given  (from  the 
opening  words)  to  the  mediaeval  hymn  on  the 
last  judgment.  On  account  of  the  solemn 
grandeur  of  the  ideas  which  it  brings  before  the 
mind,  as  well  as  the  emotions  it  is  fitted  to  excite, 
it  soon  found  its  way  into  the  liturgy  of  the 
church. 

Di  'esis,  a  term  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  in 
the  division  of  musical  intervals,  of  which  they 
had  three  varieties.  In  modern  music,  (he  diesis 
is  understood  to  be  the  difference  between  the 
small  and  the  great  semitone,  as  from  C  to  C 
sharp,  and  from  C  to  D  flat. 

Di  'et,  a  systematic  course  of  food  selected  with 
reference  to  a  particular  state  of  health  or  to  the 
labor  to  be  performed  by  man  or  beast. 

Diet  (German,  Reichstag).  The  diet  consisted 
of  three  bodies,  who  met  and  voted  in  separate 
colleges, — (1)  the  electoral  college,  (2)  the  princes 
of  the  empire,  spiritual  and  temporal,  (3)  the  free 
imperial  cities. 

Diffrac'tion,  or  Infi.ec'tion,  of  the  rays  of 
light.  It  was  observed  by  Grimaldi,  that  if  a 
beam  of  the  sun’s  light  be  let  into  a  dark  room 
through  a  small  hole,  the  shadows  of  things  in 
this  light  will  be  larger  than  they  ought  to  be  if 
the  rays  passed  by  the  bodies  in  straight  lines, 
and  that  these  shadows  have  three  parallel  fringes, 
bands,  or  ranks  of  colored  light  adjacent  to  them. 
This  phenomenon  was  originally  known  under 
the  name  of  diffraction,  and  was  supposed  to 
arise  from  the  refraction  of  the  atmosphere.  This 
explanation  was  disproved  by  the  observations 
of  Newton,  who  called  the  phenomenon  the  “in¬ 
flection  of  the  rays  of  light.”  It  is  now  identified 
with  a  larger  class  of  phenomena,  which  have 
been  much  more  completely  explained  in  the 


later  development  of  the  theory  of  light,  and  are 
assigned,  on  the  hypotheses  of  Fresnel,  to  the  in 
terference  of  undulations. 

Diffu'sion,  the  gradual  dispersion  of  particles 
of  one  liquid  or  gas  among  those  of  another,  or 
of  the  particles  of  a  solid  in  a  liquid  holding  it  in 
solution.  It  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in  ter¬ 
restrial  physics,  being  the  cause  of  the  uniform 
composition  of  the  atmosphere  at  all  elevations, 
and  one  of  the  causes  of  the  speedy  dissipation  of 
noxious  gases  and  vapors  in  the  open  air,  and  of 
the  nearly  uniform  saltness  of  the  sea,  etc.,  so 
necessary  to  animal  and  vegetable  life. 

Di'gest,  a  name  often  given  to  the  Pandects  of 
the  civil  or  Roman  law,  because  they  contained 
“  Legalia  prcecepta  excellenter  digesta.” 

Digcs'ter,  Papin’s,  is  a  strong  boiler  with  a 
closely  fitting  cover,  in  which  articles  of  food 
may  be  boiled  at  a  higher  temperature  than  212° 
F.  '  As  its  name  implies,  it  was  invented  by 
Papin,  and  a  common  form  is  the  autoclave, 
where  the  lid  can  be  turned  round  under  clamps 
or  ears,  and  thus  be  rendered  steam-tight. 

Diges'tion  is  the  process  of  appropriation  of 
food  and  its  subsequent  conversion  into  elements 
of  nutrition  for  the  circulatory  system,  by  the 
stomach,  with  its  cognate  and  accessory  organs. 
This  process  is  begun  by  what  has  been  termed 
“  prehension,”  which  in  man  is  accomplished  by 
means  of  the  hands,  lips,  anterior  teeth,  and 
tongue.  The  next  process  is  that  of  mastication, 
which  is  accomplished  by  the  teeth,  the  molars  or 
grinders  being  the  chief  actors  at  this  stage. 
During,  and  simultaneous  with,  mastication  the 
process  of  insalivation  begins  and  ends.  This  is 
done  by  means  of  the 
parotid ,  sub-maxillary, 

,  and  sub-lingual  glands, 
whose  function  is  to 
discharge  into  the 
cavity  of  the  mouth, 
for  admixture  with  the 
food,  a  fluid  c  a  1 1  od 
saliva,  which  not  only 
has  the  mechanical 
effect  of  softening  the 
food  into  a  pasty  mass, 
but  also  acts  chemically 
upon  it,  changing  its 
starch  into  sugar,  and  ( 
modifying  it  in  other 
ways  by  means  of  its 
constituents,  which  are 
largely  water  (995  parts) 
and  solid  matter  (5 
parts).  Two  of  the  A)! 
solid  constituents — 
ptyaline  and  sulpho- 
cyanide  of  potassium — 
are  found  nowhere  else 
in  the  body.  The  saliva 
also  has  an  alkaline  re¬ 
action,  which  varies 
with  the  differelit  kinds 
of  food  and  at  different 

stages  of  mastication.  TT  , 

j,  ^  i  „  Human  Alimentary  Canal. 

Having  undergone  a<  oesophagus;  b,  stomach;  c, 
mastication,  the  food  cardiac  orifice;  d,  pylorus;  e, 
is  pushed  by  the  small  intestine ;/,  biliary 
tongue  into  the  pharynx 

(the  palate  being  re-  verse  colon:  J,  descending 
moved  for  its  passage)  colon;  k,  rectum, 
wdience,  by  the  constrictor  muscles,  it  is  forced 
into  the  gullet  ((esophagus).  As  soon  as  the 
food  reaches  the  oesophagus,  this  organ,  by  agency 
of  its  mucous  membrane,  is  first  dilated,  and  then 
its  muscular  structure  contracts  and  forces  the 
food  into  the  stomach.  The  next  step  in  the 
process  is  chymification.  When  food  enters  the 
stomach,  which  is  an  elongated  pouch  of  a  curved 
shape,  the  mucous  membrane,  which  lines  it,  and 
which  consists  of  a  thick,  soft  fold  indented  with 
numerous  small  pits  or  cells,  is  stimulated,  and  at 
once  begins  its  office  of  secreting  the  gastric  juice. 
This  gastric  juice  consists  of  water,  pepsin, 
hydrochloric  acid,  chloride  of  sodium,  phosphates, 
with  other  indeterminate  matter,  and  its  office  is 
to  dissolve  the  albuminates  of  the  food  and  con¬ 
vert  them  into  peptones  and  (according  to  some 
authorities)  parapeptones.  These  peptones  are 
then  absorbed  by  the  capillaries  of  the  stomach 
and  pass  through  the  portal  vein  into  the  liver. 


DIGIT. 


333 


DIMINUENDO. 


where  they  are  further  modified  before  passing 
into  the  circulation.  (On  this  point  there  are  a 


Section  through  Mouth,  Nose,  etc. 
a,  sphenoid  bone;  6,  Eustachian  tube;  c,  soft  palate;  d, 
uvula;  e,  nasal  passage;/,  upper  jaw;  g,  lower  jaw;  h, 
epiglottis;  m,  mouth. 


variety  of  opinions  as  to  the  time  of  absorption 
of  the  peptones.)  Simultaneous  with  the  gastric 
digestion,  which  occupies  from  two  and  one-half 
to  four  hours,  a  muscular  action  of  the  stomach 
takes  place  which  forces  the  food  further  along 


The  under  surface  of  the  Stomach  and  Liver,  which  are 
raised  to  show  the  Duodenum,  and  Pancreas. 

St,  stomach;  p,  its  pyloric  end;  l ,  liver;  g ,  gall-bladder;  d, 
duodenum,  extending  from  the  pyloric  end  of  the  stom¬ 
ach  to  the  front,  where  the  superior  mesenteric  artery, 
8m,  crosses  the  intestines;  pa,  pancreas;  sp,  spleen;  a, 
abdominal  aorta 


the  intestinal  tract  into  the  small  intestine,  where 
it  undergoes  chylification.  The  structure  of  the 
small  intestine  consists  of  a  mucous  membrane 
composed  of  laterally-grouped  tubes  called  folli- 


Small  intestine 
distended  and 
hardened  by 
alcohol,  and 
laid  open  to 
show  the  valvu- 
1®  conniventes. 


Caecum  inflated,  dried,  and  opened 
to  show  the  arrangement  of  the 
valve. 

a,  termination  of  the  ileum ;  b,  as¬ 
cending  colon;  c,  caecum ;  d,  a  trans¬ 
verse  construction  projecting  into 
the  cscum;  <■/,  lips  of  the  valve 
separating  the  small  from  the 
large  intestine;  g,  the  vermiform 
appendix  of  the  cscum. 


cles  (Lieberkuhn’s),  and  projecting  bodies  termed 
villi,  which  contain  blind  canals  in  their  interiors 
called  the  lacteals.  What  the  exact  nature  of  the 


secretions  of  the  follicles  is  is  unknown,  but  in 
conjunction  with  the  other  minute  members  of 
their  system  they  form  the  intestinal  juice.  The 
villi  line  the  entire  length  of  the  small  intestine, 
and  their  office  is  to  assist  in  the  absorption  of 
chyle.  The  mucous  membrane  also  presents 
numerous  small  folds  in  its  surface,  whose  object 
is  to  assist  in  absorption  by  presenting  a  greater 
absorbent  surface.  The  submucous  tissue  con¬ 
tains  three  setsof  glands  called,  Brunner  s  gUnds, 
which  secrete  a  fluid  similar  to  the  pancreatic 
juice;  the  solitary  glands  and  Beyer' s glands ,  which 
appear  to  be  identical  in  texture  and  office,  which 
latter  is  not  known.  The  residue  from  the  gastric 
digest  ion  being  now  in  the  small  intestine,  is  ready 
for  the  action  of  the  bile,  which  enters  through 
the  biliary  duct,  and  is  supposed  to  promote  the 
digestion  of  fatty  matters;  also  the  pancreatic 
juice  comes  into  play  to  convert  into  sugar  the 
starchy  matters  which  have  escaped  the  action  of 
the  saliva;  and  lastly,  the  combined  secretions  of 
the  internal  structure  of  the  small  intestine,  called 
the  intestinal  juice,  is  poured  into  the  gut,  and  the 
chyle  is  ready  for  absorption  by  the  lacteals. 
The  residuum  of 
the  cliylic  digestion 
is  then  forced  by 
peristaltic  action  in¬ 
to  the  colon  or 
great  intestine, 
through  the  i 1 i o - 
csecal  valve,  and  ac¬ 
cumulates  at  the  end 
of  the  canal  (rec¬ 
tum),  whence  it 
is  discharged.  The 
chyle  passes  into  the 
lacteals  and  through 
the  mesenteric 
glands;  thence  to 
the  right  side  of  the 
aorta  or  great  artery 
where  it  is  received 
into  a  pouch  called 
the  receptaculum 
chyli;  thence 
through  the  thoracic 
duct,  upward  along- 
the  back-bone  to  the 
left  side,  where  it 
empties  into  the 
subclavian  vein. 

Hence  it  passes  alon 


Vertical  and  longitudinal  section 
of  the  small  intestine  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  jejunum, 
showing  the  general  arrange¬ 
ment  of  its  coats. 
a,  villi;  b,  intestinal  tubes  or 
follicles  of  Lieberkuhn;  c,  sub¬ 
mucous  areolar  tissue;  d,  cir¬ 
cular  muscular  fibers;  e ,  longi¬ 
tudinal  muscular  fibers. 

j  with  the  blood  to  the  lungs, 
where  it  is  thoroughly  incorporated  and  becomes 
a  part  of  the  circulatory  fluid,  and  the  process  of 
digestion  is  complete. 

Dig'it  (Lat.  digitus,  the  finger),  a  term  applied 
to  the  ten  symbols  of  number  0,  1,  2  etc.,  to  9; 
thus,  305  is  said  to  be  a  number  of  three  digits. 
Numbers  were  originally  indicated  by  the  fingers, 
and  hence  the  name.  Astronomers  use  digit  to 
signify  a  twelfth  part  of  the  diameter  of  the  sun 
or  moon,  and  speak  of  an  eclipse  of  seven  digits, 
meaning  that  seven-twelfths  of  the  diameter  is 
covered. 

DigitaTine,  is  an  active  principle  present  in 
Digitalis  purpurea,  or  foxglove. 

Digital'is,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Scrophulariacece,  natives  chiefly  of  the  South 
of  Europe  and  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  Its 
English  name  and  the  botanical  name  digitalis 
(Lat.  digitate,  the  finger  of  a  glove),  both  refer  to 
the  form  of  its  flowers.  It  is  a  most  useful  reme¬ 
dy  for  controlling  the  action  of  the  heart  by  slow¬ 
ing  and  at  the  same  time  strengthening  its  mus¬ 
cular  contraction. 

Digitigra'dn  (Lat.  finger-walking),  in  the  zo¬ 
ological  system  of  Cuvier,  one  of  the  tribes  of  the 
Carnivora,  distinguished  by  walking  on  the  toes 
alone,  the  heel  not  touching  the  ground.  Among 
the  digitigrade  quadrupeds  are  included  the  most 
carnivorous  of  the  Carnivora,  the  feline  and 
canine  families,  hyaenas,  civets,  weasels,  etc.  The 
weasel  family  (Mustclidce),  however,  forms  a  con¬ 
necting  link,  in  respect  to  the  character  derived 
from  the  mode  of  walking,  between  the  tribe 
digitigrada,  and  the  tribe  platigrada,  being,  in 
fact,  semi-plantigrade,  and  not  walking  on  the 
mere  tips  of  the  toes,  like  the  other  digitagrada. 

Di'liong,  or  Santo',  the  largest  feeder  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  rises  on  the  north  side  of  the  Hima¬ 
layas,  near  the  sources  of  the  Sutlej  and  the  In¬ 


dus,  in  latitude  30°  25'  N.,  and  longitude  82°  5' 
E.,  and  bursts  through  that  great  mountain  chain 
near  latitude  28®  15'  N.,  and  longitude  95°  10 ' 
E.,  having  pursued  through  Thibet  an  easterly 
course  of  about  1,000  miles. 

Dijon,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  Department  of 
Cote  d’Or,  formerly  capital  of  the  old  Duchy 
of  Burgundy,  in  latitude  47°  20'  N.,  and  longi¬ 
tude  5°  2'  E.,  and  about  195  miles  southeast  of 
Paris.  Pop.  (1881),  53,899. 

Dilem'ma,  a  conditional  syllogism,  with  two  or 
more  antecedents  in  the  major,  and  a  disjunctive 
minor.  The  following  dilemma,  of  the  kind 
called  destructive,  will  perhaps  convey  a  clearer 
notion  than  any  definition.  “If  this  man  were 
wise,  he  would  not  speak  irreverently  of  Script¬ 
ure  in  jest;  and  if  he  W'ere  good,  he  would  not  do 
so  in  earnest;  but  he  does  it,  either  in  jest  or 
earnest;  therefore,  he  is  either  not  wise,  or  not 
good.”  There  being  two  conclusions,  one  or  the 
other  of  which  your  opponent  must  admit,  he  is 
in  a  manner  caught  between  them;  lienee  we 
speak  of  the  horns  of  a  dilemma. 

I)ilettan'te(pl.  dilettanti,  Ital.),  in  its  original 
sense,  is  synonymous  with  an  amateur,  or  lover  of 
the  fine  arts.  It  is  often  used  as  a  term  of  re¬ 
proach,  to  signify  an  amateur  whose  taste  lies  in 
the  direction  of  what  is  trivial  and  vulgar,  or 
of  a  critic  or  connoisseur  whose  - knowledge  is 
mere  affectation  and  pretense. 

Dili  genee,  the  name  given  in  France  to  a  pub¬ 
lic  conveyance  of  the  nature  of  a  stage  coach. 
It  is  a  strongly  built  vehicle,  with  four  broad 
wheels,  and  is  drawn  by  four  horses.  It  consists  of 
three  chief  compartments;  the  front,  called  the 
coupe,  for  three  persons;  the  second,  called  the 
interieur,  for  six  persons;  and,  lastly,  the  rotonde, 
entered  from  behind,  for  six  persons.  Aloft,  in 
front,  is  the  banquette,  where  the  conducteur  is 
seated;  and  behind  this,  underneath  a  thick leatlier 
covering,  passengers  are  sometimes  huddled 
among  baggage. 

Dilke,  Sir  Charles  Wentworth,  editor  of 
the  London  Athenaium,  was  born  Sept.  4,  1843. 
He  entered  the  British  Parliament  in  1868,  and 
became  in  1882  a  member  of  Mr.  Gladstone’s 
cabinet. 

Dill  ( Anetlium ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natu¬ 
ral  order  Umbelliferce,  having  compound  umbels 
without  general  or  partial  involucres,  the  border 
of  the  calyx  minute,  but  five-toothed,  yellow, 
involute  petals,  and  dorsally  compressed  len¬ 
ticular  fruit. 

Dillenia  cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  chiefly  of  trees,  shrubs,  or  half- 
shrubby  plants,  natives  of  tropical  and  sub-tropi¬ 
cal  regions,  allied  to  the  natural  order  Ranuncu- 
laceat,  but  very  different,  in  general  habit,  and  also 
to  magnoliacece,  ■which  in  habit  they  more 
resemble. 

Dil  'man,  a  town  of  Northern  Persia,  in  the 
Province  of  Azerbijan.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Dil'uents  (Lat.  diluo,  I  dilute),  medicines  whose 
purpose  is  to  dilute  the  blood,  and  increase  the 
quantity  of  the  excretions  generally.  The  sim¬ 
plest  and  best  of  diluents  is  water;  but  all  watery 
fluids,  such  as  lemonade,  soda-water,  beer,  in¬ 
fusions  or  ptisans,  tea,  etc.,  may  be  regarded  as 
coming  under  this  designation. 

Dil  u '  vium,  a  term  formerly  given  by  geologists 
to  those  strata  which  they  believe  to  have  been 
formed  by  the  Deluge,  and  more  particularly  to 
the  bowlder  clay.  The  altered  opinions  as  to  the 
origin  of  these  beds  have  caused  the  -word  to  fall 
into  disuse.  When  the  adjective — diluvial — is 
employed  by  modern  writers,  it  is  to  characterize 
those  accumulations  of  gravel  or  angular  stones 
which  have  been  produced  by  sudden  or  extraor¬ 
dinary  currents  of  water. 

Dime,  the  tenth  part  of  a  dollar — ten  cents. 

Dimension.  In  Geometry,  a  line,  whether 
straight  or  curved,  has  only  one  dimension,,  or 
measurement — namely,  length;  a  surface  has  two 
— length  and  breadth;  and  a  solid  has  three  di¬ 
mensions — length,  breadth,  and  thickness,  or 
depth.  These  three  measurements  or  dimensions 
determine  all  forms  of  extensions. — In  Algebra, 
the  term  dimension  is  applied  in  much  the  same 
sense  as  degree,  to  express  the  number  of  literal 
factors  that  enter  into  a  term. 

Diininuen'do  (Ital.  diminishing),  a  term  in 
Mu$ic,  having  reference  only  to  the  power  of  the 


DIMINUTIONS. 


334 


DIONYSIUS  TIIRAX. 


sound,  and  in  no  way  affecting  the  tempo.  Di¬ 
minuendo  can  he  applied  to  a  single  note,  when  it 
is  a  long  note,  as  well  as  to  a  passage  of  many 
notes.  Diminuendo  is  so  nearly  of  the  same 
meaning  as  decrescendo,  that  it  is  frequently 
marked  with  the  same  sign,  ~~  — 

Diminutions,  a  word  sometimes  used  in  Her¬ 
aldry  for  differences,  marks  of  cadency,  and 
brisures,  indifferently. 

Dimin'utives,  are  forms  of  words,  chiefly  of 
•substantives,  in  which  the  primitive  notion  has 
become  lessened  or  diminished,  as  hillock  =  a 
little  hill.  With  littleness  is  associated  the  idea 
of  neatness,  and  also  of  needing  protection ;  hence 
diminutives  are  used  as  terms  of  endearment; 
sometimes  they  imply  contempt. 

Dim'ity,  a  stout  figured  cotton-fabric,  used 
chiefly  for  bed-hangings.  The  figure  or  stripe  is 
raised  on  one  side,  and  depressed  on  the  other,  so 
that  the  two  faces  present  reversed  patterns.  Dim¬ 
ity  is  commonly  white,  or  of  a  single  color;  but 
variegated  dimities  are  now  made,  the  pattern 
and  the  ground  being  of  different  colors. 

I)imor' plious  (Gr.  Si s,  twice;  ju opcpe ,  shape  or 
form)  is  the  term  applied  to  a  substance  when  it 
exhibits  the  property  of  crystallizing  in  two  dis¬ 
tinct  forms  or  systems. 

Dinagepore'  (Dindjpur),  capital  of  a  district  in 
the  Rajshahye  division  (Kucli  Behar)  of  Bengal, 
is  260  miles  north  of  Calcutta.  The  district  of 
the  above-mentioned  city  has  an  area  of  4,118 
square  miles  and  (1881)  a  pop.  of  1,514.346. 

Dina'ric  Alps,  that  branch  of  the  Alpine  sys¬ 
tem  which  connects  the  Julian  Alps  with  the 
western  ranges  of  the  Balkan. 

Diu'go  ( Cams  dinrjo),  the  native  dog  of  Aus¬ 
tralia,  regarded  by  some  naturalists  as  a  distinct 
species,  by  others  as  a  mere  variety  of  Ganis 
familiaris.  It  exists  both  in  a  wild  and  in  a 


domesticated  state.  The  domesticated  dingo  is 
about  the  size  of  a  shepherd’s  dog,  the  wild  one 
is  larger. 

Dinor'nis  (Gr.  Shvol,  terrible  or  wonderful, 
and  opvil,  a  bird),  a  genus  of  large  birds  of  the 
tribe  Brevipennes,  of  which  no  species  is  now 
known  to  exist,  but  of  which  the  bones  have  been 
found  in  New  Zealand,  in  the  most  recent  de¬ 
posits,  in  the  sand  of  the  sea-sliore,  in  swamps, 
etc.,  concerning  which,  with  other  large  birds 
nearly  allied  to  them  (Palapteryx  and  Aptornis), 
traditions  are  still  current  among  the  natives, 
rendering  it  probable  that  they  continued  to  in¬ 
habit  New  Zealand,  if  not  to  the  eighteenth,  at  least 
to  the  seventeenth  century.  The  name  by  which 
these  birds  are  known  in  the  traditions  of  New 
Zealand  is  Mna.  They  are  described  as  having 
been  stupid,  fat,  and  indolent  birds,  incapable  of 
flying,  living  in  forests  and  mountain  fastnesses, 
and  feeding  on  vegetable  food.  These  bones  are 
not  properly  fossil  or  mineralized,  but  retain 
great  part  of  their  animal  matter.  It  is  even 
thought  not  impossible  that  some  of  the  smaller 
species  of  dinornis  may  yet  be  found  alive.  They 
much  exceeded  in  size  any  existing  bird,  some 
of  the  bones  being  at  least  twice  the  size  of  those 
of  the  ostrich.  Dinornis  giganteus  must  have 
stood  at  least  ten  and  one-half  feet  in  height. 

Dinosau'ria  (Gr.  terrible  or  wonderful  liz¬ 
ard),  an  order  of  extinct  lizards,  which  are  found 
in  the  lias,  oolite,  and  weaUlen  beds.  They  were 
gigantic  reptiles,  with  a  structure  approaching 
nearer  to  the  mammalian  type  than  any  other  of 
their  class.  Their  bodies  were  supported,  at  a 
considerable  height,  on  four  strong  limbs,  and  the 
sacrum  was  composed  of  five  amalgamated  verte¬ 


bra;.  The  principle  genera  are  megalosaurus, 
iguanodon,  and  liylreosaurus. 

Dinothe'rium  (Gr.  terrible  or  wonderful 
beast),  an  extinct  animal,  the  cranial  bones  of 
which  are  found  in  the  miocene  formations  of 
Germany,  France,  etc.  The  animal  was  provided, 
like  the  elephant  and  walrus,  with  a  pair  of  long 
tusks;  but  these  projected  from  the  end  of  the 
lower  jaw,  which  is  deflected  downward  at  a 
right  angle  to  the  body  of  the'jaw.  The  nasal 
cavity  is  large,  apparently  supplying  attachment 
for  a  trunk,  as  in  the  elephant.  No  body  or  limb 


bones  have  yet  been  found  so  associated  with 
those  of  the  skull  as  to  show  that  they  belong  to 
the  same  animal.  Hence  the  true  position  of  the 
dinotherium  has  not  been  satisfactorily  deter¬ 
mined.  Cuvier  and  Kaup  have  referred  it  to  the 
neighborhood  of  the  tapir,  supposing  it  to  have 
been  an  inhabitant  of  large  lakes. 

Dio'cesan  is  a  bishop  viewed  in  relation  to  his 
own  clergy  or  flock. 

I)i  'ocese  (Fr.  from  Gr.  Stoixedi?,  administra¬ 
tion,  and  SioiKEiv,  to  govern),  the  territory  over 
which  a  bishop  exercises  ecclesiastical  jurisdic¬ 
tion. 

I)i  'odon  (Gr.  two-toothed),  a  Linnsean  genus  of 
fishes,  now  giving  its  name  to  a  family,  Diodon- 
tidce  ( Gymnodontes  of  Cuvier),  of  the  order  l'lec- 
tognathi.  The  fishes  of  this  family  have  no  dis¬ 
tinct  teeth,  but  their  jaws,  which  are  shaped  like 
the  beak  of  a  parrot,  are  covered  with  a  substance 
like  ivory,  formed  of  the  teeth  consolidated  to¬ 
gether. — The  sunfish  belongs  to  this  family. 

Diodo  'rns  Sic '  ulus,  a  Greek  historian,  born  at 
Agyrium,  in  Sicily.  He  lived  in  the  times  of 
Julius  and  Augustus  Caesar,  traveled  in  Asia  and 
Europe,  and  lived  a  long  time  in  Rome,  collecting 
the  materials  of  his  great  work,  the  compilation 
of  which  occupied  thirty  years.  This  work,  the 
Bibliotheca,  or  library,  was  a  history  of  the  world, 
ifTforty  books,  from  the  creation  to  the  Gallic 
Wars  of  Julius  Caesar. 

Dioe'cious  (Gr.dfS,  twice;  and  oixiov,  a  habita¬ 
tion),  in  Botany,  a  term  applied  either  to  plants  or 
flowers,  when  not  only  the  flowers  but  the  indi¬ 
vidual  plants  are  unisexual — i.  e.,  when  male  and 
female  flowers  are  produced  upon  separate  plants. 

Diocletia'nus,  Valerius,  born  near  Salona, 
in  Dalmatia,  245  a.d.  Fie  adopted  a  military 
career,  and  served  with  distinction  under  Probus 
and  Aurelian,  accompanied  Carus  on  his  Persian 
campaign,  and  finally,  on  the  murder  of  Numeri- 
anus  having  been  discovered  at  Chalcedon,  he  was 
proclaimed  Emperor,  in  284,  by  the  army  on  its 
homeward  march.  In  286  Diocletianus  reserved 
for  himself  the  charge  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  and 
gave  the  Western  to  Maximian.  In  292  Constan- 
tius  Chlorus  and  Galerius  were  proclaimed  as 
Caisars,  and  the  distribution  of  the  Roman  Empire 
was  now  fourfold:  Diocletianus  taking  the  East, 
with  Nicomedia  as  his  seat  of  government ;  Max¬ 
imian,  Italy  and  Africa,  with  Milan  as  his  res¬ 
idence;  Constantins,  Britain,  Gaul,  and  Spain, 
with  Treves  as  his  headquarters;  Galerius,  Illyri- 
cum  and  the  entire  valley  of  the  Danube,  with 
Sirmium  as  his  imperial  abode.  Among  the  con¬ 
quests  made  under  his  rule  may  be  enumerated 
that  of  Britain;  that  of  the  Persians,  who  were 
defeated  and  compelled  to  capitulate,  in  298;  and 
that  of  the  Marcomanni,  and  others  of  the  north¬ 
ern  barbarians,  who  were  driven  beyond  the 
Roman  frontier.  Diocletianus,  after  twenty-one 
years’  harassing  tenure  of  government,  on  May 
1,  305,  abdicated  the  imperial  throne,  at  Nico¬ 
media,  and  compelled  his  colleague,  Maxim¬ 
ian,  to  do  likewise  at  Milan.  Two  years  before 
his  abdication  he  was  instigated  by  his  colleague, 


Galerius,  to  that  determined  and  sanguinary  per¬ 
secution  of  the  Christians,  for  which  his  reign  is 
chiefly  memorable.  He  died  in  313. 

Diog'enes  Laer'tius,  the  author  of  a  biograph¬ 
ical  history  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  born  at 
Laerta,  in  Cilicia.  His  name  has  been  kept  alive 
by  his  Lives  of  the  Philosophers. 

Di'omede  Islands,  a  group  about  the  middle 
of  Behring’s  Strait.  Their  central  point  is  in  65° 
46'  N.  latitude,  and  168°  55'  W.  longitude. 

Diome'des,  the  bravest,  after  Achilles,  of  all 
the  Greeks  who  took  part  in  the  Trojan  War.  His 
exploits  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  record 
of  the  heroic  deeds  sung  by  Homer  in  the  Iliad. 

Diog  'enes,  the  Cynic  philosopher,  was  born 
about  412  b.c.  From  being  an  extravagant  de¬ 
bauchee,  he  plunged  into  the  opposite  extreme  of 
austerity  and  self-mortification.  He  would  roll  in 
hot  sand  during  the  heat  of  summer;  in  winter,  he 
would  embrace  a  statue  covered  with  snow.  His 
clothing  was  of  the  coarsest,  his  food  of  the 
plainest.  Ilis  bed  was  the  bare  ground,  whether 
in  the  open  street  or  under  the  porticoes.  His 
permanent  residence  (if  such  it  could  be  called) 
was  a  tub  which  belonged  to  the  Metroum,  or  the 
temple  of  the  Mother  of  the  Gods.  He  was  seized 
by  pirates  on  a  voyage  to  FEgina,  and  carried  to 
Crete,  where  he  was  sold  as  a  slave.  His  purchaser 
was  Xeniades  of  Corinth;  but  the  slave  soon  came 
to  rule  the  master,  acquired  his  freedom,  was  ap¬ 
pointed  tutor  to  the  children,  and  spent  his  old 
age  as  one  of  the  household.  He  died  in  323. 

Di'on  Cas'sius  Cocceia'nus,  a  Greek  his¬ 
torian,  born  155  a.d.  He  held  various  high 
offices  of  State  under  the  Roman  Emperors,  was 
twice  consul,  and  enjoyed  the  intimate  friendship 
of  Septimius  Sever®.  He  is  best  known  by  his 
History  of  Rome,  in  eighty  books,  of  which  only 
eighteen  (from  the  36tli  to  the  54tli)  have  reached 
us  complete. 

Bi'on  Clirysos'tomus  (Golden-mouthed),  an 
eminent  Greek  rhetorician,  was  born  at  Prusa,  in 
Bithynia,  toward  the  middle  of  the  first  century. 
He  died  at  Rome,  about  117  a.d. 

Dion  'sea,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Droseracece,  having  a  5-partite  calyx,  5  petals,  10 
to  20  stamens,  and  1  style,  with  5  closely  united 
stigmata.  Only  one  species  is  known,  D. 
muscipula,  sometimes  called  Venus’  fly-trap  and 
the  Carolina  catcli-fly  plant,  it  grows  in  marshy 
places  in  the  Southern  States,  and  is  a  perennial 
plant,  with  a  rosette  of  root-leaves. 

Diony 'sius,  the  Areopagite,  is  mentioned  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (chap,  xvii,  verse  34)  as 
one  of  the  few  persons  in  Athens  converted  to 
Christianity  by  Paul.  Tradition  declares  that  the 
Apostle  installed  him  as  the  first  Bishop  of 
Athens,  and  that  he  suffered  the  fate  of  a  martyr. 

Dionysius,  the  Elder,  tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
was  bo*rn  431  or  430  b.c.  In  397  b.c.  lie  made 
war  with  the  Carthaginians,  was  defeated,  and 
afterward  obtained  a  complete  victory  over  them. 
In  393  and  392  hostilities  were  renewed;  a  peace 
advantageous  to  Dionysius  was  made.  He  in¬ 
vaded  Southern  Italy  in  387,  and  in  368  again 
turned  his  arms  against  the  Carthaginians.  He 
died  in  367. 

Dionysius,  the  Younger,  son  of  the  preced¬ 
ing,  celebrated  his  entrance  into  public  iife,  367 
b.c.,  by  a  splendid  festival,  which  lasted  ninety 
days.  He  was  an  ignorant  profligate,  and  was 
soon  driven  from  his  throne  and  country  by  the 
people.  He  died  at  Corinth  about  342. 

Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  a  critic,  his¬ 
torian,  and  rhetorician,  born  about  the  middle  of 
the  century  before  Christ.  He  came  to  Rome  29 
b.c. ,  and  resided  there  twenty-two  years.  His 
most  valuable  work  is  his  Archeologia. 

Dionysius  Exiguus,  one  of  the  chief  scholars 
of  the  sixth  century  a.d.,  called  “  the  little,” 
either  in  reference  to  his  stature,  or  his  great 
humility,  was  born  in  Scythia.  He  lived  at 
Rome  in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century.  He 
was  a  great  theologian  and  astronomer,  and  pub¬ 
lished  a  collection  "of  ecclesiastical  canons.  It  was 
he  who  introduced  reckoning  of  time  by  the 
Christian  era.  He  died  about  a.d.  545. 

Dionysius  Tlirax,  a  grammarian  of  the  second 
century  a.d.,  born  at  Alexandria.  His  Ars  Gram- 
matica,  published  about  180  a.d.,  is  the  fountain¬ 
head  of  all  grammar. 


DIOPHANTINE  ANALYSIS. 


335 


DIRECTOR. 


Diophan'tine  Anal'ysis  is  that  section  of  the 
theory  of  unlimited  or  indeterminate  problems 
■which  attempts  to  find  rational  and  commensur¬ 
able  values  answering  to  certain  equations  be¬ 
tween  squares  and  cubes.  This  class  of  problems 
was  first  and  chiefly  treated  of  by  Diopliantus, 
who  has  given  his  name  to  the  theory  of  their 
solution. 

Dioplian'tus,  a  Greek  mathematician,  lived  at 
Alexandria  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  or 
fifth  century.  lie  is  commonly  represented  as 
the  inventor  of  algebra,  but  he  himself  speaks  of 
that  science  as  known  before  his  time. 

Diop'sis,  a  genus  of  dipterous  insects  of  the 
same  family  with  the  house-fly,  remarkable  for 
the  prodigious  prolonga¬ 
tion  of  the  sides  of  the 
head,  so  as  to  form  stalks 
for  the  eyes,  which  are 
thus  removed  to  a  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  body  of 
the  insect,  almost  equal¬ 
ing  in  some  species  the 
length  of  its  wings. 

Diop'trics  is  that 
branch  of  geometrical 
optics  which  treats  of  the 
transmission  of  rays  of 
light  from  one  medium  Diopsis  ichneumonia. 
into  another,  differing  in  L  magnified;  2, natural  size 
kind.  It  consists  of  the  results  of  the  application 
of  geometry  to  ascertain,  in  particular  cases,  the 
.action  of  the  laws  of  refraction. 

Dioscoreace'ae,  a  natural  order  of  plants,  of 
which  the  genus  Dioscorea  is  the  type.  They  are 
twining  shrubs,  with  large  tubers,  either  above 
or  below  ground.  They  are  generally  classed 
with  endogenous  plants;  they  are  among  the 
Didyogens  of  Lindley.  The  most  important 
plants  of  the  order  are  the  different  species  of 
Dioscorea  or  Yam.  Testudinaria  elephantipes,  a 
South  African  species,  sometimes  called  Ele¬ 
phants’  foot,  and  Hottentots’  bnatl,  has  a  large, 
fleshy  rhizome,  with  a  rough,  cracked  bark, 
which  is  used  as  food  by  the  Hottentots  in  times 
of  scarcity. 

Dioscor 'ides,  Pedanitts,  or  Pedacitjs,  aGreek 
physician  of  the  first  or  second  century.  He 
accompanied  the  Roman  armies  as  physician 
through  many  countries,  and  collected  a  great 
store  of  information, from  personal  observation,  on 
plants.  In  his  great  work,  De  Materia  Medica, 
he  treats  of  all  the  then  known  medicinal  sub¬ 
stances  and  their  properties,  real  or  reputed,  on 
the  principles  of  the  so-called  “humoral  path¬ 
ology.” 

Dip,  in  Geology,  is  the  inclination  of  strata 
downward  into  the  earth.  The  amount  or  angle 
of  dip  is  the  degree  of  deviation  from  a  level  line, 
or  the  plane  of  the  horizon.  The  point  of  dip  is 
the  point  of  the  compass  to  which  the  dip  is 
inclined. 

Diphthe'ria,  or  Diputheri ' tis  (Fr.  diphthe- 
rite,  from  Gr.  dipQepa,  a  pellicle),  applied  to*a 
form  of  sore  throat  occurring  epidemically, 
chiefly  in  children,  and  apt  to  be  confounded 
both  with  croup  and  with  malignant  sore  throat 
(Angina  maligna),  as  it  is  found  in  connection 
with  scarlet  fever.  This  disease  appears  to  be  grad¬ 
ually  developing  into  more  serious  and  virulent 
proportions  than  it  formerly  attained.  It  seems 
to  have  no  relation  to  the  climate  or  condition  of 
the  atmosphere.  It  appears  as  frequently  in  the 
warm  as  it  does  in  the  cold  countries,  and  is  dan¬ 
gerous  because  the  subject  is  not  likely  to  detect 
radical  symptoms  before  the  malady  has  obtained 
a  firm  hold.  The  patient  becomes  feverish  and 
displays  a  tendency  to  hoarseness.  The  glands 
just  beneath  the  jaw-bone  become  enlarged,  and 
the  neck  grows  stiff.  Such  symptoms  should 
arouse  suspicion,  and  incite  an  investigation. 
Holding  the  root  of  the  tongue  down  with  a 
spoon,  carefully  examine  the  throat  in  search  for 
little  white  spots  in  the  'mucous  membrane  about 
the  fauces,  and,  if  the  spots  be  present,  the  dis¬ 
ease  is  under  headway  and  the  patient  can  be 
saved,  if  saved  at  all,  only  by  the  most  efficient 
and  prompt  measures;  hence,  the  family  physi¬ 
cian  should  be  summoned  at  once.  Females  are 
more  inclined  to  diphtheria  than  males;  but,  in 
every  case,  the  weak  are  more  severely  attacked 
than  the  strong.  Diphtheria,  in  its  epidemic 


form  at  least,  is  now  classed  among  the  germ 
diseases. 

Diph'tliong  (Gr.  having  a  double  sound) 
means  two  vowel  sounds  following  one  another 
so  closely  as  to  form  but  one  syllable,  as  in  out. 
In  this  combination  the  sound  is  really  composed 
of  an  a  as  heard  in  father,  and  a  v  as  heard  in 
put.  Many  double  vowels  in  English  are  not 
real  diphthongs,  there  being  only  one  sound 
heard. 

Diplacan'thus,  a  genus  of  fossil  ganoid 
fishes,  peculiar  to  the  old  red  sandstone,  in  which 
six  species  have  been  found. 

Diplograp'sus,  a  genus  of  fossil  zoophytes, 
differing  from  the  graptolite  in  having  a  double 
series  of  cells.  They  are  found  in  great  abund¬ 
ance  in  the  anthracitic  shales  of  the  Silurian 
measures. 

Diplo  'ilia  (Gr.  SinXo/ia ,  a  doubling).  This 
term  originated  in  the  ancient  custom  of  writing 
solemn  documents  on  two  tablets  of  wax,  which 
were  doubled,  or  laid  one  upon  the  other,  or  on 
writing  material  which  was  folded.  Diplomas 
were  given  to  couriers,  to  enable  them  to  procure 
the  use  of  the  public  servants  and  horses;  hence 
diploma  came  to  signify  a  royal  charter  or 
prince’s  letters-patent.  The  term  is  now  mostly 
applied  to  instruments  given  by  universities  anil 
other  learned  societies,  in  proof  of  the  holder 
having  attained  a  certain  degree;  or  to  the 
licenses  held  by  professional  persons  to  practice 
their  art. 

Diplo'macy,  the  art  of  managing  the  inter¬ 
course  and  adjusting  the  relations  of  foreign 
states,  by  means  of  ambassadors,  envoys  extra¬ 
ordinary,  consuls,  etc.  The  principles  and  rules 
of  diplomacy  are  embodied  partly  in  those  inter¬ 
national  customs  and  usages  which  constitute 
what  maybe  called  common,  and  in  those  treaties 
which  may  be  regarded  as  statute  international 
law. 

Diplop'terus,  a  genus  of  fossil  ganoid  fishes, 
four  species  of  which  have  been  discovered  in  the 
old  red  sandstone  and  two  in  the  carboniferous 
series. 

Dipper  (C'inclus),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
thrush  family  ( Merulidce ),  distinguished  from 
the  other  birds  of  that  family  by  an  almost 
straight,  compressed,  sharp-pointed  bill,  and  still 
more  by  their  manners  and  habits.  They  fre¬ 
quent  streams  and  lakes,  feeding  chiefly  on 
mollusks  and  on  aquatic  insects  and  their  larvae, 
which  they  seek  even  under  water,  diving  with 
great  facility.  They  carry  their  rather  short  tail 
elevated  after  the  manner  of  wrens,  which  they 
also  resemble  in  their  “  frequent  becks”  or  dipping 
of  the  head,  accompanied  with  an  upward  jerk¬ 
ing  of  the  tail. 

Dip 'ping-needle.  If  a  magnetic  needle  be 
supported  so  as  to  be  free  to  move  vertically,  it 
does  not  at  most  places  on  the  earth’s  surface  rest 
in  a  horizontal  position,  but  inclines  more  or  less 
from  it.  If  the  vertical  plane  in  which  the 
needle  moves  is  the  magnetic  meridian  of  the 
place,  the  angle  between  the  needle  and  the  hori¬ 
zontal  line  is  called  the  dip  or  inclination  of  the 
needle.  Thus,  if  the 
needle,  NS,  be  sup¬ 
ported  at  its  center,  C, 
so  as  to  be  free  to  move 
vertically,  the  plane  of 
the  paper  being  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  that  of  the 
magnetic  meridian,  the 
angle  NCa  is  the  dip. 

The  dip  of  the  mag 
netic  needle  at  any 
place  can  be  ascer¬ 
tained  by  means  of 
the  dipping-needle.  It  consists  of  a  graduated 
circle,  AA,  fixed  vertically  in  the  frame,  FF,  and 
moving  with  it  and  the  vernier  Y,  on  the  hori¬ 
zontal  graduated  circle  HII.  This  last  is  sup¬ 
ported  by  a  tripod  furnished  with  leveling  screws. 
At  the  center  of  the  circle,  C,  there  are  two 
knife-edges  of  agate,  supported  by  the  frame, 
and  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  circle.  The 
needle,  NS,  rests  on  these  knife-edges  by  means 
of  two  fine  polished  cylinders  of  steel,  which  are 
placed  accurately  at  the  center  of  the  needle,  and 
project  at  right  angles  from  it.  So  adjusted,  the 
needle  moves  with  little  or  no  friction.  It  is  so 


made  that  before  being  magnetized  it  remains 
indifferently  in  any  position;  after  magnetization. 


Dipping-needle. 

AA,  graduated  circle,  showing  degrees,  minutes  and  sec¬ 
onds;  FP,  frame;  HH,  horizontal  graduated  circle; 
V,  vernier  on  circle  HH;  C,  center  of  circles;  NS, 
magnet  resting  on  agate  knife-edges. 


therefore,  the  dip  which  it  shows  is  wholly  due 
to  the  magnetic  influence  of  the  earth. 

Dip'sas  (Gr.  a  kind  of 
serpent),  a  genus  of  non- 
venomous  serpents  of  the 
family  Golub)  idee,  of  very 
elongated  form,  and  with  a 
thick,  broad,  and  obtuse 
head.  They  are  tree- 
snakes,  inhabitants  chiefly 
of  the  warm  parts  of  Asia 
and  America.  Some  of  the 
species  are  of  great  size. 

The  figure  represents  a 
large  and  beautiful  species 
found  in  Java  and  Suma¬ 
tra. 

Dipsoina'nia,  or  Oino- 
ma'nia,  from  the  Greek 
words  di7Cia,  thirst,  or 
ozVoS.wine,  and  pccvioc,  de¬ 
note  an  irresistible  or  insane  ' 
craving  for  alcoholic 
stimulants,  when  occurring  Dipsas  cyanodon. 
in  a  habitual  or  confirmed  form,  and  requiring 
confinement  or  restraint  of  the  person  for  its 
cure. 

Dip'  tera  (Gr.  two-winged),  an  order  of  insects, 
which  received  from  Aristotle  the  name  it  still 
bears.  Fly  is  a  popular  name  generally  applied 
to  dipterous  insects,  and  often  with  some  distin¬ 
guishing  prefix  (as  liouse-fiy,  flesh-fly,  blow-fly, 
bot-fly,  crane-fly,  etc.),  although  it  is  sometimes 
used  with  such  prefix  to  designate  insects  not 
belonging  to  this  order,  (dragon-fly,  day-fly,  may 
fly,  etc.)  Midges,  gnats,  and  mosquitoes  are 
also  dipterous  insects. 

Diptera'ceae,  or  1  )ipteroca rpa'ce.-e,  a  natu¬ 
ral  order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  trees, 
natives  of  the  East  Indies.  Some  trees  of  this 
order,  of  which  about  fifty  species  are  known, 
are  highly  valuable  as  timber. 

Dip 'terns,  a  genus  of  fossil  ganoid  fishes, 
peculiar  to  the  old  red  sandstone,  in  which  two 
species  have  been  found.  They  derive  their 
name  from  their  most  striking  characteristic,  the 
double  anal  and  dorsal  fins,  which  are  opposite 
to  each  other. 

Dip 't jell  (Gr.  Si'jrnxa),  a  double  writing 
tablet,  or  two  writing-tablets,  which  could  be 
folded  together.  Herodotus  speaks  of  such  a  tab¬ 
let,  made  of  wood  and  covered  with  wax. 


Direct  and  Ret 'rograde.  In  astronomy,  the 
motion  of  a  planet  is  said  to  be  direct  when  the 
planet  goes  forward  by  its  proper  motion  in  the 
zodiac  according  to  the  succession  or  order  of  the 
signs  ( i .  c. ,  from  west  to  east),  or  when  it  appears 
to  do  so  to  an  observer.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
said  to  be  retrograde  when  it  appears  to  go  the 
contrary  way. 

Direct 'or,  one  of  a  number  of  persons  ap¬ 
pointed  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  joint-stock 


DIRECTORY. 


336 


DISTEMPER. 


undertakings,  such  as  banks,  railways,  water  and 
gas  companies,  lire  and  life  insurance  companies, 
and  various  kinds  of  manufacturing  and  trading 
concerns.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  the  leader 
of  an  orchestra  or  other  musical  organization. 

Direct 'ory.  On  the  death  of  Robespierre,  in 
1794,  a  reaction  commenced  in  the  Convention 
itself,  as  well  as  throughout  all  France,  against 
the  sanguinary  excesses  of  the  Terrorists.  Ulti 
mateiy  a  new  constitution — that  of  the  year  III. 
(1795) — gave  birth  to  a  new  government,  com¬ 
posed  of  a  legislative  body  divided  into  two  coun¬ 
cils — the  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  whose  func 
tion  was  to  propose  laws;  and  the  Council  of  the 
Ancients,  whose  function  was  to  pass  them.  The 
actual  executive  power  was  entrusted  to  five 
members  chosen  from  both  sections,  and  who  sat 
at  the  Luxembourg.  Their  names  were  Lepeaux, 
Letourneur,  Rewbel,  Barras,  and  Carnot.  These 
five  constituted  the  famous  Directory. 

Direct  rix  is  a  right  line  perpendicular  to  the 
axis  of  a  conic  section,  in  reference  to  which  its 
nature  may  be  defined 

Dirk  is  a  short  dagger  which  at  various  times 
and  in  various  countries  has  been  much  used  as  a 
weapon  of  offense. 

Dirk-Har'tog  Island,  measuring  45  miles  by 
10,  lies  off  the  west  coast  of  Australia,  in  latitude 
26°  S.,  and  longitude  113®  E. 

Disability,  Legal,  is  either  absolute,  which 
wholly  disables  the  person  from  doing  any  legal 
act — e.  g.,  outlawry,  excommunication,  attainder, 
alienage — or  partial,  such  as  infancy,  coverture, 
lunacy,  drunkenness,  and  the  like.  It  may  arise 
from  the  act  of  God,  of  the  law,  of  the  individual 
himself,  or  of  his  ancestor  or  the  person  from 
whom  he  inherits. 

Disband  'ing,  in  Military  matters,  is  the  break 
ing  up  of  a  regiment  or  corps.  When  peace  is 
proclaimed  after  a  war,  and  a  reduction  of  the 
army  becomes  necessary,  this  is  affected  by  dis¬ 
banding  or  disembodying. 

Disbar',  the  degradation  from  the  rank  of 
barrister-at-law  in  England,  or  of  attorney  in  the 
United  States. 

Disc,  in  Botany,  a  part  intervening  in  some 
flowers  between  the  stamens  and  the  pistil.  It 
seems  in  most  cases  to  represent  an  inner  whorl  of 
stamens  variously  modified. 

Disco 'boli,  according  to  Cuvier,  a  family  of 


Discoboli  ( Liparis  montagid). 
a,  sucker,  on  a  larger  scale. 


malacopterous  fishes,  remarkable  for  having  the 
ventral  fins  united  to  form  a  sucking  disc  on  the 
under  surface  of  the  body.  To  this  family,  also 
called  Cy  clopler  ida,  belong  the  lump-sucker  {Gy- 
cloplerus  lumpus),  the  unctuous  sucker  or  sea-owl 
or  cock-paddle  snail,  and  one  or  two  other  fishes. 

Disc'ord,  sounds  which  have  no  harmonical 
relation  whatever;  differing  from  dissonance, 
which  in  musical  language  is  applied  to  sounds 
that  are  in  grammatically  correct  relation  to  each 
Other,  though  not  consonant. 

Dis 'count,  the  difference  between  a  sum  of 
money  due  at  a  future  period  and  its  present 
value;  or  the  deduction  made  from  the  amount  of 
a  debt  that  is  paid  before  it  is  due.  The  allow 
ance  made  to  a  trader,  under  the  name  of  dis 
count,  for  prepayment  of  a  debt,  is  usually 
greater  than  the  current  rate  of  interest,  as  the 
creditor,  receiving  the  money  before  it  becomes 
due,  secures  himself  against  tiie  insolvency  of  the 
debtor. 

Discus,  a  quoit  or  circular  plate  of  stone  or 
metal,  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  diameter,  which 
was  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  for 
throwing  to  a  distance  as  a  gymnastic  exercise. 


Sometimes  a  kind  of  quoit  of  a  spherical  form 
was  used  for  the  same  purpose;  and  through  a 
hole  in  its  center  a  thong  was  passed,  to  assist 
the  player  in  throwing  it. 

Disease',  according  to  its  literal  construction,  a 
state  of  dis-ease,  or  absence  of  the  condition  of 
health,  in  which  all  the  faculties  and  organs  of 
the  body  and  mind  work  together  harmoniously 
and  without  sensible  disturbance.  In  a  strictly 
scient  ific  sense,  there  may  be  disease  without  pain 
or  uneasiness  in  the  ordinary  meaning  of  these 
words,  but  hardly  without  functional  disturbance 
or  incapacity  of  some  kind. 

Diseases  of  Plants.  Plants,  like  animals,  are 
liable  to  suffer  from  unsuitable  external  circum¬ 
stances,  as  of  temperature,  drought,  or  moisture, 
etc.;  they  are  liable,  like  animals,  to  suffer  from 
deficiency  of  food,  from  excess  of  it,  or  from 
being  compelled  to  subsist  on  improper  kinds  of 
it,  or  on  some  particular  kind.  They  often  suffer 
from  vegetable  parasites,  chiefly  fungi,  and  from 
minute  animals,  which,  without  eating  them  up, 
destroy  organs  essential  to  their  health,  or  prey 
upon  their  juices. 

Dishon'or  of  a  Dill.  When  the  drawee,  or 
person  on  whom  a  check  or  draft  is  drawn,  de¬ 
clines  to  accept  it  or  to  pay  it,  he  is  said  to  dis¬ 
honor  it.  The  act  of  drawing  or  of  indorsing  a 
bill  implies  an  obligation  to  pay  it  m  the  last  in¬ 
stance,  and  the  person  in  whose  favor  it  was 
drawn  has  thus  recourse  against  the  drawer  and 
indorsers,  should  the  drawee  fail  to  accept  or  to 
pay.  In  order  to  preserve  this  recourse,  however, 
it  is  indispensable  that  notice  of  dishonor  shall 
be  given  to  the  drawer  and  indorsers. 

Disinfectants  are  agents  which  can  prevent 
infectious  diseases  from  spreading,  by  destroying 
their  specific  poisons.  The  term  is,  however, 
often  applied  to  all  substances  which  destroy  or 
neutralize  bad  odors,  though  not  all  such  have 
the  power  of  counteracting  infection.  When 
applicable,  heat  is  the  most  convenient  and  satis¬ 
factory  disinfectant.  Infected  water  and  milk 
are  not  known  to  have  communicated  disease  after 
being  boiled.  Clothes,  bedding,  etc.,  can  be 
rendered  harmless  by  boiling,  or  by  exposure 
for  some  hours  to  air  or  steam,  at  a  temperature 
from  212°  to  230°  F.  But  these  methods  can  not, 
of  course,  be  applied  to  patients  or  rooms;  here 
chemical  agents  are  used.  Of  gaseous  disinfect¬ 
ants,  the  most  important  are  sulphurous  acid 
(fumes  of  burning  sulphur),  chlorine,  obtained  by 
exposing  bleaching-powder  (chloride  of  lime)  to 
the  air;  nitrous  acid,  by  allowing  nitric  acid  to 
act  on  copper. 

Dislocation.  The  extremities  of  all  bones  are 
covered  or  cushioned  with  elastic  tissues  which 
prevent  violent  concussions  at  the  joints  when  the 
body  or  limb  makes  a  change  in  position.  On 
the  ends  of  both  bones  meeting  at  a  joint,  there 
are  tendons  and  ligaments  which  give  the  limb  a 
certain  degree  of  freedom;  but  when  it  moves 
beyond  the  limit  imposed  by  these  tissues,  it  will 
not  return  to  its  proper  position.  This  is  known 
as  dislocation.  For  treatment  of  a  simple  dis¬ 
location  of  a  finger,  give  the  patient  some  stimu¬ 
lant,  and  immerse  the  limb  in  hot  water. 
Seize  the  extremity  of  the  dislocated  member 
with  one  hand,  placing  the  other  hand  above  the 
dislocation,  then  by  a  strong,  hard  jerk,  throw 
the  bones  into  their  proper  positions.  In  more 
obstinate  cases,  greater  force,  more  gradually  ap¬ 
plied,  may  be  necessary. 

Dislocation,  or  Fault,  a  term  used  in  geology 
to  characterize  certain  displacements  common 
among  stratified  rocks.  The  amount  of  disloca- 


Diagram  of  Dislocated  Strata, 
tion  is  the  measure  of  a  line  drawn  from  one  part  of 
the  bed,  at  right  angles  to  its  plane,  to  a  line  pro¬ 
duced  from  the  other  separated  part  of  the  bed 
representing  its  plane.  Thus,  in  the  diagram, 
AB  shows  the  extent  of  the  down-throw,  say  ten 


feet  Although  no  notion  can  be  formed,  in 
meeting  with  a  fault,  of  the  extent  of  dislocation, 
yet  the  direction  in  which  the  lost  strata  are  to  be¬ 
sought  can  be  certainly  determined,  for  it  has 
been  found  to  be  an  invariable  law,  that  the  strata 
are  lowest  on  the  overlapping  side  of  the  slip,  so 
that  in  the  diagram  the  beds  a,  b,  care  ten  feet 
deeper  in  the  overlying  side  than  the  same  beds 
[  on  the  other. 

Dis'mal  Swamp,  measuring  40  miles  from 
north  to  south  by  25  in  breadth,  lies  chiefly  in 
Virginia,  but  partly  in  North  Carolina.  In  the 
center  is  Lake  Drummond,  covering  about  6 
square  miles. 

Dismau '  tie  is  the  operation  of  unrigging  a  ship 
or  taking  away  the  guns  of  a  fort. 

Dispensation,  a  license  granted  by  the  Pope 
for  that  which  is  ordinarily  prohibited. 

Disper'sion.  Ordinary  white  light  is  hetero¬ 
geneous  in  its  character, being  composed  of  rays  of 
different  ref rangibility,  and  the  term  dispersion 
is  used  in  optics  to  denote  the  separation  of  these 
rays  by  refraction. 

Disposi 1  tion,  in  Art,  the  arrangement  of  the 
parts  of  a  piece. 

Disposition,  in  Music,  a  term  meaning  the  ar¬ 
rangement  and  combination  of  the  stops  of  an 
organ  on  the  different  rows  of  keys  and  pedals, 
with  the  pitch  of  each  stop,  or  length  of  the  low¬ 
est  CC  pipe. 

Disraeli,  Isaac,  D.C.L.,  a  well-known  English 
author,  was  the  descendant  of  a  Hebrew  family. 
He  commenced  his  career  as  a  poet  and  novel¬ 
ist,  but  after  the  publication  of  the  first  volume  of 
his  Cariosities  of  Literature  (1791)  he  discovered 
that  his  forte  lay  not  in  creative  literature,  but  in 
the  illustration  of  history  and  literary  character, 
and  to  this  he  devoted  himself.  Disraeli  died  in 
1848.  His  principal  works  are  the  Cariosities 
of  Literature  (1791-1823),  and  the  Quarrels  and 
Calamities  of  Authors.  The  history  of  his  dis¬ 
tinguished  son  will  be  found  under  the  heading 
Beaconsfield. 

Disrup'tion,  the  name  generally  given  in  Scot¬ 
land  to  the  Act  of  1843,  by  which  upward  of  40(1 
ministers  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  left  their 
churches  to  vindicate  principles  which  they  con¬ 
ceived  to  be  essential  to  the  purity  of  that  church, 
and  in  harmony  with  its  earlier  history. 

Dissent 'ers,  the  common  appellation  of  those 
who  dissent  or  differ  from  the  established  church 
of  their  country  in  any  of  its  doctrines,  or  in  any 
part  of  its  constitution,  and  therefore  separate 
themselves  from  it. 

Dissepiment  (Lat.  dissepio,  I  separate),  in  Bot¬ 
any,  the  partition  between  two  carpels,  in  an 
ovary  or  fruit  composed  of  a  number  of  carpels. 

Dissolv 'ing  Views  are  pictures  painted  upon 
glass,  and  made  to  appear  of  great  size  and  with 
great  distinctness  upon  a  wall  by  means  of  a 
magic  lantern  with  strong  lenses  and  an  intense 
oxyhydrogen  light,  and  then — by  removal  of  the 
glass  from  the  focus,  and  gradual  increase  of 
iff;  distance — apparently  dissolved  into  a  haze, 
through  which  a  second  picture  is  made  to  appear 
by  means  of  a  second  slide,  at  first  with  a  feeble, 
and  afterward  with  a  strong  light. 

Dis'sonauce  is  the  opposite  of  consonance, 
and  is  applied  to  those  intervals  in  music  whose 
relative  proportions  are  to  a  certain  extent  unsat¬ 
isfactory  to  the  ear,  and  produce  a  degree  of  dis¬ 
quietude. 

Dis'tafF,  the  staff  on  which  flax  or  wool  is  fast¬ 
ened,  and  from  which  the  thread  is  drawn  in 
spinning. 

Distance.  The  limit  of  view-  in  a  picture,  or 
point  of  distance,  as  it  is  called  in  perspective,  is 
that  portion  of  the  picture  where  the  visual  rays 
meet;  the  middle  distance  being  the  central  por¬ 
tion  between  the  extreme  distance  and  the  fore¬ 
ground. 

Distem 'per  (Fr.  detrempe),  a  coarse  mode  of 
painting,  in  which  the  colors — of  a  commoner 
kind  than  those  usually  employed  for  artistic 
purposes — are  mixed  in  a  watery  glue,  such  as 
size  and  whiting. 

Distemper  is  a  typhoid  inflammation  affecting 
the  upper  air-passages  of  young  dogs;  it  is  gen¬ 
erally  contagious,  occurs  only  once  in  a  life-time, 
runs  a  definite  course,  is  accompanied  by  low 
i  fever  and  debility.  The  eyes  are  red,  weak,  and 
I  watery,  the  nose  dry  and  hot,  draughts  of  air  or 


DISTICH. 


337 


DIVINING-ROD. 


movements  of  the  animal  readily  excite  sneezing 
or  cougli;  there  is  dullness,  fever,  and  loss  of  appe¬ 
tite.  The  thickened,  slimy  mucus  which  the  in¬ 
flamed  membrane,  after  some  days,  secretes,  ac¬ 
cumulates  about  the  eyes  and  nostrils,  and  lodg¬ 
ing  in  the  bronchial  tubes,  prevents  the  free  ac¬ 
cess  of  air,  and  the  proper  purification  of  the 
blood.  Hence  ensue  distressed  breathing,  increas¬ 
ing  weakness,  and  symptoms  of  nervous  disturb¬ 
ance,  such  as  staggering  gait,  chorea,  and 
fits.  Give  an  emetic  (for  a  small  dog)  com¬ 
posed  of  tartar  emetic  two  grains,  ipecac 
two  grains,  common  salt  ten  grains,  in  a  wine¬ 
glass  of  warm  water;  repeat  in  twenty  minutes  if 
puking  is  not  produced.  To  open  the  bowels, 
give  four  teaspoonfuls  each  of  castor  oil  and  olive 
oil  mixed  with  three  or -four  grains  of  calomel; 
for  fever  give  two  drops  of  tincture  aconite  and 
five  grains  eacli  of  niter  and  extract  belladonna. 

Dis'tich  (Gr.  didrixoS,  consisting  of  two  rows 
or  ranks)  is  the  classical  name  given  to  any  two 
lines,  but  especially  to  a  hexameter  and  pentame¬ 
ter,  making  complete  sense. 

Distilla'tion  consists  in  converting  a  liquid 
into  vapor  in  a  close  vessel,  by  means  of  heat,  and 
then  conveying  the  vapor  into  another  cool  vessel, 
where  it  is  condensed  again  into  a  liquid.  The 
applications  of  distillation  are  numerous  both  in 
chemistry  and  in  the  practical  arts.  The  most 
extensive  application  of  distillation  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  intoxicating  spirits,  and  in  ordi¬ 
nary  language  this  is  the  most  common  use  of  the 
word.  Strictly  speaking,  indeed,  the  spirits  are 
not  produced  by  the  act  of  distillation;  that  is 
doue  by  the  previous  step  of  fermentation,  and 
distillation  merely  separates  the  spirits  from  U43 
mixture  in  which  they  already  exist.  All  the 
intoxicating  drinks  used  in  ancient  times  seem  to 
have  been  t  lie  products  of  fermentation  merely. 
Spirits  were  first  distilled  from  wine,  and  hence 
called  spirits  of  wine.  An  endless  variety  of  sub¬ 
stances  are  now  used  in  this  extensive  manufac¬ 
ture.  Absolute  or  anhydrous  alcohol  can  not  be  ’ 
obtained  by  distillation  alone.  The  principal 
intoxicating  beverages  produced  by  distillation 
are:  1.  Brandy,  which  name  is  applied  properly 
only  to  spirits  distilled  from  wine.  2.  Rum  is 
manufactured  from  molasses  and  other  uncrystal- 
lizable  products  of  the  sugar-cane.  3.  Corn  or 
malt  spirit,  under  the  various  names  of  British 
spirits,  gin,  whisky,  etc.  The  Dutch  distillers 
give  a  peculiar  flavor  to  their  spirits(Hollands)  by 
adding  a  portion  of  juniper-berries  to  the  other 
ingredients.  From  the  French  name  of  the  juni¬ 
per,  geniitvre,  come  geneva  and  gin.  4.  Spirits 
from  various  vegetable  substances.  In  Germany 
a  great  cjuantity  of  spirit  is  distilled  from  pota¬ 
toes,  which  contain  about  5  per  cent,  of  starch. 
Beet-root  and  carrots  are  also  used  in  the  same 
way.  The  greater  part  of  the  whisky  manufact¬ 
ured  in  the  United  States  is  distilled  from  corn, 
but  in  the  East  rye  is  largely  used,  and  in 
Canada  barley  and  malt  are  utilized. 

Distillation,  Destructive,  is  the  term  applied 
to  the  process  of  heating  vegetable  and  animal 
substances  in  retorts  or  similarly  closed  vessels, 
at  a  temperature  sufficient  to  decompose  the  origi¬ 
nal  substance,  and  obtain  therefrom  products 
possessing  different  properties  from  the  material 
which  yielded  them. 

Distilled'  Water  is  the  condensed  product 
obtained  by  the  distillation  of  water. 

Distilled  Waters  are  obtained  by  distilling 
water  along  with  the  parts  of  plants  containing 
essential  oils. 

Distor'tioil!  The  rules  of  perspective  impose 
certain  conditions  in  the  delineation  of  natural 
objects,  and  when  the  image  formed  by  a  lens  on 
the  focusing  screen  of  a  camera  obscura  does  not 
fulfill  those  conditions  it  is  said  to  be  distorted. 

Ditch  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  de¬ 
fense-works  of  a  fortified  place.  It  is  a  broad 
and  deep  trench,  that  may  either  be  kept  dry  or 
filled  with  water;  in  practice,  it  is  generally  dry. 

Dithyram'bus,  originally  a  surname  of  Bac¬ 
chus,  of  uncertain  derivation  and  meaning,  subse¬ 
quently  applied  to  a  species  of  lyric  poetry. 

Dit 'marsh,  North  and  South  (Norder  and 
Sutler  Dithmarschen),  the  western  district  of  the 
German  Duchy  of  Holstein,  lying  bctw'een  the 
Eider  and  the  Elbe.  The  entire  area  is  500  square 
miles.  Pop.,  75,000. 


Dit 'tally  ( Dictamnus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Rutacem.  The  flowers  are  of  a  fine 
rose  color,  with  dark¬ 
er  veins,  more  rarely 
white. 

Diuret'ics,  medi¬ 
cines  having  the 
property  of  increas¬ 
ing  the  secretion  or 
excretion  of  urine. 

The  principal  diu¬ 
retics  are  the  salts  of 
potash,  squills,  digi¬ 
talis,  broo  m-t  ops 
(. scoparium );  pyrola; 
the  alcohols  and 
ethers,  with  most 
of  the  volatile  oils, 
as  turpentine,  etc. 

Divan'  is  a  Per¬ 
sian  word,  having 
various  significa- 
tions.  It  is  used  in 
the  sense  of  a  muster 
roll,  a  register  of  pay¬ 
ments  or  account;  it 
is  also  applied  to  a 
collection  of  poems 
or  songs  by  one  and  «,  top  of  stem,  with  leaves  and 
the  same  author.  flowers;  b,  fruit. 

Divan  means  next  an  administrative  board;  the 
highest  council  of  state  at  Constantinople  is  called 
Divdni  humdjtbi,  most  illustriousdivan.  Finally 
divan  is  the  name  for  the  state  or  reception  room 
in  palaces  and  the  private  houses  of  the  richer  cit¬ 
izens.  Along  the  walls  of  the  room  are  ranged 
low  sofas,  covered  with  rich  carpets,  and  provided 
with  many  cushions.  Hence  the  name  divan  has 
been  transferred  in  the  W est  of  Europe  to  a  kind 
of  sofa. 

Diver,  or  Loon  ( Colymbm ),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Colymbidce,  particularly  expert  in  div¬ 
ing.  They  prey  upon  fish,  which  they  pursue 
under  water.  It  is  a  winter  visitant  of  the  British 


Dittany. 


Great  Northern  Diver  ( Colymbus  glacialis) . 


coasts.  The  great  northern  diver  is  found  in 
most  parts  of  Europe,  the  North  of  Asia,  and 
North  America,  as  far  south  as  Texas,  but  it 
breeds  chiefly  in  the  more  northern  regions,  as 
Labrador,  Iceland,  and  Spitsbergen. 

Divertimen'to,  or  Divertissement,  a  species 
of  musical  composition  consisting  of  different 
movements,  arranged  in  an  easy  style  for  one  or 
more  instruments,  but  not  so  elaborately  wrought 
out  as  the  sonata,  or  other  more  regular  compo¬ 
sitions. 

Div'idend,  the  sum  apportioned  to  creditors 
from  the  realized  assets  of  a  bankrupt  estate,  and 
which  is  at  the  rate  of  so  much  percentage  of  the 
claims.  The  half-yearly  interest  on  the  public 
funds,  and  periodical  profits  on  shares  in  joint- 
stock  undertakings,  are  also  called  the  dividends. 

Di  vi-<li'vi,  or  Li  'bi-di'bi,  the  curved  pods  of 
Ccesalpinia  coriaria. 

Divina'tion  (Lat.  divinatio )  is  the  act  of  dis¬ 
covering  the  hidden,  but  more  particularly  the 
future,  in  a  supernatural  way.  A  more  special 
use  of  the  term  is  to  denote  fortune-telling  or 
sorcery  (middle-age  Latin  sortiarius,  one  who 


reads  the  future  by  means  of  lots  or  sorted). 
Astrology  was  a  favorite  method  of  divination 
among  the  ancient  Chaldeans,  as  well  as  in  the 
middle  ages.  Auguries  and  auspices — both  words 
derived  from  avis,  a  bird  were  systems  brought 
to  perfection  by  the  Romans  as  means  of  knowing 
the  will  of  the  gods.  The  observation  of  lucky 
and  unlucky  days  was  once  an  important  matter, 
and  was  often  the  turning  point  of  great  events. 
It  is  now  confined  to  ihe  one  subject  of  marriage. 
In  fixing  the  wedding-day,  May  among  months, 
and  Friday  among  days,  are  shunned  by  many 
people,  for  in  this  matter,  which  is  the  exclusive 
province  of  women,  and  in  which  sentiment  and 
fancy  are  in  every  way  so  much  more  active  than 
reason,  the  educated  and  uneducated  are  reduced 
to  a  level. 

Di  vilig.  The  more  skillful  divers  may  remain 
under  water  for  two,  or  even  three  minutes;  some 
modern  accounts  say  four,  and  even  six,  but  this 
is  very  doubtful.  By  breathing  hard  for  a  short 
time,  as  a  person  does  after  violent  exercise,  the 
breath  can  then  be  held  much  longer  than  other¬ 
wise.  Professor  Faraday  explained  this  on  the  sup¬ 
position  that,  ordinarily,  a  considerable  quantity  of 
carbonic  acid  remains  in  the  involved  passages  of 
the  lungs,  but  that  it  becomescompletely  expelled 
by  the  forced  breathing,  and  its  place  supplied  by 
atmospheric  air. 

Div'ing’-hell.  The  cacabvs  aquatints,  or 
aquatic  kettle,  described  by  Taisnier  as  having 
been  used  by  two  Greeks  in  Spain,  at  Toledo,  in 
1538,  in  the  presence  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
and  a  multitude  of  spectators,  is  one  of  the  earliest 
reliable  accounts  of  a  diving-bell.  Doctor  Hal¬ 
ley’s  diving-bell,  about  1720,  was  a  wooden 
chamber  of  about  sixty  feet  internal  capacity, 
open  at  the  bottom,  where  it  was  loaded  with 
lead,  to  keep  it  perpendicular  in  its  descent. 
Strong  pieces  of  glass  were  set  in  the  upper  part, 
to  admit  light.  Casks  filled  with  air,  and  loaded 
with  lead,  were  let  down  with  the  bung-hole 
downward;  and  from  these  a  supply  of  air  was 
drawn  by  means  of  a  hose.  The  principle  of  the 
diving-bell  will  be  easily  understood  by  floating 
a  piece  of  lighted  candle  or  a  wax-match  on  a 
cork,  and  then  covering  it  with  an  inverted  tum¬ 
bler,  and  pressing  it  downward;  the  candle  will 
descend  below  the  level  of  the  surrounding  water 
and  continue  burning  for  a  short  time,  although 
the  tumbler  be  entirely  immersed.  The  reason  is 
obvious  enough;  the  air  in  the  tumbler  having  no 
vent,  remains  in  it,  and  preveuts  the  water  from 
occupying  its  place,  so  that  the  cork  and  candle, 
though  apparently  under  water,  are  still  floating, 
and  surrounded  by  the  air  in  the  tumbler;  the 
candle  continues  burning  until  the  oxygen  of  the 
air  is  exhausted,  and  then  it  goes  out,  as  would 
the  life  of  a  man  under  similar  circumstances. 
The  modern  diving-bell  is  made  of  cast-iron  like 
Smeaton’s.  A  considerable  quantity  of  air  lias  to 
be  pumped  into  the  diving-bell,  merely  to  keep  it 
full  as  it  descends,  and  give  air  to  the  workmen. 
The  diving-bell  is  provided  with  a  platform  or  seat 
for  the  workmen,  and  suspended  from  a  suitable 
crane  or  beams  projecting  from  a  barge  or  pier; 
men  above  are  stationed  to  work  the  pumps  sup¬ 
plying  air,  and  attend  to  the  signals  of  the  bell¬ 
man. 

Div'ing-dress.  The  modern  diving-dress  is 
made  of  India-rubber  cloth.  A  strong  metal 
helmet,  with  round  pieces  of  plate-glass  in  front, 
rests  upon  a  pad  on  the  shoulders;  the  air  is 
supplied  to  this  helmet  from  above,  in  the  same 
manner  as  for  the  diving-bell,  but  instead  of  the 
waste  air  passing  out  below,  a  second  tube 
carries  it  up.  Leaden  weights  are  attached  to 
the  side  of  the  diver,  and  thus  he  may  descend 
a  ladder  and  walk  about  below.  He  carries 
with  him  one  end  of  a  cord  communicating  with 
the  assistants  above,  and  by  pulling  this,  makes  a 
series  of  signals. 

Divin  'iug-rod  is  a  forked  branch,  usually  of 
hazel,  by  which  it  has  been  pretended  that 
minerals  and  water  have  been  discovered  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  The  rod,  when  sus¬ 
pended  by  the  two  prongs,  sometimes  between 
the  balls  of  the  thumbs,  will  distinctly  indicate, 
by  a  decided  inclination,  it  is  alleged,  the  spot 
over  which  the  concealed  mine  or  spring  is 
situated. 


22 


DIVISIBILITY. 


338 


DODO. 


Divisibility  is  that  property  of  quantity, 
matter,  or  extension,  through  which  it  is  either 
actually _  or  potentially  separable  into  parts. 

Divisibility,  in  the  Theory  of  Numbers,  means 
the  capability  of  any  number  of  being  divided  by 
another  without  remainder. 

Division,  one  of  the  four  principal  rules  of 
Arithmetic,  is  that  by  which  we  find  how  often 
one  quantity  is  contained  in  another. 

Di  vision,  in  Military  matters,  is  one  section 
of  an  army,  indefinite  in  point  of  numbers,  but 
established  as  a  matter  of  convenience. 

Division,  Naval,  was  a  secondary  group  of 
ships  in  a  large  fleet,  generally  three  to  a  squad¬ 
ron. 

Division  of  Labor,  or  Division  of  Employ¬ 
ment,  a  term  often  used  by  political  economists  to 
express  a  means  by  which  labor  is  economized, 
or,  as,  another  method  of  stating  the  same  result, 
by  which  production  is  increased. 

Divorce  is  the  dissolution  of  the  relationship  of 
marriage.  The  effect  of  (he  spread  of  Christianity 
was  to  reinvest  marriage  with  the  religious  char¬ 
acter  from  which  in  the  later  law  of  Rome  it  had 
completely  escaped;  and  the  history  of  divorce  in 
modern  times  has  been  the  gradual  decay  of  the 
restrictions  which  were  thought  appropriate  to 
the  religious  character  of  the  institution  of  mar¬ 
riage.  Again,  divorce  appears  to  be  regarded 
sometimes  as  a  penalty  against  the  offending 
spouse,  sometimes  as  a  right  to  which  the  inno¬ 
cent  spouse  is  entitled.  It  will  be  granted  only  if 
a  matrimonial  offense  is  proved  to  have  been 
committed,  but  it  will  not  be  granted  if  such  an 
offense  has  been  committed  on  both  sides.  The 
matrimonial  law  of  England,  as  at  the  time  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  forms  part  of  the 
common  law  of  the  United  States.  But  as  no 
ecclesiastical  courts  have  ever  existed  here,  t  lie 
law  must  be  considered  to  have  been  inoperative. 
There  is  no  national  jurisdiction  in  divorce,  and 
though  it  is  competent  to  Congress  to  authorize 
divorces  in  the  Territories,  still  it  appears  that 
this  subject,  like  others,  is  usually  left  to  the 
Territorial  Legislature.  In  the  different  States, 
as  in  England,  divorces  were  at  first  granted  by 
the  Legislatures,  whether  directly  or  by  granting 
special  authority  to  the  tribunals  to  deal  with 
particular  cases.  This  practice  has  fallen  into 
disuse.  The  judicial  practice  is  to  confer  juris¬ 
diction  in  divorce  on  the  courts  of  equity,  to  be 
administered  in  general  accordance  with  the 
ordinary  rules  of  equity  practice.  Each  State,  of 
course,  determines  for  itself  the  causes  for  which 
divorces  may  be  granted,  and  no  general  state¬ 
ment  of  the  law  can  be  made.  In  most  States  it 
is  allowed,  not  only  for  adultery,  but  for  cruelty, 
willful  desertion,  and  habitual  drunkenness.  In 
New  York  divorce  is  allowed  only  for  adultery; 
in  South  Carolina,  not  for  any  cause;  in  some 
other  States  for  causes  to  be  determined  by  the 
court.  In  Kentucky,  in  addition  to  alleged 
habitual  drunkenness  the  offense  must  be  ac¬ 
companied  with  a  wasting  of  a  man’s  estate,  and 
without  any  suitable  provision  for  the  wife  and 
children.  Gross  neglect  of  duty,  and  more  par¬ 
ticularly  neglect  or  refusal  to  maintain  his  wife 
on  the  part  of  a  husband  having  ability  to  do  so, 
are  in  some  States  grounds  of  divorce.  In  New 
Hampshire,  if  either  spouse  joins  a  society  believ¬ 
ing  the  relation  of  husband  and  wife  to  be  unlaw¬ 
ful,  and  accordingly  refuses  cohabitation  for 
three  years,  that  is  a  sufficient  ground  of  divorce, 
and  “the  Shakers”  have  been  held  to  be  such  a 
society.  In  the  same  State  “  to  be  absent  and  not 
heard  of  ”  for  three  years  is  ground  for  divorce. 
Conviction  for  crime  is  a  tolerably  common 
ground.  “  Gross  misbehavior  and  wickedness,” 
and  “offering  indignities  to  the  wife  so  as  to  render 
her  condition  intolerable  and  her  life  burden¬ 
some,”  are  also  specified  causes  of  divorce  in 
some  States.  In  Missouri  and  North  Carolina  it 
has  been  held  under  such  a  clause  that  a  false 
accusation  of  adultery  brought  by  the  husband 
against  the  wife  was  a  valid  ground  for  divorce; 
and  in  Missouri,  where  the  court  subsequently 
held  that  the  statute  contemplated  indignities  to 
the  person  only,  and  not  to  the  mind  (as  in  the 
case  of  a  false  charge),  the  State  Legislature 
amended  the  statute  by  specifying  as  a  cause  for 
divorce  “the  offering  such  indignities  to  the 
other  as  to  make  his  or  her  condition  intolerable.” 


Dix,  John  Adams,  born  in  Boscawen,  N.  II., 
July  24,  1798,  served  during  the  war  of  1812-15, 
became  a  lawyer,  and  after  holding  various  State 
offices,  was  chosen  in  1845  to  fill  a  vacancy  in  the 
United  States  Senate,  lie  was  the  Free-soil  can¬ 
didate  for  Governor  of  New  York  in  1848,  but 
was  defeated.  On  Dec.  10,  1850,  General  Dix 
was  appointed  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  in  place 
of  Howell  Cobb,  resigned.  The  captain  of  a 
revenue  cutter  stationed  at  New  Orleans  refused 
to  obey  the  Secretary’s  orders,  and  General'Dix 
telegraphed  the  lieutenant  to  arrest  the  captain, 
adding  the  memorable  words,  “If  any  one  at¬ 
tempts  to  haul  down  the  American  flag,  shoot  him 
on  the  spot.”  General  Dix  became  Major-Gen¬ 
eral  of  volunteers,  commanded  the  Seventh 
Army  Corps  and  was  in  command  at  New  York 
during  the  draft  riots  of  1863.  For  two  years, 
1866-68,  he  was  Minister  to  France,  and  in  1872 
was  elected  on  the  Republican  ticket  as  Governor 
of  New  York.  He  died  April  21,  1879. 

Dix 'on,  William  Hepworth,  an  English 
author,  was  born  in  1821,  and  soon  acquired  a 
considerable  reputation  by  his  writings.  For  six¬ 
teen  years  (1853-69)  he  edited  the  Athenaeum.  He 
was  a  prolific  writer,  and  gave  numerous  works 
to  the  public. 

Dixon  Entrance,  a  strait  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  separates  Queen  Char¬ 
lotte  Island  from  the  Prince  of  Wales  Archi¬ 
pelago. 

Dmitrov',  an  ancient  town  of  Russia,  on  the 
Jaklirama,  forty  miles  north  of  Moscow.  Pop. 
(1880),  35,000. 

Dnie'per,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Europe, 
flowing  southward,  has  its  source  in  the  north  of 
the  Russian  Government  of  Smolensk.  It  de¬ 
bouches  in  the  Black  Sea,  between  the  Govern¬ 
ments  of  Kherson  and  Taurida,  its  embouchure 
forming  a  gulf  of  about  50  miles  in  length  with 
a.  breadth  of  from  1  to  6  miles.  Its  principal 
affluents  are  the  Desna  and  Soj,  the  Pripet,  the 
Beresina,  and  the  Druz.  The  total  length  of  the 
Dneiper  is  upward  of  1,000  miles,  and  it  is 
navigable  almost  from  its  source.  It  was  for¬ 
merly  known  as  the  Borysthenes. 

Dnie'ster,  a  river  of  Europe  flowing  chiefly 
through  Russia,  but  having  its  rise  in  the  Car¬ 
pathian  Mountains, about  latitude  49°10'N.,  longi¬ 
tude  23°  E.  The  total  length  of  the  Dniester  is 
between  500  and  600  miles,  its  current  throughout 
being  very  rapid. 

Doab',  a  word  of  Sanskrit  origin,  applied,  like 
the  Gr.  Mesopotamia ,  and  the  Lat.  Inleramna,  to 
the  country  between  two  rivers. 

Dobrow'ski,  Joseph,  the  founder  of  Slavic 
philology,  was  born  Aug.  17,  1753,  and  died  in 
1829.  Dobrowski  is  reckoned  one  of  the  highest, 
if  not  the  very  highest,  authority  on  all  matters 
connected  with  Bohemian  history  and  literature. 

Dobrud 'sclia,  or  Dobrudja  (anciently  Scythia 
Minor),  a  region  now  belonging  to  Roumania, 
lies  between  the  lower  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea. 
Pop.  (1880),  100.000. 

Dock  ( Lapathum ),  a  sub-genus  of  the  genus 
Rumex,  containing  those  which  are  not  acid,  and 
of  which  the  flowers  are  hermaphrodite. 

Dock,  an  inclosure  for  the  accommodation  of 
shipping,  of  which  there  are  three  kinds — viz., 
wet  or  floating;  tidal,  which  may  with  more 
propriety  be  called  harbors  or  basins;  and  dry  or 
graving.  Wet  docks  are  for  the  purpose  of 
maintaining  a  level  nearly  uniform  with  that  of 
high-water,  so  as  to  keep  vessels  always  afloat. 
Wet  docks  are  generally  surrounded  by  quays  or 
wharf  walls  of  masonry  or  brick-work,  but, 
where  they  are  wanted  chiefly  for  laying  up  ves¬ 
sels  in,  and  not  for  loading  or  unloading,  their 
margin  is  sometimes  only  a  natural  sloping  beach. 
Wet  docks  are  generally  entered  by  means  of 
what  is  called  a  lock,  having  two  gates,  in  one 
leaf,  or  more  frequently  in  two  folding-leaves  each. 
Tidal  docks  require  no  particular  description; 
they  are  merely  basins  surrounded  by  quay  walls, 
and  having  open  entrances  permitting  the  free 
flow  and  ebb  of  the  tide,  and  they  have  the  ad¬ 
vantage  of  requiring  no  opening  or  shutting  of 
gates.  Dry  docks  are  used  for  the  purpose  of  laying 
vessels  dry  for  examination  or  repairs.  They  may 
have  their  entrance  either  from  a  wet  dock  or  from 
a  tidal  harbor.  The  entrance  has  generally  a 
pair  of  folding-gates,  pointing  outward,  to  ex¬ 


clude  the  water;  but  sometimes  it  is  closed  by 
means  of  a  caisson.  The  caisson  is  sunk  into  the 


Section  of  Dry  Dock. 


groove  by  admitting  water  into  its  interior,  and  is 
floated  out  again  by  pumping  out  the  water. 
When  the  tides  are  very  large,  the  bottom  of  the 
dock  may  sometimes  be  placed  above  low-water, 
so  that  it  may  be  run  dry  without  pumping.  The 
floor  is  nearly  level,  and  the  keel  of  the  vessel  to 
be  docked  rests  on  wooden  blocks  fastened  down 
to  prevent  them  floating,  and  of  such  a  height  as 
to  admit  of  the  shipwrights  getting  under  the  ves¬ 
sel’s  bottom. 

Doctor,  denoting,  etymologically,  a  teacher,  is 
the  title  conferred  by  the  highest  university  de¬ 
gree.  Originally  there  were  only  two  steps  in 
graduation,  those  of  bachelor  and  master,  and  the 
title  doctor  was  given  to  certain  masters  as  an 
alternative,  or  as  a  merely  honorary  appellation. 
Both  in  England  and  on  t  he  Continent  it  was  con¬ 
fined,  for  a  considerable  period,  to  the  faculties  of 
law  and  divinity;  it  was  not  until  the  fourteenth 
century  that  it  began  to  be  conferred  in  medicine, 
and  in  England  it  is  still  unknown  in  the  faculty 
of  arts.  In  Germany,  however,  there  is  a  degree 
of  doctor  of  philosophy.  The  doctorate  of  music 
was  first  conferred  at  Oxford  and  Cambridge;  its 
use  in  Germany  is  comparatively  recent. 

Doctors’  Commons  was  a  society  of  ecclesias¬ 
tical  lawyers  in  London,  forming  a  distinct  pro¬ 
fession  for  the  practice  of  the  civil  and  canon 
laws.  Dickens  has  an  interesting  sketch  of  it  in 
David  Copperfield. 

Doctrinaires,  the  title  of  a  political  party  in 
France  which  made  itself  prominent  after  the  res¬ 
toration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1815.  Its  doctrine 
was  that  the  sole  justification  of  any  form  of  gov¬ 
ernment  was  the  manner  in  which  it  exercised  its 
power. 

Dodd,  Dr.  William  (1729-1777),  an  English 
divine  who  was  executed  for  forgery,  in  June, 
1777,  was  a  voluminous  writer,  though  he  had 
but  little  judgment  and  much  vanity.  He  was 
born  in  May,  1729. 

Dod'der  (Cuscuia), 
regarded  by  some  bot¬ 
anists  as  the  type  of  a 
small,  distinct  natural 
order  of  plants,  G'uscu- 
tacecp,;  which  differs 
from  Convolvulacece  (to 
which  others  assign  it) 
in  the  habit  of  the 
plants. 

Dod'dridge,  Philip, 

D.  D.,  an  eminent 
preacher  and  author, 
was  born  in  London 
in  the  year  1702.  He 
died  Oct.  26,  1751. 

Dodec'agon.  A  reg¬ 
ular  polygon  of  twelve 
equal  sides  and  angles. 

Dodecahe'dron,  one 
of  the  five  regular  sol¬ 
ids,  is  bounded  by 
twelve  equal  and  regu¬ 
lar  pentagons.  ( Cuscuta  epilinum). 

Doderlein,  Ludwig,  a  German  philologist, 
was  born  at  Jena,  Dec.  19,  1791.  He  died  in  1863. 

Do 'do  ( Didus ),  a  large  bird,  commonly  placed 
in  a  sub-family  of  the  Columbidm  (the  pigeons). 
The  dodo  (D.  ineptus)  was  the.only  species  of  its 
genus,  and  is  known  to  have  existed  less  than  two 
hundred  years  ago.  It  was  entirely  confined  to 
the  Island  of  Mauritius;  the  solitaire  ( Pezophaps 


DODONA. 


339 


DOLLINGER. 


solitaria)  of  Rodriguez,  also  extinct,  being  a  very 
different  bird.  The  dodo  was  a  bird  larger  than 
a  Swan;  of  a  very  heavy,  clumsy  form,  and  cor¬ 
responding  gait;  with  short,  thick,  scale-covered 
legs;  three  rather  short  toes  before  and  one  be¬ 
hind;  large  head;  very  large  bill,  and  upper  man¬ 
dible  longer  than  the  under,  and  much  hooked  at 


Supposed  figure  of  the  Dodo. 


the  point;  the  wings  so  short  as  to  be  of  no  use 
for  flight,  and  furnished  only  with  a  few  black 
feathers;  the  general  plumage  a  kind  of  greyish- 
down;  the  tail  merely  a  tuft  or  bunch  of  curiously 
curled  feathers. 

Dodo'na,  a  city  of  Epirus,  the  seat  of  the  oldest 
Grecian  oracle,  is  situated  in  one  of  the  wild¬ 
est  districts  southwest  of  the  Lake  of  Janina. 

Doffs' ley,  Robert,  author  and  publisher,  was 
born  in  1703.  First  a  footman,  then  an  author,  he 
made  a  considerable  reputation,  and  died  in  1764. 

Dog  ( Uanis ),  a  genus  of  digitigrade  carnivorous 
quadrupeds,  which,  as  defined  by  Linnaeus, 
included  all  that  now  form  the  family  Canidm, 
and  also  hyaenas.  In  the  genus  as  now  restricted, 
wolves  and  jackals  are  generally  included  by 
naturalists,  along  with  those  animals  to  which  alone 
the  name  dog  is  popularly  applied,  and  a  distinct¬ 
ive  character  of  principal  importance  is  found  in 
the  pupil  of  the  eye,  which  is  always  round— con¬ 
tracting  circularly,  whilst  in  foxes  it  assumes  the 
form  of  a  section  of  a  lens  when  contracted.  In 
size,  dogs  differ  so  widely  that  one  is  not  as  large 
as  the  head  of  another;  the  difference  in  form  of 
body,  head,  or  limbs,  is  almost  equally  great 
between  the  Newfoundland  dog  or  the  mastiff  and 
the  greyhound.  The  gradations,  however,  from 
one  form  or  character  to  another,  render  it  impos¬ 
sible  to  define  a  fixed  limit.  In  some  races  of  dog, 
the  liind-feet  as  well  as  the  fore  feet  have  five 
toes,  instead  of  four,  which  is  more  common;  but 
this  has  not  been  much  insisted  on  as  a  ground  of 
specific  distinction.  It  seems  to  have  been  too 
hastily  taken  for  granted,  in  favor  of  the  opinion 
that  there  is  only  one  species  of  dog,  that  all  the 
wild  races,  even  the  dholes  and  the  dingo,  have 
sprung  from  domestic  progenitors.  There  is  cer¬ 
tainly  no  evidence  of  this.  That  the  common  fox 
— or  any  species  of  fox — is  a  parent  of  any  race  of 
dogs,  is  not  the  opinion  of  any  naturalist.  Instances 
of  commixture  between  the  dog  and  wolf  have 
occurred,  but  in  this  case,  too,  the  only  recognized 
proof  of  identity  of  species — namely,  the  perma¬ 
nent  fertility  of  the  progeny — is  wanting.  It  is 
universally  believed  that  the  diversity  of  color 
exhibited  by  many  dogs  is  a  result  of  domestica¬ 
tion.  Pendulous  ears  are  generally  regarded  as 
another  result  of  domestication  in  dogs,  as  in  rab¬ 
bits;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  wild  races  known 
have  erect  and  pointed  ears.  The  dog  has  been  a 
domestic  animal  from  a  very  early  period.  The 
earliest  allusions  to  it  are  in  the  books  of  Moses. 
The  sculptures  of  Nineveh,  and  the  hieroglyphics 
of  Egypt,  attest  the  very  early  domestication  of 
the  dog,  and  the  existence  of  races  similar  to  some 
of  those  which  exist  at  the  present  day;  and  the 
high  value  attached  to  it  by  many  nations  is 
further  attested  by  the  place  assigned  to  it,  or  its 
image,  as  emblematic  of  the  attributes  which  they 
ascribed  to  their  gods.  The  uses  to  which  the 
dog  is  applied  are  numerous.  Thus,  whilst  in 
some  countries  dogs  are  chiefly  employed  as  beasts 
of  draught,  particularly  for  drawing  sledges  in  the 
frozen  regions  of  the  North;  and  in  other  countries 
chiefly  for  the  chase;  we  find  them  also  rendering 
important  services  in  the  care  of  sheep  and  other 
cattle.  The  dog  usually  produces  from  six  to  ten 
young  ones  at  a  birth.  They  are  born  blind,  open 


their  eyes  about  the  tenth  or  twelfth  day,  attain 
their  full  growth  in  about  two  years,  seldom  live 
more  than  twelve  or  fifteen  years,  and  almost 
never  more  than  twenty.  No  satisfactory  classi¬ 
fication  of  the  different  kinds  of  dog  has  ever  been 
made.  What  some  naturalists  regard  as  types  of 
species,  others  pronounce  to  be  mere  mongrel 
races.  Nor  can  any  principle  of  arrangement  be 
found  in  form,  roughness  or  smoothness  of  fur,  or 
other  such  character,  which  will  not  associate 
kinds  that  are  in  other  respects  widely  dissimilar, 
and  separate  some  that  are  nearly  allied. 

Dog 'bane  ( Apocy - 
num),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural 
order  Apocy  7ui.ee  a> , 
having  bell-shaped 
flowers,  no  style,  and 
the  fruit  a  long  linear 
follicle.  The  dogbane 
of  North  America  {A. 
androscemifolium ),  is 
valued  for  the  medic¬ 
inal  properties  of  the 
bark  of  its  root,  which 
is  emetic,  diaphoretic, 
and  in  small  doses 
tonic.  The  root  of 
Canadian  hemp  (A. 
cunnabinum),  possesses 
similar  properties, 
and  is  frequently  used 
in  the  United  States. 

Doge,  a  modified  a,  end  of  branch,  with  leaves 
form  of  the  ordinary  ancl  flowers;  6,  a  tlower  cut 
Italian  dace,  from  the  open;  c'  fru 
Latin  dux,  a  leader  or  duke,  employed  to  desig¬ 
nate  the  chief  magistrate  in  the  Republics  of 
Genoa  and  Venice. 

Dog 'fish,  the  popular  name  of  some  of  the 
smaller  species  of  shark.  The  common  dogfish 


Dogfish. 


attains  a  length  of  three  or  four  feet.  It  is  very 
widely  distributed,  being  found  in  the  Atlantic, 
the  Mediterranean,  and  the  South  Seas. 

Dog '-fox,  has  a  sharp  muzzle,  not  unlike  that 
of  a  greyhound,  rather  large,  erect,  pointed  ears, 
the  pupil  of  the  eye  contracting  circularly  as  in 
the  dog,  the  tail  bushy  like  that  of  a  fox  It 
inhabits  warm  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa. 

Dog'ger  is  a  vessel  something  like  a  galliot  or 
a  ketch,  used  by  the  Dutch  as  a  fisliing-boat. 

Dog'gerbank,  an  extensive  flat  sand-bank  in 
the  middle  of  the  German  Ocean,  between  Eng¬ 
land  and  Denmark,  in  latitude  54°  10' — 57°  24' 
N.,  and  longitude  1° — 6°  7'  E. 

Dog  'ilia  (Gr.)  meant  originally  an  opinion  or 
proposition,  put  in  the  form  of  a  positive  asser¬ 
tion,  its  truth  being  supposed  to  have  been  previ¬ 
ously  shown.  In  theology,  it  was  understood  to 
signify  a  doctrine  founded  on  Scripture,  and 
advanced,  not  for  discussion,  but  for  belief.  But 
as  this  method  of  stating  truth  easily  degenerates 
into  the  assertion  of  opinions  without  ground, 
and  without  regard  to  the  aspect  they  may  pre¬ 
sent  to  others,  dogma  and  dogmatism,  have  come 
to  be  almost  synonymous  with  assertion  without 
proof.  Of  dogmatic  writings  the  chief  are  those  of 
the  early  Fathers  of  the  Church;  on  the  Protestant 
side  Calvin  ( Institutio  Religionis  Christiana;), 
Melanchthon,  Gerhard,  and  Doctor  Chalmers. 
There  is  a  dogmatism,  too,  of  infidelity,  or  rather  of 
assertive  atheism,  extending  from  Origen  to  Brad- 
laugh. 

Dog’s '-tail  Grass  ( Cynosurus ),  a  genus  of 
grasses  having  a  close  spike  or  ear,  each  spikelet 
with  two  equal  glumes  anti  three  to  five  florets, 


and  beneath  each  spikelet  a  comb-like  bract  or 
involucre. 

Dog'wood,  or  Dog'berry,  the  name  usually 
given  to  some  of  the 
arboreous  and 
shrubby  species  of 
the  genus  Cornus. 

The  common  Dog¬ 
wood  o  f  Europe 
(  C.  sanguinea ),  a 
native  of  Europe, 
and  also  of  the  North 
of  Africa,  is  a  shrill) 
of  from  four  to  fif¬ 
teen  feet  in  height, 
with  ovate  leaves, 
and  terminal  cymes 
of  greenish  -  white 
flowers,  which  have 
an  unpleasant  odor. 

The  Dogwood  of 
North  America 
(C.  florid  a)  is  found  6 
from  latitude  43r>  to 
Florida.  The  ber¬ 
ries  are  red,  and  re¬ 
main  on  the  tree  a, 
most  of  the'  winter. 

The  flowers  appear 


Common  Dogwood, 
branchlet,  with  leaves  and 
flowers;  b ,  fruit. 

before  the  leaves  in  large 


white  bracts.  The  wood  is  white,  hard,  fine¬ 
grained,  much  esteemed  and  used  for  inlaying 
and  ornamental  work.  The  bark  is  very  success¬ 
fully  employed  in  the  cure  of  intermittent  fevers. 
It  is  also  a  valuable  tonic. 

Dola'bra,  a  rude  ancient  hatchet. 

Dolce',  an  Italian  term  in  music,  meaning 
softly  and  with  tenderness. 

Dol'd,  Carlo  or  Cari.tno,  a  celebrated  painter 
of  the  Florentine  school,  was  born  at  Florence  in 
1616  and  died  in  1686.  His  works  are  numerous 
and  scattered  over  all  Europe. 

Dolichos,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  or¬ 
der  Leguminosce,  sub-order  papilionacece,  closely 
allied  to  Phaseolus,  and  chiefly  distinguished  by 
the  extension  of  the  base  of  the  standard  so 
as  to  embrace  the  wings  of  the  corolla  at  their 


base. 

Doll,  an  imitative  baby  used  as  a  toy  by  girls. 
The  word  doll  is  of  doubtful  derivation;  possibly 
from  idol;  in  French,  the  name  is  poupee;  in 
German,  puppe,  from  Lat.  papa,  a  girl,  a  doll. 

Dol'lar  is  the  name  of  a  coin,  and  the  unit  in 
the  monetary  system  of  the  United  States.  Dollar 
is  a  variety  of  the  Ger.  thaler,  Low  Ger.  dahler, 
Dan.  daler'.  The  American  dollar  is  taken  from  the 
old  Spanish  dollar  or  piaster,  and  is  only  slightly 
less.  It  was  formerly  only  of  silver;  but  in  1873  the 
gold  dollar  was  made  the  unit  of  value  in  the  Uni¬ 
ted  States.  In  1878,  however,  silver  was  remone¬ 
tized,  and  so  now  shares  with  gold  the  rank  of 
standard  money.  Since  1837,  the  silver  dollar  is 
required  to  contain  4124  troy  grains,  or  26.4246 
Fr.  grammes,  the  fineness  of  which  is  fixed  at 
f’o — i.  e.,  j'g  of  it  is  alloy.  Besides  dollars,  there 
are  coined  in  silver,  half-dollars,  quarter-doll ars, 
dimes  dol.),  and  half-dimes  (f,  dol).  With 
regard  to  these,  it  was  enacted  in  1853  that  the 
weight  of  the  half-dollar  shall  be  192  grains,  and 
that  of  the  others  proportional  to  this;  and  that 
such  silver  coins  shall  be  legal  tenders  for  all 
sums  not  exceeding  five  dollars.  The  standard 
gold  of  the  United  States  is  of  the  same  fineness 
as  the  silver — namely  t90 ;  and  of  this  have  at 
times  been  coined  double-eagles,  eagles,  half¬ 
eagles,  and  quarter-eagles,  of  20,  10,  5,  and  24 
dollars,  besides  three-dollar  and  one-dollar  pieces. 

Dollinger,  John  J.  Ignatius  von,  one  of  the 
most  distinguished  of  the  Roman  Catholic  divines 
of  modern  Germany,  was  born  at  Bamberg,  Feb. 
28,  1799.  He  was  educated  at  Wurzburg,  where 
he  received  holy  orders.  He  was  appointed  a 
professor  at  Aschaffenburg,  whence,  in  1826,  he 
was  removed  to  the  Chair  of  Ecclesiastical  His¬ 
tory  in  the  newly-established  University  of 
Munich.  He  inaugurated  his  new  professorial 
career  by  a  work  on  The  Doctrine  of  the  Eucharist 
During  the  First  Three  Centuries,  in  1826,  and  a 
History  of  the  Reformation,  being  a  continuation 
of  Hertig’s  Handbook  of  Church  History.  He 
subsequently  undertook  a  now  History  of  the 
Church  (V ol'.  1. 1833,  Vol.  11. 1835).  In  the  politico- 
religious  movement  of  1846-1847,  Dollinger  was 


DOLLOND. 


340 


DONIZETTI. 


elected  to  represent  the  University  of  Munich  in 
the  Bavarian  Chamber;  but  being  deprived  of  his 
professorship,  he  became  disqualified  to  sit  in  the 
Chamber.  In  1849,  he  was  restored  to  his  profes¬ 
sorship  at  Munich,  and  also  to  his  place  in  the 
Bavarian  Chamber,  which  he  held  till  1852. 
Since  that  year,  he  has  devoted  himself  entirely 
to  theological  literature.  On  April,  1871,  he  was 
formally  excommunicated  by  the  Archbishop  of 
Munich.  The  Bavarian  Government  and  the 
University  of  Munich  supported  him,  and  in 
September,  1874,  he  presided  over  the  “  Old 
Catholic  ”  Conference  at  Bonn. 

DoI'Iond,  John,  a  distinguished  optician, 
inventor  of  the  achromatic  telescope,  was 
descended  from  a  French  refugee  family,  and 
born  in  London,  June  10,  1706.  He  died  in 
1761. 

Dolmen, properly  so  called  by  the  French,  con¬ 
sists  of  one  large  unhewn  stone  resting  on  two  or 
more  unhewn  stones  placed  erect  in  the  earth. 

Dolo 'mite, Bitter  Spar,  otMagne'sian  Lime¬ 
stone,  a  mineral  consisting  of  carbonate  of  lime 
and  carbonate  of  magnesia  in  somewhat  variable 
proportions,  sometimes  nearly  equal,  the  carbon¬ 
ate  of  lime  often  greatly  preponderating;  and 
usually  containing  also  a  little — sometimes  nearly 
20  per  cent. — of  carbonateof  iron.  It  is  burned 
and  made  into  mortar,  but  the  lime  obtained  from 
it  remains  much  longer  caustic  than  lime  from 
common  limestone,  and  if  spread  on  land  in  the 
same  quantity,  impairs  rather  than  increases  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  Brown  spar  is  a  variety  of 
dolomite. 

Dolphin  ( Delphinus ),  a  genus  of  Cetacea,  the 
type  of  a  family,  Delphinidce,  which  is  charac¬ 
terized  by  a  moderate  size  of  head,  usually  having 
numerous  simple  and  conical,  or  nearly  conical 
teeth  in  both  jaws.  The  blow-liole  is  single.  The 


true  dolphins  have  the  snout  prolonged  into  a 
rather  slender  beak,  which  is  not  only  abruptly 
separated  from  the  convex  forehead, buteven  by  a 
marked  furrow.  They  are  very  voracious  animals, 
and  are  said  to  prey  not  only  on  fishes,  medusae, 
cephalopods,  etc.,  but  even  on  the  wounded  and 
feeble  of  their  own  species.  The  common  dolphin 
is  found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  in  the  Northern 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  usually  not  more  than  six 
or  eight  feet  long,  but  individuals  have  been  seen 
of  ten  feet. 

Dolphin,  Black  (Aphis  fahce),  a  species  of 
Aphis,  or  plant-louse,  which  infests  the  bean, 


Black  Dolphin. 

a,  a  colony;  b,  a  winged  insect,  magnified;  c,  a  wingless 
female,  magnified. 

and  often  does  considerable  injury  to  crops,  suck¬ 
ing  the  juices  of  the  plants  and  preventing  the 
development  of  flower-buds. 


Dorn,  or  Don  (from  Lat.  dominus,  lord).  In 
Portugal  the  title  dom  is  confined  to  the  Sover¬ 
eign  and  his  family.  The  Spanish  don  was  origi¬ 
nally  confined  to  the  nobility,  but  is  now  bestowed 
by  courtesy  as  indiscriminately  as  the  English 
Mr.  or  gentleman.  The  feminine  dona  is,  in  like 
manner,  given  to  ladies. 

Dom  brow 'ski  (properly  Dabrowsici),  Jan 
Henryk,  a  distinguished  Polish  general,  was 
born  Aug.  29,  1755,  at  Pierszowice,  in  the  district 
of  Cracow.  After  distinguished  service  in  the 
armies  of  Saxony,  the  Polish  Revolution,  and 
France  (during  which  he  figured  prominently  in 
the  retreat  from  Moscow),  he  returned  to  his 
country,  where  he  died  June  6,  1818. 

Dome  (Ital.  duomo),  in  the  stricter  sense  which 
it  has  obtained  in  the  languages  of  Northern  Eu¬ 
rope,  signifies  the  external  part  of  the  spherical 
or  polygonal  roof,  of  which  the  cupola  (cupo,  or 
cup)  is  the  internal  part.  The  dome  of  the  Pan¬ 
theon  at  Rome  is  still  probably  the  most  mag¬ 
nificent  dome  in  existence.  The  three  most  cele¬ 
brated  modern  domes  are  those  of  St.  Peter’s  at 
Rome,  of  St.  Paul’s  iii  London,  and  of  the  Pan¬ 
theon  in  Paris. 

Domenichi'no,  or  Domeni'co,  Zampieri,  a 
celebrated  painter  of  the  Bolognese  school,  was 
born  in  Bologna,  1581,  and  died  in  1641. 

Domes 'day  Book,  or  Dooms 'day  Book,  the 
name  of  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  valuable  rec¬ 
ords  of  England,  containing  the  results  of  a  sta¬ 
tistical  survey  of  that  country  made  by  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  completed  in  the  year  1086. 
The  origin  of  the  name  is  somewhat  uncertain; 
but  it  has  obvious  reference  to  the  supreme 
authority  of  the  book  in  doom  or  judgment  on 
the  matters  contained  in  it. 

Domestic  Animals  are  those  which,  in  order 
to  turn  them  to  his  use,  man  has  tamed  or  re¬ 
duced  in  a  greater  or  less  measure  from  their  nat¬ 
ural  wildness,  and  which  he  makes  the  objects  of 
his  care,  and  in  a  living  state  his  property.  In 
general  those  only  are  called  domestic  animals 
which  have  existed  from  one  generation  to  another 
in  a  state  of  domestication. 

Dom'icile,  a  man’s  legal  place  of  abode,  or 
the  place  which  the  law  will  hold  to  be  his  resi¬ 
dence. 

Dom'inant,  in  Music,  the  fifth  above  the 
tonic;  the  ruling  or  governing  tone  of  the  key. 

Domin'go,  San,  or  Santo,  a  maritime  city  of 
Hayti,  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
and  of  the  Republic  of  San  Domingo  or  the  Dom¬ 
inican  Republic,  stands  on  the  southeast  coast,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ozama,  in  latitude  18°  29'  N., 
and  longitude  69°  57'  W.  Pop.,  15,000.  The 
name  San  Domingo  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
whole  Island  of  Hayti. 

Dominica,  or  Dominique,  a  British  West  India 
Island,  lies  in  latitude  159  18' N.,  and  longitude 
61°  24'  W.,  containing  about  290  square  miles, 
and  28,211  inhabitants.  The  capital  is  Roseau, 
or  Charlotteville.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Domin'ical  Letter,  or  Sunday  Letter,  is  one 
of  the  seven  letters  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  used  in 
almanacs,  etc.,  to  mark  the  Sundays  throughout 
the  year. 

Dominican  Repub'lic,  a  state  formed  of  the 
Spanish  or  east  section  of  Hayti.  It  has  an  area 
of  18,000  square  miles,  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
area  of  the  whole  island.  Its  principal  produc¬ 
tions  are  sugar,  tobacco,  and  coffee.  Pop., 400, 000. 
The  capital,  San  Domingo,  contains  15,000  in¬ 
habitants. 

Dominicans,  an  order  of  preaching  friars  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  (Fratres  prcedicatores) 
founded  at  Toulouse  in  1215  by  Dominic  (Dom¬ 
ingo)  de  Guzman. 

Dom  'ino,  the  name  formerly  given  to  the  garb 
worn  in  winter  by  priests  while  officiating  in  cold 
edifices.  It  is  now  used  to  signify  a  masquerade 
costume,  consisting  of  an  ample  cloak  or  mantle 
with  wide  sleeves. 

Dominoes,  the  name  of  a  game,  usually  played 
with  twenty -eight  oblong,  flat  pieces  of  ivory  or 
bone,  etc.,  each  of  which  bears  two  numbers 
marked  by  points  from  nought  to  six.  The  party 
wins  who  has  first  played  out  his  tablets,  or,  if 
this  has  been  found  impossible,  who  has  the  few¬ 
est  points  on  the  tablets  still  remaining. 

Dom'inus,  the  Latin  word  by  which  we  com¬ 


monly  render  lord,  but  which  more  properly  sig¬ 
nifies  master,  as  opposed  to  slave  (servus). 

Domitianus,  T.  Flavius,  Emperor  of  Rome 
from  81  to  96  a.d.  He  wasinhumanly  cruel,  and 
murdered  or  banished  many  of  the  best  men  in 
Rome.  He  was  assassinated,  Sept.  18,  96  a.d. 

Don  (anc.  Ta'nais),  a  river  of  Russia,  has  its 
source  in  a  small  lake  in  Tula,  in  latitude  about 
53°  45'  N.,  and  longitude  38°  10'  E.,  and  falls 
into  the  Sea  of  Azov.  Its  total  length  is  about 
1,150  miles. 

Don  Jn'an  is  a  legendary  and  mythical  per¬ 
sonage  like  Doctor  Faustus.  The  two  have  been 
made  the  representatives  of  two  different  tend¬ 
encies,  both  proceeding  from  the  same  principle 
— from  the  principle  of  unbelief  and  godlessness, 
which  necessarily  turns  self  into  either  a  god  or  a 
beast — the  principle  of  subjectivism,  or  selfish¬ 
ness  become  dominant.  In  Faust,  expression  has- 
been  given  to  the  subjective  idealism  of  the 
Germanic  nations,  their  tendency  to  subtle  specu¬ 
lation  and  a  rationalism  antagonistic  to  faith.  In 
Don  J uan  appear  the  practical  materialism  and 
refined  sensualism  of  the  Romanic  peoples,  and 
the  tendency  of  blind  belief  in  a  corrupt  Cathol¬ 
icism  to  pass  into  unbelief.  This  ideal  career  is 
aptly  enough  localized  in  one  of  the  most  luxur¬ 
ious  cities  of  the  once  world-monarchy  of  the 
Saracens — viz.,  Seville — and  the  characters  wear 
the  names  of  the  ancient  noble  families  of  the 
place.  The  hero  of  the  story,  Don  Juan,  is  de¬ 
scribed  as  a  member  of  the  celebrated  family 
Tenorio,  and  is  represented  as  living  sometimes 
contemporary  with  Peter  the  Cruel,  sometimes 
with  Charles  V.  The  chief  aim  of  his  sinful 
career  is  the  seduction  of  the  daughter  of  a  gov¬ 
ernor  of  Seville,  or  of  a  nobleman  of  the  family 
of  the  Ulloas.  Being  opposed  by  the  father,  he 
stabs  him  in  a  duel.  He  then  forces  his  way  into 
the  family  tomb  of  the  murdered  man,  within  the 
convent  of  San  Francisco,  causes  a  feast  to  be 
prepared  there,  and  invites  the  statue  which  had 
been  erected  to  his  victim  to  be  his  guest.  The 
stone  guest  appears  at  table  as  invited,  compels 
Don  Juan  to  follow  him,  and,  the  measure  of  his 
sins  being  full,  delivers  him  over  to  hell.  The 
legend  has  been  handled  by  various  English, 
.French,  and  Italian  authors,  and  figures  on  the 
stage  in  numerous  dramas  and  operas. 

Dou  Quixote.  See  Cervantes. 

Do'uatists  were  the  followers  of  Donatus,  a 
Numidian  bishop  who  opposed  the  election  of 
Cecilianus  in  311  a.d.  to  the  Bishopric  of  Car¬ 
thage,  on  the  ground  of  the  ordination  having 
been  performed  by  one  who  had  been  a  traditor,  or 
traitor — that  is,  one  who,  during  persecution,  had 
given  up  the  sacred  books  to  the  pagan  author¬ 
ities;  and  also  because  Cecilianus  had  exhibited 
great  hostility  toward  the  victims  of  the  late  per¬ 
secution. 

Dona'tus,  HSlius,  a  grammarian  and  commen¬ 
tator,  who  taught  grammar  and  rhetoric  at  Rome 
about  355  a.d.,  and  was  the  instructor  of  St. 
Jerome. 

Do  'mix,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate  mollusks, 
of  the  family  tellinidce,  with  shell  of  two  equal 
valves,  which  close  perfectly,  and  are  of  a  tri¬ 
angular  form.  The  fossil  species  belong  to  the 
eocene  formation. 

Don 'caster,  a  municipal  borough  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England.  Pop.  (1881), 
21,130. 

Don 'dra  Head,  the  most  southerly  extremity 
of  Ceylon,  is  in  latitude  5°  55'  N.,  and  longitude 
80°  38'  E. 

Donegal,  a  maritime  county  in  Ulster  Province, 
Ireland,  and  washed  by  the  Atlantic  on  the  north 
and  west.  Its  greatest  length  is  85  miles;  great¬ 
est  breadth,  41;  average,  27;  area,  1,865  square 
miles.  Pop.  205,443. 

Dong-nai '  is  the  name  of  a  river  and  a  town  in 
Annam  or  Cochin-China.— 1.  The  river  enters  the 
Chinese  Sea,  about  latitude  10°  20'  N.,  and  longi¬ 
tude  107°  E. — 2.  The  town  is  on  an  affluent  of 
the  river,  being  twenty-five  miles  to  the  northeast 
of  Saigon. 

Don'gola  (New),  or  Mara'kah,  a  town  of 
Nubia,  capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name, 
is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  latitude  19°  10' 
N.,  longitude  30°  22'  E.  Pop.  estimated  at  10,000. 

Donizet'ti,  Gaetano,  Italian  composer,  born 
in  1798.  He  devoted  himself  to  the  composing  of 


DONJON. 


341 


DORY. 


operas,  of  which  he  has  left  more  than  sixty. 
Lucrezia  Borgia  and  Lucia  di  Lammermoor,  are 
the  best  known.  He  died  in  1848. 

Donjon,  or  Dun'geon,  the  principal  tower  or 
keep  of  a  castle  or  fortress.  It  was  so  called  either 
from  being  placed  on  a  dun  or  elevation,  or 
because,  from  its  position,  it  dominated  (Lat. 
dominio,  corrupted  into  domgio,  dongeo ),  or  com¬ 
manded  the  other  parts  of  the  fortress.  From 
the  circumstance  that  the  lower  or  underground 
■story  of  the  donjon  was  used  as  a  prison,  has 
come  the  modern  meaning  of  the  word. 

Doom,  or  Dum  Palm  ( Hyphmne  thebaica),  a 
species  of  palm  remarkable  for  the  repeated 


Doom  Palm  ( Hyphcene  thebaica). 


forkings  of  its  stem.  It  is  a  native  of  Upper 
Egypt  and  of  the  central  parts  of  Africa. 

Door  and  Door 'way,  in  Art.  The  form  of 
the  doorway  is  determined  by  the  architectural 
style  of  the  building  in  which  it  is  placed.  In 
classical  buildings  it  is  generally  rectangular  in 
form,  though  both  Greeks  and  Romans,  follow¬ 
ing  the  Egyptians,  amongst  whom  the  practice 
was  almost  universal,  occasionally  diminished 
the  opening  toward  the  top;  and  the  Romans, 
in  later  times,  threw  over  it  the  circular  arch, 
which  was  the  characteristic  feature  of  their  style. 


Perpendicular  Doorway. 

From  the  Bishop’s  Palace,  Lincoln,  England. 

Egyptian  doorways  are  known  to  us  by  the  ex¬ 
amples  which  remain  in  monumental  structures; 
and  these,  like  the  other  members  of  the  style  as 
thus  exhibited,  are  of  gigantic  proportions.  The 
Greek  doorway  was  surrounded  by  moldings, 
and  as  the  lintel  or  top-stone  Which  covered  it 
projected  on  both  sides  beyond  the  jambs,  the 
moldings  which  ran  round  both  jutted  out  at 
the  place  of  meeting,  forming  a  sort  of  shoulder, 
a  characteristic  feature  in  all  the  styles  of  Gothic 
architecture. 

Door,  the  movable  panel  by  which  the  open¬ 
ing  to  an  apartment,  closet,  or  passage  is  closed. 
When  moving  horizontally  on  hinges,  they  are 
called  swing-doors;  when  two  such  are  used  to 


close  one  opening,  they  are  folding-doors.  Slid¬ 
ing-doors  are  those  which  move  on  rollers,  and 
may  be  pushed  aside.  A  trap-door  is  one  which 
opens  vertically  over  a  horizontal  opening,  as  a 
hole  in  a  floor,  etc.  When  a  small  door  closes  an 
opening  cut  in  a  larger  one,  it  is  usually  called  a 
wicket. 

D(M)rn'boom  {Acacia  horrida),  the  most  com¬ 
mon  tree  in  the  w'astes  of  South  Africa.  The 
name  doornboom  (thorn-tree),  given  to  it  by  the 
Dutch  colonists,  and  the  botanical  specific  name, 
are  due  to  the  number  and  sharpness  of  its  spines. 
It  seldom  exceeds  thirty  feet  in  height,  but  its 
timber  is  hard  and  tough. 

Doquet,  or  Dock  'et  (from  the  same  root  as 
dock,  to  cut  off  or  clip),  a  small  piece  of  paper 
or  parchment,  containing  a  brief  or  summary  of 
a  large  writing. 

Dor,  or  Mont  Dor  (often  written  less  properly 
Mont  d’Or),  a  chain  of  mountains  in  France  com¬ 
prised  in  the  great  group  of  the  Auvergne  Mount¬ 
ains  in  the  Department  of  Puy-de-Dome.  They 
are  of  volcanic  formation,  and  rise  in  the  Puy-de- 
Sancy,  which  is  the  highest  peak  of  Central 
France,  to  the  height  of  6,190  feet. 

Dor 'Chester,  the  county  town  of  Dorsetshire, 
England.  Pop.  (1881),  7,568. 

Dordogne,  a  department  in  the  southwest  of 
France,  formed  of  the  ancient  Province  of  INri- 
gord,  with  small  portions  of  Limousin,  Angou- 
mois,  and  Saintonge.  Area,  3,531  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  493,608.  It  has  five  arrondissements 
— viz.,  Bergerac,  Nontron,  Perigueux,  Riberac, 
and  Sarlat,  with  Perigueux  as  capital. 

Dor 'Chester,  formerly  a  separate  city  of  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  was  in  1870  annexed  to  the  city  of 
Boston. 

Dore,  Paul  Gustave,  French  artist,  born  in 
1832.  He  has  illustrated  editions  of  Rabelais,  of 
the  Contes  Drolatiques  of  De  Balzac,  of  Dante’s 
Divina  Commedia,  of  Bon  Quixote,  of  Lafontaine’s 
Fables,  of  Milton,  and  of  the  Bible — all  of  which 
bear  the  impress  of  his  genius.  He  has  also 
illustrated  Tennyson’s  works,  Coleridge’s  Ancient 
Mariner,  and  the  Legend  of  the  Wandering  Jew. 
“Christ  leaving  the  Praetorium”  is  his  most  import¬ 
ant  painting.  He  died  Jan.  23,  1883. 

Do'ria,  Andrea,  Italian  admiral,  born  in  1468. 
He  distinguished  himself  in  the  battles  which  the 
Milanese  and  the  Flench  fought  against  Genoa 
and  the  Kings  of  Aragon.  In  1503,  after  a  short 
campaign,  he  crushed  the  rebellion  in  Corsica. 
After  the  defeat  of  Francis  I.,  near  Pavia,  Doria 
accepted  the  command  of  the  Papal  fleet,  and 
afterward  entered  the  French  service,  with  the 
title  of  High  Admiral  of  the  Levant.  He  blockaded 
Genoa,  and  took  the  town.  In  1529  Doria  entered 
Genoa  without  resistance,  and,  refusing  the  title 
of  Sovereign,  which  was  offered  by  the  Emperor, 
established  there  a  popular  form  of  government, 
which  remained  in  vigor  up  to  the  end  of  the 
Republic.  In  1532  Doria  won  a  victory  over  the 
Turks,  near  Patras,  and  the  conquest  of  Tunis 
(1535)  was  chiefly  his  work.  He  died  in  1560. 

Do'rians,  one  of  the  four  principal  peoples  of 
Greece,  who  took  their  name,  according  to  the 
legend,  from  Dorus,  the  son  of  Ilellen,  wliosettled 
in  Doris;  but  Herodotus  says  that,  in  the  time  of 
King  Deucalion,  they  inhabited  the  district  Plit  lii- 
otis;  and  in  the  time  of  Dorus,  the  son  of  Hellen, 
the  country  called  Histiaeotis,  at  the  foot  of  Ossa 
and  Olympus. 

Dor  ic  Order.  The  oldest,  strongest,  and 
simplest  of  the  three  orders  of  Greek  architecture. 

Dor'  is,  a  genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  of 
the  order  Nudibranchia ta,  the  type  of  a  family 
called  Doridce,  and  sometimes  popularly  sea- 
lemons.  The  species  are  found  in  all  seas,  but 
they  are  more  numerous  in  the  Southern  Hemi¬ 
sphere. 

Doris,  a  small  mountainous  district  of  ancient 
Hellas,  between  Phocis,  Hitolia,  Locris,  and  Thes- 
salia,  was  the  earliest  home  of  the  Dorians.  With 
its  four  towns,  Boium,  Cytinium,  Erineus,  and 
Piudus,  it  formed  the  Doric  Tetrapolis,  which 
was  afterward  completely  destroyed  by  the  Mace¬ 
donians.  Doris  was  also  the  name  of  a  district  in 
Asia  Minor,  on  the  coasts  of  Caria,  inhabited  by 
colonists  from  the  Peloponnesus;  it  formed  a 
hexapolis.  In  modern  Greece,  Doris  forms  an 
eparchy  of  the  Government  of  Phocis. 

Deriving,  or  Dark'ing,  a  town  in  England,  I 


in  the  middle  of  Surrey.  Pop.  (1881),  6,328.  It 
gives  its  name  to  a  peculiar  breed  of  domestic 
fowl. 

Dor 'mant  (Fr.  sleeping).  In  heraldic  repre¬ 
sentation,  an  animal  dormant  has  its  head  resting 
on  its  forepaws,  whereas  an  animal  couchant  has 
its  head  erect. 

Dormant  YitaPity  is  a  term  used  to  designate 
a  peculiar  condition  which  is  manifested  by  many 
organized  beings,  and  which  is  characterized  by 
an  apparent  suspension  of  all  the  vital  actions. 
Beings  in  this  state  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be  alive, 
since  they  exhibit  no  vital  activity,  nor  can  they 
be  designated  as  dead,  since  that  implies  their 
incapability  of  resuming  their  former  state.  This 
condition  may  result  either  from  the  withdrawal 
of  the  stimuli  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of 
vital  actions  (as  water,  heat,  etc.),  or  it  may  pro¬ 
ceed  from  some  change  in  the  organism  itself, 
whereby  its  power  of  responding  to  these  stimuli 
is  for  a  time  diminished  or  lost. 

Dor'mer,  or  Dormer  Window,  is  a  window 
placed  in  a  small  gable  rising  out  of  a  sloping 
roof,  often  made  use  of  for  the  purpose  of  en¬ 
larging  and  lighting  the  attic  or  garret-rooms  of 
modern  houses. 

Dor 'niitory  (Fr.  dormitoire,  from  Lat.  dormire, 
to  sleep),  a  sleeping  apartment  in  a  monastery,  or 
other  religious  establishment.  Dormitories  are 
usually  of  considerable  size,  sometimes  having  a 
range  of  cells  parted  off  on  each  side. 

Dor 'mouse  ( Myoxis ),  a  genus  of  rodent  efuad- 
rupeds,  ranked  by  some  naturalists  in  the  family 
Muridce  (rats,  mice,  etc.),  and  by  others  in  the 
family  Sciuvidoe  (squirrels,  etc.'':  being,  in  fact, 


Dormouse  ( Myoxis  avellanarius). 

a  connecting  link  between  the  two  families.  Their 
habits  resemble  those  of  squirrels;  the  dentition, 
however,  more  nearly  agrees  with  that  of  mice. 
They  are  natives  chiefly  of  the  South  of  Europe. 
Some  species  are  also  found  in  Africa,  and  the 
genus  Qraphyurus  is  entirely  African. 

Dor 'pat,  or  Derpt  (Russian  Ouriev,  Estho- 
nian,  Tartolin),  a  town  of  Russia,  in  Livonia,  is 
on  the  Embacli,  150  miles  northeast  of  Riga.  Pop. 
(1880),  29,727. 

Dorre  Island,  lying  to  the  north  of  Dirk- 
Hartog  Island,  in  latitude  25°  10'  S.,  forms  part 
of  the  breastwork  of  Shark  Bay,  in  Western  Aus¬ 
tralia.  It  is  20  miles  long. 

Dorse  ( Gadus  callarias,  or  Morrhua  callarias), 
a  fish  of  the  same  genus  wdth  the  cod,  haddock, 
etc.;  plentiful  in  the  Baltic  and  in  other  northern 
seas.  It  never  attains  so  great  a  size  as  the  cod, 
being  seldom  more  than  two  feet  in  length,  but 
resembles  it  in  form  and  color,  although  its  color 
is  more  variable,  from  which  it  has  received  the 
name  of  Variable  Cod.  It  is  also  called  the  Baltic 
Cod. 

Dor'setsliire,  or  Dor'set,  a  county  in  the 
South  of  England,  on  the  English  Channel,  be¬ 
tween  Devonshire  and  Hampshire.  Its  greatest 
length  is  58  miles;  greatest  breadth,  40;  average, 
21;  area,  627,265  acres.  Pop.  (1881),  190,979.  The 
towns  are  Dorchester,  Bridport,  Poole.  Weymouth 
andMelcombe  Regis,  Shaftesbury,  and  Wareham. 

Dorf,  or  Dor'drecht,  a  town  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  in  the  Province  of  South  Holland,  on  an 
island  formed  by  the  Maas,  about  twelve  miles 
southeast  of  Rotterdam.  Pop.,  27,292. 

Dort'mund,  a  town  of  Westphalia,  on  the 
Emscher,  forty-seven  miles  north-northeast  of  Co¬ 
logne.  Pop.  (1880),  66,544. 

Dory  {Zeus),  a  genus  of  fishes,  the  type  of  a 
family,  Zeida,  which  is  sometimes  regarded  as 


DOTIS. 


342 


DOW. 


merely  a  group  of  the  great  family  of  Scomberidw, 
but  is  at  least  a  very  distinct  group,  characterized 
not  only  by  an  oval  and  much  compressed  form 
of  body,  but  also  by  a  protractile  mouth.  The 


John  Dory  ( Zeusfaber ). 


species  of  Zeidce  are  distributed  in  the  seas  of  all 
parts  of  the  world.  In  the  dory  genus  the  gen¬ 
eral  surface  of  the  body  is  smooth  and  destitute  of 
scales,  but  spiny  scales  or  bony  shields  guard  the 
dorsal  and  ventral  edges. 

Do'tis,  or  Totis,  a  town  in  the  northwest  of 
Hungary,  District  of  Komorn,  thirty-seven  miles 
west-northwest  of  Pesth .  Between  the  town  proper 
and  its  suburb,  called  Lake  Town,  from  its  situa¬ 
tion  on  a  small  lake,  are  the  remains  of  an  old 
castle,  said  to  have  been  a  favorite  residence  of 
Mathias  Corvinus,  the  Hungarian  king.  Pop. 
(1880),  6,507. 

Dot'terel  ( Charadrius  morinellus),  a  species  of 
plover,  which  in  summer  inhabits  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  breeding  chiefly  in  the 


Dotterel  ( Charadrius  morinellus). 


highest  latitudes,  and  migrates  on  the  approach  of 
winter  to  the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean 
and  those  of  a  similar  climate. 

Douai,  or  Douay,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  De¬ 
partment  of  Nord,  on  the  River  Scarpe,  twenty 
miles  south  of  Lille.  Pop.  (1881),  25,060. 

Douay  Bible.  See  Bible. 

Don!) 'let  (so  called  from  being  originally  lined 
or  wadded  for  defense)  was  a  close,  tight-fitting 
garment,  the  skirts  reaching  a  little  below  the 
girdle.  It  was  almost  identical  with  the  jerkin. 
The  sleeves  were  sometimes  separate,  and  tied  on 
at  the  arm. 

Doubling  the  Cube  was  a  geometrical  problem 
among  the  ancients.  The  object  was,  to  find  the 
side  of  a  cube  whose  contents  should  be  twice  that 
of  another  given  cube. 

Doub'loon  (Sp.  dublone,  double)  is  the  name  of 
a  gold  piece  coined  in  Spain  and  Spanish  America. 
The  Dublone  de  Isabella,  coined  since  1848,  is  of 
100  reals,  and  equivalent  to  $5.00.  The  older 
Spanish  doubloons  vary  in  value  from  85  to  81 
francs. 

Doubs,  a  department  of  France,  on  the  eastern 
frontier,  separated  from  Switzerland  by  the  Jura 
Mountains,  is  in  latitude  46°  35' — 47°  31'  N.,  and 
longitude  5°  42' — 7°  4'  E.  Area,  about  2,000 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  308,482.  It  is  divided 
into  the  four  arrondissements  of  Besangon,  Baume- 
les-Dames,  Montbelliard,  and  Pontarlier.  The 
capital  is  Besangon. 

Dough  is  the  name  given  to  the  moistened  and 
kneaded  flour  in  the  first  stage  of- making  bread. 

Doug 'las,  the  capital  and  principal  seaport  of 
the  Isle  of  Man,  is  so  called  from  its  being  sit¬ 
uated  near  the  junction  of  two  streams — the 
Dhoo  (black)and  Glass  (gray).  Pop.  (1881),  15,719. 

Doug 'las,  The  Scotch  Family  of. — 1.  Will¬ 


iam  of  Douglas,  the  first  of  the  family  in 
record,  was  so  called,  doubtless,  from  the  wild 
pastoral  dale  which  he  possessed.  He  is  found 
witnessing  charters  by  the  King  and  the  Bishop  of 
Glasgow  between  1175  and  1213. — 2.  Sin  Archi¬ 
bald,  or  Erkenbald,  of  Douglas  is  a  witness 
to  charters  between  1190  and  1232.  —3.  Sir  Will¬ 
iam  of  Douglas,  apparently  the  son  of  Sir 
Archibald,  figures  in  record  from  1240  to  1273. 
He  appears  in  1255  as  one  of  the  Scottish  partisans 
of  King  Henry  III.  of  England. — 4.  Hugh  of 
Douglas,  the  elder,  acquired  land  in  Glencorse, 
in  Lothian,  by  marriage  with  the  sister  of  Sir 
Hugh  of  Abernetliy;  and  dying  without  issue 
about  1287,  was  succeeded  by  his  younger 
brother. — 5.  Sir  William  of  Douglas,  was 
distinguished  in  tradition  as  William  the  Hardy. 
His  first  appearance  is  in  1267.  He  was  the  first 
man  of  mark  who  joined  Wallace  in  the  rising 
against  the  English  in  1297;  and  for  this  his  lands 
were  wasted,  and  his  wife  and  children  carried 
off  by  Robert  Bruce,  the  young  Earl  of  Carrick, 
then  a  partisan  of  England. — 6.  The  history  of 
his  son,  the  Good  Sir  James  of  Douglas,  is 
familiar  as  Bruce’s  greatest  captain  in  the  long 
War  of  the  Succession.  The  hero  of  seventy 
fights,  be  is  said  to  have  won  them  all  but  thirteen, 
leaving  the  name  of  the  Black  Douglas.  He 
was  slain  in  Andalusia  in  1330. — 7.  "Hugh  of 
Douglas,  ol  whom  nothing  is  known  except 
that  he  made  over  the  now  great  domains 
of  his  family,  in  1342,  to  his  nephew,  Sir  William 
of  Douglas. 

Earls  of  Douglas. — Hitherto,  the  Douglases 
had  no  higher  title  than  that  of  knight;  but  in 
1357,  Sir  William  of  Douglas,  who  had  fought  at 
Poitiers,  and  distinguished  himself  in  other  fields, 
was  made  Earl  of  Douglas,  and  afterward  by 
marriage  became  Earl  of  Mar.  His  ambition 
aimed  at  still  greater  things,  and  in  1371  he  dis¬ 
puted  the  succession  to  the  Scottish  crown  with 
Robert  II.  (the  first  of  the  Stewarts).  He  died  in 
1384.  His  son  James,  second  Earl  of  Douglas 
and  Mar,  the  conqueror  of  Hotspur,  fell  at  Otter- 
burn  in  1388.  The  Earldom  of  Douglas,  mean¬ 
while,  was  bestowed  on  an  illegitimate  son  of  the 
Good  Sir  James — Archibald,  Lord  of  Galloway, 
surnamed  the  Grim.  His  son  Archibald,  fourth 
Earl,  was  taken  prisoner  by  Hotspur,  and  fought 
at  Shrewsbury.  Of  succeeding  Earls,  the  sixth 
and  eighth  were  murdered  by  James  II.  of  Scot¬ 
land,  and  the  ninth  became  a  monk.  Another 
branch  includes  the  Earls  of  Angus,  of  whom 
one  of  the  most  formidable  was  Archibald  “Bell- 
tlie-Cat.”  From  this  family,  through  marriage 
with  the  Lennoxes,  the  present  reigning  Queen  of 
Great  Britain  claims  descent.  The  Mortons, 
Queensberry  (Duke),  Earls  of  March,  Hamiltons, 
and  many  other  leading  families  in  the  British 
peerage  are  descended  (mostly  illegitimately), 
from  the  Douglases. 

Douglas,  Gawyn  or  Gavin,  a  Scottish  poet, 
the  third  son  of  Archibald,  fifth  Earl  of  Angus, 
was  born  in  the  year  1474  or  1475,  and  died  in 
1522. 

Douglass,  Frederick,  was  born  at  Tuckahoe, 
Maryland,  about  1817.  His  father  was  a  white 
man,  his  mother  a  slave,  and  he  was  reared  as  a 
slave.  At  the  age  of  twenty-one,  he  escaped  to 
New  York,  and  thence  to  New  Bedford,  in  Mass¬ 
achusetts,  where  he  worked  until  1841,  when  he 
attended  an  anti-slavery  convention  at  Nantucket, 
and  spoke  so  eloquently  on  the  subject  of  slavery, 
that  he  was  employed  as  an  agent  of  the  Massa¬ 
chusetts  Anti-slavery  Society,  and  lectured  for 
four  years.  In  1845  he  made  a  lecturing  tour  in 
Great  Britain,  where,  in  1846,  a  contribution  was 
made  to  buy  his  freedom.  Returning  to  Amer¬ 
ica,  he  established,  in  1847,  Frederick  Douglass’ 
Paper,  a  weekly  Abolition  newspaper,  at  Roches¬ 
ter,  New  York.  In  1871,  he  was  secretary  to  the 
Santo  Domingo  Commission;  in  1872,  he  was  a 
Presidential  Elector;  and  in  1877,  President  Hayes 
appointed  him  Marshal  of  the  District  of  Colum¬ 
bia. 

Douglas,  Stephen  Arnold,  born  at  Brandon, 
Vermont,  April  23,  1813.  In  1835  he  was  elected 
Attorney-General  of  Illinois.  In  December, 
1835,  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Legislature, 
in  1837  was  appointed  Registrar  of  the  Land  Office 
at  Springfield,  and  in  December,  1840,  he  became 
Secretary  of  State  of  Illinois.  He  was  a  judge 


of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Illinois  from  1841  till 
November,  1843,  and  was  elected  to  Congress..  In 
1852,  and  again  in  1856,  he  was  a  candidate  for 
the  Presidency,  but  failed  to  secure  a  nomination. 
In  1858  he  was  engaged  in  a  contest  for  the  Sen- 
atorship  with  Abraham  Lincoln,  who  was  the 
Republican  candidate.  In  1860  he  was  the  un¬ 
successful  candidate  of  the  Northern  Democrats 
for  the  Presidency.  Douglas  died  in  Chicago, 
June  3,  1861.  A  monument  to  his  memory  stands 
over  his  grave,  in  his  old  homestead  on  the  shore 
of  Lake  'Michigan,  close  to  the  university  which 
he  was  instrumental  in  founding,  and  which 
bears  his  name. 

Dou'ro(Span.  Dueero,  Port.  Dauro),  the  name 
of  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Spain  and  Portugal, 
rises  in  the  province  of  Old  Castile,  about  thirty 
miles  west-northwest  of  the  town  of  Soria. 
The  total  length  of  the  river  is  about  500  miles. 

Dove  (probably  from  the  same  root  as  dive, 
owing  to  its  habit  of  ducking  the  head;  compare 
Lat.  columba  with  Gr.  ho\v/u[5eiv  ,  todive),  aname 
sometimes  extended,  as  the  name  pigeoD  also  is, 
to  the  whole  family  of  Columbidce,  sometimes  like 
it  restricted,  at  least  when  used  without  prefix, 
to  the  genus  Columba  of  the  more  recent  ornitho¬ 
logical  systems. 

Dove.  In  Christian  Art,  the  dove  is  employed 
as  an  emblem  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  no  doubt  from 
the  fact  of  this  being  the  form  in  which  the  Spirit 
descended  on  our  Lord  at  his  baptism.  From  the 
dove  being  also  used  to  symbolize  purity,  it  is 
generally  represented  white,  with  its  beak  and 
claws  red,  as  they  occur  in  nature. 

Do've,  Heinrich  W.,  physicist,  born  in  1803, 
at  Liegnitz,  in  Silesia.  The  most  celebrated  of 
his  writings  refer  to  meteorology,  climatology, 
induced  electricity,  and  circularly  polarized  light. 
He  died  April  6,  1879. 

Do  'ver,  a  Parliamentary  and  municipal  bor¬ 
ough  in  the  east  of  Kent,  sixty -six  miles  from  Lon¬ 
don,  England,  is  not  only  a  charmingly  situated 
watering-place,  but  being  the  nearest  point  of  the 
English  coast  to  France,  is  a  seaport  of  rapidly 
growing  importance.  Within  the  last  few  years 
$4,000,000  have  been  expended  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment  in  constructing  a  magnificent  pier,  which, 
running  out  a  distance  of  2,100  feet  seaward,  ter¬ 
minates  in  a  fort  fitted  to  bear  two  guns  of  heavy 
caliber,  so  mounted,  that  they  will  sweep  the 
Channel.  Pop.,  28,000. 

Dover,  a  city  of  New  Hampshire,  founded  in 
1623,  is  the  oldest  in  the  State.  Pop.,  11,687. 

Dover,  capital  of  Delaware,  is  situated  in  Kent 
county,  on  St.  Jones  river.  Pop.,  4,000.  Its 
principal  importance  lies  in  its  historical  interest. 
Old  Fort  Delaware  is  situated  here. 

Dover,  Strait  of  ( Fretum  Gallicum,  Pas  de 
Calais),  the  sea-channel  between  England  and 
France,  connecting  the  English  Channel  and 
North  Sea,  whose  tides  meet  here.  It  is  18  to  25 
miles  broad,  and  6  to  29  fathoms  deep. 

Dover’s  Powder  is  a  preparation  of  powder  of 
ipecacuanha  1  drachm,  opium  in  powder  1  drachm, 
and  sulphate  of  potash  1  ounce.  The  whole  is 
thoroughly  mixed,  and  the  ordinary  dose  is  from 
5  to  10  grains.  Its  chief  use  is  as  a  sedative,  and 
particularly  for  children  in  diseases  of  the  bowTels. 

Dow,  Dou,  or  Douw,  Gerard,  Dutch  genre- 
painter,  born  in  1613.  He  died  in  1680. 

Dow,  Lorenzo  (1777-1834),  a  preacher,  noted 
for  his  eccentricities  of  dress  and  manner,  wras 
born  at  Coventry,  Conn.,  October  16,  1777.  He 
received  but  a  limited  education,  and  wTas  much 
troubled  in  his  youth  by  religious  perplexities; 
but  he  ultimately  joined  the  Methodists,  and  was 
appointed  a  preacher  (1799).  The  same  year,  how¬ 
ever,  his  official  connection  with  that  body 
ceased,  and  he  went  to  preach  to  the  Catholics  of 
Ireland.  He  attracted  great  crowds  to  hear  and 
see  him,  and  was  often  persecuted  as  well  as  ad¬ 
mired.  He  also  visited  England,  introduced  the 
system  of  camp  meetings,  and  thus  led  the  way 
to  the  formation  of  the  Primitive  Methodist  So¬ 
ciety.  These  visits  were  repeated  in  1805.  Dow’s 
enthusiasm  sustained  him  through  the  incessant 
labors  of  more  than  thirty  years,  during  which 
he  preached  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  His  later  efforts  wrere  chiefly  directed 
against  the  Jesuits.  His  Polmical  Works  were 
published  in  1814.  He  died  Feb.  2, 1834. 


DOWAGER. 


343 


DRAGONFLY. 


Dow'ager  (Fr.  douairhe,  from  douaire,  dowry, 
dower,  derived  from  the  Greek  and  Latin  dos,  a 
thing  given,  verb  do,  to  give),  a  term  used  in 
Europe,  especially,  to  designate  a  widow  with  a 
dower;  but  commonly  the  title  is  applied  only  to 
the  widows  of  persons  of  high  rank.  The  queen- 
dowager,  as  the  widow  of  a  king,  enjoys  most  of 
the  privileges  which  belonged  to  her  as  queen- 
consort.  The  term  is  also  used  to  denote  the  old¬ 
est  widow  in  a  family  where  there  are  more  than 
one. 

Dowel*  (Lat.  dos,  in  Domesday,  maritagium ),  in 
Common  Law,  is  that  portion  of  lands  or  tenements 
which  the  wife  has  for  term  of  her  life  of  the  lands 
or  tenements  of  her  husband  after  his  decease,  for 
the  sustenance  of  herself  and  the  nurture  and 
education  of  her  children.  In  the  United  States 
the  widow  generally  takes  an  estate  for  life  in  one- 
third  of  all  the  real  estate  of  which  Her  husband 
was  seized  in  fee  at  the  time  of  his  decease. 

Down,  a  county  in  the  southeast  of  Ulster  Prov¬ 
ince,  Ireland.  It  is  51  miles  long,  and  38  broad, 
with  an  area  of  967  square  miles.  The  chief 
towns  are  Downpatrick,  Newry,  Newtownards, 
Bannbridge,  and  Donaghadee.  Pop.  (1881), 
269,927. 

Downpat 'rick  (Mount  of  Patrick),  or  simply 
Down,  a  town  in  the  south  of  County  Down,  Ire¬ 
land,  of  which  it  is  the  capital.  Pep.,  3,902. 

Downs,  The,  an  important  roadstead  or  shelter 
for  shipping,  off  the  southeast  coast  of  Kent, 
England. 

Downs  (Ang.-Sax.  dun,  a  hill,  from  a  root  seen 
in  Irish  and  Gaelic  dun,  and  also  in  the  Teutonic 
languages;  Ger.  dunen),  a  term  applied  in  Great 
Britain  to  hillocks  of  sand  thrown  up  by  the  sea 
or  the  wind  along  the  sea-coast.  It  is  also  a 
general  name  for  any  undulating  tracts  of  upland 
too  light  for  cultivation,  and  covered  with  short 
grass. 

Dox'ology,  a  Greek  word,  signifies  an  exclama¬ 
tion  or  prayer  in  honor  of  the  majesty  of  God, 
such  as  Paul  uses  at  the  close  of  his  epistles,  and 
sometimes  even  in  the  middle  of  an  argument 
(Romans  ix,  5). 

Drack'ma,  Drachm,  Dram.  The  drachma 
was  a  silver  coin,  the  unit  of  the  money  system  in 
ancient  Greece.  It  varied  in  value  in  different 
parts  of  Greece  and  at  different  times.  The  Attic 
drachma  is  estimated  as  equivalent  to  20  cents  of 
our  money — very  nearly  a  French  franc.  The 
iEginetan  drachma  was  considerably  more.  But 
whatever  its  absolute  worth,  it  always  remained 
the  eooo  Part  °f  the  talent  (about  $1,220),  and 
the  joo  part  of  the  mina  (about  $20),  and  was 
divided  into  six  obols.  The  drachma  (originally, 
a  handful)  was  also  the  name  of  a  weight,  and 
100  drachmas  made  a  mina,  in  weight,  as  in 
money.  The  weight  of  the  drachma  is  stated  at 
from  i  ounce  avoirdupois  to  little  more  than  half 
as  much.  The  unit  in  the  monetary  system  of 
modern  Greece,  sinoe  1833,  has  also  been  called 
drachma;  it  is  equivalent  to  r8„B5  of  a  franc,  or 
about  17  cents,  and  is  divided  into  100  lepta. 

Draco(Gr.  Apauov),  an  Athenian  law-giver  and 
archon,  who,  in  the  year  624  b.c.,  was  appointed 
to  draw  up  new  laws  for  the  disordered  State. 
These,  however,  effected  little  change  in  the  form 
of  the  State;  but  by  being  committed  to  writing, 
put  an  end  to  the  arbitrary  administration  of 
justice  on  the  part  of  the  archons,  and  resulted 
in  the  establishment  of  a  court  of  appeal — that 
of  the  Eplietae.  Draco,  at  a  later  period,  went 
to  vEgina,  where,  after  having  introduced  his 
laws,  lie  is  said  to  have  been  stifled  in  the  theater 
by  the  garments  thrown  upon  him  as  a  mark  of 
respect  by  the  people. 

Dra  'co.  a  constellation  in  the  Northern  Hemi¬ 
sphere.  The  star  y  draconis  is  celebrated  as  the 
one  used  in  determining  the  coefficient  of  aber¬ 
ration  of  the  fixed  stars.  It  is  a  bright  star,  nearly 
in  the  solstitial  colure,  and  consequently  the  minor 
axis  of  the  small  ellipse  which  its  apparent  place 
describes  in  the  heavens,  lies  in  the  meridian  at  its 
transit. 

Dracon'tium,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Aracew,  of  which  one  species,  D.  polyphyl- 
lum,  a  native  of  Guiana,  Surinam,  and  also  of 
India  and  Japan,  has  a  powerful  action  on  the 
nervous  system,  and  is  useful  in  asthma. 

Draft,  an  order  addressed  to  a  debtor  by  his 


creditor,  calling  upon  him  to  pay  a  certain  sum 
either  to  the  drawer  or  to  a  third  party. 

Draft,  or  Draught,  a  tentative  copy  of  a 
legal  document,  or  other  formal  writing,  made 
for  the  purpose  of  adjusting  the  matter  afterward 
to  be  admitted  into  the  fair  copy,  or  engrossed, 
as  it  is  called.  Manuscript  and  proof-sheets  are 
the  drafts  of  printed  work. 

Drag,  a  mechanism  for  checking  the  speed  of 
carriages,  by  operating  on  one  or  more  of  the 
wheels.  A  similar  contrivance,  but  of  a  more 
powerful  kind,  called  a  break  or  brake,  is  applied 
to  arrest  the  motion  of  railway-trains. 

Drag'omaii  (through  Spanish  and  Greek  from 
Arabic  tarjuman,  interpreter),  an  interpreter  in 
Turkey,  or  a  guide  to  foreigners.  The  common 
dragoman  corresponds  exactly  to  the  Italian 
cicerone  or  the  French  commissionaire  or  valet  de 
place. 

Dragon,  a  name  applied  to  different  kinds  of 
saurian  reptiles.  Some  of  these  (the  genus  Draco 
of  Linrueus)  are  characterized  by  false  ribs 
extending  from  the  side  so  as  to  support  a  mem¬ 
brane  which  is  used  as  a  parachute.  These  are 
called  flying  dragons  or  flying  lizards.  Another 
reptile  which  has  received  the  name  dragon,  and 
is  also  called  dragon  lizard  {Ada),  belongs  to 
a  family  of  saurians,  1'eyulce,  found  only  in 


America,  closely  allied  to  the  Varanidce  of  the 
Old  World,  and  to  which,  in  common  with  them, 
the  names  monitor  and  safeguard  have  some 
times  been  given,  in  consequence  of  their  being 
supposed — although  erroneously — to  give  warn¬ 
ing  by  a  hiss  of  the  proximity  of  a  crocodile  or 
alligator. 

Drag 'oil.  In  the  mythical  history  and  legend¬ 
ary  poetry  of  almost  every  nation,  the  dragon 
appears  as  _  the  emblem  of  the  destructive  and 
anarchic  principle,  as  it  manifests  itself  in  the 
earlier  stages  of  society,  as  misdirected  physical 
power  and  untamable  animal  passion.  Amongst 
all  the  new  races  which  overran  Europe  at  the 
termination  of  the  classical  period,  the  dragon 
seems  to  have  occupied  nearly  the  same  place  it 
held  in  the  earlier  stages  of  Greek  life.  In  the 
Mbelungen  Lied,  we  find  Siegfried  killing  a 
dragon  at  Worms;  and  the  contest  of  Beowulf, 
first  with  the  monster  Grendel,  and  then  with  the 
dragon,  forms  the  principal  incident  in  the  curious 
epic  which  bears  the  name  of  the  former.  Thor 
was  a  slayer  of  dragons  (J.  Grimm,  Deutsche 
Mytliologie,  ii,  653).  Among  the  Teutonic  tribes 
which  settled  in  England,  it  was  from  the  first 
depicted  on  their  shields  and  banners.  In  Chris¬ 
tian  Art,  the  dragon  is  the  emblem  of  sin,  the 
usual  form  given  to  it  being  that  of  a  winged 
crocodile.  It  is  often  represented  as  crushed 
under  the  feet  of  saints  and  martyrs,  and  other 
holy  personages.  Sometimes  its  prostrate  attitude 
signifies  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over  pagan¬ 
ism,  as  in  pictures  of  St.  George  and  St.  Sylves¬ 
ter;  or  over  heresy  and  schism,  as  when  it  was 
adopted  as  the  emblem  of  the  Knights  of  the 
Order  of  the  Dragon  in  Hungary,  which  was 
instituted  for  the  purpose  of  contending  against 
the  adherents  of  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague. 
The  dragon  is  often  employed  in  heraldry;  and 
other  animals, such  as  the  lion, are  sometimes  repre¬ 
sented  with  the  hinder  parts  resembling  drag¬ 


ons.  An  animal  so  represented  is  said  to  be 
dragonne. 

Dragon,  Green  (Dracunculus  vulgaris),  a  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Aracece,  which  receives  its 
name  from  its  spotted  stem.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
South  of  Europe.  Its  flowers  are  black,  remark¬ 
ably  fetid,  and  give  out  exhalations  which  cause 
headache,  giddiness,  and  vomiting. 

Dragon  Root  ( Armenia  atrorubens,  formerly 
Arum  triphyllum),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order 
Aracece,  a  native  of  North  America,  the  tuber  of 
which  is  a  powerful  local  irritant,  and  is  used  as  a 
stimulant  of  the  secretions  in  chronic  bronchitis, 
asthma,  rheumatism,  etc. 

Dragonet  (U  allionymus),  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  goby  family  ( Oobiadce ),  remarkable  for  having 


Gemmeous  Dragonet  ( Callionymus  lyra). 


the  gill-openings  reduced  to  a  small  hole  on  each 
side  of  the  nape,  and  the  ventral  fins  placed  under 
the  throat,  separate,  and  larger  than  the  pector¬ 
als. 

Dragon-fly  {Libellula),  a  Linntean  genus  of 
neuropterous  insects,  now  constituting  the  family 
Libellulidie.  They  resemble  butterflies  to  some 


Dragon-tly  and  Nymph  ( Libeliula  depressa). 


extent,  but  are  easily  distinguished  from  them  by 
their  more  slender  form  and  comparatively  narrow, 
gauze-like  wings.  They  do  not  feed,  on  the  nec¬ 
tar  of  flowers,  but  prey  on  other  insects.  Dragon 


Metamorphoses  of  Dragon-fly  (Aeshna  grandis). 
a,  larva;  b,  pupa;  c,  perfect  insect  issuing  from  pupa  case; 
cl,  perfect  insect,  with  wings  fully  developed. 


flies  have  a  large  head;  the  mouth  is  formed  foi 
mastication,  and  its  parts,  especially  the  mandi 
hies,  possess  great  strength. 


DRAGONNADES. 


344 


DRAWING  BOARD. 


Dragonna'des,  the  name  applied  to  a  series 
of  religious  persecutions  •which  took  place  in 
France  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  and  that  of 
his  successor,  and  which  were  intended  to  com¬ 
pel  the  Protestants  of  that  country  to  renounce 
their  religion. 

Dragon’s  Blood,  sometimes  called  gum 
dragon,  an  astringent,  resinous  substance,  obtained 
from  several  trees  of  different  natural  orders, 
natives  of  warm  countries.  The  greater  part  of 
the  dragon’s  blood  of  commerce  is  probably  the 
produce  of  Pterocarpus  draco,  a  large  South 
American  tree  of  the  natural  order  l.egumino^ce, 
sub-order  Papilionacece,  which  at  some  seasons 


appears  as  a  magnificent  mass  of  yellow  blossom. 
A  similar  substance  is  yielded  in  the  East  Indies, 
and  in  Mexico,  by  certain  trees  that  grow  there. 

Dragon's  Mouth,  or,  in  Spanish,  Boca  del 
Dr  a  go,  is  the  name  of  two  straits  or  passages 
in  the  New  World.  One  of  them  is  in  South 
America,  separating  Trinidad  from  the  mainland, 
and  connecting  the  Gulf  of  Paria  with  the  south 
east  extremity  of  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  other 
is  in  Central  America,  and  communicates  be¬ 
tween  tlie  Caribbean  Sea  and  Lake  Chiriqui. 

Dragoon From  the  old  fable  that  the  dragon 
spouts  fire,  the  head  of  the  monster  was  worked 
upon  the  muzzles  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  short 
muskets  which  were  first  carried  by  the  horsemen 
raised  by  Marshal  Brissac  in  the  year  1600.  This 
circumstance  led  to  their  being  called  dragoons; 
and  from  the  general  adoption  of  the  same 
weapon,  though  without  the  emblem  in  question, 
the  term  gradually  extended  itself  till  it  became 
almost  synonymous  with  horse-soldier  in  Europe. 

Di  •ainage,  is  the  art  of  carrying  off  water  by 
means  of  open  or  closed  drains  or  trenches — the 
term,  however,  is  generally  understood  to  apply 
to  closed  drains. 

Drainage-tubes,  in  Surgery,  are  composed 
generally  of  India-rubber,  from  one-eighth  to 
seven-eighths  inch  in  diameter,  perforated  with 
numerous  holes,  and  of  various  lengths.  They 
are  especially  useful  in  chronic  abscesses  (which 
it  may  be  unadvisable  to  empty  at  once)  and  em- 
pytema,  and  also  in  large  wounds,  such  as  those 
made  by  amputation,  and  in  all  cases  where  there 
is  apt  to  be  a  deep  accumulation  of  discharge. 
They  are  introduced  in  such  a  manner  that  one 
end  is  on  a  level  with,  or  projects  above  the  skin; 
the  other  is  in  communication  with  the  seat  of 
discharge,  and  by  allowing  that  discharge  con¬ 
stantly  to  escape  from  the  external  wound,  they 
diminish  both  chemical  irritation  from  putrid 
accumulation  and  mechanical  irritation  from 
pressure. 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  born  about  the  year  1539, 
was  a  distinguished  English  navigator  and  naval 
officer.  He  became  a  sailor,  and  in  1570  he  ob¬ 
tained  a  commission  from  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
began  a  series  of  voyages  and  explorations  in  the 
South  Atlantic  and  Pacific  waters,  during  which 
he  plundered  several  South  American  towns  and 


enriched  himself  with  immense  stores  of  booty. 
In  1585-86  he  was  employed  with  a  fleet  of 
twenty-one  ships  against  Philip  II.  of  Spain. 
He  was  prominent  in  repulsing  the  Armada, 
and  with  thirty  sail  he  entered  the  Roads  of 
Cadiz  and  destroyed  100  Spanish  vessels. 
In  1589,  Drake  was  sent  to  Portugal  with  a  fleet 
to  expel  the  Spaniards,  who  had  taken  possession 
of  that  kingdom;  but  the  expedition  was  unsuc¬ 
cessful.  On  his  return,  he  was  elected  member 
of  Parliament  for  Plymouth.  He  died  Dec.  27, 
1595. 

Drake,  Joseph  RoddI an,  born  in  New  York 
Aug.  7,  1795,  died  there  Sept.  21, 1820.  The  best 
known  of  his  brief  poems  is  the  famous  apostro¬ 
phe  to  the  American  flag,  but  his  best  imagina¬ 
tive  poem  is  The  Culprit  Fay,  a  beautiful  piece 
of  work. 

Drakenberg,  a  ridge  of  mountains  in  South 
Africa,  forming  part  of  the  boundary  of  Natal. 

Di  ■ama  (Gr.  8 papa,  from  Spccco,  I  act),  or  dra¬ 
matic  poetry,  in  its  most  general  signification, 
represents  actions,  which  are  not  stately  narra¬ 
tives,  as  in  epic  poetry,  or  which  do  not  aim  at 
the  musical  expression  by  language  of  mental 
emotions,  as  in  lyric  poetry.  The  drama  consists 
of  an  impersonal  representation,  by  the  drama¬ 
tist,  of  an  animated  conversation  of  various  in¬ 
dividuals,  from  whose  speech  the  movement  of 
the  story  is  to  be  gathered.  Thus,  it  is  contrasted 
on  the  one  hand  with  dialogue,  or  the  dull  and 
changeless  flow  of  discourse,  and  on  the  other, 
with"  every  other  species  of  poetry,  whether 
epic  or  lyric.  In  simple  dialogue,  the  minds  of 
the  speakers  remain  unchanged;  in  the  drama,  the 
movement  of  the  thought  is  so  lively,  and  the 
expectation  of  the  issue  so  vivid,  that  this  species 
of  poetry  surpasses  every  other  in  interest  and  in 
intensity. 

Dram'men,  a  seaport  town  of  Norway,  in  the 
Province  of  Aggerhuus.  Pop.  (1875),  18,838. 

Draper,  Henry,  an  American  scientist,  born 
March  7,  1837.  He  built  and  equipped  an  astro¬ 
nomical  observatory,  and  has  rendered  valuable 
service  to  the  cause  of  photographic  astronomy. 
He  died  in  November,  1882. 

Draper,  JonN  Christopher,  M.D.,  LL.D., 
brother  of  the  above,  was  born  in  Virginia  in 
1835.  He  was  a  prolific  writer  on  medical  sub¬ 
jects,  and  has  given  several  valuable  works  to  the 
faculty.  He  died  in  1885. 

Draper,  John  William,  an  American  chemist 
and  physiologist,  born  May  5,  1811,  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  Medical  College  of  New  York 
University,  in  which  he  was  at  first  Professor  of 
Chemistry,  and  in  1850,  of  Physiology.  He  was 
an  able  lecturer.  Among  his  works  are:  Ihxt- 
book  of  Chemistry  (1846);  Text-book  of  Natural 
Philosophy  (1847);  Human  Physiology,  Statical 
and  Dynamical,  or  the  Conditions  and  Course  of 
Life  in  Man  (1856);  Philosophical  History  of  the 
Civil  War  in  America  (1867-1870),  etc.  He  died 
in  January,  1882. 

Drap'ery  (Fr.  drop,  cloth),  any  kind  of  woolen 
cloths  for  dress,  the  dealers  in  which  in  England 
are  known  as  drapers. 

Drap'ery,  in  Art,  denotes  the  garments  in 
which  the  human  figure  is  clothed. 

Draught,  or  Draft  of  Water,  in  maritime 
affairs,  is  a  technical  name  for  the  depth  to  which 
a  ship  sinks  in  the  water  when  fairly  afloat.  The 
draught  is  marked  on  the  stem  or  stern-post,  or 
both,  from  the  keel  upward.  When  a  ship  is  in 
good  trim,  the  draught  does  not  differ  much  at 
the  two  ends.  Ships  will)  sharp  bottoms  draw 
more  water,  or  have  a  “greater  draught,”  than 
those  of  flatter  construction. 

Draughts,  or  Checkers,  like  chess,  is  a  game 
played  with  “  men  ”  on  a  checkered  board.  As 
far  as  the  science  of  the  game  is  concerned,  it 
falls  far  short  of  chess,  but  is  a  favorite  recreation 
with  many  people.  Herewith  is  a  representation 
of  the  draught-board,  numbered  for  the  sake  of 
illustration.  Two  persons  usuallyplay  this  game, 
each  having  a  set  of  twelve  men — one  set  black, 
the  other  white.  The  men  may  be  placed  either 
on  the  black  or  white  squares,  but  all  must  be 
placed  on  one  color  only.  Thus  it  is  usual  to 
play  upon  the  white  squares,  with  a  black  square 
to  the  lower  right,  as  above  shown.  The  men 
may  be  moved  diagonally  only,  and  but  one  square 
at  a  time.  If  an  enemy’s  man  stand  in  the  way, 


no  move  may  take  place  unless  there  be  a  vacant 
square  beyond  into  which  the  piece  can  be  lifted. 


The  man  leaped  over  is  then  taken  and  removed 
from  the  board.  The  object  of  the  game  is, 
therefore,  to  clear  the  board  of  the  enemy’s  men, 
or  to  hem  them  in  so  that  they  can  not  be  moved, 
and  whichever  party  does  so  first,  wins  the  game. 
As  no  piece  can  move  more  than  one  step  diag 
onally  at  a  time,  there  can  be  no  taking  till  the 
antagonists  come  to  close  quarters,  and  the  ad¬ 
vancing  of  them  cautiously  into  each  other’s 
neighborhood  is  the  chief  art  of  the  game  When 
a  man  on  either  side  has  made  his  way  either  by 
taking  or  by  a  clear,  open  path,  to  the  opposite 
side  of  the  board,  he  is  entitled  to  be  “crowned,” 
which  is  done  by  placing  another  man  on  the  top 
of  him.  Crowned  men  may  move  either  back¬ 
ward  or  forward,  but  always  diagonally  and  but 
one  square  at  a  time,  as  before ;  and  this  additional 
power  gives  a  great  advantage  to  the  player  who 
owns  the  greatest  number  of  crowned  heads,  and 
usually  decides  the  game  in  his  favor. 

Draughts'man.  A  draughtsman  differs  from 
a  designer  inasmuch  as  he  lays  no  claim,  in  that 
capacity  at  all  events,  to  the  character  of  an 
originator. 

Brave  (Ger.  Drau),  a  river  of  Austria,  rises  in 
the  east  of  Tyrol,  in  latitude  46°  45'  N.  and 
longitude  12°  25'  E.,  and  pours  its  waters  into 
those  of  the  Danube  ten  miles  east  of  Essek,  the 
capital  of  Slavonia.  The  Drave  is  nearly  450 
miles  long. 

Dravidians  is  a  name  given  to  a  large  group  oi 
the  non- Aryan  races  of  Southern  India,  includ¬ 
ing  those  speaking  Tamil,  Telugu,  Canarese,  and 
Malayalim;  and  sometimes  subdivided  into  Dra- 
vidian  and  Kolarian. 

Draw 'back,  a  term  in  commerce,  employed 
in  connection  with  the  remitting  or  paying  back 
of  all  or  a  part  of  the  customs  duties,  or  on  cer¬ 
tain  classes  of  articles  exported. 

Drawing,  in  Art,  is  apligtl  to  the  delineation 
of  form,  as  opposed  to  color,  and  light,  and  shade, 
The  term  is  not  confined  to  the  first  outline  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  pencil  or  crayon,  though  this  is  a 
narrower  sense  in  which  it  is  also  used,  and  what 
we  commonly  mean  when  we  speak  of  a  drawing. 
In  its  wider  sense,  drawing  is  used  to  describe 
what  is  in  reality  the  most  important  feature  of 
a  finished  painting. 

Drawing  ami  Quartering.  The  punishment 
for  treason  in  England  is,  that  the  offender  be 
drawn  to  the  place  of  execution  on  a  hurdle;  that 
he  be  hanged  by  the  neck  till  he  be  dead;  that  liis 
head  be  severed  from  his  body,  and  his  body  di¬ 
vided  into  four  parts,  or  quartered.  Although 
this  law  still  exists,  it  has  not  been  enforced  for 
many  years. 

Drawing-board,  a  board  on  which  drawing- 
paper  is  strained  for  painting  on  in  water  colors. 
The  paper  is  wetted  for  the  purpose  of  being 
strained,  and  when  attached  at  the  edges,  it  is 
permitted  to  dry  and  contract.  The  drawing- 
board  is  made  of  a  flat  piece  or  pieces  of  wood, 
held  together,  and  prevented  from  warping  by 
an  edging  of  other  pieces,  the  grain  of  which  runs 
in  the  opposite  direction.  The  wet  paper  is  at¬ 
tached  to  the  edges  of  the  board  with  paste  or 
thin  glue,  and  when  dry,  becomes  perfectly  firm 
and  flat.  When  the  work  is  finished,  the  paper 
is  cut  beyond  the  drawing  with  a  knife. 


DRAW-PLATE. 


345 


DROUET. 


Draw-plate,  a  steel-plate  with  a  graduated 
series  of  holes,  through  which  metals  are  drawn 
iu  making  them  into  wires  or  bars. — Also  a  name 
given  to  a  plate  of  metal  placed  before  a  fire  or 
before  the  lateral  opening  between  the  top  of  the 
fireplace  and  the  throat  of  the  chimney. 

Drayton,  Michael,  was  born  in  1563,  in  War¬ 
wickshire,  England.  He  was  Poet-Laureate  in 
1626,  and  published  several  volumes  of  prose  and 
poetry.  He  died  in  1631. 

Dreaming.  In  complete  sleep,  there  is  proba¬ 
bly  an  entire  absence  of  consciousness  of  external 
things.  Usually,  however,  there  is  a  certain 
amount  of  mental  activity,  of  which  we  are  more 
or  less  conscious  at  the  time,  and  of  which  we 
have  more  or  less  subsequent  remembrance.  This 
is  known  as  dreaming.  The  chief  feature  of  this 
state  is  “an  entire  absence  of  voluntary  control 
over  the  current  of  thought,  so  that  the  principle 
of  suggestion — one  thought  calling  up  another, 
according  to  the  laws  of  association — has  un¬ 
limited  operation.”  Although  the  predisposing 
causes  of  dreams  may  be  sought  for  in  more  than 
one  direction,  they  are  probably  iu  general  refer¬ 
able  to  some  peculiar  condition  of  the  body,  and 
are  often  called  into  action  through  the  agency  of 
the  external  senses. 

Dred  Scott,  Case.  This  was  a  case  brought 
for  final  decision  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  in  1856.  The  plaintiff  was  a  negro 
named  Dred  Scott,  who,  with  his  wife  and  two 
children,  had  been  held  as  slaves  by  a  Doctor 
Emerson,  in  the  State  of  Missouri.  After  the 
death  of  Emerson,  Dred  Scott  with  his  family 
claimed  to  be  free,  on  the  ground  that  they  had 
resided  for  some  time  with  their  late  proprietor  in 
a  free  territory — so  that  having,  as  Scott  alleged, 
been  free  in  that  territory,  they  could  not  now  be 
held  to  slavery.  The  result  of  the  litigation  was 
that  Dred  Scott  and  his  family  did  not  become 
free  by  having  been  taken  to  a  free  territory,  and 
were  accordingly  still  held  to  be  slaves. 

Dredge,  a  machine  for  dragging  or  dredging 
the  bottom  of  seas,  rivers,  or  lakes,  in  order  to 
bring  up  oysters  and  other  animals  that  lie  on  the 
bottom.  The  common  oyster-dredge  is  a  bag-net, 
made  of  iron  rings,  linked  together  to  form  the 
meshes;  the  mouth  is  made  of  sheet-iron,  which 
acts  as  a  scoop  when  the  dredge  is  let  down 
and  drawn  along  the  bottom  as  the  boat  sails  on. 
The  dredge  has  of  late  been  used  by  the  natural¬ 
ist  with  important  results,  showing  the  existence 
of  animal  life  at  depths  where  it  had  before  been 
considered  impossible. 

Dredging-machine,  a  machine  used  for  clear¬ 
ing  out  or  deepening  the  channels  of  rivers,  har¬ 
bors,  etc.  The  style  in  general  use  in  this  country 
consists  of  a  long  stage  V>r  framework  overhanging 
the  side  of  a  barge.  This  frame  has  a  wheel  at 
each  end,  upon  which  works  a  powerful  endless 
chain,  to  which  is  attached  a  shovel-shaped 
scoop.  This  is  raised  or  lowered  at  will  by 
steam-power,  and  when  loaded  is  swung  aside, 
where  it  dumps  its  load  on  a  scow  or  on  the 
ground  outside  of  the  channel.  The  engine  that 
operates  the  shovel  also  propels  the  barge  when 
occasion  requires. 

Dreis'sena,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate  mol- 
lusks,  generally  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  mus¬ 
sel  family  ( Mytilidce ),  although,  whilst  the  shell 
very  much  resembles  that  of  the  true  mussels,  the 
animals  differ  in  having  the  mantle  closed  except 
at  the  anal  and  bronchial  slits,  and  a  small  aper¬ 
ture  through  which  the  foot  and  byssus  pro¬ 
trude. 

Dren'the,  a  frontier  province  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Hanover,  on  the 
north  and  east  by  Groningen,  on  the  west  by 
Friesland,  and  on  the  west  and  south  by  Ovcryssel, 
in  latitude  52°  37' — 53°  23'  N.  and  longitude  6° 
12' — 7°  10' E.  Area,  1,024  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1880),  119,884. 

Dresden,  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Saxony,  situated  in  a  charming  valley  on  both 
sides  of  the  Elbe,  in  latitude  51°  3'  16"  N.,  and 
longitude  13°  44'  E.  It  is  116  miles  southeast  of 
Berlin,  and  seventy-two  miles  east-southeast  of 
Leipzig.  Pop.  (1880),  220,818. 

Dresden,  Battle  of.  In  August,  1813,  when 
the  war  between  Napoleon  and  the  allies,  after  a 
short  truce,  broke  out  afresh,  the  armies  of  the 
latter  gathered  from  all  sides  toward  Dresden, 


which  they  regarded  as  the  key  of  the  French 
position.  It  was  held  by  St.  Cyr  with  a  force  of 
about  30,000  men,  the  main  body  of  the  French 
under  Napoleon  being  in  Silesia,  where  the 
Emperor  expected  the  contest  was  to  be  waged. 
On  the  23d,  the  grand  army  of  the  allies  appeared 
before  Dresden.  The  town  would  in  all  proba 
bility  have  been  quickly  stormed,  had  not 
Schwarzenberg  and  the  Austrians  insisted  on  wait¬ 
ing  the  arrival  of  the  left  wing  under  Klenau. 
This  delay  saved  the  French,  for  at  half-past 
nine,  on  the  morning  of  the  26th,  Napoleon 
with  his  Guards  entered  the  town.  The  allies 
fell  back  everywhere;  but  not  dispirited,  renewed 
the  fight  next  day.  Toward  noon,  Moreau  was 
mortally  wounded  by  a  cannon  ball  at  Alexan¬ 
der’s  side  on  the  height  of  Racknitz,  and 
Napoleon  obtained  a  decided  advantage  over  the 
left  wing  of  the  allied  army,  which  Murat,  by  a 
skillful  maneuver,  contrived  to  outflank,  taking 
10,000  prisoners. 

Di  •ess,  the  collective  name  for  the  artificial 
coverings  worn  in  greater  or  less  quantity  by  all 
but  the  most  savage  of  the  human  race,  and  always 
combining  the  two  objects  of  warmth  and  orna¬ 
ment. 

Dressings,  in  Architecture,  is  a  term  loosely 
used  to  signify  moldings  and  all  the  simpler 
kinds  of  sculptured  decorations. 

Dreux,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  Department  of 
Eure-et-Loir.  Pop.,  7,000. 

Drift,  in  Navigation,  is  a  technical  name  for 
the  deviation  which  a  ship’s  course  receives  by  the 
action  of  a  contrary  wind. 

Drift,  a  name  given  to  the  bowlder  clay,  a 
deposit  of  the  pleistocene  epoch.  More  fully,  it  is 
called  the  northern  drift,  glacial  drift,  or  dilu 
vial  drift,  in  allusion  to  its  supposed  origin  — 
Drift-wood  is  wood  carried  by  tides  and  currents 
to  a  distance  from  its  native  locality. — Sand  drift 
is  sand  driven  and  accumulated  by  the  wind. 

Drill  ( Oynocephalus  leucophceus),  a  species  of 
baboon,  a  native  of  Guinea,  similar  to  the  man¬ 
drill,  but  rather  smaller  and  less  ferocious. 

Drill  is  a  general  name  for  the  exercises  through 
which  soldiers  and  sailors  are  passed  to  qualify 
them  for  their  duties. 

Drill,  a  fine  linen  fabric  of  a  satiny  finish, used 
for  summer  dresses.  Drills  are  worked  with  five 
shafts,  except  fancy  patterns,  which  are  wrought 
with  eight  shafts. 

Drilling,  Drill.  Drilling  is  the  name  applied 
to  the  mode  of  sowing  grain  in  regular  rows,  as 
distinguished  from  broadcast  sowing,  and  the 
drill  is  the  name  of  the  implement  employed  in 
this  process;  the  term  drill  is  also  frequently  ap¬ 
plied  to  a  row  of  drilled  crop,  as  a  drill  of  pota¬ 
toes,  corn,  or  turnips. 

Drills  are  tools  used  for  boring  or  drilling 
holes  in  metal,  bone,  ivory,  hard  wood,  etc. 
They  are  usually  made  of  a  square  steel  bar,  flat¬ 
tened  out  at  the  cutting  end;  this  part  is  brought 
to  an  angular  point  like  a  spear  head,  and  the  cut¬ 
ting  edges  forming  the  angle  are  beveled  in 
opposite  directions.  Those  which  have  a  project¬ 
ing  pin  in  the  center,  and  chisel-shaped  cutting 
edges  on  each  side  of  the  pin,  are  called  “  center 
bits.”  There  are  various  contrivances  by  which 
the  drill  is  made  to  revolve.  For  drilling  iron, 
steel,  and  large  brass  work,  the  lathe  is  commonly 
used,  the  drill  being  fitted  into  a  square-hole 
chuck,  and  the  work  pressed  against  it  while  re¬ 
volving  by  the  screw  and  center  of  the  puppet. 
The  brace  or  drill-stock  is  commonly  used  by  car¬ 
penters  for  center  bits,  and  occasionally  for 
metal  work.  This  is  a  curved  handle,  which  is 
made  to  revolve  by  the  hand,  while  one  end  is 
pressed  against  the  chest.  Diamond  drills, -op¬ 
erated  by  steam  or  air,  are  used  for  boring  rocks. 

Dri  p  'stone  (Fr.  larmier).  The  dripstone  is  a 
projecting  molding  or  tablet  placed  over  the 
head  of  a  Gothic  doorway  or  window,  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  throwing  off  the  water,  whence  it  is  also 
know  as  a  water-table  or  weather-molding. 
Though  such  was,  no  doubt,  its  primitive  use,  the 
dripstone  has  become  a  mere  ornamental  append¬ 
age,  which  served  to  enrich  and  define  the  outline 
of  the  arch. 

Dri  ver,  on  shipboard,  is  the  name  of  a  large 
sail,  occasionally  set  upon  the  mizzen  mast  with  a 
yard  or  gall.  A  boom,  called  the  driver-boom ,  ex¬ 


tends  the  lower  part  of  the  sail  a  good  way  over 


a,  the  Driver. 


the  stern,  like  a  cutter’s  mainsail. 

Drog'heda  (Ir.  bridge  of  the  ford),  a  seaport, 
in  a  county  by  itself  of  nine  square  miles,  on  the 
bordersof  Meath  and  Louth,  Ireland.  Pop.  (1881), 
13,510,  qf  whom  12,381  are  Roman  Catholics. 

Droit'wicli,  a  Parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough  in  Worcestershire,  England.  Pop  , 
(1881),  9,858.  It  was  the  Roman  Salinae. 

Drome,  a  department  of  France,  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Rhone,  to  the  south  of  Isere.  Area, 
2,500  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  311,782  It  is 
divided  into  the  four  arrondissements  of  Valence, 
Montelimart,  Die,  Nyons,  with  the  town  of  Val¬ 
ence  for  capital. 

Droin  edary,  a  name  sometimes  given,  prob¬ 
ably  at  first  through  mistake,  to  the  Arabian  or 
one-humped  camel  ( Camelus  dromednrius),  but 
properly  belonging  to  a  variety  of  that  species. 


Dromedary. 


distinguished  by  slenderness  of  limbs  and  sym¬ 
metry  of  form,  and  by  extraordinary  fleetness. 

Drop'sy(Gr.  vSporp,  hydrops,  from  vSop,  hydor 
water),  a  class  of  diseases  always  of  serious  im¬ 
port,  though  not  often,  perhaps,  directly  fatal 
Dropsy  is  rather  a  symptom  than  a  disease;  it 
consists  of  the  effusion  of  watery  fluid  from  the 
blood  into  the  skin  and  subjacent  textures,  or 
into  the  cavities  of  the  body.  When  the  effusion 
is  chiefly  in  the  superficial  parts,  the  dropsy  is 
called  anasarca  (ava,  upon;  6 ape,  the  flesh);  when 
it  is  in  the  abdomen,  it  is  termed  ascites;  when  in 
the  chest,  hydrotliorax.  Dropsy  most  commonly 
depends  on  disease  of  the  heart  or  kidneys;  in 
cases  of  ascites,  the  liver  and  spleen  are  often  at 
fault.  The  treatment  of  dropsy  is  chiefly  by 
diuretics  and  other  evacuant  remedies,  which 
remove  the  fluid  from  the  textures  by  unloading 
the  blood  of  its  excess  of  serum.  It  is,  however, 
a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to  find  the  proper 
remedy  in  each  individual  case.  Iu  all  cases  of 
dropsy,  the  internal  organs  should  be,  if  possible, 
submitted  to  a  strict  medical  examination,  and 
the  treatment  regulated  accordingly. 

Drosera'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  entirely  of  herbaceous  plants, 
which  generally  inhabit  marshy  places,  and  are 
often  covered  with  glands.  The  leaves  are  fre¬ 
quently  all  radical,  and  they  and  the  flower-stalks 
are  rolled  up  in  bud  like  the  fronds  of  ferns. 
There  are  five  sepals,  five  petals,  five,  ten,  fifteen, 
or  twenty  stamens;  the  fruit  a  one-cellcd  capsule, 
with  numerous  seeds.  About  100  species  are 
known,  distributed  over  most  parts  of  the  world. 
Venus’  fly-trap  belongs  to  this  order. 

Drouet,  Jean  Baptiste,  born  in  1763.  In 
1792,  he  was  elected  deputy  to  the  Convention, 


DROUET. 


346 


DU  BARRY. 


and  voted  the  death  of  the  King  without  appeal, 
and  proposed  the  slaughter  of  all  English  resi¬ 
dents  in  France.  He  became  a  member  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred,  and  was  named  Secre¬ 
tary.  He  died  April  11,  1824. 

Drouet,  Jean  Baptiste,  Comte  d’Eiilon, 
French  Marshal,  born  July  29,  1765.  He  served 
(1793-96)  in  the  campaigns  of  the  Moselle,  Meuse, 
and  Sambre,  After  the  fall  of  Napoleon  the 
Bourbons  tried  to  secure  his  services,  and  gave 
him  the  command  of  the  Sixteenth  Division,  but 
he  was  shortly  after  arrested  on  the  charge  of 
conspiring  against  the  royal  family.  He  escaped, 
remained  in  concealment  in  Lille  until  the  return 
of  Napoleon  from  Elba,  when  he  returned  and 
was  made  a  Peer  of  France.  At  the  battle  of 
Waterloo  he  commanded  the  first  corps  d’armee. 
After  the  capitulation  of  Paris,  he  fled  to  Bavaria, 
where  he  resided  until  the  July  revolution,  when 
he  returned  and  received  in  1832  the  command  of 
the  Army  of  Vendee.  During  1834-35,  he 
held  the  offlce  of  Governor-General  of  Algeria, 
and  in  1843  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  Marshal. 
He  died  Jan.  25,  1844. 

Drouyu  de  Llniys,  Edouard,  French  diplo¬ 
matist  and  politician,  born  Nov.  19,  1805.  He 
was  elected  representative  to  the  Constituent  and 
Legislative*  Assemblies.  In  the  first  cabinet 
formed  by  Louis  Napoleon  after  his  election  to 
the  Presidency  (December,  1848),  he  became 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  In  1849  he  went  to 
London  as  Ambassador,  and  after  the  coup  d’etat 
became  one  of  the  Vice-Presidents  of  the  Im¬ 
perial  Senate,  and  again  Minister  of  Foreign 
Affairs,  and  in  1855  resigned.  In  1863  he  was 
recalled  to  his  old  post,  resigning  again  in  1866. 
In  1871  he  fled  to  Jersey,  and  died  March  1,  1881. 

Drowning,  as  a  mode  of  capital  punishment, 
has  only  lately  ceased  in  Europe,  and  is  prob¬ 
ably  still  in  use  in  some  other  quarters  of  the 
world.  It  was  a  common  punishment  for  crime 
in  early  times. 

Drug 'get,  a  common  felt  or  other  coarse 
woolen  fabric,  chiefly  used  for  covering  carpets,  or 
as  a  substitute  for  a  carpet. 

Drugs,  a  name  applied  to  all  material  agents 
used  in  the  treatment  of  disease,  when  in  their 
crude  or  commercial  forms. 

Druidi  m,  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  relig¬ 
ious  system  of  the  Gauls  and  Britons,  or  of  the 
Celtic  peoples,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  by  them 
derived  from  pre-Celtic  and  non- Aryan  aborigines. 
Besides  being  priests  and  teachers  of  religion,  the 
Druids  appear  to  have  been  adepts  in  the  magic 
arts,  and  were  versed  in  the  mysterious  powers  of 
animals  and  plants.  The  oak-tree  was  especially 
sacred  among  the  Druids.  In  oak-groves,  they 
frequently  performed  their  rites,  and  they  even 
derived  their  name  from  this  custom.  They  also 
had  a  special  reverence  for  the  mistletoe,  when 
growing  on  an  oak. 

Drum  (denim),  a  Celtic  word  meaning  the 
back,  and  applied  to  a  ridge  of  hills,  enters  into 
the  composition  of  many  names  of  places,  espe¬ 
cially  in  Ireland,  as  Drumeondra,  Drumglass, 
Drumsheugli. 

Drum  (Ger.  trommel;  Fr.  tambour),  a  modifi¬ 
cation  of  labour;  timbrel  and  tambourine  are 
other  forms  of  the  word  tabour  or  tambour),  a 
hollow  cylinder  of  wood  or  metal,  having  skin 
(parchment)  stretched  across  one  or  both  ends, 
upon  which  the  drummer  beats  with  an  instru¬ 
ment  of  wood  or  metal  called  a  drumstick. 

Drum,  a  name  formerly  given  to  a  fashionable 
and  crowded  evening-party  at  which  card-playing 
appears  to  have  been  the  chief  attraction. 

Drummond,  Thomas,  was  born  Oct.  16,  1809, 
in  Bristol,  Maine.  In  1835  he  removed  to  Galena, 
Ill.,  where  he  practiced  law.  In  1850  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed,  by  President  Taylor,  District  Judge  of 
the  United  States,  and  in  1869  became  Circuit 
Judge  for  the  Seventh  Judicial  District.  This 
position  Judge  Drummond  held  until  1884. 

Drummond  Island,  is  in  Lake  Huron,  being 
the  most  westerly  of  the  Manitoulin  chain.  It 
measures  20  miles  by  10,  and  lies  about  thirty 
miles  to  the  east  of  Mackinaw,  an  island  in  the 
strait  of  the  same  name,  which  pours  Lake 
Michigan  into  Lake  Huron. 

Drum'mond  Light,  or  Lime'  Ball  Light. 
The  heat  given  out  during  the  combustion  of  a 
mixture  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  gases,  or  of 


coal-gas  and  oxygen,  is  intense,  and  when  the 
mixture  is  directed  on  an  infusible  substance  such 
as  lime,  a  most  brilliant  light  is  evolved.  Captain 
Drummond,  R.E., originally  proposed  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  this  light  in  the  trigonometrical  survey 
of  Great  Britain,  and  constructed  apparatus  for 
its  production.  When  the  rays  from  this  light 
are  concentrated  by  a  parabolic  reflector,  it  may 
be  seen  at  a  distance  of  100  miles  or  more. 

Drupe,  in  Botany,  a  succulent  fruit  containing 
a  single  seed  or  kernel,  usually  inclosed  in  a  hard 
“stone,”  the  endocarp.  The  succulent  part  is 
the  mesocarp.  Examples  are  familiar  in  the 
fruits  generally  known  as  stone-fruits,  the  peach, 
plum,  cherry,  etc. 

Druses,  a  remarkable  people  who  inhabit  a 
district  in  the  north  of  Syria,  comprising  the 
whole  of  the  southern  range  of  Mount  Lebanon 
and  the  western  slope  of  Anti-Lebanon.  In  this 
district  they  hold  exclusive  possession  of  about 
forty  towns  and  villages,  and  divide  the  posses¬ 
sion  of  about  200  more  with  the  Maronites,  while 
eighty  villages  in  other  parts  of  Anti-Lebanon  are 
peopled  by  them.  The  Druses  are  about  80,000 
in  number;  they  are  a  brave,  handsome,  and 
industrious  people,  and  can  almost  all  read  and 
write. 

Drusus,  the  name  of  a  distinguished  family  of 
the  gens  Livia,  which  contributed  a  large  pro¬ 
portion  of  eminent  men  to  the  Roman  common¬ 
wealth.  The  most  conspicuous  of  the  Drusi  were: 
1.  M.  Livius  Drusus,  Tribune  of  the  people  in 
122  b.c.  2.  His  son,  whose  dangerous  and  daring 
political  intrigues  kept  Rome  in  perpetual  turmoil 
and  disorder  from  100  b.c.  till  his  death  in  91  b.c. 
3.  The  most  illustrious  of  the  Drusi  was  Nero 
Claudius  Drusus,  commonly  called  Drusus  Senior, 
the  step-son  of  the  Emperor  Augustus,  and 
younger  brother  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius.  He 
was  born  in  38  is.c.  He  began  his  public  career 
in  19  b.c.  In  13  b.c.  he  was  sent  into  Gaul,  then 
in  revolt,  and,  after  crushing  the  rebels  there, 
pushed  across  the  Rhine  in  pursuit  of  their  Ger¬ 
man  allies.  For  his  exploits  in  Germany,  Drusus 
was  rewarded  with  the  title  of  Germanicus,  but 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  confound  him  with  the 
celebrated  Germanicus,  his  own  son. 

Dry-Plate  Process,  in  Photography.  The 
collodionized  glass-plate,  on  being  withdrawn 
from  the  bath,  previous  to  and  during  expos¬ 
ure  in  the  camera,  has,  mechanically  adhering 
to  its  surface,  a  quantity  of  solution  of  free 
nitrate  of  silver,  and  it  is  partly  upon  the 
presence  of  this  salt  that  the  extreme  sensitive¬ 
ness  of  wet  collodion  plates  depends.  It  is  the 
object  of  what  is  termed  a  dry  process  to  pre¬ 
serve  this  molecular  arrangement  as  far  as  possi¬ 
ble  unaltered,  notwithstanding  the  disturbing 
influence  which  would  necessarily  be  exerted  by 
the  desiccation  of  the  film.  This  is  accomplished 
with  more  or  less  certainty  by  the  employment 
of  solutions  of  various  substances,  which  are 
poured  over  the  film  after  the  adhering  nitrate 
of  silver  has  been  removed  by  copious  washing 
with  water.  Among  these  are  honey,  gelatine, 
glycerine,  milk,  and  albumen;  syrups,  gum, 
wine,  beer,  balsams,  and  resins  added  to  the 
collodion,  and  linseed  tea;  and  chloride  of  cal¬ 
cium,  nitrate  of  zinc,  and  nitrate  of  magnesia. 
The  plate,  on  its  removal  from  the  sensitizing 
bath,  being  well  washed  with  water,  any  one  of 
these  substances  is  dissolved  in  water  in  suitable 
proportion,  and  applied  to  the  surface  of  the 
plate  by  pouring  on  and  off  several  times.  It  is 
then  set  up  to  drain  and  dry  on  folds  of  bibulous 
paper  in  a  dark  closet  or  box.  The  plate  is  then 
ready  for  use.  Paper  and  celluloid  are  now 
extensively  used  as  a  substitute  for  glass  in  the 
making  of  dry  plates. 

Dry  Rot,  a  kind  of  decay,  often  very  rapid, 
to  which  timber  is  subject,  without  the  presence 
of  much  moisture.  It  has  proved  ruinous  to 
many  valuable  edifices,  and  has  been  the  cause  of 
many  serious  accidents.  It  is  occasioned  by 
fungi ,  the  mycelium  of  which  diffuses  itself 
through  the  substance  of  the  timber,  destroy¬ 
ing  its  texture,  and  reducing  it  to  a  fragile  or 
even  friable  mass.  Merulius  lacrymans,  M. 
vastator  and  Polyporus  destructor,  are  species 
very  commonly  productive  of  this  mischief. 
For  the  prevention  of  dry  rot,  various  processes 
have  been  employed,  the  object  of  which  is  to 


fill  the  pores  of  the  wood  with  some  chemical 
substance  such  as  chloride  of  zinc,  creasote, 
lime,  silicate  of  potash,  corrosive  sublimate,  and 
salts  of  mercury. 

Dry 'ads,  an  inferior  order  of  deities  in  the 
mythology  of  Greece.  Their  name  is  derived 
from  the  Greek  word  for  an  oak-tree  (dpv 5 
drus).  They  were  looked  upon  as  the  guar¬ 
dians  of  the  larger  kinds  of  forest  trees,  along 
with  which  they  came  into  being,  and  with 
which  they  died. 

Dry 'den,  John,  born  at  Aldwinckle,  England, 
Aug.  9,  1631.  His  first  poem  of  importance 
was  entitled  Heroic  Stanzas  on  the  Death  of  Crom¬ 
well.  Soon  after  this  he  turned  his  attention  to  the 
stage,  and  wrote  his  first  acted  play,  The  Wild 
Gallant .  In  1670  he  was  appointed  Poet-Laureate 
and  Historiographer.  After  the  death  of  Charles 
II.  Dryden  became  a  convert  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith.  This  event  was  announced 
by  the  publication  of  The  Hind  and  Panther, 
in  1687.  At  the  Revolution,  he  was  deprived  of 
his  laureateship,  and  fell  back  upon  his  occupa¬ 
tion  of  writing  for  the  stage.  His  translation  of 
Virgil  was  begun  in  1694,  and  completed  by  the 
close  of  1696,  and  a  month  later  appeared  the 
Ode  on  Alexander’s  Feast.  In  1698,  he  commenced 
his  Fables,  and  completed  them  in  a  year  and  a 
half.  He  died  May  1,  1700. 

Drying-inaeliines.  The  drying-machine  com¬ 
monly  used  consists  of  two  drums  or  cylinders 
open  at  the  top,  the  inner  one,  into  which  the 
goods  are  packed,  is  perforated  at  its  sides,  and 
made  to  revolve  with  great  velocity  by  steam, 
water,  or  hand-power.  The  drying  is  not  quite 
completed  by  such  machines,  and  is  finished  by 
open-air  or  hot-chamber  drying. 

Dry  'ness,  a  technical  term  in  painting,  used  to 
indicate  a  style  in  which  the  drawing  is  hard, 
angular  and  formal,  and  the  color  deficient 
in  harmony  and  mellowness,  though  not  neces¬ 
sarily  in  power  and  richness.  The  earlier  works, 
both  of  the  Italian  and  Flemish  schools,  all  more 
or  less  partake  of  this  defect  ;  and  it  is  the  most 
prominent  characteristic  of  those  of  their  imi¬ 
tators  to  whom  the  name  of  pre-Raphaelites  has 
been  given. 

Dry  'ophis,  a  genus  of  serpents  of  the  family 
Colubridce,  allied  to  Dendrophis,  and,  like  those  of 
that  genus,  of  very  elongated  form,  and  living 
mostly  among  the  branches  of  trees,  but  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  a  projecting  muzzle.  They  are 
natives  of  the  East  Indies,  Madagascar,  and  tropi¬ 
cal  America. 

Dry '-point,  a  sharp  etching-needle,  used  to 
incise  fine  lines  in  copper,  without  the  plate  being 
covered  with  etching-ground,  or  the  lines  bit  in 
by  acid.  The  work  produced  by  the  dry-point  is 
not  only  very  delicate,  but  it  wears  less  in  print¬ 
ing  than  lines  produced  by  the  action  of  acid. 

Du'al,  in  Grammar,  is  the  form  given  in  some 
languages  to  a  noun  or  a  verb,  when  only  two 
things  are  spoken  of.  Thus,  in  Greek,  itarsp  is 
father;  ndzepe,  two  fathers;  itarcpsl,  fathers. 
Sanskrit,  Ancient  Greek,  Arabic  and  Hebrew 
have  the  dual  number,  the  last  only  in  nouns. 
Modern  Greek  has  lost  the  dual.  The  only  trace 
of  it  in  Latin  is  in  the  two  words  duo,  two,  and 
ambo,  both.  It  is  wanting  in  the  Germanic 
languages,  with  the  exception  of  the  ancient 
Gothic,  which  had  a  dual  form  of  the  verb. 

Dn  alism  is  the  name  given  to  a  philosophical 
theory,  according  to  which  some  two  principles, 
of  different  nature,  original,  and  incapable  of 
being  derived  the  one  from  the  other,  lie  at  the 
bottom  of  everything,  as,  for  example,  the  ideal 
and  the  real,  or  the  material  and  the  thinking 
substance.  In  a  narrower  and  theological  sense, 
dualism  means  the  assumption  of  two  original 
beings,  a  good  and  an  evil,  as  in  the  doctrine  of 
Zoroaster,  or  of  two  distinct  principles  in  man,  a 
bodily  and  a  spiritual.  The  opposite  of  dualism 
is  monism. 

Du  Barry,  Marie  Jeanne  Gomard  de  Vau- 
bernier,  Comtesse,  born  Aug.  19,  1746.  Louis 
XV.,  when  sixty  years  old,  was  smitten  by  the 
charms  of  this  woman,  then  a  notorious  courte¬ 
san,  and  prevailed  upon  Comte  Guillaume  Du 
Barry  to  marry,  and  thereby  confer  his  title 
upon  her.  Accordingly,  in  1769,  she  was  pre¬ 
sented  to  court  as  the  Comtesse  Du  Barry.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  Revolution  she  was  arrested,  charged  with 


DUBITZA. 


347 


DULCOSE. 


“having  wasted  the  treasures  of  the  State,  of  con¬ 
spiracy  against  the  Republic,  and  of  having,  in 
London,  worn  mourning  for  the  late  King.”  She 
was  condemned  to  death,  and  sent  to  the  guillo¬ 
tine  Dec.  7,  1793.  It  is  estimated  that  she  cost 
France  $7,000,000. 

Dubit'za,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  is 
on  the  northern  frontier  of  Bosnia.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Dublin,  a  maritime  county  in  the  east  of  Lein¬ 
ster  Province,  Ireland,  and  containing  the  metrop¬ 
olis  of  that  country;  bounded,  north,  by  Meath; 
east,  by  the  Irish  Sea;  south,  by  Wicklow;  and 
west,  by  Kildare  and  Meath.  It  is  the  smallest 
but  two  of  the  Irish  counties,  being  32  miles  long 
and  18  (average  12)  broad;  area,  354  square  miles. 
The  chief  towns  are  Dublin,  the  capital  of  Ire¬ 
land,  and  Kingston.  Pop.  (1881),  exclusive  of 
Dublin  City,  169,308;  including  the  city,  418,910. 

Dublin  (Irish,  Dub/i-linn,  black  pool;  the  Eb- 
lana  of  Ptolemy),  the  capital  of  Ireland,  stands 
on  the  River  Liffey,  where  it  disembogues  into 
Dublin  Bay,  in  latitude  53°  20'  38"  N.,  and 
longitude  6°  17'  30"  W.  It  covers  an  area  of 
1,300  acres,  but  its  Parliamentary  bound, try  com¬ 
prises  an  area  of  about  5,000  acres,  and  its  mu¬ 
nicipal  boundary  nearly  4,000  acres.  The  chief 
manufacture  of  Dublin  is  poplin,  which  is  much 
celebrated.  Pop.  of  city  (1881),  249,602;  with 
suburbs  of  Rathmines,  Glasnevin,  New  Kilmain- 
ham,  etc.,  338,579;  of  pari,  bor.,  273,282. 

Dubois,  Guillaume,  Cardinal,  was  born  Sept. 
6,  1656,  at  Brives-la-Gaillarde,  in  Auvergne. 
When  the  Duke  of  Orleans  became  Regent  in 
1715,  Dubois  became  virtually  the  most  powerful 
man  in  France.  The  great  act  of  his  life  was  the 
famous  treaty  signed  at  La  Haye,  Jan.  14,  1717, 
and  known  as  the  triple  alliance,  between  Eng¬ 
land,  Holland,  and  France.  In  reward  for  his 
services  he  received  the  office  of  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs,  and  in  1720  was  appointed  to  the 
archbishopric  of  Cambray.  In  1721,  he  obtained 
the  cardinal’s  hat,  and  in  the  following  year 
became  Prime  Minister  of  France,  when  his 
authority  seemed  unbounded.  He  died  Aug.  10, 
1723. 

Dubuque',  a  city  and  port  of  Iowa,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  450  miles  above  St. 
Louis,  built  on  a  bluff  200  feet  high,  contains  a 
city  hall,  market-house;  United  States  custom¬ 
house,  Episcopal  seminary,  Surveyor-General’s 
office,  14  Protestant  and  3  Catholic  churches  and 
cathedral,  8  newspapers,  of  which  2  are  Ger¬ 
man.  Settled  in  1788,  by  Julian  Dubuque,  a 
French  trader,  it  became  the  center  of  a  large 
trade,  aiul  is  the  chief  depot  of  the  great  lead 
regions  of  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  and  Iowa.  Pop. 
(1885),  26,330. 

Due ’at,  one  of  the  most  extensively  used 
names  for  a  coin,  mostly  of  gold.  Ducats  were 
first  coined  in  the  twelfth  century  in  Sicily,  and 
were  extensively  issued  after  that  time  in  Italy, 
especially  at  Venice.  Venice  ducats  were  called 
Zccchini,  from  Zecca,  where  the  mint  was  situated. 
The  ducat  was  adopted  in  1559  by  the  Imperial 
Diet  of  Germany  into  the  currency  of  the  Empire, 
and  was  afterward  coined  in  the  several  German 
States,  and  over  the  whole  of  the  north  of  the 
European  continent,  Russia  included. 

Duca'to,  Cape  (anciently,  Leuca'tes),  a  head¬ 
land  at  the  southern  extremity  of  a  promontory 
of  Santa  Maura,  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  in 
latitude  38°  34'  N.,  and  longitude  20°  32'  E. 

Duchesne,  Andre  (in  Latin,  Andreas  Clies- 
nius,  or  Duchenius,  or  Quercetanus),  the  father 
of  French  history,  was  born  at  Ile-Bouchard,  in 
the  old  Province  of  Touraine,  in  May,  1584. 
History  and  geography  were  his  favorite  studies 
from  his  youth,  and  under  Richelieu’s  ministry 
he  was  appointed  Royal  Geographer  and  Histo¬ 
riographer.  He  died  May  30,  1640. 

Duck.  The  broader  bill,  laminated  and  not 
toothed,  distinguishes  the  Linnaean  genus  A  <■  an 
from  Mergus  (including  smews,  mergansers,  and 
the  goosander).  I  n  recent  ornithological  systems, 
however,  it  is  divided  into  numerous  genera,  but 
three  chief  groups  are  usually  recognized,  corre¬ 
sponding  to  swans,  geese,  and  ducks  of  popular 
nomenclature.  The  group  to  which  the  name 
duck  is  sometimes  extended,  both  by  scientific 
writers  and  in  popular  language,  is  characterized 
by  greater  breadth  of  bill  than  either  the  swans 
or  geese.  Their  food  is  chiefly  animal,  whilst 


that  of  both  swans  and  geese  is  in  great  part 
vegetable.  Their  legs  are  shorter  and  placed 
further  backward  than  those  of  geese,  so  that 
they  move  with  greater  difficulty  and  with  a  more 
waddling  gait  on  land,  and  their  necks  are  shorter 
than  those  of  geese,  and  much  shorter  than  those 
of  swans,  although,  in  this  character,  there  is  a 
considerable  dilference  between  different  species. 
There  is  a  marked  difference  in  plumage  between 
the  males  and  females,  which  is  not  the  case  in 
any  corresponding  degree  in  swans  and  geese. 
This  great  group  of  ducks  is  subdivided  into  two 
sections;  one  section  characterized  by  a  webbed 
or  broadly-margined  hind-toe,  the  other  by  a 
hind-toe  destitute  of  membrane.  These  charac¬ 
ters  are  connected  with  important  differences  in 
other  respects,  and  particularly  in  habits;  the 
ducks  of  the  first  section  being  chiefly  oceanic, 
while  those  of  the  second  section  are  more  gen¬ 
erally  inhabitants  of  lakes  and  other  inland 
waters.  To  the  first  or  oceanic  section  of  ducks 
belong  scoters,  garrots,  eiders,  pochards,  scaups, 
harelds,  etc.;  to  the  second  section  belong  shiel- 
drakes,  shovelers,  musk  ducks,  summer  duck, 
pintails,  gad  walls,  teals,  wigeons,  bluewings, 
etc.  The  common  duck,  or  domestic  duck  ( Anas 
boschas),  known  also  in  its  wild  state  as  the  wild 
duck  or  mallard,  belongs  to  a  genus,  or  sub-* 
genus,  of  the  second  section.  The  mallard  or 
wild-duck  is  a  widely  distributed  bird,  being 
found  in  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America,  and  extending  southward  as  far  as 
Florida  and  the  West  Indies. 

Duck '-hill  ( Ornithorhynchus ,  or  Platypus),  a 
genus  of  Mammalia  of  the  order  Mouolremata 
Only  one  species  is  fully  ascertained,  0.  para¬ 
doxus,  or  P.  anatinus.  It  inhabits  the  rivers  of 
Australia,  Papua,  and  Tasmania.  In  the  Aus¬ 
tralian  colonies  it  is  generally  called  water  mole. 
The  first  descriptions  of  this  singular  quadruped 
were  received  with  incredulity.  The  whole 
length,  including  bill  and  tail,  is  usually  from  20 
to  23  inches.  The  body  is  rather  long  and  com¬ 
pressed,  covered  with  glossy  hair,  among  the  roots 
of  which  there  is  a  layer  of  soft,  short,  waterproof 


Duck-bill  or  Water- mole  (Ornithorhynchus  paradoxus). 

felt.  The  head  is  small  and  round,  with  small 
bright  eyes,  and  no  external  ears,  although  the 
internal  ears  are  perfectly  developed,  and  the 
hearing  acute;  and  the  creature  is  furnished  with 
a  bill  like  that  of  a  duck,  but  broader  in  propor¬ 
tion,  near  the  extremity  of  the  upper  mandible 
of  which  the  orifices  of  the  nostrils  are  placed. 
The  bill  is  covered  with  a  leathery  membrane. 
There  are  no  true  teeth,  but  the  bill  has  small 
transverse  lamime,  like  the  bill  of  a  duck,  and  at 
its  base,  on  each  side  of  each  jaw,  are  two  horny 
protuberances  without  roots  or  bulbs. 

Duck'weod  (Lemna),  a  genus  of  plants,  referred 
by  many  botanists  to  the  natural  order  Aracece, 
but  regarded  by  others  as  the  type  of  a  small  nat¬ 
ural  order,  Lemnacece,  which  consists  chiefly  of 
floating  plants,  mere  flat  green  fronds,  with  roots 
hanging  loosely  in  the  water,  and  unisexual  flow¬ 
ers,  destitute  of  calyx  and  corolla,  bursting 
through  a  membranous  spathe  in  their  margin. 
The  Lemnacece  are  distributed  throughout  all 
parts  of  the  world 

Ductil'ity  is  that  property  of  bodies  by  which 
they  are  capable  of  being  drawn  out  in  length, 
while  diminishing  in  breadth,  without  fracture 
or  separation  of  their  parts.  It  is  peculiarly 
noticeable  in  the  case  of  metals.  It  is  possessed 
also  by  gums,  glues,  resins,  and  some  other  bodies, 
which,  when  softened  by  water  or  heat,  may  be 
drawn  into  threads. 

Diulevant,  Amantine  Lucile  Aijrore,  Mad¬ 
ame,  a  French  authoress,  who  has  attained  celeb¬ 
rity  under  the  name  of  George  Sand,  was  born 


in  1804.  She  was  married  in  1822,  separated 
from  her  husband  in  1831,  and  began  her  literary 
career  soon  after.  She  produced  a  vast  number 
of  novels  and  shorter  stories,  many  of  which  are 
of  a  high  order.  I  Ter  finest  romances  are  Valen¬ 
tine,  Andre,  and,  in  particular  parts,  Consuelo, 
which  is  her  best  known  work.  An  important 
feature  of  her  life  was  her  connection  with  Cho¬ 
pin,  the  composer;  for  several  years  she  was 
warmly  attached  to  him,  and  once  nursed  him 
tenderly  through  a  serious  illness.  She  died 
June  8.  1876. 

Du'eI(Fr.  duel,  Lat.  duellum  or  dvellum,  which 
as  Cicero  remarks  [Orat.  45],  was  the  old  form  of 
bellum,  war),  a  combat  between  two  persons,  at  a 
time  and  place  indicated  in  the  challenge,  cartel, 
or  defiance  borne  by  one  party  to  the  other.  A 
duel  generally  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  wit¬ 
nesses,  called  seconds,  who  regulate  the  mode  of 
fighting,  place  the  weapons  in  the  hands  of  the 
combatants,  and  enforce  compliance  with  the 
rules  which  they  have  laid  down.  Of  celebrated 
duels  fought  in  America,  the  most  noted  of  Revo¬ 
lutionary  times  were  those  between  Charles  Lee 
and  John  Laurens;  between  General  Gadwalader 
and  General  Conway;  and  between  B.  Gwinett 
(ope  of  the  signers  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ¬ 
ence)  and  General  McIntosh,  in  which  Gwinett 
was  killed.  In  1804  Alexander  Hamilton  was 
killed  by  Aaron  Burr;  and  in  1822  Captain  Deca¬ 
tur  was  killed  by  Commodore  Barron.  Andrew 
Jackson  fought  several  duels,  and  killed  one  man, 
as  did  Tlios.  H.  Benton.  In  1838  Congressman 
Cilley,  of  Maine,  was  killed  in  a  duel  with  Mr. 
Graves,  of  Kentucky.  Henry  Clay,  John  Ran¬ 
dolph,  De  Witt  Clinton,  and  other  leading  states¬ 
men,  all  fought  duels.  Of  late  years  public  opin¬ 
ion  reprehends  such  encounters,  and  in  most 
States  stringent  laws  against  dueling  prevail. 
Officers  of  the  army  and  navy  participating  in 
duels,  either  as  principals  or  seconds,  are  subject 
to  being  cashiered.  In  the  different  European 
countries  duelling  is  still  recognized  as  an  insti¬ 
tution  among  the  Latin  races,  but  is  tabood  by 
the  Anglo-Saxons. 

Dufferin,  Earl  of,  born  June  21,  1826.  He 
became  Governor-General  of  Canada  in  1872,  and 
held  that  office  till  October,  1878.  He  was  after 
ward  Ambassador  to  Russia  and  Turkey,  and  in 
November,  1884,  was  sent  as  Viceroy  to  India 

Dugong'  (Halicorei,  a  genus  of  mammalia,  of 
the  family  Manalidce,  and  the  order  Nj'e/iitt, ■dis¬ 
tinguished  by  molar  teeth  with  flat  summits,  and 
composed  of  two  cones  laterally  united,  the  in¬ 
cisors  of  the  upper  jaw  elongated  almost  into 
tusks;  the  tail  forked  or  crescent-shaped,  and  the 


Dugong  (Halicore  indicus). 


swimming  paws  destitute  of  any  vestiges  of  nails. 
The  dugong  (II.  indicus,  or  II.  dugong)  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago  is  said  to  attain  a  length  of 
20  feet  when  full  grown,  although  it  is  more 
frequently  seen  of  only  8  to  12  feet  long.  In 
general  form,  it  resembles  the  manatee. 

Duke  (Fr.  due,  Lat.  dux,  from  ducere,  to  lead), 
a  term  applied  originally  to  any  military  leader. 
The  title  came  first  into  use  when  Constantine 
separated  the  civil  and  the  military  commands  in 
the  provinces,  which  had  been  exercised  in  com¬ 
mon  by  such  men  as  Agricola.  From  that  time 
forth,  the  military  governors  of  provinces  were 
either  counts  or  dukes.  Both  in  England  and 
France  the  title  is  superior  to  that  of  prince. 

Dul  'eimer,  a  musical  instrument  resembling  a 
flat  box,  with  sounding-board  a  nd  bridges,  strung 
with  thin  wire,  and  played  on  by  striking  the 
wires  with  a  small  piece  of  wood  in  each  hand. 

Dul  'cose,  or  Dul'cine,  is  a  substance  closely 
allied  to  manna-sugar  or  manuite,  and  imported 


DULSE. 


348 


DUODECIMAL  SCALE. 


from  Madagascar.  It  consists  of  C6H1406>  is 
is  insoluble  in  boiling  alcohol,  and  does  not 
undergo  fermentation. 

Dulse  (Rhodomenia  pnlmata ),  a  sea-weed,  one 
of  the  Ceramineem,  growing  on  rocks  in  the  sea, 
and  used  as  food  by  the  poor  on  the  coasts,  occa¬ 
sionally  also  as  a  luxury  by  some  of  the  wealthier 
classes  who  have  acquired  a  taste  for  it. 

Duluth,  a  city,  and  the  capital  of  St.  Louis 
county,  Minn.,  is  at  the  northwestern  extremity  of 
Lake  Superior,  is  an  important  railway,  mining, 
and  manufacturing  center.  Pop.,  30,000. 

Bul'wich,  a  suburb  of  London,  England,  and 
near  Sydenham.  Pop.  (1871),  4,041. 

Dumangas,  a  town  near  the  sea-coast  in  Panay, 
one  of  the  Philippines.  Pop.,  25,000. 

Dumas,  Alexandre,  French  novelist,  born 
July  24,  1803.  lie  was  active  in  the  Revolution, 
but  failed  in  an  effort  to  achieve  distinction  as  a 
statesman.  His  first  success  as  a  writer  was  in 
Henri  IIT.  et  Sa  Uour  (182G).  Subsequently  he 
produced.a  large  number  of  strong  novels,  the  best 
known  of  which  are  Les  Trois  Mousqueiaires  (8 
vols.,  1844),  Le  Comte  de  Monte  Cristo  (12  vols., 
1841-45),  La  Heine  Margot  (6  vols.,  1845).  He 
died  Dec.  5,  1870. — Dumas,  Alexandre,  son  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Paris,  July  28,  1824. 
His  principal  work  is  La  Dame  aux  Cornelias 
(1848),  a  novel  on  wdiicli  is  founded  the  opera  of 
La  Traviata.  Among  his  other  works  are  Le 
Roman  d’une  Femme,  La  Dame  aux  Perles,  and 
several  dramatic  pieces. 

Dumas,  Jeane  Baptiste  Andre,  French 
•chemist,  born  in  1800.  His  researches  in  organic 
chemistry,  especially  his  papers  on  the  ethers,  on 
ethereal  oils,  on  indigo,  and  on  the  alkaloids, 
placed  him  in  the  first  rank  of  chemists.  In  1875 
lie  was  called  to  fill  the  chair  of  Guizot  at  the 
French  Academy.  He  died  at  Cannes,  April  11, 
1884. 

Dumb.  See  Deaf  and  Dumb. 

Dumb  Cane  ( Dieffenbachia  seguina,  formerly 
called  Arum  seguinum  and  Caladium  seguinum ), 
a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Aracece,  differing  from 
the  plants  of  that  order  generally  in  its  almost 
arborescent  character,  but  agreeing  with  them  in 
its  acridity.  It  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  and 
has  received  its  name  from  the  property  which  it 
has  of  producing  dumbness  when  chewed,  its 
acrid,  poisonous  juice  causing  a  swelling  of  the 
tongue,  accompanied  with  excruciating  pain.  A 
decoction  of  the  stem  is  used  as  a  bath  and  fomen¬ 
tation  in  dropsy,  and  the  root-stock  is  used  in 
obstinate  constipation. 

Duinbar'tonsliire(anciently,  Lennox,  Levenax, 
or  Leven’s  Field),  a  county  in  the  west  of  Scot¬ 
land,  bounded  east,  by  Loch  Lomond,  Stirling,  and 
Lanark;  south,  by  Renfrew  and  the  Clyde  estuary; 
west,  by  Locli  Long  and  Argyle,  and  north,  by 
Perth;  area,  270 square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  75,333. 

Du  m  'dum,  the  name  of  a  town  and  of  a  valley 
in  India. — 1.  The  town  is  in  latitude  22°  38'  N. 
and  longitude  88°  30'  E.  2.  The  valley  leads 
into  Cashmere  from  the  south,  over  the  Pir  Panjal 
Pass,  whose  crest  is  11,800  feet  above  the  sea.  It 
is  about  latitude  33°  45'  N.,  and  longitude  75°  E. 

Dumfi  •ies',  county-town  of  Dumfrieshire,  Scot¬ 
land.  Pop.  (1881),  17,090. 

Dumfries's  hi  re,  a  border  county  of  Scotland, 
on  the  Solway  Firth;  area,  1,103  square  miles. 

Dumouriez,  Charles  Franqois,  a  French 
General,  born  Jan.  25,  1739.  He  participated  in 
the  Seven  Years’  War,  and  later  was  Minister  of 
Foreign  Affairs  and  Lieutenant-General  in  the 
Army  of  the  North.  On  Nov.  5  and  6,  1792, 
Dumouriez  overthrew  the  Austrians  under  the 
Duke  of  Sachsen-Teschen  and  Clairfait  at  .Jem- 
appes.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  Revolution  he 
sympathized  with  the  Jacobins,  but  in  1793  es¬ 
poused  the  cause  of  the  Bourbons,  and  endeavored 
to  win  the  army  over  to  his  plan  of  marching 
on  Paris,  and  reestablishing  the  royal  authority. 
Failing  in  this  he  fled,  and  the  Convention  set  a 
price  of  300,000  francs  upon  his  head.  He  finally 
settled  in  England,  where  he  died,  March  14,  1823. 

Dun,  a  root  common  to  the  Celtic  and  Gothic 
languages,  signifying  a  hill  or  height.  Besides 
giving  rise  to  the  Fr.  dunes,  Ger.  dunen,  and  Eng. 
downs,  it  enters  extensively  into  the  names  of  places, 
(becoming  often  dum,  don ,  asZh/wkirk,  Z>«mbartou, 
.Donegal.  It  is  allied  to  the  Ang.-Sax.  tun,  ton, 
whence  town. 


Diina,  Dwi'na,  or  Dvi'na,  the  name  of  a  river 
of  Russia,  which  rises  in  Tver,  near  the  source  of 
the  Volga,  and  flows  west-southwest  in  a  course 
almost  parallel  to  that  of  the  Dnieper.  Its  length 
is  about  650  miles. 

Dii'naburg,  a  town  of  Western  Russia,  is  situ¬ 
ated  on  the  Diina,  in  the  Government  of  Witebsk. 
Pop.  (1880),  52,261. 

Dunbar,  William,  Scottish  poet,  born  about 
1460,  and  died  about  1520.  He  was  the  author  of 
the  Thistle  and  the  Rose  and  other  poems. 

Dun'ciad,  The,  by  Alexander  Pope,  was  pub¬ 
lished  in  1728,  in  three  books;  and  to  these,  in 
1742,  a  fourth  book  was  added.  Pope  had  been 
afflicted  by  a  host  of  critics  and  detractors.  The 
worst  motives,  personal  and  literary,  had  been 
imputed  to  him,  and  he  resolved  to  retaliate.  Hence 
the  origin  of  The  Dunciad. 

Duu 'das,  1.  A  castle  and  manor  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  Scotland.  2.  A  town 
in  the  Province  of  Ontario,  Canada,  at  the  head 
of  Burlington  Bay,  west  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Pop.  (1881),  3,709.  3.  An  island  belonging  to 
Great  Britain,  situated  on  the  northwest  coast 
of  America,  forty  miles  northeast  of  Queen 
Charlotte  Island.  4.  A  group  of  nearly  500 
islets,  all  of  coralline  formation,  lying  off  the 
east  coast  of  Africa,  being  about  latitude  1°  S. 
5.  A  riverflowing  into  Delagoa  Bay.  6.  A  strait 
in  North  Australia,  separating  Melville  Island  from 
Coburg  Peninsula,  being  18  miles  in  breadth. 

Dundas,  The  Right  Honorable  Henry,  Vis¬ 
count  Melville,  and  Baron  Dunira,  born  in 
1741.  He  served  as  Depute- Advocate,  Solicitor- 
General,  Member  of  Parliament,  and  Lord  Ad¬ 
vocate  for  Scotland.  In  1791  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  State  for  the  Home  Department,  and 
later  held  a  number  of  ot her  offices.  In  1 802  he  was 
elevated  to  the  peerage  by  the  titles  of  Viscount 
Melville  and  Baron  Dunira.  HediedMay27,  1811. 

Dundee'  (Lat.  Taodumtm)  in  population  is  the 
third  town  in  Scotland.  It  is  the  chief  seat  in 
Great  Britain  of  the  manufacture  of  coarse  linen 
fabrics  (osnaburgs,  sheetings,  ducks,  dowlas, 
drills,  canvas,  and  cordage).  Manufactures  of 
jute  are  almost  exclusively  carried  on  here.  Pop. 
(1881),  140,239. 

Dundou'ald,  Thomas  Cochrane,  Earl  of, 
born  Dec.  14,  1775.  In  1800  he  became  master 
of  a  sloop-of-war,  and  continued  in  naval  service 
many  years.  In  April,  1809,  he  was  selected  for 
the  service  of  burning  the  French  fleet  then  lying 
at  anchor,  and  blockaded  by  Lord  Gambier,  in 
the  Basque  Roads.  At  night  he  went  on  board 
one  of  the  fireships,  containing  1,500  barrels  of 
gunpowder,  and  performed  the  service  entrusted 
to  him  successfully.  He  served  in  Parliament, 
and  in  1818  aided  the  South  American  colonies  in 
their  rebellion  against  Spain.  In  1827-28  he 
assisted  in  the  Greek  War  of  Independence. 
In  1831  he  succeeded  to  the  Earldom.  In  1854  he 
was  made  Rear-Admiral  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
He  died  Oct.  31,  1860. 

Duued'in,  capital  of  the  District  of  CTtago,  in 
New  Zealand,  in  latitude  45"  50'  S.,  longitude 
170°  36'  E.,  on  the  east  side  of  South  Island. 
Pop.  (1881),  24,372. 

Dunes,  from  the  same  root  as  dun,  a  hill,  the 
name  given  to  the  sand-hills  or  mounds  which 
stretch  along  the  sea-coast  of  the  Netherlands  and 
North  of  France. 

Dungar'van,  a  borough  in  Waterford  county, 
Ireland.  Pop.  (1881),  7,377. 

Dang  Beetle,  the  common  name  of  many 
coleopterous  insects  of  the  tribe  Scarabeeides, 
which  feed  upon  the  dung  of  animals,  and  for  the 
most  part  live  in  it.  They  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.  Many  of  them  belong  to  the  sec¬ 
tion  of  Scarabceides  called  Coprophagi  (Gr.  dung- 
eater);  but  others,  as  the  dor  or  shard-born  beetle 
(i Geotrupes  stercoravius),  to  the  section  called 
Arenicoli  (Lat.  sand-dwelling),  distinguished  by 
peculiarities  in  the  antennae,  mandibles,  etc.  An 
allied  insect  (Gymnopleurus  pilularius),  is  known 
as  the  tumble-bug  beetle,  from  its  habit  of  rolling 
globular  pellets  of  dung  to  the  place  where  they 
are  to  be  buried  in  the  earth.  Several  individuals 
sometimes  combine  their  strength  in  this  curious 
operation,  which  is  performed  by  the  hind  feet 
pushing  backward. 

Duukers,  or  Tunkers,  a  sect  of  Baptists 


originating  in  Germany.  The  name,  as  its  second 
form  indicates,  is  a  nickname  meaning  dippers, 
from  the  German  tunken,  to  dip.  They  emi¬ 
grated  to  Pennsylvania  in  small  companies  in  the 
years  between  1720  and  1729.  Their  first  com¬ 
munity  was  established  at  Germantown,  and 
other  settlements  were  gradually  formed  in  New 
England,  Maryland,  Virginia,  Ohio,  and  Indiana. 
Their  number,  which  at  one  time  was  estimated 
at  30,000,  has  declined,  and  the  latest  account 
states  it  at  less  than  8,000. 

Dunkirk,  or  Dunkerque,  a  town  of  France, 
on  the  east  shore  of  the  Strait  of  Dover,  in  the 
Department  of  Nord.  Pop.  (1881),  36,644. 

Dunkirk,  a  town  in  Chautauqua  county,  N.  Y. 
It  is  a  port  of  entry  with  considerable  shipping. 
Pop.,  8,000. 

Dun'Iin,  or  Purre  ( Tringa  alpina,  T.  cinclus, 
or  T.  variabilis),  a  bird  of  the  family  Scolopacidm 


Summer  and  winter  plumage. 

(snipes,  etc.),  and  of  the  large  group  to  which 
the  names  sandpiper  and  stint  are  variously 
given. 

Dun'nage,  on  shipboard,  is  a  name  applied  to 
miscellaneous  fagots,  boughs,  bamboos,  old  mats 
or  sails,  and  loose  wrood  of  any  kind,  laid  in  the 
bottom  of  the  hold  to  rest  the  cargo  upon;  either 
to  keep  the  ship  in  trim,  or  to  preserve  the  cargo 
from  damage  by  leakage. 

Dunois,  Jean  (1402-1468),  Count  of  Orleans 
and  Longueville,  was  born  Nov.  23,  1402.  His 
earliest  feat  of  arms  was  the  surprise  and  rout  in 
1427  of  the  English,  who  were  besieging  Montar- 
gis.  He  shared  with  Joan  of  Arc  the  honor 
of  defeating  the  English  at  Orleans  in  1429. 
He  then  accompanied  Joan  to  Rheims,  and  shared 
in  the  victory  of  Patay.  After  her  death  he 
raised  the  siege  of  Chartres  and  of  Lagny,  and 
drove  the  English  from  Paris.  In  1449  he  was 
raised  to  the  rank  of  Lieutenant-General.  In 
1451  he  attacked  the  English  in  Guienne,  taking, 
among  other  towns,  Bordeaux,  which  the  English 
had  held  for  300  years.  He  died  Nov.  28,  1468. 

Dunsin'nane,  one  of  the  Sidlaw  Hills,  in  the 
east  of  Perthshire,  Scotland. 

Duns  Sco'tus,  a  scholastic  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  was  especially  distinguished  for  the 
zeal  and  ability  with  which  he  defended  the  im¬ 
maculate  conception  of  the  Virgin  against  Thomas 
Aquinas.  In  1308  Duns  Scotuswas  called  to  Col¬ 
ogne  to  oppose  the  heresies  of  the  Beguin  breth¬ 
ren,  and  there  he  died,  in  the  thirty-fourth  or 
forty-third  year  of  his  life. 

Dun'stan,  St.,  was  born  at  Glastonbury,  in 
Somersetshire,  England,  925  a.d.  He  acquired  a 
great  reputation  for  sanctity;  and  on  the  acces¬ 
sion  of  Edmund  to  the  throne  in  940,  he  was  called 
to  court.  The  saint  now  began  to  distinguish 
himself  as  a  statesman,  and  the  vigorous  policy  of 
Edred’s  reign  is  affirmed  to  have  proceeded  from 
the  inspiration  of  Dunstan.  In  960,  Dunstan  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  died  in 
988. 

Duodecimal  Scale  (Lat.  duodecim,  twelve)  is 
the  name  given  to  the  division  of  unity  into 
twelve  equal  parts,  as  when  the  foot  is  divided 
into  twelve  inches,  and  the  inch  into  twelve  lines; 
or  the  pound  is  divided  into  twelve  ounces.  This 
plan  of  counting  has  some  advantages,  as  twelve 
admits  of  so  many  divisions  into  equal  parts— 
viz.,  by  two,  three,  four,  and  six.  But  the  deci¬ 
mal  scale,  or  division  into  ten  equal  parts,  is  now 
universally  recognized  as  preferable,  from  its 
coinciding  with  our  decimal  system  of  notation. — 


DUODECIMO. 


349 


DYE-STUFFS. 


Duodecimals  is  a  term  applied  to  a  method  of 
calculating  the  area  of  a  rectangular  surface 
when  the  length  and  breadth  are  stated  in  feet 
and  inches. 

Duodecimo  (Lat.  duodedm,  twelve)  is  that 
form  of  volume  whose  leaf  is  equal  to  the  twelfth 
part  of  a  folio — the  folio  being  the  large  sheet  of 
paper  called  the  broadside,  folded  once.  A  book 
is  said  to  be  quarto,  octavo,  duodecimo,  etc.,  be¬ 
cause  the  sheet  of  which  the  pages  of  the  book  are 
made  up  has  been  folded  into  four,  eight,  twelve 
leaves,  etc.  Quarto,  octavo,  and  duodecimo  are 
usually  written  4to,  8vo,  and  12mo. 

Dupauloup,  Felix  Antoine,  Bishop  of  Or¬ 
leans,  France  was  born  in  Savoy,  iti  1802,  and 
died  Feb.  11,  1878.  At  the  Vatican  Council  he  op¬ 
posed  the  doctrine  of  infallibility,  but  accepted 
it  when  promulgated.  After  the  Franco-Prussian 
War  he  became  a  member  of  the  Assembly,  where 
he  advocated  the  claims  of  the  Orleanists. 

Dupin,  Andre  Marie  Jean  Jacques,  French 
statesman,  born  Feb.  1,  1783.  He  served  as  a 
member  of  the  Chamber  of  Representatives,  was 
eight  times  chosen  President  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  and  was  the  author  of  many  important 
works,  mostly  on  legal  questions.  He  died  in 
1865. 

Dupin,  Franqois  Pierre  Charles,  French 
economist,  brother  to  the  preceding,  was  born 
Oct.  6,  1784.  He  was  appointed  Member  of  the 
Academic  des  Sciences,  and  in  1824,  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  Baron.  In  1828  he waselected  Deputy 
for  the  Department  of  Tarn,  became  a  Senator  of 
the  Empire,  and  published  many  works  on  geome¬ 
try,  commerce,  etc.  He  died  in  1873. 

Dupont,  Jacques  Charles,  French  statesman, 
born  Feb.  27,  1767.  During  the  periods  of  the 
Revolution  and  the  Empire,  he  tilled  several  im¬ 
portant  offices.  He  became  Vice-President  of  the 
Chamber  of  Representatives,  Minister  of  Justice, 
and  President  of  the  Provisional  Government.  He 
died  in  1855. 

Dupont,  Samuel  F.,  born  in  New  Jersey  in 
1803,  died  June  23,  1865.  He  entered  the  United 
States  Navy  in  1815,  and  did  good  service  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  during  the  Civil  War. 

Dupuis,  Charles  Franqois,  a  French  savant, 
was  born  Oct.  16,  1742.  He  held  important  posi¬ 
tions  in  several  colleges,  high  civil  offices,  and 
published  some  valuable  works  on  science  and 
religion.  He  was  appointed  Professor  of  Elo¬ 
quence  in  the  College  de  France,  Member  of  the 
Academie  des  Inscriptions,  and  shortly  after  a 
Member  of  the  Commission  of  Public  Instruction. 
Although  he  rather  shunned  the  storms  of  the 
Revolution,  his  reputation  necessitated  his  becom¬ 
ing  a  member  of  the  Convention,  next  of  the 
Council  of  Five  Hundred  and  after  the  18th 
Brumaire,  of  the  Legislative  body.  He  was  also 
one  of  the  forty-eight  individuals  who  formed 
the  nucleus  of  the  Institut  National.  His  great 
work,  Origine  de  tons  lea  Cultes,  ou  Religion  Uni- 
verselle  (12  vols.  Par.,  1794),  which  he  had  long 
withheld  from  fear  of  offending  the  religious 
world,  was  at  last  published  at  the  instigation  of 
the  Cordeliers’  Club.  He  died  Sept.  29,  1809. 

Duquesne,  Abraham,  Marquis,  French  naval 
officer,  born  in  1610.  He  distinguished  himself 
at  Corunna,  Tarragona,  Barcelona,  and  other 
places.  He  entered  the  service  of  Sweden, 
which  was  then  at  war  with  Denmark;  and  de¬ 
feated  the  Danish  fleet  near  Gothenburg,  in  1643, 
was  made  Vice-Admiral,  and  by  a  succession  of 
victories  over  the  united  fleets  of  Denmark  and 
Holland,  forced  Denmark  to  conclude  peace. 
Louis  XIV.  rewarded  Duquesne  with  the  title  of 
Marquis  and  a  considerable  estate.  He  died  at 
Paris,  Feb.  2,  1688. 

Duquesne,  Fort,  was  an  old  French  trading 
post,  situated  where  the  city  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
now  stands,  in  an  expedition  against  which  Brad- 
dock  was  defeated  and  George  Washington  saw 
his  first  military  service. 

Dura  Mater,  the  hard,  external  membrane  that 
envelops  the  brain. 

Dura'men,  or  Heart-wood,  in  Botany,  the 
inner  and  fully  ripened  wood  of  exogenous  trees. 
The  division  is  often  very  marked  between  the 
duramen  and  the  alburnum,  or  sap-wood,  the 
duramen  being  more  dense  and  compact,  and  its 
tubes  thickened  and  filled  with  the  peculiar  secre¬ 


tions  of  the  plant,  so  that  juices  no  longer  freely 
flow  through  them. 

Duran 'go,  or  Guadia'na,  sometimes  called 
Ciudad'  de  Victo'ria,  in  honor  of  the  first 
President  of  the  Mexican  Confederation,  is  a  city 
in  Mexico,  in  the  Sierra  Madre,  at  the  elevation 
of  6,848  feet  above  the  sea.  Latitude  24°  2'  N., 
longitude  104°  3'  W.  Pop.,  27,000. 

Duraz'zo  (called  by  the  Turks  Dratsch,  and  by 
the  Slaves  Durts),  a  town  of  Albania,  European 
Turkey,  on  the  rocky  Peninsula  of  Peli,  in  the 
Adriatic. 

Durbhan'gah,  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name  in  Bengal,  India,  in  the  Province  of 
Beliar,  Patna  division.  Pop.  (1881),  65,955. 

DU  'ren  (the  Roman  Marcodurum,  whence  its 
former  name,  Mark-Duren),  an  ancient  town  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  eighteen  miles  east  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  Pop.  (1880),  17,368. 

Dii'  rer,  Albert,  the  father  of  the  German 
school  of  painting,  was  born  in  1471.  He  painted 
a  picture  of  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Bartholomew, 
and  one  of  Adam  and  Eve,  from  which  his  fame 
spread  widely;  and  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
appointed  him  Court  Painter,  with  an  annuity  of 
100  florins.  He  died  April  6,  1528,  in  his  fifty- 
seventh  year.  Durer  was  the  inventor  of  the  art 
of  etching.  He  also  discovered  the  method  of 
bringing  out  wood-cuts  in  two  colors. 

Dur'ham,  an  ancient  Episcopal  city  of  England. 
Pop.  (1881),  14,932.  The  Cathedral  of  Durham 
contains  many  old  monuments.  Here  lie  St.  Cutli- 
bert’s  remains.  Here  also  are  Bede’s  tomb  and 
some  manuscripts  said  to  be  in  his  handwriting. 
Cardinal  Wolsey  was  a  prelate  here. 

Durham,  a  county  in  the  northeast  of  England, 
between  Tyne  and  Tees.  Pop.  (1881),  867,586. 

Durham,  John  George  Lambton,  Earl  of, 
an  English  statesman,  was  born  April  12,  1792. 
He  sat  "in  Parliament  several  years,  and  in  1828 
was  raised  to  the  peerage,  with  the  title  of  Baron 
Durham,  of  the  city  of  Durham.  After  a  second 
mission  to  Russia,  he  was  appointed  Governor- 
General  of  Canada  in  1839.  He  died  July  28, 1840. 

Du'rian,  or  Durion  ( Durio  zibethinm),  a  fruit- 
tree  of  the  Malayan  Archipelago,  of  the  natural 
order  Sterculiaceae ,  of  the  same  sub-order  ( Bom - 
bacece)  with  the  silk-cotton  tree.  It  is  a  lofty  tree, 
with  leaves  resembling  those  of  the  cherry,  and 
has  large  bunches  of  pale-yellow  flowers.  The 
fruit  is  of  the  size  of  a  man’s  head,  roundish 
oblong,  with  a  hard,  thick  rind,  covered  with  soft 
spines,  so  that  it  somewhat  resembles  a  hedgehog 
rolled  up. 

Dur'ra,  Doura,  Durra  Millet,  Indian  Mil¬ 
let,  or  Sorgho  Grass  (Sorghum),  a  genus  of 
grasses  distinguished  from  Andropogon  only  by 
the  ovate  or  oblongo-ovate  hermaphrodite  spike- 
lets,  with  glumes  that  have  three  small  teeth  at 
the  extremity.  The  species  are  generally  annual, 
tall,  broad-leaved  grasses,  having  strong  culms 
filled  with  a  juicy  and  saccharine  pith,  and  large 
panicles.  Several  of  them  are  cultivated  as  coru- 
plants,  chiefly  in  Asia  and  Africa,  particularly  the 
common  durra  (8.  vulgare,  or  Andropogon 
sorghum,  Bolcus  sorghum  of  the  older  botanists), 
also  called  joar  and  jowaree  in  India.  It  grows 
4  to  8  feet  high,  with  thickly  crowded  panicles. 
It  is  a  coarse,  [strong  grass;  its  grain  is  round,  a 
little  larger  than  mustard-seed.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  East  Indies,  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Asia, 
and  may  perhaps  be  described  as  the  principal 
corn-plant  of  Africa.  It  is  also  cultivated  to  a 
considerable  extent  in  the  south  of  Europe. 

Dusicyon,  a  genus  of  Canidce,  or  sub-genus  of 
Cams  (dog),  consisting  of  a  number  of  South 
American  species  or  varieties,  sometimes  called 
aguara  dogs.  They  have  the  body  rather  long 
in  proportion  to  their  height,  and  of  considerable 
bulk,  the  muzzle  rather  sharp,  eyes  somewhat 
oblique,  and  aspect  somewhat  fox-like,  the  tail  also 
has  a  more  or  less  perfect  fox-like  brush.  They 
are  more  diurnal  than  nocturnal  in  their  habits, 
live  in  burrows,  and  feed  on  birds  and  small 
quadrupeds.-  Some  of  them  have  been  domes¬ 
ticated  by  the  Indians.  Akin  to  the  aguara  dogs, 
but  more  fox-like,  are  the  aguara  foxes. 

Dusky  Bay,  a  large  inlet  on  the  southwest  coast 
of  Middle  Isle,  in  New  Zealand,  is  in  latitude  45° 
40'  S.,  and  longitude  166°  20'  E. 

Diis  'seldorf,  the  chief  town  of  the  District  of 
Diisseldorf,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  and  the  capital  of 


the  former  Duchy  of  Berg,  is  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Diissel  with 
that  river,  in  latitude  51°  13'  N.,  and  longitude 
6°  45'  E.  Pop.  (1880),  95,458. 

Dus'tee,  the  largest  river  of  Beluchistan,  enters 
the  Arabian  Sea  in  latitude  25°  3'  N.,  and  longi¬ 
tude  61°  45'  E.  It  is  about  1,000  miles  long, 
and  yet  is,  at  its  mouth,  but  20  inches  deep,  and 
20  yards  wide. 

Dutch  Liquid  is  an  oily  substance  obtained  by 
mixing  chlorine  and  olefiant  gases,  which  combine 
together  and  yield  Dutch  liquid,  with  the  formula 
CH2C1.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1,280  (water 
=  1,000),  boils  at  184°  F.,  is  not  miscible  with 
water,  but  readily  dissolves  in  ether  and  alcohol. 
It  possesses  the  power  of  producing  anaesthesia, 
just  as  chloroform  does;  but  the  great  difficulty  of 
preparing  Dutch  liquid  in  commercial  quantities 
must  retard  its  employment  as  an  anaesthetic. 

Dwarfed  Trees,  growing  in  flower-pots,  are 
cultivated  as  ornament  of  houses  and  gardens. 
It  depends  on  the  prevention  of  an  abundant  flow 
of  sap,  so  that,  while  the  tree  is  kept  living  and 
healthful,  vegetation  does  not  go  on  with  its 
natural  activity. 

Dwar'ka,  a  town  of  the  Province  of  Guzerat, 
in  India,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Peninsula  of 
Kattywar,  in  latitude  22°  15'  N.,  and  longitude 
69°  V  E. 

Dyeing  is  the  art  of  staining  or  coloring  yarn 
or  cloth.  It  has  been  practiced  among  eastern 
nations  from  time  immemorial;  and  in  the  sacred 
writings,  we  read  of  the  vestments  of  the  high 
priest  being  dyed  purple,  of  linen  cloths  being 
dyed  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet,  and  of  rams’  skins 
being  dyed  red.  Tyrian  purple  is  believed  to 
have  been  discovered  by  an  inhabitant  of  Tyre, 
1500  b.c.  Immediately  afterward  the  Tyrian 
purple  became  the  badge  of  royalty,  and  cloth 
dyed  with  it  commanded  a  princely  price.  The 
Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans  practiced  the 
art  of  dyeing;  and  gradually  it  became  more  and 
more  wide-spread  as  civilization  advanced,  the 
discovery  of  America  and  other  lands  materially 
increasing  the  number  of  dye-stuffs.  In  the 
fixation  of  color  upon  cloth,  recourse  is  often 
had  to  a  mordant,  which  acts  as  a  middle  agent, 
and  attaches  the  color  to  the  cloth.  The  princi¬ 
pal  mordants  are  alum,  cream  of  tartar,  and  salts 
of  tin.  Previous  to  the  application  of  any  color, 
the  cloth  or  yarn  must  be  well  cleansed  from 
grease,  oil,  etc.,  by  scouring  in  soda  or  in  soap, 
and  except  where  the  material  is  to  be  dyed  of  a 
dark  color,  the  goods  are  also  subjected  to  the 
process  of  bleaching.  In  the  case  of  fabrics 
which  require  a  smooth  surface,  the  preliminary 
operation  of  singeing  off  the  loose  hairs  is  resorted 
to.  In  the  dyeing  of  woolen  yarn  and  cloth,  the 
various  steeps  are  used  warm,  but  the  washings 
in  water  are  done  cold.  The  operations  connected 
with  the  dyeing  of  silk  are  similar  to  those  men¬ 
tioned,  but  a  more  thorough  scouring  of  the  raw 
material  requires  to  be  made,  so  as  to  remove  all 
the  gum  and  wax  belonging  naturally  to  the  fiber. 
The  coloration  of  textile  fabrics  composed  of 
more  than  one  kind  of  material  generally  re¬ 
quires  two  or  more  processes,  as  the  plan  pur¬ 
sued  in  dyeing  wool  is  seldom  capable  of  fixing 
the  color  upon  cotton.  The  plan  usually  followed 
is  to  immerse  the  fabric  in  the  requisite  baths,  to 
dye  the  wool,  and  then  to  treat  the  partially  dyed 
material  in  the  manner  found  suitable  for  cotton. 
Occasionally,  the  woolen  thread  of  the  cloth  is 
dyed  of  one  color,  and  thereafter  the  cotton  is 
treated  so  as  to  acquire  a  different  shade  or  color. 

Dye'-stuffs.  The  substances  used  in  dyeing  as 
the  sources  of  coloring  matter,  are  derived  from 
the  animal,  mineral,  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  the 
greatest  number  from  the  last  mentioned.  From 
the  animal  kingdom,  and  to  the  class  of  insects, 
come  cochineal, carmine, kermes, lac, andgalls.  The 
Tyrian  purple  of  the  ancients  is  also  said  to  have 
been  a  product  of  the  animal  kingdom,  obtained 
from  a  mollusk.  Coloring  matters  are  prevalent, 
in  rubiaceat  (madder,  etc.),  and  the  genus  cwsal- 
pinia.  They  are  also  obtained  from  almost  all 
different  parts  of  plants,  as  the  heart-wood  (dura¬ 
men)  of  the  stem  (logwood,  Brazil-wood,  cam¬ 
wood,  fustic,  etc.);  the  bark  (alder,  etc.),  the 
root  or  its  bark  (barberry  root,  etc.);  the  leaves 
and  other  herbaceous  parts  (indigo,  etc.);  the 
corolla  (safflower);  the  fruit,  (French  berries. 


DYKE. 


350 


DYTISCUS. 


annatta,  etc.)  The  principal  dye-stuffs  are  the 
following:  Alkanet,  useful  in  dyeing  various 
shades  of  lilac,  lavender,  and  violet,  which  are, 
however,  liable  to  fade  on  exposure  to  light. 
Aloes,  obtained  by  evaporating  the  juice  of  the 
aloe,  which  is  grown  in  the  East  and  West 
Indies,  Sicily,  Italy,  and  Malta.  It  contains  a 
brown  coloring  matter  named  aloetin,  which 
may  be  employed  in  the  production  of  a  brown 
tint.  Annatto,  employed  in  imparting  the  vari 
ous  shades  of  yellow,  orange,  and  scarlet,  to 
silk,  wool,  and  cotton.  Archil,  yielding,  when 
infused  in  water,  a  crimson  dye,  and  used  in 
giving  a  finish  to  wool  and  silk  which  have 
been  previously  dyed.  Barberry  root,  imported 
from  the  East  Indies,  and  containing  a  yellow 
coloring  matter  called  berberin.  Brazil-wood, 
often  called  peach-wood,  containing  brazilin, 
which,  in  contact  with  the  air,  yields  a  rich  red 
color.  Camwood  or  barwood,  has  a  red  color 
similar  to  that  of  Brazil-wood,  is  generally 
employed  in  the  form  of  a  coarse  powder,  and 
readily  imparts  its  color  to  water.  Catechu, 
yields  a  reddish-brown  solution  in  water,  and  per¬ 
forms  an  important  office  in  the  dyeing  of  many 
shades  of  brown,  black,  and  green.  Chica, 
employed  in  the  dyeing  of  wool  and  cotton  of  an 
orange-yellow  color.  Cochineal,  employed  di¬ 
rectly,  or  indirectly,  in  the  form  of  carmine 
(extracted  from  the  cochineal),  in  imparting  the 
most  beautiful  red  and  crimson  colors.  French, 
Persian,  Turkey,  or  Spanish  berries,  obtained 
from  several  species  of  rhamnus,  yield  a  powerful 
yellow  dye.  Fustet,  the  finely-divided  wood  of 
rhus  cotinus,  a  yellow  dye.  Fustic,  or  yellow 
wood,  used  for  dyeing  cloth  yellowy  and  for 
communicating  a  good  green  tint  to  cloth  already 
rendered  blue,  as  also  in  conjunction  with  other 
dyes,  in  imparting  various  shades  of  drabs,  olives, 
fawns,  etc.  Galls,  or  gall-nuts  are  employed  in 
dyeing  cloth  of  a  dark  or  black  color.  Indigo, 
very  extensively  used  in  the  dyeing  of  yarn  and 
cloth  of  a  deep  blue  color,  which  may  be  after¬ 
ward  rendered  green  by  a  yellow  dye.  Kermes, 
kermes  grains,  or  alkermes,  an  excellent  material 
for  dyeing  many  shades  of  red,  and  one  of  the 
most  ancient  dye-stuffs  employed  in  the  coloring 
of  silk.  Lac,  shellac,  or  stick-lac,  is  used  in  the 
preparation  of  red  dyes.  Logwood,  broken  up 
into  small  chips,  or  reduced  to  powder,  is  employed 
in  the  dyeing  of  reds,  and,  when  associated 
with  other  substances,  yields  purples,  violets,  and 
blues.  Madder,  one  of  the  most  important  of 
dye-stuffs,  is  extensively  used  in  the  dyeing  of 
cloth  and  yarn  red,  purple,  brown,  etc.  Munjeet 
or  Indian  madder  is  used  in  India  instead  of 
madder.  Quercitron  yields  a  rich  orange-yellow, 
or  yellow-red  dye,  capable  of  being  afterward 
made  a  brown;  and  when  used  after  a  blue  dye, 
it  changes  the  latter  to  a  bright  green.  Safflower 
yields  a  rich  yellow  dye.  Sandal-wood,  santal  or 
saunders-wood,  yields  a  red  color,  which,  along 
with  other  substances,  may  be  altered  to  violet, 
reddish-brown,  and  scarlet.  Sumach,  occa¬ 
sionally  called  young  fustic,  is  employed  as  a 
yellow  dye,  and  also  for  the  tannin  and  gallic 
acid  it  contains,  which  enables  decoctions  of 
sumach  to  be  used  with  great  effect  for  imparting 
depth  or  solidity  to  other  colors.  Turmeric,  or 
Indian  saffron,  is  employed  as  a  yellow  dye,  but 
is  very  fugitive.  Weld,  or  wold,  produces  a 
rich  but  fugitive  yellow.  Woadis  employed  as 
a  blue  dye  for  woolen  and  silk  yarn  and  cloth, 
either  with  or  without  indigo.  Wongshy  is  a 
new  yellow  dye-stuff,  procured  from  the  seed- 
vessels  of  a  plant  belonging  to  the  family  of 
genlianecu,  and  imported  from  Batavia.  The 
most  recent  discovery  of  importance  in  dyeing,  is 
the  extraction  of  color  substances  of  great  beauty 
from  coal-tar,  and  the  application  of  these  to  the 
coloring  of  cloth.  They  are  extensively  employed, 
and  give  rise  to  the  fashionable  colors  named 
aniline  purple,  Tyrian  purple  or  mauve,  violine. 
roseine,  fuclisine  or  magenta,  solferina,  bleu  de 
Pans,  aniline  green  or  emeraldine,  azuline,  etc. 

Dyke,  or  Dike  (Dutch  dyk),  an  artificial  mound 
along  the  bank  of  a  river  or  sea  shore,  erected  for 
the  purpose  of  preventing  inundation.  The  term 
is  from  the  same  root  as  dig — hence  also  ditch,  or 
the  hollow  from  which  the  dyke  is  formed.  The 
French  employ  the  term  levee  to  signify  this  spe¬ 
cies  of  embankment,  of  which  there  is  a  notable 


example  in  the  levies  erected  along  the  Mississippi 
near  New  Orleans. 

Dykes.  In  volcanic  districts,  rents  frequently 
occur  which  are  tilled  with  molten  materials  from 
below,  that  subsequently  solidify;  and  form  solid 
walls,  filling  the  fissures,  and  separating  the 
edges  of  the  disjointed  strata.  To  these  walls, 
geologists  apply  the  term  dyke,  a  Scottish  word 
for  a  wall  or  fence. 

Dynam  'ics  is  that  division  of  Mechanics  which 
contains  the  doctrine  of  the  motion  of  bodies  pro¬ 
duced  by  forces.  It  is  essentially  a  science  of  de¬ 
duction  from  the  laws  of  motion. 

Dynami  te (5  v  van z'?, strength), the  name  appl ied 
to  various  explosive  preparations  containing 
nitroglycerine.  Ignited  in  the  open  air,  dyna¬ 
mite  burns  slowly,  but  it  is  as  readily  exploded  as 
nitroglycerine  itself,  by  means  of  a  detonating 
fuse;  and,  though  not  equal  in  bursting  or  breaking 
power  to  uncombined  nitroglycerine,  on  account 
of  the  absorption  by  its  inert  constituents  of  part 
of  the  heat  developed  by  the  exploding  shock,  it 
is  greatly  superior  to  gunpowder,  instead  of 
which,  or  gun  cotton,  it  is  employed  in  blasting 
coal  and  stone,  removing  piles,  felling  trees,  and 
clearing  stumps  from  forest-land.  It  is  now  con¬ 
sidered  an  important  factor  in  warfare,  being  a 
powerful  agent  for  the  destruction  of  fortifica¬ 
tions  and  ships,  either  when  thrown  from  cannon 
or  used  in  the  form  of  torpedoes.  It  may  also  be 
used  with  advantage  for  breaking  up  large  iron 
castings.  In  continuous  masses  dynamite  trans¬ 
mits  detonation  at  the  rate  of  from  19,500  to 
21,600  feet  a  second.  Confinement  is  not  requis¬ 
ite  for  its  explosion,  and  it  can  be  used  in  damp 
situations  without  impairing  its  action.  It  ex¬ 
plodes  if  heated  to  a  high  degree,  also  on  sharp 
percussion  or  heavy  pressure;  it  should  not  be 
kept  in  hermetically  sealed  receptacles  of  metal  or 
other  solid  material.  At  a  low  temperature  dyna¬ 
mite  loses  its  tendency  to  explode  by  detona¬ 
tion.  For  the  manufacture  of  dynamite  the  best 
absorbents  are  kaolin,  tripoli,  alumina,  and  sugar. 
The  last,  like  alum,  the  material  employed  in  Air. 
Horsley’s  preparation,  has  the  advantage  of  being 
separable  from  associated  nitroglycerine  by  solu¬ 
tion  in  water. 

Dynamo,  Electrical.  In  order  to  supply 
a  means  of  converting  mechanical  power  into 
electric  energy  the  dynamo  was  made.  There  are 
two  main  divisions  of  dynamos — viz.,  those  in 
which  the  magnets  used  are  magnets  ab  initio , 
and  those  in  which  the  magnets  are  soft-iron  bars, 
magnetized  by  a  current  of  electricity  from  a  cell 
battery.  Of  the  first  kind  the  Brush  machine  is 
a  type.  In  this  machine  a  1  irge  annular-shaped 
armature,  consisting  of  an  iron  ring  (around  the 
circumference  of  which  are  wrapped  at  right 
angles  with  the  direction  of  its  periphery  bobbins 
of  insulated  copper  wire),  is  made  to  revolve 
between  t wo  U-shaped  magnets,  about  which  is 
coiled  a  large  amount  of  insulated  copper  wire, 
the  magnets  being  placed  with  their  correspond¬ 
ing  poles  opposite,  thus:  Thus  every 

time  one  of  these  bobbins  passes  into  juxtaposi¬ 
tion  and  away  from  the  poles  of  the  magnets  the 
circuit  is  opened  and  closed  alternately,  and  a 
powerful  induced  current  is  the  result.  This 
current  of  electricity  is  carried  along  the  shaft  of 
the  armature  to  a  set  of  four  brushes,  two  of 
which  return  it  to  the  cumulators  or  coils  of  wire 
which  envelop  the  magnets,  and  there  the  arma¬ 
ture  again  acts  on  it  as  it  did  on  the  original 
magnet,  increasing  its  power  many  times.  From 
these  cumulators  the  current  is  carried  back  to 
the  external  poles  of  the  dynamo  which  are  in  the 
other  two  brushes.  The  measure  of  heat  evolved 
by  a  dynamo  is  controlled  by  the  commutators, 
which  are  pieces  of  copper  so  arranged  around 
the  shaft  of  the  armature  as  to  make  the  current 
of  electricity  broken  repeatedly  as  it  passes  into 
the  external  pole  brushes — in  some  machines  as 
often  as  every  quarter  revolution  of  the  armature. 
Dynamos  have  been  made  by  Edison,  Brush, 
Gramme,  Lontin,  Wallace-Farmer,  an  I  others, 
all  based  on  the  same  principle  of  a  broken  cir¬ 
cuit  inducing  an  electric  current,  and  differing 
only  in  the  method  of  making  the  magnet,  and  in 
minor  details  of  construction.  The  measure  of 
the  power  of  dynamos  and  the  resistance  they 
must  overcome  are  expressed,  the  first  in  volts 
and  the  second  in  ohms.  A  volt  is  nearly  the 


power  developed  by  one  cell  of  a  Daniell’s  bat¬ 
tery.  An  ohm  is  the  unit  of  resistance  and  is 
equivalent  to  the  resistance  of  a  pure  copper  wire, 
250  feet  long  and  j’g  inch  thick. 

Dj  namometer  (Svvajui s,  strength;  pirpov, 
a  measure),  an  instrument  for  measuring  force  ex¬ 
erted  by  men,  animals,  and  machines.  One  of  the 
simplest  forms  is  essentially  a  steel-yard  in  which 
the  position  of  the  weight  on  the  longer  arm  in¬ 
dicates  the  force  exerted  on  the  shorter  in  order 
to  produce  equilibrium.  Another  form  consists  of 
a  metallic  tube,  ten  to  twelve  inches  long,  in 
which  is  a  spiral  spring  with  an  attached  gradu¬ 
ated  rod  terminating  above  in  a  globe.  Pressure 
being  applied  to  the  globe,  the  rod  sinks  into  the 
tube,  and  thus  marks  the  force  employed  in  com¬ 
pressing  the  spring. 

Dyscrasia  (Gr.  8vi,dys,  difficult,  and  xpcidti, 
krasis,  a  mixture),  a  pathological  term  used  in 
Germany  by  certain  authorities  to  indicate  an  al¬ 
tered  condition  of  the  blood  and  fluids  of  the  sys¬ 
tem,  leading  to  constitutional  diseases,  as  dropsy, 
cancer,  delirium  tremens,  lead-poisoning,  etc. 

Dysentery  (Gr.  S vz,  difficult,  and  evrepov, 
entemn,  the  intestine),  a  form  of  disease  attended 
by  discharges  from  the  bowels,  and  differing  from 
diarrhoea  chiefly  in  being  attended  by  marked 
fever  and  pain,  as  also  by  the  presence  of  blood 
and  inflammatory  products  in  the  discharges.  It 
is  a  disease  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  colon 
or  great  intestine,  and  when  severe,  it  is  followed 
by  the  destruction  of  that  mucous  membrane  to 
a  great  extent,  the  intestine  becoming  much  con¬ 
tracted  at  intervals,  especially  in  its  lower  part, 
and  the  evacuations  being  therefore  apt  to  be  re¬ 
tained,  especially  the  solid  portions.  The  symp¬ 
toms  are  pain  in  evacuating  the  bowels,  and  fre¬ 
quent  ineffectual  attempts  at  evacuation  ( tenes - 
mu*),  tenderness  on  pressure  in  the  left  side  of  the 
abdomen,  discharges  of  blood  mixed  with  mucus 
and  comparatively  little  faecal  matter;  these 
symptoms  being  accompanied  or  followed  by 
intense  fever,  passing  into  early  depression  of 
strength.  Dysentery  is  a  disease  of  extreme 
danger  in  many  cases,  and  should  always  be 
placed  under  medical  treatment.  The  best  plan, 
when  medical  advice  can  not  beat  once  procured, 
is  to  give  a  moderate  dose  of  castor  oil,  guarded 
by  twenty  or  thirty  drops  of  laudanum,  and  then 
either  Dover’s  powder  in  ten-grain  doses  every 
hour  or  two,  or  ipecacuanha  wine  in  two  or  three 
successive  teaspoonful  doses  at  similar  intervals, 
each  with  ten  or  twenty  drops  of  laudanum,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  effect  on  the  system.  If  vomiting 
is  repeatedly  produced,  the  dose  of  ipecacuanha 
wine  should  be  lessened.  If  the  pain  and  irrita¬ 
tion  of  the  bowels  are  extreme,  the  opium  had 
bet  ter  be  given  by  a  small  injection  with  starch, 
after  the  lower  bowel  has  been  well  cleansed  by  a 
larger  warm-water  injection;  and  it  will  be  well 
to  repeat  the  simple  warm-water  injection  at  in¬ 
tervals  throughout  the  treatment. 

Dys'lysin  is  an  organic  substance  (CsHi20) 
obtained  by  boiling  clioloidic  acid  with  hydro¬ 
chloric  acid  for  some  time.  It  is  a  neutral  resin¬ 
ous  body,  which  is  soluble  in  naphtha,  turpen¬ 
tine,  and  other  common  solvents. 

Dys '0(1  il,  a  yellow  or  grayish  laminated  bitu¬ 
minous  mineral,  often  found  with  lignite.  It 
burns  vividly,  and  diffuses  an  odor  of  assafoetida. 

Dyspep'sia  (Gr.  8vS,  difficult,  and  Ttezdii, 
digestion),  a  scientific  term  for  indigestion. 

Dyspnce'a(Gr.  8v?,  difficult,  and  itvea,  breath¬ 
ing),  a  word  the  meaning  of  which  is  sufficiently 
indicated  by  its  etymology. 

Dysu'ria  (Gr.  8vs,  difficult,  and  ovpot,  urine), 
a  difficulty  of  passing  urine.  It  may  depend  on 
a  variety  of  causes. 

Dytis'  cus  (Gr.  SvteS,  dytes,  a  diver),  a  Lin- 
naean  genus  of  aquatic  coleopterous  insects  or 
water-beetles,  now  forming  the  tribe  or  family 
dytiscidce.  They  ar epentamerous  coleoptera;  that 
is,  have  all  the  tarsi  five-jointed.  Their  general 
form  is  oval,  the  outline  little  broken  and  the 
surface  very  smooth.  The  respiratory  organs  of 
the  perfect  insect  are  not  adapted  to  the  extrac¬ 
tion  of  air  from  water,  and  it  must  occasionally 
come  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  where  it  rests  for 
a  short  time  back  downward,  and  with  the  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  abdomen  exposed  to  the  air,  the 


DZIGGETHAI. 


351 


EAR. 


lied  to  the  ass,  and  believed  to  be  the  hemionus  of 
Herodotus  and  Pliny.  It  inhabits  the  elevated 
steppes  of  Tartary,  extending  into  the  south  of 
Siberia  and  to  the  borders  of  India.  In  appear¬ 
ance  and  character  it  is  intermediate  between  the 
horse  and  the  ass,  whence  the  ancient  Greek 


name  hemionus  (half-ass).  In  size  it  approaches 
the  horse,  which  it  resembles  also  in  gracefulness 
of  action,  and  in  its  neighing,  which  is  even  more 
deep  and  sonorous.  Its  general  shape  is  much 
like  that  of  a  mule. 


openings  of  the  air-tubes  being  in  the  last  seg¬ 
ment.  The  dytiscidce  are  excessively  voracious, 
feeding  upon  any  kind  of  animal  food,  and  boldly 
attacking  creatures  larger  than  themselves. 

Dzig'getliai,  Djig'getai,  KIang',  Khur,  or 
Goon  ( Equus  hemionus),  a  quadruped  nearly  al¬ 


Eis  the  fifth  letter  in  the  Grreco-Roman  alpha¬ 
bets.  Its  original  and  fundamental  sound  is 
that  heard  in  tent.  The  sound  heard  in  me  is  not 
given  to  it  in  any  language  but  English.  In  the 
series  of  vowels  it  stands  intermediate  between  i 
and  a. 

E  in  Music,  is  the  third  note  or  sound  of  the 
natural  diatonic  scale,  and  is  a  third  above  the 
tonic  C,  to  which  it  stands  in  proportion  as  five 
to  four.  As  a  major  third,  that  is,  when  the  tonic 
C  vibrates  four  times,  the  E  above  vibrates  five 
times.  E  is  the  third  harmonic  which  arises 
naturally  from  C  as  a  fundamental  note.  E  major, 
as  a  key,  has  four  sharps  at  its  signature,  viz.,  F, 
C,  G,  and  D  sharp.  E  minor,  as  a  key,  has  only 
one  sharp,  F,  same  as  G  major,  of  which  E  is  the 
relative  minor. 

Eads,  James  Buchanan,  born  in  Indiana,  May 
28,  1820,  died  March  8,  1887.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  built  a  number  of  iron-clad  steamers  for 
the  United  States.  He  was  the  engineer  of  the 
St.  Louis  bridge  over  the  Mississippi,  and  con¬ 
structed  the  jetties  at  the  mouth  of  that  river. 
He  also  began  the  construction  of  a  ship-railway 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  Central 
America. 

Ea'gle  (Aquila),  a  genus  of  birds  of  prey,  by 
some  naturalists  subdivided  into  several  genera, 
constituting  a  group  which  contains  the  largest 
and  most  powerful  of  the  Falconidas.  The  eagles 
have  the  beak  not  curved  from  the  very  base, 
like  the  true  falcons,  nor  notched  on  the  edge, 
neither  are  their  wings  so  long  in  proportion  to 
their  size.  Their  wings  are,  however,  very  broad 
and  expansive;  their  legs  are  very  robust;  their 
claws  curved,  sharp,  and  strong.  In  the  most 
restricted  use  of  the  generic  term,  the  true  eagles, 
of  which  the  golden  eagle  maybe  taken  as  a  type, 
have  a  rather  short  bill,  curved  from  the  cere,  with 
a  slight  festoou  on  the  edge  of  the  upper  mandible;  i 
the  tarsi  are  short,  and  feathered  down  to  the  toes. 
This  last  character  distinguishes  them  at  once 
from  the  ernes,  often  also  called  eagles.  The 
golden  eagle  (A.  chrysaetos)  is  about  3  feet  or  31 
feet  in  length,  and  8  feet  in  spread  of  wing. 
The  white-headed  eagle,  or  bald  eagle,  the  chosen 
emblematic  eagle  of  the  United  States,  is  an  erne. 
It  is  not  bald,  as  many  people  suppose,  but  is  so 
called  from  the  fact  of  the  plumage  on  its  head 
being  white. 

Eagle,  the  king  of  birds,  is  used 
heraldically  as  an  emblem  of 
magnanimity  and  fortitude.  It  is 
variously  represented,  the  best 
known  mode  being  displayed  or 
spread  out,  either  with  two  heads — 
as  in  the  arms  of  the  Austrian 
Empire,  in  which  case  it  is  popu-  Eagle  Displayed 
larly  known  as  a  spread  eagle — or  with  one  head, 
as  in  the  arms  of  the  German  Empire. 

Eagle,  as  a  military 
standard,  was  adopted 
by  the  Romans,  and 
even  by  nations  preced¬ 
ing  them  in  history. 

The  Persians,  in  the 
time  of  Cyrus  the 
Younger,  bore  an  eagle 
on  a  spear  as  a  standard. 

The  Roman  standard  on 
which  the  eagle  rested, 
bore  the  initials  of 
“ Senatus  Populus- 
que  Romani.”  In  mod¬ 
ern  times  France,  Rus¬ 
sia,  Prussia,  Austria, 
and  the  United  States 
have  all  adopted  the  eagle  as  a  national  military 
symbol. 

Eagle,  a  gold  coin  of  the  United  States,  of  the 
value  of  ten  dollars. 


E 

Eagle,  Black,  Order  of  the,  in  Prussia,  was 
founded  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  on 
Jan.  17,  1701.  The  number  of  knights,  in  ad¬ 
dition  to  the  princes  of  the  royal  family,  was 
originally  thirty,  but  it  is  now  unlimited. 

Eagle,  Red,  Order  of  the,  in  Prussia, 
founded  in  1734  by  the  Markgraf  George  Freder¬ 
ick  Charles,  as  a  reorganization  of  the  “  Ordre 
de  la  Sincerite.” 

Eagle  Hawk  (Morphuus  or  Spizaetus),  a  genus 
or  sub-genus  of  Falconidce,  of  the  Eagle  group, 


Eagle  Hawk  (Morphuus  cristatus). 


but  consisting  of  species  of  small  size,  and  having 
short  wings,  long,  slender  legs,  and  feeble  toes  or 
claws.  They  are  natives  of  warm  climates,  chiefly 
of  South  America,  but  also  of  Africa  and  the 
East  Indies. 

Eagle  Owl  (Bubo),  a  genus  of  the  owl  family 
i  ( Strigidw ),  characterized  by  a  somewhat  incom- 


Eagle  Owl  ( Bubo  maximus). 


plete  facial  disc,  two  tufts  of  feathers  (horns  or 
egrets)  of  considerable  size  on  the  head,  ears  with 
small  openings  (conchs),  legs  and  toes  covered  with 
feathers;  short,  strong,  curved  bill,  and  long, 
curved,  sharp  claws. — The  Great  Horned 
Owl  (B.  vv-ginianus)  is  slightly  smaller,  but  is  a 
bold  and  powerful  bird.  It  is  found  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  United  States. 

Ear,  The,  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of. 
The  ear  is  composed  of  three  parts — the  external 
ear,  the  middle  ear  or  tympanum,  and  the  inter¬ 
nal  ear  or  labyrinth.  The  external  ear  consists  of 
two  portions,  the  auricle  or  pinna  (the  part  popu¬ 
larly  recognized  as  the  ear),  and  the  auditory 
canal  or  external  meatus.  The  deep,  capacious, 
central  space,  to  which  several  grooves  converge,  is 
termed  the  concha,  and  tlic  lowest  and  pendulous 
portion  of  the  ear  is  the  lobe.  The  auditory  canal, 


partly  osseous,  partly  cartilaginous,  passes  from 
the  concha  inward,  and  a  little  forward,  for  rather 
more  than  an  inch.  It  is  narrower  at  the  middle 
than  at  either  extremity.  The  membrane  of  the 
tympanum  which  terminates  it  is  placed  obliquely. 
The  orifice  of  the  meatus  is  concealed  by  a  pointed 


General  view  of  the  external,  middle,  and  internal  ear, 
showing  the  interior  of  the  auditory  canal,  tympanic 
cavity,  and  Eustachian  tube. 

a.  the  auditory  canal;  b,  the  tympanum;  c,  the  Eustachian 
tube,  leading  to  the  pharynx;  </,  the  cochlea;  and  e,  the 
semicircular  canals  and  vestibule,  seen  on  their  exterior 
by  the  removal  of  the  surrounding  bony  tissue . 

process,  which  projects  over  it  like  a  valve,  and 
which  is  called  the  tragus,  being  covered  by  pro¬ 
tective  hairs.  It  is  further  defended  by  an  abun¬ 
dance  of  glands,  which  furnish  an  adhesive  secre¬ 
tion  which  entangles  small  foreign  bodies,  and 
prevents  their  further  passage  into  the  meatus. 
The  middle  ear,  or  cavity  of  the  tympanum,  is  a 
space  filled  with  air  which  is  received  from  the 
pharynx  through  the  Eustachian  tube  (see  fig.  1, 

b,  c),  and  traversed  by  a  chain  of  very  small 
movable  bones  (fig.  2),  which  connect  the  mem¬ 
brane  of  the  tympanum  with  the  internal  ear.  It 
lies  between  the  external  meatus  and  the  laby¬ 
rinth  or  internal  ear,  and  opens  posteriorly  into 
the  cells  contained  in  the  mastoid  portion  of  the 
temporal  bone,  which  are  also  filled  with  air, 
and  anteriorly  into  the  Eustachian  tube.  The 
cavity  is  of  an  irregular  shape,  and  is  lined  by  a 
very  delicate  ciliated  epithelium,  which  is  a  pro¬ 
longation  of  that  of  the  pharynx  through  the 
Eustachian  tube.  Its  external  wall  is  mainly 
formed  by  the  membrane  of  the  tympanum, 
which  is  nearly  oval,  and  placed  in  a  direction 
slanting  inward,  so  as  to  form  an  angle  of  about 
45°  with  the  floor  of  the  auditory  canal  (see  fig. 
1).  The  handle  of  the  malleus  (or  hammer),  the 
first  of  the  chain  of  ossicles  (see  fig.  2),  is  firmly 
attached  to  the  inner  side  of  this  membrane  in  a 
vertical  direction  as  far  downward  as  the  center, 
and  by  drawing  it  inward,  renders  its  external 
surface  concave.  Its  internal  wall  has  two  open¬ 
ings  communicating  with  the  internal  ear,  each 
of  which  is  closed  by  a  delicate  membrane. 
These  openings  are  termed  the  fenestra  uvalis, 
and  the  fenestra  rotunda;  the  former  leads  to  the 
vestibule,  and  is  connected  by  its  membrane  with 
the  base  of  the  stapes  (or  stirrup-bone),  the  last  of 
the  chain  of  ossicles ;  while  the  latter  opens  into 
the  cochlea.  The  ossicles  of  the  tympanum  are 
three — viz.,  the  malleus,  the  incus  (or  anvil),  and 
the  stapes.  Through  the  connection  of  the  mal¬ 
leus  with  the  membrane  of  the  tympanum,  the 
tension  of  that  membrane  may  be  modified 
by  the  agency  of  one  or  two  muscles  which 
are  attached  to  this  ossicle.  These  muscles 
are  the  laxator  tym’pani,  which  arises  from 
the  spinous  process  of  the  sphenoid  bone 
(q.  v.),  and  is  inserted  into  the  processus  gra¬ 
cilis;  and  the  tensor  tympani,  which  arises  from 
the  under  surface  of  the  petrous  portion  of  the 
temporal  bone,  and  is  inserted  into  the  handle  of 


EAR. 


352 


EARTH. 


the  malleus  immediately  below  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  processus  gracilis.  The  incus  much 
m  o  r  e  c  1  o  s  e  1  y  r  e- 
sembles  a  molar  tooth 
with  two  fangs,  than 
the  anvil  from  which 
it.  derives  its  name. 

Of  the  two  processes 
which  it  gives  oil  (see 
fig.  2),  the  short  one, 
sc,  runs  backward, 
and  projects  into  the 
mastoid  cells  behind 
the  tympanic  cavity; 
while  the  long  one, 

Ic,  inclines  down-  Fig.  2.  Ossicles  of  the  left  ear, 
ward,  and  terminates  ;is  seen  from  the  outside  and 
in  the  lenticular  orm<  ilea)i  0fthe  malleus;  g,  the 
orbicular  process,  a,  slender  process,  or  processus 
gracilis;  h,  the  manubrium  or 
handle;  sc,  the  short  crus,  and 
Ic  the  long;  crus  of  the  incus;  a , 
the  position  of  the  lenticular 
process  through  the  medium 
of  which  it  articulates  with  the 
head  of  the  stapes;  s,  the  base 
of  the  stapes.  Magnified  three 
diameters. 

cavity  opens  anteriorly,  is  about  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  length,  and  passes  downward,  forward, 
and  inward  to  its  opening  in  the  pharynx.  It  is 
partly  bony,  but  chiefly  cartilaginous.  Its  use  is 
to  allow  the  free  passage  of  air  in  and  out  of  the 
tympanum,  and  to  admit  of  the  egress  of  the 
mucus  secreted  in  that  cavity.  The  internal  ear 
or  labyrinth  is  the  essential  part  of  the  organ  of 
hearing,  being  the  portion  to  which  the  ultimate 
filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve  are  distributed. 
It  is  composed  of  three  parts— viz.,  the  'vestibule, 
the  semicircular  canals,  and  the  cochlea.  They 
communicate  externally  with  the  tympanum  by 
the  two  openings  already  described— the  fenestra 
ovalis,  and  the  fenestra  rotunda;  and  internally 
with  the  internal  auditory  canal,  which  conveys 
the  auditory  nerve  from  the  cranial  cavity  to  the 
internal  ear.  The  very  dense  bone  immediately 
bounding  these  cavities  is  termed  the  osseous 
labyrinth,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  membranous 
labyrinth,  which  lies  within  a  portion  of  it.  The 
vestibule  is  a  common  central  cavity  into  which 
the  semicircular  canals  and  the  cochlea  open  (see 
fig.  3,  Y).  On  its  posterior  wall  are  five  orifices 


to  which  the  head  of 
the  stapes  is  attached. 
The  stapes  is  suffici¬ 
ently  described  by  the 
figure.  The  Eusta¬ 
chian  tube,  into 
which  the  tympanic 


Fig.  3. 

Interior  of  the  Osseous  Labyrinth. 

V,  vestibule;  av,  aqueduct  of  the  vestibule;  o,  fovea  semi- 
elliptica;  r,  fovea  hemispherical  S,  semicircular  canals; 
s,  superior;  />,  posterior;  i,  inferior;  a,  a,  a,  the  ampul¬ 
lar  extremity  of  each;  C,  the  cochlea:  sv,  osseus  zone 
of  the  lamina  spiralis,  above  which  is  the  scala  vesti- 
buli,  communicating  with  the  vestibule;  st,  scala  tym- 
pani,  below  the  spiral  lamina.  Magnified  314  diameters. 

for  the  semicircular  canals,  one  of  the  orifices 
being  common  to  two  of  the  canals.  The  semi¬ 
circular  canals  are  three  in  number,  and  open  at 
both  ends  into  the  vestibule.  The  cochlea,  which 
derives  its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  a  com¬ 
mon  snail-shell,  forms  the  anterior  portion  of  the 
labyrinth.  At  its  base,  it  presents  two  openings, 
one  into  the  vestibule,  and  the  other  (closed  by  a 
membrane,  and  communicating  with  the  tym¬ 
panum)  being  the  fenestra  rotunda.  Its  interior 
is  subdivided  into  two  passages  ( scala} )  by  an 
osseo-membranous  lamina.  This  is  the  lamina 
spiralis  which  divides  the  cochlea  into  an  upper 
passage,  the  scala  vestibuli,  and  a  lower  one,  the 
scala  tympani.  At  the  apex,  these  two  passages 


communicate  by  an  opening  to  which  the  term 
lielicotrema  has  been  applied.  Between  the  two 
scalre,  there  is  a  third  space  termed  the  ductus 
cochlearis  or  scala  intermedia.  In  this  space  the 
filaments  of  the  auditory  nerve  terminate,  by 
being  connected  with  a  complicated  arrangement 
of  peculiarly-formed  epithelial  cells,  constituting 
the  organ  of  corbi.  The  membranous  and  osseous 
labyrinths  have  the  same  shape,  but  the  former 
is  considerably  smaller  than  the  latter,  a  fluid 
termed  the  perilymph  intervening  in  some 
quantity  between  them.  At  certain  points, 
recent  investigations  have  shown  that  the  mem¬ 
branous  is  firmly  adherent  to  the  inner  surface 
of  the  osseous  labyrinth.  The  vestibular  portion 


Fig.  4. 

Membranous  Labyrinth  of  the  Left  Side,  with  its 
Nerves  and  Otoliths. 

sw,  superior  semicircular  canal,  with  the  ampulla  and  its 
nerve  at  one  end,  and  the  other  end  joined  by  p,  the 
posterior  canal,  to  form  a  common  tube;  i,  inferior  or 
horizontal  canal,  with  the  ampulla  and  its  nerve  at  one 
end,  and  the  other  entering  theutriculus  separately;  c, 
powdery  otolith  seen  through  the  transparent  wall  of  the 
utriculus  or  common  sinus;  s,  powdery  otolith  of  the  sac- 
culus,  seen  with  its  nerve  in  a  similar  way;  n,  cochlear 
division  of  the  auditory  nerve,  cut  through;  (l,  portio 
dura,  or  facial  nerve,  leaving  the  auditory  nerve,  or  pot 
tio  mollis,  to  enter  the  aqueduct  of  Fallopius.  Magni¬ 
fied. 

consists  of  two  sacs,  termed  the  utriculus,  the  sac- 
culus.  The  membranous  semicircular  canals 
resemble  in  form  and  arrangement  the  osseous 
canals  which  inclose  them,  but  are  only  one-third 
of  the  diameter  of  the  latter.  The  ultimate  fila¬ 
ments  of  the  auditory  nerve  mainly  go  (see  fig.  4) 
to  the  utriculus,  to  the  sacculus,  and  to  the  am¬ 
pulla  of  the  canals.  The  membranous  labyrinth 
is  filled  by  a  fluid  which  is  termed  the  endolymph ; 
and  in  certain  spots,  especially  at  the  terminations 
of  the  vestibular  nerves,  we  observe,  both  in  man 
and  the  lower  animals,  calcareous  matter  either 
in  a  powdered  or  solid  form.  Savart’s  experi¬ 
ments  show  that  the  membrane  of  the  tympanum 
is  thrown  into  vibration  by  the  air,  and  that  it 
always  executes  vibrations  equal  in  number  to 
those  of  the  sonorous  body  which  excites  the  os¬ 
cillations  in  the  air.  The  malleus  participates  in 
the  oscillations  of  the  tympanic  membrane,  and 
these  vibrations  are  propagated  to  the  incus  and 
stapes,  and  thus  to  the  membrane  of  the  fenestra 
ovalis.  The  malleus  has  further  the  office  of  reg¬ 
ulating,  through  the  tensor  tympani  muscle,  the 
tension  of  the  tympanic  membrane;  and  to  allow 
of  the  motion  necessary  for  this  purpose,  we  find 
movable  joints  between  it  and  the  incus,  and 
again  between  the  latter  bone  and  the  stapes.  The 
contraction  of  the  stapedius  muscle  similarly 
modifies  the  tension  of  the  membrane  of  the  fe¬ 
nestra  ovalis;  and  as  compression  exercised  on  this 
membrane  extends  to  the  perilymph,  and  is  prop¬ 
agated  through  it  to  the  fenestra  rotunda,  the 
tension  of  the  membrane  of  the  latter  opening  is 
also  influenced  by  the  muscle  in  question.  The 
incus  is  much  more  limited  in  its  motions  than 
either  of  the  other  bones,  and  its  use  seems  to  be 
to  complete  the  chain  of  ossicles  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  prevent  any  sudden  or  violent  tension  of  the 
membranes.  The  presence  of  air  in  the  tympanic 
cavity  serves  a  double  purpose;  it  preserves  a  uni¬ 
form  temperature  on  the  outer  surfaces  of  the 
fenestral  membranes,  and  thus  supports  a  fixed 
elasticity  in  them,  which  would  not  be  the  case  if 


they  were  freely  exposed  to  ordinary  atmospheric 
changes;  and  secondly,  the  action  of  the  chain  of 
ossicles  as  conductors  of  sound  is  materially  in¬ 
creased  by  their  being  completely  surrounded  by 
air,  as  is  obvious  from  the  first  principles  of 
acoustics.  Sound  is  conducted  to  the  labyrinth 
in  three  ways;  first,  by  the  chain  of  bones;  sec¬ 
ondly,  by  the  air  in  the  tympanic  cavity;  and 
thirdly,  through  the  bones  of  the  head.  Nothing 
certain  is  known  regarding  the  functions  of  the 
semicircular  canals.  The  range  of  hearing  varies 
remarkably  in  different  persons.  The  ordinary 
range  of  human  hearing  includes  more  than  nine 
octaves,  the  whole  of  which  are  distinctly  percep¬ 
tible  by  most  ears.  The  sensation  of  sound,  like 
that  of  light,  frequently  lasts  longer  than  the  ex¬ 
citing  cause. 

Ear,  in  Music,  is  a  figurative  expression  mean¬ 
ing  the  possessing  of  a  sensitive,  just,  and  delicate 
appreciation  of  sound  and  measure. 

Ear-cockles  (also  called  purples  and  pepper¬ 
corn),  a  disease  in  wheat,  owing  to  the  presence  of 


Ear-cockles. 


a,  diseased  wheat ;  6,  the  vibrio,  greatly  magnified;  c,  its 
egg,  with  embryo;  (I,  diseased  germen  of  wheat;  e,  sec¬ 
tion  of  diseased  germen  in  wheat,  greatly  magnified, 
showing  vibrios  and  their  eggs. 


Anguillula  tritici,  a  small  worm  till  of  late  known 
as  Vibrio  tritici. 

Earl  (Lat.  comes,  Fr.  compte),  a  title  and  rank  of 
nobility  now  the  third  in  the  order  of  the  British, 
peerage,  and,  accordingly,  intervening  between 
marquis  and  viscount. 

Early  English,  is 
a  term  often  applied 
to  a  form  of  Gothic 
architecture  in  which 
the  pointed  arch  was 
first  employed  in  Eu¬ 
rope.  The  windows 
are  long  and  narrow, 
and  when  gathered 
into  a  group  are  fre¬ 
quently  surmounted 
by  a  large  arch  which 
springs  from  the  ex¬ 
treme  molding  of  the 
window  on  each  side. 

Early,  Jubal  A., 
born  in  Virginia  about 
1815,.  graduated  at 
West  Point  and  served 
in  Mexico.  He  joined,..  __ 
the  Confederacy  and 
fought  at  Fredericks¬ 
burg  and  Gettysburg, 


Early  English  Piers 
and  Arch. 


and  was  defeated  by  Sheridan  in  the  Shenandoah 
Valley.  He  now  (1889)  resides  in  Virginia. 

Ear-ring,  an  ornament  worn  pendant  from  the 
ear,  and  generally  suspended  by  means  of  a  ring 
or  hook  passing  through  the  pendulous  lobe  of 
the  ear. 

Earth,  The,  the  globe  on  which  we  live,  being 
the  third  planet  in  order  from  the  sun,  and  the 
largest  within  the  belt  of  the  planetoids.  Ancient 
philosophers  looked  upon  the  earth  as  a  flat  disc 
swimming  upon  the  water.  But  various  phe¬ 
nomena  show  it  to  be  a  sphere.  It  is  only  by 
assuming  the  earth  to  be  spherical  that  we  can 
explain  how  our  circle  of  vision  becomes  wider  as 
our  position  is  more  elevated.  The  earth,  since 
1519,  has  been  circumnavigated  innumerable 
times.  It  is  not,  however,  strictly  true  that  the 
earth  is  a  sphere;  it  is  slightly  flattened  or  com¬ 
pressed  at  two  opposite  points — the  poles — as  has 
been  proved  by  actual  measurements  of  degrees 
of  latitude,  and  by  observations  of  the  pendulum. 


EARTH  NUT. 


853 


EAU  DE  COLOGNE. 


It  is  found  that  a  degree  of  a  meridian  is  not 
everywhere  of  the  same  length,  as  it  would  be  if 
the  earth  were  a  perfect  sphere,  but  increases 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles;  from  which  it  is 
lightly  inferred  that  the  earth  is  flattened  there. 
A  pendulum,  again,  of  a  given  length  is  found  to 
move  faster  when  carried  toward  the  poles,  and 
slower  when  carried  toward  the  equator.  The 
diminished  force  of  gravity  at  the  equator  has,  it 
is  true,  another  cause,  namely,  the  centrifugal 
force  arising  from  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  which 
acts  counter  to  gravitation,  and  is  necessarily 
greatest  at  the  equator,  and  gradually  lessens  as 
we  move  northward  or  southward,  till  at  the  poles 
it  is  nothing.  From  the  most  accurate  measure¬ 
ments  of  degrees  that  have  been  made,  the  flatten¬ 
ing  or  ellipticity  of  the  earth  has  been  determined 
by  Bessel  at  3Ja  nearly;  or,  the  equatorial  radius 
is  to  the  polar  as  300  to  299.  The  surface  of  the 
earth  contains  nearly  150,000,000  of  square  geo¬ 
graphical  miles.  Its  mean  density  is  supposed  to 
be  five  times  greater  than  water.  The  earth,  as  a 
member  of  the  solar  system,  moves  along  with  the 
other  planets  round  the  sun  from  west  to  east. 
This  journey  round  the  sun  is  performed  in  about 
8G5t  days,  which  we  call  a  year  (solar  year).  The 
earth’s  path  or  orbit  is  not  strictly  a  circle,  but  an 
ellipse  of  small  eccentricity,  in  one  of  the  foci  of 
which  is  the  sun.  It  follows  that  the  earth  is  not 
equally  distant  from  the  sun  at  all  times  of  the 
year;  it  is  nearest,  or  in  perihelion,  at  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  year,  or  when  the  Northern  Hemisphere 
has  winter;  and  at  its  greatest  distance,  or  aphelion, 
about  the  middle  of  the  year,  or  during  the  sum¬ 
mer  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  If  the  mean 
distance  be  taken  as  unity,  the  greatest  and  least 
are  respectively  1.01679  and  0.98321.  Till  lately, 
the  mean  distance  was  stated  at  95,000,000;  but 
determinations  obtained  from  the  transit  of  Venus, 
in  1874,  fix  it  at  92,400,000  miles.  The  earth, 
therefore,  yearly  describes  a  path  of  upward  of 
580,000,000  of  miles;  and  its  velocity  in  its  orbit 
is  about  eighteen  miles  in  a  second.  Besides  its 
annual  mot  ion  round  the  sun,  the  earth  has  a  daily 
motion  or  rotation  on  its  axis,  or  shorter  diameter, 
which  is  performed  from  west  to  east,  and  occu¬ 
pies  exactly  23  hours,  56  minutes,  4  seconds  of 
mean  time.  On  this  motion  depend  the  rising  and 
setting  of  the  sun,  or  the  vicissitudes  of  day  and 
night.  The  relative  lengths  of  day  and  night 
depend  upon  the  angle  formed  by  the  earth’s  axis 
with  the  plane  of  its  orbit.  If  the  axis  were  per¬ 
pendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  orbit,  day  and 
night  would  be  equal  during  the  whole  year  over 
all  the  earth,  and  there  would  be  no  change  of 
seasons;  but  the  axis  makes  with  the  orbit  an  angle 
of  23J°,  and  the  consequence  of  this  is  all  that 
variety  of  seasons  and  of  climates  that  we  find  on 
the  earth’s  surface.  From  March  21st  the  sun 
departs  from  the  equator  toward  the  north,  till, 
about  June  21st,  he  has  reached  a  north  declina¬ 
tion  of  23|°,  when  he  again  approaches  the  equa¬ 
tor,  which  he  reaches  about  September  23rd.  He 
then  advances  southward,  and  about  December 
21st  has  reached  a  south  declination  of  234°,  when 
he  turns  once  more  toward  the  equator,,  at 
which  he  arrives  March  21st.  June  21st  is  the 
longest  day  in  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  the 
shortest  in  the  Southern;  with  December  21st 
it  is  the  reverse.  The  velocity  of  the  earth’s 
rotation  on  its  axis  evidently  increases  gradually 
from  the  poles  to  the  equator,  where  it  is  about 
equal  to  that  of  a  musket-ball,  being  at  the  rate  of 
24,840  miles  a  day,  or  about  1,440  feet  in  a 
second.  A  direct  proof  of  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  is  furnished  by  its  compression  at  the  poles. 
There  are  indubitable  indications  that  the  earth 
was  originally  fluid,  or  at  least  soft;  and  in  that 
condition  it  must  have  assumed  the  spherical 
shape.  The  only  cause,  then,  that  can  be  assigned 
for  the  fact  that  it  has  not  done  so,  is  its  rotation 
on  its  axis.  As  we  go  below  the  surface,  we  reach 
a  depth  beyond  which  the  interior  of  the  earth 
seems  to  have  no  sympathy  with  the  external 
causes  of  heat  or  cold,  and  its  heat  appears  to  be 
its  own,  and  to  increase  according  to  a  fixed  law 
the  deeper  we  descend.  The  average  rate  of  ob¬ 
served  increase  is  1°  F.  for  a  descent  of  64  feet 
Earth-nut,  a  popular  name  of  the  tubers  of 
certain  unbelliferous  plants,  particularly  Bunium 
bulfjocastanum  and  B.  flexuosum,  which  are  com¬ 
mon  in  most  parts  of  Europe. 


Earthquake,  the  term  applied  to  any  tremor  or 
shaking  of  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth.  It  is  esti¬ 
mated  that  twelve  or  thirteen  earthquakes,  des¬ 
tructive  more  or  less  of  life  and  property,  occur 
every  year.  No  portion  of  the  earth’s  surface  is 
exempt  from  the  influence  of  earthquakes.  Egypt 
has  been  less  visited  than  perhaps  any  other 
country,  but  even  here  we  have  the  record 
of  one  which  took  place  in  1740  a.d.  They  are 
most  frequent  around  the  present  lines  or  centers 
of  volcanic  action,  and  their  frequency  and  vio¬ 
lence  seem  to  bear  some  relation  to  the  activity 
and  intensity  of  the  associated  volcanoes. 

Earths,  in  Chemistry,  arc  a  class  of  substances 
known  to  be  compound,  consisting  of  a  metal  in 
combination  with  oxygen.  The  list  includes 
alumina,  glucina,  zirconia,  tho- 
ria,  didymia,  lantana,  ceria, 
yttria,  terbia,  and  erbia. 

Eartli'works,  in  Fortifica¬ 
tions,  is  a  general  name  for  all 
military  constructions,  whether 
for  attack  or  defense,  in  which 
the  material  employed  is  chiefly 
earth. 

Earth'worm  ( Lumbricus ),  a 
genus  of  Annelida,  of  the  order 
Tirricolas.  Earthworms  do  not 
often  visit  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  except  during  niglit, 
and  when  the  ground  is  moist. 

Besides  their  usefulness  in  the 
improvement  of  the  soil,  earth¬ 
worms  are  of  importance  as 
food  for  birds,  fishes,  etc.  Their 
value  as  bait  for  fishes  is  well 
known  to  every  angler. 

Ear-trumpet,  a  contrivance 
for  improving  the  hearing  of^  earthworm 

;  6,  an 

the  partially  deaf,  by  collecting  terior  extremity, 
the  sonorous  vibrations,  and 
conveying  them  in  an  intensi¬ 
fied  form  to  the  deeper  parts  of 
the  ear. 

Ear'wig  ( Forficula ),  a  genus 
of  orthopterous  insects,  recently 
subdivided  into  a  number  of  genera,  and  forming 
the  family  Forficulidce.  These  insects  connect  the 


showing  the  mouth 
(the  bristles  are 
alsoshown) ;  c,  egg, 
containing  t  w  o 
young;  tf,  young 
escaping  from  the 

egg- 


Earwig. 

1,  female  sitting  on  hereggs;  2,  young,  just  emerged  from 
eggs. 

true  Orthoptera  with  the  Coleoptera.  Earwigs 
abound  in  moist  situations,  as  under  the  decayed 
bark  of  trees. 

Easel.  This  struct¬ 
ure,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  support 
the  canvas  or  panel  of 
the  artist  at  a  con¬ 
venient  height  for 
work,  has  been  used 
for  ages  pretty  much 
in  its  present  form. 

East*  (G  e  r.  osi; 
a  1 1  ie  d  probably  t  o 
Greek  £t»?,  eds,  the 
morning,  and  Lat. 
mens,  the  rising,  i.  e. , 
sun)  is,  vaguely  speak¬ 
ing,  that  quarter  of 
the  horizon  where  the  Ease| 

sun  rises.  Of  modern  construction. 

East  Ca  P  e,  the  a,  easel  open  for  use;  b,  easel 
name  of  the  most  folded  up. 

easterly  headlands  of  the  Island  of  Madagascar, 


of  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand,  and  of 
Siberia  or  Asiatic  Russia.  The  first  is  in  latitude 
15°  20'  S.,  and  longitude  50°  15'  E.;  the  second 
in  latitude  37°  40'  S.,  and  longitude  178°  40' 
E.,  and  the  third  is  in  latitude  66"  6'  N.,  and 
longitude  169°  38'  W. ;  or  rather,  to  follow  the 
natural  reckoning,  190°  22'  E. 

East  India  Company,  an  association  of  mer¬ 
chants  chartered  originally  in  1600, for  the  purpose 
of  trading  in  the  East  Indies.  It  became  a  gigan¬ 
tic  monopoly,  maintained  great  armies,  and  con¬ 
quered  vast  provinces  in  India.  Its  history  is  that 
of  the  British  Empire  in  Hindustan,  and  it 
employed  the  services  of  such  men  as  Clive  and 
Warren  Hastings  to  carry  out  its  plans.  After 
the  great  Mutiny  in  1857-58,  it  was  deprived  of 
its  charter,  and  the  affairs  of  India  are  now  carried 
on  by  the  Crown. 

East  Indies,  as  distinguished  from  West  Indies , 
include  not  merely  the  two  great  peninsulas  of 
Southern  Asia,  but  likewise  all  the  adjacent 
islands  from  the  Delta  of  the  Indus  to  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  Philippines. 

East  Main,  formerly  a  portion  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Territories,  now  incorporated  in  the  Domin¬ 
ion  of  Canada,  is  bounded  north  by  Hudson’s 
Strait,  and  west  by  Hudson’s  Bay  down  to  its 
southern  extremity,  meeting  Labrador  on  the  east, 
and  Canada  on  the  south. 

East  River,  the  strait  between  Long  Island 
Sound  and  New  York  Harbor.  It  is  twenty 
miles  long,  separating  New  York  City  on  the 
west  from  its  suburbs,  Williamsburg  and  Brook¬ 
lyn,  on  the  east.  Its  narrowest  part  is  the  Hurl- 
gate  or  Hellgate,  which  is  about  the  middle  of  its 
course.  Here  the  rocks,  which  once  obstructed 
the  passage,  have  been  removed  by  blasting. 

Easter  (Ger.  ostern,  Fr.  paque,  Scot.  pas<li , 
from  Gr.  it adxer,  pascha,  the  passover),  the  fes¬ 
tival  of  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ.  The 
proper  time  for  the  celebration  of  Easter  has 
occasioned  no  little  controversy.  In  the  second 
century,  a  dispute  arose  on  this  point  between  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches.  The  great  mass 
of  the  Eastern  Christians  celebrated  Easter  on  the 
14th  day  of  the  first  Jewish  month  or  moon,  con¬ 
sidering  it  to  be  equivalent  to  the  Jewish  pass- 
over.  The  Western  churches  celebrated  it  on  the 
Sunday  after  the  fourteenth  day,  holding  that  it 
was  the  commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of 
Jesus.  The  Council  of  Nice  (325  a.d.)  decided 
in  favor  of  the  Western  usage,  branding  the  East¬ 
ern  usage  with  thenameof  the  “  quartodeciman  ” 
heresy.  The  lime  of  Easter  being  the  most  an¬ 
cient  and  important  of  all  the  movable  feasts  of 
the  Christian  Church,  determines  all  the  rest. 
Under  the  existing  arrangement  Easter  Sunday 
can  never  be  earlier  than  March  22d,  nor  later  than 
April  25th. 

Easter  Island,  originally  Davis’  Land,  is  a 
detached  spot  in  the  Pacific,  in  latitude  27°  10' 
S.,  and  longitude  109°  26'  W.  It  is  of  volcanic 
origin,  rising  1,200  feet  above  the  sea. 

Eastlake,  Sir  Charles  Lock,  President  of  the 
Royal  Academy  of  London,  was  born  at  Ply¬ 
mouth  in  1795,  and  died  in  December,  1865. — 
Lady  Eastlake  (born  Elizabeth  Rigby)  is  well- 
known  both  as  author  and  artist. 

Easton,  a  flourishing  town  of  Pennsylvania, 
stands  in  the  fork  between  the  Rivers  Delaware 
on  the  east,  and  Lehigh  on  the  west,  opposite 
the  town  of  Phillipsburg,  New  Jersey.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Lafayette  College,  founded  in  1832.  Pop., 
11,924. 

Eastport,  a  town  of  Maine,  is  situated  on  one 
of  the  small  islands  of  Passamaquoddy  Bay.  The 
place  is  largely  engaged  in  the  fisheries,  and  in 
ship-building.  Pop.  (1880),  4,006. 

East  Saginaw,  a  city  of  Saginaw  county, 
Michigan,  is  situated  on  the  Saginaw  river,  about 
ninety  miles  north  northwest  of  Detroit.  Pop., 
29,100. 

Eau  Creole,  a  liqueur,  made  in  Martinique,  by 
distilling  the  flowers  of  the  mammee  apple  (Mam- 
mea  americana)  with  spirit  of  wine. 

Eau  de  Cologne',  a  celebrated  perfume,  in¬ 
vented  long  ago  by  the  Farina  family  in  Cologne, 
and  since  manufactured  chiefly  by  members  of 
the  same  family.  It  is  also  made  in  France.  It 
consists  principally  of  spirits  of  wine,  along  with 
numerous  essential  oils  harmoniously  mingled  to- 


23 


EBENACEJE. 


354 


ECHO. 


gether,  so  as  to  produce  a  refreshing  and  grateful 
scent. 

Eben'acese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  alter¬ 
nate  leathery  leaves,  and  axillary  flowers,  which 
are  monopetalous,  somewhat  leathery,  and  gener¬ 
ally  unisexual;  the  fruit  fleshy. 

E'bionites  (Heb.  ebion,  poor),  a  name  given  to 
those  Jews  who  professed  the  Christian  faith,  and 
who  generally  belonged  to  the  poorer  and  more 
ignorant  class. 

Ebony  (Lat.  ebenum;  but  originally  from  the 
Eastern  name),  a  wood  remarkable  for  its  hard¬ 
ness,  heaviness,  and  deep  black  color,  is  the 


maic  Astronomy).  It  was  a  fundamental  doctrine 
with  the  ancient  astronomers  that  every  heavenly 
body  moved  in  a  circle  (the  perfect  figure),  and  at 
a  uniform  rate.  But  some  of  them  appeared  to 
misbehave  by  moving  unsteadily,  and  in  other 
figures  than  circles.  (Of  course  this  was  a  mere 
deceptive  appearance;  but  then,  to  save  the  fun¬ 
damental  doctrine  it  must  be  explained.  To  ex¬ 
plain  it  they  invented  the  eccentric  circle. 

Eccentric,  in  Machinery,  is  a  contrivance  for 
taking  and  alternating  rectilinear  motion  from  a 
revolving  shaft.  It  consists  of  a  circular  disc  or 


A 


Ebony  (Biospy ros  ebenum) . 

heart-wood  of  different  species  of  JJiospyros,  of 
the  natural  order  Ebenacece,  the  same  genus 
which  produces  the  date  plum,  kaki,  and  other 
fruits.  Ebony  is  chiefly  used  by  cabinet-makers 
for  veneering. 

E'bro  (Lat.  Ibcnts),  an  important  river  of  Spain, 
risesinthe  Province  of  Santander  and  flows  to  the 
Mediterranean,  having  a  course  of  about  540  miles. 

Ecarte  (Fr.  ecarte,  separated,  discarded),  a 
game  at  cards  of  modern  origin,  very  similar  to 
euchre,  from  which  it  differs  only  in  having  no 
bowers  or  joker,  and  in  counting  king  as  high  in¬ 
stead  of  knave.  The  pack  from  which  it  is  played 
includes  all  cards  down  to  the  sixes,  while  in 
euchre  none  lower  than  nine  can  be  retained, 
licartd  is  generally  played  by  two  persons,  but  a 
pool  of  three  may  be  formed,  the  player  who  is  out 
taking  the  place  of  the  loser,  and  the  winner  of 
two  consecutive  games  winning  the  pool  The 
points  are  the  same  as  euchre,  save  that  the  holder 
of  king  of  trumps  scores  one. 

Ecba'tana  (Agbatana,  Aclimcta,  Hagmatana), 
the  ancient  capital  of  Media,  situated  at  a  distance 
of  twelve  stadia  (about  14  miles)  from  Mount  Oron- 
tes,  the  modern  Elwend. 

Ecce  Homo  (Lat.  Behold  the  man),  the  name 


Ecee  Homo. 


usually  given  by  artists  to  paintings  representing 
Christ  bound  and  crowned  with  thorns  previous 
to  his  being  led  forth  to  crucifixion. 

Eccentric,  or  Eccentric  Circle  (in  the  Ptole¬ 


aa  the  disc,  the  center  of  which  is  at  b  ;  the  inner  circle  is 
the  shaft,  with  its  center  at  c;  ee  is  a  section  along  the 
axis  of  the  shaft  d ;  and  a' a'  an  edge-view.  A  hoop,  gf, 
cm  I  traces  the  groove  a'a' ,  allowing  the  disc  to  turn 
within  it.  As  the  eccentric  revolves  with  the  axis  the 
hoop  is  alternately  raised  and  lowered,  and  with  it  the 
rod  /,  which  is  keyed  into  it  at  h.  The  extent  of  the  rise 
and  fall  of  the  rod  is  equal  to  twice  cb,  the  distance  be 
tween  the  centers. 

pulley,  fixed  on  a  shaft  or  axis  which  does  not 
pass  through  the  center  of  the  disc. 

Eccliymo'sis  (Gr.  from  ex,  ek ,  out  of;  ju/to?, 
chymos,  juice),  a  discoloration  of  the  surface, 
produced  by  blood  effused  below,  or  in  the  text¬ 
ure  of  the  skin.  To  reduce  apply  cold  treatment 
or  leeches. 

Ecclesias'tes  (Eng.  the  Preacher),  the  title 
(taken  from  the  Septuagint)  of  a  canonical  book 
of  the  Old  Testament;  its  Hebrew  name  is 
Koheleth . 

Ecclesias'ticus,  the  title  of  an  apocryphal 
work,  called  in  the  Septuagint  The  Wisdom  of 
Jesus,  the  Son  of  Si  rack. 

Echelon  (from  the  Fr.  eclielle,  ladder)  is  such  a 
formation  or  arrangement  of  troops  that,  if 
viewed  from  a  height,  they  would  present  some 
analogy  to  the  successive  steps  of  a  ladder  or 
staircase.  The  word  echelon  is  also  used  in  ref¬ 
erence  to  nautical  maneuvers.  A  fleet  is  some¬ 
times  said  to  be  arranged  en  echelon,  in  other 
words  it  presents  a  wedge  form  toward  the  enemy. 

Echid'na,  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  peculiar  to 
Australasia,  and  belonging  to  the  order  Monotre- 
matit.  The  echidna  is  about  the  size  of  a  hedge- 


Echidna  Hystrix. 


hog,  and,  like  that  animal,  is  covered  with  spines; 
which,  however,  are  much  larger  and  stronger, 
anti  are  placed  among  soft,  silky,  chestnut- 
colored  hair. 

Echimyd  (Echimys),  a  genus  of  rodent  quadru¬ 
peds,  in  some  of  their  characters  agreeing  with 
dormice,  but  differing  from  them  in  having  the 


tail  scaly,  and  the  fur  coarse  and  mingled  with 
flattened  spines. 

Eeliinidffi,  a  family  of  Echinodennata,  the 
species  of  which  are  popularly  known  as  sea- 
urchins,  sea-eggs,  etc.  They  have  the  body 


a,  Echinus  Esculentus ;  b,  portion  with  spines  removed; 
c,  mouth. 

covered  with  a  calcareous  crust  or  shell,  of  an  ex¬ 
tremely  porous  structure. 

Echinod  r'mata  (Gr.  spiny-skinned),  one  of 
the  great  groups  or  sub-kingdoms  of  animals, 
formerly  included  in  the  liadiata.  They  have  a 
digestive  and  a  vascular  system;  for  the  former, 
however,  there  is  in  many  of  them  only  a  single 
orifice;  a  circular  and  radiating  nervous  sys¬ 
tem  has  been  observed  in  many;  they  are  espe¬ 
cially  characterized  by  their  well  organized  skin. 


a,  Asterias  Tessellata  ( Asteriadce ) ;  b,  Spatangas 
(echinid.ee),  or  sea-egg. 


which  in  many  is  strengthened  by  calcareous 
plates,  and  in  some  also  has  the  additional  pro¬ 
tection  of  numerous  long  spines.  Echinidce  (sea- 
urchins)  exhibit  these  characteristics  in  greatest 
perfection.  Asteriadce  (star-fislies),  Ophiuridce 


a,  Euryale  Talmifera  ( Ophiuridce )  frout  view;  b,  disc 
and  part  of  arm,  front  view;  c,  disc,  and  part  of  arm, 
back  view. 


(brittle-stars),  Crinoidece,  Holothuriadce  (sea-slugs, 
sea-cucumbers,  etc.),  and  Sipunculidee,  are  also 
ranked  among  the  echinodermata,  and  have  been 
variously  arranged  in  orders  by  different  natural¬ 
ists. 

EcliiTms,  of  Vitruvius,  is  a  classical  molding 
in  Hie  form  of  a  series  of  eggs,  whence  it  is  also 
called  the  ovolo  or  egg-molding.  The  eggs  are 
sometimes  divided  by  an 
anchor  or  dart,  as  in  the  ac¬ 
companying  example.  The 
type  of  this  ornament  is 

sometimes  said  to  have  been  Echinus,  or  Egg  and 

the  chestnut  and  shell.  Anchor  Moldmg' 

Echo,  in  Greek  Mythology,  one  of  the  Oreades 
or  mountain  nymphs.  The  word  denotes  mere 
sound. 


ECHO. 


355 


ECTHYMA. 


Echo  (Gr.  ex00)  sound).  Sound  is  produced  by 
waves  or  pulses  of  the  air;  when  such  a  wave 
comes  against  a  wall  or  other  opposing  surface  it 
is  reflected,  like  light,  and  proceeds  in  another 
direction,  and  the  sound  so  heard  is  an  echo. 
Even  the  surface  of  a  cloud  suffices  to  reflect 
sound,  as  may  be  observed  during  thunder  and 
the  discharge  of  cannon.  An  interval  of  about 
i  of  a  second  is  necessary  to  discriminate 
two  successive  sounds;  so  that  if  we 
assume  112a  feet  as  the  distance  traversed  by 
sound  in  a  second,  ^  of  1125,  or  62  feet,  will  be 
the  least  distance  at  which  an  echo  can  be  heard, 
as  the  sound  will  go  that  distance  and  return  in 
£  of  a  second.  The  number  of  syllables  that  any 
particular  echo  will  repeat,  depends  upon  how 
many  can  be  uttered  in  the  time  that  the  sound 
takes  to  go  and  return  from  the  reflecting  sur¬ 
face. 

Echo,  in  Music,  is  the  repetition  of  a  melodic 
phrase,  frequently  written  for  the  organ  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  stops. 

Eck,  .Ioiiann  Math  yon,  the  well-known  ad¬ 
versary  of  Luther,  was  born  in  1486  at  Eck,  a 
village  in  Swabia.  Having  impugned  some  of 
Luther’s  views  in  the  course  of  a  disputation,  he 
was  assailed  by  the  great  Reformer,  and  by  Me- 
lanctlion.  Eck  nicknamed  his  opponents  Luther¬ 
ans s,  and  instigated  partly  by  personal  hatred ,  and 
partly  by  Fugger,  went  to  Rome  in  1520,  to  in¬ 
duce  the  Pope  to  take  strong  measures  against 
Luther.  He  returned  with  a  Papal  bull  of  con¬ 
demnation  in  his  pocket,  but  the  people  in  many 
places  stood  by  Luther,  and  at  Leipzig,  in  partic¬ 
ular,  Eck  was  so  roughly  received,  that  he  had  to 
take  refuge  in  the  monastery  of  St.  Paul’s.  He 
died  in  1543. 

Eck  'ermann,  Jon.ANN  Peter,  well-known  to 
the  literary  world  through  his  intercourse  with 
Gdtlie,  was  born  in  1792,  and  died  in  1854. 

Eckhung'  Clioo,  a  river  of  Thibet,  is  supposed 
to  be  the  head  stream  of  the  Indus.  It  rises  on 
the  north  side  of  the  Himalayas,  near  the  sources 
of  the  Sutlej. 

Eck'iniihl,  a  village  on  the  Laber,  in  Bavaria, 
notable  for  the  battle  fought  there  on  April  22, 
1809,  between  75,000  French  and  40,000  Austri¬ 
ans,  in  which  the  latter  lost  12,000  men  and  16 
cannon. 

Eclec'tics,  Eclec'ticism.  Eclectics  was  the 
name  given  in  ancient  times  to  those  philosophers 
who  had  no  determinate  system  of  their  own,  but 
who  professed  to  choose  (ehX  iyeiv,  eklegei/i)  from 
all  systems  the  parts  that  they  considered  true. 

Eclipsa'reon,  the  name  given  by  Ferguson, 
the  astronomer,  to  a  contrivance  which  he  in¬ 
vented  for  exhibiting  the  time,  quantity,  dura¬ 
tion,  and  progress  of  solar  eclipses. 

Eclips'es.  An  eclipse  is  an  obscuration  of 
one  of  the  heavenly  bodies  by  the  interposition 
of  another,  either  between  it  and  the  specta¬ 
tor,  or  between  it  and  the  sun.  To  the  an¬ 
cients,  they  were  terrible  presages  of  dire 
events;  and  at  Rome,  at  one  time,  it  was  blas¬ 
phemy,  and  punished  by  law,  to  talk  publicly 
of  their  being  due  to  natural  causes.  Stars, 
planets,  and  the  satellites  of  planets,  may 
suffer  eclipse.  The  principal  eclipses,  however, 
are  those  of  the  sun  and  the  moon.  Solar  eclipses 
are  those  caused  by  the  interposition  of  the  moon 
between  the  sun  and  earth.  They  happen  always 
at  the  time  of  new  moon,  when  the  sun  and  moon 
are  in  conjunction.  In  a  partial  eclipse,  the  sun’s 
disc  becomes  indented  on  one  side,  the  indenta¬ 
tion  slowly  increasing  for  some  time,  and  then 
diminishing  until  it  disappears  altogether.  In  a 
total  eclipse,  the  indentation  increases  till  the 
whole  orb  disappears;  after  a  short  interval,  the 
sun  reappears,  passing  through  the  same  phases 
in  inverse  order.  In  annular  eclipse,  a  ring  or' 
annulus  surrounds  the  circular  shadow.  Lunar 
eclipses  happen  always  at  full  moon,  or  when  the 
sun  and  moon  are  in  opposition.  They  are  some¬ 
times  partial  and  sometimes  total,  but  never  an¬ 
nular.  The  duration  of  an  eclipse  is  the  interval 
between  immersion  and  emersion.  Immersion 
or  incidence  is  the  moment  when  part  of  the 
luminary  begins  to  be  obscured;  emersion  or  ex¬ 
purgation  is  the  time  when  the  luminary  begins 
to  emerge  from  the  shadow.  Eclipses  of  the 
moon  are  caused  by  the  moon  passing  through 


the  earth’s  shadow.  Supposing  the  earth  to  have 
no  atmosphere,  then  the  shadow  is  the  cone 
marked  in  shade  (see  diagram)  whose  apex  is  at 
O;  and  the  question  is,  whether  the  distance  OT 
from  the  apex  to  the  earth’s  center  exceeds  the 
moon’s  average  distance  from  the  earth.  Draw¬ 
ing  TB,  SA,  from  the  centers  of  earth  and  sun 
respectively,  perpendicular  to  the  line  OBA, 
touching  both  spheres,  and  the  line  TO  parallel 


to  the  line  OBA,  we  have  from  the  similar  tri¬ 
angles  OTB,  TSC,  the  proportion  OT  :  TB  :  :  TS  : 
SO.  Now,  we  know  that  TS,  the  (mean)  distance 
of  the  sun,  is  equal  to  about  24,000  times  TB; 
also,  from  the  construction,  AO=TB;  and  we 
know  that  SA=  1 12  times  TB,  whence  it  follows 
that  SC=111  times  TB.  The  above  proportion 
then  gives  OT =2 16  times  TB,  since  2jY"°=216 
nearly.  But  the  moon’s  average  distance  is  only  60 
times  TB  (the  earth’s  radius).  Hence  it  appears  that 
the  length  of  the  earth’s  shadow  is  almost  four 
times  the  average  distance  of  the  moon,  and  that 
the  moon  can  enter  it.  Fui  ther,  it  is  clear  that, 
should  it  do  so,  it  may  be  totally  obscured;  for 
it  must  enter  at  a  point  much  nearer  T  than  half 
(lie  distance  OT,  which  is  108  times  TB;  and 
everywhere  within  that  distance  it  might  be 
shown  that  the  breadth  of  the  shadow  is  much 
greater  than  the  moon’s  disc.  An  eclipse  can  only 
occur  at  full  moon,  as  it  is  only  then  that  the  earth 
is  between  the  sun  and  moon.  The  effect  of  at¬ 
mospheric  refraction  is  to  bend  the  rays  toward  the 
axis  of  the  cone  of  the  earth’s  shadow,  those 
which  pass  through  the  lowest  strata  of  the  air 
being  most  refracted,  and  converging  to  a  point 
in  the  line  OT  at  a  distance  equal  to  42  radii 
of  the  earth  from  the  earth’s  center.  Accord¬ 
ingly,  the  moon  never  enters  that  part  of  it 
which  is  completely  dark;  thus  she  never  be¬ 
comes  invisible  in  eclipse.  The  sun’s  penum¬ 
bra  also  helps  to  prevent  complete  darkness. 
Eclipses  of  the  sun,  so  called,  are  caused  by  the 
interposition  of  the  moon  between  the  earth  and 
sun.  In  one  sense,  a  solar  eclipse  might  more 
properly  be  called  an  eclipse  of  the  earth,  caused 
by  the  moon’s  shadow  falling  upon  it.  As  long 
as  a  total  eclipse  lasts  there  appears  round  the 
sun  and  moon  a  luminous  corona,  while  at  its 
base,  and  projecting  beyond  the  dark  edge  of  the 
moon,  appear  brilliant  prominences,  generally  of 
a  red  color.  These  prominences  were  first 
observed  during  the  total  eclipse  of  July  8,  1842; 


The  Corona. 

Appearance  Round  the  Sun  during  Total  Eclipse. 


but,  they  are  found  to  be  constant  attendants  on 
eclipses.  The  spectroscope  proves  them  to  con¬ 
sist  mainly  of  hydrogen  gas  in  an  incandescent 
state,  and  a  comparatively  narrow  belt  of  the 
same  su>  stance  runs  round  the  whole  circumfer¬ 
ence  of  the  sun.  The  prominences  are  some¬ 
times  seen  to  shoot  up  like  flames,  in  wild,  fan¬ 
tastic  shapes,  with  incredible  velocity,  and  to  the 
height  of  tens  of  thousands  of  miles.  The  num¬ 


ber  of  eclipses  of  the  sun  and  moon  together  in  a 
year  can  not  be  less  than  two,  nor  more  than 
seven;  the  most  usual  number  is  four,  and  it  is 
rare  to  have  more  than  six.  This  is  explained 
by  the  fact  that  the  sun  passes  by  both  nodes  but 
once  in  a  year,  except  in  the  case  of  his  passing 
one  early  in  the  year,  in  which  case,  owing  to  the 
recession  of  the  moon’s  nodes,  he  will  again  pass 
it  a  little  before  the  end  of  the  year.  From  the 
smallness  of  the  cone  of  the  moon’s  shadow,  total 
solar  eclipses  are  rare  in  any  one  place,  compared 
with  the  frequency  of  their  actual  occurrence. 
At  Paris,  there  was  only  one  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun  in  the  eighteenth  century,  that  of  1724,  and 
there  will  not  be  another  till  near  the  close  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  In  London,  not  one  total 
eclipse  occurred  during  the  575  years — 1140  to 
1715. 

Eel  ip 'tic  is  the  name  given  to  the  great  circle 
of  the  heavens  round  which  the  sun  seems  to 
travel,  from  west  to  east,  in  the  course  of  a  year. 
It  took  its  name  from  the  fact,  that  eclipses  hap¬ 
pen  only  when  both  bodies  are  in  or  near  this 
path. 

fleole  Folyfeclniique  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  military  academies  in  France.  It  was 
established  in  1793,  was  dissolved  in  1816,  in  1830, 
and  again  in  1832,  on  account  of  the  way  in 
which  the  pupils  mixed  themselves  up  with  the 
political  disturbances  of  those  years;  was  re¬ 
established  on  each  occasion,  after  the  restoration 
of  tranquillity.  It  is  similar  to  our  Military 
Academy  at  West  Point. 

Econ'onty,  a  village  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Ohio,  about  seventeen  miles 
below  Pittsburgh.  The  settlement  was  planted 
in  1825  by  immigrants  from  Germany.  The 
inhabitants  own  everything  in  common — 3,500 
acres  of  land,  upward  of  100  houses,  a  church,  a 
school,  a  museum,  and  manufactories  of  wool, 
cotton,  and  silk.  Pop.  of  township  about  1,500. 

Ecorclie.  A  figure  in  which  the  muscles  are 
represented,  stripped  of  the  skin,  for  purposes  of 
artistic  study,  is  called  by  the  French  an  ecorclie, 
and  from  them  we  have  borrowed  the  term. 

Ecoutes  (Fr.  ecoutcr,  to  listen),  in  military- 
operations  connected  with  siege-works,  are  listen¬ 
ing-places.  They  are  small  galleries,  excavated 
at  regular  distances,  and  going  out  beneath  and 
beyond  the  glacis,  toward  the  lines  and  batteries 
of  the  besiegers. 

Ecraseur,  an  instrument  invented  by  M. 
Ghassaignac,  and  consisting  of  a  fine  chain  which, 
passed  round  any  malignant  growth,  gradually 
constricts  it,  and  finally  crushes  its  way  through 
it  by  means  of  a  screw  or  rack  for  tightening  it, 
which  is  worked  at  the  end  of  the  handle.  The 
advantage  of  this  instrument  over  the  knife  is, 
that  it  causes  little  or  no  bleeding,  the  torn  vessels 
spontaneously  contracting  and  closing.  It  is 
specially  applicable  to  cases  of  cancer  of  the 
tongue,  piles,  polypi,  and  various  kinds  of 
tumors.  When  a  sol  d  mass — as,  for  example, 
a  considerable  portion  of  the  side  of  the  tongue — 
is  to  be  removed,  the  cliaiD  is  sometimes  pressed 
through  the  center,  and  made  to  cut  two  lines 
successively  in  the  form  of  a  V,  in  which  the 
diseased  structure  is  included. 

Ec'stasy  (Gr.eu6rdiii,  a  transposition,  a  change 
of  situation  or  condition;  applied  to  the  mind  in 
the  sense  of  a  state  in  which  it  is  altered  or  funda¬ 
mentally  changed  in  character  by  some  absorbing 
emotion),  a  word  applied  to  those  states  of  mind, 
which,  without  amounting  to  insanity,  in  respect 
of  the  temporary  character  of  the  affection,  are 
marked  by  mental  alienation,  and  altered  or 
diminished  consciousness. 

Ec'tliyma  is  a  pustular  disease  of  the  skin,  in 
which  the  pustules  often  reach  the  size  of  a  pea, 
and  have  a  red,  slightly  elevated,  hardish  base. 
In  (lie  course  of  two  or  three  days  after  the 
appearance  of  the  pustule,  it  is  replaced  by  a  scab, 
which  adheres  firmly  to  the  base,  and  is  some¬ 
what  concave.  On  its  removal,  a  deep  red  mark, 
a  new  scab,  an  ulcer,  or  a  healed  scar  remains. 
The  disease  may  be  acute  or  chronic.  The  disease 
usually  runs  its  course  in  ten  days  or  a  fortnight. 
In  chronic  ecthyma,  the  pustules  which  follow  in 
crops  (often  for  several  months)  are  usually  scat¬ 
tered  over  the  extremities.  This  indicates  a  low- 
state  of  the  system.  It  sometimes  follows  the 


ENTOZOA. 


356 


EDRIOPIITHALMATA. 


acute  disease,  and  not  infrequently  is  a  tertiary 
symptom  of  syphilis. 

Ectozo'a  (Gr.  £HTo?,eklos,  without,,  and  Zoo?, 
zoos,  living),  a  term  which  has  been  introduced, 
as  in  contradistinction  to  Entozoa,  to  designate 
those  parasitic  animals  which  live  upon  the 
external  parts  of  other  animals,  as  lice,  ticks, 
etc.  Such  also  are  many  of  the  cntomostracous 
crustaceans,  parasitic  upon  Ashes. 

Ectro'pion  (Gr.  eh,  ek,  and  rpeno,  (repo,  I 
turn  out),  an  everted  condition  of  an  eyelid,  in 
consequence  of  which  it  does  not  cover  the  globe 
of  the  eye.  It  can  be  remedied  by  a  slight  surgi¬ 
cal  operation. 

Ectrot'ic  (from  Gr.  exrpojua,  ektroma,  abor¬ 
tion),  a  term  applied  to  methods  of  treatment 
which  aim  at  preventing  the  development  of  a 
disease. 

Ectypog'raphy,  a  method  of  etching,  in  which 
the  lines  are  raised  on  the  plate,  in  place  of  being 
sunk  into  it. 

Ectypuni,  a  cast  in  relief  of  an  ornamental 
design,  produced  from  a  mold. 

Ecuador',  the  Spanish  term  for  equa'or,  is  the 
name  of  a  State  of  South  America,  extending  from 
about  latitude  1°  40'  N.,  to  5°  50'  S.;  and  from 
longitude  70°  to  81°  20'  W.  Area,  about  200,000 
square  miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  on  the  east  by  Brazil, 
on  the  south  by  Peru,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Among  the  table-lands  ranging 
from  south  to  north,  the  most  important  are  those 
of  Cuen9a,  Hambato,  and  Quito — their  respective 
heights  above  the  sea  being,  in  feet,  8,640,  8,860, 
and  9,543.  They  are  almost  shut  out  from  the 
world  by  pinnacles  of  occasionally  more  than 
equal  altitude  above  their  own  level.  Of  these 
the  most  remarkable  are  Chimborazo  and  Coto¬ 
paxi.  In  the  Basin  of  the  Guayaquil,  there  is 
regularly  a  wet  season;  between  it  and  Cape  San 
Lorenzo,  almost  perpetual  drought  prevails;  and, 
in  the  other  direction,  the  upper  tributaries  of  the 
Amazon  are  said  to  be  fed  by  almost  perpetual 
rains.  The  pop.  is  supposed  to  be  about 
1,000,000.  The  chief  cities  are  Quito,  the  capital, 
and  Guayaquil.  The  Government  is  constituted 
on  the  model  of  the  United  States,  having  a 
President  and  Vice-President,  with  a  Senate  and 
a  House  of  Representatives. 

Ecumen'ical  (Gr.  oixovpevixo ?,  oikoumeni- 
kos),  i.  e.,  universal,  a  term  applied  to  ecclesias¬ 
tical  councils,  regarded  as  representing  the  whole 
Christian  Church,  or  the  church  of  the  whole 
world  (oikoumene),  and  to  the  orthodox  or  Cath¬ 
olic  Church,  regarded  as  opposed  to  heretical  and 
merely  local  sects.  The  Roman  Catholics  claim 
the  designation  as  appropriate  to  their  own 
church.  It  is  a  title  of  patriarchs,  archbishops, 
and  ecclesiastical  superintendents  of  provinces. 

Ec'zema  (from  a  Greek  verb,  ehZe/ueiv,  to  boil 
out),  an  eruption  of  small  vesicles  on  various 
parts  of  the  skin,  usually  crowded  together,  with 
little  or  no  inflammation  around  their  bases,  and 
unattended  by  fever. 

Eddystone,  a  group  of  gneiss  rocks,  daily  sub- 


Smeaton’s  Eddystone  Light-house, 
merged  by  the  tide,  in  the  English  Channel,  nine 
miles  off  the  Cornish  coast,  and  fourteen  miles 
south-southwest  of  Plymouth  breakwater.  The 


frequent  shipwrecks  on  these  rocks  led  to  the 
erection  of  a  light  house  on  them  by  Mr.  Win- 
stanley,  1696-1700.  It  was  washed  away  in 
1703,  and  another  built  in  1709,  which  was  burned 
in  1755.  Still  another  was  built  by  Mr.  Smeaton 
in  1759.  This  was  taken  down  on  the  completion 
of  a  new  one  in  1882. 

E'den,  according  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures, 
the  first  residence  of  man.  The  description  given 
of  it  in  the  Book  of  Genesis  is  brief,  obscure,  and, 
in  appearance, .  legendary.  Some  scholars  have 
preferred  to  understand  the  story  literally,  but 
they  have  not  been  unanimous  as  to  the  geograph¬ 
ical  position  of  Eden.  Josephus  and  several  of 
the  Fathers  conceived  that  Eden  was  a  term  de¬ 
noting  the  entire  region  between  the  Ganges  and 
Nile;  Calvin,  Huet,  Bochart,  Wells,  etc.,  have, 
with  slight  differences  of  detail,  concluded  in 
favor  of  Kornah  in  Babylonia,  not  far  from  the 
Persian  Gulf;  Reland,  Calmet,  Hales,  Faber,  J. 
Pye  Smith,  in  favor  of  Armenia,  near  the  sources 
of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates;  Le  Clerc,  in  favor  of 
the  region  near  Damascus;  while  the  modern  Ger¬ 
man  school  of  Biblical  critics  have  sought  the 
cradle  of  the  human  race  in  Bactria  or  Cashmere, 
or  the  region  lying  to  the  north  of  it,  a  part  of 
which  is  to  this  day  called  Audyana,  the  “Gar¬ 
den.” 

Edenta'ta  (Lat.  toothless),  an  order  of  Mam¬ 
malia  established  by  Cuvier,  and  generally  re¬ 
ceived  by  naturalists.  He  included  among  them, 
however,  the  Monoiremata,  which  are  now  gener¬ 
ally  separated,  on  account  of  the  important  differ¬ 
ences  of  organization  which  characterize  them. 
The  remaining  edentata  are  divided  into  two 
tribes — 1.  Tardigrada  (slow-paced),  containing 
only  the  sloths;  and  2.  Effodentia  (diggers),  con¬ 
taining  armadillos,  pangolins,  ant-eaters,  etc. 

Edes'sa  (modern  name,  Urfah  or  Orfa),  an  an¬ 
cient  city,  on  the  River  Daisan,  in  the  north  of 
Mesopotamia,  seventy-eight  miles  southwest  of 
Diarbekir.  Pop.,  40,000. 

Ed 'fou  (Coptic  Albo,  Egypt.  Hat,  anc.  Apol- 
linopolis  Magna),  a  town  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  latitude  25°  N.,  and  lon¬ 
gitude  32°  45'  E. 

Edge'cumbe. — 1.  A  bay  in  the  east  coast  of 
Australia,  lies  within  the  Province  of  Queensland 
near  latitude  20°  S.,  and  longitude  148°  E. — 2.  A 
mountain  in  Alaska  marks  the  northwest  point 
at  the  mouth  of  Norfolk  Sound,  which  connects 
the  settlement  of  New  Archangel  on  the  Island  of 
Sitka  with  the  open  ocean. 

Edge 'hill,  Battle  of.  The  first  great  battle 
of  the  English  Civil  War  was  fought  on  Sunday, 
Oct.  23,  1642,  between  the  Royalist  forces  under 
Charles  and  the  Parliamentarians  under  the  Earl 
of  Essex.  The  fight  lasted  from  2  o’clock  p,  m., 
until  sunset,  the  Royalist  cavalry  under  Prince 
Rupert  being  at  first  successful,  but  toward 
evening  they  were  driven  from  the  field,  with  a 
loss  of  nearly  4,000  men. 

Edge'wortli,  Maria,  born  in  1767,  was  a  well- 
known  Irish  authoress.  In  1803  she  published 
Belinda;  in  1804,  Popular  Tales;  in  1806,  Leon¬ 
ora;  and  in  1809,  Tales  of  Fashionable  Life.  She 
died  May  21,  1849. 

E'dict  (Lat.  edictum).  The  power  of  making 
edicts  ( jus  edicendi)  belonged  generally  to  the 
higher  magistrates  at  Rome;  but  it  was  by  the 
curule  aediles,  and  more  extensively  still  by 
two  prastors — the  prcetor  urhanus,  and  the  prcetor 
peregrinus — that  it  was  prominently  exercised.  In 
a  province,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  pnetor  passed  to 
the  praxes.  The  object  of  the  edict,  according 
to  the  Roman  jurists,  was  to  aid,  supplement,  and 
correct  the  civil  law,  and  to  render  it  more  con¬ 
ducive  to  the  public  service. 

Edinburgh,  the  capital  of  Scotland,  and  chief 
town  in  the  County  of  Mid-Lotliian,  is  about  a 
mile  and  a  half  from  the  Firth  of  Forth.  Leith, 
Newhaven,  and  Granton  are  suburbs.  The  Gaelic 
name  of  the  city  is  “Dunedin.”  The  principal 
industries  of  Edinburgh  are  brewing  (two-thirds 
of  all  the  ale  or  beer  brewed  in  Scotland  being 
made  here),  printing  and  publishing  with  the 
kindred  arts,  distilling,  iron-founding,  tanning, 
and  coach-building.  Pop.,  240,000. 

Edinburgh,  The  University  of,  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  1580,  and  is  one  of  the  most  renowned 
seats  of  learning  in  Great  Britain.  It  consists  of 
the  faculties  of  arts,  medicine,  theology,  and 


law,  and  each  of  these  faculties  comprises  chairs 
devoted  to  every  branch  of  learning  that  can  con¬ 
sistently  be  included  within  their  respective 
departments.  In  1882-83,  3,390  students  were 
enrolled.  Of  these  over  1,000  were  art  students; 
over  100  students  of  divinity;  500  of  law;  and  in 
medicine,  the  most  famous  faculty,  1,760. 

Edison,  Thomas  Alva,  a  notable  inventor, 
was  born  in  Erie  county,  Ohio,  Feb.  11, 1847,  but 
his  early  years  were  spent  at  Port  Huron,  Mich. 
His  father  was  of  Dutch,  and  his  mother  of 
Scotch,  descent.  He  learned  telegraphy,  and 
thenceforward  concentrated  the  energies  of  a  very 
versatile  mind  chiefly  upon  electrical  studies. 
After  a  few  failures  in  furthering  his  inventions, 
two  telegraph  companies  in  turn  availed  tliem- 
selvisof  his  services,  and  his  inventive  faculties 
getting  full  play,  he  took  out  over  fifty  patents  in 
connection  with  improvements  in  telegraphy,  in¬ 
cluding  the  duplex  and  quadruplex  system.  He 
settled  at  Menlo  Park,  a  New  Jersey  village,  in 
1876;  established  a  laboratory,  from  which  have 
emanated  his  inventions  of  the  phonograph,  the 
telephone,  microphone,  and  scores  of  other  im¬ 
provements  and  adaptations  of  electricity. 

Ed'isto,  a  river  of  South  Carolina,  flows 
through  the  southwest  part  of  the  State,  being 
formed  near  Branchville  of  the  North  Edisto  and 
the  South  Edisto,  and  emptying  into  the  Atlantic. 
Edisto  also  designates  the  island  which  separates 
those  two  arms.  The  stream  is  navigable  for  1 00 
miles  upward,  and  its  mouth  is  about  twenty  miles 
to  the  southwest  of  Charleston. 

Eil'inonstone  Island,  an  outpost  of  the  Delta 
of  the  Ganges  toward  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  is  situ¬ 
ated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hoogly,  the  most 
westerly  arm  of  the  great  river  above  mentioned. 

Ed'mund  Iron'side,  King  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  son  of  Ethelred  II.,  was  born  in  989.  On 
Ethelred’s  death  (April,  1016),  the  Danes  pro¬ 
claimed  Canute  King  of  England,  but  the  citizens 
of  London  declared  for  Edmund.  An  arrange¬ 
ment  was  entered  into  by  which  England  was 
divided  between  the  two  kings,  Canute  obtaining 
possession  of  Mercia  and  Northumbria,  the  rest 
falling  to  the  share  of  Edmund.  It  was  also 
agreed  that  on  the  death  of  either  the  survivor 
was  to  succeed  him.  On  Nov.  30,  1016,  Edmund 
died ,  and  Canute  became  King  of  all  England. 
Edmund  received  the  surname  of  Ironside,  either 
from  his  great  strength  or  from  the  color  of  his 
armor. 

Edmunds,  George  Franklin,  was  born  in 
Vermont,  Feb.  1,  1828,  elected  United  States 
Senator  from  that  State  in  1865,  and  reelected  in 
1869,  1875,  1881,  and  1887. 

E'dom  (New  Testament,  Idumea' a),  a  word 
signifying  “red.”  It  was,  according  to  Gen. 
xxv,  29-34,  the  name  given  to  Esau  on  account  of 
the  red  pottage  supplied  to  him  by  his  brother 
Jacob.  Hence,  the  country  which  Esau  after¬ 
ward  obtained  was  called  the  Land  of  Edom,  but 
previously  Mount  Seir.  Edom  comprised  a  strip 
of  country  100  miles  long  by  20  broad,  lying 
between  the  south  of  Palestine  and  the  Gulf  of 
Akabah  (an  arm  of  the  Red  Sea). 

EdriophtliaUmata,  a  section  of  the  class  of 
crustaceans,  consisting  of  those  malacoslracous 


1,  Caprella  phasma;  2,  Cyarnus  baltenarius  (whale-louse), 
crustaceans  which  have  the  eyes  sessile — not 
mounted  upon  stalks.  The  edriophtlialmata  are 
generally  marine;  many  of  the  Amphipoda,  how¬ 
ever,  are  inhabitants  of  fresh  water;  some  of  the 
Isopoda — as  the  armadillo-louse  and  wood-louse — 
are  terrestrial,  but  are  inhabitants  of  damp  places. 
Many  of  the  edriophthalmala  are  parasitic,  some 


EDUCATION. 


357 


EGGAR  MOTH. 


of  them  on  whales,  some  even  on  prawns  and 
other  crustaceans.  Some  of  the  parasitic  edri- 
ophtlialmata  are  destitute  both  of  eyes  and 
antennae. 

Educa'tion  is  the  art  of  drawing  out  (Lat. 
educert)  or  developing  the  faculties — of  training 
human  beings  for  the  functions  for  which  they  are 
destined.  The  means  employed  in  education  fall 
naturally  under  two  heads:  discipline,  or  moral 
training;  and  instruction,  or  the  imparting  of  in¬ 
formation;  although  the  two  often  run  into  each 
other.  Under  the  head  of  discipline  come  the 
forming  of  habits  of  order,  self-control,  obedience, 
civility,  love  of  truth,  and  reverence  for  what  is 
good  and  great.  In  this  part  of  the  process,  it  is 
evident  that  the  school  and  the  professional  educa¬ 
tor  only  play  a  part  with  other  influences.  In 
respect  of  direct  utility,  the  things  most  neces¬ 
sary  to  know  are  those  that  bear  most  directly: 
(1)  On  the  preservation  of  life  and  health,  and  the 
proper  performance  of  the  more  common  indus¬ 
trial  labors.  This  involves  a  knowledge  of  physi¬ 
ology,  natural  philosophy,  and  the  other  physical 
sciences.  (2)  A  knowledge  of  our  moral  relations, 
implying  a  knowledge  of  the  ordinary  moral  duties, 
and  the  high  religious  sanctions  with  which  they 
are  enforced,  and  some  acquaintance  with  the 
laws  of  economy.  (3)  There  is  required  a  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  mother-tongue,  and  the  faculty  of 
reading  and  writing  it.  Allied  to  language  is  a 
knowledge  of  counting  and  measuring,  and  the 
naming  and  classifying  of  the  objects  of  which  the 
world  is  composed  (natural  history),  together  with 
a  knowledge  of  the  countries  and  places  on  the 
earth’s  surface  (geography).  (4)  The  cultivation  of 
the  taste  and  the  imagination,  or  the  faculties  which 
derive  pleasure  from  music,  painting,  sculpture, 
architecture,  poetry,  and  works  of  fiction.  Until 
recently,  reading,  writing,  and  arithmetic  were 
considered  the  beginning  and  end  of  a  course  of 
primary  instruction.  These,  however,  are  not  so 
much  knowledge  themselves  as  instruments  for 
acquiring  knowledge;  and  therefore  the  primary 
teacher  in  the  present  day  considers  it  his  duty 
to  give,  in  addition,  as  much  information  of  a 
directly  useful  kind  as  possible.  Middle  or  sec¬ 
ondary  schools,  in  which  are  included  high 
schools,  grammar  schools,  etc.,  either  serve  for 
those  who  have  leisure  for  a  higher  degree  of 
culture  than  the  elementary  course,  or  they  serve 
as  nurseries  for  the  colleges  and  universities. 
Up  to  a  certain  point,  the  education  of  all  young 
persons  ought  to  be  to  train  them  up  to  be  intelli¬ 
gent,  virtuous,  and  active  men  and  women, 
capable  of  turning  their  talents  to  account  in 
whatever  situation  they  may  be  placed.  Special 
training  is  either  of  an  intellectual  or  a  mechani¬ 
cal  kind,  or  it  may  partake  of  both.  This  branch¬ 
ing  off  of  education  into  special  tracks  is 
conspicuous  in  the  higher  education  given  in 
colleges  and  universities,  where  from  the  first 
there  have  been — besides  the  faculty,  as  it  is 
called,  of  philosophy,  including  a  number  of 
branches  of  a  general  nature— special  depart¬ 
ments  or  faculties  of  law,  medicine,  and  theology. 
So  prominent  a  place  does  commerce  hold  in  this 
country,  that  schools  are  conducted  for  the  spe¬ 
cial  purpose  of  educating  the  youth  of  both  sexes 
for  commercial  occupations.  The  acquiring  of 
mechanical  skill  for  a  particular  handicraft  or 
occupation  is  a  part  of  education  and  should  re¬ 
ceive  careful  attention  in  connection  with  the 
schooling  of  such  as  are  designed  for  mechanical 
occupations.  The  most  progressive  educators  of 
modern  times  believe  that  school  education  and 
industrial  training  ought  to  be  conjoined,  and 
many  schools  have  adopted  this  system  of  train¬ 
ing.  The  object  is  not  wholly  to  teach  particular 
trades,  but,  even  in  the  cases  of  those  who  do  not 
intend  to  follow  mechanical  pursuits,  to  promote 
the  health,  to  develop  the  muscles,  and  to  induce 
habits  of  steady  and  patient  endurance  of  work. 
The  industrial  training  of  girls  is  of  yet  more 
urgent  necessity  than  that  of  boys.  The  ordinary 
domestic  operations  involved  in  household  man¬ 
agement  ought  naturally  to  be  learned  at  home,  t^jd 
the  object  at  school  should  be  to  instruct  them  in 
the  way  of  improvements,  that  their  homes  might 
not  exhibit — to  insure  progress,  in  short. 

Edward  t lie  Confess'or,  King  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  was  born  at  Islip,  in  Oxfordshire,  about 
the  year  1004.  On  the  death  of  Ilardicanute  in 


1042,  he  was  declared  King.  The  title  of  Con¬ 
fessor  was  conferred  on  him,  about  lOJyears  after 
his  death,  by  Pope  Alexander  III.  Edward's 
wars  with  the  Welsh  in  1057  and  1063,  and  with 
the  Northumbrians  in  1065,  were  short  and  suc¬ 
cessful.  HediedJan.5,  1066,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Harold,  who  was  killed  at  the  Battle  of  Hast¬ 
ings  the  same  year. 

Edward,  the  name  of  six  English  kings.  Ed¬ 
ward  I.,  son  of  Henry  III.,  was  born  June  16, 
1239,  participated  in  the  Crusades,  and  married 
Eleanor  of  France.  He  conquered  Wales,  in¬ 
vaded  Scotland  several  times,  defeated  and 
hanged  Sir  William  Wallace,  and  died  at  Carlisle, 
July  6,  1307,  when  engaged  on  another  inroad 
into  Scotland.  His  son,  Edward  II.,  was  born 
April  25,  1284,  and  was  the  first  Prince  of  Wales. 
At  Bannockburn  in  1314  he  was  defeated  by 
Robert  Bruce.  He  married  Isabella,  the  “she 
wolf  of  France,”  who  caused  him  to  be  put  to 
death  on  Sept.  20,  1327.  Ilis  son,  Edward  III., 
born  Nov.  13,  1312,  ascended  the  throne  at  the 
age  of  fifteen  and  next  year  married  Philippa  of 
Hainault.  He  invaded  Scotland  in  1333  and  de¬ 
feated  the  Scotch  at  Halidon  Hill.  Next  he 
claimed  the  throne  of  France  in  right  of  his 
mother,  and  in  1346  won  the  decisive  battle  of 
Crccy.  Ten  years  later  he  was  again  victorious 
at  Poitiers,  on  which  occasion  the  King  of  France 
was  made  prisoner.  Edward  died  June  21,  1377, 
after  a  reign  of  fifty-one  years.  Edward  IV., 
son  of  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  was  born  about 
1441  and  assumed  the  crown  after  defeating 
Henry  VI.,  in  February,  1461.  England  was 
plunged  into  civil  war  over  the  rival  claims  of 
the  Yorkists  and  Lancastrians,  and  Edward  was 
compelled  to  flee,  but  returned  and  again  became 
King.  lie  died  April  9,  1483,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Edward  V.  (born  Nov.  4,  1470;,  who 
was  murdered  in  the  Tower  of  London,  June, 
1483,  by  command  of  his  uncle,  Richard,  Duke 
of  Gloucester,  who  became  Richard  III.  Edward 
VI.,  born  Sept.  12,  1537,  was  the  son  of  Henry 
VIII.  lie  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1547  and 
the  Kingdom  was  governed  by  the  Lord  Pro¬ 
tector  Somerset  for  five  years.  In  1552  Somerset 
was  executed  for  treason  and  the  boy-king  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Northumberland  family. 
He  died  of  consumption,  July  6,  1552. 

Edwards,  Jonathan,  an  American  divine  and 
metaphysician,  born  Oct.  5,  1703.  He  was  an 
earnest  and  eloquent  preacher,  a  noted  revivalist 
and  a  vigorous  writer.  In  1757  he  was  chosen 
President  of  Princeton  College,  New  Jersey,  and 
died  March  22,  1758. — Jonathan  Edwards, 
I)  I),  (born  1745,  died  1801),  son  of  the  preceding, 
was  a  person  of  character  similar  to  his  father’s. 

Edwin,  an  English  Saxon  prince,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  at  the  age  of  three  years,  but  a  neigh 
boring  potentate,  Ethelfrith,  invaded  and  con¬ 
quered  his  territories,  whereupon  the  infant  was 
carried  into  North  Wales,  and  was  there  edu¬ 
cated.  After  many  vicissitudes  he  became  King 
and  reigned  until  634,  when  he  was  killed  in 
battle. 

Eel,  a  name  given  to  all  serpent-shaped  or 
worm-shaped  fishes,  and  sometimes  extended  to 
other  animals  of  i 

similar  form,  but 
otherwise  ex¬ 
tremely  different, 
as  the  eels  in 
paste,  in  vinegar, 
etc.  The  fishes  to 
which  this  name 
is  most  com¬ 
monly  applied 
are  malucopterous 
fishes, destitute  of 
ventral  fins,  and 
having  the  body 
covered  by  a  soft, 
thick,  slimy  skin, 


Heads  of  Eels, 
the  scales'  very  1-  The  Snig (Anguilla  mediorostris) ; 

-  -  J  2.  Broad -nosed  Eel  ( Anguilla  lati- 
rostris) ;  3.  The  Grig  (Anguilla  Plat- 
bee). 

j.  Most  of  them  were  included 
in  the  Linnsean  genus  Murcena,  and  now  constitute 
the  family  Murcenidce,  divided  by  some  natural¬ 
ists  into  the  families  Synbranchidce,  Munenidm, 
Anguillida,  Canyeridat,  and  Ophisuridce.  All 
these  have  the  skeleton  destitute  of  ribs,  and  the 


minute,  and  often 
almost  invisible, 
or  entirely  wanting 


!  fin-rays  not  jointed;  whilst  the  Gym notidee,  in¬ 
cluding  the  electric  eels,  have  ribs  encompass¬ 
ing  the  belly,  and  the  fin-rays  jointed  or  branched. 

Eels  in  paste,  vinegar,  fermenting  and  decaying 
substances,  or  stagnant  water,  are  minute  worms, 
belonging  to  the  genus  Anguillula  of  the  order 
nematoidea.  Their  bodies  are  mostly  cylindrical 
and  transparent,  so  that  one  can  easily  see  mouth, 
stomach,  and  intestines  of  the  creature.  They 
multiply  rapidly.  Other  nematoids  are  the  asca- 
ris,  guinea-worm,  and  trichina.  Like  other  lower 
forms  of  life,  these  creatures  may  be  dried;  and 
will  retain  their  vitality  for  months  and  even 
years. 

Effen'di,  a  title  of  honor  among  the  Turks 
bestowed  upon  civil  dignitaries  and  persons  of 
various  ranks,  in  contradistinction  to  the  title  of 
Aga,  borne  by  courtiers  and  military  men. 

Elfigy  (Lat.  effigies),  a  likeness  or  representa¬ 
tion  either  of  the  whole  figure  or  of  the  head  and 
face,  as  on  a  coin. 

Efllores'cence  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
appearance  of  a  white  incrustation  on  the  walls 
of  buildings,  or  when  a  salt  loses  its  water  of 
crystallization,  and  presents  a  white,  powdery 
appearance  on  the  surface.  Common  washing- 
soda  exposed  to  the  air  affords  a  good  illustra¬ 
tion  of  this  phenomenon. 

Eft,  a  term  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin,  applied 
both  to  lizards  and  newts,  which — notwithstand¬ 
ing  the  important  differences  between  them — were 
until  recently  confounded  even  by  naturalists. 
In  natural  history,  the  term  eft  is  now  used  as 
synonymous  with  newt. 

Eg'bert,  an  Anglo-Saxon,  who,  in  787,  on  the 
death  of  Cynewulf,  King  of  Wessex,  laid  claim  to 
the  throne,  but  had  to  give  way  to  another  claim¬ 
ant,  Brihtric.  Egbert  was  compelled  to  flee, 
and  took  refuge  at  the  court  of  Charlemagne. 
Here  he  remained  for  thirteen  years,  until,  in 
800,  on  the  death  of  Brihtric,  he  was  summoned 
to  England  to  fill  the  throne  of  Wessex.  He 
became  King  over  nearly  all  England,  and  died 
in  836. 

Ege ' ria  was  the  name  of  the  nymph  or  carnena 
from  whom,  according  to  the  legend,  King  Numa 
received  the  ritual  of  public  worship,  which  he 
established  in  Rome.  The  grove  where  Numa 
met  the  goddess  to  receive  her  instructions  was 
dedicated  by  him  to  the  Camenae.  Roman  legends 
speak  of  two  groves  dedicated  to  Egeria — one 
near  Aricia,  the  other  before  the  Porta  Capena  at 
Rome,  where  the  grotto  of  Egeria  is  still  shown. 
Egeria  is  the  name  of  a  natural  park  or  basin 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  Colorado. 

Egg  {ovum).  In  a  great  majority  of  the  dif¬ 
ferent  kinds  of  animals,  reproduction  takes  place 
by  means  of  eggs;  in  other  words,  the  animals 
are  oviparous.  It  is  only  in  the  mammalia  that 
we  find  animals  truly  viviparous;  whilst  the 
marsupial  quadrupeds  and  the  rndnotremafa  form 
connecting  links,  in  this  part  of  their  natural  his¬ 
tory,  between  the  mammalia  which  are  vivipar¬ 
ous  in  the  fullest  sense  of  the  term,  and  the  warm¬ 
blooded  animals  (birds)  which  are  oviparous.  The 
economical  uses  of  eggs  are  well  known.  The 
eggs  chiefly  used  are  those  of  birds,  although  the 
eggs  of  turtles  are  also  in  great  repute  as  an 
article  of  food  and  luxury,  and  those  of  fresh¬ 
water  tortoises  are  valued  for  the  oil  which  they 
yield. 

Egg,  Chemistry  of.  An  ordinary,  good-sized 
hen’s  egg  weighs  about  1,000  grains,  of  which 
the  white  constitutes  600  grains,  the  yolk  300, 
and  the  shell  100.  The  white  or  glaire  of  the  egg 
is  a  strong  solution  of  albumen  in  water,  and 
whilst  readily  miscible  with  water  in  its  ordinary 
state,  it  becomes  insoluble  when  subjected  to 
heat,  as  in  boiling  an  egg.  In  100  parts,  the 
white  or  glaire  of  egg  consists  of — water,  80;  dry 
albumen,  15};  salts,  etc.,  44.  The  yolk  or  yelk 
of  the  egg  is  composed  of  a  strong  solution  of 
albumen,  through  which  multitudes  of  minute 
globules  of  oil  are  suspended,  which  render  it  es¬ 
sentially  an  emulsion.  In  100  parts,  it  consists  of 
— water,  53f;  dry  albumen,  171;  oil  (with  small 
proportion  of  salts),  281.  . 

Eggar  Moth,  the  name  of  certain  species  of 
moth,  of  the  genus  Lasiocampa,  allied  to  the  silk¬ 
worm  moths.  One  species  {L.  Irifolii),  of  a  uni¬ 
form  foxy,  ocherous  color,  with  wings  expanding 


EGG-BIRD. 


858 


EGYPTIAN  VULTURE. 


about  two  inches,  produces  a  caterpillar  as  thick 
as  a  swan’s  quill,  hairy,  and  ocherous  brown, 


Eggar  Moth  and  Caterpillar  ( Lasiocampa  trifolii). 

which  feeds  sometimes  on  broom,  but  frequently 
in  clover-fields. 

Egg-bird  ( Hr/drochelidon  fnliginomm  or  Sterna 
fuliginosa),  a  bird  of  the  gull  family,  sometimes 
called  the  sooty-tern.  It  abounds  in  the  West 


Egg-bird  or  Sooty  Tern  \HyiliOchtlidon  fdllginosum). 

Indian  seas  and  is  to  lie  seen  in  myriads  on  and 
near  some  of  the  keys  or  low  barren  islets  where 
it  breeds. 

Egg-plant  ( Solanum  melongena ),  an  annual, 
usually  less  than  two  feet  high,  with  stem  par¬ 
tially  woody;  fruit  resembling  an  egg  in  appear- 


faith  with  the  King,  however,  and  with  Count 
Hoorn,  was  beheaded  at  Brussels,  June  4,  1568. 
Gdthe  has  made  the  death  of  Egmont  the  subject 
of  a  tragedy. 

E'gret,  a  name  given  to  various  species  of 
heron,  particularly  those  which  have  the  feathers 
on  the  lower  paitof  the  back  lengthened,  and 
their  barbs  loose,  so  that  this  part  of  the  plumage 


is  very  soft  and  flowing.  Egret  plumes  are  used 
for  ornamental  purposes,  particularly  the  occipi¬ 
tal  crest  and  scapulars  of  the  little  egret  (Arden 
garzetta);  and  the  name  egret  (Fr.  aigrette)  has  be¬ 
come  a  common  term  for  a  tuft  of  feathers. 

Egypt.  At  the  northeastern  extremity  of  the 
Continent  of  Africa,  and  bounded  north  by  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  south  by  Nubia,  east  by  Pales¬ 
tine,  and  west  by  the  Great  Desert,  lies  Egypt. 
The  Egypt  of  to-day  embraces  properly  the  lowest 
and  most  northern  division  of  the  valley  of  the 
Nile,  from  the  last  cataracts  in  that  river,  latitude 
24°  3',  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  at  latitude  31° 
55'.  Measuring  the  country  on  the  meridian  it 
is  about  450  miles  in  extent,  but  taking  the  valley 
of  the  Nile,  a  meandering  stream,  and  which  is 
really  the  habitable  section,  the  country  is  fully 
600  miles  from  north  to  south.  This  valley  will 
average  only  about  8  miles  in  width,  while 
its  greatest  breadth  is  at  the  Delta,  between  Alex¬ 
andria  and  the  ruins  of  Pelusium,  160  miles. 
Beyond  the  fertile  country  stretches  a  wide  plain, 
the  surface  of  which  is  broken  only  by  mounds 


Egg-Plant  (Solatium). 

A,  purple  variety;  B,  white  variety. 

anee,  and  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  hen’s  egg 
to  that  of  a  swan’s  egg,  in  color  generally  white, 
yellow  or  violet. 

Eg'lantine,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
sweet  brier  ( Rosa  rubiginosa),  but  also  sometimes 
to  other  of  t  lie  sm  dler-flowered  species  of  rose. 

Eg'mont  is  the  name  of  the  principal  harbor  of 
the  Falkland  Isles,  and  of  an  active  volcano  in 
New  Zealand,  besides  several  other  unimportant 
places. 

,  Eg'mont,  Lamoiial,  Count, Prince  of  Gavre, 
born  in  1522.  He  was  for  a  time,  a  loyal  partisan 
of  Philip  II.,  and  commanded  the  cavalry  at  the 
Battles  of  St.  Quentin,  1557,  and  Gravelines,  1558. 
lie  was  a  colleague  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  in  the 
Council  of  State  for  the  Netherlands,  lie  broke 


of  ancient  towns  and  those  on  which  stand  the 
modern  clusters  of  habitations.  The  deserts 
which  inclose  the  plain  on  either  side  are  rocky 
tracts  of  slight  elevation,  with  surface  overspread 
with  sand  and  other  debris.  In  Upper  Egypt 
the  valley  of  the  Nile  is  in  a  rich  state  of  cultiva¬ 
tion.  The  climate  is  equable  and  wholesome  for 
those  who  can  stand  great  heat  and  who  avoid 
the  unwholesome  tracts  at  the  north  along  the 
low  salt  marshes.  Upper  Egypt  is  the  most 
healthy  section.  On  the  coast  of  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  rain  is  frequent,  but  unusual  in  other 
sections  of  the  country.  rl  he  chief  natural  feat¬ 
ure  of  Egypt  is  the  Nile.  Besides  the  Nile, 
whose  waters  naturally  feed  the  growing  crops 
along  the  valley,  there  are  a  great  many  canals  in 
Egypt,  used  both  for  the  purpose  of  irrigation 
and  for  commerce  in  uniting  the  branches  of  the 


Delta  and  affording  communication  with  the  Red 
Sea.  There  is  an  abundance  of  vegetables,  such 
as  beans,  lentils,  lupins,  fenugreek,  mallows, 
spinach,  onions,  etc.  Of  domestic  animals  the 
chief  are  the  camel  or  dromedary,  the  ass,  buffalo, 
sheep,  goat,  and  ox.  Of  wild  animals  there 
are  wolves,  jackals,  hyenas,  gazelles,  ante¬ 
lopes,  and  wild  boars.  Reptiles  and  insects 
are  abundant.  The  Nile  swarms  with  croc¬ 
odiles  and  deadly  serpents.  The  estimated  area 
of  Egypt  is  1,406,250  square  miles,  and  the 
pop.  nearly  17,000,000.  Since  the  revolt  in 
the  Soudan,  the  whole  of  the  country  south  of 
Wady-Halfa,  must  be  excluded  from  Egypt,  as  it 
has  entirely  passed  from  the  control  of  the  Khedive. 
In  1880  the  total  imports  were  valued  at  about 
.$33,760,000  and  the  exports  at  $66,950,000.  The 
principal  articlesof  export  are  cotton,  sugar,  ivory, 
wheat,  oil  seeds,  dates,  figs,  and  senna.  Cotton 
goods,  petroleum,  timber,  iron,  and  coal  are  the 
staple  articles  imported.  The  antiquities  of 
Egypt  are  many  and  of  great 
value  to  the  student  of  his¬ 
tory.  In  nearly  every 
portion  of  Egypt  monu¬ 
ments  or  works  of  art  are 
found.  Among  the  interest¬ 
ing  remains  are  the  Pyra¬ 
mids.  Of  these,  threeare  at 
El-Geezeh.  Two  of  these 
excetd  all  the  others  in 
magnitude.  Then  there  are 
three  more,  but  smaller,  at 
Aboo-Seer,  and  still  farther 
south,  the  great  pyramid  of 
Sakkarali,  (so  called  from 
its  form — that  of  steps),  and 
smaller  pyramids  in  t  h  e 
neighborhood.  F  a  r  t  h  e  r 
still  are  the  pyramids  of 
Dashoor.  There  are  more  to  the  south,  as  far  as 
Fayoom.  Then  there  are  the  monuments  of 
Thebes,  its  obelisks,  its  temples.  Near  Thebes,  at 
Hermonthis,  standsa  temple  built  by  Cleopatra.  In 
Southern  Egypt,  near  the  boundaries,  and  in  the 
River  Nile,  is  the  beautiful  Island  of  Pliilae.  Here 
stands  the  temple  of  Isis,  and  here  is  the  tomb  of 
Osiris.  Since  the  bombardment  of  Alexandria 
and  the  military  occupation  the  power  of  the 
Khedive  has  been  practically  superseded  by  the 
foreign  agents,  and  Tewfik  Pasha,  who  superseded 
Ismail  in  1879,  is  a  mere  puppet,  who  reigns  but 
does  not  govern.  A  force  sent  against  him  by  the 
Egyptian  Government  under  an  English  officer, 
Hicks  Pasha,  was  annihilated  by  the  Mahdi’s 
followers  near  El  Obeid  in  November,  1883.  The 
Mahdi’s  influence  extended  to  the  Red  Sea  shores, 
and  an  English  expedition  defeated  Osman  Digna 
at  Teb  and  Tamasi,  near  Suakim  early  in  1884. 
Meanwhile,  in  January,  1884,  General  Gordon 
had  gone  as  English  representative  to  Khartoum, 
to  secure  the  withdrawal  of  the  Egyptian  garri¬ 
sons  from  the  Soudan,  Egypt  having,  on  the 
advice  of  England,  agreed  to  give  up  all  her 
possessions  in  the  Soudan,  save  the  Red  Sea 
littoral. 

Egyp'tian  Yul'ture  (Neophron  perenopterus), 
one  of  the  smaller  Vulturidce ,  of  a  genus  differing 


% 


Egyptian  Vulture  and  Young. 

from  the  true  vultures  in  the  slender  bill,  which  is 
covered  for  more  than  half  its  length  with  a  naked 


EHRENBERG- 


359 


ELASTICITY. 


cere,  and  sharply  hooked  at  the  point.  The  head 
and  throat  are  naked,  but  feathers  extend  along 
the  back  of  the  neck  to  the  crown.  It  is  not  much 
larger  than  a  raven. 

Eh'renberg,  Christian  Gottfried,  German 
naturalist,  born  April  19,  1795.  lie  was  a  col¬ 
league  of  Humboldt,  and  his  great  work,  Infn- 
sion.'thierd’en  (1838),  has  been  of  great  value  to 
science.  He  died  June  27,  1876. 

Ei'der,  or  Ei'dek-duck  ( S'lmnterin ),  a  genus 
of  oceanic  ducks,  having  the  hind  toe  furnished 
with  a  deep  lobe,  and  the  bill  swollen  and  elevated 


Common  Eider-Duck  ( Somatena  mollmima). 


at  the  base,  and  extending  up  the  forehead, 
where  it  is  divided  down  the  middle  by  an  elon¬ 
gated  projection  of  feathers.  It  is  characterized 


King  Eider  ( Somateria  spectabilvi). 


by  the  fine  elastic  gray  down,  particularly  on  the 
breast,  the  valuable  eider-down  of  commerce.  It 
is  an  inhabitant  of  the  northern  partsof  the  world, 
abounding  on  arctic  and  sub-arctic  shores,  and 
becoming  r  irer  in  more  southern  and  temperate 
regions.  It  is  merely  an  occasional  winter  visitant 
in  the  middle  latitudes  of  Europe,  and  the  Fern 
Islands  are  its  most  southern  breeding-place  on 
the  British  coasts.  In  this  country  it  seldom  breeds 
further  south  than  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  Great 
numbers  breed  on  the  coasts  of  Labrador  and 
more  northern  parts  of  America.  In  Iceland  and 
Norway  the  breeding-grounds  of  eiders  are  care¬ 
fully  protected. 

Eight,  Piece  of,  a  name  once  popularly  given 
to  the  Spanish  dollar,  as  being  divided  into  eight 
reals. 

Eich'liorn,  Johann  Gottfried,  a  German 
scholar  and  author,  born  in  1752,  and  died  in 
1827.  His  works  comprise  a  library  of  biblical 
literature,  introductions  to  the  Old  Testament, 
the  New  Testament,  and  the  Apocrypha;  his¬ 
tories  of  the  literature  of  modern  Europe  and  of 
literature  generally;  a  universal  history;  and  a 
historv  of  the  House  of  Guelf. 

Ei'der,  a  river  of  North  Germany,  forming  (lie 
boundary-line  between  Schleswig  on  the  north, 
and  Holstein  on  the  south. 

Eifel  Tower.  T  his  wonderful  piece  of  engi¬ 
neering,  the  highest  tower  in  the  world,  is  built 
on  four  stone  foundations,  each  of  which  con¬ 
tains  a  hydraulic  machine,  so  that,  in  case  the 
foundation  at  either  corner  should  sink,  it  may 
be  raised  back  into  its  proper  level.  The  tower 
is  four-square,  and  it  is  330  feet  from  center  to 
center  of  the  foundations.  From  these  founda¬ 
tions  spring  four  immense  lattice-work  steel 
beams,  converging  at  an  angle  of  54°  in  a  plat¬ 


form  138  feet  square,  about  165  feet  above  the 
ground.  This  platform  is  girdled  by  a  band  of 
steel  24  feet  in  height.  Above  this,  at  a  distance 
of  213  feet,  is  another  platform,  to  which  the 
supports  spring  at  a  less  angle  than  below  the 
first.  This  platform  is  also  girt  by  a  steel  band. 
.Midway  between  the  second  platform  and  the  top 
is  a  third  platform.  The  top  is  surmounted,  at  a 
height  of  about.  1,000  feet,  by  a  dome-shaped 
observatory,  which  is  designed  to  be  used  for 
various  astronomical  and  scientific  purposes. 
The  mode  of  ascent  is  an  interior  elevator  worked 
by  hydraulic  power.  It  was  designed  by  M. 
Eifel,  a  distinguished  French  engineer,  and  stands 
in  the  city  of  Paris. 

Ei'ineo,  one  of  the  Society  Islands,  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  lies  in  latitude  17°  30'  S.,  and 
longitude  15u°  10'  W.,  about  thirty  miles  from 
Tahiti,  the  principal  member  of  the  group. 

Eis'lebcn,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  is  situ¬ 
ated  about  twenty  miles  west  of  Halle.  Pop. 
(1880),  18,187.  Luther  was  born  and  died  here, 
and  in  the  church  of  St.  Andrew  are  the  cap, 
cloak,  and  other  relics  of  the  great  reformer. 

Eject 'meat,  Action  of  (ejectiofirma),  in  Law, 
is  a  possessory  action,  wherein  the  title  to  lands 
and  tenements  may  be  tried,  and  the  possession 
recovered,  in  all  cases  where  the  party  claiming 
title  has  a  right  of  entry. 

Ekaterinburg',  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Perm,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Ural 
Mountains,  in  latitude  56°  50'  N.,  longitude  60° 
7'E.  Pop.  (18-0),  25,133. 

Ekaterinodar',  a  town  of  Russia,  and  capital 
of  the  country  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  Black  Sea, 
is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  River  Kuban,  about 
100  miles  from  ils  mouth,  in  latitude  45°  5'  N., 
longitude  39°  E.  Pop.  (1880),  32,300. 

Ekaterim Slav ',  a  Government  of  Russia,  in 
the  Province  of  South  Russia,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Little  Russia,  and  on  the  south,  reach¬ 
ing  in  one  part  to  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Azov. 
The  government  comprises  the  district  of  Tag¬ 
anrog  and  the  country  of  the  Azovian  Cossacks. 
Area,  26,050  square  miles.  Pop.  (1879),  1,532,045. 

Ekateriuoslav,  a  town  of  South  Russia,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  in  latitude  48°  27'  N., 
longitude  35°  5'  E.  Pop.  (1880),  33,973. 

Eheag  'mis,  a  genus  of  exogenous  plants,  of  the 
natural  order  Ehvagnactce.  This  order  consists  of 
trees  and  shrubs,  usually  covered  with  scurfy 
scales,  and  having  alternate  or  opposite  entire 
leaves,  without  stipules.  Shepherdia  argentea,  a 
North  American  shrub  of  this  order,  yields  a 
pleasant  fruit.  The  genus  Eleeagnus  consists  of 
a  number  of  deciduous  shrubs  or  low  trees,  with 
male  and  female  flowers  on  the  same  plant.  E. 
avgastifoli  i,  the  oleaster,  sometimes  called  wild 
olive,  is  a  native  of  the  South  of  Europe,  and  the 
Levant,  a  spiny  tree  of  15  to  20  feet  in  height, 
with  lanceolate  leaves,  which,  as  well  as  the 
young  shoots,  are  hoary  with  stellate  hairs. 

Eheocarpa'ceag  according  to  some  botanists,  a 
natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  but  regarded 
by  others  as  merely  a  sub-order  of  T  iliac  ecu;  the 


Elaeocarpus  Cyaneus. 

a,  magnified  flower;  6,  petal;  c,  stamens;  <1,  ripe  fruit; 
e ,  same  cut  away,  showing  wrinkled  seed. 

chief  distinctions  being  deeply  cut  or  fringed 
petals  and  anthers  opening  at  the  apex. 


Eiaeococ'ca,  a  genus  of  Euphorbiacece,  the 
seeds  of  some  of  which  yield  useful  oils.  The  oil 
obtained  from  E.  verrucosa  is  used  for  food  in 
Japan,  notwithstanding  considerable  acridity. 

Elajoden'dron,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Celastracece,  having  a  five-partite  calyx, 
five  petals,  a  five-angled  disc,  five  stamens,  the 
ovary  immersed  in  the  disc,  and  a  drupaceous 
fruit.  E.  glavcum,  a  native  of  Ceylon  and  the 
South  of  India,  is  sometimes  called  the  Ceylon 
tea-tree,  from  the  resemblance  of  its  leaves  to 
those  of  the  tea-shrub. 

Elagab'alus,  or  Heliogabai.us,  Emperor  of 
Rome,  was  born  at  Emesa  in  204  a.d.,  and  was 
murdered  in  222. 

E'land,  ( Antil'peoreas ),  a  species  of  antelope, 
abounding  in  South  Africa.  It  is  one  of  those 
which  are  sometimes  called  bovine  antelopes, 
because  they  seem  to  approximate  a  little  in  some 
of  their  characters  to  the  ox-tribe,  having  a 


Eland  (Antitope  oreas). 


broader  muzzle,  less  slender  limbs,  and  greater 
bulkincss  of  form  than  the  antelopes  in  general. 
The  eland,  however,  is  a  very  graceful  and  beau¬ 
tiful  animal;  it  is  as  large  as  a  horse,  fully  five 
feet  in  height  at  the  shoulder,  and  weighs  from 
700  to  900  pounds. 

E'lauet  (Elanus),  a  genus  of  Falconidce,  allied 


Elanet  ( Elanus  dispar). 


to  the  kites,  which  they  resemble  in  many  of 
their  characters. 

Elaps,  a  genus  of  venomous  serpents,  inhabit¬ 
ing  the  warm  parts  of  the  world,  and  chiefly  the 
Indian  Islands,  Australia,  and  tropical  America. 

Elasticity,  or  Spring.  When  an  external 
force  acts  upon  a  solid  body,  it  produces  at  first 
slight  alterations  in  the  relative  positions  of  the 
particles;  and  if  before  these  alterations  exceed  a 
certain  limit,  the  force  ceases  to  act,  the  particles 
return  to  their  former  position,  and  the  disfigure¬ 
ment  disappears.  This  power  or  property  of 
recovering  their  previous  form  after  alteration,  is 
called  elasticity,  and  we  are  justified  in  ascribing 
it  to  ail  bodies,  though  in  very  different  degrees. 
The  elasticity  shown  by  wires  and  threads  of 
glass  when  twisted,  has  been  turned  to  account  in 
the  torsion-balance,  for  measuring  other  weak 
forces.  Steel,  ivory,  caoutchouc,  etc.,  are  well 
known  for  their  elastic  properties,  to  which  they 
owe  much  of  their  utility.  The  propagation  of 
waves  of  sound  through  solid  bodies  depends 
upon  their  elasticity;  and  from  observations  of 
this  kind  made  with  different  substances,  the 
modulus  of  elasticity  for  each  may  be  deduced; 
the  results,  however,  differ  slightly  from  those 


ELATER. 


360 


ELECTRIC  CLOCK. 


arrived  at  by  attaching  weights,  owing  to  the 
heat  produced  by  the  vibratory  movement. 
Liquids  and  gases  are  perfectly  elastic,  or  return 
exactly  to  their  original  bulk  or  volume  when  the 
pressure  is  removed.  The  elasticity  of  liquids 
and  gases,  however,  acts  only  in  expanding  after 
compression,  while  that  of  solids  acts  also  in  con¬ 
tracting  after  extension.  The  expansive  elasticity 
of  liquids  and  gases  is  equal  to  the  force  used  to 
compress  them. 

El'ater,  a  I  Jnnaean  genus  of  coleopterous 
insects,  now  divided  into  many  genera,  and  form¬ 
ing  the  tribe  or  family  Elateridce.  They  have  a 
narrow,  elongated  body;  the  head  is  in  almost  all 
cases  inserted  deeply  into  the  thorax;  a  strong 
spine  on  the  under  part  of  the  tlio  ax  at  its  base, 
tits  into  a  groove;  the  legs  are  short,  and  rather 
slender.  They  are  generally  found  upon  the 
flowers  andleavesof  plants,  whiehare  their  food. 

Elate  'riu ill,  a  drug  obtained  from  the  fruit  of 
the  squirting  cucumber,  or  spirting  cucumber 
{Ecbalium  agreste,  formerly  known  as  Momordica 
elalerium),  also  called  the  wild  cucumber,  an  an¬ 
nual  plant  of  the  natural  order  Cucurbi'acece,  a 
native  of  the  South  of  Europe.  To  obtain  the 


Wild  Cucumber  {Ecbalium,  agreste). 
drug,  the  juice  of  the  nearly  ripened  fruit  is  al¬ 
lowed  to  stand  for  a  short  time,  when  it  becomes 
turbid,  and  deposits  a  sediment.  The  sediment, 
carefully  collected  and  dried,  is  elaterium.  It  is 
of  a  pale  grayish-green  color,  light  and  friable, 
with  an  acrid  taste,  and  a  peculiar,  not  unpleasant 
odor.  It  is  an  exceedingly  powerful  or  drastic 
purgative,  used  chiefly  in  dropsies,  and  in  very 
small  often-repeated  doses. 

El 'ha  (Lat.  lloa,  Gr.  EbdXia,  LEthalia),  an 
island  belonging  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  between  Corsica  and  the 
coast  of  Tuscany,  from  the  latter  of  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Channel  of  Piombino,  a  strait  5 
miles  in  breadth.  Its  greatest  length  is  about  18 
miles,  and  its  breadth  varies  from  3  to  10  miles. 
Area,  about  90  square  miles.  Porto  Ferrajo, 
the  capital,  has  a  pop.  of  about  4,000.  Pop. 
of  Elba  about  22,000. 

Elbe  (called  by  the  Romans  Alb  is — i.  e.,  white 
— and  by  the  Bohemians  Labe),  an  important 
river  of  Northern  Europe.  It  rises  at  the  south¬ 
western  base  of  the  Schneekoppe  (Suowcap),  one 
of  the  highest  summits  of  the  Riesen-Gebirge,  a 
mountain-range  on  the  northern  border  of  Bo¬ 
hemia.  Its  length  is  about  700  miles. 

EPberfeld,  a  manufacturing  town  in  Ger¬ 
many,  on  the  Wupper,  sixteen  miles  east-north¬ 
east  of  Dtisseldorf.  Pop.  (1880),  93,538. 

Elheuf,  or  Elbcedf,  a  manufacturing  town  of 
France,  in  the  Department  of  Seine-Inferieure. 
Pop.,  22,2^3. 

El'bing,  a  considerable  trading  and  manufact¬ 
uring  town  in  West  Prussia.  Pop.  (1880),  35,842. 

Elbow-pieces,  in  Armor,  or  coudieres,  were 
the  metal-plates  used  to  cover  the  junction  of  the 
rere-brace  and  vant-brace,  by  which  the  upper 
and  lower  half  of  the  arm  were  covered. 

Elburz',  a  mountain  range  that  runs  along  the 
entire  southern  border  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 
Demavend,  said  to  be  21,000  feet  in  height,  is  one 
of  the  highest  summits. — Elburz,  or  Elbruz,  is 
also  the  name  of  one  of  the  summits  of  the  Cau¬ 
casus,  18,500  feet  high. 

El'che  (anciently,  I  lice,  or  lllice),  a  town  of 
Sapin  in  the  Province  of  Alicante.  Pop.,  18,500. 


Eld  'er,an  office-bearer  in  Presbyterian  churches. 
The  name  is  an  exact  translation  of  the  Greek 
presbyleros,  which  occurs  frequently  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  from  which  the  English  word 
priest  is  derived.  In  the  Established  Church  of 
Scotland  elders  have  generally  been  nominated  by 
the  kirk-session  (consisting  of  the  minister  and 
elders);  in  the  other  Presbyterian  churches  of 
Britain  and  America,  they  are  elected  by  the  con¬ 
gregation. 

Elder  ( Samburus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Caprif  oliuceae.  The  wood  of  the 
young  shoots  contains  a  very  large  pith.  The 
species  are  very  widely  distributed.  The  com¬ 
mon  elder  (S.  nigra),  the  bourtree  of  the  Scotch,  is 
a  native  of  Europe,  the  North  of  Asia,  and  the 
North  of  Africa.  It  is  a  very  large  shrub,  some¬ 
times  a  small  tree,  with  large  leaves,  and  large 
terminal  cymes  of  cream-colored  flowers,  which 


Flower-stock,  Leaves,  and  Cluster  of  Berries  of  Common 
Elder  (Sambucus  nigra). 

are  followed  by  small  black — or  rarely  whitish — 
berries.  Its  leaves  and  young  shoots  diffuse  a 
narcotic  odor,  and  it  is  said  to  be  dangerous  to 
sleep  under  its  shade.  The  inner  bark  has  a  bit¬ 
ter,  acrid  taste.  The  leaves  possess  the  same 
properties  in  a  rather  milder  degree.  The  flowers 
have  a  peculiar  sweetish  and  rather  sickening 
smell,  but  are  much  used  for  making  a  distilled 
water,  which  has  an  agreeable  odor,  and  is 
employed  both  in  perfumery  and  confectionery. 

El'don,  Baron,  John  Scott,  better  known  as 
Lord  Eldon,  was  born  June  4,  1751,  in  Newcastle, 
England.  He  was  Solicitor-General  under  Pitt. 
In  1793  he  became  Attorney-General.  After  seven¬ 
teen  years’  service  in  the  House  of  Commons  he 
entered  the  House  of  Peers  as  Baron  Eldon.  In 
1821  he  was  made  an  Earl  by  George  IV.  He 
died  Jan.  3,  1838. 

El  Dora'do  (the  Golden,  or  rather  the  Gilded 
Land)  existed  originally  in  t lie  imaginations  of 
the  Spanish  conquerors  of  America,  who  loved  to 
dream  of  richer  rewards  than  those  of  Mexico 
and  Peru.  It  is  now  the  name  of  a  county  in 
California,  in  which  the  first  discovery  of  gold 
was  made  in  that  State;  also  of  several  other 
counties  and  towns  in  the  United  States. 

Eleiit'ie  School.  The  group  of  ancient  Greek 
philosophers,  so  called,  begins  with  Xenophanes 
of  Colophon,  who  settled  in  Elea,  a  Greek  city  of 
Lower  Italy  (whence  the  name),  and  includes 
Parmenides  and  Zeno,  who  both  belonged  to  Elea, 
and  also  Melissus  of  Samos.  The  most  flourish¬ 
ing  period  of  this  philosophy  falls  from  540  to 
400  b.c. 

Elec'tion  in  Theology  is  defined  as  the  divine 
act  by  which  certain  individuals  are  chosen  to  sal¬ 
vation  in  Christ,  and  includes  “  God’s  purpose  to 
deliver  from  curse  and  damnation  those  whom  he 
has  chosen  in  Christ  out  of  mankind,  and  to  bring 
them  by  Christ  to  everlasting  salvation  as  vessels 
made  to  honor.”  In  politics  and  sociology  it  means 
the  choosing  of  certain  persons,  by  ballot  or  other¬ 
wise,  to  occupy  positions  of  honor  and  to  hold 
governmental  or  other  offices. 

El'ecampane  {Inula),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Composite,  sub-order  CorymbifercB, 
nearly  allied  to  Aster.  The  only  important  spe¬ 
cies  is  the  common  elecampane  {l .  heleniam),  a 
native  of  damp  meadows  in  the  Middle  and  South 


of  Europe.  The  root  has  a  faint,  aromatic  odor, 
and  a  bitter,  acrid,  and  somewhat  camplior-like 
taste.  It  contains  a  peculiar  principle  called 


Elecampane  {Inula  helenium) . 

inulin,  which  resembles  starch,  but  is  deposited 
unchanged  from  its  solution  in  boiling  water  on  its 
cooling,  and  gives  a  yellowish  instead  of  a  blue 
color  with  iodine;  also  another  peculiar  principle 
called  hclenin,  or  elecampane  camphor,  which 
resembles  camphor  in  some  of  its  properties. 

Electors  in  the  German  Empire  were  those 
Princes  who  had  the  right  of  electing  the  Emperor 
or  King.  In  the  earliest  times,  under  the  Carlo- 
vingians,  the  crown  was  hereditary;  afterward 
Germany  became  formally  an  elective  monarchy, 
but  the  election  was  practically  almost  limited  to 
the  reigning  family.  Under  the  Emperor  Charles 
IV.  the  right  of  election  became  limited  to  the 
holders  of  the  highest  ecclesiastical  and  civil 
offices,  some  of  which  gradually  became  heredi¬ 
tary,  and  connected  with  territorial  principalities, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Hohenstaufens  and  of  the 
Dukes  of  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Swabia,  etc.  Thus 
there  arose  seven  Electors,  those  of  Mayence, 
Treves,  and  Cologne  (as  being  the  chief  primates 
and  chancelors  of  the  Empire),  the  Electors  of  the 
Palatinate  and  of  Bavaria  long  exercising  the  right 
by  turns,  and  the  Electors  of  Bradenburg,  Saxony, 
and  Bohemia.  From  1400  to  1708  the  right  was 
never  exercised  on  the  part  of  Bohemia,  but  other¬ 
wise  no  change  took  place  from  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century  to  the  pcaceof  Westphalia.  By 
the  peace  of  Westphalia  an  eighth  Electorate  was 
established,  Bavaria  and  the  Palatinate  being  each 
allowed  the  full  right;  and  in  1692  a  ninth  was 
added,  that  of  Brunswick-Ltineburg,  but  not  with¬ 
out  resistance  by  the  Electors  and  States  of  the 
Empire,  so  that  the  new  Electorate  was  not  fully 
recognized  till  1710.  In  1777  the  number  was 
again  reduced  to  eight,  the  Elector  Palatine  inherit¬ 
ing  Bavaria.  The  peace  of  Luneville,  in  1801, 
made  a  great  change  in  the  German  Empire,  and 
subsequent  changes  took  place  during  the  times  of 
French  ascendency,  which  issued  in  the  dissolu¬ 
tion  of  the  ancient  German  Empire.  The  title  of 
Elector,  used  by  the  Prince  of  Hesse-Cassel,  an 
Electorate  which  was  added  along  with  other  new 
Electorates  in  1802,  was  the  last  relic  of  the  old 
dignities,  and  was  merely  nominal,  even  before 
1866. 

Electoral  College,  See  Constitution  of  The 
United  States. 

Electric  Clock.  The  electric  clock  was  in¬ 
vented  by  Bain,  an  Edinburgh  clock-maker,  in 
1840,  and  his  ideas,  though  improved  and  modified, 
still  form  the  basis  of  electric  clock-making.  In 
the  ordinary  clock,  it  is  the  clock  that  moves  the 
pendulum;  in  Bain’s  clock,  it  is  the  pendulum 
that  moves  the  clock.  The  two  springs  of  the 
pendulum  rod  are  in  connection  with  the  two  poles 
of  a  galvanic  battery.  The  wire  connecting  one 
of  them  is  made  to  pass  round  by  a  break 
worked  by  the  pendulum  rod.  When  the  pen¬ 
dulum  is  made  to  move,  say  toward  the  right,  it 
shifts  a  slider,  so  as  to  complete  the  connection 
between  the  poles  of  the  battery.  The  current 
thereupon  descends  one  of  the  wires  of  the  pen¬ 
dulum,  passes  through  ilie  coil  of  wire  forming 
the  bob,  and  ascends  by  the  other.  In  so  doing, 


ELECTRIC  EEL. 


361 


ELECTRICITY. 


it  converts  the  bob  into  a  temporary  magnet,  the 
south  pole  toward  the  right,  and  the  north  pole 
toward  the  left.  In  this  way,  the  south  pole  of 
the  bob  is  repelled  by  the  south  pole  of  the  right- 
hand  magnet,  and  its  north  pole  is  attracted  by 
the  south  pole  of  the  left-hand  magnet,  so  that 
from  this  double  repulsion  and  attraction,  both 
acting  in  the  same  direction,  the  bob  receives  an 
impulse  toward  the  left.  Partly,  therefore,  from 
this  impulse,  and  partly  from  its  own  weight,  the 
pendulum  describes  its  left  oscillation;  and  when 
it  reaches  the  end  of  it,  it  moves  the  slider  so  as 
to  cut  off  the  battery  current,  and  then  returns 
toward  the  right,  under  the  action  simply  of  its 
own  weight.  On  reaching  the  extreme  right,  as 
before,  it  receives  a  fresh  impulse;  and  thus,  un¬ 
der  the  electric  force  exerted  during  its  left  oscil¬ 
lation,  the  motion  of  the  pendulum  is  maintained. 
So  long  as  the  electricity  is  supplied  will  the 
pendulum  continue  to  move.  The  next  impor¬ 
tant  step  in  perfecting  the  electric  clock  was  made 
by  Lewis  Jones  in  1857.  All  his  clocks  are  ordi¬ 
nary  gravity  clocks.  The  standard  clock  is  not 
an  electric  clock  at  all,  but  its  pendulum  makes 
and  breaks  contact  in  the  battery  circuit  which 
controls  the  copying  clocks.  These  last,  though 
driven  by  weights,  have  Bain’s  pendulums,  and 
the  currents  transmitted  by  the  standard  clock 
keep  them  oscillating  in  exact  accordance  with  it, 
so  that  the  standard  clock  and  the  copying  clocks 
have  their  pendulums  always  at  exactly  the  same 
point  in  their  oscillations.  The  copying  clocks 
are  adjusted  to  keep  nearly  the  time  of  "the  pri¬ 
mary,  and  the  margin  of  error  is  wholly  removed 
by  electric  control. 

Electric  Eel.  See  Electricity,  Animal. 

Electric 'ity.  Most  electrical  phenomena  fall 
under  the  three  chief  heads  of  frictional  elec¬ 
tricity,  galvanism,  and  magneto-electricity.  The 
present  article  is  confined  to  the  first.  Historical 
sketch. — Thales,  about  600 b.c.,  refers  to  the  fact 
that  amber  (Gr.  e/ektron),  when  rubbed,  attracts 
light  and  dry  bodies.  This  was  the  only  electric 
fact  known  to  the  ancients.  The  science  of  elec¬ 
tricity  dates  properly  from  the  year  1600  a.d., 
when  Gilbert  of  Colchester  published  a  book, 
entitled  Be  Arte  Magneticw,  in  which  he  gives  a 
list  of  substances  which  he  found  to  possess  the 
same  property  as  amber.  He  derived  the  word 
electricity  from  the  Greek  word  eXeurpov,  amber. 
Otto  von  Guericke,  Burgomaster  of  Magdeburg, 
in  his  work  Expcrimenta  Nova  Magdeburgica 
(1672),  describes,  among  his  other  inventions,  the 
first  electric  machine  ever  made,  which  consisted 
of  a  globe  of  sulphur  turned  by  a  handle,  and 
rubbed  by  a  cloth  pressed  against  it  by  the  hand. 
Hawksbee  (1709)  constructed  a  machine  in  which 
a  glass  cylinder,  rubbed  by  thedry  hand,  replaced 
Guericke’s  sulphur  globe.  Grey  and  Welder 
(1729)  were  the  first  to  transmit  electricity  from 
one  point  to  another,  and  to  distinguish  bodies 
into  conductors  and  non-conductors.  Dufay 
(1733-45)  showed  the  identity  of  electrics  and 
non-conductors,  and  of  non-electrics  and  conduct¬ 
ors,  and  was  the  first  to  discover  the  two  kinds 
of  electricity,  and  the  fundamental  principle 
which  regulates  their  action.  Between  the  years 
1733  and  1744,  much  attention  was  given  in  Ger¬ 
many  to  the  construction  of  electric  machines. 
Boze,  a  professor  at  Wittenberg,  employed  a 
globe  of  glass  for  his  machine,  and  furnished  it 
with  a  prime  conductor.  Winkler,  a  professor  at 
Leipzig,  was  the  first  to  use  a  fixed  cushion  in  the 
machine.  The  Leyden  jar  was  (1746)  discovered 
accidentally  at  Leyden  by  Muschenbroek;  but 
the  honor  of  the  discovery  has  been  contested  in 
favor  of  Cuneus,  a  burgess  of  that  town,  and 
Kleist,  Canon  of  the  cathedral  of  Camin,  in 
Pomerania.  Franklin  (1747)  showed  the  electric 
conditions  of  the  Leyden  jar,  and  (1752)  proved 
the  identity  of  lightning  and  electricity  by  his 
famous  kite  experiment.  This  last  wras  per¬ 
formed  about  the  same  time  by  Romas  of  Nerac, 
in  France.  In  1760,  Franklin  made  the  first 
lightning-conductor.  Canton,  Wilke,  and  iEpi- 
nus  (1753-59)  examined  the  nature  of  induc¬ 
tion.  Ramsden  (1768)  was  the  first  to  construct 
a  plate-machine,  and  Nairn  (1780)  a  two-fluid 
cylinder-machine.  The  elect rophorus  was  in¬ 
vented  by  Volta  in  1775,  and  the  condenser  by 
the  same  electrician  in  1782.  In  1786,  Galvani 


Electric  rendulum. 


made  the  discovery  of  the  new  branch  of  the 
science,  which  bears  his  name.  In  1787,  Coulomb 
investigated  the  laws  of  electric  attraction  and 
repulsion.  In  1837,  Faraday  published  the  first 
of  his  researches  on  induction.  Armstrong,  in 
1840,  designed  his  hydro-electric  machine.  Bodies 
which  do  not  conduct  electricity,  or  non-con¬ 
ductors,  are  capable  of  electrical  excitation  from 
friction,  and  are  called  electrics,  and  conductors 
not  so  affected  are  called  non-electrics.  The 
fundamental  principles  of  electricity  arc  illustrated 
by  the  electric  pendulum.  A  glass  tube  bent  at 
right  angles,  is  placed  on  a  stand.  To  this  a 
silk  thread  having  at  its  end  a  pith-ball  is 
attached.  The  ball  is  thus  doubly  insulated.  If 
a  glass  tube  be  rubbed  by  a  dry  silk  handker¬ 
chief,  and  brought  near 
the  ball,  the  ball  is  at 
first  briskly  attracted, 
and  then  as  briskly  re¬ 
pelled.  The  ball  being 
so  charged,  a  rod  of 
sealing-wax,  after  being 
rubbed  with  flannel,  at¬ 
tracts  it,  and  again  sends 
it  off.  If  the  glass  tube 
be  now  rubbed  asecond 
time,  it  will  affect  the 
ball  as  at  first.  The  phe¬ 
nomenon  is  interpreted 
as  follows:  When  glass 
is  rubbed  with  silk,  it 
is  charged  positively. 

The  ball  is  attracted  by  it,  and  becomes  on  contact 
also  charged  with  positive  electricity,  and  is  then 
repelled.  When  sealing-wax  is  rubbed  with 
flannel,  it  becomes  charged  with  negative  elec¬ 
tricity,  which  attracts  the  positively  charged 
ball,  and  communicating  its  own  electricity 
finally  repels  it.  From  this  it  appears  that  like 
electri-ities  repel,  and  opposite  electricities  attract 
each  other,  and  that  electricity  can  be  communicated 
by  contact.  We  find  with  larger  bodies  than  the 
pith-ball  that  the  passage  of  a  spark  between  two 
bodies  without  contact  communicates  the  elec¬ 
tricity  of  the  one  to  the  other.  The  substance 
used  in  exciting  electricity  also  becomes  electri¬ 
fied  in  an  opposite  sense  to  the  body  electrified: 
Thus  in  the  above  experiments  the  silk  handker¬ 
chief  is  negatively  and  the  woolen  cloth  positively 
electrified.  In  most  cases  of  friction,  the  nature 
of  the  materials  determines  the  kind  of  electric¬ 
ity  which  each  assumes.  Thus,  if  glass  be 
rubbed  by  cat’s  fur  instead  of  silk,  its  electric¬ 
ity  is  negative  instead  of  positive.  When  two 
pieces  of  the  same  material  are  rubbed  together, 
the  colder  or  smoother  becomes  positively  excited. 
Induction.— Free  electricity  has  the  power  of 
inducing  the  bodies  in  its  neighborhood  to 
assume  the  opposite  electricity.  This  is  exhibited 
in  the  following  way: 

A  brass  cylinder, 
rounded  at  both  ends, 
is  insulated  on  a  glass 
pillar.  Two  pit  11- 
balls,  hung  by  cotton 
threads,  are  attached 
a  t  either  extremity. 

When  a  glass  tube  is 
briskly  rubbed,  a  n  d 
placed  within  a  few 
inches  of  the  end  of  Illustration  of  Induction, 
the  cylinder,  the  balls  at  each  end  diverge,  show¬ 
ing  that  each  pair  is  charged  with  similar  elec¬ 
tricities.  When  the  glass  tube  is  withdrawn, 
the  balls  hang  as  before,  showing  that  the  elec¬ 
trical  excitement  of  the  cylinder  is  dependent  on 
the  proximity  of  the  excited  tube.  This  action  of 
tbe  electricity  of  the  tube  upon  the  cylinder  is 
called  induction;  and  the  cylinder  in  this  state 
is  said  to  be  pulaiized — that  is,  to  have  its  poles 
or  ends  like  a  magnet,  each  having  its  similar, 
but  relatively  opposite  force.  The  air  interven¬ 
ing  between  the  tube  and  the  cylinder  is  termed 
the  dielectric,  for  it  is  through  it  that  the  elec¬ 
tric  action  is  propagated.  Induction,  therefore, 
we  have  reason  to  conclude,  is  not  the  direct 
action  of  one  body  on  another,  but  an  action 
transmitted  through,  or  possibly  residing  in,  the 
medium  between  them.  The  relative  powers  of 
different  substances  in  facilitating  induction,  are 
termed  by  Faraday  their  specific  inductive  capacities.  \ 


Conductors,  according  to  Faraday’s 
theory,  are  bodies  whose  molecules 
have  the  power  of  communicating 
their  electricities  to  each  other  with 
great  ease,  whilst  non-conductors 
are  those  whose  molecules  only  ac¬ 
quire  this  power  under  great  force. 

The  potential  of  a  body,  or  any 
point  in  the  field,  is  defined  as  the 
amount  of  work  that  would  be  ex¬ 
pended  in  bringing  a  unit  of  positive 
electricity  f  com  an  infinite  distance  to 
the  body  or  point.  If  the  body  is  posi-  Quadrant 
tive,  the  work  would  be  expended;  Electrometer, 
if  negative,  the  work  would  be  done  on  the 
body  and  the  potential  negative.  This  unit  of 
positive  electricity  will  always  move  from  a  point 
where  the  potential  is  high  to  one  where  it  is  lower; 
in  other  words,  electricity  will  always  flow  between 
two  points  where  there  is  a  difference  of  potential, 
and  will  cease  to  flow  wh<  n  that  difference  ceases. 
Density  is  the  quantity  of  electricity  on  a  unit  of 
surface,  and  tension  is  the  strain  which  Faraday 
supposes  to  exist  in  the  molecules  of  a  dielectric 
when  charged.  The  greater  the  surface  over 
which  electricity  is  diffused,  the  less  is  its  electric 
potential  at  any  particular  point,  and  so  we  are 
taught  by  experiment.  Experiment  also  teaches 
us  that  electricity  is  exhibited  only  on  the  sur¬ 
faces  of  conductors.  We  learn,  too,  that  electricity 
concentrates  on  points  and  projections,  and  it  may 
be  here  remarked  that  the  density  of  charge  at 
any  point  regulates  the  amount  of  tension  at  that 
point  on  the  molecules  of  the  dielectric.  The 
constraint  which  they  experience  in  being  charged, 
and  which  Faraday  calls  tension,  can  only  be 
carried  to  a  certain  limit.  When  that  is  reached, 
the  molecules  are  forced  to  be  conducting,  and 
the  tension  ceases.  Electroscopes  are  instruments 
which  give  evidence  of  electrical  potential  with¬ 
out  giving  the  exact  measure  of  it;  and  electro¬ 
meters  are  such  as  show  both.  The  quadrant 
electrometer  consists  of  a  conducting-rod,  generally 
of  box-wood  or  brass,  with  a  graduated  semi¬ 
circle  attached  above,  in  the  center  of  which  is  a 
pivot  for  the  rotation  of  a  straw  carrying  a  pith- 
ball  at  its  outer  end.  It  is  used  for  a  charge  of 
high  potential,  such  as  that  of  the  electric  machine. 
When  placed  on  the  prime  conductor  of  the 
machine,  the  whole  becomes  charged  with  posi¬ 
tive  electricity,  and  the  ball  is  repelled  first  by  the 
electricity  of  the  rod,  and  then  by  that  of  the 
prime  conductor,  the  height  to  which  it  rises  being 
seen  on  the  semi  circle.  The  gold-leaf  electroscope 
is  a  handy  instrument  for  estimating  roughly 
medium  potentials.  A  glass  ball, 
about  four  inches  in  diameter, 
rests  on  a  brass  tripod,  and  its 
neck,  about  an  inch  in  diameter, 
is  inclosed  by  a  brass  collar 
fixed  with  shellac.  A  brass 
plate,  with  a  hole  of  one-fourth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  in  the 
middle  of  it,  can  be  sci  owed  air¬ 
tight  into  the  collar.  Before  it  is 
so  fitted,  a  brass  rod,  one  eighth 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  is  fixed 
by  shellac  or  sealing-wax  into 
the  hole  in  the  middle,  soastobe 
perfectly  insulated  from  it.  The 
upper  end  of  the  rod  ends  in  a  brass  ball,  and  the 
lower  end  is  filed  on  each  side,  to  allow  of  two 
strips  of  gold-leaf,  an  inch  in  length,  being  attached 
to  it.  The  insulation  of  the  leaves  is  complete;  and 
they  keep  their  charge,  in  dry  weather,  for  hours 
together.  When  the  instrument  is  used,  it  may 
be  charged  directly,  by  contact  being  established 
with  the  ball  and  the  body  whose  electricity  we 
would  examine,  or  a  charge  may  be  carried  to  it 
by  the  proof  plane,  when  the  leaves  diverge 
according  to  the  charge  communicated.  Coulomb's 
Torsion  Balance  has  played  an  important  part  in  ex¬ 
amining  the  laws  of  electric  forces.  A  glass  canister, 
A,  is  placed  on  a  wooden  frame,  and  is  covered 
above  by  a  plate  of  glass  or  wood;  in  the  middle 
of  this  plate  a  round  hole  is  cut,  over  which  is 
fixed,  by  wooden  fittings,  a  long  glass  tube,  B, 
having  the  graduated  rim  of  a  circle  attached  at 
its  upper  end.  A  circular  plate,  resting  on  this 
rim,  closes  the  upper  end  of  the  tube;  and  when 
it  is  turned  round,  a  mark  upon  it  tells  the 
number  of  degrees  through  which  it  has  been 


Gold  Leaf 
Electrometer. 


ELECTRICITY. 


362 


ELECTRICITY. 


moved.  A  cocoon  thread  or  very  fine  wire  is  tied 
to  a  liook  in  the  center  of  the  lower  side  of  this 
plate,  and  thence  descends 
to  the  body  of  the  canister 
It  carries  below  a  collar  of 
paper  or  other  light  mate¬ 
rial,  in  which  a  needle  of 
shellac  is  adjusted,  having  a 
disc  of  gilt  paper  placed 
vertically,  or  a  gilt  pith-ball 
at  its  one  end,  and  a  counter¬ 
poise  at  its  other.  When  the 
plate  above  is  moved  through 
any  number  of  degrees,  the 
needle  below,  impelled  by 
the  torsion  of  the  thread, 
comes  to  rest  at  the  same 
number  on  the  scale  below. 

This  last  consists  of  a  strip 
of  paper  divided  into  degrees,  Coulomb’s  Torsion 
pasted  round  the  cylinder  at  Balance, 

the  same  height  as  the  needle.  In  the  cover  of 
the  canister  there  is  another  opening,  for  the 
admission  of  a  ball  insulated  at  the  end  of  a  rod 
of  shellac,  and  which,  when  supported  by  the 
cover,  is  on  a  level  with  the  paper  disc  of  the 
needle.  When  the  instrument  is  adjusted  for 
observation,  the  mark  on  the  upper  plate  and  the 
paper  disc  stand  each  at  the  zero  points  of  their 
respective  scales,  there  being,  of  course,  no  tor¬ 
sion  in  the  thread.  The  ball  is  removed,  to 
receive  a  charge  from  the  body  under  investiga¬ 
tion,  and  is  then  placed  in  the  cylinder,  when 
the  disc  is  first  attracted,  then  repelled.  Coulomb 
established  by  this  instrument  these  two  laws: 
The  intensities  of  the  mutual  repulsion  or 
attraction  of  two  invariable  quantities  of  electric¬ 
ity  of  the  same  or  different  names,  are  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  squares  of  the  distance  at 
which  these  act  The  intensities  of  the  total 
repulsive  or  attractive  action  of  two  electrified 
bodies,  placed  at  an  invariable  distance,  are 
proportional  to  the  products  of  their  electrical 
charges.  In  the  tube  of  glass  and  silk  rubber 
we  have  the  embryo  of  the  electric  machine — viz  , 
a  body  which,  when  rubbed,  is  positively  electri¬ 
fied,  and  its  rubber  negatively.  The  rubbed  sur- 


Plate  Frictional  Electric  Machine. 
a,  b.  .axis;  c,  handle;  cl.  wooden  pillar  supporting  axis;  e, 
pillar  supporting  rubbers:/,  negative  conductor;  c/,  split 
pin  supporting  non-conducting  wings  of  rubbers ;  A, 
rubbers  and  rubber  frames;  i,  glass  support  of  negative 
conductor;  k ,  prime  conductor;  l.  glass  support  of 
prime  conductor  :  m,  m,  collectors  which  convey  elec¬ 
tricity  to  prime  conductor. 

face  of  the  electric  machines  is  either  a  cylinder 
or  plate  of  glass;  hence,  we  distinguish  them  into 
cylinder  machines  and  plate  machines.  Winter’s 
plate  machine  is  one  of  the  best  existing  forms. 
The  glass  plate  is  turned  on  iis  axis  by  means  of 
a  handle.  The  longer  end  of  this  axis,  consisting 
of  a  glass  rod,  moves  in  the  wooden  pillar  d,  anil 
the  other  rests  in  the  wooden  head  of  the  glass 
pillar  e.  The  plate  is  thus  completely  insulated, 
and  little  loss  of  its  electricity  can  take  place 
through  its  supports.  The  two  rubbers  are  tri¬ 
angular  pieces  of  wood,  covered  with  a  padding 
of  one  or  two  layers  of  flannel,  inclosed  in  leather, 
and  they  present  a  flat,  hard  surface  to  the  glass, 
so  that  friction  between  it  and  them  takes  place 
in  every  part.  They  are  placed  in  a  wooden 
frame  on  each  side  of  the  plate,  and  the  pressure 


is  regulated  by  metal  springs,  fixed  to  the  outside 
between  them  and  the  frame.  Before  use,  they 
are  covered  with  an  amalgam  of  mercury,  zinc, 
and  tin,  which  is  made  to  adhere  with  the  aid  of 
a  little  grease,  and  which  increases  immensely  the 
production  of  electricity.  The  surfaces  of  the 
rubbers  are  therefore  conducting,  and  are  made  to 
communicate  by  strips  of  tinfoil  with  the  negative 
conductor.  To  limit  the  electric  field  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  negative  conductor,  so  as  to 
cause  a  discharge  back  into  the  rubbers,  each 
rubber  has  a  non-conducting  wing  fastened  to  it, 
which  is  made  of  several  sheets  of  oiled  silk,  kept 
together  by  shellac  varnish,  beginning  at  the  rub¬ 
ber  with  several,  and  ending  with  one  or  two 
sheets.  When  the  machine  is  in  action,  electrical 
attraction  makes  them  adhere  to  the  plate;  but 
when  it  is  out  of  action,  they  may  be  kept  up  by 
a  split  pin.  The  whole  framework  of  the  rubbers 
and  negative  conductor  is  supported  by  a  short 
glass  pillar,  so  that  it  can  be  insulated  when 
required.  The  prime  conductor  is  a  brass  ball 
insulated  on  the  long  glass  pillar.  The  collection 
of  the  electricity  from  the  glass  is  made  by  a  row 
of  points,  which  are  attached  on  each  side  of  the 
plate  to  a  piece  of  brass  projecting  horizontally 
from  the  ball  of  the  conductor.  In  frictional 
machines  there  are  two  ways  in  which  energy  is 
expended — in  friction,  and  in  drawing  away  the 
two  excited  and  attracting  surfaces.  Much  of 
the  force  expended  in  friction  results  in  heat,  and 
only  a  fraction  (sometimes  a  small  one)  in  elec¬ 
tricity.  Of  that  spent  in  drawing  away,  which  is 
the  less  considerable,  the  whole  results  in  increased 
potential.  Machines  are  therefore  very  desirable 
where,  with  a  small  initial  charge,  a  constant 
supply  of  electricity  may  be  got  by  the  latter 
method.  The  electrophorus  is  a  machine  of  this 
kind.  But  its  action  is  only  on  a  small  scale. 
Induction  machines  of  great  power  have  been 
made,  however.  The  best  known  of  these  is 
Hoi  i  z's  machine  (invented  1805).  1 loltz’s  machine 

consists  of  two  glass  discs  of  very  thin  glass,  care- 


Diagram  of  Holtz's  Induction  Machine. 

A,  D,  glass  disc;  V,  V,  V,  V,  grooved  vulcanite  rings; 
a,  a.  a ,  a,  glass  supports  to  rings ;  L,  1',  vulcanite  blocks; 
R,  R',  brass  rods  attached  to  L  and  ending  in  teeth 
at  C  and  C',  and  in  vulcanite  handles  at  H  and  H'. 


fully  covered  over  with  shellac  varnish.  One 
plate  is  stationary,  and  is  kept  in  its  place  by 
four  circular  grooved  rings  of  vulcanite,  placed 
in  horizontal  glass  rods,  which  themselves  are 
supported  by  upright  glass  pillars.  By  this 
method  of  support,  the  stationary  plate  maybe 
turned  round  to  rest  in  any  position.  The 
upright  glass  pillars  rest  on  the  sole  of  the  instru¬ 
ment,  and  pass  through  two  solid  blocks  of  vul¬ 
canite.  Two  brass  rods,  on  the  end  next  the 
revolving  plate,  each  supports  a  horizontal  row 
of  teeth  facing  the  plate  ;  and  on  the  other,  two 
sliding  rods  with  vulcanite  handles,  which  can  be 
adjusted  to  distance,  and  which  form  the  poles  of 
the  machine.  The  revolving  plate  is  fixed  in  a 
vulcanite  spindle.  This  plate  is  made  to  revolve 
at  great  speed  by  a  handle  and  multiplying  belts. 
It  is  unbroken,  and  revolves  close  to  the 
stationary  plate.  The  stationary  plate  has  two 
holes  cut  in  it.  The  lower  edge  of  the  one 
opening,  and  the  upper  edge  of  the  other,  lie 


along  the  line  of  the  teeth  of  the  two  poles. 
On  the  side  of  the  stationary  plate,  away  from  the 
revolving  plate,  are  stuck  two  coolings  or  arma¬ 
tures  of  varnished  paper,  and  from  those  pro¬ 
trude  two  tongues,  also  of  varnished  paper,  slightly 
turned  into  the  openings  of  the  fixed  plate,  and 
toward  the  revolving  plate.  When  the  machine 
is  excited  by  an  operation  similar  to  that  used 
with  the  electrophorus,  and  the  plate  is  revolved, 
electricity  is  produced  by  induction.  Leyden 
Jar. — This  is  a  glass  jar,  with  a 
coating  of  tinfoil  pasted  carefully 
inside  and  out,  extending  to  within 
a  few  inches  of  the  mouth.  This 
last  is  generally  closed  by  a  wooden 
stopper,  through  which  passes  the 
stalk  of  a  brass  knob  or  ball,  sur¬ 
mounting  the  whole.  The  con¬ 
nection  between  the  inside  coating 
and  the  ball  is  completed  by  a  chain 
extending  from  the  stalk  to  the 
bottom  of  the  jar.  If  this  jar  be 
put  on  an  insulating  stool,  so  that  Leyden  Jar’ 
sparks  can  pass  from  the  prime  conductor  of  a 
machine  to  the  knob,  when  the  jar  is  thus  insu¬ 
lated.  electricity  may  be  accumulated  in  it.  The 
potential  is  low.  For  great  power,  large  surfaces 
are  necessary.  This  can  be  obtained  either  by 
constructing  a  large  jar,  or  by  uniting  several 


Leyden  Battery. 


small  jars  together,  so  as  to  act  as  one.  A  com¬ 
bination  of  small  jars  united  as  one  is  called  a 
Leyden  battery.  Velocity  of  Electrical  Dis¬ 
charge. — The  velocity  of  electricity  is  found  to 
vary  with  the  nature  of  the  circuit  to  the  extent, 
indeed,  of  its  inductive  embarrassment.  Thus,  in 
air-lines  of  telegraph  it  is  greater  than  in  sea- 
cables.  Wheatstone  demonstrated  the  velocity  of 
electricity  in  an  insulated  copper  wire  to  be 
194,000  miles  per  second.  See  also  Dy'namo,  Mag¬ 
netism,  and  Galvanism. 

Electricity,  Animal.  Although  the  peculiar 
powers  of  the  torpedo  and  of  the  gymnotus  were 
well  known  to  the  ancients,  the  first  scientific 
discovery  in  this  department  of  electricity  was  the 
determination  of  the  electrical  character  of  the 
shock  of  the  torpedo  by  Walsh  in  1772  (Of  the 
Electric  Properties  of  the  Torpedo,  Phil.  Trans., 
1773).  The  species  of  electrical  fish  which  has 
been  the  longest  known,  is  the  liaia  torpedo,  or 
electric  ray,  which  has  much  the  appearance  of  a 
skate.  It  is  common  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  in 
the  Mediterranean,  but  is  seldom  met  with  on  the 
shores  of  Britain.  It  grows  to  a  considerable  size, 
and  is  often  above  eighty  pounds  in  weight.  The 
electric  organs  or  batteries  are  placed  on  each 
side,  in  the  spaces  between  the  pectoral  fins, 
the  head,  and  gills.  Each  battery  consists  of  a 
number  (varying  according  to  the  age  of  the  ani¬ 
mal)  of  hexagonal  prisms,  which  extend  perpen¬ 
dicularly  between  the  dorsal  and  abdominal  sur¬ 
faces,  and  present  somewhat  of  a  resemblance  in 
shape  and  arrangement  to  the  cells  of  a  lioney- 
conjb.  Four  nerves,  which  are  branches  of  the 
fifth  and  eighth  cerebral  pairs,  go  to  each  battery; 
and  the  nervous  center  of  the  electrical  apparatus 
is,  therefore,  the  medulla  oblongata.  Several  spe- 
c  es  of  narcine  are  known,  all  of  which  possess 
the  electric  property.  The  Gymnotus  electncu .«, 
or  electrical  eel  is  common  in  all  the  streams  which 
flow  into  the  Orinoco,  and  is  generally  procured 
from  Surinam.  It  is  usually  3  or  4  feet  in  length, 


ELECTRICITY. 


363 


ELEMENTS. 


but  may  reach  a  length  of  6  feet.  The  whole  of 
its  viscera  lies  close  to  the  head,  and  the  anal 
aperture  is  only  two  inches  behind  the  mouth;  all 
the  rest  of  the  body 
inferiorlyis  occupied 
by  the  electrical  ap¬ 
paratus,  which  con¬ 
sists  of  four  batteries 
— viz.,  two  on  either 
side,  and  one  above 
the  other,  the  upper¬ 
most  or  dorsal  being 
the  larger.  These  bat-  njj\ 
teries  consist  of  a 
number  of  piles 
placed  horizontally  in 
a  direction  from  head 
to  tail;  and  from  this 
circumstance,  as  well 
as  from  their  pecu¬ 
liar  structure,  they 
were  compared  by 
Redi  to  galvanic 
troughs.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  these  piles  in  Electrical  Apparatus  of  Torpedo, 
the  greater  battery  is  the  electric  organs;  c,  hair;  me, 
from  thirty  to  Sixty;  spinal  cord;  o,  eye  and  optic 
in  the  lesser,  from  nerve;  np ,  pneumogastric  or 
eight  to  fourteen,  eighth  nerve ;  *,  spinal  nerves. 

They  are  supplied  by  about  224  pairs  of  nerves  on 
each  side,  derived  from  the  inferior  or  motor  roots 
of  the  spinal  nerves.  We  next  come  to  the  electri¬ 
cal  fishes  of  the  genus  Malapterurus.  The  only 
fish  of  this  genus  whose  electrical  organs  have 
been  examined  and  described  is  the  M.  elec- 
tricus  of  the  Nile,  called  raasli  or  thun- 
der-tish  by  the  Arabs.  It  has  barbules  depend¬ 
ent  from  the  region  of  the  mouth,  like  the  common 
barbel,  and  its  smooth  skin  is  diversified  with 
irregularly  shaped  spots.  Its  length  is  from  8 
to  14  inches.  The  batteries  are  two  in  num¬ 
ber,  “separated,”  to  adopt  Professor  Goodsir’s 
description,  “but  at  the  same  time  intimately 
connected  to  one  another  in  the  mesal  plane  along 
the  dorsal  and  ventral  margins  of  the  body,  so  as 
to  form  a  continuous  layer  of  a  gelatinous  consist¬ 
ence  closely  adherent  to  the  skin,  and  inclosing 
as  in  a  sac  the  entire  animal,  except  the  head  and 
fins.”  The  structure  of  these  batteries  is  very 
complicated,  and  we  shall  not  attempt  to  explain 
it.  In  the  year  1854,  a  new  electrical  fish  became 
known  to  us,  belonging  to  the  same  genus  as  the 
one  just  described.  It  is  found  in  the  muddy, 
brackish  water  of  the  River  Old  Calabar,  which 
empties  itself  into  the  Bight  of  Benin.  It  is 
much  smaller  than  the  Nilotic  species,  and  the 
formuhe  of  the  number  of  fin-rays  differ  in  the 
two  species. 

Electricity,  Medical.  Frictional  electricity  is 
seldom  employed  in  therapeutics;  Faradic  currents 
are  in  constant  use.  The  instruments  employed 
for  the  exhibition  of  interrupted  or  induced  cur¬ 
rents  are  the  magneto-electric  and  the  electro¬ 
magnetic  coil  machines.  In  the  first,  the  electric¬ 
ity  is  set  in  motion  in  a  long,  thin  wire  coiled 
round  a  bar  of  iron  or  keeper,  maintained  in  con¬ 
stant  whirling  motion  before  the  poles  of  a 
permanent  horseshoe-magnet,  the  magnet  with 
every  half  revolution  magnetizing  the  keeper 
alternately  in  opposite  directions,  while  the  con¬ 
stantly  recurring  magnetism  of  the  keeper  in  its 
turn  induces  impulses  of  alternating  currents  in 
the  coil-wire.  In  the  electro-magnetic  machine, 
or  induction  coil,  the  thick  coil-wire,  wound  over 
a  core  of  iron,  is  made  to  conduct  the  current 
from  a  single  voltaic  pair  which  magnetizes  the 
iron.  When  the  battery-current  is  interrupted, 
the  iron  core  becomes  instantly  demagnetized, 
and  this  change  in  its  magnetic  condition  is  at¬ 
tended  with  a  rearrangement  of  the  polarity  of 
the  coil-wire,  and  the  passage  through  it  of  an 
impulse  of  induced  electricity.  By  a  simple  ar¬ 
rangement,  the  magnetized  iron  is  made  to 
interrupt  and  renew  tiie  battery -current;  and  the 
machine  thus  rendered  self-acting,  furnishes  a 
rapid  succession  of  momentary  currents  passing 
in  the  sime  direction,  and  of  much  greater  quan¬ 
tity  than  those  of  the  magneto-electric  machine. 
Currents  higher  in  tension,  less  in  quantity,  and 
more  resembling  frictional  electricity,  are  obtained 
from  the  “secondary  coil ”  of  very  thin  and  long 
wire  wound  over  the  former  one.  It  is  conven¬ 


ient,  sometimes,  to  employ  the  currents  derived 
from  the  primary  coil  as  well  as  those  from  the 
secondary,  and  the  best  forms  of  apparatus  are  so 
arranged  as  to  enable  us  to  employ  either  at  pleas¬ 
ure.  Faradization  is  applicable  to  a  great  variety 
of  chronic  diseases  in  which  a  deficiency  of  func¬ 
tional  energy  exists. 

Electric  Light.  All  known  methods  of  gener¬ 
ating  electricity  can  produce  light  of  greater  or 
less  steadiness  and  brilliancy.  Light  from  gal¬ 
vanic  electricity  was  first  discovered  by  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  in  1810,  when,  on  the  continuity 
of  a  current  from  2,000  cells  being  broken,  a 
brilliant  light  was  seen.  To  this  the  name  of  the 
voltaic  arc  was  given,  and  the  points  where  the 
current  was  broken  were  termed  electrodes.  The 
light  thus  produced  is  partly  due  to  the  incan- 
descenceof  the  tips  of  the  carbon  and  partly  to  an 
arch  of  incandescent  particles  extending  from  the 
one  to  the  other.  The  heat  of  the  voltaic  arc  is 
intense.  Quartz,  the  sapphire,  magnesia,  lime, 
and  other  substances,  equally  refractory,  are  fused 
by  it.  The  diamond  when  placed  in  it  becomes 
white  hot,  swells  up,  fuses,  and  is  reduced 
to  a  black  mass  resembling  coke.  The  elec¬ 
tric  light  can  be  produced  in  a  vacuum,  and  below 
the  surface  of  water,  oils,  and  other  non-conduct¬ 
ing  liquids,  and  is  thus  quite  independent  of  the 
action  of  the  air.  In  1820  Oersted  proved  the  j 
identity  of  electricity  and  magnetism;  but  it 
remained  for  Faraday,  iu  1831,  by  his  great  dis¬ 
covery  of  induced  currents,  to  render  practicable 
the  application  of  electricity  to  the  production  of  1 
good  artificial  light.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
1853  that  the  magneto-electric  machine  was 
actually  applied  to  the  purpose.  The  first  gener¬ 
ating  machines  were  “  magneto-electric,”  revolv¬ 
ing  coils  in  front  of  permanent  steel  magnets  (or 
revolving  magnets  in  front  of  coils),  but  later 
machines  are  “dynamo-electric,”  based  on  a  dis¬ 
covery  simultaneously  made  by  Werner  Siemens, 
Varley,  and  Wheatstone,  that  by  revolving  coils 
in  front  of  soft  iron  electro-magnets,  the  residual 
magnetism  in  the  iron  is  gradually  augmented, 
dynamic  force  being  thus  converted  into  elec¬ 
tricity.  The  currents  created  by  machines  of 
either  sort  are  alternate,  but  in  most  modern  lights 
the  alternate  currents  are  made  continuous  by  the 
use  of  a  commutator.  The  invention  of  methods 
of  using  this  powerful  light  received  a  gieat 
stimulus  in  1876,  when  Jabloclikoff’s  “candle” 
was  invented.  The  Serrin,  Lontin,  Rapieff,  and 
Brush  lamps  are  different  arrangements  for  the 
production  of  light  by  means  of  the  “arc,”  the 
adjustment  of  the  carbons  being  effected  by  an 
automatic  electro  magnetic  regulator.  The  above- 
described  lamps  are  known  as  arc  lights,  but  of 
late  the  so-called  incandescent  lamps  have  acquired 
a  great  importance.  They  are  simply  applica¬ 
tions  of  the  well-known  principle  that  the  heating- 
effect  of  a  current  in  any  part  of  a  circuit  is  pro¬ 
portional  to  resistance  of  that  part.  Edison,  Lane 
Fox,  Maxim,  and  Swan  have  constructed  such 
lamps,  which  differ  only  in  details.  A  thin  carbon 
filament,  inclosed  in  a  hermetically  sealed  vacuum 
tube,  so  as  to  prevent  oxidation,  is  made  luminous 
by  the  passage  of  a  strong  current  along  it. 

Electro-biology  is  a  term  used  both  of  animal 
electricity  and  of  mesmerism,  or  a  phase  of 
i  animal  magnetism. 

Electro-chemical  Order  of  the  Elements. 

When  two  metals  are  placed  in  contact  and 
immersed  in  a  solution  capable  of  acting  on  one 
of  them,  an  electric  current  is  produced,  positive 
electricity  passing  from  the  metal  acted  on  to  the 
other  metal.  The  former  metal  is  said  to  be 
electro-positive  to  the  latter.  The  following  is  the 
electro-chemical  order  of  the  more  common 
metals,  the  liquid  being  dilute  sulphuric  or 
hydrochloric  acid:  Sodium,  magnesium,  zinc, 

[  iron,  copper,  silver,  platinum.  When  a  com¬ 
pound  of  two  elements  is  electrolyzed,  the  electro¬ 
positive  element  appears  at  the  negative  electrode, 
and  the  electro-negative  element  at  the  positive 
j  electrode.  It  may  be  generally  stated  that  oxy¬ 
gen  is  the  most  electro-negative  element,  and 
that  next  to  it  are  the  elements  which  form  stable 
i  compounds  with  the  metals. 

Electro 'lysis.  See  Galvanism. 

Electro-magnetism.  See  Magnetism. 

Electro-metallurgy.  See  Galvanism. 


Electro-motive  Machines.  See  Magneto- 
Electricity. 

Elec 'tropliorus.  This  generally  consists  of  a 
tin  mold  filled  with  a  compound  of  shellac, 
and  a  movable  metal 
cover  with  a  glass 
handle.  Five  parts 
of  shellac,  one  of 
wax,  and  one  of 
Venice  turpentine,  is 
given  as  a  good  mix¬ 
ture.  The  surface 
of  the  shellac  is 
smartly  beaten  with 
a  cat’s  fur.  The  cover 
is  then  put  on,  and 
touched  with  the 
finger,  which  re¬ 
ceives  a  slight  spark 
of  negative  electric-  ,  . 

ity,  jSst  before  con-  Electrophone 

tact  takes  place;  and  after  the  finger  is  removed, 
the  cover,  when  lifted  by  its  insulating  handle, 
gives  a  brisk  spark  of  positive  electricity  to  any¬ 
thing  presented  to  it.  The  phenomenon  depends 
upon  induction. 

Electro 'phone,  a  form  of  apparatus  invented 
by  Dr.  Strethill  Wright  about  the  year  1864,  for 
making  audible  to  large  audiences  certain  elec¬ 
trical  effects.  It  is  essentially  a  condenser,  which, 
set  (for  example)  in  the  circuit  of  a  secondary 
coil,  imparts  a  peculiar  tone  to  the  sound  of  the 
interrupted  current.  Apart  from  its  interest  in 
the  historical  development  of  the  telephone  and 
microphone,  the  apparatus  is  of  little  importance. 

Elect 'rum  is  a  term  used  to  designate  native 
gold  as  it  is  associated  with  silver.  It  is  also  ap¬ 
plied  to  amber. 

Elect 'nary  (Lat.  eligere,  electvm.,  I  make 
choice),  a  form  of  medicinal  preparation  in  which 
the  remedy  is  enveloped  or  suspended  in  honey 
or  syrup,  so  as  to  make  a  mixture  of  thick,  semi¬ 
fluid  consistence. 


El  'egy  (Gr.  eXsysia,  elegeia),  according  to  its 
derivation,  signifies,  exclusively,  a  song  of  lam¬ 
entation,  but  the  term  was  employed  at  an  early 
period  by  the  Greeks  to  designate  any  poem  writ¬ 
ten  in  distiches.  The  alternation,  peculiar  to 
this  measure,  of  the  hexameter,  or  strictly  nar¬ 
rative  verse,  with  the  more  fiery  pentameter, 
gives  to  this  whole  species  of  poetry  its  indi¬ 
vidual  character,  which  consists  in  the  connection 
of  subjective  feelings  and  emotions  with  external 
incidents  or  objects.  The  elegy,  therefore,  can 
often  be  chiefly,  but  never  altogether  narrative. — 
Elegy,  in  Music,  is  a  composition  depicting  feel¬ 
ings  of  mourning,  sadness,  longing,  or  ardent 
desire  and  love. 

Element 'al  Spiv 'its,  beings  who,  according 
to  the  popular  belief  of  the  middle  ages,  presided 
over  the  four  “elements,”  living  in  and  ruling 
them.  The  elemental  spirits  of  fire  were  called 
Salamanders;  those  of  water,  Undines;  those  of 
the  air,  Sylphs;  and  those  of  the  earth,  Gnomes. 
These  imaginary  beings  play  a  part  in  Pope’s 
mock-heroic  poem,  The  Rape  of  the  Lock. 

Elements,  in  Astronomy,  are  those  numerical 
quantities  and  those  principles  deduced  from 
astronomical  observations  and  calculations,  which 
are  employed  in  the  construction  of  tables  exhib¬ 
iting  the  planetary  motions. 

Elements,  Chemical.  The  earliest  of  the 
Greek  philosophers  assumed  either  a  single  ele¬ 
ment,  or  several,  the  modifications  and  combina¬ 
tions  of  which  they  held  to  give  rise  to  all  the 
things  that  we  see.  The  most  common  assump¬ 
tion  was  that  of  four  elements — fire,  air,  water, 
and  earth.  This  corresponds  to  the  four  forms 
under  which  modern  science  considers  matter  as 
existing — viz.,  imponderable,  gaseous,  liquid, 
and  solid;  while  by  elements  are  understood  the 
simple  component  ingredients  of  bodies  under 
whatever  form  they  exist.  It  is  not  pretended 
that  any  of  the  substances  called  elements  are 
absolutely  simple;  but  only  that  hitherto  they 
have  not  been  decomposed.  The  number  of  so- 
called  simple  bodies,  or  elements,  recognized  by 
chemists,  is  64.  The  elements  are  divided  into 
two  great  classes — the  non-metals  and  metals. 
The  latter  are  the  more  numerous  class,  there 
being  altogether  51,  whilst  the  non-metals  num- 


ELEMI. 


.364 


ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES. 


her  only  13.  The  following  table  gives  the  names 
of  the  elements: 


NON-METALLIC. 

Oxygen. 

Silicon. 

Chlorine. 

Hydrogen. 

Sulphur. 

Bromine. 

Nitrogen. 

Selenium. 

Iodine. 

Carbon. 

Phosphorus. 

Fluorine. 

Boron. 

METALLIC. 

Tellurium. 

Potassium. 

Lanthanum. 

Thallium. 

Sodium. 

Didymium. 

Palladium. 

Lithium. 

Chromium. 

Rhodium. 

Caesium. 

Zinc. 

Iridium. 

Rubidium. 

Manganese. 

Ruthenium. 

Barium. 

Nickel. 

Osmium. 

Strontium. 

Cobalt. 

Antimony. 

Calcium. 

Iron. 

Tin. 

Magnesium. 

Lead. 

Tungsten. 

Aluminium. 

Silver. 

Molybdenum. 

Beryllium  ( Gluci - 

Mercury. 

Vanadium. 

n  am ). 

Copper. 

Tantalum  ( Colum 

Zirconium. 

Bismuth. 

bium). 

Thorinum. 

Cadmium. 

Indium. 

Yttrium. 

Uranium. 

Niobium. 

Erbium. 

Gold. 

Titanium. 

Gallium. 

Cerium. 

Platinum. 

Arsenic. 

The  more  rare  elements  are  printed  in  italics. 
At  ordinary  temperatures,  five  of  the  elements 
are  gaseous — viz.,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, 
chlorine,  and  fluorine;  two  are  liquid — viz.,  bro¬ 
mine  and  mercury;  whilst  the  remaining  fifty- 
seven  are  solid.  A  new  metallic  element,  Ger¬ 
manium ,  was  announced  by  Winkler  in  1886. 

El'emi,  a  fragrant  resinous  substance,  ob¬ 
tained  from  different  species  of  the  natural  order 
Amyridacece.  It  was  formerly  brought  chiefly 
from  Egypt  and  Nubia,  and  referred  to  a  tree 
called  the  Amyris  elemifera.  Elemi  is  used  in  the 
preparation  of  stimulant  plasters  and  ointments. 

El'ephant,  a  geographical  term  of  obvious  ori¬ 
gin,  indicates  various  localities  in  Asia  and  Africa. 
- — 1.  Elephant  Point,  a  promontory  of  Pegu,  in 
Further  India,  marks  the  west  extremity  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Rangoon,  the  most  easterly  arm  of 
the  Irrawaddy.  It  is  in  latitude  16°  28'  N.,  and 
longitude  96°  25'  E. — 2.  Elephant  bay,  an  inlet 
of  the  Atlantic,  on  the  coast  of  Benguela,  South¬ 
west  Africa,  in  latitude  13°  14'  S.,  and  longitude 
12°  33'  E.,  has  excellent  anchorage,  but  no  fresh 
water. — 3.  Elephant  Island,  in  Senegambia,  is 
about  100  miles  up  the  Gambia. — 4.  Elephant 
river,  in  the  Cape  Colony  of  South  Africa,  enters 
the  Atlantic  after  a  course  of  140  miles,  about 
latitude  3H°  S.,  and  longitude  18°  E. 

Elephant,  Sea  {Macrorhinus  proboscideus),  also 
known  as  the  elephant  seal,  the  proboscis  seal, 
etc.,  is  the  largest  of  the  seal  family  ( Phocidce ), 


Sea-Elephant  (Macrorldniis  proboscideus) . 
an  inhabitant  of  the  seas  of  the  Southern  Hemi¬ 
sphere.  It  is  more  than  twice  as  large  as  an  ele¬ 
phant,  being  sometimes  30  feet  in  length,  with  a 


1,  fckull  and  Teeth  of  Sea-Elephant;  2,  Swimming-paw, 
or  Flipper. 

circumference  of  about  18  feet  at  the  thickest 
part.  The  color  is  grayish,  bluisli-gray,  or  more 
rarely  blockish-brown.  A  single  individual 
sometimes  yields  1,400  or  1,500  pounds,  orseventy 


gallons  of  excellent  oil,  on  account  of  which  these 
animals  are  pursued  to  an  extent  that  seems  to 
have  already  much  reduced  the  numbers  of  the 
species. 

El'ephant  (Gr.  Elephas),  a  genus  of  quadru¬ 
peds,  of  the  order  P/chy  dermal  a ,  and  of  the  sec¬ 
tion  Proboscidcu.  Elephants  are  the  largest  exist¬ 
ing  land  animals.  The  ordinary  height  at  the 
shoulder  is  about  eight  feet,  but  sometimes  ex¬ 
ceeds  ten  feet.  The  weight  of  a  large  elephant  is 
about  five  tons,  the  body  being  very  bulky  in’ 
proportion  to  its  height.  To  sustain  this  weight, 
it  is  furnished  with  limbs  of  colossal  thickness 
and  strength,  which  are  also  remarkably  straight, 
each  bone  resting  vertically  on  that  beneath  it. 
The  head  in  elephants  is  large;  the  neck  is  short 
and  thick,  the  long  flexible  proboscis  enabling 
the  animal  readily  to  reach  objects  on  the  ground, 
or  to  a  height  of  several  feet  above  its  head,  or  on 
either  side.  A  great  extent  of  bony  surface  in 
the  head  affords  attachment  for  muscles  destined 
to  move  and  give  power  to  the  proboscis  or  trunk. 
The  huge  and  extraordinary  bones  of  the  skull, 
besides  affording  attachment  for  muscles,  afford 
mechanical  support  to  the  tusks.  The  nasal 
bones  of  the  elephant  are  scarcely  more  than 
rudimentary;  but  the  tapering  proboscis,  to  the 
very  extremity  of  which  the  nostrils  are  pro¬ 
longed,  is  nearly  eight  feet  in  length.  Besides 
the  great  muscles  connected  with  it  at  its  base,  it 
is  composed  of  a  vast  multitude  of  small  muscles. 
Cuvier  states  the  number  of  muscles  having  the 
power  of  distinct  action  as  not  far  short  of  40,000. 
The  trunk  can  be  coiled  around  a  tree,  and 
employed  to  tear  it  from  its  roots;  it  is  a  formid¬ 
able  weapon  of  offense  or  defense.  All  the  food 
of  the  elephant  is  gathered  and  conveyed  to  the 
mouth  by  the  trunk;  by  means  of  the  trunk, 
also,  it  drinks,  sucking  up  into  it  a  quantity  of 
water  sufficient  to  fill  it,  and  then  discharging 
the  contents  into  the  mouth.  Valves  at  the  base 
of  the  trunk  prevent  the  water  from  going  too 
far  up  the  nostrils.  The  trunk  is  constantly 
employed  by  elephants  in  providing  in  many 
ways  for  their  comfurt  or  enjoyment,  as  in  throw¬ 
ing  dust  over  their  backs,  or  in  fanning  them¬ 
selves  and  switching  away  flies  witli  a  leafy 
branch,  two  practices  to  which  they  are  greatly 
addicted.  The  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute  in  the 
elephant,  as  is  also  that  of  hearing.  The  ears  are 
large  and  pendulous,  the  eyes  are  sm  41.  Ele¬ 
phants  have  no  canine  teeth,  nor  have  they  any 
incisors  in  the  lower  jaw.  The  upper  jaw  is 
furnished  with  two  incisors,  which  assume  the 


1,  Head  of  Asiatic  Elephant;  2,  Head  of  African  Elephant. 


peculiar  character  of  tusks,  and  attain  an  enor¬ 
mous  size,  a  single  tusk  sometimes  weighing  150  or 
even  300  pounds.  The  tusks  are,  however,  often 
imperfectly  developed,  10  or  12  inches  in  length, 
and  1  or  2  in  diameter.  The  young  elephant  is 
at  first  furnished  with  deciduous  i  cisors,  which 
are  shed  between  the  first  and  second  year,  and 
aie  succeeded  by  the  permanent  tusks.  The 
molar  teeth  of  the  elephant  are  developed  in  suc¬ 
cession-  and  at  least  in  the  Indian  elephant,  never 
more  than  two  are  to  be  seen  in  the  same  side  of 
a  jaw  at  one  time.  The  first  molars  cut  the  gum 
in  about  two  weeks  after  birth,  and  are  shed 
about  the  end  of  its  second  year.  The  sixth 
molars,  which  are  also  believed  to  be  the  last,  are 
supposed  to  appear  about  the  fiftieth  year  of  the 
elephant’s  life.  The  digestive  apparatus  of  the 
elephant  is  similar  to  that  of  the  other  pachy- 
dermata;  but  the  stomach,  which  is  of  a  -very 


lengthened  and  narrow  form,  exhibits  a  peculiar¬ 
ity  which  assimilates  it  to  that  of  the  camel;  the 
internal  membrane,  at  the  extremity  beyond  the 
cardiac  orifice,  forming  thick  wrinkles  and  folds, 
the  broadest  of  which,  and  nearest  to  the  gullet, 
seems  to  act  as  a  valve,  making  that  end  of  the 
stomach  a  reservoir  for  water,  capable  of  contain¬ 
ing  about  ten  gallons;  whilst  a  peculiar  muscle, 
connecting  the  windpipe  and  gullet,  enables  the 
animal  to  open  this  reservoir  at  pleasure,  for  the 
regurgitation  of  the  fluid,  which  is  then  some¬ 
times  received  into  the  trunk,  and  squirted  over 
the  body,  to  free  it  from  the  nuisance  of  flies,  or 
the  heat  of  a  tropical  sun.  The  female  elephant 
has  only  two  teats,  situated  between  the  fore-legs. 
The  young  suck  with  the  mouth,  and  not  with 
the  trunk.  They  are  suckled  for  about  two  years. 
The  period  of  gestation  is  twenty-one  months, 
and  a  single  young  one  is  produced  at  a  birth. 
Only  two  existing  species  of  elephant  are  certainly 
known,  the  Indian  (E.  milieus )  and  the  African 
{E.  af  ricanus),  although  differences  have  recently- 
been  observed  in  the  elephant  of  Sumatra,  which 
may  perhaps  entitle  it  to  be  ranked  as  a  distinct 
species.  Elephants  are  found  in  all  parts  of 
Africa,  from  the  Sahara  sou ih ward,  where  wood 
and  water  are  sufficiently  abundant;  also  through¬ 
out  India  and  the  southeastern  parts  of  Asia,  and 
in  some  of  the  tropical  Asiatic  islands.  They 
extend  northward  to  the  Himalayas;  and  Chitta¬ 
gong  and  Tiperah  vie  with  Ceylon  in  the  superior 
excellence  of  the  elephants  which  they  produce. 
Elephants  live  in  herds,  not  generally  numerous, 
but  several  herds  often  congregate  together  in  t he 
same  forest  or  at  the  same  place  of  drinking. 
Each  herd  has  a  leader,  generally  the  largest  and 
most  powerful  animal. 

Eleplian'ta,  an  island  six  miles  in  circuit,  in 
the  harbor  of  Bombay,  about  seven  miles  to  the 
east  of  that  city,  and  about  five  miles  to  the  west 
of  the  mainland. 

Elephauti'asis.  By  this  fi  rm  is  meant,  two 
diseases  entirely  distinct  in  appearance,  nature,  and 
predisposing  causes.  One,  Elephantiasis  gra^co- 
rum  (the  lepra  of  the  Arabs),  is  the  name  applied 
to  the  affection  that,  since  the  middle  ages,  has 
been  denominated  leprosy.  The  other  is  what  is 
commonly  called  Barbadoes  leg  (or  elephant  leg), 
from  the  fact  of  its  first  appearance  in  the  Barba¬ 
does  Island.  The  disease  appears  without  apparent  - 
cause,  commencing  with  an  attack  of  severe  head¬ 
ache,  rigor,  andgeneral  constitutional  disturbance. 
After  an  interval,  some  portion  of  the  body  (most 
frequently  the  leg)  exhibits  a  violently  inflamed 
appearance,  with  great  heat  and  swelling.  This 
lasts  for  two  or  three  days,  when  the  heat  and 
inflammation,  together  with  constitutional  symp¬ 
toms, disappear,  leaving,  however,  the  swelling;  fre¬ 
quent  recurrence  of  the  paroxysms  are  usual,  and 
the  part  affected  rea'  lies  an  enormous  size,  some¬ 
times.  At  this  stage  of  the  disease  the  skin 
becomes  dry  and  scaly,  with  great  fissures  in  the 
epidermis.  The  best  treatment  is  rest,  and  the 
application  (where  possible)  of  the  compress  or 
roller  bandage  around  the  limb,  coupled  with  the 
administration  of  mercurials  (protoiodide  of  mer¬ 
cury  is  usually  considered  best)  to  a  point  of  soft¬ 
ening  the  glands  and  incipient  salivation.  The 
disease  is  supposed  to  be  entirely  endemic.  For 
elephantiasis  g /decorum,  see  Leprosy. 

Elephiin  tine,  a  small  island  of  the  Nile,  lying 
opposite  to  Assouan,  the  ancient  Syene,  on  the 
confines  of  Egypt  and  Nubia,  in  24°  5'  N.  lat¬ 
itude,  and  32°  34'  E.  longitude.' 

Elephant’s  Foot,  or  Hottentot’s  Bread  (Tes- 
tudinaria  tlephart tipes),  a  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Bioscoreacece,  of  which  the  root-stock  forms 
a  large  fleshy  mass,  curiously  truncate,  or 
abruptly  cut  off  at  the  end,  so  as  somewhat  to  re¬ 
semble  an  elephant’s  foot,  and  covered  with  a 
soft,  corky,  rough,  and  cracked  bark.  From  this 
springs  a  climbing  stem,  which  bears  the  leaves 
and  flowers.  The  root-stock  is  used  as  food  by 
the  Hottentots. 

Elcusiue,  a  genus  of  grasses,  chiefly  natives  of 
India  and  other  warm  climates,  several  of  which 
are  cultivated  as  grains. 

Fleusin'ian  Mys'teries,  the  sacred  rites  with 
which  the  annual  festival  of  Ceres  was  celebrated 
at  Eleusis.  The  festival  itself  consisted  of  two 
parts,  the  greater  and  the  lesser  mysteries.  The 
less  important  feast,  serving  as  a  sort  of  prepara- 


ELEUSIS. 


865 


ELIZABETH. 


tion  for  tlie  greater,  was  held  at  Agrse,  on  the 
Ilissus.  The  celebration  of  the  great  mysteries 
began  at  Eleusis  on  the  15th  day  of  Boedromion, 
the  third  month  of  the  Attic  year,  and  lasted  over 
nine  days.  Initiation  into  the  Eleusinian  myster¬ 
ies  was  compulsory  on  every  freeborn  Athenian; 
but  slaves,  prostitutes,  and  persons  who  had  for¬ 
feited  their  citizenship,  were  excluded  from  the 
rites.  During  the  period  of  the  festival,  none  of 
those  taking  part  in  it  could  be  seized  or  arrested 
for  any  offense.  The  mysteries  were  celebrated 
with  the  most  scrupulous  secrecy.  No  initiated 
person  might  reveal  what  he  had  seen  under  pain 
of  death,  and  no  uninitiated  person  could  take 
part  in  the  ceremonies  under  the  same  penalty. 

Eleu'sis,  a  celebrated  town  in  ancient  Attica, 
near  the  northern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Salamis, 
and  not  far  from  the  confines  of  Megaris.  It  was 
famous  as  the  chief  seat  of  the  worship  of  Ceres. 

Eleu'thera,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  is,  next  to 
New  Providence,  the  most  populous  island  in  the 
whole  chain.  Including  its  dependent  cayos  or 
keys,  Eleuthera  has  a  pop.  of  5,209. 

Eleuthe'ria  Bark,  a  name  not  infrequently 
given  to  the  bark  of  the  Croton  eleutheria,  also 
known  as  cascarilla  bark. 

Eleva'tion,  in  Architectural  Drawing,  is  a 
representation  of  the  flat  side  of  a  building,  drawn 
with  mathematical  accuracy,  but  without  the 
slightest  attention  to  effect.  In  Art,  again,  eleva¬ 
tion  is  a  raising  of  the  subject  beyond  its  ordinary 
character  in  real  life. 

Elevation,  in  Astronomy  and  Geography, 
means  generally  the  height  above  the  horizon  of 
an  object  on  the  sphere,  measured  by  the  arc  of  a 
vertical  circle  through  it  and  the  zenith. 

Elev'enth,  in  Music,  is  the  interval  of  the 
octave  above  the  fourth. 

Elf-arrow-heads,  Elfin-arrows,  Elf-bolts, 
Elf-darts,  Elf-shot,  and  Elf- 
stones,  names  popularly  given  in  l 
the  British  Islands  to  the  arrow- L, 
heads  of  flint  which  were  in  user* 
at  an  early  period  among  the  bar¬ 
barous  tribes  of  that  country  and 
of  Europe  generally,  as  they  are 
still  in  use  among  the  American 
Indians,  the  Esquimaux  of  the 
Arctic  regions,  and  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  of  some  of  the  islands  in  the  „  , 

Pacific  Ocean.  It  was  believed  Elf-AnwHead’ 
that  elves  and  fairies,  hovering  in  the  air,  shot 
these  barbs  of  flint  at  cattle,  and  occasionally  even 
at  men. 

Elgin  and  Kincar'dine,  Earl  of,  Governor 
General  of  India.  James  Bruce,  eighth  Earl  of 
Elgin  and  Kincardine,  was  born  in  London  in 
1811.  He  entered  public  life  in  1841,  when,  as 
Lord  Bruce,  he  was  returned  on  the  Conserva¬ 
tive  interest  for  Southampton.  A  petition  was 
presented  against  the  return,  and  the  election 
was  declared  void.  Before,  however,  a  new  writ 
could  issue,  Lord  Bruce  had  succeeded  his  father 
(who  enriched  the  British  Museum  by  the  invalu¬ 
able  collection  of  sculpture  knowrn  as  the  “  Elgin 
Marbles”)  as  Earl  of  Elgin.  Being  offered  the 
Governorship  of  Jamaica,  in  March,  1842,  he  went 
to  Jamaica,  where  he  administered  the  affairs  of 
the  island  with  so  much  ability  and  success,  that 
in  August,  1846,  the  Governor-Generalship  of  Can¬ 
ada  was  tendered  to  him.  His  administration  of 
the  government  of  Canada  will  ever  be  a  model 
to  future  governors  of  English  dependencies.  He 
found  Canada  governed  by  cliques,  and  torn 
by  intestine  feuds.  With  admirable  tact  and  en¬ 
tire  success  he  inaugurated  a  system  of  self-gov¬ 
ernment.  Under  his  government,  Canada  made 
such  strides  in  importance  and  prosperity,  that 
between  1847  (in  the  beginning  of  which  year  he 
entered  upon  his  government)  and  1855,  when  he 
returned  to  England,  the  revenue  had  quadrupled. 
During  his  administration,  he  successfully  nego¬ 
tiated  a  treaty  for  reciprocity  of  trade  between 
British  America  and  the  United  States.  This 
treaty,  tiil  it  was  renounced  by  the  United  States 
in  1866,  put  an  end  to  the  risk  of  collision  as  to 
the  fisheries.  In  1857  the  affair  of  the  lorcha 
Arrow,  and  the  bombardment  of  Canton  by  Sir 
John  Bowring,  led  Lord  Palmerston  to  invite 
Lord  Elgin  to  go  to  China  as  Plenipotentiary  Extra¬ 
ordinary.  An  army  was  equipped  to  carry  out  the 
policy  prescribed  by  the  British  Government,  and 


he  started  on  his  mission.  But  before  he  could  ap¬ 
proach  his  destination,  and  when  he  had  barely  left 
England  a  month,  the  Indian  Mutiny  broke  out. 
Lord  Elgin  did  not  hesitate  a  moment  in  preferring 
the  safety  of  India  to  the  success  of  his  Chinese 
negotiations.  lie  despatched  the  Chinese  expedi¬ 
tion  to  Lord  Canning’s  assistance,  and  the  English 
in  India  were  thus  enabled  to  hold  their  ground 
until  further  reinforcements  arrived.  He  nego¬ 
tiated  the  treaty  of  Tientsin,  which  promised  to 
give  Great  Britain  a  freer  access  to  China  than  she 
had  ever  enjoyed  before,  and  found  time  to  nego¬ 
tiate  a  treaty  with  Japan,  under  which  English 
manufactures  are  admitted  at  low  rates  of  duty, 
and  a  British  minister  is  permitted  to  reside  at 
Jeddo.  On  his  return  home  he  was  appointed  Post¬ 
master-General,  and  afterward  went  on  a  second 
mission  to  China.  On  the  expiration  of  Viscount 
Canning’s  term  of  service,  the  Governor-General¬ 
ship  of  India  was  offered  by  Lord  Palmerston  to 
Lord  Elgin  (1861),  and  accepted  by  him.  He 
died  in  India,  November,  1863. 

Elgin  Marbles,  a  celebrated  collection  of 
ancient  sculptures,  taken  from  Greece  by  Thomas, 
seventh  Earl  of  Elgin,  and  acquired  from  him  by 
the  natiou  for  the  British  Museum  in  1816. 


Theseus. 


Although  the  Elgin  Marbles  are  now  acknowl¬ 
edged  to  be  the  most  precious  collection  existing 
of  specimens  of  Greek  art  in  its  purest  state,  yet 
it  was  only  after  very  considerable  hesitation 
that  Government  consented  to  purchase  them. 

Elginshire,  Mor'aysiiire,  or  Murraysiiire, 
a  maritime  county  in  the  Northeast  of  (Scotland, 
on  the  Moray  Firth.  It  contains  531  square 
miles,  and  is  30  miles  long  and  20  miles  broad. 
Pop.  (1881),  43,788. 

Eli  'as,  St.,  a  lofty  mountain  which  occupies  a 
conspicuous  position  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
America,  in  latitude  60°  18'  N.,  and  in  longitude 
140°  30'  W. 

Eli 'jail  (in  the  Greek  form,  occurring  in  the 
New  Testament,  Elias),  the  greatest  of  the  proph¬ 
ets  of  Israel,  a  detailed  account  of  whom  will 
be  found  in  the  First  Book  of  Kings  in  the  Old 
Testament. 

Eliuiiua'tion  is  a  process  by  which,  where  we 
have  a  number  of  statements  concerning  several 
quantities,  we  can  obtain  a  separate  statement 
concerning  each.  Thus,  in  Algebra,  elimination 
is  the  operation  which  consists  in  getting  rid  of  a 
quantity  or  letter  which  is  common.  It  may  be 
done  by  addition,  subtraction,  or  substitution. 

E'lis,  one  of  the  ancient  divisions  of  the  Pelo¬ 
ponnesus.  It  was  originally  divided  into  three 
districts— Cade  or  Hollow  Elis,  Pisatis,  and  Tri- 
phylia.  Elis,  now  Kaloscopi,  the  capital  of  the 
foregoing  country. 

Eliot,  Sir  John,  one  of  the  greatest  among  the 
English  statesmen  of  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  was 
bom  in  April,  1592.  He  was  several  times  im¬ 
prisoned  for  his  boldness  of  speech,  and  died  in 
prison  Nov.  27,  1632. 

Eliot,  John  (1604-1690),  “the  Apostle  of  the 
Indians  of  North  America,”  was  born  in  1604, 
and  was  educated  at  Jesus  College,  Cambridge, 
where  he  took  his  bachelor’s  degree  in  1623.  He 
came  to  America  in  1631.  His  translation  of  the 
Bible  and  other  works  composed  for  the  use  of 
the  Indians,  are  written  in  the  Mohican  dialect, 
which  was  spoken  by  the  aborigines  of  New  Eng¬ 
land. 

Eli'slia,  a  prophet  of  Israel,  the  successor  of 
Elijah,  and  whose  history  is  parallel  and  insepar¬ 
ably  connected  with  that  of  his  predecessor,  and 


will  be  found  in  the  Book  of  Kings.  Elisha  is 
canonized  in  the  Greek  Church;  his  day  is  June 
14tli. 

Elix'ir  is  applied  to  various  preparations,  con¬ 
sisting  mostly  of  solutions  of  aromatic  and  bitter 
vegetable  substances  in  spirits  of  wine.  The 
term  tincture  is  now  more  common. — Elixir  of 
Vitriol,  or  aromatic  sulphuric  acid,  is  pre¬ 
pared  from  1|  fluid  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid  (oil 
of  vitriol),  10  fluid  ounces  of  rectified  spirit,  i 
ounce  cinnamon  in  powder,  1  ounce  ginger  in 
powder. — Elixir  Vit.-k  of  Mathiolus  is  com¬ 
posed  of  alcohol,  and  upward  of  twenty  aro¬ 
matic  and  stimulating  substances;  and  was  at  one 
time  administered  to  patients  suffering  from  epi¬ 
lepsy. 

Eliz'abetll,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Elizabeth  river.  Many  New  York  mer¬ 
chants  live  here.  Pop.  (1885),  32,119. 

Eliz'abetll,  Queen  of  England,  was  the  daugh- 
ter  of  Henry  VIII.  and  the  unfortunate  Anne 
Boleyn,  and  was  born  Sept.  7,  1533.  Her  father 
died  when  she  was  thirteen  years  old.  During 
the  reign  of  her  brother  Edward,  her  life  passed 
quietly  and  peacefully.  When  Mary  succeeded 
to  the  throne  Elizabeth  was  placed  under  surveil¬ 
lance,  and  at  one  time  came  near  being  executed 
on  alleged  complicity  in  a  conspiracy,  but  was 
saved  by  reason  of  her  influence  with  the  masses. 
She  spent  a  portion  of  her  time  in  the  Tower. 
During  the  remainder  of  Mary’s  reign,  Elizabeth, 
though  occasionally  at  court,  resided  chiefly  at 
her  residence  of  Hatfield  House.  When  Mary 
died  (Nov.  17;  1558),  Elizabeth  was  twenty- 
five  years  of  age.  Her  accession  was  welcomed 
alike  by  Catholic  and  Protestant.  Elizabeth  then 
began,  amidst  dangers  and  difficulties,  a  reign 
which,  contrary  to  the  expectation  of  all,  was  of 
unexampled  length  and  prosperity.  How  the 
government  influence  was  to  be  directed,  was  not 
long  in  being  shown.  Till  Parliament  should 
meet,  Elizabeth  issued  a  proclamation  that  the 
English  language  should  be  used  in  the  greater 
part  of  the  church  service,  and  that  the  Host 
should  not  be  elevated  by  the  priest  during  mass. 
This  sufficiently  indicated  into  what  hands  power 
had  passed,  and  was  enough  to  throw  the  mass  of 
the  indifferent  to  the  side  of  the  Protestants,  and 
to  cause  a  Protestant  majority  to  be  returned  to 
Elizabeth’s  first  Parliament.  It  was  then  that 
England  took  its  position  as  a  Protestant  power, 
and  all  allegiance  to  Rome  was  thrown  off.  This 
revolution  was  soon  accomplished,  and  with 
little  turmoil.  The  policy  of  Elizabeth’s  minis¬ 
ters  was  one  of  peace  and  economy.  They  found 
the  nation  at  war  with  France  and  Scotland,  and 
one  of  their  first  acts  was  to  secure  peace  upon 
favorable  terms.  No  war  was  undertaken  in  her 
reign  for  the  sake  of  territorial  conquest.  The 
one  great  blunder  of  England’s  policy  was  the 
treatment  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  Had  she 
pursued  a  straightforward  course,  when  her  rival 
was  thrown  into  her  hands,  much  evil  might  have 
been  spared.  On  the  discovery  of  Babington’s 
conspiracy  to  place  Mary  on  the  throne,  the  pop¬ 
ular  cry  was  irresistible,  and  was  joined  in  by 
Cecil  and  Walsingliam,  and  others  of  Elizabeth’s 
ministers,  who  had  sinned  too  deeply  against 
Mary  to  run  the  risk  of  her  succession  to  the 
throne.  With  reluctance  and  hesitation,  the  sin¬ 
cerity  of  which  need  not  be  questioned,  Elizabeth 
consented  to  her  death;  and  Mary,  after  long 
years  of  confinement,  was  condemned  and  exe¬ 
cuted.  Philip  of  Spain  had  long  meditated  ven¬ 
geance  against  England.  In  1588,  the  “Invinci¬ 
ble  Armada  ”  sailed  from  the  Tagus,  manned  by 
8,000  sailors,  and  carrying  20,000  soldiers.  To 
aid  these,  a  land  army  of  100,000  men  was  to 
be  transported  from  the  Netherlands  under 
the  Duke  of  Parma.  The  news  roused  all  Eng¬ 
land,  and  every  man  who  could  carry  arms, 
Protestant  and  Catholic,  from  eighteen  years 
of  age  to  sixty,  was  enrolled  in  the  forces. 
The  old  Queen  herself  rode  at  Tilbuiy,  ener¬ 
getically  encouraging  the  army.  A  fleet  of 
200  vessels  and  15,000  seamen  gathered  itself  on 
the  southern  coasts,  and  waited  the  attack. 
Superior  skill  and  courage  gained  the  victory  for 
the  English;  and  what  these  had  begun,  the  force 
of  the  elements  completed.  The  splendid  Armada 
was  broken  and  destroyed  before  it  could  join 
the  land-army,  not  a  soldier  of  which  ever  left 


ELIZABETH. 


366 


ELMIRA. 


foreign  ground;  while  not  a  seaman  of  the  fleet, 
save  those  whom  shipwrecks  sent,  ever  set  foot  on 
English  ground.  Elizabeth  died  March  24,  1603, 
having  lived  nearly  seventy,  and  reigned  nearly 
forty-five  years.  What  makes  the  name  of  Eliza¬ 
beth  so  famous,  was  the  splendor  of  her  times.  In 
her  long  reign  the  true  greatness  of  England 
began.  Freed  from  the  possession  of  those  French 
provinces  which  rather  harassed  than  enriched — 
with  little  domestic  commotion — with  no  great 
foreign  wars — with  an  almost  complete  immunity 
from  religious  persecution,  the  nation  turned 
to  the  arts  of  peace.  An  unequaled  literature 
arose.  The  age  that  produced  Spenser,  Shake¬ 
speare,  and  Bacon,  could  not  be  other  than 
famous.  Under  Frobisher  and  Drake,  maritime 
adventure  began,  and  the  foundations  of  Eng¬ 
land’s  naval  force  were  laid.  Commerce,  from 
being  a  small  matter  in  the  hands  of  a  few  foreign 
merchants,  developed  itself  largely.  The  Exchange 
of  London  was  opened  in  Elizabeth’s  time;  and 
in  the  charter  which  she  granted  to  that  Company 
of  Merchant  Adventurers,  which  afterward  took 
the  name  of  the  East  India  Company,  may  be  seen 
one  of  the  small  beginnings  of  England’s  vast 
colonial  empire. 

Elizabeth,  St.,  daughter  of  Andreas  II.,  King 
of  Hungary,  was  born  at  Presburg.  in  1207,  and 
died  at  the  age  of  twenty-four.  She  was  canon¬ 
ized  four  years  later. 

Elizabeth  Petrov'na,  Empress  of  Russia, 
daughter  of  Peter  the  Great  and  Catharine  I.,  was 
born  in  the  year  1709.  Through  the  agency  of  a 
revolution  she  was  made  Empress  after  the  death 
of  the  Empress  Anna,  and  after  an  eventful  reign 
.spent  in  almost  ceaseless  war,  she  died  in  1762. 
She  was  of  most  immoral  character  personally, 
while  a  great  stickler  for  outward  forms  of  religion. 

Elizabeth  Stuart,  Queen  of  Bohemia,  the 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England  (VI.  of  Scot¬ 
land),  was  born  Aug.  19,  1596.  On  Feb.  14, 
1613,  Elizabeth  was  married  to  Frederick, 
Elector-Palatine,  whom  the  Protestant  princes  of 
Germany  elected  to  the  throne  of  Bohemia. 
Frederick  and  Elizabeth  occupied  the  throne  of 
Bohemia  only  about  a  year,  when  a  revolution 
deposed  them.  Elizabeth  was  the  mother  of 
thirteen  children,  the  eldest  of  whom  was  acci¬ 
dentally  drowned  in  Holland,  and  three  others 
died  young.  She  died  in  1662.  Of  her  children 
the  best  known  were  Prince  Rupert  and  the  Elec- 
tress  Sophia  of  Hanover,  whose  son  became  King 
of  England  under  the  title  of  George  I.  Louis 
Philippe  of  France  was  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
Queen  of  Bohemia. 

Eliz'abetlian  Architecture,  a  term  applied  to 
the  mixed  style  which  sprang  up  on  the  decline 
of  Gothic  architecture.  By  some  it  is  incorrectly 
called  the  Tudor  style. 

Elizabeto'pol,  a  town  of  Russian  Transcauca¬ 
sia,  is  situated  in  latitude  40°  42'  N.;  longitude 
46°  20'  E.  Pop.  (1880),  18,000,  principally 
Tartars  and  Armenians. 

Elk,  Moose,  or  Moose  Deer  ( Alces  malchis, 
or  Germs  alces),  the  largest  existing  species  of  the 


Elk  ( Cervus  alces). 


Cervidce,  or  deer  family,  is  a  native  of  the  north¬ 
ern  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  When 
full  grown,  it  is  about  six  feet  in  height  at  the 
shoulders,  and  sometimes  weighs  1,200  pounds. 
The  body  is  covered  with  coarse,  angular  hair. 
On  the  neck  and  withers  there  is  a  heavy  mane, 
and  the  throat  is  covered  with  long  hair.  The 


hoofs  of  the  elk,  like  those  of  the  reindeer  and  of 
the  buffalo,  are  so  constructed  as  to  part  widely, 
and  to  afford  a  better  footing  on  soft,  marshy 
ground  or  on  snow;  they  make  a  clattering  when 
it  runs.  Its  shoulders  being  higher  than  the 
[croup,  its  common  gait  is  a  shambling  trot,  but 
it  can  also  gallop  with  great  rapidity.  The  color 
of  the  elk  is  brownish-black,  darker  in  winter 
than  in  summer;  the  limbs,  the  sides  of  the  head, 
and  the  mane  are  of  a  lighter  color  than  the  body. 
They  seem  to  be  on  the  road  to  extinction,  as 
they  are  fast  disappearing  from  former  habitats. 

Elk,  Irish  ( Mcgaceros  hibemicu*),  a  large  deer 
found  in  the  pleistocene  strata.  The  most 


Fossil  Elk. 

striking  feature  in  this  animal  was  its  enormous 
antlers. 

El-khar'geh,  capital  of  the  Great  Oasis,  Upper 
Egypt,  is  situated  in  latitude  25°  28'  N.,  longi¬ 
tude  30°  40' E.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Elkins,  Henry  W.,  painter,  born  in  Vermont 
in  1847,  died  in  Colorado  in  1884.  He  resided 
many  years  in  Chicago,  and  is  best  known  by  his 
paintings  of  mountain  scenery,  notably  “Mount 
Shasta.” 

Ell  (allied  to  efftow,  Ger.  ellenbogen,  Lat.  ulna, 
the  fore-arm  or  arm  in  general),  is  a  measure  of 
length  originally  taken,  in  some  vague  way,  from 
the  arm.  The  English  ell,  as  a  measure  of  cloth, 
is  equal  to  forty-five  inches. 

El 'lenborough,  Earl  of.  Edward  Law,  first 
Earl  of  Ellenborougli,  son  of  the  first  baron 
(many  years  Chief  Justice  of  the  King’s  Bench), 
was  born  in  1790  ;  after  holding  many  important 
official  positions  in  the  English  Government,  he 
died  in  1871. 

Ellenrieder,  Marie,  a  female  painter  of  very 
high  excellence,  was  born  at  Constance,  Ger¬ 
many,  in  1791,  and  died  in  1863. 

Elles'mere,  first  Earl  of,  politician,  patron  of 
the  arts,  and  author.  Francis  Egerton,  second 
son  of  the  first  Duke  of  Sutherland,  was  born 
1800,  and  died  in  1857. 

EUliot,  Ehenezer,  the  Corn-law  Rhymer, 
was  born  in  Yorkshire,  England,  March  7,  1781. 
He  died  Dec.  1,  1849.  Elliot’s  principal  produc¬ 
tions  are  Love,  accompanied  with  a  letter  to  Lord 
Byron,  his  famous  Corn-law  Rhymes,  The  Ranter, 
and  The  Village  Patriarch. 

Ellipse'  is  the  name  of  a  figure  in  Geometry. 
It  may  be  defined  as  a  curve,  the  sum  of*  the  dis¬ 
tances  of  every  point  in  which  from  two  fixed 
points  within  the  curve  is  always  the  same.  These 
two  fixed  points  are  called  the  foci;  and  the 
diameter  drawn  through  them  is  the  major  axis; 
the  minor  axis  bisects  the  major  at  right  angles. 

Elli'psis  (Gr.  eXhindiS,  omission)  is  a  term 
used  in  Grammar  and  Rhetoric,  to  signify  the 
omission  of  a  word  necessary  to  complete  tbie  ex¬ 
pression  or  sentencein  its  usual  form. 

Ellip'soid  is  a  surface  of  the  second  order,  of 
which  the  spheroid  is  a  species,  and  the  most  in¬ 
teresting,  from  the  fact  of  the  form  of  the  earth 
being  spheroidal. 

Ellis,  William,  an  eminent  English  mission¬ 
ary,  was  born  in  the  year  1795,  and  died  in  1872. 

Ellore',  a  town  of  the  district  of  Godavari,  in 
the  Province  of  Madras,  stands  in  latitude  16°  42' 
N.,  and  longitude  81®  10'  E.  According  to  the 
census  of  1871,  the  pop.  of  Ellore  was  25,487. 

Ells'worth,  a  small  but  flourishing  town  of 
Maine,  on  both  sides  of  the  navigable  River  Union. 
It  exports  50,000,000  feet  of  timber  annually, 


carries  on  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries.  Pop.  (1885) 
5,052. 

Elm  ( Ulmua),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Ulmac/a,  natives  of  temperate  climates, 
with  serrated  leaves  unequal  in  their  two  sides, 
and  small  flowers  growing  in  clusters  appearing 
before  the  leaves,  and  containing  four  to  twelve 
stamens  and  one  germen.  One  of  the  most  im¬ 
portant  species  is  the  Common  Small-leaved  or 
English  Elm  ( U.  campestris),  a  tree  of  60  to 
80  feet  in  height,  with  ovato-elliptic,  doubly 
serrated  leaves,  and  flowers  almost  destitute  of 
stalks.  The  wood  is  compact,  and  very  durable 
in  water.  The  tree  is  diffused  all  over  Europe; 
is  found  also  in  the  West  of  Asia  and  North  of 
Africa.  The  elm  balsam  (Deaume  d'orme),  which 
was  formerly  in  great  repute,  is  a  brownish 
substance,  which  is  found  in  dried  galls  of  the 
leaves  in  the  South  of  Europe,  Persia,  etc.  From 
these  galls,  in  an  earlier  stage,  flows  a  clear,  viscid, 
sweetish  liquid,  called  elm  water  (eau  d’orme), 
which  is  used  for  washing  wounds,  contusions, 
and  sore  eyes. — The  Cork-barked  Elm  ( U.  sub- 
era  sa),  by  many  regarded  as  a  variety  of  U. 
campestris,  is  distinguished  by  the  corky  wings  of 
the  bark  of  the  branches.  It  is  a  taller  and  more 
spreading  tree,  with  much  larger  leaves. — The 
Dutch  Cork-barked  Elm  (U.  major)  is  also  a 


Common  English  Elm  (  Ulmus  campestris ) . 


variety  of  U.  campestris.  It  is  still  more  corky 
in  its  bark,  and  has  still  larger  leaves.  It  is  of 
very  quick  growth,  but  the  wood  is  very  inferior. 
— The  Biioad-leayed  or  Wych  Elm  ( U.  mon- 
tana)  is  the  only  species  that  can  with  certainty  be 
regarded  as  indigenous  to  Scotland. — The  Smooth- 
leaved  Elm  ( U.  glabra)  is  by  some  regarded  as  a 
variety  of  U.  montana,  but  is  distinguished, 
besides  other  characters,  by  smooth  leaves,  which 
are  much  smaller. — The  American  or  W iiite  Elm 
(U.  americana),  which  abounds  in  the  basin  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  attains  its  loftiest  stature 
between  latitude  32° — 46°,  is  a  magnificent  tree, 
sometimes  100  feet  in  height,  the  trunk  reaching 
60  or  70  feet  before  it  separates  into  branches, 
j  and  the  widely-diffused  pendulous  branches  float¬ 
ing  gracefully  in  the  air;  but  the  timber  is  not 
much  esteemed. — The  Redoi-  Slippery  Elm((7. 
/M(»c/)isalso  common  in  the  basin  of  the  Mississippi 
as  far  south  as  latitude  31°,  and  in  the  western 
parts  of  Canada.  It  attains  a  height  of  50  or  60 
feet.  The  wood  is  more  valuable  than  that  of  the 
last  species,  but  much  inferior  to  the  English  elm. 
The  leaves  and  bark  yield  abundant  mucilage, 
which  is  bland  and  demulcent,  and  esteemed  a 
valuable  remedy  in  catarrh,  dysentery,  and  other 
complaints. — The  Wahoo  or  Winged  Elm  ( U. 
alata)  is  a  small  tree,  found  from  latitude  37°  to 
Florida,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas,  remarkable  for 
the  branches  being  furnished  on  two  opposite 
sides  with  wings  of  cork.  The  wood  is  fine 
grained,  compact  and  heavy. 

Elmi'ra,  capital  of  Chemung  county,  N.  Y., 
is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Chemung  river. 
Several  railroads  and  canals  center  here,  and  there 
are  numerous  iron  works,  flour  mills,  breweries, 
tanneries,  boot  and  shoe  factories,  etc.  There 
are  several  first-class  higher  educational  institu- 


ELMO’S  FIRE. 


367 


EMERY. 


tions  and  many  first-class  commercial  houses. 
During  the  war  it  was  a  depot  for  military  stores 
and  prisoners.  Pop.,  about  23,000. 

Elmo’s  Fire,  St.  is  the  popular  name  of  an 
appearance  sometimes  seen,  especially  in  southern 
climates  during  thunder-storms,  of  a  brush  or  star 
of  light  at  the  tops  of  masts,  spires,  or  other 
pointed  objects. 

Eloge.  When  a  member  of  the  French  Acad¬ 
emic  dies,  it  is  customary  for  his  successor  to  de¬ 
liver  an  oration,  setting  forth  his  merits  and  ser¬ 
vices.  This  is  called  an  eloge. 

Elohim.  Heb.  plur.  of  Eloali,  Arab,  llah, 
Chald.  Eldh,  Syr.  Atdh,  might,  power;  in  plur., 
intensified,  collective,  highest  power — great 
beings,  kings,  angels,  gods,  Deity.  As  a  pluralis 
excellent  ice  or  majestalis,  and  joined  to  the  singular 
verb,  it  denotes,  with  very  rare  exceptions,  the 
One,  true  God.  Joined  to  the  plural  verb,  how¬ 
ever,  it  usually  means  gods  in  general,  whether 
including  the  One  or  not. 

Elonga'tion,  Angle  of,  is  the  angle  measuring 
the  distance  between  two  stars,  as  seen  from  the 
earth. 

El  Paso  Del  Nor'te  (in  Eng.,  the  pass  of  the 
North),  is  a  narrow  valley  of  9  or  10  miles  in 
length,  within  the  State  of  Chihuahua,  in  latitude 
31°  42'  N.,  and  longitude  106°  40'  W. 

Elssler,  Fanny,  a  celebrated  dancer,  was  born 
at  Vienna,  June  23,  1810,  and  educated  at  Naples 
for  the  ballet,  with  her  elder  sister,  Theresa. 
In  1841  the  two  sisters  came  to  America.  Fanny 
died  in  Vienna  in  November,  1884.  Theresa, 
who  was  born  in  1808,  in  1850  became  the  wife  of 
Prince  Adalbert  of  Prussia.  He  died  in  1873, 
and  she  herself  died  Nov.  19,  1878. 

Elutria'tion  is  the  term  applied  to  the  pro¬ 
cess  of  separating,  by  means  of  water,  the  finer 
particles  of  earths  and  pigments  from  the  heavier 
portions.  This  process  is  much  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  materials  used  in  pottery,  and 
in  the  preparation  of  pigments. 

Elys'iuin  (Gr.  EXv6iuv,  elysion),  a  place  in  the 
infernal  regions  of  the  ancient  classical  mythology 
where  the  souls  of  the  good  dwell  after  death. 

El  'zevier,  or  Elzevik,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
family  of  printers  at  Amsterdam,  Leyden,  and 
other  places  in  Holland,  whose  beautiful  editions 
were  chiefly  published  between  the  years  1583  and 
1680.  Their  books  are  in  great  request  to  this  day, 
and  command  large  prices.  The  Elzeviers  were 
the  first  to  introduce  Italic  type. 

Emana'tion  means,  in  general,  efflux,  or  issue. 
In  theology  and  philosophy,  it  indicates  an  ancient 
doctrine,  which  considered  all  things  as  emanating 
or  flowing  from  a  Supreme  Principle. 

Emancipation,  in  the  Roman  law,  was  the  act 
by  which  the  palria  potest  ns,  or  paternal  author¬ 
ity,  was  dissolved  in  the  lifetime  of  the  father.  It 
took  place  in  the  form  of  a  sale  ( nutneipntio )  by 
the  father  of  the  son  to  a  third  party,  who  manu¬ 
mitted  him. 

Eman'uel  I.,  King  of  Portugal,  styled  The 
Great,  and  sometimes,  also,  The  Fortunate, 
was  born  May  3,  1469,  and  succeeded  John 
II.  in  1495.  Before  his  accession  to  the  throne,  he 
bore  the  title  of  Duke  of  Beja.  Through  his  exer¬ 
tions,  Portugal  became  the  first  naval  power  of 
Europe,  and  the  center  of  the  commerce  of  the 
world.  He  dispatched  Vasco  da  Gama  to  sail  round 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  discover  the  passage  to 
India.  Cabral  was  commissioned  by  him  to  prose¬ 
cute  the  discoveries  of  Vascoda  Gama  still  further, 
and  Corte  Real  to  sail  along  the  coasts  of  North 
America.  The  expeditions  under  Albuquerque 
put  Emanuel  in  possession  of  the  south  coast  of 
Africa  and  of  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Not  satis¬ 
fied  with  this,  he  opened  a  communication  with 
Persia,  Ethiopia,  and,  in  1517,  with  China.  At 
his  death,  Dec.  13,  1521,  Portugal  was  in  posses¬ 
sion  of  a  large  fleet,  strong  fortresses,  well- 
furnished  arsenals,  a  war-like  army,  a  flourishing 
trade  and  commerce,  and  extensive  colonies. 

Embalm 'ing,  the  art  of  preserving  the  body 
after  death,  invented  by  the  Egyptians,  whose 
prepared  bodies  are  known  by  the  name  of  mum¬ 
mies.  The  art  appears  as  old  as  2000  b.c.,  at 
least  the  bodies  of  Cheops,  Mycerinus,  and  others 
of  the  age  of  the  fourth  dynasty  having  been 
embalmed.  It  has  practically  been  lost,  as  noth¬ 
ing  approaching  their  embalming  can  be  done  in 
the  present  day.  By  the  use  of  arsenic  and  other 


antiseptics  putrefaction  can  be  retarded,  but  not 
prevented. 

Embank  'ment,  Eartli'work.  Embankments, 
in  Engineering,  are  masses  of  earth,  rock,  or  other 
materials  artificially  formed,  and  rising  above  the 
natural  surface  of  the  ground.  They  are  chiefly 
formed  either  to  carry  railways,  common  roads, 
canals,  etc.,  over  depressions  of  the  country;  or  for 
hydraulic  purposes,  such  as  the  formation  of  reser¬ 
voirs  for  storing  water;  or  as  defenses  against  the 
overflowing  of  rivers,  the  encroachments  of  the 
sea,  of  lakes,  etc. 

Embar'go  (from  the  Spanish  embargnr,  to  in¬ 
bar,  to  arrest),  is  a  temporary  order  to  prevent  the 
arrival  or  departure  of  ships.  Such  embargoes  are 
generally  connected  in  some  way  or  other  with  a 
state  of  war  between  two  countries 

Em'bassy  is  a  mission  presided  over  by  an 
ambassador,  as  distinguished  from  a  mission  or 
legation  intrusted  to  an  envoy,  or  other  inferior 
diplomatic  minister.  The  United  States  sends 
ministers  to  the  most  prominent  foreign  countries, 
and  the  term  embassy  is  not  used  in  this  country. 

Em'ber,  or  Embering  Days.  According  to 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  of  the  Church  of 
England,  three  days  are  appointed  four  times  in 
the  year  to  be  observed  as  days  of  fasting  and 
abstinence;  these  days  are  the  Wednesday,  Fri¬ 
day,  and  Saturday  after  the  first  Sunday  in  Lent, 
after  the  Feast  of  Pentecost,  after  September  14th 
and  after  December  13th,  and  are  known  as 
ember  days. 

Embez'zlenient,  the  felonious  appropriation 
by  clerks,  servants,  or  others  in  a  position  of  trust, 
of  goods,  money,  or  other  chattels  intrusted  to 
their  care,  or  received  in  the  course  of  their  duty 
on  account  of  tlieir  employers.  It  is  essential  to 
the  crime  of  embezzlement  that  the  article  taken 
should  not  have  been  in  the  actual  or  constructive 
possession  of  the  employer;  for  if  it  were,  the 
offense  would  amount  to  larceny. 

Em 'blent,  a  representation  of  an  object  in¬ 
tended  to  signify  or  indicate  to  the  understand¬ 
ing  something  else  than  that  which  it  directly 
represents  to  the  eye. 

Eniblem'ata  (Gr.  ep/3X e/uara),  the  works  of 
art  with  which  gold  and  silver  vessels  were  deco¬ 
rated  bv  the  ancients. 

Emblica,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Euphorbiacece,  having  a  fleshy  fruit.  The 
fruit  is  very  acid,  and  somewhat  astringent,  which 
qualities  it  retains  when  dry  and  shriveled. 

Eiu 'holism  (derived  from  the  Greek  word 
e/iftoXav,  embolon,  a  plug)  is  the  term  employed  by 
recent  pathologists  to  designate  the  plugging-up 
of  a  vessel  by  a  clot  of  coagulated  blood-fibrin, 
by  a  detached  shred  of  a  morbid  growth  from  a 
diseased  cardiac  valve,  etc.  It  is  in  cases  of  ill- 
nourished,  broken-down  constitutions,  or  after  a 
protracted  or  a  debilitating  illness,  that  the  mor¬ 
bid  tendency  of  the  fibrin  to  coagulate  spontane¬ 
ously  within  the  veins  chiefly  exists,  and  in  such 
cases  very  trivial  circumstances  may  call  it  forth, 
especially  if  they  lead  to  any  pressure  on  the 
vessel.  Clots,  or  portions  of  a  clot,  may  be 
transported  by  the  blood-current  from  the  venous 
system  to  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  and  block 
up  the  pulmonary  artery  either  entirely  or  in 
part;  if  the  occlusion  is  entire,  sudden  death  is 
produced;  while,  if  it  is  only  partial,  gangrene, 
or  inflammation  of  a  part  of  the  lung,  commonly 
ensues. 

Em  bo.s 'sing,  the  art  of  producing  raised  figures 
upon  various  substances,  such  as  paper,  leather, 
wood,  metals,  etc.  This  is  usually  effected  by 
pressing  the  substance  into  a  die. 

Embouchure',  (Fr.)  that  part  of  a  wind  instru¬ 
ment  to  which  the  lips  are  applied  to  produce  the 
sound.  The  term  emboucliuie  is  also  applied  to 
the  mouth  of  a  river. 

Embowetl',  the  heraldic  term  for  anything 


Counter-embowed.  Embowed. 


which  is  bent  like  a  bow.  The  illustrations 
represent  a  sinister  arm  couped  at  the  shoulder, 


embowed.  When  the  arm  is  turned  the  reverse 
way,  it  is  said  to  be  counter-embowed. 

Embra'cery,  ill  Law,  the  offense  of  influencing 
jurors  by  corrupt  means  to  deliver  a  partial 
verdict. 

Embra'sures,  in  Fortification,  are  openings  in 
the  parapets,  flanks  of  bastions,  and  other  parts 
of  the  defense-works,  through  which  cannon  are 
pointed. 

Embroid'ery,  the  art  of  producing  ornamental 
needlework-patterns  upon  fabrics  of  any  kind. 
Tapestry  is  a  kind  of  embroidery,  formerly  done 
with  the  needle,  but  now  chiefly  with  the  shuttle. 
This  kind  of  work  is,  in  fact,  intermediate  be¬ 
tween  embroidery  and  weaving,  and  it  is  some¬ 
what  difficult  to  determine  under  which  it  should 
be  classed. 

Em'bryo  (Gr.  ejufpveiy,  to  begin),  an  organ¬ 
ized  being  in  a  rudimentary  condition,  or  the 
rudiment  from  which,  under  favorable  circum¬ 
stances,  an  organized  body  is  to  be  developed. 
In  Botany,  the  embryo  is  applied  to  the  germ 
formed  within  the  ovule  on  fertilization  As  to 
animals,  the  term  embryo  is  used  as  equivalent 
with  foetus,  and  as  designating  the  rudimentary 
animal  from  the  moment  of  impregnation  until 
the  egg  is  hatched.  Eggs  contain,  with  the 
embryo,  a  store  of  nourishment  for  it  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  its  development. 

Enlbryot'omy,  a  division  of  the  foetus  into 
fragments,  to  extract  it  by  piecemeal,  when  the 
narrowness  of  the  pelvis  or  other  faulty  conforma¬ 
tion  opposes  delivery. 

Em'erald,  a  mineral  generally  regarded  by 
mineralogists  as  merely  another  variety  of  the 
same  species  with  the  beryl,  with  which  it  essen¬ 
tially  agrees  in  composition,  crystallization,  etc., 
differing  in  almost  nothing  but  color.  The  finest 
have  long  been  brought  from  South  America. 

Emer'sioii,  the  reappearance  of  one  heavenly 
body  from  behind  another,  after  an  eclipse  or 
occultation. 

Emerson,  Ralph  Waldo,  was  born  at  Boston, 
May  25,  1803,  entered  Harvard  University  in 
1817,  graduated  in  1821,  and  became  pastor  of  a 
Unitarian  congregation  in  Boston  in  1829.  This 
office  he  resigned  in  1832.  In  1838  appeared  his 
Literary  Ethics,  an,  Oration;  and  in  1841,  The 
Method  of  Nature;  Man  the  Reformer.  Three 
years  later,  he  issued  a  second  series  of  Essays. 
In  1846,  he  published  a  volume  of  poems.  In 
1847-48,  he  went  to  England,  to  deliver  a  series 
of  lectures  on  Representative  Men.  In  1852,  he 
assisted  in  the  publication  of  the  Memoirs  of 
Margaret  Fuller,  with  whom  he  had  been  asso¬ 
ciated  in  the  issue  of  a  magazine,  the  Dial 
(1840-44).  English  Traits  appeared  in  1856,  and 
the  Conduct  of  Life  in  1860.  In  1865,  Emerson 
published  an  Oration  on  the  Death  of  President 
Lincoln;  a  second  volume  of  poems  in  1868; 
Society  and  Solitude,  a  third  volume  of  essays,  in 
1870;  in  1871,  an  introduction  to  Goodwin’s 
translation  of  Plutarch’s  Morals;  Parnassus;  Se¬ 
lected  Poems;  a  fourth  volume  of  essays;  Letters 
and  Social  Aims  (1875);  and  The  Fortunes  of  the 
Republic  (1878).  He  received  the  degree  of  LL.D. 
from  Harvard  in  1866,  and  died  April  27,  1882. 

Em'ery  (Fr.  emeril,  Ger.  schmergel,  Gr.  smiris; 
allied  to  smear),  a  variety  of  corundum,  or  of  the 
same  mineral  species  of  which  corundum  and 
sapphire  (with  Oriental  ruby,  etc.)  are  also  varie¬ 
ties.  Being  very  hard,  it  is  much  used  for  grind¬ 
ing  glass  and  polishing  metals  and  other  hard 
substances.  Emery  is  used  for  a  great  many  im¬ 
portant  purposes  in  the  arts.  Being  next  in  hard¬ 
ness  to  diamond-dust  and  crystalline  corundum, 
the  lapidary  uses  it  for  cutting  and  polishing 
many  kinds  of  stone.  Glass-stoppers  of  all  kinds 
are  ground  into  their  fittings  with  it.  Plate-glass 
is  ground  flat  by  its  means;  it  is  also  used  in  glass- 
cutting,  and  in  grinding  some  kinds  of  metallic 
fittings.  When  employed  for  the  polishing  of 
metals,  it  has  to  be  spread  on  some  kind  of  sur¬ 
face  to  form  a  sort  of  fine  file.  Emery  paper  or 
cloth  is  made  by  sifting  emery  over  paper  or  cloth 
which  has  been  covered  with  a  coating  of  glue. 
It  is  used  either  by  wrapping  it  round  a  fine  file 
or  a  stick,  or  in  the  hand,  according  to  the  form  of 
the  work.  Emery  cake  is  a  compound  of  bees¬ 
wax,  suet,  and  emery,  melted  and  well  worked  to¬ 
gether.  It  is  applied  to  buffing  wheels,  etc.  Emery 
stone  is  a  kind  of  earthenware  mixed  with  emery. 


EMETICS. 


368 


EMPHYSEMA. 


formed  by  pressing  a  mixture  of  clay  and  emery 
into  suitable  molds,  and  then  tiring,  like  com¬ 
mon  earthenware.  It  is  molded  into  wheels, 
laps,  etc. 

Emet'ics,  medicines  given  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  vomiting.  They  are  given  when  it  is 
desirable  to  relieve  the  stomach  of  some  noxious 
or  indigestible  substance,  as  a  narcotic  poison,  or 
excess  of  food,  or  some  special  article  of  diet 
which  has  disagreed.  Emetics  are  also  adminis¬ 
tered  in  cases  of  fever,  where  the  copious  secre¬ 
tion  they  produce  from  the  glands  of  the  stomach 
and  intestines  is  supposed  to  have  a  directly  cura¬ 
tive  effect,  aided,  perhaps,  by  the  sedative  action 
of  emetics  upon  the  circulation  and  nervous  sys¬ 
tem.  In  diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs, 
emetics  are  given  as  the  quickest  and  safest  method 
of  removing  accumulated  mucus  from  the  air- 
passages;  and  in  croup  their  action  is  especially 
favorable,  being  often  followed  by  expectoration 
and  a  rapid  improvement  in  the  suffocative  symp¬ 
toms.  Emetics  are  to  be  given  with  great  cau¬ 
tion,  however,  in  all  depressed  states  of  the 
system,  as  their  primary  action  is  to  produce 
nausea,  which  is  attended  always  with  more  or 
less  diminution  of  the  vital  power,  and  often  with 
great  depression  of  the  heart’s  action,  amounting 
to  syncope  or  fainting.  The  principal  emetics 
are  the  preparations  of  antimony,  zinc,  and  cop¬ 
per;  ipecacuanha  in  powder,  or  in  wine;  squill, 
lobelia,  and,  generally  speaking,  the  whole  class 
of  expectorants  and  irritants;  the  latter  of  which, 
however,  with  the  exception  of  sulphate  of  zinc, 
and  perhaps  mustard  and  water,  form  a  danger 
ous  kind  of  emetics,  which  should  never  be  ad¬ 
ministered  when  the  milder  kinds  can  be  procured. 

Em 'etiue  is  the  alkaloid  which  forms  the  act¬ 
ive  principle  of  ipecacuanha  root.  It  is  a  yellow¬ 
ish-white  powder,  which  is  slightly  soluble  in 
cold  water,  but  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol. 
When  taken  internally,  it  exhibits  violent  emetic 
properties,  one-twentieth  of  a  grain  being  suffi¬ 
cient  to  cause  vomiting. 

Emigration  is  the  passing  from  one  part  of 
the  world  to  another  for  the  purpose  of  perma¬ 
nently  settling  in  it.  In  its  established  significa¬ 
tion,  the  word  refers  to  those  who  leave  the  state 
or  dominions  in  which  they  have  heretofore  lived. 
In  the  country  which  people  leave,  they  are 
called  emigrants  or  wanderers  out — in  that  in 
which  they  settle,  they  are  usually  called  immi¬ 
grants.  The  emigration  fields  for  Europeans  at 
the  present  day  are  the  United  States,  the  British 
colonies  in  America,  and  the  colonies  in  South 
Africa,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand.  As  a 
question  in  political  economy,  opinions  about  emi¬ 
gration  have  oscillated  violently.  At  one  time  it 
has  been  prohibited,  at  another  encouraged  by  all 
kinds  of  tempting  offers  held  out  to  emigrants, 
while  teachers  of  political  economy  have  pro¬ 
claimed  that  there  can  never  be  too  much  emi¬ 
gration.  The  standard  difficulty  is  the  want  of 
adjustment  of  capital  to  labor.  This  is  enhanced 
by  the  circumstance,  that  those  who  wish  to  emi¬ 
grate  are  generally  persons  feeling  the  pressure  of 
poverty  at  home.  The  man,  however,  who  goes 
to  a  place  where  there  is  no  capital  to  employ  him 
with — either  his  own  or  some  other  person’s — is 
just  in  the  position  of  a  shipwrecked  mariner  cast 
on  the  shore.  Government  interference  has  been 
found  necessary  for  the  protection  of  emigrants. 
The  greatest  amount  of  emigration  from  any  one 
European  country  is  from  Great  Britain.  There 
is  also  a  continual  stream  of  emigration  from  Ger¬ 
many,  the  Scandinavian  countries,  Italy,  and  in 
a  lesser  degree,  from  France.  In  the  sixty-six 
years,  from  1815  to  1880  inclusive,  there  left  the 
United  Kingdom  9,243,033  emigrants;  of  whom 
6,004,523  came  to  the  United  States  of  America; 
2,925,513  to  British  colonies;  and  311,997  to  other 
places.  The  country  most  affected  by  emigration 
from  Europe,  is,  of  course,  the  United  States. 
The  total  immigration  into  the  Republic  from  1820 
to  1880  was  10,138,758,  over  3,000,000  being  from 
Ireland,  about  3  000,000  from  Germany,  about 
1,600,000  from  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales. 
Sweden  and  Norway  sent  during  that  period 
306,000;  France,  313,000;  Austro-Hungary,  65,000; 
and  British  America,  568,000.  The  immigrants 
since  1880,  including  1887,  have  been  4,257,252. 

Emigres,  the  name  given  more  especially  to 


those  persons  who  quitted  France  during  the 
Revolution. 

Emii'ian  (or  ZEmilian)  Prov'inces,  a  name 
now'  employed  to  designate  a  portion  of  the  re¬ 
cently  formed  Kingdom  of  Italy,  comprising  the 
northern  part  of  the  States  of  the  Church  (the 
Romagna)  and  the  Duchies  of  Parma  and  Mod¬ 
ena. 

Em'inence,  a  title  given  to  cardinals  by  Urban 
VIII.  Up  to  the  pericxl  of  his  pontificate,  they 
had  been  called  “most  illustrious”  and  “most 
reverend.” 

E'mir,  an  Arabic  word,  equivalent  to  “  ruler,” 
is  a  title  given  in  the  East,  and  in  the  North  of 
Africa,  to  all  independent  chieftains,  and  also  to 
all  the  actual  or  supposed  descendants  of  Moham¬ 
med  through  his  daughter  Fatima. 

Emmen'agogues,  medicines  intended  to  restore, 
or  to  bring  on  for  the  first  time,  the  menstrual 
excretion  in  women.  The  emmenagogues  chiefly 
in  use  are  the  preparations  of  aloes,  iron,  myrrh, 
ergot,  and  other  stimulants  in  connection  with 
purgatives;  and  also  the  local  use  of  the  warm 
bath,  leeches,  fomentation,  etc. 

Emmet,  Robert,  brother  of  the  subject  of  the 
next  article,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  1778.  In 
1798  Emmet  was  expelled  from  the  university, 
on  the  ground  of  being  connected  with  the  Asso¬ 
ciation  of  United  Irishmen.  He  shortly  after¬ 
ward  went  to  the  Continent,  and  remained  there 
till  1802,  when  he  returned  secretly  to  Dublin, 
and  endeavored  to  plan  a  general  Irish  revolu¬ 
tion.  On  July  23,  1803,  he  made  an  attempt  to 
seize  the  arsenal  and  castle  of  Dublin;  but  the 
mob  which  he  headed  scarcely  achieved  so  much 
as  a  serious  riot,  for  they  dispersed  at  the  first 
military  volley.  Emmet  fled  to  the  Wicklow 
Mountains,  and  resolved  to  escape  to  the  Conti¬ 
nent;  but,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  his  friends, 
he  determined  to  have  a  last  interview  with  the 
lady  to  whom  he  was  attached,  a  daughter  of 
Curran,  the  celebrated  barrister.  The  delay 
proved  fatal  to  him.  He  was  apprehended,  and 
committed  for  trial  on  the  charge  of  high  trea¬ 
son.  He  defended  himself  in  a  speech  of  remark¬ 
able  eloquence,  but  was  condemned  to  death,  and 
on  Sept.  20,  1803,  wTas  executed  in  St.  Thomas 
street,  Dublin. 

Emmet,  Thomas  Addis,  a  lawyer  and  politi¬ 
cian,  was  born  in  Cork,  April  24,  1764.  In  1783 
he  went  to  study  medicine  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  and  then  visited  the  chief  medical 
schools  of  the  Continent.  He  returned  in  1788 to 
Ireland,  and  with  the  view  of  preparing  himself 
for  the  Irish  bar,  studied  two  years  at  the  Temple, 
London.  He  was  admitted  a  member  of  the 
Dublin  bar  in  1790.  In  1797  he  became  one  of 
the  directory  of  the  Association  of  United  Irish¬ 
men,  and,  on  the  arrest  of  O’Connor,  about  the 
middle  of  the  same  year,  he  succeeded  him  as 
chief  leader.  On  March  12,  1798,  he  and  other 
leaders  were  arrested,  and  on  April  9,  1799,  he 
was  conveyed  as  a  prisoner  to  Fort  George,  Scot¬ 
land,  where  he  remained  till  June,  1802.  He 
then  received  his  liberty.  In  the  beginning  of 
1803  he  went  to  France,  and  in  the  end  of  the 
year  embarked  for  America.  Here  he  rose  to 
considerable  eminence  at  the  New  York  bar,  and 
in  1812  held  fora  short  time  the  office  of  Attorney- 
General  of  the  State  of  New  York.  He  died 
suddenly,  Nov.  14,  1827. 

Emol  'lients  (from  Lat.  mollis,  soft),  substances 
used  to  soften  the  textures  to  which  they  are 
applied,  as  poultices,  fomentations,  etc.,  exter¬ 
nally,  and  demulcents  internally. 

Emotion.  This  is  the  name  for  one  of  the 
comprehensive  departments  of  the  human  mind. 
It  is  now  usual  to  make  a  threefold  division  of 
the  mind — emotion,  or  feeling;  volition,  or  action 
prompted  by  feelings;  and  intellect,  or  thought. 
It  is  not  meant  that  these  can  be  manifested  in 
absolute  separation;  or  that  we  can  be  at  one 
time  all  emotion,  another  time  all  volition,  and 
again  all  thought,  without  either  of  the  other 
two.  But  although  our  living  mind  is  usually  a 
concurrence,  in  greater  or  less  degree,  of  all  of 
them,  still  they  can  be  distinguished  as  present¬ 
ing  very  different  appearances,  according  as  one 
or  other  predominates.  Wonder,  anger,  fear, 
affection,  are  emotions;  the  acts  that  we  perform 
to  procure  pleasurable  feelings,  and  avoid  pain¬ 
ful,  are  volitions,  or  exercises  of  will;  memory 


and  reasoning  are  processes  of  thought,  or  intel¬ 
lect.  The  emotions  of  the  human  mind  may  be 
classified  under  two  heads:  First — The  pleasures, 
and  pains,  and  modes  of  excitement  growing  out 
of  the  exercise  of  the  senses,  the  movements,  and 
the  appetites.  The  second  head  comprises  the 
special  emotions  not  arising  immediately  out  of 
sensation,  although  connected  therewith.  These 
have  been  variously  classified.  The  following  is 
one  mode  of  laying  them  out:  (1)  Feelings  of 
liberty  and  restraint;  (2)  wonder;  (3)  terror;  (4) 
tender  affections;  (5)  emotions  of  self-compla¬ 
cency,  love  of  approbation,  etc.;  (6)  sentiment  of 
power;  (7)  irascibility;  (8)  emotions  of  action, 
including  the  interest  of  pursuit  or  plot;  (9)  emo¬ 
tions  of  intellect,  love  of  knowledge,  consistency, 
and  inconsistency;  (10)  fine  art  emotions,  or  taste; 
(11)  the  moral  sense. 

Empan  'nel — Empanellare  vel  ponere  in  assists 
etjuralis — to  write  in  a  schedule  or  roll  the  names 
of  such  jurors  as  the  sheriff  returns  to  pass  upon 
any  trial. 

Empecina'do,  Don  Juan  Martin  Diaz,  el, 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Spanish  Revolution 
of  1820,  was  born  in  1775,  and  entered  the 
Spanish  army  in  1792.  After  fighting  against 
the  French  with  great  valor,  he  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  Constitutional  Rebellion  of  1820.  After 
the  triumph  of  the  Absolutists  in  1825,  he  was 
arrested,  exposed  in  an  iron  cage  to  the  contumely 
of  the  passers-by,  and  finally  executed. 

Emped  'ocles,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  Agri- 
gentum,  in  Sicily,  lived  about  450  b.c.  He 
claimed  to  be  of  divine  origin,  and  is  said  to 
have  jumped  into  the  crater  of  oEtna  to  convince 
his  countrymen  that  he  had  been  translated  to 
heaven. 

Em  'peror  (Lat.  imperator).  The  original  sig¬ 
nification  of  this  wras  peculiar  and  somewhat 
technical.  The  imperium  of  a  magistrate  was  the 
power  of  bringing  physical  force  into  operation 
for  the  fulfillment  of  his  behests.  It  was  in  virtue 
of  this  imperium  that  the  title  imperator  was 
given  to  Julius  Caesar.  It  was  this  assumption 
which  gradually  gave  to  the  title  its  modern  sig¬ 
nification,  that  of  the  highest  form  of  sovereignty. 
There  are  now  in  Europe  the  Emperor  of  Russia, 
the  Emperor  of  Austria,  and  Emperor  of  Ger¬ 
many.  In  1876  the  Queen  of  England  assumed  the 
title  of  Empress  of  India,  in  addition  to  those 
which  she  bore  previously. 

Emperor  Moth  (Saturnia  pavonia  minor),  a 
moth  of  the  same  family  ( Bombycidoe )  with  the 
silk-worm  moth.  The  emperor  moth  is  the  largest 
British  lepidopterous  insect.  Its  expanse  of 
wings  is  about  three  and  a  half  inches.  Each 
wing  is  ornamented  with  a  large,  eye-like,  glassy, 
and  transparent  spot.  The  peacock  moth  ( S . 
pavonia  major)  is  the  largest  European  species, 


Emperor  Moth,  with  Caterpillar,  Pupa,  and  Cocoon. 


and  attains  an  expanse  of  five  inches  across  the 
wings.  The  cocoons  of  the  emperor  moth  are 
remarkable  for  being  formed  internally  of  stiff, 
convergent  elastic  threads,  which  readily  permit 
the  escape  of  the  insect,  but  prevent  the  entrance 
of  intruders.  The  cocoons  of  this  genus  of  moths 
are  invested  with  silk,  which  in  China  and  India 
is  collected  for  use. 

Emphyse'ma,  an  unnatural  distension  of  a 
part  with  air.  Emphysema  of  the  cellular  texture 


EMPIRIC. 


369 


ENCRINITES. 


often  takes  place  in  the  neighborhood  of  wounds 
of  the  air-passages  in  the  lungs,  and  is  the  conse¬ 
quence  of  an  escape  of  air  from  these  parts. 
Emphysema  of  the  lungs  is  the  consequence 
either  of  distension  or  of  rupture  of  the  air- 
vesicles,  especially  on  the  surface. 

Empir'ic  (Gr.  epniipiKoi,  empeirikos,  an  ex¬ 
perimentalist  or  searcher  after  facts  in  Nature, 
from  Ttsipaoo ,  peirao,  I  try).  By  an  empiric  in 
medicine  is  now  understood  a  man  who,  from 
want  of  theoretic  knowledge,  prescribes  remedies 
by  guess  according  to  the  name  of  the  disease  or 
to  individual  symptoms,  without  thinking  of  the 
constitution  of  the  patient  or  other  modifying 
circumstances.  What  are  called  specifics  are 
administered  on  this  principle,  or  want  of  prin¬ 
ciple. 

Empir'ical  Form'tila,  in  Chemistry,  is 
the  mode  of  expressing  the  constituents  of 
a  compound  in  symbols,  where  the  total  quan¬ 
tity  of  each  element  is  written  down  with¬ 
out  reference  to  any  particular  order  or  state 
of  combination.  Thus,  alcohol  consists  of  2 
equivalents  of  carbon,  6  of  hydrogen,  and  1 
of  oxygen,  and  its  empirical  formula  is  C2Hr,0. 
When  regarded,  however,  as  a  member  of  a  fam¬ 
ily  group,  the  constituents  are  arranged  in  a 
more  systematic  manner,  as  in  C2H4,II20,  repre¬ 
senting  the  theoretical  constitution  of  alcohol, 
which,  strictly  speaking,  is  the  hydrated  oxide  of 
ethyl.  Again,  the  rational  formula  of  Epsom 
salts,  which  is  MgS04,7H20,  represents  it  theo¬ 
retically  as  a  hydrated  sulphate  of  magnesia; 
while  the  empirical  formula,  MgH,4SOu,  merely 
tells  us  that  it  consists  of  1  equivalent  of  mag¬ 
nesium  (Mg),  1  of  sulphur  (S),  14  equivalents  of 
hydrogen,  and  11  of  oxygen. 

Empirical  Laws  are  such  as  express  relation¬ 
ships,  which  may  be  merely  accidental,  observed 
to  subsist  among  phenomena,  but  which  do  not 
suggest  or  imply  the  explanation  or  cause  of  the 
production  of  the  phenomena. 

EmpoTium  (Gr.  Epitopiov,  emporim,  trading- 
place).  The  word  is  derived  from  eunopot,,  em- 
poros,  which  signified  in  Homer’s  time  a  person 
who  sailed  in  a  ship  belonging  to  another,  but 
latterly  meant  a  wholesale  merchant,  as  opposed 
to  a  retailer,  who  was  called  nanyXoi,  kapelos. 
An  emporium  thus  came  to  be  applied  to  the  re¬ 
ceptacles  in  which  wholesale  merchants  stowed 
their  goods  in  seaports  and  elsewhere,  and  thus 
corresponded  to  our  warehouse,  as  opposed  to  a 
shop. 

Empye'ma  (Gr.  EpnvEpa),  an  internal  sup¬ 
puration,  a  word  now  applied  exclusively  to  a 
collection  of  pus  in  the  pleura,  causing  pressure 
of  the  lung,  and  often  attended  by  hectic  fever. 

Ems,  usually  called  the  Baths  of  Ems,  to  dis¬ 
tinguish  it  from  other  places  of  the  same  name,  a 
bathing-place  known  to  the  Romans,  and  cele¬ 
brated  iu  Germany  as  early  as  the  fourteenth  cen¬ 
tury.  It  is  situated  about  four  miles  from  Cob¬ 
lenz,  near  the  most  picturesque  parts  of  the 
Rhine.  Pop.  (1880),  6,943. 

Ems,  a  river  in  the  Northwest  of  Germany,  rises 
in  Westphalia,  and  empties  itself  into  Dollart  Bay, 
an  estuary  of  the  German  Ocean,  after  a  course  of 
250  miles.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the  Aa,  the 
Haase,  and  the  Leda. 

E'mii  ( Dromaius  —  or  Dromecius — Novas  hol- 


Emu  and  Young. 

andioe),  a  very  large  bird,  one  of  the  Strulhi- 


onidce  or  Brevipennes.  The  emu  is  taller  than 
the  cassowary,  which  it  resembles  in  the  general 
character  of  its  plumage.  Its  wings  are  mere 
rudiments  hidden  beneath  the  feathers  of  the 
body.  In  a  wild  state  it  sometimes  occurs  in 
small  flocks;  but  it  has  now  become  rare  in  and 
around  all  the  settled  parts  of  Australia. 

EmuPsin,  or  Synaptase,  is  a  peculiar  ferment 
present  in  the  bitter  and  sweet  almond,  and 
which  forms  a  constituent  of  all  almond  emul¬ 
sions.  When  bitter  almonds  are  bruised,  and 
water  added,  the  emulsin  acts  as  a  ferment  on 
the  amygdalin,  and  decomposes  the  latter  into 
volatile  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  prussic  acid,  grape 
sugar,  formic  acid,  and  water.  Emulsin  consists 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen. 

Emul'sion  is  the  term  applied  to  those  prepara¬ 
tions  in  pharmacy  obtained  by  triturating  certain 
substances  with  water,  and  where  the  product  is 
a  milky-white  opaque  mixture  of  a  gummy  con¬ 
sistence,  and  composed  more  or  less  of  oily  parti¬ 
cles  floating  in  mechanical  suspension  in  the 
mucilaginous  liquid.  The  true  and  oily  emulsions 
are  those  containing  true  oil,  as  the  emulsion  of 
bitter  almonds,  obtained  by  bruising  the  latter  in 
a  mortar  with  water,  and  the  false,  or  not  oily , 
where  no  true  oil  is  suspended,  as  where  camphor, 
balsams,  or  resins  are  rubbed  up  with  yolk  of  egg, 
mucilage,  or  dilute  spirit  of  wine. 

E'niys,  a  genus  of  marsh  tortoises,  from  which 
the  whole  family  of  marsh  tortoises  is  sometimes 
called  Emydte.  They  feed  chiefly  on  animal  food, 
as  insects  and  mollusks,  aquatic  reptiles,  and  fishes, 
some  of  them  even  preying  upon  birds  and  mam¬ 
malia,  which  come  within  their  reach.  Two  or 
three  species  of  Emydce  are  natives  of  the  south  of 


Alligator  Tortoise,  in  the  act  of  seizing  a  Water- 
Spaniel. 


Europe;  but  two  species  are  particularly  abundant 
in  North  America,  the  painted  tortoise  (Emys 
picta),  and  the  alligator  tortoise  ( Emysaura 
serpentina).  The  flesh  of  some,  as  Cistudo  euro- 
pcea,  is  used  for  food. 

Enam'el  (Fr.  email,  originally  esmail,  from 
the  same  root  as  smelt),  the  name  given  to  vitrified 
substances  of  various  composition  applied  to  the 
surface  of  metals.  Enameling  is  practiced  (1) 
for  purposes  of  utility,  as  in  making  the  dial- 
plates  of  watches  and  clocks,  coating  the  insides 
of  culinary  vessels,  etc.,  when  it  may  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  useful  arts;  and  also  (2)  for 
producing  objects  of  ornament  and  beauty — 
artistic  designs,  figures,  portraits,  etc.,  when  it 
belongs  to  the  fine  arts.  The  basis  of  all  enamels 
is  an  easily  fusible,  colorless  silicate  or  glass,  to 
which  the  desired  color  and  the  desired  degree  of 
opaqueness  are  imparted  by  mixtures  of  metallic 
oxides.  The  molten  mass,  after  cooling,  is  re¬ 
duced  to  a  fine  powder,  and  washed,  and  the 
moist  paste  is  then  usually  spread  with  a  spatula 
upon  the  surface  of  the  metal;  the  whole  is  then 
exposed  in  a  furnace  (fired,  as  it  is  called)  till  the 
enamel  is  melted,  when  it  adheres  firmly  to  the 
metal.  The  metal  mostcommonly  used  as  a  ground 
for  enamel  is  copper;  but  for  the  finest  kinds  of 
enamel-work  gold  and  silver  are  also  used. 

Enarthro'sis  is  the  term  used  by  anatomical 
writers  to  express  the  kind  of  joint  which  admits 
of  the  most  ,  extensive  range  of  motion.  From 
the  mode  of  connection  and  the  form  of  the  bones 
in  this  articulation,  it  is  commonly  called  the  ball- 
and-socket-joint.  It  occurs  in  the  hip  and  shoul¬ 
der  joints. 

Eucamp'ment  (Lat.  campus,  a  plain)  is  a  lodg¬ 
ment  or  home  for  soldiers  in  the  field.  There  are 


intrenched  camps,  where  an  army  is  intended  to 
be  kept  some  time,  protected  against  the  enemy; 
flyivy  camps,  for  brief  occupation;  camps  of  posi¬ 
tion,  bearing  relation  to  the  strategy  of  the  com¬ 
mander;  and  camps  of  instruction,  to  habituate 
the  troops  to  the  duties  and  fatigues  of  war. 

Encaus'tic  Painting  (Gr.  Evnavorixp,  en- 
causlike,  in-fired  or  fixed  by  fire),  a  manner  of 
painting  practiced  by  the  ancients,  in  which  the 
chief  ingredient  used  for  uniting  and  fixing  the 
colors  was  wax,  dissolved  by  heat. 

Encaustic  Tiles,  ornamental  tiles  made  of 
earthenware,  and  extensively  used  for  paving 
churches,  halls,  conservatories,  etc. 

Enceinte,  (Fr.)  in  Fortification,  denotes  gener¬ 
ally  the  whole  area  of  a  fortified  place. 

Encepli'alocele  (derived  from  the  Greek  tv, 
in,  xscpaXe,  the  head,  and  xiX s,  a  tumor)  is  the 
term  applied  to  a  tumor  projecting  through  the 
skull,  in  one  of  the  pans  where  the  bones  are  in¬ 
complete  in  infancy,  and  consisting  of  a  protrusion 
of  the  membranes  of  the  brain,  containing  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  brain  itself.  The  most  common  sit¬ 
uation  of  such  tumors  is  in  the  middle  line  and 
at  the  back  of  the  head.  Surgical  interference  is 
scarcely  ever  justifiable,  and  all  that  can  usually 
be  done  is  to  give  uniform  support  to  the  tumor, 
and  to  defend  it  from  injury. 

Enclion'droma  is  the  term  employed  in  Patho¬ 
logical  Anatomy  to  signify  an  abnormal  cartilag¬ 
inous  growth.  These  growths  most  commonly 
occur  in  connection  with  the  bones,  and  they  are 
not  infrequent  in  some  of  the  glandular  struct¬ 
ures. 

Enc'kc,  Jon.  Franz,  the  well-known  astron¬ 
omer,  was  born  Sept.  23,  1791,  at  Hamburg.  In 
1825,  from  the  observatory  of  Seeberg,  he  was 
called  to  Berlin  as  successor  to  Tralles,  in  the 
Secretaryship  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
as  Director  of  the  observatory.  While  at  Gotha,  the 
astronomical  prize  offered  by  Cotta  was  awarded 
to  Enckd  by  the  judges  Gauss  and  Olbers,  for 
his  determination  of  the  orbit  of  the  comet  of 
1680.  This  led  him  to  solve  another  problem, 
which  had  been  proposed  along  with  the  other — 
viz.,  the  distance  of  the  sun.  The  solution,  by 
means  of  the  two  transits  of  Venus  in  1761  and 
1769,  is  published  iu  two  separate  tracts  (Die  Ent- 
fernung  der  Sonne,  Gotha,  1822-1824).  In  1819,  he 
proved  that  the  comet  discovered  by  Pons,  Nov. 
26,  1818,  revolved  in  the  hitherto  incredibly  short 
period  of  about  1,200  days,  and  had  been  already 
observed  in  1786,  1795,  and  1805.  It  has  since 
gone  by  the  name  of  Encke’s  comet,  and  has  ap¬ 
peared  regularly;  the  period  of  its  recurrence 
being  3.29  years,  or  about  3/5  years.  Until  his 
death,  1865,  Encke  was  a  voluminous  writer  on 
astronomical  subjects. 

Encore'  (again),  a  French  expression,  gener¬ 
ally  used  by  the  audience  of  a  theater  or  concert- 
room,  when  requesting  the  repetition  of  the  per¬ 
formance  of  a  piece  of  music.  It  is  not  used  by 
the  French  themselves,  who,  in  similar  circum¬ 
stances,  exclaim  bis  (twice). 

Encri'nal,  orENCRiNiTAL  Limestone,  a  name 
given  to  some  carboniferous  limestones,  from  the 
great  abundance  in  them  of  the  calcareous  skele¬ 
tons  of  encrinites,  whole  masses  of  the  rock  being 
almost  entirely  composed  of  them. 

En'crinites,  a  name  applied  generally  to  the 
fossil  crinoidea,  a  family  of  echinodermata. 
Crinoids  are  characterized  by  having  their  bodies 
supported,  during  the  whole  or  part  of  their  ex¬ 
istence,  on  a  longer  or  shorter  jointed  calcareous 


Encrinite  Stems  (Mountain  Limestone). 


stem.  The  stem  is  attached  either  by  the  ex¬ 
panded  base,  or  by  jointed  processes,  to  the  rocky 
bed  of  the  sea,  or  perhaps,  in  some  cases,  to  float¬ 
ing  bodies,  like  barnacles.  The  family  com¬ 
menced  its  existence  with  the  earliest  sediment¬ 
ary  deposits.  Seventy-three  genera  have  been 
described,  containing  upward  of  300  species, 
two-thirds  of  which  are  found  only  in  palaeozoic 
rocks.  The  most  ancient  encrinites  have  nearly 


24 


ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


370 


ENGLAND. 


all  round  stems,  the  few  that  are  five-sided  having 


Apio  Crinites  Rotundus  (from  Buckland's  Bridgewater 
Treatise). 

a, expanded;  b,  closed;  c,  showing  where  the  stem  has 
been  injured,  and  repaired  by  calcareous  secretion. 

the  articulated  surface  of  the  joints  simply  radi¬ 
ated. 

Encyclopedia  means  properly  a  book  or  work 
professing  to  give  information,  more  or  less  full, 
on  the  whole  circle  of  human  knowledge.  The 
name  is  compounded  of  two  Greek  words, 
evxvxXioS,  enkyklios,  circular  or  general;  and 
naideia,  paideia,  discipline  or  instruction.  These 
words  were  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  to 
signify  the  circle  of  instruction  through  which 
every  free-horn  youth  had  to  pass  before  entering 
on  public  life.  The  compound  name  encyclope¬ 
dia  appears  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  Greeks, 
and  also  to  the  Latin  writers  of  the  classic  period, 
and  there  is  no  evidence  that  either  Greeks  or 
Romans  ever  applied  the  words,  single  or  com¬ 
pounded,  to  designate  a  book.  The  short  form 
cyclopaedia  has  still  less  classical  authority  than 
encyclopaedia.  Encyclopaedias,  in  the  modern 
sense  of  the  word,  are  most  commonly  alphabeti¬ 
cal;  but  sometimes  the  arrangement  is  “rational,” 
i.  e.,  according  to  the  natural  relations  of  the  sub¬ 
jects.  An  alphabetical  encyclopaedia  is  a  diction¬ 
ary  of  universal  knowledge.  Besides  this,  its  proper 
meaning,  of  a  repertory  of  universal  knowledge, 
the  name  enclyclopaedia  is  often  applied — less 
properly,  perhaps— to  alphabetical  works  whose 
scope  is  limited  to  a  particular  branch — works  dif- 
ering  in  no  respect  from  others  which  are  styled 
dictionaries,  gazetteers,  etc. 

Emlein'ic  (from  ev,  en,  among,  and  Sr/poi, 
demon,  the  people),  a  term  applied  to  diseases 
which  affect  numbers  of  persons  simultaneously, 
but  so  as  to  show  a  connection  with  localities  as 
well  as  with  their  inhabitants.  Endemic  diseases 
are  usually  spokeii  of  as  contrasted  with  epi¬ 
demic  and  sporadic;  the  first  term  indicating  that 
a  disease  infests  habitually  the  population  within 
certain  geographical  limits,  and  also  that  it  is 
incapable  of  being  transferred  or  communicated 
beyond  those  limits;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
disease  is  termed  epidemic  if  it  is  transmitted 
without  reference  to  locality;  and  sporadic  if  it 
occurs  in  isolated  instances  only.  The  most 
marked  type  of  endemic  disease  is  ague  and  fever. 

En1  derby  Laud,  discovered  by  Biscoe  in  1831, 
lies  in  latitude  67°  30'  S.,  longitude  50°  E. 

Endicott,  William  C.,  was  born  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts  in  1827,  became  Justice  of  the  Massa¬ 
chusetts  Supreme  Court  in  1873,  and  in  1884  was 
Democratic  candidate  for  Governor  of  his  native 
State,  but  was  defeated.  In  March,  1885,  he 
became  Secretary  of  War,  and  held  office  until 
March  4,  1889. 

En'dive  (Cichorium  endivia),  an  annual  or 
biennial  plant,  of  the  same  genus  with  chicorv, 
said  to  be  a  native  of  China  and  Japan,  but  which 
is  naturalized  in  the  Levant,  and  has  long  been  in 
cultivation  as  a  garden  vegetable,  its  blanched 
root-leaves  being  much  used  as  a  salad. 

Endocardi'tis,  disease  of  the  internal  surface 
of  the  heart,  resulting  in  the  deposit  of  fibrin 
upon  the  valves.  It  is  usually  the  product  of 
long-continued  illness  of  a  nature  which  leaves 
the  vital  forces  in  an  enfeebled  condition. 


Endog'enous  Plants,  or  Endogens  (Gr.  evdov, 
endon,  within,  and  yiveiv ,  to  produce),  one  of  the 
great  classes  into  which  the  vegetable  kingdom  is 
divided,  the  others  receiving  the  corresponding 
designations  of  exogenous  plants  and  acrogenous 
plants.  The  character  from  which  this  designa¬ 
tion  is  derived  is  found  in  the  structure  of  the 
stem,  which  does  not  increase  in  thickness  by 
additional  layers  on  the  outside  like  the  exogenous 
stem,  familiarly  illustrated  in  all  the  trees  of  the 
colder  parts  of  the  world,  but  receives  its  addi¬ 
tions  of  woody  matter  in  the  interior,  and  in 
general  does  not  continue  to  increase  indefinitely 
in  thickness  like  the  exogenous  stem,  hut  is 
arrested  when  a  certain  thickness  has  been  at¬ 
tained,  different  in  different  species,  and  after¬ 
ward  increases  only  in  length. 

Eu'ilosmose  and  Ex 'osmose,  terms  applied  by 
Dutrochet,  the  first  investigator,  to  the  trans¬ 
fusion  that  takes  place  when  two  liquids  or  two 
gases  of  different  densities  are  separated  by  an 
animal  or  a  vegetable  membrane. 

Endym  'ion.  In  the  genealogy  of  the  Iapetids 
Endymion  is  said  to  be  the  son  of  Aethlius,  who 
is  the  son  of  Zeus  by  Protogeneia,  the  daughter  of 
Deucalion  and  Pyrrha.  The  legend  of  Endym¬ 
ion  is  that  Selene  (the  moon)  loved  him,  and 
that  Zeus  left  him  free  to  choose  anything  that  he 
might  desire,  lrschoice  being  an  everlasting  sleep, 
in  which  he  might  remain  youthful  for  ever. 

Ene  ma  (Gr.  ev,  en,  in,  and  iiggeiv,  to  enter), 
a  medicine  or  fluid  substance  conveyed  into  the 
body  by  injection,  usually  through  the  rectum  or 
lower  bowel. 

Enfantin,  Barthelemy  Prosper,  the  chief 
representative  of  St.  Simonism,  was  born  in  the 
year  1796.  He  was  prosecuted  by  the  govern¬ 
ment  for  his  utterances,  and  went  to  Algeria, 
whence  he  returned,  and  after  the  revolution  of 
’48,  edited  a  newspaper  devoted  to  his  theories. 
He  was  afterward  a  railroad  official,  and  died  in 
1864. 

Enfilade'  is  a  military  term  applied  to  a  fire  of 
musketry  or  artillery  made  in  the  direction  of  the 
length  of  a  line  of  troops  or  of  a  line  of  rampart. 

Enfranchise,  Enfranchisement,  the  admis¬ 
sion  to  certain  liberties  or  privileges. 

Enghien,  Louis  Antoine  Henri  de  Bour¬ 
bon,  Due  d’,  only  son  of  Prince  Henri  Louis 
Joseph,  Due  de  Bourbon,  was  born  at  Chantilly, 
Aug.  2,  1772.  In  1789  he  quitted  France,  and 
traveled  through  several  countries  of  Europe. 
In  1792  he  entered  the  corps  of  emigres  assembled 
by  his  grandfather,  the  Prince  of  Conde,  on  the 
Rhine,  and  commanded  the  vanguard  from  1796 
until  1799.  In  1804  he  was  shot  for  alleged  com¬ 
plicity  in  a  plot  against  the  life  of  Napoleon  I. 

Engineering — the  art  of  designing  and  con¬ 
structing  works — embraces  a  very  wide  range  of 
sub  jects,  and  the  different  depart  ments  into  which 
the  profession  is  now  divided  do  not  admit  of 
very  strict  definition;  but  it  may  be  mentioned 
that  civil  engineering  includes  the  design  and  con¬ 
struction  of  canals,  river  navigations,  harbors, 
docks,  roads,  bridges,  railways,  lighthouses, 
water  supply,  irrigation,  sewerage,  gas  supply, 
telegraphs,  etc;  mechanical  engineering  includes 
machinery,  mill-work,  steam-engines,  iron  ship¬ 
building,  agricultural  implements,  etc.;  mining 
engineering  includes  the  working  and  raising  of 
coal,  iron,  lead,  copper,  etc.;  and  other  minerals; 
and  military  engineering  includes  fortifications, 
gunnery,  artillery,  telegraphy,  etc.,  as  applied  in 
warfare. 

England  (See  also  Great  Britain).  England, 
Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  with  their  adjacent 
islands,  form  what  is  known  as  the  United  King¬ 
dom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  British 
Islands  consist  of  two  large  and  irregularly-shaped 
islands,  known  respectively  as  Greff  Britain  and 
Ireland,  and  of  a  multitude  of  smaller  islands 
mostly  to  the  north  and  northwest  of  the  larger 
division.  England  occupies  the  southern  and  Scot¬ 
land  the  northern  half  of  the  larger  island,  which 
extends  from  latitude  50°  to  about  58°,  and  is  sepa¬ 
rated  from  France  by  the  British  Channel,  and 
from  the  Low  Countries,  Denmark  and  the  Scandi¬ 
navian  Peninsula  by  the  German  Ocean.  Ireland 
is  a  smaller  island  to  the  west,  and  is  the  most  west¬ 
ern  land  of  Europe.  It  is  separated  from  the  larger 
island  by  St.  George’s  Channel  and  the  Irish  Sea, 
and  its  western  shores  are  washed  by  the  Atlantic. 


Of  the  smaller  islands  the  chief  are  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  groups,  to  the  north  of  Scotland;  the 
Hebrides,  Mull,  Islay,  and  others  to  the  west;  the 
Isle  of  Man  in  the  Irish  Sea;  the  Scilly  Islands  to 
the  southwest;  and  the  Channel  Islands,  which 
though  geographically  a  part  of  France,  have  been 
for  many  years  under  British  rule.  Wales,  with  the 
Island  of  Auglesea,  is  properly  an  integral  part  of 
England.  All  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain  soutli 
of  the  River  Tweed  and  the  Cheviot  Hills  is  in¬ 
cluded  in  England  and  Wales,  the  twelve  counties 
of  Wales  occupying  the  central  peninsula  of  the 
west.  The  northern  boundary  is  formed  by  Scot¬ 
land;  the  eastern  by  the  German  Ocean;  the  south¬ 
ern  by  the  British  Channel,  which  is  21  miles  wide 
at  the  Straitsof  Dover,  and  nearly  100  miles  at  the 
Land’s  End;  and  the  western  and  southwestern  by 
the  Irish  Sea,  St.  George’s  Channel  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean .  The  southern  part  of  the  island  forms  an 
irregular  triangle,  with  its  apex  at  Berwick-on- 
Tweed,  in  the  extreme  northeast.  It  lies  between 
latitude  49°  48'  and  55°  45'  N.,  and  longitude  1® 
45' E.  and  5®  44'  W.;  its  extreme  length  is  365 
miles;  greatest  breadth,  280  miles;  area,  58,320 
square  miles,  being  rather  more  than  that  of  the 
State  of  Illinois.  The  total  population  of  Eng¬ 
land  and  Wales -at  the  last  census  was  25,968,286. 
The  country  is  generally  hilly,  and  in  Wales  and 
the  northwest  counties  many  of  the  summits  are 
from  2,500  to  3,200  feet  high.  The  hills  are  sepa¬ 
rated  by  fertile  valleys;  there  are  extensive  ele¬ 
vated  plateaus,  known  as  “moors,”  in  Yorkshire, 
Devon,  and  Kent;  and  Essex,  Cambridge,  and 
Lincolnshire  contain  much  marsh  or  fenny  country. 
Though  the  rivers  are  short,  several  of  them  are 
deep  and  wide;  the  Thames,  Severn,  Humber, 
and  Mersey  being  of  the  greatest  commercial  im¬ 
portance.  The  land  sustains  a  larger  population 
than  any  other  of  like  area.  •  The  coast  is  deeply 
indented  and  the  estuaries  of  the  larger  rivers 
furnish  fine  harbors.  Altogether  the  coast  line 
extends  over  2,000  miles.  England  is  divided 
into  forty  counties.  The  climate  is  subject  to 
considerable  variations  of  heat  and  cold,  and  is 
proverbially  changeable.  As  a  rule  the  atmos¬ 
phere  is  heavily  charged  with  moisture,  especially 
in  the  west,  but  the  average  annual  rainfall  is  not 
more  than  thirty-two  inches.  The  thermometer 
rarely  falls  below  zero,  (F.)  The  mean  annual 
temperature  at  Greenwich  is  about  49°  F. ;  that  of 
the  southwest  decidedly  higher.  The  mean  range 
of  temperature  is  24^®;  the  mean  temperature 
of  January  384°,  and  that  of  July  62i®.  The  soil 
is  fert  ile,  and  in  most  districts  is  highly  cultivated. 
All  the  hardier  cereals  flourish,  but  maize  is  un¬ 
known.  The  land  is  well-wooded,  but  contains 
few  large  forests,  and  is  dependent  for  its  supply 
of  lumber  on  foreign  countries.  The  chief  fuel 
is  bituminous  coal.  The  apple,  pear,  and  other 
hardy  fruits  flourish.  Much  of  the  land  is  de¬ 
voted  to  grazing,  and  dairy  farmi  g  is  perhaps 
the  most  important  branch  of  husbandry.  The 
new  Domesday  Book,  recently  prepared  under 
Parliamentary  authority,  shows  that  in  1873  there 
were  in  England  and  Wales  972,836  owners  of 
land,  holding  33,013,515  acres  in  all;  of  which 
over  22,000,000  acres  are  owned  by  10,207  pro¬ 
prietors.  The  twelve  largest  land  owners,  all  he¬ 
reditary  noblemen,  hold  over  1,000,000  acres. 
The  gross  estimated  rental  of  all  the  land  in  Eng¬ 
land  is  £99,352,300,  or  nearly  $500,000,000.  Offi¬ 
cial  returns  show  the  acreage  under  cultivation  as 
follows :  Grain  crops,  7,800,000  acres;  potatoes, 
turnips  and  vegetables,  3,000,000;  clover  and  other 
grasses,  3,100,000;  permanent  pasture,  over  12,- 
000,000  acres.  The  live  stock  included  l,2i'0,000 
horses,  4,500,000  head  of  cattle,  21,200,000  sheep, 
and  2,400,000  swine.  At  the  last  census  there  were 
1,447,181  persons  returned  as  agriculturists.  The 
fisheries  of  the  English  coasts  are  of  great  value. 
There  are  14, 126  boats  of  150,268  tons  employed 
in  England  and  Wales,  principally  in  the  herring 
and  mackerel  fisheries.  The  number  in  the 
United  Kingdom  is  over  35,000,  with  a  tonnage 
of  274,267.  "  Vast  quantities  of  herrings  are  ex¬ 
ported,  but  on  the  other  hand  over  $8,000,000 
worth  of  other  fish  are  imported  every  year. 
The  coal  fields  are  of  great  extent  and.  the  . beds 
contain  immense  quantities  of  fine  bituminous 
coal.  The  iron  ores,  although  not  of  the  best 
quality,  have  been  worked  for  many  years. 
Copper,  tin,  and  zinc  blende  abound;  over  1,000,- 


ENGLISH  CHANNEL. 


371 


ENTABLATURE. 


000  tons  of  salt  are  produced  yearly  in  Cheshire; 
building  stone  of  good  quality  is  widely  dis¬ 
tributed,  and  the  country  is  richly  supplied 
with  brick  and  porcelain  clays.  The  most  recent 
official  returns  show  that  there  were  3,881  col¬ 
lieries  in  operation  in  England  and  Wales,  their 
aggregate  production  being  133,344,716  tons  of 
2,240  pounds,  valued  at  over  $240,000,000.  The 
value  of  all  other  minerals  produced  in  Great 
Britain  yearly  was  over  $150,000,000.  The  last 
census  showed  376,783  miners  and  152,673  workers 
in  stone  and  clay,  quarrymen  and  the  like.  The 
slate  quarries  of  Wales  are  very  valuable,  and 
over  16,000,000  tons  of  iron  ore,  valued  at  $33,- 
000,000,  were  mined  in  that  country  and  England. 
It  is  in  manufactures,  especially  of  textile  fabrics, 
that  England  finds  employment  for  the  vast 
bulk  of  its  industrial  population.  At  the  last 
accounting  there  were  2,655  cotton  factories  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  with  42,000,000  spindles 
and  463,118  power  looms,  and  giving  employ¬ 
ment  to  479,515  persons,  of  whom  nearly  two- 
thirds  were  females.  The  1,800  woolen  factories 
employed  134,605,  and  the  692  worsted  factories 
142,097  persons.  There  were  818  silk  factories 
employing  46,000  persons,  and  449  factories  for 
spinning  flax  with  128,000  persons  employed. 
Fabrics  of  hemp  and  jute,  lace  and  other  tex¬ 
tiles  furnished  employment  to  at  least  70,000 
more.  Over  1,500,000,000  pounds  of  raw  cotton 
were  imported,  as  well  as  immense  quantities 
of  hemp,  flax,  silk,  and  wool.  The  home  pro¬ 
duction  of  wool,  flax,  and  hemp  was  also  very 
large.  The  manufactures  of  iron  and  other 
metals  are  next  in  importance  to  those  of  tex¬ 
tile  fabrics.  Birmingham  and  Sheffield  are  the 
great  centers  of  the  hardware  trade,  machinery, 
cutlery',  agricultural  implements,  glass,  pottery, 
and  other  manufactured  goods  being  produced 
at  many  points.  Brewing  employs  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  hands,  while  the  leather  trade  and  the 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  furnish  employ¬ 
ment  for  many  thousands.  Ship  building  is 
carried  on  principally  along  the  Thames,  the 
Tees,  the  Mersey,  and  the  Tyne.  The  foreign 
and  internal  commerce  of  England  has  for  many 
years  been  very  great.  The  total  imports  now 
reach  over  $2,000,000,000  per  annum,  and  the 
exports  of  home  produce  are  more  than  $1,110,- 
000,000.  The  shipping  interests  of  Great  Britain 
are  enormous,  and  have  increased  ten-fold  in  t he 
last  forty  years.  The  total  tonnage  of  British 
vessels  at  the  last  return  equaled  more  than 
8,000,000  tons.  The  English  railways  extend 
over  10,000  miles  of  track,  and  carry  each  year 
600,000,000  passengers.  The  postal  and  telegraph 
systems  are  run  by  the  Government.  When  it 
comes  to  speak  of  English  cities,  first  and  foremost 
appears  Loudon.  With  its  4,000,000  inhabitants, 
and  its  annual  growth  of  hundreds  of  thousands, 
this  “  province  covered  with  houses”  is  phenom¬ 
enal.  The  so-called  “City  of  London ”  is  but  a 
mile  square,  but  it  is  the  center  of  the  commer¬ 
cial  world.  Nowhere  is  wealth  so  concentrated  as 
here.  Greater  London  extends  into  four  counties. 
Next  in  importance  to  the  metropolis  stands  Liv¬ 
erpool,  the  great  port  of  the  west,  through  which 
the  vast  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom  with 
America  is  carried  on.  Nearly  one-half  of  all  the 
products  exported  from  England  are  shipped 
from  this  port,  and  imports  to  the  value  of  $600,- 
000,000  are  annually  received  here.  Liverpool  is 
situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mersey,  four 
miles  from  the  sea,  200  miles  northwest  from 
London,  and  within  from  twenty  to  fifty  miles  of 
the  great  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  cities.  Its 
pop.  at  the  last  census  was  552,425.  It  is 
essentially  a  trading  city,  and  has  the  finest  docks 
in  the  world,  with  over  $40,000,000  of  capital  in¬ 
vested  in  them.  Manchester  is  the  most  impor¬ 
tant  manufacturing  city  in  Great  Britain,  and, 
with  its  sister  borough  of  Salford,  had  a  pop. 
at  the  last  census  of  517,741.  It  is  the  center 
of  the  cotton  manufactures  of  Lancashire,  and  its 
silk  and  woolen  factories  are  scarcely  inferior  in 
importance.  Birmingham,  the  headquarters  of 
the  hardware  trade,  has  over  400,000  inhabitants. 
Its  production  of  fire-arms,  glass,  leather  goods, 
machinery,  hardware  and  cutlery  is  immense, 
and  it  is  ordinarily  spoken  of  as  the  “  workshop 
of  England.”  Sheffield  is  its  most  prominent  rival. 
Leeds  is  the  center  of  the  woolen  trade;  New¬ 


castle-on  Tyne  of  heavy  iron  manufactures  and 
machinery;  while  Hull,  Bristol,  and  Southampton 
are  all  large  and  important  seaports,  and  the 
manufacturing  towns  of  Lancashire,  Warwick¬ 
shire,  Staffordshire,  and  Yorkshire  transact  an 
immense  business.  The  government  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  is  a  limited  monarchy. 
Under  the  nominal  form  of  a  hereditary  mon¬ 
archy,  with  restricted  powers,  the  nation  is 
actually  governed  by  two  Houses  of  Parlia¬ 
ment,  whose  laws,  when  assented  to  by  the  Sov¬ 
ereign,  form  the  statutes  of  the  realm.  The  con¬ 
stitution  of  England  is  to  a  large  extent  unwrit¬ 
ten,  using  the  word  in  much  the  same  sense  as 
when  we  speak  of  unwritten  law.  Its  rules  de¬ 
pend,  as  so  much  of  English  law  does,  on  prece¬ 
dent,  modified  by  a  constant  process  of  interpreta 
tion.  The  actual  governing  power  is  the  Cabi¬ 
net,  the  Monarch  being,  according  to  theory,  in¬ 
capable  of  doing  wrong,  and  pari  passu  of  doing 
right.  The  Cabinet  consists  of  from  twelve  to  fif¬ 
teen  members,  to  each  of  whom  one  of  the  great 
departments  of  state  is  assigned,  as  in  this  country. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  no  Cabinet  can  continue  in 
office  without  it  can  command  a  majority  in  the 
House  of  Commons,  a  body  of  670  members, 
elected  by  the  people.  The  House  of  Lords  is, 
except  for  the  bishops,  an  hereditary  body,  and 
numbers  some  500  members.  Its  powers  are  each 
year  becoming  more  limited.  The  cost  of  main¬ 
taining  the  crown  is  placed  at  $5,000,000  per  an¬ 
num,  which  sum,  since  the  sequestration  of  the 
royal  lands,  has  been  granted  in  lieu  of  the  in¬ 
come  from  those  lands,  but  out  of  this  sum  many 
expenses  have  to  be  met  not  strictly  pertaining  to 
the  Sovereign  personally.  The  present  Queen  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  who  is  also  Empress  of 
India  (Kaiser-au-Hind),  was  born  in  1820,  and  has 
reigned  since  1837. 

English  (or  British)  Channel  (La  Mancie  or 
the  Sleeve  of  the  French,  and  the  Oceanus  Bri- 
tannicus  of  t lie  Romans)  is  the  narrow  sea  which 
separates  England  and  France.  On  the  east,  it 
joins  the  North  Sea,  at  the  Strait  of  Dover, 
where  it  is  narrowest,  being  only  21  miles  wide 
from  Dover  to  Cape  Grisnez.  From  this  strait  it 
runs  west-soutliwest  for  280  miles,  and  joins  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  at  the  Chops,  with  a  breadth  of 
100  miles  between  the  Scilly  Isles  and  Ushant 
Isle.  Its  average  depth  is  about  30  fathoms. 

English  Language  is  in  its  vocabulary  one  of 
the  most  heterogeneous  that  ever  existed;  a  fact, 
the  causes  of  which  are  to  be  traced  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  England.  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Celtic, 
Saxon,  Danish,  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  German 
— nay,  even  Hindustani,  Malay,  and  Chinese 
words — lie  mixed  together  in  the  English  diction¬ 
ary.  On  the  evidence  of  words  alone,  it  would 
be  impossible  to  classify  English  with  any  other 
of  the  established  stocks  and  stems  of  human 
speech.  The  number  of  Teutonic  or  Saxon  words 
in  English  amounts  to  only  13,230  against  29,853 
words,  which  can  either  mediately  or  immediately 
be  traced  to  a  Latin  source.  On  the  evidence  of 
its  dictionary,  therefore,  and  treating  English  as 
a  mixed  language,  it  would  have  to  be  classified 
together  with  French,  Italian,  and  Spanish  as 
one  of  the  Romance  or  Neo-Latin  dialects. 
Languages,  however,  though  mixed  in  their 
dictionary,  can  never  be  mixed  in  their  grammar. 
We  may  form  whole  sentences  in  English,  con¬ 
sisting  entirely  of  Latin  or  Romance  words,  yet 
whatever  there  is  left  of  grammar  in  English 
bears  unmistakable  traces  of  Teutonic  workman¬ 
ship. 

Engrailed',  in  Heraldry,  a  line  composed  of  a 
series  of  half-moons,  or  semicircles,  supposed  to 
have  been  made  in  it  by  hail.  Engrailed  is  the 
opposite  of  invected. 

Engrav'ing  is  the  art  of  incising  designs, 
writing,  etc.,  on  any  hard  substance,  such  as 
stone,  metal,  or  wood.  Many  branches  of  the 
art  are  of  great  antiquity ;  such  as  gem-engraving, 
cameo-cutting,  and  die-sinking.  In  a  narrower 
sense,  engraving  is  the  art  of  cutting  or  indenting 
the  surface  of  metal  plates  or  of  blocks  of  wood 
with  designs,  for  the  purpose  of  taking  off 
impressions  or  prints  of  the  designs  on  paper. 
This  department  of  the  art  arose  as  late  as  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  earliest  wood-engraving 
with  a  date  being  1423,  and  the  earliest  dated 


engraving  from  a  metal  plate  being  1461.  Wood¬ 
engraving  differs  from  engraving  on  metal  in  this, 
that  on  a  metal  plate  the  traces  or  marks  which 
are  to  appear  on  the  paper  are  cut  or  sunk  into 
the  plate,  and  when  printed  from  are  filled  with 
ink,  while  the  rest  of  the  surface  is  kept  clean; 
whereas  in  wood-engraving  they  are  left  promi¬ 
nent  or  in  relief,  and  the  blank  parts  of  the  design 
are  cut  away.  Hence  a  wood-cut  acts  as  a  type, 
and  is  inked  and  printed  from  in  the  usual  way. 
This  makes  wood-engraving  peculiarly  suitable 
for  the  illustration  of  books;  as  the  blocks  can  be 
printed  from  with  the  letterpress;  while  the  im¬ 
pressions  from  a  metal  plate  must  be  taken  by 
themselves,  and  by  a  slow  process.  The  metals 
most  commonly  used  for  engraving  are  copper 
and  steel,  the  former  having  the  advantage  of 
being  more  easily  worked,  the  latter  of  greater 
durability.  The  processes  of  working  are  essen¬ 
tially  the  same  in  both.  The  several  manners  or 
styles  of  engraving  are  distinguished  as  line-en¬ 
graving,  mezzotinto,  stippling,  and  aquatinta. 
Various  processes  of  etching,  by  means  of  acids, 
have  been  introduced  recently,  which  have,  in  a 
measure,  taken  the  place  of  engraving. 

Enliarmon'ic,  a  term  applied  in  Music  when 
the  name  of  a  note  is  changed  without  any  sensi¬ 
ble  difference  of  sound. 

E '  noch,  the  name  of  two  different  individuals 
in  Scripture. — 1.  The  eldest  son  of  Cain,  who 
built  a  city  w'hich  was  called  after  his  name. — 2. 
The  son  of  Jared,  and  father  of  Methuselah. 

Ensilage  (a  French  word,  through  the  Span¬ 
ish,  from  the  Lat.  sims  or  syrus,  Gr.  dipoS,  a  pit, 
whence  the  Spanish  verb  ensilar,  to  store  grain  in 
a  silo  or  pit),  is  the  preservation  of  green  forage 
in  an  air  and  water-tight  silo — the  contents  being 
tightly  pressed  down  so  as  to  get  rid  of  and  per¬ 
manently  exclude  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  and 
thereby  prevent  putrefactive  fermentation.  Desic¬ 
cation  being  thus  avoided,  the  ensilaging  of  the 
fodder  prevents  the  loss  of  feeding  qualities. 
Silos  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  are  traceable  in 
Euripides  Theophrastus,  and  others,  and  in  the 
records  of  various  ancient  nations.  They  are 
still  in  use  in  Syria,  Turkestan,  and  parts  of 
Africa.  The  German  sauerkraut  is  salt  ensilaged 
cabbage.  Mr.  Mills  of  New  Jersey  was  the  first 
to  introduce  ensilage  in  the  United  States,  and  by 
a  system  within  the  reach  of  most  farmers,  kept 
120  cattle  and  12  horses  for  seven  months  on 
the  produce  of  thirteen  acres.  In  1878,  Pro¬ 
fessor  Caldwell  of  Cornell  University  packed 
short-chopped  and  straw'-covered  green  fodder  in 
a  triangular  heap  15  feet  long  and  6  feet 
high,  rendered  air  tight  by  H  feet  of  earth.  In 
this  way,  green  fodder  was  kept  available  for  a 
year.  Soon  bricks  and  mortar,  stone  and  cement 
took  the  place  of  earth,  and  now  the  system  is 
extensively  practiced  by  the  better  class  of 
farmers. 

Entab'lature,  that  part  of  a  design  in  Classic 
Architecture  which  surmounts  the  columns  and 
rests  upon  the  capitals.  It  is  usually  about  two 
diameters  of  the  column  in  height,  and  is  divided 


Example  of  Doric  Entablature. 


in  every  style  of  classical  architecture  into  three 
parts — architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice.  These 
parts  vary  in  their  relative  proportions  in  different 
styles.  In  Doric  architecture,  for  example,  if  the 
entablature  be  divided  into  eight  equal  parts,  two 


ENTADA. 


372 


EPACT. 


of  these  form  the  height  of  the  architrave,  three 
that  of  the  frieze,  and  three  that  of  the  cornice. 


Example  of  Composite  Entablature. 


In  the  other  styles  the  relative  proportions  are 
as  three,  three,  and  four. 

Entada,  a  genus  of  climbing  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Mimosece, 
having  pinnate  or  bi-pinnate  leaves,  and  remark¬ 
able  for  their  great  pods,  in  which  the  seeds  lie 
amidst  a  glutinous  or  gelatinous  substance. 

Entail',  properly  signifies  any  destination  by 
which  the  legal  course  of  succession  is  cut  off, 
one  or  more  of  the  heirs-at-law  being  excluded  or 
postponed,  and  the  settlement  of  land  made  upon 
a  particular  heir  or  series  of  heirs.  In  this  country, 
before  the  Revolution,  the  English  law  as  'to 
estates  tail  prevailed;  the  law  has  been  gradually 
abolished  by  the  several  States,  and  property 
can  now  be  fettered,  to  a  limited  extent  only,  by 
means  of  legally  executed  wills. 

En  tasis,  (Gr.)  the  swelling  outline  given  to  the 
shaft  of  a  column. 

Entellus  Monkey,  or  Honuman  ( Semnopithe - 
cm  entellus),  an  East  Indian  species  of  monkey, 
with  yellowish  fur,  face  of  violet  tinge,  sur 


Entellus  Monkey  ( Semnopithecus  entellus). 


rounded  with  projecting  hairs;  long  limbs,  and 
very  long,  muscular  and  powerful — though  not 
prehensile — tail. 

Enteri'tis  (Gr.  evr epov,  enteron ,  the  intes¬ 
tines),  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and  especially 
of  their  muscular  and  serous  coat,  leading  to  con¬ 
stipation  and  pain,  with  colic,  and  sometimes 
ileus.  Enteritis  is  distinguished  from  these  last 
affections,  indeed,  only  by  the  presence  of  in¬ 
flammatory  symptoms — i.  e. ,  pain,  tenderness, 
fever,  etc.,  from  a  very  early  stage  of  the  disease, 
and  in  so  decided  a  form  as  to  require  special  at¬ 
tention.  If  enteritis  does  not  depend  upon  me¬ 
chanical  obstruction,  it  may  be  combated  by  hot 
fomentations,  with  moderate  leeching  and  coun¬ 
ter-irritation,  and  the  internal  administration  of 
opium.  Injections  of  warm  water,  or  of  asafcet- 
ida  and  turpentine,  should  be  at  the  same  time 
given  to  clear  the  lower  bowel;  and  all  purga¬ 
tives,  except  in  some  cases  castor  oil,  should 
be  avoided.  The  disease  is,  however,  one  of 
great  danger,  and  should  never  be  incautiously 
treated  with  domestic  remedies. 

Entomol'ogy  (Gr.  evr opov,  entomon,  an  insect, 
koyot,  logos,  a  discourse),  the  science  which 
has  insects  for  its  subject.  Entomology,  with 
the  other  branches  of  natural  history,  was  culti¬ 
vated  by  Aristotle  and  other  Greeks,  and  it  can 


scarcely  be  said  to  have  been  again  studied  as  a 
science  till  the  sixteenth  century,  when  attention 
began  once  mote  to  be  directed  to  it,  although  it 
was  not  till  the  seventeenth  century  that  much 
progress  was  made,  or  that  any  important  works 
on  entomology  appeared.  Insects  then  began  to 
be  described,  and  the  metamorphoses  of  insects  was 
studied,  and  their  anatomy  investigated.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  Linnaeus  did  a  great  deal  to 
promote  the  science,  and  since  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth  century  many  entomologists  have 
devoted  themselves  particularly  to  the  study  of 
insects.  Entomological  literaturehas  now  become 
very  extensive. 

Entomos'traca(Gr.  insect-shells),  a  term  intro¬ 
duced  by  Muller,  and  adopted  by  Latreille,  Cuvier, 
and  other  naturalists,  to  designate  the  second  of 
their  two  great  divisions  of  crustaceans.  They 
are  all  of  small  size,  except  the  king-crabs  ( Lima - 
lux),  which  in  many  respects  differ  from  all  the 
rest,  and  have  recently  been  formed  by  some 
naturalists  into  a  sub-class  by  themselves.  Many 
of  them  are  minute,  and  exist  in  great  numbers 
both  in  fresh  and  salt  water,  particularly  in  stag¬ 
nant  or  nearly  stagnant  fresh  water,  affording  to 
many  kinds  of  fishes  their  principal  food. 

Entomostraca,  Fossil.  They  attained  their 
maximum  size  in  the  palaeozoic  waters.  The 
Silurian  trilobite  was  a  phyllopod,  and  the  ptere- 
gotus  of  the  old  red  sandstone  was  nearly  allied  to 
the  modern  limulus.  Small  bivalvular  species 
are  found  in  all  strata,  sometimes  forming  layers 
of  considerable  thickness. 

En'tophytes  ( Entophyta ;  Gr.  Error,  enton, 
within,  and  epvrov,  phyton ,  a  plant),  a  term 
usually  employed  to  denote  those  parasitic  plants 
which  grow  on  living  animals.  It  is  seldom 
extended  to  vegetable  parasites  which  grow  on 
living  vegetables,  whether  on  external  or  internal 
parts,  nor  is  it  restricted  to  those  which  are  found 
in  the  internal  cavities,  or  within  the  substance  of 
animal  bodies,  but  includes  all  which  have  their 
seat  on  living  animal  tissues.  Some  of  the  ento- 
pliytes  are  algae,  and  some  fungi,  but  to  these  two 
orders  they  are  limited,  and  ail  of  them  belong  to 
the  lower  sections  of  these  orders.  Vegetable 
parasites  occur  both  in  man  and  in  the  lower 
animals;  not  a  few  of  them  are  peculiar  to  fishes, 
and  more  are  peculiar  to  insects  than  to  any  other 
class  of  animals. 

Entozo'a.  This  term  is  applied  to  all  the 
animal  forms  which  live  either  in  the  natural 
cavities  (as,  for  example,  the  intestinal  canal),  or 
in  the  solid  tissues  (as,  for  example,  the  liver)  of 
other  animals.  The  number  of  these  parasites  is 
great,  (there  being  at  least  twenty  distinct  species 
of  worms  found  in  man,  fourteen  in  the  dog, 
fifteen  in  the  horse,  eleven  in  the  common  fowl, 
etc.)  Many  of  the  animals  included  amongst  the 
entozoa  only  enjoy  a  parasitic  existence  during  a 
part  of  their  total  life,  which  often,  as  in  the 
well-known  case  of  perfect  insects,  presents  very 
varied  and  distinct  phases.  Thus,  for  example, 
the  larvse  of  the  gadfly  ( OUstrus  equi)  undergo 
their  entire  development  in  the  stomach  of  the 
horse,  attaching  themselves  by  minute  hooks  to 
the  gastric  mucous  membrane;  they  then  detach 
themselves,  pass  along  the  intestines,  and  in  due 
time  are  discharged,  and  undergo  their  further 
changes  externally;  and  many  similar  instances 
might  be  quoted.  For  this  reason,  and  addition¬ 
ally  because  parasites  are  now  known  to  belong 
to  various  classes  of  animals,  we  no  longer  at¬ 
tempt,  like  Linnaeus  and  Cuvier,  to  form  a  special 
group  of  entozoa;  and  a  reference  to  the  Vermes 
intestinal  in  the  Sy  sterna  Natural,  or  to  the 
Entozoaires  in  the  Regne  Animal,  at  once  shows 
that  these  illustrious  naturalists  grouped  together 
animals  with  few  or  no  true  natural  affinities. 

Entr’acte,  in  Music,  is  an  instrumental  piece, 
composed  in  the  form  of  a  little  symphony  or  over¬ 
ture,  to  be  performed  between  the  acts  of  a  play. 

En'tre  Douro'  E  Min'lio,  or,  Minho,  a  prov¬ 
ince  of  Poriugal,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Galicia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  River 
Minho;  on  the  east  by  Galicia  and  Trasos  Montes, 
on  the  south  by  the  Province  of  Beira,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  River  Douro;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Area,  2,810  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1874),  1,018,690. 

En'tre  Iti'os  (the  Spanish  for  Between  Rivers) 
takes  its  name  from  its  occupying  the  space 


between  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay.  It  is  one 
of  the  States  of  the  Argentine  Confederation. 
Area,  40,000  square  miles.  Pop.,  134,271.  The 
capital  is  Concepcion  del  Uruguay,  with  a  pop. 
of  6,500. 

Entremets',  Entrees',  French  terms  now  used 
to  designate  certain  courses  of  dishes  served  at 
dinners.  The  chief  dishes  are  entrees,  and  the 
lighter  dishes  are  entremets. 

Entresol  is  a  low  story  between  two  main 
stories  of  a  building  (generally  between  the 
ground  floor  and  the  first  story),  or  between  two 
portions  of  one  story,  when  certain  rooms  are  of 
greater  height  than  the  others  upon  the  same  floor. 
The  rooms  in  the  entresol  are  called  entresols  or 
mezzanines. 

Entro  'pium,  or  ENTRo'pioN(Gr.£r,  en,  in,  and 
rpenoo,  irepo,  I  turn),  inversion  of  the  eyelashes, 
or  even  eyelid,  consequent  either  on  loss  of  sub¬ 
stance,  or  on  inflammatory  swelling  of  the  lid.  If 
confined  to  one  or  two  eyelashes,  they  should  be 
plucked  out  by  the  roots,  and  the  bulbs  should  be 
cauterized. 

Envelopes.  Until  the  introduction  of  the 
cheap  postage  system,  envelopes  for  written  let¬ 
ters  were  seldom  used;  it  was  customary  to 
secure,  by  wafer  or  sealing-wax,  the  sheet  of 
paper  on  which  the  letter  was  written.  When 
the  postage  was  rendered  uniform  for  all  dis¬ 
tances,  and  prepayment  enforced,  stamped  en¬ 
velopes  were  introduced.  The  manufacture  of 
envelopes  has  become  an  important  industry. 

En'  voy,  a  diplomatic  minister  of  the  second 
order,  inferior  in  rank  to  an  ambassador.  En¬ 
voys  ordinary  and  extraordinary,  ministers  pleni¬ 
potentiary,  the  internuncios  of  the  Pope,  and  all 
other  inferior  diplomatic  ministers  differ  from 
ambassadors  in  that,  although  they  receive  their 
credentials  like  ambassadors,  immediately  from 
their  sovereign,  they  represent  not  his  personal 
dignity,  but  only  his  affairs.  Consuls  are  not 
generally  reckoned  among  diplomatic  ministers, 
though  where  they  have  diplomatic  duties  to  per¬ 
form,  independently  of  an  ambassador  or  envoy, 
they  are  accredited,  and  treated  as  ministers. 

E'oeene  (EoS,  eos,  dawn,  and  naivoi,  lcainos, 
recent),  a  term  used  to  denote  the  lower  tertiary 
strata,  from  the  fact  that  the  fossil  shells  of  that 
period  contain  a  small  proportion  (31  per  cent.)of 
living  species.  These  beds  indicate  the  dawn  of 
the  existing  state  of  the  testaceous  fauna — no  re¬ 
cent  species  having  been  detected  in  the  older 
rocks. 

Eoo'a,  or  Mid'dleburg,  one  of  the  Friendly 
or  Tonga  Islands,  is  30  miles  in  circuit,  and 
contains  300  inhabitants.  It  is  iu  latitude  IS0  19' 
S.  and  longitude  175°  37'  W. 

Eotvos,  Josef,  a  Hungarian  author,  born  Sept. 
3,  1813,  at  Buda.  He  won  a  reputation  by 
his  comedies  Kritikusok  (The  Critics)  and  Hazasu- 
16k  (The  Weddings),  and  also  by  his  tragedy 
Boszu  (Revenge).  In  1867,  he  was  appointed 
Minister  of  Worship  and  Education,  and  died 
Feb.  3,  1871. 

Epacrida'eete,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  shrubs  and  small  trees,  which 
both  in  appearance 
and  in  botanical 
characters,  m  ucli 
resemble  the  Ericeee 
or  heath  family. 

E' pact,  in  Chron¬ 
ology,  is  the  excess 
of  the  solar  month 
above  the  1  u  n  a  r 
synodical  month;  or 
of  the  solar  year 
above  the  lunar year 
of  twelve  synodical 
months;  or  of  sev¬ 
eral  solar  months 
above  as  many  syn¬ 
odical  months;  or  of 
several  solar  years 
above  as  many  pe¬ 
riods,  each  consist¬ 
ing  of  twelve  syn¬ 
odical  months.  The 
menstrual  epact  is 
the  excess  of  the 
civil  calendar 
month  above  the  lunar  month. 


Springelia  Incarnata. 

1,  flower  and  calyx;  2,  anther; 

3.  stamens  and  ovary. 

For  a  month  of  31 


EPAMINONDAS. 


373 


EPIDERMIS. 


days,  this  epact  is  1  day  11  hours  15  minutes  57 
seconds,  if  we  suppose  new  moon  to  occur  on  the 
first  day  of  the  month.  The  annual  epact  is  the 
excess  of  the  solar  year  above  the  lunar.  As  the 
Julian  solar  year  is  (nearly)  3G5  days,  and  the 
Julian  lunar  year  is  (nearly)  354  days,  t lie  annual 
epact  is  nearly  eleven  days.  The  epact  for  two 
Julian  years  is,  therefore,  nearly  twenty-two 
days;  for  three  years,  thirty -three days,  and  soon. 

Epaminon'das,  a  Theban  general  and  states¬ 
man,  born  414  b.c.  During  the  civil  war  of  371 
b.c.,  he  was  appointed  Commandcr-in-Chief  of  the 
Tliebaif  army,  and,  in  conjunction  with  Pelopidas 
with  6,000  men,  defeated  double  that  number  of 
the  enemy  at  Leuctra.  On  his  return  to  Thebes, 
Epaminondas  was  accused  of  having  violated  the 
laws  of  his  country,  by  retaining  the  supreme 
power  in  his  hands  beyond  the  time  appointed 
by  law;  but  was  acquitted.  In  368  b.c.  he  ad¬ 
vanced  with  33,000  men  into  Arcadia,  and  joined 
battle  with  the  main  body  of  the  enemy  nearMan- 
tineia  in  362  b.c.  At  the  head  of  his  troops,  he 
succeeded  in  breaking  the  Spartan  phalanx,  but 
was  mortally  wounded  in  the  breast  by  a  javelin. 

Epaule'ment  (from  the  French  epanle,  shoul¬ 
der),  in  siege-works,  is  a  portion  of  a  battery  or 
earthwork. 

Ep'aaletle,  from  the  same  French  source  as 
epaulement,  is  a  shoulder-knot  worn  by  commis¬ 
sioned  officers  of  the  army  and  navy  both  as  an 
ornament  and  as  a  mark  of  distinction. 

Epei'ra,  a  genus  of  spiders,  the  type  of  a  fam¬ 
ily  called  Epeiridce.  They  are  of  those  spiders 
which  have  only  a  pair  of  pulmonary  sacs  and 
spiracles,  construct  webs  with  regular  meshes, 
formed  by  concentric  circles  and  straight  radii; 


Epeira  Diadema. 


and  are  furnished  with  a  pair  of  almost  contigu¬ 
ous  eyes  on  each  side,  other  four  eyes  forming  a 
quadrangle  in  the  center.  Many  of  them  are  re¬ 
markable  for  the  beauty  of  their  colors  and  of 
their  forms. 

Eperies  (Lat.  Fragopolis  or  Eperesinum, 
Hung.  Eperjes,  Slovak  Pressova),  a  town  of  Hun¬ 
gary.  About  150  miles  northeast  of  Pesth.  Pop., 
10,772. 

Epernay,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  Department 
of  Marne,  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Marne,  nine¬ 
teen  miles  west-northwest  of  Chalons.  Pop. 
(1876),  15,414. 

E 'phali,  a  measure  of  capacity  for  dry-goods 
in  use  among  the  Hebrews.  It  contained  three 
English  pecks  and  three  pints. 

E|»liem'era(Gr.  eepepr/pa,  lasting  for  a  day), 
a  Linnaean  genus  of  neuropterous  insects,  now 
forming  the  family  or  tribe  Ephemeridm.  They  are 
allied  to  the  LPellulidm,  or  dragon-flies,  but  differ 
from  them  in  many  respects. 

Ephcm  'era,  or  Febkis  Diabia  in  Latin  (from 
Gr.  £7ti,  epi  and  ape  pa,  hemera,  on  a  day),  a 
fever  which  lasts  only  a  single  day,  or  part  of  a 
day,  and  is  generally  dependent  on  some  slight 
local  irritation. 

Ephem'eris  is  a  name  applied  to  almanacs 
from  their  containing  notices  for  each  day.  It  is 
mostly  confined  to  astronomical  tables  giving  the 
daily  places  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets,  and 
Other  phenomena  of  the  heavens. 

Ephes'ians,  Epistle  to  the,  is  a  letter  ad¬ 
dressed  by  St.  Paul,  during  his  first  imprison¬ 
ment  at  Rome,  to  the  church  which  assembled  in 
Ephesus.  This  church  had  been  planted  by  the 
apostle  himself,  and  was  an  object  of  his  special 
affection.  The  epistle  was  written  almost  at  the 
same  time  as  that  to  the  Colossians. 

Eph'esus,  one  of  the  tw'elve  Ionic  cities  of  Asia 
Minor,  was  in  Lydia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  River 


Caystrus,  in  the  midst  of  an  alluvial  plain.  It 
liore  a  great  variety  of  names  at  different  times, 
the  principal  of  which,  besides  Ephesus,  were 
Ortygia  and  Ptelea. 

Eph  'od,  a  vestment  worn  by  the  Jewish  high- 
priest  over  the  Med  or  second  (purple)  tunic.  It 
consisted  of  two  shoulder  pieces,  one  covering 
the  back,  the  other  the  breast  and  upper  part  of 
the  body,  not  unlike  the  Greek  fitdoviS,  epouU. 

Eph'ori  (Gr.  eepopi,  overseers),  an  orderof  mag¬ 
istrates  in  ancient  times,  which  appears  to  have 
originated  at  Sparta,  and  to  have  been  peculiar 
to  the  Doric  governments.  Their  duty  was  to 
superintend  the  internal  administration  of  the 
State,  especially  affairs  of  justice,  for  which  a 
particular  building  was  assigned  them,  called  the 
Ephorion. 

Eph'  raem,  Sybus,  a  preacher  and  ecclesiastical 
writer  of  the  Syrian  church,  is  said  to  have  been 
born  in  the  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Constantine 
the  Great,  somewhere  between  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris,  most  probably  at  Nisibis.  He  wrote,  or 
is  supposed  to  have  written,  many  homilies  and 
treatises  against  idolaters,  Chaldees,  Jews,  and 
heretics  of  all  kinds,  especially  Arians,  Sabellians, 
Manicliaeans,  Novatians,  etc. 

Eph'raim,  the  younger  son  of  Joseph  by  his 
wife  Asenath,  and  the  founder  of  one  of  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 

Epic  Poetry  (Gr.  sitol,  epos,  a  word,  a  discourse 
or  narrative).  The  two  chief  kinds  of  poetry, 
are  epic  and  lyric.  Epic  poetry  has  outward  ob¬ 
jects  for  its  subject,  of  which  it  gives  an  imagi¬ 
native  narrative.  The  events  themselves  may  be 
partly  real  and  partly  fictitious,  or  they  may  be 
altogether  fictitious.  Lyric  poetry,  on  the  other 
hand,  sets  forth  the  inward  occurrences  of  the 
writer  or  speaker’s  own  mind,  his  feelings  and 
reflections.  Byron  claimed  for  Don  Juan  the 
character  of  an  epic,  but  it  hardly  possesses  the 
qualifications. 

Epicliar 'mus,  a  Greek  poet,  born  in  the  Island 
of  Cos,  in  the  fifth  century  b.c.,  but  the  exact 
dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown. 

Epicte'tus,  a  disciple  of  the  Stoa,  was  born 
at  Hierapolis,  in  Phrygia,  about  50  a.d.  He  de¬ 
voted  himself  to  the  Stoic  philosophy,  which  he 
taught  zealously  during  his  long  life. 

Epicti'rus  and  EpicuTeanism.  Epicurus,  a 
Greek  philosopher,  born  in  341  b.c.  Although 
he  laid  down  the  doctrine  that  pleasure  is  the 
chief  good,  the  life  that  he  and  his  friends  led 
was  one  of  the  greatest  temperance  and  simplicity. 
He  died  27 )  b.c.  He  was  a  most  voluminous 
writer,  and  is  said  to  have  left  300  volumes. 
Among  others,  he  had  thirty-seven  books  on 
natural  philosophy,  a  treatise  on  atoms  and  the 
vacuum,  one  on  love,  one  on  choice  and  avoidance, 
etc.  It  is  from  a  misapprehension  of  the  mean¬ 
ing  of  the  word  pleasure,  as  used  by  Epicurus,  that 
the  term  epicurean  came  to  signify  one  who  in¬ 
dulged  his  sensual  appetites  without  stint  or 
measure. 

Epi 'cycle.  The  earlier  astronomers  assumed 
that  all  the  motions  of  heavenly  bodies  took 
place  in  circles,  the  circle  being  held  to  be  the 
most  perfect  of  all  curves;  and  a  necessary  conse¬ 
quence  of  this  assumption  was,  that  the  motions 
must  have  a  uniform  velocity.  Another  part  of 
the  hypothesis  was,  that  all  the  heavenly  bodies 
moved  round  the  earth,  which  remained  at  rest  in 
the  center.  This  was  found  to  be  an  error,  and  it 
was  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  additional  as¬ 
sumptions.  For  the  sun  and  moon,  which  mani¬ 
festly  do  not  always  move  with  the  same  volocity, 
the  eccentric  circle  was  imagined.  The  case  of 
the  planets,  whose  motions  were  seen  to  be  some¬ 
times  direct,  sometimes  retrograde,  and  sometimes 
altogether  arrested,  offered  still  greater  difficul¬ 
ties,  to  get  over  which,  the  idea  of  epicycles  was 
hit  upon.  According  to  this  hypothesis,  while  a 
planet  was  moving  in  a  small  circle,  the  center  of 
that  circle  was  describing  a  larger  circle  about 
the  earth.  This  larger  circle  was  called  the 
deferent,  and  the  smaller,  which  was  borne  upon 
it,  was  called  the  epicycle  (Gr.  am,  upon).  In 
this  way  the  motions  of  the  planets  about  the 
earth  were  conceived  to  be  something  like  what 
the  motion  of  the  moon  about  the  sun  actually  is. 

Epicy'eloid  is  the  name  of  a  peculiar  curve. 
When  a  circle  moves  upon  a  straight  line,  any  point 
in  its  circumference  describes  a  cycloid;  but  if 


the  circle  moves  on  the  convex  circumference  of 
another  circle,  every  point  in  the  plane  of  the  first 
circle  describes  an  epicycloid ;  and  if  on  the  con¬ 
cave  circumference,  a  hypocycloid.  The  circle 
that  moves  is  the  generating  circle;  the  other,  the 
base. 

Epidan  'rus,  a  town  of  ancient  Greece,  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Peloponnesus,  in  the  district 
of  Argolis,  was  situated  on  a  small  promontory, 
15  stadia  in  circumference,  in  the  Saronic  Gulf, 
in  latitude  37°  38'  N.,  longitude  23°  10'  E. 

Epidemic  (Gr.  am,  <pi,  upon,  and  SppoS,  de¬ 
mos,  the  people),  a  dis  ase  which  attacks  numbers 
of  persons  in  one  place  simultaneously  or  in 
succession,  and  which  in  addition  is  observed  to 
travel  from  place  to  place,  often  in  the  direction 
of  the  most  frequented  lines  of  communication. 
Many  epidemic  diseases  are  also  contagious,  and 
all  of  them  suggest  the  necessity  of  careful  inquiry 
into  the  ventilation,  drainage,  food,  drink,  and 
habits  of  the  persons  liable  to  be  affected.  In 
presence  of  an  epidemic,  it  is  proper  to  take  un¬ 
usual  precautions  to  preserve  the  public  health. 

Epidemic  Mental  Disease-'.  A  mental  disor¬ 
der  may  spread  from  man  to  man,  and  may 
involve  whole  nations.  It  depends  for  its  propa¬ 
gation,  like  an  epidemic  disease,  first  upon  exter¬ 
nal  circumstances,  and  secondly,  upon  the  pecu¬ 
liar  condition  or  constitution  of  the  individuals 
affected.  Like  the  bodily  affection,  the  causes 
which  provoke  the  insanity  and  the  tendency  to 
be  affected  may  have  been  in  process  of  develop¬ 
ment  for  years.  Both  attack  the  weak  rather 
than  the  strong;  both  exist  for  a  season,  and  dis¬ 
appear. 

Epiderm'is  (Gr.  am,  upon,  and  Sappa,  the 
skin),  a  semi-transparent  membrane,  containing 
neither  vessels  nor  nerves,  and  everywhere  form¬ 
ing  an  external  covering  to  the  curium  or  true 
skin.  The  epidermis  is  called  in  ordinary  lan¬ 
guage  the  scarf-skin.  It  consists  of  two  layers, 
chemically  and  morphologically  distinct— viz., 
the  mucous  layer,  which  lies  immediately  upon 
the  corium,  and  the  horny  layer,  which  forms 
the  outermost  surface  of  the  body.  The  mucous 
layer  (known  formerly  as  the  rde  mucosum  s. 
mulpiyhianum)  is  of  a  whitish  or  slightly  brown 
tint  (in  the  negro,  dark  gray  or  black),  and  is 
composed  of  small,  soft  cells.  The  innermost  of 


Perpendicular  Section  of  the  Skin  of  the  Leg  of  a  Negro; 

Magnified  250  Diameters. 

a,  a,  papilla)  of  the  cutis;  b,  deepest,  intensely  colored 
layer  of  perpendicularly  elongated  cell9  of  the  mucous 
layer;  c,  upper  stratum  of  the  same  layer;  <1,  horny 
layer. 

these  cells,  resting  on  the  surface  of  the  corium, 
are  elongated  and  arranged  perpendicularly;  upon 
these  follow  elongated  or  roundish  cells  in  many 
layers,  which,  in  proportion  to  their  distance 
from  the  corium,  acquire,  from  their  mutual 
pressure,  a  polygonal  form,  which  may  even  be 
recognized  in  individual  cells.  All  the  cells  in 
the  mucous  layer  are  nucleated  vesicles  distended 
with  fluid,  and  likewise  containing  m  mite  gran¬ 
ules,  which  diminish  in  number  in  the  more 
external  cells.  The  horny  layer  forms  the  exter¬ 
nal,  semi-transparent  part  of  the  epidermis, 
which  in  the  white  races  is  colorless,  and  is  com¬ 
posed  almost  wholly  of  uniform  cells,  metamor¬ 
phosed  into  plates  or  scales.  The  deepest  plates, 
in  some  degree,  resemble  the  uppermost  cells  of 
the  mucous  layer;  but  in  the  second  or  third  layer 


EPIDOTE. 


374 


EPIZOA. 


we  find  the  flattening  commence;  till  at  length, 
after  a  gradual  series  of  modifications,  we  have 
the  hard,  horny  scales  which  occur  on  the  sur¬ 
face,  where  they  are  regularly  cast  off  with  more 
or  less  rapidity,  and  replaced  by  those  beneath 
them.  The  color  of  the  epidermis  differs  in  dif¬ 
ferent  persons  and  in  different  parts  of  the  body. 
It  is  deepest  around  the  nipple,  especially  in 
women  during  pregnancy  and  after  they  have 
borne  children.  A  more  or  less  dark  pigment  is 
often  deposited,  in  persons  who  are  exposed  to 
the  sun,  in  the  face,  neck,  back  of  the  hands,  etc. 
In  the  negro  and  the  other  colored  races,  it  is  also 
only  the  epidermis  which  is  colored,  while  the 
corium  completely  resembles  that  of  Europeans. 
The  perpendicular  cells  (see  b  in  the  figure)  are  the 
darkest,  and  form  a  sharply-marked  fringe  at  the 
edge  of  the  clear  corium.  To  these  succeed 
brown  cells,  which  accumulate  in  the  depressions 
between  t  lie  papillae,  and  as  we  approach  the 
horny  layer,  we  have  yellowish  cells.  The  horny 
layer  of  the  negro  also  inclines  to  a  yellow  or 
brownish  tint.  The  thickness  of  the  epidermis 
varies  extremely.  While  upon  the  cheeks,  brow, 
and  eyelids,  it  varies  from  Jg  to  sy>  of  a  line, 
on  the  palm  of  the  hand  it  ranges  from  i  to  }  a 
line,  and  on  the  sole  of  the  foot  sometimes  even 
exceeds  a  line.  In  some  parts  of  the  body  the 
horny  layer  is  thicker  than  the  mucous;  in  other, 
the  mucous  is  the  thicker  of  the  two.  As  the 
chief  use  of  the  epidermis  is  that  of  affording 
protection  to  the  soft  and  tender  subjacent  parts, 
it  attains  its  greatest  thickness  on  those  portions 
of  the  body  (the  palm  of  the  hand  and  the  sole  of 
the  foot)  which  are  most  exposed  to  pressure  and 
friction. 

Epidote,  a  mineral  allied  to  garnet,  composed 
of  silica  and  alumina,  with  a  considerable  propor¬ 
tion  of  lime,  or  of  peroxide  of  iron,  or  of  per¬ 
oxide  of  manganese. 

Epigas'trium  (Gr.  ini,  epi,  over,  and  yddrr/p, 
paster,  the  stomach),  the  part  of  the  abdomen, 
which  chiefly  corresponds  to  the  situation  of  the 
stomach,  extending  from  the  sternum  toward  the 
navel  or  umbilicus,  and  bounded  on  each  side  by 
the  hypochonders.  It  is  called  in  popular  lan¬ 
guage  the  pit  of  the  stomach. 

EpigeiTesis  (Gr.  ini,  epi,  upon,  imdysridiS, 
genesis,  a  formation),  a  formation  upon,  or  in  addi¬ 
tion  to,  previously  existing  parts.  The  word  is 
applied  in  physiology  to  thattheoryof  new  forma¬ 
tions  in  organized  beings  which  supposes  them  to 
spring  from  superadded  centers  of  vital  activity, 
as  opposed  to  the  theory  which  presumes  that  the 
new  is  formed  by  a  development  or  modification 
of  the  old  structure. 

Epiglot'tis.  See  Larynx. 

Epigram,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek  ini, 
and  ypdcpciv,  to  write,  and  literally  signifying 
an  “  inscription.”  In  point  of  fact,  the  epigrams 
of  the  Greeks  were  simply  inscriptions  on  tombs, 
statues,  and  monuments,  written  in  verse,  but 
having  nothing  in  common  with  what  now  passes 
under  the  name.  In  modern  times,  an  epigram  is 
understood  to  be  a  short  poem,  generally  from  two 
to  eight  lines,  containing  a  witty  or  ingenious 
thought  expressed  in  pointed  phraseology,  and  in 
general  reserving  the  essence  of  the  wit  to  the 
close,  as  the  serpent  is  fabled  to  keep  its  sting  in 
its  tail. 

Ep'igraph {Gr. ini,  epi,  upon,  and  ypacpsiv, 
graphein,  to  write),  a  terse  inscription  placed  upon 
architectural  or  other  monuments,  for  the  purpose 
of  denoting  their  use  or  appropriation,  and  very 
frequ  ntly  worked  in  and  forming  part  of  their 
ornamental  details. 

Ep'ilepsy(Gr.  ini,  epi,  upon,  and  A  apftdveiv , 
lambanein,  to  seize),  a  form  of  disease  characterized 
by  sudden  insensibility,  with  convulsive  move¬ 
ments  of  the  voluntary  muscles,  and  occasionally 
arrest  of  the  breathing,  owing  to  spasm  of  the 
muscles  of  respiration,  and  temporary  closure  of 
the  glottis.  The  patient  is  seized  with  insensibil¬ 
ity,  often  so  complete  and  sudden  as  to  lead  to 
serious  accidents  and  bodily  injuries;  in  the  most 
aggravated  cases,  lie  has  no  premonitory  sensat ions 
whatever,  but  falls  down  without  any  attempt  to 
save  himself,  and  usually  with  a  wild,  inarticulate 
cry  of  some  kind,  immediately  after  which  the 
face  is  violently  distorted,  the  head  drawn  toward 
one  or  other  shoulder,  and  the  whole  body  con¬ 
vulsed.  These  convulsions  follow  in  rapid  succes¬ 


sion  for  a  few  minutes,  and  are  attended  by  foam¬ 
ing  at  the  mouth,  lividity,  or,  in  some  cases,  livid 
pallor,  which,  with  the  irregular  spasmodic  move¬ 
ments  of  the  lips,  nostrils,  and  eyes,  givea  ghastly 
expression  to  the  countenance,  and  almost  invari¬ 
ably  lead  the  bystanders  to  an  exaggerated  idea  of 
the  immediate  danger  of  the  fit.  The  immediate 
danger  is,  in  reality,  not  great,  except  that  the 
sudden  attack  may  lead  to  an  injurious  or  fatal 
fall;  the  tongue,  however,  may  be  bitten  if  pro¬ 
truded  during  the  convulsion,  or  the  patient  may 
be  so  placed  as  to  injure  himself  seriously  by  the 
repeated  and  unconscious  movements  of  his  body, 
or  he  may  suffocate  himself  by  accidentally  falling 
with  his  face  in  water.  The  treatment  consists  in 
freely  opening  the  bowels;  removing  worms,  if 
any  are  present;  enjoining  refrigerants  and  spare 
diet,  if  the  patient’s  condition  is  high;  and  gener¬ 
ous  feeding  and  tonics  where  it  is  low.  The  best 
preventives  are  carefully  regulated  diet,  an  occa¬ 
sional  laxative,  with  a  course  of  tonics,  and  espe¬ 
cially  of  arsenic. 

Epilo'bium,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Onagracece,  having  four  deciduous  calycine 
segments;  four  petals;  a  much  elongated,  four¬ 
sided,  four-celled,  four-valved,  many-seeded, 
capsule;  and  seeds  tufted  with  hairs  at  one  end. 
The  species  are  herbaceous  perennials,  natives  of 
temperate  and  cold  countries,  and  very  widely 
diffused  both  in  the  Northern  and  in  the  Southern 
Hemisphere.  Some  of  them  are  very  ornamental 
from  the  beauty  of  their  flowers. 

Ep'ilogne  (Gr.  em,  e/n,  upon  or  after,  and 
A oyoS,  logos,  a  speech)  means,  in  oratory,  the 
summing  up  or  conclusion  of  a  discourse;  but  in 
connection  with  the  drama,  it  denotes  the  short 
speech  in  prose  or  verse  which  frequently,  in 
former  times,  was  subjoined  to  plays,  especially 
to  comedies. 

Epi  men 'ides,  a  Greek  poet  and  priest,  born  in 
the  sixth  or  seventh  century  b.c.  His  history  has 
only  reached  us  in  a  mythical  form.  He  is  said 
to  have  fallen  asleep  in  a  cave  when  a  boy,  and 
not  to  have  wakened  for  fifty-seven  years. 

Epinal,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  Department 
of  Vosges.  Pop.  (1881),  15,161. 

Epiphan'ius,  St.,  a  Christian  bishop,  and 
writer  of  the  fourth  century.  He  rose  gradually 
to  the  rank  of  Dishop  of  Constantia  (formerly 
Salamis)  in  Cyprus,  and  continued  in  that  office 
from  367  till  his  deatli  in  403. 

Epiph'any  (Gr.  cnicpdv eia,  epiphdneia,  ap¬ 
pearance!,  denoted,  among  the  heathen  Greeks,  a 
festival  held  in  commemoration  of  the  appearance 
of  a  god  in  any  particular  place.  The  word 
subsequently  passed  into  the  usage  of  the  Chris 
tian  Church,  and  was  used  to  designate  the 
manifestation  or  appearance  of  Christ  upon  the 
earth  to  the  Gentiles,  with  especial  reference  to 
the  day  on  which  he  was  seen  and  worshiped 
by  the  wise  men  who  came  from  the  East.  This 
occasion  is  commemorated  in  the  church  on 
January  6th,  the  twelfth  day  after  Christmas,  and 
hence  the  Epiphany  is  also  called  twelfth  day. 

Ep'iphytes  tGr.  ini,  epi,  upon,  cpvror, 
phyton,  a  plant),  often  and  popularly,  but  less 
correctly,  called  air-plants,  are  plants  which  are 
not  rooted  in  the  ground,  but  are  attached  to 
trees,  from  the  decaying  portions  of  the  bark  of 
which,  or  of  mosses  and  lichens  which  grow 
upon  it,  they  derive  their  nutriment,  probably, 
also,  depending  upon  the  air  for  it  to  a  larger 
extent  than  other  plants  do.  Mosses  and  lichens 
themselves,  growing  upon  trees,  may  be  called 
epiphytes,  but  the  term  is  generally  used  of 
phanerogamous  plants.  Within  the  tropics,  they 
often  form  an  interesting  and  remarkable  feat¬ 
ure  of  the  vegetation.  Some  of  the  Bromelia- 
cece  (as Tiilandsia),  Cadacece,  Aracece,  Gesneracece, 
and  other  natural  orders  are  epiphytes;  but  the 
order  to  which  they  belong  more  than  to  any 
other  is  Orcludacecc. 

Epi'rus,  the  ancient  name  of  a  part  of  Greece, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  chain  of  Pindus,  on 
the  south  by  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  on  the  west  by 
the  Ionian  Sea,  and  on  the  north  by  Illyria  and 
Macedonia.  It  formed  the  southern  part  of 
modern  Albania,  or  t  he  Pashalic  of  Janina. 

Epis'copacy  (Gr.  cn Guonot,  episcopos,  bishop 
or  overseer),  is  that  form  of  church  government 
in  which  one  order  of  the  clergy  is  superior  to 
another — namely,  bishops  or  prelates  to  priests  or 


presbyters,  the  ordinary  ministers  of  parishes  or 
congregations.  It  is  sometimes  called  diocesan 
episcopacy ,  to  distinguish  it  from  that  episcopacy 
which  Presbyterians  and  Independents  also  assert 
— the  oversight  of  flocks  by  their  pastors.  The 
Church  of  Rome,  the  Greek  Church,  and  other 
branches  of  the  Eastern  Church,  are  Episco¬ 
palian.  Of  Episcopalian  Protestant  Churches 
not  established,  the  most  important  are  that  in 
the  United  States,  that  in  Ireland,  that  in  Scot¬ 
land,  and  the  Moravian  Church. 

Epistle.  The  lesson  in  the  church  service 
called  the  epistle,  derives  its  name  from  being 
most  frequently  taken  from  the  Apostolic  Epis¬ 
tles,  although  it  is  sometimes  also  taken  fiom 
other  parts  of  Scripture. 

Epistle  Side  of  the  Altar,  the  left  side  of  the 
altar  or  communion  table,  looking  from  it,  at 
which  in  the  church  service  the  epistle  of  the 
day  is  read.  It  is  of  lesser  distinction  than  the 
right  or  gospel  side,  and  is  occupied  by  the 
clergymen  of  lower  ecclesiastical  rank.  The 
reader  of  the  epistle  was  in  former  times  called 
the  epistler. 

Ep'itapli(Gr.£7rz,epf,  upon,  and  rdepoZ,  taphos, 
a  hillock,  mound,  or  other  monument  placed  over 
a  grave).  From  originally  signifying  a  monu¬ 
ment,  tliis  word  is  now  used  exclusively  to  desig¬ 
nate  the  inscription  commemorative  of  the  de¬ 
ceased,  which  is  placed  upon  the  monument. 

Epithala'mium  was  a  species  of  poem  which 
it  was  the  custom  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
to  sing  in  chorus  near  the  bridal  chamber  ( thala¬ 
mus) I  of  a  newly  married  couple. 

EpitheTium  is  a  term  applied  in  anatomy  to 
the  cell-tissue  which,  in  layers  of  various  thick¬ 
ness,  invests  not  only  the  outer  surface  of  the 
body,  and  the  mucous  membranes  connected 
with  it,  as,  for  example,  those  of  the  nose,  lungs, 


Epidermis  (still  soft  like  the  Epithelial  cells  of  the  ves- 
epithelium  of  internal  parts)  sels;  the  longer  one  from 

of  a  two  months’  human  em-  the  arteries,  the  shorter 
bryo.  Mag.  350  diam.  ones  from  the  veins. 

intestinal  canal,  etc.,  but  also  the  closed  cavities 
of  the  body,  such  as  the  great  serous  membranes, 
the  ventricles  of  the  brain,  the  synovial  mem- 


Laminated  pavement  epithelium  investing  a  simple  pa¬ 
pilla  (with  blood-vessels  in  the  interior)  from  the  gums 
of  a  child.  Mag.  250  diam . 

branes  of  the  joints,  the  interior  of  the  heart  and 
of  the  blood-vessels  proceeding  to  and  from  it, 
the  ducts  of  glands,  etc. 

Epizo'a.  This  term  is  applied  to  those  para¬ 
sitic  creatures  which  live  on  the  bodies  of  other 
animals  and  derive  their  nourishment  from  the 
skin.  There  are  two  groups  :  (1)  Those  which 
live  upon  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and  (2)  those 
which  live  in  the  skin.  Fleas,  lice,  bugs,  ticks, 
etc.,  belong  to  the  first  group;  the  itch-insector 


EPIZOOTICS. 


375 


EQUITY. 


.tar copies,  the  pimple  mite  or  demodex  folliculorum 
and  possibly  some  other  species  of  the  acaridce, 
to  the  second.  In  a  zoological  point  of  view,  all 
the  epizoa  that  infest  the  human  subject  are  in¬ 
sects  or  arachnidans.  The  parasitic  insects  are  : 

I.  Pulicida,  or  flea*,  including — 1.  The  common 
flea,  or  pulex  irritans ;  2.  The  sand  flea,  or  pulex 
penetrans,  known  also  as  the  ehigo,  chigger,  etc. 

II.  Acanthida,  or  soft  bugs,  including  the  common 
bed  bug  or  acanthia  (s.  cimex)l  ctul'Via.  111.  Pe- 
dir.ulida,  or  lice,  including — 1 .  The  common  louse, 
or  pedi  ulus  capi'is;  2.  The  body  louse,  or  pedic- 
ulus  vextimenti;  3.  The  crab  louse,  or  pediculus 
(s.  pht/urius)  pubis;  4.  The  louse  occurring  in 
phthiriasis,  or  pediculus  tabescenlinm.  The  para¬ 
sitic  arachnidans  belong  to  the  order  of  acaridu, 
or  mites.  We  have — I.  Demodicida,  including 
the  pimple  mite  or  demodex  (s.  acar us)  folliculorum 
(the  dog  and  the  sheep  possess  each  a  special  de¬ 
modex).  II.  Sarcoptidn ,  including  the  itch  mite 
or  sarcoptes  (s.  acarux)  scabiei.  III.  Ixodida  or 
ticks,  including — 1.  The  American  tick  or  ix odes 
homini '»/  2.  The  common  wood  tick  (dog  tick),  or 
ixodes  ricinus.  IV.  Oamaxida,  or  beetle  lice,  in¬ 
cluding — 1.  The  bird  mite,  or  dermanyssus  avium 
(occasionally  found  on  sickly  persons);  2.  The 
miana  bug,  or  avgas  persicus;  3.  The  chincha 
bug,  or  argas  chiivhe.  V.  Orobatida,  or  grass- 
lice,  including  the  harvest-bug,  or  leptus  autum- 
nalis. 

Epizootics  (Gr.  am,  epi,  upon,  and  Zoov,  zdon, 
an  animal)  are  diseases  of  animals  which  manifest 
a  common  character,  and  prevail  at  the  same  time 
over  considerable  tracts  of  country.  Like  epi¬ 
demics,  they  appear  to  depend  upon  some  pecul¬ 
iar  atmospheric  causes;  where  the  cases  are  neg¬ 
lected  or  over-crowded,  they  also  frequently  be¬ 
come  contagious;  they  are  apt  to  take  on  a  low 
type  of  fever,  and  are  better  treated  by  support¬ 
ing  than  by  reducing  remedies.  Influenza  in 
horses,  and  pleuro  pneumonia  and  vesicular  epi¬ 
zootic  in  cattle,  are  examples. 

Epoch,  A  fixed  point  of  time  from  which  suc¬ 
ceeding  years  are  numbered;  a  period  of  time 
remarkable  for  events  of  great  subsequent  impor¬ 
tance.  In  astronomy  it  denotes  an  abbreviation 
for  longitude  at  the  epoch;  it  means  the  mean  helio¬ 
centric  longitude  of  a  planet  in  its  orbit  at  any  given 
time — the  beginning  of  a  century,  for  instance. 
The  epoch  of  a  planet  for  a  particular  year  is  its 
mean  longitude  at  mean  noon,  on  January  1st, 
when  it  is  leap  year,  and  on  December  3ist  of 
the  preceding  year,  when  it  is  a  common  year. 
The  epoch  is  one  of  the  elements  of  a  planet’s 
orbit. 

Ep'ocle  is  the  last  part  of  the  chorus  which  the 
ancient  Greeks  sung  after  the  strophe  and  antis¬ 
trophe,  when  the  singers  had  returned  to  their 
original  place. 

Eprouvette  is  a  machine  for  proving  or  testing 
the  strength  of  gunpowder.  It  was  invented  or 
suggested  in  the  last  century  by  Robins,  but  was 
improved  by  Doctor  Hutton. 

Epsom  Salt,  or  Sul 'prate  of  Magne'sia 
(MgS0i,7H20),  occurs  not  only  in  the  water  of 
mineral  springs,  as  at  Epsom,  Seidlitz,  and  many 
other  places,  but  also  as  an  efflorescence  on  the 
surface  of  rocks,  sometimes  with  alum,  and  in 
some  instances  on  the  ground.  It  sometimes 
occurs  snow-white  and  pure,  sometimes  discolored 
by  impurities;  and  is  either  in  the  form  of  fine, 
thread-like  crystals,  or  in  crusts,  flakes,  granules, 
etc.  It  is  also  obtained  by  the  action  of  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  upon  magnesian  limestone.  Epsom 
salt  is  a  well  known  purgative  remedy,  much  in 
use  in  household  medicine.  It  may  be  given  in 
doses  from  two  drachms  to  one  ounce,  according 
to  the  effect  required,  in  a  tumbler  of  water. 
The  disagreeable  bitter  taste  is  much  relieved  by 
acidulating  with  nearly  a  teaspoonful  of  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  to  each  ounce  of  salt. 

E'quable  Motion  is  that  by  which  equal  spaces 
are  passed  over  in  equal  times. 

Eqna'tion,  Annual,  one  of  the  most  con¬ 
spicuous  of  the  subordinate  fluctuations  in  the 
moon’s  motion,  due  to  the  action  of  the  sun, 
which  increases  with  its  proximity  to  the  earth 
and  her  satellite.  It  consists  in  an  alternate 
increase  and  decrease  in  her  longitude,  correspond¬ 
ing  with  the  earth’s  situation  in  its  annual  orbit, 
i.  e.,  to  its  angular  distance  from  the  perihelion, 


and  therefore  having  a  year  instead  of  a  month, 
or  aliquot  part  of  a  month,  for  its  period. 

Equation,  Differential,  is  an  equation 
involving  differential  coefficients ;  such  as 
d^y  cly  ...  . 

Tfp  e lx  ~  X  ’  ^rom  whidi  it  is  required  to  find 

the  relation  between  y  and  at.  The  theory  of  the 
solution  of  such  equations  is  an  extension  of  the 
integral  calculus. 

Equation  of  E'quinoxes  is  the  difference 
between  the  true  position  of  the  equinoxes,  and 
the  position  calculated  on  the  supposition  that 
their  motion  is  uniform. 

Equation  of  Light.  In  astronomical  observa¬ 
tions,  the  visual  ray  by  which  we  see  any  body  is 
not  that  which  it  emits  at  the  moment  we  look  at 
it,  but  that  which  it  did  emit  some  time  before, 
viz.,  the  time  occupied  by  light  in  traversing  the 
interval  which  separates  it  from  us.  The  equation 
of  light  is  the  allowance  to  be  made  for  the  time 
occupied  by  the  light  in  traversing  a  variable 
space. 

Equation  of  Payments.  The  problem  con¬ 
sidered  under  this  head  in  books  of  arithmetic  is 
to  find  a  time  when,  if  a  sum  of  money  be  paid 
by  a  debtor,  which  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  several 
debts  payable  by  him  at  different  times,  no  loss 
will  be  sustained  by  either  the  debtor  or  creditor. 
The  rule  generally  given  is  as  follows;  Mu®ply 
each  sum  due  by  the  time  at  which  it  is  payable, 
and  then  divide  the  sum  of  the  products  by  the 
sum  of  the  debts  ;  the  quotient  is  the  equated 
time. 

Equation  of  the  Center.  If  the  earth  moved 
uniformly  round  the  sun  in  a  circle,  it  would  be 
easy  to  calculate  its  longitude  or  distance  from 
the  line  of  equinoxes  at  any  time.  One  year 
would  be  to  the  time  since  the  vernal  equinox  as 
360°  to  the  arc  of  longitude  passed  over.  But 
the  orbit  of  the  earth  is  not  circular,  nor  is  its 
motion  uniform;  the  orbit  is  slightly  elliptical, 
and  the  motion  is  quicker  at  perihelion  than  at 
aphelion.  The  true  rule,  then,  for  ascertaining 
the  earth’s  longitude  is  contained  in  the  following 
proportion:  one  y<  ar  is  to  the  time  elapsed  as  the 
whole  area  of  the  earth’s  orbit  is  to  the  area 
swept  over  by  the  radius  vector  in  the  time. 

Equation  of  Time.  It  will  be  seen  from  the 
article  Equation  of  the  Center  that  the  earth’s 
motion  in  the  ecliptic — or  what  is  the  same  thing, 
the  sun’s  apparent  motion  in  longitude — is  not 
uniform.  This  want  of  uniformity  would  of 
itself  obviously  cause  an  irregularity  in  the  time 
of  the  sun’s  coming  to  the  meridian  on  successive 
days;  but  besides  this  want  of  uniformity  in  the 
sun’s  apparent  motion  in  the  ecliptic,  there  is 
another  cause  of  inequality  in  the  time  of  its 
coming  on  the  meridian — viz.,  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic  to  the  equinoctial.  Even  if  the  sun 
moved  in  the  equinoctial,  there  would  be  an 
inequality  in  this  respect,  owing  to, its  want  of 
uniform  motion;  and  even  if  it  moved  uniformly 
in  the  ecliptic,  there  would  be  such  an  inequality, 
owing  to  the  obliquity  of  its  orbit  to  the  equinoc¬ 
tial.  These  two  independent  causes  conjointly 
produce  the  inequality  in  the  time  of  its  appear¬ 
ance  on  the  meridian,  the  correction  for  which  is 
the  equation  of  time. 

Equations.  An  equation  maybe  defiued  to  be 
an  algebraical  sentence  stating  the  equality  of 
two  algebraical  expressions,  or  of  an  algebraical 
expression  to  zero.  From  another  point  of  view, 
it  is  the  algebraical  expression  of  the  conditions 
which  connect  known  and  unknown  quantities. 
Thus  (1),  xy  —  24,  and  (2),  z*  -f -y*  =  52,  are  two 
equations  expressing  the  relations  between  the 
unknown  quantities  x  and  y  and  known  quan¬ 
tities. 

Equa'tor,  Celestial,  is  the  great  circle  in  the 
sky  corresponding  to  the  extension  of  the  equator 
of  the  earth. 

Equator,  Terrestrial,  the  great  circle  on  the 
earth’s  surface  dividingtlie  earth  into  the  Northern 
and  Southern  Hemispheres,  and  half  way  between 
the  poles. 

Equato'rial,  an  important  astronomical  in¬ 
strument,  by  which  a  celestial  body  may  be 
observed  at  any  point  of  its  diurnal  course.  It 
consists  of  a  telescope  attached  to  a  graduated 
circle,  called  the  declination  circle,  whose  axis 
penetrates  at  right  angles  that  of  another  gradu¬ 
ated  circle  called  the  hour  circle,  and  is  wholly 


supported  by  it.  The  pierced  axis,  which  is 
called  the  principal  axis  of  the  instrument,  turns 
on  fixed  supports;  it  is  pointed  to  the  pole  of  the 
heavens,  and  the  hour  circle  is  of  course  parallel 
to  the  equinoctial. 

Eqties'trian  Order,  orE'QtiiTES.  This  body 
originally  formed  the  cavalry  of  the  Roman  army, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  instituted  by  Romulus, 
who  selected  from  the  three  principal  Roman 
tribes  300  equites.  This  number  was  afterward 
gradually  increased  to  3,600,  who  were  partly  of 
patrician  and  partly  of  plebeian  rank,  and  required 
to  possess  a  certain  amount  of  property. 

Equestrian  Statue,  the  representation  of  a  man 
on  horseback. 

Equian  'gular,  having  equal  angles.  A  figure 
is  said  to  be  equiangular  all  whose  angles  are  equal 
to  one  another,  asa  square,  orany  regular  polygon. 
Also  triangles  and  other  figures  are  said  to  be 
equiangular  one  with  another  whose  correspond¬ 
ing  angles  are  equal. 

Equidse,  or  Soi.idungula  (Lat.  solid-hoofed),  a 
family  of  mammalia,  of  the  order  Pachydennala, 
con  taining  only  asmall  number  of  species,  which  so 
nearly  resemble  each  other  that  nearly  all  natural¬ 
ists  refer  them  to  one  genus,  Equus.  They  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  other  quadrupeds  by  the  com¬ 
plete  consolidation  of  the  bones  of  the  toes,  or  the 
extraordinary  development  of  one  toe  alone  in 
each  foot,  with  only  one  set  of  phalangeal  and  of 
metacarpal  or  metatarsal  bones,  and  the  extremity 
covered  by  a  single  undivided  hoof.  The  horse 
and  the  ass  are  by  far  the  most  important  species 
of  this  family. 

Equilat'eral,  having  equal  sides.  A  square  is 
equilateral.  The  equilateral  hyperbola  is  that 
whose  axes  and  conjugate  diameters  are  equal. 

Equilibrium,  the  state  of  rest  or  balance  of  a 
body  or  system,  solid  or  fluid,  acted  upon  by 
various  forces. 

Equiiioc’tial  is  the  same  with  the  celestial 
equator.  The  equinoctial  points  are  those  in  which 
the  equinoctial  and  the  ecliptic  intersect.  Equinoc¬ 
tial  time  is  time  reckoned  from  the  moment  when 
the  point  of  Aries  passes  the  vernal  equinx. 

E’quinoxes.  Sometimes  the  equinoctial  points 
are  called  the  equinoxes.  More  commonly,  by  the 
equinoxes  are  meant  the  times  when  the  sun  enters 
those  points — viz.,  March  21st  and  September  22d, 
the  former  being  called  the  vernal  or  spring 
equinox,  and  the  latter  the  autumnal.  When  in 
the  equinoxes,  the  sun,  through  the  earth’s  rota¬ 
tion  on  its  axis,  seems  to  describe  the  circle  of  the 
equator  in  the  heavens,  and  the  days  and  nights 
are  of  equal  length  all  over  the  world, 

Equip'ment,  Eq'uipage,  in  Military  matters, 
are  names  given  to  certain  of  the  necessaries  for 
officers  and  soldiers. 

Equise'tum,  a  genus  of  cryptogamous  plants, 
the  structure  and  affinities  of  which  are  not  well 
understood,  but  which  many  botanists  regard  as 
constituting  a  sub-order  of  ferns,  while  others 
prefer  to  make  it  a  distinct  order,  Equixetacece. 
The  English  name  horse-tail  is  often  given  to  all 
the  species. 

Equitable  Estates  are  estates  the  right  to 
which,  according  to  the  strict  rules  of  common  law, 
was  unrecognized,  but  which  received  full  effect 
in  English  courts  of  equity.  These  estates  are  the 
equity  of  redemption  which  a  mortgagor  has  in 
his  estate,  subject  to  the  mortgage,  and  the  right 
of  cestui  que  trust  in  a  trust  estate. 

Equitable  Mort'gage  is  one  wherein  a  person, 
having  an  equitable  interest  in  an  estate,  mort¬ 
gages  that  interest.  Thus,  a  cestui  que  trust  may 
mortgage  his  estate  under  the  trust  or  a  mort¬ 
gagor,  who  has  already  mortgaged  his  estate, 
may  convey  his  equity  of  redemption  in  security 
of  his  debt.  In  these  instances,  the  interest 
operated  upon  being  purely  equitable,  the  trans¬ 
action  is  an  equitable  mortgage. 

Equity,  Principles  of,  in  their  widest  sense, 
are  the  principles  of  justice,  of  which  all  human 
laws  are  but  adaptations.  Equity  is  said  to  be 
the  body  of  the  law,  and  the  statutes  of  men  are 
but  as  the  ornaments  and  vestiture  thereof.  But 
it  is  impossible,  in  the  nature  of  things,  that  any 
code  of  laws  should  provide  a  remedy  suited  to 
every  particular  case;  it  has,  therefore,  been 
found  necessary  in  every  civilized  nation  to  es¬ 
tablish  some  form  of  authority  which  should  con¬ 
trol  the  rigor  and  remedy  the  deficiency  of  pos- 


EQUITY  OF  REDEMPTION. 


376 


EROS. 


itive  law.  Tlius,  it  is  the  function  of  the  law  to 
lay  down  a  code  of  rules  whereby  the  rights  of 
property  and  the  transactions  of  commerce  shall 
he  regulated;  but  by  the  diversities  of  life  it 
happens  that  various  circumstances  will  occur  to 
cause  these  fixed  rules  to  operate  harshly  or  un¬ 
justly  in  particular  cases. 

Equity  of  Redemption,  the  interest  which  a 
mortgagor  has  in  an  estate  which  he  has  mort¬ 
gaged.  An  equity  of  redemption  may  be  de¬ 
vised,  granted,  or  entailed,  and  the  course  of  de¬ 
scent  to  an  equity  of  redemption  is  governed  by 
the  same  laws  as  the  descent  to  the  land  would 
have  been. 

Erased '  and  Eradicated,  in  Heraldry  signifies 
that  an  object  is  plucked  or  torn  oil,  and  showing 
a  ragged  edge;  as  opposed  to  coupe  or  coujry, 
cut,  which  shows  a  smooth  edge.  A  tree  plucked 
up  by  the  roots  is  said  to  be  eradicated. 

Erasis'tratus,  a  physician  who  flourished  in 
the  third  century  b.c.,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
been  born  at  Iulis,  in  the  Island  of  Ceos.  He 
founded  a  school  of  medicine,  wrote  several 
works  on  anatomy — in  which  branch  he  was 
most  celebrated — on  practical  medicine,  and 
pharmacy. 

Eratos'thenes,  an  astronomer  and  geometrician 
of  Alexandria,  born  276  b.c.  His  fame  as  an  as¬ 
tronomer  has  cast  into  the  shade  his  other  accom¬ 
plishments,  but  he  had  some  reputation  both  as  a 
poet  and  as  a  grammarian,  and  was  appointed 
Superintendent  of  the  great  Alexandrian  Library 
by  Ptolemy  Euergetes.  He  died  196  b.c. 

Er'bium  (symbol  E)  is  a  rare  metal,  the  com¬ 
pounds  of  which  are  found  in  a  few  minerals, 
especially  in  gadolinite,  obtained  from  Ytterby,  in 
Sweden.  In  its  compound  and  properties  it  re¬ 
sembles  the  metal  aluminium. 

Erckmann — Chatrian  (Emile  Erckmann  and 
Alexandre  Chatrian),  two  French  men  of 
letters,  the  first  born  May  20,  1822;  the  second, 
Dec.  2,  1826.  From  1847  the  two  friends  em¬ 
ployed  their  pens  in  the  same  works,  which  they 
signed  with  the  two  names  united  in  one;  and  it 
was  only  about  1863  that  the  authors  informed 
their  readers  that  the  numerous  works  of  fiction, 
which  had  obtained  a  widespread  popularity,  and 
were  supposed  by  the  general  public  to  be  the 
work  of  a  single  writer,  were  the  fruits  of  their 
friendly  collaboration. 

Er'ebns — the  name  of  one  of  the  sons  of  Chaos 
— signifies  darkness,  and  is  used  especially  to 
denote  the  dark  and  gloomy  cavern  beneath  the 
earth,  through  which  the  shades  pass  in  going  to 
Hades. 

Er'furt,  a  city  of  Prussian  Saxony,  anciently 
capital  of  Thuringia.  Pop.  (1880),  53,254. 

Er'got,  a  diseased  condition  of  the  germen  of 
grasses,  sometimes  also  observed  in  some  of  the 
Cyperacece.  Ergot  appears  to  have  been  first 
observed  in  rye,  in  which  it  becomes  very  con¬ 
spicuous  from  the  large  size  it  attains,  sometimes 
an  inch  or  even  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length.  It 
is,  however,  not  uncommon  in  wheat  and  barley, 
although  in  them  it  is  not  so  conspicuous,  from 
its  general  resemblance  to  the  ordinary  ripened 
grain.  Rye-grass  is  often  affected  with  ergot,  as 
are  many  other  grasses;  and  it  is  of  frequent  oc¬ 
currence  in  corn,  in  which  also  it  attains  its 
greatest  size.  Ergot  has  been  supposed  to  be 
merely  a  disease  occasioned  by  wet  seasons  or 
other  climatic  causes.  But  it  appears  now  to  be 
fully  ascertained,  that  it  is  a  disease  occasioned 
by  the  presence  of  the  mycelium  of  a  fungus.  It 
is  a  valuable  medicine,  exercising  a  specific  action 
on  the  womb,  particularly  during  labor,  and  by  the 
greater  frequency  and  force  of  the  contractions 
which  it  causes  when  cautiously  administered, 
often  most  beneficially  hastening  delivery.  It  is 
also  useful  in  checking  haemorrhage,  by  reason  of 
its  contractile  action  on  the  tissues. 

Eri'cete,  or  Erica 'ce^e,  a  natural  order  of  ex¬ 
ogenous  plants,  consisting  chiefly  of  small  shrubs, 
but  containing  also  some  trees.  About  900 
species  of  this  order  are  known,  of  which  the 
greater  number  are  natives  of  South  Africa, 
which  particularly  abound  in  the  genus  Erica , 
and  its  allies — the  true  heaths — although  some  of 
them  are  also  found  to  the  utmost  limits  of  north¬ 
ern  vegetation.  They  are  rare  within  the  tropics, 
and  only  occur  at  considerable  elevations.  Medic¬ 
inal  properties  exist  in  some  of  the  ericeae,  as 


the  bear-berry  and  the  ground  laurel  of  North 
America  ( Epigcea  repeus),  a  popular  remedy  in 
the  United  States  for  affections  of  the  bowels 
and  urinary  organs.  Narcotic  and  poisonous 
qualities  are  of  not  infrequent  occurrence. 
The  rliododendreai  have  sometimes  been  re¬ 
garded  as  a  distinct  order,  but  are  generally 
considered  a  sub-order  of  ericeae,  containing  the 
genera  Rhododendron ,  Azalea,  Kalinin,  Ledum, 
etc.  The  larger  leaves  and  flowers,  and  generally 
also  the  larger  plants  of  the  order,  belong  to  this 
sub-order,  which,  however,  contains  also  many 
small  shrubs  of  sub-arctic  and  elevated  mountain¬ 
ous  regions. 

Erics'son,  John,  an  engineer,  was  born  in 
Sweden  in  1803.  It  is  to  him  that  steam  naviga¬ 
tion  owes  the  screw-propeller.  In  1839  he  came 
to  New  York,  where  liebrought  out  his  improved 
Caloric  engine,  a  hydrostatic  gauge,  a  pyrometer, 
a  new  sea-lead,  and  other  mechanical  novelties, 
lie  constructed  the  iron-clad  Monitor,  which 
fought  the  Confederate  man-of-war  Merrimnc. 
Mr.  Ericsson’s  inventions  were  of  the  most  varied 
character.  He  died  in  March,  1889. 

Erie,  one  of  the  five  great  lakes  which  empty 
themselves  by  the  St.  Lawrence,  separates  Can¬ 
ada  on  its  left  from  Michigan,  Ohio,  Pennsyl¬ 
vania.  and  New  York  on  its  right.  It  is  the  most 
soutdrly  of  the  five,  receiving  at  its  northwestern 
extremity  the  waters  of  Lakes  Superior,  Michi¬ 
gan  and  Huron  by  the  River  Detroit,  and  dis¬ 
charging  them  at  its  northeast  by  the  Niagara 
into  Lake  Ontario.  With  a  length  of  240  miles, 
Erie  has  a  breadth  varying  from  30  to  nearly  60 
miles,  with  an  area  of  9,600  square  miles.  It  is 
16  feet  below  Lake  Huron,  and  333  and  565  re¬ 
spectively  above  Lake  Ontario  and  the  Atlantic. 

Erie,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  the  seat  of  jus¬ 
tice  of  Erie  county,  Penn.,  in  latitude  42°  8'  N., 
and  longitude  80°  10'  W.  Its  harbor  is  formed 
by  an  island  four  miles  in  length,  called  Presque 
Isle.  Erie  is  the  seat  of  a  great  deal  of  wealth. 
Pop.  (1885),  27,737. 

Erig'eron,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Composi/m,  sub-order  Corymbiferm,  having 
heads  (flowers)  of  many  florets,  the  florets  of  the 
ray  numerous,  in  several  rows,  of  a  different 
color  from  those  of  the  disc.  E.  philadelphicum, 
a  native  of  North  America,  with  pale-purple  ray, 
and  a  fetid  smell,  is  valued  as  a  diuretic. 

Eriocaula'cea?,  an  order  of  endogenous  plants, 
allied  to  Restiacece,  con¬ 
taining  about  200  species. 

They  grow  generally  in 
marshes,  and  are  chiefly 
natives  of  the  Southern 
States  and  Australia.  One 
Western  Irish  species  is 
called  Pipewort. 

Eriodeii'droii,  a  genus 
of  trees  of  the  natural  or¬ 
der  Slerculiaeece,  natives  of 
tropical  countries,  the 
thick,  woody  capsules  of  ,  . 
which  contain  a  kind  of  •\A- 
wool  surrounding  t  h  ey\;vS'.  r, 
seeds.  These  trees  are' 
therefore  sometimes  called 
wool  trees. 

Eriwan'  (Persian  Re- 
wdn),  the  capital  of  Rus¬ 
sian  Armenia,  situated  to 
the  north  of  Ararat,  in  the 
elevated  plain  of  Aras  or 
Araxes,  latitude  40°  10' 

N.,  longitude  44°  32'  E., 

3,312  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea.  Pop.  (1880), 

15,040.  Eriwan  was  for¬ 
merly  the  capital  of  the 
Persian  Province  of  Aran. 

Ermiue,  white  fur, with 
black  spots,  the  reverse  of  Jointed  Pipewort  ( Erioca ■ 
which,  orablack  furwith  vlonseplangulare). 

white  spots,  also  used  in°>t“ft  °f,.le^ves’  flower- 

■  i a  •„  „  t _ stalk  with  flowers,  and 

heraldry,  is  cajletl  contre  par^  Gf  creeping  root;  b , 

ermine.  Ermine  is  com-  seed;  c,  bract  or  scale;  d. 
monly  used  to  difference  female  flower;  e,  pistil;/, 
the  arms  of  any  member  maleflower- 
of  a  family  who  is  connected  with  the  law.  A 
cross  composed  of  four  ermine  spots  is  said  to  be 
a  cross  ermine. 


Ermine,  or  Stoat  ( Mustela  erminea),  a  species 
of  weasel,  larger  than  the  common  weasel,  but 
resembling  it  in  general  form,  and  other  char¬ 
acters,  as  well  as  in  habits.  The  ermine  is  almost 
ten  inches  in  length,  exclusive  of  the  tail,  which 
is  fully  four  and  a  half  inches  long.  It  is  of  a 
pale  reddish-brown  color  in  summer,  the  under 
parts  yellowish-white,  the  tip  of  the  tail  black;  in 
winter — in  cold  countries  or  severe  seasons — the 


Ermine. 

Summer  and  winter  dress. 


upper  parts  change  to  a  yellowish-white  or 
almost  pure  white,  the  tip  of  the  tail,  however, 
always  remaining  black.  It  is  in  its  winter  dress 
that  it  is  called  ermine,  and  yields  a  highly  val¬ 
ued  fur.  The  ermine  is  a  native  of  all  the  north¬ 
ern  parts  of  tne  world.  It  is  from  Norway, 
Lapland,  Siberia,  and  the  Hudson  Bay  terri¬ 
tories  that  the  ermine  skins  of  commerce  are 
mostly  obtained. 

Erne  ( llaliceeius ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family 
Falconidce,  and  of  the  eagle  group;  differing  from 
the  true  eagles  in  the  greater  length  of  the  bill,  in 
the  toes  and  lower  part  of  the  tarsi  being  desti- 


Common  Erne  ( Haliceitvs  albicilla). 


tute  of  feathers,  and  generally,  also,  in  frequent¬ 
ing  the  sea-coast  and  the  banks  of  lakes  and  rivers 
to  feed  on  fish,  in  feeding  also  on  carrion,  and  in 
inferior  courage. 

Ernst,  Elector  of  Saxony,  succeeded  to  the 
electoral  dignity  on  the  death  of  his  father  in 
1464,  but  governed  in  common  with  his  brother 
for  twenty -one  years.  He  died  in  1486. 

Ernst  I.,  surnamed  the  Pious,  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Gotha  and  Altenburg,  born  Dec.  24,  1601,  and 
died  in  1675. 

Ernst,  II EiNRicn  Wilhelm  (1814-65),  an  emi¬ 
nent  violinist  and  composer,  was  born  at  Briinn, 
in  Moravia,  in  1814.  The  last  seven  years  of  his 
life  were  spent  in  retirement,  chiefly  at  Nice, 
where  he  died  on  Oct.  8,  1865.  As  a  violinist 
Ernst  was  distinguished  for  his  almost  unrivaled 
executive  power,  for  his  loftiness  of  conception, 
and  for  his  intensely  passionate  expression. 

Eros,  in  Greek  mythology,  love  or  desire.  By 
later  poets  he  is  represented  as  a  sou  of  Zeus  and 
Gaia  (the  earth),  or  Aphrodite,  or  Artemis;  but 
in  the  Hesiodic  theogony  he  makes  up,  with 
Chaos,  Gaia,  and  Tartarus,  the  number  of  self- 
existent  deities,  and  as  the  most  beautiful  of  all 
the  gods,  he  conquers  the  mind  and  will  of  hotli 
gods  and  men.  The  name  Eros  answers  to  the 


EROSION. 


377 


ESENBECKIA. 


Vedic  Arusha,  a  nnme  applied  to  the  sun,  but 
only  at  his  rising.  Arusha,  like  the  Greek  Eros 
and  the  Latin  Cupido,  is  spoken  of  as  a  child 
with  beautiful  wings. 

Ero'sion,  the  influence  of  water  in  wearing 
earth,  rocks,  or  other  substances.  Even  the 
smallest  streams,  when  running  over  soft  strata, 
as  clay  or  sand,  cut  out  channels,  and  remove  the 
eroded  materials.  Hollows  thus  produced  have 
been  observed  among  the  stratified  rocks.  The 
immense  amount  of  materials  brought  down  by 
rivers,  and  deposited  at  their  mouths  as  deltas, 
shows  without  doubt  that  they  have  contributed 
materially  to  produce  inequalities  on  the  earth’s 
surface;  but  the  geological  structure  of  valleys 
shows  that  almost  every  great  hydrographical 
basin  has  derived  its  form  originally  from  some 
other  agency,  although  its  outline  may  have  been 
subsequently  altered  by  the  continued  action  of 
currents  within  it. 

Erot'ic  (from  the  Greek  Epos,  eros,  love), 
signifying  in  general  whatever  is  marked  by  love 
or  passion;  but  the  term  is  chiefly  applied  to 
poetical  pieces  of  which  love  is  the  predominat¬ 
ing  subject. 

Erotoma'nia,  a  species  of  mental  alienation 
caused  by  love. 

Erra'ta,  the  list  of  errors  with  their  corrections 
placed  at  the  end  of  a  book. 

Errat'ics,  the  name  given  to  the  water-worn 
blocks  of  stone  that  have  been  washed  out  of  the 
bowlder  clay,  or  are  still  inclosed  in  it,  because 
they  have  generally  been  derived  from  rocks  at  a 
distance. 

Er'rhines  (Gr.  iv,  en,  in  and  pi'v,  rhin,  the 
nose),  medicines  administered  locally  to  produce 
sneezing  and  discharge  from  the  nostrils,  in 
catarrh,  and  in  various  disorders  of  the  head  and 
eyes.  Common  snuff  and  various  other  vege 
table  irritants  in  powder  are  used  for  this  pur¬ 
pose. 

Erse  (a  corruption  of  Irish),  the  name  given 
by  the  Lowland  people  of  Scotland  to  the  lan¬ 
guage  spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Western 
Highlands,  as  being  of  Irish  origin.  The  proper 
name  is  Gaelic. 

Eryn'go  ( Eryngium ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order,  Umbelliftrat,  having  simple 
umbels,  which  resemble  the  heads  of  composite 
flowers,  a  leafy  involucre  and  leafy  calyx,  and 
obovate,  scaly  fruit  destitute  both  of  ridges  and 
vittae.  The  species  are  numerous,  mostly  natives 
of  the  warmer  parts  of  the  world,  with  alternate, 
simple,  or  divided  leaves,  which  have  marginal 
spines.  E.  fczlidum,  a  native  of  the  Southern 


>  / 


Sea  Holly  ( Erynrjium  maritimum). 
a,  a  floret;  b, a  petal;  c,  a  stamen;  cl,  the  pistil. 

States,  is  called  fit-weed  in  the  West  Indies,  a 
decoction  of  it  being  much  used  as  a  remedy  in 
hysterical  cases.  E.  a/iuaticum,  a  native  of 
low  wet  places  in  North  and  South  America,  is 
called  rattlesnake  weed  and  button  snakeroot. 
The  root  is  diaphoretic  and  expectorant,  and  has 
a  spurious  reputation  as  a  cure  for  the  bite  of  the 
rattlesnake. 

Erys'imum,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Vructferoe,  tribe  Sisymbriecz.  E.  cheiranthoi- 
des,  a  branching  annual,  about  eighteen  inches 


high,  with  lanceolate,  scarcely  toothed  leaves  and 


a,  root;  b,  a  branch,  in  which  flowering  has  recently  begun, 

c,  the  summit  of  a  branch  in  a  more  advanced  state 

showing  the  fruit;  cl,  the  calyx;  e,  the  parts  of  fructifi¬ 
cation,  divested  of  floral  envelopes;  /,  a  flower. 

small  yellow  flowers,  is  found  in  many  parts  of 
Europe,  and  also  in  North  America. 

Erysip'elas,  an  inflammatory  and  febrile 
disease  of  the  skin  attended  by  diffused  redness 
and  swelling  of  the  part  affected,  and  in  the  end 
either  by  desquamation  or  by  vesication  of  the 
cuticle,  or  scarf-skin,  in  the  milder  forms,  and  by 
suppuration  of  the  deeper  parts  in  the  severer 
varieties  of  the  disease  (phlegmonous  erysipelas). 
Erysipelas  affects,  in  a  large  proportion  of  in¬ 
stances,  the  face  and  head.  It  is  apt  to  be  attended 
with  severe  and  typhoid  fever,  and  with  disorder 
of  I  he  nervous  system,  arising  in  some  instances 
from  inflammation  of  the  membranes  of  the  brain. 
In  other  parts  of  the  body,  severe  or  phlegmon¬ 
ous  erysipelas  is  apt  to  be  succeeded  by  pro¬ 
tracted  and  exhausting  suppurations,  and  some¬ 
times  by  diseases  of  the  bones,  or  inflammations 
of  the  internal  organs.  Erysipelas  is  frequently 
an  epidemic  disease;  it  is  also  apt  to  recur  in  a 
person  who  has  been  attacked  once  or  oftener; 
and  this  is  especially  true  of  the  form  which 
affects  the  face.  It  is  seldom  that  depletion  is 
allowable  in  erysipelas,  but  the  bowels  should  be 
well  cleared  out  in  most  cases,  and  a  diuretic 
given,  after  which  the  strength  should  be  kept  up 
by  tonics  and  stimulants  and  special  dangers  ob¬ 
viated,  as  they  occur.  In  some  cases  iron  is  used 
as  a  specific  remedy  both  internally  and  ex¬ 
ternally. 

ErytIie'iiia(Gr.ept>0«n'£zr,  eruthainein.  to  red¬ 
den),  a  minor  form  of  erysipelas,  presenting  the 
same  tendency  to  diffusion  and  redness,  but  not 
so  much  swelling,  and  little  disposition  toward 
suppuration,  or  even  vesication.  Erythema  is 
chiefly  dangerous  when  it  presents  itself  in  a 
wandering  shape,  attended  with  slow,  consuming 
fever.  The  muriated  tincture  of  iron,  in  doses  of 
twenty  drops  in  water  every  hour  or  two,  has 
been  regarded  as  a  specific  in  this  disease,  as  well 
as  in  erysipelas.  Some  forms  of  erythema  are 
distinctly  connected  with  constitutional  diseases, 
as  gout,  rheumatism,  syphilis,  etc.,  and  depend 
for  their  cure  on  the  removal  of  the  cause. 

Erythro'nium,  a  genus  of  bulbous-rooted 
plants  of  the  natural  order  liliacem,  with  droop¬ 
ing  flowers  and  the  segments  of  the  perianth  re¬ 
flexed.  E.  dens  canis,  the  dog-toothed  violet,  so 
called  because  of  the  resemblance  of  its  little 
white  bulbs  to  dogs’  teeth,  is  a  well-known  orna¬ 
ment  of  flower-borders  in  spring. 

Erytliroplilse'um,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Leyuminoscz,  sub-order  Mimoseos. 
E.  guineense,  a  native  of  Guinea,  is  a  large  tree, 
remarkable  for  the  great  quantity  of  red  juice 
which  it  contains. 

Erytliroxyla'cete,  a  natural  order  of  exoge¬ 
nous  plants,  allied  to  Malpighiacew.  Nearly  100 
species  are  known,  natives  of  warm  countries, 
and  chiefly  of  tropical  America.  To  this  order 
belongs  the  coca.  The  wood  of  some  of  the  spe¬ 
cies  is  bright  red;  that  of  Erythroxylon  (Gr. 
red-wood )  suberosum  is  used  in  Brazil  for  dyeing, 
and  a  permanent  red  is  obtained  from  it.  Tuat 


of  E.  hypericifulium  is  the  bois  d’huile  (oil-wood) 
of  Mauritius. 

ErzerunT,  or  Erzroum',  properly  Ersernm,  a 
town  in  Turkish  Armenia,  in  latitude  39°  55'  N., 
longitude  41°  20'  E.  Pop.,  40,000. 

Erz'-GebirgO  (Ore  Mountains),  the  name  given 
to  a  chain  of  mountains,  rich  in  metals,  stretch¬ 
ing  in  a  southwesterly  direction,  on  the  confines 
of  Saxony  and  Bohemia,  from  the  valley  of  the 
Elbe  to  the  Fichtelgebirge,  in  longitude  12°  20'  E. 

E 'sail  (hairy  or  rough),  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac 
and  twin-brother  of  Jacob.  From  Esau  the  region 
of  Mount  Seir  took  the  name  of  Edom,  and"  nis 
posterity  are  generally  called  Edomites. 

Escaiade'  (Fr.  from  Lat.  scula,  a  ladder),  in 
siege  operations,  is  a  mode  of  gaining  admission 
within  the  enemy’s  works.  It  consists  in  ad¬ 
vancing  over  the  glacis  and  covert-way;  descend¬ 
ing,  if  necessary,  into  the  ditch  by  means  of  lad¬ 
ders;  and  ascending  to  the  parapet  of  the  curtain 
and  bastions  by  the  same  ladders  differently 
placed. 

Escal'op-sliells  are  often  used  in  Heraldry  to 

signify  that  the  bearer  has  made  ,.  _ _ _ 7 

many  long  voyages  by  sea.  The  )  rv 
escalop-shell  was  the  emblem  of  ' 

St.  James  the  Great.  The  more 
ordinary  form  of  the  name  is 
scallop-shell. 

Escape'nient  is  the  term  ap¬ 
plied  to  that  part  of  the  machin¬ 
ery  of  a  watch  or  clock  by  which  Escalop-Shell. 
the  onward  revolving  motion  produced  by  the 
moving  power,  whether  weights  or  spring,  is 
brought  into  contact  with  the  regulating  move¬ 
ment  of  the  pendulum  or  balance-wheel. 

Escarp',  in  Fortification,  is  the  side  or  slope  of 
the  ditch  next  the  rampart,  and  of  the  parapet 
itself. 

Es'cars  are  large  heaps  of  gravel,  consisting 
chiefly  of  carboniferous  limestone,  that  were  ac¬ 
cumulated  during  the  pleistocene  period.  They 
occur  in  Central  Ireland,  Sweden,  Scotland,  and 
elsewhere.  The  gravel  is  often  heaped  into  nar¬ 
row  ridges  40  to  bO  feet  high,  and  from  1  to  20 
miles  long. 

Es'cliar  (Gr  esebara ),  a  slough  or  portion  of 
dead  or  disorganized  tissue.  The  name  is  com¬ 
monly  applied  to  artificial  sloughs  produced  by 
the  application  of  caustics. 

Escheat'  (Fr.  echoir,  from  Lat.  caclere,  to  fall 
or  happen),  an  incident  of  the  feudal  law,  whereby, 
when  a  tenant  in  fee-simple  died,  leaving  no  heir 
capable  of  succeeding,  the  land  reverted  to  his 
lord. 

Es'clioltz  Bay,  a  portion  of  the  Arctic  Ocean 
in  Alaska,  forms  the  innermost  part  of  Kotzebue 
Sound,  the  first  great  inlet  to  the  northeast  of 
Behring’s  Strait.  It  is  about  longitude  161°  W. 

Esclischoltz'ia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Papnveraceie,  of  which  E.  californica  and 
other  species,  natives  of  California,  have  become 
very  common  in  flower-gardens,  making  a  showy 
appearance  with  their  large,  deep  yellow  flowers. 

Escu 'do  de  Vera 'glia  denotes  at  once  a  river 
and  an  island  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  Central 
America — the  latter  being  at  the  mouth  of  the 
former.  They  are  situated  a  little  to  the  east  of 
the  boundary  between  New  Granada  and  Costa 
Rica. 

Escu'rial  (the  correct  title  is  El  Real  sitio  de 
San  Lorenzo  el  real  de  Escorial),  a  monas¬ 
tery  of  New  Castile,  in  the  Province  of  Madrid,  and 
situated  thirty  miles  northwest  of  the  town  of  that 
name.  It  has  been  called  the  eighth  wonder 
of  the  world,  and  at  the  time  of  its  erection  sur¬ 
passed  every  building  of  the  kind  in  size  and 
magnificence.  It  owes  its  origin  (at  least,  so  it  is 
said  )  to  an  inspired  vow  made  by  Philip  II.  during 
the  Battle  of  St.  Quentin. 

Escutcll'eon,  in  Heraldry,  is  synonymous  with 
shield. 

Es'dras,  Books  of.  (The  word  Esdrns  is  the 
Greek  form  of  Ezra,  and  indicates  that  the  books 
so  named  do  not  exist  in  Hebrew  or  Chaldee.)  In 
the  Vulgate,  the  first  book  of  Esdras  means  the 
canonical  book  of  Ezra;  and  the  second,  the  can¬ 
onical  book  of  Nehemiah;  whilst  the  third  and 
fourth  are  what  we  call  the  first  and  second  books 
of  Esdras. 

Esenbeck'ia,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  JJiosmacecz.  The  bark  of  E.  febrifuga  is 


ESMERALDAS. 


378 


ETHMOID  BONE. 


said  to  be  equal  in  its  effects  to  pemvianbark.  It 
is  a  large  tree,  a  native  of  Brazil. 

Esmeral'das  (signifying  emerald  in  Spanish), 
a  river,  a  town,  and  a  province,  all  in  Ecuador, 
South  America. — 1.  The  river  rises  near  the  city 
of  Quito,  and  enters  the  Pacific  after  a  course  of 
110  miles,  in  latitude  1°  5'  N.,  and  longitude  79° 
40'  W. — 2.  The  town  stands  ten  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  Pop.,  4,000. — 3.  The  prov¬ 
ince,  watered  by  the  above-mentioned  river,  oc¬ 
cupies  the  northwest  of  Ecuador.  Pop.,  8,000 
to  10,000. 

Eso'cidae,  a  family  of  malacopterous  fishes, 
which  is  now  regarded  as  including  only  the 
pikes,  but  in  which  the  flying  fishes  ( exocoetus ) 
and  other  fishes,  now  constituting  the  family 
Scornberesockhe,  and  of  the  order  Pharyngognalhs, 
were,  until  recently,  included. 

Esoter'ic  (Gr.)  is  a  term  derived  from  the 
ancient  mysteries,  in  which  it  was  applied  to  those 
doctrines  that  were  designed  for  the  initiated,  in 
contradistinction  to  those  that  were  imparted  to 
the  uninitiated,  which  were  termed  exoteric.  It  is 
now  used  in  various  relations  of  an  analogous 
kind. 

Espal'ier,  a  term  borrowed  from  the  French, 
and  signifying  a  railing  on  which  fruit-trees  are 
trained  as  on  a  wall. 

Esparte'ro,  Joaquin  Baldomero,  ex-regent  of 
Spain,  Count  of  Luchana,  Duke  of  Viltoria,  etc., 
born  in  1792.  In  1832  he  favored  the  succession 
of  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  VII.;  and  on  the 
breaking  out  of  the  civil  war  after  the  King’s 
death,  he  rose  to  the  rank  of  Lieutenant-General, 
and  became  successively  General-in-Chief  of  the 
army  in  the  north,  Viceroy  of  Navarre,  and  Cap¬ 
tain-General  of  the  Basque  provinces.  His  sue 
cessful  campaign  of  1839,  which  resulted  in  the 
expulsion  of  Don  Carlos  from  Spain,  procured 
him  the  title  of  Grandee  of  Spain,  and  Duque  de 
la  Vittoria  y  de  Morelia,  and  on  May  8,  1841,  Es- 
partero  was  appointed  by  the  Cortes  to  act  as 
Regent  until  the  Queen  (Isabella)  should  have 
reached  her  majority,  but  he  was  exiled  in  1843. 
In  1847,  he  was  again  called  to  the  head  of  the 
government,  and  conducted  the  affairs  of  the 
nation  for  I  wo  years;  but  in  July,  1856,  he  was 
supplanted  by  General  O'Donnell.  In  1870,  Es- 
partero  was  a  candidate  for  the  throne  of  Spain, 
but  withdrew.  He  died  in  January,  1879. 

Espar'to  (Slipa  or  Mucrochloa  tenacissima ),  a 
grass  nearly  allied  to  the  well-known  and  beauti¬ 
ful  feather-grass,  a  native  of  the  South  of  Europe 
(especially  Spain)  and  North  Africa.  It  is  used 
by  the  Spaniards  for  making  sandals,  nets,  sacks, 
etc. ;  and  has  become  an  important  material  in 
paper-making. 

Espinlia'co  (Serra  do),  a  mountain-chain  of 
Brazil,  extends  in  a  direction  parallel  with  the 
coast,  from  the  right  bank  of  the  San  Francisco 
to  the  head-waters  of  the  Uruguay. 

Espi'ritu  San'to,  besideshaving  been  long  ap¬ 
plied  by  the  Spaniards  to  their  imaginary  conti¬ 
nent  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  denotes  various 
actual  localities — 1.  A  small  province  of  Brazil, 
extending  in  S.  latitude  from  18°  30'  to  21°  20', 
and  lying  to  the  north  of  the  Province  of  Rio  Ja¬ 
neiro.  This  province  contains  also  a  town  and 
a  bay  of  its  own  name. — 2.  The  largest  and  most 
westerly  island  of  the  New  Hebrides,  being  in 
latitude  15°  S.,  and  longitude  167°  E.  It  is  said 
to  measure  80  by  40  miles. — 3.  A  cape  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego,  in  latitude  52°  38'  S.,  and  longitude 
68°  37'  W. — 4.  A  town  near  the  center  of  Cuba. 
Pop.,  9,982. — 5.  A  bay  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
forming  part  of  the  back-water  of  Texas.  It  is 
in  latitude  28°  30'  N.,  and  longitude  97°  30'  W. 

Esplanade'  (in  fortress)  is  the  open  space 
between  the  houses  of  a  city  and  the  glacis  of  its 
citadel. 

Es'quimaux,  or  Eskimos,  a  nation  inhabiting 
the  arctic  regions  of  North  America.  Latham 
pronounces  them  to  be  Mongolian  in  physiog¬ 
nomy,  with  flat  nose,  projecting  cheek-bones, 
eyes  often  oblique,  and  skin  more  brown  than  red 
or  copper  colored;  thus  presenting  a  marked  con 
trast  to  other  North  American  Indians. 

Esquimaux  Dog,  a  kind  of  dog  spread  over 
the  most  northern  regions  of  North  America  and 
of  Eastern  Asia;  large,  powerful,  with  long, 
curling  hair,  bushy  tail  curved  over  the  back, 


short  and  pointed  ears,  and  somewhat  wolf-like 
aspect.  They  are  used  for  drawing  sledges. 

Esquire '  (Fr.  escuiir,  a  shield-bearer,  from  Lat. 
scutum ,  a  shield).  The  esquire  in  chivalry  was 
the  shield-bearer  or  armor-bearer  to  the  knight, 
and  hence  was  called  avmigcr  in  Latin.  He  was 
a  candidate  for  the  honor  of  knighthood,  and 
thus  stood  to  the  knight  in  the  relation  of  a 
novice  or  apprentice,  much  as  the  page  did  to 
him.  The  use  of  the  term  so  general  in  this 
country  (and  England)  in  addressing  letters, 
is  erroneous,  there  being,  |  roperly  speaking,  no 
esquires  in  the  United  States. 

Ess'en,  a  town  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  twenty  miles 
northeast  of  Diisseldorf.  The  enormous  works 
of  Herr  Krupp,  who  employs  about  15,700  men, 
are  at  Essen.  The  annual  production  is  about 
130,000  tons  of  steel,  and  26,000  tons  of  iron. 
Pop.  (1880),  56,944. 

Es  'sences  are  solutions  of  the  essential  oils  in 
alcohol,  and  may  be  prepared  (1)  by  adding  recti¬ 
fied  spirit  to  the  odoriferous  parts  of  plants,  or  to 
the  essential  oils,  and  distilling;  or  (2)  by  adding 
the  essential  oil  to  the  rectified  spirit,  and  agitat¬ 
ing  till  a  uniform  mixture  is  obtained.  Thus  the 
essence  of  lemon  is  merely  a  solution  of  the  vola¬ 
tile  oil  of  lemons  in  rectified  spirit. 

Essenes'  ( Essenoi,  Essaioi ),  a  religious  fraternity 
among  the  Jews,  whose  name  and  origin,  as  well 
as  character  and  history,  are  alike  involved  in 
obscurity.  The  Essenes  bore  a  part  in  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  Judaism. 

Essequi'bo,  a  river  of  British  Guiana,  rises 
in  the  Acarai  Mountains,  forty-one  miles  north  of 
the  equator,  and  after  a  course  of  620  miles  enters 
the  Atlantic  near  the  Venezuelan  frontier,  form¬ 
ing  an  estuary  20  miles  wide,  in  which  lie  numer¬ 
ous  fertile  islands.  On  the  Potaro,  one  of  its 
affluents  is  t lie  Great  Kaietur  Fall,  700  feet  in 
sheer  descent,  discovered  in  1870. 

Ess'ex,  a  county  of  the  Southeast  of  England, 
Pop.  (1881),  575,930.  Also  the  name  of  five  coun¬ 
ties  in  the  United  States,  situated  in  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Vir¬ 
ginia  respectively. 

Essex,  Robert  Devereux,  Earl  of,  born 
Nov.  10,  1567.  In  1599  he  was  sent  to  Ireland  as 
Lord-Lieutenant  of  that  country.  Later  he  was 
imprisoned,  tried,  found  guilty,  and  was  be¬ 
headed  Feb.  25,  1601. 

Ess'lingen,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Germany, 
in  the  Kingdom  of  Wtirtemberg.  Pop.  (1875), 
19,602. 

Established  Church,  a  church  established 
and  maintained  by  a  state  for  the  teaching  of 
Christianity  in  a  particular  form  within  its  bound¬ 
aries. 

Es'te,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  illustrious 
families  of  Italy,  which  owed  its  origin  to  the 
princes  who  governed  Tuscany  in  the  times  of  the 
Oarlovingians,  and  who  were  in  all  probability 
of  the  race  of  the  Longobards. 

Es'terhazy,  the  name  of  an  ancient  Hungarian 
family,  afterward  raised  to  the  rank  of  princes 
of  the  Empire. 

Es'tlier  (the  word  signifies  the  planet  Venus)  is 
the  Persian  name  of  Hadassali,  daughter  of  Abi- 
hail,  the  son  of  Shimei,  the  son  of  Kish,  a  Ben- 
jamite.  She  is  represented  in  Scripture  as  an 
orphan,  and  as  having  been  brought  up  by  her 
cousin  Mordecai,  an  officer  in  the  household  of  the 
Persian  monarch  Ahasuerus. 

Esther,  Book  of.  one  of  the  canonical  works 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  supposed  to  have  been 
written  by  Mordecai  or  Ezra. 

Estho'iiia,  called  by  the  inhabitants  themselves 
Wiroma  (i.  e.,  the  Border-land),  a  Russian  gov¬ 
ernment,  and  one  of  the  Baltic  provinces,  extends 
immediately  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  Area, 
7,787  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880),  353,108. 

Estop'pel,  in  Law,  an  impediment  or  bar  to  a 
right  ot  action,  arising  from  a  man’s  own  act. 

Estremadu'ra,  previous  to  the  new  distribution 
of  the  country,  a  province  of  Spain,  situated 
between  Portugal  and  New  Castile,  and  watered 
by  the  Tagus  and  the  Guadiana.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Leon,  on  the  south  by  Andalusia, 
and,  since  1833,  has  been  divided  into  the  twp 
Provinces  of  Badajos  and  Caceres.  Area,  16,554 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1877),  739,403. 

Estremadu'ra,  a  province  of  Portugal,  has  an 


area  of  6,907  square  miles,  and,  including  the 
capital,  Lisbon,  contained  in  1878,  951,545  inhab¬ 
itants. 

Etawah,  a  town  of  the  Doab,  stands  near  the 
left  bank  of  the  Jumna,  about  seventy  miles  below 
Agra,  in  latitude  26°  46'  N.,  and  longitude  79° 
4'  E.  It  contains  34,721  inhabitants. 

Eta'wali,  or  Itawa,  the  district  of  which  the 
above  town  is  capital,  belongs  to  the  Lieutenant- 
Governorship  of  the  Northwest  Provinces.  It  lies 
entirely  in  the  basin  of  the  Jumna,  and  almost 
exclusively  within  the  Doab,  stretching  in  N. 
latitude  from  26°  21'  to  27°  9',  and  in  E.  longitude 
from  78°  46'  to  79°  49',  and  containing*  1,694 
square  miles,  and  (1881)  722,371  inhabitants. 

Eth'elbert,  King  of  Kent,  born  in  552,  and  died 
in  616. 

E' ther  (otherwise  called  Ethylic  Ether, 
Vinic  Ether,  and  Sulphuric  Ether)  is  pre¬ 
pared  from  alcohol  by  the  action  of  sulphuric 
acid  at  an  elevated  temperature.  On  the  small 
scale,  the  apparatus  which  may  be  employed  for 
the  purpose  is  the  retort  and  receiver,  into  which 
a  mixture  of  equal  weights  of  spirits  of  wine,  or 
rectified  spirit  and  oil  of  vitriol,  or,  by  volume,  2 
of  alcohol  and  1  of  sulphuric  acid,  are  placed, 
and  heat  being  cautiously  applied,  a  liquid  distils 
over,  which  consists  of  ether  and  water.  In  a 
short  time,  the  contents  of  the  retort  begin  to 
blacken,  and  the  operation  must  be  stopped,  or 
the  distillate  will  become  contaminated  with  sul¬ 
phurous  acid.  On  the  large  scale,  a  modification 
of  the  process  is  carried  on,  which  renders  it  theo¬ 
retically  a  “continuous  process,”  though,  practi¬ 
cally,  there  is  a  limit  to  the  amount  of  ether  dis¬ 
tilled  over.  The  conversion  of  alcohol  (CsH60) 
into  ether  (C4Hi0O)  and  water  (H20)  by  oil  of 
vitriol  (H2S04),  was  at  one  time  considered  to  be 
due  simply  to  the  strong  affinity  of  the  oil  of  vit¬ 
riol  for  water,  which  enabled  it  to  take  possession 
of  the  one  atom  of  water,  the  elements  of  which 
form  the  only  difference  in  the  ultimate  compo¬ 
sition  of  alcohol  and  ether.  Ether  is  useful  in 
the  preparation  of  freezing  mixtures,  and  the 
mixture  of  ether  and  solid  carbonic  acid  gives 
rise  to  the  lowest  temperature  which  has  as  yet 
been  attained.  When  inhaled  by  man  and  the 
lower  animals,  ether  first  produces  stimulating 
and  intoxicating  effects,  but  afterward  it  gives 
rise  to  drowsiness,  accompanied  by  complete 
insensibility,  which  entitles  ether  to  be  regarded 
as  an  important  anaesthetic  agent;  and,  indeed, 
for  some  time  it  was  the  only  agent  used  for  pro¬ 
ducing  anaesthesia  in  operations,  but  has  been 
entirely  superseded  by  the  employment  of  chlo¬ 
roform. 

Ether,  sometimes  ^Etiier,  the  name  given  to 
the  medium  which  is  assumed  in  astronomy  and 
physics  as  filling  all  space.  It  was  shown  by 
Newton,  that  if  light  consisted  of  material  par¬ 
ticles  projected  from  luminous  bodies,  these  must 
move  faster  in  solids  and  liquids  than  in  air,  in 
order  that  the  laws  of  refraction  might  be  satis¬ 
fied  in  their  motions.  Huyghens,  on  the  other 
hand,  showed,  that  to  account  for  the  same  laws 
on  the  supposition  that  light  consisted  in  the 
undulatory  motions  of  an  elastic  medium,  it 
must  move  more  slowly  in  solids  and  fluids  than 
in  gases.  Fizeau  and  Foucault  have  lately,  by 
different  methods,  measured  these  velocities  rela¬ 
tively,  and  have  found  Iluygliens’  prediction  to 
be  correct.  Light,  then,  consists  in  the  vibratory 
motion  of  a  medium,  which  must,  of  course,  fill 
all  space.  This  is  called  ether. 

Eth'ics,  a  word  of  Greek  origin,  meaning 
nearly  the  same  thing  as  the  more  familiar  term, 
morals. 

Etilio'pia,  the  biblical  Kush  Originally,  all 
the  nations  inhabiting  the  southern  part  of  the 
globe,  as  known  to  the  ancients;  or  rather,  all 
men  of  dark  brown  or  black  color,  were  called 
Ethiopians  (Gr.  diOco-dmi,  sun  burned).  Later, 
this  name  was  given  more  particularly  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  country  south  of  Libya  and 
Egypt,  or  the  Upper  Nile,  extending  from  10° — 
25°  N.  latitude,  45° — 58°  E.  longitude — the 
present  Nubia,  Sennaar,  Kordofan,  Abyssinia. 

Ethmoid'  Bone,  The  (so  called  from  r/bgo?, 
a  sieve),  is  one  of  the  eight  bones  which  collect¬ 
ively  form  the  cavity  of  the  cranium.  It  is  of  a 
somewhat  cubical  form,  and  is  situated  between 
the  two  orbits  of  the  eye,  at  the  root  of  the  nose. 


ETHNOLOGY. 


379 


EULER. 


Etlmol'ogy  (Gr.  e'Ovoi,  nation  or  race,  and 
Xoyoi,  discourse),  a  term  applied  to  the  science 
that  treats  of  the  persistent  modifications  of  the 
human  family  or  group;  their  most  marked 
physical,  mental,  and  moral  characteristics  when 
compared  one  with  the  other;  their  present  geo¬ 
graphical  distribution  on  the  globe;  their  history 
traced  backward  to  the  earliest  attainable  point; 
and  finally,  the  languages  of  the  various  nations 
and  tribes  of  mankind,  existing  or  extinct,  classi¬ 
fied  and  compared  with  the  view'  of  determining 
the  chief  points  of  resemblance  or  dissimilarity 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth.  The  science  is 
now  called  Anthropology,  and  is  divided  into 
three  branches — (1)  Zoological  Anthropology, 
which  treats  of  the  relations  of  man  to  the  brute 
creation;  (2)  Descriptive  Anthropology ,  or  Ethnog¬ 
raphy,  which  classifies  and  describes  the  various 
divisions  and  subdivisions  of  mankind,  and  marks 
out  their  geographical  distribution;  (3)  General 
Anthropology,  the  biology  of  the  human  race. 

Eth'yl  (symbol,  C4H,0)  is  the  starting-point  of 
the  family  group,  of  which  ordinary  ether  and 
alcohol  are  members. 

Ethyl,  C4H10. 

Ether,  CJL„0,  Oxide  of  Ethyl. 

Alcohol,  C2H60,  Hydrated  Oxide  of  Ethyl. 

It  may  be  prepared  by  acting  upon  iodide  of 
ethyl  by  granulated  zinc,  when  the  ethyl  is  liber¬ 
ated,  and  may  be  obtained  as  a  colorless,  inflam¬ 
mable  gas,  of  an  agreeable  odor,  insoluble  in 
water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol. 

Ethyl 'amine  is  a  substance  strongly  resem¬ 
bling  ordinary  ammonia  or  hartshorn  in  odor  and 
other  properties.  It  is  found  in  coal-tar,  in  the 
oil  obtained  during  the  destructive  distillation  of 
bones,  in  the  gases  evolved  during  putrefaction, 
and  may  be  produced  by  certain  complicated 
chemical  processes.  Ethylamine  is  a  mobile 
liquid  of  specific  gravity  696  (water  =  1 ,000),  and 
boils  at  46°  F  It  has  a  strong  arnmoniacal  odor, 
has  an  alkaline  action  with  coloring  matters, 
forms  white  fumes  with  strong  acids,  and  in  com¬ 
position  is  analogous  to  gaseous  ammonia  (NHa 
or  NHHII),  and  is  represented  by  the  symbol 
C2H,N. 

Etienne,  St.  ,  an  important  manufacturing  town 
of  France,  in  the  Department  of  Loire.  Pop. 
(1881),  120,120. 

Etiquette'  (Fr.  a  ticket,  supposed  to  be  from 
the  Celtic  tocyn,  a  little  piece  or  slip — a  token). 
Originally  the  term  signified  a  piece  of  paper 
affixed  to  a  bag  or  other  object  to  signify  its  con¬ 
tents.  The  word  came  probably  to  possess  the 
meaning  which  we  now  attach  to  it,  of  the  forms 
or  decorums  observed  in  the  intercourse  of  life, 
from  its  having  been  customary  to  deliver  such 
tickets,  instructing  each  person  who  wras  to  take 
part  in  the  ceremony  as  to  the  part  which  he  wras 
expected  to  play. 

Et'na,  or  HStna  (now  Monte  Gibeli.o),  is  the 
largest  volcano  in  Europe.  It  is  an  isolated 
mountain,  situated  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily, 
and  cut  off  from  the  chain  of  mountains  which 
run  parallel  with  the  northern  shore  of  the  island 
by  a  small  valley,  through  which  flows  the  Alcan¬ 
tara,  and  from  the  southern  chain  by  a  larger 
valley,  which  forms  the  basin  of  the  Giaretta.  Its 
eastern  side  rises  directly  from  the  Mediterranean, 
thirty  miles  of  coast  being  formed  by  its  lava. 
Its  base  is  almost  90  miles  in  circumference, 
and  from  this  it  rises  .like  an  immense  cone  to  the 
height  of  10,874  feet.  The  first  recorded  erup¬ 
tion  of  Etna  took  place  476  b.c.  The  most  re¬ 
markable  that  have  occurred  were  in  1169  A.D., 
when  Catania  and  15,000  of  its  inhabitants  w'ere 
destroyed;  1527,  in  which  two  villages  were 
buried,  and  many  human  beings  perished;  the 
eruption  which  continued  at  intervals  from  1664 
to  1673,  destroyed  many  villages  with  their 
inhabitants.  Other  eruptions  took  place  in  1852, 
in  1864-65,  and  in  1879. 

E'ton,  a  town  in  the  South  of  Buckingham 
shire,  England,  famous  for  its  college  at  which 
boys  are  prepared  for  the  universities. 

Etru'ria,  Tyrrhen'ia,  Tus'cia,  designated, 
prior  to  the  foundation  of  Rome,  nearly  the 
whole  of  Italy,  with  some  of  its  most  important 
islands.  Its  northern  part,  from  the  Alps  to  the 
Apennines,  was  known  under  the  name  of  Etru¬ 
ria  Circumpadana;  its  southern  part,  from  the 
Tiber  down  to  the  Gulf  of  Ptestum,  or,  according  I 


to  some,  to  the  Sicilian  Sea,  under  that  of  Etru¬ 
ria  Campaniana;  while  the  central  portion, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Apennines  and  the 
River  Macra,  south  and  east  by  the  Tiber,  and 
west  by  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea,  was  called  Etruria 
Propria. 

Ettmiiller,  Ernst  Moritz  Ludwig,  a  w'riter  on 
German  antiquities,  was  born  Oct.  5,  1802,  and 
died  in  April,  1877.  His  principal  labors  were  in 
the  editing  of  the  literary  remains  of  Middle  High 
German. 

Etymol'ogy  (Gr.)  is  that  part  of  Grammar  that 
treats  of  the  derivation  of  words.  It  embraces  the 
consideration  of  the  elements  of  words,  or  letters 
and  syllables,  the  different  kinds  of  words,  their 
forms,  and  the  notions  they  convey;  and  lastly, 
the  modes  of  their  formation  by  derivation  and 
composition. 

Eubffi'a  (ancient,  Euhoia;  Turkish,  Egripo; 
Ital.  NegroponU),  an  island  in  the  /Egean  Sea, 
forms  a  portion  of  the  present  Kingdom  of  Greece. 
Until  recently  it  was  called  Negropont.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Trikeri  Channel,  and 
on  the  west  by  those  of  Talanta  and  Egripo.  It 
is  105  miles  long  and  30  miles  wide.  Pop., 
95,136. 

Eu'cliarist,  the  sacramental  ordinance  instituted 
by  Christ  and  enjoined  on  his  church,  in  which 
bread  broken  and  wine  poured  out,  after  solemn 
benediction  by  the  appointed  minister,  are  par¬ 
taken  of  in  commemoration  of  his  sufferings  and 
death,  and  the  benefits  thereby  purchased  for 
mankind,  and  as  a  means  by  which  those  benefits 
are  conveyed  to  the  recipient. 

Eucalyp'tus,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Myrtacem,  sub-order  Leptospermece,  contain¬ 
ing  a  large  number  of  species,  mostly  natives  of 
Australia,  and  in  the  Malayan  Archipelago. 
Among  the  resinous  secretions  of  this  genus  is  the 
substance  called  Botany  Bay  kino,  which  is  used 
in  medicine  as  a  substitute  for  kino.  It  is  the 
produce  of  E.  resinifera,  a  species  with  ovato- 
lanceolate  leaves,  known  in  Australia  as  the  red 
gum  tree  and  iron  bark  tree,  a  very  lofty  tree, 
attaining  a  height  of  150  to  200  feet.  The  euca¬ 
lyptus  has  been  introduced  into  the  United  States 
and  flourishes  in  California. 

Euchlo'rine  is  an  explosive  green  gas,  possess¬ 
ing  bleaching  properties,  and  is  prepared  by  heat¬ 
ing  gently  a  mixture  of  two  parts  hydrochloric 
acid,  two  of  water,  and  one  of  chlorate  of  potash. 
It  explodes  when  merely  touched  with  a  hot  wire. 

Eu'chre,  a  game  at  cards.  The  name  is  said 
to  be  a  corruption  of  the  word  ecartt?;  the  game 
is  believed  to  have  been  first  played  by  French 
settlers  in  Louisiana,  but  at  what  date  is  uncertain. 
It  is  played  with  twenty-five  cards,  the  cards 
below  nine  being  rejected  from  a  complete  pack, 
and  an  additional  one  called  the  “joker”  added. 
The  players  cut  for  deal,  and  the  lowest  deals. 
The  non-dealer  then  cuts  to  his  opponent,  who 
deals  five  cards  to  each,  by  tw'o  at  a  time  and 
three  at  a  time,  or  vice  verm.  The  dealer  turns 
up  the  top  of  the  undealt  cards  for  trumps.  In 
suits  not  trumps  the  cards  rank  as  at  whist;  in  the 
trump  suits  the  knave  (called  the  right  bower )  is 
the  highest  trump,  except  the  “joker,”  which  out¬ 
ranks  all  the  cards,  and  the  other  knave  of  the 
same  color,  black  or  red,  as  the  case  may  be 
(called  the  left  bower),  is  the  next  highest,  this 
card  being,  of  course,  omitted  from  the  suit  to 
which  it  would  otherwise  belong.  The  other 
trumps  rank  as  already  stated,  the  queen  being 
next  above  the  ten.  The  game  may  be  played  by 
two,  three,  or  four  persons. 

Eu'clid,  sometimes  called  the  father  of  mathe¬ 
matics,  was  born  at  Alexandria,  about  300  b.c. 
Though  he  did  not  create  the  science  of  mathe¬ 
matics  he  made  prodigious  advances,  and  his 
Elements  of  Geometry  continue  to  the  present  day 
to  hold  their  place  as  a  text-book  of  that  science. 

Euclid,  of  Megara,  a  Grecian  philosopher,  has 
often  been  confounded  with  the  mathematician  of 
the  same  name.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  dis¬ 
ciples  of  Socrates. 

Eudiom'eter  (Gr.  eidioi,  radios,  good,  and 
psrpov,  melron,  measure)  is  an  instrument  origi¬ 
nally  introduced  as  a  measurer  of  the  quality  of 
air.  but  which  is  now  employed  generally  in  the 
analysis  of  gases  for  the  determination  of  the  na¬ 
ture  and  proportions  of  the  constituents  of  any 
I  gaseous  mixture. 


Eudox'us,  of  Cnidus,  called  by  Cicero  the 
prince  of  astronomers,  flourished  about  366  b.c. 

Eugene,  Francois  (le  Prince  Francis  Eugene 
de  Savoie  Carignan),  better  known  as  Prince 
Eugene,  a  general  and  statesman,  born  Oct.  18, 
1663.  He  displayed  extraordinary  military  talent 
in  the  Turkish  War,  especially  at  the  famous 
Siege  of  Vienna  in  1683,  and  soon  rose  to  a  high 
position  in  the  army.  In  the  Coalition  War 
against  Louis  XIV.  in  Italy,  he  took  an  active 
part;  and  in  1691,  he  was  raised  to  the  command 
of  the  imperial  army  in  Piedmont.  On  his  re¬ 
turn  to  Vienna,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
army  of  Hungary,  and  defeated  the  Turks,  with 
immense  slaughter,  in  the  famous  Battle  of  Zenta, 
Sept.  1 1 ,  1697.  The  booty  obtained  was  almost 
incredible,  amounting  to  millions  of  dollars.  In 
the  year  1703,  he  was  appointed  President  of  the 
Council  of  War,  and  commanded  the  Imperial 
Army  in  Germany.  With  Marlborough  he  gained 
a  brilliant  victory  at  Blenheim,  Aug.  13,  1704 
when  the  two  commands  defeated  the  French  and 
Bavarian  army.  He  shared  with  Marlborough  the 
glory  of  the  fields  of  Oudenarde  (in  1708)  and  Mal- 
plaquet  (in  1709).  In  1716  he  defeated  an  army  of 
180,000  men  at  Peterwardein,  took  Temeswar,  and 
in  1717,  after  a  bloody  battle,  gained  possession 
of  Belgrade.  He  died  in  1736. 

Eugen'ia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Myrtaceae,  nearly  allied  to  Myrtus  and 
differing  only  in  having  a  four  parted  instead  of  a 
five-cleft  calyx,  four  instead  of  five  petals,  and  a 
one  to  two-ceiled  berry,  with  one  seed  in  each  ced. 
The  species  are  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  chiefly 
of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries.  The  dried 


Cayenne  Cherry  (Eugenia  michtlii). 


fruit  of  Eugenia  pimento  and  E.  acris  forms 
the  spice  well  known  as  allspice,  Jamaica  pepper, 
or  pimento.  The  seeds  of  E.  tabasco  are 
also  used  as  a  condiment.  Other  species  yield 
some  of  the  finest  fruits  of  tropical  regions,  re¬ 
markable  for  their  delicious  balsamic  odors. 
Among  these  is  the  Malay  apple  (E.  mal- 
accensis),  a  native  of  the  Malayan  archipelago 
and  of  the  South  Sea  Islands.  The  bastard 
guava  (E .  pseudopsidium)  and  the  cayenne 
cherry  (E.  cotonifolia  and  E .  michelii)  produce 
fruits  which  are  held  in  considerable  esteem  in 
the  WTest  Indies. 

Eugenie  Marie  de  Guzman,  formerly  Empress 
of  the  French,  was  born  at  Granada  in  Spain, 
May  5,  1826,  and  was  married  to  the  Emperor  of 
the  French,  Jan.  30,  1853.  In  1859,  she  filled  the 
office  of  Regent.  During  the  war  in  1870,  she 
was  again  Regent,  but  had  to  flee  to  England  after 
the  Emperor  became  a  captive.  Her  only  son, 
the  Prince  Imperial,  born  March  16,  1856, 
was  killed  in  1879  while  serving  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  Zulu  war.  She  still  (1889)  resides  in  Eng¬ 
land. 

Eugenius  is  the  name  of  four  Popes.  Eugen- 
ius  IV.,  a  native  of  Venice,  became  Pope  in  1431. 
The  great  event  in  his  career  was  the  schism 
created  in  the  church  by  the  proceedings  of  the 
Council  of  Basle,  which  showed  a  strong  tendency 
to  ecclesiastical  reform.  The  Council  of  Basle 
formally  deposed  him  from  his  pontifical  office  in 
1439,  and  elected  in  his  stead  AmadusVIII.,  Duke 
of  Savoy,  under  the  title  of  Felix  V.  Eugenius 
died  in  1447. 

Eu'ler,  Leonard,  mathematician,  born  April 
15,  1707.  More  than  half  the  mathematical 
treatises  in  the  46  quarto  volumes  published  by 


EUMENIDES. 


380 


EVANS. 


the  St.  Petersburg  Academy  from  1727  to  1783 
arc  his,  and  at  his  death  he  left  more  than  200 
treatises  in  MS.,  which  were  afterward  pub¬ 
lished  by  the  Academy.  In  1741,  he  accepted 
the  invitation  of  Frederick  the  Great  to  Berlin, 
an  1  died  Sept.  7,  1783.  The  last  years  of  his 
life  were  spent  in  total  blindness. 

Eumen'ides  (literally,  the  well-minded  or  be¬ 
nign  goddesses)  was  the  euphemistic  name  of 
certain  fearful  beings,  whose  true  name  of 
Erinnyes  (from  erino,  I  hunt  up,  or  erinuo ,  I  am 
angry)  it  was  considered  unlawful  to  utter. 
Their  Latin  name  was  Furies  or  Dim. 

Eu'nucli.  The  original  signification  of  this 
word  (Gr.  evvvxoS,  eunuchos,  one  who  has 
charge  of  a  bed)  points  to  the  office  that  this 
class  of  persons  fulfilled,  and  still  fulfill  in  the 
East — that,  namely,  of  taking  charge  of  the 
women’s  apartments  or  harems. 

Euom'plialus,  a  large  genus  of  fossil  gaster- 
opodous  shells,  characterized  by  its  depressed  and 
discoidal  shell,  with  angled  or  coronated  whorls, 
five-sided  mouth,  and  very  large  umbilicus.  The 
operculum  was  shelly,  round,  and  multispiral. 


Euomphalus  Discors. 


The  genus  seems  related  to  Trochus.  It  appears 
among  the  earliest  tenants  of  the  globe,  and  keeps 
its  place  till  the  triassic  period."  No  less  than 
eighty  species  have  been  described. 

Eupato'rium,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Composites,  sub-order  Corymbifem ,  having- 
small  flowers  (heads  of  flowers)  in  corymbs,  florets 
all  tubular  and  hermaphrodite,  club-shaped  stig¬ 
mas,  imbricated  bracts,  a  naked  receptacle,  and 
a  lia’ry  pappus.  The  species  are  numerous,  and 
mostly  American. — Thorough- wort (E.  perfolia- 


Hemp  Agrimony  ( Eupatoriwn  cannabinum). 
c,  a  floret. 


turn),  a  species  having  the  opposite  leaves  joined 
at  the  base,  is  very  common  in  low  grounds  in 
this  country,  and  is  a  popular  medicine,  much 
esteemed  and  universally  used.  It  is  often 
administered  in  intermittent  fevers.  It  acts  power¬ 
fully  as  a  sudorific,  and  is  often  very  beneficial  in 
catarrh  and  influenza.  It  is  also  emetic  and  pur¬ 
gative,  and,  in  small  doses,  tonic.  The  whole 
plant  is  very  bitter.  Other  North  American 
species  possess  similar  properties,  and  the  root  of 
one,  known  as  gravel-root  (E. purpureum),  is  em¬ 
ployed  as  a  diuretic  for  relief  of  the  disease  from 
which  it  derives  its  name. 

Eu'phemism(Gr.  ev,  eu,  well,  and  <pem,phemi , 
I  speak)  is  a  figure  of  rhetoric  by  which  an  un¬ 
pleasant  or  offensive  matter  is  designated  in 
indirect  and  milder  terms.  Thus,  instead  of 
directly  calling  up  an  unpleasant  image  by  the 
word  died,  we  say,  he  was  gathered  to  his 
fathers. 


Euphor'bia.  Oil  of,  or  Oil  of  Caper  Spurge, 
an  acrid  fixed  oil,  obtained  by  expression,  or  by 


Caper  Spurge  ( Euphorbia  lathyris). 


the  aid  of  alcohol  or  ether,  from  the  seeds  of  the 
caper  spurge  (Euphorbia  lathyris),  a  plant  com¬ 
mon  in  many  parts  of  Europe. 

Euphorbia 'ceae,  an  extensive  natural  order  of 
exogenous  plants,  containing  upward  of  2.500 
species — trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants. 
They  abound  chiefly  in  the  Southern  States.  The 
few  species  found  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  world 
are  all  herbaceous.  The  common  box  reaches  a 
more  northern  limit  than  any  other  shrubby 
species. 

Euphor'bium,  an  acrid  gum  resin,  obtained 
from  several  species  of  Euphorbia  or  spurge,  as 
E.  officinarum  and  E.  antiquorum,  in  the  North  of 
Africa,  Arabia,  and  the  East  Indies,  and  E.  can- 
ariehsis  in  the  Canary  Islands.  It  is  obtained  by 
incisions  in  the  branches,  whence  it  issues. 

Euphra'tes  (in  the  Oriental  languages,  Frat, 
Phrat,  or  Forut)  is  the  largest  river  in  Western 
Asia,  and,  with  the  Tigris,  forms  the  most  im¬ 
portant  river-system  of  that  quarter  of  the  world. 
The  total  length  of  the  Euphrates  is  1,600  miles. 

Eu'pliuism  (Gr.  evtpvti,  euphues,  of  vigorous 
growth;  eloquent),  a  term  used  in  English  litera¬ 
ture  to  denote  an  affected  and  bombastic  style  of 
language,  fashionable  for  a  short  period  at  the 
court  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  The  word  was  formed 
from  the  title  of  the  book  which  brought  the  style 
into  vogue,  the  Euphues  of  John  Lyly. 

Eu'pion  (Gr.  ev,  eu,  good,  and  uiov,  pion,  oil) 
is  ap  extremely  mobile  oil,  obtained  from  the 
lighter  portions  of  the  liquid  products  of  the 
destructive  distillation  of  wood  (wood-tar),  coal 
(coal-tar),  and  animal  matter,  and  in  the  distilla¬ 
tion  of  rape-seed  oil.  When  pure,  it  has  the  com¬ 
position  C6H;,  and  is  therefore  a  hydrocarbon. 
It  is  the  lightest  liquid  known,  having  the  density 
of  655  (water  =  1,000),  and  is  thin,  colorless,  and 
tasteless,  while  it  possesses  a  pleasant  aromatic 
odor.  It  boils  at  116°  F.,  and  distils  readily;  is 
inflammable,  burning  with  a  white  flame  of  con¬ 
siderable  luminosity  and  penetrating  powrer.  It 
makes  a  greasy  stain  on  paper,  is  insoluble  in 
water,  very  slightly  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  readily 
miscible  with  ethers  and  oils  in  general. 

Eupo'ila,  a  family  of  coleopterous  insects  of 
the  tetramerous  section  of  the  order,  deriving  their 
name  (Gr.  well-footed)  from  the  great  size  of  the 
hinder  thighs  of  many  of  the  species.  They  feed 
on  the  stems  and  leaves  of  plants,  some  of  them 
on  aquatic  plants,  the  roots  of  which  afford  food 
to  their  larvae.  The  body  is  oblong;  the  antennae 
filiform.  Some  of  the  eupoda  are  among  the  most 
splendid  of  tropical  insects. 

Eura'sians  is  a  convenient  term  for  the  off¬ 
spring  of  Europeans  and  Asiatics,  and  is  chiefly 
used  in  India  of  the  children  by  European  fathers 
of  Hindu  mothers,  and  their  descendants. 

Eure,  a  department  in  the  Northwest  of  France, 
south  of  the  Department  of  Seine  Inferieure. 
Area,  2,290  square  miles.  Pop.  (I88D,  364,291. 

Eure-et-Loir,  a  department  of  France,  formed 
chiefly  from  the  Province  of  Orleannais,  extends 
between  latitude  47°  57' — 48°  55'  N.,  and  longi¬ 
tude  0°  47' — 2P  E.  Area,  2,260  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  280,097. 

Eurip'ides,  a  Greek  tragedian,  born  at  Sala- 


mis,  480  r.c.  In  441  b.c.  he  gained  the  first  prize 
for  tragedy,  and  continued  to  write  for  the  Athe¬ 
nian  stage  until  408  b.c.  ,  when  he  accepted  an  invi¬ 
tation  to  the  court  of  Archelaus,  King  of  Mace¬ 
donia.  He  is  said  to  have  been  killed  (4U6  b.c.)  by 
dogs,  which  were  set.  upon  him  by  two  brother- 
poets  who  envied  him  his  reputation. 

Eu'rope,  the  smallest,  but  most  densely  popu¬ 
lated  of  the  three  divisions  of  the  Old  Continent. 
It  is  separated  from  America  on  the  west  and  north¬ 
west  by  the  Atlantic;  from  Africa  on  the  south 
by  the  Mediterranean;  and  from  Asia  by  the 
Archipelago,  Sea  of  Marmora,  Black  Sea,  Cau¬ 
casian  Ridge,  Caspian  Sea,  Ural  river  and  Mount¬ 
ains,  and  the  Kara  river.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
peninsula,  projecting  from  the  northwest  of 
Asia.  Its  extent  from  Cape  St.  Vincent  on  the 
southwest  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kara  river  on  the 
northeast  is  3,400  miles;  and  from  CapeNordkun, 
the  most  northerly  point  of  the  Scandinavian 
mainland  to  Cape  Matapan,  the  southernmost  point 
of  Greece,  2,400  miles.  The  Continent  of  Europe, 
irrespective  of  islands,  lies  within  latitude  36°  1 ' 
—71°  6'  N.,  and  longitude  9°  30'  W.— 6S°  30' 
E.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  rather  more  than 
3,720,000  square  miles;  and  its  coast  line  is  esti¬ 
mated  at  19,500  miles;  giving  a  proportion  of  1 
linear  mile  of  coast  for  every  190  square  miles  of 
surface.  Pop.,  299,000,000.  The  most  impor¬ 
tant  peninsula  in  the  north  is  Scandinavia,  and 
in  the  south  are  the  Crimea,  Turkey  and  Greece, 
Italy,  and  Spain.  With  the  exception  of  Iceland, 
the  islands  cluster  closely  round  the  mainland, 
the  chief  being  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Ice¬ 
land,  Seeland,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  Crete  (Can 
dia).  In  respect  of  climate,  by  far  the  greater  por¬ 
tion  of  the  area  of  Europe  belongs  to  the  north¬ 
ern  section  of  the  temperate  zone,  though  parts  of 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Russia  lie  within  the 
Arctic  Circle.  The  southern  parts  of  Spain, 
Sicily  and  Greece  are  some  twelve  degrees  from 
the  northern  tropic.  The  European  races  belong 
in  the  main  to  the  various  branches  of  the  great 
Aryan  stock.  Generally  speaking,  Celtic  blood  is 
most  largely  found  in  France  (especially  in  Brit¬ 
tany,  where  a  Celtic  tongue  is  still  spoken)  and  a 
part  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland;  Germanic 
peoples  occupy  Germany,  Switzerland,  Nether¬ 
lands,  part  of  Belgium,  part  of  Austria,  Denmark, 
Norway  and  Sweden,  Iceland,  and  Great  Britain. 
Slavonic  races  are  found  in  Austria,  Prussia, 
Turkey,  and  Russia.  Romanic  blood  and  lan¬ 
guage  arc  prominent  in  Italy,  France,  Spain,  and 
Portugal,  and  perhaps  Roumania.  The  Greeks 
belong  to  the  same  Graeco-Italian  branch  as  the 
Italians.  Non-Aryan  peoples  are  the  Finns,  Lapps, 
and  Samoieds  of  the  north  and  northeast;  various 
Turanian  tribes  in  the  east  of  Russia,  the  Hunga¬ 
rians  and  the  Turks,  and  the  Basques  of  the  Pyr¬ 
enees,  are  also  non-Aryan ;  and  a  strong  element  of 
pre- Aryan  blood  is  also  to  be  traced  in  other  parts 
of  Western  Europe,  as  Ireland  and  Britain. 

Eury'ale,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Nymphceacea',  or  water-lilies,  closely  allied 
to  victoria,  although  of  very  different  appear¬ 
ance.  E.  jerox  is  a  water-lily  with  small  red  or 
violet-colored  flowers,  leaves  about  a  foot  in 
diameter,  the  leaf -stalks  and  calyxes  covered  with 
stiff  prickles;  a  native  of  India  and  China. 

Euse'bius,  of  Caesarea,  the  father  of  ecclesias¬ 
tical  history,  was  born  in  Palestine  about  264  a.d., 
and  died  about  340.  He  was  the  head  of  the 
moderate,  or  semi-Arian  party  at  the  Council  of 
Nice. 

Eux'ine  (Gr.  EvtiroZ,  Euxinos ,  hospitable)  is 
the  name  applied  by  the  ancients  to  the  Black 
Sea.  Before  receiving  this  name  it  was  called 
Axe  nos  Pontes,  the  Inhospitable  sea,  because  of 
the  black  and  turbulent  weather  so  frequently 
ascribed  to  it  by  the  ancient  poets,  and  the  re¬ 
ported  cannibalism  of  the  Scythian  tribes  who 
lined  its  northern  shores. 

Evan'der,  a  semi-mythical  Grecian  hero,  who 
is  said  to  have  led  a  colony  from  Pallantium  into 
Italy,  whom  he  afterward  instructed  in  law,  the 
arts,  in  music,  and  in  writing. 

Evangel 'ical  is  an  adjective  derived  from  the 
Gr.  euunc/elion,  “good  news,”  or  “the  Gospel,” 
and  is  applied  in  general  to  anything  which  is 
marked  by  the  spirit  of  the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Evans,  Marian  (George  Eliot),  was  born  Nov. 
22,  1819  and  died  Dec.  22,  1880.-  Her  most  popu- 


EVANSVILLE. 


881 


EXTREME  UNCTION. 


lar  work  was  Adam  Bede,  but  probably  her  most 
artistic  publication  was  Middlemarch.  In  addition 
to  her  prose  writing  she  attained  considerable  \ 
fame  as  a  poet. 

Evansville,  a  city  of  Indiana,  the  county  seat 
of  Vanderburg county,  is  on  the  Ohio  river,  about 
200  miles  below  Louisville.  Pop.,  29,280. 

Evaporation,  the  conversion  of  a  fluid  or  solid 
into  vapor.  Steam  vapors  of  alcohol,  camphor, 
iodine,  etc.,  are  familiar  instances.  All  fluids  are 
surrounded  by  vapor  at  common  temperatures; 
but  for  every  substance  there  is  a  limiting  temper¬ 
ature,  below  which  no  evaporation  takes  place. 
The  pressure,  or  tension  of  a  vapor  depends 
mainly  upon  the  nature  of  the  substance  evapo¬ 
rated,  and  the  temperature  to  which  it  is  raised. 
The  full  amount  of  vapor,  however,  is  not  pro¬ 
duced  instantaneously,  and  therefore,  in  general, 
time  is  an  element  in  the  question  as  well  as  tem¬ 
perature.  The  boiling-point  is  the  temperature 
at  which  vapor  is  freely  given  off — i.  < at  which 
the  tension  of  the  vapor  of  a  substance  is  equal  to 
the  atmospheric  pressure. 

Evarts,  William  M.,  was  born  in  Boston  in 
1818.  He  defended  Andrew  Johnson  in  the  im¬ 
peachment  proceedings,  became  Secretary  of 
State  under  President  Hayes,  March  12,  1877,  and 
served  as  such  until  March,  1881.  In  1884  he  was 
elected  United  States  Senator  from  New  York. 

Eve  (Heb.  Chavvah — i.e.,  the  living:,  the  name, 
according  to  the  Hebrew  narrative,  of  the  wife  of 
the  first  man,  and  so  the  mother  of  the  human 
race. 

Evee'tion,  a  lunar  inequality  resulting  from 
the  combined  effect  of  the  irregular  ty  of  the 
motion  of  the  perigee,  and  alternate  increase  and 
decrease  of  the  eccentricity  of  the  moon’s  orbit. 

Ev'elyn,  John,  a  well-known  writer,  was  born 
Oct.  31,  1620,  and  died  in  1706.  His  Ditry  is  an 
interesting  record  of  English  life  in  the  seventeenth 
century. 

Everett,  Alexander  Hill, was  born  at  Boston, 
March  19,  1792.  In  1818  he  was  United  States 
Minister  at  The  Hague,  and  in  1825  to  Spain.  He 
returned  and  became  proprietor  and  editor  of  The 
North  American  Review  (1830  to  1835),  and  occu¬ 
pied  a  seat  in  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts. 
In  1840  he  was  a  confidential  agent  of  the  United 
States  in  Cuba,  and  Minister-Plenipotentiary  to 
China  in  1845.  He  died  at  Canton,  June  28,  1847. 

Everett,  Edward,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1794.  He  was  for  some  time  a  Unitarian 
clergyman  in  Cambridge,  Mass.  In  1820  he  became 
editor  of  the  The  North  American  Review;  and 
from  1824  to  1834  was  a  Member  of  Congress.  In 
1835  he  was  chosen  Governor  of  Massachusetts; 
and  in  1841  Minister  to  England.  He  became  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State  of  the  United  States,  and  in  1853  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate.  He  died  Jan. 
15,  1865. 

Everett,  an  important  manufacturing  and  rail¬ 
road  town  in  Middlesex  county,  Mass.  Pop., 
5,375. 

Ever 'greens  are  those  trees  and  shrubs  of 
which  the  leaves  do  not  fall  off  in  autumn,  but 
retain  their  verdure  throughout  the  winter,  and 
perform  their  functions  during  more  than  one 
season.  Evergreen  leaves  are  generally  of  thicker 
and  firmer  texture  than  the  leaves  of  deciduous 
trees  and  shrubs.  They  have  also  fewer  pores  or 
stomata,  and  these  confined  to  their  under  surface. 
Most  of  the  C'-niferve  are  evergreens. 

Everlast'ing  Flower,  the  popular  name  of 
certain  plants,  the  flowers  of  which  suffer  little 
change  of  appearance  in  drying,  and  may  be  kept 
for  years  without  much  diminution  of  beauty. 
They  are  plants  of  the  order  Composites.  The 
French  call  them  immortelles,  and  in  France  they 
are  often  woven  into  circular  wreaths,  and  placed 
beside  recent  graves,  as  emblems  of  immortality. 

Evil  Eye.  Both  in  ancient  and  modern  times, 
the  belief  that  some  persons  have  the  power  of 
injuring  others  by  looking  upon  them,  has  been 
widely  diffused.  The  Greeks  frequently  speak  of 
the  oepQdXjuoS  fiaduavot  (or  evil  eye),  which  they 
conceived  to  be  specially  dangerous  to  children; 
and  the  Romans  used  the  verb  J'ascinare  to  express 
the  same  fact. 

Evolution  and  Involution,  algebraical  terms, 
the  former  signifying  the  extraction  of  roots,  and 
the  latter  the  raising  to  powers.  When  any  num¬ 
ber  is  multiplied  by  itself,  the  product  is"  called 


its  square,  or  second  power.  If  we  multiply  the 
square  by  the  number  again,  we  get  the  cube,  or 
third  power;  and  so  on.  This  process  is  called 
involution.  Evolution  is  the  inverse  process,  by 
which  a  number  being  presented,  we  may  ascer¬ 
tain  a  particular  root  of  it,  say  the  fourth;  or  that 
number  which,  being  multipled  into  unity  a  par¬ 
ticular  number  of  time  s,  say  four  times,  the 
product  will  be  the  number  presented. 

Evolution  Theory,  in  Biology,  the  hypothesis 
according  to  which  the  higher  forms  of  life  have 
been  developed  out  of  lower  organisms. 

Evolutions  are  the  movements  of  troops  in 
order  to  maintain  or  sustain  a  post,  to  occupy  a 
new  post,  to  improve  an  attack,  or  a  defense. 
All  such  movements  as  marching,  counter-march¬ 
ing,  route-marching,  changing  front,  forming  line, 
facing,  wheeling,  making  column  or  line,  making 
echelon  or  square,  defiling,  deploying,  etc.,  come 
under  the  general  heading  of  evolutions. 

Ewing,  Thomas,  was  born  in  Virginia  in  1789. 
He  represented  Ohio  in  the  United  States  Senate 
(1831-37).  In  March,  1841,  he  became  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury,  was  Secretary  of  the  Interior 
from  March,  1849,  to  July,  1850,  and  in  1850-51 
again  served  in  the  United  States  Senate.  He 
died  in  1871. 

Exchange,  Bill  of,  in  commercial  transactions 
an  instrument  designed  to  secure  the  payment  of 
a  debt  without  the  transmission  of  money — i.  e., 
the  setting  off  of  one  debt  against  another. 

Exchange",  a  term  applied  lo  buildings  or 
places  of  resort  for  merchants.  The  name 
bourse  (purse)  is  applied  in  France  and  Belgium 
to  a  resort  of  this  kind;  and  in  Berlin,  Ham¬ 
burg,  and  other  German  cities,  there  is  the 
equivalent  word  horse.  Exchanges  have  usually 
comprehended  an  open  quadrangle,  surrounded 
by  an  arcade,  free  to  all  persons,  but  in  some 
cases  large  reading-rooms  now  constitute  resorts 
of  this  kind,  and  these  are  open  only  to  a  body 
of  subscribers,  and  visitors  whom  they  introduce. 

Exchequer,  Chancellor  of,  the  British 
Minister  of  Finance,  an  officer  filling  a  position 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  in  the  United  States. 

Excise',  the  name  of  a  tax  on  commodities, 
from  the  Lat.  excisus,  cut  off,  as  being  a  portion 
of  the  value  of  the  commodity  cut  off  and  set 
apart  for  the  revenue  before  the  commodity  is 
sold. 

Excit'ants,  or  Stimulants,  are  those  pharma¬ 
ceutical  preparations  which,  acting  through  the 
nervous  system,  tend  to  increase  the  action  of 
the  heart  and  other  organs.  They  all  possess 
more  or  less  of  a  pungent  and  acrid  taste,  and 
give  rise  to  a  sensation  of  warmth  when  placed 
on  a  tender  part  of  the  skin.  The  class  is  a 
very  numerous  one,  and  the  application  of  ex¬ 
citants  or  stimulants  to  the  human  subject 
should  always  be  under  the  supervision  of  a 
qualified  physician. 

Excommuiiica'tion  is  exclusion  from  the  fel¬ 
lowship  of  the  Christian  Church.  The  Mosaic 
law  decreed  excommunication  in  case  of  certain 
offenses;  and  the  intimate  connection  of  things 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  under  the  Jewish  polity, 
rendered  it  terrible  even  as  a  temporal  punishment. 
In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  power  of 
excommunicating  is  held  to  reside  in  the  bishop, 
in  accordance  with  the  proceeding  commemorated 
in  I.  Cor.  v,  3-5.  It  deprives  one  of  all  the  offices 
of  the  church,  but  of  course  entails  no  social 
nor  political  disadvantages,  as  it  did  in  the  middle 
ages.  It  is  a  mistake  to  ascribe  to  Catholics  the 
doctrine  “that  excommunication  may  be  pro¬ 
nounced  against  the  dead.” 

Ex'ercise,  an  important  element  of  medical 
regimen,  both  in  the  preservation  of  health  and  in 
the  cure  of  disease.  To  preserve  all  the  functions 
of  the  body  in  healthy  action,  it  is  necessary  to 
secure  their  due  and  regular  action  or  exercise;  to 
allow  of  complete  inaction  of  any  part  or  function 
is  to  initiate  disease,  and  probably  even  structural 
change  or  atrophy.  Hence  the  development  of 
the  muscular  system,  of  the  secretions,  and  even 
of  the  mind  and  its  organ,  the  brain,  require 
the  more  or  less  regular  use  of  exercise,  either 
in  the  form  of  productive  and  useful  work,  or 
by  means  of  artificially  devised  methods  calcu¬ 
lated  to  serve  a  like  purpose  in  regard  to  the 


economy.  Thus,  scholastic  education  is  exercise 
for  the  mind;  gymnastics,  for  the  body. 

Exeter,  a  town  and  one  of  the  county  seats  of 
Rockingham  county,  New  Hampshire.  It  is  an 
important  manufacturing  point,  and  is  the  seat 
of  Phillips’  Academy.  Pop.,  3,437. 

Ex'eter,  an  important  city  in  Devonshire,  Eng¬ 
land.  Pop.,  47,154. 

Ex  'od  us  (the  departure),  the  name  given  to  the 
second  book  of  the  Pentateuch.  It  may  be  re¬ 
garded  as  composed  of  two  parts — the  first  his¬ 
torical,  and  the  second  legislative.  The  histori¬ 
cal  extends  to  the  end  of  chapter  xviii.  The 
legislative  is  devoted  to  a  minute  and  elaborate 
account  of  the  institution  of  the  theocracy. 

Exog'enoiis  Plants, or  Exogens (Gr.  e^o,  ex o, 
outwards;  ysvvativ,  to  produce),  are  those  in 
which  the  woody  substance  of  stem  increases 
by  bundles  of  vascular  tissue  added  externally.  The 
exogenous  stem  containsa  central  pith,  from  which 
medullary  rays  proceed  to  the  bark,  and  the  bark 
is  easily  separable  from  the  woody  part  which  it 
surrounds.  The  exogenous  is  thus  different  in 
structure  and  manner  of  growth  from  the  endog¬ 
enous  or  the  acrogenous  stem. 

Ex'orcism  (from,  c^opxiZo,  exorkizo,  to  con¬ 
jure),  i.  e.,  conjuration  in  the  name  of  the  gods, 
the  term  used  by  the  fathers  of  the  church  to 
denote  the  act  of  conjuring  evil  spirits,  In  the 
name  of  God  or  Christ,  to  depart  out  of  the  per¬ 
son  possessed.  The  first  Christians  adjured  evil 
spirits  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ,  who  had  con¬ 
quered  the  devil;  but  as  the  opinion  was  enter¬ 
tained  that  all  idolaters  belonged  to  the  kingdom 
of  Satan,  it  was  customary  to  exorcise  heathens 
previous  to  their  receiving  Christian  baptism.  In 
the  Catholic  Church  the  function  of  exorcism 
belongs  peculiarly  to  one  of  the  so-called  minor 
orders. 

Exostemma,  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of 
the  natural  order  Cincliouacece,,  nearly  allied  to 
Cinchona.  Several  species  yield  febrifugal  barks, 
which,  however,  do  not  contain  the  cinchona  alka¬ 
loids.  The  most  valued  of  these  barks  are  carib- 
bee  bark  and  Saint  Lucia  bark,  the  latter  of  which 
is  the  produce  of  N.  floribunda,  a  native  of  the 
more  mountainous  parts  of  the  West  Indies. 

Exot'ic  Plants,  or  Exotics  (Gr.  coming  from 
abroad),  cultivated  plants  originally  derived  from 
foreign  countries.  The  term  is  most  frequently 
applied  to  those  of  which  the  native  country  dif¬ 
fers  so  much  in  soil  or  climate  from  that  into 
which  they  have  been  conveyed,  that  their  culti¬ 
vation  is  attended  with  difficulty,  requiring  arti¬ 
ficial  heat  or  other  means  different  from  those 
requisite  in  the  case  of  indigenous  plants. 

Expec'torants  (Lat.  ex,  out  of,  and  pectus,  the 
breast),  medicines  given  to  carry  off  the  secretions 
of  the  air-tubes.  The  principal  expectorants  are 
antimony,  squill,  ipecacuanha,  senega,  balsam  of 
tolu,  lobelia,  gum  ammoniac,  asafeetida,  galba- 
num,  etc. 

Expectora'tion,  the  mucus  or  other  secretion 
discharged  from  the  air-passages.  The  examina¬ 
tion  uf  expectoration  is  of  the  utmost  value  in  the 
diagnosis  of  diseases  of  the  chest. 

Ex 'tracts,  in  a  technical  sense,  are  medicinal 
preparations  of  vegetable  principles,  got  either  by 
putting  the  plants  in  a  solvent  or  menstruum,  and 
then  evaporating  the  liquid  down  to  about  the 
consistency  of  honey,  or,  by  expressing  the  juice 
of  the  plants  and  evaporating;  this  last  is  properly 
inspissated  juice.  Extracts,  therefore,  contain  only 
those  vegetable  principles  that  are  either  held  in 
solution  in  the  juices  of  the  plants  themselves,  or 
are  soluble  in  the  liquid  employed  in  extracting 
them,  and  at  the  same  time  are  not  so  volatile  as 
to  be  lost  during  evaporation. 

Extra vasa'tion  is  the  escape  of  any  of  the 
fluids  of  the  living  body  from  their  proper  vessels 
(vas)  through  a  rupture  or  injury  in  their  walls. 
Excrementitious  matter  thus  sometimes  escapes 
into  the  abdomen  through  a  wound  or  ulceration 
of  the  bowels. 

Extreme  Unction,  a  sacrament  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  which,  as  the  other  sacraments 
supply  spiritual  aid  in  the  various  circumstances 
of  life,  is  believed  to  impart  to  the  Christian  in 
death  grace  and  strength  to  encounter  the  struggle 
of  the  dying  hour.  The  right  of  unction  in  dif¬ 
ferent  forms  is  common  to  several  of  the  sacra¬ 
ments;  the  name  extreme  is  given  to  that  of  the 


EYE. 


382 


EZRA. 


present  sacrament,  because  it  is  reserved  for  the 
last  act  of  the  Christian  career. 

Eye.  The  eyes  consist  superficially  of  a  double 
convex  lens,  with  controllable  focus,  and  a  con¬ 
cave  mirror  to  receive  the  image  formed  by  the 
lens;  this  mirror  being  set  into  a  cup-like  expan¬ 
sion  of  a  special  (optic)  nerve,  which  conveys  the 
impression  to  the  sensorium.  The  globe  of  the  eye 
is  placed  in  the  anterior  part  of  the  cavity  of  the 
orbit,  in  which  it  is  held  in  position  by  its  con¬ 
nection  with  the  optic  nerve  posteriorly,  and  with 
the  muscles  which  surround  it,  and  by  the  eyelids 
in  front.  It  is  further  supported  behind  and  on 
the  sides  by  a  quantity  of  loose  fat,  which  fills  up 
all  the  interstices  of  the  orbit,  and  facilitates  the 
various  movements  of  which  the  eye  is  capable. 
The  form  of  the  eyeball  is  nearly  spherical;  but 
on  viewing  the  organ  in  profile,  we  see  that  it  is 
composed  of  segments  of  two  spheres  of  different 
diameters.  Of  these  the  anterior,  formed  by  the 
transparent  cornea,  has  the  smaller  diameter. 
Each  optic  nerve  enters  the  back  of  the  globe  at 
a  distance  of  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  antero-posterior  axis  of  the  eye. 
The  eyeball  is  composed  of  several  investing 
membranes,  and  of  certain  transparent  structures 


A  longitudinal  section  of  the  coats  of  the  eye. 

1,  the  sclerotic,  thicker  behind  than  in  front;  2.  the  cor¬ 
nea;  3,  the  choroid:  6,  the  iris;  7,  the  pupil:  8,  the 
retina;  10.  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye;  11,  the 
posterior  chamber;  12,  the  crystalline  lens,  inclosed  in 
its  capsule;  13,  the  vitreous  humor,  inclosed  in  the 
hyaloid  membrane,  and  in  cells  formed  in  its  interior  by 
that  membrane;  15,  the  sheath;  and  16,  the  interior  of 
the  optic  nerve,  in  the  center  of  which  is  a  small 
artery . 

which  are  inclosed  within  them.  The  outermost 
coatof  theeye  is  the sclerotic (from  6x\epoS,  hard). 
The  cornea  (so  called  from  its  horny  appearance)  is 
a  transparent  structure,  filling  up  the  aperture  left 
in  the  anterior  part  of  the  sclerotic.  Although 
beautifully  transparent  and  appearing  to  be 
homogeneous,  it  is  in  reality  composed  of  five 
layers.  The  choroid  coat  is  a  dark-colored  vascu¬ 
lar  membrane,  which  is  brought  into  view  on  the 
removal  of  the  sclerotic.  It  is  composed  of 
minute  ramifications  of  vessels,  connective  tissue, 
and  pigment  cells.  The  iris  may  be  regarded  as 
a  process  of  the  choroid,  with  which  it  is  con¬ 
tinuous.  It  is  a  thin,  flat,  membranous  curtain, 
hanging  vertically  in  the  aqueous  humor  in  front 
of  the  leDs,  and  perforated  by  the  pupil.  This 
aperture  varies  in  size  according  to  the  action  of 
the  muscular  fibers  of  the  iris,  so  as  to  admit 
more  or  less  light  into  the  interior  of  the  eyeball. 
Within  the  choroid  is  the  retina,  which,  although 
continuous  with  the  optic  nerve — of  which  it  is 
usually  regarded  as  a  cup-like  expansion — differs 
very  materially  from  it  in  structure.  It  is  a 
delicate,  semi-transparent  sheet  of  nervous  matter, 
lying  immediately  behind  the  vitreous  humor, 
and  extending  from  the  optic  nerve  nearly  as  far 
as  the  lens.  Immediately  behind  the  transparent 
cornea  is  the  aqueous  humor,  which  fills  up  the 
anterior  and  posterior  chambers  which  lie  be¬ 
tween  the  cornea  and  the  lens.  It  is  nearly  pure 
water.  The  crystalline  lens  lies  opposite  to  and 
behind  the  pupil,  almost  close  to  the  iris,  and  its 
posterior  surface  is  received  into  a  correspond¬ 
ing  depression  on  the  fore  part  of  the  vitreous 
humor.  It  is  a  double-convex  lens,  with  sur¬ 
faces  of  unequal  curvature,  the  posterior  being 
the  more  convex.  It  is  inclosed  in  a  transparent 
capsule.  The  vitreous  humor  lies  in  the  con¬ 
cavity  of  the  retina,  and  occupies  about  four- 
fifths  of  the  eye  posteriorly.  It  is  inclosed  in  the 
hyaloid  membrane,  which  sends  numerous  pro¬ 


cesses  inward,  so  as  to  divide  the  cavity  into  a 
series  of  compartments.  Between  the  anterior 
border  of  the  retina  and  the  border  of  the  lens 
we  have  the  ciliary  processes  of  the  vitreous  body, 
into  which  the  ciliary  processes  of  the  choroid 
dove-tail.  The  muscles  by  which  the  eye  is  moved 
are  four  straight  (or  recti)  muscles,  and  two 
oblique  (the  superior  and  inferior).  The  former 
arise  from  the  margin  of  the  optic  foramen  at  the 
apex  of  the  orbit,  and  arc  inserted  into  the  scle¬ 
rotic  near  the  cornea,  above,  below,  and  on  either 
side.  The  superior  oblique  arises  with  the 
straight  muscles;  but  after  running  to  the  upper 


The  muscles  of  the  eyeball,  the  view  being  taken  from 
the  outer  side  of  the  right  orbit. 

1,  a  small  fragment  of  the  sphenoid  bone  at  the  back  of 
the  orbit,  containing  the  foramen,  through  which,  2, 
the  optic  nerve  passes;  3,  the  globe  of  the  eye;  4,  the 
levator  palpebrae  muscle;  5,  the  superior  oblique  muscle; 
6,  its  cartilaginous  pulley,  attached  to  the  upper  edge 
of  the  orbit;  7,  its  reflected  tendon;  8,  the  inferior 
oblique  muscle,  the  little  knob  near  the  figure  8  being  a 
detached  fragment  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone, 
from  which  it  arises;  9,  the  superior  rectus;  10,  the  in¬ 
ternal  rectus,  partly  concealed  by  the  optic  nerve;  11, 
12,  the  two  ends  of  the  external  rectus,  the  intermedi¬ 
ate  portion  having  been  removed;  13,  the  inferior  rec¬ 
tus;  14.  the  tunica  albuginea,  formed  by  the  expansion 
of  the  tendons  of  the  four  recti  muscles. 

edge  of  the  orbit,  has  its  direction  changed  by  a 
pulley,  and  proceeds  backward,  outward,  and 
downward.  The  inferior  oblique  arises  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  orbit,  and  passes  backward,  out¬ 
ward,  and  upward.  The  straight  muscles,  when 
acting  together,  fix  and  retract  the  eye,  and  when 
acting  singly,  turn  it  toward  their  respective  sides. 
The  oblique  muscles  antagonize  the  recti,  and 
draw  the  eye  forward;  the  superior,  acting  above, 
directs  the  front  of  the  eye  downward  and  out¬ 
ward,  and  the  inferior  upward  and  inward. 
The  eyelids  are  two  thin,  movable  folds,  placed 
in  front  of  the  eye,  to  shield  it  from  too  strong 
light,  and  to  protect  its  anterior  surface. 
The  eyelashes  intercept  the  entrance  of  foreign 


1,  the  cartilage  of  the  upper  eyelid ;  2,  Its  lower  border, 
showing  the  openings  of  the  Meibomian  glands;  3,  the 
cartilage  of  the  lower  eyelid,  also  showing  on  its  border 
the  openings  of  the  Meibomian  glands;  4.  5,  the  lachry¬ 
mal  gland;  6,  its  ducts;  7,  the  plica  semilunaris;  8.  the 
caruncula  laclirymalis;  9,  the  puneta  lachrymalia, 
opening  into  the  lachrymal  canals:  10,  11,  the  superior 
and  inferior  lachrymal  canals;  12,  the  lachrymal  sac; 
13,  the  nasal  duct,  terminating  at  14  in  the  lower  meatus 
of  the  nose. 

particles  directed  against  the  eye,  and  assist  in 
shading  that  organ  from  an  excess  of  light.  The 
lachrymal  apparatus  consists  of  the  lachrymal 
gland,  by  which  the  tears  are  secreted;  two 
canals,  into  which  the  tears  are  received;  the  sac, 
into  which  these  canals  open;  and  the  duct, 
through  which  the  tears  pass  from  the  sac  into 
the  nose.  The  conjunctiva  (or  mucous  coat), 
which  covers  the  front  of  t he  eyeball,  and  lines 
the  inner  surface  of  the  lids,  passes  down  and 
lines  the  canals,  sac,  and  duct;  and  is  thus  con¬ 
tinuous  with  the  nasal  mucous  membrane.  In 
mammals ,  the  structure  of  the  eye  is  usually 
almost  identical  with  that  of  man.  In  the  cetacea, 
and  in  the  amphibious  carnivora  that  catch  their 
prey  in  the  water,  the  shape  of  the  lens  is  nearly 
spherical,  as  in  fishes,  and  there  is  a  similar  thick¬ 


ening  of  the  posterior  part  of  the  sclerotic,  so  as 
to  thrust  the  retina  sufficiently  forward  to  receive 
the  image  formed  by  such  a  lens.  Instead  of  the 
dark-brown  or  black  pigment  which  lines  the 
human  choroid,  a  pigment  of  a  brilliant  metallic 
luster  is  secreted  in  many  of  the  carnivora,  which 
seems  to  act  as  a  concave  reflector,  and  thus 
probably  increasing  the  visual  power.  In  birds, 
the  eye  differs  from  the  mammalian  eye  in  several 
important  points,  being  specially  adapted  to  rapid 
changes  of  focus.  In  addition  to  an  upper  and 
lower  eyelid,  birds  have  an  elastic  fold  of  con¬ 
junctiva,  which,  in  a  state  of  repose,  lies  in  the 
inner  angle  of  the  eye,  but  is  movable  by  two 
distinct  muscles,  which  draw  it  over  the  cornea. 
It  is  termed  the  membrana  nictitans,  and  is  to  a 
certain  degree  transparent.  The  main  peculiarity 
in  the  eye  of  the  fish  is  the  size,  extreme  density, 
and  spherical  shape  of  the  lens,  which  give  it  an 
extraordinary  magnifying  power.  In  insects  we 
have  simple  and  compound  eyes  usually  associated 
in  the  same  individual.  The  simple  e3_es  resemble 
in  many  respects  the  corresponding  organs  in 
higher  animals,  but  the  compound  eyes  are 
extremely  elaborate  and  complex  in  their  struct¬ 
ure.  When  examined  with  the  microscope,  their 
surface  is  seen  to  be  divided  into  an  enormous 
number  of  hexagonal  facets  which  are  in  fact 
cornea?.  In  the  ant,  there  are  only  50  of  these 
facets  in  each  eye;  in  the  common  house-fly, 
4,000;  in  butterflies,  upward  of  17,000;  and  in 
some  of  the  beetles  more  than  25,000.  Compound 
eyes  of  similar  structure  occur  in  many  of  the 
crustaceans. 

Eye,  Diseases  of  tiie.  The  diseases  of  the 
eye  are  very  numerous.  Nearly  all  its  parts  are 
liable  to  inflammation  and  it-^  consequences.  The 
eyelids  are  liable  to  various  diseases,  as  growths 
of  several  kinds,  most  of  which  the  surgeon  may 
remove;  inflammation,  as  blear-eye  (ophthalmia 
tarsi);  to  be  misdirected  inward  or  outward,  entro¬ 
pium  and  ectropion-,  and  the  upper  eyelid  may 
fall  down  (ptosis)  from  palsy  of  the  common  mo¬ 
tor  oculi  nerve.  The  eyelashes  may  grow  in  upon 
the  eye  (trichiasis),  and  produce  serious  results. 
When  plucked  out,  they  grow  again,  and  fre¬ 
quently  it  is  necessary  to  cut  down  on  their  roots, 
and  destroy  them.  The  duct  which  conveys 
away  the  tears  to  the  nose  is  liable  to  inflammation 
and  obstruction,  causing  watery  eye.  The  cor¬ 
nea  is  liable  to  opacity  in  various  degrees.  The 
mere  nebula  or  cloudy  condition,  either  limited 
or  general,  may  pass  off,  and  leave  the  cornea 
again  clear;  but  the  white  mark,  which  is  the 
cicatrix  or  scar  of  an  ulcer,  is  permanent, 
although  it  may  become  smaller  by  the  disap¬ 
pearance  of  the  surrounding  haze.  The  pupil 
may  be  closed  as  the  result  of  iritis,  or  of  opera¬ 
tions  for  cataract,  and  an  artificial  pupil  maybe 
made  by  incision,  excision,  or  separation;  but  the 
operation  is  seldom  attended  with  success.  See 
Cataract,  Ophthalmia,  Squinting,  Vision, 
and  Amaurosis.  Frequently  “foreign  bodies”  get 
into  the  space  between  the  eyeball  and  the  upper 
lid.  They  cause  great  pain,  and  soon  excite  inflam¬ 
mation.  The  lid  must  be  turned  round  to  find  them. 
To  do  this,  pull  the  front  or  edge  of  the  lid  for¬ 
ward  by  the  eyelashes,  held  with  the  finger  and 
thumb,  and  at  the  same  time  pressdown  the  back 
part  of  the  lid  with  a  small  pencil  or  key.  The 
lid  will  readily  turn  round,  when  the  body  may 
be  seen  about  its  middle,  and  may  be  removed 
with  the  corner  of  a  handkerchief.  Another  plan 
is  to  pull  forward  the  upper  lid  by  the  eyelashes, 
and  push  the  lashes  of  the  lower  lid  up  behind  it, 
when  the  foreign  body  may  be  brushed  out. 

Eyebright  ( Euphrasia ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Scrophulariaccce ,  having  a  tubu¬ 
lar  calyx,  the  upper  lip  of  the  corolla  divided, 
the  lower  of  three  nearly  equal  lobes,  the  cells  of 
the  anthers  spurred  at  tiie  base,  a  two-celled  cap¬ 
sule  and  striated  seeds. 

Eze'kiel  (meaning  God  will  strengthen,  or 
strength  of  God),  one  of  the  Hebrew  prophets, 
was  the  son  of  the  priest  Buzi,  and  was  carried 
captive,  when  young,  to  Mesopotamia,  by  order 
of  Nebuchadnezzar,  about  598  b.c.  His  prophetic 
career  extended  over  twenty-two  years. 

Ezra,  a  Jewish  lawgiver  of  the  fifth  century 
before  Christ.  The  book  called  by  his  name, 
with  the  book  of  Nehemiah,  formed,  among  the 
Jew's,  the  first  and  second  books  of  Ezra. 


F. 


383 


FANDANGO. 


Fis  the  sixth  letter  in  the  Latin  and  English 
alphabets,  corresponding  to  the  Vau  of  the 
Hebrew,  and  the  Digamma  of  the  old  Greek 
alphabet.  F,  in  Music,  is  the  fourth  note  of  the 
natural  diatonic  scale  of  C,  and  stands  in  propor¬ 
tion  to  0  as  4  to  3,  and  is  a  perfect  fourth  above 
C  as  fundamental  note.  F  major,  as  a  key,  has 
one  flat  at  its  signature — viz.,  B  flat.  F  minor 
has  four  flats,  the  same  as  A  flat  major,  of  which 
it  is  the  relative  minor. 

Fabius  Maximus  Verrucosus,  Quintus,  also 
named  Cunctator  and  Ovicula,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  Romans  of  the  Republic.  It  appears 
that  he  served  his  first  Consulship  in  Liguria,  233 
b.c.;  that  he  was  Censor  in  230,  and  Consul  for 
the  second  time  in  228.  In  218  he  was  sent  to 
Carthage  to  inquire  whether  that  State  approved 
of  Hannibal’s  conduct  in  attacking  Saguntum. 

Facade,  (Fr.)  the  exterior  front  or  face  of  a 
building.  The  term,  although  frequently  re¬ 
stricted  to  classic  architecture,  may  be  applied 
to  the  front  elevation  of  a  building  in  any  style. 
It  is,  however,  generally  used  with  reference  to 
buildings  of  some  magnitude  and  pretensions; 
thus,  we  speak  of  the  front  of  a  house,  and  the 
facade  of  a  palace.  The  back  elevation  of  an 
important  building  is  called  the  rear  fa9ade. 

Fable,  a  narrative  in  which  beings  irrational, 
and  sometimes  inanimate,  are,  for  the  purpose  of 
moral  instruction,  feigned  to  act  and  speak  with 
human  interests  and  passions. 

Fali'renheit,  Gabriel  Daniel,  born  about 
the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In  1720  he 
first  conceived  the  idea  of  using  quicksilver  instead 
of  spirits  of  wine  in  the  construction  of  thermom¬ 
eters,  by  means  of  which  the  accuracy  of  the  in¬ 
strument  was  improved.  He  died  in  1740. 

Faience,  or  Fayence,  a  general  term  for  all 
sorts  of  glazed  earthenware  and  porcelain. 

Fairfax,  Thomas,  third  Lord,  better  known 
as  Sir  Thomas  Fairfax,  was  born  Jan.  17,  101; -12. 
He  fought  at  Marston  Moor  and  Naseby,  and  at 
the  close  of  the  Civil  War  he  held  the  supreme 
command  of  the  army.  He  gave  in  his  adhesion 
to  Charles  II.  in  1660  and  died  Nov.  12,  1671. 

Fair  Haven,  a  town  of  9,500  people,  situated 
in  New  Haven  county,  Conn. 

Faith  is  a  word  used  by  theologians  in  various 
senses.  It  is  sometimes  taken  to  denote  the 
mere  assent  of  the  understanding  to  a  set  of  facts 
or  of  propositions  set  before  it;  it  is  more  pecul¬ 
iarly  used  to  express  the  reception  by  the  heart 
of  the  truth  as  it  is  in  Christ. 

Falconer,  William,  author  of  Shipwreck,  was 
born  in  1735,  and  lost  at  sea  in  1769. 

Falconida?,  a  family  of  diurnal  birds  of  prey, 
whose  muscular  vigor  and  armament  of  beak  and 
talons  render 
them  not  infe¬ 
rior  to  the  eagle, 
which  is  by  some 
authorities 
placed  among 
them.  There  are 
more  than  200 
species,  and  they 
inhabit  all  por- 
tions  of  the 
world.  The  fe¬ 
male  is  generally 
larger  than  the 
male.  They  gen¬ 
erally  kill  their 
prey  and  are 
mostly  carnivo¬ 
rous,  and  are  not 
to  be  confounded' 
with  the  vul-  Head  and  Foot  of  Brazilian 
tures.  Eagle. 

Falcon  ( Falco ),  in  the  Linnaean  zoology,  a 
genus  of  birds,  including  all  the  diurnal  birds  of 
prey,  now  known  as  the  family  of  Falcoiridce;  but 
in  its  present  use  as  a  generic  name,  limited  to 
nearer  accordance  with  its  popular  use,  as  a 
designation  of  those  species  which,  in  the  lan¬ 
guage  of  falconry,  were  styled  noble  birds  of 
prey.  The  true  falcons  are  characterized  by  a 
bill  curved  from  the  base,  the  upper  mandible 


F 

hooked  at  the  point,  and  the  cutting  edge  of  the 
upper  mandible  furnished  with  a  strong  project¬ 
ing  notch,  or  tooth.  The  claws  are  also  sharp, 
curved,  and  strong;  and  in  accordance  with  all 
this  powerful  armature,  the  whole  frame  is  very 
robust  and  muscular.  The  legs  are  rather  short, 
and  have  great  power  in  striking  or  seizing  prey. 

Falconry,  or  Hawking,  is  the  art  of  capturing 
birds  and  other  prey  by  means  of  falcons  and 
hawks,  and  the  term  is  also  applied  to  the  prepa¬ 
ration  and  training  of  the  falcons  and  all  cognate 
matters.  In  falconry,  two  distinct  kinds  of 
hawks  are  used — the  long-winged,  or  true  fal¬ 
cons,  and  the  short-winged.  The  peregrine  fal¬ 
con  is  in  greatest  favor,  and  if  taken  from  the 
nest,  and  carefully  trained,  affords  better  sport 
than  any  other  species.  The  young  hawk  is  more 
easily  trained  than  that  which  has  been  caught  in 
the  wild.  The  first  operation  in  training  is  hood- 
ir.g.  To  the  falcon’s  legs  are  attached  two  small 
hollow  globes  of  metal,  called  bells,  these,  again, 
are  fixed  to  their  place  by  leathern  straps  called 
bewits.  Jesses  are  two  leathern  straps,  5  or  6  inches 
in  length,  attached  to  each  leg  immediately  below 


One  end  of  the  leash  is  attached  to  the  jesses,  the  other  to 
a  ring  driven  into  the  side  of  the  block;  and  thus  the 
hawk  is  prevented  from  escaping. 

the  bells;  the  jesses,  again,  are  themselves  attached 
to  another  leathern  strap,  called  the  leash,  by  two 
rings  or  varvels.  The  hawk  is  thoroughly  trained 
to  come  at  call  and  perch  on  its  master’s  hand, 
and  to  fly  at  quarry — its  education  being  com¬ 
pleted  before  being  taken  a -field.  When  it  is 
under  thorough  control  it  is  let  loose  from  the 
leash  and  allowed  to  pursue  game,  being  recalled 
usually  by  a  whistle.  Falconry  is  now  almost 
obsolete,  although  at  one  time  a  very  general 
amusement,  classed  among  the  noble  sports. 

Falie'ro,  Marino,  a  celebrated  Venetian 
statesman,  patriot,  and  soldier,  was  born  about 
1284.  He  was  elected  in  1354,  at  the  age  of  sev¬ 
enty,  Doge  of  Venice,  having  previously  held 
other  important  offices.  He  was  beheaded  in 
1355. 

Falkland  Islands  lie  about  300  miles  to  the 
east-nortlieast  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  stretch¬ 
ing  in  S.  latitude  from  51° — 52°  30',  and  in  W. 
longitude  from  57°  40' — 61°  20'.  After  having 
successively  belonged  to  France  and  Spain,  they 
have,  since  1771,  formed  part  of  the  British 
Empire. 

Fallo'pian  Tubes,  The  (called  after  Fallopius), 
or  Oviducts,  are  canals  about  four  or  five  inches 


in  length  in  the  human  female  subject,  opening  at 
their  inner  extremity  into  the  upper  angle  of  the 
uterus  or  womb,  and  at  the  other  end,  by  a  fringed 
funnel-shaped  termination,  into  the  cavity  of  the 
peritoneum.  This  fringed  or  fimbriated  extrem¬ 
ity  at  certain  periods  grasps  the  ovary,  and  re¬ 
ceives  the  ovum,  which  is  discharged  by  the  rup¬ 
ture  of  the  Graafian  vesicle. 

Fall  River,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Bristol 
county.  Mass.  Pop.,  60,000. 

Fallow  Deer  (/Jama  vulgaris  or  Cervus  damn), 
a  species  of  deer  well-known  in  Europe.  In  size, 
it  is  smaller  than  the  stag  or  red  deer,  from  which 
it  also  differs  in  its  broad  palmated  antlers,  its 
longer  tail,  and  its  smoother  and  finer  hair.  In 


Fallow  Deer  (Cervus  dama). 


color,  it  is  yellowish-brown  in  summer;  darker, 
or  even  blackish-brown  in  winter;  more  or  less 
spotted  with  pale  spots,  particularly  in  summer 
and  when  young;  but  in  one  variety  the  spots  are 
very  marked;  in  another  they  are  not  to  be  ob¬ 
served  even  in  the  young.  The  buttocks  are  white, 
and  a  dark  line  passes  along  the  back. 

Fal  'ster,  a  Danish  island  in  the  Baltic,  south 
of  Seeland,  between  latitude  54°  30'  and  54°  58’ 
N.,  and  between  longitude  11°  45'  and  12°  11'  E. 

Famines.  War,  pestilence,  and  famine  are 
regarded  by  many  as  the  natural  enemies  of  the 
human  race;  but  in  truth  these  are  all  more  or 
less  associated  with  the  circumstances  of  civiliza¬ 
tion.  In  the  highest  state  of  civilized  society 
there  ought  to  be  no  war;  there  need  be  no  pesti¬ 
lence;  and  famine  alone  would  stand  as  being 
beyond  the  range  of  human  prevention.  The 
advancement  in  the  social  scale  to  a  state  of 
dependence  upon  cereal  crops,  while  the  facilities 
of  intercommunication  between  different  coun¬ 
tries,  or  even  parts  of  the  same  country,  remained 
imperfect,  led  almost  necessarily  to  the  periodical 
recurrence  of  scarcity.  Cereal  crops  are  especially 
dependent  upon  conditions  of  climate  for  their 
regular  production ;  and  here  at  least  are  circum¬ 
stances  beyond  human  control. 

Fail,  an  instrument  or  mechanical  contrivance 
for  moving  the  air  for  the  sake  of  coolness,  or  for 
winnowing  chaff  from  grain.  It  is  customary,  in 
the  better  classes  of  houses  in  India,  to  suspend  a 
large  species  of  fan  from  the  ceiling,  and  keep  it 
in  agitation  with  strings,  pulled  by  servants,  in 
order  to  give  a  degree  of  coolness  to  the  air.  A 
bas-relief  in  the  British  museum  represents  Sen¬ 
nacherib  with  female  figures  carrying  feather 
fans.  Examples  may  be  seen  in  plates  of  the 
Egyptian  sculptures  at  Thebes  and  other  places, 
and  also  iu  the  ruins  of  Persepolis. 

Fan  Palm,  a  name  common  to  all  those  palms 
which  have  fan-shaped  leaves,  as  the  species  of 
Mauriha,  Lodoicea  (double  cocoa  nut),  Hgphcene 
(doum  palm),  Curgpha,  Lioistona,  Chamcerops, 
etc.  The  talipot  palm  (Corgpha  umbrantlifera)  is 
sometimes  called  the  great  fan  palm.  The 
palmyra  palm  is  another  species. 

Fandan  'go,  like  the  Bolero,  is  an  old  Spanish 
national  dance,  in  £  time.  It  is  danced  usually  to 
the  accompaniment  of  a  guitar,  while  the  dancers 
beat  time  with  castanets,  a  custom  borrowed 
from  the  Moors.  It  proceeds  gradually  from  a 
slow  and  uniform  to  a  lively  motion;  and  not¬ 
withstanding  the  simplicity  of  the  pas,  vividly 


FANEUIL  HALL 


384 


FEBRICULA. 


expresses  all  die  graduations  of  die  passion  of 
love,  in  a  manner  sometimes  bordering  on  licen¬ 
tiousness. 

Faneuil  Hall,  a  public  hall  in  Boston,  Mass., 
erected  in  1742  by  Peter  Faneuil,  and  pre¬ 
sented  by  him  to  the  town.  In  its  original 
condition  as  so  gifted,  the  building  contained  a 
ball  for  public  meetings,  with  lesser  apartments 
above,  and  a  basement  used  as  a  market.  During 
the  revolutionary  struggle  with  England,  the  hall 
was  so  often  used  for  important  political  meetings, 
that  it  became  known  as  “the  cradle  of  American 
liberty.” 

Fanta'sia,  in  Music,  the  name  of  a  composition 
of  a  similar  character  to  the  capriccio;  also  given 
to  extempore  effusions  performed  by  a  musician 
who  possesses  the  rare  gift  of  producing,  as  it 
were,  off-hand  music  like  a  well-studied,  regular 
composition. 

Far'aday,  Michael,  an  English  chemist,  was 
born  Sept.  22,  1791.  As  practical  applications  of 
science,  his  preparation  of  the  lungs  for  diving, 
and  ventilation  of  light-house  lamps,  are  con¬ 
spicuous,  as  are  also  his  celebrated  letter  on  table- 
turning,  and  his  lecture  on  mental  education.  He 
died  Aug.  25,  1867. 

Farce,  a  dramatic  piece  of  a  low  comic  charac¬ 
ter.  The  difference  between  it  and  comedy  proper 
is  one  of  degree,  and  not  of  kind.  The  aim  of 
both  is  to  excite  mirth;  but,  while  the  former  does 
so  by  a  comparatively  faithful  adherence  to  nature 
and  truth,  the  latter  assumes  to  itself  a  much 
greater  license,  and  does  not  scruple  to  make  use 
of  any  extravagance  or  improbability  that  may 
serve  its  purpose.  It  does  not,  therefore,  exhibit, 
in  general,  a  refined  wit  or  humor,  but  contents 
itself  with  grotesque  rencontres,  and  dialogues 
provocative  of  fun  and  jollity. 

Farcy  in  horses  depends  upon  the  same  causes 
as  glanders,  which  it  usually  precedes  and  accom¬ 
panies.  The  absorbent  glands  and  vessels,  usually 
of  one  or  both  hind  legs,  are  inflamed,  tender, 
swollen,  hard,  and  knotted.  The  vitiated  lymph 
thus  poured  out  softens,  and  ulcers,  or  farcy  buds, 
appear.  Unlike  the  ulcers  of  glanders,  they  are 
curable,  but  require  time  and  care.  They  must 
be  scarified  with  the  hot  iron,  which,  to  prevent 
their  spreading,  may  also  be  gently  run  over  the 
adjacent  sound  skin.  Good  feeding  and  comfort¬ 
able  lodgings  are  essential,  and,  if  they  do  not 
interfere  with  the  appetite,  give  tonics,  such  as  a 
drachm  each  of  sulphate  of  copper  and  iodine, 
repeated  twice  a  day. 

Farewell,  Cape,  the  southern  extremity  of 
Greenland,  lies  in  latitude  59°  49'  N.,  and  longi¬ 
tude  43°  54'  W.  It  is  generally  beset  with  ice, 
which  appears  to  come  from  the  northeast,  and  to 
sweep  round  into  Davis’  Strait. 

Fargo,  one  of  the  principal  towns  of  Dakota, 
situated  in  Cass  county.  Pop.,  8,500. 

Faribault,  a  thriving  town  of  Rice  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  6,495. 

Fari'na  is  the  term  used  by  many  writers  on 
bees,  to  denote  the  pollen  of  flowers  collected  by 
bees  for  feeding  their  larvae. 

Fari'na,  a  Latin  term  for  meal  or  flour,  which 
has  been  adopted  into  the  English  and  other  lan¬ 
guages. 

Fari'ni,  Carlo  Luigi,  an  Italian  author  and 
statesman,  was  born  in  1822  at  Russi,  in  Ravenna, 
in  the  North  of  Italy.  He  held  office  under  Victor 
Emmanuel  II.,  and  died  at  Rome,  in  1866. 

Farm,  the  term  usually  employed  in  Britain  to 
signify  a  piece  of  land,  either  in  pasture  or  in 
cultivation,  held  in  lease  by  a  tenant  from  the 
proprietor.  In  the  United  States  the  term  farmer 
is  often  applied  to  a  person  who  owns  as  well  as 
cultivates  land. 

Farmers-General  (Fr.  fermiers-generaux )  was 
the  name  given  before  the  Revolution  of  1789  to 
the  members  of  a  privileged  association  in  France, 
who  farmed  or  leased  the  public  revenues  of  the 
nation.  The  fermiers-generaux  were  the  special 
objects  of  hatred  of  the  Revolutionists  of  1789-94, 
and  many  of  them  became  victims  of  the  guil¬ 
lotine. 

Farne'se,  the  name  of  an  illustrious  family  in 
Italy,  whose  origin  can  be  traced  to  the  middle  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  Many  of  its  members 
have  filled  the  highest  offices  in  the  church. 

Faro,  or  Piiaro,  a  game  at  cards,  played 


chiefly  at  gambling  establishments.  See  Hoyle’s 
Games. 

Faroe  Isles  (Dan.  Faar-Oen,  sheep-islands), 
a  group  of  islands,  twenty-two  in  number,  of 
which  seventeen  only  are  inhabited,  belonging  to 
Denmark,  and  lying  nearly  midway  between  the 
Shetlands  and  Iceland;  between  61°  25' — 62°  25' 
N.  latitude,  and  6° — 8°  W.  longitude. 

Farragut,  David  Glascoe,  an  American 
naval  officer,  was  born  near  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  in 
1801.  In  1862,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command 
of  a  naval  expedition  to  act  against  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  received  the  sur¬ 
render  of  New  Orleans,  lie  afterward  took 
Natchez;  and  in  1863  he  aided  General  Grant  in 
the  combined  at  tack  on  Vicksburg,  which  resulted 
in  its  capitulation.  In  1864,  after  a  furious  en- 
gagenu  nt  between  his  fleet  and  the  Confederate 
forts  and  vessels  at  Mobile,  he  succeeded  in  cap¬ 
turing  the  forts,  which  led  to  the  fall  of  the  city. 
In  1866,  he  attained  the  rank  of  Admiral,  and  a 
purse  of  $50,000  was  presented  to  him.  Farragut 
died  in  1870. 

Farqiiliar,  George,  an  English  dramatist,  was 
born  in  1678,  and  died  in  1707.  His  principal 
work  was  The  Beaux'  Stratagem,  which  is  still 
occasionally  played. 

Farsan'  Archipel'ago,  a  group  of  islands  in 
the  southeast  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  chief  of  which 
are  Farsan  Ivebeer,  31  miles  long,  and  Farsan, 
Seggeer,  18  miles,  in  latitude  16Q3o' — 17°  N.,  and 
longitude  41®  45' — 42°  10'  E. 

Farthing  (Sax.  feorthvng ,  from  feorth, 
fourth),  the  fourth  part  of  an  English  penny. 

Far' til  ingale,  old  form  of  the  word  verdingale, 
is  probably  a  corruption  of  the  French  vertugade; 
from  Spanish  verdugado,  hooped;  verdugo,  a  rod 
or  hoop;  verde,  green;  an  ancient  neck  ruffle 
worn  by  women. 

Farwell,  Charles  B.,  was  born  in  Steuben 
county,  N.  Y.,  July  1,  1823,  and  came  to  Chicago 
in  1844.  He  engaged  in  business,  and  built  up  a 
very  large  dry  goods  trade.  In  1870  he  was 
elected  to  Congress,  and  reelected  in  1872,  1874, 
and  1880.  In  1885  he  was  elected  United  States 
Senator  from  Illinois,  which  position  he  still 
(1889)  holds.  His  brother,  John  V.  Farwell, 
born  July  29,  1825,  iswell-known  as  the  leader  in 
missionary  work  in  connection  with  the  Young 
Men’s  Christian  Association,  and  as  the  friend 
and  supporter  of  the  Evangelist  Moody. 

Fas'ces  were  bundles  of  rods  usually  made  of 
birch,  but  sometimes  of  elm,  with  an  axe  pro¬ 
jecting  from  the  middle  of  them,  which  were  car¬ 
ried  before  the  chief  magistrates  of  ancient  Rome, 
as  symbols  of  their  power  over  life  and  limb. 
They  were  borne  by  the  lictors,  at  first  before 
the  kings;  in  the  time  of  the  republic,  before  con¬ 
suls  and  praetors,  and  afterward  before  the  em¬ 
perors.  Their  number  varied,  a  consul  having 
twelve,  and  a  praetor,  six;  but  within  the  city 
only  two.  Valerius  Publicola  introduced  a  law 
that  within  the  city  the  axe 
was  withdrawn,  except  in 
the  case  of  a  dictator,  who 
was  preceded  by  twenty-four 
lictors,  bearing  as  many 
fasces.  Publicola  also  made 
the  fasces  be  lowered  at  the 
assemblies  of  the  people,  as 
an  acknowledgment  of  their 
supreme  power. 

Pas'cia,  in  Architecture, 
a  flat  space  or  band,  like  a 
broad  ribbon,  usually  be¬ 
tween  moldings,  as  at  a,  a,  Fascia. 

a  of  the  architrave,  (see  tig.)  Architraves  are 
called  single,  double,  or  triple  fasciae  archi¬ 
traves,  according  to  the  number  of  fasciae  into 
which  they  are  divided. 

Faust,  Dr.,  according  to  tradition,  a  celebrated 
dealer  in  the  Mack  art,  was  born  at  Knittlingen, 
in  Wtirtemberg,  or,  as  some  say,  at  Roda,  near 
Weimar.  He  flourished  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  fifteenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  centuries  and  is  said  to  have  studied 
magic  at  Cracow.  He  was  said  to  have  sold  his 
soul  to  the  devil  in  exchange  for  wealth,  and  is 
the  hero  of  Gothe’s  great  poem. 

Favre,  Jules  Claude  Gabriel,  was  born  at 
Lyons,  France,  March  21,  1809.  From  1834,  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Paris  bar.  In  the  February 


revolution  of  1848,  he  was  Home  Secretary. 
Favre  showed  himself  a  persistent  antagonist  of 
Louis  Napoleon.  The  coup  d'etat  closed  his 
political  career  at  this  time.  In  1858,  he  defended 
Orsini,  on  his  trial  for  a  conspiracy  to  murder.  In 
the  same  year,  however,  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Legislature.  In  September,  1870,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Minister  of  War,  and  carried  on  negotia¬ 
tions  with  Count  Bismarck.  He  resigned  office 
in  July,  1871,  and  resumed  practice  at  the  bar. 
Favre  was  greatest  in  political  repartee,  and 
though  long  accustomed  to  public  strife,  his 
language  was  noted  for  its  Attic  elegance.  He 
died  Jan.  19,  1880. 

Fa  'vus,  (Lat.  a  honeycomb),  a  disease  of  the 
skin,  chiefly  of  the  hairy  scalp,  characterized  by 
yellowish  dry  incrustations  of  more  or  less  round¬ 
ish  form,  and  often  cup-shaped,  composed  of  the 
sporules  and  mycelia  of  a  vegetable  growth  be¬ 
longing  to  the  order  of  fungi.  The  discs  of 
favus  are  produced  with  great  rapidity,  and 
spread  rapidly,  if  not  attended  to  at  the  first,  over 
the  whole  scalp,  destroying  the  bulbs  of  the  hair, 
which  becomes  very  short  and  thin,  and  then 
falls  out  altogether.  Scrupulous  cleanliness  is 
its  best  cure  and  an  absolute  preventive. 

Fawkes,  Guy  (properly  Guido),  the  head  of 
the  Gunpowder  Plot,  was  born  in  the  year  1570. 
He  became  a  Roman  Catholic  at  an  early  age, 
and  served  in  the  Spanish  army  in  the  Nether¬ 
lands.  Inspired  with  fanatical  zeal  for  his  new 
religion,  on  his  return  to  England,  he  entered 
into  a  plot  with  several  Catholic  gentlemen  for 
blowing  up  the  King,  his  ministers,  and  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  both  Houses  at  the  opening  of  Parliament, 
Nov.  5,  1605.  Guy  Fawkes  was  taken  with  the 
burning  match  in  his  hand,  tried,  and  after  having 
been  put  to  the  torture,  was  publicly  executed 
Jan.  31,  1606. 

Fayal,  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  Azores, 
contains  about  37  square  miles,  and  about  27,000 
inhabitants.  Its  principal  town,  Horta,  stands  in 
latitude  38°  30'  N.,  and  longitude  28°  41'  W. 

Fayetteville  is  the  name  of  a  flourishing  city 
of  North  Carolina.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Feather  Grass  ( Slipa ),  a  genus  of  grasses  re¬ 
markable  for  the  long  awns  which  give  a  peculiar 
and  very  graceful 
appearance  to  the 
species,  mostly  na¬ 
tives  of  warm  tem¬ 
perate  climates.  In 
some  of  them,  the 
awn  is  beautifully 
feathered.  This  is 
the  case  in  the  best 
known  species,  the 
common  feather¬ 
grass  ( S .  pennata), 
found  on  dry  hills 
in  the  Middle  and 
South  of  Europe. 

It  is  a  perennial, 
easy  of  cultivation. 

F  e  a  t  li  e  r  s,  a 
complicated  mod¬ 
ification  of  theteg- 
umentary  system 
forming  the  exter¬ 
nal  covering  or 
plumage  of  birds, 
and  peculiar  to 
this  class  of  ani¬ 
mals.  The  quill 
by  which  the 
feather  is  attached 
to  the  Skill  is  wider.  Feather-grass  (, Stipa  pennata).  . 
but  shorter  than  the  shaft,  and  forms  a  semi¬ 
transparent,  horny,  cylindrical  tube,  which 
terminates  below  in  an  obtuse  extremity  .present¬ 
ing  an  orifice  termed  the  lower  umbilicus,  a 
second  orifice,  leading  into  the  interior  of  the 
quill,  and  termed  the  upper  umbilicus,  is  situ¬ 
ated  at  the  opposite  end,  where  the  two  vanes 
meet  and  unite.  The  cavity  of  the  quill  contains 
a  series  of  conical  capsules  fitted  one  upon  another, 
and  united  by  a  central  pedicle;  and  the  whole 
structure  presents  a  remarkable  combination  of 
strength  and  lightness. 

Febric' ula  (Lat.  a  little  fever),  sometimes 
called  also  ephemera  (Gr.  sepspepa),  a  fever  of 
short  duration  and  mild  character,  having  no  dis- 


FEBRUARY. 


385 


FENCING. 


tinct  type  or  specific  symptoms,  by  which  it  can 
be  distinguished  and  described. 

Feb'ruary,  the  second  month  of  the  year,  has 
ordinarily  twenty-eight  days,  but  in  leap  year  it 
has  an  additional  or  intercalary  day. 

Februus  (connected  with  Lat.  februare,  to 
purify)  was  the  name  of  an  old  Italian  divinity, 
whose  worship  was  celebrated  with  lustrations 
during  the  month  of  February. 

Fechter,  Charles  Albert,  an  actor  of  emi 
nence,  was  born  in  London  about  1823,  his  father 
being  a  Frenchman.  When  only  three  or  four 
years  old,  he  went  with  his  parents  to  France,  and 
was  there  educated  as  a  sculptor.  His  predilec¬ 
tions  were,  however,  in  favor  of  the  stage;  and  he 
soon  became  a  popular  actor.  In  1860  he  was 
announced  to  appear  in  an  English  version  of  Buy 
Bias  at  the  Princess’,  and  so  perfectly  identified 
himself  with  the  character  that  people  almost  for¬ 
got  his  French  accent,  in  admiring  the  energy  and 
finish  of  his  acting.  March  20th,  in  the  following 
year,  he  appeared  in  the  character  of  “  Hamlet.” 
The  impers  mation  was,  upon  the  whole,  one  that 
marked  Fechter  as  an  actor  of  very  high  powers. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  his  representation  of 
“Othello.  ”  Subsequently  Fechter  became  the  lessee 
of  the  Lyceum  Theatre,  playing  the  chief  part  in 
most  of  the  pieces  produced.  In  1870  Fechter 
paid  a  successful  visit  to  the  United  States,  where 
he  remained  until  his  death,  in  August,  1879. 

Fecunda'tion,  or  Fertilization,  in  plants, 
takes  place  according  to  laws  similar  to  those 
which  prevail  in  the  animal  kingdom.  In  plants, 
however,  the  organs  of  reproduction  are  not  per¬ 
manent  as  in  animals.  The  male  seminal  substance, 
called  pollen,  never  exists  in  a  fluid  state.  After 
the  dehiscence  of  the  anthers,  the  pollen  gets  into 
contact  with  the  stigma  of  the  pistil,  which  con¬ 
tains  the  rudiments  of  the  future  seeds  (ovules). 
The  inner  layer  of  the  cell-covering  of  the  pollen 
grain  separates  from  the  outer  and  thicker  layer, 
and  continuing  to  be  elongated  by  growth,  is  car¬ 
ried  down  through  the  style  to  the  gennen,  where 
it  reaches  the  foramen  or  small  opening  of  the 
embryo  sac,  and  comes  into  contact  with  the  ovule. 
By  this  time  one  or  other  of  the  cells  of  the  ovule 
has  become  considerably  more  enlarged  than  the 
other  cells,  and  what  is  called  the  amnion  has 
been  formed,  in  the  mucilaginous  fluid  of  which 
(protaplasma),  after  the  contact  of  the  pollen-bag, 
a  cell-germ  or  cytoblast  is  soon  developed.  This 
cytoblast  is  the  first  commencement  of  a  new  and 
distinct  cell,  which  divides  into  two  cells.  These 
increase,  by  continually  repeated  separation  of 
new  cells,  into  a  cellular  body,  which  forms  the 
more  or  less  perfect  embryo  of  a  new  plant. 

Federal  Government  (Lat  .fcederalus,  bound  by 
treaty,  from  faidus,  a  treaty).  When  several 
states,  otherwise  independent,  bind  themselves 
together  by  a  treaty,  so  as  to  present  to  the  external 
world  the  aspect  of  a  single  state,  without  wholly 
renouncing  their  individual  powers  of  internal 
self-government,  they  are  said  to  form  a  federa¬ 
tion.  The  contracting  parties  are  sovereign  states 
acting  through  their  representatives;  and  the 
extent  to  which  the  central  overrules  the  local 
legislatures  is  fixed  by  the  terms  of  the  con¬ 
tract  . 

Feldspar,  or  Fel'spar  (Ger.  feldspath,  field- 
spar),  a  mineral  composed  of  anhydrous  silicate  of 
alumina  and  some  alkali,  extremely  abundant  in 
almost  all  parts  of  the  world.  It  occurs  both 
massive  and  crystallized,  in  rhomboidal,  pyrami¬ 
dal,  and  prismatic  crystals,  often  having  their 
edges  and  angles  truncated,  and  thus  very  vari¬ 
ously  modified.  Kaolin  or  porcelain  clay,  is  re¬ 
garded  as  a  decomposed  feldspar. 

Felegyha'za,  a  town  of  Little  Cumania,  Hun¬ 
gary.  Pop.  (1880),  23,912. 

Fe'lidie,  or  Feli'nje,  a  family  of  digitigrade 
carnivorous  quadrupeds  (see  Carnitora  and  Digi- 
tigrada),  corresponding  to  the  genus  Fells  of 
Linnaeus,  and  sometimes  collectively  called  cats, 
or  the  cat  tribe.  The  felidas  agree  so  much  in 
form  and  structure  that  many  naturalists  still 
refuse  to  divide  the  Linnaean  genus  felis.  None 
of  the  felidae  are  gregarious.  Almost  all  of  them, 
when  taken  young,  seem  capable  of  domestica¬ 
tion,  but  in  general  they  are  little  to  be  trusted. 
The  species  are  numerous.  They  are  distributed  | 

25 


over  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  America,  and  the 


1,  tiger’s  head;  2,  showing  the  dentition;  3,  portion  of 
tongue;  4,  right  fore-paw,  showing  claws;  5,  claw,  show¬ 
ing  tendons. 

islands  adjacent  to  these  continents;  but  none  are 
found  in  Australia. 

Fe'lix,  Antonitts,  a  Roman  procurator  of 
.Tudsea  (51-62  a.d.)  in  the  time  of  the  Apostle 
Paul,  was  a  freedman  of  the  Emperor  Claudius 
I.  According  to  Josephus  and  other  authorities, 
he  cleared  the  country  of  robbers,  and  vigorously 
suppressed  the  chaotic  seditions  of  the  Jews;  but 
his  cruelty,  lust,  and  greed  were  unbounded. 
His  wife  was  Drusilla,  a  beautiful  but  renegade 
Jewess.  He  was  recalled  to  Rome,  62  a.d.,  on 
account  of  the  accusations  preferred  against  him 
by  the  influential  Jews  of  Caesarea,  and  narrowly 
escaped  the  sentence  of  death. 

FeJix (Pope)  I. — IV. — Felix  I.,  reckoned  the 
twenty-sixth  in  the  succession  of  popes,  succeeded 
Dionysius  in  the  see  of  Rome  probably  in  the  year 
269,  and  suffered  martyrdom  about  274  under 
Aurelian. — Felix  II.  occupied  the  Roman  see 
during  the  banishment  of  Liberius,  in  355. — Felix 
III.  occupied  the  see  of  Rome  from  483  till  492. 
His  pontificate  is  historically  memorable,  as  pre¬ 
senting  the  first  commencement  of  the  disruption 
of  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches. — Felix  IV., 
a  native  of  Benevento,  succeeded  John  I.  in  526. 

Fel'on  and  FePony.  A  felon  is  one  who  com¬ 
mits  a  crime  of  so  grave  a  nature  as  to  be  punish¬ 
able  formerly  by  death  (also  coupled  with  for¬ 
feiture  of  estate).  Felony  is  the  term  applied  to 
such  crimes  as  would  make  their  author  a  felon. 

Felt,  Felting,  a  fabric  formed  without  weav¬ 
ing,  by  taking  advantage  of  the  natural  tendency 
of  the  fibers  of  hair  and  wool  to  interlace  with 
and  cling  to  each  other.  The  beaver-hat  maker 
produces  his  felt  by  taking  a  few  ounces  of  the 
mixed  fur,  distributing  it  in  an  even  layer  by 
twanging  a  bowstring  against  the  heap,  and  then 
condensing  this  into  a  felt  by  a  sort  of  kneading 
process  with  his  hands. 

Feluc'ca,  a  small  class  of  vessel  used  in  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  propelled  by  from  ten  to 
sixteen  oars,  and  by  lateen  sails.  It  has  fre- 


Felucca. 

quently  a  rudder  at  each  end  to  be  applied  as 
occasion  demands. 

i  Feme  Coverte  (fcemina  viru  co-operta).  In  the 


language  of  the  law  of  England,  a  woman  by  her 
marriage  becomes  subject  to  her  husband,  who 
has  the  control  of  her  person,  and  is  entitled  to 
fix  her  residence.  This  control  in  the  husband 
is  admitted  to  a  certain  extent  in  criminal  cases 
to  excuse  a  married  woman  from  guilt.  Thus, 
in  any  felony,  except  murder  or  manslaughter, 
committed  by  a  married  woman  in  the  presence 
of  the  husband,  it  is  assumed  that  she  acted  under 
his  compulsion.  But  this  presumption  may  be 
rebutted  by  evidence  that  she  was  the  principal 
agent  in  the  crime.  A  married  woman  can  oot, 
in  criminal  cases,  be  a  witness  for  or  against  her 
husband,  except  when  he  is  tried  for  violence 
against  her.  In  civil  cases,  a  married  woman 
may  be  examined  in  a  suit  where  her  husband  is 
a  party. 

Feui'gericlite  (derived  from  the  old  German 
fem,  punishment,  and  gerichl,  court  of  justice), 
were  among  the  most  remarkable  phenomena  of 
the  middle  ages,  and  supplied  the  place  of  the 
regular  administration  of  justice,  then  in  a  de- 
p'orable  condition.  They  soon  acquired  tre¬ 
mendous  influence,  the  emperors  themselves 
having  recourse  to  tlieir  assistance  against  power¬ 
ful  and  rebellious  nobles.  It  was  in  the  four¬ 
teenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  however,  that 
they  attained  the  summit  of  their  dread  author¬ 
ity,  when  they  began  to  extend  themselves  over 
the  whole  of  Germany.  Their  influence  came  to 
an  end  only  when  the  public  peace  (Inndf riede) 
was  established  in  Germany,  and  an  amended 
form  of  trial  and  penal  judicature  was  intro¬ 
duced. 

Fencing’  may  be  described,  for  a  general  defi¬ 
nition,  as  the  art  of  defending  one’s  own  body  or 
assailing  another  person’s  in  fair  fight  by  the  aid 
of  aside  weapon — i.  e.,  by  a  sword,  rapier,  or 
bayonet.  Technically,  fencing  is  usually  limited 
to  the  second  of  these.  .  The  foil  is  a  circular  or 
polygonal  bar  of  pliable  and  very  highly  tem¬ 
pered  steel,  mounted  as  any  other  sword,  and 
blunted  at  the  point  by  a  “  button,”  to  prevent 
danger  in  its  use.  From  its  nature,  the  foil 
can  only  be  employed  in  thrusting,  and  being 
edgeless,  it  can  be  handled  without  liability 


should  be  proportioned  to  the  height  of  the  per¬ 
son  using  it — 31  inches  being  the  medium  length 
for  men,  and  38  inches  from  hilt  to  point  the 
maximum  allowable.  As  a  protection  against  acci- 
dental  thrusts,  the  face  is  generally  guarded  by  a 
wire-mask.  In  fencing,  there  are  three  open¬ 
ings  or  entrances — the  inside,  comprising  the 
whole  breast  from  shoulder  to  shoulder;  outside, 
attackable  by  all  the  thrusts  made  above  the 
wrist  on  tbo  outside  of  the  sword;  and  the  low 


Tierce. 

parts,  embracing  from  (he  arm-pits  to  the  hips. 
For  reaching  and  guarding  these  entrances,  there 


FENELON. 


386 


FERDINAND  II. 


are  five  positions  of  the  wrist — prime,  seconde, 
’ierce,  carte  (quarte),  and  quinte,  which  can  be 
better  illustrated  than  described.  In  sword 


exercise  there  are  seven  cuts,  seven  guards,  and 
three  thrusts.  The  weapon  used  differs  from  that 
used  in  fencing,  inasmuch  as  it  is  edged  and  is  not 
confined  to  the  thrust  alone.  The  diagram  shows 
the  system  taught  in  military  schools  of  the  pres- 

CUT  7 


Diagram  of  Cuts  in  Sword  Exercise. 

ent  day.  In  bayonet  exercise  the  bayonet  and 
musket  together  become  a  pike,  and  are  a  terrible 
weapon.  The  principal  movements  are  high, 


low,  guard.  The  body  should  be  firmly  braced, 
the  right  foot  being  thrown  back  twenty-four 


FR  OM 


Bayonet  Exercises. 


inches,  and  the  weight  of  the  body  thrown  upon 
it.  The  illustrations  best  explain  the  movements. 

Fenelou,  Francois  de  Salignac  de  la 
Mothe,  was  born  Aug.  6,  1651.  He  became  a 
priest  and  acted  as  tutor  to  the  young  Duke  of 
Burgundy,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.  The  works 
of  Fenelou  are  very  voluminous,  and  embrace 
every  variety  of  subjects.  He  died  in  1715. 

Fan'nel  ( Fmniculum ),  a  genus  of  umbelliferous 
plants,  allied  to  dill.  The  flowers  are  yellow. 


a,  a  flower. 

All  the  species  are  aromatic,  and  have  much  di¬ 
vided  leaves  with  thread-like  segments. 

Fenu'greek 
( Trigonella),  a  genus 
of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Pa¬ 
pilla  n  acecB,  sub¬ 
order  Leguminom, 
allied  to  clover  and 
melilot. 

Ferdinand  I., 

Emperor  of  Ger¬ 
many,  1556-1564, 
was  born  in  Spain, 

1503.  He  was  the 
son  of  Philip  I., 
and  brother  of 
Charles  V.,  whom 
he  succeeded  in  the 
Empire  in  1556, 
having  been  previ¬ 
ously  elected  King 
of  Rome.  Ferdi¬ 
nand  made  several 
attempts  to  recon¬ 
cile  the  Protestants 
and  Catholics,  and 
urged,  though 
fruitlessly,  the  ref¬ 
ormation  of  abuses  on  the  Council  of  Trent. 
He  died  in  1564,  leaving  the  reputation  of  a  pru¬ 
dent  and  enlightened  ruler,  and  was  succeeded 
by  his  son,  Maximilian  II. 

Ferdinand  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  1619— 
1637,  was  born  at  Gratz,  July  9,  1578.  He  was 
grandson  of  Ferdinand  I.,  his  father  being 
Charles,  Archduke  of  Styria,  the  younger  brother 


|  of  Maximilian.  His  actions  brought  about  ti  e 
famous  “Thirty  Years’  War.”  Ferdinand  died 
Feb.  15,  1637.  His  reign  is  one  of  the  most  di  - 
astrous  in  history,  for  Germany  owes  him  noth¬ 
ing  but  bloodshed,  and  misery,  and  desolation. 

Ferdinand  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  1637— 
1657,  the  son  of  Ferdinand  II.,  was  born  July  11. 
1608.  He  died  April  2,  1657.  His  son,  Leopold 
I.,  succeeded  him  in  the  German  Empire. 

Ferdinand  I.,  Emperor  of  Austria,  1835-1848, 
eldest  .son  of  Francis  I.  by  his  second  marriage 
with  Maria  Theresa  of  the  House  of  Naples,  was 
born  at  Vienna,  April  19,  1793.  In  1835  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father  on  the  throne.  On  Dec.  2,  1848, 
he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  Franz 
Joseph.  He  afterward  resided  at  Prague,  where 
he  died,  June  29,  1875. 

Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  fifth  of  Castile, 
second  of  Aragon,  third  of  Naples,  and  second 
of  Sicily,  was  born  March  10,  1452.  He  was  the 
son  of  John  II.,  King  of  Navarre  and  Aragon, 
andin  1469  married,  at  Valladolid,  Isabella,  sisterof 
Henry  IV.  of  Castile.  In  1479,  Ferdinand  becom¬ 
ing  King  of  Aragon  on  the  death  of  his  father, 
the  two  kingdoms  of  Aragon  and  Castile  were 
united  in  the  persons  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
The  year  1492  was  the  most  brilliant  in  his  reign, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  important  in  the  history 
of  the  material  progress  of  the  world.  It  was 
signalized  by  the  discovery  of  America  by  Chris¬ 
topher  Columbus,  though  the  honor  of  having 
aided  the  great  navigator  belongs  not  to  Ferdi¬ 
nand,  but  to  Isabella.  The  same  year  witnessed  the 
capture  of  Granada,  and  the  retreat  of  the  last 
Moorish  monarch  into  Africa.  Ferdinand  was  as 
successful  abroad  as  at  home,  being  everywhere 
successful  in  arms  and  consolidating  his  kingdom. 
He  died  at  Madrigalejo,  Jan.  23,  1516,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Charles  V. 

Ferdinand  VII.,  King  of  Spain,  born  Oct.  14, 
1784,  was  the  son  of  King  Charles  IV.  and  the 
Princess  Maria  Louisa  of  Parma.  King  Charles 
abdicated  in  favor  of  Ferdinand,  March  19, 
1808,  but  Ferdinand  was  forced  in  turn  to 
abdicate  by  Bonaparte.  On  March  14tli,  Fer¬ 
dinand  returned  to  Spain,  where  he  was  re¬ 
ceived  with  every  demonstration  of  loyalty  and 
affection;  but  his  reign  was  a  sad  disappointment 
to  the  people,  being  tyrannical  in  the  extreme. 
At  length,  in  January,  1820,  an  insurrection  broke 
out,  and  Ferdinand  was  compelled  to  restore  the 
constitution  of  the  Cortes  of  1812;  but  the  French 
Government  interfering  by  force  of  arms,  absolut¬ 
ism  was  restored  in  Spain  in  1823.  In  1829 
Ferdinand  married  the  notorious  Maria  Christina. 
She  was  his  fourth  spouse.  By  the  first  three,  he 
had  no  children.  Maria,  however,  bore  him  two 
children;  Isabella  II.,  the  late  Queen  of  Spain, 
and  the  Infanta  Maria  Louisa,  who  married  the 
Duke  of  Montpensier.  By  the  influence  of  Maria 
Christina,  Ferdinand  was  induced  to  abrogate  the 
Salique  law  excluding  females  from  the  throne, 
and  to  restore  the  old  Castilian  law  of  cognate 
succession.  This  step  led  to  a  dangerous  combina¬ 
tion  among  the  adherents  of  the  King’s  brother, 
Don  Carlos,  even  during  the  lifetime  of  the  for¬ 
mer,  and  after  his  death,  to  a  civil  war.  On  June 
20,  1833,  the  Deputies,  Cortes,  and  grandees  of  the 
kingdom  took  the  oath  of  fealty,  and  did  homage 
to  riie  Princess  of  the  Asturias,  and  Ferdinand 
died  September  29tli  of  the  same  year. 

Ferdinand  I.,  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  was 
the  son  of  Charles  III.  of  Spain,  and  was  born 
Jan.  12,  1751.  When  Charles  ascended  the 
Spanish  throne  in  1759,  Ferdinand,  though  a 
minor,  succeeded  him  on  that  of  Naples  under  a 
regency.  Ferdinand  joined  England  and  Austria 
against  France  in  1793,  but  in  1801  was  forced  to 
enter  into  a  treaty  with  the  First  Consul.  He 
violated  this  treaty  and  Napoleon  gave  his  king¬ 
dom  first  to  his  brother  and  then  to  Murat,  lie 
was  restored  in  1815.  During  the  revolution  of 
1820,  he  was  obliged  to  introduce  the  Spanish 
constitution  of  1812,  but  abolished  it  next  year. 
He  died  Jan.  4,  1825,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
son,  Francis  I.,  who  died  in  It- 30. 

Ferdinand  II.,  King  of  the  two  Sicilies,  was 
the  son  of  Francis  I.  by  his  second  wife,  Isabella 
Maria  of  Spain,  and  was  born  Jan.  12,  1810.  He 
succeeded  his  father  in  1830.  Ferdinand  yielded 
to  the  storm  of  1848,  and  granted  a  constitution 
to  both  parts  of  his  dominions.  After  the  subju- 


Fenugreek  ( Trigonellafeenum 
gracum) . 


FERDINAND  III. 


387 


FERRET. 


gation  of  Sicily  in  1849,  when  the  reaction  began 
to  set  in  all  over  Italy,  lie  hastened  completely  to 
set  aside  the  new  constitution;  while  all  who  had 
taken  any  part  in  state  reforms  were  subjected  to 
cruel  persecutions.  Ferdinand  died  May  22, 1859, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Francis  II. 

Ferdinand  III.,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  and 
Archduke  of  Austria,  was  born  at  Florence,  May 
6,  1769.  In  1790  he  succeeded  his  father,  Leo¬ 
pold  II.,  in  the  government  of  Tuscany,  when 
the  latter  obtained  the  imperial  throne  at  the 
death  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  II.,  Leopold’s 
brother.  He  was  the  first  sovereign  in  Europe  to 
recognize  and  treat  diplomatically  with  the  French 
Republic  in  1792,  but  owing  to  the  continued  in¬ 
trigues  of  France  in  his  states,  Ferdinand  was 
forced  to  seek  an  Austrian  alliance,  which  fur¬ 
nished  Bonaparte  with  a  pretext  for  declaring 
war  simultaneously  against  Austria  and  Tuscany. 
In  1799  Ferdinand  retired  to  Vienna,  leaving  the 
French  troops  in  occupation  of  Tuscany.  In  1801, 
at  the  peace  of  Luneville,  he  was  forced  to  re¬ 
nounce  all  claim  on  Tuscany.  In  1814  the  peace 
of  Paris  reinstated  him  in  Tuscany,  and  restored 
his  artistic  treasures.  He  died  June  17,  1824, 
leaving  his  states  to  his  son,  Leopold  II. 

Ferguson,  Adam,  a  Scottish  philosopher  and 
historian,  was  born  (1724)  at  Logierait,  in  Perth¬ 
shire,  Scotland,  where  his  father  was  parish  min¬ 
ister.  He  died  in  1816,  leaving  several  important 
works,  of  which  the  best  known  is  the  History  of 
the  Roman  Republic.  * 

Ferguson,  James,  was  born  (1710)  near  Keith, 
a  village  in  Banffshire,  Scotland.  He  died  in  1776. 
His  principal  works  are  Astronomy  Explained  upon 
Sir  Isaac  Newton’s  Principles  (1756;  Sir  David 
Brewster’s  ed.,  2  vols.  1811),  and  Lectures  on  Me¬ 
chanics ,  Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  and  Optics 
(1760). 

Fergnsson,  Robert,  a  Scottish  poet,  was  born 
at  Edinburgh,  Oct.  17,  1751.  He  died  Oct.  16, 
1774,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three. 

Ferman'agli,  an  inland  county  in  the  south¬ 
west  of  the  Province  of  Ulster,  Ireland.  It  is 
45  miles  long  and  29  broad;  area,  714  square 
miles.  Principal  towns:  Enniskillen,  Lisnaskea, 
and  Lowtherstown.  Pop.  (1881),  84,879. 

Fermat,  Pierre  de,  a  French  mathematician, 
was  born  at  Toulouse  in  1590,  and  at  an  early 
period,  in  conjunction  with  his  friend  Pascal,  hit 
upon  a  very  ingenious  mode  of  considering  figu- 
rate  numbers,  upon  which  he  subsequently  based 
his  doctrine  of  the  calculation  of  probabilities. 
He  died  at  Toulouse  in  1665. 

Ferma'ta,  in  Music,  is  the  name  given  to  a 
pause,  or  resting  point,  generally  marked  by  the 
sign  'r\  The  notes  over  which  the  sign  is  placed 
are  prolonged  beyond  their  true  length. 

Fermentation  is  the  term  applied  to  the  change 
which  occurs  in  one  organic  substance  when  influ¬ 
enced  by  another  in  a  state  of  decay  or  putre¬ 
faction.  The  process  was  originally  understood 
to  include  all  the  changes  which  matter  of  plant 
and  animal  origin  undergoes  when  disunited  from 
the  living  force,  but  is  now  restricted  to  certain 
of  the  changes.  Thus,  there  are  many  substances, 
such  as  starch  and  sugar,  which  have  no  power  of 
themselves  to  pass  into  decay,  or  change  in  com¬ 
position  through  lengthened  periods  of  time; 
whilst  there  is  another  class  of  substances,  includ¬ 
ing  albumen,  fibrin,  and  caseine,  as  well  as  gelat¬ 
inous  tissues,  mucus,  etc.,  which,  when  exposed 
to  moderately  heated  air  in  a  moist  condition, 
more  or  less  rapidly  begin  to  putrefy  or  decom¬ 
pose.  The  latter  substances — viz.,  those  which 
spontaneously  pass  into  a  state  of  change,  are 
called  ferments,  and  when  they  are  brought  in 
contact  with  sugar,  etc.,  which  otherwise  would 
not  be  altered,  they  cause  the  latter  to  be  broken 
up  into  simpler  compounds;  it  is  this  process  that 
constitutes  fermentation.  The  ferment  is  always 
a  body  which  has  the  power  of  rotting  or  becom 
ing  putrid,  and  is  actually  in  a  state  of  decom¬ 
position.  Every  substance  which  is  liable  to 
putrefy  becomes,  while  putrefying,  a  ferment; 
and  in  this  condition  acquires  the  property  of 
setting  agoing  the  process  of  fermentation  in  any 
second  body  capable  of  it,  and  retains  the  power 
till  it  is  so  far  decomposed  that  the  putrescence 
is  over.  The  most  important  kind  of  fermenta¬ 


tion  is  that  known  under  the  designation  of 
vinous,  and  which  forms  part  of  the  processes  in 
the  preparation  of  alcohol,  beer,  wine,  etc.  It 
consists  in  the  action  of  a  peculiar  ferment  called 
yeast  upon  a  saccharine  liquid,  when  the  sugar 
is  decomposed  into  alcohol,  carbonic  acid,  and 
water.  In  this  change  it  will  be  observed  that 
the  yeast,  whilst  it  causes  the  change,  does  not 
unite  directly  or  indirectly  with  any  of  the  con¬ 
stituents  of  the  sugar.  The  vinous  fermenta¬ 
tion  proceeds  best  at  a  temperature  ranging  from 
60°  to  80°  F.,  the  mean  and  more  desirable  being 
about  70°  F.  The  process  itself  causes  the  develop¬ 
ment  of  heat,  and  recourse  must  be  had,  there¬ 
fore,  to  large,  airy  rooms,  where  the  fermenting 
tuns  or  vessels  are  arranged,  and  also  to  the 
circulation  of  cold  water  in  pipes  distributed 
round  the  interior  of  the  vessels,  and  in  contact 
with  the  liquid.  The  lactic  acid  fermentation  takes 
place  in  milk  when  it  begins  to  sour.  The 
caseine  of  the  milk  acts  the  part  of  the  ferment, 
and  it  causes  the  change  in  the  sugar  of  milk, 
which  is  in  part  resolved  into  lactic  acid.  The 
latter  then  curdles  the  caseine,  and  the  milk 
becomes  clotted.  When  the  milk  still  further 
sours,  and  the  material  is  kept  at  a  temperature 
of  77°  to  86°  F.,  the  butyric  acid  fermentation 
takes  place,  in  which  the  putrefying  caseine 
changes  the  sugar  of  milk  into  butyric  acid. 
The  viscous  or  mucus  fermentation  occurs  when 
the  juice  of  the  beet-root,  dandelion,  ash-tree,  etc., 
is  allowed  to  decompose  at  a  temperature  of  90° 
to  100°  F.,  when  the  albuminous  matter  present 
causes  the  sugar  to  ferment  into  lactic  acid,  man- 
nite,  a  gummy  substance,  some  alcohol,  and  vari¬ 
ous  gases.  The  same  kind  of  fermentation  occurs 
when  boiled  yeast  or  boiled  gluten  is  added  to 
ordinary  sugar.  The  remaining  processes  of 
fermentation  are  the  benzoic  fermentation,  yield¬ 
ing,  amongst  other  matters,  the  essential  oil  of  bitter 
almonds;  the  sinapic  fermentation,  which  occurs 
in  mustard  when  moistened  with  water,  and  dur¬ 
ing  which  the  pungent  oil  of  mustard  is  developed; 
and  the  acetous  fermentation,  which  is,  however, 
not  a  true  instance  of  fermentation,  as  the  oxygen 
of  the  air  is  required  to  complete  the  change. 

Fermented  Liquors  are  alcoholic  beverages 
made  by  fermentation  of  saccharine  fluids  and 
juices;  the  principal  being  the  different  kinds  of 
ale  or  beer,  wine,  cider,  perry,  palm-wine,  etc. 
From  every  fermented  liquor,  a  kind  of  spirit 
may  be  obtained  by  distillation. 

Fern,  Sweet  ( Gomptonia  asplenifolia),  a  shrub 
of  the  natural  order  Amentaceae,  sub-order 
Myricece,  a  native  of  the  mountain-woodsof  North 
America,  forming  a  small  bush  with  linear 
pinnatifid,  fern-like  leaves.  Its  leaves  have  a 
powerful  aromatic  fragrance  when  rubbed.  It  is 
tonic  and  astringent,  and  is  much  used  in  the 
United  States  as  a  domestic  remedy  for  diarrhoea. 

Ferns  ( Filices ),  an  order  of  acrogenous  or  eryp- 
togamous  plants,  divided  by  some  botanists  into 
several  orders;  whilst  some  make  Filices  a  sub¬ 


class,  and  include  in  it  Lycopodiaceer,  Marsileaceat, 
and  Equisetacece.  The  species  of  ferns  are  about 


2,500.  They  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
but  are  fewer  toward  the  poles  than  within 
the  tropiqs,  and  fewer  in  continental  than  in 


Ferns. 

Showing  the  Sori  on  the  back  of  the  Fronds. 


maritime  countries,  abounding  exceedingly  in 
mountainous  tropical  islands,  as  in  Jamaica. 

Fern,  Male,  the  common  name  of  the  Aspid- 
ium  ( Laslrea  or  Nephrodinm)  filix  mas,  found  in 
the  forests  of  Europe,  and  the  root  of  which,  or 


Common  Male  Fern. 


its  extract,  is  used  as  a  vermifuge.  The  fronds 
are  bipinnate;  pinules  oblong,  obtuse,  and  ser¬ 
rated;  the  stipes  and  rachis  chaffy. 

Feroze  Pore'  (so  called  from  its  founder, 
Feroze  Toghluk),in  the  Punjab,  stands  about  three 
miles  from  the  left  or  southeast  bank  of  the  Sut¬ 
lej,  in  latitude  30°  55'  N.,  and  longitude  74°  35' 
E.  The  pop.  is  about  20,000. — The  district  of 
the  same  name  has  an  area  of  2,752  square  miles, 
and  a  pop.  (1881),  of  650,519. 

Ferra'ra,  the  most  northern  of  the  Italian 
provinces  that  are  washed  by  the  Adriatic.  It 
extends  immediately  south  of  the  Po,  between 
the  main  branch  of  which  and  the  Po  di  Pri- 
maro  it  is  for  the  most  part  inclosed.  As  one  of 
the  old  delegations,  it  had  an  area  of  1,180  square 
miles,  with  a  pop.  amounting  to  244,524. 

Ferra'ra,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  twenty-eight  miles 
north-northeast  of  Bologna,  and  forty  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Ravenna.  The  university,  founded  in  1264, 
was  reorganized  in  1402,  closed  in  1794,  and  re¬ 
opened  in  1824.  It  is  in  high  repute  as  a  school  of 
medicine  and  jurisprudence,  and  is  attended  by 
from  100  to  200  students.  In  literature  the  name  of 
Ferrara  is  immortalized  through  its  connection 
with  those  of  Tasso,  Ariosto,  and  Guarini.  At 
the  period  of  its  greatest  prosperity,  Ferrara  had 
about  100,000  inhabitants;  pop.  (1881)  of  town, 
28,814;  of  commune,  75,513. 

Ferra'ri,  Gaudenzio,  sprung  from  a  family 
which  followed  a  career  of  art  as  if  by  inheri¬ 
tance,  was  born  at  Valdugia,  in  the  Milanese,  in 
1484,  and  died  in  1549. 

Fer'rates  are  combinations  of  ferric  acid 
(Fe03),  a  weak,  unstable  compound  of  iron  and 
oxygen  with  bases. 

Ferre 'ira,  Antonio,  one  of  the  classic  poets 
of  Portugal,  was  born  at  Lisbon,  1528,  and  died 
in  1569. 

Fer'ret  (Mustela  furo),  an  animal  of  the  weasel 
family  ( Mustelidce ),  so  nearly  allied  to  the  polecat 
that  many  regard  it  as  a  mere  domesticated  va¬ 
riety.  It  is  of  rather  smaller  size,  the  head  and 
body  being  about  fourteen  inches  long,  the  tail 
five  inches  and  a  half,  the  muzzle  rather  longer 
and  more  pointed,  the  head  rather  narrower ;  and 


FERRIDCY  ANOGEN. 


388 


FEVER. 


the  color  is  very  different,  being  yellowish,  with 
more  or  less  of  white  in  some  parts,  there  being 


Ferret  ( Mustela  furo). 


two  kinds  of  hair,  the  longer  partly  white,  the 
shorter  yellow.  The  eyes  are  pink. 

Fer 'ridcy'anogen  is  a  compound  organic 
radical  which  has  not  been  isolated,  but  which 
forms  with  potassium  a  well-known  compound 
used  in  the  arts,  called  the  ferridcyanide  of  potas¬ 
sium  or  red  prussiate  of  potash,  which  is  used 
largely  in  dyeing  and  calico-printing. 

Fer'ro,  or  Hier'iio,  the  most  western  of  the 
Canary  Isles,  was  formerly  considered  the  most 
westerly  point  of  the  Old  World. 

Fer'rocya'nogen  is  a  compound  organic  radi¬ 
cal,  generally  regarded  by  chemists  as  existing  in 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  or  the  yellow  prus¬ 
siate  of  potash,  but  which  has  not  yet  been 
obtained  in  a  separate  state.  The  principal  com¬ 
pound  of  ferrocyanogen  is  the  ferrocyanide  of 
potassium,  useful  in  the  arts. 

Fcr'rol,  a  strongly  fortified  seaport  town  of 
Spain,  in  Galicia,  fourteen  miles  northeast  of 
Corunna.  Pop.  (including  the  garrison,  1877), 
23,811. 

Fer'rotype,  a  term  applied  by  Mr.  Robert 
Hunt,  the  discoverer,  to  designate  some  photo¬ 
graphic  processes,  in  which  salts  of  iron  play  an 
important  part. 

Ferru'ginousisa  term  employed  in  chemistry 
to  denote  the  presence  of  iron  in  natural  waters, 
minerals,  etc. 

Ferry  (from  Sax.  far  an,  Ger.  fahren,  to  move, 
proceed,  allied  to  the  Lat.  fero,  Eng.  bear),  a  pas¬ 
sage  by  boat  across  water. 

Ferry,  Jules  Franqois  Camille,  born  April 
5,  1832,  a  distinguished  French  lawyer  and  poli¬ 
tician,  who  became  a  Member  of  the  Corps 
Ldgislatif  in  1869,  and  after  the  Revolution  of 
Sept.  4,  1870,  a  Member  of  the  Government  of 
National  Defense.  During  the  Commune  he  was 
several  times  in  imminent  danger.  After  the  war 
he  reentered  the  Chamber  and  was  several  times 
Premier.  His  final  overthrow  in  1884  was  the 
result  of  his  Tonquin  expedition,  in  which  thou¬ 
sands  of  lives  and  millions  of  treasure  were  squan¬ 
dered. 

Fescli,  Joseph,  Cardinal  and  Archbishop  of 
Lyon,  was  born  Jan.  3,  1763  at  Ajaccio.  He  was 
half-uncle  to  Napoleon.  He  had  entered  the 
clerical  profession,  but  left  it  at  the  outbreak  of 
the  French  Revolution,  and,  in  1795,  became  Com¬ 
missary  to  the  Army  of  the  Alps  under  his 
nephew  in  Italy.  The  First  Consul  having  re¬ 
solved  on  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  worship, 
Fesch  resumed  the  clerical  habit.  In  1804  he 
was  sent  as  French  Ambassador  to  Rome.  In 
1809,  Napoleon  wished  to  invest  him  with  the 
Archbishopric  of  Paris,  but  Fesch  declined  it,  as 
he  had  long  been  dissatisfied  with  the  Emperor’s 
policy  in  regard  to  the  papal  chair.  He  lost  his 
imperial  dignities  and  pension,  and  after  this 
lived  in  a  sort  of  banishment  at  his  bishopric  of 
Lyon.  When  called  upon  by  the  Bourbons  to 
resign  his  episcopal  office,  he  obstinately  refused; 
and  it  was  not  till  1825,  after  receiving  a  papal 
brief  interdicting  the  exercise  of  his  clerical 
functions,  that  he  resigned  the  charge,  but  not 
the  title.  He  died  May  13,  1839. 


Fescue  {Festuca),  a 
genus  of  grasses,  very 
nearly  allied  to 
brome- grass.  The 
species  are  numerous, 
and  are  very  widely 
diffused  over  the 
world,  both  in  the 
Northern  and  South¬ 
ern  Hemispheres, 

Fes  '.senden,  Will¬ 
iam  Pitt,  was  born 
in  New  Hampshire, 

Oct.  16,  1806,  studied  B 
law  and  practiced  at  1 
Portland,  Maine.  I  n  | 

1840  he  was  elected] 
to  Congress,  served 
in  the  State  Legisla¬ 
ture  1845-46,  and  be¬ 
came  United  States 
Senator  in  1854.  In 
1859  he  was  reelect- 
e d  an d  appointed 
chairman  of  the 
Finance  Committee. 

On  the  resignation  of 
Mr.  Chase,  in  July, 

1864,  Mr.  Fessenden 
became  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  an  of-  Fescue  Grass  ( Festuca  pratensis). 
flee  which  he  resigned  «•  £ermen  and  Stigmas;  b , 
in  the  following  Feb-  aspi  e  e  ' 

ruary.  He  was  again  elected  Senator,  March, 
1865;  was  one  of  the  seven  Republican  Senators 
who  decided  in  favor  of  Andrew  Johnson  on  the 


impeachment  trial,  and  died  in  September,  1869. 

Fes'sler,  Ignaz.  Aurelius,  a  celebrated 
Hungarian  historian,  was  born  in  1756,  in  the 
county  of  Soprony  or  Oedenburg.  He  died  at 
St.  Petersburg,  Dec.  15,  1839. 

Festivals,  or  Feasts  (Lat.  festum,  probably 
from  the  same  root  as  fast),  according  to  some, 
from  Gr.  edria,  hearth),  a  term  denoting  certain 
periodically  recurring  days  and  seasons,  set  aside 
bv  a  community  for  rest  from  the  ordinary  labor 
of  life,  and  more  or  less  hallowed  by  religious 
solemnities.  Originating  within  the  narrow  cir¬ 
cle  of  the  family,  and  commemorating  momen¬ 
tous  events  affecting  one  member  or  all,  these 
pauses  became  more  frequent,  and  of  wider  scope, 
as  the  house  gradually  expanded  into  a  tribe,  a 
people,  a  state.  The  real  or  imaginary  founders, 
legislators,  heroes,  became  objects  of  veneration 
and  deification,  and  the  salient  epochs  of  their 
lives  the  consecrated  epochs  of  the  year.  National 
calamities  or  triumphs  were,  in  the  absence  of 
annals,  best  remembered  by  corresponding  gen¬ 
eral  days  of  humiliation  or  exultation.  In  Chris¬ 
tian  countries  the  chief  ecclesiastical  festi¬ 
vals  are  those  of  the  nativity,  the  Epiphany, 
Easter,  Ascension  Day,  and  Whitsunday,  in 
the  Catholic  and  Greek  churches  there  are  many 
more.  The  leading  Mohammedan  festival  is 
the  feast  of  Bairam,  and  the  Buddhists  celebrate 
the  Holi  and  Dasaliara.  Most  nations  have  special 
festivals  or  holidays,  as  in  the  United  States,  the 
Fourth  of  July,  and  Decoration  Day,  and  in 
France  the  Fourteenth  of  July,  the  anniversary 
of  the  capture  of  the  Bastile. 

Festoon',  in  Architecture,  a  sculptured  wreath 
of  flowers  or  fruit,  frequently  used  as  an  orna¬ 
ment  in  Roman  and  renaissance  buildings. 

Fes'tns,  Sextus  Pompeius,  a  Latin  lexicog¬ 
rapher,  of  the  third  or  fourth  century  of  our 
era,  is  one  of  the  most  important  ancient  authori¬ 
ties  we  have  on  the  Latin  language.  He  made  an 
epitome  of  the  great  work  of  Verrius  Flaccus, 
De  Verborum  Significatione. 

Fet'ichism  is  the  worship  of  a  fetich.  A 
fetich  is  anything  in  nature  or  art  to  which  a 
magical  power  is  ascribed — e.  g.,  stones,  carved 
figures,  or  certain  parts  of  plants,  animals,  etc. 
In  this  general  sense  fetichism  coincides  with  the 
belief  in  charms. 

Feud'al  System.  By  some  the  word  feu  or 
feud,  of  which  feudal  is  the  adjective,  is  derived 
from  the  Lat.  fides,  faith,  and  ead  or  odh  or  od, 
a  Teutonic  word  signifying  a  properly  or  estate, 
in  land.  A  feudal  proprietor,  or  feudatory,  was 
a  person  who  held  his  lands  from  another,  for  his 
own  life-time  merely,  in  the  earlier  times,  on  con¬ 


dition  of  certain  services  which  he  was  to  per¬ 
form  to  a  superior  or  suzerain.  Apart  from  the 
duties  to  which  he  was  thus  bound,  he  was  not 
only  a  free  man,  but  his  position  was  that  almost 
of  an  independent  sovereign  within  his  own  small 
dominions.  A  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  each 
feudal  domain  were  usually  bound  to  the  soil, 
and  were  thus  subject  to  a  species  of  slavery,  the 
conditions  of  which  varied  according  to  the  cus¬ 
toms  of  different  districts.  The  rest  were  free 
tenants,  farmers  in  the  modern  sense,  though  per¬ 
sonal  services  to  the  proprietor  probably  in 
almost  every  case  constituted  a  portion  of  the 
rent  which  was  paid.  From  being  tenants-at-will, 
scarcely  less  subject  to  his  authority  and  exposed 
to  his  caprices  than  the  thralls,  or  villeins  of  the 
lowest  class,  they  became  vassals  of  their  lord, 
and  free  citizens  of  what  thus  gradually  developed 
itself  into  a  feudal  monarchy  in  miniature.  The 
social  elements  which  counteracted  and  mitigated 
the  influences  of  feudality  in  mediaeval  life,  were 
monarchy,  the  church,  which  vigorously  pro¬ 
moted  the  emancipation  of  the  unfree,  and  above 
all,  the  growing  wealth,  power,  and  importance 
of  the  commons.  Though  the  period  of  bloom 
of  the  feudal  system  was,  from  the  ninth  to  the 
thirteenth  centuries,  in  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe,  it  everywhere,  in  many  of  its  features, 
long  survived  the  latter  period.  Even  considered 
as  a  social  aud  not  merely  as  a  legal  institution, 
in  which  latter  capacity  it  still  exists,  it  was  in 
many  respects  in  vigor  in  Scotland  down  to  the 
year  1747,  when  military  tenures  were  abolished 
by  statute  as  dangerous  to  public  tranquillity. 

Feu  de  Joie  (running-fire),  a  discharge  of 
musketry  into  the  air,  made  in  honor  of  a  victory 
or  other  great  occasion.  It  commences  with  the 
right-hand  man  of  the  line,  who  discharges  his 
rifle,  and  is  followed  successively,  at  scarcely 
perceptible  intervals,  by  the  men  on  his  left,  until 
the  extreme  left  of  the  line  is  reached. 

Feuillans,  Congregation  of,  a  reform  of  the 
Cistercian  order.  The  author  of  this  reform  was 
Jean  de  la  Barriere,  Abbot  of  the  Cistercian 
Monastery  of  Feuillans. 

Feuil'lea,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Uucurbitacece,  named  in  honor  of  Louis 
Feuillee,  a  French  botanist  and  traveler  in  Chili. 
The  species  are  generally  half-shrubby  climbers, 
natives  of  the  warm  parts  of  America. 

Feuilleton,  (Fr.)  literally  a  small  leaf,  signifies 
that  portion  of  a  political  newspaper  set  apart  for 
intelligence  of  a  non-political  character,  for  criti¬ 
cisms  on  art,  literature,  etc. ,  and  usually  separated 
from  the  main  sheet  by  a  line. 

Fever  (Lat.  febris,  from  ferveo,  I  grow  warm, 
or  perhaps  from  febrvo,  I  cleanse),  a  form  of  dis¬ 
ease  characterized  principally  by  increase  of  the 
temperature  of  the  body,  which,  however,  requires 
to  be  estimated  according  to  the  state  of  the  inter¬ 
nal  parts,  rather  than  the  external;  the  surface  of 
the  body,  and  particularly  of  the  extremities, 
being  not  infrequently  cold  rather  than  warm. 
Having  regard  to  the  heat  of  the  surface  only, 
fever  has  commonly  been  considered  as  passing 
through  threedistinct  stages,  more  or  less  marked: 
1,  the  cold  or  shivering  stage;  2,  the  hot  stage;  3, 
the  sweating  stage.  This  description  is  perfectly 
correct  in  most  cases,  but  it  requires  to  be  quali¬ 
fied  by  the  remark,  that  even  in  the  cold  stage  of 
fevers,  it  is  now  well  ascertained  that  the  hlood 
and  the  internal  organs  have  an  elevated  temper¬ 
ature,  as  estimated  by  the  thermometer  introduced 
into  the  cavities  of  the  body.  The  other  symp¬ 
toms  are  loss  of  appetite,  thirst,  restlessness,  and 
vague  general  uneasiness,  often  headache,  and 
diffused  pains  in  the  back  and  limbs;  a  frequent 
pulse,  which  is  sometimes  also  full  and  hard;  a 
furred  tongue,  often  with  red  margin;  a  flushed 
face  and  suffused  eyes;  vitiated  secretions,  and 
general  derangement  of  the  functions,  with  great 
debility  of  the  voluntary  movements  of  the  limbs. 
The  disease  often  commences  with  a  shivering,  or 
rigor,  as  it  is  technically  called;  this  leads  through 
the  cold  stage  to  the  hot,  which  usually  follows 
pretty  rapidly,  and  is  attended  by  all  the  febrile 
phenomena  in  their  highest  degree;  the  skin  being 
often  very  pungently  warm  to  the  hand,  dry,  and 
harsh;  by  and  by  the  pores  appear  to  open, 
moisture  begins  to  bedew  the  surface,  and  the 
pungent  heat  disappears;  the  disease  is  then  about 
to  pass  into  its  third  or  sweating  stage,  which 


FEVERFEW. 


389 


FIG. 


ushers  in  the  convalescence.  Besides  being  thus 
the  leading  fact  in  a  number  of  specific  diseases, 
fever  is  also  associated  with  many  other  forms  of 
disease  as  a  secondary  or  subordinate  phenomenon, 
connected  with  an  inflammation  or  other  distinctly 
local  disease.  The  family  of  fevers  is  separated 
pretty  naturally  into  two  large  groups,  in  one  of 
which  the  fever  is  the  greatly  predominating  fact, 
and  determines  the  specific  character  of  the  dis¬ 
ease;  the  local  disease  (if  present)  being  quite  sub¬ 
ordinate,  and  usually  secondary  in  point  of  time; 
the  other,  where  the  opposite  order  prevails,  and 
the  fever  is  obviously  secondary.  Hence  the  dis¬ 
tinction  embodied  in  medical  language  between 
idiopathic  (i.  e.,  self-originating,  spontaneous)  and 
symptomatic  or  secondary  fevers.  Fevers  are  also 
distinguished,  with  reference  to  their  mode  of  dif¬ 
fusion,  as  epidemic  and  endemic;  or,  with  refer¬ 
ence  to  their  supposed  cause,  as  contagious,  in¬ 
fectious,  malarious,  pneumonic,  rheumatic,  etc.; 
or,  with  reference  to  their  incidental  symptoms 
and  their  peculiarities  of  course  and  termination 
(the  presumed  specific  phenomena  attracting,  of 
course,  particular  attention),  as  eruptive  or  non- 
eruptive,  bilious,  gastric,  enteric,  mucous,  putrid, 
malignant,  typhoid,  etc.  The  treatment  of  fever 
must  obviously  be  dictated  by  collateral  condi¬ 
tions. 

Fe'verfew  ( Py  rethrum  parthenium,  or  Ma¬ 
tricaria  parthenium),  a 
perennial  plant,  found 
in  waste  places  in  many 
parts  of  Europe.  Its 
habit  of  growth  is 
erect,  its  stem  much 
branched,  and  about 
one  to  two  feet  high.  It 
has  a  strong,  somewhat 
aromatic,  smell.  It  was 
once  a  popular  remedy 
for  ague. 

Fe'verwort  ( Trios - 
teum  perfoliatum),  a 
perennial  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Capri-5& 
foliacece.  Its  roots  act 
as  an  emetic  and  mild 
cathartic. 

Fez  (Ar.  Fas),  the 
chief  and  most  north 

erly  province  of  the  Common  Feverfew 
Empire  of  Morocco,  (Matricaria  parMenium). 

1  .  , .  .  ’  a,  floret  of  the  ray;  b,  floret  of 

occupies  the  country  the  disc;  c,  fruit,  showing 
between  the  Atlas  the  toothed  membranous 
Mountains  and  the  PaPPus. 

Mediterranean.  Its  pop.  is  estimated  at  about 
3,200,000.  Its  capital  is  Fez.  Pop.  estimated  at 
nearly  150,000. 


Fezzan'  (more  correctly,  Fessan),  an  extensive 
oasis  in  the  North  of  Africa,  in  24^ — 31°  N.  lati¬ 
tude,  and  12° — 18°  E.  longitude. 

FiaV  co,  a  term  borrowed  from  the  Italian 
theater,  and  now  naturalized  in  France  and  Ger¬ 
many,  besides  being  occasionally  used  by  English 
writers.  It  signifies  a  failure  to  please  on  the 
part  of  an  actor  or  singer,  and  is  thus  the  opposite 
of  furore. 

Fi'at,  in  English  Law,  a  short  order  or  war¬ 
rant  of  some  judge  for  making  out  or  allowing 
certain  processes. 

Fi' brine  is  an  organic  compound,  occurring 
both  in  animals  and  plants.  In  its  chemical  com¬ 
position  it  closely  resembles  albumen  and  caseine, 
and  it  was  until  recently  believed  that  these  three 
substances  possessed  a  common  radical,  to  which 
the  name  proteine  was  given.  Animal  fibrine, 
which  is  of  great  physiological  importance,  occurs 
principally  in  the  blood,  the  lymph,  and  the 
chyle.  It  results  from  the  union  of  two  albumin¬ 
oids,  fibrinogen  and  fibrinoplastic  substances, 
which  exist  separately  in  the  blood. 

Fich't6,  .Toiiann  Gottlieb,  an  illustrious 
German  philosopher,  was  born  at  Rammenau,  in 
Upper  Lusatia,  May  19,  1762.  lie  became  a 
disciple  of  Kant,  and  in  1794  was  appointed  to 
the  Chair  of  Philosophy  at  Jena.  He  was  ousted 
for  alleged  atheism.  In  1810  he  became  Rector 
of  the  Berlin  University,  and  he  died  Jan.  27, 
1814. 

Fich'te,  Immanuel  Hermann,  son  of  the  for¬ 
mer,  and  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the  Univer¬ 


sity  of  Tubingen,  was  born  in  1797,  i  nd  died  in 
1879. 

Fid  (from  the  Lat,  findere,  fidi,  to  divide),  for 
splicing  ropes,  is  a  large  pointed  pin  of  iron  or 
lignum  vitee,  with  an  eye  at  the  thick  end,  used  by 
sailors  in  separating  and  interlacing  t  he  strands  of 
which  the  rope  is  composed.  A  mast- fid  is  a  bolt 
inserted  through  the  bottom  of  a  ship’s  topmast  or 
top-gallant  mast,  with  ends  resting  on  the  trestle- 
trees  sustained  by  the  head  of  the  lower  mast  or 
topmast.  Unless  the  mast-fid  be  withdrawn,  the 
supported  mast  can  not  be  lowered. 

Field.  In  Heraldry,  the  field  is  the  whole  sur¬ 
face  or  continent  of  the  escutcheon  or  shield.  It  is 
so  called,  according  to  some,  because  it  represents 
the  field  of  battle  on  which  the  achievements  or 
charges  represented  on  it  are  supposed  to  have 
been  gained.  In  blazoning,  the  tincture  or  metal 
of  the  field  must  be  the  first  thing  mentioned. 

Field-marslial,  the  highest  rank  of  general 
officers  in  the  British  and  some  other  armies.  In 
the  former,  it  is  a  special  honor  enjoyed  by  very 
few  officers,  and  only  conferred  by  selection, 
either  on  the  ground  of  distinguished  service  or  of 
royal  birth.  The  equivalent  rank  in  the  navy  is 
that  of  admiral  of  the  fleet.  Formerly,  a  captain- 
general  was  occasionally  appointed,  who  had  rank 
higher  even  than  a  field-marshal. 

Field  of  View  is  the  whole  space  within  which 
objects  can  be  seen  through  an  optical  instru¬ 
ment. 

Field-works  are  intrenchments  and.otlier  tem¬ 
porary  fortifications  thrown  up  by  an  army  in  the 
field,  either  as  a  protection  from  the  onslaught  of 
a  hostile  force,  or  to  cover  an  attack  upon  some 
stronghold. 

Fieldfare  (Turdus  pilaris),  a  species  of  thrush 
in  size  about  equal  to  the  blackbird,  but  with 
greater  length  of  wing;  the  general  color  gray,  the 
feathers  tipped  with  a  brownish-black  elongated 


Fieldfare  ( Turrlus  pilaris). 


spot;  the  throat  and  breast  reddish  yellow,  streaked 
and  spotted  with  black;  the  forepart  of  the  back 
and  wings  of  a  rich  brown  color;  the  tail  slightly 
forked  and  nearly  black;  the  under  parts  white. 

Field,  Cyrus  West,  was  born  at  Stockbridge, 
Mass.,  Nov.  30,  1819.  Being  joined  by  Peter 
Cooper,  Moses  Taylor,  and  other  American  capi¬ 
talists,  he  organized,  in  1854,  the  New  York, 
Newfoundland,  and  London  Telegraphic  Com¬ 
pany;  and  in  1856,  the  Atlantic  Telegraph  Com¬ 
pany,  and  on  the  laying  of  the  first  cable,  1858, 
was  received  by  his  countrymen  with  enthusiastic 
plaudits. 

Field,  Stephen  Johnson,  was  born  in  Con¬ 
necticut,  Nov.  4,  1816,  filled  various  judicial 
offices  in  the  State  of  California,  including  that  of 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  in  1863 
was  appointed  by  President  Lincoln,  Associate 
Judge  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.  He 
acted  as  a  member  of  the  Electoral  Commission 
in  1876. 

Fielding,  Henry,  born  April  22,  1707,  was 
the  son  of  Gen.  Edmund  Fielding,  connected 
with  the  Earls  of  Denbigh.  He  began  to  write 
for  the  stage,  and  worked  with  so  much  industry 
that  between  1727  and  1736  he  produced  nearly  a 
score  of  comedies  and  farces,  which  were  forgot¬ 
ten  with  nearly  as  much  speed  as  they  were  pro¬ 
duced.  Richardson  published  Pamela;  the  town 
was  ringing  with  it;  and  Fielding,  whose  strong, 
healthy,  unconventional  nature  revolted  from  the 
moral  priggishness  of  Virtue  lit  warded,  re¬ 
solved  to  write  a  counterpart,  purporting  to  be 


the  adventures  of  Pamela’s  brother,  Joseph  An¬ 
drews.  This  work,  begun  in  a  satirical  mood, 
and  intended  merely  to  quiz  Richardson,  deep¬ 
ened  as  it  proceeded,  and  flowered  out  into  hu¬ 
morous  adventure.  The  exquisite  character  of 
“Parson  Adams  ’’  took  the  world  by  surprise,  and 
remains  one  of  the  permanent  glories  of  English 
fiction.  The  next  important  work  undertaken  by 
him  was  Jonathan  Wild,  a  master-piece  of  irony, 
which  has  never  been  sufficiently  appreciated,  and 
which  doubtless  suggested  to  Mr.  Thackeray  the 
scope  and  conduct  of  Barry  Lyndon.  Fielding 
next  became  Justice  of  the  Peace  of  Middlesex  and 
Westminster.  While  engaged  in  magisterial 
duties,  he  produced  Tom  Jones,  his  most  famous 
fiction,  which  the  world  has  never  ceased  to  read, 
nor  critics  to  admire.  His  next  work  was  Amelia, 
— less  striking  and  masterly  than  its  predecessor, 
but  quieter  in  style,  and  enriched  with  scenes  of 
domestic  tenderness.  Fielding  went  to  Lisbon, 
but  after  a  few  months’  residence  died  there,  Oct. 
8,  1754.  Fielding  was  the  first  great  English 
novelist,  and  he  remains  to  this  day  one  of  the 
greatest. 

Fielding,  Copley  Vandyke,  an  English 
painter  in  water-colors,  was  born  about  1787,  and 
began  to  exhibit  in  1810.  He  died  at  Worthing, 
in  Sussex,  March  3,  1855,  in  his  sixty -eighth  year. 

Fields,  James  Ticknor,  born  in  New  Hamp¬ 
shire,  Dec.  31,  1817,  died  April  24,  1881.  He  was 
for  several  years  editor  of  the  Atlantic  Monthly, 
and  published  many  poems  and  other  works. 

Fi'eri-fa'cias,  Writ  of,  an  English  writ  for 
enforcing  the  judgment  of  a  court  of  law  against 
the  goods  of  a  debtor. 

Fiesclii,  Joseph  Marco,  known  by  his  attempt 
on  the  life  of  King  Louis  Philippe,  was  born  in 
Corsica  in  the  year  1790.  Fiesclii  sketched  the 
plan  of  an  infernal  machine  with  twenty  barrels, 
that  could  be  simultaneously  discharged;  got  one 
made,  and  placed  it  in  a  house  of  the  Boulevard- 
du-Temple.  The  review  of  the  National  Guard 
held  there,  July  28,  1835,  afforded  Fieschi  the 
opportunity  he  desired.  On  the  approach  of  the 
King  and  Queen,  he  fired  his  machine.  Eighteen 
people  were  killed,  among  whom  was  Marshal 
Mortier,  who  fell  dead  beside  his  sovereign. 
Louis  Philippe,  however,  himself  escaped  with  a 
mere  scratch,  and  was  able  to  continue  the  re¬ 
view.  Fieschi  was  immediately  seized,  and  with 
his  accomplices,  was  tried,  condemned,  and 
executed,  Feb.  16, 1836. 

Fiesole,  Fra  Giovanni  da,  one  of  the  most 
eminent  regenerators  of  Italian  art,  was  born  at 
Mugello  in  1387,  and  died  in  1454. 

Fife,  an  ancient  wind-instrument  of  military 
music,  in  which  the  melody  is  produced  by  blow¬ 
ing  through  a  hole  in  a  reed  or  tube,  while  the 
escape  of  air  is  regulated  by  the  fingers  stopping 
or  opening  a  number  of  other  holes  in  different 
parts  of  the  pipe.  It  has  a  compass  of  two 
octaves,  from  D  on  the  fourth  line  of  the  treble 
clef  to  D  above  in  altissimo. 

Fife-ness,  a  promontory  of  Scotland,  the  east¬ 
ernmost  point  of  Fifeshire.  in  latitude  56°  17' 
N.,  and  longitude  2°  35'  W. 

Fifeshire,  a  maritime,  almost  peninsular 
county  of  the  east  of  Scotland,  between  the  Firth 
of  Forth  on  the  south  and  the  Firth  of  Tay  on 
the  north.  It  is  41)4  Rides  in  extreme  length 
from  northeast  to  southwest,  and  21  at  its  great¬ 
est  breadth;  area,  513  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881), 
171,960. 

Fifteenth,  a  stop  in  English  organs  tuned  two 
octaves  above  the  diapasons,  the  lowest  C  pipe  of 
which  is  2  feet  long. 

Fifth  Monarchy  Men.  The  date  which  has 
been  assigned  to  their  first  appearance  is  1654.  In 
common  with  most  persons  who  hold  the  literal 
interpretation  of  prophecy,  they  believed  in  the 
four  great  monarchies  of  Antichrist  marked  out 
by  the  prophet  Daniel;  and  quite  consistently 
with  Christian  orthodoxy,  they  added  to  them  a 
fifth  —  viz.,  the  kingdom  of  Christ  on  earth. 
They  attempted  to  assassinate  Cromwell  and  be¬ 
came  extinct  immediately  after  the  Restoration. 

Fig  (Ficus),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  which 
belong  to  the  natural  order  Moracece,  and  are  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  having  the  flowers — male  and  fe¬ 
male  mixed — within  an  almost  closed  top-shaped 
fleshy  receptacle,  which  enlarges  to  form  the  fruit. 


FIGARO. 


390 


FIRDUSI. 


and  incloses  numerous  oue-seeded  carpels,  im¬ 
bedded  in  its  pulp.  There  are  more  than  100  spe 


a,  male  flower,  magnified ;  b,  male  flower,  natural  size; 

c,  female  flower,  magnified;  d,  female  flower,  natural 

size. 

cies,  some  of  them  very  large  trees.  Almost  all 
belong  to  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries. 

Fi'garo,  a  dramatic  character  introduced  on 
the  Parisian  stage  in  1785  by  Beaumarchais  in 
his  Barbier  de  Seville,  and  Manage  de  Figaro. 
There  is  a  well-known  Parisian  newspaper  called 
Le  Figaro. 

Fighting  Fish  (  1 lacropodus  pugnax  or  Ctenops 
pugnax),  a  small  fresh-water  fish,  of  the  family 
Anabasidce,  a  native  of  the  Southeast  of  Asia, 
and  particularly  of  Siam,  where  it  is  commonly 
domesticated  on  account  of  its  pugnacity. 

Figurantes  is  the  term  applied  in  the  ballet  to 
those  dancers  that  do  not  come  forward  alone, 
but  dance  in  troops,  and  also  serve  to  fill  up 
the  scene  and  form  a  background  for  the  solo 
dancers. 

Fiji,  Feejee,  or  Viti  Islands,  are  situated  in 
latitude  15°  30' — 20°  30'  S.,  and  longitude  177° 
E. — 178°  W.  The  group,  which  has  a  total  area 
of  8,034  square  miles,  was  discovered  in  164G  by 
the  Dutch  navigator,  Tasman.  The  largest  of  the 
group,  Yiti-levu,  or  Big  Viti,  has  an  area  of 
4,479  square  miles;  Vanua-levu,  of  2,486  square 
miles;  and  all  the  other  islands  together,  of  1,069 
square  miles.  The  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin. 
The  native  inhabitants  are  for  the  most  part 
Melanesians,  and  till  lately  human  life  was  reck¬ 
lessly  wasted,  and  nowhere  was  cannibalism  so 
important  an  institution  as  here.  The  Fijians 
had  priests,  temples,  a  complex  theology,  and  a 
firm  belief  in  a  future  slate.  Now  the  bulk  of 
the  inhabitants  are  professing  Christians.  The 
total  pop.  is  estimated  at  120,000,  having  fallen 
off  largely  within  the  last  twenty  years. 

File,  Filing.  A  file  is  a  steel  tool,  having  its 
surface  covered  with  teeth  or  serratures,  and 
used  for  cutting  down  and  shaping  metals  and 
other  hard  substances.  They  are  made  of  the 
very  best  hard  steel  and  of  every  shape,  and  great 
care  must  be  exercised  in  their  manufacture. 

File  (Fr.  file,  a  row,  Lat.  filum,  Ital.  fila,  filo ), 
in  a  military  sense,  is  used  to  signify  any  line  of 
men  standing  directly  behind  each  other,  as  rank 
refers  to  men  standing  beside  one  another. 

Filibuster,  a  name  first  given  to  the  bucca¬ 
neers,  a  band  of  piratical  adventurers  who  main¬ 
tained  themselves  chiefly  in  the  Caribbean  Sea 
during  the  seventeenth  century.  The  term  has 
been  explained  as  synonymous  with  the  Dutch 
vry  baiter,  Ger.  freibeuter,  Eng.  freebooter,  the 
word  changing  first  into  fribusiier,  and  then 
into  Fr.  filibuster,  Span,  filibustero.  The  term 
filibuster  was  revived  in  America  to  designate 
those  adventurers  who,  after  the  termination  of 
the  war  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States, 
organized  expeditions  within  the  United  States 
against  the  Spanish  West  Indies. 

FiPigree,  from  the  Italian  filigr ana  {filo,  a 
thread  or  wire,  and  gi  ano,  a  grain  or  bead),  deli¬ 
cate  wire-work  ornaments,  usually  made  of  gold 
or  silver  wire,  which  is  twisted  into  spirals  and 
other  convoluted  forms;  and  these  spirals,  etc., 


are  combined  to  form  a  sort  of  metallic  lace- 
work. 

Fil'lan,  St.  Two  Scoto-Irish  saints. — (1.) 
St.  Fillan  or  Faolan,  surnamed  the  Leper,  had 
his  yearly  festival  on  June  20th.  His  chief  church 
in  Scotland  was  at  the  east  end  of  Loch  Erne,  iu 
Perthshire,  where  “St.  Fillan’s  Well ”  was  long 
believed  to  have  supernatural  powers  of  healing. 
— (2.)  St.  Fillan,  the  Abbot,  the  son  of  St. 
Iventigerna  of  Inchcaileacli,  iu  Loch  Lomond, 
lived  in  the  eighth  century,  and  had  his  yearly 
festival  on  January  7th  or  9th. 

Fillet,  in  Architect-, 
ure,  a  small  space  or 
band  like  a  narrow  rib¬ 
bon  used  along  with 
moldings,  a,  a,  a,  (see 
fig.)  are  examples  of 
fillets,  both  in  classic 
and  Gothic  architecture.  Fillets. 

Fillmore,  Millard,  Vice-President  and  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  United  States,  was  born  Jan.  7,  1800, 
at  Summer  Hill,  in  the  State  of  New  York.  He 
removed  to  Buffalo  in  1821,  and  in  1823  w«s  ad¬ 
mitted  a  member  of  the  bar.  In  1829  he  began 
his  political  career,  being  in  that  year  chosen  as 
a  representative  of  the  County  of  Eiie  in  the  Legis¬ 
lature  of  New  York.  In  1832  Fillmore  was 
elected  a  Member  of  Congress,  and  such  were  the 
statesmanlike  qualities  displayed  by  him,  that  he 
was  several  times  reelected;  but  in  1844 he  resumed 
his  profession  of  advocate.  In  1847,  however, 
he  again  returned  to  public  life,  being  elected  by 
a  large  majority  to  the  post  of  Comptroller  o‘f 
New  York;  and  in  the  following  year  he  was  made 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States.  The  unex¬ 
pected  death  of  General  Taylor,  in  July,  1850, 
leaving  the  office  of  President  vacant,  Fillmore 
was  raised  to  that  high  office,  which  he  held  till 
1853.  In  1855  Fillmore  visited  Europe,  and  on 
his  return,  in  1856,  he  was  again  nominated  for 
the  Presidency,  but  received  only  the  electoral 
vote,  of  Maryland.  He  died  March  8,  1874. 

Filter.  Filtration.  The  process  of  filtration 
consists  in  passing  the  liquid  through  some  porous 
substance,  the  interstices  of  which  are  too  small 
to  admit  of  the  passage  of  the  solid  particles,  the 
principle  of  the  action  being  the  same  as  that  of  a 
sieve;  but  as  the  particles  of  fluids  are  immeasur¬ 
ably  small,  the  pores  must  be  extremely  minute. 
A  simple  water-filter  for  domestic  purposes  is 
sometimes  made  by  stuffing  a  piece  of  sponge  in 
the  bottom  of  a  funnel  or  the  hole  of  a  flower-pot, 
and  then  placing  above  this  a  layer  of  pebbles,  then 
a  layer  of  coarse  sand,  and  above  this  a  layer  of 
pounded  charcoal  three  or  four  inches  in  depth. 
Another  layer  of  pebbles  should  be  placed  above 
the  charcoal,  to  prevent  it  from  being  stirred  up 
when  the  water  is  poured  in.  It  is  obvious  that 
such  a  filter  will  require  occasional  cleaning,  as 
the  suspended  impurities  are  left  behind  on  the 
charcoal,  etc. 

Fina'le,  the  name  given  to  that  part  of  a 
musical  composition  which  finishes  the  act  of  an 
opera;  also  to  the  last  movement  of  an  instru¬ 


mental  composition,  as  in  the  symphony,  quartet, 
quintet,  sonata,  etc. 

Fi 'nance,  a  French  word  incorporated  with 
our  language,  means  the  art  of  managing  money 
matters,  the  person  who  professes  this  art  being 
called  a  financier. 

Finch  (Gr.  Fink),  the  popular  name  of  a  great 
number  of  species  of  little  birds  of  the  order 
Tnsessores,  and  tribe  Conirostres.  Many  of  them 
have  great  powers  of  song,  and  are  called  hard¬ 
billed  song-birds,  in  contradistinction  to  the  war¬ 
blers  {sylviadcb)  or  softbilled  song-birds.  The  name 
Finch  is  sometimes  used  as  equivalent  to  Frin- 
gillidce. 

Finger-board,  that  part  of  a  stringed  musical 
instrument,  as  in  the  violin,  violoncello,  guitar, 
etc.,  which  is  made  of  ebony  wood,  and  glued  on 
the  neck  of  the  instrument,  and  shaped  on  the 
top  somewhat  round,  to  suit  the  position  in 
which  the  strings  lie  on  the  nut  and  the  bridge. 

Finistere,  or  Finisterre  (Lat.  Finis  Torus, 
Land’s  End),  a  department  at  the  western  ex¬ 
tremity  of  France,  comprehending  a  part  of  the 
former  Duchy  of  Bretagne,  has  an  area  of  2,648 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1876)  of  666,106. 

Finisterre,  Cape,  or  Land’s  End,  is  the  name 
given  to  a  promontory  at  the  northwestern  ex- 1 


tremity  of  Spain,  iu  latitude  42°  54'  N.,  and 
longitude  about  9°  20'  W. 

Fin'ial,  an  ornament,  generally  carved  to  re¬ 
semble  foliage,  which  forms  the  termination  of 


Finials. 


1,  from  Bishop  Bridport's  Monument,  Salisbury  Cathe¬ 
dral;  2,  York  Minster;  3,  Maulbroun,  Germany;  4,  Crew 

Hall,  Cheshire;  5.  Augsburg. 

pinnacles,  gables,  spires,  and  other  portions  of 
Gothic  architecture. 

Fin 'land  (Fin.  Suomesimaa,  land  of  lakes  and 
marshes)  is  a  grand  duchy  of  Russia,  lying  be¬ 
tween  59°  and  70p  N.  latitude,  and  between  21° 
and  33°  E.  longitude;  is  about  750  miles  from 
north  to  south,  and  has  an  average  breadth  of 
about  185  miles.  It  is  united  with  Russia.  Pop. 
(1880),  2,028,021.  The  area  of  Finland  may  be 
estimated  at  about  145,000  square  miles.  The 
surface  is  a  table-land,  from  400  to  600  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  Finland  is  divided  into  eight 
lienes  or  governments.  The  highest  adminis¬ 
trative  authority  is  vested  in  the  Imperial  Senate 
for  Finland,  consisting  of  eighteen  members, 
nominated  by  the  Emperor,  and  presided  over  by 
the  Governor-General  of  Finland.  The  army, 
about  5,000  men,  is  not  incorporated  with  that  of 
Russia;  the  naval  force  forms  a  distinct  squadron 
under  its  own  flag.  In  1881,  1,774,000  persons 
in  Finland  spoke  Finnish,  298,000  Swedish,  and 
only  4,200  Russian;  while  1,800  were  Germans, 
and  1,000  Lapps. 

Finland,  Gulf  of,  the  eastern  arm  of  the 
Baltic  Sea,  between  22°  and  30°  E.  longitude,  and 
between  59°  and  61°  N.  latitude. 

Finlay,  George,  a  distinguished  historian,  born 
of  Scottish  parents  at  Faversham,  Kent,  England, 
Dec.  21,  1799.  The  fruits  of  his  labor  and  re¬ 
searches  are  contained  in  his  History  of  Greece 
under  the  Romans,  146  b.c.  to  717  a.d.  (London, 
1843;  2d  ed.  1857);  History  of  Greecefrom  its  Con¬ 
quest  by  the  Crusaders  to  its  Conquest  by  the  Turks , 
and  of  the  Empire  of  Trebizond,  1204-1461  a.d. 
(London,  1851);  History  of  the  Byzantine  and 
Greek  Empires,  716-1453  a.d.  (London,  2vols., 
1853-1854);  History  of  Greece  under  the  Othoman 
and  Venetian  Dominion  (1854);  and  History  of  the 
Greek  Revolution  (1861).  He  died  in  1875. 

Fin 'mark,  a  province  of  Norway,  and  the 
most  northern  part  of  the  Continent  of  Europe, 
lying  between  68°  30'  and  71°  N.  latitude,  and 
17°  and  31°  E.  longitude,  constitutes  Norwegian 
Lapland.  Area,  about  20,000  square  miles.  The 
pop.,  24,071,  consists  principally  of  Lapps. 

Finns,  geographically,  the  name  of  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  of  Finland ;  but  in  ethnology,  that  of  a  con¬ 
siderable  branch  of  the  Ugrian  race,  dwelling  for 
the  most  part  in  Finland,  though  with  some 
representatives  in  Sweden  and  Norway  as  well. 
The  Finnish  language,  like  that  of  the  other 
Ugrian  nations,  belongs  to  the  Turanian  family 
of  languages. 

Fins  (allied  to  Lat.  pinna  or  penna),  organs 
adapted  for  swimming  or  locomotion  in  water. 
Applied  to  all  fishes,  to  some  invertebrates,  'and  to 
one  mammal — the  whale. 

Firdusi,  Firdowsi  (Tusi’i,  Abu’l  Kasim  Man¬ 
sur,  the  greatest  epic  poet  of  Persia,  was  born 
between  304 — 328  n.,  or  916 — 940  a.d.,  at  Shadab 
or  Rizvan,  near  Tus  iu  Khorassan. 


FIR. 


391 


FISSURELLHUE. 


Fir,  a  name  often  used  in  a  sense  co-extensive 
■with  the  widest  sense  of  the  word  pine,  and 
therefore  so  as  to 
include  a  large 
portion  of  the  Con- 
iferm,  or  at  least 
the  whole  of  the 
Liunaean  genus 
Pinus.  Also  used 
specifically  of 
trees  of  the  genus 
Abies,  and  s  o  m  e- 
times  Picea.  The 
genus  Abies  is  dis¬ 
tinguished  from 
Pinus  by  the  flat 
rounded  apex  of 
the  scales  of  its 
cones,  and  by 
leaves  not  in  clus¬ 
ters  of  definite 
numb  e  r .  The 
spruce  firs  for  rn 
the  genus  Abies 
of  some  authors. 

The  silver  firs 
form  the  genus 
Picea  of  some. 

It  has  been  sup-  Commoni  or  Norway  Spruce  Fir 
posed,  however,  ( Abies  excelsa).  Copied  from 
that  the  Linnsean  Selby’s  British  Forest  Trees. 


Cone  of  Norway  Spruce  Fir. 
a,  branchlet  and  cone ;  b,  scale,  with 
seeds;  c,  a  seed. 


names  had  been  given  through  mistake,  and  that 
the  common  silver  fir  is  the  true  Abies  of  the  an¬ 
cients,  and  the 
Norway  spruce  ' 

their  Picea.  The 
Norway  spruce  is 
a  very  beautiful 
pyramidal  tree, 
often  180  feet 
high,  and  when 
old,  its  long 
branches  droop 
toward  the 
ground.  It  forms 
entire  forests  in 
the  Middle  and 
North  of  Europe 
and  Asia.  It  is  of 
rapid  growth,  but 
is  believed  to  live 
to  the  age  of  400 
years.  It  yields 
the  same  pro¬ 
ducts  as  the 
Scotch  fir,  resin, 
turpentine,  t  a  r, 
and  lampblack; 
but  more  resin 
than  turpentine. 

Himalayan  s  i  1- 
ver  fir,  which, 
in  its  native 
regions,  fills  the 
upper  parts  of 
the  mountain  val- 
leys,  and  crowns  Cone  of  Silver  Fir. 

summits  and  a,  branchlet  and  cones;  b,  a  scale;  c, 
ridges  at  an  ele-  a  seed. 

vation  of  upward  of  10,000  feet,  a  tree  of  great 
size,  35  feet  in  girth,  and  with  a  trunk  rising  40 
feet  before  it  sends  out  a  branch.  Various  species 
of  fir  are  found  in  every  portion  of  the  globe. 

Fire 'arms.  See  Cannon,  Gun,  Rifle,  Re¬ 


volver. 

Fireballs  are  projectiles  occasionally  dis¬ 
charged  from  guns  or  mortars,  for  the  purpose  either 
of  setting  fire  to,  or  of  merely  illuminating  some 
work,  against  which  hostile  operationsare  directed. 
The  usual  ingredients  are — mealed  powder,  2; 
saltpeter,  li;  sulphur,  1;  rosin,  1;  turpentine,  2^; 
with  pitch,  tow,  naphtha,  etc.,  as  circumstances 
dictate. 

Fire 'clay  is  the  variety  of  clay  which  is  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  construction  of  gas-retorts,  glass- 
pots,  firebricks,  crucibles,  etc.,  which  require  lo 
withstand  high  temperat  tires.  It  is  found  chiefly 
in  the  coal  measures.  The  principal  constituents 
of  fireclay  are  silica  and  alumina,  accompanied 
by  small  proportions  of  iron,  lime,  magnesia, 
water,  and  organic  matter. 

Firedamp  is  the  miners’  term  applied  to  light 


carbureted  hydrogen  or  coal-gas  when  it  issues 
from  crevices  in  coal  mines. 

Firefly,  a  name  common  to  all  winged  lumin¬ 
ous  insects,  at  least  to  all  that  possess  much 
luminosity.  Except  the  lantern-fly,  they  are  all 
coleopterous,  and  belong  to  two  nearly  allied 
tribes,  Lampyrides,  to  which  the  glowworm  also 


Firefly  (Lampyris  italica).  Firefly  ( Elaternoclilucus ) . 
belongs,  and  Elatendes,  to  which  belong  the  skip¬ 
jack  beetles,  and  of  which  the  larvae  are  too  well- 
known  to  farmers  as  wire-worms 

Fir 'mam ent,  a  word  in  use  of  old  to  signify 
the  vault  of  heaven.  The  term  found  its  way 
into  English  from  the  Vulgate,  which  renders  the 
Septuagint  stereoma,  and  the  Hebrew  rakia,  by 
the  Latin  firmamentum  (Gen.  i,  6). 

First-born  (Heb.  bekor,  Gr.  npororoxoS,  pro¬ 
totokos,  Lat.  primogenitus),  in  scriptural  use, 
signifies  the  first  male  offspring,  whether  of  man 
or  of  other  animals. 

First-fruits  (Heb.  reshitli ,  Gr.  icporoyEvvE- 
uotra,  proto  genmmata,  and  andpx^i,  aparchai, 
Lat.  primilice )  that  portion  of  the  fruits  of  the 
earth  and  other  natural  produce,  which,  by  the 
usage  of  the  Jews  and  other  ancient  nations,  was 
offered  to  God  as  an  acknowledgment  of  His 
supreme  dominion,  and  a  thanksgiving  for  His 
bounty. 

Fisli,  Hamilton,  born  in  New  York  City  in 
1809,  became  a  Member  of  Congress  in  1843, 
Governor  of  New  York  State  in  1848,  and  from 
1851  to  1857  represented  his  State  in  the  United 
States  Senate.  From  1869  to  1877  he  was  Secre¬ 
tary  of  State  under  Grant. 

Fisheries.  The  capture  of  fish  for  food  has 
always  been  extensively  carried  on  in  maritime 
countries,  and  in  those  which  are  watered  by 
large  rivers;  and  has  been  the  means  in  many 
instances  of  adding  greatly  to  their  prosperity. 
The  art  of  capturing  fish,  like  other  arts,  has  been 
brought  by  degrees  to  its  present  perfection.  In 
remote  ages,  fish  were  caught  in  the  rudest  man¬ 
ner  by  men  who  lay  on  the  rocks,  ready  to  shoot 
them  with  arrows,  or  transfix  them  with  speai’s. 
Even  yet,  in  places  which  are  only  partly  civilized, 
fish  are  taken  in  this  way.  Advancing  intelli¬ 
gence,  however,  and  the  use  of  fish  as  an  article 
of  barter  for  other kindsof  food,  soon  led  to  more 
effective  modes  of  capture.  The  United  States 
fisheries  may  be  divided  into  warm-water  and 
cold-water  fisheries,  the  latter  being  for  the  most 
part  carried  on  in  British  American  waters.  The 
cod,  which  was  formerly  taken  off  the  coast  of 
New  England  in  the  cold  water  north  of  Cape 
Cod  in  such  vast  numbers,  has  seriously  decreased, 
as  have  nearly  all  other  varieties  of  fresh  and  salt¬ 
water  fishes  found  in  American  waters.  The  esti¬ 
mated  value  of  the  United  States  sea  fisheries  in 
1876  was; 


Warm-water  fisheries . $  3  274,138 

Cold-water  fisheries .  0,756  683 


$13,030,821 

Fishes  {Pisces),  the  fourth — or,  according  to 
Milne-Edwards  and  some  other  naturalists,  the 
fifth — class  of  the  vertebrated  animals,  consisting 
of  creatures  which  live  in  water,  and  accordingly 


Skeleton  of  Perch. 

breathe  by  gills  (branchue),  and  not  at  any  stage  of 
their  existence  by  lungs.  In  numbers  they  are  sup¬ 


posed  to  exceed  all  the  other  classes  of  vertebrate 
animals  put  together.  Even  the  water  of  hot 
springs  and  the  pools  of  caverns  have  their 
peculiar  fishes,  and  some  of  these  are  only  known 
as  thrown  out  with  torrents  of  muddy  water  by 
volcanoes.  The  bones  of  the  sub-class  of  cartilag¬ 
inous  fishes  never  become  properly  ossified.  The 
bones  of  fishes  generally  contain  a  smaller  propor¬ 
tion  of  earthy  matter  than  those  of  other  verte¬ 


brate  animals,  and  their  cartilaginous  basis  con¬ 
tains  no  gelatine  strictly  so  called.  The  typical 
character  of  the  vertebrate  skeleton  is,  however, 
maintained,  although  modified ;  and  many  of  the 
bones  are  evidently  homologous  with  those  of 
quadrupeds  and  of  man.  There  is  no  neck,  and 
the  vertebrae  are  distinguishable  only  into  abdom¬ 
inal  and  caudal. 

Fisli-louse,  or  Sea-louse,  names  commonly 
given  to  the  entomostracous  crustaceans  of  the 
order  Siphonos- 
toma.  Allthecreat- 
ures  of  this  order 
are  of  small  size, 
and  parasitic  on 
fishes,  aquatic  ba- 
trachians,  etc.,  on 
the  juices  of  which 
they  live,  although 
they  have  also  the 
power  of  swim¬ 
ming  freely  in  the 
water. 

Fissiros'tres 

(Lat.  split-beaked), 
a  tribe  of  birds, 
one  of  the  tribes 
into  which  the 
great  order  Inses- 
sores  is  divided. 

It  is  characterized 
by  peculiar  width 

of  gape,  and  the  Fish-Louse, 

bill  is  depressed  or  l,  Caligus  (female) ;  2,  Argulus, 
horizontally  flat-  natural  size;  3,  Argulus ,  magnified, 
tened, short  and  often  furnished  with  strong  bristles 
at  the  angles;  the  birds  of  this  tribe  being  insectiv¬ 
orous,  and  generally  subsisting  by  catching  in¬ 
sects  on  the  wing,  to  which  this  structure  of  bill 
is  adapted.  Swallows  and  goat -suckers  are  ex¬ 
amples  of  this  order. 

Fissurel'lidse,  a  family  of  gasteropodous 
mollusks,  of  the  order  Scutibranchiata.  The  shell 


Fissurella. 

1,  the  animal;  2,  the  shell. 

much  resembles  that  of  the  limpet  family  ( Patel - 


FISTULA. 


392 


FLAME. 


lida),  but  has  either  a  hole  at  the  apex,  or  a  slit  at 
the  front  margin. 

Fist'll  la,  in  former  times,  was  applied,  in  its 
etymological  meaning  of  a  pipe,  to  such  abscesses 
as  had  contracted  to  narrow,  hard,  open  passages 
in  the  soft  texture  of  the  body,  lined  by  a  kind 
of  false  membrane,  giving  rise  to  a  thin  discharge. 
Now  the  term  fistula  is  generally  limited  to  the 
opening  of  such  a  passage  when  in  close  contact 
with  a  mucous  membrane.  Thus  it  is  common 
to  speak  of  salivary,  urinary  fistula,  etc. ;  and  the 
most  common  and  troublesome  kind  of  all  is  the 
fistula  in  ano,  in  connection  with  the  lower  bowel, 
or  rectum.  The  treatment  of  fistula  should  only 
be  intrusted  to  experienced  surgeons. 

Fistula'ridse,  Aulostom'id/E,  or  Flute- 
mouths,  a  family  of  acanthopterous  fishes,  remark¬ 
able  for  the  conformation  of  the  head,  the  skull 


Snipe  or  Trumpet  Fish  (  Centriscus  scolopax) . 
being  elongated  into  a  tube,  at  the  extremity  of 
which  are  the  mouth  and  jaws.  The  species  are 
all  marine. 

Fistuli'na,  a  genus  of  fungi  allied  to  Boletus; 
the  under  surface  (hymenium)  at  first  covered  with 
minute  warts,  which  ultimately  form  tubes. 

Fitchburg,  an  important  manufacturing  city 
of  Massachusetts,  in  Worcester  county,  forty 
miles  northwest  of  Boston.  Pop.  (1885),  15,375. 

Fits,  a  name  popularly  applied  to  convulsions, 
or,  indeed,  to  any  sudden  seizure  of  disease  im¬ 
plying  loss  of  consciousness,  or  any  considerable 
change  in  the  condition  of  the  mind. 

Fitz  is  an  old  Norman  word  signifying  “son,” 
evidently  from  the  Lat.  filius  (Fr.  fils).  Like  the 
Scotch  Mac ,  the  Irish  O’,  and  the  Oriental  Ben, 
it  is  prefixed  to  proper  names  to  signify  descent, 
as  in  the  Norman  names  Fitzwilliam,  Fitzwalter, 
Fitzgerald.  A  later  application  of  it  has  been  to 
denote  the  natural  sons  of  royalty,  as  in  Fitzroy, 
Fitzjames,  and  Fitzclarence.  The  Russian  ter¬ 
mination  witch  is  a  disguised  form  of  the  same 
word. 

Fiume  (in  the  Illyrian  language,  Reka  or  Rika; 
Lat.  FanumSt.  Viti  ad  flume  n),  a  seaport  of  Aus¬ 
tria,  at  the  efflux  of  the  Fiumara  into  the  Gulf  of 
Quarnero,  in  the  Adriatic,  forty  miles  southeast 
of  Trieste.  Pop.,  20,981. 

Fixed  Air  was  the  name  given  to  carbonic 
acid  by  Dr.  Black,  who  was  the  first  to  observe 
that  the  solid  substance,  carbonate  of  magnesia 
(MgO,COi>),  could,  when  heated,  evolve  carbonic 
acid  (C02),  proving  that  the  latter  was  a  fixed  air 
while  in  union  with  the  magnesia. 

Fixed  Bodies  is  a  term  applied  in  Chemistry 
to  those  substances  which  remain  fixed,  and  are 
not  volatilized  at  moderately  high  temperatures. 

Fixed  Oils  are  those  oils  which,  on  the  ap¬ 
plication  of  heat,  do  not  volatilize  without  decom¬ 
position. 

Fixing,  in  Photography.  When  a  picture  has 
been  obtained  through  the  agency  of  light,  by  the 
exposure  of  a  sensitive  surface  suitably  prepared, 
and  the  subsequent  development  of  the  latent 
image,  there  remains  in  the  deepest  shadows  of 
the  picture  a  portion  of  the  sensitive  material, 
unacted  upon  by  light.  The  removal  of  this  un¬ 
altered  sensitive  material  by  an  appropriate  sol¬ 
vent,  is  termed  fixing,  though  the  term  clearing 
would  perhaps  be  preferable,  fixing  being  more 
strictly  accurate  in  the  case  of  the  daguerreotype 
process,  where  the  picture  is  literally  fixed  to  the 
silver-plate  by  t lie  deposition  of  a  film  of  metallic 
gold,  of  extreme  tenuity,  from  a  boiling  hot  solu¬ 
tion  of  sel  d’or. 

Fix 'lures,  in  Law,  are  those  personal  chattels 
which  are  let  into  the  soil,  or  otherwise  actually 
affixed  to  the  freehold.  The  general  rule  as  to 
what  constitutes  a  fixture  legally  immovable,  is 
that  it  must  be  either  let  into  the  earth,  or 
cemented,  or  otherwise  united  to  some  erection 
previously  attached  to  the  ground,  so  that  it 
would  be  waste  to  remove  it  afterward.  But  a 
tenant  may  in  all  cases  construct  any  erection  he 


may  make  in  such  a  manner  as  that  it  shall  not 
become  a  fixture.  Thus,  if  he  even  erect  build¬ 
ings— as  barns,  granaries,  sheds,  and  mills — upon 
blocks,  rollers,  patterns,  pillars,  or  plates,  resting 
on  brickwork,  they  may  be  removed,  although 
they  have  sunk  into  the  ground  by  their  own 
weight. 

Flac'cus,  C.  Valerius,  a  Roman  poet,  who 
flourished  in  the  first  century,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  died  88  a.d.  He  is  the  author  of  an  epic 
poem  on  the  Argonautic  expedition,  which  in  its 
extant  form  is  incomplete. 

Flacourtia'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  allied  to  passion-flowers,  consisting  of 
shrubs  and  small  trees,  mostly  confined  to  the 
warmest  parts  of  the  globe.  Many  of  the  species, 
particularly  of  the  genus  Flacourtia,  produce 
pleasant,  sweet,  or  sub-acid  fruits.  F.  inermis 
is  cultivated  in  the  Moluccas.  Arnotto  is  pro¬ 
duced  by  a  tree  of  this  order. 

Flag,  a  popular  name  for  many  endogenous 
plants  with  sword-shaped  leaves,  mostly  growing 
in  moist  situations.  It  is  sometimes  particularly 
appropriated  to  the  species  of  iris,  or  flower-de- 
luce;  but  is  given  also  indiscriminately  to  other 
plants  of  similar  foliage,  as  the  Acorns  calamus, 
which  is  called  sweet  flag. 

Flag  (common  to  the  Teutonic  languages,  and 
derived  from  a  root  signifying  to  fly),  a  cloth  of 
light  material,  capable  of  being  extended  by  the 
wind,  and  designed  to  make  known  some  fact  or 

^ _ „  V,  V — 


2  3 

1,  the  Square  Flag:  2,  the  Pennant;  3,  the  Burgee, 
want  to  spectators.  In  the  army,  a  flag  is  the  en¬ 
sign  carried  as  its  distinguishing  mark  by  each 
regiment;  and  also  a  small  banner,  with  which  the 
ground  to  be  occupied  is  marked  out.  In  the 
navy,  the  flag  is  of  more  importance,  often  con- 


WHITE  BLACK 
□ 


BLUE 


CREtN 


tefi'j, 

nr 

rpii,r;ii|iiii|i 

lit! 

Flags  of  the  Principal  Maritime  Nations. 

1,  Britain,  red  ensign :  2,  Britain,  white  ensign ;  3,  Britain, 
blue  ensign;  4,  France;  5,  Russia;  6,  Germany;  7,  Italy; 
8,  Belgium;  9,  Holland;  10,  Austro-Hungary;  11,  United 
States;  13,  Spain;  13.  Portugal;  14,  Greece;  15,  Turkey; 
16,  Denmark;  17,  Brazil;  18,  Sweden, 
stituting  the  only  means  vessels  have  of  commu¬ 
nicating  with  each  other,  or  with  the  shore.  For 
this  purpose,  devices  of  conspicuous  colors 


(usually  black,  white,  red,  yellow,  or  blue)  are 
hoisted  at  the  mast-head  or  at  the  gaff.  The 
flags  having  three  forms,  as  shown  in  cut,  a  very 
few  patterns  in  each  shape  give  sufficient  combi¬ 
nations  of  three  or  four  flags  to  express  any  letter 
or  word  in  the  language.  A  white  flag  is  accepted 
throughout  the  world  as  a  token  of  peace;  a  red 
flag,  as  defiance;  and  a  black  flag  denotes  a  pirate; 
a  flag  of  plain  yellow  usually  signifies  that  the 
vessel  bearing  it  is  in  quarantine. 

Flag  of  the  Prophet  (Saujak-Sherif)  is  the 
sacred  banner  of  the  Mohammedans.  It  was 
originally  of  a  white  color,  and  was  composed  of 
the  turban  of  the  Koreisli,  captured  by  Moham¬ 
med.  A  black  flag  was,  however,  soon  substi¬ 
tuted  in  its  place,  consisting  of  the  curtain  that 
hung  before  the  door  of  Ayeshah,  one  of  the  Proph¬ 
et’s  wives.  This  flag,  regarded  by  the  Mohamme¬ 
dans  as  their  most  sacred  relic,  first  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  followers  of  Omar  at  Damas¬ 
cus;  it  afterward  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Abbasi;  then  passed  into  those  of  the  califs  of 
Bagdad  and  Kahira;  and,  at  a  later  period,  was 
brought  into  Europe  by  Amurath  III. 

Flag-ship,  the  ship  in  a  fleet  which  bears  the 
admiral’s  flag,  and  therefore  forms  a  sort  of  center 
to  which  all  other  vessels  must  look  for  orders. 
It  is  usually  the  largest  vessel  in  the  fleet. 

Flag'ellauts,  the  name  given  to  certain  bodies 
of  fanatical  enthusiasts,  who,  at  various  intervals 
from  the  thirteenth  to  the  sixteenth  centuries, 
made  their  appearance  in  the  different  countries 
of  Europe,  proclaiming  the  wrath  of  God  against 
the  corruption  of  the  times,  inviting  sinners  to 
atone  for  sin  by  self-inflicted  scourgings  or  flagel¬ 
lations,  and  themselves  publicly  enforcing  this 
exhortation  by  voluntary  scourging  of  themselves, 
and  by  other  forms  of  self-castigation. 

Flag 'stone,  a  rock  which  splits  into  tabular 
masses,  or  flags  of  various  size  and  thickness,  in 
the  original  planes  of  stratification.  Flagstones 
are  generally  sandstones,  combined  with  more  or 
less  argillaceous  or  calcareous  matter;  some,  how¬ 
ever,  are  indurated  clays,  and  others  thin-bedded 
limestones. 

Flamboy'ant, 
the  latest  style  of 
Gothic  architec¬ 
ture  which  pre¬ 
vailed  in  France. 

It  was  popular 
during  the  fif¬ 
teenth  and  part 
of  the  sixteenth 
centuries,  a  n  d 
corresponds  to 
the  perpendicu¬ 
lar  in  England. 

The  name  is  de¬ 
rived  from  the 
flame-like  forms 
of  the  tracery  of 
the  windows, 
panels,  etc. 

F 1  a  m  e  is  a 
particular  form 
o  f  combustion 
or  burning.  Or¬ 
dinary  combus¬ 
tion  consists  in 
the  oxygen  of  Window,  Harfleur. 

the  atmosphere  combining  wiih  some  combustible 
substance  so  rapidly  as  to  give  out  light  and 
heat.  When  the  combustible  is 
either  originally  a  gas,  or  be¬ 
comes  so  by  the  heat,  the  com¬ 
bustion  takes  the  form  of  flame. 

Flame,  then,  is  the  burning  of 
a  gas.  In  most  cases,  the  gas  of 
flame  is  a  compound  of  hydro¬ 
gen  and  carbon,  with  minute 
particles  of  solid  carbon  sus¬ 
pended  in  it,  and  is  formed  from 
the  fuel  (coal,  tallow,  etc.)  being 
decomposed  by  the  heat.  The 
heat  and  light  of  flame  vary  with 
the  gas;  hydrogen  produces  great  Gf  partial  cora- 
lieat,  but  little  light.  The  light-  bustion;  c.  area 
ing  power  of  a  gas  depends  up-  ^mcb°  ™d3n‘ e  1  e 
on  the  proportion  ot  carbon  it 
contains,  the  particles  of  which  become  glowing 
hot  before  being  consumed.  The  flame  of  a  lamp 


FLAMENS. 


393 


FLEA. 


or  candle,  or  simple  gas-jet,  consists  of  a  hollow 
cone,  in  the  center  of  which  there  is  no  com¬ 
bustion.  The  central  space  appears  dark  only  by 
contrast  with  the  luminous  cone  which  surrounds 
it.  It  consists,  in  reality,  of  transparent,  invisible 
compounds  of  carbon  and  hydrogen,  which  are 
constantly  rising  in  vapor  from  the  wick. 
This  dark  portion  of  the  flame  may  be  called 
the  area  of  no  combustion.  The  oxygen  of 
the  atmosphere  penetrates  to  this  depth,  but 
not  in  sutlicient  quantity  to  oxidize  or  burn 
both  the  carbon  and  the  hydrogen;  it  there¬ 
fore  unites  with  the  hydrogen,  for  which  it  has 
the  stronger  attraction,  and  leaves  the  carbon  free. 
The  outer  cone  is  named  the  area  of  complete 
combustion.  The  light  is  produced  in  the  area 
of  partial  combustion,  where  the  carbon  is  set 
free  from  the  hydrogen  in  the  form  of  solid  par¬ 
ticles,  and  is  heated  to  whiteness  by  the  com¬ 
bustion  of  the  hydrogen.  The  combustion  of 
the  carbon  in  the  outer  cone,  by  which  it  is  con¬ 
verted  into  carbonic  acid  gas,  produces  heat,  but 
so  little  light  as  to  be  barely  traceable.  That  car¬ 
bon  exisls  in  a  solid  state  in  the  white  part  of  a 
flame,  is  readily  shown  by  holding  a  piece  of 
white  earthenware  into  it,  which  becomes  coated 
with  carbon  in  the  form  of  soot. 

Fla 'mens  were  priests  in  ancient  Rome  devoted 
each  to  some  special  deity.  There  were  fifteen  in 
all.  The  chief  of  these  ( thimines  majores)  were 
the  flamens  of  Jupiter,  of  Mars,  and  of  Quirinus, 
who  were  always  patricians,  the  remaining  twelve 
(fla, mines  minores)  were  chosen  from  the  ple¬ 
beians. 

Flamin'go  ( Phcenicopterus ),  a  genus  of  birds 
which  until  recently  was  placed  by  all  naturalists 
among  the  Or  alia  - 
tores  (waders),  but  is 
now  generally  ranked 
among  the  Palmi¬ 
pedes,  and  even  re¬ 
ferred  to  the  family 
-of  Anatidce.  The 
bill  is  large,  deeper 
than  broad,  and  sud¬ 
denly  curved  down¬ 
ward  near  the  mid¬ 
dle,  so  that,  as  the 
bird  wades  and  seeks 
its  food,  either  in  the 
water  or  in  the  mud, 
it  makes  use  of  the 
bill  in  a  reversed  po¬ 
sition,  the  upper 
mandible  being  low- 
^st  The  edges  o  f 
both  mandibles  are  FlaminS°  ( Phcenicopterus  ruber) . 
furnished  with  small  and  very  fine  transverse 
laminae,  which  serve,  like  those  in  the  bills  of  the 
ordinary  Anatidce,  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the 
small  crustaceans,  mollusks,  worms,  smali  fishes, 
seeds,  etc.,  which  are  the  flamingo’s  food,  and  to 
separate  them  from  the  mud  with  which  they  may 
be  mingled.  Unlike  the  ordinary  Anatidce,  fla¬ 
mingoes  have  great  part  of  the  tibia,  as  well  as  the 
tarsus,  naked,  in  this  resembling  all  the  waders. 
They  are  birds  of  powerful  wing,  and  fly  either 
in  strings  or  in  wedge-shaped  flocks  like  geese,  a 
single  bird  leading  the  flock.  They  seldom  make 
use  of  their  webbed  feet  for  swimming,  to  which 
the  length  of  their  legs  is  not  well  adapted,  the 
use  of  the  membrane  being  rather  to  support  them 
on  soft,  muddy  bottoms.  When  feeding,  they 
keep  their  feet  in  almost  constant  motion,  as  if  to 
stir  the  mud. 

Flamin'ian  Way  ( Via  Flaminia),  the  great 
northern  road  of  ancient  Italy,  leading  from  Rome 
toAriminum  ( Rimini )  on  the  Adriatic.  It  was 
constructed  by  C.  Flamiuius  during  his  censor¬ 
ship  (220  b.c.),  and  was  designed  to  secure  a  free 
communication  with  the  recently  conquered  Gaul¬ 
ish  territory. 

Flamsteed,  John,  the  first  Astronomer-Royal  of 
England,  for  whose  use  the  Royal  Observatory  at 
Greenwich  (called  Flamsteed  House)  was  built, 
was  born  Aug.  19,  1646.  He  was  appointed 
Astronomer  to  the  King  in  1675.  The  year  fol¬ 
lowing,  the  observatory  at  Greenwich  was  built, 
and  Flamsteed  began  that  series  of  observations 
that  constitute  the  commencement  of  modern 
practical  astronomy. 

Flan'ders  was  formerly  the  name  of  an  exten¬ 


sive  and  almost  independent  territory  ruled  by 
“counts”  and  embracing,  besides  the  present 
Belgian  provinces  of  the  same  name,  the  southern 
portion  of  the  Province  of  Zealand  in  Holland, 
and  some  of  the  departments  in  the  northeast  of 
France.  During  the  middle  ages,  Flanders 
figured  prominently  in  the  political  affairs  of 
Europe,  the  counts  of  Flanders  being  more  power¬ 
ful  and  wealthy  than  many  European  kings. 

Flanders,  East,  a  province  in  the  northwest 
of  Belgium,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Antwerp 
and  Brabant,  on  the  south  by  Hainault,  on  the 
west  by  West  Flanders,  and  on  the  north  by 
Zealand.  Area,  1,160  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880), 
881,816.  Chief  towns.  Gin  nt,  Alost,  and  Dender- 
monde. 

Flanders,  West,  the  most  western  province  of 
Belgium,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  North 
Sea,  and  on  the  west  and  south  by  France.  Area, 
1,250  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880),  691,674. 

Flank  (the  side),  a  word  used  in  many  senses 
in  military  matters.  Flanks  of  an  army  are  the 
wings,  or  bodies  of  men  on  the  right  and  left 
extremities,  prepared  to  close  in  upon  an  enemy 
who  shall  attack  the  center.  Flank  files  are  the 
soldiers  marching  on  the  extreme  right  and  left 
of  a  company  or  any  other  body  of  troops. 
Flank  company  is  the  company  on  the  right  or 
left  when  a  battalion  is  in  line.  A  flanking 
party  is  a  body  of  horse  or  foot  employed  in  hang¬ 
ing  upon  and  harassing  the  flank  of  an  enemy’s 
force.  The  flanks  of  a  frontier  are  certain  salieut 
points  in  a  national  boundary,  strong  by  nature 
or  art,  and  projecting  beyond  the  general  line. 
To  outflank  is  to  succeed  by  maneuvers  in  com¬ 
manding  the  flank  of  an  enemy  who  has  been,  on 
his  part,  endeavoring  to  flank  one’s  own  force. , 

Flat,  a  musical  character,  shaped  thus  V, 
which,  when  placed  before  a  note,  lowers  that 
note  half  a  tone.  When  placed  at  the  beginning 
of  a  piece  of  music,  it  denotes  that  all  the  notes 
on  the  line  or  space  on  which  it  is  placed,  with 
their  octaves  above  and  below,  are  to  be  played 
flat. 


Flat-fish,  a  popular  name  of  the  fishes  of  the 
family  Pleuronectidce,  as  the  flounder,  plaice, 
sole,  turbot,  halibut,  etc.,  which  have  the  body 
much  compressed,  and  the  sides unsymmetrical, 
swimming  on  one  side.  It  is  sometimes  extended 
in  its  signification  so  as  to  include  skates  and 
other  fishes  of  the  ray  family. 

Flat 'tery,  Cape,  a  headland  of  Washington 
Territory,  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United 
States,  marks  the  south  side  of  the  entrance  of 
the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca.  It  is  in  latitude 
48°  24'  N.,  and  in  longitude  124°  40'  W. 
Another  headland  of  the  same  name  is  found 
on  the  east  coast  of  Australia,  in  latitude  14° 
52'  S.,  and  longitude  145°  20'  E. 

Flax  (Linvm),  a  genus  of  plants  comprising 
the  greater  part  of  the  natural  order  Linacece;  an 
exogenous  order 
allied  to  Gerani- 
ac.ece  and  Oxaliclece, 
and  consisting  of 
annual  and  per¬ 
ennial  herbaceous 
plants,  with  a  few 
small  shrubs. 

There  are  about 
ninety  known  spe¬ 
cies  of  this  order 
scattered  over  the 
globe,  b  u  t  most 
abundant  in  Eu¬ 
rope  and  the  North 
of  Africa.  Their 
leaves  are  simple, 
entire,  without 
stipules,  and  gen- 
e  r  a  1 1  y  alternate. 

The  common  flax 
or  lint  (I.  usita- 
tissimum)  is  an  an¬ 
nual;  a  native  of 
Egypt,  of  some  parts  of  Asia,  and  of  the  South  of 
Europe,  now  naturalized  in  this  country,  and 
in  many  parts  of  the  world.  This  plant  is 
valuable  both  for  the  fibers  of  its  inner  bark  and 
for  its  seeds.  The  fibers  of  the  inner  bark,  when 
separated  both  from  the  bark  and  from  the  inner 
woody  portion  of  the  stem,  are  flax  or  lint,  the 


Common  Flax  ( Linum  usitatis- 
simum) . 


well-known  material  of  which  linen  thread  and 
cloth  are  made.  The  seeds  yield  by  expression 
the  drying  fixed  oil,  called  linseed  oil,  used  for 
paints,  varnishes,  etc.  Over  9,000,000  bushels 
of  flax-seed  were  grown  in  the  United  States  in 
1887. 

Flax,  New  Zealand,  a  valuable  fiber  different 
from  common  flax, 
and  obtained 
from  the  leaf 
of  an  endogenous, 
instead  of  the  stem 
of  an  exogenous 
plant.  The  plant 
yielding  it  is  Phor- 
mium  tenax,  often 
called  New  Zea¬ 
land  fl  a  x ,  a  n  d 
sometimes  flax  lily 
and  flax  bush.  It 
belongs  to  the 
natural  order  Lili- 
acece,  and  is  a  per¬ 
ennial  plant,  a  na¬ 
tive  of  New  Zea¬ 
land  and  Norfolk 
Island;  its  leaves 
resemble  those  of 
an  iris,  are  from 
2  to  6  feet  long^ 
and  1  to  2  or  3' 
inches  broad.  The 
fiber  of  the  leaves •, 
is  fine  and  strong, 
and  was  formerly 
used  by  the  New 
Zealanders  for 
m  a  king  dresses, 
ropes, twine,  mats, 
cloth,  etc. 

Flax-dressing. 

When  the  seeds 
are  beginning  to 
change  from  a  green  to  a  pale  brown,  is  the  best 
time  for  pulling  flax.  Where  the  crop  grows  of 
different  lengths,  these  lengths  should  be  pulled 
and  kept  separately,  uniformity  in  this  respect 
being  of  great  value  in  the  after-processes.  The 
process  first  gone  through  after  pulling' is  rippling 
— which  consists  in  tearing  of  the  bolls  by  pulling 
the  stalks  through  a  series  of  iron  teeth  eighteen 
inches  long,  placed  within  a  distance  of  half  an 
inch  of  each  other.  These  are  fastened  in  a  block 
of  wood,  which  is  placed  at  the  end  of  a  plank  or 
long  stool  on  which  the  operator  sits.  The  next 
process  is  to  obtain  the  flaxen  fiber  or  lint  free 
from  the  woody  core,  or  boon,  of  the  stem.  This 
is  effected  by  steeping  the  bundles  in  water  till 
the  boon  begins  to  rot,  in  which  state  it  is  readily 
separated  from  the  fiber.  Prepared  thus,  the 
flax  is  ready  to  be  freed  of  its  woody  particles. 
This  is  effected  by  scutching.  Previous  to  this, 
the  flax  is  passed  through  a  brake  or  revolving 
rollers,  in  order  thoroughly  to  crack  the  boon. 
The  brake  consists  of  a  frame,  in  the  upper  side  of 
which  are  a  number  of  grooves;  a  movable  piece 
is  hinged  at  one  end,  and  provided  with  a  similar 
grooved  piece  on  its  lower  side,  but  so  placed 
that  the  projections  pass  into  the  hollows  of  the 
lower.  The  flax,  placed  between  these,  and 
struck  by  bringing  down  the  hinged  part,  is 
broken,  but  the  fiber  remains  uninjured. 

Flaxman,  John,  English  artist  and  sculptor, 
born  July  6,  1755,  died  Dec.  7,  1826.  Flaxman’s 
most  celebrated  works  are  his  outlines  to  Homer's 
Odyssey  (1793),  and  The  Iliad  (1795),  and  his 
illustrations  of  Dante  and  Hischylus. 

Flea  ( Pulex ),  a  Linnsean  genus  of  apterous 


New  Zealand  Flax  ( Phormium 
tenax). 


Metamorphoses  of  Common  Flea  (Pulex  irritans ), 
magnified. 

insects,  now  commonly  regarded  by  entomolo- 


FLEA  BANE. 


394 


FLOW  ER. 


gists  as  constituting  a  distinct  order  Suctoria, 
tiiphonaptera,  or  Aphaniptera.  All  the  species 
are  similar  to  the  common  flea  (P.  irritant),  which 
is  plentiful  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  living  by 
sucking  the  blood  of  man,  and  of  some  species  of 
quadrupeds  and  birds. 

Flea 'bane  ( Pulicaria ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Composites,  sub-order  Corymb  if  eras, 
having  hemispherical  imbricated  involucres  and 
yellow  flowers;  the  whole  plant  emitting  a 


a ,  root;  6,  top  of  stem,  with  leaves  and  flowers;  c,  achene, 

with  pappus;  cl,  pistil;  e,  a  floret  of  the  disc;  f,  a 

stamen;  tj,  a  floret  of  the  ray. 

peculiar  aromatic  smell,  sometimes  compared  to 
that  of  soap,  which  is  said  to  be  efficacious  in 
driving  away  fleas. 

Flem  'minr,  Paul,  German  poet,  born  Oct.  5, 
1009,  died  April  2,  1G40.  His  name  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  list  of  German  lyric  poets  of  the 
seventeenth  century. 

Flesh  is  the  ordinary  term  for  muscular  tissue. 
After  the  removal  of  the  blood-vessels,  nerves, 
connective  (or  cellular)  tissue,  etc.,  the  flesh  is 
found  to  consist  of  various  textural  elements. 
Numerous  analyses  have  been  made  of  the  mus¬ 
cular  substance  of  various  animals.  An  analysis 
of  beef  freed,  as  far  as  possible,  from  blood-ves¬ 
sels,  shows  it  to  be  composed  of  water,  muscular 
fiber,  albumen,  creatine,  creatinine,  inosic  acid, 
fat,  lactic  acid,  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  soda, 
chloride  of  sodium,  lime  and  magnesia,  and  this 
may  be  regarded  as  fairly  representing  the  com¬ 
position  of  flesh  generally. 

Flesh-fly,  or  Blue-bottle  Fly  ( Musca  vomi- 
toria),  an  insect  of  the  same  genus  with  the  com¬ 
mon  house-fly,  which  it  exceeds  in  size,  although 
it  is  not  equal  in  size  to  the  blow-fly.  The  fore¬ 
head  is  rust-colored,  the  thorax  grayish,  the 
abdomen  blue  with  three  black  bands.  The  ex¬ 
panse  of  wings  is  nearly  one  inch.  It  deposits  its 
eggs  on  flesh,  for  which  purpose  it  often  enters 
houses,  having  a  remarkably  delicate  sense  of 
smell.  The  maggots  are  of  frequent  occurrence 
on  meat  in  summer,  notwithstanding  all  care  that 
can  be  taken.  - 

Fleur-de  lis.  Authorities  are  divided  as  to 
whether  this  celebrated  emblem  is  derived  from 
the  white  lily  of  the  garden,  or  from 
the  flag  or  iris,  which,  as  generally 
represented,  it  more  resembles,  both  in 
form  and  color.  The  earlier  French 
kings  bore  on  their  arms  an  indefinite 
number  of  golden  lilies,  but  Charles 
VI.  reduced  the  number  to  three.  Fleur-de-lis. 


Fleury,  Claude,  a  French  church  historian, 
born  Dec.  6, 1640,  and  died  in  1723.  His  histor¬ 
ies  are  among  the  most  valuable  that  have  ever 
been  contributed  to  ecclesiastical  literature  by  any 
French  writer. 

Flex 'ure,  or  Flexion,  is  the  bending  or  curv¬ 
ing  of  a  line  or  figure.  A  curve  is  said  to  have  a 
point  of  contrary  flexure  at  the  point  where  it 
changes  its  character  of  concavity  or  convexity 
toward  a  given  line.  In  the  art  of  building,  flex¬ 
ure  denotestlie  bending  of  loaded  beams.  If  a 
beam,  supported  at  its  two  ends,  be  loaded,  it 
bends,  its  lower  surface  becoming  convex  and  its 
upper  concave. 


Flinder'sia,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Ceclrelacece,  one  species  of  which,  F. 
australis,  yields  timber  little  inferior  to  mahog¬ 
any.  In  Australia  it  is  called  callcedra  wood. 

Flint,  a  town  of  Genesee  county,  Mich.,  of 
9,019  people. 

Flint,  a  variety  of  quartz,  or  intermediate 
between  quartz  and  opal,  consisting  almost  en¬ 
tirely  of  silica,  with  very  little  lime,  oxide  of 
iron,  water,  carbon,  and  sometimes  even  traces  of 
organic  matter. 

Floating  Islands  exist  in  some  lakes,  and 
more  rarely  in  slow  and  placid  rivers.  They  are 
formed  by  the  detachment  of  portions  of  the 
bank;  the  interlaced  roots  of  plants  forming  a 
fabric  sufficiently  strong  to  endure  the  occasional 
buffeting  of  waves,  and  to  support  soil  for  herb¬ 
age  or  even  trees  to  grow  in.  Floating  islands 
are  often  formed  by  aggregation  of  driftwood  in 
the  creeks  and  bays  of  tropical  rivers,  and  being 
wafted  into  the  channel  of  the  river  when  it  is 
flooded,  or  by  the  wind  are  carried  down  to  the 
sea,  with  the  soil  that  has  accumulated,  and  the 
vegetation  that  has  established  itself  upon  them. 
They  are  sometimes  seen  at  a  distance  of  fifty  or 
100  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges,  with 
living  trees  standing  erect  upon  them. 

Floors,  Flooring,  the  horizontal  partitions 
between  the  stories  of  a  building,  the  upper  part 
of  which  forms  the  floor  of  the  apartments 
above,  and  the  lower  portion  the  ceiling  of  those 
below. 

Flo'ra,  among  the  Romans,  was  the  name  of 
the  goddess  of  flowers  and  of  the  spring,  and  was 
latterly  identified  with  the  Greek  XXopii,  Chloris. 
Her  temple  was  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Circus  Maximus.  The  worship  of  Flora  was  one 
of  the  oldest  manifestations  of  the  Roman  relig¬ 
ious  feeling,  and  is  affirmed  to  have  been  intro¬ 
duced  by  Nutna. — In  Botany,  the  term  flora  is 
a  collective  name  for  plants,  and  is  used  with 
regard  to  the  vegetable  kingdom  in  the  same  way 
as  the  term  fauna  with  regard  to  the  animal. 

Flor'ence  (Ital.  firenze),  a  city  of  Italy,  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  former  Duchy  of  Tuscany,  is  in  the 
valley  of  the  Arno,  in  latitude  43°  46' N.,  and 
longitude  ID  15'  E.  It  is  sixty  miles  from  Leg¬ 
horn,  forty  from  Siena,  and  forty-four  from 
Arezzo.  Pop.  (1871),  167,093. 

Florida.  Ponce  de  Leon  visited  Florida  in 
search  of  the  fabled  fountain  of  eternal  youth  in 
1513,  and  in  1526  Charles  V.  of  Spain  granted  to 
Pamfilo  de  Narvaez  all  the  territory  from  Cape 
Florida  to  the  Rio  Panuco.  The  armed  expedi¬ 
tions  of  the  Spaniards  met  with  much  opposition 
from  the  Indians,  who  were  fierce  and  warlike, 
but  in  1565  the  invaders  built  a  fort  at  St.  Augus¬ 
tine,  which  they  held  until  1586,  when  it  was 
captured  by  Sir  Francis  Drake.  England  took 
nominal  possession  of  the  northern  coast  in  1584. 
In  1763  Spain  ceded  the  whole  territory  to  Great 
Britain,  in  exchange  for  Cuba,  which  the  British 
had  captured,  but,  twenty  years  later,  it  was  re¬ 
troceded  to  Spain.  The  United  States  Govern¬ 
ment  occupied  the  principal  posts  in  Florida  west 
of  the  Perdido  river  in  1811,  and  General  Jack- 
son  captured  Pensacola  during  the  second  war 
with  England.  In  1819  the  whole  province  was 
ceded  to  the  United  States.  The  war  with  the 
Seminoles  was  protracted  from  1835  to  1842, 
although  the  difficulties  were  not  finally  overcome 
until  1858.  Florida  was  organized  as  a  Territory 
March  30,  1822;  and  admitted  as  a  State  March  3, 
1845.  Florida  is  situated  between  latitude 
24°  30' — 31 c  N.,  and  longitude  80" — 87°  45' 
W.;  Alabama  and  Georgia  form  its  northern, 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  its  eastern,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  Alabama  its  southern  and  western 
boundaries.  It  consists  of  a  peninsula  stretching 
south  350  miles,  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  of  a  long,  narrow  strip  of 
land  running  along  the  gulf,  340  miles  from  the 
Atlantic  coast  line.  The  peninsula  is  about  100 
miles  in  width,  and  contains  nearly  four-fifths  of 
the  total  area,  which  is  58,680  square  miles.  On 
all  sides  but  the  north  the  sea  forms  the  bound¬ 
ary,  and  the  State  has  1,146  miles  of  coast  line, 
but  few  good  harbors.  The  Keys  and  Tortugas 
are  a  chain  of  small  coral  islands  south  and  south¬ 
west  of  the  point  of  the  peninsula.  The  most 
important  of  these  is  Key  West,  where  a  naval 
|  station  has  been  established,  and  where  there  is  a 


I 

good  harbor.  The  climate  of  this  State  is  excel¬ 
lent.  Frosts  are  rare  in  the  north,  and  unknown 
in  the  south,  and  snow  never  falls.  The  average 
temperature  is  about  72°  F.,  the  thermometer 
rarely  falling  below  30°  or  rising  above  90°,  while 
at  Key  West  the  difference  between  summer  and 
winter  temperature  does  not  exceed  15°.  The 
atmosphere  is  generally  dry  and  clear,  and  most 
of  the  rainfall,  which  is  about  fifty-four  inches  per 
annum,  is  in  the  summer  months.  The  pop.  m  1 885 
was  342,641.  In  1885,  27,886,014  bales. of  cotton 
were  produced  in  Florida,  besides  large  crops  of 
corn,  oats,  and  vegetables.  But  its  chief  industry 
is  fruit  growing,  and  in  the  production  of  oranges 
and  lemons  especially,  it  is  the  most  important 
State  in  the  Union. 

Florida,  Gulf  of,  the  name  given  to  the  chan¬ 
nel  between  Florida  and  the  Bahamas,  traversed 
by  the  Gulf  Stream.  From  Florida  Reefs  on  the 
south,  to  Settlement  Point,  the  most  northern 
of  the  Bahamas  in  the  channel,  is  200  miles  long; 
greatest  breadth  at  the  southern  extremity  150‘ 
miles;  at  the  northern  65  miles. 

Florin  was  the  name  of  a  gold  coin  first  struck 
in  Florence  in  the  thirteenth  century.  It  was  the 
size  of  a  ducat,  and  had  on  one  side  a  lily,  and 
on  the  other  the  head  of  John  the  Baptist.  Some 
derive  the  name  from  the  city,  and  others  from 
the  flower.  These  coins  were  soon  imitated  all 
over  Europe.  The  gulden  or  florin  is  the  unit  of 
account  in  Austria,  and  has  a  value  of  50  cents. 

Florin 'ians,  a  Gnostic  sect  of  the  second  cen¬ 
tury,  so  called  from  a  Roman  priest,  Florinus, 
who,  with  his  fellow  presbyter,  Blastus,  intro¬ 
duced  doctrines  resembling  those  of  Valentinus, 
in  the  pontificate  of  Eleutherius  (176),  and  was 
excluded  from  communion  by  that  pontiff. 

FTo'rists’  Flowers  are  those  kinds  of  flowers 
which  have  been  cultivated  with  peculiar  care, 
and  of  which,  consequently,  there  exist  numerous 
varieties,  differing  very  much  in  appearance  from 
each  other  and  from  the  original  flower.  Such  are 
tulips,  hyacinths,  roses,  auriculas,  carnations, 
anemones,  ranunculuses,  dahlias,  etc. 

Flotow,  Friedhich,  Freiherr  von,  a  German 
operatic  composer,  born  in  Mecklenburg,  April 
27,  1812.  He  composed  many  light  operas,  but 
his  reputation  rests  mainly  on  Martha,  which  re¬ 
mains  a  great  favorite.  He  died  Jan.  24,  1883. 

Flot'sam.  Wreck,  in  the  legal  acceptation  of 
the  word,  is  goods  which  having  been  scattered 
by  a  shipwreck  have  floated  to  land.  From  goods 
in  the  position  of  wreck  are  distinguished  those 
known  to  the  law  of  England  by  the  expressions 
flotsam,  jetsam,  and  ligan.  The  first  is  where  the 
goods  continue  floating  on  the  surface  of  the 
waves;  the  second  is  where,  being  cast  into  the 
sea,  they  sink  and  remain  under  water;  the  third 
is  where  they  are  sunk  in  the  sea  but  are  tied  to 
a  cork,  bladder,  or  buoy,  in  order  that  they  may 
be  recovered. 

Flounder  ( Platessa ),  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the 
flatfish  family  ( PleuroneclicUr ),  having  one  row  of 
cutting  teeth  in  each  jaw,  and  generally  pavement- 
like  teeth  on  the  pharynx  ;  the  dorsal  and  anal 
fins  extending  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the 
body,  the  dorsal  not  coming  further  forward  than 
the  center  of  the  upper  eye  ;  the  tail-fin  distinctly 
separated  both  from  the  dorsal  and  the  anal.  To 
this  genus  belong  the  plaice,  flounder,  dab,  etc., 
of  the  British  shores. 

Flower,  or  Blossom,  that  part  of  a  phaneroga¬ 
mous  plant  in  which  the  organs  of  reproduction 
(stamens  and  pistils)  are  situated,  and  which  con¬ 
sists  essentially  of  a  single  group  of  these,  gener¬ 
ally  surrounded  by  floral  envelopes  (the  calyx  and 
corolla).  Both  the  organs  of  reproduction  and  the 
floral  envelopes  are  metamorphosed  leaves,  and 
arise  in  successive  whorls  from  a  much  shortened 
axis,  called  the  thalamus  (Gr.,  a  nuptial  bed),  or 
torus  ( Lat. ,  a  couch).  Flowers  are  sometimes  closely 
attached  to  the  stem  or  branch  from  which  they 
grow,  and  are  then  said  to  be  sessile  (Lat.,  sitting); 
but  sometimes  there  intervenes  a  flower-stalk  or 
peduncle,  either  simple  or  branched.  The  whole 
assemblage  of  floweis  of  a  plant  is  called  its  inflo¬ 
rescence,  and  the  different  kinds  of  inflorescence, 
or  modes  in  which  the  flowers  are  produced  and 
grouped,  are  often  as  characteristic  as  the  diversi¬ 
ties  in  the  flowers  themselves,  although  the  latter 
are  in  general  more  important  with  reference  to 
J  botanical  affinities.  In  the  large  natural  order 


FLOWERS. 


395 


FLUTING. 


composite  many  small  flowers  are  congregated  on  a 
common  receptacle,  and  surrounded  with  bracts  in 
the  form  of  an  involucre,  as  a  single  flower  is  sur¬ 
rounded  by  its  calyx.  The  head  of  flowers  is  in  this 
case  popularly  called  a  flower;  and  the  individual 
flowers  of  which  it  is^  composed  are  by  botanists 
styled  florets.  This  term  is  also  applied  to  the  indi¬ 
vidual  flowers  in  the  spikelets  of  the  grasses,  of 
which  the  glumes  are  a  common  involucre.  The 
order  of  the  whorls  in  flowers  is  invariable:  the 
calyx  is  always  exterior  to  the  corolla;  within 
the  corolla  are  the  stamens  or  male  organs  of 
reproduction,  and  in  the  center  of  all  is  the  pistil, 
the  female  organ  of  reproduction.  An  outer-calyx, 
or  whorl  of  metamorphosed  leaves,  exterior  to  the 
calyx  and  usually  smaller,  is  found  in  some  flowers, 
as  mallows,  and  is  called  the  epicalyx.  Within  the 
corolla,  there  is  sometimes  an  additional  or  supple¬ 
mentary  corolla,  called  the  corona,  coronet,  or 
crown.  When  the  calyx  and  corolla  are  not  easily 


Illustration  of  some  of  the  Principal  Parts  of  a  Flower 
(from  Balfour’s  Botany). 

1,  Section  of  the  flower  of  Ranunculus,  showing  sepals, 
petals,  numerous  stamens,  with  adnate  anthers,  placed 
below  the  carpels.  2,  Anatropal  seed  of  Aconite,  cut 
vertically,  showing  abundant  homogeneous  albumen 
and  a  small  embryo.  3,  Diagram  of  the  flower  of  Ra¬ 
nunculus,  with  five  sepals,  five  petals,  numerous  stamens, 
and  carpels.  4,  Ripe  follicle  of  Columbine.  5,  Ripe 
achene  of  Ranunculus.  G,  Numerous  single-seeded  car¬ 
pels  of  Ranunculus.  7,  Spurred  petal  of  Columbine. 

distinguishable,  the  term  perianth,  or  perigone,  is 
employed,  as  in  the  lily,  crocus,  iris,  and  the 
greater  number  of  endogenous  plants,  although 
even  in  these  there  are  really  two  whorls  closely 
united.  Both  stamens  and  pistils  are  generally 
present  in  the  same  flower,  which  is  called  a  her¬ 
maphrodite  or  perfect  flower;  but  many  flowers 
contain  only  the  male  organs  of  reproduction,  and 
many  contain  only  the  female  organs,  and  such 
flowers  are  described  as  unisexual,  diclinous, 
or  imperfect;  and  respectively,  as  male  or  stami- 
niferous,  and  female  or  pistilliferous  flowers. 
Male  flowers  are  also  called  barren  or  sterile,  and 
female  flowers  fertile,  although  their  fertility  de¬ 
pends  on  the  communication  of  pollen  from  the 
staminiferous  flowers.  When  both  male  and 
female  flowers  are  produced  on  one  plant,  the 
species  is  said  to  be  monoecious  (Gr.,  having  one 
house);  but  when  they  are  on  separate  plants  it  is 
dioecious  (Gr.,  having  two  houses);  those  which 
produce  male,  female,  and  hermaphrodite  flowers 
are  called  polygamous.  Sometimes  both  stamens 
and  pistils  are  wanting,  and  the  flower  is  then  said 
to  be  neuter  or  empty,  as  in  the  case  of  the  florets  of 
the  ray  in  many  composite  flowers:  Sometimes,  on 
the  contrary,  both  calyx  and  corolla  are  wanting, 
and  then  the  flower  is  said  to  be  naked  or  achlamyd- 
eous  (Gr.,  without  covering),  as  flowers  having 
only  one  floral  envelope  are  called  monochlamyd- 
eous,  and  flowers  having  both  calyx  and  corolla  are 
called  dichlamydeous.  Achlamydeous  flowers  are 
often  grouped  in  some  peculiar  manner,  and  pro¬ 
tected  by  bracts  or  by  a  spathe. 

Flowers,  Artificial.  This  branch  of  manu¬ 
facture,  though  not  usually  ranked  among  the 
fine  arts,  may  be  regarded  as  holding  an  inter¬ 
mediate  place  between  them  and  the  mechanical 
arts.  The  Italians  were  the  first  to  bring  it  to  a 
high  state  of  perfection,  and  it  is  now  successfu'ly 
carried  on  both  in  England  and  France.  The 
value  of  artificial  flowers  annually  exported  from 
France  exceeds  $3,000,000. 

Floyd,  John  B.,  born  in  1805,  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  War  by  Buchanan,  in  March,  1857. 
Prior  to  resigning  in  December,  I860,  he  caused 
large  numbers  of  cannon  and  muskets  to  be  sent 
South,  where  they  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Con¬ 


federates.  Floyd  became  Major-General  under 
the  Confederacy,  was  defeated  at  Fort  Donelson, 
and  sought  safety  by  flight.  He  died  in  1863. 

Floyd,  William,  born  in  New  York,  1734,  died 
in  1821,  served  in  the  Continental  Congress,  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Flox  .Eris  is  a  term  applied  to  the  suboxide  or 
red  oxide  of  copper. 

Fluid,  a  collection  of  material  particles  which 
can  be  moved  among  each  other  by  an  indefinitely 
small  force.  Fluids  are  distinguished  into  elastic 
and  inelastic — the  former  being  those  the  volume 
of  which  is  diminished  by  pressure,  and  increases 
when  pressure  is  removed;  the  latter  being  those 
which  have  not  this  property — e.  g.,  water  and  all 
those  fluids  termed  liquids. 

Fluke,  the  pointed  triangular  termination  to 
each  arm  of  an  anchor.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  one  of  the  points  of  a  whale’s  tail. 

Fluke,  or  Fluke-worm  ( Distoma  hepaticum), 
an  entozoon  common  in  the 
liver  and  biliary  ducts  of  rumi¬ 
nants,  particularly  of  sheep,  in 
which  it  produces  the  disease 
called  rot,  often  causing  great 
mortality  in  flocks  during  wet 
seasons  and  on  ill-drained  lands. 

It  receives  its  common  name 
from  its  resemblance  in  form  to 
the  flounder,  of  which  fluke  is  a 
Scotch  and  old  English  name. 

For  a  similar  reason  it  is  some¬ 
times  called  plaice.  It  is  a  trem- 
atode  worm,  higher  in  organi¬ 
zation  than  the  cestoid  worms, 
but  not  so  high  as  the  Cvelelmin- 
ilia.  It  is  genera'lynot  quite  an 
inch  in  length. 

Fluor  Spar,  a  mineral  which 
lias  been  often  described  as  chemically  fluate  of 
lime,  a  compound  of  fluoric  (hydrofluoric)  acid 
and  lime,  but  which  is  in  reality  fluoride  of  cal¬ 
cium  (CaF),  consisting  of  48.14  fluorine  and  51.86 
calcium  (the  base  of  lime). 

Fluores'cence  is  the  term  applied  to  a  blue 
appearance  exhibited  by  certain  substances  ex¬ 
posed  to  sunlight,  and  especially  observable  in  a 
dilute  solution  of  sulphate  of  quinine 

Flu'orine  is  an  elementary  substance  allied  to 
chlorine.  Its  principal  natural  source  is  the 
mineral  fluor  spar  (CaF),  although  it  is  also 
found  in  minute  quantities  in  the  igneous  rocks, 
natural  waters,  plants,  the  bones  and  teeth  of 
animals,  as  also  in  milk,  blood,  etc.  Many  at¬ 
tempts  have  been  made  to  isolate  fluorine,  but 
these  have  all  failed,  owing  to  the  extremely 
energetic  nature  of  the  substance,  which  causes  it 
to  unite  with  substances  the  moment  it  is  liberated 
from  a  previous  state  of  combination.  The  most 
important  property  which  hydrofluoric  acid  pos¬ 
sesses  is  its  power  of  eating  into  and  dissolving 
glass,  which  admits  of  its  application  in  the  etch¬ 
ing  of  characters  upon  glass. 

Fluor  'otype,  a  process  in  which  salts  of  fluoric 
acid  are  employed  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
pictures  by  the  agency  of  light.  Two  solutions 
are  prepared;  one  containing  20  grains  of  bromide 
of  potassium  to  an  ounce  of  water;  and  the  other, 
5  grains  of  fluoride  of  sodium  to  an  ounce  of 
water.  These  are  mixed  together  just  previous 
to  using,  and  applied  uniformly  over  the  whole 
surface  of  good  paper,  which  is  then  allowed  to 
dry,  and  afterward  rendered  sensitive  by  brush¬ 
ing  over  it  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  60 
grains  to  an  ounce  of  water.  Papers  so  prepared 
maybe  used  for  the  production  of  pictures  in  the 
camera  or  printing  frame;  they  require;  however, 
to  be  intensified  by  development  with  protosul- 
phate  of  iron,  the  reducing  action  of  which  should 
be  regulated  by  the  addition  of  acetic  acid  to  the 
solution. 

Flush,  a  term  used  in  the  navy  in  reference  to 
decks,  which  are  said  to  be  flush  when  extending 
without  break  on  one  level  from  the  bow  to  the 
stern.  Frigates  and  all  smaller  vessels  of  war 
(excepting  a  few  steamers)  are  now  constructed 
with  flush  upper-decks;  but  what  are  technically 
termed  "  flush-decked  ships,”  are  such  as  have  all 
their  guns  on  the  upper-deck,  as  corvettes,  sloops, 
brigs,  and  smaller  vessels.  The  term  is  of  gen¬ 
eral  use  in  mechanics,  as  denoting  that  O'  e  portion 
of  a  structure  is  on  a  level  with  another. 


Flush 'ing' (Dutch  Vlisdngen),  a  strong  fortress- 
and  seaport  of  the  Netherlands,  in  the  Province 
of  Zealand,  is  situated  on  the  south  coast  of  the 
Island  of  Walcheren,  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Western  Scheldt,  in  latitude  51°  26’ 
N.,  and  longitude  3°  36'  E.  It  was  formerly  an 
important  naval  station  of  the  Netherlands,  and 
had  extensive  dock-yards  and  arsenals.  Flushing 
is  strongly  fortified,  and  commands  the  entrance 
of  the  Scheldt.  Pop:  (1880),  10,080.  Flushing  is 
the  birthplace  of  Admiral  de  Ruyter.  It  was 
stormed  and  taken  by  the  English  in  the  Walch¬ 
eren  expedition  under  Lord  Chatham  in  1809. 

Flus'tra,  a  genus  of  zoophytes,  of  the  class 
Polyzoa  (or  Bryozoa),  and  order  Cheilostomala, 
some  of  the  species  of  which  are  common  on 
the  British  shores.  The  name  is  said  to  have 
been  derived  by  Linnaeus  from  the  Saxon  Austrian, 


Portion  of  Flustra  Truncata  (from  Johnston’s  Zoophytes) . 
a,  a  few  cells  magnified. 

to  weave,  because  of  the  mat-like  structure  of  the 
polypidoms,  which  in  this  genus  are  extremely 
plant-like,  and  by  unscientific  observers  are  gen¬ 
erally  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  vegetable,  and 
not  to  the  animal  kingdom. 

Flute,  a  wind  instrument  having  a  soft  and 
pleasant  quality  of  tone.  It  is  commonly  made 
of  boxwood  or  ebony,  but  sometimes  of  ivory  or 
silver.  Its  form  is  that  of  a  taper  tube,  made  in 
four  pieces,  with  six  holes  for  the  fingers,  and 
with  from  one  to  fourteen  keys,  which  cover  or 
open  other  holes.  The  sound  is  produced  by 
blowing  from  the  mouth  into  the  embouchure, 
an  oval  kind  of  hole  at  one  side  of  the  thick  end, 
which  is  done  by  the  lips  covering  a  part  of  the 
hole,  so  that  the  air  in  its  passage  from  the  mouth 
is  broken  against  the  opposite  edge  of  the  hole, 
which  causes  the  column  of  air  inside  the  tube  to 
vibrate.  The  notes  of  the  gamut  are  produced 
by  the  opening  or  shutting  of  the  holes  by  the 
fingers  of  both  hands.  The  compass  of  the  flute 
is  from  Dto  A  sharp,  nineteen  diatonic  intervals. 
For  solo-playing,  a  flute  with  a  compass  from  G 
to  C  is  sometimes  used.  For  orchestral  purposes 
there  are  also  the  tierce  flute,  the  octave  flute, 
the  E  flat  and  F  piccolo  flute;  and  the  highest  of 
all,  the  G  piccolo. 

Flute-work,  the  name  given  to  a  particular 
class  of  stops  in  organ-building,  in  contradis¬ 
tinction  to  reed-work.  There  are  also  numerous 
stops  in  German  organs,  specially  designated 
with  the  names  of  flutes  of  different  kinds,  of 
eight  feet  and  four  feet  pitch,  some  of  which 
have  lately  been  introduced  into  English  organs. 

Flut'ing,  the  moldings  in  the  form  of  hol¬ 
lows  or  channels  cut  vertically  on  the  surface  of 


columns.  These  were  adopted  by  the  Greeks  as 
ornaments  to  their  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corinthian 


Fluke-worm  ( Dis¬ 
toma  hepaticum). 


FLUX. 


396 


FLYING  SQUID. 


columns,  and  were  retained  by  the  Romans  in 
their  architecture.  The  Tuscan  is  the  only  style 
without  flutes.  In  Doric  (Fig.  1)  there  are  twenty 
flutes  on  the  circumference,  and  the  curves  meet 
with  a  sharp  edge.  These  curves  are  supposed,  in 
Greek  Doric,  to  be  elliptical,  and  they  are  carried 
up  across  the  necking  to  the  base  of  the  cap.  In 
the  other  st3'les  there  are  twenty-four  flutes  on  the 
circumference  (Fig.  2). 

Flux  ( fluo ,  I  flow)  is  the  term  given  to  the  sub¬ 
stances  employed  in  the  arts  which  cause  or 
facilitate  the  reduction  of  a  metallic  ore  and  t lie 
fusion  of  the  metal.  White  flux  is  an  intimate 
mixture  of  ten  parts  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda  and 
thirteen  parts  of  dry  carbonate  of  potash,  and  is 
mainly  instrumental  in  withdrawing  the  silica  or 
combined  sand  from  mineral  substances;  black 
flux  is  prepared  by  heating  in  close  vessels  ordi¬ 
nary  cream  of  tartar  (bitartrate  of  potash),  when 
an  intimate  mixture  of  finely -divided  charcoal 
and  carbonate  of  potash  is  obtained.  The  latter 
flux,  when  mixed  with  finely-divided  metallic 
ores,  and  the  whole  raised  to  a  high  temperature 
in  a  furnace,  is  not  only  useful  in  removing  the 
silica,  which  the  carbonate  of  potash  it  contains 
enables  it  to  do,  but  the  charcoal  withdraws  the 
oxygen  from  the  metallic  oxide,  and  causes  the 
separation  of  the  pure  metal.  Limestone  is 
employed  as  the  flux  in  the  smelting  of  iron  ores. 
The  other  fluxes  are  fluor  spar,  borax,  protoxide 
of  lead,  etc. 

Flux  (LaX.fluxus,  from  fluo,  I  flow),  a  discharge, 
generally  from  a  mucous  membrane.  The  term 
is  applied  more  or  less  frequently  to  all  preter¬ 
natural  fluid  evacuations  from  the  body,  but 
especially  to  those  fromtlfte  bowels,  and  from  the 
uterine  organs.  Dysentery  was  long  termed  the 
bloody  flux,  to  distinguish  it  from  simple 
diarrhoea.  Another  scientific  term  for  flux  is 
profluvium,  which  gives  the  name  to  a  large 
order  of  diseases  in  Cullen’s  Nosology. 

Fluxions,  in  Mathematics.  The  method  of 
fluxions  invented  by  Newton  was  intimately  con¬ 
nected  with  the  notion  of  velocity  uniform  and 
variable,  and  extended  that  notion,  derived  from 
the  consideration  of  a  moving  point,  to  every 
species  of  magnitude  and  quantity.  It  proposed 
to  determine,  in  all  cases,  the  rate  of  increase  or 
decrease  of  a  magnitude  or  quantity  whose  value 
depends  on  that  of  another,  which  itself  varies  in 
value  at  a  uniform  and  given  rate. 

Fly,  a  popular  name  often  given  to  insects  of 
the  order  Diptera  generally,  extended  to  insects 
of  other  orders,  and  sometimes  limbed  to  the 
Musci''es.  It  is  often  used  with  a  prefix,  as  house¬ 
fly,  blow-fly,  etc.,  to  designate  particular  kinds 
of  insects. 

Fly-catcher  (Muscicapa),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  order  Insessores ,  tribe  Dentirostrcs,  and  family 
Huscicapidm.  The  legs  and  feet  are  small;  the 
outer  toe  the  longest,  and  attached  to  the  middle 


Spotted  and  Pied  Fly-catchers  (Muscicapa  grisola  and  it/. 
atricapilla) . 

one  as  far  as  the  first  joint.  The  wings  are  not 
long;  their  first  quill-feather  is  very  short;  the 
third  is  the  longest.  The  birds  of  this  genus,  as 
now  restricted,  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  Old 
World,  and  mostly  to  the  warmer  parts  of  it. 

Flying,  or  Flight,  is  the  locomotion  of  an  ani¬ 
mal  in  the  air,  by  means  of  wings,  organs  specially 


adapted  to  that  purpose.  By  means  of  these 
organs,  the  animal  raises  itself  from  the  ground 
and  sustains  itself  in  the  air,  as  well  as  moves 
forward  in  any  direction  it  desires.  Birds  and 
bats  are  the  only  existing  vertebrate  animals  pos¬ 
sessing  the  power  of  true  flight;  the  lateral  mem¬ 
branes  of  flying  squirrels,  filing  lemurs,  flying 
phalangers,  and  filing  dragons,  and  probably 
even  the  great  pectoral  fins  of  flying  fishes,  serv¬ 
ing  only  to  sustain  them  in  the  air  after  the  man¬ 
ner  of  a  parachute,  or,  at  most,  to  aid,  on  the  prin¬ 
ciple  of  a  boy’s  kite,  in  an  oblique  ascent.  The 
extinct  reptiles,  called  pterodactyles,  possessed, 
however,  the  power  of  true  flight  ,  as  their  remains 
sufficiently  testify,  and  their  wings  were  con¬ 
structed  on  a  plan  as  different  from  those  both  of 
birds  and  of  bats  as  these  are  from  each  other. 
The  wings  in  all  vertebrate  animalsare  the  anterior 
limbs,  and  are  thus  homologous  to  the  arms  of 
man  and  the  forelegs  of  ordinary  quadrupeds;  in 
birds,  the  bones  answering  to  those  of  the  hand 
are  much  abbreviated  and  consolidated;  in  bats, 
they  are  prodigiously  elongated;  in  pterodactyles, 
there  was  an  elongation  of  a  single  finger.  Among 
birds,  although  the  power  of  flight  is  general, 
there  are  exceptions  to  the  rule,  the  wings  of  some 
being  merely  rudimentary,  and  at  most  only  help¬ 
ful  to  them  in  running,  those  of  others  being 
adapted  to  swimming,  not  on  the  surface  of,  but 
under  water.  The  only  invertebrate  animals  pos¬ 
sessing  the  power  of  flight  are  insects. 

Flying  Dragon,  or  Flying  Lizard  (Draco),  a 
genus  of  crassilingual  lizards,  allied  to  the  igua¬ 
nas  and  stellions,  but  remarkably  distinguished 
from  them,  and  indeed  from  all  other  reptiles 
now  existing,  by  lateral  membranes  which  sup¬ 
port  them  in  a  parachute  like  manner  in  the  air, 
and  enable  them  to  pass  from  tree  to  tree,  even  to 
considerable  distances.  All  the  species  are  of 
small  size,  live  in  trees,  :uid  feed  on  insects. 
They  are  natives  of  the  East  Indies.  The  genus 
is  subdivided  by  some  naturalists. 

Flying  Dutchman,  a  mariner  who  was  com¬ 
pelled,  as  a  penalty  for  his  sins,  to  sweep  the  seas 
around  the  Cape  of  Storms  unceasingly,  without 
ever  being  able  to  reach  a  haven.  Seamen  who 
saw  his  black,  spectral  ship  on  the  horizon,  quickly 
changed  their  course,  and  hastened  to  fly  from 
his  fatal  influence.  The  notion  that  gave  founda¬ 
tion  to  this  legend  is  widespread  in  German  myth¬ 
ology.  The  dead  crossed  the  water  in  boats  and 
ships,  and  northern  heroes  were  sometimes  buried 
in  their  ships,  sometimes  placed  in  a  ship  which 
was  taken  out  to  sea,  and  allowed  to  drift  with 
the  waves;  and  the  same  story  is  localized  in  the 
German  Ocean,  where  Herr  von  Falkenberg  is 
condemned  to  beat  about  the  ocean  until  the  day 
of  judgment,  on  board  a  ship  without  helm  or 
steersman,  playing  at  dice  for  his  soul  with  the 
devil.  The  legend  has  been  treated  by  Richard 
Wagner  in  his  opera,  Der  Fliegende  Hollander. 

Flying  Fish,  a  name  given  to  all  those  fishes 
which  have  the  pectoral  fins  so  large  that,  by 
means  of  them,  they  are  sustained  in  short- 
seeming  flights  in  the  air.  These  fishes  belong 
to  two  different  families — Scomberesocidce  and 


Flying  Fish  ( Exocmlus  volitans) . 
Sclerogenidm;  but  the  name  flying  fish  is  some¬ 
times  limited  to  those  of  the  former  family,  the 
genus  Exocostus,  those  of  the  latter  being  known 
as  flying  gurnards.  The  genus  Exocmlus  has 
the  pectoral  fins  nearly  as  long  as  the  body,  the 
dorsal  fin  placed  over  the  anal,  the  tail  forked, 
and  its  lower  division  considerably  larger  than 
the  upper.  It  is  subdivided  by  some  naturalists 
into  several  genera,  characterized  by  the  presence 


or  absence  of  barbels,  etc.  In  tropical  seas,  thirty 
species  are  known.  They  swim  in  shoals;  and 
whole  shoals — varying  in  number  from  a  dozen 
to  100  or  more — often  leave  the  water  at  once, 
darting  in  the  same  direction  through  the  air, 
and  after  descending  into  the  water  at  a  distance 
of  200  yards  or  more  from  the  place  where  they 
arose,  quickly  renewing  their  flight  . 

Flying  Gurnard  ( Dactylopterus ),  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  family  Sclerogenulre  or  mailed 
cheeks,  nearly  allied  to  the  gurnards  (Trigla), 
but  remarkably  distinguished  by  the  great  size  of 
the  pectoral  fins,  which  they  use  for  the  samepur- 


Flying  Gurnard  ( Dactylopterus  volitans). 
pose  and  in  the  same  way  as  the  Exocmti.  The 
pectoral  fins  are,  however,  different  from  those  of 
the  Exocmti,  widening  almost  to  the  end,  which 
is  rounded,  and  the  tips  of  the  rays  extending 
considerably  beyond  the  membrane. 

Flying  Lemur,  or  Colugo  (Galenpitlecus), 
sometimes  also  called  Flying  Cat  and  Flying 
Fox,  a  genus  of  mammalia,  generally  regarded  as 
constituting  a  distinct  family,  Galeopithecidce, 
which,  by  some  naturalists,  is  placed  among  the 
Cheiroptera;  although  it  is  now  more  commonly 
associated  with  the  lemurs,  as  by  Linnaeus. 
There  are,  indeed,  evident  affinities  both  to 
lemurs  and  bats,  but  chiefly  to  the  former,  with 
which  the  osteological  and  other  anatomical  char¬ 
acters  generally  agree.  Along  the  sides  extends 
an  ample  membrane  or  fold  of  the  skin,  begin¬ 
ning  behind  the  throat,  and  including  both  the 
fore  and  hind  legs  as  far  as  the  toes,  but  leaving 
them  free,  and  further  stretched  along  both  sides 
of  the  tail  to  the  tip  In  the  last  particular,  it 
differs  from  the  lateral  membrane  of  the  flying 
squirrels  and  flying  phalangers,  and  more 
resembles  that  of  bats. 

Flying  Phalan'ger,  or  Flying  Opos'sum 
( Pefaurus ),  a  genus  of  marsupial  quadrupeds,  con¬ 
taining  several  species,  natives  of  New  Guinea 
and  of  Australia,  where  they  are  generally  called 


1,  Flying  Phalanger  ( Petaurus  tagvanoides). 
2.  Fl.ying  Mouse  (Pefaurus  pygnueus). 


squirrels  or  flying  squirrels.  They  are  nearly 
allied  to  the  phalangers,  which  they  particularly 
resemble  in  dentition,  but  have  not  the  tail  so 
long  and  prehensile. 

Flying  Squid  (Ommastrephes),  agenusof  cepli- 
alopodous  mollusks,  allied  to  the  calamaries  or 
squids.  The  tail  is  large,  and  the  power  of  loco¬ 
motion  great,  so  that  these  mollusks  not  only  pass 
rapidly  through  the  water,  but  leap  out  of  it,  and 
high  enough  sometimes  to  fall  upon  the  decks  of 
ships.  They  form  a  principal  part  of  the  food 
of  many  of  the  Cetacea,  and  are  often  the  prey 
of  albatrosses,  petrels,  and  other  marine  birds. 


FLYING  SQUIRREL. 


397 


FOOD. 


Flying  Squirrel  ( Pleromys ),  the  name  given  to 
a  considerable  number  of  species  of  the  squirrel 
family  ( Sciuridae ),  which  have  a  fold  of  the  skin 
of  the  flanks  extended  between  the  fore  and  hind 
legs,  and  partly  supported  by  bony  processes  of 


the  feet,  by  means  of  which  they  are  enabled  to 
take  extraordinary  leaps,  gliding  for  a  great  dis¬ 
tance  through  the  air.  Several  species  are  natives 
of  this  country,  and  others  inhabit  the  southeast 
of  Asia  and  the  Indian  Archipelago. 

Foetus,  the  term  applied  in 
medicine  to  the  mammalian 
embryo,  especially  in  its  more 
advanced  stages.  In  the 
human  subject,  we  usually 
speak  of  the  embryo  at  and 
after  the  end  of  the  fourth 
month  as  a  foetus. 

Fog,  or  Mist,  is  the  visible 
watery  vapor  sometimes  hang¬ 
ing  near  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  caused,  as  clouds 
are,  by  the  precipitation 
of  the  moisture  of  the  at¬ 
mosphere.  This  takes  place 
when  a  stratum  of  atmosphere 
comes  in  contact  with  a  colder 
stratum,  or  with  a  portion  of 
the  earth’s  surface,  as  a  hill,,., 
by  which  it  is  cooled,  so  tliatu 
it  can  no  longer  hold  in  solu-  ^  ., 

tion  as  much  moisture  as  be-  „  ' 

fm-P  It  nl'ipp  i„„The  Foetal  Circulation 

101  e.  it  taxes  place  also  (from  Wilson's  An- 

wlien  a  cold  stratum  of  atmos-  alomist's  VadeMe- 
pliere  comes  above  a  moist,  cum,). 

warm  portion  of  the  earth’s  aUrt„  ® 
n i  +!-*/-»  nvLni-.t,*p.v.n  proceeding  iiom  o, 

"  the  placenta;  c,  the 

umbilical  vein;  d ,  d, 
its  branches  going  to 
the  li  ver  ;  e,  the 
ductus  venosus the 
inferior  vena  cava;  g, 
the  portal  vein;  h,  the 
right  auricle .  The 
uppermost  arrow  in¬ 
dicates  the  course  of 
the  blood  through 
th  &  foramen  ovale,  i, 
the  left  auricle ;  k ,  the 
left  ventricle.  The 
arrow  commencing 
in  the  left  ventricle, 
and  with  its  head  on 
the  ascending  aorta, 
indicates  the  course 
of  the  blood  to  be  dis¬ 
tributed  to  the  head 
and  extremities;  l, 
the  arch  of  the  aorta. 
The  aiTows  m  and  n 
represent  the  return 
of  the  blood  from  the 
head  and  upper  ex- 
'  tremities,  through 
the  jugular  and  sub¬ 
clavian  veins,  to  the 
superior  vena  cava, 

o,  to  the  right  auricle, 

p,  and,  as  shown  by 
the  arro w, through 
the  right  ventricle,  Ic, 
to  the  pulmonary 
artery,  q;  r,  the  duc¬ 
tus  arteriosus;  s,  s, 
the  descending  aorta ; 

t,  the  hypogastric  or 
umbilical  arteries;  u, 

u,  the  external  iliac 
arteries. 


surface,  the  exhalations  from 
which  are  precipitated  and 
become  visible  as  they  ascend 
into  it.  Thus,  fogs  are 
formed  over  lakes,  rivers,  and 
marshes  in  the  evening,  be¬ 
cause  the  water  is  then  warmer 
than  the  atmosphere  above  it. 
The  fogs  seen  in  the  morning 
often  disappear  by  being  dis¬ 
solved  in  the  atmosphere  as 
the  temperature  increases. 
The  fogs  on  the  coasts  of 
XewEngland  and  Nova  Scotia 
are  caused  by  bodies  of  warm 
air  wafted  over  cold  water. 

Fog'gia,  a  town  of  Italy, 
capital  of  the  province  so 
named  (formerly  Capitanata), 
in  Southern  Italy.  Pop. (1881), 
30,852;  of  commune,  40,283. 

Fog  signals,  audible  warn¬ 
ings  used  on  board  ships,  on 
the  sea-coast,  or  on  railways, 
during  fogs  and  mists,  or  at 
any  other  time  when  lights 
or  ordinary  daylight  signals 
are  not  available.  The  com¬ 
monest  f  o  g-s  i  g  n  a  1  on  ship¬ 
board  is  the  continuous  ring¬ 
ing  of  the  ordinary  time-bell, 
or  striking  the  anchor  with  a 
hammer,  together  with  the 


occasional  discharge  of  musketry  and  heavy 
guns.  These  are  adopted  to  prevent  collisions 
when  ships  are  overtaken  by  a  fog  where  shi  p 
ping  is  abundant.  Steam-vessels  generally  blow 
a  whistle  under  these  circumstances.  The  fog- 
signals  used  on  railways  arc  small  cases  charged 
with  detonating  powder,  and  laid  upon  the  rails. 
They  explode  loudly  when  the  wheel  of  an  ad¬ 
vancing  train  comes  upon  them.  They  are  not 
merely  used  in  fogs,  but  in  all  cases  of  danger, 
from  obstruction  of  the  line,  or  in  other  cases  of 
urgency  when  a  train  has  to  be  stopped  between 
stations. 

Fohr,  an  island  in  the  North  Sea,  on  the  west¬ 
ern  coast  of  Schleswig.  Area,  28  square  miles, 
and  pop.,  5,000. 

Foil,  a  thin  bar  of  elastic  steel,  mounted  as  a 
rapier,  but  without  a  point,  and  additionally 
blunted  at  the  end  by  a  button  covered  with 
leather.  It  is  used  in  fencing. 

Foil  (from  folium,  a  leaf),  a  general  name  for 
thin  metal,  intermediate  in  thickness  between  leaf- 
metal,  such  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper  leaf,  and 
sheet-metal.  There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of  foil 
in  common  use — the  tin  foil  used  for  silvering 
looking-glasses,  lining  tea-caddies,  and  other 
similar  purposes,  and  for  the  conducting  coatings 
of  electrical  apparatus;  and  the  bright  foils 
employed  by  the  jewelers  for  backing  real  or 
artificial  gems,  and  thereby  increasing  their  luster 
or  modifying  their  color. 

Foix,  an  old  French  family,  which  took  the 
title  of  count  from  the  District  of  Foix  (now  the 
Department  of  Aricge),  in  the  South  of  France. 
The  first  was  Roger,  Comte  de  Foix,  who  flour¬ 
ished  in  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century. 
Raymond,  Comte  de  Foix,  figures  as  one  of  the 
knights  who  accompanied  King  Philippe  Auguste 
to  Palestine;  afterward,  being  accused  of  heresy, 
his  estates  were  seized  by  Comte  de  Montford. 
He  died  in  1223. — Gaston  III.,  Comte  de  Foix, 
born  1331.  For  his  services  to  the  King  he  was 
made  Governor  of  Languedoc  and  Gasconv. 
When  eighteen  years  of  age,  he  married  Agnes, 
daughter  of  Philip  III.,  King  of  Navarre. 
After  his  death,  in  1391,  the  estates  and 
title  went  to  a  collateral  branch  of  the  fam¬ 
ily. — Gaston  IV.,  Comte  de  Foix,  rendered 
good  service  to  the  King  in  the  wars  against  Eng¬ 
land.  He  died  in  1472. — The  last,  his  grandson, 
Gaston  de  Foix,  was  probably  the  most  heroic 
member  of  the  family.  He  was  born  in  1489,  and 
in  1507  received  from  his  uncle,  the  French  King, 
the  title  of  Due  de  Nemours.  He  twice  over¬ 
threw  the  Swiss,  at  Como  and  Milan;  chased  Pope 
Julius  II.  from  Bologna;  seized  Brescia  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  Venetians,  and  won  the  Battle  of  Ra¬ 
venna  over  the  Spaniards,  April  11,  1512,  in  which, 
however,  he  fell,  at  the  age  of  twenty-three.  The 
estates  and  title  of  the  House  of  Foix  went  to 
Henri,  King  of  Navarre. 

Folger,  Charles  James,  LL.D.,  born  in 
Massachusetts,  April  16, 181 8,  held  several  judicial 
offices  in  New  York  State,  in  1881  became  Secre¬ 
tary  of  the  Treasury,  and  died  Sept.  4,  1884. 

i'oi  'ia  Malabath'ri,  i.  e.,  malabar  leaves,  for¬ 
merly  in  repute  as  amedicine;  an  aromatic  tonic; 
the  dried  leaves  of  Cinuamomum  nitidum,  and, 
partly  of  C.  tamala,  species  of  cinnamon,  small 
Indian  trees  or  shrubs. 

Folia'tion,  a  term  restricted  by  Mr.  Darwin, 
and  subsequently  by  geologists,  to  the  alternating 
layers  or  plates  of  different  mineralogical  nature, 
of  which  gneiss  and  some  other  metamorphic 
schists  are  composed.  It  differs  from  cleavage, 
which  is  applied  to  the  divisional  planes  that  ren¬ 
der  a  rock  fissile,  although  it  may  appear  to  the 
eye  quite  or  nearly  homogeneous;  and  from  lami¬ 
nation,  which  is  the  easy  splitting  of  a  rock  into 
its  original  layers  of  deposition. 

Folkes,  Martin,  LL.D.,  an  eminent  English 
scholar  and  antiquary,  born  at  Westminster  in 
1690.  He  died  in  1754. 

Folli-lore,  a  term  compounded  after  a  German 
model,  and  of  late  used  to  designate  what  may 
be  called  a  department  of  antiquities  or  archae- 
ology  —  viz.,  that  which  relates  to  ancient 
observances  and  customs,  and  also  ideas,  preju¬ 
dices,  and  superstitions  among  the  common 
people. 

Fomentation (Lat.  fomentntio;  also  fotus ,  from 
foveo,  I  bathe),  an  application  of  warmth  and 


moisture  to  a  part,  by  means  of  cloths  wrung  out 
of  hot  water,  sometimes  medicated  with  vegetable 
infusions  of  substances  calculated  to  relieve  pain 
or  stimulate  the  surface.  Thus,  opium,  bella¬ 
donna,  chamomile,  turpentine,  etc.,  are  used  in 
various  forms  in  connection  wiili  fomentations, 
which  are  of  very  great  service  in  the  treatment  of 
almost  all  painful  local  disorders. 

Fond  du  Lac,  a  city  and  the  capital  of  a  county 
of  the  same  name  in  Wisconsin.  It  is  situated  on 
the  west  shore  of  Lake  Winnebago,  is  the  seat  of 
extensive  manufacturing  industries,  has  important 
railway  connections,  and  is  noted  for  its  numerous 
artesian  wells.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Fonse'ca,  a  bay  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Central 
America,  between  San  Salvador  and  Nicaragua. 
It  is  the  proposed  terminus  of  an  interoceanic  rail¬ 
way  from  the  Puerto  Caballos  in  Honduras. 

Fontainebleau,  a  town  in  France,  in  the  De¬ 
partment  of  Seine-et-Marne,  thirty-five  miles 
southeast  of  Paris.  Pop.  (1876),  11,545. 

Fontenelle,  Bernard  le  Bovieii  de,  French 
author,  born  Feb.  11,  1657.  He  wrote  a  few 
operas,  a  musical  and  dramatic  pastoral  entitled 
Endymion,  several  tragedies,  comedies,  fables, 
fugitive  pieces,  epigrams,  etc.  His  prose  writings 
were  formerly  much  read,  but  he  was  particularly 
celebrated  for  his  bonmots,  and  for  the  manner  in 
which  he  edited  the  Meinoircs  de  l' Academic  des 
Sciences,  and  executed  his  Eloges. 

Fontenoy,  a  village  of  Belgium,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Hainaut,  five  miles  southwest  of  Tour- 
nay,  deserves  mention  as  the  scene  of  the  Battle 
of  Fontenoy,  one  of  the  most  bloody  in  the  War 
of  the  Austrian  Succession.  It  was  fought  May 
11,  1745,  the  opposing  forces  being  the  French, 
60,000  strong,  under  Marshal  Saxe,  and  the  allies 
(English,  Dutch,  and  Austrians),  in  nearly  equal 
force,  under  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  The  allies 
were  finally  forced  to  retreat.  The  loss  on  both 
sides  was  about  7,000  men.  The  Irish  soldiers  in 
the  French  service  greatly  distinguished  them¬ 
selves. 

Fontina'lis,  a  genus 
of  mosses,  allied  to 
Hypnum,  b  u  t  having 
the  fruit  in  the  bosom 
of  the  leaves,  almost 
without  stalk.  The 
greater  water-moss  (E. 
antipyrelica),  growing 
upon  rocks  and  roots  of 
trees  in  brooks  and 
ponds,  is  remarkable  for 
the  difficulty  with  which 
it  burns,  even  when 
completely  dried. 

Food.  Although 
nearly  sixty  elementary  L 
substances  are  known  to 
chemists,  only  a  com¬ 
paratively  small  number 
of  these  take  part  in  the 
formation  of  man  and 
other  animals;  and  it  is 
only  this  small  number  al 
o  f  constituents  which 
are  essential  elements  of 
our  food.  These  ele¬ 
ments  are  carbon, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  Greater  Water-Moss (Foutin- 
-  _  °  ,  i  „  alts  antipyrelica)  : 

oxygen,  phosphorus,  1  v  , 

„  „  r.fi.  ..  *  i,  i  I  „ ;  „  ’  a,  spore-case  or  capsule,  tli 

sulphur,  c  h  1  o  l  l  n  e,  vested  of  calyptra  and  lid, 
sodium,  potassium,  cal-  showing  the  peristome  ;  6, 
cium,  magnesium,  iron,  spore-case,  with  its  iuvolu- 
and  fluorine.  Carbon,  ere  of  leaf-hke  scales, 
hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen  are  supplied  to 
the  system  by  the  albuminous  group  of  alimentary 
principles — viz.,  albumen,  fibrine,  and  caseine, 
which  occur  both  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  king¬ 
doms,  and  the  gluten  contained  in  vegetables.  Ani¬ 
mal  flesh,  eggs,  milk,  corn,  and  many  other  vegeta¬ 
ble  products,  contain  one  or  more  of  these  princi¬ 
ples.  The  gelatinous  group  also  introduces  the 
same  elements  into  the  system,  when'  such  sub¬ 
stances  as  preparations  of  isinglass,  calves  feet,  etc., 
are  taken  as  food.  Carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 
are  abundantly  introduced  into  the  system  in  the 
form  of  sugar,  starch  (which  occurs  in  large 
quantity  in  the  cereal  grains,  leguminous  seeds, 
roots,  tubers,  etc.,  used  as  food),  and  organic 
acids  (which,  as  citric,  malic,  tartaric  acid,  etc.. 


FOOLS. 


398 


FOOT. 


occur  iu  numerous  vegetables  employed  as  food). 
Carbon,  with  a  little  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  occurs 
abundantly  in  the  oleaginous  group  of  alimentary 
principles,  as,  for  instance,  in  all  the  fat,  suet, 
butter,  and  oil  that  we  eat;  in  the  oily  seeds,  as 
nuts,  walnuts,  cocoa-nuts,  etc.;  and  in  the  fatty 
foods,  as  liver,  brain,  etc.  Phosphorous  is  sup¬ 
plied  to  us  by  the  flesh,  blood,  and  bones  used  as 
food  (the  flesh  of  fishes  is  especially  rich  in  phos¬ 
phoric  matter),  and  iu  the  form  of  various  phos¬ 
phates  it  is  a  constituent  of  many  of  the  vegeta¬ 
bles  used  as  food.  The  system  derives  its  sulphur 
from  the  fibrine  of  flesh,  the  albumen  of  eggs, 
and  the  caseine  of  milk,  from  the  vegetable  fibrine 
of  corn,  etc.,  from  the  vegetable  albumen  of 
turnips,  cauliflowers,  asparagus,  etc. ,  and  from 
the  vegetable  caseine  of  peas  and  beans.  Most  of 
the  culinary  vegetables  contain  it,  especially  the 
Crucifer ce.  Chlorine  and  sodium,  in  the  form  of 
chloride  of  sodium,  are  more  or  less  abundantly 
contained  in  all  varieties  of  animal  food,  and  are 
taken  separately  as  common  salt.  Potassium  is  a 
constituent  of  both  animal  and  vegetable  food;  it 
occurs  in  considerable  quantity  in  milk,  and  in  the 
juice  that  permeates  animal  flesh;  and  most  inland 
plants  contain  it.  We  derive  the  calcium  of  our 
system  from  flesh,  bones,  eggs,  milk,  etc.  (all  of 
which  contain  salts  of  lime);  most  vegetables  also 
contain  lime-salts;  and  another  source  of  our 
calcium  is  common  water  , which  usually  contains 
both  bicarbonate  and  sulphate  of  lime.  Magnes¬ 
ium  in  small  quantity  is  generally  found  in  those 
foods  that  contain  calcium.  Iron  is  a  constituent 
of  the  blood  found  in  meat;  and  it  occurs  in 
smaller  quantity  in  milk,  in  the  yolk  of  egg,  and 
in  traces  in  most  vegetable  foods.  Fluorine  occurs 
in  minute  quantity  in  the  bones  and  teeth.  This 
small  quantity  is  accounted  for  by  the  traces  of 
fluorine  found  in  milk,  blood,  etc.  These  simple 
bodies  are  not,  however,  capable  of  being  assimi¬ 
lated  and  converted  into  tissue;  they  must  be  pre¬ 
viously  combined,  and  this  combination  is  pri¬ 
marily  conducted  by  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The 
number  of  combined  elements  varies;  thus  water 
contains  only  two;  sugar,  starch,  fat,  and  many 
organic  acids,  contain  three;  caseine  contains  five; 
and  fibrine  and  albumen  contain  six. 

Fools,  Feast  of.  The  Romans  kept  the  festi¬ 
val  of  Saturn,  in  December,  as  a  time  of  general 
license  and  revelry.  During  the  brief  season  of 
the  Saturnalia  the  slave  reclined  on  his  master’s 
seat  at  table,  the  master  waited  upon  his  slave, 
and  society,  for  the  moment,  seemed  to  be  turned 
upside  down.  The  custom  survived  the  pagan 
creed  which  gave  it  birth,  and  not  only  kept  its 
place  among  the  Christians,  but  found  its  way 
into  the  ceremonial  of  the  Christian  Church.  It 
was  called,  at  different  times  and  places,  by  many 
different  names,  but  has  latterly  come  to  be  best 
known  as  the  “feast  of  fools”  (Festum  fatuorum, 
Festum  slultorum). 

Fool’s  Parsley  {FEthusa  cynapium),  an  um¬ 
belliferous  plant,  resembling  parsley  in  its  foliage 
and  general  appearance,  so  that  serious  accidents 


1,  Fool's  Parsley,  general  umbel;  2,  Common  Parsley, 
leaf  and  general  umbel. 

a,  partial  umbel  of  fool’s  parsley;  6,  fruit  of  common 
parsley ;  c,  flower  of  common  parsley. 

have  occurred  from  its  being  mistaken  for  that 


herb,  it  being  poisonous  and  somewhat  resem¬ 
bling  hemlock  in  its  properties. 

Font  is  the  common  unit  of  lineal  measure.  It 
was  evidently  taken  originally  from  the  length  of 
the  human  foot,  and  as  that  varies  in  length,  so 
does  the  measure;  each  country,  and  at  one  time 
each  town,  having  a  foot  of  its  own. 

Foot.  The  twent y-s i x 
bones  of  the  foot  are  ar¬ 
ranged  in  three  natural  groups 
— viz.,  the  tarsal  bones,  which 
are  the  hindermost;  the  meta¬ 
tarsal  bones,  which  occupy 
the  middle  portion;  and  the 
phalanges  of  the  toes,  an¬ 
teriorly.  The  tarsal  bones, 
seven  in  number,  are  short  and 
thick,  and  form  the  heel  and 
the  hinder  part  of  the  instep. 

The  uppermost  is  called  the 
astragalus,  from  its  supposed 
resemblance  to  the  dice  used 
by  the  Romans.  Above,  it  is 
articulated,  oris  jointed  with 
the  two  bones  of  the  leg,  the 
tibia  and  fibula,  and  through 
these  bones  the  whole  weight 
of  the  body  is  thrown  upon 
the  two  astragali.  Behind,  it 
is  connected  with  and  rests 
upon  the  os  calcis,  or  heel- 
bone,  which  is  the  largest 
bone  of  the  foot.  Immedi¬ 
ately  in  front  of  it  and  sup¬ 
porting  it  in  this  direction,  is 
the  scaphoid  or  boat-like  bone. 

In  front  of  the  scaphoid 
bone  are  the  three  cuneiform 
or  wedge  bones;  and  on  the 
outer  side  of  the  cuneiform 
bones,  and  in  front  of  the  os 
calcis,  is  the  cuboid  bone. 

There  are  five  metatarsal 
bones  passing  forward,  one 
for  each  toe.  Each  cuneiform 
bone  is  connected  with  one, 
and  the  cuboid  bone  with 
two,  of  these  metatarsal 
bones.  The  bones  of  the  toes 
are  named  the  phalanges,  each 
toe  having  three  of  these 
bones,  excepting  the  great 
toe,  which  has  only  two. 

The  instep  is  composed  of  the  seven  tarsal  and 
the  five  metatarsal  bones.  The  bones,  where  they 
articulate  with  one  another,  are  covered  with  a 
tolerably  thick  layer  of  highly  elastic  cartilage, 
and  by  this  means,  together  with  the  very  slight 
movements  of  which  each  bone  is  capable,  a  de- 


This  figure  represents  a  section  through  the  lower  end  of 
the  tibia,  and  through  the  astragalus  I),  the  heel-bone 
F,  the  scaphoid  bone  E,  the  internal  cuneiform  bone, 
and  the  bones  of  the  great  toe ;  A  represents  the  plan¬ 
tar  ligament,  and  B  the  interior  caleaneo-scaphoid  lig¬ 
ament  passing  from  the  heel-bone  F.  to  thescaphoid,  E; 
C  is  one  of  two  small  bones  called  sesamoid  bones, 
usually  found  at  the  ball  of  the  great  toe.  The  lines 
show  the  disposition  of  the  laminae  or  plates  of  which 
the  various  bones  are  composed.  The  clear  line  along 
the  contiguous  edges  of  the  bones  represents  the  car¬ 
tilage. 

gree  of  elasticity  is  given  to  the  foot.  The  liga¬ 
ments  which  unite  these  bones  to  one  another, 
and  by  which  the  movements  of  each  bone  upon 
the  others  are  limited,  are  numerous.  One,  the 
plantar  ligament,  of  great  strength,  passes  from 
the  under  surface  of  the  heel-bone,  near  its  ex¬ 
tremity,  forward  to  the  ends  of  the  metatarsal 
bones.  Another  strong  ligament  passes  from  the 


under  and  fore  part  of  the  heel-bone  to  the  under 
parts  of  the  scaphoid  bone.  The  various  move- 


This  figure  represents  some  of  the  muscles  and  tendons 
seen  on  the  inner  side  of  the  leg  and  foot. 

A,  the  gastrocnemius  and  soleus  muscles,  forming  the 
muscles  of  the  calf;  a.  the  tendo  aehillis;  B,  the  pos¬ 
terior  tibial  muscle;  b,  its  tendon:  U,  the  inner  ankle; 
F,  the  anterior  tibial  muscle,  attached  above  to  the 
front  of  the  tibia,  below  to  the  internal  cuneiform  bone; 
k,  the  flexor  tendon  of  the  great  toe. 

ments  of  the  foot  are  effected  by  the  muscles  of 
the  calf,  the  posterior  tibial  muscle  and  the  shor-t 


This  figure  represents  some  of  the  muscles  and  tendons 
on  the  outer  side  of  the  leg  and  foot. 

E,  lower  end  of  fibula,  forming  the  outer  ankle;  C,  the 
short  fibular  muscle,  attached  above  to  the  fibula,  and 
below  by  its  tendon  (c)  to  the  outer  metatarsal  bone;  I, 
the  long  fibular  muscle,  its  tendon  Vi)  running  behind 
the  outer  ankle  and  under  the  instep  to  the  metatarsal 
bone  of  the  great  toe;  G,  the  anterior  or  third  fibular 
muscle,  attached  above  to  the  fibula  and  below  by  its 
tendon  (?)  to  the  outer  metatarsal  bone ;  h,  the  exten¬ 
sor  tendons  of  the  toes. 


fibular,  in  conjunction  with  the  anterior  tibial  and 
the  third  fibular,  the  first  three  controlling  the 


Rhinoceros.  Hippopotamus.  Elephant. 


a,  astragalus;  cl,  calcaneum  or  heel-bone;  s,  scaphoid;  b, 
cuboid;  ce,  eetro-,  cm,  meso  .  and  ci,  the  ento-cuneiform. 
Figures  1  to  5  indicate  perfect  or  rudimentary  toes. 

posterior  portions  of  the  foot  and  the  last  two.the 
anterior  portion. 


The  Dorsal  Surface 
of  the  Left  Foot. 

1,  the  astragalus,  its 
upper  articular  sur¬ 
face;  2,  its  anterior 
extremity,  which 
articulates  with  (4) 
the  scaphoid  bone; 
3,  the  os  calcis,  or 
heel-bone;  4.  the 
scaphoid  bone ;  5, 
the  internal  cunei¬ 
form  bone;  6,  the 
middle  cuneiform 
bone :  7  the  external 
cuneiform  bone;  8, 
the  cuboid  bone;  9, 
the  metatarsal  bones 
of  the  first  and 
second  toes;  10,  11, 
the  first  and  second 
phalanges  of  the 
great  toe;  12,  13,  14. 
the  first,  second,  and 
third  phalanges  of 
the  second  toe. 


FOOT. 


399 


FORESTS. 


Foot,  in  Music,  is  a  term  made  use  of  in  the 
same  way  as  in  poetry,  denoting  a  short  melodic 
figure  of  notes  with  only  one  accent.  Foot  is  also 
now  beginning  to  be  used  in  speaking  of  the  pitch 
of  sounds.  The  Germans  have  always  used  the 
Tvordfusston  in  representing  the  pitch  of  the  dif¬ 
ferent  stops  of  an  organ,  such  as  principal  16  F., 

8  F.,  or  4  F.,  etc.,  which  convenient  practice  lias 
been  introduced  into  English  organs.  The  pitch 
of  the  stop  is  fixed  according  to  the  length  of  the 
lowest  C  pipe. 

Football.  This  game  has  long  been  a  favorite 
throughout  the  British  Isles,  and,  as  a  winter 
game,  is  more  popular  than  any  other,  especially 
in  universities  and  public  schools.  A  large  park 
or  common  is  best  suited  for  the  game,  one  of  the 
most  attractive  features  of  which  is,  that  it  may 
be  simultaneously  enjoyed  by  a  great  number  of 
players.  There  are  at  present  two  styles  of  foot¬ 
ball,  one  known  as  the  Rugby  game,  the  other 
as  the  Association  game.  In  both  games  the  object 
is  to  drive  the  ball  between  certain  bounds,  placed 
at  opposite  ends  of  the  ground — the  game  being 
played  in  the  intervening  space— and  called  goals. 
The  goal  is  formed  of  two  upright  posts,  which, 
in  the  Rugby  game,  are  joined  by  a  cross-bar  at  a 
height  of  ten  feet,  and  in  the  Association  game  by 
a  tape  at  the  height  of  eight  feet.  The  aim  in  the 
Rugby  game  is  to  drive  the  ball  between  the  posts 
and  over  the  cross-bar  of  the  enemy’s  goal;  in  the 
Association  game,  to  drive  it  through  the  posts 
below  the  tape.  Two  side-lines,  called  goal-lines, 
are  drawn  from  each  of  the  goals,  and  the  boundary 
of  the  playing-ground  on  each  side  is  marked  by 
a  line  called  the  touch-line.  The  opposing  players 
take  their  positions  opposite  each  other  at  different 
ends  of  the  field.  The  game  is  decided  by  the 
number  of  goals  won  in  a  certain  space  of  time, 
which  is  divided  into  equal  parts,  after  each  of 
which  the  players  change  ends.  The  ball  used  is 
made  of  an  India-rubber  bladder,  covered  with 
strong  leather. 

Foote,  Andrew  Hull,  born  in  Connecticut  in 
1806,  entered  the  navy  at  sixteen,  and  fought  in 
the  Chinese  War  in  1856.  He  participated  in  the 
capture  of  Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson,  became 
Rear-Admiral  in  July,  1862,  and  died  in  June, 
1863. 

Foot-pound  is  the  unit  by  which  the  work  done 
by  a  force  is  estimated;  thus  (taking  1  lb.  and  1 
foot  as  the  units  of  weight  and  distance),  if  1  lb. 
be  raised  through  1  foot,  the  work  done  is  equal 
to  1  foot-pound;  if  10  lb.  be  raised  9  feet,  the  work 
done  is  90  foot-pounds;  and  generally,  if  W 
represent  the  work  done,  P  the  weight  in  pounds, 
and  h  the  height  in  feet,  then  W  (in  foot-pounds) 
=  P  h. 

Foot-rot,  amongst  sheep,  is  of  two  varieties,  - 
the  commoner  consisting  of  an  inordinate  growth 
of  hoof,  which,  at  the  toe,  or  round  the  margin, 
becomes  turned  down,  cracked,  or  torn,  and  thus 
affords  lodgment  for  sand  and  dirt.  Insufficient 
wearing  of  the  hoof  is  the  obvious  cause,  and 
hence  the  prevalence  of  foot-rot  in  soft,  rich 
pastures,  and  especially  amongst  sheep  previously 
accustomed  to  bare,  rough,  or  upland  walks, 
where  the  hoof  is  naturally  worn  down  by  the 
greater  amount  of  walking  necessary  to  procure 
sustenance.  Taken  in  time,  when  lameness  is  first 
apparent,  and  before  the  hoof  is  cracked,  and  the 
foot  inflamed,  a  cure  rapidly  follows  the  careful 
paring  of  the  superfluous  and  diseased  hoof, 
indeed,  further  treatment  is  scarcely  necessary, 
unless  any  of  the  vascular  parts  have  been  laid 
bare,  when  a  little  tar  may  be  applied  as  a  mild 
astringent  and  protection  from  flies.  When,  from 
inattention  or  neglect,  the  hoof  is  separated  from 
the  sensitive  parts  beneath,  when  ulcers  appear  on 
the  sole,  or  proud-flesh  springs  up,  active  astrin¬ 
gents  or  mild  caustics  are  necessary.  The  second 
and  more  troublesome  variety  is  allied  to  what 
is  termed  foul  in  the  foot,  and  instead  of  com¬ 
mencing  at  the  ground  surface,  it  begins  in  the 
interdigital  space ;  it  appears  to  depend  upon 
constitutional  rather  than  local  causes,  frequently 
occurring  with  the  other  variety,  but,  unlike  it, 
occasionally  becoming  contagious. 

Foraminif  'era,  a  group  of  mostly  marine 
protozoa.  Most  of  the  species  are  minute, 
although  one  of  more  than  two  inches  in  diameter 
has  been  found  in  Borneo,  and  fossil  forms  ap¬ 
proaching  to  this  size  are  well  known  under  the 


name  of  nummulites,  from  their  resemblance  to 
coins.  They  are  found  among  sea-sand,  and 


Foraminifera. 


1,  Orbulina  universa;  i.  Lagena  striata;  3,  Textularia;  4, 
Operoulina;  5,  Faujasina;  ti,  Rosalina  globularis;  7,  Cassi- 
dulina;  8,  Part  of  two  chambers  of  an  Orbiculina;  9, 
Vertical  Section  of  fossil  Nummulite. 

among  all  the  dredgings  of  deep  water.  The 
fossil  species  are  still  more  numerous,  and  consti¬ 
tute  a  great  part  of  some  calcareous  rocks,  as  of 
chalk. 

Forbes,  James  David,  an  English  scientist, 
born  April  20,  1809.  Among  his  contributions 
to  science  are — the  polarization  of  radiant  heat  by 
the  tourmaline,  and  also  by  reflection,  and  its  cir¬ 
cular  polarization — discoveries  forming  some  of 
the  strongest  proofs  of  the  identity  of  calorific 
and  luminous  rays;  the  unequal  polarization  of 
heat  from  different  sources,  the  refrangibility  of 
heat;  the  depolarization  of  heat,  etc.  He  is,  how¬ 
ever,  best  known  to  the  world  in  general  by  his 
researches  on  the  motion  of  glaciers.  He  died  Dec. 
31,  1868. 

Forbid 'den  Fruit,  a  name  fancifully  given  to 
the  fruit  of  different  species  of  Citrus.  It  is  a 
small  variety  of  the  shaddock  which  generally 
receives  this  name.  But  on  the  continent  of 
Europe,  a  different  fruit,  regarded  by  some  as  a 
variety  of  the  orange,  and  by  some  as  a  distinct 
species  ( Citrus  paradisi),  is  known  as  the  for¬ 
bidden  fruit  or  Adam’s  apple.  The  name  for¬ 
bidden  fruit  has  also  been  given  to  the  fruit  of 
Taberncemnntana  dichotoma,  a  tree  of  Ceylon,  of 
the  natural  order  Apocynaceae.  The  shape  of  the 
fruit — which  is  a  follicle,  containing  pulp — sug¬ 
gests  the  idea  of  a  piece  having  been  bitten  off, 
and  the  legend  runs  that  it  was  good  before  Eve 
ate  of  it,  although  it  has  been  poisonous  ever 
since. 

Forcing,  in  Gardening,  is  the  artificial  appli¬ 
cation  of  heat  to  accelerate  vegetation.  The  term 
is  not  usually  applied  to  the  cultivation  of  exotic 
plants  in  hothouses,  where  the  object  is  to  imitate 
as  much  as  possible  their  native  climate;  but  it  is 
strictly  applicable  to  the  system  usually  pursued 
with  vines  and  pine-apples,  to  secure  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  fruit  at  desired  seasons,  and  by  different 
plants  of  the  same  kind  in  succession  through  a 
considerable  period,  the  heat  being  increased  for 
one  set  of  plants  sooner  than  for  another.  Many 
of  the  fruits  and  vegetables  which  grow  well  in 
the  open  air,  are  frequently  forced,  in  order  that 
they  may  be  procured  at  seasons  when  they  could 
not  without  artificial  means. 

Ford,  Fording.  When  a  river  is  crossed  with¬ 
out  the  aid  of  either  a  bridge  or  ferry,  it  is  said 
to  be  forded,  and  an  established  place  for  this 
crossing  is  called  a  ford.  The  widest  part  of  the 
river  should  usually  be  chosen,  as,  wherever  a 
certain  quantity  of  water  is  flowing,  the  wider  its 
bed — the  rapidity  of  the  flow  being  the  same — 
the  shallower  it  must  be.  At  the  bend  of  a  river, 
the  line  of  shallow  water  does  not  run  straight 
across,  but  extends  from  a  promontory  on  one 
side  to  the  nearest  promontory  on  the  other. 

Ford,  John,  an  English  dramatist,  was  bap¬ 
tized  April  17,  1586.  He  produced  a  number  of 
plays  that  were  popular  in  his  day,  but  the  only 
ones  that  survived  him  are  The  Broken  Heart  and 
Love’s  Sacrifice.  The  date  of  his  death  is  not 
known. 

Fore  (i.  e.,  first),  a  term  applied  to  the  front  or 


foremost  part  of  a  ship.  The  foreliold  is  that 
part  of  the  hold  intervening  between  the  cutwater 
and  the  foremast.  The  forecastle  is  that  portion 
of  the  upper  deck  extending  from  the  foremast  to 
the  bow;  it  is  the  part  to  which  the  sailors  have 
free  access,  and  probably  derives  its  name  from  a 
small  turret  or  castle  placed  near  the  prow  in  an¬ 
cient  vessels,  from  which  darts  and  other  projec¬ 
tiles  could  be  most  conveniently  hurled  upon  an 
enemy.  Foremast  is  the  first  of  the  three  masts, 
or  of  the  two,  when  only  that  number  are  present. 
It  is  surmounted  by  the  foretop-mast,  foretopgal¬ 
lant-mast,  and  foreroyal;  its  sails  being  foresail, 
foretopsail,  etc.;  between  it  and  the  bow  flies  the 
forestaysail,  hoisted  on  the  forestay,  a  massive 
rope  passing  from  the  foretop  to  the  bow,  and, 
with  the  backstays  and  shrouds,  maintaining  the 
mast  in  a  perpendicular  position.  The  forebraces 
are  ropes  passing  from  the  extremities  of  the  fore¬ 
yard  into  the  maintop,  whence  they  descend 
through  pulleys  to  the  deck,  where  they  serve, 
when  necessary,  to  alter  the  direction  presented 
by  the  foresail  to  the  wind. 

Foreclos'ure,  in  Law,  the  process  by  which  a 
mortgagor  failing  to  repay  the  money  lent  on  the 
security  of  an  estate,  is  compelled  to  forfeit  his 
right  to  redeem  it.  For  this  purpose,  the  mort¬ 
gagee  files  a  bill  of  foreclosure,  praying  that  an 
account  maybe  taken  of  the  principal  and  interest 
due  under  the  mortgage,  and  that  the  mortgagor, 
on  failing  to  pay,  may  forfeit  his  equity  of  re¬ 
demption.  If,  on  the  day  fixed  for  payment,  the 
money  be  not  paid,  the  mortgagor  will  be  de¬ 
clared  to  have  forfeited  his  equity  of  redemption, 
and  the  property  sold  to  the  highest  bidder. 

Forelock  is  a  flat  wedge  driven  through  the 
end  of  a  bolt  to  prevent  its  withdrawal;  it  is  used 
principally  on  board  ship. 

Foreshort 'ening,  a  term  in  painting  or  draw¬ 
ing,  applied  to  signify  that  a  figure,  or  a  portion- 
of  a  figure,  which  is  intended  to  be  viewed  by  the 
spectator  directly  or  nearly  in  front,  is  so  repre¬ 
sented  as  to  convey  the  notion  of  its  being  pro¬ 
jected  forward;  and,  though  by  mere  comparative 
measurement  occupying  a  much  smaller  space  on 
the  surface,  yet  to  give  the  same  idea  of  length  or 
size  as  if  it  had  been  projected  laterally. 

Forest  Fly (Hippobosca  equina ),  an  insect  of  the 
order  Diptera.  It  receives  the  name  from  its  fre¬ 


quent  occurrence  in  forests.  It  is  also  called  horse¬ 
fly,  from  the  annoyance  which  it  gives  to  horses. 

'  Forest  Oak,  a  name  sometimes  given  in  com¬ 
merce  to  the  timber  of  Casuarina  torulosa  and 
other  species  of  Casuarina ,  Australian  trees. 
This  timber,  which  is  light  yellowish  brown,  and 
marked  with  short,  red  veins,  is  used  for  orna¬ 
mental  work. 

Foresls.  The  primitive  forests  of  America 
were  of  immense  extent,  and  contained  a  diversity 
of  species,  covering  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
with  few  exceptions,  all  that  portion  of  the  North 
American  continent  which  has  been  occupied  by 
British  colonists.  About  forty  species  of  oak  are 
indigenous  in  America,  sixteen  conifers,  several 
maples,  birch,  ash,  beech,  elm,  hornbeam,  hick¬ 
ory,  poplar,  magnolia,  walnut,  butternut,  etc. 
The  East'  rn  and  Middle  States  were  at  one  time 
dense  forests;  now,  these  are  denuded  in  a  great 
measure  of  the  pines  and  other  commercial  woods, 
and  are  compelled  to  draw  much  of  their  supply 
from  Canada  and  the  West.  The  enormous  sup¬ 
plies  of  timber  still  brought  to  market  may  be 
judged  of  from  the  fact  that  the  number  of  saw¬ 
mills  in  1870  was  25,817 — an  increase  of  over 
6,000  in  ten  years.  Fortunately  public  opinion 
has  been  aroused,  and  a  Forestry  Association  has 
been  formed,  to  show  the  vast  annual  decrease  of 
forests,  and  the  urgent  necessity  of  preservation 


FORESTS. 


400 


FORTUNATUS. 


and  planting  to  a  large  extent  .  The  United  States 
and  several  State  governments  have  encouraged 
tree-planting  by  laws.  In  the  prairie  regions, 
energetic  measures  are  being  adopted  to  create 
woodlands  on  hitherto  treeless  plains. 

Forests,  Fossil,  have  been  frequently  observed 
in  the  coal  measures.  The  seams  of  coal  having 
in  general  been  formed  from  the  vegetation  of  the 
locality  where  they  occur,  it  is  to  be  expected 
that,  when  the  coal  is  removed,  the  stools  and 
roots  of  the  trees  would  be  observed  in  the  im¬ 
mediately  subjacent  bed  of  shale — the  ancient 
soil.  Though  most  abundant  in  strata  of  the  car¬ 
boniferous  period,  fossil  forests  have  been  observed 
in  other  formations.  The  dirt-bed  of  the  lower  Pur- 
beck  series  is  the  remains  of  an  ancient  forest.  In¬ 
stances  are  also  abundant  in  the  pliocene  strata. 
The  remains  of  ancient  forests,  belonging  to  a 
yet  later  period,  are  to  be  found  in  beds  of  peat. 
There  is  good  evidence  that  some  kinds  of  peat 
had  their  origin  in  the  destruction  of  forests. 
Trunks  and  branches  of  beech,  hazel,  fir,  etc., 
are  found  in  them,  and  their  roots  may  be  traced 
in  the  underclay.  Fossil  forests  are  also  formed 
in  various  Western  States  and  Territories  on  the 
surface,  the  trees  or  portions  of  them  being  pre¬ 
served  in  a  petrified  form. 

Forfarshire,  or  Angus,  a  county  in  the  East 
of  Scotland,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  German 
Ocean,  on  the  north  by  Kincardine  and  Aberdeen 
shires,  on  the  west  by  Perthshire,  and  on  the 
south  by  the  Firth  of  Tay.  Pop.  (1S81),  266,374. 
Forfar  is  the  county  town. 

Forge,  Forging.  The  process  of  hammering 
red-hot  iron  or  steel  into  any  required  shape  is 
called  forging,  and  the  workshop  in  which  the 
operation  is  performed,  a  forge.  The  principal 
tools  of  a  common  smith’s  forge  are  the  forge-fire 
or  hearth,  with  its  bellows,  the  anvil,  and  the 
various  hammers,  swages,  etc.  For  large  work, 
an  air  furnace,  blown  by  steam  bellows,  supplies 
the  place  of  the  simple  hearth  of  the  blacksmith, 
powerful  cranes  swing  the  work  to  its  place  on 
the  anvil,  and  a  steam  hammer  strikes  the  blows 
that  squeeze  the  red-hot  mass  into  shape. 

Forgery  (Fr.  forger,  to  form  metal  into  shape; 
to  fabricate).  The  crimen  falsi  of  the  Roman  law, 
is  held,  at  common  law,  to  be  the  fraudulent 
making  or  altering  of  a  writing  or  seal  to  the 
prejudice  of  another  man’s  right,  or  of  a  stamp  to 
the  prejudice  of  the  revenue.  As  regards  writ¬ 
ings,  the  instrument  forged  must  be  executed 
with  such  skill  or  in  such  circumstances  as  to  be 
capable  of  being  mistaken  for  a  genuine  docu 
ment  by  a  person  of  ordinary  intelligence  and 
observation.  It  is  not  necessary  that  there  should 
be  even  an  attempt  at  imitation.  Any  material 
alteration,  however  slight,  is  a  forgery,  just  as 
much  as  the  subscription  of  the  name  of  the  pre¬ 
tended  maker,  or  the  fabrication  of  the  entire 
deed. 

Forget-me-not,  or  Scorpion  Grass  ( Myosotis ), 
a  genus  of  annual  or  biennial  herbaceous  plants. 
The  flowers  are  small,  and  generally  blue.  The 
genus  is  diffused  over  the  temperate  zone  in  all 
quarters  of  the  world,  and  a  number  of  species 
are  common,  chiefly  growing  in  ditches  and 
damp  meadows — as  M.  palustris,  with  crooked, 
creeping  perennial  roots — an  angular  stem  of 
a  foot  in  height,  and  calyx  covered  withappressed 
bristles.  M.  sylmlica,  with  calyx  covered  with 
stiff,  spreading  hairs,  grows  in  bushy  places  and 
woods,  and  is  often  planted  in  flower-gardens. 

Forlorn-liope,  the  body  of  men  selected  to  at¬ 
tempt  a  breach,  or  to  lead  in  scaling  the  wall  of  a 
fortress.  The  name  is  given  on  account  of  the 
extreme  danger  to  which  the  leaders  of  a  storm- 
ing-party  are  necessarily  exposed. 

Forma  Pan 'peris,  the  phrase  usually  em¬ 
ployed  to  signify  the  arrangement  by  which  an 
action  may  be  carried  on  by  one  who  is  too  poor 
to  sue  in  the  ordinary  way. 

For  'raic  Acid  (CIUO)  derives  its  name  from  the 
circumstance  of  its  having  been  first  obtained 
from  the  Formica  rufa,  or  red  ant.  In  a  concen¬ 
trated  state,  it  is  a  fuming  liquor  with  an  irritat¬ 
ing  odor,  aud  occasions  vesication  if  dropped 
upon  the  skin.  It  crystallizes  at  a  temperature 
below  32°,  and  boils  at  about  212°,  yielding  a 
vapor  which  burns  with  a  blue  flame.  It  is  a 


!  strong  reducing  agent,  at  a  boiling  temperature 
reducing  the  salts  of  silver,  mercury,  platinum, 
and  gold. 

Forming’s  Island  is  a  speck  on  the  bosom  of 
the  Pacific,  lying  a  little  to  the  north  of  the 
Sandwich  Group,  or  Hawaiian  Archipelago,  in 
latitude  30°  49'  N. ,  and  longitude  159°  20'  W. 
It  is  one  of  the  dependencies  of  the  British 
Empire,  having  been  formally  occupied,  mainly 
on  account  of  its  excellent  harbor,  toward  the 
close  of  1860. 

Formo'sa  (Chinese  name,  Tai-wan),  a  large 
island  on  the  southeast  coast  of  China,  opposite 
the  Province  of  Fo-kien,  from  which  it  is  distant 
about  ninety  miles.  It  lies  between  21°  53' — 25° 
16'  N.  latitude,  and  120°  15' — 122°  4'  E.  longi¬ 
tude.  Length,  about  237  miles;  average  breadth, 
about  70  miles. 

Fornication  ( fornicatio ,  from  fornix,  an  arch¬ 
vault,  and  by  metonymy,  a  brothel,  because 
brothels  at  Rome  were  in  cellars  and  vaults  under¬ 
ground).  In  most  countries  this  crime  has  been 
brought  within  the  pale  of  positive  law  at  some 
period  of  their  history,  and  prohibited  by  the 
imposition  of  penalties  more  or  less  severe.  In 
England,  in  1650,  the  repeated  act  of  keeping  a 
brothel  or  committing  fornication  was  made 
felony  without  benefit  of  clergy  on  a  second  con¬ 
viction.  Similar  laws,  of  a  most  stringent  char¬ 
acter,  were  adopted  by  the  Puritan  founders  of 
New  England. 

Forrest  City,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of  St. 
Francis  county,  Ark.  Pop.,  903. 

Forrest,  Edwin,  born  in  1806,  died  Dec.  12, 
1872,  was  one  of  the  best  tragic  actors  the  Amer¬ 
ican  stage  has  produced. 

Forrest,  Nathan  B.,  born  in  Tennessee,  July 
13,  1821,  a  well-known  cavalry  commander  in  the 
Confederate  army;  died  Oct.  29,  1877. 

Forster,  John,  an  English  writer,  born  in  1812. 
He  was  the  author  of  many  admirable  biographical 
and  historical  essays,  among  which  are  the  lives 
of  Goldsmith,  Landor,  and  Dickens.  He  died  in 
1876.  He  accompanied  Captain  Cook  on  his 
second  expedition  to  the  South  Seas,  and  wrote 
several  valuable  works  on  botany  and  mineralogy. 

Forster,  JonANN  Georg  Adam,  son  of  the  pre¬ 
ceding,  was  born  in  1754,  and  died  in  1794.  He 
pursued  the  same  line  of  studies  as  his  father,  and 
besides  writing  several  scientific  works,  he  held 
important  civil  offices. 

Forster,  The  Right  Hon.  William  Edward, 
born  July  11,  1818.  He  was  Under-Secretary  for 
the  Colonies  from  November,  1865,  till  July,  1866, 
and  Irish  Secretary  in  the  Liberal  Ministry,  1880 
to  1882.  He  died  April  5, 1886. 

Forsyth,  an  important  market  town  and  the 
county  seat  of  Monroe  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  1,105. 

Forsyth,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of  Taney 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  300. 

Fort  Abraham  Lincoln,  an  army  post  on  the 
west  bank  of  the  Missouri  river,  near  Bismarck 
and  Mandan,  was  named  in  honor  of  President 
Lincoln. 

Fort  Benton,  the  county  seat  and  an  important 
agricultural  and  ranching  town  of  Choteau  county, 
Mont. ;  and  a  popular  outfitting  point  for  travelers 
in  the  far  Northwest;  is  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Missouri  river,  at  the  head  of  navigation.  Pop., 
1,618.  The  military  post  of  the  same  name  is  two 
miles  from  the  town. 

Fort  Bridger,  an  army  post  in  Uintah  county, 
Wyo.,  named  in  honor  of  Colonel  Bridger,  the 
noted  pioneer  and  Indian  fighter. 

Fort  Collins,  the  county  seat  and  an  important 
mining  town  of  Larimer  county,  Col.  Pop.,  2,800. 

Fort  Custer,  an  army  post  on  the  Big  Horn 
river,  in  Custer  county,  Mont.,  named  in  honor 
of  Gen.  George  A.  Custer,  who,  with  his  com¬ 
mand,  was  massacred  by  Indians  on  the  Little  Big 
Horn  river,  twelve  miles  west.  The  scene  of  the 
massacre  is  marked  by  a  granite  monument. 

Fort  Bodge,  an  important  agricultural  town 
and  the  county  seat  of  Webster  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  5,000. 

For ' t6,  in  Music,  the  Italian  term  for  loud;/ar- 
tissimo,  as  loud  as  possible. 

Fort  Gaines,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of 
Clay  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  1,400. 

Fort  Gar'ry,  a  Hudson  Bay  Company’s  station, 
beside  which  has  sprung  up  the  thriving  town  of 


Winnipeg,  capital  of  the  Province  of  Manitoba,  in 
the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Winnipeg  is  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  Assiniboine  and  Red  rivers. 
Pop.  (1881),  15,000. 

Forth,  a  river  of  Scotland,  rises  in  the  north¬ 
west  of  Stirlingshire,  in  the  mountains  between 
Loch  Katrine  and  Loch  Lomond.  It  passes  Stir¬ 
ling,  and  above  Alloa  widens  out  into  the  Firth  of 
Forth. 

Forth,  FiRTn  of,  an  arm  of  the  sea,  or  the 
estuary  of  the  River  Forth,  lies  between  Clack¬ 
mannan,  Perth,  and  Fife  on  the  north,  and  Stir¬ 
ling  and  the  Lothians  on  the  south. 

Fort  Keogh,  an  army  post  on  the  Yellowstone 
river  in  Custer  county,  Mont.,  two  miles  west 
of  Miles  City.  It  has  quarters  for  ten  companies 
of  infantry  and  two  companies  of  cavalry. 

Fort  Laramie,  an  army  post  on  the  North 
Platte  river,  in  Laramie  county,  Wyo.,  seventy- 
five  miles  north  of  the  Cheyenne. 

Fort  Madison,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of 
Lee  county,  Iowa,  is  the  commercial  center  of  a 
rich  agricultural  district. 

Fort  Meade,  an  army  post  in  the  Black  Hills, 
in  Lawrence  county,  Dak.,  twelve  miles  from 
Dead  wood. 

Fort  Missoula,  an  army  post  on  the  Bitter 
Root  river  in  Missoula  county,  Mont.,  four  miles 
from  the  town  of  Missoula. 

Fort  Payne,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of  De 
Kalb  county,  Ala.  Pop.,  250. 

Fort  Randall,  an  important  agricultural  town 
and  the  county  seat  of  Todd  county,  Dak. 
Pop.,  300.  The  military  post  of  the  same  name 
is  near  the  town. 

Fort  Riley,  an  army  post  in  Davis  county, 
Kan.,  garrisoned  principally  by  cavalry. 

Fort  Royal,  a  seaport  of  the  French  island  of 
Martinique,  in  the  West  Indies,  is  the  capital  of 
the  colony.  It  is  on  the  west  coast,  in  a  bay  of 
its  own  name,  in  latitude  14°  35'  N.,  and  longi¬ 
tude  61°  4'  W.  Pop.,  12,000. 

Fort  Sheridan,  an  army  post  lately  established, 
near  Higliwood,  in  Lake  county,  Ill.,  twenty-four 
miles  north  of  Chicago.  It  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  a  bluff  overlooking  Lake  Michigan.  The 
officers’  quarters  now  in  course  of  construction 
are  designed  to  be  the  finest  in  the  United  States. 

Fort  Smith,  an  important  agricultural  and 
manufacturing  city,  and  the  county  seat  of  Sebas¬ 
tian  county,  Ark.  Pop.,  10,000. 

Fort  Swelling,  an  army  post  on  the  Mississippi 
river,  six  miles  below  St.  Paul,  Minn.  It  is 
picturesquely  situated  on  a  high  bluff,  commands 
a  fine  view  of  the  river,  and  is  a  popular  resort 
for  visitors  to  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis. 

Fort  Stockton,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of 
Pecos  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Fortress  Monroe,  an  old  fort  in  Elizabeth  City 
county,  Va.,  on  the  coast  of  Chesapeake  Bay, 
commanding  the  entrance  to  the  James  river. 
It  is  popular  as  a  summer  resort  for  Presidents, 
their  Cabinet  officers,  and  other  Government 
officials. 

Fort  Wayne,  a  city  and  the  commercial  metrop¬ 
olis  of  Northern  Indiana.  It  is  at  the  confluence 
of  the  St.  Joseph  and  Maumee  rivers,  in  the 
midst  of  a  rich  agricultural  district,  and  is  noted 
for  its  extensive  manufacturing  and  railway  in¬ 
terests.  Pop.  (1885),  26,880. 

Fredericksburg,  a  city  of  Spotsylvania 
county,  Va.,  on  the  Rappahannock  river,  fifty 
miles  north  of  Richmond.  Pop.,  5,010.  It  is 
famous  as  the  scene  of  a  bloody  battle  fought 
on  Dec.  13,  1862,  between  the  Union  forces  under 
General  Burnside  and  the  Confederates  under 
General  Lee,  in  which  the  former  lost  12,250 
men,  and  the  latter  5,309. 

Fortiguer'ra,  Nicolo,  an  Italian  poet,  was 
born  at  Pistoja,  Nov.  7,  1674,  and  died  in  1736. 

Fortun'a,  called  by  the  Greeks  Tyche,  was 
in  classical  mythology  the  goddess  of  chance. 
According  to  Hesiod,  she  was  a  daughter  of 
Oceanus;  according  to  Pindar,  a  sister  of  the 
Parcse.  She  differed  from  Destiny  or  Fate,  in 
that  she  worked  without  law,  giving  or  taking 
away  at  her  own  good  pleasure,  and  dispensing 
joy  or  sorrow  indifferently.  She  had  temples  at 
Smyrna,  Corinth,  and  Elis. 

Fortuna'tus  is  the  title  of  one  of  the  best 
people’s  books  (F olksbucher)  ever  written.  It 
originated  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 


FORUM. 


401 


FOX  SHARK. 


tury,  though  many  of  the  tales  and  legends  in¬ 
cluded  in  it  are  of  much  older  date.  The  opinion 
that  it  was  worked  up  into  German  from  a  Span¬ 
ish  or  English  original  may  be  considered  as  set 
aside.  The  substance  of  the  book  isthatFor- 
tunatus,  and  his  sons  after  him,  are  the  possessors 
of  an  inexhaustible  purse  of  gold  and  a  wishing- 
cap,  which,  however,  in  the  end,  prove  the  cause 
of  their  ruin.  The  moral  is  that  worldly  pros¬ 
perity  alone  is  insufficient  to  produce  lasting  hap¬ 
piness.  The  oldest  printed  edition  of  the  book 
now  extant  bears  the  date  Frankfurt  am  Maine, 
1509. 

Fo'nim,  a  Latin  word,  which  originally  sig¬ 
nified  an  “open  place,”  and  is  probably  con¬ 
nected  with  foras,  “out-of-doors.”  The  Roman 
fora  were  places  where  the  markets  and  courts  of 
justice  were  held. 

Fossil  (Lat.  fossilis,  dug  out  of  the  earth),  a 
term  formerly  applied,  in  accordance  with  its 
derivation,  to  whatever  was  dug  out  of  the  earth, 
whether  mineral  or  organic,  but  now  restricted  to 
the  petrified  remains  of  plants  and  animals  im¬ 
bedded  in  the  earth’s  crust.  They  were  formerly, 
and  are  sometimes  still,  called  petrifactions. 
They  occur  in  nearly  all  the  stratified  rocks. 

Fossil  Ferns.  As  far  as  has  yet  been  deter¬ 
mined  from  the  rocky  tablets  of  the  earth’s  crust, 
ferns  first  appeared  in  the  devonian  period,  but 
then  only  sparingly,  not  more  than  nine  or  ten 
species  having  been  observed.  In  the  succeeding 
coal-measures,  they  suddenly  reached  their  maxi¬ 
mum  development.  The  dense  forests  and  the 
moist  atmosphere  of  this  period  were  so  suited  to 
their  growth  that  they  formed  a  large  bulk  of  the 
vegetation.  Upward  of  350  species  have  been 
described,  some  of  them  tree  ferns  of  a  size  fitting 
them  to  be  the  companions  of  the  immense  sigil- 
larias  and  lepidodendrons,  whose  remains  are 
found  associated  with  theirs  in  the  carboniferous 
rocks.  Twenty-three  species  have  been  found  in 
Permian  strata.  Many  new  forms  appear  in  the 
trias  and  in  the  oolite.  The  fresh-water  beds  of 
this  period  contain  numerous  beautiful  ferns,  up¬ 
ward  of  fifty  species  having  been  described. 

Foster,  Stephen  Collins,  born  in  Pennsyl¬ 
vania  in  1826,  died  in  1864.  He  wrote  many  bal¬ 
lads  and  lyrics  of  a  popular  character,  amongst 
which  were  Old  Folks  at  Home  and  Gentle  Annie. 

Fostoria,  an  important  agricultural  and  manu¬ 
facturing  town  inSeneca  county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Fouch6,  Joseph,  Duke  of  Otranto,  a  French 
soldier  and  statesman,  born  May  29,  1763.  In 
1792  he  became  a  member  of  the  National  Con¬ 
vention.  In  1795  he  was  expelled  from  the  Con¬ 
vention  as  a  dangerous  Terrorist,  and  kept  in 
confinement  for  a  short  time.  In  1809  the  Em¬ 
peror  conferred  on  him  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Otranto,  with  large  grants  from  the  revenues  of 
the  Neapolitan  territory.  In  1813  the  Emperor 
sent  him  as  Governor  of  the  Illyrian  provinces, 
and,  after  the  Battle  of  Leipzig,  to  Rome  and 
Naples,  to  keep  a  watch  upon  Murat’s  proceed¬ 
ings.  After  the  Battle  of  Waterloo,  Fouelifi 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Provisional 
Government,  brought  about  the  capitulation  of 
Paris,  and  drew  back  the  army  behind  the  Loire. 
He  was  exiled  in  1816,  and  died  Dec.  26,  1820. 

Foulil,  Achille,  a  French  statesman,  born  on 
Oct.  31,  1800.  During  the  Presidency  of  Louis 
Napoleon,  Fould  was  four  times  Minister  of 
Finance, -and  was  again  appointed  on  Dec.  2, 
1851.  In  1852  he  was  create*!  a  Senator,  and 
shortly  afterward  Minister  of  State.  In  1861 
he  was  reappointed  Finance  Minister,  and  died  in 
1867. 

Found'er,  also  called  Laminitis,  consists  of 
inflammation  of  the  vascular  sensitive  laminae  of 
the  horse’s  foot.  It  is  rarely  met  with  in  cattle  or 
sheep,  owing  to  the  corresponding  structures 
being  in  them  less  developed. 

Founding,  or  Metal-casting,  is  the  art  of 
obtaining  casts  of  any  desired  object  by  means  of 
pouring  melted  metal  into  molds  prepared  for 
the  purpose.  Iron-founding,  brass-founding, 
type-founding,  as  well  as  casting  in  bronze  and 
zinc,  are  the  principal  divisions  of  the  art.  The 
casting  of  the  finer  metals  and  alloys,  as  gold, 
silver,  and  German  silver,  is  necessarily  conducted 
on  a  smaller  scale. 

Foundling  Hospitals,  establishments  in  which 
children  that  have  been  abandoned  by  their  par¬ 


ents  and  found  by  others  are  nurtured  at  the 
public  expense.  The  Foundling  Hospital  in 
London  was  established  by  Captain  Thomas 
Coram,  a  benevolent  sailor,  in  1739,  as  “an  hospi¬ 
tal  for  exposed  and  deserted  children.” 

Fonquier-Tinville,  Antoine  Quentin,  the 
notorious  public  accuser  in  the  French  Revolu¬ 
tion,  was  born  in  1747.  By  Robespierre,  he  was 
appointed,  first,  a  member,  then  director  and 
public  accuser  of  the  Revolutionary  Tribunal. 
Without  education,  conscience,  or  sense  of  justice, 
he  executed  with  brutal  apathy  the  bloody  orders 
of  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety.  He  sent  to 
the  scaffold,  without  the  slightest  compunction, 
Bailly  and  Vergniaud,  Danton  and  Hebert, 
Robespierre  and  St.  Just.  He  himself  died  by 
the  guillotine,  May  7,  1795. 

Four  Evangelists,  part  of  a  larger  group  of 
islands  known  as  the  Twelve  Apostles,  lie  off  the 
west  entrance  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  They 
are  about  latitude  52°  34'  S.,  and  longitude  75° 
5'  W. 

Four  Lakes,  a  chain  of  connected  sheets  of 
water  in  Wisconsin,  are  fed  by  springs,  and  form 
the  Cat-fish,  tributary  of  the  Rock  river.  Madi¬ 
son,  the  capital  of  the  State,  stands  on  the  strip  of 
land  which  separates  the  uppermost  of  the  series 
from  the  next  in  order. 

Fourcro'ya,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Amaryllideie,  nearly  allied  to  agave,  but 
with  stamens  shorter  than  the  corolla.  The 
species  are  all  tropical. 

Fourier,  Jean  Baptiste  Joseph,  Baron,  a 
French  mathematician,  born  March  21,  1768. 
The  Academy  of  Sciences,  which  in  1807  had 
crowned  his  essay  on  the  propagation  of  heat 
through  solid  bodies,  chose  him  a  member  in  1815, 
and  afterward  Secretary  for  life,  conjointly  with 
Cuvier.  He  died  May  16,  1830. 

Fourier',  Francois  Marie  Charles,  a  French 
Socialist,  born  April  7,  1772.  He  developed  the 
system  of  socialism  to  which  his  name  is  com¬ 
monly  given.  This  system  is  contained  in  several 
works,  written  and  published  by  him  under  dis¬ 
couraging  circumstances.  He  died  in  Paris,  Oct. 
8,  1837. 

Fourierism,  the  social  system  invented  by 
Charles  Fourier,  is  contained  in  his  published 
works,  in  a  large  collection  of  unpublished  MSS., 
and  in  the  writings  of  Considerant,  Lechevallier, 
Brisbane,  and  others  of  his  disciples. 

Fourni  Islands  (anc.  Cordssice  or  Corseae),  a 
group  of  about  twenty  small  islands  in  the 
Grecian  Archipelago. 

Fowl  (Ger.  vogel;  allied  to  the  Lat.  root,  fug-, 
to  flee,  and  perhaps  to  wag  ),  a  word  originally 
synonymous  with  bird,  and  still  employed  in 
that  signification,  but  also  in  a  much  more  re¬ 
stricted  sense,  as  the  designation  of  the  genus  of 
birds  ( Gallus )  to  which  the  common  domestic 
fowl  ( G .  domesticus)  belongs.  This  genus  gives 
its  name  to  the  important  order  of  Gallinaceous 
birds,  also  called,  from  their  well-known  habit  of 
scraping  the  earth  in  search  of  food,  Ra&ores 
(Lat.  scrapers);  and  is  included  in  the  family 
Phasianidce,  with  pheasants,  tragopans,  etc. 

Fowler,  an  important  agricultural  town  and 
the  county  seat  of  Benton  county,  Ind.  Pop., 
2,000. 

Fox,  Charles  James,  an  English  statesman, 
born  Jan.  24,  1749.  He  was  elected  to  the  House 
of  Commons  at  the  age  of  nineteen  and  was  after¬ 
ward  made  one  of  the  Lords  of  the  Admiralty.  In 
1772  he  resigned  that  office,  and  the  following  year 
was  named  a  Commissioner  of  the  Treasury. 
During  the  whole  course  of  the  American  War 
he  was  the  most  formidable  opponent  of  the  coer¬ 
cive  measures  which  were  adopted  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment,  and  the  most  powerful  advocate  of  the 
claims  of  the  Colonists.  In  1782  Fox  was  ap¬ 
pointed  one  of  the  Secretaries  of  State.  The 
regency,  the  trial  of  Warren  Hastings,  the  French 
Revolution,  and  the  events  which  followed  it, 
gave  ample  scope  to  the  talents  and  energies  of 
Fox,  and  on  all  occasions  he  employed  liis  in¬ 
fluence  to  modify,  if  not  to  counteract,  the  policy 
of  his  great  rival.  North.  He  died  Sept.  13, 
1806. 

Fox,  George,  the  originator  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  commonly  called  Quakers,  was  born  in 
England  in  1624.  His  first  efforts  at  proselytism 
I  were  made  at  Manchester  in  1648,  and  his  fol¬ 


lowers  were  first  contemptuously  called  “Quak¬ 
ers”  in  1650.  In  1655  Fox  was  taken  to  Londou, 
and  examined  before  Cromwell,  who  saw  that 
there  was  nothing  in  Quakerism  to  excite  his  ap¬ 
prehensions,  and  pronounced  the  doctrines  and 
the  character  of  its  founder  to  be  irreproachable. 
In  1671  he  visited  America,  where  he  spent  two 
years  in  propagating  his  views  with  much  suc¬ 
cess.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1673,  he  was 
imprisoned  for  some  time  in  Worcester  jail,  under 
the  charge  of  having  “held  a  meeting  from  all 
parts  of  the  nation  for  terrifying  the  King’s  sub¬ 
jects.”  He  died  Jan.  13,  1691. 

Fox  {Vulpes),  a  genus  of  Canicla,  particularly 
distinguished  from  dogs,  wolves,  jackals,  etc.,  by 
the  pupils  of  the  eyes  contracting  vertically,  and 
in  the  form  of  the  section  of  a  lens,  not  circularly. 
This  takes  place  whenever  the  eyes  are  turned  to 
a  strong  light.  Foxes  are  nocturnal  in  their 
habits,  are  generally  of  lower  stature  in  propor¬ 
tion  to  their  length  than  the  other  Canidie ;  have 


The  Common  Fox  ( Vulpes  vulgaris) . 
a  roundish  head,  with  a  pointed  muzzle,  short 
triangular  ears,  slender  limbs,  and  a  bushy  tail. 
They  burrow  in  the  earth,  and  are  famous  for 
their  cunning,  which  they  exhibit  both  in  their 
artifices  for  obtaining  prey,  and  for  escaping 
from  danger.  They  feed  on  small  quadrupeds, 
birds,  eggs,  etc.;  some  of  them,  however,  also  eat 
fruits  and  other  vegetable  substances. 

Foxe,  John,  martyrologist,  was  born  in  1517. 
He  wrote  numerous  controversial  and  other 
works,  but  the  one  that  is  most  familiar  in  the 
present  day  is  that  known  as  Foxe’s  Hook  of  Mar¬ 
tyrs.  He  died  in  1587. 

Foxhound,  a  kind  of  dog  used  for  deer  and 
fox  hunting.  It  is  not  quite  so  large  as  the  stag- 
liound,  and  is  perhaps  a  mixed  breed  between 
the  staghound  or  the  bloodhound  and  the  gray- 
liound.  It  is  commonly  white,  with  large  patches 
of  black  and  tan  color. 

Fox-liuuting,  from  its  exciting  nature,  as  well 
as  from  the  qualities  of  daring  courage  and  cool 
calculation  requisite  in  those  who  thoroughly  fol¬ 
low  and  appreciate  it,  has  long  been  termed  the 
king  of  British  national  sports.  It  is  also  popular 
with  many  American  sportsmen,  especially  in  the 
Eastern  and  Southern  States.  The  fox  is  usually 
pursued  with  a  pack  of  hounds  numbering  from 
10  to  100  or  more,  followed  by  men  and  women 
on  horseback,  and  much  of  the  excitement  of  the 
chase  consists  in  leaping  fences  and  ditches, 
horses  being  trained  for  this  sport,  and  those  ex¬ 
pert  at  it  and  fleet  of  foot  are  highly  valued  by 
tbeir  owners.  It  is  the  ambition  of  all  enthusiastic 
hunters  to  be  in  at  the  death  of  the  fox,  and  the 
rush  to  accomplish  this  often  results  in  hard 
riding.  The  chase  is  not  unattended  with  danger. 

Fox  River  is  the  name  of  two  considerable 
streams  rising  in  Wisconsin. — (1)  An  affluent  of 
the  Illinois,  which  is  itself  a  tributary  of  the 
Mississippi.  It  is  200  miles  long.— (2)  A  river  of 
about  the  same  length,  which  flows  through  Lake 
Winnebago  and  into  Green  Bay,  an  arm  of  Lake 
Michigan. 

Fox  Shark,  or  Thresher  ( Alopias  or  Alope- 


20 


FOXTAIL  GRASS. 


402 


FRANCE. 


known  species  ( A .  vulpes),  an  inhabitant  of  the 
Mediterranean  and  of  the  Atlantic.  The  snout  is 
short  and  conical;  the  spout-holes  are  small;  the 
mouth  is  not  so  large  as  that  of  the  white  shark, 
nor  the  teeth  so  formidable.  From  the  use  which 
it  makes  of  its  tail,  it  has  acquired  the  name  of 
thresher.  It  attains  a  length  of  13  feet. 

Foxtail  Grass  (Alopecurus),  a  genus  of  grasses, 
distinguished  by  a  spiked  panicle,  two  glumes 
nearly  equal,  and  gener¬ 
ally  united  at  the  base, 
inclosing  a  single  floret 
which  has  a  single  palea, 
with  an  awn  rising  from 
the  base.  The  species 
are  chiefly  natives  of  tem¬ 
perate  countries. 

Foy,  Maximilien  Se- 
bastien,  a  French  gen¬ 
eral,  born  Feb.  3,  1775. 

He  served  in  the  war  of 
1791,  and  in  1800  marched 
through  Switzerland.  In 
1805  he  participated  in 
the  Austrian  campaign, 
and  from  1808  to  1812  was 
General  of  Division  of  the 
army  in  Portugal.  He 
was"  in  all  the  battles  of 
the  Pyrenees,  and  at 
Orthez,  in  1814,  was 
dangerously  wounded. 

He  commanded  a  division 
on  the  Held  of  Waterloo,  where  he  was  wounded 
for  the  fifteenth  time.  He  died  Nov.  28,  1825. 

Foyle,  Lougii,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  on  the 
north  coast  of  Ireland,  between  the  Counties  of 
Derry  and  Donegal.  It  is  triangular  in  form,  16 
miles  long  from  northeast  to  southwest,  1  mile 
wide  at  its  entrance,  and  9  miles  broad  along  its 
south  side. 

Fracastoro,  Girolamo,  an  Italian  savant  and 
philosopher,  born  in  1483.  His  knowledge  em¬ 
braced  the  most  divergent  sciences,  and  on  ac¬ 
count  of  his  eminence  in  the  practice  of  medicine, 
he  was  elected  physician  of  the  Council  of  Trent. 
His  writings  in  prose  and  verse  are  numerous, 
and  exhibit  remarkable  erudition  and  elegance. 
He  died  in  1553. 

Fraction,  in  Arithmetic,  is  any  part  or  parts  of 
a  unit  or  whole,  and  consists  of  two  members,  a 
denominator  and  a  numerator,  whereof  the  former 
shows  into  how  many  parts  the  unit  is  divided, 
and  the  latter  shows  how  many  of  them  are  taken 
in  a  given  case.  Thus  4  denotes  that  the  unit  is 
divided  into  four  parts,  and  that  three  of  them 

a 

are  taken;  and  more  generally —  denotes  that  the 

b 

unit  is  divided  into  b  parts,  and  that  a  of  them 
are  taken.  A  fraction  is  called  proper  when  the 
numerator  is  less  than  the  denominator,  and  im¬ 
proper,  when  the  numerator  is  greater  than  the 
denominator. 

Fractions,  Vanishing.  In  some  algebraical 
fractions,  the  substitution  of  a  particular  value 
for  the  unknown  quantity  will  make  both  the 
numerator  and  denominator  of  the  fraction  vanish ; 
such  fractions  are  called  vanishing  fractions. 
x*  —  l 

Thus  the  fraction - assumes  the  form  {}  when 

x  —  1 

x  =  1.  The  ascertainment  of  the  value  of  such  a 
fraction  for  the  particular  value  of  the  unknown 
quantity  which  gives  it  the  form  g ,  may  in  all 
cases  be  effected  by  a  general  method  furnished 
by  the  differential  calculus. 

Fracture  of  a  bone  may  be  the  result  of  acci¬ 
dent,  muscular  action,  or  disease.  The  long  bones 
of  the  limbs  are  more  subject  to  the  latter  two 
causes  than  those  of  the  head  or  spine.  Predispos¬ 
ing  causes  to  fracture  are  frosty  weather,  old  age, 
cancerous  disease,  a  morbidly  brittle  condition 
called  fragilitas  ossium.  Some  bones,  as  the 
knee-pan  and  heel-bone,  are  liable  to  give  way  from 
sudden  contraction  of  the  muscles  which  are  in¬ 
serted  into  them.  The  subject  of  the  injury  then 
falls,  and  attributes  the  accident  to  the  fall, 
whereas  it  is  the  reverse.  The  bones  of  old  people 
are  brittle  from  the  excess  of  earthy  materials,  and 
so  readily  give  way.  The  bones  of  the  feeble 
patient,  with  fragilitas  or  mollities  ossium,  are 


soft  and  friable,  and  when  examined  are  found 
saturated  with  a  greasy  substance.  A  broken 
limb  hangs  loose,  and  is,  as  a  general  rule,  no 
longer  under  the  control  of  the  muscles.  Should 
there  be  any  doubt,  the  limb  may  be  carefully 
raised,  and  turned  gently  from  side  to  side,  when 
a  peculiar  rough  feeling  termed  crepitus  removes 
all  doubt.  Each  bone,  however,  when  broken, 
exhibits  symptoms  peculiar  to  itself,  and  requires 
a  separate  treatment.  Fractures  are  divided  into 
simple,  when  there  is  no  wound  in  the  skin  which 
communicates  with  the  fracture;  compound,  when 
there  is  such  a  wound;  comminuted  being  pre¬ 
fixed  to  either  of  these  terms  when  the  bone  is 
broken  into  several  pieces;  impacted,  when  one 
fragment  is  driven  into  the  other;  and  complicated 
when  a  neighboring  joint  or  large  blood-vessels 
participate  in  the  accident.  Fractured  bones  re¬ 
quire  immediate  surgical  attention  and  complete 
rest. 

Fra  Diav'olo,  properly  Michele  Pezza,  a 
brigand  and  renegade  monk,  born  in  Calabria  in 
1760.  Pillage,  bloodshed,  and  atrocious  cruelties, 
signalized  his  career.  For  years  he  evaded  the 
pursuit  of  justice  by  retiring  to  his  haunts  amidst 
mountains  and  forests,  and  skillfully  defeating, 
with  inferior  numbers,  all  the  armed  forces  sent 
against  him.  He  became  at  length  known  among 
the  peasantry  of  the  neighborhood  as  FraDiavolo. 
In  1806  he  attempted  to  excite  Calabria  against 
the  French,  but  was  taken  prisoner,  and  was  exe¬ 
cuted  in  November  of  the  same  year. 

Frame,  in  gardening,  the  covering  of  any  kind 
of  hotbed,  liued  pit,  or  cold  pit,  used  for  the  cul¬ 
tivation  of  plants  not  sufficiently  hardy  for  the 
open  air.  Frames  are  of  various  materials,  but 
generally  of  wood  or  iron  and  glass,  and  are  made 
in  one  piece  or  in  sashes,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  hotbed  or  pit. 

Frame-bridge,  a  bridge  built  of  timbers 
framed  together  in  such  a  manner  as  to  obtain  the 
greatest  possible  strength  with  a  given  quantity 
of  material.  The  fundamental  principle  upon 
which  all  such  construction  is  based,  is  that  the 


timbers  shall  be  so  arranged  that  the  weight  put 
upon  them  shall  exert  a  pulling  or  a  crushing 
strain,  instead  of  a  transverse  strain,  and,  if  possi¬ 
ble,  that  the  greatest  strain  shall  act  as  a  direct 
pull  in  the  direction  of  the  fibers  of  the  wood. 
The  construction  of  a  frame-bridge  is  similar  to 
that  of  a  roof,  excepting  that  in  the  bridge  a  con¬ 
siderable  outward  thrust  upon  the  abutments  is 


generally  permissible,  while  the  walls  of  a  house 
will  not  stand  this;  and  that  for  the  bridge  a 
nearly  level  way  on  the  top  is  desirable,  while  for 
a  roof  a  steep  incline  is  not  objectionable. 

Franc,  a  French  silver  coin,  which  (since  1795, 
when  it  supplanted  the  livre  Tournois)  forms  the 
unit  of  the  French  monetary  system,  and  has  also 
been  adopted  as  such  by  Belgium,  Italy,  Switzer¬ 
land,  Greece,  Roumania,  Servia,  and  Spain.  In 
Belgium  and  Switzerland  it  is  known  as  the  franc; 
in  Italy,  lira;  in  Greece,  drachma;  in  Roumania, 
lei;  in  Servia,  dinar;  and  in  Spain,  peseta.  The 
franc  is  coined  of  silver,  nine-tenths  fine,  and 
weighs  five  grammes,  its  value  being  about  nine¬ 
teen  cents.  The  franc  is  divided  into  100  cen¬ 
times,  but  the  old  division  into  twenty  sous  is  still 
made  use  of  in  common  life.  There  are  in  France 
silver  coins  of  J,  i,  1,  2,  and  5  francs;  and  gold 
pieces  of  5,  10,  20,  50,  and  100  francs. 

France,  the  most  westerly  portion  of  Central 
Europe,  extends  from  42°  20'  to  51°  5'  N.  latitude 
and  from  8°  15'  E.  longitude  to  4°  54'  W.  longi¬ 


tude.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Channel 
and  the  Straits  of  Dover,  which  separate  it  from 
England,  by  Belgium,  the  Grand-Duchy  of  Luxem¬ 
bourg,  and  the  Rhenish  provinces  of  Prussia;  on 
the  east  by  the  lately  annexed  German  provinces 
of  Alsace  and  Lorraine,  by  several  of  the  Swiss 
Cantons,  and  by  Italy;  on  the  south  by  the  Medi¬ 
terranean  and  the  dominions  of  Spain,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  Pyrenees;  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Atlantic  (the  Bay  of  Biscay).  The  great¬ 
est  length  of  France  is  about  580  miles;  and  its 
greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west  about  570  miles. 
Its  circumference  is  nearly  3,100  miles,  of  which 
nearly  half  is  coast-lines,  of  which  about  400 
miles  are  on  the  Mediterranean,  585  miles  on  the 
Atlantic,  and  570  miles  on  the  northern  frontiers. 
France  is  divided  into  eighty-seven  departments. 
The  area  of  France  and  Corsica  is  about  204,000 
square  miles.  The  foreign  possessions  of  France 
cover  a  total  area  of  512,000  square  miles.  These 
include  Algeria,  the  colonies  proper,  and  the  pro¬ 
tectorates.  The  latter  are  Cambodia  and  Tunis. 
The  recognized  foreign  dependencies  are  as  be. 
low: 


Area  in 
sq.  Kilo¬ 
metres. 

Pop.,  1881 

667,065 

3,310,412 

Colonies  and  Protectorates. 

(Pop.,  188C. 

In  Asia— 

French  India . 

508 

283,022 

Cochin  China . 

59,458 

1,550,497 

Cambodia . 

83,861 

1,500,000 

In  A  frica — 

Senegal  and  Dependencies . 

250,000 

192.924 

Gold  Coast  and  Gaboon . 

2,800 

3  000 

Reunion . 

2,511 

180,814 

Mayotte . 

366 

12,150 

Nossi-Be  and  Ste.  Marie . 

293 

15,332 

In  America— 

121,413 

27,333 

166,100 

Martinique . 

987 

Guadeloupe,  etc . 

1,870 

192,735 

St.  Pierre  and  Miquelon . 

235 

4,916 

In  Oceania— 

New  Caledonia . 

19,950 

68,584 

Tahiti . 

3.658 

25,247 

Tunis . 

116,348 

2,100,000 

The  population  of  France  in  1881  was  36,905,788. 
France  possesses  four  considerable  mountain 
ranges.  The  Pyrenees  divide  it  from  Spain;  the 
Cevenno-Yosges,  and  the  Vosges  proper,  occupy 
the  regions  of  the  Seine,  Loire,  and  Vosges;  and 
the  Alps  separate  Swiss  territory  from  France  on 
the  south  and  southeast.  The  extent  of  river 
navigation  in  France  amounts  to  5,500  miles, 
while  the  ninety-nine  larger  canals,  which  have 
been  constructed  either  to  connect  these  river- 
courses  or  to  supply  entirely  new  channels  of 
water-communication,  extend  over  a  length  of 
2,900  miles.  France  possesses  one  of  the  finest 
climates  in  Europe,  although,  owing  to  its  great 
extent  of  area,  very  considerable  diversities  of 
temperature  are  to  be  met  with.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  of  different  parts  of  France 
has  been  estimated  as  follows  by  Humboldt: 
Toulon,  62°  F. ;  Marseilles,  59.5°;  Bordeaux,  56°; 
Nantes,  55.2°;  Paris,  51.2°;  Dunkirk,  50.5°.  Of 
the  vegetable  products  the  most  generally  culti¬ 
vated  are  the  cereals,  the  vine,  chestnuts,  olives, 
culinary  fruits  and  vegetables,  hops,  beet-root 
for  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  tobacco,  madder, 
chicory,  flax,  etc.  The  dairy  industry  has 
progressed  of  late  very  rapidly.  Since  1880,  France 
exports  from  34,000,000  to  35,000,000  of  kilo¬ 
grammes  of  butter  per  annum,  and  receives  in  re¬ 
turn  more  than  100,000,000  of  francs.  Wheat,  is 
largely  imported,  though  its  cultivation  has  in¬ 
creased  during  the  last  fifty  years;  that  of  rye, 
barley,  and  maize  has  exhibited  little  variation; 
while  the  growth  of  potatoes  has  been  most  ex¬ 
tensively  "augmented  during  the  same  period. 
The  cultivation  of  the  mulberry-tree  derives  im¬ 
portance  from  its  bearing  on  the  production  of 
silk,  the  exports  of  which  reach  an  enormous  sum. 
The  vine  has,  from  an  early  period,  constituted 
one  of  the  principal  sources  of  the  agricultural 
wealth  of  France.  The  choicest  wines  are  grown 
in  the  Bordelais,  Burgundy,  and  Champagne, 
but  some  excellent  kinds  are  produced  on 
the  banks  of  the  Loire,  and  in  some 
of  the  southern  departments.  The  average 


Foxtail  Grass  (  Alopecurus 
pratensis). 
a ,  glumes;  b,  floret. 


FRANCESCO  DI  PAULA. 


403 


FRANCOLIN. 


yearly  produce  of  the  vineyards  of  France  is 
about  1,000,000,000  of  gallons.  Of  this,  about 
one  seventh  is  made  into  brandy.  The  prin¬ 
cipal  forest-trees  are  the  chestnut  and  beech  on 
the  Central  Mountains,  the  oak  and  cork  tree 
in  the  Pyrenees,  and  the  fir  in  the  Landes.  The 
destruction  of  the  forests  has  been  enormous 
within  the  last  two  centuries.  About  one-seventh 
•of  the  entire  territory  of  France  is  still  covered 
with  wood.  In  1880  there  were  in  France,  in  round 
numbers,  2,820,000  horses,  400,000  asses,  275,000 
mules,  11,000,000  horned  cattle,  23,000,000  sheep, 
5,500,000  swine,  and  1,550,000  goats.  Pilchards 
and  mackerel  are  caught  in  large  quantities 
off  Normandy  and  Brittany.  The  west  coasts 
have  extensive  oyster  and  mussel  beds;  tun¬ 
nies  and  anchovies.  The  total  annual  value  of 
the  French  fisheries  is  $17,000,000.  The  chief 
mineral  products  of  France  are  coal  and 
iron,  on  which  about  250,000  men  are  employed. 
There  are  several  considerable  coal-beds,  situated 
principally  in  the  east-southeast  and  north.  The 
trade  of  France  is  inferior  only  to  that  of  England 
and  the  United  States.  The  following  table  shows 
the  value  of  the  total  imports  and  exports  of 
France  in  millions  of  francs  during  the  five  years 
1876-80 : 


Years.  Imports.  Exports.  Total. 

1876  . 3,988  3  575  7,563 

1877  . 3,756  3,484  7,240 

1878  . 4,460  3.369  7,829 

1879  . 4,594  3,163  7.757 

1880  . 4,907  3,400  8,307 


Her  merchant  navy  numbered,  in  1880,  15,058 
vessels,  of  919,298  tons.  According  to  the  otficial 
report,  the  railways  in  operation  in  1881  measure 
16,250  miles.  The  public  revenues  are  obtained 
in  France  from  direct  and  indirect  taxation,  and 
comprised  in  the  budget,  voted  by  the  National 
Assembly,  under  the  heads  of  ordinary  resources 
and  special  resources;  the  former  including  direct 
and  indirect  taxes,  from  stamps,  the  produce  of 
forests,  telegraphs,  Algeria,  etc. ;  and  the  latter,  de¬ 
partmental  funds,  special  imposts,  etc.  In  1881  the 
receipts  were  2, 762,480,817  francs,  and  the  expend¬ 
iture  2,736,208,789.  The  public  debt  is  believed 
to  amount  to  about  24,000,000,000  of  francs,  or 
$4,800,000,000.  The  total  value  of  the  French 
money  in  circulation  is  12,630,657,996  francs.  In 
1881  the  total  military  force  of  France  comprised 
{1)  an  active  army  (including  gendarmerie,  etc.)  of 
704,714  men;  (2)  the  reserve  of  510,294  men;  (3) 
the  territorial  army  of  582,523 men;  (4)  the  reserve 
of  the  territorial  army,  625,633  men — giving  a 
total  of  2,423,164.  The  ministry  of  war  required, 
according  to  the  budget  of  1882,  a  sum  of  571,- 
400,000  francs.  In  1881,  the  French  navy  num¬ 
bered  27  vice-admirals  (4  in  reserve),  35  rear- 
admirals,  102  captains  of  first-class  men-of-war, 
203  captains  of  frigates,  763  lieutenants,  and 
374  ensigns.  The  sailors  afloat  and  on  shore 
numbered  28,500,  which,  together  with  engi¬ 
neers,  etc.,  brought  the  grand  total  of  those 
employed  in  the  fleet  to  about  65,000.  The 
history  of  France  is  a  long  and  most  inter¬ 
esting  one.  Ancient  Gaul,  which  was  conquered 
by  Caesar  shortly  before  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era  was  overrun  by  the  Franks  on  the 
decline  of  the  Roman  power,  and  the  French 
monarchy  was  founded  by  Clovis  in  the  sixth 
century.  Charlemagne  ruled  not  only  over 
France,  but  Italy  and  the  greater  part  of  Ger¬ 
many,  but  on  his  death  the  empire  fell  to  pieces 
and  his  descendants  lost  control.  The  Capetian 
dynasty  was  established  in  987,  and  with  its  col¬ 
lateral  branches,  the  Houses  of  Yaloise,  Orleans, 
Angouleme,  and  Bourbon,  held  the  throne  un¬ 
til  the  Revolution  of  1788-92.  But  until  the 
sixteenth  century  such  tributary  princes  as  the 
Dukes  of  Burgundy,  Aquitaine,  etc.,  were  almost 
independent  of  their  suzerain,  and  much  more  in 
the  habit  of  making  war  on  the  King  of  France 
than  of  showing  fealty  to  him.  During  many 
years,  also,  the  English  held  many  parts  of 
France,  and  the  country  was  constantly  engaged 
in  war.  The  most  flourishing  days  of  the  mon¬ 
archy  began  with  Henry  of  Navarre  and  closed 
with  Louis  XIY.  Under  his  immediate  success¬ 
ors  the  nation  lost  much  of  its  power,  and  the 
greatest  distress  prevailed  among  the  peasantry, 
owing  to  the  abuses  of  the  feudal  system.  Cen¬ 
turies  of  oppression  and  tyranny,  of  sensualism 
and  immorality  on  the  part  of  the  monarch  and 


the  aristocracy,  and  of  unspeakable  suffering  on 
the  part  of  the  laboring  classes,  culminated  in 
1788  and  succeeding  years  in  the  Revolution,  and 
the  overturn  of  the  entire  frame-work  of  society. 
The  excesses  of  the  Convention  and  the  Directory, 
coupled  with  the  war  waged  by  the  allied  mon- 
archs  of  Europe  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the 
Bourbons,  paved  the  way  for  the  operations  of 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  who  rose  in  a  few  years 
from  a  Lieutenant  of  Artillery  to  the  command 
of  an  empire  and  the  arbitrament  of  the  destinies 
of  Europe.  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Switzerland, 
and  Germany  fell  into  his  hands;  he  dictated 
terms  to  the  Emperor  Alexander,  to  the  King  of 
Prussia,  and  to  the  Emperor  of  Austria.  It  was 
in  1830  that  the  city  of  Algiers  was  captured  by 
French  forces,  and,  after  nearly  twenty  years  of 
intermittent  warfare,  the  entire  country  of  Al¬ 
geria  was  ceded  to  the  French  crown.  During 
the  first  named  period  (1830)  the  Bourbons  were 
again  driven  out,  but  a  collateral  branch  of  the 
family  was  installed  in  the  person  of  Louis  Phi¬ 
lippe,  and  some  approach  to  a  constitutional  mon¬ 
archy  was  made,  but  in  1848  the  people  rose,  and 
Louis  Philippe  fled  to  England.  The  Republic 
which  followed  lasted  less  than  three  years,  when 
the  coup  d’etat,  gave  absolute  power  into  the  hands 
of  Louis  Napoleon,  who  as  Napoleon  III.  ruled 
France  until  the  disasters  of  1870.  During  his 
reign  occurred  the  wars  with  Russia  and  Austria 
(in  the  latter  France  gained  the  Provinces  of  Nice 
and  Savoy),  and  the  expedition  to  Mexico.  In 
order  to  consolidate  his  power,  Napoleon  under¬ 
took  the  war  against  Germany,  which  cost  France 
thousands  of  millions  of  treasure,  two  provinces, 
and  a  hundred  thousand  lives.  The  proclama¬ 
tion  of  the  Republic  on  receipt  of  the  news  of 
Sedan,  the  siege  and  surrender  of  Paris  and  its 
subsequent  capture  by  the  Communist  Govern 
ment,  the  fearful  times  of  May,  1871,  and  the 
story  of  the  establishment  of  the  Republic  under 
the  Presidency,  first  of  M.  Thiers,  then  of  Mar¬ 
shal  MacMalion,  next  of  M.  Grtlvy,  and  lastly  of 
M.  Sadi  Carnot,  followed  in  due  sequence,  and 
France  is  now  prospering  under  her  third  Re¬ 
public. 

Frances 'co  tli  Paula,  founder  of  the  order  of 
the  Minims,  born  in  1416.  To  the  usual  convent¬ 
ual  vows,  Francesco  added  one  of  the  most 
rigorous  abstinence — flesh,  eggs,  and  milk  being 
strictly  forbidden  the  entire  year,  except  in  illness. 
Louis  XI.  of  France,  being  ill,  summoned  him  to 
his  presence.  He  attended  the  King  on  his  death¬ 
bed.  Charles  VIII.  and  Louis  XII.  induced  him 
to  settle  in  France,  and  built  him  convents  at 
Plessis-le-Tour  and  Amboise.  He  died  in  1507. 

Frauclie  Comte,  an  old  province  in  the  East  of 
France,  in  the  Basin  of  the  Rhone,  comprised  what 
now  forms  the  Departments  of  Doubs,  Haute- 
Saone,  and  Jura,  anti  had  for  its  capital  Besangon. 

Francia,  Dr  Jose  Gaspar  Rodriguez,  Dicta¬ 
tor  of  Paraguay,  born  in  1757  or  1758.  When  he 
had  attained  the  age  of  fifty-two  or  fifty -three,  the 
Revolution,  which  shattered  the  Spanish  yoke  in 
South  America,  broke  out  in  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
in  1813  he  was  appointed  Joint-Consul.  In 
1814  he  was  appointed  Dictator  for  three  years, 
at  the  expiry  of  which  time  the  Dictatorship  was 
given  him  for  life,  and  died  in  1840. 

Francis  of  Assisi,  founder  of  the  Franciscan 
order,  and  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
was  born  in  1182.  He  made  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
tomb  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  and  there  offered  to 
God  all  that  he  possessed  on  earth.  He  exchanged 
his  clothes  with  a  poor  mendicant,  and  ever  after¬ 
ward  continued  to  wear  the  meanest  attire.  He 
discharged  the  most  menial  offices;  served  the 
lepers  in  the  hospital  at  Gubbio  in  their  most 
revolting  necessities,  and  with  the  most  tender  as¬ 
siduity.  At  last  he  threw  aside  his  wallet,  his  staff, 
and  his  shoes,  and  wore  a  single  tunic,  of  coarse 
wollen  cloth,  girt  with  a  hempen  cord.  The  Fran¬ 
ciscan  Institute,  which  grew  out  of  his  example 
and  teachings,  is  founded  on  the  three  vows  of 
chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience.  Success  removed 
all  the  hesitation  with  which  the  Institute  at  first 
was  regarded,  and,  in  1216,  the  order  was  solemnly 
approved  by  Pope  Innocent.  From  this  date  it 
increased  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  At  the 
first  general  assembly,  held  in  1219,  5,000  members 
were  present;  500  more  were  claimants  for  admis¬ 
sion.  Francis  himself  inaugurated  the  future 


missionary  character  of  his  brotherhood  by  going 
(1223)  to  the  East,  and  preaching  the  Gospel  in  the 
presence  of  the  Sultan  himself.  The  order  is 
recognized  as  guardians  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulcher.  Francis  died  Oct.  4,  1226,  and  was 
canonized,  by  Pope  Gregory  IX.,  in  1228. 

Francis,  Sir  Philip,  an  English  statesman, 
born  Oct.  22,  1740.  He  entered  Parliament  in 
1784,  and  died  Dec.  22,  1818.  He  has  been  con¬ 
sidered  by  many  to  have  the  best  claim  to  the 
authorship  of  the  Letters  of  Junius. 

Francis  I.,  King  of  France,  son  of  Charles, 
Comte  d’Angouleme,  was  born  at  Cognac,  Sept. 
12,  1494.  At  the  age  of  twenty  he  married 
Claude,  daughter  of  Louis  XII.,  and  succeeded 
his  father-in-law,  Jan.  1,  1515.  He  defeated  the 
Swiss,  and  conquered  Milan.  He  sought  an  alli¬ 
ance  with  Henry  VIII.  of  England  against  Spain, 
but  was  unsuccessful.  Henry  formed  an  alliance 
with  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor  against  Francis. 
The  Papal  troops  drove  the  French  out  of  Italy, 
and  the  soldiers  of  Henry  and  the  Emperor 
invaded  France  on  the  north.  In  the  Battle  of 
Pavia,  Feb.  24,  1525,  Francis  was  defeated,  taken 
prisoner,  and  carried  to  Madrid.  lie  obtained  his 
freedom  March  17,  1526.  The  war  was  soon 
renewed,  and,  in  fact,  Francis’  entire  reign  was 
marked  by  the  bitterest  hostilities  against  Spain. 
Peace  came  only  with  his  death,  which  occurred 
March  31,  1547. 

Francis  I.  (Stephen),  Emperor  of  Ger¬ 
many,  born  in  1708.  In  1736  he  married  Maria 
Theresa  of  Austria,  daughter  and  heiress  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI.  In  1740  Charles  died,  and 
Maria  Theresa  succeeded  him,  making  her  hus¬ 
band  co-Regent.  In  1745  he  became  Emperor, 
and  died  Aug.  18,  1765.  His  son  Joseph  suc¬ 
ceeded  him  in  the  imperial  dignity,  but  Maria 
Theresa  retained  the  sovereignty  of  Austria  till 
her  death. 

Francis  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  and  I.  of 
Austria,  was  born  at  Florence  in  February, 
1768,  and  became  Emperor  in  1792.  From  1794 
to  1814  he  was  at  war  with  France,  save  at  short 
intervals,  and,  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  followed 
the  Russians  and  Prussians  to  Paris  in  the  latter 
year.  He  died  March  2,  1835. 

Francis  Joseph,  Emperor  of  Austria,  born 
Aug.  18,  1830.  Ferdinand  abdicated  in  favor  of 
his  nephew  (Dec.  2,  1848),  and  Francis  assumed 
the  Government  as  Emperor  of  Austria  and  King 
of  Hungary  and  Bohemia.  Hungary  rose  in 
arms,  and  refused  to  accede  to  the  change  of 
succession.  Austria  triumphed  in  Italy  and 
Hungary,  through  the  alleged  treachery  of 
Gorgei  and  the  help  of  Russia.  Francis  was 
crowned  as  King  of  Hungary  at  Pesth,  in  1867. 
He  married  his  cousin  Elizabeth,  and  his  son 
Rudolph,  heir  to  the  crown,  committed  suicide 
in  March,  1889. 

Francis'cans,  Order  of,  also  called  Minor¬ 
ites  or  Lesser  Brethren,  a  religious  order  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  See  Francis  of 
Assisi. 

Fran'colin  ( Francolinus ),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Tetraonidw,  closely  allied  to  partridges, 


Gray  Francolin  (Francolinus  ponticerianus) . 

They  are  natives  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 
One  species  only,  the  European  francolin  (F.  ml- 


FRANCONIA. 


404 


FREDERICK  I. 


garis),  is  found  in  the  most  southern  parts  of 
Europe. 

Franconia  (Ger .Fronken),  a  name  first  applied 
to  those  districts  on  both  sides  of  the  Maine,  which 
were  originally  peopled  by  colonies  of  Franks, 
under  Thierry,  the  eldest  son  of  Clovis,  who 
inherited  the  Germanic  possessions  of  his  father 
on  the  death  of  the  latter  in  511.  With  the  dis¬ 
solution  of  the  empire,  the  name  of  Franconia 
disappeared  from  among  the  political  divisions  of 
Germany;  but  since  1837  it  has  been  revived  in 
the  Kingdom  of  Bavaria,  where  those  portions  of 
the  ancient  Franconian  province,  which  in  mod¬ 
ern  times  have  been  known  as  the  circles  of  the 
Upper  Maine,  Rezat,  and  Lower  Maine,  are  now 
designated  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Franconia. 
Upper  Franconia  includes  the  northeast  portion 
of  Bavaria.  Pop.  (1880), 575, 357;  capital,  Baireuth. 
Middle  Franconia,  which  abuts  upon  Wurtem- 
berg,  is  intersected  by  branches  of  the  Franconian 
Jura  chain.  Anspach  and  Nurnberg  are  the 
principal  towns.  Pop.  (1880),  043,817.  Lower 
Franconia,  with  Aschaffenburg,  which  occupies 
the  northwest  part  of  Bavaria,  is  the  richest  and 
best  cultivated  of  the  Franconian  circles.  Pop. 
(1880),  626,305;  capital,  Wurzburg.  The  pop.  of 
the  three  Franconias  in  1875  was  1,758,048. 

Franc-tireurs,  bands  of  French  soldiers  that 
sprang  into  existence  during  the  progress  of  the 
Franco-Prussian  War  (1870-1871).  They  dill  not 
form  a  part  of  the  regular  army,  and  at  first  their 
military  organization  was  imperfect;  but  this 
defect  was  afterward  in  some  measure  remedied. 
They  exercised  a  species  of  guerrilla  warfare. 

Frangipani,  an  illustrious  and  powerful  Ro¬ 
man  House,  which  traces  its  origin  to  the  seventh 
century,  and  attained  the  summit  of  its  glory  in 
the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 

Frankfort,  an  important  railroad  center  and 
agricultural  city,  the  county  seat  of  Clinton 
county,  Ind.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Frankfurt-on-tlie-Main  (Ger.  Frankfurt  am 
Main),  a  city  in  the  Prussian  Province  of  Hessen- 
Nassau,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Main, 
in  latitude  50°  6'  N.,  and  longitude  8°  41' E. 
Pop.  (1880),  137,600. 

Frankfurt-on-the-0<ler,  the  capital  of  the 
Prussian  circle  of  the  same  name  in  the  Province 
of  Brandenburg,  fifty  miles  east  of  Berlin,  in  lati¬ 
tude  52°  22'  N.,  and  longitude  14°  33'  E  Pop. 
(1880),  51,147. 

Frank'incense,  various  fragrant  resinous 
substances  used  in  certain  religious  services. 
There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the  frankin¬ 
cense  of  tlie  Jews,  and  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  was  chiefly  or  entirely  the  substance 
now  known  as  olibanum,  the  produce  of  an  Indian 
tree,  Boswellm  serrata  or  thurifera.  It  was  for¬ 
merly  supposed  to  have  been  obtained  from  the 
Juniperus  lycia,  which  is  now  believed  not  to 
yield  any  such  product,  and  is  a  native  of  the 
South  of  Europe,  whilst  the  prized  frankincense 
of  the  ancients  was  brought  from  the  East. 

FrankTin.  The  franklin,  or,  according  to 
the  old  spelling,  the  frankelein,  was  the  English 
freeholder  of  former  times,  who  held  his  lands  of 
the  crown,  free  (frank)  from  any  feudal  servitude 
to  a  subject-superior. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  an  American  statesman 
and  natural  philosopher,  born  Jan.  17,  1706.  In 
1721  he  went  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  succeeded 
in  procuring  a  situation  in  a  printer’s  shop.  Later 
he  went  to  England,  where  he  lived  about  a  year, 
returning  to  Philadelphia  in  1726.  In  1730  he 
married  a  Miss  Read,  and  became  the  proprietor 
and  editor  of  a  newspaper  ( The  Gazette)  which 
attained  a  high  degree  of  popularity,  and  pro¬ 
jected  in  1732  Poor  Richard’s  Almanac,  in  which 
appeared  the  well-known  maxims  afterward  pub¬ 
lished  under  the  title  of  The  Way  to  Wealth,  and 
translated  into  various  languages.  Through  his  in¬ 
strumentality  a  public  library  was  founded  in 
1732,  the  first  in  Philadelphia.  lie  also  founded, 
in  1738,  the  first  fire  company,  and  later  the  first 
company  for  insurance  against  fire.  Among  the 
public  offices  to  which  he  was  appointed  were 
those  of  Clerk  to  the  General  Assembly  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania  in  1736;  Postmaster  of  Philadelphia 
in  1737 ;  Representative  of  Philadelphia  in 
the  Assembly  in  1747.  In  1753  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Deputy  Postmaster-General  for  the  British 
Colonies.  In  1757  he  was  sent  to  England  to 


settle  some  matters  for  the  Assembly,  and  so  ably 
did  he  perform  his  task,  that  Massachusetts, 
Maryland,  and  Georgia  severally  appointed  him 
their  English  agent.  In  1752  he  discovered  the 
identity  of  electricity  with  lightning,  and  turned 
his  discovery  to  account  by  publishing  a  plan  for 
defending  houses  from  lightning  by  the  use  of 
pointed  conductors.  He  likewise  made  impor¬ 
tant  discoveries  with  regard  to  the  laws  that 
regulate  the  electric  fluid,  a  subject  hitherto  very 
imperfectly  understood.  In  1762  he  returned  to 
America,  but  was  again  despatched  to  England. 
He  returned  to  Philadelphia  in  1775.  He  was 
elected  a  Delegate  to  Congress,  and  from  that 
time  exerted  himself  to  the  utmost  to  obtain  a 
declaration  of  independence  of  the  thirteen  Ameri¬ 
can  States.  Subsequently  he  was  appointed 
United  States  Minister  at  the  Court  of  France, 
where  he  succeeded  in  inducing  the  French  Gov¬ 
ernment  to  form  an  offensive  and  defensive  alli¬ 
ance  with  the  States.  On  Jan.  20,  1782,  Franklin 
signed  at  Paris,  with  the  English  Commissioners, 
the  treaty  of  peace  by  which  the  independence  of 
the  American  Colonies  was  assured.  He  died 
April  17,  1790. 

Franklin,  Rear-Admiral  Sir  John,  an  Eng¬ 
lish  naval  officer  of  distinguished  reputation,  was 
born  at  Spilsby,  in  Lincolnshire,  April  16,  1786. 
He  entered  the  navy  at  fourteen,  and  was  present 
at  Copenhagen  and  Trafalgar.  He  subsequently 
served  in  the  Bedford  on  various  stations,  and 
took  a  part  in  the  attack  on  New  Orleans  in  1814. 
In  1819  Franklin  was  despatched  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment  to  Hudson’s  Bay,  with  orders  to  make  his 
way  thence  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  and  survey  as  much 
of  the  coast  as  possible.  On  his  return,  in  1822, 
Franklin  was  made  Post-Captain,  and  elected  a 
Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1825  he  cooper¬ 
ated  (overland)  with  the  sea  expeditions  of  Captains 
Parry  and  Beecliey,  and  surveyed  the  North  Amer¬ 
ican  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Coppermine 
westward  to  about  Point  Beecliey.  For  these 
valuable  explorations  he  received  the  honor  of 
knighthood  and  the  degree  of  D.C.L.,  while  the 
French  Geographical  Society  awarded  him  their 
gold  medal,  and  at  a  subsequent  period  he  was 
elected  Corresponding  Member  of  the  Institute  of 
France.  In  1836  he  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Van  Diemen’s  Land.  In  May,  1845,  Franklin, 
now  bordering  on  his  sixtieth  year,  but  with 
physical  and  mental  powers  undiminished  in 
vigor,  started  with  the  Erebus  and  Terror  on  his 
last  and  ill-fated  expedition  to  discoverthe  North¬ 
west  Passage.  The  last  time  that  the  vessels  were 
seen  was  in  July  of  the  same  year.  It  was  not 
until  1859  that  the  fate  of  Franklin  was  ascertained 
by  the  commander  of  a  little  vessel  fitted  out  by 
Lady  Franklin,  after  hope  had  been  declared 
vain  by  all  else.  It  then  appeared  that  Frank¬ 
lin  had  died  on  June  11,  1847.  Additional  light 
was  thrown  on  the  fate  of  his  crews  by  a  mem¬ 
orable  sleighing  expedition  under  Lieutenant 
Schwatka,  in  1879-80. 

Franklin,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of 
Heard  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  269. 

Franklin,  a  town  and  thecounty  seat  of  John¬ 
son  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Franklin,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of 
Macon  county,  near  the  Great  Smoky  Mountains, 
in  North  Carolina.  Pop.,  400. 

Franklin,  the  county  seat  of  Pendleton 
county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  300. 

Franklin,  a  town  and  the  county  seat  of  Rob¬ 
ertson  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  800. 

Franklin,  a  town  on  the  Bayou  La  Teclie 
river,  the  county  seat  of  St.  Mary’s  Parish,  La. 
Pop.,  1,702. 

Franklin,  the  county  seat  of  Simpson  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  1,686. 

Franklin,  an  important  manufacturing  city 
and  railroad  center,  the  county  seat  of  Venango 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  5,997. 

Franklin,  the  county  seat  of  Williamson  coun¬ 
ty,  Tenn.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Franklinton,  the  county  seat  of  Washington 
county,  La.  Pop.,  158. 

Franz- Josef  Land,  an  archipelago  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  north  of  Nova  Zembla,  just  beyond  the 
parallel  of  80°. 

Fraser  River,  the  principal  stream  of  British 
Columbia,  740  miles  long,  emptying  into  the  Gulf 


of  Georgia.  The  gold-diggings  along  its  basin 
are  numerous  and  very  productive. 

Fra'sera,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Gentianece,  with  a  four-partite  calyx  and  corolla, 
four  stamens,  and  a  two-valvular  capsule.  It  is  a 
pure  and  valuable  bitter,  similar  in  its  effects  to 
gentian. 

Fraticel'lians,  or  Fraticelli  (Little  Breth¬ 
ren),  a  sect  of  the  middle  ages,  which  may  be 
regarded  as  an  embodiment,  outside  of  the  medi¬ 
aeval  church,  of  the  same  spirit  to  which  is  due, 
within  the  church,  the  Franciscan  order  with  its 
many  offshoots. 

Fraud.  By  the  laws  of  all  civilized  nations 
fraud  invalidates  obligations.  In  order  to  pro¬ 
duce  this  effect,  however,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
misrepresentations,  or  other  dishonest  maneuvers 
of  the  offending  party,  shall  have  induced  the 
other  to  enter  into  the  agreement  or  contract, 
and  that  he  would  not  otherwise  have  consented. 
In  addition  to  direct  misrepresentation,  and  con¬ 
cealment  iu  circumstances  in  which  open  dealing 
was  a  duty,  fraud  may  be  perpetrated  by  taking 
advantage  of  the  imbecility  of  the  party  who  has 
been  led  into  the  contract,  and  still  more  flag¬ 
rantly  by  inducing  this  imbecility  by  intoxica¬ 
tion  or  otherwise. 

Fraunhofer,  Joseph  von,  a  distinguished  prac¬ 
tical  optician,  was  born  at  Straubing,  in  Bavaria, 
March  6,  1787.  He  invented  a  machine  for 
polishing  parabolic  surfaces,  and  was  the  first 
who  succeeded  in  polishing  lenses  and  mirrors 
without  altering  their  curvature.  His  inventions 
are  numerous,  and  include  a  “heliometer,”  a 
“  micrometer,” and  an  “achromatic  microscope,” 
besides  the  great  parallactic  telescope  at  Dorpat. 
But  that  which  lias  rendered  Fraunhofer’s  name: 
celebrated  throughout  the  scientific  world  is  liis. 
discovery  of  the  lines  in  the  spectrum.  He  died 
at  Munich,  June  7,  1826. 

Fred  'eriek  (Ger.  Friedrich)  I.,  of  Germany. 
— Frederick  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  surnamed 
Barbarossa  (Redbeard),  was  born  in  1121,  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father,  Frederick  Hohenstaufen,  as 
Duke  of  Swabia,  in  1147,  and  his  uncle,  Conrad 
III.,  as  Emperor,  in  1152.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  enlightened  and  powerful  rulers  who  ever 
swayed  the  imperial  scepter.  Frederick  made 
Poland  tributary  to  the  Empire,  raised  Bohemia 
to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom,  and  the  Markgrafdom 
of  Austria  into  an  independent  hereditary  duchy. 
In  1189  Frederick  resigned  the  Government  to 
his  eldest  son  Henry,  and,  at  the  head  of  160,000 
men,  set  forth  for  the  Holy  Land,  accompanied 
by  his  second  son,  Frederick  of  Swabia,  the 
founder  of  the  order  of  Teutonic  Knights.  After 
gaining  two  great  victories  over  the  Saracens  at 
Pliilomelium  and  Iconium,  he  was  drowned  (1190) 
in  a  river  of  Syria. 

Frederick  II.,  of  Germany,  grandson  of  the 
former,  and  son  of  the  Emperor  Henry  VI. ,  and 
of  Constance,  heiress  of  Sicily,  was  born  in  1194, 
and  died  in  1251. 

Frederick  I.,  of  Denmark,  was  born  in  1473, 
and  died  in  1533.  In  1527  he  embraced  the 
Lutheran  faith,  which  he  established  in  his  domin¬ 
ions  by  the  most  arbitrary  measures.  Frederick 
III.,  of  Denmark,  the  son  of  Christian  IV.,  was 
born  in  1609,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in  1648, 
and  died  in  1670.  Frederick  V.,  of  Denmark, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Christian  VI.,  was  born 
in  1723,  ascended  the  throne  in  1746,  and  died  in 
1766,  leaving  the  reputation  of  having  been  one 
of  the  best  and  wisest  monarclis  of  his  time. 
Frederick  VI.,  of  Denmark,  the  son  of  Chris¬ 
tian  VII.  and  Caroline  Matilda  of  England,  was 
born  in  1768,  and  assumed  the  regency  of  the 
kingdom  in  1784,  on  account  of  the  insanity  of 
his  father,  on  whose  death,  in  1808,  he  ascended 
the  throne.  In  this  reign  feudal  serfdom  was 
abolished,  monopolies  abrogated,  the  criminal 
code  amended,  and  the  slave-trade  prohibited 
earlier  than  in  any  other  country.  In  1800  Den¬ 
mark  joined  the  maritime  confederation  formed 
between  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Prussia,  which 
led  to  retaliation  on  the  part  of  England,  to  the 
seizure  by  tliaP  power  of  all  Danish  vessels  in 
British  ports,  and  to  the  bombardment  of  Copen¬ 
hagen  and  total  destruction  or  capture  of  the 
fleet.  The  Danish  monarch  became  the  ally  of 
Napoleon,  and  suffered  proportionally  after  the 
overthrow  of  his  empire.  In  1814,  Norway  was. 


FREDERICK  CHARLES. 


405 


FRELINGHUYSEN. 


taken  by  the  allies  from.  Denmark,  and  given  to 
Sweden.  Frederick  died  Dec.  3,  1839.  Fred¬ 
erick  VII.,  the  late  King  of  Denmark,  was  born 
in  1808,  and  succeeded  his  father,  Christian  VIII., 
in  1848.  He  died  Nov.  15,  1863. 

Frederick  Charles,  a  Prussian  prince,  son  of 
Prince  Charles  (brother  of  Emperor  William), 
was  born  at  Berlin,  March  20,  1828.  His  whole 
life  was  spent  in  war,  and  the  present  German 
Empire  is  much  his  debtor  for  services.  He  was 
known  as  the  “Red  Prince,”  and  was  a  man  of 
violent  passions.  He  died  June  15,  1885. 

Frederick  William,  Elector  of  Branden¬ 
burg,  commonly  called  “the  Great  Elector,”  was 
born  in  1620,  succeeded  to  the  electorate  in  1640, 
and  died  in  1688.  He  created  an  army  and 
fought  for  and  against  the  Swedes.  During  his 
reign,  he  more  than  tripled  the  area  of  his  terri¬ 
tories,  and  by  his  generous  reception  of  20,000 
French  Protestants  after  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  augmented  the  population  of 
his  states,  and  introduced  numerous  industrial 
arts  among  his  subjects.  He  founded  the  uni¬ 
versity  at  Duisburg,  and  the  royal  library  at 
Berlin,  and  reorganized  the  universities  of  Frank- 
furt-on-the-Oder  and  Konigsberg. 

Frederick  III.,  Elector  of^Brandenburg, 
son  and  successor  of  the  former,  and  the  first 
King  of  Prussia,  was  born  in  1657,  and  succeeded 
to  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg  in  1688.  He 
supported  William  of  Orange  in  his  attempt  on 
England,  and  gave  him  a  subsidy  of  6,000  men, 
which,  under  the  command  of  Marshal  Schom- 
berg,  contributed  to  gain  the  victory  at  the  Boyne 
which  decided  the  fate  of  James  II.  On  Jan.  18, 
1701,  he  placed  the  crown  of  Prussia  on  his 
own  head.  He  died  Feb.  25,  1713. 

Frederick  William  I.,  of  Prussia,  born  in 
1688,  was  in  almost  every  particular  the  opposite 
of  his  father,  Frederick  I.  The  public  events  of 
his  reign  were  of  little  importance,  although  he 
was  continually  implicated  in  foreign  wars,  and 
he  supported  the  cause  of  Stanislaus  of  Poland, 
and  assisted  Austria  in  her  contests  with  France. 
He  died  in  1740. 

Frederick  II.,  of  Prussia,  surnamed  “the 
Great,”  was  the  son  of  Frederick  William  I., 
and  the  Princess  Sophia  Dorothea,  daughter  of 
George  I.,  of  Great  Britain,  and  was  born  in  1712. 
His  early  years  were  spent  uhder  the  restraints  of 
an  irksome  military  training,  and  a  rigid  system  of 
education.  He  succeeded  to  the  crown  in  1740. 
His  first  military  exploit  was  to  gain  a  victory  at 
Mollwitz  over  the  Austrians,  in  1741,  which 
nearly  decided  the  fate  of  Silesia,  and  secured  to 
Prussia  the  alliance  of  France  and  Bohemia. 
Another  victory  over  the  Empress  Maria  Theresa’s 
troops  made  him  master  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Silesia,  and  closed  the  first  Silesian  War.  The 
second  Silesian  War,  which  ended  in  1745,  from 
which  Frederick  II.  retired  with  augmented  ter¬ 
ritories  and  the  reputation  of  being  one  of  the 
first  commanders  of  the  age,  was  followed  by  a 
peace  of  eleven  years.  The  third  Silesian  War, 
or  “  The  Seven  Years’  War,”  was  begun  in  1756, 
by  the  invasion  of  Saxony — a  step  to  which 
Frederick  II.  was  driven  by  the  fear  that  he  was 
to  be  deprived  of  Silesia  by  the  allied  Confedera¬ 
tion  of  France,  Austria, '  Saxony,  and  Russia. 
This  contest,  which  was  one  of  the  most  remark¬ 
able  of  modern  times,  secured  to  Frederick  II.  a 
decided  influence  in  the  affairs  of  Europe  gener¬ 
ally.  In  1772.  he  shared  in  the  partition  of 
Poland,  and  obtained  as  his  portion  all  Polish 
Prussia,  and  a  part  of  Great  Poland ;  and  by  the 
treaty  of  Teschen,  in  1779,  Austria  was  obliged 
to  consent  to  the  union  of  the  Franconian  prov¬ 
inces  with  Prussia,  and  he  was  thus  enabled  to 
leave  to  his  nephew  and  successor  a  powerful  and 
well -organized  kingdom,  one-half  larger  in  area 
than  it  had  been  at  his  own  accession,  with  a  full 
treasury,  and  an  army  of  200,000  men.  He  died 
at  the  chiiteau  of  Sans  Souci,  Aug.  17,  1786. 
Frederick  the  Great  is  said  to  have  “  inherited  all 
his  father’s  excellences  and  none  of  his  defects.” 
His  courage,  fertility  of  resource,  and  indomitable 
resolution  were  great.  He  was  a  voluminous 
author,  and  for  some  years  a  patron  of  Voltaire, 
with  whom  he  afterward  quarreled,  but  he  en¬ 
tirely  neglected  German  literature.  See  Carlyle’s 
Frederick  II.,  and  Macaulay’s  Essay. 

Frederick  William  II.,  of  Prussia,  was 


born  in  1744,  and  died  in  1797.  His  reign  was  a 
succession  of  disastrous  wars,  which  left  his  king¬ 
dom  deeply  in  debt. 

Frederick  William  III.,  of  Prussia,  the  son 
of  Frederick  William  II.,  was  born  in  1770,  and 
ascended  the  throne  in  1797.  He  was  almost  com¬ 
pletely  under  the  domination  of  Napoleon,  and 
Prussia  had  been  almost  dismembered,  when  the 
great  Battle  of  Leipzig  restored  to  him  his  posses¬ 
sions.  He  was  embroiled  with  the  Pope  more 
than  once.  He  was  the  author  of  the  great  Ger¬ 
man  Zollverein,  which  made  the  customs  and 
duties  of  the  German  dominions  uniform  He 
died  in  1840. 

Frederick  William  IV.,  of  Prussia,  son  of 
the  foregoing,  was  born  Oct.  15,  1795.  His  reign 
began  June  7,  1840.  In  1857  Frederick  William 
was  seized  with  remittent  attacks  of  insanity,  and 
in  1858  he  resigned  the  management  of  public 
affairs  to  his  brother  and  next  heir,  who  acted  as 
Regent  of  the  Kingdom  till  his  own  accession,  in 

1860,  as  William  I.  Frederick  William  died  in 

1861. 

Frederick  III.  (Frederick  William),  Em¬ 
peror  of  Germany,  was  born  Oct.  18,  1831,  the 
only  son  of  the  Emperor  William  and  Empress 
Augusta.  He  married  in  1858  the  Princess  Royal 
of  England,  eldest  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria, 
and  his  eldest  son,  now  Emperor  William  III., 
was  born  in  the  following  year.  Frederick  served 
in  the  Danish  campaign,  in  the  Austro-Prussian 
War  in  1866,  and  in  the  Franco-Prussian  War, 
1870-71.  In  1887  he  developed  a  cancerous 
affection  of  tin;  throat,  which  was  operated  upon 
by  English  surgeons.  While  he  was  suffering 
from  this  incurable  disease,  his  father,  William 
II.,  died,  and  Frederick  became  Emperor,  but 
retained  the  title  less  than  three  months,  dying 
within  that  time. 

Frederick,  a  well-built  city  of  Maryland, 
forty  miles  west-by-north  of  Baltimore.  Pop., 
8,659. 

Fredericksburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Gillespie 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  1,085. 

Frederick  Town,  the  county  seat  of  Madison 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  1,805. 

Fredonia,  an  important  agricultural  town,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Wilson  county,  Kan.  Pop., 
2,000. 

Free  Church  of  Scotland,  the  name  assumed 
by  those  who,  at  the  “disruption  ”  of  the  Estab¬ 
lished  Church  of  Scotland  in  1843,  withdrew 
from  connection  with  the  State,  and  formed  them¬ 
selves  into  a  distinct  religious  community,  at  the 
same  time  claiming  to  represent  the  historic 
Church  of  Scotland,  as  maintaining  the  principles 
for  which  it,  has  contended  since  the  Reformation. 

Free  Cities,  the  name  given  to  those  German 
towns,  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Liibeck,  and  Frank- 
furt-on-the-Main,  which  were  of  themselves  sov¬ 
ereign  States  and  members  of  the  German  Con¬ 
federation. 

Freehold,  the  county  seat  of  Monmouth  coun¬ 
ty,  N.  J.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Free-lances  were  rovrng  companies  of  knights 
and  men-at-arms,  who,  after  the  crusades  had 
ceased  to  give  them  employment,  wandered  from 
state  to  state,  selling  tlieir  services  to  any  lord 
who  was  willing  to  purchase  their  aid. 

Freeman  and  Freedman.  In  the  most  gen¬ 
eral  acceptation  of  these  terms,  the  first  im¬ 
plies  one  who  has  inherited  the  full  privileges 
and  immunities  of  citizenship;  the  second,  one 
who  has  been  delivered  from  the  restraints  of 
bondage,  but  who,  usually,  is  not  placed  in  a 
position  of  full  social  or  even  political  equality 
with  him  who  was  born  free. 

Free  Port  (Ital.  porto  franco),  is  a  harbor 
where  the  ships  of  all  nations  may  enter  on  pay¬ 
ing  a  moderate  toll,  and  load  and  unload. 

Fi  •ee-spirit,  Brethren  of  the,  a  fanatical 
sect  of  the  middle  ages,  which  was  very  generally 
(though  sometimes  secretly)  diffused  over  Italy, 
France,  and  Germany,  between  the  thirteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries.  They  took  their  name 
from  the  “freedom  of  spirit”  which  they 
claimed,  in  virtue  of  the  words  of  St.  Paul 
(Rom.  viii,  2,  14),  maintaining  that,  the  true 
sons  of  God  are  exempt  from  subjection  to  the 
law. 

Free 'stone,  any  rock  which  admits  of  being 
freely  cut  and  dressed  by  the  builder. 


Free  Trade.  Trade  consists  in  buying  and 
selling.  There  is  free  trade  when  there  is  no 
interference  with  the  natural  course  of  buying 
and  selling,  if  such  interference  be  intended  to 
improve  or  otherwise  to  influence  trade.  It  is 
necessary  to  keep  this  distinction  in  view,  because 
there  are  many  laws  not  contrary  to  the  spirit  of 
free  trade  which  interfere  with  buying  and  selling, 
as  the  license  laws.  The  many  attempts  made  by 
governments  to  regulate  trade  for  the  purpose  of 
benefiting  the  communities  over  which  they  ruled, 
may  be  divided  into  two  great  classes;  the  one 
prohibited  the  exportation  of  commodities,  the 
other  encouraged  exportation,  and  prohibited  or 
discouraged  importation.  The  former  was  the 
old  rule  in  all  countries.  It  was  supposed  that  the 
wealth  of  the  country  depended  on  its  retaining 
within  itself  certain  productions  of  native  growth 
or  industry,  and  their  removal  out  of  the  country 
was  prohibited  or  restrained.  As  applied  to  the 
individual  inhabitants,  and  not  to  the  nation,  free 
trade  is  the  right  of  every  man  to  do  as  he  pleases 
with  his  capital  and  abilities. 

Free-will.  The  freedom  or  liberty  of  the  will 
is  the  designation  of  a  doctrine  maintained  in 
opposition  to  another  doctrine,  expressed  by  the 
term  “necessity.”  The  contest  between  those 
two  views  has  been  maintained  in  the  fields  both 
of  theology  and  of  metaphysics.  The  doctrine  of 
freedom,  as  applied  to  the  human  will,  was  first 
contended  for  by  Pelagius  against  Augustine’s 
doctrines  regarding  the  operation  of  grace;  and 
in  a  later  age  was  the  subject  of  controversy  be¬ 
tween  Arminians  and  Calvinists,  the  Calvinists 
(such  as  Jonathan  Edwards)  having  usually  been 
Necessitarians. 

Freezing  Mixtures,  and  Other  Means  of 
Cooling.  When  matter  passes  from  the  solid 
into  the  liquid  state,  heat  in  large  quantity  dis¬ 
appears.  When  a  piece  of  ice,  having  a  temper¬ 
ature  of  32°  F.,  is  placed  in  its  own  weight  of 
water  at  174°,  we  find,  on  testing  the  water  with 
the  thermometer  after  the  ice  has  melted,  that  its 
temperature  is  32°;  the  heat  which  the  wrater  con¬ 
tained  having  disappeared  during  the  melting  of 
the  ice.  As  water,  in  passing  from  the  solid  to 
the  fluid  state,  possesses  the  property  of  rendering 
latent  a  greater  amount  of  heat  than  any  other 
substance,  it  is,  when  in  a  solid  form,  as  ice  or 
snow,  or  when  combined  with  salts,  as  water  of 
crystallization,  a  powerful  agent  in  producing 
artificial  cold.  Ammonia  and  sulphuric  ether  are 
much  used  to  create  artificial  cold,  and  in  many 
American  breweries  are  used  instead  of  ice. 

Frei'berg,  an  ancient  city  of  Germany,  the 
center  of  administration  for  the  Saxon  mines. 
Pop.,  25,445. 

Freiburg,  or  Fribourg,  a  canton  of  Switzer¬ 
land,  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Berne,  and 
on  the  south  and  west  by  Vaud  and  the  Lake  of 
Neuchatel.  Pop.,  115,400. 

Freiburg,  a  town  of  Germany,  in  the  Grand- 
Duchy  of  Baden.  Pop.  (1880),  36,382,  of  whom 
about  2,500  are  Protestants. 

Freight  (a  word  having  the  same  origin  as 
fare),  the  hire  of  a  ship,  or  part  of  a  ship,  for 
the  transport  of  merchandise;  also  the  merchandise 
so  transported.  I-f  a  merchant  freight  a  whole 
ship,  but  neglect  to  fill  it,  the  captain  is  not  at 
liberty  to  complete  the  cargo  from  other  sources, 
without  accounting  to  the  merchant  for  any 
moneys  received  for  such  additional  load.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  merchant  covenant  to  freight  a 
certain  portion  of  a  ship,  he  is  bound  to  pay  the 
sum  agreed  on  for  that  portion,  notwithstanding 
that  his  goods  may  fail  to  occupy  so  much  space. 

Frei  'schiitz,  the  free-shooter,  is  the  name  given 
in  the  legend  to  a  hunter  or  marksman  who,  by 
entering  into  a  compact  with  the  devil,  procures 
balls,  six  of  which  infallibly  hit,  however  great 
the  distance,  while  the  seventh,  or,  according  to 
some  versions,  one  of  the  seven,  belongs  to  the 
devil,  who  directs  it  at  his  pleasure.  Legends  of 
this  nature  were  rife  among  the  troopers  of  Ger¬ 
many  of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries, 
and  during  the  Thirty  Years’  War.  Weber  wrote 
an  opera,  Der  Freischutz. 

Frelingliuysen,  Frederick,  born  in  New  Jer¬ 
sey  in  1753,  served  in  the  Continental  Army,  and 
Congress,  and  was  United  States  Senator,  1793-96. 
lie  died  in  1804. — His  son,  Theodore,  was  born 
in  1787;  was  United  States  Senator,  1829-35;  in 


FREMONT. 


406 


FRIENDLY  ISLANDS. 


1844  was  candidate  for  Vice-President  on  the 
Whig  ticket  with  Henry  Clay,  but  was  defeated, 
lie  died  in  1862.  Frederick  Theodore,  a 
nephew  of  the  first  named,  was  born  in  New  Jersey 
in  1817,  became  a  lawyer,  was  United  States  Sen¬ 
ator,  1868-77,  and  in  1881  became  Secretary  of 
State.  He  died  May  20,  1885. 

Fremont,  JonN  Charles,  traveler  and  ex¬ 
plorer,  son  of  a  French  emigrant  gentleman  and 
a  Virginia  lady,  was  born  at  Savannah,  Ga., 
Jan.  .21,  1813.  For  two  years  he  taught  math¬ 
ematics  on  board  the  sloop-of-war  Natchez,  re¬ 
ceived  his  degree  in  1835,  and  soon  after  was  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  frigate  Independence;  but  turned 
liis  attention  to  civil-engineering,  and  was  em¬ 
ployed  in  the  Mississippi  survey,  and  similar  un¬ 
dertakings.  In  1840  he  received  from  President 
Van  Buren  a  commission  as  Second-Lieutenant  in 
the  corps  of  Topographical  Engineers,  and  was 
ordered  to  make  an  examination  of  the  River 
Des  Moines,  upon  the  western  frontier.  In  1841 
he  married  the  daughter  of  Colonel  Benton.  He 
now  proposed  to  penetrate  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and,  his  plans  being  approved  of,  he  reached  and 
explored  the  South  Pass  in  1842,  with  only  a 
handful  of  men.  A  lofty  peak  which  he  as¬ 
cended,  13,750  feet  above  the  sea,  is  now  called 
Fremont’s  Peak.  He  immediately  planned  a  sec¬ 
ond  expedition  more  extensive  than  the  first,  com¬ 
menced  his  journey  in  May,  1843,  explored  the 
Kansas  river,  crossed  the  South  Pass,  and,  after 
1,700  miles  of  traveling,  came,  on  September  6th,  in 
sight  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake.  He  advanced  as 
far  as  Fort  Vancouver,  and  then  commenced  his 
return.  He  selected  a  route  leading  to  the  Upper 
Colorado,  through  an  almost  unknown  region, 
crossed  by  rugged  mountain-ridges.  After  suffer¬ 
ing  the  greatest  hardships,  he  determined  to  make 
for  San  Francisco  instead  of  the  United  States,  and 
boldly  undertook  the  passage  without  a  guide. 
He  accomplished  it  in  forty  days,  reaching  Sut¬ 
ter’s  Fort  on  the  Sacramento  early  in  March,  with 
his  men  almost  reduced  to  skeletons,  and  only 
thirty-three  out  of  sixty-seven  horses  and  mules 
remaining,  and  those  so  weak  and  thin  that  they 
could  barely  walk.  He  proceeded  southward, 
along  the  Western  range  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
crossed  that  range  through  a  gap,  entered  the 
Great  Basin,  and  reached  Washington  in  August, 
1844.  In  consideration  of  his  valuable  services,  Fre¬ 
mont  was  brevetted  Captain  in  January,  1845,  and 
in  the  spring  of  the  same  year  set  out  on  a  third  ex¬ 
pedition  to  explore  the  Great  Basin  and  the  mari¬ 
time  region  of  California.  He  took  part  in  the 
war  with  Mexico,  and  cleared  the  northern  part 
of  California  from  Mexican  troops.  He  then  be¬ 
came  involved  in  a  dispute  between  two  of  his  su¬ 
perior  officers  in  regard  to  the  right  of  command  in 
California,  and  he  resigned  his  position  in  the  army. 
In  1848  he  started  upon  a  fourth  expedition,  at 
his  own  expense,  trying  to  find  a  practicable  pass¬ 
age  to  California  along  the  upper  waters  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  In  1849  he  settled  in  California,  and  in 
the  same  year  was  elected  Senator  for  that  State. 
In  1853  he  conducted  a  fifth  expedition  along  the 
route  of  the  fourth.  In  1856  he  stood  for  the 
Presidency  on  the  Republican  ticket,  and  was  de¬ 
feated  by  Buchanan.  In  1861  lie  was  made  a  Ma¬ 
jor-General,  but  gave  up  his  command  in  1862. 
In  1864  he  was  again  nominated  for  the  Presi¬ 
dency,  but  withdrew.  He  received  several  med¬ 
als  from  learned  European  societies,  and  was 
made  honorary  member  of  one.  In  1873  he  was 
found  guilty  at  Paris  of  fraud  in  connection  with 
his  scheme  for  a  southern  railway  to  the  Pacific. 
From  1878  to  1881  he  was  Governor  of  Arizona. 

Fremont,  an  important  agricultural  town,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Dodge  county,  Neb.  Pop., 
5,700. 

French  Berries,  Avignon  Berries,  Persian 
Berries,  or  Yellow  Berries  (Fr.  Graines 
d’ Avignon),  small  berries,  the  fruit  of  certain  species 
of  buck-thorn,  but  principally  of  the  yellow-ber¬ 
ried  buck-thorn  ( Rhamnus  infectorius),  used  by 
dyers  in  dyeing  yellow. 

Frenchbiirgh,  the  county  seat  of  Menifee 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  200. 

French  Honeysuckle  ( Iledysarum  corona- 
rium),  a  beautiful  biennial  plant  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Papilionaceee ,  with 
branching  and  spreading  stems,  pinnate  leaves, 


scarlet  or  sometimes  white  flowers,  and  jointed 
pods,  which  have  one  seed  in  each  articulation. 

French  Polishing,  the  name  given  to  the 
common  method  of  coating  wood  with  a  fine, 
smooth  surface  or  varnish  of  gum-lac.  The 
varnish  must  be  rubbed  continuously  till  dry. 
If  a  dry  rubber  be  used,  the  lac  sticks  to  it,  and 
it  is  dragged  from  the  wood.  An  oiled  rubber  is 
therefore  used,  and  the  oil  should  be  a  drying 
oil,  such  as  linseed. 

French  River,  a  stream  of  Upper  Canada, 
empties  Lake  Nipissing  into  Lake  Huron,  enter¬ 
ing  Georgian  Bay,*  in  latitude  45°  53'  N.,  and 
longitude  81°  5'  W. 

Frere,  Sir  Henry  Bartle  Edward,  a  diplo¬ 
matist,  was  born  March  29,  1815,  and  educated 
for  the  Indian  Civil  Service,  which  he  entered  in 
1835.  He  was  employed  in  many  diplomatic 
missions  and  was  knighted  for  his  services.  He 
was  the  holder  of  many  honorary  titles  and  presi¬ 
dent  of  many  learned  societies.  He  died  in 
1884. 

Fres'co,  Fresco  Painting,  or  Painting  in 
Fresco,  the  term  applied  to  paintings  executed 
upon  plaster  while  it  is  still  wet  or  fresh  (Ital. 
fresco).  A  very  large  proportion  of  the  best 
works  of  the  Italian  schools,  particularly  those  of 
Rome  and  Florence,  are  done  in  this  manner; 
and  during  the  present  century  it  has  been 
revived,  and  many  of  the  chief  paintings  of  the 
modern  German  school  are  executed  in  fresco. 
Hundreds  of  churches  in  Italy  and  other  Euro¬ 
pean  countries  are  ornamented  with  frescoes, 
notable  among  which  are  Leonardo  da  Vinci’s 
“Last  Supper,”  and  the  magnificent  works  of 
Michael  Angelo  and  others. 

Freshwater  Mussel,  a  popular  name  common 
to  a  whole  family  of  lamellibranchiate  mollusks, 
Unionidce  (sometimes  called  Naiadce),  allied  to 
mussels  ( Mytilidce ),  but  having  a  much  larger 
foot,  wyhich  does  not  generally  produce  a  byssus 


Freshwater  Mussel  ( Alasmodon  margaritifera) . 


except  in  a  very  young  state  of  the  animal.  A 
few  species  are  European;  but  it  is  in  North 
America  that  they  chiefly  abound,  its  lakes  and 
rivers  producing  many  species. 

Freshwater  Strata  are  so  named  from  their 
supposed  origin.  This  can  be  easily  determined 
from  an  examination  of  the  contained  fossils. 

Fresno  City,  an  important  agricultural  and 
railroad  city,  the  county  seat  of  Fresno  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  4.000. 

Fret,  a  figure  in  Heraldry,  resembling  two 
sticks  laid  saltierwise,  and  interlaced  with  a 
mascle. 


Fret.  Fretty. 

Fretty.  When  six,  eight,  or  more  pieces  are 
represented  crossing  and  interlacing  like  lattice- 
■work,  the  shield  is  said  to  be  fretty. 

Freyja  and  Frig'ga,  though  spoken  of  in 
northern  mythology  as  distinct,  are  originally  one, 
and  intimately  associated  with  Freyr.  Frigga,  in 
the  genealogy  of  the  Ases,  is  the  supreme  goddess, 
wife  of  Odin,  and  one  of  the  daughters  of  the 
giant  Fiorgwin,  and  presides  over  marriages. 
Freyja  is  the  daughter  of  Niord,  sister  of  Freyr, 
and  goddess  of  love.  The  name  still  survives 
in  Friday. 

Freycinet,  Charles  Louis,  born  at  Foix, 
France,  Nov.  14, 1828.  He  became  Assistant  Secre¬ 
tary  of  War  under  Gambetta  in  1870,  was  elected  to 
the  Senate  in  1876,  has  held  several  cabinet  offices, 
and  in  1886  was  President  of  the  Council  and 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs. 

Friar,  a  name  common  to  the  members  of  cer¬ 


tain  religious  orders  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  generally  employed  in  contradis¬ 
tinction  to  the  name  monk  and  regular  clerk. 
The  name  friar,  although  from  its  etymology 
{frere,  brother)  it  belongs  to  the  members  of  all 
religious  brotherhoods,  yet  has  come  to  be  reserved 
almost  exclusively  for  the  brethren  of  the  mendi¬ 
cant  orders.  It  is  applied  chiefly  to  the  four 
great  orders,  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Augus- 
tinians,  and  Carmelites. 

Friar’s  Point,  the  county  seat  of  Coahoma 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  676. 

Fric'tion.  When  one  body  rubs  against 
another  as  it  moves,  a  certain  force  is  felt  to  resist 
the  motion.  This  resistance  is  called  friction. 
The  amount  of  friction  between  two  bodies  is  a 
constant  fraction  or  proportion  of  the  force  with 
which  they  are  pressed  against  each  other.  This 
fraction  differs  for  the  different  kinds  of  surfaces. 
The  friction  of  quiescence,  that  is,  the  resistance 
to  the  commencement  of  motion,  is  greater  than 
the  resistance  to  its  continuance,  and  the  more  so 
if  the  surfaces  have  been  a  considerable  time  in 
contact.  But  the  slightest  shock  or  jar  is  suffi¬ 
cient  to  destroy  this  cohesion,  or  whatever  it  is 
that  constitutes  the  peculiar  initial  resistance,  so 
that  it  is  only  the  constant  and  regular  friction  of 
motion  that  is  of  much  consequence  in  practice. 
Friction  is  very  much  diminished  by  the  use  of 
grease  or  unguents.  The  coefficient  of  wrought 
iron  upon  oak,  which,  in  the  dry  state,  is  .49,  is  re¬ 
duced  by  the  application  of  water  to  .26,  and  by 
dry  soap  to  .21.  The  most  important  fact,  per¬ 
haps,  and  one  that  could  hardly  have  been  antici¬ 
pated  before  experiment,  is,  that  the  friction  of 
motion  is  wholly  independent  of  the  velocity  of  the 
motion.  The  resistance  of  friction  to  the  turning 
of  a  shaft  in  its  bearings,  or  of  an  axle  in  its  box, 
has  evidently  the  greater  leverage,  the  thicker  the 
journal  or  the  axle  is;  the  axles  of  wheels  are  ac¬ 
cordingly  made  as  small  as  is  consistent  with  the 
required  strength.  The  resistance  that  occurs 
between  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  and  the 
road,  constitutes  wdiat  is  called  rolling  friction. 
Now,  for  overcoming  this  resistance,  it  can  be 
shown,  on  the  principle  of  the  lever,  that  a  large 
wheel  has  the  advantage  over  a  small  one;  and  by 
numerous  experiments,  the  fact  has  been  fully 
established,  that  on  horizontal  roads  of  uniform 
quality  and  material,’  the  traction  varies  directly  as 
the  load,  and  inversely  as  the  radius  of  the  wheel. 
Friction  is  also  a  power  for  good  in  the  arts. 
Without  friction,  a  ladder  could  not  be  planted 
against  a  wall,  unless  there  were  a  hole  in  the 
ground  to  retain  the  foot.  In  short,  no  oblique 
pressure  of  any  kind  could  be  sustained.  The 
force  of  friction  is  often  directly  employed  in 
mechanics.  It  is  used,  for  instance,  to  commu¬ 
nicate  motion  by  means  of  belts,  chains,  etc.  It 
is  the  force  that  holds  a  knot.  It  is  specially 
useful  when  a  machine,  with  great  momentum, 
haste  be  checked  or  arrested  in  its  motion.  The 
best  example  of  this  is  the  brake  used  on  railways. 
Friction-wheels  are  employed  to  diminish  the  fric¬ 
tion  of  axles  on  their  supports.  Two  wheels,  of 
large  circumference  in  proportion  to  their  weight, 
are  placed  close  together,  parallel  to  each  other, 
and  so  that  the  one  seems  to  overlap  the  half  of 
the  other;  in  the  notch  thus  formed  by  the  upper 
circumferences  of  the  wheels  one  end  of  the  axle 
rests,  a  similar  arrangement  being  made  for  the 
other  end.  The  friction,  which  formerly  acted  di¬ 
rectly  on  the  axle,  is  by  this  arrangement  referred 
to  the  axles  of  the  friction-wheels,  and  is,  by 
the  laws  of  mechanics,  reduced  in  the  ratio  of  the 
circumference  of  the  friction  wheel  to  the  circum¬ 
ference  of  its  axle.  In  order  to  render  the  fric¬ 
tion  of  the  friction-wheels  themselves  the  least 
possible,  they  are  made  as  light  and  as  large  as  is- 
practicable. 

Friday  Harbor,  the  county  seat  of  San  Juan 
county,  Wash.,  is  on  San  Juan  Island,  in  the 
Strait  of  Georgia. 

Friendly  Islands,  lie  to  the  southeast  of  Fiji, 
and  consist  of  three  sub-groups,  of  which  some 
thirty  islands  are  inhabited,  Tonga-tabu  being  the 
largest.  The  great  majority  are  of  coral  forma¬ 
tion;  but  some  are  volcanic,  and  there  are  several 
active  volcanoes.  The  people  are  the  most  intel¬ 
ligent  and  skillful  of  the  fair  Polynesians,  but  are 
decreasing  in  numbers  ;  once  reckoned  at  40,000, 
they  do  not  now  exceed  10,000.  The  Friendly 


FRIENDS. 


407 


FROG. 


Islands  were  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1643,  but 
received  their  collective  name  from  Cook. 

Friends,  Society  of,  better  known  as  Quakers. 
Their  founder  was  George  Fox,  born  at  Drayton, 
in  Leicestershire,  England,  in  1624,  who  at  first 
followed  the  occupation  of  a  shoemaker,  but  after¬ 
ward  devoted  himself  to  the  propagation  of  what 
he  regarded  as  a  more  spiritual  form  of  Christianity 
than  prevailed  in  his  day.  In  spite  of  severe  and 
cruel  persecutions,  the  Society  of  Friends  suc¬ 
ceeded  in  establishing  themselves,  both  in  Eng¬ 
land  and  America.  They  have,  indeed,  never 
been  numerically  powerful  (having  at  no  time 
exceeded  200,000  members);  but  the  purity  of  life, 
which  from  the  beginning  has  so  honorably  dis¬ 
tinguished  them  as  a  class,  has  unquestionably 
exercised  a  salutary  influence  on  the  public  at 
large;  while,  in  respect  to  certain  great  questions 
affecting  the  interests  of  mankind,  such  as  war  and 
slavery,  they  have,  beyond  all  doubt,  originated 
opinions  and  tendencies  which,  whether  sound 
or  erroneous,  are  no  longer  confined  to  themselves, 
but  have  widely  leavened  the  mind  of  Christen¬ 
dom.  It  is,  perhaps,  more  in  the  spirit  than  in 
the  letter  of  their  faith  that  the  Society  of  Friends 
differ  from  other  orthodox  Christians.  They  them¬ 
selves  assert  their  belief  in  the  great  fundamental 
facts  of  Christianity,  and  even  in  the  substantial 
identity  of  most  of  the  doctrinal  opinions  which 
they  hold  with  those  of  other  evangelical  denomi¬ 
nations.  In  America,  about  the  year  1827,  Elias 
Hicks,  a  Friend  of  very  remarkable  powers, 
created  a  schism  in  the  Society,  by  the  promulga¬ 
tion  of  opinions  denying  the  miraculous  concep¬ 
tion,  divinity,  and  atonement  of  Christ,  and  also 
the  authenticity  and  divine  authority  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  About  one-lialf  of  the  Society  in 
America  adopted  the  views  of  Hicks,  and  are 
known  as  Hicksite  Friends;  their  opinions,  of 
course,  are  repudiated  by  the  rest  of  the  Society, 
who  may  be  described  as  Orthodox  Friends. 
It  is  in  the  application  of  their  leading  doctrine 
of  the  “internal  light”  that  the  peculiarities  of 
the  Friends  are  most  apparent.  Believing  that 
it  is  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  the  indwelling  Christ, 
that  alone  maketh  wise  unto  salvation,  illumining 
the  mind  with  true  and  spiritual  knowledge  of 
the  deep  things  of  God,  they  do  not  consider 
“  human  learning”  essential  to  a  minister  of  the 
gospel,  and  look  with  distrust  on  the  method 
adopted  by  other  churches  for  obtaining  such — 
viz.,  by  formally  training,  after  a  human  fashion, 
a  body  of  youths  chosen  on  no  principle  of  in¬ 
ward  fitness.  It  also  follows  from  their  view  of 
a  call  to  the  work  of  the  ministry,  that  women 
may  exhort  as  well  as  men,  for  the  “spirit  of 
Christ”  may  move  them  as  powerfully  as  the 
other  sex.  Their  mode  of  conducting  public 
worship  likewise  illustrates  the  entireness  of  their 
dependence  on  the  “internal  light.”  In  other 
religious  bodies,  the  minister  has  a  set  form  of 
worship,  through  which  he  must  go,  whether  he 
feels  devoutly  disposed  or  not.  This  seems  ob  jec¬ 
tionable  to  the  Friends,  who  meet  and  remain  in 
silence  until  they  believe  themselves  moved  to 
speak  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  Their  .prayers  and 
praises  are,  for  the  most  part,  silent  and  inward. 
The  doctrine  of  the  “  internal  light  ”  has  also  led 
the  Friends  to  reject  the  ordinances  of  Baptism 
and  the  Lord’s  Supper,  as  these  are  observed  by 
other  Christians.  They  believe  the  Christian 
baptism  to  be  a  spiritual  one,  and  not,  like  the 
Jewish  and  heathen  baptisms,  one  with  water. 
The  taking  or  administering  of  oaths  is  regarded 
by  Friends  as  inconsistent  with  the  command  of 
Christ,  “swear  not  at  all.”  They  have  also  re¬ 
fused  to  pay  tithes  for  the  maintenance  of  what 
they  hold  to  be  a  hireling  ministry.  The  Friends 
have  likewise  consistently  protested  against  war 
in  all  its  forms;  and  the  Society  has  repeatedly 
advised  its  members  against  aiding  and  assisting 
in  the  conveyance  of  soldiers,  their  baggage, 
arms,  ammunition,  or  military  stores.  As  early 
as  1727,  they  commenced  to  “censure”  the  traffic 
in  slaves.  In  respect  to  what  may  be  called 
minor  points,  the  Friends  are  also  very  scrupu¬ 
lous;  they  object  to  “balls,  gaming-places,  horse¬ 
races,  and  playhouses,  those  nurseries  of  de¬ 
bauchery  and  wickedness,  the  burden  and  grief 
of  the  sober  part  of  other  societies  as  well  as  of 
our  own.”  Their  number  at  present  amounts,  it 
is  believed, .to  about  120,000,  of  which  more  than 


90,000  belong  to  the  United  States.  See  Fox’s 
Journal;  Sewel’s  History  of  the  Quakers  (1722) ; 
Gurney’s  Observations  oil  the  Peculiarities  of  the  ti. 
of  F.  (1824);  Neale’s  History  of  the  Puritans. 

Friendship,  the  county  seat  of  Adams  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  137. 

Fries'Iand,  or  Yriesland  (ancient  Frisia), 
one  of  the  most  northern  and  wealthy  provinces 
of  the  Netherlands,  lies  Detween  52°  40' — 53°  30' 
N.  latitude  and  5°  30' — 6°  20'  E.  longitude,  and 
is  bounded  north  by  the  German  Ocean,  west  and 
southwest  by  the  Zuiderzee.  It  is  sometimes 
called  West  Friesland  to  distinguish  it  from  East 
Friesland,  now  a  part  of  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Hanover  (for  which  see  below).  The  three  divis 
ions  of  Friesland  are  Leeuwarden,  Heerenveen, 
and  Sneek.  Pop.  of  the  province  at  the  census 
of  1879,  329,877.  (In  1875  it  was  311,246.)  The 
capital  is  Leeuwarden.  East  Friesland,  in  53°  8' 
— 53 3  40'  N.  latitude,  and  6°  50 — 8°E.  longitude, 
has  an  area  of  near  1,200  square  miles,  and  apop. 
amounting  to  above  211,000.  It  now  forms  the 
Hanoverian  district  of  Aurich;  chief  towns, 
Emden  and  Aurich.  It  is  bounded,  north  by  the 
German  Ocean,  west  by  the  Netherlands,  south 
by  Aremberg,  and  east  by  Oldenburg.  Like 
Netherlands  Friesland,  it  is  low  and  flat,  requir¬ 
ing  the  protection  of  dikes  and  si  rices. 

Frieze,  in  Classical  Architecture,  the  central 
portion  of  the  entablature. 

Frigate  (probably  connected  with  the  Goth. 
fargod,  a  row-galley,  and  also  with  the  Lat. 
aphractvs,  an  undecked  galley),  formerly,  a  long 
narrow  vessel  propelled  by  oars  and  sails,  used  in 
the  Mediterranean  on  occasions  when  speed  was 
requisite.  The  name  then  came  to  be  applied  to 
men-of-war,  of  a  class  smaller  than  line-of-battle 
ships,  and  carrying  from  twenty  to  fifty  guns, 
which  were  employed  in  the  great  wars  of  the 
eighteenth  and  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  centu¬ 
ries,  as  scouts  and  cruisers.  The  frigate  was 
usually  swift,  easily  managed,  and  capable  of 
beating  well  up  to  the  wind.  She  became,  there¬ 
fore,  the  favorite  ship  in  war-time,  and  bore  off  a 
large  proportion  of  the  prize-money.  With  steam, 
and  the  growth  of  the  fleet  in  later  times,  frigates 
were  developed  more  than  any  other  men-of-war, 
and  many  of  the  largest  ships  belonged  to  this 
class. 

Frigate  Bird,  or  Man-of-war  Bird,  Tachy- 
petes  aquilus,  or  Fregata  aquilus ,  a  bird  of  the 
pelican  family  ( Pelecanidce ).  It  is  a  large  bird 
with  black  plumage,  sometimes  measuring  ten 
feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  its  extended  wings.  It 
is  a  bird  of  very  powerful  and  rapid  flight,  and 
there  seems  to  be  good  reason  for  believing 
that  it  can  remain  on  wing  for  days  together. 
It  inhabits  the  intertropical  coasts,  both  of  the 


Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  often  flying  out  far 
to  sea,  but  returning.  Its  aerial  evolutions  are 
extremely  graceful,  and  it  soars  to  a  great  eleva¬ 
tion.  It  is  said  never  to  dive  for  its  prey,  but 
to  seize  fishes  only  when  they  appear  at  the 
surface  or  above  it. 

Fringe  Tree  (Chionanthus),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Oleacem,  consisting  of  small 
trees  or  large  shrubs,  natives  of  America,  the 
West  Indies,  Ceylon,  and  New  Holland.  The 
common  fringe  tree  or  snowflower  (C.  virginica) 
is  found  in  the  United  States  from  latitude  39° 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  sometimes  attains 
the  height  of  20  or  30  feet,  but  is  rarely  more 
than  8  or  10,  has  opposite  oval  leaves  6  or  7 
inches  long,  and  very  numerous  snow-white 


flowers  in  panicled  racemes.  The  fruit  is  an 
oval  drupe. 

Fringes.  In  Optics,  those  colored  bands  of 
diffraction  which  appear  when  a  beam  of  light 
passes  the  clean  edge  of  a  screen,  or  is  trans¬ 
mitted  through  a  narrow  slit  or  hole,  are  called 
fringes. 

Fringil'lidse,  a  family  of  birds  of  the  order 
Insessores,  tribe  Conirostres,  having  a  conical  or 
nearly  conical  bill,  sometimes  short  and  thick, 
sometimes  comparatively  slender  and  elongated, 
sometimes  convex  above,  below,  or  at  the  sides, 
the  commissure — line  of  junction  of  the  mandi¬ 
bles — straight.  The  neck  is  short,  and  neither 
the  legs  nor  the  wings  are  long. 

Frisches  Half  (  Fresh-water  Bay  ),  a  large 
lagoon  on  the  coast  of  Prussia,  southeast  of  the 
Gulf  of  Dantzic.  It  is  rather  less  than  sixty 
miles  in  length  from  northeast  to  southwest, 
with  a  breadth  which  varies  in  different  parts 
from  4  to  12  miles,  and  an  area  of  318  square 
miles. 

Fris'ians.  The  Frisians  (Lat.  Frisii),  an 
ancient  Teuton#  race,  dwelt  in  the  northwest  of 
Germany.  The  districts  now  called  Friesland 
were  reduced  to  their  present  limited  boundaries 
by  the  formation  of  the  hereditary  Countships  of 
Holland,  Zealand,  Gueldres  cum  Zutphen,  and 
the  Bishopric  of  Utrecht  cum  Yssel.  The  Fris¬ 
ians  are  brave,  attached  to  their  manners  and 
customs,  upright,  open-hearted,  and  intelligent. 
Their  language  is  closely  allied  to  the  old  Anglo- 
Saxon. 

Frit  ( Oscinis  frit,  or  Chlorops  frit),  an  insect 
of  the  same  family  with  the  house-fly;  an  active 
grcenisli-black  fly  of  the  size  of  a  large  flea, 
which  does  great  injury  to  barley  crops  in  some 
parts  of  the  North  of  Europe.  It  lays  its  eggs 
in  the  flowers,  and  its  larvae  live  on  the  young 
grains. 

Frith  'jofs  Saga,  which  was  probably  first 
written  down  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  or  in 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  is  an 
ancient  Icelandic  myth,  which  records  the  life 
and  adventures  of  the  hero  Frithjof  (properly 
Fridhthjofr — i.  e.,  “peace-destroyer”),  who  loved 
the  beautiful  Ingeborg,  the  daughter  of  a  petty 
king  of  Norway.  Frithjof  is  supposed  to  have 
lived  in  the  eighth  century;  but  some  writers 
assign  to  him  a  much  earlier  period. 

Frit'illary  ( Fritillaria ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Liliacece,  herbaceous,  bulbous- 
rooted,  with  bell-shaped  perianth  of  six  distinct 


segments,  each  having  a  conspicuous  honey-pore 
(nectary)  at  the  base.  About  twenty  species  are 
known,  natives  of  Europe  and  other  temperate 
regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  All  of 
them  have  drooping  flowers;  some  of  them  are 
beautiful. 

Fritillary,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of  spe¬ 
cies  of  butterfly,  from  the  resemblance  of  the 
coloring  of  their  wings  to  that  of  the  petals  of 
the  common  fritillary.  This  resemblance  appears 
only  on  the  upper  side  of  the  wings,  the  under 
side  being  often  remarkable  for  metallic  bril¬ 
liancy. 

Frog  ( Rana ),  a  genus  of  Batrachia,  having  in 
the  adult  state  four  legs  and  no  tail,  no  gills,  four 


FROG-FISH. 


408 


FRUIT. 


toes  on  each  of  the  fore-feet,  five  on  each  of  the 
hind-feet,  the  feet  more  or  less  webbed;  the  head 
flat,  the  muzzle  rounded;  the  mouth  very  large,  a 
row  of  small  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  an  inter¬ 
rupted  transverse  row  on  the  middle  of  the  palate. 
The  young  (tadpoles)  breathe  by  means  of  gills; 
external  gills  forming  little  fringes  at  the  sides  of 
the  neck  when  they  are  very  young,  which,  how¬ 
ever,  in  a  few  days  disappear.  Another  set  of  gills, 
remain  until  the  tadpoles  undergo  their  final 
metamorphosis  into  frogs.  Tadpoles  have  no 
legs,  and  the  body  tapers  into  a  tail,  and  thus  has 
a  fish  like  form,  very  different  from  that  of  the 
mature  frog,  the  tail  being  furnished  with  a  mem¬ 
branous  border  like  a  fin.  The  mouth  of  the  tad¬ 
pole  is  a  horny  beak,  which  falls  oif  when  it 
becomes  a  frog.  When  this  metamorphosis 
takes  place,  the  hind-legs  grow  first,  and  after¬ 
ward  the  fore-legs  begin  to  appear,  the  tail  being 
gradually  absorbed.  Tadpoles  are  capable  of 
living  in  water  only;  but  the  mature  frog  visits 
the  water  only  occasionally.  In  respiration,  frogs 
draw  in  air  through  the  nostrils,  by  movements 
of  the  muscles  of  the  throat,  and  expel  it  by  con¬ 
traction  of  those  of  the  lower  part  of  the  abdomen. 
The  thin,  smooth  skin  of  frogs  is  also  believed 
to  be  subservient  to  the  aeration  of  the  blood. 
The  skeleton  is  destitute  of  ribs.  The  eye  is  large 
and  very  beautiful.  The  colors  are  often  pleas¬ 
ing,  and  the  general  aspect  agreeable.  The 
greater  proportionate  length  and  strength  of  the 
hind-legs  enables  frogs  to  leap  to  a  distance  won¬ 
derful  for  creatures  of  their  size.  The  males 
have  on  each  side  of  the  neck  a  delicate  mem- 


Frog. 

Successive  stages— in  the  order  of  the  numbers — from  the 
egg  almost  to  the  perfect  form. 


brane,  which  becomes  inflated  with  air  when 
they  croak.  The  power  of  voice  in  the  females 
is  much  inferior.  The  powers  of  voice  possessed 
by  the  common  frogs  are  not  to  be  compared 
with  those  of  the  great  bull  frogs  of  North  Amer¬ 
ica;  whilst  the  neighborhood  of  Rio  Janeiro  is 
enlivened  as  night  comes  on  by  the  blacksmith 
frog,  which  croaks  so  sonorously  that  the  noise  is 
like  the  clanging  of  a  hammer  on  an  anvil,  the 
intermingled  voices  of  some  other  kinds  resem¬ 
bling  the  lowing  of  cattle  at  a  distance.  The 
spawn  of  fiogs  is  a  gelatinous  mass,  in  which  the 
eggs  are  contained,  and  which  swells  greatly  by 
imbibing  moisture.  Impregnation  takes  place 
after  it  is  deposited,  as  with  the  spawn  of  fishes. — 
The  Tree  Frogs  ( Hyla ),  the  most  beautiful  and 
interesting  of  all,  have  the  extremities  of  the  toes 
enlarged  into  a  sort  of  cushion,  secreting  a  viscid 
humor.  Several  other  genera  have  been  separated 
from  the  Linnsean  genus  liana,  but  there  is  a 
strong  family  likeness  among  them  all.  The  use 
of  frogs  for  food  is  very  common  in  some  of  the 
southern  countries  of  Europe,  and  they  are 
regarded  as  particularly  delicate.  The  hind¬ 
quarters  are  eaten  in  tiie  United  States. — The 
Grunting  Frog  (11.  grunniem)  of  the  West 
Indies,  a  very  large  species,  6  or  8  inches  long, 
capable  of  leaping  over  a  five-feet  wall,  is 
much  used  for  food,  its  flesh  being  very  white 
and  delicate,  and  is  often  fattened  for  the  table. 
It  shows  a  considerable  capacity  for  domestica¬ 
tion,  and  readily  becomes  familiar. — A  species  of 
frog  ( Pyxicephalus  adspersvs  of  Doctor  Smith)  is 
much  used  as  food  by  the  native  tribes  of  South 
Africa. 


Frog-fish  ( Batraclius ),  a  genus  of  acanthop- 
terygian  fishes  of  the  family  Lophiidce,  to  which 
also  the  angler  or  fishing  frog  belongs.  They  are 
remarkable  for  excessive  ugliness. 

Frond,  in  Botany,  a  term  often  used  to  desig¬ 
nate  the  leaves  of  cryptogamous  plants.  It  was 
originally  introduced  as  distinctive  of  organs  in 
which  the  functions  of  stem  and  leaf  are  com 
bined,  and  was  applied  to  the  leaves  of  palms, 
etc.  The  term  leaf  is  now  very  generally  used 
even  as  to  mosses,  ferns,  etc.,  and  the  term  thallus 
is  employed  as  to  lichens.  In  the  case  of  many 
Algae,  the  term  frond  is  often  used  to  designate 
the  whole  plant  except  its  organs  of  reproduc¬ 
tion. 


Front  Royal,  the  county  seat  of  Warren 
county,  Ya.  Pop.,  1,200.  It  was  the  scene  of  a 
bloody  battle  between  Union  and  Confederate 
forces  in  the  spring  of  1802. 

Frost-bite  and  Chilblains  are  caused  by  cold 
depressing  the  vitality  of  a  part  or  the  whole  of 
the  body.  The  frost-bitten  part  is  at  first  blue 
and  puffy,  from  the  current  of  blood  through  it 
being  suspended;  then,  should  the  cold  be  con¬ 
tinued,  it  becomes  pallid,  and  the  painful  tingling 
gives  place  to  numbness  and  insensibility,  and 
finally  to  actual  death  or  mortificat  ion.  Although 
a  sudden  violent  application  of  cold  may  cause 
death  of  the  tissues,  by  reducing  the  temperature 
to  a  degree  incompatible  with  animal  life,  the 
most  common  cause  of  the  destructive  effects  of 
frost-bite  is  undoubtedly  the  excessive  reaction 
which  occurs  on  sudden  removal  of  the  cold,  or 
the  application  of  heat;  this  is  especially  the  case 
with  moist  cold.  The  treatment  of  frost-bite  con¬ 
sists  in  coaxing  back  by  degrees  the  vitality  of  the 
part;  this  is  most  prudently  effected  by  friction 
at  first  with  snow,  then  with  water  at  ordinary 
temperature,  no  warmth  being  applied  for  some 
time.  As  the  coldness  subsides,  the  painful 
tingling  returns,  then  redness  and  heat;  in  ashort 
time,  the  latter  will  be  above  the  natural  stand¬ 
ard, and  if  not  moderated, the  part  will  inflame, and 
perhaps  mortify.  In  the  case  of  mild  inflamma¬ 
tion  accompanied  with  itching,  or  sometimes  sore¬ 
ness,  the  affection  is  termed  chilblain,  which  only 
differs  from  frost-bite  in  degree  and  not  in  kind. 
It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  part  need  not  have 
been  actually  frozen  for  these  symptoms  to  occur. 
The  person  with  languid  circulation  who,  coming 
home  with  cold,  wet  feet,  places  them  before  the 
fire,  or  in  warm  water,  may  be  “frost-bitten”  to 
all  intents  and  purposes. 

Froth-fly,  Frotii  -  hopper,  Frog-fi,y,  or 
Frog-hopper,  the  common  names  of  those  in¬ 
sects  of  which  the 
young — larvae  and 
pupae — are  found 
in  a  frothy  exu¬ 
dation  on  plants. 

They  for  m  the 
family  Cercopidce 
of  the  order  Hom- 
optera,  and  are 
allied  to  Aphides, 
and  still  more 
nearly  to  Cicadas 
and  lantern-flies. 

They  have  a  pro¬ 
boscis  adapted  for 
piercing  the  bark 
of  the  plants  on 
which  they  feed. 

They  are  all  small 
insects.  They 
have  considerable 
leaping  powers. 

The  frothy  exu¬ 
dation  is  some¬ 
times  called 
cuckoo-spit,  some¬ 
times  frog-spittle, 
from  fancies  enter¬ 
tained  as  to  its 


Frog-hopper  (Aphrophora  spum- 
ana ). 


origin.  In  tropical  iarva.  ^  perfect  insect,  with  wing- 
countries,  the  Cer-  covers  closed ;  c,  perfect  insect,  in 
copidce  are  Still  the  act  of  flight;  d,  the  froth  on  a 
more  plentiful.  Plaut- 

Some  of  the  tropical  insects  of  this  family  are  re¬ 
markable  for  their  extraordinary  forms,  result¬ 
ing  from  peculiar  developments  of  the  first  seg¬ 


ment  of  the  thorax.  This  is  particularly  the  case 


Bocydium  Cruciatum.  Bocydium  Glob- 
ulare. 


in  the  genus  Bocydium,  of  which  two  species 
are  here  figured. 

Frotliiugliam,  Octavius  B.,  a  distinguished 
Unitarian  minister,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1822. 
lie  succeeded  Theodore  Parker  as  the  apostle  of 
Unitarianism,  and  has  been  a  voluminous  and 
successful  writer. 

Fronde,  James  Anthony,  an  English  historian, 
born  in  1818.  He  wrote  a  History  of  England 
from  the  Fall  of  Wolsey  to  the  Defeat  of  the 
Spanish  Armada,  and  several  other  valuable 
works. 

Fructidor  (Eng.  fruit-month)  was  the  name 
given  in  the  republican  calendar  of  France  to 
the  period  extending  from  August  18th  to  Sep¬ 
tember  16th. 

Fructose,  or  Fruit-sugar,  known  also  as  levu- 
lose,  occurs  in  association  with  glucose  in  many 
ripe,  acidulous  fruits.  It  closely  resembles  glucose. 
It  is  incapable  of  crystallization;  this  variety  of 
sugar  exerts  a  left-handed  rotation  on  polarized 
light ;  and  hence  the  term  levulose  has  been  ap¬ 
plied  to  it.  The  composition  of  fructose  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  formula  C12II22O11. 

Fruit  ( fructus ),  in  the  botanical  use  of  the 
term,  in  phanerogamous  plants,  is  a  mature  ovary 
containing  a  seed  or  seeds;  and  in  cryptogamous 
plants,  a  spore-case  (sporangium  or  theca )  contain¬ 
ing  spores.  Other  parts  of  the  flower,  most  fre¬ 
quently  the  calyx,  sometimes  remain  after  flower¬ 
ing  is  over,  undergo  a  further  development, 
become  incorporated  with  the  ovary,  and  form 
part  of  the  fruit.  The  development  of  the  fruit 
in  phanerogamous  plants  depends  upon  the  fertile 
zation  of  the  ovules.  For  the  various  forms  of 
fruits,  see  Balfour’s  or  Henfrey’s  Manual  of 
Botany;  and  for  classification,  see  Dickson’s 
Journal  of  Botany,  October,  1871.  All  that  is 
external  to  the  proper  integuments  of  the  seed  in 
the  ripe  fruit  is 
called  the  pericarp 
(Gr.  nepi,  peri, 
around;  xapnot, 
karpos,  fruit); 
and  this,  which 
varies  extremely  in 
sizeand  otherchar- 
acters,  usually  con¬ 
sists  of  three  layers, 
the  outermost 
of  which  is  called 
the  epicarp  (Gr. 

E7 n,  epi,  upon);  Drupe  (Section  of  a  Peach) . 
the  middle  one,  the  mesocarp  (Gr.  pidot,  mesos, 
middle),  or  sometimes  the  sarcocarp  (Gr.  dap£, 
sarx,  flesh);  and  the  innermost,  the  endocarp  (Gr. 
erSov,  endon,  within)  A  classification  of  the 
different  kinds  of  fruits  is  extremely  difficult, 
although  they  afford  characters  of  great  impor¬ 
tance  in  descriptive  and  systematic  botany.  A 
convenient  primary  division  of  fruits  is  into  those 
which  are  formed  from  one  flower,  and  those 
which  are  formed  by  incorporation  of  the  ovaries 
of  many  flowers.  The  production  of  ripe  fruit  is 
exhaustive  to  the  energies  of  a  plant,  and  plants 
ordinarily  annual  may  be  preserved  in  life  for  sev¬ 
eral  years  by  preventing  it.  Very  young  fruit  trees 
generally  fail  to  bring  fruit  to  perfection,  and 
the  first  flowers  of  melons  and  gourds  are  often, 
for  a  similar  reason,  abortive;  whilst,  on  the  con¬ 
trary,  any  circumstance  that  favors  an  accumula¬ 
tion  of  .sap  in  a  particular  season  tends  to  render 
fruit  trees  unusually  productive  in  the  next,  as 
when  the  whole  blossoms  of  a  year  are  killed  by 
frost,  or  when,  from  the  coldness  of  the  previous 
summer,  flower-buds  have  not  been  formed  in 
abundance.  The  value  of  fruits  to  man  some¬ 
times,  as  in  the  corn-plants,  chiefly  depends  on  the 
farinaceous  matter  of  their  seeds,  containing 
starch,  gluten,  etc.;  sometimes,  as  in  the  banana 


FRUIT-PIGEON. 


409 


FUGITIVE  SLAVE  LAW. 


and  bread-fruit,  on  the  starchy  matter  of  the 
pulpy  part;  sometimes,  as  ill  nuts,  on  fixed 
oils;  sometimes,  as  in  many  succulent  fruits, 
on  sugar,  and  various  acids,  with  gum,  pec- 
tine,  etc.,  and  for  peculiar  principles  capable 
of  application  to  medicinal  and  other  uses,  or 
making  them  capable  of  being  used  as  condi¬ 
ments,  perfumes,  etc.  Coffee,  cocoa,  pepper, 
vanilla,  and  many  other  articles  of  commerce, 
are  obtained  from  fruits.  The  principal  culti¬ 
vated  succulent  fruits  include; 

Endogenous  Plants.—  Musacece,  plantain  and  banana; 
Bromeliacece ,  pine-apple;  Palmce,  date. 

Exogenous  Plants.— Moracem,  fig,  sycamore,  mul¬ 
berry;  Artocarpacece ,  bread-fruit;  Lauracece ,  avocado 
pear;  Solanacece,  love-apple  or  tomato,  egg-plant;  Sapo- 
tacece,  mammee  sapota,  sapodilla,  star-apple;  Ebenaeece, 
date  plum,  kaki;  Oleacece,  olive  (differs  very  much  in  its 
nature  and  uses  from  all  the  other  fruits  here  enumer¬ 
ated) ;  Vaeciniacece,  cranberry;  Cornacea,  cornel;  Myr- 
tacece ,  rose-apple,  Malay  apple,  ugni,  guava,  pomegran¬ 
ate;  Grossula,'  iacece,  gooseberry,  red  (and  white)  cur¬ 
rant,  black  currant;  Cactacete,  prickly  pear,  or  Indian  fig; 
C  ucurbitaceee ,  melon,  water-melon,  cucumber,  pumpkin, 
squash,  gourd:  Passifloracea ?,  granadilla;  Papayacece, 
papaw;  Rosacece ,  apple,  pear,  quince,  medlar,  loquat, 
peach  and  nectarine,  apricot,  plum,  cherry,  raspberry, 
strawberry;  Leg  uminosce,  tamarind;  Anacardiacece, 
cashew-apple,  mango,  hog-plum,  otaheite  apple;  Rham- 
nacece ,  jujube;  Oralidece,  carambola;  Vitacece,  grape; 
Sapindacece ,  akee,  litchi,  longan,  rambutan,  honey  berry; 
Malpighiactce,  Barbadoes  cherry;  Clusiaceee,  mammee 
apple,  mangosteen;  Auran/iacece ,  orange,  lemon,  citron, 
chaddock,  forbidden  fruit,  lime, wampee,  marmelos;  Ster- 
culiacece,  durion;  Anonacece,  custard  apple. 

Fruit-pigeon  (Garpophnga),  a  genus  of  Colnm- 
bidm.  They  are  birds  of  splendid  plumage, 
natives  of  the  forests  of  India,  the  Indian  Archi¬ 


pelago,  the  warmer  parts  of  Australia,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Their  food  consists 
principally  of  fruits. 

Frustum,  in  Geometry,  is  the  part  of  a  solid 
next  the  base,  left  on  cutting  off  the  top  by  a  plane 
parallel  to  the  base.  The  frustum  of  a  sphere  or 
spheroid,  however,  is  any  part  of  these  solids 
comprised  between  two  circular  sections;  and  the 
middle  frustum  of  a  sphere  is  that  whose  ends  are 
equal  circles,  having  the  center  of  the  sphere  in 
the  middle  of  it,  and  equally  distant  from  both 
ends. 

Fry,  Elizabeth,  a  female  philanthropist  and 
preacher  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  was  born 
May  21,  1878,  and  died  Oct.  12,  1845.  She  was 
an  active  and  untiring  worker  in  the  cause  of 
suffering  humanity. 

Fuca,  Strait  of,  a  passage  separating  Wash¬ 
ington  Territory  from  Vancouver’s  Island,  and 
connecting  the  Pacific  Ocean  with  the  Gulf  of 
Georgia. 

Fuca'ce®,  according  to  Lindley,  a  natural  order 
of  acotyledonous  plants;  but  more  generally  re¬ 
garded  by  botanists  as  a  sub-order  of  Algae.  The 
species  are  numerous,  about  500  being  known, 
mostly  growing  in  salt  water.  On  account  of  the 
soda  which  they  contain,  they  are  valuable  as  a 
manure.  Some  of  them  are  eatable,  containing 
large  quantities  of  gelatinous  matter,  as  the  dulse, 
tangle,  and  badderlocks.  The  medicinal  uses 
of  some  of  them  seem  to  depend  upon  the  iodine 
which  they  contain. 

Fu-chow-foo  (Happy  City),  a  city  and  port  of 
China,  and  capital  of  the  Province  of  Full-keen. 
It  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Min,  twenty-five 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  that  river,  in  latitude 
26°  3'  N.,  longitude  119°  50'  E.  Pop.  600,000. 


Fiich'sia,  a  genus  of  Onagracece  (calycifloral 
exogens),  containing  a  large  number  of  species, 
natives  of  South  America,  and  of  the  southern 
parts  of  North  America.  They  are  half-shrubby 
plants,  shrubs,  sometimes  climbers,  and  small 
trees,  and  have  generally  pendulous  red  flowers. 
Some  of  the  species,  as  F.  coccinea,  F.  gracilis,  F. 


Fuchsia. 


globosa,  F.  fulgens,  F.  macroslemnn,  F.  longiflora, 
are  much  cultivated  for  the  beauty  of  their 
flowers. 

Fuchs’  Soluble  Glass  is  a  peculiar  silicate, 
which  is  prepared  by  melting  together  8  parts  of 
carbonate  of  soda,  or  10  parts  of  carbonate  of 
potash,  with  15  of  pure  quartz  sand,  and  1  part 
of  charcoal,  which  is  added  to  facilitate  the  de¬ 
composition  of  the  alkaline  carbonate.  A  black 
glass  is  thus  obtained,  which  is  not  soluble  in  cold 
water,  but  dissolves  in  about  six  times  its  weight 
of  boiling  water.  The  practical  uses  of  the  solu¬ 
ble  glass  are  (1)  as  a  varnish,  which,  applied  in 
the  fluid  form  to  stone  surfaces,  hardens  into  a 
glass,  and  prevents  the  ordinary  effects  of  atmos¬ 
pheric  influences;  and  (2)  as  a  means  of  fixing 
fresco-colors  by  the  process  known  as  stereoch- 
romy. 

Fucin'o,  Lake  of,  or  Lago  di  Celano  (ancient 
Fucinus  Lacus),  a  lake  of  Italy,  in  the  Province 
of  Abruzzo  Ultra  II.,  remarkable  as  the  only  one 
of  any  extent  found  in  the  Central  Apennines. 
It  is  10  miles  long  by  7  broad;  and  is  situated  at 
an  elevation  of  2, 1 76  feet  above  the  sea-level.  It 
is  drained  in  part  by  a  tunnel  3  miles  in 
length,  begun  by  the  Emperor  Claudius,  and 
restored  in  1862.  More  than  $100,000,000  have 
been  spent  in  draining  this  lake. 

Fuel.  This  term  is  generally  applied  to  com¬ 
bustibles  used  for  the  production  of  heat;  also, 
less  frequently,  to  combustibles,  such  as  oil,  par¬ 
affine  oil,  etc.,  used  for  lighting.  The  two  element¬ 
ary  bodies  to  which  we  owe  the  heating  powers  of 
all  our  fuels,  natural  and  artificial,  are  carbon  and 
hydrogen.  The  heating  power  of  a  combustible, 
or  the  amount  of  heat  generated  by  it,  is  usually 
expressed  in  degress  Fahrenheit  on  so  many 
pounds’  weight  of  water.  But  in  estimating  the 
temperature,  or  intensity  of  heat  produced,  we 
have  to  keep  in  view  that  different  substances 
have  different  capacities  for  heat — that  of  water 
being  generally  assumed  as  unity.  The  number 
expressing  this  capacity  is  called  the  specific  heat 
of  the  substance.  Water  1000,  carbonic  acid, 
221,  imply  that  while  1000  units  of  heat  are  re¬ 
quired  to  elevate  the  temperature  of  water  any 
given  number  of  degrees,  only  221  units  are  re¬ 
quired  to  elevate  to  the  same  temperature  an  equal 
weight  of  carbonic  acid.  Burned  in  air,  carbon 
combines  with  the  oxygen  to  form  carbonic  acid 
(C().2),  mingled  with  nitrogen,  the  other  atmos¬ 
pheric  element.  Carbon,  therefore,  requires 
about  twelve  times  its  own  weight  of  air  for  per¬ 
fect  combustion.  Excess  of  air  has  been  proved 
to  have  no  effect  on  the  quantity  of  heat  produced 
where  combustion  is  perfect;  but  the  intensity  of 
temperature  is  diminished.  The  utmost  tempera¬ 
tures  attainable,  with  various  proportions  of  air, 

I  are  given  below,  and  also  the  appearance  which 


the  interior  of  the  furnace  would  exhibit.  Flame 
at  these  temperatures  will  present  the  same  differ¬ 
ences  in  color. 


Weight. 

Ratio 
of  Fuel 
to  Air. 

Highest 

Possible 

Temp'ture. 

Appearance  of  a  Body 
exposed  to  such 
Temperature. 

Carbon 

Air. 

lbs. 

1. 

lbs. 

11.6 

1  to  1 

4347° 

Intensely  brilliant. 

1. 

17.4 

i  “  u 

2951 

Dazzling  white. 

1. 

23.2 

1  “  2 

2233 

Bright  ignition. 

1. 

29.0 

1  “  2 

1797 

Full  cherry  red. 

1. 

34.8 

1  “  3 

1503 

Commencing  cherry 

1. 

53.0 

1  “  5 

903 

red. 

Incipient  red. 

1. 

09.6 

1  “  0 

758 

Black. 

If,  before  reaching  the  upper  layers  of  carbon  or 
cinder,  the  air  has  parted  with  all  its  oxygen  io 
form  carbonic  acid  with  the  production  of  heat, 
then  the  carbonic  acid  combines  with  part  of  the 
remaining  carbon  to  form  carbonic  oxide,  CO,  but 
without  producing  heat.  The  loss  may  amount, 
therefore,  to  one-half  of  the  fuel,  some  have  stated 
it  as  high  as  tliree-fourths.  If  this  oxide,  when  it 
gets  above  the  fuel,  meet  with  air  before  cooling, 
it  burns  with  a  pale  blue  flame,  restoring  part  of 
th^lost  heat;  but  to  what  extent  has  not  yet  been 
determined.  Passing  into  vapor,  water  absorbs 
both  sensible  and  latent  heat,  and  thus  diminishes 
the  temperature.  Heating  power  is  also  lost,  as 
products  of  combustion  are  generally  passed  into 
the  atmosphere  at  a  high  temperature.  Hydrogen 
combines  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  to  form  vapor 
of  water,  mingled  with  nitrogen:  1  lb.  hydrogen 
requires  34.8  lbs.  air,  while  i  lb.  carbon  requires 
only  1 1 . 6  1  bs.  The  amount  of  heat  produced  from 
hydrogen  is  much  greater  than  that  from  carbon; 
the  caloric  from  1  lb.  heating  60,840  lbs.  water 
1°  F.  Part  of  this  is,  however,  latent  in  the  water- 
vapor,  and  must  be  deducted  in  calculating  inten¬ 
sity  of  heat,  and  also  heating  effect  under  all 
ordinary  circumstances.  This  deduction  amounts 
to  9  lbs.  water  X  965°  latent  =  8,685°,  leaving 
52,155°  as  the  effective  heating  power  of  1  lb. 
hydrogen.  The  utmost  temperature  or  intensity 
of  heat  produced  by  hydrogen  is  less  than  in  the 
case  of  carbon,  from  the  high  specific  heat  and 
greater  quantity  of  the  products.  As  in  the  case 
of  carbon,  the  intensity  of  heat  is  diminished,  by 
excess  of  air.  No  new  product  is  the  result  of 
deficiency  of  air,  as  in  combustion  of  carbon;  the 
hydrogen  simply  escapes  unconsumed.  The  effect 
of  water-vapor  present  is  diminution  of  intensity 
and  ultimate  loss  of  heat  in  application,  as  in  the 
case  of  carbon.  Carbon  and  hydrogen  must  be 
t  hemselves  heated  before  they  can  burn .  Hydrogen 
begins  to  burn  at  or  below  300°,  while  carbon  re¬ 
quires  a  red  heat  (800°  to  1,000°  F.),  and  even 
at  that  temperature  burns  very  slowly.  Conse¬ 
quently,  where  they  are  combined,  as  in  common 
coal,  the  temperature  present  is  often  sufficiently 
high  to  ignite  and  consume  the  hydrogen,  while 
the  carbon  remains  unchanged  as  cinder,  or  passes 
away  as  smoke,  unconsumed  in  either  case.  Peat, 
wood,  and  coal,  with  the  exception  of  anthracite, 
contain  hydrogen  to  an  extent  rarely  exceeding  5 
per  cent.  We  have  seen  that,  compared  with 
carbon,  hydrogen  requires  three  times  as  much  air, 
and  generates  nearly  four  times  as  much  heat,  but 
produces  20  per  cent,  less  intensity  of  heat,  and 
ignites  at  a  much  lower  temperature;  and  the  com¬ 
bustion  of  wood,  coal,  etc.,  is  in  these  respects 
modified  according  to  the  proportion  of  hydrogen 
present  in  them.  When  coal  is  heated  in  a  retort, 
it  yields  volatile  hydrocarbons,  amounting  to  20 
to  32  per  cent,  of  its  weight.  The  hydrogen  has 
robbed  the  fuel  of  six  times  its  own  weight  of 
carbon.  When  fresh  fuel  is  added  to  live  coal  in 
a  furnace,  the  same  result  ensues;  so  that,  in  using 
coal,  50  to  67  per  cent,  of  carbon  burn  on  the  grate, 
and  20  to  32  per  cent,  carbon  and  hydrogen  have 
to  be  burned  in  the  open  space  above  the  fuel,  or 
escape  unconsumed. 

Fugitive  Slave  Law.  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  having  recognized  slavery, 
or  service,  necessarily  used  to  contain  a  number 
of  enactments  for  its  enforcement.  By  Article 
IV.,  Section  2,  of  that  document,  it  was  declared 
that  persons  held  to  service  or  hdJor  in  one 
State,  under  the  laws  thereof,  and  escaping 
into  another,  should  be  delivered  up,  on  claim  of 
the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  might  be 


FUGLEMAN. 


410 


FUNGI. 


due.  In  furtherance  of  this  provision,  the  laws 
of  New  York  provided  for  the  arrest  of  such 
fugitives,  on  habeas  corpus,  founded  on  due  proof, 
and  for  a  certificate  in  favor  of  the  right  of  the 
claimant,  and  delivery  of  the  fugitive  to  him,  to 
he  removed.  When  any  fugitive  escaped  into 
another  State  or  Territory,  the  owner,  or  his  duly 
authorized  agent,  might  pursue  and  personally 
arrest  said  fugitive,  or  might  demand  a  warrant 
and  arrest  from  the  officer  having  due  authority. 
The  fugitive  was  then  to  be  taken  before  a  com¬ 
missioner  or  judge,  whose  duty  it  was  to  hear  and 
determine  the  complaint  in  a  summary  manner. 
Should  he  have  been  satisfied  of  the  validity  of 
the  claim  and  the  identity  of  the  slave,  it  was  his 
duty  to  deliver  to  the  claimant  a  certificate  of  the 
proceeding  had,  with  authority  to  remove  the 
fugitive  to  the  place  from  which  he  fled.  The 
testimony  of  the  fugitive  was  not  admissible. 
Any  assistance  rendered  to  a  fugitive  to  enable 
him  to  escape  from  the  claimant,  or  any  obstruc¬ 
tion  offered  to  his  arrest,  was  penal,  and  also  sub¬ 
jected  the  party  to  damages  at  the  suit  of  the 
owner.  All  citizens  of  the  United  States  were 
required,  when  called  upon,  to  render  the  officers 
personal  assistance  in  the  performance  of  their 
duties.  These  provisions  applied  to  all  the  States 
previous  to  the  war,  whether  slavery  was  recog¬ 
nized  by  their  special  laws  or  not. 

Fu'gleman  (properly  Flugelman,  from  the 
German  fliigel,  a  wing),  an  intelligent  soldier 
posted  in  front  of  a  line  of  men  at  drill,  to  give 
the  time  and  an  example  of  the  motions  in  the 
manual  and  platoon  exercises,  lie  originally 
stood  in  front  of  the  right  wing,  and  hence  the 
name. 

Fugue,  in  Music,  is  the  name  of  a  composition 
wherein  the  parts  do  not  all  begin  at  once,  but 
follow  or  pursue  one  another  at  certain  distances; 
thence  the  name,  fuga,  a  flight  or  chase,  each 
part  successively  taking  up  the  subject  or  melody. 

Full-keen,  or  Fu-kian  (Happy  Established,  or 
the  Consummation  of  Happiness),  one  of  the  east¬ 
ern  maritime  provinces  of  China.  Pop.,  14,800,- 
000;  area,  53,480  square  miles. 

Fiihnen  (Dan.  Fyen),  the  largest  of  the  Danish 
islands  after  Seeland.  The  principal  towns  are 
Odensee,  Svendborg,  and  Nyborg.  Pop.  (1870), 
4,812. 

Fill  alls  (properly,  F«K>e[sing.  Pullo\,  called  also 
Fellani  [sing.  Bafellanclii],  Fellata,  and  Fullan), 
the  name  of  a  widely-spread  negro  people  in 
Upper  Sudan,  regarding  whose  origin  there  is 
much  diversity  of  opinion. 

Fill  'cruin,  in  Mechanics,  is  the  prop  or  fixed 
point  on  which  a  lever  moves. 

FiiPgurites  (Lat.  fulgur,  lightning),  tubes 
formed  of  vitrified  sand,  which  are  found  in  sand¬ 
banks,  and  in  soils  consisting  chiefly  of  silicious 
sand,  and  are  attributed  to  the  action  of  lightning 
melting  and  vitrifying  the  sand. 

Fuller,  Sarah  Margaret,  Marchioness  Os- 
soli,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  women  of  the 
time,  was  born  at  Cambridgeport,  Mass.,  May 
23,  1810.  She  was  from  earliest  childhood  a 
prodigy  of  intellect.  She  was  editress  of  the 
Dial,  and  wrote  Women  in  the  Nineteenth  Century. 
She  married  the  Marquis  d’Ossoli,  an  Italian 
nobleman,  in  1847.  She  was  drowned  in  the 
Atlantic,  July  16,  1850. 

Fuller,  Melville  W.,  was  born  in  Augusta, 
Maine,  Feb.  11,  1833,  educated  at  Bowdoin  and 
Harvard,  and  in  June,  1856,  began  the  practice  of 
law  in  Chicago.  He  served  in  the  State  Legis¬ 
lature  and  tiie  Constitutional  Convention,  1862- 
63,  and  rose  to  the  head  of  his  profession.  In 
1888  he  was  appointed  by  President  Cleveland  as 
Chief  Justice  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States. 

Fuller’s  Eartli,  a  mineral  consisting  chiefly  of 
silicia,  alumina,  and  water,  with  a  little  magnesia, 
lim*,  and  peroxide  of  iron.  The  silicia  is  about 
50,  the  alumina  20,  and  the  water  24  per  cent,  of 
the  whole.  It  has  a  remarkable  power  of  absorb¬ 
ing  oil  or  grease,  and  was  formerly  very  much 
used  for  Hilling  cloth. 

Fullerton,  the  county  seat  of  Nance  county, 
Neb.,  on  the  Loup  river;  is  the  trading  center 
for  a  large  and  rich  agricultural  district.  Pop., 
936. 


Fulmar,  or  Fulmar  Petral  (Procellaria  or 
Fulmarus),  a  genus  of  birds  generally  referred  to 


Northern  Fulmar  ( Procellaria  glacialis). 


the  gull  family  ( I  .arid  a*),  and  containing  some  of 
the  most  strictly  oceanic  birds. 

Fulminate  of  Mercury,  or  Fulminating 
Mercury,  (HgC2N202);  is  best  prepared  by  dis¬ 
solving  3  parts  of  mercury  in  36  of  nitric  acid  of 
specific  gravity  1.34,  without  the  application  of 
heat  in  a  flask  capable  of  holding  eighteen  times 
the  bulk  of  the  acid,  'file  solution  is  then  to  be 
poured  into  a  large  vessel  containing  17  parts  of  al¬ 
cohol  of  specific  gravity  0.830,  and  immediately  to 
be  retransferred  to  the  flask,  which  is  still  full  of 
nitrous  vapors,  and  with  wliicli  it  must  be  well 
shaken,  in  order  to  effect  their  absorption.  Effer¬ 
vescence  commences  in  a  few  minutes,  and  soon  be¬ 
comes  extremely  violent;  and  at  the  same  time  there 
is  a  deposit  of  metallic  mercury,  which  is  gradually 
redissolved.  The  reaction  must  be  moderated 
by  the  gradual  addition  of  17  parts  more  of  alco¬ 
hol;  and  on  cooling,  crystals  of  the  fulminate, 
amounting  to  4.6  parts,  are  deposited.  These 
must  be  washed  with  cold  water,  and  dried  at 
100°  F.  Fulminate  of  mercury  forms  white, 
silky  needles.  It  may  be  handled  without  much 
danger  when  moist;  but  when  dry,  it  explodes 
with  violence  when  struck  by  a  hard  body,  or 
when  touched  with  nitric  or  strong  sulphuric 
acid.  A  mixture  of  1  part  of  this  salt  with  6 
parts  of  niter,  or  of  3  parts  of  the  fulminate,  5  of 
chlorate  of  potash,  1  of  sulphur,  and  1  of  ground 
glass,  is  employed  as  the  priming  of  percussion- 
caps.  It  is  applied  as  a  dry  powder,  and  is  made 
to  adhere  to  the  cap  by  the  application  of  a  drop 
of  shellac  varnish. 

Fulminate  of  Silver,  or  Fulminating  Silver 
(AgC2N202),  is  prepared  in  nearly  the  same  man¬ 
ner  as  the  fulminate  of  mercury.  It  is  more 
powerfully  explosive  than  the  last  named  salt. 
Even  when  moist  or  under  water,  pressure  with 
a  hard  body  will  cause  its  explosion;  and  when 
quite  dry,  the  slightest  friction  between  two  hard 
bodies  produces  a  similar  result. 

Fuliniii'ic  Acid  has  never  been  isolated  in  the 
hydrated  form,  but  from  the  composition  of  its 
salts,  its  formula  doubtless  is  C2N2H202.  It  is 
thus  isomeric  with  cyanic  acid.  Fulminic  acid 
may  be  separated  from  the  oxide  of  mercury  and 
silver,  and  combined  with  other  bases,  such  as 
potash;  and  all  such  compounds  are  more  or  less 
explosive. 

Fulton,  Roiiert,  an  American  engineer,  born 
in  1765.  In  1794,  he  obtained  from  the  British 
Government  a  patent  for  an  inclined  plane,  the 
object  of  which  was  to  set  aside  the  use  of  locks; 
and  in  the  same  year  he  invented  a  mill  for  saw¬ 
ing  and  polishing  marble.  His  next  invention 
was  a  machine  for  spinning  flax,  followed  by 
one  for  making  ropes.  In  1795,  he  wrote  a  work 
on  canals,  in  which  he  developed  his  system. 
He  next  turned  his  attention  to  the  application  of 
steam  to  navigation.  In  1803,  he  constructed  a 
small  steamboat,  and  his  experiments  with  it 
were  attended  with  great  success.  He  perfected 
his  torpedo  system,  which  was  afterward  em¬ 
ployed  effectively  in  the  war  between  Britain  and 
America.  In  1807,  he  launched  a  steam-vessel 
upon  the  Hudson,  which  made  a  successful  start, 
in  the  presence  of  thousands  of  astonished  specta¬ 
tors.  He  died  in  1815. 

Fultou,  an  important  agricultural  city  and  the 


county  seat  of  Callaway  county,  Mo.  Pop., 
4,000. 

Fulton,  the  county  seat  of  Itawamba  county. 
Miss.  Pop.,  260. 

Film,  or,  more  properly,  Fung — the  first  being 
the  Portuguese  pronunciation  of  the  word;  the 
Chinese  Phoenix — one  of  the  four  symbolical 
animals  supposed  to  preside  over  the  destinies  of 
the  Chinese  Empire. 

Funiaria'cea},  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants;  herbaceous,  with  a  watery  juice;  their 
leaves  alternate,  much  divided;  the  calyx  of  two 
deciduous  sepals;  the  corolla  of  four  irregular 


Common  Fumitory  ( Fumaria  officinalis). 
petals;  the  stamens  sometimes  four  and  distinct, 
more  generally  six  and  in  two  bundles;  the  ovary 
free,  one-celled,  one-seeded,  or  many-seeded;  the 
seeds  having  large  albumen.  More  than  100 
species  are  known. 

Fumar'ic  Acid,  known  as  boletic  acid  (C4H4 
04),  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  Fumaric  acid  may  be  obtained,  in  as¬ 
sociation  with  malseic  acid,  by  heating  malic  acid 
to  350c  F.  If  malseic  acid  is  exposed  for  a  long 
time  to  a  temperature  of  236°,  it  again  passes  into- 
fumaric  acid,  so  that  these  acids  are  mutually 
convertible. 

Fnnd,  Sinking,  a  plan  pursued  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  collecting  money  for  the  payment  of  the- 
national  debt  of  various  countries.  Certain  taxes 
previously  laid  on  for  limited  periods  were  ren¬ 
dered  perpetual,  for  the  purpose  of  paying  the 
interest  of  the  funded  debt.  They  produced 
more  than  enough  for  this  purpose,  and  the  sur¬ 
plus  was  laid  aside,  that  it  might  accumulate  into- 
a  fund  for  extinguishing  the  debt. 

Fungi,  an  order  of  acotyledonous  or  cryptog- 
amous  plants,  containing  nearly  5,000  known 
species,  some  of  which  are  commonly  known  as 
mushrooms  or  toadstools.  They  are  amongst  the 
lowest  forms  of  vegetable  life,  and  some  natural¬ 
ists  have  believed  that  they  spring  into  existence 
in  certain  circumstances,  not  from  germs  pre¬ 
viously  existing,  but  from  a  mucus  capable  of 
organization,  or  through  changes  in  the  cells  of 
more  highly  organized  plants,  and  of  animals  in 
states  of  disease  or  of  decay;  an  opinion  which, 
however,  is  generally  rejected  as  having  no  foun¬ 
dation  in  accurate  observation.  Fungi  are  cellu¬ 
lar  plants,  the  cells  sometimes  elongated  so  as  to 
become  filaments.  They  consist  of  a  t  hall  us, 
which  spreads  in  a  matrix,  and  is  nourished  by  it, 
and  from  which  stems  are  thrown  up  into  the  air, 
bearing  the  fructification.  The  organs  connected 
with  the  fructification  are  often  the  principal  part 
of  fungi,  and  the  thallus  very  small,  consist¬ 
ing  of  a  few  cot  tony  threads,  or  closely  compacted 
cells,  or  even  altogether  undiscernible.  The 
thallus  of  fungi  is  called  mycelium  (Gr.  pirnes, 
mykes,  a  mushroom),  and  in  mushrooms  and  some 
other  kinds  is  further  popularly  known  as  the 
spawn.  Fungi  are  nearly  related  to  algae  and  to 
lichens,  but  differ  from  both  in  deriving  their 
nourishment  from  the  earth  or  from  the  bodies 
upon  which  they  grow,  not  from  the  medium  by 
which  they  are  surrounded.  They  differ  alse 
from  lichens  in  their  generally  much  softer  sub¬ 
stance  and  their  fugacious  character;  also  in  being- 
destitute  of  green  granules  (gonidia)  in  the  thallus, 
which  are  characteristic  of  that  order.  They  dif- 


FUNGUS. 


411 


GADIDJ3. 


fer  from  algae  in  not  living  immersed  in  water  or 
other  liquid,  but  producing  their  fructification  in 
air.  Many  fungi  of  the  sub-orders  Hymenomy- 


cetes,  Gasteromycetes,  and  Ascomycetes  are  edible; 
and  in  many  countries  they  constitute  an  im¬ 
portant  part  of  the  food  of  the  people.  So  valu¬ 
able  are  fungi  esteemed,  that  some  species  are 
frequently  cultivated.  The  cultivation  of  the 
common  mushroom  is  familiar,  but  other  species 
of  Agaricus,  Boletus,  etc.,  are  plentifully  raised 
in  various  countries. 

Fungus  (Lat.  a  mushroom)  is  a  term  applied  in 
pathology  and  surgery  with  several  significations. 
Thus,  any  excrescence  from  a  surface  of  skin,  or 
mucous  membrane,  or  even  from  deeper  parts,  is 
sometimes  called  a  fungus,  more  especially  if  it 
have  a  soft,  mushroom-like  character,  and  abroad, 
short  pedicle.  When  the  pedicle  is  long  and  nar¬ 
row  it  is  called  polypus.  The  growths  to  which 
the  term  fungus  is  chiefly  applied  arc  those  which 
have  the  characters  of  cancer  ;  especially  fungus 
Juematodes,  a  very  dangerous  variety.  But  fungus 
has  yet  another  application  in  pathology,  to  those 
minute  incrustations  and  alterations  of  the  skin 
which  are  dependent  upon  the  growth  of  vegeta¬ 
ble  parasites,  as  favus,  ringworm,  etc. 

Fur  is  the  term  applied  to  the  incrustation 
which  is  formed  in  the  interior  of  vessels  (tea¬ 
kettles,  boilers  of  steam-engines,  etc.)  when  calca¬ 
reous  water  has  been  for  a  considerable  time  boiled 
in  them.  Many  spring  waters  contain  carbonale 
of  lime  held  in  solution  by  carbonic  acid.  When 
this  water  is  boiled  the  acid  is  expelled,  and  the 
carbonate  is  deposited,  often  in  association  with  a 
little  sulphate,  forming  a  lining  more  or  less  co¬ 
herent  upon  the  sides  of  the  vessel . 

Fur  and  Furriery.  The  skins  of  animals, 
having  hair  or  fur  as  a  coating,  have  been  used  as 
an  article  of  clothing  for  many  centuries.  Since 
European  countries,  however,  have  become 
densely  populated,  fur-bearing  animals  have  nearly 
disappeared,  and  Nortli  America  now  supplies  the 
greater  portion  of  the  furs  used  in  the  world. 
Under  this  great  tax  fur-bearing  animals  are  being 
rapidly  reduced  in  numbers,  and  at  the  present 
rate  of  killing  it  can  be  but  a  few  years  before 
several  of  the  most  valuable  species  must  become 
extinct.  Dressed  furs  are  those  to  which  the  art  of 
the  furrier  is  applied  for  making  muffs,  boas,  and 
fur-trimmings  to  garments.  The  fur  is  not  sepa¬ 
rated  from  the  pelt  for  these  purposes ;  the  two 
are  used  together,  and  the  pelt  is  converted  into  a 
kind  of  leather  to  fit  it  for  being  so  employed.  A 
great  deal  of  deception  is  practiced  in  the  fur 
trade.  For  instance,  many  skins  of  inferior  ani¬ 
mals  are  dyed  and  sold  as  those  of  other  animals 
which  are  highly  valuable.  Coon  skins  are  often 
dyed,  a  few  white  hairs  glued  into  them  and  they 
are  then  sold  as  those  of  the  sea  otter,  the  most 
valuable  fur  to  be  found  in  this  country. 


Gis  the  seventh  letter  in  the  Roman  alphabet, 
and  in  the  modern  alphabets  derived  from 
it.  The  original  and  proper  sound  of  G  (corre¬ 
sponding  to  Gr.  y)  is  that  heard  in  gun,  give, 
glad.  As  a  general  rule  in  English,  in  words 
derived  from  the  classical  and  Romanic  lan¬ 
guages,  g  has  the  hissing  sound  before  e,  i,  and 
y;  it  has  its  natural  sound  in  all  words  before  a, 
o,  and  u;  and  it  retains  it  in  Teutonic  words  even 
before  e  and  i.  G,  in  music,  is  the  fifth  sound  of 
the  natmal  diatonic  scale  of  C,  and  the  eighth 
sound  of  the  chromatic  scale.  It  stands  in  pro- 


Furfur 'amide,  Fur'furine,  and  Fur'furol. 

When  starch,  sugar,  or  bran  is  acted  upon  by  di¬ 
lute  sulphuric  acid  and  peroxide  of  manganese, 
the  distillate  contains  not  only  formic  acid,  but  a 
small  quantity  of  an  essential  oil,  which,  after 
being  purified  by  redistillation,  is  colorless,  has  a 
fragrant  odor  somewhat  resembling  that  of  bitter 
almonds,  and  when  dissolved  in  cold  sulphuric 
acid,  forms  a  beautiful  purple  liquid.  This  oil 
is  termed  furforol,  and  its  composition  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  formula  Cr,H402.  If  furfurol  be 
treated  with  ammonia,  it  is  converted  into  furfura- 
mide  (CjJUO^Ns),  which  occurs  in  colorless  crys¬ 
tals,  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol, 
and  perfectly  neutral. 

Furidpur',  or  Dacca  Jelalpur,  in  Bengal, 
stretches  in  N.  latitude  between  23°  3'  and  24°  5', 
and  in  E.  longitude  between  89°  30'  and  90°  15', 
containing  l,496square  miles,  and  (1872)  1,012,589 
inhabitants. 

Furueaux,  the  name  of  an  English  navigator, 
who  was  second  in  command  on  Cook’s  second 
voyage,  is  applied  to  a  group  of  islands  in  Bass’ 
Strait,  between  Australia  and  Tasmania.  Flinders 
Island,  the  principal  one,  is  46  miles  long  by  10 
broad. 

Furruckabad'  (Happy  Residence),  a  city  of 
the  Doab,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  in 
latitude  27°  24'  N.,  and  longitude  79°  40'  E. 
Pop.,  79,204. 

Furruckabad,  the  district  of  which  the  fore¬ 
going  is  the  capital,  in  the  Northwest  Provinces, 
stretches  in  N.  latitude  between  26°  46'  and  27° 
43',  and  in  E.  longitude  between  78°  57'  and  80° 
2'.  With  a  pop.  of  (1871)  918,784,  it  contains 
only  1,702  square  miles. 

Furs,  in  Heraldry.  The  principal  heraldic  furs 
are — 1.  Ermine,  of  which  the  field  is  w7hite,  and 
the  spots  black;  2.  Ermines,  of  which  the  field  is 
black,  and  the  spots  white;  3.  Erminois,  w7hich 
has  the  field  gold,  with  black  spots;  4.  Vair, 
pieces  of  the  shape  of  little  glass  pots  (Fr.  verves, 
Furs. 


1  aUl 

FIT5!  /  [WWW 

1  f 
.-.  4  • 

!  -  T 

m  jib  fJl 

/\ vi  iaaA 

PJC  JL 

\/\/ 1/  j\ /\ ff 

in  eft  r! 

A  A -A  IA A/, 

Potent.  Counter-vair.  Vair.  Ermine. 


of  which  the  word  is  a  corrupt  spelling);  5. 
Potent  and  counter-potent,  wdiich  are  supposed 
to  resemble  the  heads  of  crutches,  placed  differ¬ 
ently,  but  having  the  same  tinctures — viz.,  azure 
and  argent. 

Fiirth,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  Middle  Franconia. 
Pop.  (1880),  31,063. 

Fury  and  Hecla  Strait,  lying  in  latitude  70° 
N.,  and  longitude  from  82°  to  86°  W.,  separates 
Melville  Peninsula  from  Cockburn  Island,  and 
connects  Fox’s  Channel  with  the  Gulf  of  Boothia. 

Furze  ( Ulex ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosm,  sub-order  Papilionacem,  distin¬ 
guished  by  a  two-leaved  calyx  with  a  small  scale 
or  bractea  on  each  side  at  the  base,  stamens  all 
united  by  their  filaments,  and  a  turgid  pod 
scarcely  longer  than  the  calyx.  The  common  furze 
( U.  europceus),  also  called  wdiin  and  gorse,  is  a 
shrub  about  2  or  3  feet  high,  extremely  branched; 
the  branches  green,  striated,  and  terminating  in 
spines;  the  leaves  few  and  lanceolate;  the  flowers 
numerous,  solitary,  and  yellow. 

Fuse,  Fusee,  a  tube  of  wood  or  metal,  per¬ 
forated  down  the  side  with  a  vertical  row  of  holes, 
and  used  for  firing  shells.  The  tube  is  filled 

Gr 

portion  to  C  as  2  to  3;  is  a  perfect  fifth  above  C, 
and  the  second  harmonic  arising  from  C  as  a 
fundamental  note. 

Gabriel  (Heb.  the  man  or  mighty  one  of  God) 
is,  in  the  Jewish  angelology,  one  of  the  seven 
archangels.  He  appears  in  the  book  oPDaniel  as 
the  intepreter  of  the  prophet’s  vision  (chap,  viii), 
and  announces  the  future  appearance  of  the  Mes¬ 
siah  (chap,  ix,  21 — 27).  In  the  New7  Testament, 
he  reveals  to  Zacliarias  the  birth  of  John  the  Bap¬ 
tist  (Luke  i,  11),  and  to  the  Virgin  Mary  the  birth 
of  Christ  (Luke  i,  26). 


with  a  composition  of  niter,  sulphur,  and  gun- 
pow7der,  which  burns  gradually. 

Fusel,  or  Fousel  Oil,  is  an  impurity  in  spirits 
distilled  from  fermented  potatoes,  barley,  rye, 
etc.,  to  which  it  communicates  a  peculiar  and 
offensive  odor  and  taste,  and  an  unwholesome 
property.  Being  less  volatile  than  either  alcohol 
or  water,  it  accumulates  in  the  last  portions  of 
the  distilled  liquor. 

Fusibil'ity.  Many  substances  which  are 
popularly  regarded  as  infusible — as,  for  example, 
platinum  and  flint — readily  fuse  before  the 
oxyliydrogen  blow-pipe,  or  between  the  poles  of 
a  powerful  galvanic  battery;  even  carbon  lia& 
been  partially  fused  by  the  last-named  means. 
There  are  many  substances  which  can  not  be 
melted  because  they  are  decomposed  by  the  action 
of  heat.  Thus,  wood  and  many  other  organic 
compounds  are  decomposed  into  certain  gases, 
which  escape,  and  into  carbon  and  fixed  salts, 
which  are  left.  Similarly,  carbonate  of  lime 
(chalk)  is  decomposed  into  carbonic  acid  gas  and 
lime  at  a  temperature  below  its  fusing-point.  If, 
however,  we  prevent  the  gas  from  escaping  by 
confining  the  carbonate  of  lime  in  a  hermetically 
closed  gun-barrel,  it  can  be  melted  at  a  high 
furnace-heat. 

Fusible  Metal  is  composed  of  2  parts  of 
bismuth,  1  of  lead,  and  1  of  tin.  It  fuses  at 
201°  F.,  becoming  pasty  before  it  completely 
melts.  It  expands  in  an  anomalous  manner;  its 
bulk  increases  regularly  from  32°  to  95°;  it  then 
contracts  gradually  to  131°;  it  then  expands 
rapidly  till  it  reaches  176”,  and  from  that  point 
till  it  melts,  its  expansion  is  uniform.  It  is  used 
by  the  die-sinker,  who  employs  it  to  test  the 
accuracy  of  his  die,  every  line  being  faithfully 
reproduced  in  the  cast  made  of  the  alloy. 

Fusing  and  Freezing  Points  are  terms  applied 
to  the  temperatnre  at  which  solids  assume  the 
liquid  form,  and  liquids  become  solid.  Mercury 
fuses  at  39°,  oil  of  vitriol  at  30°,  ice  at  32°,  sul¬ 
phur  at  239°,  tin  at  451°,  lead  at  620°,  zinc  at 
773°,  silver  at  1,773°,  copper  at  1,996°,  gold  at 
2,016°,  cast  iron  at  2,786°,  and  wrought  iron, 
higher  than  3,280°.  As  a  general  rule,  the 
freezing-point  is  the  same  as  the  fu.sing-point— 
i.  e. ,  if  a  substance  in  the  liquid  form  be  cooled 
below  the  fusing-point,  it  again  becomes  solid; 
but  there  are  cases  in  which  we  can  cool  a  liquid 
several  degrees  below  its  fusing-point;  thus,  by 
keeping  water  perfectly  still,  we  can  cool  it  to  5°, 
or  even  to  1.4°  before  it  freezes.  If,  however,  we 
drop  a  solid  body  into  water  in  this  condition,  or 
if  we  shake  the  vessel  containing  it,  congelation 
begins  at  once,  and  the  temperature  rises  to  32°. 
It  is  well-known  that  the  freezing-point  of  water 
is  depressed  by  the  presence  of  salts.  Thus,  sea¬ 
water  freezes  at  about  26.6°,  and  a  saturated  solu¬ 
tion  of  common  salt  must  be  cooled  as  low  as  4° 
before  freezing. 

Fust,  Joiiann,  died  in  1466,  was  associated 
with  Gutenburg  in  producing  the  printing  press. 
He  is  often  confounded  with  Faust,  an  alleged 
magician. 

Fustic,  a  name  given  to  two  kinds  of  dye-wood 
used  for  producing  yellow  and,  with  chemical 
additions,  other  colors,  such  as  brown,  olive,  and 
green. 

Fusus  (Lat.  a  spindle),  a  genus  of  gasteropo- 
dous  mollusks  nearly  allied  to  Murex,  having  a 
spindle-shaped  shell,  with  an  elevated  spire,  the 
first  whorl  often  much  dilated,  and  a  straight, 
elongated  canal.  The  whorls  are  not  crossed  by 
varices,  as  in  Murex. 


Gad,  the  first-born  of  Zilpah,  Leah’s  maid,  was 
the  seventh  son  of  Jacob.  The  tribe  of  Gad 
numbered  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  more  than 
40,000  fighting  men. 

Gad  'ida;,  an  important  family  of  malacopter- 
ous  fishes,  having  a  moderately  elongated  body 
covered  with  small,  soft  scales,  the  head  naked, 
the  fins  soft  and  destitute  of  spines,  the  ventral 
fins  under  the  throat  and  pointed,  one  dorsal 
fin  or  more,  the  air-bladder  large.  Some  of 
the  species  are  small,  but  others  attain  a 
large  size.  To  this  family  belong  the  cod,  ling. 


GADSDEN. 


412 


GALENUS. 


hake,  dorse,  haddock,  whiting,  coal-fish,  burbot, 
etc. 

Gadsden,  an  important  railroad  center,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Etowah  county,  Ala.  Pop., 4, 000. 

Gad 'wall  (A  nas  strepera,  or  Uhauliodus  strep- 
era),  a  species  of  duck,  not  quite  so  large  as  the 
mallard,  abundant  in  this  country  and  parts  of 


Gadwall  (Anas  strepera). 


Europe.  Being  migratory,  it  is  a  native  both  of 
arctic  and  of  tropical  regions.  It  is  gregarious, 
breeds  in  marshes,  and  lays  from  seven  to  nine 
eggs. 

Gaea,  or  Ge,  according  to  the  Greek  mythology, 
the  goddess  of  the  earth,  appears  in  Hesiod  as  the 
first-born  of  Chaos,  and  the  mother  of  Uranus, 
Pontus,  and  many  other  gods  and  Titans.  Her 
worship  extended  over  all  Greece,  and  she  had 
temples  or  altars  in  most  of  the  important  cities. 
At  Borne,  Gaea  was  worshiped  under  the  name 
of  Tellus. 

Gaelic  Language  and  Literature.  The  term 
Gaelic  (Gwyddelian  or  Gadhelic)  is  used  in  two 
senses.  In  its  wider  sense  it  means  the  northern 
branch  of  the  Celtic  languages,  comprehending 
the  Irish,  the  Highland-Scottisli,  and  the  Manx. 
In  its  narrower  signification,  it  designates  the 
Highland-Scottisli  dialect,  also  known  by  the 
name  of  Erse  or  Irish.  Gaelic  is  the  parent 
tongue  ot  the  native  Celtic  races,  and  is  spoken 
to  a  greater  extent,  and  in  a  purer  form  in  Ireland 
than  elsewhere.  Corruptions  or  modifications  of 
it  are,  however,  spoken  by  the  Scottish  High¬ 
landers,  the  Manx,  the  Welsh,  and  the  Bretons. 
Irish  scholars  claim  that  the  purest  of  Gaelic  lit¬ 
erature  has,  also,  emanated  from  Ireland,  and 
that  such  as  has  been  produced  in  Scotland  and 
the  West  Islands  is  more  or  less  contaminated. 
The  Gaelic  language  is  gradually  being  eradicated 
by  the  English.  Gaelic  literature  is  nearly  ex¬ 
tinct,  but  Matthew  Arnold  claims  a  strong  Celtic 
influence  in  the  best  of  modern  English  and 
French  literature. 

Gsetu'lia,  an  ancient  country  of  Africa,  south 
of  Mauritania  and  Numidia,  and  embracing  the 
western  part  of  the  desert  of  Sahara.  Its  inhab¬ 
itants  belonged  to  the  great  aboriginal  Berber 
familv  of  North  and  Northwestern  Africa. 

Gaff,  in  a  ship  or  boat,  the  spar  to  which  the 
head  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail  is  bent,  such  sail  hav- 


A,  Gaff;  B,  Gaff-topsail-yard;  C,  Boom;  D,  Sheet; 
E,  Gaff-topsail. 

ing  its  foremost  side  made  fast  by  rings  to  the 
mast,  and  its  lower  edge  held  straight  by  a  boom. 


The  thick  end  of  the  gaff  is  constructed  with 
“jaws”  to  pass  half  round  the  mast,  the  other 
half  being  inclosed  by  a  rope;  this  serves  to  keep 
it  close  when  the  sail  is  hoisted  or  lowered. 

Gage,  Tiiomas,  an  English  general,  who  in 
1760  became  Governor  of  Montreal,  and  in  1763 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  British  forces  in 
America.  In  1774,  he  was  appointed  Governor  of 
Massachusetts.  He  was  recalled  in  October,  1775, 
and  died  in  1787. 

Gage  (Lat.  radium  or  wadium)  signifies  a  pawn 
or  pledge,  and  is  derived  from  the  French  gager. 
Hence,  by  changing  g  into  w,  we  have  wage  and 
wager;  as  “wager of  law,”  “wager  of  battle.” 

Gainsborough,  Thomas,  an  English  land¬ 
scape  and  portrait  painter,  born  in  1727.  He 
died  Aug.  2,  1788.  His  most  celebrated  picture 
is  “  The  Blue  Boy,”  in  the  Devonshire  Gallery. 

Gainesborough,  the  county  seat  of  Jackson 
county,  Tenn.,  ison  the  Cumberland  river.  Pop., 
352.  ' 

Gainesville,  the  commercial  center  of  a 
vast  fruit-growing  region,  and  the  county  seat  of 
Alachua  county,  Fla.  Pop.,  5,038. 

Gainesville,  the  county  seat  of  Cooke  county, 
Tex.,  is  on  the  Trinity  river,  and  is  the  commer¬ 
cial  center  of  a  vast  agricultural  and  grazing  ter¬ 
ritory.  Pop.,  10,500." 

Gainesville,  the  county  seat  of  Hall  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Gainesville,  the  county  seat  of  Ozark  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  200. 

Galac'tic  Circle.  This  is  to  sidereal  what  the 
invariable  ecliptic  is  to  planetary  astronomy,  the 
ground  plane  of  the  sidereal  system. 

Galactom'eter,  or  Lactometer,  an  instrument 
for  testing  the  richness  of  milk;  it  consists  of  a 
glass  tube,  graduated  to  100  parts.  New  milk  is 
poured  in  up  to  the  top  of  the  graduated  part, 
and  allowed  to  stand;  and  when  the  cream  has 
separated,  the  value  of  its  quantity  is  shown  by 
the  number  of  parts  in  the  100  which  it  occupies. 

Galacz,  a  town  of  Moldavia,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Danube,  ninety-two  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Pop.,  over  80,000. 

Gala 'go  ( Galago ,  or  OtaliCpus),  a  genus  of 
mammalia  of  the  lemur  family,  remarkable  for 
the  great  length  of  hind-legs,  and  the  great  size 
of  ears,  which  are  membranous,  and  capable  of 
being  folded  down  as  in  bats.  The  species  are 
natives  of  Africa  and  Madagascar,  varying  from 
the  size  of  a  rabbit  to  that  of  a  rat,  more  or  less 
nocturnal  in  their  habits,  lively  and  active,  feed¬ 
ing  partly  on  fruits  and  partly  on  insects;  one  of 
them  (O.  senegalensis)  is  known  in  Senegal  as  the 
gum  animal,  from  living  much  in  acacias,  and 
feeding,  or  being  supposed  to  feed,  on  their  gum. 

Galan'gale  (Alpima),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Zingibevacece  or  Scitaminece  having 
perennial  stems  with  terminal  inflorescence  and 
succulent  fruit.  The  root  stocks  possess  stimu¬ 
lating  properties  similar  to  those  of  ginger.  The 
true  galangale  is  the  produce  of  A.  galanga,  a 
native  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  The  root- 
stock,  when  young,  yields  a  kind  of  arrow-root, 
and  is  used  as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  much 
used  in  the  East  for  the  same  purposes  as  ginger. 

Galapa'gos  Islands  (so  named  from  gald- 
pugo,  the  Spanish  word  for  tortoise )  are  a  volcanic 
group  in  the  Pacific,  on  or  near  the  equator,  and 
in  longitude  between  89®  and  92°  W.  They 
are  thirteen  in  number,  the  largest  measuring  60 
miles  by  15,  with  an  elevation  of  4,000  feet.  The 
principal  members  of  the  cluster  are  Albemarle 
(60  miles  long),  Indefatigable,  Chatham,  Charles, 
James,  Narborough. 

Gala'tia  was  in  ancient  times  the  name  of  a 
country  of  Asia  Minor,  and  was  so  called  from 
a  body  of  Gauls  who  settled  there. 

Gal'axy,  The  (Gr.  ydXaxroZ.  milky),  or  the 
Milky-way,  is  the  luminous  band  which  nightly 
stretches  across  the  heavens  from  horizon  to 
horizon,  and  which  forms  a  zone,  encircling  the 
whole  sphere  almost  in  a  circle.  At  one  part  of 
its  course  it  opens  up  into  two  branches,  one 
faint  and  interrupted,  the  other  bright  and 
continuous,  which  do  not  reunite  till  after  remain¬ 
ing  distinct  for  about  150°.  This  zone  has  occu¬ 
pied  the  same  position  in  the  heavens  since  the 
earliest  ages. 

Galba,  Servius  Sulpiciits,  Roman  Emperor 
from  June,  68  a.d.  to  January,  69.  was  born  Dec. 


24,  3  B.c.  He  was  raised  to  the  Consulship  in  33 
a.d.,  governed  Aquitania  under  Tiberius,  Ger¬ 
many  under  Caligula,  Africa  under  Claudius,  and 
Hispania  Tarraconensis  under  Nero.  In  68 
Julius  Vindex  rose  with  the  Gallic  legions  against 
Nero,  and  Galba  assumed  the  imperial  dignity, 
but  reigned  less  than  a  year,  when  he  was  killed 
by  soldiers  of  the  Pra>torian  Guard. 

GaFbamnn,  a  gum  resin  used  in  medicine  in  the 
same  casesas  asafetida.  It  is  principally  employed 
in  chronic  catarrh,  and  has  been  given  (espe¬ 
cially  by  the  Germans)  in  amenorrlicea  and  chronic 
rheumatism.  It  is  generally  administered  in  the 
form  of  the  compound  galbanum  pill,  which 
contains  galbanum,  sagapenum,  asafetida, 
myrrh,  and  soft  soap.  It  is  sometimes  applied 
externally  in  plasters  as  a  mild  stimulant  in  indo¬ 
lent  swellings.  It  is  brought  from  the  Levant, 
and  appears  in  commerce  either  in  tears  or  in 
large  masses.  It  is  soft,  ductile,  whitish,  or, 
when  long  kept,  yellowish  in  color;  has  a  bal¬ 
samic  odor,  and  an  acrid,  bitter  taste. 

Gale,  or  Sweet  Gale  (Myrica  gale),  a  small 
shrub  of  the  same  genus  with  the  candleberry, 
and  very  nearly  allied  to  it — a  native  of  all  the 
northern  parts  of  the  world,  growing  in  bogs  and 
in  moist  gravelly  soils.  It  has  small  lanceolate. 


Gale  (Myrica  gait). 

a,  a  scale  of  the  catkin,  inside;  b,  stamens;  e,  an  anther, 
slightly  serrated  leaves,  which  arc  sprinkled  with 
resinous  dots,  and  emit  a  most  agreeable 
fragrance.  Its  berries  are  small,  and  sprinkled 
with  golden  resinous  dots.  The  Northern  nations 
formerly  used  this  plant  instead  of  hops. 

Galen,  Christoph  Bernhard  von,  Bishop  of 
Munster,  and  one  of  the  greatest  generals  of  his 
time,  was  born  at  Bispink,  in  Westphalia,  Oct. 
15,  1600.  He  became  a  priest,  and  was  made 
Bishop  of  Munster,  Nov.  14,  1650.  In  1664  he 
was  appointed  a  Director  of  the  military  affairs  of 
the  Rhenish  alliance,  and  proceeded  to  the  seat  of 
the  war  against  the  Turks.  In  1672  he  again 
went  to  war  with  the  Dutch  in  alliance  with 
France.  In  1675  he  changed  sides,  and  entered 
into  alliance  with  the  Emperor  against  t  he  French. 
In  1678  he  engaged  in  a  war  with  East  Friesland, 
and  died  September  19th  of  that  year. 

GaleTia,  or  Lead-glance,  a  mineral  which  is 
essentially  a  sulphuret  of  lead,  the  proportions 
being  13.3  sulphur  and  86.7  lead;  but  usually 
containing  a  little  silver,  and  sometimes  copper, 
zinc,  antimony,  or  selenium.  It  is  of  a  lead-gray 
color,  with  a  metallic  luster,  is  found  massive,  or 
sometimes  granular,  or  crystallized,  in  cubes  or 
octahedrons.  It  is  very  easily  broken,  and  its 
fragments  are  cubical.  It  occurs  in  veins,  beds, 
and  imbedded  masses,  often  accompanying  other 
metallic  ores,  in  primitive  and  secondary  rocks, 
but  most  of  all  in  what  is  known  as  transition  or 
mountain  limestone.  It  is  found  abundantly  in 
Northwestern  Illinois,  Southwestern  Wisconsin, 
and  elsewhere. 

Galena,  a  efty  in  the  northwest  corner  of  Illi¬ 
nois,  on  both  sides  of  the  Galena  river,  and  three 
miles  from  the  junction  of  that  stream  with  the 
Mississippi.  Pop.  (1880),  6,451. 

Galena,  the  county  seat  of  Stone  county,  Mo., 
is  on  the  White  river.  Pop. ,  200. 

Gale 'nus,  Claudius,  commonly  called  Galen, 
a  physician,  born  in  Mysia,  130  a.d.  He  was 


GALERITES. 


413 


GALLIC  ACID. 


Galerites  Albo- 
galerus. 


physician  to  the  Emperors  M.  Aurelias  and  L. 
Yerus,  acquired  a  great  reputation  for  skill  in  his 
profession,  and  wrote  many  valuable  books  on 
anatomy,  physiology,  hygiene,  etc.  It  is  believed 
that  he  died  about  the  year  201. 

Gal'erites  (galerus,  a  cap),  a 
genus  of  fossil  sea-urchins,  pe¬ 
culiar  to  and  abundant  in  the 
chalk  measures.  The  generic 
name,  as  well  as  that  popularly 
given  to  them  in  the  districts 
where  they  abound, — viz., 

‘sugar-loaves,” — is  descriptive 
of  the  elongated  and  more  or  less 
conical  shape  of  their  shell. 

Gale'rius,  Valerius  Max- 
imianus,  a  Roman  emperor,  was  born  near  Sar- 
dica,  in  Dacia,  entered  the  imperial  army,  and 
rose  from  one  grade  of  military  rank  to  another, 
until  Diocletian  conferred  on  him,  with  Constan- 
tius  Chlorus,  the  title  of  Caesar,  (292  a.d.)  On 
the  abdication  of  Diocletian  (305  a.d.),  he  and 
Constantius  became  A  it  gusli,  or  joint-rulers  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  Galerius  died  in  311  a.d. 

Galesburg,  a  city  of  Knox  county,  Ill.  Pop., 
15,000. 

Galilee  (Heb.  Galil,  a  circle  or  circuit),  a  name 
latterly  applied  to  one  of  the  four  Roman  divis¬ 
ions  of  Palestine,  origiually  referred  only  to  a 
district  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  For  Sea  of  Gali¬ 
lee  see  Gennesaret. 

Galilei,  Galileo,  the  creator  of  experimental 
science,  was  born  at  Pisa,  Feb.  15,  1564.  At 
the  age  of  eighteen  he  invented  the  pendulum 
principle,  and  applied  it  to  the  construction  of  an 
astronomical  clock.  His  next  invention  was  the 
hydrostatic  balance.  About  1589  he  turned  his 
attention  to  the  laws  of  bodies  in  motion;  and 
he  propounded  the  novel  theorem  that  all  fall¬ 
ing  bodies,  great  or  small,  descend  with  equal 
velocity.  This  soon  led  him  to  the  discovery  of 
“  the  three  laws  of  motion,”  and  the  law  regulat¬ 
ing  the  motion  of  falling  bodies,  which  is 
expressed  by  the  formula  S  =  i  ft2.  Among  his 
other  discoveries  may  be  noticed  a  species  of  ther¬ 
mometer,  a  proportional  compass,  or  sector,  and 
the  refracting  telescope  for  astronomical  investi¬ 
gation  In  1609  he  constructed  a  microscope;  and 
then  commenced  his  astronomical  researches  by 
means  of  his  own  telescope.  He  speedily  con¬ 
cluded  that  the  moon,  instead  of  being  a  self- 
luminous  and  perfectly  smooth  sphere,  owed  her 
illumination  to  reflection,  and  presented  an  un¬ 
equal  surface,  deeply  furrowed  by  valleys  and 
mountains  of  great  extent.  The  Milky- Way  he 
pronounced  a  track  of  separate  stars;  and  dis- 
coved  the  four  satellites  of  Jupiter  on  the  night  of 
Jan.  7,  1610.  He  also  was  the  first  to  note  mov¬ 
able  spots  on  the  disc  of  the  sun,  from  which  he 
inferred  the  rotation  of  that  orb.  In  1632,  Galilei 
was  summoned  before  the  Inquisition  to  answer 
a  charge  of  heresy  be¬ 
lieved  to  have  been  pro¬ 
mulgated  in  his  writings 
on  astronomy.  After  a 
wearisome  trial  and  incar¬ 
ceration,  his  judges  con¬ 
demned  him  to  abjure,  by 
oath,  on  his  knees,  the 
sublime  truths  of  his 
scientific  creed.  This  he 
was  weak  enough  to  do. 

He  was  sentenced  to  an 
indefinite  term  of  impris¬ 
onment  in  the  Inquisi¬ 
tion,  which  was  soon  com¬ 
muted  by  Pope  Urban, 
at  the  request  of  Ferdi¬ 
nand  the  Grand,  Duke 
of  Tuscany,  into  permis¬ 
sion  to  reside  at  Siena, 
and  finally  at  Florence, 
should  the  prisoner’s 
health  require  the  change. 

He  died  Jan.  8,  1642. 

Galingale,  a  name 
often  applied  to  the  tub¬ 
ers  of  Cy perua  longue,  Galingale  (Cyperus  longue) . 
and  sometimes  to  the  a,  a  spikelet;  ft,  a  single 
whole  plant.  Cyperus  is  flower;  c,  pistil;  d,  end  of 
employed  in  medicine  sPikelet  in  fruit, 
and  in  perfumery.  The  root  of  (7.  esculentus 


forms  farinaceous  tubers,  called  earth  almonds, 
which  are  used  for  dessert. 

Galion,  a  prosperous  agricultural,  manufact¬ 
uring,  and  railway  city  of  Crawford  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  7,000. 

Gall,  Franz  Joseph,  the  founder  of  phren 
ology,  was  born  March  9,  1758.  He  acquired 
an  extended  reputation  by  his  lectures  on  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  brain,  which 
he  began  to  deliver  in  1796.  He  traveled  in 
Germany,  Holland,  Sweden,  and  Switzerland, 
and  expounded  his  views  in  many  of  the  uni¬ 
versities  and  principalities,  where  he  found  many 
adherents  as  well  as  opponents.  In  1807  he  settled 
as  a  physician  in  Paris,  and  there  began  lecturing 
and  writing  for  the  propagation  of  his  opinions. 
He  died  there,  Aug.  22,  1828. 

Gall,  St.,  Canton  op,  a  Swiss  canton,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Tliurgau  and  the  Lake  of  Con¬ 
stance,  east  by  the  Yorarlberg,  south  by  the 
Grisons  and  Glarus,  and  west  by  Zurich  and 
Schwytz.  The  area  of  the  canton  is  772  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1877),  197,872.  Chief  town  and 
capital,  St.  Gall. 

Galla  Ox,  or  Sanga,  a  remarkable  species  or 
variety  of  ox  inhabiting  Abyssinia.  The  chief 
peculiarity  is  the  extraordinary  size  of  the  horns, 


Galla  Ox  (copied  from  Vasey’s  work  on  The  Ox). 
which  rise  from  the  forehead  with  an  outward, 
and  then  an  inward  curve,  producing  a  very  per¬ 
fect  figure  of  a  lyre,  and  finally  curved  a  little 
outward  at  the  tip,  to  which  they  taper  gradually. 

Gallas  (invaders),  a  race  inhabiting  the  South 
and  East  of  Abyssinia.  The  general  name  by 
which  the  tribes  designate  themselves  is  Oroma 
( prma ,  men).  Although  generally  belonging  to 
the  negro  race,  they  are  not  purely  negroes,  but 
form  with  the  Fulahs,  Mandingoes,  and  Nubas, 
as  it  were,  the  transition  to  the  Semitic  variety, 
and  seem  to  belong  to  that  great  family  inhabiting 
the  East  of  Africa,  from  the  frontiers  of  the  Cape 
land  to  Abyssinia,  who  are  usually  termed  Kafirs 

Gallatin,  Abraham  Albert  Alphonse,  finan¬ 
cier  and  statesman,  was  born  at  Geneva  in  1761. 
In  1780  he  came  to  the  United  States,  offered  his 
services  to  Capt.  John  Allen,  and  was  soon  ap¬ 
pointed  Commandant  of  Passamaquoddy  Fort. 
In  1793  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Senate  of 
the  United  States,  from  Pennsylvania,  and  in  1795 
entered  Congress.  In  1801  Jefferson  appointed 
him  Secretary  of  the  Treasury.  In  1809  lie  became 
Minister  of  Finance.  From  1815  to  1823  he  was 
United  States  minister  at  Paris,  and  in  1826  he  was 
sent  to  London  as  Ambassador  Extraordinary.  He 
died  Aug.  12,  1849.  He  was  the  author  of  numer¬ 
ous  valuable  publications  on  finance,  politics,  and 
ethnology. 

Gal'leon  (augmentative  of  Galley),  a  name 
formerly  applied  to  ships-of-war  of  three  or  four 
gun-decks,  but  subsequently  transferred  to  the 
large  merchant-vessels  which  brought  to  Spain  the 
gold,  silver,  and  other  wealth  contributed  by  its 
Mexican  and  South  American  colonies.  They 
were  armed,  but,  being  heavy,  unmanageable 
vessels,  and  of  immense  value,  were  eagerly  sought 
after  as  prizes  whenever  a  war  broke  out. 

Gal'lery,  in  a  military  sense,  is  a  covered  pass¬ 
age,  cut  through  the  earth  or  masonry  in  a  forti¬ 
fication,  either  as  a  means  of  communication,  or 
as  a  position  whence  a  musketry-fire  can  be  main¬ 


tained  through  loop-holes.  For  the  latter  purpose, 
galleries  are  formed  occasionally  in  the  counter¬ 
scarps  of  dry  ditches,  where  their  defenders  exer¬ 
cise  a  flanking  fire  upon  the  ditch.  In  a  naval 
signification,  a  gallery  is  a  sort  of  balcony  pro 
jecting  from  the  stern  and  stern-quarters  of  large 
ships. 

Galley,  a  long,  low-built,  narrow  ship  with 
one  deck,  much  used  in  the  Mediterranean  prior 
to  the  introduction  of  steam,  and  still  extant  there. 
Galleys  are  propelled  by  sails  and  numerous 
oars,  the  latter  being  usually  worked  by  convicts 
or  galley-slaves,  who  are  chained  to  them. 

Gall-iiy  ( Cynips ),  a  Linnsean  genus  of  insects, 
now  forming  the  family  Gallic  olm  (La).  gall-inhab¬ 
iting)  of  entomologists,  and  belonging  to  the  order 
Ilymenoptera,  section  Terebrantia  (Lat.  boring), 
which  section  is  characterized  by  the  females 
being  furnished  with  an  ovipositor.  Gall  flies 
are  nearly  allied  to  ichneumons,  but  principally 
differ  from  them  in 
depositing  their  eggs, 
not  in  the  bodies  of 
the  larvaa  of  other  in¬ 
sects,  nor  in  their 
nests,  but  in  plants, 
outlie  juicesof  which  ^ 
their  larvae  are  nour 
ished.  By  means  of 
this  organ,  the  insect 
makes  a  minute 
puncture  where  she  is 
to  deposit  her  eggs, 
which  is  sometimes 
in  a  leaf,  and  then 
generally  in  o n e  of 
the  ribs  of  the  leaf, 
sometimes  in  a  young 
shoot  or  twig,  some-  Bedeguar  Gall  of  Wild  Rose, 
times  in  a  bud,  or  in  some  other  part  of  a  plant, 
not  excepting  the  roots;  each  species  of  gall-fly 
choosing  some  particular  plant,  and  some  particu¬ 
lar  part  of  the  plant,  to  which  it  confines  its  at¬ 
tacks.  An  irritant  fluid  is  supposed  to  be  lodged 
in  the  puncture  along  with  the  minute  egg,  as  a 
tumor  immediately  begins  to  form,  becoming  an 
excrescence  known  as  a  gall.  The  egg  itself  in- 


Various  kinds  of  Galls. 

a,  oak-apple  gall;  ft,  ft,  berry-shaped  galls  on  oak  leaf; 
c,  currant  galls;  d,  gall-fly,  magnified. 

creases  in  size  before  it  is  hatched ;  the  gall  rap¬ 
idly  attains  its  full  dimensions;  and  within  it  the 
larva  of  the  gall-fly  feeds  on  the  juices  of  the 
plant.  It  is  not  until  the  larva  has  undergone  its 
transformations,  first  into  the  pupa,  and  then  into 
the  perfect  insect,  that  it  eats  its  way  out  of  the 
gall  in  which  it  has  previously  existed. 

Gallic  Acid,  (CtHoOs)  occurs  in  the  form  of 
colorless  silky  needles  which  lose  their  water  of 
crystallization  at  212°;  they  dissolve  slightly  in 
cold  water,  but  require  only  three  parts  of  boiling 
water  for  their  solution,  and  they  are  freely  soluble 
in  alcohol.  Solutions  of  gallic  acid  have  an  acid 
reaction  and  a  sour,  astringent  taste;  with  the  per- 
salts  of  iron  they  yield  a  deep  blue  color,  and  no 
apparent  reaction  occurs  when  they  are  mixed 
with  a  solution  of  gelatine.  The  gallates  of  the 
alkalies,  especially  if  an  excess  of  the  base  be 
present,  speedily  absorb  oxygen,  and  become 
brown  when  exposed  to  the  air,  and  hence  they 
may  be  usefully  employed  in  eudiometry.  Gallic 
acid  possesses  the  property  of  reducing  the  salts 
of  gold  and  silver,  and  it  is  on  this  account  that 
it  has  been  employed  in  photography.  Gallic  acid 
exists  ready  formed  in  small  quantity  in  gall-nuts. 


GALLATIN. 


414 


GALVANISM. 


in  valonia  (the  acorn-cup  of  Quercus  cegilops),  in 
divi-divi  (the  pod  of  Cccsalpina  coriaria),  in  su¬ 
mach,  and  other  vegetables.  When  gallic  acid  is 
exposed  to  a  temperature  of  from  410°  to  420°,  it 
is  converted  into  carbonic  acid  and  pyrogallol, 
C6H3(OH)3,  which  is  sublimed,  31  or  32  parts  of 
the  latter  acid  being  yielded  by  100  of  gallic  acid. 
The  reaction  is  represented  by  the  formula: — 

Gallic  Acid.  Carbonic  Acid.  Pyrogallol. 

t  K  X  , - A - x 

C,H„05  =  C02  +  C8Hs(OH)3 

If  gallic  acid  is  mixed  with  five  times  its  weight 
of  oil  of  vitriol,  a  crimson  solution  is  formed, 
which,  if  gradually  dropped  into  water,  deposits 
a  red  substance,  partly  in  granules  and  partly 
in  crystals.  The  crystals  are  mfigallic  acid 
(Ci4H80e,2H20).  Gallic  acid  is  used  in  medi¬ 
cine  as  an  astringent.  The  symptoms  of  Bright’s 
disease  of  the  kidneys  have  been  much  alleviated 
by  its  use.  It  may  be  given  in  doses  of 
from  three  to  ten  grains  three  or  four  times  a 
day.  As  a  topical  agent  in  arresting  hemorrhage 
from  external  wounds,  it  is  greatly  inferior  to 
tannin. 

Gallatin,  the  county  seat  of  Daviess  county, 
Mo.,  is  on  the  Gallatin  river,  and  is  an  important 
farming  town. 

Gallatin,  the  county  seat  of  Sumner  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  1,938. 

Gal'lican  Church,  tiie  Church  op  France, 
less,  however,  considered  under  the  relation  of 
geographical  boundaries,  than  in  its  constitution 
and  principles  of  church  government. 

Gallien'us,  Publius  Licinius,  a  Roman  em¬ 
peror  from  the  year  260  to  268  a.d.  His 
authority  was  limited  almost  entirely  to  Italy,  for 
throughout  the  provinces  the  legions  for  the  most 
part  revolted,  and  raised  their  commanders  to  the 
dignity  of  Caesars.  Hence  the  period  is  known  in 
history  as  the  “time  of  the  thirty  tyrants.” 

Gallina'ceous  Birds  (Lat.  gallus,  a  cock),  or 
Rasores  (Lat.  scrapers),  an  order  of  birds,  more 
generally  valuable  to  man  than  any  other  order, 
containing  at  once  the  most  important  species 
domesticated  as  poultry,  and  those  most  sought 
after  as  game.  The  common  domestic  fowl  may 
be  regarded  as  the  type  of  the  order.  Like  it,  the 
gallinaceous  birds  in  general  have  a  small  head;  a 
rather  short  bill,  with  the  upper  mandible  arched; 
nostrils  placed  on  the  sides  of  the  bill,  and  usually 
in  a  soft  membranous  space  at  its  base;  the  figure 
bulky;  the  wings  short,  and  not  governed  by  pow¬ 
erful  muscles,  nor  adapted  for  long  or  rapid  flight  ; 
the  feet  with  three  toes  before,  and  one  behind — 
which  is  articulated  higherthan  the  others,  and  is 
.sometimes  wanting — adapted  for  walking  on  the 
ground,  and  for  scraping,  in  order  to  procure 
food  ;  the  digestive  organs  complex,  the  crop  large, 
the  gizzard  muscular,  the  intestine  long,  with  two 
very  large  cceca.  The  order  includes  guans, 
pheasants,  grouse,  partridges,  quails,  ptarmigans, 
peacocks,  turkeys,  guinea-fowls,  tragopans,  and 
tinamous. 

Gal'linule  ( Oallinula ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Rallidm,  closely  allied  to  the  coots,  and 
having  the  upper  mandible  similarly  extending 
on  the  forehead  in  a  naked  soft  plate,  but  the  toes 
furnished  with  an  undivided  narrow  marginal 
membrane.  This  membrane,  however,  and  the 
great  length  of  the  toes,  enable  the  gallinules  to 
swim  well,  and  all  of  them  are  aquatic.  The 
gallinule  is  about  thirteen  inches  in  length;  the 
tail  short;  the  plumage  deep  olive  brown  on  the 
upper  parts,  blackish  gray  beneath;  the  ridge  of 
the  wing  and  the  under  tail-coverts  white.  "  The 
bill  is  red  at  the  base,  and  yellowish-green  at  the 
tip;  the  legs  and  toes  green.  They  make  their 
nests  near  the  water  which  they  frequent,  and 
usually  on  the  ground  among  stumps,  roots,  and 
reeds;  the  nest  contains  from  seven  to  ten  eggs. 
The  flesh  is  well  flavored. 

Gallipoli,  Peninsula  Of  (the  ancient  Thracian 
Chersonesus),  a  portion  of  the  Province  of  Adrian- 
ople,  in  European  Turkey,  is  between  40°  3' and 
40°  38'  N.,  and  separates  the  Strait  of  Dardan¬ 
elles  from  the  Gulf  of  Saros.  It  is  55  miles  long 
and  4  to  13  miles  wide.  The  principal  town  is 
Gallipoli. 

Gallipoli,  an  important  town  and  seaport  of 
Turkey  in  Europe,  in  the  Province  of  Adrianople, 
is  situated  on  the  peninsula  of  the  same  name,  at 
the  northeastern  extremity  of  the  Strait  of  Dardan¬ 


elles,  and  is  ninety  miles  south  of  Adrianople, 
and  about  130  miles  west-southwest  of  Constanti¬ 
nople.  Pop.,  20,000. 

Gallipolis,  the  county  seat  of  Gallia  county, 
Ohio,  is  an  important  shipping  and  manufact¬ 
uring  town  on  the  Ohio  river.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Gallium,  a  metal  discovered  in  1875  during  the 
spectroscopic  examination  of  zinc-blende.  It  is 
grayish-white,  crystallizes  as  an  octahedron,  is 
very  hard,  and  is  but  slightly  malleable  or  flexi¬ 
ble.  It  melts  at  86.27°.  The  liquid  metal  is  sil¬ 
very-white.  The,  symbol  is  Ga;  atomic  weight, 
68. 

Gal'livats,  large  row-boats,  formerly,  and  still 
to  some  extent  used  in  Eastern  waters.  They 
rarely  exceed  seventy  tons,  carry  two  masts  with 
high  triangular  sails,  and  are  generally  armed 
with  a  few  small  swivel-guns,  fastened  on  the  bul¬ 
warks.  The  Malay  pirates  use  them. 

Gallon,  the  standard  measure  for  liquids.  The 
standard  gallon  of  the  United  States  is  defined  as 
containing  58,372.2  grains  of  distilled  water  at  its 
maximum  density,  weighed  in  air  of  the  temper¬ 
ature  of  62°  F.,  and  barometric  pressure  of  thirty 
inches. 

Gallotan'nic  Acid  (C,4H,o09)  is  the  most  im¬ 
portant  of  the  various  forms  of  tannin  or  tannic 
acid.  It  usually  occurs  as  a  spongy,  light,  ino¬ 
dorous,  colorless,  or  faintly  yellow  mass,  which 
is  easily  reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  which  possesses 
an  astringent  taste.  It  is  freely  soluble  in  water, 
the  solution  reddening  litmus  paper,  and  dissolv¬ 
ing  the  carbonates  with  effervescence.  With  the 
persalts  of  iron,  gallotannic  acid  gives  a  blackish- 
blue  precipitate  of  gallotannate  of  iron,  and  even 
when  the  iron  solution  is  extremely  dilute,  a  vio¬ 
let  tint  is  evolved.  This  gallotannate  of  iron  is 
the  basis  of  ordinary  writing  ink,  and  the  reac¬ 
tion  that  we  have  described  is  so  sensitive,  that 
gallotannic  acid  is  employed  in  the  laboratory  as 
a  test  for  the  detection  of  the  persalts  of  iron. 
Gallotannic  acid  likewise  precipitates  tartar 
emetic,  nearly  all  the  vegetable  alkaloids  (mor¬ 
phia,  quinia,  etc.),  the  albuminates,  and  gelatine. 
If  a  piece  of  raw  hide,  free  from  hair,  be  im¬ 
mersed  in  a  solution  of  gallotannic  acid,  the  gela- 
tigenous  tissue  and  the  acid  combine,  and  leather 
is  formed;  and  if  the  skin  be  of  sufficient  size,  all 
the  gallotannic  acid  is  removed  from  the  solution. 
Gallotannic  acid  fuses  when  exposed  to  heat,  and 
at  a  temperature  of  about  120°  it  is  decomposed, 
and  yields  pyrogallol  (C0II3(OH)3),  and  metagallic 
acid  (C7H206),  while  water  and  carbonic  acid  are 
expelled.  In  doses  of  3-10  grains  itisa  powerful 
remedy  for  internal  hemorrhage.  It  is  also  used 
as  a  gargle  in  cases  of  sore  throat.  It  is  also,  as 
found  in  nut  galls,  a  powerful  remedy  for  piles, 
where  there  is  no  accompanying  hemorrhage. 

Galls,  or  Gall-nuts,  are  of  various  shapes, 
but  the  oak-galls  chiefly  used  in  commerce  are 
nearly  globular,  with  slightly  pointed  excres¬ 
cences  sparingly  placed  on  their  surface.  They 
are  remarkable  for  containing  a  peculiar  acid 
called  gallic,  which  is  only  an  altered  condition  of 
tannic  acid,  and  their  value  is  entirely  due  to  the 
accumulation  of  this  principle  in  the  diseased  con¬ 
dition  of  the  vegetable  tissue  which  constitutes 
the  gall.  This  acid  is  easily  separated  in  the 
form  of  white  acicular  crystals,  which,  after  ex¬ 
posure,  become  pale  yellow.  It  is  in  extensive 
demand  as  a  fixing  agent  for  photographs.  Until 
this  demand  was  created,  only  three  or  four  kinds 
of  galls  were  known  in  commerce,  and  these  were 
almost  wholly  employed  for  dyeing  purposes,  and 
for  inks,  a  small  quantity  of  the  common  Turkish 
galls  being  also  used  medicinally;  now,  several 
others  are  imported  inconsiderable  quantities. 

Galt,  a  town  of  Canada,  Province  of  Ontario. 
It  stands  on  the  Grand  river,  fifty-five  miles 
from  Lake  Erie.  Pop.,  about  7,000. 

Galva'ni,  Luigi,  a  physician  and  anatomist, 
born  Sept.  9,  1-737,  and  died  Dec.  4,  1798.  He 
made  important  experiments  and  discoveries  in 
connection  with  animal  electricity. 

Gal'vanism  is  that  branch  of  the  science  of 
electricity  which  treats  of  the  electric  currents 
arising  from  chemical  action,  more  particularly 
from  that  attending  the  dissolution  of  metals. 
The  science  of  galvanism  dates  from  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  In  the  year  1780  Galvani 
discovered  that  the  limbs  of  a  recently-killed  frog, 
when  hung  by  the  crural  nerve  on  a  metal  support 


near  an  electric  machine,  contracted  convulsively 
at  the  recurrence  of  each  spark.  This  he  properly 
accounted  for  by  the  back-stroke.  Six  years 
afterward  the  same  convulsions  were  produced  by 
bringing  the  copper  hook  on  which  the  nerve 
hung,  and  the  limb  itself,  simultaneously  in  con- 


Frog’s  Leg. 

N,  Crural  nerve  attached  to  zinc  strip  Z;  G,  copper  wire 
attached  to  zinc  and  brought  in  contact  with  leg,  caus¬ 
ing  contractions. 

tact  with  an  iron  railing.  He  first  published  his 
researches  in  1791.  Volta,  1792,  discarded  the 
account  given  by  Galvani  of  his  experiment;  and 
from  the  fact  that  the  convulsions  in  question 
took  place  with  more  energy  when  there  were  two 
metals  in  the  conducting  arc  instead  of  one, 
attributed  the  source  of  electricity  to  the  hetero¬ 
geneity  of  the  metals  employed.  Subsequent 
discovery  has  proved  Galvani  to  be  partly  right 
in  attributing  the  cause  of  these  convulsions  to 
animal  electricity,  and  Volta  also  to  be  partly 
right  in  attributing  them  to  electricity  generated 
in  the  metal  arc,  for  both  causes  may  be  at  work 
in  producing  the  result.  Volta’s  theory  of  con¬ 
tact  is  still  maintained,  though  another  theory 
obtains  no  less  support  which  attributes  the  source 
of  galvanic  electricity  to  the  chemical  action  of  a 
liquid  on  a  metal  coupled  with  another  metal  less 
easily  acted  on  than  itself.  When  two  plates  of 
copper  and  amalgamated  zinc  (zinc  whose  sur¬ 
face  has  been  rubbed  over  with  mercury)  are 
placed  in  a  vessel  containing  water  to  which 
a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid  has  been  added. 


Galvanic  Pair. 

Z,  zinc  ;  C,  copper. 

so  long  as  they  are  kept  from  touching,  either 
within  or  without  the  liquid,  they  remain 
apparently  unaffected.  If,  however,  they  be  made 
to  touch,  bubbles  of  hydrogen  gas  are  formed  in 
abundance  at  the  copper  plate,  and  their  forma¬ 
tion  continues  until  the  plates  are  again  separated. 
The  contact  need  not  be  affected  by  the  plates 
themselves.  If  wires  of  copper,  or  any  other  con¬ 
ductor  of  electricity  be  soldered  to  the  plates,  or 
fixed  to  them  by  binding  screws,  and  be  made 
to  touch,  the  changes  just  mentioned  take 
place  as  if  the  plates  were  in  contact.  The 
ends  of  the  wires,  when  immersed,  show  strong 
chemical  affinities.  If  the  conducting  liquid  were 
a  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  the  wire 
from  the  zinc  becomes  coated  with  the  copper  of 
the  solution,  whilst  the  other  attracts  its  oxygen 
and  sulphuric  acid,  and  wastes  away  in  entering 
into  combination  with  them.  The  arrangement 
just  described  constitutes  a  galvanic  pair,  which 
may  be  generally  defined  to  be  two  dissimilar  con¬ 
ducting  plates  immersed  in  a  liquid  which  can  act 
chemically  on  one  of  them,  and  capable  of  being 
placed  in  conducting  connection;  and  the  proper¬ 
ties  just  referred  to  form  the  characteristic 
powers  of  galvanic  electricity.  These  properties 
arise  from  the  wires  in  connection  being  the  seat 


GALVANISM. 


415 


GALVANISM. 


of  a  constant  discharge  or  flow  of  electricity.  The 
theory  of  the  action  of  the  galvanic  pair  may  be 
thus  given.  When  the  two  plates  are  put  into  the 
water  and  sulphuric  acid,  they  assume  opposite 
electric  states.  There  is  developed  at  the  surface 
of  the  zinc  an  electric  force  arising  from  its 
affinity  for  the  oxygen  of  the  water,  which  throws 
the  whole  arrangement  into  a  state  of  polarity. 
The  zinc  plate  with  its  wire  becomes  polarized, 
showing  negative  electricity  at  the  extremity 
furthest  from  the  licpiid,  and  positive  electricity 
at  the  extremity  next  the  liquid.  The  copper 
plate  with  its  wire  is  polarized  in  the  opposite 
way,  being  positive  at  its  outer  end,  and  negative 
at  its  end  next  the  liquid.  In  a  wire  where  a  cur¬ 
rent  of  galvanic  or  frictional  electricity  is  passing, 
there  is  no  point  which  forms  the  seat  of  positive 
or  negative  electricity,  but  it  appears  electrically 
homogeneous  throughout.  It  exerts  no  statical 
inductive  action  on  surrounding  objects,  neither 
attracting  nor  repelling  them,  for  the  electric 
action  being  more  easily  propagated  along  the 
wire  than  in  any  other  direction,  takes  place  only 
in  it.  The  laws  of  induction  and  distribution 
applicable  to  frictional  statical  electricity  hold  true 
in  current  electricity  only  at  the  section  of  the 
wire  or  conductor  along  which  the  action  is  trans¬ 
mitted.  As  tested  by  the  magnetic  needle,  there 
is  no  part  of  the  circuit  which  possesses  more 
power  than  another.  It  would  seem  probable 
that  the  source  of  the  electro-motive  force  in  the 
galvanic  pair  is  the  chemical  action  which  takes 
place  at  the  zinc  plate.  It  must  appear  highly 
probable  that  the  seat  of  the  most  active  change 
going  forward  in  the  pair  is  likewise  the  origin  of 
the  force  accompanying  it.  Volta,  however,  and 
several  of  the  most  eminent  authorities  in  the 
science,  maintain  that  the  electro-motive  force  has 
its  seat  at  the  surface  of  contact  of  heterogene¬ 
ous  metals,  and  that  chemical  action  is  not  the 
cause,  but  the  manifestation  of  it.  This  view  of 
the  origin  of  galvanic  electricity  is  called  the  contact 
theory ,  as  distinguished  from  the  chemical  theory. 
The  Current  Elements. — In  the  action  of  the 
pair,  three  elements  are  to  be  considered — the 
electro-motive  force,  the  resistance,  and  the  strength 
of  the  current.  The  electro-motive  force  is  propor¬ 
tional  to  the  force,  tending  to  chemical  action  if  we 
adopt  the  chemical  theory, or, on  the  contact  theory, 
to  difference  of  potential  produced  by  the  contact 
of  the  two  metals.  The  resistance  in  the  circuit 
which  is  offered  by  the  liquid  of  the  cell  and  the 
interpolar  wire  or  other  connection,  is  that  which 
tends  to  reduce  the  current  or  flow  of  electricity 
produced  by  the  electro-motive  force.  As  stated 
in  Ohm’s  law,  the  current  strength  is  equal 
to  the  electro  motive  force  divided  by  the  resist¬ 
ance.  The  unit  of  electro-motive  force  now 
adopted  by  electricians  is  called  a  volt.  This  is 
about  7  per  cent,  less  than  that  of  a  Daniell’s  cell. 
The  unit  of  resistance  is  called  an  ohm  or  B.A. 
unit;  250  yards  of  pure  copper  wire  ^  inch  in 
diameter  offer  an  ohm  of  resistance;  so  does  about 
j>3  of  a  mile  of  ordinary  telegraphic  wire.  The 
unit  of  current  strength  is  called  a  farad,  and  is 
the  amount  of  flow  of  electricity  that  would  be 
produced  in  a  second  if  a  cell  of  a  volt  in  power 
were  to  act  in  a  circuit  of  an  ohm  of  resistance. 
One  million  volts  are  called  a  megavolt;  one- 
millionth  of  a  volt,  a  microvolt.  The  same  pro¬ 
portion  holds  for  a  megohm  and  a  microhm,  a 
megafarad  and  a  microfarad.  In  the  centimeter, 
gramme,  second  series  of  electro  magnetic  units, 


Galvanic  Battery. 
z,  zinc  plates ;  c ,  copper  plates. 


an  ohm  is  expressed  as  109,  a  farad  as  10\  and  a 
volt  as  10s.  When  a  number  of  copper  and  zinc 
pairs,  similar  to  the  one  already  referred  to,  are 


put  together,  so  that  the  copper  plate  of  one  cell 
is  placed  in  conducting  connection  with  the  zinc 
plate  of  the  next,  they  constitute  a  galvanic  bat¬ 
tery.  The  term  battery  is  sometimes  also  applied 
to  a  number  of  cells  acting  as  one  combination, 
in  whatever  way  they  may  be  connected.  The 
electro-motive  force  of  a  battery  is  proportional  to 
the  number  of  cells.  The  principal  forms  of  gal¬ 
vanic  batteries  are  Volta’s  pile, 

Zamboni’s  dry  pile,  Cruikshank’s 
galvanic,  trough,  Wollaston’s(zinc-- 
copper)  battery,  Smee’s  (silver- 
zinc)  battery,  Groves’  (mercury- 
platinum)  gas  battery,  Daniell’s 
(copper-zinc)  porous  cup  battery, 

Groves’  (platinum-zinc)  battery, 

Bunsen’s  (zinc-carbon)  battery. 

Of  the  last  named  battery  there 
are  several  different  forms  the 
difference  being  in  the  chemical 
solution  used  to  excite  the  current 
and  not  in  the  polar  materials 
employed.  The  principal  varie¬ 
ties  are  the  Marid  Davy,  and 
several  varieties  of  bichromate 
cells.  The  two  most  reliable  evi¬ 
dences  of  the  strength  of  the  gal¬ 
vanic  current  are,  its  power  to 
deflect  the  magnetic  needle,  and! 
to  effect  chemical  decomposition.* 

To  measure  one  or  other  of  these,  Volta’s  Pile, 
is  the  object  of  a  galvanometer  or  voltameter. 
The  astatic  galvanometer,  or  galvanometre,  is 
used  either  simply  as  a  galvanoscope, 
to  discover  the  existence  of  a  current, 
or  as  a  measurer  of  the  strengths  of 
weak  currents.  When  a  needle  is 
placed  under  a  straight  wire,  through 
which  a  current  passes,  it  deflects  to  a 
certain  extent,  and  when  the  wire  is 
bent, so  as  also  to  pass  below  the  needle, ' 
it  deflects  still  more.  By  doubling  the 
wire,  we  double  the  deflecting  force. 

If  the  wire,  instead  of  making  only  one 
such  circuit  round  the  needle,  were  to 
make  two,  the  force  would  be  again  Wollaston’s 
doubled,  and  if  several,  the  force  (ieav-  Couple, 
ingout  of  account  the  weakening  of  the  c>  cop  p  er 
current  caused  by  the  additional  wire)  {^around 
would  be  increased  in  proportion.  If  zinc  plate 
the  circuits  of  the  wire  be  so  multiplied  2- 
as  to  form  a  coil,  this  force  would  be  enormously 
increased.  Two  needles,  as  nearly  the  same  as 
possible,  placed  parallel  to  each  other,  with  their 
poles  in  opposite  ways, and  suspended,  so  as  to  move 
freely  by  a  thread  without  twist,  have  little  ten¬ 
dency  to  place  themselves  in  the  magnetic  merid¬ 
ian,  for  the  one  would  move  in  a  contrary  direc¬ 
tion  to  the  other.  If  they  were  exactly  of  the 
same  power,  they  would  remain  indifferently  in 


Wollaston  Battery. 
c,  copperplate;  z,  zinc. 


any  position.  They  can  not,  however,  be  so 
accurately  paired  as  this,  so  that  they  always  take 
up  a  fixed  position,  arising  from  the  one  being 
somewhat  stronger  than  the  other.  This  position 
is  sometimes  in  the  magnetic  meridian,  sometimes 
not,  according  as  the  needles  are  more  or  less  per¬ 
fectly  matched.  Such  a  compound  needle  is 
called  astatic,  as  it  stands  apart  from  the  directing 
magnetic  influence  of  the  earth.  If  an  astatic 
needle  be  placed  in  a  coil,  so  that  the  lower  needle 
be  within  the  coil,  and  the  upper  one  above  it,  its 


deflections  will  be  more  considerable  than  a 
simple  needle,  for  two  reasons;  in  the  first  place 
the  power  which  keeps  the  needle  in  its  fixed 


Grove  Cell  and  Platinum  Plate. 
g,  glass  cup;  z,  cylinder  of  zinc;  d,  porous  cell  containing 
platinum  plate  p. 

position  is  small,  and  the  needle  is  consequently 
more  easily  influenced;  in  the  second  place,  the 
force  of  the  coil  is  exerted  in  the  same  direction 
on  two  needles  instead  of  one,  for  the  upper 


Bunsen  Battery. 

g,  glass  cup;  c,  carbon  cylinder;  d,  porous  cell;  z,  zinc. 

needle  being  much  nearer  the  upper  part  of  the 
coil  than  the  lower,  is  deflected  alone  by  it,  and 
the  deflection  is  in  the  same  direction  as  that  of 


New  Bunsen  Cell. 

g,  glass  cup;  z,  zinc  cylinder;  d,  porous  cup;  c,  carbon 
cylinder. 


Astatic  Needle. 


the  lower  needle.  An  astatic  needle  so  placed  in 
a  coil  constitutes  an  astatic  galvanometer.  Round 
an  ivory  bobbin, 

AB,  a  coil  of  fine 
copper  wire,  care¬ 
fully  insulated  with 
silk,  is  wound,  its 
ends  being  con¬ 
nected  with  the 
binding  screws,®, s'. 

The  astatic  needle  is 
placed  in  the  bobbin,  which  is  provided  with  a 
vertical  slit,  to  admit  the  lower  needle,  and  a 
lateral  slit,  to  allow  of  its  oscillations,  and  is  sus¬ 
pended  by  a  cocoon  thread  to  a  hook  supported 
by  a  brass  frame.  The  upper  needle  moves  on  a 
graduated  circle;  the  compound  needle  hangs 
freely  without  touching  the  bobbin.  The  whole 
is  included  in  a  glass  case,  and  rests  on  a  stand, 
supported  by  three  leveling  screws.  When  used, 
the  bobbin  is  turned  round  by  the  screw,  Q,  until 
the  needle  stands  at  the  zero  point,  and 
the  wires  through  which  the  current  is  sent 


GALVANIZED  IRON. 


416 


GAMBOGE. 


are  fixed  to  the  binding  screws.  The  number 
of  degrees  that  the  needle  deflects  may  then  be 
read  off.  There  are  numerous  other  makes 
and  patterns  of  galvanometers,  such  as  Thom- 


Astatic  Galvanometer. 


son’s,  the  tangent  galvanometer,  etc.  —  Tiie 
Effects  of  tile  Galvanic  Current  may 
be  classified  under  physiological,  mechanical, 
magnetic,  heating,  luminous,  and  chemical.  The 
physiological  effects  were  the  first  observed 
manifestation  of  the  current.  The  more  fre 
quently  the  current  is  stopped  and  renewed,  the 
greater  is  the  physiological  effect.  When  the 
terminal  wires  of  a  battery  are  lifted  one  by  each 
hand,  except  it  consist  of  a  very  large  number  of 
cells,  almost  the  only  sensation  felt  is  a  slight 
shock  on  completing  and  breaking  the  circuit. 
It  is  only  currents  of  great  tension  which  affect 
the  ordinary  human  nerves.  The  poles  of  a  bat¬ 
tery  of  fifty  Bunsen  cells,  capable  of  giving  a 
brilliant  electric  light,  for  instance,  may  be 
handled  without  much  inconvenience.  This  may 
be  attributed  partly  to  the  non-conducting  nature 
of  the  skin.  If  the  current  enter  the  body  by  a 
cut  or  wound,  the  sensation  is  affected  even  when 
the  current  is  weak.  The  physiological  effect  is 
also  much  heightened  by  moistening  the  hands 
with  salt  and  water,  or  by  holding  metal  handles 
instead  of  wires,  so  as  to  improve  the  conducting 
connection.  The  nerves  of  the  palate  can  be 
affected  by  a  very  feeble  current  ;  that  of  sight  by 
one  proceeding  from  a  battery  of  one  or  two  cells, 
and  that  of  hearing  by  a  battery  of  some  thirty 
cells.  When  a  strong  current  passes  through 
thin  wires,  an  intense  heat  is  produced,  sufficient 
to  bring  them  to  a  white  heat,  and  to  fuse  them. 
This  is  turned  to  practical  use  in  exploding  gun¬ 
powder  in  engineering  and  mining  operations. 
Two  wires  of  a  battery  placed  at  a  safe  distance 
are  insulated  from  each  other,  and  their  ends, 
which  are  connected  by  a  fine  iron  wire,  are 
sealed  up  in  a  tin  cartridge  filled  with  gunpow¬ 
der,  and  laid  in  the  exploding  charge.  When  all 
is  adjusted,  the  battery  connection  is  completed, 
and  the  current  making  the  iron  wire  red  hot 
ignites  the  gunpowder  in  the  cartridge,  and  that 
again  the  charge.  In  this  way,  all  danger  is 
avoided.  Experiments  on  the  heating  effects  of 
the  current  through  wires  have  proved  that  the 
heat  developed  is  proportional  to  the  resistance  of 
the  wires,  and  to  the  squares  of  the  strength  of  the 
currents;  and  that  the  strength  of  the  current 
being  the  same,  any  length  of  wire  may  be  heated  to 
the  same  redness. — Electrolysis  is  that  branch 
of  the  science  of  galvanism  which  treats  of  the 
laws  and  conditions  of  electro-chemical  decompo¬ 
sition. — Electro-metallurgy  is  the  art  of  depos¬ 
iting,  electro-chemically,  a  coating  of  metal  on  a 
surface  prepared  to  receive  it.  It  may  be  divided 
into  two  great  divisions:  Electrotype — the  art 
of  copying  seals,  medals,  engraved  plates,  orna¬ 
ments,  etc.,  by  means  of  the  galvanic  current  in 
metal,  more  especially  copper.  The  manner  in 
which  this  is  done  will  be  best  understood  by 
taking  a  particular  instance.  Suppose  we  wish 
to  copy  a  seal  in  copper:  an  impression  of  it  is 
first  taken  in  gutta  perch  a,  sealing  wax,  fusible 
metal,  or  other  substance  which  takes,  when 


heated,  a  sharp  impression.  While  the  impres¬ 
sion — say,  in  gutta  perclia — is  still  soft,  we  insert 
a  wire  into  the  side  of  it.  As  gutta  perclia  is  not 
a  conductor  of  electricity,  it  is  necessary  to  make 
the  side  on  which  the  impression  is  taken  conduct¬ 
ing;  this  is  done  by  brushing  it  over  with  plum¬ 
bago  by  a  camel-hair  brush.  The  wire  is  next 
attached  to  the  zinc  pole  of  a  weakly-charged 
Daniell's  cell,  and  a  copper  plate  is  attached  by  a 
wire  to  the  copper  pole  of  the  cell.  When  the 
impression  and  the  copper  plate  are  dipped  into  a 
strong  solution  of  the  sulphate  of  copper,  they  act 
as  the  negative  and  positive  electrodes.  The  cop¬ 
per  of  the  solution  begins  to  deposit  itself  on  the 
impression,  first  at  the  black-leaded  surface  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  connecting  wire,  then  it  gradually 
creeps  over  the  whole  conducting  surface.  After 
a  day  or  two,  the  impression  is  taken  out,  and  the 
copper  deposited  on  it,  which  has  now  formed  a 
tolerably  strong  plate,  can  be  easily  removed  by 
inserting  the  point  of  a  knife  between  the  impres¬ 
sion  and  the  edge  of  the  plate.  On  the  side  of 
this  plate,  next  the  copper,  we  have  a  perfect 
copy  of  the  original  seal.  If  a  medal  or  coin  is 
to  be  taken,  we  may  proceed  in  the  same  way,  or 
we  may  take  the  medal  itself,  and  lay  the  copper 
on  it.  In  the  latter  case,  the  first  cast,  so  to 
speak,  that  we  take  of  each  face  is  negative, 
showing  depressions  where  the  medal  shows 
relief;  but  this  is  taken  as  the  matrix  for  a  second 
copy,  which  exactly  resembles  the  original.  The 
adhesion  between  the  two  is  slight,  and  they  can 
be  easily  separated.  The  cell  of  a  battery  is  not 
needed  to  excite  the  current.  A  galvanic  pair 
can  be  made  out  of  the  object  to  be  coated  and  a 
piece  of  zinc.  Electro-plating. — This  is  the 
art  of  coating  the  baser  metals  with  silver  by  the 
galvanic  current.  Articles  that  are  electro-plated 
are  generally  made  of  brass,  bronze,  copper,  or 
nickel  silver.  The  best  electro  plated  goods  are  of 
nickel  silver.  Before  being  put  into  the  silvering 
bath,  they  are  washed  with  nitrate  of  mercury, 
which  leaves  a  thin  film  of  mercury  on  them, 
which  acts  as  a  cement  between  the  article  and 
the  silver.  The  bath  where  the  electro-plating 
takes  place  is  a  large  trough  of  earthenware  or 
other  non-conducting  substance.  It  contains  a 
weak  solution  of  cyanide  of  silver  in  cyanide  of 
potassium.  A  plate  of  silver  forms  the  positive 
electrode,  and  the  articles  to  be  plated,  hung  by 
pieces  of  wire  to  a  metal  rod  lying  across  the 
trough,  constitute  the  negative  electrode.  When 
the  plate  is  connected  with  the  copper  or  posi¬ 
tive  pole  of  a  one  or  more  celled  galvanic 
battery,  according  to  the  strength  required,  and 
the  rod  is  joined  with  the  zinc  or  negative  pole, 
chemical  decomposition  immediately  ensues  in  the 
bath,  the  silver  of  the  cyanide  begins  to  deposit 
itself  on  the  suspended  objects,  and  the  cyan¬ 
ogen,  liberated  at  the  plate,  dissolves  it,  re-forming 
the  cyanide  of  silver.  According,  then,  as  the 
solution  is  weakened  by  the  loss  of  the  metal 
going  to  form  the  electro-coating,  it  is  strength¬ 
ened  by  the  cyanide  of  silver  formed  at  the  plate. 
The  thickness  of  the  plate  depends  on  the  time  of 
its  immersion. 

Gal'vauized  Iron  is  iron  which  has  been 
coated  with  zinc,  to  prevent  it  from  rusting.  The 
iron  is  simply  dipped  in  zinc  and  is  not  coated  by 
any  galvanic  process,  as  its  name  would  imply. 
Zinc,  after  a  short  exposure  to  air,  becomes 
coated  with  a  film  of  oxide,  which  does  not  in¬ 
crease,  and  this  preserves  the  zinc  itself  and  the 
iron  beneath  it  from  further  decay,  provided 
there  is  no  galvanic  action  going  on  between  the 
two  metals.  Iron  so  coated  resists  the  oxidizing 
effects  of  air  and  water  extremely  well. 

Galveston,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Texas, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  entrance  into  Galveston 
Bay.  It  is  the  principal  port  and  the  largest  city 
in  the  State,  and  has  a  pop.  of  40,000. 

Gal 'way,  a  city  of  Ireland,  fifty  miles  north- 
northwest  from  Limerick,  and  130  miles  west- 
southwest  from  Dublin.  Pop.,  14,621. 

Gal'way,  a  county  of  Ireland,  Province  of 
Connaught.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Shannon  river,  and  its  affluent  the  Suck;  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Area,  1,566,354 
acres.  Pop.  (1881),  241,662. 

Gama,  Dom  Vasco  da,  discoverer  of  the  mari¬ 
time  route  to  India,  was  born  at  Sines,  in  Portu¬ 
gal.  lie  made  several  voyages  in  Southern  and 


Eastern  waters,  but  the  most  important  was  that 
of  1497-8,  when  he  sailed  round  the  southern  ex¬ 
tremity  of  Africa,  crossed  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
arrived  at  Calicut,  in  India.  He  served  as  Vice¬ 
roy  of  India  from  1524  till  the  time  of  his 
death,  which  occurred  in  December,  1525. 

Grama  Grass  ( Tnpsacum ),  a  genus  of  grasses, 
distinguished  by  unisexual  flowers  placed  in 
spikes,  which  are  fertile  at  the  base,  and  barren 
toward  the  extremity,  the  spikelets  having  two 
glumes  and  about  two  florets,  the  female  florets 
immersed  in  the  thick  and  sinuous  joints  of  the 
rachis,  so  that  the  spike,  when  the  seed  is  ripened, 
presents  the  appearance  of  a  cylindrical  bone. 
Only  two  species  are  known,  of  which  T.  dacly- 
loides,  the  grama  grass  of  Mexico,  distinguished 
by  having  spikes  usually  three  together,  is  useful 
as  a  fodder-grass,  and  is  cultivated  in  Mexico,  in 
the  United  States,  and  in  Europe.  The  other  species, 
the  grama  grass  of  Carolina  ( T .  monostachyon), 
distinguished  by  solitary  spikes,  is  not  so  much 
esteemed. 

Gama 'liel,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  name 
Gamli'el  ( My  reuarder  is  God;  or,  Mine  also  is 
God),  the  most  celebrated  bearer  of  which  is 
Gamaliel  I.,  or  the  Elder  (hasaken),  probably  the 
one  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  (Acts  v, 
34,  and  xxii,  3).  Both  here  and  in  the  Talmudi- 
cal  writings,  he  appears  as  a  teacher  of  the  law, 
and  a  prominent  Pharisaic  member  of  the  Sanhe¬ 
drim.  St.  Paul  studied  under  Gamaliel. 

Gambetta,  Leon,  a  French  statesman,  born 
Oct.  30,  1838.  In  1869  he  was  elected  a  Deputy, 
afterward  became  Minister  of  the  Interior,  and 
during  the  siege  of  Paris  escaped  from  the  city  by 
a  balloon.  He  resigned  his  ministry  at  the  close  of 
the  war,  was  reelected  to  the  Assembly,  and  in  1879 
became  President  of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
He  died  Dec.  31,  1882. 

Gain'hia,  a  river  of  Western  Africa,  whose 
basin,  and  that  of  the  Senegal,  constitute  the 
region  known  as  Senegambia,  enters  the  Atlantic 
in  latitude  13°  30'  N.,  and  longitude  16°  34'  W., 
after  a  course  of  about  1,000  miles. 

Gambia,  a  British  settlement  occupying  the 
banks  of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  as  far  up 
as  Barraconda,  though  not  continuously.  Pop. 
of  settlement  in  1881,  14,150,  of  whom  about  fifty 
were  whites.  Gambia  is  a  dependency  of  Sierra 
Leone. 

Gam 'bier  Islands,  a  Polynesian  group,  under 
a  French  protectorate,  in  latitude  23°  8'  S. ,  and 
longitude  134°  55'  W.  They  number  five  larger 
and  several  smaller  islands,  all  of  coral  forma¬ 
tion. 

Gam 'bier,  or  Gambeer,  an  astringent  substance 
resembling  catechu,  and  used  for  the  same  pur¬ 
poses.  It  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  pure 
astringents.  It  is  prepared  from  the  leaves  of 
the  Uncaria  gambir,  a  native  of  the.  East  Indies 
and  Malay  Archipelago.  The  genus  Uncaria 
belongs  to  the  natural  order  Cinclionaceoe. 

Gamboge',  or  Gamboge,  a  gum-resin,  used  in 


Gamboge  (Ilebradendron  cambogioides) . 
a,  back  view  of  a  male  flower;  b,  side  view  of  male 
flower;  c,  an  anther,  with  its  umbilicate  lid. 

medicine  and  the  arts,  brought  from  the  East 
Indies,  and  believed  to  be  the  produce  chiefly  of 


GAME. 


41 7 


GARANCINE. 


Cambogia  gatta,  also  known  as  Ilebradendron 
cambogioides,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Guttiferce, 
a  native  of  Ceylon,  Siam,  Cambodia,  etc.  The 
gamboge-tree  attains  a  height  of  forty  feet,  lias 
smooth  oval  leaves,  small  polygamous  flowers, 
and  clustered  succulent  fruit.  The  fruit  is  about 
two  inches  in  diameter,  sweet  and  eatable,  and  is 
also  used  as  an  ingredient  in  sauces.  When  the 
bark  of  the  tree  is  wounded,  gamboge  exudes  as 
a  thick,  viscid  yellow  juice,  which  hardens  by 
exposure  to  the  air.  Another  species  of  the  same 
genus  (C.  picloria)  occurs  in  the  Mysore,  and  is 
believed  to  produce  gamboge  of  similar  quality. 
The  finest  gamboge  comes fromSiam. — American 
gamboge ,  which  is  very  similar,  and  used  for  the 
same  purposes,  is  obtained  from  Vitsmia  guian- 
ensis,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Hi/pericince,  a 
native  of  Mexico  and  Surinam.  Gamboge  is  used 
by  painters  to  produce  a  yellow  color;  for  stain¬ 
ing  wood,  and  for  making  a  gold-colored  lacquer 
for  brass.  It  has  a  shelly  fracture,  is  destitute  of 
smell  and  has  an  acrid  taste. 

Game.  Certain  species  of  birds  and  animals, 
which  inhabit  various  portions  of  the  world, 
are,  by  common  custom,  designated  as  game. 
This  designation  does  not  include  all  ferce  naturae, 
but  only  those  which  are  good  for  food,  or  else, 
by  their  presence,  are  dangerous  to  man  or  to 
domestic  animals,  and  their  pursuit  and  capture 
are  indulged  in  by  some  persons  as  a  voca¬ 
tion,  or  as  a  means  of  obtaining  food,  and  by 
others  for  purposes  of  recreation.  Most  States 
and  Territories  have  laws  which  prohibit  the 
killing  of  game,  except  during  a  brief  period 
in  summer  or  autumn.  Several  States  pro¬ 
hibit  the  exportation  of  game;  one  (Missouri) 
has  a  law  which  makes  it  a  misdemeanor  for  any 
non-resident  to  hunt  within  her  boundaries,  and 
one  (New  Jersey)  requires  non-residents  to  pay  a 
license  fee  in  order  to  shoot  within  her  limits. 
Among  large  mammals,  designated  as  game,  may 
be  mentioned  the  buffalo  (now  nearly  extinct  in 
its  wild  state),  the  moose,  elk,  caribou,  deer, 
antelope,  Rocky  Mountain  sheep  and  goat,  the 
bear,  cougar,  and  wolf.  The  moose  is  found  in 
Northern  Maine,  Northeastern  Minnesota,  and  in 
portions  of  Montana,  Idaho,  Washington,  and 
British  America.  The  elk  is  found  in  North 
eastern  Minnesota,  in  Montana,  Idaho,  Washing¬ 
ton,  Oregon,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  and 
the  Canadian  Northwestern  Provinces.  The 
range  of  the  caribou  extends  through  Northern 
Maine,  Eastern  Canada,  Northeastern  Minnesota, 
British  Columbia,  and  Northern  Washington; 
while  some  one  of  the  various  species  of  deer 
may  be  found  in  nearly  every  State  or  Territory 
of  the  Union,  and  throughout  British  America. 
The  black  bear  is  also  widely  distributed 
throughout  the  Union,  while  the  habitat  of  the 
grizzly  is  confined  to  the  regions  west  of  the 
Missouri  river,  and  that  of  the  polar  bear  to  the 
arctic  regions.  The  antelope  is  found  on  the 
great  plains  in  the  far  West,  and  the  Rocky 
Mountain  sheep  and  goat  are,  as  their  names 
indicate,  natives  of  the  mountainous  regions 
west  of  the  Missouri  river.  The  cougar  wolf 
and  several  other  mammals  of  the  non-edible 
class  are  widely  distributed  and  are  hunted  for 
sport  or  for  peltry.  Of  American  water-fowls  the 
best  known  are  the  several  species  of  wild  geese, 
brants,  and  ducks.  These  are  all  migratory, 
breeding  in  the  far  North  and  Northwest,  and 
going  south  to  spend  the  winters.  In  their  semi¬ 
annual  migrations  they  stop  to  rest  and  feed  at 
various  lakes,  or  on  the  uplands,  of  which  habit 
sportsmen  and  market  hunters  take  advantage. 
Canvas-back  and  red-liead  ducks  are  perhaps 
prized  more  highly  than  any  others,  and  their 
favorite  resorts,  en  route,  are  certain  lakes  in 
Wisconsin  and  Illinois.  They  winter  principally 
on  the  sea  coast  of  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  the 
Carolinas,  where  thousands  of  them  are  annually 
killed.  Of  upland  game-birds  those  most  prized 
are  the  wild  turkey,  several  species  of  grouse, 
snipe,  and  plovers,  and  the  quail;  all  of  which 
are  widely  distributed.  Owing  to  the  rapid 
growth  of  population  in  the  United  States  and 
the  consequent  increase  in  the  number  of  sports¬ 
men  and  market  hunters,  game  of  all  kinds  is 
being  rapidly  exterminated,  and  only  by  the 
enactment  and  strict  enforcement  of  protective 
game  laws  can  it  be  saved  from  total  extinction. 


Gam  'mar us,  a  genus  of  Crustacea  of  the 
section  Edrioph- 
thalma,  and  order 
Amphipoda,  o  f 
which  one  spe¬ 
cies,  G.  pulex,  is 
common  in 
springs  and  rivu¬ 
lets,  particularly 
where  decaying 
vegetable  matter 
has  accumu¬ 
lated.  It  gener-  Fresh- water  Shrimp  (Gammarus 
ally  keeps  near  pulex),  magnified, 

the  bottom,  swims  on  its  side,  with  a  kind  of 
jerking  motion,  and  feeds  on  dead  fishes  or  any 
other  animal  matter.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
fresh-water  shrimp. 

Gandy,  the  county  seat  of  Logan  county,  Neb. 
Pop.,  100. 

Ganga,  or  Sand-grouse  ( Pterocles ),  a  genus  of 
gallinaceous  birds,  of  the  family  Tetraonidce.  The 
species  are  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of  Asia  and 
of  Africa. 

Ganges,  a  river  that  divides  India  into  the  two 
grand  divisions  of  Hither  and  Farther.  Its  length 
is  more  than  1,500  miles. 

Ganges  C4nal,  built  for  the  purposes  of  irrigat¬ 
ing  the  Doab,  and  avoiding  the  difficulties  in 
the  navigation  of  the  river  above  Cawnpore.  Its 
total  length  is  810  miles. 

Gan'grene,  the  loss  of  vitality  in  a  part  of  the 
living  body,  whether  external  or  internal,  the  part 
becoming  often,  in  the  first  instance,  more  or  less 
red,  hot,  and  painful,  then  livid,  and  finally  dark 
and  discolored,  black  or  olive-green,  according  to 
circumstances,  and  putrescent;  after  which  a  sep¬ 
aration  takes  place  gradually  between  the  living 
and  dead  parts,  and  if  the  patient  survive,  the 
disorganized  and  lifeless  texture  is  thrown  off, 
and  the  part  heals  by  the  formation  of  a  cicatrix  or 
scar,  indicating  the  loss  of  substance.  Gangrene 
is  an  occasional  consequence  of  inflammation, 
but  is  often,  also,  determined  by  more  specific 
causes,  such  as  typhus  fever,  or  erysipelas;  some¬ 
times,  by  the  action  of  poisons  on  the  sys¬ 
tem,  and  not  infrequently  by  disease  or  obstruc¬ 
tion  of  the  arteries  of  a  part.  This  is  especially 
the  case  in  the  form  called  senile  gangrene. 

Gangue  (Ger.  Gang,  a  vein),  the  stony  matrix 
in  which  metallic  ores  occur.  Quartz  is  the  most 
common  gangue,  but  calc-spar  is  also  very  fre¬ 
quent,  sulphate  of  barytes  and  fluor-spar  not 
infrequent.  Large  portions  of  the  gangue  are  gen¬ 
erally  worked  and  submitted  to  metallurgic  pro¬ 
cesses  for  the  sake  of  their  contents. 

Gan-hwuy,  or  Ngan-hwei,  one  of  the  five 
eastern  provinces  of  China  Proper.  It  is  inter¬ 
sected  by  the  Yang-tze-kiang,  on  the  left  bank  of 
which  river  its  capital,  Ngan-king-foo,  is  situated. 
Pop.,  36,596,988;  area,  50,000  square  miles. 

Ganjam,  lies  on  the  northwest  coast  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  immediately  to  the  south  of  Cuttack, 
stretching  in  N.  latitude  from  18®  13'  to  19°  52', 
and  in  E.  longitude  from  83®  50'  to  85°  15',  and 
containing  8,313  square  miles.  Pop.  (1871), 
1,520,088. 

Gannet  ( Sulu ),  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds,  of 


Adult  Gannet,  or  Solan  Goose  (Sula  bassana) . 


the  family  Pelecanidw,  having  a  long,  strong,  con¬ 
ical  bill,  the  face  and  throat  naked,  the  feet  with 


four  toes,  three  before  and  one  behind,  all  united 
by  the  web.  To  this  genus  the  booby  belongs. 
Another  species  is  the  common  gannet,  or  solan 
goose  {S.  bassana),  a  bird  which  breeds  on  insu¬ 
lar  rocks,  in  the  Northern  seas,  and  migrates  in 
winter  to  warmer  and  even  tropical  regions.  The 
name  solan  or  soland  goose  is  from  solent,  an  old 
name  of  the  English  Channel.  The  entire  length 
of  the  gannet  is  about  three  feet;  its  general  color 
milk-white,  the  crown  and  back  of  the  head  pale 
yellow,  the  quill-featliers  of  the  wings  black. 

Gann  Valley  is  the  county  seat  and  a  prom¬ 
ising  town  in  Buffalo  county,  Dak. 

Gan'oid  Fishes,  one  of  the  four  orders  of  fishes 
in  the  classification  of  Agassiz,  characterized  by 
ganoid  scales — shining  scales  (Gr.  ganos ,  splendor), 
covered  with  enamel,  angular,  either  rliomboidal 


Various  forms  of  Ganoid  Scales. 


or  polygonal.  Ganoid  scales  are  often  large, 
thick,  and  bony;  they  are  usually  placed  in  ob¬ 
lique  rows,  and  united  to  each  other  by  a  kind  of 
hook  at  the  anterior  angle. 

Gantuug  Pass,  in  latitude  31°  38'  N.,  and 
longitude  78®  47'  E.,  leads  eastward  from  Kuna- 
war,  a  district  of  Bussahir  in  Hindustan,  into 
Eastern  Tartary.  Its  height  is  18,295  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  it  is  overhung  by  a  peak  of  its  own 
name,  about  3,000  feet  loftier. 

Ganyme'tles,  the  cup-bearer  of  Zeus,  was, 
according  to  Homer,  the  son  of  Tros,  or,  accord¬ 
ing  to  others,  of  Laomedon,  Hus,  or  Ericlithonius. 
The  most  beautiful  of  mortals,  he  attracted  the 
notice  of  the  king  of  the  gods,  who  despatched  his 
eagle  to  carry  him  off  to  heaven,  where  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  Hebe  in  the  office  above  referred  to.  The 
Greeks  believed  that  Zeus  gave  Tros  a  pair  of 
divine  horses  as  a  compensation  for  kidnapping 
his  boy,  and  comforted  him  at  the  same  time  by 
informing  him  that  Ganymedes  had  become  im¬ 
mortal  and  free  from  all  earthly  ills.  At  a  later 
period,  Ganymedes  was  identified  with  the  divin 
ity  who  presided  over  the  sources  of  the  Nile, 
The  Greek  astronomers  likewise  placed  him 
among  the  stars,  under  the  name  of  Aquarius 
(the  water-bearer),  in  allusion  to  his  celestial  func¬ 
tion.  He  was  also  a  favorite  subject  of  ancient 
art. 


Gapes,  a  disease  of  gallinaceous  birds,  owing 
to  the  presence  of  a  trematode  worm  ( Fasciola 
trachealis)  in  the  wind-pipe.  This  entozoon,  allied 
to  the  fluke,  is  however,  different  in  form,  being 
a  red,  wavy,  cylindri¬ 
cal  worm,  tapering  at 
the  tail,  and  forking 
near  the  upper  ex¬ 
tremity,  the  branch 
which  is  sent  off  ter¬ 
minating  in  a  sucker 
for  adhesion,  whilst 
the  mouth  terminates  -i 
the  principal  trunk. 

The  whole  length  sel¬ 
dom  exceeds  an  inch. 

They  produce  inflam¬ 
mation,  and  some-  .  ,,  Fasciola  Trachealis. 

,  A,  the  whole  worm;  B,  the  upper 
times  suffocation  and  extremity,  magnified;  a,  the 
death.  A  common  sucker  at  the  end  of  its  branch ; 
remedy  is  to  introduce  the  head,  with  mouth, 
into  the  bird’s  throat  the  end  of  a  feather,  well 
oiled,  and  to  turn  it  round,  so  as  to  dislodge  the 
worms,  which  are  then  either  brought  out  by  the 
feather,  or  coughed  out  by  the  bird.  Another 
cure  is  to  give  a  little  Epsom  salts  mixed  with  the 
food. 

Gar'anceux  is  a  term  now  applied  to  the  rough 
preparation  which  was  formerly  called  garanciue 
-namely,  the  spent  madder  acted  on  by  sulphuric 
acid. 

Gar  'ancine,  a  manufactured  product  of  mad¬ 
der;  hence  its  name,  derived  from  the  French 
garance. 


27 


GARB. 


418 


GARGANO. 


Garb,  or  Garbe  (Fr.  gerbe,  Ger.  garbe),  a  slieaf 
of  any  kind  of  grain.  A  garb  is  frequently  used 
in  heraldry.  If  it  is  blazoned  a  garb  simply,  then 
wheat  is  understood;  if  any  other  kind  of  grain  is 
intended,  it  must  be  mentioned — e.g.,  a  garb  of 
oats. 

Gard,  a  department  in  the  South  of  France, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Rhone,  is  triangular  in 
shape,  its  southern  extremity  reaching  into  the 
Mediterranean  in  a  headland.  Area,  2,250  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  415,629.  The  department  is 
divided  into  the  four  arrondissements  of  Nimes, 
Alais,  UzSs,  and  Le  Vigan. 

Garda,  Lago  di,  an  Alpine  lake  in  Italy,  was 
the  Lacus  Benacus  of  the  Romans.  The  north¬ 
ern  extremity  of  the  lake  enters  Trent,  in  the 
Italian  Tyrol.  On  the  east  it  has  the  Province  of 
Verona;  on  the  west,  that  of  Brescia;  and  on  the 
south,  that  of  Mantua.  Its  length  is  32  miles,  and 
its  breadth  10  miles. 

Garde  Nationale,  the  burgher  defenders  of 
order  in  Paris  and  certain  other  French  towns, 
was  first  introduced  into  Paris  during  the  Revolu¬ 
tion  of  1789,  having  been  at  first  employed  to  de¬ 
fend  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  city,  and 
subsequently  to  guard  the  persons  and  property 
of  the  citizens.  It  acted  a  conspicuous  part  in 
the  Revolution,  its  sympathies  and  support  being 
given  to  first  one  party  and  then  another.  In 
1794  it  was  among  the  most  devoted  adherents  of 
Robespierre,  and  his  bloody  triumvirate,  ever 
ready  to  lend  its  aid  in  the  execution  of  their 
merciless  decrees.  Later  in  the  year,  when  the 
Reign  of  Terror  stood  balanced  between  power 
and  death,  the  National  Guard  proved,  under 
the  command  of  Barras,  faithful  to  the  Conven¬ 
tion,  which  had  deposed  Robespierre  and  his  col¬ 
leagues.  In  1795  the  National  Guard  aided  in  the 
disarmament  of  the  populace.  Not  many  mont  hs 
after  the  corps  became  Royalist  in  its  feelings,  car¬ 
rying  their  sympathies  at  length  to  open  rebellion 
against  the  Convention;  but  they  sustained  an 
utter  defeat  from  a  small  body  of  troops  of  the 
regular  army,  who,  under  Barras  and  Bonaparte, 
defended  the  Convention.  After  this  reverse,  the 
National  Guard  ceased  practically  to  exist.  In 
1805,  Napoleon  re-instituted  the  Garde  Nationale, 
taking  care  that  no  elective  or  democratic  princi¬ 
ples  should  pervade  the  body.  From  that  time  it 
led  a  precarious  existence  through  the  political 
changes  that  have  made  the  history  of  modern 
France,  and  in  1871,  the  French  National  Assem¬ 
bly  decreed  to  dissolve  it,  leaving  the  prefects  of 
departments  to  choose  the  time  of  executing  the 
decree,  and  at  present  this  body  may  be  considered 
abolished. 

Gar'delegen, a  smalltown  of  Prussian  Sax¬ 
ony,  is  situated  about  thirty  miles  north-northwest 
of  Magdeburg,  on  the  Milde.  Pop.  (1880),  6,896. 

Garde'  nia,  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs,  of  the 
natural  order  Cinchonacece,  natives  of  tropical  and 
sub-tropical  countries,  many  of  which  are  favorites 
on  account  of  their  beautiful  and  fragrant  flow¬ 
ers.  Some  of  them  are  hardy  enough  to  endure 
the  open  air  in  summer.  The  corolla  is  funnel- 
shaped,  or  approaching  to  salver-shaped,  the  tube 
much  longer  than  the  calyx;  the  fruit  is  a  berry 
crowned  with  the  calyx.  G.  florida  and  G.  radi- 
cans  are  among  the  species  best  known,  and  bear 
the  name  of  cape  jasmine,  but  are  natives  of 
Japan. 

Gardening,  or  Horticulture,  differs  from 
agriculture  in  the  comparatively  small  extent  of 
ground  used,  the  greater  variety  of  productions 
sought  from  it,  and  in  the  manner  of  cultivation. 
A  garden  ought  to  be  as  fully  as  possible  exposed 
to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and,  in  the  northern  parts 
of  the  world,  a  gentle  slope  to  the  south,  southeast, 
or  southwest  is  preferable  to  a  perfect  level.  A 
slope  in  the  opposite  directions  is  by  all  means  to 
be  avoided.  A  wall,  either  of  brick  or  stone,  is 
the  best  inclosure  for  a  garden;  brick  being  pref¬ 
erable  on  account  of  its  more  perfect  adaptation  to 
fruit-trees;  but  where  this  is  too  expensive,  fences 
are  resorted  to.  The  soil  of  a  garden  is  often 
prepared  with  a  degree  of  care  which  is  impossible 
in  the  case  of  a  farm.  A  deep,  rich,  and  easily 
penetrable  soil  is  desirable;  and,  where  the  expense 
is  not  limited,  the  soil  of  a  garden  is  sometimes 
almost  entirely  artificial;  more  generally,  means 
are  used  for  ameliorating  the  original  soil.  Of 
these  means,  one  of  the  most  important  is  trench¬ 


ing,  by  which  the  soil  is  deepened,  and  it  is  desir¬ 
able  that  the  soil  of  a  garden  should  be  at  least 
three  feet  deep.  The  proper  depth  of  trenching, 
however,  depends  on  the  original  depth  of  the  soil 
and  the  nature  of  the  subsoil;  where  the  soil  is 
uniform  to  a  considerable  depth,  the  deepest 
trenching  is  advantageous;  and  the  available  soil 
may  often  be  deepened  by  incorporating  a  portion 
of  the  subsoil  with  it,  but,  if  too  much  of  a  sub¬ 
soil  unsuited  for  vegetation  is  at  once  thrown  up 
by  trenching,  it  may  communicate  its  own  barren¬ 
ness  for  years  to  the  soil,  ere  it  is  mellowed  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  manures,  and  the  processes  of 
cultivation.  A  stiff  clay  soil  is  unsuitable  for 
many  of  the  crops  required  in  a  garden,  and  ought 
to  be  mixed  witli  as  much  sand  and  vegetable 
matters  as  can  easily  be  procured,  both  at  the 
formation  of  the  garden  and  afterward.  It  is,  of 
course,  nece-sary,  in  all  cases,  that  a  garden  be 
thoroughly  drained;  it  is  also  important  to  have 
the  means  of  irrigation,  or  at  least  of  abundant 
watering,  which,  even  where  the  climate  is  gen¬ 
erally  moist,  tends  to  increase  the  produce  in  dry 
seasons,  and  is  almost  always  necessary  to  the 
perfection  of  certain  crops.  A  liberal  supply  of 
manure  is  necessary  for  a  garden;  the  kinds  of 
manure  must  be  accommodated  to  the  soil  and  to 
the  different  plants,  and  must  often  also  depend 
in  part  on  other  circumstances.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  overdose  with  strong  manure  of  any 
kind,  by  which  plants  might  be  killed  rather  than 
nourished.  Farm-yard  or  stable-yard  manure 
ought  in  general  to  be  subjected  to  a  process  of 
decomposition  in  heaps  before  being  used;  and 
great  advantage  is  derived  from  mixing  it  with 
other  substances  to  form  composts.  Nor  ought 
any  of  the  weeds  and  other  refuse  vegetable  pro¬ 
duce  of  the  garden  to  be  thrown  away  or  burned, 
but  all  should  lie  gathered  into  some  corner  ap¬ 
propriated  to  the  purpose,  there  to  decompose  and 
form  a  heap  of  vegetable  mold,  which  is  for 
many  purposes  one  of  the  best  manures  that  can 
be  used.  Peat  is,  in  some  soils  and  for  some 
plants,  a  very  useful  manure  or  ingredient  in  the 
formation  of  composts.  A  garden  ought  to  be 
dug  in  the  end  of  autumn,  except  where  the 
presence  of  a  crop  prevents,  the  ground  being  left 
very  rough,  to  expose  the  soil  as  much  as  possible 
to  the  influences  of  the  weat  her.  When  the  crops 
are  planted  in  spring,  a  slight  stirring  of  the  sur¬ 
face  is  all  that  is  required.  The  usefulness  of  a 
garden,  however,  is  much  increased  by  making  a 
considerable  part  of  it  produce  crops  even  during 
winter.  Of  course,  constant  cropping  requires 
frequent  and  abundant  manuring,  and  care  is  taken 
that  each  crop  is  succeeded  by  one  of  a  completely 
different  kind,  a  rule  which  is  indeed  always,  as 
far  as  possible,  to  be  observed  both  in  horticulture 
and  agriculture.  In  laying  out  large  gardens, 
fruit-trees  trained  on  espaliers  are  not  infrequently 
planted  around  the  borders  of  plots;  in  smaller 
gardens,  gooseberry  and  currant  bushes  generally 
occupy  this  situation,  often  in  addition  to  a  plot 
entirely  devoted  to  these  bushes.  Fruit-trees  are 
often  also  planted  as  standards  in  the  plots  devoted 
to  culinary  vegetables.  The  productiveness  of  a 
garden  may  thus  be  increased,  as  ground  duly 
manured  will  yield  a  greater  return  of  different 
kinds  of  produce  than  of  one  kind,  whilst  the 
owner  has  the  additional  pleasure  of  the  greater 
variety;  but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  roots 
of  trees  and  bushes  spread  a  long  way  through  the 
soil,  and  render  it  less  suitable  for  many  crops. 
The  implements  most  necessary  in  gardening  are 
the  spade,  fork,  rake,  hoe,  Dutch  hoe,  garden-line, 
wheelbarrow,  pruning-knife,  and  watering-can. 

Gardes  Suisses,  a  corps  in  the  French  army, 
constituted  Gardes  by  royal  decree  in  1616.  They 
comprised  upward  of  2,000  men,  were  unswerving 
in  their  fidelity  to  the  Bourbon  kings,  and  are 
chiefly  remarkable  for  their  heroic  end.  On 
Aug.  10,  1792,  they  withstood  the  Parisian  revo¬ 
lutionary  mob,  and  defended  the  palace  of  the 
Louvre  till  almost  every  man  was  cut  down. 
During  the  resistance  they  offered,  the  royal 
family  was  enabled  to  escape  to  such  shelter  as 
the  National  Assembly  afforded. 

Gardiner,  Stephen,  an  English  prelate  and 
statesman,  born  in  1483.  In  November,  1531,  he 
was  installed  Bishop  of  Winchester.  He  had  a 
principal  hand  in  the  downfall  and  execution  of 
Thomas  Cromwell  in  1540,  and  drew  up  an  im¬ 


peachment  of  heresy  against  Henry’s  last  Queen, 
Catharine  Parr;  but  in  a  personal  interview  with 
Henry  she  reestablished  herself  in  the  King’s 
favor,  and  Gardiner  fell  into  disgrace.  At  the 
accession  of  Edward  VI.,  Jan.  28,  1547,  for  refus¬ 
ing  to  comply  with  the  Reformed  doctrines,  he 
was  committed  to  the  Fleet  prison,  but  released 
in  the  following  December.  In  1548  he  was 
again  seized  and  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  on 
his  refusal  to  sign  certain  articles  submitted  to 
him,  was  deprived  of  his  bishopric.  When  Mary 
ascended  the  throne  in  1553,  he  was  set  at  liberty, 
restored  to  his  see,  and  appointed  Lord  Chancel¬ 
lor  and  first  Minister  of  State.  He  took  the  lead 
in  all  the  bitter  persecutions  of  the  Protestants 
during  Mary’s  reign,  and  is  charged  with  great 
caprice  and  extreme  cruelty.  He  died  Nov.  12, 
1555. 

Gardiner,  an  agricultural  and  manufacturing 
town  in  Kennebec  county,  Maine,  on  the  Kenne¬ 
bec  river,  twelve  miles  south  of  Augusta.  Pop., 
4,439. 

Gardner,  an  important  manufacturing  city  in 
Worcester  county,  Mass.  Pop.,  8,000. 

Garfield,  James  Abram,  twentieth  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Orange,  Ohio, 
Nov.  19,  1831.  When  the  war  broke  out  he 
entered  the  army,  and  rose  to  be  Major-General 
of  Volunteers.  He  had  been  elected  to  the  State 
Senate  in  1859,  and  in  1863  was  recalled  from  the 
army  to  enter  Congress,  where  he  sat  continu¬ 
ously  for  eighteen  years.  In  1880  he  was  chosen 
United  States  Senator  from  Ohio,  and  in  June  of 
that  year  came  to  the  National  Republican  Con¬ 
vention,  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio  delegation,  and 
nominated  John  Sherman  for  the  Presidency. 
The  protracted  triangular  fight  between  Grant, 
Blaine,  and  Sherman  continued  several  days,  and 
finally  Mr.  Garfield’s  name  was  proposed,  and  he 
was  nominated  and  elected.  Soon  after  his  in¬ 
auguration  his  appointments  to  federal  offices  in 
New  York  gave  great  offense  to  Senator  Conk- 
ling  and  other  Republicans.  A  half-crazed  office- 
seeker  named  Charles  J.Guiteau  shot  the  President 
in  the  waiting-room  of  a  Washington,  D.  C.,  rail¬ 
way  station,  July  2,  1881.  Mr.  Garfield  lingered 
until  September  19th  of  the  same  year,  and  then 
died  at  Long  Branch,  N.  J. 

Gar-fish  \Bclone),  a  genus  of  the  family  Scom¬ 
ber  esocidai,  having  long  bodies  with  minute  scales 
and  green  bones.  It  is  usually  about  two  feet  in 
length;  the  tail  is  forked;  the  pectoral  and  ven¬ 


tral  fins  are  small;  the  upper  part  of  the  head 
and  back  is  of  a  dark  greenish  blue;  the  cheeks 
and  gill  covers,  the  sides  and  the  belly,  are 
silvery  white. 

Gar'gaiiey  ( Anas  qverquedula  or  Qverquedula 
circia),  a  species  of  duck  or  teal,  larger  than  the 


Garganey,  or  bummer  Teal  ( Anas  querquedida). 


common  teal,  although  not  so  large  as  the  wild 
duck,  nor  even  as  the  widgeon,  common  in  the 
South  of  Europe,  found  also  in  the  North  of 
Africa,  and  in  Asia,  at  least  as  far  to  the  east  as 
Calcutta. 

Garga'no  (Anc.  Garganus),  a  group  of  mount¬ 
ains  in  the  Province  of  Foggia,  South  Italy,  form- 


GARGLE. 


419 


GARROTTE. 


ing  a  peninsula  which  stretches  eastward  about 
tw.enty  miles  into  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

Gar'gle,  or  Gar'garism,  a  class  of  medicines 
intended  to  be  churned  about  in  the  mouth  and 
throat,  with  a  view  of  cleansing  the  parts  when 
affected  with  discharges  from  ulcers;  or  of  acting 
as  astringents  or  stimulants  in  relaxed  sore  throat. 
The  best  gargles  are  composed  of  vinegar  or 
hydrochloric  acid  diluted;  of  chlorine  water,  car¬ 
bolic  acid,  or  Condy’s  disinfecting  liquor,  in 
putrescent  cases;  of  port-wine,  alum,  and  capsi¬ 
cum  (cayenne  pepper),  when  a  stimulating  effect, 
or  potassium  chlorate  when  a  mild  form  of 
cautery-stimulant  is  required;  of  tannin  or  oak 
bark  decoction  with  alum  or  borax,  in  case  a 
pure  astringent  is  needed.  Gargles  are  useful  in 
the  later  stages  of  sore  throat,  in  almost  all  its 
varieties. 

Gfar'goyle,  a  projecting  spout,  leading  the 
water  from  the  roof-gutters  of  buildings.  Gar¬ 
goyles  of  various  forms  have  been  used  in  almost 


Gargoyle. — St.  Stephen's,  Vienna. 


St.  Alkmund's  Church,  Derby;  Horsley  Church,  Derby- 
circa  1450.  shire ;  circa  1450. 

all  styles  of  architecture,  but  were  peculiarly 
developed  in  connection  with  Gothic,  architecture. 

Garibaldi,  Giuseppe,  born  at  Nice,  July  22, 
1807  In  1834,  having  compromised  himself  by 
participating  in  a  futile  Revolutionary  outbreak 
at  Genoa,  he  fled  to  France  simultaneously  with 
the  publication  in  Italy  of  the  sentence  of  his 
condemnation  to  death.  He  volunteered  to  serve 
Uruguay  in  its  war  with  Buenos  Ayres,  but  soon 
gave  proof  of  so  remarkable  a  talent  for  military 
leadership,  that  he  was  raised  to  the  supreme 
command  both  of  naval  and  military  operations. 
In  1848,  war  having  broken  out  between  Austria 
and  the  Liberals  of  Italy,  Garibaldi  hastened  to 
Europe.  He  bore  an  effective  part  in  the  Italian 
campaign,  and  distinguished  himself  at  Rome  by 
his  resistance  to  the  French  forces,  who  during 
four  weeks  were  successfully  kept  at  bay,  anil 
repeatedly  repulsed  by  the  Republican  forces  of 
Rome,  under  his  command.  Early  in  1860,  in¬ 
surrectionary  disturbances  broke  out  in  Palermo, 
and  were  repeated  throughout  the  interior  of  the 
island.  Garibaldi  assembled  at  Genoa  a  volun¬ 
teer  force  of  1,070  patriots,  and  on  May  5th  set 
sail  for  Sicily.  On  the  lltli  the  landing  of  his 
followers  was  successfully  effected  in  sight,  and 
partially  under  fire,  of  the  Neapolitan  fleet.  On 
the  loth,  in  the  Battle  of  Calatafimi,  3,600  Nea¬ 
politan  troops  were  routed  by  Garibaldi’s  force, 
and  to  this  victory  may  be  attributed  the  subse¬ 
quent  success  of  the  entire  expedition.  On  the 
18th  of  the  same  month,  Garibaldi  and  his  little 
army  occupied  the  heights  which  command 
Palermo,  and  after  a  desperate  battle  with  the 
Royalist  troops,  fought  his  way  into  that  city. 
The  Neapolitan  general  capitulated,  and  on  his 
departure  with  his  troops,  Garibaldi  remained  in 
possession  of  the  city.  On  July  20th,  at  the  head 
of  2,500  men,  he  gave  battle  at  Melazzo  to  7,000 
Neapolitans,  who  were  defeated,  and  compelled 
to  evacuate  the  fortress.  On  the  25th,  the  Nea¬ 
politans  were  driven  back  into  Messina,  where 


Garibaldi  made  his  triumphal  entry  on  the  27th. 
Toward  the  middle  of  August,  Garibaldi  made  a 
descent  in  Calabria,  and  was  immediately  joined 
by  large  bodies  of  volunteers  from  all  directions, 
by  whom  he  was  accompanied  on  his  memorable 
and  eventful  march  to  Naples.  On  September 
5th  Garibaldi’s  army  of  25,000  or  30,000  men 
occupied  Salerno  on  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Royalists,  and  on  the  7th  he  entered  Naples. 
King  Francis  II.  withdrew  to  the  fortress  of 
Gaeta,  and  Garibaldi  accepted  temporarily  the 
office  of  Dictator.  On  October  1st  the  Royalist 
troops,  numbering  15,000  men,  came  from  Capua, 
and  attacked  fiercely  the  whole  line  of  the  Gari- 
baldians.  Finally  the  Royalists  were  driven  back 
to  Capua  in  disorder.  This  was  Garibaldi’s  last 
triumph  in  tliatstruggle;  Victor  Emmanuel,  with 
his  army,  crossed  the  Papal  frontier,  routed  the 
troops  under  Lamoricihre,  and  passed  on  into  the 
Kingdom  of  Naples,  where  he  was  met  by  Gari¬ 
baldi,  who  relinquished  into  his  Sovereign’s  hands 
the  disposal  of  the  volunteer  army,  and  the  sway 
over  the  Neapolitan  provinces.  During  the  cam¬ 
paign  of  1866  he  took  the  field  against  the  Aus¬ 
trians  in  the  Tyrol,  where  he  sustained  a  severe 
repulse,  which  he  retrieved  next  day,  and  was 
preparing  to  advance  against  the  enemy,  when 
the  war  wTas  brought  to  a  close,  and  he  returned 
to  Caprera.  In  1867  he  organized  an  invasion  of 
the  States  of  the  Church,  to  complete  the  unifi¬ 
cation  of  Italy,  but  was  made  prisoner,  and  after¬ 
ward  allowed  to  return  to  Caprera,  in  the  neigh¬ 
borhood  of  which  a  man-of-war  was  stationed  to 
prevent  his  escape.  He  did  escape,  however, 
only  to  be  speedily  defeated  by  the  Pontifical,  re¬ 
inforced  by  French  troops.  Again  Garibaldi 
retired  to  his  island  home,  which  "lie  left  to  fight 
for  the  French  Republic  in  1870.  He  was  nom¬ 
inated  to  the  command  of  the  irregular  forces  in 
the  Vosges,  and  performed  the  best  services  in 
the  field  during  the  memorable  Franco-Prussian 
War.  In  187i  he  was  returned  a  Deputy  to  the 
French  National  Assembly  for  Paris,  but  de¬ 
clined  to  sit,  and  returned  to  Caprera.  He  entered 
the  Italian  Parliament  in  1875.  He  accepted 
from  the  Parliament  an  annual  pension  of  50,000 
lire.  He  died  June  2.  1882. 

Gariep,  otherwise  Orange,  is  a  river  of  South 
Africa,  which,  after  a  westward  course  of  1,000 
miles,  enters  the  Atlantic  in  latitude  28°  30’  S. 

Garland,  Augustus  Hill,  was  born  in  Ten¬ 
nessee,  June  11,  1832.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Confederate  Congress,  1861-65,  and  was  elected 
to  the  United  States  Senate  from  Arkansas  in 
1867,  but  was  not  allowed  to  take  his  seat.  He 
became  Governor  of  Arkansas  in  1874,  was  re¬ 
elected  in  1876,  and  in  1883  was  elected  United 
States  Senator.  This  office  he  resigned  in  March, 
1885,  to  become  Attorney-General  under  Presi¬ 
dent  Cleveland. 

Garlic  ( Allium  sativum), a  bulbous-rooted  plant, 
a  native  of  the  East.  The  stem  rises  to  the  height 
of  about  two  feet,  un¬ 
branched,  and  bearing 
at  top  an  umbel  of  a 
few  whitish  flowers, 
mixed  with  many  small 
bulbs.  The  bulb  con¬ 
sists  of  about  twelve  or 
fifteen  ovate-oblong 
doves  or  subordinate 
bulbs,  which  are  axil¬ 
lary  buds  of  its  scales 
thus  developed;  it  con¬ 
tains  a  viscid  juice, 
which  is  sometimes  used 
as  a  cement  for  por¬ 
celain,  and  has  a  pene¬ 
trating  and  powerful 
alliaceous  odor,  which 
indeed  pervades  the 
whole  plant,  with  a 
pungent  aromatic  taste. 

It  is  in  general  use  as  a 
condiment  with  other 
articles  of  food. 

Garlic, Oil  of. 

When  cloves  of  garlic 
are  distilled  wdtli  water, 
about  0.2  percent,  of  a  brown,  heavy  oil,  with  an 
acrid  taste,  and  a  strong,  disagreeable  smell, 
passes  over.  By  careful  rectification  from  a  salt 


water  bath,  about  two-thirds  of  the  oil  may  be 
obtained  in  the  form  of  a  yellow  liquid,  which  is 
lighter  than  water,  and  which,  when  treated  with 
chloride  of  calcium  (in  order  to  dry  it),  and  sub¬ 
sequently  distilled  from  fragments  of  potassium, 
comes  over  pure  and  colorless  as  sulphide  of  allyl, 
an  organic  compound  of  very  considerable  inter¬ 
est,  whose  formula  is  C6H,0,S.  The  crude  oil 
also  contains  oxide  of  allyl  (G6HI0,O),  and  a  com¬ 
pound  of  allyl  still  richer  in  sulphur  than  the 
sulphide. 

Gar 'net,  a  precious  stone,  some  of  the  varieties 
of  which  are  of  great  beauty;  while  some  are  less 
highly  prized  than  other  not  more  beautiful  min¬ 
erals,  because  much  more  common.  Garnets  are 
found  generally  in  mica  slate,  hornblende  slate, 
and  gneiss;  less  frequently  in  granite  and  granu¬ 
lar  limestone;  sometimes  in  serpentine  and  lava. 

Garnett,  an  agricultural  town,  and  the  county 
seat  of  Anderson  county,  Kan.  Pop.,  2,192. 

Garnishment  is  the  process  of  law  by  which 
moneys  belonging  to  a  debtor  or  wages  due  to 
him  from  a  third  party  are  held  or  attached  for 
the  benefit  of  a  creditor. 

Garonne  (anc.  Gnrumna),  the  principal  river 
in  the  Southwest  of  France,  rises  within  the  Span¬ 
ish  frontier  in  the  Val  d’Aran,  at  the  base  of 
Mount  Maladetta,  in  the  Pyrenees.  It  falls  into 
the  Atlantic  at  Point  de  Grave. 

Garonne,  Haute,  a  department  in  the  South  of 
France,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Pyrenees, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Departments  of  Hautes 
Pyrenees  and  Gers.  It  has  an  area  of  2,420  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881)  of  478,000. 

Garrick,  David,  an  English  actor  and  author, 
born  in  1716.  He  made  his  debut  on  the  stage  at 
Ipswich  in  1741,  appeared  before  a  London  audi¬ 
ence  in  the  autumn  of  the  same  year,  in  “  Richard 
III.,”  and  rose  rapidly  in  his  profession,  until  he 
came  to  be  ranked  as  the  greatest  actor  of  his  day. 
He  died  Jan.  20,  1779. 

Gar'rison  (Fr.  garnison,  from  Low  Lat.  gar- 
nisio,  military  furniture),  the  troops  occupying  a 
town  or  fortress,  either  for  defensive  purposes,  or 
merely  as  ordinary  quarters. 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd,  an  abolitionist, 
born  in  Newburyport,  Mass.,  Dec.  10,  1805.  He 
spent  many  of  the  best  years  of  his  life  in  advocat¬ 
ing,  through  the  press  and  from  the  lecture 
platform,  the  freedom  of  the  slaves.  In  1865, 
af  ter  the  total  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  United 
States,  his  friends  presented  him  with  $30,000  as 
a  memorial  of  his  services.  He  died  at  New  York, 
May  24,  1879. 

Gar 'rot  (C’langvla),  a  genus  of  the  oceanic  sec¬ 
tion  of  ducks,  having  the  bill  shorter  than  the 
head.  One  species,  the  golden-eye  (C.  vulgaris,  or 
C.  chrysoph  thalmus),  a  bird  not  quite  so  large  as 
a  widgeon,  is  common  in  the  temperate  parts  of 


Golden-eye  ( Clangula  vulgaris).— Male. 


Asia  and  this  country.  It  breeds  in  arctic  and 
sub-arctic  regions,  preferring  wooded  districts, 
and  forms  its  nest  either  on  the  ground,  in  the 
crevice  of  a  rock,  or  the  hole  of  a  tree. — The  Buf- 
fel-headed  Gariiot,  or  Buffel-iieaded  Duck 
(U  albrola),  is  very  common  in  the  United  States, 
where  it  is  often  called  the  spirit  duck,  a  name 
which  is  said  to  have  been  bestowed  in  allusion  to 
its  power  of  eluding  observation  by  diving.  It  is 
rather  smaller  than  the  golden-eye  and  harlequin 
garrot.  The  flesh  of  the  garrot  is  eaten,  but  not 
highly  esteemed. 

Garrotte'  (Spanish  garrote,  a  stick  or  cudgel), 
a  mode  of  execution  practiced  in  Spain  and  the 


Common  Garlic  ( Allium 

sativum). 


GARTER. 


420 


GAS. 


Spanish  colonies.  Originally,  it  consisted  iu  sim¬ 
ply  placing  a  cord  around  the  neck  of  a  criminal, 
who  was  seated  on  a  chair  fixed  to  a  post,  and 
then  twisting  the  cord  by  means  of  a  stick 
(whence  the  name)  inserted  between  it  and  the 
back  of  the  neck,  till  strangulation  was  produced. 
Afterward  a  brass  collar  was  used,  containing  a 
screw,  which  the  executioner  turned  till  its  point 
entered  the  spinal  marrow  where  it  unites  with 
the  brain,  causing  instantaneous  death.  The  in¬ 
quisitors  were  wont  to  grant  as  a  favor,  this  mode 
of  strangulation,  before  being  burned,  to  such 
condemned  persons  as  recanted. 

Garter,  Order  of  the.  The  order  of  the  gar¬ 
ter  was  instituted  by  King  Edward  III.,  and 
though  not  the  most  ancient,  is  one  of  the  most 
famous  of  the  military  orders  of  Europe. 

Gary,  the  county  seat  of  Deuel  county,  Dak. 
Pop.,  504. 

Gas,  Analysis  of.  In  collecting  gases,  small 
glass  vessels  are  usually  employed,  the  contents  of 
which,  consisting  of  water,  mercury,  or  air,  are 
displaced  by  the  gas  to  be  analyzed.  Of  these 
three  fluids,  water  is  the  least  capable  of  general 
application,  inasmuch  as  it  gives  rise  to  phenom¬ 
ena  of  absorption  and  diffusion,  which  modify 
the  composition  of  the  gas  that  is  to  be  collected, 
and  gases  are  more  or  less  soluble  in  it.  For  the 
best  methods  of  collecting  gases  from  mineral 
springs  and  waters,  from  volcanic  lakes,  geysers, 
or  boiling  springs,  from  openings  in  rocks,  clefts 
of  glaciers,  furnaces,  fissures  in  volcanic  craters, 
etc.,  we  must  refer  to  Bunsen’s  Gusometry,  trans¬ 
lated  by  Roscoe,  1857.  The  nature  of  the  gas 
that  is  evolved  often  varies  with  the  progressive 
phases  of  a  decomposition,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
process  of  coking,  or  in  the  phenomena  of  com¬ 
bustion  and  decomposition  occurring  in  the  strata 
of  a  furnace.  Iu  these  cases,  it  is  necessary  to 
collect  a  series  of  specimens  during  the  progress 
of  the  decomposition.  See  Water  Gas. 

Gas  (Lighting  by).  In  1739,  the  Rev.  Dr. 
John  Clayton,  Dean  of  Kildare,  gave  an  account 
of  experiments  in  which  he  had  distilled  gas  from 
coal,  and  in  1792  Mr.  William  Murdoch  lighted 
his  house  and  offices  at  Redruth,  in  Cornwall, 
with  coal  gas.  The  chartered  Gas  Company  of 
London,  which  was  the  first  company  incorpo¬ 
rated,  obtained  its  Act  of  Parliament  in  1810. 
Destructive  distillation  is  in  all  cases  the  means 
employed  to  disengage  the  gas  from  coal.  In  the 
process  of  distillation,  gas,  tar,  and  ammoniacal 
liquor  come  off  together,  and  are  separated  by  the 
action  of  the  apparatus  employed — a  large  resid¬ 
uum  of  coke  remains  in  the  retort.  The  gas  con¬ 
sists  of  a  mixture  of  heavy  carbureted  hydrogen 
(olefiant  gas);  heavy  hydrocarbon  vapors;  light 
carbureted  hydrogen;  sulphureted  hydrogen; 
sulphide  or  sulpliuret  of  carbon  in  minute  quan¬ 
tity;  carbonic  oxide,  and  carbonic  acid.  The 
value  of  coal-gas  depends  on  the  proportion  of 
olefiant  gas  and  heavy  hydro-carbons  which  it 
contains.  Gas  works  comprise  essentially  the 


diameter.  In  large  works,  two  9-feet  lengths  are 
joined  together,  forming  one  retort  18  feet  long, 
with  a  mouth  at  each  end.  From  one  to  seven 
retorts  and  sometimes  a  greater  number  are  set 
horizontally  in  the  same  oven,  the  open  cast-iron 
mouthpiece  projecting  from  the  front  wall  far 
enough  to  admit,  between  the  mouth  and  the 
front  of  the  oven,  an  opening  to  which  the  ascen¬ 
sion-pipe  is  connected  for  conveying  the  gas  to  the 
hydraulic  main.  The  coal  is  introduced  and  the 
mouth  is  closed  with  a  luted  lid,  made  fast  with 
a  screw.  The  hydraulic  main  is  a  large  pipe 
made  of  thick  plate  or  cast  iron.  It  is  first  about 
half  filled  with  water,  which  in  the  course  of  a 
short  time  is  entirely  displaced  by  the  liquid 
product  of  distillation.  The  dip-pipes,  which 
are  the  continuation  of  the  ascension-pipes,  dip 
into  the  liquid  through  which  the  gas  bubbles  up 
into  the  upper  portion  of  the  hydraulic  main. 
The  gas  and  liquid  come  off  at  the  end  of  the 
hydraulic  main,  and  flow  together  till  they  reach 
the  tar-well,  into  which  the  liquid,  by  its  greater 
gravity,  falls.  The  liquid  consists  of  tar  and 
ammoniacal  water.  From  the  tar,  naphtha, 
pitch-oil,  pitch,  and  coke  are  obtained;  and 
from  the  water,  salts  of  ammonia  are  prepared. 
The  simplest  form  of  condenser  consists  of  a 
series  of  upright  pipes,  each  pair  being  connected 
at  the  top  by  an  arch  pipe.  These  are  erected 
upon  a  horizontal  chest,  the  top  of  which  has  an 
opening  into  the  bottom  of  each  upright  pipe. 
Immediately  under  the  center  of  each  arch  pipe 
a  plate  descends  from  the  top  of  the  chest  and 
reaches  to  within  a  few  inches  of  the  bottom. 
When  in  operation,  the  chest  is  always  filled  with 
liquid  to  such  a  height  that  these  plates  dip  into 
it  and  prevent  the  gas  from  passing  through  the 
chest  horizontally.  When  admitted  into  the 
chest,  the  gas  ascends  the  first  upright  pipe,  and, 
passing  over  the  arch,  descends  to  the  chest  again 
through  the  second  upright.  It  then  ascends 
the  third  pipe  and  descends  the  fourth,  and  so  on 
through  the  condenser.  As  the  gas  ascends  and 
descends,  the  vapor  condenses,  and  falls  into  the 
chest,  from  which  it  is  conveyed  by  an  overflow- 
pipe  to  the  tar- well.  The  exhauster,  a  species  of 
pump,  driven  by  steam  power,  serves  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  relieving  the  retorts  of  pressure,  and  in 
raising  the  gas-holders.  To  remove  the  remaining 
ammonia,  the  washer  or  scrubber  is  used.  In  the 
washer,  the  gas  is  forced  to  pass  through  water  to 
a  depth  of  several  inches,  or  through  a  solution 
containing  an  ingredient  with  which  the  ammonia 
will  combine.  The  scrubber,  which  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  washer,  is  an  upright  vessel,  in 
which  the  gas  is  made  to  pass  through  brush¬ 
wood,  layers  of  small  stones,  coke,  or  suitable 
shelving  of  wood  or  iron,  through  or  over  which 
water  may  be  made  to  percolate.  The  dry  purifier, 
now  generally  used,  is  a  vessel  containing  a  series 
of  perforated  trays,  on  which  slaked  lime  is 
spread  in  layers  of  from  21  to  3)  inches  in  thick¬ 
ness.  The  lime  absorbs  the  sulphureted  hydro¬ 


following  apparatus;  First,  the  retorts,  ascension 
and  dip  pipes,  hydraulic  main;  then  the  tar- well 
and  condenser,  the  exhauster,  the  washer,  the 
purifier,  the  station-meter,  the  gas-holder,  and 
the  governor.  The  retorts  are  generally  made  of 
fire-clay.  The  sizes  most  common  are  from  0  to 
9  feet  in  length,  and  from  12  to  20  inches  in 


gen,  a  portion  of  the  ammonia,  and  the  carbonic 
acid.  Oxide  of  iron  is  sometimes  employed  as 
the  purifying  material.  After  passing  the  puri¬ 
fier,  the  gas,  now  ready  for  use,  is  measured  by 
the  station-meter  and  is  then  conveyed  to  the  gas¬ 
holder.  The  gas-holder  is  an  inverted  cylindrical 
vessel  of  sheet-iron,  balanced  so  as  to  move  up  or 


down,  and  placed  in  a  tank  containing  water. 
The  buoyancy  of  the  gas  raises  the  gas-holder,  and 
the  weight  of  the  gas-holder  impels  the  gas  through 
the  pipes.  Gas-holders  are  of  all  sizes,  some  exceed¬ 


ing  200  feet  in  diameter.  In  large  establishments, 
telescopic  gas-holders  are  used — two  concentric 
gas-holders  being  contained  in  one  tank.  Before 
reaching  the  main-pipes,  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
is  regulated  by  the  governor,  a  small  gas-holder, 
the  inlet  pipe  to  which  is  placed  in  the  center  of 
the  tank,  and  terminates  with  a  plate  having  a 
circular  orifice  in  its  center.  In  this  orifice  hangs 
a  cone,  which  is  attached  to  the  crown  of  the 
small  holder.  When  the  gas  is  issuing  slowly, 
the  holder  rises,  taking  with  it  the  cone,  and  so 
restricting  the  orifice  by  which  the  gas  enters. 
When  the  gas  issues  rapidly,  the  holder  falls,  and 
with  it  the  cone,  thereby  enlarging  the  inlet. 
The  gas  is  conveyed  from  the  works  by  main- 
pipes  of  cast-iron,  to  which  branch  or  service  pipes 
are  connected  wherever  a  supply  is  wanted.  For 
the  collection  and  removal  of  condensed  liquids 
a  vessel,  similar  in  construction  to  the  tar- 
well,  is  connected  to  the  main-pipe,  and  the  water 
is  removed  by  a  pump.  Gas  for  street-lighting  is 
usually  supplied  by  contract,  a  specified  burner 
being  used,  and  the  lights  being  lighted  and  ex¬ 
tinguished  at  stipulated  hours.  For  private  con¬ 
sumption  the  gas  is  measured  by  individual  meters. 
The  wet  gas-meter  consists  of  a  hollow  circular 
case,  somewhat  more 
than  half  filled  with 
water.  The  measure¬ 
ment  is  made  by  the 
cylinder,  a  hollow 
drum  or  wheel,  which 
revolves  on  a  horizon¬ 
tal  axis  inside  the  case. 

The  cylinder  is  di¬ 
vided  into  four  cham¬ 
bers  presenting  a  sec¬ 
tion  of  afour-threaded 
Archimedean  screw. 

A  convex  cover  is 
fixed  on  one  end  of  the 
cylinder.  This  cover 
has  an  opening  in  the 
center,  which  admits 
the  pipe  by  which  the 
gas  enters  the  cylin¬ 
der,  the  opening  being 
below  the  surface  of 
the  water.  The  end 
of  the  pipe  is  turned  water  box. 
up  so  that  its  mouth  is  above  the  water.  The  gas 
finds  its  way  through  a  slit  into  one  of  the  four  cham¬ 
bers.  The  gas  raising  the  partit  ion,  turns  the  cyl¬ 
inder  on  its  axis,  and  brings  the  chamber  above  the 
water,  filling  it  at  the  same  time.  The  outlet  slit 
of  the  chamber  is  on  the  side  of  the  cylinder 
opposite  to  the  inlet  slit,  and  is  open  to  the 
case  of  the  meter.  Only  two  chambers  can  be 
in  action  at  the  same  time.  On  the  front  of  the 
case  of  the  meter  is  placed  a  box,  into  which 
the  axis  of  the  cylinder  extends,  having  a  spiral 
worm-wheel  on  its  end.  The  worm-wheel  com¬ 
municates  motion  to  an  upright  spindle,  which 
again  moves  the  train  of  wheels  by  which  the 
hands  of  the  index  are  worked.  The  dry  meter 
consists  of  chambers  separated  from  each  other 


GASCONADE. 


421 


GAUR. 


by  partitions.  Each  chamber  is  divided  into  two 
parts  by  a  flexible  partition  which  moves  back¬ 
ward  and  forward,  its 
motion  being  regulated 
by  valves.  The  meter 
bears  some  resemblance 
to  a  double  or  triple 
ste.im  engine.  The 
burner  made  on  the  Ar- 
gand  principle  is  the  best 
when  carefully  used. 

Jets  are  of  two  kinds — 
cockspurs  and  union- 
jets.  The  cockspurs  are 
pierced  with  one  or 
more  straight  holes;  the 
union-jets  are  pierced 
with  two  holes  diverging 
inward  from  the  point 
of  issue,  so  that  two 
small  streams  of  gas  im¬ 
pinge  on  each  other,  and 
produce  a  flat  flame. 

Bat  wings  are  made  with 
a  clean  slit  across  the 


Wet  Meter— side  section. 


across 

head  of  the  burner.  The  object  of  regulators 
is  to  restrict  the  supply  of  gas.  A  conical  valve, 
operating  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas  in  a  manner 
similar  to  the  governor  at  the  gas-works,  is  in  gen¬ 
eral  the  acting  part  of  the  apparatus.  The  value 


of  gas  for  lighting  depends  on  its  illuminating 
power,  which,  again,  mainly  depends  on  the  pro¬ 
portion  of  olefiant  gas  and  heavy  hydrocarbons 
contained  in  the  mixture.  The  competition  of  the 
electric  light  has  stimulated  the  invention  and 
improvement  of  various  new  methods  of  making 
illuminating  gas.  One  method  uses  petroleum, 
water,  and  air.  A  very  white  and  pure  gas  is 
obtained  from  shale  oil,  injected  by  a  steam  jet 
into  a  special  retort.  Yet  another  gas  is  man¬ 
ufactured  from  kerosene,  or  other  hydrocarbon 
oil,  with  certain  other  ingredients.  The  mixtures 
are  put  into  a  tank,  and  intermittently  injected 
into  heated  retorts;  then  purified  and  stored  in 
a  gasometer,  like  coal  gas.  The  use  of  gas  for 
cooking  and  heating  is  becoming  extensive.  See 
Natural  Gas. 

Gas'conade,  a  river  which  rises  in  the  South  of 
Missouri,  and,  after  flowing  northeast  for  250 
miles,  joins  the  Missouri  river  forty  miles  below 
Jefferson  City. 

Gas 'cony  (Lat.  Vasconia),  formerly  a  district 
in  the  Southwest  of  France,  between  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  the  River  Garonne,  and  the  W estern  Pyr¬ 
enees,  and  is  now  included  in  the  Departments  of 
Landes,  Gers,  ilautes  Pyrenees,  and  the  southern 
portions  of  Haute  Garonne,  Tarn-et-Garonne,  and 
Lot-et-Garonne. 

Gaspe,  the  most  easterly  district  of  Lower 
Canada,  consisting  of  the  Counties  of  Gaspe  and 
Bonaventure,  is  chiefly  a  peninsula  projecting 
into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  between  the  estuary 
of  the  same  name  on  the  north  and  the  Bay  of 
Chaleur  on  the  south.  It  stretches  in  N.  lati 
tude  between  48°  and  49°  20',  and  in  W.  longi¬ 


tude  between  64°  15' and  67°  56',  containing  7,500 
square  miles,  and  about  25,000  inhabitants. 

Gastein  is  a  valley  in  the  south  of  the  Austrian 
Duchy  of  Salzburg,  and  contains,  with  two  other 
villages,  one  of  the  most  famous  watering-places 
in  Europe,  Wildbad-Gastein. 

Gasterop'oda  (Gr.  vadzep,  belly,  itovi,  foot, 
belly -footed),  or  Gastropods,  a  class  of  mollusks, 
inferior  in  organization  to  ceplialopods,  but  far 
superior  to  almost  all  other  mollusks,  and  contain¬ 
ing  a  multitude  of  species,  the  greater  number  of 
which  are  marine,  but  some  are  inhabitants  of 
fresh  water,  and  some  are  terrestrial.  Snails, 
whelks,  periwinkles,  limpets,  cowries,  and  the 


Figure  showing  the  soft  parts  of  a  Gasteropod  (Dolium 
galea ) 

a,  head;  d,  d,  foot. 


greater  number  of  mollusks  with  univalve  shells 
belong  to  this  class,  and  univalve  mollusks  consti¬ 
tute  the  greater  part  of  it;  but  it  contains  also 
some  mollusks  with  multivalve  shells,  as  chitons, 
and  some,  as  slugs,  which  have  either  only  a  rudi- 
mental  internal  shell,  or  no  shell  at  all.  Some 
aquatic  kinds  are  destitute  of  shell  in  the  adult 
state,  but  they  are  protected  by  a  rudimentary 
shell  on  first  issuing  from  the  egg. 

Gastric  J  uice.  See  Digestion,  Organs  and 
Process  of. 

Gastritis  and  Gastro-enteritis,  (inflammation 
of  the  stomach,  etc.)  See  Stomach,  Diseases 
of,  also  Enteritis. 

Gastrocliama,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate 
mollusks,  having  a  delicate  shell  of  two  equal 
valves,  gaping  in  front;  the  animal  sometimes 
taking  possession  of  an  already  existing  cavity, 
which  it  often  lines  with  a  calcareous  lining,  so  as 
to  form  a  tube,  to  which  the  valves  of  its  shell 


Gastrochsena  Modioliua. 

a ,  one  of  the  tubes  broken  open,  showing  the  valves. 

are  cemented;  sometimes  burrowing  for  itself  in 
sand,  madrepores,  or  calcareous  rocks,  and  lining 
its  hole  with  a  shelly  layer.  G.  modiolina,  a  mol- 
lusk  common  in  the  Mediterranean  and  other 
waters,  perforates  shells  and  limestone,  making 
holes  about  two  inches  deep  and  half  an  inch  in 
diameter. 

Gastrocne'mius  Muscle,  TnE,  is  the  muscle 
forming  the  greater  part  of  the  calf  of  the  leg.  It 
arises  by  two  heads  from  the  two  condyles  of  the 
thigh-bone,  and  is  inserted  by  the  tendo  achillis 
at  the  posterior  part  of  the  heel-bone.  In  man, 
these  muscles  possess  great  power,  and  are  con- 
tantly  called  in  use  in  standing,  walking,  leaping, 
etc. 

Gastro'dia,  a  genus  of  orchids.  G.  sesamoides 
is  a  native  of  Van  Diemen’s  Land,  the  roots  of 
which  form  large  coral-like  masses,  and  are  some¬ 
times  called  native  potatoes,  being  edible;  but  they 
are  watery  and  insipid. 

Gastros'tomy  (Gr.  yddrsp,  paster,  the  belly  or 
stomach,  and  dro/ua,  stoma,  mouth),  an  opera¬ 
tion  which  has  been  performed  for  the  relief  of 
stricture  of  the  gullet,  to  relieve  the  patient  from 
danger  of  starvation,  by  introducing  food  directly 
into  the  stomach  through  an  external  opening. 

Gastro'tomy  (Gr.  yddrep,  gaster&nA.  ropsiv, 
tomein,  to  cut),  an  incision  into  the  cavity  of  the 
abdomen  for  the  purpose  of  removing  some  dis¬ 
eased  texture  or  foreign  body.  The  term  has  also 
been  applied  to  Caesarean  section. 

Gates,  Horatio,  an  American  general,  born 
in  1728.  Sent  to  America  in  1755,  as  Captain  of 


infantry,  he  served  under  General  Braddock.  On 
the  peace  of  1763  he  purchased  an  estate  in  Vir¬ 
ginia,  where  he  resided  until  the  War  of  Indepen¬ 
dence.  In  1775  he  was  made  Adjutant-General 
with  the  rank  of  Brigadier  in  the  Colonial  Army, 
and  served  with  distinction  until  1782.  He  died 
on  April  10,  1806. 

Gatesville,  an  important  town  on  the  Lam¬ 
pasas  river,  is  the  county  seat  of  Coryell  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Gatesville,  the  county  seat  of  Gates  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  400. 

Gatll  (in  Heb.  a  wine  press),  one  of  the  five 
chief  cities  of  the  Philistines,  was  on  the  frontiers 
of  Judah,  and  was  in  consequence  a  place  of  im¬ 
portance  in  the  wars  between  the  Philistines  and 
the  Israelites. 

Gatineau,  a  river  of  Canada,  in  the  Province 
of  Quebec,  has  its  origin  in  a  connected  chain  of 
large  lakes  lying  immediately  north  of  the  forty- 
eighth  parallel  of  latitude. 

Gatling  Gun,  named  after  its  inventor,  Dr. 
Richard  Jordan  Gatling,  is  a  revolving  piece  of 
artillery  of  considerable  range  and  precision.  It 
is  composed  of  ten  barrels,  each  of  fifty  caliber, 
made  to  revolve  by  a  hand-crank  round  a  central 
axis,  and  can  fire  400  shots  per  minute. 

Gauge,  or  Gage,  an  apparatus  for  measuring 
any  special  force  or  dimension;  thus  we  have 


pressure-gauge,  wind-gauge,  rain-gauge,  wire- 
gauge,  button-gauge,  etc.  The  gauge  in  railways 
is  the  distance  between  the  rails. 


Gauger,  an  officer  of  the  inland  revenue  de¬ 
partment,  whose  duty  it  is  to  gauge  or  measure 
casks  containing  dutiable  liquors. 

Gault,  a  member  of  the  cretaceous  formation, 
separating  the  lower  from  the  upper  green-sand. 
It  consists  of  an  upper  part,  hard  and  sandy,  has 
green  particles  scattered  through  it;  and  of  a  lower 
portion,  a  stiff  dark  gray,  blue  or  brown  clay, 
smooth  and  uniform  in  texture,  and  very  plastic, 
which  is  manufactured  into  tiles,  bricks,  and 
even  common  pottery. 

Gaultlie'ria,  a  genus  of  small  procumbent  or 
nearly  procum¬ 
bent  evergreen 
shrubs,  of  the  nat¬ 
ural  order  Ericece, 
the  fruit  of  which 
is  a  five-valved 
capsule,  covered 
with  the  enlarged 
and  fleshy  tube  of 
the  calyx.  They 
are-  natives  of 
temperate  re¬ 
gions.  G.  pro-' 
cumbens  is  a  com¬ 
mon  plant  in  the 
United  States  as 

far  south  as  Vil'-  Procumbent  Gaultheria  {Qaulthe- 
ginia,  and  bears  riaprocumbens).a,  fruit;  b,  flower, 
the  names  of  partridge  berry,  deer  berry,  winter- 
green,  and  mountain  tea. 

Gaur,  orGouit  (Bos  gaums),  a  species  of  ox,  in¬ 
habiting  some  of  the  mountain  jungles  of  India. 
It  is  of  large  size,  although  apparently  inferior  to 
the  arnee.  It  resembles  the  gayal,  but  differs  from 
it  in  the  form  of  its  head,  and  in  the  want  of  a 
dewlap,  in  which  it  more  nearly  agrees  with  the 
banteng  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago,  although 
distinguished  from  it  by  important  anatomical 


GAUTIER. 


422 


GEMARA. 


peculiarities.  The  back  is  arched,  having  a  ridge 
which  rises  above  its  general  line,  owing  to  an 


Gaur  (Bos  gaums). — From  Routledge’s  Natural 
History. 


unusual  elongation  of  the  spinous  processes  of  the 
vertebrae.  The  hair  is  short  and  sleek. 

Gautier,  Theopiiile,  a  French  poet  and  novel¬ 
ist,  born  Aug.  31,  1811.  In  1830  he  published  a 
volume  of  poems  that  secured  for  him  the  fame 
of  being  a  zealous  romanticist  and  one  of  the 
most  gifted  disciples  of  Victor  Hugo.  He  wrote 
extensively  for  Parisian  journals.  He  died  Oct. 
23,  1872. 

Ga'vial  ( Gavialis ),  a  genus  of  reptiles  of  the 
crocodile  family,  conspicuously  differing  from 
true  crocodiles  and  from,  alligators  in  the  great 
length  and  slenderness  of  the  muzzle.  Another 
peculiar  character  is  a  large  cartilaginous  swell¬ 
ing  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle  in  the  males, 
around  the  orifice  of  the  nostrils.  The  only  per¬ 
fectly  ascertained  species,  G.  gaugeticus  inhabits 
the  Ganges.  It  attains  a  greater  size  than  any 


Gavial  ( Gavialis  gangeticus). 

other  of  the  recent  crocodilidm.  frequently  attain¬ 
ing  the  length  of  twenty-five  feet;  but  owing  to 
the  slenderness  of  its  muzzle,  it  is  less  dangerous 
than  a  true  crocodile  of  smaller  size. 

Gay,  John,  an  English  poet,  born  in  1688,  and 
died  Dec.  4,  1732.  He  wrote  numerous  volumes 
of  poetry  and  prose  and  several  plays,  some  of 
which  were  successful. 

Gayal  ( Bos  gavceus),  a  species  of  ox,  found 
wild  in  the  mountains  of  Aracan,  Chittagong, 


Gayal  Cow  ( Bos  gavceus). 


Tipura,  and  Sylhet,  and  which  has  long  been 
domesticated  in  these  countries  and  in  the  eastern 


parts  of  Bengal.  It  is  about  equal  in  size  to  the 
Indian  buffalo. 

Gaylord,  the  county  seat  of  Otsego  county, 
Mich  Pop.,  767. 

Gay-Lussac,  Louis  Joseph,  a  French  chemist 
and  physicist,  born  Dec.  6,  1778.  He  was  com¬ 
missioned  with  Biot,  by  the  Institute  of  France, 
to  make  a  balloon  ascent,  and  to  ascertain  whether 
the  magnetic  force  existed  above  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  or  only  on  the  surface.  Alexander 
von  Humboldt  investigated  with  him  the  proper¬ 
ties  of  air  brought  down  from  a  height  of  more 
than  23,000  feet,  and  their  joint  memoir  to  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  (read  on  Oct.  1,  1804)  con¬ 
tained  the  first  announcement  of  the  fact,  that 
oxygen  and  hydrogen  unite  to  form  water  in  the 
simple  proportion  of  100  parts  by  bulk  (volumes) 
of  the  former  to  200  parts  of  the  latter.  Amongst 
the  most  important  of  his  discoveries  are  a  new 
chemical  process  which  yields  potassium  and 
sodium  much  more  abundantly  than  the  voltaic 
pile,  the  determination  of  the  composition  of 
boracic  acid  both  analytically  and  synthetically, 
and  new  and  improved  methods  of  analyzing 
organic  compounds. 

Gayoso,  an  important  shipping  point  on  the 
Mississippi  river,  and  the  county  seat  of  Pemiscot 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  300. 

Gazelle'  ( Antilope  dor  can  or  G  a  sella  clorcas), 
a  species  of  antelope,  exhibiting  the  typical  char¬ 
acters  of  that  family  in  their  highest  perfection. 
It  is  of  a  light  tawny  color,  the  under  parts  white; 
a  broad,  brown  band  along  each  flank;  the  hair 
short  and  smooth.  It  is  a  native  of  the  North  of 
Africa,  and  of  Syria,  Arabia,  and  Persia. 

Gazous,  in  Fortification,  are  sods  laid  over 
newly-made  earthworks,  to  consolidate  them, 
and  prevent  the  soil  from  rolling  down. 

Gebang  Palm  (Corypha  gebanga ),  a  fan¬ 
leaved  palm,  native  of  the  East  Indies,  and  one 
of  the  most  useful  palms  of  that  part  of  the 
world.  Its  stem  yields  a  kind  of  sago;  its  root  is 
medicinal,  being  both  emollient  and  slightly 
astringent,  so  as  to  be  particularly  adapted  to 
many  cases  of  diarrhoea;  its  leaves  are  used 
for  thatch,  for  making  hats,  and  for  various 
economical  purposes;  its  young  leaves  are  plaited 
into  baskets  and  bags,  in  the  manufacture  of 
which  many  of  the  people  of  Java  find  much 
employment;  the  fibers  of  its  leaf-stalks  are  made 
into  ropes,  baskets,  nets,  cloth,  etc. — To  the 
genus  Corypha  belongs  also  the  talipat  palm. 
The  fruit  of  C.  pumas,  a  Mexican  species,  is  eat¬ 
able,  and  has  a  sweet  taste. 

Gebir,  Abu-Mussaii-Jaafer  Al  Sofi,  the 
founder  of  the  Arabian  school  of  chemistry, 
flourished  toward  the  end  of  the  eighth,  or  the 
commencement  of  the  ninth  century. 

Gecko  {Gecko),  a  genus  of  saurian  reptiles, 
constituting  a  family,  Geekolidce,  which  some 
recent  naturalists  have  divided  into  many  genera. 
The  geckos  are  of  small  size,  and  generally  of 
repulsive  aspect;  the  colors  of  most  of  them  are 


Gecko  ( Platydactylus  homalocephalus) . 

1,  foot  of  P.  Cepedianus:  3,  foot  of  P.  Hasselquistii;  3,  foot 
of  P.  Leachianus;  4.  claw  of  Gymnodactylnspulchellus; 
5,  foot  of  Theeadactylus  theconyx;6,  foot  of  Gymno- 
dactylus  scaber. 

dull,  and  the  small  granular  scales  with  which 
they  are  covered  are  in  general  mingled  with 
tubercles.  The  legs  are  short,  the  gait  usually 


slow,  measured,  and  stealthy,  although  geckos 
can  also  run  nimbly  when  danger  presses. 

Gef'16,  an  important  town  of  Sweden,  chief 
town  of  the  lien  Gefleborg,  is  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Gefle,  on  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia,  about  100  miles  north-northwest  of 
Stockholm.  Pop.  (1878),  18,526. 

Gchen'na  is  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  Ge- 
hiniiom  (Valley  of  Hinnom),  or  Ge-ben-Hinnom 
(Valley  of  the  Son  of  Hinnom).  This  valley,  or 
rather  gorge — for  it  is  described  as  very  narrow, 
with  steep  and  rocky  sides — lies  south  and  west 
of  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  Here  Solomon  built  a 
high  place  for  Molech  (I.  Kings  xi,  7),  and,  in 
fact,  Gehenna  appears  to  have  become  a  favorite 
spot  with  the  later  Jewish  kings  for  the  cele¬ 
bration  of  idolatrous  rites.  It  was  here  that 
Ahaz  and  Manasseli  made  their  children  pass 
through  the  fire,  and  at  its  southeast  extremity, 
specifically  designated  Tophet  (place  of  burning), 
the  practice  of  infant  sacrifice  to  the  fire-gods 
was  not  unknown  (Jeremiah  vii,  31).  Among  the 
later  Jews,  Gehenna  and  Tophet  came  to  be  re¬ 
garded  as  symbols  of  hell  and  torment,  and  in 
this  sense  the  former  word  is  frequently  employed 
by  our  Saviour  in  the  New  Testament. 

Gela,  in  ancient  times  an  important  town  on 
the  southern  coast  of  Sicily,  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name.  It  was  founded  by  a  Rhodian  and 
Cretan  colony,  690  b.c. 

Gelatig'eiious  Tissues  and  Gel'atine.  The 

gelatigenous  tissues  are  substances  resembling  the 
proteine-bodies  (albumen,  fibrine,  and  caseine) 
in  containing  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen, oxygen, 
and  sulphur,  but  differing  from  them  in  contain¬ 
ing  more  nitrogen  and  less  carbon  and  sulphur. 
They  consist  of  two  principal  varieties — viz., 
those  which  yield  gluten  (or  ordinary  gelatine) 
and  those  which  yield  chondrine.  Isinglass, 
which  is  prepared  from  the  air-bladder  of  the 
sturgeon,  etc.,  when  boiled  with  water,  furnishes 
gluten  in  a  nearly  pure  state.  Glue  and  size  are 
two  well-known  forms  of  impure  gluten  or  gela¬ 
tine. 

Gel'atine,  in  Technology.  This  term,  although 
usually  applied  to  only  one  variety  of  the  sub¬ 
stance,  obtained  by  dissolving  the  soluble  portion 
of  the  gelatinous  tissues  of  animals,  nevertheless 
properly  belongs  also  to  isinglass  and  glue,  which 
are  modifications  of  the  same  material.  Gelatine 
and  glue  signify  the  more  or  less  pure  and  care¬ 
fully-prepared  jelly  of  mammalian  animals,  but 
the  term  isinglass  is  only  applied  to  certain 
gelatinous  parts  of  fishes,  which,  from  their  ex¬ 
ceeding  richness  in  gelatine,  are  usually  merely 
dried  and  used  without  any  other  preparation 
than  that  of  minute  division  for  the  purpose  of 
facilitating  their  action.  Gelatine  (proper)  is  pre¬ 
pared  for  commercial  purposes  from  a  variety  of 
animal  substances,  but  chiefly  from  the  softer 
parts  of  the  hides  of  oxen  and  calves  and  the 
skins  of  sheep,  such  as  the  thin  portion  which 
covers  the  belly,  the  ears,  etc.,  also  from  bones 
and  other  parts  of  animals. — Isinglass  (supposed 
to  be  derived  from  the  Ger.  hamenblase,  blad¬ 
der  of  the  sturgeon  i,  the  ichtliyocoUa  ( ichthns ,  a 
fish;  kolla,  glue)  of  the  classical  and  scientific 
writers,  was  formerly  obtained  only  from  the 
common  sturgeon  {accipenser  sturio),  and  con¬ 
sisted  of  the  dried  air-bladder  of  the  animal. 
The  necessities  of  modern  commerce  have  led  to 
the  discovery  that  the  same  part  in  many  other 
fishes  forms  good  isinglass. — Glue  differs  only 
from  gelatine  in  the  care  taken  in  its  manufac¬ 
ture,  and  in  the  selection  of  the  materials  from 
which  it  is  made;  almost  every  animal  substance 
will  yield  it,  hence  all  kinds  of  animal  refuse 
finds  its  way  to  the  glue-makers’  boilers. 

Gel'derland,  a  province  of  the  Netherlands,  is 
between  the  Zuider  Zee  and  the  Prussian  domin¬ 
ions.  Area,  1,948  square  miles.  Pop.  (1875), 
445,480. 

Geli'dimn,  a  genus  of  Alger  (sea-weeds),  of  the 
sub-order  Ceramiacece,  some  of  the  species  of 
which  afford  the  material  used  by  certain  species 
of  swallow  in  building  the  edible  nests  so  much 
prized  by  the  Chinese. 

Gelon,  “  tyrant”  of  Gela  and  Syracuse,  was 
the  son  of  Deinomenes,  and  was  a  native  of  the 
former  city. 

Gema'ra  (Ghemara,  a  Chaldee  word,  signifying 
,  compliment)  is  that  portion  of  the  two  Talinuds 


GEMINI. 


423 


GENRE-PAINTING. 


which  contains  the  annotations,  discussions,  and 
amplifications  of  the  Mishnah  by  the  academies 
of  Palestine  on  the  one  hand,  and  those  of  Baby¬ 
lon  on  the  other. 

Gem'ini  (the  twins),  the  third  constellation  in 
the  zodiac,  named  from  its  two  brightest  stars, 
Castor,  of  the  first  magnitude,  and  Pollux,  of  the 
second. 

Gemis'tus,  Giorgios,  called  Giorgios  Ple- 
thon,  and  more  commonly  Gemistus  Plethon, 
was  the  last  of  the  Byzantine  writers.  The  exact 
dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  uncertain,  but  he 
is  known  to  have  lived  between  1350  and  1450. 
He  was  probably  born  at  Constantinople,  but  the 
greater  part  of  his  life  was  passed  in  the  Pelo¬ 
ponnesus. 

Gems,  Ancient.  The  term  gem,  which  is  ap¬ 
plied  to  jewels  and  other  valuable  and  precious 
stones,  means,  in  archaeology,  engraved  stones  of 
the  precious  kinds,  and  even  small  engraved  por¬ 
tions  of  hard  and  primitive  rocks  which  have  been 
set  or  worn  as  jewels  by  the  ancients. 

Gems-boc  ( Antilope  oryx,  or  Oryx  gazella),  a 
species  of  antelope,  described  by  some  naturalists 
as  the  oryx,  but  which,  being  a  native  of  South 


Gems-boc  ( Antilope  oryx). 

Africa  only,  can  not  be  the  oryx  of  the  ancients, 
although  it  is  certainly  a  nearly  allied  species.  It 
is  a  heavy,  stout  animal,  about  the  size  of  a  stag. 

Gendarmes  (men-at-arms),  originally,  and  up 
to  the  time  of  the  first  French  Revolution,  the 
most  distinguished  cavalry  corps  in  the  service  of 
the  Bourbon  kings,  to  whom  they  formed  a  sort 
of  body-guard.  Under  existing  arrangements, 
the  gendarmes  constitute  a  military  police,  and 
comprise  both  cavalry  and  infantry. 

Gender  (Fr.  gendre,  from  Lat.  genus,  generis, 
race,  kind),  in  Grammar,  is  a  distinction  among 
words  depending  upon  sex.  Names  applied  to 
the  male  sex  are  said  to  be  of  the  masculine  gen¬ 
der,  as  man,  poet;  those  applied  to  the  female  sex 
feminine,  as  woman,  poetess;  words  that  are 
neither  masculine  nor  feminine  are,  as  it  was  ex¬ 
pressed  in  Latin,  neutrius  generis,  “of  neither 
gender;"  and  from  this  phrase  grammarians  have 
come  to  speak,  somewhat  incorrectly,  of  this  class 
of  words  as  being  “of  the  neuter  gender,”  and 
hence  to  reckon  three  genders.  In  English,  the 
distinction  of  gender  in  nouns  is  chiefly  marked 
in  the  pronouns  substituted  for  them — he,  she,  it. 
Gender,  strictly  speaking,  is  applicable  only  to 
living  beings  distinguishable  as  male  and  female; 
but  by  the  figure  of  speech  called  personification, 
inanimate  objects  are  often  spoken  of  as  he  and 
she.  In  Latin,  Sanskrit,  and  Greek  there  were 
objects  of  neutrius  generis.  But  the  Hebrew  and 
the  modern  Latin  derivative  languages  have  but 
two  classes  of  words — male  and  female. 

Geneal'ogy  (Lat.  and  Gr.  genealogia;  from  Gr. 
ysvol,  genos,  race,  and  A oyot,  logos,  discourse) 
is  the  name  applied  to  the  science  of  the  origin, 
sequence,  and  affinities  of  families. 

General  (of  religious  order),  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  the  supreme  head,  under  the 
Pope,  of  the  aggregated  communities  through¬ 
out  Christendom  belonging  to  a  religious  order. 

Generation,  Spontaneous.  From  the  earliest 
period  to  the  termination  of  the  middle  ages,  no 
one  called  in  question  the  doctrine  that,  under 


certain  favorable  conditions,  of  which  putrefac¬ 
tion  was  one  of  the  most  important,  animals 
might  be  produced  without  parents.  Redi,  the 
celebrated  Italian  naturalist,  whose  Experiments 
on  the  Generation  of  Insects  were  published  in 
1668,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  oppouent  that 
the  doctrine  of  spontaneous  generation  encount¬ 
ered,  and  from  the  time  of  Redi  to  the  present 
day,  the  tide  of  opinion  has  generally  turned 
strongly  against  the  doctrine  in  question.  The 
entozoa,  however,  continued  to  be  a  great  stum¬ 
bling-block.  The  recent  investigations  of  Von 
Siebold,  Kiichenmgister,  Van  Beneden,  Philippi, 
etc.,  regarding  the  development  and  metamor¬ 
phoses  of  the  entozoa,  have,  however,  tended  to 
remove  nearly  all  the  difficulties  which  this  sub¬ 
ject  presented;  and  the  advocates  of  spontaneous 
generation  are  fairly  beaten.  The  only  point  at 
present  in  dispute  is,  whether  microscopic  organ¬ 
isms  (animals  or  plants)  may  be  spontaneously 
generated;  A  well-known  experiment,  devised  by 
Professor  Schulze,  of  Berlin  (a  description  of 
which  may  be  found  in  Owen’s  Lectures  on  the 
Invertebrate  Animals,  2ded.,  p.  44),  shows  that 
with  due  precautions  in  reference  to  these  points, 
no  animal  or  vegetable  organisms  are  produced. 

Genesee',  a  river  -which  rises  about  ten  miles 
south  of  the  boundary  between  the  States  of  Penn¬ 
sylvania  and  New  York,  flows  north  through  the 
western  portion  of  the  latter  State,  and  after  a 
course  of  145  miles  falls  into  Lake  Ontario,  seven 
miles  north  of  the  city  of  Rochester.  Its  falls 
are  respectively  60,  90,  and  110  feet  high.  The 
other  two,  the  one  occurring  immediately  above 
Rochester,  and  the  other  about  three  miles  below 
that  city,  are  both  of  about  100  feet. 

Geneseo,  a  prosperous  agricultural  town  in 
Henry  county,  111.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Geneseo,  an  old  and  wealthy  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Livingston  county,  N.  Y.  Pop., 
2,000. 

Gen'esis,  or  more  fully  Genesis  Kosmou 
(origin,  generation  of  the  world),  is  the  name 
first  given  by  the  Septuagint  to  the  opening  book 
of  the  Pentateuch.  The  period  of  time  over 
which  the  Book  of  Genesis  extends  has  been  vari¬ 
ously  computed;  the  number  of  years  commonly 
assigned  to  it  is  about  2,300.  The  age  of  the 
world,  which,  according  to  the  Bible,  would  be 
6,000,  or  at  most,  between  7,000  and  8,000  years, 
its  creation  and  the  formation  of  the  whole  sys¬ 
tem  of  the  universe  in  six  days,  have  been  de¬ 
clared  by  astronomers  and  geologists  to  be  subjects 
on  which  information  must  be  sought  elsewhere 
than  in  the  Bible.  The  words  of  the  biblical 
record  themselves,  so  far  from  being  in  contra¬ 
diction  to  the  results  of  human  knowledge,  are 
said  to  convey,  if  not  directly,  yet  by  implication, 
all  that  science  more  plainly  teaches.  The  two 
principal  methods  of  reconciliation  advanced  are 
those  of  Doctor  Buckland  and  Hugh  Miller.  The 
question  whether  Moses  really  was  the  author  or 
compiler  of  Genesis  has  been  negatived  by  some, 
chiefly  on  the  ground  that  certain  apparently 
obsolete  names  mentioned  are  explained  by  others 
which  first  came  into  use  at  a  much  later  time, 
and  that  there  are  allusions  made  to  events  wrhich 
happened  centuries  after  Moses.  Graves,  Faber, 
Rosenmuller,  and  others,  consider  such  passages 
to  be  late  additions 

Gen'et  ( Genetta ),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
family  Viverridce,  nearly  allied  to  the  civets,  but 


having  only  a  rudimentary  odoriferous  pouch. 
Genet  (G.  vulgaris)  is  found  in  the  South  of 
Europe,  as  well  as  throughout  Africa.  It  is  gray, 


with  small  round  or  oblong  black  or  brown 
spots;  the  tail,  which  is  as  long  as  the  body,  is 
ringed  with  black  and  white.  It  frequents  the 
banks  of  brooks. 

Gene'va  (Fr.  Geneve,  Ger.  Genf  Ital.  Gincvra), 
the  most  populous  and  flourishing  ^town  of 
Switzerland,  capital  of  the  canton  of  the  same 
name,  is  situated  on  the  southern  extremity  of 
the  Lake  of  Geneva,  seventy  miles  northeast 
from  Lyons,  in  France.  Pop.,  68,320. 

Geneva,  a  canton  of  Switzerland,  in  the  south¬ 
west  of  that  country,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Canton  of  Yaud  and  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  and 
on  the  south,  east,  and  west  by  the  territories  of 
France.  It  has  an  area  of  109  square  miles,  and 
in  1880  it  had  a  pop.  of  101,595,  of  whom  51,500 
were  Catholics. 

Geneva,  a  village  in  the  State  of  New  York,  is 
situated  at  the  northwestern  extremity  of  Seneca 
Lake,  200  miles  west  of  Albany,  and  fifty  miles 
southeast  of  Rochester.  Pop.,  6,500. 

Geneva,  a  promising  agricultural  town,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Fillmore  county,  Neb.  Pop., 
800. 

Geneva,  a  town  on  the  Choctowhatcliee  river, 
is  the  county  seat  of  Geneva  county,  Ala.  Pop., 
500. 

Geneva,  a  growing  agricultural  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Kane  county,  Ill.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Geneva,  Lake  of,  or  the  Leman  Lake  ( Locus 
Lemanus),  situated  between  Switzerland,  to  which 
the  larger  portion  belongs,  and  the  recently  ac¬ 
quired  territories  of  France.  It  lies  1,150  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  extends  for  rather 
more  than  fifty  miles  from  east  to  west,  in  the 
form  of  a  crescent.  Its  greatest  breadth  is  8  miles, 
and  its  depth  between  Evian  and  Oucliy  is  920 
feet. 

Genevieve,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  subject  of  many  popular  and  highly 
poetical  legends,  and  regarded  with  special  venera¬ 
tion  in  France  and  particularly  in  Paris,  of  which 
city  she  is  the  patroness. 

Genghis  (Jengueiz,  Tchinggis,  orZingis)  Khan, 
originally  called  Temujin,  a  celebrated1  Mongol 
conqueror,  born  Jan.  25,  1155  a.d.;  died  in  1227. 

Gen'ipap,  a  much  esteemed  fruit  of  the  West 
Indies  and  warm  parts  of  South  America.  The 
tree  which  yields  it  is  Genipa  americana ,  of  the 
natural  order  Ginchonacew. 

Genis'ta,  a  genus  of  leguminous  plants.  Some 
of  the  species  are  popularly  known  by  the  name 
broom,  some  as  greenweed,  petty  whin,  and 
needle  furze. 

Genlis,  Stephanie  Felicite,  Comtesse  de, 
French  authoress,  was  born  at  Champ9eri,  near 
Autun,  in  Burgundy,  Jan.  25,  1746.  Madame 
de  Genii’s  writings  amount  to  about  ninety  vol¬ 
umes.  She  died  in  1830. 

Gennes 'aret,  Sea  of,  called  also  in  the  New 
Testament,  The  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  The  Sea  of  Ti¬ 
berias  (from  the  city  of  Tiberias),  and  in  the  Old 
Testament  The  Sea  of  Chinnereth  or  Ginneroth, 
from  an  ancient  town  of  that  name  situated  on’  or 
near  its  shores.  The  Sea,  or  rather,  Lake  of 
Gennesaret,  is  about  13  miles  long  and  6  broad. 
It  lies  in  the  bottom  of  a  great  basin,  and  is  un¬ 
doubtedly  of  volcanic  origin. 

Gen'oii  (Ital.  Genova,  Fr.  Genes,  anciently, 
Genua),  a  city  of  Italy,  situated  on  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  gulf  of  the  same  name,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Apennines,  seventy-nine  miles  southeast  of 
Turin,  is  the  capital  of  a  province,  and  a  very 
important  seaport.  Latitude  of  light-house,  44° 
24'  18"  N.,  longitude  8°  54'  24"  E.  The  pop. 
of  the  town  of  Genoa,  in  1881,  was  138,081;  of 
the  commune,  179,515;  while  the  pop.  of  the 
Province  of  Genoa  was  760,809. 

Genoa,  Gulf  of,  a  large  indentation  in  the 
northern  shore  of  the  .Mediterranean,  north  of 
Corsica,  may  be  said  to  have  the  shape  of  a  bay, 
rather  than  that  of  a  gulf.  The  towns  of  Oneglia 
on  the  west,  and  Spezia  on  the  east,  seem  to  indi¬ 
cate  the  points  at  which  the  entrance  of  the  gulf 
commences.  With  this  entrance  the  Gulf  of  Gen¬ 
oa  would  extend  90  miles  across,  and  30  miles 
inland. 

Genoa,  the  county  seat  of  Douglas  county, 
Nev.  Pop.,  313. 

Genre-painting,  a  term  derived  from  the 
French  genre  (kind,  sort),  originally  employed  to 
distinguish  any  special  branch  of  painting,  as 


GENS. 


424 


GEORGE  III. 


genre  lustorique  (historic  painting),  genre  du  pay- 
sage  (landscape  painting),  etc. 

Gens  (allied  to  Lat.  genus,  Eng.  kin;  from  the 
root  gen-,  to  beget  or  produce),  signifies,  properly, 
a  race  or  lineage.  From  it  our  own  words  gen¬ 
tleman,  gentility,  etc.,  have  come  to  us  through 
the  French  gentilhomme.  By  the  Romans  it  was 
sometimes  used  to  designate  a  whole  community, 
In  this  sense  we  hear  of  the  gens  Latinorum, 
campanorum,  etc. 

Gen'seric,  King  of  the  Vandals,  was  an  ille¬ 
gitimate  son  of  Godigiselus,  who  led  the  Vandals 
into  Spain,  and  was  horn  about  406.  After  the 
death  of  his  brother  Gonderic,  Genseric  became 
sole  ruler.  In  429  he  invaded  Africa  on  the 
invitation  of  Count  Boniface,  Viceroy  of  Valen- 
tinian  TII.,  Emperor  of  the  West,  who  had  been 
goaded  on  to  rebellion  through  the  machinations 
of  his  rival  Aetius,  the  conqueror  of  Attila. 
Genseric’s  army  at  first  amounted  to  50,000  war¬ 
riors,  full  of  barbarian  valor,  and  hungry  for 
conquest  and  plunder.  As  thev  swept  along 
through  Mauritania,  the  Kabyle*  mountaineers, 
and  the  Donatist  heretics,  maddened  by  persecu¬ 
tion  and  fanaticism,  swelled  the  terrible  horde, 
and  more  than  equaled  their  savage  associates  in 
acts  of  cruelty  and  bloodthirstiness.  All  Africa 
west  of  Carthage  fell  into  the  hands  of  Genseric, 
who  shortly  after  seized  that  city  itself,  and  made 
it  (439  a.d.)  the  capital  of  his  new  dominions. 
Part  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica  was  likewise 
taken  possession  of  by  him.  In  the  year  451  he 
encouraged  Attila  to  undertake  his  great  but  fatal 
expedition  against  Gaul.  Genseric  died  in  477,  in 
the  possession  of  all  his  conquests,  leaving  behind 
him  the  reputation  of  being  the  greatest  of  the 
Vandal  kings. 

Geu'tian  ( Gentiana),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Gentianacece,  with  five-cleft — some¬ 
times  four-cleft — calyx,  and  one-celled  cap¬ 
sule.  The  species  are  numerous,  natives  of  tem- 
jjerate  parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America, 
many  of  them  growing  in  high  mountain 
pastures  and  meadows,  which  they  adorn  by 
their  beautiful  blue  or  yellow  flowers.  Gen- 


Common  Gentian. 

a,  capsule;  b,  capsule  cut  across;  c,  vertical  section  of 
seed,  magnified. 

tian  root  has  been  examined  by  various  chem¬ 
ists,  its  constituents  are  not  very  clearly  known; 
it  contains,  however,  (1),  an  oil  in  small  quantity; 
(2),  a  pale  yellow  crystalline  matter,  termed  gen- 
tisin  or  gentisic  acid;  (31,  a  bitter  principle,  gen- 
tianite,  on  which  its  medicinal  properties  mainly 
depend;  (4),  pectin  or  pectic  acid,  which  proba¬ 
bly  causes  the  gelatinization  that  sometimes  oc¬ 
curs  in  infusion  of  Geutian;  and  (5)  sugar,  in 
consequence  of  which  an  infusion  is  capable  of 
undergoing  vinous  fermentation,  and  of  forming 
the  “bitter  snaps”  or  “  engiangeist  ”  which  is 
much  employed  by  the  peasants  on  the  Swiss 
Alps,  to  fortify  the  system  against  fogs  and 
damps.  Gentian  is  a  highly  valued  medicine,  a 
simple  tonic  bitter  without  astringency,  and  is 
much  used  in  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs,  and 
sometimes  as  an  anthelmintic.  Of  North  Ameri¬ 
can  species,  O.  crinita  is  particularly  cele¬ 
brated  for  the  beauty  of  its  flowers,  which  are 
large,  blue,  and  fringed  on  the  margin. 


Gentiana  'cete,  or  Gentiane.e,  a  natural  order 
of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  chiefly  of  herba¬ 
ceous  plants,  but  containing  also  a  few  small 
shrubs.  They  are  natives  both  of  warm  and 
cold  climates,  but  rather  of  elevated  regions  in 
the  torrid  and  temperate  zones  than  of  cold 
regions  near  the  poles. 

Gentianel  'la,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the 
small-flowered  or  autumnal  gentian  ( Gentiana 
amarella),  but  more  commonly  to  the  species  of 
Cicendia;  another  genus  of  the  order  Gentianacece . 

Ge'nus  (Lat.  a  kind)  in  Natural  History,  a 
group  of  species,  closely  connected  by  common 
characters  or  natural  affinity.  In  all  branches  of 
zoology  and  botany,  the  name  of  the  genus  forms 
the  first  part  of  the  scientific  name  of  each  species, 
and  is  followed  by  a  second  word— either  an 
adjective  or  substantive — which  distinguishes  the 
particular  species.  Thus,  in  Solanum  tuberosum 
(the  potato),  Solanum  is  the  generic,  and  tubero¬ 
sum  the  specific  (sometimes  styled  the  trivial) 
name. 

Geocen'tric  means  having  the  earth  for  center; 
thus  the  moon’s  motions  arc  geocentric.  The 
geocentric  latitude  of  a  planet  is  the  inclination 
to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  of  a  Hue  connecting  it 
and  the  earth ;  the  geocentric  longitude  being  the 
distance  measured  on  the  ecliptic  from  the  first 
point  of  Aries  of  the  point  in  the  ecliptic  to  which 
the  planet  as  seen  from  the  earth  is  referred. 

Ge'odes  (Gr.  yeodoi,  earthy)  are  rounded,  hol¬ 
low  concretions,  or  indurated  nodules,  either 
empty  or  containing  a  more  or  less  solid  and  free 
nucleus,  and  having  the  cavity  frequently  lined 
with  crystals. 

Geod'esy,  the  science  of  the  measurement  of 
the  earth’s  surface,  and  of  great  portions  of  it. 
Geodesy  has  many  physical  difficulties  to  contend 
against.  In  the  use  of  rods,  it  is  difficult  to  lay 
them  all  precisely  in  the  same  direction,  and  to 
prevent  error  arising  from  intervals  between  the 
rods.  In  the  use  of  chains,  again,  the  greatest 
care  is  needed  to  keep  all  the  links  stretched, 
while  the  difficulty  of  avoiding  error  through  not 
preserving  the  line  of  direction  is  but  little  dimin¬ 
ished.  Further,  in  all  cases,  the  tendency  of  the 
units  to  change  magnitude  with  changes  of  tem¬ 
perature,  anil  the  unevenness  of  the  earth’s  sur¬ 
face,  are  pregnant  sources  of  error.  After  all 
these  difficulties  have  been  overcome,  and  a 
sufficient  base  line  obtained,  a  new  class  of  diffi¬ 
culties  are  encountered.  In  taking  trigonometri 
cal  observations  of  distant  objects,  it  is  found  that 
the  three  angles  of  any  triangle  which  we  may 
form  are  together  in  excess  of  two  right  angles; 
the  angles  are,  in  fact,  more  of  the  nature  of 
spherical  than  plane  angles.  For  this,  in  using 
the  angles  as  plane  angles  (for  greater  simplicity), 
a  correction  has  to  be  made.  Further,  a  cor¬ 
rection  is  required  for  the  effect  of  horizontal 
refraction  on  the  results  of  observations  on  dis¬ 
tant  objects — a  most  fluctuating  source  of  error — 
to  evade  which,  as  far  as  possible,  it  is  usual  to 
make  observations  when  the  atmosphere  has  been 
for  some  time  undisturbed.  See  Puissant’s  work 
on  Geodesy. 

Geog'rapliy  (Gr.  F >'/,  ge,  the  earth,  ypdepeiv, 
graphein,  to  write  or  describe)  is,  as  its  name 
implies,  a  description  of  the  earth.  This  science 
is  best  considered  under  the  three  distinct 
heads  of  mathematical  or  astronomical  geog¬ 
raphy,  physical  geography,  and  political  geog¬ 
raphy,  which  all  admit  of  further  subdivision 
into  numerous  subsidiary  branches,  mathematical 
or  astronomical  geography  describes  the  earth  in 
its  planetary  relations  as  a  member  of  the  solar 
system,  influencing  and  influenced  by  other  cos- 
mical  bodies.  Physical  geography,  as  the  name 
indicates,  considers  the  earth  in  its  relation  to 
nature  and  natural  or  physical  laws  only.  It 
describes  the  earth,  air,  and  water,  and  the 
organized  beings,  whether  animal  or  vegetable, 
by  which  those  elements  are  occupied,  and  con¬ 
siders  the  history,  extent,  mode,  and  causes  of 
the  distribution  of  these  beings.  Political  geog¬ 
raphy  has  been  defined  as  “including  all  those 
facts  which  are  the  immediate  consequences  of 
the  operations  of  man,  exercised  either  on  the 
raw  materials  of  the  earth,  or  on  the  means  of 
his  intercourse  with  his  fellow-creatures.” 

Geol'ogy  (Gr.  r?},  ge,  and  Xdyoi,  logos),  the 
science  of  the  earth,  has  a  meaning  confined 


usually  to  that  section  of  the  sciences  which  takes 
cognizance  of  the  hard  crust  of  the  earth — of  the 
materials  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  of  the 
manner  in  which  these  materials  are  arranged. 
Geology,  in  its  restricted  and  usual  sense,  takes 
cognizance  of  the  solid  substance  of  the  earth,  or 
rather  of  as  much  of  it  as  is  accessible  to  man’s 
observation.  He  has  not,  by  his  own  efforts, 
penetrated  at  any  point  more  than  a  few  hundred 
yards  from  the  surface;  but  natural  sections,  and 
the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  stratified  rocks 
(the  key  to  which  he  has  to  some  extent  obtained) 
have  given  him  an  acquaintance  with  a  greater 
thickness  than  could  have  resulted  from  his  own 
labors.  He  has  thus  by  actual  observations, 
coupled  with  reasonings  upon  them,  been  able  to 
construct  an  ideal  section  representing  a  depth  of 
perhaps  ten  miles,  or  about  part  of  the  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  surface  to  the  center.  The 
long  entertained  opinion  of  the  existence  of 
a  central  heat  seems  to  be  on  the  whole  fairly 
established,  and  upon  such  facts  as  these:  1. 
There  is  a  regular  and  gradual  increase  in  the 
temperature  of  all  deepunines,  equal  to  1°  F.  for 
every  55  feet  of  descent  after  the  first  100.  2. 
Deep  wells  have  always  a  high  temperature.  Hot 
or  boiling  natural  springs  rise  through  great  and 
deep  fissures.  3.  Igneous  rocks — that  is  to  say, 
rocks  which  have  cooled  from  a  state  of  fusion  by 
heat — invariably  come  from  below  upward,  and 
thus  testify  to  an  amount  of  internal  heat  able 
either  to  retain  these  rocks  in  a  state  of  fusion,  or 
to  convert  them  into  a  fluid  condition  before  their 
ejection. 

Geometrical  Mean  of  two  numbers  is  that 
number  the  square  of  which  is  equal  to  the  pro¬ 
duct  of  the  two  numbers;  thus,  the  geometrical 
mean  of  9  and  16  is  12,  for  9  x  16  =  144  =  122; 
hence  the  geometrical  mean  of  two  numbers  is 
found  by  multiplying  the  two  numbers  together, 
and  extracting  the  square  root  of  the  product. 

Geometrical  Progression.  A  series  of  quan¬ 
tities  are  said  to  be  in  geometrical  progression 
when  each  term  of  the  series  is  equal  to  that 
which  precedes  it  multiplied  by  some  constant 
factor — i.  e. ,  some  factor  which  is  the  same  for 
all  the  terms;  or,  in  other  words,  when  the  ratio 
of  any  two  successive  terms  is  the  same.  Thus, 
a,  ar,  ar‘,  ar1.  .and  2,  6,  18,  54. .  are  geometrical 
series. 

Geom'etry,  the  science  of  space,  discusses 
and  investigates  the  properties  of  definite  por¬ 
tions  of  space  under  the  fourfold  division  of 
lines,  angles,  surfaces,  and  volumes,  without  re¬ 
gard  to  any  physical  properties  which  they  may 
have.  It  has  various  divisions — e.  g.,  plane  and 
solid  geometry,  analytical  or  algebraical  geom¬ 
etry,  descriptive  geometry,  and  the  higher  geom¬ 
etry. 

George  I.,  King  of  Great  Britain,  son  of  Ernst 
August,  Elector  of  Hanover,  and  of  Sophia,  a 
granddaughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  was  born 
May  28,  1660.  On  the  death  of  Queen  Anne, 
July  31,  1714,  he  was  proclaimed  King.  During 
his  reign  the  Stuarts  made  an  attempt  to  recover 
the  crown,  but  failed.  He  died  June  11,  1727. 

George  II.  succeeded  his  father  as  King  of 
England  in  the  forty-fifth  year  of  his  age.  He 
was  born  at  Hanover  on  Oct.  30,  1683,  and  mar¬ 
ried  Carolina  Wilhelmina,  daughter  of  the  Mark- 
graf  of  Auspach.  George  II.  died  Oct.  25,  1760, 
in  the  seventy-seventh  year  of  his  age,  and  the 
thirty-fourth  of  his  reign.  Generally,  the  reign  of 
George  II.  was  a  prosperous  one;  according  to 
Hallam,  “the  most  prosperous  period  that  Eng¬ 
land  had  ever  known;  ”  and  it  was  this  not  less 
from  the  acquisition  of  new  territory,  than  from 
the  conquest  of  new  fields  of  thought  effected  by 
Pope,  Hume,  Samuel  Johnson,  Fielding,  Smol¬ 
lett,  Reynolds,  Hogarth,  and  many  others. 

George  III.,  son  of  Frederick  Lewis,  Prince 
of  Wales,  succeeded  his  grandfather,  George  II. 
He  was  born  June  4,  1738,  and  died  at  Windsor 
Castle,  Jan.  29,  1820,  in  the  sixtieth  year  of  his 
reign,  which  was  eventful  as  well  as  long.  On 
Sept.  8,  1761,  he  married  the  Princess  Charlotte 
Sophia,  daughter  of  Charles,  Duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz,  and  was  by  her  the  father  ot  fifteen 
children.  His  mind  gave  way  several  times — in 
1764,  in  1788,  in  1801,  in  1804;  and  in  1810,  when 
the  British  were  fighting  behind  the  lines  of  Torres 
Vedras,  his  final  insanity  supervened.  His  life 


GEORGE  IV. 


425 


GERIIARDT. 


was  attempted  by  the  maniacs  Margaret  Nicol- 
son  and  Hatfield.  Nor  were  matters  of  national 
excitement  and  magnitude  awanting.  A  bill,  im¬ 
posing  certain  stamp-duties  upon  the  American 
Colonies,  which  had  been  resolved  to  be  inex¬ 
pedient  in  1764,  was  passed  in  March,  1765,  and 
repealed  in  1766  by  the  Marquis  of  Rockingham’s 
ministry;  and  in  1767  the  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer,  Mr.  Townshend,  brought  forward  a 
plan  for  the  taxation  of  these  colonies,  which  led 
to  their  revolt,  the  colonists  objecting  to  be  taxed 
by  a  Parliament  in  which  they  were  not  repre¬ 
sented.  In  1770  Lord  North,  the  Premier,  brought 
in  a  bill  for  the  repeal  of  all  the  recently  imposed 
American  duties,  except  the  duty  on  tea,  which 
was  retained,  to  assert  the  English  right  to  impose 
taxes  on  these  colonies.  In  December,  1773, 
“Boston  harbor  is  black  with  unexpected  tea,” 
cargoes  of  it  being  destroyed  by  the  aroused 
Colonists;  and  on  April  19, 1775,  hostilities  com¬ 
menced  with  the  indecisive  Battle  of  Lexington, 
which,  on  June  16th,  was  followed  by  that  of  Bun 
ker’s  Hill,  which  was  a  victory  to  the  colonists,  and 
helped  to  give  them  boldness  to  renounce  the 
dominion  of  Great  Britain,  and  publish  the  Dec¬ 
laration  of  Independence  on  July  4, 1776.  George 
AVashington,  a  colonel  of  militia,  who  had  been 
appointed  general  of  the  insurgent  colonists,  took 
possession  of  Boston  in  that  year,  having  com¬ 
pelled  General  Howe  and  the  British  troops  to 
retire,  and  next  year  he  gained  an  important 
advantage  by  the  capture  of  Burgoyne’s  army  of 
10,000  fine  troops,  British  and  German.  The 
French,  Spanish,  and  Dutch  all  threw  their  weight 
into  the  American  scale,  and  the  chequered  but 
successful  struggle  ended  in  America  by  the  sur¬ 
render  of  Lord  Cornwallis,  with  a  British  army 
of  6.000,  to  AVashington  and  the  Marquis  de  la 
Fayette.  At  Versailles,  on  Sept.  3,  1783,  a  peace 
was  concluded  with  France  and  Spain,  in  which 
the  independence  of  the  American  States  was 
recognized.  Meanwhile,  the  British  rule  in  India 
was  consolida'ed,  and  this  was  effected  in  no  insig¬ 
nificant  degree  under  the  Governor-Generalship  of 
"Warren  Hastings,  a  most  able  but  unscrupulous 
man.  The  after  swell  of  the  French  Revolution 
broke  over  all  the  Continent  of  Europe  in  wave 
after  wave  of  war.  The  aversion  of  Britain  to  the 
democracy  of  France  was  not  concealed,  and  in 
1793,  a  few  days  after  the  execution  of  their  King, 
the  French  declared  war  against  Britain  In  tlie 
confused  warfare  that  followed,  the  English, 
under  Lord  Howe,  in  1794,  defeated  the  French 
fleet  in  the  Channel;  under  Sir  John  Jervis  they 
defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  off  Cape  St.  Vincent  in 
1797;  and  also  in  that  year,  under  Lord  Duncan, 
they  defeated  the  Dutch  off  Camperdown;  and  in 
1798  Nelson  was  victorious  on  the  Nile  over  the 
French  fleet  that  had  conveyed  Napoleon  Bona¬ 
parte  and  his  troops  to  Egypt.  In  1801  he  bom¬ 
barded  Copenhagen,  and  partially  destroyed  the 
Danish  fleet;  and  the  forces  under  Sir  Ralph  Aber- 
cromby — who  was  mortally  wounded — gained  the 
victory  of  Alexandria  over  the  troops  which 
Napoleon  had  left  in  Egypt  to  menace  the  power 
of  Britain  in  the  East.  On  March  25,  1802,  the 
treaty  of  peace  of  Amiens  was  signed,  but,  within 
a  year  hostilities  were  renewed.  In  1803,  Han¬ 
over  was  occupied  by  the  French.  On  Oct.  21, 
1805,  Nelson  lost  his  life  and  gained  his  greatest 
victory  of  Trafalgar  over  the  French  and  Spanish 
fleets.  Napoleon’s  splendid  victory  of  Austerlitz 
over  the  Austrians  and  Russians,  December,  1805, 
was  survived  only  a  few  weeks  by  the  great 
statesman  Pitt,  whose  breaking  heart  and  consti¬ 
tution  could  not  sustain  the  shock  of  this  last  dis- 1 
appointment.  Napoleon’s  Berlin  decree  of  1806, 
and  his  Milan  decree  of  1807,  declaring  the 
British  dominions  in  a  state  of  blockade  on  pur¬ 
pose  to  destroy  British  commerce,  were  not  sup¬ 
ported  by  a  sufficient  navy  to  carry  them  into  exe¬ 
cution  by  capturing  vessels  trading  with  Britain; 
but  they  did  no  inconsiderable  damage.  In  1808 
Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  landed  in  Portugal,  and 
defeated  the  French  at  Vimieira;  but  the  advan¬ 
tage  of  this  victory  was  thrown  away  in  the  Con¬ 
vention  of  Cintra.  The  retreat,  four  months 
after,  to  Corunna,  of  the  English  army  under  Sir 
John  Moore,  and  its  safe  embarkation  in  January, 
1809,  followed.  In  April  of  that  year,  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley  returned  to  the  command  in  the  Penin¬ 
sula,  and  after  conquering  at  Talavera  on  .1  uly  8th, 


wearing  out  the  powers  of  the  assailing  French 
behind  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras  during  the  last 
months  of  1810,  and  conquering  at  Fuentes  de 
Onoro  in  1811,  at  Salamanca  in  1812,  j)t  Vittoria 
in  1813  (as  Lord  Wellington),  and  in  other  battles 
and  sieges,  he  drove  the  French  out  of  the  Penin¬ 
sula.  The  struggle  was  terminated  on  the  field 
of  Waterloo,  June  18,  1815.  On  Jan.  1,  1801, 
Ireland  was  united  to  Great  Britain,  and  its  sepa¬ 
rate  legislation  was  abolished. 

George  IV.  became  King  of  Great  Britain  on 
his  father’s  death.  He  had  been  virtual  Sovereign 
during  the  long  period  of  his  father’s  last  insanity, 
as  Prince  Regent.  He  was  born  Aug.  12,  1762, 
and  died  June  26, 1830.  The  marriage  of  George 
IV.  was  specially  unfortunate.  He  entered  into 
it  April  8,  1794,  with  his  cousin,  Caroline  Amelia 
Elizabeth,  second  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Bruns¬ 
wick, under  the  pressure  of  debt,  and  of  his  father, 
and  their  conjugal  happiness,  if  it  ever  existed, 
did  not  last  many  weeks.  The  Princess  Charlotte 
Augusta  was  born  of  the  marriage,  Jan.  7,  1796, 
and  shortly  after  her  parents  separated,  having 
ceased  to  speak  to  each  other  months  before.  In 
1819  the  King  made  an  attempt,  by  the  use  of 
forged  testimony,  to  convict  his  wife  of  adultery, 
but  failed.  The  Princess  Charlotte  had  married 
Prince  Leopold,  afterward  King  of  Belgium,  and 
she  died  in  childbed,  Nov.  6,  1817,  greatly  to  the 
grief  of  the  whole  nation.  George  IV.  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  his  brother  William. 

George,  Henry,  a  writer  on  economic  subjects, 
and  advocate  of  the  “single-tax”  as  a  panacea  for 
all  social  difficulties,  was  born  in  Philadelphia, 
Sept.  2,  1839.  He  became  an  editor  in  San  Fran¬ 
cisco  and  published  Progress  and  Poverty  and 
other  works,  lecturing  also  in  the  United  States 
and  England  on  labor  problems.  In  1886  he  was 
the  Labor  candidate  for  mayor  of  New  York,  but 
was  defeated. 

George,  Lake,  called  also  Horicon,  lies  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  and  measures  34  miles  by  3. 
It  discharges  its  waters  into  Lake  Champlain,  thus 
forming  a  part  of  the  grand  system  of  the  St. 
Lawrence.  It  is,  in  some  places,  400  feet  deep. 
It  possesses  some  historical  interest  in  connection 
with  the  North  American  wars  between  England 
and  France. 

George,  St.,  one  of  the  Bermudas,  is  strongly 
fortified,  and  forms  the  principal  depot  in  the 
group  for  military  purposes.  Oil  the  south  coast 
is  a  town  of  its  own  name,  which  has  a  large  har¬ 
bor  of  considerable  strength. 

George,  St.,  a  saint  venerated  both  in  the 
Eastern  and  Western  churches,  held  in  especial 
veneration  as  the  patron  of  chivalry,  and  adopted 
as  the  tutelary  saint  of  England.  His  origin  is 
extremely  obscure. 

George's  Channel,  St.,  is  the  name  applied  to 
the  south  portion  of  that  arm  of  the  Atlantic  which 
separates  Ireland  from  Great  Britain. 

Georgetown,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  is  situated  on  a  range  of 
hills,  the  highest  of  which  are  denominated  the 
Heights,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Potomac,  two 
miles  northwest  of  Washington.  Pop.  (1880), 
12,578. 

Georgetoivn,  the  county  seat  of  Brown  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Georgetown,  an  important  mining  center,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Clear  Creek  county,  Col. 
Pop.,  3,301. 

Georgetown,  the  county  seat  of  Georgetown 
county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  2.557. 

Georgetown,  an  important  cotton-shipping 
point  on  the  Chattahooclie  river,  and  the  county 
seat  of  Quitman  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  300. 

Georgetown,  the  county  seat  of  Scott  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Georgetown,  the  county  seat  of  Sussex  county, 
Del.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Georgetown,  a  growing  agricultural  town  and 
the  county  seat  of  Williamson  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  2,000. 

Georgetown  (Dutch,  Stabroek),  the  capital  of 
British  Guiana,  is  situated  at  the  mouth,  and  on 
the  right  or  eastern  shore  of  the  River  Demerara, 
in  latitude  6°  49'  20"  N.,  and  longitude  58°  11' 
30"  W.  Pop.,  about  40,000,  of  whom  about  35,- 
000  are  negroes. 

Geor  'gia,  Gulf  of,  an  arm  of  the  North  Pacific 


Ocean,  between  Vancouver’s  Island  and  the  main¬ 
land  of  British  Columbia. 

Georgia,  an  Atlantic  State  of  the  Union,  and 
one  of  the  thirteen  original  States,  extends  in  lati¬ 
tude  from  30°  21 '  to  35°  N.,  and  in  longitude  from 
80°  48 '  to  85a  40 '  W.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
and  northeast  by  the  States  of  Tennessee,  North 
Carolina,  and  South  Carolina;  on  the  west  by  Ala¬ 
bama;  and  on  the  south  by  Florida.  Its  extreme 
length  from  north  to  south  is  320  miles;  and  its 
greatest  breadth  from  east  to  west  is  254  miles. 
Its  area  is  59,475  square  miles.  The  pop.  is 
1,542,180,  of  whom  816,906  are  white,  and  725,133 
colored  (including  94  Indians).  The  State  debt, 
in  1880,  was  $9,951,500.  Georgia  sends  nine 
members  to  Congress.  Only  about  a  fifth  of  the 
entire  area  of  the  State  is  under  cultivation;  but, 
owing  to  the  diversity  of  climate  and  soil,  the 
productions  are  wonderful  in  their  variety.  The 
islands  that  fringe  the  coast  are  fertile  in  cotton 
of  a  superior  quality;  the  bottom-lands  of  the  great 
rivers  produce  rice,  cotton,  Indian  corn,  and  sugar; 
further  west  are  the  “  pine  barrens,”  valuable  for 
their  timber,  and  easily  cultivable;  the  centi'al 
region  consists  of  a  loamy  soil,  once  productive, 
but  now  impoverished;  and  the  north,  the  Chero¬ 
kee  country,  contains  lands  which,  although  long 
worked  by  the  Indians,  still  produce  from  fifty  to 
seventy-six  bushels  of  grain  to  the  acre.  In  1880 
Georgia  was  second  to  Mississippi  alone  in  pro¬ 
ducing  cotton.  Gold,  though  now  in  very  small 
quantity,  is  found;  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead, 
marble,  and  precious  stones  also  occur.  The  State 
is  divided  into  136  counties,  and  the  chief  towns 
are  Atlanta  (the  capital).  Savannah,  Macon,  and 
Augusta.  It  was  colonized  in  1733.  Having  joined 
in  the  Civil  War,  and  shared  the  defeat,  it  was 
readmitted  into  the  Union  in  1870. 

Georgia,  the  name  formerly  applied  to  the 
central  portion  of  what  is  now  Russian  Trans¬ 
caucasia. 

Geoteu  'this,  a  genus  of  fossil  calamaries,  pecul¬ 
iar  to  the  oolitic  period.  The  shell  or  horny  pen 
is  broad  and  truncated  in  front,  and  pointed 
behind,  with  the  lateral  wings  shorter  than  the 
shaft.  They  secreted  a  coloring  matter  which 
has  been  made  into  Sepia. 

Gera 'mum,  a  genus  of  exogenous  plants,  the 
type  of  the  natural  order  Geraniacea,  the  limits  of 
which  correspond  with  those  of  the  Linmean 


c  Geranium;  5,  Pelargonium;  c.  Herb  Robert 

(Geranium  Robertianum)  ■ 


genus.  This  order  contains  at  least  500  known 
species,  very  unequally  distributed  over  the 
world,  and  particularly  abounding  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope;  of  which  country  most  of  the  species 
of  the  large  genus  Pelargonium  are  natives. 
Many  species  of  Pelargonium,  and  many  fine 
hybrids  and  varieties  produced  by  cultivation,  are 
grown. 

Ge'rard,  Etienne-Maurice,  Comte,  Marshal 
of  France,  was  born  at  Damvilliers,  in  Lorraine, 
April  4,  1773.  He  enrolled  as  a  volunteer  in 
the  second  battalion  of  the  Meuse,  and  fought 
through  all  Napoleon’s  campaigns,  rising  to  the 
rank  of  General  of  Division.  After  the  Restora¬ 
tion  he  was  made  Marshal  of  France.  He  died 
April  17,  1855. 

Gerard,  Francois  Pascal,  Baron,  one  of  the 
first  historical  and  portrait  painters  of  the  modern 
French  school,  was  born  at  Rome,  March  11, 1770, 
and  died  at  Paris,  Jan.  11,  1837. 

Gerliardt,  Karl  Friedrich,  an  eminent 


GERMAN  CATHOLICS. 


426 


GESTATION. 


chemist,  was  born  at  Strasburg,  Aug.  21,  1816, 
and  died  in  that  city  Aug.  19,  1856. 

German  Catholics  is  the  name  generally  given 
to  a  religious  sect  that  has  recently  sprung  up  in 
Germany  in  the  bosom  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Though  retaining  the  designation  Catho¬ 
lic — i.  e.,  universal — they  lorm  independent  con¬ 
gregations,  and  most  commonly  style  themselves 
Christian  Catholics.  So  far  as  their  general 
principles  are  concerned,  the  German  Catholics 
stand  upon  Protestant  ground;  but  neither  in 
theory  nor  practice  are  they  evangelical  Protest¬ 
ants. 

German  Silver,  the  name  given  to  an  alloy 
formed  of  copper,  zinc,  and  nickel.  It  is  vari¬ 
able  in  its  composition  according  to  the  require 
ments  of  the  manufacturer,  but  may  be  stated  for 
general  purposes  to  consist  of  copper  50.0,  zinc, 
30.0;  nickel,  20.0;  this  composition  is  very  mal¬ 
leable,  susceptible  of  high  polish,  and  nearly  as 
white  as  silver. 

German' der  ( Teucrium ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Lnbiatce,  having  the  calyx  tubu¬ 
lar,  five-tootlied, 
a  n  d  sometimes 
two-lipped;  the 
corolla  with  the 
upper  lip  very 
short  and  bipar¬ 
tite,  the  lower  lip 
spreading  a  n  d 
trifid;  the  stamen 
much  exserted. 

The  species  are 
numerous,  and 
very  widely  dis¬ 
tributed. 

Genna'niawas 
the  general  name 
under  which  the 
Romans  d  e  s  i  g  - 
nated  not  only 
great  part  of 
m  odern  Ger¬ 
many,  but  also  a 
portion  of  Bel¬ 
gium  and  the 
north  and  north¬ 
eastern  districts 
of  Gaul,  the  two 
last  being  more 
especially  charac¬ 
terized  as  Ger¬ 
mania  Prima  and 
Secunda,  while 
Germany  proper 
was  also  called 
Germania  Magna, 

Germania  Trans- 
Rhenana,  or  Germania  Barbara. 

German'icus  Caesar,  a  distinguished  Roman 
general,  belonging  to  the  imperial  family,  was 
the  son  of  Nero  Claudius  Drusus,  and  of  Antonia, 
daughter  of  Mark  Antony,  and  niece  of  Au¬ 
gustus,  and  was  born  in  15  b.c.  He  was  called 
Germanicus  on  account  of  his  brilliant  campaigns 
against  the  German  tribes.  Becoming  an  object 
of  jealousy  to  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  he  was  re¬ 
moved, and  met  his  death  (it  is  t  hought)  by  poison, 
in  19  a.d.,  near  Antioch. 

Germantown,  formerly  a  post-borough  of 
Pennsylvania,  about  six  miles  north-northwest  of 
Philadelphia,  within  the  chartered  limits  of  which 
city  it  was  included  in  1854.  See  Philadelphia. 

Germany,  from  Lat.  Germania ,  is  the  English 
name  of  the  country  which  the  natives  call 
Deutschland,  and  the  French  L’Allemagne.  The 
word  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  whole  area 
of  the  European  continent  within  which  the  Ger¬ 
manic  race  and  language  are  dominant.  Ger¬ 
many  occupies  the  central  portions  of  Europe, 
and  extends  from  5°  52'  to  22°  52'  E.  longitude, 
and  from  47°  16'  to  55°  53'  N.  latitude.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  German  Ocean,  the 
Danish  Peninsula,  and  the  Baltic;  on  the  east  by 
Russia  and  Austria;  on  the  south  by  Austria, 
Italy,  and  Switzerland,  and  on  the  west  by 
France,  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands.  The  pop. 
in  1875  was  42,757,812.  Its  area  is  estimated  at 
208,000  square  miles,  or  about  /§  of  that  of  all 
Europe.  The  coast-line  measures  only  about 
950  miles.  Germany  is  composed  of  an  aggre- 


Wood  Germander,  or  Wood  Sage 
( Teucrium  scorodonia )■ 
a,  corolla;  b,  calyx,  with  pistil. 


gation  of  different  States  (twenty-six  in  number). 
The  following  list  gives  the  names  of  these  States, 
with  the  number  of  members  representing  each 
in  the  Bundesratli  or  Federal  Council,  and  the 
Reichstag’ or  Imperial  Diet: 


States  of  the  Empire. 


Kingdom  of  Prussia . 

"  “  Bavaria . 

“  “  Wurtemburg . 

"  “  Saxony . 

Grand-Duchy  of  Baden . 

"  “  Mecklenburg-Schwerin . 

“  “  Hesse . 

“  “  Oldenburg . 

“  “  Saxe-Weimar . 

“  “  Mecklenburg  Strelitz . 

Duchy  of  Brunswick . 

r‘  Saxe-Meiningen . 

“  Anhalt . 

“  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha . 

“  Saxe-Altenburg . 

Principality  of  Waldeck . 

‘‘  “  Lippe-Detmold . 

“  “  Schwarzburg-Iiudolstadt _ 

“  “  Schwarzburg-Sondersbausen 

“  “  Reuss-Schleiz . 

“  “  Schaumburg-Lippe . 

“  “  Reuss-Greiz . 

Free  town  of  Hamburg . 

“  “  Lubeck . 

“  “  Bremen . 

Reiclisland  of  Alsace-Lorraine . 

Total  . 


17  236 

6  18 

4  17 

4  23 

3  14 

2  6 
3  9 

1  3 

1  3 

1  1 

2  3 

1  2 

1  2 

1  2 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  1 

1  3 

1  1 

I  1 

I  15 


59  397 


Much  of  the  surface  consists  of  a  great  plain. 
The  Austrian,  Bohemian,  and  part  of  the  French 
frontiers  are  guarded  by  mountain  chains,  and 
the  western  and  southern  divisions  include  many 
broken  ranges  of  hills.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Rhine,  Danube,  Elbe,  Oder,  Niemen,  Vistula, 
Main,  Ems,  and  Weser,  with  their  tributaries. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  uniform.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  of  the  whole  country  is 
about  48®  F.  The  products  are  those  of 
the  northern  temperate  zone.  The  culture 
of  the  vine  extends  north  to  latitude  51°  30'. 
The  domestic  animals  common  to  Central  and 
Northern  Europe  are  very  plentiful.  Germany 
occupies  a  position  in  the  front  rank  of  the  man¬ 
ufacturing  nations  of  Continental  Europe.  The 
linen,  woolen,  and  silk  manufactures  are  the 
most  important.  Very  large  quantities  of  iron 
and  steel,  manufactures  of  wood,  paper,  machin¬ 
ery,  glassware,  leather  goods,  porcelain  and  jew¬ 
elry  are  produced.  Brewing,  the  manufacture  of 
sugar,  and  of  furniture,  toys,  and  fine  textile 
fabrics,  are  large  and  important  industries, 
employing  a  great  many  persons.  At  Essen  is 
the  largest  cannon  foundry  in  the  world,  and  the 
machine  shops  of  Prussia,  Saxony,  Baden,  and 
Bavaria  rival,  if  they  do  not  excel,  the  largest 
establishments  of  England.  Germany  is  very 
rich  in  mineral  products  and  mining  is  carried 
on  in  nearly  all  divisions.  Mineral  springs  are 
abundant.  There  are  many  salt  springs.  The 
coast  fisheries  of  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea  are  a 
source  of  large  revenue.  Germany  raises,  for 
home  consumption  and  export,  cattle,  horses,  and 
sheep.  Of  agricultural  and  orchard  products 
exported,  the  chief  are  tobacco,  hops  (in  Bavaria 
and  Brunswick),  and  the  fruit  of  the  v;ne,  the 
chief  seat  of  its  culture  being  along  th  Rhine, 
Moselle,  Necker,  and  Main,  and  in  Rhenish 
Bavaria,  where  the  annual  yield  sometimes 
exceeds  20,000,000  gallons.  The  German  Empire 
has  a  large  and  rapidly  increasing  foreign  com¬ 
merce  Its  merchant  navy  is  superior  to  that  of 
any  other  country,  with  the  exception  of  England 
anil  the  United  States,  numbering  nearly  5,000 
vessels,  with  an  aggregate  tonnage  of  more  than 
1,100,000.  There  is  a  well-organized  railroad 
system,  with  about  21,000  miles  of  track,  of 
which  more  than  half  is  in  Prussia.  All  the 
roads  are  subject  to  government  control,  and 
the  telegraph  system  is  managed  by  the  central 
government,  as  in  England  There  are  over 
33,500  miles  of  telegraph  lines  in  the  empire. 
The  people  of  Germany,  45,000,000  in  number, 
are  extremely  homogeneous,  more  than  nine- 
tenths  of  them  belonging  to  the  Germanic  race. 
Of  the  remainder,  about  2,500.000  Poles,  and 
some  Wends,  G'zechs,  and  others,  compose  the 
Slavic  element.  In  Schleswig  there  are  about 


150,000  Danes,  and  Lorraine  has  a  large  French 
population.  Germany  has  twenty  universities, 
of  which  the  most  widely  known  are  Berlin, 
Bonn,  Jena,  Gottingen,  Heidelberg,  Leipzig, 
Munich,  Breslau,  and  Strasburg.  Theological, 
legal,  and  medical  schools,  agricultural  and 
mining  colleges,  and  other  special  schools  are 
plentiful.  The  strength  of  the  German  army  on 
a  peace  footing  is:  officers,  18,079;  rank  and  file, 
400,935;  horses,  97,389;  guns,  1,200.  In  time  of 
war  it  is:  officers,  31,195;  rank  and  file,  1,273,346; 
horses,  281,542;  guns,  2,700.  All  these  troops 
can  be  put  into  service  within  ten  days.  The 
navy  is  apace  with  modern  inventions.  Berlin, 
the  capital  of  the  German  Empire,  is  situated  on 
the  River  Spree.  At  the  present  time  it  is  one  of 
the  most  important  cities  of  Europe.  The  next 
cities  in  point  of  population  are  Hamburg, 
Breslau,  Munich,  and  Dresden,  and  there  are  thirty 
more  important  cities  above  the  50,000  limit. 

Germina'tion  (Lat.  sprouting),  the  beginning 
of  growth  in  a  seed,  or  of  the  vital  action  by 
which  it  is  converted  into  a  new  plant.  See 
Seed;  and,  as  regards  acotyledonous  plants. 
Spore. 

Geroine,  Jean  Leon,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  living  French  painters,  was  born  in  1824  at 
Vesoul.  He  has  produced  some  excellent  work, 
and  won  world-wide  reputation. 

Gerry,  Elbridge,  born  in  Marblehead,  Mass., 
in  1744,  became  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde¬ 
pendence.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Convention 
which  prepared  the  Constitution  of  1787,  and 
went  on  a  mission  to  France  in  1797.  In  1810  he 
was  elected  Governor  of  Massachusetts  by  the 
Democrats,  and  in  1812  was  chosen  Vice-Presi¬ 
dent  on  the  same  ticket  with  Madison.  He  died 
in  November,  1814. 

Gers,  a  department  in  the  Southwest  of  France, 
is  formed  of  portions  of  the  old  Provinces  of  Gas¬ 
cony  and  Guienne.  It  has  an  area  of  2,420  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  (1881)  of  281,532.  Auch  is  the 
capital. 

Ger'und  (from  Latin  gero,  I  carry  on)  is  a  part 
of  the  Latin  verb  which,  according  to  grammari¬ 
ans,  declares  that  anything  is  to  be  done.  Thus 
the  gerund  of  scribo,  I  write,  is  .s cribendum ;  as, 
cha.rla  utilis  ad  sci  ibendum ,  paper  useful  for  writ¬ 
ing. 

Gervas  ( Stacliytarphcta  jamaicensis),  a  small 
shrub  of  the  natural  order  Verbenacece,  a  native 
of  the  West  Indies  and  warm  parts  of  America. 
It  is  regarded  as  a  stimulant,  febrifuge,  anthel¬ 
mintic,  and  vulnerary;  a  decoction  of  the  leaves 
is  applied  to  severe  contusions;  and  the  dried 
leaves  are  used  as  tea. 

Gesnera'cc®,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  allied  to  Scrophulariaceoe,  and  consisting  of 
herbaceous  plants  and  soft-wooded  shrubs,  gener¬ 
ally  tropical  or  sub-tropical.  There  are  about 
120  species,  exclusive  of  those  sometimes  formed 
into  a  distinct  order  under  the  name  Cyrtandracece 
or  Didymocarpece,  of  which  there  are  about  140. 
The  true  Gesneracece  are  all  natives  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  America,  where  some  of  them  grow  upon 
trees.  The  Cyrtandracece  are  more  widely  dis¬ 
tributed. 

Gessler,  Albrecht,  called  also  G.  von  Brun- 
eck,  was  in  1300  appointed  Joint-Governor  along 
with  Berenger  von  Landenberg,  of  the  Waldstad- 
ten  or  Forest  Cantons  (Scliwytz,  Unterwalden, 
and  Uri),  by  Albrecht  I.  of  Austria.  According 
to  the  unreliable  traditions  connected  with  Tell, 
his  oppressive  edicts  and  wanton  cruelty  so  en¬ 
raged  the  inhabitants  that  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  him,  and  he  was  shot  by  Tell  in  a 
narrow  pass  near  Kussnaclit  in  1307. 

Ges'ta  Romano'ruin  is  the  title  of  the  oldest 
legendary  work  of  the  middle  ages.  The  stories 
are  written  in  Latin, and  for  the  most  part  are  either 
taken  from  the  histories  of  the  Roman  emper¬ 
ors,  or  at  least  are  referred  to  the  period  in  which 
these  flourished.  At  a  later  period,  moralizing 
expositions  were  added,  whence  the  work  obtained 
the  name  of  Historm  Mor (distal.  Chaucer  and 
other  authors  took  many  of  their  subjects  from 
this  book. 

Gesta'tion,  in  Physiology,  is  the  term  applied 
to  the  period  that  intervenes  in  the  mammalia 
between  impregnation  and  the  bringing  forth  of 
the  young.  The  period  and  the  number  of  young 


GETTYSBURG. 


427 


GIBBON. 


produced  at  a  birth  vary  extremely  in  different 
mammals,  but  usually  stand  in  an  inverse  ratio  to 
one  another.  Thus,  in  the  larger  herbivora,  as, 
for  example,  the  elephant,  the  horse,  the  ox,  and 
the  camel,  the  female  seldom  produces  more  than 
one  at  a  time,  but  the  period  of  gestation  is  long; 
while  in  the  smaller  ones  the  progeny  is  numerous, 
but  the  period  of  gestation  only  a  few  weeks.  In 
the  elephant,  the  period  of  gestation  extends  over 
twenty  or  twenty-one  months;  in  the  giraffe,  it  is 
fourteen  months;  in  the  dromedary,  it  is  twelve 
months;  in  the  mare,  upward  of  eleven  months; 
in  the  tapir,  between  ten  and  eleven;  in  the  cow, 
nine,  and  in  many  of  the  larger  deer  somewhat 
more  than  eight  months.  In  the  sheep  and  goat, 
the  period  is  five  months.  In  the  sow,  which 
produces  a  numerous  litter,  the  period  is  four 
months.  In  therodentia,  the  progeny  is  numerous 
and  imperfectly  developed,  and  the  period  of 
gestation  is  comparatively  short;  in  the  beaver,  one 
of  the  largest  of  the  order,  it  is  four  mouths;  in 
the  rabbit  and  hare,  from  thirty  to  forty  days;  in 
the  dormouse,  thirty-one  days;  in  the  squirrel  and 
rat,  four  weeks;  and  in  the  guinea-pig,  three 
weeks  or  less.  The  young  of  the  carnivora,  like 
the  young  of  the  rodentia,  are  born  with  their 
eyes  closed,  and  in  a  very  immature  condition; 
and  in  even  the  larger  carnivora  the  period  of 
gestation  is  far  shorter  than  in  the  larger  ruinin- 
antia  or  pachydermata:  it  is  six  months  in  the 
bear;  one  hundred  and  eight  days  in  the  lion  (the 
period  in  this  animal  is  stated  by  Van  der  Hoeven 
at  three  months);  seventy-nine  days  in  the  puma; 
sixty-two  or  sixty-three  days  in  the  dog,  the 
wolf,  and  the  fox;  and  fifty-five  or  fifty-six  days 
in  the  cat.  In  the  marsupial  animals,  which, 
from  a  structural  peculiarity,  produce  their  young 
in  a  far  more  immature  state  than  any  other 
mammals,  the  period  of  gestation  is  very  short, 
being  thirty-nine  days  in  the  kangaroo,  the  largest 
of  the  marsupial  animals,  and  only  twenty-six 
days  in  the  opossum.  Nothing  certain  is  known 
regarding  the  period  of  gestation  of  the  cetacea. 
The  quadrumana  produce  one,  sometimes  two,  at 
a  birth;  and  the  period  of  gestation,  as  far  as  has 
been  observed,  seems  to  be  seven  months.  In  the 
human  race,  forty  weeks  is  the  usual  period  of 
gestation,  but  this  period  is  liable  to  certain  devi¬ 
ations. 

Gettysburg,  the  county  seat  of  Adams  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  3,000.  The  town  is  noted  as  the  scene 
of  the  great  battle  fought  there  between  Union 
and  Confederate  troops,  July  4,  1863. 

Gettysburg,  a  growing  agricultural  town,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Potter  county,  Dak.  Pop. ,  303. 

Ge'um,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Rosacece,  sub-order  PotenHll  as,  nearly  allied  to 
Potenlilla,  but  distinguished  by  the  hardened 
hooked  styles  which  crown  the  carpels,  so  that 
the  fruit  becomes  a  bur.  The  carpels  are  dry. 
There  are  two  species,  common  avens,  or  herb 
bennett,  a  herbaceous  plant,  about  1  to  2  feet 
high,  and  G.rivale,  called  water  avens,  about  1 
foot  high,  both 
of  which  have 
the  radical  leaves 
interruptedly 
pinnate  and  ly- 
rate,  and  the  cau- 
line  leaves  ternate 
but  G.  urbanum 
has  erect  yellow 
flowers,  and  G. 
rivale  has  nod¬ 
ding  flowers  of  a 
brownish  hue. 

G.canalense,  the 
chocolate  root 
or  hlood  root 
of  North  Ameri¬ 
ca,  has  some  rep¬ 
utation  as  a  mild 
tonic.  It  is  much 
employed  in  the 
United  States  in 

diseases  of  the  _ 

bladder.  A  num-  a,  carpel  and  awn;  h  petal;  c,  stamen, 

her  of  other  spe-  d,  pistil. 

ties  are  known,  natives  of  the  temperate  and 

colder  regions  both  of  the  Northern  and  Southern 

Hemispheres. 

Gey'ser  (Icelandic,  geysa,  to  burst  forth  vio¬ 


lently,  allied  to  the  Eng.  gush)  is  a  term  applied 
to  the  eruptive  thermal  springs  and  wells  which 
are  found  in  various  parts  of  the  earth’s  surface 
in  evident  connection  with  the  volcanic  forces  at 
work  below.  The  geysers  in  the  Yellowstone  region 
are  probably  the  most  wonderful  of  all,  but  the 
best  known  group  is  in  Iceland,  aboutseventy  miles 
from  Reikiavik,  sixteen  miles  north  of  Skalholt, 
and  within  sight  of  the  volcano  of  Ilecla. 

Ghauts  (in  English,  Gales  or  Passes)  are  two 
converging  ranges  of  mountains,  which  run  paral¬ 
lel  with  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  the  peninsula 
of  Hindustan,  and  hence  known  as  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Ghauts.— -1.  The  Eastern  Ghauts  ex¬ 
tend,  with  an  average  height  of  1,500  feet,  from 
the  vicinity  of  Balasore,  in  latitude  21°  30'  N.,  a 
little  north  of  the  Mahanadi,  to  within  twenty 
miles  of  Cape  Comorin. — 2.  The  Western  Ghauts 
stretch  from  the  south  side  of  the  Tapti,  about 
the  same  latitude  as  Balasore,  to  their  junction 
with  the  kindred  ridge,  at  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles  from  Cape  Comorin,  or  rather,  in  fact,  to 
Cape  Comorin  itself.  Though  they  are  generally 
far  more  continuous  and  distinct  than  the  Ghauts 
Eastern,  yet  they  are  sharply  divided  by  the  gap  of 
Palghatcheri,  16  miles  broad — the  northern  section 
measuring  800  miles  in  length,  and  the  southern 
200.  Their  general  elevation  appears  to  vary  from 
about  4,000  feet  to  fully  7,000. 

Ghent  (Flem.  Gencl,  Ger.  Gent,  Fr.  Gand),  an 
important  city  of  Belgium,  capital  of  the  Province 
of  East  Flanders,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Lys  and  Scheldt,  thirty-one  miles  west-north¬ 
west  of  Brussels.  Pop.,  131,431. 

Glii'lan,  a  border  province  of  Persia,  consists 
of  the  southwestern  portion  of  the  narrow  strip 
of  country  lying  between  the  Elburz  Range  and 
the  Caspian  Sea.  It  extends  between  latitude  36 
30'  and  38°  30'  N.,  and  longitude  48°  33'  and  50° 
30'  W.  It  is  upward  of  150  miles  in  length,  and 
about  70  miles  at  its  broadest  part.  Pop.  esti¬ 
mated  at  100,000. 

Gliiz'ni,  a  river  of  Afghanistan,  loses  itself, 
after  a  southerly  course  of  about  eighty  miles, 
in  the  salt  lake  of  Abistada,  which  is  7,076  feet 
above  the  sea. 

Gliizni  stands  at  an  elevation  of  7,726  feet,  on 
a  scarped  rock,  which  rises  280  feet  above  the 
adjacent  plain.  Its  natural  strength  has  been  in¬ 
creased  by  walls  of  35  feet  in  height,  and  a  wet 
ditch.  It  has  long  been  a  place  of  importance  in 
Central  Asia,  having  been,  in  the  eleventh  cen¬ 
tury,  the  seat  of  an  empire. 

Glio'gra,  or  Giiagra,  one  of  the  largest  afflu¬ 
ents  of  the  Ganges,  joins  that  river  from  the  left 
in  latitude  25°  46'  N.,  and  longitude  84°  40'  E., 
after  a  generally  southeast  course  of  600  miles. 
It  rises  in  latitude  30°  28'  N.,  and  longitude  80° 
40'  E.,  on  the  southern  declivity  of  a  mountain- 
range,  which  separates  the  district  of  Kumaon 
from  Southwest  Thibet. 

Ghost-moth.  This  moth  belongs  to  a  family 
(Hepialidce)  often  popularly  called  Swifts,  from 
their  rapid  flight,  having  long,  narrow  wings,  and 
destitute  of  a  tongue.  The  antenute  are  short. 


Ghost-moth  (Uepialus  humuli). 

1,  eggs,  natural  size;  2,  the  same,  magnified;  3,  larva  or 
caterpillar;  4,  chrysalis;  5,  imago,  or  perfect  insect, 
male;  6,  the  same,  female. 

The  male  ghost-moth  is  entirely  of  a  satiny  white 
color  above;  the  female  yellowish  with  darker 


markings;  both  sexes  are  brown  on  the  under 
side. 

Giant’s  Causeway,  The,  is  a  sort  of  pier  or 
mole,  of  columnar  basalt,  projecting  from  the 
northern  coast  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  into  the  North 
Channel,  about  fifteen  miles  from  Coleraine.  It 
is  part  of  an  extensive  and  overlying  mass  of 
basalt,  from  300  to  500  feet  in  thickness,  extend¬ 
ing  over  an  area  of  nearly  1,200  square  miles. 
Several  of  the  basaltic  beds  are  more  or  less  col¬ 
umnar,  but  three  layers  are  remarkably  so.  The 
Causeway  is  divided  into  the  Little,  Middle,  and 
Large  Causeways.  The  Large  Causeway,  which 
is  formed  by  the  lowest  of  the  three  columnar 
beds  of  basalt,  is  about  30  feet  wide,  and  runs 
more  than  200  yards  from  its  exposure  on  the 
cliff  till  it  is  covered  by  the  sea.  The  Little  and 
Middle  Causeways  are  formed  from  the  second 
columnar  stratum,  and  are  less  remarkable  than 
the  other. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  the  historian  of  The  Decline 
and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  was  born  at  Putney, 
England,  April  27  (o.s.),  1737.  In  1776,  the  first 
volume  of  The  Decline  and  Fall  was  published, 
and  its  success  was  prodigious.  He  finished  this 
great  work  June  27,  1787  at  Lausanne,  to  which 
he  had  retired  for  quiet  and  economy  after  leaving 
Parliament,  and  holding  office  under  Government 
for  a  short  time.  He  died  Jan.  16,  1794.  His 
Decline  and  Fall  is  probably  the  greatest  achieve¬ 
ment  of  human  thought  and  erudition  in  the 
department  of  history;  at  least  Niebuhr  gives  it 
this  high  praise.  It  is  virtually  a  history  of  the 
civilized  world  for  thirteen  centuries,  during  which 
paganism  was  breaking  down  and  Christianity 
was  superseding  it;  and  thus  bridges  over  the 
chasm  between  the  Old  World  and  the  New.  Its 
style  is  marked  by  the  highest  power  of  conden¬ 
sation,  and  is  full  of  smiting  phrases  and  ponder 
ous  antithesis.  The  best  edition  of  The  Decline 
and  Full  is  that  of  Dr.  VV.  Smith  (1854-55),  con- 
tainingthe  notes  and  corrections  of  Guizot,  Wenck, 
andMilman.  See  Morrison’s  Gibbon  (1878). 

Gibbon  ( Ilylobates ),  a  genus  of  apes,  or  tailless 
monkeys,  natives  of  the  East  Indies.  They  are 
nearly  allied  to  the  orangs  and  chimpanzees,  but 


White-handed  Gibbon  ( Hylobates  albimana) . 


are  of  more  slender  form,  and  their  arms  so  long 
as  almost  to  reach  the  ground  when  they  are 
placed  in  an  erect  posture. 

Gibbon,  John,  an  American  general,  born  in 
Pennsylvania,  appointed  to  the  military  academy 
at  West  Point  from  North  Carolina,  and  gradu¬ 
ated  July  1,  1847,  brevet  Second  Lieutenant.  He 
served  iii  the  Mexican  War,  the  Seminole  War  in 
Florida,  and  in  the  Civil  War;  was  Chief  of 
Artillery  on  General  McDowell’s  staff,  October, 
1861,  to  May,  1862,  with  the  rank  of  Major  in 
the  United  States  Army;  was  made  Brigadier- 
General  of  Volunteers,  May,  1862,  and  breveted 
Major-General  of  Volunteers  for  gallant  and  meri¬ 
torious  conduct  at  Antietam ;  was  breveted 
Lieutenant-Colonel  U.  S.  A.  for  gallant  and 
meritorious  services  at  Fredericksburg,  and  bre¬ 
veted  Colonel  U.  S.  A.  for  distinguished  services 
in  the  Battle  of  Gettysburg, where  he  commanded 
the  second  army  corps.  He  was  breveted  Brig¬ 
adier-General  U.  S.  A.  for  bravery  at  Spotsyl¬ 
vania,  and  commissioned  Major-General  of 
Volunteers  June  7, 1864;  breveted  Major-General 
U.  S.  A.  for  gallant  and  meritorious  conduct  at 
Petersburg,  and  commissioned  Colonel  U.  S.  A. 


GIBBONS. 


428 


GINGER. 


July  28,  1866.  Promoted  to  Brigadier-General 
U.  S.  A.  July  10,  1885,  and  assigned  to  the  com¬ 
mand  of  the  District  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
He  commanded  the  column  that  rescued  Reno 
from  the  Sioux  under  Sitting  Bull,  in  1876.  In 
1877,  with  191  men,  he  defeated  over  500  Nez 
Perces  warriors,  under  Chief  Joseph,  in  the  Big 
Hole  Valley,  Montana,  killing  over  200  of  the 
Indians.  He  is  now  (April,  1889)  in  command  of 
the  Department  of  the  Columbia. 

Gibbons,  The  Most  Rev.  James,  Roman 
Catholic  Bishop  of  Baltimore,  was  horn  in  that 
city  July  23,  1834.  In  March,  1886,  he  was 
nominated  Cardinal. 

Gibbos'ity  (Lat.  gibbus,  Gr.  vfjoi,  hubos, 
Kvgioi,  kuphos,  hump-backed,  a  state  of  disease 
characterized  by  protuberance  of  a  part  of  the 
body;  chiefly  applied  to  hump-back  or  other  dis¬ 
tortions  depending  on  disease  of  the  spinal 
column. 

Gib 'boils,  a  term  signifying  “protuberant,” 
“swelling  out,”  applied  to  bodies  which  are 
double-convex,  and  particularly  to  the  moon, 
when  she  is  within  a  week  of  the  full. 

Gibel  ( Cyprinus  gibelio),  a  fish  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  carp,  but  of  the  divisiou  of  the 
genus  destitute  of  barbules  at  the  mouth,  by 
which  it  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  carp, 
whilst  from  the  crucian  it  is  at  once  distinguished 
by  its  forked  tail.  The  weight  is  seldom  much 
more  than  half  a  pound,  although  specimens 
have  been  caught  of  two  pounds’  weight. 

Gib 'eon  (Heb.  signifies  belonging  to  a  hill),  a 
celebrated  city  of  ancient  Palestine,  about  five 
miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem.  At  the  conquest 
of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites  under  Joshua,  it  was 
inhabited  by  the  Hivites.  It  was  over  Gibeon 
that  the  sun  stood  still,  to  permit  Joshua  to  finish 
the  slaughter  of  his  foes. 

Gibraltar,  a  rocky  promontory,  3  miles  in 
length  and  f  mile  in  average  breadth,  forms  the 
southern  extremity  of  Spain.  It  is  situated  at 
the  extremity  of  a  low  peninsula,  which  connects 
it  on  the  north  with  Andalusia;  its  most  southern 
headland,  Point  Europa  is  in  latitude  36°  2 '  30” 
N.,  and  longitude  5°  15'  12”  W.  Pop.  (1881), 
18,381,  excluding  the  garrison  of  5,610  men. 
Since  1704  Gibraltar  has  remained  continuously 
in  the  possession  of  the  British,  but  not  without 
the  necessity  of  their  resisting  many  desperate 
efforts  on  the  part  of  Spain  and  France  to  dis¬ 
lodge  them.  Before  the  victors  had  been  able  to 
add  to  the  defenses,  their  mettle  was  severely 
tried  by  a  siege  in  1704-1705.  In  1720  it  was 
threatened,  and  in  1727  actually  attacked  by  a 
large  force  under  the  Count  de  las  Torres.  Dur¬ 
ing  this  siege,  the  place  was  near  falling  into  the 
hands  of  the  assailants.  The  most  memorable, 
however,  of  t  lie  sieges  to  which  Gibraltar  has  been 
exposed  commenced  in  1779.  The  communications 
with  Spain  were  closed  on  June  21,  1779,  and  a 
strict  blockade  established  by  the  Spanish  fleet; 
the  strength  of  the  besieged  force  being  at  this 
period  5,382  men;  including  1,095  Hanoverians, 
under  General  Eliott,  the  Governor.  The  fight¬ 
ing  lasted-  more  than  three  years,  but  the  Span¬ 
iards  were  ultimately  defeated. 

Gibraltar,  Straits  of  (anciently  the  Straits  of 
Hercules),  extend  from  Cape  Spartel  to  Cape 
Ceuta  on  the  African  coast,  and  from  Cape  Tra¬ 
falgar  to  Europa  Point  on  the  coast  of  Spain. 
The  Straits  narrow  toward  the  east,  their  width 
between  Europa  Point  and  Cape  Ceuta  being  only 
15  miles,  while  at  the  western  extremity  it  is  24 
miles.  The  length  (from  east  to  west)  is  about  36 
miles.  The  tide  at  Tarifa  rises  from  7  to  8  feet. 

Gibson,  the  county  seat  of  Glascock  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  250. 

Giddings,  Joshua  Reed,  a  distinguished  anti¬ 
slavery  agitator,  born  in  Pennsylvania  in  1795, 
sat  in  Congress  from  Ohio,  1838-59.  He  died  at 
Montreal,  where  he  was  Consul-General,  May  27, 
1864. 

Giddings,  a  thriving  agricultural  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Lee  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Gid'eon  (Heb.  signifies  a  hewer  or  cutter  down, 
i.  e.,  a  brave  soldier)  was  the  name  of  the  greatest 
of  all  the  judges  of  Israel.  He  was  the  youngest 
son  of  Joash  the  Abiezrite,  and  lived  with  his 
father  at  Ophrali,  in  Manasseh.  He  defeated  the 
Midianites  in  the  time  of  the  Judges. 

Gijon',  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  of  Spain, 


in  the  Province  of  Oviedo  (the  former  Asturias), 
and  twenty  miles  north-northeast  of  the  town  of 
that  name.  Pop.  (1877),  30,591. 

Gi'la,  Rio,  a  river  of  North  America,  lias  its 
origin  in  New  Mexico,  in  latitude  about  32°  45' 
N.,  longitude  about  108°  30'  W.;  and,  after  a 
westward  course  of  nearly  450  miles,  joins  the 
Colorado,  about  seventy  miles  above  the  fall  of 
that  river  into  the  Gulf  of  California. 

Gilbert,  William  Schenck,  born  in  London 
in  1836,  is  well  known  as  the  author  of  many 
comedies  and  dramas,  and  supplied  the  libretto 
for  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan’s  comic  operas,  such  as 
Pinafore,  Pirates  of  Penzance,  The  Mikado,  and 
many  other  favorites.  He  also  wrote  the  Bab 
Ballads. 

Gil'bert  Islands,  a  group  on  the  southwest 
coast  of  the  Archipelago  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. — 
Another  cluster  of  the  same  name,  comprising 
fifteen  coral  islands,  forms  part  of  the  Mulgrave 
Archipelago  in  the  Pacific,  between  latitude  1°  S. 
and  2°  30'  N.,  and  longitude  172°  and  174°  30' 
E.,  and  contains  a  pop.  of  60,000. 

Gil'bertines,  a  religious  order  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  It  was  founded  in  the  twelfth 
century  by  St.  Gilbert,  a  native  of  Sempringham, 
in  Lincolnshire,  England. 

Gilbo'a,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  “bubbling 
fountain,”  is  the  name  given  in  the  Old  Testament 
to  a  range  of  hills,  between  500  and  600  feet  high, 
overhanging  the  city  of  Jezreel,  iu  the  eastern  side 
of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon. 

Gil  'ead  (in  Eng.  region  of  rocks)  was  a  mount¬ 
ainous  district  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan, 
given  by  Joshua  to  the  tribes  of  Gad  and  Reuben, 
because  of  the  multitude  of  their  cattle,  and  as  a 
frontier  land  was  much  exposed  to  invasion. 

Giles,  William  Branch,  born  in  Virginia  in 
1762,  sat  in  Congress  and  the  United  States  Senate, 
and  in  1827  became  Governor  of  Virginia.  He 
died  in  1830. 

Gill  (Low  Lat.  giUa,  a  drinking-glass),  a 
measure  of  capacity,  containing  the  fourth  part 
of  a  pint,  or  the  thirty  second  part  of  a  gallon. 

Gille'nia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Rosacece,  sub-order  Spiraea;  perennials, 
natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of  North  America. 
The  roots  are  used  in  medicine  as  a  mild  emetic, 
and  in  small  doses  as  a  tonic;  and  are  often  called 
Indian  physic,  sometimes  American  ipecacuanha, 
Indian  hippo,  dropwort  and  Bowman’s  root. 

Gills,  or  Branchiae,  arc  the  respiratory  organs 
of  those  animals  which  obtain  the  oxygen  neces¬ 
sary  for  their  well-being  not  directly  from  the 
atmosphere,  but  from  the  air  held  in  solution  in 
the  water  in  which  they  live.  In  animals  modi¬ 
fied  for  atmospheric  respiration,  the  air  enters 
the  system  to  meet  the  blood,  a  peculiar  set  of 
movements,  more  or  less  complicated,  being  ap¬ 
pointed  for  its  constant  renewal.  In  aquatic 
animals,  on  the  other  hand  (excluding  aquatic 
mammals),  a  different  plan  is  required,  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  small  quantity  of  air  contained  in 
the  water;  and  hence  the  aerating  surface  is  ex¬ 
tended  outwardly,  so  as  to  yield  a  larger  space 
than  could  be  obtained  in  the  interior.  The  blood 
is  being  perpetually  driven  along  this  surface, 
which  is  so  constructed  as  to  admit  freely  of  the 
passage  of  air;  and  by  the  natural  movements  of 
the  body,  or  by  others  of  a  special  nature,  a  fresh 
supply  of  aerated  water  is  constantly  afforded. 

Gil  'lyflower,  a  popular  English  name  for 
some  of  the  cruciferous  plants  most  prized  for 
the  beauty  and  fragrance  of  their  flowers,  as  wall¬ 
flower,  stock,  etc.  The  clove-pink  also,  the  wild 
original  of  the  carnation,  is  called  clove-gilly¬ 
flower. 

Gillmore,  Quincy  Adams,  born  in  Ohio,  Feb. 
28,  1825,  educated  at  West  Point,  became  Major- 
General  of  volunteers  during  the  Civil  War,  and 
at  its  close,  Colonel  of  United  States  Engineers, 
with  charge  of  the  Atlantic  coast  defenses. 

Gilmer,  a  promising  agricultural  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Upshur  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  750. 

Gilo  To,  or  IIalmaheira,  one  of  the  Moluccas 
or  Spice  Islands,  between  2°N.,  and  1°  S.  lati¬ 
tude,  and  1%7°  27' — 129°  E.  longitude,  to  the 
east  of  Celebes.  Area,  6,300  square  miles.  Pop., 
including  the  neighboring  islands,  27,500. 

Giltliead  ( Chrysophrys ),  a  genus  of  acanthop- 
terous  fishes  of  the  family  Sparidm.  They  feed 
chiefly  on  mollusks,  the' shells  of  which  their 


teeth  enable  them  to  crush.  The  species  are 
numerous,  inhabitants  of  the  warmer  seas.  One 


Common  Gilthead  (Chrysophrys  a-urata). 


species,  the  common  gilthead  (G.  aurata),  abounds 
in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  esteemed  for  the 
table.  It  seldom  attains  a  leugth  of  more  than 
12  inches. 

Gim'bals  (Lat.  gemellus,  a  twin),  are  two  circu¬ 
lar  brass  hoops  used  for  suspending  the  compass- 
box  on  board  ship,  so  that  it  may  always  rest 
horizontally,  unaffected  by  the  ship’s  motion. 

Gin,  or  Geneva,  an  alcoholic  drink,  distilled 
from  malt  or  from  unmalted  barley  or  other 
grain,  and  afterward  rectified  and  flavored.  We 
derive  the  terms  gin  and  geneva  from  the  Dutch, 
who  call  the  Hollands-gin  (which  is  their  national 
spirit)  genever,  which  they  have  derived  from  the 
French  genievre,  juniper.  The  origin  of  this 
name  is,  doubtless,  to  be  found  in  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  juniper-berries  in  flavoring  the  spirit 
made  in  Holland,  where  it  is  an  article  of  great 
manufacture,  chiefly  at  Schiedam;  hence  it  is 
often  called  Schiedam  or  Hollands,  as  well  as 
geneva  and  gin, 

Gin  'gee  is  one  of  the  Virgin  Islands — the  group 
at  the  northeast  bend  of  the  grand  arch  of  the 
West  Indies. 

Ginger  (Zingiber),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Scitaminece  or  Z  in  giber  acea,  having 
the  inner  limb  of  the  perianth  destitute  of  lateral 
inner  lobes,  and  the  fertile  stamen  prolonged 
beyond  the  anther  into  an  awl-shaped  horn.  The 
species  are  perennial  herbaceous  plants,  with 
annual  stems,  and  creeping  root-stocks  (rhizomes)-, 
the  stems  produce  leaves  in  two  opposite  rows; 
the  flowers  are  in  compact  spikes  with  bracts. 
They  are  natives  of  the  East  Indies.  The  root¬ 
stocks  of  most  of  the  species  are  used  as  a  condi¬ 
ment  and  in  medicine.  The  most  valuable  and 
generally  used  are  those  of  the  common  ginger 
(Z.  officinale),  sometimes  distinguished  as  the 


a,  a  flower,  detached;  b,  perfect  anther. 

narrow-leaved  ginger.  The  cultivation  of  ginger 
is  extremely  easy  wherever  the  climate  is  suitable. 
In  India  it  is  carried  on  to  an  elevation  of  4,000 
or  5,000  feet  on  the  Himalayas,  in  moist 
situations.  The  root-stock  is  taken  up  when  the 
stems  have  withered,  and  is  prepared  for  the 
market  either  by  seething  and  scalding  in  boiling 
water — in  order  to  kill  it — and  subsequent  drying, 
or  by  scraping  and  washing.  Its  qualities  depend 
on  a  pale  yellow  volatile  oil,  lighter  than  water, 
called  oil  of  ginger.  It  contains  also  a  considera¬ 
ble  quantity  of  starch.  Candied  ginger,  or  pre¬ 
served  ginger,  consists  of  the  young  root-stocks 
preserved  in  sugar,  and  is  now  imported  in  con¬ 
siderable  quantity  from  China,  as  well  as  from 
the  East  Indies  and  from  the  West  Indies. 


GINGKO. 


429 


GLACIS. 


Essence  of  ginger,  used  for  flavoring,  is  in  reality 
a  tincture,  prepared  of  ginger  and  alcohol.  Syrup 
of  ginger  is  used  chiefly  by  druggists  for  flavor¬ 
ing.  Ginger  tea  is  a  domestic  remedy,  use¬ 
ful  in  cases  of  flatulence,  and  is  an  infusion  of 
ginger  in  boiling  water.  Ginger-beer  is  a  well- 
known  beverage,  flavored  with  ginger. 

Gin'gilie  Oil,  a  bland  fixed  oil  obtained  by 
expression  from  the  seeds  of  Sesamum  indicum. 

Ging'ko,  or  Ginko  (Salisburia  adiantifulia),  a 
large  tree  of  the  natural  order  Tax/ teem  (yew,  etc.), 
with  straight,  erect  trunk  and  conical  head,  and 
leaves  remarkably  resembling  the  leaflets  of  the 
fronds  of  maidenhair,  somewhat  triangular, 


Gingko. 

a,  branclilet  of  female  tree ;  6,  branchlet  of  male  tree,  in 

flower;  c,  male  flowers;  cl,  female  flowers;  e,  fruit;  /, 

anther. 

cloven  and  notched  at  the  upper  extremity, 
shortly-stalked,  leathery,  smooth,  shining,  yel¬ 
lowish-green,  with  numerous  minute  parallel 
ribs,  and  somewhat  thickened  margins.  The 
fruit  is  a  sort  of  drupe,  of  which  the  fleshy  part 
is  formed  by  the  persistent  calyx,  about  an  inch 
in  diameter;  the  nut  or  endocarp  white,  a  thin 
shell  with  a  farinaceous  kernel  resembling  an 
almond  in  flavor,  with  a  little  mixture  of  auster¬ 
ity.  The  tree  is  a  native  of  China,  but  has  been 
long  known  in  Europe. 

Gin'seng,  a  root  esteemed  in  China  as  a  medi¬ 
cine,  being  regarded  as  possessing  the  most  extra¬ 
ordinary  virtues,  and 
as  a  remedy  for  al¬ 
most  all  diseases,  but 
particularly  for  ex¬ 
haustion  of  body  or 
mind.  It  is  some¬ 
times  sold  for  its 
weight  in  gold.  It 
was  once  introduced 
into  Europe,  but  soon 
forgotten.  It  is  the 
root  of  a  species  of 
Panax,  of  the  natural 
order  Araliaceoe,  to 
which  the  name  P. 
ginseng  has  been 
gi,Ten,  and  which  is  a 
native  of  Chinese  Tar¬ 
tary.  It  is  closely 
allied  to  P.  quinque- 
folium,  a  plant  com¬ 
mon  in  the  Western  Ginseng  (Panax  quinquefolium). 
States,  the  root  of  which  is  now  an  article  of 
export  to  China,  and  is  used  as  a  domestic  medi¬ 
cine  by  many  Western  people.  It  is  mucilagi¬ 
nous,  sweetish,  and  slightly  bitter  and  aromatic. 

Gionla'no,  Luca,  an  Italian  painter,  born  at 
Naples  about  1632.  He  painted  for  the  galleries 
of  Dresden,  Naples,  and  the  Escorial,  and  died  in 
1705. 

Giorgi  'one,  or  Giorgio  Barbaiielli,  an  Ital¬ 
ian  painter,  born  about  1478.  He  died  in  1511. 
His  works  are  among  the  most  rare  and  exquis¬ 
ite  examples  of  the  Venetian  school. 

Giot'to,  or  A.mbrogiotto  Bondone,  painter, 
architect,  and  sculptor,  born  in  1276.  He 
designed  the  west  front  of  the  cathedral  of  Flor¬ 
ence  and  its  detached  campanile,  and  was  one  of 
the  best  portrait  and  figure  painters  of  his  day. 
He  died  at  Florence  in  1336. 


Giraffe,  or  Camelopard  (Camelopardalis 
giraffa),  the  tallest  of  quadrupeds,  ranked  by 
some  naturalists  among  deer  (Cervidcv),  but  more 
properly  regarded 
as  constituting  a 
distinct  family  of 
ruminants,  which 
contains,  however, 
only  one  species. 

It  is  a  native  of 
Africa,  from  Nu¬ 
bia  to  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  ex¬ 
tensively  diffused, 
but  nowhere  abun¬ 
dant.  It  occurs 
generally  in  small 
herds  of  from  five 
to  forty.  It  feeds 
on  the  leaves  and 
small  branches  of 
trees.  Its  general 
aspect  is  remark- 
able  from  the 
height  of  the  foreparts  ana  great  elongation  of  the 
neck,  the  head  being  sometimes  eighteen  feet  from 
the  ground.  The  number  of  vertebrae  in  the  neck, 
however,  is  not  greater  than  in  other  quadrupeds, 
and  it  has  no  extraordinary  flexibility,  although 
its  form  and  movements  are  very  graceful.  The 
legs  are  long  and  slender;  the  feet  have  cloven 
hoofs,  but  are  destitute  of  the  small  lateral  toes 
or  spurious  hoofs,  which  occur  in  the  other 
cloven-footed  ruminants.  The  head  is  long;  the 
upper  lip  entire,  projecting  far  beyond  the  nos¬ 
trils,  and  endowed  with  considerable  muscular 
power.  The  tongue  is  remarkably  capable  of 
elongation,  and  is  an  organ  of  touch  and  of  pre¬ 
hension,  like  the  trunk  of  an  elephant;  it  can  be 
thrust  far  out  of  the  mouth,  and  employed  to 
grasp  and  take  up  even  very  small  objects;  it  is 
said  that  its  tip  can  be  so  tapered  as  to  enter  the 
ring  of  a  small  key.  It  is  an  inoffensive  animal, 
and  generally  seeks  safety,  if  possible,  in  flight, 
although  it  is  capable  of  making  a  stout  resist¬ 
ance,  and  is  said  to  beat  off  the  lion.  It  fights 
by  kicking  with  its  hind-legs,  discharging  a 
storm  of  kicks  with  extraordinary  rapidity.  It 
is  not  easily  overtaken  even  by  a  fleet  horse,  and 
has  the  advantage  of  a  horse  on  uneven  and 
broken  ground. 

Girard,  an  important  agricultural  and  railroad 
town,  and  the  county  seat  of  Crawford  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  3,201. 

Girard,  Stephen,  born  in  France  in  1750, 
became  a  merchant  in  Philadelphia,  and  at  his 
death  in  1831,  left  $2,000,000  to  found  the  col¬ 
lege  for  orphan  boys,  now  known  by  his  name. 

Girard  College,  in  Philadelphia,  was  begun 
in  1833  and  completed  in  1848.  It  is  considered 
the  finest  specimen  of  Grecian  architecture  in 
America.  It  affords  board  and  educational  fa¬ 
cilities  for  over  500  orphan  children.  Under  the 
will  of  its  founder,  Stephen  Girard,  no  ecclesiastic 
or  minister  of  any  religious  denomination  is  per¬ 
mitted  to  enter  the  building. 

Gir'asol,  a  precious  stone,  exhibiting  in 
strong  lights  a  peculiar  and  beautiful  reflection 
of  bright  red  or  yellow  light,  which  seems  to 
come  from  the  interior  of  the  stone.  From  this 
it  derives  its  name  (Ital.  sun  turning).  There  are 
different  kinds  of  girasol,  variously  referred  by 
mineralogists  to  quartz  and  opal,  species  which, 
however,  are  very  nearly  allied.  One  kind  is  also 
known  as  fire  opal,  which  is  found  only  at  Zima- 
pan,  in  Mexico,  and  in  the  Faroe  Islands.  The 
name  girasol  is  sometimes  given  to  a  kind  of  sap¬ 
phire,  also  called  asteria  sapphire,  exhibiting  a 
similar  reflection  of  light,  and  sometimes  to  sun- 
stone,  an  avanturine  feldspar. 

Girdle  of  Venus  ( Cestum  veneris),  one  of  the 
Acalephw, inhabiting  the  Mediterranean,  gelatinous, 
of  a  ribbon-like  shape,  sometimes  5  or  6  feet  long 
by  about  2  inches  wide;  although  considered 
with  reference  to  the  structure  of  the  animal,  the 
apparent  length  is  really  its  breadth,  and  the  ap¬ 
parent  breadth  its  length.  The  mouth  is  situated 
in  the  middle  of  the  inferior  edge,  and  the  stom¬ 
ach  is  imbedded  in  the  gelatinous  substance. 
The  edges  arc  fringed  with  cilia,  by  the  move¬ 
ments  of  which  the  creature  seems  to  be  propelled 
in  the  water.  It  exhibits  iridescent  colors  by 


day,  and  phosphorescence  by  night.  Its  sub¬ 
stance  is  so  delicate  that  a  perfect  specimen  can 
with  difficulty  be  obtained. 

Gir'nar,  a  sacred  mountain  in  India  in  the 
Peninsula  of  Kattywar,  which  forms  part  of  the 
native  State  of  Guzerat,  in  latitude  21°  30'  N., 
and  longituae  70°  42'  E. 

Gironde,  a  maritime  department  in  the  South¬ 
west  of  France,  is  formed  out  of  part  of  the  old 
Province  of  Guienne,  and  is  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  on  the  north  by  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Charente-Infdrieure,  on  the  east  by  those 
of  Dordogne  and  Lot-et-Garonne,  and  on  the 
south  by  that  of  Landes.  Area,  3,750  square 
miles;  pop.  (1881),  746,049.  Bordeaux  is  the 
capital. 

Giroml'ists  (Fr.  Girondins),  the  name  given 
during  the  French  Revolution  to  the  moderate 
Republican  party.  When  the  Legislative  Assem¬ 
bly  met  in  October,  1791,  the  Gironde  depart¬ 
ment  chose  for  its  representatives  Vergniaud, 
Guadet,  Gensonne,  Grangeneuve,  and  Ducos,  all 
of  whom  soon  acquired  great  influence  by  their 
rhetorical  talents  and  political  principles.  They 
were  joined  by  Brissot’s  party  and  the  adherents 
of  Roland,  as  well  as  by  several  leaders  of  the 
Center,  such  as  Condorcet,  Faucliet,  Lasource,  Is- 
nard,  and  Henri  LaRivi&re,  and  for  some  time  had 
a  Parliamentary  majority.  From  this  nucleus 
grew  the  so-called  Girondist  party,  which  for  a  time 
exerted  a  powerful  influence  in  the  Revolution, 
but  which  ultimately  lost  its  power  and  came 
to  a  most  unfortunate  end,  nearly  all  the  leaders 
being  guillotined. 

Girton  College,  the  most  notable  college  for 
women  in  England,  was  instituted  at  Hitchin  in 
1869,  but  removed  to  Girton,  near  Cambridge,  in 
1873.  It  is  the  English  equivalent  for  Vassar. 

Gia  'cier  is  a  name  given  to  immense  masses  of 
ice,  which  are  formed  above  the  snow  line,  on 
lofty  mountains,  and  descend  into  the  valleys  to  a 
greater  or  less  distance,  often  encroaching  on  the 
cultivated  regions.  The  materials  of  the  glaciers 
are  derived  from  the  snow  which  falls  on  the 
summits  of  high  mountains.  Every  fresh  fall  of 
snow  adds  to  the  height  of  the  mountain,  and, 
were  there  no  agents  at  work  to  get  rid  of  it,  the 
mountains  would  be  gradually  rising  to  an  in¬ 
definite  elevation.  Avalanches  and  glaciers,  how¬ 
ever,  carry  the  snow  into  warmer  regions,  where 
it  is  reduced  to  water.  In  the  one,  the  snow  slips 
from  the  steep  mountain  slopes,  and  rushes  rap¬ 
idly  down ;  in  the  other,  it  gradually  descends, 
and  is  converted  into  ice  in  its  progress.  Two 
causes  operate  in  effecting  this  change  into  ice: 
first,  pressure  expels  the  air,  by  bringing  the  par¬ 
ticles  of  the  lower  layers  of  snow  more  closely 
together;  ami  second,  the  summer’s  heat  melting 
the  surface,  the  water  thus  obtained  percolates 
through  the  mass  beneath,  and  as  it  passes 
amongst  the  particles  whose  temperature  is  be¬ 
low  32°  F.,  it  increases  their  size  by  external 
additions  till  the  particles  meet,  and  the  whole  be¬ 
comes  a  solid  mass.  The  increase  of  a  glacier  by 
snow  falling  on  its  surface  takes  place  only  above 
the  snow-line — below  that  line,  all  the  accumu¬ 
lated  winter’s  snows  are  melted  by  the  summer’s 
heat.  The  most  remarkable  feature  of  glaciers 
is  their  motion.  It  has  been  long  known  that  they 
move,  but  it  is  only  within  the  last  few  years  that 
it  has  received  due  attention  from  scientific  men. 
The  account  of  their  observations,  and  the  t  heories 
based  upon  them,  form  one  of  the  most  interest¬ 
ing  chapters  in  the  history  of  glaciers.  See  the 
writings  of  Agassiz,  Forbes,  and  Tyndall.  Gla¬ 
ciers  are  not  necessarily  peculiar  to  any  country 
or  zone,  but  wherever  there  are  mountains  of 
sufficient  height,  they  may  exist.  In  Europe, 
they  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  Alps  and  Norway. 
That  of  Bossous  at  Ghamouni,  which  comes  from 
the  highest  part  of  Mont  Blanc,  reaches  a  point 
5,500  feet  below  the  snow  line,  where  it  is  embo¬ 
somed  among  luxuriant  wood.  In  America,  the 
principal  glacial  formations  arc  found  on  Mount 
Tacoma,  and  on  Mount  St.  Elias;  but  extensive 
glaciers  are  known  to  exist  on  many  peaks  in  the 
Rocky,  Cascade,  Selkirk,  and  Coast  ranges  of 
mountains. 

Gla'cis  (allied  to  glade  in  the  sense  of  a  lawn), 
in  Fortification,  the  slope  of  earth,  usually  turfed, 
which  inclines  from  the  covered-way  toward  the 
country.  Its  object  is  to  bring  assailants,  as  they 


GLADIOLUS. 


430 


GLASS. 


approach,  into  a  con-picuous  line  of  fire  from 
the  parapet  of  the  fortress,  and  also  to  mask  the 
general  works  of  the  place. 

Gladi'olus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Iridece,  with  a  tubular  perianth,  the  limb  of 
which  is  divided  into  six  unequal  segments, 
threaddike,  undivided  stigmas,  and  winged  seeds. 
The  roots  are  bulbous;  the  leaves  linear  or  sword¬ 
shaped,  whence  the  name  (Lat.  a  little  sword). 
The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  produces  the  greater 
number  of  the  known  species,  as  well  as  of  sev¬ 
eral  allied  genera  once  included  in  this.  A  few, 
however,  are  natives  of  other  countries,  and  two 
or  three  are  found  in  Europe.  Most  of  the  spe¬ 
cies  have  flowers  of  great  beauty.  They  are 
propagated  either  by  seed  or  by  offset  bulbs,  and 
in  the  former  way  many  fine  new  varieties  have 
been  produced.  Extraordinary  medicinal  virtues 
were  formerly  ascribed  to  the  bulb  of  G.  com¬ 
munis,  one  of  the  European  species.  The  Hot¬ 
tentots  eat  the  bulbs  of  some  of  the  species,  which 
contain  a  considerable  quantity  of  starch. 

Gladstone,  The  Right  Hon.  William  Ewart, 
statesman,  orator,  and  author,  born  Dec.  29, 
1809,  at  Liverpool.  In  1841  he  became  Vice-Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  Board  of  Trade  in  the  Peel  adminis¬ 
tration,  and  in  1843,  President  of  the  Board. 
He  resigned  office  in  February,  1845,  when  Sir 
R.  Peel  proposed  to  increase  the  endowments  of 
the  College  of  Maynooth.  He  rejoined  the  min¬ 
istry  in  December,  1845,  succeeding  the  Earl  of 
Derby  as  Colonial  Secretary.  In  1847  he  was 
elected  M.P.  for  the  University  of  Oxford,  which 
he  continued  to  represent  for  eighteen  years. 
When  the  Aberdeen  government  fell  before  a 
motion  in  the  House  of  Commons  for  inquiring 
into  the  state  of  the  army  before  Sebastopol, 
Gladstone  continued  for  a  brief  period  a  member 
of  the  Cabinet  of  Lord  Palmerston,  but  soon  re¬ 
tired.  In  1858  Gladstone  accepted  a  special  mis¬ 
sion  of  importance  to  the  Ionian  Islands.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  an  elaborate  work  on 
Homer  and  the  Homeric  Age,  in  3  vols.  In  the 
second  Palmerston  administration,  he  resumed 
the  post  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer.  At  the 
general  election  in  1868,  Southwest  Lancashire 
rejected,  and  Greenwich  returned  him.  Acceding 
to  office  as  First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  at  the  close 
of  that  year,  Gladstone,  in  1869,  disestablished  the 
Irish  Church;  in  1870,  carried  his  Irish  Land  Bill; 
in  1871  abolished,  by  the  exercise  of  the  royal 
prerogative,  purchase  in  the  army,  and  in  1872 
carried  the  BalloCBill.  In  1875  he  retired  from 
the  formal  leadership  of  the  Liberal  party  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  In  March,  1880,  Parliament 
was  dissolved,  and  the  new  elections  gave  the  Lib¬ 
erals  an  overwhelming  majority;  the  most  exciting 
contest  being  that  which  returned  Gladstone  for 
Midlothian.  Ere  the  new  Parliament  met,  Glad¬ 
stone,  again  the  actual  leader  of  the  Liberal 
party,  was  made  Prime  Minister.  He  subse¬ 
quently  resigned  that  office,  but  retains  his  seat 
in  Parliament,  and  is  still  the  foremost  Liberal  in 
all  England.  His  writings  include  Juventus 
Mundi  (1869),  Homeric  SyncJironism,  and  numer¬ 
ous  political  pamphlets. 

Gladwin,  the  county  seat  of  Gladwin  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  600. 

Glagol,  Glagolitza,  Glagolites,  an  ancient 
Slavonic  alphabet,  principally  used  in  several 
Roman  Catholic  dioceses  of  Istria  and  Dalmatia, 
in  the  Psalms,  liturgies,  and  offices  of  the  church. 

Glamorganshire  (in  Welsh,  Gwlad  Morgan), 
the  most  southerly  of  the  counties  of  Wales,  is 
bounded  on  the  south  and  southwest  by  the  Bris¬ 
tol  Channel,  on  the  west  by  the  County  of  Caer- 
marthen,  on  the  north  by  Brecknock,  and  on  the 
east  by  Monmouth.  Area,  516,959  acres;  pop. 
(1881),  511,433. 

Glance  (Ger.  glam),  a  term  often  applied  in 
popular  language,  and  also  by  mineralogists,  to  a 
numerous  order  or  family  of  minerals,  of  which 
galena  or  lead-galena,  may  be  regarded  as  a  type. 
All  of  them  are  metallic,  and  many  of  them  are 
known  by  names  indicating  the  metal  which  is 
their  principal  constituent,  as  lead-galena,  silver- 
galena,  bismuth-galena,  etc. 

Gland  'ers  is  a  malignant  disease  of  the  equine 
species,  characterized  by  the  appearance  within 
the  nostrils  of  little  holes  or  ulcers  remarkable  for 
their  rugged,  inflamed,  undermined  edges,  their 
discharge  of  sticky,  greenish,  unhealthy  pus, 


their  tendency  to  spread,  and  their  resistance  to 
treatment.  The  blood  of  glanderous  subjects  is 
deficient  in  red  globules,  contains  an  excess  of 
albumen  and  fibrine,  and  in  this  vitiated  and  de¬ 
teriorated  state  is  inadequate  properly  to  nourish 
the  body,  which  consequently  becomes  weak  and 
wasted.  The  mucous  membranes  are  also  irrit¬ 
able  and  badly  nourished;  there  is  consequently 
impaired  respiration,  an  obstinate  choking  cough, 
and  relaxed  bowels.  The  lymphatic  glands  and 
vessels  become  inflamed,  and  in  their  swollen  state 
may  be  distinctly  felt  about  the  throat  and  under¬ 
neath  the  jaws,  and  also  in  the  limbs,  where  they 
frequently  run  on  to  ulceration,  constituting 
farcy.  Glanders  is  produced  by  any  cause  which 
interferes  with  the  purity  or  integrity  of  the 
horse’s  blood,  ot:  produces  a  deteriorated  or  de¬ 
praved  state  of  his  system.  It  has  been  frequently 
developed  in  healthy  animals  by  their  breathing 
for  a  short  time  a  close,  impure  almospliere. 
Confined,  overcrowded,  badly  ventilated  stables 
are  almost  equally  injurious,  for  they  prevent  the 
perfect  aeration  of  the  blood,  and  the  prompt  re¬ 
moval  of  its  organic  impurities.  Bad  feeding, 
hard  work,  and  such  reducing  diseases  as  diabetes 
and  influenza,  also  rank  among  the  causes  of 
glanders.  A  small  portion  of  the  nasal  discharge 
from  a  glandcred  horse  coming  in  contact  with 
the  abraded  skin  of  man,  communicates  the  dis¬ 
ease  from  which  so  many  attendants  of  horses 
have  died. 

Glands  are  divided  by  anatomists  into  two 
great  classes — viz.,  true  secreting  glands  and 
ductless  glands.  The  first  class  constitute  spe¬ 
cial  organs,  which  are  destined  for  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  the  chief  secretions;  as,  for  example, 
the  lachrymal,  mammary,  and  salivary  glands, 
the  liver,  pancreas,  kidneys,  etc.,  while  the 
suprarenal  capsules,  the  spleen,  the  thymus, 
and  the  thyroid  belong  to  the  second  class. 
An  ordinary  secreting 
gland  consists  of  an  ag¬ 
gregation  of  follicles, 
all  of  which  open  into  a 
common  duct,  by  which 
the  glandular  product  is 
discharged.  The  follicles 
contain  in  their  interior  cells, 
which  are  the  active  agents 
in  the  secreting  process; 
while  their  exterior  is  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  net-work  of 
capillaries,  from  whose 
contents  the  materials  of 
secretion  are  extracted. 

The  simplest  form  of  a 
gland  is  the  inversion  of  the  surface  of  a  secret¬ 
ing  membrane  into  follicles,  which  discharge 
their  contents  upon  it  by  separate  mouths.  The 
articulata  (for  example,  insects)  present  glandular 
structures  which  can  be  unraveled  much  easier 


than  the  glands  of  vertebrate  animals;  and  the 
forms,  in  all  of  which  a  large  amount  of  secret¬ 
ing  surface  is  presented  in  comparatively  little 
space,  are  often  very  graceful.  In  the  accompany¬ 
ing  group,  the  first  two  represent  different  forms 


of  salivary  glands,  the  third  is  a  reproductive 
gland,  while  the  fourth  and  fifth  are  glands  yield¬ 
ing  the  acrid  matter  which  some  insects  secrete. 
The  mammary  gland,  which  is  a  structure  of 
considerable  complexity  in  the  higher  mammals, 
presents  a  very  simple  arrangement  in  the  lowest 


Mammary  Gland  of  Omithorhynchus. 
type  of  this  class,  the  omithorhynchus,  being 
merely  a  cluster  of  caecal  follicles,  each  of  which 
discharges  its  contents  by  its  own  orifice. 

Glamls,  Diseases  of.  The  lymphatic  glands 
are  subject  to  enlargement  from  acute  inflamma¬ 
tion  and  abscess,  usually  in  consequence  of  irrita¬ 
tion  of  the  part  from  which  their  lymphatics 
spring,  as  in  the  case  of  scarlet  fever,  in  which 
the  glands  of  the  throat  are  effected ;  in  gonorrhoea, 
the  glands  of  the  groin,  etc.  The  treatment  of 
such  abscesses  belongs  to  the  ordinary  principles 
of  surgery.  A  much  more  troublesome  affection 
of  the  glands  is  the  slow,  comparatively  painless, 
at  first  dense  solid  swelling  which  they  undergo 
in  scrofula,  which  tends  slowly,  if  at  all,  to  sup¬ 
puration,  and  sometimes  remains  for  years.  In 
syphilis  and  cancer  there  are  also  enlargements 
of  the  lymphatic  glands.  Scrofulous  or  tubercular 
diseases  of  the  mesenteric  glands  in  children  con¬ 
stitutes  tabes  mesenterica. 

Gla'rns,  a  canton  in  the  Northeast  of  Switzer¬ 
land,  is  bounded  on  the  northeast  by  the  Canton 
of  St.  Gall,  on  the  southeast  by  that  of  the 
Grisons,  and  on  the  west  by  those  of  Schwyz 
and  Uri.  Area,  262  square  miles.  Pop.  (L880), 
34,213. 

Glas'gow,  the  industrial  metropolis  of  Scot¬ 
land,  on  the  Clyde,  is  one  of  the  great  ship-build¬ 
ing  marts  of  the  world.  In  1880,  241  vessels  were 
built,  including  eight  men-of-war,  and  haying  a 
joint  tonnage  of  240,000  tons.  Its  pop.,  includ¬ 
ing  suburbs,  was,  in  1881,  674,095,  and  is  now 
(1889)  estimated  at  750,000. 

Glasgow,  The  University  of,  was  founded 
in  145l"by  Bishop  Turnbull.  In  1864  the  univer¬ 
sity  buildings  and  adjacent  lands  were  sold,  and 
handsome  new  buildings  erected  at  Gilmorehill, 
overlooking  the  West  End  Park,  and  opened  in 
1872.  The  total  cost  was  about  $2,500,000. 

Glasgow,  an  old  and  wealthy  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Barren  county,  Ky.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Glass,  from  the  Fr.  glace  (Lat.  glades),  ice, 
which  it  resembles  in  its  transparency,  is  essen- 


German  Venetian  Glass 

Drinking-glass.  on  open-work  stem. 


tially  a  combination  of  silica  with  some  alkali  or 
alkaline  earth.  Generally  speaking,  it  is  a  silicate 
of  soda,  or  a  combination  of  silica  or  flint  with 


Lobule  of  Parot  id  Gland 
of  an  Infant,  filled  with 
mercury,  and  magni. 
fied  50  diameters. 


GLASS-PAPER. 


431 


GLAUCOMA. 


one  or  more  of  the  salts  of  sodium,  with  the  ad¬ 
dition  of  certain  metallic  oxides,  etc.  Window- 
glass  does  not  appear  till  about  the  third 
century  a.d.  The  great  site  of  the  glass  manu¬ 
factories  of  the  dark  and  middle  ages  was 
Venice,  whither  it  was  transplanted  on  the 
foundation  of  that  city  in  the  seventh  century 
a.d.  Glass-works  were  established  in  1746  at 
Jamestown.  Va. ;  in  1780  at  Temple,  N.  H.;  in  1789 
at  New  Haven;  and  in  1809  at  Boston.  Plate-glass 
was  first  made  there  in  1853.  The  following  table 
gives  the  composition  of  the  chief  kinds  of  glass: 

1.  Window-glass,  including  crown,  sheet,  and  plate:  sili¬ 

cate  or  soda  and  lime. 

2.  Bohemian  crystal-glass:  silicate  of  potash  and  lime. 

Some  window-glass  is  of  this  composition. 

3.  Flint-glass,  often  called  crystal-glass  or  simply  crystal: 

silicate  of  potash  and  lead. 

4.  Bottle-glass,  that  is,  of  the  common  kinds:  silicate  of 

lime  and  alumina;  with  smaller  quantities  of  the  sili¬ 
cates  of  potash  or  soda,  iron  and  manganese;  the 
silicates  of  baryta  and  magnesia  being  also  fre¬ 
quently  present. 

For  the  better  kinds  of  glass,  the  materials 
employed  are  silica,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  sand. 
Sometimes,  for  very  pure  glass,  rock-crystal  is 
used  instead  of  sand;  potash,  as  pearl-ash,  or 
wood-ashes,  or  the  sulphate  of  potash;  soda  in 
the  form  of  carbonate  or  sulphate  of  soda;  lime 
in  the  state  of  marble,  chalk,  or  ordinary  lime¬ 
stone;  baryta,  from  heavy  spar  or  witlierite;  lead 
in  the  form  of  red-lead  (peroxide);  cullet,  or 
broken  glass  of  the  kind  to  be  made.  Glass  pots, 
or  melting-vessels  require  to  be  carefully  made  of 
some  refractory  clay,  since  the  cracking  of  one  in 
the  furnace,  which  sometimes  happens  when  it  is 


Glass  melting  crucible. 

newly  put  in,  is  a  considerable  loss  to  the  manu¬ 
facturer.  The  pots  are  usually  kept  several  months 
in  stock,  after  which  they  are  annealed  by  being 
kept  for  a  few  days  at  a  red  heat,  in  which  state 
they  are  transferred  to  the  glass-furnace  for  use. 
New  pots  require  to  be  glazed  by  throwing  in  a 
quantity  of  broken  glass,  which  protects  them 
from  the  further  action  of  the  materials  used  in 
glass-making.  The  figures  represent  a  pot  for 
window  or  bottle  glass,  and  a  flint-glass  pot,  which 
has  always  a  covered  top.  For  the  dark  varieties 
of  bottle  glass,  such  materials  as  common  sand, 
spent  lime  from  gas-works,  soap-makers’  waste, 
kelp-waste,  brick  dust,  marl,  and  broken  glass 
(cullet)  are  used.  For  lighter-colored  bottles,  a 
purer  sand  and  a  whitish  limestone  are  substituted 
for  dark  sand  and  gas-lime,  and  manganese-waste 
is  added.  Such  bottles  are  made  by  glass-blowers. 
When  the  glass-blower  has  finished  a  bottle,  it  is 
immediately  taken  to  the  annealing-oven,  where  it 
remains  for  some  thirty-six  hours,  during  which 
time  it  cools  gradually  from  almost  a  softening 
heat  to  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  air.  This 
process  is  an  important  one  in  the  manufacture  of 
all  kinds  of  glass,  because,  when  newly  made  into 
vessels  or  sheets,  it  is  so  fragile  that  it  will  scarce¬ 
ly  endure  touching.  The  molecules  are  then 
under  a  strain  from  the  outside  portion  of  the 
glass  cooling  much  quicker  than  the  inner;  but 
this  is  in  a  great  measure  rectified  by  annealing 
it,  and  so  a  proper  strength  is  acquired.  Crown 
and  sheet  glass  are  the  same  in  respect  to  compo¬ 
sition,  and  plate-glass  only  differs  from  them  in 
that  the  proportion  of  lime  is  usually  less,  and  the 
materials  more  carefully  selected  with  regard  to 
purity.  Sheet-glass  is  made  from  mixtures  of 
wdiich  the  following  is  an  example:  Sand,  100; 
quicklime,  32;  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  soda,  40; 
and  cullet,  100  lbs.;  small  quantities  of  those 
bleaching  or  oxidizing  agents  already  noted  being 
added  as  required.  Sheet  or  cylinder  glass  has 
now  almost  entirely  displaced  crown-glass  for 
windows.  The  Bohemian  process,  at  present 
practiced,  was  introduced  from  France  in  1832, 
although  a  very  rude  kind  of  sheet-glass  had  been 
previously  made.  Sheet  is  made  in  a  quite  dif¬ 
ferent,  way  from  crown  glass,  inasmuch  as  a  long 
and  perfect  cylinder  is  sought  to  be  produced  by 


the  blower  instead  of  a  sphere  of  glass.  Some¬ 
times  these  cylinders  are  made  60  inches  in 
length,  allowing  sheets  of  glass  49  inches  in 
length  to  be  made  from  them,  but  the  Belgians 
make  them  much  larger.  In  the  Vienna  exhibition 
they  exhibited  sheets  10x4  feet.  Plate-glass  is 
made  in  a  totally  different  manner  from  crown  or 
sheet.  Great  care  is  taken  in  the  selection  of  the 
materials,  as  they  require  to  be  of  a  purer  kind 
than  those  used  for  ordinary  window-glass.  From 
its  thickness  any  impurity  of  color  is  readily 
noticed,  and,  on  account  of  its  flat  surface  when 
polished,  air-cavities  are  conspicuous  defects.  The 
sand  requires  to  be  as  free  as  possible  from  iron, 
the  staining  power  of  which  is  most  usually  cor¬ 
rected  in  the  case  of  plate-glass  by  the  addition  of 
a  little  arsenious  acid.  Almost  every  manufacturer 
has  his  own  private  recipe  for  the  mixture  of 
materials,  but  the  following  is  one  said  to  be  in 
use:  Fine  white  sand,  well  washed,  720  lbs. ;  sul¬ 
phate  of  soda,  450  lbs. ;  slaked  lime,  180  lbs. ;  nitrate 
of  potash,  25  lbs.;  and  cullet  of  plate-glass,  425 
lbs.  Optical  glass  is  made  both  of  flint  and  crown 
glass.  In  the  case  of  lenses  for  a  telescope,  for 
example,  a  combination  of  the  two  kinds  is  neces¬ 
sary  to  make  it  achromatic — their  unequal  densi¬ 
ties  conferring  upon  them  different  refractive 
powers.  Good  flint-glass  for  optical  purposes  is 
extremely  difficult  to  make,  especially  when  the 
required  slabs  or  discs  are  of  large  size.  It  must 
be  perfectly  homogeneous  and  free  from  striae, 
and  it  -will  be  deficient  in  refractive  power  if  it 
does  not  contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  lead, 
which,  from  its  weight,  has  a  strong  tendency  to 
settle  at  the  bottom  of  the  crucible,  and  so  destroy 
the  homogeneity  of  the  glass.  Much  curiosity 
was  excited  when,  in  1875,  M.  de  la  Bastie,  a 
French  engineer,  announced  that  he  had  suc¬ 
ceeded,  after  many  experiments,  in  making  glass 
so  tough  that  it  could  scarcely  be  broken.  His 
original  process  consists  in  heating  any  piece  or 
pieces  of  glass  till  they  are  about  to  soften,  and 
then  plunging  them  into  a  bath  of  oil  at  a  greatly 
lower  temperature.  Either  from  the  want  of  care 
or  from  some  other  cause,  the  results  of  the  treat¬ 
ment  of  glass  by  his  process  are  not  uniform,  be¬ 
cause  many  samples  of  his  toughened,  or,  as  it 
should  rather  be  called,  hardened,  glass  are  almost 
as  easily  broken  as  ordinary  glass.  Objects,  such 
as  tumblers,  when  allowed  to  fall,  nearly  always 
break  if  they  strike  the  floor  on  the  lip  or  mouth. 
Still,  there  is  no  doubt  that  most  glass  treated  by 
this  process  will  stand  a  great  deal  of  rough  usage, 
and  that  some  examples  are  practically  unbreak¬ 
able.  In  the  case  of  window-glass,  there  is  the 
disadvantage  that  a  diamond  will  not  cut  it,  and 
no  variety  of  glass  so  hardened  can  be  safely  en¬ 
graved  or  cut,  because,  when  the  tool  penetrates 
much  below  the  skin,  the  glass  falls  to  pieces — 
almost  to  dust.  These  defects,  as  well  as  the  high 
price  of  toughened  glass,  have  as  yet  prevented  its 
coming  into  extensive  use. 

Glass-paper,  or  Cloth,  is  made  by  powdering 
glass  more  or  less  finely,  and  sprinkling  it  over 
paper  or  calico  still  wet  with  a  coat  of  thin  glue; 
the  powdered  glass  adheres  as  it  dries.  Glass 
paper  is  extensively  employed  as  a  means  for 
polishing  metal  and  wood-work. 

Glass 'chord,  a  musical  instrument,  with  keys 
like  a  pianoforte,  but  with  bars  of  glass  instead  of 
strings  of  wire.  It  was  invented  in  Paris,  in 
1785,  by  a  German  called  Beyer.  The  name 
glasschord  was  given  to  the  instrument  by 
Franklin. 

Glass-crabs  ( Phyllosomaia ),  a  family  of  crus¬ 


taceans,  of  the  division  Mnlacostracn,  order  Sto- 
mapoda  of  Cuvier,  remarkable  for  the  transpar¬ 


ency  of  their  bodies,  ■whence  their  popular 
name,  whilst  the  scientific  name  (Gr.  leaf-body) 
refers  to  the  great  horizontal  expansion  of  the 
carapace.  They  have  little  resemblance  to 
crabs. 

Glass  Snake  ( Oplrimurm ),  a  genus  of  lizards, 
belonging  to  the  sub-order  Brevilinr/ua,  family 
Ptychopleuridw  ( Zoneuridm ),  and  allied  to  the 
Scincid(e.  There  is  only  one  known  species, 
common  in  the  United  States;  it  is  serpent-like 
in  form,  over  3  feet  long,  and  is  entirely  desti¬ 
tute  of  limbs.  The  body  and  tail  are  marked 
with  transverse  lines  of  black,  green,  and  yellow. 
It  feeds  on  insects,  mollusks,  etc.,  and  can  neither 
climb  nor  swim.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  readi¬ 
ness  with  which  the  joints  of  the  tail  break  off 
upon  any  irritation,  the  joints  thrown  off  being 
soon  reproduced.  The  caudal  muscles  do  not 
pass  from  one  joint  to  another,  so  that  the  break¬ 
ing  of  the  tail  involves  no  rupture  of  muscular 
fibers,  but  only  a  separation  of  one  muscular 
plate  from  another. 

Glass 'wort  ( Salicornia ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Chenopodiacece,  having  uniform 
hermaphrodite 
flowers.  One  spe¬ 
cies  ( 8 .  herbacea),  a 
leafless  plant  with 
jointed  stems,  is 
common  in  salt 
marshes.  It  makes 
a  good  pickle,  and 
is  sometimes  sold 
for  this  purpose. 

Several  s  p  e  ci  e  s 
grow  abundantly 
on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean;  and 
as  they  contain  a 
large  quantity  of 
soda,  are  used  in 
making  barilla, 
along  with  the  spe¬ 
cies  of  saltwort. 

Glau'ber’s  -  salt 
(so  called  from 
Glauber,  who  dis-  Glasswort  (Salicornia  herbacea). 
covered  it  in  1658)  is  a ,  joints  of  stem  bearing  flowers; 
the  popular  name  of  style ;  c,  stamen, 

the  neutral  sulphate  of  soda,  whose  chemical  com¬ 
position  is  represented  by  the  formula  Na2S04, 
10H2O.  It  occurs  in  long  four-sided  translucent 
prisms,  terminated  by  dihedral  summits,  and  con¬ 
taining  ten  atoms  of  water.  On  exposure  to  the 
air,  the  crystals  lose  all  their  water,  and  become 
resolved  into  a  white  powder.  When  heated, 
they  readily  melt  in  their  water  of  crystallization; 
and  if  the  heat  is  sufficiently  continued,  the  whole 
of  the  water  is  expelled,  and  the  anhydrous  salt 
remains.  Glauber’s-salt  has  a  cooling,  bitter,  and 
saltish  taste;  it  is  readily  soluble  in  water;  its 
solubility  (in  the  ordinary  crystalline  form)  in¬ 
creasing  up  to  92°,  when  it  appears  to  undergo  a 
molecular  change,  and  to  be  converted  into  the 
anhydrous  salt,  which  at  this  temperature  is  less 
soluble  than  the  hydrated  compound,  and  sepa¬ 
rates  in  minute  crystals.  Glauber’s-salt  is  a  con¬ 
stituent  of  many  mineral  waters,  and  occurs  in 
small  quantity  in  the  blood  and  other  animal 
fluids.  It  occurs,  under  the  name  of  Thenardile, 
near  Madrid,  in  the  form  of  anhydrous  octahe- 
dra  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  some  saline  lakes; 
and  is  found  combined  with  sulphate  of  lime,  as 
Glauberite  (Na2S04,  CaS04),  in  the  valley  of  the 
Ebro.  It  is  used  as  a  common  purgative,  and  is 
especially  applicable  in  fevers  and  inflammatory 
affections,  when  it  is  necessary  to  evacuate  the 
bowels  without  increasing  or  exciting  febrile  dis¬ 
turbance.  The  usual  dose  is  from  half  an  ounce 
to  an  ounce;  but  if  it  is  previously  dried,  so  as  to 
expel  the  water  of  crystallization,  it  becomes 
doubly  efficient  as  a  purgative.  It  is  now  much 
less  frequently  used  in  domestic  medicine  than 
formerly,  having  given  place  to  milder  ape¬ 
rients. 

Glauco'ma  {QwyXavKoS,  sea-green),  an  opac¬ 
ity  of  the  vitreous  humor  of  the  eye,  characterized 
by  a  bluish  tint  seen  from  without,  and  the  ab- 
senceof  t he  peculiar  characters  of  cataract,  which, 
in  some  respects,  it  resembles,  as  regards  the  grad¬ 
ual  obscuration  of  vision.  It  is  an  almost  incur¬ 
able  disease. 


GLAUCUS. 


432 


GLUCINUM. 


Glan'cns,  a  genus  of  mollusks,  referred  to  the 
class  Gasteropoda,  but 
having  no  distinct  re- 
spi  rat  o  ry  o  r  ga  ns. 

These  small  mollusks — 
about  an  inch  and 
three-quarters  long,  of 
a  blue  color,  and  ex¬ 
tremely  delicate  and 
beautiful — inhabit  the 
tropical  parts  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
float  inertly  with  ir¬ 
regular  movements  of 
the  slender  branches  Glaucus  Atlanticus. 
of  their  fins  on  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Giaux,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Primulacece,  having  a  five- 
lobed  calyx,  no  corolla,  and  a 
five-valved  capsule,  with  about 
five  seeds.  G.  marilima,  some¬ 
times  called  sea  milkwort  and 
black  saltwort,  is  one  of  the 
most  common  plants  of  the  sea- 
coasts.  It  is  a  small  plant, 
with  branching  stems,  often 
procumbent,  and  small,  fleshy 
leaves.  It  makes  a  good 
pickle. 

Glee,  a  vocal  composition  for 
three  or  more  voices,  and  in 
one  or  more  movements.  The 
style  of  music  of  the  glee  is 
peculiar  to  England,  and  quite 
different  from  the  part  songs  of 
Germany. 

Glencoe',  a  valley  famous  a 
for  the  terrible  massacre  com¬ 
mitted  there,  and  for  the  wild¬ 
ness  and  sublimity  of  its  scenery 
is  iu  the  north  of  Argyleshire, 


Scotland.  In  February,  1692, 


Sea  M  ilk  w  ort  ( Glaux 


the  entire  clan  of  Macdonald  of  maritima) . 
Glencoe  were  murdered  in  cold  a,  a  flower.  _ 
blood  by  British  soldiers  under  the  orders  of  John 
Dalrymple,  afterward  Earl  of  Stair. 

Glencoe,  a  thrifty  agricultural  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  McLeod  county,  Minn.  Pop. ,  1,555. 

Glemlive,  the  commercial  center  of  an  extensive 
stock-growing  interest,  and  the  county  seat  of 
Dawson  county,  Mont.  Pop.,  800. 

Glen  Rose,  the  county  seat  of  Somervell  county, 
Tex.,  is  on  the  Brazos  river.  Pop.,  275. 

Glenville,  the  county  seat  of  Gilmer  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  236. 

Glenwood,  an  important  farming  town,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Mills  county,  Iowa.  Pop., 
2,100. 

Glenwood,  the  county  seat  of  Pope  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  485. 

Glenwood  Springs,  an  important  mining  cen¬ 
ter,  and  the  county  seat  of  Garfield  county,  Colo. 
Pop.,  2,500. 

Gliddon,  George  R.,  American  Egyptologist, 
antiquary,  and  ethnologist,  boru  in  1807.  He 
filled,  for  several  years,  the  post  of  United  States 
Consul  at  Cairo.  His  earliest  work,  Ancient 
Egypt,  her  Monuments,  Hieroglyphics,  History, 
and  Archaeology ,  etc.,  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  He  died  in  1857. 

Gli'res  (Lat.  plural  of  glis,  a  dormouse),  in  the 
Linnaean  system  of  zoology,  an  order  of  mam¬ 
malia  almost  exactly  corresponding  to  the  Rodentia 
of  Cuvier  and  other  more  recent  naturalists. 

Globe,  an  important  ranch  town,  and  the  county 
seat  of  Gila  county,  Ariz.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Globe-flower  ( Trollius),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Ranvnculacece,  having  a  calyx 
of  colored  (yellow)  sepals,  in  number  five  or  some 
multiple  of  five,  the  petals  small  and  linear. 
There  are  several  species,  natives  of  the  colder 
parts  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere. 

Globes.  A  globe  is  a  round  or  spherical  body, 
and  in  the  singular  number  the  word  is  often 
used  to  signify  the  earth,  but  by  globes  is  usually 
meant  a  pair  of  artificial  globes  used  as  a  part  of 
school-room  apparatus.  These  globes  are  hollow 
spheres  of  card-board,  coated  with  a  composition 
of  whiting,  glue,  and  oil,  upon  which  paper  bear¬ 
ing  certain  delineations  is  laid.  On  one  of  the 
pair — the  celestial  globe  —  are  represented  the 
stars,  so  placed  that,  to  an  eye  supposed  to  ob¬ 


serve  them  from  the  center  of  the  globe,  their 
relative  position  and  distance  correspond  to  those 
actually  observed;  while  on  the  terrestrial  globe 
the  distribution  of  land  and  water,  the  divisions 
and  subdivisions  of  the  former,  together  with  a 
few  of  the  most  important  places,  are  laid  down 
in  the  positions  corresponding  to  those  which 
they  actually  occupy  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  usual  mode  of  manufacture  is  as  follows:  A 
ball  of  wood  or  iron  is  used  as  a  matrix,  and  a 
layer  of  damped  paper  is  carefully  and  closely 
placed  upon  this,  without  paste,  and  other  layers 
are  successively  pasted  over  the  first  one;  ordi¬ 
nary  card-board  is  thus  produced,  but  instead  of 
being  flat,  as  usual,  it  forms  a  spherical  shell. 
When  sufficiently  thick,  this  is  cut  into  two  hemi¬ 
spheres,  the  section  being  made  in  the  line  of  the 
intended  equator.  The  hemispheres  are  then  taken 
off  the  matrix,  and  again  glued  together  on  an 
axis,  and  the  w-hiting  composition  laid  on,  the 
outside  of  which  is  smoothed  and  finished  to 
shape  in  a  lathe.  The  workman  has  to  lay  on 
this  composition  so  as  to  balance  the  globe,  in 
order  that  it  may  rest  at  whatever  point  it  is 
turned.  The  smooth  surface  is  now  marked  with 
the  lines  of  latitude  and  longitude,  and  is  covered 
with  the  paper  on  which  the  required  geographi¬ 
cal  or  astronomical  delineations  are  engraved.  In 
order  to  adapt  the  plane  surface  of  the  paper  to 
the  curvature  of  the  sphere,  it  is  printed  in 
pieces,  small  circles  for  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic 
regions,  and  the  rest  in  lens-shaped  gores,  vary¬ 
ing  from  20°  to  30°  of  longitude,  and  meeting 
these  circles  which  are  pasted  first.  Great  care  is 
required  in  laying  on  these  curved  pieces,  so  that 
their  edges  shall  meet  exactly  without  overlap¬ 
ping.  The  surface  is  then  colored  and  strongly 
varnished,  and  mounted  in  its  frame  and  stand. 

Glob'uline,  or  Crystalline,  is  one  of  the 
proteine  bodies  or  albuminates.  In  association 
with  haematine,  as  lisemato-globulin,  it  is  the  main 
ingredient  of  the  blood  globules;  and  it  occurs, 
mixed  with  albumen,  in  the  cells  of  the  crystal¬ 
line  lens  of  the  eye,  forming,  according  to  Simon, 
from  10  to  14  per  cent,  of  the  dry  lens.  Hence 
its  twro  names.  In  most  of  its  relations  it  resembles 
albumen,  but  differs  from  that  substance  in  being 
precipitated  both  from  acid  and  alkaline  solutions 
by  exact  neutralization,  and  in  being  completely 
thrown  down  from  its  solutions  by  carbonic  acid 
gas. 

Glo'bus  Hystericus,  or  Ball  in  the  Tiiroat, 
the  name  applied  to  a  peculiar  sensation  described 
under  Hysterlv. 

Glock'ner,  or  Gross  Glockner,  the  highest 
peak  of  the  Noric  Alps,  is  on  the  boundary 
between  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  and  Upper  Austria, 
and  is  12,431  feet  in  height. 

Glom'men,  or  Stor-Elv  ( i .  e.,  great  river),  the 
largest  river  in  Norway,  rises  from  Lake  Aursund, 
in  latitude  about  62°  40'  N.,  and  longitude  11° 
16'  E.  Its  length  is  about  320  miles. 

Glo  'ria,  a  hymn  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
service,  beginning  with  the  words,  “  Gloria  in 
exrelsis  Deo. ”  Its  place  in  the  mass  is  after  the 
introitus,  except  on  the  penitential  days  iu  Advent 
and  during  Lent,  wdien  it  is  omitted. 

Glorio'sa,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Liliacece,  having  a  perianth  of  six  elongated 
and  reflexed  segments,  a  three-lobed  stigma,  a 
three-celled  superior  germen,  and  globose  seeds. 
The  best  known  species,  G.  superb/,  a  native  of 
India, is  a  herbaceous  perennial  with  a  weak  stem, 
6  to  10  inches  high,  alternate  leaves  terminat¬ 
ing  in  tendrils,  and  very  beautiful  flowers,  finely 
colored  with  red  and  yellow. 

Glorious  Virgin,  or  St.  Mary  the  Glorious, 
an  order  of  knighthood  in  Venice,  founded  by 
Bartholomew  of  Vicenza. 

Gloss  (in  biblical  criticism),  (Gr.  y\o66a,  glossa, 
tongue,  or  language),  an  explanation  of  purely 
verbal  difficulties  of  the  text,  to  the  exclusion  of 
those  which  arise  from  doctrinal,  historical,  ritual, 
or  ceremonial  sources. 

Glossi'tis  (Gr.  yhodtia,  the  tongue),  inflamma¬ 
tion  of  the  tongue.  The  disease  in  its  most  acute 
form  is  rare;  it  is  sometimes  due  to  injury,  or  to 
scald ;  in  other  cases,  to  the  action  of  mercury  on  the 
system.  The  tongue  becomes  enormously  swollen, 
and  one  of  the  chief  dangers  of  the  attack  is  suf¬ 
focation  from  swelling  of  the  parts  above  the 
hyoid  bone,  and  closure  thereby  of  the  glottis. 


The  only  really  effective  treatment  is  to  make 
pretty  deep  incisionsinto  the  inflamed  part,  keep¬ 
ing  in  view  that  the  resulting  wouud  is  likely  to 
be  much  less  than  appears  at  the  time;  for  the 
enlargement  of  ihe  organ  has  stretched  the  mucous- 
membrane,  and  infiltrated  all  the  textures  with 
fluid,  while  the  vessels  also  are  distended  with 
blood. 

Gloucester,  a  city  of  England.  Pop.,  36,552. 
Gloucester  is  an  old  cathedral  town,  and  an  im¬ 
portant  port. 

Gloucester,  a  city,  seaport,  and  fishing-station 
of  Massachusetts,  is  on  the  south  side  of  Cape 
Ann,  about  twenty-eight  miles  northeast  of  Bos¬ 
ton.  Pop.  (1885),  21,713. 

Gloucester,  the  county  seat  of  Gloucester 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  500. 

Gloucester  City,  an  important  manufacturing 
city  in  Camden  county,  N.  J.  It  is  on  the  Dela¬ 
ware  river,  nearly  opposite  Philadelphia,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  several  ferries  and  lines 
of  railroad.  Pop.,  5,966. 

Gloucestershire,  a  county  of  England,  lying 
about  the  lower  course  of  the  Severn  and  its  estu¬ 
ary,  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  Monmouth  and 
Hereford,  on  the  north  by  Worcester  and  War¬ 
wickshire,  on  the  east  by  Oxford  and  Berks,  and 
on  the  south  by  Somerset  and  Wilts.  Area, 
804,977  acres;  pop.  (1881),  572,480. 

Gloves.  The  term  kid,  as  used  in  the  glove 
trade,  is  a  mere  technicality,  as  the  quantity  an¬ 
nually  consumed  of  leather  bearing  this  name  is 
largely  in  excess  of  what  could  be  supplied  from 
the  skins  of  all  the  young  goats  that  are  annually 
slaughtered  It  is  chiefly  made  from  lamb’s  skin. 
A  few  of  the  finest  gloves  are  made  from  real 
kid  skins,  obtained  from  those  countries  wdiere 
goats’  milk  and  flesh  are  articles  of  food.  Dog¬ 
skin,  buck-skin,  and  doe-skin  gloves  are  made 
chiefly  from  sheep-skin;  some  of  the  thickest 
kinds  of  leather  gloves  are  made  from  calf-skin. 
The  leather  in  all  cases  undergoes  a  much  lighter 
dressing  than  when  used  for  boots  and  shoes. 

Gloversville,  a  town  in  Fulton  county,  N.  Y., 
chiefly  noted  for  its  extensive  manufactory  of 
gloves  and  mittens,  which  was  begun  here  in 
1803.  The  town  now  contains  140  establishments 
devoted  to  that  industry.  Pop.,  7,133. 

Glow-worm,  the  name  given  to  the  wingless 
females  of  certain  coleopterous  insects  of  the  fam¬ 
ily  Lampyridce,  remarkable  for  the  luminosity  of 
some  of  the  last  segments  of  the  abdomen.  The 
insects  of  the  family  Lampyridce  have  five  joints 
in  all  the  tarsi,  the  antennae  toothed,  the  elytra 
(wing-covers) — at  least  of  the  males — covering  the 


z 


Glow-worm  (Lampyris  noctiluca). 
1,  male;  2,  female. 


whole  abdomen,  the  whole  body  soft  and  the 
elytra  flexible;  the  females  often  destitute  both  of 
wings  and  elytra,  the  thorax  projecting  over  and 
almost  concealing  the  head.  When  seized,  they 
place  their  feet  and  antennae  close  to  the  body, 
many  of  them  also  curving  the  abdomen  down¬ 
ward,  and  simulate  death. 

Gluci'na  (more  correctly,  Glycina,  from  Gr. 
y, IvhvS,  glykys,  sweet),  derives  its  name  from  its 
salts  having  a  sweetish  taste.  It  was  discovered 
by  Vauquelin,  in  1797,  in  the  emerald,  and  has 
since  been  found  in  cymophane,  clirysoberyl, 
phenokite,  the  gadolinites,  leucophane,  and  bel- 
vine;  but  in  consequence  of  the  great  difficulty  of 
preparing  it,  its  properties  and  combinations  have 
not  been  much  studied. 

Gluci'num  (symbol,  Gl),  known  also  as  Gly- 
cinum,  Glycium,  and  Beryllium,  is  a  metal 
whose  atomic  weight  is  9.4;  its  specific  gravity  is 
2.1.  It  is  white,  malleable,  and  fusible  below  the 
melting-point  of  silver.  It  does  not  burn  in  air, 
oxygen,  or  sulphur,  but  in  the  first  two  sub¬ 
stances  it  becomes  covered  with  a  thin  coat  of 
oxide.  It  combines  readily  with  chlorine,  iodine. 


GLUCOSE. 


433 


GNOSTICS. 


and  silicon.  Even  when  heated  to  redness,  it 
does  not  decompose  water. 

Glu 'cose  (or,  more  correctly,  Glycose),  known 
also  as  Grape  Sugar,  Starch  Sugar,  and  Dia¬ 
betic  Sugar  (CgHi206  +  2H20),  seldom  occurs 
in  distinct,  well-formed  crystals,  but  may  be 
obtained  in  warty  concretions,  which,  when  ex¬ 
amined  under  the  microscope,  are  found  to  con¬ 
sist  of  minute  rhombic  tablets.  It  is  less  sweet 
than  ordinary  (cane)  sugar,  and  is  soluble  in 
water  and  in  dilute  alcohol.  The  two  chief  vari¬ 
eties  are  distinguished  by  their  action  on  polarized 
light — dextrog'lucose,  which  turns  the  plane  of 
polarization  to  the  right,  and  lsevoglucose,  which 
turns  it  to  the  left.  Glucose  is  a  constitueut  of 
the  juice  of  grapes,  plums,  cherries,  figs,  and 
many  other  sweet  fruits,  and  may  often  be  ob¬ 
served  in  a  crystalline  form  on  raisins,  dried  figs, 
etc.  It  also  occurs  in  honey.  The  simplest 
method  of  preparing  pure  glucose  is  by  treating 
honey  with  cold  rectified  spirit,  which  extracts 
the  uncrystallizable  sugar;  the  residue  isdissolved 
in  water,  and  the  solution  is  decolorized  with 
animal  charcoal,  and  allowed  to  crystallize.  It 
is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  from  starch,  ob¬ 
tained  from  corn. 

Glucosu'ria,  a  modern  name  for  diabetes 
mellitus,  and  indicative  of  its  characteristic  symp¬ 
tom,  the  presence  of  sugar  in  the  urine. 

G1  ue,  Marine,  a  cementing  composition  used 
in  ship- building,  and  foi  other  purposes  where 
the  materials  are  exposed  to  the  influence  of  wet. 

Glume,  in  Botany,  a  small  bract  or  scale,  in  the 
axil  of  which  there  grows  either  a  single  flower 
destitute  of  perianth,  as  in  the  Gyperacece,  and  in 
some  of  the  grasses;  or,  as  in  others  of  the  grasses, 
a  spikelet  composed  of  a  number  of  flowers 
(florets).  The  grasses  (Gramme®)  and  Cyperaceai 
are  sometimes  conjoined  under  the  appellation 
glumaceous  plants. 

Glu'ten  is  one  of  the  most  important  constit¬ 
uents  of  the  varieties  of  corn  used  as  food.  It  is 
obtained  by  mixing  flour  with  water,  and  thus 
forming  a  paste  or  dough.  This  paste  is  placed 
in  a  bag  of  flue  linen,  and  kneaded  in  water, 
which  must  be  repeatedly  changed,  till  it  ceases 
to  assume  a  milky  appearance.  A  gray,  tenacious, 
viscous,  tasteless  substance,  having  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  bird-lime,  is  left  in  the  bag.  This  sub¬ 
stance  consists  mainly  of  gluten,  mixed  with 
traces  of  bran,  starch  and  of  oily  matter.  The 
gluten  thus  obtained  from  wheat  and  from  rye  is 
far  more  tenacious  than  that  obtained  from  the 
other  cereals,  and  it  is  the  great  tenacity  of  this 
constituent  that  especially  fits  these  flours  for  con¬ 
version  into  bread.  The  action  of  gluten  in  the 
manufacture  of  bread  is  probably  a  double  one; 
It  induces,  by  constant  action,  an  alteration  of  the 
starch,  and  subsequent  fermentation,  while  by 
its  tenacity  it  prevents  the  escape  of  carbonic  acid 
gas. 

Glut'ton  ( Gulo ),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  usually 
referred  to  the  bear  family  (Ursula:),  but  which 
constitutes  an  interesting  connecting  link  between 
that  and  the  weasel  family  ( Mustelidce ),  agreeing 
more  nearly  with  the  latter  in  dentition,  although 
approaching  to  the  former  in  the  plantigrade 
character.  There  are  three  false  molars  in  the 
upper,  and  four  in  the  lower  jaw,  anterior  to  the 
carnivorous  tooth,  which  Is  large  and  sharp.  The 
body  is  long,  the  legs  are  short,  the  feet  have 
each  five  deeply-divided  toes,  terminated  by  long 


Glutton  (Gulo  arcticus). 


curved  claws.  The  tail  is  rather  short,  a  fold 
beneath  the  tail  supplies  the  place  of  the  glaudular 
pouch  of  the  badgers;  but  when  hard  pressed  by 


enemies,  gluttons  emit  a  peculiar  fluid  of  a  strong 
musky  odor.  Their  habits  are  nocturnal.  The 
species  commonly  called  glutton,  and  also 
wolverene,  G.  arcticus ),  is  a  native  of  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  Closely 
allied  to  the  glutton  are  the  grison  and  the  rate!. 
Bone-caverns  and  some  of  the  newest  deposits 
exhibit  remains  of  more  than  one  species  £f  glut¬ 
ton. 

Glyc'erine  (C3He03),  known  also  as  hydrated 
oxide  of  lipyl,  or  hydrated  oxide  of  glyceryl,  was 
discovered  by  Scheele  in  1779,  who  obtained  it  in 
the  preparation  of  lead  plaster,  and  named  it  “  the 
sweet  principle  of  oils.”  It  is  a  colorless,  viscid, 
neutral,  uncrystallizable,  inodorous  fluid,  of  a 
sweet  taste;  is  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol  in  all 
proportions,  but  is  nearly  insoluble  in  ether.  The 
glycerine  of  commerce  is  principally  obtained  by 
treating  heated  animal  fats  with  alkalies.  Glyc¬ 
erine  occurs  ready  formed  in  a  few  fats  (as,  for 
example,  old  palm-oil),  and,  according  to  Pasteur, 
is  contained  in  all  fermented  liquors,  and  especially 
in  wine,  its  quantity  frequently  amounting  to  3 
per  cent,  of  the  fermented  sugar.  It  is  a  product 
of  the  saponification  of  the  various  fats,  although  it 
does  not  exist  as  glycerine,  but  rather  as  a  sub¬ 
stance  having  the  composition  represented  by  the 
formula  CeHioCL.  The  uses  of  glycerine  are 
numerous.  In  medicine,  it  is  employed  as  a  local 
application  in  diseases  of  the  skin  and  of  the  ear; 
and  it  is  used  internally  as  a  solvent  for  many 
drugs.  It  is  a  valuable  preservative  fluid  for 
small  and  delicate  anatomical  preparations,  and 
it  has  been  applied  to  the  preservation  of  meat. 
It  is  used  in  perfumery,  in  the  manufacture  of 
beer,  in  calico  printing,  and  in  the  preparation  of 
leather.  Large  quantities  of  glycerine  are  required 
for  the  production  of  nitro-glycerine,  dynamite, 
and  other  explosives. 

Gly'cine,  Gly'cocine,  Gly'cocoll,  or  Sugar 
of  Gelatine  (C2II5N02),  occurs  in  colorless, 
transparent,  rhombic  prisms,  which  have  a  sweet 
taste,  and  are  devoid  of  odor.  It  is  very  soluble 
in  water,  the  solution  having  no  effect  on  veg¬ 
etable  colors,  but  is  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  in 
ether.  Glycine  combines  both  with  acids  (as 
hydrochloric,  nitric,  sulphuric,  and  oxalic  acid) 
and  with  metallic  oxides,  and  the  compounds  in 
both  cases  are  soluble  and  crystallizable;  they 
are,  however,  of  no  great  importance. 

Gly'cogen  (C6H10O8,H2O,  according  to  the 
analysis  of  Pelouze)  is  a  substance  which,  in  its 
properties,  seems  intermediate  between  starch  and 
dextrine.  In  contact  with  saliva,  pancreatic  juice, 
diastase,  or  with  the  blood  or  parenchyma  of  the 
liver,  it  is  converted  into  glycose,  and  hence  its 
name  of  glycogen.  It  occurs  only  in  the  cells  of 
the  liver,  where  it  exists  as  an  amorphous  mat¬ 
ter;  but  in  the  early  stage  of  foetal  life,  before 
the  liver  begins  to  discharge  its  functions,  instead 
of  being  found  in  that  organ,  it  exists  in  special 
cells  in  the  foetal  structures  known  as  the  placenta 
and  the  amnion,  and  in  the  muscles,  horny  tis¬ 
sues,  etc.  In  severe  forms  of  disease,  and  espe¬ 
cially  in  febrile  affections,  it  seems  to  be  tempo¬ 
rarily  absent  from  the  liver. 

Glycol  is  the  type  of  a  new  class  of  artificial 
compounds,  whose  existence  was  inferred,  and 
afterward  discovered,  a  few  years  ago,  by  Wurtz. 
In  their  chemical  relation  and  properties,  they 
form  an  intermediate  series  between  the  mono¬ 
basic  or  monatomic  alcohols,  of  which  common 
alcohol  is  the  type  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  class 
of  bodies  of  which  ordinary  glycerine  is  the  type, 
on  the  other.  The  name  of  glycol,  formed  from 
the  first  syllable  of  glycerine  and  the  last  of 
alcohol,  has  been  given  to  express  this  relation. 

Glycos'mis,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Aurantiactw,  trees,  natives  of  the  East 
Indies  and  the  Mascarene  Islands.  The  fruit  of 
G.  citrifolia,  an  East  Indian  species,  is  deli¬ 
cious. 

Glyp'todon  (Greek,  yXvnreiv,  to  engrave; 
odov ,  atooth),  a  gigantic  fossil  animal  belonging 
like  the  megatherium  and  the  mylodon,  to  the  Eden¬ 
tata,  but  of  the  family  of  the  Dasypidcu  or  arma¬ 
dillos.  It  is  found  in  the  post-tertiary  deposits 
of  the  pampas  of  South  America,  and  four  species 
have  been  described.  The  back  and  sides  of  the 
creature  were  covered  with  a  carapace  of  thick, 
polygonal  bony  plates,  which  in  some  cases  was 
nearly  six  feet  long.  Its  teeth,  eight  in  each  jaw, 


had  each  two  lateral  sculptured  grooves,  whence 
the  name. 

Gmelin,  Leopold,  a  German  chemist,  born  in 
August,  1788,  and  died  in  April,  1853.  He  pub¬ 
lished  several  valuable  works  on  chemistry, 
among  which  his  Handbook  is  best  known. 

Gmeli'na,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Verbenacece,  having  a  small  4 — 5  toothed  calyx, 
and  a  large,  obliquely  bell-shaped  corolla.  G. 
arborea,  called  goombar,  or  koombar,  in  India, 
is  the  most  valuable  for  its  timber,  which  resem¬ 
bles  teak,  but  is  closer  in  grain,  and  lighter. 

Gnat  ( Culex ),  a  genus  of  dipterous  insects, 
having  the  wings  laid  flat  on  the  back  when  at 
rest;  the  antenme  thread-like,  fourteen-jointed, 
feathery  in  the  male,  and  hairy  in  the  female; 
the  mouth  furnished  with  a  long,  projecting  pro¬ 
boscis,  adapted  for  piercing  the  skin  of  animals 


Gnat,  magnified. 

1,  insect  depositing  eggs;  2,  insect  escaping  from  pupa 
case ;  3,  larva  of  gnat;  4,  floating  raft  of  eggs. 

and  sucking  their  blood.  They  are  said  to  feed 
also  on  vegetable  juices.  The  species  are  numer¬ 
ous,  and  abound  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world, 
particularly  in  marshy  regions;  and  some  of  them, 
under  the  name  of  mosquitoes,  are  known  in  many 
countries  as  most  annoying  pests. 

Gneiss,  a  term  introduced  from  the  German  os 
the  name  for'  a  variety  of  metamorphic  rock, 
which  has  the  same  component  materials  as 
granite,  and  differs  from  it  only  in  these  materi¬ 
als  being  arranged  in  layers,  rather  than  in 
an  apparently  confused  aggregated  mass.  The 
minerals  of  which  it  is  composed  are  quartz,  feld¬ 
spar,  and  mica.  The  mica  is  sometimes  replaced 
by  hornblende,  producing  a  gneiss  corresponding 
to  the  variety  of  granite  called  syenite. 

Gnome  (Gr.  yvoye,  gnome),  a  pithy  and  sen¬ 
tentious  saying,  commonly  in  verse,  embodying 
some  moral  sentiment  or  precept.  The  gnome 
belongs  to  the  same  generic  clflss  with  the  prov¬ 
erb;  but  it  differs  from  a  proverb  in  wanting 
that  common  and  popular  acceptance  which 
stamps  the  proverb,  as  it  were,  with  public 
authority.  In  the  Bible,  the  Book  of  Proverbs, 
part  of  Ecclesiastes,  and  still  more  the  apocryphal 
book  of  Ecclesiasticus,  present,  so  far  as  regards 
language  and  structure,  numberless  illustrations 
of  the  highest  form  of  this  composition. 

Gnome,  the  name  given  in  the  cabalistic  and 
mediaeval  mythology  to  one  of  the  classes  of  im¬ 
aginary  beings  which  are  supposed  to  be  the  pre¬ 
siding  spirits  in  the  mysterious  operations  of 
nature  in  the  mineral  and  vegetable  world.  They 
have  their  dwelling  within  the  earth,  where  they 
preside  especially  over  its  treasures,  and  are  of 
both  sexes,  male  and  female. 

Gno'mon.  When  a  rectangle  is  divided  into 
four  parts  by  cross  lines  parallel  to  its  sides,  the 
sum  of  any  three  of  the  parts  is  called  the  gnomon. 
See  Euclid,  b.  ii,  prop.  5,  aud  seq. — Gnomon  has 
also  a  meaning  in  dialing. 

Guos'tics  (from  Gr.  yvodKEiv,  to  know),  the 
collective  term  for  a  number  of  early  Christian  sects 
which  were  known  besides — with  one  exception — 
by  special  names  derived  from  their  respective 
founders.  The  word  gnosis,  when  first  applied 
to  revealed  religion,  in  many  passages  both  of  the 
Septuagint  (for  the  Heb.  dealt)  and  the  New 
Testament,  expressed  a  full  and  comprehensive 
acquaintance  with,  and  insight  into,  the  received 
laws  and  tenets,  ritual  and  ethical,  and  was  conse¬ 
quently  praised  as  a  desirable  acquirement. 


28 


GNU. 


434 


GOITER. 


Gmi  ( Catoblepa s),  a  genus  of  ruminant  quad¬ 
rupeds,  generally  ranked  with  the  antelope 
family  (Antilopidce),  but  which  some  place  in  the 
ox  family  (Bovidce),  and  of  which  the  best-known 
species  has  been  often  described  as  apparently 


made  up  of  parts  of  different  animals,  not  only 
of  the  antelope  and  the  ox  or  buffalo,  but  even  of 
the  horse.  This  species  ( C.  gnu  or  Antilope  gnu) 
is  a  native  of  South  Africa. 

Go'a,  a  city  of  Hindustan,  on  the  Malabar 
coast,  in  latitude  15°  30'  N.,  and  longitude  74° 
E.,  while  the  dependent  territory  of  the  same 
name  stretches  in  N.  latitude  from  14°  53'  to  15° 
48',  and  in  E.  longitude  from  73°  43'  to  74°  24', 
containing  1,062  square  miles,  and  (1877)  392,604 
inhabitants. 

Goalpa'ra,  a  district  of  British  India,  stretches 
in  N.  latitude  from  25°  40'  to  26°  31 ',  and  in  E. 
longitude  from  89°  42'  to  91°  8',  containing  4,433 
square  miles,  and  (1872)  444,761  inhabitants. 

Goat  (Capra),  a  genus  of  ruminant  quadrupeds 
of  the  family  Capridce,  so  closely  allied  to  the 
sheep  that  it  is  not  easy  exactly  to  define  the  dis¬ 
tinction,  although  the  common  domestic  goat  and 
sheep  are  of  widely  different  appearance.  One 
of  the  most  marked  of  the  distinguishing  charac¬ 
ters  is,  that  the  horns  of  goats  are  directed  up¬ 
ward,  backward,  and  outward,  whilst  those 
of  sheep  are  more  or  less  spirally  twisted.  Goats 
are  found  wild  only  in  mountainous  countries; 
they  all  exhibit  a  great  aptitude  for  scrambling 
among  rocks  and  bushes,  are  extremely  sure¬ 
footed  on  narrow  ledges  and  pinnacles,  and  dis¬ 
play  great  strength  and  agility  in  leaping. — The 
Common,  or  Domestic  Goat (C.  Mr cuh) has  existed 


as  a  domestic  animal  from  the  earliest  ages;  it  is 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  books  of  Moses,  and 
formed  a  large  portion  of  the  flocks  of  the  pa¬ 
triarchs.  Goats  can  be  kept  with  advantage  in 
situations  too  rocky,  or  where  the  herbage  is  too 
scanty  for  oxen  or  sheep.  The  uses  of  the  goat 
are  numerous.  The  flesh  is  edible;  that  of  the 
kid  is  in  most  countries  esteemed  a  delicacy.  The 
milk  is  rich  and  nutritious,  more  easy  of  diges¬ 
tion  than  that  of  the  cow,  and  is  often  useful  to 
consumptive  patients.  Both  cheese  and  butter 
are  made  of  goats’  milk;  they  have  a  peculiar 
but  not  disagreeable  flavor.  Goats’  milk  is  still 
used  in  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  as  it 
was  in  the  days  of  the  patriarchs.  The  skin  of 
the  goat  was  early  used  for  clothing,  and  is 
dressed  as  leather  for  many  uses,  particularly  for 
making  gloves  and  the  finer  kinds  of  shoes.  The 
horns  are  used  for  making  knife-handles,  etc., 
and  the  fat  is  said  to  be  superior  to  that  of  the  ox 
for  candles. 

Goat,  Rocky  Mountain  ( Aploceros  montanus), 
an  animal  inhabiting  the  lofty  peaks  of  the 
Rocky  and  Cascade  Mountains,  from  about  the 


40tli  to  the  65th  degree  of  latitude.  Its  size 
is  about  that  of  an  ordinary  sheep,  and  its  general 
appearance  is  not  unlike  that  of  a  sheep  of  the 
merino  breed,  its  long,  straight  hair  hanging 
down  in  an  abundant  white  fleece.  The  flesh  is 
in  little  esteem  as  food. 

Goat-moth  ( Cossus  ligniperda),  a  lepidopterous 
insect  of  the  same  family  with  the  ghost-moth, 
llepifdictie.  The  genus  Cossus  has  long  antennae; 
a  large  body,  a  small  head;  the  upper  wings 


J 


Caterpillar,  Chrysalis,  and  Imago  of  the  Goat-moth 
( Cossus  ligniperda ) . 

larger  and  longer  than  the  lower.  The  lame 
feed  on  the  wood  of  trees,  and  the  pupae  are  in¬ 
closed  in  cocoons,  made  chiefly  of  the  saw-dust 
which  the  mandibles  of  the  larvae  have  produced. 

Goat-sucker  (Caprimulgus),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  family  Caprirnvlgidw.  Although  the  bill 
is  very  short  and  weak,  the  gape  is  extremely 
wide,  as  if  the  head  itself  were  divided.  The 


Common  Goat-sucker  (Caprimulgus  europceus). 
goat-suckers  feed  on  insects,  and  pursue  their  prey 
either  in  the  evening  twilight  or  during  the  night, 
in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  bats  and  swallows. 

Gobbe,  or  Voandzou  ( Voandzeia  subterrcmea), 
an  annual  plant,  allied  to  the  kidney-bean,  but  of 
which  the  pod  is  thrust  into  the  ground  in  the 
same  manner  as  that  of  the  ground-nut  ( Arachis 
hypogcea),  to  ripen  the  seeds  there.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  Northeast  of  South  America,  and  of  some 
parts  of  the  West  of  Africa. 

Gob'lins  and  Bogles,  familiar  demons  of 
popular  superstition,  in  Fr.  gobelin,  Ger.  kobold, 
Gr.  KoftaXol,  kobalos,  a  spirit  which  lurks  about 
houses.  It  is  also  called  hobgoblin,  perhaps  a 
corruption  of  hopgoblin. 

Goby  ( Gobius ),  a  genus  of  acanthopterous 


The  Black  Goby  and  the  One-spotted  Goby 
( Gobius  niger  and  Gobius  unipundatus). 


fishes,  the  type  of  the  family  Gobiidce.  This 
family  is  distinguished  by  the  thinness  and  flexi¬ 


bility  of  the  rays  of  the  dorsal  fin;  by  the  union — 
in  most  of  the  genera— of  the  ventral  fins,  which 
are  thoracic,  into  a  disc  more  or  less  capable  of 
being  used  as  a  sucker;  by  the  want  of  an  air- 
bladder;  and  by  a  long  intestinal  canal  without 
caeca.  The  Goby  family  includes  the  Dragonets, 
and  several  other  interesting  genera,  among 
which  are  the  Boleophthalmi  of  the  Chinese  seas, 
remarkable  for  their  power  of  thrusting  out  their 
eyes  in  order  to  look  around  them. 

God  (Lat.  Deus,  Gr.  Qeoi),  the  self-existent 
and  Supreme  Being,  creator  and  preserver  of  all 
things,  and  the  object  of  human  worship.  The 
name  is  of  Saxon  origin.  The  idea  is  expressed 
in  every  language,  as  it  may  be  said  to  be  in  some 
form  a  universal  element  of  human  consciousness. 
In  the  general  history  of  the  world,  polytheism 
precedes  monotheism.  The  course  of  argument 
on  which  the  tlieistic  conclusion  supports  itself 
may  be  sketched  as  follows  :  There  are  every¬ 
where  in  the  world  the  traces  of  order;  a  unity  of 
plan  or  design  pervades  creation.  Amidst  the 
infinite  diversity  of  nature,  order  reigns  univer¬ 
sally.  The  mere  recognition  of  order  does  not 
necessarily  imply  the  recognition  of  God.  But 
going  a  step  farther  we  discern  causation  in  nature, 
because  we  ourselves  are  agents,  conscious  of 
exerting  power.  We  discern  order  in  nature,  be¬ 
cause  we  everywhere  bring  our  conceptions  into  a 
unity,  and  apprehend  our  several  modes  of  con¬ 
sciousness  with  reference  to  the  indivisible  self 
which  they  all  involve.  The  existence  of  Deity, 
therefore,  is  a  postulate  of  the  human  conscious¬ 
ness.  The  argument  for  the  existence  of  God 
rests,  accordingly,  on  certain  fundamental  princi¬ 
ples  of  our  mental  and  moral  being,  and  apart 
from  such  a  philosophy  theism  has  no  argumen¬ 
tative  basis. 

God's  Truce  (Lat.  treuga  Dei,  or  treua  Dei, 
from  the  Ger.  treu,  true),  one  of  the  most  singular 
among  the  institutions  of  the  middle  ages,  which 
prevailed  specially  in  France  and  the  Germanic 
Empire,  but  wTas  also  received  for  a  time  in  the 
other  countries  of  Europe.  It  consisted  in  the 
suspension  for  a  stated  time,  and  at  stated  seasons 
and  festivals,  of  that  right  of  private  feud  for  the 
redress  of  wrongs  which,  under  certain  condi¬ 
tions,  was  recognized  by  mediaeval  law  or  usage. 

Godwin,  Parke,  an  American  author  and 
journalist,  born  Feb.  25, 1816.  He  wrote  Bryant’s 
Life,  and  edited  his  poems. 

God'wit  (Limosa),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Scolopacidce,  with  long  bill,  slightly 
curved  upward,  and  long,  slender  legs,  great  part 
of  the  tibia  bare.  All  the  species  frequent 
marshes  and  shallow  waters,  chiefly  those  of  the 
sea-coast,  where  they  seek  their  food  by  wading, 


Bar-tailed  Godwit  ( Limosa  rufa). 


and  by  plunging  the  long  bill  into  the  water  or 
mud,  like  snipes.  They  sometimes  also  run  after 
small  crustaceans  or  other  animals,  and  catch 
them  on  the  sands,  from  which  the  tide  has 
retired. 

GoetM,  Johann  Wolfgang  von,  German 
poet,  born  in  1749.  In  1779  he  became  Privy- 
Councillor  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Saxe-Weimar. 
In  1782  he  received  a  patent  of  nobility.  In  1815  he 
was  made  Minister  of  State.  He  died  in  March, 
1832.  His  great  work,  Faust,  is  essentially  a  Ger¬ 
man  poem,  and  yet  a  poem  which  all  foreigners 
can  read  and  enjoy.  Of  the  other  poetical  works 
of  Goethe,  Tphigenia,  Hermann  and  Dorothea, 
and  Tasso,  are  considered  his  best. 

Goi'ter,  an  enlargement  of  the  thyroid  gland, 
occupying  the  front  of  the  neck,  and  sometimes 


GOLCONDA. 


435 


GOLIATH  BEETLE. 


of  such  a  size  as  to  project  downward  over  the 
breast,  and  even  to  admit  of  being  thrown  over 
the  shoulder.  Goiter  is  for  the  most  part  an 
endemic  or  local  disease,  being  found  in  the 
mountainous  regions  of  the  Alps,  Andes,  and 
Himalaya,  especially,  it  is  said,  where  lime  pre¬ 
vails  largely  as  a  geological  formation.  The 
usual  treatment  of  goiter  is  by  the  administration 
of  very  minute  doses  of  iodine  for  a  long  time 
together. 

Golcon'da,  a  fortress  of  the  Nizam,  seven 
miles  to  the  northwest  of  his  capital,  Hyderabad, 
in  latitude  17°  22'  N.,  and  in  longitude  78°  25' 
E.  In  its  immediate  neighborhood  are  the  ruins 
of  an  ancient  city,  once  the  metropolis  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Golconda.  Golconda  is  famous  for 
its  diamonds;  but  they -are  merely  cut  and 
polished  here,  being  generally  found  at  Parteall, 
near  the  southern  frontier  of  the  Nizam’s  do¬ 
minions. 

Golconda,  the  county  seat  of  Pope  county, 
Ill.,  is  an  important  market  town  and  shipping 
point  on  the  Ohio  river.  Pop.,  1,400. 

Gold  (symbol  Au,  atomic  weight  196)  has  been 
known  and  regarded  as  the  most  precious  of  the 
metals  from  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world,  and 
has  been  universally  employed  as  a  medium  of 
exchange.  There  are  few  parts  of  the  globe  in 
which  it  does  not  occur  more  or  less  abundantly. 
In  the  native  state  it  occurs  crystallized,  the 
primary  form  being  the  cube,  or  in  plates,  rami¬ 
fications,  or  nodules — popularly  known  as  nug¬ 
gets — which  sometimes  are  of  very  considerable 
size.  It  is  almost  always  alloyed  with  silver,  and 
sometimes  with  tellurium,  bismuth,  lead,  etc.  It 
sometimes  occurs  in  small  quantity  in  metallic 
sulphides,  as  in  galena,  iron,  and  copper  pyrites. 
In  its  compact  state  it  is  yellow,  is  nearly  as  soft 
as  lead,  and  is  the  most  malleable  of  ali  metals. 
It  can  be  beaten  into  leaves  of  a  thinness  not 
exceeding  2ooooo>  or»  according  to  some  authors, 
2 o 0)5 0 o  of  an  inch,  through  which  light  passes  with 
a  green  tint ;  one  grain  may  thus  be  distributed 
over  56  square  inches  of  surface;  and  the 
ductility  of  the  metal  is  so  great,  that  the  same 
quantity  may  be  drawn  out  into  500  feet  of  wire. 
In  its  tenacity  it  is  inferior  to  iron,  platinum, 
copper,  and  silver;  but  a  wire  whose  diameter  is 
0.787  (or  rather  more  than  one-tliird)  of  a  line 
(which  is  one-twelfth  of  an  inch),  will  support  a 
weight  of  about  150  pounds.  It  fuses  at  about 
2,016°,  according  to  Daniell’s  pyrometer,  and 
when  in  fusion  is  of  a  bluish-green  color.  This 
metal  is  one  of  the  most  perfect  conductors  both 
of  heat  and  of  electricity.  The  specific  gravity 
of  this  metal  is  less  than  that  of  platinum  and 
iridium,  ranging  from  19.2  to  19.4,  according  as 
it  is  fused  or  hammered.  The  alloys  of  gold,  or 
its  combinations  with  other  metals,  are  numerous, 
those  with  copper  and  mercury  being  the  most 
important.  Two  oxides  of  gold  are  known — a  pro¬ 
toxide,  AuO,  and  a  teroxide,  Au03.  Neither  of 
these  oxides  can  be  formed  by  the  direct  union  of 
the  elements,  and  both  of  them  are  reduced 
by  heat.  Two  chlorides  of  gold  are  known,  cor¬ 
responding  to  the  oxides — viz.,  a  protochlor¬ 
ide,  AuCl,  and  a  terchloride,  AuC13.  Of  these, 
the  latter  is  the  most  important.  Gold  was, 
in  all  probability,  one  of  the  earliest  discov¬ 
ered  of  the  metals.  The  rich  gold  region 
of  California  was  discovered  in  September, 
1847.  Mr.  Marshall,  the  contractor  for  a  saw¬ 
mill  on  the  estate  of  Captain  Sutter,  a  Swiss  im¬ 
migrant,  settled  on  the  banks  of  the  Sacramento 
river,  detected  particles  of  gold  in  the  sand  of 
the  mill-race,  and  on  further  examination,  it  was 
found  that  valuable  deposits  existed  throughout 
the  bed  of  the  stream.  Intelligence  of  the  dis¬ 
covery  soon  reached  the  town  of  San  Francisco, 
whose  scanty  population  at  once  abandoned 
their  usual  occupations  to  join  in  the  exciting 
search  for  gold.  The  supply  was  soon  found 
to  be  abundant  over  a  large  area,  and  immi¬ 
grants  quickly  poured  in  from  all  parts  of 
the  American  continent,  and  ere  long  from 
Britain,  Germany,  and  other  European  coun¬ 
tries,  till  the  population  of  San  Francisco  alone 
rose  from  under  200  in  1845,  to  40,000  in  1858, 
and  in  1880  it  was  284,000  (see  San  Francisco). 
At  first  it  was  thought  that  the  supply  of  gold 
from  this  region  would  soon  fail,  but  though 
the  supply,  which  continued  for  several  years  at 


upward  of  $65,000,000  per  annum,  had  in  1881 
fallen  to  little  over  $15,000,000  from  California,  the 
total  production  of- gold  in  the  United  States  in 
that  year  was  $35,000,000,  almost  wholly  from 
the  States  near  to  or  west  of  the  Rocky  Mount¬ 
ains.  In  1851,  before  the  excitement  of  the  Cali¬ 
fornia  discovery  had  time  to  subside,  the  world 
was  startled  by  the  announcement  of  another,  or 
rather  by  a  series  of  others  of  not  less  importance, 
in  Australia.  Up  to  1886  the  product  of  Austra¬ 
lian  gold  was  estimated  at  over  $1,110,000,000. 
Gold  is  worth  about  $18.50  per  ounce. 

Golden,  an  important  mining  center  and  the 
county  seat  of  Jefferson  county,  Col.  Pop.,  2,731. 

Goldendale,  a  growing  agricultural  town  on 
the  Columbia  river,  is  the  county  seat  of  Klickitat 
county,  Wash.  Ter.  Pop.,  600. 

Gold-eye  ( Ilyodon ),  a  genus  of  malacopterous 
fishes,  inhabiting  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  North 
America;  the  type  of  a  family  Hyodontm,  of 
which  other  members  are  found  in  tropical  Amer¬ 
ica  and  in  Borneo. 

Goldsborongh,  the  county  seat  of  Wayne 
county,  N.  C.,  is  an  important  cotton  market  on 
the  Neuse  river.  Pop.,  3,286. 

Gold-fish,  or  Golden  Carp  {Cyprinus  aura- 
tun).  a  fish  of  the  same  genus  with  the  carp,  a 
native  of  China,  but  now  domesticated  and  natur¬ 
alized  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Its  ordinary 
length  is  five  or  six  inches,  but  it  has  been  known 
to  reach  a  foot.  When  young,  it  is  of  a  blackish 
color,  but  acquires  its  characteristic  golden  red  as 
it  advances  to  maturity,  some  individuals  ( Silver- 
fish )  becoming  rather  of  a  silvery  hue.  Monstrosi¬ 
ties  of  various  kinds  are  frequent,  particularly  in 
the  fins  and  eyes. 

Gold  of  Pleasure  ( Camelina ),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Cruciferce,  having  an 
erect  calyx,  small,  bright  yellow  flowers,  and  in¬ 
flated,  pear-shaped  or  wedge-shaped  pouches. 
The  species  are  few.  The  common  gold  of 
pleasure  (G.  saliva),  (Fr.  cameline,  Ger.  dotter) 
is  an  annual  plant  1  V  to  3  feet  high,  with  terminal 
racemes  and  pear-shaped  pouches;  the  leaves 
smooth,  bright  green,  entire  or  slightly  toothed, 
the  middle  stem-leaves  arrow-shaped  and  embrac¬ 
ing  the  stem. 

Golden  Age.  In  the  mythologies  of  most  peo¬ 
ples  and  religions  there  exists  a  tradition  of  a  bet¬ 
tertime,  when  the  earth  was  the  common  prop¬ 
erty  of  man,  and  produced  spontaneously  all 
things  necessary  for  an  enjoyable  existence.  The 
land  flowed  with  milk  and  honey,  beasts  of  prey 
lived  peaceably  with  other  animals,  and  man  had 
not  yet  by  selfishness,  pride,  and  other  vices  and 
passions,  fallen  from  a  state  of  innocence. 

Golden-eye  Fly  ( Hemerobius  perla,  or  Chry- 
sopa  perla),  a  neuropterous  insect,  common  in  the 


a,  cocoon;  6,  the  same  magnified;  c,  larva;  d,  the  same 
magnified  and  freed  from  adhering  substances ;  e,  per¬ 
fect  insect,  on  a  branch  to  which  its  eggs  are  attached. 


United  States  and  Britain;  pale  green,  with  long 
thread-like  antenna;,  long  gauze-like  wings,  and 
brilliant  golden  eyes. 

Golden  Fleece,  in  Greek  tradition,  the  fleece 
of  the  ram  Chrysomallus,  the  recovery  of  which 
was  the  object  of  the  Argonautic  expedition. 

Golden  Legend  (Lat.  aurea  legenda),  a  cele¬ 
brated  collection  of  hagiology,  which  for  a  time 
enjoyed  almost  unexampled  popularity,  having 
passed  through  more  than  a  hundred  editions, 
and  translations  into  almost  all  the  European  lan¬ 
guages.  it  is  the  work  of  James  de  Voragine, 
also  written  “Vragine,”  and  “Varaginc,”  who 


was  born  about  the  year  1230.  Longfellow  wrote 
a  poem  called  The  Golden  Legend. 

Golden-rod  ( Solidago ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Composites,  sub-order  Corymbiferm, 
closely  allied  to  Aster,  but  distinguished  by  the 
single  rowed  pappus  and  tapering— not  com¬ 
pressed — fruit.  The  species  are  natives  chiefly  of 
temperate  climates,  and  are  most  numerous  in 
North  America. 

Golden  Rose,  a  rose  formed  of  wrought  gold, 
and  blessed  with  much  solemnity  by  the  Pope  in 
person  on  Mid-lent  Sunday,  which  is  called,  from 
the  first  word  of  the  festival.  “Laetare  Sunday.” 
It  is  usually  presented  to  some  Catholic  prince  or 
queen,  whom  the  Pope  desires  especially  to  honor, 
with  an  appropriate  form  of  words. 

Goldfinch  ( Fringilla  carduclis,  or  Carduelis 
elegans),  a  pretty  little  bird  of  the  family  fringil- 
lidae,  a  favorite  cage-bird,  on  account  of  its  soft 
and  pleasing  song,  its  intelligence,  its  liveliness, 
and  the  attachment  which  it  forms  for  those  who 
feed  and  caress  it.  A  variety  (F.  tristis)  is  com¬ 
mon  in  North  America. 

Goldschmidt,  Madame  (Jenny  Lind),  a  cele¬ 
brated  Swedish  singer,  was  born  at  Stockholm 
Oct.  6,  1821.  In  1850  she  made  an  engagement 
with  Mr.  P.  T.  Barnum,  of  New  York,  for  a  con¬ 
cert  tour  in  America,  extending  through  the  United 
States,  British  Provinces,  Mexico,  and  the  West 
Indies.  The  receipts  of  this  well-managed  tour 
were  $610,000,  of  which  Mademoiselle  Lind  re¬ 
ceived  $302,000.  While  in  America,  she  was 
married  to  M.  Otto  Goldschmidt  ,  a  native  of  Ham¬ 
burg,  who  accompanied  her  as  pianist.  She  died 
Nov.  2,  1887. 

Gold 'sinny,  or  Goldfinny,  a  name  given  to 
certain  small  species  of  Crenilabrus,  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  W rasse  family  ( Labridee ). 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  was  born  in  the  Village 
of  Pallas,  in  the  County  of  Longford,  Ireland, 
Nov.  10,  1728.  Up  to  the  age  of  thirty,  his  life 
was  very  irregular.  He  was  expelled  from  various 
colleges,  anil  wandered  through  Europe  as  a 
traveling  minstrel.  His  best  known  works  are 
The  Traveler,  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  The  Deserted 
Village,  and  She  Stoops  to  Conquer.  He  died 
April  4,  1774. 

Gol  'gotlia,  a  Hebrew  word  signifying  a  ‘  ‘skull,  ” 
and  so  it  is  interpreted  by  Luke;  but  by  the  other 
three  evangelists,  “the  place  of  a  skull.”  The 
Latin  equivalent  is  Calvaria,  a  bare  skull.  This 
place,  the  scene  of  the  crucifixion  of  Christ,  was 
without  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  city,  although  the  common  opinion 
handed  down  from  the  middle  ages  fixes  it  in  the 
northwest.  It  was  probably  the  ordinary  spot  of 
execution,  though  this  is  to  be  inferred  rather  from 
the  fact  that,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Roman  officers  of 
justice,  Christ  was  simply  a  common  criminal, 
than  from  any  supposed  connection  between  the 
word  “  skull  ”  and  a  place  of  execution,  Golgotha 
receiving  its  name  in  all  likelihood  from  its  round, 
skull-like  form.  A  church  was  built  over  the  spot 
in  the  fourth  century  by  Constantine. 

Goliad,  the  county  seat  of  Goliad  county,  Tex., 
is  a  thriving  agricultural  and  manufacturing 
town  on  the  San  Antonio  river.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Goliath  Beetle  ( Goliathus ),  a  genus  of  tropical 
coleopterous  insects,  of  the  section  Pentamera,  and 
remarkable  for  the  large  size  of  some  of  the  species. 


Goliath  Beetle  ( Goliathus  magnus). 


particularly  the  African  ones.  They  arc  also,  in 
respect  of  their  colors,  splendid  insects.  Little  is 
known  of  their  habits. 


GOLOMYNKA. 


436 


GORDON. 


Golomyn'ka  (Comephorus  baikalensis),  a  re¬ 
markable  fish,  found  only  in  Lake  Baikal,  the  only 
known  species  of  its  genus,  which  belongs  to  the 
goby  family.  It  is  about  a  foot  long,  is  destitute 
of  scales,  and  is  very  soft,  its  whole  substance 
abounding  in  oil,  which  is  obtained  from  it  by 
pressure. 

Gomu'to,  Areng,  or  Ejoo  Palm  ( Arenga 
saccharifera,  Saguerus  rumphii,  or  Borassus  go- 
mutus),  an  important  palm  which  grows  in  Cochin 
China  and  in  the  interior  of  Java,  Sumatra, 
Celebes,  and  Amboyna,  on  dry  ground.  The 
stem  is  20  to  30  feet  high;  the  leaves  15  to  25 
feet  long,  pinnated. 

Gou'dola  (Italian),  a  long,  narrow  boat  (aver¬ 
aging  30  feet  by  4)  used  chiefly  on  the  canals 
of  Venice.  The  prow  and  stem  taper  to  a 
point,  and  curve  out  of  the  water  to  a  height  of 
at  least  5  feet.  In  the  center  there  is  a  curtained 


Venetian  Gondola 


chamber  for  the  occupants;  the  boat  is  propelled 
by  means  of  oars  or  poles  by  one,  two,  or  occa¬ 
sionally  four  men.  The  rowers  stand  as  they  row, 
and  wear  the  livery  of  the  family  to  which  the 
gondola  belongs. 

Go'niatites,  a  genus  of  fossil  cephalopodous 
mollusca,  belonging  to  the  same  family  as  the 
ammonites.  The  genus  is  characterized  by  the 
structure  of  the  septa,  which  are  lobed,  but  with¬ 
out  lateral  denticulations,  as  in  ammonites;  they 
consequently  exhibit,  in  a  section,  a  continuous 
undulating  line. 

Gonorrhoea  (Gr.  yovos,  seed,  and  peo,  I  flow), 
is  a  disease  of  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
urethra  in  the  male  and  the  vaginal  interior  in  the 
female.  The  disease  is  usually  acquired  by  direct 
contact  with  a  diseased  person,  and  is  commonly 
called  “clap.”  The  first  symptom  of  its  out¬ 
break  is  an  itching  of  the  parts  (and  in  the  male 
a  swelling  and  redness  of  the  lips  of  the  urethral 
orifice)  with  a  subsequent  scalding  sensation  during 
the  act  of  urination.  Soon  after  suppuration 
results  from  the  inflammation  present  in  the  mem¬ 
brane,  and  thick,  yellowish  mucus  is  discharged. 
This  is  the  inflammatory  stage,  and  during  it  no 
treatment  should  be  attempted  save  the  applica¬ 
tion  of  emollients,  such  as  slippery-elm  poultices, 
etc.;  strict  attention  should  be  paid  to  diet  and 
rest,  otherwise  inflammation  may  extend  beyond 
the  anterior  portions  of  the  urethral  canal,  and 
swollen  testes  (stones)  result;  and  not  infrequently 
true  epididymitis  sets  up,  the  result  of  which  is 
not  only  very  painful  and  inconvenient,  but  is 
also  the  destruction  of  a  man’s  virility.  The 
inflammatory  stage  usually  lasts  from  seven  to 
twenty-five  days,  and  when  it  has  subsided  the 
discharge  loses  its  turgidity  and  becomes  thinner 
and  nearly  transparent.  At  this  stage,  if  a  suffi¬ 
cient  regard  have  been  paid  to  diet  (which  must 
be  abstemious),  the  use  of  a  gentle  saline  purga¬ 
tive  to  keep  the  bowels  open  (Epsom  or  Rochelle 
salts),  together  with  astringents  and  stimulants 
applied  locally,  will  usually  effect  a  cure  in  a  few 
days.  The  following  are  useful  as  injections: 

Powdered  kino  . gr.  30 

Sulphate  zine . gr.  12 

Sulphate  morphia . gr.  2 

Rosewater .  . A.  oz.  6 

Mix.  Inject  three  or  four  times  a  day  after  urinating. 

Concordia  wine . fi.  oz.  8 

Laudanum  . . fl.  dr.  2 

Mix.  Inject  three  or  four  times  a  day,  as  above. 

Some  persons  object  to  using  local  treatment  on 
account  of  unfounded  prejudice.  Where  care¬ 

fully  used  no  danger  results,  and  it  is  more  effect¬ 
ive  than  constitutional  treatment.  For  those, 
however,  who  prefer  constitutional  treatment,  we 


would  recommend  some  of  the  numerous  capsules 
of  copaiba,  such  as  Queru’s,  Plantin’s,  Matliy- 
Caylus’,  and  others.  These  can  be  had  in  combi¬ 
nation  with  cubebs,  and  iron,  and  other  drugs. 
There  is  hardly  any  choice  between  them.  The 
following  is  often  effective  where  other  means 
have  failed. 


Balsam  copaiba  (solid) . gr.  20 

Powdered  cubebs . gr.  20 

Venetian  turpentine . gr.  10 

Dry  sulphate  of  iron .  gr.  10 


Mix  and  make  in  20  pills.  Take  one  pill  three  or  four 
times  a  day. 

For  women,  constitutional  treatment  is  worth¬ 
less,  and  they  are  at  the  same  time  more  easily 
cured  than  men  by  local  measures.  Golden  seal, 
tannin,  gallic  acid,  and  almost  all  the  astringents 
are  useful  as  injections.  The  lower  class  of  the 
French  drink  a  tea  made  of  wire-grass,  which  it 
is  said  is  infallible  in  curing.  Care  must  be 
taken  not  to  let  any  of  the  diseased  mucus  come 
in  contact  with  the  eyes,  for  blindness  will  often 
result;  at  any  rate,  gonorrhoeal  ophthalmia  is  a 
most  obstinate  disease,  and  always  leaves  the 
vision  badly  affected. 

Gonzales,  the  county  seat  of  Gonzales  county, 
Tex.,  is  a  rapidly  growing  town  on  the  Gaude- 
lupe  river.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Goochland,  the  county  seat  of  Goochland 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  100. 

Good  Behavior,  a  phrase  rather  popular  than 
legal,  used  as  synonymous  with  keeping  the 
peace;  tines  or  sentences  being  sometimes  sus¬ 
pended  during  good  behavior. 

Good  Friday,  the  Friday  before  Easter,  sacred 
as  the  commemoration  of  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus 
Christ.  It  holds  an  important  place  in  the  offices  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  the  Anglican  Churches. 

Goode,  George  Brown,  an  American  ichthyol¬ 
ogist,  born  Feb.  12,  1857.  Has  written  exten¬ 
sively  on  fish,  and  has  been  in  the  employ  of  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission  since  1874. 

Goodrich,  Samuel  Griswold  (1793-1860),  an 
American  author,  better  known  as  “  Peter  Par¬ 
ley.”  In  1851  he  went  to  Paris  as  Consul,  re¬ 
turned  in  1855,  and  died  May  9,  I860. 

Goodyear,  Charles,  American  inventor,  born 
Dec.  29,  1800.  He  died  July  1,  1860.  He  per¬ 
fected  the  method  of  producing  vulcanized  rub¬ 
ber. 

Goosander  ( Mergus  merganser),  a  migratory 
web-footed  bird,  native  in  the  Arctic  regions,  ex¬ 


tending  into  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  America. 

Goose  (Anser),  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds, 
one  of  the  sections  of  theLinnsean  genus  Haas, 
having  the  bill  not  longer  than  the  head,  more 
high  than  broad  at  the  base,  the  upper  mandible 
slightly  hooked  at  the  tip;  the  legs  placed  further 
forward  than  in  ducks,  the  neck  of  moderate 
length,  with  sixteen  vertebrae.  They  have  great 
powers  of  flight.  The  domestic  goose  is  regarded 
as  deriving  its  origin  from  the  gray  lag  goose,  or 
common  wild  goose  (A.  ferns).  The  pate  de  foie 
d’oie,  or  pale  de  foie  gras  of  Strasburg,  is  made 
from  goose  livers  in  a  state  of  morbid  enlarge¬ 
ment.  The  snow  goose  (A.  hyperboreus)  is  found 
in  all  the  regions  within  the  Arctic  circle,  but 
most  abundantly  in  America,  where  it  migrates 
southward  in  winter.  The  general  color  is  pure 
white,  the  quill  feathers  brownish  black.  The 
Canada  goose  (A.  canadensis)  is  one  of  the  most 
abundant  North  American  species.  It  breeds  in 
high  latitudes,  and  migrates  southward  on  the 


approach  of  winter.  In  the  uniform  breadth  of 
the  bill  it  resembles  swans.  It  is  fully  three  feet 


Bean  Goose  (Anas  segetum). 

and  a  half  in  length.  The  bill,  feet,  head,  great 
part  of  the  neck,  the  quill-feathers,  the  rump, 
and  the  tail  are  black ;  there  is  a  crescent-shaped 
white  patch  on  the  throat;  the  back,  wings,  and 
flanks  are  grayish  brown,  the  breast  and  belly 
pure  white. 

Go'plier,  a  rodent  or  pouched  rat,  common  in 
Illinois,  and  on  Western  prairies,  and  often  errone¬ 
ously  called  the  prairie  squirrel.  It  is  a  subterra¬ 
neous  animal,  eats  grass  and  nuts,  and  makes, 
burrows  in  the  soil.  There  are  many  species, 
and  all  are  destructive  to  vegetation. 

Gopher  Wood,  of  Scripture,  is  probably  iden¬ 
tical  with  cypress. 

Goramy,  or  Gouramy  ( Osphronemus  olfax),  is 
reputed  to  be  one  of  the  best-flavored  freshwater 
fishes  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  It  is  one  of 
the  nest-building  fishes.  At  the  breeding  sea¬ 


Goramy  (Osphronemus  olfax) . 


son  it  forrqg  a  nest  by  entangling  the  stems  and 
leaves  of  aquatic  grasses. 

Gordiau  Knot.  The  origin  of  this  famous 
knot  was  as  follows:  Gordius,  a  Phrygian  peas¬ 
ant,  w'as  once  plowing  in  his  fields,  when  an 
eagle  settled  on  his  yoke  of  oxen,  and  remained 
till  the  end  of  the  day.  A  prophetess  of  Telmis- 
sus  advised  him  to  sacrifice  to  Zeus.  He  did  so, 
and  out  of  gratitude  married  the  prophetess,  by 
whom  he  had  a  son,  Midas.  When  Midas  grew 
up,  disturbances  broke  out  in  Phrygia,  and  the 
people  sent  messengers  to  Delphi,  to  ask  about 
choosing  a  new  king.  The  messengers  were  in¬ 
formed  that  a  king  would  come  to  them  riding 
on  a  car,  and  that  he  would  restore  peace.  Gor¬ 
dius,  with  his  father,  very  opportunely  arrived  in 
the  requisite  manner.  He  was  elected  King, 
whereupon  he  dedicated  his  car  and  yoke  to  Zeus, 
in  the  acropolis,  the  knot  of  the  yoke  being  tied 
in  so  skillful  a  manner,  that  an  oracle  declared  who¬ 
ever  should  unloose  it  would  be  ruler  of  all  Asia. 
When  Alexander  the  Great  came,  he  cut  the  knot 
with  his  sword. 

Gordon,  Charles  George  (Chinese  Gordon), 
born  at  Woolwich,  England,  Jan.  28,  1833.  He 
was  present  at  the  surrender  of  Pekin,  and  the 
burning  of  the  Summer  Palace  in  1860.  In  the 
service  of  China  he  commanded  a  native  force 
3,000  to  5,000  strong,  with  150  European  officers, 
which  in  a  sixteen  months’  campaign  (1863-64), 
suppressed  the  rebellious  Tae-Pings.  He  waa 
British  Commissioner  on  the  Danube  at  Galatz 
(1871-73);  next,  in  Egypt’s  service,  he  strove  to 
put  down  slave-hunting  in  the  Soudan  (1874-79). 
In  1880  he  went  to  China,  where  his  counsels 
prevented  a  war  with  Russia.  In  1881-82  he 
was  Chief  Engineer  in  Mauritius.  On  Jan.  18,. 


GORDON. 


437 


GOUT. 


1884,  the  British  Government  dispatched  him  to 
Khartoum,  to  extricate  the  Egyptian  garrisons  in 
the  Soudan,  menaced  by  the  revolt  of  the  Mahdi. 
He  reached  Khartoum  February  18th.  In  Ma«f  h  he 
began  a  nine  months’ defense;  on  Jan.  28,  1885, 
the  van  of  Lord  Wolseley’s  rescue  expedition 
reached  Khartoum,  to  find  that  it  had  fallen  two 
days  earlier,  and  that  Gordon  was  dead. 

Gordon,  JohnB.,  a  Confederate  general,  after¬ 
ward  United  States  Senator  from  Georgia,  born 
in  Upson  county,  Ga.,  Feb.  G,  1832. 

Gorgo'nia,  a  genus  of  zoophytes  (Anthozoa), 
allied  to  Alcyonium.  The  whole  structure  (polype- 


Gorgonia  ( Gorgonia  flabellum). 


mass)  is  rooted  and  branching,  consisting  of  a 
horny  central  axis  with  a  polypiferous  flesh. 

Goril'Ia  ( Troglodytes  gorilla),  a  great  African  ape, 
generally  referred  by  nat¬ 
uralists  to  the  same  genus 
with  the  chimpanzee.  It 
was  not  till  1847  that  the 
gorilla  became  known  to 
naturalists,  when  a  skull 
was  sent  to  Doctor  Savage 
of  Boston  by  Doctor  Wil¬ 
son,  an  American  mis¬ 
sionary  on  the  Gaboon 
river.  The  accounts  of 
the  gorilla  given  in  Du 
C  h  a  i  1 1  u  ’s  Explorations 
and  Adventures  in  Equa¬ 
torial  Africa  are  regarded 
as  in  the  main  trust¬ 
worthy.  The  gorilla  dif¬ 
fers  from  the  chimpanzee  i 
in  its  greater  size,  the  «c|J  ■ 
height  of  an  adult  male 
in  an  erect  posture  being  ^ 
commonly  about  5  feet  6 
inches  or  5  feet  8  inches. 

Its  strength  appears  also 
to  be  greater  in  propor¬ 
tion  to  its  size.  The  bony 
ridges  in  the  skull  above 
the  eyes  are  extremely 
prominent.  The  lower  part  of  the  face  projects 
very  much,  and  the  canine  teeth  are  very  large. 
The  breadth  at  the  shoulders  is  great.  There  are 
thirteen  pairs  of  ribs.  The  pelvis  approaches  the 
human  form  more  than  in  any  other  ape.  The 
gorilla  has  a  black  skin,  covered  with  short,  dark- 
gray  hair,  reddish  brown  on  the  head.  The  face 
is  covered  with  hair,  but  the  chest  is  bare.  The 
eyes  are  deeply  sunk.  It  spends  most  of  its  time 
on  the  ground,  although  often  climbing  trees.  It 
has  a  kind  of  harking  voice,  varying  when  it  is 
enraged  to  a  terrific  roar.  In  1876  a  live  gorilla 
was  brought  to  Berlin. 

Gorlitz,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Silesia,  capital  of  a  circle  in  the  Government  Dis¬ 
trict  of  Liegnitz,  on  the  Neisse,  fifty-five  miles 
east  of  Dresden.  Pop.  (1875),  43,310. 

Goshen,  a  growing  agricultural  and  manufact¬ 
uring  town,  and  the  county  seat  of  Elkhart  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  5,500. 

Goshen,  or  the  land  of  Goshen,  a  territory  of 
Egypt  in  which  the  Israelites  were  settled  from 
Jacob’s  immigration  to  the  Exodus. 

Goshen,  an  old  and  wealthy  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Orange  county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  2,557. 

Gos'hawk  (Astur),  a  genus  of  Falconidce,  dis- 


Skeleton  of  Gorilla. 


tinguished  from  the  true  falcons  by  a  lobe  or 
festoon,  instead  of  a  sharp  tooth,  on  the  edge  of 


Goshawk  ( Astur  palumbarius). 
(Copied  from  Falconry  in  the  British  Isles.) 


the  upper  mandible,  and  by  the  shortness  of  the 
wing.  It  is  more  nearly  allied  to  the  sparrow- 
hawks. 

Gotha  (originally  Qotegewe,  or  Ootawe ,  and 
later  Gotaha,  or  Oothau),  a  town  of  Germany, 
formerly  capital  of  the  old  Duchy  of  Gotha,  situ¬ 
ated  on  a  canal  of  the  Leina,  about  six  miles 
north  of  the  Thuringian  Forest.  Pop.  (1885), 
28,100. 

Gothard,  St.,  a  mountain  group  in  the  Helve¬ 
tian  Alps,  reaches  a  height  of  12,000  feet.  See 
Alps.  St.  Gothard,  however,  is  chiefly  famous 
for  the  pass  over  the  Alps,  which  at  its  summit  is 
6,800  feet  high.  Operations  on  the  St.  Gothard 
tunnel  were  begun  in  October,  1872;  the  workings 
from  opposite  sides  met  in  February,  1880.  The 
length  of  the  tunnel  is  9±  miles.  The  cost  is 
estimated  at  over  $45,000,000. 

Gothic  Architecture.  Under  this  title  are 
comprised  the  various  styles  of  architecture  which 
prevailed  in  Western  Europe  from  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century  to  the  revival  of  classic  archi¬ 
tecture  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

GotlFlaml  (Swed.  Gottlanct ),  an  island  in  the 
Baltic,  lying  between  57° — 58°  N.  latitude,  and 
18° — 19°  30'  E.  longitude,  which,  with  Faroe, 
Gotska,  Sandoe,  and  other  smaller  islands,  con¬ 
stitutes  the  Swedish  Laen  or  Province  of  Gottland 
or  Wisby.  Pop.  (1880),  54,668;  area  about  1,200 
square  miles.  Chief  town,  Wisby. 

Goths.  The  Goths  may,  on  many  grounds, 
claim  the  foremost  place  among  the  Teutonic 
nations  which  had  a  share  in  the  break-up  of  the 
Roman  power.  They  were  among  the  earliest  to 
establish  themselves  within  the  empire.  Their 
first  historical  appearance  was  in  the  East;  their 
great  historical  settlements  were  made'in  the  West. 
No  Teutonic  people  fills  so  great  a  place  in  the 
political  and  military  history  of  the  fourth,  fifth, 
and  sixth  centuries,  and  no  Teutonic  people  has 
left  behind  it  such  early  remains  of  a  written  na¬ 
tive  literature.  The  wonderful  thing  is  that  a 
people  who  played  so  great  a  part  for  several  ages 
should  have  wholly  passed  away.  The  Goths 
first  appear  in  history  in  the  ancient  land  of  the 
Getce.  It  is  not  till  the  fifth  century  that  they 
begin  to  form  settled  powers.  The  historical 
settlements  of  the  Goths  are  the  short  and  brilliant 
dominion  of  the  East-Goths  in  Italy,  and  the 
more  lasting  dominion  of  the  West-Goths  in  Gaul ' 
and  Spain.  In  the  long  tale  of  intrigue  and  war¬ 
fare  between  the  Goths  and  the  two  imperial 
courts  which  fills  up  their  history,  cessions  of 
territory  are  offered  to  the  Goths,  provinces  are 
occupied  by  them,  but  they  do  not  take  root  any¬ 
where.  A  great  event  in  their  history  was  the 
appearance  of  the  Huns  under  Attila,  whom  the 
combined  efforts  of  the  Goths  and  the  Roman 
Empire  could  not  resist.  The  Goths  were  mostly 
Arians,  and  by  the  terms  of  their  subjection  to  the 
Huns,  the  East-Goths  came  to  fight  for  Attila 
against  Christendom.  When  the  Hunnish  power 
broke  in  pieces  on  the  death  of  Attila,  the  East- 
Goths  recovered  their  full  independence.  They 
now  entered  into  relations  with  the  empire,  and 


were  settled  on  lands  in  Pannonia.  The  rapidly 
growing  influence  of  Christianity  now  menaced 
them  as  a  distinct  people,  many  of  them  becom¬ 
ing  converts  to  the  Catholic  faith.  Finally  the 
two  nations  began  to  unite;  the  Goths  were  grad¬ 
ually  Romanized,  and  the  Gothic  language  began 
to  go  out  of  use.  The  kingdom,  however,  still 
remained  a  Gothic  kingdom.  In  the  first  part  of 
the  seventh  century  the  Gothic  nobility  still  re¬ 
mained  a  distinct  class,  and  held,  with  the  Cath¬ 
olic  prelacy,  the  right  of  choosing  the  king.  The 
modern  Spanish  nation  is  the  growth  of  the  long 
struggle  with  the  Mussulmans;  but  it  has  a  direct 
connection  with  the  West-Gothic  kingdom.  In 
Italy  the  Goth  was  but  a  momentary  invader  and 
ruler.  In  Spain  the  Goth  supplies  an  important 
element  in  the  modern  nation.  Part  of  the  un¬ 
conquered  region  of  Northern  Spain,  the  land  of 
Asturia,  kept  for  a  while  the  name  of  Gotliia,  as 
did  the  Gothic  possessions  in  Gaul  and  in  Crim. 
The  name  of  the  people  who  played  so  great  a 
part  in  all  Southern  Europe,  and  who  actually 
ruled  over  so  large  a  part  of  it,  has  now  wholly 
passed  away;  but  it  is  in  Spain  that  its  historical 
impress  is  to  be  looked  for. 

Gotland,  Gotai.and,  or  Gotariee,  the  most 
southern  of  the  three  old  provinces  or  main  divis¬ 
ions  of  Sweden. 

Gough,  Joiin  B.,  American  temperance  lect¬ 
urer,  born  Aug.  22,  1817.  His  drunken  habits 
reduced  him  to  poverty  and  delirium  tremens, 
and  probably  caused  the  death  of  his  wife  and 
child.  A  benevolent  Quaker  induced  him  to 
take  the  pledge,  and  he  reformed.  In  1842  he 
had  a  short  relapse  into  drunkenness;  but  was  re¬ 
stored  to  favor,  and  lectured  in  various  parts  of 
America  with  great  success.  He  died  Feb.  17, 
1886. 

Gould,  Benjamin  Apthorp,  an  American 
astronomer,  born  Sept.  22,  1824.  From  1849  to 
1861  he  edited  the  Astronomical  Journal,  and 
1 868  became  director  of  the  National  Astronomi¬ 
cal  Observatory  at  Cordova,  Argentine  Republic. 

Gould,  Jay,  American  capitalist  and  railroad 
financier,  was  born  at  Roxbury,  N.  Y.,  in  1836. 
He  is  a  resident  of  New  York  State,  and  is  best 
known  in  connection  with  the  immense  system 
of  railroads  (the  Missouri  Pacific)  which  he 
controls. 

Gounod,  Ciiarles  Francois,  born  June  17, 
1818;  distinguished  as  a  musical  composer.  His 
principal  oratorio  is  The  Redemption,  and  his 
best  known  opera  is  Faust. 

Gout,  a  well-known  form  of  disease  which  oc¬ 
curs  for  the  most  part  in  persons  of  more  or  less 
luxurious  habits,  and  past  the  middle  period  of 
life.  The  acute  attack  of  gout  begins  most  com¬ 
monly  by  a  painful  swelling  of  the  ball  of  the 
great  toe  or  of  the  instep,  sometimes  of  the  ankle 
or  knee;  much  more  rarely  it  attacks  both  lower 
limbs  at  once;  and  more  rarely  still,  it  seizes  first 
upon  some  other  part  of  the  body,  the  foot  being 
either  not  attacked  at  all,  or  becoming  involved 
at  a  later  period.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases, 
the  foot  is  not  only  the  first  part  attacked,  but 
the  principal  seat  of  the  disease  throughout.  In 
exceptional  instances,  the  ankle,  knee,  hand, 
elbow,  etc.,  are  attacked  at  first;  now  and  then 
the  disease  smolders  in  the  system  in  the  form  of 
disorders  of  the  digestive  or  nervous  functions,  or 
oppression  of  the  circulation  for  some  consider¬ 
able  time  before  it  takes  the  form  of  “regular” 
gout — that  is,  of  an  acute  attack,  or  fit,  of  gout, 
in  the  foot.  The  prevention  and  cure,  accord¬ 
ingly,  have  been  at  all  times  by  a  careful  avoid¬ 
ance  of  most  of  the  common  dissipations  of  youth. 
That  the  disease  may  be  warded  off  in  this  way, 
there  is  ample  evidence;  and  it  is  not  less  certain 
that  there  is  noother  way  of  living  secure  from  gout. 
The  well-known  virtues  of  colchicum  are  perhaps 
somewhat  overrated  by  the  public;  and  its  dangers 
are  not  less  striking  than  its  virtues.  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  in  cautious  medical  hands  colclii- 
cum,  in  conjunction  with  potassium  iodide,  is  a 
remedy  of  great  value  in  the  gouty  paroxysm;  and 
of  equal  value  perhaps  are  certain  natural  mineral 
waters,  as  those  of  Vichy  and  Carlsbad.  Alka¬ 
lies  and  their  salts,  especially  potash  and  lithia 
waters,  as  prepared  artificially,  with  minute  doses 
of  iodine  and  bromine,  have  likewise  been  much 
recommended  for  the  cure  of  gouty  deposits. 


GOUT-WEED. 


438 


GRANITE. 


Gout-weed,  or  Bishop-weed  (JEgopodium 
podagraria),  a  perennial  umbelliferous  plant,  with 
coarse,  twice  ternate  leaves,  ovate  unequally  ser¬ 
rate  leaflets,  stems  from  1  to  3  feet  high,  and 
compound  umbels;  so  called  on  account  of 
the  virtue  ascribed  to  it  of  allaying  the  pain  of 
gout  and  piles. 

Governor’s  Island,  a  fortified  post  of  the 
United  States,  at  the  entrance  of  East  river  in 
New  York  harbor. 


Grace,  Days  op.  When  a  note  falls  due,  it  is 
customary  to  allow  three  days  more  than  the  time 
for  which  the  note  is  drawn,  unless  the  third  day 
added  falls  on  Sunday  or  a  holiday,  in  which 
case  the  note  must  be  paid  on  the  second  day. 
These  extra  days  are  called  days  of  grace. 

Grafting,  the  uniting  of  a  young  shoot  (scion) 
of  one  kind  of  plant  to  a  stem  (stock)  of  another 
kind,  so  that  the  scion  may  receive  nourishment 
from  the  stock.  In  grafting,  it  is  particularly  to 
be  attended  to  that  the  alburnum  of  the  scion  is 
brought  into  contact  with  that  of  the  stock.  The 
hard  wood  of  the  one  never  unites  with  that  of 


the  other.  For  scions  or  grafts,  pieces  of  about  C  to 
8  inches  long,  are  generally  taken  from  the  shoots 
of  the  previous  summer,  but  portions  of  shoots  of 
two  years  old  are  sometimes  successfully  em¬ 
ployed.  The  time  for  grafting  is  in  spring,  as 
soon  as  the  sap  begins  to  appear.  The  scion 
should,  if  possible,  be  taken  from  a  healthy  and 
fruitful  tree,  but  scions  from  the  extremities  of 
lateral  branches,  where  growth  is  most  vigorous, 
are  more  likely  to  become  speedily  fruitful  than 
those  from  the  uppermost  branches.  The  scion 
should  be  kept  for  a  few  days  before  grafting,  so 
that  the  stock  may  rather  exceed  it,  not  only  in 
vigor,  but  in  the  progress  of  its  spring  growth; 
and  for  this  purpose  may  be  placed  in  the  ground, 
in  a  rather  dry  soil,  sheltered  from  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun.  Scions  may  be  kept  for  some  time, 
and  easily  carried  to  a  distance,  by  sticking  their 
lower  end  into  a  potato.  The  end  should  always 
be  freshly  cut  off  when  the  scion  is  to  be  used. 
There  are  various  modes  of  grafting. — Cleft¬ 
grafting  is  very  commonly  practiced  when  the 
stock  is  very  considerably  thicker  than  the  scion. 
The  stock  being  cut  over,  is  cleft  down,  and  the 
graft,  cut  into  tlieshape  of  a  wedge  at  its  lower  end 
by  a  sharp,  thin  knife,  is  inserted  into  the  cleft. 
This  mode  of  graft¬ 
ing  is  particularly 
applicable  to 
branches  of  large 
trees,  when  the  in¬ 
troduction  of  a  new 
variety  of  fruit,  or 
increased  fruitful¬ 
ness,  is  sought. — 

Crown  -  grafting 
is  used  for  still 
thicker  stocks, 
which  are  cut 
across,  and  then 
cleft  down  by  two' 
clefts  crossing  one 
another  at  right  Cleft-grafting;, 

angles,  two  scions  being  inserted  close  to  the 
bark  in  each  cleft,;  or  no  cleft  at  all  is  made,  and 
any  desired  number  of  scions  obliquely  cut  away 
on  one  side  are  simply  inserted  between  the  bark 
and  wood  of  the  stock,  the  operation  in  this  case 
being  deferred  till  the  bark  readily  parts  from  the 
wood.  In  this  kind  of 
grafting,  a  longitud¬ 
inal  slit  in  the  bark  of 
the  stock,  opposite  to 
each  graft,  is  advan¬ 
tageous.—1 Tong  be- 
grafting  is  the  mode 
most  commonly  prac¬ 
ticed  for  young  trees 
in  nurseries.  For  this, 
it  is  necessary  that  the 
stock  and  the  scion 
should  be  of  not  very 
different  thickness.  A 
slit  or  a  very  narrow 
angular  incision  is 
made  in  the  center  of 
the  stock  downward, 
and  a  similar  one  in 


a,  tongue-grafting;  6,  cleft¬ 
grafting;  c,  tongue-grafting 
{side- grafting)  as  practiced 
in  wall  trees  to  fill  up  vacan¬ 
cies,  without  cutting  over 
the  head  of  the  stock, 
the  scion  upward,  both 


having  been  first  cut  obliquely,  at  correspond¬ 


ing  angles,  and  the  tongue  thus  made  in  the 
scion  being  inserted  into  the  incision  in  the  stock, 
they  are  fastened  very  closely  and  thoroughly 
together. — In  Saddle-grafting,  the  end  of  the 
stock  is  cut  into  the  form  of  a  wedge,  and  the 
scion  is  affixed  to  it, 
the  base  of  the  scion 
having  been  cut  or  slit 
up  for  the  purpose. — 

SnOULDER  -  GRAFTING, 

used  chiefly  for  orna- 
mehtal  trees,  is  per¬ 
formed  by  cutting 
obliquely,  and  then  cut¬ 
ting  across  a  small 
part  at  top  of  the  stock, 
so  as  to  form  a  shoul¬ 
der,  the  scion  being 
cut  to  fit  it.— Peg - 
GRAFTING,  not  HOW 
much  in  use,  is  accomplished  by  making  the  end 
of  the  scion  into  a  peg,  and  boring  the  top  of  the 
stock  to  receive  it.  Whichever  of  these  modes  of 
grafting  is  adopted,  the  graft  must  be  fastened  in 
its  place  by  tying,  for  which  purpose  a  strand  of 
bast-matting  is  commonly  used.  The  access  of 
air  is  further  prevented  by  means  of  clay,  which 
has  been  worked  up  with  a  little  chopped  hay, 
horse  or  cow  dung,  and  water,  and  which  is  ap¬ 
plied  to  the  place  of  junction  so  as  to  form  a  ball, 
tapering  both  upward  and  downward.  In  France, 
a  composition  of  28  parts  black  pitch,  28  Bur¬ 
gundy  pitch,  16  yellow  wax,  14  tallow,  and  14 
sifted  ashes,  is  generally  used  instead  of  clay. 
Gutta-percha,  applied  in  a  soft  state,  has  also  been 
used,  or  even  blotting-paper  held  fast  by  strips  of 
sticking-plaster.  The  progress  of  the  buds  shows 
the  union  of  the  graft  and  stock,  but  it  is  not 
generally  safe  to  remove  the  clay  in  less  than 
three  months;  and  the  ligatures,  although  then 
loosened,  are  allowed  to  remain  for  some  time 
longer. 

Grafton,  a  thriving  agricultural  town  and  the 
county  seat  of  Walsh  county,  Dak.  Pop.,  2,400. 

Grafton,  the  county  seat  of  Taylor  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  3,900. 

Graham,  the  count y  seat  of  Alamance  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  379. 

Graham,  the  county  seat  of  Young  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  650. 

Graham’s  Land,  an  island  of  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  discovered  by  Biscoe  in  February,  1832, 
lies  in  latitude  64°  45'  8.,  and  longitude  63° 
51 '  W. 

Graining  ( Leuciscus  lancastrienm),  a  fish  of 


the  family  Cyprinidce,  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
dace,  which  it  much  resembles. 

GralTae,  or  Grallatores'  (Lat.  stilt-walkers), 
an  order  of  birds,  generally  characterized  by 
very  long  legs,  adapting  them  for  wading  in 
water  without  wetting  their  feathers.  They  have 
also  generally  long  necks  and  long  bills. 

Gramme  is  the  standard  unit  of  French  meas¬ 
ures  of  weight,  and  is  the  weight  of  a  cubic  cen¬ 
timeter  of  distilled  water  at  0°  centigrade, 
(corresponding  to  32°  F.) 

Gram'piaus,  the  name  of  the  principal  mount¬ 
ain  system  in  Scotland.  A  range  of  the  same 
name  is  in  Southern  Australia. 

Grana'da,  an  ancient  kingdom,  and  one  of  the 
old  provinces  in  the  South  of  Spain.  It  is  now 
divided  into  the  three  modern  provinces  of  Gra¬ 
nada,  Almeria,  and  Malaga,  the  united  areas  of 
which  amount  to  11,063  square  miles,  and  the 
united  pop.  1,351,909. 

Granada  (Span.  Granata,  Arab.  Garnatliah, 
said  to  be  a  corruption  of  Karndttah,  the  an¬ 
cient  fortress  of  Phoenician  origin),  a  famous 


city  of  Spain,  formerly  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Granada,  and  now  chief  town  of  the  modern 
province  of  the  same  name,  2,445  feet  above  sea- 
level,'  in  latitude  37°  15'  N.,  longitude  3°  45’  W., 
and  is  about  140  miles  east-southeast  of  Seville. 
Pop.-,  76,108. 

Granada,  a  city  of  Nicaragua  in  a  department 
of  its  own  name,  founded  by  Hernandez  de  Cor¬ 
dova  in  1522.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Grampus  (from  the  French  grand  poisson, 
great  fish),  a  cetacean  animal,  common  in  the  Arc- 


Grampus  ( Phoctena  orca). 


tic  seas,  not  infrequent  in  the  North  Atlantic. 
It  is  one  of  the  Belpliinidce,  or  dolphin  family. 

Granbury,  a  prosperous  town  on  the  Brazos 
river,  and  the  county  seat  of  Hood  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  524. 

Grand  Crossing,  twelve  miles  south  of  Chicago, 
the  junction  of  several  railroads.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Grandees'  (Span,  grander),  the  name  by  which 
the  most  highly  privileged  class  of  the  nobility  of 
Castile  has  been  known  since  the  thirteenth  cen¬ 
tury. 

Grand  Forks,  the  county  seat  of  Grand  Forks 
county,  Dak.,  is  on  the  Red  river,  and  is  the 
commercial  center  of  a  large  district  in  the  famous 
Red  river  wheat  belt.  Pop.,  7,000. 

Grand  Haven,  a  town  in  the  State  of  Michigan, 
situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan, 
at  the  mouth  of  Grand  river.  Pop.  (1885),  5,914. 

Grand  Island,  the  county  seat  of  Hall  county. 
Neb.,  is  an  important  railroad  center,  and  a 
prosperous  agricultural  city  on  the  Platte  river. 
Pop.,  6,000. 

Grand  Junction,  the  county  seat  of  Mesa 
county,  Colo.,  is  an  important  mining  and 
ranching  center  on  the  Grand  river.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Grand  Jury,  a  body  of  citizens,  generally 
twenty-three  in  number,  selected  by  the  sheriff. 
Their  duty  is  to  investigate  cases  of  supposed 
crime,  and  to  indict  the  accused  if  the  ex-parte 
evidence  warrants  it. 

Grand  Lake,  the  county  seat  of  Grand  county, 
Colo.,  is  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  near  the 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Pop.,  156. 

Grand  Marais,  the  county  seat  of  Cook  county, 
Minn.,  is  on  the  north  shore  of  Lake  Superior, 
and  is  an  important  supply  point  for  the  iron 
and  copper  mines  in  its  vicinity.  Pop.,  170. 

Grand  Rapids,  a  prosperous  manufacturing 
city  of  Kent  county,  Michigan,  about  thirty-three 
miles  from  Lake  Michigan.  Pop.  (1885),  41,934. 

Grand  Rapids,  a  promising  agricultural  town, 
and  the  county  seat  of  La  Moure  county,  Dak., 
is  on  the  Dakota  river.  Pop.,  100. 

Grand  Rapids,  the  county  seat  of  Wood  county, 
Wis.,  is  on  the  Wisconsin  river,  and  is  an  im¬ 
portant  agricultural  and  lumbering  town.  Pop., 
1,606. 

Grand  River,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the 
Colorado  of  the  West. 

Grand  View,  a  thrifty  agricultural  town,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Douglas  county,  Dak.  Pop., 
211. 

Grangers,  the  popular  name  for  “  The  Patrons 
of  Husbandry,”  a  secret  association  of  farmers 
devoted  to  the  interests  of  their  class.  It  origi¬ 
nated  in  Washington,  Dec.  4,  1867,  but  did  not 
make  much  headway  until  1872.  In  1875  its 
membership  had  increased  to  1,500,000.  It  is 
not  so  prosperous  now  as  formerly. 

Gran  'ite,  an  igneous  rock,  composed  of  quartz, 
feldspar,  and  mica,  without  a  regular  arrangement 


GRANITE  FALLS. 


439 


GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 


of  the  crystals.  The  name  has  been  given  to  it 
on  account  of  its  granular  structure. 

Granite  Falls,  a  thrifty  town  on  the  Minne¬ 
sota  river,  is  the  county  seat  of  Yellow  Medicine 
county,  Minn.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Gran  Sasso  (Pltalia  (Great  Rock  of  Italy),  also 
called  Monte  Corno,  from  the  resemblance  to  a 
horn  which  it  presents  on  the  east,  the  highest 
summit  of  the  Apennines,  having  an  elevation 
of  10,206  feet. 

Grant,  Ulysses  Simpson,  born  April  27,  1822, 
at  Point  Pleasant,  Ohio.  His  boyhood  was  passed 
in  Georgetown,  Ohio,  whither  his  parents  removed 
shortly  after  his  birth.  His  name  was  originally 
Hiram  Ulysses,  but  when  he  entered  West  Point 
Military  Academy,  it  was  written  Ulysses  S.  by 
mistake  in  his  appointment,  and  so  remained.  He 
graduated  in  1843.  He  was  a  Second  Lieutenant 
during  the  war  with  Mexico,  but  was  promoted 
to  First  Lieutenant  and  breveted  Captain  after  the 
capture  of  Chapultepec,  in  which  he  participated. 
In  1848  he  married  Miss  Julia  T.  Dent.  In  1853 
he  was  commissioned  a  Captain  while  at  Fort 
Vancouver.  He  resigned  July  31,  1854,  and  re¬ 
moved  to  St.  Louis.  Later  he  was  employed  by 
his  father  in  the  leather  trade  at  Galena,  Ill.  When 
the  war  broke  out  he  went  to  Springfield,  at  the 
head  of  a  company  of  volunteers.  Governor  Yates 
retained  him  as  mustering  officer  on  his  staff.  June 
17,  1861,  he  was  made  Colonel  of  the  Twenty- 
first  Regiment  Illinois  Volunteers.  August  23d 
he  was  promoted  to  Brigadier-General,  and  as¬ 
sumed  command  of  the  troops  at  Cairo.  He  cap¬ 
tured  Paducah,  Ky.,  September  6th  of  that  year. 
Feb.  6,  1862,  aided  by  Commodore  Foote  with  a 
fleet  of  gunboats,  he  captured  Fort  Henry,  and 
after  a  severe  battle  forced  the  surrender  of  Fort 
Donnelson  on  the  16th.  July  lltli  Grant  became 
commander  of  the  Department  of  the  Tennessee, 
with  headquarters  at  Corinth.  In  the  spring  of 
1863  he  besieged  Vicksburg,  and  General  Pember¬ 
ton  surrendered  that  city  to  him  on  July  4th. 
Grant  was  promoted  to  Major-General  in  the  regu¬ 
lar  army  immediately  after  that  event.  During 
the  fall  of  1863  he  fought  the  Battle  of  Chatta¬ 
nooga,  which  crushed  Bragg’s  army  in  Tennessee. 
Congress  passed  a  bill  reviving  the  grade  of  Lieu¬ 
tenant-General,  and  on  March  12,  1864,  Grant 
was  promoted  to  that  rank.  He  now  took  com¬ 
mand  of  the  armies  of  the  United  States,  and 
established  headquarters  with  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac.  The  Campaigns  of  the  Wilderness, 
the  Siege  of  Petersburg,  and  the  fighting  before 
Richmond  displayed  his  brilliant  military  genius 
and  resulted  in  the  fall  of  the  Confederacy.  Gen¬ 
eral  Grant’s  career  has  no  parallel  in  history.  In 
less  than  four  years  he  had  risen  from  the  rank 
of  Captain  to  that  of  Lieutenant-General  of  the 
army.  After  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  still 
further  promoted.  By  Act  of  Congress,  in  July, 
1866,  the  grade  of  General  of  the  United  States 
Army  was  revived  and  bestowed  on  him.  He  was 
Secretary  of  War  ud  interim  from  Aug.  1,  1867, 
to  Jan.  14,  1868.  He  was  elected  President  of 
the  United  States  in  1868,  and  reelected  in  1872. 
In  1877-78  he  made  a  tour  of  the  world.  After  a 
lingering  and  painful  illness  Grant  died,  near 
Saratoga,  July  23,  1885.  The  Personal  Memoirs  of 
U.  S.  Grant  (2  vols.  1885-86)  is  an  autobiography 
touching  his  military  career — eschewing  politics. 

Grant,  a  promising  agricultural  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Perkins  county,  Neb. 

Grant.  City,  the  county  seat  of  Worth  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Grantslmrgh,  a  flourishing  agricultural  and 
lumbering  town,  and  the  county  seat  of  Burnett 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  340. 

Grant’s  Pass,  the  county  seat  of  Josephine 
county,  Ore.,  is  on  the  Rogue  river,  and  is  an  im¬ 
portant  mining  and  ranching  town.  Pop.,  500. 

Gra  ntsville,  the  county  seat  of  Calhoun  county, 
W.  Va.,  is  on  the  Little  Kanawha  river.  Pop.,  112. 

Granville,  Earl,  English  statesman.  For 
several  years  he  was  Secretary  of  State  for 
Foreign  Affairs. 

Graphotype  is  a  name  which  has  been  given  to 
an  ingenious  process  of  autographic  engraving  by 
which  typographic  printing  blocks  are  produced. 

Grap'tolites,  a  group  of  fossil  zoophytes,  ap¬ 
parently  nearly  related  to  the  recent  sertularia. 

Grass  Oil,  a  fragrant  volatile  oil  obtained 
from  the  leaves  and  stems  of  certain  trasses  of 


the  genus  Andropogon,  natives  of  India.  It  is 
employed  in  medicine  as  a  stimulant  and  dia¬ 
phoretic,  but  more  frequently  as  a  liniment  in 
chronic  rheumatism.  Its  chief  use,  however,  is 
in  perfumery. 

Grass  Tree  ( Xanthorrhm ),  a  genus  of  plants 


of  the  natural  order  Liliacece,  natives  of  Australia. 
Grasses  ( Graminece  or  Graminaceee),  a  natural 


anthers;  c,  spikelet  with  many  florets,  three  anthers. 


order  of  endogenous  plants,  containing  almost 
4,000  known  species,  about  one-twentieth  of 
a  1 1  known  phanerogamous 
plants.  They  are  distrib¬ 
uted  over  all  parts  of  the 
world;  some  are  character¬ 
istic  of  the  warmest  tropical 
regions,  and  some  of  the 
vicinity  of  perpetual  snow. 

Some  grasses  are  annual  and  e 
some  perennial ;  they  have  fi¬ 
brous  roots;  the  root-stock 
often  throws  out  runners;  the 
stems  (culms)  are  round, 
jointed,  generally  hollow,  ex¬ 
cept  at  the  joints,  rarely  filled 
with  pith,  generally  annual,  the  floret.  b  stI> 
and  of  humble  growth,  but  mas;  c,  ovule;  d,  Al¬ 
so  me  times  perennial  and  aments;  e,  anthers; 
woody,  occasionally — as  in  f*  glumes, 
bamboos — attaining  the  height  and  magnitude  of 
trees. 

Grass 'hopper,  the  name  of  many  species  of 
insects,  forming  a  family  of  the  order  Orthoptera, 


Spikelet  with  one 
floret,  three  anthers. 


Grasshopper,  Female  {Qryllus  viriclissimus) . 


section  Sallatoria,  called  Gryllidce  by  some  en¬ 
tomologists,  and  Locustidue  by  others — those  who 
adopt  the  former  name  designating  the  crickets 


Achetidce.  Locusts,  however,  do  not  belong  to 
this  family,  although  very  closely  allied,  but  are 
distinguished  from  it  by  greater  robustness  of 
frame,  shorter  legs,  and  shorter  antennae. 

Grasswraek  (Zostera),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Naiades,  one  of  the  few  genera  of 
phanerogamous  plants  which  grow  amongst  sea¬ 
weeds  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea. 

Grati'ola,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Scrophularineat,  having  a  five-partite  calyx, 
the  upper  lip  of  the  corolla  bifid,  the  lower  trifid, 
only  two  stamens  fertile,  and  the  anthers 
pendulous.  G.  officinalis,  sometimes  called  hedge 
hyssop,  is  found  in  meadows  and  on  the  margins 
of  ponds  and  river-banks  in  most  parts  of  Europe, 
but  not  in  Britain. 

Grattan,  Henry  (1746-1820),  Irish  statesman 
and  orator,  born  July  3,  1746.  He  was  called 
to  the  Irish  bar  in  1772,  but  never  obtained  a 
large  practice.  He  entered  the  Irish  Parliament 
in  1775,  and  became  active  in  obtaining  measures 
of  relief  for  his  country,  and  opposed  the  union 
between  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  He  died 
May  14,  1820. 

Gravita'tion,  Gravity.  All  bodies,  when 
raised  into  the  air,  and  left  unsupported,  fall  to 
the  earth  in  lines  perpendicular  to  it.  The  force 
which  causes  them  to  do  so  is  termed  gravity, 
and  acts  toward  the  earth’s  center.  Its  appre¬ 
hension  is  popularly  ascribed  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

Gray,  Asa,  a  distinguished  American  botanist, 
born  Nov.  18,  1810,  aud  died  Jan.  30,  1888. 

Gray,  Elisha,  born  Aug.  2,  1835.  Is  known 
as  one  of  the  inventors  and  perfectors  of  the 
telephone. 

Gray,  Thomas,  an  English  poet,  born  Dec.  26, 
1716.  He  is  best  known  by  his  Elegy  written  in 
a  Country  Churchyard  (1749).  He  (lied  July  30. 
1771. 

Gray 'ling-  ( Thymallus  vulgaris),  a  fish  of  the 
family  Salmonidce,  and  of  a  genus  distinguished 
from  salmon,  trout,  etc.,  by  smaller  mouth  and 


much  smaller  teeth,  and  by  the  greater  size  of 
the  dorsal  fin.  In  this  country  it ’is  found  in 
Northern  Michigan. 

Grayling,  the  county-seat  of  Crawford  county, 
Mich.,' is  on  the  Au  Sable  river,  and  is  a  prosper¬ 
ous  agricultural  and  lumbering  town.  Pop. ,  400. 

Grayson,  the  county  seat  of  Carter  county,  Ky. 
Pop.,  850. 

Great  Bend,  the  county  seat  of  Barton  county, 
Kan.,  is  on  the  Arkansas  river,  and  is  the  com¬ 
mercial  center  of  a  large  and  rich  agricultural 
district.  Pop.,  2,223. 

Great  Falls,  the  county  seat  of  Cascade  county, 
Mont,,  is  on  the  Missouri  river,  near  the  famous 
falls,  which  furnish  abundant  water-power  for 
exteusive  manufacturing  plants.  Present  pop., 
about  5,000. 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  TnE  United 
Kingdom  of,  has  been,  since  Jan.  1,  1801,  the 
official  title  of  the  political  unity  composed  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  Great  Britain 
was  employed  as  a  formal  designation  from  the 
time  of  the  union  of  the  Kingdoms  of  England 
and  Scotland  in  1707.  (See  England,  Scotland, 
and  Wales).  The  first  authentic  record  which 
we  have  of  the  Island  of  Great  Britain  is  found 
in  the  writings  of  Caius  Julius  Caesar,  who,  about 
half  a  century  before  the  beginning  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  era,  landed  in  Kent,  and  soon  reduced  most 
of  the  southern  part  of  the  island,  which  remained 
a  Roman  province  for  about  400  years.  The  na¬ 
tives  who  opposed  his  landing  were  Cymri,  or 
Celts,  a  barbarous  people  who  dressed  in  the  skins 
of  beasts,  and  ornamented  their  bodies  with  a 
blue  paint,  although  they  do  not  seem  to  have  un¬ 
derstood  the  art  of  tattooing  themselves.  The 
Romans  evacuated  Britain  about  a.d.  400,  leaving 


GREAT  SLAVE  LAKE. 


440 


GREECE. 


the  Cymri  free,  but  Vortigern,  one  of  their  chiefs, 
called  in  the  aid  of  some  warlike  Saxon  tribes 
dwelling  upon  the  eastern  shores  of  the  German 
Ocean,  in  order  to  subdue  his  antagonists,  and  in 
the  result  the  Saxons  overran  the  southern  part  of  j 
the  island,  the  Celtic  population  retreating  to 1 
Wales,  Cornwall,  and  the  Scottish  Highlands,  j 
About  the  year  650  t lie  minor  principalities  of  the 
Saxons  were  united  under  Egbert,  the  first  “King 
of  the  English.”  Meantime  Christianity  was  in¬ 
troduced  by  the  monk  Augustin,  but  after  the 
death  of  Alfred  the  Great,  in  901,  vast  hordes  of 
Danes  descended  upon  the  hapless  kingdom  and 
England  again  relapsed  into  heathenism,  the  new 
faith  not  being  actually  reestablished  until  about 
the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century.  The 
Danes  held  power  about  150  years,  when  the 
Saxon  dynasty  was  restored  in  the  person  of 
Edward  the  Confessor.  In  1066,  William,  Duke 
of  Normandy,  landed  in  Sussex,  overwhelmed 
the  Saxons  at  Hastings,  and  established  the  Nor¬ 
man  line  of  kings.  The  Anjou,  or  Plantagenet 
family,  ruled  from  1154  to  1400,  and  it  was  during 
this  period  that  the  first  Parliament  was  called 
and  Magna  Charta  was  granted  by  King  John. 
Under  the  Saxon  heptarchy,  and  up  to  the  time  of 
the  Danish  invasion,  there  was  a  Parliament 
known  as  the  “  Witenagemot  ”  or  assemblage  of 
“wise  men,”  and  trial  by  jury  has  existed  in 
England  since  the  time  of  Alfred  the  Great.  Un¬ 
der  the  Norman  and  Plantagenet  kings  the  feudal 
system  prevailed  in  its  fullest  force.  The  last  of 
the  Plantagenets  made  great  conquests  in  France, 
some  of  which  were  retained  even  up  to  the  time 
of  Queen  Mary.  Prior  to  the  year  1300  Norman- 
French  was  the  language  of  the  court,  but  the 
Saxon  tongue  was  never  abandoned  by  the  peo¬ 
ple,  and  the  writings  of  Chaucer  fixed  the  Eng¬ 
lish  language.  Ireland  was  invaded  under 
Henry  I.,  but  was  not  completely  subjugated 
for  nearly  five  centuries.  About  the  year  1280 
Edward  I.,  having  reduced  Wales,  made  des¬ 
perate  efforts  to  conquer  Scotland,  and  for  the 
next  300  years  wars  with  that  independent  and 
warlike  nation  were  always  in  order.  It,  how¬ 
ever,  retained  its  independence  uutil  the  two 
kingdoms  were  peacefully  united  by  the  succes¬ 
sion  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  to  the  English 
crown  in  1603.  The  House  of  Lancaster  usurped 
the  throne  of  England  in  1400,  and  forty  years 
later  the  country  became  a  prey  to  civil  war,  the 
contending  factions  being  known  as  “Yorkists” 
and  “Lancastrians,”  while,  from  the  red  and 
white  roses  adopted  as  badges  by  the  respective 
partisans,  the  struggle  became  known  as  the 
“Wars  of  the  Roses.”  Of  the  monarchs  of  this 
period  a  large  proportion  died  in  battle  or  by  as¬ 
sassination.  Under  the  Lancastrian  dynasty  the 
first  reform  movement  in  religious  matters  was 
initiated  by  John  Wycliffe,  who  translated  the 
Scriptures  into  the  vulgar  tongue.  Most  of  the 
English  kings  were  engaged  in  conflicts  with 
Rome,  the  monarchs  usually  being  jealous  of  the 
power  claimed  by  the  Pope.  The  Tudor  family, 
uniting  the  Yorkists  and  Lancastrians  in  the 
persons  of  Henry  VII.  and  his  queen,  the 
Princess  Elizabeth,  secured  the  throne  in  1485, 
after  the  defeat  and  death  of  Richard  III.  at 
Bosworth.  Under  Henry  VIII.  the  power  of 
Rome  was  broken,  and  although  its  supremacy 
was  partly  restored  under  his  daughter,  Mary,  it 
was  forever  swept  away  during  the  reign  of  her 
sister  and  successor,  Elizabeth.  By  this  time,  too, 
the  power  of  the  feudal  barons  was  destroyed, 
and  the  middle  class  had  begun  to  take  a  promi¬ 
nent  position  in  the  management  of  affairs.  It 
had  often  happened  that  tile  King  had  been  the 
sole  protection  of  the  people  against  the  rapacity 
of  the  barons,  but  when  the  Stuarts  ascended  the 
throne  the  trading  and  laboring  classes  found 
themselves  forced  to  unite  with  many  of  the  gentry 
against  the  despotism  of  James  and  his  son.  Eng¬ 
lish  literature  attained  a  marvelous  development 
in  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James,  through  the 
labors  and  genius  of  Shakespeare,  Bacon,  Ben 
.Tonson,  and  others,  and  the  language  as  it  now 
is  was  formed  and  defined  by  the  translators  of 
the  English  Bible  in  the  first  years  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century.  The  march  of  liberal  ideas  cul¬ 
minated  in  1642  in  open  resistance  to  the  tyranny 
of  King  Charles,  who  in  1649  paid  the  penalty  of 
his  crimes  against  freedom  on  the  scaffold  at 


Whitehall.  He  was  succeeded  in  1685  by  his 
brother,  James  II.,  whose  attempt  to  re-introduce 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion  ended  in  his  abdica¬ 
tion  and  flight.  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  son- 
in-law  of  James,  was  brought  over  by  the  Protest¬ 
ant  party  in  1688,  defeated  James  at  the  Battle  of 
the  Boyne  July  1  (o.s.),  1690,  and  reigned  until 
1702.  Under  the  Act  of  Settlement,  which  de¬ 
prived  James’  male  descendants  of  their  hereditary 
right,  his  daughter  Anne  succeeded  and  reigned 
until  1713.  She  was  succeeded  by  the  Elector  of 
Hanover,  a  descendant  from  James  I.,  who  to;>k 
the  title  of  George  I.  Since  that  time  the  crown 
has  been  hereditary  in  the  House  of  Hanover. 

Great  Slave  Lake  lies  in  the  Canadian  North¬ 
west  Territory,  62°  N.  latitude;  is  about  300  miles 
long,  and  50  miles  wide;  it  contains  many  islands, 
and  is  wholly  frozen  over  for  six  months  of  every 
year. 

Grebe  ( Podiceps ),  a  genus  of  web-footed 
birds  of  the  family  Colymbidce.  They  walk 
with  difficulty,  and 
all  their  motions  on 
land  are  awkward, 
b  u  t  in  water  they 
are  extremely  agile. 

Great  Eastern, 
the  largest  ship  ever 
built,  was  construct¬ 
ed  on  the  Isle  of 
Dogs,  England,  in 
1853-6.  Its  dimen¬ 
sions  were:  Length, 

692  feet;  breadth, 

118  feet;  height, 

70  feet.  She  had 
eight  engines,  with 
a  capacity  of  11,000 
horse  power;  ten 
boilers,  five  fun¬ 
nels  or  chimneys, 
and  six  masts. 

The  weight  of 
the  ship  was  estimated  at  12,000  tons.  She  was 
utilized  in  laying  the  first  Atlantic  cable,  but  did 
not  prove  to  be  a  profitable  investment,  and  was 
broken  up  for  junk  in  1889. 

Great  Fish  River,  in  Cape  Colony,  rises  in 
the  Snowy  Mountains,  and  flows  into  the  Indian 
Oceau. — 2.  Great  Fish  river,  or  Back’s  river,  in 
North  America,  enters  an  inlet  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  in  95°  W.  longitude,  after  passing  through 
Lake  Pelly. 

Great  Kana'wha,  an  affluent  of  the  Ohio 
river,  is  called  New  river  in  the  upper  part  of  its 
course,  and  rises  in  the  Northwest  of  North  Caro¬ 
lina.  It  is  400  miles  long,  and  is  navigable  about 
100  miles. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  in  the  North  of  Utah,  has 
given  its  name  to  Salt  Lake  City,  which  is  situ¬ 
ated  twelve  miles  from  its  southeastern  extremity. 
It  is  about  70  miles  long  and  30  miles  broad,  yet 
its  average  depth  is  only  7  or  8  feet,  and  it  no¬ 
where  exceeds  a  depth  of  33  feet.  Its  surface  is 
4,200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  the 
middle  of  the  lake  several  islands  rise  as  high  as 
3,250  feet  above  the  level  of  the  water;  the  princi¬ 
pal  island  is  in  latitude  41°  10'  N.,  and  longitude 
112°  21'  W.  One  of  them  is  12  miles,  and  an¬ 
other  16  miles  in  length.  The  water  of  the 
lake  is  so  salt  as  to  form  one  of  the  purest  and 
most  concentrated  brines  known  in  the  world; 
and  contains  22  per  cent,  of  chloride  of  sodium, 
slightly  mixed  with  other  salts. 

Grecian  Architecture.  The  origin  of  the 


Grebe  ( P .  cornutus). 


Doric  Columns. 


architecture  of  Greece  is  mixed  up  with  mythical 


and  fabulous  history.  It  is  divided  into  three 
styles,  Doric,  Ionic  and  Corinthian. 


Greece.  Colonists  from  Phoenicia  are  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  first  introduced  the  arts  into  Hellas. 
The  Greek  alphabet  is  unquestionably  of  Phoe- 


A 

jGpfrs 

;n 

i*- 

m 

I 

fig 

Beta- 

( < 
b~t 

i  •*' 

i 

3S 

i 

* 

8 

Gamma 

Delta 

0 

n 

a 

ir 

OmicfSjJ 

Pi 

E 

Epsilon 

p 

P 

Rho 

n 

£ 

Zeti’ 

2 

o ■  S 

Sigma 

1 

Etk 

T 

T 

Tan 

Sftrelfc 

;Y 

J.4 

if 

TJpsiloa 

I 

t 

lotff 

$ 

Phi 

K 

k 

Kappa 

;x 

X 

Chi 

A 

Lambda' 

«ir  t 

Pei 

M 

> 

Md 

ox 

Omega 

Greek  Alphabet. 


nician  origin.  According  to  Homer  and  Hesiod 
the  founders  of  the  Peloponnesian  community 
were  gods  or  demigods.  Tradition  claimed  des¬ 
cent  for  the  Greeks  from  Deucalion,  who,  after  a 
deluge  which  destroyed  all  human  life,  created 
men  by  throwing  stones  over  his  shoulder.  But 
for  history  we  can  go  no  further  back  than  the 
Olympiads,  (about  776  b.c.)  At  this  time,  the 
country  from  the  northern  mountains  to  the 
Morea  was  divided  into  a  number  of  small  States. 
Of  these,  Sparta,  although  small  and  almost 
barbaric,  rapidly  extended  its  conquests  in  every 
direction.  In  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century 
b.c.,  Sparta  had  become  the  most  powerful  of 
the  Greek  States.  About  362  began  the  Mace¬ 
donian  period,  which  closed  the  independent 
existence  of  the  Greek  commonwealths.  The 
wars  succeeding  the  Persian  conflicts  had  ex¬ 
hausted  the  resources  and  demoralized  the  char¬ 
acter  of  the  Greeks,  and  prepared  the  way  for 
any  powerful  neighbor  to  build  up  an  empire  on 
the  ruins  of  Hellenic  independence.  Macedonian 
rule  had  become  supreme,  and  by  repeated  insur¬ 
rections  t lie  Athenians  strove  to  throw  it  off,  but 
to  no  effect  until  325  b.c.,  when  this  was  tempo¬ 
rarily  accomplished.  In  200  the  Romans  ap¬ 
peared,  and  three  years  later  forced  the  Mace¬ 
donians  to  yield  their  supremacy  and  pay  the 
expense  of  the  last  war  upon  the  Athenians.  In 
171  war  between  the  Romans  and  Macedonians 
again  ensued,  the  latter  were  defeated,  and  Mace¬ 
donia  became  a  Roman  province.  The  civil  wars 
that  overturned  the  Roman  republic  desolated 
Greece;  but  the  empire  at  last  established  peace 
throughout  the  civilized  world.  Greece  was  still 
a  seat  of  learning,  arts,  and  culture.  Christianity 
was  early  introduced  by  St.  Paul  and  other  apos¬ 
tles,  and  by  the  time  of  Julian  had  made  great 
headway.  'About  the  middle  of  the  third  cen¬ 
tury,  Goths  appeared  and  overran  the  country, 
but  it  was  gallantly  defended.  The  seat  of  the 
Roman  empire  was  removed  to  Constantinople  in 
330,  and  in  395  the  separation  of  the  eastern  and 
western  empires  occurred.  At  this  time,  the 
name  of  the  ancient  Hellenes  began  to  be  limited 
to  the  adherents  of  the  ancient  religion.  In  the 
reign  of  Justinian  (527-535),  philosophical  schools, 
in  which  doctrines  adverse  to  Christianity  were 
taught,  were  closed.  In  476  the  western  empire 
fell,  and  during  this  period  Slavs  and  other  races 
began  to  appear  in  Greece,  and  up  to  the  eighth 
century  they  held  a  large  part  of  the  country. 
They  were  finally  driven  out,  and  the  country 
was  mainly  restored  to  the  descendants  of  its 


GREEK  CHURCH . 


441 


GREENVILLE. 


ancient  inhabitants.  The  history  of  the  country 
from  the  eighth  to  the  tenth  century  is  not  note¬ 
worthy.  In  1081  the  Normans  appeared,  and 
plundered  Corinth,  Thebes,  and  Athens.  In 
1203  Constantinople  was  captured  in  the  Crusade, 
and  the  Latin  princes  divided  Greece  among 
them  and  established  principalities.  All  these 
Frankish  governments  were  swept  away  by  the 
Turks,  who  captured  Constantinople  in  1453,  and 
in  a  few  years  thereafter  extended  their  con¬ 
quests  over  Greece,  and  incorporated  it  into  the 
Turkish  empire.  Under  this  administration,  the 
country  gradually  sunk  to  a  most  miserable  con¬ 
dition.  In  the  last  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen¬ 
tury,  the  spirit  of  nationality  and  independence 
once  more  asserted  itself,  secret  societies  were 
established,  and  in  1821  an  insurrection  broke 
out.  The  struggle  was  a  protracted  one  and  bit¬ 
terly  fought,  and  the  issue  seemed  doubtful  until 
at  last  foreign  powers  interfered,  and  the  Turks, 
in  1829,  were  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  inde¬ 
pendence  of  the  State.  After  the  selection  of 
two  sovereigns  for  the  emancipated  country — the 
first  of  whom  declined,  and  the  second  was  assas¬ 
sinated — Otho,  second  son  of  the  King  of  Bava¬ 
ria,  came  to  the  throne  in  1832.  In  1844  the  King 
was  forced  to  accede  to  a  constitutional  govern¬ 
ment.  When  the  Crimean  war  broke  out,  Greece 
took  a  decided  stand  in  favor  of  Russia,  but  the 
threats  of  England  and  France  compelled  the 
Government  to  pledge  itself  to  neutrality.  The 
people  were  in  a  state  of  almost  continuous  insur¬ 
rection  in  Greece,  and  in  1862  they  demanded 
the  relinquishment  of  the  crown  by  Otho,  who 
yielded,  and  an  election  was  held  by  universal 
suffrage.  Prince  George  of  Denmark  was  chosen, 
and  England  consented  to  the  relinquishment  of 
the  Ionian  protectorate.  In  1866  the  Cretan  rev¬ 
olution  threatened  to  involve  Greece  in  a  conflict 
with  Turkey.  The  danger  was  finally  averted, 
but  the  finances  of  the  country  were  left  in  a 
deplorable  condition.  The  protecting  powers 
of  Greece  are  England,  France,  and  Russia,  who 
jointly  guarantee  her  independence.  Recently 
some  return  to  prosperity  has  been  made.  Athens 
has  been  modernized,  brigandage  has  been  sup¬ 
pressed,  an  army  and  navy  have  been  established, 
and  Greece  is  once  more  taking  its  place  among 
the  nations  of  the  earth.  Modern  Greece  forms 
a  large  and  irregular  peninsula  of  Southeastern 
Europe,  extending  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
and  washed  on  its  eastern  and  western  shores  by 
the  /Egean  and  Ionian  Seas  respectively.  Euro¬ 
pean  Turkey  adjoins  its  northern  boundary  lines, 
from  the  Gulf  of  Volo  to  the  Gulf  of  Arta,  while 
at  the  south  is  the  Mediterranean.  Including  its 
group  of  islands  it  extends  from  latitude  36°  10' 
to  39°  50'  N.,  and  longitude  19°  30'  to  26°  30' 
E.  The  country  is  divided  into  three  grand 
divisions,  the  continental  portion,  or  Hellas,  on 
the  north;  in  the  south,  the  Peninsula  of  Mprea, 
anciently  termed  the  Peloponnesus,  which  is 
nearly  cut  off  from  the  main  land  by  the  sea  at 
the  Isthmus  of  Corinth;  and  the  group  of  islands 
in  the  yEgean  Sea,  and  the  Ionian  Islands.  A 
large  portion  of  Albania  is  also  now  under  Greek 
Tule.  The  country  is  mostly  mountainous.  In 
the  Peloponnesus  the  mountains  are  divided  into 
knobs  and  groups  and  clustered  about  a  lofty  cen¬ 
tral  mass,  which  in  Northern  Arcadia  rises  to  a 
height  of  8,000  feet.  The  principal  peaks  of  Greece 
are:  Mount  Olympus  (9,754  feet),  Ossa  (6,401), 
and  Pelion  (5,000),  Parnassus,  the  highest  sum¬ 
mit  in  Central  Greece  (8,068),  Gita  (7,071),  Heli¬ 
con  (5,000),  Cithaeron  (4,620),  Parnes  (4,193), 
Cyllene  (7,788),  Erymantlms  (7,297),  Taygetus 
(7,904).  The  pop.  of  Greece  at  the  last  census  was 
1,679,775,  to  which  300,000  Albanians  should  be 
added.  The  total  area,  including  islands,  is  given 
at  25,000  square  miles.  Of  the  cities,  the  chief  is 
Athens,  the  seat  of  government.  The  climate  of 
Greece  is  delightful;  all  kinds  of  grain  grow 
luxuriantly,  and  there  is  a  large  export  trade 
in  olives,  currants,  wines,  and  various  fruits. 
There  is  considerable  shipping  and  coasting 
trade.  The  country  is  almost  destitute  of  rail¬ 
roads,  and  has  Very  few  wagon-roads  worthy  of 
the  name. 

Greek  Church,  The,  is  the  church  of  the 
Greeks,  Russians,  and  many  of  the  Slavonic 
nations.  In  many  respects  its  tenets  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  It 


claims,  however,  superior  orthodoxy,  and  its 
head  is  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople. 

Greeley,  Horace,  American  journalist,  born 
Feb.  3,  1811.  In  1834  he  founded  the  New 
Yorker,  a  literary  weekly  paper,  and  after  one  or 
two  other  essays  at  editorship,  he  began  in  1841  the 
New  York  Tribune,  of  which  he  remained  the 
editor-in-chief  until  his  death.  In  1848  Mr. 
Greeley  was  elected  to  Congress.  In  1872  he  was 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  the  Presidency,  and 
died  November  29th  of  that  year. 

Greeley,  a  prosperous  agricultural  town  and 
the  county  seat  of  Weld  county,  Colo.,  is  on.  the 
Platte  river.  Pop.,  2,177. 

Greely,  Adolphus  W.,  born  in  Massachusetts 
March  27,  1844,  served  in  the  Civil  War,  and  at 
its  close  was  appointed  a  Lieutenant  in  the  regular 
army.  In  1881  he  commanded  the  Lady  Franklin 
expedition  to  Northern  Greenland,  and  reached 
the  most  northern  point  ever  visited  by  any 
Arctic  explorer.  He  and  the  few  survivors  of 
his  command  were  rescued  in  1884.  He  pub¬ 
lished  in  1886  an  account  of  his  discoveries,  and 
was  promoted  to  the  head  of  the  Signal  Service 
Department  with  the  rank  of  Brigadier-General. 

Green,  Anna  Katherine,  born  in  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.,  has  written  several  novels,  notably  The 
Leavenworth  Case,  A  Strange  Disappearance,  and 
Behind  Closed  Doors  (1889). 

Green,  Seth,  an  American  pisciculturist,  born 
in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  March  19,  1817.  He  has 
done  more  for  fish-culture  in  the  United  States 
than  any  other  man,  and  has  introduced  many 
new  food-fishes  into  our  rivers  and  lakes.  He 
died  Aug.  20,  1888. 

Green  backs.  The  popular  name  given  to  the 
bank  notes  issued  by  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 
Chase. 

Green  Bay,  an  inlet  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan,  is  100  miles  long,  from  15  to  35  miles 
wide,  and  of  considerable  depth.— Green  Bay,  a 
city  and  the  capital  of  Brown  county,  Wis., 
situated  at  the  head  of  the  last-named.  Pop. 
(1885),  7,111. 

Greencastle,  an  important  agricultural  and 
manufacturing  city,  is  the  county  seat  of  Putnam 
county,  Ind.  Pop.,  7,000. 

Green  Cove  Springs,  the  county  seat  of  Clay 
county,  Fla.,  is  an  important  fruit  mart  and 
winter  resort  on  the  St.  John’s  river.  Pop. ,  1,700. 

Greene,  Nathaniel,  American  soldier,  born 
May  27,  1742,  died  June  19,  1786.  Was  commis¬ 
sioned  a  Brigadier-General  in  May,  1775,  a  Major- 
General  in  September,  1776,  an<j  rendered  gallant 
services  at  Trenton,  Princeton,  Brandywine, 
Germantown,  Monmouth,  Newport,  Tiverton 
Heights,  Springfield,  and  in  the  Carolinas.  After 
his  death  Congress  appropriated  a  sum  of  money 
for  a  monument  to  his  memory,  but  it  was  never 
erected,  and  all  traces  of  his  grave  have  been  lost. 

Green  Earth  consists  principally  of  silica, 
alumina,  and  protoxide  of  iron,  the  silica  consti¬ 
tuting  about  one  half.  It  is  used  as  a  pigment 
by  painters  in  water  colors,  who  know  it  by  the 
name  of  mountain  green. 

Green  Ebony,  a  dyewood  of  the  Jacaranda 
ovalifolia,  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Bignoniacece. 

Greeneville,  the  county  seat  of  Greene  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  1,066. 

Greeneville,  the  county  seat  of  Meriwether 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  490. 

Greenfield,  a  growing  agricultural  town  and 
the  county  seat  of  Adair  county,  Iowa.  Pop., 
1,500. 

Greenfield,  a  prosperous  agricultural  town  on 
the  Sac  river,  is  the  county  seat  of  Dade  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Greenfield, the  county  seat  of  Hancock  county, 
Ind.,  is  the  commercial  center  of  a  large  and 
wealthy  agricultural  district.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Greenfield,  an  important  railroad  center  and 
manufacturing  city  on  the  Connecticut  river,  is 
the  county  seat  of  Franklin  county,  Mass.  Pop., 
4,869. 

Green 'land,  a  region  of  unknown  extent, 
stretches  from  its  southern  extremity,  Cape  Fare¬ 
well,  along  the  Atlantic  and  Arctic  Oceans  on  the 
east,  and  Davis’  Strait,  Baffin’s  Bay,  and  Smith’s 
Sound  on  the  west.  The  west  coast  pursues  a 
north-northwest  direction  as  far  as  Cape  Alexan 
der,  in  78°  10'  N.  latitude.  It  then  has  a  general 
northeasterly  direction,  gradually  changing 


to  easterly  beyond  82°  30'.  Greenland  was  vis¬ 
ited,  and  its  west  coast  explored,  successively  by 
Frobisher,  Davis,  and  Baffin,  the  latter  having 
reached  latitude  78°  N.  (the  limit  of  the  inhab¬ 
ited  country).  Kane  touched  82°  30';  Greely,  in 
1883,  83°  24'.  The  eastern  and  southern  coasts 
appear  to  be  so  beset  with  ice  as  to  be  practically 
inaccessible.  Nordenskjold  attempted  to  pene¬ 
trate  into  the  interior  in  iS83,  hoping  to  find  shelt¬ 
ered  land  and  a  milder  climate,  but  was  baffled 
by  the  continuous  ice-cap.  It  was  finally  crossed 
in  1888  with  sledges,  by  Doctor  Nansen,  a  Nor¬ 
wegian  explorer.  The  greatest  degree  of  cold  was 
—  68°  in  February,  and  the  greatest  heat  was  -f- 
53.9°  in  July,  the  only  month  in  which  the  aver¬ 
age  temperature  was  above  the  freezing-point. 
During  the  short  summer,  which  in  few  places 
exceeds  four  months  (during  two  of  which,  June 
and  July,  the  sun  is  always  above  the  horizon), 
vegetation  grows  rapidly.  The  inclemency  of 
these  regions  does  not  affect  the  animal  kingdom 
(man  excepted).  The  walrus,  seal,  polar  bear, 
arctic  fox,  dog,  and  reindeer  abound,  and  supply 
the  inhabitants  with  almost  all  the  necessaries  of 
life.  The  sea  swarms  with  different  species  of 
cetacea,  and  of  fish,  as  the  cod,  salmon,  and 
herring.  Sea-fowl  are  also  abundant  during  the 
summwr  season,  while  guillemots,  sandpipers, 
plovers,  and  grouse  as-e  also  found.  There  are 
now  thirteen  Danish  colonies  along  the  west  coast 
of  Greenland,  with  a  pop.  of  about  10,000. 

Greenleaf,  Simon,  an  American  jurist,  born 
Dec.  5,  1783,  and  died  Oct.  6,  1853.  His  princi¬ 
pal  work  is  on  The  Law  of  Evidence,  and  is  a 
standard  text-book. 

Green  River,  a  river  of  North  America,  and 
tributary  of  the  Ohio,  rises  near  the  center  of  the 
State  of  Kentucky,  and  flows  through  it;  first  in 
a  westward  direction  for  about  150  miles,  passing 
the  Mammoth  cave,  then  northwestward  for  the 
remainder  of  its  course.  It  joins  the  Ohio  nine 
miles  above  Evansville,  in  Indiana,  and  at  its 
mouth  is  about  600  feet  in  breadth.  It  is  upward 
of  300  miles  in  length,  and  is  navigable  for  small 
steamers  for  200  miles. 

Green  River,  on  the  stream  of  the  same  name, 
the  county  seat  of  Sweetwater  county,  Wyo., 
is  an  important  ranching  and  outfitting  point. 
Pop.,  327. 

Greenshank  ( Totanus  glottis),  a  bird  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  redshank  and  some  of  those 
known  as  sandpipers,  but  differing  from  them  in 
the  stronger  and  slightly  recurved  bill. 

Greensborongh,  the  county  seat  of  Greene 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  1,621. 

Greensborongh,  the  county  seat  of  Guilford 
county,  N.  C.,  is  an  important  railroad  center 
and  cotton  market.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Greensborongh,  the  county  seat  of  Hale 
county,  Ala.  Pop.,  1,833. 

Greensburgh,  an  important  agricultural  town 
and  the  county  seat  of  Decatur  county,  Ind. 
Pop.,  4,000. 

Greensburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Green 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  700. 

Greensburgh,  a  promising  agricultural  town 
and  the  county  seat  of  Kiowa  county,  Kan. 
Pop.,  600. 

Greensburgh,  the  capital  of  St.  Helena  Parish, 
La.  Pop.,  297. 

Greensburgh,  an  important  farming  and 
manufacturing  town  and  the  county  seat  of  West¬ 
moreland  county,  Penn.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Greenup,  the  county  seat  of  Greenup  county, 
Ivy.,  is  an  important  shipping  point  on  the  Ohio 
river.  Pop.,  900. 

Greenville,  a  well-built  and  prosperous  agri¬ 
cultural  town  and  the  county  seat  of  Bond 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Greenville,  the  county  seat  of  Butler  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  2,800. 

Gi’eenville,  an  important  railroad  center  of 
Western  Ohio  and  the  county  seat  of  Darke 
county.  Pop.,  5,700. 

Greenville,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Greenville  county,  S.  C.,  is  near  the  base  of 
Saluda  Mountain  and  is  a  popular  summer  resort. 
Pop.,  7,000. 

Greenville,  an  important  railroad  center  and 
the  county  seat  of  Hunt  county,  Tex.  Pop., 
3,700. 

Greenville,  a  wealthy  and  well-built  city,  the 


GREENVILLE. 


442 


GROESBECK. 


county  seat  of  Milenburgh  county,  Ky.  Pop., 
1,903. 

Greenville,  an  important  cotton-shipping 
point  on  the  Pamlico  river,  is  the  county  seat  of 
Pitt  county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Greenville,  the  county  seat  of  Washington 
county,  Miss.,  is  an  important  cotton  market  on 
the  Mississippi  river,  eighty  miles  above  Vicks¬ 
burg.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Greenville,  the  county  seat  of  Wayne  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  210. 

Green'wich,  a  Parliamentary  borough  of  Eng¬ 
land,  in  the  County  of  Kent,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Thames,  five  miles  southeast  of  London.  It 
is  the  site  of  the  National  observatory,  from  which 
the  meridians  of  longitude  are  reckoned.  Pop. 
(1881),  206,651. 

Greenwood,  the  county  seat  of  Le  Flore  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  900. 

Greenwood,  the  county  seat  of  Sebastian 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  300. 

Gregarini'dte,  a  group  of  microscopic  organ¬ 
isms  belonging  to  the  sub-kingdom  Protozoa. 


Gregory,  the  name  of  sixteen  popes,  of  whom 
the  most  important  are: 

Gregory  I.,  the  Gkeat,  a  father  and  saint  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was  born  in  Rome 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century.  At  an 
early  age  he  was  named  by  the  Emperor  Justin 
II.,  Praetor  of  Rome;  but  relinquished  this  office, 
and  withdrew  into  the  monastery  which  he  had 
founded  in  Rome,  under  the  title  of  St.  Andrew’s. 
On  the  death  of  Pelagius,  Gregory  was  unani¬ 
mously  called  to  succeed  him  and  was  consecrated 
Sept.  3,  590.  Gregory’s  zeal,  tempered  with 
generous  toleration,  as  well  as  his  efforts  to  re¬ 
press  slave-dealing,  make  him  an  admirable  figure 
in  history.  He  died  March  12,  604. 

Gregory  II.,  by  birth  a  Roman,  was  elected 
Bishop  of  that  see  in  715.  His  pontificate  is 
specially  noticeable  as  forming  an  epoch  in  the 
progress  of  the  territorial  preeminence  of  the 
Roman  see  in  Italy.  lie  died  in  731. 

Gregory  III.,  a  native  of  Syria,  succeeded 
Gregory  II.  in  731,  and  died  in  741. 

Gregory  VII.,  the  historical  representative  of 
the  temporal  claims  of  the  mediaeval  papacy,  was 
born  about  1020.  His  memorable  controversy 
with  Henry  IV.,  in  which  he  excommunicated 
and  brought  that  monarch  humbly  to  his  feet, 
praying  for  absolution,  is  one  of  the  most  striking 
features  of  Gregory’s  history.  He  died  May  25, 
1085. 

Gregory  XIII.,  IIuGn  Buoncompagno,  was 
born  at  Bologna,  Jan.  7,  1502.  He  was  one  of 
the  theologians  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  was 
created  Cardinal  in  1564,  and  sent  as  legate  to 
Spain.  On  the  death  of  Pius  V.,  he  was  elected 
Pope  in  1572.  He  is  remembered  as  a  warm  pro¬ 
moter  of  education.  An  interesting  event  of  his 
pontificate,  is  the  correction  of  the  calendar, 
which  was  made  public  in  1582.  The  massacre 
of  St.  Bartholomew  occurred  during  his  pontifi¬ 
cate.  He  died  in  1585,  in  the  eighty-third  year 
of  his  age. 


Gregory  Nazianzen,  also  called  the  Theolog¬ 
ian,  born  about  329,  and  died  in  389. 

Grena'da,  an  island  of  volcanic  origin  in  the 
British  West  Indies,  one  of  the  Caribbees.  Area, 
133  squar  ■  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  42,403. 

Grenada,  a  thrifty  agricultural  town  on  the 
Yalobusha  river,  is  the  county  seat  of  Grenada 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  1,914. 

Grenadines',  a  chain  of  islets  in  the  West 
Indies,  extending  between  Grenada,  on  which  they 
are  chiefly  dependent,  and  St.  Vincent,  from  lati¬ 
tude  12°  30'  to  13°  N.  They  vary  in  size  from 
about  7,000  acres  downward. 

Greuo'ble  (a  corruption  of  the  Lat.  Gratiano- 
polis,  or  City  of  Gratian),  an  important  town  and 
strong  fortress  of  France.  Pop.  (1876),  43,054. 

Grenville,  George,  an  English  statesman  and 
reputed  author  of  the  Stamp  Act,  which  first  drove 
the  American  Colonies  into  resistance,  born  in  Oc¬ 
tober,  1712.  He  died  in  1770. 

Gresham,  Sir  Thomas,  born  in  1519.  In  1559 
he  was  knighted,  and  appointed  English  Ambas¬ 
sador  at  the  court  of  the  King  of  Spain’s  regent  at 
Brussels.  He  founded  Gresham  College,  and  gave 
large  sums  of  money  to  several  charitable  institu¬ 
tions.  He  died  suddenly,  Nov.  21,  1579. 

Gretna  Green,  the  name  of  a  farmstead  near 
Springfield,  Dumfriesshire,  Scotland,  famous  as 
the  scene  of  many  irregular  marriages. 

Greuze,  Jean  Baptiste,  born  in  Burgundy  in 
1726,  died  in  Paris,  March  21,  1805,  a  celebrated 
genre  painter  of  the  French  school. 

Grevy,  Francois  Paul  Jules,  a  French  states¬ 
man,  born  Aug.  15,  1807.  In  February,  1871,  he 
was  elected  President  of  the  National  Assembly, 
then  in  session  at  Bordeaux.  In  1876  he  was  again 
elected  President  of  that  body,  and  continued  to 
hold  the  office  until  Jan.  30,  1879,  when  the 
Chambers  almost  unanimously  chose  him  Pres¬ 
ident  of  the  Republic.  He  was  reelected  in  1886, 
but  in  December,  1887,  was  supplanted  by  M. 
Sadi-Carnot. 

Grey,  Lady  Jane,  an  English  lady  of  royal 
birth,  born  in  1537.  She  was  proclaimed  Queen 
of  England  in  November,  1553,  and  reigned  ten 
days,  when  she  was  deposed.  She  was  beheaded, 
Feb.  12,  1554,  having  been  convicted  of  con¬ 
spiracy. 

Grey,  Sir  George,  K.C.B.,  born  in  1812.  In 
1846  he  was  made  Governor  of  New  Zealand,  and 
in  1854  was  appointed  Governor  and  Commander- 
in-Chief  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  He  is  the 
author  of  Journals  of  Discovery  in  Australia  (1841); 
Polynesian  Mythology  { 1855);  and  Proverbial  Hay¬ 
ings  of  the  Ancestors  of  the  New  Zealand  Race  (1858). 

Greyhound,  a  dog  distinguished  by  slenderness 
of  form,  length  of  limbs,  elongation  of  muzzle, 
swiftness,  and  power  of  endurance  in  running. 
The  name  has  no  reference  to  the  color  of  the 
animal,  but  comes  from  the  Saxon  word  gre,  which 
means  wolf. 

Grices,  in  Heraldry,  are  young,  wild  boars. 

Griesbach,  Johann  Jakob,  was  born  Jan.  4, 
1745,  and  died  March  24,  1812.  The  great  work 
with  which  his  name  is  associated  is  his  critical 
revision  of  the  New  Testament  text. 

Grif'Iiu  (Fr.  Griffon,  Lat.  and  Gr.  Gryps),  a 
chimerical  creature,  which  the  fancy  of  the 
modern  has  adopted  from  that 
of  the  ancient  world.  It  is  va¬ 
riously  described  and  represented, 
but  the  shape  in  which  it  most 
frequently  appears  is  that  of  an 
animal  generated  between  a  lion 
and  an  eagle,  having  the  body 
and  legs  of  the  former,  with  the 
beak  and  wings  of  the  latter. 

Griffin,  an  important  railroad  center,  agricul¬ 
tural  town,  and  the  county  seat  of  Spalding  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Grimm,  Jakob  Ludwig,  German  philologist 
and  antiquary,  born  Jan.  4,  1785.  He  wrote  a 
number  of  exhaustive  works  on  the  society  of  the 
middle  ages  in  Central  Europe,  and  the  religious 
traditions  and  superstitions  from  the  earliest 
times.  He  died  September,  1863. 

Grimm,  Wilhelm  Karl,  brother  of  the  pre¬ 
ceding,  born  Feb.  24,  1786.  They  labored  to¬ 
gether,  and  were  commonly  known  as  the 
Brothers  Grimm.  Wilhelm  died  December,  1859. 
Among  the  works  of  the  younger  Grimm  are — 
Translations  of  Ancient  Danish  Heroic  Poems  of 


the  Sixth  Century;  German  Runic  Characters; 
Heroic  Legends  of  Germany ,  etc. 

Grimm’s  Law,  the  name — derived  from  the 
discoverer,  J.  Grimm — given  to  the  principle 
which  regulates  the  interchange  of  the  mute  con¬ 
sonants  in  the  corresponding  words  of  the  differ¬ 
ent  Aryan  languages. 

Grin'delwald,  an  Alpine  valley,  thirty-five 
miles  from  Bern,  is  about  12  miles  long  and  4 
miles  broad.  It  owes  its  celebrity  to  two  great 
glaciers,  branches  or  arms,  of  the  ocean  of  ice 
which  covers  the  Bernese  Oberland. 

Grindstones.  Flat,  circular  stones  made  to 
revolve  upon  an  axis,  and  used  for  grinding  steel, 
glass,  other  stones,  etc.  They  are  made  of  sand¬ 
stone,  or  sandstone  grit,  of  various  degrees  of 
coarseness,  according  to  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  to  be  used. 

Grinnell  Land,  a  tract  on  the  west  side  of 
Kennedy  Channel  (the  northern  continuation  of 
Smith’s  Sound),  which  separates  it  from  Green¬ 
land. 

Griping,  or  Gripes,  a  popular  name  for  all 
painful  affections  of  the  bowels,  whether  attended 
with  constipation  or  diarrhoea.  When  pains  of 
this  kind  are  spasmodic,  they  are  termed  colic. 
The  act  ion  of  purgative  medicine  is  often  attended 
by  more  or  less  of  griping  pain,  which  may  be 
averted  in  certain  cases  by  the  careful  choice  of 
the  medicine,  or  by  combination  of  it  with  car¬ 
minatives,  or  with  a  little  opium. 

Gri  'qualand  West  and  East  are  two  territories 
in  South  Africa  recently  annexed  to  Cape  Colony, 
and  named  from  the  Griquas  or  Bastaards,  who 
are  a  mixed  race,  sprung  from  the  intercourse  of 
Dutch  settlers  with  Hottentots  find  Bush  women. 
— Griqualand  West  lies  to  the  northeast  of  Cape 
Colony,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Orange 
river,  on  the  north  by  Bechuana  territory,  on  the 
east  by  Orange  Free  State,  on  the  west  by  the 
Kalahari  country.  Diamonds  to  the  value  of 
$60,000,000  were  found  there  between  1871  and 
1880.  The  estimated  area  is  16,632  square  miles; 
pop.,  about  45,277. — Griqualand  East  is  that  part 
of  No-Man’s-Land  which  lies  between  the  Kaffir 
border  and  Southern  Natal.  Pop.,  about  54,000. 

Grisel  'da,  or  Griseldis,  is  the  heroine  of  a 
celebrated  mediaeval  tale,  which  probably  had  its 
rise  in  Italy.  A  poor  girl,  who  was  a  charcoal- 
burner,  was  raised  to  be  the  wife  of  the  Marquis 
of  Saluzzo,  who  put  her  humility  and  obedience 
to  the  severest  tests.  She,  however,  passed 
through  them  all  triumphantly,  and  a  reconcilia¬ 
tion  took  place.  In  this  legend,  the  endurance 
and  self-renunciation  of  the  loving  woman  are 
represented  as  carried  to  the  highest  pitch. 

Gris-nez,  or  Grinez,  Care,  a  headland  of 
France,  in  the  Department  of  Pas-de-Calais,  oppo¬ 
site  Dover. 

Gri 'sons  (Ger.  Graubunden ),  a  canton  of 
Switzerland,  bounded  on  the  north  by  St.  Glarus, 
St.  Gall,  and  the  Vorarlberg;  on  the  east  by  the 
Tyrol;  on  the  south  by  Lombardy;  and  on  the 
west  by  Uri  and  Ticino.  Its  area  is  2,770  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1880),  94,991. 

Grit  is  a  coarse-grained  sandstone,  the  particles 
of  which  are  more  or  less  angular,  and  com¬ 
pacted  together  by  a  hard  siliceous  cement. 

Groat  (Dutch  groot,  Ger.  groschen,  Fr.  gros, 
Ital.  grosso,  Low  Lat..  grossus,  from  the  same  root 
as  Eng.  great ,  and  meaning  thick),  a  name  given 
in  the  middle  ages  to  all  thick  coins,  as  distin¬ 
guished  from  the  “bracteates”  (Lat.  bractea,  a 
thin  plate  or  leaf),  or  thin  coins  of  silver  or  gold- 
leaf  stamped  so  as  to  be  hollow  on  one  side  and 
raised  on  the  other.  Groats  differed  greatly  in 
value  at  different  times  and  in  different  countries. 

G rod 'no,  a  government  of  Russia,  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  West  Russia,  and  formerly  a  portion  of 
Lithuania,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  Vilna,  on  the  east  by  that  of  Minsk, 
on  the  south  by  Volhynia,  and  on  the  west  by 
Poland  and  the  Province  of  Bialystok.  Area, 
14,532  square  miles;  pop.  (1879),  1,165,401. 

Grodno,  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  same  name,  on  an  elevation  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Niemen,  160  miles  north¬ 
east  of  Warsaw.  Pop.  (1880),  34,755. 

Groesbeck,  a  promising  agricultural  town  and 
the  county  seat  of  Limestone  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  700. 


Griffin. 


GROMWELL. 


443 


GUACHOS. 


Grom  well  ( Litliospermum ),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  tlie  natural  order  Boraginem,  having  a  funnel- 
shaped  corolla,  stamens  shorter  than  the  corolla, 
and  achenia  of  stony  hardness.  It  is  a  native  of 
dry,  gravelly  places  in  Europe,  Asia,  and  North 
America.  It  has  an  erect,  much-branched  stem, 
broadly  lanceolate  leaves,  and  small  greenish- 
yellow  flowers. 

Gro'ningen  (anc.  Cruoninga),  the  most  north¬ 
eastern  province  of  the  Netherlands,  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  North  Sea,  on  the  east  by 
Hanover,  on  the  south  by  the  Province  of 
Drenthe,  and  on  the  west  by  that  of  Friesland. 
Area,  896  square  miles.  Pop.  (1879),  255,686. — 
Groningen,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  capital 
of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  is  on  the  Hunse, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Aa  with  that  stream, 
twenty-two  miles  west  of  Dollart  Pay.  Pop. 
(1879),  46,058. 

Groo'te  Ey'landt  (English,  Great  Island)  lies 
off  the  western  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
in  North  Australia,  and  is  the  largest  island  in 
that  inlet,  in  latitude  14°  S.,  and  longitude  136° 
40 '  E.  Length  and  breadth  about  40  miles  each. 

Gi‘08 'beak  (Coccothraustes),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  family  Fringillidee,  distinguished  chiefly 
by  the  great  thickness  of  the  bill,  which  has  also 
a  proportionate  strength.  The  beautiful  even- 


Grosbeak  ( Loxia  coccothraustes). 


ing  grosbeak  ( F .  vespertina)  and  the  rose-breasted 
grosbeak  (F.  ludoviciana)  in  the  United  States. 

Grossularia'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  containing  about  100  known  species,  all 
shrubs,  natives  of  temperate  climates,  and  chiefly 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  The  most  important 
species  of  the  order  are  the  gooseberry  and  cur¬ 
rants. 

Grosswar 'dein  (Magyar,  Nagy-  Varad),  a  town 
of  Upper  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  South  Bihar. 
Pop.  (1880),  31,824. 

Grotesque',  a  style  of  classical  ornament,  so- 
called,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  from  its  having 
been  rediscovered  in  the  excavations  made  in  the 
baths  of  Titus  and  other  ancient  Roman  build¬ 
ings,  the  Italian  word  grotto  applying  to  any  sub¬ 
terranean  chamber.  This  light,  fantastic  style 
was  much  in  favor  during  the  Renaissance. 

Gro'tius,  Hugo,  or  De  Groot,  was  born  at 
Delft,  April  10, 1583,  and  died  in  1645.  He  spent 
his  life  in  diplomacy  and  the  study  of  interna¬ 
tional  law,  and  on  the  latter  is  still  a  recognized 
authority. 

Groton,  a  town  of  New  London  county,  Conn., 
on  Long  Island  Sound.  It  has  important  manu¬ 
facturing  interests,  and  is  memorable  as  the  scene 
of  the  massacre  of  an  American  garrison  by 
British  froops  under  Benedict  Arnold,  Sept.  6, 
1781.  Pop.,  5,130. 

Ground,  in  Painting,  the  coating  or  prepara¬ 
tion  put  on  the  surface  of  the  panel,  board,  or 
canvas  on  which  a  picture  is  to  be  painted.  Art¬ 
ists  attach  great  importance  to  the  color  and 
texture  of  the  ground,  as  tending  in  no  small  de¬ 
gree  to  affect  the  technical  quality  of  the  work. 
The  term  ground  is  also  applied  to  different 
parts  of  a  picture,  as  the  foreground,  or  portion 
of  the  picture  on  which  are  placed  the  figures  or 
objects  represented  as  nearest  the  spectator;  back¬ 
ground,  the  part,  particularly  in  portraits, 
behind  or  on  which  it  is  intended  to  set  off  or 
relieve  the  head,  figure,  or  group  depicted.  The 
portion  of  a  model  or  carving  from  which  the 
figures  are  projected  is  styled  the  ground. 


Ground  Dove  and  Ground  Pigeon  are  names 
given  to  those  birds  of  the  family  Columbidee 
which  in  characters  and  habits  approach  most 
to  the  ordinary  gallinaceous  type.  They  have 
short  and  rounded  wings,  with  inferior  power  of 
flight  to  pigeons  in  general;  their  legs  are  longer, 
and  their  feet  rather  adapted  for  walking  than  for 
grasping.  They  live  mostly  on  the  ground. 
Among  them  are  the  beautiful  bronze-wings  of 
Australia. 

Ground-ivy  {Glechoma  hederacea,  united  with 
the  genus  Nepela  by  some  botanists  as  N.  gle¬ 
choma),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Labiates,  a 
common  native  of  Europe,  growing  in  waste 
places,  plantations,  hedges,  etc.,  in  a  dry  soil.  It 
has  a  creeping  stem,  kidney-shaped  crenate 
leaves,  and  axillary  blue  flowers  growing  in 
threes. 

Groundling  (Balia  teehia),  a  small  fish  of  the 
family  Cyprinidce,  found  in  some  of  the  rivers  of 
England.  It  is  never  more  than  three  or  four 
inches  long.  It  receives  its  name  from  habitually 
keeping  close  to  the  bottom. 

Ground-nut,  a  term  variously  employed,  to  de¬ 
note  the  seed  of  the  Arachis  hypogeea,  and  the 
tubers  of  certain  umbelliferous  plants,  also  called 
earth-nuts. 

Ground-rent,  is  the  rent  which  a  person,  who 
builds  on  a  piece  of  ground  not  his  own,  pays  to 
the  owner  for  the  use  of  the  ground  for  a  speci¬ 
fied  term. 

Ground'sel,  the  common  name  of  those  spe¬ 
cies  of  Senecio  w  hich  have  small  heads  of  flowers 
either  destitute  of  ray  or  w'ith  the  ray  rolled  back. 
The  common  groundsel  ( S .  vulgaris),  one  of  the 
most  plentiful  of  weeds  in  waste  and  cultivated 
grounds,  is  usually  destitute  of  ray.  It  is  a 
coarse-looking  annual,  of  rapid  growth,  about  a 
foot  high,  branched,  with  pinnatifid  leaves,  and 
small  yellowr  heads  of  flowers;  flowering  at  all 
seasons,  even  in  winter,  when  the  weather  is 
mild;  and  its  seeds,  like  those  of  other  Com- 
positce,  are  widely  diffused  by  means  of  their 
hairy  pappus,  being  wafted  about  by  the  wind. 
It  has  a  rather  disagreeable  smell;  but  birds  are 
very  fond  of  the  young  buds  and  leaves,  and 
cage-birds  are  fed  on  them. 

Ground-squirrel  (Tamias),  a  genus  of  rodent 
quadrupeds  of  the  squirrel  family,  differing  from 
the  true  squirrels  in  the  possession  of  cheek- 
pouches,  in  having  a  more  slender  body  and 
shorter  legs,  and  in  other  less  important  particu¬ 
lars;  but  most  of  all  in  their  habits,  residing 
chiefly  on  the  ground,  and  seldom  ascending  trees 


Ground-squirrel. 


to  any  considerable  height.  They  are  of  small 
size,  are  all  longitudinally  striped  on  the  back 
and  sides,  are  extremely  active  and  restless,  and 
emit  a  peculiar  sound,  widely  differing  from  the 
cry  of  the  squirrels.  A  w'ell-known  species  is  the 
hackee  or  chipping-squirrel  (T.  lysten)  of  North 
America,  of  a  brownish-gray  color,  striped  with 
black  and  yellowish-white,  the  belly  white. 

Group,  the  combining  of  several  bodies  so  as 
to  form  an  agreeable  whole.  In  drawing,  one  or 
more  groups  compose  the  picture.  A  bunch  of 
grapes,  a  cone,  or  a  pyramid  have  been  taken  by 
different  artists  as  the  model  form  of  a  group. 

Grouse  (Tetrao),  a  genus  of  gallinaceous  birds, 
which  include  partridges,  quails,  and  all  the 
birds  now  forming  the  family  2'etraonidee,  and 
divided  into  many  genera.  The  Telraonklee  have 
a  short  bill,  rather  thick,  sharp,  and  a  little 
curved;  they  have  three  toes  before,  and  gener¬ 


ally  one  behind.  Those  to  which  the  name  grouse 
is  popularly  given  have  the  legs  feathered  to  the 
feet,  but  in  the  genus  Tetrao  the  toes  are  not 
feathered.  The  pinnated  grouse,  or  prairie 
chicken  (T.  cupido),  the  ruffed,  the  sharp-tail, 
and  dusky  grouse  are  the  species  best  known  and. 
most  highly  valued  in  this  country. 

Grove,  Sir  William  Robert,  an  English  law¬ 
yer  and  physicist,  born  July  11,1811.  In  1839 
he  invented  the  voltaic  battery  known  by  his 
name. 

Grove  Hill,  the  county  seat  of  Clarke  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  176. 

Growler  (Giystes salmoides),  a  fish  of  the  perch 
family,  abundant  in  many  of  the  rivers  of  this 
country.  It  is  of  an  olive  color,  dark  on  the 
upper  parts,  and  becoming  grayish-white  beneath. 
It  receives  its  name  from  a  sound  which  it  emits. 

Grub,  the  name  commonly  given  to  the  larvte 
of  coleopterous  insects. 

Gru'gru,  the  grub  or  larva  of  Calandra  pal- 
marum  (also  called  Rhyncophorus  palmarum,  and 
Cordylia  palmarum),  an  insect  of  the  weevil  fam¬ 
ily  (Rhyncopliorce),  inhabiting  Guiana  and  other 
tropical  parts  of  America.  The  perfect  insect  is 
an  inch  and  a  half  long.  The  grub  is  of  a  whitish 
cream  color,  as  long  and  as  thick  as  a  man’s 
thumb,  and  lives  in  the  soft  and  spongy  central 
part  of  the  cabbage  palm  (Euterpe  oleracea),  on 
which  it  feeds.  It  is  fat  and  oily,  and  is  esteemed 
a  delicacy,  not  only  by  the  Indians,  but  by  many 
of  the  European  colonists.  It  is  cooked  by  roast¬ 
ing,  and  eaten  with  bread  and  butter,  after  being 
sprinkled  with  cayenne  pepper. 

Grim '  berg,  a  tow .  of  Prussia,  in  the  Province 
of  Silesia.  Pop.,  18,039. 

Grundy,  the  county  seat  of  Buchanan  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  300. 

Gruudy  Centre,  the  county  seat  and  a  pros¬ 
perous  agricultural  town  of  Grundy  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  1,209. 

Gryl'lus,  a  Linntean  genus  of  insects  of  the 
order  Orthoptera ,  answering  to  the  section  Salta- 
toria  (Lat.  leapers)  of  later  entomologists,  and 
containing  crickets,  grasshoppers,  locusts,  etc. 

Grys-boc  (Ant  Hope  melanotis  or  Calotragus  rne- 
lanotis),  an  animal  of  the  antelope  family,  a  native 
of  South  Africa,  and  common  in  most  parts  of 
Cape  Colony.  It  is  about  3  feet  in  length,  and 
about  li  feet  in  height  at  the  shoulder.  The  grys- 
boc  lives  in  pairs  on  the  plains.  It  is  not  very 
swift,  is  easily  captured,  and  its  flesh  is  much 
esteemed. 

Guacha'ro  ( Steatornis  caripensis),  a  remarkable 
South  American  bird,  of  the  order  Insessores,  and 
tribe  Fissirostres,  generally  referred  to  the  fam¬ 
ily  Gaprimulgidce,  but  differing  from  the  goat¬ 
suckers,  and  from  the  Insessores  generally,  in  hav- 


Guacharo  (Steatornis  caripensis). 


ing  a  strong  bill,  and  being  frugivorous.  The  food 
of  the  guacliaro  consists  of  hard  and  dry  fruits. 
Its  plumage  is  brownish-gray,  with  small  black 
streaks  and  dots.  It  is  a  nocturnal  bird,  a 
circumstance  very  singular  among  frugivorous 
birds.  It  spends  the  day  in  deep  and  dark  cav¬ 
erns,  where  great  numbers  congregate  and  make 
their  nests. 

Guachinan'gO,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  north 
of  the  State  of  Puebla,  and  103  miles  northeast  of 
the  City  of  Mexico.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Guaclios  (better  Gauchos)  are  the  horsemen  of 
the  great  plains  of  South  America,  especially  of 
the  Argentine  Republic.  They  live  in  rude  huts. 


GUADALAJARA. 


444 


GUEBRES. 


■with  scanty  furniture,  and  are  chiefly  employed  in 
breeding  and  breaking-in  horses,  in  herding, 
catching,  and  slaughtering  cattle.  They  and  their 
women  are  usually  tall  and  handsome,  and  are 
mainly  of  pure  Spanish  blood,  having  mixed 
little  with  the  Indians.  They  are  most  expert 
horsemen,  and  use  the  lasso  and  bolas  with  mar¬ 
velous  skill. 

Guadalaja'ra,  or  Guadalaxara,  is  the  capital 
of  the  State  of  Xalisco,  Mexico,  and  stands  on 
the  Rio  Grande  de  Santiago.  The  pop.  has  been 
estimated  at  90,000. 

Guadalajara,  a  province  of  Spain,  the  most 
northeastern  of  the  five  modern  provinces  into 
which  New  Castile  has  been  divided.  Pop.  (1877), 
201,288. 

Guadalaviar',  orTuRiA,  a  river  of  Spain,  has 
its  source  near  that  of  the  Tagus,  in  the  southwest 
of  Aragon,  and,  after  a  course  of  130  miles,  falls 
into  the  Mediterranean. 

Guadalquivir'  (Arab.  Wad-al-Kebir,  the  great 
river;  anc.  Baelis ),  the  most  important  river  of 
Spain,  has  its  origin  in  the  Sierra  de  Cazorla,  near 
the  eastern  border  of  the  Province  of  Jaen;  flows 
in  a  southwest  direction  through  the  Provinces  of 
Jaen,  Cordova,  Sevilla,  and  falls  into  the  Atlantic 
at  San  Lucar  de  Barrameda,  after  a  course  of  about 
360  miles. 

Guadalupe',  a  river  rising  in  the  southern  sec¬ 
tion  of  Texas,  and  flowing  in  a  southeastern  direc¬ 
tion,  empties  into  Espiritu  Santo  Bay  after  a 
course  of  about  250  miles. 

Guadalupe-y-Calvo,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the 
State  of  Chihuahua.  Pop.,  10,000. 

Guadeloupe',  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  in  the 
West  Indies,  and  the  most  important  of  those 
which  belong  to  France,  lies  in  latitude  16°  N., 
and  longitude  61 °  45 '  W. ,  and  contains  500  square 
miles,  with  a  pop.  (including  dependencies),  in 
1874,  of  167,344. 

Guadia'na  (anc.  Anas),  one  of  the  longest,  but 
at  the  same  time  the  narrowest  and  poorest  in  vol¬ 
ume,  of  the  five  great  Spanish  rivers,  rises  on  the 
western  boundary  of  Murcia,  and  flows  partly 
through  Portugal  to  the  Atlantic.  It  is  520  miles 
long. 

Guaia'cum,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Zygophyllacece,  natives  of  the  Southern  States, 


Guaiacum  Officinale. 


having  abruptly  pinnate  leaves,  and  axillary  flow¬ 
ers  on  one  flowered  stalks,  often  in  small  clusters. 
The  trees  of  this  genus  are  remarkable  for  the 
hardness  and  heaviness  of  their  wood,  generally 
known  as  lignum  vitat,  but  sometimes  as  guaiacum 
wood,  and  sometimes  as  brazil  wood,  as  well  as 
for  their  peculiar  resinous  product,  guaiacum, 
often  but  incorrectly  called  gum  guaiacum.  The 
species  to  which  the  commercial  lignum  vitro  and 
guaiacum  are  commonly  referred  is  (1 .  officinale, 
a  native  of  some  of  the  West  India  islands,  and  of 
some  of  the  continental  parts  of  America;  a  tree  is 
sometimes  30  or  40  feet  high. 

Guan,  or  Yacou  (Penelope),  a  genus  of  large 
gallinaceous  birds  of  the  family  Crarid.ee.  They 
have  a  naked  skin  on  the  throat,  capable  of  being 
inflated  or  swollen,  and  a  naked  space  around 
each  eye.  The  name  guan  belongs  to  Penelope 


cristata,  a  species  of  which  the  entire  length  is 
about  30  inches.  It  is  a  native  of  the  forests  of 


Brazil  and  Guiana,  and  has  been  long  domesticated 
in  South  America. 

Guanaha'ni,  or  Cat  Island,  one  of  the  Ba¬ 
hamas,  is  generally  regarded  as  Columbus’  first 
discovery  in  the  New  World,  being  presumed  to 
be  identical  with  the  San  Salvador  of  the  naviga¬ 
tor.  Recent  criticism,  however,  appears  to  have 
transferred  this  honor  to  Watting  Island,  which 
is  about  fifty  miles  to  the  east-southeast. 

Guanajua'to,  or  Guanaxuato,  an  inland  State 
of  Mexico,  in  latitude  between  20°  and  22°  N., 
and  longitude  between  99°  40'  and  102°  40'  W., 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  States  of  San  Luis 
Potosi,  on  the  east  by  Queretaro,  on  the  south  by 
Michoacan,  and  on  the  west  by  Xalisco.  It  has 
an  area  of  11,400  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  in 
1880  of  788,202. 

Guanajua'to,  or  Santa  Fe  de  Guanajuato, 
a  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the  State  of  the  same 
name,  is  in  latitude  21°  N.,  and  longitude  100° 
50' W.  Pop.,  63,000. 

Guanapa'ro,  a  river  of  Venezuela,  in  South 
America,  rises  in  the  Department  of  Caraccas, 
and,  after  an  easterly  course  of  230  miles,  joins 
the  Portuguesa,  which  again,  through  the  Apure, 
sends  its  tribute  to  the  Orinoco. 

Gua 'nine  is  a  yellowish- white,  amorphous  sub¬ 
stance,  which  derives  its  name  from  its  being  a 
constituent  of  guano;  it  also  forms  the  chief  con 
stituent  of  the  excrement  of  spiders,  has  been 
found  attached  to  the  scales  of  fishes — the  bleak, 
for  example — and  seems  to  be  a  normal  constitu¬ 
ent  of  the  mammalian  liver  and  pancreas. 

Gua'no  (derived  from  the  Peruvian  word 
huano,  dung),  is  the  excrementitious  deposit  of 
sea-fowl  which  occurred  in  immense  quantities 
on  coasts  and  islands  where  the  climate  is  dry 
and  free  from  rain.  The  quality  and  value  of 
these  manures,  commercially,  depend  almost 
wholly  upon  the  amount  of  decomposition  to 
which  they  have  been  subjected  by  the  action  of 
the  atmosphere.  The  fsecal  matter  of  the  fish¬ 
eating  birds,  which  forms  the  guano  deposits, 
consists  e'ssenti  dly  of  nitrogenous  and  pliosphatic 
compounds,  the  "former  being  chiefly  ammonia 
salts  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  the  uric 
acid  and  urates  which  exist  in  the  fresh  excre¬ 
ments  of  these  birds.  Most  of  the  so-called  Peru¬ 
vian  guano  has  been  obtained  from  the  Cluncha 
Islands,  twelve  miles  off  the  coast.  Each  of  these 
islands  is  from  5  to  6  miles  in  circumference,  and 
consists  of  granite  covered  with  guano,  in  some 
places  to  a  height  of  200  feet,  in  successive  hori¬ 
zontal  strata.  Sometimes,  however,  is  found  a 
vertical  surface  of  upward  of  100  feet  of  a  per¬ 
fectly  uniform  appearance. 

Guapey',  a  river  of  South  America,  rises  in 
Bolivia,  and  joins  the  Mamore  after  a  course  of 
550  miles. 

Guapo're,  a  river  of  South  America,  rises  in 
Brazil,  and,  after  a  course  of  400  miles,  unites 
with  the  Mamore  to  form  the  Madera,  an  affluent 
of  the  Amazon. 

Guara'na  Bread  is  a  kind  of  food  prepared 
by  the  natives  of  Brazil  from  the  seeds  of  a  plant 
supposed  to  belong  to  the  genus  Paullinia  (natu¬ 
ral  order  Sapindaccce),  and  which  has  been  called 
P.  rorbilis. 

Guardafui',  Cape  (anc.  Aromatnm  promonto- 
rium),  the  most  eastern  point  of  the  African  Con¬ 


tinent,  and  the  extremity  of  an  immense  prom¬ 
ontory  stretching  seaward  in  an  east-northeast 
direction,  and  washed  on  the  northwest  by  the 
Gulf  of  Aden,  and  on  the  southeast  by  the  Indian 
Ocean.  The  cape  is  in  latitude  11°  50'  N.,  longi¬ 
tude  51°  20'  E. 

Guarea,  a  genus  of  tropical  American  trees  of 
the  natural  order  Melincexe,  of  some  of  which  the 
bark  is  used  as  an  emetic  and  purgative.  G. 
gran (U folia  is  called  musk-wood  in  some  of  the 
islands  of  the  West  Indies;  the  bark  smelling  so 
strongly  of  musk  that  it  may  be  used  as  a  per¬ 
fume. 

Guatema'la,  the  name  of  two  cities  in  Central 
America. — 1 .  Guatemala  (Old)  stands  at  the  foot 
of  Volcan  d’Agua,  in  latitude  14°  30'  N.,  and 
longitude  90°  45'  W.  Pop.,  20,000. — 2  Guate¬ 
mala  (New),  capital  of  the  republic  of  the  same 
name,  is  in  latitude  14°  37'  N.,  and  longitude  90° 
30'  W.  Pop.,  55,000. 

Guatemala,  nominally  a  republic,  but  really 
an  oligarchic  State  of  Central  America,  terminates 
this  division  of  the  new  continent  toward  the 
northwest,  being  washed  at  once  by  the  Caribbean 
Sea  and  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  stretches  in  N. 
latitude  from  about  14°  to  17°,  and  in  W.  longi¬ 
tude  from  88°  to  93°,  containing  40,620  square 
miles,  and  1,390,750  inhabitants. 

Gua'va  (Psidium),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs 
of  the  natural  order  Myrtacece,  mostly  natives  of 
tropical  America,  and  some  of  them  yielding  fine 
and  much  valued  fruits.  The  common  guava,  or 
white  guava  ( P .  pyriferum),  is  a  low  tree  of  7  to 


a,  section  of  fruit. 

20  feet,  with  numerous  branches,  obtuse  smooth 
leaves  2  to  3  inches  long,  and  fragrant  white  flow¬ 
ers  on  solitary  axillary  stalks.  It  is  said  to  be  a 
native  both  of  the  East  and  West  Indies,  and  is 
now  much  cultivated  in  both.  The  jelly  or  pre¬ 
serve  made  from  it  is  highly  esteemed. 

Guayaquil',  a  term  of  various  application  in 
Ecuador,  South  America,  indicates  at  once  a 
river,  a  bay,  a  department,  and  a  city. — 1.  The 
river  is  navigable  for  about  110  miles  to  Caracol, 
and  is  known  in  its  upper  course  successively  as 
the  Caracol  and  Babalioyo. — 2.  The  bay  which 
receives  the  river,  stretches  in  S.  latitude  be¬ 
tween  2°  and  4°,  and  in  W.  longitude  between 
80°  and  81°. — 3.  The  department  extends  from 
the  Pacific  on  the  west  to  the  Departments  of 
Quito  and  Assuay  on  the  east. — 4.  The  city,  the 
capital  of  the  department,  stands  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river,  at  a  distance  of  forty  miles 
from  its  mouth.  Pop.,  25,000. 

Gu'ben,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  Province  of 
Brandenburg.  Pop.  (1880),  25,840. 

Gudgeon  ( Gobio ),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  fam¬ 
ily  Cyprinidce,  having  a  short  dorsal  fin,  a  short 
anal  fin,  the  body  covered  with  rather  large  scales, 
and  barbules  at  the  angles  of  the  mouth.  It  sel¬ 
dom  exceeds  8  inches  in  length;  the  depth  is 
not  one-fifth  of  the  length. 

Gue'bres,  Giiebres,  Gabres,  Ghavres  (Turk. 
Ghiaur  or  Ghaur),  the  followers  of  the  ancient 
Persian  religion  as  reformed  and  consolidated  by 
Zerdusht  (Zoroaster).  The  Guebres  of  Bombay 
are  known  as  Parsces  and  number  about  50,000. 
They  almost  monopolize  the  trade  of  Bombay, 
and  many  of  them  are  very  wealthy 


GUELDER  ROSE. 


445 


GUIZOT. 


Guelder  Rose,  or  Gueldres  Rose,  a  cultivated 
variety  of  the  water-elder  (  Viburnum  opulus),  in 
which  the  flowers  are  all  barren,  and  instead  of 
forming  flat  cymes,  as  in  the  wild  plant,  form 
much  larger  globose  corymbs.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  snow-ball  tree. 

Guelplis  and  Ghibellines,  the  names  of  two 
great  parties,  the  conflict  of  which  may  almost  be 
said  to  make  up  the  history  of  Italy  and  Germany 
from  the  eleventh  till  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  origin  of  these  names  was  formerly  the  sub¬ 
ject  of  much  speculation;  but  antiquarians  are 
now  agreed  in  tracing  them  respectively  to  the 
two  families,  Waiblingen  and  Welf,  which,  in 
the  twelfth  century,  were  at  the  head  of  two  rival 
parties  in  the  German  Empire,  and  whose  feuds 
came  to  be  identified  historically  with  the  respect¬ 
ive  principles  for  which  these  parties  contended. 

Guelph,  the  chief  town  of  Wellington  county, 
Ontario,  Canada,  on  the  River  Speed,  a  branch  of 
the  Grand  river.  Pop.,  10,000. 

Guericke,  Otto  von,  a  physicist,  born  at 
Magdeburg,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  Nov.  20,  1602. 
He  is  chiefly  known  by  his  discoveries  regarding 
the  nature  and  effects  of  air.  He  invented  the 
air  pump  about  1650,  and  died  at  Hamburg,  May 
11,  1686. 

Guern'sey,  the  second  in  size  of  the  Channel 
Islands,  is  in  latitude  between  49°  24'  and  49°  30' 
N.,  and  in  longitude  between  2°  33'  and  2°  41' 
W.;  is  sixty-nine  miles  southeast  from  Start  Point 
in  the  South  of  Devonshire.  Its  length  is  9  miles, 
and  its  breadth  about  6.  Pop.  (1881),  32,659. 

Gueux,  or  The  Beggars,  the  name  assumed 
by  the  nobles  and  other  malcontents  who  opposed 
the  tyrannical  policy  of  Philip  II.  of  Spain  in  the 
Low  Countries. 

Guia'ua,  British  (Fr  Quyane ,  Sp.  Guayana, 
Port.  Guianna),  a  section  of  the  tract  forming 
the  northeastern  portion  of  South  America,  lying 
between  8°  40'  N.  and  3°  30'  S.,  and  between  the 
meridians  of  50°  and  68°  W.  The  greatest 
length  of  this  tract,  from  Cape  North  to  the  con¬ 
fluence  of  the  River  Xie  with  the  River  Negro,  is 
1090  miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  between  Punta 
Barima,  at  the  embouchure  of  the  River  Orinoco, 
and  the  confluence  of  the  River  Negro  with  the 
River  Amazon,  at  710  miles.  The  pop.  of  the 
colony  in  1882  was  257,473. 

Guiana,  Dutch,  or  Surinam',  lies  between 
British  and  French  Guiana,  and  is  separated  from 
the  former  by  the  Corentyn,  which  forms  its 
western  boundary,  while  the  Marony  separates 
it  from  the  territories  of  the  latter,  and  consti¬ 
tutes  its  eastern  boundary.  To  the  north  it  is 
bounded  by  the  Atlantic,  and  south  bjr  the  Acarai 
Mountain-range,  which  divides  it  from  Brazil. 
It  extends  from  2°  to  6°  N.  latitude,  and  from 
about  53°  to  about  57°  W.  longitude,  and  has  an 
area  of  45,000  square  miles.  Pop.  (1875),  51,834. 

Guiana,  French,  includes  the  districts  lying 
between  2°  and  6°  N.  latitude,  and  51-J5  and  54£° 
W.  longitude,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Atlantic;  on  the  west  by  the  Marony  river,  which 
separates  it  from  Dutch  Guiana,  and  by  the  little- 
known  districts  lying  beyond  the  Iiio-Branco; 
and  on  the  south  and  east  by  the  River  Oyapock 
and  the  range  of  the  Tamucumaque  Mountains, 
which  separate  it  from  the  Empire  of  Brazil.  The 
area  is  18,000  square  leagues.  Pop.  (1872),  24,171. 

Guiana  Bark,  French,  the  bark  of  Portlandia 
hexandra,  also  called  Couleria  speciosa,  a  tree  of 
the  natural  order  Cinchonacece ,  with  opposite 
ovate  leaves,  and  corymbs  of  very  large  purple 
flowers,  a  native  of  Guiana.  The  bark  is  a  very 
powerful  febrifuge. 

Guienne,  the  name  of  one  of  the  thirty-two 
provinces  into  which  France,  previous  to  the  Rev¬ 
olution,  was  divided.  It  comprehended  the  terri¬ 
tory  now  formed  by  the  Departments  of  Gironde, 
Lot,  Dordogne,  Aveyron,  and  portions  of  Tarn-et- 
Garonne,  and  Lot-et-Garonne,  and  formed  with 
Gascony  what  was  originally  the  country  of 
Aquitania,  of  which  name  Guienne  is  a  corrup¬ 
tion. 

Guijar',  or  Gcixar,  a  lake  of  Central  Amer¬ 
ica,  in’the  Northwest  of  San  Salvador,  is  60  miles 
in  circumference,  and  incloses  a  large  island. 

Guilaudi  'na,  a  genus  of  shrubs  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Ccesalpi  niece,  having 
pinnate  leaves,  and  remarkable  for  the  stony 
hardness  of  their  seeds,  the  coating  of  which  is 


I 


so  silicious  that  they  are  said  even  to  strike  fire 
with  flint.  G.  boncluc  is  the  best  known  species, 
and  is  of  very  wide  geographic  distribution. 

Guildhall,  an  important  public  building  in 
London,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  town-hall, 
and  is  the  place  of  assembly  of  several  courts. 

Guildhall,  the  county  seat  of  Essex  county, 
Yt.  Pop.,  558. 

Guilford  Court  House,  in  Guilford  county, 
N.  C.,  the  scene  of  a  baltle  March  15,  1781, 
between  the  Americans  under  General  Greene, 
and  the  English  under  Lord  Cornwallis. 

Guil'iemot  ( Uvia),  agenus  of  web-footed  birds, 
of  the  group  Bi  achypterce  or  divers,  and  included 
by  Linnaeus  in  the  genus  Colymbus,  but  now 
more  generally  ranked  among  the  Alcadce  than 
among  the  Golymbidce.  The  lull  is  moderately 
long,  straight,  and  pointed  as  in  Colymbus,  but 
rather  more  compressed,  and  covered  with 
feathers  as  far  as  the  nostrils;  the  feet,  as  in  the 


Common  Guillemot  (Uria  troile). 


other  Alcadce,  are  three-toed,  having  no  liiud-toe, 
and  entirely  webbed.  The  legs  are  placed  very 
far  back,  and  are  very  short,  the  tibia  scarcely 
appearing  beneath  the  abdomen,  so  that  they  are 
ill  adapted  for  walking,  and  the  posture  of  the 
bird  on  land  is  erect,  even  when  hatching  its  egg. 
The  tail  and  wings  are  short,  and  the  latter  are 
moved  rapidly  in  flight. 

Guilloche,  an  architectural  ornament  of  Greek 
origin.  It  consists  of  two  or 
more  bands  or  ribbons, 
crossing  and  recrossing  one 
another  in  a  regularly  re¬ 
peating  pattern.  Some  of 
these  are  simple  (see  fig.), 
and  some  very  complicated. 

Guil  'lotine,  the  instru¬ 
ment  of  decapitation  intro¬ 
duced  during  the  French 
Revolution  by  the  Conven¬ 
tion,  and  named  after  its 
supposed  inventor,  Josephe 
Ignace  Guillotin,  who,  however,  it  is  ascertained, 
was  only  the  person  who  first  proposed  its  adop¬ 
tion.  It  is  composed  of  two  upright  posts, 
grooved  on  the  inside,  and  connected  at  the  top 
by  a  cross-beam.  In  these  grooves,  a  sharp  iron 
blade,  placed  obliquely,  descends  by  its  own 
weight  on  the  neck  of  the  victim,  who  is  bound 
to  a  board  laid  below.  The  invention  of  machines 
of  this  kind  is  ascribed  to  the  Persians. 

Guin'ea,  the  name  of  a  maritime  section  of 
Western  Africa.  It  extends  from  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  the  Senegal  to  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Negro, 
the  stream  being  in  latitude  16°  N.,  and  longitude 
16°  33'  W.,  and  the  headland  in  latitude  15°  41' 
S.,  and  about  longitude  11°  40'  E.;  and  by  the 
equator,  which  thus  intersects  it,  it  is  divided  into 
Upper  or  Northern,  and  Lower  or  Southern 
Guinea. 

Guinea,  Gulf  of,  a  portion  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  washes  the  great  bend  of  the  West  African 
coast.  It  stretches  from  about  Cape  Palmas,  in 
longitude  7°  44' W. ,  to  Cape  Lopez,  about  lati¬ 
tude  1°  S.  At  its  northeast  extremity  is  the 
Delta  of  the  Niger,  between  the  Bight  of  Benin  on 
the  northwest,  and  the  Bight  of  Biafra  on  the 
southeast.  Off  its  east  shore,  reckoning  from  the 
north,  are  the  islands  of  Fernando  Po,  Prince, 
and  St.  Thomas. 

Guinea,  a  gold  coin  formerly  current  in  Britain, 
derived  its  name  from  the  fact  that  the  gold  from 
which  the  first  specimens  were  coined  was  brought 
from  the  Guinea  coast  in  West  Africa,  and,  for 
the  same  reason,  it  originally  bore  the  impression 


Guilloche. 


of  an  elephant.  It  was  first  coined  during  the 
reign  of  Charles  II.  in  1664,  and  continued  in 
common  use  till  1817,  when  it  was  superseded  by 
the  sovereign.  Its  value  wras  about  $5.05. 

Guinea  Corn,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
durra;  sometimes  to  another  cereal  grass,  Peni- 
cillaria  spicata  or  Pennisetum  typhoid,  uni,  culti¬ 
vated  in  Central  Africa  and  in  India,  where  it  is 
called  Bajree.  It  is  of  the  tribe  Panicece,  and 
may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  millets.  It  is  a 
grass  with  a  spike-like  cylindrical  panicle. 

Guinea  Fowl,  or  Pintado  ( Nurnida ),  a  genus 
of  gallinaceous  birds  of  the  family  Phasianiche, 
having  a  short,  strong  bill,  the  upper  mandible 
vaulted,  a  warty  membrane  at  the  base  of  the 
bill,  ami  a  wattle  hanging  down  on  each  side,  the 
head  and  upper  part  of  the  neck  generally  naked, 
the  forehead  surmounted  either  with  a  callous  or 
a  feathery  crest;  the  back  elevated  and  arched, 
the  tail  short.  The  species  are  all  natives  of 
Africa  and  Madagascar. 

Guinea  Grass  ( Panieum  maximum),  a  grass  of 
the  same  genus  with  millet,  a  native  of  the  West 
of  Africa,  but  now  naturalized,  and  cultivated 
in  the  West  Indies  and  Southern  States.  Its 
height,  in  favorable  moist  situations,  is  from  5 
to  10  feet;  in  dry  grounds  it  is  smaller;  it  has  a 
much-branched  and  spreading  panicle,  long  flat 
leaves,  and  a  somewhat  creeping  root. 

Guinea  Pepper,  a  name  applied  to  the  seeds 
or  dried  fruit  of  several  dilferent  plants,  agreeing 
in  their  peppery  character,  and  in  being  the  prod¬ 
uce  of  the  West  of  Africa.  The  name  Malaguetta 
(Malagheta,  Meleguetta,  etc.)  pepper  is  generally 
regarded  as  equivalent  with  Guinea  pepper, 
and  is  a  frequent  designation  of  grains  of  para¬ 
dise;  but  the  capsules  or  dry  berries  of  Capsicum 
frutescens  are  commonly  sold  by  druggists  under 
the  name  Guinea  pepper;  whilst  both  the  names 
Guinea  pepper  and  Malagueta  pepper  have  been 
applied  to  the  dried  fruit  of  Cubeba  clusii,  and  to 
the  seeds  of  Habzelia  (or  Xylopia)  cethiopica,  a 
shrub  of  the  natural  order  Anonacece. 

Guinea-worm,  known  also 
as  Filaria  medinensis,  or  F. 
dracunculus,  a  parasitic  ani¬ 
mal,  the  body  of  which  is  slen¬ 
der,  cylindrical,  and  com¬ 
pressed,  and  is  of  the  thick¬ 
ness  of  pack-thread,  except  at 
the  posterior  extremity,  where 
it  is  somewhat  attenuated.  It 
is  opaque,  of  a  milk-white  color; 
on  each  side  there  is  a  longi-,!|f 
tudinal  line.  The  length  of  the 
worm  varies  from  less  than  half 
a  foot  to  three  yards.  The 
young  animals  enter  the  cuticle 
and  there  undergo  development, 
the  period  of  development  rang¬ 
ing  from  two  to  twenty-four 
months.  They  give  rise  to  ex¬ 
ceedingly  unpleasant  and  some¬ 
times  fatal  consequences — par¬ 
ticularly  if,  in  their  extraction, 
they  are  broken.  They  are 
thought  by  some  authors  to 
be  the  fiery  serpents  which  A,  individual  coiled 
afflicted  the  Jews  in  the  wilder-  .up:  as*?en  in  the 
ness. 

Guipus'coa,  the  smallest,  but 
the  most  densely  peopled  of  the 
Basque  Provinces. 

Guitar',  a  musical  stringed 
instrument,  somewhat  like  the 
lute,  and  much  esteemed  in  all 
civilized  countries.  It  has  six 
strings,  tuned  E,  A,  D,  G,  B, 

E,  and  the  sound  is  produced  by  the  fingers, 
of  the  right  hand  twitching  the  strings, 
while  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  make  the  notes 
of  the  music  on  the  finger-board,  which  has  frets 
across  it  like  the  lyre.  The  three  highest  strings 
of  the  guitar  are  of  gut,  and  the  three  lowest  of 
silk  spun  over  with  silvered  wire. 

Guizot,  FRAN901S  Pierre  Guillaume,  a 
French  statesman  and  historian,  born  Oct.  4, 
1787.  In  1805  Guizot  went  to  Paris,  and  devoted 
himself  to  literature.  His  first  work,  the  Nouveau 
Dictionnaire  Universel  des  Synonymes  de  laLangue 
Franchise  (2  vols. ;  4th  ed.,  Paris,  1848),  appeared 
in  1809.  His  writings  are  very  voluminous* 


Young  Filaria 
Medinensis. 


body  of  its  parent; 
B,  the  same  un¬ 
coiled  in  a  drop  of 
water;  a,the  head; 
b,  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  tail 
and  the  anus. 
(From  Moquin- 
Tandon's  Medical 
Zoology;  the  mag¬ 
nifying-  power  not 
given.) 


GULES. 


446 


GUNNEL. 


and  his  works  on  the  histories  of  France,  Eng¬ 
land,  the  Roman  Empire,  and  Civilization  in 
Europe  are  very  valuable.  He  held  several  im¬ 
portant  positions  in  the  French  Cabinet,  lie 
died  Sept,  12,  1874. 

Gules  (Fr.  gueules,  the  mouth  and  throat,  hence 
red),  the  term  by  which  the  color  red  is  known  in 
heraldry.  In  engraving  it  is  marked  by  perpen¬ 
dicular  lines  traced  from  the  top  of  the  shield  to 
the  bottom.  It  is  supposed  to  indicate  valor,  mag¬ 
nanimity,  and  the  like,  and  is  regarded  as  the  most 
honorable  heraldic  color. 

Gulf  Stream  and  Ocean-currents.  The  most 
important  and  best  known  of  the  ocean-currents 
derives  its  name  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  out  of 
which  it  Hows,  between  the  coast  of  Florida  on 
the  one  side,  and  Cuba  and  the  Bahama  Islands 
and  shoals  on  the  other.  With  a  breadth  of  about 
50  miles  in  its  narrowest  portion,  it  lias  a  velocity 
at  times  of  five  miles  an  hour.  It  flows  in  a  north¬ 
easterly  direction  along  the  American  coast,  grad¬ 
ually  widening  its  current  and  diminishing  in 
velocity,  until  it  reaches  the  Island  and  Banks  of 
Newfoundland,  when  it  sweeps  across  the  Atlantic, 
and  divides  into  two  portions,  one  of  which  turns 
eastward  toward  the  Azores  and  coast  of  Morocco, 
while  the  other  laves  the  shores  of  the  British 
Islands  and  Norway,  and  can  be  perceived  on  the 
southern  borders  of  Iceland  and  Spitzbergen, 
nearly  as  far  east  as  Nova  Zembla,  The  waters  of 
the  Gulf  Stream  are  of  a  deep  indigo  blue,  with 
boundaries  sharply  defined  against  the  light  green 
of  the  seas  through  which  it  passes  in  its  early 
course.  As  this  stream  pours  out  of  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  it  has  a  warmth  of  84°  in  summer,  being 
4°  higher  than  that  of  the  ocean  at  the  equator. 
In  mid- Atlantic,  opposite  Nova  Scotia,  it  has  fallen 
at  all  seasons  only  about  14°;  while  at  the  British 
Islands  and  northwestern  coasts  of  Europe,  4,000 
miles  from  the  Gulf,  the  temperatures  rise  in  win¬ 
ter  about  30°  above  the  normal  temperature  of  the 
latitudes. 

Gulf'-wee<l  ( Sargassmn ),  a  genus  of  sea  weeds 
(Alga i)  of  the  sub-order  Fucacecv,  of  which  two 
species  ( S .  vulgare  and  S.  bacciferum)  are  found 
floating  in  immense  quantities  in  some  parts  of 
the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and  Indian  Oceans.  They 
are  tropical  plants,  although  sometimes  carried  by 
winds  and  currents  to  European  coasts. 

Guliel'ma,  a  genus  of  South  American  palms, 
with  pinnate 
leaves  (entire  in 
young  plants), 
natives  of  the 
lower  mountain- 
ranges  of  Peru 
and  New  Gran¬ 
ada.  One  species, 

G.  speciosa,  is 
planted’  by  the 
Indians  of  the 
Amazon  district 
and  of  Guiana 
and  Venezuela, 
near  their  v  i  1- 
1  ages,  and  sup¬ 
plies  them  with 
food  and  other 
necessaries.  It  is 
often  60  feet 
high,  having  an 
erect,  slender 
stem,  encircled 
with  many  rings 
of  needle-like 
spines,  and 
numerous  droop-  '/ 
ing  leaves  form¬ 
ing  a  nearly 
spherical  crown. 

It  is  variously 
called  papunha, 
peach  palm. 

Gull  (Larus),  a  genus  of  web-footed  birds,  of 
the  family  Laridce,  inhabitants  of  the  sea-coasts  of 
all  parts  of  the  world.  The  formation  of  the  head 
and  bill  of  several  species  is  given  in  the  accom¬ 
panying  illustration.  The  feet  have  three  toes  in 
front  completely  united  by  a  web,  and  a  small 
hind-toe  not  included  in  the  web,  and  sometimes 
altogether  wanting.  The  wings  are  long  and 
pointed.  The  migrations  of  some  of  the  species 


Gulielma  Speciosa. 
paripou,  etc.,  and  sometimes 


between  the  northern  seas  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
are  performed,  not  only  along  the  Atlantic  coast, 
3  2 


in  such  a  manner  that  it  may  be  readily  depressed 
or  elevated,  but  so  that  it  shall  have  no  horizontal 
motion  which  is  not  shared  by  the  whole  carriage. 
The  vent  or  touch-hole,  the  channel  through 
which  the  charge  is  fired,  is  a  small  cylindrical 
orifice  leading  at  an  angle  from  the  breech  of  the 
bore  toward  the  base  ring.  The  explosion  within 
reacts  with  great  force  on  the  lower  portion  of 
the  vent,  and  in  case  of  rapid  or  long-continued 
firing,  soon  honeycombs  the  iron  or  brass,  often 
dislodging  considerable  fragments.  This,  besides 
diminishing  the  regularity  of  the  action  of  the 
powder  on  the  projectile,  would  involve  danger 
of  bursting  if  permitted  to  any  great  extent. 

Gun-boat,  a  small  boat  or  vessel  armed  with 
one  or  more  guns  of  large  caliber.  From  its  small 
dimensions,  it  is  capable  of  running  close  inshore 
or  up  rivers,  and  from  the  same  cause  it  has  little 
chance  of  being  hit  by  a  larger  vessel  at  the  long 
range  which  the  carrying  power  of  its  guns  ena¬ 
bles  it  to  maintain. 

Gun-cotton,  a  detonating  substance  invented 
by  Schonbein  in  1846,  and  obtained-in  the  follow¬ 
ing  manner:  One  part  of  finely-carded  cotton  is 
immersed  in  fifteen  parts  of  a  mixture  of  equal 
measures  of  strong  nitric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.5)  and 
sulphuric  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.845).  The  cotton  must 
be  completely  immersed  in  the  mixture,  other¬ 
wise  it  becomes  so  hot  as  to  undergo  immediate 
decomposition.  After  a  few  minutes’  immersion, 
it  must  be  plunged  into  a  large  volume  of  cold 
water,  and  then  washed  tili  the  moist  mass 
ceases  to  show  any  acid  reaction  when  placed 
on  litmus  paper.  It  is  then  to  be  carefully  dried 
at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  170®.  Any  sub¬ 
stance  containing  cellulose,  such  as  tow,  linen, 
saw-dust,  paper,  etc.,  may  be  employed  instead 
of  cotton. 

Gun-carriage  is  an  important  element  in  the 
equipment  of  each  piece  of  ordnance.  It  re- 


Heads  of  Various  Species  of  Gulls. 

1,  Great  Black-backed  (young);  2,  Black-beaded:  3,  Kitti- 
wake;  4,  Lesser  Black-backed;  5,  Herring  Gull. 

but  by  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  valleys  of  the  Ohio 
and  the  Mississippi,  and  a  few  occasionally  remain 
and  breed  near  these  inland  waters. 

Gum,  a  general  term  applied  to  certain  exuda¬ 
tions  from  trees  and  plants.  In  its  strictest  sense 
gum  is  a  substance  which  dissolves  in  water, 
forming  a  transparent  mucilage;  it  is  insoluble  in 
ether,  alcohol,  and  oils,  either  fixed  or  volatile, 
and  is  convertible  into  oxalic  acid  by  the  action 
of  sulphuric  acid.  The  gums  are  divided  into 
three  classes.  The  Arabin  gums,  the  Bassorin 
gums,  and  the  resinous  gums.  All  of  the  gums 
are  used  in  the  materia  medica  and  many  of  them 
in  the  arts  and  sciences. 

Gum-boil,  an  abscess  near  the  root  of  a  tooth, 
and  discharging  itself  toward  the  mucous  mem¬ 
brane  of  the  gum;  usually  superficial,  but  some¬ 
times  more  deeply-seated  in  connection  with  the 
bone,  and  causing  considerable  deformity,  with 
risk  of  caries  or  necro¬ 
sis.  Gum-boil  should 
be  treated,  in  the  first 
instance,  by  simple 
protection  against 
cold  and  external  in¬ 
jury;  but  as  soon  as 
the  presence  of  matter 

can  be  ascertained,  it  _.  , ,  , . 

is  usually  good  prac-  Field-gun  and  its  Carnage. 

.  •  tr,  tr.™  von)  tn  :t  A,  block  or  trail ;  B,  cheeks  or  brackets  ;  C,  axle-tree;  D,  ogee;  E,  trunnion-holes;  F, 
(ill  to  give  vein  to  n  wheel;  G,  felly;  U,  spokes;  I,  nave;  K,  tire  or  streak ;  L,  rivets;  a.  eyeorcap- 

by  a  tree  incision.  square  bolts  ;  5,  capsquare  ;  c,  axle-tree  bands;  cl,  heads  of  transom  bolts  ;  e,  trun- 

Gummillg,  a  dis-  mon  plates;/,  portfire  clipper;  g,  locking  plate ;  A,  trail  plate  ;  i,  locking  chain  ;  k , 

ease  analogous  to  trail  handle;  (,  handspike  ring  ;  m,  elevating  screw;  n,  handles  of  elevating  screw. 

canker,  and  like  it,  destructive  to  fruit-trees,  but 
confined  to  those  the  sap  of  which  readily  pro¬ 
duces  gum;  as  the  cherry,  plum,  peach,  apricot, 
and  almond.  It  is  supposed  sometimes  to  origi¬ 


— n 

nate  in  wounds,  in  which  a  morbid  exudation  of 
gum  takes  place;  but  it  appears  to  be  more  fre¬ 
quently  occasioned  by  severe  frosts,  and  to  be 
dependent  upon  causes  which  induce  a  general 
unhealthiness.  It  generally  terminates  in  the 
destruction  of  the  tree. 

Gum'ti,  a  river  of  India,  rises  in  a  small  lake 
in  latitude  28°  35'  N.,  and  longitude  80°  10'  E., 
and  after  a  southeastern  course  of  482  miles 
enters  the  Ganges. 

Gun,  a  term  applied  in  its  most  general  appli¬ 
cation  to  fire-arms  of  any  description,  but  in  the 
more  restricted  and  technical  sense  to  cannon.  A 
gun  is  a  frustum  of  a  right  cone,  with  a  cylinder 
excavated  round  the  axis,  to  serve  as  a  bore. 
Close  to  the  end  of  this  cylinder  the  powder  is 
driven,  and  outside  it  is  the  ball  to  be  expelled. 
The  trunnions  are  cast  in  one  mass  with  the  piece, 
and  are  placed  in  the  second  reinforce  in  such  a 
position  that  the  breech  end  of  the  gun  outweighs 
the  muzzle.  Their  axis  is  generally  about  half 
their  diameter  below  the  axis  of  the  piece.  This 
locality  has  several  conveniences;  but  for  the 
maximum  of  steadiness  in  the  recoil,  it  has  been 
shown  that  the  axis  of  the  trunnions  and  of  the 
gun  should  exactly  intersect.  The  use  of  the 
trunnions  is  to  suspend  the  cannon  on  its  carriage 


quires  to  be  of  great  strength,  and  of  considerable 
weight,  in  order  that  the  whole  apparatus — gun 
and  carriage  together — may  not  be  driven  back¬ 
ward  by  the  recoil  in  firing.  Field-gun  carriages 
have,  besides,  to  bear  an  enormous  strain  in  pass¬ 
ing  at  a  rapid  pace  over  broken,  uneven,  or  rocky 
ground.  To  provide  for  this  wear  and  tear,  every 
part  is  fitted  with  the  utmost  precision,  made  of 
well-seasoned  material,  and  on  strict  mechanical 
principles. 

Guiuluk',  a  river  of  India,  joins  the  Ganges 
from  the  left  side,  opposite  to  Patna,  after  a 
southeast  course  of  about  400  miles.  It  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  rise  beyond  the  Himalaya. 

Gunnel  ( Gunnellus ,  or  M urcenoides),  a  genus  of 


Gunnel,  or  Butterfish  ( Gunnellus  vulgaris). 
fishes  of  the  blenny  family,  of  more  elongate^  form 
than  the  true  blennies.  The  species  are  numerous. 


GUNNERY. 


447 


GUTTA  PERCHA. 


Gunnery.  Cannon-shot,  or  any  other  pro¬ 
jectiles,  being  affected  by  the  downward  force  of 
gravity,  travel  in  the  curve  of  a  parabola,  unless 
affected  by  the  resistance  of  the  air.  Galileo 
pointed  out  modes  by  which  the  disturbances 
caused  by  this  resisting  medium  might  be  ascer¬ 
tained;  but  subsequent  writers,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  Newton  and  Bernouilli,  till  the  time  of 
Robins,  chose  to  assume  that  the  atmospherical 
resistance  was  but  nominal,  and  asserted  that  all 
shot  described  parabolas  in  their  course.  In 
1742,  Robins,  who  must  be  considered  the  real 
founder  of  the  science,  published  his  New  Princi¬ 
ples  of  Gunnery,  a  work  the  result  of  long  and 
almost  exhaustive  experiments.  Robins  discov¬ 
ered  the  law  that  common  shot  encountered  a 
resistance  from  the  air  during  their  passage, 
which  increased  as  the  square  of  the  velocity,  or 
nearly  so;  and  that  their  courses  differed  widely 
from  parabolas.  By  means  of  the  ballistic  pen¬ 
dulum,  he  measured  the  speed  of  balls  at  the 
very  cannon’s  mouth. 

Gunnison,  the  county  seat  of  Gunnison  county, 
Colo.,  is  a  flourishing  railroad  and  mining  town 
on  the  Gunnison  river.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Gunny  Bags  are  bags  made  of  a  coarse  kind 
of  cloth  or  sacking,  chiefly  manufactured  in 
India,  whence  they  are  largely  exported  to  other 
parts  of  the  world.  The  fiber  of  which  the  cloth 
is  made  is  chiefly  that  of  the  same  species  of 
Cor  chorus,  which  yield  the  jute  of  commerce. 
The  cotton  of  this  country  is  mostly  packed  in 
gunny  bags,  of  which  the  number  imported  from 
Bengal  has  increased  from  thousands  in  the  year 
179G  to  millions  in  later  years. 

Gunpowder  is  composed  of  sulphur,  niter,  and 
charcoal.  Of  use  in  several  trades,  its  principal 
employment  is  in  the  discharge,  for  war  or  sport, 
of  projectiles  from  fire-arms,  and  in  the  processes 
of  blasting  during  mining  or  quarrying.  Extreme 
care  is  requisite  in  securing  the  purity  of  the 
ingredients  entering  into  the  composition  of  gun¬ 
powder.  The  principal  impurity  of  niter  or  salt¬ 
peter  is  chloride  of  sodium,  or  common  salt, 
which,  in  consequence  of  its  tendency  to  absorb 
moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  would  have  a  very 
injurious  action  on  gunpowder  by  weakening  its 
power.  The  sulphur  may  be  purified  either  by 
fusion  (when  the  heavier  impurities  sink,  and  the 
lighter  ones  may  be  removed  by  skimming)  or  by 
distillation.  The  preparation  of  the  charcoal  is 
a  most  important  point.  It  should  be  light  and 
porous,  should  yield  a  very  small  amount  of  ash,' 
especially  of  carbonate  of  potash  and  other  deli¬ 
quescent  salts,  and  should  contain  little  moisture. 
The  woods  yielding  the  best  charcoal  for  gun¬ 
powder  are  black  alder,  poplar,  spindle-tree,  wil¬ 
low,  and  dogwood.  When  the  powder  is  ignited, 
the  oxygen  of  the  niter  combines  with  the  char¬ 
coal  or  carbon  to  form  carbonic  acid,  the  potas¬ 
sium  combines  with  the  sulphur  to  form  sulphide 
(or  sulphuret)  of  potassium,  and  the  nitrogen  is 
liberated;  the  reaction  being  shown  in  the  equa¬ 
tion  K0,N05  +  S  +  3C  =  3C02  +  N  +  KS. 
Powder  consisting  of  one  equivalent  each  of  niter 
and  sulphur,  and  three  equivalents  of  carbon, 
would  contain  74. 8  per  cent,  of  niter,  11.9  per  cent, 
of  sulphur, and  18. 3 per  cent,  of  carbon  or  charcoal. 
Blasting  powder  is  so  composed  that,  theoreti¬ 
cally,  it  should  yield  on  explosion  a  mixture  of 
carbonic  oxide  and  carbonic  acid  gases,  and 
leave  a  residue  of  bisulphide  of  potassium.  A 
powder  composed  according  to  this  formula 
would  contain  64.4  per  cent,  of  niter,  20.4  per 
cent,  of  sulphur,  and  15.2  per  cent,  of  carbon; 
and  the  proportions  actually  employed  are  65,  20, 
and  15,  respectively. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  The,  was  a  project  on  the 
part  of  a  few  Roman  Catholics  to  destroy  the 
King,  Lords,  and  Commons  on  the  meeting  of 
the  English  Parliament  on  Nov.  5,  1605.  A  few 
ruined  and  exasperated  men  banded  together  to 
overthrow  the  Government.  The  leader  in  the 
plot  was  Guy  Fawkes.  They  hired  a  vacant  cellar 
under  the  House  of  Lords,  and  placed  in  it  a 
hogshead  and  thirty-six  barrels  of  powder.  The 
plot  was  discovered,  however,  and  Fawkes  and 
most  of  the  other  conspirators  were  killed  in 
attempts  to  capture  them,  or  died  on  the  scaffold. 

Gunshot  Wounds.  Although  excessive  bleed¬ 
ing  is  not  so  common  after  gunshot  as  other 
kinds  of  wounds,  it  may  occur  immediately  to  a 


fatal  extent,  if  assistance  be  not  afforded.  This 
assistance  any  one  can  give.  It  consists  simply  in 
placing  the  fingers  in  the  wound,  and  if  the  ves¬ 
sel  can  be  reached,  pressing  them  upon  it,  di¬ 
rected  to  the  proper  point  by  the  warm  gush  of 
blood.  Should  the  wound  be  too  small  to  admit 
the  finger,  a  handkerchief  may  be  tied  around 
the  limb  above  the  wound,  and  twisted  tightly 
with  a  stick.  It  is  well  to  examine  the  wound, 
to  ascertain  the  extent  of  the  injury  done,  and 
whether  there  are  splinters  of  bone  or  portions  of 
dress  lying  in  it.  If  so,  they  should  be  removed. 
But  neither  the  examination  nor  the  removal 
should  be  attempted  if  they  seem  likely  to  aggra¬ 
vate  the  injury.  The  treatment  is  similar  to  that 
of  other  wounds,  and  consists  in  protecting  the 
part  during  the  healing  stages,  moderating  in¬ 
flammation  by  cold-water  dressings  or  soothing 
poultices,  and  hastening  the  last  stages  of  cure  by 
stimulating  lotions. 

Guutersville,  the  county  seat  of  Marshall 
county,  Ala.,  is  on  the  Tennessee  river.  Pop., 
600. 

Gurgaon,  a  district  of  the  Punjab,  in  the  divis¬ 
ion  of  Delhi,  India,  has  an  area  of  1,938  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  689,034. 

Gurgihia  Balsam,  a  name  of  the  balsamic 
liquid,  also  called  wood  oil,  obtained  from  the 
gurjun  tree  ( Dipterocarpm  turbinntus). 

Gurhwa!  ( Garhwal ),  a  native  state  in  the  North¬ 
west  Provinces  of  India,  on  the  borders  of  Thibet; 
area,  9,180  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  199,836. 
Also  the  name  of  a  British  district  in  the  Northwest 
Provinces,  next  to  Independent  Gurliwal;  area, 
5,500  square  miles;  pop.,  345  629. 

Gur'nard  ( Trigla ),  a  genus  of  acanthopterous 
marine  fishes  of  the  family  Sclerogenida ,  contain¬ 
ing  a  considerable  number  of  species.  The  head 
is  angular,  and  wholly  covered  with  bony  plates; 


coarser  kinds  of  cat-gut  strings  are  used  for  pul¬ 
ley  and  lathe  bands,  strings  for  archery-bows, 
drill-bows,  hatter’s-bows,  and  other  purposes 
where  a  strong  cord  subject  to  friction  is  required ; 
the  finer  kinds  are  twisted  into  wliip-cord,  and 
are  used  for  fishing-tackle  and  the  strings  of  mu¬ 
sical  instruments.  The  larger  intestines  are  used 
for  holding  sausages. 

Gutenberg,  Johannes,  or  IIenne,  whose 
proper  name  was  Gensfleisch,  or  Gansfleisch, 
and  who  is  regarded  by  the  Germans  as  the  in¬ 
ventor  of  the  art  of  printing,  was  born  near 
the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century,  at  Mainz. 
When  and  where  the  lir-t  attempts  in  the  art  of 
printing  were  made,  can  not  with  certainty  be  as¬ 
certained,  as  the  works  printed  by  Gutenberg  bear 
neither  name  nor  date;  but  movable  w'ooden  types 
were  first  employed  by  him  about  the  year  1438. 
In  1443,  he  returned  from  Strasburg  to  Mainz, 
where,  in  1449  or  1450,  he  entered  into  partnership 
with  Johannes  Faust,  or  Fust,  a  wealthy  gold¬ 
smith.  Faust  furnished  the  money  required  to 
set  up  a  printing  press  in  which  the  Latin  Bible 
was  printed  for  the  first  time.  This  partnership 
was  dissolved  after  the  lapse  of  a  few  years.  Faust 
had  made  large  advances,  which  Gutenberg  was 
now  to  refund,  but  as  he  possessed  neither  the 
power  nor  the  inclination,  the  matter  was  brought 
before  a  court  of  justice.  The  result  was  that 
Faust  retained  the  printing  concern,  which  he 
carried  on  and  brought  to  perfection,  in  conjunc¬ 
tion  with  Peter  Sclioffer  of  Gernsheim.  By  the 
assistance  of  Conrad  Hummer,  a  councilor  of 
Mainz,  Gutenberg  was  again  enabled  to  set  up  a 
press,  from  which,  in  all  probability,  proceeded 
Ilermanni  de Saldis  Speculum  Sacerdotum,  printed 
in  quarto  without  date  or  name.  According  to 
some,  four  editions  of  the  Donatus  were  also 
printed  by  Gutenberg,  while  others  ascribe  them 
to  Faust  and  Sclioffer.  In  1457,  appeared  the 
Latin  Psalterium,  or  rather  a  breviary  containing 
psalms,  with  antiphones,  collects,  etc.,  and  ar¬ 
ranged  for  choruses  for  Sundays  and  holidays. 
This  specimen  of  the  art  of  printing,  remarkable 
as  being  the  first  bearing  the  name  of  the  printer 
and  the  locality,  as  well  as  the  year  and  day  of 
its  completion,  and  valued  at  $50,000,  was  printed 
with  an  elegance  which  sufficiently  proves  the 
rapid  progress  that  had  been  made  in  the  newly 
invented  art,  and  the  diligence  with  which  it  had 
been  prosecuted.  Gutenberg’s  printing  establish¬ 
ment  existed  till  1465  in  Mainz.  He  died  Feb. 
24,  1468. 


the  body  is  elongated,  nearly  round  and  tapering; 
there  are  two  dorsal  fins;  the  pectoral  fins  are  large; 
the  teeth  are  small  and  numerous. 

Gustavns  I.,  King  of  Sweden — knowm  in  his¬ 
tory  as  Gustavus  Vasa,  but  designated  before 
his  accession  to  power,  by  himself  and  others, 
Gustavus  Ericsson — was  born  May  12,  1496, 
and  died  in  1560. 

Gustavns  II.  (Adolphus)  was  born  at  Stock¬ 
holm,  Dec.  9,  1594,  and  died  in  1632.  He  was 
the  grandson  of  Gustavus  Yasa,  by  his  youngest 
son,  Charles  IX.,  at  whose  death,  in  1611,  he  suc¬ 
ceeded  to  the  throne  of  Sweden.  His  reign  was 
marked  by  a  long  succession  of  bloody  wars  with 
neighboring  powers,  and  Gustavus  was  killed 
while  leading  his  army  in  the  Battle  of  Liitzen. 

Gustavus  III.,  King  of  Sweden,  was  bora  at 
Stockholm,  in  1746,  and  succeeded  his  father, 
Adolphus  Frederick,  in  1771.  In  1788  he  engaged 
in  war  with  Russia,  but  derived  no  advantage 
from  the  contest.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
French  Revolution,  he  combined  with  the  other 
monarchs  against  France,  but  became  unpopular 
with  his  people,  and  was  assassinated  March  16. 
1792. 

Gustavus  IV.,  the  son  and  successor  of  Gusta- 
vus  III.,  was  born  Nov.  1,  1778,  proclaimed  King 
March  29,  1792,  and  died  in  1837.  He  was  de¬ 
throned  by  conspirators  March  29,  1809,  and  after 
wandering  for  a  time  from  place  to  place,  he 
finally  settled  at  St.  Gall,  where  he  died,  forgot¬ 
ten  and  in  poverty,  in  1837. 

Gut  Manufacture,  an  important  branch  of 
manufacture,  the  operations  of  which  consist  in 
preparing  t  he  membranes  of  animal  intestines  for 
various  useful  purposes.  Cat-gut,  as  it  is  called, 
is  made  from  the  intestines  of  sheep,  which  are 
first  cleansed  and  freed  from  loose  fat,  then  pre¬ 
pared  by  soaking  and  partial  putrefaction.  The 


Guthrie  Centre,  a  flourishing  farming  town 
and  the  county  seat  of  Guthrie  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  1,000. 

Guttffi,  pendent  ornaments  attached  to  the 
underside  of  the  mutules,  and  under  the  triglyphs 
of  the  doric  order.  They  are  generally  in  the 
form  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone,  but  are  sometimes 
cylindrical.  It  is  not  clear  what  their  origin  may 
have  been,  whether,  as  the  name  indicates,  they 
represent  drops  of  water  or  icicles. 

Gut'ta  Per'clia  (pronounced  pertsha),  a  sub¬ 
stance  in  many  respects  similar  to  caoutchouc,  is 


1 ,  a  flower ;  2,  a  pistil ;  3,  a  branch  with  leaves  and  flowers ; 
4,  transverse  section  of  ovary;  5,  vertical  section  of 
ovary;  6,  transverse  section  of  fruit;  7,  fruit,  scarcely 
mature;  8,  anther. 

the  dried  milky  juice  of  a  tree,  Isonandra  gutta, 


GUTTA  ROSEA. 


448 


GYROMANCY. 


which  is  found  in  tlie  Peninsula  of  Malacca  and 
the  Malayan  Archipelago.  The  tree  belongs  to  the 
natural  order  Sapotacece.  It  is  a  large  tree,  the 
trunk  being  sometimes  three  feet  in  diameter, 
although  it  is  of  little  use  as  a  timber  tree,  the 
wood  being  spongy.  The  leaves  are  alternate, 
on  long  stalks,  obovate-oblong,  entire,  somewhat 
leathery,  green  above,  and  of  a  golden  color 
beneath.  The  name  gutta  percha  is  Malayan, 
gutta  signifying  the  concrete  juice  of  a  plant,  anil 
percha  being  the  name  of  the  particular  tree  from 
which  it  is  obtained. 

Gutta  Ro'sea,  a  kind  of  cutaneous  eruption  on 
the  face,  is  difficult  of  cure,  and  should  be  treated 
chiefly  by  a  careful  regimen. 

Guttif'erae,  or  Clusia'cEjE,  a  natural  order 
of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
natives  of  tropical  countries,  generally  secreting 
an  acrid  yellow  resinous  juice.  In  botanical 
characters,  this  order  is  allied  to  Hypericin ce.  It 
contains  about  150  known  species,  the  greater 
part  of  them  South  American,  although  all  trop¬ 
ical  countries  produce  some.  The  resinous  secre¬ 
tions  of  some  are  valuable,  particularly  of  those 
trees  which  yield  gamboge  and  tacamahaca. 

Guzerat',  a  geographical  division  of  India, 
stretches  in  N.  latitude  from  20°  to  24°  45',  and 
in  E.  longitude  from  69°  ta  74°  20'.  Area, 
42,000  square  miles.  Pop.  3,000,000. 

Gwa'lior,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  the  same 
name  in  Central  India,  stands  near  the  northeast 
extremity  of  its  territory,  and  has  a  pop.  of  about 
50,000. 

Gwalior,  the  State  above  mentioned,  with  an 
area  of  only  33,119  square  miles,  stretches  in  N. 
latitude  from  21°  8'  to  26°  50',  and  in  E.  longitude 
from  74°  45'  to  79°  21'.  Pop.,  about  2,500,000. 

Gwyu'iatl  ( Coregonus  pennanti),  one  of  the 
species  of  Coregonus  which,  from  their  form,  the 


large  size  of  their  scales,  and  their  silvery  appear¬ 
ance,  are  sometimes  called  freshwater  herring, 
and  are  vulgarly  identified  with  the  herring. 

Gwyime,  Eleanor,  born  1650,  died  1690,  com- 
irtonly  known  as  “  Nell  Gwynne,”  an  English 
actress  and  noted  beauty,  and  one  of  the  many 
mistresses  of  Charles  II. 

Gynma'sium.  This  word  (from  yvjuvoS, 
naked)  was  applied  to  those  public  places  or 
buildings  where  the  Greek  youths  exercised  them¬ 
selves. 

Gymnas'tics,  a  term  applied  to  those  exercises 
not  amounting  in  intricacy  to  games,  by  which 
particular  limbs,  either  singly  or  in  combination, 
are  rendered  more  pliant  or  stronger.  These  ex¬ 
ercises  are  arranged  in  a  due  progression,  and 
the  entire  series  becomes  a  system  under  the  name 
gymnastics.  Gymnasia  now  exist  in  most  Euro¬ 
pean  countries,  and  are  popular  in  the  Northern 
United  States. 

Gyinne'trus,  a  genus  of  acantliopterous  fishes 
of  the  ribbon-fish  family,  having  the  body 
elongated,  and  at  the  same  time  attenuated  and 
compressed,  the  dorsal  fin  extending  the  whole 
length  of  the  back,  the  ventral  tins  consisting 


Gymnetrus  Ftawkenii. 


only  of  a  single  long  ray,  often  dilated  at  the  end; 
the  mouth  small .  The  fishes  of  this  genus  are 
inhabitants  of  great  depths,  and  are  rarely  taken 
or  thrown  ashore. 

Gymno'cladus,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Ccesalpiniece.  —  C . 


canadensis  is  a  tree  found  in  Canada  and  over  a 
great  part  of  the  United  States,  attaining  a  height 
of  50  to  60  feet,  with  branches  remarkable  for 
their  upright  direction,  and  an  exceedingly  rough 
bark  which  comes  off  in  slips.  The  tree  is  called 
chicot  in  Canada,  and  sometimes  stump  tree, 
from  its  dead  appearance  in  winter  and  the  ab¬ 
sence  of  conspicuous  buds.  It  is  also  called  the 
Kentucky  coffee  tree,  because  the  seeds  were 
formerly  roasted  and  ground  as  coffee  in  Ken¬ 
tucky.  The  wood  is  used  both  by  cabinet¬ 
makers  and  by  carpenters.  It  has  very  little 
sap-wood.  The  pods,  preserved  like  those  of  the 
tamarind,  are  said  to  be  wholesome  and  slightly 
aperient. 

Gynino'g'ons,  in  the  botanical  system  of  Lind- 
ley,  are  those  plants  with  exogenous  stems  and 
perfectly  naked  seeds.  He  forms  of  them  a  sepa¬ 
rate  class,  of  which  Conifer (P,  I'axacem,  Cycadacece, 
and  Gnetacece  are  the  orders. 

Gymnosom'ata  (Gr.  yvjuvoto/udra,  naked¬ 
bodied),  an  order  of  pteropodous  mollusks,  desti¬ 
tute  of  shell,  having  a  distinct  head,  and  swim¬ 
ming  by  fins  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  neck. 
They  are  all  marine.  The  Clio  borealis  of  the 
Arctic  seas  is  the  best  known  and  most  interest¬ 
ing  example. 

Gymnos'opliists  (Gr.  yvyvoZcxpKjr-ql,  naked 
sages),  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  those 
ancient  Hindu  philosophers  who  lived  solitarily 
in  the  woods,  wore  little  or  no  clothing,  and  ad¬ 
dicted  themselves  to  mystical  contemplation  and 
the  practice  of  the  most  rigorous  asceticism. 

Gymuo'tus,  a  genus  of  malacopterous  fishes, 
of  which  only  one  species  is  known,  the  G.  electri- 
cus,  or  electrical  eel.  This  genus  gives  its  name 
to  a  family,  Gymnotidce ,  of  which,  however,  no 
other  known  species  has  any  electrical  powers. 
The  Gymnotida}  are  mostly  South  American,  in¬ 
habiting  the  fresh  waters  of  the  tropical  regions. 


Electrical  Eel  (Gymnotus eleclricus) . 


They  are  eel-like  in  form,  and  like  eels  are  desti¬ 
tute  of  ventral  fins  (apodal),  but  they  are  fur¬ 
nished  with  complete  jaws  and  with  ribs,  and 
their  fin-rays  are  jointed  or  branched.  It  is 
widely  diffused  over  the  Southern  States,  and  is 
found  both  in  streams  and  pools.  It  is  capable 
of  being  tamed,  and  when  familiar,  will  allow 
itself  to  be  handled  without  giving  a  shock,  but 
employs  its  electrical  powers  both  in  order  to  kill 
prey  and  to  defend  itself  from  assailants. 

Gynaecology  (Gr.  yvvi) ,  ywaiKoS,  woman, 
and  hoyoi,  science),  that  branch  of  medicine 
which  concerns  the  pathology  and  treatment  of 
affections  peculiar  to  the  female  sex. 

Gypsies  (Egyptians),  [Fr.  Bohemiens;  Ger. 
Zigeuner;  Dutch,  Heathens;  Dan.  and  Swed., 
Tatars;  Ital.,  Zingani;  Span.,  Gitanos,  Zincali; 
Hung.,  Czijdnyok,  Pharaonepek;  Pers.,  Sisech; 
Hindu,  Earachee;  Arab.,  Harami;  Gyps.  Rom 
(man);  Sinte  (from  Ind.),  Calo  (black); nicknamed 
in  Fr.  Cagoux,  Geux;  Ger.  Zieh-Gauner,  etc.], 
a  mysterious  vagabond  race,  scattered  over  the 
whole  of  Europe  and  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America.  Whence  they  originally  came  is  not 
definitely  known,  but  India  seems  to  have  been 
the  cradle  of  the  tribe.  For  centuries  past  they 
have  drifted  about  over  Europe  in  small  bands, 
having  no  permanent  homes;  living  by  begging, 
fortune  telling,  and  various  tricks.  The  first 
notice  of  them  which  occurs  in  European  litera¬ 
ture  is  embodied  in  a  free  paraphrase,  in  German, 
of  the  Book  of  Genesis,  written  by  an  Austrian 
monk  about  1122.  On  Aug.  17,  1427,  a  band  of 
them,  coming  from  Bohemia,  made  their  appear¬ 
ance  before  Paris,  which,  however,  they  wTere  not 


allowed  to  enter,  but  were  lodged  at  La  Chapelle 
Saint  Denis.  Other  hordes  succeeded  these  in 
the  following  years,  spreading  in  rapid  succession 
over  all  parts  of  Germany,  over  Spain,  England, 
Russia,  Scandinavia,  and,  indeed,  over  the  re¬ 
motest  parts  of  Europe.  The  account  which  they 
most  frequently  gave  of  themselves  was,  that 
they  originally  came  from  “Little  Egypt,”  that 
the  King  of  Hungary  had  compelled  about  4,000 
of  them  to  be  baptized,  had  slain  the  remainder, 
and  had  condemned  the  baptized  to  seven  years’ 
wandering.  In  France,  Germany,  Scotland,  and 
other  countries  the  most  stringent  laws  were 
formerly  enforced  against  them  and  they  were 
slain  by  thousands.  The  jargon  spoken  by  the 
Gypsies  is  styled  Romany  and  contains  many  San¬ 
scrit  words  and  corrupted  Hebraisms. 

Gypsum,  a  mineral  consisting  essentially  of 
sulphate  of  lime  and  water,  the  proportions  of  its 
constituents  being  lime,  32.56;  sulphuric  acid, 
46.51;  water,  20.93.  It  is  widely  diffused,  occurs 
in  abundance  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  is 
found  in  rocks  and  strata  geologically  different, 
as  in  transition  rocks,  in  secondary  and  in  tertiary 
formations.  It  is  transparent  or  opaque,  white, 
yellowisli-white  or  gray,  or  even  yellow,  red, 
brown,  or  black,  according  to  its  purity  of  chemi¬ 
cal  composition  or  the  quantity  and  nature  of  im¬ 
purities  present.  The  water  which  it  contains  is 
driven  off  by  a  heat  of  about  272°  F.,  and  it  is 
then  easily  reduced  to  powder,  in  which  state  it 
is  well  known  as  plaster-of -paris. 

Gyr- falcon,  or  Jer-falcon  (Falco  gyr  falco), 
a  species  of  falcon  of  the  northern  group,  of  large 
size,  the  female,  which  is  the  largest,  being  about 


Gyr- falcon  (Falco  islandicus) . 


two  feet  in  entire  length;  the  plumage  almost’ 
brown  when  the  bird  is  young,  but  gradually 
changing  to  white  as  it  advances  in  age,  the 
white  margin  of  each  feather  encroaching  on  its 
brown  center,  until  aged  birds  are  almost  pure 
white.  It  inhabits  all  the  cold  northern  parts  of 
the  world.  It  was  formerly  in  high  esteem  for 
falconry. 

Gyri'nus,  a  Linmean  genus  of  coleopterous  in¬ 
sects,  now  constituting  a  family,  Gyrinidat,  closely 
allied  to  Dytiscidce,  or  water  beetles,  but  differing 
in  having  the  antennae  short,  the  two  fore-legs 
long  and  stretching  forward  like  arms,  the  other 


Gyrinus  natator. 


legs  very  short  and  comparatively  broad.  The 
eyes  are  divided  by  horny  processes,  so  that  each 
of  them  almost  becomes  two.  The  body  is  oval, 
as  in  the  Dytiscidce.  The  Gyrinidce  are  generally 
characterized  by  metallic  brilliancy  of  color. 
They  are  mostly  small  insects. 

Gyromancy  (Gr.  yvpoi ,  a  circle,  and  yavreux, 
prophecy)  was  a  method  of  divination  by  means 
I  of  a  circle. 


H. 


449 


HAINAN. 


H 


His  the  eighth  letter  in  the  English  alphabet, 
belongs  to  the  order  of  gutturals,  and  is  a 
mere  attenuation  of  the  sound  indicated  by  the 
Greek  x  arid  the  German  (and  Scotch)  ch.  The 
tendency  of  guttural  sounds  to  become  lighter 
and  lighter,  and  at  last  disappear,  is  strikingly 
seen  in  tracing  the  history  of  the  letter  h.  The 
form  of  the  character  corresponds  to  the  Phoe¬ 
nician  or  Hebrew  cheth  and  the  Greek  et  /.  (H, 
probably  at  one  time  pronounced  heta),  which 
denoted  originally  the  syllable  die.  The  Greeks 
dropped  the  guttural  part  of  the  sound,  and  took 
the  character  to  mark  the  vowel  e,  while  in  the 
Latin  alphabet  it  was  taken  to  mark  the  (faint 
aspirated)  guttural.  That  the  sound  of  h  in  Latin 
must  have  been  faint,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that 
many  words  were  written  indifferently  with  or 
without  an  h;  as  honustus  or  onustus;  aheneus  or 
aeneus.  In  the  languages  derived  from  the  Latin, 
the  force  of  h  has  almost  disappeared.  It  is  re¬ 
tained  in  French  as  a  character,  but  is  scarcely 
heard  in  pronunciation.  The  Italian  language 
altogether  ignores  the  character.  In  Spanish,  it 
has  taken  the  place  in  many  cases  of  the  Latin  /, 
as  hijo  =  Lat.  jilius,  a  son;  humoso  —  fumosus, 
smoky. 

Haar'lein,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  of  the 
same-  name  in  the  Province  of  North  Holland. 
Pop.  (1884),  45,619. 

Habak'kuk  (Gr.  forms,  Ambakoum,  Abacum, 
etc.;  Lat.  Ambacum ,  Ambacuc,  and  Abacuc),  the 
eighth  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  No  ac¬ 
count  is  contained  in  the  book  itself  either  of  the 
events  of  his  life,  or  the  date  when  he  lived. 

Habberton,  John,  born  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
in  1842,  has  written  Helen’s  Babies,  The  Jericho 
Road,  and  other  popular  works. 

Ha'beas  Cor 'pus,  Writ  of,  a  writ  directed  by 
courts  of  law  or  equity  to  produce  the  body  of  a 
person  illegally  detained,  and  to  state  the  reasons 
of  such  detention,  so  that  the  court  may  judge  of 
their  sufficiency.  In  the  LTnited  States  the  law  of 
habeas  corpus  has  been  inherited  from  England, 
and  has  been  generally  made  to  apply  to  com¬ 
mitments  and  detentions  of  all  kinds. 

Haber'geon,  a  short  coat  of  mail,  consisting  of 
a  jacket  without  sleeves.  In  early  times,  the 
habergeon  was  composed  of  chain-mail;  but  in 
the  fourteenth  century  a  habergeon  of  plate- 
armor  was  worn  over  the  hauberk. 

Hackensack,  an  important  manufacturing  city, 
and  the  county  seat  of  Bergen  county,  N.  J. 
Pop.,  4,983. 

Hadilam,  a  prosperous  commercial  town,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Middlesex  county,  Conn.,  is 
pleasantly  situated  on  the  Connecticut  river. 
Pop.,  2,421. 

Haddock  [Gad us  or  Movrliua  ceglefinus),  a 
fish  of  the  same  genus  with  the  cod,  and  resem¬ 
bling  it  in  general  appearance.  The  number  of 
fins  is  the  same  as  in  the  cod,  and  it  has  a  barbule 
at  the  point  of  the  lower  jaw.  The  haddock  is 
brown  on  the  back,  silvery  on  the  belly;  the 
lateral  line  is  black,  and  there  is  a  black  spot  be¬ 
hind  each  of  the  pectorals;  these  spots  sometimes 
extending  so  as  to  meet  on  the  back. 

Haden,  Francis  Seymour,  born  in  London, 
Sept.  16,  1818,  a  leading  English  surgeon,  and 
the  foremost  living  master  of  the  art  of  etching. 

Ha'des,  in  Greek  Mythology,  was  the  god  of 
the  lower  world,  more  commonly  spoken  of  as 
Pluto;  the  name  was  also  applied  to  his  kingdom, 
the  abode  of  the  departed  spirits  or  shades. 

Haeinadynamoin'etcr  (Gr.  aipa,  blood, 
Svvajuil,  force,  and  / usrpov ,  a  measure)  is  the 
name  of  an  instrument  devised  by  Poisseville  for 
determining  the  pressure  of  the  blood  in  the 
arteries  and  veins  of  the  living  body.  The  pres¬ 
sure  of  the  blood  is  measured,  as  in  the  barometer, 
by  the  column  of  mercury  that  it  balances. 

Haimastat'ics  and  HaemadynamTcs,  the 
statics  and  dynamics  of  the  blood  (Gr.  aijua). 

Haeckel,  Ernst  IIeinricii,  a  distinguished 
German  naturalist,  born  Feb.  16,  1834,  at  Pots¬ 
dam.  His  most  important  work  is  Die  Qenerelle 
Morphologie  der  Organismen  (2  vols.  1866).  Prof. 
Haeckel  is  recognized  as  the  greatest  living  biolo¬ 


gist  and  evolutionist,  and  his  works  are  text¬ 
books  of  the  highest  character. 

Hatmateni'esis  (Gr.  dijua,  blood,  and  epr/diS, 
vomiting),  a  rejection  of  blood  from  the  stomach, 
usually  in  consequence  of  some  morbid  change 
in  its  mucous  membrane.  Hsematemesis  is  apt 
to  be  mistaken  for  haemoptysis  unless  careful 
attention  is  given  to  the  mode  in  which  the  blood 
is  ejected.  The  proper  remedies  are  the  liberal 
use  of  ice  or  of  ice-cold  water;  acetate  of  lead 
in  doses  of  two  to  five  grains;  tannin,  five  to  ten 
grains  (it  must  not,  however,  be  given  with  ace¬ 
tate  of  lead);  oil  of  turpentine,  six  to  ten  drops, 
repeated  every  hour  or  two. 

Haem'atine,  or  H^mato'sine,  is  the  term 
applied  by  chemists  to  the  red  coloring  matter  of 
the  blood  of  the  higher  animals.  In  the  normal 
state,  it  occurs  in  solution  in  the  interior  of  the 
blood  corpuscles  or  cells;  but  in  certain  morbid 
conditions,  in  which  the  blood  undergoes  a  species 
of  decomposition,  it  is  deposited  in  a  solid  form 
in  the  tissues  surrounding  the  smaller  vessels 
through  whose  walls  it  has  percolated. 

Hsein'atite  (Gr.  dipa,  blood),  a  mineral  con¬ 
sisting  chiefly  of  peroxide  of  iron,  often  occurs 
in  large  quantity,  and  is  a  valuable  iron  ore. 
There  are  two  principal  varieties,  red  haematite, 
and  brown  luematite.  The  former  frequently 
occurs  in  globular  and  grape-like  masses,  with  a 
radiating  fibrous  structure.  It  is  sometimes  of  a 
dull  reddish-brown,  sometimes  of  a  brilliant 
bluish-gray  color;  the  streak  is  blood-red.  An 
earthy  kind  is  called  iron  froth,  and  consists 
almost  entirely  of  peroxide  of  iron.  Brown 
luematite  contains  about  14  per  cent,  of  wrater. 
Its  color  is  generally  some  shade  of  brown,  some¬ 
times  almost  black. 

Haemat'ocele  (Gr.  aipa,  blood,  and  Kr/Xg, 
tumor),  a  tumor  containing  blood;  opposed  to 
hydrocele. 

Haunatox'yline  is  a  chromogen  (a  term  used 
by  chemists  to  denote  certain  nearly  or  quite  col¬ 
orless  substances  which,  under  certain  influences, 
yield  well-marked  colors),  obtained  from  logwood 
( Hcematoxylon  campeachianum).  It  has  a  sweet 
and  not  astringent  taste,  is  sparingly  soluble  in 
cold  water,  but  dissolves  readily  in  boiling  water, 
alcohol,  and  ether. 

Haeinatozo'a  (Gr.  di/ua,  blood,  and  Zoov,  a 
living  creature)  is  the  term  applied  by  helmin¬ 
thologists  to  the  entozoa  existing  in  the  blood. 
They  occur  in  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  fishes, 
and  many  invertebrate  animals.  Most  of  them 
are  microscopic,  devoid  of  generative  organs,  and 
exist  in  the  blood,  circulating  both  in  the  arteries 
and  in  the  veins.  A  small  number  attain  a  con¬ 
siderable  size,  and  are  provided  with  organs  of 
reproduction. 

Hsematu'ria  (Gr.  aipa,  blood,  and  ovpov, 
urine),  the  discharge  of  blood  with  the  urine, 
usually  from  disease  of  the  kidneys  or  bladder. 
It  is  rather  a  symptom  than  a  disease,  and  takes 
its  character  from  the  associated  morbid  condi¬ 
tions  of  the  parts  concerned.  It  is  a  symptom 
always  of  some  gravity,  but  not  often  fatal.  Per¬ 
haps  the  best  general  remedy  is  the  tincture  of 
the  muriate  of  iron,  given  in  water  in  doses  of 
twenty  drops. 

Hsemodora'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  endogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  herbaceous  plants  with 
fibrous  roots,  and  sword-shaped  leaves;  differing 
from  Iriadacece  in  habit,  and  in  having  the  stamens 
six  in  number,  or,  if  only  three,  opposite  to  the 
petals.  There  are  about  fifty  known  species, 
chiefly  natives  of  North  and  South  America, 
South  Africa,  the  Mascarene  Islands,  and  New 
Holland.  In  this  order  are  ranked  the  Vellozias 
or  tree  lilies. 

Hsemnp'tysis  (Gr.  itrvdii,  spitting),  expecto¬ 
ration  of  blood,  a  very  significant  and  often  dan¬ 
gerous  symptom  of  disease  of  the  lungs  or  heart, 
in  all  cases  of  great  importance,  and  requiring 
immediate  attention,  but  apt  to  be  viewed  popu¬ 
larly  with  a  somewhat  exaggerated  alarm.  It  is 
seldom  directly  fatal.'  The  treatment  can  scarcely 
be  undertaken  without  a  medical  examination; 
but  repeated  doses  of  ipecacuanha,  carried  even 


up  to  the  emetic  effect,  have  often  been  found 
serviceable. 

Hafiz  (one  who  knows  the  Koran  and  the  Tra¬ 
ditions  by  heart),  Mohammed,  Shams- ad-Din  (Sun 
of  Religion),  also  called  Lishan-al-Ghaid  (Voice 
of  Mystery),  an  eminent  Persian  divine,  philos¬ 
opher,  and  poet,  was  born  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century  at  Shiraz,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  died  between  1388  and  1394. 

Hag  (Myxine  or  Gaslrobranchvs),  a  genus  of 
cartilaginous  fishes,  allied  to  lampreys,  ranked 


among  dermopterous  fishes.  The  fishes  of  this 
genus  seem  to  connect  fishes  with  cephalopodous 
mollusks.  The  shape  resembles  that  of  an  eel  or 
worm.  The  mucus  is  exuded  from  lateral  pores. 

Hagar  (LXX.  Agar),  Gen.  xvi,  ff.,  an  Egyptian 
bondwoman  of  Sarah.  She  bore  Abraham  a  son, 
whom  he  called  Ishmael,  who  afterward  became 
a  mighty  man  of  war,  and  is  the  traditional  father 
of  the  Arab  race. 

Hagerstown,  a  city  in  Washington  county, 
Md.,  was  the  scene  of  some  important  operations 
of  the  contending  armies  during  the  Antietam 
campaign.  Pop.,  8,678. 

Hag'gai  (Aggceus,  Haggceus),  the  tenth  of  the 
twelve  minor  prophets,  and  the  first  of  those  who 
prophesied  in  Palestine  after  the  Babylonian  cap¬ 
tivity.  Of  his  own  history  nothing  positive  is 
known 

Haggard,  Henry  Rider,  born  in  England, 
June  22, 1856,  served  in  Zululand  under  the  British 
Commissioner,  and  wrote  a  book  on  South  African 
affairs.  He  has  recently  acquired  a  wide  reputa¬ 
tion  as  a  writer  of  sensational  fiction. 

Hague,  or  The  Hague  (Dutch,  ’sGravenhage), 
the  capital  of  the  Netherlands,  and  the  residence 
oftheKing,  isacity  in  South  Holland.  Pop.  (1875), 
97,565. 

Haliueniann,  Samuel,  a  celebrated  German 
physician,  bornin  April,  1755,  founded  the  homoe¬ 
opathic  school  of  medicine,  and  died  in  1843. 

Hahn's  Peak,  in  the  Elk  Head  Mountains,  is 
the  county  seat  of  Routt  county,  Colo.,  and  an  im¬ 
portant  mining  town. 

Hahnville,  the  capital  of  St.  Charles  Parish, 
La.,  is  an  important  trading  point  on  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  river,  twenty  miles  above  New  Orleans. 
Pop.,  500. 

Hail,  Hailstorm.  The  cause  of  the  fine 
grains  of  hail  seems  to  be  simply  the  freezing  of 
rain  drops  as  they  pass  in  their  fall  through  a, 
colder  region  of  air  than  that  where  they  origi¬ 
nated.  True  hail — i.  e.,  the  larger  hail  stones, 
though  the  process  of  its  formation  is  not  yet  per¬ 
fectly  understood,  depends  mainly  upon  the  meet¬ 
ing  of  two  nearly  opposite  currents  of  air — one 
hot  and  saturated  with  vapor,  the  other  very  cold. 

Hailey,  a  mining  town,  and  the  county  seat  of 
Alturas  county,  Idaho.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Haimu'ra  ( Erythrinus  macrodon),  a  large 
fresh-water  fish  of  Guiana.  It  belongs  to  a  small 
family  of  fishes,  Erythrinidce,  exhibiting  rela¬ 


Haimura. 


tions  to  the  herring,  salmon,  and  carp  families. 
It  is  sometimes  4  feet  in  length.  The  teeth  are 
large. 

Hainan',  an  Island  in  the  China  Sea,  consti¬ 
tuting  a  department  of  the  Province  of  Kwang- 


29 


HAINAUT. 


450 


HALLECK. 


tung,  is  about  180  miles  long  and  100  broad,  and 
is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  strait  15 
miles  wide,  filled  with  shoals  and  reefs.  Its  prin¬ 
cipal  city,  Kiung-chau,  in  20°  7'  N.  latitude,  and 
110°  15'  E.  longitude,  is  the  most  southern  of  the 
ports  open  for  trade.  Pop.,  1,500,000. 

Hainaut,  or  Hainault  (Ger.  Hennegau),  a 
frontier  province  of  Belgium,  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  Province  of  Namur,  on  the  north  by 
the  Provinces  of  Brabant  and  East  and  West 
Flanders,  and  on  the  southwest  by  France  Area, 
1,424  square  miles;  pop.  (1874),  949,346. 

Hair,  including  bristles,  wool,  fur,  etc.,  is  a 
modification  of  the  epidermis,  and  consists  essen¬ 
tially  of  nucleated  particles.  An  ordinary  hair 
consists  of  a  shaft  and  a  bulb.  The  shaft  is  that 
part  which  is  fully  formed,  and  projects  beyond 
the  surface.  If  we  trace  it  to  the  skin,  we  find  it 
rooted  in  a  follicle  in  the  cutis  or  true  skin,  or 
even  in  the  connective  or  cellular  tissue  beneath 
it.  This  follicle  is  . 
bulbous  at  its  deepest 
part,  like  the  hair 
which  it  contains, 
and  its  sides  are  lined 
with  a  layer  of  cells 
continuous  with  the 
epidermis.  The  lay¬ 
er,  according  to  Todd 
and  Bowman  ( Phys¬ 
iological  Anatomy, 
vol.  i;  p.  417),  resem¬ 
bles  the  cuticle  in  the 
rounded  form  of  its 
deep  cells,  and  the 
scaly  character  of  the 
more  superficial  ones, 
wdiich  are  here  in 
contact  with  the  out¬ 
side  of  the  hair.  The 
hair  grows  from  the 
bottom  of  the  follicle, 
and  the  cells  of  the 
deepest  stratum  grad¬ 
ually  enlarge  as  they 
mount  in  the  soft 
bulb  of  the  hair, 
which  owes  its  size 
to  this  circumstance. 

If  the  hair  is  to  be 
colored,  the  pigment 
cells  are  also  here  de¬ 
veloped.  It  frequent¬ 
ly  happens  that  the 
cells  in  the  axis  of  the  bulb  become  loaded  with 
pigment  at  one  period,  and  not  at  another,  so  that, 
as  they  pass  upwatd  in  the  shaft,  a 
dark  central  tract  is  produced,  of 
greater  or  less  length,  and  the  hair 
appears  here  and  there  to  be  tubular. 

The  shaft  is  narrower  than  the  bulb, 
and  is  produced  by  the  rather  abrupt 
condensation  and  elongation  into  clirf„n- , 
hard  fibers  of  the  cells,  both  of  those  &  man  h  aTr 
which  contain  pigments  and  those  magnified, 
which  do  not. 


Magnified  section  of  bulb  of 
a  small  black  human  hair. 
a,  basement  membrane  of  the 
follicle ;  b ,  layer  of  epidermic 
cells  resting  upon  it ;  c,  layer 
of  imbricated  cells,  forming 
the  outer  lamina,  or  cortex , 
of  the  hair;  d,  more  bulky 
cells  containing  pigment;  e,  a 
mass  of  cells  in  the  axis  of 
the  hair,  loaded  with  pig¬ 
ment. 


b 


Fiber  of  Wool. 

a,  fiber  viewed  as  a  transparent  object;  6,  as  opaque. 

Hair-grass  {Air  a),  a  genus  of  grasses,  natives 
of  temperate  and  cold  climates.  The  tufted  hair- 
grass,  or  turfy  hair-grass  {A.  ccespitosa),  isabeauti- 
ful  grass  when  in  flower,  but  forms  coarse  tufts; 
has  very  rough  leaves. 

Hair- tail  (! Trichiurus ),  a  genus  of  acanthopter- 
ous  fishes,  which  have  been  classed  in  the  rib¬ 
bon-fish  family,  but  are  otherwise  allied  to  the 
mackerel,  tunny,  etc.,  and  arc  referred  to  the 
family  Scomberidce. 

Hajduk,  or  Haidtjck  (from  a  Hungarian  word 
meaning  drover,  cowherd),  is  the  name  for  the 
population  of  a  district  iu  the  eastern  part  of 
Hungary. 

Hajilij,  or  Bito-tree  {Balanites,  cegyptiaca),  a 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Amyridacece,  a  native  of 


Egypt  and  of  Central  Africa,  cultivated  for  its 
fruit,  a  drupe,  which  is  edible,  and  from  the  seeds 
of  which  a  fixed  oil  is  expressed,  called  zachun. 
So  much  is  this  tree  valued  in  Central  Africa  that 
there  is  a  common  proverb  to  the  effect  that  a 
milch  cow  and  a  bito-tree  are  the  same. 

Hake  {Merlucius),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  cod 
family  {Gadidce),  having  a  flattened  head,  an 


Hake  ( Merlucius  vulgaris). 

elongated  body,  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which  the  first 
is  short,  and  the  second  very  long,  one  very  long 
anal  fin,  aud  the  mouth  destitute  of  barbels.  One 
species,  the  common  hake  {M.  vulgaris),  is  found 
in  the  British  seas,  in  those  of  the  North  of  Europe, 
and  in  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  sometimes  3  or  4 
feet  in  length,  and  is  of  a  whitish  color,  grayish 
on  the  back.  It  is  a  very  voracious  fish,  devour¬ 
ing  great  numbers  of  herrings  and  pilchards;  hence 
it  is  frequently  called  the  herring  hake. 

Hakoda'di,  or  Hakodate,  the  most  northern 
of  the  opened  ports  of  Japan,  situated  in  41°  40' 
N.  latitude,  and  141°  15'  E.  longitude.  Pop., 
28,825. 

Halberd,  or  Halbert,  a  strong  wooden  shaft 
about  6  feet  in  length,  surmounted  by  an  instru- 


Aneient  Halberd  Heads. 


ment  much  resembling  a  bill-hook,  with  a  cross¬ 
piece  of  steel,  less  sharp,  for  the  purpose  of  push¬ 
ing;  one  end  of  this  cross-piece  was  turned  down 
as  a  hook,  for  use  in  tearing  down  works  against 
which  an  attack  is  made. 

Hal'cyon  Hays,  a  name  given  by  the  ancients 
to  the  seven  days  which  precede,  and  the  seven 
which  follow,  the  shortest  day,  on  account  of  a 
fable  that  during  this  time,  while  the  halcyon  bird 
or  king-fisher  was  breeding,  there  always  prevailed 
calms  at  sea.  From  this  the  phrase  ‘  ‘  halcyon 
days  ”  has  come  to  signify  times  of  peace  and  tran¬ 
quillity. 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  D.D.,  born  in  Bos¬ 
ton,  Mass.,  April  3,  1822,  has  been  pastor  of  a 
Unitarian  and  a  Congregational  Church,  and  has 
written  extensively  for  periodicals.  His  Man 
Without  a  Country  created  some  sensation  during 
the  war. 

Hale,  John  P.,  born  in  New  Hampshire  in 
1806,  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Democrat  in 
1843,  and  became  United  States  Senator  four 
years  later.  He  was  an  ardent  antislavery  man, 
and  in  1852  was  the  candidate  of  the  Liberty 
party  for  the  Presidency.  He  was  reelected  to  the 
Senate  in  1855  and  1859,  became  Minister  to  Spain 
in  1865,  and  died  in  1873. 

Hale,  Sir  Matthew,  English  judge,  born  in 
1609,  and  died  in  1676.  He  was  made  a  Judge 
under  Cromwell  in  1653,  and  acted  as  a  puisne 
Judge  of  the  Common  Pleas  till  Cromwell’s  death, 
but  refused  to  have  his  commission  renewed  by 
Richard  Cromwell,  and  then  entered  Parliament. 
On  the  Restoration  he  was  made  Chief  Baron  of 
the  Court  of  Exchequer,  and  after  eleven  years 


was  transferred  to  the  Chief-justiceship  of  the 
Court  of  Queen’s  Bench. 

Hal'ibut,  or  Holibut  {Hippoglossus  vulgaris), 
one  of  the  largest  kinds  of  flat-fish  ( Pleuronectidce ), 
in  form  more  elongated  than  the  flounder  or  the 
turbot,  the  eyes  on  the  right  side,  the  upper  sur¬ 
face  smooth,  and  covered  with  small,  soft  oval 
scales,  the  color  brown,  of  different  shades,  the 
under  surface  perfectly  smooth  and  white. 

Hal 'idon  Hill,  situated  about  a  mile  to  the 
northwest  of  the  town  of  Berwick,  in  the  fork 
formed  by  the  Whitadder  and  the  Tweed,  was 
the  scene  of  a  bloody  conflict  between  the  Eng¬ 
lish  and  Scots,  July  19,  1333. 

Halifax,  on  the  Roanoke  river,  is  the  county 
seat  of  Halifax  county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  500. 

Halifax,  on  the  Banister  river,  is  the  county 
seat  of  Halifax  county,  Ya.  Pop.,  621. 

Halifax,  the  capital  of  Nova  Scotia,  on  the 
southeast  or  outer  coast  of  the  peninsula,  in  lati¬ 
tude  44°  39'  N.,  and  longitude  63°  37'  W.  The 
harbor  of  Halifax  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world. 
Pop.,  36,100. 

Halifax,  a  thriving  market-town,  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  England,  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  Pop.  (1881),  73,633. 

Halio'tis,  a  kind  of  shell-fish,  abundant  on 
Southern  European  coasts,  and  around  the  Chan¬ 


nel  Islands.  It  contains  in  its  shell  a  quantity  of 
nacre,  and  is  used  for  food. 

Hall,  Charles  Francis  (1821-1871),  an  Arctic 
explorer,  born  at  Rochester,  N.  H.,  in  1821.  In 
1859  he  volunteered  to  go  iu  search  of  the  bones 
of  Franklin.  He  obtained  a  passage  iu  May, 
1860,  ou  board  a  New  London  whaling  vessel 
commanded  by  Captain  Buddington.  The  whaler 
having  become  blocked  up  with  ice,  Hall  took  up 
his  abode  with  the  Esquimaux,  and  lived  with  them 
two  years.  He  published  an  account  of  his  ex¬ 
periences  in  1864,  under  the  title  of  Arctic  Re¬ 
searches,  and  Life  Among  the  Esquimaux.  Hav¬ 
ing  learned  little  or  nothing,  however,  about  the 
fate  of  the  Franklin  Expedition,  he  returned  in 
1864,  remaining  among  the  Esquimaux  till  1869. 
Hall  was  in  command  of  the  Polaris  expedition, 
sent  out  by  the  United  States  in  1871,  while  Budd¬ 
ington  was  sailing  master.  On  June29,  1871,  the 
Polaris  left  New  York,  and  making  a  remarkably 
rapid  passage  up  Davis’  Straits  and  Smith’s  Sound, 
reached,  on  August  30th,  the  latitude  of  82°  16'  N. 
On  October  24th  Hall  returned  from  a  successful 
sledge  expedition  to  the  north,  and  was  suddenly 
seized  by  au  illness  of  which  he  died  on  Novem¬ 
ber  8  th. 

Hallam,  Henry,  philosophic  historian  and 
critic,  was  born  in  1777.  He  was  a  prolific  writer, 
having  given  to  the  world  in  succession:  View  of 
the  State  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  The 
Constitutional  History  of  England  from  the  Acces¬ 
sion  of  Henry  VII.  to  the  Death  of  George  7/.,  and 
Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe \  in  the 
15tA,  16 th,  and  17 th  Centuries.  He  died  in  1859. 

Halle,  a  city  of  Prussian  Saxony,  in  the  dis¬ 
trict  of  Merseburg,  known  as  Halle  an  der  Saale,  to 
distinguish  it  from  other  places  of  the  same  name. 
Pop.,  71,484. 

Halleck,  Fitz-Greene,  born  at  Guilford, 
Conn.,  July  8,  1790.  From  his  boyhood,  Hal¬ 
leck  wrote  verses;  but  in  1819  he  wrote  his  long¬ 
est  poem,  Fanny.  He  died  in  November,  1867. 


HALLECK. 


451 


HAMPTON. 


Halleck,  Henry  Wager,  was  born  in  1816,  at 
Western ville,  in  the  State  of  New  York.  He 
entered  West  Point  Military  Academy  in  1835, 
graduated  in  1839,  and  for  about  a  year  acted  as 
Assistant  Professor  of  Engineering.  During  the 
Mexican  War  he  served  on  the  lower  coast  of 
California,  and,  for  his  gallant  services,  was  bre¬ 
veted  Captain  in  1847,  From  1847  to  1849  he 
was  Secretary  of  State  for  California,  under  the 
military  government  of  Kearney,  Mason,  and 
Riley,  and  in  1849  was  a  member  of  the  Conven¬ 
tion*  to  form  and  draft  the  State  Constitution  of 
that  province.  He  became  Captain  of  Engineers 
in  1853,  left  the  service  in  1854,  and  for  some 
time  practiced  law  in  San  Francisco.  On  the 
outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  he  joined  the  North¬ 
ern  army  in  1861  as  Major-General,  and  in  Novem¬ 
ber  of  the  same  year  was  appointed  Commander 
of  the  Department  of  the  West.  In  1862  he 
became  General-in-Chief,  resigning  in  1864,  and 
becoming  Chief  of  the  Staff.  As  a  General  he 
was  able  and  successful.  He  died  in  January, 
1872. 

Hallettsville,  the  county  seat  of  Lavaca 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Halley,  Edmund,  a  celebrated  astronomer  and 
mathematician,  was  born  near  London,  England, 
in  1656,  and  died  in  1742.  He  was  the  discoverer 
of  Halley’s  comet. 

HalTowell,  a  city  in  Maine,  on  the  Liver  Ken¬ 
nebec,  two  miles  south  of  Augusta.  Pop.,  3,160. 

Halmalille  ( Berrya  amonilla),  a  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Tilincem ,  closely  allied  to  the  lime 
or  linden  tree  of  Europe,  and  much  resembling 
it,  but  larger;  a  native  of  Ceylon,  much  valued 
for  its  timber,  which  is  a  favorite  house-building 
wood  in  that  island. 

H  tl'  ogens.  This  term,  which  is  equivalent  to 
“  salt  producers,”  is  derived  from  the  Greek  word 
hnls,  salt,  and  includes  a  distinct  and  well-char¬ 
acterized  group  of  non-metallic  elements — viz., 
chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  and  fluorine,  which 
form  with  metals  compounds  analogous  to  sea- 
salt.  They  combine  directly  and  at  an  ordinary 
temperature  with  the  metals,  for  which  they 
exhibit  a  very  strong  affinity;  and  their  combi¬ 
nations  with  the  metals  present  those  properties 
which  pertain  to  salts.  No  elements  excepting 
these  four  possess  the  property  of  entering  into 
direct  combination  with  metals,  and  of  thus  form¬ 
ing  salt-like  compounds.  When  united  with  the 
same  metal,  the  salts  which  the  different  hal¬ 
ogens  form  are  isonxorphous;  thus,  for  example, 
the  chloride,  iodide,  bromide,  and  fluoride  of 
potassium  all  crystallize  in  cubes.  They  all  have 
an  affinity  for  hydrogen,  with  which  they  all  unite 
in  one  definite  proportion — viz.,  two  volumes  of 
the  gas  or  vapor  of  the  halogen  with  two  volumes 
of  hydrogen,  the  union  occurring  without  change 
of  bulk,  that  is  to  say,  being  represented  by  four 
volumes,  and  the  resulting  gaseous  compound 
being  intensely  acid,  and  very  soluble  in  water. 
The  acids  thus  formed  are  hydrochloric,  hydro- 
bromic,  hydriodic,  and  hydrofluoric  acids.  More¬ 
over,  all  these  halogens  (except  fluorine)  form 
powerful  acids  with  five  atoms  of  oxygen — viz., 
chloric,  bromic,  and  iodic  acids;  and  their  salts 
present  numerous  points  of  resemblance. 

Ha'loid  Salts.  These  are  the  compounds 
formed  by  the  union  of  one  of  the  halogens  with 
a  metal. 

Haloragia'ceie,  or  Halora'ge^e,  a  natural 
-order  of  exogenous  plants,  closely  allied  to  Ona- 
graced,  almost  all  aquatic,  or  growing  in  wet 
places.  The  stems  and  leaves  often  have  large  air- 
cavities. 

Halpine,  Charles  Graham,  better  known  as 
"Myles  O’Reilly,”  was  born  in  Ireland  in  1829, 
and  died  in  1869.  He  w-rote  some  fine  war  poems 
and  served  in  the  Union  army  during  the  Civil 
War,  rising  to  the  rank  of  Colonel. 

Ham,  according  to  the  wri’er  of  Genesis,  was 
one  of  the  three  sons  of  Noah,  and  the  brother  of 
Shem  and  Japheth.  The  w'ord  is  derived  by 
GeseniuS  from  the  Hebrew  hamam,  “to  be  hot.” 
His  descendants  are  represented  in  the  biblical 
narrative  as  peopling  the  southern  regions  of  the 
earth,  Arabia,  the  Persian  Gulf,  Egypt,  Ethiopia, 
Libya,  etc. 

Ham,  properly  the  hind  part  or  angle  of  the 
knee;  but  usually  applied  to  the  cured  thigh  of 
the  ox,  sheep,  or  hog,  more  especially  the  last. 


Ham-curing,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  bacon¬ 
curing,  is  performed  in  a  variety  of  methods. 
The  essential  operations  are  as  follows:  The 
meat  is  first  well  rubbed  with  salt,  and  either 
left  on  a  bench  that  the  brine  may  drain  away, 
or  covered  up  in  a  close  vessel;  after  a  few  days 
it  is  rubbed  again,  this  time  with  a  mixture  of 
salt  and  saltpeter,  to  which  sugar  is  sometimes 
added,  or  with  a  mixture  of  salt  and  sugar  alone. 
It  is  then  consigned  to  the  bench  or  tub  for  at 
least  a  week  longer,  after  which  it  is  generally 
ready  for  drying.  In  the  large  packing-houses, 
meats  are  immersed  in  a  brine  made  of  salt,  salt¬ 
peter  and  molasses  (or  sugar),  where  they  are  left 
sixty  to  ninety  days.  They  are  then  hung  up 
and  smoked  two  to  three  days  over  a  smothered 
fire  of  hickory  or  other  hardwood. 

Ham 'burg.  The  Republic  of,  is  the  largest 
of  the  free  cities  of  Germany,  and  is  in  1  ititude 
53°  32'  N.,  and  longitude  9  58'  E.,  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Elbe,  at  its  junction  with  the  small 
streams  of  the  Alster  and  the  Bille,  about  seventy- 
five  miles  from  the  German  Ocean.  It  became  a 
free  city  and  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  League, 
but  from  1806  to  1814  was  occupied  by  the  French, 
and  in  1813-14  was  besieged  by  the  Russians.  It 
is  the  commercial  emporium  of  Northern  Europe. 

Hamburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Ashley  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  747. 

Hamil'car  was  a  name  borne  by  several  dis¬ 
tinguished  Carthaginians,  the  most  celebrated  of 
whom  were — 1.  The  commander  of  the  Sicilian 
expedition,  480  b.c. — 2.  One  of  the  commanders 
of  a  Carthaginian  army,  defeated  by  Timoleon, 
the  Corinthian  general,  at  the  Crimissus,  339  b.c.; 
— 3.  (Surnamed  Rhodanus),  the  ambassador  to 
Alexander  the  Great,  after  the  fall  of  Tyre. — 4. 
The  Governor  of  Sicily,  317  b.c. — 5.  The  son  of 
Gisco,  who  succeeded  the  preceding,  and  carried 
on  military  operations  against  the  Syracusians 
and  other  states  with  great  success,  but  was  at 
length  taken  prisoner,  and  put  to  death. — 6.  A 
commander  during  the  first  Punic  War,  who  was 
successful  against  the  Romans  by  land  in  Sicily, 
but  was  afterward  defeated  in  a  sea-tiglit  off 
Ecnomus,  and  was  thereafter  recalled  to  Africa 
to  oppose  Regulus. — 7.  But  the  greatest  of  all  was 
Hamilcar,  surnamed  Barca,  or  Barak — i.e.,  light¬ 
ning.  While  young,  he  was  appointed  to  the 
command  of  the  Carthaginian  forces  in  Sicily,  in 
247  b.c.,  at  which  time  the  Romans  had  posses¬ 
sion  of  almost  all  the  island.  He  fought  for  years 
against  the  Romans  and  extended  the  Carthagin¬ 
ian  Empire  to  Spain,  where  he  was  killed  in  battle 
228  b.c.  He  was  the  father  of  Hannibal. 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  a  celebrated  states¬ 
man,  born  January,  1757,  in  the  West  Indian 
Island  of  Nevis.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu¬ 
tionary  War  he  obtained  a  commission  as  Captain 
of  Artillery,  gained  the  confidence  of  Washing¬ 
ton,  was  made  his  Aide-de-camp  in  1777,  and 
acquired  the  greatest  influence  with  him  as  his 
friend  and  adviser.  In  1780  he  married  a  daugh¬ 
ter  of  General  Schuyler.  In  1782  he  was  elected 
by  the  State  of  New  York  a  representative  at  the 
Continental  Congress;  in  1786  he  became  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  New  York  Legislature;  and  in  1787  a 
delegate  to  the  convention  for  revising  the 
Articles  of  Confederation.  He  became  the  first 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  when  the  new  Govern¬ 
ment  was  installed,  and  held  that  office  from 
September,  1789,  to  Jan.  31,  1795.  In  1798  he 
became  Inspector-General  of  the  Army,  with  rank 
of  Major-General.  On  the  death  of  Washington 
in  December,  1799,  he  was  given  full  command. 
In  1804  he  strongly  opposed  the  ambitious  pro¬ 
jects  of  Aaron  Burr,  and  the  consequence  was  a 
duel,  fought  at  Weehawken,  N.  Y.,  July  11. 
1804.  Hamilton  fell  mortally  wounded,  and  died 
the  next  day. 

Ham  'ilton,  a  city  of  Canada  in  the  Province 
of  Ontario,  is  at  the  west  end  of  Lake  Ontario 
forty-five  miles  from  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  and 
thirty -eight  from  Toronto.  Pop.,  35,961. 

Hamilton,  a  city  of  Ohio,  on  the  Great  Miami 
river,  twenty  miles  north  of  Cincinnati.  Pop. 
(1880),  14,000. 

Hamilton,  an  important  agricultural  and 
manufacturing  city,  the  county  seat  of  Butler 
county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  14,000. 

Hamilton,  the  county  seat  of  Hamilton  county, 

Tex.  Pop.,  900. 


Hamilton,  the  county  seat  of  Harris  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  500. 

Hamilton,  the  county  seat  of  Marion  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  100. 

Hamilton,  a  mining  town  and  the  county  seat 
of  White  Pine  county,  Nev.  Pop.,  203. 

Hamiltonian  System,  a  method  of  teaching 
languages,  so  called  from  the  inventor,  an  English 
merchant  of  the  name  of  James  Hamilton,  horn 
about  1769.  He  died  in  1831. 

Hamlin,  Hannibal,  born  in  Maine,  Aug.  27, 
1809.  He  served  in,  and  was  Speaker  of  the 
Lower  House  of  the  Maine  Legislature,  and  in 
1843  was  elected  to  Congress.  From  1848  to 
1857  he  was  United  States  Senator,  for  a  short 
time  Governor  of  Maine  (1857),  and  again  Sen¬ 
ator.  He  was  elected  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States  on  the  ticket  with  Lincoln  in  1860; 
in  1865  became  Collector  of  Customs  at  Boston, 
and  from  1869  to  1881  served  again  in  the  Senate. 
Later  he  became  Minister  to  Spain. 

Hamlin,  the  county  seat  of  Lincoln  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  200. 

Hammer-head,  or  Hammer-headed  Shark 
( Zijgmna  or  Sphyrna),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
great  family  of  sharks,  having  the  general  form 
and  characters  of  the  family,  but  distinguished 
from  all  other  fishes  by  the  extraordinary  form  of 
the  head,  which,  in  the  adults,  resembles  a  double¬ 
headed  hammer,  being  extended  on  both  sides  to 


Hammer- headed  Shark  (Zygoma  malleus} . 


a  considerable  length,  and  having  the  eyes  at  the 
ends  of  the  lateral  extensions.  The  mouth  is 
below  the  center  of  the  head.  The  hammer¬ 
headed  form  is  not  nearly  so  perfect  in  the  young 
as  in  the  adults.  It  is  supposed  to  be  intended 
for  enlargement  of  the  sphere  of  vision. 

Hammond,  William  Alexander,  was  born 
at  Annapolis,  Md.,  Aug,  28, 1828,  during  the  Civil 
War  was  Surgeon-General  of  the  army,  and  wrote 
extensively  upon  nervous  diseases  and  other 
medical  subjects. 

Hampden,  John,  a  celebrated  English  patriot, 
said  to  have  been  born  in  London  in  1594,  was  a 
cousin  of  Oliver  Cromwell.  He  opposed  Charles 
I.’s  claim  to  levy  ship-money,  and  took  the  field 
with  the  Parliamentary  army.  He  was  killed  in 
battle  at  Chalgrove  Field  in  1643. 

Hamp'shire,  Southamp  ton,  or  familiarly, 
Hants,  a  maritime  county  in  the  South  of  Eng¬ 
land,  is  bounded  on  the  w-est  by  Dorset  and 
Wilts,  on  the  north  by  Berks,  on  the  east  by  Sur¬ 
rey  and  Sussex,  and  on  the  south  by  the  English 
Channel.  The  county,  including  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  has  an  area  of  1,070,216  acres,  900,000 
of  which  are  estimated  to  be  under  culture.  Pop. 
(1881),  593,487. 

Hamp'ton,  a  small  village  on  the  Chesapeake 
Bay,  in  Virginia,  giving  its  name  to  Hampton 
Roads,  a  southerly  branch  of  Chesapeake  Bay, 
and  mouth  of  James  river,  one  of  the  best  har¬ 
bors  on  the  American  coast,  defended  by  Fortress 
Monroe.  These  roads  were  the  scene  of  impor¬ 
tant  events  in  the  American  Revolution,  the  War 
of  1812,  and  the  Civil  War  of  Secession,  espe¬ 
cially  of  the  first  naval  battle  between  iron-clad 
vessels,  the  Virginia  or  Merrimac  and  the  Moni¬ 
tor.  Pop.,  2,684. 

Hampton,  the  county  seat  of  Calhoun  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  150. 

Hampton,  the  county  seat  and  an  important 
agricultural  town  of  Franklin  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  1,715. 

Hampton,  the  county  seat  of  Hampton  county, 
S.  C.  Pop.,  225. 

Hampton,  Wade,  was  born  in  South  Carolina, 
March  28,  1818.  On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War  he  entered  the  Confederate  service,  wras 
wounded  at  Gettysburg,  became  a  Lieutenant- 
General,  and  commanded  in  South  Carolina  at  the 
time  General  Sherman  took  Columbia.  In  1876 
and  1878  he  was  elected  Governor  of  South  Caro- 


HAMSTER. 


452 


HANGING  GARDENS. 


lina,  and  since  1879  lias  represented  that  State  in 
the  United  States  Senate. 

Hamster  {Cncetus),  a  genus  of  rodent  quad¬ 
rupeds  of  the  family  Murulce,  resembling  the  true 
mice  and  rats  in  their  dentit  ion,  but  ha  ving  cheek- 
pouclies,  and  a  short,  hairy  tail.  The  common 
hamster  {Ur icetus  vulgaris)  is  a  native  of  the  North 
of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  abundant  in  many  parts 
of  Germany  and  Poland,  but  not  found  in  Britain, 
and  rare  to  the  west  of  the  Rhine.  It  is  of  vari¬ 
able  color,  although  generally  reddish-gray  above, 


Hamster  ( Cncetus  vulgaris). 


the  belly  black,  the  feet  white,  and  large  white 
spots  on  the  sides,  throat,  and  breast.  It  is  larger 
and  of  stouter  form  than  the  common  rat,  the  tail 
only  about  3  inches  long.  It  burrows  in  dry  soils, 
each  individual  making  a  burrow  for  itself. 

Hancock,  John,  was  born  at  Quincy,  Mass., 
Jan.  12,  1737.  In  1774  Hancock  was  President 
of  the  Provincial  Congress,  and  from  1775  to 
1777  of  the  General  Congressat  Philadelphia,  where 
he  was  the  first  to  sign  the  Declaration  of  Inde¬ 
pendence.  Returning  to  Massachusetts,  he  assisted 
in  framing  its  constitution,  and  in  1780  was 
chosen  first  Governor.  He  was  annually  elected  to 
this  dignity  till  1785,  and  again  from  1787  to  1793, 
sitting  as  an  ordinary  member  of  the  Legislature 
in  the  interval.  He  died  Oct.  8,  1793. 

Haucock,  Winfield  Scott,  was  born  in  Penn¬ 
sylvania,  in  1824,  graduated  from  West  Point  in 
1844,  and  served  as  Lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  War. 
He  was  appointed  Brigadier-General  of  volunteers 
in  1861,  fought  at  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg, 
and  commanded  a  corps  at  Gettysburg,  where  lie 
was  severely  wounded.  At  Spotsylvania,  May  12, 
1864,  he  captured  4,000  prisoners  and  many  can- 
non.  After  the  war  he  rose  to  be  Major-General 
(1866),  and  held  several  department  commands, 
the  last  being  that  of  the  Department  of  the  East, 
with  headquarters  at  New  York.  In  1880  he  was 
made  the  Democratic  nominee  for  the  Presidency, 
but  was  defeated  by  General  Garfield.  He  died 
Feb.  9,  1886. 

Haii'cliinol  ( Heimia  salicifolia),  a  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Lythacea,  with  lanceolate,  frequently 
ternate  leaves,  and  flowers  on  one-flowered  stalks. 
It  is  a  native  of  Mexico,  and  is  much  esteemed  as 
a  medicine  for  its  very  powerful  sudorific  and 
diuretic  properties.  It  is  highly  extolled  as  an 
antisyphilitic. 

Hand,  The.  The  genus  Homo,  or  man,  takes 
rank  in  the  classification  of  mammals  as  a  distinct 
order,  Bimana,  in  consequence  of  man  being  the 
only  animal  possessing  two  hands.  The  general 
plan  of  the  osseous  frame-work  of  the  upper  and 
lower  limb  is  very  similar.  The  humerus  corre¬ 
sponds  to  the  femur  or  thigh-bone;  the  lower  end 


1,  the  humerus;  2,  the  radius;  3,  the  ulna.  Beyond  the 
distal  ends  of  the  radius  and  ulna  come  the  carpal  bones, 
the  metacarpal  bones,  and  the  phalanges. 

of  the  humerus  is  connected  with  the  two  bones  of 
the  fore-arm,  the  radius  and  the  ulna,  which  corre¬ 
spond  with  the  two  bones  of  the  leg.  Then  come 
the  carpal  bones,  the  metacarpal  bones,  and  the 
phalanges,  just  as  we  have  tarsal  bones,  metatarsal 
bones,  and  phalanges  in  the  foot.  The  carpal 
bones  are  eight  in  number,  and  are  arranged  in  the 
wrist  in  two  rows.  The  first  or  upper  row  consists 
practically  of  three  bones,  the  fourth  being  re¬ 
garded  as  belonging  to  the  class  of  sesamoid  bones, 
and  the  second  row  of  four  bones.  As  we  com¬ 
monly  term  the  palm  the  front  of  the  hand,  the 


thumb  becomes  conventionally  the  outer,  and  the 
little-finger  the  inner  digit;  but  according  to  the 
rules  of  comparative  anatomy,  and  in  order  to 
compare  the  hand  and  foot,  we  ought  to  reverse 
these  terms.  The  outer  of  the  carpal  bones  of  the 


8 

«D 

«0 

0 


D  D  I 

n  n  5" 
U  D  □- 


0  □  D  Q" 


Diagram  of  the  bones  of  the  hand,  with  the  ends  of  the 
radius  and  ulna. 

1,  end  of  radius;  2,  end  of  ulna;  3,  scaphoid;  4,  semilunar; 
5,  cuneiform;  6,  pisiform;  7,  trapezium;  8,  trapezoid;  9, 
magnum;  10,  unciform;  11,  11,  metacarpal  bones;  12,  12, 
first  row  of  phalanges;  13,  13,  second  row;  14,  14,  third 
row;  i,  thumb;  xr,  forefinger,  etc.,  v,  little-finger. 

first  row  supports  the  bones  of  the  thumb  and  fore¬ 
finger,  and  constitutes  with  them  the  outer  divis¬ 
ion  of  the  hand.  The  inner  of  the  carpal  bones 
bears  the  little  and  the  next  (the  ring)  finger,  and 
constitutes  with  them  the  inner  division  of  the 
hand,  while  the  middle  one  bears  the  middle- 
finger,  and  belongs  to  the  middle  division  of 
the  hand.  The  two  outer  bones  are  connected 
with  the  radius,  while  the  inner  bone  is  connected 
(indirectly,  by  a  thick  ligament)  with  the  ulna. 
The  movements  of  pro- 
nation  and  supination  are 
so  important  to  the  use¬ 
fulness  of  the  hand,  that 
we  must  notice  the  three 
muscles  by  which  they 
are  chiefly  effected.  One 
of  the  three  muscles 
passes  from  a  projecting 
process  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  arm-bone,  at  its 
lower  end,  to  the  outer 
edge  of  the  middle  of  the 
radius.  Its  contraction 
causes  the  radius  to  roll 
over,  or  in  front  of,  the 
ulna.  It  thus  pronates . 
the  hand,  and  is  called  a 
pronator  muscle.  An¬ 
other  muscle  passes  from 
a  projecting  process  on 
the  outer  side  of  the  Fi  l 

humerus  to  the  inner  edge  . 

r  ..  ,.  .  ?  Fig.  1. — The  upper  limb, 

of  the  radius  near  its  with  the  fore  -arm  a  n  d 
upper  part.  It  runs  there-  hand  in  the  state  of  supi- 

fore  in  an  opposite  direc-  tiafoon. 

,.  .  ,,  f  r  ,  A,  the  long  supinator  mus- 

tion  to  the  former  muscle,  cie  &  1 

and  produces  an  opposit  e  Fig.  2. -The  same  in  a  state 

effect,  rolling  the  radius  of  pronation. 

and  the  hand  back  into  B^the  short  supinator  mus- 

the  position  of  supination.  In  both  figures,  a  plumb- 
Hence  it  is  called  asupi-  line  from  the  outer  con- 

nntor  muscle  The  third  Jyie  of  the  humerus 
nator  muscie.  inc  uiiui  found  to  traverse  the 

is  a  very  powerful  muscle,  lower  end  of  the  ulna  and 
termed  the  biceps,  which  the  ring-finger, 
not  only  bends  the  elbow  (From  Humphry,  Op.  cit.) 
but  from  the  mode  in  which  its  tendon  is  in¬ 
serted  into  the  inner  side  of  the  radius,  also 
rotates  the  radius  so  as  to  supinate  the  hand;  and 
it  gives  great  power  to  that  movement.  The 
wrist  and  hand  are  bent  forward  or  flexed  upon 
the  fore-arm  by  three  muscles  which  pass  down¬ 
ward  from  the  inner  condyle  or  expanded  end  of 
the  humerus,  and  are  termed  the  radial  flexoi,  the 
ulnar  flexor,  and  the  long  palmar  muscles.  The 
first  two  of  these  muscles  are  inserted  into  wrist- 
bones  on  the  radial  and  ulnar  sides  respectively, 
while  the  third  expands  into  a  fan-like  fascia  or 
membrane  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  thus 
serves  both  to  support  the  skin  of  the  palm  and  to 
protect  the  nerves  and  vessels  which  lie  below  it. 
Beneath  the  palmar  fascia  lie  two  sets  of  flexor 
muscles  of  the  fingers,  and  they  present  so  beau¬ 
tiful  a  mechanical  arrangement  as  to  merit  special 
notice.  The  superficial  or  perforated  flexor  muscle 
passes  down  the  front  of  the  fore  arm  and  divides 
into  four  tendons,  which  become  apparent  after 
the  removal  of  the  palmar  fascia,  and  are  inserted 
into  the  second  phalanges  of  the  fingers  each  ten¬ 


don  splitting  at  its  termination,  to  give  passage  to 
the  similar  tendons  of  the  deep  or  perforating 


The  superficial  muscles 
of  the  fore  arm.  1,  the 
lower  part  of  the  biceps; 
2.  its  tendon,  a  little 
above  its  insertion  into 
the  radius;  5,  the  radial 
flexor  of  the  wrist;  6,  the 
long  palmar  muscle, 
spreading  out  (at  9)  into 
the  palmar  fascia;  8,  the 
ulnar  flexor  of  the  wrist; 
13,  the  long  supinator 
muscle. 

flexor  muscle,  which  passes  from  the  upper  part 
of  the  ulna  to  be  inserted  into  the  last  phalanx  of 
each  finger.  These  flexor  muscles  are  antagonized 
by  the  common  extensor  muscle  of  the  fingers, 
which,  like  the  flexors,  divides  into  four  tendons, 
one  for  each  finger.  Besides  these,  there  is  a 
special  extensor  of  the  index  finger,  a  series  of 
muscles  forming  the  bail  of  the  thumb;  which 
move  that  organ  in  almost  every  direction,  and 
various  small  slips  giving  lateral  and  other  move¬ 
ments  to  the  fingers. 

Handel,  George  Frederick,  one  of  the  great¬ 
est  of  musical  composers  and  musicians,  was 
born  at  Halle,  Upper  Saxony,  Feb.  23,  1685.  His 
principal  works  are  Rodrigo,  Agrippina,  Rinaldo. 
Pastor  Fido,  Theseus,  Amadis  da  Gaula,  Acts  and 
Galatea,  Esther,  Deborah,  Alexander's  Feast,  Saul, 
Israel  in  Egypt,  Li  Allegro  e  Penseroso ,  Messiah, 
and  Samson.  He  died  April  13,  1759. 

Hand-tree  ( Gbeirostemon  plalanoides),  a  large 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Sterculiaceie,  which  re¬ 
ceives  its  name  from  the  peculiar  appearance  of 
its  flowers.  The  tree  has  been  found  in  great 
abundance  in  Guatemala  It  is  a  lofty  tree  with 
a  thick  trunk,  a  habit  similar  to  that  of  a  plane, 
and  broad,  maple-like  leaves. 

Hands,  Imposition  of.  In  the  early  church, 
the  rite  of  imposition  of  hands  was  employed  in 
the  receiving  of  catechumens  and  the  reconcilia¬ 
tion  of  penitents.  The  right  of  imposition  of 
hands  is  used  both  by  the  Episcopalian  and 
Presbyterian  churches  in  the  ordination  of  minis¬ 
ters.  It  also  forms  part  of  the  ceremony  of  con¬ 
firmation  in  the  Anglican  and  in  the  Lutheran 
Church. 

Hang-chow-foo,  the  capital  of  the  Province  of 
Che-keang,  in  China,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Tsien  tang,  is  situated  at  the  commencement  of 
the  Grand  Canal  in  latitude  30°  18'  N.,  longitude 
120°  15' E.  Pop.,  800,000. 

Hanging  Gardens.  The  hanging  gardens  of 
Babylon  were  anciently  reckoned  among  the 
wonders  of  the  world.  Their  construction  is 
variously  ascribed  to  Queen  Semiramis,  and  to 
Nebuchadnezzar — seven  centuries  later,  but  still 
more  than  five  centuries  b.c. — who  is  said  to  have 


To  show  the  perforation 
of  one  of  the  tendons 
of  the  superficial  flexor 
muscle  (which  is  inserted 
into  the  second  phalanx), 
in  order  to  allow  the 
corresponding  tendon  of 
the  deep  flexor  to  pass 
onward  to  be  inserted 
in  the  last  phalanx. 


HANKOW. 


453 


IIARPOCEATES. 


made  them  for  the  gratification  of  his  Median 
queen.  They  are  said  to  have  formed  a  square, 
with  an  area  of  nearly  four  acres;  but  rising  in 
terraces  curiously  constructed  with  stone  pillars, 
across  which  were  placed  stones,  covered  with 
reeds  and  bitumen,  and  again  with  bricks  united 
by  cement;  above  these  sheets  of  lead,  to  pre¬ 
vent  moisture  from  flowing  down,  and  finally  a 
sufficient  layer  of  earth;  the  summit  being  ele¬ 
vated  300  feet  above  the  base,  so  that  at  a  dis¬ 
tance  the  whole  presented  the  appearance  of  a 
pyramidal  wooded  hill.  There  was  a  large  reser¬ 
voir  at  the  summit,  which  was  filled  with  water 
by  pumping  from  the  Euphrates,  for  the  irriga¬ 
tion  of  the  gardens,  and  the  supply  of  their 
numerous  fountains.  Fountains  and  banqueting 
rooms  were  distributed  throughout  the  numerous 
terraces;  groves  and  avenues  of  trees,  as  well  as 
parterres  of  flowers,  diversified  the  scene. 

Hankow',  in  latitude  about  30°30/N.,  and 
longitude  114°  E.,  a  port  of  China,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Han  river  with  the  Yang-tze-kiang,  600 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Pop.,  500,000  to  1,000,000. 

Hau'nibal.  The  greatest  of  all  the  Hannibals 
was  the  son  of  Hamilcar  Barca.  He  was  born  in 
247  b.c.  When  Hasdrubal  was  assassinated,  the 
Carthaginian  army  elected  him  Commander-in- 
Cliief,  an  appointment  which  the  authorities 
at  Carthage  ratified.  Having  taken  measures 
for  the  defense  of  Africa  and  Spain,  he  started 
from  New  Carthage  against  Rome  in  218  B.c., 
with  90,000  foot  and  12,000  horse.  The  passage 
of  the  Alps  he  effected  in  fifteen  days,  in  spite  of 
the  attacks  of  the  mountain  tribes,  the  snows, 
storms,  and  other  difficulties.  Scipio,  having  re¬ 
turned  from  Massilia,  took  the  command  of  the 
Roman  army  in  the  North  of  Italy,  and  first  met 
Hannibal  on  the  plain  near  the  River  Ticinus. 
The  Romans  were  routed,  and  retreated  across 
the  Po.  The  armies  again  met  at  the  Trebia, 
with  a  like  result,  though  the  Romans,  who  had 
received  reinforcements,  were  much  more  numer¬ 
ous.  These  battles  were  fought  in  218  b.c.  He 
wintered  at  Cannae,  and  in  216  b.c.  almost  anni¬ 
hilated  a  Roman  army  of  90,000  men  under 
Terentius  Varro  and  hEmilius  Paulus.  About 
50,000  are  said  to  have  fallen,  including  iEmilius 
Paulus,  and  a  host  of  Roman  Knights,  Senators, 
and  other  distinguished  persons.  Here  Hannibal 
committed,  perhaps,  the  greatest  military  error  of 
his  life,  in  not  marching  direct  to  Rome.  At 
length,  after  having  maintained  himself  in  Italy 
for  upward  of  fifteen  years,  he  was  recalled  to 
Africa,  to  defend  his  country  against  Scipio;  but 
was  defeated  by  Scipio,  near  Zama,  with  a  loss  of 
20,000  men.  Peace  was  concluded  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  year,  (201  b.c.)  Hannibal  committed  suicide 
by  poison  to  avoid  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans. 

Hannibal,  a  city  in  Missouri,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Mississippi,  132  miles  above  St.  Louis. 
Pop.  (1880),  11,074. 

Hau'over,  a  town  in  New  Hampshire,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Connecticut  river,  fifty-two  miles 
northwest  from  Concord.  It  is  the  seat  of  Dart¬ 
mouth  College,  founded  by  Lord  Dartmouth  for 
the  education  of  the  Indian  youth,  and  a  medical 
college.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Hanover,  formerly  a  kingdom  of  Northern 
Germany,  but  since  1866  incorporated  with  Prus¬ 
sia.  Hanover  extends  from  51°  18'  to  53°  52'  N. 
latitude,  and  from  6°  43'  to  11°  35'  E.  longitude. 
It  is  bounded  north  by  the  German  Ocean  and 
the  River  Elbe,  east  by  Mecklenburg  and  Prus¬ 
sian  Saxony,  south  chiefly  by  Westphalia  and 
Hesse  Cassel,  and  west  by  Holland.  Area  of  the 
Prussian  Province  of  Hanover,  14,800  square 
miles;  pop.  (1880),  2,120,168. 

Hanover,  the  county  seat  of  Hanover  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  150. 

Hanover  (Ger.  Ilanno'ver),  formerly  capital  of 
the  kingdom,  now  chief  town  of  the  Province  of 
Hanover,  is  situated  on  a  plain  lying  on  both 
banks  of  the  Leine,  about  100  miles  south-south¬ 
west  of  Hamburg.  Pop.,  123,000. 

Hanseat'ic  League,  The,  or  the  Hansa,  was 
a  trade-union  established  in  the  thirteenth  century 
by  certain  cities  of  Northern  Germany,  for  their 
mutual  safety,  and  for  the  protection  of  their 
trade.  The  capitals  of  the  respective  circles  into 
which  the  league  was  divided  were  Liibeck, 
Cologne,  Brunswick,  and  Danzig. 


Hanunian,  or  HanAman,  a  monkey  represented 
in  the  Hindu  legends  as  the  strenuous  friend  and 
ally  of  Vishnu,  when  the  latter,  in  his  incarnation 
as  Rama,  made  his  expedition  to  Ceylon,  in  order 
to  recover  his  wife  Sit;!,  carried  off  by  the  giant 
Ravana. 

Harald  I.  (surnamed  IIaarfager,  or  beauti¬ 
ful-haired),  King  of  Norway  (863-930),  was  a 
descendant  of  the  ancient  race  of  the  Ynglings  in 
Sweden,  and  the  son  of  Halfdan  Svarte,  a  power¬ 
ful  jarl  in  Norway,  who  is  noted  as  the  earliest 
lawgiver  of  his  country.  He  conquered  Norway, 
and  died  in  933. 

Harbor  Springs,  the  county  seat  of  Emmet 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Hardee,  William  J.,  born  in  Savannah,  Ga., 
in  1818,  graduated  at  West  Point,  served  in  the 
Mexican  War,  and  became  Inspector  at  West 
Point.  In  January,  1861,  he  resigned  to  enter  the 
Confederate  service.  He  held  commands  at 
Savannah  and  Charleston,  and  surrendered  in 
North  Carolina.  He  died  Nov.  6,  1873.  General 
Hardee  compiled  from  the  French  a  volume  of 
Tactics,  which  was  much  used,  but  is  now  super¬ 
seded  by  Upton’s  system. 

Hardin,  the  county  seat  of  Calhoun  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  400. 

Hardin,  the  county  seat  of  Hardin  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  100. 

Hardinsburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Brecken- 
ridge  county,  Ky.  Pop. ,  700. 

Hare,  the  common  name  of  all  the  species,  ex¬ 
cepting  the  rabbit,  of  Leporidm,  a  family  of 
rodent  mammals,  distinguished  from  the  rest  of 
that  order  by  the  possession  of  four  incisor  teeth 
in  the  upper  jaw,  two  in  front,  which  are  well 
developed  and  longitudinally  grooved,  and  two 
exceedingly  small  ones  behind.  They  form  a 


Common  hare  ( Lepus  limidus). 


single  genus  (T.epux),  containing  from  thirty-five 
to  forty  species.  They  occur  in  all  the  great 
zoological  regions  of  the  world.  The  so-called 
jack-rabbit  of  the  Western  plains  is  a  type  of  the 
American  hare. 

Harebell,  or  Bluebell  ( Campanula  rotun- 
difolia),  the  most  com¬ 
mon  of  all  the  species 
of  bellflower.  It  is 
common  in  most  parts 
of  Europe,  and  even  to 
the  extreme  north. 

Hare’s-ear  ( Bupleu - 
rum),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order 
Umbdliferce,  having 
compound  umbels  of 
yellow  flowers,  and 
generally  simple 
leaves.  The  species  of 
hare’s-ear  are  numer- 
ous,  and  are  natives  of 
temperate  climates  in 
most  parts  of  the 
world. 

Hargreaves,  James, 
the  inventor  of  the 
carding-maehine,  and 
the  spinning-jenny, 
was  an  artisan  ait  Stan- 
hill,  near  Blackburn, 

England,  and  died  in  Harebell  (Campanula  rotundi- 
1778.  folia). 

Harlan,  John  Marshall,  one  of  the  Associate 
Justices  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  was 


born  in  Kentucky,  June  1.  1833,  served  in  the 
Union  army  during  the  Civil  War,  was  elected 
Attorney-General  of  Kentucky  in  1863,  and  in 
1877  was  appointed  to  the  Supreme  Bench. 

Harlan,  the  county  seat  of  Harlan  county,  Ky. 
Pop.,  76. 

Harlan,  a  prosperous  agricultural  town,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Shelby  county,  Iowa.  Pop. , 
2,300. 

Harlequin  Duck  (Clangula  histrionica),  a  spe¬ 
cies  of  garrot,  which  receives  its  name  from 
its  variegated  markings,  chiefly  white,  gray,  and 


Harlequin  Duck,  Male  and  Female  (Clangula 
histrionica). 


black.  It  inhabits  the  Arctic  regions,  where  it  is 
found  not  only  on  the  sea,  but  on  lakes  and  rivers. 
In  America,  it  is  plentiful  in  winter  as  far  south 
as  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  Its  whole  length  is  about 
17  inches. 

Har'inaline  and  Harmine  are  vegetable  bases 
occurring  in  the  husk  of  the  seeds  of  the  Peganum 
harmala,  or  Syrian  rue,  a  plant  that  grows  abun¬ 
dantly  in  the  steppes  of  Southern  Russia,  and 
whose  seeds  are  used  in  dyeing  silk,  to  which 
they  impart  various  shades  of  red. 

Harmon'ics,  the  accessory,  or  concomitant 
sounds  which  are  produced  by  a  fundamental 
musical  sound,  either  naturally,  or  by  a  division 
into  aliquot  parts.  Every  musical  sound,  al¬ 
though  to  the  ordinary  ear  it  appears  to  be  only 
one  sound,  will,  on  close  observation,  be  perceived 
to  consist  of  a  principal  or  fundamental  sound, 
accompanied  by  other  feeble  acute  sounds  in  per¬ 
fect  harmony. 

Harold  I.  (surnamed  Harefoot,  probably  on 
account  of  his  swiftness  in  running),  the  younger 
son  of  Canute,  crowned  King  of  England  in  1037, 
and  died  March  17,  1040. 

Harold  II.,  was  the  second  son  of  the  power- 
fid  Godwin,  Earl  of  Kent,  and  was  born  at  the 
close  of  the  tenth  century.  On  the  death  of  Ed¬ 
ward  the  Confessor,  William,  Duke  of  Normandy 
landed  in  England  to  enforce  his  claim  to  the 
throne;  the  contending  armies  of  Harold  (who  had 
usurped  the  throne)  and  William  met  at  Senlac, 
about  nine  miles  from  Hastings,  where  Harold’s 
death  (Oct.  14, 1066)  made  the  Duke  of  Normandy 
undisputed  ruler  of  England. 

Haroun-al-Raschid,bom  in  766,  died  in  809,  was 
the  chief  Calif  of  the  Abbaside  dynasty,  and  the 
hero  of  many  of  the  tales  contained  in  the  Arabian 
Nights. 

Harper’s  Ferry,  a  town  in  Jefferson  county, 
Va.,  on  the  Potomac  river.  It  is  the  site  of  a 
Government  foundry,  armory,  and  arsenal.  It  is 
famous  as  the  scene  of  John  Brown’s  raid  on  the 
arsenal  in  1859.  and  of  an  important  battle  on 
Sept.  12,  1862,  between  Union  troops  under 
Colonel  Miles,  and  Confederate  troops  under 
Stonewall  Jackson  and  A.  P.  Hill.  Present  pop., 
about  2,500. 

Harper,  James,  born  in  Long  Island,  in  1795, 
died  in  1869,  was  the  founder  of  the  great  New 
York  publishing  house  of  Harper  &  Brothers, 
from  which  are  issued  Harpers’  Magazine,  Har¬ 
pers’  Weekly,  Harpers’  Bazaar,  and  Harpers' 
Toung  People. 

Harpoc'rates,  the  name  given  by  Greek 
writers  to  the  younger  Horns,  the  hieroglyph ical 
inscriptions  calling  him  liar  pa  khrut,  “  Ilorus 
the  child,”  the  son  of  Isis. 


HARP-SHELL. 


454 


IIARTZ  MOUNTAINS. 


Harp-sliell  ( Ilarpn ),  a  genus  of  gasteropodous 
mollusks  of  the 
whelk  family 
( Buccinidce ),  hav¬ 
ing  the  last  whorl 
of  the  shell  very 
large,  the  shell 
ribbed  longitudi¬ 
nally,  the  foot  of 
the  animal  very 
large.  The  spe¬ 
cies,  which  are  not 
very  numerous, 
are  found  in  the  Harp-shell, 

seas  of  warm  climates,  and  particularly  at  the 
Mauritius. 

Harpy,  a  fabulous  creature  in  Greek  myth¬ 
ology,  considered  as  a  minister  of  vn 
the  vengeance  of  the  gods.  A  harpy 
in  heraldry  is  represented  as  a  vult¬ 
ure,  with  the  head  and  breast  of  a 
woman.  The  name  harpy  has  also 
been  given  in  modern  times  to  some 
of  the  Falconulie,  as  the  marsh  har-  Haipy. 
rier  of  Europe,  and  the  harpy  or  harpy  eagle  of 


Harpy  Eagle  (Harpyici  destructor) . 

From  a  specimen  in  the  Royal  Zoological  Gardens, 
Regent’s  Park,  1851. 


South  America  {Harpyia,  destructor  or  Thrasaetus 
harpyia),  an  inhabitant  of  the  great  tropical 
forests,  where  it  preys  chiefly  on  quadrupeds.  It 
is  larger  than  the  common  eagle,  is  short-winged 
and  short-legged,  and  the  feathers  on  top  of  the 
head  are  capable  of  being  erected  into  a  great 
ruff  and  crest. 

Har'  rier,  a  variety  of  dog  used  for  hare-liunt- 
ing,  whence  its  name ;  probably  of  the  same 
origin  with  the  foxhound,  from  which  it  differs 


narrier. 


chiefly  in  its  smaller  size  —  or  perhaps  partly 
derived  from  the  beagle.  It  does  not  exceed 
eighteen  inches  in  height  at  the  shoulder. 

Harrier  (Circus),  a  genus  of  Falconidce,  allied 
to  buzzards,  but  differing  from  them  in  the  more 
slender  form  of  the  body,  longer  and  more  slen¬ 


der  legs,  longer  wings  and  tail,  and  in  having  the 


feathers  around  the  eyes  placed  in  a  radiating 
manner. 

Harri-kari  (rather  Hara-kiri,  belly-cut,  also 
called  happy  despatch),  a  term  applied  to  the 
curious  Japanese  system  of  official  suicide,  obso¬ 
lete  since  1868.  All  military  men,  and  persons 
holding  civil  offices  under  the  Government,  were 
held  bound,  when  they  had  been  convicted  of 
any  offense,  to  rip  themselves  up.  This  they 
performed  by  two  gashes,  in  the  form  of  a  cross. 
Japanese  duels  were  carried  out  in  a  similar  fash¬ 
ion,  and  the  man  who  declined  to  disembowel 
himself,  was  held  infamous. 

Har  ris,  Joel  Chandler,  born  in  Georgia, 
Dec.  9,  1848,  a  successful  writer  of  negro  folk¬ 
lore,  of  which  his  Uncle  liemus  is  a  good  example. 

Har'risburg,  the  capital  of  Pennsylvania,  is 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Susquehanna 
river,  107  miles  west-northwest  of  Philadelphia. 
It  was  settled  in  1733  by  John  Harris,  an  Eng¬ 
lishman,  under  a  grant  from  the  Penns,  the  orig¬ 
inal  European  settlers  of  Pennsylvania.  Pop., 
30,762. 

Harrisburg,  the  county  seat  of  Poinsett  county. 
Ark.  Pop.,  730. 

Harrisburgh,  a  well  built,  flourishing  agri¬ 
cultural  town,  and  the  county  seat  of  Saline 
county,  111.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  born  at  Berkeley,  Va., 
about  1740;  signed  the  Declaration  of  Independ¬ 
ence;  from  17»2  to  1784  was  Governor  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  died  in  1791.  He  was  the  father  of 
President  Wm.  II.  Harrison. 

Harrison,  Benjamin,  President  of  the  United 
States,  was  born  at  North  Bend,  Ohio,  Aug.  20, 
1833.  He  is  the  great-grandson  of  the  preceding 
and  grandson  of  President  W.  H.  Harrison.  He 
practiced  law  in  Indianapolis,  entered  the  volun¬ 
teer  service,  and  rose  to  be  Brigadier-General. 
In  1876  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for 
Governor  of  Indiana,  and  in  1880  became  United 
States  Senator.  In  1888  he  was  elected  President 
by  a  majority  of  sixty -five  electoral  votes. 

Harrison,  Thomas,  a  Parliamentary  general 
of  the  English  Civil  War,  and  one  of  the  judges 
who  condemned  Charles  I.  He  was  executed  at 
the  Restoration  in  1660. 

Harrison,  William  Henry,  ninth  President 
of  the  United  States,  was  born  Feb.  9,  1773,  in 
Virginia.  He  joined  in  1792,  as  Ensign,  the  army 
which  Wayne  was  leading  against  the  north¬ 
western  Indians.  He  left  the  army  in  1797.  In 
1801,  he  became  Governor  of  Indiana.  In  the 
war  against  the  English  in  Canada,  Harrison,  as 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  American  army, 
showed  great  military  talent.  He  defeated  the 
Indians  in  an  important  battle  at  Tippecanoe, 
Ind.;  pursued  the  British  invaders  into  Canada, 
where,  on  Oct.  5,  1813,  he  totally  routed  them  in 
the  Battle  of  Thames.  In  1814  he  resigned  his 
commission.  In  1816  he  was  elected  to  Congress, 
and  in  1824  became  a  member  of  the  Senate.  In 
1828  he  went  as  Ambassador  to  Colombia,  but 
was  recalled  in  1829,  and  for  twelve  years  was 
clerk  of  a  county  court  in  Ohio.  The  Whig  party 
tried  in  vain  to  make  him  President  of  the  United 
States  in  1836,  but  succeeded  in  1840.  He  died 
a  month  after  his  inauguration,  in  April,  1841. 

Harrison,  the  county  seat  of  Boone  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  800. 


Harrison,  the  county  seat  of  Clare  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  700. 

Harrison,  a  town  of  Hudson  county,  N.  J. 
Pop.,  6,806. 

Harrisonburg,  the  county  seat  of  Rocking¬ 
ham  county,  Va.,  is  on  the  south  fork  of  the 
Shenandoah  river,  and  is  an  old  and  wealthy 
towrn.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Harrisonburgh,  the  capital  of  Catahoula  Par¬ 
ish,  La.,  is  on  the  Washita  river.  Pop.,  350. 

Harrisonville,  an  important  railroad  and  com¬ 
mercial  center,  .and  the  county  seat  of  Cass  county. 
Mo.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Harrisville,  the  county  seat  of  Alcona,  Mich. 
Pop.,  549. 

Harrodsburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Mercer 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Hart,  the  county  seat  of  Oceana  county,  Mich. 
Pop.,  600. 

Harte,  Francis  Bret,  was  born  in  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  Aug.  25,  1839.  He  has  gained  fame  by 
his  sketches  of  Western  mining  life,  and  has  writ¬ 
ten  extensively  in  this  line.  He  was  appointed 
United  States  Consul  at  Crefeld  in  1878;  and  at 
Glasgow  in  1880.  He  has  been  a  frequent  con¬ 
tributor  to  the  Atlantic  Monthly. 

Hart'ford,  a  city  of  Connecticut,  and  capital 
of  the  State,  is  on  the  Connecticut  river,  fifty  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  100  miles  northeast  of  New 
York.  It  was  the  seat  of  the  Hartford  Conven¬ 
tion.  Pop.,  42,015. 

Hartford,  the  county  seat  of  Ohio  county,  Ky. 
Pop.,  1,000. 

Hartford  City,  the  county  seat  of  Blackford 
county,  Ind.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Hartford  Convention, The,  was  an  assemblage 
of  delegates  from  the  New  England  States,  at 
Hartford,  Conn.,  Dec.  15,  1814.  It  sat  twenty 
days  with  closed  doors,  and  as  it  was  supposed 
to  be  of  a  treasonable  character,  it  was  watched 
by  a  military  officer  of  the  Government.  The 
convention,  at  rising,  proposed  certain  amend¬ 
ments  to  the  Constitution;  but  though  no  treason¬ 
able  act  was  committed,  and  no  treasonable 
intention  proved,  the  Federalist  party  never 
recovered  from  the  odium  of  its  opposition  to 
the  Government,  and  ‘  ‘  Hartford  Convention  Fed¬ 
eralist”  was  long  a  term  of  reproach. 

Hartshorn,  the  term  given  in  Pharmacy  to 
spirits  ammonia,  because  the  ancient  source  of 
supply  was  principally  from  horns  of  ihe  hart. 

Hart’s-tongue  ( Scolopendrium ),  a  genus  of 
ferns,  of  which  one  species,  S.  vulgare,  is  found 


llart’s-tongue  (Scolopendrium  vulgare). 
a,  sporangium,  or  spore-capsule;  l>,  the  same,  opened, 
showing  its  elastic  ring. 

on  the  continent  of  Europe  and  in  North  America. 

Hartsville,  the  county  seat  of  Trousdale 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  604. 

Hai'tville,  the  county  seat  of  Wright  county. 
Mo.  Pop.,  459. 

Hartz  Mountains,  a  broad  mountain-range  in 
the  North  of  Germany,  extends  east-southeast 
from  Goslar  and  Osterode  in  Hanover  to  Hett- 
stadt  and  Mansfield  in  Prussian  Saxony.  The 
highest  peak  of  the  range  is  the  Brocken.  The 
Hartz  Mountains  are  exceedingly  rich  in  metals 
and  minerals. 


HARVARD  COLLEGE. 


455 


IIAY. 


Harvard  College,  the  oldest  college  in  the 
United  States,  often  termed  a  university,  was 
founded  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  three  miles 
from  Boston,  in  1636.  In  1639,  this  “sclioale” 
was  named  Harvard  College,  in  honor  of  the  Rev. 
John  Harvard.  The  first  president  of  Harvard 
was  the  Rev.  Henry  Dunster,  1640.  The  govern¬ 
ment  is  vested  in  the  president,  five  fellows,  and 
treasurer,  with  a  board  of  overseers,  elected  by 
and  from  among  the  alumni  of  the  university. 
Connected  with  the  college  are  seven  professional 
schools — law,  theology,  medicine,  science,  min¬ 
ing,  dentistry,  and  agriculture.  There  are  about 
200  professors  and  tutors,  1,700  students,  and 
libraries  of  260,000  volumes.  To  Harvard,  Car¬ 
lyle  left  by  will  all  his  books  used  in  writing 
Cromwell  and  Frederick. 

Harvey,  William,  the  discoverer  of  the  cir¬ 
culation  of  the  blood,  was  born  at  Folkestone, 
England,  April  1,  1578,  and  died  in  1657. 

Hashish'  is  the  Oriental  name  of  the  plant 
(or  rather  of  the  tops  and  tender  parts  of  the 
plant)  which  is  scientifically  known  as  Cannabis 
indica,  or  popularly  Indian  hemp.  Various 
preparations  of  the  plant  are  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  the  desired  intoxication. 
A  favorite  mode  of  extracting  its  active  princi¬ 
ple  is  by  boiling  the  tops  and  flowers  with  water, 
to  which  butter  or  oil  has  been  added,  evaporat¬ 
ing,  and  thus  forming  an  oleaginous  solution  or 
fatty  extract.  This  fatty  extract  is  frequently 
mixed  with  other  substances  which  are  reputed  to 
possess  aphrodisiac  properties,  and  is  taken  in  the 
form  of  electuary,  confection,  or  pastil. 

Haskell,  the  county «seat  of  Haskell  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  350. 

Hassan-Ben-Sabali,  the  “Old  Man  of  the 
Mountain”  of  European  story,  was  founder  of  the 
sect  of  the  Assassins,  likewise  denominated  Has- 
sanis  or  Ismanilians. 

Hastings,  a  growing  town  of  Adams  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  8,000. 

Hastings,  an  important  commercial  town  on 
the  Apple  river,  is  the  county  seat  of  Barry 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Hastings,  an  important  agricultural  and  manu¬ 
facturing  town  on  the  Mississippi  river,  is  the 
county  seat  of  Dakota  county,  Minn.  Pop., 
3,984 

Hastings,  Warren,  Governor  -  General  of 
India,  was  born  at  Churchill,  in  Oxfordshire, 
England,  Dec.  6,  1732,  and  was  descended  from 
an  ancient  Worcestershire  family.  He  was  the 
first  Governor-General  of  India,  and  although  his 
administration  was  an  able  one,  his  official  career 
was  in  some  respects  so  infamous  that,  he  was 
impeached  by  the  House  of  Lords.  His  trial 
lasted  seven  years,  and  ended  in  acquittal.  He 
died  in  1818. 

Hatch 'ie,  a  river  which  rises  in  the  northeast 
part  of  Mississippi,  and  empties  into  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  river,  near  Randolph,  about  twenty-five 
miles  above  Memphis,  Tenn.  It  runs  through  a 
fertile  cotton  region,  and  is  navigable  by  small 
steam-boats  about  100  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Hatch'ment,  or 
Achievement,  the 
funeral  escutcheon 
placed  in  front  of 
the  house  of  the  de¬ 
ceased,  or  elsewhere, 
setting  forth  his 
rank  and  circum¬ 
stances.  It  is  in 
the  form  of  a  loz¬ 
enge,  and  in  its 
center  are  depicted 
the  arms  of  the 
deceased,  single  or 

quartered.  Hatchment  of  Husband. 

H  a  u  r  i  a  n  t,  a  term  in 
Heraldry  applied  to  a  fish 
placed  upright  as  if  to  re¬ 
fresh  itself  by  sucking  air, 
as  in  the  example. 

Haut'bois,  or  O'roe,  a 
wind  instrument  of  the 
“reed”  genus.  The  haut- 
bois,  at  an  early  date,  took 
its  place  as  one  of  the  essen¬ 
tial  instruments  of  the 
orchestra.  Hautbois  is  also 


Ilautbois. 


the  name  given  by  organ-builders  to  a 
reed  stop  of  eight  feet  tone,  which  is 
made  of  metal,  similar  in  shape  to  the 
real  hautbois,  and  intended  to  imitate  it 
in  its  sound. 

Havan'a,  or,  in  English,  the  harbor, 
by  far  the  most  important  city  in  the 
West  Indies,  is  the  capital  of  Cuba.  It 
stands  on  the  north  shore  of  the  island,  in 
latitude  23°  8'  N.,  and  longitude  82°  23' 

W.  Pop.,  230,000. 

Havana,  an  important  trading  point  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Illinois  and  Spoon 
rivers,  is  the  county  seat  of  Mason 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  2,300. 

Havel,  a  river  of  the  North  of  Ger¬ 
many,  and  a  considerable  tributary  of  the 
Elbe,  has  its  origin  in  a  small  lake  a  mile 
west  of  the  town  of  New  Strelitz,  Meck¬ 
lenburg.  Its  entire  length  is  218  miles, 
and  it  is  navigable  to  Furstenberg,  a  town 
within  thirty  miles  of  its  source. 

Haver'hill,  a  city  in  Massachusetts,  at 
the  head  of  navigation  of  the  Merrimac 
river,  on  its  north  bank,  twelve  miles 
from  its  mouth  and  thirty-two  miles  north 
of  Boston.  Pop.,  21,795. 

Haverhill,  tliecounty  seat  of  Grafton 
county,  N.  II.  Pop.,  2,452.  . 

Hav'erstraw,  a  town  in  New  York  Bft' ”n  s 
State,  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the  ^ystl'm' 
Hudson  river,  thirty-seven  miles  north  of  New 
York  City.  Pop.  of  township,  3,506. 

Havre,  Le,  the  second  town  in  the  Department 
of  Seine-Inferieure,  France,  and,  next  to  Mar¬ 
seille,  the  chief  commercial  emporium  of  that 
country,  is  situated  on  the  north  side  of  the  estu¬ 
ary  of  the  Seine,  in  latitude  49J  29'  16"  N., 
longitude  0°  6'  37"  E.,  and  108  miles  northwest 
of  Paris,  of  which  it  is  the  port.  Pop.,  102,615. 

Ha 'wash,  a  considerable  river  of  Abyssinia, 
has  its  origin  near  the  southwestern  border  of  the 
Shoa  territory,  in  latitude  about  90°^,  and  longi¬ 
tude  about  38°  E.  The  name  of  the  country  of 
Abyssinia  (called  Habesli  by  the  Arabs)  probably 
originated  in  that  of  the  river. 

Hawesville,  the  county  seat  of  Hancock 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Hawfinch  ( Coccoiliramtes  vulgaris),  a  bird  of 
the  grosbeak  genus,  and  the  finch  family  ( Frin - 
gillidce).  It  is  considerably  larger  than  the  chaf¬ 
finch;  the  adult  male  has  the  crown  and  back 
chestnut  brown,  the  neck  and  rump  gray,  the 
wings  partly  black,  the  larger  wing-coverts  white. 
It  is  widely  diffused  over  Europe  and  the  temper¬ 
ate  parts  of  Asia. 

Hawk,  a  term  often 
applied  to  almost  all  the 
Falconidee.  The  hawk 
frequently  occurs  as  a 
charge  in  heraldry,  and 
may  be  belled,  jessi  d  and 
varvtled.  Lure.  Bell. 

Hawkes  'bury,  a  river  of  New  South  Wales 
enters  the  Pacific  at  Broken  Bay,  about  twenty- 
miles  to  the  north  of  Sydney.  Length,  330  miles 


Hawke's  Bay,  or  Hawke  Bay,  a  provincial 
district  of  New  Zealand,  is  called  after  the  bay  so 
named  on  the  east  coast  of  the  North  Island,  and 
is  between  Auckland  and  Wellington.  The  dis¬ 
trict  has  an  area  of  3,050,000  acres  (of  which 
570,000  are  held  by  natives  with  European  titles). 
Napier  (pop.,  5,756)  is  the  port  and  chief  city. 
Pop.  of  Hawke’s  Bay  (1881),  15,707. 

Hankinsville,  the  county  seat  of  Pulaski 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  1,542. 

Hawk-moth,  a  name  sometimes  used  to  com¬ 
prise  all  the  lepidopterous  insects  of  the  section 
Crepuscular /a,  the  Linna;an  genus  Sphinx. 

Hawkweeil  ( Ilieracium ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Composites,  sub-order  Cichoracew. 
They  are  very  numerous,  natives  of  the  temper¬ 
ate  and  colder  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemi¬ 
sphere,  particularly  abounding  in  Europe. 

Hawley,  Joseph  Roswell,  was  born  in  North 
Carolina,  Oct.  31,  1826.  He  became  a  lawyer 
and  editor  in  Connecticut;  in  1861  entered  the 
army,  and  was  breveted  Major-General  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1865.  In  1866-67  he  was  Governor  of  Con¬ 


necticut;  Member  of  Congress  1873-77  and 


Orange  Hawkweed  ( Ilieracium  aurantiacum) . 

1879-81 ;  in  the  last  year  was  elected  to  the  United 
States  Senate  and  reelected  in  1887. 

Hawse,  the  situation  of  the  cables  in  front  of  a 
ship’s  bow,  when  she  is  moored  with  two  anchors 


1 .  Hawse  Holes.  2.  Hawser. 


out  forward — one  on  the  starboard,  the  other  on 
the  port  bow. 

Hawthorn  (Cratcegus  oxyacantha),  a  shrub  or 
small  tree,  a  native  of  Europe,  Siberia,  and  the 
North  of  Africa,  and  much  planted  both  for  hedges 
and  for  ornament.  It  varies  in  height  from  6  or 
8  to  20  or  25  feet. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel,  was  born  at  Salem, 
Mass.,  July  4,  1804.  He  was  one  of  the  best 
known  American  authors,  and  wrote,  among 
others,  the  following:  Twice-told  Tales,  Mosses 
from  an  Old  Manse,  The  Liberty  Tree,  The  Jour¬ 
nal  of  an  African  Cruiser,  The  Scarlet  Letter,  The 
House  of  the  Stven  Gables,  Blithedale  Romance, 
Transformation ,  Our  Old  Home.  His  principal 
posthumous  work  is  Septimus,  a  Romance  of 
Immortality.  He  died  suddenly  at  Plymouth, 
Mass.,  May  19,  1864.  Hawthorne’s  son,  Julian 
II.  (born  June  22,  1846),  has  also  attained  emi¬ 
nence  as  a  novelist. 

Hawthorne,  a  mining  town,  and  the  county 
seat  of  Esmeralda  county,  Nev.  Pop.,  650. 

Hay  Fever  (also  called  Ilay  Asthma  and  Sum¬ 
mer  Catarrh),  has  as  symptoms,  sub-acute  inflam¬ 
mation  of  the  nostrils  (coryza)  and  of  the  bron¬ 
chial  mucous  membrane,  together  with  irritation 
of  the  eyes,  and  in  some  cases  bronchial  asthma. 
Only  some  persons  are  susceptible  to  this  trouble¬ 
some  ailment,  which  further  requires  an  exciting 
cause.  As  the  common  name  imports,  it  is  con¬ 
nected  with  hay  in  blossom;  more  specifically,  it 
is  caused  by  the  floating  pollen  of  meadow  or 
other  grasses,  or  by  the  pollen  of  rye,  wheat,  and 
oats.  In  the  United  States  it  is  usually  due  to  a 
kind  of  wormwood  in  flower.  Sufferers  escape 
by  a  sea  voyage;  plugging  the  nostrils  has  been 
tried  with  partial  success.  Boracic  acid  is  a 
palliative  when  applied  with  a  nasal  douche,  in 
connection  with  muriate  of  ammonia  taken  inter¬ 
nally  in  five  grain  doses. 

Hay,  John,  was  born  at  Salem,  Ill.,  Oct.  8, 
1839.  From  1861  to  1865  lie  wasprivate  secretary 
to  President  Lincoln,  was  afterward  in  the  diplo¬ 
matic  service  and  Assistant  Secretary  of  State, 
and  has  done  much  literary  work.  His  Pike 


HAYDEN. 


456 


HEBRIDES. 


County  Ballads  contain  some  stirring  dialect 
poetry. 

Hayden,  Ferdinand  V.,  born  in  Massachu¬ 
setts,  Sept.  7,  1829,  a  distinguished  geologist, 
who  made  a  geological  survey  of  the  Territories 
for  the  United  States  Government.  He  died  Dec. 
22.  1887. 

Haydn,  JosErn,  a  German  musical  composer, 
was  born  at  the  village  of  Rohrau,  on  the  con¬ 
fines  of  Hungary  and  Austria,  March  31,  1732. 
His  works,  the  Brand  Symphonies,  and  the  ora¬ 
torios,  Creation  and  the  Seasons,  are  well  known. 
He  died  in  1809. 

Hayes,  Isaac  I.,  M.D.,  American  Arctic  ex¬ 
plorer,  was  born  about  1830,  and  died  Dec.  17, 
1881. 

Hayes,  Rutherford  Birchard,  nineteenth 
President  of  the  United  States,  was  born  at  Dela¬ 
ware,  Ohio,  Oct.  14,  1822.  Chosen  Governor  of 
his  State  in  1867,  he  was  reelected  in  1869,  and 
again  in  1875.  He  was  candidate  for  the  Presi¬ 
dency  in  1876,  and  was  counted  in  by  the  Elect¬ 
oral  Commission.  Since  the  expiration  of  his 
term  of  office  he  has  not  been  a  factor  in  politics. 

Hayes  Centre,  the  county  seat  of  Hayes  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  200. 

Hayesville,  the  county  seat  of  Clay  county, 
N.  C.  Pop..  150. 

Hayne,  Paul  Hamilton,  born  at  Charleston, 
S.  C.,  in  1831,  died  in  1866.  He  published 
several  volumes  of  poems. 

Hayne,  Robert  Young,  born  in  South  Caro¬ 
lina  in  1791,  was  United  States  Senator,  1823-32, 
and  Governor  of  South  Carolina,  1832-34.  He 
favored  nullification. 

Hayneville,  the  county  seat  of  Lowndes 
county,  Ala.  Pop.,  500. 

Hays  City,  the  county  seat  of  Ellis  county, 
Kan. '  Pop.,  1,000. 

Hayti,  otherwise  known  as  Hispaniola,  or  St. 
Domingo,  is,  after  Cuba,  the  largest  of  the  West 
Indian  islands;  its  greatest  breadth  is  160  miles. 
Area,  including  the  Islands  of  Tortuga,  Gonaive, 
etc.,  about  28,000  square  miles,  and  the  pop., 
about  760,000.  The  Republic  of  Hayti  occupies 
the  western  part  of  the  island,  and  the  Domini¬ 
can  Republic  the  eastern  part. 

Hazard,  the  county  seat  of  Perry  county,  Ivy. 
Pop.,  76. 

Hazel  ( Corylus ),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs 
of  the  natural  order  Cupuliferce, 
of  which  the  fruit  is  a  nut  in  a 
leafy  and  laciniated  cup,  the 
enlarged  involucre  of  the  fe¬ 
male  flower.  The  male  flow¬ 
ers  are  in  cylindrical  catkins; 
the  female  flowers  appear  as 
mere  clusters  of  colored  styles 
at  the  extremities  of  buds;  the 
male  flowers  are  pretty  con¬ 
spicuous,  the  female  flowers 
are  very  small. 

Hazen,  William  B.,  born  in 
Vermont,  in  1830,  rose  to  be 
Major-General  of  Volunteers 
during  the  war,  at  its  close  re¬ 
ceived  a  Colonel’s  commission 
in  the  regular  army,  and  in 
1880  became  chief  of  the  sig-  a,  female  flower;  ft, 
nal  service.  He  died  Jan.  16,  male  flowe  s 
1887. 

Hazellmrst,  the  county  seat  of  Copiah  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  1,702. 

Hazleton,  a  town  of  Luzerne  county,  Penn. 
Pop.,  14,000. 

Hazlitt,  William,  a  distinguished  English 
essayist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  at 
Maidstone,  April  10,  1778,  and  died  Sept.  18, 
1830. 

Head 'ache,  a  pain  referred  to  the  front,  side, 
or  back  of  the  head,  varying  in  intensity  and 
other  characters  according  to  its  cause  and  patho¬ 
logical  relations.  The  most  common  varieties  of 
headache  are  those  which  are  dependent  on,  or 
connected  with,  derangements  of  the  digestion, 
and  frequently  occur  after  meals.  The  periodic 
headache,  or  megrim  (Fr.  migraine,  from  Gr.  and 
Lat.  hemicrania — i.  e. ,  half  the  head),  otherwise 
called  brow  ague,  is  a  curious  variety  which  is 
closely  connected  witli  malaria,  and  recurs  at 
more  or  less  regular  intervals;  affecting  exactly 
half  of  the  head  up  to  the  middle  line.  This  kind 


is  very  acute,  and  is  commonly  under  the  control 
of  quinine,  which  must,  however,  be  given  in 
considerable  doses. 

Healy,  George  P.  A.,  born  at  Boston  in  1808, 
became  well  known  as  a  portrait  painter,  and  pro¬ 
duced  some  important  works. 

Healy,  Timothy  M.,  one  of  the  most  promin¬ 
ent  Parnellite  members  of  Parliament,  was  born 
May  17,  1855.  He  is  a  lawyer  and  newspaper 
writer,  and  is  a  very  popular  speaker. 

Heart,  Diseases  of  the.  Diseases  of  the 
heart  may  be  roughly  divided  into  the  functional 
and  organic.  To  the  former  class  belong  simple 
palpitation,  syncope,  and  the  peculiar  disorder 
termed  angina  pectoris;  to  the  latter,  hypertrophy 
of  the  heart,  dilatation  of  the  cavities,  with  vari¬ 
ous  structural  diseases  of  the  endocardium  and 
pericardium,  of  the  muscular  fiber,  and  of  its 
nutrient  arteries.  To  these  may  be  added  the  di¬ 
seases  of  the  aorta,  and  especially  aneurisms  of  its 
thoracic  portion.  Palpitation,  or  undue  and  often 
irregular  action  of  the  heart,  attended  by  uneasy 
sensations  of  movement,  is  a  disorder  common  to 
many  organic  diseases  of  the  heart,  and  not  in¬ 
frequently,  also,  occurring  in  debilitated  states  of 
the  system,  without  any  organic  disease  whatever. 
In  exhausted  and  anxious  men  of  business,  in 
hysterical  and  amemic  women,  in  habitual 
smokers,  in  dyspeptics,  in  persons  debilitated  by 
discharges  from  the  mucous  membranes,  a  degree 
of  palpitation  is  quite  common,  and  the  symp¬ 
tom  sometimes  assumes  the  apparent  form  of  an 
independent  disease,  especially  when  aggravated 
by  mental  anxiety  in  respect  to  its  true  signifi¬ 
cance.  Syncope,  or  swooning,  is  much  more  com¬ 
monly  a  functional  than  an  organic  disease. 
Angina  pectoris,  or  breast-pang,  also  called  syn¬ 
cope  anginosa,  is  a  peculiar  painful  or  oppressive 
sensation,  very  characteristic  of  cardiac  diseases, 
especially  of  such  as  are  apt  to  prove  suddenly 
fatal.  Where  the  sudden,  death  like  paroxysm 
of  angina  comes  on  in  the  absence  of  medical  as¬ 
sistance,  the  proper  remedies  are,  warmth  to  the 
extremities,  stimulants,  and  moderate  doses  of 
laudanum  or  opium;  but  no  time  should  be  lost 
in  procuring  the  aid  of  instructed  persons,  as 
errors  in  the  administration  of  these  powerful 
remedies  might  be  more  rapidly  fatal  than  the 
disease  itself.  Asthma,  and  difficulty  of  breath¬ 
ing  depending  upon  the  lungs,  especially  that 
form  of  difficult  breathing  called  ortliopnoea, 
when  the  patient  is  unable  to  lie  down  in  bed,  are 
symptoms  very  characteristic  of  some  kinds  of 
disease  of  the  heart  and  great  vessels.  The 
organic  diseases  of  the  heart  are  very  numerous; 
most  of  them  are  attended  by  one  or  other  of 
the  symptoms  above  mentioned,  and  almost  all  of 
them  involve  danger  to  life  more  or  less  consider¬ 
able.  Strictly  speaking,  a  sudden  death  is  rare 
in  organic  disease  of  the  heart;  the  most  frequent 
instances  being  in  connection  with  aneurisms  of 
the  great  vessels,  fatty  degeneration  of  the  heart’s 
fiber,  and  extensive  calcareous  degeneration  of 
the  coronary  arteries  of  the  heart,  often  producing 
marked  symptoms  of  angina  pectoris.  The  val¬ 
vular  diseases  of  the  heart  are  among  the  most 
frequent  and  the  most  easily  recognizable  of  its 
organic  disorders.  They  depend  essentially  upon 
changes  in  the  endocardium,  or  internal  lining 
membrane  (endocarditis);  in  many  cases  these 
changes  originate  in  attacks  of  rheumatic  fever. 
The  valves  affected  are  usually  those  of  the 
left  side,  and  the  consequence  may  be  either 
imperfect  closure  of  the  valve,  leading  to  regurgi¬ 
tation  of  blood,  or  obstruction  of  the  orifice.  Peri¬ 
carditis,  or  inflammation  of  the  pericardium — i.  e., 
the  heart-purse,  or  fibrous  sac  investing  the  heart, 
is,  like  endocarditis,  a  frequent  consequence  of 
acute  rheumatism.  In  numerous  instances,  it 
ends  favorably,  but  in  some  cases  it  is  fatal  by 
large  effusion  of  fluid,  and  in  others  by  adhesions 
between  the  external  membrane  and  the  heart. 

Heat,  the  cause  of  the  sensation  of  warmth,  and 
of  a  multitude  of  common  phenomena  in  nature 
and  art.  A  heated  body  is  no  heavier  than  it 
was  before  it  was  heated;  if,  therefore,  heat  be  a 
material  substance,  as  it  was  long  considered,  it 
must  be  imponderable.  The  only  hypothesis 
that  at  all  accords  with  the  phenomena  is  that 
heat  is  a  mode  of  motion.  The  most  general  and 
notable  effect  which  heat  produces  on  matter  is 
to  expand  it.  There  is  one  remarkable  exception 


to  the  law  that  bodies  expand  by  heat — viz.,  that 
of  water,  under  certain  circumstances.  From  0® 
(Centigrade),  at  which  it  melts,  it  contracts  as  the 
heat  is  increased,  up  to  about  4°  C.,  after  which 
it  begins  to  expand  like  other  bodies.  Experi¬ 
ment  shows  that  to  raise  equal  weights  of  differ¬ 
ent  bodies  through  the  same  number  of  degrees  of 
temperature,  requires  different  degrees  of  heat. 
We  may  then  define  the  specific  heat  of  a  sub¬ 
stance  as  the  number  of  units  of  heat  required  to 
raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  it  by  one 
degree.  It  has  been  found  generally,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  that  the  specific  heats  of  bodies  are 
nearly  inversely  as  their  atomic  weights.  Hence,  all 
atoms  require  the  same  degree  of  heat  to  produce 
the  same  change  in  their  temperature.  All  bodies 
(except  carbon,  which  has  been  softened  only) 
have  been  melted  by  the  application  of  a  proper 
degree  of  heat.  The  laws  of  this  fusion  are — 1. 
Every  body  has  a  definite  melting  point,  assign¬ 
able  on  the  thermometric  scale,  if  the  pressure  to 
which  it  is  subjected  be  the  same. — 2.  When  a 
body  is  melting  it  retains  that  fixed  temperature, 
however  much  heat  may  be  applied,  until  the  last 
particle  is  melted.  The  heat  applied  does  not 
raise  the  temperature,  but  produces  the  change  of 
state.  Hence,  it  seemed  to  disappear,  as  far  as 
the  thermometer  is  concerned,  and  was  therefore 
called  latent  heat.  This  is  also  true  of  vaporization 
by  heat.  W ater  does  not  rise  above  212°,  no  matter 
how  much  heat  is  applied.  Most  bodies  contract 
on  solidifying;  some,  however,  as  water,  cast- 
iron,  type-metal,  etc.,  expand.  By  radiation  is 
understood  the  passage  of  heat  through  air  or 
vacuum,  and  even  through  solid  bodies  (in  a 
manner,  and  with  a  velocity  quite  different  from 
those  of  conduction)  from  one  body  to  another. 

Heatli  (Erica),  a  genus  of  small  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Ericece,  distinguished  by  a  calyx 
of  four  leaves,  a  bell-shaped  or  ovate — often  ven- 
tricose — corolla,  and  a  four-celled,  four-valved 


capsule,  with  dissepiments  from  the  middle  of  the 
valves.  Calluna  vulgaris,  the  common  ling  or 
heather,  is  not  now  classed  in  this  family.  It  is 
found  on  arid  places,  and  also  in  bogs. 

Heatlisville,  the  county  seat  of  Northumber¬ 
land  county,  Ya.  Pop.,  512. 

Hebe,  the  goddess  of  youth,  the  daughter  of 
Zeus  and  Here — according  to  others,  of  Here 
alone — was  the  wife  of  Hercules  after  he  had 
been  deified. 

Heber,  Reginald,  an  English  poet,  and 
second  Bishop  of  Calcutta,  was  born  at  Malpas, 
Cheshire,  April  21,  1783,  and  died  in  1826. 

Heber,  the  county  seat  of  Cleburne  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  210. 

Heber,  the  county  seat,  and  a  growing  town  of 
Wasatch  county,  Utah.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Heb 'rides,  the  name  applied  in  a  general  sense 
to  all  the  islands  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland. 
They  have  been  variously  classified;  but  the  most 
natural  division  seems  to  be  into  the  Outer  and 
Inner  Hebrides.  The  total  number  of  the  Hebri¬ 
des  is  about  490,  but  of  these  not  more  than  120 
are  inhabited.  The  entire  area  is  not  accurately 
known,  but  has  been  estimated  at  upward  of 
3,000  square  miles,  and  the  pop.,  which  is  not 
increasing,  was  in  1881  about  100,000.  Of  the 


Hazel. 


IIEBRON. 


457 


HELMHOTZ. 


whole  surface,  only  about  200,000  acres  are 
arable. 

Hebron,  a  prosperous  town,  and  the  county 
seat  of  Thayer  county,  Neb.  Pop.,  1,000. 

He 'cate,  an  ancient  Thracian  goddess.  In 
connection  with  Persephone,  she  is  described  as 
a  powerful  infernal  and  cruel  deity,  who  has  all 
the  magic  powers  of  heaven,  earth,  and  sea  at  her 
command. 

Hec'la,  or  Hekla,  a  volcanic  mountain  in  Ice¬ 
land,  is  of  a  conical  shape,  and  stands  isolated 
about  twenty  miles  from  the  southwest  coast.  Its 
snow-clad  summit  is  5,110  feet  high. 

Hectic  Fever  (Gr.  ektikoS,  habitual),  a  peculiar 
type  of  feverish  disease,  usually  found  associated 
with  organic  disease  of  the  chest  or  abdomen,  and 
above  all  with  tubercular  disease,  or  consump¬ 
tion.  It  can  scarcely  be  called  an  independent 
form  of  disease,  but  is  a  symptom,  and  must  be 
treated  accordingly. 

Hedge'll og  ( Erinaceus ),  a  genus  of  insectivo¬ 
rous  quadrupeds,  the  type  of  the  family  Erina- 
ceidce.  Like  many  other  Imectivora,  hedgehogs 
are  by  no  means  limited  to  insect  food,  but  prey 
on  larger  animals,  as  reptiles,  small  quadrupeds, 


Hedgehog  ( Erinaceus  evropceus). 


and  birds;  they  are  fond  of  eggs  and  of  milk,  and 
in  confinement  will  readily  eat  soaked  bread, 
cooked  vegetables,  or  porridge.  Their  power  of 
rolling  themselves  into  a  ball,  from  which  the 
spines  project  on  every  side,  is  their  means  of 
protection  from  enemies. 

Hedgehog  Plant,  a  name  given  to  those  spe¬ 
cies  of  medick  (Med kayo)  which  have  the  pods 
spirally  twisted  and  rolled  up  into  a  ball,  beset 
with  spines. 

Hedge-sparrow,  Hedge- warbler,  Hedge-ac¬ 
centor,  or  DvamocK.  {Accentor  modulari*),  a  little 
bird  of  the  family  Syloiadcs,  a  common  native  of 
most  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  not  quite  so  large  as 
the  house-sparrow,  which  it  somewhat  resembles 
in  dull  brownish  plumage,  but  notwithstanding 


Alpine  Accentor  ( Accentor  alpinus). 


its  most  common  name,  in  little  else;  its  slender¬ 
ness  of  bill,  and  its  whole  form,  proclaiming  it  at 
once  to  be  of  a  different  family.  It  feeds  princi¬ 
pally  on  insects.  Alpine  Warbler,  or  Alpine 
Accentor  (A.  alpinw),  is  common  in  the  Alps, 
and  other  mountains  of  France,  Germany,  and 
Italy. 

Hed'jrah  ( Ilegirah ),  or,  more  fully,  IIedjrat 
Al-Nabi,  Arab,  emigration  (not  flight,  as  com¬ 
monly  translated)  of  Mohammed.  The  tribe  of 
the  Koreish  having  resolved  to  slay  the  new 
prophet,  their  kinsman,  he  secretly  left  Mecca 
on  Sept.  13,  G22  a.d.,  and  repaired  to  Medina. 
The  hedjrah  was  made  the  starting-point  of  a 
new  era — the  Mohammedan  (Tarikh  Alhijrah) — 
by  Calif  Omar,  who,  in  639  or  640,  with  the  aid 
of  a  Persian,  Ilarmozan,  instituted  the  new 
Moslem  calendar.  It  does  not,  however,  as  is 
generally  supposed,  begin  from  the  day  of  the 


flight  itself,  but  from  the  first  of  the  Moharram 
(the  first  month  of  the  year)  preceding  it — a  date 
corresponding  to  our  15th  or  16th  of  July,  622 
a.d.  The  Mohammedan  year,  as  a  lunar  year, 
is  shorter  than  ours  by  10  days,  21  hours,  and  14J 
seconds;  and  this  circumstance  renders  the  exact 
transfer  of  Mohammedan  dates  into  dates  of  our 
own  calendar  a  very  difficult  task. 

Hei  'delberg,  an  ancient  city  of  Germany,  in  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  River  Neckar.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
university.  Pop.,  25,000.  It  is  thirteen  miles 
southeast  of  Manheim,  and  about  fifty-four  miles 
south  of  Frankfurt-on-the-Maine.  In  1802,  when 
the  town,  with  the  surrounding  territory,  was 
assigned  to  the  Grand  Duke  of  Baden,  a  new  era 
commenced  for  the  university,  and  it  rapidly  be¬ 
came  famous.  It  comprises  faculties  of  theology, 
law,  medicine,  and  philosophy,  has  110  professors 
and  lecturers,  and  is  attended  by  from  600  to  800 
students.  Its  library  consists  of  about  300,000 
volumes. 

Heine,  Heinrich,  a  famous  German  poet,  critic, 
and  satirist,  was  born  at  Diisseldorf,  of  Jewish 
parents,  Dec.  12,  1799.  He  died  in  voluntary  exile 
at  Paris,  Feb.  17,  1856. 

Helen,  the  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Leda,  wife  of 
Tyndareus,  King  of  Sparta.  According  to  the 
ancient  legend,  she  was  so  exceedingly  beautiful, 
that  at  the  age  of  ten  she  was  carried  off  by 
Theseus  and  Pirithous,  but  was  recovered  subse¬ 
quently  by  her  brothers,  Castor  and  Pollux. 
Tyndareus  afterward  engaged  her  suitors,  who 
numbered  about  thirty,  by  a  solemn  oath,  to 
unite  together  to  aid  the  husband  whom  Helen 
should  choose,  in  case  of  any  attempts  being 
again  made  to  carry  her  off.  In  accordance  with 
this  oath,  her  husband,  Menelaus,  when  she  was 
afterward  carried  off  by  Paris,  son  of  Priam, 
King  of  Troy,  summoned  all  the  princes  of 
Greece  to  avenge  the  injury  heliad  sustained,  and 
thus  gave  rise  to  the  Trojan  War. 

Hel  'ena,  St.,  perhaps  the  best  known  of  all 
the  lonely  islands  in  the  world,  is  situated  in  the 
Atlantic,  in  latitude  15°  55'  S.,  and  longitude  5° 
44'  W.  Greatest  length  of  the  island,  10|  miles; 
breadth,  7  miles;  area,  47  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1881),  5,059.  It  is  850  miles  from  the  nearest 
land,  the  Island  of  Ascension,  and  about  a  half 
more  from  the  nearest  point  of  the  African  Conti¬ 
nent.  The  island  was  discovered  in  1501,  on  St. 
Helena’s  Day  (May  21st),  whence  its  name,  by  the 
Portuguese  navigator  Juan  de  Nova  Castella. 
It  became  famous  as  the  residence  of  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  who  here  lingered  in  hopeless  captivity 
from  1815  to  1821. 

Helena,  the  county  seat  of  Karnes  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  285. 

Helena,  a  wealthy  and  handsomely -built  city, 
the  State  capital  and  the  county  seat  of  Lewis 
and  Clarke  county,  Mont.  Pop.,  12,000. 

Helena,  an  important  cotton  market  on  the 
Mississippi  river  and  the  county  seat  of  Phillips 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Heli'cidae  (Gr.  f'Azc,  helix,  a  spiral),  a  large 
family  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  of  the  order 
Pulmonata,  and  of  which  snails  are  familiar  ex¬ 
amples. 

Heligoland,  or  Helgoland  (Holy  Land),  a 
small  island  in  the  North  Sea,  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  is  situated  about  thirty-five  or  forty 
miles  northwest  of  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe,  in  lati¬ 
tude  54®  11'  N.,  and  longitude  7°  53'  E. 

Heliop'olis  (’EAzo?,  the  sun,  and  noXii,  a 
city),  the  Greek  name  of  the  city  called  by  the 
Egyptians  On,  stood  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Pelusiac  branch  of  the  Nile,  near  the  apex  of  the 
delta,  and  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  im¬ 
portant  of  Egyptian  cities. 

He'liotrope  (Ilelioti opium),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Boraginece-,  of  the  section, 
sometimes  made  a  distinct  order,  Ehretiacea. 

Heliotrope  and  Heliostat,  names  applied  to 
instruments  used  by  surveyors  for  rendering  dis¬ 
tant  stations  distinctly  visible.  This  is  managed 
by  placing  a  mirror  at  the  distant  station,  and 
adjusting  it  so  that  at  a  particular  hour  of  the 
day  (arranged  beforehand)  the  light  of  the  sun 
shall  be  reflected  from  the  mirror  directly  to  the 
surveyor’s  station.  Of  late,  instruments  of  this 
kind,  called  heliotrope,  heliostat,  or  heliograph, 
have  been  so  perfectly  contrived  as  to  be  avail¬ 


able  at  a  distance  of  over  190  miles  (in  California); 
French  engineers  in  Algeria  have  found  the 
signals  serviceable  at  a  distance  of  170  miles. 
Recently  there  has  been  a  great  development  in 
lieliograpliy,  or  sun-telegraphy,  for  signaling  mes¬ 
sages  between  the  sections  of  an  army  in  the 
field. 

Hel 'las,  the  original  home  of  the  Hellenes, 
according  to  the  received  opinion,  was  first  a 
town,  and  afterward,  under  the  name  of  Phthi- 
otis,  a  well-known  district  of  Thessaly.  The 
ancients  also  sometimes  applied  this  name  to  the 
whole  of  Thessaly. 

Hel'lebore,  a  name  applied  to  two  very  differ¬ 
ent  genera  of  plants.  The  genus  to  which  it 
more  properly  belongs,  and  to  which  it  has 
belonged,  since  very  ancient  times,  Helleborus, 
is  of  the  natural  order  lianunculacece.  A  familiar 
example  of  this  genus  is  the  black  hellebore — 


Christmas  Rose  (Helleborus  niger). 


so  called  from  the  color  of  its  roots — or  Christ¬ 
mas  rose  (//.  niger),  a  favorite  in  flower-gardens, 
because  its  large,  white  flowers  are  produced  in 
winter.  Hellebore  is  used  in  medicine  as  an 
enunenagogue,  and  a  purgative.  It  is  valuable  in 
epilepsy,  skin  diseases,  and  is  a  vermifuge.  Its 
active  principle  is  veratrium,  which  is  a  violent 
poison . 

Hel'lenist  (Gr.  ’EWevidrr/S,  Ilellenistes),  the 
name  given  to  those  among  the  Jews,  and  after¬ 
ward  in  the  Christian  Church  of  Judea,  who, 
either  by  birth  or  by  residence,  and  by  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  the  Greek  language,  manners,  and  usages, 
were  regarded  as  Greeks,  in  opposition  to  the 
Hebrews  properly  so  called. 

Hellespont.  (See  Dardanelles.) 

Hell  Gate,  or  Hurl  Gate,  named  by  the  Dutch 
settlers  of  New  York  Ilelle  Gat,  is  a  pass  in  the 
East  river,  between  Great  Barn  Island  and  Long 
Island,  east  of  the  center  of  New  York  Island, 
United  States,  formerly  very  dangerous  to  vessels 
from  its  pointed  rocks  and  whirlpools.  During 
1869  to  1876,  ex'ensive  submarine  galleries  and 
tunnels  were  excavated  in  the  rock  for  the  pur¬ 
pose  of  receiving  a  gigantic  charge  of  dynamite 
(50,000  lbs.),  which  was  fired  by  electricity  on 
Sept.  24,  1876,  and  completely  broke  up  the 
obstructing  rocks. 

Helmet,  from  the  early  simple  form  known  as 
the  Norman,  the  helmet,  at  a  later  period,  came  to 
vary  in  shape  according  to  the  degree  of  the  per- 
ELelmets. 


King.  Noble.  Knight.  Esquire. 

son  who  wore  it,  and  helmets  in  heraldry  were  set 
over  coats-of-arms  to  bear  the  crest,  and  indicate 
by  their  form  the  rank  of  the  bearer.  In  common 
usage  the  helmet  was  simply  a  covering  of  metal 
or  leather  to  protect  the  head  of  the  wearer  in 
warfare. 

Helmholtz,  Hermann,  one  of  the  most  emi¬ 
nent  of  modern  physicists,  was  born  at  Potsdam, 
Germany,  in  August,  1821.  He  was  a  Professor 


HELMUND. 


458 


HENRY  VIII. 


of  Physiology  from  1849  at  Kdnigsberg,  from 
1855  at  Bonn,  and  from  1858  at  Heidelberg.  In 
1871  he  became  Professor  of  Physics  in  Berlin. 
His  principal  work  has  been  in  connection  with 
light  and  sound. 

Helinuud ',  a  river  of  Afghanistan,  rises  thirty- 
five  miles  to  the  west  of  Cabul,  at  an  elevation  of 
11,500  feet.  After  a  southwesterly  course  of 
about  650  miles,  it  loses  itself  in  the  salt  lake  of 
Seistan  or  Hamoon  by  several  mouths,  about  31° 
30'  N.,  and  longitude  62°  E. 

Helvel'la,  a  genus  of  fungi  of  the  order 
Ascomycetes,  closely  allied  to  morels,  but  differ¬ 
ing  from  them  in  having  the  pileus  turned  down¬ 
ward,  lobed,  and  folded,  and  the  surface  of  the 
hymenium  even.  Some  of  the  helvellae  are  edible, 
and  much  used  in  Germany. 

Helvel'lyn,  one  of  the  highest  mountains  of 
England,  in  the  lake  district,  Cumberland,  be¬ 
tween  Keswick  and  Ambleside.  It  is  3,055  feet 
high. 

Homans,  Felicia  Dorothea,  an  English 
poetess,  was  born  at  Liverpool,  Sept.  25,  1794, 
and  died  in  1835. 

Hemides'mus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat 
ural  order  Asdepiadacece.  The  root  of  H.  indieux 
is  used  in  medicine,  chiefly  in  India,  and  is  known 
as  Indian  sarsaparilla. 

Hem'ipode  ( Hemipodius ),  a  genus  of  gallina¬ 
ceous  birds,  nearly  allied  to  quails,  but  distin¬ 
guished  by  a  more  slender  beak,  and  by  the  want 
of  a  hind-toe.  One  species,  the  Andalusian  herni- 


Andalusian  Hemipode  (Hemipodius  tacky dromus) . 

pode  (II.  tachydromvs),  is  found  in  Spain,  Italy, 
Sicily,  Africa,  and  Australia.  Its  whole  length  is 
about  six  inches. 

Hemip'tera  (Gr.  half-winged),  an  order  of 
insects,  with  four  wings,  a  mouth  formed  for 
sucking,  undergoing  imperfect  metamorphoses, 
and  having  the  first  pair  of  wings  either  of  a 
firm  membranous  substance  without  scales,  or 
leathery  at  their  base,  and  membranous  at  their 
tips.  Examples  of  this  order  are  bugs,  water- 
bugs,  boat-flies,  and  water-scorpions. 

Hem ' lock  (Conium),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Umbelliferw.  The  best  known  and 
only  important  species  is  the  common  hemlock 
(C.  maculatum),  which  grows  by  waysides,  on 
heaps  of  rubbish,  and  in  other  similar  situations. 


Flowers  and  Root  of  Common  Hemlock  ( Conium 
maculatum). 
c,  a  flower;  </,  a  seed. 

The  leaves  are  the  only  part  of  the  plant  employed 
in  medicine.  The  most  important  ingredient  in 
hemlock  is  the  conia,  which  is  more  abundant  in 
the  fruit  (seeds)  than  in  the  leaves.  It  is  a  valua¬ 
ble  antispasmodic,  and  is  used  in  diseases  of  the 


mammary  glands  in  women.  It  is  a  violent 
poison,  go  of  a  grain  being  the  ordinary  dose.  In 
cases  of  poisoning  by  hemlock,  the  evacuation  of 
the  stomach  is  the  first  thing  to  be  attended  to. 
Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  poisoning  by  hemlock 
was  a  common  mode  of  death  for  condemned 


a,  a  flower,  the  petals  separated;  6,  root. 

criminals,  and  thus  it  was  that  Socrates  died; 
but  whether  it  was  the  juice  of  the  common 
hemlock  or  the  water  hemlock  that  was  used,  is 
unknown. 

Hemp  (Oan'nabis),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Cann/ibinaceie,  having  the  male  and 
female  flowers  on  different  plants;  the  male  flow¬ 
ers  with  five-partite  calyx  and  five  stamens;  the 
female  flowers  with  a  spathe-like  calyx  of  one 
leaf,  rolled  round  the  ovary  and  partially  split 
along  one  side,  and  two  thread-like  stigmas. 
There  is  only  one  known  species  (C.  sntiva),  vary¬ 
ing  considerably,  however,  from  soil,  climate, 
and  cultivation.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  a  native 
of  the  warmer  parts  of  Asia,  but  has  been  culti¬ 
vated  in  Europe  from  the  earliest  historic  times, 
and  is  now  naturalized  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
and  America.  Linen  is  made  from  its  fiber. 


Hemp  (Cannabis sativd). 

A,  male  inflorescence;  B,  female  inflorescence. 


The  seed  of  hemp  is  produced  in  great  abun¬ 
dance.  It  is  commonly  sold  as  food  for  cage-birds, 
and  is  used  as  a  therapeutic  agent  under  the  name 
of  Indian  hemp,  or  bhang.  It  is  administered 
in  the  form  of  resinous  extract  or  of  tincture, 
and  is  usually  prescribed  (like  opium)  for  its  hyp¬ 
notic,  anodyne,  and  antispasmodic  properties. 

Hemphill,  the  county  seat  of  Sabine  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  300. 

Hempstead,  an  important  town  on  the  Brazos 
river,  is  the  county  seat  of  Waller  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  2,500. 

Hen 'bane  ( Hyoscyamus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Solanacem,  having  a  five-toothed 
calyx,  an  irregular  funnel-shaped  corolla,  and  a 
capsule  opening  by  a  lid,  and  enclosed  in  the 
hardened  calyx.  The  species  are  mostly  annual 
and  biennial  herbaceous  plants,  and  natives  of 
the  countries  near  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Its 


extract  is  a  valuable  remedy  in  asthmatic  and 
other  affections  requiring  a  muscular  relaxant — to 


Henbane  (Hyoscyamus  niger) . 


be  used,  however,  only  under  advice  of  a  physi¬ 
cian. 

Henderson,  the  county  seat  of  Chester  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  700. 

Henderson,  a  town  of  Henderson  county,  Ky., 
is  a  growing  community.  Pop.,  5,365. 

Henderson,  an  important  agricultural  town, 
and  the  county  seat  of  Rusk  county,  Tex.  Pop., 

Henderson,  the  county  seat,  and  a  growing 
town  of  Sibley  county,  Minn.  Pop.,  958. 

Henderson,  the  county  seat  of  Vance  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Hendersonville,  the  county  seat  of  Henderson 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  800. 

Hendricks,  Thomas  A.,  born  in  Muskingum 
county,  Ohio,  in  1819,  became  a  Congressman  for 
an  Indiana  district  1851-55,  and  United  States 
Senator  1863-69.  In  1872  he  was  elected  on  the 
Democratic  ticket  Governor  of  Indiana.  In  1876 
he  was  candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency  on  the 
ticket  with  S.  J.  Tilden,  and  in  1884  was  elected 
Vice-President  on  the  Cleveland  ticket.  He  died 
Nov.  25,  1885. 

Hennepin,  the  county  seat  of  Putnam  county, 
Ill.  Pop  ,  623. 

Hen  'ua,  or  Hinna,  a  shrub  of  the  natural  order 
Lythracece ,  grows  in  moist  situations  throughout 
the  North  of  Africa,  Arabia,  Persia,  and  the  East 
Indies,  and  from  it  is  made  the  dye  which  Eastern 
women  use  to  color  their  nails. 

Hennepin,  Louis,  a  French  missionary,  born 
1640,  discovered  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  and 
wrote  a  description  of  Louisiana  and  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  river. 

Henrietta,  an  important  town  on  the  Wichita 
river,  is  the  county  seat  of  (.  lay  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  1,200. 

Henry.  England  had  eight  kings  of  this  name. 

Henry  I.,  son  of  William  the  Conqueror,  was 
born  in  1068,  and  assumed  the  crown  August, 
1100.  He  died  in  1135. 

Henry  II.  was  born  in  1133  and  was  crowned 
Dec.  19,  1154.  During  his  reign  occurred  the 
conquest  of  Ireland.  He  died  in  1189. 

Henry  III.,  grandson  of  Henry  II.,  was  born 
Oct.  1,  1206,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the 
age  of  ten.  He  died  Nov.  16,  1272,  and  was  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  his  son  Edward . 

Henry  IV.,  of  the  House  of  Lancaster,  usurped 
the  crown  in  1399,  and  died  March  20,  1413. 

Henry  V.  was  born  in  1388,  and  became  King 
April  21,  1413.  Henry  died  Aug.  31,  1422.  He 
was  the  “Prince  Hal  ”  of  Shakespeare’s  historical 
plays,  and  the  boon-companion  of  Sir  John  Falstaff. 

Henry  VI.  was  born  on  Dec.  6,  1421,  and  suc¬ 
ceeded  to  the  throne  in  1422.  The  Wars  of  the 
Roses  began  in  this  reign  and  desolated  England. 
Henry  VI.  died  May  22,  1471. 

Henry  VII.  was  born  Jan.  21,  1456.  He  as¬ 
cended  the  throne  in  1485,  and  died  April  22, 
1509. 

Henry  VIII.  was  born  in  1491.  He  ascended 
the  throne  in  1509.  During  his  reign  the  separa¬ 
tion  of  England  from  Papal  dominion  occurred, 
and  the  present  Church  of  England  was  founded. 
The  Bible  was  ordered  to  be  placed  in  all  churches, 
so  that  all  might  read,  and  Roman  Catholicism,  as 


HENRY  II. 


459 


HERNIA. 


the  established  faith  of  England,  received  its 
death-blow.  He  was  six  times  married;  beheaded 
two  of  his  wives  and  divorced  three.  Henry  died 
in  1547. 

Henry  II.,  King  of  France,  was  born  in  1518; 
married  Catharine' de’  Medici  in  1533;  succeeded 
his  father,  Francis  I.,  in  1547,  and  died  in  1559. 

Henry  III.,  of  France,  the  third  son  of  Henry 
II.  and  Catharine  de’  Medici,  was  bom  in  1551, 
and  succeeded  his  brother,  Charles  IX.,  in  1574. 
He  was  a  most  dissolute  and  worthless  man,  and 
was  stabbed  Aug.  1,  1589,  by  a  priest  named 
Jacques  Clement. 

Henry  IV.,  King  of  France  and  Navarre,  sur- 
named  The  Great  and  The  Good,  was  born  in 
Bearn  in  1553.  His  mother  trained  him  as  a 
Protestant  and  he  became  the  head  of  the  Hugue¬ 
nots  in  France.  He,  however,  recanted,  as  a 
political  necessity,  preliminary  to  his  accession  to 
the  throne,  and  for  a  time  put  an  end  to  the  civil 
war  between  the  Catholics  and  Protestants  in 
France.  He  died  May  14,  1610. 

Henry  III.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  was  born 
in  1017,  elected  King  of  the  Germans  in  1026, 
Duke  of  Bavaria  in  1027,  Duke  of  Swabia  and  Bur¬ 
gundy  in  1037,  succeeded  his  father  as  Emperor  in 
1039,  and  died  in  1056. 

Henry  IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  the  son  and 
successor  of  the  former,  was  born  in  1050,  elected 
King  of  the  Germans  in  1054,  crowned  Emperor 
1084,  and  died  1106. 

Henry,  surnamcd  The  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony, 
was  the  son  of  Henry  the  Proud,  and  was  born 
in  1129.  He  died  in  1195. 

Henry,  Joseph,  born  at  Albany,  N.  Y. ,  in  1797, 
died  May  13,  1878.  He  experimented  and  wrote 
extensively  on  electricity  and  magnetism,  and  in 
1846  became  Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Insti¬ 
tute. 

Henry,  Patrick,  an  American  statesman  and 
orator,  born  in  1736.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
first  Continental  Congress.  In  1776  he  was  elected 
Governor  of  Virginia,  and  was  afterward  twice 
reelected.  In  1795  Washington  appointed  him 
Secretary  of  State.  He  died  in  1799. 

He 'par  (Gr.  knap,  the  liver)  is  the  name  given 
by  the  older  chemists  to  various  compounds  of 
sulphur,  from  their  brown,  liver-like  color;  of 
these,  ILpar  sulphuris,  which  is  in  reality  a  mixt¬ 
ure  of  tersulphideof  potassium  and  some  oxysalts 
of  potash,  is  the  best  known.— Hepatic,  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  liver;  as,  hepatic  artery,  vein,  duct, 
etc. — Hepatica.  This  term  has  been  given  by 
writers  on  materia  medica  to  medicines  which 
affect  the  liver  and  its  appendages.  The  hepatica 
may  be  employed  (1)  to  modify  the  secretion  of 
bile;  (2)  to  remove  pain  of  the  liver  or  gall-blad¬ 
der,  or  pain  and  spasm  of  the  gall-ducts;  or  (3) 
to  relieve  enlargements  and  other  affections  of  the 
liver. 

Hepat’icae,  or  Liverworts,  a  natural  order  of 
cryptogamous  plants,  included  among  mosses  by 
the  older  botanists.  They  have  generally  a  leafy 
stem;  more  rarely  they  are  expanded  into  a  leaf- 
like  form. 

Hepati'tis  (Gr.  lit  dp,  the  liver),  inflammation 
of  the  liver.  It  is  indicated  by  pain  in  the  right 
side  and  shoulder,  tenderness  on  pressure  in  the 
right  liypochondrium,  with  enlargement  of  the 
liver  as  detected  by  the  hand  and  by  percussion, 
often  vomiting,  always  fever,  with  more  orless  loss 
of  appetite  and  a  foul  tongue.  Not  infrequently 
there  is  jaundice.  The  disease  sometimes  ends  in 
abscesses,  which  may  require  to  be  opened  exter¬ 
nally.  The  treatment  is  complicated,  and  can 
not  be  ventured  upon  without  professional  assist¬ 
ance. 

Heppner,  the  county  seat  of  Morrow  county, 
Ore.  Pop.,  700. 

Hep'tarchy,  TnE,  is  the  name  given  to  seven 
kingdoms  said  to  have  been  established  by  the 
Saxons  in  England. 

Herac'lius,  a  Byzantine  Emperor,  began  to 
reign  in  610.  He  died  in  641. 

Herat',  capital  of  the  most  westerly  of  the 
three  divisions  of  Afghanistan,  stands  on  the 
River  Heri,  at  the  height  of  2,500  feet  above  the 
sea.  Latitude  34®  50'  N.,  longitude  62°  30'  E.; 
distance  from  Cabul,  390  miles  west.  Pop.,  about 
30,000. 


Her'aldry,  in  the  more  restricted  sense,  is  the 
science  of  armorial  bearings.  A 
coat  of  arms  is  composed  of 
charges  depicted  on  an  escutch¬ 
eon  representing  the  old  knightly 
shield.  To  facilitate  descrip¬ 
tion,  the  surface  or  field  of  the 
escutcheon  has  been  divided  into 
nine  points.  The  metals  used 
in  heraldry  are  two — gold, termed 
or,  and  silver,  argent — repre-  a,  the  dexter  chief 
sented  in  painting  by  yellow  point  ;  B,  the  midl¬ 
and  white.  The  colorsare  five —  die  chief;  _G,  the 
red,  blue,  black,  green,  and  pur¬ 
ple,  known  as  gules,  azure,  sable, 
vert,  and  purpure.  Metals  and 
colors  are  indicated  in  uncolored 
heraldic  engravings  by  points  and 
hatched  lines,  an  invention  as¬ 
cribed  to  Father  Silvestro  di 
Petrasancta,  an  Italian  herald  of 
the  seventeenth  century. 

Or.  Argent.  Gules.  Azure.  Sable. 


sinister  chief;  D, 
the  honor  or  col¬ 
lar  point;  E,  the 
fess  point;  F,  the 
nombril  or  navel 
point;  G,  the  dex¬ 
ter  base  point;  H, 
the  middle  base; 
and  I,  the  sinister 
base  point. 


Vert.  Purpure.  Ermine.  Vair.  Potent  C.  P. 


Herault,  a  maritime  department  in  the  South 
of  France,  bounded  on  the  southeast  by  the  Gulf 
of  Lyon,  is  oval  in  form,  and  is  84  miles  in  great¬ 
est  length  from  east  to  west.  Area,  2,436  square 
miles,  pop.  (1881),  445,053.  It  is  <  ccupied  in  the 
north  and  northwest  by  the  lower  Cevennes,  from 
which  several  branches  of  moderate  elevation  run 
toward  the  south. 

Herbert,  George,  an  English  poet,  fifth 
brother  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury,  was  born 
in  Wales,  April  3,  1593,  and  died  in  1632. 

Herbs,  or  Herba'ceous  Plants,  in  Botany, 
are  those  in  which  no  persistent  woody  stem  is 
formed  above  ground.  In  some,  the  stem  is 
woody  but  still  annual.  There  is,  however,  in 
many,  a  permanent  woody  rhizome  or  root-stock. 
— In  books  of  gardening,  plants  used  only  for 
flavoring  are  sometimes  distinguished  as  sweet 
herbs,  as  mint,  basil,  etc.;  whilst  those  valued  for 
their  nutritive  qualities  are  known  as  pot  herbs. 

Hercula'neum,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  was 
at  the  northwestern  base  of  Mount  Vesuvius, 
about  five  miles  east  of  Naples.  In  63  a.d.,  the 
city  was  injured  by  an  earthquake;  and  in  79  it 
was  buried  with  Pompeii  and  Stabies,  by  the 
eruption  of  Vesuvius,  which  took  place  in  that 
year.  It  now  lies  at  a  depth  of  from  70  to  120 
feet  below  the  surface.  Excavations  have  been 
made,  partially  revealing  the  ancient  city,  and 
many  archreological  treasures  have  been  secured. 

Her'cules  (Gr.  JE  patches),  called  likewise 
Abides,  after  his  grandfather  Alcaeus,  was  the 
son  of  Zeus  and  Alcmene,  and  the  most  cele¬ 
brated  hero  of  the  Greek  legends,  the  ideal  of 
human  perfection,  as  conceived  in  the  heroic 
ages — i.  e.,  the  greatest  physical  strength,  con¬ 
nected  with  every  high  quality  of  mind  and  char¬ 
acter  which  these  ages  recognized.  His  exploits 
form  the  theme  of  many  mythical  legends,  and 
his  twelve  labors,  and  his  death,  are  considered 
by  some  authorities  to  be  symbolical  of  various 
astronomical  phenomena. 

Hercules,  Pillars  of,  the  name  given  by  the 
ancients  to  the  two  rocks  forming  the  entrance 
to  the  Mediterranean  at  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar. 
Their  erection  was  ascribed  by  the  Greeks  to 
Hercules,  on  the  occasion  of  his  journey  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Geryon. 

Hercules  Beetle  ( Scarabceus  hercules,  or  Dy- 
nastes  hercules),  a  coleopterous  insect  of  the 
family  Lamellicornes  and  trihe  Scarabceules,  re¬ 
markable  not  only  for  its  great  size — it  being  five 
inches  long — but  for  the  singular  appearance  of 
the  male;  an  enormous  horn  projecting  from  the 
head,  and  being  opposed  by  a  similar  but  smaller 
projection  of  the  thorax,  the  whole  resembling  a 
pair  of  great  but  somewhat  unequal  pincers,  of 


which  the  body  of  the  insect  is  the  handle.  It  is 
a  native  of  Brazil. 


Hercules  Beetle  ( Dijnasles  hercules). 


Hercy'nian  Forest  (Lat.  Jlercynia  silva ;  Gr. 
’Eptcvvia  vhp,  Herkynia  hyle,  or  ’Eptcvviov 
opoS,  Herkynion  oros),  the  general  designation  of 
the  entire  wooded  mountain-range  of  Middle  Ger¬ 
many,  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Carpathian  Mount¬ 
ains. 

Herder,  Johann  Gottfried  von,  an  illus¬ 
trious  German  philosopher,  was  born  at  Morun- 
gen,  Prussia,  in  1744,  and  died  Dec.  18,  1803. 

Her'efordshire,  acounty  in  the  West  of  Eng¬ 
land,  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  South  Wales, 
and  on  the  east  by  Worcester  and  Gloucester. 
Area,  534,823.  Pop.  (1881),  121,042. 

Herkimer,  an  important  railroad  and  com¬ 
mercial  center,  a  prosperous  manufacturing  town, 
and  the  county  seat  of  Herkimer  county,  N.  Y. 
Pop.,  2,359. 

Hermann,  the  county  seat  of  Gasconda  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  1,314. 

Hermaph'rodite,  in  Botany,  the  term  em¬ 
ployed  to  designate  those  flowers  which  contain 
both  the  male  and  female  organs  of  repro¬ 
duction  (stamens  and  pistils),  and  are  therefore 
by  themselves  capable  of  producing  perfect  seed. 

Her'mes,  the  name  of  a  divinity  more  famil¬ 
iarly  known  as  Mercury,  the  god  of  speech,  elo¬ 
quence,  the  sciences,  traffic,  theft,  and  herds. 
Linder  his  name  are  comprised  several  mytholog¬ 
ical  personages,  who  personified  the  external 
expression  of  thought,  whether  human  or  divine. 

Hermit  Crab,  the  common  appellation  of  a 
large  family  ( Paguridee )  of  crustaceans,  of  the 
order  Uecapoda,  and  sub-order  Aromoura.  The 


Hermit  Crab  ( Par/urus  bernhardns ). 


a,  animal  out  of  the  shell;  b,  in  shell;  c,  a  jaw-foot. 

most  common  species  ( Pagurus  bernhardus)  is  an 
interesting  object  to  every  visitor  of  the  sea-shore, 
and  may  be  found  in  abundance  wherever  little 
pools  are  left  by  the  tide  on  a  rocky  or  shelving 
coast. 

Hermitage,  the  county  seat  of  Hickory  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  200. 

Hermosillo,  a  town  of  Mexico.  Pop.,  14,000. 

Hernando,  the  county  seat  of  De  Soto  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  596. 

Her'nia,  in  its  widest  sense,  signifies  a  protru¬ 
sion,  through  an  abnormal  or  accidental  opening, 
of  any  organ  from  its  natural  cavity.  Although 
hernia  may  occur  in  many  parts  of  the  body,  the 
word,  used  by  itself,  is  restricted  to  signify  pro¬ 
trusion  of  the  abdominal  viscera.  The  treat¬ 
ment  of  reducible  hernia  consists  in  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  a  truss  to  retain  the  protrusion  within 
the  cavity  of  the  abdomen.  Each  particular  kind 
of  hernia  (femoral,  crural,  etc.)  requires  its  special 
form  of  truss;  and  before  applying  it,  the  hernia 
must  be  reduced  by  placing  the  patient  on  liis 
back,  relaxing  the  muscles  by  bending  the  thigh 


HERO. 


460 


HIERO  I. 


upon  the  abdomen,  and  pressing  the  tumor  hack 
in  the  proper  direction.  In  irreducible  hernia  the 
treatment  may  be  either  palliative  or  radical. 
The  palliative  treatment  consists  in  the  employ¬ 
ment  of  a  truss  with  a  hollow  pad  that  shall 
embrace  the  hernia,  and  prevent  any  additional 
protrusion.  A  radical  cure  may  sometimes  be 
obtained  by  keeping  the  patient  in  the  recumbent 
position,  and  on  very  low  diet,  for  two  or  three 
months;  at  the  same  time  keeping  the  bowels  open 
by  laxatives  and  injections,  and  maintaining 
equable  pressure  over  the  tumor. 

Hero,  or  Heron,  commonly  known  as  Hero 
of  Alexandria,  was  a  pupil  of  Ctesibius,  and 
flourished  284-221  b.c.  He  was  a  celebrated 
mathematician  and  natural  philosopher.  He 
constructed  a  great  number  of  machines  and 
automata. 


Her '0*1,  the  name  of  a  family  which  rose  to 
power  in  Judea  during  the  period  which  imme¬ 
diately  preceded  the  complete  destruction  of  the 
Jewish  nationality.  The  family  was  of  Idumean 
descent;  but,  though  alien  in  blood,  was  Jewish 
in  religion,  the  Idumeans  having  been  conquered 
and  converted  to  Judaism  by  John  Hyrcanus, 
130  b.c.  The  most  remarkable  rulers  of  the 
name  are  four  in  number — I lerod  the  Great, 
Herod  Antipas,  and  Herod  Agrippa  I.  and  II. 

Herod  'otns,  the  oldest  Greek  historian,  and 
usually  styled  the  Father  of  History,  was  born  at 
Halicarnassus,  in  Caria,  484  b.c.,  and  died  at 
Thuril  about  408  b.c. 

Heron  {Ardta),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order 
Grallatores,  tribe  Cultrvroslres,  and  family  Ar- 
deidoe.  This  fam¬ 
ily  includes  also 
bitterns,  night 
herons,  spoon¬ 
bills,  boatbills, 
storks, adjutants, 
ibises,  etc.  The 
bill  is  long,  com- 
pressed,  and 
sharp;  the  tail 
short ;  the  legs 
and  the  toes  long 
and  slender;  the 
wings  long.— 

The  c  o  m  m  o  n 
heron  (A.  cinerea) 
is  about  three  feet 
in  length  from 
the  point  of  the 
bill  to  the  end  of 
the  tail.  It  is  of 
a  delicate  gray 
color  on  the  up- 
per  parts  except  Common  Heron  {Ardea  cinerea). 

the  quill-feathers,  which  are  black,  and  the  tail, 
which  is  deep  slate  color. 

Hero's  Fountain,  a  pneumatic  apparatus, 
through  which  a  jet  of  water  is 
supported  by  condensed  air. 

A  simple  mode  of  constructing 
it  by  means  of  glass  tubes  and  - 
a  glass-blower’s  lamp  is  shown 
in  the  annexed  figure. 

Heros'tratus,  an  Ephesian, 

■who,  from  a  desire  of  future 
fame,  set  fire  to  the  magnificent 
temple  of  Diana,  in  356  b.c. 

Her'pes,  a  variety  of  diseases 
of  the  skin,  characterized  by 
vesicles,  sometimes  as  large  as  a 
a  split-pea,  occurring  in  clusters 
on  an  inflamed  base,  and  ending 
in  desquamation,  after  a  course 
of  a  few  days  or  weeks.  The 
treatment  is  in  soothing  and 
cooling  applications,  such  as 
cold  c-eam,  etc. 

Herrick,  Robert,  a  cele¬ 
brated  English  lyric _  poet,  born  Hero’s  Fountain, 
at  London  in  1591,  died  in  16  <4.  The  column  of  water 

Herring  ( Clupea  liarengus),  in  the  tube  a,  com- 
a  fish  of  the  malacopterous  presses  the  air  in 
family  Clupeidce;  the  most  im-  t^esirface  ofthe 
portant  to  mankind  of  all  spe-  water  in  c,  and 
cies  of  fish.  The  herring  is  causes  it  to  gush 
found  in  the  seas  of  the  northern  out  at ' ' 
parts  of  the  world,  but  more  abundantly  in  those 
■of  temperate  than  of  Arctic  regions.  The  fishes 


popularly  called  freshwater  herrings  are  Salmonidce 
of  the  genus  Coregonus,  to  which  also  belong  the 
herring  salmons  of  the  North  American  lakes  and 
rivers. 

Herschel,  Sir  William,  celebrated  astronomer, 
was  born  at  Hanover,  Germany,  Nov.  15,  1738. 
He  greatly  added  to  our  astronomical  knowledge. 
He  died  Aug.  23,  1822. — Herschel,  Sir  John 
Frederick  William,  son  of  the  above,  was  also  a 
celebrated  astronomer  and  mathematician.  He 
was  born  in  1792,  and  died  in  1871. 

Hersey,  the  county  seat  of  Osceola  county,  Mich . 
Pop.,  500. 

Hertford,  an  important  cotton  shipping  point 
on  Albermarle  Sound,  is  the  county  seat  of  Per¬ 
quimans  county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  661. 

Herefordshire,  or  Herts,  an  inland  county 
of  England,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Essex,  south 
by  Middlesex,  west  by  Buckingham  and  Bedford, 
and  north  by  Cambridge.  Area,  405,141  acres; 
pop.  (1871),  192,226;  (1881),  203,069. 

Her  'zegovi  'na  is  the  name  of  a  province  of  the 
Turkish  Empire,  now  occupied  by  Austria,  lying 
between  Bosnia,  Montenegro,  and  Dalmatia. 

He'siod,  next  to  Homer  the  earliest  Greek  poet 
of  whom  we  have  any  knowledge,  was  born,  prob¬ 
ably,  in  the  eighth  century  b.c.,  at  Ascra,  in  Bce- 
otia,  whither  his  father  had  emigrated  from  the 
iEolian  Kyme,  in  Asia  Minor. 

Hesper'ides,  the  name  of  the  famous  sisters 
who,  assisted  by  the  dragon  Ladon,  guarded  t  lie 
golden  apples  which  Hera  had  received,  on  her 
marriage  with  Zeus,  from  Ge. 

Hesse-Cas  'sel,  or  Electoral  Hesse  (Ger.  Ucs- 
sen-Kassel),  was  formerly  an  electorate  of  the  Ger¬ 
manic  Confederation,  but  in  1866  it  was  annexed 
to  Prussia,  and  subsequently  (December,  1868)  went 
to  form  a  part  of  the  new  Province  of  Hesse-Nas- 
sau.  Pop.  of  province,  1,554,376. 

Hesse-Darmstadt,  or  Hessen,  a  grand-duchy 
of  Germany,  extending  (exclusive  of  small  outly- 
ingportions)  between  49°  24'  and  50°  10'  N.  lati¬ 
tude,  and  7°  50'  and  9°  10'  E.  longitude,  and  con¬ 
sisting  of  two  nearly  equal  parts,  separated  by  a 
strip  of  land  belonging  to  Hesse-Nassau.  Total 
area,  2,950  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880),  936,340. 

Hesse-Hom'burg,  formerly  an  independent 
German  landgraviate,  but  now  forming  a  portion 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Prussia.  The  landgraviate 
was  divided  into  the  Provinces  of  Homburg  and 
Meisenheim;  the  former  bounded  by  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt  and  Hesse-Nassau,  and  the  latter  by  Rhenish 
Prussia  and  the  Bavarian  Palatinate.  Giving 
105.98  square  miles  for  the  superficial  area,  and 
26,817  for  the  population  of  the  entire  land¬ 
graviate. 

Hessian  Fly  ( Cecidomyia  destructor),  a  kind 
of  dipterous  insect,  the  larva  of  which  has 
often  proved  extremely  des-  b  /Tjjji 

tractive  to  wheat  in  this 
country.  It  is  black,  with 
dusky  wings,  darker  at  the 
base,  pale-brown  legs,  black  f — 1 — 
feet,  and  hairy  antennie.  /’Jy/jl 

There  are  two  broods  in  the  1 

year.  The  maggots  of  the  Hessian  Fly  (Cecido- 
one  brood  live  at  the  roots  of  myia  destructor). 
the  plants  throughout  the  winter;  those  of  the 
other  are  found  in  the  lower  joints  of  the  straw, 
in  the  end  of  spring  and_  beginning  of  summer. 

Heteroeer'cal  (Gr.  erspoi,  heteros,  different, 
unequal,  and  KspKoS,  lcerkos,  a  tail),  a  term  intro¬ 
duced  by  Agassiz  to  designate  a  peculiarity  of 
structure  in  the  tail  of  some  fishes,  in  which  the 


Heterocercal  tall  {Sturgeon). 


tail  is  unsymmetrical  with  reference  to  the  body 
of  the  fish  or  the  vertebral  column;  the  vertebral 
column  being  prolonged  into  the  upper  of  the  two 
lobes  of  the  tail,  and  a  second  lobe,  more  or  less 
distinct,  appearing  on  the  under  side. 

Hexam'eter  (Gr.  e  £  hex,  six,  and  jusrpov, 
metron,  a  measure),  the  name  applied  to  the  most 
important  form  of  classical  verse.  It  is  the  heroic 
or  epic  verse  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the 


grandest  examples  of  which  are  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey  of  Homer,  and  the  JEneid  of  Virgil.  It 
consists,  as  its  name  implies,  of  six  feet  or  meas¬ 
ures,  the  last  of  which  must  be  a  spondee.  A 
good  example  of  English  hexameter  is  furnished 
by  Longfellow’s  Evangeline. 

Hezeki'ali  (Heb.  Hiskiah,  Yehiskiyaliu,  may 
Jehovah  strengthen  him),  King  of  Judah,  son 
and  successor  of  Ahaz,  reigned  from  726  [725]  to 
696  [697]  B.c. 

Hiawassee,  the  county  seat  of  Towns  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  104. 

Hiawatha,  a  prosperous,  growing  agricultural 
town  and  the  county  seat  of  Brown  county,  Kan. 
Pop.  3,500. 

Hiberua'tion  (from  hibernure,  to  pass  the 
winter)  is  the  term  applied  by  naturalists  to  ex¬ 
press  a  peculiar  condition  of  sleep  in  which  cer¬ 
tain  animals — chiefly  cheiroptera  and  rodentia — 
pass  the  winter  season.  All  hibernating  animals 
instinctively  adopt  various  measures  to  secure 
themselves,  during  the  lethargic  period,  from 
sources  of  disturbance  and  excitement.  Some 
form  themselves  nests;  others  congregate  together 
in  large  numbers.  Revivescence  is  due  partly  to 
the  return  of  warmth,  but  mainly,  in  all  prob¬ 
ability,  to  the  calls  of  hunger.  The  return  of  the 
respiration  and  animal  heat  to  the  normal  stand¬ 
ard  is  very  gradual. 

Hiber'nia,  Ibernia,  Ivernia,  also  Ierne, 
names  by  which  Ireland  is  designated  in  the 
classical  writers. 

Hibis'cus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Malvaceae.  The  fruit  of  H.  esculenlus  (or 
Abelmoschus  esculentus )  is  in  general  use  both  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies  for  thickening  soups, 
and  otherwise  as  an  article  of  food.  It  is  called 
gombo,  gobbo,  and  ochro,  in  the  West  Indies. 

Hic'cup,  or  Hiccough,  consists  of  sudden, 
short,  convulsive  inspirations,  attended  with  a 
peculiar  sound  produced  in  the  larynx,  and  im¬ 
mediately  followed  by  expiration.  The  paroxysm 
may  last  only  a  few  minutes,  or  may  extend  to 
hours  or  days;  in  the  last-named  case,  it  may  be 
dangerous  to  life,  from  the  exhaustion  which  it 
causes,  but  usually  it  merely  excites  a  feeling  of 
uneasiness  or  slight  pain  about  the  region  of  the 
diaphragm.  When  the  attack  is  slight,  it  may 
often  be  stopped  by  making  a  very  full  inspira¬ 
tion,  and  then  holding  the  breath  as  long  as  possi¬ 
ble,  the  diaphragm  being  thus  held  in  a  state  of 
voluntary  contraction.  Strong  pressure,  as  a  belt 
tightly  drawn  round  the  waist,  will  sometimes 
give  relief.  In  more  obstinate  cases,  aromatic 
spirit  of  ammonia,  camphor,  musk,  etc.,  may  be 
resorted  to.  A  combination  of  camphor  and 
chloroform,  and  the  frequent  swallowing  of  small- 
rounded  pieces  of  ice,  are  perhaps  the  most  effi¬ 
cient  remedies. 

Hickman,  the  county  seat  of  Fulton  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  1,800. 

Hickory  {Cary a),  a  genus  of  trees  formerly 
included  among  walnuts  (Juglans).  They  are 
large  and  beautiful  trees,  attaining  a  height  of  70 
or  80  feet  with  pinnate  leaves.  The  timber  of  all 
of  them  is  very  heavy,  strong,  and  tenacious,  but 
decays  speedily  when  exposed  to  heat  and  moist¬ 
ure,  and  is  said  to  be  peculiarly  liable  to  injury 
from  worms.  The  nuts  are  in  considerable  re¬ 
quest,  and  are  sometimes  exported.  The  shell  is 
thin  but  hard,  the  kernel  sweet.  An  oil,  which 
is  used  by  the  Indians  as  an  article  of  food,  is  ob¬ 
tained  from  it  by  pounding  and  boiling. 

Hicks,  Elias,  a  celebrated  preacher  of  the 
Society  of  Friends,  was  born  at  Hempstead,  Long 
Island,  March  19,  1748.  The  result  of  his  labors 
was  a  schism  of  the  society  into  two  divisions, 
popularly  known  as  Orthodox  and  Hicksite  Qua¬ 
kers.  He  died  at  Jericho,  Long  Island,  Feb.  27, 
1830. 

Hiilal'gO  (Span.,  in  Port.,  fidalgo ;  a  word 
derived  by  some  from  hijo  del  Goto,  son  of 
a  Goth,  implying  purity  of  descent,  and  by 
others  from  hijo  de  alguno,  son  of  somebody ), 
is  the  title  of  a  class  of  the  lower  nobility  in 
Spain 

Hidalgo,  the  county  seat  of  Hidalgo  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  259. 

Hi'ero  I.,  King  of  Syracuse,  succeeded  his 
brother  Gelon  in  the  year  478  b.c.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  event  of  his  reign  was  the  naval  victory 
gained  by  his  fleet  and  that  of  the  Cumani  over 


HIERO  II. 


461 


HIPPODROME. 


the  Etruscans  in 474,  which  deprived  the  latter  of 
their  supremacy  in  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea. 

Hiero  II.,  King  of  Syracuse  (269-214  b.c.), 
was  the  son  of  a  noble  Syracusan  named  Hierocles. 
During  the  troubles  which  prevailed  in  Sicily, 
after  the  retreat  of  King  Pyrrhus,  275  b.c.,  Hiero 
distinguished  himself,  and  was  first  appointed 
Commander-in-Chief,  and  then  elected  King. 

Hie rog'lyph'ics (literally  meaning  sacred  sculpt¬ 
ures),  a  term  applied  to  those  representations  of 
natural  or  artificial  objects  used  to  express  lan¬ 
guage,  especially  those  which  the  ancient  Egyp¬ 


an  eagle,  A  a. 

an  arm,  A  a. 

a  reed,  Ail 

a  calf,  Au. 

a  heron,  Ba> 

J 

a  leg,  Bu. 

<— 

a  cerastes,  FL 

an  eaglet,  Ga. 

1 

a  vase,  Ga, 

■'l 

a  viper,  GL 

? 

leg  of  a  stool,  Ha. 

CD 

a  house,  Ha. 

* ! 

i  a  papyrus  plant, 
j  Ha. 

i 

1  foreq>art  of  lion, 

1  H£L 

1 

twisted  cord.  Hi 

v- 

a  tusk,  Hu. 

) 

a  club,  Hu. 

n 

two  reeds,  lu. 

" ! 

|  two  oblique 

[  strokes,  Iu. 

a  bowl,  KA 

leaf  of  water-lily, , 

*  1 

K  Ha. 

'M 

|  a  mormorus  fish,) 

!  KHa. 

o— 

a  mace,  KHa. 

© 

a  sieve,  Klti. 

A 

t  a  garment,  RIIu, 
(  or  Ail 

a  lion,  Ru,  or  Lu. 

1  a  mouth,  Lu,  or 
(  Ru. 

T 

a  jien.  Ma. 

0 

•> 

a  weight,  Ma. 

cz 

a  hole,  MA 

an  owl.  Mil 

> 

a  vulture,  Mu. 

— 

a  water-line,  Na. 

V 

a  red  crown,  Na. 

a 

a  vase,  Nil 

3*. 

a  goose  flying,  Pa. 

a 

a  shutter,  Pu. 

a 

a  knee,  Qa. 

a 

a  stand,  Qa. 

top  of  quiver,  8a. 

V 

a  goose,  Sa. 

33 

a  woof,  Sa, 

a  reed,  Su. 

— 

a  bolt.  So. 

f  ! 

j  back  of  chair, 

1  S(en  or  -et). 

iii 

a  garden,  SHa. 

& 

part  of  dress,  SHa. 

C3ZD 

a  pool,  SHL 

1 

a  spindle,  Ta. 

sees 

a  hand.  TL 

twisted  cord,  TL 

a  muller,  Tu. 

> 

a  duckling,  UL 

a  twisted  eord,  UL 

tians  and  Mexicans  employed  for  that  purpose. 
The  hieroglyphs  are  divided  into  two  great  classes 
— ideographs,  or  those  which  represent  ideas;  and 
phonetics,  or  those  which  express  sounds. 

Hierophant,  or  Mys'tagogue,  the  priest  who 
presided  over  the  mysteries  at  Eleusis,  was  always 
selected  from  the  family  of  Eumolpus,  who  was 
regarded  as  their  founder,  and  the  first  Hiero¬ 
phant. 

Highland.  Park,  an  attractive  suburban  town 
twenty-three  miles  north  of  Chicago,  on  the  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan.  Pop.,  1,154. 

Highmore,  the  county  seat  of  Hyde  county, 
Dak.  Pop.,  500. 

Higli-priest  (Heb.  Kohen  haggadol,  or  emphat. 
Kolien,  Gr.  archiereus,  Lat.  primus  pontif ex,  etc.), 
the  chief  of  the  Jewish  priesthood.  His  dignity 
was  hereditary  in  the  line  of  Eleazar,  the  son  of 
Aaron,  and  many  more  restrictions  attached  to  it 
than  belonged  to  the  ordinary  office  of  a  priest. 


Hildreth,  Richard,  was  born  at  Deerfield, 
Mass.,  June  28,  1807.  He  wrote  the  antislavery 
novel  Archie  Moore;  Banks,  Banking,  and  Paper 
Currency;  A  History  of  the  United  States;  and 
various  political  treatises.  He  died  in  1865. 

Hillman,  the  county  seat  of  Montmorency 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  160. 

Hillsborough,  the  name  of  several  towns  in 
the  United  States,  as  follows:  1.  A  wealthy  and 
well-built  agricultural  town,  and  the  county  seat 
of  Highland  county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  4,000. — 2.  An 
important  farming  town,  and  the  county  seat  of 
Hill  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  2,200. — 3.  The  county 
seat  of  Jefferson  county.  Mo.  Pop.,  337. — 4.  The 
commercial  center  of  a  rich  agricultural  distric  t, 
and  the  county  seat  of  Montgomery  county,  Ill. 
Pop.,  2,000. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Orange  coun¬ 
ty,  N.  C.  Pop.,  1,000. — 6.  The  county  seat  of 
Sierra  county,  N.  M.  Pop.,  500.— 7.  The  county 
seat  of  Washington  county,  Ore.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Hillsdale,  a  prosperous,  well-built  town  and 
important  trading  center,  and  the  county  seat  of 
Hillsdale  county,  Mich.  Pop.,  3,550. 

Hill  States,  a  number  of  small  principalities  of 
India,  on  the  left  or  east  side  of  the  Upper  Sutlej, 
comprise  about  10,000  square  miles,  and  about 
550,000  inhabitants. 

Hills ville,  the  county  seat  of  Carroll  county, 
Ya.  Pop.,  297. 

Himala'ya  (the  abode  of  snow,  from  the  San¬ 
skrit,  /lima,  snow,  and  dlaya,  abode),  in  South 
Central  Asia,  is  the  most  elevated  mountain  system 
on  the  globe.  The  mass  of  the  Himalaya  proper 
extends  from  the  great  bend  of  the  Indus  in  the 
west  to  the  junction  of  the  Sanpu  with  the  Brah¬ 
maputra  iu  the  east,  or  from  longitude  73°  23'  to 
95°  40'  E.,  a  distance  of  nearly  1,500  miles.  The 
mean  elevation  of  the  range  is  from  16,000  to  18,- 
000  feet,  but  forty-five  of  its  peaks  are  now  known 
to  exceed  23,000  feet  in  height.  Of  these  there 
are  inKumaon.Nanda  Devi,  25,749  feet;  in  Nepaul, 
Dhawalagiri,  26.826  feet;  Mount  Everest,  29,002 
(the  highest  known  point  on  the  globe);  and  Kun- 
chinjinga,  28,156  feet;  in  Bliotan,  Chumalari  is 
23,946  feet  above  tfie  sea. 

Hindu  Kush,  or  Indian  Caucasus,  forms  the 
westward  continuation  of  the  Himalaya,  being 
sometimes  reckoned  a  part  of  that  colossal  range. 
It  extends  from  the  Upper  Indus  on  the  east  to 
the  Bamian  Pass  on  the  W'est,  stretching  in  N. 
latitude  between  34  s  and  36s,  and  in  E.  longitude 
between  68°  and  75°. 

Hindustan',  meaning  the  land  of  the  Hindus, 
is  a  term  of  the  same  class  as  Turkestan,  Afghan¬ 
istan,  Farsistan,  Beloochistan,  or  Frangistan  (the 
oriental  name  of  Western  Europe).  See  India. 

Hindustani,  or  Urdu,  is  a  dialect  of  the  Hindi, 
one  of  the  seven  languages  of  Aryan  stock  spoken 
at  the  present  day  in  North  India,  the  others 
being  the  Panjabi,  Sindhi,  Gujarati,  Marathi, 
Bangali,  and  Oriya 

Hinesville,  the  county  seat  of  Liberty  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  162. 

Hinton,  an  important  town  on  the  Kanawha 
river  is  the  county  seat  of  Summers  county,  W. 
Va.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Hip,  or  Hep,  the 
fruit  of  the  rose.  It 
is  almost  always  red, 
and  consists  of  the 
enlarged  fleshy  tube 
of  the  calyx  filled 
with  hard  seed-like 
ac/uenia,  which  are 
surrounded  with 
bristly  hairs  (seta). 

The  fleshy  covering 
contains  mucilage, 
sugar,  gum,  malic 
and  citric  acids,  tan¬ 
nin,  resin,  and  a 
number  of  salts.  The 
fleshy  part  of  hips, 
beaten  to  a  pulp,  and 
preserved  with  su¬ 
gar,  finds  a  place  in 
the  pharmacopoeia, 
under  the  name  of  Hip  (Itosce  canince) 
conserve  of  hips,  a,  hip  opened,  showing  position 
( Conserva  rosce  fruc-  of  seeds;  h,  a  seed. 

ids,  Confectio  rosm  canince,  etc.) 

Hinny,  the  hybrid  produced  between  a  horse 


and  a  female  ass.  It  is  smaller  than  a  mule,  but 
the  body  is  more  bulky  in  proportion  to  the  legs, 
and  its  strength  is  inferior.  It  is  less  valuable 
than  the  mule,  although  it  is  more  docile.  The 
hinny  is  rare.  It  was  described  by  some  of  the 
earlier  naturalists  as  a  hybrid  between  the  ox  an: 
the  ass. 

Hip-joint,  is  a  ball-and-socket  joint  formed  by 
the  reception  of  the  globular  head  of  the  thigh¬ 
bone  (or  femur)  into  the  deep  pit  or  cup  in  the 
os  innominatum,  which  is  known  as  the  acetabulum 
(so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  the  vinegar 
cups  used  by  the  Romans).  If  the  variety  of  the 


1,2,  3,  pelvic  ligaments;  4,  5,  the  greater  and  lesser  sacro- 
ischiatie  foramina;  6,  the  cotyloid  ligament;  7,  the 
round  ligament ;  8,  the  cut  edge  of  the  lower  part  of 
the  capsular  ligament. 

movements  of  this  joint — viz.,  flexion,  extension, 
abduction,  adduction,  and  rotation  inward  and 
outward,  and  at  the  same  time  its  great  strength 
are  considered,  it  may  well  claim  to  be  regarded 
as  the  most  perfect  joint  in  the  whole  body. 

Hippocam  'pus,  a  genus  of  osseous  fishes,  of 
the  order  Lophobranchii,  and  of  the  family  Syn- 
gnathidee,  by  some  naturalists  made  the  type  of  a 
separate  family,  Hippocampidce,  remarkably  dis- 


Hippocampus  Brevirostris. 


tinguislied  by  the  prehensile  tail,  which  is  taper¬ 
ing,  and  quite  destitute  of  fin.  The  males  have 
pouches  on  the  tail,  in  which  the  eggs  are  carried 
till  they  are  hatched.  From  their  appearance,, 
these  fishes  have  received  the  name  of  sea-horse. 

Hippoc' rates,  the  most  celebrated  physician 
of  antiquity,  was  born  in  the  Island  of  Cos,  prob¬ 
ably  about  460  b.c.,  and  died  about  370  b.c.  He 
wrote  a  large  number  of  books  on  medical  and 
kindred  topics,  some  of  which  have  been  studied 
and  quoted  by  the  ablest  men  iu  his  profession, 
from  his  day  to  the  present. 

Hippocre'ne  (derived  from  itctcoZ,  hippos,  a 
horse,  and  k pgvrj,  krene,  a  fountain)  is  a  fountain 
on  Mount  Helicon,  about  twenty  stadia  above  the 
Grove  of  the  Muses,  and,  according  to  the  mythi¬ 
cal  account,  was  produced  bv  a  stroke  from  the 
hoof  of  the  horse  Pegasus.  It  was  sacred  to  the 
Muses. 

Hip'po<lrome(Gr.  iititoS,  a  horse,  and  Spo/.io?, 
a  race-course),  the  Greek  name  for  the  place  set 
apart  for  horse  and  chariot  races.  Its  dimensions 
were,  according  to  the  common  opinion,  half  a 


H1PP0LYTUS. 


462 


HOLOTHURIA. 


mile  in  length,  and  one-eiglith  of  a  mile  in  breadth. 
In  construction  and  all  important  points  of 
arrangement,  it  was  the  counterpart  of  the  Roman 
circus,  with  the  exception  of  the  arrangement  of 
the  chariots  at  the  starting-place. 

Hipgol'ytus,  the  name  of  several  saints  and 
martyrs  of  the  early  church,  among  whom  the 
chief  interest  is  concentrated  upon  one  who  is 
believed  to  have  flourished  in  the  early  part  of  the 
third  century,  to  have  been  Bishop  of  Portus, 
near  Rome,  and  to  have  suffered  martyrdom 
under  Alexander  Severus. 

Hippoph'agi  (eaters  of  horse-flesh,  from  Gr. 
irtitoZ,  hippos,  a  horse,  and  epciysiv ,  phagein,  to 
cat),  Scythian  people,  living  northeast  of  the  Cas¬ 
pian  Sea,  who  regarded  horse-flesh  as  a  dainty. 

Hippopot'amus(Gr.  i'nnoS,  ahorse,  n orayoi, 
a  river,  river-horse),  a  genus  of  artiodactyle  ungu¬ 
late  mammals,  constituting  a  family  by  itself.  It 
is  found  principally  in  Africa.  The  common 
hippopotamus  is  one  of  the  largest  of  existing 
quadrupeds,  is  aquatic  in  its  habits,  and  its  skin 


Hippopotamus. 


is  nearly  two  inches  thick  in  places.  The  feet 
have  each  four  toes,  nearly  equal  in  size,  and 
hoofed.  The  neck  is  short  and  thick.  The  head 
is  large,  with  small  ears,  and  small  eyes  placed 
high,  so  that  they  are  easily  raised  above  water, 
without  much  of  the  animal  being  exposed  to 
view.  The  muzzle  is  large,  rounded,  and  tumid, 
with  large  nostrils  and  great  lips  concealing  the 
front  teeth. 

Hippu'ric  Acid  (C9II9NO3)  derives  its  name 
from  its  having  been  flrst  discovered  in  the  urine 
of  the  horse.  The  acid  is  a  product  of  the  meta¬ 
morphosis  of  the  bodily  tissues,  especially  of 
herbivorous  animals. 

Histol'ogy  (derived  from  the  Gr.  words  histos, 
a  web  or  texture,  and  logos,  a  discourse)  is  the 
science  which  classifies  and  describes  the  struct¬ 
ural  or  morphological  elements  which  exist  in 
the  solids  and  fluids  of  organized  bodies. 

Hitchcock,  Edward,  D.D.,  LL.D  ,  an  Ameri 
can  geologist,  born  at  Deerfield,  Mass.,  May  24, 
1793.  He  published  several  useful  works  on 
geology  and  kindred  sciences,  and  died  Feb.  27, 
1864. 

Hittitcs,  the  English  name  of  the  people  called 
in  the  Old  Testament  Khittim,  a  Canaanitish 
people  conquered  by  the  Israelites,  spoken  of  as 
the  children  of  Heth. 

Hi'vites  (midlanders  according  to  Ewald,  or 
villagers  according  to  Gesenius),  a  Canaanitish 
people,  who  in  the  time  of  Jacob  were  found 
occupying  the  uplands  of  Ephraim,  and  later, 
the  slopes  of  Hermon  and  the  region  westward 
toward  Tyre. 

H’las  'sa,  capital  of  Thibet,  on  the  Dzangtsu, 
in  latitude  29°  39'  N.,  and  longitude  91°  E.; 
11,910  feet  above  sea  level. 

Hoar,  Ebenezer  R.,  born  at  Concord,  Mass., 
Feb.  24,  1816,  became  Justice  of  the  State  Su¬ 
preme  Court  in  1859,  and  in  1869  United  States 
Attorney-General  He  was  nominated  Associate 
Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  in 
1870,  but  not  confirmed.  In  1871  he  was  a  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Commission  which  negotiated  the 
Treaty  of  Washington,  and  in  1872  was  elected  to 
Congress,  and  served  two  years. 

Hoar,  George  Frisbie,  brother  of  the  above, 
born  in  Concord,  Mass.,  Aug.  9,  1826,  served 
four  terms  in  Congress,  became  Senator  from  his 
native  State  in  1877  and  served  two  terms.  He 


presided  over  the  Republican  National  Conven¬ 
tion  at  Chicago  in  1880. 

Ho  'azin,  or  Touraco  ( Opisthocomus  crist atm), 
a  bird  nearly  :is  large  as  a  peacock,  which  it 
somewhat  resembles  in  its  gaii  and  manners;  a 
native  of  Guiana  and  Brazil;  generally  referred 


Hoazin  l Opisthocomus  cristalus). 


by  naturalists  to  the  family  Crrtcidce  (with  curas- 
sows  and  guans)  and  the  gallinaceous  order;  but 
by  some  regarded  as  of  the  order  Insessores,  and 
as  allied  to  the  plantain-eaters. 

Hobbes,  Thomas,  was  born  at  Malmesbury, 
England,  on  April  5,  1588.  He  was  known  as 
“  Leviathan,”  from  the  title  of  a  book  which  he 
wrote  in  defense  of  monarchy.  He  died  at  the 
age  of  ninety -two. 

Hobby  (Falco  subbvteo),  a  small  species  of 
falcon,  a  native  of  all  or  most  parts  of  Europe, 
and  of  many  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  It  is,  in 


its  utmost  length,  about  12  or  14  inches.  It  is 
grayish-black  or  bluish-gray  on  the  upper  parts, 
each  feather  edged  with  yellowish-white,  and  the 
whole  form  is  very  elegant. 

Ho'bokeu,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Hud¬ 
son  county,  N.  J.,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hud¬ 
son  river,  opposite  New  York,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  several  steam  ferries.  Pop.,  37,721. 

Hodge,  Charles,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  American 
theologian,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Dec.  28, 
1797,  and  died  June  19,  1878. 

Hodgensville,  the  county  seat  of  La  Rue 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  500. 

Holdrege,  the  county  seat  of  Phelps  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  1,600.  It  Is  a  growing  town  and  the 
commercial  center  of  a  rich  farming  district. 

Hoffman,  Charles  Tenno,  poet  and  novel¬ 
ist,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1806,  and  died  in 
1884. 

Hogartli,  William,  a  celebrated  painter  and 
engraver,  born  in  London  in  the  year  1697.  His 
pictures  are  all  of  a  moral  and  instructive  nature, 
and  have  given  him  lasting  fame.  He  died  in 
1764. 

Hogg,  James,  a  Scottish  poet,  called  from  his 
birth-place  “the  Ettrick  Shepherd,”  born  in  1770, 
and  died  in  1835. 

Ho'henzollern,  a  province  in  South  Germany, 
but  belonging  to  Prussia,  is  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
entirely  surrounded  by  Wurtemberg  and  Baden. 
Area,  about  480  square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  67,624. 
The  Ilohenzollern  family  traces  its  descent  from 
Count  Thassilo,  who  lived  about  the  beginning  of 
the  ninth  century,  and  founded  a  castle  near 
Hechingeu,  on  the  Zollern  heights,  whence  his 
descendants  derived  their  patronymic.  The  reign¬ 


ing  King  of  Prussia  (and  Emperor  of  Germany) 
is  of  the  Ilohenzollern  family. 

Holbeiu,  Hans,  the  Younger,  one  of  the  first 
masters  of  German  art,  was  born  at  Augsburg,  in 
1497,  and  died  in  England  in  1543.  Many  of  his 
portraits  and  other  works  are  in  existence. 

Holland,  North,  a  province  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands,  lying  between  52°  10'  and 
53°  18'  N.  latitude,  and  4°  30'  and  5°  20'  E.  longi¬ 
tude.  Area,  1,050  square  miles,  and  pop. 
(1880),  694,166.  North  Holland  consists  of  a 
peninsula  joined  to  the  mainland  at  its  southern 
extremity,  and  of  the  islands  of  Wieringcn,  Texel, 
andVlieland,  lying  at  its  northern  extremity.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  German  Ocean, 
and  on  the  east  by  the  Zuider  Zee. 

Holland,  South,  a  province  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands,  lying  between  51°  45'  and  52 
20'  N.  latitude,  and  3°  50'  and  5°  10'  E.  longi¬ 
tude.  Area,  1,162  square  miles,  and  pop.  (1880), 
818,477.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  North 
Holland;  east,  by  Utrecht  and  Gelderland;  south, 
by  the  Maas,  which  separates  it  from  Zeeland  and 
North  Brabant;  and  west,  by  the  German  Ocean. 
South  Holland  comprises  the  land  around  the  em¬ 
bouchures  of  the. Rhine  and  Maas,  which  is  cut 
up  in  its  southern  portions  into  several  islands — 
viz.,' Voorne,  Overflackkee,  and  Goeree,  Putten, 
Ysselmonde,  Beijerland,  etc. 

Hollidaysburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Blair 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  3,150. 

Hollister,  the  county  seat  of  San  Benito 
county,  Cal.  Pop.,  1,350. 

Holly  {Ilex),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Aquifoliacece,  chiefly  natives  of  tem¬ 
perate  climates;  with  evergreen,  leathery,  shin¬ 
ing,  and  generally  spinous  leaves. 

Holly  Springs,  an  important  commercial  town, 
and  the  county  seat  of  Marshall  county,  Miss. 
Pop.,  2  400. 

Hol'lyhock  (Althcm  rosea),  a  plant  of  the  nat¬ 
ural  order  Malvacece,  commonly  referred  to  the 
same  genus  with  the  marsh  mallow. 

Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  M.D.,  was  born  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  Aug.  29,  1809.  In  1829,  he 
graduated  at  Harvard  College,  and  entered  upon 
the  study  of  law,  but  soon  adopted  his  father’s 
profession — medicine.  Dr.  Holmes  is  not  only  a 
man  of  science,  but  a  humorous  and  satirical 
poet  of  much  ability.  Several  of  his  lyrics  also 
are  among  the  most  exquisite  produced  in 
America. 

Holocan'flins,  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the  family 
Chcetodontidee,  remarkable  for  the  great  beauty  and 
symmetry  of  their  colors,  and  for  their  excellence 
as  articles  of  food.  They  are  natives  of  the  seas 
of  warm  climates. 

Holopty 'chius  (0J0;,  holos,  all,  and  ktvxv, 
ptyche,  wrinkle),  a  remarkable  genus  of  fossil 
ganoid  fishes,  so  named  from  the  wrinkled  ap¬ 
pearance  of  the  enameled  scales. 

Holotlm'ria,  a  genusof  Echinodermata  found 
in  all  seas,  but  particularly  in  the  Red  Sea,  and 


a,  77.  phantapus;  b,  buccal  appendages  of  77.  phantapus; 
c,  If.  papUlosa;  d,  an  isolated  branch  of  the  buccal  ap¬ 
pendages  of  77.  papillosa;  e,  77.  cvcumis;  f.  If.  viitata. 

between  the  South  of  Asia  and  Australia.  The 
largest  European  species  II.  ( Cucumaria )  fron- 
dosa,  is  about  a  foot  in  length,  and  capable  of 


HOLSTEIN. 


463 


HONEY-EATER. 


extending  itself  to  three  feet.  The  Beche-de-mer, 
or  trepang,  so  much  esteemed  as  a  delicacy  by 
the  Chinese,  belongs  to  this  family. 

Hol'steln,  formerly  a  duchy  belonging  to  Den¬ 
mark,  is  separated  from  Slesvig  on  the  north  by 
the  River  Eyder  and  the  Slesvig-IIolstein  Canal; 
is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Baltic  Sea,  the  ter¬ 
ritory  of  Liibeck,  and  the  Duchy  of  Lauenburg; 
on  the  south  by  the  Hamburg  territory  and  the 
River  Elbe,  which  separates  it  from  Hanover;  and 
on  the  west  by  the  North  Sea.  Area,  3,270  square 
miles;  pop.,  554,510. 

Holton,  an  important  agricultural  town,  and 
the  county  seat  of  Jackson  county,  Kan.  Pop., 
2,500. 

Holy  Alliance,  a  league  formed  after  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Prussia,  nominally  to  regulate  the  relations  of 
the  States  of  Christendom  by  the  principles  of 
Christian  charity,  but  really  to  preserve  the  power 
and  influence  of  the  existing  dynasties. 

Holy  Family,  the  name  given,  in  the  language 
of  art,  to  every  representation  of  the  infant  Saviour 
and  his  attendants. 

Holy  Ghost,  or  Holy  Spirit,  in  orthodox 
theology,  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity,  proceed¬ 
ing  from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  yet  of  one  sub¬ 
stance,  majesty,  and  glory  with  the  Father  and 
the  Son,  very  and  eternal  God.  The  “procession  ” 
of  the  Spirit  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  chief  dif¬ 
ferences  between  the  Eastern  and  the  Western  or 
Latin  Churches. 

Holyoke,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Connecticut  river.  Pop.,  27,894. 

Ho'lyrood,  a  palace  near  Edinburgh,  Scotland, 
formerly  an  abbey,  and  noted  in  Scottish  history. 

Holy  Water,  in  the  Roman  Catholic,  as  also  in 
the  Greek,  Russian,  and  Oriental  Churches,  signi¬ 
fies  water  blessed  by  a  priest  or  bishop  for  certain 
religious  uses. 

Holy  Week,  the  week  immediately  preceding 
Easter,  and  specially  consecrated  to  the  commemo¬ 
ration  of  the  passion  of  our  Redeemer. 

Home'lyn  (Raia  miraletus  or  maculata),  a  spe¬ 
cies  of  ray,  common  on  the  south  coast  of  Eng- 


Homelyn  ( Raia  maculata). 


land.  In  form  and  appearance  it  more  nearly  re¬ 
sembles  the  thornback  than  the  skate. 

Ho'mer,  the  greatest  name  in  the  history  of 
epic  poetry.  The  central  fact  on  which  traditions 
agree  is,  that  the  author  of  the  Homeric  poems, 
the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  was  an  Asiatic  Greek, 
and  Smyrna  the  city  which  had  the  honor 
of  giving  birth  to  the  father  of  epic  poetry.  The 
date  given  by  Herodotus  for  the  age  of  Homer — 
400  years  be  l  ore  his  own  time,  that  is,  about  850 
B.C. — is  probable  enough. 

Homer,  the  county  seat  of  Angelina  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  475. 

Homer,  the  county  seat  of  Banks  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  140. 

Homer,  the  capital  of  Claiborne  Parish,  La. 
Pop.,  900. 

Homerville,  the  county  seat  of  Clinch  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  300. 

Homerville,  the  county  seat  of  Gosper  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  95. 

Homestead  Laws.  The  laws  of  the  United 
States  give  to  every  citizen  who  is  the  head  of  a 
family,  or  who  has  arrived  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years,  the  right  to  a  homestead  of  160  acres, 
to  be  selected  at  will  from  any  of  the  surveyed 
and  otherwise  unappropriated  public  lands,  with¬ 
out  cost,  except  entry  fees.  The  tract  thus  taken 


as  a  homestead  must  be  located  in  a  compact 
body,  upon  land  which  is  agricultural  in  charac¬ 
ter,  and  must  conform  to  the  legal  subdivisions 
established  by  the  official  survey.  To  obtain  a 
homestead  the  applicant  must  make  an  affidavit 
that  he  is  over  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  or 
the  head  of  a  family;  that  he  is  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  or  has  declared  his  intention  to 
become  such;  and  that  the  entry  is  made  for  his 
exclusive  use  and  benefit,  and  for  actual  settle¬ 
ment  and  cultivation.  Where  homestead  entries 
are  made  by  soldiers  and  sailors  who  served 
ninety  days  or  more  in  the  United  States  army 
or  navy  during  the  War  of  the  Rebellion,  the 
period  of  their  service,  or,  if  they  were  dis¬ 
charged  on  account  of  wounds  or  disability 
incurred  in  the  line  of  duty,  the  entire  term  of 
enlistment,  not  to  exceed  four  years,  is  deducted 
from  the  five  years’  residence  required  by  law. 
But  no  one  can  receive  a  title  to  his  homestead 
under  any  circumstances  without  having  lived 
upon  it  at  least  one  year. 

Homicide,  a  term  used  in  law  to  denote  the 
mere  killing  of  a  human  being  without  implying 
the  attendant  criminal  responsibility.  It  is  used 
with  the  word  justifiable,  to  den  te  that  the  kill¬ 
ing  was  done  under  lawful  authority. 

Homoeopa'tliy,  is  a  system  of  medicine  intro¬ 
duced  into  practice  about  the  close  of  last  century 
by  Hahnemann.  It  is  founded  upon  the  belief 
that  medicines  have  the  power  of  curing  morbid 
conditions  similar  to  those  which  they  have  the 
power  to  excite.  Hahnemann  lays  it  down  as  one 
of  the  fundamental  propositions  of  homoeopathy, 
that  no  medicine  should  be  given  to  the  sick 
which  has  not  first  been  proved  upon  those  in 
health.  The  properties  once  determined,  then  it 
becomes  possible  to  administer  it  in  accordance 
with  the  principle  of  homoeopathy.  To  ascertain 
the  effects  of  medicinal  substances  upon  persons 
in  health — from  the  knowledge  thus  obtained  to 
select  a  remedy  whose  action  corresponds  with 
the  symptoms  of  the  patient  under  treatment — to 
give  this  remedy  by  itself  alone,  are  three  of  the 
fundamental  rules  for  the  practice  of  homoeo¬ 
pathy.  The  fourth  is,  that  the  dose  of  a  homoeo¬ 
pathic  medicine  should  be  so  small  asnot  to  cause 
any  general  disturbance  of  the  system,  its  action 
being  limited  to  that  portion  of  the  body  which 
is  in  a  morbid  condition.  How  small  that  is  can 
be  ascertained  only  by  experiment. 

Honioou'sian  (Gr.  ojuoi,  homos,  the  same,  and 
nvdta,  ousia,  substance)  and  Homoiousi.au  (Gr. 
ofioio?,  homoios,  like,  and  ovtiia,  ousia,  sub¬ 
stance),  two  terms  that  long  distracted  the  Primitive 
Church.  The  first  was  the  shibboleth  of  ortho¬ 
doxy  in  the  Arian  controversy,  the  decree  of  the 
Council  of  Nice,  which  declared  the  Son  to  be 
homooitsian,  of  the  same  substance  with  the 
Father.  The  rigid  Arians,  who  resisted  the  de¬ 
cree  of  Nice,  of  course  rejected  the  term.  The 
semi-Arians,  who  held  the  subordination  of  the 
Son  to  the  Father,  were  divided  as  to  its  use. 

Homop'tera  (Gr.  ojuoS,  homos ,  the  same,  uni¬ 
form,  nrspov,  pteron,  a  wing),  according  to  some 
entomologists,  an  order  of  insects;  according  to 
others,  one  of  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  order 
Uemiptera. 

Honan',  one  of  the  central  provinces  of  China, 
having  an  area  of  66,900  square  miles,  and  a  pop. 
of  29,069,771.  Its  capital,  Kaifung-fu,  is  situated 
on  the  Yellow  river. 

Hondu'ras,  a  republican  State  of  Central 
America,  extending  east  and  west  from  the  Carib¬ 
bean  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  separating 
Nicaragua  on  the  southeast  from  Guatemala  on 
the  northwest,  containing  about  47,068  square 
miles,  and  351,700  inhabitants. 

Honduras,  Bay  of,  an  inlet  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  between  Yucatan  and  Guatemala  on  the 
west,  and  Honduras  on  the  south. 

Hones,  or  W het-stones,  a  particular  class  of 
stones  used  for  the  purpose  of  sharpening  edge- 
tools,  such  as  knives,  scythes,  etc.  The  best  are 
those  brought  from  Turkey;  Bohemia  is  also 
celebrated  for  its  hones;  and  excellent  ones  are 
found  in  Persia,  in  the  Hartz  Mountains,  in 
Styria,  in  Spain,  Peru,  Siberia,  and  in  this 
country.  In  Great  Britain,  several  localities  yield 
hone-stones  of  excellent  quality,  and  none  better 
than  the  celebrated  Water-of-Ayr  stone,  which  is 
much  used  for  polishing  copper  plates,  as  well 


as  for  hones.  The  Welsh  oil-stone  or  Id  wall 
stone,  and  the  cutler’s  green-stone,  are  obtained 
from  Snowdon  in  Wales;  and  in  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  Tavistock,  the  Devonshire  oil-stones  are 
procured.  The  hones  used  for  sharpening 
scythes,  etc.,  are  usually  made  of  coarse-grained 
sandstone. 

Honesdale,  an  important  agricultural  and 
manufacturing  city  on  the  Lackawaxin  river,  is 
the  county  seat  of  Wayne  county,  Penn.  Pop., 
6,000. 

Honesty  ( Lunaria ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Cruciferce. 

Honey  is  secreted  by  the  nectariferous  glands 
of  flowers,  whence  it  is  collected  by  the  working 
or  neuter  bees,  which  extract  it  by  means  of  the 
proboscis,  and  pass  it  into,  the  dilatation  of  the 
oesophagus,  known  as  the  crop  or  honey-bag. 
When  the  animal  has  arrived  at  the  hive,  it  dis¬ 
gorges  the  honey,  probably  altered  by  admixture 
with  the  secretion  o.f  the  crop,  into  the  cells  of 
the  comb.  The  composition  of  honey  varies 
somewhat  according  to  the  food  of  the  bees,  their 
age,  the  season,  etc.  The  best  and  newest  honey 
is  a  clear  fluid  contained  in  a  white  comb,  while 
older  honey  is  of  a  yellowish,  and  even  reddish 
tint. 

Honey-buzzard,  or  Pern  ( Pernis ),  a  genus  of 
Fnlconidce,  allied  to  kites  and  buzzards,  but 
differing  from  them,  and  from  all  other  Fal- 


Iloney-buzzard  ( Pernis  opivorus). 


conidce,  in  having  the  lore,  or  space  between  the 
eye  and  the  bill,  closely  covered  with  feathers, 
which  over-lap  one  another  like  scales. 

Honeycomb-moth,  or  Wax-moth  (Qalleria), 
a  genus  of  small  moths  of  the  same  tribe  with 


Honeycomb-moth. 

a,  Galleria  mellonella;  b,  larva;  c,  pupa;  d,  larva  working 
its  way  through  honeycomb;  e,  Galleria  alvearia. 

clothes’  moths,  of  which  some  of  the  species  arc 
remarkable  for  infesting  bee-hives. 

Honeycombs,  in  guns,  are  flaws  resembling  the 
cells  made  by  bees,  worked  in  the  metal  by  the 
action  of  exploded  gunpowder.  They  spread 
rapidly,  and,  with  continuous  firing,  soon  eat  into 
the  metal  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  the  fur¬ 
ther  use  of  the  gun  dangerous. 

Honey-dew,  a  viscid  saccharine  exudation  which 
is  often  found  in  warm,  dry  weather  on  the  leaves 
and  stems  of  plants,  occurring  both  on  trees  and 
herbaceous  plants.  It  is  usually,  but  not  always, 
associated  with  the  presence  of  Aphides  Cocci ,  and 
other  insects  which  feed  on  the  juices  of  plants, 
and  its  flow  is  ascribed  to  their  punctures. 

Honey-eater,  or  Honey-sucker,  a  name  some¬ 
times  given  to  some  of  the  sun-birds,  but  also  the 


HONEY  LOCUST  TREE. 


464 


HOP  FLEA. 


common  name  of  a  large  family  of  birds  nearly 
allied  to  these  and  to  humming-birds,  and  peculiar 


New  Holland  Honey-eater  (Meliphacja  Nova 
Hottandia) . 


to  Australia  and  the  islands  of  that  part  of  the 
world. 

Honey  Locnst  Tree  ( Gleditschia  triacanthos) — 
also  known  as  the  Sweet  Locust  and  Black 
Locust,  and  iu  Britain  as  the  Three-thorned 
Acacia — a  lofty  and  beautiful  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Cmalpiniem,  a  native 
of  the  valleys  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  of  the  basin 
of  the  Mississippi. 

Honey-stone,  or  Mellite,  a  mineral  of  re¬ 
markable  characters  and  composition,  found  in 
connection  with  coal  and  sulphur  in  several  places 
in  Germany. 

Honey  'suckle  (Lonicera,  or,  according  to  some 
botanists,  Gaprifolium,  which  others  make  a  sub¬ 
genus  of  Lonicera),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Gaprifoliacece.  They  are  shrubs,  often 
twining,  and  flower  either  in  whorls  or  in  pairs. 

Hong- Kong,  the  name  of  a  British  island 
off  the  southeast  coast  of  China.  It  is  9  miles 
long,  from  2  to  6  broad,  and  has  an  area  of  about 
29  square  miles.  The  capital,  Victoria,  is  sit¬ 
uated  in  latitude  22°  161'  N.,  longitude  114°  8V 
E.  Pop.  (1881),  155,730. 

Honolu'lu,  a  seaport  in  latitude  21°  18'  N., 
and  longitude  157°  55'  W.,  on  the  southwestern 
or  leeward  coast  of  Ooaliu,  one  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands.  Pop.,  20,000. 

Honorable,  Eight  Honorable,  and  Most  Hon¬ 
orable;  titles  given  in  the  United  Kingdom  to 
Peers,  their  families,  and  persons  holding  certain 
public  situations.  A  Marquis  or  Marchioness  is 
styled  Most  Honorable,  a  Peer  (temporal)  or  Peeress 
of  a  lower  grade,  whether  by  right  or  by  courtesy, 
is  Right  Honorable.  The  title  Right  Honorable 
is  also  bestowed  on  the  younger  sons  of  Dukes 
and  Marquises,  and  their  wives;  and  on  all  the 
daughters  of  Dukes,  Marquises,  and  Earls;  and 
Honorable  on  the  younger  sons  of  Earls,  and  all 
the  children  of  Viscounts  and  Barons.  Privy 
Councillors,  the  Lords  Mayor  of  London,  York, 
and  Dublin,  the  Lord  Advocate  of  Scotland,  and 
the  Lord  Provost  of  Edinburgh,  are  also  entitled 
to  the  prefix  Right  Honorable;  and  Maids  of  Hon¬ 
or,  Lords  of  Session,  the  Supreme  Judges  of  Eng¬ 
land  and  Ireland,  to  that  of  Honorable.  Members 
of  the  House  of  Commons,  though  Honorable  is 
not  prefixed  to  their  names,  are  distinguished  as 

the  “  Honorable  member  for - ,”  and  the  East 

India  Company  has  been  held  entitled  to  the  same 
prefix.  In  this  country  Honorable  is  attached  to 
the  names  of  Judges,  Members  of  Congress,  of 
State  Legislatures,  etc. 

Hood,  John  B.,  born  in  Kentucky,  in  1831, 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1853.  He  commanded 
a  division  of  Lee’s  army  at  Antietam  and  Gettys¬ 
burg,  and  lost  a  leg  at  Chickamauga.  In  July, 
1864,  he  succeeded  General  Johnston  in  command 
in  Georgia,  but  was  defeated  by  General  Sherman, 
and  compelled  to  abandon  Atlanta,  Sept.  1,  1864. 
On  December  16th  of  the  same  year,  General 
Thomas  inflicted  upon  him  a  crushing  defeat  at 
Nashville,  where  he  lost  fifty  cannon,  and  in  the 
next  month  lie  was  relieved  of  his  command.  He 
died  Aug.  30,  1879. 

Hood,  Robin,  the  hero  of  several  old  ballads 
and  traditionary  stories,  which  generally  represent 


him  as  an  outlaw  and  a  robber,  but  of  a  gallant  and 
generous  nature,  haunting  the  depths  of  Sherwood 
Forest,  Nottinghamshire,  and  of  Barnsdale  Forest, 
Yorkshire,  in  an  early  era  of  English  history,  which 
it  has  hitherto  been  customary  to  fix  in  the  twelfth 
century.  Scott  introduces  him  and  his  associate, 
Friar  Tuck,  in  Imnhoe. 

Hood,  Thomas,  English  humorist  and  poet,  was 
born  in  London,  in  1798,  and  died  in  1845.  His 
Eugene  Aram’s  Dream,  Song  of  the  Shirt,  and 
Bridge  of  Sighs,  are  among  the  most  perfect  poems 
of  their  kind  in  the  English  language. 

Hoofs.  The  healthy  soundness  of  the  horse’s 
foot  is  mainly  preserved  by  permitting  it  to  grow 
uninjured  by  the  rasp  and  knife,  while  its  tough¬ 
ness  is  secured,  and  undue  dryness  and  evapora¬ 
tion  prevented,  by  smearing  daily  the  crust,  sole, 
and  frog  with  a  little  glycerine,  or  a  mixture  made 
by  melting  together  a  quarter  of  a  pound  each  of 
tar,  honey,  bees-wax,  and  glycerine,  withapouDd 
of  lard .  [Softness  and  brittleness  of  the  hoof,  which 
are  fruitful  sources  of  cracks  and  corns,  may  be 
remedied  by  the  use  of  such  dressings,  by  placing 
the  feet  for  several  hours  daily  in  thick,  woolen 
swabs,  kept  cool  and  moist  by  frequent  applica¬ 
tions  of  cold  water,  and  by  encouraging  a  more 
healthy  growth  of  horn  by  occasional  mild  blisters 
round  the  coronary  band.  Cracks,  or  sand-cracks, 
as  they  are  termed,  mostly  occur  amongst  horses 
much  upon  the  road,  cause  lameness,  and  consti¬ 
tute  unsoundness.  When  serious  and  recent, 
poulticing,  thinning  away  of  the  crust  about  the 
crack,  and  perfect  rest,  are  essential.  After  the 
earlier  heat  and  tenderness  are  removed,  a  hot  iron 
should  be  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  crack,  both 
above  and  below,  so  as  to  separate  the  diseased 
from  the  sound  horn. 

Hook,  Theodore  Edward,  a  celebrated  novel¬ 
ist  and  dramatic  writer,  was  born  in  London,  Sept. 
22,  1788,  and  died  in  1841 

Hooker,  JosEm,  born  at  Hadley,  Mass.,  in 
1819,  graduated  at  West  Point,  and  was  breveted 
Lieutenant  Colonel  for  gallantry  in  Mexico.  In 
May,  1861,  he  was  made  Brigadier-General  of  vol¬ 
unteers,  became  Major-General  in  July,  1862,  and 
commanded  a  corps  at  Antietam.  Promoted  to 
Brigadier-General  in  the  regular  army,  he  com¬ 
manded  a  grand  division  at  Fredericksburg,  and 
succeeded  Burnside  as  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  Army  of  the  Potomac  in  January,  1863.  He 
was  wounded  at  Chancellorsville,  fought  with 
Grant  at  Lookout  Mountain,  and  commanded  a 
corps  of  Sherman’s  army  in  Georgia.  He  died 
Nov.  1,  1879.  His  familiar  sobriquet  in  the  army 
was  “Fighting  Joe.” 

Hook-squid,  the  name  commonly  given  to 
cephalopod  mollusks  of  the  genera 
Onychoteuthis  and  EnoploteutJiis,  al¬ 
lied  to  the  common  squids  or  cala- 
maries,  but  having  the  eyes  destitute 
of  any  covering  of  skin. 

Hooping-cough,  or  Pertussis,  is 
an  infectious,  and  sometimes  epidemic 
disease,  mostly  attacking  children, 
especially  in  the  spring  and  autumn. 

Its  earliest  symptoms,  which  usually 
appear  five  or  six  days  after  exposure 
to  infection,  are  those  of  a  common 
cold.  This  stage,  which  is  called  the 
catarrhal,  lasts  a  week  or  ten  days, 
and  the  cough  begins  to  be  followed 
by  the  peculiar  hoop  which  charac¬ 
terizes  the  disease.  The  disease 
reaches  its  height  at  about  the  end 
of  the  fourth  week,  after  which  the 
paroxysms  diminish  in  frequency, 
and  the  patient  shows  signs  of  im¬ 
provement.  The  treatment  of  hoop¬ 
ing-cough,  as  long  as  it  is  uncompli¬ 
cated  or  simple,  should  not  be  med¬ 
dlesome.  The  diet  should  consist  of 
milk  and  unstimulating  farinaceous  Head,  Arms, 
matters.  The  bowels  should  be  and  Tentacles 
kept  moderately  open.  If  the of  H°°k-squid. 
weather  is  cold,  the  child  should  be  kept  in  the 
house,  with  the  temperature  of  the  room  at  about 
60°.  A  grain,  or  a  grain  and  a  half  of  ipecacu¬ 
anha  may  be  given  three  or  four  times  a  day. 
Slight  counter  irritants  may  also  be  applied  to 
the  surface  of  the  chest.  Nothing  is  so  service¬ 
able  in  the  last  or  convalescent  stage  as  change  of 
air. 


Hoop'oe  ( Upupu ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order 
Insessores,  tribe  Tenuirostves,  and  family  Upupidoe. 


Hoopoe  ( Upupa  epops). 


The  common  hoopoe  ( U .  epops)  is  an  African 
bird,  a  summer  visitant  of  most  parts  of  Europe, 
found  also  in  some  parts  of  Asia. 

Hop  (Uumvlus  lupulus),  a  perennial  dioecious 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Gannabinacece,  the  only 
species  of  its  genus.  Its  principal  commercial 
value  arises  from  its  use  in  brewing,  and  the  part 
used  for  that  purpose  is  the  ripened  cone  of  the 
female  plant.  The  oil  of  hops  is  sedative,  ano¬ 
dyne,  and  narcotic;  and  hence  the  value  of  pil¬ 
lows  stuffed  with  hops  in  cases  of  mania,  sleep¬ 


Hop  (Uumvlus  lupulus). 


lessness,  etc.  The  bitter  principle  is  not  narcotic, 
but  tonic.  The  hop  requires  a  very  rich  soil,  aud 
its  growth  is  promoted  by  the  liberal  application 
both  of  organic  and  mineral  manures;  although 
excessive  manuring  is  prejudicial.  It  is  generally 
propagated  by  layers  or  cuttings,  which  usually 
grow  for  a  year  in  a  nursery  before  being  planted 
out.  In  the  plantations,  they  are  generally 
placed  in  groups  of  three  or  four,  at  distances  of 
from  six  to  nine  feet. 

Hop  Flea  ( Haltica  concinna),  a  small  coleopte¬ 
rous  insect,  not  quite  one-tentli  of  an  inch  in 


1.  Hop  Flea  (Haltica  concinna):  a,  natural  size;  b,  magni¬ 

fied;  c,  a  fore-leg;  d,  a  hind- leg. 

2.  Hop  Fly  (Aphis  Hunmuli):  a,  natural  size;  b,  magnified. 

length,  which  often  does  much  mischief  in  liop- 
I  plantations  in  spring,  devouring  the  tender  tops 
I  of  the  young  shoots. 


HOP  FLY. 


465 


HORSE-POWER. 


Hop  Fly  ( Aphis  liumitli),  a  species  of  Aphis  or 
plant  louse,  the  great  dread  of  hop  cultivators,  as 
no  means  have  been  found  of  arresting  its  ravages. 

Hopkins,  Johns,  born  in  Maryland,  May  19, 
1795,  died  in  1873.  He  founded  two  hospitals, 
an  orphanage,  and  the  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
leaving  his  fortune  of  $8,000,000  for  their  endow¬ 
ment. 

Hopkins,  Mark,  born  at  Stockbridge,  Mass., 
in  1802,  was  President  of  Williams  College  from 
1836  to  1872,  and  died  June  17,  1887. 

Hopkins,  Stephen,  born  in  Rhode  Island  in 
1707,  died  in  1785,  was  Chief  Justice  of  the 
Common  Pleas,  and  Governor  of  the  Colony.  He 
served  in  the  Continental  Congresses  and  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Hopkinson,  Francis,  a  signer  of  the  Declara 
tion  of  Independence,  was  born  in  Philadelphia 
in  1737,  and  died  in  1791.  He  represented  New 
Jersey  in  Congress,  and  was  afterward  a  judge  in 
Pennsylvania.  His  son  Joseph,  born  1770,  died 
1842,  was  a  Judge  and  a  Congressman,  and  wrote 
the  national  air  “  Hail  Columbia.” 

Hopkinsville,  the  county  seat,  and  an  import¬ 
ant  commercial  city  of  Christian  county,  Ky. 
Pop.,  6,000. 

Hora'tius  Flaccus,  Quintus,  the  renowned 
Roman  satirist  and  lyrist,  was  born  at  Yenusia, 
in  Apulia  on  Dec.  8,  65  b.c.,  and  died  at  the 
age  of  fifty-seven,  (8  b.c.) 

Hore 'hound  ( Marrubium ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Labiates.  One  species,  the  com¬ 
mon  or  white  horehound  ( M .  vulgare),  is  found 
generally  throughout  Europe,  except  in  the  more 
northern  regions,  growing  in  waste  places,  way- 
sides,  etc.  The  whole  plant  has  a  whitish  appear¬ 
ance,  from  the  down  with  which  its  leaves  are 


Horehound  (MarmMum  vulgare). 
covered.  It  has  an  aromatic  but  not  very  agree¬ 
able  smell.  It  is  tonic,  stimulant,  and  laxative, 
and  is  much  used  in  coughs,  being  a  popular 
remedy,  and  a  very  safe  and  efficacious  one.  It 
was  formerly  also  employed  in  affections  of  the 
womb  and  of  the  liver.  , 

Hornbeam  (Carpinus),  a  genus  of  the  natural 


Hornbeam  ( Carpinus  betulus). 
order  Cupuliferce,  consisting  of  trees  with  com¬ 
pact,  tough,  hard  wood;  bark  almost  smooth  and 


of  a  whitish-gray  color,  deciduous  leaves,  and 
monoecious  flowers. 

Hornbill,  the  name  of  a  genus  ( Buceros )  and 
of  a  family  (Bucerotidos)  of  birds,  to  which  Cuvier 
assigned  a  place  in  the  syndactylous  division  of 
the  order  Insessores,  but  which  some  naturalists 


Hornbill  ( Buceros  rhinoceros) . 


rank  with  crows  in  the  tribe  Conirostres.  They 
may  be  described  as  omnivorous. 

Horn'blende,  a  mineral  allied  to  augite,  and 
containing  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of  silica,  with 
variable  quantities  of  alumina,  lime,  oxide  of 
iron,  soda,  potash,  and  fluorine. 

Horn-book,  the  primer  or  apparatus  for  learn¬ 
ing  the  elements  of  reading,  used  in  England 
before  the  days  of  printing,  and  common  down  to 
the  time  of  George  II.  It  consisted  of  a  single  leaf, 
containing  on  one  side  the  alphabet  large  and 
small,  in  black-letter  or  in  Roman,  with  many 


T mtx)  TplQ  )c£>(t  3| ;  Mi  6  U 
« <f  fo  Cf  60 1 B- &  Oct  B. 

■  ft 

1  ( ab  tb  0b  ub  I  be  ‘to  (?o  hql  Ji| 

jtftt.baUomfrlbe 
f  done  if?  fed® m  itisinfcme 
ft  W  We  w  irtfp  af 

forrtfte  tb^TOpaffe&j^wr 
nsandls&dus  mot  into  tempts" 
from  eniX 


Horn-book. 


monosyllables.  Then  followed  a  form  of  exor¬ 
cism  and  the  Lord’s  Prayer,  and  as  a  finale,  the 
Roman  numerals.  The  leaf  was  usually  set,  in  a 
frame  of  wood,  with  a  slice  of  transparent  horn 
in  front — hence  the  name. 

Hornellsville,  an  important  railroad  and  com¬ 
mercial  center  in  Steuben  county,  N.  Y.  It  has 
several  handsome  public  buildings,  many  costly 


and  imposing  residences  and  a  number  of  valu¬ 
able  manufacturing  plants.  Pop  ,  10,000. 

Hornet  (Vespa  crabro),  the  largest  species  of 
wasp.  The  thorax 
is  mostly  black,  the 
fore-part  rufous; 
the  abdomen  is  yel¬ 
low,  with  three 
brown  points  on 
each  segment.  The 
sting  is  very  pain¬ 
ful. 

Horner,  Francis 
a  Scotch  politi¬ 
cal  economist,  was 
born  at  Edinburgh, 

Aug.  12,  1778.  lie 
died  at  Pisa,  Feb. 

8  1817 

’Horns  are  ap-  Hornet  (Vespa  crabro). 
pendages  to  the  frontal  bones  of  many  of  the  ex¬ 
tensive  family  of  ruminants,  and  are  obviously 
intended  as  weapons  of  defense.  The  horns  of 


Front  view  of  the  Skull  of  the  Ox,  with  the  dexter 
horny  sheath  detached  from  the  core. 

ruminants  are  almost  invariably  two  in  number, 
but  exceptions  occur  in  the  case  of  the  extinct 
bramatherium  and  sivatlierium,  and  amongst 
living  species,  in  the  four-liorned  goat,  the  many¬ 
horned  sheep,  etc. 

Horrocks,  Jeremiah,  an  astronomer  of  re¬ 
markable  genius,  generally  known  as  the  first 
observer  of  the  transit  of  Venus,  was  born  at 
Toxteth,  near  Liverpool,  date  uncertain,  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  1618,  and  died  in  1641. 

Horse  (Equus),  a  genus  of  pachydermatous 
quadrupeds  of  the  family  Equidce,  or  Lolidungula. 
The  nativecountry  of  the  horse  is  uncertain.  Some 
contend  for  Asia,  and  some  for  Africa.  Wild 
horses  are  found  on  the  plains  of  Central  Asia. 
Some  also  inhabit  mountainous  or  hilly  districts 
both  there  and  in  the  North  of  Africa.  They 
abound  still  more  in  the  grassy  plains  of  South 
America,  and  a  few  are  still  to  be  found  in  Wy¬ 
oming,  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  and  Mexico.  The 
races  or  varieties  of  the  horse  have  an  evident  rela¬ 
tion  to  the  climate  of  the  countries  in  which  they 
occur.  Those  of  cold  and  stormy  regions  are  com¬ 
paratively  small  and  rough-haired;  those  of  more 
favored  climates,  large  and  sleek.  Wild  horses 
congregate  in  troops,  sometimes  small,  but  some¬ 
times  of  many  hundreds.  The  males  have  fierce 
contests  for  the  supremacy,  and  those  that  have 
contended  unsuccessfully  are  often  driven  off  to  a 
solitary  life.  The  wild  horse  of  South  America  is 
there  called  the  mustang.  It  exhibits  considerable 
diversity  of  color,  but  bay-brown  is  the  most  prev¬ 
alent.  It  is  strong  and  active,  and  is  often  taken 
with  the  lasso,  and  employed  in  the  service  of  man. 
Of  domestic  varieties  and  breeds  of  the  horse,  the 
number  is  great,  almost  every  count  ry  or  consider¬ 
able  district  having  one  or  more  of  its  own.  The 
breeds  are  also  continually  varied  by  crossing,  and 
great  improvements  have  thus  been  effected.  The 
Shetland  pony  sometimes  does  not  much  exceed  a 
large  dog  in  stature. 

Horse-power.  The  fundamental  unit  of  work  is 
the  foot-pound — i.  e.,  the  number  of  pounds  raised 
to  a  height  of  one  foot  in  one  minute.  It  matters 
little  what  number  is  assumed,  provided  the  same 
be  always  used;  and  accordingly,  the  original  esti¬ 
mate  of  Watt  (33,000)  is  still  counted  a  horse-power. 
In  calculating  the  power  of  a  steam-engine  in  terms 
of  this  unit,  the  general  rule  is  to  multiply  together 
the  pressure  in  pounds  on  a  square  inch  of  the 
piston,  the  area  of  the  piston  in  inches,  the  length 
of  the  stroke  in  feet,  and  the  number  of  strokes 
per  minute;  the  result  divided  by  33,000,  will  give 
the  horse  power;  but  it  is  necessary  to  deduct  about 


30 


HORSE-CHESTNUT. 


466 


HOULTON. 


one-tenth  of  the  whole,  as  an  allowance  for  fric¬ 
tion. 

Horse-chest 'nut  (uEsculus),  a  genus  of  trees  of 
the  natural  order  Sapindacece.  The  common 


Horse-chestnut,  Leaves,  Flowers,  and  Finit. 
(HZsculus  hippocastanum). 


horse-chest  nut  (sE.  hippocastanum)  is  cultivated  in 
all  parts  of  this  country  and  Europe.  The  other 
species  of  jEsculus  are  natives  of  this  country. 
Both  the  leaves  and  fruit,  however,  of  the  buck¬ 
eye,  or  American  horse-chestnut  {JE.  ohiotemis), 
are  poisonous. 

Horse-radish  (Armoracia),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Crucifer  a.  The  common  horse¬ 
radish  {A.  rusticana)  grows  in  damp  meadows 
in  the  Middle  and  South  of  Europe,  is  naturalized 
in  some  places  in  Britain,  and  is  cultivated  for 
the  sake  of  its  roots,  which  are  scraped  or  grated 
down  and  mixed  in  salads,  or  used  as  a  condi¬ 
ment  with  roast  beef;  it  is  used  also  in  medicine  as 
a  stimulant,  and  is  often  useful  in  promoting 
digestion;  it  is  also  regarded  as  an  antiscorbutic; 
and  it  is  sometimes  applied  externally  as  a  rube¬ 
facient  instead  of  mustard.  It  is  generally 
planted  very  deep.  It  is  very  difficult  to  eradi¬ 
cate  from  ground  in  which  it  has  become  estab¬ 
lished,  as  almost  any  portion  of  the  root  will 
grow. 

Horse-shoeing.  After  the  cautious  removal 
of  the  old  shoe,  the  crust  on  which  it  rested  gen¬ 
erally  requires  to  be  pared  down  with  a  drawing- 
knife,  and  its  edge  afterward  rounded  with  the 
rasp.  Any  ragged  portions  of  the  frog  may  also 
be  taken  off,  and  this  includes  the  whole  of  the 


A  Sound  Fore-foot  Prepared  for  the  Shoe. 

Copied  from  Stonehenge’s  Horse  in  the  Stable  and  the 
Field. 

A,  A,  the  heels  of  the  crust;  B,  the  toe  cut  out  to  receive 
the  clip;  C,  C,  the  quarters  of  the  crust;  D,  D,  the  bars 
as  they  should  be  left,  with  the  full  frog  between  them; 
E,  E,  the  angles  between  the  heels  and  bars,  where  the 
corns  appear;  F,  F,  the  concave,  surface  of  the  toe ;  G, 
G,  the  bulbous  heels;  H,  the  cleft. 

allowable  paring  or  dressing  of  the  horse’s  foot. 
For  sound,  healthy  feet  treated  as  advised,  a  plain 
shoe  is  preferable  for  saddle  or  harness  horses;  the 
web  need  not  exceed  three-fourths  of  an  inch, 
must  fit  the  crust  closely  and  accurately  all  the 
way  round  to  the  heels,  where  its  inner  edge  will 
rest  upon  the  strong  and  uncut  bars.  Nowhere 


must  there  be  any  overlapping,  which  only  ren¬ 
ders  the  shoe  more  apt  to  cut  the  opposite  limb, 
and  be  torn  off  in  heavy  ground.  To  lessen  the 
chances  of  tripping,  and  make  the  shoe  wear 
equally,  it  should  for  the  fore-feet  be  turned  up 
slightly,  and  its  ground  surface  hollowed  out  a 
little  at  the  toe,  so  as  to  present  the  appearance  of 
an  ordinary  shoe  which  has  been  worn  for  a  fort¬ 
night  or  three  weeks.  For  saddle  or  light  harness- 
work  three  nails  on  the  out,  and  twro  on  the 
inside,  will  firmly  .secure  any  well-made,  well- 
fitting  shoe.  The  nail-lioles  should  be  counter¬ 
sunk,  be  nearly  in  the  center  of  the  web,  and 
pass  straight  through  it,  thus  giving  the  nails  a 
firmer  hold  of  the  stout,  unrasped  crust.  The 
points  of  the  nails  when  driven  home  should  be 
broken  over  and  laid  down  with  the  hammer,  but 
not  touched  with  the  rasp.  The  rasping  of  the 
crust,  which  smiths  fondly  regard  as  their  finish¬ 
ing  and  polishing  stroke,  is  veiy  injurious,  re¬ 
moves  the  unctuous  protecting  portion  of  the 
crust,  and  renders  it  weak,  brittle,  and  liable  to 
crack.  Shoes  should  be  replaced  every  three 
weeks,  or  a  month  at  furthest.  In  shoeing  the 
hind-feet  the  outside  web  is  generally  turned 
slightly  down  behind,  whilst  to  give  an  equal 
bearing  the  inside  heel  is  thickened.  For  heavy 
draught,  both  hind  and  fore  shoes  should  have 
moderate  tips  and  heels,  which  enable  the  horse 
to  exert  his  full  powers  without  so  much  risk  of 
slipping.  Instead  of  the  five  nails  used  for  the 
lighter  horses,  seven  or  eight  are  requisite. 

Hosmer,  Harriet,  an  American  artist,  was 
born  at  Watertown,  Mass.,  in  1831.  She  studied 
in  Rome  under  Gibson.  Several  of  her  works 
have  attracted  great  notice  and  favorable  com¬ 
ment.  Her  principal  piece  is  Zenobia  in  Chains. 

Hospitals  are  so  called  from  the  mediaeval 
hospilia,  or  more  properly  the  class  of  hospitals 
established  very  generally  for  the  reception  and 
relief  of  lepers,  whose  malady  was  one  of  the 
scourges  of  Europe.  These  leper  hospitals  were 
very  commonly  called  “spitals”;  hence  the  fre¬ 
quency  in  England  of  such  names  of  places  as 
Spital,  Spitalfields,  etc.  The  leper  hospitals,  and 
other  kinds  of  the  old  hospitia,  disappeared  with 
the  improvement  of  society,  and  substitutes  for 
them  on  a  broader  scale  began  to  be  established 
in  the  modern  form  of  hospitals.  Of  public  es¬ 
tablishments  under  this  general  designation,  there 
are  now,  as  is  commonly  known,  three  distinct 
classes — hospitals  for  the  reception  and  treatment 
of  the  sick  and  hurt,  hospitals  for  the  board  and 
education  of  children,  and  hospitals  for  the 
reception  and  permanent  board  of  poor  old  per¬ 
sons  of  both  sexes. 

Host  (Lat.  hostia ,  a  victim),  the  name  given  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  the  consecrated 
bread  of  the  Eucharist.  The  host  in  the  Latin 
Church  is  a  thin  circular  disc  of  unleavened 
bread,  made  of  the  finest  flour,  and  generally 
bearing  some  emblematic  device,  as  the  Cruci¬ 
fixion,  the  Lamb,  or  some  words  or  initials  of 
words  having  reference  to  the  sacrifice. 

Hot  Springs,  a  town  in  Arkansas,  forty -five 
miles  west-by-soutli  of  Little  Rock,  and  celebrated 
as  a  resort  for  invalids  to  the  hot  springs  which 
exist  here  and  give  name  to  the  town.  Fifty- 
seven  springs,  from  93°  to  150°  F.,  break  out 
from  the  west  side  of  a  mountain,  and  flow  into 
a  creek,  which  empties  into  the  Washita  river, 
six  miles  distant.  There  are  also  cold  chalybeate 
springs,  much  frequented,  and  sulphur  springs  in 
the  same  county.  Pop.,  10,100. 

Hot  Springs,  a  growing  town  in  the  Black 
Hills,  noted  for  its  thermal  springs,  is  the  county 
seat  of  Fall  River  county,  Dak.  Pop.,  200. 

Hot  Sulphur  Springs,  a  town  of  Grand  county. 
Col.,  is  famous  for  its  thermal  springs,  the  waters 
of  which  possess  remarkable  medical  properties. 
They  are  annually  resorted  to  by  thousands  of 
invalids.  Pop.,  1 10. 

Hot'tentots  is  the  name  ‘generally  given  by 
Europeans  to  a  singular  race  of  people,  supposed 
to  be  descended  from  the  aborigines  of  Southern 
Africa,  and  now  dwelling  for  the  most  part  in 
and  about  the  English  settlement  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

Hotto'nia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Primulacece,  of  which  one  species,  II.  palus- 


tris,  water  violet  or  featlierfoil,  is  among  the 
most  beautiful  of  British  aquatic  plants. 


Water  Violet  (Hotlonia  paluslris). 
a,  corolla;  b,  calyx;  c,  pistil;  d,  stamen. 


Hound  (Ger.  liund),  a  name  commonly  given 
to  those  kinds  of  dog  which  are  used  in  hunting, 
but  more  especially,  at  least  by  systematic  writers 
on  dogs,  to  those  which  hunt  by  scent  rather  than 


Old  English  Hound  ( Canis  sagax). 


by  sight.  The  hounds  are  by  some  naturalists 
regarded  as  a  distinct  species  of  dog  ( Canis 
sagax).  They  are  characterized  not  only  by 
fineness  of  scent,  but  by  great  docility  and  sa¬ 
gacity. 

Hound's-tongue  ( Cynoglossum ),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Boraginm,  of  which 
there  are  many  species,  all  of  a  coarse  appearance, 


Hound’s-tongue  ( Cynoglossum,  officinale). 


with  small  flowers.  The  common  hound’s- 
tongue  ( C .  officinale)  is  a  native  of  Europe,  Asia, 
Africa,  and  North  America.  It  is  of  medical 
value  as  an  anodyne. 

Houghton,  the  county  seat  of  Houghton 
county,  Mich.,  is  at  the  head  of  Portage  Lake;  is 
an  important  copper-mining  town,  and  has  valu¬ 
able  reducing  works.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Houlton,  the  county  seat  and  an  important 
trading  point  in  Aroostook  county,  Maine.  Pop., 
3,228. 


HOUMA. 


467 


IIUGOTON. 


Houma,  an  important  commercial  town  on  the 
Terre  Bonne  river,  is  the  capital  of  Terre  Bonne 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  1,084. 

Housaton'ic,  a  river  of  New  England,  which 
rises  in  Massachusetts,  and  flows  southwardly 
through  Connecticut  into  Long  Island  Sound. 
Its  length  is  about  150  miles. 

House-fly,  a  common,  insect  of  the  family 
Muscides.  Its  maggots  live  in  heaps  of  rotting 
vegetables,  etc  When  house-flies  become  annoy¬ 
ing,  various  expedients  are  resorted  to  for  killing 
them,  as  trapping  in  glasses  partially  tilled  with 
some  sweet,  viscid  fluid,  or  by  pieces  of  paper 
covered  with  a  mixture  of  sweet  and  poisonous 


Various  parts  of  House-fly,  highly  magnified. 
Copied  from  Samuelson's  Earthworm  and  Common 
House-Fly. 

■a,  section  of  fly,  showing  nervous  system ;  b,  head  of 
house-fly,  showing  the  compound  eyes,  and.  beneath, 
the  proboscis;  c,  last  joint  of  tarsus  or  foot  of  fly,  with 
hooks  and  pads;  d,  proboscis  of  house-fly;  e,  portion 
of  fringe  of  the  pad,  to  show  the  supposed  suckers;  /, 
leg  of  fly. 

substances.  Sweet  substances,  however,  attract 
flies  into  a  room,  so  that  the  benefit  of  fly-traps  is 
often  doubtful;  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
poisons  used  do  not  endanger  the  lives  of  chil¬ 
dren  or  others.  Quassia  is  safe  enough  in  this 
respect,  and  very  fatal  to  flies. 

House-leek  (Sempervivum),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Crassulacece.  The  common 
house-leek,  or  cypliel  (S.  tectorum),  in  some 
countries  called  Jupiter’s  beard,  grows  wild  on 
the  rocks  of  the  Alps.  The  leaves  cut  or  bruised, 


House-leek  {Sempervivum  tectorum). 
and  applied  to  burns,  afford  immediate  relief;  as 
they  do  also  in  stings  of  bees  or  wasps;  and  they 
are  a  beneficial  application  to  ulcers  and  inflamed 
sores.  They  were  formerly  in  high  esteem  as  a 
remedy  for  fevers  and  other  diseases. 

Hons'ton,  a  city  in  Texas,  at  the  head  of 
steam-boat  navigation  on  Buffalo  Bayou,  forty- 
five  miles  from  its  mouth  in  Galveston  Bay,  and 
eighty  miles  from  Galveston.  Pop.,  36,463. 

Houston,  the  county  seat  of  Chickasaw  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  480. 

Houston,  the  county  seat  of  Texas  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  460. 

Houston,  Sam,  General  and  ex-President  of 
Texas,  was  born  near  Lexington,  Rockbridge 
county,  Va.,  March  2,  1793;  and  after  a  most 


romantic  and  eventful  life,  during  which  he 
played  an  important  part  iu  politics,  he  died  in 
1862. 

Hov'en,  or  distension  of  the  rumen  or  first 
stomach  with  gas,  is  a  common  complaint  among 
cattle  and  sheep.  Relief  generally  follows  walk¬ 
ing  exercise,  friction  on  the  belly,  and  a  dose  of 
any  ordinary  stimulant,  which  for  a  cow  may 
consist  of  a  couple  of  ounces  of  turpentine, 
whisky,  ether,  or  ginger,  to  which  should  also  be 
added,  in  order  to  clear  the  bowels  of  the  offend¬ 
ing  food,  a  laxative,  such  as  a  pint  of  oil  or  a 
pound  of  salts.  A  fourth  or  fifth  of  these  quan¬ 
tities  will  suffice  for  sheep.  The  introduction  of 
the  probang,  with  the  small  end  downward, 
allows  the  escape  of  gas  when  there  is  little  food 
in  the  stomach.  If  simple  remedies  fail,  the 
breathing  become  distressed,  and  the  animal 
stupid,  the  gas  may  with  safety  be  allowed  to 
escape  by  an  external  opening  made  at  a  point 
intermediate  between  the  last  rib,  the  lumbar 
vertebra;,  and  the  prominence  of  the  haunch, 
either  with  a  canula  and  trocliar,  or  a  large 
pocket  or  table  knife. 

Howard,  John,  “  the  philanthropist,”  was  born 
at  Hackney,  near  London,  about  1726,  and  died 
of  prison  fever  in  1790. 

Howard,  Oliver  Otis,  born  in  Maine,  in 
November,  1830;  graduated  at  West  Point;  com¬ 
manded  a  brigade  at  Bull  Run,  and  lost  an  arm 
at  Fair  Oaks.  At  Antietam  and  Fredericksburg 
he  commanded  a  division;  in  November,  1862, 
became  Major-General  of  volunteers,  and  led  the 
eleventh  army  corps  at  Chancellorsville  and  Get¬ 
tysburg.  He  was  at  Mission  Ridge  and  Chatta¬ 
nooga,  and  led  the  right  wing  of  Sherman’s 
command  from  Atlanta  to  the  sea.  From  1865 
to  1872  he  wras  at  the  head  of  the  Freedmen’s 
Bureau,  and  in  March,  1874,  was  tried  by  court- 
martial  for  alleged  dishonesty  in  the  management 
of  the  Bureau,  and  was  acquitted.  For  one  year 
he  was  Superintendent  of  West  Point,  and  com¬ 
manded  the  Department  of  the  Platte,  1882-83. 
He  holds  the  rank  of  Major-General. 

Howard,  a  prosperous  farming  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Elk  county,  Kan.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Howard,  a  growing  farming  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Miner  county,  Dak.  Pop.,  750. 

Howe,  Elias,  the  inventor  of  the  sewing- 
machine,  was  born  at  Spencer,  Mass.,  July  9, 
1819,  and  died  in  1867. 

Howell,  a  prosperous,  pleasantly  situated  town, 
and  the  county  seat  of  Livingston  county,  Mich. 
Pop.,  2,094. 

Howells,  William  Dean,  born  in  Ohio, 
March  1,  1837,  became  a  journalist  and  magazine 
writer.  From  1861  to  1865  he  was  United  States 
Consul  at  Venice,  and  from  1865  to  1881  edited 
the  Atlantic  Monthly.  He  has  written  many 
novels  and  some  poems  and  plays. 

Howler,  Howling  Monkey,  or  Stentor 
{Mycetes),  Ahuatte  of  the  French,  a  genus  of 
American  monkeys,  remarkable  for  the  dilatation 
of  the  hyoid  bone  into  a  hollow  drum,  which  com¬ 
municates  with  the  larynx,  makes  a  conspicuous 
external  swelling  of  the  throat,  and  gives  prodig- 


Howling  Monkey  ( Mycetes  ursinus.) 

ious  power  to  the  voice,  enabling  these  animals 
to  emit  hideous  sounds,  which  are  heard  miles 
away,  and  to  which  all  their  names  refer.  They 
inhabit  the  northeastern  parts  of  South  America. 


They  are  the  largest  monkeys  in  the  New  World. 
There  are  not  many  species. 

Hoxie,  the  county  seat  of  Sheridan  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  430. 

Huana'ca,  or  Guanaco  ( Auchenia  huanaca), 
a  species  of  animal  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
llama  and  alpaca,  of  both  of  which  some  natu¬ 
ralists  suppose  it  to  be  the  wild  original.  It  is 
found  not  only  on  the  Andes,  but  throughout 
great  part  of  Patagonia.  It  is  of  a  reddisli-brown 
color,  the  ears  and  hind-legs  gray. 

Huddersfield,  a  manufacturing  city  of  Eng¬ 
land,  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire.  Pop. 
(1881),  87,146. 

Hudson,  Henry,  a  distinguished  navigator. 
His  early  history  is  unknown.  He  made  several 
Arctic  voyages.  Giving  up  all  hope  of  finding 
a  northeast  passage,  he  sailed  for  Davis’ Strait, 
but  came  upon  the  American  Continent  about  44° 
N.  latitude,  and,  steering  southward,  discovered 
the  mouth  of  the  river  which  now  bears  his  name. 
He  sailed  upon  his  last  voyage  in  April,  1610, 
with  twenty-three  sailors,  and  reached  Greenland 
in  June,  and  discovered  Hudson’s  Bay.  His  crew 
mutinied  and  set  him  adrift  in  a  boat.  An  expe¬ 
dition  was  sent  from  England  in  quest  of  him, 
but  no  trace  of  him  or  of  his  companions  in  mis¬ 
fortune  was  ever  discovered. 

Hudson,  a  city,  and  the  county  seat  of  Colum¬ 
bia  county,  N.  Y.,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hud¬ 
son  river,  116  miles  north  of  New  York,  and 
twenty-nine  miles  south  of  Albany.  Pop.,  8,670. 

Hudson,  a  river  in  New  York,  and  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  important  in  America.  It 
rises  in  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  and  falls  into 
New  York  Bay.  Its  whole  length  is  about  300 
miles,  and  its  principal  tributaries  are  the  Hoosic, 
Mohawk,  Walkill,  and  Croton. 

Hudson,  a  substantial,  wTell-built  manufactur¬ 
ing  town,  and  the  county  seat  of  St.  Croix  county, 
Wis.,  is  on  the  St.  Croix  river,  twenty  miles  east 
of  St.  Paul.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Hudson’s  Bay,  a  spacious  gulf,  or  rather  sea, 
toward  the  northeast  corner  of  this  continent, 
which  forms  the  central  basin  of  the  drainage  of 
the  northern  half  of  North  America. 

Hudson’s  Bay  Company,  a  corporation  organ¬ 
ized  in  1670,  by  Charles  II.,  primarily  consisted 
of  Prince  Rupert,  the  King’s  cousin,  and  certain 
specified  associates.  It  was  invested  with  the 
absolute  proprietorship,  subordinate  sovereignty, 
and  exclusive  traffic  of  an  undefined  territory, 
which,  under  the  name  of  Rupert’s  Land,  com¬ 
prised  all  the  regions  discovered,  or  to  be  discov¬ 
ered,  within  the  entrance  of  Hudson’s  Strait.  It 
became  the  greatest  fur-trading  corporation  in  the 
world,  and  maintained  a  quasi-sovereignty  over 
the  vast  territory  extending  from  Hudson’s  Bay 
west  to  the  Pacific,  and  north  to  an  indefinite  dis¬ 
tance.  It  has  surrendered  these  privileges,  but 
still  exists  as  a  trading  company. 

Hue  and  Cry,  a  phrase,  derived  from  the  old 
process  of  pursuit  with  horn  and  voice,  used  in 
English  law  to  describe  the  pursuit  of  felons. 
Whoever  arrested  the  person  pursued  was  so  far 
protected,  that  he  required  no  warrant  to  justify 
the  arrest;  and  even  if  the  party  turned  out  to  be 
no  felon,  no  action  could  be  brought  if  the  arrest 
was  bona  fide.  Hue  and  cry  is  now  abolished. 

Huelva,  one  of  the  eight  provinces  into  which 
Andalucia  has,  since  1833,  been  divided,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Badajoz,  on  the  east  by 
Seville,  on  the  south  and  southwest  by  the  Atlan¬ 
tic,  and  on  the  west  by  Portugal,  and  has  an  area 
of  4,122  square  miles.  Pop.,  220,000. 

Huesca,  one  of  the  three  provinces  into  which 
the  old  northern  Spanish  kingdom  of  Aragon 
was  divided  in  1833,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
France,  east  by  Lerida,  south  and  southwest  by 
Saragossa,  and  west  and  northwest  by  Navarre. 
The  total  area  is  7,530  square  miles.  The  sur¬ 
face  is  mountainous,  especially  in  the  north, 
which  is  occupied  by  the  lofty  offshoots  of 
the  Pyrenees,  which  there  reach  in  Monte  Perdido 
(Mont  Perdu)  the  height  of  11,430  feet.  Pop., 
252,000. 

Hugo,  Victor  Marie,  Vicomte,  foremost 
French  author  and  one  of  the  greatest  poets  of  his 
time,  was  born  Feb.  26,  1802,  and  died  May  22, 
1885.  His  greatest  work  is  Lea  Miserables. 

Hugo  ton,  the  county  scat  of  Stevens  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  230. 


HUILE  DE  CADE. 


468 


HUTCHINSON. 


Huile  de  Cade,  a  brownish  inflammable,  oily 
liquid,  obtained  by  the  dry  distillation  of  the 
wood  of  Juniperus  oxycedrus.  It  has  a  strong 
odor  of  tar,  and  an  acrid,  caustic  taste.  It  is  em¬ 
ployed  externally  in  veterinary  medicine,  and  also 
for  the  human  subject.  It  is  a  good  local  remedy 
in  toothache.  It  iias  been  given  internally  for 
worms,  but  is  a  dangerous  and  uncertain  remedy. 

Hull,  orKiNGSTON-ON-HuLL,  an  important  and 
flourishing  English  river-port,  situated  in  the 
East  Hiding  of  Yorkshire.  Pop.,  101,519. 

Hull,  Isaac,  born  in  Connecticut,  March  9, 
1775,  died  Feb.  3,  1843.  He  became  a  Lieuten¬ 
ant  in  the  United  States  Navy  in  1798,  and  in 
August,  1812,  in  command  of  the  frigate  Consti¬ 
tution,  fought  and  captured  the  English  frigate 
Guerriere,  the  first  naval  success  of  the  war. 

Hull,  William,  born  in  Derby,  Conn.,  June 
24,  1758,  died  Nov.  29,  1825,  served  gallantly  in 
the  War  of  the  Revolution,  but  in  1812  surren¬ 
dered  Detroit  to  the  British  General  Brock  with¬ 
out  making  an  attempt  at  defense.  He  was 
court-martialed  and  sentenced  to  be  shot,  but  the 
sentence  was  remitted  in  consideration  of  his 
early  services. 

Humbert  IV.,  King  of  Italy,  the  eldest  son 
of  Victor  Emmanuel  II.,  was  born  March  4,  1844, 
and  succeeded  to  the  throne  Jan.  9,  1878. 

Humble-bee  ( Bombus ),  a  genus  of  social  bees 
(see  Bee),  having  a  thick  and  very  hairy  body,  the 
hairs  often  arranged  in  colored  bands;  and  also 


Ilumble-bees  and  Nest. 

1,  humble-bee  and  nest;  3,  orange-tailed  bee;  3,  moss  bee. 

differing  from  the  honey-bees  in  having  the  tibige 
of  the  hinder-legs  terminated  by  two  spines.  The 
species  are  numerous,  and  are  found  in  almost  all 
parts  of  the  world,  from  the  equator  to  the 
utmost  polar  limits  of  vegetation,  but  they  seem 
to  abound  most  of  all  in  temperate  climates. 

Humboldt,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexan¬ 
der,  Baron  von,  one  of  the  greatest  of  natural¬ 
ists,  was  born  at  Berlin,  Sept.  14,  1769.  He 
visited  South  America  and  the  Isle  of  Teneriffe, 
in  company  with  Bonpland  the  botanist,  and  their 
explorations  did  more  to  increase  our  knowledge 
of  the  fauna  and  flora  of  these  countries  than 
any  other  agency.  In  1829,  Humboldt  explored 
the  Ural  and  Altai  Mountains,  the  Chinese  Dson- 
garei,  and  the  Caspian  Sea.  His  last  great  work, 
Cosmos,  has  been  unanimously  recognized  as  one 
of  the  greatest  scientific  works  ever  published. 
It  has  been  translated  into  all  the  languages  in 
which  a  book  of  science  is  required.  He  died 
May  6, 1859. 

Humboldt,  a  river  in  the  west  part  of  Utah 
Territory,  formed  by  the  union  of  two  streams 
which  rise  on  the  west  side  of  the  Humboldt 
Mountains. 

Hun'gary  (Ger.  Ungarn;  Magyar,  Magyar  Ors- 
zdg,  land  of  the  Magyars),  a  portion  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire.  According  to  fundamental 
laws  of  the  realm,  the  Emperors  of  Austria  are 
Kings  of  Hungary,  which  formerly  comprehended 
Hungary  proper,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  Dalmatia,  the 
Illyrian  sea-coast,  Transylvania,  and  the  whole  of 
the  military  frontier.  The  two  knots  which  tie 
Austria  proper  and  Hungary  together  are  the  per¬ 
son  of  their  common  Sovereign  and  the  “delega¬ 
tions” — a  Parliament  consisting  of  120  members, 
of  which  sixty  are  supplied  by  either  portion  of 
the  Empire.  This  body  legislates  for  war,  finance, 
and  foreign  affairs;  and  the  ministers  of  these  three 
departments  are  responsible  to  it.  Hungary,  with 


Transylvania,  Croatia,  and  Slavonia,  has  an  area 
of  124,640  square  miles,  and  had  in  1880  a  pop.  of 
15,610,719. 

Hume,  David, 
the  philosopher 
and  historian,  was 
born  at  Edin¬ 
burgh,  on  April 
26  (o.s.),  1711. 

Ilis  works  are  nu¬ 
merous  and  schol¬ 
arly.  He  origi¬ 
nate  d  the  Ger¬ 
man  and  Scotch 
schools  of  meta¬ 
physicians.  II  i  s 
Essays  and  Histo¬ 
ry  of  England  are 
his  best -known 
waitings.  He  died 
Aug.  25,  1776. 

Humming-bird 
( Trochilus ),  a  Lin- 
naean  genus  of 
birds  now  consti¬ 
tuting  a  family, 

Trochilidm,  of  the  Humming-bird  and  nest, 
order  Insessores,  and  tribe  Tenuirostres.  The 
species  are  numerous,  more  than  300  being  known, 
whilst  new  ones  are  continually  being  discovered. 
They  are  found  only  in  America  and  its  islands. 

Hungary-water,  a  celebrated  perfume,  consti¬ 
tuted  as  follows,  for  the  preparation  of  which 
various  receipts  have  been  given: 


Fresh  Rosemary  (in  blossom) . lb.  4 

“  Sage  “  “  . oz.  6 

Ginger  in  slices .  . oz.  2 


Cut  in  small  pieces:  mix  and  add  rectified  spirits  12 

pts.,  and  water  1  qt.  Distill  11  pints  from  this  mixture. 

It  is  employed  principally  as  a  perfume  for  the 
toilet;  but  it  is  sometimes  taken  internally  as  a 
restorative  and  stimulant,  and  it  may  be  used  ex¬ 
ternally  as  a  gently  stimulating  liniment. 

Huns(Lat.  TIunni;  Gr.  Ovvvoi,  Ounnoi,  and 
Xovvoi,  Chounoi),  the  name  of  a  considerable 
nation  of  antiquity,  which,  from  time  to  time, 
made  incursions  upon  the  Roman  dominions,  and 
which  event  ually,  under  Attila,  the  most  renowned 
of  its  leaders,  brought  the  Empires  of  both  the 
East  and  the  West  to  the  very  verge  of  destruction. 
The  Huns  were  of  Asiatic  origin,  and,  in  all  prob¬ 
ability,  of  the  Mongolian  or  Tartar  stock ;  therefore 
akin  to,  and  perhaps  to  be  identified  with,  the 
Scythians  and  Turks. 

Hunt,  James  Henry  Leigh,  poet  and  essayist, 
was  born  in  London,  Oct.  19,  1784.  He  died  in 
1859.  1 1  unt  was  the  original  of  Dickens’  “  Harold 
Skimpole”  in  Bleak  House. 

Hunter,  David,  born  in  Washington,  D.  C.,  in 
1802,  graduated  at  West  Point,  and  became  a 
Colonel  in  1861.  During  the  Civil  War  he  held 
various  commands,  and  at  its  close  was  a  Major- 
General.  He  retired  in  1866,  and  died  Feb.  2, 1886. 

Hunter,  Jotin,  an  eminent  physiologist  and 
surgeon,  was  born  at  Long  Calderwood,  in  Lanark¬ 
shire,  Scotland,  in  1728.  He  held  several  import¬ 
ant  positions  in  colleges  and  hospitals,  and  wrote 
many  valuable  treatises.  Jenner  was  one  of  the 
earliest  of  his  pupils.  In  1776  he  was  appointed 
Surgeon-Extraordinary  to  the  King.  In  Decem¬ 
ber,  1785,  he  planned  and  carried  into  execution 
his  famous  operation  for  the  cure  of  aneurism — 
that  ot  simply  tying  the  artery  at  a  distance  from 
the  tumor,  and  between  it  and  the  heart.  He  died 
Oct,  16,  1793. 

Hunter,  Robert  Mercer  Taliaferro,  born 
in  Virginia,  April  21, 1809,  became  a  Congressman 
in  1837,  and  Speaker  of  the  House  1839-41.  In 
1847  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
served  two  terms,  and  was  again  elected  for  the 
term  ending  in  1865,  but  joined  the  Southern  Con¬ 
federacy,  and  from  July,  1861,  to  February,  1862, 
was  Secretary  of  State  in  Jefferson  Davis’  Cabinet. 
He  also  represented  Virginia  in  the  Richmond 
Senate  1862-65.  He  died  July  18,  1887. 

Hunter,  William,  M.D.,  the  elder  brother  of 
John  Hunter,  was  born  at  Long  Calderwood,  in 
the  Parish  of  Kilbride,  Lanarkshire,  Scotland,  in 
1718,  and  died  in  London  in  1783.  In  1762  Hunter 
was  consulted  by  Queen  Charlotte,  and  two  years 
afterward  was  appointed  Physician-Extraordinary 
to  her  majesty.  In  1767  lie  was  elected  a  Fel¬ 


low  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  appointed  Professor  of  Anatomy  to  the 
Royal  Academy.  He  published  several  important 
contributions  to  medicine,  of  which  the  most  im¬ 
portant  is  his  Anatomical  Description  of  the  Human 
Gravid  Uterus  and  its  Contents. 

Huntersville,  the  county  seat  of  Pocahontas- 
county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  158. 

Huntingdon,  the  county  seat  of  Carroll 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Huntingdon,  the  county  seat  of  Huntingdon 
county,  Penn.,  is  an  important  commercial  and 
manufacturing  city  on  the  Juniata  river.  Pop., 
5,000. 

Hunt'ingdonsliire,  a  small  inland  county  of 
England,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Cambridge¬ 
shire,  south  by  Bedfordshire,  and  west  and  north 
by  the  County  of  Northampton.  Area,  229,515 
acres,  almost  the  whole  of  which  is  arable  or  in 
pasture.  Pop.  (1881),  59,614.  The  chief  town, 
Huntingdon,  was  the  home  of  Oliver  Cromwell. 

Huntington,  Samuel,  born  in  Connecticut  in 
1732,  sat  in  the  Continental  Congress,  and  signed 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  1779  and 
1780  he  was  President  of  the  Congress  of  the  Con¬ 
federation;  in  1783  Chief  Justice  of  Connecticut, 
and  from  1786  till  his  death  in  1796  was  annually 
reelected  Governor  of  that  State. 

Huntington,  a  wealthy  agricultural  and  manu¬ 
facturing  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Huntington 
county,  Ind.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Huutsville,  an  important  commercial  city  and 
the  county  seat  of  Madison  county,  Ala.  Pop., 
7,000. 

Huntsville,  the  county  seat  of  Madison 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  312. 

Huntsville,  a  prosperous  agricultural  town 
and  the  county  seat  of  Randolph  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  2,000. 

Huntsville,  the  county  seat  of  Scott  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  150. 

Huntsville,  a  growing  and  prosperous  town 
and  the  county  seat  of  Walker  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  2,750. 

Huntsville,  a  city  in  Northern  Alabama. 
Pop.,  4,977. 

Hunyady,  Janos  (Eng.  John),  Governor  of 
Hungary,  was  born  toward  the  close  of  the  four¬ 
teenth  century.  During  the  period  1437-1456, 
Hunyady  was"  the  shield  of  Hungary,  not  only 
against  external  foes,  but  also  against  the  lawless 
attempts  of  the  nobles.  He  died  in  1447. 

Hur'dles,  in  military  affairs,  consist  of  straight, 
flat  rectangles  of  strong  wicker-work,  about  6 
feet  long,  and  2  feet  9  inches  high.  They  are 


Hurdle- weaving. 


useful  in  many  ways,  both  in  military  and  civil 
life,  either  as  fencing,  as  barriers,  or  in  fortifica¬ 
tion,  in  the  construction  of  hurdle-batteries. 

Hurley,  an  important  iron-mining  town  in 
Ashland  county,  Wis.,  twelve  miles  south  of 
Lake  Superior.  Pop. ,  3,500. 

Huron,  one  of  the  five  great  lakes,  is  connected 
at  the  north  by  St.  Mary’s  river  or  strait  with 
Lake  Superior,  and  through  the  Strait  of  Macki¬ 
naw  with  Michigan.  On  the  south  it  has  an  out¬ 
let  by  way  of  the  St.  Clair  river.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  north  and  east  by  Ontario,  and  west  and 
southwest  by  Michigan.  Huron  is  about  190 
miles  wide,  and  250  miles  long,  with  an  area  of 
21,000  square  miles. 

Huron,  a  rapidly-growing  town  and  important 
commercial  center,  and  the  county  seat  of  Beadle 
county,  Dak.  Pop.,  3,800. 

Huss,  John,  the  Bohemian  reformer,  was  born 
in  1373  at  Hussinecz,  near  Prachaticz,  in  the 
South  of  Bohemia.  He  was  especially  obnoxious 
to  the  Romish  clergy  on  account  of  his  denuncia¬ 
tions  of  them  and  their  sale  of  indulgences.  He 
was  tried  on  June  6,  1415,  and  he  and  his  wait¬ 
ings  were  condemned  to  the  fire,  and  in  spite  of 
his  safe-conduct,  which  had  been  granted  to  se¬ 
cure  his  attendance  on  the  Court,  the  sentence 
was  carried  out  on  the  same  day,  and  the  ashes 
of  the  martyr  were  thrown  into  the  Rhine. 

Hutchinson,  Anne,  a  religious  enthusiast,  of 
American  celebrity,  emigrated  from  Lincolnshire, 
England,  to  Boston,  Mass.,  in  1636.  She  caused 


HUXLEY. 


469 


HYDRAULIC  RAM. 


much  controversy  by  her  teachings,  and  was 
banished  from  the  Colony;  thence  she  removed  to 
a  Dutch  settlement  in  the  Colony  of  New  York, 
where,  in  1643,  she  and  her  whole  family  of  fif¬ 
teen  persons  were  taken  prisoners  by  the  Indians, 
and  all  but  one  daughter  barbarously  murdered. 

Huxley,  Tiiomas  Henry,  naturalist  and  com¬ 
parative  anatomist,  born  in  1825.  Since  early 
manhood  Huxley  has  been  a  profound  writer, 
and  his  fame  is  solidly  built  on  such  works  as 
Observations  on  Glaciers;  On  the  Theory  of  the 
Vertelrrate  Skull;  The  Oceanic  Hydrozoa,  a  De¬ 
scription  of  the  Calycophoridm  and  Physophoridce, 
and  numerous  fragmentary  writings  of  high 
order.  He  has  since  published  papers  on  the 
glyptodon,  and  the  osteology  of  that  genus;  and 
in  papers  on  the  mollusca,  has  shown  that  those 
animals  have  a  common  type  or  plan,  similarly  to 
the  annulosa  and  vertebrata.  Mr.  Huxley  con¬ 
tributed  largely  to  the  English  Cyclopaedia;  and 
papers  by  him  have  appeared  in  the  journals  of 
the  Roval ,  the  Linnaean,  the  Geological,  the  Zoo¬ 
logical,  and  other  learned  societies. 

Hwang-ho,  Hoang-ho,  or  Yellow  River, 
one  of  the  principal  rivers  of  China,  about  2,400 
miles  in  length,  the  area  of  its  basin  being  not 
less  than  700,000  square  miles. 

Hy'acinth,  a  name  given  to  the  brilliantly 
colored  varieties  of  the  gem  called  zircon,  also  to 
fine  red  cinnamon-stone  or  pyrope;  and  some¬ 
times  to  ferruginous  quartz  of  a  blood-red  color, 
which,  from  its  occurring  abundantly  in  gypsum 
at  Compostella,  in  Spain,  is  called  Hyacinth  of 
Compostella. 

Hyacinth  ( Hyacinthus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Liliacece,  bulbous-rooted  plants 
with  corolla-like,  bell-shaped,  six-cleft  perianth, 
six  stamens  fixed  in  the  tube  of  the  perianth,  and 
dry,  capsular  fruit.  They  are  found  all  over  the 
world. 

Hyacinthe,  Father,  is  the  monastic  name  of 
Charles  Loyson,  born  at  Orleans,  March  10, 
1827.  He  became  known  as  a  powerful  preacher, 
and  gathered  crowded  and  enthusiastic  audiences 
of  all  ranks  of  society  to  the  Madeleine  and  Notre 
Dame  in  Paris.  Almost  as  remarkable  as  his 
eloquence  was  the  boldness  with  which  he  de¬ 
nounced  existing  abuses  in  the  church;  in  1869 
the  general  of  his  order  imposed  silence  on  him. 
He  protested  vigorously  against  the  infallibility 
dogma,  but  always  declared  his  intention  to  re¬ 
main  in  the  Catholic  Church,  trying  to  obtain 
reforms,  such  as  the  liberty  of  marriage  for  the 
clergy.  In  1872  he  married  an  English  wife.  He 
is  a  prolific  writer. 

HyaFna,  a  genus  of  digitigrade  carnivorous 
quadrupeds,  referred  to  the  family  Canidce,  but 
more  generally  to  Viverridce,  whilst  the  dentition 
connects  it  even  with  Felidce.  Hysenaseat  carrion, 
.as  well  as  newly-killed  prey,  and  are  of  much  use 


Spotted  Hyaena  (II .  crocvta)  ■ 


as  scavengers.  They  sometimes  attack  cattle, 
especially  if  they  flee,  but  rarely  man,  though 
they  sometimes  seize  children.  Hysenasare  found 
only  in  Africa  and  the  South  of  Asia,  not  extend¬ 
ing  to  the  furthest  east  of  the  latter  continent. 

Hy  'brid(Gr.  v 6 pid, hybrid,  from  v(3pii,  hybris, 
extravagance,  licentiousness), is  applied  by  natural¬ 
ists  to  the  offspring  of  different  species  of  animals 
and  plants  as  distinguished  from  the  word  mon¬ 
grel,  applied  to  the  offspring  of  different  varieties 
of  the  same  species.  This  condition  may  be  ( 1) 
natural,  (2)  excited  (provoquee),  or  (3)  artificial. 
The  first  variety  occurs  spontaneously  amongst 
animals  in  their  wild  state;  the  second  includes 


those  cases  in  which  domesticated  animals  cross 
with  one  another,  under  the  influence  of  man,  in 
opposition  to  their  natural  instincts;  while  the 
third  variety  is  due  to  the  artificial  admixture  of 
the  male  and  female  generative  elements,  and  as 
far  as  is  yet  known  occurs  only  in  fishes,  and  in 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  When  the  male  of  the 
species  A  can  impregnate  the  female  of  the  spe¬ 
cies  B,  it  may  happen  that  the  process  can  be 
inverted,  and  that  the  male  B  can  impregnate  the 
female  A.  In  other  cases,  however,  while  the 
male  A  can  readily  impregnate  the  female  B,  the 
male  B  can  not  impregnate  the  female  A.  In  the 
first  case,  the  hybridity  is  termed  bilateral;  in  the 
second  unilateral.  It  is  doubtful  whether  ani¬ 
mals  of  different  orders  can  cross.  Many  hybrids 
have  no  propagative  powers;  and  experiments  at 
hybridization  in  the  vegetable  kingdotnliave  been 
most  unsatisfactory.  Hybrid  plants  are  said  to 
partake  generally  of  the  characters  of  the  male 
more  than  of  the  female  parent. 

Hyd'ati(l(from  the  Greek  vSccriS,  hydatis,  a 
watery  vesicle),  a  term  applied  to  larval  stages  of 
t tenia  or  tape-worm.  They  seem  not  to  occur  in 
carnivorous  animals  or  in  the  rodents.  They  are 
generally  inclosed  in  an  external  sac.  Wlien- 


Hydatids. 

Copied  from  Rymer  Jones’  Animal  Kingdom. 

1,  Ctznurus  cerebralis,  natural  size ;  2,  one-  head  magni¬ 
fied;  a.  oval  circlet  of  hooks;  t>,  suckers;  3,  Cysticercus 
tenuicollis,  natural  size;  4,  head  magnified;  a,  circlet  of 
hooks;  b ,  suckers. 

ever  any  of  the  hydatids  are  swallowed  by  man 
or  the  lower  animals,  they  may  proceed,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  to  be  developed  into  the 
higher  stages  of  tape-worm,  and  the  same  pre¬ 
ventive  measures  as  for  that  affection  should  be 
used. 

Hyderabad'  (Ilnidardbdd),  the  capital  of  the 
Nizam’s  Dominions,  or  Haidarabad  State,  in  Cen¬ 
tral  Southern  India,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Musi,  in  latitude  17°  22' N.,  and  longitude 
78°  30'  E.,  at  an  elevation  of  1,800  feet  above  the 
sea.  Pop.  (1881),  354,692. 

Hyden,  the  county  seat  of  Leslie  county,  Ky. 
Pop.,  130. 

Hyde  Park,  an  important  suburb  of  Chicago, 
ten  miles  south  of  the  city,  on  the  lake  shore. 
Pop. ,  15,716.  Annexed  to  Chicago  in  July,  1889. 

Hyde  Park,  the  county  seat  of  Lamoille  county, 
Vt.  Pop.,  1,900. 

Hyde  Park,  a  wealthy  and  attractive  suburb 
of  Boston,  ten  miles  south  of  the  city,  on  the  Old 
Colony  Railroad.  Pop.,  8,400. 

Hyd'num,  a  genus  of  fungi  (Hymenomycetes), 
having  the  under  side  of  the  pileus  covered  with 
soft  spines  which  hear 
the  spores.  The  species 
are  pretty  numerous, 
some  of  them  British; 
among  which  is  H.  re- 
pandum,  more  common 
in  some  parts  of  the  Con¬ 
tinent  of  Europe,  and 
much  used  as  an  escu¬ 
lent  in  France,  Italy, 
and  Germany.  It  grows 
on  the  ground,  chiefly 
in  pine  and  oak  woods, 
either  solitary,  or  in  Ilydnum. 

clusters  or  rings. 


Hydra,  a  fabulous  monster  of  the  ancient 
world.  It  is  represented  as  having  several  heads, 
which  immediately  grew  up  again  as  often  as  they 
were  cut  off.  Its  mouths  discharged  a  subtle  and 
deadly  venom.  The  destruction  of  this  reptile 
was  one  of  the  twelve  labors  of  Hercules. 

Hy'dra,  The,  or 
fresh-wrater  polype,  is 
the  type  of  the  class 
hydrozoa,  which,  with 
the  antliozoa,  form  the 
sub-kingdom  ccelente- 
rata. 

Hy 'dragognes,  are 

those  active  purgatives, 
such  as  jalap,  elate- 
rium,  etc.,  which  pro¬ 
duce  a  great  flux  from 
the  intestinal  membrane, 
and  which  consequently 
give  rise  to  very  watery 
stools.  They  are  of  ex¬ 
treme  use  in  some  of 
the  varieties  of  dropsy, 
being  the  most  effectual  means  of  diminish¬ 
ing  the  liquid  poured  into  the  cellular  tissue 
and  serous  cavities  of  the  body. 

HydraiUgea,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Hydrangeacece,  which  many  botanists  make 
a  sub-order  of  Saxifiragece,  distinguished  by  hav¬ 
ing  4  to  6  petals,  8  to  12,  or  many  stamens,  a 
more  or  less  inferior  ovary,  and  2  to  5  styles. 

Hydraulic  Press,  called  also  Bramah’s  press, 
from  the  name  of  its  inventor,  depends  on  the 
principle,  that  a  pressure  exerted  on  any  part  of 
■  the  surface  of  a  liquid  is  transmitted  undimin- 
ished  to  all  parts  of  the  mass,  and  in  all  direc¬ 
tions.  (See  Hydrostatics.  In  the  annexed  fig¬ 
ure,  F  is  the  cavity 
of  a  strong  metal 
cylinder  E,  into 
which  the  piston 
D,  passes  water¬ 
tight  through  the 
top,  A  tube,  G, 
leads  from  the 
cylinder  to  a  force- 
pump  II;  and  by 
means  of  this,  wa¬ 
ter  is  driven  from 
the  tank  T  into 
the  cavity  F,  so  as 
to  force  the  piston 
D,  upward.  The 
piston  supports  a 
table  on  which  are  placed  the  bales,  books,  or 
other  articles  to  be  pressed;  and  the  rising  of  the 
table  presses  them  against  the  entablature  AA, 
which  is  fastened  to  the  pillars  BB. 

Hydraulic  Ram,  a  simple  and  conveniently 
applied  mechanism,  by  which  the  momentum  or 
weight  of  falling  water  can  be  made  available 
for  raising  a  portion  of  itself  to  a  considerable 
height.  In  the  annexed  figure,  R  is  the  reservoir 
from  which  the  water  falls,  RS  the  height  of  the 
fall,  and  ST  the  horizontal  tube  which  conducts 
the  water  to  the  engine,  ABIITC.  E  and  D  are 
two  valves,  and  FG  is  a  pipe  reaching  within  a 


a,  Hydra  vulgaris  attached 
to  a  piece  of  stick— a  young 
polype  is  sprouting  from 
the  side  of  the  parent  ani¬ 
mal;  b,  one  of  the  larger 
thread-cells,  with  its  three 
recurved  barbs. 


very  little  of  the  bottom,  CB.  The  valve  E  is 
prevented  from  falling  below  a  certain  point  by  a 
knob  above  mn.  When  the  water  is  allowed  to 
descend  from  the  reservoir,  after  filling  the  tube 
BUS,  it  rushes  out  at  the  aperture  mn,  till  its 
velocity  in  descending  RST  becomes  so  great  as 
to  force  up  the  valve  E,  and  close  the  means  of 
escape.  The  water  being  thus  suddenly  checked, 
and  unable  to  find  a  passage  at  mn,  w  ill  produce 
a  great  action  on  every  part  of  the  containing 


HYDRIDrE. 


470 


HYDROPHOBIA. 


vessels,  and  by  its  momentum  raise  the  valve  D. 
A  portion  of  water  being  admitted  into  the  vessel 
ABO,  the  impulse  of  the  column  of  fluid  is 
expended,  the  valves  D  and  E  fall;  the  opening 
at  I)  being  thus  closed,  and  that  at  mn  opened. 
The  water  now  rushes  out  at  mn  as  before,  till  its 
motion  is  again  stopped  by  its  carrying  up  the 
valve  E,  when  the  operation  is  repeated,  the  fluid 
impulse  opening  the  valve  at  D,  through  which 
a  portion  of  the  water  passes  into  ABC.  The 
valves  at  E  and  D  thus  alternately  closing  and 
opening,  and  water  at  every  opening  of  D  mak¬ 
ing  its  way  into  ABC,  the  air  therein  is  con¬ 
densed.  This  condensed  air,  then,  exercises  great 
force  on  the  surface,  op,  of  the  water,  and  raises 
it  in  the  tube,  EG,  to  a  height  proportioned  to 
the  elasticity  of  the  imprisoned  air. 

Hy'dridse,  a  family  of  serpents,  sometimes  so 
defined  as  to  include  numerous  fresh  water  snakes 


Banded  Sea-snake  ( Chersydins f asciatus ). 
a,  head ;  b ,  part  of  back. 


which  are  not  venomous,  and  sometimes  limited 
to  venomous  sea-serpents,  inhabiting  the  Indian, 
Chinese,  and  tropical  Australian  seas.  More  than 
fifty  species  are  known. 

Hy  'drocele  (Gr.  vSaop,  hydor,  water,  and 
kele,  a  swelling),  is  the  medical  term  for  a 
dropsy  of  the  tunica  vaginalis,  a  serous  mem¬ 
brane  or  sac  investing  the  testis.  The  palliative 
treatment  consists  in  the  use  of  suspensory  band¬ 
ages,  evaporating  and  discutient  lotions,  and 
tapping  with  a  fine  trochar.  The  curative  treat¬ 
ment  consists  in  setting  up  sufficient  inflamma¬ 
tion  in  the  tunica  vaginalis  to  destroy  its  undue 
secreting  faculty.  Tliis  is  most  commonly  done 
by  the  injection  of  tincture  of  iodine  into  the 
sac,  or  by  the  passage  of  a  fine  seton  or  an  iron 
wire  (as  proposed  by  Doctor  Simpson)  through  it. 

Hydroceph'alus.  Under  this  term,  which 
literally  means  water  in  the  head,  are  included 
three  distinct  diseases — viz.,  acute  hydrocephalus, 
chronic  hydrocephalus,  and  spurious  hydroceph¬ 
alus.  By  acute  hydrocephalus  is  signified  inflam¬ 
mation  of  the  brain,  as  it  usually  occurs  in  scrof¬ 
ulous  children.  The  only  disorder  with  which 
acute  hydrocephalus  can  easily  be  confounded  is 
infantile  remittent  fever.  Cold  applications, 
with  blood-letting  and  purging,  form  the  best 
remedies— but  only  one  out  of  four  cases  recovers. 
Chronic  hydrocephalus  is  a  perfectly  distinct 
disease  from  acute  hydrocephalus;  while  the  lat¬ 
ter  is  an  inflammation,  the  former  is  a  dropsy. 
Other  treatment  consists  in  the  administration  of 
diuretics,  purgatives,  and  especially  mercury, 
which  may  be  given  in  the  form  of  calomel  in 
minute  doses,  and  applied  as  ointment  externally. 
The  surgical  expedients  are  bandaging  and  punc¬ 
turing  the  head.  Spurious  hydrocephalus  re¬ 
sembles  acute  hydrocephalus  in  many  of  its 
symptoms,  and  has  often  been  mistaken  for  it. 
Instead,  however,  of  being  an  inflammatory  dis¬ 
ease,  it  is  a  disease  of  debility,  and  is  due  to  a 
deficient  supply  of  blood  to  the  brain.  The 
remedies  in  this  disease,  which  readily  yields  to 
treatment,  are  nourishing  diet,  small  doses  of 
wine,  or  even  of  brandy,  in  arrow-root,  decoction 
of  bark,  ammonia,  etc. 

HydrocWo'ric  Acid  (symbol  HC1,  equiv. 
18.25)  is  one  of  the  most  important  com¬ 
pounds  in  inorganic  chemistry.  If  the  two  gases 
which  enter  into  its  composition  (hydrogen  and 
chlorine)  be  mixed  in  equal  volumes,  they  will 
remain  without  action  upon  each  other,  if  kept 
in  the  dark;  but  as  soon  as  they  are  brought 
into  direct  sunlight,  they  unite  with  aloud  explo¬ 
sion,  and  hydrochloric  acid  gas  is  the  result. 
When  allowed  to  escape  into  the  air  it  produces 
white  fumes,  by  condensing  the  atmospheric 
moisture.  If  the  air  be  previously  dried,  no  such 
fumes  are  apparent.  The  solutions  of  this  gas  in 


water  form  the  acid  which  was  first  known  as 
spirit  of  salt,  then  as  muriatic  acid,  and  which  is 
now  termed  hydrochloric  or  chlorhydric  acid. 
Commercial  muriatic  acid — to  use  the  name  em¬ 
ployed  by  manufacturing  chemists — is  made  by 
heating,  in  iron  cylinders,  common  salt  (chloride 
of  sodium),  and  oil  of  vitriol  (hydrated  sulphuric 
acid),  and  condensing  the  evolved  gas  in  water 
contained  in  a  series  of  stoneware  Wolffian  bot¬ 
tles. 

Hydroco'tyle, 

a  genus  of  umbell¬ 
iferous  plants, 
having  simple  um¬ 
bels,  entire  acute 
petals, and  fruit  of 
two  flat  orbicular 
carpels,  with  five 
more  or  less  dis¬ 
tinct  thread  -  like 
ribs  and  no  vittae. 

Hydrocyan  'ic 
Acid’  (HCN)  is  a 
limpid  volatile 
fluid,  with  a  spe¬ 
cific  gravity  of 
0.697  at  G4°  F.  It 
boils  at  80°,  and 
solidifies  into  a 
crystalline  mass  at 
5°  F.  Its  volatility 
is  very  great.  Hy¬ 
drocyanic  acid  is 
readily  obtained 
by  distil  lation 

from  the  kernels  Marsh  Pennywort  or  White-rot 
of  bitter  almonds.  ( Hydrocotyle  vulgaris). 

It  is  serviceable  in  those  affections  of  the  stomach 
in  which  pain  is  a  leading  symptom,  and  in  cases 
of  intense  vomiting.  Hence  it  is  often  useful  in 
cholera  when  opium  has  completely  failed.  It  is 
sometimes  useful  in  allaying  spasmodic  cough. 
It  has  been  employed  with  advantage  in  chronic 
skin  diseases,  to  allay  pain  and  irritation.  A  mixt¬ 
ure  of  twe  drachms  of  the  dilute  acid  (of  2  per  cent, 
strength)  with  half  a  pint  of  rose-water,  and  half 
an  ounce  of  rectified  spirit,  forms  a  good  lotion. 
When  given  internally,  the  average  dose  is  from 
three  to  five  minims  of  the  2  per  cent,  dilute  acid, 
three  or  four  times  a  day;  it  must  be  adminis¬ 
tered  in  simple  water,  or  orange-flower  water. 
Hydrocyanic  acid  is  one  of  our  most  energetic 
poisons,  and  is  frequently  employed  both  in  mur¬ 
der  and  suicide.  Where  the  fatal  action  is  so 
rapid,  antidotes  are  of  comparatively  little  value. 
Chlorine,  ammonia,  cold  affusion,  and  artificial 
respiration  are  the  most  important  agents  in  the 
treatment.  Cold  affusion  on  the  head,  neck,  and 
down  the  spine  is  a  valuable  remedy.  Artificial 
respiration  should  never  be  omitted. 

Hy  'drogen  (symbol  H,  equiv.  1),  so  called  from 
the  Greek  words  vda op,  hydor,  water,  and 
yevveiv,  to  generate,  is  an  elementary  substance, 
which  exists  as  a  colorless  and  inodorous  gas, 
being  the  lightest  of  all  known  bodies.  Hydro¬ 
gen  is  14)  times  lighter  than  atmospheric  air, 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  241.573  times  lighter 
than  platinum,  the  heaviest  body  known.  Its 
refractive  power  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
gas,  and  is  more  than  6  times  as  great  as  that  of 
atmospheric  air.  It  is  combustible;  that  is  to  say, 
it  is  capable  of  combining  with  oxygen,  and 
developing  light  and  heat.  Hydrogen  does  not 
possess  marked  chemical  properties.  The  only 
substances  with  which  it  combines  directly  at 
ordinary  temperatures  are  chlorine  and  oxygen. 
Hydrogen  and  chlorine  mixed  together,  and 
exposed  to  direct  sunlight,  combine  with  explo¬ 
sion;  in  diffused  daylight,  they  gradually  unite; 
but  iu  the  dark  do  not  act  on  one  another.  Hydro¬ 
gen  and  oxygen  do  not  combine  spontaneously 
even  in  direct  sunlight,  but  require  the  presence 
of  a  red-hot  solid,  of  flame,  or  of  spongy  platinum. 
There  are  numerous  ways  in  which  hydrogen  may 
be  prepared,  but  the  usual  and  most  convenient 
process  is  by  the  action  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid 
on  zinc.  About  half  an  ounce  of  granulated  zinc 
is  placed  in  a  retort,  and  a  dilute  acid,  prepared 
by  gradually  mixing  an  ounce  of  oil  of  vitriol  with 
six  ounces  of  cold  water,  is  poured  on  the  zinc. 
I  lydrogen  gas  is  rapidly  evolved  in  great  abun¬ 
dance,  but  the  first  portions  should  not  be  collected, 


since  they  are  mixed  with  the  atmospheric  air 
which  was  contained  in  the  retort.  The  rest  of 
the  gas  may  be  collected  in  the  ordinary  way  over 
water. 

Hydrogen,  Binoxideof  (symbol  H202,  equiv. 
17),  is  a  colorless  liquid  of  a  syrupy  consistence, 
with  a  specific  gravity  of  1.45  (water  being  1), 
and  a  peculiar  odor,  something  like  that  of  very 
dilute  chlorine.  From  the  readiness  with  which 
it  gives  off  its  oxygen,  it  is  a  powerful  oxidizing 
agent.  It  is  of  extreme  use  in  hooping-cough,  in 
certain  forms  of  rheumatism,  and  (as  a  palliative) 
in  the  last  stages  of  consumption. 

Hydrography  (Gr.  vSaop,  hydor,  water, 
ypcicpeiv,  graph-,  to  write)  is  a  description  of 
the  surface  waters  of  the  earth,  particularly  of 
the  bearings  of  coasts,  of  currents,  soundings, 
islands,  shoals,  etc.,  and  of  anything  the  knowl¬ 
edge  of  which  may  be  useful  for  purposes  of 
navigation. 

Hy  'dromys,  a  genus  of  rodent  quadrupeds,  of 
the  family  Muridos. 

Hydropathy,  the  treatment  of  disease  with 
water  as  a  remedial  agent.  Up  to  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  by  some  of  those  who  em¬ 
ployed  it  as  a  curative  agent,  water  was  used  in 
the  treatment  of  acute,  and  by  others  of  chronic 
diseases;  by  some  as  an  internal  agent  alone,  by 
others  as  an  external  application  in  the  various 
forms  of  the  bath,  but  never  in  all  the  manners 
combined.  This  combination  was  first  effected 
by  the  original  genius  of  Vincent  Priessnitz,  a 
Silesian  farmer,  with  whom  began  a  new  era  for 
the  water-cure.  Taking  as  his  central  maxim  the 
principle  first  propounded  by  Hippocrates,  that 
it  is  nature’s  own  strivings  after  health  (vis  medi- 
catrix  naturce)  that  really  cure  the  patient  when 
he  is  cured,  the  function  of  art  being  mainly  to 
remove  obstacles,  the  hydropathic  physician  avoids 
using  all  means  with  whose  effects  he  is  not 
thoroughly  conversant,  or  which  may,  at  least, 
interfere  with  nature’s  own  operations.  Hence, 
as  a  rule,  he  eschews  the  use  of  drugs,  and  betakes 
himself  to  those  more  simple  natural  agents  which, 
in  their  totality,  receive  the  name  of  hygiene. 

Hydropho'bia  (derived  from  vSaop,  hydor , 
water,  and  qoofiol,  phobos,  fear)  is  one  of  the 
diseases  that  are  produced  by  animal  poisons. 
A  person  is  bitten  by  a  mad  dog  or  other  animal. 
The  wound  gradually  heals  in  the  ordinary  man¬ 
ner.  After  an  uncertain  interval,  usually  rang¬ 
ing  from  six  weeks  to  eighteen  months,  which  is 
termed  the  period  of  incubation,  the  following 
symptoms  appear:  The  patient  experiences  dis¬ 
comfort  or  pain  at  the  seat  of  the  bite.  The 
cicatrix  tingles,  or  feels  stiff  or  numb;  sometimes 
becomes  swelled  and  livid,  and  occasionally 
reopens,  and  discharges  a  peculiar  ichor.  The 
morbid  sensations  gradually  extend  from  the 
original  seat  of  injury  toward  the  trunk.  Within 
a  few  hours,  or  a  very  few  days,  the  specific 
constitutional  symptoms  begin  to  manifest  them¬ 
selves;  he  complains  of  pain  and  stiffness  about 
the  neck  and  throat,  finds  himself  unable  to  swal¬ 
low  fluids,  and  every  attempt  to  do  so — often 
even  the  sight  or  the  sound  of  fluids — brings  on  a 
terrible  paroxysm  of  choking  and  sobbing;  and 
this  continues  for  two  or  three  days,  till  the 
patient  dies  from  pure  exhaustion.  The  passage 
of  a  gust  of  wind  across  the  face,  or  the  w'aving 
of  a  mirror  before  the  eyes,  is  often  sufficient  to 
excite  these  paroxysms.  The  mental  condition 
in  the  last  stage  of  this  disease  varies ;  the 
patient  may  be  calm  and  tranquil ;  generally 
he  is  irritable  and  apprehensive  and  suspicious ; 
and  in  most  cases,  a  certain  degree  of 
delirium,  or  even  mania,  is  associated  with  the 
irritability.  Death  most  commonly  takes  place 
on  the  second  or  third  day  after  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  specific  symptoms.  Some  medical 
writers  have  maintained  that  hydrophobia  may 
occasionally  be  spontaneously  developed  in  man, 
as  is  undoubtedly  the  case  occasionally  in 
the  lower  animals-;  others  again,  that  hydro¬ 
phobia  is  a  myth,  and  that  no  such  animal 
poison  exists  as  that  said  to  produce  it ;  but 
that  the  disease  is  but  a  tetanic  affection  aris¬ 
ing  from  a  punctured  wrnund  made  by  the  teeth 
of  some  animal.  The  poisonous  saliva  is  perfectly 
innocuous  when  applied  to  the  unbroken  skin  ;  to 
produce  its  effects,  there  must  be  some  abrasion 
of  the  cuticle ;  but  according  to  the  late  Mr. 


HYDK0PHYLLACEA3. 


471 


HYPOTHESIS. 


Youatt,  it  may  enter  the  system  by  mere  contact 
with  mucous  membranes.  The  disease  is  said  to 
have  been  caused  by  the  mere  scratch  of  a  cat  ; 
but  as  botli  cats  and  dogs  frequently  apply  their 
paws  to  their  mouths,  the  poisonous  saliva  may 
be  introduced  in  this  way  by  the  claws.  Little 
need  be  said  of  the  treatment  of  hydrophobia,  for 
there  is  no  well-authenticated  case  of  recovery  on 
record.  The  most  distressing  symptoms  may, 
however,  be  alleviated  by  chloroform,  opiates, 
the  hot-air  bath,  etc.  But  although  the  disease 
can  not  be  cured,  its  development  may  be  pre¬ 
vented  by  the  early  and  complete  excision  of  the 
bitten  part,  provided  the  situation  of  the  bite 
allows  of  the  free  use  of  the  knife.  The  experi¬ 
ments  of  M.  Pasteur,  recently  made  in  Paris, 
seem  to  hold  out  the  hope  that  inoculation  may 
be  a  specific  preventive,  but  as  yet  the  results  arc 
very  doubtful.  Early  excision  is  the  only  sure 
preventive,  but  if,  for  any  reason,  the  operation 
lias  been  omitted  in  the  first  instance,  it  is  advis¬ 
able  for  the  reasons  already  given  regarding  the 
probable  latency  of  the  poison,  to  cut  out  the 
wound  at  any  period  before  symptoms  of  recru¬ 
descence  appear. 

Hydrophylla'cete,  a  natural  order  of  exog¬ 
enous  plants. 

Hydrostatics  treats  of  the  equilibrium  of 
liquids,  and  of  their  pressures  on  the  walls  of 
vessels  containing  them.  The  fundamental  prop¬ 
erty  may  be  thus  stated :  When  a  pressure  is 
exerted  on  any  part  of  the  surface  of  a  liquid , 
that  pressure  is  transmitted  undiminished  to 
all  parts  of  the  mass,  and  in  all  directions. 
This  is  a  physical  axiom,  but  its  truth  may 
be  experimentally  proved.  Suppose  a  close 
box  B  filled  with  water,  and  having  a  tube  a 
inserted  into  the  upper  cover,  of  an  inch  in 
area,  and  with  a  plug  or  piston  fitting  into  it. 
If  the  piston  a  is  now 
pressed  down  upon  the 
water  with  a  force  equal 
to  a  pound  weight,  the 
water  will  react  upon 
the  piston  with  the  same 
force  ;  but  it  obviously 
will  not  press  more  against  a  than  against 
any  other  part  of  the  box,  therefore  every  square 
inch  of  the  interior  surface  of  the  box  is  pressed 
outward  with  the  force  of  a  pound.  If,  then, 
there  is  another  tube  inserted  in  any  part  of  the 
box  with  a  plug  of  the  same  area,  as  at  b,  it  will 
require  a  force  of  a  pound  to  keep  this  plug  in  its 
place,  and  if  there  were  a  large  plug  of  four  times 
the  area,  as  at  c,  it  would  be  pressed  out  with  a 
force  of  four  pounds.  We  have  only,  then,  to 
enlarge  the  area  of  the  piston  c  to  obtain  any 
multiplication  of  the  force  exerted  at  a.  •  If  the 
area  of  c  is  1,000  inches,  that  of  a  being  one  inch, 
a  pressure  of  one  pound  on  a  becomes  a  pressure 
of  1,000  pounds  on  c;  and  if  we  make  the  pressure 
on  a  one  ton,  that  on  c  will  be  1,000  tons.  This 
seemingly  wonderful  multiplication  of  power  has 
received  the  name  of  the  hydrostatic  paradox. 
Every  molecule  of  the  liquid  must  be  solicited  by 
equal  and  contrary  pressures  in  every  direction, 
and  the  upper  molecules  of  a  liquid,  which  are 
free,  must  form  a  surface  perpendicular  to  the 
impressed  force.  The  general  proposition  on 
pressure  of  liquids  on  surfaces  may  be  stated 
thus:  The  pressure  of  a  liquid  on  any  surface 
immersed  in  it,  is  equal  to  the  weight  of  a 
column  of  the  liquid  whose  base  is  the  surface 
pressed,  and  whose  height  is  the  perpendicular 
depth  of  the  center  of  graVity  of  the  surface 
below  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  When  a  solid 
body  is  immersed  in  a  liquid,  it  loses  as  much 
weight  as  that  of  an  equal  bulk  of  the  liquid 
weighs.  It  follows  that,  if  a  cubic  foot  of  the 
liquid  and  of  the  solid  have  equal  weights,  the 
solid  will  lose  all  its  weight,  or  will  remain  in 
the  liquid  wherever  it  is  put ;  if  a  cubic  foot  of 
the  liquid  weigh  more  than  one  of  the  solid,  the 
solid  will  not  only  lose  all  its  weight,  but  will 
rise  up,  and  that  with  a  force  equal  to  the  differ¬ 
ence  ;  if  a  cubic  foot  of  the  liquid  weigli  less  than 
one  of  the  solid,  the  soil'd  will  lose  weight,  but  will 
sink.  As  the  buoyancy  of  a  body  thus  depends 
on  the  relation  between  its  weight  and  the  weight 
of  an  equal  bulk  of  the  liquid,  the  same  body  will 
be  more  or  less  buoyant,  according  to  the  density 
of  the  liquid,  in  which  it  is  immersed.  A  piece 


of  wood  that  sinks  a  foot  in  water,  will  sink 
barely  an  inch  in  mercury.  Mercury  buoys  up 
even  iron.  The  line  passing  through  the  center 
of  gravity  of  a  floating  body  and  the  center  of 
gravity  of  the  displaced  water,  is  called  the  axis 
of  flotation.  The  equilibrium  of  a  floating  body 
is  said  to  be  stable,  when,  on  suffering  a  slight 
displacement,  it  tends  to  regain  its  original 
position. 

Hydrosulphu'ric  Acid  (H^S),  known  as  sul- 
phureted  hydrogen,  is  a  colorless  gas  of  a  strong 
and  very  nauseous  odor,  resembling  that  of  rotten 
eggs.  It  consists  of  two  volumes  of  hydrogen 
and  one  volume  of  sulphur  vapor  condensed  into 
two  volumes,  which  form  its  combining  measure. 
It  is  about  seventeen  times  heavier  than  hydrogen. 
It  is  highly  combustible,  and  burns  with  a  pale 
blue  flame,  producing  water  and  sulphurous  acid, 
and,  generally,  a  deposit  of  sulphur.  It  has  a 
weak  acid  reaction,  and  forms  one  of  the  liydrac- 
ids.  Although  a  feeble  acid,  it  combines  readily 
with  bases.  The  air  of  a  room  slightly  impreg¬ 
nated  with  this  gas  may  be  breathed  with  impu¬ 
nity,  but  a  small  quantity  of  the  undiluted  gas 
inspired  produces  faintness,  and  its  respiration,  in 
a  very  moderate  proportion,  was  found  by  The- 
nard  to  prove  fatal.  Its  poisonous  effects  are  best 
counteracted  by  the  inhalation  of  very  diluted 
chlorine  gas,  which  may  be  readily  obtained  from 
a  little  chloride  of  lime  placed  in  the  folds  of  a 
napkin  moistened  with  vinegar. 

Hydrotho'rax  (derived  from  v'Soap,  hydor, 
water,  and  OopaS,  thorax,  the  chest)  is  the  term 
applied  to  dropsical  collections  in  the  pleura, 
a  closed  serous  sac  enveloping  the  lung  on  either 
side.  The  treatment  is  usually  application  of 
counter-irritants,  and  sometimes  phlebotomy,  with 
the  administration  of  mercurials,  until  salivation 
begins. 

Hygei'a  —  in  the  Classical  Mythology,  the  god¬ 
dess  of  Health — the  daughter  of  ^Esculapius. 

Hygrom'eter  (Gr.  vypot,  hygros,  moist,  yer- 
pov,  metron,  measure),  an  instrument  for  meas¬ 
uring  the  quantity  of  moisture  in  the  atmosphere. 
The  most  perfect  hygrometer  consists  of  two 
bulbs  connected  by  a  bent  tube,  inclosing  a  ther¬ 
mometer,  together  with  some  ether  and  vapor  of 
ether,  the  air  having 
been  expelled.  One 
bulb  is  covered  with 
muslin,  and  the  other 
is  either  blackened  or 
coated  with  metal.  The 
observer’s  hand  is 
placed  for  a  short  time 
on  the  muslin-covered 
bulb,  to  drive  the  ether 
into  the  other,  leaving 
the  first  and  the  tube 
filled  with  vapor  of 
ether.  A  little  ether  is 

then  dropped  from  a‘  ,  ,,  .  .  . 

a,  bulb  containing  ether:  o, 
flask  On  the  muslm-  Vmll,  covered  with  muslin; 
covered  bulb;  evapora-  e,  flask  of  ether;  t,  ther- 
tion  instantly  takes  mometer  inside  hygrom- 
place,  and  produces  a  eter' 
cooling  off  in  the  muslin  bulb,  which  condenses 
the  vapor  inside;  a  fresh  evaporation  from  the 
other  bulb  fills  the  vacuum,  which  is  again  con¬ 
densed  by  dropping  ether  on  the  first  bulb,  and 
the  process  is  repeated  till  the  temperature  of  the 
second  bulb  is  so  reduced  by  successive  evapora¬ 
tions  that  dew  begins  to  be  formed  on  the  outside 
of  the  bulb.  At  the  instant  this  occurs,  the  height 
of  the  mercury  in  the  two  thermometers  is  accu¬ 
rately  noted,  the  one  giving  the  dew-point  tempera¬ 
ture,  and  the  other  the  temperature  of  the  air. 
The  actual  quantity  of  moisture  contained  in  a 
cubic  foot  of  air  can  now  be  readily  found  from  the 
following  empirical  formula:  Weight  of  moisture 

in  grains  =  X  Pi  where  t  is  the  temperature 

448  — f-  t 

of  the  air  at  the  time  of  observation,  and  p  (found 
from  tables)  the  elasticity  of  vapor  at  the  tempera¬ 
ture  of  the  dew-point. 

Hylaeosau'rus  (Gr.  forest-lizard),  a  huge,  dino- 
saurian  reptile,  found  in  the  Wealden  strata  of 
Kent  and  Sussex.  Fragments  of  different  indi¬ 
viduals  have  been  found  sufficient  to  give  an  ap¬ 
proximate  notion  of  the  affinities  and  great  size  of 
this  reptile.  The  bones  of  the  head  have  not  yet 
been  observed;  its  teeth  were  comparatively  small, 


and  close  set;  they  seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  a 
vegetable  eater.  The  body  was  broader  than  high, 
and  terminated  in  a  long,  slender,  flexible  tail ;  the 
limbs  were  relatively  short;  the  skin  covered  with 
scutes  and  tubercles;  and  a  row  of  large,  thin, 
angular,  bony  spines  extended  down  the  back,  and 
formed  a  serrated  dermal  crest,  like  the  horny 
spines  of  the  modern  iguana.  It  is  supposed  to 
have  attained  a  length  of  25  feet.  The  remains  of 
only  one  species  have  been  found;  it  has  been 
named  II.  oweni. 

Hymenop'tera,  an  order  of  insects,  containing 
a  great  number  of  species,  estimated  at  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  whole  class,  and  of  which  some,  as 
ants  and  bees,  are  singularly  interesting  and  im¬ 
portant. 

Hymet'tus,  a  mountain  in  Attica,  now  called 
Trelo  Youni,  situated  to  the  southeast  of  Athens, 
and  famous  among  the  ancients  for  its  honey  and 
its  marble.  The  honey  still  retains  its  reputation. 

Hyperica'cete,  or  Hyperici  'n/e,  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants  containing  about  300 
known  species,  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous 
plants  wi  lely  distributed  over  the  world,  and  in 
very  different  climates,  but  particularly  numer¬ 
ous  in. North  America. 

Hypers'tliene,  a  mineral  closely  related  to 
augite  and  diallage.  It  is  a  bisilicate  of  iron  and 
magnesia. 

Hyper 'trophy  is  the  term  applied  in  medicine 
to  the  enlargement  of  certain  organs  of  the  body. 
The  best  examples  of  this  change  are  seen  in  the 
muscular  system,  where  it  may  occur  altogether 
independently  of  disease.  There  are,  however, 
cases  in  which  the  hypertrophy  has  a  hurtful  in¬ 
stead  of  a  conservative  effect,  as,  for  example, 
hypertrophy  of  the  thyroid  gland,  constituting 
the  disease  known  as  goiter  or  broncliocele,  hyper¬ 
trophy  of  the  prostate  gland,  of  the  spleen,  etc. 

Hyp'  notism  (from  the  Greek  word  v-revot, 
liypnos,  sleep)  is  a  term  designating  certain  phe¬ 
nomena  of  the  nervous  system  which  in  many 
respects  resemble  those  which  are  induced  by  ani¬ 
mal  magnetism,  but  which  clearly  arise  from  the 
physical  and  psychical  condition  of  the  patient, 
and  not  from  any  emanation  proceeding  from 
others.  Many  of  the  minor  operations  of  surgery 
have  been  performed  on  patients  in  the  hypno¬ 
tized  state  without  pain,  and  hypnotism  has  been 
successfully  employed  as  a  therapeutic  agent  in 
numerous  forms  of  disease,  especially  such  as 
have  their  seat  in  the  nervous  system. 

Hypocliat'ris,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Composites,  sub-order  Cichoracece,  of  which 
one  species,  II.  radicata,  or  long-rooted  cat’s  ear, 
is  extremely  common  in  meadows  and  pastures  in 
Britain.  Its  leaves  are  all  radical,  and  spread  on 
the  ground,  resembling  in  form  those  of  the 
dandelion,  but  rough;  the  stem  is  branched,  the 
flowers  not  unlike  those  of  the  dandelion,  but 
smaller.  Cattle  eat  this  plant  readily,  and  its 
abundance  is  not  deemed  injurious  to  pasture  or 
fodder. 

Hypoclilo'rons  Acid  (HCIO)  is  a  dark-red 
fluid,  which,  at  a  temperature  of  about  70°, 
becomes  converted  into  an  orange-colored  gas, 
which  very  readily  explodes  into  its  ultimate  con¬ 
stituents.  It  is  the  active  ingredient  of  the  differ¬ 
ent  bleaching  powders  and  salts. 

Hypochondri'asis  (so  called  from  its  supposed 
connection  with  the  hypochondriac  regions  of  the 
abdomen),  a  disease  characterized  by  extreme  in¬ 
crease  of  sensibility,  palpitations,  morbid  feelings 
that  simulate  the  greater  part  of  diseases,  exag¬ 
gerated  uneasiness  and  anxiety,  chiefly  in  what 
concerns  the  health,  etc.  The  disease  is  inti¬ 
mately  connected  with,  if  not  caused  by,  disorder 
of  the  digestive  functions.  When  somberness  of 
disposition  and  anxiety  concerning  personal  com¬ 
fort  become  exaggerated,  and  attention  is  directed 
chiefly  to  the  state  of  the  health,  it  amounts  to 
common  hypochondriasis.  When  it  passes  beyond 
the  control  of  the  will,  when  the  whole  mind  is 
directed  to  the  state  of  the  system,  or  to  particu¬ 
lar  organs,  and  exalts  and  misinterprets  sensa¬ 
tions,  the  condition  is  designated  hypochondriacal 
insanity. 

Hypoth'csls,  a  cause  predicated  in  explana¬ 
tion  of  some  phenomenon,  the  verification  of 
which  cause  is  left  to  the  ultimate  conclusion  ar¬ 
rived  at  by  a  process  of  reasoning  from  that 
basis.  Thus,  in  endeavoring  to  explain  natural 


IIYRACOTHERIUM. 


472 


ICHNOLOGY. 


phenomenon,  we  have  often  to  assume  or  imagine 
a  cause,  which,  in  the  first  instance,  we  do  not 
know  to  be  the  real  cause,  but  which  may  be 
established  as  such  when  we  find  that  its  conse¬ 
quences  agree  with  the  phenomenon  to  be  ex¬ 
plained. 

Hyracothe'rium,  a  genus  of  fossil  pachy- 
dermata,  belonging  to  the  division  perrysodactyla, 


Hyracotherium. 


At,  A  3.  skull  of  Hi/racotherium  (Pliolophus)  vulpiceps 
(one-third  natural  size1.  A3,  molar  tooth  (natural  size). 
Bl,  B3  skull  of  II.  leporinum  (one-third  natural  size). 

B  3,  molar  tooth  (natural  size). 

C  1.  portion  of  lower  jaw  and  tooth  of  II.  cuniculus  (nat¬ 
ural  size).  C  3,  molar  tooth  (natural  size). 

the  animals  of  which  are  characterized  by  having 
an  odd  number  of  toes. 

Hj  rca'nia,  an  ancient  district  of  Asia,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Caspian  Sea  (sometimes 


I  is  the  ninth  letter  in  the  alphabets  of  Western 
Europe,  and  was  called  by  the  Greeks  Iota , 
after  its  Shemitic  name  (Heb.  Jod),  which  signi¬ 
fies  “hand.”  The  oldest  forms  of  the  letter,  as 
seen  in  the  Phoenician  and  Samaritan,  have  a 
rude  resemblance  to  a  hand  with  three  fingers. 
The  original  sound  of  the  letter,  and  that  which 
is  considered  its  proper  sound  in  all  languages 
except  English,  is  that  given  to  Eng.  e,  in  me.  In 
Lat.  there  was  but  one  character  for  the  vowel 
i  and  the  semi  vowel  now  denoted  by  the  char¬ 
acter,/. 

I '  hex,  the  ancient  name  of  the  bouquetin  or 
steinbock  of  the  Alps. 

I 'bis,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  Ardeidce. 
The  bill  is  long,  slender,  curved,  thick  at  the  base, 
the  point  rather 
obtuse,  the  up¬ 
per  mandible 
deeply  grooved 
throughout  its 
length.  The 
face,  and  gener¬ 
ally  the  greater 
part  of  the 
head ,  and  some¬ 
times  even  the 
neck,  are  desti¬ 
tute  of  feathers, 
at  least  in  adult 
birds.  The 
neck  is  long. 

The  legs  a  r  e 
rather  long, 
naked  above  the 
tarsal  joint.  Sacred  Ibis, 

with  three  partially  united  toes  in  front,  and  one 
behind;  the  wings  are  moderately  long;  the  tail  is 
short.  It  was  worshiped  by  the  ancient  Egyp¬ 
tians. 

Ibrahim  Pasha,  the  adopted  son  of  Moham¬ 
med  Ali,  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  was  born  in  1789, 
and  died  at  Cairo,  Nov.  9,  1848. 

Ice  is  water  in  the  solid  form,  resulting  from 
crystallization  by  cold.  This  may  be  natural  or 
artificial,  and  much  of  the  ice  used  in  warm 


called  Ilyrcanum  Mare )  and  the  Oclius  river,  on 
the  east  and  south  by  the  Sariphi  Mountains  (now 
Elburz),  and  on  the  west  by  Media.  It  corre¬ 
sponds  with  the  modern  Mazanderan  and  Astera- 
bad.  With  the  exception  of  the  coast  districts, 
and  the  valleys  among  the  hills,  which  produced 
corn,  oil,  and  wine,  it  was  not  a  fertile  region; 
dense  forests  prevailed,  through  which  roamed 
multitudes  of  savage  animals,  the  Hyrcanian  tiger 
in  particular  being  celebrated.  The  inhabitants 
were  of  the  same  stem  as  the  Parthians,  and  were 
noted  for  their  wild  and  rude  character. 

H.V  rca'nus,  the  name  of  two  Jewish  high-priests 
and  princes  of  the  Asmonean  family. — 1.  Jo¬ 
annes  IIyrcanus,  son  of  8imon  Maccabeus,  who 
ruled  136-106 b.c. — 2.  IIyrcanus  II.,  son  of  Alex¬ 
ander,  and  grandson  of  the  preceding,  was  a 
feeble  prince,  and  was  put  to  death  in  30  b.c., 
for  conspiracy  against  Herod. 

Hyrtl,  Joseph,  a  distinguished  anatomist,  was 
born  in  1811  at  Eisenstadt,  in  Hungary,  studied 
at  Vienna  and  early  acquired  eminence  both  as  a 
scientific  anatomist,  and  upon  account  of  the  ex¬ 
treme  beauty  of  his  anatomical  preparations.  He 
became  Professor  of  Anatomy  in  Prague  in  1837, 
and  at  Vienna  in  1845.  Whilst  yet  a  student,  he 
enriched  the  anatomical  museum  of  Vienna  with 
many  preparations.  He  has  contributed  not  a 
little  to  the  progress  of  comparative  anatomy, 
especially  that  of  fishes,  and  has  made  the 
anatomy  of  the  ear  a  subject  of  very  particular 
investigation.  He  has  written  many  books  and 
articles  on  the  subjects  above  indicated,  of  wdiich 
the  two  principal  are  Lehrbuchder  A  natomie  dcs 
Menschen  (1847;  13th  ed.,  1875),  and  Handbuch  dev 
Topoyraphischen  Anatomie  (1847;  6th  ed.,  1871). 
The  former  is  a  text-book  in  all  German  uni¬ 
versities,  and  has  been  translated  into  various 
languages.  Ilyrtl  formed  a  museum  of  compara¬ 
tive  anatomy  at  Vienna,  and  became  Rector  of 
the  university  there,  resigning  office  in  1874. 


I 

countries  in  summer  is  made  by  ice  machines, 
the  construction  of  which  is  based  on  the  princi¬ 
ple  that  evaporation  produces  intense  cold. 

Iceland,  an  island  in  the  northernmost  part  of 
the  Atlantic,  on  the  confines  of  the  Arctic  Ocean; 
in  N.  latitude  63°  23' — 66°  33',  and  W.  longitude 
13°  22' — 24°  35',  distant  about  600  miles  from 
Norway,  and  250  from  Gieenland,  250  from  the 
Faroe  Isles,  and  above  500  from  the  North  of 
Scotland .  It  belongs  to  the  Kingdom  of  Denmark . 
Its  extent  is  about  39,207  square  miles;  its  ex¬ 
treme  length,  from  east  to  west  is  upward  of  300 
miles,  its  greatest  breadth  from  north  to  south 
about  200.  Pop.  (1880),  72,000. 

Iceland  Moss  ( Cetraria  islandica),  a  lichen 
found  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  and 
valuable  on  account  of  its  nutritious  and  medici- 


Iceland  Moss  ( Cetraria  islandica ). 

nal  properties.  It  is  collected  as  an  article  of 
commerce  and  food  in  Norway  and  Iceland. 

Ice-plant  (Mesembryanthemum  crystallinum), 
an  annual  herbaceous  plant,  a  native  of  Africa 
and  of  the  South  of  Europe,  remarkable  for  the 
watery  vesicles  (pupitlce)  with  which  its  whole 
surface  is  covered,  and  which  have  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  granules  of  ice,  in  the  sun. 

Ichneumon,  a  Linngean  genus  of  insects,  now 
constituting  a  family  or  tribe,  Irhneumonidm,  of 
the  order  liymenoptera ,  section  Terebrantia. 

Iclineu'mon  (Ilerpestes),  a  genus  of  digiti- 
grade  carnivorous  quadrupeds  of  the  family  Fi¬ 


ll  ys 'sop  ( Hyssopus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Labiates, 
distinguished  by  four 
straight  diverging  sta-* 
mens,  and  a  calyx  with 
fifteen  ribs. 

Hyste'ria,  a  nervous 
affection  confined 
nearly  entirely  to 
womeD.  The  name  was 
given  because  it  w'as 
long  believed  that  the 
sole  seat  of  trouble  lay 
in  the  womb  (Gr.  vS- 
r spec,  womb).  It  is  con¬ 
fined  principally  to 
young  women,  and  is 
sometimes  with  diffi¬ 
culty  distinguished 
from  epilepsy,  the  main 
point  of  difference  in 
diagnosis  being  in  the 
breathing — in  epilepsy 
the  larynx  being  closed 
and  the  expiration  pre¬ 
vented,  while  in  liys-  Common  Hyssop  (Hyssopvs 
teria  inspiration  is  ac-  officinalis). 

companied  by  the  heaving  and  sighing  which 
indicate  that  the  larynx  is  open.  The  most  fre¬ 
quent  manifestations  of  the  disease  are  laughing 
and  crying  fits.  The  chief  characteristic  of  hys¬ 
teria  is  the  development  of  pseudo  diseases  which 
it  induces.  These  diseases  include  almost  every 
one  to  which  wromen  are  subject.  The  treatment 
during  the  fit  should  be  sedative,  such  medicines 
as  potassium  bromide  15  gr.,  and  ammoniated 
tincture  valerian  1  draclim,  in  water,  being 
given,  and  after  the  fit  is  over  the  bowels  should 
be  kept  open  by  aloes,  and  tonic  treatment  given, 
such  as  ferruginous  agents,  coupled  with  mineral 
acids  to  exert  a  cholagogic  and  hepatic  influence. 


verridw  having  a  much  elongated  body,  small 
head,  sharp  muzzle,  rounded  ea  s,  and  short  legs. 


Egyptian  Ichneumon  (Herpestes  ichneumon). 


Iclithyo'sis,  or  Fisii-skin  Disease,  is  charac¬ 
terized  by  a  hardened,  thickened,  rough,  and 
almost  horny  state  of  the  cuticle,  which  breaks 
into  small,  irregular,  scale-like  pieces,  which  do 
not  readily  exfoliate,  but  which,  if  removed,  are 
speedily  reproduced.  The  treatment  consists  in 
the  frequent  use  of  the  warm  or  vapor  bath,  so  as 
to  soften  the  thickened  epidermis  and  to  facilitate 
its  removal,  and  friction  by  means  of  a  piece  of 
flannel  may  be  conjoined  with  the  bath. 

Iclinol'ogy  (Gr.  science  of  foot-prints),  is  the 
name  given  to  that  section  of  palaeontology  which 
treats  of  the  impressions  made  on  mud  or  sand, 
now  indurated  into 
rock,  by  the  animals 
of  the  period  to  which 
the  rocks  belong,  or 
by  meteoric  or  other 
transitory  physic  a  1 
forces.  The  study  of 
ichnology  carries  US  Annelid  Borings  (Arenicolites) . 
back  to  the  remotest  From  Cambrian  rocks, 
known  period  of  animal  life  on  the  globe.  The 
deposit  from  which  has  been  obtained  the  frag¬ 
ment  of  the  oldest  known  trilobite  (pakeopyge), 


ICHTHY  ODORULITE. 


473 


ILLINOIS. 


contains  the  borings  of 
certain  worms  and  im¬ 
pressions  of  rain-drops. 

The  earliest  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  birds 
are  the  traces  of  their 
feet  in  the  argillaceous 
sandstones  of  Connecti¬ 
cut,  which  are  now 
known  to  be  of  the 
lower  oolitic  age.  The 
structure  of  the  tridac- 
tyle  feet  which  produced 
these  impressions  exhib¬ 
its  the  regular  progres¬ 
sion  in  the  number  of 
the  toe-joints  from  the 
innermost  to  the  outer¬ 
most  toe  peculiar  to 
birds,  and  they  must  be 
taken  as  evidencing  the 
occurrence  thus  early  of 
theclass,  although  acon- 
siderablc  interval  elapses 

before  the  first  true  Footprints  of  Birds, 
fossil  of  a  bird  occurs—  On  the  Oolitic  Sandstones 
viz.,  the  archaeopteryx.  of  Connecticut. 

Ichtliyodo'rulite  (Gr.  fish-spear  stone),  the 
name  given  to  fossil  fish  spines  that  are  not 
uncommon  in  the  stratified  rocks. 

Iclithyosau'rus  (Gr.  fish-reptile),  a  remarkable 
genus  of  reptiles  which  inhabited  the  sea  during 
the  deposition  of  the  secondary  strata.  The  body 
was  shaped  like  that  of  a  fish,  the  limbs  were 
developed  into  paddles,  and  the  tail  long  and 


lizard-like,  was  furnished,  it  is  believed,  with  a 
fleshy  fin,  as  in  the  dolphin,  except  that  its  posi¬ 
tion  was  vertical.  The  head  was  large  and  had 
the  nostril  placed  close  to  it,  as  in  the  whale,  and 
not  near  the  end  of  the  snout. 

Icy  Cape,  a  headland  of  North  America,  is  in 
71°  N.  latitude,  about  the  middle  of  that  long 
reach  of  the  Arctic  coast  between  Cape  Lisburne 
on  the  southwest  and  Cape  North  or  Point  Barrow 
on  the  northeast.  It  was  discovered  by  Cook  in 
1778,  and  was  his  furthest  point  north  of  Beh¬ 
ring’s  Strait. 

I 'da,  a  high  mountain  range,  in  Asia  Minor, 
extending  from  Phrygia  through  Mysia  into 
Troas.  The  city  of  Troy  was  situated  at  its  base. 

Ida  Grove,  a  town  and  county  seat  of  Ida 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  1,800. 

I  'dalio,  a  northwestern  territory  of  the  United 
States,  bounded  north  by  British  America,  east  by 
Montana  and  Wyoming,  south  by  Utah  and 
Nevada,  and  west  by  Oregon  and  Washington. 
Area,  84,800  square  miles.  The  surface  is  gener¬ 
ally  elevated,  and  the  soil  capable  of  high  culti¬ 
vation.  The  main  source  of  the  wealth  of  the 
Territory  is  in  its  gold,  silver,  and  other  minerals. 
Pop.  (1880),  32,611.  Capital,  Boise  City.  Organ¬ 
ized  as  a  Territory  in  1863,  Idaho  was  after¬ 
ward  diminished  in  area  by  the  abstraction  of 
Montana  to  form  a  separate  Territory. 

Idaho  City,  the  county  seat  of  Boise  county, 
Idaho.  Pop.,  672. 

Ide  ( Leuciscus  idus),  a  fish  of  the  family  Gy- 


Ide  ( Leuciscus  idus). 

prinida,  of  the  same  genus  with  the  roach,  dace, 
chub,  etc. 


Iden'tity  of  person  in  point  of  law  must 
often  be  proved  in  legal  proceedings,  as  in  prov¬ 
ing  a  marriage,  proving  a  pedigree,  proving  a 
thief,  etc.  The  usual  proof  is  the  oath  of  some 
one  who  knew  or  was  cognizant  of  the  facts  at 
both  the  times  referred  to. 

Identity,  Contradiction,  and  Excluded 
Middle,  are  the  widest  generalizations  of  our 
necessary  beliefs.  The  law  of  identity  is  ex¬ 
pressed  thus:  “Whatever  is,  is;”  a  proposition 
justly  considered  as  irresistible.  The  law  of  con¬ 
tradiction  is,  that  “the  same  attribute  can  not  be 
both  affirmed  and  denied  of  the  same  subject 
or  that  a  thing  can  not  be  and  not  be  at  the  same 
time.  In  other  words,  two  affirmations  that  con¬ 
tradict  each  other  can  not  be  both  true.  The 
principle  of  excluded  middle  is  another  form  of 
the  principle  of  contradiction,  implying  the  same 
general  fact,  and  resting  on  the  same  foundation. 
It  is,  that  of  two  contradictories,  both  can  not  be 
false,  or  one  must  be  true.  Any  given  assertion 
must  be  either  true  or  false;  either  the  affirmative 
is  true,  or  otherwise  the  negative  is  true,  which 
means  that  the  affirmative  is  false. 

Id'iocy  is  the  non-development  of  the  mental 
faculties.  A  dement  is  deprived  of  powers  which 
he  once  possessed  ;  an  idiot  never,  or  only  imper¬ 
fectly,  possesses  such  powers.  The  first  attempt 
to  give  regular  instruction  to  idiots  was  made  in 
the  Bicetre  at  Paris  many  years  ago,  but  now 
schools  for  this  purpose  are  established  in  nearly 
all  civilized  countries. 

Idun,  or  Iduna,  the  name  of  a  goddess  of  the 
northern  mythology. 

idyl  (Gr.  eidullion,  Lat.  idyllium,  a  little 


image),  a  term  generally  used  to  designate  a 
species  of  poem  representing  the  simple  scenes  of 
pastoral  life. 

IglooTik,  an  island  of  some  historical  interest, 
lies  near  the  east  end  of  the  Strait  of  the  Fury 
and  Hecla,  in  latitude  69°  21'  N.,  and  longitude 
81°  53'  W. 

Igna'tius,  St.,  Bishop  of  Antioch  after  69 
a.d.,  is  said  to  have  been  a  disciple  of  St.  John, 
and  is  reckoned  one  of  the  apostolical  Fathers. 
He  was  torn  by  wild  beasts  at  Home  in  either  107 
or  116  a.d. 

Ignatius’  (St.)  Beans,  the  seeds  of  the  Ignatia 
amara,  formerly  Stryclinos  ignalii.  They  contain 
strychnia,  and  their  medicinal  uses  are  similar  to 
those  of  mix  vomica. 

Ig'neous  Rocks  are  those  which  have  been 
produced  from  materials  fused  by  heat. 

Ig'nis  Fa'tuus  (Lat.  vain  or  foolish  fire)  is  a 
luminous  appearance  frequently  seen  in  marshy 
places,  churchyards,  and  over  stagnant  pools, 
supposed  to  arise  from  phosphureted  hydrogen 
gas,  light  carbureted  hydrogen  gas,  or  electric 
phenomena,  all  of  which  may,  in  turn,  arise  from 
decomposition  of  organic  matter. 

Ignora'inus  (Lat.  wc  do  not  know),  the  word 
formerly  written  by  a  grand  jury  on  the  back  of 
an  indictment,  meaning  that  they  rejected  it.  In 
modern  cant  phraseology  it  means  an  ignorant 
person. 

Icnorance  of  the  Law,  or  Ignoran'tia 
Ju'iiis,  is  held  in  law  to  be  no  excuse  for  any 
breach  of  contract  or  duty,  nor  for  crime  or  other 
offense.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to  start  with 
this  maxim,  otherwise  it  would  be  quite  impos¬ 
sible  to  administer  the  law,  for  if  once  a  contrary 
maxim  were  allowed,  it  would  not  only  be  a 
premium  to  ignorance,  but  would  lead  to  endless 
and  abortive  inquiries  into  the  interior  of  a  man’s 
mind. 

Ignoran'tines  (Fr.  Freres  ignorantins),  a 
religious  congregation  of  men  in  the  Roman’ 
Catholic  Church,  associated  for  the  gratuitous 
instruction  of  poor  children  in  sacred  as  well  as 
secular  learning. 

Igua'na,  a  genus  of  lizard-like  saurian  reptiles, 


the  type  of  the  family  Iguanidce.  It  is  abundant 


Iguana. 


in  the  West  Indies  and  tropical  parts  of  America, 
living  mostly  among  trees. 

Igua'nodon  (iguana,  and  Gr.  odous,  tooth), 
an  extinct  genus  of  gigantic  dinosaurian  reptiles. 

Ikupa,  the  principal  river  of  Madagascar. 

Ile-de-France,  one  of  the  old  provinces  of 
France,  having  Paris  as  its  capital,  and  now 
mostly  comprised  in  the  Departments  of  Seine, 
Seine-et-Oise,  and  Oise. 

I  l'eus,  or  Iliac  Passion,  the  closing  stage  of 
the  severest  forms  of  enteritis,  or  of  colic,  is  often 
connected  with  some  irremovable  mechanical 
obstruction.  Treatment  is  impracticable  in  most 
cases,  recovery,  if  taking  place  at  all,  being  due  to 
nature. 

Il'ex,  a  tree  often  named  in  the  Latin  classics, 
the  evergreen  oak  or  holm  oak  ( Quercus  ilex).  It 
is  a  native  of  most  parts  of  the  South  of  Europe 
and  of  the  North  of  Africa. 

Il'iac  Ar'teries.  The  aorta  divides  on  the 
left  side  of  the  body  of  the  fourth  lumbar  verte¬ 
bra  into  tbe  two  common  iliac  arteries,  which 
pass  downward  and  outward  on  each  side  to  the 
margin  of  the  pelvis  for  about  two  inches  and  a 
half,  and  then  divide  into  the  external  and  inter¬ 
nal  iliac  artery  of  either  side.  The  external  iliac 
passes  obliquely  downward  and  outward  to  the 
femoral  arch,  when  it  enters  the  thigh,  and  be¬ 
comes  the  femoral  artery.  The  internal  iliac  is  a 
short  vessel,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length, 
which  divides  into  an  anterior  and  a  posterior 
trunk.  The  anterior  trunk  divides  into  several 
branches,  which  supply  the  bladder,  the  rectum, 
the  generative  organs,  and  muscles  both  within 
and  on  the  outside  of  the  pelvis,  with  arterial 
blood;  while  the  branches  of  the  posterior  trunk 
mainly  supply  muscles  within  and  on  the  outside 
of  the  pelvis. 

Illi'ci  uni,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Magnoliacece,  having  flowers  with  three  or  six 
petal-like  sepals,  numerous  petals  arranged  in 
several  rows,  and  numerous  stamens  and  pistils; 
the  capsules  arranged  in  a  star-like  form,  opening 
upward,  and  each  containing  a  single  seed. 

Illima'ni,  one  of  the  principal  mountains  of 
the  Bolivian  Andes. 

Illinois',  one  of  the  inland  States  of  the  Amer¬ 
ican  Union,  lying  between  Lake  Michigan  and 
the  junction  of  the  Ohio  with  the  Mississippi.  It 
touches  the  States  of  Wisconsin,  Indiana,  Ken¬ 
tucky,  Missouri,  and  Iowa;  and  is  bounded  partly 
by  the  Mississippi,  by  the  Ohio,  and  by  the 
Wabash.  The  State  is  385  miles  long  by  218 
broad,  and  has  an  area  of  56,650  square  miles. 
The  capital  is  Springfield,  near  the  center;  Chi¬ 
cago  is  the  largest  city.  Illinois  is  now  the  fourth 
of  the  United  States  in  point  of  population;  was 
organized  as  a  State  in  1809;  in  lslOit  had  a  pop. 
of  12,282;  in  1840,  476,183;  in  1870,  2,539,891;  and 
in  1880,  3,077,871.  The  canal  which  unites  Lake 
Michigan  with  Illinois  river  and  the  Mississippi, 
is  fed  by  water  pumped  from  the  lake  to  a  height 
of  twelve  feet.  The  principal  interior  streams  are 
the  Illinois  and  Rock  rivers,  and  their  tributaries. 
The  State  is  of  limestone  formation,  with  rich 
lead  deposits  in  the  northwest,  and  a  large  portion 
of  the  great  bituminous  coal  formation,  375  miles 
long  and  200  wide,  lying  in  this  and  the  adjoining 
States.  The  climate  is  mild,  with  an  average  of 
77u  F.  in  summer,  and  331°  in  winter,  but  rang- 


ILLINOIS. 


474 


INCLINED  PLANE. 


ing  from  20°  below  to  100°  above  zero.  The 
State  is  generally  healthful.  The  fertility  of  the 
soil  is  practically  inexhaustible.  The  produc¬ 
tions  are  wheat,  maize,  tobacco,  cattle,  hogs, 
apples,  pears,  peaches,  grapes,  etc.  Illinois  ranks 
first  amongst  the  States  for  the  products  of  butch¬ 
ering,  distilled  liquors,  planed  lumber,  and  packed 
pork;  it  has  remarkable  trade  facilities  by  means 
of  the  Mississippi  and  Ohio  rivers,  and  Lake 
Michigan.  Chicago  is  a  great  commercial  center. 
The  State  possesses  about  10,000  miles  of  railway. 
Illinois  was  first  explored  by  La  Salle,  and  the 
French  missionaries  and  Indian  traders,  who 
formed  the  earliest  settlement  at  Kaskaskia,  in 
1673.  It  was  organized  as  a  State,  with  a  gov 
ernor  and  Legislature,  in  1818. 

Illinois,  a  river  formed  in  the  northeast  por¬ 
tion  of  the  State  of  Illinois  by  the  union  of  the 
Kankakee  and  Desplaines,  flows  southwest,  and 
joins  the  Mississippi  twenty  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Missouri.  It  is  500  miles  long,  and 
is  navigable  for  245  miles.  It  is  connected  by  a 
canal  with  Lake  Michigan. 

Illmnina'ti,  a  name  borne  by  four  different 
societies — that  of  the  Alombradus  in  Spain,  in  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century;  that  of  the  Guerinels 
in  France,  about  the  year  1684,  an  association  of 
mystics  in  Belgium,  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century;  and  the  Order  of  the  Illum¬ 
inati,  which  was  founded  at  Ingolstadt  on  May 
1,  1776. 

Ilion,  a  town  in  Herkimer  county,  N.  Y., 
famous  as  the  seat  of  the  great  Remington  Fire- 
Arms  Company’s  works.  Pop.,  3,711. 

Illusory  Appointment.  In  legal  phrase 
where  a  person  has  a  power  to  divide  property 
among  several  others,  and  gives  one  or  more  a 
small  sum,  and  the  bulk  of  the  property  to  the 
rest,  the  former  is  called  an  illusory  appoint¬ 
ment. 

Illy  r'icum,  a  country  whose  limits  varied  very 
considerably.  In  the  fourth  century  b.c.  the 
Illyrians  inhabited  the  whole  eastern  coast  of  the 
Adriatic  Sea  and  adjacent  islands,  with  the 
western  parts  of  Macedonia  as  far  as  Epirus. 

Ilme'uium,  the  name  applied  by  Hermann  to 
a  new  metal  analogous  to  tantalum. 

Imaginary  Quantity.  In  the  working  of 
algebraic  problems,  it  often  happens  that  the  root 
of  a  negative  quantity  must  be  extracted;  if  the 
root  is  odd,  the  operation  can  be  performed,  but 
if  even,  the  root  can  only  be  formally  extracted, 
and  is  in  consequence  called  an  impossible  or 
imaginary  quantity. 

Imagination  has  for  its  objects  the  concrete, 
the  real,  or  the  individual,  as  opposed  to  abstrac¬ 
tions  and  generalities,  which  are  the  matter  of 
science.  It  is  essential  to  imagination  in  its 
strictest  sense  that  there  should  be  some  original 
construction,  or  that  what  is  imagined  should  not 
be  a  mere  picture  of  what  we  have  seen.  It  has 
for  its  ruling  element  some  emotion  of  the  mind, 
to  gratify  which  all  its  constructions  are  guided. 

Imbecil'ity  must  not  be  confounded  with 
idiocy.  In  the  former,  there  is  the  imperfect 
development  of  mind;  in  the  latter,  there  is  the 
non-development  of  mind. 

Imitation,  in  the  science  of  musical  composi¬ 
tion,  is  the  repeating  of  the  same  passage,  or  the 
following  of  a  passage  with  a  similar  one,  in  one 
or  more  of  the  other  parts  or  voices,  and  it 
may  be  either  strict  or  free. 

Iin'itative  Insan'ity.  There  are  many  mental 
diseases  which  appear  to  be  propagated  by  imita¬ 
tion.  Great  caution,  however,  must  be  exercised 
in  distinguishing  between  what  is  epidemic  and 
depends  upon  atmospheric  or  external  moral 
causes,  from  the  results  of  strong  or  morbid  states 
of  the  mind  itself.  Instances  of  this  disease  hav¬ 
ing  taken  an  epidemic  form  are  numerous.  The 
example  of  suicide  by  hanging  having  been  set 
by  a  pensioner  in  the  Hopital  des  Invalides,  six 
similar  deaths  followed,  and  by  suspension  from 
the  same  lamp-post.  After  the  return  of  the 
Bourbons,  there  appeared  in  succession  seven 
female  claimants  to  the  parentage  of  Marie  An¬ 
toinette;  and  pyromania,  propagated  by  sym¬ 
pathy,  is  well  known  to  have  existed  in  Nor¬ 
mandy  in  1830. 

Immac'ulale  Conception  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  Mary,  Feast  of,  a  festival  celebrated 
December  8tll  in  the  Latin,  and  on  the  9th  in  the, 


Greek  Church,  in  which  latter  church  it  is  held 
under  the  name  of  “  The  Conception  of  St. 
Anne,”  the  mother  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  It  is 
believed  to  be  a  consequence  of  the  doctrine  of 
the  divine  maternity,  and  a  necessary  part  of  the 
honor  due  to  the  Incarnation,  that  the  Blessed 
Mother  should  be  held  to  have  been  at  all  times 
free  from  the  stain  of  sin.  Hence  the  doctrine 
of  the  immaculate  conception,  which  supposes 
her  to  have  been  conceived  and  born  free  from 
taint  of  “  original  sin.” 

Immorality,  in  point  of  law,  is  a  good  de¬ 
fense  to  actions  and  suits,  but  it  must  be  some 
immorality  which  runs  counter  to  the  well- 
known  policy  of  the  law.  Thus,  for  example,  if 
a  man  gave  a  bond,  or  granted  a  deed,  giving  to 
a  woman  some  annuity,  with  a  view  to  induce 
her  to  live  in  concubinage,  this  would  be  a  good 
defense  against  the  bond  or  deed  being  enforced, 
for  the  law  discountenances  his  conduct. 

Impale',  in  Heraldry,  to  arrange  two  coats  of 
arms  side  by  side  in  one  shield  di¬ 
vided  per  pale. 

Impana'tion  (Lat.  in,  and  panis, 
bread),  a  technical  word  employed 
in  the  eucharistic  controversies  to 
express  the  peculiar  opinion  pro¬ 
pounded  by  Luther  as  to  the  nature 
of  the  presence  of  Christ  in  the  Impale, 
eucharist.  Luther  contended  that  the  body  and 
blood  of  Christ  were  present  in,  or  with,  the  ele¬ 
ments  of  bread  and  wine,  in  a  manner  analogous 
to  that  in  which  the  divinity  of  Christ  co-exists 
in  the  same  person  with  his  human  nature. 

Impeach  'ment,  the  name  given  to  an  accusa¬ 
tion  and  trial  of  a  judicial  or  executive  officer  for 
any  malfeasance  or  misfeasance  involving  for¬ 
feiture  of  tenure  of  office. 

Impenetrability,  one  of  the  essential  prop¬ 
erties  of  matter,  implies  that  no  two  bodies  can  at 
the  same  time  occupy  the  same  space. 

Iinpe'rial  Crown  properly  signifies  the  crown 
borne  by  the  German  Emperor,  but  is  now  indis¬ 
criminately  used  in  reference  to  any  emperor’s 
head-dress  of  state. 

Imperial,  the  county  seat  of  Chase  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  250. 

Impeti  'go,  a  disease  of  the  skin.  It  consists 
of  crops  of  pustules,  which  may  either  be  scat¬ 
tered  or  collected  in  groups.  These  pustules 
burst,  dry  up,  and  become  covered  with  scabs  or 
crusts  of  a  yellow  color.  From  beneath  these 
crusts,  a  purulent  discharge  commonly  takes 
place;  the  crusts  become  thicker  and  larger,  and 
the  skin  around  and  beneath  them  is  red  and 
raw.  The  disease  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic. 
In  the  former  case,  it  is  attended  with  febrile 
symptoms,  which  must  be  combated  by  the  in¬ 
ternal  administration  of  purgatives  and  alkalies, 
strict  attention  to  diet,  and  weak  alkaline  lotions. 
In  chronic  cases,  the  discharge  may  be  checked 
by  a  lotion  containing  ten  or  fifteen  grains  of 
oxide  of  zinc  in  an  ounce  of  rose-water. 

Impeyan,  or  Impeyan  Pheasant  ( Lopliophorus 
impeyanm),  a  large  gallinaceous  bird  of  the  family 


Impeyan  ( Lophophorus  itnpeyanus) . 


Phasianidce,  a  native  of  the  Himalaya,  and  re¬ 
markable  for  the  splendor  of  its  plumage. 

Im'potency,  in  law,  is  a  good  ground  for  either 
of  two  married  parties  annulling  the  marriage. 


if  the  impotency  existed  at  the  time  the  contract 
was  entered  into. 

lmpress'ment,  was  the  method  formerly  re¬ 
sorted  to  of  manning  the  British  navy.  It  consisted 
in  seizing  by  force,  for  service  in  the  royal  navy, 
seamen,  river-watermen,  and  at  times  landsmen, 
when  state  emergencies  rendered  them  necessary. 

linputa't  ion,  in  Christian  Theology,  is  meant  to 
denote  the  transference  of  guilt  or  of  merit,  of 
punishment  or  reward. 

Inarch 'ing,  or  Grafting  by  Approach,  a 
mode  of  grafting  by  which  branches  are  united 
together  before  any  of  them  are  separated  from 
its  original  stem.  Care  must  always  be  taken 
that  the  parts  to  be  joined  together  be  cut  so  as 
to  fit  one  another  pretty  exactly,  and  they  are 
then  firmly  tied  together,  and  so  covered  that 
neither  air  nor  water  may  penetrate.  It  is  desir¬ 
able  that  they  be  branches  of  nearly  the  same 
thickness.  They  should  be  cut  almost  down  to 
the  pith,  but  the  pith  must  not  be  injured.  In¬ 
arching  is  performed  in  spring,  after  the  sap  has 


begun  to  circulate.  The  accompanying  figure 
illustrates  several  ways  of  inarching.  For  ex¬ 
ample,  two  branches  of  a  trge,  a,  may  be  bent  so 
as  to  meet  and  strike  upon  a  wound  in  the  main 
stem,  by  which  a  gap  will  be  filled  up;  one  grow¬ 
ing  tree,  b,  either  from  the  ground  or  a  pot,  may 
be  led  to  unite  with  another;  or  several  suckers, 
c,  may  be  led  from  the  ground  archwise  to  strike 
upon  a  point  in  the  stem,  thus  bringing  fresh  aid 
to  the  productive  part  of  the  tree.  By  means 
such  as  these,  quickset-liedges  are  sometimes 
thickened  like  a  network,  so  as  greatly  to  improve 
their  appearance  and  protective  qualities. 

In  Cte'na  Domini,  a  celebrated  papal  bull,  so 
called  from  the  ancient  day  of  its  annual  publica¬ 
tion,  Holy  Thursday. 

In  'cense  (Heb.  miktar ,  kitter,  and  kitturoth), 
a  perfume,  the  odor  of  which  is  evolved  by  burn¬ 
ing,  and  the  use  of  which,  in  public  worship, 
prevailed  in  most  of  the  ancient  religions.  The 
ingredients  of  modern  incense  are  usually  oliba- 
num,  benzoin,  styrax,  ami  powdered  cascarilla 
bark.  These  materials,  well  mingled,  are  so 
placed  in  the  censer  or  thurible  as  to  be  sprinkled 
by  falling  on  a  hot  plate,  which  immediately 
volatilizes  them  and  diffuses  their  odor  through 
the  edifice.  In  the  Catholic  Church,  both  of  the 
West  and  of  the  East,  incense  is  used  in  public 
worship,  more  particularly  in  connection  with 
the  eucharistic  service,  which  is  regarded  as  a 
sacrifice.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  incense 
is  used  in  the  solemn  (or  high)  mass,  in  the  con¬ 
secration  of  churches,  in  solemn  consecrations  of 
objects  intended  for  use  in  public  worship,  and 
in  the  burial  of  the  dead. 

Inch,  a  Gaelic  word,  corresponding  to  Irish 
innis,  and  signifying  island. 

Inch'colm  (of  old  St.  Colm’s  Inch),  an  islet  in 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  near  Edinburgh,  Scotland. 

Inclikeith",  an  island  in  the  Firth  of  Forth, 
nearly  midway  between  Leith  and  Kingliorn, 
Scotland. 

Inclined  Plane,  The,  is  reckoned  one  of  the 
mechanical  powers.  The  force  required  to  lift  a 
body  (viz.,  its  weight)  bears  to  the  force  required 
to  keep  it  from  rolling  down  an  inclined  plane, 
the  same  proportion  that  the  length  of  the  inclined 
plane  bears  to  its  height;  also  the  weight  of  the 
body  bears  to  the  weight  which  tends  to  bend,  or 
break  the  inclined  plane,  the  same  proportion 
that  the  length  of  the  plane  bears  to  its  base. 


INCOMBUSTIBLE  FABRICS. 


475 


INDIANA. 


Incombustible  Fabrics.  Cloth  is  made  in¬ 
combustible  by  mixing  four  ounces  of  tungstate 
of  soda  with  one  drachm  of  phosphate  of  soda  (to 
prevent  the  formation  of  a  partially  insoluble 
bitungstate),  and  dissolving  the  whole  in  an 
imperial  pint  of  water,  in  which  the  fabric  is  im¬ 
mersed.  For  fabrics  which  are  worn  without 
previous  washing,  sulphate  of  ammonia  is  prefer¬ 
able,  and  a  solution  containing  7  per  cent,  of 
the  crystalline  salt  is  a  perfect  preservative.  In 
printed  muslins  of  a  madder  purple,  however,  a 
slight  paleness  of  color  is  produced,  but  in  no 
other  case  is  the  color  affected,  nor  does  it  inter¬ 
fere  with  the  ironing  process. 

Incuba'tion,  Tiie  Period  of,  is  the  duration 
of  the  time  in  which  birds  sit  on  their  eggs 
before  the  young  are  hatched,  and  varies  in  dif¬ 
ferent  species,  but  is  nearly  constant  in  each. 
The  term  is  also  applied  lately  to  the  period  in 
which  a  disease  lies  latent  in  the  system  between 
its  contraction  and  its  outward  manifestation.  As 
applied  to  birds,  it  varies  from  twelve  to  forty- 
live  days.  Eggs  may,  however,  be  hatched  with¬ 
out  the  aid  of  the  parent  bird — i.  e. ,  by  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  artificial  heat.  The  main  features  of 
incubators  usually  agree — a  water-tank,  heated 
by  some  kind  of  lamp,  with  a  tray  or  drawer  for 
eggs,  and  a  small  water-tray  for  damping  the 
air.  The  most  fatal  defect  in  an  incubator  is 
that  of  permitting  an  injurious  rise  of  tempera¬ 
ture. 

Iocunab'ula,  a  Latin  word  signifying  cradle, 
is  employed  by  bibliographers  to  designate  the 
first  fruits  of  the  art  of  printing.  The  term  is 
usually  restricted  to  those  which  appeared  before 
the  year  1500,  by  which  time  the  art  was  com¬ 
pletely  formed  in  all  its  principal  departments. 

Independence,  the  name  of  several  towns  in 
the  United  States:  1.  A  growing,  prosperous 
town,  and  the  county  seat  of  Buchanan  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  3,324. — 2.  An  important  and  pros¬ 
perous  agricultural  city,  the  county  seat  of  Mont¬ 
gomery  county,  Kan.,  is  pleasantly  situated  on 
the  Verdigris  river.  Pop.,  5,000. — 3.  Thecounty 
seat  of  Grayson  county,  Va.  Pop.,  186.— 4.  The 
county  seat  of  Inyo  county.  Cal.  Pop.,  282. — 
5.  An  important  railroad  center  and  flourishing 
city,  the  county  seat  of  Jackson  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  6,000. 

Independ'ents,  or  Congregationalists.  The 
distinctive  principle  of  the  Congregational  Church 
polity  is,  that  every  Christian  church  or  congre¬ 
gation  is  entitled  “to  elect  its  own  officers,  to 
manage  all  its  own  affairs,  and  to  stand  independ¬ 
ent  of,  and  irresponsible  to,  all  authority,  saving 
that  only  of  the  Supreme  and  Divine  Head  of  the 
Church,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.”  They  regard 
the  Sacred  Scriptures  as  their  only  standard,  and 
hold  that  human  traditions,  fathers  and  councils, 
canons  and  creeds,  possess  no  authority  over  the 
faith  and  practice  of  Christians.  Congregation¬ 
alism  denies  that  there  is  any  authority  in  Script¬ 
ure  for  uniting  the  churches  of  a  nation  or  prov¬ 
ince  into  one  church  or  corporation,  to  be  ruled 
by  a  bishop  or  bishops,  superior  to  the  bishops  or 
pastors  of  particular  congregations,  or  by  a 
presbytery  or  synod  consisting  of  the  pastors  or 
elders  of  the  several  congregations  of  the  nation 
or  province.  This  is  the  specialty  which  distin¬ 
guishes  independency  or  Congregationalism  from 
episcopacy  and  presbytery.  In  America,  the 
first  Independent  church  was  founded  by  John 
Robinson,  at  Plymouth,  New  England,  in  1620. 

Imleter'minate  Problems.  In  a  problem,  if 
the  number  of  unknown  quantities  exceed  the 
number  of  equations,  the  problem  which  gives 
rise  to  the  equations  is  called  an  indeterminate 
problem.  For  example,  “To  find  the  number 
which,  when  divided  by  2  and  3,  leaves  remain¬ 
ders  1  and  2,”  is  an  indeterminate  problem. 

In'dex  (more  fully  Index  Librorum  Piiohtbi- 
torum),  a  catalogue,  published  by  papal  author¬ 
ity  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  of  books,  the 
reading  of  which  is  prohibited  to  members  of 
that  church,  whether  on  doctrinal,  moral,  or 
religious  grounds.  The  growth  of  modern  litera¬ 
ture  has,  of  course,  entirely  outstripped  the 
limited  and  tardy  machinery  of  this  tribunal.  A 
very  small  proportion,  even  of  the  most  anti- 
Catholic  publications  outside  of  Italy,  find  their 
way  to  the  Index. 

In'dia,  an  extensive  region  of  Southern  Asia, 


usually  spoken  of  as  Hither  and  Farther  India.  | 
Hither  India  is  the  central  peninsula  of  Southern 
Asia,  and  lies  in  8°  4' — 35°  N.  latitude,  and  67° — 
92°  E.  longitude,  with  an  area  of  about  1,300,000 
square  miles.  Farther  India  is  the  name  given  to 
the  southeastern  peninsula  of  Asia.  Hither  India 
presents  a  most  diversified  surface  and  varied 
scenery.  Its  great  natural  divisions  are  the  sub- 
Ilimalayan  countries,  the  plain  of  the  Ganges,  the 
plain  of  the  Indus,  the  highlands  of  Northern 
Hindustan,  and  the  peninsular  portion  of  the 
country  to  the  south  of  the  Vindliya  Mountains. 
The  peninsular  portion  of  India,  south  of  the 
Vindhya  Mountains,  which  remains  to  be  con¬ 
sidered,  is  called  by  the  natives  the  Deccan.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Indus,  the  Ganges,  the 
Brahmaputra,  the  Godavery,  Kistna,  Cauverv 
(Kaveri),  Mahanadi,  Brahmini,  North  Pennar,  and 
the  South  Pennar.  About  twenty  rivers  water  the 
western  side  of  India.  The  most  noteworthy  are 
the  Nerbudda,  the  Tapti — both  of  which  flow  into 
the  Gulf  of  Cambay — the  Myhi,  Luni,  Bunnas, 
and  the  Bhadro.  The  vegetation  of  India  is  as 
varied  as  its  soil  and  climate,  and  passes  from  the 
flora  of  a  tropical  to  that  of  an  alpine  region. 
Opium  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  products  of 
India.  Coffee  is  largely  produced  in  Ceylon,  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  plant  is  rapidly  spreading  in 
Southern  India.  Tea  cultivation  is  now  carried  on 
with  success  in  Assam,  and  is  spreading  over  all 
the  hill-countries  of  Northwestern  India.  The 
growth  of  cotton  has  been  much  extended  since 
the  American  War.  The  rhea,  or  jute-plant,  is 
grown  in  Assam  and  Bengal,  and  has  recently 
given  rise  to  an  important  trade.  India-rubber  is 
another  important  product  of  Assam,  the  demand 
for  which  is  increasing.  Tobacco  is  now  largely 
grown.  The  domesticated  animals  are  horses, 
asses,  mules,  oxen,  buffaloes,  sheep,  and  elephants. 
Of  wild  beasts,  the  most  formidable  is  the  Bengal 
tiger.  The  other  beasts  of  prey  are  leopards, 
wolves,  jackals,  panthers,  bears,  hyaenas,  lynxes, 
and  foxes.  Of  poisonous  snakes,  the  cobra  da 
capello,  or  black-liooded  snake,  the  cobra  manilla, 
and  sand-snake  are  the  most  common.  Three 
races,  widely  distinguished  from  each  other,  in¬ 
habit  India.  In  the  northeast  are  Mongols,  in  the 
south,  Dravidians,  and  in  the  northwest,  Aryans. 
Hinduism  or  Brahmanism  is  the  religion  of  the 
great  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  India.  Mo¬ 
hammedanism  comes  next,  and  it  appears,  from 
the  last  census,  that  the  number  of  persons  pro¬ 
fessing  this  creed  is  much  greater  than  had  been 
supposed.  Of  the  66,000,000  forming  the  popula¬ 
tion  of  Bengal,  21,000,000  are  Mohammedans.  In 
the  Punjab,  9,000,000  are  Mohammedans,  and 
6,000,000  Hindus.  In  Oude,  there  are  1 ,000,000  of 
Mohammedans  to  10,000,000  of  Hindus.  In  the 
northwestern  provinces,  there  are  25,000,000  of 
Hindus  to  4,000,000  of  Mohammedans.  In  the 
whole  of  India,  it  is  believed  there  are  nearly  three 
times  as  many  Hindus  as  Mohammedans.  The 
Sikh  religion  (see  Sikiis)  is  professed,  according 
to  the  census  for  the  Punjab,  by  1,000,000  of  the 
inhabitants.  Buddhism,  at  one  period,  prevailed 
very  generally  throughout  India;  it  is  now  con¬ 
fined  to  Bliotan,  Ceylon,  and  the  Burmese  frontier. 

India,  British,  is  the  name  given  to  those  parts 
of  Hither  and  Farther  India  placed  under  the 
administration  of  the  Viceroy  or  Governor-Gen¬ 
eral  of  India.  It  does  not  include  Ceylon.  The  total 
area  is  909,834,  and  the  pop.,  191,065,445.  The 
Indian  executive  government  is  administered  by 
the  Viceroy  or  Governor-General,  appointed  by 
the  English  Crown,  and  acting  under  the  control 
of  the  Secretary  of  State  for  India.  The  Viceroy 
is  appointed  by  the  Crown  for  a  term  of  six  years, 
and  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  five  ordinary  mem¬ 
bers,  three  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  State, 
two  by  Her  Majesty’s  warrant.  Of  the  native 
troops,  47,000  belonged  to  the  Bengal  army,  27,000 
to  the  Madras  army,  and  24,000  to  the  Bombay 
army.  Of  the  62,000  British  soldiers  in  India  in 
1881,  45,700  were  infantry,  10,000  artillery  and 
engineers,  and  4,300  cavalry.  Since  1836  great 
trunk  roads  have  been  constructed  in  various 
parts  of  India.  The  most  remarkable  is  that  from 
Calcutta  to  Peshawer,  1,400  miles  long.  The 
climate  and  sanitary  condition  of  India  give  rise 
to  pestilences  which  at  intervals  carry  desolation 
over  the  country,  while  disease  in  its  worst  form 
is  never  absent.  There  arc  about  70,000  govern- 1 


ment  and  private  schools  and  colleges  in  India, 
giving  instruction  to  nearly  2,000,000  pupils. 

India:  Native  States.  Of  native  states 
within  the  Indian  area,  two  are,  nominally  at 
least,  entirely  independent  of  British  control  or 
interference,  Nepaul  and  Bliotan.  The  native 
states  recognizing  English  supremacy,  occupy 
more  than  a  third  of  the  area  over  which  Britain 
is  supreme,  and  contain  more  than  one-fifth  of  its 
entire  population.  Their  total  area  is  509,284 
square  miles,  and  their  pop.  55,150,456. 

India,  French,  comprises  an  area  of  near  200' 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  (1880),  of  285,000. 

India,  Portuguese,  with  an  area  of  1,450 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  420.000. 

India-rubber  is  the  product  of  various  trees 
growing  in  all  tropical  parts  of  the  world.  Sev¬ 
eral  natural  orders  contain  plants  which  supply 
the  milky  juice  from  which  rubber  is  made. 
The  pure  juice  is  called  caoutchouc,  and  is 
obtained  by  drawing  the  sap  from  the  trees 
through  incisions  in  the  bark.  It  is  then  treated  by 
various  processes — most  of  which  are  patented — to 
harden  it  and  prevent  it  being  so  readily  fusible, 
when  it  is  ready  for  its  various  uses. 

Indian  Fire,  a  bright  white  signal-light,  pro¬ 
duced  by  burning  a  mixture  of  7  parts  of 
sulphur,  2  of  realgar,  and  24  of  niter. 

Indian  Ink  is  composed  of  lampblack  and  size 
or  animal  glue,  with  a  little  perfume.  The  lamp¬ 
black  must  be  remarkably  fine,  and  is  said  to  be 
made  in  China  by  collecting  the  smoke  of  the  oil 
of  sesame. 

Indian  Ocean,  one  of  the  five  grand  divisions 
of  the  universal  ocem,  stretches  in  latitude  from 
43°  35'  S.  to  30°  N.,  and  in  E.  longitude  from 
18°  29'  to  146°  12'. 

Indian  Shot  (Canna  indica),  a  plant  common 
in  almost  all  tropical  countries.  It  derives  its 
name  from  the  seed,  which  is  hard,  round,  and 
about  the  size  of  a  small  pea,  and  is  sometimes 
used  as  shot. 

Indian  Territory,  a  country  reserved  by  the 
Government  for  the  use  of  certain  Indian  tribes. 
It  lies  between  33°  35'  and  37°  N.  latitude,  and 
94°  20'  and  103°  W.  longitude,  being  470  miles 
long  by  210  wide,  with  an  area  of  64,960  square 
miles.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Colorado 
and  Kansas,  east  by  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  south 
and  west  by  Texas.  The  climate  is  genial,  pro¬ 
ducing  cotton,  tobacco,  maize,  wheat,  and  fruits. 
Coal,  iron,  zinc,  copper,  salt,  and  petroleum 
springs  abound.  Its  pop.  of  about  70.000  con¬ 
sists  of  Cherokees,  Creeks,  Seminoles,  Choctaws, 
Chickasaws,  and  remnants  of  smaller  tribes. 
The  principal  tribes  are  in  a  high  state  of  civiliza¬ 
tion,  and,  except  the  Seminoles,  all  possess  a 
written  constitution  and  code  of  laws.  In  1889  a 
portion  of  the  territory  called  Oklahoma  was 
thrown  open  to  settlement  to  the  whites,  and  a 
great  rush  of  immigrants  was  the  result,  together 
with  much  consequent  disorder  for  a  time. 

Indian'a,  one  of  the  States,  organized  in  1816,. 
with  a  governor  and  Legislature,  extends  from  37° 
47'  to  41°  46'  N.  latitude,  and  from  84°  49'  to 
88°  2'  W.  longitude,  having  a  length  of  275  miles,  a 
breadth  of  135  miles,  and  an  area  of  33,809  square 
miles  or  21,637,760  acres.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Michigan  State  and  Lake,  east  by  Ohio, 
south  by  Kentucky,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Ohio  river,  and  west  by  Illinois.  The 
State  is  divided  into  ninety-two  counties.  The 
capital  is  Indianapolis.  The  pop.  is  1,978,301. 
The  State  is  generally  level,  has  several  large  rivers 
and  prairies.  There  are  7,700  square  miles  of 
coal,  portions  of  which,  on  the  Ohio,  are  cannel 
coal  of  excellent  quality.  The  soil  is  fertile, 
and  the  climate  is  temperate.  The  hills  on  the 
Ohio  are  covered  with  fine  vineyards.  The  staple 
productions  are  wheat,  corn,  cattle,  swine, 
tobacco,  fruits,  wine,  etc.  There  are  over  4,000 
miles  of  railway,  several  of  the  leading  trunk 
lines  passing  through  the  State.  There  is  a 
State  university,  a  normal  school,  numerous 
common  schools  and  churches,  and  about  300 
periodicals.  Vincennes,  on  the  Wabash,  was 
settled  by  the  French  in  1702.  Early  in  this 
century,  the  settlements  were  disturbed  by  Indian 
hostilities;  the  Indians  were  defeated  in  1811 
by  General  Harrison,  and  the  Territory  was  rap- 
I  idly  peopled. 


INDIANA. 


476 


INDULGENCE. 


Indiana,  the  county  seat  of  Indiana  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  3,812. 

Indianap'olis,  a  city  and  the  capital  of 
Indiana,  is  built  on  the  west  fork  of  White 
river,  near  the  center  of  the  State,  l'OO  miles 
northwest  of  Cincinnati.  It  is  a  regularly  built 
and  beautiful  city.  In  1889  the  pop.  was  95,000. 

Indianola,  county  seat  of  Red  Willow  county, 
Neb.,  has  a  pop.  of  900,  and  is  a  growing  town 
on  the  Republican  river.  It  is  the  commercial 
center  of  a  rich  agricultural  district. 

Indianola,  the  county  seat  of  Sunflower 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  300. 

Indianola,  a  prosperous  and  well-built  town, 
and  the  county  seat  of  Warren  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  2,081. 

Indians,  American.  The  origin  of  the 
American  race  or  races  is  still  a  much-vexed  and 
unsettled  question.  The  theory  having  hitherto, 
perhaps,  had  the  balance  of  repute  in  its  favor, 
•derives  them  from  Asia,  ferrying  them  across 
Behring  Strait.  Some  ethnologists  believe  that 
Northwestern  America  and  Siberia  were  once 
connected  by  an  isthmus,  upon  which  the  Indians 
crossed  to  this  country.  Civilization  has,  in  most 
cases,  proved  the  ruin  of  the  Indians  morally  and 
physically.  Thirst  of  revenge,  unquenchable 
hate,  loss  of  self-respect,  and  the  love  of  whisky, 
have  been  the  heritage  entailed  on  the  red  men  by 
the  approach  of  the  whites.  The  policy  of  the 
whites  has  all  along  been  to  thrust  the  Indians 
farther  into  the  West,  till  now,  there  are  no  wild 
tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi.  The  Cherokees  and 
Creeks  were  removed  from  Georgia  to  the  Indian 
Territory  in  1838.  Virginia  had  three  Indian 
wars  or  massacres,  1622,  1629,  and  again  1676; 
New  England  two — the  Pequot  war,  1637,  and 
King  Philip’s  war,  1675.  The  policy  of  our 
Government  toward  the  Indians  has  not  been 
satisfactory  or  successful,  and  difficulties  and 
small  wars  have  been  frequent.  In  the  United 
States  there  were  in  1880  over  303,000  Indians. 
In  Canada  there  were  in  1881  nearly  104,000.  In 
North  America  altogether,  the  Indians  are  cal¬ 
culated  at  considerably  less  than  4,000,000 ;  and 
in  South  America,  including  pure  and  mixed, 
about  7,000,000. 

Imliges'tion,  or  Dyspep'sia,  is  a  term  some¬ 
what  vaguely  applied  to  various  forms  of  disease 
of  the  stomach  or  of  the  small  intestines  in  which 
the  natural  process  of  digesting  and  assimilating 
the  food  is  deranged.  The  symptoms  of  indiges¬ 
tion  are  by  no  means  constant  in  all  cases.  There 
is  often  anorexia  (or  want  of  appetite),  but  occa¬ 
sionally  the  appetite  is  excessive,  and  even  raven¬ 
ous.  Nausea  not  infrequently  comes  on  soon 
after  a  meal;  while  in  other  cases  there  is  no  nau¬ 
sea,'  but  after  the  lapse  of  a  couple  of  hours,  the 
food  is  vomited,  the  vomited  matters  being  very 
acid,  and  often  bitter,  from  the  admixture  of 
bile.  In  severe  cases,  the  vomiting  has  been 
known  to  occur  after  every  meal  for  several 
months.  Flatulence,  relieving  itself  in  eructations, 
is  one  of  the  standard  symptoms  of  this  affection, 
the  gas  that  gives  rise  to  this  symptom  being 
sometimes  evolved  from  undigested  matters  in  the 
stomach,  and  sometimes  being  apparently  secreted 
by  the  walls  of  that  viscus.  It  is  very  apt  to 
occur  in  dyspeptic  patients  if  they  have  fasted 
rather  longer  than  usual.  Carclialgia  (popularly 
known  as  heartburn),  Pyrosis,  or  water-brash, 
and  Gastrodynia  (commonly  designated  spasm  or 
cramp  of  the  stomach,  and  coming  on  at  uncer¬ 
tain  intervals  in  most  severe  paroxysms),  are  other 
somewhat  less  common  symptoms  of  indigestion. 
The  treatment  of  indigestion  is  more  dietetic  than 
medicinal.  The  quantity  of  food  which  can  be 
dissolved  by  the  gastric  juice  and  intestinal  fluids 
being  limited,  care  should  be  taken  that  this 
quantity  is  not  exceeded.  It  is  best  to  allow  six 
hours  to  intervene  between  any  two  meals.  With 
regard  to  the  nature  of  the  food  best  suited  to 
dyspeptic  persons,  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that 
a  mixture  of  well-cooked  animal  and  vegetable 
food  is  in  general  more  easily  digested  than  either 
kind  taken  exclusively.  Mutton,  fowls,  and  game 
are  the  most  digestible  kinds  of  animal  food;  and 
pork  and  all  cured  meats,  such  as  salted  beef, 
ham,  tongue,  etc.,  should  be  avoided.  Raw  vege¬ 
tables,  such  as  salads,  cucumbers,  etc.,  must  also 
be  prohibited.  In  most  cases,  dyspeptic  persons 
would  probably  do  well  to  avoid  all  stimulating 


drinks;  but  in  some  cases,  a  little  cold,  weak 
brandy  and  water,  or  a  glass  of  old  sherry,  or  a 
little  bitter  ale,  may  be  taken  with  advantage. 
But  upon  all  points  of  eating  and  drinking,  a 
sensible  patient  must  be  mainly  influenced  by  his 
own  experience.  Loss  of  appetite  may  be  rem¬ 
edied  by  the  employment  of  bitters,  such  as  qui¬ 
nine,  gentian,  ehiretta,  etc.,  or  of  mineral  acids, 
or  of  both  combined.  Nausea  and  vomiting  may 
be  treated  with  hydrocyanic  acid,  chloroform, 
and  creasote  in  very  small  doses.  Two  or  three 
drops  of  dilute  hydrocyanic  acid  in  an  efferves¬ 
cent  draught  are  often  an  effectual  remedy.  In 
intense  vomiting,  the  amount  of  food  taken  at  a 
time  must  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  limit. 
A  tablespoonful  of  milk,  mixed  with  lime-water, 
will  sometimes  remain  on  the  stomach  after  all 
other  kinds  of  food  have  been  rejected.  There  is 
no  be  ter  remedy  for  flatulence  than  peppermint- 
water;  if  it  fails,  a  drop  of  cajeput  oil  on  a  lump 
of  sugar  may  be  tried.  When  the  eructations  are 
attended  with  an  odor  of  rotten  eggs — that  is  to 
say,  when  sulpliureted  hydrogen  is  evolved  from 
the  decomposition  of  matters  in  the  stomach — an 
emetic  is -the  best  cure.  The  remedies  for  the 
pain  in  the  stomach  vary  with  the  character  of 
the  pain;  bismuth,  nitrate  of  silver,  and  opium 
are  often  serviceable,  but  should  not  be  taken 
without  advice.  A  teaspoonful  of  the  aromatic 
spirit  of  ammonia  in  a  wine-glass  of  camphor  mixt¬ 
ure,  often  gives  instantaneous  relief,  and  if  not 
too  often  resorted  to,  can  be  taken  with  impunity. 

In  'digo  (Gr.  lvdiKov,  Indikon,  Indian),  a  most 
important  vegetable  dyestuff,  yielding  a  beautiful 
blue  and  very  durable  dye,  the  basis  also  of  the 
best  black  dye  in  woolen  cloths.  Cultivation  of 
plants  producing  indigo,  long  confined  to  India, 
has  extended  to  many  other  tropical  and  sub¬ 
tropical  countries,  as  Egypt,  the  West  Indies, 
Mexico,  Brazil,  etc.  These  plants  generally  be- 


Indigo  Plant  ( Indigo  tincloria). 
a,  pod;  b,  block  of  indigo. 

long  to  the  genus  Indigofera,  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosce,  sub-order  Papilionacece.  The  spe¬ 
cies  of  this  genus  number  at  least  150,  and  are 
natives  of  almost  all  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
countries.  Commercially  speaking,  indigo  may 
be  said  to  be  the  produce  of  India  and  Central 
America,  as  these  are  I  he  only  localities  which 
supply  the  recognized  form  of  the  article. 

Indigo  Bird  ( Cyanospiza  cyanea),  a  member  of 
the  finch  family  ( Fringillidce ),  a  native  of  the 
United  States,  as  far  north  as  the  Missouri,  which 
it  visits  in  summer,  and  of  Central  America, 
where  it  spends  the  winter.  It  is  about  54  inches 
in  length,  of  a  beautiful  blue  color,  variously 
tinged  and  shaded,  the  lores  and  angles  of  the 
chin  velvet  black. 

Indore',  a  Mahratta principality  of  Hindustan, 
consists  of  several  detached  tracts,  some  of  them 
lying  veryremote  from  each  other,  with  an  aggre¬ 
gate  area  of  8,075  square  miles,  and  an  aggregate 
pop.  of  (1881)  1,054,237.  Its  capital  is  Indore. 

Indorse 'ment,  the  term  generally  used  to 
denote  the  writing  of  the  name  of  the  holder  on 
the  back  of  a  bill  of  exchange  or  promissory  note, 
on  transferring  or  assigning  it  to  another. 

In'dra  is  the  name  of  one  of  those  Hindu  dei¬ 


ties  that  were  worshiped  in  the  Yedic  period  of 
the  Hindu  religion.  When  represented  in  works 
of  art,  Indra  is  generally  seen  riding  on  his  ele¬ 
phant,  and  where  he  is  painted,  he  is  covered  with 
eyes. 

Indrani',a  name  of  the  wife  of  the  Hindu 
god  Indra. 

Indre,  a  central  department  of  France,  lies 
immediately  south  of  the  Department  of  Loir-et- 
Cher.  Area,  2,620  square  miles;  pop.  (1876), 
281,248. 

Indre-et-Loire,  an  inland  department  of 
France,  formed  out  of  the  ancient  Province  of 
Touraine.  Area,  2,350  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
329,160. 

Induction,  the  name  for  one  of  the  great  pro¬ 
cesses  of  scientific  discovery  and  proof.  IN’ lien 
we  rise  from  particular  facts  to  generalities,  the 
result  may  take  one  of  two  forms — a  general 
notion,  or  a  general  proposition:  “circle”  is  a 
notion;  the  circle  is  the  line  that  incloses  the 
largest  space,  is  a  proposition.  The  mode  of 
arriving  at  such  general  affirmations,  truths,  or 
laws,  is  what  is  called  induction.  The  strict 
meaning  of  the  term  is  the  operation  of  discov¬ 
ering  and  proving  general  propositions,  while 
deduction,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  method  of 
applying  general  .propositions  once  discovered 
to  particular  cases,  considered  to  be  included 
within  their  scope.  By  induction  we  estab¬ 
lish  the  law  that  heat  expands  bodies;  by 
deduction  we  apply  it  to  explain  why  a  clock  is 
slower  in  summer  than  in  winter,  owing  to  the 
changes  of  the  length  of  the  pendulum. 

Induction  of  Electric  Currents.  The  dis¬ 
covery  of  the  power  of  electric  currents  to  induce 
currents  in  neighboring  conducting  circuits,  is 
due  to  Faraday.  Henry  observed,  that  when 
contact  was  broken  in  a  long  galvanic  circuit  a 
bright  spark  occurred,  which  did  not  occur  when 
the  circuit  was  short.  This  was  shown  by  Fara¬ 
day  to  be  due  to  the  extra  current  induced  by 
the  various  parts  of  the  circuit  in  each  other. 
Bachhoffner  and  Sturgeon  showed  the  superior 
action,  in  induction  apparatus,  of  a  bundle  of 
iron  wires  to  that  of  a  solid  bar  of  iron.  The 
same  decomposition,  however,  had  been  effected 
by  Wright  in  1840.  Ruhmkorff  constructed  (1850 
or  1851)  the  first  so-called  induction  coil,  the 
excellence  of  which  was  chiefly  attained  by  the 
proper  insulation  of  the  secondary  coil.  Fizcau 
(1853)  increased  immensely  the  power  of  the  coil, 
by  providing  it  with  a  condenser.  Of  late  years, 
coils  of  great  power  have  been  constructed,  rival¬ 
ing,  if  not  exceeding,  the  most  powerful  electric 
machines  in  length  and  power  of  spark.  The 
fundamental  law  of  current  induction  may  be 
thus  shown.  Two  long  copper  wires,  pp  and 
ss,  are  fixed  so  as  to  be  parallel  and  close  to 
each  other.  The  extremities  of  the  one,  pp,  are 
in  connection  with  the  poles  of  a  galvanic  bat¬ 
tery,  E,  and  those  of  the  other,  ss,  with  the  bind¬ 
ing-screws  of  a  galvanometer,  G.  The  instant 
the  circuit  of  the  battery  is  completed,  and  the 
current  sent  along  pp,  a  current  in  the  opposite 
direction  is  induced  in  the  wire  ss,  which  is  shown 
by  the  deflection  of  the  needle  of  the  galvanome¬ 
ter.  This  induced  current  is  only  momentary, 
for  though  the  current  continues  to  circulate  in 
pp,  the  needle  soon  falls  back  to  its  original  posi¬ 
tion  of  rest,  and  the  wire  ss  gives  free  passage  to 
other  currents,  and  appears  to  be  in  no  way 
affected.  If,  now,  when  the  needle  is  at  rest. 


the  battery  circuit  be  broken,  and  the  current  in 
pp  stopped,  another  momentary  current  is  indi¬ 
cated  by  the  galvanometer  needle,  but  in  this  case 
in  the  same  direction  as  the  inducing  current. 
The  inducing  wire  and  current  are  called  primary, 
and  are  so  distinguished  from  the  induced  wire 
and  current,  which  are  termed  secondary. 

Imlul'gence,  in  Roman  Catholic  Theology, 
means  a  remission,  by  church  authority,  to  a 
repentant  sinner,  of  the  temporal  punishment 


INDUS. 


477 


INK. 


which,  in  the  Catholic  theory,  remains  due  after 
the  sin  and  its  eternal  punishment  have  been 
remitted. 

In 'dus  (Sans.  Sindhu,  probably  from  a  root 
signifying  to  flow),  the  great  river  that  bounds 
Hindustan  on  the  west.  It  rises  in  Thibet,  near 
the  sources  of  the  kindred  Sutlej,  in  latitude  31° 
20'  N.,  and  longitude  81°  30'  E 

I  ndusial  Limestone,  a  variety  of  freshwater 
limestone,  found  in  Auvergne.  It  is  formed  of 
the  cases  or  indusia  of  caddis-worms,  great  heaps 
of  which  have  been  incrusted  with  carbonate  of 
lime,  and  formed  into  a  hard  travertine. 

Industrial  Schools  are  schools  in  which  some 
remunerative  trade  or  industry  is  taught.  In 
some  States  such  schools  are  established  by  law, 
and  the  pupils  are  supplied  from  children  arrested 
for  vagrancy,  and  various  misdemeanors  and 
crimes;  the  term  of  attendance  usually  being 
terminated  by  an  apprenticeship  to  some  master, 
to  whom  the  child  is  bound  till  his  majority  is 
reached. 

Industrial  Societies  are  societies  which  carry 
on  some  trade,  the  profits  of  which  are  applied  to 
an  object  of  mutual  benefit,  resembling  the  ob¬ 
ject  of  communities  or  cooperative  associations. 

Iner'tia  (Lat.  inactivity),  a  term  expressive  of 
that  indifference  to  a  state  of  rest  or  motion  which 
is  a  universal  property  of  matter  and  may  be  ex¬ 
pressed  by  saying  that  a  body  in  motion  will  con¬ 
tinue  in  motion,  and  a  body  at  rest  will  remain  at 
rest,  unless  acted  upon  by  some  external  force. 

InescutcITeon,  in  Heraldry,  a  single  shield 
borne  as  a  charge. 

Infallibil'ity,  in  Controversial  Theology, 
means  the  immunity  from  error,  in  all  that  re¬ 
gards  faith  and  morals,  which  is  claimed  by  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and,  at  least  as  regards 
the  past,  by  the  Greek  Church,  as  represented  in 
the  decrees  of  the  councils  which  that  church 
looks  upon  as  ecumenical. 

Infained',  or  Defamed,  in  Heraldry,  an 
epithet  applied  to  a  lion  or  other  animal  which 
has  lost  its  tail,  the  loss  being  supposed  to  dis¬ 
grace  or  defame  it.  Defamed  looking  backward 
occurs  in  ancient  blazon  for  counter-rampant 
regardant,  the  lion  being  supposed  to  be  flying 
from  an  enemy. 

Infant,  in  Law,  means  every  male  and  female 
under  the  age  of  twenty  one.  As  a  general  rule, 
an  infant  can  not  enter  into  contracts  or  perform 
any  of  the  duties,  or  claim  the  privileges  of  the 
citizen  as  regards  suffrage,  etc.  The  law  as  to 
the  ability  of  the  infant  to  enter  into  the  marriage 
relation  varies  in  different  States,  though  in  most 
of  them  the  parties  must  be  twenty-one  in  order 
to  contract  marriage  without  the  consent  of 
parent  or  guardian. 

Infan'te  (from  the  Lat.  infans,  an  infant),  the 
title  given  in  Spain  and  Portugal  to  the  princes 
of  the  royal  family,  the  corresponding  title  of 
Infanta  being  given  to  the  princesses. 

Infant'ieide,  the  act  or  practice  of  murdering 
infants,  which  is  abhorrent  to  modern  civiliza¬ 
tion,  was  common  in  ancient  times,  and  now  pre¬ 
vails  among  many  barbarous  nations.  It  pre¬ 
vailed  in  Greece  and  Rome,  and  (such  is  the  force 
of  custom)  found  defenders  in  Plato  and  Aristotle. 
In  Sparta,  we  are  informed  that  the  law  directed, 
when  a  child  was  born,  the  father  was  to  carry  it 
to  an  appointed  place,  to  be  inspected  by  the 
elders  of  the  community.  If  they  perceived  that 
its  limbs  were  straight,  and  its  look  was  whole 
some,  they  returned  it  to  its  parents  to  be  edu¬ 
cated,  otherwise,  it  was  thrown  into  a  deep 
cavern,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain  Taygetus; 
and  it  was  said  this  law  had  a  wholesome  effect, 
for  it  made  women  with  child  very  careful  as  to 
their  eating,  drinking,  and  exercise,  and  hence 
they  proved  excellent  nurses.  It  lay  with  the 
Roman  father  to  say  whether  his  child  should  be 
permitted  to  live  or  not.  Among  the  Norse,  the 
child’s  life  always  hung  in  the  balance  till  the 
father  handed  it  to  the  nurse  to  be  reared.  In 
modern  times,  the  practice  is  cruelly  common 
among  certain  peoples.  Child-murder  prevails 
to  a  great  extent  throughout  the  whole  of  the 
South  Sea  Islands,  Fiji  Islands,  China,  and  in 
India  (till  recently).  Among  civilized  people, 
however,  infanticide  is  murder,  or  manslaughter, 
whether  the  child  be  killed  in  or  out  of  the 
womb. 


Infec'tion  is  distinguished  from  contagion  by 
some  medical  writers,  who  would  restrict  the 
latter  word  to  the  cases  in  which  there  must  be 
contact  of  the  healthy  person  with  a  patient, 
while  they  apply  the  term  infectious  to  diseases 
which  can  be  conveyed  by  the  atmosphere. 

Inflamma'tion  is  the  most  important  of  all 
the  morbid  processes  that  fall  under  the  notice  of 
the  physician  or  surgeon.  The  most  obvious 
symptoms  or  phenomena  of  inflammation,  when 
it  attacks  an  external  or  visible  part,  are  pain, 
redness,  heat,  and  swelling,  or,  in  the  words  of 
Celsus,  “  rubor  et  tumor  cum  calore  et  dolore.” 
The  general  characters  of  the  process  will  be  best 
understood  by  an  assumed  case.  If  a  healthy 
man  gets  a  splinter  of  wood  or  any  other  foreign 
body  imbedded  in  any  fleshy  part,  he  begins  to 
experience  pain  at  the  part,  and  this  is  soon  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  redness  of  the  skin ,  a  firm  and  extremely 
tender  swelling  at  and  around  the  spot,  and  a 
sense  of  abnormal  heat.  These  purely  local 
symptoms  are  succeeded,  if  the  inflammation 
reach  a  certain  degree  of  intensity,  by  a  general 
derangement  of  the  vascular  and  nervous  systems, 
to  which  various  names,  such  as  constitutional 
disturbance,  symptomatic  or  inflammatory  fever, 
pyrexia,  etc.,  have  been  applied.  If  the  foreign 
body  is  extracted,  the  probability  is  that  all  these 
symptoms  will  gradually  abate  until  the  part  at 
length  regains  its  natural  appearance  and  sensa¬ 
tions.  In  this  case,  the  inflammation  is  said  to 
terminate  by  resolution,  and  this  is  the  most  favor¬ 
able  mode  of  termination.  If,  however,  the  cause 
o/  irritation  is  not  removed,  or  if  the  intensity  of 
the  morbid  process  exceed  a  certain  point,  the  fol¬ 
lowing  phenomena  occur:  the  swelling  assumes 
a  more  projecting  or  pointed  form,  the  part 
becomes  softer,  and  the  skin  at  its  center,  which 
is  usually  the  most  projecting  part,  becomes 
whiter.  There  is  a  sensation  of  throbbing  pain, 
and  if  the  skin  be  not  divided  by  the  knife,  it 
finally  breaks,  and  a  yellow,  cream-like  fluid, 
known  as  pus,  escapes,  after  which  the  symptoms 
rapidly  abate.  This  termination  is  known  as 
suppuration.  If  the  original  injury  wTas  very 
severe,  and  the  inflammation  intense,  there  may 
be  actual  death  of  the  part  affected.  In  that  case, 
the  red  coloi  of  the  skin  becomes  purple  or 
greenish-black,  the  pain  ceases,  and  the  part 
becomes  dead  and  putrid.  This  is  mollification. 
Under  favorable  circumstances,  this  dead  part, 
which  is  called  a  slough,  spontaneously  separates 
from  the  adjacent  living  parts  by  a  vital  process 
known  as  ulceration,  and  the  cavity  which  is  thus 
formed  gradually  fills  up  and  heals.  In  treat¬ 
ment,  if  possible,  we  must  remove  its  exciting 
cause,  which  can  seldom  be  done  except  wdien  the 
inflammation  is  external;  and  that  the  patient 
should  be  placed  on  a  strictly  antiphlogistic  regi¬ 
men,  (which  implies  a  total  abstinence  from  solid 
animal  food  and  stimulating  drinks,  due  atten¬ 
tion  to  ventilation,  temperature,  etc.)  The  med¬ 
icines  chiefly  employed  are  purgatives,  prepara¬ 
tions  of  mercury,  tartar  emetic,  and  opium;  while, 
as  external  applications,  hot  fomentations  (occa¬ 
sionally  cold  lotions),  and  counter-irritation  by 
means  of  blisters,  sinapisms,  setons,  etc.,  are 
often  of  service. 

Inflores'cence  (Lat.  in,  and  fiorcsco,  to  begin 
to  flower),  in  Botany,  a  term  employed  to  desig¬ 
nate  the  flowers  of  a  plant  considered  collectively 
and  with  reference  to  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  arranged,  and  the  succession  in  which  they 
are  developed. 

Inflnen'za,  one  of  the  class  of  diseases  to  which 
the  term  zymotic  is  now  applied,  in  most  cases 
closely  resembles  ordinary  catarrh,  but  presents 
certain  points  of  difference  from  that  disease.  In 
addition  to  the  ordinary  symptoms  of  catarrh, 
there  is  a  sudden,  early,  and  very  striking  debility 
and  depression  of  spirits.  This  early  debility  is 
one  of  the  most  marked  and  characteristic  signs  of 
influenza.  The  mucous  'membranes  (especially 
the  pulmonary  membrane)  are  much  affected. 
The  tongue  is  white  and  creamy,  the  sense  of  taste 
is  lost,  there  is  no  appetite,  the  pulse  is  soft  and 
weak,  the  skin,  although  at  first  hot  and  dry,  soon 
becomes  moist,  and  the  patient  complains  of  pains 
and  soreness  in  various  parts  of  the  body.  In 
simple,  uncomplicated  cases  convalescence  super¬ 
venes  in  the  course  of  a  week  or  sooner,  but 
influenza  is  very  frequently  conjoined  with  bron¬ 


chitis  or  pneumonia,  in  which  case  it  is  much 
more  persistent  and  dangerous.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  point  in  the  treatment  of  influenza  is  not 
to  bleed  the  patient,  or  in  any  way  to  depress  his 
vital  powers.  He  should  be  kept  in  bed;  his 
bowels  should  be  gently  opened;  his  skin  slightly 
acted  upon,  if  dry;  and,  if  the  cough  be  trouble¬ 
some,  a  mustard- poultice  should  be  applied  to  the 
chest,  and  an  expectorant  mixture  prescribed.  In 
persons  of  weak  or  broken-down  constitutions, 
ammonia,  beef  tea,  and  wine  and  water  must  be 
given  from  the  outset.  The  debility  that  often 
remains  for  a  considerable  period  after  the  estab¬ 
lishment  of  convalescence,  is  best  met  by  the 
preparations  of  iron  and  quinine. 

Infu  'sions,  or  Infu'sa,  are  usually  prepared 
by  digesting  in  soft,  water  (which  may  be  either 
hot  or  cold,  according  to  circumstances)  the  sliced 
or  powdered  vegetable  substance  in  an  earthen¬ 
ware  vessel  fitted  with  a  cover.  Cold  water  is 
preferable  when  the  active  principle  is  volatile,  or 
when  it  is  expedient  to  avoid  the  solution  of  some 
ingredient  in  the  vegetable  which  is  soluble  in  hot, 
but  not  in  cold  water.  Infusions  may  also  be 
prepared  by  percolation,  a  process  which  is  exten¬ 
sively  employed  in  the  preparation  of  tinctures. 
When  thus  prepared,  they  are  less  liable  to  decay 
than  when  prepared  on  the  old  system. 

Infuso'ria,  a  class  of  the  sub-kingdom  of  ani¬ 
mals  called  protozoa.  Some  of  the  infusoria  are 
large  enough  to  be  individually  visible  to  the  naked 
eye,  but  most  of  them  are  altogether  microscopic. 
All  infusoria  have  a  distinct  mouth,  and  many 
have  also  an  anal  opening,  sometimes  near  the 
mouth,  sometimes  at  the  opposite  extremity  of  the 
body.  The  food  of  infusoria  consists  of  organic 
particles  of  various  kinds.  Many  of  them  feed  on 
microscopic  plants  and  on  other  infusoria.  Their 
great  use  in  the  economy  of  nature  is  probably  to 
consume  organic  particles,  the  decomposition  of 
which  would  otherwise  be  baneful  to  all  life.  The 
numbers  of  the  infusoria  are  prodigious.  They  are 
found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  both  in  fresh 
and  salt  water,  in  stagnant  ponds  and  ditches,  in 
mineral  and  hot  springs,  and  in  moist  situations. 
The  infusoria  contained  in  a  single  cup  of  putrid 
water  may  exceed  in  number  the  whole  human 
population  of  the  globe. 

Ingersoll,  Robert  G.,  American  statesman 
and  controversialist,  born  in  New  York  in  1833. 
He  is  a  resident  of  Washington,  D.  C.  His  elo¬ 
quence,  and  his  discussions  of  the  Christian  relig¬ 
ion  have  made  him  known  all  over  the  world. 

I 'ilia  (Inia  boliviensis),  a  cetaceous  animal,  of 
the  family  Delphinidce.  It  is  a  native  of  South 
America,  and  the  only  known  species  of  its  genus, 
and  is  one  of  the  few  cetacea  which  inhabit  fresh 
water. 

Injec'tions.  Fluids  thrown  into  the  passages 
or  cavities  of  the  body  by  means  of  a  syringe. 
Hypodermic  or  Endermic  injections  are  effected 
by  means  of  a  syringe  with  a  nozzle  sharpened  to 
a  point  which  is  plunged  under  the  skin.  They 
are  used  generally  in  administration  of  anodynes 
and  narcotics,  which  are  thus  rendered  from  four 
to  ten  times  as  powerful  as  if  taken  into  the 
stomach. 

Injunction,  a  writ  in  law  by  which  a  high 
court  of  justice  stops  or  prevents  some  inequi¬ 
table  or  illegal  act  being  done.  If  the  party  dis¬ 
obeys  the  injunction,  lie  may  be. attached  for  con¬ 
tempt  of  court,  and  imprisoned  till  he  obeys.  If 
he  obeys  it,  he  may  apply  to  have  the  injunction 
dissolved. 

Ink.  The  most  important  kinds  of  ink  may 
be  included  in  the  two  following  heads — Writing 
Ink  and  Printing  Ink.  The  essential  constituents 
of  ordinary  black  ink  are  galls,  sulphate  of  iron, 
and  gum.  The  following  prescription  yields  a 
very  good  ink: 


Powdered  Aleppo  galls . oz  6 

Water . pt.  (5 

Boll,  and  add  sulphate  iron . oz.  4 

Gum  Arabic .  oz.  4 


Keep  the  whole  in  a  wooden  or  glass  vessel,  occasion¬ 
ally  shaken.  In  two  months,  strain,  and  pour  off  the 
ink  into  glass  bottles. 

The  addition  of  a  little  creasote  is  useful  as  a 
check  to  the  formation  of  mold. — Printing  Ink 
is  prepared  by  boiling  the  best  linseed  oil  in  an 
iron  pot,  kindling  and  allowing  it  to  burn  for  a 
short  time.  After  being  again  boiled,  resin  is 
dissolved  in  it.  The  coloring  matter — which  is 
lampblack  for  black  ink;  carmine,  lake,  vermilion, 


INKERMANN. 


478 


INTERMARRIAGE. 


•etc.,  for  red  ink;  indigo  or  Prussian  blue  for  blue 
ink;  lemon  and  orange  chrome  (chromate  and 
bichromate  of  lead),  or  gamboge,  for  yellow  ink, 
etc. — is  then  added  to  the  hot  mixture,  and  the 
whole  is  drawn  off.  and  finally  ground  into  a 
smooth,  uniform  paste. 

Inkermann',  a  small  Tartar  village  in  the 
Crimea,  is  situated  near  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  harbor  of  Sevastopol.  It  is  memorable  for 
the  battle  which  took  place  there,  during  the  Rus¬ 
sian  war,  between  an  army  of  Russians  60,000 
strong,  and  detachments  of  allied  forces,  consist¬ 
ing  of  about  14,000  troops  actually  engaged. 

In'nocent,  the  name  of  thirteen  popes,  the  most 
remarkable  of  whom  are  the  following. — Inno¬ 
cent  I.,  a  native  of  Albano,  was  elected  Bishop 
of  Rome  in  402,  and  died  in  417. — Innocent  III. 
(Lothario  Conti,  by  far  the  greatest  Pope  of  this 
name,  was  born  at  Anagni  in  1161,  and  died  in 
1216.— Innocent  XI.  (Benedetto  Odescalciii), 
•elected  in  1676,  died  in  1689. 

Innocents,  Holy,  Feast  of,  one  of  the  Christ¬ 
mas  festivals,  held  in  the  Western  Church  on 
December  28th,  and  in  the  Eastern  on  the  29th, 
under  a  title  similar  to  that  of  the  Latin  festival. 
It  is  intended  to  commemorate  the  massacre  of 
the  children  “from  two  years  old  and  under” 
at  Bethlehem. 

Innom'inate  Artery  (Arteria  innominata),  is 
the  first  large  branch  given  off  from  the  arch  of 
the  aorta.  It  varies  from  an  inch  and  a  half  to 
two  inches  in  length,  and  divides  into  the  right 
•carotid  and  the  right  subclavian  arteries. 

Innominate  Bone.  See  Pelvis. 

Inocula'tion.  If  the  matter  of  a  variolous  (or 
small  pox)  pustule,  taken  after  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  eighth  day,  be  inserted  in  or  beneath 
the  skin  of  a  person  who  has  not  previously  suf¬ 
fered  from  small  pox,  the  following  phenomena 
are  induced:  1.  Local  inflammation  is  set  up;  2. 
At  the  end  of  six  days  there  is  fever  similar  to 
that  of  small  pox;  and  3.  After  the  lapse  of  three 
more  days,  there  is  a  more  or  less  abundant  erup¬ 
tion  of  pustules.  This  process  is  termed  inocula¬ 
tion,  and  the  disease  thus  produced  is  denominated 
inoculated  small  pox.  The  disease  produced  in 
this  artificial  manner  is  much  simpler  and  less 
dangerous  than  ordinary  small-pox;  and  as  it  was 
an  almost  certain  means  of  preventing  a  subse¬ 
quent  attack  of  the  ordinary  disease,  inoculation 
was  much  practiced  till  the  discovery  (about 
1796)  of  the  antivariolous  power  of  vaccination. 

Inquisi'tioii,  The,  called  also  the  Holy  Of¬ 
fice,  a  tribunal  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
for  the  discovery,  repression,  and  punishment  of 
heresy,  unbelief,  and  other  offenses  against  relig¬ 
ion.  No  special  machinery  for  the  purpose  was 
devised  until  the  eleventli  and  twelfth  centuries. 
The  inquisition  as  a  special  court  was  introduced 
into  Italy,  Spain,  Germany,  and  the  Southern  Prov¬ 
inces  of  France  in  1248-60.  In  Spain  the  inquisi¬ 
tion  was  revived  at  the  request  of  the  Government, 
and  its  excesses  were  protested  against  by  several 
Popes,  so  that  the  dishonor  of  its  atrocities  is  not 
to  be  cast  upon  the  Church,  but  upon  the  Spanish 
State.  Pope  Sextus  IV.,  who  allowed  its  reor¬ 
ganization,  had  no  share  in  the  appointment  of 
the  inquisitors,  and  himself  denounced  the  in¬ 
quisition,  which  became  but  a  partisan  political 
machine.  The  procedure  of  the  inquisition  was 
to  the  effect  that  a  party,  if  suspected  of  heresy, 
or  denounced  as  guilty,  was  liable  to  be  arrested 
and  detained  in  prison,  only  to  be  brought  to 
trial  when  it  might  seem  fit  to  his  judges.  The 
proceedings  were  conducted  secretly.  The  pun¬ 
ishments  to  which,  if  found  guilty,  the  prisoner 
was  liable,  were  death  by  fire,  as  exemplified  in 
the  terrible  auto  da  fe,  or  on  the  scaffold, 
imprisonment  in  the  galleys  for  life  or  for  a 
limited  period,  forfeiture  of  property,  civil  in¬ 
famy,  and,  in  minor  cases,  retractation  and  public 
penance.  The  rigor  of  the  Spanish  inquisition 
abated  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  cen¬ 
tury,  and  it  was  abolished  in  1835. 

Insan'ity  means  all  unliealthiness  of  mind. 
This  consists,  according  to  one  opinion,  in  such 
disorganization  or  degeneration  of  the  nervous 
structure  as  to  render  the  exercise  of  reason  im¬ 
possible;  according  to  another,  it  consists  in  dis¬ 
order  of  the  reason  itself;  and  according  to  a 
third,  in  perversion  or  destruction  of  the  soul,  or 
the  moral  part  of  our  nature.  The  prevailing 


view  of  physiologists  is  that  insanity  is  a  symptom 
or  expression,  manifested  through  the  functions 
of  the  nervous  system,  of  physical  disease. 

Iiisectiv'ora  (Lat.  insect-eating),  an  order  of  the 
mammalia.  Tiie  families  of  Tulpidat  (moles,  etc  ), 
Soricidtu  (shrews,  etc.),  Erinaceadm  (hedgehogs, 
etc.),  and  Tupaidcz  (banxrings)  are  referred  to 
insectivora. 

Insects  ( Insecta ),  one  of  the  classes  of  Arthro- 
poda,  of  the  division  having  articulated  members. 
Insect  is  from  a  Latin  word  signifying  cut  into; 
a  derivation  exactly  answering  to  that  of  the 
Gr.  enloma,  from  which  the  science  having  insects 
for  its  subject  receives  the  name  of  entomology. 
Insects,  a  natural  and  extremely  well  defined 
class  of  organized  beings,  are  remarkable,  in 
their  mature  or  perfect  state,  for  the  division  of 
their  bodies  into  three  distinct  portions — the  head, 
thorax,  and  abdomen.  There  is  a  brain,  or  gang¬ 
lion  of  the  head,  from  which  arise  the  nerves  of  the 
eyes,  antennae,  and  mouth.  Insectsfeed  on  very  dif¬ 
ferent  kinds  of  food;  some  prey  on  other  insects, 
some  devour  animal,  and  some  vegetable  sub¬ 
stances,  some  suck  the  juices  of  animals,  some 
the  juices  of  plants  or  the  honey  of  their  flowers. 
The  structure  of  the  mouth  varies  accordingly, 
and  the  digestive  organs  also  vary. 

Insesso'res  (Lat.  perchers),  or  Perching 
Birds,  an  order  of  birds  called  passerine  (spar- 
row-like)  birds  by  Cuvier.  In  respect  of  the 
number  of  species  which  it  contains,  it  is  by  far 
the  largest  order  of  the  whole  class  of  birds.  The 
insessores  pair,  but  the  attachment  of  the  sexes 
iu  most  of  them  seems  to  endure  only  for  a  single 
season.  They  generally  build  interwoven  nests, 
and  lay  numerous  eggs.  The  young  are  always 
naked  and  blind  on  coming  forth  from  the  egg. 
The  insessores  are  divided  into  four  great  tribes 
or  sections,  dentirostres,  conirostres,  tenuirostres, 
and  fissirostres . 

Insolvency,  or  Bankruptcy,  is  the  state  of  a 
person  declared  to  be  unable  to  pay  his  debts. 
This  is  a  subject  on  which  the  greatest  legal  inge¬ 
nuity  has  been  exhausted,  and  the  regulation  of 
insolvent  courts  has  been  relegated  to  the  various 
States,  the  Federal  Government  only  supervising 
to  the  extent  of  seeing  the  inviolability  of  con¬ 
tracts  preserved. 

Inspira'tion  (literally,  breathing  into),  is 
applied  in  theology  to  denote  the  action  of  the 
Divine  mind  upon  the  human  mind  whereby  the 
latter  is  both  supernaturally  informed  and  quali¬ 
fied  to  communicate  the  information  received. 
The  term  revelation  is  used  more  distinctively  to 
express  the  first  part  of  this  action,  and  inspiration 
to  express  the  second  part. 

Instruments,  Musical,  may  be  divided  into 
three  classes — stringed,  wind,  and  percussion. 
Stringed  instruments  are  of  three  kinds ;  those 
whose  sounds  are  produced  by  friction,  as  the 
violin,  viola,  violoncello,  etc. ;  by  twitching  with 
the  finger  or  otherwise,  as  the  harp,  guitar,  man¬ 
doline,  etc.;  by  striking  as  the  pianoforte  and 
dulcimer.  Wind  instruments  are  of  two  kinds— 
viz.,  the  reed  species — as  the  hautboy,  clarionet, 
etc. — and  the  flute  species,  as  the  flute,  flageolet, 
etc. 

Insur'ance,  a  conk  act  of  indemnity,  whereby 
one  party,  in  consideration  of  a  specified  payment, 
called  a  “  premium,”  undertakes  to  guarantee 
another  against  risk  of  loss.  Although  the  busi¬ 
ness  of  fire  insurance  is  not  founded  upon  such 
exact  data  as  can  be  made  available  in  the  prac¬ 
tice  of  life  insurance,  yet  considerable  progress 
has  been  made  by  the  companies  toward  a  correct 
classification  of  the  risks  they  run,  and  they  have 
hence  devised  a  sjrstem  of  rates,  varying  from  a 
very  low  rate  on  private  dwelling-houses  to  a 
much  higher  one  on  powder  or  oil-mills,  etc.  Life 
insurance,  in  its  widest  sense,  is  a  contract  en¬ 
tered  into  by  the  assurer  to  pay  a  certain  benefit 
contingent  upon  the  duration  of  one  or  more  lives. 
The  three  important  elements  that  have  to  be 
taken  into  account  in  the  calculation  of  premiums 
are — the  rate  of  interest  which  is  to  accrue  from 
their  investment,  the  mortality  returns  with  which 
the  future  experience  of  the  insured  is  expected 
to  agree,  and  the  proportion  of  “  loading”  to  be 
added  to  the  net  rates  to  meet  expenses  of  man¬ 
agement,  and  afford  a  profit  to  the  insurer.  The 
rate  of  3  per  cent,  has,  with  a  very  few  excep¬ 


tions,  been  adopted  as  a  basis  for  such  calcu¬ 
lations. 

In'tellect,  the  name  for  the  thinking  portion 
of  our  mental  constitution.  Mind  contains  three 
elementary  constituents — emotion  or  feeling, 
volition  or  the  will,  and  intelligence  or  thought. 
The  intellectual  powers  are  explained  in  part  by 
their  contrast  with  feeling  and  will.  When  we 
enjoy  pleasure  or  suffer  pain,  we  are  said  to  feel ; 
when  we  act  to  procure  the  one  or  avoid  the 
other,  we  put  forth  voluntary  energy  ;  when  we 
remember,  compare,  reason,  our  intelligence  is 
exerted.  The  powers  of  the  intellect  have  been 
variously  classified.  Among  the  commonly 
recognized  designations  for  them,  we  may  men¬ 
tion  memory,  reason,  and  imagination,  which 
imply  three  very  distinct  applications  of  our  men¬ 
tal  forces.  Reid  classified  them  as  follows  :  Per¬ 
ception  by  the  senses,  memory,  conception, 
abstraction,  judgment,  reasoning.  Stewart 
added  consciousness,  to  denote  the  power  of 
recognizing  our  mental  states,  as  sensation  and 
perception  make  us  cognizant  of  the  outer  world  ; 
likewise  attention  (a  purely  voluntary  function, 
although  exerted  in  the  domain  of  intelligence), 
imagination,  and  the  association  of  ideas. 

Intercession,  Doctrine  of.  Scripture,  in 
many  places,  represents  Christ,  after  having 
finished  his  redemptive  work  on  earth,  and 
ascended  into  his  state  of  glory  and  exaltation,  as 
ever  pleading  with  God  on  behalf  of  those  whom 
he  has  redeemed  by  the  shedding  of  his  blood 
(Rom.  viii,  34;  Heb.  vii,  25;  I.  John  ii,  1). 
Theologians  say,  however,  that  we  are  not  to 
suppose  that  God  needs  to  be  interceded  with,  as 
if  he  were  still  reluctant  to  forgive  men,  or  that 
Christ’s  intercession  makes  him  more  merciful 
than  before.  They  tell  us,  that  since  it  is  evident 
from  the  whole  tenor  of  the  New  Testament,  as 
well  as  from  a  multitude  of  special  passages,  that 
the  penal  sacrifice  of  Christ  on  Calvary  reconciled 
God  to  man,  we  must  regard  the  intercessorv 
work  of  Christ  rather  as  serving  to  illustrate  the 
eternal  holiness  of  God  and  the  changeless  love  of 
the  Saviour,  and  as  intended  to  keep  continually 
in  view  the  sacrifice  of  atonement  on  which  it  is 
founded.  The  doctrine  of  the  intercession  of 
Christ  is  held  both  by  Protestants  and  Roman 
Catholics;  but  the  latter,  in  addition,  believe  in 
the  efficacy  of  the  intercession  of  the  Virgin  and 
the  saints,  who,  however,  do  not  directly  inter¬ 
cede  for  men  with  God,  but  with  the  Saviour,  the 
sinless  One,  who  alone  has  the  ear  of  the  King  of 
the  universe. 

Interest,  the  payment  due  by  the  borrower  of 
a  sum  of  money  to  the  lender  for  its  use.  The 
interest  of  $1.00  for  one  year  is  called  the  rate  per 
cent.;  the  money  lent,  the  principal;  and  the 
sum  of  any  principal  and  its  interest,  the  amount. 
The  current  or  market  rate  of  interest  fluctuates 
widely,  by  reason,  not,  as  is  often  supposed,  of 
the  extent  of  the  supply  of  money,  but  of  the 
variable  rates  of  profit  in  mercantile  or  other 
ventures.  The  rate  of  interest  is  fixed  in  each 
State  by  legislative  enactment,  or  by  custom.  If 
by  legislative  enactment,  then  a  charge  in  excess 
in  some  States,  works  a  forfeiture  of  principal 
and  interest,  in  others  of  all  interest;  and  in  yet 
others  of  only  the  excess  of  interest  over  the  legal 
rate. 

Interfer  'euce,  a  term  employed  to  express  the 
effect  which  rays  of  light,  after  being  bent  or 
diffracted,  produce  on  each  other.  If  the  rays 
meet  after  diffraction,  their  light,  when  allowed 
to  fall  on  a  surface,  will  be  divided  into  bars  or 
stripes,  alternately  light  and  dark.  This  result 
is  produced,  it  is  believed,  by  the  interference  of 
one  ray  with  another. 

Intermarriage.  The  intermarriage  or  inter¬ 
course  of  near  relatives  has  been  universally  be¬ 
lieved  to  entail  degeneration  upon  the  offspring, 
and  the  act  has  been  condemned  and  prohibited 
in  most  civilized  communities.  The  physical 
deformity  and  mental  debasement  of  various 
savage  or  unenlightened  peoples  have  been  attrib¬ 
uted  to  the  consanguineous  alliances  which  are 
unavoidable  among  them.  More  recently,  the 
same  opinion  has  been  supported  by  the  history 
of  deaf -mutism  and  of  idiocy.  But  in  opposition 
to,  and  apparently  destructive  of  such  an  hypoth¬ 
esis,  may  be  adduced  the  unimpaired  condition 
and  symmetry  of  the  Jews  and  others.  More- 


INTERNATIONAL. 


479 


IRAPUATO. 


over,  this  opinion  does  not  hold  in  the  analogous 
cases  among  the  inferior  animals.  But  any  assur¬ 
ance  that  consanguineous  marriages  are  not  harm¬ 
ful  should  be  received  with  caution,  as  the  pre¬ 
ponderance  of  evidence  seems  against  them. 

International,  The,  a  working-men’s  inter¬ 
national  association,  which  grew  out  of  the  visit 
of  some  French  workmen  to  the  exhibition  at 
Loudon  in  1862,  and  was  formed  there  in  1864, 
at  a  large  gathering  of  working-men  from  nearly 
every  country  in  Europe.  The  constitution  pre¬ 
pared  by  Dr.  Karl  Marx,  and  a  committee  nomi¬ 
nated  at  this  meeting,  and  formally  approved  at 
the  first  congress  held  at  Geneva,  in  1866,  first 
made  known  to  the  world  the  wide  aims  of  the 
organization.  At  first  intended  to  protect  the 
working  man  from  the  tyranny  of  capital,  it  be¬ 
came  tainted  with  communism  and  nihilism,  and 
finally  fell  to  pieces  in  1874. 

Intoxication.  Whether  induced  by  fermented 
liquors  or  by  distilled  spirits,  it  is  through  the 
alcohol  contained  in  either  that  the  effects  of 
intoxication  ensue.  If  swallowed  rapidly,  in  large 
quantities  or  in  a  concentrated  form,  the  agency  is 
that  of  a  powerful  narcotic  poison.  The  individ¬ 
ual  falls  into  a  deep  stupor,  from  which  it  is  im¬ 
possible  to  rouse  him.  Where  death  follows,  it 
may  ensue  in  a  few  minutes,  or  after  a  period 
varying  from  a  single  hour  to  a  day.  Where  the 
quantity  taken  is  swallowed  more  slowly,  as  in 
ordinary  drinking,  the  consequences  are  those 
which  are  familiarly  known  as  characterizing  a  fit 
of  drunkenness,  and  are  the  product  of  the  more 
gradual  and  less  excessive  absorption.  The  appe¬ 
tite  for  alcohol  may  in  itself  be  regarded  and 
treated  as  a  disease.  But  the  universal  health 
shows  ultimately  signs  of  a  deeper  injury.  If 
not  cut  off  abruptly  in  his  career,  the  life  of  the 
drunkard  becomes  one  long  malady  toward  its 
close,  the  mortality  among  drunkards  being  four 
or  five  times  as  great  as  among  temperate  persons. 
Intoxication  or  drunkenness  is,  in  point  of  law, 
no  excuse  for  any  wrong  done  by  the  drunken 
party. 

lutussuscep'tion,  or  Invagina  'tion,  is  the 
term  applied  to  that  partial  displacement  of  the 
bowel  in  which  one  portion  of  it  passes  into  the 
portion  immediately  adjacent  to  it,  just  as  one 
part  of  the  finger  of  a  glove  is  sometimes  pulled 
into  an  adjacent  part  in  the  act  of  withdrawing 
the  hand.  In  this  case,  the  contained  portion  of 
intestine  is  liable  to  be  nipped  and  strangulated 
by  the  portion  which  contains  it,  and  all  the  dan¬ 
ger  of  hernia  results,  with  far  less  chance  of  suc¬ 
cessful  interference  on  the  part  of  the  surgeon  or 
physician.  It  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  and 
fatal  causes  of  obstruction  of  the  bowels.  The 
extent  of  the  intussusception  may  vary  from  a 
few  lines  to  a  foot  or  more.  Even  when  inflam¬ 
mation  is  set  up,  the  affection,  although  in  the 
highest  degree  perilous,  is  not  of  necessity  fatal. 
The  invaginated  portion  mortifies  and  sloughs, 
while  adhesion  is  established  between  the  peri¬ 
toneal  surfaces  of  the  upper  and  lower  portions  at 
their  place  of  junction,  so  that  the  continuity  of 
the  tube  is  preserved,  although  a  large  portion 
may  be  destroyed.  If  the  patient  is  strong  enough 
to  bear  the  shock  of  the  inflammation,  gangrene, 
sloughing,  etc.,  a  complete  recovery  ensues. 

I 'mius,  or  Innuus,  a  genus  of  apes,  to  which 
the  Barbary  ape  belongs.  The  Barbary  ape  is 
Inuus  sylvanus. 

Invalides,  wounded  veterans  of  the  French 
army,  maintained  at  the  expense  of  the  State. 
The  Hotel  des  Invalides  is  an  establishment  in 
Paris  where  a  number  of  these  old  soldiers  are 
quartered.  Its  chapel  contains  the  tomb  of  the 
Great  Napoleon,  and  is  an  object  of  much  attrac¬ 
tion  to  all  visitors.  It  was  founded  by  Louis 
XIY.  in  1671. 

Inverness-shire,  the  largest  county  of  Scot¬ 
land.  The  mainland  portion  lies  between  N. 
latitude  56°  40'  and  57°  36',  and  W.  longitude 
3°  30'  and  5°  55'.  It  measures  from  northeast  to 
southwest  85  miles,  and  from  northwest  to  south¬ 
east  57  miles;  and  has  an  area  of  4,256  square 
miles. 

Inver'tebrate  Animals  ( Invertebvata )  are 
those  animals  wrhich  have  not  a  vertebral  column 
or  spine.  The  division  of  animals  into  vertebrate 
and  invertebrate  is  a  natural  and  unavoidable 
■one.  In  Cuvier’s  system  the  invertebrate  ani¬ 


mals  form  three  of  the  great  divisions  of  the  ani¬ 
mal  kingdom — viz.,  Mollusca,  Articulata,  and 
Radiata. 

I'odine  (symbol  I,  equiv.  127)  is  one  of  a  group 
of  four  non-metallic  elements  to  which  the  term 
halogens  has  been  applied.  It  derives  its  name 
from  Gr.  idoSr/i,  iudes,  violet-like,  in  consequence 
of  its  magnificent  purple  color  when  in  a  state  of 
vapor.  It  combines  directly  with  phosphorous, 
sulphur,  and  the  metals,  and  numerous  organic 
substances.  Iodine  was  discovered  in  1811  by 
Courtois.  A  few  years  later,  Gay-Lussac  dis¬ 
covered  that  it  was  a  simple  elementary  body, 
obtained  from  the  half-used  ash  of  dried  sea¬ 
weeds,  which  is  known  in  this  country  as  kelp. 
The  preparations  of  iodine  are  employed  exten¬ 
sively  in  medicine  and  in  photography.  Iodide  of 
potassium,  and  the  preparations  of  iodine  gener¬ 
ally,  are  almost  entitled  to  be  regarded  as  specifics 
in  cases  of  goiter,  bronchocele,  or  Derbyshire 
neck.  The  preparations  of  iodine  are  also  emi¬ 
nently  successful  as  resolvents  in  chronic  indura¬ 
tion,  and  enlargement  of  the  liver,  spleen,  uterus, 
etc.  In  many  forms  of  chronic  rheumatism,  and 
in  certain  affections  of  the  osseous  system,  due  to 
a  syphilitic  taint,  iodide  of  potassium  is  of  the 
greatest  service;  and  its  value  in  the  treatment  of 
chronic  lead-poisoning  is  not  so  generally  known, 
even  in  the  medical  profession,  as  it  deserves  to 
be.  In  these  cases,  lead  may  often  be  detected  in 
the  urine,  almost  immediately  after  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  the  iodide.  This  salt  has  a  similar 
action  in  chronic  mercurial  poisoning.  Iodide  of 
iron,  which  may  be  given  either  in  syrup  or  in 
the  form  of  pills,  and  is  especially  serviceable  in 
scrofulous  affections  of  the  glandular  system,  in 
which  the  use  both  of  iodine  and  of  iron  is  indi¬ 
cated.  The  iodides  of  mercury  have  been  pre¬ 
scribed  with  good  effect  in  various  forms  of 
syphilis.  They  must  be  given  with  caution,  on 
account  of  their  energy,  the  average  dose  of  the 
red  iodide  being  a  fraction  (/fi-  to  I)  of  a  grain. 
Pure  iodine  is  seldom  prescribed  internally;  but 
in  the  form  of  tincture  and  ointment  it  is  a  most 
useful  topical  application  in  cases  of  goiter,  local 
enlargements,  diseases  of  joints  chilblains,  etc.  In 
large  doses,  iodine  and  most  of  the  iodides  act  as 
irritant  poisons;  but  very  few  fatal  cases  are  on 
record.  In  the  event  of  poisoning  with  the 
tincture  of  iodine,  the  first  point  is  to  evacuate 
the  stomach;  and  the  vomiting  is  assisted  by  the 
copious  use  of  tepid  liquids,  containing  starchy 
matter,  as,  for  instance,  starch,  flour,  or  arrow¬ 
root,  boiled  in  water;  the  object  being  to  form 
iodide  of  starch,  which  is  comparatively  inert. 

Iola,  the  county  seat  of  Allen  county,  Kan. 
Pop.,  1,800. 

Io'na,  the  modern  name  of  the  most  famous  of 
the  Hebrides.  It  is  about  3  miles  long,  and 
varies  in  breadth  from  1  to  14  miles.  In  1881  it 
had  a  pop.  of  243. 

Io'nia,  the  ancient  name  of  the  most  flourish¬ 
ing  country  of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  a  beautiful 
and  fertile  country,  extending,  according  to 
Ptolemy,  from  the  River  Hermus  to  the  River 
Meander,  along  the  coast  of  the  iEgean  Sea. 

Ionia,  the  county  seat  of  Ionia  county,  Mich., 
is  a  beautiful  and  prosperous  city.  Pop.,  4,642. 

Io'nian  Islands,  a  group,  or  rather  chain, 
running  round  the  west  coast  of  Epirus,  and 
west  and  south  of  Greece.  It  consists  of  about 
forty  islands,  of  which  Corfu,  Paxo,  Santa  Maura, 
Tlieaki,  Cephalonia,  Zante,  and  Cerigo,  are  of 
considerable  size  ;  the  total  area  is  about  1,000 
square  miles,  and  the  pop.  (1879),  231,174. 

lon'ic  Architectm'e,  a  style  of  Greek  archi¬ 
tecture  which  took  its  origin  in  Ionia,  and  seems 
to  have  derived  many  of  its  characteristic  features 
from  Assyria.  The  chief  peculiarity  of  Ionic 
architecture  is  the  capital  of  the  columns,  which 
is  decorated  with  spiral  ornaments  called  volutes. 
The  columns  have  also  bases,  which  were  not 
used  in  Doric  architecture.  The  cornice  is  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  the  dentil  band,  an  ornament  first 
introduced  in  this  style. 

I'owa,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
was  organized  as  a  State,  with  governor  and 
Legislature,  in  1846.  It  lies  between  40°  20'  and 
43°  30'  N.  latitude,  and  90°  12°'  and  96°  53'  W. 
longitude,  and  extends  208  miles  from  north  to 
south,  and  300  from  east  to  west,  with  an  area  of 
55,045  square  miles,  or  35,228,800  acres.  It 


is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Minnesota  ;  east 
by  Wisconsin  and  Illinois,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Mississippi  river ;  south  by 
Missouri;  and  west  by  the  State  of  Nebraska, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Missouri 
river.  Des  Moines  is  the  capital.  In  the 
northeast  there  are  rich  deposits  of  lead,  and 
coal  in  the  south  and  west,  with  iron,  marble, 
clay,  gypsum,  etc.  The  soil  is  exceedingly 
fertile,  and  the  climate  healthful.  The  chief 
productions  are  wheat,  maize,  flax,  tobacco, 
cattle,  and  hogs.  There  are  many  manufactories, 
and  in  1880  there  were  4,000  miles  of  railway. 
There  are  7,500  public  schools,  over  100  other 
schools,  and  about  50  colleges,  with  a  total 
attendance  of  270,000.  The  pop.  is  1,624,620. 

Iowa  City,  a  city  in  Iowa,  formerly  the  capital 
of  the  territorial  government,  is  situated  on  the 
Iowa  river,  eighty  miles  from  its  mouth.  Pop., 
7,748. 

Iowa  Falls,  a  prosperous  agricultural  and 
manufacturing  town  in  Hardin  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  2,000, 

Ipecacuan'lia  ( Cephaelis  ipecacuanha )  belongs 
to  the  natural  order  Cinchonactee,  and  grows  in 
damp,  shady  woods  in  Brazil  and  some  other 
parts  of  South  America.  The  part  of  ipecacuanha 
used  in  medicine  is  the  root.  The  different  kinds 
known  in  commerce  (gray,  red,  brown)  are  all 
produced  by  the  same  plant  ;  the  differences 
arising  from  the  age  of  the  plant,  the  mode  of 
drying,  etc.  Ipecacuanha  root  is  prepared 
for  the  market  by  mere  drying.  It  is  in  the 
bark  of  the  root  that  the  active  principle, 
the  emetine,  almost  entirely  lies,  and  in 
good  specimens  it  amounts  to  14  or  16  per 
cent.  It  acts  as  a  violent  emetic  in  doses  of  ^ 
of  a  grain  or  less,  and  is  a  powerful  poison.  In 
small  and  repeated  doses — as,  for  instance,  of  a 
grain  or  less— ipecacuanha  increases  the  activity 
of  .the  secreting  organs,  especially  of  the  bron¬ 
chial  mucous  membrane,  and  of  the  skin.  In 
larger  doses  of  from  1  to  5  grains  it  excites  nausea 
and  depression,  while  in  doses  of  from  15  to  30 
grains  it  acts  as  an  emetic,  without  producing  such 
violent  action  or  so  much  nausea  and  depression  as 
tartar  emetic.  Ipecacuanha  is  useful  as  an  emetic 


Ipecacuanha. 


when  it  is  necessary  to  unload  the  stomach  in  cases 
where  there  is  great  debility,  or  in  childhood.  As 
a  nauseant,  expectorant,  and  diaphoretic,  it  is 
prescribed  in  affections  of  the  respiratory  organs, 
as  catarrh,  hooping-cough,  asthma,  etc.  ;  in 
affections  of  the  alimentary  canal,  as  indigestion, 
dysentery,  etc.;  and  in  disorders  in  which  it  is 
desired  to  increase"  the  action  of  the  skin,  as  in 
diabetes,  febrile  affections,  etc.  Besides  the 
powder,  the  most  useful  preparations  are  the 
wine  of  ipecacuanha — of  which  the  dose  to  an 
adult  as  a  diaphoretic  and  expectorant  ranges 
from  10  to  40  minims,  and  as  an  emetic  from  2 
to  4  drachms — and  the  compound  ipecacuanha 
powder,  commonly  known  as  Dover’s  powder. 
To  produce  the  full  effect  as  a  sudorific,  a  dose 
of  ten  grains  of  Dover’s  powder  should  be  fol¬ 
lowed  by  copious  draughts  of  some  warm  and 
harmless  drink. 

Ipswich,  the  county  seat  of  Edmunds  county, 
South  Dak.  Pop.,  750. 

Irapuato,  a  city  of  Guanajuato,  Mexico.  Pop. , 
14,000. 


IRASBURGII. 


480 


ISHMAEL. 


Irasburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Orleans  county, 
Vt.  Pop.,  1,064. 

Ire 'land,  an  island  forming  part  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  lies  between 
latitude  51°  26'  and  55°  23'  N.,  and  longitude  5° 
20'  and  10°  26'  W.  It  is  washed  on  the  north, 
west,  and  south  by  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the  east 
by  a  strait,  called  at  different  places  the  North 
Channel,  the  Irish  Sea,  and  St.  George’s  Channel, 
which  separates  it  from  the  larger  island  of  Great 
Britain.  Ireland  is  divided  into  the  four  Prov¬ 
inces  of  Ulster,  Leinster,  Munster,  and  Con 
naught,  which  again  are  subdivided  into  thirty- 
two  counties.  The  total  area  is  about  32,524 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  5,150,839. 

Iriartea,  a  genus  of 
palms,  all  South  Ameri¬ 
can,  having  lofty, 
smooth,  faintly  ringed 
stems, and  pinnate  leaves 
with  somewhat  triangu¬ 
lar  leaflets.  The  leaf¬ 
stalks  rise  from  a  sheath¬ 
ing  column.  The  pashi- 
uba  or  piziuba  palm 
(/.  exorhiza )  is  common 
in  swamps  and  marshy 
grounds  in  the  forests 
of  the  Amazon  dis¬ 
trict. 

Iride'aj,  or  Irida'- 
Ce.e,  a  natural  order 
of  endogenous  plants,  1 
mostly  herbaceous,  al¬ 
though  a  few  are  some¬ 
what  shrubby.  They 
are  particularly  abun¬ 
dant  in  South  Africa.  Pashiuba  Palm  ( Iriartea 
A  few  are  British.  Iris  exorhiza). 

Gladiolus,  and  Crocus  are  familiar  examples  of 
the  order. 

Irid'ium  (symbol Ir,  equiv.  198 — sp.  gr.  21.15) 
is  a  very  hard,  white,  brittle  metal,  which  may  be 
melted  by  the  oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe  or  by 
the  heat  of  a  voltaic  current.  In  its  iso¬ 
lated  form,  it  is  unacted  upon  by  any  acid,  or 
by  aqua  regia,  but  as  an  alloy  it  dissolves  in  the 
latter  fluid.  It  is  used  for  pen  points,  contact 
points  in  telegraphy,  and  wearing  parts  of  scien¬ 
tific  instruments.  Iridium  was  discovered  by 
Descotils  and  by  Tennant  in  1803. 

Iris,  or  Flower-de-Luce,  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Irulece,  having  the  three  outer 


Yellow  Water  Flag  Florentine  Orris 

(Iris  pseudacorus) .  (Iris  florenlina) . 


segments  of  the  perianth  reflexed,  the  three  inner 
arched  inward,  and  three  petal-like  st  igmas  cover¬ 
ing  the  stamens.  The  species  are  numerous, 
chiefly  natives  of  temperate  climates. 

Irish  Sea,  a  continuation  northward  of  St. 
George’s  Channel,  separates  the  North  of  Ireland 
from  t he  central  districts  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Iri'tisis  the  term  applied  to  inflammation  of 
the  iris.  The  objective  symptoms  of  iritis  (those 
which  can  be  observed  by  the  physician)  are: 
1.  Redness  of  the  eye,  arising  from  vascularity 
of  the  sclerotic;  2.  Change  in  the  color  of  the 
iris;  3.  Irregularity  and  sometimes  immobility 
of  the  pupil.  The  subjective  symptoms  (those 
of  which  the  patient  alone  is  conscious)  are 


intolerance  of  light,  dimness  of  vision,  and  pain  in 
and  around  the  eye.  The  causes  of  iritis  are  various. 
The  disease  may  arise  from  actual  injury  in  surg¬ 
ical  operations  performed  on  the  eye;  from  over- 
exertion,  and  too  prolonged  continuous  use  of  the 
eye  (thus,  it  is  common  among  needlewomen,  en¬ 
gravers,  and  watchmakers);  or  from  some  consti¬ 
tutional  taint,  especially  syphilis,  gout,  rheuma¬ 
tism,  and  scrofula.  The  treatment  of  iritis  varies 
to  some  extent  according  to  the  cause  which  in¬ 
duces  it,  but  the  great  remedies  are  three.  1. 
Blood-letting,  for  the  purpose  of  moderating  the 
febrile  disturbance,  and  of  facilitating  the  opera¬ 
tion  of  the  second  remedy,  which  is,  2.  Mercury, 
which  used  to  be  given  in  large  closes  (such  as  two, 
three,  or  four  grains,  with  a  little  opium,  every 
four  or  six  hours),  but  which  is  preferably  given 
in  small  doses,  such  as  two  or  three  grains  of 
mercury  and  chalk,  with  a  1  it  tie  liyoscyamus, 
two  or  three  times  in  the  twenty-four  hours. 
This  dose  should  be  lessened  as  soon  as  the  mouth 
begins  to  be  tender,  and  by  that  time  the  lymph 
will  be  found  to  break  up,  and  leave  the  pupil 
clear.  3.  Belladonna.  The  pupil  should  be 
kept  well  dilated  by  the  application  of  the  ex¬ 
tract  of  belladonna  to  the  skin  round  the  eye,  or, 
far  better,  by  the  instillation  into  the  eye  of  a 
weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  atropine,  with  the 
view  of  preventing  adhesion  of  the  iris,  or  of 
breaking,  or,  at  all  events,  of  stretching  and  elon¬ 
gating  any  adhesive  bands  that  may  be  formed; 
and  thus  of  preventing  any  impairment  of  the 
movements  of  the  iris,  and  any  irregularity  of 
the  pupil,  after  the  inflammation  shall  have 
abated. 

Irkutsk,  a  government  of  Eastern  Siberia, 
bounded  by  the  government  of  Jenisseisk,  the 
government  of  Jakutsk,  and  the  Chinese  Empire; 
occupies  an  area  of  307,990  square  miles.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Lena,  Sliilka,  Agun;  the 
largest  lake  is  the  Baikal.  The  productions  of 
the  country  are  rye,  wheat,  barley,  oats,  rhubarb, 
hops;  reindeer,  sables,  ermines,  foxes,  seals;  fish 
— sturgeon,  cod,  silure;  minerals — gold,  silver, 
lead,  jasper,  amethysts,  topazes,  emeralds,  yel¬ 
low  amber,  rock-salt,  and  coal.  The  pop.  of  the 
government  was  (1880),  383,578. 

Iron  (symbol  Fe  [Lat.  ferrum],  equiv.  56 — sp. 
gr.  7.844)  occurs  more  abundantly  than  any  other 
metal.  In  its  native  form  it  is  chiefly  found  in 
meteoric  stones  and  in  certain  ores  of  platinum, 
and  is  consequently  of  comparatively  rare  occur¬ 
rence,  but  the  so-called  iron  ores — the  oxides,  sul¬ 
phides,  etc. — are  widely  distributed.  Bar  or 
wrought  iron  requires  an  intense  heat  for  its 
fusion,  but  before  melting  passes  into  a  soft,  pasty 
condition,  in  which  state  two  pieces  of  iron  may, 
by  being  hammered  together,  be  united  or  welded 
so  completely  as  to  form,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  a  single  portion.  At  a  red  heat,  it  may 
be  readily  forged  into  any  shape;  but  at  ordinary 
temperatures  it  possesses  very  little  malleability, 
as  compared  with  gold  and  silver.  In  ductility, 
it  stands  high,  being  barely  exceeded  by  gold, 
silver,  and  platinum ;  and  in  tenacity,  it  is  only 
exceeded  by  cobalt  and  nickel.  Its  susceptibility 
to  magnetism  is  one  of  its  most  remarkable  char¬ 
acteristics.  At  a  high  temperature  it  burns 
readily.  The  increasing  use  of  iron  is  a  prom¬ 
inent  characteristic  of  the  present  age,  and  every 
day  sees  some  new  application  of  it  in  the  arts  of 
life.  Although  the  most  useful  of  the  metals,  it 
was  not  the  first  known.  Iron  ores  are  abun¬ 
dantly  distributed  over  the  globe;  the  chief  kinds 
being — 1.  Magnetic  iron  ore;  2.  Red  haematite, 
specular,  or  red  iron  ore;  3.  Brown  haematite  or 
brown  iron  ore;  4.  Carbonate  of  iron,  including 
spathic  ore,  clay  ironstone,  and  blackband  iron¬ 
stone. 

Iron  Bark  Tree,  a  name  given  in  Australia 
to  certain  species  of  Eucalyptus  on  account  of  the 
extreme  hardness  of  the  bark. 

Iron  Cross,  a  Prussian  order  of  knighthood, 
instituted  on  March  10,  1813,  by  Frederick  Will¬ 
iam  III.,  and  conferred  for  distinguished  services 
in  the  war  which  was  then  being  carried  on.  The 
decoration  is  an  iron  cross  with  silver  mounting. 

Iron  Crown,  the  crown  of  the  ancient  Longo- 
bardian  kings,  given,  according  to  an  unauthen- 
I  ticated  tradition,  by  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  to 
!  Queen  Theodolinda,  and  preserved  till  lately  in 
I  the  cathedral  of  Monza.  The  outer  part  of  the 


crown  consists  of  a  golden  hoop,  within  which  is 
a  thin  plate  or  fillet  of  iron,  which  is  declared  to 
have  been  made  of  the  iron  from  the  nails  of  the 
Cross  of  Christ. 

Iron  Mask,  The  Man  with  the.  The  ap¬ 
pellation  of  a  prisoner  of  the  Bastile,  France, 
variously  supposed  to  have  been  an  illegitimate 
son  of  Anne  of  Austria,  or  a  twin  brother  of 
Louis  XIY.  Still  another  account  has  it  that  he 
was  a  minister  of  a  foreign  power,  whom  Louis 
XIV.  had  caused  to  be  seized.  lie  was  so  called 
from  the  fact  that  his  face  was  always  covered  by 
a  mask  made  of  black  velvet  and  steel  springs, 
lie  died  in  1703,  having  been  brought  to  the 
Bastile  in  1698. 

Iron  River,  the  county  town  of  Iron  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  600. 

Ironton,  the  county  seat  of  Iron  county,  Mo.. 
Pop.,  800, 

Ironton,  a  flourishing  agricultural  and  manu¬ 
facturing  city  of  Lawrence  county,  Ohio.  Pop., 
12,000. 

Irouwood,  a  town  in  Gogebic  county,  Mich. , 
noted  for  the  extensive  iron  mines  in  its 
vicinity,  and  for  several  of  which  it  is  the  ship¬ 
ping  point.  Pop.,  4,000. 

lrradia'tion,  an  illusive  effect  of  vision,  by 
which  white  or  bright  objects  seen  on  a  dark 
ground  appear  larger,  and  black  objects  on  a 
black  ground  smaller  than  they  really  are.  It  is 
due  to  the  impression  on  the  retina  extending 
beyond  the  outline  of  the  image  ;  and  affects 
specially  the  apparent  magnitude  of  the  stars  and 
of  the  moon. 

Irra'tional  Numbers,  a  term  applied  to  those 
roots  of  numbers  which  can  not  be  accurately 
expressed  by  a  finite  number  of  figures.  For 
instance,  V  2  is  an  irrational  number. 

Irrawa'di,  the  great  river  of  Farther  India, 
rises  on  the  borders  of  Thibet  ,  near  latitude  28°  N., 
anil  longitude  97°  E,  and  is  1,200  miles  long. 

Irrita'tion  is  the  term  applied  to  any  morbid 
excitement  of  the  vital  actions  not  amounting  to 
inflammation  ;  and  it  is  often,  but  not  always,  a 
cause  of  that  condition. 

Ir  vine,  the  county  seat  of  Estill  county.  Ivy. 
Pop.,  366. 

Irving,  Washington,  a  distinguished  Ameri¬ 
can  author,  was  born  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
April  3,  1783.  He  wrote  many  valuable  histori¬ 
cal  works  and  some  charming  bits  of  Action.  He 
died  Nov.  28,  1859. 

Irwinton,  the  county  seat  of  Wilkinson  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  264. 

Irwinville,  the  county  seat  of  Irwin  county, 
Ga. 

Isabella,  the  county  seat  of  Worth  count}7, 
Ga. 

Isaac  I..  Comnenus,  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 
was  the  first  of  the  family  of  the  Comueni  who 
attained  to  that  dignity.  '  He  began  his  reign  in 
1056  and  died  in  1061. 

Isabella  of  Castile,  Queen  of  Spain,  born 
April  23,  1451,  married  Ferdinand  V.,  surnamed 
“the  Catholic,”  King  of  Aragon.  During  her 
reign  Columbus  discovered  America.  She  died 
Nov.  26,  1504. 

Isabella  the  Catholic,  Order  of,  a  Spanish 
order  of  knighthood,  founded  by  Ferdinand  VII., 
in  1815,  as  a  reward  of  loyalty,  and  for  the  de¬ 
fense  of  the  possessions  of  Spanish  America. 

Isai'aii  (Ileb.  Teshayaliu,  salvation  of  God),  the 
most  sublime  of  the  Hebrew  prophets,  uttered  his 
oracles  in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  Aliaz, 
and  Hezekiali,  kings  of  Judah.  Regarding  his 
life,  almost  nothing  is  known. 

Igere,  a  department  in  the  Southeast  of  France, 
is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  the  River 
Rhone,  on  the  east  by  the  Department  of  Savoie, 
and  on  the  south  and  southeast  by  those  of  Drome 
and  Hautes-Alpes.  Area,  3,200  square  miles,  of 
which  nearly  a  half  is  in  arable  land,  and  a  fifth 
in  wood.  Pop.  (1881),  573,833. 

Isli'mael  (Heb.  Yishmael,  God  will  hear),  the 
first-born  of  Abraham,  by  Hagar,  the  Egyptian 
handmaid  of  his  wife  Sarah.  Expelled  from  his 
father’s  house,  along  with  his  mother,  when  he 
wasabout  the  age  of  fifteen,  he  went  into  the  south¬ 
ern  wilderness  where  he  grew  up  to  _ manhood, 
and  became  famous  as  an  archer.  Scripture  rep¬ 
resents  Ishmael  in  a  not  unfavorable  light,  and  it 
was  predicted  that  he  should  become  a  great 


ISIAC  TABLE. 


481 


IUKA. 


nation.  This  “great  nation”  is  commonly  be¬ 
lieved  to  be  the  Arabian. 

Is'iac  Table,  a  monument  much  esteemed  and 
quoted  by  archaeologists  previous  to  the  discovery 
of  hieroglyphics,  being  a  flat,  rectangular  bronze- 
plate,  inlaid  with  niello  and  silver,  about  4  feet 
8  inches  long,  by  3  feet  in  height.  It  was  sold  by 
a  soldier  of  the  Constable  de  Bourbon  to  a  lock¬ 
smith,  and  bought  of  the  same  by  Cardinal 
Bembo  in  1527,  passed  after  his  death  to  Modena, 
and  finally  to  Turin,  where  it  is  now  deposited. 
It  consists  of  three  rows  of  figures  of  Egyptian 
deities  and  emblems.  Its  object  was  supposed  to 
have  been  votive,  or  even  to  have  been  the  nativ¬ 
ity  of  the  Emperor  Trajan;  but  it  is  now  recog¬ 
nized  as  a  very  late  or  spurious  monument. 

Islipeming,  an  important  mining  and  manu¬ 
facturing  city  in  Marquette  county,  Mich.  Pop., 
10.000. 

I 'sis,  the  name  of  an  Egyptian  deity,  the  sister 
and  wife  of  Osiris,  called  by  that  people  lies, 
daughter  of  Seb  or  Chronos,  and  Nu  or  Rhea; 
according  to  other  versions,  of  Hermes  and  Rhea. 

Iskanderoon',  or  Alexandretta,  a  seaport 
of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  is  situ¬ 
ated  on  a  gulf  of  the  same  name,  sixty  miles  west- 
nortliwest  of  Aleppo,  of  which  it  is  the  port.  Pop. , 
1,000. 

IsTa  tie  Pi'nos,  an  island  of  800  square  miles 
and  900  inhabitants,  lying  off  the  south  coast  of 
Cuba,  pretty  nearly  on  the  meridian  of  the  capital, 
Havana. 

Islam,  or  Eslam  (Arab.),  the  proper  name  of 
the  Mohammedan  religion;  designating  complete 
and  entire  submission  of  body  and  soul  to  God, 
his  will,  and  his  service,  as  well  as  to  all  those 
articles  of  faith,  commands,  and  ordinances  re¬ 
vealed  to  and  ordained  by  Mohammed  the  prophet. 

Islands  of  the  Blessed  were,  according  to  a 
very  old  Greek  myth,  certain  happy  isles  situated 
toward  the  edge  of  the  Western  Ocean,  where  the 
favorites  of  the  gods,  rescued  from  death,  dwelt 
in  joy,  and  possessed  everything  in  abundance 
that  could  contribute  to  it. 

Is 'lay,  an  island  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland, 
belonging  to  the  group  of  the  Inner  Hebrides. 
Greatest  length,  24  miles;  greatest  breadth,  17 
miles;  area,  about  220  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
7,559. 

Isle  of  Wight,  the  county  seat  of  Isle  of  Wight 
county,  Va. 

Isobaromet'ric  Lines  (also  called  isobaric  lines, 
or  isobars )  connect  on  a  map  the  places  which 
exhibit  the  same  mean  difference  between  the 
monthly  extremes  of  the  barometer. 

Isoc'rates,  a  celebrated  Grecian  orator,  was 
born  at  Athens,  436  B.C.,  and  died  in  338  b.c. 

Isodynam'ic,  Isoclin'ic,  and  Isogon'ic  Lines 
(Gr.  zdoi,  isos,  equal,  Svvajuii,  dynamis,  force, 
kXivo,  klino,  to  bend,  yovia,  gonia,  an  angle), 
or  lines  of  equal  force,  equal  inclination,  and  equal 
declination,  are  three  systems  of  lines,  which, 
being  laid  down  on  maps,  represent  the  magnetism 
of  the  globe,  as  exhibited  at  the  earth’s  surface,  in 
three  classes  of  phenomena,  the  varying  intensity 
of  the  force,  the  varying  dip  or  inclination  of  the 
needle,  and  its  varying  declination  from  the  true 
meridian. 

Isom'erism  (Gr.  zdopeprji,  isomeres,  composed 
of  equal  parts),  a  term  applied  to  those  organic 
compounds  which  are  identical  in  their  ultimate 
or  percentage  composition,  but  present  differences 
in  their  chemical  properties. 

Isoniorph 'ism  (Gr.  idoi,  isos,  equal,  and 
I lopeps ,  morphe,  form)  strictly  signifies  similarity 
of  form,  but  it  is  now  restricted  by  chemists  to 
those  substances  which  are  not  only  similar  in 
their  crystalline  form,  but  are  also  analogous  in 
their  chemical  composition. 

Isop'oda  (Gr.  idol,  equal,  and  novZ,  a  foot), 
an  order  of  malacostracous  crustaceans,,  of  the 
section  Edriophthalma,  mostly  aquatic,  but  some 
terrestrial,  inhabiting  damp  places,  as  the  arma¬ 
dillo,  wood-louse,  etc. 

Isotherm 'ai  Lines  (Gr.  idol,  isos,  equal,  and 
l lepuoS ,  thermos,  warm)  are  lines  laid  down  on 
maps  to  connect  together  places  of  the  same  mean 
temperature. — Isotheral  Lines  (Gr.  Or.pos, 
theros,  summer)  are  those  which  connect  places  of 
equal  mean  summer  temperature. — Isocheimonal 
Lines  (Gr.  cheimon,  winter)  connect 

places  of  equal  mean  winter  temperature. 


Ispahan',  properly  Isfahan,  a  famous  city  of 
Persia,  capital  of  the  Province  of  Irak- Ajemi,  and 
formerly  capital  of  the  entire  country,  on  theZen- 
derud,  226  miles  south  of  Teheran ;  latitude,  32° 
40'  N.;  longitude,  51°  43'  E.  Pop.  estimated  at 
80,000. 

Ital'ian  Architecture.  This  term  is  usually 
limited  to  the  style  practiced  by  the  Italian  archi¬ 
tects  of  the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  and  which  has  since  been  adopted  in 
every  country  in  Europe.  Italian  architecture  is 


4 

o 


Library  of  St.  Mark's,  Ricardi  Palace,  Florence, 
Vgnice,  by  Sansovino.  by  Michelozzo. 


divided  into  three  styles  or  schools,  according  to 
the  places  where  it  was  practiced — viz.,  the  Flor¬ 
entine,  Roman,  and  Venetian.  The  Florentine 
buildings  are  massive,  and  grand  in  effect.  The 
Roman  school  resembles  the  ancient  Roman  build¬ 
ings — pilasters,  arcades,  etc.,  being  freely  used. 
The  Venetian  style  is  the  most  ornate  and  pictur¬ 
esque  of  the  Italian  schools. 

Ital'ic  Version  ( Veins  Itala),  the  name  given 
to  a  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  Latin, 
which  preceded  the  Vulgate. 

Italy  consists  of  a  considerable  stretch  of 
peninsular  mainland,  closely  resembling  a  boot 
in  shape,  besides  several  islands,  situated  in 
Southern  Europe,  between  latitude  36°  35' and 
47°  N.,  and  between  longitude  6°  35'  and  18°  35' 
E.  Its  boundaries  on  the  north  are  Austria  and 
Switzerland,  on  the  south  the  Mediterranean,  on 
the  west  France  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  on 
the  east  the  Ionian  and  Adriatic  Seas.  It  has  an 
area  of  about  110,000  square  miles,  and  by  the 
census  of  1881  had  a  pop.  of  28,452,639.  In 
1889  the  permanent  army  numbered  in  all,  up¬ 
ward  of  1,718,000  men.  The  fleet  comprised, 
in  1889,  seven  first-class  iron  clads,  each  carrying 
four  100  ton  guns — the  Italia,  Lepnito,  Duzlio, 
and  Dundolo,  amongst  the  largest  and  most  pow¬ 
erful  of  existing  war-ships;  also  fourteen  iron¬ 
clads  of  the  second  and  third  class,  and  some 
twenty  smaller  war-ships.  These,  with  the 
transports,  etc.,  were  manned  by  above  15,000 
men.  In  1889,  Italy  had  about  5,500  miles  of 
railway  in  operation,  besides  many  miles  in  con¬ 
struction.  There  were  3,200  post-offices,  and 
about  16,000  miles  of  telegraphs.  Prior  to  1859, 
Italy  had  been  the  scene  of  countless  revolutions 
and  invasions,  and  was  in  a  state  of  almost 
anarchy,  except  the  time  when  it  was  under  the 
domination  of  foreign  military  power.  From 
the  papal  dominion  it  was  make  a  republic,  only 
to  be  torn  asunder  by  internal  and  external  forces. 


In  1859,  the  first  real  progress  in  the  unification 
and  pacification  of  that  country  was  accom¬ 
plished  when  Victor  Emmanuel  succeeded  in 
driving  out  Austria,  and  ascended  the  throne  as 
King  of  Italy.  But  there  yet  remained  in  the 
midst  of  his  dominions  the  Papal  States  over 
which  the  Pope  claimed  sovereignty,  in  which 
claim  he  was  supported  by  French  troops.  In  1870 
the  Franco-German  War  compelled  the  with¬ 
drawal  of  the  French  soldiery,  and  King  Victor 
Emmanuel  at  once  took  possession  of  Rome  and 
the  last  of  the  Papal  States,  and  completed  the 
unification  of  his  kingdom.  Under  his  and  his 
successor’s  rule,  Italy  has  resumed  its  place  as 
one  of  the  great  powers  of  Europe. 

Itch  (known  also  as  Scabies  and  Psora)  is  a 
contagious  vesicular  disease  of  the  skin.  All 
parts  of  the  body,  unless  perhaps  the  head,  are 
liable  to  be  affected,  but  the  most  common  seats 
of  the  disease  are  the  wrists  and  hands,  and 
especially  between  the  fingers.  The  first  sign  of 
this  affection  is  an  itching  sensation,  which,  upon 
minute  examination,  is  found  to  proceed  from  a 
minute  conical  vesicle,  while  the  adjacent  portions 
of  epidermis  present  a  more  scaly  appearance 
than  is  natural.  This  condition  of  the  skin  is 
due  to  the  presence  of  a  minute  acarus,  the  Itch- 
mite,  which  burrows  within  the  epidermis,  and 
excites  the  cutaneous  irritation.  The  affected 
parts  itch  with  increased  intensity  when  the 
patient  is  warm  in  bed,  or  after  the  use  of  stimu¬ 
lating  drinks  or  exciting  condiments;  and  as  he 
can  not  refrain  from  scratching  himself,  the  vesi¬ 
cles  get  more  or  less  broken,  and  become  inter¬ 
spersed  with  numerous  little  bloody  points.  The 
great  remedy  is  sulphur,  which  may  be  regarded 
as  a  specific.  In  the  case  of  an  adult,  four 
ouncesof  sulphur  ointment  should  be  well  rubbed 
into  the  entire  skin  before  the  fire,  and  particu¬ 
larly  into  the  affected  portions,  morning  and 
evening,  for  two  days.  It  is  desirable  also  that 
the  patient  should  wear  a  flannel  shirt,  and  retain 
the  same  during  the  whole  of  the  treatment.  On 
the  morning  of  the  third  day,  the  patient  should 
take  a  warm  bath,  and  wash  the  skin  thoroughly 
with  plenty  of  soap,  when  the  cure  wdl  generally 
be  found  to  be  effected. 

Itch-mite  (Acarus  scahiei  or  Sarcopies  scabiei), 
the  parasite  which  causes  itch.  The  adult  female 
mite  is  considerably  larger  than  the  male;  it 
forms  a  roundish,  grayish-white  corpuscle;  it  is 
about  f  of  a  line  in  length,  and  £  in  breadth. 
When  seen  under  the  microscope,  it  presents  a 
truncated  tortoise-like  shape,  and  is  seen  to  be 
studded  with  hairs  and  bristles.  The  head  term- 


1,  abdominal  view  of  female  itcli-mite,  magnified  65  diam¬ 
eters;  2,  one  of  its  mandibles,  magnified  65  diameters; 

3.  mandible  of  male  sugar-mite,  magnified  390  diam¬ 
eters. 

inates  in  two  pairs  of  mandibles,  and  as  these 
mandibles  afford  good  characteristic  distinctions 
of  the  species,  representations  are  given  of  the 
mandible  in  the  female  itch-mite,  and  of  the  man¬ 
dible  in  the  sugar-mite. 

Ithaca  (now  Tiiiaki),  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands, 
seventeen  miles  west  of  the  mainland  of  Greece. 
Pop.  of  Ithaca,  10,000. 

Ithaca,  a  city  in  the  State  of  New  York,  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  Cayuga  Lake,  142  miles 
west-by-south  of  Albany.  Pop.  (1880),  9,105. 

Ithaca,  county  seat  of  Gratiot  county,  Mich. 
Pop.,  2,000. 

I uka,  county  seat  of  Pratt  county,  Kan.  Pop., 
257. 

I  uka,  county  scat  of  Tishomingo  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  845.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  battle 
during  the  Civil  War. 


31 


IVAN. 


482 


JACOBITES. 


I 'van,  or  I 'wan  (the  Russian  form  of  John), 
the  name  of  a  number  of  Russian  Czars.— Ivan  I. 
(1463-1505)  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of 
the  Russian  Empire.  He  was  at  first  only  Grand 
Duke  of  Moscow,  but  succeeded  in  shaking  off 
entirely  the  yoke  of  the  Tartars,  and  in  subject¬ 
ing  a  number  of  the  Russian  principalities  to  bis 
own  sway. — Ivan  II.  (1533-1584)  did  much  for 
the  advancement  of  his  country  in  arts  and  com¬ 
merce,  as  well  as  for  its  extension  by  arms. — 
Ivan  III.,  born  Aug.  23, 1740,  murdered  in  1764. 

I'vory  was  the  name  formerly  given  to  the 
main  substance  of  the  teeth  of  all  animals,  but  it 
is  now  restricted  to  that  modification  of  dentine 
or  tooth-substance'  which  in  transverse  sections 
shows  lines  of  different  colors  running  in  circular 
arcs,  and  forming  by  their  decussation  minute 
lozenge-shaped  spaces.  By  this  character,  which 
is  presented  by  every  portion  of  any  transverse 
section  of  an  elephant’s  tusk,  true  ivory  may  be 
distinguished  from  every  other  kind  of  tooth- 
substance,  and  from  every  counterfeit,  whether 
derived  from  tooth  or  bone.  Although  no  other 
teeth,  except  those  of  the  elephant,  present  this 


characteristic,  many  other  animals,  such  as  the 
walrus,  narwhal,  hippopotamus,  etc.,  possess 
teeth,  horns,  or  tusks,  which,  from  their  large 
size  and  from  their  density,  can  be  used  for  the 
same  purposes  in  the  arts  as  those  for  which  true 
ivory  is  employed.  The  ivory  of  the  tusks  of 
the  African  elephant  is  held  in  the  highest  esti¬ 
mation  by  the  manufacturer,  on  account  of  its 
greater  density  and  whiteness.  The  tusks  are  of 
all  sizes,  from  a  few  ounces  in  weight  to  more 
than  170  pounds  each.  Holtzapffel  statesthat  he 
has  seen  fossil  tusks  from  the  banks  of  the  rivers 
of  Northern  Siberia  which  weighed  186  pounds 
each.  There  are  various  chemical  processes  by 
which  it  may  be  dyed  of  various  colors,  as  black, 
blue,  green,  yellow,  red,  and  violet.  Ivory  articles 
can  be  made  flexible  and  semi-transparent  by 
immersion  in  a  solution  of  phosporic  acid  of  sp. 
gr.  1.130,  till  they  become  translucent. 

Ivory,  Vegetable.  This  curious  material  is 
furnished  by  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all 
the  palm  tribe  (Phytelephas  macrocarpa).  It 
grows  on  the  Andean  plains  of  Peru,  and  other 
parts  of  South  America. 


Ivy  ( Heeler  a ), 
natural  order 
Araliacece.  The 
common  ivy 
(//.  he  li  .?■)  is  a 
well-known  native 
of  most  parts  of 
Europe.  Its  long, 
creeping, branched 
stem,  climbing  on 
trees  and  walls  to 
a  great  height,  and 
closely  adhering 
even  to  very  hard 
substau  ces  by 
means  of  rootlets 
which  it  throws 
out  in  great  abun¬ 
dance  along  its 
whole  length, 
acquires  in  very 
aged  plants  almost 
the  thickness  of  a 
small  tree. 


Ivy,  showing  the  Eootlets. 


Tis  the  tenth  letter  in  our  alphabet,  has  in 
English  the  power  of  dzh;  in  Fr.,  of  zh;  and 
in  Ger.  of  y.  Both  the  sound  and  the  character 
have  sprung  out  of  the  original  vowel  i.  The 
character  has  been  adopted  in  the  modern 
Teutonic  and  Romanic  languages.  The  Italian 
represents  the  sibilant  sound  of  j  by  gi  or  ggi,  as 
Giovanni ,  from  Lat.  Johannes  ;  maggiore,  from 
Lat.  maior.  In  Span,  it  has  a  guttural  power, 
and  is  interchangeable  with  x,  as  Xeres,  or  , lores. 

J ab'iru  (Mycteria),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
same  family  with  storks  and  adjutants,  are 


widely  distributed  in  South  America,  Africa, 
and  Australia. 

Jac'aua  (Parra),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order 
Grallee,  com¬ 
monly  ranked 
in  the  family 
Rallidas,  natives 
of  the  war m 
parts  of  Asia  and 
the  Asiatic 
islands,  Africa, 
and  South 
America. 

Jacara  n'd  a 
Wood,  a  very 
hard,  heavy, 
brown  wood,  also 
called  rosewood, 
from  its  faint 
agreeable  smell 
of  roses.  It  is 
brought  from 
South  America. 

Jack,  Jak,  or 
Jaca  ( Artocarpus 
intcgrifolia).  a  Common  Jacana  (Parra  jacana.) 
tree  of  the  same  genus  with  the  bread-fruit,  a 
native  of  the  East  Indies. 

Jack'al  (corrupted  from  Sp.  and  Fr.  chacal), 
the  common  name  of  a  number  of  species  and 


J 


varieties  of  the  dog  genus,  abounding  in  many 
parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  They  agree  in  all  their 


most  important  characters  with  wolves  and  dogs, 
and  many  naturalists  suppose  that  some  of  the 
domestic  varieties  of  dogs  are  of  jackal  parentage. 

Jack 'ass.  Laughing  (Dacelo  giganteci),  a  bird 
of  the  kingfisher  family.  It  is  common  in  Aus¬ 
tralia,  and  has  received  its  English  name  from 
I  he  colonists,  on  account  of  the  peculiar  sounds 
which  it  utters. 

Jack 'daw  ( Conus  monedula),  a  species  of 
crow,  smaller  than  the  rook  and  carrion  crow.  It 
is  plentiful  in  some  parts  of  Continental  Europe, 
Asia,  and  the  North  of  Africa. 

Jacksboro,  the  county  town  of  Campbell 
county  Tenn.  Pop.,  300. 

Jacksborough,  the  county  town  of  Jack 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  450. 

Jackson,  the  name  of  several  towns  and  cities 
in  the  United  States  as  follows:— 1.  The  county 
seat  of  Amador  county,  Cal.  Pop.,  1,040.-3. 
The  county  town  of  Breathitt  county,  Ivy.  Pop., 
200. — 3  The  county  seat  of  Butts  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  1,510. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Cape  Girard¬ 
eau  county.  Mo.  Pop.,  846. — 5.  The  county  seat 
of  Jackson  county,  Minn.  Pop.,  608. — 6.  The 
county  seat  of  Jackson  county,  Ohio.  Pop., 
4,500. — 7.  The  county  seat  of  Jackson  county, 
W.  Va  Pop.,  614. — 8.  The  county  sent  of  Madi¬ 
son  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  5,377. — 9.  The  county 
seat  of  Northampton  county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  300.— 

10.  Capital  of  the  State  of  Mississippi,  is  situated 
on  a  plain  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Pearl  river. 
Here,  in  average  years,  from  30,000  to  40,000 
bales  of  cotton  are  shipped.  Pop.  (1870),  4,234. — 

11.  A  flourishing  city  in  the  State  of  Michigan,  is 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Grand  river,  seventy-six 
miles  west  of  Detroit,  and  thirty-five  miles  south 
of  Lansing,  at  the  intersection  of  six  railways. 
Pop.  (1880),  42,031. 

Jackson,  Andiiew,  General  and  seventh  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  United  States  of  America,  was  born 
at  Waxliaw  settlement,  S.  C.,  March  15,  1767. 
In  1784  he  commenced  the  study  of  the  law,  and 
in  1787  was  appointed  Solicitor  for  the  Western 
District  of  South  Carolina,  now  the  State  of  Ten¬ 
nessee.  In  1813,  at  an  outbreak  of  hostilities 
wi'h  the  Creek  Indians,  he  raised  a  volunteer 
force  of  two  or  three  thousand  men,  and  defeated 
them.  He  was  appointed  a  Major-General  of  the 


Army  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the  contem 
poraneous  war  with  England  had  command  of  the 
forces  which  captured  Pensacola,  and  defended 
New  Orleans  against  the  attack  of  the  British 
j  under  General  Packenliam,  Decemb'  r,  1814.  In 
1824  he  received  the  highest  vote  of  four  candi¬ 
dates  for  the  Presidency  of  the  United  States,  but 
by  the  influence  of  Mr.  Clay,  John  Quincy  Adams 
was  elected  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  He 
was,  however,  elected  by  the  Democratic  party 
in  1828,  and  in  1832  reflected  by  a  still  larger 
majority.  His  administration,  as  a  whole,  was 
successful.  He  died  at  his  farm  of  the  Hermit¬ 
age,  near  Nashville,  June  8,  1845. 

Jackson,  Thomas  J.,  a  Confederate  General, 
better  known  as  “  Stonewall  Jackson,”  was  born 
in  Virginia  in  1824  He  graduated  from  West 
Point,  served  through  the  Mexican  War,  resigned 
the  army  and  became  Professor  of  Mathematics 
in  Lexington  Military  Institute,  Va.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  War  of  Secession  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  a  Brigadier-General  in  the  Confederate 
Army.  His  nom  de  guerre  of  “Stonewall”  was 
occasioned  by  the  firmness  of  his  brigade  at  the 
Battle  of  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861.  He  defeated 
the  Northern  forces  at  Ball’s  Bluff,  and  outgen¬ 
eraled  and  defeated  the  Federal  commanders  in 
the  Virginia  campaign  of  1862,  after  which  he  led 
the  invasion  of  Maryland,  and  captured  Harper’s 
Ferry.  He  died  of  wounds  supposed  to  have 
been  inflicted  unintentionally  by  his  own  men  at 
Chancvllorsville,  May  9, 1863. 

Jacksonport,  the  county  seat  of  Jackson 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  850. 

Jacksonville,  t lie  name  of  several  cities  and 
towns  in  the  United  States: — 1.  A  flourishing 
city  of  Duval  county,  Fla. ;  it  is  a  popular  winter 
resort  for  Northern  people.  Pop.,  19, 800. — 2  The 
county  seat  of  Calhoun  county,  Ala.  Pop.,  1,200. 
— 3.  County  seat  of  Jackson  county.  Ore. 
Pop.,  1,200. — 4.  A  growing  city  of  Morgan 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  15,000. — 5.  The  county  seat 
of  Onslow  county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  120. 

Ja'cob,  one  of  the  three  chief  Hebrew  patri¬ 
archs.  He  was  the  second  son  of  Isaac  and 
Rebekah. 

Jac'obins,  the  members  of  a  political  club  which 
exercised  a  great  influence  during  the  French 
Revolution.  It  met  in  a  hall  of  the  former  Jaco¬ 
bin  convent  in  Paris,  whence  it  received  the  name 
of  the  Jacobin  Club.  When  the  National  Assembly 
dissolved  itself  in  September,  1791,  the  election 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly  was  mainly  accom¬ 
plished  under  the  influence  of  the  Jacobin  Club. 
All  the  great  events  which  followed  in  rapid  suc¬ 
cession  were  determined  by  the  voice  of  the  club. 
It  reached  the  zenith  of  its  power  when  the 
National  Convention  met  in  September,  1792. 
But  the  overthrow  of  Robespierre  on  the  9th 
Thermidor,  1794,  gave  also  the  death-blow  to  the 
Jacobin  Club. 

Jacobites,  in  Church  History,  is  the  common 
name  of  the  Oriental  sect  of  Monophysites,  but  it 


JACOBITES. 


483 


JAPAN. 


belongs  more  especially  to  the  Monophysites  of 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Chaldea. 

Jacobites  (from  Jacobus,  the  Latin  form  of 
James),  the  name  given  to  the  adherents  of  the 
male  line  of  the  House  of  Stuart  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  after  the  Revolution  of  1688. 

Ja'cob’s  Ladder,  on  shipboard,  is  a  short  rope- 
ladder  with  wooden  steps,  to  give  easy  access  to 
the  shrouds  and  tops. — It  is  also  the  name  of  an 
apparatus  for  raising  light  weights  a  considerable 
height 

Jacob’s  Ladder  ( Polemonium  cceruleum),  a  her¬ 
baceous  perennial  plant  of  the  natural  order  Pole- 
moniacecB.  common  in  the  Center  and  South  of 
Europe,  found  also  in  the  temperate  parts  of 
Asia  and  of  North  America. 

Jacquerie,  the  name  given  to  the  insurgent 
peasants  in  France  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  in  the  reign  of  John. 

Jaen,  a  province  of  Spain,  area,  5,184  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1877),  422,972. 

Jagel'lons,  The,  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
dynasty  which  reigned  in  Lithuania,  Poland, 
Hungary,  and  Bohemia. 

Jaggernaut',  or  Jaggernaut  Puri,  or  Puri, 
is  the  name  of  a  town  in  Orissa  (85°  54'  longitude, 
and  19°  45'  latitude),  celebrated  as  one  of  the 
chief  places  of  pilgrimage  in  India.  It  owes  its 
reputation  to  a  temple  erected  there  in  honor  of 
Vishnu,  and  containing  an  idol  of  this  Hindu 
god,  called  Jaggernaut .  The  car  festival,  when 
Jagannatha  is  dragged  in  his  car  on  a  yearly 
visit  to  his  country  quarters,  is  currently  believed 
to  be  the  occasion  of  numerous  cases  of  self- 
immolation,  the  frantic  devotees  committing 
suicide  by  throwing  themselves  before  the  wheels 
of  the  heavy  car.  This  is,  it  would  appear,  a 
calumny  of  English  writers. 

Jaguar'  ( Fdis  onga),  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
cat  tribe,  and  by  far  the  most  powerful  of  the 
American  beasts  of  prey.  The  head  is  large,  the 
body  thick,  and  the  limbs  robust;  the  tail  is  long, 


Jaguar  (Fdis  on(a). 

and  of  equal  thickness  throughout.  The  color 
varies  considerably,  but  is  usually  a  rich  yellow, 
with  large  black  spots  and  rings,  small  black 
spots  generally  appearing  within  the  rings. 

Jail  Fever  is  now  considered  to  be  merely  a 
severe  form  of  typhus  fever,  and  not  a  distinct 
disease.  At  the  present  time,  owing  to  improved 
sanitary  regulations,  this  form  of  disease  is 
almost  unknown. 

Jai'  nas  is  the  name  of  a  heterodox  sect  of  the 
Hindus,  numerous  adherents  of  which  are  found 
in  every  province  of  Upper  Hindustan. 

Jakutsk'  ( Yakoots/c),  chief  town  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  that  name  in  Eastern  Siberia.  It  is  situ¬ 
ated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  River  Lena,  latitude 
62°  1'  N.,  longitude  129°  44'  E.;  distance  from 
St.  Petersburg,  5,751  miles;  pop.  (18G7),  4,982; 
(1880),  4,778.  The  recently  organized  Govern¬ 
ment  of  Jakutsk  has  an  area  of  1,511,228  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  242,000. 

Jamai'ca,  aboriginally  Xaymaea,  or  land  of 
wood  and  water,  one  of  the  West  India  Islands, 
and  by  far  the  most  important  of  those  belonging 
to  Great  Britain,  is  about  ninety  miles  to  the  south 
of  Cuba,  and  stretches  in  N.  latitude  between  17° 
40'  and  18°  .3 O',  and  in  W.  longitude  between 
76°  15'  and  78°  25'.  Area,  6,400  square  miles, 
greatest  length,  150  miles;  greatest  breadth,  50 
miles.  Pop.,  580,804. 

Jamaica,  the  county  scat  of  Queens  county, 
N.  Y.  Pop.,  3,922. 

Jala'pa,  a  city  in  the  Mexican  Confederation, 
is  second  in  importance  among  the  towns  of  the 
State  of  Vera  Cruz.  Pop.,  about  12,000. 


Jal'ap,  a  well-known  purgative  medicine,  is 
the  root  of  Exoyo- 
nium  purga,  a  plant 
of  the  natural  order 
Convolvulacece.  It  is 
found  in  Mexico. 

The  ordinary  dose 
of  powdered  jalap 
for  an  adult  varies 
from  ten  to  thirty 
grains,  a  scruple 
generally  acting 
smartly  and  safely; 
for  children  under 
a  year  old  the  dose 
is  from  twro  to  five 
grains.  The  dose  of 
the  compound  pow¬ 
der  is  double  that  of 
the  ordinary  pow¬ 
der.  The  tincture 
of  jalap,  in  the  dose 
of  one  or  two 
drachms,  is  a  use¬ 
ful  addition  to  the 
o  r  d  i  n  ary  b  la  c  k- 
draught  when  it  is 
desired  to  increase 
its  activity. 

J ames  I.,  King  of  Scotland  (1406-1437),  was  the 
second  sou  of  Robert  III.,  by  Annabella  Drum¬ 
mond,  daughter  of  Sir  John  Drummond  of  Stob- 
liall.  lie  was  captured  by  the  English,  and  held 
for  a  number  of  years,  but  released  on  a  ran¬ 
som.  lie  ascended  the  throne  in  1424,  and  was 
murdered  in  1437.  James  was  unquestionably  the 
most  able  of  the  Stuart  family.  Both  his  intel¬ 
lectual  and  practical  ability  were  of  a  very  high 
order. 

James  II.,  King  of  Scotland  (1437-1 460),  was  the 
son  of  James  I.  and  Queen  Joanna,  and  was  born 
in  1430.  He  was  crowned  at  Edinburgh,  when  in 
the  sixth  year  of  his  age.  He  died  in  1460,  in  the 
twenty-ninth  year  of  his  age,  and  twenty-fourth 
of  his  reign. 

James  III.,  King  of  Scotland  (1460-1488),  was 
the  son  of  James  II.  and  Mary  of  Gueldresl 
and  was  born  in  1453.  He  was  murdered  in  1489. 

James  IV.,  King  of  Scotland  (1488-1513),  was 
the  son  of  James  III.  and  Margaret  of  Denmark, 
and  was  born  March  17,  1472.  He  died  in  the 
forty -first  year  of  his  age,  and  twenty-sixth  of  his 
reign. 

James  V.,  King  of  Scotland  (1513-1542),  was 
the  son  of  James  IV.  and  Margaret  of  England. 
He  was  born  at  Linlithgow,  April  10,  1512.  lie 
died  Dec.  13,  1542,  seven  days  after  the  birth  of 
his  unfortunate  daughter  Mary,  in  the  thirty -first 
year  of  his  age,  and  thirtieth  of  his  reign. 

James  I.  of  England  and  VI.  of  Scotland 
(1567  [England  1603]— 1 625),  only  son  of  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  and  Henry  Lord  Darnley,  was 
born  within  the  Castle  of  Edinburgh,  June  19, 
1566.  By  the  death  of  Elizabeth,  in  1603,  James 
succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England.  He  soon 
became  unpopular  with  his  new  subjects.  The 
anger  of  the  Roman  Catholics  at  the  severities 
used  toward  them  was  the  cause  of  the  famous 
Gunpowder  Plot.  James  died  March  27,  1625. 
He  was  aptly  termed  by  Sully  “  the  wisest  fool  in 
Christendom.” 

James  II.  of  England  and  VII.  of  Scotland, 
was  born  Oct.  15,  1633.  In  1643,  he  was  created 
Duke  of  York.  In  1648,  during  the  Civil  War, 
he  went  to  France,  and  served  in  the  French 
army,  and  later  in  the  Spanish  army.  At  the 
Restoration,  he  was  made  Lord  High  Admiral  of 
England.  In  1673  he  resigned  office.  In  1680, 
he  was  made  Governor  of  Scotland,  and  on  the 
death  of  Charles  I L,  Feb.  6,  1685,  succeeded  to 
the  crown.  On  June  29,  1688,  William,  Prince 
of  Orange,  was  invited  by  seven  prominent  noble¬ 
men  to  occupy  the  throne  of  England.  On 
November  5th,  William  landed  at  Torbay  with 
14,000  men.  James,  finding  himself  deserted  by 
the  nobility,  gentry,  and  army,  retired  to  France. 
Early  in  March  in  the  following  year,  he  made  an 
attempt  to  regain  his  throne  by  invading  Ireland 
with  a  small  army,  with  which  he  had  been  fur¬ 
nished  by  the  King  of  France;  he  was  defeated  at 
the  Battle  of  the  Boyne,  July  1,  1690.  He  re¬ 


turned  to  France,  continuing  to  reside  at  St. 
Germain’s  till  his  death,  Sept.  6,  1701. 

James,  Henry,  Jr.,  an  American  novelist, 
was  born  in  New  York  in  1843.  His  works, 
which  mainly  deal  with  the  uneventful  lives  of 
Americans  traveling  in  Europe,  are  novels  of 
character  rather  than  of  incident. 

James  River,  an  important  stream,  rises  in 
Virginia,  and  flows  east-southeast  into  the  Atlantic. 
It  is  450  miles  in  length,  and  is  navigable  150 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Its  chief  tributaries  are 
the  Appomattox  and  the  Chickahominy,  made 
historical  by  the  battles  of  1862.  It  was  at  James¬ 
town,  thirty-two  miles  from  the  mouth  of  this 
river,  that  the  first  English  settlement  in  America 
was  formed,  1607. 

James'town,  a  city  in  New  York,  fifty-eight 
miles  southwest  of  Buffalo,  on  Chautauqua  Lake, 
and  near  Lake  Erie.  It  has  a  large  trade  and  con¬ 
siderable  manufactures.  Pop.,  13,200, 

James’  Bay,  a  southerly  arm  of  Hudson’s  Bay, 
extends  in  latitude  from  51°  to  55°  N.,  and  in 
longitude  from  79°  to  82°  30'  W. 

James’  Palace,  St.,  a  large  brick  structure  in 
London,  succeeded  Whitehall  as  the  London  resi¬ 
dence  of  the  British  sovereigns,  and  remained  as 
such  from  William  III.  to  Victoria.  It  was  re¬ 
constructed  and  made  a  manor  by  Henry  VIII., 
having  before  been  a  hospital  dedicated  to  St. 
James. — St.  James’ Park  lies  southward  from  the 
palace,  and  extends  over  eiglity-seven  acres.  On 
the  outskirts  of  the  park  are  situated  the  Buck¬ 
ingham  and  St.  James’  Palaces,  Stafford  House, 
Marlborough  House,  etc. 

Jamestown,  the  county  seat  of  Fentress  county, 
Tenu.,  is  an  old  landmark  and  has  many  points  of 
interest  to  travelers. 

Jamestown,  the  county  seat  of  Russell  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  250. 

Jamestown,  the  county  seat  of  Stutsman 
county,  North  Dak.,  is  an  important  agricultural 
and  manufacturing  city,  and  at  this  time  a  prom¬ 
inent  candidate  for  the  capital  of  the  new  State. 

Janes'ville,  a  city,  and  the  county  seat  of 
Rock  county,  Wis.,  on  both  sides  of  Rock  river, 
forty-five  miles  south-southeast  of  Madison.  There 
is  a  large  water-power  for  many  mills  and  facto¬ 
ries,  and  a  State  asylum  for  the  blind.  Founded 
in  1836,  it  had,  in  1885,  a  pop.  of  10,000. 

Ja'nina,  or  Joannina,  a  city  of  Turkey  and 
capital  of  a  vilayet,  stands  on  a  lake  of  the  same 
name,  forty  miles  inland  from  the  shore  opposite 
the  island  of  Corfu.  Pop.,  25,000. 

Janizaries,  a  Turkish  military  force,  originally 
formed  by  the  Osmanli  sultan,  Orkhan,  about  1330, 
and  which  at  one  time  numbered  about  60,000. 
In  time  the  organization  grew  so  arrogant  and 
committed  so  many  assassinations  and  other 
atrocities  that  it  was  finally,  in  1826,  dissolved  by 
force,  15,000  of  the  men  being  shot,  and  20,000 
banished. 

Jan  Mayen’s  Land,  an  island  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  between  Iceland  and  Spitsbergen. 

Jantlii'na,  a  genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusks, 
of  the  order  Seutibranchiata,  and  of  the  same 
family  with  ear-shells.  The  shell  is  similar  to 
that  of  a  common  snail.  They  inhabit  the  open 
ocean,  and  swim  at  the  surface  of  the  water  by 
means  of  a  float  containing  air. 

Januarius,  St.,  a  martyr  of  the  Christian  faith 
under  Diocletian,  was  a  native  of  Benevento,  and 
became  Bishop  of  that  see  in  the  third  century. 

Januarius,  St.,  Orderof,  anorderof  knight¬ 
hood,  founded  by  King  Charles  of  Sicily  (after¬ 
ward  King  Charles  of  Spain)  on  July  6,  1738. 
The  badge  is  a  gold  octagonal  white  and  red 
enameled  cross  with  gold  lilies  in  the  upper  and 
side  angles. 

January,  the  first  month  of  the  year,  was, 
among  the  Romans,  held  sacred  to  Janus,  from 
whom  it  derived  its  name. 

Janus  and  Jana,  two  old  Latin  divinities,  male 
and  female,  whose  names  are  merely  different 
forms  of  Dianus  and  Luna  (the  sun  and  moon). 

Japan  (Nihon  or  Nippon,  i.e.,  land  of  the 
rising  sun),  an  ancient  island  empire  of  East- 
tern  Asia,  now  claiming  special  consideration  on 
account  both  of  its  recently  renewed  relations 
with  the  civilized  world  and  of  the  changes  that 
have  lately  been  in  progress  in  the  country.  The 
name  Japan  is  a  corruption  of  Marco  Polo’s  Zip- 
angu,  The  empire  comprehends  four  large 


Jalap  ( Exogonium  purga). 


JAPANNING. 


484 


JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE. 


islands,  Konshin,  Shikoku,  Kinsshiu,  and  Yezo, 
and  extends  from  31°  to  45°  30'  N.  latitude.  The 
total  area  is  about  150,000  square  miles,  and  in¬ 
cludes  nearly  4,000  small  islands,  among  which 
are  the  Liu  Kiu  (Loo  Choo)  and  Kurile  groups, 
and  is  between  24° — 50°  40'  N.  latitude,  and 
124° — 156°  38'  E.  longitude.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Sea  of  Okotsk,  on  the  east  by  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Eastern 
Sea  of  China,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Sea  of  Japan. 
In  1880  the  pop.  of  Japan  was  34,358,404,  The 
islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  principally  mount¬ 
ainous,  but  with  many  broad,  fertile  valleys.  The 
area  of  forest  is  about  four  times  that  of  cultivated 
land.  The  climate  is  variable,  owing  to  the  great 
extent  of  the  country  and  to  varying  altitudes, 
but  is,  in  the  main,  temperate  and  equable.  Agri¬ 
culture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  natives,  and 
the  principal  productions  of  the  soil  are  tea,  cot¬ 
ton,  rice,  wheat,  corn,  buckwheat,  potatoes,  tur¬ 
nips,  beans,  peas,  etc.  The  minerals  found  in 
this  country  are  gold,  silver,  iron,  lead,  sulphur, 
coal,  granite,  amber,  alum,  etc.  The  inhabitants 
are  ranked  by  different  ethnologists  as  Turanians, 
Malays,  Chinese,  and  Tartars.  The  Government 
is  an  absolute  sovereignty,  with  the  Mikado  at 
its  head.  He  administers  his  affairs  through  a 
supreme  council,  consisting  of  a  premier,  vice 
premier,  and  the  heads  of  the  great  depart¬ 
ments  of  state.  Below  this  a  legislative  coun¬ 
cil  of  eminent  men,  under  the  presidency  of 
an  imperial  prince,  lias  the  power  of  elaborat¬ 
ing  the  laws  determined  upon  by  the  supreme 
council,  but  can  not  initiate  any  legislative  meas¬ 
ure  without  its  consent.  There  is  also  an  assem¬ 
bly  of  provincial  governors,  but  it  meets  but 
seldom,  and  is  purely  consultative.  The  chief 
departments  of  state  are ;  Foreign  affairs, 
finance,  war,  marine,  education,  public  works, 
justice,  colonization'  of  Yezo,  imperial  house¬ 
hold,  and  the  interior.  Japan  is  making  rapid 
progress  of  late  in  education,  the  mechanical 
arts,  and  in  commerce. 

Japanning  is  the  art  of  coating  with  varnish 
and  other  materials  certain  iron  or  tin  articles  in 
imitation  of  the  lacquered  wares  of  Japan  and 
China.  Japanning  material  consists  of  anime  or 
copal  varnish,  alone  or  mixed  with  ivory-black, 
to  produce  a  black  japan;  or  with  asphalt  to 
produce  a  dark  or  light-brown,  according  to  the 
quantity  used. 

Japhct,  according  to  Llebrew  record,  was  one 
of  the  sons  of  Noah,  whose  descendants  peopled 
first  the  North  and  West  of  Asia,  after  which 
they  proceeded  to  occupy  the  region  about  the 
Levant  and  the  ffigean  Sea. 

Jaroslav,  Government  Of,  one  of  the  central 
provinces  of  European  Russia,  area  about  14,000 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1880),  1,052,000. 

Jaroslav,  capital  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  is  on  the  Volga,  in  latitude  57°  37'  N., 
longitude  39°  53'  E.  Pop.  (1880),  30,300. 

Jasmine,  or  Jessamine  (Jasminum),  a  genus 
of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Jasminaceat.  This 
order  is  allied  to  Oleacece,  and  contains  about  one 
hundred  species  of  shrubs,  many  of  them  having 
equisitely  fragrant  flowers. 

Jasper,  a  mineral  generally  regarded  as  one  of 
the  varieties  of  quartz,  and  distinguished  by  its 
opacity,  owing  to  a  mixture  of  clay  or  other  sub¬ 
stances  with  the  silica  of  which  it  is  chiefly  com¬ 
posed.  Jasper  is  of  various  colors,  as  brown,  red, 
yellow,  green,  white,  blue,  or  black,  and  some  is 
striped,  spotted,  or  clouded.  It  takes  a  high 
polish. 

Jasper,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the  United 
States: — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Duboiscounty,  Ind. 
Pop.,  1,800. — 2.  The  county  seat  of  Hamilton 
county,  Fla,  Pop.,  350. — 3.  The  county  seat  of 
Jasper  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  400. — 4.  The  county 
seat  of  Marion  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  1,014. — 5. 
The  county  seat  of  Newton  county,  Ark.  Pop., 
250. — 6.  The  county  seat  of  Pickens  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  200. — 7.  The  county  seat  of  Walker  county, 
Ala,  Pop., 1,400 

Jassy,  the  capital  of  Moldavia,  the  northern 
division  of  Roumania,  is  about  ten  miles  west  of 
Pruth.  Pop.,  90,000. 

Jaundice,  a  yellow  color  of  the  skin  and  con¬ 
junctiva  of  the  eye,  arising  from  the  presence 
of  the  coloring  matter  of  the  bile  in  the  blood  and 
tissues,  is  a  symptom  of  various  disordered  con¬ 


ditions  of  the  system  rather  than  a  special  disease. 
With  this  coloring  of  the  skin  and  eyes  the  fol¬ 
lowing  symptoms  are  associated  :  The  Luces  are 
of  a  grayish  dirty-white  tint,  in  consequence  of 
the  absence  of  bile,  and  the  urine  is  of  the  color 
of  saffron,  or  is  even  as  dark  as  porter,  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  presence  of  the  coloring  matter  of 
bile.  There  is  sometimes,  but  not  always,  an 
itching  of  the  skin.  The  treatmentmust  be  chiefly 
guided  by  reference  to  the  conditions  which  give 
rise  to  it  in  any  particular  case,  and  should  never 
be  attempted  without  professional  advice. 

Java,  a  colonial  possession  of  the  Netherlands, 
is  in  latitude  5°  2' — 8°  50'  S.,  and  longitude  105° 
12' — 114°  39'  E.  It  is  washed  on  the  north  by  the 
Sea  of  Java,  on  the  east  by  the  Strait  of  Bali,  on 
the  south  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Strait  of  Sunda;  area,  about  50,200  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1880),  (with  Madura),  19,350,000. 
Rice,  sugar,  coffee,  tea,  indigo,  and  tobacco  are 
the  principal  products  of  the  soil. 

Javelin,  a  short,  light  spear  with  which  the 
Roman  legions  were  armed,  and  which  they  used 
for  darting  against  an  enemy. 

Jay,  John,  an  American  statesman  and  jurist; 
the  first  Chief  Justice  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court,  was  born  in  New  York  city,  Dec. 
12,  1745.  He  was  a  member  of  Congress  in 
1778,  and  Minister  to  Spain  in  1779;  Washington 
offered  him  the  choice  of  offices  in  his  gift,  and 
Jay  chose  that  of  Chief  Justice;  he  resigned  and 
became  Governor  of  New  York,  and  in  1794  Min¬ 
ister  to  England.  He  died  May  17,  1829. 

Jay  (Garndus),  a  genus  of  the  crow  family. 
They  are  inhabitants  of  the  wooded  parts  of  this 
country  and  of  the  temperate  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  The  common  jay  ( G .  glandarius)  is  a 
native  of  England  and  Scotland.  The  blue  jay 
{G.  cristatus)  is  abundant  from  the  Gulf  of  Mex¬ 
ico  to  Canada.  The  Canada  jay  ( G .  canadensis) 
is  a  more  northern  species. 

Jefferson,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States  : — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Greene 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  1,800. — 2.  The  county  seat 
of  Jackson  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  700. —  3.  The 
county  seat  of  Jefferson  county,  Wis.  Pop., 
2,500. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Marion  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  3,202. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Ash¬ 
tabula  county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  1,008. — 6.  The  county 
seat  of  Ashe  county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  300. — 7.  A 
suburban  town  eight  miles  west  of  Chicago.  The 
Cook  County  Insane  Asylum  is  located  here. 
Pop.,  1,200.  •• 

Jefferson  City,  the  capital  of  Missouri,  is  a 
prosperous  and  important  railroad  and  trading 
center  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Missouri  river, 
125  miles  from  St.  Louis.  Pop.,  7,800. 

Jeffersonville,  the  county  seat  of  Clark  county, 
Ind.,  is  an  important  manufacturing  city.  The 
Ohio  Falls  car  works,  and  the  Government  cloth¬ 
ing  factory  are  located  here.  Pop.,  12,300. 

Jeffersonville,  the  county  seat  of  Twiggs 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  156. 

Jeho'vah  (Heb.  Ye7u/vah;  more  correctly, 
Yahve,  Yahaveh,  or  Yahavah;  in  poetry,  Yah; 
generally  believed  to  be  derived  from  the  verb 
baya,  to  be,  though  scholars  are  far  from  unani¬ 
mous  in  regard  to  its  etymology)  is  one  of  the 
names  of  God  employed  in  the  Old  Testament. 
Its  meaning — if  the  root  b ehaya — is,  “  He  that  is,” 
“  the  Being;”  or,  since  the  word  contains  all  the 
forms  of  the  past,  present  and  future  tenses,  “  the 
eternal  One.” 

Jenner,  Edward,  the  discoverer  of  vaccina¬ 
tion,  was  born  at  Berkeley,  England,  May  17, 
1749,  and  died  in  1823.  His  attention,  while  he 
was  yet  a  youth,  was  attracted  to  the  nature  of 
cow-pox  by  a  remark  made  by  a  young  country¬ 
woman  who  came  to  seek  medical  advice.  The 
subject  of  small  pox  being  mentioned  in  her  pres¬ 
ence,  she  observed  ;  “I  can  not  take  that  disease, 
fori  have  had  cow-pox.”  This  remark  suggested 
to  him  a  train  of  thought  and  experiments  which 
resulted  in  the  declaration  which  has  made  his 
name  famous. 

Jeremi'ah(IIeb.  Yiriniyaliv),  a  Hebrew  prophet, 
was  the  son  of  Hilkiali,  a  priest  of  Anathoth, 
a  place  about  three  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  He 
prophesied  under  the  reigns  of  Josiah,  Jehoahaz, 
Jehoiakim,  Jelioiachin,  and  Zedekiah  (630-590 
n.c.),  and  even  later. 


Jer'boa  {Dipus),  a  genus  of  rodent  quadru¬ 
peds,  of  the  family 
Muridce,  remarkable 
for  the  great  length 
of  the  hind-legs,  and 
kangaroo-like  power 
of  jumping.  The 
fore-legs  are  very 
small,  hence  the  an¬ 
cient  Greek  name 
dntovi,  dipous;  Sis, 
twice,  itovZ,  foot. 

The  tail  is  long, 
cylindrical,  covered 
with  short  hair,  and 
tufted  at  the  end. 

The  jerboas  are  in¬ 
habitants  of  sandy 
deserts  and  wide, 
grassy  plains  in  Asia 
and  the  East  Of  Eu-  Jerboa  (Dipus  cegyplius). 
rope,  Africa,  and  Australia.  They  are  burrow¬ 
ing  animals,  nocturnal,  very  destructive  to  grain 
and  other  crops,  laying  up  hoards  for  their  winter 
use. 


Jer'icliO,  once  one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities 
of  Palestine,  two  hours’,  journey  westward  from 
the  Jordan,  and  six  hours  northeast  from  Jerusa¬ 
lem. 

Jer  'kin-head,  a  form  of  roofing  which  is  lialf- 
gable,  half -hip.  The 
gable  generally  goes  as 
high  as  the  ties  of  the 
couples,  above  which  the 
roof  is  hipped  off. 

Jerome,  St.  (Euse¬ 
bius  Hieronymus  So¬ 
ph  ronius),  was  born  at 
Stridon,  a  town  whose 
site  is  now  unknown,  on 
the  confines  of  Dalmatia 
and  Pannonia,  at  some 
period  between  331  and  Jerkin-head. 

7i45 — probably  nearer  to  the  latter  year,  and  died 
Sept.  30,  420. 


Jerrold,  Douglas,  dramatist,  journalist,  and 
miscellaneous  writer,  was  born  in  London,  Eng¬ 
land,  Jan.  3,  1803.  His  best  known  works  are 
Black-eyed  Susan  and  the  Caudle  Lectures.  He 
died  in  1858. 

Jerusalem  (Heb.  Yerushalem,  Gr.  Uierousalem , 
Lat.  Hierosolyma;  called  also  in  Arabic  El-Kliuds 
or  El-Rods,  the  Holy),  the  Jewish  capital  of  Pales¬ 
tine.  It  is  in  31°  46'  43"  N.  latitude,  35°  13'  E. 
longitude,  on  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  Mediterranean,  from  the  nearest  point 
of  which  it  is  distant  twenty-nine  miles  east.  Pop., 
about  18,000. 


Jerusalem  Artichoke,  or  Topinamburi  (Ileli- 
anthus  tuberosus),  a 
plant  of  the  natural, 
order  Composites, t ind  of 
the  same  genus  with 
the  common  s  u  n  - 
flower,  is  a  native 
of  Brazil.  It  has 
straight,  simple  stems 
from  8  to  12  feet  high, 
and  many  rough  ovate 
acute  stalked  leaves; 
and  in  the  end  o  f 
autumn,  produces  yel¬ 
low  flowers  resembling 
those  of  the  common 
sunflower,  but  smaller. 

The  thick,  fleshy,  and 
knotted  perennial  root 
produces  oval  or 
roundish  tubers,  some¬ 
times  thirty  or  fifty  in 
number,  which  a  r  e 
reddish  on  the  out¬ 
side  and  whitish  witli- 
i,  in  appearance  very 
milar  to  potatoes. 

’hey  have  a  sweetish, 
mcilaginous  taste 
lien  boiled,  and  are 
inch  more  watery  and 
ss  nourishing  than 
otatoes. 


Jerusalem  Artichoke  ( Hell - 
anthus  tuberosus). 


JERSEY. 


485 


JOB'S  TEARS. 


Jer'sey — The  Channel  Islands.  Jersey  is  the 
chief  of  the  group  called  the  Channel  Islands, 
which  are  in  the  English  Channel.  The  other 
inhabited  islands  of  this  group  are  Guernsey, 
Alderney,  Sark,  Herm,  and  Jetliou.  They  are 
under  English  rule. 

Jersey  City,  a  city  in  New  Jersey,  on  the  west 
hank  of  the  Hudson  river,  opposite  New  York,  of 
which  it  is  a  suburb.  It  is  the  entrepot  of  the 
Cunard  and  other  ocean  steamers,  and  the  termi¬ 
nus  of  several  lines  of  railway,  and  of  a  canal.  It 
has  manufactories  of  locomotives,  machinery, 
watches,  glass,  and  crucibles;  foundries,  breweries, 
sugar-refineries,  etc.  Pop.  (IBS')),  100,000. 

Jerseyville,  the  county  seat  of  Jersey  county, 
Ill.,  and  an  important  agricultural  town.  Pop., 
3,500. 


Jcssant,  in  Heraldry,  springing  forth,  a  term 
frequently  used  as  synonymous 
with  issuant, rising  asademi-lion 
is  often  represented  doing,  from 
the  bottom  line  of  a  field,  or 
upper  line  of  an  ordinary.  Jes- 
sant  is  sometimes  used  improp¬ 
erly  for  naissant,  or  rising  from 
the  middle  of  an  ordinary.  The 
phrase  jcssant-de-lis  is  used  with 
jessant-de-iis.  respect  to  a  strange  heraldic  de¬ 
vice  representing  a  leopard’s  head  offronte  with  a 
fleur-de-lis  passing  through  it. 

Jes'nits,  or  Society  of  Jesus,  a  religious 
order  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  has 
tilled  a  large  space  in  the  ecclesiastical  and  even 
the  political  history  of  the  world.  It  was  founded 
in  1534,  by  Ignatius  of  Loyola,  in  concert  with 
five  associates — Peter  Le  Fevre,  a  Savoyard;  three 
Spaniards — James  Lainez,  Francis  Xavier,  and 
Nicholas  Bobadilla;  and  a  Portuguese  named 
Rodriguez.  The  original  object  of  association 
was  limited  to  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
and  a  mission  for  the  conversion  of  infidels;  but 
as  all  access  to  the  Holy  Land  was  precluded  by 
the  outbreak  of  a  war  with  the  Turks,  the 
associates  turned  their  attention  to  the  organiza¬ 
tion  of  a  society  for  general  missionary  and  edu¬ 
cational  work.  The  society  is  practically  governed 
by  a  general,  who  is  elected  by  a  congregation  of 
professed  members  selected  for  the  purpose  by 
the  whole  body  of  professed  members  in  the 
various  provinces,  and  holds  his  office  for  life; 
and  although  he  is  aided  by  a  council  of  five 
assistants  from  the  five  chief  provinces,  he  is  not 
obliged  to  follow  their  voice,  even  when  unani¬ 
mous.  The  body  over  which  he  presides  consists 
of  four  classes:  1.  Professed,  who,  having 
passed  through  all  preparatory  stages,  which 
commonly  extend  over  ten  or  twelve  years,  or 
even  a  longer  period.  It  is  from  this  class  alone, 
that  the  general  and  all  the  higher  officials  of  the 
society  are  chosen.  2.  Coadjutors,  spiritual  and 
temporal.  3.  Scholastics,  who,  having  passed 
through  the  novitiate,  are  engaged  for  a  long 
series  of  years,  either  in  pursuing  their  own 
studies,  or  in  teaching  in  the  various  schools  of 
the  order.  4.  Novices,  who,  after  a  short  trial 
as  postulants  for  admission,  are  engaged  for  two 
years  exclusively  in  spiritual  exercises;  prayer, 
meditation,  ascetic  reading,  or  ascetic  practices, 
and  generally  in  a  course  of  disciplinary  training. 
About  1550,  a  strong  feeling  grew  up  in  the  polit¬ 
ical  circles  of  France  and  Italy  against  the 
Jesuits.  Some  of  the  prominent  members  of  the 
order  interfered  in  an  unpopular  way  with  affairs 
of  state,  and  in  the  controversy  that  ensued,  the 
order  was  w-  11-nigli  overthrown.  Its  members 
were  expelled  from  Veuice,  and  the  feeling  against 
it  increased  for  nearly  two  centuries,  when  it  cul¬ 
minated  in  their  complete  suppression  throughout 
Europe,  and  many  of  its  prominent  members 
were  driven  into  exile.  In  1799,  however,  an 
effort  was  made  to  reorganize  the  society,  and  by 
1814  it  was  completely  rehabilitated.  It  was 
again  suppressed  from  1820  to  1825,  from  1835  to 
1844,  from  1854  to  1858,  and  the  leaders  were 
banished  from  Italy  once  more  in  1868.  In  Por¬ 
tugal  they  have  never  obtained  a  firm  footing. 
Their  position  in  France  has  been  one  of  suffer¬ 
ance  rather  than  of  positive  authorization,  never¬ 
theless,  till  of  late  they  were  numerous  and  in¬ 
fluential,  and  their  educational  institutions  held 
the  highest  rank.  In  1880,  however,  the  Republic 
decreed  the  dissolution  of  the  order,  and  the  mem¬ 


bers  were  expelled  from  all  their  establishments 
save  the  educational,  an  additional  month  being- 
allowed  them  for  vacating  the  latter.  In  Belgium, 
Holland,  Bavaria,  Italy,  England,  Ireland,  Scot¬ 
land,  Switzerland,  and  the  United  Slates  they 
still  prosper  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  con¬ 
duct  many  colleges  and  missions. 

Je'sus,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Hebrew  word 
Joshua,  Jclmliua,  “  Jehovah,  the  Saviour,”  is  the 
name  given  to  the  son  of  the  Virgin  Mary  by  the 
angels  who  announced  his  approaching  birth 
(Matt,  i,  21;  Luke  i,  31).  The  reason  of  the  name 
was  at  the  same  time  declared  :  “For  he  shall  save 
his  people  from  their  sins.”  The  date  of  the  birth 
of  Jesus  is  now  generally  fixed  a  few  years — at  least 
four  years — before  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era,  which  would  make  his  age  at.  his 
crucifixion,  in  33  a.d.,  thirty-seven  years  instead 
of  thirty-three. 

Jesup,  the  county  seat  of  Wayne  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  1,000. 

Jet,  a  bituminous  black  mineral,  not  harder 
than  ordinary  coal,  but  capable  of  being  easily 
cut  and  carved,  and  of  receiving  a  high  polish.  It 
takes  its  name  from  a  river  of  Lycia,  from  the 
banks  of  which  it  was  obtained.  It  is  a  peculiar 
form  of  pitch-coal,  containing  about  37£  per  cent, 
of  volatile  matter. 

Jetmore,  the  county  seat  of  Hodgeman  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  680. 

Jew,  The  Wandering.  The  legend  of  the 
Wandering  Jew,  who  can  not  die,  but,  as  the 
punishment  of  his  sin,  is  obliged  to  wander  over 
the  face  of  the  earth  till  Christ  shall  pronounce 
his  doom  at  the  last  day,  seems  to  have  originated 
in  that  passage  of  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  (xxi,  22) 
where  Jesus  says  of  John:  “If  I  will  that  he  tarry 
till  I  come,  what  is  that  to  thee?  follow  thou  me. 
Then  went  this  saying  abroad  among  the 
brethren,  that  that  disciple  should  not  die.”  It 
arose,  probably,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  when 
it  is  first  related  by  Matthew  Paris,  and  may  be 
supposed  to  indicate  the  Jewish  people,  scattered 
throughout  the  world,  and  nowhere  finding  a 
home.  According  to  the  current  legend,  the 
Wandering  Jew  is  Ahasuerus,  the  shoemaker  at 
Jerusalem,  who,  when  the  Saviour  wished  to  rest 
before  his  house,  on  his  way  to  Golgotha,  drove 
him  away.  Another  legend  stites  him  to  be 
Pilate’s  door-keeper,  Kartapliilus,  who  struck 
Jesus  on  the  back  as  he  led  him  out  of  his 
master’s  judgment-hall. 

Jewels,  Use  of,  in  Heraldry.  By  a  com¬ 
plication  of  nomenclature,  introduced  by  way  of 
adding  dignity  to  the  science  of  heraldry,  the 
tinctures  of  the  arms  of  peers  have  sometimes 
been  designated  by  the  names  of  precious  stones: 
argent  is  pearl  or  crystal;  or,  topaz;  gules,  ruby; 
azure,  sapphire;  sable,  diamond;  vert,  emerald; 
and  purpure,  amethyst. 

Jewish  Sects,  a  term  generally  applied  (after 
Josephus)  to  certain  divergent  schools  which 
grew  up  in  the  midst  of  Judaism,  subsequently 
to  the  Syrian  wars.  The  chief  points  at  issue 
between  the  sects  and  the  parent  church  were 
certain  abstract  doctrines,  in  connection  with  the 
peculiar  manner  in  which  the  religious  law,  as 
far  as  it  is  contained  in  the  scriptures,  was  inter 
preted  and  developed.  Among  the  sects  men¬ 
tioned  by  the  early  fathers  of  the  church  are: 
Hellenians.  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  Hellen¬ 
ists,  and  Meristes,  Galileans,  Herodiaias.Gaulanites, 
Masbotlieans,  Hemerobaptists,  etc.  Later  sects 
are  the  Karaites,  Shebsen,  and  Chasidim. 

Jews  (corrupted  from  Yehvdiw),  the  name 
given,  since  the  Bablyonish  captivity,  to  the 
descendants  of  the  patriarch  Abraham,  who, 
about  2,000  years  is. o.,  emigrated  from  Mesopo¬ 
tamia,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Euphrates,  to 
Canaan.  Monotheism,  or  a  belief  in  one  God, 
the  practice  of  circumcision,  and  the  expectation 
of  ultimately  possessing  the  land  in  which  they 
then  sojourned,  were  the  three  distinguish¬ 
ing  peculiarities  transmitted  by  Abraham  to 
Isaac,  and  from  Isaac  to  Jacob  and  his 
descendants.  For  centuries  past  the  history 
of  the  Jews  has  been  an  unbroken  record  of 
persecution  in  nearly  every  country  in  which 
they  existed.  Persecuted  alike  by  Christian 
and  Mohammedan,  they  have  only  of  late  years 
been  admitted  to  privileges  of  citizenship  in 
many  civilized  countries,  and  in  some,  as  in  Rus¬ 


sia,  they  have  not  yet  ceased  to  be  objects  of 
abuse  and  oppression.  Their  literature  is  marked 
by  piety  and  scholarly  erudition,  and  their 
national  history  is  indissolubly  connected  with 
progress  and  civilization.  But  their  existence  as 
a  nation  ceased  when,  in  130  a.d.,  under  Bar- 
cochba,  they  attempted  to  throw  off  the  Roman 
yoke.  With  their  capital  city  and  country  first 
in  possession  of  the  Romans  and  then  of  the 
Turks,  they  have  since  had  no  organized  exist¬ 
ence;  but  have  preserved,  except  in  few  instances, 
their  national  characteristics  and  race  integrity, 
showing  no  inclination  to  amalgamate  with  other 
races.  They  are  found  in  every  clime,  and  al¬ 
ways  where  permitted  so  to  be  are  good  citi¬ 
zens. 

Jeypoor',  capital  of  the  protected  State  of  the 
same  name  in  India.  Pop.,  142, 57A  The  State 
of  Jeypoor,  also  spelled  Jeypore  and  Jaipur,  is  in 
Ilajpootana ;  area,  14,465  square  miles;  pop., 
2,534,357. 

Jhan'si,  a  fortified  town  in  Gwalior  State, 
Central  India.  Its  pop.  is  26,772.  The  District 
of  Jliansi  is  still  in  the  northwest  provinces,  and 
begins  just  outside  Jeypoor  town.  The  district 
has  an  area  of  1,567  square  miles  (pop.,  333,227) ; 
the  division,  of  4,983  square  miles  (pop., 
1,000,457). 

Jib,  a  triangular  sail  borne  in  front  of  the  fore¬ 
mast  in  all  vessels.  It  has  the  bowsprit  for  a  base 
in  schooners  and  vessels  of  a  smaller  class,  and 
the  jib-boom  in  larger  vessels.  The  flying  jib  has 


Jib. 


1,  fore-topmast  staysail,  set  on  fore-topmast  stay  :  2,  jib  ; 

3,  flying  jit)  ;  4,  bowsprit ;  5,  jib-boom ;  0,  flying  jib- 

boom  ;  7,  martingale,  or  dolphin-striker  ;  8,  fore-course. 

the  flying  jib-boom  for  a  base.  When  a  fore¬ 
course  is  not  used,  an  additional  jib-sliaped  sail, 
called  the  foresail,  is  spread  on  the  fore-stay. 

Jib-boom,  an  extension  of  the  bowsprit  of  a 
ship  toward  the  front,  running  out  beyond  it,  by 
a  cap  and  irous,  as  does  the  topmast  above  the 
lower  mast. 

Jitomir',  chief  town  of  the  Government  of 
Volhvnia,  in  European  Russia,  is  situated  on  the 
River  Teterev,  an  affluent  of  the  Dnieper,  in 
latitude  50°  15'  N.,  longitude  28 :  40'  E.  Fop. 
(1880),  41,790. 

Joan,  Pope,  the  name  of  a  supposed  female 
occupant  of  the  Papal  chair  in  the  ninth  century. 
The  narrative  states,  that  having  come  in  the 
dress  of  a  man  to  Rome,  she  had  ability  and 
adroitness  enough  to  carry  the  deception  so  far 
as  to  obtain  holy  orders,  and  to  rise  through 
various  gradations  to  the  papal  sovereignty  itself; 
but  that  being  nevertheless  of  immoral  life,  the 
fraud  was  at  length  discovered  by  her  becoming 
pregnant,  and  being  seized  with  the  pains  of 
childbirth  on  occasion  of  a  public  procession. 
The  story  is  entirely  groundless. 

Joan  ol’  Arc  (Fr.  Jeanne  d’Arc),  the  Maid 
of  Orleans,  was  born  in  1412,  iu  the  village  of 
Domremy,  in  the  Department  of  Vosges,  France. 
She  assumed  the  dress  of  a  man,  and  was  per¬ 
mitted  to  lead  the  French  armies  against  the 
English,  whom  she  defeated  in  many  battles. 
She  was  finally  captured,  and  burned  at  Rouen 
in  1431.  The  fact  of  her  burning  has  been 
denied,  it  being  alleged  that  she  was  spared 
(a  substitute  being  burned),  and  lived  to  be 
married  long  afterward. 

Job’s  Tears  (Coix  lacliryma),  a  corn-plant  of 
India.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  tear-like 


JODELN. 


486 


JOUDPORE. 


form  of  the  hard,  shining,  bluish-white  seeds, 
which  are  sometimes  made  into  bracelets  and 
necklaces,  and  are  also  an  article  of  food. 

Jodeln,  a  peculiar  manner  of  singing  with  the 
falsetto  voice  in  harmonic  progressions,  which 
exists  only  among  the  Tyrolese  and  the  Swiss. 

Joggle,  in  Masonry,  is  a  notch  or  curve  in  the 
joints,  adopted  in  fitting  stones  together,  so  as  to 


\\\  ///x 

Diagonal  Joggle. 

prevent  them  from  slipping.  The  joggle-joint  is 
commonly  used  in  straight  arches  for  this 
purpose.  Joggles  are  also 
used  where  very  tight  joints 
are  required  to  resist  water, 
etc.  Sometimes  the  joggle 

.Groove  Joggle.  consists  of  a  piece  of  hard 
stone  let  into  a  groove  cut  in  both  the  stones 
forming  the  joint. 

Jolian'iia,  one  of  the  Comoro  Islands. 

Joint,  the  apostle  and  evangelist,  was  the  son 
of  Zebedee  and  of  Salome.  He  was  born  at 
Bethsaida,  and  died  on  the  Isle  of  Patmos, 
between  the  years  89  and  120  a.d.  He  wTrote  the 
Gospel  of  John,  and  the  Epistles  of  John,  and 
Revelations. 

John,  the  name  of  a  long  line  of  popes,  the 
number  of  whom  is  variously  stated  by  different 
historians,  owing  to  some  uncertainty  as  to  the 
designation  of  two  of  the  popes  in  the  series — 
John  VIII.  (872-882),  who  is  styled  the  IX  by 
some  writers.  They  were  at  least  twenty-three  in 
number. 

John,  surnamed  Lackland,  King  of  England, 
and  the  youngest  of  the  live  sons  of  Henry  II.  by 
his  wife,  Eleanor  of  Guienne,  wras  born  at  Oxford, 
Dec.  24,  1166.  The  important  episodes  of  his 
reign  were  the  signing  of  Magna  Cliarta,  and  the 
losing  of  the  French  possessions  of  the  English 
crown.  He  died  in  1216. 

John,  St.,  the  commercial  capital  and  largest 
city  of  New  Brunswick,  stands  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  estuary  of  the  river  of  its  own  name,  in 
latitude  45°  14'  N.,  and  longitude  66°  3'  W-  Pop. 
(1881),  26,127. 

John,  St.,  a  river  of  New  Brunswick,  rises  in 
a  lake  of  the  same  name  in  the  State  of  Maine,  and 
falls  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 

John  III.  (John  Sobieski),  King  of  Poland 
1674-1696,  one  of  the  greatest  warriors  of  the  seven¬ 
teenth  century,  was  born  in  1624,  and  died  in  1696. 

John  (St.)  of  Jerusalem,  Knights  of,  other¬ 
wise  called  Knights  of  Rhodes,  and  afterward 
of  Malta,  the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  military 
and  religious  orders  of  the  middle  ages.  It  origin¬ 
ated  in  1048,  and  has  existed  in  isolated  communi¬ 
ties  to  the  present  day. 

John  of  Nepomuk  (more  properly,  Pomuk),  a 
popular  Bohemian  saint  of  the  Catholic  Church, 
was  born  about  1350,  and  was  murdered,  by  Wen¬ 
zel  IV.,  because  he  would  not  reveal  the  nature  of 
the  confessions  of  the  Queen,  in  1393. 

John’s,  Eve  of  St.,  one  of  the  most  joyous 
festivals  of  Christendom  during  the  middle  ages, 
was  celebrated  on  midsummer  eve.  It  is  now  ob 
served  by  the  Masonic  Fraternity. 

John’s,  St.,  the  chief  town  of  Newfoundland, 
is  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island,  in  latitude  47° 
33'  N.,  and  longitude  52°  43'  W.  It  has  an  excel¬ 
lent  harbor,  which  is  well  fortified.  Pop.,  23,890. 

Johnson,  Andrew,  seventeenth  President  of 
the  United  States,  born  at  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Dec. 
29,  1808.  In  1828  he  was  elected  to  ills  first  office 
— Alderman  of  the  village;  in  1830  he  was  chosen 
Mayor,  and  twice  reelected;  in  1835  he  was  elected 
to  the  State  Legislature,  and  again  in  1839;  in  1840 
lie  was  a  Presidential  elector,  and  canvassed  the 
State  for  Mr.  Van  Buren,  the  Democratic  candi¬ 
date;  in  1841  lie  was  elected  to  the  State  Senate;  and 
in  1843  to  Congress.  In  1853  he  was  chosen  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  Tennessee,  and  again  in  1855.  In  1857 
he  was  elected  by  the  Legislature  a  member  of  the 
United  States  Senate,  in  which  he  advocated  the 
union  policy  of  the  Republican  party;  and  in  1862 
was  appointed  by  President  Lincoln  Military  Gov¬ 
ernor  of  Tennessee.  In  1864  he  was  nominated 
by  the  Republican  party  for  the  office  of  Vice- 
President,  and  was  elected  with  President  Lincoln, 


then  reelected  for  his  second  term,  and  took  the 
oath  of  office  March  4,  1865.  On  April  14th,  by 
the  assassination  of  President  Lincoln,  Johnson 
succeeded  to  the  Presidency.  An  attempted  coup 
d’etat  to  gain  possession  of  the  War  Department 
led  to  the  impeachment  of  the  President  in  1868, 
but  he  was  acquitted.  His  term  of  office  expired 
in  1869;  and  afterward  he  unsuccessfully  sought 
to  be  Governor  of  Tennessee  and  United  States 
Senator.  He  died  in  1875. 

Johnson,  Samuel,  English  scholar  and  author, 
born  at  Lichfield,  Sept.  18,  1709,  was  a  man  of 
ponderous  learning,  and  wrote  much  and  well. 
Ilasselas  and  his  dictionary  are  his  chief  produc¬ 
tions.  He  died  in  1784. 

Johnston,  Alexander  Keith,  LL.D.,  F.R.S., 
the  most  distinguished  name  in  British  cartog¬ 
raphy,  was  born  near  Edinburgh,  Dec.  28,  1804, 
and  died  July  10,  1871. 

Johnstown,  a  city  of  Cambria  county,  Penn.  Up 
to  May  31,  1889,  it  was  a  flourishing  community, 
but  on  that  day  a  reservoir  in  its  vicinity  burst, 
and  almost  obliterated  it.  The  pop.  of  the  city 
prior  to  the  accident  was  8,391.  Here  are  the 
immense  steel  works  of  the  Cambria  Iron  Com¬ 
pany. 

Johnstown,  an  agricultural  and  manufacturing 
city  of  Fulton  county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  6,100. 

Joint-stock  Company,  an  association  of  indi¬ 
viduals  who  unite  to  carry  out  a  particular  object 
of  a  private  nature  by  each  taking  and  paying 
for  shares  in  the  common  stock.  The  incorpora¬ 
tion  and  constitution  of  joint-stock  companies, 
together  with  the  liability  of  their  share-holders, 
are  regulated  by  each  State,  and  State  laws  differ 
materially  on  this  subject. 

Joints,  in  Anatomy.  A  joint  or  articulation 
may  be  defined  to  be  the  union  of  any  two  seg¬ 
ments  of  the  skeleton  of  an  animal  body,  through 
the  intervention  of  a  structure  or  structures  of  a 
different  nature.  The  textures  which  enter  into 
the  formation  of  the  more  complex  joints  are 
bone,  cartilage,  fibro-cartilage,  ligaments,  and 
synovial  membrane.  Joints  have  been  divided 
by  anatomists  into  two  great  classes,  to  which 
the  terms  synarthrosis  and  diarthrosis  are  applied. 
In  synarthrosis,  the  parts  are  continuous,  and  the 
joints  belonging  to  this  class  are  considered 
by  some  as  immovable;  while  in  diarthrosis, 
mobility  is  the  distinguishing  feature.  In  synar¬ 
throsis,  the  articulation  is  said  to  be  by  suture, 
which  in  turn  is  either  serrated  or  beveled — as  in 
the  human  skull  the  frontal  and  parietal  bones 
join  by  beveled  suture,  and  the  two  parietal  bones 
by  the  serrated.  In  diarthrosis,  the  degree  and 
nature  of  the  motion  are  various.  There  may  be 
merely  a  little  gliding  motion  between  the  ends 
of  the  bones,  as,  for  example,  in  the  articulations 
between  the  various  bones  of  the  carpus  and 
tarsus.  Then  there  is  the  ball  and  socket  joint,  as 
in  the  hip;  the  hinge-joint,  as  in  the  ankle;  and 
the  rotary-joint,  as  in  the  first  and  second  ver¬ 
tebra;.  In  diseases  of  the  joints,  we  may  have  one 
or  more  of  the  following  textures  affected:  (1), 
the  synovial  membrane;  (2),  the  cartilage;  and 
(3),  the  bones  themselves.  Loose  substances  of  a 
fibrous  structure,  and  usually  resembling  a  small 
bean  in  size  and  shape,  sometimes  occur  in  joints, 
especially  in  the  knee-joint.  When  they  get 
between  the  ends  of  the  bones,  which  they  are 
apt  to  do  during  exercise,  they  cause  a  sudden 
and  often  a  most  excruciating  pain,  which  is  often 
followed  by  inflammation,  and  arrest  all  motion 
of  the  joint.  These  symptoms  are  not  relieved 
till,  by  gentle  flexion  and  manipulation,  the  loose 
cartilage  (as  it  is  usually  termed)  has  been  removed 
to  a  position  in  which  it  ceases  to  give  annoyance. 
When  the  displacement  of  the  loose  body  is  only 
occasional,  and  does  not  cause  intensely  severe 
pain,  the  treatment  should  be  limited  to  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  an  elastic  bandage  or  a  tightly-fitting 
knee-cap,  which  should  be  constantly  worn,  with 
the  view  of  restraining  the  loose  body  to  a  posi¬ 
tion  in  which  it  is  inoffensive.  If,  however,  this 
palliative  treatment  fails,  the  offending  body 
must  be  removed  by  sub-cutaneous  incision, 
which  avoids  the  danger  of  an  open  wound  into 
the  joint.  The  cartilage  may  be  affected  in 
various  wTays,  as  by  scrofula,  hypertrophy,  or 
atrophy.  The  most  important  diseases  of  the 
osseous  structures  of  the  joints  are  ulcer  and 
caries.  The  treatment  for  these  is  purely  surgical. 


Straight  Joggle. 


Jo'nah  (Heb.  Yonah,  a  dove;  Gr.  Jonas),  a 
Hebrew  prophet;  son  of  Amittai,  was,  as  we 
learn  from  II.  Kings  xiv,  25,  a  native  of  Gatli- 
lieplier)  a  town  of  Galilee  in  Zebulun,  and  not  far 
from  Phoenicia.  He  appears  to  have  flourished 
about  the  second  half  of  the  eighth  century  b.c., 
in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.,  and  w'as  probably, 
therefore,  the  earliest  of  those  prophets  whose 
writings  are  extant.  The  miracle  recorded  in  the 
book  bearing  his  name  is  not  now  generally  re¬ 
garded  as  an  historical  fact,  but  as  an  allegory. 

Jones,  Inigo,  a  well-knowrn  English  architect, 
wras  born  in  London  in  1572,  and  died  in  1653. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  was  born  at  Arbigland,  in 
thestewartry  of  Kirkcudbright,  Scotland,  July  6, 
1747,  and  afterward  settled  in  Virginia.  He 
ardently  embraced  the  cause  of  the  American 
Colonies,  and  won  numerous  sea  battles  in  their 
service.  He  died  at  Paris,  July  18, 1792. 

Jonesboro,  t lie  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States. — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Clayton 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  1,050. — 2.  The  county  seat  of 
Craighead  county,  Ark.  Pop.,  2,200. — 3.  The 
county  seat  of  Union  county,  Ill.  Pop.,  1,200. — 
4.  The  county  seat  of  Washington  county,  Tenn. 
Pop.,  1,100. 

Jone'sia,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Lcguminosm,  sub-order  ('malpiniece,  having  a  two¬ 
leaved  calyx,  a  funnel-shaped  four-fid  corolla, 
seven  stamens  attached  to  a  ring  which  springs 
from  the  tube  of  the  corolla,  a  scimitar-shaped  pod. 

Jouesville,  the  county  seat  of  Lee  county,  Va. 
Pop.,  550. 

Jon'quil  (Fr.  jonquille,  from  Lat.  junas,  a 
rush),  a  name  given  to  certain  species  of  Narcissus, 
with  rush-like  leaves.  The  common  and  the  sweet- 
scented  jonquil  (N.  jonquilla  and  N.  odor  us),  are 
natives  of  the  South  of  Europe. 

Jonson,  Ben,  or  Benjamin,  an  English  dram¬ 
atist,  wnis  born  either  at  Westminster  or  War¬ 
wickshire,  in  1574.  At  first  a  bricklayer,  then  a 
soldier,  he  became  a  poet  who  ranked  with 
Shakespeare,  of  whom  he  was  a  friend.  His  best 
known  productions  are:  Every  Man  in  His 
Ilumour,  Volpone,  or  the  Fox,  The  Silent  Woman, 
and  Cataline’s  Conspiracy.  He  died  in  1637. 

Jop'pa,  a  town  on  the  sea-coast  of  Syria,  about 
thirty-three  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem. 

Jor'dan,  the  principal  river  of  Palestine,  along 
whose  banks  the  scene  of  much  biblical  history  is 
laid. 

Joplin,  a  mining  and  manufacturing  city  of 
Jasper  county,  Mo.  Pop.,  10,500. 

Jorul 'lo,  a  volcanic  mountain  in  Mexico,  150 
miles  west-southwest  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  was 
thrown  up,  in  September,  1759,  to  the  height  of 
1,375  feet  from  a  plain,  which  itself  was  2,890  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea;  latitude,  19°  10'  N.; 
longitude,  101°  2'  W. 

Joseph  I„  Emperor  of  Germany,  was  born  at 
Vienna,  July  26,  1678,  was  crowned  King  of 
Hungary  in  1689,  and  King  of  Rome  in  1690;  be¬ 
came  Emperor  in  1705,  and  died  in  1711. 

Joseph  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  was  born 
March  13,  1741,  ascended  the  throne  in  1765,  and 
died  in  1790. 

Josephine,  Marie  Rose,  Empress  of  the 
French,  wTas  born  June  23,  1763,  in  the  Island  of 
Martinique.  She  was  first  married  to  the  Viscount 
Beauharnais,  and  after  his  execution,  to  Napoleon 
Bonaparte,  from  whom  she  was  divorced  for  polit¬ 
ical  reasons.  She  died  in  1814. 

Jose 'pints,  Flavius,  a  celebrated  Jewish  his¬ 
torian,  wras  born  at  Jerusalem,  37  a.d.  He  was 
of  both  royal  and  sacerdotal  lineage.  He  w  as  a 
leader  in  the  last  Jewish  rebellion  against  Rome, 
but  afterward  fought  in  the  Roman  army  under 
Titus  against  Jerusalem.  He  was  a  man  of  vast 
learning,  and  wrote  valuable  historical  w'orks,  the 
chief  of  which  are  his  History  of  the  Jewish  War, 
Jewish  Antiquities,  and  his  Autobiography.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 

Josh'ua  (Heb.  Yehoshua,  Jehovah  helps),  the 
name  of  the  celebrated  Hebrew  warrior  under 
whose  leadership  the  land  of  Canaan  wots  con¬ 
quered.  He  was  the  son  of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  and  w’as  born  in  Egypt,  and  succeeded 
Moses  as  chief  of  the  Hebrews. 

Joudpore',  or  Jodhpore,  a  city  inRajpootana, 
Hindustan,  capital  of  a  protected  State  of  the 
same  name.  Latitude,  26°  19'  N. ;  longitude,  73° 
8'  E.  Pop.,  about  80,000. 


JOUNPUR. 


487' 


JUSTIFICATION. 


Jounpur a  town  and  district  in  the  Northwest 
Provinces  of  India.  The  pop.  of  the  town  is 
25,531 ;  of  the  district,  1,025,869. 

Ju'an  Fenian  'dez,  called  also  Mas-a-tierra, 
a  rocky  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  about  400 
miles  off  Valparaiso,  on  the  coast  of  Chili,  to  which 
it  belongs.  Latitude,  33°  40'  S. ;  longitude,  about 
79°  W.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  original  of  Robin¬ 
son  Crusoe’s  island. 

J ubae'a,  a  genus  of  palms  of  the  same  tribe  with 
tlie  cocoa-nut.  It  is  a  native  of  Brazil,  and  yields 
the  palm  lioney. 

J  u'bilee,  Tiie  Year  of  (Heb.  Yobel),  a  peculiar 
institution  among  the  Hebrews,  by  which,  every 
fiftieth  year,  the  land  was  restored  to  its  original 
owners,  and  all  who  bad  been  reduced  to  poverty, 
and  obliged  to  hire  themselves  out  as  servants, 
were  released  from  their  bondage,  and  all  debts 
were  remitted. 

Jubilee,  or  Jubilee  Year,  an  institution  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  name  of  which  is 
borrowed  from  that  of  the  Jewish  jubilee.  The 
Catholic  jubilee  is  of  two  kinds — “  ordinary,”  and 
“extraordinary.”  The  ordinary  jubilee  is  that 
which  is  celebrated  at  stated  intervals,  the  length 
of  which  has  varied  at  different  times.  Its  origin 
is  traced  to  Pope  Boniface  VIII.,  who  issued,  for 
the  year  1300,  a  bull  granting  a  plenary  indulgence 
to  all  pilgrim-visitors  of  Rome  during  that  year, 
on  condition  of  their  penitently  confessing  their 
sins,  and  visiting  the  church  of  St.  Peter  and  St. 
Paul,  fifteen  times  if  strangers,  and  thirty  times  if 
residents  of  the  city.  As  instituted  by  Boniface, 
the  jubilee  was  to  have  been  held  every  hundredth 
year.  Clement  VI.,  in  obedience  to  an  earnest 
request  from  the  people  of  Rome,  abridged  the  time 
to  fifty  years.  The  term  of  interval  was  still  fur¬ 
ther  abridged  by  Urban  VI.,  and  again  by  Paul 
II.,  who,  in  1470,  ordered  that  thenceforward  each 
twenty-fifth  year  should  be  held  as  jubilee — an 
arrangement  which  has  continued  ever  since  to 
regulate  the  ordinary  jubilee.  The  extraordinary 
jubilee  is  ordered  by  the  Pope  out  of  the  regular 
period,  either  on  his  accession,  on  some  occasion  of 
public  calamity,  or  in  some  critical  condition  of 
the  fortunes  of  the  Church;  one  of  the  conditions 
for  obtaining  the  indulgence  in  such  cases  being 
the  recitation  of  certain  stated  prayers  for  the  par¬ 
ticular  necessity  in  which  the  jubilee  originated. 

Ju'dah  (Heb.  Yehuda,  the  bepraised  one)  was 
the  fourth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  and  founder  of 
the  greatest  and  most  numerous  of  the  twelve 
tribes. 

Judas’  Tree  ( Cercis ),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Casaljnniece, 
is  a  native  of  the  South  of  Europe,  and  of  the 
warmer  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  There  is  a 
legend  that  Judas  hanged  himself  on  a  tree  of  this 
kind. 

J  ude,  Epistle  of,  one  of  the  smallest  and  least 
important  books  in  the  canon  of  the  New  Testa¬ 
ment,  was  placed  among  the  Anlilegomena  (Doubt¬ 
ful  Writings)  by  the  primitive  church,  while  some 
even  considered  it  spurious. 

Judges,  Book  of  (Heb.  Shoftim),  a  canonical 
hook  of  the  Old  Testament,  recordingthe  achieve¬ 
ments  of  those  heroes  who,  at  different  periods  in 
the  early  history  of  the  Hebrews,  before  the  con¬ 
solidation  of  the  government  under  a  monarchy, 
from  Joshua  to  Samuel,  arose  to  deliver  their 
countrymen  from  the  oppressions  of  neighboring 
nations,  but  only  three  of  whom,"  Deborah,  Eli, 
and  Samuel,  were  judges  in  our  sense  of  the 
word. 

Ju'dith,  the  heroine  of  an  apocryphal  and  ficti¬ 
tious  book  called  by  her  name,  is  represented  as  a 
beautiful  Jewess  of  Bethulia,  who  perils  her  life 
and  chastity  in  the  tent  of  Holofernes,  general  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  in  order  to  save  her  native  town, 
by  the  assassination  of  the  Assyrian  commander. 
This  she  achieves,  and  escapes  with  the  head  of 
Holofernes  to  Bethulia.  Her  townsmen  are  in¬ 
spired  with  a  sudden  enthusiasm,  rush  out  upon 
the  enemy,  and  completely  defeat  them. 

Ju'jub  e  (Zizyphus),  a  genus  of  spiny  and  decid¬ 
uous  shrubs  and  small  trees  of  the  natural  order 
llhamnacece.  The  species  are  pretty  numerous, 
abounding  in  all  parts  of  the  world.*  The  fruit 
is  dried  as  a  sweetmeat,  and  forms  an  article  of 
commerce.  Syrup  of  jujubes  is  used  in  coughs, 
fevers,  etc.  The  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  sloe, 
oblong  and  pleasantly  acidulous. 


Jul'ian,  surnamed  the  Apostate,  on  account  of 
his  renunciation  of  Christianity,  Roman  Emperor 
361-363  a.d.,  was  born  at  Constantinople,  Nov. 
17,  331.  He  and  his  brother  Gallus,  who  were 
too  young  to  be  dangerous,  were  spared  when 
Constantius  II.,  son  of  Constantine,  massacred  the 
rest  of  the  imperial  family.  They  were,  however, 
removed  to  a  castle  in  Cappadocia,  where  they  were 
subjected  to  a  system  of  rigorous  espionage. 
Julian’s  life  was  miserable,  and  the  monkish 
education  which  he  received  produced  no  other 
result  than  a  strong  detestation  of  the  religion 
professed  by  his  tormentors.  He  wTas  made 
Emperor  in  361,  and  died  June  26,  363. 

Jul'ius,  the  name  of  three  popes. — Julius  II. 
was  born  at  Albizzola,  near  Savona,  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  He  was  one  of 
the  greatest  statesmen  and  best  Popes  that  ever 
occupied  the  see  of  St.  Peter.  He  died  Feb.  22, 
1513. — Julius  III.,  a  native  of  Monte  San  Savino, 
was  one  of  the  four  legates  of  the  Pope  under 
whom  the  Council  of  Trent  was  opened;  and  after 
his  election  to  the  papacy  in  1550,  he  himself  re¬ 
opened  (in  1551)  that  council,  which  had  been 
suspended  for  upward  of  two  years. 

Jul'lunder,  a  city  of  the  Punjab,  in  latitude 
31°  21'  N.  and  longitude  75°  31'  E.  Pop., 
52,119.  Jullunder,  also  spelled  Jallandar,  gives 
name  to  an  administrative  district  of  1,322  square 
miles  area  (pop.,  789,555),  and  to  a  division  of 
12,571  square  miles  area  (pop.,  2,421,781). 

Julns,  or  Iulus,  a  genus  of  Myriapoda,  of  the 
order  Chilognalha.  They  resemble  centipedes  in 


form;  but  their  feet  are  more  numerous— some 
having  120  pairs — and  are  so  weak  that  the  animal 
seems  to  glide  along  on  its  belly. 

July,  the  seventh  month  of  the  year  in  our 
calendar,  fifth  in  the  Roman  calendar,  where  it 
was  called  Quintilis  (the  fifth).  Originally  it  con¬ 
tained  thirty-six  days,  but  was  reduced  by  Romu¬ 
lus  to  thirty-one,  by  Numa  to  thirty,  but  was 
restored  to  thirty-one  days  by  Julius  Caesar,  in 
honor  of  whom  it  was  named  July. 

Jum'na,  the  principal  feeder  of  the  Ganges  in 
India. 

Junction  City,  the  county  seat  and  a  flourishing 
city  of  Davis  county,  Kan.  Pop.,  4,500. 

Junction  City,  the  county  seat  of  Kimble 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  275. 

Juneau,  the  county  seat  of  Dodge  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  600. 

Jun'ceae,  or  Junca'ce,®,  a  natural  order  of 
endogenous  plants,  herbaceous,  generally  peren¬ 
nial,  with  creeping  root-stock  The  species, 
about,  200  in  number,  are  mostly  natives  of  colei 
and  temperate  climates. 

June,  the  sixth  month  of  the  year  in  our  cal¬ 
endar,  but  the  fourth  among  the  Romans.  It 
consisted  originally  of  twenty-six  days,  to  which 
four  were  added  by  Romulus,  one  taken  away  by 
Numa,  and  the  month  again  lengthened  to  thirty 
days  by  Julius  C;esar. 

Jungerinan'nia,  a  Lin  naan  genus  of  cryptog- 
amous  plants,  containing  a  great  number  of 
species.  They  resemble  mosses  in  appearance, 
and  are  widely  distributed. 

Jung'frau  (the  Maiden),  one  of  the  highest 
mountains  of  the  Bernese  Alps,  rises  on  the 
boundary-line  between  the  Cantons  of  Bern  and 
Valais,  and  attains  a  height  of  13,720  feet. 

Jungle-fowl,  the  name  given  by  the  Australian 
colonists  to  a  bird  ( Megapodius  tumulus),  which 
has  also  been  called  the  Megapode  It  belongs  to 
the  family  Megapodidw. 

Ju'nipcr  (Juniper us),  a  genus  of  trees  and 
shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Coniferce ,  sub-order 
Cupressineae.  The  species  are  all  evergreen.  They 
are  natives  chiefly  of  temperate  and  cold  regions, 
and  are  found  in  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and 


America.  The  berries  have  a  strong  and  peculiar 
flavor.  They  are  much  used  for  flavoring  gin, 
which  derives  its  name  from  them.  They  also 
enter  into  several  medicinal  preparations,  being 
stimulant,  sudorific,  and  diuretic. 

Jun'ius,  Letters  of,  a  famous  series  of  polit¬ 
ical  letters  signed  “  Junius,”  which  appeared  in 
a  London  newspaper,  The  Public  Adveitiser,  dur¬ 
ing  the  last  year  of  the  administration  of  the 
Duke  of  Grafton,  and  the  first  two  years  of  that 
of  Lord  North,  directed  against  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  the  English  Government.  Various 
authors  were  charged  with  their  paternity,  but 
Sir  Philip  Francis  is  now  believed  to  have  been 
their  writer. 

Junk,  a  Chinese  vessel,  often  of  large  dimen¬ 
sions.  It  has  a  high  forecastle  and  p"op,  and 
ordinarily  three  masts.  Junk  is  a  familiar  term 
for  the  salt  meat  supplied  to  vessels  for  long 
voyages. 

Junkseylon',  or  Salang',  an  island  in  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  lies  in  latitude  7°  46'  N.,  and 
longitude  98"  18'  E. 

J ii  '  no  and  He'ra,  the  Roman  and  Greek 
names  of  the  mythical  queen  of  heaven,  and 
wife  of  the  supreme  divinity. 

Junot,  Andociie,  Duke-  of  Abrantes,  and 
Marshal  of  France,  was  born  Oct.  23,  1771,  at 
Bussy-le-Grand,  in  Cote-d’Or,  entered  the  army 
and  distinguished  himself  in  the  wars  of  France, 
He  was  afterward  degraded  by  Napoleon,  and 
committed  suicide  in  1813. 

Ju 'piter,  or  Juppiter,  in  Roman  Mythology, 
was  the  greatest  of  the  gods.  The  name  is  a 
modification  of  Diovis  pater,  or  Diespiter  ( Diovis , 
or  Pies  —  divum,  heaven) — i.  e.,  the  Father  of 
Heaven  or  the  Heavenly  Father. 

Ju'ra,  a  range  of  European  mountains,  extend¬ 
ing  from  the  angle  formed  by  the  Rhone  and  the 
Ain,  in  a  northeasterly  direction  for  more  than 
450  miles,  to  the  upper  part  of  the  course  of  the 
Maine. 

Jura,  a  frontier  department  in  the  east  of 
France,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Ain,  and  on  the  east  by  Switzerland. 
Area,  1,920  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  283,426. 

Jura,  one  of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  lying  off  the 
coast  of  the  mainland  of  Argyle,  Scotland.  Pop. 
(1881),  773. 

Juras'sic  Group,  the  name  given  by  conti¬ 
nental  geologists  to  the, Oolitic  series,  because  the 
chain  of  the  Jura  Mountains,  on  the  northwest  of 
Switzerland,  is  composed  of  these  rocks. 

Jury  Trial  (Fr  .jure,  sworn),  is  a  mode  of  trial 
in  the  United  States  and  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain,  by  which  a  few  citizens,  selected 
for  the  purpose,  are  constituted  the  judges  of  the 
truth  of  the  facts  (and  in  some  States  of  the  Union 
they  adjudge  as  to  the  law)  in  suits  between 
parties,  and  compelled  to  discharge  this  duty  on 
the  sanctity  of  their  oath,  but  in  subordination  to 
the  court,  who  has  distinct  functions  of  control. 

Justice  of  the  Peace  is  a  person  who  is 
authorized  to  exercise  judicial  functions  in  certain 
districts  whose  boundaries  are  defined  by  statute, 
and  who  holds  this  authority  either  by  election 
by  the  people  or  by  appointment  by  Executive  of 
the  State.  At  first  they  held  about  the  same 
position  in  this  country  as  in  England,,  but  have 
since  become  the  creatures  of  statutes  enacted  by 
Legislatures,  which  have  modified,  and  in  some 
cases  radically  changed  their  prerogatives  and 
duties.  It  may  be  generally  stated  that  their 
jurisdiction  is  both  civil  and  criminal — however, 
not  extending  beyond  a  certain  amount  in  issue 
in  civil  cases  nor  to  crimes  greater  in  degree  than 
misdemeanors. 

Jus'tifiahle  Homicide  is  the  killing  of  a 
human  creature  without  incurring  legal  guilt,  as 
where  a  man  is  duly  sentenced  to  be  hanged  ; 
where  one,  in  self-defense,  necessarily  kills 
another  to  preserve  his  own  life,  etc. 

Justification,  one  of  the  most  common  terms 
of  technical  theology.  In  Protestant  theology, 
it  expresses  an  act  of  Divine  favor  whereby  a 
sinner  is  absolved  from  the  penalty  of  his  sins, 
and  accepted  as  righteous,  not  on  account  of  any¬ 
thing  in  himself,  but  on  account  of  the  righteous¬ 
ness  of  Christ  imputed  to  him.  In  the  doctrinal 
system  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  justifica¬ 
tion  is  considered  not  purely  as  a  forensic  act,  or 
act  of  acquittal,  but,  further,  as  an  infusion  of 


JUSTIN. 


488 


KANSAS. 


personal  righteousness,  and  as,  hence,  equivalent 
to  what  Protestants  specially  call  sanctification. 

Jus 'tin,  a  Roman  historian  who  flourished, 
probably,  in  the  third  or  fourth  century,  although 
some  assign  him  an  earlier  date. 

Justinian 'us  (Justinian)  I.,  Flavius  Anicius, 
nephew,  by  the  mother’s  side,  of  the  Emperor 
Justin,  was  born  483  a.d.,  in  the  village  of  Tau- 
resium.  In  527  the  Emperor  Justin  proclaimed 
him  his  partner  in  the  empire.  Justin  survived 
the  step  but  a  few  months,  and  Justinianus  was 
crowned  as  sole  emperor.  Ilis  reign,  which  ex¬ 
tends  over  thirty-eight  years,  is  the  most  brilliant 
in  the  history  of  the  late  empire.  He  died  Nov. 
14,  565. 

Justin'ns,  surnamed  the  Martyr,  and  fre¬ 
quently  the  Philosopher,  a  father,  and  one 


of  the  most  distinguished  apologists  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  Church,  was  a  native  of  Flavia  Neapolis, 
born  either  in  89,  113,  114,  or  118  a.d.  lie  is 
said  to  have  been  beheaded  about  the  year  165,  in 
the  reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  because  he  refused 
to  offer  sacrifice  to  the  heathen  gods. 

Justinus  I.,  or  Justin  the  Elder,  Emperor 
of  the  East,  born  in  450  a.d.,  and  died  in  527. 

Justinus  II.,  or  Justin  the  Younger,  Em¬ 
peror  of  the  East,  succeeded  his  uncle  Justinian 
I.,  in  565  a.d. ,  and  died  in  578. 

Jute.  The  jute  of  commerce  is  a  fiber  pro¬ 
duced  from  two  species  of  Tiliacece,  the  Corchorus 
olitorius  and  Corchorus  capsularis.  From  the 
fiber  which  is  the  cheapest  known,  are  produced 
gunnies,  gunny-cloth,  and  cordage,  and  from  the 


finer  qualities,  carpets,  shirting,  coat-linings,  etc., 
are  made. 

Jut 'land  (Dan.  Jylland )  forms  a  portion  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Denmark.  The  Province  of 
North  Jutland  has  an  area  of  9,709  square  miles, 
and  a  pop.  (1880)  of  868,511. 

Juvenal 'is,  Decimus  Junius,  the  Roman 
satirist,  was  born  at  Aquinum.  The  year  of  his 
birth  is  unknown;  he  was  a  youth  in  the  reign  of 
Nero;  was  come  to  man’s  estate,  and  was  writing 
in  that  of  Domitian  (81-96  a.d.);  and  survived 
into  the  times  of  Hadrian,  (117-138  a.d.)  Ilis 
interest  for  posterity  depends  altogether  on  his 
writings — on  his  sixteen  satires.  He  has  great 
humor  of  a  scornful,  austere,  but  singularly 
pungent  kind,  and  many  noble  flashes  of  a  high 
moral  poetry. 


K 


Kis  the  eleventh  letter  of  the  English  alpha¬ 
bet.  The  Shemitic  languages  had  two 
characters  with  the  same  or  very  similar  conson¬ 
antal  power — the  one  called  in  Hebrew  Kaph 
(hollow  of  the  hand),  the  other  Koph  (the  hind 
head).  Both  were  at  first  transplanted  into  the 
Greek  [k  (Kappa)— K,  9  (old  Greek  Koppa) = Q  ] , 
and  thence  into  Latin;  but  in  Greek,  Koppa,  or 
q,  was  early  dropped,  and  in  Latin  Kappa,  or  k, 
was  supplanted  by  c,  except  in  the  case  of  a  few 
words,  as  Kalendee  and  Kceso.  In  the  languages 
derived  from  Latin,  accordingly,  k  is  used  only 
in  writing  foreign  words.  Although  unknown  to 
the  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet,  it  has  in  modern 
English  to  a  considerable  extent  taken  the  place 
of  c  in  words  of  Saxon  origin.  The  character 
Koppa,  or  q,  has  been  retained  in  modern  alpha¬ 
bets,  as  it  was  in  Latin,  only  in  the  combination 
qu.  K  (q,  or  c  hard)  is  the  sharp  mute  of  the 
guttural  series,  k,  g,  ch,  gh. 

Kaaba  (Arab,  square  house),  the  name  of  an 
oblong  stone  building  within  the  great  mosque  of 
Mecca,  replacing,  since  1627,  a  structure  claimed 
to  have  been  built  by  Abraham  and  Ishmael,  on 
the  spot  where  Adam  first  worshiped. 

Kaania,  or  Caama  ( Autilope  caama),  a  species 
of  antelope,  a  native  of  the  South  of  Africa. 

Kaf'fir,  or  Kafir,  the  name  of  a  great  family 
of  the  human  race  inhabiting  the  south  part  of 
the  Continent  of  Africa. 

Kaffra'ria,  Proper  or  Independent.  The 
general  designation  of  Kaffraria  was  formerly 
applied  to  the  whole  of  the  coast  region  of  South 
Africa  east  of  the  Great  Fish  river.  Since  1875 
however,  Fingoland,  the  Idutwya  Reserve,  Tam- 
bookieland,  and  other  districts  beyond  the  Kei, 
have  been  annexed  to  Cape  Colony. 

Kaffraria,  British,  a  region  of  South  Africa, 
between  the  Great  Kei  and  the  Keiskamma, 
wrested  from  the  Kaffirs  by  the  Cape  Colonists  in 
the  war  of  1846  to  1847. 

Kafir 'istan  (i.  e.,  country  of  the  Kafirs  or 
infidels),  a  country  of  Central  Asia,  on  the  south 
declivity  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  forming  part  of  the 
northern  basin  of  the  Cabul,  in  35°  to  36°  N. 
latitude,  and  69°  20'  to  71t’  20'  E.  longitude. 
Area,  7,000  square  miles. 

Kalamazoo',  a  thriving  manufacturing  city  in 
the  southwest  of  Michigan.  Pop.,  16,000. 

Kale,  or  Borecole  (Ger.  Kohl),  a  cultivated 
variety  of  Brassica  oleracea,  differing  from  cab¬ 
bage  in  the  open  heads  of  leaves,  which  are  used 
for  culinary  purposes  as  greens,  and  also  as  food 
for  cattle. 

Kalioka,  county  seat  of  Clark  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  1,000. 

Kalania,  county  seat  of  Cowlitz  county,  Wash. 
Ter.  Pop.,  129. 

Kalei'doscope  (from  Qr.  KaXot,  kalos ,  beauti¬ 
ful,  eidoi,  eidos,  image,  and  6kokeo,  sfcopeo,  I 
see),  an  optical  instrument  consisting  of  a  tube, 
through  whose  length  pass  two  or  more  mirrors  or 
reflecting  planes,  which  are  joined  together  along 
their  edges,  and  make  with  each  other  an  angle 
which  is  an  aliquot  part  of  180°,  while  the  one 
end  is  fitted  up  with  an  eye-glass,  and  the  other  is 
closed  by  two  glasses,  at  a  small  distance  from 
each  other,  between  which  are  placed  little  frag¬ 
ments  of  glass  or  other  variously  colored  objects. 


The  eye  looking  into  the  tube  perceives  these 
objects  multiplied  as  many  times  as  the  angle 
which  the  reflecting  planes  make  with  each  other 
is  contained  in  the  whole  circumference  of  a  cir¬ 
cle,  and  always  symmetrically  disposed,  and  the 
slightest  shaking  of  the  instrument  produces  new 
figures.  There  are  various  modifications  of  the 
kaleidoscope,  by  some  of  which  its  power  is 
increased,  and  it  is  not  only  a  pleasing  toy,  but  of 
great  use  to  pattern -drawers  and  others,  to  whom 
it  supplies  endless  varieties  of  figures. 

Knliha'ri  Desert,  is  a  vast  central  and  nearly 
uninhabited  tract  of  country  extending  from  the 
northern  banks  of  the  Gariep  or  Orange  river  to 
the  latitude  of  21°  S.,with  an  average  breadth 
of  about  350  miles.  It  is  a  wholly  riverless, 
sandy,  but  in  many  places  well-wooded  region, 
on  which  rain  seldom  falls,  and  to  all  appearance 
formerly  the  bed  of  an  immense  lake. 

Kalkaska,  the  county  seat  of  Kalkaska 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Kal'mia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Ericea,  consisting  of  evergreen  shrubs, 
mostly  about  two  or  three  feet  high,  natives  of 
North  America.  It  is  narcotic  and  dangerous  ;  a 
decoction  of  the  leaves  has  been  used  with 
advantage  in  cutaneous  diseases. 

Kalmucks,  are  the  most  numerous  and  cele¬ 
brated  of  the  Mongol  nations.  They  are  divided 
into  four  tribes,  the  Khoskots,  Dzungars,  Der- 
bets,  and  Torgots.  The  Kalmuck  is  considered 
to  be  the  original  type  of  the  Mongol  and  Manchu 
races,  and  his  ugliness  is  the  index  of  the  purity 
of  his  descent.  They  are  a  nomad,  predatory, 
and  warlike  race,  and  pass  the  greater  part  of 
their  lives  in  the  saddle.  Their  usual  food  is 
barley -flour  soaked  with  water,  and  their  drink  is 
koumiss  (made  from  fermented  mare’s  milk). 

Kalong,  a  name  belonging  to  one  or  more 
species  of  frugivorous  bat  inhabiting  Java,  but 
now  frequently  applied  to  all  the  frugivorous 
bats,  the  family  Bteropidce,  or  at  least  to  all  the 
species  of  the  genus  Pteropus. 

Kalu'ga,  a  government  of  Russia,  lies  imme¬ 
diately  southeast  of  that  of  Smolensk.  Area, 
11,780  square  miles ;  pop.  (1879),  1,098,814. — 
Kaluga,  chief  town  of  the  above  government, 
is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Oka,  in  latitude  54°  31' 
N.,  longitude  36°  20 '  E.  Pop.  (1880),  38,608. 

Ka'ma,  a  river  of  European  Russia,  rises  in 
the  government  of  Yiatka,  and  after  a  southwest 
course  of  1,100  miles,  joins  the  Volga. 

Kamtchat'ka,  Peninsula  of,  forms  the 
southeast  extremity  of  Siberia,  extending  in  lati¬ 
tude  between  51°  and  60°  N.,  and  in  longitude 
between  155°  40'  and  164°  20'  E.  It  is  725  miles 
Iona;,  and  averages  190  miles  in  breadth.  Pop., 
10,000. 

Kanaga'wa,  a  town  of  Japan,  and  the  ship¬ 
ping  port  of  Yedo. 

Kauai),  county  seat  of  Kane  county,  Utah. 
Pop.,  394. 

Kane,  Elisha  Kent,  M.D.,  a  celebrated 
Arctic  explorer,  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  Feb. 
3,  1820.  In  May,  1850,  he  commenced  his  career 
of  Arctic  discovery  as  surgeon,  naturalist,  and 
historian  to  the  first  Grinnell  expedition.  In  the 
spring  of  1853  he  was  again  sent  out,  this  time  as 
commander  of  a  second  Grinnell  expedition,  in 


which  he  achieved  important  results.  He  died 
on  Feb.  16,  1857. 

Kangaroo'  (Macropus),  a  genus  of  herbivorous 
marsupial  quadrupeds,  characterized  by  great 
length  of  the  hind-legs,  while  the  fore  legs  are 
small.  The  tail  is  long,  thick,  strong,  and 
tapering,  and  is  of  use  in  balancing  the  animal  in 
its  leaps,  and  also  for  sustaining  the  body  in  its 
ordinary  erect  sitting  posture,  in  which  it  uses  the 
hind-legs  and  the  root  of  the  tail  as  a  tripod. 
The  head  is  in  form  somewhat  like  that  of  a  deer ; 


Great  Kangaroo  (Macropus  giganleus). 


the  ears  moderately  large,  and  oval  ,  the  eyes 
large,  and  the  aspect  mild.  The  great  kangaroo 
(M.  g.  gardens)  is  generally  about  7i  feet  in 
length  from  the  nose  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  the 
tail  being  rather  more  than  3  feet  in  length, 
and  fully  a  foot  in  circumference  at  the  base. 
The  woolly  kangaroo  or  red  kangaroo  (M. 
lanigtr)  rather  exceeds  it  in  size. 

Kangaroo  Grass  (Anthistiria  australis),  the 
most  esteemed  fodder-grass  of  Australia.  It 
affords  abundant  herbage,  and  is  much  relished 
by  cattle. 

Kankakee,  a  flourishing  city  of  Kankakee 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  5,975. 

Kan'sas,  one  of  tlx;  United  States,  lying  between 
latitude  37°  and  40°  N.,  and  longitude  94°  40' 
and  102°  W.  The  central  State  of  the  Union,  it 
is  410  miles  long,  and  contains  82,080  square 
miles.  The  capital  is  Topeka.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Missouri,  Kansas,  Osage,  Neosho,  the 
Arkansas,  and  their  branches.  Tliree-fourths  of 
the  entire  area  is  well  suited  for  agriculture. 
There  are  no  mountains,  few  swamps;  but  the 
land  rises  in  bluffs  and  rolling  prairies.  The  soil 
is  fertile,  producing  all  the  cereals,  with  cotton, 
hemp,  tobacco,  and  fruits.  Coal,  lignite,  lead, 
marble,  kaolin,  gypsum,  and  salt  are  among  the 
minerals.  The  wealth  of  natural  grass,  and 
the  abundance  of  water,  make  Kansas  singularly 
favorable  for  stock-raising.  The  railroads  of 
the  State  arc  numerous.  Kansas  was  organized 
as  a  Territory  in  1854,  and  became  the  scene  of 
violent  contests  between  northern  and  southern 
settlers  on  the  question  of  slavery.  After  much 


KANSAS. 


489 


KESTREL. 


violence,  a  constitution  was  adopted,  excluding 
slavery,  and  Kansas  was  admitted  into  the 
Union,  Jan.  29,  1861.  Pop.,  1,409,748. 

Kansas,  a  river  which,  with  its  tributaries, 
drains  the  northern  portion  of  the  State  of  Kansas, 
flowing  eastward  into  the  Missouri. 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  is  the  second  city  in 
the  Stale,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri 
river,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Kansas,  and  on  the 
Kansas  State  line.  The  city  is  a  very  important 
railway  center,  and  is  the  supply  and  distribution 
point  for  a  vast  region  northwest,  west,  and 
southwest.  Pop.  (1889),  189,487. 

Kansas  City,  Kan.,  is  in  Wyandotte  county, 
Pop.,  34,896.  It  is  contiguous  to  Kansas  City, 
Mo.  The  two  cities  are  really  one  in  continuity, 
but  are  under  separate  municipal  governments. 
As  one  has  grown,  so  has  the  other,  and  their 
identity  of  interests  is  inseparable. 

Kant,  Immanuel,  one  of  the  greatest  and  most 
influential  metaphysicians  of  all  time,  was  born  at 
Kdnigsberg,  April  22,  1724,  and  died  Feb.  12, 
1804.  His  Kritik  dev  Reinen  Vernunfl  marked 
an  epoch  in  speculative  philosophy. 

Ka'olin  is  the  name  given  by  the  Chinese  to 
the  fine  white  clay  which  they  use  in  making 
their  porcelain.  It  is  furnished  by  the  decompo¬ 
sition  of  a  granitic  rock,  the  constituents  of  which 
are  quartz,  mica,  and  feldspar,  the  latter  having 
gradually  moldered,  by  the  joint  action  of  air 
and  water,  into  this  substance.  The  name  is 
applied  generally  to  all  clays  of  similar  composi¬ 
tion,  wherever  found. 

Karakorum  Mountains,  in  Central  Asia,  forms 
an  eastern  continuation  of  the  Hindu  Kush  and 
sweeps  southeastward,  toward  the  sources  of  the 
Indus. 

Kara  Sea  is  the  name  of  the  portion  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  lying  between  Nova  Zenibla  and  the 
Siberian  coast. 

Karen 'gia  ( Pennisetum  distichum),  a  grass 
closely  allied  to  the  millets,  and  producing  a  grain 
of  the  snne  kind.  It  is  a  native  of  Central 
Africa,  and  is  highly  valued  as  food. 

Karens,  an  Indo-Chinese  people  allied  to  the 
Burmans,  but  less  civilized. 

Karnal,  a  district  in  the  Punjab,  India,  touch¬ 
ing  the  Jumna  on  the  east.  Area,  2,396  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  622,621.  The  chief  town, 
Karnal,  has  (1881)  a  pop.  of  23,133. 

Kashan',  one  of  the  most  flourishing  towns  of 
Persia,  is  situated  in  a  well-peopled,  well-culti¬ 
vated  district,  3,690  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
ninety-two  miles  north  of  Ispahan.  Pop.,  30  000. 

Kaskas'kia,  a  river  of  Illinois,  which  rises  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  State,  and  running  south¬ 
west,  falls  into  the  Mississippi  at  the  town  of  Kas- 
kaskia. 

Kat  River,  a  branch  of  the  Great  Fish  river 
in  the  Cape  Colony,  Africa. 

Kat/rine,  Loch,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
Scottish  lakes,  is  situated  near  the  southwest  bor¬ 
der  of  Perthshire. 

Ka'tydid  ( Rlatyphyllum  concamim),  a  species 
of  grasshopper  found  in  North  America,  whose 


Katj  did. 


peculiar  note  is  always  to  be  heard  during  the 
summer,  from  the  evening  twilight  till  the  middle 
of  the  night. 

Kaufman,  the  county  seat  of  Kaufman  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Kauihaeh,  Wilhelm  von,  a  celebrated  Ger¬ 
man  painter,  was  born  at  Arolsen,  in  the  Princi¬ 
pality  of  Waldeck,  Oct.  15,  1805,  and  died  April 
7,  1874. 

Kau'ri,  or  Kowrie,  or  Kauri  Pine  {Dam- 
main,  australis),  a  species  of  dammar,  a  native 
of  New  Zealand,  is  a  tree  of  great  size  and 


beauty.  It  produces  a  resin  that  is  used  in  mak¬ 
ing  varnishes. 

Kazan',  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the 
government  of  the  same  name.  Pop.  (1880), 
94,170. 

Kazan  (in  Tartar,  a  golden-bottomed  kettle),  a 
government  of  Russia,  between  Astrakhan  on 
the  east,  and  the  Government  of  Nijui-Novgorod 
on  the  west.  Area,  24,505  square  miles;  pop. 
(1880),  1,872,437. 

Kean,  Edmund,  an  eminent  English  actor,  was 
born  in  London  about  1787,  and  died  May  15, 
1833. 

Kean,  Charles  John,  second  son  of  Edmund, 
was  born  in  1811,  and  died  in  1868.  Compared 
with  his  father,  he  was  but  an  indifferent  actor. 

Kearney.  The  name  of  a  distinguished  Ameri¬ 
can  family,  the  most  noted  of  whom  were: — 1. 
Lawrence,  Commodore,  born  in  New  Jersey, 
1789;  died,  1866. — 2.  Stephen  W.,  soldier  and 
military  author,  born  in  New  Jersey,  1794;  and 
died  1848. — 3.  Philip,  Major-General,  born  1815, 
in  New  York;  was  killed  at  Chantilly,  Va.,  Sept. 
1,  1862. 

Kearney,  the  county  seat  of  Buffalo  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  3,601. 

Keel  is  the  backbone,  as  it  were,  of  a  ship, 
running  longitudinally  along  the  middle  of  the 
bottom.  It  consists  of  massive  timbers  clinched 
together  lengthwise.  From  it  spring,  on  either 
side,  the  ribs  on  which  the  ship’s  sides  are  laid, 
and  from  it,  at  the  bow  and  stern  respectively, 
the  stem  and  the  stern-post. 

Keel'son,  in  a  ship,  passes  inside  the  vessel 
from  stem  to  stern,  as  the  keel 
does  outside.  The  floor-timbers 
are  passed  below  it,  each  being 
bolted  through  the  keel,  and 
alternate  ones  through  the  keel¬ 
son.  Like  the  keel,  the  keelson 
is  composed  of  several  massive 
timbers  scarfed  longitudinally  to-  -V  "-eel;  B,  keel- 
gether.  son' 

Keene,  a  prosperous  manufacturing  city  of 
Cheshire  county,  N.  H.  Pop.,  7,000. 

Kelp  (Fr.  varech )  is  the  crude  alkaline  matter 
produced  by  the  combustion  of  sea-weeds.  These 
are  dried  in  the  sun,  and  then  burned  in  shallow 
excavations  at  a  low  heat.  About  twenty  or 
twenty-four  tons  of  sea-weed  yield  one  ton  of 
kelp,  composed  of  chloride  of  sodium,  of  car¬ 
bonate  of  soda  (formed  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  organic  salts  of  soda),  sulphates  of  soda  and 
potash,  chloride  of  potassium,  iodide  of  potas¬ 
sium  or  sodium,  insoluble  salts,  and  coloring 
matter.  It  was  formerly  the  great  source  of  soda. 
A  ton  of  good  kelp  will  yield  about  eight  pounds 
of  iodine,  and  a  quantity  of  chloride  of  potas¬ 
sium. 

Kemble,  John  Philip,  a  popular  actor,  was 
born  at  Prescot,  in  Lancashire,  England,  on  Feb. 
1,  1757,  and  died  in  1823. 

Kemble,  Charles,  brother  of  the  foregoing, 
was  born  at  Brecknock,  in  South  Wales,  on 
Nov.  25,  1775.  He  was  also  an  able  actor,  and 
died  in  1854. 

Kempis,  Thomas  a,  the  supposed  author  of 
the  Imitation  of  Christ,  was  so  called  from  Kem- 
pen,  Prussia,  where  lie  was  born  in  1379.  He 
died  in  1471. 

Kenansville,  the  county  seat  of  Duplin  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  373. 

Kennebec',  a  river  in  Maine,  rises  in  Moose- 
head  Lake,  and  runs  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Kennett,  the  county  seat  of  Dunklin  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  300. 

Keno'slia,  a  manufacturing  city  of  Kenosha 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  6,000.  It  is  pleasantly  sit¬ 
uated  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  and  is  noted 
for  its  artesian  wells.  It  also  has  many  handsome 
residences  and  public  buildings. 

Ken'singtoii  Gardens,  one  of  the  public  orna¬ 
mental  parks  of  London. 

Kent,  an  important  maritime  county  of  Eng¬ 
land,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  estuary  of 
the  Thames,  and  on  the  east  and  southeast  by  the 
Strait  of  Dover.  Area,  1,004,984  acres  ;  pop. 
(1881),  977,585. 

Kentland,  the  county  seat  of  Newton  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  1,200. 


Kenton,  the  county  seat  of  Hardin  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  3,940. 

Kentuek'y,  one  of  the  United  States,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Ohio,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois;  east  by  West  Virginia  and  Virginia; 
south  by  Tennessee,  and  west  by  Missouri.  Area, 
37,680  square  miles,  or  24,115,200  acres.  It  has 
110  counties.  The  capital  is  Frankfort.  Its 
chief  rivers  are  the  Ohio,  Mississippi,  Tennessee, 
Cumberland,  Kentucky,  Licking,  and  Green. 
The  soil  is  mostly  fertile,  and  contains  some  of 
the  finest  agricultural  regions  in  America,  pro¬ 
ducing  wheat,  maize,  cotton,  hemp,  tobacco,  and 
all  the  fruits  of  the  warmer  temperate  regions. 
There  are  coal  beds,  some  rich  in  oil.  extending 
nearly  across  the  State.  Of  the  many  caverns,  tire 
Mammoth  Cave  is  the  most  celebrated.  There 
are  also  deposits  of  lead,  iron,  marble,  and  salt. 
Kentucky  is  the  principal  tobacco-growing  State 
in  the  Union.  It  also  produces  the  finest  horses 
in  the  Union.  The  iron  produce  is  steadily  pro¬ 
gressing.  Of  the  population,  over  271,000  are 
colored  persons.  Kentucky  was  organized  as  a 
Territory  in  1790,  admitted  as  a  State  in  1792. 
Upon  the  breaking  out  of  the  Rebellion  in  1861, 
efforts  were  made  by  Governor  Magoffin  to  make 
the  State  secede,  or  at  least  to  place  her  in  an  atti¬ 
tude  of  neutrality.  Better  counsels  prevailed, 
and  the  loyalty  of  the  State  was  maintained, 
though  many  of  her  citizens  joined  the  Confed¬ 
erate  army.  Pop.  (1880),  1,648,690. 

Kentucky,  a  river  of  Kentucky,  which  rises 
in  the  Cumberland  Mountains,  and  enters  the 
Ohio,  about  fifty  miles  below  Cincinnati. 

Ke'okuk,  a  flourishing  manufacturing  and 
agricultural  city  of  Iowa,  is  in  the  southeast  cor¬ 
ner  of  the  State.  Pop.,  14,000. 

Keosaiiqua,  the  county  seat  of  Van  Buren 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  883. 

Kepler,  or  Iaeppler,  Johann,  one  of  the 
greatest  astronomers  of  all  ages,  was  born  at 
Magstatt,  in  Wtirtemberg,  Dec.  27,  1571,  and 
died  in  1630. 

Ker'mes,  sometimes  also  known  in  commerce 
as  scarlet  grain,  a  dye-stuff  which  consists  of  the 
bodies  of  the  females  of  a  species  of  Coccus 
(C.  ilicis). 

Kermes  Mineral,  so  called  from  its  resem¬ 
blance  in  color  to  the  insect  kermes,  is  an  anti- 
monial  preparation  which  was  discovered  by 
Glauber.  It  is  generally  regarded  as  a  tersul- 
phuret  of  antimony. 

Kernel*,  Andr.  Justinus,  a  German  poet,  was 
born  at  Ludwigsburg,  in  Wtirtemberg,  Sept.  18, 
1786,  settled  as  a  physician  at  Weinsberg,  where 
he  died  Feb.  21,  1862. 

Ker'ry,  a  maritime  county  in  the  Southwest  of 
Ireland,  in  the  Province  of  Munster,  is  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  mouth  of  the  Shannon,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Area,  1,185,- 
917  acres. 

Kerrville,  the  county  seat  of  Kerr  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  350 

Kes'trel,  or  Windhover  ( Falco  tinnunculus ), 
a  small  species  of  falcon,  and  one  of  the  most 


Kestrels  ( Falco  tinnunculus). 
1,  the  male;  a,  the  female. 


common  of  the  British  Falco  nidm.  It  is  rather 
larger  than  the  merlin,  its  whole  length  being 
from  13  to  15  inches. 


KETCHUP. 


490 


KING-CRAB. 


Ketch  'up,  or  Catsup,  a  name  common  to  several 
esteemed  kinds  of  sauce. — Mushroom  Ketchup 
is  made  from  the  common  mushroom  (Agaricus 
carhpestrU),  by  breaking  it  into  small  pieces  and 
mixing  it  with  salt — which  so  acts  upon  it  as  to 
reduce  the  whole  mass  to  an  almost  liquid  state — 
straining,  and  boiling  down  to  about  half  the 
quantity.  Spices  of  different  kinds  are  added, 
and  sometimes  wine.  Mushroom  ketchup  must 
be  kept  in  tightly  corked  bottles. — Walnut 
Ketchup  is  made  from  unripe  walnuts,  before 
the  shell  has  hardened.  They  are  beaten  to  a 
pulp,  and  the  juice  separated  by  straining.  Salt, 
vinegar,  and  spices  are  added,  and  after  consider¬ 
able  boiling  down,  the  ketchup  is  bottled,  and 
may  be  kept  for  years. — Tomato  Ketchup  is 
made  in  a  similar  manner  from  tomatoes,  but  is 
not  strained. 

Ken 'per,  the  upper  division  of  the  triassic 
period,  consisting  of  a  thickness  of  more  than 
1,000  feet  of  various  colored  sandstones,  marls, 
with  gypsum  and  dolomite,  and  a  series  of  car¬ 
bonaceous  slate-clay,  sandstones,  and  coal. 

Kewaunee,  the  county  seat  of  Kcw-aunec 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Keyser,  the  county  seat  of  Mineral  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Keytesville,  the  county  seat  of  Chariton 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Key  West,  a  city  of  Florida,  and  a  naval  station 
of  the  United  States,  is  situated  on  the  Island  of 
Key  West,  the  most  westerly  of  the  group  of 
Florida  Keys.  There  are  extensive  fortifications, 
a  good  harbor,  two  light-houses,  and  a  light-sliip, 
several  churches,  a  marine  hospital,  and  barracks. 
Pop.,  17,442. 

Khartoum',  the  headquarters  of  the  Egyptian 
Government  in  Nubia.  Pop:,  variously  estimated 
from  20,000  to  50,000.  The  place  has  a  melan¬ 
choly  interest  as  the  scene  of  the  assassination  of 
Gen.  George  Gordon,  by  an  Arab,  on  Jan.  27, 
1885. 

Khatmandu',  the  seat  of  government  in  Ne- 
paul,  in  latitude  27°  42'  N.,  and  longitude  85° 
18'  E.  Pop.,  about  50,000. 

Khay'a,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Cedrelacece.  The  bark  is  astringent  and  febrifuge, 
and  contains  a  peculiar  alkaloid. 

Khedive,  a  title  granted  in  1867  by  the  Sultan 
to  his  tributary  the  Viceroy  of  Egypt. 

Kherson',  a  government  of  Southern  Russia, 
on  the  borders  of  the  Black  Sea.  Pop.  (1880), 
1,765.302. 

Kherson,  or  Cherson,  capital  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  that  name,  in  European  Russia.  Pop. 
(1880),  128,079. 

Khi  'va  (anc.  Chorasmia),  Ivhaurezm,  Khar- 
asm,  or  Urgunge,  a  khanate  of  Turkestan  in 
Central  Asia.  Area,  about  25,000  square  miles. 
Pop.;  about  500,000. 

Khokan'  (originally  Kokand),  once  a  khanate 
of  Turkestan,  now  forms  the  Russian  Government 
of  Ferghana.  Pop.,  960,000. 

Kliorassan ',  (anc.  Parthiu,  Margiana,  and 
Aria),  the  largest  province  of  Persia,  lies  between 
latitude  31° — 38°  30'  N.,  and  longitude  53° — 62° 
30'  E.,  and  contains  about  210,000  square  miles. 

Kliotan,  a  district  of  Eastern  Turkestan,  at  the 
northern  base  of  the  Kuen-Lun  Mountains. 

Khuzistau'  (anc.  Susiana),  a  province  of 
Persia. 

Khy'ber  Pass,  the  most  practicable  of  all  the 
openings,  four  in  number,  through  t lie  Khyber 
Mountains,  between  India  and  Afghanistan.  It 
is  30  miles  in  length,  being  here  and  there  merely 
a  narrow  ravine  between  almost  perpendicular 
rocks  of  at  least  600  feet  in  height. 

Kidney-bean  (Phaseolus),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Legumitiosce,  sub-order  Papili- 
onaceoe.  The  species  are  mostly  annual  herba¬ 
ceous  plants,  natives  of  the  warm  parts  both  of 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres.  The  com¬ 
mon  kidney-bean  (P.  vulgaris)  is  the  haricot  of 
the  French. 

Kidney-vetcli  ( Anthyllis ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Leguminosm,  sub-order  Papilio- 
nacece,  containing  a  number  of  species.  It  grows 
on  dry  soils,  and  is  eaten  with  avidity  by  cattle, 
but  does  not  yield  much  produce. 


Kidneys,  The,  are  two  glands,  having  for  their 
office  the  secretion  of 
the  urine.  The  human 
kidneys  are  situated  in 
the  region  of  the  loins, 
on  each  side  of  the 
spine,  and  are  imbed¬ 
ded  in  a  layer  of  fatty 
tissue.  The  average 
length  of  each  kidney 
is  a  little  more  than 
four  inches,  and  its 
usual  weight  is  from 
four  to  six  ounces. 

The  substance  of  the 
kidneys  is  dense,  ex¬ 
tremely  fragile,  and 
of  a  deep  red  color. 

On  making  a  vertical 
section  of  the  kidney, 
it  is  seen  to  consist  of 
two  different  sub¬ 
stances,  which  are 
named,  from  their 
position,  the  external  Tr 
or  cortical  and  the  Vertical  Section  of  the  Kidney, 
u  toruui,  ana  me  (From  Gray’s  Anatomy.) 

internal  or  medullary  a,  supra  renal  capsule;  hb,  corti- 
substance.  The  cor-  cal  substance  of  kidney;  cc, 
tical  substance  forms  medullary-  substance  of  kid- 
,  n  ,  .  ney;  eee,  the  sinus  or  pelvis; 

by  tar  the  greater  j\  the  ureter,  proceeding  to  the 
part  of  the  gland,  and  bladder, 
sends  numerous  prolongations  inward  between 
the  pyramids  of  the  medullary  substance.  It  is 
soft,  granular,  and  contains  numerous  minute  red 
globular  bodies  diffused  throughout  it,  which  are 
called,  from  their  discoverer,  the  Malpighian 
bodies.  Its  substance  is  made  up  of  the  urinifer- 
ous  tubes,  capillaries,  lymphatics,  and  nerves,  held 
together  by  an  intermediate  parenchymatous  sub¬ 
stance.  The  medullary  substance  consists  of  pale- 
reddish,  conical  masses,  called  the  pyramids  of 
Malpighi.  They  are  usually  about  twelve  iu 
number,  but  vary  from  eight  to  eighteen,  and  their 
apices  (the  papilla)  point  toward  the  hollow  space 
(termed  the  sinus  or  pelvis)  which  occupies  the 
interior  of  the  gland.  The  medullary  structure  is 
firmer  than  the  cortical,  and,  instead  of  being 
granular,  presents  a  striated  appearance,  from  its 
being  composed  of  minute  diverging  tubes  (the 
uriniferous  tubes,  or  tubes  of  Bellini),  which  run  in 
straight  lines  through  this  portioji  of  the  kidneys, 
after  having  run  in  a  highly  convoluted  course 
t hrough  the  cortical  portion.  The  cavity  occupy¬ 
ing  the  interior  of  the  kidneys  (the  sinus  or  pelvis) 
is  lined  by  mucous  membrane,  which,  through 
the  medium  of  the  ureter,  is  continuous  with  that 
of  the  bladder,  and  which  extends  into  the  tissue 
of  the  kidneys,  to  line  the  uriniferous  tubes.  The 
mucous  membrane  forms  a  cup-like  cavity  around 
the  termination  of  each  pyramid,  and  the  cavity, 
termed  the  calyx,  receives  the  urine  from  the  open 
terminations  of  the  tubes,  and  conveys  it  toward 
the  pelvis,  from  whence  it  passes  down  the  ureter 
into  the  bladder.  Each 
kidney  is  supplied  with 
blood  by  a  renal  artery,  a 
large  trunk  which  comes 
off  at  right  angles  to  the 
aorta.  The  blood,  after 
theseparation  of  the  vari¬ 
ous  matters  which  consti¬ 
tute  the  urine,  is  returned 
into  the  venous  system 
by  the  renal  or  emulgent 
vein,  which  opens  into  the 
inferior  vena  cava  The 
nerves  are  derived  from 

the  renal  plexus,  which  is  P.  P'  ,  , 

r  ,  . 1  .  c  Plan  of  the  Renal  Circula- 

tormod  by  filaments  of  t  i O n  ill  Man  and  the 

the  solar  plexus  and  the  Mammalia, 

lesser  splanchnic  nerve.0’  terminal  branch  of  the 
They  belong  entirely  to  ar.  erT’  lnK 
the  ganglionic  or  sympa¬ 
thetic  system.  The  dis¬ 
eases  of  the  kidneys  are 
all  of  such  a  nature  as  to 
require  the  best  skill  of 
medical  men,  and  no  time 
should  be  lost  in  consult¬ 
ing  a  physician  when  the 
first  suspicious  symptoms 
are  noticed,  such  as  pain  in  the  small  part  of  the 


the  ter¬ 
minal  twig.  af,  to  the  Mal¬ 
pighian  tuft,  m,  from 
which  emerges  the  effer¬ 
ent  vessel,  if.  Other  ef¬ 
ferent  vessels,  e,  e,  are 
seen  proceeding  from 
other  tufts,  and  entering 
the  capillaries  surround¬ 
ing  the  uriniferous  tube, 
t.  From  this  plexus  of 
capillaries  the  emulgent 
vein,  ev,  springs. 


back,  irregularities  in  the  discharge  of  urine,  etc. 

Kief,  or  Kiev,  the  chief  town  of  the  Russian 
government  of  that  name.  Pop.,  127,251. 

Kiel,  capital  city  of  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Slesvig-Holstein.  Pop.  (1880),  43,594. 

Kilbourn  City,  a  towm  in  Columbia  county, 
Wis.,  a  popular  summer  resort  on  account  of  its 
proximity  to  the  famous  Dalles  of  the  Wisconsin 
river.  Pop.,  1,520. 

Kildare,  an  inland  county  of  the  Province  of 
Leinster,  Ireland.  Its  greatest  length  from  north 
to  south  is  40  miles;  from  east  to  west,  27  miles. 
Pop.,  77,000. 

Kilima  njaro'  (the  Great  Mountain),  an  enor¬ 
mous  mountain  mass  between  Victoria  Nyanza, 
Africa,  and  the  coast,  in  3°  20'  S.  latitude,  and 
37°  50'  E.  longitude.  It  culminates  in  two  peaks, 
covered  with  perpetual  snow-,  of  which  the  chief 
is  18,700  feet  high — the  highest  known  African 
mountain. 

Kilken'ny  (Gael.  Church  of  St.  Kenny),  the 
capital  of  the  county  of  Kilkenny,  and  a  county 
of  itself,  is  on  the  River  Nore,  seventy-three  miles 
from  Dublin.  Pop.  (1881),  of  city,  12,299;  of 
Parliamentary  borough,  15,278;  of  county,  99,531. 

Killarney,  Lakes  of,  a  series  of  three  con¬ 
nected  lakes,  near  the  center  of  the  County  of 
Kerry,  Ireland.  The  largest  is  5  miles  long  and 
the  smallest  21  miles  long. 

Killingly,  a  towm  of  Windham  county,  Conn. 
Pop.,  7,000 

Kilmar'nock,  the  largest  town  in  the  County 
of  Ayr,  Scotland.  Pop.  (1881),  24,978. 

Kilpatrick,  Judson,  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
cavalry  leaders  in  the  War  of  the  Rebellion,  w-as 
born  in  New  Jersey  in  1836.  He  w-as  appointed  a 
Brigadier-General  of  volunteers  in  May,  1863,  did 
valuable  service  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac, 
and  afterward  with  Sherman’s  army.  He  was 
appointed  Minister  to  Chili  in  1865,  reappointed 
in  1881,  and  died  there  December  4th  of  that  year. 

Kindergarten  (Ger.  children’s  garden),  the 
name  of  a  school  or  training-place  for  young 
children.  The  principle  was  first  propounded  f  id 
the  system  invented  by  Friedrich  Friibel,  l  >rn 
1782,  died  1852.  The  principles  he  laid  down 
are:  («)  That  education  means  a  harmonious 
development  of  all  the  bodily  and  mental  pow-ers; 
(b)  that  the  spontaneous  is  the  raw  material  and 
the  only  element  that  is  valuable  in  education, 
and,  that  the  teacher  must  connect  all  his  instruc¬ 
tion  with  these,  and  graft  it  upon  the  spontaneous 
activity  of  the  child;  (c)  that  the  work  of  the 
teacher  is  not  to  give  knowledge  ab  extra,  but  to 
supply  material,  means,  and  opportunities  in  a 
rational  and  harmonious  order  for  the  child’s 
mind  spontaneously  to  work  upon ;  and  (d)  that 
iu  the  presentation  of  their  materials  or  occupa¬ 
tions,  there  must  be  no  break  (In  Naturd  non 
datur  saltus),  because  all  occupations  which  train 
must  be  developed  out  of  each  other.  On  these 
principles,  with  some  modifications,  the  kinder¬ 
garten  system  is  generally  conducted. 

King-crab  (Limvlus),  a' 
genus  of  Crustacea.  The 
head  and  thorax  are 
united  and  are  covered  by 
a  shield,  which  is  convex 
above,  and  concave  be¬ 
neath.  The  abdomen  is 
more  or  less  hexagonal, 
no  division  into  rings 
appears  in  it,  and  it  is 
covered  by  a  shield  not 
so  broad  as  that  of  the 
head  and  thorax.  On 
each  side  it  has  along  the 
margin  six  movable 
spines  directed  backward 
and  outward;  and  at¬ 
tached  to  it  is  a  tail,  which 
forms  a  long  and  strong 
dagger-like  spine,  some¬ 
times  exceeding  in  length 
the  w-liole  body  of  the 
animal.  The  legs  are  not 
large  enough  to  be  visible 
beyond  the  shield  when  Copied  from  English  Cyclo- 
the  animal  moves  along  padia. 

the  ground.  They  are  «•  position  of  the  two 
smooth  eyes;  b,  b,  lateral 
found  in  tropical  Asia  composite  eyes;  c,  c,  res¬ 
and  America.  piratory  apertures. 


King-crab  ( Limulus 
polyphemus) . 


KINCARDINESHIRE. 


491 


KNEE-JOINT. 


Kill  car' (lines  hire,  or  The  Mearns,  a  maritime 
county  of  Scotland,  with  Aberdeenshire  and  the 
Dee  on  the  north,  Forfarshire  and  the  North  Esk 
on  the  south  and  west,  and  the  North  Sea  on  the 
east.  Pop.,  in  1881,  34,460. 

Kingfisher  ( Alcedo ]  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
order  Insessores,  and  family  Halcyonidee.  The 
name  is  often  extended  to  the  whole  family.  It 
is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  fre- 


Kingfisher  (Alcedo  ispida). 

quents  the  banks  of  rivers  and  streams.  Its  food 
consists  principally  of  small  fishes. 

King  George’s  Sound,  an  inlet  at  the  south¬ 
west  angle  of  Australia. 

King  George,  the  county  seat  of  King  George 
county,  Ya.  Pop.,  100. 

Kingman,  the  county  seat  of  Kingman  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  5,100. 

Kingsley,  the  Rev.  Charles,  was  born  in 
Devonshire,  England,  in  1819.  His  llyytatia,  Alton 
Locke  and  Westward  IIo!  especially  the  first 
named,  are  English  classics.  He  died  in  1875. 

Kings 'ton,  a  city  in  the  Canadian  Province  of 
Ontario,  lies  in  latitude  44°  8'  30",  longitude  76° 
30'  1",  on  the  northeast  shore  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Pop.  (1881),  14,091. 

Kingston,  a  growing  commercial  city  of  New 
York  State,  stands  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hud¬ 
son  river,  about  ninety  miles  north  of  New  York. 
Pop.  (1880),  18,342. 

Kingston,  the  commercial  capital  of  Jamaica. 
Pop.,  about  35,000. 

Kingston,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States: — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Caldwell 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  500. — 2.  The  county  seat  of 
Roane  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  900. — 3.  The  county 
seat  of  Washington  county,  R.  I.  Pop.,  2,100. — 
4.  The  county  seat  of  Lenoir  county,  N.  C.  Pop., 
3,800. 

Kingstree,  the  county  seat  of  Williamsburgh 
county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  510. 

King  William,  the  county  seat  of  King  Will¬ 
iam  county,  Va.  Pop.,  100. 

Kingwood,  the  county  seat  of  Preston  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  400. 

Kin'kajou  ( Cerco - 
leptcs  candivolvulus), 
a  quadruped  of  the 
family  Ursula,  and 
allied  to  the  raccoons 
a  n  d  coatis.  It  is 
larger  than  a  skunk, 
has  a  yellowish 
woolly  fur,  climbs 
trees,  feeds  on  fruits, 
honey,  etc.  It  is  a 
native  of  the  warm 
parts  of  America. 

Ki'no,  an  astrin¬ 
gent  substance,  the 
concrete  exudation 
o  f  certain  tropical 
trees,  Plerocarpus 
marsupium,  and  P. 
er  inace  u  s.  It  is 
employed  in  medi¬ 
cine  in  certain  forms 
of  diarrhoea,  the  best  Kinkajou  ( fercolfpt.es  candi- 
mode  of  prescribing  ,  volvulus). 
it  being  as  compound  kino  powder,  which  is  a 
mixture  of  kino,  cinnamon,  and  opium,  and  the 
dose  for  an  adult  ranging  from  ten  grains  to  a 
scruple.  There  is  also  a  tincture  of  kino,  which, 
when  properly  diluted  with  water,  forms  an  excel¬ 
lent  gargle  for  relaxation  of  the  uvula. 

Kinsley,  the  county  seat  of  Edwards  county, 
Kan.  Pop  ,  2,100. 

Kiowa,  the  county  seat  of  Elbert  county,  Colo. 
Pop.,  200. 


Kirch 'entag,  an  association  of  ministers  and 
laymen  of  the  Lutheran,  German  Reformed, 
United  Evangelical,  and  Moravian  churches  in 
Germany,  for  the  promotion  of  the  interests  of 
religion,  without  reference  to  their  denominational 
differences.  It  holds  an  annual  meeting,  the 
place  of  which  is  changed  from  year  to  year, 

Kirghis',  or  Kirgiiis-kaisaki,  or  Cossacks 
of  the  Steppes,  a  people  spread  over  the  terri¬ 
tory  bounded  by  the  Volga,  desert  of  Obshtchei 
(in  55°  N.  latitude),  the  Irtish,  Chinese  Turkes¬ 
tan,  Ala-Tau  Mountains,  the  Sir-Daria,  and  Aral, 
and  Caspian  Seas.  They  have,  from  time  imme¬ 
morial,  been  divided  into  the  Great,  Middle,  and 
Little  Hordes.  They  are  partly  under  the 
dominion  of  Russia  and  China,  though  mostly 
independent.  Their  collective  numbers  are  esti¬ 
mated  at  upward  of  1,250,000,  more  than  half  of 
whom  belong  to  the  Little  Horde. 

Kirksville,  the  county  seat  of  Adair  county, 
Mo.,  is  a  flourishing  agricultural  town.  Pop., 
2,500. 

Kissimmee,  the  county  seat  of  Osceola  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Kis'singen,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  Lower 
Franconia,  celebrated  for  its  mineral  waters. 
Pop.,  4,000. 

Kist'nali,  or  Krish'na,  a  river  of  the  penin¬ 
sula  of  Hindustan,  rises  within  forty  miles  of  the 
Arabian  Sea,  and  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
after  a  course  of  800  miles. 

Kite  ( Milvus ),  a  genus  of  Falconidce,  or  a  sub¬ 
family  including  elanets,  etc.  The  kites  have 
much  weaker  bill  and  talons  than  the  falcons  and 


Kite  ( Milvus  vulgaris). 


hawks,  bfit  the  wings  are  much  longer,  and  the 
tail  is  rather  long  and  forked.  Their  legs  are 
short.  The  common  kite  is  found  in  almost  all 
parts  of  Europe,  the  North  and  Center  of  Asia,  and 
the  North  of  Africa. 

Kittauning,  the  county  seat  of  Armstrong 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Kit'tiwake  (Lams  tridactylus  or  Z.  rissa),  a 
species  of  gull.  It  is  found  plentifully  in  all 


Kittiwake  (Lams  tridactylus). 


the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  wherever  the 
coast  is  high  and  rocky,  migrating  southward  in 


winter,  and  extending  its  range  as  far  south  as 
the  Mediterranean  and  Madeira. 

Kiz'il-kum  (red  sand),  a  sandy  desert  in  Rus¬ 
sian  Turkestan,  lying  between  the  Amu  Daria 
and  Sir-Daria,  and  stretching  from  the  Sea  of 
Aral  to  Khokan,  in  latitude  41° — 46°  30'  N.,  and 
longitude  60° — 69°  E.  A  continuation  of  this 
desert  northward  across  the  Sir-Daria  is  called 
Kara-Kum  (black  sand),  and  forms  portion  of  the 
Kirghis  Steppe. 

Kliaz'ma,  a  river  of  Russia,  an  affluent  of  the 
Oka,  rises  in  the  Government  of  Moscow,  and 
flows  east  327  miles. 

Klip'springer  (Dutch,  cliff-springer),  or 
Kainsi  ( Antilope  oreotragus ,  or  Oreolragus  sal- 
tat.rix),  a  species  of  antelope,  about  equal  in  size 
to  the  chamois,  and  resembling  it  in  habits,  found 
in  the  highest  mountainous  districts  of  South 
Africa.  It  is  of  a  yellowish-gray  color,  the  hair 
is  long,  and  stands  out  from  the  skin  to  as  to 
make  a  rough  coat.  The  legs  and  the  general 
form  are  more  robust  than  in  most  species  of 
antelope. 

Klopstock,  Friedrich  Gottlieb,  a  German 
poet,  was  born  July  2,  1724,  at  Quedliuburg,  and 
died  March  14,  1803. 

Kneading  by  Machinery.  The  forms  of 
machines  now  in  use  for  kneading  bread  are  vari¬ 
ous — the  general  principle  being,  however,  the 
same  in  all.  It  consists  of  an  iron  cylinder,  in 
which  an  axle  works,  and  around  which  are  set 


a  number  of  curved,  blunt  metal  blades.  The 
upper  half  of  the  cylinder  opens  for  the  supply 
and  removal  of  the  dough.  In  large  bakeries, 
they  are  worked  by  steam-power;  in  smaller  ones, 
by  hand. 

Knee-joint,  The,  is 

the  articulation  between 
the  femur  or  thigh-bone, 
above,  and  the  tibia  or 
shin  -  bone  below.  A 
third  bone,  the  patella, 
or  knee-cap — one  of  the 
sesamoid  bones,  and  not 
a  true  bone  of  the  skele¬ 
ton — also  enters  into  the 
structure  of  this  joint 
anteriorly.  The  articu¬ 
lar  surfaces  of  these 
bones  are  covered  with 
cartilage,  lined  by  a 
synovial  membrane  or 
sac,  which  is  the  largest 
and  most  extensive  in 
the  body,  and  connected 
together  by  ligaments, 
some  of  which  lie  ex¬ 
ternal  to  the  joint,  while 
others  occupy  its  inte-  internal  View  of  the 
rior.  The  most  import-  Knee-joint, 

ant  of  the  external  liga-  (From  Gray’s  Human  Anat- 
ments  are  the  anterior  omy'.) 

or  ligamentum  patella,  a,  the  femur;  b  and  r,  the 
which  is  in  reality  that  internal  and  the  external 


Right 


portion  of  the  quadriceps 
extensor  cruris  which  is 
continued  from  the' 
knee-cap  to  the  tubercle 
of  the  tibia  (see  figure) ; 
one  internal,  and  two 
external  lateral  ligaments;  a  posterior  ligament 
and  capsular  ligament,  which  surrounds  the  joint 
in  the  intervals  left  by  the  preceding  ligaments. 


condyles;  d  and  e,  the  two 
crucial  ligaments;  f  and  g, 
the  external  and  internal 
semilunar  cartilages;  k 
and  i,  the  upper  part  of 
the  fibula;  ./,  the  upper 
part  of  the  tibia. 


KNELLER. 


492 


KORAN. 


Of  the  internal  ligaments,  the  two  crucial,  so 
called  because  they  cross  one  another,  are  the 
most  important.  The  external  and  internal  semi¬ 
lunar  cartilages  are  usually  placed  amongst  the 
internal  ligaments;  they  are  two  crescentric  plates 
of  cartilage.  The  chief  movements  of  this  joint 
are  those  of  a  hinge-joint — namely,  flexion  and 
extension,  but  it  is  also  capable  of  slight  rotatory 
motion  when  the  knee  is  half-flexed.  The  whole 
range  of  motion  of  this  joint,  from  extreme 
flexion  to  extreme  extension,  is  about  150°.  Judg¬ 
ing  from  its  articular  surfaces,  which  have  com¬ 
paratively  little  adaptation  for  each  other,  it  might 
be  inferred  that  this  was  a  weak  and  insecure 
joint;  and  yet  it  is  very  rarely  dislocated.  Its 
real  strength  depends  on  the  large  size  of  the 
articular  ends  of  the  bones,  on  the  number  and 
strength  of  the  ligaments,  and  on  the  powerful 
muscles  and  fasciae  by  which  it  is  invested. 

Kneller,  Sir  Godfrey,  an  eminent  German 
portrait-painter,  was  born  at  Liibeck  in  1648.  In 
1674  he  went  to  London,  and,  on  the  death  of  Sir 
Peter  Lely  in  1680,  was  appointed  court-painter 
to  Charles  II.  He  died  in  1725. 

Knights  (Sax.,  Uniht,  a  servant  or  attendant), 
originally  men-at-arms  bound  to  the  performance 
of  certain  duties,  among  others  to  attend  their 
sovereign  or  feudal  superior  on  horseback  in  time 
of  war.  Knighthood,  originally  a  military  dis¬ 
tinction,  came,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  to  be 
occasionally  conferred  on  civilians,  as  a  reward 
for  valuable  services  rendered  to  the  crown  or 
community.  Since  the  abolition  of  knight- 
service,  knighthood  has  been  conferred  without 
any  regard  to  property,  as  a  mark  of  the 
sovereign’s  esteem,  or  a  reward  for  services  of 
any  kind,  civil  or  military. 

Knot  ( T ring  a,  canutus),  a  bird  of  the  family 
ScolopacidcB,  and  of  the  same  genus  with  the  dun¬ 
lin,  stints,  etc.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  Red 
Sandpiper.  Its  whole  length  is  about  10  inches. 
The  general  color,  in  summer,  is  reddish-brown, 
finely  mingled  with  black,  gray,  and  white  ;  in 
winter  the  plumage  becomes  mostly  ash-gray, 
and  on  the  under  parts  white.  The  knot 
frequents  high  northern  latitudes  in  summer,  and 
breeds  there,  but  migrates  southward  in  winter; 
and  is  then  found,  sometimes  in  large  flocks,  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  as  far  south  as  the 
West  Indies,  chiefly  on  flat,  sandy  shores.  It  runs 
about  with  great  activity  as  the  wave  retires, 
seeking  its  food  on  the  sands.  Its  food  consists 
in  great  part  of  small  bivalve  mollusks,  which  it 
swallows  shell  and  all.  It  is  in  high  esteem  for 
the  table. 

Knot,  an  expression  used  in  speaking  of  a  ship’s 
way  through  the  water,  and,  as  such,  represent¬ 
ing  miles.  The  log-line  is  divided  by  knots  into 
lengths,  each  of  which  is  to  a  geographical  mile  as 
half  a  minute  is  to  an  hour — i.e.,  as  1  to  120.  The 
log  being  cast  overboard,  note  is  carefully  taken  of 
how  many  of  these  knots  run  out  in  a  lialf- 
minute,  and  it  follows  that  the  vessel  is  passing 
through  the  water  at  the  same  number  of  geo¬ 
graphical  miles  per  hour.  A  vessel  making 
twelve  knots  an  hour,  is  traveling  at  the  rate  of 
fourteen  statute  miles. 

Knot,  a  twist  or  loop  in  a  rope  or  cord,  so 
made  that  the  motion  of  one  piece  of  the  line 
ever  the  other  shall  be  stopped.  The  knot  owes 
its  power  of  passive  resistance  to  the  friction  of 
the  rope.  The  simplest  knot  is  the  “  overhand.” 
Its  use  is  to  form  a  knob  in  a  rope  to  stay  it  from 
slipping.  By  a  slight  alteration,  the  “single 


Double-sling. 


sling,”  or  slip  knot,  is  obtained,  always  in  the 
middle  of  the  rope.  More  complicated,  but  still 
more  useful  is  the  “  double-sling,”  for  suspend¬ 
ing  a  beam  or  bar  horizontally.  The  bowline 
knot  serves  to  give  a  tight  grasp  round  a  pole  or 
beam,  which  would  occupy  the  loop  or,  drawn 


close  on  the  rope,  it  forms  a  large  knob,  to 
prevent  the  rope  passing  a  hole.  The  sheepshank 


Bowline— a,  loop.  Sheepshank.  Slip-knot— a,  over¬ 

hand  knot;  b,  loop. 


affords  a  means  of  shortening  a  rope  temporarily, 
without  diminishing  its  power  of  rectilineal 
tension.  All  the  foregoing  have  been  at  the 
double  or  middle  parts  of  the  rope  :  for  the  end 
of  the  cordage  shows  an  admirable  slip-knot, 
which  maintains  its  gripe  until  loosened  by  hand. 
For  modes  of  joining  two  ropes,  the  weaver’s  or 
fisherman’s  knot  may  be  adduced  as  strong  and 


Fisherman’s.  Sailor's. 


neat.  The  sailor’s  knot  has  the  advantage,  when 
properly  made,  of  resisting  all  separating  strain 
on  the  two  ropes,  and  at  the  same  time  of  being 
loosened  immediately  by  a  pull  at  one  of  the 
short  ends.  For  an 
interlacing  of  two 
doubled  rope  s,  t  h  e 
“  Garrick  bend”  has  no 
superior  ;  the  point  of 
junction  cannot  slip,  and 
the  moment  the  tension  Carrick  Bend, 

ceases,  the  two  ropes  are  again  free  from  each 
other.  Knots  have  many  technical  names,  such 
as  bight,  hitch,  etc. 

Knots  of  different  kinds  are  borne  by  different 
families  as  heraldic  badges,  and  are  occasionally 
introduced  as  charges  in  shields. 

Knout,  after  the  Tartar  period,  a  usual  instru¬ 
ment  of  punishment  in  Russia,  and  still  used,  in 
1880,  at  two  penal  settlements.  It  was  a  whip 
with  a  handle  9  inches  long  and  one  complex 
lash,  comprising  a  lash  16  inches  long,  with 
a  metal  ring,  a  continuation  with  another  ring, 
and  finally  a  flat  lash  of  hard  leather,  21 
inches  long,  and  endingin  a  bead-like  hook.  The 
offender  was  tied  to  two  stakes,  stripped,  and 
received  on  the  back  the  specified  number  of 
lashes;  100  or  120  were  equivalent  to  sentence  of 
death,  but  in  many  cases  the  victim  died  under 
the  operation  long  before  this  number  was  com¬ 
pleted. 

Knowles,  James  Sheridan,  an  English  dra¬ 
matist,  was  born  at  Cork  in  1784,  and  died  in 
1862.  His  best  known  plays  are  Virginias,  The 
Hunchback,  and  William  'Tell. 

Knowlton'ia,  a  genus  of  South  African  plants, 
of  the  natural  order  Ranunculacece,  with  flowers 
resembling  those  of  Adonis,  and  succulent  fruit. 
It  is  a  powerful  vesicant,  and  is  used  instead  of 
cantharides. 

Knox,  John,  the  great  Scottish  reformer,  was 
born  in  1505,  at  Gifford  Gate,  Scotland.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  ordained  before  the  year  1530, 
but  did  not  openly  profess  himself  a  Protestant 
till  about  1548.  His  powers  as  a  preacher  were 
not  fully  developed  till  1846,  when  he  began  his 
crusade  against  the  Roman  Church.  He  was 
imprisoned  two  years  in  the  French  galleys,  was 
liberated,  and  allowed  to  go  to  England.  Recalled 
to  Scotland  in  May,  1559,  he  then  entered  upon 
his  triumphant  course  as  a  reformer,  where  he 
labored  until  the  Parliament,  which  met  in 
August,  1560,  overthrew  the  old  religion,  and 
established  the  Reformed  Kirk  in  Scotland.  He 
died  in  1572. 

Knox,  the  county  seat  of  Starke  county,  Ind. 
Pop.,  900; 

Knoxville,  the  name  of  several  towns  and 
cities  in  the  United  States: — 1.  A  prosperous! 


manufacturing  and  agricultural  city  in  Tennessee, 
is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Holston  river, 
165  miles  east  of  Nashville.  Pop.,  35,000.  It  is 
the  site  of  the  University  of  East  Tennessee, 
and  of  the  State  Deaf  and  Dumb  Asylum. — 2. 
The  county  seat  of  Crawford  county,  Ga.  Pop., 
350. — 3.  Is  a  growing  agricultural  town,  the 
county  seat  of  Marion  county,  Iowa.  Pop. ,  2,800. 

Ko'ala  ( Pluiscolardos  cintreus),  a  marsupial 
quadruped,  commonly  referred  to  the  family 


Koala  (Phascolarctos  cinereus). 


Phalan  gist  idee.  The  general  form  is  not  unlike 
that  of  a  young  bear. 

Kocli,  Robert,  bacteriologist,  was  born  at 
Klausthal,  Germany,  in  1844,  and  practiced  medi¬ 
cine  at  Hanover  and  elsewhere.  Called  to  be  a 
member  of  the  imperial  Board  of  Health  in  Ber¬ 
lin,  he  further  extended  his  researches  and  dis¬ 
coveries  in  microscopy  and  bacteriology,  llis 
name  is  especially  identified  with  the  doctrine 
that  splenic  fever,  consumption,  and  cholera  are 
due  each  to  a  specific  bacillus,  which  in  the  case 
of  cholera  he  declared  to  be  comma-shaped. 

Kock,  Charles  Paul  de,  a  French  novelist, 
dramatist,  and  poet,  was  born  at  Plassy,  near 
Paris,  in  1794,  and  died  in  August,  1871. 

Koli-i-nur  (Mountain  of  Light),  the  name  of 
a  large  diamond  now  in  the  possession  of  Queen 
Victoria.  According  to  Hindu  legend,  it  was 
found  in  a  Golconda  mine,  and  its  possessors 
have,  with  few  exceptions,  been  the  rulers  of 
Hindustan.  It  is  said  to  have  weighed  originally 
794  carats;  but  was  reduced  by  cutting  "to  186 
carats.  In  this  state,  rose-cut,  it  was  shown  at 
the  Great  Exhibition  of  1851,  and  was  valued  at 
about  $700,000.  It  was  recut  in  1852,  and  now, 
as  a  regular  brilliant,  weighs  a  little  over  106 
carats. 

Kolil-rabi,  or,  more  properly,  Kohl-rube 
(Ger.  kale-turnip,  similarly  called  chou  rave  by 
the  French),  a  cultivated  variety  of  the  kale  or 
cabbage  (Brassica  oleraceu),  distinguished  by  the 
swelling  of  the  stem  just  above  the  ground,  in  a 
globular  form,  to  the  size  of  a  man’s  fist,  or 
larger,  leaf-stalks  springing  from  the  swollen  part, 
and  adding  to  the  peculiarity  of  its  appearance. 
This  is  the  part  which  is  used,  and  its  uses  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  turnip. 

Kokomo,  a  flourishing  city  and  the  county 
seat  of  Howard  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  6,500. 

Kbuig,  Friedrich,  the  inventor  of  the  steam 
printing-press,  was  born  at  Eisleben,  Germany, 
April  17,  1775,  and  died  Jan.  17,  1833. 

Konigsberg,  an  important  town  and  fortress 
of  Prussia,  in  the  Province  of  Prussia.  Pop. 
(1880),  140,909. 

Konrad,  or  Conrad.  The  name  of  three  Ger¬ 
man  emperors  whose  reigns  extended  from  911 
intermittently  to  1152. 

Konradin  of  Swabia,  the  last  descendant  of 
the  imperial  House  of  Ilohenstaufen,  was  the 
son  of  Konrad  IV.,  and  was  born  in  1252.  He 
was  beheaded  in  1268. 

Ko'pek,  a  Russian  money  of  account,  the  TJ0 
part  of  a  rouble,  and  equivalent  to  about  % 
of  a  cent. 

KoTan  (Arab,  from  karaa,  to  read),  [=IIebr. 
Mikra,  the  written  Book,  or  that  which  can  and 
ought  to  be  read  : — the  Old  Testament,  in  contra¬ 
distinction  to  Mishnah,  or  the  Code  of  the  Oral 
Law],  The  Reading,  by  way  of  eminence;  a 
term  first  applied  to  even'  portion  of  Mohammed’s 
revelations;  at  a  later  period,  used  fora  greater 
number  of  these;  and  finally  for  their  whole 
body,  gathered  together  in  the  one  book,  which 
forms  the  religious,  social,  civil,  commercial, 
military,  and  legal  code  of  Islam. 


KOODOO. 


493 


LABRUYERE. 


Koo'doo,  (Antilope  strepsiceros,  or  Strepsiceros- 
koodoo),  one  of  the  largest  species  of  antelope.  It 
lives  in  small  families  of  four  orliye,  inhabiting" 


chiefly  the  wooded  parts  of  South  Africa,  and  is 
easily  domesticated. 

Kordofan',  or  the  White  Land,  lately  a  prov¬ 
ince  of  the  Egyptian  Sudan,  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  White  Nile,  which  separates  it  from 
Sennaar,  and  is  separated  on  the  west  from  Darfur 
by  a  strip  of  desert.  It  extends  in  latitude  from 
10°  to  15°  20'  N.  Its  area  has  been  estimated  at 
12,000  square  miles,  and  its  pop.  at  400,000. 

Earner,  Theodor,  a  patriotic  German  poet, 
was  born  at  Dresden,  Sept.  23,  1791.  His  most 
famous  production  is  the  Scliwert-Leid  (Sword- 
Song).  He  was  killed  in  battle  near  Rosenberg, 
Aug.  26,  1813. 

Kosciusko,  Tadeusz,  a  great  Polish  general 
and  patriot,  born  about  the  middle  of  last  century, 
in  the  Province  of  Minsk,  Western  Russia,  became 
a  captain  in  the  Polish  army,  went  to  America,  and 
served  in  the  War  of  Independence.  He  returned 
to  Poland  in  1786,  with  the  rank  of  General  of 
Brigade,  and  won  lasting  fame  by  gallantry  and 
brilliant  military  genius  in  the  defense  of  Poland 
against  Russia  and  Prussia.  He  died  Oct.  15, 1817. 

Kosciusko,  the  county  scat  of  Attala  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Kossuth,  La.jos  (Loots),  the  leader  of  the 
Hungarian  Revolution,  was  born  in  1802,  at  Mo- 
nok,  in  Hungary.  To  his  speeches  in  the  National 
Diet  must  in  great  part  be  ascribed  not  only  the 
Hungarian  Revolution,  but  the  insurrection  in 
Vienna  in  March,  1848.  On  the  dissolution  of  the 
ministry  in  September,  1848,  he  found  himself  at 
the  head  of  the  Committee  of  National  Defense, 
and  now  devoted  his  extraordinary  energy  to  car¬ 
rying  on  the  war.  After  the  defeat  at  Temes- 
var  on  Aug.  9,  1849,  he  was  compelled  to  flee 
into  Turkey,  where  he  was  made  a  prisoner.  In 
September,  1851,  he  was  liberated,  and  went  to 
England.  In  December  of  the  same  year  lie  came 
to  the  United  States;  in  June,  1852,  returned  to 
England,  lie  has  latterly  lived  in  Turin. 

Kotzebue,  August  Friedrich  Ferdinand 
YON,  a  most  prolific  German  dramatist,  was  born 


at  Weimar  on  May  3,  1761,  and  was  assassinated 
at  Mannheim,  March  23,  1819,  on  account  of  his 
hostility  to  the  liberal  movement. 

Kra'ken,  a  fabulous  animal  said  to  have  been 
frequently  seen  in  the  Norwegian  seas  Enor¬ 
mous  magnitude  is  ascribed  to  it;  it  is  said  to 
rise  from  the  sea  like  an  island,  to  stretch  out 
mast-like  arms,  by  which  ships  are  drawn  down, 
and,  when  it  sinks  again  into  the  deep,  to  cause 
a  whirlpool,  in  which  large  vessels  are  involved 
to  their  destruction. 

Krenionchug',  a  district  town  of  Little  Russia, 
in  the  Government  of  Poltava.  Pop.  (1880), 
37,519. 

Kreu'zer — from  the  cross  (kreuz)  formerly  con¬ 
spicuous  upon  it — a  small  copper  coin  current 
till  1876  in  Southern  Germany,  the  sixtieth  part 
of  the  gulden  or  florin. 

Krupp’s  Steel.  The  Krupp  works  at  Essen, 
in  Prussia,  now  cover  nearly  1,000  acres  and 
give  employment  to  some  14,000  persons.  The 
method  used  by  Krupp  is  the  decarburization  of 
cast-iron  in  the  puddling  furnace.  The  material 
he  most  largely  employs  is  spiegeleisen ,  or  spec¬ 
ular  cast-iron,  a  highly  crystalline  variety,  usually 
containing  about  4  per  cent,  of  manganese. 
The  puddling  process  for  steel  is  similar  to  that 
employed  for  iron,  except  that  the  former  is  con¬ 
ducted  at  a  lower  temperature,  and  requires  nicer 
management;  but  in  the  case  of  steel,  the  cast- 
iron  to  be  operated  upon  is  never  previously 
refined.  Cast-iron  to  the  extent  of  about  450 
pounds  is  melted  in  the  puddling  furnace,  mixed 
with  a  quantity  of  slag  or  cinder  (chiefly  silicate 
of  iron),  and  stirred  with  a  rabble.  During  this 
operation,  the  carbon  in  the  cast-iron  (usually 
about  5  per  cent.)  is  gradually  oxidized  by  the 
oxygen  present  in  the  cinder;  carbonic  oxide  is 
produced,  and,  as  it  escapes,  boiling  takes  place. 
When  the  ebullition  becomes  active,  the  tempera¬ 
ture  is  raised  until  the  appearance  of  incipient  solid¬ 
ification  occurs;  the  heat  is  then  lowered,  and  the 
ordinary  process  of  balling  proceeded  with.  Steel 
thus  produced  usually  contains  from  0.5  to  1  per 
cent,  of  carbon;  but  if  the  temperature  is  not 
skillfully  regulated,  the  carbon  becomes  wholly 
burned  away,  and  malleable  iron  instead  of  steel 
is  produced.  Puddled  steel,  although  useful  for 
most  purposes  in  the  arts  (except  cutlery),  never¬ 
theless  wants  homogeneity,  on  account  of  a  cer¬ 
tain  intermixture  of  cinder,  which  is  difficult  to 
get  rid  of  without  fusion — a  defect  which  is  apt  to 
prevent  it  from  welding  perfectly.  In  Krupp’s 
works,  the  puddled  steel  is  remelted  into  crucibles, 
in  order  to  convert  it  into  cast-steel.  The  cruci¬ 
bles  employed  are  made  mainly  from  fire-clay,  to 
which  a  little  plumbago  is  added;  their  capacity 
varies  from  fifty  to  iOO  pounds,  and  as  many  as 
100,000  are  kept  drying  at  the  same  time.  After 
being  once  used,  the  crucibles  are  broken  up,  and 
mixed  with  other  material,  to  make  new  ones.  In 
the  casting  house  where  the  large  ingots  are  run, 
are  the  furnaces,  which  contain  about  1,200  cru¬ 
cibles,  and  in  the  central  portion  are  the  steel 
molds,  varying  in  capacity  from  100  pounds  to 
fifty  tons;  a  single  ingot  weighing  fifty  tons  has 
been  cast  from  these  small  crucibles.  In  order  to 
manipulate  these  masses  of  steel,  there  is  a  steam 
hammer,  weighing  fifty  tons,  which  has  a  cylinder 
nearly  six  feet  in  diameter.  It  has  a  fifty-ton 


Lis  the  twelfth  letter  of  our  alphabet.  It  be¬ 
longs  to  the  order  of  consonants  called 
liquids,  and  has  the  closest  affinity  to  R.  In 
some  languages,  there  is  only  one  sign  for  both, 
as  in  Pehlwi;  and  in  others,  the  one  or  the  other 
sound  is  altogether  wanting.  Hence  the  numer¬ 
ous  substitutions  of  the  one  sound  for  the  other 
in  the  Aryan  languages.  In  Eng.  I  is  often 
mute,  as  in  calm,  yolk,  should.  In  the  Scottish 
dialect,  it  is  mostly  mute  in  the  end  of  words — as, 
fa',fu\  a’,  for  fall,  foil,  all.  Similar lo  this  is 
the  frequent  melting  of  /  intoif  in  modern  French 
— thus  ix  le  has  become  an;  chevals,  chevaux. 

Laa'land,  or  Lolland  (i.  e.,  low  land),  a 
Danish  island  in  the  Baltic,  at  the  southern 
entrance  to  the  Great  Belt.  Area,  452  square 
miles;  pop.,  with  Falster  (1880),  97,007. 


L 

Lab 'arum,  the  famous  standard  of  the  Roman 
Emperor  Constantine,  designed  to  commemorate 
the  miraculous  vision  of  the  cross  in  the  sky, 
which  is  said  to  have  appeared  to  him  on  his  way 
to  attack  Maxentius,  and  to  have  been  the  moving 
cause  of  his  conversion  to  Christianity. 

Labia' tae  (Lamincew  of  Lindley),  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  containing  almost 
2,500  known  species,  mostly  natives  of  temperate 
climates.  Some  are  used  in  medicine,  and  others 
in  cookery  for  flavoring.  Mint,  marjoram,  rose¬ 
mary,  lavender,  sage,  basil,  savory,  thyme,  liore- 
hound,  balm,  patchouli,  germander,  and  dead 
nettle,  are  examples  of  this  order. 

Labrador'  (Port,  terra  labarador,  cultivable 
land),  the  name  given  by  certain  Portuguese  dis¬ 
coverers  to  the  continental  coast  of  America  near 


crane  at  each  of  its  four  corners,  and  behind  each 
of  these  again,  there  are  four  heating  furnaces. 
A  movable  bench  on  low,  massive  wheels  serves  to 
remove  a  large  ingot  from  any  of  the  furnaces, 
which  is  then,  by  means  of  the  powerful  cranes, 
and  a  system  of  pulleys  and  crabs,  placed  on  the 
anvil,  and  worked  into  any  desired  shape.  The 
anvil-face  weighs  185  tons.  Herr  Krupp  manu¬ 
factures  annually  about  125,000  tons  of  steel, 
representing  a  value  of  about  $15,000,000.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  rails,  tires,  crank-axles,  shafts, 
mining  pump-rods,  and  guns — the  proportion  of 
ordnance  being  about  two-fiftlis  of  the  whole. 
In  1874  the  works  included  1,100  smelting  and 
other  furnaces,  275  coke-ovens,  264  forges,  300 
steam-boilers,  71  steam-hammers;  286  steam- 
engines  of  10,000  liorse-power,  1,056  machine 
tools,  30  miles  of  railway,  80  telegraph  stations, 
a  chemical  laboratory,  and  photographic,  litho¬ 
graphic, printingand  book-binding  establishments. 
There  is  a  fire-brigade  of  70  men,  besides  166 
watchmen.  In  1876  the  consumption  of  coal  and 
coke  together  amounted  to  612,000  tons;  that  of 
gas,  7,300,000  cubic  meters  in  20,342  burners. 
Besides  the  works  at  Essen,  the  firm  possesses 
several  mines  and  smelting-works. 

Kuen  Lun,  Ivun  Lun,  or  Kurkun,  is  the  name 
of  a  great  mountain-chain  of  Central  Asia,  run¬ 
ning  generally  east  and  west,  lying  to  the  north 
of  Thibet. 

Ku '  lie  Coins  is  the  name  of  the  earliest  Moham¬ 
medan  coin,  inscribed  with  the  Kufic  or  ancient 
Arabic  character. 

Kulic  Writing,  an  ancient  form  of  Arabic 
characters,  which  came  into  use  shortly  before 
Mohammed,  and  was  chiefly  current  among  the 
inhabitants  of  Northern  Arabia. 

K tili-horn,  sometimes  called  Alp-horn,  is  a 
wind-instrument  much  used  by  the  herdsmen  in 
the  mountainous  countries  of  Germany.  The 
sound  of  the  kuli-horn  is  produced  by  a  mouth¬ 
piece  like  that  of  a  trombone.  It  has  generally 
only  five  notes,  but  extending  over  nearly  two 
octaves — viz.,  C,  G,  C,  E,  G. 

Kuld'ja,  also  called  Ili,  capital  of  a  large  ter¬ 
ritory  in  Dzungaria,  Central  Asia,  near  the 
frontiers  of  Russia  and  China.  Pop.,  50,000. 

Kuni'aon  is  a  district  of  British  India,  in  the 
Kumaon  division  of  the  Northwest  Provinces,  in 
latitude  29° — 31°  N.,  and  longitude  78° — 81°  E. 
Area,  6,000  square  miles;  pop.  (1872),  433,314. 
The  principal  town  is  Almora  (6,260).  The 
division,  of  Kumaon  has  an  area  of  115,000  square 
miles;  pop.,  743,602. 

Klim 'link  (Pentaptera  tomentosa),  a  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Combretucece,  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies. 

Ku'iniss,  an  intoxicating  beverage  much  es¬ 
teemed  by  the  Kalmucks.  It  is  made  from  the 
soured  and  fermented  milk  of  mares.  It  has  an 
acidulous  taste. 

Kurdistan'  (the  country  of  the  Kurds),  an 
extensive  region  of  Western  Asia,  running  north¬ 
west  and  southeast,  between  latitude  34° — 40° 
N.,  and  longitude  40° — 48°  E.  Area,  50,000 
square  miles;  pop.,  3,000,000. 

Kyanising,  the  most  efficacious  method  of 
preserving  ships  from  dry  rot,  by  injecting  into 
the  pores  of  the  wood  a  solution  of  corrosive  sub¬ 
limate. 


Newfoundland.  The  country  stretches  in  N. 
latitude  from  about  52°  to  about  60",  and  in  W. 
longitude  from  about  55°  to  upward  of  65°. 
Area,  70,000  square  miles;  pop.,  5,000. 

Lab'radorite,  or  Labrador  Stone,  a  variety 
of  feldspar,  common  as  a  constituent  of  dolerite, 
greenstone,  the  gabbro,  and  hypersthene  rocks. 

Lab'rida?,  a  family  of  osseous  fishes.  The 
most  valuable  of  the  family  is  the  tautog  of  North 
America.  To  this  family  belong  the  wrasses  and 
the  parrot-fishes,  one  of  which  is  the  celebrated 
scarus  of  the  ancients. 

Laliruyere,  Jean  de,  a  noted  French  author, 
was  born  at  Dourdan,  in  Normandy,  in  1644  or 
1646.  The  work  on  which  his  high  reputation 
rests  is  Les  Caracteres  de  Theopliraste,  traduits  da 


LABYRINTIIODON. 


494 


LADY'S  SLIPPER. 


Grcc,  avecles  Caracteres  ou  tes  Jfoenrs  deceSiecle, 
commonly  known  as  Labruyere's  Characters. 

Labyrin'thodon,  a  genus  of  gigantic  sauroid 
batrachians,  found  in  the  new  red  sandstone 
measures  of  Great  Britain  and  the  continent. 
The  few  and  fragmentary  bones  of  the  body  of 
the  animal  exhibit  a  combination  of  batracliian 


Foot  print  and  Rain  drops. 


and  crocodilian  characters,  leaning,  however,  on 
the  whole,  more  to  the  first  type.  In  the  same 
deposits  there  have  been  long  noticed  the  prints 
of  feet,  which  much  resembled  the  form  of  the 
human  hand. 

Lac,  in  the  East  Indies,  signifies  a  sum  of  100,- 
000  rupees,  or  about  $40,000. 

Lac,  the  general  name  under  which  the  various 
products  of  the  lac  insect  ( Coccus  lacca)  are 
known.  The  curious  hemipterous  insect  which 
yields  these  valuable  contributions  to  commerce 
is  in  many  respects  like  its  congener,  the  cochineal 
insect.  They  live  upon  the  twigs  of  trees,  chiefly 
species  of  butea,  ficus,  and  croton,  and  soon 
entomb  themselves  in  a  mass  of  matter,  which 
oozes  from  small  punctures  made  in  the  twigs  of 
the  tree,  and  which  thus  furnishes  them  with 
both  food  and  shelter.  When  a  colony,  consist¬ 
ing  of  a  few  adult  females  and  one  or  two  males, 
find  their  way  to  anew  branch,  they  attach  them¬ 
selves  to  the  bark,  and  having  pierced  it  with 
holes,  through  which  they  draw  lip  the  resinous 
juices  upon  which  they  feed,  they  become  fixed 
or  glued  by  the  superfluous  excretion,  and  after 
a  time  die,  forming  by  their  dead  bodies  little 
domes  or  tents  over  the  myriads  of  minute  eggs 
which  they  have  laid.  They  soon  spread  to  all 
parts  of  the  tree  where  the  bark  is  tender  enough 
to  afford  them  food,  and  generation  after  genera¬ 
tion  dwells  upon  the  same  twig  until  it  is 
enveloped  in  a  coating,  often  half  an  inch  in 
thickness,  of  the  resinous  exudation,  which  is 
very  cellular  throughout,  the  cells  being  the  casts 
of  the  bodies  of  the  dead  females.  The  small 
twigs,  when  well  covered,  are  gathered  by  the 
natives,  and  are  placed  in  hot  water,  which  melts 
the  resinous  matter,  which  is  refined,  and  be¬ 
comes  the  shellac  of  commerce. 

Lac'cadives  (called  by  the  natives  Lakara- 
Divh — i.  e.,  the  Lakara  Islands),  a  group  of  islands 
in  the  Arabian  Sea,  lie  about  150  miles  to  the 
west  of  the  Malabar  coast  of  the  peninsula  of 
Hindustan. 

Lace,  an  ornamental  fabric  of  linen,  cotton,  or 
silk  thread,  made  either  by  the  hands,  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  embroidery,  or  with  ma¬ 
chinery.  There  is  good  reason  to  suppose  that 
point-lace,  the  oldest  variety  known,  was  the 
work  of  nuns  during  the  latter  half  of  the  four¬ 
teenth  and  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  cent¬ 
uries.  This  point-lace  is  characteristic,  and  is 
truly  an  art  production.  The  exact  figures  of 
the  pattern  were  cut  out  of  linen,  and  over  these 
foundation-pieces,  as  they  may  be  called,  the 
actual  lace- work  was  wrought  by  the  needle,  with 
thread  of  marvelous  fineness,  and  with  such  con¬ 
summate  art,  that  the  material  of  the  foundation 
is  quite  undiscoverable  under  the  fairy-like  web 


ft 

which  has  been  woven  over  it.  These  portions 
of  the  fabric  were  then  joined  together  by  con¬ 
necting  threads,  each  of  which,  like  the  broader 
parts,  consists  of  a  foundation,  and  lace-work 
covering;  the  former  being  a  mere  thread,  often 
of  exceedingly  fine  yarn;  the  latter  being  a  sort 
of  loop-work  like  the  modern  crochet.  The 
second  class  is  pillow-lace,  sometimes  called 
cushion  or  bobbin  lace,  from  the  pillow  or  cushion 
being  used  to  work  the  pattern  upon,  and  the 
various  threads  of  which  the  figures  are  made  up, 
each  being  wound  upon  a  bobbin,  usually  of  an 
ornamental  character,  to  distinguish  one  from  the 
other.  The  third  class  is  machine-made  lace, 
which,  by  its  wonderful  improvement  and  rapid 
development,  has  worked  a  revolution  in  the  lace 
trade,  so  that  the  prices  formerly  obtained  for 
hand-made  lace  can  no  longer  be  commanded, 
while  machine  lace,  of  great  beauty,  has  become 
so  cheap  and  plentiful  as  to  be  worn  by  all 
classes. — Gold-lace  and  silver-lace  are  laces  woven, 
either  by  the  hand  or  by  machinery,  from  exceed¬ 
ingly  fine  threads  of  the  metals,  or  from  linen, 
silk,  or  cotton  threads  which  are  coated  with  still 
finer  threads  of  gold  or  silver. 

Lace-bark  Tree  (Larjettn  lintearia),  a  tree  of 
the  natural  order  Thymeleacea1,  a  native  of  the 
West  Indies.  The  inner  bark  may  be  separated 
into  layers  resembling  lace. 

La'chesis,  a  genus  of  serpents  of  the  rattle¬ 
snake  family (Crotalidce),  but  differing  from  rattle¬ 
snakes  in  having  the  tail  terminated  with  a  spine 
instead  of  a  rattle,  and  in  having  the  head  covered 
with  scales,  and  not  with  plates.  The  species  are 
all  natives  of  the  Southern  United  States  and  of 
South  America. 

Lacli'lan,  a  river  of  East  Australia,  rises  in 
New  South  Wales,  and,  after  a  course  of  700 
miles,  joins  the  Murrumbidgee,  in  latitude  34°  30' 
S.,  and  longitude  144°  10'  E. 

Lacli'rymse  Chris'ti,  a  muscatel  wine  of  a 
sweet  but  piquant  taste,  and  a  most  agreeable 
bouquet,  which  is  produced  from  the  grapes  of 
Mount  Somma,  near  Vesuvius.  There  are  two 
kinds,  the  white  and  the  red,  the  first  being 
generally  preferred. 

Lacordaire,  Jean  Baptiste  Henri,  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  modern  Catholic  pulpit-ora¬ 
tors  of  France,  was  born  at  Recey-sur-Ource,  in 
the  Department  Cote-d’or,  March  13,  1803,  and 
died  in  1801. 

Lacon,  the  county  seat  of  Marshall  county,  Ill. 
Pop.,  2,500. 

Laconia,  the  county  seat  of  Belknap  count}’, 
N.  II.,  is  a  flourishing  agricultural  and  manufact¬ 
uring  city.  Pop.,  6,200. 

Lac'quer  is  a  varnish  prepared  for  coating 
metal  work  (see  Lac),  usually  polished  brass. 
The  formula  usually  employed  is,  for  gold  color: 
alcohol,  2  gallons;  powdered  turmeric,  1  pound; 
macerate  for  a  week,  and  then  filter  with  a 
covered  filter,  to  prevent  waste  from  evaporation; 
to  this  add,  of  the  lightest-colored  shellac,  12 
ounces;  gamboge,  4  ounces;  gum  sandarach,  34 
pounds.  This  is  put  in  a  warm  place  until  the 
whole  is  dissolved,  when  1  quart  of  common 
turpentine  varnish  is  added.  A  red  lacquer,  pre¬ 
pared  by  substituting  3  pounds  of  annotta  for 
the  turmeric,  and  1  pound  of  dragon’s  blood  for 
the  gamboge,  is  extensively  used. 

Lac-qui-Parle,  the  county  seat  of  Lac-qui- 
Parle  county,  Minn.  Pop.,  150. 

La  Crosse,  an  important  manufacturing  and 
railroad  center  and  the  county  seat  of  La  Crosse 
county,  Wis.,  is  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  river,  130  miles  below  St.  Paul.  Pop., 
28,000. 

La  Crosse,  the  county  seat  of  Rush  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  550. 

La  Crosse  is  the  name  of  a  field  game  played 
with  a  ball.  The  Iroquois  Indians  have  been 
long  accustomed  to  play  it  in  Canada,  and  it  has 
of  late  become  popular  with  many  white  men. 
Every  player  is  provided  with  a  long  stick  of 
light  hickory,  bent  at  the  top  like  a  bishop’s 
crozier;  strings  of  raw-hide  are  stretched  diago¬ 
nally  across  the  hooked  portion  in  different  direc¬ 
tions,  forming  a  network.  Only  one  ball  is 
employed,  made  of  india-rubber,  and  eight  or 
nine  inches  in  circumference.  Posts  or  poles 
about  six  feet  high,  with  a  small  flag  at  the  top  of 
each,  complete  the  equipment.  The  players 


divide  themselves  into  two  parties,  the  reds  and 
the  blues;  their  number,  as  well  as  the  size  of  the 
pla}'-field,  are  nearly  optional.  To  prepare  for 
the  game,  a  red  goal  is  set  up  at  one  end  of  the 
field,  consisting  of  two  small  red  flags  on  posts, 
about  six  feet  high  and  six  feet  apart;  a  similar 
goal,  but  blue  in  color,  is  set  up  at  the  opposite 
end  of  the  field.  The  object  of  the  game  is,  for 
the  blues  to  drive  the  ball  through  the  red  goal, 
and  the  reds  to  drive  it  through  the  blue  goal; 
and  each  parly,  of  course,  strives  to  frustrate  the 
plan  of  the  other.  The  ball  is  not  thrown  by  the 
hand,  but  is  hooked  up  from  the  grass  by  the 
bent  end  of  the  crosse  or  battledore;  it  is  borne  on 
the  netting  horizontally,  while  the  player  runs, 
and  is  dexterously  thrown  off  the  crosse  when  the 
exigencies  of  the  game  require  such  a  maneuver. 
No  player  is  allowed  to  wear  spiked  shoes;  but  a 
good  hold  of  the  ground  is  obtained  by  wearing 
mocassins,  which  the  Indians  prefer,  for  the  pur¬ 
pose,  to  regular  shoes. 

Lac 'teals,  The,  or  Chyliferous  Vessels, 
are  the  lymphatic  vessels  of  the  small  intestine. 
These  vessels  commence  in  the  intestinal  villi, 
and  passing  between  the  layers  of  the  mesentery, 
enter  the  mesenteric  glands,  and  finally  unite  to 
form  two  or  three  large  trunks,  which  terminate 
in  the  thoracic  duct. 

Lac 'tic  Acid  (C3IIG03),  in  its  pure  starte  is  a 
transparent,  colorless,  or  slightly  yellow  uncrys- 
tallizable,  syrupy  liquid,  of  specific  gravity  1.215. 
It  is  devoid  of  odor,  has  a  sharp,  acid  taste,  and  is 
soluble  in  all  proportions  in  water,  alcohol,  and 
ether.  The  lactic  acid  which  is  found  in  the 
intestinal  canal  is  merely  the  product  of  the 
decomposition  of  the  starchy  matters  of  the  food; 
but  that  which  exists  in  the  gastric  juice,  in  the 
muscular  juice,  and  in  the  juices  of  the  various 
glands,  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  product  of  the 
regressive  metamorphosis  or  disintegration  of  the 
tissues,  and  how  it  is  formed  is  not  accurately 
known. 

Lactic  Fermentation.  Although  lactose  or 
sugar-of-milk  may,  under  certain  conditions,  be 
made  to  undergo  alcoholic  fermentation,  it  gen¬ 
erally  yields  a  different  product,  viz.,  lactic  acid. 
The  caserne  is  usually  considered  to  act  as  the 
ferment,  but  being  insoluble  in  acids,  it  is  thrown 
down  in  flakes  as  soon  as  the  milk  becomes  sour. 
Pasteur  considers  that  a  specific  ferment,  the 
germs  of  which  exist  in  the  atmosphere,  is  con¬ 
cerned  in  the  production  of  the  lactic  fermenta¬ 
tion  . 

Lactuca'rium,  or  Lettuce  Opium,  is  the 
inspissated  milky  juice  of  Lactuca  or  lettuce,  and 
is  obtained  by  incision  of  the  stem.  Lactucarium 
possesses  anodyne  and  sedative  properties,  and  is 
employed  where  opium  is  considered  objection¬ 
able  ;  as,  for  instance,  when  there  is  morbid 
excitement  of  the  vascular  system;  and  it  is  of  serv¬ 
ice  in  allaying  cough  in  phthisis  and  other  pul¬ 
monary  diseases.  The  usual  dose  is  five  grains, 
but  it  may  be  safely  given  in  larger  doses. 

Ladoga.,  Lake,  the  largest  lake  of  Europe,  is 
situated  in  the  Northwest  of  Russia.  It  is  120 
miles  in  length,  70  miles  in  breadth,  and  6,804 
square  miles  in  area. 

Ladro'nes,  or  Marianne  Islands,  a  group  of 
about  twenty  islands,  the  nortlimost  Australasian 
group,  in  latitude  13J°— 201°  N.,  and  longitude 
145^° — 147®  E.  They  belong  to  Spain. 

Ladybird  ( Goccinella ),  a  genus  of  coleopterous 
beetles  of  the  section  Trimera,  of  a  brilliant  red 
or  yellow  color,  with  black,  red,  white,  or  yellow 
spots;  thorax  and  head  small;  the  antennae  are 
short,  and  terminate  in  a  triangular  club  ;  the 
legs  are  short. 

Lady  of  Mercy,  Our,  a  Spanish  order  of 
knighthood,  founded  in  1318,  by  James  I.  of 
Aragon. 

Lady  of  Moutesa,  Our,  an  order  of  knight¬ 
hood,  founded  in  1317  by  King  James  II.  of 
Aragon. 

Lady’s  Mantle  ( Alcliemilla ),  a  genus  of  herba¬ 
ceous  plants,  chiefly  natives  of  temperate  and  cold 
climates,  of  the  natural  order  Rosacea,  sub-order 
Sanguisorbece ;  found  in  pastures,  an  astringent 
and  diuretic,  said  to  be  sometimes  useful  in  cases 
of  stone  in  the  bladder,  by  producing  a  large 
secretion  of  lithic  acid. 

Lady’s  Slipper  ( Cypripcdium ),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Orchidete.  Several 


LAENNEC. 


495 


LANCASTER. 


very  beautiful  species  are  natives  of  the  colder 
parts  of  North  America. 

Laennec,  Rene  Theodore  Hyacintiie,  a 
distinguished  physician,  was  born  at  Quimper, 
in  Lower  Brittany,  in  1781,  and  died  there  in 
1826.  He  first  used  the  stethoscope,  thereby 
revolutionizing  diagnosis. 

Lafayette,  Marie  Jean  Paul  Roch  Yves 
Gilbert  Motier,  Marquis  de,  was  born  Sept. 
6,  1757,  in  the  Department  of  Upper  Loire, 
France.  He  became  a  soldier  at  an  early  age,  and 
in  1777  came  to  America,  to  take  part  in  the 
Revolut  ionary  War.  He  rendered  important  serv¬ 
ices  against  the  British,  and  aided  in  the  capture 
of  Cornwallis.  On  his  return  to  France  he  was 
engaged  in  politics  or  war  continuously — always 
on  the  side  of  popular  liberty.  In  1824  he  re¬ 
visited  America,  by  invitation  of  Congress,  who 
voted  him  a  grant  of  $200,000  and  a  township  of 
land.  He  died  May  20,  1834. 

Lafayette,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  A  city  of  Indiana, 
on  the  Wabash  river,  sixty-tliree  miles  northwest 
of  Indianapolis.  Pop.  (1889),  22,000. — 2.  The 
county  seat  of  Chambers  county,  Ala.  Pop., 
1,300. — 3.  Parish  seat  of  Lafayette  parish,  La. 
Pop.,  3,100. — 4  The  county  seat  of  Macon 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  400. — 5.  The  county  seat  of 
Walker  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  350. — 6.  The  county 
seat  of  Yam  Hill  county,  Ore.  Pop.,  400. 

La  Fontaine,  Jean  de,  the  great  French 
fabulist,  was  born  July  8,  1621,  at  Chateau- 
Thierry,  in  Champagne,  and  died  at  Paris,  April 
13,  1695. 

LaFoou,  county  seat  of  Faulk  county,  S.  Dak. 

Pop.,  110. 

Lag'omys,  a  genus  of  rodent  quadrupeds,  of 
the  family  Leporidm,  much  resembling  hares  or 
rabbits,  but  with  limbs  of  more  equal  length, 
more  perfect  clavicles,  longer  claws,  longer  head, 
shorter  ears,  and  no  tail.  They  are  interesting 
from  their  peculiar  instincts,  storing  up  herbage 
for  winter  use  in  heaps  or  stacks.  The  largest  of 
the  genus  is  scarcely  larger  than  a  guinea-pig,  yet 
its  stacks  are  sometimes  4  or  5  feet  high,  by  8  feet 
in  diameter,  and  often  afford  adventurous  sable- 
hunters  the  food  necessary  for  their  horses.  The 
little  animals  live  in  burrows,  from  the  inhabited 
part  of  which  galleries  lead  to  the  stacks.  The 
herbage  of  which  they  are  composed  is  of  the 
choicest  kind,  and  dried  so  as  to  retain  much  of 
its  juices,  and  form  the  very  best  of  hay. 

Lagos,  a  city  of  Mexico.  Pop.,  41,000. 

La  Grace,  the  county  seat  of  Campbell  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  400. 

Lagrange,  Joseph  Louis,  Comte,  a  grandson 
of  Descartes,  one  of  the  greatest  of  mathematicians, 
was  born  at  Turin,  Italy,  in  1736,  and  died  at 
Paris,  1813. 

La  Grange,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows  : — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Fayette  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  2,600. — 2.  The 
county  seat  of  La  Grange  county,  Ind.  Pop., 
1,400. — 3.  The  county  seat  of  Oldham  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  600. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Troup 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  2,400. — 5.  A  suburb  of  Chi¬ 
cago,  fifteen  miles  west  of  the  city,  on  the  C.,  B. 
&Q.  R.  II.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Lahore',  one  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  Punjab, 
stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ravi;  latitude  31° 
36'  N.,  longitude  74°  21'  E.  Pop.,  150,000. 

Lai'bach,  or  Laybacii,  a  town  of  Austria, 
capital  of  the  crownland  of  Krain,  fifty  miles 
northeast  of  Trieste.  Pop.  (1880),  26,284. 

Lake  of  the  Thousand  Islands,  an  expansion 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  about  forty  miles  below  Lake 
Ontario.  It  is  well  worthy  of  its  name,  being 
said  to  contain  1,700  islets. 

Lake  of  the  Woods  lies  190  miles  west-nortli- 
west  of  Lake  Superior.  It  measures  about  300 
miles  round;  and  its  remotest  point  is  in  latitude 
49w  N.,  and  longitude  95°  W. 

Lake  Benton,  the  county  seat  of  Lincoln 
county,  Minn.  Pop.,  400. 

Lake  Butler,  the  county  seat  of  Bradford 
county,  Fla.  Pop.,  400. 

Lake  Charles,  the  parish  seat  of  Calcasieu 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Lake  City,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Columbia  county,  Fla.,  is  an  important  fruit 
market,  and  a  popular  winter  resort.  Pop., 


2,600. — 2.  The  county  seat  of  Craighead  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  230. — 3.  The  county  seat  of  Hins¬ 
dale  county,  Col.,  is  a  growing  mining  town. 
Pop.,  2,000. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Missaukee 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  510. 

Lake  Geneva,  a  town  in  Walworth  county, 
Wis.,  on  the  lake  of  the  same  name.  It  is  a 
popular  summer  resort  for  Chicagoans.  Pop., 
2,281. 

Lake  George,  the  county  seat  of  Warren 
county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  325. 

Lake  Linden,  a  town  in  Houghton  county, 
Mich.,  noted  for  its  extensive  copper-reducing 
works.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Lakeport,  the  county  seat  of  Lake  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Lake  Providence,  the  parish  seat  of  East  Car- 
roll  parish.  La.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Lake  View,  the  county  seat  of  Lake  county, 
Ore.  Pop.,  600. 

Lake  View,  a  suburb  of  Chicago,  four  miles 
north  of  the  court-house,  on  the  lake  shore.  Pop., 
40,000.  It  was  annexed  to  Chicago  in  July,  1889. 

Lake  Village,  the  county  seat  of  Chicot  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  100. 

Lakota,  the  county  seat  of  Nelson  county, 
Dak.  Pop.,  400. 

La'ma,  or  Llama  (Aachenialama),  a  most  use¬ 
ful  South  American  quadruped  of  the  family 
Camelidce.  It  is  much  used  as  a  beast  of  burden 
on  the  Andes,  the  peculiar  conformation  of  its 
feet  enabling  it  to  walk  securely  on  rocky  slopes 
too  rough  and  steep  for  any  other  animal. 

La'maism  (from  the  Thibetan  lama,  spiritual 
teacher  or  lord)  is  the  name  of  the  religion  pre¬ 
vailing  in  Thibet  and  Mongolia.  It  is  Buddhism, 
corrupted  by  Sivaism,  and  by  Shamanism  or 
spirit-worship. 

Lamar,  the  county  seat  of  Barton  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  8,800. 

Lamartine,  Alphonse,  French  statesman, 
author,  and  poet,  was  born  at  Macon,  Oct.  21, 
1792.  His  writings  exerted  an  immense  influence 
on  affairs  in  France,  and  comprise  almost  all 
classes  of  composition.  He  died  March  1,  1869. 

Lamb,  Charles,  an  English  poet  and  essayist, 
born  in  London  on  Feb.  10,  1775,  and  died  Dec. 
27,  1834.  His  Essays  of  Elia  were  originally 
published  in  the  London  Magazine.  After  his  death , 
Mr.  Justice  Talfourd  published  two  volumes  of 
his  Letters;  and  these,  in  1848,  he  supplemented 
by  the  Final  Memorials.  His  poems  were  never 
widely  read;  his  reputation  rests  entirely  upon 
his  criticisms  and  Essays. 

Lamballe,  Maria  Theresa  Louisa  of  Savoy- 
Carignan,  Princess  of,  a  victim  of  the  French 
Revolution,  was  born  at  Turin,  Sept.  8, 1749,  and 
was  the  daughter  of  Prince  Louis  Victor  Amadeus 
of  Carignan.  She  was  murdered  on  Sept.  3, 
1792. 

Lambert,  the  county  seat  of  Fayette  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  nominal. 

Lamellibrancliia'ta,  a  class  of  acephalous 
mollusks,  all  of  which  have  bivalve  shells,  and 
which  respire  by  gills  in  the  form  of  vascular 
plates  of  membrane  attached  to  the  inner  surface 
of  the  mantle.  Oysters,  cockles,  and  mussels  are 
familiar  examples. 

Lamellicor'nes,  a  numerous  family  of  coleop¬ 
terous  insects,  of  the  section  Pentamera,  contain¬ 
ing  the  largest  of  the  beetles,  as  well  as  many 


species  remarkable  for  peculiar  conformations  of 
the  head  and  thorax.  Dung-beetles,  stag-beetles, 
cock-chafers,  etc.,  belong  to  this  family. 


Lamelliros'tres,  a  large  group  of  web-footed 
birds  ( Palmipedes ).  The  Anatidee  and  Mergid.oe 
(ducks,  swans,  geese,  goosanders,  and  mergansers) 
constitute  the  group  of  lamellirostres. 

|  Lamennais,  Hughes  Felicite  Robert  de,  a 
celebrated  politico-religious  writer  of  France,  was 
born  at  St.  Malo,  June  6,  1782,  and  died  Feb.  27, 
1854. 

Lamina 'tion,  the  arrangement  of  rocks  in 
thin  layers  or  laminae,  the  condition  of  a  large 
proportion  of  the  earth’s  strata. 

Lam'mergeier  ( Gypaetos  barbalus),  a  large  bird 
of  prey,  also  called  the  Bearded  Vulture, 


Lammergeier  (  Gypaetos  barbalus) . 

Bearded  Griffin,  and  Gier-eagle.  It  is  the 
only  known  species  of  its  genus,  and  is  found  all 
over  the  world. 

Lammermoors',  a  range  of  low  hills  in  Scot¬ 
land,  between  East  Lothian  and  Berwickshire, 
and  in  the  southeastern  corner  of  the  former 
county. 

Lamp-black,  the  soot  produced  by  burning 
resin,  turpentine,  pitch,  oil,, and  other  matters,  in 
such  a  manner  that  large  volumes  of  smoke  are 
formed  and  collected  in  properly  arranged  recep¬ 
tacles.  Lamp-black  is  the  coloring  matter  of 
black  and  slate-colored  paints. 

Lam'prey  ( Petromyzon ),  a  genus  of  cartilagi¬ 
nous  fishes,  dermopterous,  and  having  a  circular 
mouth  formed  for  sucking  (cyelostomous).  They 
are  of  eel-like  form,  and  have  no  scales.  The 
species  are  numerous,  and  are  widely  distributed 
in  the  seas  of  different  parts  of  the  world. 

Lampasas,  the  county  seat  of  Lampasas 
county,  Tex.,  is  a  prosperous  agricultural  town. 
Pop.,  4,000. 

Lamp-shell  ( Terebratula ),  a  genus  of  brachi- 
opodous  mollusks,  having  a  delicate  shell,  of 
which  one  of  the  valves  is  larger  and  more  convex 
than  the  other,  prolonged  backward  into  a  kind 
of  beak,  which  is  pierced  by  a  hole  or  fissure. 
The  recent  species  are  numerous,  and  widely  dis¬ 
tributed  from  the  polar  to  the  tropical  seas;  the 
fossil  species  are  numerous. 

Lan'arksliire,  or  Clydes 'dale,  an  inland 
county  of  Scotland,  lies  west  of  the  shires  of 
Edinburgh,  Linlithgow,  and  Peebles.  Its  area  is 
about  889  square  miles;  pop.,  1,000,000. 

Lan'cashire,  a  county  of  England,  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  Yorkshire,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Irish  Sea;  on  the  north  by  Cumberland  and 
Westmoreland,  and  on  the  south  by  Cheshire. 
Area,  1,905  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  3,454,225. 

Lancaster,  the  name  of  several  towns  and 
cities  of  the  United  States: — 1.  The  county  seat 
of  Lancaster  county,  Penn.,  is  a  prosperous  manu¬ 
facturing  and  agricultural  city,  on  the  Conestoga 
river,  and  is  in  one  of  the  richest  districts  of 
the  State.  Pop.,  26,000. — 2.  A  wealthy  and 
prosperous  city  of  Fairfield  county,  Ohio.  Pop., 
7,100. — 3.  The  county  seat  of  Coos  county, 
N.  II.  Pop.,  3,000.-4.  The  county  seat  of 
Garrard  county,  Ky.  Pop.,  1,600. — 5.  The  county 
seat  of  Grant  county,  Wis.,  is  a  pleasantly 
situated  town  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  farming 
district.  Pop.,  1,500. — 6.  The  county  seat  of 


LANCASTER  GUN. 


496 


LARID.E. 


Lancaster  county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  1.700. — 7.  The 
county  scat  of  Lancaster  county,  Va.  Pop.,  100. 
— 8.  The  county  seat  of  Schuyler  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  1.100. 

Lancaster  Gun,  a  species  of  rifled  cannon, 
having  an  elliptical  bore,  the  ellipse  being 
of  small  eccentricity.  They  were  formerly 
extensively  used  in  the  English  military  service. 

Lancaster  Sound,  a  western  inlet  of  Baffin’s 
Bay,  in  latitude  74°  N.,  and  extending  from  80® 
to  87°  W.  longitude. 

Lancelet  ( Ampldoxus ,  or  Branchiostoma),  a 
genus  of  dermopterous  fishes,  of  which  only  a 
few  species  are  known,  all  small;  one  of  them  (A. 
lanceolatus),  the  first  which  was  discovered,  a 
native  of  the  coasts  of  Europe  generally. 

Lance' wood,  a  wood  valuable  for  its  great 
strength  and  elasticity.  It  is  produced  by  the 
small  tree,  Guatteria  virgata  (natural  order 
Anonacew).  Another  species,  G.  laui  ifolia,  yields 
the  wood  called  white  lancewood. 

Land-crab,  the  popular  name  of  all  those 
species  of  crab  which  in  a  mature  state  are  not 
aquatic.  They  are  now  erected  into  a  family  or 
tribe,  and  divided  into  several  genera.  The 
species  are  numerous,  and  all  inhabitants  of  warm 
countries.  They  resemble  the  common  crabs, 
and  are  remarkable  as  animals  breathing  by  gills, 
and  yet  not  aquatic,  some  of  them  inhabiting  dry 
places,  where  they  burrow  in  the  earth. 

Lander,  the  county  seat  of  Fremont  county, 
Wyo.  Pop.,  200. 

Landes  (Fr.  heaths),  extensive  tracts  of  desert 
land  in  France,  on  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
between  the  Gironde  and  the  P3rrenees. 

Landes,  a  maritime  department  of  France,  and 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  thinly  peopled  in  the 
country,  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Bay  of 
Biscay.  Area,  3,585  square  miles;  poo.  (1881), 
301,143. 

Landon,  Letitta  Elizabeth,  an  English 
poetess — better  known  by  her  initials  L.  E.  L. — 
was  born  in  London  in  1802,  and  died  in  1839. 

Landor,  Walter  Savage,  English  author  and 
poet,  born  at  Ipsley  Court,  Warwickshire,  in  1775, 
and  died  at  Florence,  September,  1804. 

Lansing,  an  old  and  wealthy  town  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  river,  in  Allamakee 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  1,900. 

Landseer,  Sir  Edwin,  R.A.,  an  English 
painter,  was  born  in  London  in  1802,  and  died 
Oct.  1,  1873.  He  is  reckoned  the  most  superb 
animal-painter  of  his  time. 

Land'welir  (Land-defense),  a  military  force  in 
the  German  and  Austrian  Empires,  somewhat 
corresponding  to  the  militia  of  our  country.  It 
is  not  always  retained  under  arms.  During  peace, 
its  members  spend  most  of  their  time  in  civil 
pursuits,  and  are  called  out  for  military  service 
only  in  times  of  war  or  commotion — care  being 
taken,  however,  that  they  are  sufficiently  exei- 
cised. 

Lang 'eland  (i.  e.,  long  land),  a  Danish  island, 
situated  at  the  southern  entrance  to  the  Great 
Belt,  between  Fuhnen  and  Laaland.  Area,  about 
100  square  miles;  pop.,  17,100. 

Langdon,  the  county  seat  of  Cavalier  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  100. 

Languedoc,  the  name  given,  previous  to  the 
French  Revolution,  to  a  province  in  the  South  of 
France,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Auvergne  and 
Lyonnais;  on  the  east  by  the  River  Rhone;  on  the 
south  by  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Counties  of 
Foix  and  Roussillon;  and  on  the  west  by  Gascony 
and  Guienne. 

Lani'adie,  a  family  of  birds,  generally  ranked, 
as  by  Cuvier,  in  the  order  Insessores,  sub-order 
JDentirostres,  but  allying  them  to  Accipitres.  They 
are  the  largest  and  most  rapacious  of  the  Dcii- 
Hroslres,  preying  on  small  birds,  quadrupeds,  and 
reptiles,  as  well  as  on  large  insects. 

Lannes,  Jean,  Duke  of  Montebello,  a  Mar¬ 
shal  of  the  French  Empire,  was  born  April  11, 
1769,  at  Lectoure;  and  died  May  31,  1809. 

Lan'sing,  the  capital  of  Michigan,  on  the  Grand 
river,  110  miles  northwest  of  Detroit,  has  several 
important  manufacturing  establishments.  It  was 
settled  in  1847.  Pop.  (1889),  10,000. 

L’Anse,  the  county  seat  of  Baraga  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  810. 

Lansiugburgh,  an  important  trade  center  and 


manufacturing  city  of  Rensselaer  county,  N.  Y. 
Pop.,  7,500. 

Lanner  (Falco  lannavius ),  a  species  of  falcon, 
much  valued  in  the  days  of  falconry  for  flying  at 


the  kite.  The  female  only  was  called  a  lanner, 
in  the  language  of  falconry;  the  male,  being 
smaller,  a  lanneret. 

Lantern-fly  ( Fulgora ),  a  genus  of  liomopter- 
ous  insects;  the  type  of  a  family  Fulgoridce.  The 
name  lantern-fly  was  originally  given  to  F.  later- 
naria,  of  which  the  inflated  projection  of  the 
forehead  is  said  to  be  sometimes  most  brilliantly 
luminous. 

Lan'thannm,  or  Lantha'nium,  so  named  from 
the  Greek  word  A avQdveiv ,  to  lie  hid,  is  a  metal 
which  was  discovered  by  Mosander  in  1841,  in 
cerite. 

Lan  'yards,  in  a  ship,  are  short  ropes  used 
either  to  make  fast  various  apparatus  in  its  place, 
or  to  stretch  other  and  important  ropes  to  their 
utmost  tension. 

Laoc'obn,  according  to  classic  legend,  a  priest 
either  of  Apollo  or  Neptune,  in  Troy,  who  in 
vain  warned  his  countrymen  of  the  deceit  prac¬ 
ticed  by  the  Greeks  in  their  pretended  offering  of 
the  wooden  horse  to  Minerva,  and  was  destroyed 
with  his  two  sons  by  two  enormous  serpents 
which  came  from  the  sea.  They  first  fastened  on 
his  children,  and  when  he  attempted  to  rescue 
them,  involved  himself  in  their  coils. 

Laodice'a,  a  city  of  ancient  Phrygia,  near  the 
River  Lycos,  so  called  after  Laodice,  Queen  of 
Antiochus  Theos,  its  founder. 

Laou-tsze,  a  celebrated  philosopher  of  China, 
the  founder  of  a  religion  as  ancient  and  important 
as  that  of  Confucius.  This  sect  is  commonly 
known  as  the  Taou,  or  sect  of  reason. 

Lapeer,  the  county  seat  of  Lapeer  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  2,897. 

La 'pis  Laz'uli,  a  mineral  of  beautiful  ultra- 
marine  or  azure  color,  consisting  chiefly  of  silica 
and  alumina,  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid,  soda, 
and  lime.  It  is  found  in  primitive  limestone  and 
in  granite;  in  Siberia,  China,  Thibet,  Chili,  etc. 
The  finest  specimens  are  brought  from  Bokhara. 
Ultramarine  is  made  from  it. 

La'pithse,  a  wild  race,  inhabiting,  in  ancient 
times,  the  mountains  of  Thessaly. 

Laplace,  Pierre  Simon,  Marquis  de,  one  of 
the  greatest  of  mathematicians  and  astrono¬ 
mers,  was  born  March  23,  1749,  at  Beaumont-en- 
Auge,  France,  and  died  at  Paris,  March  5,  1827. 

Lap 'land  is  included  under  the  dominions  of 
Sweden  and  Norway,  and  of  Russia.  Lapland, 
or  the  Land  of  the  Lapps,  which  is  called  by  the 
natives  Sameanda,  or  Somellada,  occupies  the 
north  and  northeast  portions  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula,  and  the  extreme  northwestern  districts 
of  the  Russian  dominion,  within  the  Grand-Duchy 
of  Finland.  Pop.,  about  18,000. 

La  Porte,  a  manufacturing  and  agricultural 
city  in  La  Porte  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  7,100. 

Laporte,  the  county  seat  of  Sullivan  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  550. 

Lapwing  ( Vanellux),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Charadriadte  (plovers,  etc.),  having  a 
hind-toe,  which,  however,  is  small.  The  nasal 


grooves  are  also  prolonged  over  two-thirds  of  the 


Lapwing  ( V.  crisatus). 

beak.  It  is  a  native  of  almost  all  parts  of  Europe, 
and  of  some  parts  of  Asia  and  of  Africa. 

Laramie  City,  the  county  seat  of  Albany 
county,  Wyo.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Larboard,  an  obsolete  naval  term  for  the  left 
side  of  a  vessel,  looking  forward.  From  its  lia¬ 
bility  to  be  confused  by  the  steersman  with  the 
not  very  different  sound  “starboard,”  the  word 
was  a  few  years  ago  officially  abolished,  and  the 
expression  “port”  substituted. 

Lar'ceny,  is  the  technical  legal  term  used  to 
denote  the  crime  of  stealing."  Simple  larceny 
means  larceny  unaccompanied  with  other  crimes 
or  circumstances  of  aggravation.  Larceny  is 
defined  as  an  unlawful  taking  of  things  per¬ 
sonal,  with  intent  to  deprive  the  owner,  and  with¬ 
out  his  consent. 

Larch  ( Larix ),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Coniferce.  The 
common  larch  (L.  Euro- 
p(m  or  Abies  larix)  is 
highly  valued  for  lum¬ 
ber  and  as  an  orna¬ 
mental  shade-tree.  It 
is  resinous,  does  not 
readily  rot  even  in 
water,  is  not  readily 
attacked  by  worms,  and 
is  much  used  in  ship¬ 
building.  Larch-bark 
is  used  for  tanning, 
although  not  equal  in 
value  to  oak-bark. 

Lard  lie  r,  I)  ion  vs-' 
i us,  LL.D.,  a  dis 
tinguished  writer  on 
physical  science,  was 
born  in  Dublin,  April 
3,  1793,  and  died  in 
Naples,  April  29,  1859. 

La'res,  Ma'nes,  and 
Pena' tes, were  tutelary 
spirits,  genii,  or  deities 
of  the  ancient  Romans, 
have  been  regarded  as  essentially  different  beings, 
for  the  names  are  frequently  used  either  inter¬ 
changeably  or  in  such  a  conjunction  as  almost 
implies  identity. 

Laredo,  the  county  seat  of  Webb  county,  Tex., 
is  a  rapidly  growing  city  of  6,000  inhabitants,  and 
has  several  important  manufacturing  plants. 

Largo,  an  Italian  word,  used  in  music,  to  denote 
the  slowest  of  all  the  tempi,  and  especially  in  com¬ 
positions  where  the  sentiment  is  quite  solemn. 
Larghetlo  is  the  diminutive  of  largo. 

Lark  ( Alauda ),  a  genus  of  small  birds  of  the 
order  Insessores, 
section  Coniros- 
tres,  the  type  of  a 
family  Alaudidce , 
to  the  whole  of 
which  the  English 
name  is  commonly 
extended.  The 
lark  family  is  very 
widely  distributed 
over  the  world.  Sky-lark  (Alauda  anensis). 

The  common  sky-lark  is  in  great  repute  in  Eng¬ 
land  as  a  cage-bird,  and  sings  well  in  confinement, 
but  flutters  its  wings  while  singing,  as  if  still  desir¬ 
ous  of  soaring  in  the  air. 

La'ridae,  a  family  of  birds,  of  the  order  Palmi¬ 
pedes  or  Natatores,  called  Longipennes  by  Cuvier, 


Larch  (£.  europoea). 
They  do  not  appear  to 


LARNED. 


497 


LAUNCE. 


from  the  length  of  wing,  which  is  characteristic 
of  them.  Gulls,  skuas,  terns,  petrels,  shearwaters, 
albatrosses,  noddies,  skimmers,  etc.,  belong  to  this 
numerous  family,  which  has  many  representatives 
in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Larned,  the  county  seat  of  Pawnee  county, 
Kan.,  is  a  growing  agricultural  town.  Pop., 
3,500. 

Lav'va,  in  Natural  History,  is  the  denomina¬ 
tion  of  animals  which  undergo  transformation 
in  that  state  in  which  they  first  exist  after  issuing 
from  the  egg.  Until  recently,  the  larva  state  jvas 
known  in  insects  only,  and  the  term  larva  is  still 
commonly  used  only  with  regard  to  them;  but  it 
has  been  discovered  that  many  marine  animals 
spend  a  considerable  part  of  their  existence  in 
such  a  state,  during  which  they  are  often 
extremely  different  from  what  they  become  after 
their  next  transformation. 

Laryngi'tis,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Lar'- 
tnx,  may  be  either  an  acute  or  a  chronic  affection. 
Acute  laryngitis,  in  its  more  severe  form,  com¬ 
mences  with  a  chill,  which  is  followed  by  fever, 
with  a  full,  strong  pulse,  allot  skin,  and  a  flushed 
face.  There  is  also  soreness  of  the  throat,  hoarse¬ 
ness  of  the  voice,  great  difficulty  in  swallowing, 
and  a  feeling  of  extreme  constriction  of  the  larynx, 
There  is  a  painful  stridulous  cough,  but  only  a 
little  mucus  is  ejected.  Great  difficulty  of  breath¬ 
ing  soon  comes  on,  the  act  of  inspiration  being 
prolonged,  and  wheezing,  in  consequence  of  the 
swollen  membrane  of  the  glottis  impeding  the 
entrance  of  air.  On  examining  the  fauces,  the 
epiglottis  is  observed  to  be  of  a  bright  red  color, 
erect,  and  so  much  swollen  as  not  to  be  able  to 
descend  and  close  the  glottis  during  deglutition. 
The  patient  exhibits  symptoms  of  anxiety  and 
distress;  his  lips  become  blue,  his  face  pale, 
his  pulse  irregular  and  feeble,  and  at  length 
he  sinks  into  a  drowsy  state,  often  preceded  by 
delirium,  and  quickly  followed  by  death.  The 
disease  is  rapid,  ending,  when  fatal,  in  three 
or  four  days,  and  occasionally  in  less  than  one 
day.  The  most  frequent  cause  of  laryngitis  is 
exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  especially  when  in  a 
state  of  perspiration.  It  frequently  also  arises 
from  direct  injury  to  the  larynx,  as  from  attempt¬ 
ing  to  swallow  boiling  water  or  corrosive  fluids, 
from  inhaling  irritating  gases,  etc.  In  severe 
cases,  the  strongest  antiphlogistic  treatment  must 
be  at  once  adopted,  as  general  bleeding,  leeching, 
and  either  tartar  emetic  or  calomel.  If  these  fail, 
the  only  remedy  upon  which  much  reliance  can 
be  placed  is  tracheotomy.  In  chronic  laryngitis, 
there  is  hoarseness,  the  voice  is  altered,  and 
various  morbid  sensations  are  felt  in  the  larynx, 
which  excite  cough.  This  is  usually  a  secondary 
effect,  and  not  the  primary  disease,  and  the  treat¬ 
ment  must  be  in  accordance  with  the  nature  of 
the  cause. 

Laryn'goscope  and  Lnryngos'copy.  The 

laryngoscope  is  a  small  mirror  placed  on  a  stalk 
attached  to  its  margin,  at  an  angle  of  from  120° 
to  150°,  the  stalk  being  about  six  inches  in  length, 
and  being  composed  of  flexible  metal,  so  that  it 
can  be  bent  at  the  will  of  the  operator.  The 
mouth-piece  of  a  large  reflector,  with  a  central 
opening  through  which  the  observer  looks,  is  held 
between  the  molar  teefh;  or,  which  is  better,  the 
reflector  may  be  attached  to  a  spectacle  frame  by 
a  stiffly  working  ball-and-socket  joint.  The  rays 
of  the  sun  or  of  a  good  lamp  are  concentrated  by 
means  of  this  reflector  on  the  laryngeal  mirror, 
which  is  placed  against  the  soft  palate  and  uvula. 
The  laryngeal  mirror,  introduced  with  the  right 
hand,  which  rests  by  two  fingers  on  the  jaw%  is 
maintained  at  such  an  inclination  that  it  throws 
the  light  downward,  and  illuminates  the  parts  to 
be  examined,  wdiile  at  the  same  time  it  reflects 
the  images  of  these  parts  into  the  eye  of  the 
observer  through  the  central  opening  of  the 
reflector.  By  this  means  he  can  look  through 
the  larynx  into  the  trachea  or  windpipe. 

Larynx, TiiEfGr.  Xapvv §,  larynx ),  isacomplex  [ 
piece  of  mechanism,  resembling  a  box  composed 
of  pieces  of  cartilage,  which  may  be  moved  on 
each  other,  and  inclosing  the  membranous  bands 
(the  chordxe  vocales)  by  which  the  vocal  vibrations 
are  produced.  It  is  situated  between  the  trachea, 
or  windpipe,  and  the  base  of  the  tongue,  at  the 
upper  and  front  part  of  the  neck,  where  it  forms 
a  considerable  projection  (especially  in  men)  in 


the  mesial  line;  and  it  opens  superiorly  into  the 
pharynx,  or  throat,  and  interiorly  into  the  wind¬ 
pipe.  The  cartilages  of  which  the  skeleton  of 
the  larynx  is  composed  are  five  in  number — viz., 
the  thyroid  and  the  cricoid  cartilages,  the  epi¬ 
glottis,  and  the  two  arytenoid  cartilages.  The 
various  cartilages  are  connected  to  one  another  by 
ligaments,  the  chief  of  which  are  those  known  as 
the  true  and  false  vocal  cords.  In  their  quiescent 
state,  the  true  vocal  cords  do  not  lie  parallel  to 
each  other,  but  converge  from  behind  forward. 
The  length  of  the  vocal  cords  is  greater  in  the 
adult  male  than  in  the  adult  female,  in  the  ratio 
of  three  to  two.  In  infancy,  they  are  very  short, 
and  increase  regularly  from  that  period  to  the  age 
of  puberty.  The  length  of  the  chink  or  aperture 
of  the  glottis  varies,  like  the  vocal  cords,  until 
the  period  of  puberty,  when  its  length,  in  the 


View  of  larynx  from  above,  after  Willis,  b,  ligaments 
uniting  arytenoid  and  cricoid  cartilages;  e,  thyroid  car¬ 
tilage  in  front;  k,  left  thyro  arytenoid  muscle,  right 
removed;  /,  r,  x,  cricoid  cartilage;  m,  right  crico-aryte- 
noid  muscle;  n,  arytenoid  cartilage;  t,  v,  vocal  cords. 

male,  undergoes  a  sudden  development,  while  in 
the  female  it  remains  stationary.  In  the  adult 
male,  it  is  about  eleven  lines  in  length.  The 
larynx  is  provided  with  two  sets  of  muscles — viz., 
the  extrinsic,  by  which  the  whole  organ  is  elevated 
or  depressed,  and  the  intrinsic,  which  regulate 
the  movements  of  the  various  segments  of  the 
organ  in  relation  to  one  another. 

La  Salle,  Robert  Cavelier,  Sieur  de, 
French  explorer,  was  born  at  Rouen,  in  1643.  He 
was  the  first  explorer  of  the  Mississippi  river  and 
some  of  its  tributaries.  He  died  in  March,  1687. 

La  Salle,  a  city  of  Illinois,  eighty  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Chicago,  has  coal  mines  near  the 
city,  zinc-works,  foundries,  and  mills.  Pop. 
(1889),  8,100. 

Las  Aniinas,  the  county  seat  of  Bent  county, 
Colo.  Pop.,  810. 

Las  Cruces,  is  the  county  seat  of  Dona  Ana 
county,  N.  M.,  and  the  trading  center  for  a  vast 
cattle  country.  Pop.,  2,100. 

Las  Vegas,  a  city  of  San  Miguel  county,  N.  M. 
Pop.,  6,100. 

Lateen'-sail,  a  large  triangular  sail,  common 
in  the  Mediterranean.  The  upper  edge  is  fastened 
to  the  lateen-yard,  a  spar  of  considerable  length, 
which  is  held  at  about  an  angle  of  45°  with  the 
deck,  by  means  of  a  mast  crossing  it  at  a  third  or 
j  a  fourth  of  the  way  up. 

Lat'eran,  Church  of  St.  John,  the  first  in 
dignity  of  the  Roman  churches,  and  styled  in 
Roman  usage  the  Mother  and  Head  of  all  the 
churches  of  the  city  and  the  world,  is  so  called 
from  its  occupying  the  site  of  the  palace  of 
Plantius  Lateranus. 

Lat'erite,  a  mineral  substance,  the  product  of 
the  disintegration  and  partial  decomposition  of 
gneiss,  usually  forms  a  bright  red  earth. 

La'tes  ( Lates  nilolicus),  a  fish  of  the  perch 
family,  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  best-flavored 
fishes  of  the  Nile.  It  grows  to  a  large  size,  some¬ 
times  3  feet  long. 

La'tex,  in  Botany,  the  sap  of  plants  after  it 
has  been  elaborated  in  the  leaves.  It  returns  from 
the  leaves  to  the  bark  by  vessels  called  laticiferous 
|  vessels,  which  branch,  unite,  and  anastomose  very 
variously. 

Lathe.  See  Turning. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  English  reformers,  was  born  at  Thurcaston, 
England,  in  1490  or  1491.  He  was  burned  by 
Mary  in  1555. 

Latin  Cross,  a  cross  with  the  lower  limb  con¬ 
siderably  longer  than  the  other  three. 


Latin  Empire,  the  name  given  to  that  portion 
of  the  Byzantine  Empire  which  was  seized  in 
1204  by  the  Crusaders,  who  made  Constantinople 
their  capital. 

Latin  Language  and  Literature.  The  Latin 
language  was  primarily  developed  among  the 
people  who  inhabited  that  part  of  Western  Italy 
which  lies  between  the  Rivers  Tiber  and  Liris; 
and  though  the  city  of  Rome  stamped  her  name 
on  the  political  institutions  of  the  empire,  yet  the 
standard  longue  of  Italy  still  continued  to  be 
called  the  Latin  language,  not  the  Roman.  As 
the  Roman  conquests  extended,  Latin  spread 
with  equal  strides  over  the  conquered  countries, 
and  was  generally  used  by  the  educated  classes  in 
the  greater  part  of  Italy,  in  France,  Spain,  Por¬ 
tugal,  Germany,  and  other  Roman  provinces. 
But  even  in  Italy  itself,  and  in  Latium,  there 
seem  to  have  been  two  forms  of  the  language, 
differing  considerably  from  each  other — a  polished 
dialect  and  a  rustic  one.  It  was  in  the  last  years 
of  the  Republic,  and  the  first  of  the  Empire,  that 
the  polished  language  reached  its  highest  point  of 
perfection  in  the  writings  of  Cicero,  Horace, 
Virgil,  and  others.  The  Roman  Republic  had 
well-nigh  run  its  course  ere  it  possessed  a  writer 
or  a  literature  worthy  of  the  name.  And  even 
when  the  Romans  did  begin  to  foster  a  literary 
taste,  the  rage  for  Greek  models  hindered  every 
effort  at  original  thought.  Such  was  the  feeling 
even  in  the  days  of  Horace  and  Virgil,  both  of 
whom  are  largely  indebted  to  their  Greek  models. 
The  beginning  of  Latin  literature  may  be  fixed  at 
about  240  b.c.,  and  for  some  centuries  afterward 
it  was  adorned  by  gems  from  the  most  brilliant 
genius  of  the  world’s  history. 

Lati'ni,  an  Italian  people,  who  in  pre-historic 
times  had  established  themselves  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  Tiber  and  the  Anio,  between  the  sea 
and  the  nearest  Apennines.  The  limits  of  their 
territory  (Latium)  can  not,  however,  be  fixed  with 
precision. 

Lat'tice-bridge,  so  called  from  having  the 
sides  constructed  with  cross-framing  resembling, 
lattice-work.  The  principle  on  which  many 
lattice-bridges  are  constructed  resembles  that  of 
the  trussed  rafters  of  roofs,  with  a  king- post  or 
hanger  in  center.  Each  span  consists  of  a  series  of 
these  rafters,  so  arranged  that  the  head  of  one  rafter 
is  immediately  over  the  feet  of  the  two  adjoining- 
rafters.  Other  lattice-bridges  are  constructed  with 
diagonal  braces,  united  with  strong  pins,  and 
without  suspension  rods.  The  former  method  is 
the  stronger. 

Lattice  Leaf,  Lace  Leaf,  Water  Yam,  or 
Ouvirandrano  ( Ouvirandra fenestralis),  a  plant 
referred  by  some  botanists  to  the  natural  order 
J uncaginea,  and  by  some  to  Naiadacea\  It  is  a 
native  of  Madagascar,  and  grows  in  running 
streams.  It  has  a  root-stock  about  the  thickness 
of  a  man’s  thumb,  6  to  9  inches  long,  often 
branching,  internally  white,  with  a  light-brown 
skin,  farinaceous,  and  used  for  food. 

Lau'danum,  or  Tincture  of  Opium,  is 
obtained  by  macerating  the  sliced  or  powdered 
opium  in  spirit,  aiul  filtering.  It  is  of  a  deep 
brownish-red  color,  and  possesses  the  peculiar 
odor  and  smell  of  opium.  It  is  a  powerful 
anodyne  and  soporific,  but  is  more  liable  to  cause 
headache  than  the  solution  of  one  of  the  salts  of 
morphia.  The  dose  for  an  adult  varies  from  ten 
to  twenty-five  drops.  To  children  (as  is  the  case 
with  all  opiates),  it  must  be  given  with  extreme 
caution.  Two  drops  have  been  known  to  prove 
fatal  to  an  infant. 

Lau'enburg,  or  Saxe-Lauenburg,  a  duchy 
belonging  to  Prussia,  but  formerly  united  to  the 
crown  of  Denmark. 

Launce  ( Ammodytes ),  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the 


eel  tribe.  They  are  of  a  beautiful  silvery  color, 


32 


LAUNCH. 


498 


LEAD-POISONING. 


The  under  jaw  projects  beyond  the  upper,  and  is 
used  iu  burrowing  in  the  sand,  to  which  these 
lishes  retreat  when  the  tide  retires. 

Launch  is  the  process  of  removing  a  vessel 
from  the  land  to  the  water.  The  keel  of  a  ship  is 
laid  upon  a  series  of  wooden  blocks,  placed  six  or 
seven  feet  apart,  and  built  up  three  or  four  feet 
from  the  ground,  the  tops  of  which  lie  in  a  line 
which  slopes  downward  to  the  water  at  an  angle 
of  about  five-eighths  of  an  inch  to  the  foot.  The 
whole  ship,  therefore,  when  it  is  finished,  slopes 
downward  with  this  inclination,  and  rests  upon 
the  blocks  just  mentioned,  and  upon  suitable 
timber  shores.  When  the  vessel  is  ready  for 
launching,  ways  of  planking  are  laid  down  parallel 
to  the  keel,  and  at  some  little  distance  on  each  side 
of  it,  under  the  bilges  of  the  ship;  they  extend  into 
the  water  a  considerable  distance  below  high- 
water  mark.  A  cradle  is  then  built  under  the 
ship,  of  which  the  bottom  is  formed  of  smooth 
timbers  resting  upon  the  ways.  Before  launch¬ 
ing,  the  under  sides  of  these  timbers  and  the 
upper  sides  of  the  ways  are  well  greased,  and  the 
weight  of  the  ship  is  transferred  from  the  keel- 
blocks  to  the  cradle  and  ways.  Timbers,  called 
dog-shores,  are  placed  so  as  to  resist  the  tendency 
of  the  ship  to  slide  down  until  the  right  moment. 
When  this  arrives,  the  dog-shores  are  knocked 
away,  and  the  vessel  glides  stern  foremost  into 
the  water.  As  soon  as  the  water  removes  the 
weight  of  the  vessel  from  the  cradle,  the  latter 
breaks  up  into  pieces.  The  Great  Eastern,  owing 
to  her  immense  length,  was  built  with  her  keel 
parallel  to  the  water  ;  but  owing  to  excessive 
friction,  it  took  three  months’ exertion,  even  with 
the  aid  of  powerful  hydraulic  rams,  to  push  the 
immense  mass  of  12,000  tons  into  the  river. 

Lau'rel  ( Lauras),  a  genus  of  Lauracece,  which, 
as  now  restricted,  contains  only  a  single  known 
species,  the  noble  laurel,  victor’s  laurel,  or  sweet 
bay  (L.  nobilis),  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  but  now 
diffused  over  all  the  countries  around  the  Medi¬ 
terranean  Sea.  There  are  several  shrubs  in  this 
country  that  are  called  laurels;  but  none  of  them 
are  such  in  fact. 

Laurens,  the  county  seat  of  Laurens  county, 
S.  G.  Pop.,  1,800. 

Lauren  'tian  System,  a  series  of  highly  meta¬ 
morphosed  rocks,  older  than  the  Cambrian,  and 
apparently  the  fundamental  series  of  the  stratified 
rocks. 

Laurusti'nus  ( Viburnum  tinus),  a  shrub, 
native  of  the  South  of  Europe  and  the  North  of 
Africa.  It  is  an  evergreen,  with  dark,  shining, 
leathery  leaves,  small  whitish  flowers  in  corymbs, 
and  small  blackish-blue  berries.  The  berries 
are  used  in  medicine  as  a  purgative. 

Lausanne'  (Lat.  Lovsana),  a  city  of  Switzer¬ 
land,  capital  of  the  Canton  of  Vaud.  The  pop. 
in  1880  was  30,179. 

La'va,  a  name  sometimes  applied  generally  to 
volcanic  rocks,  but  more  strictly  confined  to  those 
rocks  which  have  been  poured  out  as  a  stream  of 
molten  matter  from  a  volcanic  opening,  either  on 
dry  land  or  in  shallow  water. 

Laval,  an  ancient  and  picturesque  town  of 
France,  capital  of  the  Department  of  Mayenne. 
Pop.  (1881),  27,810. 

Lavater,  Johann  Kaspar,  born  on  Nov.  15, 
1741,  at  Zurich.  He  was  the  author  of  the  sys¬ 
tem  of  physiognomy  by  which  it  is  claimed  that 
men’s  character  is  indexed  by  their  faces.  lie 
died  Jan.  2,  1801. 

Lav  'ender  (Lavandula),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Labiata,  having  the  stamens  and 
style  included  within  the  tube  of  the  corolla,  the 
corolla  two-lipped,  the  upper  lip  bifid,  the  lower 
trifid.  The  whole  plant  possesses  stimulant 
properties,  and  is  used  in  medicine,  but  particu¬ 
larly  the  spikes  of  the  flowers,  as  a  tonic,  sto¬ 
machic,  nervous  stimulant.  Tire  oil  of  lavender  is 
used  by  painters  on  porcelain,  and  in  the  prepara¬ 
tion  of  varnishes  and  perfumery. 

Lavoisier,  Antoine  Laurent,  the  founder  of 
the  antiphlogistic  or  modern  chemistry,  was  born 
in  Paris,  August,  1743.  He  and  his  associates 
invented  a  new  chemical  nomenclature,  adapted 
to  the  advanced  state  of  the  science,  which  was 
generally  adopted.  He  died  by  the  guillotine, 
1794. 

Lawn  Tennis,  a  modified  form  of  the  old  game 
of  tennis,  has  recently  become  a  popular  pastime 


alike  for  ladies  and  gentlemen.  The  ground  on 
which  it  is  played  is  a  strip  of  turf  (sometimes 
asphalt),  78  feet  in  length  by  39  in  width  at  the 
extremities.  Across  the  center  extends  a  net  5 
feet  high,  stretched  from  poles  24  feet  apart. 
Lines  are  drawn  marking  the  boundaries,  and 
dividing  each  of  the  portions  of  ground  separated 
by  the  net  lengthwise  into  a  right  court  and  a  left 
court.  Any  number  of  players  may  join;  but  the 
best  game  is  played  by  two  or  four  persons. 
The  player  who  begins  stands  just  on  the  back 
boundary  of  the  right  court  on  his  side,  throws  up 
the  ball,  and  on  its  rebound  strikes  it  with  the 
racket  so  that  it  shall  fall  over  the  net  into  the 
nearer  part  of  the  right  court  diagonally  opposite 
him.  His  opponent  there  is  bound  to  strike  back 
the  ball  either  before  it  reaches  the  ground  or  after 
the  first  rebound.  It  is  then  returned  again  by 
the  first  player,  who  continues  to  play  till  he  fails 
to  return  the  ball,  sends  it  without  the  boundaries, 
or  commits  some  of  the  other  “  faults  ”  recognized 
by  the  rules,  when  his  opponent  takes  his  turn. 

Lawrence,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Merrimac  river,  twenty-six  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  the  same  distance  north  of 
Boston.  Pop.  (1889),  40,000. 

Lawrence,  Gulf  of  St.,  a  western  inlet  of  the 
Northern  Atlantic,  washes  at  once  all  the  British 
Provinces,  properly  so  called,  of  North  America. 
It  is  celebrated  for  the  productiveness  of  its 
fisheries. 

Lawrence,  St.,  the  river,  constitutes  by  far 
the  largest  body  of  ftesh  water  in  the  world.  In¬ 
cluding  the  lakes  and  streams,  which  it  com¬ 
prises,  it  covers  fully  73,000  square  miles;  and  as 
nearly  the  whole  of  this  area  averages  consider¬ 
ably  more  than  600  feet  in  depth,  the  aggregate 
can  not  represent  less  than  9,000  solid  miles — a 
mass  of  water  which  would  take  upward  of  forty 
years  to  pour  over  the  falls  of  Niagara,  at  the 
computed  rate  of  a  million  cubic  feet  iu  a  second. 
This  mighty  river  rises,  under  the  name  of  the 
St.  Louis,  in  Northern  Minnesota,  and  flows 
south  and  east  to  92°  W.  longitude,  where 
it  widens  into  Lake  Superior.  This  body 
empties  into  Lake  Huron;  this  in  turn  into  Erie, 
and  Erie  into  Ontario,  all  by  rivers  having  dis¬ 
tinct  names,  but  which  are  in  fact  separate 
reaches  of  the  great  St.  Lawrence.  The  falls  of 
Niagara,  opposite  Niagara  county;  and  the  Thou¬ 
sand  Islands,  opposite  Jefferson  county,  N.  Y.; 
and  the  La  Cliine  rapids,  near  Montreal,  are 
among  the  most  interesting  physical  features  of 
this  remarkable  stream.  The  entire  length  of  the 
river,  including'  the  chain  of  lakes,  is  nearly 
2,200  miles. 

Lawrence,  a  growing  city  of  Douglas  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  19,000.  It  is  famous  as  the  scene  of 
a  raid  made  by  a  band  of  Confederate  guerrillas 
under  the  leadership  of  the  noted  Quantrill,  in 
which  145  citizens  were  killed,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  town  burned. 

Lawrenceburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Anderson 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Law  renceburgli ,  the  county  seat  of  Dearborn 
county,  Ind.  It  is  a  prosperous  manufacturing 
and  agricultural  town  on  the  White  river.  Pop., 
5,600." 

Lawrenceburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Lawrence 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  850. 

Lawrenceville,  the  county  seat  of  Brunswick 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  500. 

Lawrenceville,  the  county  seat  of  Gwinnett 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  800. 

Lawrenceville,  the  county  seat  of  Lawrence 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  800. 

Layard,  Austen  Henry,  English  traveler  and 
diplomatist,  was  born  at  Paris,  March  5,  1817. 
Through  his  researches  and  writings  he  has  con¬ 
tributed  largely  to  our  archaeological  knowledge 
of  the  cities  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  rivers. 

Laying,  or  Layering,  a  mode  of  propagating 
trees,  shrubs,  and  perennial  herbaceous  plants, 
which  is  frequently  employed  by  gardeners  and 
nurserymen.  It  consists  in  bending  and  fasten¬ 
ing  a  branch,  so  that  a  portion  of  it  is  embedded 
in  earth,  there  to  throw  out  roots,  the  extremity 
being  made  to  grow  erect  in  order  to  form  a  new 
plant.  The  separation  from  the  parent  plant  is 
not  effected  till  the  layer  is  sufficiently  provided 
with  roots.  The  time  which  must  elapse  before 
the  layer  should  be  separated  from  the  parent 


plant  is  very  various ;  a  few  months  being 
sufficient  for  some,  and  two  years  requisite  for 
others.  Many  plants  which  can  be  propagated 
by  cuttings  are  more  easily  and  successfully" 
propagated  by  layers. 

Laz'iilite,  or  Azurite,  a  mineral,  consisting 
chiefly  of  phosphoric  acid  and  alumina,  with 
magnesia  and  protoxide  of  iron.  It  occurs 
embedded  in  quartz,  or  in  fissures  in  clay-slate, 
in  Styria,  North  Carolina,  Brazil,  etc. 

Lazzaro'ni,  a  name  said  to  be  derived  from 
that  of  Lazarus  in  the  parable,  and,  until  lately, 
designating  a  particular  class  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Naples.  They  had  no  fixed  habitations,  regular 
occupation,  or  secure  means  of  subsistence,  but 
occasionally  obtained  employment  as  messengers, 
porters,  boatmen,  itinerant  venders  of  food,  etc. 

Lead  (symbol  Pb,  equiv.  207 — sp.  gr.  11.4) 
is  a  bluish-white  metal  of  considerable  brilliancy. 
It  is  so  soft  that  it  may  be  readily  cut  with  a 
knife.  It  may  be  cut  or  beaten  into  thin  sheets, 
but  in  ductility  and  tenacity  it  is  low  in  the  scale 
of  metals.  It  is  readily  fusible  at  a  temperature  of 
about  625°.  Pure  lead  is  of  very  rare  occurrence. 
Almost  all  the  lead  of  commerce  is  obtained  from 
the  native  sulphide  of  lead.  The  lead  thus 
obtained  is  often  nearly  pure,  and  to  obtain  it 
perfecily"  pure  it  should  be  reduced  with  black 
flux  from  the  oxide  left  by  igniting  the  pure 
nitrate  or  carbonate.  The  most  important  com¬ 
pound  of  lead  in  the  materia  medica  is  the  acetate 
of  lead,  which  is  administered  internally  as  an 
astringent  and  as  a  sedative.  It  is  of  service  as 
an  astringent,  especially  in  combination  with 
opium,  in  cases  of  mild  English  cholera,  and 
even  of  Asiatic  cholera,  and  in  various  forms  of 
diarrhoea.  It  will  frequently  check  the  purulent 
expectoration  in  phthisis,  and  the  profuse 
secretion  in  bronchitis.  In  the  various  forms  of 
hemorrhage  —  as  from  the  lungs,  stomach, 
bowels,  or  womb — it  is  employed  partly  with  the 
view  of  diminishing  the  diameter  of  the  bleeding 
vessels,  and  partly  with  the  object  of  lowering 
the  heart’s  action,  and  by  these  means  to  stop  the 
bleeding.  The  ordinary  dose  is  two  or  three 
grains,  with  half  a  grain  of  opium,  in  the  form 
of  a  pill,  repeated  twice  or  thrice  daily.  If  given 
for  too  long  a  time,  symptoms  of  lead-poisoning 
will  arise.  During  the  operation  of  smelting 
lead,  a  considerable  quantity  of  lead  is  volatilized, 
and  carried  off  as  fume  or  smoke,  which,  when 
allowed  to  escape  into  the  atmosphere,  not  only 
involves  a  loss  of  lead,  but  destroys  all  vegetation 
for  some  distance  around  the  works,  and  poisons 
cattle  and  other  animals  feeding  near  them. 
Much  attention  has  of  late  been  paid  to  the 
obviating  of  these  evils,  and  several  plans  are  in 
use  for  the  purpose.  No  method  is  more  effective 
than  simply  conducting  the  smoke  from  the 
furnaces  through  a  long  horizontal  flue — say  a 
mile  in  length — to  a  vertical  stack.  The  fume 
condenses  on  the  sides,  certain  openings  being 
left  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  it.  About  33 
per  cent,  of  the  fume  thus  recovered  consists  of 
metallic  lead. 

Lead-poisoning.  The  early  phenomena  are; 
(1),  a  narrow  blue  line,  due  to  the  presence  of 
sulphide  of  lead,  on  the  margin  of  the  gums  next 
the  teeth;  (2),  a  peculiar  taste  in  the  mouth,  and 
a  peculiar  odor  of  the  breath;  (3),  a  jaundiced 
state  of  the  skin,  with  more  or  less  emaciation; 
(4),  a  depressed  state  of  the  circulation.  The 
disease  takes  on  the  four  forms  of  colic,  rheuma¬ 
tism,  palsy,  and  brain  affection  in  all  which  the 
blue  line  on  the  gums  is  the  great  pathognomic 
symptom.  The  patient  should  be  placed  in  a 
sulpliureted  bath.  These  baths  should  be  re¬ 
peated  till  they  cease  to  cause  any"  coloration  of 
the' skin.  At  the  same  time,  he  should  drink 
water  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  or  a  solu¬ 
tion  of  sulphate  of  magnesia,  with  a  slight  excess 
of  sulphuric  acid.  Iodide  of  potassium  is  then 
administered,  which  acts  by  dissolving  the  lead 
out  of  the  tissues,  and  allowing  it  to  be  removed 
by  the  urine.  The  palsy  maybe  specially  treated 
after  the  elimination  of  the  lead,  by  electricity; 
and  by  strychnine  in  minute  doses.  Persons 
exposed  from  their  occupation  to  the  risk  of  lead¬ 
poisoning  should  be  especially  attentive  to  clean¬ 
liness;  and  if  they  combine  the  frequent  applica¬ 
tion  of  the  warm  bath  with  the  use  of  sulphuric 
lemonade  or  treacle  beer  acidulated  with  sulphuric 


LEADVILLE. 


499 


LEG. 


acid,  as  a  drink,  they  may  escape  the  effects  of 
the  metallic  poison. 

Leadville,  a  prosperous  mining  city  in  Lake 
county,  Colo.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Leaf-cutter  Bee,  a  name  given  to  certain  spe¬ 
cies  of  solitary  bees  of  the  genera  Megachile  and 
Osmia,  in  consequence  of  their  habit  of  lining 
their  nests  with  portions  of  leaves,  or  of  the  petals 
of  flowers,  which  they  cut  out  for  this  purpose 
with  the  mandibles. 

Leaf  insect,  or  W alking-leaf  ( Phyllium ),  a 
remarkable  genus  of  orthopterous  insects,  of  the 
family  Phasmid.ee,  natives  of  tropical  countries, 
having  wings  extremely  like  leaves,  not  only  in 
color,  but  in  the  way  in  which  they  are  ribbed 
and  veined. 

Leakesville,  the  county  seat  of  Greene  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  60. 

Leaping-fish  ( Salarias  tridactylus),  a  fish  abun¬ 
dant  on  the  coast  of  Ceylon,  remarkable  for  leav¬ 
ing  the  water  to  visit  every  place  washed  by  the 
surf.  It  moves  across  the  damp  sand,  ascends 
the  roots  of  mangroves,  and  runs  up  wet  rocks  in 
quest  of  flies. 

Leather  consists  essentially  of  the  skins  of 
animals  chemically  altered  by  the  vegetable  prin¬ 
ciple  called  tannin,  or  tannic  acid,  so  as  to  arrest 
that  proneness  to  decompose  which  is  character 
istic  of  soft  animal  substances.  The  first  process 
in  making  tanned  leather  is  to  soak  the  skins  in 
water  to  wash  and  soften  them;  they  are  then  laid 
in  heaps  for  a  short  time,  and  afterward  hung  in 
a  heated  room,  by  which  means  a  slight  putrefact¬ 
ive  decomposition  is  started,  and  the  hair  becomes 
so  loose  as  to  be  easily  detached.  Hides  or  skins 
intended  for  dressing  purposes,  after  the  hair  is 
taken  off  by  lime,  have  to  be  submitted  to  a  pro¬ 
cess  called  “bating,”  for  the  purpose  of  reducing 
the  thickening  or  swelling  occasioned  by  the 
introduction  of  the  lime,  and  for  cleansing  the 
skin  from  grease  and  other  impurities.  This  is 
effected  by  working  the  skins  in  a  decoction  of 
pigeons’  or  dogs’  dung  and  warm  water.  The 
hides  after  unliairing,  were  formerly  placed  in 
the  tan-pits,  with  layers  of  oak-bark  or  other  tan¬ 
ning  materials  between  them;  and  when  as  many 
layers  of  hides  and  bark  were  arranged  as  the  pit 
would  hold,  water  was  let  in,  and  the  hides 
remained  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  tanning  mate¬ 
rial  for  months,  and  even  in  some  cases  for  years, 
being  only  occasionally  turned.  But  this  process 
is  now  rarely  carried  out.  After  the  hides  have 
become  thoroughly  tanned  in  the  pit,  and  when 
partly  dried  (if  for  struck  sole-leather),  they  are 
operated  upon  by  a  two-handled  tool  with  three 
blunt  edges,  called  a  pin,  which,  by  being  rubbed 
with  great  pressure  backward  and  forward  on 
the  grain-side  of  the  leather,  makes  it  more  and 
more  compact;  and  this  is  still  further  accom¬ 
plished  by  submitting  the  leather  to  the  action  of 
a  heavily  loaded  brass  roller.  In  tawing,  in  which 
antiseptics  are  used  to  prevent  putrefaction  in  the 
skin  instead  of  actual  tanning,  the  first  process  is 
careful  washing,  next  dressing  them  with  lime, 
then  removing  the  hair  or  wool,  and  lastly  steep¬ 
ing  them  in  some  one  or  more  of  the  various 
mixtures  which  are  used  for  converting  skins  into 
leather  by  this  method. 

Leatlierwood  (Dirca  pain  stria),  a  deciduous 
shrub  of  3 — 6  feet  high,  with  the  habit  of  a  minia¬ 
ture  tree,  a  native  of  North  America.  It  belongs 
to  the  natural  order  Thymeleaceoe.  The  bark  and 
wood  are  exceedingly  tough,  and  in  Canada  the 
bark  is  used  for  ropes,  baskets,  etc.  The  leaves 
are  lanceolate-oblong;  the  flowers  are  yellow,  and 
appear  before  the  leaves. 

Leavenworth,  the  county  seat  of  Crawford 
county,  Ind.  Pop.,  810. 

Leavenworth,  a  city  on  the  Missouri  river,  in 
Leavenworth  county,  Kan.  Pop.,  30,000.  A 
considerable  commercial  interest  centers  here,  and 
it  divides  honors  with  Kansas  City  and  St.  Joseph, 
Mo.,  as  a  distributing  point.  Port  Leavenworth, 
an  army  post,  and  the  United  States  military 
prison,  are  about  four  miles  above  the  city. 

Leaves  (folia)  are  organs  of  plants,  springing 
from  the  sides  of  the  stem  or  branches,  generally 
more  or  less  flat  and  green,  never  bearing  flowers, 
and  of  great  use  in  the  vegetable  economy  as  ex¬ 
posing  the  sap  to  air  and  light  on  their  extensive 
surfaces.  It  is  usually  in  the  axils  of  leaves  that 
buds  and  branches  are  developed;  and  with  refer¬ 


ence  to  buds  and  branches,  they  are  never  situated 
otherwise  than  beneath  them,  although  in  the 
axils  of  many  leaves  no  development  of  bud  or 
branch  ever  takes  place. 

Leb'anon,  Mount,  or  Jebel  Libnax,  the  west¬ 
ern  and  higher  of  two  mountain-chains  which  run 
through  Syria  from  north  to  south,  parallel  with 
the  coast  of  the  Levant.  Its  average  height  is 
about  7,000  feet,  but  its  loftiest  peak,  Dahrel- 
Kliotib,  in  the  range  called  Jebel  Makmel,  attains 
an  elevation  of  10,050  feet. 

Lebanon,  the  name  of  several  towns,  and  county 
seats  in  the  United  States,  as  follows; — 1.  The 
county  seat  of  Boone  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  3,600. 
— 2.  The  county  seat  of  Laclede  county,  Mo.  Pop., 
3,100. — 3.  The  county  seat  of  Marion  county,  Ky. 
Pop. ,  2, 154. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Russell  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  250. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  War¬ 
ren  county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  2,900.— 6.  The  county 
seat  of  Wilson  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  2,296. — 7.  An 
important  agricultural  and  manufacturing  town 
in  Grafton  county,  N.  H.  Pop.,  3,554. 

Lecomp'ton,  once  the  capital  of  Kansas,  is 
situated  on  the  Kansas  river,  sixty  miles  above 
Kansas  City.  Pop.  (1889),  600. 

Lecytliida'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  or  sub-order  of  Myrtacece,  the  distinguish¬ 
ing  characteristic  being  that  the  fruit  is  a  large, 
woody  capsule,  with  a  number  of  cells,  which  in 
some  species  remains  closed,  and  in  some  opens 
with  a  lid. 

Le'da,  in  Grecian  Mythology,  the  wife  of  the 
Spartan  King  Tyndareus,  whom  Jupiter  visited 
one  night  in  the  disguise  of  a  swan.  She  became 
by  the  god  the  mother  of  Castor  and  Pollux,  and, 
after  her  death,  was  raised  to  a  divinity  under  the 
name  of  Nemesis.  The  story  has  supplied  a  theme 
for  many  works  of  art. 

Le'dum,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Ericece,  sub-order  Rhodorece,  consisting  of  small 
evergreen  shrubs,  with  comparatively  large  flow¬ 
ers,  of  which  the  corolla  is  cut  into  five  deep 
petal-like  segments. 

Lee,  the  name  of  a  distinguished  Virginian  fam¬ 
ily.  Their  ancestor,  Richard  Lee,  emigrated 
to  America,  in  the  reign  of  King  Charles  I.,  and 
settled  between  the  Rappahannock  and  Potomac 
rivers. — Lee,  Richard  Henry,  great-grandson  of 
the  preceding,  was  born  at  Stratford,  in  Virginia, 
Jan.  20,  1732.  He  was  sent  as  a  delegate  to  the 
first  American  Congress,  which  met  at  Philadel¬ 
phia  (Sept.  5,  1774).  In  1784,  he  was  elected  Pres¬ 
ident  of  Congress,  and  when  the  Federal  Constitu¬ 
tion  was  established,  he  entered  the  Senate  from 
Virginia.  He  died  June  19,  1794. — Lee,  Arthur, 
youngest  brother  of  the  preceding,  was  born  in 
Virginia,  Dec.  20,  1740.  In  1776,  he  was  sent 
to  Paris,  as  the  secret  agent  of  the  American 
Congress.  He  died  Dec.  12, 1792. — Lee,  Henry, 
a  distinguished  American  general,  was  born  in 
Virginia,  Jan.  29,  1756.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
vigilant  and  successful  cavalry  officers  on  the  side 
of  the  colonists.  After  the  war,  he  was  sent  to 
Congress  as  a  delegate  from  Virginia,  and  in  1792, 
was  chosen  Governor  of  Virginia.  He  died  March 
25,  1816. — Lee,  Robert  E.,  General  and  Com- 
mander-in-Chief  of  the  army  of  the  Confederate 
States  of  America,  was  the  son  of  the  preceding, 
and  was  born  in  Virginia  about  1810.  He  was 
educated  at  West  Point,  served  as  Captain  of 
engineers  under  General  Scott  in  the  war  with 
Mexico,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Lieutenant- 
Colonel,  and  breveted  Colonel  for  distinguished 
services.  He  wasemploj’edin  the  office  of  the  Com- 
mander-in-Cliief  at  Washington  when  Virginia 
seceded  from  the  Union,  April,  1861,  when  he  re¬ 
signed  his  commission,  and  was  appointed  Com- 
mander-in-Chief  of  the  forces  of  Virginia,  and  later 
was  selected  as  Gommander-in-Chief.  In  July, 
1862,  he  defended  Richmond  against  the  Federal 
army  under  General  McClellan,  and  after  six  days 
of  fighting,  drove  him  to  the  shelter  of  his  gun¬ 
boats.  Marching  north,  he  defeated  General  Pope, 
August  29th,  in  the  second  battle  of  Manassas. 
Crossing  the  Potomac  into  Maryland,  with  a  force 
of  40,000,  he  was  met  at  Antietarn  by  General  Mc¬ 
Clellan  with  80,000,  and  after  a  bloody  but  indeci¬ 
sive  conflict,  September  17th,  recrossed  the  Poto¬ 
mac,  and  took  a  position  at  Fredericksburg,  on  the 
Rappahannock,  where,  December  13th,  he  was 
attacked  by  General  Burnside,  whose  army  lie 
defeated  with  great  slaughter.  General  Hooker, 


the  successor  of  Generals  McClellan,  Pope,  and 
Burnside,  crossed  the  Rappahannock,  May  1, 
1863,  and  was  attacked  by  Lee  on  the  2d  and  3d, 
and  defeated.  He  afterward  carried  the  war 
into  Pennsylvania;  but  finally,  being  overpowered, 
he  surrendered  to  General  Grant.  After  the  war 
he  was  appointed  Governor  of  Lexington  College. 
He  died  Oct.  12,  1870. 

Leech  (Hirudo),  a  Linna?an  genus  of  Annelida. 
of  the  order  Sucloria,  now  forming  the  family 
Hirudinidce,  and  divided  into  a  number  of  genera, 
some  of  which  contain  many  species.  They  are 
mostly  inhabitants  of  fresh  waters,  although  some 
live  among  grass,  etc.,  in  moist  places,  and  some 
are  marine.  They  are  most  common  in  warm 
climates.  The  body  is  soft,  and  composed  of 
rings  like  that  of  the  earth-worm.  The  mouth  of 
the  medicinal  leech  has  three  small,  white,  hard 
teeth,  minutely  serrated  along  the  edges,  and 
curved  so  as  to  form  little  semicircular  saws, 
provided  with  muscles  powerful  enough  to  work 
them  with  great  effect,  and  to  produce  a  triradi- 


Ilorse-leech. 


ate  wound.  The  stomach  is  very  large,  and  is 
divided  into  compartments,  and  a  leech  which 
has  once  gorged  itself  with  blood  retains  a  store 
for  a  long  time,  little  changed,  in  these  recepta¬ 
cles,  whilst  the  digestive  process  slowly  goes  on. 
Leeches  are  oviparous,  and  each  individual  is 
hermaphrodite.  They  have  small  eyes — in  the 
medicinal  leeches  ten — appearing  as  black  spots 
near  the  mouth,  and  of  the  most  simple  structure. 
Their  epidermis  scales  off  readily;  and  one  cause 
of  the  great  mortality  so  often  experienced  among 
leeches  kept  for  medicinal  use,  is  the  want  of 
aquatic  plants  in  the  vessels  containing  them, 
among  which  to  rub  themselves  for  aid  in  this 
process,  and  for  getting  quit  of  the  slime  which 
their  skins  exude. 

Leeching,  or  the  application  of  leeches  for  the 
purpose  of  abstracting  blood,  is  preferable  to 
venesection  or  cupping  in  many  forms  of  disease. 
In  the  diseases  of  infants  and  young  children, 
leeches  must  be  applied  with  caution.  The  part 
should  first  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  the 
leeches,  after  being  dried  by  rubbing  them  in  a 
clean  linen  cloth,  should  be  placed  in  an  open 
pill  box,  or  in  a  wine-glass,  and  applied  to  the 
spot  at  which  it  is  desired  that  they  should  at¬ 
tach  themselves.  When  it  is  wished  to  affix  a 
leech  to  the  inside  of  the  mouth,  it  is  placed  in  a 
narrow  tube  called  a  leech-glass.  When  the  ani¬ 
mals  will  not  attach  themselves  readily,  they  may 
sometimes  be  induced  to  bite  by  moistening  the 
part  with  milk  or  blood.  When  the  leeches  have 
fallen  off,  it  is  usually  desirable  to  promote  to 
some  extent  the  flow  of  blood  from  their  bites, 
and  this  is  readily  done  by  the  application  of 
warm  fomentations  or  poultices.  Leeches,  when 
applied  to  the  mouth  or  interior  of  the  nose,  have 
been  occasionally  swallowed,  and  have  given  rise 
to  unpleasant  symptoms.  The  best  treatment  in 
a  case  of  this  kind  is  to  prescribe  wine — half  a 
glass,  or  even  a  glass,  every  quarter  of  an  hour — 
which  will  speedily  destroy  the  leech.  A  moder¬ 
ately  strong  solution  of  common  salt  would  prob¬ 
ably  exert  a  similar  fatal  action  on  the  animal. 

Leeds,  the  first  town  in  Yorkshire,  and  fifth  in 
England  in  point  of  population,  is  in  the  valley 
of  the  Aire.  Pop.  (1881),  309,112. 

Leek  (Allium  porrum;  see  Onion),  a  biennial 
food-plant,  and  a  native  of  the  South  of  Europe, 
with  no  proper  bulb  at  the  root,  but  generally  a 
slight  increase  of  the  thickness  of  the  stem.  Its 
flavor  is  much  milder  than  that  of  the  onion, 
or  any  other  species  of  Allium. 

Leeslmrgh,  the  county  seat  of  Lee  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  400. 

Leesburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Loudoun 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  1,810. 

Leesville,  the  parish  seat  of  Vernon  parish. 
La.  Pop.,  75. 

Leg,  The,  comprises  all  that  part  of  the  lower 
extremity  which  lies  between  the  knee  and  the 
ankle,  it  consists  of  two  bones,  the  tibia  and 
fibula,  and  of  masses  of  muscles  (together  with 


LEGATE. 


500 


LENT. 


nerves  and  vessels)  which  are  held  in  their  position 
by  coverings  of  fascia,  and  are  enveloped  in  the 
general  integument.  The  shaft  of  the  tibia  is  of 
a  triangular  prisuioid  form,  and  presents  three 
surfaces  and  three  borders.  The  internal  surface 
is  smooth,  convex,  and  broader  above  than  below; 
except  at  its  upper  third,  it  lies  directly  under  the 
skin,  and  may  be  readily  traced  by'  the  hand. 
The  external  and  the  posterior  surfaces  are 
covered  by  numerous  muscles.  The  muscular 
mass  forming  the  calf  (formed  by  the  gastroc¬ 
nemius,  soleus,  and  .plantar is  muscles)  is  peculiar 
toman,  and  is  directly  connected  with  his  erect 
attitude  and  his  ordinary  mode  of  progression. 
The  anterior  border  of  the  tibia,  the  most  prom¬ 
inent  of  the  three,  is  popularly  known  as  the  shin, 
and  may  be  traced  down  to  the  inner  ankle.  The 
fibula,  or  small  bone  of  the  leg,  lies  on  the  outer 
surface  of  the  tibia,  and  articulates  with  its  upper 
and  lower  extremities,  and  with  the  astragalus 
interiorly.  It  affords  attachments  to  many  of  the 
muscles  of  this  region  This  region  is  nourished 
by  the  anterior  and  posterior  tibial  arteries  into 
which  the  popliteal  artery  separates.  Both  these 
arteries  occasionally  require  to  be  tied  by  the 
surgeon  in  cases  of  wounds  or  aneurism.  The 
blood  is  returned  toward  the  heart  by  two  sets  of 
veins — the  deep,  which  accompany  the  arteries, 
and  the  superficial,  which  are  known  as  the 
internal  or  long  saphenous,  and  the  external  or 
short  saphenous  veins.  The  nerves  of  the  leg, 
both  sensory  and  motor,  are  derived  from  the 
great  sciatic  nerve  and  from  its  terminal  branches, 
the  internal  popliteal  and  the  external  popliteal 
or  peroneal  nerve. 

Leg'ate,  the  name  of  the  ambassador  or  repre¬ 
sentative,  whether  temporary  or  permanent,  sent 
by  the  Pope  to  a  particular  church. 

Leg 'horn  {Livorno),  one  of  the  chief  Mediter¬ 
ranean  seaports,  is  a  city  of  Tuscany,  in  the 
modern  Province  of  Livorno,  fifty  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Florence,  and  fourteen  fniles  south- 
southwest  of  Pisa;  latitude  43°  32'  7"  N.,  lon¬ 
gitude  10°  17'  7"  E.;  pop.  (1881)  of  Leghorn 
77,781;  of  commune  with  the  three  suburbs,  Tor- 
retta,  Sta.  Lucia,  and  S.  Jacopo,  97,615. 

Leghorn  Fowls  are  one  of  the  best  of  Ameri¬ 
can  breeds,  but  were  probably  first  imported  from 
Leghorn,  whence  their  name.  They  are  of  various 
colors,  but  the  white  and  brown  are  most  popular. 


Browu  Leghorns. 


The  combs  of  the  cocks  are  upright,  single, 
large,  and  serrated,  wattles  full  and  large,  cream- 
colored  or  white  ear  lobes  The  combs  of  the 
hens  frequently  fall  or  double  over.  The  brown 
leghorns  have  the  breast  black,  splashed  with 
brown,  the  wings  reddish-brown,  the  tail  large, 
full,  and  the  sickle  curved.  They  are  abundant 
layers,  the  hens  rarely  showing  an  inclination 
to  sit. 

Legion,  in  the  Roman  military  system,  in  the 
time  of  the  Republic,  comprised  4,500  men,  thus 
divided:  1,200  hastati,  or  inexperienced  troops ; 
1,200  principes,  or  well-trained  soldiers;.  1,200 
velites,  or  skirmishers ;  600  triarii,  or  pilani, 
veterans  forming  a  reserve;  and  300  equites,  or 
knights  who  acted  as  cavalry,  and  belonged  to 
families  of  rank. 

Legion  of  Honor,  an  order  of  merit  instituted 
under  the  French  Republic,  in  1802,  by  the  First 
Consul,  as  a  recompense  for  military  and  civil 
services.  The  vast  numbers  of  this  order,  and  the 


insignificance  of  many  of  the  persons  on  whom  it 
has  of  late  been  conferred,  have  detracted  much 
from  its  value. 

Leg'ume  {Legumen),  in  Botany,  a  fruit  consist¬ 
ing  of  a  single  carpel,  two-valved,  and  with  the 
seeds — one  or  many — attached  to  the  ventral 
suture  only.  It  is  commonly  called  a  pod. 

Legu'mine,  or  Vegetable  Caseine.  The 
seeds  of  most  leguminous  plants  (pease,  beans, 
lentils,  etc.),  and  of  the  sweet  and  bitter  almond, 
contain  a  proteine  or  albuminous  body,  which  in 
all  its  essential  properties  corresponds  with  the 
caseine  of  milk. 

Legumino'sai  ( Fdbacece  of  Lindley),  a  great 
natural  order  of  oxogenous  plants,  containing  her¬ 
baceous  plants,  shrubs  and  trees.  There  are  three 
sub-orders:  1.  Papilionacea  ;  2.  CtBsalpinece,  with 
irregular  flowers  and  spreading  petals ;  3. 
Mimosece,  with  small  regular  flowers.  This 
natural  order  contains  almost  7,000  known 
species,  of  which  about  5,000  belong  to  the  sub¬ 
order  Papilionacea They  are  spread  over  all 
parts  of  the  world.  To  this  order  belong  the 
bean,  pea,  kidney-bean,  and  all  kinds  of  pulse; 
clover,  liquorice,  broom,  laburnum,  lupine, 
senna,  and  many  other  medicinal  plants  ;  tama¬ 
rind,  logwood,  indigo,  and  many  others  which 
afford  dyes,  etc.;  the  acacias,  mimosas,  etc. 

Leibnitz  (more accurately  Leibniz),  Gottfried 
Wilhelm  von,  perhaps  the  most  extraordinary 
example  of  universal  scholarship  upon  record, 
was  born,  July  6,  1646,  at  Leipzig,  and  died 
Nov.  14,  1716.  His  scholarship,  as  regards  the 
vastness  of  its  range,  is  probably  unexampled. 
He  was  eminent  in  languages,  history,  divinity, 
philosophy,  political  studies,  experimental  sci¬ 
ence,  mechanical  science,  and  even  belles-lettres. 
But  it  is  chiefly  through  his  philosophical  reputa¬ 
tion  that  he  lives  in  history. 

Leices'ter,  a  town  of  England,  is  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Soar,  about  100  miles  north-northwest 
of  London.  Pop.  (1881),  122,351. 

Leicestershire,  an  inland  county  of  England, 
south  of  Derby  and  Nottingham.  Area,  511,719 
acres.  Pop.  (1881),  321,258. 

Lei'nster,  one  of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland, 
occupies  the  southeast  portion  of  the  country,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  east  by  St.  George’s  Channel  and 
the  Irish  Sea.  Area,  4,876,933  acres.  Pop. 
(1881),  1,279,190. 

Leipoa,  a  genus  of  gallinaceous  birds,  of  the 
family  Megapodidce,  of  which  the  only  known 


species  is  L.  ocellata,  a  native  of  Australia,  inhab¬ 
iting  sandy  and  bushy  plains. 

Leipzig  (formerly  Libzk  or  Lipzk),  a  city  of 
Saxony,  sixty -five  miles  west-northwest  of  Dres¬ 
den.  Pop.  (1880),  149,081.  Its  university,  which 
ranks  very  high,  dates  from  1409. 

Leitchfield,  the  county  seat  of  Grayson  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Leith,  an  important  seaport  of  Scotland,  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  two  miles 
north  of  Edinburgh.  Pop.  (1881),  59,485. 

Lei 'trim,  a  county  in  the  nort  heast  of  the 
Province  of  Connaught,  in  Ireland.  Area,  6l3 
square  miles,  or  392,363  acres.  Pop.  (1881),  89,- 
795. 

Leland,  the  county  seat  of  Leelanaw  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  400. 

Le  Mars,  the  county  seat  of  Plymouth  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  4,100. 


Lem 'berg  (formerly  Lowenburg),  the  capital 
of  Galicia  and  Lodomeriq  is  on  the  Peltew,  in 
latitude  49°  50'  N.,  longitude  24°  E.  Pop.  (1869), 
87,105. 

Lem'ming  ( T.emmus  or  My  odes),  ’a  genus  of 
rodent  quadrupeds,  of  the  family  Muridae,  and 
sub-family  Arvicolidce.  The  most  noted  species 
is  the  Scandinavian  lemming  ( L.  or  M.  norve- 
gicus),  an  animal  of  about  5  inches  long,  with 


Lemming  ( Lemmus  norvefficus) . 


variegated  black  and  tawny  fur,  an  inhabitant  of 
the  Northern  Scandinavian  mountains,  where  it 
ordinarily  feeds  on  reindeer-moss,  and  other 
lichens,  grass,  catkins  of  birch,  etc. 

Lem'nian  Earth,  a  mineral  found  in  the 
Island  of  Lemnos.  It  consists  of  about  66  per 
cent,  silica,  with  14  of  alumina,  and  a  little  oxide 
of  iron,  soda,  and  water. 

Lem'uos  (now  commonly  called  Stalimne),  an 
island  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Grecian  Archi¬ 
pelago,  about  forty  miles  west  of  the  entrance  to 
the  Dardanelles.  Area,  150  square  miles.  Pop., 
about  12,000. 

Lemon  ( Citrus  limonum),  a  tree  which  has  by 
many  botanists  been  regarded  as  a  variety  of  the 
citron,  and,  like  it,  a  native  of  the  North  of  India. 
In  the  common  variety,  which  is  extensively  cul¬ 
tivated  in  many  tropical  and  sub  tropical  coun¬ 
tries,  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  is  acid,  abounding  in 
citric  acid. 

Lemon-grass  ( Andropogon  seheenanthus),  a 
beautiful  perennial  grass  3  or  4  feel  high,  with 
panicle  mostly  leaning  to  one  side.  It  is  a  native 
of  India,  Arabia,  etc.  It  has  a  strong,  lemon-like 
fragrance.  By  distillation,  an  essential  oil  is 
obtained  ( Lemon-grass  oil),  which  is  employed 
externally  as  a  stimulant  in  rheumatic  affections. 

Lemons,  Oil  or  Essence  of,  is  extracted  from 
the  minute  cells  which  are  visible  on  the  rind  of 
the  lemon,  by  submitting  the  fruit  to  pressure  in 
hair  sacs. 

Lemons,  Salt  of,  a  name  commonly  but  im¬ 
properly  applied  by  druggists  to  binoxalate  of 
potash  mixed  with  a  little  of  the  quadroxalate. 

Le'mur,  a  genus  of  mammalia  which  gives  its 
name  to  the  family  Lemuridce,  a  family  allied  to 
monkeys,  and,  like  them,  quadrumanous,  having 


Lemur. 


on  each  of  the  four  extremities  a  well-developed 
thumb  opposed  to  the  fingers,  but  in  other  respects 
exhibiting  an  approach  to  the  ordinary  quadru¬ 
pedal  type. 

Le'na,  an  important  river  of  Eastern  Siberia, 
flows  north  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  into  which  it 
falls  by  several  mouths. 

Lenoir,  the  county  seat  of  Caldwell  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  810. 

Lens  (Lat.  a  lentil)  is  a  circular  section  of  any 
transparent  substance,  having  its  surfaces  either 
both  spherical,  or  one  of  them  plane  and  the  other 
spherical. 

Lent  (Ang.-Sax.  lencten  =  Ger.  lenz,  spring; 
Gr.  Tessaracoste;  Lat,  Quadragesima),  the  fast¬ 
ing-time  before  Easter,  which  is  observed  in  the 


LENTIL. 


501 


LEWIS. 


Roman,  and  in  the  Greek,  and  other  Oriental 
churches. 

Lentil  ( Ervum  lens),  an  annual  plant  of  the 
same  genus  with  tares,  a  native  of  the  countries 
near  the  Mediterranean,  and  which  has  been  cul¬ 
tivated  from  the  earliest  times,  yielding  an 
esteemed  kind  of  pulse.  Lentils  mixed  with  pease 
in  the  making  of  pea-soup,  greatly  diminish  its 
tendency  to  produce  flatulence.  Lentils  are  also 
excellent  food  for  horses;  and  the  herbage  used 
as  green  food  for  cows,  renders  them  extremely 
productive  of  milk. 

Le'o,  the  name  of  thirteen  of  the  Popes  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  of  whom  the  follow¬ 
ing  call  for  particular  notice. — Leo  I.,  surnamed 
the  Great,  was  born  at  Rome  about  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century.  On  the  death  of  Sixtus  III.,  in 
440,  Leo  was  chosen  as  his  successor.  Leo  died 
at  Rome  in  461.  The  pontificate  of  Leo  III.  is 
chiefly  noticeable  as  the  epocli  of  the  formal 
establishment  of  the  Empire  of  the  West.  He 
was  a  native  of  Rome,  and  was  elected  Pope  on 
the  death  of  Adrian  I.,  in  795.  He  died  in  816. 
Leo  X.,  Giovanni  de’  Medici,  the  son  of  Lorenzo, 
de’  Medici,  was  born  at  Florence  in  December, 
1475.  On  the  death  of  Julius  II.,  in  1513,  Cardi¬ 
nal  de’  Medici  was  chosen  Pope  at  the  early  age 
of  thirty-seven,  under  the  name  of  Leo  X.  His 
death  occurred  on  Dec.  1,  1521. 

Leo  XIII.,  the  present  head  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  was  elected  to  the  pontifical 
chair  Feb.  20,  1878.  He  was  born  March  2,  1810, 
at  Carpineto,  Italy.  In  1877  he  was  made  Camer- 
lengo  (papal  Finance  Minister),  and  was  chosen 
to  be  the  successor  of  Pius  IX.  in  the  pontificate 
in  1878. 

Leo  III.,  Flavius,  surnamed  “the  Isaurian  ” 
(from  his  birthplace),  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 
usurped  the  throne  in  718,  and  died  in  741. 

Le'on,  a  city  of  Nicaragua,  near  the  northwest 
extremity  of  the  lake  of  its  own  name,  distant 
about  ten  miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Leola,  the  county  seat  of  McPherson  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  125. 

Leominster,  an  agricultural  and  manufactur¬ 
ing  city  of  Worcester  county,  Mass.  Pop.,  5,300. 

Leon,  the  county  seat  of  Decatur  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  2,100. 

Leon,  an  important  city  of  Mexico,  in  the  State 
of  Guanajuato.  Pop.,  101,000. 

Leon,  formerly  a  kingdom,  and  subsequently  a 
province  of  Spain,  now  subdivided  into  the  smaller 
Provinces  of  Salamanca,  Zamora,  and  Leon,  is  in 
the  Northwest  of  Spain,  south  of  Asturias,  arid 
bordering  on  Portugal.  Area,  about  15,000  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1870),  881,930. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci.  This  great  genius,  whose 
works  in  painting  are  classed  with  those  of 
Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo,  was  also  a  sculp¬ 
tor,  architect,  and  engineer,  and  studied  success¬ 
fully  anatomy,  botany,  mathematics,  astronomy, 
poetry,  and  music,  excelling  in  all.  He  was  born 
in  1452,  at  Vinci,  Italy,  and  died  May  2,  1519. 

Leouardtown,  the  county  seat  of  St.  Maiy’s 
county,  Md.  Pop.,  550. 

Leon'idas  I.,  son  of  Anaxandrides,  King  of 
Sparta,  succeeded  his  half-brother,  Cleomenes  I., 
about  491  b.c.,  and  was  killed  in  battle  in  480. 

Le'onine  Verses,  the  name  given  to  the  hexam¬ 
eter  and  pentameter  verses,  common  in  the 
middle  ages,  which  rhymed  at  the  middle  and 
end. 


Leopard  (Felts  leopardus),  one  of  the  larger 
Felidae,  now  generally  supposed  to  be  identical 


Leopard  (Felis  leopardus). 

with  the  panther  (F.  pardus),  although  by  some 
they  are  regarded  as  varieties,  and  others  still  sup¬ 


pose  them  to  be  distinct  species.  The  size  and 
strength  of  the  leopard  render  it  as  dangerous 
to  man  as  any  of  the  Felidce;  but  it  generally 
seems  to  dread  and  flee  from  man,  unless  assailed. 
It  is  easily  domesticated. 

Leopold  I.,  George  Christian  Frederick, 
King  of  the  Belgians,  son  of  Francis,  Duke  of 
Saxe-Coburg,  was  born  Dec.  16,  1790.  He  died 
December,  i860,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
Leopold  II. 

Lepidoden'dron,  a  genus  of  fossil  plants, 
abundant  in  the  coal  measures.  Some  species 
were  of  small  size,  but  the  greater  number  were 
large  trees,  40  or  50  feet  long,  and  more  than  4 
feet  in  diameter. 

Lepido'ptera,  an  order  of  insects,  undergoing 
complete  metamorphosis,  having  the  mouth  in 
their  perfect  state  exclusively  adapted  for  suck¬ 
ing,  and  further  characterized  by  four  membra¬ 
nous  wings  covered  with  minute,  closely  set 
scales.  The  order  contains  a  vast  number  of 
species  abounding  chiefly  in  warm  climates 

Lepis'ma,  a  genus  of  wingless  insects  of  the 
order  Thysanura .  The  best  known  species  is  L. 
saceharina,  sometimes  called  the  sugar  louse. 

Lep'idus,  an  illustrious  Roman  family  of  the 
ancient  zEmilian  gens.  It  makes  its  first  appear¬ 
ance  in  history  about  the  beginning  of  the  third 
century  b.c. ,  and  disappears  about  the  close  of 
the  first  century  a.d. 

Lepra  is  a  Greek  term  which  is  now  generally 
employed  bv  medical  writers  to  designate  a  scaly 
affection  of  the  skin.  These  scales  occur  in  cir¬ 
cular  patches  of  a  grayish  color,  with  a  red, 
slightly  elevated  margin.  If  the  scales  fall  off  or 
are  removed,  the  surface  of  the  skin  is  red  and 
shining,  and  new  scales  rapidly  form.  The  patches 
vary  in  size,  being  often  about  an  inch  in  diame¬ 
ter,  and  sometimes  much  larger.  Lepra  mo  4 
commonly  occurs  on  the  limbs,  and  especially  on 
those  parts  where  the  bones  are  most  thinly 
covered.  Its  duration  is  uncertain,  and  if  not 
interrupted  by  treatment,  it  will  frequently  con¬ 
tinue  for  years,  without  materially  affecting  the 
general  health.  It  is  not  contagious.  The  local 
application  of  tar  ointment,  or  the  iodide  of  sul¬ 
phur  ointment,  will  sometimes  remove  it.  If  it 
does  not  yield  to  this  treatment,  small  doses  of 
Fowler’s  arsenical  solution  may  be  prescribed, 
twice  or  thrice  a  day,  either  in  water  or  in  the 
decoction  of  dulcamara,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
specially  beneficial  in  chronic  skin  diseases. 

Leprosy  is  identical  with  the  elephantiasis  of 
the  Greeks,  and  the  lepra  of  the  Arabians,  while 
it  is  altogether  different  from  the  elephantiasis  of 
the  Arabians,  and  the  lepra  of  the  Greeks,  which 
latter  is  the  scaly  lepra  of  our  own  day.  The 
most  prominent  symptoms  of  leprosy  are  dusky 
red  or  livid  tubercles  of  various  sizes  on  the  face, 
ears,  and  extremities;  thickened  or  rugose  state 
of  the  skin,  diminution  of  its  sensibility,  and  fall¬ 
ing  off  of  the  hair,  excepting  that  of  the  scalp; 
hoarse,  nasal,  or  lost  voice;  ozaena;  ulcerations  of 
the  surface  and  extreme  feetor.  These  tubercles 
vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  pea  to  an  olive.  Of 
all  parts,  the  face  is  particularly  affected,  and 
especially  the  nose  and  ears.  Such  alterative 
medicines  as  corrosive  sublimate  and  arsenious 
acid  in  minute  doses  are  the  most  likely  to  be  of 
service.  Sulphur  fumigating  baths,  and  various 
medicated  water  baths,  have  also  been  recom¬ 
mended. 

Lesage,  Alain  Rene,  a  French  dramatist  and 
novelist,  born  May  S,  1668,  at  Sarzeau.  Of  his 
writings,  Gil  Bias  is  the  most  popular,  and  has 
been  translated  into  every  language  that  has  a 
literature.  He  died,  Nov.  17,  1747. 

Les' bos,  the  ancient  name  of  an  island  in  the 
Grecian  Archipelago,  belonging  to  Turkey. 
Lesbos  was  the  birthplace  of  Terpander,  Arion, 
Alcaeus,  Sappho,  Pittacus,  Theophrastus,  and 
Cratippus. 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand  Vicomte  de,  dis¬ 
tinguished  engineer  and  diplomate,  was  born 
at  Versailles,  France,  in  1805.  1 1  is  fame  chiefly 

rests  on  his  great  work  of  building  the  Suez 
Canal.  At  present  he  is  engaged  in  the  projected 
cutting  of  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
He  has  also  on  foot  another  scheme  for  inundat¬ 
ing  the  Great  Sahara  desert. 

Lc  Sueur  Centre,  the  county  seat  of  Le  Sueur 
county,  Minn.  Pop.,  1,800. 


Le'tlie,  in  Grecian  Mythology,  the  stream  of 
forgetfulness  in  the  lower  world,  from  which 
souls  drank  before  passing  into  the  Elysian  Fields, 
that  they  might  lose  all  recollection  of  earthly 
sorrows. 

Letcher,  the  county  seat  of  Sanborn  county, 
S.  Dak. 

Lettuce  ( Lactuca ),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Compositm,  sub-order 
Uichoracece.  The  garden  lettuce  (L.  saliva)  is 
supposed  to  be  a  native  of  the  East  Indies.  It  is 
now  generally  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  world 
where  the  climate  admits  of  it  ;  and  there  are 
many  varieties. 

Leucis'cus,  a  genus  of  fresh  water  fishes,  of 
the  family  Cyprinidce,  containing  a  great  number 
of  species,  among  which  are  the  roach,  ide,  dace, 
graining,  chub,  red-eye,  minnow,  etc. 

Leucocythe'mia  (derived  from  the  Greek 
words  A vkoS,  leucos,  white,  KvroS,  cytos ,  a  cell, 
and  aipa,  haema,  blood)  is.  a  disease  in  which  the 
number  of  white  corpuscles  in  the  blood  appears 
to  be  greatly  increased,  while  there  is  a  simul¬ 
taneous  diminution  of  the  red  corpuscles.  The 
causes  of  leucocythemia  are  unknown  ;  and 
although  the  most  varied  remedies  have  been 
tried,  the  disease  is  almost  invariably  fatal. 

Leuco'ma  (derived  from  the  Greek  A vkoI, 
leucos,  white)  is  the  term  applied  to  a  white 
opacity  of  the  cornea — the  transparent  front  of 
the  eye.  It  is  sometimes  re-absorbed  on  the  cessa¬ 
tion  of  the  inflammation  which  gave  rise  to  it, 
and  the  cornea  recovers  its  transparency;  but  in 
many  cases  it  is  persistent  and  incurable. 

Leven,  Loch,  a  lake  in  the  east  of  Kinross- 
shire,  Scotland,  measuring  between  10  and  11 
miles  in  circuit. 

Leven,  Loch,  an  arm  of  the  sea,  or  rather  of 
Loch  Linnhe  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland, 
between  Argyle  and  Inverness,  about  11  miles 
long  and  1  mile  wide. 

Lever,  the  most  simple  and  common,  but,  at 
the  same  time,  most  important  of  the  seven 
mechanical  powers,  consists  of  an  inflexible  rod 
— straight  or  bent— supported  at  some  point  of  its 
length  on  a  prop  which  is  called  the  fulcrum,  and 
having  the  weight  to  be  moved  and  the  power  to 
move  it  applied  at  other  two  points.  The  law  of 
levers  is  that  the  power  and  weight  are  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  their  distances  from  the  fulcrum. 
This  is  equally  true  for  straight  or  bent  levers. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  levers:  The  first  kind  is 
where  the  fulcrum  is  placed  between  the  power 
and  the  weight.  Levers  of  the  second  kind  are 
those  in  which  the  weight  is  between  the  power 
and  fulcrum.  In  levers  of  the  third  kind,  the 
power  is  between  the  weight  and  the  fulcrum. 

Le'ver,  Charles,  Irish  novelist,  was  born  iu 
Dublin,  Aug.  31,  1806,  and  died  in  1872.  Among 
his  best  novels  may  be  specified  Charles  O’  Malley, 
Tom  Burke,  Roland  Cashel,  The  Knight  of  Gwynne, 
The  Dodd  Family  Abroad,  Davenport  Dunn. 

Levites,  the  descendants  of  Levi,  the  third  son 
of  Jacob,  who  were  singled  out  for  the  service  of 
the  sanctuary.  The  term  is  more  particularly 
employed,  in  contradistinction  to  priests,  in  desig¬ 
nating  all  those  members  of  the  tribe  who  were 
not  ot  the  family  of  Aaron.  It  was  their  office 
— for  which  no  further  ordination  was  required  in 
the  case  of  the  individual — to  erect,  to  remove, 
and  to  carry  the  tabernacle  and  its  utensiL  during 
the  sojourn  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness. 
When  the  sanctuary  had  found  a  fixed  abode, 
they  acted  as  its  servants  and  guardians,  and  had 
to  assist  the  priests  in  their  holy  functions  in  the 
sanctuary  and  iu  their  medical  capacity  among 
the  people. 

Levit'icus  (Heb.  Vajikra)  is  the  name  of  the 
third  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  containing  chiefly 
the  laws  and  ordinances  relating  to  the  Levites 
and  priests. 

Lewes,  George  Henry,  a  versatile  and  influ¬ 
ential  English  author,  was  born  at  Griff,  Warwick¬ 
shire,  April  18,  1817.  He  was  the  husband  of 
George  Eliot,  and  died  Nov.  30,  1878. 

Lewis,  or  Snake  River,  the  great  southern 
branch  of  Columbia  river,  rises  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  on  the  western  borders  of  Nebraska, 
and,  after  a  circuitous  course  through  Idaho,  and 
<  >regon,  it  joins  the  Columbia,  near  Walla- Walla, 
Wash.,  in  latitude  46°  6'  N.,  and  longitude  118° 
40'  W.  Length,  900  miles. 


LEWIS. 


502 


LIEUTENANT. 


Lewis,  Dio,  American  physician,  born  at  Au¬ 
burn,  N.  Y.,  1823,  lias  written  extensively  on 
medical  and  hygienic  subjects. 

Lewis,  Francis,  American  .statesman,  was  born 
in  Wales  in  1713,  and  died  in  New  York  in  1803. 
He  was  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independ¬ 
ence. 

Lewis,  Meriwether,  American  explorer,  was 
born  in  Virginia  in  1774,  and  died  in  1809.  In 
1803  he,  in  company  with  Captain  Clarke,  set  out 
on  an  exploring  expedition  across  the  Continent, 
which  occupied  two  years  and  four  months.  On 
his  return  he  was  made  Governor  of  Missouri  Ter¬ 
ritory,  and  shortly  after  committed  suicide. 

Lewisburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Greenbrier 
county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Lewisburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Marshall  coun¬ 
ty,  Tenn.  Pop.,  480. 

Lewisburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Union  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Lewi  'sia,  a  genus  of  plants,  of  the  natural  order 
PortnlacncecB,  named  in  honor  of  the  American 
traveler  Lewis.  L.  rediviva  is  found  in  the  regions 
of  his  explorations,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains. 

Lewiston,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  An  important  city 
of  Maine,  on  the  Androscoggin  river,  thirty-three 
miles  north  of  Portland.  Pop.  (1870),  13,600; 
(1880),  20,000. — 2.  An  important  agricultural  and 
mining  town,  and  the  county  seat  of  Nez  Perces 
county,  Idaho.  Pop.,  1,600. — 3.  The  county  seat 
of  Fergus  county,  Mont.  Pop.,  310. — 4.  The 
county  seat  of  Fulton  county,  Ill.  Pop.,  1,800. — 
5.  The  county  seat  of  Mifflin  county,  Penn. 
Pop.,  3,300. 

Lewisville,  the  county  seat  of  LaFayette 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  310. 

Lexington,  the  name  of  several  cities  and  towns 
in  the  United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  A  town  of 
Massachusetts,  ten  miles  northwest  of  Boston,  cele¬ 
brated  as  the  scene  of  the  first  conflict  between 
the  colonists  and  British  troops  in  the  War  of 
Independence,  April  19,  1775.  Pop.,  3,000. — 
2.  A  city  of  Kentucky,  on  the  Town  Fork  of  the 
Elkhorn,  a  tributary  of  Kentucky  river,  seventy- 
seven  miles  east  of  Louisville.  Pop.  (1880),  23,- 
500. — 3.  A  town  of  Missouri,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Missouri,  350  miles  above  St.  Louis.  Pop., 
5,000. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Davidson  county, 
N.  G.  Pop.,  1,800. — 5.  The  county  seat  of 
Henderson  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  400. — 6.  The 
county  seat  of  Holmes  county,  Miss.  Pop.,  1,000. 
— 7.  The  county  seat  of  LaFayette  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  500. — 8.  The  county  seat  of  Lexington 
county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  600. — 9.  The  county  seat  of 
Oglethorpe  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  500. — i0.  The 
county  seat  of  Rockbridge  county,  Va.  Pop., 
3,500. 

Lias.  The  lias  is  the  lower  division  of  the 
oolitic  or  jurassic  period.  The  beds  composing 
it  may  be  considered  as  the  argillaceous  basis  of 
that  series  of  rocks,  consisting  of  more  than  1,000 
feet  of  alternations  of  clay  and  limestone,  with 
but  a  few  unimportant  deposits  of  sand. 

Liba'nius,  one  of  the  latest  and  most  eminent 
of  the  Greek  sophists  or  rhetoricians,  was  born  at 
Antioch,  in  Syria,  about  314  or  316  a.d.,  and  died 
about  393  a.d. 

Libel  is  a  publication  either  in  writing,  print, 
or  by  way  of  a  picture,  or  the  like,  the  tendency 
of  which  is  to  degrade  a  man  in  the  opinion  of 
his  neighbors,  or  to  make  him  ridiculous.  When 
similar  results  follow  from  words  spoken,  the  act 
is  called  slander,  which,  however,  is  considered 
damaging. 

Libe'ria,  a  negro  republic  on  the  Grain  Coast 
of  Upper  Guinea.  The  territory  of  the  republic 
extends  from  longitude  5°  54'  to  12°  22'  W.  The 
length  of  coast  is  about  500  miles,  the  average 
breadth  of  the  territory  about  50  miles  It  is 
governed  by  a  president,  a  senate,  and  house  of 
representatives.  Pop.,  about  700,000.  Agricult¬ 
ure  is  carried  on  with  increasing  success.  Sugar 
is  the  principal  article  of  produce,  and  also  of 
manufacture.  Cocoa,  cotton,  coffee,  arrow-root, 
and  rice  are  also  cultivated.  Trade  is  rapidly  ex¬ 
tending,  and  palm-oil,  ivory,  gold-dust,  camwood, 
wax,  coffee,  indigo,  ginger,  arrow-root,  and  hides 
are  among  the  principal  articles  of  export.  The 
exports  are  principally  to  the  United  States. 


Libe'rius,  born  in  Rome  in  the  early  part  of 
the  fourth  century,  succeeded  to  the  see  of  Rome 
in  352,  and  was  deposed  and  banished  in  355.  lie 
was  restored  to  his  see  in  358,  and  died  in  306. 

Liberty,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States: — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Amite 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  450. — 2.  The  county  seat  of 
Bedford  county,  Va.  Pop.,  2,500. — 3.  Tliecounty 
seat  of  Casey  county,  Ky.  Pop.,  325. — 4.  The 
county  seat  of  Clay  county,  Mo.  Pop.,  2,200. — 
5.  The  county  seat  of  Liberty  county,  Tex.  Pop., 
600.— 6.  The  county  seat  of  Union  county,  Ind. 
Pop.,  2,000. 

Li'bra,  the  seventh  sign  in  the  zodiac.  At  the 
first  point  of  Libra  the  ecliptic  passes  across  the 
equator  to  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  this  point 
being  thus  the  autumnal  equinox. 

Libraries.  The  term  library  is  applied  indif¬ 
ferently  to  buildings  destined  to  contain  books, 
and  to  the  books  themselves  deposited  in  these 
buildings.  The  oldest  and  one  of  the  largest 
libraries  in  the  United  States  is  that  of  Harvard 
College,  which  has  been  in  existence  for  more  than 
240  years,  and  contains  about  260,000  volumes. 
Libraries  are  also  attached  to  the  other  collegiate 
institutions  of  the  country.  The  Astor  Library, 
New  York,  named  after  its  founder,  was  opened 
in  1854  with  a  collection  of  about  80, 000  volumes, 
since  increased  to  upward  of  190,000.  The  Li¬ 
brary  of  Congress,  the  only  library  supported  by 
Government,  to  which  a  copy  of  every  copyright 
hook  must  be  sent,  is  naturally  the  largest  in  the 
United  States,  jiu  inhering  about  400,000  volumes 
and  130.000  pamphlets.  The  Smithsonian  Institu¬ 
tion  at  Washington  embraces  in  its  plan  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  an  extensive  library.  But  little  progress 
has  been  made  in  carrying  out  this  part  of  the 
scheme.  The  proprietary  libraries  are  numerous, 
and  several  of  them  are  of  considerable  extent; 
that  of  Philadelphia,  in  the  foundation  of  which 
Franklin  was  largely  concerned,  numbers  upward 
of  120,000  volumes;  and  that  of  the  Boston  Athe¬ 
naeum,  founded  in  1806,  has  123,000.  The  Boston 
Public  Library  is  the  second  largest,  and  perhaps 
the  most  widely  useful  library  in  the  States;  it 
now  numbers  260,000  volumes.  The  New  York 
Mercantile  Library  possesses  200,000  volumes. 
The  public  library  of  Chicago  contains  150,000 
volumes.  The  Newberry  Library  of  Chicago  was 
founded  by  the  late  Walter  C.  Newberry,  who 
bequeathed  to  the  city  $2,149,201  for  that  pur¬ 
pose.  It  is  now  in  temporary  quarters,  at  338 
Ontario  street,  where  a  large  collection  of  reference 
books  is  already  open  for  inspection,  but  a  suit¬ 
able  building  is  soon  to  be  erected  for  it  on  the 
site  of  the  old  Ogden  homestead,  bounded  by 
North  Clark  and  Oak  streets,  Dearborn  avenue 
and  Walton  place.  There  are  many  great  libra¬ 
ries  in  Europe,  one  of  the  foremost  of  which  is 
that  in  the  British  Museum,  containingover  1,300, - 
000  volumes. 

Lib'ya,  The  name  given  by  the  oldest  geog¬ 
raphers  to  Africa.  The  great  sandy  tract  of 
which  the  Sahara  form.’  the  principal  part,  was 
called  the  Libyan  Desert. 

Licentiate  (from  Lat.  licet,  it  is  lawful),  one 
of  the  four  ancient  university  degrees.  It  denotes 
a  person  who,  having  undergone  the  prescribed 
examination,  has  received  permission  to  deliver 
lectures.  Among  Presbyterians,  it  means  a  per¬ 
son  authorized  by  a  presbytery,  or  similar  body, 
to  preach,  and  who  thus  becomes  eligible  to  a 
pastoral  charge. 

Li  'clien,  a  papular  disease  of  the  skin.  There 
are  two  species — viz.,  L.  simplex  and  L.  agrius , 
the  latter  of  which  may  be  regarded  as  an  aggra¬ 
vated  form  of  the  former.  A.  simplex  consists  in 
an  eruption  of  minute  papulae  of  a  red  color, 
which  never  contain  a  fluid,  and  are  distributed 
irregularly  over  the  bqdy.  They  appear  first  on 
the  face  and  arms,  then  extend  to  the  trunk  and 
lower  extremities,  and  are  accompanied  with  a 
sense  of  heat,  itching,  and  tingling.  In  a  mild 
case,  the  disease  is  over  in  a  week,  but  sometimes 
one  crop  of  papulae  succeeds  another  for  many 
weeks  or  months.  In  L.  agrius,  the  papulae  are 
more  pointed  at  the  summit,  and  are  of  a  bright 
red  color,  with  more  or  less  redness  extending 
round  them.  In  this  form  of  the  disease,  the 
general  health  is  usually  affected,  in  consequence 
of  loss  of  sleep  and  general  irritation.  It  is  often 
hard  to  say  what  is  the  cause  of  lichen.  The 


simpler  form  is  often  dependent  in  children  on 
intestinal  irritation,  while  in  other  cases  it  may 
frequently  be  traced  to  exposure  to  heat,  or  errors 
of  diet.  The  severe  form  is  also  occasioned  by 
extreme  heat  and  by  the  abuse  of  spirituous 
drinks.  In  ordinary  cases,  an  antiphlogistic  diet, 
a  few  gentle  aperients,  and  two  or  three  tepid 
baths,  are  all  that  is  required.  When  the  disease 
assumes  a  chronic  character,  a  tonic  treatment 
(bark  and  the  mineral  acids)  is  necessary;  and  in 
obstinate  cases,  small  doses  (three  to  five  minims, 
well  diluted)  of  Fowler’s  arsenical  solution  may 
be  given  with  advantage. 

Lichenin  is  a  starch-like  body,  found  in  Ice¬ 
land  moss  and  other  lichens,  from  which  it  is 
extracted  by  digesting  the  moss  in  a  cold,  weak 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda  for  some  time,  and 
then  boiling. 

Lichens,  a  natural  order  of  acotyledonous 
plants,  allied  to  fungi  and  to  alga3.  Lichens  are 
plants  of  long  life,  differing  in  this  greatly  from 
fungi.  They  are  widely  diffused,  growing  equally 
in  the  warmest  and ’the  coldest  regions.  On  the 
utmost  limits  of  vegetation,  in  very  high  latitudes, 
or  on  the  very  highest  mountains,  they  cover  the 
soil  in  great  masses.  Some  grow  on  earth,  others 
on  stones,  others  on  the  bark  of  trees,  and  some 
of  the  tropical  species  on  evergreen  leaves. 
Lichens  contain  a  peculiar  gelatinous  substance 
resembling  starch,  and  called  lichenin  or  lichen 
starch;  generally  also  a  bitter  substance  called 
cetrarine;  resin;  a  red,  bright  yellow,  or  brown 
coloring  matter;  oxalate  and  phosphate  of  lime, 
etc. ;  and  are  therefore  adapted  to  purposes  of 
domestic  economy,  medicine,  and  the  arts.  Some 
are  used  for  food,  as  Iceland  moss  and  tripe  cle 
roche;  some  afford  food  for  cattle,  as  reindeer 
moss;  some  are  medicinal,  as  Iceland  moss;  some 
afford  dye-stuffs,  as  archil,  cudbear,  etc. 

Lictors  (according  to  Aulus  Gellius,  from 
ligare,  to  bind,  because  the  lictors  had  to  bind  the 
hands  and  feet  of  criminals  before  punishing 
them)  were,  among  the  Romans,  the  official  attend¬ 
ants  of  magistrates  of  the  highest  rank.  They 
carried  the  fasces  before  the  magistrates,  clearing 
the  way,  and  enforcing  the  use  of  the  appropriate 
marks  of  respect.  It  was  their  duty  to  execute 
the  punishments  ordered  by  the  magistrates,  such 
as  scourging  with  rods,  and  beheading. 

Liebig,  Justus,  Baron  von,  one  of  the  great¬ 
est  chemists  of  the  nineteenth  century,  was  born 
at  Darmstadt,  Germany,  May  12,  1803.  He  held 
important  professorships  in  various  colleges, 
labored  with  success  in  all  departments  of  chem¬ 
istry,  but  particularly  in  organic  chemistry,  in 
which  he  made  many  discoveries,  and  did  much 
to  improve  the  methods  of  analysis.  He  investi¬ 
gated  with  great  care,  the  relations  of  organic 
chemistry  to  physiology,  pathology,  agriculture, 
etc.;  and  although  many  of  his  views  have  been 
combated,  and  several  were  abandoned  by  the 
author  himself,  his  researches  have  greatly  ad¬ 
vanced  the  science  of  agriculture  in  particular. 
His  work  on  Organic  Chemistry  in  its  Application 
to  Agriculture,  and  his  Chemical  Letters,  are 
among  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  chemi¬ 
cal  literature  made  in  our  age.  He  died  April  18, 
1873. 

Liecli'tenstein,  an  independent  principality, 
the  smallest  in  the  former  German  Confederation, 
has  an  area  of  only  60  square  miles,  with  a 
pop.  of  (1880)  9,124.'  It  is  a  mountainous  district, 
lying  on  the  Upper  Rhine,  between  Switzerland 
and  the  Tyrol,  the  latter  bounding  it  to  the  north 
and  east,  while  the  Rhine  forms  its  western,  and 
the  Canton  of  the  Grisons  its  southern  boundary. 
The  principal  town  is  Liechtenstein  (pop.,  1,000), 
formerly  known  as  Vadutz. 

Liege  (so  called  in  French,  but  by  tlie.Germans 
Luttich,  and  by  the  Flemings  J.vyfc)  is  the  most 
easterly  province  of  Belgium.  Area,  1,106  square 
miles;  pop.  (1881),  672,240. 

Liege,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  ison  the  Meuse,  immediately  below  its  con¬ 
fluence  with  the  Ourthe.  Pop.  (1881),  126,233. 

Lieulen'ant  (Fr.  from  Lat .locum-tenens,  hold¬ 
ing  the  place  of  another),  a  term  applied  to  a 
variety  of  offices  of  a  representative  kind.  Thus, 
in  the  English  military  service,  a  lieutenant-gen¬ 
eral  personates  with  each  division  of  an  army  the 
general-in-chief.  A  lieutenant  -  colonel  com¬ 
mands  a  regiment  for  a  colonel,  in  the  latter’s 


LIFE-SAYING  SERVICE. 


503 


LILLIPUT. 


absence.  But  the  title  lieutenant,  without  quali¬ 
fication,  denotes  the  second  officer  and  deputy,  or 
locum-teneris,  of  the  captain  in  each  company  of 
cavalry  or  infantry. 

Life-saving'  Service.  This  institution  is  in 
charge  of  the  Treasury  Department  of  our  Gov¬ 
ernment,  and  was  established  in  1847.  It  lias 
stations  at  nearly  all  points  of  danger  on  more 
than  10,000  miles  of  sea  and  lake  coast,  manned 
by  trained  seamen  and  provided  with  the  best 
appliances  known  to  science  for  rescuing  crews 
and  passengers  from  wrecked  vessels.  An  im¬ 
portant  feature  of  the  equipment  of  a  lPe-saving 
station  is  a  six-oared  surf-boat,  built  of  cedar, 
with  air  cases  and  cork  fenders,  which  render  it 
insubmergible.  An  English  life-boat,  much 
larger  and  heavier,  is  also  used  at  some  stations. 
Another  is  a  mortar  or  cannon  used  for  firing  a 
shot  to  or  over  a  wreck,  with  a  line  attached. 
The  shot  is  provided  with  hooks,  which  grapple 
the  vessel  or  any  piece  of  wreckage,  and  those  on 
board  may  then  draw  on  the  hawser  attached  to 
this  line.  The  hawser  being  made  fast,  the  wreck 
may  then  be  hauled  in;  if  this  be  impossible,  this 
line  made  taut  is  used  for  propelling  boats  or  the 
life-car  to  and  from  the  wreck.  The  advantages 
of  the  modern  life-boat  are  that  the  air-chambers 
and  the  light  ballast  with  which  it  is  provided 
render  sinking  impossible;  the  heavy  iron  keel 
nearly  prevents  capsizing,  and  rectifies  it,  if  it  does 
happen;  while  the  relieving  tubes  effectually  clear 
off  any  water  that  finds  its  way  within.  With 
such  precautions,  the  safety  of  the  crew  appears 
almost  assured,  and,  in  fact,  loss  of  life  in  a  life¬ 
boat  is  a  rare  occurrence.  The  life-car  is  boat¬ 
shaped  and  made  of  corrugated  iron,  designed  to 
run  between  the  land  and  wreck,  suspended  to  a 
hawser  stretched  for  the  purpose.  Rockets  and 
colored  lights  are  used  for  signal' ng  wrecks  and 
for  locating  them  at  night.  Between  Nov.  1 
1871,  and  June  30,  1885,  tins  organization  rescued 
from  2,918  wrecked  vessels  25,236  persons,  and 
$36,277,929  worth  of  property. 

Life-preservers,  inventions  for  the  preserva¬ 
tion  of  life  in  cases  of  shipwreck.  The  other  class 
includes  the  various  contrivances  for  preserving 
the  buoyancy  of  the  human  body,  and  for  reach¬ 
ing  the  shore.  Of  these,  the  readiest  and  most 
effective  are  empty  water-casks,  well  closed  up, 
and  with  ropes  attached  to  them  to  hold  by.  It 
has  been  found  that  a  36-gallon  cask  so  prepared 
can  support  ten  men  conveniently,  in  tolerably 
smooth  water.  One  style  of  life-raft  consists  of 
square  frames  buoyed  up  by  a  cask  at  each 
corner.  Among  foreign  nations,  frames  of 
bamboo,  and  inflated  goat  and  seal  skins,  are 
employed  as  life-preservers.  Since  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  cork,  a  variety  of  jackets  and  bells  of 
that  useful  material  have  been  made,  and 
it  has  been  calculated*  that  one  pound  of  cork  is 
sufficient  to  support  a  man  of  ordinary  size. 
Inflated  belts,  mattresses,  pillows,  etc.,  have 
been  made  of  india-rubber,  and  are  found  to  be 
superior  in  buoyancy  to  the  cork.  But  the 
favorite  life-buoy  among  sailors  is  composed  of 
slices  of  cork  neatly  and  compactly  arranged,  so 
as  to  form  a  buoyant  zone  of  about  30  or  32 
inches  in  diameter,  6  in  width,  and  4  in  thickness. 
It  consequently  contains  about  twelve  pounds  of 
cork,  and  is  covered  with  canvas.  A  buoy  so 
constructed  can  sustain  six  persons,  and  it  is 
generally  furnished  with  a  life-line  (a  cord  run¬ 
ning  round  the  outside  of  the  buoy  and  fastened 
to  it  at  four  points)  to  afford  a  more  convenient 
hold. 

Lifts,  ropes,  on  shipboard,  for  raising  or  lower¬ 
ing  and  maintaining  in  posiiion  the  yards.  They 
pass  from  the  deck  over  pulleys  at  the  mast-head, 
and  thence  to  near  the  extremities  of  the  yard. 
The  lift  bears  the  designation  of  the  yard  to 
which  it  is  attached,  as  fore-lift,  main-top-gallant- 
lift,  etc. 

Lig'aments  are  cords,  bands,  or  membranous 
expansion  of  white  fibrous  tissue,  which  play  an 
extremely  important  part  in  the  mechanism  of 
joints,  seeing  that  they  pass  in  fixed  directions 
from  one  bone  to  another,  and  serve  to  limit  some 
movements  of  a  joint,  while  they  freely  allow 
others.  Ligaments  are  divided  into  three  classes; 
1.  Funicular,  rounded  cords,  such  as  the  external 
lateral  ligament  of  the  knee-joint,  the  perpendicular 
ligament  of  the  ankle-joint,  etc.;  2.  Fascicular, 


flattened  bands,  more  or  less  expanded,  such  as 
the  lateral  ligaments  of  the  elbow-joint,  and  the 
great  majority  of  ligaments  in  the  body ;  3. 
Capsular,  which  are  barrel-shaped  expansions 
attached  by  their  two  ends  t  >  the  two  bones 
entering  into  the  formation  of  the  joint,  which 
they  completely  but  loosely  invest:  they  constit  ute 
one  of  the  chief  characters  of  the  ball-and-socket 
joint,  and  occur  in  the  shoulder  and  hip  joints. 

Lig'ature,  the  term  applied,  in  Surgery,  to 
the  thread  tied  round  a  blood-vessel  to  stop  bleed¬ 
ing.  The  ligatures  most  commonly  used  consist 
of  strong  hempen  or  silk  threads;  but  catgut, 
horse-hair,  etc.,  have  been  employed  by  some 
surgeons.  A  ligature  should  be  tied  round  an 
artery  with  sufficient  tightness  to  cut  through  its 
middle  and  internal  walls. 

Light-house,  a  building  on  some  conspicuous 
point  of  the  sea-shore,  island,  or  rock,  from  which 
a  light  is  exhibited  at  night  as  a  guide  to 
mariners.  The  liglit-house  system  of  the  United 
States  is  one  of  the  most  comprehensive  and  com¬ 
plete  in  the  world.  In  addition  to  lighting  the 
coasts,  it  includes  the  placing  and  maintenance'of 
buoys  to  mark  shoals  and  channels,  and  the  care 
and  operation  of  fog  signals’  of  various  kinds. 
There  are  in  operation  1,951  light -houses  and  6,235 
buoys  and  fog  signals,  rendering  navigation  on 
the  entire  sea-coast,  and  that  of  the  larger  lakes 
and  rivers,  comparatively  safe. 

Ligli  t  ni  ng  (Fr.  eclair ,  Ger.  blitz),  the  name  given 
to  the  sudden  discharge  of  electricity  between 
one  group  of  clouds  and  another,  or  between 
the  clouds  and  the  ground.  It  is  essentially 
the  same,  though  on  a  much  grander  scale,  as  the 
spark  obtained  from  an  electric  machine.  Clouds 
charged  with  electricity  are  called  thunder  clouds, 
and  are  easily  known  by  their  peculiarly  dark  and 
dense  appearance.  There  are  three  classes  of 
lightning,  known  as  forked,  sheet,  and  ball  light¬ 
ning.  The  first  and  second  classes  are  common; 
the  third  is  rare,  and  is  similar  to  a  meteor.  After 
a  violent  explosion  of  lightning,  a  ball  is  seen  to 
proceed  from  the  region  of  the  explosion,  and  to 
make  its  way  to  the  earth  in  a  curved  line.  When 
it  reaches  the  ground,  it  either  splits  up  at  once, 
and  disappears,  or  rebounds  like  an  elastic  ball 
several  times  before  doing  so.  The  thunder  (Fr. 
tonnerre,  Ger.  donner)  which  accompanies  light¬ 
ning,  as  well  as  the  snap  attending  the  electric 
spark,  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  accounted 
for.  Both,  no  doubt,  arise  from  a  commotion  of 
the  air  brought  about  by  the  passage  of  elec¬ 
tricity,  but  it  is  difficult  to  understand  how  it 
takes  place.  The  echoes  sent  between  the  clouds 
and  the  earth,  or  between  objects  on  the  earth’s 
surface,  have  different  effects  at  varying  distances. 
A  person  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  a 
flash  of  lightning  hears  only  one  siiarp  report, 
which  is  peculiarly  sharp  when  an  object  is  struck 
by  it.  A  person  at  a  distance  hears  the  same 
report  as  a  prolonged  appeal,  and  persons  in  dif¬ 
ferent  situations  hear  it  each  in  a  different  way. 
No  definite  or  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
phenomena  of  thunder  has  yet  been  given. 

Lightning,  Accidents  from.  A  person  struck 
by  lightning  is  more  or  less  stunned  and  deprived 
of  consciousness  for  a  time,  often,  no  doubt,  by 
mere  fright,  in  which  case  the  effect  is  transient; 
but  sometimes  in  consequence  of  a  shock  given  to 
the  brain,  in  which  latter  case  there  is  a  certain 
amount  of  paralysis  of  motion  and  sensation. 
The  treatment  must  be  directed  to  the  special 
symptoms,  which  are  liable  to  great  variations. 
One  authority  says:  Expose  the  body  to  a  moder¬ 
ate  warmth,  so  as  to  prevent  the  loss  of  animal 
heat;  to  which  it  is  always  liable  when  the  func¬ 
tions  of  the  brain  are  suspended  or  impaired,  and 
inflate  the  lungs,  so  as  to  imitate  natural  respira¬ 
tion  as  nearly  as  possible*  The  same  authority 
recommends  cold  affusion,  stimulating  enemata, 
and  stimulants  by  the  mouth;  and  recovery  (he 
states)  is  apparently  hastened  by  the  administra¬ 
tion  of  tonics,  especially  quinine,  and  gentle 
action  on  the  skin  by  means  of  baths. 

Lightning-conductor  (Fr.  paratonnerre,  Ger. 
blitzableiter).  The  principle  of  the  lightning- 
conductor  is,  that  electricity,  of  two  conducting 
passages,  selects  the  better;  and  that  when  it  lias 
got  a  sufficient  conducting  passage,  it  is  disarmed 
of  all  destructive  energy.  Lightning-conductors, 
when  constructed  with  care,  have  been  proved 


beyond  a  doubt  to  be  a  sufficient  protection  from 
the  ravages  of  lightning.  The  circle  within 
which  a  lightning-conductor  is  found  to  be  effica¬ 
cious,  is  very  limited.  Its  radius  is  generally 
assumed  to  be  twice  the  height  of  the  rod.  On 
large  buildings,  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  have 
several  rods,  one  on  each  prominent  part  of  the 
building,  all  being  connected  so  as  to  form  one 
conducting  system.  In  ships,  a  rod  is  placed  on 
every  mast,  and  their  connection  with  the  sea 
is  established  by  strips  of  copper  inlaid  in  the 
masts,  and  attached  below  to  the  metal  of  or 
about  the  keel. 

Ligli tning-prints  are  appearances  sometimes 
found  on  the  skin  or  clothing  of  men  or  animals 
that  are  either  struck  by  lightning,  or  are  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  stroke,  and  currently  believed  to 
be  photographic  representations  of  surrounding 
objects  or  scenery.  Several  apparently  well- 
authenticated  instances  of  this  phenomenon  have 
been  recorded,  which  have  led  scientific  author¬ 
ities  to  give  at  least  partial  credence  to  them. 

Lig'nine  (derived  from  the  Lat.  word  lignum , 
wood)  is  the  incrusting  matter  contained  within 
the  cellular  tissue,  which  gives  hardness  to  wood. 
Like  cellulose,  of  which  the  cellular  tissue  is 
composed,  it  is  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether, 
and  dilute  acids,  and  its  chief  chemical  character¬ 
istic  is,  that  it  is  more  readily  soluble  in  alkaline 
liquids  than  cellulose. 

Lignite,  fossil  wood  imperfectly  mineralized, 
and  retaining  its  original  form  and  structure 
much  more  completely  than  the  truly  mineral 
coals,  and  therefore  not  improperly  described  as 
intermediate  between  peat  and  coal. 

Lig'num  Rho 'ilium,  a  kind  of  wood  which 
occurs  as  an  article  of  commerce,  having  a  pleas¬ 
ant  smell  resembling  the  smell  of  roses.  This 
wood  comes  from  the  Canary  Is’ands  and 
America,  and  is  produced  by  two  shrubby  and 
erect  species  of  Convolvulus. 

Lig'num-vi'tse,  the  wood  of  Guaia cum  offici¬ 
nale  (natural  order  Zygophyllacew).  The'  heart- 
wood,  which  is  the  part  used,  is  dense  and  heavy, 
of  a  dark,  greenish-brown  color,  rarely  more  than 
8  inches  in  diameter;  the  stem  itself  seldom 
reaches  18  inches  in  diameter,  and  grows  to  the 
height  of  about  30  feet.  The  wmod  is  much 
valued  where  hardness  and  toughness  are  re¬ 
quired,  and  when  reduced  to  fine  shavings  or 
raspings,  the  bark,  and  also  a  greenish  resin  which 
exudes  from  the  stem,  are  much  used  in  medicine, 
being  regarded  as  having  powerful  anti-syphilitic 
and  anti-rheumatic  properties. 

Liguori,  Alfonzo  Maria  de,  a  saint  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  founder  of  the  order 
of  Liguorians  or  Redemptorists.  lie  was  born  at 
Naples,  Sept.  27,  1696,  and  died  Aug.  1,  1787. 

LiguoTians,  called  also  Redemptorists,  a 
congregation  of  missionary  priests  founded  by 
Liguori  in  1732,  and  approved  by  Pope  Benedict 
XIV.  in  1759.  Their  object  is  the  religious  instruc¬ 
tion  of  the  people  and  the  reform  of  public  mo¬ 
rality,  by  periodically  visiting,  preaching,  and 
hearing,  confessions,  with  the  consent  and  under 
the  direction  of  the  parish  clergy. 

Ligu'rian  Republic,  the  nafne  given  to  the 
Republic  of  Genoa  in  1797.  The  name  was  chosen 
because  the  Genoese  territory  formed  the  principal 
part  of  ancient  Liguria. 

Lilac  ( Syringa ),  a  genus  of  plants  belonging  to 
the  natural  ordejr  Oleacece.  The  common  lilac  (S. 
vulgaris )  is  one  of  the  most  common  ornamental 
shrubs  cultivated  in  this  country.  The  bitter  ex¬ 
tract  of  the  unripe  capsules  has  marked  tonic  and 
febrifugal  properties. 

Lilia'ceai,  a  natural  order  of  endogenous  plants, 
containing  about  1,200  known  species.  They  are 
most  numerous  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  tem¬ 
perate  zones.  They  are  mostly  herbaceous  plants, 
with  bulbous  or  tuberous,  sometimes  fibrous  roots; 
rarely  shrubs  or  trees. 

Lille  (formerly  L’Isle,  the  island;  Flemish, 
Ryssel),  an  important  city  in  the  North  of  France, 
on  the  Deule,  140  miles  north-northeast  of  Paris, 
and  sixty -two  miles  southeast  of  Calais.  Pop. 
(1881),  145,113. 

Li  1  'II put,  the  name  of  a  fabulous  kingdom 
described  by  Swift  in  Gulliver’s  Travels ,  of  which 
the  inhabitants  are  not  greater  in  size  than  an  ordi¬ 
nary  man’s  finger.  The  term  Lilliputian  has  come 


LILLINGTON. 


504 


LINNET. 


into  common  use  as  a  designation  of  anything 
diminutive. 

Lillington,  the  county  seat  of  Harnelt  county, 
N.  C.  Pop..  120. 

Lily,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Uliacece,  containing  a  number  of  species  much 
prized  for  the  size  and  beauty  of  their  flowers. 
The  perianth  is  bell-shaped,  and  its  segments  are 
often  bent  back  at  the  extremity.  The  root  is  a 
scaly  bulb,  the  stem  herbaceous  and  simple,  often 
several  feet  high,  bearing  the  flowers  near  its 
summit. 

Lily,  Gigantic  ( Dori/antbes  excelsa ),  of  Austra¬ 
lia,  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Amuryllidece,  with 
flowering  stem  10  or  14,  sometimes  20  feet  high, 
bearing  at  top  a  cluster  of  large  crimson  blossoms. 
The  stem  is  leafy,  but  the  largest  leaves  are  near 
the  root.  This  plant  is  found  both  on  the  mouu' - 
ains  and  the  sea-coast  of  New  South  Wales. 

Lily  of  the  Valley  ( Vonmllaria ),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Liliacecv.  The  species 
commonly  known  astlielilyof  the  valley  ( C.  m»ja- 
lin),  the  maiblume  or  mayflower  of  the  Germans, 
grows  in  bushy  places  and  woods  in  the  United 
States,  in  Europe,  and  in  the  Norih  of  Asia,  and 
has  a  leafless  scape,  with  a  raceme  of  small  flowers 
turned  to  one  side.  A  valuable  cardiac  tonic  is 
made  from  this  species,  and  administered  in  cases 
of  organic  heart  disease  with  greatly  palliating 
effect. 

Li'ma,  the  capital  of  the  Republic  of  Peru, 
stands  on  the  Rimac,  from  whose  name  its  own  is 
corrupted,  in  latitude  12°  3'  S.,  and  longitude  77 
5'  W.  Pop.  (1876',  100,073. 

Lima,  an  important  railroad  center  and  manu¬ 
facturing  city"  in  Allen  county,  ( )hio.  Pop. ,  1.1,500. 

Lima  Wood,  a  name  of  the  dye-wood,  also 
called  Pernambuco  wood,  Nicaragua  wood,  and 
peach  wood,  the  heart-wood  of  Cwsalpiniaechinata. 
It  is  extensively  used  for  dyeing  red  and  peach 
color. 

Limber  is  half  the  field-equipage  of  a  cannon 
or  howitzer,  a  two-wheeled  carriage  fitted  with 
boxes  for  the  field-ammunition  of  the  piece,  and 
having  in  some  cases  a  tongue  to  which  the  horses 
are  harnessed,  and  connected  to  the  trail  of  the 
gun  by  a  hook. 

Lim'burg,  an  old  province  of  Belgium,  which, 
after  having  formed  part  of  Belgium,  France,  Hol¬ 
land,  and  Austria,  was,  in  1839,  divided  between 
Belgium  and  Holland.  Belgian  Limburg  has  an 
area  of  928  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  206,187. 
Dutch  Limburg  has  an  area  of  848  square  miles, 
and  a  pop.  of  232,562. 

Lilli 'bus  (Lat.  limbus,  a  border),  the  name 
assigned  in  Roman  Catholic  theology  to  that 
place  or  condition  of  departed  souls  in  which 
those  are  detained  who  have  not  offended  by  any 
personal  act  of  their  own,  but,  nevertheless,  are 
not  admitted  to  the  Divine  vision. 

Lime,  or  Linden  ( Tilia ),  a  genus  of  trees  of 
the  natural  order  Tilincece ,  natives  of  North 
America,  Europe,  and  the  North  of  Asia.  Char- 


Lime  Tree  ( T.  europced) . 


coal  made  of  its  wood  is  often  used  for  tooth- 
powder,  for  medicinal  purposes,  for  crayons,  and 
for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder. 

Lime  ( Citrus  acidn),  a  fruit  similar  to  the 
lemon,  but  smaller,  being  only  about  one  and  one- 
half  inches  in  diameter,  and  almost  globular,  with 


a  thin  rind,  and  an  extremely  acid  juice.  It 
is  a  native  of  India  and  China,  but  has  long  been 
cultivated  in  the  Southern  States,  in  the  West 
Indies,  the  South  of  Europe,  etc. 

Lime  is  the  oxide  of  the  metal  calcium,  and  is 
known  in  chemi-try  as  one  of  the  alkaline  earths. 
Its  symbol  is  CaO,  its  equivalent  is  28,  and  its 
specific  gravity  is  3.18.  It  is  obtained  by  heating 
pure  carbonate  of  lime  to  full  redness,  when  the 
carbonic  acid  is  expelled,  and  lime  is  left. 
Commercial  lime,  which  is  obtained  by  burning 
Common  limestone  in  a  kiln,  is  usually  far  from 
pure.  This  compound  (CaO)  is  known  as  quick¬ 
lime,  or,  from  the  ordinary  method  of  obtaining 
it,  as  burned  lime,  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
hydrate  of  lime,  or  slaked  lime,  which  is  repre¬ 
sented  by  the  formula  Ca0,fl20.  Lime  is  ex¬ 
tensively  used  both  in  the  arts  and  in  medicine. 
Its  salts  are  found  largely  in  organic  matter  and 
in  the  bones  of  animals.  It  also  enters  into 
some  important  remedial  agents,  such  as  lime- 
water,  Vienna  paste,  etc. 

Limerick,  an  inland  county  of  the  Province  of 
Munster,  in  Ireland,  separated  by  the  Shannon 
on  the  north  from  Clare,  and  bounded  on  the  east 
by  Tipperary,  on  the  south  by  Cork,  and  on  the 
west  by  Kerry.  Area,  1,064  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1881), ‘177, 2g3. 

Limerick,  city,  capital  of  the  county  just 
described.  Pop.  ( 1881),  38,600. 

Limestone,  the  popular  and  technical  name 
for  all  rocks  which  are  composed  in  whole,  or  to  a 
large  extent,  of  carbonate  of  lime.  The  chief 
varieties  of  limestone  are:  chalk;  oolite;  compact 
limestone,  a  hard,  smooth,  fine-grained  rock, 
generally  of  a  bluish-gray  color;  crystalline  lime¬ 
stone,  a  rock  which,  from  metamorphic  action, 
has  become  granular;  fine-grained  white  varieties, 
resembling  loaf-sugar  in  texture,  are  called  sac¬ 
charine  or  statuary  marble.  Magnesian  limestone 
or  dolomite  is’  a  rock  in  which  carbonate  of  mag¬ 
nesia  is  mixed  with  carbonate  of  lime. 

Limine 'a  (Gr.  limne,  a  swamp),  a  genus  of 
gasteropodus  mollusks  of  the  order  Pulmouatu, 
giving  its  name  to  a  family,  Limnautdai,  allied  to 
llelici  ice  (snails),  Limacidce  (slugs),  etc.  The 
species  of  this  family  are  numerous,  and  abound 
in  fresh  waters  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

Limno'ria,  a  genus  of  Crustacea  of  the  order 
Isopoda,  containing  only  one  known  species, 
which,  however,  is  important  from  the  mischief 
it  does  to  piers,  dock-gates,  and  other  wood  work 
immersed  in  the  water  of  the  sea,  on  the  coasts 
of  Britain,  and  of  some  parts  of  continental 
Europe. 

Limoges,  capital  of  the  Department  of  Haute- 
Vienne  in  France,  and  of  the  former  Province  of 
Limousin,  is  sixty-seven  miles  southeast  of  Poi¬ 
tiers.  Pop.  (1880),  63,126. 

Limpet  {Patella),  a  genus  of  gasteropodous 
mollusks  of  the  order  Cyclobranchiata ,  the  type  of 
the  family  Paiellidce.  In  all  this  family  the  shell 
is  nearly  conical,  not  spiral,  and  has  a  wide 
mouth,  and  the  apex  turned  forward.  The  ani¬ 
mal  has  a  large  round  or  oval  muscular  foot,  by 
which  it  adheres  firmly  to  rocks,  the  power  of 
creating  a  vacuum  being  aided  by  a  viscous  secre¬ 
tion.  Limpets  live  on  rocky  coasts,  between 
tide-marks,  and  remain  firmly  fixed  to  one  spot 
when  the  tide  is  out,  as  their  gills  can  not  bear 
exposure  to  the  air,  but  move  about  when  the 
water  covers  them;  many  of  them,  however,  it 
would  seem,  remaining  long  on  the  same  spot, 
which  in  soft,  calcareous  rocks  is  found  hollowed 
to  their  exact  form. 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  sixteenth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Kentucky,  Feb.  12, 
1809.  His  entire  schooling  (lid  not  exceed  one 
year,  and  during  his  boyhood  he  was  employed 
in  the  severest  agricultural  labor.  He  emigrated 
to  Indiana,  where  he  lived  till  1830,  when  he 
removed  to  Illinois.  In  1834  he  was  elected  to 
the  Illinois  Legislature,  and  spent  his  leisure 
hours  in  studying  law.  He  was  three  times  re¬ 
elected  to  the  Legislature;  was  admitted  to  practice 
law  in  1836,  and  removed  to  Springfield,  the  State 
capital.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1846.  In 
1855  he  canvassed  the  State  as  a  candidate  for 
United  States  Senator,  against  Mr.  Douglass,  but 
without  success.  In  1856  he  was  an  active  sup¬ 
porter  of  Mr.  Fremont  in  the  presidential  canvass 
which  resulted  in  the  election  of  Mr.  Buchanan. 


In  1860  he  was  nominated  for  the  presidency  by 
the  Chicago  convention,  and  elected  in  the  ensu¬ 
ing  November.  He  was  reelected  to  the  presi¬ 
dency  in  1864.  On  April  15,  1865,  Lincoln  was 
assassinated  by  J.  Wilkes  Booth. 

Lincoln,  the  mine  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States: — 1.  The  capital  of  Nebraska,  a 
prosperous  agricultural,  manufacturing,  and  rail¬ 
road  city.  Pop.,  36,000. — 2.  The  county  seat  of 
Lincoln  county,  Kan.  Pop.,  750. — 3.  The  county 
seat  of  Lincoln  county,  N.  M.  Pop  ,  700. — 4. 
The  county  seat  of  Logan  county,  111.,  a  flourish¬ 
ing  agricultural  and  manufacturing  city.  Pop., 
8,000. 

Lincoln  (called  by  the  Romans  Lindum),  a 
city  of  England,  capital  of  the  county  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  Witliam,  140  miles  north-northwest 
of  London.  Pop.  (1881),  37,312. 

Lincolnshire,  a  maritime  county  of  England, 
and,  after  Yorkshire,  the  largest  in  the  country, 
is  bounded  north  by  Yorkshire,  and  east  by  the 
North  Sea.  Area,  1,767,962  acres;  pop.  (1881), 
469,994. 

Lincolnton,  the  county  seat  of  Lincoln  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  380. 

Lincolnton,  the  county  seat  of  Lincoln  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Linden,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Cass  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  350. — 2.  The  county 
seat  of  Marengo  county,  Ala.  Pop.,  370. — 3. 
The  county  seat  of  Perry  county,  Tenn.  Pop., 
200. 

Linen  and  Linen  Manufactures,  fabrics 
manufactured  wholly  from  flax  or  lint.  The 
manufacture  of  linen  has  reached  its  greatest  per¬ 
fection  in  Ireland,  France,  and  the  Netherlands. 
The  chief  kinds  of  linen  goods  are  lawn,  cambric, 
damask,  and  diaper.  Of  the  finer  plain  fabrics, 
sheetings  are  the  most  important  in  this  country. 
The  cultivation  of  flax  and  the  manufacture  of 
linen  are  growing  industries,  and  the  productions 
of  our  mills  bid  fair  to  rival  those  of  Europe  in 
the  near  future. 

Ling(Lot«  molva),  a  fish  of  the  family  Gadidce, 
abundant  on  most  parts  of  the  British  coasts,  anil 
elsewhere  throughout  the  northern  seas,  and  in 
value  almost  rivaling  the  cod.  The  ling  is  gen¬ 
erally  3  or  4  feet  long,  sometimes  more,  and  has 
been  known  to  weigh  seventy  pounds. 

Lini' in  cuts,  ointments  having  the  consistence 
of  oil.  Amongthe  most  important  of  them  are: 
Liniment  of  ammonia,  popularly  known  as  harts¬ 
horn  and  oil,  which  is  prepared  by  mixing  solu¬ 
tion  of  ammonia  and  olive  oil,  and  is  employed 
as  an  external  stimulant  and  rubefacient  to  relieve 
neuralgic  and  rheumatic  pains,  sore  throat,  etc.; 
soap  liniment,  or  opodeldoc,  the  constituents  of 
which  are  soap,  camphor,  and  spirits  of  rosemary, 
and  which  is  used  in  sprains,  bruises,  rheumatism, 
etc:.;  liniment  of  lime,  which  is  prepared  by 
mixing  and  shaking  together  equal  measures  of 
olive  or  linseed  oil  and  lime-water,  is  an  excellent 
application  for  burns  and  scalds;  camphor  lini¬ 
ment,  consisting  of  camphor  dissolved  in  olive  oil, 
is  used  in  sprains,  bruises,  and  glandular  enlarge¬ 
ments;  opium  liniment,  consists  of  soap  liniment 
and  tincture  of  opium,  and  is  employed  as  an 
anodyne  in  neuralgia,  rheumatism,  etc.;  simple 
liniment  is  composed  of  four  partsof  olive  oil  and 
one  part  of  white  wax,  and  is  used  to  soften  the 
skin  and  promote  the  healing  of  chaps. 

Linkville,  the  county  seat  of  Klamath  county, 
Ore.  Pop.,  300. 

Linlithgow,  or  West  Lotiiian,  a  county  in 
Scotland,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Firth  of 
Forth,  having  the  counties  of  Mid-Lothian, 
Lanark,  and  Stirling  on  the  east,  south,  and  west. 
Area,  127  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  43,510. 

Linlithgow,  chief  town  of  the  county  of  the 
same  name,  is  sixteen  miles  west  of  Edinburgh. 
Pop.  (1881),  3,913. 

Linn,  the  county  seat  of  Osage  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  280. 

Linn  Creek,  the  county  seat  of  Camden 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  250. 

Liiine,  Carl  von,  often  called  Linnaeus,  one 
of  the  greatest  of  naturalists,  was  born  May  4, 
1707,  at  Rashult,  in  Smaland  (Sweden).  He  died 
on  Jan.  10,  1778. 

Linnet  ( Linota ),  a  genus  of  small  birds  of  the 
family  FringilUdoe,  nearly  resembling  the  true 


LINNEUS. 


505 


LITHOGRAPHY. 


finches,  gold-finches,  etc.  The  bill  is  short, 
straight,  conical,  and  pointed;  the  wings  long, 
and  somewhat  pointed;  the  tail  forked.  The  spe¬ 
cies  are  widely  distributed  in  the  northern,  tem¬ 
perate,  and  arctic  regions. 

Li  linens,  the  county  seat  of  Linn  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  1,400. 

Lino'leum  is,  as  its  name  is  intended-  to 
denote,  a  peculiar  preparation  of  linseed  oil. 
Linseed  oil,  first  boiled,  is  applied  as  a  layer  to 
a  surface  of  wood  or  glass,  then  dried;  then 
another  layer;  and  so  on  till  the  required  thick¬ 
ness  is  produced.  The  sheet  is  then  removed,  and 
is  found  to  be  very  much  like  india-rubber  in 
elasticity.  The  drying  is  expedited  by  adding  a 
small  portion  of  oxide  of  lead.  The  solid  oil  is 
crushed,  and  worked  thoroughly  between  heated 
rollers;  and,  when  treated  with  shellac  or  naphtha, 
becomes  useful  for  various  purposes.  The  term 
linoleum  properly  applies  to  the  hardened  or 
oxidized  oil  itself,  but  it  is  chiefly  used  as  a  desig¬ 
nation  for  one  of  the  substances  made  from  it,  a 
kind  of  floor-cloth.  When  the  oxidized  oil  is 
lolled  into  sheets,  it  becomes  a  substitute  for 
india-rubber  or  gutta-percha.  When  dissolved  as 
a  varnish  or  mastic,  and  applied  to  cloth,  it  is 
useful  for  wafer-proof  textiles,  felt  carpets,  car¬ 
riage-aprons,  wagon  and  cart  sheets,  nursing 
aprons,  water-beds,  tank-linings,  table-covers,  etc., 
according  to  the  mode  of  treatment.  When  used 
as  a  paint,  it  is  useful  for  iron,  for  wood,  and  for 
ships’  bottoms.  When  used  as  a  cement,  it  pos¬ 
sesses  some  of  the  useful  properties  of  marine 
glue.  When  vulcanized  or  rendered  hard  by 
heat,  it  may  be  filed,  planed,  turned,  carved,  and 
polished  like  wood,  and  used  for  knife  and  fork 
handles,  moldings,  etc.  When  brought  by  certain 
treatment  to  the  consistency  of  dough  or  putty,  it 
may  be  pressed  into  ernbo  -sed  molds  for  ornamental 
articles.  When  used  as  a  grinding-wheel,  touched 
with  emery,  it  becomes  a  good  cutter.  Lastly, 
when  mixed  with  ground  cork,  pressed  on  canvas 
by  rollers,  the  canvas  coated  at  the  back  with  a 
layer  of  the  same  oil  in  the  state  of  paint,  and  the 
upper  or  principal  surface  painted  and  printed,  it 
becomes  the  linoleum  floor-cloth. 

*  Linseed,  the  seed  of  flax,  used  for  making 
linseed  oil  and  oil-cake;  in  order  to  which  the 
seeds  are  first  bruised  or  crushed,  then  ground, 
and  afterward  subjected  to  pressure  in  a 
hydraulic  or  screw  press,  sometimes  without  heat, 
and  sometimes  with  the  aid  of  a  steam  heat  of 
about  200°  P.  Linseed  oil  is  usually  amber- 
colored,  but  when  perfectly  pure  it  is  colorless. 
It  is  chiefly  used  for  making  varnishes,  paints, 
etc.  That  made  without  heat  is  purer,  and  less 
apt  to  become  rancid,  than  that  in  making  which 
heat  is  applied.  By  cold  expression,  the  seed 
yields  from  18  to  20  per  cent.,  and  with  heat  from 
22  to  27  per  cent,  of  oil.  Linseed  oil,  boiled 
either  alone  or  with  litharge,  white  lead,  or  white 
vitriol,  dries  much  more  rapidly  on  exposure  to 
the  air  than  the  unboiled  oil;  and  boi  ed  or  dry¬ 
ing  oil  is  particularly  adapted  for  many  uses. 
The  oil-cake  made  in  expressing  linseed  oil  is  use¬ 
ful  for  feeding  cattle.  Linseed  itself  is  excellent 
food  for  cattle  and  for  poultry.  Linseed  meal, 
much  used  for  poultices,  is  generally  made  by 
grinding  fresh  oil-cake,  but  it  is  better  if  made 
by  grinding  the  seed  itself. 

Lintz,  the  capital  of  the  crownland  of  Upper 
Austria,  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube, 
100  miles  west  of  Vienna.  Pop.  (1880),  41,687. 

Lion  ( Felis  leo),  the  largest  and  most  majestic 
of  the  Felidce  and  of  carnivorous  quadrupeds.  It 
is,  when  mature,  of  a  nearly  uniform  tawny  or 
yellowish  color,  paler  on  the  under-parts  ;  the 
young  alone  exhibiting  markings  like  those 
common  in  the  felidte;  the  male  has,  usually,  a 
great  shaggy  and  flowing  mane;  and  the  tail, 
which  is  long,  terminates  in  a  tuft  of  hair.  -The 
whole  frame  is  muscular,  and  the  fore-parts,  in 
particular,  are  remarkably  pow-erful.  A  lion  of 
the  largest  size  measures  about  8  feet  from  th? 
nose  to  the  tail,  and  the  tail  about  4  feet.  The 
lioness  is  smaller,  has  no  mane,  and  is  of  a  lighter 
color  on  the  under-parts.  The  lion  is  chiefly 
an  inhabitant  of  Africa,  although  it  is  found  also 
in"  some  of  the  wilds  of  Asia,  particularly  in 
certain  parts  of  Arabia,  Persia,  and  India. 

Lion,  in.  Heraldry.  The  lion  holds  an  important 
place  among  the  animals  borne  in  coat-armor. 


As  early  as  the  twelfth  century  it  was  worn  by 
the  sovereigns  of  England,  Scotland,  Norway, 
Denmark,  the  native  princes  of  Wales,  the  counts 
of  Flanders  and  Holland,  and  various  other 
European  potentates. 

Lip'ari  Islands,  a  group  of  volcanic  islands  in 
the  Mediterranean,  twelve  in  number,  are  between 
latitude  38°  20'  and  38°  55'  N.,  longitude  14'’  15' 
and  15°  15'  E.,  on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  and 
comprised  in  the  Department  of  Messina.  Pop., 
12,500. 

Liqueur,  a  name  given  to  any  alcoholic 
preparation  which  is  flavored  or  perfumed  and 
sweetened  to  be  more  agreeable  to  the  taste. 
There  is  a  large  class  of  liqueurs,  of  which  the 
following  are  the  principal:  Aniseed  cordial,  pre¬ 
pared  by  flavoring  weak  spirit  with  aniseed, 
coriander,  and  sweet  fennel  seed,  and  sweetening 
with  finely-clarified  syrup  of  refined  sugar. 
Absinthe  is  a  strong  spirit  flavored  with  the  young 
tops  of  certain  species  of  artemisia.  Clove  cordial 
is  flavored  with  cloves,  bruised,  and  colored  with 
burned  sugar.  Kiimmel  or  doppel-kiimmel  is 
the  principal  liqueur  of  Russia;  it  is  made  in  the 
ordinary  way  with  sweetened  spirit,  flavored 
with  cumin  and  caraway  seeds,  the  latter  usually 
so  strong  as  to  conceal  any  other  flavor.  Noyau, 
or  creme  tie  noyau,  is  a  sweet  cordial  flavored 
with  bruised  bitter-almonds.  In  Turkey,  the  fine- 
flavored  kernels  of  the  Mahaleb  cherry  are  used, 
and  in  some  places  the  kernels  of  the  peach  or  the 
apricot. 

Liq'uid-ambar,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Altingiacem ,  and  the  only  genus  of  the 
order,  having  flowers  in  male  and  female  catkins 
on  the  same  tree,  the  fruit  formed  of  two-celled, 
many-seeded  capsules,  and  the  seeds  winged. 
They  are  tall  trees,  remarkable  for  their  fragrant 
balsamic  products.  Liquid-ambar  stymeiflua,  the 
American  liquid-ambar,  or  sweet  gum  tree,  has 
palmate  leaves,  and  is  a  native  of  Mexico  and  the 
United  States. 

Liq'uorice  ( Glycyrrhiza ),  a  genus  of  perennial 
herbaceous  plants  of  the  natural  order  Legumino- 
sev,  sub-order  Papilionacrat.  The  roots  of  liquor¬ 
ice  depend,  for  their  valuable  properties,  on  a 
substance  called  glycyrrhizine,  allied  to  sugar. 
They  are  a  well-known  article  of  materia  medica, 
and  were  used  by  the  ancients  as  in  modern  times, 
being  emollient  ,  demulcent,  very  useful  in  catarrh 
and  irritations  of  the  mucous  membrane.  The 
black  inspissated  juice  is  the  common  stick  liquor¬ 
ice,  of  which  immense  quantities  are  used  both  in 
pharmacy  and  to  flavor  manufactured  chewing 
tobacco. 

Lira  (Lat.  libra),  the  name  of  an  Italian  silver 
coin  of  greater  or  less  value,  according  to  lime 
and  place.  The  Tuscan  lira  was  equal  to  80 
French  centimes;  the  Austrian  lira  or  zwanziger 
was  about  the  same  value.  The  present  lira 
Italiana,  or  lira  nuova,  of  the  Italian  kingdom,  is 
equal  to  the  French  franc,  and  is  divided  into  100 
centimes. 

Lisbon,  the  capital  of  Portugal,  is  in  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Estremadura,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tagus.  Pop.  (1878),  233,389. 

Lisbon,  the  county  seat  of  Ransom  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  1,850. 

Liszt,  Franz,  pianist,  was  born  at  Raiding,  in 
Hungary,  Oct.  22,  1811.  At  an  early  age  he 
evinced  rare  musical  talent,  and  was  placed  under 
the  best  instruction  to  be  found  in  his  native 
country.  Later  he  went  to  France  and  England, 
where  he  studied  under  some  of  the  most  famous 
masters.  In  1847  he  became  leader  of  the  court 
concerts  and  operas  at  Weimar.  In  1865  he  took 
sacred  orders,  and  became  a  monk,  in  the  chapel 
of  the  Vatican,  Rome;  and  in  1871  returned  to  his 
native  country,  which  granted  him  a  pension  of 
$3,000  a  year.  In  1875  he  was  named  Director  of 
the  Hungarian  Academy  of  Music,  lie  has  also 
been  an  industrious  and  original  contributor  to 
musical  literature. 

Litany  (Gr.  yirccvEia,  lilaneia,  a  supplica¬ 
tion).  Through  all  the  varieties  of  form  which 
litanies  have  assumed,  one  characteristic  has 
always  been  maintained — viz.,  that  the  prayer 
alternates  between  the  priest  or  oilier  minister, 
who  announces  the  object  of  each  petition,  and 
the  congregation,  who  reply  in  a  common  suppli¬ 
catory  form,  the  most  usual  of  which  was  the 
well-known  “  Kyrie  eleison!”  (Lord,  have  mercy!) 


Litclii,  or  Lee-chee  ( Nephelium  litclu),  one  of 
the  most  delicious  fruits  of  China  and  of  the 
Malayan  Archipelago.  The  tree  which  produces 
it  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Lapindacete.  The 
fruit  is  of  the  size  of  a  small  walnut,  and  grows 
in  racemes.  It  is  a  red  or  green  berry,  with  a  thin, 
tough,  leathery,  scaly  rind,  and  a  colorless  semi¬ 
transparent  pulp,  in  the  center  of  which  is  one 
large  dark-brown  seed. 

Litliic  Acid  Diathesis  is  the  term  employed 
in  Medicine  to  designate  the  condition  in  which 
there  is  an  excess  of  litliic  (or  uric)  acid,  either  free 
or  in  combination,  or  both,  in  the  urine.  The 
urine  of  persons  who  have  the  litliic  acid  diathesis 
is  usually  of  a  dark  golden  color,  like  brown 
sherry,  and  is  more  acid,  of  higher  specific  grav¬ 
ity,  and  less  abundant  than  the  urine  in  health. 
Regimen  is  of  far  more  use  than  medicine  in  this 
disease.  The  patient  should  dine  moderately  and 
plainly,  avoiding  acid,  saccharine,  and  starchy 
matters  and  fermented  liquors.  The  skin  should 
be  made  to  act  freely  by  friction,  and  by  occa¬ 
sional  warm  or  daily  tepid  baths.  Warm  clothing 
must  be  used;  plenty  of  active  exercise  must  be 
taken  in  the  open  air;  and  the  healthy  action  of 
the  bowels  and  liver  duly  maintained. 

Litchfield,  the  county  seat  of  Litchfield  county, 
Conn.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Litchfield,  the  county  seat  of  Meeker  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Lith'ium  (symbol  Li,  equiv.  7.0,  sp.  gr.  0.5936) 
is  the  metallic  base  of  the  alkali  lithia ,  and  derives 
its  name  from  the  Greek  word  AtSoS,  litJws,  a 
stone.  The  metal  is  of  a  white,  silvery  appearance, 
and  is  much  harder  than  sodium  or  potassium,  but 
softer  than  lead.  Lithium  forms  two  compounds 
with  oxygen — viz.,  lithia  (known  also  as  lit  Lion 
or  litlion),  which  is  the  oxide  of  lithium,  and  a 
peroxide  of  lithium  whose  formula  has  not  been 
determined.  Lithia,  in  a  pure  and  isolated  state, 
can  not  be  obtained.  Hydrate  of  lithia  (LO,H20) 
occurs  as  a  white  translucent  mass,  which  closely 
resembles  the  hydrates  of  potash  and  soda.  The 
salts  of  l.thia  are  of  sparing  occurrence  in  nature. 
Carbonate  of  lithia  (LO,C02)  is  precipitated  when 
carbonate  of  ammonia  is  added  to  a  strong  solu¬ 
tion  of  chloride  of  lithium.  The  solution  of  the 
salt  has  been  strongly  recommended  in  cases  of 
gout  and  gravel,  in  consequence  of  the  solvent 
power  which  it  exerts  on  uric  acid. 

Lithog'rapliy  (Gr.  A iOoi,  lilhos,  a  stone,  and 
ypaqjEir,  to  write),  the  art  of  printing  from 
stone,  was  invented  by  Aloys  Senefelder,  at  Mu¬ 
nich,  about  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  It 
consists,  first,  in  writing  and  drawingon  the  stone, 
or  in  transferring  to  the  stone  writings’ and  draw¬ 
ings  made  with  the  pen  or  brush  on  transfer-paper, 
and  then  in  printing  off  from  the  stone  the 
writings  or  drawings  thus  made  upon  it.  The 
principles  of  the  art  are  these:  An  unctuous  com¬ 
position  having  been  made  to  adhere  to  a  calca- 
reo-argillaceous  stone,  those  parts  covered  by  it — 
i.  e. ,  the  writing  or  drawing — acquire  the  power  of 
receiving  printing  ink,  whereas  those  parts  not 
containing  the  writing  or  drawing  are  prevented 
from  receiving  ink  from  the  inking-roller  by  the 
interposition  of  water;  and  lastly,  an  absorbent 
paper  being  laid  on  the  stone,  and  subjected  to 
strong  pressure,  copies  are  obtained.  When  any 
writing  or  drawing  has  been  finished  on  stone,  it 
then  requires  to  be  etched,  thus:  A  mixture  of  2 
parts  of  nitric  acid,  and  from  40  to  60  parts  of 
dissolved  gum-arabic,  is  poured  over  the  stone 
once  or  several  times,  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  work.  The  etching  changes  the  surface  of  the 
stone,  raising  the  work  on  it  to  a  degree  scarcely 
perceptible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  writingordraw- 
ing,  which  has  been  effected  by  greasy  ink  or 
chalk,  remains  protected  from  the  action  of  the 
acid,  and  those  protected  parts  retain  the  natural 
property  of  the  stone,  which  is  the  qualification  of 
receiving  printing-ink;  and,  when  the  printer  wets 
the  stone  before  applying  the  inking-roller,  the 
water  enters  only  those  parts  of  the  stone  which 
have  been  affected  by  the  acid,  while  the  ink 
adheres  only  to  those  parts,  howeverfine,  on  which 
the  acid  could  not  operate.  Tinted  drawings, 
chromo-lithography,  and  colored  maps  require  as 
many  stones — grained  or  polished,  as  t  he  case  may 
be — as  there  are  various  tints  or  colors,  one  stone 
being  printed  after  the  other,  and  so  fitted  and 


LITHOMARGE. 


506 


LOCK. 


blended  together  as  to  produce,  when  complete, 
the  effect  desired. 

Lith'omarge,  an  earthy  mineral,  sometimes 
called  mountain  marrow  (Ger.  steinmark),  consist¬ 
ing  chiefly  of  silica  and  alumina,  with  oxide  of 
iron  and  various  coloring  substances. 

Litliontrip'tics  (from  the  Greek  words  XiOoi, 
lithos,  a  stone,  and  rpi/io,  tribo,  I  wear  out)  is  the 
term  which  is  applied  to  those  remedies  which, 
whether  taken  by  the  mouth,  or  injected  into  the 
bladder,  act  as  solvents  for  the  stone.  Natural 
mineral  waters  are  about  the  only  hopeful  remedy 
for  the  purpose,  particularly  lithia  waters. 

Lithotomy  (Gr.  AiOoS,  stone,  roneiv,  to  cut)  is 
the  operation  of  cutting  for  stone  in  the  bladder. 
This  is  generally  done  by  putting  the  patient 
under  the  influence  of  some  anaesthetic,  and  pass¬ 
ing  through  the  urethral  canal  into  the  bladder 
a  curved  instrument  which  has  a  deep  groove  in 
it.  A  deep  cut  is  then  made  about  an  inch  and 
three-quarters  from  the  anus,  and  a  little  to  the 
left  of  the  middle  of  the  crotch  of  the  legs.  The 
surgeon  then  introduces  a  linger  of  his  left  hand 
into  the  cut  and  inserting  the  knife  into  the 
groove  of  the  instrument  in  the  urethra,  cuts  from 
toward  the  penis  into  the  bladder,  dividing  the 
membranous  portions  of  the  urethra,  the  edge  of 
the  prostate  gland,  and  the  neck  of  the  bladder. 
The  staff  is  then  withdrawn  and  the  forceps 
introduced  through  the  cut  and  the  stone  taken 
out.  The  wound  is  then  closed,  and  usually 
heals  in  about  a  month. 

LithOt'rity  is  an  operation  for  breaking  up  a 
stone  in  the  bladder  instead  of  cutting  it  out.  A 
curved  instrument  with  jaws  working  with  a 
screw,  on  the  same  principle  as  a  monkey  wrench, 
is  introduced  through  the  urethra  into  the  blad¬ 
der,  and.  having  grasped  the  stone,  crushes  it- 
into  bits  so  that  it  may  be  passed  out  in  the  urine. 
Only  fully  developed  and  healthy  urethral  pas¬ 
sages  will  allow  the  operation,  and  only  the  soft 
varieties  of  calculi  can  be  so  removed. 

Lithua'nia,  a  former  grand-duchy,  holding  of 
the  crown  of  Poland,  which,  before  the  partitions 
of  that  country,  was  composed  of  three  groups  of 
territory  :  1.  Lithuania  proper,  or  Litiva,  which 
formed  the  Governments  of  Wilna  and  Troki; 
2  The  Duchy  of  Samogitia;  3.  Russian  Lith¬ 
uania,  comprising  Polesie,  Black  Russia  or 
Novogrodek,  White  Russia  or  Minsk,  Meislav, 
Witebsk,  Smolensk,  Polotsk,  and  Polish  Livonia. 
This  country  contained  about  135,000  square 
miles,  and  was  partitioned  between  Russia  and 
Prussia,  the  latter  receiving  what  is  now  denomi¬ 
nated  the  Government  of  Gumbinnen,  in  East 
Prussia. 

Little  Falls,  a  city  of  New  York,  on  the 
Mohawk  river,  ninety-one  miles  northwest  of 
Albany.  Pop.,  8,000. 

Little  Falls,  the  county  seat  of  Morrison 
county,  Minn.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Little  Rook,  the  capital  of  Arkansas,  is  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Arkansas  river,  300  miles  from 
its  mouth.  It  contains  the  State  capitol,  an  arse¬ 
nal,  penitentiary,  and  other  public  buildings. 
Founded  in  1820.  Pop.,  24,000. 

Little  Valley,  the  county  seat  of  Cattaraugus 
county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  700. 

Lit'urgy  (Gr.  Xeirypyia,  leitourgia,  a  public 
service),  in  general,  signifies  a  form  of  prayer  and 
ceremonial  established  by  ecclesiastical  authority, 
to  be  used  in  the  public  services  of  the  church, 
but  is  especially  applied  to  that  used  in  the  cele¬ 
bration  and  administration  of  the  eucharist. 

Live  Oak,  the  county  seat  of  Suwannee  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Liver,  The,  is  the  largest  gland  in  the  body; 
it  weighs  from  three  to  four  pounds,  and 
measures  about  12  inches  from  side  to  side, 
and  6  or  7  inches  from  its  anterior  to  its  pos¬ 
terior  border.  It  is  situated  in  the  right  hypo¬ 
chondriac  region,  and  reaches  over  to  the  left. 
The  liver  is  retained  in  its  position  by  five  liga¬ 
ments.  Besides  the  right  and  left  lobes,  there  are 
three  smaller  lobes.  The  liver,  both  on  its  sur¬ 
face  and  internally,  is  of  a  dark  reddish  tint, 
which  is  so  well  known  that  the  term  liver- 
colored  is  universally  recognized.  The  substance 
of  the  organ  is  composed  of  lobules  held  together 
by  extremely  fine  areolar  tissue,  and  ramifications 
of  the  minute  branches  of  the  various  hepatic 
vessels.  Each  lobule  is  composed  of  a  mass  of 


hepatic  cells,  of  a  plexus  of  biliary  ducts,  of  a 
portal  plexus  (from  the  contents  of  which  the  cells 


The  Liver. 


A,  right  lobe:  B.  left  lobe;  a,  depression  for  colon;  b, 
depression  for  right  kidney  and  capsule;  cc,  coronary 
ligament,  inferior  layer;  <U1.  surface  uncovered  by  peri¬ 
toneum;  e,  gall-bladder;//,  fissure  for  gall-bladder;  r/r/, 
transverse  fissure;  h,  lobulus  quadratus;  i,  umbilical 
vein;  j,  hepatic  duct;  k ,  hepatic  artery  ;  l,  ductus  veno- 
sus;  mm,  fissure  for  ductus  venosus;  a,  vena  porta* ;  o, 
lobulus  caudatus;  p,  lobidus  Spigelii;  q,  inferior  vena 
cava;  r,  fissure  for  inferior  vena  cava;  ss,  longitudinal 
fissure. 

obtain  the  biliary  matters  that  are  found  in  their 
interior),  of  a  branch  of  the  hepatic  vein,  and  of 
minute  arteries.  The  gall-bladder  may  be 
regarded  as  a  diverticulum  or  offshoot  from  the 
hepatic  duct.  It  has  somewhat  the  shape  of  a 
pear,  and  lies  in  a  depression  on  the  under  sur¬ 
face  of  the  liver.  Its  use  seems  to  be  to  serve  as 
a  reservoir  for  the  accumulation  of  the  bile,  when 
its  flow  into  the  intestine  is  interrupted,  as  it  is 
always  found  full  after  a  long  fast,  and  empty 
when  digestion  is  going  on.  That  the  gall-blad¬ 
der  is  not  an  essential  appendix  to  the  liver,  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  it  is  absent  in  many  genera 
of  mammals.  Thus,  it  is  present  in  the  ox,  sheep, 
and  goat,  but  absent  in  the  horse  and  many  other 
herbivora.  It  was  formerly  believed  that  the 
liver  served  merely  for  the’ separation  of  the  biliary 
secretion  from  the  blood;  but  there  is  now  abun¬ 
dant  evidence  that  the  blood  itself  is  changed  by 
its  means,  in  such  a  way  as  to  show  that  this 
gland  possesses  an  assimilating  as  well  as  a  depu¬ 
rating  action. 

Liverpool,  situated  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Mersey,  Lancashire,  is,  after  London,  the  largest 
town  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and,  taken  in  con¬ 
nection  with  Birkenhead,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  Mersey,  it  ranks  in  maritime  importance  before 
the  metropolis  itself — a  circumstance  due  to  its 
position  on  the  west  coast  of  England,  and  not 
only  as  a  port  for  the  adjacent  manufacturing 
districts,  but  for  the  traffic  with  America.  Pop., 
650,000. 

Livingston,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows; — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Overton  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  400. — 2.  The  county 
seat  of  Park  county,  Mont.,  is  a  prosperous  min¬ 
ing  and  ranching  town  on  the  Yellowstone  river. 
Pop.,  2,000. — 3.  The  county  seat  of  Polk  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  1,600. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Sumter 
county,  Ala.  Pop.,  800. 

Livingston,  Philip,  member  of  the  Continen¬ 
tal  Congress  and  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence,  was  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in 
1716  and  died  in  1778. 

Livingstone,  David,  African  traveler  and 
missionary,  was  born  at  Blantyre,  in  Lanarkshire, 
Scotland,  March  19,  1813,  and  died  in  Africa  in 
1873.  His  explorations  in  Africa  were  of  great 
value  to  science  and  proved  him  to  be  a  man  of 
remarkable  will  power  and  force  of  character. 

Liv'ius,  Titus,  the  most  illustrious  of  Roman 
historians,  was  born  at  Patavium  (Padua),  in  61 
u.c.,  according  to  Cato,  but,  according  to  Varro, 
in  59  b.c.,  and  died  in  17  a.d. 

Liv'ius  Androui'cus,  the  father  of  Roman 
dramatic  and  epic  poetry,  was  a  Greek  by  birth, 
probably  a  native  of  Tarentum,  and  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  b.c. 

Li  vo'nia  (Ger.  Lievland),  one  of  the  three  Baltic 
provinces  of  Russia.  Area,  18, OSS  square  miles; 
pop.  (1870),  1,000,876. 

Livre,  the  name  of  an  ancient  French  coin, 
derived  from  the  .Roman  libra,  or  as.  There 
were  livres  of  different  values,  the  most  import¬ 
ant  being  the  livre  Tournois  (of  Tours),  which 


was  considered  the  standard,  and  the  livre  Parisis 
(of  Paris),  which  was  equal  to  five-fourths  of  a 
livre  Tournois. 

Liz'ard  (Lacertn),  a  genus  of  saurian  reptiles, 
the  type  of  a  numerous  group.  The  name  lizard 
is  indeed  often  extended  to  all  the  saurian  reptiles, 
but  in  its  more  restricted  sense  it  is  applied  only 
to  a  family,  Lacerticlce.  Some  of  the  lizards  are 


1,  Viviparous  Lizard;  2,  Sand  Lizard. 


quite  susceptible  of  being  tamed.  They  are  re¬ 
markable  for  the  readiness  with  which  the  end 
of  the  tail  breaks  off,  and  the  fact  that  the  lost 
portion  is  afterward  reproduced.  Lizards  become 
torpid  in  winter.  They  are  found  almost  all  over 
the  warm  parts  of  the  world. 

Loadstone,  or  Magnetic  Iron  Ore,  a  mineral 
consisting  of  a  mixture  of  peroxide  of  iron  and 
protoxide  of  iron,  is  remarkable  for  its  highly 
magnetic  quality.  It  is  found  in  the  beds  of 
some  of  the  larger  lakes  in  this  country. 

Loam  (Ger.  lehm,  allied  to  Lat,  limns,  and  to 
lime,  slime),  a  term  much  employed  by  agricult¬ 
urists  and  others,  to  designate  a  soil  consisting  of 
a  mixture  of  clay,  sand,  and  lime,  with  animal 
and  vegetable  matters  in  a  state  of  intimate  mixt¬ 
ure. 

Loan  'go,  the  most  powerful  of  the  small  Afri¬ 
can  States,  on  the  coast,  a  little  to  the  north  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Congo. 

Lobe'lia,  a  genus  of  corollifloral  exogens  of 
the  natural  order  Lobeliacece.  It  contains  almost 
400  known  species,  abounding  chiefly  in  damp 
woods  in  America  and  the  North  of  India.  In 
its  medicinal  use,  in  small  doses,  it  acts  as  dia¬ 
phoretic  and  expectorant;  in  full  doses,  as  a 
powerful  nauseating  emetic;  while  in  excessive 
doses,  or  in  full  doses,  too  often  repeated,  it  is  a 
powerful  acro-narcotic  poison.  Physicians  sel¬ 
dom  prescribe  it  now,  except  in  cases  of  asthma. 

Lo  biped 'id  a?,  a  family  of  birds  of  the  order 
OralloB,  nearly  allied  to  I  tall  id  a  (rails,  craiks,  gal- 
linules,  etc.),  but  differing  in  having  the  toes  sepa¬ 
rately  margined  on  both  sides  with  a  scalloped 
membrane. 

Lobster  ( Homarus ),  a  genus  of  crustaceans,  of 
the  order  Decapoda,  sub-order  Maarura.  The 
American  lobster  is  larger,  and  its  claws  are 
longer  in  proportion  than  those  of  the  European 
species.  It  is  in  best  season  from  October  to  the 
beginning  of  May.  Its  beautifully  clouded  and 
varied  bluish-black  color  changes  to  a  nearly  uni¬ 
form  red  in  boiling. 

Local  Option  is  a  term  for  the  power  which 
temperance  reformers  have  of  late  sought  to 
secure  for  the  tax-paying  inhabitants  of  any 
community,  enabling  them  to  regulate  the  liquor 
traffic  within  their  bounds  as  to  a  certain  majority 
of  them  shall  seem  best,  either  by  maintaining 
unchanged,  increasing,  diminishing,  or  wholly 
suppressing  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors. 

Lock,  of  a  gun,  is  that  apparatus  by  which  the 
powder  is  fired.  Muskets,  in  their  earliest  use, 
were  fired  by  the  hand  applying  a  slow  match  to 
-the  touch  hole.  Toward  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  the  first  improvement  appeared  in  the 
match-lock.  This  consisted  of  a  crooked  iron 
lever,  in  the  end  of  which  the  match  was  fixed. 
By  a  pin-gear  of  a  simple  nature,  pressure  on  the 
trigger  brought  the  match  accurately  down-on 
the  powder-pan,  of  which  the  lid  had  previously 
been  thrown  forward  by  the  hand.  This  mode 
of  firing  involved  the  carrying  of  several  yards  of 


LOCK. 


507 


LOMBARDS. 


slow  match,  usually  wound  round  the  body  and 
the  piece;  rain  extinguished  the  match,  and  wind 
dispersed  the  powder  in  the  pan,  so  that  the 
match-lock,  clumsy  withal,  was  but  an  uncertain 
apparatus.  Superior  to  the  match-lock  was  the 
wheel  lock,  introduced  at  Nurnberg  in  1517,  in 
whk'li  Are  was  produced  by  friction  between  a 
piece  of  flint  or  iron  pyrites  and  a  toothed  wheel. 
In  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  flint¬ 
lock  was  invented.  With  successive  improve¬ 
ments,  the  flint-lock  continued  in  general  use 
until  the  introduction  of  the  percussion-lock. 
The  principle  of  the  percusSion-lock  is  that 
of  the  copper  cap,  fitting  tightly  on  the  nip¬ 
ple  of  the  gun,  charged  with  a  detonating  com¬ 
pound,  and  exploded  by  the  hammer  falling  upon 
it.  Since  the  adoption  of  breech-loading  arms, 
the  action  of  the  lock  is  so  far  varied  that  the 


hammer  usually  falls  on  a  movable  pin,  which  is 
impelled  against  a  detonating  charge  placed  in 
the  body  of  the  cartridge  itself.  A  spiral  spring 
around  the  pin  brings  it  back  to  the  position 
necessary  for  another  blow 

Lock,  on  a  river  or  canal,  is  an  arrangement  of 
two  parallel  flood-gates  by  which  communication 
is  secured  between  two  reaches  of  different  levels. 
The  arrangement  consists  of  two  pairs  of  gates, 
opening  up  the  stream,  and  offering,  when  shut, 
a  salient  angle  to  the  stream  or  upper  pressure. 
The  effect  is  that  the  weight  above  only  tends  to 
close  the  gates  still  tighter.  When  a  vessel  is  to 
be  brought  from  one  level  to  the  other,  it  is  floated 
into  the  pound,  as  the  space  between  the  upper 
and  lower  gates  is  called.  The  gates  are  then 
shut,  and  a  sluice  in  the  lower  part  of  the  upper 
gate  raises  the  surface  of  the  pound,  or  the  sluice 
in  the  lower  gate  depresses  it  in  a  few  minutes  to 
the  level  of  the  upper  or  lower  reach,  as  the  case 
may  be.  These  sluices  are  worked  by  racks  in 
the  gates,  and  the  ponderous  gates  themselves 
are  moved  with  the  aid  of  long  and  heavy  levers. 
Of  course,  one  pair  of  gates  must  always  be  shut, 
or  the  two  reaches  would  speedily  assimilate  levels. 

Locke,  John,  celebrated  English  essayist  and 
statesman,  was  born  at  Wrington,  near  Bristol, 
Aug.  29, 1632.  His  best  known  work  is  On  the  Con¬ 
duct  of  the  Understanding.  He  died  Oct.  28, 1704. 

Lockesburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Sevier  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  500. 

Lockhart,  the  county  seat  of  Caldwell  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Lock  HaveD,  an  important  manufacturing  city 
of  Clinton  county,  Penn.  Pop.,  7,100. 

Lock 'port,  an  important  commercial,  manu¬ 
facturing,  and  railroad  city  of  New  York,  fifty- 
five  miles  west  of  Rochester.  Pop.  (1889),  14,000. 

Locust,  the 
type  of  family 
(Locustidce  o  r 
Acrydtcice)  of  the 
order  Orthop- 
tera,  and  section 
Suttatoria.  Lo¬ 
custs  differ  from 
grasshoppers 
and  crickets  in 
their  short  an¬ 
tennae, and  in  the 
greater  robust¬ 
ness  of  their  ,T 

bodies  and  Red-legged  Locust. 

limbs.  The  power  of  flight  of  locusts  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  dispute,  some  asserting  that 
they  can  fly  to  great  distances,  others  that  they 
have  little  power  of  flight,  and  are  merely  carried 
before  a  gale  of  wind.  Their  food  consists  of  the 
leaves  and  green  stalks  of  plants.  They  generally 
consume  any  stalk 
of  grass  or  other 
green  thing  which 
they  have  selected 
and  cut.  The  ter¬ 
rible  ravages  o  f 
locusts  are  owing 
to  the  vast  number 
in  which  they  ap¬ 
pear,  filling  the  air 
like  flakes  of  snow. 

The  Rocky  Mount¬ 
ain  and  red-legged  „  .  ,,  .  .  T 

locusts,  commonly  Rocky  Mountain  Locust. 

but  erroneously  called  grasshoppers,  have  fre¬ 


quently,  within  the  past  twenty  years  committed 
serious  havoc  on  growing  crops  and  other  vegeta¬ 
tion  in  the  Western  States  and  Territories. 
Locusts  are  eaten  by  savages  in  many  countries, 
roasted,  or  fried  in  grease.  They  are  also  pre¬ 
served  in  brine,  or  dried  in  the  sun. 

Locust  Tree,  a  name  given  in  different  parts 
of  the  world  to  different  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosw.  The  carob  tree,  the  honey  locust 
and  the  thorn  acacia,  are  members  of  this  family. 
The  locust  tree  of  the  West  Indies  is  a  gigantic 
tree,  whose  pods  also  supply  a  nutritious'  matter, 
a  mealy  substance  in  which  the  pods  are  im¬ 
bedded.  It  is  sweet  and  pleasant,  but  apt  to  in¬ 
duce  diarrhoea  when  recently  gathered,  which 
property,  however,  it  loses  when  kept  for  a  short 
time.  A  decoction  of  it,  allowed  to  ferment, 
makes  a  kind  of  beer.  The  bark  of  the  tree  is 
anthelmintic. 

Lode,  a  miner’s  term  for  veins  in  which  miner¬ 
als  occur. 

Lo  'ess,  a  loamy  deposit  of  pleistocene  age, 
occurring  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rhine  and  the 
Danube.  It  is  a  pulverulent  yellowish-gray  loam, 
homogeneous  and  non-plastic,  and  consists  of  a 
mixture  of  clay  and  carbonate  of  lime. 

Lofo'<len,'LoFB’o'DEN,  or  Lofo'ten,  a  chain  of 
i-lands  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Norway,  between 
latitude  67°  and  69°  15'  N.  The  largest  of  the 
islands  are  Hindde,  Andoe,  and  Langoe,  Ost 
Waagen,  West  Waagen,  and  Flagstadde.  Pop., 
4,000. 

Log  is  the  instrument  by  which  a  ship’s  rate  of 
motion  through  the  water  is  measured.  Its  sim¬ 
plest  form  is  a  triangular  piece  of  light  wood, 
leaded  so  as  to  swim  vertically;  this  is  connected 
with  the  log-line,  so  that  its  flat  surface  is  at  right 
angles  to  the  ship’s  course.  When  thrown  out — 
attached  to  the  log-line — the  log  meets  with  such 
resistance  that  it  theoretically  remains  stationary 
in  the  water,  and  the  log-line,  passing  freely  out, 
shows  the  speed  of  the  vessel. 

Logan,  John  A.,  American  general  and  states¬ 
man,  was  born  in  Jackson  county,  Ill.,  in  1826. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1858,  and  again  in 
1860.  He  served  through  the  War  of  Secession, 
being,  at  its  close,  a  corps  commander.  In  1866 
he  was  again  returned  to  Congress,  and  in  1871 
was  made  Senator,  and  twice  reelected.  He  was 
defeated  for  the  Vice-Presidency  wifli  Blaine  as 
principal  in  1884.  He  died  in  1886. 

Loaan,  the  name  of  several  cities  and  towns  in 
the  United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat 
of  Cache  county,  Utah,  is  a  prosperous  mining 
center.  Pop  ,  5,100.-2.  The  county  seat  of  Har¬ 
rison  county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  800. — 3.  The  county 
seat  of  Hocking  county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  3,600. — 4. 
The  county  seat  of  Logan  county.  Neb.  Pop., 
150. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Logan  county,  W.Va. 
Pop.,  200. 

Logania'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  corollifloral 
exogens,  consisting  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herba¬ 
ceous  plants.  There  are  about  162  known  species. 
No  natural  order  of  plants  is  more  strongly  char¬ 
acterized  by  poisonous  properties,  especially  by 
strychnine.  It  includes  the  genus  slrychnos  and 
the  woorali  poison. 

Logausport,  a  city  of  Indiana,  in  a  rich  agri¬ 
cultural  region,  has  a  large  lumber  trade,  with 
important  factories.  Pop.  (1889),  17,100. 

Logarithmic  or  Logistic  Curves  are  curves 
whose  abscissae  are  proportional  to  the  logarithms 
of  the  corresponding  ordinates. 

Logarithmic  or  Logistic  Spiral  is  a  curve 
described  by  a  point  which  moves  uniformly  along 
a  uniformly  revolving  straight  line. 

Logarithms,  a  series  of  numbers  having  a  cer¬ 
tain  relation  to  the  series  of  natural  numbers,  by 
means  of  which  many  arithmetical  operations  are 
made  comparatively  easy.  The  nature  of  the 
relation  will  be  understood  by  considering  two 
simple  series,  such  as  the  following,  one  proceed¬ 
ing  from  unity  in  geometrical  progression,  the 
other  from  0  in  arithmetical  progression: 

Geom.  series,  1,  2,  4,  8,  10,  32,  64,  128,  256,  512,  etc. 

Arith.  series,  0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  etc. 

Here  the  ratio  of  the  geometrical  series  is  2,  and 
any  term  in  the  arithmetical  series  expresses  how 
often  2  has  been  multiplied  into  1  to  produce  the 
corresponding  term  of  the  geometrical  series;  thus, 
in  proceeding  from  1  lo  32,  there  have  been  five 
steps  or  multiplications  by  the  ratio  2 — t.  c.,  the 


ratio  of  33  to  1  is  compounded  five  times  of  the 
ratio  of  2  to  1.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  sum 
of  any  two  logarithms  (the  lower  series)  is  the  log¬ 
arithm  of  their  product;  e.  g  ,  9  3  -j-  6)  is  the 

logarithm  of  512  (  -  8  X  64).  Similarly,  the  dif¬ 
ference  of  any  two  logarithms  is  the  logarithm  of 
the  quotient  of  the  numbers;  a  multiple  of  any 
logarithm  is  the  logarithm  of  the  corresponding 
number  raised  to  the  power  of  the  multiple,  e.  g., 
8  (=  4  X  3)  is  the  logarithm  of  256  (=  16'),  and 
a  submultiple  of  a  logarithm  is  the  logarithm  of 
the  corresponding  root  of  its  number.  In  this 
way,  with  complete  tables  of  numbers,  and  their 
corresponding  logarithms,  addition  is  made  to 
take  the  place  of  multiplication,  substraetion  of 
division,  multiplication  of  involution,  and  divis¬ 
ion  of  evolution.  The  logarithms  of  all  the 
natural  numbers  up  to  100,000  have  been  com¬ 
puted. 

Logwood,  the  dark  red  solid  heart  wood  of 
Ummatoxylon  campeihianum,  a  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Lcguminosce,  sub-order  C'cesalpiueee.  This 
tree,  grows  in  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  in 
some  of  the  West  India  Island*.  It  is  extensively 
used  for  dyeing,  and  no  other  dye-wood  is  ex¬ 
ported  in  such  large  quantities  as  this.  It  is  also 
one  of  the  ingredients  in  both  black  and  red  ink. 

Loir-et-Cher,  a  department  of  France,  lying 
on  both  sides  of  the  River  Loire,  and  formed  of 
part  of  the  old  Province  of  Orleannois,  comprises 
the  Arrondissements  of  Blois,  Vendome,  and 
Romorantin.  Area,  1,568,677  square  acres;  pop. 
(1876),  272,634. 

Loire(ancient  Liger),  the  longest  river  in  France, 
has  its  source  in  the  Cevennes  Mountains,  near 
Gerbier-des- Jones,  in  the  Department  of  Ardeche, 
and  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Entire  length, 
612  miles. 

Loire,  a  department  in  the  Southeast  of  France, 
formerly  part  of  the  Province  of  Lyonnais,  com¬ 
prises  the  Arrondissements  of  Montbrison.Roanne, 
and  St.  Etienne.  Area,  1,178,234  English  acres; 
pop.  (1881),  599,836. 

Loire,  Haute,  a  central  department  of  France, 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Departments  of 
Lozere  and  Ard&clie.  Area,  1,212,160  square 
acres;  pop.  (1881),  316,461. 

Loire-Inf^rieure,  a  maritime  department  in 
the  West  of  France,  formed  out  of  the  southern 
portion  of  the  old  Province  of  Brittany,  and  com¬ 
prising  the  Arrondissements  of  Nantes,  Ancenis, 
Paimboeuf,  Chateaubriant,  and  Savenay,  lies  on 
both  sides  of  the  River  Loire.  Area,  1,697,979 
English  acres;  pop  (1881),  625,625. 

Loiret,  a  central  department  of  France, 
formed  out  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  old 
Province  of  Orleannois,  and  comprising  the 
Arrondissements  of  Orleans,  Montargis,  Gien,  and 
Pithiviers,  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  River  Loire. 
Area,  1,670,9S4  acres;  pop.  (1881),  368  526. 

Lol 'lards,  or  Loll' hards,  a  semi-monastic 
society,  the  members  of  which  devoted  them¬ 
selves  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  of  the  dead.  It 
was  first  formed  about  the  year  1300,  in  Antwerp. 
The  Lollards,  having  been  reproached  with  heresy, 
their  name  was  afterward  very  commonly  given 
to  different  classes  of  religionists,  sometimes  to 
the  truly  pious,  sometimes  to  the  worst  pretenders, 
and  in  England,  it  became  a  designation  of  the 
followers  of  Wycliffe. 

Lombard,  Peter  (rather,  Peter  the  Lombard), 
one  of  the  most  famous  of  the  schoolmen,  was 
born  at  a  village  near  Novara,  in  Lombardy.  He 
died  at  Paris  in  1164.  He  was  styled  M agister 
Sententiarum ,  or  the  Master  of  Sentences ,  from 
his  work  Sententiarum  Libri  IV.,  a  collection  of 
sentences  from  Augustine  and  other  Fathers,  on 
points  of  Christian  doctrine. 

Lombard  Architecture  is  the  style  which  was 
invented  and  used  by  the  Gothic  invaders  and 
colonists  of  the  North  of  Italy,  from  about  the 
age  of  Charlemagne  till  it  was  superseded  by  I  he 
importation  of  the  pointed  style  from  France  in 
the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

Lombards,  a  German  people  of  the  Suevic 
family,  not  very  numerous,  but  of  distinguished 
valor,  who  played  an  important  part  in  the  early 
history  of  Europe.  Longobardi,  or  Langobnrdi,  a 
Latinized  form  of  the  name  in  use  since  the 
twelfth  century,  was  formerly  supposed  to  have 
been  given  with  reference  to  the  long  beards  of 
this  people;  but  is  now  derived  rather  from  a 


LOMOND. 


508 


LORRAINE. 


word  parta,  or  barte ,  which  signifies  a  battle-axe. 
About  the  fourth  century  they  seem  to  have 
begun  to  leave  their  original  seats,  and  to  have 
fought  their  way  southward  and  eastward,  till 
they  came  into  close  contact  with  the  Eastern 
Roman  Empire  on  the  Danube,  and,  after  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century,  they  became  masters 
of  Pannonia,  and  one  of  the  most  wealthy  and 
powerful  nations  in  that  part  of  the  woild. 
Under  their  King  Alboin,  they  invaded  and  con¬ 
quered  the  North  and  Center  of  Italy  (568-569). 

Lo'mond,  Loch,  the  largest  of  the  Scottish 
lakes,  lies  between  Dumbartonshire  on  the  west, 
and  the  Counties  of  Stirling  and  Perth  on  the 
east.  It  is  24  miles  long,  7  miles  broad  and  has 
an  area  of  45  square  miles. 

Lon'don,  the  capital  of  the  British  Empire, 
stands  on  both  banks  of  the  Thames,  about  sixty 
miles  from  the  sea.  Under  the  names  Londinium, 
Londinum,  and  Augusta,  it  was  one  of  the  chief 
stations  of  the  Romans  in  Britain.  April,  1881, 
the  various  populations  were: 


City  of  London .  50,526 

Registrar-General’s  London . 3,816,483 

Local  Management  London . 3,834  354 

School-Board  London  . 3,834,354 

Police  London . 4.716,609 

“Greater  London” . 4,766,661 


In  round  numbers,  the  dimensions  may  be  esti¬ 
mated  at  about  13  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  9 3^ 
from  north  to  south.  The  city  is  divided  into 
twenty-eight  Parliamentary  boroughs,  returning 
from  one  to  seven  members  each ,  in  all  sixty  mem¬ 
bers.  In  matters  of  government  London  is  under 
varied  jurisdiction.  The  city  is  divided  into  twenty- 
five  wards,  each  represented  by  an  alderman;  and 
the  common  council  consists  of  206  members.  Its 
police  force  numbers  11,000  men,  and  it  has 
nearly  30,000  miles  of  streets.  Of  schools  of  all 
kinds  there  are  in  London  about  2,000,  and  it  has 
about  seventy  alms-houses.  Of  other  charitable 
institutions  there  are  600.  In  connection  with 
the  shipping  of  London,  and  the  import  and  ex¬ 
port  trade,  the  docks  contain  more  than  400  acres 
of  water  space.  From  6,000  to  7,000  ships  enter 
these  docks  annually.  The  principal  markets  of 
London  are  the  cattle  market,  at  Pentonville, 
Covent  Garden  (vegetable)  market,  Billingsgate 
(fish)  market,  and  Smithfield  (meat  and  poultry) 
market;  and  she  has  over  100  banks. 

London,  chief  city  of  the  County  of  Middlesex, 
Ontario,  Canada,  is  at  the  junction  of  the  two 
branches  of  the  Thames,  about  114  miles  west- 
southwest  from  Toronto.  Pop.  (1881),  19,746. 

London,  the  county  seat  of  Laurel  county,  Ivy. 
Pop.,  1,'000. 

London,  the  county  seat  of  Madison  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  3,800. 

Londonderry,  a  maritime  county  of  the  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Ulster,  in  Ireland,  40  miles  in  length  by' 
34  in  breadth,  bounded  north  by  the  Atlantic, 
east  by  the  County  Antrim  and,  in  part,  by  Lough 
Neagh,  south  by  Tyrone,  and  west  by  Donegal. 
Its  area  is  816  square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  164,714. 

Londonderry,  City  of,  a  seaport,  and  a  cor¬ 
porate  and  Parliamentary  borough,  capital  of 
the  above  county,  situated  on  the  River  Foyle, 
and  distant  from  Dublin  144  miles.  Pop.  (1881), 
29,162. 

Long  Island,  an  island  which  forms  three 
counties  of  the  State  of  New  York,  between  lati¬ 
tude  40°  33' — 41°  6'  N.,  and  longitude  72° — 74° 
2'  VV.,  bounded  norlh  by  Long  Island  Sound, 
east  and  south  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  west 
by  the  bay  and  harbor  of  New  York.  It  is  115 
miles  long,  and  12  miles  in  average  width,  with 
an  area  of  1,682  square  miles.  The  principal 
towns  are  Brooklyn  and  Long  Island  City  (pop., 
1889,  17,129),  both  at  the  west  end  of  the  island, 
opposite  New  York.  The  shores  are  lined  with 
watering  places. 

Long  Island  Sound,  a  body  of  water  between 
Long  Island  and  New  York  and  Connecticut,  lit) 
mih  s  long,  and  from  2  to  20  miles  wide,  com¬ 
mencing  narrow  at  New  York  city,  which  it 
separates  from  Brooklyn,  and  where  it  is  called 
East  river,  and  opening  at  its  eastern  extremity 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  by  a  passage  called  “the 
Race.”  It  receives  the  Connecticut,  Housatonic, 
Thames,  and  Mystic  rivers  on  its  northern  shore. 

Lon'gan  ( N>phelium  longan),  one  of  the  finest 
of  fruits,  of  the  same  genus  with  the  litchi.  The 
tree  which  pi’oduces  it  is  a  native  of  China  and  of 


other  eastern  countries,  at  least  as  fur  west  as  the 
mountainous  regions  on  the  eastern  frontier  of 
Bengal. 

Longfellow,  Henry  Wadsworth,  an  Ameri¬ 
can  poet,  was  born  at  Portland,  Maine,  Feb.  27, 
1807.  His  best  known  works  are  The  Spanish 
Student,  Evangeline,  Hiawatha,  Miles  Blandish, 
Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  New  England  Tragedies, 
and  The  Divine  Tragedy.  He  was  a  D.C.L.  of 
Oxford,  and  LL.D.  of  Cambridge.  He  died 
March  24,  1882. 

Long'ford,  an  inland  county  of  Leinster,  Ire¬ 
land,  29  miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and  22 
miles  from  east  to  west.  Its  area  is  269,409  acres, 
of  which  191,823  are  arable.  Pop.  (1881),  60,790. 

Long  Branch  City,  a  famous  watering  place  in 
Monmouth  county,  N.  J.  It  contains  many  spa¬ 
cious  hotels,  and  is  one  of  the  most  popular  water¬ 
ing  places  on  the  Atlantic  coast.  Pop.,  5,200. 

Longicor'nes,  a  family  of  tetramerous  coleop- 
tera,  containing  a  vast  number  of  species,  among 


1,  Cerambyx  hirtipes;  2,  Trachyderes  rigrofasciatus. 

which  are  many  of  the  largest  and  most  splendid 
beetles.  The  Longicornes  abound  chiefly  in  warm 
countries,  and  particularly  in  South  America. 

Longipen'nes,  in  Cuvier’s  ornithological  sys¬ 
tem,  that  section  of  the  order  Pa'mipedes  charac¬ 
terized  by  long  wings  and  great  power  of  flight. 
Petrels,  shearwaters,  gulls,  terns,  noddies,  skim¬ 
mers,  and  albatrosses,  are  examples. 

Longiros'tres,  a  tribe  of  birds  of  the  order 
Grallce,  having  generally  a  long,  slender,  feeble 
bill-,  and  inhabiting  sea  shores  and  marshy  places, 
where  they  seek  worms  and  other  food  in  the  mud 
or  ooze.  To  this  tribe  belong  snipes,  woodcocks, 
curlews,  godwits,  sandpipers,  etc. 

Loo-choo,  or  Liu-tchiu,  a  group  of  islands 
about  ninety  in  number,  lie  in  the  Pacific  Ocean; 
about  400  miles  off  the  coast  of  China,  latitude 
24° — 29°  N.,  longitude  127°— 129°  E. 

Long  Prairie,  the  county  seat  of  Todd  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  810. 

Longview,  the  county  seat  of  Gregg  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  2,200. 

Lonoke,  the  couuty  seat  of  Lonoke  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  1,210. 

Loodia'na,  a  district  of  British  India,  one  of 
the  three  districts  into  which  the  division  of 
Ambala,  or  Umballa,  in  the  Punjab,  is  divided. 
Area,  1,375  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  618,835. — 
Loodiana,  capital  of  the  district  of  the  same 
name,  takes  its  name  from  the  Lodi  dynasty  of 
•Afghans  ruling  in  India,  and  is  situated  1,100 
miles  northwest  of  Calcutta.  Pop.  (1881),  44,163. 

Loom,  the  machine  by  which  weaving  is 
effected.  In  its  simplest  form  the  loom  is  worked 
by  hand.  In  its  simplest  sense,  weaving  consists 
in  passing  one  set  of  threads  transversely  through 
another  set,  divided  into  two  series,  working 
alternately  up  and  down,  so  as  to  receive  the  trans¬ 
verse  threads  in  passing,  and  interlock  them, 
forming  thereby  a  united  surface  out  of  the 
threads.  The  loom  consists  of  a  frame  which  is 
of  no  other  use  than  to  hold  the  working  parts  in 
their  proper  position.  At  each  end  of  the  frame, 
two  rollers  ate  placed,  so  that  they  will  readily 
turn  on  their  axis;  and  from  one  to  the  other,  the 
threads  of  the  warp  are  attached,  and  kept  tight 
by  weights.  The  warp  threads  are  wound  round 
one  roller  which  is  called  the  beam  or  yarn-roll,  only 
as  much  of  each  thread  being  left  unwound  as  will 
reach  to  the  other  roller,  which  is  the  cloth-beam, 
to  which  the  ends  tire  fastened,  and  upon  which 
the  cloth  is  wound  as  it  is  woven.  The  next  step 
is  to  divide  the  warp-thread  into  two  equal  sets  by 
raising  up  every  alternate  one,  and  inserting 
between  them  a  smooth  rod  of  wood,  to  prevent 
them  entangling  or  returning  to  their  former 


position.  This  separation  takes  place  before  the 
final  fixing  of  the  ends  of  the  threads  to  the  cloth- 
beam,  because,  previous  to  that,  each  thread 
must  be  passed  through  a  small  loop  in  two  sets 
of  perpendicular  threads  called  the  healds,  which 
hang  down  from  two  rods  above.  There  are  always 
twosetsof  healds  in  thesimplest  form  of  loom, often 
many  more;  and  in  the  case  of  plain  weaving, 
the  threads  of  the  warp  are  divided  alternately 
by  the  loops  of  each  heald,  so  that  if  one  lieald  is 
raised,  it  lifts  every  alternate  thread  of  the  warp, 
and  if  the  other  is  depressed,  it  pulls  down  the 
opposite  set  of  threads;  the  united  action  of  the 
two  healds  opens  a  space  between  the  two  sets  of 
warp-threads.  This  space  is  called  the  shed,  and 
through  it  is  thrown  the  shuttle  which  carries  the 
thread  of  the  weft;  when  the  weft  has  passed 
through,  the  healds  are  reversed,  and  the  lower 
warp-threads  now  become  the  upper  ones.  The 
threads,  after  each  intersection,  are  driven  up 
tight  by  the  reed,  which  is  a  narrow  frame  with 
transverse  wires  set  sufficiently  far  apart  for  a 
single  thread  of  warp  to  pass  through  each;  it 
hangs  to  the  frame  called  the  batten.  The  move¬ 
ment  of  the  batten  is  produced  by  the  hand  of 
the  weaver,  whilst  that  of  the  healds  is  readily 
effected  by  treadles.  Many  improvements  have 
been  made  in  this,  the  simplest  form  of  loom,  but 
the  chief  has  been  in  replacing  the  weaver’s  hand 
in  the  necessary  operation  of  throwing  the  shuttle 
by  a  mechanical  arrangement.  Without  this  the 
power-loom  would  not  have  succeeded.  The 
shuttle  is  usually  made  of  box  or  some  other 
hard  wood;  and  the  blunt  points  are  covered  with 
iron.  Formerly,  when  used  entirely  by  the  hand, 
it  was  made  much  lighter  and  smaller  than  at 
present.  Those  now  in  use  are  about  a  foot  in 
length,  and  rather  more  than  an  inch  square  in 
the  middle.  The  middle  part  is  hollowed  out 
into  a  small  box,  open  on  the  upper  side.  In  this 
box  the  bobbin,  on  which  the  yarn  or  thread  is 
wound,  is  placed,  with  its  two  ends  on  pivots, 
admitting  of  its  being  turned  by  the  slightest 
strain  on  (lie  yarn;  the  end  of  the  yarn  passes 
through  a  hole  in  the  side  of  the  shuttle,  and  as 
it  is  thrown  backward  and  forward,  the  thread 
unwinds  from  the  inclosed  bobbin,  and  easily 
runs  through  the  hole. 

Lopliobrancli'ii,  an  order  of  osseous  fishes 
having  the  ultimate  divisions  of  the  gills  not  pec¬ 
tinated,  but  arranged  in  small  tufts  in  pairs  along 
the  branchial  arches. 

Loquat  ( Eriobotrya  japonica),  an  esteemed 
Chinese  and  Japanese  fruit  of  the  natural  order 
Rosacea,  sub-order  Rosea;,  and  of  a  genus  closely 
allied  to  Mespiltts  (medlar). 

Lorca  (ancient  Eliocroca),  a  town  of  Spain, 
Province  of  Murcia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Sangonera.  Pop.  (1870),  52,934. 

Lord’s  Supper,  The,  is  so  called  from  its 
being  instituted  at  supper  by  Jesus  Christ,  whom 
his  disciples  styled  the  Lord  or  Master.  It  re¬ 
ceives  also  the  names  of  eucharist  and  commun¬ 
ion.  With  the  exception  of  the  Quakers,  all  sects 
of  Christians,  however  different  their  views  as  to 
its  nature,  agree  in  celebrating  it  as  one  of  the 
most  sacred  rites  of  religion. 

Loris,  a  genus 
of  Lemvridw,  dif¬ 
fering  from  the 
true  lemurs  in  hav¬ 
ing  a  round  head 
and  short  muzzle, 
very  large  eyes, 
and  no  tail.  The 
two  species  known 
are  both  natives  of 
the  East  Indies. 

They  are  nocturnal 
animals. 

Lorraine',  origi¬ 
nally  a  portion  of 
the  German  em¬ 
pire.  The  district 
n  o  w  known  a  s 
Rhenish  Prussia 
was  separated  from 
Lorraine  i  n  the  Loris  (L. 

tenlli  century,  and  the  remainder  was  divided  in 
1044  into  two  duchies,  Upper  and  Lower  Lorraine. 
The  latter  now  forms  one  half  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Belgium,  and  the  Provinces  of  Brabant  and  Gel- 


LORY. 


509 


LOUVAIN. 


derland,  in  Holland.  Upper  Lorraine  continued 
to  be  governed  by  its  own  dukes  till  1736, when  it 
was  given  to  Stanislas,  ex- King  of  Poland,  and  on 
his  death,  in  1766,  was  united  to  France.  This 
tract  was  ceded  to  Germanv  at  the  peace  of 
1871. 

Lory  ( Lorius ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  parrot 
family  ( Psittacidce ),  natives  chiefly  of  the  South¬ 
east  of  Asia  and  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  They 
have  a  dense,  soft  plumage,  exhibiting  the  most 
rich  and  mellow  colors;  the  tail  is  rounded  or 
graduated,  generally  not  long;  the  bill  is  feebler 
than  in  many  of  the  parrots,  and  the  upper  man¬ 
dible  much  arched. 

Lo§  Angeles,  a  town  of  California,  on  a  fertile 
plain,  350  miles  south-southeast  of  San  Francisco. 
It  has  a  large  trade.  Pop.  (1889),  61,000. 

Los  Lunas,  the  county  seat  of  Valencia  county, 
N.  M.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Lot,  a  department  in  the  South  of  France. 
Area,  2,005  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  280,269. 

Lote-et-Garonne,  a  department  in  the  South¬ 
west  of  France.  Area,  2,060  square  miles;  pop. 
(1881),  312,081. 

Lotions,  or  Washes,  are  remedies  of  a  liquid, 
but  not  of  an  oily  nature,  which  are  applied  to 
circumscribed  portions  of  the  surface  of  the  body. 
Amongst  the  lotions  most  commonly  employed 
are  the  muriate  of  ammonia  wash,  which  consists 
of  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac  in  water  or  in  vine¬ 
gar,  with  or  without  the  addition  of  spirit;  it  is 
much  used  in  contusions,  where  there  is  no  wound 
of  the  skin,  in  chronic  tumors,  in  enlarged  joints, 
etc.  Chloride  of  soda  wash,  consisting  of  solution 
of  chlorinated  soda  diluted  with  from  ten  to 
twenty  times  its  volume  of  water,  useful  as  a 
gargle  in  ulceration  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  and 
as  a  wash  for  foul  ulcers  generally.  The  chloride 
of  lime  wash,  consisting  of  one  or  two  drachms 
(or  more)  of  chloride  of  lime  in  a  pint  of  water; 
used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  preceding 
wash;  and  black  wash,  prepared  by  adding  calo¬ 
mel  to  lime-water  (generally  a  drachm  of  the 
former  to  a  pint  of  the  latter),  most  extensively 
used  in  venereal  sores,  and  of  service  in  many  forms 
of  intractable  ulcers. 

Lotus.  The  name  lotos  (Lat.  lotus)  was  given 
by  the  Greeks  to  a  number  of  different  plants 
whose  fruit  was  used  for  food.  One  of  the  most 
notable  of  these  is  the  Zizyphus  lotus,  a  native  of 
the  North  of  Africa  and  the  South  of  Europe, 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Rliamneos.  It  is  a 


Nymphaea  Lotus. 


shrub  of  two  or  three  feet  high,  and  its  fruit, 
which  is  produced  in  great  abundance,  is  a  drupe 
of  the  size  of  a  wild  plum,  with  an  almost  glo¬ 
bose  kernel.  The  fruit  is  somewhat  farinaceous, 
and  has  a  pleasant,  sweetish,  mucilaginous  taste. 

Loudon,  the  county  seat  of  Loudon  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Louis  IX.,  or  Saint  Louis,  King  of  France, 
bom  in  Poissy,  April  25,  1215,  succeeded  his 
father,  Louis  VIII.,  in  1226,  and  died  Aug.  25, 
1270.  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  canonized  him  in 
1297. 

Louis  XI.,  King  of  France,  the  eldest  son  of 
Charles  VII.,  born  at  Bourges,  July  3,  1423,  and 
died  Aug.  30,  1483. 

Louis  XIII.,  King  of  France,  son  of  Ilenri  IV. 
and  Marie  de’  Medici,  born  at  Fontainebleau, 
Sept.  27,  1601,  and  died  May  14,  1643.  His 
queen,  after  twenty-three  years  of  married  life, 


boreason  in  1638,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne 
as  Louis  XIV.;  and  in  1640,  a  second  son,  Philip, 
Duke  of  Orleans,  the  ancestor  of  the  present 
House  of  Orleans. 

Louis  XIY.,  King  of  France,  born  at  St.  Ger- 
main-en-Laye,  Sept.  16,  1638,  succeeded  his, 

father,  Louis  XIII.  in  1643.  In  the  earlier  years 
of  his  reign,  though  always  a  tyrant,  he  made 
France  the  foremost  power  in  Europe,  but  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life  he  fell  under  the  domination 
of  mistresses,  w  hose  influence  resulted  in  so  im¬ 
politic  a  course  that  the  whole  country  was  nearly 
ruined  and  the  seeds  were  sown  of  which  the 
French  Revolution  ’was  the  harvest.  He  died 
Sept.  1,  1715. 

Louis  XV.,  King  of  France,  the  great-grandson 
of  Louis  XIV.,  born  at  Versailles,  Feb.  15,  1710, 
succeeded  to  the  throne  Sept.  1,  1715,  and  died 
May  10,  1774.  He  was  one  of  the  most  vicious 
monarclis  of  modern  times,  and  on  his  death, 
which  resulted  from  his  own  vices,  the  whole 
nation  made  merry  with  festivals  and  rejoicings. 
Ilis  reign  immediately  preceded  the  French  Revo¬ 
lution,  and,  in  fact,  his  corrupt  practices  were 
largely  instrumental  in  bringing  about  that  strug¬ 
gle. 

Louis  XVI.,  Auguste,  King  of  France,  born 
Aug.  23,  1754,  was  the  third  son  of  the  Dauphin, 
Louis,  only  son  of  Louis  XV.  He  died  by  the 
guillotine  Jan.  21,  1793. 

Louis  XVII.,  Charles,  second  son  of  Louis 
XVI.  of  France,  born  at  Versailles,  March  27, 
1785,  and  died  June  8,  1795. 

Louis  XVIII.,  Stanislas  Xavier,  the  next 
younger  brother  of  Louis  XVI.,  born  at  Versailles, 
Nov.  17,  1755,  and  died  Sept.  16,  1824. 

Louis  Napoleon,  whose  full  name  was  Charles 
Louis  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  and  his  titular 
designation,  Napoleon  I II.,  Emperor  of  the  French , 
was  born  at  Paris,  in  the  Palace  of  the  Tuileries. 
April  20,  1808.  He* was  the  third  son  of  Louis 
Bonaparte,  brother  of  the  first  Emperor.  The 
death  (July  22,  1832)  of  the  Duke  of  Reichstadt, 
sometimes  called  Nap  lean  II.,  only  son  of  the 
first  Emperor,  opened  the  future  to  his  ambitious 
hopes,  and  in  1836,  believing  in  the  instability  of 
the  throne  of  Louis  Philippe,  he,  with  a  few 
associates,  among  whom  was  the  Comte  de  Per- 
signy,  made  his  famous-attempt  at  a  coup  d'etat  at 
Strasbourg.  It  was,  as  all  the  world  knows,  a 
ludicrous  failure.  Louis  Napoleon  was  taken 
prisoner  under  humiliating  circumstances,  and 
after  some  days  conveyed  to  Paris;  but  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  Louis  Philippe  was  afraid  to  bring  a 
Bonaparte  to  trial,  and  exiled  him  to  America. 
In  1840,  taking  advantage  of  the  sentiment  aroused 
by  the  bringing  home  of  the  ashes  of  his  uncle 
from  St.  Helena,  he  made  another  attempt  on  the 
throne  of  France  at  Boulogne.  It  was  as  grotesque 
a  failure  as  the  one  at  Strasbourg,  and  undoubt¬ 
edly  provoked  a  certain  feeling  of  contempt  for 
its  author  in  the  mind  of  the  general  public. 
Captured  on  the  shore  whiie  endeavoring  to  make 
his  escape  to  the  vessel  that  had  brought  him 
from  England,  Louis  Napoleon  was  again  brought 
to  trial,  and  condemned  to  perpetual  imprison¬ 
ment  in  the  Fortress  of  Ham.  After  an  imprison¬ 
ment  of  more  than  five  years,  he  made  his  escape 
(May  25, 1846).  The  Revolution  of  February  (1848), 
caused  him  to  hurry  back  to  France,  where,  being 
elected  Deputy  for  Paris  and  three  other  depart¬ 
ments,  he  took  his  seat  in  the  Constituent  Assem¬ 
bly,  June  13,  1848,  and  in  September  of  that  year 
was  elected  President  of  the  Republic.  On  Dec. 
20  and  21,  1851,  he  was  reelected  President  for 
ten  years,  with  all  the  powers  he  demanded.  He 
was  now  Emperor  in  fact;  nothing  was  wanting 
but  the  name,  and  this  was  assumed  a  year  later. 
In  1870  he  declared  war  against  Prussia;  and, 
after  several  defeats,  surrendered'  himself  a  pris¬ 
oner  at  Sedan,  in  September.  Till  the  conclusion 
of  peace  he  was  confined  at  Wilhelmshohe.  In 
March,  1871 ,  he  joined  the  Empress  at  Chiselhurst, 
Kent,  England,  and  resided  there  till  his  death, 
Jan.  9,  1873. 

Louis  Philippe,  King  of  the  French,  born  at 
Paris,  Oct.  6,  1773,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Louis 
Philippe  Joseph,  Duke  of  Orleans.  He  ascended 
the  throne  in  1830,  and  was  forced  to  abdicate  in 
1848.  He  died  Aug.  26,  1850 

Louis-d’Or  (i.  e.,  Golden  Louis),  a  gold  coin 
which  was  introduced  into  France  in  1641,  and 


continued  to  be  coined  till  1795.  It  ranged  in 
value  from  about  $3.98  to  $4.50. 

LouisiaTia,  one  of  the  United  States  of  Amer¬ 
ica,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Mississippi,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mississippi  river;  on 
the  north  by  Arkansas;  on  the  south  by  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  on  the  west  by  Texas.  It  is  290 
miles  from  east  to  west,  and  240  from  north  to 
south,  having  an  area  of  48,720  square  miles,  or 
31,180,800  acres.  The  principal  towns  are  New 
Orleans  and .  Baton  Rouge  (the  capital)  on  the 
Mississippi.  The  coast-line,  a  portion  of  the  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is  1,256  miles  in  length. 
The  surface  of  5the  State  is  mostly  flat,  rising  no¬ 
where  more  than  200  feet,  and  of  alluvial  forma¬ 
tion.  A  large  portion  of  the  State  is  below  the 
high-water  level  of  the  rivers,  and  is  protected 
from  inundations  by  dykes  or  levees.  The  laud  is 
rich,  producing  sugar-cane,  cotton,  rice,  corn,  to¬ 
bacco,  oranges,  bananas,  figs,  peaches,  etc.  In 
the  forests  are  several  kindsof  oak,  hickory,  locust, 
sassafras,  mulberry,  etc.  Pop.  (1880),  940,103. 

Louisa,  the  county  seat  of  Lawrence  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Louisa  Court-House,  the  county  seat  of  Louisa 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  500. 

Louisburah,  the  county  seat  of  Franklin 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  800. 

Louisville,  the  name  of  several  towns  and  cities 
in  the  United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  A  city  of  Ken¬ 
tucky,  on  the  Ohio  river,  130  miles  below  Cincin¬ 
nati.  Pop.  (1889),  202,000.  It  was  named  Louis¬ 
ville  (1780)  in  honor  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France, 
whose  troops  were  then  assisting  the  Americans 
in  the  War  of  Independence. — 2.  The  county  seat 
of  Clay  county.  Ill.  Pop.,  700. — 3.  County  seat 
of  Jefferson  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  750. — 4.  County 
!  seat  of  Winston  county,  Miss.  Pop. ,  450. 

Loup  City,  the  county  seat  of  Sherman  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  750. 

Louse  (Pediculus),  a  genus  of  insects,  the  type 
of  a  numerous  family,  which  forms  the  order 


a,  Head  Louse,  b,  Body  Louse.  c,  Crab  Louse. 

Parasita  or  Anoplura.  All  the  species  are  small, 
and  live  parasitically,  on  human  beings,  terrestrial 
mammalia,  and  birds.  Three  species  infest  the 
human  race :  one  confined  to  the  head,  the  head 
louse  ( P .  capitis)-,  another,  the  body  louse  (P.  ves- 
timenti  s.  corporis),  similar  to  it,  but  of  a  larger 
size;  a  third,  the  crab  louse  ( Phthirius  pubis), 
sometimes  found  in  the  eyebrows,  but  more  fre¬ 
quently  in  the  pubic  region,  and  chiefly  in  persons 
of  licentious  habits.  The  common  or'  head  louse 
is  a  very  common  parasite.  When  only  a  few  lice 
are  present,  they  may  be  removed  by  careful  comb¬ 
ing,  or  may  be  killed  by  the  free  application  of 
oil  or  pomatum  to  the  head  ;  but  when  they  are 
abundant,  the  scalp  should  be  sprinkled  with  the 
Persian  insect-powder  ( Pyrethrvm  caucaseum), 
which,  according  to  Kuchenmeister,  soon  kills 
them,  or  rubbed  with  white  precipitate  ointment, 
which  is  the  most  common  remedy  in  this  country. 
For  crab  lice  the  best  remedy  is  unction  with  mer¬ 
curial  ointment,  care  being  taken  not  to  apply  too 
much,  as  salivation  may  result.  The  body  louse 
may  be  destroyed  by  one  or  two  applications  of  an 
essential  oil  (oil  of  rosemary,  for  example);  or  of 
white  precipitate  ointment. 

Louth,  a  maritime  county  of  the  Province  of 
Leinster,  in  Ireland,  bounded  north  by  Armagh 
and  by  the  Lough  of  Carlingford,  east  by  the  Eng¬ 
lish  Channel,  south  by  the  Boyne  and  the  County 
of  Meath,  and  west  by  Meath  and  Monaghan. 
Pop.  (1881),  77,684. 

Louvain  (Ger.  Loicen,  Flem.  Leuven),  a  city 
of  Belgium,  in  the  Province  of  Brabant,  on  the 
Dyle,  sixteen  miles  east-northeast  of  Brussels. 
Pop.  (1881),  33,367. 


LOVAT. 


510 


LUTHER. 


Lovat',  a  river  of  Russia,  rises  in  the  Witebsk 
marshes,  and  flows  through  the  governments  of 
Pskov  and  Novgorod  into  Lake  Ilmen.  Its  total 
length  is  2G7  miles. 

Love-bird  (Psittacula),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
parrot  family  ( Psittacidce ),  a  group  of  beautiful 
and  small  species,  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of 
America,  of  Africa,  and  Australia. 

Lover,  Samuel,  artist,  novelist,  and  song¬ 
writer,  was  the  son  of  a  stockbroker  in  Dublin, 
and  was  born  in  that  cily  in  1797,  and  died  July 
6,  186s!.  lie  was  a  writer  of  rare  force,  rich 
humor,  and  his  stories  of  Irish  peasant  life  have 
been  widely  read. 

Lovingston,  the  county  seat  of  Nelson  county, 
Ya.  Pop.,  350. 

Lowell,  James  Russell,  an  American  poet 
and  diplomatist,  was  born  in  Boston  in  1819.  lie 
was  educated  at  Harvard  University.  His  most 
popular  writings  are.  Legend  of  Brittany,  The 
Biglow  Papers,  and  My  Study  Windows.  He 
became  United  States  minister  to  Spain  in  1877 
under  President  Grant,  and  to  England  in  1880 
under  Garfield. 

Lowell,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  on  the  Merri- 
mac  river,  twenty-five  miles  northwest  of  Boston 
A  water-power  canal  is  owned  by  a  company, 
which  erected  extensive  machine-shops,  and  has 
built  the  factories  for  eleven  corporations,  manu¬ 
facturing  cotton  goods,  prints,  woolens,  carpets, 
etc.,  consuming  over  40,000,000  pounds  of  cotton 
per  annum.  Pop.,  64,100. 

Lowville,  the  county  seat  of  Lewis  county, 
N.  Y.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Loyo'la,  Ignatius  de  (Inigo  Lopez  de 
Recalde),  was  born  in  1491  in  the  Basque  Prov¬ 
inces.  He  was  first  a  soldier,  but  during  a  sick¬ 
ness  occasioned  by  a  wound  his  mind  was  turned 
to  spiritual  things,  and  he  entered  the  Church. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Order  of 
Jesuits.  He  died  July  31,  1556. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John,  Bart.,  M.  P.,  banker  and 
man  of  science,  was  born  in  London,  April  30, 
1834.  He  is  best  known  in  connection  with  his 
researches  in  natural  history,  on  which  he  has 
published  a  number  of  valuable  works. 

Lozere,  a  department  in  the  South  of  France, 
formed  out  of  the  Province  of  Languedoc.  It 
comprises  the  Arrondissements  of  Mende,  Florae, 
and  Marvejols.  Area,  1,990  square  miles;  pop. 
(1876),  138,319. 

Lii'beck,  one  of  the  three  remaining  free  cities 
of  Germany,  is  on  the  River  Trave,  about  forty 
miles  northeast  of  Hamburg,  and  fourteen  from 
the  Baltic.  Pop.  of  town  (1880),  51,055;  of  the 
territory,  63,571. 

Lu'blin,  the  capital  of  the  Polish  government 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Bis- 
tritz,  is  ninety-six  miles  southeast  of  Warsaw. 
Pop.  (1880),  33,000. 

Luc'ca,  Duchy  of,  formerly  a  small  independ¬ 
ent  state,  now  a  province  of  Central  Italy,  was 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Modena,  on  the  east  and 
south  by  Tuscany,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Gulfs 
of  Genoa  and  Massa.  Area,  512  square  miles; 
pop.  (1881),  284,287. 

Lucca,  chief  town  of  the  Italian  Province  of 
Lucca,  is  twelve  miles  northeast  of  Pisa.  Pop. 
(1881),  20,421. 

Lucerne',  a  canton  in  the  center  of  Switzer¬ 
land,  with  an  area  of  about  577  square  miles,  and 
a  pop.,  in  1876,  of  133,316. 

Lucerne,  capital  of  the  canton  of  the  same 
name,  is  on  the  Reuss.  Pop.  (1870),  14,524. 

Lucerne,  Lake  of,  called  also  the  Lake  of  the 
Four  Forest  Cantons  (Uri,  Unterwalden,  Schwyz, 
and  Lucerne),  because  its  shores  are  formed  by 
these,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  sheets  of  fresh 
water  in  Switzerland  or  Europe.  Length,  about 
22  miles;  average  breadth,  about  14  miles. 

Lucerne  ( Medicago  saliva),  a  species  of  medick, 
one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  leguminous  plants 
cultivated  for  the  supply  of  green  food  for  cattle. 
It  is  .largely  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  this 
country. 

Lucknow',  the  capital  of  Oude,  in  British 
India,  stands  on  the  right  or  southwest  bank  of 
the  Gumti.  Pop.  (1881),  261,303. 

Ludlow  Formation,  the  uppermost  division 
of  the  Silurian  strata,  consists  of  an  extensive 
series  of  indurated  argillaceous  beds,  with  bands 
of  dark  gray  argillaceous  limestone. 


Ludwig  I.,  Karl  August,  King  of  Bavaria, 
the  eldest  son  of  King  Maximilian  Joseph,  born 
Aug.  25,  1786,  and  died  in  1868. 

Luff,  in  Nautical  parlance,  is  to  bring  a  ship’s 
head  to  the  wind,  preparatory  to  tacking,  or 
otherwise.  The  luff  of  a  vessel  is  the  roundest 
part  of  her  bow. 

Lugger,  a  small  vessel  carrying  two  or  three 
masts  with  a  lugsail  on  each,  and  occasionally  a 
topsail. — Lugsail,  a  quadrilateral  sail  used  in 
luggers  and  open  boats.  It  is  bent,  by  the  upper 
side,  upon  a  straight  yard,  which  is  slung  on  the 
mast  in  an  oblique  position,  one-third  to  wind¬ 
ward,  two-thirds  on  the  leeward  side  of  the  mast. 

Lug-worm,  or  Lob  worm  ( Arenicola  pisca- 
torum),  one  of  the  Dorsibranchiate  annelidae, 
extremely  abundant  on  the  British  shores,  and 
very  valuable  as  bait  to  fishermen.  It  inhabits  the 
sand,  on  the  surface  of  which,  after  the  tide  has 
retired,  innumerable  coils  are  always  to  be  seen, 
the  casts  of  this  worm.  It  is  larger  than  the 
earth-worm. 

Luise,  Auguste  Wilhelmine  Amalie,  Queen 
of  Prussia,  was  born  March  10, 1776,  at  Hanover. 
She  was  married  to  Frederick  William  III.,  on 
Dec.  24,  1793,  and  died  July  19,  1810. 

Lumba'go  is  a  rheumatic  affection  of  the 
muscles  in  the  lumbar  region,  or  in  the  small 
of  the  back.  It  is  often  first  recognized  by  the 
occurrence  of  a  sharp  stabbing  pain  in  the  loins 
upon  attempting  to  rise  from  the  recumbent  or 
sitting  position.  It  is  sometimes  so  severe  as  to 
confine  the  patient  to  bed  and  in  one  position, 
from  which  he  can  not  move  without  intense  suf¬ 
fering  ;  but  in  milder  cases  he  can  walk,  although 
stiffly  and  with  pain,  and  usually  with  the  body 
bent  more  or  less  forward .  It  may  be  distinguished 
from  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  by  the  absence 
of  the  peculiar  direction  of  the  pain  toward  the 
groin,  as  also  by  the  absence  of  the  nausea  and 
vomiting  which  usually  accompany  the  disease  of 
the  kidney.  The  treatment  must  vary  with  the 
intensity  of  the  affection.  In  most  cases,  a  warm 
bath  at  bedtime,  followed  by  ten  grains  of  Dover’s 
powder,  will  speedily  remove  it ;  and  as  local 
remedies,  a  mixture  of  chloroform  and  soap- 
liniment. 

Lumbertoii,  the  county  seat  of  Robeson  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Lumpkin,  the  county  seat  of  Stewart  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  800. 

Lump'sucker,  or  Lumpfish  (Cyclopterus),  a 
genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  Discoboli,  having 
the  head  and  body  deep,  thick,  and  short,  the 
back  with  an  elevated  ridge,  the  fins  rather  small, 
and  the  ventrals  united  by  a  membrane  so  as  to 
form  a  sucking  disc. 


Lumpsucker  ( C.  lumpus). 


Lunar  Caustic  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
fused  nitrate  of  silver,  when  cast  into  small 
cylinders.  It  is,  when  freshly  prepared  of  a 
whitish  striated  appearance  ;  but  on  exposure  to 
the  air,  the  outer  surface  becomes  decomposed, 
and  blackens. 

Lu'natic  Asylum.  Modern  asylums,  especially 
for  lunatics  of  the  wealthy  classes,  are  assimilated 
in  their  arrangements  to  ordinary  dwelling- 
houses  ;  while  it  is  proposed  to  place  the  indi¬ 
gent  in  cottages  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  an 
infirmary,  where  acute  cases,  individuals  danger¬ 
ous  to  themselves  or  others,  or  in  any  way  untrust¬ 
worthy  could  be  confined  and  actively  treated,  as 
their  condition  might  require.  In  all  such  establish¬ 
ments,  whether  now  entitled  to  be  regarded  as 
cottage  asylums  or  not,  the  semblance  and  much 


of  the  reality  of  coercion  has  been  abolished  ;  the 
influence  of  religion,  occupation,  education,  rec¬ 
reation  ;  the  judicious  application  of  moral  im¬ 
pressions  ;  and  the  dominion  of  rational  kindness 
and  discriminating  discipline,  have  been  super- 
added  to  mere  medical  treatment,  and  substituted 
for  brute  force,  terror,  and  cruelty. 

Liineburg,  formerly  a  principality  in  Lower 
Saxony,  now  a  district  in  the  Province  of  Hanover. 
Area,  4,300 square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  401,339. 

Lunenburg  Court-house,  the  capital  of  Lunen¬ 
burg  county,  Va.  Pop.,  150. 

Lungs.  See  Respiration,  Organs  of. 

Lungwort,  or  Oak-lungs  (Stictapulmonaria),  a 
lichen  growing  on  trunks  of  trees  in  mountainous 
regions,  in  European  countries.  It  has  been  used 
as  a  remedy  for  pulmonary  diseases.  It  is  nutri¬ 
tious,  and  affords  a  light  diet. 

Luperca'lia,  a  festival  among  the  ancient 
Romans,  held  on  February  15th,  in  honor  of 
Lupercus,  the  god  of  fertility. 

Lu'pine  (Lupinus),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Papilionacece, 
mostly  annuals,  but  some  of  them  perennial  herba¬ 
ceous  plants,  some  lialf-shrubby,  and  generally 
having  digitate  leaves,  with  rather  long  stalks. 
Natives  of  Europe  and  America. 

Lu'puline.  See  Hops. 

Lupus  is  a  chronic  disease  of  the  skin,  in  which 
dull  or  livid  tubercles  are  developed,  which  have 
a  tendency  to  destroy  or  seriously  to  affect  the 
adjacent  tissues,  with  or  without  ulceration,  and 
commonly  ending  in  indelible  cicatrices.  Both 
sexes  are  liable  to  it,  but  it  seems  most  common 
in  women.  It  is  not  contagious.  The  internal 
treatment  consists  in  the  administration  of  cod- 
liver  oil  and  the  preparations  of  iodine,  especially 
Donovan’s  solution,  while  locally  strong  escha- 
rotics  should  be  applied.  The  disease  is,  however, 
so  serious,  that  whenever  there  is  a  suspicion  of 
its  nature,  professional  aid  should  be  sought. 

Luray,  the  county  seat  of  Page  county,  Va. 
Pop.,  1,600.  Here  is  the  great  Luray  Cave,  which 
is  a  popular  resort  for  tourists. 

Lurch  'er,  a  kind  of  dog,  somewhat  resembling 
a  greyhound,  but  lower,  stouter,  and  less  elegant. 


Lurcher. 


It  is  covered  with  rough  wiry  hair,  is  usually  of 
a  sandy  red  color,  although  sometimes  black  or 
gray,  and  has  half-erect  ears  and  a  pendent  tail. 

Lusa'tia  (Lausilz),  a  region  in  Germany,  now 
belonging  in  part  to  Saxony  and  in  part  to  Prus¬ 
sia.  It  was  formerly  divided  into  Upper  and 
Lower  Lusatia,  which  constituted  two  independ¬ 
ent  margraviates,  including  an  area  of  about 
4,400  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  about  500,000. 

Lus'trum  (from  luere,  to  purify  orexpiate),  the 
solemn  offering  made  for  expiation  and  purifica¬ 
tion  by  one  of  the  censors  in  name  of  the  Roman 
people  at  the  conclusion  of  the  census.  As  the 
census  was  quinquennial,  the  word  lustrum  came 
to  mean  a  period  of  five  years. 

Luther,  Martin,  the  greatest  of  the  Protestant 
reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century,  was  bom  at 
Eisleben  on  Nov.  10,  1483.  He  studied  at  first 
for  the  law,  but  determined  upon  a  spiritual  life, 
and  in  1507  was  ordained  a  priest.  In  1510  or 
1511  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Rome.  On  his 
return  he  was  made  a  Doctor  of  the  Holy  Script¬ 
ures,  and  his  career  as  a  reformer  may  be  said  to 
have  commenced.  He  drew  out  ninety-five  theses 
on  the  doctrine  of  indulgences,  which  had  then 
become  scandalously  common  and  a  matter  of 
deliberate  barter  among  priests  of  that  day. 
These  he  nailed  up  on  the  gate  of  the  church  at 
Wittenberg,  and  offered  to  maintain  in  the  uni¬ 
versity  against  all  impugners.  This  sudden  and 
bold  step  of  Luther  was  all  that  was  necessary  to 
awaken  a  widespread  excitement.  At  first,  the 
Pope,  Leo  X.,  took  little  heed  of  the  disturbance; 


LUTHERANS. 


511 


LYNX. 


but  at  length  some  of  the  cardinals  saw  the  real 
character  of  the  movement,  which  gradually 
.assumed  a  seriousness  evident  even  to  the  Pope, 
.and  Luther  received  a  summons  to  appear  at 
Rome,  and  answer  for  his  theses.  Once  again  in 
Rome,  it  is  unlikely  he  would  ever  have  been 
allowed  to  return.  A  legate  was  sent  to  Germany 
to  hear  aud  determine  the  case.  Cardinal  Cajetan 
was  the  legate  and  he  was  but  little  fitted  to  deal 
with  Luther.  He  would  enter  into  no  argument 
with  him,  but  merely  called  upon  him  to  retract. 
This  Luther  refused  to  do,  but  continued  to 
denounce  the  practices  of  the  Church  with  greater 
zeal  than  before.  In  1520  he  published  his 
famous  address  to  the  “Christian  Nobles  of  Ger¬ 
many.”  This  was  followed  in  the  same  year  by 
a  treatise  On  the  Babylonish  Captivity  of  the 
Church.  In  these  works,  both  of  which  circu¬ 
lated  widely,  and  powerfully  influenced  many 
minds,  Luther  took  firmer  and  broader  ground; 
he  attacked  not  only  the  abuses  of  the  papacy, 
and  its  pretensions  to  supremacy,  but  also  the 
doctrinal  system  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  lie 
continued  his  crusade  with  varying  fortunes,  and 
in  the  face  of  bitter  opposition,  until  1529,  at 
which  time  he  retired  from  active  life  and  spent 
his  remaining  years  in  comparative  ipiiet.  He 
died  in  February,  1546.  Among  his  more 
important  writings  are  his  Table-talk,  his  Letters 
and  Sermons. 

Lutherans,  a  designation  originally  applied 
by  their  adversaries  to  the  reformers  of  the  six¬ 
teenth  century,  and  which  afterward  was  distinc¬ 
tively  appropriated  among  Protestants  themselves 
to  those  who  took  part  with  Martin  Luther  against 
the  Swiss  reformers,  particularly  in  the  contro¬ 
versies  regarding  the  Lord’s  Supper.  It  is  so 
employed  to  this  day,  as  the  designation  of  one 
of  the  two  great  sections  into  which  the  Protest¬ 
ant  Church  was  divided,  the  other  being  known 
as  the  Reformed. 

Ln  verne,  the  county  seat  of  Rock  county,  Minn. 
Pop.,  1,400. 

Lux  'einburg,  an  old  German  county,  and  after¬ 
ward  a  duchy,  which,  about  the  twelfth  century, 
came  into  possession  of  the  Counts  of  Limburg, 
who  assumed  the  title  of  Counts  of  Luxemburg. 
It  was  next  acquired  by  Burgundy,  and  in  this 
way  came  into  the  hands  of  Austria.  By  the 
Peace  of  Campo  Formio  it  was  ceded  to  France 
in  1797.  In  1814  it  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a 
grand  duchy  of  the  German  Confederation,  and 
given  to  Holland  in  compensation  for  the  loss  of 
Nassau.  In  1830,  when  Belgium  formed  itself 
into  an  independent  kingdom,  Luxemburg  was 
divided  between  it  and  Holland. 

Luxemburg,  the  capital'of  Dutch  Luxemburg, 
is  on  the  Else  or  Alsette,  seventy-six  miles  soutlx- 
by-east  from  Liege.  Pop.  (1871),  14,440. 

Luzon ',  the  largest  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

Lycnoo,  a  genus  of  Canhlce,  in  dentition  and 
general  osteological  structure  nearly  agreeing  with 
dogs,  but  resembling  hyaenas  in  the  form  of  the 
head,  and  in  having  only  four  toes  on  each  foot. 
The  best  ascertained  species  is  L.  venations,  the 
wild  dog,  hyaenadog,  or  hunting  dog,  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  is  rather  smaller  than  a  mastiff, 
and  has  a  tall,  gaunt  form  It  is  gregarious,  and 
still  infests  even  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  Town, 
committing  great  depredations  on  flocks  of  sheep. 
It  is  found  over  great  part  of  Africa,  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 

Lycao'nia,  in  ancient  geography,  a  country  in 
Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Cappadocia, 
on  the  north  by  Galatia,  on  the  west  by  Pisidia, 
and  on  the  south  by  Isauria  and  Cilicia.  Its 
capital  was  Iconium. 

Lyce'um  (Gy.Avkeiov,  Lukeion),  originally  the 
name  of  a  place  in  the  neighborhood  of  Athens, 
consecrated  to  Apollo  Lyceius,  and  noted  for  its 
shady  wood  and  beautiful  gardens,  but  particu¬ 
larly  for  its  gymnasium,  in  which  Aristotle  and 
the  Peripatetics  taught,  and  from  which  the  Rom¬ 
ans  borrowed  the  same  name  for  simdar  institu¬ 
tions. 

Ly'cia,  a  country  on  the  south  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  extending  toward  Mount  Taurus,  and 
bounded  on  the  west  by  Caria,  on  the  north  by 
Phrygia  and  Pisidia,  and  on  the  east  by  Pamphylia. 

Lycopodia'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  aero ge- 
nous  or  cryptogamous  plants,  somewhat  resem¬ 
bling  mosses,  but  of  higher  organization,  and  by 


many  botanists  included  amongst  ferns  as  a  sub¬ 
order.  They  are  most  abundant  in  hot,  humid 
situations,  although  some  are  found  in  cold  cli¬ 
mates.  About  200  species  are  known.  A 
decoction  of  one  of  them,  the  club  moss,  is 
employed  by  the  Poles  to  cure  the  plica  polonica. 
The  yellow  dust  or  meal  which  issues  from  its 
spore-cases,  and  from  those  of  L.  selago,  is  col 
lected  and  used  for  producing  the  lightning  of 
theaters,  being  very  inflammable,  and  kindling 
with  a  sudden  blaze  when  thrown  upon  a  candle, 
the  combustion  taking  place  so  rapidly  that  noth¬ 
ing  else  is  liable  to  be  kindled  by  it.  It  is  used 
for  rolling  up  pills,  which,  when  coated  with  it, 
may  be  put  into  water  without  being  moistened. 
It  is  sprinkled  upon  the  excoriations  of  infants, 
and  upon  parts  affected  with  erysipelas,  herpetic 
ulceration,  etc.  It  is  even  used,  although  rarely, 
as  a  medicine  in  diseases  of  the  urinary  organs. 
The  powder  of  other  species  is  also  regarded  in 
Brazil  and  other  countries  as  possessing  power 
over  the  urinary  and  generative  organs.  The 
stems  and  leaves  of  L.  clavatum.  are  emetic,  those 
of  L.  selago,  cathartic;  a  South  American  species, 
L.  catharticum,  is  violently  purgative,  and  is  ad¬ 
ministered  in  cases  of  elephantiasis.  L.  selago  is 
employed  by  the  Swedes  to  destroy  lice  on  swine 
and  other  animals.  L.  alpinum  is  used  in  Ice¬ 
land  for  dyeing  woolen  cloth  yellow,  the  cloth 
being  simply  boiled  with  a  quantity  of  the  plant 
and  a  few  leaves  of  the  bog  whortleberry.  L. 
complanatum  is  used  for  the  same  purpose  in 
Lapland,  along  with  birch-leaves. 

Lycur'gus,  a  celebrated  Spartan  law-giver,  who 
flourished  about  880  b.c.  ,  (or,  according  to  others, 
about  1100  b.c.) 

Ly'dia,  anciently,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  on  the  west  by  Ionia,  on  the  south  by 
Caria,  on  the  east  by  Phrygia,  and  on  the  north 
by  Mysia. 

Lydian  Mode,  one  of  the  ancient  Greek  authen¬ 
tic  modes  in  music,  which  was  retained  as  one  of 
the  old  church  modes,  the  notes  being  F,  G,  A, 
B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  the  same  as  in  our  modern  diatonic 
scale. 

Lydian  Slone,  a  variety  of  flinty  slate,  but  less 
hard  than  common  flinty  slate,  and  not  of  a  slaty 
structure. 

Lye,  a  term  sometimes  used  to  denote  all  solu¬ 
tions  of  salts,  but  more  generally  appropriated  to 
solutions  of  the  fixed  alkalies,  potash  and  soda,  in 
water. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  an  eminent  geologist  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  was  the  eldest  son  of 
Charles  Lyell,  Esq.,  of  Kinnordy,  Forfarshire, 
Scotland.  He  was  born  in  1797,  and  died  Feb.  22, 
1875.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  geological 
subjects. 

Lyme  Grass  ( Elymvs ),  a  genus  of  grasses,  the 
species  of  which  are  natives  of  the  temperate  and 
colder  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  It  is 
a  coarse,  grayish  grass,  often  three  or  four  feet 
high,  with  spiny-pointed  leaves  and  upright  clos'e 
spikes;  a  perennial  with  creeping  roots,  very  use¬ 
ful  in  binding  the  sand.  On  this  account,  it  is 
cultivated  on  the  shores  of  Holland,  and  also  to 
some  extent  on  those  of  Britain. 

Lymph  (Gr.  hup epa,  lympha,  water)  is  the  term 
applied  by  physiologists  to  the  fluid  contained  in 
the  lymphatics.  It  is  a  colorless  or  faintly  yel¬ 
lowish  red  fluid,  of  a  rather  saltish  taste,  and  with 
an  alkaline  reaction.  The  uses  of  the  fluid  are 
two-fold:  in  the  first  place,  to  convey  from  the 
tissues  to  the  blood  effete  matters,  to  be  after¬ 
ward  excreted  by  the  skin,  lungs,  and  kidneys; 
and  secondly,  to  supply  new  materials  for  the 
formation  of  blood. 

LymphaUics,  the  vessels  containing  the 
lymph,  are  also  called  absorbents,  from  the 
property  which  these  vessels  possess  of  absorbing 
foreign  matters  into  the  system,  and  carrying  them 
into  the  circulation.  The  lymphatic  system  in¬ 
cludes  not  only  the  lymphatic  vessels  and  the 
glands  through  which  they  pass,  but  also  the 
lacteals,  which  arc  nothing  more  than  the 
lymphatics  of  the  small  intestine,  and  only  differ 
from  other  lymphatics  in  conveying  chyle  in¬ 
stead  of  lymph  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
digestive  process.  The  lymphatics  are  minute, 
delicate,  and  transparent  vessels,  of  tolerable  uni¬ 
formity  in  size,  and  remarkable  for  their  knotted 
appearance,  which  is  due  to  the  presence  of 


numerous  valves,  for  their  frequent  dichotomous 
divisions,  and  for  their  division  into  several 
branches  before  entering  a  gland.  They  collect 
the  products  of  digestion  and  the  products  of 
worn-out  tissues,  and  convey  them  into  the  venous 
circulation  near  the  heart.  They  arc  found  in 
nearly  every  texture  and  organ  of  the  body,  ex¬ 
cepting  the  substance  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord, 
the  eyeball,,  cartilage,  tendon,  and  certain  foetal 
strictures,  and  possibly  also  the  substance  of 
bone.  The  lymphatics  are  arranged  in  a  superfi¬ 
cial  and  a  deep  set.  The  superficial  vessels  on 
the  surface  of  the  body  lie  immediately  beneath 
the  skin,  and  join  the  deep  lymphatics  in  certain 
points  through  perforations  of  the  deep  fascia; 
while  in  the  interior  of  the  body  they  lie  in  the 
sub-mucous  and  sub-serous  areolar  tissue.  They 
arise  in  the  form  of  a  network,  from  which  they 
pass  to  lymphatic  glands  or  to  a  larger  trunk. 
The  deep  lymphatics  are  larger  than  the  superfi¬ 
cial,  anil  accompany  the  deep  blood  vessels;  their 
mode  of  origin  is  not  known  with  certainty .  The 
structure  of  the  lymphatics  is  similar  to  that  of 
veins  and  arteries.  The  lymphatic  or  absorbent 
glands  are  small,  solid,  glandular  bodies,  varying 
from  the  size  of  a  hemp-seed  to  that  of  an  almond, 
and  situated  in  the  course  of  the  lymphatic  vessels. 
They  are  found  in  the  neck  (where  they  often  be¬ 
come  enlarged  and  inflamed,  especially  in  scrof¬ 
ulous  subjects),  in  the  axilla,  or  arm-pit,  in  the 
groin  (where,  when  inflamed,  they  give  rise  to 
the  condition  known  as  bubo),  and  in  the  ham; 
while  deep  ones  are  found  abundantly  in  the 
abdomen  and  the  chest.  The  lymph  of  the  left 
side  of  trunk,  of  both  legs,  of  the  left  arm,  and 
the  whole  of  the  chyle,  is  conveyed  into  the  blood 
by  the  thoracic  duct;  while  the  lymph  of  the 
right  side  of  the  head,  neck,  and  trunk,  and  of 
the  right  arm,  enters  the  circulation  at  the  junc¬ 
tion  of  the  axillary  and  internal  jugular  veins  on 
the  right  side,  by  a  short  trunk,  guarded  at  its 
opening  by  valves. 

Lynch  Law,  the  name  given  to  a  mode  of  trial 
and  punishment  of  offenders  in  popular  assem¬ 
blies  without  reference  to  the  ordinary  laws  and 
institutions  of  the  country.  This  barbarous  mode 
of  administering  justice  has  always  more  or  less 
prevailed  in  every  country  in  times  of  great  pop¬ 
ular  excitement,  and  has  been  necessarily  re¬ 
sorted  to  in  countries  newly  settled,  where  the 
power  of  the  civil  government  has  not  yet  been 
sufficiently  established.  The  name  is  derived  by 
Webster  from  a  Virginian  farmer  of  the  name  of 
Lynch  who  presided  at  one  of  these  unlawful 
trials  and  condemned  the  accused  to  death. 

Lynch'burg,  a  city  of  Virginia,  on  the  James 
river,  120  miles  west-southwest  of  Richmond,  re¬ 
markable  for  picturesque  situation  and  scenery. 
It  has  ten  churches,  a  college,  forty  tobacco  fact¬ 
ories,  two  iron  foundries,  etc.  Pop.,  75,500. 

Lynchburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Moore  county, 
Tenu.  Pop.,  900. 

Lyndon,  the  county  seat  of  Osage  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Lynn,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  nine  miles 
northeast  of  Boston,  largely  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  leather,  lasts, 
and  works  connected  with  this  industry.  About 
10,000  hands  are  employed  in  these  factories. 
The  value  of  the  boots,  etc.,  annually  shipped  is 
from  $18,000,000  to  $14,000,000.  Pop.,  46,000. 

Lynx,  a  genus  of  Ftlidm,  having  the  body 
elevated  at  the  haunches,  long  fur,  a  short  tail, 
and  the  ears  tipped  with  tufts  or  pencils  of  hairs. 


European  Lynx  (L.  virgatvs). 


The  species  are  numerous,  and  widely  distrib¬ 
uted,  but  the  distinctions  of  species  and  varieties 
are  somewhat  uncertain.  The  Canada  lynx 


LYON. 


512 


MACAULAY. 


(L.  canadensis  or  L.  boreal  s)  is  generally  of  a 
hoary -gray  color,  with  a  broad  space  along  the 
back  blackish-brown.  It  is  rather  larger  than  the 
European  lynx  and  more  clumsy  in  form.  The  j 
bay  lynx  (L.  r it fus)  is  found  in  more  southern 
parts  of  North  America,  both  in  mountainous 
and  in  swampy  districts,  and  often  makes  great 
havoc  among  poultry. 

Lyon,  the  second  town  of  France  in  respect  of 
population,  and  the  first  with  regard  to  manufact¬ 
ures,  is  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  the 
Rhone,  and  it  stands  at  the  confluence  of  the 
river  of  that  name  with  the  Saone,  316  miles 
south-southeast  of  Paris,  218  north-northwest  of 
Marseille,  and  100  west-southwest  of  Geneva. 
It  is  specially  no'ed  for  its  silk  manufactures, 
which,  with  the  suburban  mills,  employ  over 
800,000  hands.  Pop.  (1884),  372,887. 

Lyonnais,  a  former  province  of  France,  wras 
bounded  on  the  west  by  Auvergne,  and  on  the 
south  by  Languedoc.  Its  territory  coincides 
nearly  with  the  present  Departments  of  Rhone, 
Loire,  Haute-Loire,  and  Puy-de-Dome. 

Lyons,  the  county  seat  of  Rice  county,  Kan. 
Pop.,  3,600. 

Lyons,  the  county  seat  of  Wayne  county,  N. 
Y.  ‘Pop.,  4,000. 

Lyons,  an  important  agricultural  and  lumber¬ 
ing  town  in  Clinton  county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Lyr'ic  (from  the  Gr.  Xvpa,  lyra,  a  lyre),  the 
name  given  to  a  certain  species  of  poetry,  because 
it  was  originally  accompanied  by  the  music  of 
that  instrument. 

Lysan'der,  a  famous  Spartan  warrior  and 
naval  commander,  of  extraordinary  energy  and 
military  skill,  but  not  less  remarkable  for  the 
cunning,  revenge,  and  ambition  by  which  he  was 


characterized.  In  407  b.c.  he  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Spartan  fleet,  and  waged  suc¬ 
cessful  naval  warfare  against  the  Athenian  power 
for  several  years.  He  was  killed  at  the  battle  of 
Haliartus  in  395  b.c. 

Lyre-bird,  or 
Lyke-tai  l 
( Menvra ),  a  ge¬ 
nus  of  birds,  of 
which  the  best 
know  n  species 
(4/.  superba)  is  a 
native  of  New 
South  Wales, 
where  it  is  gen¬ 
erally  called  the 
lyre  pheas¬ 
ant.  I  t  is  a 
bird  about  the 
size  of  a  pheas¬ 
ant,  frequenting 
the  brush,  or 
sparsely  wooded 
country,  in  the 
unsettled  parts  of 
New  South 
Wales.  It  is  the 
largest  of  all 
song-birds,  and 
possesses  the 
power  of  imitat¬ 
ing  the  song  of 
other  birds. 

The  tail  of  the  male  is  remarkable  and  splendid, 
the  twelve  feathers  being  long,  and  having  tine 
and  widely  separated  barbs,  while  besides  these, 
there  are  two  long  middle  feathers,  each  of  which 


Mis  the  thirteenth  letter  of  the  English  alpha¬ 
bet,  and  the  labial  letter  of  the  class  of 
liquids.  Its  Hebrew  name  ismem — i.  e.,  “water,” 
and  its  original  form  was  probably  a  waving  line 
representing  water.  The  Greek  molubdos  corres¬ 
ponds  to  Lat.  plumbum;  an  old  form  ofLat.  bonus, 
beaus,  or  belus,  was  manus,  which  probably 
accounts  for  the  comparative  melior.  Final  m  in 
Latin,  was  pronounced  with  such  a  weak,  unde¬ 
cided  sound,  that  it  was  proposed  to  write  it  with 
half  the  letter;  hence,  al-o,  before  the  spelling  of 
the  language  had  become  fixed,  it  had  in  many 
cases  been  altogether  dropped,  as  in  lego  for  legom. 
The  nasal  sound  in  final  in  in  French  seems  to  be 
a  relic  of  the  Roman  pronunciation. 

Maas,  a  large  affluent  of  the  Rhine,  rises  in 
France,  in  the  Department  of  Haut e-Marne,  flows 
in  a  northerly  direction  through  France,  Belgium, 
and  Limburg,  and  then  eastward  through  Hol¬ 
land  to  the  German  Ocean. 

M  aas'triclit,  or  Maestricht  is  the  capital  of 
the  Province  of  Limburg,  in  the  Netherlands. 
Pop.  (1882),  28,917. 

Mac,  or  M’,  a  Gaelic  prefix  occurring  frequently 
in  Scottish  names,  means  son,  and  is  probably 
allied  to  the  Gothic  magus,  a  son,  a  boy,  the 
feminine  of  which  is  magaths.  The  Welsh  form 
of  Mac  is  Map,  shortened  into  ’ap  or  ’p,  as  Ap 
Richard,  whence  Prichard. 

Macadam,  John  Loudon,  was  born  in  Scot¬ 
land  in  1756,  and  passed  his  youth  in  the  United 
States.  On  his  return,  he  was  appointed  manager 
of  a  district  of  roads  in  Ayrshire,  and  originated 
and  successfully  practiced  the  system  of  road¬ 
making  now  known  by  his  name.  He  died  in 
1836.  The  principles  of  his  system,  which  is 
known  as  macadamizing,  are  as  follow:  The 
material  for  roads  must  consist  of  broken  stones 
(granite  or  flint  is  the  best);  these  must  in  no  case 
exceed  six  ounces  each  in  weight,  and  stones  of 
from  one  to  two  ounces  are  to  be  preferred.  The 
road  is  to  be  smoothed,  so  that  a  level  bed  is  made. 
The  broken  stone  is  then  spread  over  it;  and  as 
this  operation  is  of  great  importance  to  the  future 
quality  of  the  road,  the  stone  is  not  to  be  laid  on 
in  shovelfuls  to  the  requisite  depth,  but  to  be 
scattered  in  shovelful  after  shovelful,  till  a  depth 
of  from  six  to  ten  inches,  according  to  the  quality 
of  the  road,  has  been  obtained.  The  road  is  to 
have  a  fall  from  the  middle  to  the  sides  of  about 


M 

one  foot  in  sixty,  and  ditches  are  to  be  dug  on  the 
sides  to  a  depth  of  a  few  inches  below  the  level  of 
the  road. 

Macao',  a  Portuguese  settlement  on  the  coast 
of  China,  in  latitude  22°  11'  N.  and  longitude 
113°  33'  E.,  on  the  western  part  of  the  estuary  of 
the  Canton  or  Pearl  river.  Pop.,  80,000. 

Macaro'ni.  Strictly  speaking,  the  name 
macaroni  applies  only  to  wlieaten  paste  in  the 
form  of  pipes,  varying  in  diameter  from  an 
ordinary  quill  up  to  those  now  made  of  the 
diameter  of  an  inch;  but  there  is  no  real  difference 
between  it  and  the  fine,  threadlike  vermicelli,  and 
the  infinite  variety  of  curious  forms  which,  under 
the  name  of  Italian  pastes,  are  used  for  soups. 
Only  certain  kinds  of  wheat  are  applicable  to  this 
manufacture,  and  these  are  the  hard  sorts,  which 
contain  a  large  percentage  of  gluten.  The 
wheat  is  first  ground  into  a  coarse  meal,  from 
which  the  bran  is  removed — in  that  state  it  is 
called  semola;  during  the  grinding,  it  is  necessary 
to  employ  both  heat  and  humidity  to  insure  a 
good  semola.  The  semola  is  worked  up  into  a 
dough  with  water;  and  for  macaroni  and  ver¬ 
micelli,  it  is  forced  through  gauges,  with  or  with¬ 
out  mandrels,  as  in  wire  and  pipe  drawing;  or  for 
paste,  it  is  rolled  out  into  thin  sheets,  from  which 
are  stamped  out  the  various  forms  of  stars,  rings, 
etc.  Macaroni  is  now  made  in  almost  every 
country. 

Macaroon'  (from  the  same  root  as  macaroni), 
a  favorite  kind  of  biscuit,  made  with  the  meal  of 
sweet  almonds,  instead  of  wlieaten  or  other  flour. 
The  most  esteemed  formula  for  making  macaroons 
is  either  prepared  almond-meal  dry,  or  almonds 
just  blanched  and  beaten  into  a  paste,  one  pound, 
thoroughly  incorporated  with  a  pound  and  a  half 
of  refined  sugar  in  powder,  an  ounce  of  the  yellow 
part  of  fresh  lemon-peel  grated  fine,  and  the 
whites  of  six  eggs.  When  thoroughly  mixed,  the 
paste  is  made  into  the  shape  of  small  oval  biscuits, 
and  placed  on  sheets  of  wafer-paper,  and  baked ; 
afterward,  the  superfluous  wafer  paper  is  trimmed 
off.  and  the  macaroons  are  ready  for  use. 

Macart'ney  Cock  ( Euplocomus  ignilus),  a 
gallinaceous  bird,  also  called  the  Fire-backed 
Pheasant,  a  native  of  Sumatra  and  other  islands 
of  the  same  part  of  the  world.  It  was  first 
described  in  the  account  of  Lord  Macartney’s 
embassy  to  China.  The  entire  length  of  the 


has  a  vane  only  on  one  side,  and  two  exterior 
feathers,  curved'  like  the  sides  of  an  ancient  lyre. 

Lythra'cete,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  herbaceous  plants,  with  a 
few  shrubs.  Some  of  them  are  occasionally 
applied  to  medicinal  uses,  upon  account  of 
astringent,  narcotic,  or  febrifugal  properties. 
Among  those  thus  employed  is  the  purple 
loosestrife  (Ly thrum  salicaria),  a  decoction  of 
either  the  root  or  the  dried  leaves  of  which  is 
sometimes  advantageously  used  in  diarrhoea. 

Lytton,  Lord,  better  known  as  Sir  Edward 
George  Earle  Lytton  Bulwer,  Bart.,  was- 
born  May  25,  1803,  at  Norfolk,  England.  He  was 
distinguished  as  a  brilliant  writer,  and  also  to 
some  extent  as  a  politician.  His  most  popular 
works  are:  Eugene  Aram,  The  Last  JJ.iys  of 
Pompeii,  Rienzi,  The  Lady  of  Lyons,  Richelieu, 
The  Cartons,  and  My  Novel.  At  the  age  of  twenty- 
six  Lytton  entered  Parliament,  was  reelected  in 
1832  and  held  that  seat  till  1841.  In  1835  he 
received  his  baronetcy,  and  in  1852  was  returned 
again  to  Parliament.  During  the  Derby  adminis¬ 
tration  (1858-59),  he  was  Colonial  Secretary.  He 
died  Jan.  18,  1873. 

Lytton,  Earl,  Edward  Robert  Lytton 
Bulwer-Lytton,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born 
Nov.  8,  1831,  and  when  eighteen  Y  ears  of  age 
entered  the  diplomatic  service.  He  has  served 
the  crowm  as  a  diplomatist  in  almost  every  Euro¬ 
pean  capital,  and  in  1876  became  Viceroy  of 
India.  His  works,  mostly  published  under  the 
pseudonym  of  “  Owen  Meredith,”  include  the 
poems  Clytemnestra,  The  Wanderer ,  Lucile,  Orval, 
Fables  in  Song,  and  a  romance,  The  Ring  of 
Amasis. 


adult  male  is  about  two  feet.  The  sides  of  the 
head  are  covered  with  a  bluish-purple  skin.  The 
crown  of  the  head  has  an  upright  crest  of  feathers 


with  naked  shaft,  and  a  number  of  slender  spread¬ 
ing  barbs  at  the  tip.  The  tail,  when  depressed, 
is  forked;  when  erect,  it  is  slightly  folded,  as  in 
the  common  fowl.  The  general  color  is  a  deep 
black,  with  blue  metallic  reflections;  the  middle 
of  the  back,  brilliant  orange;  the  tail,  bluish 
green,  orange,  and  white. 

Macas'sar,  the  most  southern  portion  of  Celebes, 
lies  in  latitude  4°  35' — 5°  50'  S.,  and  longitude 
119°  25’ — 120°  30'  E.  Macassar,  the  chief  town, 
is  the  residence  of  the  Dutch  governor  and  officials. 
It  is  on  the  Strait  of  Macassar,  which  separates 
Celebes  from  Borneo,  in  5°  10'  S.  latitude,  and 
119°  20'  E.  longitude.  Pop.,  about  20,000.  The 
climate  is  healthy,  and  all  kinds  of  provisions  are 
plentiful.  The  exports  consist  of  the  various 
products  of  Celebes.  The  chief  products  of  Cele¬ 
bes  are  rice,  sandal-wood,  ebony,  tortoise-shell, 
gold,  spices,  coffee,  sugar,  wax,  cocoa-nuts,  tobac¬ 
co,  opium,  salt,  edible  nests,  etc. 

Macaulay,  Thomas  Babington,  Lord,  wTas 
born  in  Leicestershire,  England,  Oct.  25,  1800. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  studied  law,  and 


MACAW. 


513 


MACON. 


contributed  to  several  magazines,  and  in  1830 
entered  Parliament,  where  lie  sat  till  1833,  when 
he  went  to  India  as  a  member  of  the  Supreme 
Council.  Here  he  remained  till  1838.  On  his 
return  to  England  he  resumed  his  political  career, 
and  was  elected  Member  of  Parliament  for  Edin¬ 
burgh  in  1839.  In  1840  he  was  appointed  War- 
Secretary,  and  in  1846  Paymaster-General.  In 
1858  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  of  Great  Britain 
under  the  title  of  Baron  Macaulay  of  Rothley, 
and  died  Dec.  28,  1859.  His  History  of  England 
and  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome  are  enduring  monu¬ 
ments  to  his  intellectual  greatness. 

Macaw'  (Macrocercus),  a  genus  of  the  parrot 
family  (Pdttacidce),  distinguished  by  a  long  wedge- 
shaped  tail,  long  and  pointed  wings,  large,  strong 
feet,  the  sides  of  the  head  naked,  the  bill  short 


Macaw. 


and  strong,  the  upper  mandible  greatly  arched, 
and  having  a  long,  sharp  tip,  the  lower  mandible 
much  shorter,  and  of  massive  thickness.  The 
species  are  among  the  largest  of  the  parrot  race; 
they  are  all  natives  of  tropical  America. 

Mac'cabees,  a  dynasty  founded  by  a  Jew  named 
Matithjahu  (Asamonaios,  Chashmonaj),  who 
waged  successfully  a  war  against  the  Syrians.  At 
the  death  of  Mattathiah  (166  b  c.),  which  took 
place  a  few  years  after  the  outbreak,  Judah  Mak- 
kabi  (166-161  b.c.)  took  the  command  of  the 
patriots,  and  continued  the  war,  reconquered 
Jerusalem,  purified  the  temple,  and  reinaugurated 
the  holy  service,  (164  b.c.)  Having  further  con¬ 
cluded  an  alliance  with  the  Romans,  he  fell  in  a 
battle  against  Bacchides,  (161  b.c.)  His  brother 
Jonathan,  who  succeeded  him  in  the  leadership, 
renewed  the  Roman  alliance,  and,  taking  advan¬ 
tage  of  certain  disputes  about  the  Syrian  throne, 
rendered  vacant  by  the  death  of  Antiochus,  ac¬ 
quired  the  dignity  of  high  priest.  But  Tryphon, 
the  guardian  of  the  young  Prince  Antiochus 
Tlieos,  invited  him  to  Ptolemais,  and  had  him 
there  treacherously  executed.  Simon,  the  second 
brother,  was  elected  by  the  Jewish  commonwealth 
to  assume  the  reins  of  the  national  government, 
and  was  recognized  both  by  Demetrius  and  by 
the  Romans  as  chief  and  ruler  of  the  Jews.  He 
reestablished  the  independence  of  the  nation  (141 
b.c.),  and  was  murdered  in  136  b.c.  The  Feast  of 
the  Maccabees — i.  e.,  both  of  the  sons  of  Mat¬ 
tathiah,  and  of  the  seven  martyr  children  (II. 
Macc.  vii) — is  found  in  the  Roman  martyrology 
under  the  date  of  August  1st. 

Maccabees,  Books  of,  certain  apocryphal 
writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  treating  chiefly  of 
the  history  of  the  Maccabees. 

Macchiavclli,  Niccoi.o  m  Bernardo  dei, 
an  Italian  statesman,  diplomatist,  and  literateur, 
born  at  Florence,  in  1469,  and  died  June  22,  1527. 
He  was  entrusted  with  many  important  diplo¬ 
matic  missions  to  foreign  potentates,  and  wrote  a 
number  of  scholarly  treatises  on  historical  and 
scientific  subjects. 

McArthur,  the  county  seat  of  Vinton  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  1,300. 

McConnellsburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Fulton 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  700. 


McCounellsville,  the  county  seat  of  Morgan 
county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  2,000. 

McClellan,  George  B.,  an  American  general, 
was  born  at  Philadelphia,  in  December,  1826.  He 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1846,  and  joined  the 
army  as  Second  Lieutenant  of  engineers.  He  took 
an  active  part  in  the  Mexican  War,  rising  to  the 
rank  of  Captain.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
War  of  Secession,  1861,  he  was  appointed  Major- 
General  of  the  Ohio  militia,  and  later  a  Major-Gen¬ 
eral  in  the  army.  After  a  successful  campaign 
in  Western  Virginia,  he  was  made  Commander- 
in-Chief,  and  reorganized  the  Army  of  the 
Potomac,  defeated  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  1861. 
In  the  summer  of  1862,  he  invaded  Virginia  by 
the  peninsula  of  the  James  river,  and  advanced 
near  to  Richmond,  but  was  defeated  in  a  series 
of  battles  in  July,  compelled  to  retreat  ,  and  finally 
to  evacuate  the  peninsula.  After  the  defeat  of 
General  Pope,  in  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run, 
Aug.  29,  1862,  which  was  followed  by  a  Confed¬ 
erate  invasion  of  Maryland,  he  reorganized  the 
army  at  Washington,  marched  rapidly  north,  met 
the  forces  of  General  Lee  at  Antietam,  and  com¬ 
pelled  him  to  recVoss  the  Potomac.  He  followed 
the  Confederates  into  Virginia,  but  being 
opposed  to  the  policy  of  the  extreme  war-party, 
he  was  superseded  by  General  Burnside.  In  1864 
he  was  the  Democratic  candidate  for  the  presi¬ 
dency,  and  in  1877  was  elected  Governor  of  New 
Jersey.  He  died  Oct.  29,  1885. 

McDonough,  the  county  seat  of  Henry  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  650. 

McKee,  the  county  seat  of  Jackson  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  120. 

Mcl.eaiisborough,  a  well-built  and  handsome 
agricultural  town,  is  the  county  seat  of  Hamilton 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  3,300. 

McMinnville,  the  county  seat  of  Warren 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  2,000. 

McPherson,  a  prosperous  farming  town,  and 
the  county  seat  of  McPherson  county,  Kan. 
Pop.,  3,500. 

McRae,  the  county  seat  of  Telfair  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  500. 

Mace,  the  aril  of  thenutmer.  In  the  fruit,  it  is 
situated  within  the  fleshy  part,  and  envelops  the 
nut.  It  is  a  lacerated  membrane,  blood-red  and 
somewhat  fleshy  when  fresh.  It  is  prepared  for 
the  market  by  drying  for  some  days  in  the  sun, 
and  flattening.  It  has  a  peculiar,  strong,  agree¬ 
able  smell  and  taste,  and  contains  a  clear,  yellow, 
volatile  oil,  and  a  red,  buttery,  fixed  oil.  The 
volatile  oil  is  obtained  from  it  by  distillation. 
The  buttery  oil,  by  expression,  mixed  with  the 
volatile  oil  and  other  substances,  is  known  as 
nutmeg  balsam.  Mace  is  used  as  a  spice,  and  has 
much  of  the  flavor  of  the  nutmeg. 

Macedo'nia,  anciently  the  name  of  a  country 
lying  north  of  Thessaly,  Greece.  It  was  origi¬ 
nally  of  small  extent,  embracing  only  the  district 
called  Emathia,  but  gradually  extended  until  it 
reached,  on  the  north,  the  Scardian  Mountains, -a 
portion  of  the  Haemus  (mod.  Balkan)  range;  on 
the  west,  the  frontiers  of  Epirus  and  Illyria;  on 
the  east,  the  River  Nestos  (mod.  Karasu);  and  on 
the  south,  Thessaly. 

Macgillycud  'dy  Recks,  the  highest  mountains 
in  Ireland,  forming  a  group  in  the  west  of  the 
County  Kerry,  and  rising  from  the  western 
shores  of  the  Lakes  of  Killarney. 

Mach  ias,  the  county  seat  of  Washington 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Machicola'tions,  the  apertures  between  the 
corbels  supporting  a  projecting  parapet.  The 
machicolations  are  for  the  purpose  of  allowing 
projectiles  to  be  hurled  at  an  enemy  when  he 
approaches  near  the  wall,  as  in  scaling,  under¬ 
mining,  etc. 

Machine-engraving  is  generally  restricted  to 
the  engraving  of  patterns,  bank-notes,  etc.  Sev¬ 
eral  machines  have  been  invented,  one  of  which 
consists  of  a  number  of  machines  capable  either 
of  separate  or  of  combined  action,  the  number  of 
distinct  instruments  being  co-extensive  witli  the 
number  of  species  of  lines  composing  the  pattern. 
The  number  and  arrangement  of  the  different 
instruments  can  be  so  varied,  that  a  practically 
unlimited  number  of  patterns  may  be  obtained, 
and  the  correctness  and  delicacy  of  these  patterns 
is  such  as  can  hardly  be  surpassed. 

Mackenzie  River,  an  important  river  of  the 


Dominion  of  Canada,  discovered  and  first  navi¬ 
gated  by  Alexander  Mackenzie — from  whom  it 
derives  its  name — in  1789,  has  its  origin,  under  the 
name  of  Athabasca  river,  in  Mount  Brown,  and 
after  a  north-northeast  course  of  687  miles  fails 
into  Lake  Athabasca.  Emerging  from  this  lake 
as  the  Slave  river,  it  receives  the  Peace  river, 
and  after  another  course  of  210  miles  falls  into 
Great  Slave  Lake.  It  now  assumes  the  name  of 
Mackenzie  river,  and  conveys  the  waters  of  the 
Great  Slave  Lake  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  at  Mackenzie 
Bay,  after  a  final  course  of  876  miles,  making  a 
total  of  1,773  miles.  In  many  places  it  is  more 
than  a  mile  in  width,  and  is  navigable  for  steam¬ 
boats  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  course 
from  Great  Slave  Lake.  There  is  only  one  ob¬ 
struction,  and  that  not  a  material  one,  occurring 
near  Fort  Hope,  in  latitude  about  66°  N.  Its 
chief  affluent  is  the  Liard,  which  rises  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  after  a 
course  of  380  miles,  forces  its  way  through  a  pass, 
and  after  flowing  first  east  and  then  north,  joins  the 
Mackenzie  river,  after  a  total  course  of  690  miles. 
The  mouth  of  the  river  is  closed  from  October  to 
June  by  ice. 

Mack'erel  (Scomber),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
family  Scomberidce,  having  a  spindle-shaped  body; 
the  tail  slender,  crescent-shaped,  and  slight iy 
ridged  or  keeled  on  each  side.  Some  of  the  species 
have,  and  some  have  not,  air  bladders.  One 
species,  the  common  mackerel  ( S .  scomber),  is 
plentiful  on  the  coasts  of  Britain  and  of  Europe, 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  furthest  north,  also 
on  those  of  Greenland,  and  on  this  side  of  the 
North  Atlantic  Ocean.  Mackerel  is  readily 
caught  by  bait,  and  particularly  by  any  kind  of 
bait  moving  swiftly  through  the  water — a  long 
slice  cut  from  one  of  its  own  kind,  or  even  a  slip 
of  red  leather,  or  piece  of  scarlet  cloth.  Boats 
engaged  in  mackerel-fishing  are  there ''ore  often 
under  sail,  and  a  lively  breeze  is  preferred.  But 
the  greatest  quantities  of  mackerel  are  taken  by 
nets;  seine-nets  wrought  by  two  boats,  and  inclos¬ 
ing  shoals  of  fish,  or  drift  nets — 20  feet  deep  by 
120  feet  long — well  corked  at  the  top,  and  without 
lead  at  the  bottom. 

Mack'inaw,  or  Michilimack'inac,  a  village, 
on  an  island  of  the  same  name,  in  the  northwest 
part  of  Lake  Huron,  belonging  to  Michigan,  is  an 
old  French  trading-post,  now  a  fashionable  sum¬ 
mer  resort.  Fort  Mackinaw,  on  a  bluff  150  feet 
high,  commands  the  village  and  harbor.  It  has 
extensive  fisheries,  and  is  a  stopping  place  for 
steamers  plying  between  the  lower  and  upper 
lakes.  Pop.  about  1,000. 

Made,  a  term  employed  in  mineralogy  to  des¬ 
ignate  what  are  also  called  twin  crystals,  which 
are  crystals  united  according  to  some  precise  law, 
yet  not  having  their  faces  and  axes  parallel,  so  as 
to  render  the  one  a  mere  continuation  of  the  other. 
In  some  macles  the  axes  are  parallel;  in  some  they 
are  inclined  at  an  angle.  Crystallization  in 
macles  is  characteristic  of  some  minerals. 

Made  is  also  the  name  of  a  mineral,  also  called 
Ciiiastolite,  a  silicate  of  alumina,  containing  a 
little  magnesia  and  oxide  of  iron.  Made  is  used 
for  making  beads  for  rosaries,  etc. 

MacMaiiou,  Marie  Edme  Patrice  Maurice 
de,  Marshal  of  France,  of  Irish  descent,  was  born 
at  Sully  July  13,  1808.  He  'commanded  the  di¬ 
vision  that  stormed  the  Malakoff  at  Sebastopol  in 
1855.  He  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  Italian 
campaign  of  1859,  received  a  marshal’s  baton,  and 
was  created  Duke  of  Magenta  in  commemoration 
of  the  battle  of  that  name.  He  was  nominated 
Governor-General  of  Algeria  in  1864.  In  the 
Franco-German  War  of  1870-1871,  he  had  com¬ 
mand  of  the  First  Army  Corps,  was  defeated  at 
Worth,  wounded  and  captured  at  Sedan.  In 
1871,  after  the  close  of  the  war,  he  was  made 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  French  army,  and  in 
1873  he  was  elected  President  of  the  Republic. 

Macomb,  a  flourishing  agricultural  town  and 
the  county  seat  of  McDonough  county,  Ill.  Pop., 
5,000. 

Macon,  the  county  seat  of  Noxubee  county, 
Miss.  Pop. ,  3,000. 

Macon  City,  the  county  seat  of  Macon  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Macon,  a  city  of  Georgia,  at  the  head  of  the 
navigation;  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Ocmulgee. 
Pop.,  29,600, 


33 


MACREADY. 


514 


MAGDALEN  ISLANDS. 


Macready,  William  Charles,  an  English  tra¬ 
gedian,  was  born  in  London,  March  3,  1793,  and 
died  in  1873.  His  impersonations  of  “  Richard 
III.,”  “Othello,”  “Hamlet,”  “Richelieu”  and 
other  popular  roles  were  impressive  and  scholarly, 
and  won  for  him  the  approbation  of  the  leading 
actors  and  connoisseurs  of  his  time. 

Mactra,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate  mollusks, 
having  a  somewhat  triangular  shell,  broader  than 
long,  the  valves  equal;  the  animal  with  the 
siphons  united  to  the  extremity,  and  a  large,  com¬ 
pressed  foot.  They  are  sometimes  called  trough 
shells.  The  species  are  numerous,  and  widely 
distributed;  they  burrow  in  the  sand  and  mud  of 
sea  shores,  and  of  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  The 
foot  enables  them  also  to  move  with  activity,  after 
the  manner  of  cockles. 

Mac'ulte  is  the  term  given  to  an  order  of  skin- 
diseases.  But  the  affections  included  under  the 
term  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  diseases;  they  are 
merely  discolorations  of  the  skin,  resulting  from 
some  change  in  the  production  of  the  coloring 
matter.  Lentigo  is  a  term  applied  to  those  small 
yellowish  or  brownish-yellow  irregularly-rounded 
spots  which  are  denominated  freckles,  and  which 
are  most  abundant  on  the  parts  chiefly  exposed 
to  the  light,  as  the  face,  hands,  etc.  In  some 
cases,  these  spots  are  congenital,  while  in  other 
cases  they  seem  to  be  produced  by  exposure  to 
the  sun’s  rays;  and  in  both  cases  they  chiefly 
occur  to  persons  of  fair  complexion  with  light 
sandy  hair.  When  patches  of  a  larger  size  than 
that  of  ordinary  freckles  are  produced  by  expos¬ 
ure  to  the  sun,  the  affection  receives  the  name  of 
eplielis.  Congenital  spots  can  not  be  removed  by 
any  applications;  but  those  which  depend  on  ex¬ 
posure  may  be  treated  with  soothing  lotions  or 
liniments,  as  an  emulsion  of  swTeet  almonds,  or  a 
mixture  of  lime-water  with  almond  oil.  Pig¬ 
mentary  naevus  is  a  congenital  dark  discoloration 
of  the  skin,  with  little  or  no  elevation  of  the  sur¬ 
face,  and  often  covered  with  hair.  It  usually  oc¬ 
curs  in  small  spots,  but  sometimes  appears  in 
large  patches.  It  is  perfectly  harmless  and  should 
not  be  interfered  with.  Albinism  or  leucopathy 
when  congenital,  may  be  considered  irremediable; 
but  cases  of  partial  albinism,  occurring  after 
birth,  may  sometimes  be  relieved  by  local  stimu¬ 
lants. 

Madagascar,  the  third  largest  island  in  the 
world,  is  situated  to  the  southeast  of  Africa  and 
is  about  four  times  as  large  as  England  and 
Wales.  It  is  in  latitude  12s  2' — 25°  35'  S.,  and 
longitude  42° — 51°  40'  E.;  length,  978  miles; 
greatest  breadth,  350  miles;  area  about  230,000 
square  miles.  The  natives  appear  to  be  mainly 
derived  from  the  Malayo-Polynesian  stock,  to 
which  they  have  numerous  affinities.  There  is 
also  an  admixture  of  African  blood,  especially  on 
the  western  side  of  the  island;  and  there  is  an 
Arab  element  both  on  the  northwest  and  south¬ 
east  coasts.  The  Hovas,  the  most  advanced,  civ¬ 
ilized,  and  intelligent  Malagasy  tribe,  inhabiting 
the  interior  provinces,  and  since  the  beginning  of 
this  century  the  dominant  race,  are  probably  the 
latest  immigrants.  All  the  coast  tribes  appear  to 
be  closely  connected  with  each  other  in  language; 
but  although  there  are  many  dialectical  dif¬ 
ferences,  the  language  of  the  whole  country  is 
substantially  one.  The  pop.  is  estimated  at  from 
2, 500, ('00  to  4,500,000.  The  capital  is  Antan¬ 
anarivo;  pop.,  80,000.  The  principal  exports  of 
Madagascar  are  cattle,  hides,  gum-copal,  india- 
rubber,  and  rice;  and  coffee  is  being  cultivated 
by  Creole  settlers. 

Madder  ( Rubia ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat¬ 
ural  order  Rubiarece,  nearly  allied  to  the  genus 
Galium  or  bedstraw,  and  differing  from  it  cliiefly 
in  having  a  juicy  fruit  resembling  two  small  ber¬ 
ries  growing  together.  The  species  are  found  in 
the  tropical  and  warmer  temperate  parts  of 
the  world,  and  are  important  for  the  coloring 
mat  ter  of  their  roots,  which  is  extensively  used  in 
dyeing  cotton  fabrics.  The  most  important  is  the 
common  madder  or  dyer’s  madder  (It.  lini  torum), 
a  native  probably  of  the  south  of  Europe,  as  well 
as  of  Asia,  and  now’  extensively  cultivated  in  most 
European  countries,  and  also  in  the  East  Indies, 
China,  etc.  It  is  a  perennial,  with  weak  stems  and 
whorls  of  4 — 6  elliptic  or  lanceolate  glossy  leaves, 
the  stem  and  leaves  rough  witli  sharp  prickles; 
small  greenish-yellow  flowers,  and  black  fruit. 


Maduer-lake,  a  painter’s  color,  made  from 
madder,  by  boiling  it  in  a  solution  of  alum,  then 
filtering  the  liquid,  and  adding  sufficient  carbon¬ 
ate  of  soda  to  cause  precipitation  of  the  alizarine 
or  red  coloring  matter  of  the  madder,  which  alone 
has  been  dissolved  by  the  boiling  solution  of 
alum.  This  lake  is  used  either  as  an  oil  or  water 
color.  t 

Madei'ra,  an  island  in  the  North  Atlantic 
Ocean,  off  the  northwest  coast  of  Africa,  from  the 
nearest  point  of  which  it  is  390  miles  distant,  in 
latitude  32°  43'  N., longitude  17°  W.  It  lies  280 
miles  north  of  Teneriffe,  in  the  Canaries,  and  G20 
miles  southwest  of  Lisbon.  Madeira  and  the 
other  islands  of  the  group,  form  a  province  of 
Portugal,  with  an  area  of  315  square  miles,  and 
pop.  (1878)  of  132,221,  including  the  adjoining 
small  island  of  Porto  Santo.  Funchal  is  the  port 
of  the  island.  The  principal  products  are  fruits 
and  sugar.  In  1880  about  6,000  pipes  of  wine 
were  produced,  600  tons  of  sugar,  and  240,000 
gallons  of  spirits.  The  inhabitants  of  Madeira 
are  of  mixed  Portuguese,  Moorish,  and  Negro 
descent. 

Madeira,  or  Madera,  or  Cayara,  an  import¬ 
ant  river  of  Brazil,  South  America,  and  an 
affluent  of  the  Amazon,  has  its  origin  in  the  con¬ 
fluence  of  several  rivers,  the  chief  of  which  are 
the  Beni,  Mamore,  Madaleua,  and  Stanez,  in  lati¬ 
tude  about  10°  S.  It  has  a  northeast  course  of 
700  miles,  for  the  last  500  miles  of  which  it  is 
navigable,  and  it  falls  into  the  Amazon  in  latitude 
3°  25'  S.  longitude,  59°  45'  W.  Including  the 
Mamore,  the  entire  length  is  about  1,500  miles. 

Ma 'd  ia  (Madia),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat¬ 
ural  order,  Composite,  sub-order  Gorymhiferm.  hav¬ 
ing  seeds  without  pappus,  the  outer  ones  situated 
between  the  leaves  of  the  involucre,  the  flowers 
yellow,  the  exterior  ones  rather  shortly  ligulate, 
those  of  the  disk  tubular.  The  plants  of  this 
genus  are  important  on  account  of  the  utility  of 
the  seeds  as  a  source  of  vegetable  oil. 

Madison,  James,  American  statesman,  and 
fourth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
at  King  George,  Virginia,  March  16,  1751.  In 
1776  he  was  a  member  of  the  Virginia  Conven¬ 
tion,  in  1779  was  elected  to  the  Federal  Congress, 
and  in  1784  to  the  Legislature  of  Virginia.  As  a 
member  of  the  Convention  of  1787,  which  framed 
the  Federal  Constitution,  Mr.  Madison  acted  with 
Jay  and  Hamilton,  and  with  them  wrote  the  Fed¬ 
eralist.  In  1801  Madison  was  made  Secretary  of 
State  under  Jefferson,  which  post  he  held  during 
the  eight  years  of  his  administration.  In  1809  lie 
was  elected  President,  and  was  reelected  in  1813. 
He  died  Jan.  28,  1836. 

Madison,  the  name  of  several  towns  and  cities  in 
the  United  States: — 1.  The  capital  of  Wisconsin, 
founded  in  1836,  is  on  an  isthmus  between  two 
lakes,  eighty  miles  west  of  Lake  Michigan,  and 
the  same  distance  east  of  the  Mississippi  river.  It 
is  the  center  of  a  fertile  and  salubrious  country, 
is  an  important  railroad  center,  and  has  large  manu¬ 
facturing  interests.  Pop.,  19, 000. — 2.  A  city  and 
the  county  seat  of  Jefferson  county,  Ind.,  is  on 
the  Ohio  river,  100  miles  west-southwest  of  Cin¬ 
cinnati  ;  has  cotton,  woolen,  and  iron  factories, 
several  flouring-mills,  and  large  pork-packing 
establishments.  Pop.,  13,000. — 3.  The  county 
seat  of  Boone  county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  100. — 4. 
The  county  seat  of  Lake  county,  Dak.  Pop., 
1,900. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Madison  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  1,300. — 6.  The  county  seat  of  Madi¬ 
son  county,  Neb.  Pop.,  1,250. — 7.  The  county 
seat  of  Madison  county,  Va.  Pop.,  700.— 8.  The 
county  seat  of  Morgan  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Madisonville,  the  county  seat  and  an  old  and 
wealthy  town  of  Hopkins  county,  Ky.  Pop., 
3,200. 

Madisonville,  the  county  seat  of  Madison 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  450. 

Madisonville,  the  county  seat  of  Monroe 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  700. 

Madoc,sonof  Owen  Gwynnedd,  a  Welsh  prince, 
is  believed  by  his  countrymen  to  have  discovered 
America  about  three  hundred  years  before  Colum¬ 
bus.  Compelled,  it  is  said,  by  civil  strife  to  aban¬ 
don  his  native  land,  he  sailed  westward  in  1170 
with  a  small  fleet,  and  after  a  voyage  of  several 
weeks,  reached  a  country  whose  productions  and 
inhabitants  were  quite  unlike  those  of  Europe. 
Here  he  lived  for  a  long  time;  then,  returning  to 


Wales,  he  gave  an  account  of  the  new  land  that 
he  had  discovered,  equipped  another  fleet,  set  sail 
again,  and  was  never  more  heard  of.  There  is 
reason  for  crediting  this  Welsh  tradition;  and  even 
if  true,  the  Northmen  have  a  prior  claim  to  the 
discovery  of  America,  for  it  is  believed  by  many 
careful  students  of  history,  that  Greenland  and 
the  New  England  States  were  visited,  if  not  colo¬ 
nized,  by  Icelanders  or  Norwegians  at  a  much 
earlier  period. 

Madras',  one  of  the  several  local  governments  of 
British  India,  commonly  called  the  Presidency  of 
Madras,  occupies  the  southern  part  of  the  Indian 
peninsula.  Pop.  (1871),  31,672,613;  area,  138,318 
square  miles.  Thetributary  Statesof  Travancore, 
Pudukota,  and  Cochin  have  an  area  of  9,471  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  3,226,427.  Pop.  of  the  Brit¬ 
ish  districts  (1881),  30,869,181.  Rice,  cotton, 
indigo,  coffee,  sugar,  maize,  millet,  are  extensively 
cultivated,  and  the  minerals  are  iron,  manganese, 
copper,  magnesia,  antimony,  lead,  and  silver.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  muslins,  cotton,  silks  and 
carpets,  saltpeter  and  salt. 

Madras,  a  maritime  city  of  British  India,  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  government  of  the  same,  name,  is  on  the 
Coromandel  coast,  the  western  shore  of  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  in  latitude  13°  5'  N.  Pop.  (1871), 
397,552. 

Mad 'repore  ( Madrepora ),  a  genus  of  the 
zoophytes  (Anthozoa),  the  type  of  a  family,  Mad- 
reporidai ,  in  which  the  polypes  have  twelve  short 
tentacles,  and  the  polypidom  is  stony.  The  name, 
however,  is  often  more  extended  in  signification, 
and  popularly  is  not  clearly  distinguished  from 
coral. 

Madrid',  the  capital  city  of  Spain,  in  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  the  same  name  in  New  Castile,  is  near  the 
center  of  the  country,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Manzanares.  In  1883  the  city  had  an  area  of 
114  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  between  500,009 
and  600,000.  Madrid  is  famous  for  its  palaces, 
its  libraries,  and  its  art  galleries,  in  which  are 
stored  the  richest  works  of  the  geniuses  of  all 
times. 

Madu'ra  (Sans,  sweet),  an  island,  separated 
by  a  narrow  strait  from  the  northeast  of  Java,  in 
6°  52' — 7®  17'  S.  latitude,  and  112°  39'— 113°  9' 
E.  longitude,  about  90  miles  long  and  24  broad. 
Pop.  (1880),  about  770,000.  The  chief  town  is 
Bangkalang.  The  exports  are  sugar,  tobacco, 
indigo,  cocoa-nut  oil,  edible  nests,  stone,  trepang, 
buffaloes,  horses,  cattle,  and  salt. 

Madura,  a  maritime  district  in  the  South  of 
British  India,  in  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  is 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  strait  which  separates 
Hindustan  from  the  Island  of  Ceylon.  Area, 
9,502  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  2,168,680.  The 
principal  town  is  Madura;  pop.  (1881),  73,807. 

Mael'ar,  Lake,  one  of  the  largest  lakes  in 
Sweden,  about  81  miles  in  length;  its  average 
breadth  about  13,  and  its  area  about  525  square 
miles.  It  contains  upward  of  1,200  islands.  Its 
east  end  is  close  by  Stockholm,  where  its  waters 
are  poured  into  the  Baltic  Sea,  the  difference  of 
level  being  scarcely  six  feet. 

Maes'tricht  Beds,  the  name  of  a  strata  of  soft 
yellowish  limestone,  found  at  Maastricht,  in  Hol¬ 
land,  abounding  in  the  remains  of  corals  and 
bryozoa. 

Magazine' (a  word  derived  from  the  Arabic 
maklizan),  literally  means  any  place  where  stores 
are  kept;  but  as  a  military  expression,  magazine 
always  means  a  place  for  storing  powder,  although 
arms  may  at  times  be  kept  in  it.  A  magazine 
may  be  a  d£pot  where  vast  quantities  of  gunpow¬ 
der  are  held  in  reserve,  an  entrepot  for  the  supply 
of  several  advanced  works,  a  battery  magazine 
for  the  wants  of  a  fortress  during  a  siege,  or 
merely  an  expense  magazine  for  the  daily  require¬ 
ments  of  the  special  battery  in  which  it  may  be 
situated.  The  term  magazine  has  also  been 
applied  to  a  well-known  class  of  periodical  publica¬ 
tions  which  have  of  late  years  taken  an  important 
place  in  the  literature  of  the  age  and  in  public 
education. 

Mag  'dalen  Islands,  a  small  group  near  the 
center  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  fifty-four 
miles  northwest  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  and  about 
the  same  distance  north  from  Prince  Edward’s 
Island.  They  consist  chiefly  of  Coffin,  Amherst, 
and  Grindstone  Islands,  with  about  2,000  inhabit- 


MAGDALENA. 


515 


MAGNESIUM  LIGHT. 


ants,  who  are  supported  by  the  cod,  herring,  and 
»3al  fisheries  of  the  neighboring  waters. 

Magdale'na,  the  principal  river  of  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  South  America,  has  its  origin 
in  a  mountain  lake  at  the  south  extremity  of  the 
Eastern  Cordilleras.  After  a  northern  course  of 
900  miles,  it  falls  into  the  Caribbean  Sea,  in  lati¬ 
tude  11°  N.,  longitude  75°  W. 

Mag'dalene,  Mary,  or  Mary  of  Magdala,  so 
named  from  a  town  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  a 
woman  out  of  whom  Jesus  cast  seven  devils,  and 
who  believed  in  him  and  followed  him.  She  was 
one  of  the  women  who  stood  by  his  cross,  and  one 
of  those  who  went  with  sweet  spices  to  the  sep¬ 
ulcher.  To  her  he  first  appeared  after  his  resur¬ 
rection. 

Mag'deburg,  chief  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
is  in  52°  8'  N.  latitude,  and  IP  40'  E.  longitude. 
Pop.  (1880),  137,109. 

Magdeburg  Hemispheres  are  two  hollow 
hemispheres,  generally  made  of  copper  or  brass, 
with  their  edges  accurately  fitted  to  each  other, 
and  one  of  them  furnished  with  a  stop-cock. 
When  the  edges  are  rubbed  over  with  grease, 
pressed  tightly  together,  and  the  globe  thus 
formed  exhausted  of  air  through  the  cock,  the 
hemispheres,  which  fell  asunder  before  exhaust¬ 
ion,  are  now  pressed  together  with  immense 
force  ;  e.  g. ,  if  they  are  one  foot  in  diameter,  they 
will,  after  exhaustion,  be  pressed  together  with  a 
force  of  nearly  a  ton. 

Magel'lan,  or  Magaliiaers,  Strait  of,  sepa¬ 
rates  South  America  on  the  south  from  Tierra  del 
Fuego.  It  is  300  miles  in  length  ;  its  breadth 
varies  from  5  to  30  miles;  and  the  navigation  is 
difficult.  It  wars  discovered  in  1520  by  Magal- 
haens,  the  Portuguese  navigator,  and  took  its 
name  from  him. 

Ma'geroe,  the  most  northerly  of  the  larger 
European  islands,  belongs  to  Norway,  and  lies 
close  to  the  coast  of  Finmark,  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  It  is  in  latitude  71°  10'  N.,  longitude  25° 
50'  E.  It  is  22  miles  in  length,  and  15  miles  in 
breadth.  It  supports  a  few  Norwegian  and  Lap¬ 
pish  families. 

Magg  io're,  Lago,  one  of  the  largest  lakes  in 
Italy,  is  also  partly  in  the  Swiss  Canton  of  Ticino. 
It  is  about  36  miles  in  length,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  is  about  8  miles. 

Maggot,  the  popular  name  of  the  larvae  of  many 
kinds  of  dipterous  insects,  particularly  those  of 
the  great  family  Muscidce  (flies),  although  it  is 
often  also  given  to  those  of  (Edridce,  (bot-flies, 
etc.) 

Ma'gi  was  originally  the  title  of  learned  and 
priestly  Arcadians.  Gradually,  however,  the  in¬ 
fluence  of  this  class,  once  powerful  enough  to  raise 
them  to  the  throne  itself  (Sassanides),  began  to 
wane,  and  front  being  the  highest  caste,  the 
priests  of  God,  and  the  pure  of  mind,  heart,  and 
hand,  they  fell  to  the  rank  of  wandering  jugglers, 
fortune-tellers,  and  quacks,  and  gave  the  name 
to  the  art  of  sleight-of-hand  and  performance  of 
conjuring  tricks. 

Magic  (see  Magi)  is  a  general  name  for  wonder¬ 
ful  effects  produced  in  some  mysterious  way. 
During  the  middle  ages,  and  down  almost  to  the 
eighteenth  century,  magic  was  studied  in  Europe, 
and  could  boast  of  distinguished  names,  who  at¬ 
tempted  to  treat  it  as  a  grand  and  mysterious  sci¬ 
ence,  by  means  of  which  the  secrets  of  nature  could 
be  discovered, and  a  certain  godlike  power  acquired 
over  the  spirits  (or,  as  we  should  now  say,  the 
forces)  of  the  elements.  Though  in  the  present 
day  there  are  no  schools  of  magic,  as  in  earlier 
times,  yet  certain  barbarous  or  uneducated  people 
still  claim  to  foretell  coming  events  by  what  they 
term  magic,  and  certain  sleight-of-hand  performers 
call  themselves  magicians. 

Magic  Lantern,  an  optical  instrument  by 
means  of  which  magnified  images  of  small  pict¬ 
ures  are  thrown  upon  a  wall  or  screen.  The 
instrument  consists  of  a  lantern  containing  a  pow¬ 
erful  argand  lamp,  or  having  connected  with  it  a 
calcium  light;  in  the  side  of  the  lantern  is  inserted 
a  horizontal  tube,  on  a  level  with  the  flame,  and 
the  light  is  made  to  pass  through  the  tube  by 
reflection  from  a  concave  mirror  placed  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  lantern.  The  tube  is  furnished 
with  two  lenses,  one  at  each  end;  the  inner  one  is 
a  hemispherical  illuminating  lens  of  short  focus, 
to  condense  a  strong  light  on  the  picture,  which 


is  inserted  into  the  tube,  between  the  lenses, 
through  a  transverse  slit.  The  other  end  of  the 
tube  is  fitted  with  a  double  convex  lens,  which 
receives  the  rays  after  passing  through  the  pict¬ 
ure,  and  throws  them  upon  the  screen  or  wall. 
The  pictures  are  formed  with  transparent  varnish 
on  glass  slides,  and  must  be  inserted  into  the  tube 
in  an  inverted  position,  in  order  that  the  images 
may  appear  erect.  If  the  screen  on  which  the 
image  is  thrown  be  at  too  great  a  distance,  the 
image  will  become  indistinct  from  the  lessened 
intensity  of  the  heat,  and  distorted  by  the  increas¬ 
ing  spherical  and  chromatic  aberration,  though 
this  latter  defect  may  be  obviated  by  the  use  of  a 
screen  of  the  same  curvature  as  the  outside  sur¬ 
face  of  the  lens.  This  instrument  in  its  improved 
forms  is  now  extensively  used  in  schools  and  lect¬ 
ure-rooms  as  a  means'of  enlarging  and  rendering 
more  effective  pictures  of  various  subjects.  It  is 
used  in  teaching  astronomy,  geography,  botany, 
anatomy,  and  surgery.  In  short,  it  is  an  import¬ 
ant  factor  in  modern  object  teaching. 

Magilp',  or  Meggellup,  a  composition  used 
by  artists  in  oil-colors  as  a  vehicle  for  their  glazes. 
It  is  made  of  linseed  oil  and  mastic  varnish,  and 
is  thinned  with  turpentine  as  required  for  the 
painting. 

Mag'ilus,  a  curious  genus  of  gasteropodous 
mollusks,  of  the  order  Tubulibranchiata,  inhabit¬ 
ing  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  They 
have,  at  first,  shells  of  the  ordinary  form  of  spiral 
univalves,  and  establish  themselves  in  little  hol¬ 
lows  of  madrepores,  where  they  remain,  enlarging 
the  shell  into  a  long  tube  as  the  madrepore  grows, 
and  thus  preventing  themselves  from  being  shut 
in.  The  tube  is  sometimes  three  feet  long,  and 
the  animal  deserts  entirely  the  spiral  part  of  the 
shell,  and  lives  in  the  mouth  of  t  lie  tube,  which  it 
closes  against  danger  by  an  operculum,  the  upper 
part  being  ■wholly  or  partially  filled  up  with  solid 
matter. 

Mag'na  Char'ta,  the  great  charter  which  was 
granted  by  King  John  of  England  to  the  barons, 
and  has  been  viewed  by  after  ages  as  the  basis  of 
English  liberties.  There  are  minute  provisions  in 
the  charter  regarding  the  relief  of  heirs,  ward¬ 
ship,  marriage  of  heirs,  and  of  their  widows.  No 
scutage  or  aid  is  to  be  imposed  without  the 
authority  of  the  common  council  of  the  kingdom, 
except  on  the  three  great  feudal  occasions  of  the 
king’s  captivity,  the  knighting  of  his  eldest  son, 
and  the  marriage  of  his  eldest  daughter.  The 
liberties  of  the  city  of  London,  and  other  towns, 
burghs,  and  ports,  are  declared  inviolable.  Free¬ 
dom  of  commerce  is  guaranteed  to  foreign  mer¬ 
chants.  Justice  is  to  be  no  longer  sold,  denied, 
or  delayed.  The  Court  of  Common  Pleas,  instead 
of,  as  formerly,  following  the  king’s  person  in  all 
his  progresses,  is  to  be  permanently  fixed  at  West¬ 
minster;  assizes  are  to  be  held  in  the  several 
counties,  and  annual  circuits  are  established. 
Regulations  are  made  for  the  efficiency  of  the 
inferior  courts  of  justice.  The  protection  of 
life,  liberty,  and  property  from  arbitrary  spoliation 
is  the  most  important  feature  of  the  charter. 
“  No  freeman  shall  be  taken  or  imprisoned,  or  be 
disseized  of  his  freehold,  or  liberties,  or  free  cus¬ 
toms,  or  be  otherwise  damaged,  nor  will  we  pass 
upon  him,  nor  send  upon  him,  but  by  lawful 
judgment  of  his  peers,  or  by  the  law  of  the  land  ” 
— a  provision  which  recognized  a  popular  tribunal 
as  a  check  on  the  official  judges,  and  may  be 
looked  on  as  the  foundation  of  the  writ  of  habeas 
corpus.  No  one  is  to  be  condemned  on  rumors 
or  suspicions,  but  only  on  the  evidence  of  wit¬ 
nesses.  Protection  is  afforded  against  excessive 
amercements,  illegal  distresses,  and  various  pro¬ 
cesses  for  debts  and  services  due  to  the  crown. 
The  fines  imposed  are  in  all  cases  to  be  propor¬ 
tioned  to  the  magnitude  of  the  offense,  and  even 
the  villein  or  rustic  is  not  to  be  deprived  of  his 
necessary  chattels.  There  are  provisions  regard¬ 
ing  the  forfeiture  of  lands  for  felony.  The  testa¬ 
mentary  power  of  the  subject  is  recognized  over 
part  of  his  personal  estate,  and  the  rest  is  to  be 
divided  between  his  widow  and  children.  The 
independence  of  the  church  is  also  provided  for. 
A  charter  was  at  the  same  time  granted  to  miti¬ 
gate  the  oppressions  of  the  forest  laws. 

Magna  UraPcia  (Gr.  'H  MsyaXs  ‘HXXai),  the 
name  given  in  ancient  times  to  that  part  of 


Southern  Italy  which  was  thickly  planted  with 
Greek  colonies. 

Magne'sium  (symbol  Mg,  equiv.  24 — sp.  gr. 
1.74)  is  a  malleable  ductile  metal,  of  the  color  and 
brilliancy  of  silver.  It  fuses  at  about  the  melting 
point  of  tin  (about  442s),  and  at  an  extreme  heat 
it  may  be  distilled  like  zinc.  It  is  obtained  from 
its  chloride  either  by  the  action  of  sodium  or 
potassium,  or  by  simple  electrolytic  decomposi¬ 
tion.  Magnesia  (MgO)  is  the  only  oxide  of  mag¬ 
nesium.  It  is  a  white,  bulky  powder,  devoid  of 
taste  or  smell.  Magnesia  does  not  occur  native, 
and  is  usually  obtained  by  the  prolonged  applica¬ 
tion  of  heat  to  the  carbonate.  Magnesia  alba,  the 
common  white  magnesia  of  commerce,  is  obtained 
by  the  precipitation  of  a  hot  solution  of  sulphate 
of  magnesia,  by  a  hot  solution  of  carbonate  of 
potash  or  soda,  and  by  then  collecting  and  dry¬ 
ing  the  deposit.  Carbonate  of  magnesia  occurs 
native  in  the  mineral  magnesite,  and  in  associa¬ 
tion  with  carbonate  of  lime  in  dolomite,  from 
which  it  may  be  manufactured  in  a  very  pure 
state.  Sulphate  of  magnesia,  or  Epsom  salts 
(MgS04,7II20),  is  the  most  important  of  the 
magnesian  salts.  It  is  obtained  from  sea- water, 
or  front  magnesian  limestone.  It  is  much  used 
as  a  saline  cathartic.  Various  other  oxy-salts  of 
magnesia  exist,  but  are  of  no  importance.  The 
silicates  of  magnesia  are  numerous.  The  com¬ 
pounds  of  magnesium  employed  in  medicine  are 
magnesia,  its  carbonate  and  its  sulphate.  Mag¬ 
nesia  is  presented  in  small  doses  (from  ten  grains 
to  a  scruple)  as  an  antacid,  in  cases  of  undue 
acidity  of  the  stomach,  heartburn,  and  abnormal 
acidity  of  the  urine;  in  larger  doses  (from  a 
scruple  to  a  drachm)  it  produces  distinct  purga¬ 
tive  effects.  It  is  useful,  especially  when  com¬ 
bined  with  rhubarb  and  a  little  ginger,  as  a  pur¬ 
gative  for  children,  in  acid  conditions  of  the 
alimentary  canal.  Carbonate  of  magnesia  (mag¬ 
nesia  alba)  acts  in  the  same  manner  as  magnesia, 
except  that  it  is  less  active.  Sulphate  of  magnesia 
is  a  purgative  in  general  use.  It  is  employed  in 
febrile  affections,  and  when  the  portal  system  is 
congested;  but  it  may  be  used  in  almost  any  case 
in  which  a  mild  but  efficient  laxative  is  re¬ 
quired.  Its  dose  varies  from  two  to  four  or  six 
drachms. 

Magnesium  Light.  Although  the  discovery 
of  the  metal  magnesium  was  made  by  Sir  II . 
Davy  in  K308,  it  was  looked  upon  as  little  more 
than  a  chemical  curiosity  for  about  half  a  cent¬ 
ury.  In  1830  a  French  chemist,  Bussy,  obtained 
globules  of  the  metal;  and  in  1856  Deville  and 
Caron  obtained  magnesium  on  a  larger  scale  than 
any  of  their  predecessors.  In  1859  Bunsen,  of 
Heidelberg,  and  Roscoe  (now  of  Manchester), 
published  a  memoir  on  the  great  importance  of 
magnesium  for  photographic  purposes,  owing  to 
the  high  ref  tangibility  and  the  great  actinic 
power  "of  the  light  emitted  by  burning  mag¬ 
nesium-wire.  In  1862  Sonstadt  succeeded  in 
producing  specimens  of  the  metal,  varying  from 
the  size  of  a  pin’s  head  to  that  of  a  hen’s  egg;  and 
soon  after  began  manufacturing  on  a  considerable 
scale.  The  magnesium  light  has  many  advan¬ 
tages.  Its  color  approaches  very  much  nearer  to 
daylight  than  that  of  the  light  from  oils,  candles, 
or  coal-gas.  As  compared  with  the  sun,  its  lumi¬ 
nous  intensity  is  g£s,  but  its  chemical  intensity 
is  gtg,  and  this  high  actinic  power  makes  it 
specially  valuable  for  photographic  purposes;  it 
gives  off  no  noxious  vapors;  but  as  it  burns, 
white  clouds  of  the  vapor  of  magnesia  are 
formed.  It  has  been  used  for  photography,  and 
for  exploring  and  photographing  dim  or  under¬ 
ground  caverns  and  structures — such  as  the 
Pyramids.  It  can  not,  however,  compete  with 
the  electric  light  as  now  perfected,  and  is  more 
costly.  Still,  for  any  purpose  where,  for  a  com¬ 
paratively  brief  time,  an  intense  light  is  required,, 
magnesium  wire  or  ribbon  has  about  it  almost, 
the  simplicity  of  a  wax  taper;  nor  are  the  lamps 
at  all  complex  by  which  the  metal  may  bejmrned 
for  hours  continuously.  It  is  almost  wholly  used 
for  burning  in  photographic  lamps,  for  flash 
lights,  and  for  fire-works.  It  has  been  attempted 
to  make  magnesium  useful  for  other  purposes. 
Various  alloys  have  been  made  with  it  and  other 
metals,  such  as  lead,  tin,  zinc,  cadmium,  and 
silver,  but  they  are  all  brittle  and  liable  to 
change. 


MAGNETISM. 


516 


MAGNETISM. 


Mag'  netism  (said  to  be  derived  from  the  city 
Magnesia,  where  the  loadstone  was  first  discov¬ 
ered)  is  the  power  which  the  magnet  has  to 
attract  iron.  Magnets  are  of  two  kinds,  natural 
and  artificial.  Natural  magnets  consist  of  the 
ore  of  iron  called  magnetic,  familiarly  known  as 
loadstone.  Artificial  magnets  are,  for  the  most 
part,  straight  or  bent  bars  of  tempered  steel, 
which  have  been  magnetized  by  the  action  of 
other  magnets,  or  of  the  galvanic  current.  The 
power  of  the  magnet  to  attract  iron  is  by  no 
means  equal  throughout  its  length.  The  ends  of 
the  magnet  where  the  attractive  power  is  greatest 
are  called  its  poles.  A  magnet  has  two  poles  or 
centers  of  magnetic  force,  each  having  an  equal 
power  of  attracting  iron.  This  is  the  only  prop¬ 
erty,  however,  which  they  possess  in  common. 
When  the  magnet  is  suspended  by  a  thread  it 
takes  up  a  fixed  position,  one  end  keeping  north, 
and  the  other  south.  The  north  pole  can  not  be 
made  to  stand  as  a  south  pole,  and  vice  versa. 
The  poles,  however,  differ  in  their  action  on  the 
poles  of  another  magnet,  like  poles  repelling,  and 
unlike  poles  attracting  each  other.  The  fact  of 
the  freely  suspended  magnet  taking  up  a  fixed 
position,  has  led  to  the  theory  that  the  earth  itself 
is  a  huge  magnet,  haying  its  north  and  south 
magnetic  poles  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  poles 
of  the  axis  of  rotation,  and  that  the  magnetic 
needle  or  suspended  magnet  turns  to  them  as  it 
does  to  those  of  a  neighboring  magnet.  All  the 
manifestations  of  terrestrial  magnetism  give 
decided  confirmation  of  this  theory.  Artificial 
magnets  are  either  bar-magnets  or  horseshoe-mag¬ 
nets.  When  powerful  magnets  are  to  be  made, 
several  thin  bars  are  placed  side  by  side  with 
their  poles  lying  in  the  same  way.  They  end  in 
a  piece  of  iron,  to  which  they  are  bound  by  a 
brass  screw  or  frame.  Three  or  four  of  these 
may  be  put  up  into  the  bundle,  and  these  again 
into  bundles  of  three  and  four.  Such  a  collec¬ 
tion  of  magnets  is  called  a  magnetic  magazine  or 
battery.  A  magnet  of  this  kind  is  more  powerful 
than  a  solid  one  of  the  same  weight  and 
size,  because  thin  bars  can  be  more  strongly 
and  regularly  magnetized  than  thick  ones. 
When  a  short  bar  of  soft  iron  is  suspended 
from  one  end  of  a  magnet  it  becomes  for  the 
time  of  contact  powerfully  magnetic.  It 
assumes  a  north  and  south  pole,  like  a  regular 
magnet,  as  may  be  seen  by  using  a  small  mag¬ 
netic  needle;  and  if  its  lower  end  be  dipped  into 
iron  filings,  it  attracts  them  as  a  magnet  would 
do.  When  it  is  taken  away  from  the  magnet,  the 
filings  fall  off,  and  all  trace  of  magnetism  disap¬ 
pears.  It  need  not  be  in  actual  contact  to  show 
magnetic  properties;  when  it  is  simply  brought 
near,  the  same  thing  is  seen,  though  to  a  less 
extent.  If  the  inducing  magnet  be  strong 
enough,  the  induced  magnet,  when  in  contact, 
can  induce  a  bar  like  itself,  placed  at  its  extrem¬ 
ity,  to  become  a  magnet;  and  this  second  induced 
magnet  may  transmit  the  magnetism  to  a  third, 
and  so  on,  the  action  being,  however,  weaker 
each  time.  If  a  steel  bar  be  used  for  this  experi¬ 
ment,  a  singular  difference  is  observed  in  its 
action;  it  is  only  after  some  time  that  it  begins  to 
exhibit  magnetic  properties,  and,  when  exhibited, 
they  are  feebler  than  in  the  soft  iron  bar.  When 
the  steel  bar  is  removed,  it  does  not  part  instantly 
with  its  magnetism,  as  the  soft  iron  bar,  but 
retains  it  permanently.  Steel,  therefore,  has  a 
force  which,  in  the  first  instance,  resists  the 
assumption  of  magnetism;  and,  when  assumed, 
resists  its  withdrawal.  This  is  called  the  coerci- 
tive  force.  The  harder  the  temper  of  the  steel 
the  more  is  the  coercitive  force  developed  in  it. 
It  is  this  force  also,  in  the  loadstone,  which 
enables  it  to  retain  its  magnetism. 

When  magnets  are  so  placed  that  two 
adjoining  poles  may  act  on  each  other 
without  the  interference  of  the  oppo¬ 
site  poles,  that  is,  when  the  magnets 
are  large  compared  with  the  distance 
between  their  centers,  their  attractive 
or  repulsive  force  varies  inversely  as 
the  square  of  the  distance.  When  the 
distance  between  the  centers  of  two  “'^net!6 
magnets  is  large  compared  with  the  with  arma- 
size  of  the  magnets,  that  is,  when  the  ture. 
action  of  both  poles  comes  into  play,  their  action 
on  each  other  vaiies  inversely  as  the  cube  of  the 


distance.  When  a  magnet  is  heated  to  redness, 
it  loses  permanently  every  trace  of  magnetism; 
iron,  also,  at  a  red  heat,  ceases  to  be  attracted  by 
the  magnet.  At  temperatures  below  red  heat, 
the  magnet  parts  with  some  of  its  power,  the  loss 
increasing  with  the  temperature.  The  tempera¬ 
tures  at  which  other  substances  affected  by  the 
magnet  lose  their  magnetism  differ  from  that  of 
iron.  Cobalt  remains  magnetic  at  the  highest 
temperatures,  and  nickel  loses  this  property  at 
F.  The  theory  of  magnetism  is  that  every 
particle  of  a  magnet  has  closed  currents  circula¬ 
ting  about  it  in  the  same  direction.  All  the  sep- 
a'ate  currents  in  the  various  particles  may,  how¬ 
ever,  be  considered  to  be  equivalent  to  one  strong 
current  circulating  round  the  whole.  We  are  to 
look  upon  a  magnet,  then,  as  a  system,  so  to 
speak,  of  rings  or  rectangles,  placed  side  by  side, 
so  as  to  form  a  cylinder  or  prism,  in  each  of 
which  a  current  in  the  same  direction  is  circula¬ 
ting.  Before  magnetization,  the  currents  run  in 
different  directions,  so  that  their  effect  as  a  system 
is  lost,  and  the  effect  of  induction  is  to  bring 
them  to  run  in  the  same  direction.  The  perfec¬ 
tion  of  magnetization  is  to  render  the  various 
currents  parallel  to  each  other.  Soft  iron,  in 
consequence  of  its  offering  no  resistance  to  such  a 
disposition,  becomes  more  powerfully  magnetic 
under  induction  than  steel,  where  such  resistance 
exists.  Helices  of  cop-  /?rv 


A  Helix,  showing  direction 
of  current. 


per-wire,  in  which  a 
current  is  made  to  cir¬ 
culate,  manifest  all  the 
properties  of  a  magnet. 

Each  convolution  of  the  spiral  may  be  taken  as  a 
substitute  for  one  of  the  rings  above  spoken  of. 
The  earth,  being  a  magnet,  has  currents  circulat¬ 
ing  about  it,  which  must  be  from  east  to  west,  the 
north  pole  of  the  earth  being,  in  our  way  of  speak¬ 
ing,  a  south  pole.  A  magnet,  then,  will  not  come 
to  rest  till  the  currents  moving  below  it  place  them¬ 
selves  parallel  to  and  in  the  direction  of  the  earth’s 
currents.  The  upper  current  being  further  away 
from  the  earth-current,  is  less  affected  by  it,  and 
it  is  the  lower  current  that  determines  the  position. 
A  magnetic  needle,  therefore,  turns  toward  the 
north  to  allow  the  currents  moving  below  it  to 
place  themselves  parallel  to  the  earth’s  current. 
Electro-magnetism  includes  all  phenomena  in 
which  an  electric  current  produces  magne¬ 
tism.  The  most  im¬ 
portant  result  of  this 
power  of  the  current 
is  the  electro  magnet. 

This  consists  generally 
of  a  round  bar  of  soft 
iron  bent  into  the  horse¬ 
shoe  form,  with  an  in¬ 
sulated  wire  coiled 
round  its  extremities. 

When  a  current  passes 
through  the  coil,  the 
soft  iron  bar  becomes 
instantly  magnetic, and 
attracts  the  armature 
with  a  sharp  click. 

When  the  current  is 

stopped,  this  power  An  Electro-magnet, 

disappears  as  suddenly  as  it  came.  Electro-mag¬ 
nets  far  outrival  permanent  magnets  in  strength. 
When  the  current  is  of  moderate  strength,  and 
the  iron  core  more  than  a  third  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  the  magnetism  induced  is  in  'proportion 
to  the  strength  of  the  current  and  of  the  number  of 
turns  in  the  coil.  When  the  bar  is  thinner  than 
one-third  of  an  inch,  a  maximum  is  soon  reached, 
beyond  which  additional  turns  of  the  wire  give  no 
additional  magnetism;  and  even  when  the  core  is 
thick,  these  turns  must  not  be  heaped  on  each 
other,  so  as  to  place  them  beyond  influencing  the 
core.  It  follows  from  the  above  principle  that  in 
the  liorseshoc-magnet,  where  the  inductive  action 
in  the  armature  must  be  taken  into  account,  that 
the  weight  which  the  magnet  sustains  is  in  propor¬ 
tion  to  the  squares  of  the  strengths  of  the  currents, 
and  to  the  squares  of  the  number  of  turns  of  the  wire. 
Electro-magnetic  machines  take  advantage  of 
the  facility  with  which  the  poles  of  an  electro¬ 
magnet  may  be  reversed,  by  which  attractions 
and  repulsions  may  be  so  arranged  with  another 
magnet  as  to  produce  a  constant  rotation. 
Magneto-electricity  includes  all  phenomena 


where  magnetism  gives  rise  to  electricity.  When 
a  coil,  in  which  a  current  circulates,  is  quickly 
placed  within  another  coil  unconnected  with  it.  a 
contrary  induced  current  in  the  outer  coil  marks 
its  entrance,  and  when  it  is  withdrawn,  a  direct 
induced  current  attends  its  withdrawal.  While 
the  primary  coil  remains  stationary  in  the  second¬ 
ary  coil,  though  the  current  continues  to  flow 
steadily  in  the  primary,  no  current  is  induced  in 


Electro-magnetic  Machine. 

NS  is  a  fixed  permanent  magnet;  the  electro-magnet,  ns, 
is  fixed  to  the  axis  te,  and  the  ends  of  the  coil  are  soldered 
to  the  ring  c,  encircling  a  projection  on  the  axis.  The 
ring  has  two  slits  in  it,  dividing  it  into  two  halves,  and 
filled  with  a  non-conducting  material,  so  that  the  halves 
are  insulated  from  each  other.  Pressing  on  this  broken 
ring,  on  opposite  sides,  are  two  springs,  a  and  b,  which 
proceed  from  the  two  binding-screws  into  which  the 
wires,  -j-  and  — ,  from  the  battery  are  fixed.  In  the  posi¬ 
tion  shown  in  the  figure  the  current  is  supposed  to  pass 
along  a  to  the  half  of  the  ring  in  connection  with  the 
end,/,  of  the  coil,  to  go  through  the  coil,  to  pass  by  g  to 
the  other  half  of  the  ring,  and  to  pass  along  b  in  its  re¬ 
turn  to  the  battery.  The  magnetism  induced  by  the 
current  in  the  electro-magnet  makes  s  a  south,  and  »  a 
north  pole,  by  virtue  of  which  N  attracts  s,  and  S  attracts 
n.  By  this  double  attraction  ns  is  brought  into  a  line 
with  NS,  where  it  would  remain,  did  not  just  then  the 
springs  pass  to  the  other  halves  of  the  ring,  and  reverse 
the  current,  making  s  a  north,  and  n  a  south  pole.  Re¬ 
pulsion  between  the  like  poles  instantly  ensues,  and  ns  is 
driven  onward  through  a  quarter  revolution,  and  then 
attraction,  as  before,  between  unlike  poles  takes  it 
through  another  quarter,  to  place  it  once  more  axially. 

the  secondary  coil.  If,  while  the  primary  coil  is 
stationary,  the  strength  of  its  current  be  increased 
or  diminished, each  increase  and  diminution  induce 


NS  is  a  fixed  permanent  magnet.  BB  is  a  soft  iron  plate, 
to  which  are  attached  two  cylinders  of  soft  iron,  round 
which  the  coils  0  and  D  are  wound.  CBBD  is  thus  the 
revolving  armature,  corresponding  to  CD  supra.  AA 
is  a  brass  rod  rigidly  connected  with  the  armature,  and 
also  serving  as  the.  rotating  axle.  F  is  a  cylindrical 
projection  on  AA,  and  is  pressed  upon  by  two  fork-like 
springs,  H  and  K,  which  are  also  the  poles  of  the  ma¬ 
chine.  The  ends,  to,  n.  of  the  coil  are  soldered  to  two 
metal  rings  on  F,  insulated  from  each  other.  When  the 
armature  revolves,  AA  and  F  move  with  it.  F.  H,  and 
K  are  so  constructed  as  to  act  as  a  commutator,  re¬ 
versing  the  current  at  each  semi-revolution. 

opposite  currents  in  the  secondary  coil.  Change, 
iu  fact,  whether  iu  the  position  or  current  strength 


I  kave  bothered  with  catarrh  for 
■  about  twenty  years;  I  have  Jost  sense  of 
i'll  cnUrel-v  for  the  last  fifteen  years, 
land  I  had  almost  lost  my  hearing.  My 
I  eyes  were  getting  so  dim  I  had  to  get 
[some  one  to  thread  my  needle.  Now  I 
(have  my  hearing  as  well  as  I  ever  had, 

I  and  I  can  see  to  thread  as  fine  a  needle 
I  as  ever  I  did,  my  sense  of  smell  is  partly 
I  restored  and  it  seems  to  be  improving  all 
^e,ti^e‘  1  thlnk  there  is  nothinglike 
lily  s  Cream  Balm  for  catarrh.  Mrs.  E. 
E.  Grimes.  07  Valley  street,  Rendill,  Per- 
|  ry  Co.,  O.  _ 

WOMEN  OF  NOTE. 


is  about  to  become 


Maggie  Mitchell 
I  Mrs.  Abbott. 

Mrs.  Jessie  Benton  Fremont  is  engaged 
I  in  -writing  the  biography  of  old  Kit  Car- 
Isod,  Gen.  Fremont’s  favorite  scout  of  pi- 
|  oneer  days. 

The  Crown  Princess  Stephanie  of  Aus- 
Itna  is  soon  to  leave  Vienna  for  the  Ri- 
lyiera  and  for  Switzerland,  where  a  villa 
■is  being  built  for  her  on  the  shores  of 
| Lake  Lucerne. 

May  Wreck  James,  the  waif  of  the 
Johnstown  disaster,  has  a  companion  in 
luiserv  in  the  matter  of  name.  A  boy 
baby  born  on  the  hillside  at  the  height  of 
Jfhe  .ood  has  been  christened  Moses  Flood 
|\\  illiams. 

The  widow  of  E.  P.  Roe,  the  novelist, 
Ihas  erected  a  granite  monument  over  his 
■grave  in  the  Cornwall  village  cemetery, 
■near  Newburg,  on  the  Hudson.  A  num¬ 
ber  of  Quotations  from  his  literary  works 
|are  inscribed  on  the  stone. 

■  The  Countess  de  Casa  Miranda  (Chris- 
Itme  Nilsson)  expects  to  spend  the  surn- 
Imer  quietly  in  London.  She  is  quoted  as 
■saving  that  she  has  practically  retired 
Inom  tne  operatic  stage,  owing  to  the 
[wishes  of  her  husband,  although  she  may 
Ising  m  concert  again. 

Mrs.  A.  J.  Fowler  of  Dallas,  Tex.,  has 
[devoted  her  whole  fortune  to  the  erec¬ 
tion  and  maintenance  of  a  .home  for 
Ividows  and  orphans.  She  has  thus 
built  t or  herself  in  the  hearts  of  men  a 
Inomiment  more  enduring  than  the  shaft 
jtyhich  New  York  promised  to  erect  to 
lie  nation  s  great  soldier. 

Miss  Howe  and  Miss  Burbank, teachers 
In  the  big  school  at  Hartford,  Conn 
tailed  the  other  day  for  Europe,  bound 
pn  a  long  tour  ail  by  themselves.  After 
leaving  the  steamer  they  will  take  pas¬ 
sage  northward  along"  the  Norwegian 
boast,  going  as  high  as  North  Cape,  to- 
Ward  the  “Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun  ” 
i he  journey  will  last  for  about  three 
Months,  and  will  doubtless  be  full  of 
liovelty  for  the  adventurous  voyagers. 

1  Mraie  Irving,  the  passionless  poetess 
J*  farrytown,  N.  Y.,  has  a  good  deal  of 
■ruth  on  her  side-when  she  says  of  the 
lassion  poetry  of  the  period:  “If  this 
Ilian  tus  growth  of  female  passion  poets 
f  allowed  to  flourish  unchecked  the 
lame  of  poetess  will  soon  become  a  term 
It  reproach,  a  deadly  insult,  and  the 
J  °rk  of  the  high  priestesses  and  of  poetic 
|rt,  such  as  Mrs.  Browning,  Christina 
lossetti  and  Jean  Ingelow,  for  the  in- 
buectual  advancement  of  our  sex  will 
lave  gone  for  naught.” 

I  Unless  tbe  breath  is  like  a  spicy  c-ale 
Jniess  the  teeth  gleam  like  the  driven  snow 
■here  is  no  dazzling  smile  or  tender  tale  ’ 

■rateful  to  woman's  eye  or  ear,  we  know 
■he  tale  would  lose  its  charms— the  smile  be 
I  gaunt, 

[ill  brought  within  the  spell  of  SOZODONT. 

MEN  OF  THE  WORLD. 

James  Russell  Lowell  is  reported  as 
engaged  tc  marry  a  well  known  ladv  of 
lOiidon. 

John  Gilbert,  the  actor,  built  a  small 
fortune  as  well  as  a  good  character.  He 
fled  worth  $200,000. 

George  Francis  Train  estimates  the 
svear  and  tear  of  clotheslines  in  this 
country  at  $75,000  a  year. 

Thomas  Ewing  Sherman,  son  of  Gen. 
merman,  will  be  ordained  a  priest  in 
Philadelphia.  July  7,  Archbishop  Ryan 
ilnciating. 

Don  Piatt  has  retired  from  the  editor- 
imp  of  Belf  ord's  Magazine  because  of 
lie  dmerence  of  opinion  with  the  pub- 
lshers  on  a  matter  of  policy. 

Gov.  Lee  of  Virginia  is  extremely 
lopular  with  Fourth  of  July  committees, 
ic  has  invitations  to  make  an  address  at 
Jeuver,  Charleston,  New  York,  and  at 
everal  cities  in  his  own  state. 

JMarccllus  Pope,  Secretary  Noble’s  new 
invate  secretary,  is  a  son  of  Gen.  John 
ope  of  St.  Louis.  He  is  a  young  attor- 
ev  who  was  recently  graduated  from 

and "  aper“,wl 

Grand  Duke  Alexis,  the  brother  of  the 
zar,  who  visited  the  United  States  sev- 
ral  years  ago,  has  been  removed  from 
is  position  as  lord  high  admiral  of  the 
mssian  fleet  and  sent  to  Sibeiia  in  dis- 
ua?e!  II*S  conduct  toward  the  sister  of 
/he late  Gen,  Skobeloff  is  the  cause. 

Gen.  Don  Carlos  Buell,  whose  name  is 
low  rarely  seen  in  print,  is  living  a  re¬ 
ined  life  in  the  littlevillage  of  Airdrie  in 


COKAL  TIDY. 

Use  No.  12  knitting  cotton;  cast  on  wooden 
needles,  77  stitches. 

First,  second,  and  third  rows  plain. 

Fourth  Row — lv  9|(a),  n:k  2,  ouonokl,  ok 
2,  or  k  4,  last  repeat  Iroui  (a)  k  4  last. 

Fifth,  seventh  and  ninth  rows,  and  ail  odd 
rows  purled,  except  first  and  last  3  stitches, 
these  are  for  the  edge. 

Sixth  liow—  K  4  (b),  nk  2,  nk2,  onono 
k  3,  o  k  2,  repeat  from  (b)  k  7  last. 

!  Eighth  How— K  4  (c).  u  n  k  2.  o  n  o  n  o  k  5, 
lok  2,  repeat  from  (c)  k  7  last. 

Tenth  Row— K  4  (d)  n  k  2,  o  k  1,  o  n  o  n  o 
2,  n  k  4,  repeat  from  (d)  k  9  last. 

Twelfth  Row— K  7  (e)  o  k  3.  o  n  o  n  o  k  2, 
n  k  2,  n  k  2,  repeat  from  (e)  k  4  last. 

|  Fourteenth  How — K  7  (f)  o  k  5,  o  n  o  n  o  k 
2,  n  n  k  2,  repeat  from  (f)  k  4  last. 

Fifteenth  like  fifth. 

Begin  at  fourth  row,  knit  as  long  as  re¬ 
quired,  slip  and  bind  oif.  Finish  with  fringe. 
— Mrs.  James  Griswold,  Osage,  iowa. 

CEOCHETED  LACE  PATTEBN. 

Make  a  chain  the  length  required. 

Fust  How — 1  tr  into  a  stitch,  1  cb,  pas3 
over  one  stiten,  and  repeat  to  the  end  of  the 
row. 

Second  How — 1  d  c  into  each  of  eight 
stitches,  11  ch.  pass  over  six  stitches,  and 
repeat  from  the  beginning  of  the  row.  # 
Third  How — 1  d  c  into  each  of  the  six  cen¬ 
ter  stitches  of  eight  d  c,  5  ch,  1  d  c  into  the 
center  of  11  ch,  5  c  h.  Repeat  from  the  De- 
ginning  of  the  row. 

Fourth  Row — 1  d  c  into  each  of  the  4  cen¬ 
ter  stitches  of  six  a  c  of  last  row,  5  ch,  pass 
over  3  ch,  1  d  c  into  each  of  the  5  next 
stitches,  5  ch.  Repeat  from  the  beginning 
of  tbe  row. 

Fifth  Row — 1  d  c  into  tbe  center  of  4  d  c  of 
last  row,  5  ch,  pass  over  4  stitches,  1  d  c 
into  each  of  the  7  next  stitches,;5  ch.  Re¬ 
peat  from  the  beginning  of  the  row. 

Sixth  Bow — 5  d  c  over  the  d  c  of  last  row, 
11  ch.  Repeat  from  the  beginning  of  tbe 
row. 

Seventh  Row — 3  dc  over  tbe  d  c  of  last 
row,  7  cb,  1  d  c  into  tbe  center  of  11  cb,  7 
cb.  Repeat  from  the  beginning  of  the  row. 

Eighth  Row — 3  d  c  over  the  d  c  of  last  row, 
6  ch,  1  d  c  into  the  fifth  of  7  ch,  5  ch,  1  d  c 
into  the  fourth  of  next  7  ch,  6  cb.  Repeat 
from  beginning  of  the  row. 

Ninth  Row— 1  d  c  into  the  center  of  d  c  of 
last  row,  5  ch,  1  d  c  into  the  fourth  of  6  ch, 
5  ch,  lie  into  center  of  next  5  ch,  5  oh,  1 
cl  c  into  third  of  next  6  ch,  5  ch.  Repeat 
from  the  beginning  of  the  row. 

If  this  does  not  find  its  way  into  tbe  waste 
I  basket  I  will  come  again  with  some  more 
I  patterns. — Allie.  Kevsione.  G.  1 


,,  l  „E4SX  LACE  PATTEENS. 

second  Row-Same  as  first.  ’  P  ’  *  ~ 
k  ii  k  K  °’ k  3- n-  ° 2- 

Fourth  Row— SI  1,  k  1  o 
k  5,  p  1,  k  2. 

oi,r^.vrE2ki’°-n’ki’ 

k  s!XpC  lEk  2~S  X'  k  k  °’  n’  k  3.  p  1,  *  3,  p  l, 

k  k  2°W_S  11  k  D-  k  3.  o  2,  n, 

pE^lisw^U!,  °,  n,  ko 

°  n  n. 


new  FANCY  WORK 

defies  divisible! 
by  40.  2  extra  for  edge  stitches;  42  stitches 
is  a  good  width  for  afghan  stripe.  ‘ 

First  Row— Slip  l,  seam  5.  *  narrow  3 1 
Plain,  make  1,  1  plain.  mak;  , 

sip  ,1  plain,  pass  slipped  stitch  over  seam  I 
9,  *  repeat  from  *  to  *  and 
instead  of  9. 


nc  end  beam  5 1 


o,  k  5,  pi  1, 


n,  n. 


olTkB2:risLki’°’n’ki’n*«  ’k5’ 

k  3*1*1  Kk°2~S  1'Kl'onk3,pl,k3,pl, 

kf'pTk  E0W_S1’k1’  “•  ^3,  0  2,  n, 

p  H0W~S  2*  k  M5,Pl,k  5, 

k  Thirteenth  E»w-S  1,  k  1,  o,  n,  k  11,  p  1, 

fcteeQt,h  Row— Same  as  thirteenth 
Torchion  Lace— Cast  on  10  stitcher  Knit- 

“  m0Ie 
mist  Row— K  4,  n,  o,  n,  o  k  1  o  k  1 
k  |eCOna  Kow-K  L  P  1,  k  i,  p  T,  °kk!k  p  1§ 
Third  Row 


Secona  Row— Slip  1  4  * 

P  plain  *  repeat  from  V  to  *  knit  fi°am  U-  L 
of  9  at  end.  so  6  msteadl 

Third  Row— Slip  1  A  [ 

Plain,  make  1  3  plain  *  ,4>  narrow,  3I 

p fastis 13- 7 

stead  or  7  at  end.  Kn,u  5  Piaia  m- 

plam‘ mfkTlTs  plam  make  3 

Sixth  Row-Slip  12  3 ‘,  Steaa  ot  5  ehd.  [ 

g; fe*  *  *»  *  a  2  usunt  i 

Seventh  Row— Slip  1  fiPam  o 
plain,  make  1  '  7  .p4’  S8am,  2-  *  narrow,  3 

of  3.  seam  2  at  last  instead 

pfn^lra  l ■  W.  3 

Ninth  Rctw — Slip  1  L„,  3  end- 

plain,  make  1,  9  pimp  b  *  narrow,  3 

1,  1  Plain,  pass  shaped  sfirrh  3  Plala>  8iiP 

reTenl  hrr  X  10  Seam  # 

iia'SSJA,1  p>*'». 

Leeson  &  Co.  No  Plain.  J. 

Boston,  Mass’  giyQ  awfv  |treot» 

w",!  '“ojr- 

MateriaiRN1T^EI>  AronAN  Fob  baby.  . 


k  J^Bow^Vp!^  °3.kp3T.°k  l\ 


1. 


p  1, 

Seventh  Row— K  4ononk-f  ^ 

,  Ey““  1,  i  1.V4  p  f; 

Ninth  Row — K  5,  o,  n,  o  n  kS  too-  n  ^ 

k  ±entb  Kow-K  i.  i.  k  i,  p3rt  ?;  nD  q 

i  n  i0’  k% 

ente^t,tc°bees  Leaf  Iasertioa-Ca'st  on  Sev. 
p  f!  k4ROW_0’  n>  k  2-  P  2.  k  2,  ot,  p  1,  k  2. 

l,Bp°l,no,  n?' VS;  k’2P  2’  °’  D’  P  2’  k  X’  k 
Third  Row— O,  ’n,  k  2  d  2  k  o  r.  o  „  * 

1.  k  2  p  2  k  4  p 

1  “ p“3,Vi0'  “•  1 2-  f  2.  k  2.  P  4.  o  1.  p 

p  s-  ° 2-  p  2‘ k  t ».  “  s. 

p  rnvi’ vi-  -■ k  2-  p 2.  k  2.  p  2.  to- 

P  »  2.  ».  o  t.  p  2.  *  4.  », 

p  teES3'2'4n'  2  2*  P  2,  k  2,  p  2,  .03, 

2  iWpK„_o,  o,  „  2,  o,  2,  „ 

Eleventh  Row — O  nk2nOt-o  o 

tog,  p  1,  k  2,  p  2,  jc  V  '  P  k  2.  p  2. 

lweifth  Row — O,  no2nnf^o  „ 

fiamsbu^’Ka2’-^’8-  ^  4  3a>'lo’r"’  JiG 

ftwTiTo  iak^crf  7  stitciies' 

Hecond  liow_K  3  n  1  J %  t0,  2-  K  2- 

Third  Row-K  3  to  J  k  to  1  \Y°  ^  k  k 
1  ourth  Row— R  2,  b  3,  to  l,  k  to  I  k  1 
I^HnoamUtniimwo  together  ’ 


of  white.  Ir  preferred  the  Star  Light  Scotch 
yaru  may  be  used,  but  tne  Lady  Grey  is 
softer  and  prettier.  One  pair  of  good-size- 
rubber  needles,  1  pair  of  No.  13  steel  need 
dies,  b  yards  narrow  blue  ribbon.  When 
done  a  yard  of  blue  surah  silk  shade  of  yarn 
lines  it.  When  finished  this  afghan  is  a 
yard  long  and  about  twentv-fiva  inches 
wide.  It  is  worked  in  the"  above  pa¬ 
ttern,  with  the  needles  of  steel:  2 
biue  or  pinx  stripes  and  3  white  ones  ar¬ 
range  a  white  stripe  in  center,  a  blue  stripe 
each  side,  then  a  white  stripe  outside  of  each 
blue  stripe.  Cast  bn  42  stitches  for  each 
stripe,  and  work  through  the  pattern  40 
times. 

Join  stripes  by  laying  the  edge  stitches  to- 
getuer,  then  catch  them  together;  when  so 
caught  crochet  together  with  white.  Now 
6  «e  all  round  with  an  edge  knitted 

as  follows: 

With  the  rubber  or  bone  needles  and  the 
blue  cast  on  10  stitches.  First  Row— Slip  1 
2  piaiu,  make  1,  narrow,  (make  2  narrow) 
twice,  1  plain. 

Second  Row — Make  1,  3  plain  (seam  1  2 
PIaP)  twice,  make  1,  narrow,  1  plain. 

Ihird  Row — 3  plain,  make  1  narrow  8, 
plain  (sup  1st  stitch  from  over  edge). 

Fourth  Row — Bind  (Iff  3  stitches,  6  plain. 
narrow.  1  plain.  Repeat  from  1st 
row  till  long  enough. 

In  the  second  row  of  holes  in  knitted  lace 
run  the  narrow  riDbon.  At  the  corners  make 
full  bows.  It  may  be  lined  or  not. 

I  u-ke  shades  of  Bady  Grey  are  cream 
white,  pink,  and  blue,  but  it  makes  a  pretty 
la  ghan  when  Star  Light  Scotch  varn  which 
|come3  in  any  shade,  is  used.— Eva  M.  Nilas. 
Ltast  Gloucester,  Mas3.  * 


- -  .*U-8  tU.U 

Eizebpa  was  a  real,  living:  man  who  could 
•  for  his  portrait — he  seems  so  like  a  purely 
lythicai  Deing,  like  Bellerophon  or  like  oue 
t  the  Amazona  He  is  associated  in  our  minds 
■together  with  the  very  unreal  world  of  the 
lrcus  ring,  with  bareback  riders  and  trained 
brsea  Indeed,  he  may  be  said  to  resemble 
|  centaur,  for  he  and  the  fiery  steed  can 
ardly  be  thought  ot  apart  Yet  he  was  a 
lal  man,  and  cut  quite  a  figure  in  his  part 
I  the  world  two  hundred  years  ago.  This 
lirtrait  probahly  represents  not  a  awa^ger- 
Ig  youth,  with  curly  locks  and  budding 
loustache,  but  a  grizzled  warrior  iu  Buasiau 
■ilfortn  and  decorated  with  military  orders 
■Joan  Stephanovich  Mazeppa  was  a  Cos- 
ftck,  who  made  successful  war  against  the 
Ivage  Tartars  who  desolated  Southern  Bus- 
1r,  driving  them  back  to  tho  Caspian.  This 
|  recommended  him  to  Peter  the  Great  that 
HE  INVITED  THE  COSSACK 

his  court  nod  covered  him  with 
Jmors  and  gifts.  But  when  Peter 
Tni  ^!m  a?aiuss  the  invading  Swedes 
bder  Charles  Xll  he  betraved  the  Kuesian 
bd  went  over  with  his  followers  to  the 
be  my.  Peter  defeated  them  both  and  drove 
lem  into  Turkish  territory,  where,  fearing 
b  fall  mto  the  hands  of  his  former  relentless 
I  as  ter,  Mazeppa  killed  himself.  -  He  had  be- 
fre  this  hidden  all  the  treasures  which  he 
aassed  in  his  wars  and  through  gifts  from 
hose  he  had  served,  in  cavern  in  the  hilis 
round  Biot  The  portrait  now  discovered 
ras  probahly  hidden  at  this  time. 

IThe  incident  by  which  aloao  we  know  him 
ctually  did  occur.  He  was  by  birth  a^ossack 
ut  when  very  young  he  was  sent  to  serve  as 
I  page  in  the  court  of  tne  Polish  king.  There 
rs  heauty  and  bravery  won  him  great  favor 
[specially  with  the  ladies.  With  oue  of  them’ 
tie  wife  ot  a  oertain  noble,  he  was  suspected’ 

■t  too  great  an  intimacy,  and  the  iaaious 
■  usband  in  revenge  ordered  him  to  be  bound 
laked  to  tho  back  of  a  wild  horse  mat  had 
lever  been  ridden.  The  norse  was  a  Tartar 
lorse  from  the  steppes,  aud  when  loosed  he 
lushed  madly  back  to  his  native  country 
Ivith  the  unwilling  unbound  to  his  back. 


■ill 


clutch  'hi  "  a  convulsive,  despairing 

aen^oonne%tofaMfhhe  sud 

cuff,  his  body  dragging  down  with  ***,? 

Dusa  that  y-rew  mTi  uown  with  it  a  small 

ASfSt SsSK  *°  j«"Wr  «b.» 

tiimself  u  aS  first  to  recover 

her!  nf  n,n  ^  G  lulling*  busn,  tbe  whole 

bed  of  the  ravine  lay  revealed  n  the  moon 
"  ht“^hl.n^Waa  W  clown  be W  bo 


dun 


qq  i  U.OWH  D 

,  ““recognizable.  He 


down  ttuj1 rocks, Defore  ^'“^ctioing 
rose  to  his tremoi?S  ^ 
.cr‘ed.  and  face  was 


agf. 

Dhneath  the"  moon’  “““nh*8  Iace  Jvaa  whit0 
thing  to  be  done  r  „  bdore  ,sa  t  but  one 
for  some  ropes  and  a  fodder  ^Pff0  ^" 

it._but  it’s  ail  tha"s  da"  U3°  in 


sr"  s?  ;-S”ssi Fit 

*sa 

that  such  widow  s(hae  tbeir  »Wws)er°h°^ 

"rC,t“JP  ■"  iV’«,nC,‘ 

I  Secretary  of  Was  Passed  author!  • 

I  ®  Iowa  and  v  ‘r  OJ“  tents  to  the  S„,  ?{,“e  th 
i  Association  and in  m'vesterQ  Mis8onviathvve8t' 

I  elation  of  Ofifo  Tnd^Tri'State  V°CerlnV>1?iers 
“won  purposes.’  1  diaaa-  and  Michigan  f0fSr°. 

,  In  Paralysis  th«  i  AAT*  lp  TREE. 

name  of  HuimI  A  Iad7  in  Lowell 

k'»« ; 

I  tandf wiSXm*,  ‘“V  wiL  “Srl"j»“j 

I  «om  nervous  eXhaustion  o^y  68  Para1^ 
Soub  stomach  io  Z  "*  - -  l 

tako  Dr  r  !?eJl  of  sickness  k  lemedled  l, 1 
I  Bidets,  25  cenfspfr^r86"^  andreKidne’ 

|  L,  B.  Lewi 'fIf0tAx°*mT  BE*0. 

I  S°t?yapicSd  resfe“’  ear  the  r*18  ,n  ^  PosJ 

-H°to  QiSlto^f  nrer  und  harbor  bi 

~tooffe! 


- . .  w  ue  given  uo  tue  djill  UBBllj 

switchmen  generally  would  remain  neutral  ’  anr 
no  strike  wcmw  pe  ordered  on  any  over  loads 
lhe  trains  on  the  Bake  Shore  Boad  continued 
to  run  under  police  protection.  Wherever  "seriyi 
switchmen  were  discovered  on  duty  withoul 

noneeof°ft  theV  were  assaulted  by  strikers,  bul 
none  ot  these  cases  proved  very  serious,  tor  thj 
company  had  on  duty  all  week  enough  of  Pinker! 
ou  s  men,  armed  with  lilies,  to  protect  even 
tram  and  make  interference  very  dangerous.-  1 
T S oj,®,11  'yltn,baled  hay,  transferred  from  th| 
Lake  biioie  tracks  to  the  Northwestern  Boad  fol 
shipment  further  West,  was  set  ou  fire  WednesJ 
'  a,ntl  destroyed.  No  explanation  could  bl 
found  unless  some  of  the  strikers  had  fired  th! 
Boad43  a  means  of  revenge  on  the  L  ake  ShorJ 

pIQ  ?  interview  Sheriff  Hanchett  charged 
President  Newell,  of  the  Lake  Shore  Boad,  wittl 
Preakina  tne  agreement  made  with  him  twd 
months  ago,  when  the  strike  first  threatened] 
inis  agieemenf  was  that  the  eight  men  objection! 
able  to  the  strikers  should  be  allowed  to  denari 
in  peace,  the  Sheriff  agreeing  to  furnish  then 
with  other  places  as  remunerative  as  those  held 
with  the  railroad  company.  The  Sheriff  savs  he 
kept  his  part  of  the  agreement  and  found  good 
places  for  the  men,  but  the  company  inJ 
fluenced  them  against  accepting  these] 
bad  taith  brought  about  another 
stuke  among  the  switchmen.  Presidents 
Newell  denies  that  he  made  any  agreement! 
whatsoever,  and  says  the  Sheriff  and  Commis-f 
sioner  McCarthy,  in  their  anxiety  to  settle  tiiel 
Strike,  made  promises  to  the  men  which  thecom-l 
pany  could  not  recognize  as  binding  withoutl 
compromising  its  position,  which  it  would  not! 

Commissioner  McCarty  and  Grand  Master! 
Monaghan  indorse  the  Sheriff’s  statement  of  the  I 
case^  and  fully  charge  President  Newell  witli  badl 
taith  in  the  agreement  made  with  ths  Sheriff  ini 
the  presence  ot  them  all.  The  strikers  have  re-1 
ceived  no  sympathy  from  the  public. 


SEND  SOME  OF  IT  HEKE. 

TT°?e,2t  the  most  eminent  scientists  in  theb 
United  States,  from  trying  to  support  the  severel 
nervous  strain  caused  by  his  business,  bv  thel 
use  of  stimulants,  contracted  an  uncontrollable 
aupetite  that  made  him  a  sot  for  twenty-five 
years.  His  friends  gave  him  the  extract  of  the 
new  plant  discovered  iast  year,  wnich  is  now  ex¬ 
citing  so  much  comment— and  sold  at  the  drug¬ 
gists  as  Moxie  Nerve  Food— and  for  the  last  eigbi 
months  he  has  had  no  desire  for  liquor  * 


WE  ARE  NOW  ENABLED  TO  OPFI 

to  Every 

THE  INTER-Ol 

’raving,  Size 

publishers  of  Farm  and  Fireside  we  cs 

fr;  it  is  A  Magnificent  Engraving,  ] 

■used  for  less  tnan  live  or  Ten  Dollars, 


s 


THE  EttGHAVIM* 

Volume  after  volume  has  been  i 
about  the  character  of  HAMLET  PEI 
BENMAKK.  Artists  hfVe  pictu’ridj 
have  rhymed  it,  and  actors  have  pi 


THE  BOY  THAT  WAS  HT7MG. 

Gail  Hamilton  is  at  liome  in  punctur¬ 
ing  frauds,  and  she  is  doing  a  fine  job 
new  in  the  Cosmopolitan,  in  wiping  out 
the  favorite  tale  of  Sundav  school  ora¬ 
tors  and  moral  lecturers  that  the  editor 
of  The  Journal  was  so  much  wearied 
bo-vho°d  days,  “the  hanging 
of  Philip  Spencer  the  son  of  the  secre- 
tary  of  war  at  the  yTrd  arm  of  the  United 
btates  man  of  war,  “Somers.”  This  was 
ago  ^aV01  ite  bac*  b°y  story  thirty  years 

According  to  the  orator  who  pointed  a 
moral  or  adorned  a  tale  within  those 
years  Philip  Spencer  was  a  very  bad  bov 
indeed,  and  his  father  sent  him  to  sea  to 
get  rid  of  him  in  hopes  probably  that  the 
discipline  of  a  man  of  war  would  tame 
his  wildness  and  made  a  man  of  him. 
Hut  Philip,  as  the  orators  went  on  to  say 
was  so  depraved  and  incorrigible  that  lie 
formed  a  plan  to  murder  the  commander 
and  the  rest  of  the  officers  of  the  ship, 
drew  a  lot  of  his  companions  into  the 
plot,  but  providentially  just  before  the 
murdering  was  going  to  begin,  the 
Christian  commander  got  on  the  plot  and 
Phinp  and  three  of  his  guilty  co-conspi¬ 
rators  were  hung  at  the  yard  arm  for 
munity,  notwithstanding  his  father  was 
a  member  of  the  cabinet  and  a  great 
statesman. 

The  story  always  lacked  in  the  minds 
or  the  intelligent  boys  who  hunted  up 
the  facts  in  those  days,  consistency, 
lhe  proofs  of  the  murderous  intentions 
oi  the  frolicsome  boy  of  eighteen  who 
didn’t  seem  to  be  any  worse  than  the 
average  boy  of  the  period,  seem  very 
shadowy .  As  near  as  we  could  make 
out  Philip  was  hung  and  his  fiiends  with 
him,  because  the  officer  didn’t  like  him. 

Gail  Hamilton  with  her  legally  con¬ 
structed  mind,  has  been  doing  the  coun¬ 
try  a  service  by  reviewing  the  history  of 
the  short  career  of  this  mischievous 
young  midshipman,  and  the  evidence 
given  at  the  alleged  court  martial,  and 
the  evidence  suppressed  at  the  court  of 
inquiry  after  the  hanging,  and  she  has 
made  it  clear  to  the  dullest  mind  that 
the  boy  was  murdered  by  a  half  dozen 
bloody  imbeciles,  because  some  sneak 
had  carried  the  news  to  the  sapient  com¬ 
mander  that  Philip  had,  in  the  confi¬ 
dences  of  the  cock  pit,  imparted  to  his 
boyish  companions  his  opinion  that  the 
commander  was  a  “damned  old  hum¬ 
bug.”  The  published  proceedings  of  the 
case  show  that  young  Spencer  was  a 
martyr  to  the  truth.  No  completer  hum¬ 
bug  was  ever  painted  by  moral  artist 
than  the  commander  of  the  “Somers,” 
according  to  his  own  showing. 

Spencer  was  full  of  fun  and  boyish 
mischief,  fond  of  playing  jokes  on  his 
elders,  but  otherwise  no  worse  than 
ninety-nine  out  of  a.  hundred  boys  of 
superabundant  anirnai  spirits.  He  took 
his  arrest  as  a  joke,  never  dreaming  of 
the  ferocious  intentions  of  the  com¬ 
mander,  and  the  other  officers  admitted 
at  once  that  he  had  imparted  to  the 
steward,  an  ancient  innocent,  a  plan  of 
capturing  the  vessel,  as  a  joke,  but  pro¬ 
tested  that  he  had  never  said  anything 
of  it  to  any  other  soul,  or  dreamed  that 
he  would  be  accused  of  cherishing  such 
a  project  in  earnest. 

This  admission  was  solemnlv  recorded 
by  the  commander  as  a  “full  confession,” 
and  though  the  closest  examination 
failed  to  show  that  he  had  ever  men¬ 
tioned  the  plot  to  any  body  else  on  the 
ship,  he  and  the  other  boys  were  solemnly 
hung  at  the  yard  arm  a  day  or  two  later. 
When  the  “Somers”  landed  at  New  York 
the  commander  marshaled  his  officers 
and  men  and  marched  to  church  in  a 
dreadful  procession,  there  to  give  public 
thanks  to  God  for  their  salvation  from 
the  diabolical  plot  of  the  boy  midship¬ 
man.  In  the  mean  time,  before  the 
precious  old  hypocrite  had  let  anybody 
come  ashore,  he  had  sent  a  private  mes¬ 
senger  to  Washington  to  convey  the 
news  of  his  feat  to  the  father  and  mother 
of  his. chief  victim,  and  to  get  the  bulge 
on  public  opinion,  while  the  heart  broken 
parents  were  prostrated  by  the  blow,  by 
circulating  the  dreadful  storv  of  the 
mutiny. 

Had  there  been  a  free  press  and  a  lit¬ 
tle  more  perspective  in  public  opinion 
the  murderers  of  this  bov  would  have 
been  mobbed.  But  the  public  was  com¬ 
pletely  hoodwinked  by  the  plausible  but 
shallow  story,  and  the  pious  mummery 
of  the  commander  and  commenced  to 
whoop  and  hurrah  for  a  man  who  had 
the  nerve  to  hang  a  son  of  a  secretary 
of  war,  just  the  same  as  though  he  had 
been  the  son  of  a  roustabout  on  the 
wharf. . 

The  Mather  of  the  victim,  as  soon  as  he 
could  recover  from  the  blow  sufficiently, 
sent  two  of  his  legal  friends,  Charles 
O’Conor  and  B.  F.  Butler,  to  represent 
the  family  at  the  court  of  inouiry,  but 
the  cowards  would  not  admit"  them  as 
counsel  and  the  court  capped  the  climax 
of  the  inquiry  by  approving  the  murders. 

When  one  reads  the  records  of  the 
court  martial  and  the  court  of  inquiry 
and  sees  how  the  iron  clad  liars  who 
conspired  to  kill  these  boys  contradicted 
themselves  repeatedly,  and  how  absurd 
their  stories  were,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
contradictions,  one  cannot  but  thank  his 
stars  that  what  occurred  in  ’42  could  not 
occur  m  this  day  and  age  of  a  “ribald 

that  klTlll 

✓  ^  WEEKLY  M 


ra  wLbtCOK!mitted  hy  the  commande 
If  Har  vessel  at  sea,  but  when  lie  cm 

greete^inaf1  lds  ap-Dlause  *>e  would 
gieetea  in  a  far  different  wav  than  v 

I  uffTTrJer  of  the  “Somers.”  Su 

i  Stuff  WouId  not  go  down  in  1889. 


MAGNIFICAT. 


517 


MAINTENON. 


of  the  primary  coil,  induces  currents  in  the  sec¬ 
ondary  coil.  and  the 
intensity  of  the  in¬ 
duced  current  is  in 
proportion  to  the 
amount  and  sudden¬ 
ness  of  the  change. 

A  permanent  bar- 
magnet  may  be  sub¬ 
stituted  for  the  pri¬ 
mary  coil  in  these 
experiments,  and 
the  same  results  ob¬ 
tained  with  greater 
intensity.  It  is  this 
inductive  power  of 
iron  at  the. moment 
that  a  change  takes 
place  in  its  magnet¬ 
ism,  that  forms  the 
basis  of  magneto- 
electric  machines.  NS  is  a  permanent  horseshoe-mag- 
When  the  armature  net;  CD  is  a  bar  of  soft  iron 
•  „ntTj,rn  with  coils  A  and  B  wound  round 

IS  made  to  le volte  extremities,  and  may  be 

With  sufficient  ra-  looked  upon  as  the  armature  of 
pidity,  a  very  ener-  the  magnet;  CD  is  capable  of  ro- 
getic  and  steady  tation  round  the  axis  EF. 
current  is  generated.  Of  late  years,  immense 
progress  has  been  made  in  the  construction  of 
such  machines. 

Magnif'icat,  a  musical  composition  in  the 
evening  service  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
and  also  of  the  Lutheran  and  English  Churches. 

Magno'lia,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  or¬ 
der  Magnoliacece,  having  a  calyx  of  three  sepals, 
a  corolla  of  6 — 12  petals,  and  carpels  in  spikes  ar¬ 
ranged  in  cones,  and  opening  at  the  dorsal  sut  ure. 
They  are  natives  chiefly  of  the  southern  portions 
of  North  America,  the  Himalaya  Mountains, 
China,  and  Japan.  The  flowers  are  large  and 
solitary,  the  leaves  large.  The  wood  is  in  gen¬ 
eral  soft  and  spongy.  M.  grandiflora,  some¬ 
times  called  the  big  laurel,  has  white  flowers 
sometimes  a  foot  in  diameter.  It  is  a  lofty  ever¬ 
green  tree,  conspicuous  at  a  great  distance,  found 
in  most  of  the  Southern  States. 

Magnolia,  the  county  seat  of  Columbia 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Magnolia,  the  county  seat  of  Pike  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  750. 

Magpie,  or  Pie  (Pica),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Corvid (e,  smaller  than  the  crow,  and  of 
mingled  blue,  black,  and  white  colors.  It  is  a 


Common  Magpie  ( Pica  caudala) . 


common  bird  in  almost  all  parts  of  Europe  and 
North  America.  The  magpie  is  easily  tamed,  be¬ 
comes  impudently  familiar,  and  learns  to  articu¬ 
late  a  few  words. 

Mahahharata  (from  the  Sanskrit  maluit — 
changed  to  mahd — great,  and  Bhdrata)  is  the 
name  of  one  of  the  two  great  epic  poems  of 
ancient  India. 

Mahadova  (the  great  god)  is  one  of  the  names 
by  which  the  Hindu  god  Siva  is  commonly  called. 

Maliannud'dy  (more  accurately,  Mahanadi),  a 
river  of  India,  rises  on  the  southwest  border  of 
the  Presidency  of  Bengal.  After  an  eastward 
course  of  520  miles,  it  flows  through  the  district 
of  that  name,  and  falls  by  several  mouths  into  the 
Bay  of  Bengal. 


Malianoy  City,  a  city  in  the  anthracite  coal 
mining  regions  of  Pennsylvania,  eighty  miles 
northwest  of  Philadelphia,  in  Schuylkill  county. 
Pop.,  9,100.  A  large  amount  of  money  is  dis¬ 
tributed  here  every  month,  aggregating  in  busy 
seasons  more  than  $500,000. 

Maliasangliika  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  two 
great  divisions  of  the  Buddhistic  Church  which 
arose  about  200  years  after  the  death  of  the 
Buddha  Silkyamuni. 

Mahavansa  is  the  title  of  two  celebrated  works 
written  in  Pali,  and  relating  to  the  history  of 
Lanka,  or  Ceylon. 

Maliavlra  (literally,  the  great  hero),  also  called 
Viva  and  Vardkamuna,  is  the  twenty-fourth  or 
last  Jina,  or  deified  saint,  of  the  Jainas,  described 
as  of  a  golden  complexion,  and  having  a  lion  for 
his  symbol. 

Mahmud  II.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  and  younger 
son  of  Sultan  Abdul-Hamid,  was  born  July  20, 
1785,  and  was  raised  to  the  throne  July  28,  1808. 
During  his  reign  Greece  revolted,  the  Janizaries 
were  destroyed,  and  Russia  defeated  the  Turks 
and  negotiated  the  treaty  of  Bucharest.  Although 
beset  on  all  sides  he  was  the  most  enlightened 
sovereign  and  greatest  reformer  that  had  ruled 
Turkey  to  that  date.  He  died  July  1,  1839,  after 
a  reign  of  thirty-one  years. 

Mahogany,  the  wood  of  the  trunk  of  the  Swie- 
lenia  mahagoni,  a  tree  of  80 — 100  feet  high,  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  natural  order  Cedrelaceoc,  a  native  of 
the  West  Indies  and  of  South  America.  It  attains 
an  immense  size,  second  to  few  others,  and  its 
timber  is  generally  sound  throughout  in  the 
largest  trees.  It  is  most  abundant  on  the  coast  of 
Honduras  and  around  Campeachy  Bay.  The 
wood  varies  much  in  value,  according  to  the  color 
and  beauty  of  curl;  single  logs  have  occasionally 
realized  as  much  as  $5,000,  for  cutting  into 
veneers.  Its  bark  has  been  recommended  and 
used  under  the  name  mahogany  bark,  or  ama¬ 
ranth  bark,  as  a  substitute  for  Peruvian  bark. 

Malirat'tas,  a  people  of  Hindu  race,  inhabit¬ 
ing  Central  India,  south  of  the  Ganges,  from 
Gwalior  to  Goa,  and  supposed  by  many  to  be  the 
descendants  of  a  Persian  or  North  Indian  peo¬ 
ple,  who  had  been  driven  southward  by  the 
Mongols, 

Maiden,  The,  a  name  given  to  a  machine  for 
beheading  criminals,  which  was  exactly  like  the 
French  guillotine,  except  that  it  had  no  turning- 
plank  on  which  to  bind  the  criminal.  It  was  used 
in  Great  Britain  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

Maidenhair  (Adiantumcapiliun-veaerU),  a  small, 
delicate,  and  graceful  fern,  growing  on  moist 
rocks  and  old  walls,  especially  near  the  sea;  very 


True  Maidenhair  ( Adiantum  capillus-veneris). 


abundant  in  the  South  of  Europe.  Another  spe¬ 
cies  of  the  same  genus,  A.  pedatum,  is  a  native  of 
North  America. 

Maid 'stone  (old  form,  Medwegston),  the  county 
town  of  Kent,  England,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Medway,  forty-three  miles  from  London.  Pop. 
(1881),  39,602. 

Mai'gre  (Scicena  aquila),  a  fish  of  theacanthop- 
terous  family  Scmnidce,  common  in  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  Sea.  In  general  appearance  it  much  resem¬ 
bles  a  large  bass.  The  maigre  is  in  very  high 


esteem  for  the  table,  and  the  head  is  a  favorite 
delicacy  for  epicures. 

Mailed  Cheeks  ( Sclerogenidce  or  Trig  lidos),  a 
family  of  acanthopterous  fishes,  distinguishingly 
characterized  by  an  enlargement  of  certain  bones 
of  the  head  and  gill-covers  to  form  a  bony  armor 
for  the  cheeks.  Gurnards  are  among  the  best 
known  and  most  valuable  of  this  family.  To 
it  belong,  also,  bull-heads  and  scorpcence. 

Main  (from  the  Lat.  magnus,  great),  the  name 
applied  on  shipboard  to  the  principal  mast,  and 
to  all  the  parts  belonging  or  adjacent  to  it — as, 
main  -  topmast,  main -yard,  main -stay,  main- 
shrouds,  main-hatchway,  main-chains,  etc. 

Main,  a  river  of  Germany,  the  largest  affluent 
the  Rhine  receives  from  the  right,  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  two  branches,  the  White  and  Red 
Main,  four  miles  below  Ivulmbach,  in  Bavaria. 
It  is  300  miles  in  length,  and  flows  into  the  Rhine. 
Its  waters  communicate  with  those  of  the  Danube 
by  means  of  the  Ludwigs-Kanal. 

Maine,  the  most  eastern  of  the  five  New  Eng¬ 
land  States,  extends  from  latitude  42°  57'  to  47° 
32'  N.,  and  from  longitude  66°  52'  to  71°  6' 
W.,  being  303  miles  from  north  to  south,  and 
212  from  east  to  west,  with  an  area  of  35,000 
square  miles,  or  22,400,000  acres.  Maine  is 
bounded  north  by  Quebec,  east  by  New  Bruns¬ 
wick,  south  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  west  by 
New  Hampshire  and  Canada.  The  country  is 
hilly,  with  a  range  of  mountains  stretching  north¬ 
east  from  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hamp¬ 
shire.  On  the  coast  are  fine  granite  quarries;  in¬ 
terior,  metamorphic  rocks  and  minerals,  lime¬ 
stone,  and  argillaceous  slates.  The  climate  ranges 
from  20°  to  30°  below  to  100°  above  zero.  The 
forests  are  rich  in  pine,  spruce,  hemlock,  maple, 
etc.,  and  the  chief  agricultural  products  are  pota¬ 
toes,  maize,  oats,  hay,  barley,  and  apples.  The 
rivers  and  coast  abound  in  fish.  One  of  the  chief 
exports  is  lumber,  and  one-tliird  of  all  the  ships 
of  America  are  built  on  the  rivers  and  harbors  of 
this  State.  The  falls  of  the  rivers  furnish  immense 
water-power  for  saw-mills  and  factories.  Maine 
has  over  1,000  miles  of  railway  in  operation. 
Maine  was  settled  in  1621,  and  was  a  part  of 
Massachusetts  until  1820.  The  chief  towns  are 
Portland,  Lewiston,  Bangor,  Biddeford,  Augusta 
(the  capital).  Pop.  (1880),  648,945. — Maine  Laws. 
The  State  appoints  special  agents,  and  in  them 
vests  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors,  including 
ale,  porter,  strong  beer,  lager  beer,  other  malt 
liquors,  all  distilled  spirits,  and  wine  and  cider 
other  than  what  is  made,  unadulterated,  from 
fruit  grown  in  the  State  (such  wine  and  cider  is 
exempted  from  the  laws).  All  other  than  these 
agents  are  prohibited  from  selling  intoxicating 
liquors,  and  the  manufacture  of  such  liquors  for 
unlawful  sale  is  also  forbidden.  The  Governor 
appoints  a  commissioner,  who  is  required  to  fur¬ 
nish  municipal  officers  and  duly  authorized  per¬ 
sons  with  pure,  unadulterated  intoxicating  liquors, 
to  be  sold  for  medicinal,  mechanical,  and  manu¬ 
facturing  purposes.  Severe  penalties  are  attached 
to  breaches  of  the  law,  and  any  one  injured  by  a 
drunken  person  may  proceed  at  law  against  the 
person  who  sold  the  liquor. 

Maine-et-Loire,  an  inland  department  of 
France,  forming  a  portion  of  the  lower  basin  of 
the  Loire.  Area,  2,745  English  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  523,491. 

Maintenon,  Franchise  d’Aubigne,  Marquise 
de,  was  born  Nov.  27,  1635,  in  the  prison  at  Niort, 
where  her  father  was  then  imprisoned.  When  she 
was  six'een  she  became  acquainted  with  the  poet 
Scarron,  whom  she  married,  and  now  lived 
in  the  midst  of  the  refined  and  intellectual  society 
which  frequented  the  house  of  the  poet.  On  his 
death,  in  1660,  she  was  reduced  to  great  poverty. 
Four  years  afterward  she  was  intrusted  with  the 
education  of  the  two  sons  whom  Madame  de 
Montespan  had  borne  to  Louis  XIV.,  and  at  last 
she  succeeded  in  supplanting  Madame  de  Montes¬ 
pan.  It  is  difficult  to  describe  her  relation  to 
the  King.  She  was  not,  it  is  believed,  his  mistress 
in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term,  but  from  that 
time  to  the  end  of  his  life,  she  exercised  an  extraor¬ 
dinary  ascendency  over  him.  In  1684,  about 
eighteen  months  after  the  death  of  the  Queen, 
Louis  privately  married  her.  She  died  April  15, 
1719. 


MAINZ. 


518 


MAMMALIA. 


Mainz  (Mayence,  ancient  Moguntiacum),  the 
most  strongly  fortified  city  in  the  German  empire, 
is  situated  in  50°  N.  latitude,  and  8°  10'  E.  longi¬ 
tude.  Pop.  (1880\  61,322. 

Maize  {Zen),  a  genus  of  grasses.  The  common 
maize  or  Indian  corn  (Z.  mays),  is  generally 
believed  to  he  a  native  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
America,  where  it  was  cultivated  by  the  aborig¬ 
ines  before  the  discovery  of  America  by  Colum¬ 
bus.  Some  authorities  claim,  however,  that  it  is 
a  native  of  Southern  Europe;  others  of  China. 
Columbus  himself  brought  it  to  Spain  about  the 
year  1520.  It  is  now  in  general  cultivation  in 
the  South  of  Europe,  and  supplies  a  principal 
part  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  many 
countries  of  Asia  and  Africa.  It  is  by  far  the 
most  productive  of  all  the  cereals. 

Majol'ica,  a  name  at  first  given  by  the  Italians 
to  a  certain  kind  of  earthenware,  because  the 
first  specimens  that  they  saw  came  from  Majorca. 
It  is  synonymous  with  faience.  The  term 
majolica  is  also  used  to  designate  vessels  made  of 
colored  clay,  and  coated  with  a  white  opaque 
varnish,  so  as  to  resemble  artistic  faience. 

Major,  a  term  in  Music,  applicable  to  those 
intervals  which  are  suscept  ible  of  being  lowered  a 
semitone  without  becoming  false. 

Ma  jor,  in  the  Army,  is  the  lowest  field-officer 
in  a  regiment  of  infantry  or  cavalry.  He  ranks 
next  to  the  lieutenant-colonel. 

Mojor'ca  (Span.  Mallorca),  the  largest  of 
the  Balearic  Isles,  lies  107  miles  southeast  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Ebro,  the  nearest  point  of  the 
Spanish  coast,  and  171  miles  north  of  Algiers. 
Pop.,  230,000. 

Major 'ity  is  the  age  at  which  a  person  in  this 
country  acquires  the  status  of  a  person  suijuris — 
i.  e.,  able  to  manage  his  or  her  own  affairs. 
This  age  is  twenty-one. 

Make',  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  on  the  right- 
bank  of  the  Maros,  sixteen  miles  east-southeast  of 
Szegedin.  Pop.  (1880),  30,063. 

Malabar a  maritime  district  of  British  India, 
in  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  District  of  Coimbatore,  while  on  the 
west  its  shores  are  washed  by  the  Arabian  Sea; 
and  it  extends  in  latitude  from  10°  15'  to  12°  18' 
N.  Area,  5,765  square  miles;  pop.  (Feb.,  1881), 
2,365,  035. 

Malac'ca,  a  British  maritime  settlement  on  the 
southwest  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  extends 
in  latitude  from  2°  to  3s  N.,  and  longitude  from 
102®  to  103°  E.  It  is  40  miles  in  length,  and, 
including  the  district  of  Nailing,  about  25  miles 
broad.  Area,  1,000  square  miles;  pop.,  80,000. 

Malacca,  Strait  of,  separates  the  Malay 
Peninsula  on  the  northeast  from  the  Islands  of 
Sumatra  on  the  southwest.  Length,  520  miles. 

Mal'achi,  the  name  given  to  the  last  canonical 
book  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  either  a  proper 
name  or  a  mere  appellative. 

M  al'acliite,  a  mineral,  essentially  a  carbonate 
of  copper,  of  a  green  color,  often  found  as  an 
incrustation  or  stalactitic  along  with  other  ores  of 
copper.  It  is  used  for  many  ornamental  purposes. 

Malachy,  Imar,  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  in 
Ireland,  and  a  saiint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  was  born  in  the  end  of  the  eleventh  cent¬ 
ury,  and  died  in  1118. 

Malacopteryg'ii,  MALAcoPTERi(Gr.//arlar;co?, 
malakos,  soft-;  and  nrepv^,  pteryx,  a  wing),  or 
Malacopterous  Fishes,  one  of  the  two  primary 
divisions  of  osseous  fishes  in  the  system  of  Cuvier, 
distinguished  by  soft  or  spineless  fins,  the  rays  of 
which  are  jointed. 

Malad  City,  the  county  seat  of  Oneida  county, 
Idaho.  Pop  ,  950. 

Mal'aga,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Spain,  capital 
of  the  modern  province  of  the  same  name,  is  situ¬ 
ated  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  seventy 
miles  northeast  of  Gibraltar.  It  is  celebrated  for 
its  grapes  and  wines. 

Malaptera'rus  (Gr.  paAaKoi,  malakos,  soft; 
tct Efiov ,  pteron,  a  fin;  and  ovpa,  oura,  the  tail) 
is  the  name  given  to  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
family  Siluridm,  in  which,  in  place  of  a  true 
dorsal  fin,  there  is  a  soft  fatty  fin  near  the  tail. 

Malay  Peninsula,  or  Malacca,  is  the  long 
strip  of  land  extending  from  Indo-China  south¬ 
ward  and  southeast  toward  the  Island  of  Sumatra. 
The  length  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  is  about  900 


miles,  and  its  area  83,000  square  miles;  while  the 
pop.  is  something  less  than  1,000,000. 

Malays  {Malay us,  a  Malay  word)  is  the  name 
given,  in  a  restricted  sense,  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  but  in  its  wider  accepta¬ 
tion,  to  a  great  branch  of  the  human  family  found 
also  in  the  Islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  in 
Madagascar,  and  in  the  numerous  islands  of  the 
Pacific. 

Malden,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  five  miles 
north  of  Boston.  There  are  manufactures  of 
india-rubber  shoes,  boot  lasts,  leather,  tassels,  and 
iron  pipes.  Pop.  (1889),  20,207. 

Mai  'dive  Islands,  a  chain  of  low  coral  islands 
in  the  Indian  Ocean,  about  400  miles  west-south- 
west  of  Ceylon.  The  pop.  of  the  whole  chain  is 
estimated  at  150,000. 

Malebranche,  Nicolas,  a  French  philosopher, 
born  Aug.  6,  1638,  at  Paris.  He  died  at  Paris 
(as  English  critics  are  fond  of  saying)  of  a  dispute 
with  the  subtle  Berkeley,  Oct.  13,  1715. 

Maleslierbes,  Chretien  Guillaume  de  La- 
moignon  de,  a  distinguished  French  statesman, 
was  born  at  Paris,  Dec.  6,  1721.  He  was  arrested 
in  the  beginning  of  December,  1793,  and  guillo¬ 
tined  April  22,  1794,  along  with  his  daughter 
and  her  husband. 

Malibran,  Maria  Felicita,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  mezzo-soprano  singers  of  recent  times, 
born  at  Paris,  March  24,  1808,  and  died  at  Man¬ 
chester,  England,  in  September,  1836. 

Malic  Acid  (C4  He,  05),  so  called  from  malum, 
the  Latin  word  for  an  apple,  occurs  abundantly  in 
most  acidulous  fruits,  in  which  it  is  found  as  an 
acid  or  super-salt  of  potash  or  lime,  which  gradu¬ 
ally  changes  into  a  neutral  salt  as  the  fruit  ripens. 
It  crystallizes  in  groups  of  radiating  acicular 
prisms,  but  as  the  crystals  are  very  deliquescent, 
it  is  usually  obtained  as  a  syrupy,  semi-transparent 
mass,  with  a  very  sour  smell,  and  readily  soluble 
in  water  and  alcohol. 

Malig'nant  Pustule,  is  a  contagious  and  very 
fatal  disease,  common  in  France,  where  it  bears 
the  name  of  Chnrbon,  but  of  comparatively  rare 
occurrence  elsewhere.  It  begins  as  a  small,  dark- 
red,  painful  spot,  on  which  there  soon  appears  a 
pustule  or  vesicle,  seated  on  a  hard,  inflamed  base. 
When  this  is  opened,  a  black  slough  becomes 
apparent.  This  sloughing  spreads  rapidly,  involv¬ 
ing  the  cellular  tissue,  and  sometimes  even  the 
adjacent  muscles.  The  constitutional  symptoms 
are  much  the  same  as  those  of  putrid  typhus  fever. 

Mali'nes,  or  Mech'lin,  one  of  the  chief  cities 
of  the  Belgian  province  of  Antwerp,  fifteen  miles 
south-southeast  of  the  city  of  that  name,  on  the 
navigable  River  Dyle.  The  pop.  was,  in  1876, 
39,029. 

Malleabillity  is  the  property  which  certain 
metals  possess  of  being  reducible  to  thin  leaves, 
either  by  hammering,  or  by  lamination  between 
rollers.  The  order  in  which  the  malleable  metals 
exhibit  this  property  is  as  follows  :  gold,  silver, 
copper,  platinum,  palladium,  iron,  aluminium, 
tin,  zinc,  lead,  cadmium,  nickel,  cobalt. 

Mallow  {Malta),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat¬ 
ural  order  Malvacece.  The  species  are  herbaceous 
plants,  or  more  rarely  shrubs.  The  dwarf  mallow 
(M.  robin  difolia),  has  small  whitish  or  reddish- 
white  flowers,  and  the  leaves  are  used  as  an  emol¬ 
lient  and  demulcent  medicine,  a  decoction  of  them 
being  employed  in  cases  of  irritation  of  the  pul¬ 
monary  and  of  the  urinary  organs;  and  poultices 
made  of  them  are  very  frequently  employed  to 
allay  external  inflammation.  Other  species  have 
similar  properties. 

Mai 'moe,  the  principal  town  of  the  “lien,”  or 
district,  of  Malmoehus,  in  Sweden,  is  situated  on 
the  Sound,  nearly  opposite  Copenhagen,  and  had, 
in  1880,  a  pop.  of  38,054. 

Malone,  the  county  seat  of  Franklin  county, 
N.  Y.  Pop.,  6,250. 

Malpighi,  Marcello,  an  eminent  Italian  anat¬ 
omist,  was  born  near  Bologna  in  1628,  and  died  at 
Rome  in  1694.  He  is  now  chiefly  known  for  his 
discoveries  in  the  anatomy  of  the  skin,  of  the 
kidney,  and  of  the  spleen. 

Malpighia'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants.  There  are  about  600  known  species, 
natives  of  tropical  countries,  and  chiefly  of  South 
America.  The  bark  of  some  species  of  the  genus 
Byrsonima  is  astringent  and  medicinal,  and  at 


one  time  attracted  considerable  attention  as  a 
remedy  for  pulmonary  consumption. 

Mal'strom,  or  Moskoestrom  (whirling 
stream),  the  most  famous  whirlpool  in  the  world, 
is  situated  on  the  Norwegian  coast,  between 
Moskoe  and  Moskeniis,  two  of  the  Loffoden  Isles. 
The  current  runs  for  six  hours  from  north  to 
south,  and  then  six  hours  from  south  to  north, 
producing  immense  whirls.  The  whirlpool  is 
greatest  at  high  or  low  water;  and  when  the  wind 
blows  directly  against  the  current,  it  becomes  ex¬ 
tremely  dangerous,  the  whole  sea  for  several  miles 
around  being  so  violently  agitated  that  no  boat 
can  live  in  it  for  a  moment.  In  ordinary  circum¬ 
stances,  it  may  be  traversed  even  across  the  center 
without  apprehension.  The  stories  of  ships, 
whales,  etc.,  being  swallowed  up  in  the  vortex, 
are  simply  fables;  at  the  same  time  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  a  ship,  once  fairly  under  the  influ¬ 
ence  of  the  current  ,  would  certainly  either  founder 
or  be  dashed  upon  the  rocks,  and  whales  have 
often  been  found  stranded  on  the  Flagstadt  coast 
from  the  same  cause. 

Mal'ta,  an  island  and  British  possession  in  the 
Mediterianean,  17  miles  long  by  about  9  broad, 
with  an  area  of  about  115  square  miles.  The 
Emperor  Charles  Y.  took  possession  of  Malta, 
and,  in  1530,  granted  it,  with  Gozo  and  Tripoli, 
in  perpetual  sovereignty  to  the  Knights  of  the 
Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem.  Though  waging 
perpetual  war  with  the  Moslem,  the  knights  con¬ 
tinued  in  possession  until  1798,  when  the  Order 
surrendered  to  the  French.  The  treaty  of  Amiens 
stipulated  that  Malta  should  be  restored  to  the 
Knights  of  St.  John;  but  the  British  Government 
refused  to  make  the  transfer,  and  the  Congress  of 
Vienna  recognized  Malta  as  a  British  dependency. 
In  1881,  Melta  and  Gozo,  with  the  adjacent 
islands,  together  contained  149,782  inhabitants. 

Maltese'  Cross,  a  cross  of  eight  points,  of  the 
form  worn  as  a  decoration  by  the  Hospitallers 
and  other  orders  of  knighthood. 

Malthns,  Thomas  Robert,  the  founder  of 
those  opinions  concerning  the  relation  of  popula¬ 
tion  to  the  means  of  sustenance  which  have  been 
named  after  him  “Malthusian,”  was  born  in  the 
County  of  Surrey,  England,  in  1766.  It  was  in 
1798  that  he  first  published  his  Essay  on  the  Prin¬ 
ciples  of  Population  as  it  affects  the  Future  Im¬ 
provement  of  Society.  His  theory  is  that  if  popu¬ 
lation  were  permitted  to  increase  at  its  natural 
rate,  it  would  soon  overtake  the  means  of  sub¬ 
sistence.  The  final  check  to  the  growth  of  popu¬ 
lation  is  the  want  of  food;  other  natural  checks 
are  poverty,  exposure,  unwholesome  toil,  and 
disease.  Of  preventive  checks,  the  only  one  rec¬ 
ognized  by  Mallhus  was,  that  a  man  should  not 
marry  till  he  could  support  a  family.  He  died 
in  1836. 

Malvern,  the  county  seat  of  Hot  Springs  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Mam'elukeSjMAMLOUKS,  otMemlooks.  When 
Genghis  Khan  desolated  great  part  of  Asia  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  carried  away  a  multitude 
of  the  inhabitants  for  slaves,  the  Sultan  of  Egypt 
bought  12,000  of  them,  partly  Mingrelians  and 
Tclierkesses,  but  mostly  Turks,  and  formed  them 
into  a  body  of  troops.  But  they  soon  found  their 
own  power  so  great  that,  in  1254,  they  made  one 
of  their  own  number  sultan  of  Egypt,  founding 
the  dynasty  of  the  Baliarites,  which  gave  place  to 
another  Mameluke  dynasty,  that  of  the  Borjites, 
in  1382.  Their  number  was  kept  up  chiefly  by 
slaves  brought  from  the  Caucasus,  from  among 
whom  the  beys  and  other  officers  of  state  were 
exclusively  chosen.  In  1811  they  were  massa¬ 
cred  by  Mohammed  Ali,  afterward  Viceroy  of 
Egypt. 

Manuna'lia  (Lat.  mamma,  a  teat),  the  highest 
class  of  the  animal  sub-kingdom  Vertebrata.  The 
most  distinctive  character  of  the  mammalia  is  their 
mode  of  development  and  of  nourishment  during 
the  earliest  period  of  life.  They  are  all  brought 
into  the  world  alive  (viviparous),  by  the  formation 
of  a  connection  between  the  embryo  and  its  mother, 
while  the  former  lies  within  the  maternal  cavities, 
so  that  provision  is  made  for  its  development  be¬ 
fore  birth,  not,  as  in  birds,  etc.,  by  the  large  yelk, 
but  by  a  constant  supply  of  nutriment  direct  from 
the  maternal  blood.  In  mammals  the  ovum,  on 
quitting  the  ovary,  is  of  extremely  minute  size, 


MAMMARY  GLAND. 


519 


MANDARIN. 


and  the  materials  of  the  yelk  only  serve  to  support 
the  embryo  during  its  very  earliest  period.  After 
undergoing  certain  changes  in  the  passage  through 
the  fallopian  tube  or  oviduct,  the  ovum  reaches 
the  uterus  or  womb,  and  connects  itself  by  a  set 
of  root-like  tufts  of  vessels  with  the  maternal  ves¬ 
sels.  These  tufts  absorb  from  the  mother’s  blood 
the  ingredients  necessary  for  the  support  of  the 
embryo,  while  they  convey  back  to  it  the  effete 
particles  of  the  embryonic  tissues.  Through  this 
organ,  which  simultaneously  increases  in  size  with 
the  embryo,  and  is  named  the  placenta,  the  young 
animal,  except  in  the  lowest  orders  of  the  class, 
derives  its  nutriment  during  the  whole  period  of 
gestation.  The  mammalian  embryo  agrees  with 
that  of  birds  and  reptiles  in  possessing  an  amnion 
and  allantois.  In  all  mammals  we  find  the  same 
provision  for  nourishing  the  animal  during  the 
period  immediately  succeeding  its  birth — viz.,  the 
milk,  a  fluid  secreted  by  the  mammary  glands, 
which  become  greatly  developed  in  the  female 
during  the  periods  of  gestation  and  lactation;  and 
as  this  is  found  in  no  other  class,  it  is  the  character 
by  which  the  entire  group  is  most  obviously  de¬ 
fined,  and  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  The 
mammary  glands  exist  in  both  sexes,  but,  except 
in  very  rare  cases,  it  is  only  in  the  female  that  they 
secrete  milk.  Their  number  is  never  less  than  two, 
and,  when  more,  is  generally  nearly  proportional 
to  that  of  the  young  produced  at  each  birth. 
These  glands  are  often  blended  together,  as  in 
the  cow,  and  their  number  is  then  indicated  ex¬ 
ternally  by  that  of  the  nipples  or  teats.  Their 
position  also  varies;  in  the  monkeys  and  bats,  and 
n  the  sirenia,  they  are  situated  on  the  thorax  as 
in  man;  in  most  of  the  carnivorous  animals,  they 
are  situated  on  the  abdomen  as  well  as  on  the 
thorax;  while  in  the  mare,  cow,  sheep,  etc.,  they 
are  placed  still  further  back,  near  the  liip-joint. 
The  vertebral  column,  except  in  relation  to  its 
length,  closely  resembles  that  in  man,  where  there 
are  7  cervical,  12  dorsal,  5  lumbar,  5  sacral,  and 
5  caudal  vertrebrse.  The  cervical  vertebra  are 
almost  universally  7  in  number,  however  long  or 
short  the  neck  may  be,  the  only  known  excep¬ 
tions  being  two  sirenians  { manatus  and  rhytina), 
which  have  6,  and  the  three-toed  sloth,  which 
has  9.  The  number  of  dorsal  vertebrae  ranges 
from  11  to  23,  which  latter  number  occurs  in  the 
two-toed  sloth.  The  lumbar  vertebra  range 
from  2  to  9,  the  most  common  number  being  5. 
The  sacral  vertebrae,  which  coalesce  to  form  the 
sacrum  and  to  support  the  pelvic  arch,  vary  from 
2  (in  the  monotremata  and  marsupialia)  to  6  (in 
the  mole),  the  most  common  number  being  4.  In 
the  cetacea,  the  rudimentary  pelvis  is  loosely 
connected  with  a  single  vertebra,  and  there  can 
not  be  said  to  be  a  sacrum.  The  caudal  vertebrae, 
which  in  man  and  the  higher  apes  coalesce  to 
form  the  coccyx,  are  usually  very  numerous.  20 
or  30  being  a  common  number,  and  40  occurring 
in  the  long-tailed  ant-eater.  The  form  and  num¬ 
ber  of  caudal  vertebrae  vary  in  accordance  with 
the  purposes  to  which  the  tail  is  applied.  The 
ribs  correspond  in  number  to  the  dorsal  vertebrae, 
and,  as  a  general  rule  (excepting  in  the  mono¬ 
tremata),  they  are  connected  superiorly  not  only 
with  the  bodies  of  two  vertebrae,  but  with  the 
transverse  process  of  one  of  them,  and  hence 
present  corresponding  articular  surfaces.  The 
sternum  is  generally  divided  into  three  portions; 
the  middle  one,  in  place  of  being  represented  by 
a  single  piece,  as  in  man,  usually  consisting  of  as 
many  pieces  as  there  are  true  ribs.  The  cavity  of 
the  thorax,  which  is  bounded  superiorly  by  the 
dorsal  vertebrae,  laterally  by  the  ribs,  and  in- 
feriorly  by  the  sternum,  is  Completely  separated 
from  the  abdominal  cavity  in  mammals  (but  in 
no  other  vertebrates)  by  the  muscular  septum 
known  as  the  diaphragm,  or  midriff.  The 
anterior  extremities  are  always  present,  although 
their  modes  of  conformation  are  very  varied, 
according  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  arc 
designed;  and  th a  posterior  extremities,  which  arc 
also  always  present,  except  in  the  cetacea,  closely 
resemble  the  anterior.  The  only  animals  of  this 
class  in  which  teeth  are  altogether  absent  are  the 
true  ant-eaters  and  the  monotremata.  The  num¬ 
ber  of  teeth  is  generally  much  more  restricted 
than  in  reptiles  or  fishes.  In  most  mammals  it  is 
the  same  as  in  man — viz.,  32;  but  the  typical 
number,  according  to  Owen,  is  44,  though  some 


greatly  exceed  this  number.  The  class  is  usually 
divided  as  follows; 

I.  ORNITIIODELPHIA,  including  those  mammals  which 
resemble  birds  and  reptiles  in  the  possession  of  a  cloaca 
and  of  large  coracoid  bones,  articulating  with  the  ster¬ 
num.  There  is  no  vagina,  and  the  mammary  glands  are 
destitute  of  teats.  This  group  contains  only  one  order, 
Monotremata,  and  two  genera,  Ornithorhynchus,  and 
Echidna. 

II.  DIDELPHIA.— In  this  and  the  subsequent  group, 
the  coracoids  are  mere  processes  of  the  scapula,  there  is 
a  vagina,  and  the  mammary  glands  have  teats.  The  spe¬ 
cial  characters  of  Didelphia  are,  that  the  embryo  does  not 
become  connected  with  the  wall  of  the  uterus  by  a  pla¬ 
centa,  and  that  the  vagina  is  double.  There  is  only  one 
order,  Marsupialia,  but  its  members  are  differentiated 
into  very  distinct  families  (kangaroos,  opossums,  wom¬ 
bats,  etc.),  and  adapted  to  very  various  habits  of  life. 

III.  MONODELPHIA.— In  this  sub-class,  the  embryo  is 
nourished  while  within  the  uterus  by  a  placenta  ;  and  the 
vagina  is  single.  The  existing  orders  are: 

1.  Edentata  (ant-eaters,  sloths,  armadillos,  etc.) 

2.  Hyracoidea  (cony,  Uyrax). 

3.  Proboscidea  (elephant). 

4.  Ungulata  — This  large  order  is  divided  into  two  well- 

marked  groups.  Perissodaclyla  and  Artiodactyta;  the 
former  inclhding  three  existing  genera  (horse, 
tapir,  and  rhinoceros),  and  the  latter  the  pigs  and 
ruminants. 

5.  Sirenia.— This  order,  which  includes  the  Manatee, 

Dugong,  and  Rhytina,  was  formerly  included  under 
Cetacea,  hut  is  now  considered  a  modification  of  the 
Ungulate  type  in  accordance  with  an  aquatic  mode 
of  life. 

6.  Carnivora.— This  large  order  is  divided  into  two 

groups— (a)  Fissipedia,  including  the  dog,  bear,  and 
cat  families;  and  ( b )  Pinnipedia,  the  sea-lions,  wal¬ 
ruses.  and  seals. 

7.  Cetacea  (whales,  porpoises,  etc.) — Tin's  order  pre¬ 

sents  an  extreme  modification  of  the  pinnipede  type 
to  aquatic  habits,  and  stands  in  the  same  relation  to 
Carnivora  as  Sirenia  to  Ungulata. 

8.  Insectivora  (hedgehogs,  shrews,  moles). — These  are 

in  many  respects  the  lowest  and  simplest  order  of 
Placental  mammals,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Edentata. 

fl.  Rode.ntia  (hares,  rats,  porcupines,  squirrels,  etc.) 

10.  Cheiroptera  (bats).— Essentially  a  modification  of 

the  Insectivorous  type  for  purposes  of  flight. 

11.  Primates;  including  lemurs,  monkeys,  apes,  and  man. 

Mammary  Glaml,  Diseases  of.  The  follow¬ 
ing  are  some  of  the  most  important  of  these 
affections.  Acute  inflammation  of  the  breast, 
which  is  characterized  by  great  swelling,  tender¬ 
ness,  pain,  and  fever.  There  is  a  knotty  feeling 
in  the  inflamed  part,  and  matter  soon  forms;  but 
the  abscess  is  often  slow  in  pointing.  The  affec¬ 
tion  may  occur  at  any  period  of  lactation,  and 
sometimes  arises  from  very  trifling  causes — as  a 
loaded  state  of  the  bowels,  too  stimulating  a  diet, 
etc.  The  bowels  should  at  once  be  cleared  out 
by  sharp  purgatives;  leeches  and  fomentations 
should  be  applied;  the  arm  on  the  affected  side 
should  rest  in  a  sling;  and  an  opening  should  be 
made  where  matter  can  be  felt.  The  milk  should 
also  be  regularly  drawn  off,  if  it  can  be  done 
without  extreme  pain.  Sore  nipples  are  a  fre¬ 
quent  cause  of  the  preceding  disease.  Among 
the  remedies  for  excoriations,  cracks,  fissures,  and 
ulcerations  of  the  nipple,  which  cause  great  pain 
in  suckling,  are  the  application  of  strong  astrin¬ 
gent  lotions  (tannin  lotion,  for  example),  touch¬ 
ing  the  sore  point  with  solid  nitrate  of  silver 
(lunar  caustic),  and  especially  the  application  of 
collodion.  In  bad  cases,  a  metallic  shield  must 
be  placed  on  the  nipple,  to  protect  it  from  the 
clothes  and  from  the  child’s  mouth.  The  regular 
application  of  a  liniment  of  rectified  spirits  and 
olive  oil  in  equal  parts  will  sometimes  prevent 
this  affection. 

JVIammee  Apple  (Mammea  americana),  a  highly 
esteemed  fruit  of  the  West  Indies.  The  fruit  is 
roundish,  from  the  size  of  a  hen’s  egg  to  that  of 
a  small  melon,  with  a  thick,  leathery  rind,  and  a 
very  delicate  inner  rind  adhering  closely  to  the 
pulp,  which  must  be  carefully  removed  on 
account  of  its  bitter  taste.  The  pulp  is  firm  and 
bright  yellow,  with  peculiar  sweet  and  very 
agreeable  taste,  and  a  pleasant  aromatic  odor. 

Mammoth  Cave,  one  of  the  largest  known 
caverns  in  the  world,  is  in  Kentucky,  seventy- 
five  miles  south-southwest  of  Louisville.  The 
cave  is  about  9  miles  long.  In  the  cave  are 
found  two  or  three  species  of  eyeless  or  blind  fish, 
including  the  curious  Amblyopsis  spelceus,  a  blind 
crayfish  (nearly  white  in  color  like  the  fish),  liz¬ 
ards,  frogs,  crickets,  rats,  and  bats. 

Man,  Isle  of,  is  situated  in  the  Irish  Sea,  in  N. 
latitude  54°  3' — 54°  25'  and  W.  longitude  4°  18' 
— 4°  47';  the  shortest  distance  between  the 
island  and  the  adjacent  countries  being  from 
Point  of  Ayre  to  Burrow  Head  in  Scotland, 
1G  miles.  The  length  of  the  island  is  33i  miles, 


breadth  12  J  miles,  and  area  about  145,325  acres, 
of  which  more  than  90,000  are  cultivated.  Pop. 
1881,  54,042.  The  language  of  the  natives  is  a 
dialect  of  the  Celtic,  and  is  closely  allied  to  the 
Gaelic  and  the  Erse  or  Irish.  As  a  spoken  lan¬ 
guage  it  is  almost  entirely  disused.  The  island 
belongs  to  Great  Britian. 

Mannar',  Gulf  of,  lies  between  the  west  side 
of  the  Island  of  Ceylon  and  Hindustan,  and  is 
divided  from  Pal  k’s  Passage  on  the  north  by  the 
Islands  of  Ramisseram  and  Manaar,  and  by  a  low 
reef  called  Adam’s  Bridge.  At  its  northeast 
extremity  it  is  80  miles  in  width;  while  at  its 
southwestern  limit  it  reaches  a  width  of  nearly 
200  miles. 

Manaca  ( Franciscea  uniflora,  or  Ilopcana),  a 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Scrophulariacece,  a 
native  of  Brazil.  The  whole  plant,  and  especially 
the  root,  is  found  to  be  of  great  value  in  exciting 
the  lymphatic  system.  It  is  nauseously  bitter, 
purgative,  emetic,  emmenagogue,  and  alexiphar- 
mic;  in  overdoses,  an  acrid  poison.  It  is  much 
used  in  Brazil  as  a  remedy  for  syphilis. 

Manas 'sell  (from  Heb.  Nasha,  to  forget,  signi¬ 
fies  one  who  causes  to  forget),  the  name  of  the 
eldest  sou  of  Joseph. 

Manatee,  the  county  seat  of  Manitee  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  375. 

Manatee',  or  Lamantin  (Manatus),  a  genus  of 
sirenia,  belonging  to  the  family  Manalidw,  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  the  rounded  tail-fin,  and  further 
characterized  by  the  presence  of  small,  flat  nailsat 
the  edge  of  the  swimming  paws,  and  by  the  struct¬ 
ure  of  the  grinders,  which  have  square  crowns 
with  two  transverse  ridges.  A  common  name  for 
the  manatee  is  sea-cow. — Another  species  is  found 
on  the  coast  of  Florida,  and  a  third  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa. 

Man'clia,  or  La  Manciia,  a  district  of  Spain, 
in  the  Province  of  Ciudad  Real,  and  the  southern¬ 
most  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  New  Castile.  From 
this  district  Cervantes  derived  the  title  of  his  hero, 
Don  Quixote  de  la  Mancha. 

Manche,  a  maritime  department  in  the  North¬ 
west  of  France,  derives  its  name  from  La  Manche 
(the  English  Channel),  which  washes  its  coasts. 
Greatest  length,  98  miles;  average  breadth,  27 
miles;  area,  1,426,289  acres.  Pop.  (1876),  539,910. 

Manchester(Sax.  Mamcestre),  a  city,  municipal 
and  parliamentary  borough  of  Lancashire,  and  the 
great  center  of  the  cotton  manufacture  of  the 
Northwest  of  England,  stands  on  the  Irwell, 
thirty-two  miles  east-northeast  of  Liverpool,  and 
188  miles  nortli-nortliwest  of  London  by  railway. 
On  the  west  side  of  the  Irwell  is  the  borough  of 
Salford,  communicating  with  that  of  Manchester 
by  means  of  ten  bridges,  and  considered  as  virtu¬ 
ally  a  portion  of  the  city.  In  1881  the  pop.  was 
393,486. 

Manchester,  the  name  of  several  cities  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  A  city  of  New 
Hampshire,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Merrimac 
river,  at  the  falls  of  Amoskeag.  The  falls  of 
fifty-four  feet  in  a  mile  afford  water-power  to 
many  manufactories  of  cotton,  paper,  locomo¬ 
tives,  hardware,  etc.  Pop.  (1889),  45,600. — 2. 
The  county  seat  of  Bennington  county,  Vt,  Pop., 
2,475.-3.  A  cotton  and  flour  manufacturing 
town  of  Chesterfield  county,  Va.  Pop.,  7,229. — 
4.  The  county  seat  of  Clay  county,  Ky.  Pop., 
425. — 5.  County  seat  of  Coffee  county,  Tenn. 
Pop.,  540. — 6.  The  county  seat  of  Delaware 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  3,000. — 7.  A  manufacturing 
town  of  Hartford  county,  Conn.  Pop.,  7,975. 

Man 'chinecl  ( Uippomane  mancinella),  a  trop¬ 
ical  American  tree  of  the  natural  order  Euphor- 
biacece,  celebrated  for  the  poisonous  properties  of 
the  acrid  milky  juice  with  which  every  part  of  it 
abounds.  A  drop  of  this  juice,  which  is  of  a 
pure  white  color,  burns  like  fire  if  it  falls  upon 
the  skin,  and  the  sore  which  it  produces  is  very 
difficult  to  heal.  The  Indians  of  tropical  America 
use  it  for  poisoning  their  arrows. 

Mandan,  the  county  seat  of  Morton  county, 
Dak.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Mandarin ',  a  general  term  applied  by  foreign¬ 
ers  to  Chinese  officers  of  every  grade.  It  is 
derived  from  the  Portuguese  mandar,  to  com¬ 
mand;  the  Chinese  equivalent  is  kican.  There 
are  nine  ranks,  each  distinguished  by  a  different- 
colored  ball  or  button  placed  on  the  apex  of  the 


MANDEVILLE. 


520 


MANITOBA. 


cap,  by  a  peculiar  emblazonry  on  the  breast,  and 
a  different  clasp  of  the  girdle.  The  balls  are  ruby, 
coral,  sapphire,  a  blue  opaque  stone,  crystal, 
opaque  white  shell,  worked  gold,  plain  gold, 
and  silver. 

Mandevillc,  Sir  Joiin,  an  old  English  trav¬ 
eler,  born  at  St.  Albans  about  the  year  1300.  He 
died  at  Liege,  Nov.  17,  1372. 

Mandih'ulata,  Mandib'clated,  or  Masti¬ 
cating  Insects,  a  term  used  to  include  those 
insects  having  the  mouth  of  the  Coleoptera,  and 
containing  the  orders,  Coleoptera,  Orthoptera, 
Neuropier  a,  and  Hymenoptera. 

MandiiTgoes  are,  strictly  speaking,  the  inhab¬ 
itants  of  the  most  southwesterly  territories  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  great  West  African  race  of  the  Wan- 
garawa  (sing.  Wangara),  and  inhabiting  a  dis¬ 
trict  extending  in  latitude  from  8°  to  12°  N.,  and 
between  the  west  coasts  and  the  head  waters  of 
the  Senegal  and  Niger. 

Man'dolin,  a  musical  instrument  of  the  lute 
species.  The  Neapolitan  mandolin,  which  is  the 
most  perfect,  has  four  double  strings,  which  are 
tuned,  beginning  with  the  lowest,  G,  D,  A,  E. 
The  Milanese  mandolin  has  five  double  strings, 
tuned  G,  C,  A,  D,  E.  The  sound  of  the  mandolin 
is  produced  by  a  plectrum  in  the  right  hand, 
while  the  left  hand  produces  the  notes  on  the 
finger-board. 

Man  'drake  ( Mandragora ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Solanaceee,  nearly  allied  to 
belladonna.  All  parts  of  the  plant  have  poisonous 
properties  like  those  of  belladonna,  but  more 


Mandrake  {Mandragora  officinarum). 


narcotic.  From  the  most  ancient  times,  aphro¬ 
disiac  virtues  have  been  ascribed  to  the  man¬ 
drake,  which  was  therefore  supposed  to  cure 
barrenness. 

Manfred,  King  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  was  born 
about  1231.  Manfred  was  slain  in  a  bloody  battle 
at  Benevento,  Feb.  26,  1266. 

Man'ganese  (symbol  Mn,  equiv.  55 — sp.  gr. 
8)  is  one  of  the  heavy  metals  of  which  iron  may 
be  taken  as  the  representative.  It  is  of  a  grayish- 
white  color,  presents  a  metallic  brilliancy,  is  call¬ 
able  of  a  high  degree  of  polish,  is  so  hard  as  to 
scratch  glass  and  steel,  is  non-magnetic,  and  is 
only  fused  at  a  white  heat.  As  it  oxidizes  rapidly 
on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  it  should  be  pre¬ 
served  under  naphtha.  It  occurs  in  small  quan¬ 
tity  in  association  with  iron  in  meteoric  stones; 
with  this  exception,  it  is  not  found  native.  The 
metal  may  be  obtained  by  the  reduction  of  its 
sesquioxide  by  carbon  at  an  extreme  heat. 
Various  preparations  of  manganese  have  been 
employed  in  medicine.  The  permanganate  of 
potassium  is  a  powerful  antiseptic  and  disin¬ 
fectant 

Mange,  in  horses,  dogs,  and  cattle,  and  scab  in 
sheep,  are  diseases  very  similar  to  itch  in  the 
human  subject,  resulting  from  the  attacks  of 
minute  mites  or  acari,  which  burrow  in  the  skin, 
especially  if  it  be  dirty  or  scurfy,  cause  much 
irritation,  heat  and  itching,  and  i lie  eruption  of 
minute  pimples,  with  dryness,  scurfiness,  bald¬ 
ness,  and  bleaching  of  the  skin.  The  treatment 
consists  in  destroying  the  acari ,  and  insuring  the 
cleanliness  and  health  of  the  skin,  both  of  which 
objects  are  effected  by  washing  the  parts  thor¬ 
oughly  every  second  day  with  soft  soap  and 
water,  and  dressing  daily  with  sulphur  or  mild 


mercurial  ointments,  or  with  a  solution  contain¬ 
ing  four  grains  either  of  corrosive  sublimate  or 
arsenic  to  the  ounce  of  water.  Castor-oil  seeds, 
bruised  and  steeped  for  twelve  hours  in  butter¬ 
milk,  are  very  successfully  used  by  the  native 
Indian  farriers.  Where  the  heat  and  itching  are 
great,  as  is  often  the  case  in  dogs,  a  few  drops  of 
tincture  of  belladonna  may  be  used  to  the  usual 
dressing  or  applied  along  with  a  little  glycerine. 
Where  the  general  health  is  indifferent,  as  in 
chronic  cases;  ihe  patient  should  be  liberally  fed, 
kept  clean  and  comfortable,  have  an  occasional 
alterative  dose  of  any  simple  saline  medicine, 
such  as  niter  or  common  salt,  and  a  course  of 
such  tonics  as  iron  or  arsenic.  Cleanliness  and 
occasional  washing  and  brusliingmaintain  the  skin 
in  a  healthy  state,  and  thus  prevent  its  becoming 
a  suitable  nidus  for  the  acari. 

Man'go  (M ung  if  era),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Anacardiacece.  The  common 
mango  (M.  indica)  is  a  native  of  India.  It  is  a 


spreading  tree  of  rapid  growth;  30  to  40  feet  in 
height,  the  stem  only  rising  8  to  10  feet  before  it 
divides  into  branches;  the  foliage  so  dense  as  to 
be  impenetrable  to  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun, 
affording  a  most  grateful  shade.  The  fruit  of 
some  of  the  varieties  in  cultivation  is  as  large  as 
a  man’s  fist.  The  mango  is  much  prized  for  the 
dessert;  it  is  luscious  and  sweet,  with  slight 
acidity. 

Man'gold-wurzel  (Ger.  beet-root),  or  Man¬ 
gold  (Ger.  beet),  a  name  in  general  use  in  Brit¬ 
ain  and  America,  to  designate  the  varieties  of  the 
common  beet  cultivated  in  fields  for  the  feeding 
of  cattle.  The  land  in  which  the  crop  is  to  be 
planted  receives  a  deep  furrow  in  autumn;  and  if 
it  is  quite  free  from  perennial  weeds,  it  is  often 
previously  well  manured.  Drills  or  ridges,  from 
20  to  30  inches  wide,  are  formed  in  spring  by  the 
double-molded  plow,  and  if  manure  has  not 
been  applied  in  autumn,  from  20  to  30  loads  are 
spread  along  the  furrows.  In  addition,  from  300 
to  400  lbs.  of  guano,  and  400  lbs.  of  ammonia  salt 
are  sown  broadcast  over  the  drills;  indeed,  this 
crop  can  rarely  be  over-manured.  The  manures 
are  then  covered  by  the  plow,  and  the  ridges  are 
afterward  run  over  with  a  light  roller  to  smooth 
them  down.  Two  or  three  seeds  are  then  dibbled 
in  on  the  tops  of  the  ridges,  from  1  foot  to  14 
feet  apart.  It  requires  about  7  lbs.  of  seed  to  the 
acre,  and  as  the  grains  are  inclosed  in  a  hard  and 
rough  coat,  they  may  be  moistened  in  water  for 
two  days  previous  to  their  being  planted,  for 
the  purpose  of  promoting  a  quick  and  regular 
braird. 

Man'grove  (Rhizophora),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Ehizophoracece.  The  fruit  of 
the  common  mangrove  ( Rhizoj/hora  mangle)  is 
sweet,  eatable,  and  its  juice,  when  fermented, 
yields  a  light  wine.  The  bark  of  the  common 
mangrove  is  sometimes  imported  for  tanning. 

Manhattan  Island,  the  island  on  which  the 
greater  part  of  the  city  of  New  York  stands.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  East  river,  which 
separates  it  from  Brooklyn,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  North  river  (the  Hudson),  and  is  separated  on 
the  north  from  the  mainland  by  the  Harlem 
river. 


Manhattan,  the  county  seat  of  Kiley  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Manichye  'ans,  a  religious  sect,  founded  by 
Mani,  which,  although  it  utterly  disclaimed  being 
denominated  Christian,  yet  was  reckoned  among 
the  heretical  bodies  of  the  church.  It  was  in¬ 
tended  to  blend  the  chief  dogmas  of  Parsism,  or 
rather  Magism,  as  reformed  by  Zoroaster,  with  a 
certain  number  of  Buddhistic  views,  under  the 
outward  garb  of  biblical,  more  especially  New 
Testament  history. 

Manil'a,  the  capital  of  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  residence  of  the  Spanish  viceroy,  or  governor 
of  the  Philippine  Archipelago.  Pop.,  160,000. 

Manin,  Daniel,  an  illustrious  Italian  patriot 
and  political  leader,  elected,  during  the  revolution 
of  1848,  President  of  the  Venetian  Republic. 
Born  in  1804  at  Venice,  he  died  in  1857. 

Ma'nioc,  Mandioc,  or  Cassava,  a  large,  half- 
shrubby  plant  of  the  natural  order  Eupliorbiactai, 
a  native  of  tropical  America.  The  roots  are  very 
large,  turnip-like,  sometimes  weighing  thirty 
pounds.  Common  with  other  parts  of  the  plant, 
they  contain  an  acrid,  milky  juice,  so  poisonous  as 
to  cause  death  in  a  few  minutes;  but  as  this  is 
owing  to  the  presence  of  hydrocyanic  acid, 
which  is  quickly  dissipated  by  heat,  the  juice,  in¬ 
spissated  by  boiling,  forms  the  excellent  sauce 
called  casareep,  and  fermented  with  molasses,  it 
yields  an  intoxicating  beverage  called  ouycou; 
whilst  the  root,  grated,  dried  on  hot  metal-plates, 
and  roughly  powdered,  becomes  an  article  of 
food,  very  largely  used  in  South  America,  and 
there  very  generally  known  as  farinah.  It.  is 
made  into  thin  cakes,  like  the  oatmeal-cakes  of 
Scotland,  which  are  formed,  however,  not  by 
mixing  it  with  water,  but  by  the  action  of  heat 
softening  and  agglutinating  tlie  particles  of  starch. 
These  cakes  are  sometimes  called  cassava  or  cas- 
sada  bread. 

Man 'is,  a  genus  of  mammalia,  of  the  order 
Edentata,  containing  several  species,  natives  of 
Africa  and  the  warm  parts  of  Asia,  and  in  their 
habits  and  many  of  their  characters  closely  resem¬ 
bling  the  ant-eaters  of  South  America,  having, 
among  other  differences,  the  body  and  the  tail 
covered  with  an  armor  of  large  sharp-edged  and 
pointed  scales.  The  species  are  numerous.  One 
remarkable  for  the  length  of  its  tail,  the  Phatta- 
gen  of  the  ancients  (M.  leffadactyla),  inhabits 
Western  Africa.  It  is  about  5  feet  long,  of 
which  the  tail  occupies  3  feet. — Another,  the 
short-taijed  manis  (M.  pentadactyla),  is  common  in 
many  parts  of  the  East  Indies. 

Manist  ee,  a  flourishing  city  of  Manistee  county 
Mich.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Manistique,  the  county  seat  of  Schoolcraft 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  1,900. 

Manitoba.  The  Province  of  Manitoba  lies 
between  latitude  49°  and  52p  48'  N. ,  and  longitude 
91°  and  101°  18'  W.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east 
by  Ontario,  on  the  south  by  Minnesota  and  Dakota, 
and  on  the  west  and  north  by  the  Northwest  Terri¬ 
tories  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  Its  length  is 
465  miles,  and  its  breadth  265  miles,  with  an  area 
of  123,200  square  miles.  It  is  divided  into  twenty- 
four  counties,  and  had,  in  1881,  a  pop.  of  65,954. 
This  region  forms  a  part  of  the  territory  granted 
to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  by  King  Charles  II., 
in  1670.  In  1811  a  colony  of  Scotch  pioneers 
settled  in  the  Red  River  Valley,  and  the  Province 
of  Manitoba  was  organized  in  1869.  Executive 
power  is  vested  in  a  lieutenant-governor,  who  is 
appointed  by  the  governor  general  of  the  Domin¬ 
ion,  and  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  five  persons. 
The  Legislature  consists  of  a  legislative  council  of 
seven,  appointed  for  life  by  the  lieutenant-gov¬ 
ernor,  and  an  assembly  of  twenty-four  members 
elected  for  four  years.  The  northwestern  portion 
of  Manitoba  is  largely  occupied  by  lakes.  Lake 
Manitoba,  from  which  the  province  receives  its 
name,  lies  entirely  within  its  boundaries,  which 
also  include  a  large  portion  of  Winnipeg  and 
Winnipegosis  lakes.  The  principal  stream  is  the 
Red  river  of  the  north,  which,  after  flowing  for 
140  miles  through  the  province,  empties  into  Lake 
Winnipeg,  and  is  navigable  by  steamers  into  Min¬ 
nesota.  The  largest  tributary  is  the  Assiniboine, 
which  has  almost  all  of  its  course  in  Manitoba. 
The  soil,  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  Red  river, 
which  has  an  average  width  of  30  or  35  miles,  is  a 
rich  black  loam.  The  principal  crop  is  wheat. 


MANITOU  SPRINGS. 


521 


MAPLE. 


which  yields  abundantly.  Rye,  potatoes,  barley, 
turnips,  also  bear  well.  The  prairie  grasses  make 
excellent  hay. 

Manitou  Springs,  a  town  in  El  Paso  county, 
Colo.,  at  the  base  of  Pike's  Peak.  Pop.,  700.  It 
is  noted  for  itsmineral  springs,  and  for  the  cluster 
of  oddly  shaped  rocks  near  the  town  known  as 
the  Garden  of  the  Gods. 

Manitou'lin  Islands — comprising  GrandMani- 
toulin,  or  Sacred  Isle;  Little  Mauitoulin,  or  Cock- 
burn  Isle,  belonging  to  Britain;  and  Drummond 
Isle,  belonging  to  Michigan — are  in  Lake  Huron, 
from  whose  northern  shore  they  are  separated  by 
a  channel  varying  from  7  to  18  miles  in  breadth. 
Grand  Manitoulin  is  90  miles  long,  by  5  to  30 
broad;  Little  Manitoulin  is  circular  in  shape,  and 
has  a  diameter  of  7  miles;  Drummond  Isle  is  24 
miles  long,  by  from  2  to  12  broad.  Pop.  (1871), 
2,011. 

Manitowoc,  a  city  of  Manitowoc  county,  Wis. 
Pop.,  8,750. 

Mankato,  the  county  seat  of  Blue  Earth  county, 
Minn.,  is  a  handsome  and  prosperous  city,  with 
important  manufacturing  and  agricultural  inter¬ 
ests.  Pop.,  10,000. 

Mankato,  the  county  seat  of  Jewell  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Mann,  Horace,  LL.D.,  American  statesman 
and  educationist,  was  born  at  Franklin,  Mass., 
May  4,  1796.  He  was  elected  to  the  Legislature  of 
Massachusetts  in  1827.  In  1836  he  was  elected  to 
the  State  Senate,  of  which  he  became  President.  In 
1848  he  was  elected  to  Congress.  At  the  end  of 
his  term  he  accepted  the  Presidency  of  Antioch 
College,  at  Yellow  Springs,  Ohio,  where  he  labored 
until  his  death,  Aug.  2,  1859. 

Mau'na,  a  species  of  sugar  which  exudes  from 
incisions  made  in  the  stems  of  the  manna  ash, 
a  native  of  the  mountainous  parts  of  Southern 
Europe. 

Manna.  The  manna  of  the  Israelites,  which 
they  ate  during  their  wanderings  in  the  wilder¬ 
ness,  appears  to  have  been  the  saccharine  sub¬ 
stance  called  Mount  Sinai  manna,  which  is  pro¬ 
duced  in  that  region  by  a  shrub,  Tamarix  manni- 
fera,  a  species  of  tamarisk,  from  the  branches 
of  which  it  falls  to  the  ground.  It  does  not, 
however,  contain  any  mannite,  but  consists 
wholly  of  mucilaginous  sugar. 

Manna  Grass  (Glycerin  fluitans,  or  Poa 
fluitans),  a  grass  plentiful  in  marshes,  ditches, 
and  by  the  sides  of  stagnant  pools  in  this  country 
and  in  most  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  also  known 
as  flo'e  fescue,  floating  sweet  meadow  grass,  etc. 

Mannfield,  the  county  seat  of  Citrus  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  100. 

Manndieini,  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Rhenish  palatinate,  now  the  most  important 
trading  town  in  Baden,  and,  after  Cologne  and 
Coblentz,  the  most  important  on  the  Rhine,  is  in 
a  fertile  plain,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Neckar,  about  eighteen 
miles  below  the  city  of  Spires.  Pop.  (1880), 
53,605. 

Manning,  IIexry  Edward,  a  cardinal  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  was  born  July  15.  1>08,  at 
Totteridge,  England.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders 
in  the  Tractarian  movement  at  Oxford.  In  1851 
he  left  the  Church  of  England,  and  joining  the 
Church  of  Rome,  was  made  priest  in  1857.  lie 
was  in  1865  appointed  Catholic  Archbishop  of 
Westminster,  and  was  named  Cardinal  in  1875. 

Manning,  the  county  scat  of  Clarendon 
county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  900. 

Manning  the  Yards,  in  a  nautical  sense, 
consists  in  sending  sufficient  men  aloft  and  on  to 
the  yards  to  furl  or  unfurl  the  saiis;  in  a  com¬ 
plementary  sense,  the  yards  are  said  to  be  manned 
when  a  row  of  sailors,  with  their  hands  touching, 
are  ranged  along  them,  standing  on  the  yard 
itself,  and  holding  to  a  rope  which  runs  across 
about  breast  high  between  the  lifts. 

Manoel,  Don  Francesco,  the  most  eminent 
of  modern  Portuguese  lyric  poets,  was  born  at 
Lisbon  in  1734,  and  died  at  Paris,  Feb.  25,  1819. 

Man-of-TYar,  an  armed  vessel  carrying  cannon, 
and  belonging  to  some  constituted  and  acknowl¬ 
edged  government.  As  such,  she  possesses  the 
privileges  of  war  ;  her  deck  is,  by  a  legal  fiction, 
taken  to  be  a  portion  of  the  soil  of  the  nation 
whose  flag  she  hoists  ;  in  time  of  war,  she  is  jus¬ 
tified  in  attacking,  sinking,  burning,  or  destroy¬ 


ing  the  ships  and  goods  of  the  foe.  In  case  of 
being  overpowered,  the  crew  of  a  man-of-war  are 
entitled  to  the  ordinary  mercy  granted  to  van¬ 
quished  combatants,  lawfully  fighting.  Any 
vessel  making  war,  but  not  belonging  to  an 
acknowledged  government,  is  either  a  privateer 
or  a  pirate. 

Manom'eter  (Gr.  pavoZ,  thin,  rare),  is  an 
instrument  for  measuring  the  rarity  of  the  air  or 
of  other  gases;  but  the  name  is  most  frequently 
applied  to  instruments  for  indicating  the  elastic 
force  of  gases,  which  is  always  inversely  propor¬ 
tional  to  their  rarity.  The  several  kinds  of 
barometers  are  really  manometers,  and  so  is  the 
steam-gauge  of  a  steam-engine. 

(  Manor,  in  English  Law,  is  a  freehold  estate 
held  by  the  lord  of  the  manor,  who  is  entitled  by 
i  custom  to  maintain  a  tenure  between  himself  and 
the  copyhold  tenants,  whereby  a  kind  of  feudal 
relation  is  kept  up  between  them. 

Mansard  Roof,  a  form  of  roof  invented  by 
Francis  Mansart,  a  French  architect  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  It  is  constructed  with  a 
break  in  the  slope  of  the  roof,  so  that  each  side 
has  two  planes,  the  lower  being  steeper  than  the 
upper. 

Manse,  in  Scotch  law,  is  the  designation  of  a 
dwelling-house  of  the  minister  of  the  Established 
Church,  and  the  term  is  often  applied  to  the 
dwelling-house  of  any  minister. 

Mansfield,  the  parish  seat  of  De  Soto  parish, 
La.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Mansfield,  a  wealthy  and  prosperous  agricult¬ 
ural  and  manufacturing  city  and  railroad  center, 
the  county  seat  of  Richland  county,  Ohio.  Pop., 
13,000. 

Mantcliu'ria,  a  territory  in  Eastern  Asia,  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Chinese  Empire,  extending 
between  latitude  42®  and  53  N.,  and  bounded, 
according  to  its  present  limits,  by  the  Amur  on 
the  north;  by  the  Usuri  and  the  Sungacha  on  the 
east,  separating  it  from  the  Russian  maritime 
territory  of  Oroclii;  by  the  Shan-Alin  range  on 
the  south,  separating  it  from  Korea;  and  by  a 
portion  of  the  Khingan  Mountains,  the  River 
Sira-Muren,  and  the  district  of  the  upper  Sungari, 
which  separate  it  on  the  west  from  the  desert  of 
Gobi.  Area  about  378,000  square  miles.  Pop., 
about  12,000,000. 

Manteo,  the  county  seat  of  Dare  county,  N.  C. 
Pop.,  500. 

Manti,  the  county  seat  of  San  Pete  county, 
Utah.  Pop.,  2,025. 

Man'tiger,  or  Mantegre,  a  monster  with  the 
body  of  a  tiger,  the  head  of  an  old  man,  and  long 
spiral  horns.  It  is  one  of  the  imaginary  creatures 
known  in  heraldic  blazon,  and  is  variously  rep¬ 
resented,  sometimes  with  the  horns  of  an  ox  and 
feet  of  a  dragon.  The  supporters  of  the  Earl  of 
Huntingdon  are  manthgres  without  horns. 

Man'tis,  a  Linn, Tan  genus  of  orthopterous 
insects,  which  included  not  only  those  now  con¬ 
stituting  the  family  Mantidm,  but  also  the 
Phasmiche,  (leaf-iusects,  specter-insects,  walking- 
stick-insects,  etc.) 

Mantle,  a  long  flowing  robe,  worn  in  the 
middle  ages  over  the  armor,  and  fastened  by  a 
fibula  in  front,  or  at  the  right  shoulder.  The 
mantle  is  an  important  part  of  the  official  insignia 
of  the  various  orders  of  knighthood.  Ladies  of 
rank  wore  similar  mantles,  in  many  instances 
decorated  with  heraldic  charges,  in  which  case 
tl^»nnantlc  bore  either  the  impaled  arms  of  the 
lady  and  her  husband,  or  her  husband’s  arms 
only.  A  number  of  examples  may  be  seen  in 
monumental  effigies. 

Mantling,  or  Lambrequin,  a  heraldic  ornament 
depicted  as  hanging  down  from  the  helmet,  and 
behind  the  escutcheon.  It  is  considered  to  rep¬ 
resent  either  the  cointise,  an  ornamental  scarf 
which  passed  round  the  body  and  over  the 
shoulder,  or  the  military  mantle,  or  robe  of  estate. 

Mantorville,  the  county  seat  of  Dodge  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  450. 

Man'tua  (Ital.  Mantova),  an  ancient  city  of 
Lombardy,  and  formerly  capital  of  a  duchy  of 
same  name,  but  now  belonging  to  Italy,  is  in  lati¬ 
tude  45°  9'  84"  N.,  longitude  10®  48'  1"E.  Pop. 
(1881),  28,048.  It  is  capital  of  a  province  of  the 
same  name,  wiih  an  area  of  855  square  miles; 
pop.  (1881),  295,612. 


Maim  (from  the  Sans,  man,  to  think,  liter¬ 
ally,  the  thinking  being)  is  the  reputed  author  of 
the  most  renowned  law-book  of  the  ancient 
Hindus,  and  likewise  of  an  ancient  Kalpa  work 
on  Vedic  rites. 

Manuel  I.  Comnenas,  Emperor  of  Constan¬ 
tinople,  was  born  about  1120,  and  succeeded  liis 
father  in  1143,  and  died  Sept.  24,  1180. 

Manure'.  This  is  a  term  applied  to  a  great 
variety  of  substances,  mineral  as  well  as  organic, 
which  have  been  used  for  the  purpose  of  increas¬ 
ing  the  produce  of  those  plants  that  man  selects 
for  cultivation.  Lime,  and  the  ashes  of  vege¬ 
tables,  have  been  applied  to  the  land  to  increase 
its  fertility;  so  also  have  all  kinds  of  organic  sub¬ 
stances,  whether  vegetable  or  animal.  Magnesia, 
potash  and  sulphur  are  also  useful.  Farm-yard 
manure  is  more  extensively  used  than  any  other. 
This  is  the  most  valuable  within  the  reach  of 
the  average  farmer.  It  contains  all  the  elements 
of  plants,  and  without  its  use  in  ordinary  circum¬ 
stances,  the  fertility  of  the  land  would  rapidly 
deteriorate.  The  richer  the  food  upon  which 
stock  is  fed,  so  much  the  richer  the  manure  pro¬ 
duced.  Stock  fed  upon  straw  and  water  leave  an 
inferior  manure,  that  requires  to  be  largely  supple¬ 
mented  by  other  materials.  Turnips  add  largely 
to  the  value  of  manure,  and  oil-cakes  of  all  kinds, 
from  containing  nitrogen  and  the  earthy  matters 
of  the  seeds  of  oil-bearing  plants,  produce  a  rich 
manure.  Farm-yard  manure,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  is  much  more  valuable  for  some 
kind  of  crops  than  for  others.  The  potato,  for 
example,  can  not  be  raised  with  much  success,  un¬ 
less  it  be  supplied  with  this  or  other  bulky  manure 
having  the  greater  number  of  ingredients  present. 
The  weaker  and  poorer  the  soil,  the  more  import¬ 
ant  does  farm-yard  manure  become  for  all  plants. 
Farm-yard  manure  also  tends  to  render  soils  more 
adapted  for  carrying  clovers,  and  many  farmers  al¬ 
ways  apply  this  to  lands  which  are  to  be  sown  out 
in  grasses.  Liquid  manure  is  a  favorite  in  many 
districts.  Many  farmers,  in  general,  endeavor  to 
have  all  the  liquid  excrements  of  t  he  stock  absorbed 
by  the  straw,  and  carried  out  jn  the  solid  form.  On 
many  farms,  however,  far  more  is  produced  than 
can  be  absorbed  by  the  straw.  Various  modes 
have  been  adopted  to  apply  it  when  this  is  the 
case.  It  is  commonly  done  by  a  large  barrel 
drawn  by  a  horse  ;  the  liquid  is  distributed  by 
various  methods  as  the  horse  walks  over  the 
ground.  The  liquid  manure  is  commonly  applied 
to  grasses,  more  especially  to  clovers  or  rye-grass, 
common  or  Italian.  In  some  large  establishments, 
the  whole  urine  is  collected  during  the  winter  in 
large  tafiks,  and  applied  in  spring.  In  wet 
weather,  the  liquid  manure  can  be  put  on  strong, 
but  in  dry  weather  large  quantities  of  water  are 
added  for  the  purpose  of  diluting  it,  and  not  al¬ 
lowing  it  to  injure  the  plants.  Liquid  manure  is 
exceedingly  rich  in  all  the  elements  of  plants,  and 
is  valuable  for  all  crops  ;  but  there  are  often  con¬ 
siderable  practical  difficulties  connected  with  its 
use  and  distribution. 

Manutius,  Aldus  (Akin,  a  diminutive  of  Theo- 
baldo,  his  baptismal  name),  a  great  printer  and 
improver  of  the  art  of  printing,  was  born  at  Bas- 
siano,  near  Velletri,  in  the  States  of  the  Church, 
in  1449,  and  established  a  printing-press  at  Venice 
in  1490 — though  the  first  book  bearing  a  date  has 
1494.  He  died  in  1515. 

Many,  the  parish  seat  of  Sabine  parish,  La. 
Pop.,  190. 

Maoris  (pronounced  mou'ris ,  a  word  meaning 
indigenous)  is  the  name  given  to  themselves  by 
the  aborigines  of  New  Zealand,  and  that  by  which 
they  are  now  usually  designated  by  ethnologists. 
The  Maoris,  in  common  with  the  natives  gener¬ 
ally  of  Polynesia,  belong  to  the  Malay  race  or 
family  of  mankind. 

Map  (Lat.  mappa,  a  towel).  A  map  is  a  delinea¬ 
tion,  on  a  plane,  of  some  portion  of  the  surface  of 
a  sphere,  celestial  or  terrestrial,  on  which  the  ob¬ 
jects  intended  to  be  shown  are  traced,  whether 
stars,  rivers,  towns,  or  mountains,  etc.  Terres¬ 
trial  maps  are  termed  geographical,  when  they 
refer  to  the  land;  and  hydrographical  maps,  or 
charts,  when  they  delineate  the  shores  of  the  sea. 

Maple  (Acer),  a  genus  of  exogenous  trees  of 
the  natural  order  Aceracae.  It  contains  more  than 
sixty  species,  natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  and  particularly  numerous 


MAPLE  BORER. 


522 


MARIA  CHRISTINA. 


in  North  America  and  the  North  of  India.  They 
have  opposite  leaves  without  stipules,  usually 
lobed  or  palmate.  The  flowers  are  in  axillary 
corymbs  or  racemes,  small,  but  abounding  in 
honey,  and  attractive  to  bees.  The  calyx  is  gen¬ 
erally  divided  into  five  segments;  the  petals,  when 
present,  equal  in  number  to  the  segments  of  the 
calyx,  grow  from  the  margin  of  a  fleshy,  hypogy- 
nous  disk.  The  most  important  species  is  the 
sugar  maple  {A.  sacchariuum),  which  abounds  in 
the  northern  parts  of  the  United  States  and  in  the 
British  possessions,  where  large  quantities  of 
sugar  and  molasses  arc  made  from  it.  To  obtain 
sugar,  holes  are  bored  in  the  trunk  when  t  he  sap 
is  ascending;  early  in  spring,  before  the  winter 
frost  has  passed  away,  in  an  obliquely  ascending 
direction,  at  no  great  distance  from  the  ground, 
at  first  only  to  the  depth  of  half  an  inch,  but 
afterward  deepened  to  two  inches;  tubes  are  in¬ 
serted  and  vessels  placed  under  them.  The  sap 
thus  collected  is  evaporated  in  boilers  over  a  brisk 
fire,  to  the  consistency  of  syrup,  strained  and 
poured  into  molds,  in  which  it  crystallizes  into  a 
coarse  gray  or  brown  colored  sugar.  It  is  some¬ 
times  afterward  refined.  Four  gallons  of  sap 
yield  about  one  pound  of  sugar.  A  single  tree 
yields  from  two  to  six  pounds  in  a  season.  The 
wood  of  the  sugar  maple  has  a  satiny  appearance, 
and  is  used  for  cabinet-making;  it  is  sometimes 
finely  marked  with  undulations  of  fiber,  and  is 
then  known  as  bird’s-eye  maple,  and  is  used  for 
veneers. 

Maple  Borer  (JEJgeria  acerni),  an  insect  that  of 
late  lias  done 
great  damage  to 
shade  trees,  es¬ 
pecially  maples, 
in  the  Middle 
States,  by  bur¬ 
rowing  under 
the  bark,  feed¬ 
ing  on  the  inner 
bark.  In  some 
instances  it 
completely  gir¬ 
dles  and  thus 
kills  trees  of 
consider  able 
size.  Applica¬ 
tions  of  soap¬ 
suds,  and  mor¬ 
tar,  and  subse¬ 
quent  white- 
washingarerec- 
o  m  m  ended  as 
the  best  reme¬ 
dies. 

Maquoketa, 

tile  county  seat  Legged  Maple  Borer, 

of  Jackson  county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  3,758. 

Maqui  (Aristotelia  maqui),  the  only  known  spe¬ 
cies  of  a  genus  of  plants  sometimes  referred  to 
the  natural  order  Tiliacece,  and  which  has  also 
been  made  the  type  of  a  proposed  order.  It  is  an 
evergreen  or  sub-evergreen  shrub  of  considerable 
size,  a  native  of  Chili. 

Mar 'abuts,  a  name  given  to  the  descendants  of 
the  Moravides  (Arab,  frontier  inhabitants),  a  cer¬ 
tain  Arabic  tribe,  which,  in  1075,  founded  a 
dynasty  in  the  northwestern  parts  of  Africa,  and 
held  Morocco  and  Spain  for  a  considerable  period. 
The  Great  Marabut  ranks  next  to  the  King,  and 
the  dignity  of  a  Marabut  is  generally  hereditary. 
One  of  the  most  eminent  Marabuts  of  our  day  was 
the  late  Abd-el-Kader. 

Maracay'bo,  a  fortified  city  of  Venezuela,  is 
situated  on  the  west  shore  of  the  strait  which  con¬ 
nects  the  lake  of  Maracaybo  with  the  gulf  of  the 
same  name.  Latitude  10°  45'  N.,  longitude  71u 
40'  W.  It  is  the  chief  town  of  the  State  of  Zulia 
(formerly  called  Maracaybo),  containing  33,075 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  about  90,000.  Pop. 
(1881),  25,000. 

Maracaybo,  Lake  and  Gulf.  The  Lake  of 
Maracaybo,  in  the  north  of  Venezuela,  is  about 
100  miles  in  length,  and  70  miles  in  breadth.  It  is 
connected  with  the  gulf  of  the  same  name  by  a 
strait  upward  of  20  miles  in  length,  and  from  5  to 
10  miles  in  breadth.  The  gulf  is  a  wide  inlet  of 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  150  miles  from  east  to  west, 
and  about  75  miles  from  north  to  south. 

Marajo',  an  island  on  the  northeast  coast  of 


Brazil,  belonging  to  the  Province  of  Para,  and 
situated  between  the  estuaries  of  the  Rivers  Ama¬ 
zon  and  Para,  is  180  miles  in  length  by  125  miles 
in  breadth.  Pop.  estimated  at  20,000, 

Maranham',  or  Mahanhao,  a  maritime  prov- 1 
ince  of  Brazil,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  Area,  141,939  square  miles; 
pop.  (1872),  380,000. 

Maranta'cese,  or  Cannace.-e,  a  natural  order  of 
endogenous  plants  very  nearly  allied  to  Scitaminew, 
and  differing  chiefly  in  having  all  the  stamens 
petal-like,  and  the  one  fertile  stamen  lateral. 
There  are  about  160  known  species,  all  tropical  or 
sub  tropical.  They  are  all  herbaceous  perennials. 
The  tuberous  root-stocks  of  many  abound  in 
starch. 

Maras  'intis  is  a  term  which  was  somewhat 
vaguely  used  by  the  older  medical  writers  to ! 
designate  those  cases  of  general  emaciation  or 
atrophy  for  which  they  did  not  see  any  special 
cause.  The  word  is  now  seldom  used. 

Marat,  Jean  Paul,  one  of  the  most  noted 
characters  of  the  French  Revolution,  born  1744, 
of  Protestant  parents,  at  Baudry,  in  Neufcliatel. 
The  earliest  stages  of  the  Revolution  brought  him 
into  prominence  as  a  demagogue.  His  features 
and  appearance  were  grotesque,  his  look  wild, 
and  his  speeches  extravagant,  the  ludicrous  ming¬ 
ling  with  the  terrible.  His  influence  over  the 
lowest  classes,  however,  soon  became  great.  It 
was  in  a  great  measure  his  influence  that  led  to 
the  cruelties  and  massacres  of  September,  1792, 
in  the  midst  of  which  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  Convention.  He  demanded  the  sacrifice  of 
270,000  heads,  and  defended  this  in  the  Conven¬ 
tion,  saying  that  if  these  were  not  granted,  he  would 
demand  more.  During  the  King’s  trial,  he  was 
urgent  for  his  immediate  execution,  and  in  his 
journal  called  upon  the  people  to  slay  200,000  of 
the  adherents  of  the  old  regime,  and  to  reduce 
the  Convention  to  one-fourth  In  April,  1793, 
Marat  obtained  the  enactment  of  the  law  against 
suspected  persons,  in  virtue  of  which  400,000 
were  imprisoned.  Robespierre,  Danton,  and 
Marat  were  now  the  triumvirate  which  ruled 
France.  But  on  July  13, 1793,  Marat  was  stabbed 
in  his  own  house  by  Charlotte  Corday. 

Mar'athon,  anciently,  a  village  on  the  east 
coast  of  Attica,  about  twenty  miles  northeast  of 
Athens,  now  called  Marathona,  or,  according 
to  Leake,  the  present  Vrana.  It  is  memorable  as 
the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Darius  by  the  Greeks 
under  Miltiades,  (490  B.C.) 

Marble,  in  its  strict  and  proper  sense,  is  a  rock 
crystallized  in  a  saccharoidal  manner,  having  the 
fracture  of  loaf-sugar,  and  composed  of  carbon¬ 
ate  of  lime,  either  almost  pure  when  the  color  is 
white,  or  combined  with  oxide  of  iron  or  other 
impurities  which  give  various  colors  to  it.  But 
many  other  kinds  of  stone  are  popularly  included 
under  this  title.  Indeed  any  limestone  rock  suffi¬ 
ciently  compact  to  admit  of  a  polish  is  called 
marble.  Saccharine  or  statuary  marble  is  a 
white,  fine-grained  rock,  resembling  loaf-sugar  in 
color  and  texture,  working  freely  in  every  direc¬ 
tion,  notliableto  splinter, and  taking  a  fine  polish. 
Of  the  marbles  used  by  the  ancients,  the  most 
famous  are — Parian  marble,  a  finely  granular  and 
very  durable  stone,  with  a  waxy  appearance 
when  polished.  Of  colored  marbles,  the  best 
known  are  the  Rosso  Antico,  a  deep  blood-red, 
sprinkled  with  minute  white  dots;  Verde  Antico, 
a  clouded  green  produced  by  a  mixture  of  white 
marble  and  green  serpentine;  Giallo  Antico,  a 
deep  yellow,  with  black  or  yellow  rings;  and  Nero 
Antico,  a  deep  black  marble. 

Marblehead',  a  seaport  town  of  Massachusetts, 
on  Massachusetts  Bay,  sixteen  miles  northeast  of 
Boston.  It  population  was  formerly  devoted  to 
the  fisheries,  but  is  now  also  largely  engaged  in 
manufacturing,  chiefly  boots  and  shoes.  Pop., 
9,300. 

Marble  Hill,  the  county  seat  of  Bollinger 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  325. 

Marcel 'lus,  the  name  of  two  Popes,  of  whom 
the  later  deserves  special  notice,  as  having,  when 
Cardinal  Marcello  Cervini,  taken  a  very  promi¬ 
nent  part  in  the  discussions  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  over  which  he  was  appointed  to  preside  as 
legate  of  Julius  III.  Marcello  Cervini,  contrary 
to  an  ancient  custom,  retained  on  his  elevation  the 
name  which  he  had  previously  borne.  He  was 


elected  March  9,  1555,  and  survived  his  elevation 
but  twenty-two  days. 

March,  the  first  month  of  the  Roman  year, 
and  the  third  according  to  our  present  calendar, 
consists  of  thirty-one  days. 

Marchan'tia,  a  genus  of  Tlepaticce,  the  type  of 
a  sub-order  distinguished  by  the  spore-cases  burst¬ 
ing  irregularly,  and  the  spores  being  mixed  with 
elaters,  by  some  botanists  elevated  into  a  distinct 
order. 

Marches,  the  boundaries  between  England  and 
Scotland,  also  between  England  and  Wales. 

Maree',  Loch,  in  the  west  of  Ross-shire,  Scot¬ 
land,  is  18  miles  in  length,  with  a  breadth  vary¬ 
ing  from  1  to  3  miles,  and  a  depth,  in  some  places, 
of  60  fathoms.  Owing  to  its  great  depth,  it 
never  freezes  over  its  whole  extent. 

Marem'ma,  a  vast  marshy  region  of  West 
Italy,  extending  along  the  sea-coast  of  Tuscany, 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Cecina  to  Orbitello,  and 
embracing  an  area  of  997  square  miles. 

Marengo,  the  county  seat  of  Iowa  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  2,300. 

Marfa,  the  county  seat  of  Presidio  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  125. 

Margaret,  the  county  seat  of  Hardeman  county, 
Tex.  Pop.  125. 

Margaret,  sometimes  called  the  Northern 
Semiramis,  queen  of  the  triple  Scandinavian 
Kingdom  of  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden,  was 
the  second  daughter  of  Valdemar  III.,  King  of 
Denmark,  and  wife  of  Hakon  VIII.,  King  of 
Norway.  She  was  born  in  1353;  in  1375  the  Dan¬ 
ish  nobles  offered  the  crown  to  Margaret  and  her 
husband,  in  trust  for  their  infant  son  Olaf.  By 
the  death  of  Hakon,  in  1380,  she  became  sole 
guardian  of  the  young  prince,  who  died  in  1387, 
and  the  estates  of  both  kingdoms  concurred  in 
electingher  as  their  ruler.  She  conquered  Sweden, 
and  in  1397,  had  her  nephew  Eric  crowned  king 
of  the  three  kingdoms.  Margaret  died  in  1412. 

Margaret  of  Anjou,  wife  of  Henry  VI.  of 
England,  and  daughter  of  Rene  of  Anjou,  the 
King  of  Sicily,  and  of  Isabella  of  Lorraine,  was 
born  at  Pont-a-Mousson,  in  Lorraine,  March,  1425. 
She  was  married  to  Henry  VI.  of  England,  in 
1445,  exercised  an  almost  unlimited  authority  over 
him,  and  was  the  virtual  sovereign  of  the  realm. 
In  1450  occurred  the  insurrection  of  Jack  Cade, 
and  soon  after  the  civil  war,  known  as  the  Wars 
of  the  Roses,  was  begun.  After  a  struggle  of 
nearly  twenty  years  Margaret  was  defeated,  taken 
prisoner,  and  imprisoned  five  years,  till  Louis  XI. 

1  redeemed  her,  when  she  returned  to  France,  and 
died  in  Anjou,  Aug.  25,  1482. 

Margar'ic  Acid,  is  one  of  the  solid  fatty  acids. 
At  an  ordinary  temperature  it  is  solid,  white,  and 
crystalline;  it  is  perfectly  insoluble  in  water,  dis¬ 
solves  in  boiling  alcohol,  from  which  it  separates 
in  glistening  grouns  of  very  delicate  needles,  and 
is  readily  soluble  in  ether.  It  unites  with  bases, 
forming  margarates,  and  in  combination  with 
glycerine  forms  the  glyceride  or  fat  known  as 
margarine. 

Margari'ta,  or  Nueva  Sparta,  an  island  in 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  belonging  to  Venezuela. 
Area,  440  square  miles.  Pop.,  39,000. 

Maria  Christina,  Queen  of  Spain,  born  April 
27,  1806.  In  1829  she  became  the  fourth  wife  of 
Ferdinand  VII.  of  Spain,  who  in  1830  restored 
the  law  by  which,  in  default  of  male  issue,  the 
right  of  inheritance  was  given  to  females,  and  in 
October  of  that  year  the  Queen  gave  birth  to  a 
daughter,  Isabella  II  ,  ex-Queen  of  Spain.  Fer¬ 
dinand  died  Sept.  29.  1833,  and  by  his  testament 
his  widow  was  appointed  guardian  of  her  chil¬ 
dren — the  young  Queen  Isabella,  and  the  Infanta 
Maria  Louisa,  now  Duchess  de  Montpensier — 
and  also  regent  till  the  young  Queen  should 
attain  the  age  of  eighteen  years.  A  civil  war 
broke  out,  the  adherents  of  Don  Carlos,  Ferdi¬ 
nand’s  brother,  seeking  to  place  him  on  the  throne. 
This  war  continued  till  1840.  Maria  was  united, 
in  December,  1833,  to  Don  Fernando  Munoz,  in 
a  morganatic  marriage,  which,  however,  was  kept 
secret,  while  her  connection  with  him  was  no 
secret.  She  had  ten  children  by  him.  A  conspir¬ 
acy,  which  broke  out  on  the  night  of  Aug.  13, 
1836,  exposed  Munoz  to  great  danger,  and  led  the 
queen-motlier  to  concede  a  constitution  to  Spain. 
She  gave  to  the  new  Prime  Minister  Espartero, 
Oct.  10,  1840,  a  renunciation  of  the  regency. 


MARIA  LOUISA. 


MARNE. 


and  retired  to  France.  After  the  fall  of  Espar- 
tero  she  returned  to  Madrid,  in  1843,  and  in  Octo¬ 
ber,  1844,  her  marriage  with  Munoz,  wrho  was 
now  made  Duke  of  Rianzares,  was  publicly  sol¬ 
emnized.  In  July,  1854,  a  revolution  expelled 
her  from  the  country,  and  she  again  took  refuge 
in  France,  but  returned  to  Spain  in  1864.  Maria 
died  August,  1878. 

Maria  Louisa,  the  second  wife  of  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  I.,  born  March  12,  1791,  was  the  daugh¬ 
ter  of  the  Emperor  Francis  I.  of  Austria.  She 
was  married  to  Napoleon,  after  his  divorce  of 
Josephine,  April  2,  1810.  On  March  20,  1811, 
she  bore  a  son,  who  was  called  King  of  Rome. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  campaign  of  1813,  Napo¬ 
leon  appointed  her  Regent  in  his  absence.  In  1816 
she  received  the  Duchies  of  Parma,  Piacenza,  and 
Guastalla,  on  the  government  of  which  she  then 
entered.  She  contracted  a  morganatic  marriage 
with  Count  von  Neipperg,  and  died  at  Vienna, 
Dec.  18,  1847. 

Maria  Theresa,  Empress  of  Germany,  the 
daughter  of  the  Emperor  Karl  VI.,  was  born  at 
Vienna,  May  13,  1717.  Her  father  appointed  her 
heir  to  his  hereditary  thrones.  In  1736  she  married 
Francis  Stephen,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany,  to 
whom  she  gave  an  equal  share  in  the  government 
when  she  became  Queen  of  Hungary  and  of  Bo¬ 
hemia,  and  Archduchess  of  Austria,  on  the  death 
of  her  father,  Oct.  21,  1740.  She  died  Nov.  29, 
1780. 

Marie  Antoinette  De  Lorraine,  Josephine 
Jeanne,  wife  of  Louis  XVI.  of  France,  was  the 
youngest  daughter  of  Francis  I.,  Emperor  of  Ger¬ 
many.  Her  mot  her  was  the  famous  Maria  Theresa. 
Marie  Antoinette  was  born  at  Vienna,  Nov.  2, 
1755,  and  at  the  age  of  fifteen  was  married  to  the 
Dauphin.  She  was  accused  of  plotting  with  the 
enemies  of  France  for  the  invasion  of  the  king¬ 
dom  and  died  by  the  guillotine  Aug.  16, 1793. 

Marie  (le’  Medici,  wife  of  Henri  IV.  of  France, 
was  the  daughter  of  Francis  I.,  Grand  Duke  of 
Tuscany,  and  was  born  at  Florence,  April  26, 1573. 
She  was  married  to  Henri,  Dec.  16.  1600,  and  in 
the  following  September  gave  birth  to  ason,  after¬ 
ward  Louis  XIII.  The  union  was  an  unhappy 
one,  and  the  assassination  of  Henri  (May  14, 1610) 
did  not  much  grieve  her.  For  the  next  seven 
years  she  governed  as  regent,  when  Louis  XIII. 
assumed  royal  power.  She  lost  favor  with  her 
son,  was  imprisoned  in  Compifegne,  whence  she 
escaped  and  fled  to  Brussels  in  1631.  Her  last 
years  were  spent  in  utter  destitution,  and  she  is 
said  to  have  died  in  a  hay-loft  at  Cologne,  July  3, 
1642. 

Marie  Galante,  an  island  in  the  West  Indies, 
one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  belongs  to  France,  and 
lies  seventeen  miles  southeast  of  Guadeloupe. 
Area,  about  60  square  miles.  Its  chief  town, 
Grandbourg,  or  Marigot,  on  the  southwest  coast, 
has  a  pop.  of  2,000.  The  pop.  of  the  island  is 
13,000. 

Marianna,  the  county  seat  of  Jackson  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  1,400. 

Marianna,  the  county  seat  of  Lee  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Marienfeld,  the  county  seat  of  Martin  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  375. 

Marietta,  the  county  seat  of  Cobb  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  2,800. 

Marietta,  the  county  scat  of  Washington  county, 
Ohio,  is  an  important  manufacturing  city  on  the 
Ohio  river,  and  is  the  terminus  of  several  railroads. 
Pop.,  8,200. 

Mar’igold,  a  name  given  to  certain  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Composite,  sub-order  Corymbif- 
tr/r ,  chiefly  of  the  genera  Calendula  and  Tagetes. 
The  genus  Calendula  has  the  achenia  remarkably 
curved,  variously  toothed,  and  very  rough  on  the 
back.  The  species  are  annual  and  perennial  her¬ 
baceous  plants  and  shrubs,  of  which  some  of  the 
former  are  found  in  the  countries  bordering  on 
the  Mediterranean,  the  latter  chiefly  in  South 
Africa. 

31  arined,  in  Heraldry,  applied  to  an  animal 
whose  lower  part  is  terminated  like  the  tail  of  a 
fish . 

Jlarine  Hospital  Service,  United  States. 
This  service  was  established  in  1798,  and  is  under 
the  control  of  the  Treasury  Department.  Its 
object  is  to  provide  relief  for  sick  and  disabled 
seaman,  and  employes  of  the  Merchants’  Marine. 


523 


It  also  has  charge  of  the  National  quarantine,  of 
the  examination  of  pilots  for  color-blindness,  of 
officers  and  members  of  the  revenue  cutter  serv¬ 
ice,  of  surf  men  for  the  life-saving  service,  and 
of  the  officers  and  crews  of  merchant  vessels, 
whose  masters  or  owners  desire  such  examina¬ 
tions.  The  service  has  210  stations,  at  many  of 
which  large  hospitals  are  conducted,  and  in  1885 
cared  for  41,724  sick  and  disabled  seamen.  Be¬ 
sides  the  surgeon-general,  the  service  employs 
surgeons,  past-assistant  surgeons,  and  assistant 
surgeons.  Hospital  stewards  are  stationed  at  the 
marine  hospitals  and  larger  stations. 

Marinette,  a  prosperous  lumbering  town  on 
the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  county 
seat  of  Marinette  county,  Wis.  Pop.,  13,750. 

Mari 'no,  or  San  Marino,  one  of  the  most  an¬ 
cient  and  most  limited  Republican  States  of 
Europe,  consists  of  a  craggy  mountain  2,200  feet 
in  height,  in  the  Apennines,  and  encircled  by 
provinces  formerly  belonging  to  the  Pontifical 
States.  Its  total  area  is  21  miles,  and  it  com- 
prisesatownof  thesame  name,  and  several  villages 
in  the  adjacent  territory.  Pop.  (1874),  7,816. 

Marion,  the  name  of  ten  towns  in  the  United 
States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Critten¬ 
den  county,  Ark.  Pop.,  250. — 2.  The  county 
seat  of  Crittenden  county,  Ky.  Pop.,  563. — 3. 
The  county  seat  of  Grant  county,  Ind.  Pop., 
5,500. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Linn  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  3,200. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  McDowell 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  625. — 6.  The  county  seat  of 
Marion  county,  Kan.  Pop.,  2,186. — 7.  The 
county  seat  of  Marion  county,  Ohio.  Pop., 
1,750. — 8.  The  county  seat  of  Marion  county, 
S.  C.  Pop.,  1,800. — 9.  The  county  seat  of  Perry 
county,  Ala.  Pop.,  2,569. — 10.  The  county  seat 
of  Williamson  county.  Ill.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Mariotte,  Law  of,  an  empirical  law  deduced 
by  Boyle  and  Mariotte  from  two  independent 
experiments.  It  is  generally  expressed  as  fol¬ 
lows:  the  temperature  remaining  the  same,  t lie 
volume  of  a  given  mass  of  gas  is  in  inverse  ratio 
to  the  pressure  which  it  sustains. 

Mariposa,  the  county  seat  of  Mariposa  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  425. 

Mar'joram  (Origanum),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Labiates,  having  a  ten-ribbed,  flve- 
tootlied  calyx,  loose  spikes,  and  broad  bracts. 
The  species  are  annual,  perennial,  and  shrubby 
plants,  natives  chiefly  of  the  East,  and  of  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean.  They 
abound  in  a  yellow  essential  oil — oil  of  marjoram 
or  oil  of  origanum — which  is  obtained  from 
some  of  the  species  by  distillation. 

Mark,  the  standard  weight  of  the  money  system 
of  various  countries  of  Europe.  In  the  new  uni¬ 
form  currency  of  the  German  Empire,  the  unit 
of  reckoning  is  the  mark,  equal  to  about  24 
cents. 

Mark,  the  Evangelist,  is  probably  the  same 
who,  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  is  called  John 
Mark.  He  came  originally  from  Jerusalem,  was 
a  nephew  of  Barnabas,  and  accompanied  the 
Apostle  Paul  and  him  to  Antioch,  Cyprus,  and 
Perga  in  Pamphylia,  returned  to  Jerusalem,  and 
went  afterward  to  Cyprus,  and  thence  to  Rome 
(see  Acts  xiii;  Col.  iv,  10;  II.  Tim.  iv,  11).  Eccle¬ 
siastical  tradition  speaks  of  a  missionary  expedi¬ 
tion  of  Mark  to  Egypt  and  the  West  of  Africa,  of 
his  suffering  martyrdom  about  the  year  62  or  66 
(the  Coptic  Church  still  consider  him  their  founder 
and  first  bishop),  and  of  the  transmission  of  his 
corpse  to  Venice,  which  city  has  chosen  him  for 
its  patron  saint.  The  festival  (April  25th)  which 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  holds  in  his  honor  is 
no  older  than  the  close  of  the  seventh  century. 

Markleeville,  the  county  seat  of  Alpine  county, 
Cal.  Popv  123. 

Marksville,  the  county  seat  of  Avoyelles 
county,  La.  Pop.,  750. 

Marl  (Ger.  mergel),  a  mixture,  naturally  exist¬ 
ing,  of  clay  and  carbonate  of  lime.  Marls  are 
found  in  different  geological  formations,  but 
everywhere  seem  to  owe  their  origin  to  deposition 
by  water.  The  name  is  sometimes  applied  to 
friable  clays,  or  mixtures  of  clay  and  sand,  in 
which  there  is  almost  no  trace  of  lime;  but  the 
presence  of  a  notable  proportion  of  carbonate  of 
lime  is  essential  to  marls,  properly  so  called. 
This  proportion  varies  from  6  to  20  per  cent. 


Marl  is  very  advantageously  used  as  a  manure, 
acting  both  chemically  and  mechanically. 

Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  Duke  of, 
an  English  general  and  statesman,  was  born  June 
24,  1650,  at  Ashe,  in  Devonshire,  and  died  June 
16,  1722.  He  held  important  military  commands, 
and  in  unison  with  his  wife,  wielded  for  a  time, 
a  powerful  influence  in  the  political  affairs  of 
his  time,  but  was  ultimately  accused  of  having 
embezzled  public  funds,  and  was  deprived  of 
his  offices. 

Marlboro',  a  prosperous  and  important  manu¬ 
facturing  city,  and  the  county  seat  of  Middlesex 
county,  Mass.  Pop.,  13,690. 

Marlin,  the  county  seat  of  Falls  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  2,050. 

Mar 'line-spike,  a  ponderous  iron  pin,  with 
a  large  head  and  taper  point,  used  on  shipboard 
for  separating  the  strands  of  rope  preparatory  to 
splicing  or  knotting;  also  employed  as  a  lever  in 
tightening  rigging,  ete. 

Marlowe,  Christopher,  familiarly  Kit,  an 
English  dramatic  writer,  was  born  at  Canterbury, 
in  February,  1564,  and  was  killed  in  a  tavern 
brawl  June "l,  1593.  Of  all  the  dramatic  writers 
before  Shakespeare,  he  was  the  greatest  genius. 

Mar'inalade,  a  semi-liquid  preserve,  made  by 
boiling  the  pulp  of  thick  rinded  fruits,  such  as 
oranges,  pine-apples,  quinces,  etc.,  with  portions 
of  the  rind.  The  most  common  kind  of  marma¬ 
lade  is  made  from  the  bitter  or  Seville  oranges, 
the  common  or  sweet  sorts  being  considered  in¬ 
ferior  for  this  purpose,  though  also  occasionally 
used.  The  rind  is  boiled  by  itself,  and  the 
white  woolly  coating  on  the  interior  being  then 
removed,  the  rind  is  cut  up  into  thin  strips,  and 
boiled  with  the  expressed  juice  of  the  pulp  and  a 
quantity  of  sugar  equal  in  weight  to  the  other 
ingredients.  After  the  mixture  lias  attained  the 
proper  consistence,  it  is  treated  in  a  similar  man¬ 
ner  to  jam,  jelly,  and  other  preserves. 

Mar'mora,  The  Sea  of,  the  Propontis  of  the 
ancients,  a  small  sea  between  European  and 
Asiatic  Turkey,  communicating  with  the  HDgeau 
Sea  by  the  Strait  of  Dardanelles  (anciently,  Hel¬ 
lespont),  and  with  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Strait  of 
Constantinople  (anciently  Bosporus).  It  is  about 
135  miles  in  length  by  45  in  breadth,  but  has 
besides  a  large  gulf,  the  Gulf  of  Isnikmid  or 
Ismid,  which  extends  about  thirty  miles  eastward 
into  Asia. 

Mar'moset,  a  name  often  given  to  a  number 
of  small  and  beautiful  species  of  American 
monkeys  of  the  genera  ffapale  and  Jacchus,  also 
called  Ouistiti,  and  sometimes  also  to  species  of 
the  genus  Midas  of  naturalists.  They  are  all  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  the  other  American  monkeys  by 
the  smaller  number  of  their  grinders,  resembling 
in  this  the  monkeys  of  the  Old  World,  also  by 
the' sharpness  and  crookedness  of  their  nails.  The 
tail  is  very  long,  and  thickly  covered  with  hair, 
but  not  prehensile. 

Mar 'mot  ( Arctomys ),  a  genus  of  rodents, 
usually  ranked  among  the  Muridce,  but  regarded 
as  forming  a  connecting  link  between  that  family 
and  Sciuridce  ;  resembling  squirrels  in  their  den¬ 


tition,  although  in  their  form  and  habits  they 
more  resemble  rats  and  mice.  They  have  two 
incisors  and  two  prsemolars  in  each  jaw,  four 
molars  on  each  side  above,  and  three  below. 
The  Quebec  marmot  ( A .  empetra),  found  in 
Canada  and  the  more  northern  States  in  woody 
districts,  is  a  burrowing  but  not  a  gregarious 
animal. 

Marne,  an  inland  department  in  the  Northeast 
of  France,  formed  out  of  the  old  Province  of 
Champagne,  is  traversed  by  the  River  Marne,  and 


MARNE. 


524 


MARY. 


extends  southward  from  the  frontier  Department 
of  Ardennes.  Area,  2,021,488  acres.  Pop.  (1876), 
407,780. 

Marne,  Haute,  an  inland  department  in  the 
Northeast  of  France,  southeast  of  the  Department 
of  Marne.  Area,  1,545,460  acres.  Pop.  (1876), 
252,448. 

Marque  'sas  Isles  (also  Mendana  Islands;  Fr. 
Les  Marquises)  are  a  group  in  Polynesia  touched 
by  t  lie  meridian  of  140°  W.  The  name  strictly 
applies  to  four  or  live  islands  discovered  by  Men¬ 
dana  in  1595,  and  called  Marquesas  after  the 
Viceroy  of  Peru;  but  usually  includes  now  the 
Washington  group  of  seven  islands,  to  the  north¬ 
west.  Pop.,  about  6,000.  Since  1842  the  islands 
have  been  under  a  French  protectorate. 

Mar'quetry  (Fr.  marqueterie),  the  art  of  inlay¬ 
ing  wood  with  wood  of  other  colors,  or  with 
various  other  materials,  as  metal,  ivory,  shell,  etc. 

Marquette,  an  important  iron  mining  center 
and  Lake  Superior  port  in  the  Upper  Peninsula 
of  Michigan,  is  the  county  seat  of  Marquette 
county.  Pop.,  12,500. 

Mar 'quit*,  or  Marquess,  the  degree  of  nobility 
which  in  the  peerage  of  England  ranks  next  to 
duke.  Marquises  were  originally  commanders 
on  the  borders  or  frontiers  of  countries,  or  on  the 
sea-coast,  which  they  were  bound  to  protect.  A 
marquis  is  styled  “The  Most  Honorable;”  his 
wife  is  a  marchioness;  his  eldest  son  takes  by 
courtesy  the  next  lower  title  in  the  peerage, 
except  where  that  is  identical  with  the  title  of  the 
marquisate,  in  which  case  lie  must  take  the  next 
lower  still,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Marquis  and  Earl 
of  Salisbury,  whose  eldest  sou  bears  the  courtesy- 
title  of  Viscount  Cranborne.  The  younger  sons 
of  a  marquis  are  styled  “Lord,”  and  daughters, 
“  Lady,”  with  the  addition  of  Christian  name  and 
surname. 

Marrow  is  a  substance  of  low  specific  gravity, 
filling  the  cells  and  cavities  of  the  bones  of  mam¬ 
mals.  There  are  two  varieties,  which  are  known 
as  watery  marrow  and  oily  marrow.  In  some  of 
the  short  bones,  as  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrae  and 
the  sternum,  the  marrow  has  a  reddish  color,  and 
is  found  on  analysis  to  contain  75  per  cent,  of 
water,  the  remainder  consisting  of  albuminous 
and  fibrinous  matter  with  salts  and  a  trace  of  oil. 
In  the  long  bones  of  a  healthy  adult  mammal, 
the  marrow  occurs  as  a  yellow,  oily  fluid,  con¬ 
tained  in  vesicles  like  those  of  common  fat,  which 
are  imbedded  in  the  interspaces  of  the  medullary 
membrane,  which  is  a  highly  vascular  membrane 
lining  the  interior  of  the  bones.  This  marrow 
consists  of  96  per  cent,  of  oil,  and  4  of  water, 
connective  tissue,  and  vessels. 

Mars,  a  contraction  of  Mavers  or  Mavors;  in 
the  Oscan  or  Sabine  language,  Mamers,  the 
name  of  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  identified  by 
the  Graecising  Romans  with  the  Thracian-Hellenic 
Ares.  The  Roman  Mars,  who  as  a  war-god  is 
surnamed  Oradious  (=  grandis  divus,  the  great 
god),  also  bore  the  surname  of  Silvanus,  and 
appears  to  have  been  originally  an  agricultural 
deity;  and  propitiatory  offerings  were  presented 
to  him  as  the  guardian  of  fields  and  flocks.  He 
in  time  came  to  be  recognized  as  the  god  of  war. — 
Ares,  the  Greek  god  of  war,  W'as  the  son  of  Zeus 
and  Hera,  and  the  favorite  of  Aphrodite,  who 
bore  him  several  children.  He  is  represented  in 
Greek  poetry  as  a  most  sanguinary  divinity, 
delighting  in  war  for  its  own  sake,  and  in  the 
destruction  of  men. 

Marseillaise'  Hymn,  the  name  by  which  the 
grand  song  of  the  first  French  Revolution  is 
known.  In  the  beginning  of  1792,  when  a  column 
of  volunteers  was  about  to  leave  Strasbourg,  the 
mayor  of  the  city,  who  gave  a  banquet  on  the 
occasion,  a«ked  an  officer  of  artillery,  named 
Rouget  de  Lisle,  to  compose  a  song  in  their  honor. 
His  request  was  complied  with,  and  the  result  was 
the  Marseillaise — boih  verse  aud  music  being  the 
work  of  a  single  night. 

Marseille,  the  first  seaport  of  France  and  of 
the  Mediterranean,  in  the  Department  of  Bouches- 
du-Rhone,  is  on  the  Gulf  of  Lyon,  410  miles  in  a 
direct  line  south-southeast  of  Paris,  and  in  latitude 
43°  17'  N.,  longitude  5°  22'  E.  Pop.  (1881), 
269,340. 

Marsh,  George  Perkins,  LL.D.,  an  Ameri¬ 
can  philologist,  was  born  at  Woodstock,  Vt., 
March  17,  1801.  He  was  elected  to  the  supreme 


executive  council  of  the  State  in  1835,  and  to 
Congress  in  1842  and  1849.  He  was  for  several 
years  afterward  United  States  Minister  Resident  at 
Constantinople,  and  in  1852  was  charged  with  a 
special  mission  to  Greece.  In  1861  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  United  States  Minister  at  Rome,  and  there 
lie  died  in  July,  1882. 

Marshal  (Fr.  marechal,  Tent,  mare,  horse,  and 
sceale  or  schalk,  servant),  a  term,  in  its  origin, 
meaning  a  groom  or  manager  of  the  horse,  though 
eventually  the  king’s  marshal  became  one  of  the 
principal  officers  of  state  in  England.  The  royal 
farrier  rose  in  dignity  with  the  increasing  im¬ 
portance  of  the  chemlerie,  till  he  became  con¬ 
jointly  with  the  constable,  the  judge  in  the 
Curia t  Martiales,  or  courts  of  chivalry.  An  earl¬ 
dom  is  attached  to  the  dignity,  and  the  office  of 
earl-marshal  is  now  hereditary  in  the  family  of 
the  Duke  of  Norfolk. 

Marshall,  the  name  of  six  towns  in  the  United 
States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Cal¬ 
houn  county,  Mich.  Pop.,  5,100. — 2.  The  county 
seat  of  Clark  county,  Ill.  Pop.,  2,356. — 3.  The 
county  seat  of  Lyon  county,  Minn.  Pop.,  1,875. 
— 4.  The  county  seat  of  Madison  county,  N.  C. 
Pop.,  250. — 5.  The  county  seat  and  an  important 
city  of  Saline  county,  Mo.  Pop.,  6,250. — 6.  The 
county  seat  of  Searcy  county,  Ark.  Pop.,  200. 

Marshalltown,  a  flourishing  agricultural  city 
and  railroad  center  of  Marshall  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  10,298. 

Marshfield,  the  county  seat  of  Webster  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  1,521. 

Marsh-mallow  (Althaea),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Malvaceae,  differing  from  the 
true  mallows  chiefly  in  the  6 — 9  cleft  outer 
calyx.  The  species,  which  are  not  numerous, 
are  annual  and  perennial  plants,  with  showy 
flowers,  natives  of  Europe  and  Asia.  Lozenges 
are  made  from  it.  The  whole  p'ant  is  whole¬ 
some,  and  in  seasons  of  scarcity,  the  inhabitants 


Marsh-Mallow  (Alihan  officinalis). 


of  some  Eastern  countries  often  have  recourse 
to  it  as  a  principal  article  of  food.  It  is  said  to 
be  palatable  when  boiled,  and  afterward  fried 
with  onions  and  butter.  The  hollyhock  is  com¬ 
monly  referred  to  this  genus. 

Mars h-mar'i gold  ( Caltha ),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Ranunculacem,  having  about 
five  petal-like  sepals,  no  petals,  and  the  fruit  con¬ 
sisting  of  several  spreading,  compressed,  many- 
seeded  follicles. 

Marsupia'lia,  or  Marsupia'ta,  an  extensive 
order  or  group  of  pouch-bearing  mammals.  This 
marsupium,  or  pouch,  which  is  situated  on  the 
abdomen  of  the  female,  contains  the  teats,  and 
serves  for  the  protection  of  the  immature  young; 
and  is  unquestionably  the  most  marked  charac¬ 
teristic  of  these  animals.  The  leading  peculiarity 
presented  by  the  skeleton  is  the  presence  of  the 
marsupial  bones,  which  are  attached  to  the 
pubis,  and  are  imbedded  in  the  abdominal 
muscles.  The  period  of  their  gestation  is  short 
(twenty-six  days  in  the  Virginian  opossum,  and 
thirty-nine  days  in  the  kangaroo),  and  the  young 
are  produced  in  so  immature  a  state,  that  the 
earlier  observers  believed  that  they  were  pro¬ 
duced  like  buds  from  the  nipples  to  which  they 
saw  them  attached. 


Marten  (Martes),  a  genus  of  digitigrade  carniv¬ 
orous  quadrupeds  of  the  family  Mustelidae,  allied 
to  the  weasels  and  sables,  natives  of  the  colder 
temperate  regions  of  the  globe.  There  are  two 


species,  the  common  (M.  foina)  and  the  pine  (.)/. 
abretum).  The  common  marten  is  much  less 
valuable  for  its  fur  than  the  pine  marten,  whilst 
the  pine  marten  is  much  less  valuable  than  the 
sable. 

Martlia’s  Vineyard,  an  island  on  the  south 
coast  of  Massachusetts,  21  miles  long,  6  miles  in 
average  width.  Edgartown,  pop.,  12,000,  is  the 
largest  town. 

Mar'tial  (Marcus  Valerius  Martialis),  the 
first  of  Latin  epigrammatists,  was  born  at  Bilbilis, 
in  Spain,  43  a.d.,  and  died  about  104  a.d. 

Martin,  Bishop  of  Tours,  and  a  saint  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  was  born  in  Pannonia 
about  the  year  316.  Irr  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  festival  of  his  birth  is  celebrated  on 
November  lltli. 

Martin,  the  name  of  five  Popes,  of  whom  the 
fourth  and  fifth  deserve  a  brief  notice. — Martin 
IV.  (Nicholas  dei.a  Brie),  a  Frenchman,  was 
elected  in  1281.  His  name  is  best  known  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  memorable  tragedy  of  the  “Sicil¬ 
ian  Vespers.”  He  died  at  Perugia  in  1285. — 
Martin  V.  must  be  noticed  as  the  Pontiff  in  whose 
election  was  finally  extinguished  the  great  West¬ 
ern  Schism.  He  died  in  the  year  1431. 

Martin,  St.,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  West 
India  Islands.  It  belongs  partly  to  France,  and 
partly  to  the  Netherlands.  Area  about  30  square 
miles.  Its  products  are  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco, 
maize,  etc.,  and  large  quantities  of  salt.  Slavery 
was  abolished  in  1863.  Pop.  (1815),  about  6,500. 

Martineau,  Harriet,  an  English  authoress, 
was  born  at  Norwich,  June  12,  1802.  She  died 
June  27,  1876. 

Martineau,  James,  English  author,  brother 
of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Norwich,  April  21. 
1805.  He  has  been  a  prolific  writer — mostly  on 
theological  subjects. 

Martinez,  tlie  county  seat  of  Contra  Costa 
county,  Cal.  Pop.,  1,425. 

Martinique',  or  Martinico,  called  by  the 
natives  Madiana,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  is  40 
miles  long,  about  12  miles  broad,  and  has  an  area 
of  about  380  square  miles,  and  (1881)  167,181 
inhabitants. 

Martinsburgh,  a  city  of  Berkeley  county,  W. 
Va.  Pop.,  7,725.  It  was  the  scene  of  minor 
military  operations  during  the  late  War  of  Seces¬ 
sion. 

Martinsville,  the  county  seat  of  Henry  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  3,125. 

Martinsville,  the  county  seat  of  Morgan 
county,  Ind.  Pop.,  3,200. 

Mary,  The  Blessed  Virgin  (Ileb.  Miriam,  Gr. 
Maria  Or  Mariam),  called  in  the  New  Testament 
“the  mother  of  Jesus”  (Matt,  ii,  11;  Acts  i,  14), 
as  the  mother  of  our  Lord,  according  to  the  flesh, 
is  held  in  high  honor  by  all  Christians,  and  her 
intercession  is  invoked  with  a  higher  religious 
worship  and  a  firmer  confidence  than  that  of  all 
the  other  saints,  not  only  in  the  Roman  Church, 
but  in  all  the  Christian  churches  of  the  East — the 
Greek,  the  Syrian,  the  Coptic,  the  Abyssinian, 
and  the  Armenian.  The  genealogy  of  our  Lord 
in  St.  Matthew  is  traced  through  Joseph,  and  as 
it  is  plainly  assumed  that  Mary  was  of  the  same 


MARY  I. 


525 


MASS. 


family  with  her  husband  Joseph,  the  evidence  of 
the  descent  of  the  latter  from  David  is  equiva¬ 
lently  an  evidence  of  the  origin  of  Mary  from 
the  same  royal  house.  But  the  genealogy  of 
Christ  as  traced  in  St.  Luke  is  commonly  held  to 
he  the  proper  genealogy  of  his  mother  in  the 
flesh,  Mary.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that  the  Heli  of 
this  genealogy  (Luke  iii,  23)  was  the  father  of 
Mary"  and  it  may  be  added,  in  confirmation  of 
this  "inference,  that  Mary  is  called  in  t  he  Talmud 
the  “daughter  of  Heli,”  and  that  Epiphanius 
(Hor.  lxxvni,  n.  17)  says  her  parents  were  Anna 
and  “Joachim,”  a  name  interchanged  in  Scripture 
(as  II.  Chron  xxxvi,  4)  with  Eliachim,  of  which 
name  Eli,  or  Heli,  is  an  abridgment.  The  inci¬ 
dents  in  her  personal  history  recorded  in  Script¬ 
ure  are  few  in  number,  and  almost  entirely  refer 
to  her  relations  with  our  Lord.  They  will  be 
found  in  Matt,  i,  ii,  xii;  Luke  i,  ii;  John  ii,  xix, 
and  Acts  i,  where  the  last  notice  of  her  is  of  her 
“  persevering  in  prayer”  with  the  disciples  and 
the  holy  women  at  Jerusalem  after  our  Lord’s 
ascension  (Acts  i,  14).  Beyond  the  few  leading 
facts  which  will  be  found  under  these  references, 
the  Scripture  is  silent  as  to  the  life  of  Mary  dur¬ 
ing  the  presence  of  our  Lord  on  earth,  nor  of  her 
later  life  is  there  any  record  in  the  canonical 
Scriptures.  A  letter  ascribed  to  the  Council  of 
Ephesus  speaks  of  her  as  having  lived  with  John 
at  that  city,  where  she  died,  and  was  buried. 
Another  epistle,  nearly  contemporaneous,  tells 
that  she  died  and  was  buried  at  Jerusalem,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Connected  with 
this  tradition  is  the  incident  which  has  so  often 
formed  a  subject  of  sacred  art,  of  the  apostles 
coming  to  her  tomb  on  the  third  day  after  her 
interment,  and  finding  the  tomb  empty,  but  ex¬ 
haling  an  “  exceeding  sweet  fragrance.”  On  this 
tradition  is  founded  the  belief  of  her  having  been 
assumed  into  heaven,  which  is  celebrated  in  the 
festival  of  the  assumption.  The  date  of  her  death 
is  commonly  fixed  at  the  year  of  our  Lord  63,  or, 
according  to  another  account,  the  year  48.  An¬ 
other  tradition  makes  her  survive  the  crucifixion 
only  eleven  years.  The  perpetual  virginity  of 
Mary  is  not  explicitly  attested  in  Scripture,  and 
there  are  even  certain  phrases  which  at  first  sight 
seem  to  imply  that  children  were  born  of  her 
after  the  birth  of  Jesus,  as  that  of  his  being  called 
(Matt,  i,  25,  Luke  ii,  7)  her  “firstborn  son,”  and 
that  of  James  and  others  being  more  than  once 
called  “brothers  of  the  Lord.”  On  the  latter 
argument,  no  critic  acquainted  with  the  wide, 
scriptural  use  of  the  word  “  brother”  would  ever 
rely.  The  former,  which  was  urged  anciently  by 
Helvidius  and  others,  but  was  rejected  by  the 
unanimous  voice  of  tradition,  is  founded  on  a 
phrase  susceptible  of  equal  latitude  of  interpreta¬ 
tion.  The  perpetual  virginity  of  Mary  is  held  as 
a  firm  article  of  belief  in  the  Roman  and  Eastern 
Churches. 

Mary  I.,  Queen  of  England,  daughter  of  Henry 
VIII.  by  his  first  wife,  Catharine  of  Aragon,  was 
born  at  Greenwich  on  Feb.  18,  1517.  She  won, 
from  her  savage  persecution  of  the  Protestants, 
the  soubriquet  “Bloody”  Mary.  She  died — 
after  much  suffering  from  dropsy  and  nervous 
debility — Nov.  17,  1558. 

Mary  Stewart,  Queen  of  Scots.  This  beau¬ 
tiful  and  accomplished,  but  unfortunate  princess, 
was  the  daughter  of  James  V.,  King  of  Scotland, 
by  his  second  wife,  Mary  of  Lorraine,  daugh¬ 
ter  of  Claude,  Duke  of  Guise,  and  widow  of 
Louis  of  Orleans,  Duke  of  Longueville.  She 
was  born  at  Linlithgow,  on  Dec.  8,  1542.  Her 
misfortunes  may  be  said  to  have  begun  with  her 
birth.  Mary  became  a  queen  before  she  was  a 
week  old.  Before  she  was  a  twelvemonth  old, 
the  Regent  Arran  had  promised  her  in  marriage 
to  Prince  Edward  of  England,  and  the  Scottish 
Parliament  had  declared  the  promise  null.  War 
with  England  followed,  and  at  Pinkie  Cieuch  the 
Scots  met  a  defeat  only  less  disastrous  than  Flod- 
den.  She  was  then  married  to  t lie  Dauphin  of 
France  afterward  Francis  ii.  On  the  death  of 
her  husband  she  returned  to  Scotland  to  her  own 
dominions,  and  commenced  her  administration 
under  favorable  auspices.  Here  she  married 
Lord  Darnley,  her  cousin,  but  the  marriage  was 
most  unhappy,  and  after  Lord  Darnley  had 
caused  David  Riccio,  her  favorite,  to  be  mur¬ 
dered,  he  was  himself  blown  up  by  gunpowder. 


The  Queen  then  married  the  Earl  of  Bothwell, 
which  at  once  caused  her  subjects  to  rise  in 
rebellion  against  her,  and  forced  her  abdication. 
Hereupon  she  crossed  the  line  to  England  and 
threw  herself  upon  the  protection  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  by  whom  she  was  kept  a  prisoner 
nineteen  years,  and  then  executed  in  1587 

Ma'ryland,  one  of  the  original  thirteen  Amer¬ 
ican  States,  lies  immediately  south  of  Pennsyl¬ 
vania,  and  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Delaware 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  between  latitude  37°  53' 
— 39°  44'  N.,  and  longitude  75°  4' — 79°  33'  W. 
Area,  12,210  square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  934,943. 
The  line  of  Atlantic  coast  is  but  33  miles,  but 
including  Chesapeake  Bay,  is  411  miles.  This 
bay,  15  miles  wide  at  its  mouth,  expands  to  a 
breadth  of  30  miles,  with  numerous  islands,  and 
reaches  nearly  across  the  State.  The  country 
rises  gradually  from  the  coast  to  the  tops  of  the 
Alleglianies,  with  great  varieties  of  fornvition, 
including  deposits  of  coal,  iron,  copper,  chromate 
of  iron,  silicates  and  hydrates  of  magnesia,  marl, 
etc.  The  climate  is  temperate,  and  the  soil  fer¬ 
tile,  producing  wheat,  Indian  corn,  cotton,  to¬ 
bacco,  apples,  plums,  peaches,  grapes.  Its  chief 
towns  are  Baltimore,  Annapolis,  Fredericktown, 
Cumberland.  Vast  quantities  of  fruit  and  of 
oysters  are  exported  from  Maryland.  The  an¬ 
nual  produce  of  coal  is  valued  at  about  $2,000,- 
000.  Maryland  has  upward  of  1,000  miles  of 
railway.  It  ranks  sixth  among  the  States  in  the 
value  of  its  foreign  commerce.  Organized  as  a 
State  in  1776,  Maryland  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  Revolution.  In  the  war  of  1861,  its  sympa¬ 
thies  were  with  the  South,  and  the  first  blood  of 
the  war  was  shed  in  Baltimore,  several  Massa¬ 
chusetts  volunteers  having  been  killed  on  their 
way  to  Washington.  During  the  war  it  was  in¬ 
vaded  from  Virginia,  and  made  the  scene  of 
blood}’  conflicts. 

Marysville,  the  name  of  several  towns  in 
the  United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  A  city  of  Cal¬ 
ifornia,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Yuba  river. 
It  is  a  great  resort  of  gold-miners,  and  has  a  vari¬ 
able  population. — 2.  The  county  seat  of  Marshall 
county,  Kan.  Pop.,  2,550. — 3.  The  county  seat 
of  Union  county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  3,750. — 4.  The 
county  seat  of  Yuba  county,  Cal.  Pop.,  6,250. 

Maryville,  the  county  seat  of  Blount  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Maryville,  the  county  seat  of  Nodaway  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Mason,  the  county  scat  of  Ingham  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  2,200. 

Mason,  the  county  seat  of  Mason  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  1,575. 

Mason  ami  Dixon’s  Line,  a  line  running  along 
the  parallel  of  latitude  39°  43'  26.3",  and  separat¬ 
ing  Pennsylvania  from  Maryland,  drawn  by  two 
distinguished  English  astronomers  and  mathema¬ 
ticians,  Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon. 
They  concluded  their  task  toward  the  end  of 
1767,  having  marked  out  a  line  of  244  miles  in 
length,  passing  through  forests,  over  mountain 
ridges,  etc.  At  the  end  of  every  fifth  mile  a  stone 
was  planted,  on  which  was  engraved  on  one  side 
the  arms  of  L  rd  Baltimore,  on  t lie  other  those  of 
the  Penns.  The  intermediate  miles  were  marked 
by  smaller  stones  with  an  M  on  one  side  and  a  P 
on  the  other.  All  the  stones  came  from  England. 
The  surveys  were  revised  in  1849,  and  found  sub¬ 
stantially  correct. 

Mason  Bee,  a  name  given  to  those  species  of 
bee  which  build  their  nests  of  agglutinated  earth 
or  grains  of  sand. 

Mason  City,  the  county  sent  of  Cerro  Gordo 
county,  Iowa.  Pop..  4,250. 

Masons,  Fkee.  The  mason  brotherhoods  of 
the  middle  ages  were  organized  incorporations, 
not  substantially  different  in  their  nature  from 
the  other  guilds,  governed  by  rules  of  their  own, 
and  recruited  from  a  body  of  apprentices  who  had 
undergone  a  period  of  probationary  servitude. 
Their  vocation  necessarily  involved  traveling 
from  place  to  place  in  search  of  employment. 
Wherever  a  great  church  or  cathedral  was  built, 
the  local  masons  had  to  be  reinforced  by  a  large 
accession  of  craftsmen  from  other  parts;  and  the 
masons  from  neighboring  towns  and  districts 
flocked  to  the  spot,  and  took  part  in  the  work, 
living  in  a  camp  of  huts  reared  beside  the  build¬ 
ing  on  which  they  were  engaged.  A  master  pre¬ 


sided  over  the  whole,  and  every  tenth  man  was  a 
warden  having  surveillance  of  the  rest.  A  mason, 
therefore,  after  going  through  his  apprenticeship 
and  probations,  could  not  settle  down,  like 
another  craftsman,  among  his  neighbors  and 
acquaintances,  but  must  travel  from  place  to 
place  to  find  employment;  hence  it  became  desira- 
able  or  necessary  to  devise  means  by  which  a 
person  once  a  member  of  the  fraternity  might  be 
universally  accepted  as  such,  without  requiring, 
wherever  lie  went,  to  give  fresh  evidence  of  his 
skill,  or  having  to  undergo  a  renewed  exami¬ 
nation  on  his  qualifications.  In  order  to  accom¬ 
plish  this  end,  and  to  enable  a  mason  traveling  to 
his  work  to  claim  the  hospitality  of  his  brother- 
masons  on  his  way,  a  system  of  symbols  was 
devised,  in  which  every  mason  was  initiated, 
and  which  he  was  bound  to  keep  secret.  The 
epithet  ‘  ‘  Free  ”  was  applied  to  the  craft  of  masons 
in  consequence  of  their  being  exempted  by  sev¬ 
eral  papal  bulls  from  the  laws  which  regulated 
common  laborers.  Modern  (or  so  called  specu¬ 
lative)  freemasonry  is  a  mystification  uncon¬ 
nected  either  with  the  building  craft  <  r  with 
architecture.  It  is  of  British  origin,  and  dates 
from  the  seventeenth  century.  Its  real  founders 
were  Elias  Ashmole  and  some  of  his  literary 
friends.  A  number  of  so-called  degrees  or  grades 
of  masonry  with  fantastic  names  were  established 
and  conferred  on  the  members.  Charles  II.  and 
William  III.  were  masons;  and  the  appearance 
of  a  connection  with  operative  masonry  was  kept 
up  by  the  appointment  ot  Sir  Christopher  Wren 
to  the  office  of  Grand  Master.  The  “  Lodges  ”  of 
Scotland  profess  to  trace  their  origin  to  the 
foreign  masons  who  came  to  Scotland  in  1150  to 
build  Kilwinning  Abbey;  those  of  England  go 
still  further  back,  to  an  assemblage  of  masons 
held  by  St.  Alban,  the  proto-martyr,  at  York,  in 
926;  and  the  mother-lodges  of  York  and  Kilwin¬ 
ning  were,  with  insignificant  exceptions,  the  par¬ 
ents  of  all  the  several  lodges  erected  in  different 
parts  of  Great  Britain.  The  American  lodges 
first  took  their  charters  from  both  English  and 
Scottish  sources.  There  are  about  fifty  grand 
lodges  in  the  United  States,  each  State  having 
one,  and  sometimes  two.  The  three  principal 
grades  are  apprentice,  fellow  craft,  and  master- 
mason;  there  being  peculiar  ceremonies  at  the 
making  of  each,  and  it  is  only  on  attaining  to  the 
degree  of  master-mason,  that  a  brother  enjoys  the 
full  benefits  and  privileges  of  the  craft. 

Mason  Wasp  (Odynerus  murarius),  a  species  of 
wasp,  which  makes  its  nest  by  boring  a  cylindrical 
hole  in  hard  sand,  or  even  in  the  plaster  of  walls, 
on  which  an  exudation  from  the  mouth  seems  to 
act  so  as  to  soften  it  sufficiently.  At  the  orifice, 
an  outer  tube  is  constructed,  sometimes  two  or 
three  inches  in  length,  of  pellets  formed  in  the 
excavation.  In  the  interior,  an  egg  is  deposited, 
with  a  number  of  little  caterpillars  ready  for  food 
of  the  larva  when  hatched. 

Mass  (Lat.  Missa),  the  name  given  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  the  Eucharistic  service  which 
in  that  Church,  as  well  as  in  the  Greek  and  other 
Oriental  Churches,  is  held  to  be  the  sacrifice  of  the 
new  law,  a  real  though  unbloody  offering,  in 
which  Christ  is  the  victim,  in  substance  the  same 
with  the  sacrifice  of  the  cross,  and  instituted  as  a 
commemoration  of  that  sacrifice,  and  as  a  means 
of  applying  its  merits,  through  all  ages,  for  the 
sanctification  of  men.  The  etymology  of  the  name 
now  in  use  is  somewhat  obscure,  but  it  is  com¬ 
monly  referred  to  the  proclamation  made  by  the 
deacon  at  the  closeof  tlieservice — “Ite;  missa  est” 
(Go;  the  assembly  is  dismissed).  The  mass  is 
now  in  general  denominated  according  to  the  so¬ 
lemnity  of  the  accompanying  ceremonial,  a  “Low 
Mass,”  a  “Chanted  Mass.”  or  a  “High  Mass.” 
In  the  first,  a  single  priest  simply  reads  the  serv¬ 
ice,  attended  by  one  or  more  acolytes  or  clerks. 
The  second  form  differs  only  in  this,  that  the  serv¬ 
ice  is  chanted,  instead  of  being  read  by  the  priest. 
In  the  High  Mass,  the  service  is  chanted  in  part 
by  the  priest,  in  part  by  the  deacon  and  sub¬ 
deacon,  by  whom,  as  well  as  by  several  ministers 
of  inferior  rank,  the  priest  is  assisted.  In  all 
these,  however,  the  service,  as  regards  the 
form  of  prayer,  is  the  same.  It  consists  of  (1),  an 
introductory  prayer  composed  of  the  41st  Psalm, 
together  with  the  “general  confession;  ”  (2),  the 
Introit,  which  is  followed  by  the  tlirice-repeated 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


526 


MATHEMATICS. 


petition,  “Lord,  have  mercy,”  “Christ,  have 
mercy,”  and  the  hymn,  “  Glory  to  God  on  high;” 
(3),  the  collect,  or  public  and  joint  prayers  of 
priest  and  people,  followed  by  a  lesson  either 
from  the  Epistles  or  some  book  of  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment,  and  by  the  Gradual;  (4),  the  gospel,  which 
is  commonly  followed  by  the  Nicene  Creed;  (5), 
the  Offertory,  after  the  reading  of  which  comes 
the  preparatory  offering  of  the  bread  and  wine, 
and  the  washing  of  the  priest’s  hands,  in  token  of 
purity  of  heart,  and  the  “secret,”  a  prayer  read 
in  a  low  voice  by  the  priest;  (6),  the  preface,  con 
eluding  with  the  trisagion,  or  “  thrice  holy;  ”  (7), 
the  “canon,”  which  is  always  the  same,  and 
which  contains  all  the  prayers  connected  with  the 
consecration,  the  elevation,  the  breaking,  and  the 
communion  of  the  Host  and  of  the  chalice,  as  also 
the  commemorations  both  of  the  living  and  of  the 
dead;  (8),  the  “  communion,”  which  is  a  short 
scriptural  prayer,  usually  appropriate  to  the  par¬ 
ticular  festival;  (9),  the  “post-communion,” 
which,  like  the  collect,  was  a  joint  prayer  of  priest 
and  people,  and  is  read  or  sung  aloud;  (10),  the 
dismissal  with  the  benediction,  and,  finally,  the 
first  chapter  of  St.  John’s  Gospel.  Great  part  of 
the  above  prayers  are  fixed,  and  form  what  is 
called  the  “ordo”or  “ordinary”  of  the  mass. 
The  rest,  which  is  called  the  “  proper  ”  of  the  mass, 
differs  for  different  occasions;  some  masses  being 
“  of  the  season,”  as  of  Lent,  Advent,  Passion-tide, 
“  Quarter-time,”  etc.;  others,  of  “Mysteries,”  as 
of  the  Nativity,  the  Circumcision,  the  Resurrec¬ 
tion;  others,  again,  of  saints,  as  of  an  Apostle,  a 
Martyr,  or  a  Confessor;  others,  again,  “votive,” 
as  “of  the  Passion,”  “of  the  Dead,”  “  for  Peace,” 
etc.  In  all  these  various  classes,  as  well  as  in  the 
individual  masses  under  each,  the  “proper  ”  por¬ 
tions  of  the  mass  differ  according  to  the  occasion; 
and  in  some  of  them  certain  portions  of  the  “  or¬ 
dinary,”  as  the  “  Glory  to  God  on  high,”  the 
“  Gradual,”  or  the  “  Nicene  Creed.”  are  omitted. 
On  one  day  in  the  year,  Good  Friday,  is  cele¬ 
brated  what  is  called  the  “  Mass  of  the  Presancti¬ 
fied,”  in  which  no  consecration  takes  place,  but 
in  which  the  priest  communicates  of  the  Host 
which  was  consecrated  on  the  preceding  day. 
This  usage  is  found  also  in  the  Greek  Church,  not 
alone  on  Good  Friday,  but  on  every  day  during 
Lent,  except  Saturday  and  Sunday.  In  the 
celebration  of  mass,  the  priest  wears  peculiar 
vestments,  five  in  number — two  of  linen,  called 
“  amice  ”  and  “  alb,”  and  three  of  silk  or  precious 
stuffs,  called  “maniple,”  “stole,” and  “chasuble,” 
the  alb  being  girt  with  a  cincture  of  flaxen  or 
silken  cord.  The  color  of  these  vestments  varies 
with  the  occasion,  five  colors  being  employed  on 
different  occasions — white,  red,  green,  purple  or 
violet,  and  black;  and  they  are  often  richly  em¬ 
broidered  with  silk  or  thread  of  the  precious 
metals,  and  occasionally  with  precious  stones. 
The  priest  is  required  to  celebrate  the  mass  fast¬ 
ing,  and,  unless  by  special  dispensation,  is  only 
permitted  to  offer  it  once  in  the  day,  except  on 
Christmas-day,  when  three  masses  may  be  cele¬ 
brated.  In  the  Greek  and  Oriental  Churches,  the 
Eucharistic  service,  called  in  Greek  Thcia  Lei- 
tourgia  (The  Divine  Liturgy),  differs  in  the  order 
of  its  parts,  in  the  wording  of  most  of  its  prayers, 
and  in  its  accompanying  ceremonial,  from  the 
mass  of  the  Latin  Church ;  but  the  only  differences 
which  have  any  importance  as  bearing  upon  doc¬ 
trine,  are  their  use  of  leavened  bread  instead  of 
unleavened;  their  more  frequent  celebration  of 
the  “  Mass  of  the  Presanctified;  ”  the  Latin  use  of 
private  masses,  in  which  the  priest  alone  commu¬ 
nicates;  and,  in  general,  the  much  more  frequent 
celebration  of  the  mass  in  the  Latin  Church.  The 
sacred  vestments,  too,  of  the  Greek  and  Eastern 
rites  differ  notably  from  those  of  the  Latin;  and 
in  some  of  the  former — as,  for  example,  the  Arme¬ 
nian — a  veil  is  drawn  before  the  altar  during 
that  part  of  the  service  in  which  the  consecration 
takes  place,  which  is  only  withdrawn  at  the  time 
of  the  communion.  The  service  sometimes  used  on 
shipboard,  and  improperly  called  Mum  Sicca 
(Dry  Mass),  consists  simply  of  the  reading  of  the 
prayers  of  the  mass,  but  without  any  consecra¬ 
tion  of  the  elements.  It  was  resorted  to  with  a 
view  to  avoiding  the  danger  of  spilling  the  sacred 
elements,  owing  to  the  unsteady  motion  of  the 
ship.  It  is  sometimes  also  called  Missa  Nautica 
(Ship  Mass). 


Massaclin'setts,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
States  of  the  American  Union,  and  oldest  of  the 
New  England  States,  lies  between  latitude  41° 
15' — 42°  53'  N.,  and  longitude  69°  56' — 73°  32' 
W.,  being  160  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  from 
47  to  110  from  north  to  south,  with  an  area  of 
7,800  square  miles ;  it  lies  south  of  Vermont  and 
New  Hampshire,  and  borders  on  the  Atlantic. 
There  are  fourteen  counties;  the  chief  towns  are 
Boston  (the  capital),  Lowell,  Lawrence,  Salem, 
New  Bedford,  Fall  River,  Lynn,  Springfield, 
Cambridge,  and  Worcester.  On  the  southeastern 
coast  are  the  Islands  of  Nantucket  and  Martha’s 
Vineyard.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Connecti¬ 
cut,  Merrimac,  and  Ilousatonic,  which  afford 
water-power  to  many  manufacturing  cities  and 
villages.  The  country  is  hilly,  and  much  of  the 
soil  sterile,  but  in  the  river-valleys  it  is  fertile. 
The  most  important  mineral  products  are  granite 
and  syenite,  sand  for  glass,  and  iron.  The  chief 
agricultural  products  are  Indian  corn,  apples  and 
pears,  grass  and  hay  ;  but  are  unimportant  com¬ 
pared  with  its  manufactures.  There  are  cot¬ 
ton  and  woolen  mills,  carpet  mills,  iron  found¬ 
ries,  rolling  mills,  nail  factories,  and  machine 
shops.  The  manufacture  of  shoes  is  very  import¬ 
ant.  In  1880,  above  2,200  miles  of  railway  were 
open.  The  fisheries  of  Massachusetts  have  long 
been  one  of  its  leading  industries.  The  State 
has  a  magnificent  educational  system.  Massachu¬ 
setts  was  discovered  by  the  Cabots  in  1497.  In 
1614,  it  was  visited  by  Capt.  John  Smith.  In 
1620,  the  Mayflower,  180  tons,  sailed  from  South¬ 
ampton  with  102  Puritan  settlers,  and  landed  at 
Plymouth,  Mass.,  December  22d.  Half  died  from 
cold  and  hardship  the  first  year.  In  1637,  the 
colony  suffered  from  Indian  massacres ;  and  in 
King  Philip’s  War,  1675,  12  towns  and  600  houses 
were  burned.  The  War  of  the  Revolution  of 
1776  began  in  Massachusetts  with  the  Battles  of 
Lexington  and  Bunker  Hill.  Pop.  (1880),  1,783,- 
082. 

Massachusetts  Bay,  an  Mentation  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Massachusetts,  between  Cape 
Cod  and  Cape  Ann,  70  miles  long  and  25  miles 
wide. 

Massillon,  Jean  Baptiste,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  modern  pulpit  orators,  was  born 
at  Hieres,  in  France,  June  24,  1663.  His  funeral 
oration  on  the  Prince  de  Conti,  in  1709,  was  one 
of  the  greatest  triumphs  of  his  oratory.  Soon 
after  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.,  Massillon,  in 
1717,  was  named  Bishop  of  Clermont.  He  died  of 
apoplexy  in  1742,  at  the  age  of  seventy-nine  years. 

Massillon,  a  flourishing  manufacturing  city  of 
Stark  county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  12,000. 

Massinger,  Philip,  an  English  dramatist,  was 
born  in  1584,  at  or  near  Wilton.  On  the  morning 
of  March  16,  1640,  he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed. 

Masso'rah,  variously  derived  from  massar  (to 
hand  down  to  posterity — tradition),  and  assar  (to 
bind,  to  fix  within  strict  limits),  denotes  chiefly  a 
certain  collection  of  critical  notes  on  the  text  of 
the  Old  Testament,  its  divisions,  accents,  vowels, 
grammatical  forms,  letters,  etc.  The  origin  of  the 
Massorah,  which,  by  fixing  an  immutable  reading 
upon  each  verse,  word,  and  letter,  put  an  end  to 
the  exercise  of  unbounded  individual  fancy,  is 
shrouded  in  deep  mystery. 

Mast,  an  upright,  or  nearly  upright  spar,  resting 
on  the  keelson  of  a  ship,  and  rising  through  the 
decks  to  a  considerable  height,  for  the  purpose  of 
sustaining  the  yards  on  which  the  sails  are  spread 
to  the  wind.  They  have  of  late  years  been  made 
of  cylinders  of  iron  plates,  bolted  together  and 
strengthened  by  internal  cross-braces. 

Master  of  Arts  (abbreviated  M.A.,  and  some¬ 
times,  particularly  in  Scotland,  A.M.)  is  a  degree 
conferred  by  universities  or  colleges.  It  is  the 
highest  in  the  faculty  of  arts,  but  subordinate  to 
that  of  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

Masterwort  {Peucedanum  O.drutimim),  a  peren¬ 
nial  plant  of  the  natural  order  Umbelliferee.  It  is 
a  native  of  the  North  of  Europe  and  the  North  of 
America.  It  still  retains  a  place  in  the  medical 
practice  of  some  countries  of  Europe,  although, 
probably,  it  is  nothing  more  than  an  aromatic 
stimulant.  Its  root  causes  a  flow  of  saliva,  and  a 
sensation  of  warmth  in  the  mouth,  aud  often 
affords  relief  in  toothache. 

Mastic,  a  species  of  gum-resin  yielded  by  the 
mastic  or  lentisk  tree  ( Pistacia  lentiscus,  natural 


order  Terebinlbacece).  The  chief  use  of  this  gum- 
resin  is  in  making  the  almost  colorless  varnish  for 
varnishing  prints,  maps,  drawings,  etc.  It  is  also 
used  by  dentists  for  stopping  hollow  teeth,  and 
was  formerly  used  in  medicine. 

Mastiff,  a  kind  of  dog,  of  which  one  variety 
has  been  known  from  ancient  times  as  peculiarly 
English,  and  another  is  found  in  Thibet.  The 
English  mastiff  is  large  and  powerful,  with  a  large 
head,  broad  muzzle,  large,  thick,  pendulous  lips, 
hanging  ears  of  moderate  size,  smooth  hair,  and  a 
full,  but  not  bushy  tail.  It  is  generally  from  25 
to  28  inches  high  at  the  shoulder,  but  a  still  greater 
size  is  sometimes  attained.  The  mastiff  is  very 
courageous.  The  English  mastiff  is  usually  of 
some  shade  of  buff  color,  with  dark  muzzle  aud 
ears.  The  ancient  English  breed  was  brindled 
yellow  and  black.  The  mastiff  of  Thibet  is  still 
larger  than  the  English;  the  head  is  more  elevated 
at  the  back;  the  skin,  from  the  eyebrow,  forms  a 
fold  which  descends  on  the  hanging  lip;  the  hair 
is  very  rough,  aud  the  tail  bushy;  the  color  mostly 
a  deep  black. 

Mas'todon,  a  genus  of  fossil  proboscidian 
pachyderms,  nearly  allied  to  the  elephant,  but 
with  simpler  grinding  teeth,  adapted  for  bruising 
coarser  vegetable  substances,  or  perhaps  fitted  for 
an  animal  of  a  more  omnivorous  character  than 
its  modern  representative. 

Matabele,  a  Kaffir  people,  speaking  one  of  the 
Bantu  tongues,  whose  territory  lies  between  the 
Zambezi  and  Limpopo  rivers  in  Southeast  Africa. 

Matagor'da,  a  seaport  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Colorado  river,  Tex.,  eighty 
miles  west-southwest  of  Galveston.  Pop.,  510. 

Matamor'as,  a  river-port  of  Mexico,  in  the 
Department  of  Tamaulipas,  is  situated  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  forty  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  that  river,  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Pop.,  25,000. 

Matan'za.s,  a  fortified  town  and  seaport  on  the 
north  coast  of  the  Island  of  Cuba,  fifty-five  miles 
east  of  Havana,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
railway.  Pop  ,  36,000. 

Matapan,  Cape,  the  southernmost  point  of  the 
Morea  in  Greece;  latitude  26°  33'  N. 

Matches,  pieces  of  various  inflammable  materi¬ 
als  prepared  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  fire 
readily  In  no  department  of  the  arts  has  more 
progress  been  made  than  in  the  production  of 
matches.  First  the  flint  and  steel  had  to  be  used, 
the  match  merely  taking  the  place  of  the  tinder; 
then  came  the  match  that  had  to  be  soaked  in 
chemicals  from  a  bottle  before  ignition,  and  so  on 
by  degrees  through  the  lucifer  match  down  to  the 
present  elegant  parlor  and  safety  matches,  and  the 
Swedish  storm-matches  which  no  wind  or  water 
can  extinguish  until  all  its  components  have  been 
burned  away.  The  constituents  of  the  ordinary 
match  head  are  sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  chlorate 
of  potash  stuck  on  with  red  or  blue  gum. 

Mate,  or  Paraguay  Tea,  a  substitute  for  tea, 
extensively  used  in  South  America,  and  almost 
universally  through  Brazil.  It  consists  of  the 
leaves  and  green  shoots  of  certain  species  of  holly, 
more  especially  Ilex  paragaayensis,  dried  and 
roughly  ground. 

Mate'ria  Med'ica  is  that  department  of  the 
science  of  medicine  which  treats  of  the  materials 
employed  for  the  alleviation  and  cure  of  disease. 
Some  writers,  as  Pereira,  divide  the  subject  into 
the  inorganic  and  the  organic,  while  others,  as 
Cliristison,  adopt  an  alphabetical  arrangement. 

Mathematics(Gr.  /I alien  a,  matliema,  learning), 
the  science  which  has  for  its  subject-matter  the 
properties  of  magnitude  and  number.  It  is  usu¬ 
ally  divided  into  pure  and  mixed ,  the  first  includ¬ 
ing  all  deductions  from  the  abstract,  self-evident 
relations  of  magnitude  and  number;  the  second, 
the  results  arrived  at  by  applying  the  principles  so 
established  to  certain  relations  found  by  observa¬ 
tion  to  exist  among  the  phenomena  of  nature. 
The  branches  of  pure  mathematics  which  were 
first  developed  were,  naturally.  Arithmetic,  or  the 
science  of  number,  and  Geometry,  or  the  science 
of  quantity  (in  extension).  The  latter  of  these 
was  the  only  branch  of  mathematics  cultivated  by 
the  Greeks,  their  cumbrous  notation  opposing  a 
barrier  to  any  effective  progress  in  the  former 
science.  Algebra,  or  the  science  of  numbers 
in  its  most  general  form,  is  of  much  later 
growth,  and  was  at  first  merely  a  kind  of  universal 


MATHER. 


527 


MEASLES. 


arithmetic,  general  symbols  taking  the  place  of 
numbers;  but  its  extraordinary  development 
within  the  last  two  centuries  has  established  for  it 
a  right  to  be  considered  as  a  distinct  science,  the 
science  of  operations.  Combinations  of  these  three 
have  given  rise  to  Trigonometry  and  Analytical 
Geometry. 

Mather,  Increase,  an  American  colonial 
divine,  son  of  Richard  Mather,  an  English  non¬ 
conformist  minister,  who  emigrated  to  Massachu¬ 
setts  in  1635,  was  born  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  Jan. 
21,  1639.  He  died  at  Boston,  Aug.  23,  1723. 

Mather,  Cotton,  an  American  colonial  divine, 
son  of  the  above,  was  born  at  Boston,  Feb.  12, 
1663.  He  died  Feb.  13,  1728. 

Mathew,  Rev.  Theobald,  commonly  known 
as  Father  Mathew,  was  descended  from  an  ille¬ 
gitimate  branch  of  the  Llandaff  family,  and  was 
bom  at  Tliomastowu  in  Tipperary,  Ireland,  Oct. 
10,  1790.  He  made  his  lifework  the  eradication 
of  intemperance  among  the  Irish  wherever  found, 
and  traveled  extensively  with  that  object  in  view. 
He  died  in  1856. 

Matter.  From  a  physical  point  of  view,  matter 
is  anything  that  can  affect  the  senses,  or  that  can 
exert,  or  be  acted  on  by,  force.  The  existence  of 
matter,  in  the  sense  of  substance,  has  been  doubted 
by  many  philosophers,  including  some  of  the 
greatest  of  experimenters.  Indeed,  as  we  can  know 
matter  only  by  the  forces  it  exerts,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  supposition  of  mere  geometric  points, 
capable  of  exerting  force  (technically  called  Cen¬ 
ters  of  Force),  will  as  satisfactorily  account  for  all 
observed  phenomena  as  any  other  idea  of  the  ulti¬ 
mate  nature  of  matter.  Here,  however,  we  are 
dealing  with  a  question  confessedly  beyond  the 
reach  of  experiment,  and  belonging  to  the  domain 
with  which  metaphysics  professes  to  deal. 

Matthew,  Saint,  an  apostle  and  evangelist, 
was  a  publican  or  tax  gatherer  at  the  Sea  of  Gali¬ 
lee.  Matthew’s  Gospel  is  believed  to  be  the  first 
in  point  of  time.  Iremeus  places  its  composition 
in  the  year  61  a.d.;  some  of  the  later  Fathers,  as 
early  as  41  a.d. 

Matthews  Court  House,  the  county  seat  of 
Matthews  county,  Ya.  Pop.,  360. 

Mattoon,  a  city  of  Coles  county,  Ill.  Pop., 

8,000. 

Mauch  Chunk,  the  county  seat  of  Carbon 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  4,686. 

Maurice,  Prince  of  Orange  and  Count  of 
Nassau,  one  of  the  most  skillful  and  distin¬ 
guished  generals  of  his  age,  was  the  son  of 
William  I.,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  was  born  at 
Dillenburg,  Nov.  14,  1567.  He  died  at  the  Hague, 
April  23,  1625. 

Mauric'ius,  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  Byzan¬ 
tine  emperors,  was  of  Roman  descent,  but  was 
born  at  Arabissus,  in  Cappadocia,  about  539  a.d., 
and  executed  Nov.  27,  602. 

Maurita'nia,  or  Mauretania,  the  ancient 
name  of  the  most  northwestern  part  of  Africa, 
corresponding  in  itslimitsto  the  present  sultanate 
ot  Morocco  and  the  western  portion  of  Algiers. 

Mauri  'tia,  a  genus  of  palms,  having  male 
flowers  and  female  or  hermaphrodite  flowers  on 
distinct  trees,  imperfect  spathes,  and  fan-shaped 
leaves.  They  are  all  natives  of  the  hottest  parts 
of  America. 

Mauritius,  or  Isle  of  France,  an  island  of 
the  Indian  Ocean,  belonging  to  Great  Britain, 
lies  in  latitude  19°  58'  to  20°  33'  S.,  and  longitude 
E.  from  Greenwich  57°  17'  to  57°  46'.  It  con¬ 
tains  about  713  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  includ¬ 
ing  the  small  dependencies  of  Seychelles,  Rodri¬ 
guez,  etc.,  and  exclusive  of  the  military,  359,874. 

Maury,  Matthew  Fontaine,  LL.D.,  an 
American  naval  officer,  astronomer,  and  hydrog- 
rapher,  was  born  in  Virginia,  Jan.  14,  1806.  In 
1825  he  was  appointed  Midshipman  in  the  United 
States  Navy,  and  during  a  voyage  round  the  world 
in  the  frigate  Vincennes,  commenced  a  treatise 
on  navigation,  which  is  adopted  as  a  text  book  in 
the  navy.  In  1836  he  was  made  Lieutenant;  but 
being  lamed  by  an  accident,  and  unfitted  for 
service  afloat,  he  was  appointed  to  the  Hydro- 
graphical  Office  at  Washington.  He  projected 
the  maritime  conference  at  Brussels  (1853);  and 
wfith  the  cooperation  of  the  British  Government, 
and  the  assistance  of  naval  officers  and  the 
learned,  completed  his  sailing  charts,  to  the  great 
advantage  of  the  commerce  of  the  world.  In 


1855  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  Commander. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  in  1861  Maury 
took  a  command  in  the  Confederate  Navy,  and 
afterward  went  as  Commissioner  to  Europe. 
After  the  war  he  returned  to  the  United  States. 
He  died  Feb.  1,  1873. 

Mail' ton,  the  county  seat  of  Juneau  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  1,875. 

Maw-seeil,  a  name  by  which  poppy-seed  (Pap- 
aver  somniferum)  is  sold  as  food  for  cage-birds. 
It  is  given  to  them  especially  when  they  are 
moulting. 

Maximilian  I.,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
of  the  German  Emperors,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Frederick  III.,  was  born  at  Neustadt,  near 
Vienna,  March  22,  1459.  He  died  Jan.  12,  1519. 

Maximilian  II.,  Joseph,  King  of  Bavaria,  son 
of  Ludvig  I.,  was  born  Nov.  28,  1811.  He  died 
March,  1864. 

Maximilian,  Emperor  of  Mexico,  otherwise 
Ferdinand  Maximilian  Joseph,  Archduke  of 
Austria,  was  born  on  July  6,  1832.  He  was  the 
son  of  the  Archduke  Francis  Charles,  and  the 
younger  brother  of  Francis  Joseph  I.  In  1862, 
the  French  were  tempted  by  the  opportunity 
offered  by  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States,  to 
interfere  in  the  affairs  of  Mexico,  and  in  1863, 
called  together  an  Assembly  of  Notables.  This 
body  decided  in  favor  of  monarchy ;  and  a  deputa¬ 
tion  was  appointed  to  offer  the  crown  of  Mexico 
to  Maximilian.  After  deliberation  he  solemnly 
accepted  it;  and  in  June,  1864,  he  entered  Mexico. 
A  proclamation  he  was  induced  to  make  in 
October,  1865,  threatening  to  punish  with  death 
under  the  laws  of  war  all  who  offered  resistance 
to  the  Government,  was  so  employed  both  by  the 
Imperialist  and  French  commanders,  that  under 
it  many  estimable  Liberal  officers  were  cruelly 
shot  as  robbers.  Juarez  and  his  followers  raised 
the  standard  of  independence.  At  thesametime, 
warned  by  the  United  States,  Louis  Napoleon  had 
to  contemplate  the  withdrawal  of  his  troops.  In 
vain  the  Empress,  a  daughter  of  Leopold  I.  of 
Belgium,  went  to  Europe  to  enlist  support  for  her 
husband;  her  reason  gave  way  under  the  con¬ 
tinued  grief  and  excitement  brought  on  bv  disap¬ 
pointment.  The  French  were  most  anxious  that 
Maximilian  should  leave  with  their  troops;  but  he 
felt  bound  as  a  man  of  honor  to  remain,  and  share 
the  fate  of  his  followers.  At  the  head  of  10,000 
men,  he  made  a  brave  defense  of  Queretaro  against 
a  Liberal  army  under  Escobedo.  On  the  night  of 
May  14,  1867,  General  Lopez  betrayed  him.  The 
Liberal  Minister  of  War  ordered  Maximilian  and 
Generals  Miramon  and  Mejia  to  be  tried  by  court- 
martial.  The  charges  chiefly  rested  on  the  proc¬ 
lamation  above  referred  to  and  the  executions 
which  followed  it.  On  July  19th,  the  three  pris¬ 
oners  were  shot.  After  some  delay,  the  body  of 
Maximilian  was  given  up  to  Ids  relatives,  and  was 
conveyed  to  Europe  in  an  Austrian  frigate. 

May  [Lat.  Maius,  is  from  a  root  mag,  or  (Sans.) 
mah ,  to  grow],  the  fifth  month  of  our  year,  con¬ 
sists  of  thirty-one  days.  The  first  of  May — May- 
day — was  the  chief  festival  both  in  ancient  and 
more  modern  times. 

Mayersville,  the  county  seat  of  Issaquena 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  500. 

Mayfield  ,  the  county  seat  of  Graves  county, 
Kv.  Pop.,  2,298. 

Jlaynardville,  the  county  seat  of  Union 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  250. 

May 'o,  a  maritime  county  of  the  Province  of 
Connaught,  Ireland,  is  bounded  on  the  north  and 
west  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  east  by  Sligo  and 
Roscommon,  and  south  by  Galway.  Area,  1,363,- 
882  acres,  of  which  497,587 are  arable;  pop.,  which 
in  1861  was  254,769,  had  fallen  in  1871  to  244,768. 
In  1881  there  was  still  a  decrease,  though  smaller; 
the  total  was  243,030. 

May’s  Landing,  the  county  seat  of  Atlantic 
county,  N.  J.  Pop.,  930. 

Maysville,  the  county  seat  of  De  Kalb  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  825. 

Maysville,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio 
river,  sixty-three  miles  southeast  of  Cincinnati. 
It  has  extensive  manufactories  of  cotton,  hemp,’ 
tobacco,  iron,  and  coal-oil.  Pop.  (1880),  6,000. 

Mayville,  the  county  seat  of  Chautauqua 
county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  1,480. 

Mazanderan',  a  province  of  Persia,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Caspian  Sea.  Throughout  the 


whole  province,  parallel  with  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian,  extends  a  causeway,  constructed  by 
Shah  Abbas  the  Great,  in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  still  in  good  repair.  Pop.,  about  150,000; 
capital,  Sari. 

Mazarin,  Jules  (Ital.  Giulia  Mnzarini),  cardi 
nal  and  chief  minister  of  France  during  the 
minority  of  Louis  XIV.,  was  born  July  14,  1602, 
at  Rome,  or,  some  say,  at  Piscina  in  the  Abruzzi. 
He  died  at  Vincennes,  March  9,  1661.  He  was 
very  able,  very  niggardly,  and  very  avaricious, 
and  had  acquired  in  various  ways,  fair  and  foul, 
an  immense  fortune. 

Mazat'lau,  a  seaport  of  Mexico,  at  the  mouth 
of  a  river  of  its  own  name,  which  falls  into  the 
entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  California,  latitude  23° 
10' N.,  longitude  106  21' W.  Pop.,  15,706 

Mazeppa,  Jan  (John),  hetman  of  the  Cossacks, 
was  born  about  1645.  He  became  a  page  in  the 
service  of  John  Casimir,  King  of  Poland.  A 
Polish  nobleman,  having  surprised  him  in  an 
intrigue  with  his  wife,  caused  him  to  be  stripped 
naked,  and  bound  upon  his  own  horse,  lying 
upon  his  back,  and  with  his  head  to  its  tail,  and 
sent  the  animal  off,  leaving  Mazeppa  to  his  fate. 
The  horse  carried  him  to  liis  own  distant  home — 
not  to  the  Ukraine,  as  has  been  often  said;  but 
Mazeppa,  out  of  shame,  fled  to  the  Ukraine, 
joined  the  Cossacks,  and  by  his  strength,  courage, 
and  activity,  rose  to  high  distinction  amongst 
them,  and  in  1687  was  elected  their  hetman.  He 
won  the  confidence  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  made 
him  Prince  of  the  Ukraine;  but  on  the  curtail¬ 
ment  of  the  freedom  of  the  Cossacks  by  Russia, 
Mazeppa  threw  off  the  sovereignty  of  the  Czar, 
and  entered  into  negotiations  with  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden.  These  and  other  treasons  were 
revealed  to  Peter  the  Great,  who  caused  a  num¬ 
ber  of  his  accomplices  to  be  put  to  death. 
Mazeppa  joined  Charles  XII.,  and  took  part  in 
the  Battle  of  Pultowa,  after  which  he  fled,  in 
1709,  to  Bender,  and  there  died  in  the  same  year. 
His  story  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  poem 
by  Byron,  of  a  novel  by  Bulgarin,  and  of  two 
paintings  by  Horace  Vernet. 

Mazur 'ka,  a  lively  Polish  dance  of  the  gro¬ 
tesque  kind,  the  music  of  which  is  sometimes  in 
three-eighths  time,  but  more  commonly  in  three- 
fourths.  It  is  danced  by  four  or  eight  couples. 

Mazzi'ni,  Giuseppe,  one  of  the  most  remark¬ 
able  men  of  modern  Italy,  was  born  in  1808  at 
Genoa.  On  his  death  at  Pisa,  March  11,  1872, 
the  Italian  Government  honored  him  with  a  pub¬ 
lic  funeral. 

Mead,  a  fermented  liquor  made  from  honey. 
The  honey  is  mixed  with  water,  and  fermenta¬ 
tion  is  induced  and  conducted  in  the  usual  man¬ 
ner. 

Meade  Centre,  the  county  seat  of  Meade 
county,  Kan.  Pop.,  625. 

Meadville,  a  prosperous  agricultural  and  man¬ 
ufacturing  city,  and  the  county  seat  of  Crawford 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  11,000. 

Meadville,  the  county  seatof  Franklin  county. 
Miss.  Pop.,  250. 

Mean,  in  Mathematics,  is  a  term  interpolated 
between  two  terms  of  a  series,  and  consequently 
intermediate  in  magnitude.  The  geometric  mean 
of  two  numbers  is  always  less  than  their  arith¬ 
metic  mean,  and  greater  than  their  harmonic 
mean;  and  the  geometric  mean  is  itself  a  geo¬ 
metric  mean  between  the  two  other  means. 

Measles  (known  also  as  Rubeola  and  Mor- 
billi)  is  one  of  the  group  of  blood-diseases  termed 
exanthemata,  although,  from  the  eruption  which 
appears  on  the  surface  of  the  body,  it  is  sometimes 
classed  with  the  skin-diseases.  It  is  communica¬ 
ble  from  person  to  person,  and  seldom  occurs 
more  than  once  in  the  same  individual.  Its  period 
of  incubation  is  usually  about  a  fortnight;  then 
come  lassitude  and  shivering,  which  are  soon  fol¬ 
lowed  by  heat  of  skin,  increased  rapidity  of  the 
pulse,  loss  of  appetite,  and  thirst.  The  respiratory 
mucous  membrane  is  also  affected,  and  the  symp¬ 
toms  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  of  a  cold  in  the 
head,  accompanied  with  a  dry  congli,  a  slight 
sore  throat,  and  sometimes  tightness  of  the  chest. 
The  eruption  which  is  characteristic  of  the  dis¬ 
ease  usually  appears  upon  the  fourth  day  from  the 
commencement  of  the  febrile  symptoms  and  the 
catarrh — seldom  earlier,  but  not  infrequently 
some  days  later.  It  is  a  rash,  consisting  at  first 


MEASURE. 


528 


MEERUT. 


of  minute  red  papulae,  which,  as  they  multiply, 
coalesce  into  crescentic  patches.  It  is  two  or 
three  days  in  coming  out,  beginning  on  the 
face  and  neck,  and  gradually  traveling  down¬ 
ward.  The  rash  fades  in  the  same  order  as  it 
occurs;  and  as  it  begins  to  decline  three  days  after 
its  appearance,  its  whole  duration  is  about  a  week. 
The  red  color  gives  way  to  a  somewhat  yellowish 
tint,  and  the  cuticle  crumbles  away  in  a  fine 
bran-like  powder;  the  process  being  often  attended 
with  considerable  itching.  There  are  two  im¬ 
portant  points  in  which  it  differs  from  smallpox, 
with  which  in  its  early  stage  it  may  be  con¬ 
founded:  these  are — 1.  That  the  fever  does  not 
cease  or  even  abate  when  the  eruption  appears, 
but  sometimes  increases  in  intensity;  and (2),  that 
the  disease  is  not  more  severe  or  more  dangerous 
because  the  eruption  is  plentiful  or  early.  The 
character  of  the  eruption,  after  the  first  day,  will 
serve  to  remove  all  doubt  regarding  these  two  dis¬ 
eases;  and  the  comparative  prevalence  of  either 
disease  in  the  neighborhood  will  materially  assist 
in  forming  the  diagnosis.  It  is  distinguished  from 
scarlet  fever  or  scarlatina  (I),  by  the  presence  at 
the  outset  of  catarrhal  symptoms,  which  do  not 
occur  in  the  latter  disease,  at  any  rate,  prior  to 
the  eruption;  (2)  by  the  absence  of  the  throat 
affection,  which  always  accompanies  well-marked 
cases  of  scarlet  fever;  (3)  by  the  character  of  the 
rash,  which  in  measles  is  said  to  present  some¬ 
what  the  tint  of  the  raspberry,  and  in  scarlet 
fever,  that  of  a  boiled  lobster;  which  in  measles 
appears  in  crescentic  patches,  and  in  scarlet  fever 
is  universally  diffused;  which  in  measles  usually 
appears  on  the  fourth  day,  and  in  scarlet  fever  oil 
the  second  day  of  the  disease.  The  chief  danger 
is  from  inflammation  of  some  of  the  textures  that 
compose  the  lungs;  and  in  scrofulous  children,  it 
often  leaves  chronic  pulmonary  mischief  behind 
it.  No  age  is  exempt  from  the  disease,  but  it  is 
much  more  common  in  childhood  than  subse¬ 
quently.  In  mild  forms  of  the  disease,  nothing 
more  is  requisite  than  to  keep  the  patient  on  a 
low  diet,  attend  to  the  state  of  the  bowels,  and 
prevent  exposure  to  cold,  which  is  best  accom¬ 
plished  by  keeping  him  in  bed  with  the  ordinary 
warmth  to  which  lie  is  accustomed  in  health.  If 
the  chest-symptoms  become  urgent,  they  must  be 
treated  according  to  their  nature.  Bronchitis 
sometimes  extending  into  pneumonia,  is  most  to 
be  feared.  If  the  eruption  disappear  prematurely, 
it  may  sometimes  be  brought  back  by  placing  the 
patient  in  a  warm  bath.  In  such  cases,  stimu¬ 
lants  are  often  required,  but  must,  of  course,  be 
given  only  by  the  advice  of  the  physician.  The 
patient  must  be  carefully  protected  from  expos¬ 
ure  to  cold  for  a  week  or  two  after  the  disease 
has  apparently  disappeared,  as  the  lungs  and 
mucous  coat  of  the  bowels  are  for  some  time  very 
susceptible  to  inflammatory  attacks. 

Measure,  in  Music,  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
quantity  of  notes  which  are  placed  in  the  bar, 
and  which  is  generally  called  the  time,  of  which 
there  are  but  two  kinds — viz.,  common  time,  con¬ 
taining  an  equal  quantity  of  notes  in  the  bar,  and 
triple  time,  containing  an  unequal  quantity. 
Common  time  is  generally  marked  with  a  C  at  the 
beginning,  which  means  that  every  bar  contains 
four  quarter  notes,  or  their  value  in  other  notes. 
There  are  also  other  kinds  of  common  time,  which 
are  marked  f,  g.  Triple  time  is  marked  §,  a, 
g,  |,  v  Sometimes,  in  common  time,  we  have 
V-  The  lower  figure  indicates  the  kind  of 
note,  and  the  upper  figure  shows  how  many  of 
these  parts  there  are  in  the  bar. 

Meath,  a  maritime  county  of  the  Province  of 
Leinster,  Ireland,  bounded  "on  the  east  by  the 
Irish  Sea  and  the  County  of  Dublin;  area,  906 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  87,469. 

Mec'ca  (Om  Al  Kora,  Mother  of  Cities),  one  of 
the  oldest  towns  of  Arabia,  the  capital  of  Hed'jaz, 
and,  through  being  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed, 
the  central  and  most  holy  city  of  Islam.  It  is  in 
21°  30'  N.  latitude,  and  40°  8'  E.  longitude. 
Pop.  about  40,000. 

Meehan 'ical  Powers— Machines'.  The  ele¬ 
ments  of  which  machines  are  all  composed,  are  re¬ 
ducible  to  a  very  few.  These  elementary  machines 
are  called  the  mechanical  powers,  and  are  usually 
reckoned  as  six  in  number,  three  being  primary — 
viz.,  the  lever,  inclined  plane,  and  pulley;  and 
three  secondary,  or  derived  from  the  others — viz., 


the  wheel-and-axle  (derived  from  the  lever), 
the  wedge,  and  the  screw  (both  derived  from  the 
inclined  plane).  To  these  some  add  toothed- 
wheels. 

Meck'lenbnrg-Schwerin ',  a  grand  duchy  of 
Northern  Germany,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Baltic,  east  by  Pomerania,  south  by  Branden¬ 
burg,  and  west  by  Lauenburg.  Area  about  5,136 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1880),  577,055. 

Me'cklenburg-Stre'litz,  a  grand  duchy  of 
Germany,  composed  of  two  distinct  portions  of 
territory — viz.,  Stargard  (the  largest  division, 
lying  to  the  east  of  Mecklenburg-Scliwerin)  and 
the  Principality  of  Ratzeburg  (between  Meclden- 
burg-Scliwerin  and  Lauenburg),  and  comprising 
an  area  of  more  than  1,000  square  miles,  with  a 
pop.  (1880)  of  100,269. 

Medal  (Fr.  medaille,  Lat.  melallum),  a  piece  of 
metal  in  the  form  of  a  coin,  not  issued  or  circulated 
as  money,  but  stamped  with  a  figure  or  device  to 
preserve  the  portrait  of  some  eminent  person,  or 
the  memory  of  some  illustrious  action  or  event. 
Medals  in  the  present  day  are  conferred  by  the 
sovereign  as  marks  of  distinction  for  eminent 
■worth  or  noble  conduct,  more  particularly  for 
naval  and  military  services.  Such  medals  of  honor 
are  seldom  of  great  intrinsic  value,  their  worth 
depending  merely  on  the  associations  connected 
with  them. 

Mede'a,  in  Grecian  legend,  a  famous  sorceress, 
the  daughter  of  Aetes,  King  of  Colchis,  and  of 
the  Oceanid  Idyia,  or  of  Hecate.  She  married 
Jason,  the  leader  of  the  Argonauts,  and  aided  him 
in  obtaining  the  Golden  Fleece.  Jason,  after  his 
return  home,  being  desirous  to  be  revenged  on 
Pelias  for  the  murder  of  his  parents  and  his 
brother,  Medea  persuaded  the  daughter  of  Pelias 
to  cut  him  in  pieces  and  boil  him,  in  order  to 
make  him  young  again. 

Me'dia,  in  ancient  times,  the  northwestern  part 
of  Iran,  which  was  bounded  by  the  Caspian  Sea 
on  the  north,  by  Persia  on  the  south,  by  Parthia 
on  the  east,  and  by  Assyria  on  the  west. 

Medford,  the  county  seat  of  Middlesex  county, 
Mass.,  is  an  important  and  prosperous  manufact¬ 
uring  city.  Pop.,  11.041. 

Medford,  the  county  seat  of  Taylor  county,  Wis. 
Pop.,  829. 

Media,  the  county  seat  of  Delaware  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  3,365. 

Medical  Lake,  in  Spokane  county,  Washing¬ 
ton,  so-called  from  the  peculiar  character  of  its 
water.  A  good  quality  of  soap  is  made  from  the 
water  by  condensation. 

Med'ici,  The,  a  family  ranked  among  the  first 
and  most  distinguished  of  the  Florentine  republic, 
and  who  owe  their  earliest  distinction  to  the  suc¬ 
cess  with  which  they  had  pursued  various  branches 
of  commerce,  and  the  liberal  spirit  in  which  they 
devoted  their  wealth  to  purposes  of  general  utility. 
From  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century  the 
Medici  took  part  in  all  the  leading  events  of  the 
republic;  and  from  the  period  when  Salvestro  de’ 
Medici  attained  the  rank  of  gonfaloniere  in  1378, 
the  family  rose  rapidly  to  preeminence,  although 
the  greatness  which  it  enjoyed  for  several  centuries 
is  more  especial lyd ue  to  Giovanni  de’  Medici,  who 
died  in  1429.  Many  members  of  the  family  dis¬ 
tinguished  themselves  in  war,  in  theology,  states¬ 
manship,  in  art,  and  in  letters.  In  the  seventeenth 
century  the  race  rapidly  degenerated;  and  after 
several  of  the  representatives  had  suffered  them¬ 
selves  to  be  made  the  mere  tools  of  Spanish  and 
Austrian  ambition,  the  last  male  representative  of 
the  line,  Giovanni  Gaston,  died  in  1737,  and  his 
only  sister  the  Electress  Palatine,  the  last  of  the 
family,  expired  in  1743. 

Medicine  Lodge,  the  county  seat  of  Barber 
county,  Kan.  Pop.,  1,875. 

Medick  ( Medicago ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminom,  sub-order  Pupilionocem, 
nearly  allied  to  clover  ( Trifolium ),  but  distin¬ 
guished  from  that  and  other  kindred  genera  by 
the  sickle-shaped,  or,  in  most  species,  spirally 
twisted  legume.  The  species,  which  are  numer¬ 
ous,  are  mostly  annual  and  perennial  herbaceous 
plants,  with  leaves  of  three  leaflets  like  those  of 
clover,  natives  of  temperate  and  warm  climates. 

Medi'na  (Arab,  city),  or,  more  fully,  Medi- 
nat  al  Nabi  (city  of  the  prophet),  also  called 
Taisah,  Tibaii,  etc.,  and  mentioned  by  Ptolemy 
as  Jathrippa :  the  holiest  city  throughout  Mo¬ 


hammedanism,  next  to  Mecca,  and  the  second 
capital  of  Hedjaz  in  Western  Arabia,  is  about  270 
miles  north  of  Mecca,  and  140  north-by-east  of 
the  port  of  Jembo  on  the  Red  Sea,  and  contains 
about  16,000  inhabitants. 

Medina,  the  county  seat  of  Medina  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  1,855. 

Mediterra’nean  Sea,  so  named  from  its  being 
almost  entirely  inclosed  by  the  Continents  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa,  one  of  the  greatest 
inland  seas  in  the  world,  extends  (inclusive  of  the 
Sea  of  Marmora,  but  exclusive  of  the  Black  Sea, 
and  the  Sea  of  Azof)  to  about  1,000,000  square 
miles.  Its  length  from  east  to  west  is  about  2,320 
miles,  its  greatest  breadth  about  1,080,  but  it  is 
divided  into  two  great  basins  by  the  approach  of 
the  European  and  African  coasts  in  its  middle. 
It  is  connected  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean  only  by 
the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  through  which  a  strong 
current  flows  into  the  Mediterranean.  Another 
strong  current  also  flows  into  it  from  the  Black 
Sea,  which  receives  large  supplies  of  fresh  water, 
whereas  the  great  rivers  which  fall  into  the  Medi¬ 
terranean  itself  are  comparatively  few,  the  princi¬ 
pal  being  the  Ebro,  the  Rhone,  and  the  Po,  from 
Europe,  and  the  Nile,  from  Africa.  Different 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  bear  different 
names — as  the  iEgean  Sea,  the  Ionian  Sea,  the 
Adriatic  Sea  or  Gulf  of  Venice,  etc. 

Medlar  ( Mespilus ),  a  genus  of  trees  or  shrubs 
of  the  natural  order  Rosacea,  sub-order  Pomece, 
having  a  five-cleft  calyx  with  leafy  segments, 
nearly  round  petals,  a  large  honey -secreting  disk, 
and  two  to  five  styles,  united  together  in  the 
flower,  but  widely  separated  on  the  fruit,  the 
upper  ends  of  the  bony  cells  of  which  are  ex¬ 
posed. 

Medoc,  a  district  in  the  French  Department  of 
Gironde,  famed  for  the  quantity  and  excellence 
of  the  wine  produced  here — including  the  most 
famous  growths  of  Bordeaux  wines,  such  as 
Chateau-Margaux,  Chateau  Lafitte,  and  Chateau- 
Latour.  The  district  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Estuary  of  the  Gironde,  and  is  40  miles  long. 

Medora,  the  county  seat  of  Billings  county. 
Dak.  Pop.,  100. 

Med'ullary  Sareo'mais  one  of  the  synonyms 
for  that  variety  of  cancer  which  is  also  known  as 
encephaloid,  cellular  cancer,  medullary  cancer, 
fungus  medullaris,  etc.  It  grows  more  quickly, 
distributes  itself  more  rapidly,  and  attains  a  more 
considerable  bulk  than  any  other  form  of  cancer, 
tumors  of  this  nature  being  often  as  large  as  a 
man’s  head,  or  even  larger.  Of  all  forms  of 
cancer,  it  runs  the  quickest  course,  soonest  ulcer¬ 
ates,  is  the  most  malignant,  and  causes  death  in 
by  far  the  shortest  time,  often  destroying  life  in 
a  few  weeks,  or,  at  furthest,  in  a  few  months 
after  its  first  appearance,  unless  it  has  been 
removed  by  an  operation  at  an  early  stage. 
When  it  ulcerates,  fungoid  growths  form  upon 
the  surface  ;  they  are  extremely  vascular,  and 
bleed  upon  the  slightest  provocation.  In  this 
state  the  disease  has  received  the  name  of  Fungus 
hcematodes. 

Meer'schauni,  a  mineral  existing  in  many 
parts  of  the  world.  In  Europe,  it  is  found 
chiefly  at  Hrubschitz  in  Moravia,  and  at  Sebas¬ 
topol  and  Kaffa  in  the  Crimea ;  and  in  Asia  it 
occurs  abundantly  just  below  the  soil  in  the 
alluvial  beds  at  Kittisch  and  Bursa  in  Natolia ; 
and  in  the  rocks  of  Eski-Hissar  in  the  same 
district,  it  is  mined  so  extensively  as  to  give 
employment  to  nearly  a  thousand  men.  Meer¬ 
schaum,  from  its  having  been  found  on  the  sea¬ 
shore  in  some  places,  in  peculiarly  rounded  snow- 
white  lumps,  was  ignorantly  imagined  to  be  the 
petrified  froth  of  the  sea,  which  is  the  meaning  of 
its  German  name.  Almost  all  the  meerschaum 
found  is  made  into  tobacco-pipes,  in  which  man¬ 
ufacture  the  Germans  have  been  for  a  long  time 
preeminent. 

Mee'rut,  Merut  or  Mirut,  a  town,  district, 
and  division  of  British  India.  The  town  is  the 
chief  town  of  the  district  and  province,  and  is  on 
the  Kalli  Nuddi,  about  forty-two  miles  northeast 
of  Delhi.  Pop.  (1871),  79,378.  The  District  of 
Meerut  has  an  area  of  2,368  square  miles,  and  a  pop. 
of  (1871)1,273,914.  The  Division  of  Meerut  lies  in 
the  Northwest  Provinces ;  area,  10,947  square 
miles;  pop.  (1871),  4,973,190. 


MEGALIOIITHYS. 


529 


MELIACEJE. 


Megalicli'lliys  (Gr.  peyai,  great,  a 

fish),  a  genus  of"  fossil  heterocereal  ganoid  fishes, 
so  named  from  their  large  size,  compared  with 
the  other  fish  of  the  period.  They  were  covered 
with  large,  strong  rhomboid  scales,  composed 
externally  of  brilliantly  polished  brown  enamel, 
usually  granulated,  as  in  the  scutes  of  the  recent 
crocodile.  These  scales  have  been  found  as 
large  as  five  inches  in  diameter. 

Megalosau'rus  (Gr.  jueyas,  great,  6avpoi,  a 
lizard),  a  genus  of  fossil  dinosaurians,  or  land- 
saurians,  of  gigantic  size  and  carnivorous  habits, 
whose  remains  occur  in  the  rocks  of  the  oolite 
period.  The  body  of  the  animal  was  supported 
on  four  legs ;  specimens  of  the  femur  and 
tibia  have  been  found  measuring  each  nearly 
3  feet,  giving  a  total  length  of  almost  6  feet 
to  the  hind  leg ;  and  a  metatarsal  bone  13 
inches  long  shows  that  the  foot  had  a  corres¬ 
ponding  size.  The  sacrum  was  composed  of  five 
vertebrae,  anchylosed  together,  as  in  the  other  dino¬ 
saurs.  The  megalosaurus  must  have  been  60 
or  70  feet  long. 

Megapodidae,  a  family  of  birds,  referred  by 
some  naturalists  to  the  order  Qrallce,  but  more 
generally  to  the  gallinaceous  order,  being  regarded 
as  allied  to  the  curassows,  etc.  The  feet  are 
large  and  have  large,  blunt  claws.  To  this  order 
belong  the  genera  Megapodiu «,  Leipou,  Talegalln, 
etc.  The  order  is  peculiar  to  New  Holland  and 
the  neighboring  islands. 

Megaris,  a  small  mountainous  region  of  Hellas, 
or  Greece  Proper,  bounded  by  Attica,  Corinth, 
and  the  sea.  It  formed  the  northeastern  part 
to  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  The  capital  was 
Megara. 

Megathe'rium  (Gr.  ueydi,  great,  &r/piov, 
animal),  a  gigantic  extinct  quadruped  of  the 
order  Edentata,  nearly  allied  to  the  sloth,  found 
in  the  superficial  stratum  of  the  South  American 
pampas.  In  structure  it  is  near  its  modern  repre- 


Skeleton  of  the  Megatherium. 


sentative,  except  that  the  whole  skeleton  is  modi¬ 
fied  to  suit  the  requirements  of  an  immense 
heavy-boned  and  heavy-bodied  animal,  some  18 
feet  in  length  and  8  feet  in  height. 

Me 'grim  (Gr.  epi,  half,  Kpdvia,  skull,  the 
migraine  of  the  French)  is  the  popular  term  for 
neuralgia  occupying  one-half  of  the  head,  or  more 
commonly  only  the  brow  and  forehead  of  one  side. 
It  is  often  periodical,  coming  on  at  a  certain  hour, 
lasting  a  certain  time,  and  then  entirely  disappear¬ 
ing  for  a  fixed  interval.  It  may  be  induced  by 
any  cause  that  debilitates  the  system,  it  not  in¬ 
frequently  attacks  women  who  have  suckled 
their  children  too  long;  or  it  may  be  associated 
with  hysteria;  or  it  may  arise,  like  ague,  from 
marsh  miasma;  and  sometimes  no  exciting  cause 
can  be  detected.  When  it  is  associated  with 
anaemia  (paleness  and  general  debility),  it  should 
be  treated  with  the  preparations  of  iron,  the 
shower-bath,  nourishing  food,  and  plenty  of  exer¬ 
cise  in  the  open  air.  When  it  is  strictly  periodi¬ 
cal,  quinine  in  full  doses  should  be  tried  (the 
bowels  being  previously  well  cleared  out);  and  if 
the  quinine  fails  Fowler’s  solution  of  arsenic, 
given  in  small  doses  (three  minims  in  a  wine  glass¬ 
ful  of  water),  three  times  a  day,  after  meals,  will 
be  almost  sure  to  remove  it. 


Megrims  and  Yertigo  are  the  terms  usually 
applied  when  a  horse  at  work  reels,  and  then 
either  stands  for  a  minute  dull  and  stupid,  or  falls 
to  the  ground,  lying  for  a  time  partially  insensi¬ 
ble.  These  attacks  come  on  suddenly,  are 
often  periodical,  are  most  frequent  during  hot 
weather,  and  when  the  animal  is  drawing  up  a 
hill,  or  exposed  during  heavy  vrork  to  the  full 
rays  of  a  hot  sun.  Liability  to  megrims  consti¬ 
tutes  unsoundness,  and  usually  depends  upon  the 
circulation  through  the  brain  being  temporarily 
disturbed  by  the  presence  of  tumors.  Horses 
subject  to  megrims  are  always  dangerous,  if 
driven  at  all,  they  should  be  used  with  a  breast¬ 
plate  or  pipe-collar,  so  as  to  prevent,  as  much  as 
possible,  pressure  on  the  veins  carrying  the  blood 
from  the  head;  they  should  be  moderately  and 
carefully  fed,  and  during  hot  weather  have  an 
occasional  laxative. 

Mehemed  or  Mehemet  Ali,  also  Moiiammed 
Ali,  Viceroy  of  Egypt,  was  born  in  1769  at 
Kavala,  in  Macedonia.  In  1806  he  became 
Viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  ruled  until  1839,  when  he 
was  deposed  by  the  European  powers.  He  died 
Aug.  2,  1849. 

Melancho'lia,  as  a  disease,  is  the  exaggeration 
of  the  natural  and  legitimate  feelings  of  grief, 
despondency,  and  apprehension,  which  become 
morbid  where  the  emotion  is  without  a  cause,  dis- 
proportioned  to  the  actual  cause,  or  so  intense  as 
to  disturb  and  destroy  the  exercise  of  the  other 
mental  powrers.  This  dejection  and  suffering  is 
found  associated  with  exaited  sensations,  or  delu¬ 
sions  as  to  the  personal  or  physical  condition  of 
the  individual,  which  originate  in  habitually 
cherishing  certain  impressions,  in  fixing  the  at¬ 
tention  upon  certain  vital  processes,  which  may 
be  unhealthy,  or  become  so  by  the  very  concen¬ 
tration  of  thought  bestowed  upon  them.  The  pa¬ 
tient  lives  in  fear  of  death,  in  the  conviction  that 
he  is  differently  or  more  exquisitely  constructed 
than  those  around  ;  that  he  labors  under  some 
foul  or  fatal  disease ;  that  he  is  destitute  of 
strength  or  comeliness.  This  has  been  regarded 
as  hypochondriacal  melancholia — the  maladie  an  g- 
laise,  and  affects  the  opening  of  life.  Similar  feel¬ 
ings  are  called  forth  in  reference  to  the  social 
position.  There  arises  a  dread  of  poverty  and 
want.  The  victim  is  haunted  by  imaginary  debts, 
obligations,  peculations.  He  feels  incapable  of 
extricating  himself.  The  poor,  as  well  as  the 
rich,  entertain  such  doubt  and  dread.  They 
starve,  in  order  to  husband  their  resources.  This 
affection  prevails  at  maturity — at  the  period  of 
greatest  activity  and  usefulness.  Toward  the 
decline  of  life — although  encountered  at  every 
age — morbid  depression  assumes  the  form  of  relig¬ 
ious  anxiety,  despair,  remorse.  Moral  statistics 
show  that  among  the  inhabitants  of  Northern 
Europe  the  number  of  cases  of  melancholia  ex¬ 
ceeds  those  of  mania ;  and  it  has  been  supposed 
that  the  rudiments  of  the  malady  may  be  de¬ 
tected  in  the  original  character,  the  temperament 
and  the  habits  of  the  race,  as  well  as  in  the  cli¬ 
mate,  domestic  condition,  and  diet,  by  which 
these  are  modified.  Defective  blood  nutrition,  or 
anaemia,  appears  to  be  the  physical  s' ate  with 
which  the  great  majority  of  cases  of  melancholia 
are  connected,  and  to  which  all  modes  of  treat¬ 
ment  are  directed.  Powerful  and  permanent  and 
depressing  moral  emotions  act  as  effectively  in 
arresting  healthy  digestion  and  alimentation,  as 
the  use  of  injudicious  food,  or  the  use  of  proper 
nourishment  under  circumstances  such  as  the 
respiration  of  impure  air,  or  indulgence  in  in¬ 
temperate  or  degraded  tendencies,  which  render 
assimilation  impossible.  The  aspect  of  the 
melancholiac  corroborates  the  view  of  inanition 
and  exhaustion.  The  surface  is  pale,  dry,  cold, 
attenuated,  even  insensible ;  the  muscles  are 
rigid  ;  the  frame  is  bent ;  the  eyes  sunk,  and  fixed 
or  flickering ;  the  lips  parched  and  colorless. 
There  is  a  sense  of  exhaustion  or  pain,  or  im¬ 
pending  dissolution.  It  has  been  remarked,  that 
in  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  the  internal  agony 
is  there  an  obtuseness  or  anaesthesia  to  wounds  or 
external  injuries.  Such  an  immunity  gives  in 
lunatics  an  indifference  to  the  most  grievous 
forms  of  suffering,  and  may  explain  the  conduct 
of  many  reputed  martyrs  and  even  criminals 
under  punishment.  The  best  remedies  are  a 


general  tonic  course  of  treatment,  healthful  exer¬ 
cise,  and  cheerful  distracting  surroundings. 

Melanchtlion,  Philip,  Luther’s  fellow-laborer 
in  the  Reformation,  was  born  Feb.  16,  1497,  at 
Bretten,  Germany.  His  name  was  originally 
Schwarzerd  (black  earth),  of  which  Melanchtlion 
is  a  Greek  translation.  He  brought  to  the  aid  of 
Luther  great  attainments  in  learning,  great  acute¬ 
ness  in  dialectics  and  exegesis,  a  remarkable  power 
both  of  clear  thinking  and  of  clearly  expressing 
his  thoughts  ;  and,  with  all,  a  gentleness  and 
moderation  that  most  advantageously  tempered 
Luther’s  vehemence.  He  died  April  19,  1560. 

Melanesia  is  a  division  of  the  South  Sea  Islands 
inhabited  by  the  Papuan  race. 

Melauorrhoe'a,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Anacardiarece. — To  this  genus  belongs  the 
Black  Varnish  Tree  ( M .  wit  at  a)  of  Burmah 
and  the  Northeast  of  India,  called  T/uet-tsee  or 
Zitsi,  in  Burmah,  and  Kheio  in  Munipoor.  It  is  a 
large  tree,  attaining  a  height  of  100  feet,  with 
large,  leathery,  simple,  entire,  deciduous  leaves, 
and  axillary  panicles  of  flowers.  It  yields  a  viscid 
rust  colored  juice,  which  becomes  black  on  expos¬ 
ure  to  the  atmosphere,  and  is  excessively  acrid, 
causing  swellings  with  much  pain  and  fever  if  it 
touches  the  skin.  It  is  however,  much  valued  as 
a  varnish  for  painting  boats,  and  vessels  intended 
to  contain  liquids,  and  also  as  a  size-glue  in  gild¬ 
ing. 

Melantlia'cea;,  a  natural  order  of  endogenous 
plants;  containing  bulbous,  tuberous,  and  fibrous- 
rooted  plants,  with  or  without  stems,  and  having 
parallel-veined  leaves  which  are  sheathing  at  the 
base.  The  fruit  is  a  capsule,  generally  divisible 
into  three  pieces. — There  are  about  130  known 
species,  natives  of  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  most 
abundant  in  northern  countries.  Some  resemble 
crocuses,  and  some  are  like  small  lilies.  The 
order  is  characterized  by  a  great  prevalence  of 
poisonous  qualities.  Some  of  the  species  are  em¬ 
ployed  in  medicine,  particularly  in  colchicum, 
white  hellebore  ( Veratrum  album),  and  sabadilla. 
The  root  of  Helonias  dioica  is  used  as  an  anthel¬ 
mintic  and  tonic  bitter.  The  plant  grows  in  wet 
places,  and  is  called  Starvorl  and  Blazing  Star, 
also  Unicorn's  Horn  and  Devil’s  Bit. 

Melastoma'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  containing  about  1,200  known  species; 
trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants,  mostly 
natives  of  warm  climates,  although  a  few  are 
found  in  the  temperate  parts  of  this  country. 
They  have  opposite  undivided  leaves,  destitute  of 
dots.  The  flowers  are  regular. — None  of  the 
Melastomacese  possess  poisonous  properties;  some 
are  used  in  dyeing;  the  gratefully  acid  leaves  of 
some  are  cooked  and  eaten — particularly  those  of 
the  species  of  Medinilla  and  Astronia  papetaiia  in 
the  Malay  Archipelago;  some  yield  eatable  and 
pleasant  fruits,  as  Blakea  triplinervis  in  Guiana, 
Clidemia  hiria  in  the  West  Indies,  and  Memecylon 
edule  in  Coromandel.  The  wood  of  some  is  tough 
and  hard. 

Mel 'bourne,  capital  of  the  British  colony  of 
Victoria,  in  Australia,  is  chiefly  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Yarra-Yarra,  about  two  miles  above  its 
mouth,  in  the  Bay  of  Port-Pliillip.  Latitude  37° 
48'  S.,  longitude  144°  58'  E.  Pop.  (1881),  282,836. 

Melbourne,  the  county  seat  of  Izard  county. 
Ark.  Pop.,  625. 

Melendez  Valdes,  Don  Juan,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  the  modern  Spanish  poets,  was 
born  March  11,  1754,  at  the  village  of  Ribera  del 
Fresno,  in  Estremadura.  He  died,  a  proscribed 
traitor,  at  Montpellier,  May  21,  1817. 

Melia'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
containing  nearly  200  known  species,  trees,  and 
shrubs,  natives  of  warm  climates,  and  mostly 
tropical.  Many  of  the  species  possess  bitter, 
astringent,  and  tonic  properties;  some  are  used  in 
medicine;  the  seeds  of  some  yield  useful  oil;  some 
are  poisonous;  some  yield  pleasant  fruits;  the  wood 
of  some  is  valuable.  The  lanseh  is  the  most 
esteemed  fruit  of  this  order;  and  next  to  it  is 
Milne, a  edulis,  a  fruit  of  the  Northeast  of  India,  of 
which  the  edible  part  is  the  large  succulent  aril. 
The  Cape  ash  ( Ekebergia  capensis)  has  a  trunk  2 
feet  in  diameter,  and  yields  excellent  tough  timber, 
useful  for  many  purposes.  Melia  azedarach,  a 
tree  about  40  feet  high,  with  large  bipinnate 
leaves,  a  native  of  Syria  and  other  parts  of  the 
I  East,  is  planted  as  an  ornamental  tree  in  this 


34 


MELIC  GRASS. 


530 


MENOPOME. 


country  and  Europe.  The  nuts  are  bored  and  I 
strung  for  beads  in  Roman  Catholic  countries, 
whence  the  tree  is  often  called  bead  tree.  It  is 
also  known  as  the  pride  of  India,  and  is  sometimes 
erroneously  called  Persian  lilac.  The  pulp  of  the 
fruit  of  the  neem  tree  or  margosa  tree  ( Azadirachta 
indica)  yields  a  fixed  oil,  which  is  bitter,  stimulant, 
and  anthelmintic.  The  bark  is  a  valuable  tonic. 
The  leaves  are  universally  used  in  India  for 
poultices. 

Melic  Grass  ( Melica ),  a  genus  of  grasses,  hav¬ 
ing  a  lax  panicle,  and  spikelets  of  2 — 5  awnless 
florets,  of  which  one  is  generally  imperfect.  M. 
uniflora  is  a  common  grass,  growing  in  the  shade 
of  woods. 

Mel'ilot  ( Melilotus ),  a  genus  of  clover-like 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Lcguminosce,  with 
ternate  leaves,  differing  from  the  clovers  in  the 
generally  elongated  racemes  of  flowers,  the  stamens 
not  adhering  to  the  corolla,  and  the  1 — 4  seeded 
tumid  pods.  All  the  species  have  a  strong  sweet¬ 
ish  smell,  which  becomes  more  agreeable  when 
they  are  dried,  and  is  owing  to  the  presence  of 
coumarin.  The  common  yellow  melilot  ( M .  offi¬ 
cinalis)  is  found  in  bushy  places  and  the  borders 
of  fields  in  Britain  and  most  parts  of  Europe.  It 
has  an  erect  stem,  2  or  3  feet  high,  and  long, 
loose  axillary  racemes  of  yellow  flowers.  A  water 
distilled  from  the  flowers  is  used  in  perfumery. 
The  white  melilot  (M.  vulgaris  or  leucantlia )  is 
naturalized  in  many  places  in  Britain.  The  blue 
melilot(.J/.  ccerulea),  native  of  the  North  of  Africa, 
with  short  racemes  of  blue  flowers,  is  cultivated 
in  many  parts  of  Europe,  particularly  in  Switzer¬ 
land  and  the  Tyrol,  was  formerly  much  used  in 
medicine  as  an  anodyne,  discutient,  diuretic, 
sudorific,  expectorant,  and  vulnerary;  and  to  the 
many  good  qualities  supposed  to  belong  to  it  may 
be  ascribed  t he  high  estimation  in  which  the 
sch  ibzieger  or  chapzieger  cheese  of  Switzerland  is 
held,  to  which  it  imparts  its  flavor.  Where  this 
cheese  is  made  in  considerable  quantities,  the  smell 
of  melilot  can  be  discerned  even  at  a  distance.  j 
Bokhara  clover  ( M.  arborea )  has  attracted  attention 
on  account  of  the  fiber  of  its  stem,  which  is  used 
for  the  same  purposes  as  hemp.  The  Messina 
melilot  (M.  messinensis),  a  native  of  the  countries 
near  the  Mediterranean,  is  believed  to  be  one  of 
the  plants  called  lotus  by  the  ancients. 

Melon  ( Cucumis  melo),  a  plant  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  cucumber.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a 
native  of  Asia,  and  was  first  introduced  into  Eng¬ 
land  from  Jamaica  about  1570.  It  is  said  to 
derive  its  name  from  the  Grecian  island  Melos. 
Its  English  name  was  originally  musk-melon. 

Melrose',  a  pleasant  village  at  the  foot  of  the 
Eildon  Hills,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tweed, 
having  a  pop.  of  1,550  at  the  census  of  1881.  It 
is  famous  for  the  ruins  of  its  noble  Cistercian 
abbey,  founded  by  King  David  I.  in  1136. 

Melrose,  an  agricultural  and  manufacturing 
city  and  the  county  seat  of  Middlesex  county, 
Mass.  Pop.,  8,750. 

Mel'ville,  the  name  of  an  island,  a  sound,  and 
a  peninsula  in  the  north  polar  regions  of  America. 
The  island  is  in  latitude  between  74°  30'  and  77' 
N.,  longitude  between  105°  40'  and  117°  30'  W. 
Greatest  length,  200  miles;  greatest  breadth,  130 
miles.  It  is  separated  on  the  west  by  Fitzwilliam 
and  Kellet  Straits  from  Prince  Patrick  Island, 
the  most  western  island  of  these  regions. 

Melville,  Heuman,  an  American  author  and 
traveler,  was  born  in  New  York,  Aug.  1,  1819. 
In  1847  he  married  a  daughter  of  Chief  Justice 
Shaw  of  Massachusetts. 

Membered,  in  Heraldry.  When  a  bird  has  its 
legs  of  a  different  color  from  its  body,  it  is  said 
to  be  membered  of  that  color. 

Membra 'na  Pupilla'ris,  the  name  given  to  a 
very  thin  membrane  which  closes  or  covers  the 
central  aperture  of  the  iris  in  the  foetus  during  a 
certain  period  of  gestation,  but  which  disappears 
in  the  seventh  month. 

Membrane,  in  Anatomy.  This  term  is  applied 
to  designate  those  textures  of  the  animal  body, 
which  are  arranged  in  the  form  of  laminae,  and 
cover  organs,  or  line  the  interior  of  cavities,  or 
take  part  in  the  formation  of  the  walls  of  canals 
or  tubes.  The  membranes  which  cover  and  pro¬ 
tect  the  brain  and  spinal  cord  are  commonly 
termed  meninges,  from  the  Greek  word  pgvivt, 
mcninx,  a  membrane. 


Me'mel,  a  governmental  district  of  Prussia, 
forming  its  most  northerly  boundary  toward 
Russia,  and  included  in  the  circle  of  Konigsberg. 
The  chief  town,  Memel,  situated  in  55°  43'  N. 
latitude,  and  21°  6'  E.  longitude,  and  lying  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Kurisches  Half,  at  its 
opening  into  tliu  Baltic,  is  a  well-fortified,  active 
seaport.  Pop.  (1880),  19,660. 

Mem'non,  a  celebrated  hero,  the  son  of  Titlio- 
nus  and  Eos  or  Aurora,  who  led  to  Troy  a  host  of 
/Ethiopians,  to  support  the  cause  of  Troy  after 
the  fall  of  Hector.  He  was  said  to  be  clad  in 
armor  made  by  Hephaestus  or  Vulcan,  and  killed 
Antiloclius,  son  of  Nestor,  in  single  combat.  He 
was  killed  in  single  combat  with  Ajax  or  Achilles. 
Others  suppose  he  was  ruler  of  the  nations  be¬ 
tween  Susa  and  Troy,  or  a  vassal  of  the  Assyrian 
monarch  Teutamas,  who  sent  him  with  10,000 
/Ethiopians,  and  as  many  .Susians,  to  the  Trojan 
War. 

Mem'phis,  a  celebrated  Egyptian  city,  situated 
in  the  Delta,  or  Lower  Egypt,  the  ancient  capital 
of  the  country,  called  by  the  Egyptians  Men  nefer, 
or  “the  good  station;”  by  the  Hebrews,  Moph; 
and  by  the  Arabs,  Memf.  It  was  founded  by 
Menes,  the  first  monarch  of  the  first  dynasty,  who, 
according  to  Herodotus,  changed  the  bed  of  the 
Nile,  and  made  an  embankment,  100  stadia  above 
Memphis,  to  protect  the  new  city  against  inun¬ 
dations.  The  remains  of  this  bank  still  exist  at 
Ivafr-el  Tyat,  about  fourteen  miles  above  Metra- 
henny,  which  is  the  center  of  old  Memphis,  and 
the  site  of  the  temple  of  Ptah  or  Heplnesteum. 

Memphis,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Mississippi  river,  in  the  southwest 
corner  of  Tennessee,  420  miles  below  St.  Louis. 
It  is  the  outlet  of  a  large  cotton  region,  and 
handles  from  600,000  to  700,000  bales  of  cotton 
annually.  Pop.,  75,000.  In  the  War  of  the 
Rebellion,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Federal 
forces  in  1862,  and  was  the  base  of  military  oper¬ 
ations  for  the  capture  of  Vicksburg,  July  4, 1863. 

Memphis,  the  county  seat  of  Scotland  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Mena '(lo,  an  important  possession  of  the 
Netherlands,  on  the  north  of  Celebes,  is  under 
the  government  of  the  Moluccas. 

Menardville,  the  county  seat  of  Menard 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  133. 

Meu'ai  Strait,  which  separates  the  island  of 
Anglesey  from  the  mainland,  runs  east-northeast 
from  its  southern  extremity  to  Bangor,  a  distance 
of  thirteen  miles,  and  there  widens  out  into  Beau¬ 
maris  Bay.  Its  width  varies  from  about  250 
yards  to  2  miles. 

Menan'der,  the  most  celebrated  Greek  poet  of 
the  New  Comedy,  was  born  at  Athens,  342  b.c. 
He  was  drowned  while  swimming  in  the  harbor 
of  the  Piraeus.  Menander  wrote  more  than  100 
comedies,  but  we  possess  mere  fragments  of  them. 

Mendelssohn,  Moses,  an  eminent  Jewish-Ger- 
man  philosopher,  was  born  on  Sept.  7,  1729,  at 
Dessau.  He  died  Jan.  4, 1786,  and  Ramler  wrote 
the  following  epitaph  on  him;  ‘  ‘  True  to  the  relig¬ 
ion  of  his  forefathers,  wise  as  Socrates,  teaching 
immortality,  and  becoming  immortal  like  Socra¬ 
tes.” 

Mendelssolin-Bartlioldy,  Felix,  a  German- 
Jewish  musical  composer,  was  born  at  Hamburg, 
Feb.  3,  1809,  and  died  Nov.  4,  1847.  His  Songs 
Without  Worth  and  the  wedding  march  from  his 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream  are  his  most  familiar 
productions. 

Men 'dicant  Orders,  certain  religious  associa¬ 
tions  in  the  Roman  Church,  which,  carrying  out 
the  principle  of  religious  poverty  and  self-humil¬ 
iation  to  its  fullest  extent,  make  it  a  part  of  their 
profession  to  denude  themselves  of  all  property, 
whether  real  or  personal,  and  to  subsist  upon 
alms. 

Mendoza,  Don  Diego  Hurtado  de,  a  Spanish 
classic,  distinguished  also  as  a  statesman  and  a 
general,  was  born  at  Granada  about  1503,  and  died 
in  1575. 

Mendo'za,  the  capital  of  a  department  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  is  on  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Andes,  110  miles  east-north¬ 
east  of  Santiago,  and  at  a  height  of  2,891  feet 
above  sea-levei. 

Menela'us,  in  ancient  Greek  legend,  was  King 
of  Lacedaemon,  the  younger  brother  of  Agamem¬ 
non,  and  husband  of  the  famous  Helen.  The 


abduction  of  his  wife  by  Paris  is  represented  as 
the  cause  of  the  Trojan  War.  After  the  fall  of 
Troy  he  sailed  with  Helen  for  his  own  land;  but 
his  fleet  was  scattered  by  a  storm,  and  he  wandered 
for  eight  years  about  the  coasts  of  Cyprus,  Phoeni¬ 
cia,  Ethiopia,  Egypt,  and  Libya.  After  his  re¬ 
turn  he  lived  at  Sparta  with  iiis  wife  Helen,  in 
great  style  and  happiness. 

Me 'lies,  the  first  king  of  the  first  Egyptian 
dynasty,  who  built  Memphis,  made  foreign  con¬ 
quests,  introduced  luxury,  and  was  subsequently 
devoured  by  a  hippopotamus.  His  name  marks 
a  great  chronological  epoch,  being  placed  by 
chronologists  3643,  3892  n.c.,  or  even  5702  b.c. 
Stricter  chronologists  make  his  accession  2717  b.c. 

Meng-Tse  (i.  e.,  the  teacher  Meng;  earlier, 
Meng-ko;  Latinized  by  the  Jesuits  into  Mencius), 
a  Chinese  sage,  born  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century  b.c.,  in  the  village  of  Ts6ou,  in 
the  present  District  of  Shan  tung.  He  died  about 
317  b.c.  He  is  the  greatest  of  the  early  Confu- 
cians. 

Meuha  'den  (Alosa  menhaden),  a  fish  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  shad,  which  is  caught  in  great 
quantities  on  the  coasts  of  New  York  and  New 
England  during  the  summer  months,  when  it 
visits  them  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  Its 
length  is  from  8  to  14  inches,  the  color  of  the 
upper  parts  is  greenish  brown,  the  belly  silvery, 
a  black  spot  on  the  shoulder,  the  whole  surface 
iridescent.  The  Menhaden  is  not  a  very  palatable 
fish,  but  is  rich  in  oil,  which  is  used  by  painters, 
and  is  considered  superior  to  linseed  oil.  Great 
quantities  of  this  fish  are  taken  in  some  seasons, 
and  are  sold  for  manure. 

Meningi'tis  (Gr.  prjvivt-,  a  membrane)  is  the 
term  employed  in  medicine  to  designate  inflam¬ 
mation  of  the  arachnoid  and  pia  mater  (the  mid¬ 
dle  and  innermost  of  the  membranes  investing 
the  brain).  This  disease  has  been  divided  into 
three  stages — the  symptoms  of  the  first  being 
those  of  excitement,  resulting  from  inflammation, 
those  of  the  second  being  those  of  compression, 
showing  that  an  effusion  of  fluid  into  the  arach¬ 
noid  cavity  has  taken  place,  while  those  of  the 
third  stage  vary  according  as  convalescence  or 
death  is  the  result.  Meningitis  is  especially  apt 
to  occur  in  children  of  a  tuberculous  diathesis,  in 
which  case  the  disease  is  usually  described  as 
acute  hydrocephalus.  Scarlatina,  measles,  and 
other  diseases  caused  by  a  blood-poison,  may 
induce  it  in  children.  In  adult  life,  the  disease 
may  often  be  traced  to  the  action  of  typhus 
and  mirsh  poisons,  to  intemperance,  sunstroke, 
mechanical  injuries,  etc.  When  the  disease  is 
due  to  any  of  the  above  named  blood-poisons,  or 
to  any  constitutional  cause,  little  can  be  done 
effectually  in  the  way  of  special  treatment.  When 
it  arises  from  mechanical  injuries,  bleeding,  calo¬ 
mel,  active  purgatives,  and  cold  applications  to  the 
head  are  often  of  use.  The  patient  should  be 
kept  on  low  diet,  and  all  mental  excitement  should 
be  carefully  avoided. 

Menisperma'ceie,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  mostly  tropical  and  sub-tropical,  creeping 
and  twining  shrubs,  the  wood  of  which  is  fre¬ 
quently  disposed  in  wedges,  and  without  the  zones 
usual  in  exogenous  stems.  The  leaves  are  alter¬ 
nate,  generally  simple,  destitute  of  stipules,  the 
flowers  small,  unisexual,  often  in  large  panicles 
or  racemes.  There  are  about  200  known  species. 
The  true  menispermacese  are  generally  bitter  and 
narcotic,  some  of  them  are  poisonous,  and  some 
are  valuable  in  medicine. 

Meiino,  Simons,  the  founder  of  the  later  school 
of  Anabaptists  in  Holland,  was  born  at  Witmar- 
sum,  in  Friesland,  in  1496,  and  died  in  1561. 

Mon'opome  ( Proto  nopsis  horrida),  one  of  the 
largest  of  batracliians,  found  in  the  Ohio  and 
other  rivers  of  the  same  region,  and  known  on 
their  banks  by  many  names,  such  as  hellbender, 
mud  devil,  ground  puppy,  young  alligator,  and 
tweeg.  In  form  it  resembles  the  newt  and  sala¬ 
mander;  the  head  is  flat  and  broad;  the  teeth  in 
two  concentric  rows  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  one 
row  in  the  lower,  numerous  and  small; it  is  about 
2  feet  long,  and  of  a  slaty  gray  color,  with  dark 
spots.  Notwithstanding  its  small  teeth,  it  is 
fierce  and  voracious,  feeding  chiefly  on  fish  and 
batracliians,  and  partly  from  its  habits,  partly 
from  its  ugliness,  is  much  disliked  by  fisherman 
who  erroneously  regard  it  as  venomous. 


MENOMINEE. 


531 


MEROVINGIANS. 


Menominee,  an  important  lumbering  city  on 
the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  the  county 
seat  of  Menominee  county,  Mich.,  is  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Menominee  river.  Pop.,  11,000. 

Menomonee,  an  important  agricultural  and 
lumbering  town  and  the  county  seat  of  Dunn 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  6,675. 

Menstrua 'tion  is  the  term  applied  to  the  dis¬ 
charge  of  blood  which  issues  every  month 
from  the  generative  organs  of  the  human  female 
during  the  period  in  which  she  is  capable  of  pro¬ 
creation.  The  first  appearance  of  this  discharge, 
to  which  the  terms  menses  and  catamenia  (each 
having  reference  to  the  monthly  period)  are  indis¬ 
criminately  applied,  is  a  decided  indication  of  the 
arrival  of  the  period  of  commencing  womanhood, 
and  is  usually  accompanied  by  an  enlargement  of 
the  mammary  glands,  and  other  less  important 
changes.  In  this  country,  menstruation  usually 
commences  between  the  fourteenth  and  the  six¬ 
teenth  years,  and  terminates  between  the  forty- 
eighth  and  fifty-second  years.  The  interval  which 
most  commonly  elapses  between  the  successive 
appearances  of  the  discharge  is  about  four  weeks, 
although  it  is  often  shorter,  and  the  duration  of 
the  flow  is  usually  three  or  four  days,  but  is 
liable  to  great  variations.  The  first  appearance 
of  the  discharge  is  usually  preceded  and  accom¬ 
panied  by  pain  in  the  loins  and  general  distur¬ 
bance  of  the  system,  and  in  many  women  these 
symptoms  invariably  accompany  the  discharge. 
As  a  general  rule,  there  is  no  menstrual  flow  dur¬ 
ing  pregnancy  and  lactation,  and  its  cessation  is 
one  of  the  first  signs  that  conception  has  taken 
place.  The  phenomenon  is  generally  believed  to 
be  an  accompaniment  of  the  escape  of  an  ovum 
into  the  Grafian  follicle. 

Mentor,  the  son  of  Alcimus,  was  the  trusted 
friend  of  Ulysses,  who,  on  setting  out  for  Troy, 
left  to  him  the  charge  of  his  household,  and  by 
him  Telemaclius  was  educated.  His  name  be¬ 
came  a  sort  of  appellative  for  an  instructor  and 
guide  of  the  young. 

MenzaTeli,  Lake,  a  lake  of  Egypt,  extends 
east  from  the  Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile,  and  is 
separated  from  the  Mediterranean  by  a  narrow 
strip  of  land,  through  which,  however,  there  are 
several  openings.  It  receives  the  Pelusiac  and 
Tanitic  branches  of  the  Nile,  and  is  37  miles  in 
length,  by  about  16  miles  in  average  breadth. 
The  line  of  the  Suez  Canal  passes  through  the 
eastern  portion  of  Lake  Menzaleh. 

Merced,  the  county  seat  of  Merced  county,  Cal. 
Pop.,  287. 

Mercer,  the  county  seat  of  Mercer  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  3,750. 

Mercury,  or  Quicksilver  (symbol  Hg,  equiv. 
200 — sp.  gr.  13.6),  one  of  the  so-called  noble 
metals,  remarkable  as  being  the  only  metal  that 
is  fluid  at  ordinary  temperatures.  It  is  of  a  sil¬ 
very-white  color,  with  a  striking  metallic  luster. 
‘When  pure,  it  runs  in  small  spherical  drops  over 
smooth  surfaces;  but  when  not  perfectly  pure,  the 
drops  assume  an  elongated  or  tailed  form,  and 
often  leave  a  gray  stain  on  the  surface  of  glass  or 
porcelain.  At  a  temperature  of  — 39°  it  freezes, 
when  it  contracts  considerably,  and  becomes  mal¬ 
leable.  In  consequence  of  the  uniform  rate  at 
which  it  expands  when  heated,  from  considerably 
below  0°  to  above  300°,  it  is  employed  in  the  con¬ 
struction  of  the  mercurial  thermometer.  It  is 
employed  extensively  in  the  extraction  of  gold 
and  silver  from  their  ores  by  the  process  of  amal¬ 
gamation.  Its  amalgams  are  largely  employed  in 
the  processes  of  silvering  and  gilding,  and  some 
(as  those  of  copper  and  cadmium)  are  employed 
by  the  dentist  for  stopping  teeth.  It  is  indispen¬ 
sable  in  the  construction  of  philosophical  instru¬ 
ments,  and  in  the  laboratory  in  the  form  of  the 
mercurial  bath.  It  is  the  source  of  the  valuable 
pigment  vermilion.  The  use  of  its  chloride  in 
anatomical  preparations  will  preserve  them  from 
decay;  it  is  similarly  found  that  wood,  cordage, 
and  canvas,  if  soaked  in  a  solution  of  this  salt,  are 
better  able  to  resist  decay  when  exposed  to  the 
combined  destructive  influence  of  air  and  moist¬ 
ure.  The  symbol  Ilg  is  taken  from  the  Latin 
hydraryurus ,  originally  the  Greek  name. 

Mercury  and  Mercu'rials,  Medicinal  uses 
of.  Amongst  the  preparations  of  mercury  must 
be  placed  mercury  with  chalk,  or  gray  powder 
(Hydrargyrum  cum  Cretd),  which  is  the  mildest ! 


and  best  mercurial  to  administer  to  infants  and 
children,  the  dose  varying  with  the  age  ;  blue 
pill  ;  and  the  various  ointments,  liniments,  and 
plasters  of  mercury.  Calomel  is  perhaps  more 
given  than  any  other  medicine  of  this  class. 
Given  in  small  doses,  the  first  effects  are  observed 
in  the  increase  of  the  various  secretions,  as,  for 
instance,  of  the  saliva,  of  the  various  fluids 
poured  into  the  intestinal  canal,  and  sometimes 
of  the  urine.  When  continued  in  small  doses 
for  some  time,  it  causes  the  absorption  of  morbid 
fluids,  and  even  of  morbid  products  that  have 
assumed  a  partially  solid  form.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  diseases  in  which  mercurials  are 
of  most  importance :  (1),  In  internal  congestions, 
as  of  the  liver,  etc.,  to  increase  the  secretions, 
and  hence  relieve  the  vessels  of  the  affected 
organ ;  (2),  in  various  acute  inflammations, 

especially  of  serous  membranes,  of  the  structure 
of  the  liver  and  of  the  lungs,  etc.;  (3),  in  numer¬ 
ous  forms  of  chronic  inflammation  ;  (4),  in  drop¬ 
sies,  dependent  upon  inflammation  of  serous 
membranes  or  disease  of  the  liver,  but  not  in 
dropsy  from  disease  of  the  kidneys,  where  they 
are  generally  injurious ;  (5),  in  numerous  chronic 
affections  in  which  an  alterative  action  is  re¬ 
quired  ;  and  (6)  as  a  purgative  (to  be  followed  by 
a  black  draught),  when  a  patient  is  in  the  condi¬ 
tion  popularly  known  as  bilious,  (in  this  case, 
blue  pill  is  usually  as  efficacious  as  calomel).  If 
calomel,  blue  pill,  or  any  other  mercurial  be 
given  in  too  large  a  dose,  or  for  too  long  a  period, 
most  serious  consequences  may  result — such  as, 
very  profuse  salivation,  with  swelling  of  the 
tongue  and  gums,  and  loosening  of  the  teeth  ; 
purging  ;  certain  skin  affections  ;  disease  of  the 
periosteum  and  of  the  bones  (formerly  ascribed 
to  syphilis,  but  in  reality  oftener  due  to  the  sup¬ 
posed  remedy) ;  and  a  low  febrile  condition 
(termed  mercurial  erythism),  accompanied  with 
great  general  prostration.  The  doses  of  calomel 
for  an  adult  vary  from  three  to  six  grains  when 
taken  as  a  purgative.  If  the  object  is  to  affect 
the  system  generally,  as  in  a  case  of  acute  inflam¬ 
mation,  small  doses  (half  a  grain  to  two  grains, 
combined  with  a  little  opium)  should  be  given 
several  times  a  day ;  while  as  an  alterative,  still 
smaller  doses  (not  sufficient  at  all  to  affect  the 
mouth)  should  be  prescribed.  Corrosive  subli¬ 
mate  (the  bi  chloride)  although  a  very  powerful 
irritant  poison,  is  extremely  useful  in  very  small 
doses  as  an  alterative  in  many  chronic  affections 
of  the  nervous  system,  the  skin,  etc.  The  dose 
varies  from  to  J  of  a  grain.  This  medicine 
should  always  be  given  on  a  full  stomach. 

Mercury,  Dog’s  (Mercurialis),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Euphorbiacete,  having 
J  unisexual  flowers,  a  tripartite  perianth,  9  to  12 
I  stamens,  two  simple  styles,  and  a  dry  two-celled 
fruit  with  two  seeds.  The  species  are  not  num¬ 
erous. 

Mergan'ser  (Mery us),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Analulce,  having  a  slender,  straight,  much 
compressed  bill,  hooked  at  the  tip,  and  notched 
at  t lie  edges,  almost  furnished  with  teeth. 

Mergui  Archipelago,  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
Gulf  of  Bengal,  lying  off  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Tenasserim  Provinces,  in  latitude  from  9"' 
to  13°  N. 

Mer'ida,  the  capital  of  Yucatan,  Mexico,  is  on 
a  barren  plain,  twenty-five  miles  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  in  latitude  20°  50'  N.,  longitude  89° 
40'  W.  Pop.,  56,000. 

Meriden,  a  prosperous  and  wealthy  manu¬ 
facturing  city  of  New  Haven  county,  Conn. 
Pop.,  22,800. 

Merid'ian  (Lat.  meridies,  mid-day),  the  name 
given  to  the  great  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere 
which  passes  through  both  poles  of  the  heavens, 
and  also  through  the  zenith  and  nadir  of  any 
place  on  the  earth’s  surface.  Every  place  on  the 
earth’s  surface  has  consequently  its  own  meridian. 
The  meridian  is  divided  by  the  polar  axis  into 
two  equal  portions,  which  stretch  from  pole  to 
pole,  one  on  each  side  of  the  earth.  It  is  mid-day 
at  any  place  on  the  earth’s  surface,  when  the 
center  of  the  sun  comes  upon  the  meridian  of  that 
place;  at  the  same  instant  it  is  mid-day  at  all 
places  under  the  same  half  of  that  meridian,  and 
midnight  at  all  places  under  the  opposite  half. 
All  places  under  the  same  meridian  have  there¬ 
fore  the  same  longitude.  Stars  attain  their  great¬ 


est  altitude  when  they  come  upon  the  meridian; 
the  same  thing  is  true  approximately  of  the  sun 
and  planets;  and  as  at  this  point  the  effect  of  re¬ 
fraction  upon  these  bodies  is  at  a  minimum,  and 
their  apparent  motion  is  also  more  uniform,  as¬ 
tronomers  prefer  to  make  their  observations  when 
the  body  is  on  the  meridian.  The  instruments 
used  for  this  purpose  are  called  meridian  circles. 

Meridian,  the  county  seat  of  Bosque  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Meridian,  a  prosperous  city  and  the  county 
seat  of  Lauderdale  county,  Miss.  Pop.,  13,750. 

Meri'no,  an  important  breed  of  sheep,  origi¬ 
nally  Spanish,  but  now  widely  diffused  through¬ 
out  this  country,  Europe,  and  Australia.  The 
merino  has  large  limbs,  the  skin  of  the  neck  is 
loose  and  pendulous;  the  cheeks  and  forehead 
bear  wool;  the  fleece  is  fine,  long,  soft,  and 
twisted  in  silky  spiral  ringlets,  abounding  in 
oil,  which  attracts  dust,  so  that  it  lias  gen¬ 
erally  a  dingy  appearance.  The  fleece  is  some¬ 
times  black,  and  black  spots  are  apt  to  appear 
even  in  the  most  carefully  bred  flocks.  The 
merino  sheep  fattens  slowly,  and  owes  its  value 
altogether  to  the  excellence  of  its  wool. 

Merle  d’Aubigne,  Jean  Henri,  a  popular 
ecclesiastical  historian,  was  born  at  Eaux-Yives, 
near  Geneva  in  Switzerland,  Aug.  16,  1794.  The 
work  which  has  given  him  so  widespread  a  repu¬ 
tation  is  his  Histoire  dc  la  Reformation  an  Seisieme 
Siecle,  (1835,  et  seq.)  He  died  at  Geneva,  Oct. 
20,  1872. 

Mer'lin  ( Falco  cesalon  or  Hypotriorcliis  cesalon), 
the  smallest  of  the  British  Falconidce,  from  11 
inches  to  12£  inches  in  length,  but  bold  and  pow¬ 
erful,  and  possessing  all  the  characters  of  the 


true  falcons,  with  the  distinction  of  large  hexag¬ 
onal  scales  on  the  front  of  the  tarsi.  It  is  of  a 
bluish  ash  color  above;  reddish  yellow  on  the 
breast  and  belly,  with  longitudinal  dark  spots, 
the  throat  of  the  adult  male,  white.  The  wings 
reach  to  two-thirds  of  the  length  of  the  tail. 

Mermaid  (i.  e.,  sea-maid),  an  imaginary  inhabit¬ 
ant  of  the  sea.  The  upper  parts  of  mermaids 
are  represented  as  resembling  those  of  a  human 
being,  generally  of  a  female — although  the  mer¬ 
man  is  also  sometimes  heard  of — while  the  body 
terminates  in  a  tail  like  that  of  a  fish. 

Mermaid’s  Glove  ( Ualichondria  palmata),  a 
sponge  common  in  the  British  seas,  and  the  largest 
of  British  sponges.  It  grows  in  deep  water,  and 
is  sometimes  2  feet  in  height.  It  receives  its 
name  from  the  somewhat  finger-like  arrangement 
of  its  branches. 

MeroviiTgians,  the  first  dynasty  of  Frankish 
kings  in  Gaul.  The  name  is  derived  from  Merwig 
or  Merovaens,  who  ruled  about  the  middle  of  the 
fifth  century,  having  united  a  few  tribes  under 
his  sway.  His  grandson,  Clilodwig  or  Clovis, 
greatly  extended  his  dominions,  and  on  his  death, 
divided  his  kingdom  among  his  four  sons,  one  of 
whom,  Chlotar  or  Clotaire  I.,  re-united  them 
under  his  own  sway  in  558.  On  his  death,  in  561 , 
the  kingdom  was  again  divided  into  four  parts — 
Aquitaine,  Burgundy,  Ncustria,  and  Austrasia. 
His  grandson,  Clotaire  II.,  again  united  them  in 
613;  but  after  his  death,  in  628,  two  kingdoms, 
Neustria  and  Austrasia,  were  formed,  in  both  of 
which  the  Merovingian  kings  retained  a  merely 


MERRILL. 


532 


METEOROLOGY. 


nominal  power,  the  real  power  having  passed  into 
the  hands  of  the  mayors  of  the  palace. — The 
dynasty  of  the  Merovingians  terminated  with  the 
deposition  of  Childeric  IV.,  in  752,  and  gave  place 
to  that  of  the  Carlovingians  or  Karlings. 

Merrill,  an  important  commercial  center  in 
Lincoln  county,  Wis.  Pop.,  10,000. 

Mer'rimac,  a  river  of  New  England,  rising  in 
New  Hampshire,  and  falling  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  at  Newburyport,  after  a  course  of  about 
120  miles. 

Meru 'lidae,  or  Ti*rdid.e,  a  family  of  birds  of 
the  order  Insessores ,  sub-order  Dentirostres,  having 
arched  and  compressed  bills,  which  are  pointed 
and  notched,  but  not  strongly.  Many  of  them 
are  birds  of  very  sweet  song;  some  are  remark¬ 
able  for  their  imitative  powers.  To  this  family 
belong  thrushes  (among  which  are  reckoned  the 
blackbird,  redwing,  fieldfare,  ring-ouzel,  etc.), 
orioles,  mocking-birds,  dippers,  etc. 

Merv,  a  territory  in  Western  Turkestan,  Rus¬ 
sian  since  1884,  lying  300  miles  southeast  of  Khiva, 
sixty -five  north  of  the  Afghan  frontier,  and  twelve 
miles  east  of  the  Murghab  river. 

Mesembrya'cese,  or  Ficoide.e,  a  natural  order 
of  exogenous  plants, both  herbaceous  and  shrubby, 
but  all  succulent.  As  defined  by  some  botanists, 
it  includes  the  orders  Tetragoniaceoe,  Sesuviacece, 
etc.,  of  others.  Of  the  more  restricted  mesem- 
bryaceae,  about  400  species  are  known,  a  few  of 
which  are  natives  of  the  South  of  Europe;  the 
greater  number  belong  to  South  Africa  and  the 
South  Sea  Islands. 

Mes'entery,  Mesenter'ic  Disease.  The 

mesentery  derives  its  name  from  being  connected 
to  the  middle  portion  (Gr.  pe6ov ,  meson )  of  the 
small  intestine  {evrepov,  enteron).  It  serves  to 
retain  the  small  intestines  in  their  place,  while  it 
at  the  same  time  allows  the  necessary  amount  of 
movement,  and  it  contains  between  its  layers  the 
mesenteric  vessels,  the  lacteal  vessels,  and  mesen¬ 
teric  glands.  The  most  important  affection  of 
these  organs  is  their  scrofulous  or  tubercular  de¬ 
generation,  which  gives  rise  to  the  disease  known 
as  tabes  mesenterica,  a  disease  most  common  in 
childhood,  but  confined  to  no  period  of  life.  The 
treatment  mainly  consists  in  the  administration  of 
cod-liver  oil,  or,  if  the  stomach  is  too  irritable  to 
bear  that  medicine,  of  iodide  of  potassium,  com¬ 
bined  with  some  bitter  infusion,  the  bowels  being 
at  the  same  time  carefully  attended  to.  The 
application  of  stimulating  liniments,  or  of  iodine 
ointment  to  the  abdomen  is  often  of  great  serv¬ 
ice.  When  the  disease  has  advanced  to  a  con¬ 
siderable  extent,  remedies  are  of  little  use,  except 
to  palliate  some  of  the  more  urgent  symptoms. 

Mesh  'ill,  an  important  city  of  Persia,  capital  of 
the  Province  of  Ivhorassan,  in  a  fertile  and  well- 
cultivated  plain,  on  the  Tejend,  in  latitude  36° 
17'  N.,  longitude  59°  40'  E.  Pop.,  70,000. 

MesiPla,  a  town  and  valley  on  the  Rio  Grande, 
N.  M.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Mesmer,  Franz  (according  to  others,  Fried¬ 
rich  Anton),  the  founder  of  the  doctrine  of  ani¬ 
mal  magnetism,  or  mesmerism,  was  born  in  1733 
or  1734,  at  a  village  ne  ir  the  Bodensee,  Germany, 
lie  died  March  5,  1815. 

Mesopota'mia(Gr.  inesos,  middle,  and  potamos, 
a  river),  the  region  in  Asia  between  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris,  but  the  name  is  generally  applied 
to  the  northern  part  of  this  region,  which  is  called 
by  the  Arabs,  Al-Jesira  (the  island). 

Mesquite,  the  name  of  two  Mexican  trees  or 
shrubs,  of  the  natural  order  Lequminosce,  sub¬ 
order  Papilionacece,  bearing  pods  filled  with  a 
nutritious  pulp.  The  common  mesquite  (Alga- 
rubia  glan'Udosa)  is  found  in  great  profusion 
throughout  vast  regions,  chiefly  consisting  of 
dry  and  elevated  plains.  In  dry  seasons  it  exudes 
gum  {gum  mesquite),  similar  to  gum-arabic, 
which  lias  begun  to  be  expoi’ted  to  San  Fran¬ 
cisco  from  the  Mexican  ports  on  the  Pacific.  The 
curly  mesquite,  or  screw  mesquite  (Strombocarpa 
pubescent),  is  of  great  value  in  the  wild  and 
desert  regions  of  the  western  part  of  North 
America.  Its  wood  is  used  as  fuel,  and  the  pulp 
of  its  pods  for  food. 

Messali'na,  Valeria,  the  daughter  of  Marcus 
Valerius  Messala  Barbatus,  and  wife  of  the  Roman 
Emperor  Claudius,  a  woman  infamous  for  her 
lasciviousness,  her  avarice,  and  the  atrocities 


which  she  perpetrated.  The  best  blood  of  Rome 
flowed  at  her  pleasure.  Among  her  victims  were 
the  daughters  of  Germanicus  and  Drusus,  Justus 
Catonius,  M.  Vincius,  Valerius  Asiaticus,  and  her 
confederate  Polybius.  She  w\ns  put  to  death  by 
Enodus,  a  tribune  of  the  guards,  in  the  gardens 
of  Lucullus,  48  a.d.  Her  name  has  become  a 
by-word  for  crime  and  lust. 

Messeni'a,  a  district  in  the  southwest  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Laconia, 
on  the  north  by  Arcadia  and  Elis,  and  on  the  south 
and  west  by  the  sea.  It  is  watered  by  the  Pamisus 
and  other  streams.  Those  plains  were  famous  for 
their  fertility,  and  particularly  for  their  wheat- 
harvests.  At  an  early  period,  after  the  Doric  con¬ 
quest,  it  rose  to  power  and  opulence.  Its  chief 
cities  were  Messene,  Methone,  and  Pylos. 

Messi'ah  (Hcb.  Mashiach),  equivalent  to  the 
Greek  Christos,  the  Anointed,  designates,  in  the 
Old  Testament,  the  great  deliverer  and  Saviour, 
whom  the  Jews  expected  to  be  sent  by  God,  not 
only  to  restore  their  country  to  the  power  and 
splendor  which  it  exhibited  in  the  days  of  David, 
but  even,  by  compelling  the  Gentiles  to  acknowl¬ 
edge  the  supremacy  of  the  theocratic  people,  to 
raise  it  to  the  summit  of  universal  dominion.  The 
prophetic  writings  contain  many  such  allusions  to 
the  Messiah,  whose  coming  was  expected  shortly, 
and  even  during  the  time  of  the  generation  then 
living,  whose  birthplace,  in  congruity  with  his 
Davidic  descent,  was  announced  to  be  Bethlehem, 
and  who,  it  was  believed,  was  to  be  endowed  with 
Divine  attributes.  The  mass  of  orthodox  theolo¬ 
gians  regard  the  so-called  Messianic  prophecies  of 
the  Old  Testament  as  positive,  divinely  suggested 
(perhaps,  even  on  the  part  of  their  authors,  con- 
sdous)  predictions  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  try  to  show 
that  the  Saviour  accepted  the  Messianic  prophecies 
as  literally  and  exclusively  applicable  to  him. 

Messi'na,  a  city  of  Sicily,  chief  town  of  the 
province  of  same  name,  one  of  the  most  ancient 
and  most  important  cities  of  the  island.  Pop.  in 
1881,  126,497. 

Messina,  Straits  op  (Ital.  Faro  di  Messina, 
Lat.  mamertinum  /return),  between  Italy  and 
Sicily,  are  22  miles  in  length,  and  vary  from  21 
to  10  miles  in  breadth. 

Metallurgy  is  the  art  of  extracting  metals 
from  their  ores.  The  operations  are  partly 
mechanical  and  partly  chemical.  Those  processes 
which  depend  principally  on  chemical  reactions 
for  their  results  have  reference  chiefly  to  the  roast¬ 
ing  and  smelting  of  ores.  But  there  are  certain 
preliminary  operations  of  a  mechanical  kind  which 
metallic  ores  undergo,  such  as  crushing,  jigging, 
washing,  etc.,  which  are  essentially  the  same  for 
the  ores  of  lead,  copper,  tin,  zinc,  and  indeed 
most  of  the  metals.  Ores  are  first  broken  up  with 
hammers  into  pieces  of  a  convenient  size  for 
crushing  or  stamping.  Waste  material,  such  as 
piecesof  rock,  spar,  etc.,  which  always  accompany 
ore,  are  as  far  as  possible  picked  out  by  hand,  and 
the  ore  itself  arranged  in  sorts  according  to  its 
purity.  Various  kinds  of  apparatus,  such  as  rid¬ 
dles,  sieves,  etc.,  are  then  used  for  separating  it 
into  different  sizes,  in  order  to  secure  a  uniform 
strain  on  the  crushing  machinery.  After  being 
crushed,  the  ore  is  washed  and  sifted  on  a  jigging 
sieve.  After  it  has  been  sifted  and  washed  again, 
it  is  ready  for  the  smelting  furnace. 

Met'als,  Met'alloiils.  It  is  not  easy  to  define 
a  metal.  All  the  elements  are  usually  divided  by 
chemists  into  two  groups — viz.,  the  non-metallic 
bodies  or  metalloids,  and  the  metals.  The  follow¬ 
ing  are  the  most  important  of  the  physical  prop¬ 
erties  of  the  metals:  1.  All  metals,  unless  when 
they  are  in  a  finely  pulverized  form,  exhibit  more 
or  less  of  the  characteristic  luster  termed  metallic. 
Two  of  the  non-metallic  elements,  iodine  and 
carbon,  in  some  forms,  present  also  a  metallic 
luster.  2.  All  metals  are  good  conductors  of  heat 
and  electricity,  although  in  very  unequal  degrees. 
3.  With  the  exception  of  mercury,  all  the  metals 
are  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures.  With  the 
exception  of  gold,  copper,  calcium,  and  strontium, 
the  metals  are  more  or  less  white,  with  a  tendency 
to  blue  or  gray.  Most,  of  them  have  been  obtained 
in  crystals,  and  probably  all  of  them  are  capable 
of  crystallizing  under  certain  conditions.  4. 
Metals  are  remarkable  for  their  opacity,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  gold,  do  not  transmit  light,  even 
when  they  are  reduced  to  extremely  thin  leaves. 


5.  All  the  metals  are  fusible,  although  the  tem¬ 
peratures  at  which  they  assume  the  fluid  form  are 
very  different;  and  some  of  them,  as  mercury, 
arsenic,  cadmium,  zinc,  etc.,  are  also  volatile. 

6.  Great  weight,  or  a  high  specific  gravity,  is 
popularly  but  erroneously  regarded  as  a  charac¬ 
teristic  of  a  metal;  while  platinum,  osmium,  and 
iridium  (the heaviest  bodies  known  in  nature),  are 
more  than  twenty  times  as  heavy  as  water, 
lithium,  potassium,  and  sodium  are  actually 
lighter  than  that  fluid.  7.  Great  differences  are 
observable  in  the  hardness,  brittleness,  and 
tenacity  of  metals.  While  potassium  and  sodium 
may  be  kneaded  with  the  finger,  and  lead  may  be 
marked  by  the  finger-nail,  most  of  them  possess  a 
considerable  degree  of  hardness.  Antimony, 
arsenic,  and  bismuth  are  so  brittle  that  they  may 
be  easily  pulverized  in  a  mortar;  while  others,  as 
iron,  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  require  great  force 
for  their  disintegration.  Taking  iron  and  lead  as 
representing  the  two  extremes  of  tenacity,  it  is 
found  that  an  iron  wire  will  bear  a  weight  twenty- 
six  times  as  heavy  as  a  leaden  wire  of  the  same 
diameter.  8.  It  is  a  remarkable  property  of  the 
metals,  that  none  of  them  are  capable  of  being 
dissolved  without  undergoing  chemical  change. 
Sulphur,  phosphorus,  iodine,  etc.,  may  be  dis¬ 
solved,  and  after  the  evaporation  of  the  solvent, 
may  be  re-obtained  with  all  their  original  prop¬ 
erties;  but  this  is  never  the  case  with  metals. 
Amongst  the  chief  chemical  properties  of  metals- 
we  next  notice;  Their  strong  affinities  to  certain 
of  the  non-metallic  elements.  All  the  metals, 
without  exception,  combine  with  oxygen,  sulphur, 
and  chlorine,  often  in  several  proportions,  form¬ 
ing  oxides,  sulphides  (formerly  termed  sulphurets), 
and  chlorides.  Many  of  them  combine  with 
bromine,  iodine,  and  fluorine.  The  metallic 
oxides  are,  without  exception,  solid  bodies,  in¬ 
soluble  in  water,  and  usually  present  a  white  or 
colored  earthy  appearance.  Hence  the  old  name 
of  metallic  calx  for  these  oxides.  Metals  enter 
into  combination  with  one  another  when  they  are 
fused  together,  and  such  combinations  are 
termed  alloys,  unless  when  mercury  is  one 
of  the  combining  metals,  in  which  case, 
the  resulting  compound  is  termed  an  amalgam. 
In  consequence  of  their  strong  affinities  for  the 
metalloids,  the  metals  are  seldom  found  in  a  free 
or  uncombined  state,  even  in  the  inorganic 
kingdom,  and  never  in  animals  or  plants. 
Various  classifications  of  the  metals  have  been 
suggested  by  different  chemists.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  is  probably  one  of  the  most  con¬ 
venient  ;  I.— The  light  metals,  subdivided 
into — 1.  The  metals  of  the  alkalies — viz., 
potassium,  sodium,  caesium,  rubidium,  lithium. 
2.  The  metals  of  the  alkaline  earths — viz.,  barium, 
strontium,  calcium,  magnesium.  3.  The  metals 
of  the  true  earths — viz.,  aluminium,  glucinum, 
zirconium,  yttrium,  erbium,  terbium,  thorinum, 
cerium,  lanthanum,  didymium.  II. — The  heavy 
metals,  subdivided  into — 1.  Metals  whose  oxides 
form  powerful  bases — viz.,  iron,  manganese, 
chromium,  nickel,  cobalt,  zinc,  cadmium,  lead, 
bismuth,  copper,  uranium,  thallium.  2.  Metals 
whose  oxides  form  weak  bases  or  acids — viz., 
arsenic,  antimony,  titanium,  tantalum,  niobium, 
(or  columbium),  tungsten,  molybdenum,  tin, 
vanadium,  osmium.  3.  Metals  whose  oxides  are 
reduced  by  heat— -noble  metals — viz.,  mercury, 
silver,  gold,  platinum,  palladium,  iridium,  ruthe¬ 
nium,  rhodium,  osmium.  [Several  of  the  rare 
metals  are  here  omitted  ] 

Metaniora,  the  county  seat  of  Woodford 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  1,028. 

Metamor'pliic  Rocks.  By  infiltration  of  a 
cementing  fluid,  by  pressure,  or  by  some  other 
indurating  agency,  sand  has  become  converted 
into  sandstone,  and  clay  and  mud  into  shale.  In 
some  strata,  this  operation  has  been  carried  still 
further.  There  is  a  class  of  rocks,  including 
gneiss,  micaschist,  clay -slate,  marble,  and  the 
like,  which,  while  certainly  of  aqueous  or  mechan¬ 
ical  origin,  have,  by  intense  molecular  action, 
become  more  or  less  crystalline.  To  them,  the 
convenient  name  metamorphic  (Gr.  per  a,  change, 
popepp,  form)  rocks  has  been  given  by  Lyell. 

Meteorol'ogy  (Gr.  perecopa,  metebra,  me¬ 
teors,  or  atmospheric  phenomena)  was  originally 
applied  to  the  consideration  of  all  appearances  in 
the  sky,  both  astronomical  and  atmospherical  ;. 


METHODISTS. 


533 


MEXICO. 


but  the  term  is  now  confined  to  that  department 
of  natural  philosophy  which  treats  of  the  phe¬ 
nomena  of  the  atmosphere  as  regards  weather  and 
climate.  The  discovery  of  the  weight  or  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere  made  by  Torricelli  in  1643,  was 
undoubtedly  the  first  step  in  the  progress  of  me¬ 
teorology  to  the  rank  of  a  science.  The  invention 
and  gradual  perfecting  of  the  thermometer  in 
the  same  century,  formed  another  capital  step. 
Scarcely  less  important  was  the  introduction  of 
the  hygrometer,  first  systematically  used  by  De 
Saussure  (died  1799),  and  afterward  improved  by 
Dalton,  Daniell,  and  August.  The  theory  of  the 
trade-winds  was  first  propounded  by  George  Had¬ 
ley  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1735. 
Humboldt’s  treatise  on  Isothermal  Pines  (1817) 
constitutes  a  notable  epoch  in  experimental  me¬ 
teorology,  and*the  establishment  of  meteorological 
societies  during  the  last  twenty  years  must  also  be 
commemorated  as  contributing  in  a  high  degree 
to  the  solid  advancement  of  the  science.  The 
most  important  result  of  the  multiplication  of 
meteorological  stations  is  the  prediction  of  storms 
and  “  forecasts”  of  the  weather,  which  have  been 
carried  on  in  the  United  States,  and,  to  some  ex¬ 
tent,  in  other  countries.  The  United  States  signal 
service  was  originally  established  for  the  purpose 
of  enabling  bodies  of  troops  stationed  at  con¬ 
siderable  distances  from  one  another  to  communi¬ 
cate  by  means  of  flags,  rockets,  signal  fires,  etc. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  the  signal  corps  was  charged 
with  the  duty  of  collecting,  by  telegraph,  reports 
of  the  condition  of  the  weather  in  various  parts 
of  the  country,  and  publishing  the  same  for  the 
benefit  of  commerce.  From  this  beginning  has 
grown  our  present  elaborate  signal  service  bureau, 
which  lias  stations  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  and 
is  in  intimate  connection  with  the  Canadian 
system,  so  that  daily  reports  are  collected  and 
predictions  made  as  to  the  probable  condition  and 
changes  of  the  weather  for  twenty-four  hours  in 
advance.  The  approach  of  storms  and  of  hot  or 
cold  waves  is  announced  sometimes  two  or  three 
days  in  advance.  These  predictions  are  made 
known  by  means  of  a  system  of  bulletins  and 
flags  atid  through  the  daily  newspapers.  The  fore¬ 
casts  made  by  the  department  are  in  the  main  re¬ 
markably  accurate,  and  are  of  the  greatest  value 
to  commerce.  The  bureau  as  now  constituted 
consists  of  one  chief  signal  officer,  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general ;  16  second  lieutenants,  125 
sergeants,  20  corporals,  and  175  privates. 

Metli 'odists,  the  name  originally  given,  about 
the  year  1729,  by  a  student  of  Christ  Church  to 
the  brothers  Wesley,  and  several  other  young  men 
of  a  serious  turn  of  mind,  then  members  of  different 
colleges  of  Oxford,  who  used  to  assemble  together 
on  particular  nights  of  the  week  chiefly  for  relig¬ 
ious  conversation.  The  term  was  selected,  it  is 
believed,  in  allusion  to  the  exact  and  methodical 
manner  in  which  they  performed  the  various 
engagements  which  a  sense  of  Christian  duty 
induced  them  to  undertake,  such  as  meeting  to¬ 
gether  for  the  purpose  of  studying  scripture, 
visiting  the  poor,  and  prisoners  in  Oxford  jail,  at 
regular  intervals.  Subsequently,  it  came  to  be 
applied  to  the  followers  of  Wesley  and  his  coad¬ 
jutors,  when  these  had  acquired  the  magnitude 
of  a  new  sect;  and  though  their  founder  himself 
wished  that  “the  very  name,”  to  use  his  own 
words,  “  might  never  be  mentioned  more,  but  be 
buried  in  eternal  oblivion,”  yet  it  has  finally  come 
to  be  accepted  by  most,  if  not  all  of  the  various 
denominations  who  trace  their  origin  mediately 
or  immediately  to  the  great  religious  movement 
commenced  by  John  Wesley.  This  sect  now 
numbers  about  3,000,000 — principally  in  the 
United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  her  colonies. 

Methyl  ,  a  chemical  term  which  until  lately  was 
used  in  two  radically  different  senses,  namely, 
as  designating  either  the  atom-group,  CH3, 
which  in  numberless  chemical  formulae  figures  as 
a  “radicle,”  or  a  gaseous  substance  of  the  same 
composition,  which,  however,  nowadays  is  gen¬ 
erally  called  “  dimethyl,”  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  “  radicle.”  A  gas  of  the  composition  and 
the  specific  gravity  (C2H«-i-  1 I2  = 15)  correspond¬ 
ing  to  CSH,  can  be  produced  in  two  principal 
ways— first,  by  the  decomposition  of  zinc-ethyl 
by  water  (Frankland) — 

.  Zn(C2lI5)2+20II .  II=Zn(OH)2-j-C2II5II; 


and,  secondly,  by  the  electrolysis  of  acetate  of 
potash  solution  (Kolbe),  we  have  virtually: 

2CH3 .  COOH=(CII3)2+2C02  I  +H2. 

-j-pole.  I  — pole. 

These  two  gases  used  to  be  distinguished  as  two 
different  substances — Frankland’s  being  looked 
upon  as  hydride  of  ethyl,  C2II5 .  II,  Kolbe’s  as 
“real  methyl”  (CHs)(CH3),  until  Scliorlemmer 
proved  their  identity.  Methyl  enters  into  the 
composition  of  numerous  chemical  substances — 
the  principal  one  being  methyl  alcohol — theliomo- 
logue  of  vinous  alcohol. 

Metli 'ylated  Spirit  consists  of  a  mixture  of 
alcohol,  of  specific  gravity  0.830,  with  10  percent, 
of  Pyroxylic  or  wood-spirit. 

Meton'ic  Cycle,  so  called  from  its  inventor, 
Meton,  who  flourished  at  Athens  about  432  n.c., 
is  a  cycle  of  nineteen  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  the  new  moons  fall  on  the  same  days  of  the 
year,  and  eclipses  recur  in  nearly  the  same  order. 

Metre,  the  basis  of  the  “  metrical  ”  or  modern 
French  system  of  weights  and  measures,  and  the 
unit  of  length.  The  first  suggestion  of  a  change 
in  the  previous  system  dates  as  far  back  as  the 
time  of  Philippe  le  Bel;  but  up  till  1790,  no  im¬ 
portant  change  had  been  effected.  On  May  8, 
1790,  proposals  were  made  by  the  French 
Government  to  the  British,  for  the  meeting  of  an 
equal  number  of  members  from  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  to 
determine  the  length  of  the  simple  pendulum  vi¬ 
brating  seconds  in  latitude  45°  at  the  level  of  the 
sea,  with  a  view  of  making  this  the  unit  of  a  new 
system  of  measures.  The  British  Government, 
however,  did  not  give  this  proposal  a  favorable 
reception,  and  it  fell  to  the  ground.  The  French 
Government,  impatient  to  effect  a  reform,  ob¬ 
tained  the  appointment  by  the  Academy  of  Sci¬ 
ences  of  a  commission  composed  of  Borda,  La¬ 
grange,  Laplace,  Monge,  and  Condorcet,  to 
choose  from  the  following  three,  the  length  of 
the  pendulum,  of  the  fourth  part  of  the  equator, 
and  of  the  fourth  part  of  the  meridian,  the  one 
best  fitted  for  their  purpose.  The  commission 
decided  in  favor  of  the  last — resolving  that  the 
rnoooooo  a  quadrant  of  the  meridian  (the  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  equator  to  the  pole,  measured  as 
along  the  surface  of  still  water)  be  taken  for  the 
basis  of  the  new  system,  and  be  called  a  “metre.” 
Delambre  and  Mechain  were  immediately  charged 
with  the  measurement  of  the  meridian  between 
Dunkerque  and  Barcelona;  and  the  result  of  their 
labors  was  referred  to  a  committee  of  twenty 
members,  nine  of  whom  were  French,  the  rest 
having  been  deputed  by  the  Governments  of  Hol¬ 
land,  Savoy,  D  nmark,  Spain,  Tuscany,  and  the 
Roman,  Cisalpine,  Ligurian,  and  Helvetic  Repub¬ 
lics.  By  this  committee,  the  length  of  the  metre 
was  found  to  be  443.296  Parisian  lines,  or 
39  3707904  English  inches;  and  standards  of  it 
and  of  the  kilogramme  (see  Gramme)  were  con¬ 
structed,  and  deposited  among  the  archives  of 
France,  where  they  still  remain.  The  “  metrical 
system”  received  legal  sanction  Nov.  2,  1801. 
The  following  are  the  multiples  and  fractions  of 
the  metre  which  are  in  common  use,  expressed  in 
English  measure: 


Millimetre, 

Centimetre, 

Decimetre, 

Metre, 

Decametre, 

Hectometre, 

Kilometre, 

Myriametre. 


English  Inches. 

.0393707904 

.393701904 

3.93707904  English  Ft.  English  Yds. 
39.3707904  =  3.2808992  =  i. 093633 

393.  07901  =  32.808992  =  10.93633 

3937.079  4  =  328.08992  =  109.3633 

39370.7904  =  3 .80.8992  =  1093.633 

393.07.904  =  32808.992  =  10936.33 


From  the  metre,  the  other  principal  units  of 
measure  and  weight  are  at  once  derived. 

Metropolis  City,  the  county  seat  of  Massac 
county,  111.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Metternicli,  Clemens  Wenzel  Nepomuk 
Lothar,  Prince  von  Metternicli,  and  Duke  of 
Pontella,  an  eminent  Austrian  diplomatist  and 
statesman,  born  at  Coblenz,  May  15,  1773.  His 
services  as  a  diplomat  were  in  requisition  during 
the  most  stormy  period  of  Europe’s  history,  and 
his  talents  were  exercised  in  the  negotiations  of 
several  treaties  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  lie 
died  at  Vienna,  June  11,  1859. 


Metz,  the  strongest  fortress  of  the  German  im¬ 
perial  territory  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  capital  of 
the  district  of  Lorraine;  before  1871 ,  the  main  bul¬ 
wark  of  France  in  her  northeastern  frontier,  and 
capital  of  the  Department  of  Moselle.  It  is  situ¬ 


ated  on  the  Moselle  at  its  confluence  with  the 
Seille.  The  strength  of  Metz  consists  in  its  ex¬ 
terior  defenses,  of  which  the  principal  are  eleven 
forts,  partly  strengthened  and  improved  since  the 
German  occupation,  and  partly  entirely  new.  The 
pop.  of  Metz,  which  in  1869  was  48,325,  had,  in 
1875,  by  reason  of  emigration  into  France,  de¬ 
creased  to  37,925,  or  with  garrison,  45,856;  1881, 
53,107. 

Meurtlie,  formerly  a  department  in  the  north¬ 
east  of  France,  immediately  south  of  the  former 
Department  of  Moselle.  The  area  was  about 
2,254  square  miles;  pop.  in  1866,  428,387. 

Mense,  a  frontier  department  in  the  northeast 
of  France.  Area,  2,400  square  miles;  pop.  1881, 
289,861. 

Mexico  constitutes  the  southwest  extremity  of 
North  America,  and  occupies  a  portion  of  the 
isthmus  which  connects  the  latter  with  the  south 
part  of  the  American  Continent.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  California, 
on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  south  by 
the  Pacific  Ocean  and  Central  America,  and  on 
the  east  by  Texas  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
area  of  Mexico  is  about  750,000  square  miles,  and 
the  pop.  (1881)  about  10,000,000.  In  this  total  there 
were:  full-blood  Indians,  5,000,000;  Mestizos  (half- 
castes),  3,000,000;  Creole  whites,  1,500,000;  Span¬ 
iards,  50,000;  other  Europeans  and  Americans, 
100,000;  negroes,  10,000;  besides  mulatos.  The 
great  mass  of  the  Mexican  territory  consists  of  an 
elevated  plateau,  formed  by  an  expansion  of  the 
Cordilleras  of  Central  America,  from  which  ter¬ 
raced  slopes  descend  with  a  more  or  less  rapid  incli¬ 
nation  toward  the  Atlantic  on  the  east,  and  the  Pa¬ 
cific  on  the  west.  Mexico  may  be  said  to  be  gener¬ 
ally  deficient  in  navigable  rivers;  for  although  some 
of  t  he  largest  have  a  course  of  more  than  1,000  miles 
few  are  free  from  rapids.  Mexico  is  on  the  whole 
badly  supplied  with  water;  and  since  the  Spaniards 
have  discontinued  the  system  of  irrigation,  which 
was  followed  by  the  Aztec  races  with  so  much 
success,  many  tracts  have  become  barren,  and  un¬ 
suited  for  the  purposes  of  human  occupation. 
The  differences  of  climate,  depending  upon  the 
different  degrees  of  altitude,  are  so  great  in  Mexico, 
that  the  vegetable  products  of  this  vast  country 
include  almost  all  that  are  to  be  found  between 
the  equator  and  the  polar  circle.  The  products 
of  the  mines,  which  rank  among  the  richest 
in  the  world,  include  the  precious  metals. — 
The  gold  mines  of  Mexico  occur  principally  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Sierra  Madre,  north  of  24° 
N.  latitude,  and,  until  the  discovery  of  the  metal 
in  Australia,  their  yield  surpassed  the  produce  of 
any  other  part  of  the  world.  Silver  mines  abound 
in  Mexico,  and  the  argentiferous  veil  s,  which 
may  be  said  to  intersect  every  part  of  the  western 
declivities  of  the  Andes,  occur  in  some  places, 
as  in  the  Vela  Madre  lode  at  Guanajuato,  in  beds 
varying  from  10  to  50  yards  in  depth.  Cattle, 
horses,  asses,  mules,  and  sheep  abound  in  Mexico. 
Notwithstanding  the  enormous  advantages  pre¬ 
sented  by  her  natural  productions,  and  the  im¬ 
portant  geographical  position  which  she  occupies 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific,  Mexico, 
owing  to  her  unsettled  government,  and  the  con¬ 
sequent  insecurity  of  life  and  property,  has  not 
been  able  to  develop  her  foreign  commerce.  In 
accordance  with  the  old  constitution  of  Mexico, 
the  standing  army  was  to  consist  of  26,000  men, 
with  a  reserve  of  65,000  men;  but  this  number 
lias  been  extensively  reduced  since  that  period 
by  continual  civil  wars.  Education  in  Mexico, 
long  in  l  he  lowest  possible  condition-,  even  among 
the  wealthier  classes,  is  now  steadily  improving. 
Liberal  allowances  have  been  made  by  the  cen¬ 
tral  and  state  governments  for  establishment  of 
new  schools,  etc.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the 
dominant  Church  of  Mexico,  but  all  other  sects 
are  tolerated.  The  supreme  power  of  the  state 
was,  in  1858,  vested  in  the  hands  of  Benito  Juarez, 
who  was  to  bear  the  title  of  constitutional  pres¬ 
ident,  and  administer  public  affairs  in  conjunc¬ 
tion  with  a  legislative  congress,  composed  of  a 
chamber  of  senators  and  a  lower  house  of  repre¬ 
sentatives.  Each  province  was  to  elect  two  sena¬ 
tors  and  one  deputy  to  every  40,000  inhabitants, 
and  was,  moreover,  to  have  a  separate  provincial 
legislative  chamber,  presided  over  by  its  governor. 
President  Juarez  is  undoubtedly,  along  with  Gen- 
I  eral  Iturbide,  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  distin- 


MEXICO. 


534 


MICROPHONE. 


guished  character  in  modern  Mexico.  The  un¬ 
fortunate  Maximilian  was  a  mere  episode  in  the 
career  of  the  country.  A  provisional  regency  of 
the  Mexican  Empire  was  appointed  by  the  Junta 
Superior  del  Gobierno ;  which  was  itself  consti¬ 
tuted  (June  16,  1863)  by  a  decree  of  Marshal  Forey, 
leader  of  the  French  army  of  invasion.  It  was 
composed  of  thirty-five  members.  This  Junta  at 
the  same  time  established,  under  French  influence, 
an  Assembly  of  Notables,  whom  it  charged  with 
deciding  in  the  name  of  the  people  what  form  of 
government  Mexico  should  adopt.  On  July  10, 
1863,  this  body,  by  an  overwhelming  majority, 
decided  in  favor  of  a  constitutional  hereditary 
monarchy,  and  that  the  new  ruler  should  bear 
the  title  of  Emperor  of  Mexico.  The  present  con¬ 
stitution  dates  from  1857.  The  executive  power 
is  vested  in  a  president,  elected  by  universal  suf¬ 
frage  for  a  period  of  six  years.  '  The  legislative 
(lower  is  confided  to  a  congress  consisting  of  a 
house  of  representatives  (one  for  each  80,000 
inhabitants),  and  a  senate  (with  two  members  for 
each  State).  The  history  of  Mexico  has  been  one 
of  oppression  and  disorder  since  its  first  subjec¬ 
tion  by  the  Spaniards  in  1519,  who,  under  the 
leadership  of  Cortes,  wrested  it  from  the  Aztecs, 
its  original  inhabitants.  It  remained  under 
Spanish  rule  until  1824  when,  under  the  lead¬ 
ership  of  Iturbide,  it  gained  its  independence. 
In  1836  Texas  gained  its  independence,  and  in 
1838  the  French  invaded  the  country.  In  1845 
war  broke  out  between  Mexico  and  the  United 
States,  in  which  the  latter  defeated  the  former  and 
dictated  terms  of  peace.  Since  then  the  country 
has  been  in  a  continuous  ferment,  first  one  leader 
and  then  another  seiziug  supreme  power.  At 
present  (1889)  the  country  is  in  more  prosperous 
condition  than  ever  before,  and  under  the  admin¬ 
istration  of  President  Diaz  is  apparently  on  the 
road  to  stability  and  thrift. 

Mexico  (City).  Mexico,  or  Mejico,  the  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  republic,  is  situated  in  19°  20'  N.  lati¬ 
tude,  ami  99°  5'  W.  longitude,  at  an  elevation 
of  nearly  7,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in 
the  Valley  of  Tenochtitlan,  two  and  one-half 
miles  west  of  Lake  Tezcuco.  Pop.  (1889), 
300,000. 

Mexico,  Gulf  ok,  a  basin  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  the  estimated  extent  of  which  is  800,000 
square  miles,  is  closed  in  by  the  United  States  on 
the  north,  by  Mexico  on  the  west  and  south,  and 
its  outlet  on  the  east  is  narrowed  by  the  jutting 
Peninsulas  of  Yucatan  and  Florida,  which  ap¬ 
proach  within  500  miles  of  each  other.  Right  in 
the  middle  of  this  entrance  is  planted  the  Island 
of  Cuba,  dividing  the  strait  into  two — the  Strait 
of  Florida,  120  miles  wide,  between  Cuba  and 
Florida,  and  the  Strait  of  Yucatan,  105  miles 
wide,  between  Cuba  and  Yucatan.  The  former, 
or  northern  entrance,  connects  the  gulf  with  the 
Atlantic  Ocean;  the  latter,  or  southern,  with  the 
Caribbean  Sea.  The  depth  of  water  is  supposed 
nowhere  to  exceed  three-fourths  of  a  mile.  The 
most  important  feature  of  the  gulf  is  its  stream. 

Mexico,  a  city  of  Audrian county,  Mo.  Pop., 
6,250.  Several  railroads  converge  here,  and  the 
town  has  considerable  trade  with  the  surrounding 
county. 

Meyerbeer,  Jakob,  commonly  called  Giacomo 
Meyerbeer,  a  celebrated  musical  composer  of 
the  present  age,  was  the  son  of  a  wealthy  Jewish 
banker,  and  was  born  at  Berlin,  Sept.  5,  1794. 
He  died  on  May  2,  1864.  His  best  known  com 
positions  arc  Semiramide,  Robert,  le  Liable,  Les 
Huguenots,  Le  Prophete,  Linorah,  and  L'  A fri- 
caine. 

Miagao,  a  town  in  the  Island  of  Panay,  one  of 
the  Philippine  Isles,  in  the  Province  of  Iloilo. 
The  inhabitants,  who  are  industrious,  comfort¬ 
able,  and  well  educated,  are  estimated  at  31,000 
in  number. 

Mia'ko,  or  Kioto,  now  called  Sai-Kiyo,  the 
ancient  capital  of  Japan,  situated  in  the  southwest 
of  the  Island  of  Nipon.  Pop.  in  1882  was 
239,425. 

M  iami,  the  county  seat  of  Dade  county,  Fla. 
Pop.,  200. 

Miain'i,  a  river  of  Ohio,  rises  by  several 
branches  in  the  western  center  of  the  State,  and 
after  a  south-southwest  course  of  150  miles, 
empties  itself  into  the  Ohio  river,  twenty  miles 
west  of  Cincinnati. 


Mias 'ma  (Gr.  yiatiya,  pollution),  or  Mala¬ 
ria.  It  is  proved  by  the  experience  of  all  ages 
that  there  is  an  intimate  connection  between 
marshy  districts  and  certain  diseases,  especially 
the  various  forms  of  intermittent  and  remittent 
fever.  It  may  be  regarded  as  an  established-  fact 
that  the  noxious  agent  is  a  product  of  vegetable 
decomposition  occurring  under  certain  conditions 
of  heat  and  moisture.  Marsh-miasmata  are  sel¬ 
dom  evolved  at  a  temperature  under  60°,  but  at 
and  above  80°  they  are  prevalent  and  severe. 
Although  moisture  is  necessary  to  the  evolution 
of  miasmata,  an  excess  of  it  often  acts  as  a  pre¬ 
ventive,  and  by  impeding  the  access  of  atmos¬ 
pheric  air  retards  or  prevents  decomposition. 
In  Italy,  it  is  estimated  that  an  altit  ude  of  about 
1,500  feet  assures  an  exemption  from  marsh- 
poison;  while  in  the  West  Indies,  an  elevation  of 
at  least  2,000  feet  is  necessary.  The  extent  to 
which  the  poison  may  spread  horizontally  over  land 
depends,  to  a  great  extent,  upon  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  The  effect  of  trees  in  intercepting  miasmata 
is  very  remarkable,  and  is  probably  due  partly 
to  their  condensing  the  vapors  of  the  marsh,  and 
partly  to  their  altering  the  direction  of  the  cur¬ 
rent  of  air.  Though  malarious  diseases  may  rage 
around  a  city,  and  even  invade  the  outskirts,  yet 
they  are  unable  to  penetrate  into  the  interior,  and 
individuals  who  never  leave  the  tliickly-built 
parts  almost  always  escape.  What  it  is  in  the 
air  of  the  city  which  is  thus  incompatible  with 
malaria  is  unknown;  but  very  probably  it  is  con¬ 
nected  with  the  results  of  combustion,  for  the 
fire  and  smoke  of  camps  are  asserted  to  have  had 
the  same  effects.  The  best  preventives  of  the 
influence  of  malaria  are  a  full  meal  followed  by  a 
few  grains  of  quinine  and  protection  from  expos¬ 
ure  at  night  by  staying  within  dodrs  till  the  sun 
has  fully  risen. 

Miau'tse,  the  aborigines  or  hill-tribes  of  China. 

Mi'ca  (from  the  same  root  with  Lat.  mico,  to 
glitter),  a  mineral  consisting  essentially  of  a  sil¬ 
icate  of  alumina,  with  which  are  combined  small 
proportions  of  silicates  of  potash,  soda,  litliia, 
oxide  of  iron,  oxide  of  manganese,  etc. 

Mi'cali,  the  sixth  (third  in  the  lxx)  of  the 
twelve  minor  prophets  (Micayahu:  Who  is  like 
unto  Jab?),  probably  a  native  of  Moreslieth, 
prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  Jotliam,  Aliaz, 
and  Hezekiah,  and  was  therefore  contemporary 
with  Isaiah,  and  l  losea,  and  Amos.  The  Book 
of  Micali  is  the  collected  prophecies  of  this  seer, 
which  seems  to  be  almost  a  paraphrase  of  the 
prophecies  of  Isaiah. 

Mica-schist  consists  of  alternate  layers  of  mica 
and  quartz,  but  is  sometimes  composed  almost 
entirely  of  the  thin  and  shining  plates  or  scales  of 
mica,  and  from  this  it  passes  by  insensible  grada¬ 
tions  into  clay-slate. 

Michael  Angelo  (Buonarotti),  who,  in  an 
age  when  Christian  art  had  reached  its  zenith, 
stood  almost  unrivaled  as  a  painter,  sculptor,  and 
architect,  was  born  in  1474  at  Cliiusi,  in  Italy. 
His  greatest  works  are  the  Mater  Duhrosai, statu¬ 
ary)  in  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome;  the  reconstruction 
(architectural)  of  St.  Peter’s  on  its  present  grand 
scale;  and  the  Ceiling  of  the  Sistine  Chapel  (paint¬ 
ing);  his  engineering  skill  was  employed  in  the 
fortification  of  Florence.  His  last  great  work 
was  the  Last  Judgment,  the  altar  piece  of  the 
Sistine  Chapel.  Michael  Angelo  died  in  1563,  at 
Rome. 

Micliclct,  Jules,  a  brilliant  French  historian, 
born  at  Paris,  Aug.  21,  1798.  His  master-piece  is 
his  Ilistoire  de  France,  continued  in  Ilistoire  de 
la  Revolution  Frangaise,  and  Ilistoire  du  XIXme 
Siecle.  Michelet  died  in  1874. 

Mich'igan,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
lying  in  lat  it  ude  41°  40'  to  48°  20'  N. ,  and  longitude 
82°  25'  to  90°  34'  W.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Lake  Superior  and  St.  Mary’s  river;  east  by  Lake 
Huron,  River  and  Lake  St.  Clair,  Detroit  river, 
and  Lake  Erie;  south  by  the  States  of  Ohio  and 
Indiana;  and  west  by  Lake  Michigan  and  Wis¬ 
consin,  and  has  an  area  of  56,243  square  miles. 
The  capital  is  Lansing.  Michigan  is  divided  by 
Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron  into  two  irregular 
peninsulas — the  upper,  a  wild  and  rough  region 
of  mountains  and  forests,  containing  about  one- 
third  the  area  of  the  State,  lies  between  the  north¬ 
ern  portions  of  Lakes  Michigan  and  Huron,  and 
Lake  Superior;  while  the  lower  is  nearly  inclosed  | 


in  a  vast  horseshoe  bend  of  Lakes  Michigan, 
Huron,  Erie,  and  the  connecting  straits  and  rivers. 
In  the  upper  peninsula  are  the  Porcupine  Mount¬ 
ains,  rising  to  a  height  of  2,000  feet,  with  sandy 
plains  and  forests.  The  southern  is  a  level,  rich, 
fertile  country  of  prairies  and  oak-openings, 
watered  by  numerous  rivers,  as  the  Grand,  Kala¬ 
mazoo,  Muskegon,  Saginaw,  etc.  The  lower 
peninsula  is  of  limestone  strata,  with  coal  and 
gypsum,  the  upper,  of  azoic  formations,  with 
metamorphic  slates,  gneiss  rocks,  trap,  and  rich 
mines  of  copper  and  iron.  The  climate  is  mild 
in  the  'southern,  aud  cold  and  bleak  in  the  north¬ 
ern  regions.  The  southern  portion  produces 
wheat,  maize,  fruits,  butter,  cheese,  and  wool  in 
great  abundance.  Vast  quantities  of  pine  lumber 
arc  exported  from  the  northern  half  of  the  State. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  flour  and  wool¬ 
ens.  The  extensive  coast  and  rivers  afford  great 
facilities  to  navigation,  while  several  railways 
traverse  the  State.  The  educational  system  of  the 
State  is  excellent,  and  the  State  University  at 
Ann  Arbor  bears  an  enviable  reputation.  The 
State  was  admitted  to  the  Union  in  1837.  Pop. 
(1880),  1,636,937. 

M  ichigan,  a  lake  in  the  United  States  the  sec¬ 
ond  in  size  of  the  five  great  fresh  water  lakes, 
and  the  only  one  lying  wholly  in  the  United 
States,  having  Michigan  on  the  north  and 
east  and  Wisconsin  and  Illinois  on  the  west. 
It  is  320  miles  long,  70  miles  in  mean  breadth, 
and  1,000  feet  in  mean  depth.  It  is  578  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  has  been 
found  by  accurate  observations  to  have  a 
lunar  tidal  wave  of  3  inches.  It  is  the  outlet 
of  numerous  rivers,  and  is  connected  by  a  canal, 
and  sometimes  by  flooded  rivers,  with  the  Missis¬ 
sippi,  which  is  believed  to  have  been  its  ancient 
outlet.  Its  principal  harborsare  those  of  Chicago, 
Milwaukee,  and  Grand  Haven,  and  its  bold,  and, 
at  certain  seasons,  dangerous  shores,  arc  guarded 
by  numerous  light-houses.  It  forms,  with  the 
lower  lakes  and  the  St.  Lawrence,  a  natural  out¬ 
let  for  one  of  the  richest  grain-growing  regions 
in  the  world. 

Michigan  City,  a  city  on  the  east  shore  of 
Lake  Michigan,  nearly  opposite  Chicago,  in 
La  Porte  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  9,500. 

M  i  'crocosm  and  Macrocosm.  The  belief,  cur¬ 
rent  in  ancient  times,  that  the  world  or  cosmos 
was  animated,  or  had  a  soul,  led  to  the  notion, 
that  the  parts  and  members  of  organic  beings 
must  have  their  counterparts  in  the  members  of 
the  cosmos.  The  natural  philosophers  of  the 
sixteenth  century — Paracelsus  at  the  r  head — - 
took  up  this  notion  anew  in  a  somewhat  modified 
shape,  and  considered  the  world  as  a  human 
organism  on  the  large  scale,  and  man  as  a  world, 
or  cosmos,  in  miniature;  hence  they  called  man 
a  microcosm  (Gr.  yiKpoS,  small,  Kutiyot,  the 
world),  and  the  universe  itself,  t hemacroco^m  (Gr. 
gaKpoi,  large,  Kodyot,  the  world).  With  this  was 
associated  the  belief  that  the  vital  movements  of 
the  microcosm  exactly  corresponded  to  those  of 
the  macrocosm,  and  represented  them,  as  it  were, 
in  copy,  and  this  led  naturally  to  the  further  as¬ 
sumption,  that  the  movements  of  the  stars  must 
exercise  an  influence  on  the  temperament  and 
fortunes  of  men. 

Microcos'mic  Salt  is  a  tribasic  phosphate  of 
soda,  oxide  of  ammonium,  and  water,  which  is 
prepared  by  mixing  a  hot  solution  of  6  parts  of 
phosphate  of  soda  with  a  concentrated  solution  of 
1  part  of  muriate  of  ammonia,  only  metaphos- 
pliate  of  soda  remains,  which,  from  its  ready 
fusibility  into  a  colorless  glass,  is  valuable  as  a 
flux  in  blow  pipe  experiments.  This  salt  occurs 
in  decomposed  urine. 

Microin'eter  (Gr.  yiKpoi,  mikros,  little; 
yerpov,  metron,  measure)  is  an  instrument  used 
for  measuring  minute  distances'  and  angles. 

Microphone,  an  instrument  for  rendering  other¬ 
wise  inaudible  sounds  audible.  One  form  of  mi¬ 
crophone  consists  of  a  piece  of  mercury-tempered 
carbon,  an  inch  long,  placed  vertically  between 
two  carbon-blocks  hollowed  to  receive  its  ends, 
wires  connecting  the  blocks  with  the  battery 
and  the  receiver  by  which  the  sounds  arc  to 
be  heard.  “A  piece  of  willow-charcoal,”  says 
the  inventor,  “the  .size  of  a  pin’s  head,  is  sufficient 
to  reproduce  articulate  speech.”  Two  nails  laid 
parallel,  with  wire  connections,  and  a  third  nai]> 


MICROSCOPE. 


535 


MILL. 


laid  across  them,  make  a  simple  form  of  micro¬ 
phone.  A  few  cells  of  any  form  of  battery  may 
be  used. 

Mi'croscope  (Gr.  yiKpo?,  m Heron,  small,  and 
( iKoneco ,  skopeo,  I  see),  is  an  instrument  for  en¬ 
abling  us  to  examine  objects  which  are  so  small 
as  to  lie  almost  or  quite  undiscernible  by  the  un¬ 
aided  eye.  It  is  generally  believed  that  the  first 
compound  microscope  was  made  by  Zacharias  Jan¬ 
sen,  a  Dutchman,  in  the  year  1590.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  microscope  —  simple  and  com¬ 
pound.  In  the  simple  microscope  the  object  is 
brought  directly  under  the  eye-piece,  but  in  the 
compound  microscope  a  magnified  picture  of  an 
inverted  image  of  the  object  is  seen.  This  is 
effected  by  means  of  two  or  more  sets  of  lenses; 
while  iu  the  simple  microscope  there  is  rarely  more 
than  one  ( never  more  than  one  fixed)  lens.  The 
strength  of  a  microscope  can  be  calculated  by  di¬ 
viding  the  natural  focal  length  of  the  eye  (usually 
10  inches)  by  the  focal  lengths  of  the  lenses  em¬ 
ployed,  and  multiplying  the  quotients  so  obtained 
together.  The  result  is  the  number  of  times  an 
object  will  be  magnified. 

Middleltorough,  a  town  of  Plymouth  county, 
Mass.  Pop.,  6,423. 

Middlebourne,  the  county  seat  of  Tyler  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  300. 

Mitldleburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Snyder  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  475. 

Middlebury,  the  county  seat  of  Addison  county, 
At.  Pop.,  3,700. 

Mid'dlesbo rough,  the  center  of  the  North  of 
England  iron  manufacture,  is  an  important  market- 
town,  port,  and  parliamentary  borough  in  the 
North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tees.  Pop.  in  1881,  54,965. 

Mid'dlesex,  the  metropolitan  county  of  Eng¬ 
land,  in  the  southeast  of  the  country,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Hertford,  and  on  the  south  by  Surrey, 
and  about  sixty  miles  inland  (westward)  from  the 
North  Sea,  with  which  it  communicates  by  the 
River  Thames.  Pop.,  2,920,485. 

Mid'dletown,  a  city  and  township  in  Connecti¬ 
cut,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Connecticut  river,  twenty-three  miles  from 
its  mouth.  It  is  a  well-built  town,  with  cotton 
factories,  foundries,  mills,  etc.  Pop  (1889),  15,000. 

Midge,  the  common  name  of  many  species  of 
small  dipterous  insects,  of  the  family  Tipulidce, 
much  resembling  gnats,  but  having  a  shorter  pro¬ 
boscis. 

Midland,  the  county  seat  of  Midland  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  2,700. 

Midland,  the  county  scat  of  Midland  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  500. 

Midrash  (Heb.  da  rash,  to  search,  explain  the 
scriptures)  is  the  general  name  given  to  the  ex 
position  of  the  Old  Testament,  which,  for  about 
1,500  years,  formed  the  center  of  all  mental  activ¬ 
ity,  both  in  and  out  of  the  schools,  among  the 
Jews  after  the  Babylonish  exile. 

Mid'shipman,  the  second  rank  attained  by 
combatant  officers  in  the  navy.  After  two  years’ 
service  as  naval  cadet  the  aspirant  becomes  a  mid¬ 
shipman,  which  is  rather  an  apprenticeship  for  his 
after-naval  career  than  any  really  effective  appoint¬ 
ment. 

Mifflintown,  the  county  seat  of  Juniata  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Mignonette'  ( licseda  odorata),  a  plant  of  the 
natural  order  Resedaccm,  a  native  of  the  North  of 
Africa,  in  universal  cultivation  on  account  of  the 
delicious  fragrance  of  its  flowers. 

Miklosicli,  Franz,  the  most  learned  living 
Slavist,  was  born  at  Luttenberg,  in  the  Slavic  part 
of  Styria,  Nov.  20,  1813. 

Mi'lan  (Ital.  Milano),  chief  city  of  Lombardy, 
Italy,  stands  on  the  River  Olona,  in  the  center  of 
the  great  plain  of  Lombardy.  Pop.  (1872)  of  city, 
199,059;  of  surrounding  district, called  Corpi  Santi, 
62,976. 

Milan,  the  county  seat  of  Sullivan  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  1,400. 

Mil'dew  (Ger.  mehltliau,  meal-dew),  a  term  of 
somewhat  vague  application  to  certain  diseased 
states  of  plants,  caused  or  characterized  by  the 
growth  of  small  parasitical  fungi,  and  also  to  spots 
on  cloth,  paper,  etc.,  and  even  on  the  surface  of 
glass  and  other  inorganic  substances,  produced  by 
the  growth  of  minute  fungi.  Whether  mildew  is 
the  consequence  of  unfavorable  weather  and  of 


j  fungi  attacking  an  already  weakened  plant,  or  is 
the  consequence  of  infection  by  spores  of  fungi 
brought  through  the  air  or  soil  to  a  plant  previ¬ 
ously  healthy,  is  not  yet  well  ascertained. 

Mile,  the  largest  terrestrial  measure  of  length  in 
common  use  among  most  nations.  The  geograph¬ 
ical  or  nautical  mile  is  the  fa  part  of  a  degree 
of  the  equator,  and  is  employed  by  the  mariners 
of  all  nations;  but  in  Germany  the  geographical 
mile  denotes  fa  part  of  a  degree  of  the  equator, 
or  4  nautical  miles.  The  English  mile  is  the 
standard  in  this  country.  The  following  table 
gives  the  length,  in  English  statute  miles,  of  tin; 
various  miles  that  have  been  or  are  commonly  used : 

Eng.  Miles. 


English  geographical  mile . =  1  153 

German  geographical  mile . =  4. ill  l 

Tuscan  mile  . =  1.027 

Ancient  Scotch  mile . =  1.127 

•*  Irish  mile . =  1.273 

German  short  mile . =  3  897 

Prussian  mile . =4  080 

Danish  mile . =  4  08 1 

Hungarian  mile . =5.178 

Swiss  mile . =  5.201 

German  long  mile . =  5.753 

Hanoverian  mile . =0.5  8 

Swedish  mile  . =  6.618 

The  French  kilometre . =0.021 


and  29  kil.  =  18  English  s  atute  miles  nearly. 

Miles  City,  the  county  seat  of  Custer  county, 
Mont.  Pop!,  1,375. 

Mile'tus,  anciently  the  greatest  and  most 
flourishing  city  of  Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor.  It  was 
situated  at  the  mouth  of  theMaeander. 

Milford,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  thirty-four 
miles  southwest  of  Boston,  having  six  churches,  a 
manufactory  of  machinery,  and  large  boot  and 
shoe  manufactures.  Pop.  (1889),  12,000. 

Milford,  the  county  seat  of  Pike  county,  Penn. 
Pop.,  1,216. 

Mili'tia  (Lat.  miles,  a  soldier),  abodyof  armed 
citizens,  trained  to  military  duty,  not  under  regu¬ 
lar  pay,  ami  not  on  regular  service,  but  who  may 
be  called  out  at  any  time  when  its  services  are 
needed  for  the  defense  of  the  State  or  Nation.  It 
has  a  regular  organization  at  all  times;  is  armed 
and  equipped  by  the  State,  and  is  required  to 
devote  a  stated  amount  of  time  in  each  year  to 
drilling  and  the  acquirement  of  military  knowl¬ 
edge.  in  the  United  States  each  State  is  charged 
with  the  organization  and  maintenance  of  its  own 
militia,  and  the  governor  of  the  State  is  com¬ 
mander-in  chief  of  the  militia  of  his  State,  except 
when  the  organization,  or  any  part  of  it,  is  called 
into  service  on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  when 
the  supreme  command  is  vested  in  the  President. 
The  actual  militia  of  the  United  States  now  con¬ 
sists  of  voluntary  organizations  of  companies  and 
regiments  in  the  various  branches  of  infantry, 
cavalry,  and  artillery,  and  of  all  other  able-bodied 
citizens  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and  forty- 
five  years,  excepting  such  as  are  exempt  by 
reason  of  their  occupations  or  positions  in  other 
government  service,  all  of  whom  may  be  sum¬ 
moned  to  perform  military  duty  at  any  time. 

Milk  is  an  opaque  white  fluid  secreted  by  the 
mammary  glands  of  the  females  of  the  class  Mam¬ 
malia,  after  they  have  brought  forth  their  young. 
It  is  of  a  slightly  alkaline  reaction  (except  in  the 
Carnivora,  in  which  it  is  acid);  and  its  average 
specific  gravity  (in  the  case  of  human  milk)  is 
1.032.  When  examined  under  the  microscope, 
milk  appears  as  a  clear  fluid,  containing  fat 
globules  in  suspension.  They  vary  from  .0012 
to  .0018  of  a  line  in  diameter.  They  are  each 
invested  with  a  delicate  coat  of  caseine,  which  pre¬ 
vents  their  running  together.  By  churning,  these 
envelopes  are  ruptured,  and  the  contents  are 
made  to  unite,  forming  butter.  In  addition  to 
milk  globules,  colostrum  globules,  which  are 
irregular  conglomerations  of  small  fat  globules, 
occur  in  the  milk  for  the  first  three  or  four  days 
after  delivery. 

Milk-fever,  in  the  lower  animals,  comes  on 
within  a  few  days  after  parturition.  One  variety, 
common  to  most  animals,  consists  in  inflammation 
of  the  membranes  of  the  womb  and  bowels,  and 
I  is  produced  by  exposure  to  cold,  over-driving,  or 
injury  during  labor;  it  is  best  treated  by  oil  and 
laudanum,  tincture  of  aconite,  and  hot  fomenta¬ 
tions  to  the  belly.  The  other  variety,  almost 
peculiar  to  the  cow,  attacks  animals  in  high  con¬ 
dition  that  are  good  milkers,  and  have  already 
borne  several  calves;  it  consists  in  congestion  and 
inflammation  of  the  brain  and  large  nervous  cen- 
I  ters,  and  impairs  all  the  vital  functions,  leading 


to  dullness,  loss  of  sensation  and  motion,  and 
stupor.  Blood  must  be  drawn  early,  while  the 
cow  is  still  standing  and  sensible.  Later,  it  otdy 
hastens  death.  A  large  dose  of  physic,  such  as 
a  pound  each  of  salts  and  molasses,  a  drachm  of 
calomel,  an  ounce  of  gamboge,  and  two  ounces 
of  ginger,  should  at  once  be  given,  solid  food 
withheld,  clysters  of  soap,  salt,  and  water  thrown 
up  every  hour,  cloths  wrung  out  of  boiling  water 
applied  along  the  spine,  the  teats  drawn  several 
times  daily,  and  the  animal  frequently  turned. 
Although  treatment  is  uncertain,  prevention  is 
easily  insured  by  milking  the  cow  regularly  for 
ten  days  before  calving,  feeding  sparingly  on 
laxative,  unstimulating  food,  giving  several  doses 
of  physic  before,  and  one  immediately  after  calv¬ 
ing;  and  when  the  animal  is  in  high  condition, 
and  prone  to  milk-fever,  bleeding  her  a  day  or 
two  before  calving. 

Mill.  T1  tis  word  is  now  used  in  a  general  way 
as  a  name  for  almost  all  kinds  of  manufactories, 
as  well  as  for  grinding  machinery;  but  in  its 
stricter  application  it  refers  to  a  building  and  the 
machinery  therein  for  reducing  wheat  or  other 
cereals  to  flour.  The  evolution  of  the  modern 
flouring  mill,  propelled  either  by  steam  or  water 
power,  from  the  primitive  hollowed-out  stone  and 
pestle  in  which  our  ancestors  ground  their  corn 
by  hand,  and  which  is  still  used  by  savages,  has 
been  slow,  but  has  at  last  produced  a  most  perfect 
system  of  machinery.  In  modern  flouring  mills  the 
wheat  first  parses  through  separators,  by  which  it 
is  thoroughly  cleaned  of  all  dust,  oats,  cockle,  or 
other  foreign  substances.  It  then  goes  through 
the  graders,  in  which  the  small  shrunken  kernels 
are  separated  from  the  sound  ones;  then  through 
the  scourer  and  smutter;  in  which  it  is  subjected 
to  a  severe  rubbing,  which  removes  the  fuzz  from 
the  end  of  the  berry,  and  ton  strong  current  of 
air  which  separates  any  light  kernels  that  may 
have  passed  through  the  other  machines  from  the 
good  wheat.  A  current  of  air  passing  through 
the  scourer  blows  out  the  fuzz  and  other  impuri¬ 
ties  that  have  been  detached  from  the  berry.  The 
grain  is  next  passed  through  a  machine  contain¬ 
ing  a  series  of  strong  magnets,  which  collect  any 
bits  of  wire  or  other  metal  that  may  have  found 
their  way  into  it  in  harvesting  or  threshing.  The 
grain  is  now  sent  to  the  rollers, where  it  is  crushed, 
step  by  step,  into  flour.  These  rollers,  the  suc¬ 
cessors  of  the  old  millstones,  are  made  of  chilled 
steel,  some  of  them  smooth  and  some  corrugated, 
the  grooves  in  the  latter  generally  having  a  slight 
spiral  turn  from  end  to  end,  and  are  usually  9 
inches  in  diameter  by  18  inches  long.  There  are 
usually  six  or  more  pairs  of  rollers,  and  each  suc¬ 
ceeding  pair  is  set  closer  together  than  the  last,  so 
that  the  wheat  in  its  passage  is  crushed  finer  and 
finer,  the  bran  and  middlings  being,  meantime, 
taken  out  by  intricate  machines  made  for  that 
purpose.  The  products  of  the  rolls  are,  meantime, 
sent  through  the  middlings  purifier,  and  through 
screens  made  of  wire-cloth,  or  silk  gauze,  with 
finer  or  coarser  mesh,  as  may  be  necessary  to 
take  out  the  bran,  middlings,  germ,  high  or  low 
grade  flour,  etc.  This  improved  system  produces 
a  much  finer  quality  of  flour  than  the  old  mill¬ 
stones  were  capable  of  making,  besides  turning 
it  out  very  much  faster  than  was  possible  under 
the  old  system.  In  1880  there  were  in  the  United 
States  24,338  flouring  mills,  valued  at  over  $177,- 
000,000,  and  employing  58,407  operatives.  The 
capacity  of  these  mills  was  4,730,000  bushels 
daily,  and  they  ground  in  the  year  441,545,225 
bushels, the  products  being  valued  at  $505,185,000. 
The  largest  flouring  mill  in  the  United  States,  so 
far  as  known  at  this  writing,  is  in  Minneapolis, 
and  its  capacity  is  500  barrels  of  flour  a  day. 

Mill,  James,  an  English  writer  of  marked 
ability,  was  born  at  Montrose,  Scotland,  April  6, 
1773,  and  died  June  23,  1836.  He  wrote  a  llis- 
tnry  of  British  India,  a  valuable  work  on  the 
Elements  of  Political  Economy,  and  another  on  the 
Analysis  of  the  Human  Mind. 

Mill,  John  Stuart,  son  of  the  preceding,  was 
born  in  London  on  May  20,  1806,  and  was  edu¬ 
cated  at  home  by  his  father,  lie  was  a  close  stu¬ 
dent,  a  deep  thinker,  and  produced  many  valuable 
works,  among  which  may  be  noted  his  System  of 
Logic,  Principles  of  Political  Economy,  England 
and  Ireland,  and  The  Subjection  of  Women. 


MILLAIS. 


536 


MINIMS. 


Millais,  John  Everett,  II.  A.,  a  celebrated 
English  painter,  was  born  at  Southampton  in 
1829.  His  pictures  are  mostly  historical  and 
fanciful,  and  portray  genius  of  a  high  order. 

Millbank,  the  county  scat  of  Grant  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  2,500. 

^  Mill  brook,  the  county  seat  of  Graham  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  875. 

Milledgeville,  the  former  capital  of  Georgia, 
is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Oconee  river,  150  miles 
northwest  of  Savannah,  in  a  rich  cotton  country. 
Pop.,  5,600. 

Mil'lepede,  a  popular  name  of  many  kinds  of 
lHyriapoda,  of  the  order  Chilognatha,  and  chiefly 
of  the  families  Julidce  and  Polydesmidce.  In  the 
latter  family,  the  feet  are  arranged  in  numerous 
groups  along  both  sides;  otherwise,  they  much 
resemble  the  Julidce.  The  largest  species  are 
found  in  warm  climates,  and  some  of  them  are 
brightly  colored.  Some  of  them,  as  Polydesmus 
complanatus — which  is  lilac-colored,  flattened, 
and  from  a  quarter  to  half  an  inch  in  length — are 
destructive  to  the  roots  of  plants.  The  applica¬ 
tion  of  salt,  lime,  nitrate  of  soda,  etc.,  has  been 
recommended  as  a  preventive  of  their  ravages. 

Miller,  IIuo  h,  a  distinguished  geologist,  was 
born  in  Cromarty,  Scotland,  Oct.  10,  1802.  He 
edited  a  religious  newspaper  for  several  years, 
during  which  time  he  also  published  several 
books  on  historical  and  geological  topics.  After 
ten  years  of  hard,  earnest  toil,  his  brain  gave 
way,  and,  in  a  moment  of  aberration,  he  com¬ 
mitted  suicide  on  Dec.  24,  1856. 

Miller,  the  county  seat  of  Hand  county,  S. 
Dak.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Millet,  a  grain,  of  which  there  are  several 
kinds,  the  produce  of  species  of  panicum,  setaria, 
and  allied  genera.  The  genus  panicum  contains 
many  species,  natives  of  tropical  and  warm  tem¬ 
perate  countries,  and  some  of  which  are  amongst 
the  largest  fodder  grasses. 

Millrind,  or  Per  be  Moulin,  in  Heraldry,  a 
charge  meant  to  represent  a  mill-iron,  originally 
a  mere  variety  in  designating  the  cross  mobile,  but 
accounted  a  distinct  charge  by  some  heralds. 

Millville,  a  manufacturing  and  agricultural 
city  of  Cumberland  county,  N.  J.  Pop.,  11,024. 

Milman,  Henry  Hart,  D.D.,  an  English  poet 
and  ecclesiastical  historian,  was  born  in  London, 
Feb.  10,  1791,  and  died  Sept.  24,  1868.  He  pub¬ 
lished  Fazio,  a  Tragedy;  the  Fall  of  Jerusalem; 
a  History  of  Christianity  from  the  Birth  of  Christ 
to  the  Abolition  of  Vaganmn  in  the  Roman  Empire 
(3  vols.),  etc. 

Milne-Edwards,  Henry,  one  of  the  foremost 
of  recent  naturalists,  was  born  at  Bruges,  Bel¬ 
gium,  Oct.  23.  1800,  and  died  July  29,  1885.  Ilis 
researches  in  natural  history,  especially  in  the 
department  of  invertebrates,  are  of  the  utmost 
value  to  science. 

Mil  nor,  the  county  seat  of  Sargent  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  750. 

Milti'ades,  a  celebrated  Athenian  general, 
tyrant  of  the  Chersonese,  who,  forced  by  Darius 
to  flee  from  his  dominions,  took  refuge  at  Athens, 
and  on  the  second  Persian  invasion  of  Greece,  was 
chosen  one  of  the  ten  generals,  lie  distinguished 
himself  by  the  great  victory  which  he  gained  at 
Marathon  with  a  small  body  of  Athenians  and  1 ,000 
Platseaus  (Sept.  29,  490  n.c.)  over  the  Persian 
host,  under  Datis  and  Artaphernes.  He  then  made 
an  attack  on  the  Island  of  Paros, in  order  to  gratify 
a  private  enmity;  but,  failing  in  the  attempt,  he 
was,  on  his  return  to  Athens,  thrown  into  prison, 
where  he  died  of  a  wound  received  at  Paros. 

Milton,  John,  an  English  poet,  was  born  in 
London,  Dec.  9,  1608,  and  died  Nov.  8,  1674.  Ilis 
greatest  work  is  Paradise  Lost,  but  in  Eikono- 
klastes,  Paradise  Regained,  Samson  Agonistes,  and 
several  other  works,  he  displays  genius  of  a  rare 
and  versatile  order. 

Milton,  the  county  seat  of  Santa  Rosa  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  1,800. 

Milwau'kee,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  on  the  west¬ 
ern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  Mil¬ 
waukee  river,  or  creek,  which  forms  its  harbor. 
The  town  is  .beautifully  built  with  light  yellow 
bricks,  and  crowns  a  high  bluff  overlooking  the 
lake.  Several  railways  connect  the  city  with  a 
country  of  great  fertility.  In  extent  of  marine 
commerce,  Milwaukee  ranks  fourth  among  the 


cities  of  the  Union;  and  it  has  great  advantages  as 
a  manufacturing  center.  Pop.,  200,000. 

Mimes,  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  cer 
tain  dramatic  performances,  in  which,  with  little 
attempt  at  art,  scenes  of  actual  life  were  repre¬ 
sented  sometimes  in  improvised  dialogue. 

Mimo'seae,  a  sub-order  of  Leguminusce,  one  of 
the  largest  natural  orders  of  exogenous  plants; 
distinguished  by  regular  flowers  and  petals  val- 
vate  in  bud.  About  1,000  species  are  known,  all 
natives  of  warm  climates,  a  few  only  extending 
beyond  sub  tropical  regions  in  the  Southern  Hemi¬ 
sphere.  The  genera  Acacia  and  Mimosa  are  the 
best  known.  To  the  latter  genus  belong  the 


(M.  ferruginea)  is  one  of  the  most  common  trees 
of  Central  Africa. 

Mini 'ulus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Scrophulariacea,  having  a  prismatic  tive- 
toothed  calyx,  a  somewhat  bell-sliaped  corolla, 
of  which  the  upper  lip  is  bifid  and  the  lower  lip 
trifid,  the  lobes  not  very  unequal,  two  long  and 
two  short  stamens,  and  a  stigma  of  two  lamellae, 
which  close  together  upon  irritation.  The  spec!  s 
are  mostly  herbaceous  plants,  natives  of  America. 
Some  of  them  are  frequent  in  flower-gardens,  and 
many  fine  varieties  have  resulted  from  cultivation. 
The  yellow-flowered  musk  plant,  now  so  com¬ 
mon  in  gardens  and  on  window-sills  is  M. 
moschatus,  a  native  of  Oregon  and  other  north¬ 
western  parts  of  America. 

Mina  Bird  ( Eulabes  indicus  or  Gracula  indied), 
a  species  of  grakle  or  of  a  nearly  allied  genus,  a 
native  of  many  parts  of  the  East  Indies,  about  the 
size  of  a  common  thrush,  of  a  deep  velvety  black 
color,  with  a  white  mark  on  the  base  of  the 
quill-feathers  of  the  wings,  yellow  bill  and  feet, 
and  two  large  bright  yellow  wattles  at  the  back  of 
the  head.  The  bill  is  large,  conical;  the  upper 
mandible  a  little  curved,  and  sharp-pointed. 

Min'aret  Minar,  a  tall  turret,  used  in  Sara¬ 
cenic  architecture.  It  contains  a  staircase,  and  is 
divided  into  several  stories,  with  balconies  from 
which  the  priests  summon  the  Mohammedans  to 
prayer — bells  not  being  permitted  in  their  religion 
— and  is  terminated  with  a  spire  or  ornamental 
finial. 

Minch,  the  channel  which  separates  the  Island 
of  Lewes  from  the  Counties  of  Cromarty  and  Ross, 
in  the  northwest  of  Scotland.  The  Little  Minch 
separates  the  Island  of  Skye  from  that  of  North 
LTist  and  the  neighboring  islands  in  the  Outer 
Hebrides. 

Mimlen,  the  parish  seat  of  Webster  parish. 
La.  Pop.,  1,375. 

Mineral  Kingdom,  the  inorganic  portion  of 
nature.  Under  this  term,  however,  are  not  in¬ 
cluded  the  inorganic  products  of  organic  beings, 
as  sugar,  resins,  etc.,  although  substances  more 
remotely  of  vegetable  or  even  animal  origin  are 
reckoned  among  minerals,  as  coal,  fossils,  etc. 
To  the  mineral  kingdom  belong  liquid  and 
gaseous,  as  well  as  solid  substances;  water,  at 
mospheric  air,  etc.,  are  included  in  it. 

Mineral  Tallow,  or  Hatciietine,  a  remark¬ 
able  substance  found  in  several  places  in  Britain, 
Germany,  Siberia,  etc.,  soft  and  flexible,  yellowish 
white,  or  yellow,  resembling  wax  or  tallow,  often 
flaky  like  spermaceti,  inodorous,  melting  at  115° 


— 170°  F.,  and  composed  of  about  86  carbon  and 
14  hydrogen. 

Mineral  Park,  the  county  seat  of  Mohave 
county,  Ariz.  Pop.,  318. 

Mineral  Waters.  This  term  is  usually  ap¬ 
plied  to  all  spring  waters  which  possess  qualities 
in  relation  to  the  animal  body  different  from  those 
of  ordinary  water. 

Mineral 'ogy  (Fr.  miner,  to  dig,  mine;  Gael. 
meinn;  Wei.  mwn,  ore,  mine),  the  science  which 
treats  of  minerals.  It  does  not,  however,  embrace 
all  that  relates  to  the  mineral  kingdom.  Simple 
minerals  alone,  or  homogeneous  mineral  sub¬ 
stances,  are  regarded  as  the  subjectsof  mineralogy; 
rocks  formed  by  the  aggregation  of  simple 
minerals,  and  their  relations  to  each  other,  are  the 
subjects  of  geology. 

Miner 'va,  the  name  of  a  Roman  goddess, 
identified  t »y  the  later  Graecising  Romans  with  the 
Greek  Athene,  whom  she  greatly  resembled. 

Mines,  Military',  constitute  one  of  the  most 
important  departments  in  military  engineering, 
and  a  formidable  accessory  both  in  the  attack 
and  defense  of  fortresses.  A  military  mine  con¬ 
sists  of  a  gallery  of  greater  or  less  length,  run 
from  some  point  of  safety  under  an  opposing 
work,  or  under  an  area  over  which  an  attacking 
force  must  pass,  and  terminating  in  a  chamber 
which,  being  stored  with  gunpowder,  can  be 
exploded  at  the  critical  moment.  Mines  are  of 
great  use  to  the  besiegers  in  the  overthrow  of 
ramparts  and  formation  of  a  breach;  the  counter¬ 
mines  of  the  besieged  in  undermining  the  glacis 
over  which  the  assaulting  column  must  charge, 
and  blowing  them  into  the  air,  or  in  destroying 
batteries  erected  for  breaching,  are  equally  serv¬ 
iceable. 

Min 'iature-painting,  or  the  painting  of  por¬ 
traits  on  a  small  scale,  originated  in  the  practice 
of  embellishing  manuscript  books.  As  the  initial 
letters  were  written  with  red  lead  (Lat.  minium), 
the  art  of  illumination  was  expressed  by  the  Low 
Lat.  verb  miniate,  and  the  term  minialura  was 
applied  to  the  small  pictures  introduced.  Holbein 
(born  1498,  died  1554),  Nicholas  Hilliard  (born  at 
Exeter  1547,  died  1619),  Isaac  Oliver  (born  1556, 
died  1617),  Thomas  Flatman  (born  1633,  died  1688), 
Samuel  Cooper  (born  in  London  1609,  died  1672), 
were  prominent  exponents  of  this  school.  Many 
of  the  old  miniature-painters  worked  with  oil- 
colors  on  small  plates  of  copper  or  silver.  After 
ivory  was  sustituted  for  vellum,  transparent  colors 
were  employed  on  faces,  hands,  and  other  deli¬ 
cate  portions  of  the  picture,  the  opaque  colors 
being  only  used  in  draperies  and  the  like;  but 
during  the  present  century,  in  which  the  art  has 
been  brought  to  the  highest  excellence,  the  prac¬ 
tice  has  been  to  execute  the  entire  work,  with  the 
exception  of  the  high  lights  in  white  drapery,  with 
transparent  colors.  In  working,  the  general  prac¬ 
tice  is  to  draw  the  picture  faintly  and  delicately 
with  a  sable  hair-pencil,  using  a  neutral  tint  com¬ 
posed  of  cobalt  and  burned  sienna.  The  features 
are  carefully  made  out  in  that  way,  and  then  the 
carnations,  or  flesh-tints,  composed  of  pink,  mad¬ 
der,  and  raw  sienna,  gradually  introduced.  The 
drapery  and  background  should  be  freely  washed 
in,  and  the  whole  work  is  then  brought  out  by 
hatching,  that  is,  by  painting  with  lines  or  strokes, 
which  the  artist  must  accommodate  to  the  forms, 
and  which  are  diminished  in  size  as  the  work 
progresses.  Stippling,  or  dotting,  was  a  method 
much  employed,  particularly  in  early  times;  but 
t he  latest  masters  of  the  art  preferred  hatching, 
and  there  are  specimens  by  old  masters,  Perugino, 
for  instance,  executed  in  that  manner. 

MiiTim,  the  smallest  liquid  measure  of  drug¬ 
gists.  The  word  minim  is  sometimes  used  synony¬ 
mously  with  drop,  but  this  is  incorrect,  fora  drop 
of  some  thin  liquids  will  not  contain  a  minim, 
while  a  drop  of  a  viscid,  thick  liquid  will  contain 
more. 

Mill 'ini,  the  name  of  one  of  the  notes  in  the 
older  music,  the  value  of  which  was  the  half  of  a 
semibreve. 

Minims  (Lat.  Fratrcs  minimi.  Least  Brethren), 
so  called,  in  token  of  still  greater  humility,  by 
contrast  with  the  Fratres  minores,  or  Lesser  Breth¬ 
ren  of  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  an  Order  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  founded  by  another  St  Francis, 
a  native  of  Paula,  a  small  town  of  Calabria, 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  In 


MINING. 


587 


MIRAGE. 


latter  times,  the  Order  has  fallen  into  decay,  being 
now  limited  to  a  few  houses  in  Italy,  the  chief  of 
which  is  at  Rome. 

Mining  is  a  general  term  for  the  underground 
operations  by  which  the  various  metals  and  other 
minerals  are  procured.  There  are  two  principal 
methods  of  mining,  one  of  which  is  adopted 
where  the  mineral  occurs  in  veins  or  lodes,  as 
coppcrand  lead  ore ;  and  the  other  where  the  min¬ 
eral  occurs  in  more  or  less  parallel  beds,  as  coal. 
Mining  in  alluvial  deposits  is  a  third  method, 
largely  practiced  in  the  gold  regions  of  California 
and  Austral. a,  and  includes  hydraulic  mining. 
Some  of  the  most  important  mines  in  the  United 
States  are  the  coal  mines  of  Pennsylvania,  the 
copper  mines  in  Montana  and  Northern  Michigan ; 
the  iron  mines  in  Pennsylvania,  Alabama,  Ten¬ 
nessee,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  and  Minnesota,  and 
the  gold  and  silver  mines  of  California,  Nevada, 
Colorado,  and  Montana.  The  total  value  of  the 
output  of  mines  in  the  United  States  in  1880  was 
$131,494,788.  The  industry  employed  at  that 
time  a  capital  of  $364,909,324;  and  employed 
220,475  hands.  Wages  paid  to  these  hands  for 
the  year  amounted  to  $71,992,502. 

Mink  ( Mustcla  lutreolu),  a  species  of  weasel, 
inhabiting  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia;  similar  to  which  in  diameters  and  habits  is 
another  species,  by  some  regarded  as  only  a 
variety  of  the  same,  the  mink  or  vison  (.)/.  vUon) 
of  North  America.  Both  inhabit  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  of  streams,  lakes,  and  marshes;  have  semi- 
paimated  feet,  are  expert  swimmers  and  divers, 
and  prey  on  fi dies, "frogs,  and  other  aquatic  ani¬ 
mals,  as  well  as  on  birds,  rats,  mice,  etc.  They 
are  covered  with  a  downy  fur,  interspersed  with 
longer  and  stronger  hairs;  the  color  is  brown, 
with  more  or  less  of  white  on  the  under  parts. 
The  American  mink  is  generally  larger  than  that 
of  the  Old  World,  being  often  more  than  18 
inches  from  the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  while 
the  latter  is  seldom  more  than  12.  It  lias 
also  a  more  bushy  tail.  The  fur  of  the  mink  is 
valuable  being  in  great  demand  both  for  trimming 
and  for  making  garments  entire. 

Minneapolis,  a  city  of  Minnesota,  and  the 
seat  of  justice  of  Hennepin  county,  is  on  the 
Mississippi  river  at  St.  Anthony’s  Falls.  It  has 
important  railway  interests,  no  less  than  eight 
trunk  lines  centering  there,  and  the  city,  county, 
and  UniteAAtates  buildings  are  commodious  and 
handsome.  It  is  specially  noted  for  its  lumbering 
and  flouring  mills,  some  of  the  latter  being  the 
largest  in  the  world.  Pop.,  160,000. 

Minneapolis,  the  county  seat  of  Ottawa 
county,  Kan.,  is  a  prosperous  and  rapidly  grow¬ 
ing  agricultural  town.  Pop.,  3,950. 

Minnehaha  Creek,  the  outlet  of  Minnetonka 
and  other  lakes,  rises  in  Eastern  Minnesota  and 
flows  into  the  Mississippi  river  midway  between 
St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis.  It  has  a  beautiful 
perpendicular  fall  of  fifty  feet,  which  forms  a 
popular  resort  for  tourists.  These  are  not  the 
falls,  however,  to  which  the  Indians  gave  that 
name,  it  having  been  applied  by  them  to  those  in 
the  Mississippi  now  known  as  St.  Anthony’s 
Falls. 

Minnesela,  the  county  seat  of  Butte  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  100. 

Minueso'ta,  one  of  the  United  States,  lies  in 
latitude  43’  30' — 49°  N.,  and  longitude  89°  39' — 
97°  5'  W.  It  is  3:0  miles  in  length  from  north  to 
south,  and  from  183  to  337  from  east  to  west, 
containing  an  area  of  83,305  square  miles.  It  is 
bounded  on  the  non h  by  the  British  possessions, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  chain  of  lakes 
and  rivers  connecting  the  Lake  of  the  Woods 
with  Lake  Superior,  and  by  the  49th  parallel  of 
latitude;  east  by  Lake  Superior  and  Wisconsin; 
south  by  Iowa,  and  west  by  North  and  South 
Dakota  from  which  it  is  partly  divided  by  the 
Red  river  of  the  North.  Minnesota  contains  the 
summit  of  the  central  tableland  of  the  North 
American  Continent,  where,  within  a  few  miles 
of  each  other,  are  the  sources  of  rivers  which 
find  their  outlets  in  Hudson’s  Bay,  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence,  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  State 
is  abundantly  watered  by  the  Mississippi,  Minne¬ 
sota,  Red  river  of  the  North,  Rainy  Lake  river, 
and  their  branches,  and  has  more  than  2,700  miles 
of  navigable  rivers.  Thecountry  abounds  also  in 
lakes.  The  sources  of  the  great  rivers  are  1,680 


feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Pop.  (1880),  780,- 
773. 

Minnesota,  or  St.  Peter’s  River,  rises  near 
the  eastern  boundary  of  South  Dakota,  runs  south¬ 
east  300  miles,  to  South  Bend,  then  northeast  120 
miles,  and  falls  into  the  Mississippi  at  Mendota. 
It  is  navigable  for  forty  miles  by  steamboats. 

M  i ime wau kan,  the  county  seat  of  Benson 
county,  N.  Dak.  Pop.,  500. 

M  in 'now  ( Leucucus  p/wxinus),  a  small  fish  of 
the  same  genus  with  the  roach,  dace,  chub,  etc., 
of  a  more  rounded  form  than  most  of  its  con¬ 
geners,  a  common  native  of  streams  with  gravelly 
bottoms  in  most  parts  of  this  country.  It  seldom 
exceeds  3  inches  in  length,  the  head  and  back 
of  a  dusky  olive  color,  the  sides  lighter  and  mot¬ 
tled,  the  belly  white,  or,  in  summer,  pink.  The 
common  use  of  this  term  as  the  diminutive  of  all 
species  of  fishes  is  erroneous. 

Minor'ca,  the  largest  of  the  Balearic  Isles, 
after  Majorca,  from  which  it  is  distant  twenty-five 
miles  northeast.  It  is  31  miles  long,  and  13  miles 
in  greatest  breadth,  with  an  area  of  about  300 
square  miles.  Pop.,  37,262. 

Min 'os,  the  name  of  two  mythological  kings  of 
Crete.  The  first  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of 
Jupiter  and  Europa,  the  brother  of  Rhadaman- 
tlius,  the  father  of  Deucalion  and  Ariadne,  and, 
after  his  death,  a  judge  in  the  infernal  regions. — 
The  second  of  the  same  name  was  a  grandson  of 
the  former,  and  son  of  Lycastus  and  Ida.  To 
him  the  celebrated  laws  of  Minos  are  ascribed, 
in  which  he  is  said  to  have  received  instruction 
from  Jupiter.  He  was  the  husband  of  that  Pasi¬ 
phae  who  gave  birth  to  the  Minotaur.  Homer 
and  Hesiod  know  of  only  one  Minos,  the  king  of 
Cnossus,  and  son  and  friend  of  Jupiter. 

Min'otaur  (i.  e.,  the  bud  of  Minos),  one  of  the 
most  repulsive  conceptions  of  Grecian  mythology, 
is  represented  as  the  son  of  Pasiphae  and  a  bull, 
for  which  she  had  conceived  a  passion.  It  was 
half-man  half-bull — a  man  with  a  bull’s  head. 
Minos,  the  husband  of  Pasiphae,  shut  him  up  in 
the  Cnossian  Labyrinth,  and  there  fed  him  with 
youths  and  maidens,  whom  Athens  was  obliged  to 
supply  as  an  annual  tribute,  till  Theseus,  with  the 
help  of  Ariadne,  slew  the  monster.  The  Min 
olaur  is,  with  some  probability,  regarded  as  a 
symbol  of  the  Phoenician  sun-god. 

Minsk,  a  government  and  province  of  Western 
or  White  Russia,  lies  southeast  of  Wilna,  and 
contains  34,860  square  miles,  with  a  pop.  (1880) 
of  1,451,950. 

Minsk,  the  chief  town  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name,  is  on  the  Svislocz,  an  affluent  of  the 
Beresina.  Pop.  (1880),  44,000. 

Mint  {Mentha),  a  genus  of  plants,  of  the  natural 
order  Labiatm;  with  small,  funnel-shaped,  four-fid, 
generally  red  corolla,  and  four  straight  stamens. 
The  species  are  perennial  herbaceous  plants,  vary¬ 
ing  considerably  in  appearance,  but  all  with 
creeping  root-stocks.  The  flowers  are  whorled, 
the  whorls  often  grouped  in  spikes  or  heads.  All 
the  species  contain  an  aromatic  essential  oil,  in 
virtue  of  which  they  are  more  or  less  medi¬ 
cinal.  The  most  important  species  are  spearmint, 
peppermint,  burgamot,  horsemint,  and  penny¬ 
royal.  All  kinds  of  mint  are  easily  propagated 
by  parting  the  roots  or  by  cuttings.  It  is  said 
that  mice  have  a  great  aversion  to  mint,  and  that 
a  few  leaves  of  it  will  keep  them  at  a  distance. 
Peppermint,  pennyroyal,  and  spearmint,  are 
used  in  medicine.  The  pharmacopoeias  con¬ 
tain  an  aqua,,  spirituf,  and  oleum  of  each  of  them; 
the  officinal  part  being  the  herb,  which  should  be 
collected  when  in  flower.  Peppermint  is  a  pow¬ 
erful  diffusible. stimulant,  and,  as  such,  is  anti- 
spasmodic  and  stomachic,  and  is  much  employed 
in  the  treatment  of  gastrodynia  and  flatulent 
colic.  It  is  also  extensively  used  in  mixtures, 
for  covering  the  taste  of  drugs.  Pennyroyal  and 
spearmint  are  similar  in  their  action,  but  inferior 
for  all  purposes  to  peppermint.  The  ordinary 
doses  are  from  one  to  two  ounces  of  the  aqua, 
a  drachm  of  the  spirit  us  (in  a  wine-glassful  of 
water),  and  from  three  to  five  drops  of  the  oleum 
(on  a  lump  of  sugar). 

Mint  (I  jat.  monela),  an  establishment  for  mak¬ 
ing  coins  or  metallic  money  under  conditions 
imposed  by  law.  The  mints  of  the  United  States 
are  under  the  charge  of  the  Treasury  Department. 
There  are  now  five  mints,  located  iii  Philadelphia, 


New  Orleans,  San  Fiancisco,  Carson  City,  Nev., 
and  Denver,  Colo.  Gold  is  received  at  the  mints 
in  the  form  of  amalgam,  dentist’s  plate,  old  jew¬ 
elry,  photographer's  waste,  etc.,  but  principally 
in  the  form  of  native  dust.  Silver  is  received  in 
the  form  of  bars,  pigs,  dore  silver,  old  plate,  and 
coin.  Any  base  metals  found  in  either  gold  or 
silver,  are  eliminated  before  coining.  The  power 
used  in  the  Philadelphia  mint  is  a  160  horse-power 
steam  engine.  The  metal  is  rolled  into  long 
strips  of  suitable  width  and  length.  These  are 


Coining-press. 

CCB  frame;  D,  screw  holding  upper  die;  A.  motor 
of  screw  (steam  power);  EE,  springs  for  reopening  space 
between  dies;  4.  upper  die;  5,  lower  die;  R  It,  brakes  to 
control  thickness  of  coin;  II  IK.  lever  on  fulcrum  il), 
moved  by  sector  (7)  on  screw  (D);  L.  slider,  moved  by 
lower  end  of  lever  illK,  which  carries  blanks  under  the 
die.  ami  pushes  off  coin  already  stamped;  K.  hopper, 
which  empties  itself  on  slider,  supplying  fresh  blanks  one 
at  a  time. 

passed  through  a  machine  that  chops  them  into 
pieces  of  sufficient  size  and  weight  to  form  the 
coin  for  which  they  are  designed.  These  are 
milled;  then  carried  to  the  coining-presses  where 
they  are  stamped,  and  are  finally  counted  and 
placed  in  canvas  bags  for  delivery.  In  1885  the 
total  coinage  of  gold  in  the  United  States  was 
$1,389,981,508.50,  and  of  silver  $434,224,610. 

Minuet’,  the  air  of  a  most  graceful  dance, 
originally  from  Poitou,  in  France.  It  is  per¬ 
formed  in  a  slow  tempo,  and  the  music  is  in 
f  time. 

Mio,  the  county  seat  of  Oscoda  county,  Mich. 
Pop.,  100. 

Mi'ocenc  (Gr.  peiov,  less;  KcnvoS,  recent!, 
a  term  introduced  by  Lyell  to  characterize  the 
middle  tertiary  strata  of  the  earth’s  crust. 

Mirabeau,  Honore  Gabriel  Riquetti,  Comte 
de,  was  born  March  9,  1749,  at  Bignon, 
France,  and  died  April  2,  1791.  He  was  a  writer 
and  an  orator.  He  possessed  rare  force  and  was 
for  several  years  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  fig¬ 
ures  in  the  French  Revolution. 

Mirage',  a  phenomenon  common  in  certain  lo¬ 
calities,  and  as  simple  in  its  origin  as  astonishing 


MIRROR. 


538 


MITCHELL. 


in  its  effects.  Under  it  are  classed  the  appearance 
of  distant  objects  as  double,  or  as  if  suspended  in 
the  air,  erect  or  inverted,  etc.  One  cause  of  mi¬ 
rage  is  a  diminution  of  the  density  of  the  air  near 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  produced  by  the  trans¬ 
mission  of  heat  from  the  earth,  or  in  some  other 
way  ;  the  denser  stratum  being  thus  placed  above, 
instead  of,  as  is  usually  the  case,  below  the  rarer. 
Rays  of  light  from  a  distant  object,  situated  in 
the  denser  medium  (f.  e.,  a  little  above  the  earth’s 
level),  coining  in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  to  the 
earth’s  surface,  meet  the  rarer  medium  at  a  very 
obtuse  angle,  and,  instead  of  passing  into  it,  are 
reflected  back  to  the  dense  medium  ;  the  common 
surface  of  the  two  media  acting  as  a  mirror.  If, 
then,  a  spectator  be  on  an  eminence,  and  look¬ 
ing  at  an  object  in  the  denser 
stratum  of  air,  he  will  see  the 
object  by  means  of  directly 
transmitted  rays;  but  besides 
this,  rays  from  the  object  will 
be  reflected  from  the  upper 
surface  of  the  rarer  stratum 
of  air  beneath  to  his  eye.  The 
image  produced  by  the  re-- 
fleeted  rays  will  appear  in¬ 
verted,  and  below  the  real 
object,  just  as  an  image  re¬ 
flected  in  water  appears  when 
observed  from  a  distance.  If 
the  object  is  a  cloud  or  por¬ 
tion  of  sky,  it  will  appear  by  the  reflected  rays  as 
lying  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and,  bearing  a 
strong  resemblance  to  a  sheet  of  water ;  also,  as 
the  reflecting  surface  is  irregular,  and  constantly 
varies  its  position,  owing  to  the  constant  commu¬ 
nication  of  heat  to  the  upper  stratum,  the  reflected 
image  will  lie  constantly  varying,  and  will  present 
the  appearance  of  a  water  surface  ruffled  by  the 
wind.  This  form  of  mirage,  which  even  expe¬ 
rienced  travelers  have  found  to  be  deceptive,  is  of 
common  occurrence  on  the  plains  in  the  far  West, 
and  in  the  arid  deserts  of  Lower  Egypt,  Persia, 
Tartary,  etc  In  particular  states  of  the  atmos¬ 
phere,  reflection  of  a  portion  only  of  the  rays  takes 
place  at  the  surface  of  the  dense  medium,  and  thus 
double  images  are  formed,  one  by  reflection,  and 
the  other  by  refraction — the  first  inverted  and  the 
second  erect.  The  phenomena  of  mirage  are  fre¬ 
quently  more  strange  and  complicated,  the  images 
being  often  distorted  and  magnified,  and  in  some 
instances  occurring  at  a  considerable  distance 
from  the  object  ,  as  in  the  case  of  a  tower  or  church 
seen  over  the  sea,  or  a  vessel  over  dry  land, 
etc.  The  particular  form  of  mirage  known  as 
looming,  is  frequently  observed  at  sea,  and  con¬ 
sists  in  an  excessive  apparent  elevation  of  the 
object. 

Mirror,  a  reflecting  surface,  usually  made  of 
glass,  lined  at  the  back  with  a  brilliant  metal,  so 
US'  strongly  to  reflect  the  image  of  any  object 
placed  before  it.  When  mirrors  were  invented  is 
not  known,  but  the  use  of  a  reflecting  surface 
would  become  apparent  to  the  first  person  who 
saw  his  own  image  reflected  from  water;  and 
probably  for  ages  after  the  civilization  of  man 
commenced,  the  still  waters  of  ponds  and  lakes 
were  the  only  mirrors;  but  we  read  in  the  Pen¬ 
tateuch  of  mirrors  of  brass  being  used  by  the 
Hebrews.  Mirrors  of  bronze  were  in  very  com¬ 
mon  use  amongst  the  ancient  Egyptians,  Greeks, 
and  Romans,  of  which  many  specimens  are  pre¬ 
served  in  museums.  Praxiteles  taught  the  use  of 
silver  in  the  manufacture  of  mirrors  in  the  year 
328  b.c.  Mirrors  of  glass  were  first  made  at 
Venice  in  1300;  and  judging  from  those  still  in 
existence — of  which  one  may  be  seen  at  Holy- 
rood  Palace,  in  the  apartments  of  Queen  Mary — 
they  were  very  rude  contrivances  compared  with 
modern  ones.  The  making  of  mirrors  is  now  an 
important  industry,  and  mirrors  can  be  produced 
of  any  size  to  which  plate-glass  can  be  cast.  After 
the  plate  of  glass  is  polished  on  both  sides,  it  is 
laid  on  a  perfectly  level  table  of  great  strength 
and  solidity,  usually  of  smooth  stone,  made  like 
a  billiard-table  with  raised  edges;  a  sheet  or  sheets 
of  tinfoil  sufficient  to  cover  the  upper  surface  of 
the  glass  are  then  put  on,  and  rubbed  down  smooth, 
after  which  the  whole  is  covered  with  quicksilver, 
which  immediately  forms  an  amalgam  with  the 
tin.  The  superfluous  mercury  is  then  run  off,  a 
woolen  cloth  is  spread  over  the  whole  surface, 


and  square  iron  weights  are  applied.  After  this 
pressure  has  been  continued  a  day  and  night,  the 
weights  and  the  cloth  are  removed,  and  the  glass 
is  removed  to  another  table  of  wood,  with  a  mov¬ 
able  top,  which  admits  of  gradually  increasing 
inclination  until  the  unamalgamated  quicksilver 
has  perfectly  drained  away,  and  only  the  surface 
of  perfect  amalgam  remains  coating  t  he  glass,  and 
perfectly  adherent  to  it.  Heat  is  reflected  like 
light;  so  that  a  concave  mirror  may  be  used  to 
bring  rays  of  heat  to  a  focus.  In  this  way  com¬ 
bustible  substances  may  be  set  on  fire  at  a  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  reflector  whence  they  receive  their 
heat. 

Mir’za,  a  contraction  of  Emir  Zadah,  “son  of 
the  prince,”  is,  when  prefixed  to  the  surname  of 
the  individual,  the  common  title  of  honor  among 
the  Persians;  but  when  annexed  to  the  surname, 
it  designates  a  prince  or  a  male  of  the  blood- 
royal. 

Mirzapur',  a  town  of  British  India,  capital  of 
the  district  of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Ganges.  Pop.  (1881),  56,378. 

Misere're,  the  name  by  which,  in  Catholic 
usage,  the  50th  Psalm  of  the  Vulgate  (51st  in 
authorized  version)  is  commonly  known.  It  is 
one  of  the  so-called  penitential  psalms,  and  is 
commonly  understood  to  have  been  composed  by 
David  in  the  depth  of  his  remorse  for  the  double 
crime  which  the  prophet  Nathan  rebuked  in 
the  parable  (II.  Sam.  xii).  Another  opinion,  how¬ 
ever,  attributes  this  psalm  to  Manasses,  or  to 
some  of  the  psalm-writers  of  the  captivity.  The 
miserere  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  services 
of  the  Roman  Church;  and  in  the  celebrated 
service  of  Tenebrse,  as  performed  in  the  Sixtine 
Chapel  at  Rome,  it  forms,  as  chanted  by  the 
Pope’s  choir,  one  of  the  most  striking  and  im¬ 
pressive  chants  in  the  entire  range  of  sacred 
music. 

Misere're,  a  projection  on  the  under  side  of 
the  seats  of  the  stalls  of  mediaeval  churches  and 
chapels,  etc.  They  are  usually  ornamented  with 
carved  work,  and  are  so  shaped,  that  when  the 
seats-proper  are  folded  up,  they  form  a  small  seat 
at  a  higher  level,  sufficient  to  afford  some  support 
to  a  person  resting  upon  it.  Aged  and  infirm 
ecclesiastics  were  allowed  to  use  these  during 
long  services. 

Mish'mee  Bitter,  extract  of  the  root  of  Copth 
teeta  a  plant  found  in  the  mountainous  regions 
on  the  borders  of  India  and  China;  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  golden  thread  of  the  northern 
parts  of  the  world,  and  not  unlike  it.  The  root 
is  in  much  use  and  esteem  in  some  parts  of  the 
East  as  a  stomachic  and  tonic,  and  has  begun 
to  be  known  in  Europe.  The  root  of  0.  trifoliata 
is  also  used  as  a  bitter. 

Mish'na  (from  Heb.  shana,  to  learn;  errone¬ 
ously  held  to  designate  repetition)  comprises  the 
body  of  the  Oral  Law,  or  the  juridico-political, 
civil,  and  religious  code  of  the  Jews;  and  forms, 
as  such,  a  kind  of  complement  to  the  Mosaic  or 
Written  Law,  which  it  explains,  amplifies,  and 
immutably  fixes, 

Mis'sa  di  Vo'ce,  a  term  used  in  singing, 
meaning  the  gradual  swelling  and  again  dimin¬ 
ishing  of  the  sound  of  the  voice  on  a  note  of  long 
duration. 

Mis'sal,  the  volume  containing  the  prayers 
used  in  the  celebration  of  the  Mass.  The  missals 
of  the  Oriental  rites  differ  from  that  of  the  Roman 
Church,  each  having  for  the  most  part  its  own 
proper  form.  See  Liturgy. 

Mississippi,  one  of  the  United  States,  lies  in 
latitude  30°  10'  to  35°  N.,  and  longitude  88°  7'  to 
91°  35'  W.  It  is 332  miles  from  north  to  south, 
and  from  78  to  189  miles  from  east  to  west,  con¬ 
taining  an  area  of  46,810  square  miles,  or  29,958,- 
400  acres.  It  is  bounded  north  hy  Tennessee,  east 
by  Alabama,  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
East  Louisiana,  and  west  by  Arkansas  and  Louisi¬ 
ana,  the  Pearl  and  Mississippi  rivers  forming  the 
line.  The  State  also  includes  a  cluster  of  islands 
in  the  Gulf,  of  which  the  principal  are  Horn, 
Deer,  and  Ship  Islands.  Pop.  (1880),  1,131,592. 

Mississippi  (Indian,  Miche  Sepc,  Great  River, 
literally,  Father  of  Waters),  the  principal  river  of 
North  America,  and,  including  its  chief  branch, 
the  Missouri,  the  longest  in  the  world,  rises  in  the 
highlands  of  Minnesota,  in  a  cluster  of  small 
lakes,  and  near  the  sources  of  the  Red  river  of 


the  North,  and  the  rivers  which  flow  into  Lake 
Superior,  in  latitude  47°  10'  N.,  longitude  94" 
54' W.  Its  sources  are  1,680  feet  above  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  into  which  it  enters.  Its  general 
course  is  southerly,  with  numerous  windings,  giv¬ 
ing  it  a  length  of  2,616  miles  to  its  mouths  in 
latitude  29°  N.,  longitude  90°  W.,  from  which  to 
the  source  of  the  Missouri  is  4,200  miles.  The 
Mississippi  is  navigable  to  the  Falls  of  St.  An¬ 
thony,  2,200  miles,  and  by  smaller  boats  above 
the  falls. 

Mississippi  Scheme.  The  gigantic  commer¬ 
cial  scheme  commonly  known  by  this  name  was 
projected  in  France  by  the  celebrated  John  Law, 
of  Lauriston,  in  1717,  and  collapsed  in  1720.  Its 
primary  object  was  to  develop  the  resources  of 
the  Province  of  Louisiana  and  the  country  bor¬ 
dering  on  the  Mississippi.  The  company  was 
incorporated  in  August,  1717,  under  the  designa¬ 
tion  of  the  Company  of  the  West,  and  started 
with  a  capital  of  200,000  shares,  of  500  livres 
each,  and  obtained  from  the  French  Government 
some  valuable  franchises.  The  company  pros¬ 
pered  for  a  time,  and  the  shares  commanded  a 
high  premium,  but  the  financial  panic  of  1820 
carried  it  down,  and  it  never  recovered  from  the 
effects  of  the  disaster. 

Missoula,  an  important  mining  and  ranching 
town,  and  the  county  seat  of  Missoula  county, 
Mont.  Pop.,  1,875. 

Missou'ri,  one  of  the  United  States,  is  between 
latitude  36°  and  40°  36'  N.,  and  longitude  89°  6' 
to  95°  45'  W.,  being  2T5  miles  from  north  to 
south,  and  from  200  to  312  miles  from  east  to 
west,  having  an  area  of  69,415  square  miles,  or 
44,425,600  acres.  It  is  bounded  north  by  Iowa, 
east  by  the  Mississippi  river,  south  by  Arkansas, 
and  west  by  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  the  Indian. 
Territory.  Its  chief  towns  are  Jefferson  City  (t lie 
capital),  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Hannibal,  St. 
Joseph,  Lexington.  Its  chief  rivers  are  the  Missis¬ 
sippi,  which  borders  the  State  for  470  miles;  the 
Missouri,  which  forms  a  portion  of  its  western 
boundary,  and  passes  through  it  from  west  to 
east,  and  its  affluents,  the  Osage,  Gasconade,  etc. 

Missouri  (Mud  river),  a  river  of  the  United 
States,  and  chief  affluent  of  the  Mississippi,  rises 
in  three  forks,  the  Jefferson,  Madison,  and  Galla¬ 
tin,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  Montana,  latitude 
45°  N.,  longitude  about  112°  W.  Its  course  is 
first  northerly  for  500  miles,  then  easterly  1,200, 
then  southeasterly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kansas, 
and  easterly  to  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi. 
Its  length  from  its  source  to  the  Mississippi  is 
2,900  miles;  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  4,200.  It  is 
navigable  at  high  water  to  the  Great  Falls,  2,540 
miles  from  the  Mississippi.  At  the  Great  Falls, 
145  miles  below,  the  river  falls  357  feet  in  a  series 
of  rapids  and  cascades,  16i  miles  long.  The 
largest  fall  is  87  feet,  and  the  scenery  is  full  of 
grandeur. 

MiUtletoe  (Ang.-Sax.  misteltan,  Ger.  mistel; 
the  tan  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  name  means  a  tine  or 
prong,  a  shoot  of  a  tree;  mistel  is  of  uncertain, 
etymology,  but  probably  the  same,  in  meaning  at 
least,  as  the  Latin  viscus),  a  genus  ( Viscuni)  of 
small  parasitical  shrubs  of  the  natural  order 
Loranthacece.  This  order  is  exogenous,  and  con¬ 
tains  more  than  400  known  species,  mostly  tropi¬ 
cal  and  parasites.  The  leaves  are  entire,  almost 
nerveless,  thick  and  fleshy,  and  without  stipules. 
The  calyx  arises  from  a  tube  or  rim,  which  some¬ 
times  assumes  the  appearance  of  a  calyx,  and  is 
so  regarded  by  many  botanists;  what  others  deem 
the  colored  calyx  being  viewed  by  them  as  a 
corollaof  fouror  eight  petals  or  segments.  Within 
this  are  the  stamens,  as  numerous  as  its  divisions, 
and  opposite  to  them.  The  ovary  is  one-celled, 
with  a  solitary  ovule;  the  fruit  ond-seeded,  gen¬ 
erally  succulent.  The  mistletoe  derives  its 
nourishment  from  the  living  tissue  of  the  tree  on 
which  it  grows,  and  from  which  it  seems  to 
spring  as  if  it  were  one  of  its  own  branches. 

Mistral,  Mistraou,  or  Maestral,  the  Proven¬ 
cal  designation  of  the  Caurus  or  Corns  of  the 
Romans,  is  a  northwest  wind  which  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  prevails  on  the  south  coast  of 
France.  It  is  denominated  by  the  Italians  Maestro. 

Mitcliell,  Maria,  a  noted  Astronomer,  was 
born  at  Nantucket,  Mass.,  Aug.  1,  1818,  and  died 
June  28,  1889.  She  discovered  eight  comets,  was 
Professor  of  Astronomy  at  Vassar  College,  and 


MITCHELL. 


539 


MOHAMMED. 


contributed  largely  to  the  literature  of  her  chosen 
science. 

Mitchell,  a  flourishing  agricultural  town  and 
the  county  seat  of  Davison  county,  S.  Dak.  Pop., 
4,375. 

Mite,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  Acarides 
generally;  sometimes  only  to  those  of  them  which 
have  the  feet  formed  for  walking,  and  the  mouth 
not  furnished  with  a  sucker  formed  of  lancet¬ 
like  plates,  as  in  the  ticks,  but  with  mandibles. 
All  of  them  are  small  creatures;  the  species  are 
numerous;  they  feed  chiefly  on  decaying  animal 
and  vegetable  substances,  or  are  parasitical  on 
quadrupeds,  birds,  and  insects. — The  Cheese 
M  ite  (Acarus  domestic  us),  is  one  of  the  best  known 
species. 

Mitford,  Mary  Russell,  a  well-known  Eng¬ 
lish  authoress,  was  the  only  child  of  a  physician, 
and  was  born  at  Alresford,  Hants,  Dec.  1(5,  1786. 
She  died  at  her  residence,  near  Reading,  Jan.  10, 
1855. 

Mitlirida'tes  VI.  (more  properly  Mithra- 
dates),  King  of  Pontus,  surnamed  Eupator  and 
Dionysus,  but  more  generally  known  as  Mitii- 
ridates  the  Great,  succeeded  his  father,  prob¬ 
ably  about  120  B. c. ,  while  under  thirteen  years  of 
age.  In  the  estimation  of  the  Romans,  he  was 
the  most  formidable  opponent  they  ever  encount¬ 
ered,  and  reports  of  liis  successes  spread  terror 
among  them. 

Mitre  (Lat.  m  tra,  also  infula),  the  head-dress 
worn  in  solemn  church  services  by  bishops, 
abbots,  and  certain  other  prelates  in  the  Western 
Church.  A  mitre  is  a  tall,  tongue-shaped  cap, 
terminating  in  a  two  fold  point,  which  is  supposed 
to  symbolize  the  “cloven  tongues,”  in  the  form 
of  which  the  Holy  Ghost  was  imparted  to  the 
apostles,  and  is  furnished  with  two  flaps,  which 
fall  behind  over  the  shoulders.  The  mitre,  as  an 
ornament  ,  seems  to  have  descended  in  the  earliest 
times  from  bishop  to  bishop. 

Miz'en,  or  Mizzen,  the  sternmost  of  the  masts 
in  a  three-masted  vessel,  and  also  the  smallest  of 
the  three.  Above  it,  are  the  mizen-topmast,  the 
mizen-top-gallant-mast,  and  the  mizen  royal.  It 
supports  the  usual  yards,  and,  in  addition,  the 
gaff  and  boom  of  the  spanker.  A  rear-admiral 
hoists  his  pennant  at  the  mizen. 

Miiemos'yne,  in  Classical  Mythology,  the 
goddess  of  memory,  and  the  mother  of  the  nine 
muses,  whom  she  bore  to  Jupiter.  The  princi¬ 
pal  seat  of  her  worship  was  at  Eleutherse,  in 
Banff  ia. 

3Io'abites,  a  pastoral  people,  who  inhabited 
the  mountainous  country  east  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  Jordan  and  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
Their  cultiis  was  characterized  by  many  very 
odious  rites,  among  which  was  human  sacrifice. 
In  the  time  of  the  Judges,  the  Jews  were  for 
eighteen  years  under  the  yoke  of  the  Moabites, 
who  were  afterward  made  tributary  by  David, 
but,  about  900  b.c.,  shook  off  their  allegiance  to 
the  Jewish  kings,  and  afterward  look  part  with 
the  Chaldeans  against  the  Jews.  Their  name  no 
longer  exists,  and  the  remnants  of  the  people 
have  long  been  included  among  the  Arabs. 

Moabite  Stone,  The,  a  stone  bearing  a  long 
inscription  in  Hebrew-Plioenician  letters,  discov¬ 
ered  at  Diban  in  Moal)  in  1868.  It  appearsto  have 
been  erected  by  Mesha,  King  of  .Moal),  mentioned 
in  II.  Kings  vii,  and  the  inscription  refers  to  his 
wars  with  Israel,  (in  the  tenth  century  b.c.)  The 
negotiations  set  on  foot  for  its  purchase  led  to 
quarrels  among  the  Arab  tribes  claiming  an  inter¬ 
est  in  it,  and  the  memorial  was  unfortunately 
broken  to  pieces.  The  fragments,  however,  were 
with  great  difficulty  collected,  and  are  now  pre¬ 
served  in  the. Louvre. 

Mobeetie,  the  county  seat  of  Wheeler  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  750. 

Moberly,  a  growing  railroad  town  in  Randolph 
county.  Mo.  Pop.,  12,500. 

Mobile',  the  principal  city  and  only  seaport  of 
Alabama,  is  situated  on  the  west  side  of 
Mobile  river,  and  at  the  head  of  Mobile  Bay, 
which  opens  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Mobile 
has  several  ship-yards,  foundries,  and  cotton- 
presses.  Its  chief  business  is  the  export  of  cotton. 
There  is  also  a  large  exportation  of  turpentine, 
rosin,  and  tar.  Its  harbor  is  defended  by  Fort 
Morgan.  Pop.  (1889),  45,000. 

-Mobile,  a  river  and  bay  of  Alabama.  The 


river  is  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Alabama 
and  Tombigbee,  fifty  miles  above  Mobile,  which 
lies  at  its  mouth.  It  is  a  sluggish  stream,  with 
low  banks  and  several  channels.  The  bay  is  30 
miles  from  north  to  south,  and  10  or  12  from  east 
to  west.  The  entrance  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
3  miles  wide,  is  defended  by  Fort  Morgan  and 
Fort  Gaines. 

Mobilicr,  Credit,  the  popularnamc  of  a  French 
banking  association  which  lent  money  on  mov¬ 
able  property,  such  as  stocks,  bonds,  etc.,  instead 
of  on  real  or  immovable  property.  Its  operations 
were  extensive  and  hazardous.  It  decreased  very 
much  in  importance  in  late  years,  and  its  opera¬ 
tions  having  contracted  to  insignificance,  it  went 
into  liquidation.  The  “Credit  Mobilier  of  Amer¬ 
ica”  was  the  name  of  a  joint-stock  company  simi¬ 
lar  in  purposes  and  organization  to  the  French 
association.  In  1867  it  was  bought  out  by  the 
stockholders  in  the  Union  Pacific  railroad,  and  its 
capital  increased  from  $2,500,000  to  $3,700,000; 
its  stock  now  appreciated  enormously  on  the  faith 
of  the  railroad  securities.  During  some  lit  igation 
in  Pennsylvania,  it  was  made  public  that  several 
congressmen,  the  vice-president,  and  the  candidate 
for  vice-president  were  stockholders.  A  congres¬ 
sional  investigation  was  held,  and  the  committee 
of  investigation  recommended  the  expulsion  of 
Oakes,  Ames,  who,  however,  continued  in  office 
for  five  days  longer,  when  his  term  expired.  Mr. 
Brooks  of  New  York  was  severely  censured.. 
The  affair  created  at  the  time  a  great  scandal,  it 
being  held  highly  improper  for  legislators  to 
engage  in  such  enterprises  whereby  their  votes 
might  be  influenced. 

Mo'clia,  the  most  strongly  fortified  seaport, 
and  once  the  capital,  of  the  Province  of  Yemen, 
in  Arabia.  It  is  situated  on  the  Red  Sea,  at  the 
head  of  a  little  bay  near  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb,  and  130  miles  west-northwest  of  Aden. 
The  principal  trade  is  in  coffee,  of  which  10,000 
tons  (of  the  finest  quality)  are  annually  exported 
to  Jiddali,  Suez,  and  Bombay.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Mock'ing-bird,  or  Mocking-tiirush  {Mimus 
or  Orpheus),  a  genus  of  American  birds  of  the 
family  Merulidce.  The  best  known  species,  the 
mocking-bird  of  the  United  States  (.1/.  polyglottu s), 
is  about  the  size  of  the  song-thrush;  the  upper 


Mocking-bird  ( Mimus  polyglottus) . 

parts  of  a  dark  brownish  ash  color,  the  wings  and 
tail  nearly  black,  the  under  parts  brownish 
white.  By  day,  the  mocking-bird  is  generally 
imitative,  excelling  all  birds  in  its  power  of  imita¬ 
tion,  now  taking  up  the  song  of  one  bird,  and 
now  of  another,  and  often  deceiving  the  most 
practiced  ear  by  its  perfect  performance.  By 
night,  its  song  is  for  the  most  part  natural.  It 
does  not  confine  itself,  however,  to  musical 
strains;  it  seems  to  take  equal  pleasure  in  repeat¬ 
ing  the  harshest  cries  of  the  feathered  tribes;  and 
in  domestication  readily  adds  to  its  accomplish¬ 
ments  the  imitation  of  almost  any  sound  which  it 
is  accustomed  to  hear,  passing  from  one  to  an 
other  with  great  rapidity,  so  as  to  produce  an  in¬ 
comparable  medley. 

Mocksville,  the  county  seat  of  Davie  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  562. 

Mod  e'nii  (ancient  Matin  a),  capital  of  tin;  former 
duchy  of  same  name,  a  fortified  city  of  Northern 
Italy,  twenty-four  miles  west-nortliwest  of  Bo¬ 
logna.  Pop.  (1871),  30,854. 

Modesto,  the  county  seat  of  Stanislaus  county 
Cal.  Pop.,  3,750. 

Mb'eii,  a  Danish  island  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  sepa¬ 


rated  from  Seeland  on  the  northwest  by  the  Ulf- 
sund,  and  from  Falster  on  the  southwest  by  the 
Gronsund.  It  is  19  miles  long,  by  about  5  miles 
in  average  breadth.  Area,  84  square  miles.  Pop. 
about  15,000. 

Moe'sia,  an  ancient  Roman  province,  bounded 
by  the  Danube  on  the  north,  the  Black  Sea  on  the 
east,  the  mountain-chains  of  Il/nmus  (Balkan)  and 
Orbelus  on  the  south,  that  of  Scardus  and  the 
Rivers  Ihinus  (Drina)  and  Suvus  (Save)  on  the 
west. 

Moeso-Gofhs,  the  name  given  to  the  Goths  who 
in  the  third  century  settled  in  Lower  Moesia  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Danube. 

Mogador,  or  Sueira,  a  fortified  town  and 
great  seaport,  130  miles  west-southwest  of  the 
city  of  Morocco.  Pop.  about  20,000. 

Mogul',  Great,  the  popular  designation  of 
the  Emperor  of  Delhi,  as  the  impersonation  of  the 
power  ul  empire  established  in  Hindustan  by 
the  Mongols,  who  were  called  Moguls  by  the 
Persians. 

Mo 'hair,  the  wool  of  the  Angora  goat,  a 
native  of  Asia  Minor.  Each  animal,  at  the  annual 
clip  in  April  or  May,  yields  from  2  lbs.  to  4  lbs. 
of  wool. 

Moliam  'med  (Arab,  the  Praised),  the  name 
taken,  at  a  later  period,  by  the  founder  of  Islam. 
He  was  originally  called  Halabi.  He  was  born 
about  the  year  570  a.d.  ,  at  Mecca.  In  his  twenty- 
fifth  year  he  entered  the  service  of  a  rich  widow, 
named  Chadklja,  likewise  descended  from  the 
Koreish,  and  accompanied  her  caravans  to  the  fairs. 
Suddenly  his  fortune  changed.  The  wealthy,  but 
much  older,  and  twice  widowed  Chadidia  offered 
him  her  hand,  which  he  accepted.  In  his  fortieth 
year  Mohammed  received  his  first  “revelation,” 
or,  in  other  words,  became  first  aware  that  he 
had  a  “mission.”  Gabriel  appeared  to  him,  and 
in  the  name  of  God  commanded  him  to 
“read” — that  is,  to  preach  the  true  religion, 
and  to  spread  it  abroad  by  committing  it 
to  writing.  His  first  revelation  he  com¬ 
municated  to  no  one,  it  would  appear,  except  to 
Chadidja,  to  his  daughters,  his  stepson  Ali,  his 
favorite  slave  Zaid,  and  to  his  friend  the  prudent 
and  honest  Abu  Bekr.  His  other  relatives 
rejected  his  teachings  with  scorn.  Gradually, 
however,  as  the  number  of  his  converts  increased, 
they  began  to  pay  more  and  more  attention  to  his 
proceedings,  and  Mohammed  was  forced  to  fly. 
In  the  midst  of  his  endeavors  to  find  a  hearing  in 
his  own  city,  and  those  near  it,  he  succeeded, 
during  a  pilgrimage,  in  converting  several  men 
from  Medina.  The  seed  sown  into  the  minds  of 
these  men  bore  a  fruitful  harvest.  The  next 
pilgrimage  brought  twelve,  and  the  third  more 
than  seventy  adherents  to  the  new  faith  from 
Medina,  and  with  these  he  entered  into  a  close 
alliance.  Mohammed  now  conceived  the  plan  to 
seek  refuge  in  the  friendly  city  of  Medina,  and 
about  622  (ten,  thirteen,  or  fifteen  years — accord¬ 
ing  to  the  d  fferent  traditions — after  his  first 
assuming  the  sacred  office)  he  fled  thither,  about 
100  families  of  his  faithful  fiock  having  preceded 
him  some  time  before,  accompanied  by  Abu  Bekr, 
and  reached,  not  without  danger,  the  town,  called 
thence  Medinat  Annabi  (City  of  the  Prophet),  or 
Medina  “  City,”  by  way  of  eminence;  and  from 
this  flight,  or  rather  from  the  first  month  of  the 
next  Arabic  year,  dates  the  Mohammedan  era 
[Hedjrali],  Now  everything  was  changed  to  the 
advantage  of  the  prophet  and  his  religion. 
Formerly  a  despised  “madman  or  impostor,” 
he  now  assumed  at  once  the  position  of  highest 
judge,  lawgiver,  and  ruler  of  the  city  and  two 
most  powerful  Arabic  tribes.  His  first  care  was 
directed  toward  the  consolidation  of  the  new 
worship,  and  the  inner  arrangements  in  the  con¬ 
gregation  of  his  flock;  his  next  chief  endeavor 
was  to  proselytize  the  numerous  Jews  who 
inhabited  the  city;  but  he  was  sorely  disappointed 
in  his  hopes  to  convert  them.  They  ridiculed 
his  pretension  to  be  the  Messiah,  and  so  enraged 
him  by  their  constant  taunts,  that  he  soon  became 
their  bitterest  adversary.  The  most  important 
act  in  the  first  year  of  the  Hedjrali  was  his  per¬ 
mission  to  go  to  war  with  the  enemies  of  Islam  in 
the  name  of  God — a  kind  of  manifesto  chiefly 
directed  against  the  Meccans,  but  which  since 
that  time  has  been  applied  to  all  unbelievers,  and 
has  resulted  in  the  present  vast  concourse  of 


MOHAMMED. 


540 


MOLLUSCA. 


proselytes  and  believers.  He  died  in  the  lap  of 
Ay eshah,  about  noon  of  Monday  the  12th  (11th) 
of  the  third  month,  in  the  year  11  of  the  Iledjrali 
(June  8,  632). 

Mohammed,  the  name  of  four  sultans  of 
Turkey,  of  whom  the  most  noted  is  Mohammed 
II.,  surnamed  Bujuk  or  The  Great,  the  con¬ 
queror  of  Constantinople.  He  was  horn  at 
Adrianople  in  1430,  and  succeeded  his  father, 
Amurath  II.,  in  1450.  He  died  in  1481.  Hewas 
the  founder  of  the  Turkish  Empire  in  Europe, 
and  his  name  is  held  in  great  reverence  by  the 
Turks. 

Moham  'medauism,  the  religion  founded  by 
Monammed,  or,  according  to  him,  the  only  ortho¬ 
dox  creed  existing  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world,  and  preached  by  all  the  prophets  ever 
since  Adam.  It  is  also  called  Islam,  resignation, 
entire  submission  to  the  will  and  precepts  of  God. 
In  its  exclusively  dogmatical  or  theoretical  part, 
it  is  Imdn,  faith;  in  its  practical,  Bin,  religion 
(by  way  of  eminence).  The  fundamental  princi¬ 
ples  of  the  former  are  contained  in  the  two  arti¬ 
cles  of  belief;  “  There  is  no  God  but  God;  and 
Mohammed  is  God’s  Apostle.”  The  Mohamme¬ 
dan  doctrine  of  God’s  nature  and  attributes  coin¬ 
cides  with  the  Christian,  in  so  far  as  he  is  by  both 
taught  to  be  the  Creator  of  all  things  in  heaven 
and  earth,  who  rules  and  preserves  all  things, 
without  beginning,  omnipotent,  omniscient,  om¬ 
nipresent,  and  full  of  mercy.  Yet,  according  to 
the  Mohammedan  belief,  he  has  no  offspring: 
“  He  begetteth  not,  nor  is  he  begotten.”  Nor  is 
Jesus  called  anything  but  a  prophet  and  apostle, 
although  his  birth  is  said  to  have  been  due  to  a 
miraculous  divine  operation;  and  as  the  Koran 
superseded  t lie  Gospel,  so  Mohammed,  Christ. 
The  crucifixion  is  said  to  have  been  executed 
upon  another  person,  Christ  having  been  taken 
up  unto  God  before  the  decree  was  carried  out. 
He  will  come  again  upon  the  earth,  to  establish 
everywhere  the  Moslem  religion,  and  to  be  a  sign 
of  the  coming  of  the  day  of  judgment.  Next  to 
the  belief  in  God,  that  in  angels  forms  a  promi¬ 
nent  dogma.  Created  of  fire,  and  endowed  with 
a  kind  of  uncorporeal  body,  they  stand  between 
God  and  man,  adoring  or  waiting  upon  the 
former,  or  interceding  for  and  guardingthe  latter. 
The  four  chief  angels  are  “  The  Holy  Spirit,”  or 
'‘Angel  of  Revelations” — Gabriel;  the  special 
protector  and  guardian  of  the  Jews — Michael; 
the  “  Angel  of  Death  ” — Azrael  (Raphael,  in  the 
apocryphal  gospel  of  Barnabas),  and  Israfil— 
Uriel,  whose  office  it  will  be  to  sound  the  trumpet 
at  the  resurrection.  The  Din,  or  practical  part 
of  the  Mohammedan  law,  inculcates  as  the 
chief  duties  the  following  four:  prayer,  alms¬ 
giving,  fasting,  and  pilgrimage.  Prayer,  “  the 
key  of  paradise,”  comprises  also  certain  religious 
purifications,  as  the  most  necessary  preparations 
to  the  former.  They  are  of  two  kinds:  the  ghusl, 
or  total  immersion  of  the  body,  required  as  a  re¬ 
ligious  ceremony,  on  some  special  occasions;  and 
the  wudu,  a  partial  ablution,  to  be  performed 
immediately  before  the  prayer.  In  the  case  of 
water  being  beyond  reach,  dry  dust,  or  sand 
may  supply  its  place.  Next  in  importance 
stands  the  duty  of  giving  alms.  These  are 
two-fold — legal  (Zekah)  and  voluntary  (Sadakali; 
Heb.  Zedakah,  piety,  righteousness);  but  the 
former,  once  collected  by  the  sovereign,  and  ap¬ 
plied  to  pious  uses,  has  now  been  practically 
abrogated.  The  duty  of  fasting  follows.  Dur¬ 
ing  the  whole  month  of  Ramadan,  the  Moslem  is 
commanded  to  refrain  from  eating,  drinking, 
smoking,  smelling  perfumes,  bathing,  and  every 
unnecessary  indulgence  in  worldly  pleasure,  from 
daybreak  until  sunset.  From  that  period  till  the 
morning,  he  is  allowed  to  eat,  drink,  and  enjoy 
himself.  Nurses  and  pregnant  women  are  en¬ 
tirely  free  from  fasting.  It  is  Mohammed’s  spe¬ 
cial  and  express  desire,  that  no  one  should  fast 
who  is  not  quite  equal  to  it,  lest  he  might  injnreliis 
health,  and  disqualify  himself  for  necessary  labor. 
Of  the  fourth  paramount  duty  of  the  Moham¬ 
medan — viz.,  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca — suffice  it 
here  briefly  to  recapitulate,  that  the  Kaaba  is  to 
be  encompassed  seven  times,  the  celebrated  black 
stone  being  ki-sed  at  each  round,  that  Mount 
Arafat  is  to  be  visited,  the  sacrifice  El-Fida  (the 
ransom,  in  memory  of  Ismael’s  sacrifice),  to  be 
performed,  and  a  number  of  minor  ceremonies  to 


be  gone  through.  In  addition  to  these  duties,  a 
Moslem  may  not  drink  wine,  gamble,  or  collect 
interest  on  loans.  Polygamy  to  the  extent  of  four 
wives  and  indefinite  concubines  is  allowed.  The 
rules  of  life  which  guide  the  faithful  are  con¬ 
tained  in  the  Koran,  but  these,  like  other  mystic¬ 
al  writings  are  frequently  clastic  and  bear  very 
varied  construction  so  that  the  four  great  sects 
have  widely  different  practices. 

Mohawk,  a  river  of  New  York,  named  from  a 
tribe  of  Indians.  It  rises  in  Oneida  county,  and 
runs  into  the  Hudson  at  Waterford,  ten  miles 
above  Albany.  It  is  135  miles  long. 

Mohicans,  Moiiegans,  or  Maiikanni,  once  a 
powerful  and  warlike  sub-tribe  of  North  American 
Indians,  of  the  great  Algonquin  family,  which  in 
the  seveutei  nth  century  inhabited  the  territory 
north-northwest  of  Long  Island  Sound,  and  east 
of  the  River  Hudson,  now  included  in  the  States 
of  New  York,  Connecticut,  and  Massachusetts. 
Being  compelled  to  give  way  to  the  conquering 
Iroquois  Confederacy,  they  retired  to  the  Valley 
of  the  Housatonic  river  in  Connecticut,  and  were 
consequently  one  of  the  first  tribes  who  came  into 
collision  with,  and  were  dispossessed  of  their  ter¬ 
ritory  by  the  early  British  settlers.  They  subse¬ 
quently  lived  dispersed  among  the  other  tribes, 
and  all  traces  of  them  have  now  entirely  disap¬ 
peared  . 

Mol'dan  (Bohemian,  Vitava),  the  chief  river  of 
Bohemia  rises  in  the  Bohmerwald  Mountains,  and 
flows  southeast  to  Hohenfurth,  where  it  bends 
northward  to  its  confluence  with  the  Elbe  opposite 
Melnik,  after  a  course  of  276  miles. 

Mo  Id  a' via  and  Wala'chia,  two  States  forming 
the  so-called  Danubian Principalities,  which,  since 
Dec.  23,  1861,  have  been  united  under  one 
prince  and  one  administration,  and  officially  bear 
the  single  name  of  Roumania  or  Rumania  For¬ 
merly  subject  to  the  Porte,  Roumania  proclaimed 
its  own  absolute  independence  in  1877,  and  had  its 
claim  recognized  at  the  Berlin  Congress  of  1878. 
It  was  proclaimed  a  kingdom  in  1881.  Roumania 
obtained  the  Dobrudscha  in  1878,  and  Roumania 
Bessarabia  was  ceded  to  Russia.  Pop.,  5,376,000. 

Mole  (Tolpa),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the  or¬ 
der  I  used  Ivor  a,  and  family  Talpidce.  All  the  Tal- 
pidas  live  chiefly  underground,  and  their  structure 
is  adapted  to  their  mode  of  life.  In  their  general 
form,  the  character  of  their  fur,  the  shortness  of 
their  limbs,  the  great  muscular  strength  of  the 
foreparts,  and  great  breadth  of  the  forepaws,  the 
elongated  head,  the  elongated  and  flexible  snout, 
the  smallness  of  the  eyes,  and  the  complete  con¬ 
cealment  of  the  ears,  they  all  resemble  the  com¬ 
mon  mole  (1\  europcm),  with  which  also  they  pretty 
nearly  agree  in  the  nature  of  their  food,  their 
mode  of  seeking  it,  their  dentition,  and  the  short¬ 
ness  of  their  alimentary  canal.  The  common 
mole  is  abundant  in  most  parts  of  Europe  and 
America.except  the  utmost  north  and  utmost  south. 


Mole  ( Talpa  europaa). 

a,  vertical  section  of  the  habitation  of  the  mole ;  b,  plan  of 
same. 


Among  the  other  Talpidce  arc  the  changeable 
mole,  or  Cape  mole  {Cl ivy  sod  dor  is  capensix),  of 
South  Africa,  the  shrew  mole  and  the  star-nose  of 
North  America. 

Mole-cricket  ( Giyllotulpa ),  a  genus  of  in¬ 
sects  of  the  cricket  family  (Achtlidm  or  Gryllidas), 
remarkable  for  burrowing  habits,  and  for  the  great 


strength  and  breadth  of  the  forelegs.  The  other 
legs  are  also  large  and  strong,  but  of  the  form 


Mole-cricket  and  Eggs  ( Gryllotalpa  vulgaris'). 


usual  in  the  family.  The  best  known  species  (G. 
vulgaris) — common  in  many  parts  of  Europe — 
is  almost  2  inches  long,  of  a  velvety  brown 
color;  the  wings,  when  folded,  do  not  cover  much 
more  than  one-half  of  the  abdomen,  although  large 
when  expanded.  It  uses  its  forelegs  not  only  for 
digging  burrows  in  earth,  but  for  cutting  through 
or  tearing  off  the  roots  of  plants  which  come  in 
its  way. 

Mole-rat  ( Spalax  or  Axpalax),  a  genus  of  rodent 
quadrupeds  of  the  family  Mur  idee,  having  teeth 
almost  like  those  of  rats,  but  in  many  respects 
resembling  moles,  as  in  general  form,  short¬ 
ness  of  limbs,  concealment  of  ears,  smallness  or 
even  rudimentary  condition  of  eyes,  and  burrow¬ 
ing  habits — although  their  food  is  altogether  dif¬ 
ferent,  consisting  wholly  of  vegetable  substances, 
and  chiefly  of  roots.  They  are  found  in  Europe 
and  Africa. 

Molfet'ta,  a  city  of  Southern  Italy,  in  the 
Province  of  Bari,  situated  on  the  Adriatic, 
eighteen  miles  northwest  of  Bari.  Pop.  (1881), 
29,697. 

Molierc,  Jean  Baptiste  (properly,  Jean  Bap¬ 
tiste  Poquelin — the  name  of  Mol i fere  not  having 
been  assumed  till  he  had  commenced  authorship), 
was  born  at  Paris,  Jan.  15, 1622.  First  a  strolling 
player,  he  became  an  author  and  was  one  of  the 
most  noted  of  French  comic  playwriters,  in  fact 
the  father  of  French  comedy.  He  died  in  1673. 

Moli  ne,  a  manufacturing  city  of  Rock  Island 
county,  111.  Pop.,  13,750.  Large  quantities  of 
agricultural  implements  and  stoves  are  made 
here. 

Mol'lah,  among  the  Turks,  is  the  title  of  a 
superior  judge.  The  Mollahs  are  divided  into  two 
classes;  the  first  of  these — four  in  number,  from 
whom  the  Mollahs  at  the  court  of  the  Padishah 
are  elected,  possesses  jurisdiction  over  the  more 
important  pashaliks  (Adrianople,  Brusa,  Damas¬ 
cus,  Cairo);  and  the  second,  who  only  hold  their 
office  for  the  space  of  a  lunar  month  at  a  time, 
and  the  lowest  rank  of  whom  is  formed  by  the 
naibs,  over  the  inferior  provinces,  towns,  and 
villages. 

Moll  asse,  an  extensive  miocene  or  middle  ter¬ 
tiary  deposit,  occupying  the  central  lake-region 
of  Switzerland,  between  the  Alps  and  the  Jura. 
It  consists  chiefly  of  a  loose  sand. 

Mollus'ca,  one  of  the  great  animal  sub-king¬ 
doms,  including  so  wide  a  range  of  distinct  forms, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  frame  a  definition  that  shall 
be  applicable  to  all  of  them.  The  lowest  forms, 
termed  Polvzoa  or  Bryozoa,  present  so  strong  a 
resemblance  to  zoophytes,  that  until  recently  they 
were  associated  with  the  latter;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  in  some  of  the  most  highly  organized 
of  this  sub-kingdom,  the  Cephalopoda,  there  is  a 
considerable  analogy  to  the  vertebrated  series,  as 
is  shown  by  the  presence  of  a  rudimentary  cartila¬ 
ginous  brain-case,  and  by  the  remarkably  high 
development  of  the  nervous  system.  The  animals 
of  this  sub-kingdom  are  divisible  into  the  Mollus- 
coids  and  tne  true  Mollusca,  the  former  being 
distinguished  from  the  latter  by  the  very  low 
development  of  the  nervous  system,  which  is 
composed  of  only  a  single  ganglion,  giving  off 
nerves  in  different  directions;  and  by  their  propa¬ 
gating  by  gemmation.  The  molluscoids  are  divis¬ 
ible  into: 

Class  1.  Polvzoa  or  Bktozoa.  Examples — Plunuitella , 
Flustra.  Class  2.  Tunicata.  Examples — Ascidia,  Salpa. 


MOLOCH. 


541 


MONKEY. 


The  true  Mollusea  are  divisible  into:  Class  3.  Brachiopoda 
or  Paliobranchiata.  Example—  Terebralula.  Class  4. 
Lamellibranchiata.  Examples—  Oyster,  Mussel ,  Cockle. 
Class  5  Gasteropoda.  Examples —Snail,  Cowry,  Limpet, 
Doris.  Class  6.  Pteropoda.  Examples—  Clio.  Ilyalea. 
Class?.  Cephalopoda.  Examples—  Cuttle-fish,  Nautilus. 

Mo'locli  (more  correctly  Molech),  also  Mil- 
kom,  Malkom  (their  king),  from  Heb.  Mtlech. 
king,  the  chief  Ammonite  deity  (the  Chemosh  of 
the  Moabites),  whose  worship  consisted  chiefly  of 
human  sacrifices,  purifications,  and  ordeals  by 
fire,  mutilation,  perpetual  virginity,  and  the  like: 
practices  specially  inveighed  against  in  the  Mosaic 
records. 

Moloch,  a  genus  of  saurian  reptiles,  of  the 
family  Agamidce.  Moloch  Iwrridus,  an  Australian 
species,  is  perhaps  the  most  ugly  and  repulsive  in 
appearance  of  all  the  saurian  tribes.  The  whole 
surface  of  the  body  is  covered  with  irregular 


plates  and  strong  sharp  spines;  the  upper  surface 
of  the  head  is  crowned  with  two  very  large 
spines;  and  on  the  back  of  the  neck  are  large 
rounded  protuberances,  covered  with  granular 
scales  and  spines.  The  moloch  is,  however,  a 
perfectly  inoffensive  creature. 

Moitke,  Hellmctth,  Count  von,  Field-Mar¬ 
shall  of  the  German  Empire,  and  chief  of  the 
general  staff,  who  planned  the  Prussian  campaign 
of  1866  against  Austria,  and  the  German  cam¬ 
paign  of  1870-1871  against  France.  He  belongs 
to  an  old  family,  who  had  their  seat  for  centuries 
in  Mecklenburg,  where  Moitke  was  born,  Oct. 
26,  1800.  In  1822  he  entered  the  Prussian  army 
as  cornet.  His  eminent  abilities  soon  procured 
him  a  place  in  the  general  staff.  The  time 
between  1835  and  1839,  he  spent  in  Turkey  and 
Asia  Minor,  whither  he  was  sent  by  the  Prussian 
Government  to  report  on  the  war  between  that 
country  and  Mehemet  Ali.  After  his  return,  he 
rapidly  advanced  through  the  different  stages  to 
the  rank  of  General,  continuing,  however,  on  the 
general  staff.  At  the  end  of  the  Austrian  War 
he  was  rewarded  with  the  Order  of  the  Black 
Eagle,  in  1870  he  was  created  a  Count,  and  in 
1871  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Field-Marshall. 

Moluc'cas,  or  Royal  Islands,  properly  so 
called  are  Teruate,  Tidore,  Makian,  Motir,  and 
Batjan,  lying  to  the  west  of  Gilolo,  and  washed 
by  the  Moluccas  Strait  or  Passage,  which  sepa¬ 
rates  Gilolo  from  Celebes  — The  Moluccas,  or 
Spice  Islands,  in  the  broad  use  of  the  term,  lie  to 
the  east  of  Celebes,  scattered  over  nearly  eleven 
degrees  of  latitude  and  longitude,  between  3°  S. 
— 8°  N.  latitude,  and  126° — 135°  E.  longitude. 
They  are  divided  into  the  residences  of  Amboyna, 
Banda,  and  Ternate;  a  fourth  residency  being 
Menado.  Pop.  of  the  Moluccas  and  depend¬ 
encies,  about  5,000  Europeans  and  800,000 
natives.  They  are  all  European  dependencies, 
mostly  under  Dutch  domination. 

Moly  b(le 'mini  (symbol  Mo,  equiv.  96 — sp.  gr. 
8.62)  is  a  rare  metal,  which,  in  a  state  of  purity, 
is  of  a  silvery-white  color,  has  a  strongly  metallic 
luster,  is  brittle,  and  very  difficult  of  fusion.  It 
never  occurs  native,  and  its  principal  ore  is  the 
bisulphide,  which  much  resembles  graphite.  It 
is  also  occasionally  found  oxidized,  in  molybdate 
of  lead. 

Momcn'tum,  or  Quantity  of  Motion,  is 
defined  by  Newton  as  proportional  to  the  mass 
moving,  and  its  velocity,  conjointly.  It  is  shown 
by  experiment  that,  when  force  produces  motion 
in  any  body,  the  momentum  produced  in  one 
second  is  proportional  to  the  force — and,  in  fact, 
force  is  measured  by  the  momentum  it  is  capable  of 
'producing  in,  unit  of  lime.  Again,  if  different 


forces  act,  each  for  a  second,  on  the  same  mass, 
the  velocities  produced  are  proportional  to  the 
forces.  The  momentum  produced  by  a  force  in 
any  period  of  time  is  measured  by  the  product  of 
the  force  and  the  time  during  which  it  has  acted — 
the  energy  or  work  done  by  a  force  is  measured 
by  the  product  of  the  force  and  the  space  through 
which  it  has  acted.  Momentum  is  proportional  to 
the  simple  velocity  of  a  body,  and  can  never,  by 
any  known  process,  be  transformea  into  anything 
else.  Energy,  when  depending  on  velocity,  is 
proportional  to  the  square  of  the  velocity,  and  is 
in  the  natural  world  constantly  being  transformed 
from  its  actual  or  kinetic  form  to  its  potential  form, 
and  back  again,  or  to  some  other  kinetic  form  such 
as  heat,  and  finally  must  become  heal.  Momentum, 
on  the  contrary,  is  never  altered,  either  in  kind 
or  in  amount. 

Mommsen,  Theodor,  a  distinguished  writer 
on  the  history  and  polity  of  ancient  Rome,  was 
born  in  1817‘at  Garding,  in  Slesvig.  Among  his 
most  valuable  contributions  to  knowledge,  special 
mention  must  be  made  of  the  following:  Die 
Unleritalischen  DiaUkle,  Corpus  I nscriptionum 
Neapolitanarum,  his  monographs  on  The.  Chro- 
nograpliy  of  the  year  354,  and  Roman  Coins;  the 
edict  of  Diocletian,  De  Rretiis  Rerum  Venalium 
A.  301;  Inscnptiones  Regni  Neapolit .  -  Latin  w; 
Die  Rechtsfrage  zwischen  Caesar  ural  d.  Senat, 
1857;  his  great  work  on  Roman  history,  Rom. 
Gescliichte,  1854-56,  7th  ed.  1881;  Rbmische  For- 
sehungen;  Res  Gestae  Dim  Augusti;  Rbmisches 
Slaatsrecht;  Die  Frzdhlung  von  Caius  Martins 
Coriolunvs;  and  his  Digesta  Jusliniani  Augusti. 

Mompox',  a  town  of  the  United  States  of 
Colombia,  on  the  Magdalena,  110  miles  southeast 
of  Cartagena.  Pop.  estimated  at  10,000. 

Mon'achism  (Gr.  povaxo 5,  mona^-hos,  a  monk, 
from  poro S,  monos,  alone)  may  in  general  be 
described  as  a  state  of  religious  retirement,  more 
or  less  complete,  accompanied  by  contemplation, 
and  by  various  devotional,  ascetical,  and  peni¬ 
tential  practices.  It  is,  in  truth,  asceticism,  with 
the  element  of  religious  solitude. superadded.  The 
institution  of  monachism  has,  under  different 
forms,  entered  into  several  religious  systems, 
ancient  and  modern.  It  now  survives  in  Chris¬ 
tian  countries,  principally  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
and  the  Greek  Churches. 

Mon  'aco,  a  small  principality  surrounded  by 
French  territory,  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  a 
few  miles  northeast  of  Nice.  It  is  notorious  for 
the  public  gaming-tables,  from  which  the  prince 
derives  great  part  of  his  revenue,  at  Monte  Carlo, 
east  of  the  town  of  Monaco. 

Mon 'ad  (Gr.  poval,  unity),  a  term  borrowed 
from  the  Peripatetic  philosophy,  although  em¬ 
ployed  by  moderns  in  a  sense  different  from  that 
of  the  Peripatetics,  who  used  it  to  designate  the 
universe,  understood  in  the  pantheistic  sense. 
By  moderns  it  is  used  to  describe  the  primary  ele¬ 
ments  of  all  matter,  including  microscopic  simple 
organisms. 

Monad'nock,  Grand,  a  mountain  in  the  south¬ 
west  corner  of  New  Hampshire,  which  from  a 
base  of  5  by  3  miles,  rises  to  a  height  of  3,450 
feet. 

Mon'aglian,  an  inland  county  of  the  Province 
of  Ulster,  Ireland,  situated  between  Tyrone  on 
the  north,  Armagh  and  Louth  on  the  east, 
Meath  and  Cavan  on  the  south,  and  Fermanagh 
on  the  west.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to 
south  is  37  miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  east  and 
west  is  28;  the  total  area  being  500  square  miles; 
the  pop.,  which  in  1861  was  126,340,  had  falleu 
in  1881  to  102,590. 

MoiTarchy  (Gr.  povapxia ,  from  povol,  alone, 
and  apxRiv ,  to  govern;  literally,  the  government  of 
a  single  individual)  is  that  form  of  government  in 
a  community  by  which  one  person  exercises  the 
sovereign  authority.  It  is  only  when  the  king, 
or  chief  magistrate  of  the  community,  possesses 
the  entire  ruling  power,  that  he  is  in  the  proper 
acceptation  of  the  term  a  monarch.  Most  of  the 
Oriental  Governments  past  and  present,  Russia  at 
present,  and  Spain  and  France  as  they  were  in 
the  last  century,  are  in  this  strict  sense  mon¬ 
archies. 

Mone'ra,  a  class  of  Protozoa  proposed  by 
Haeckel  to  include  the  very  lowest  organisms 
known — mere  masses  of  undifferentiated  proto¬ 
plasm,  resembling  Amoeba,  but  unprovided  with 


a  nucleus.  The  Monera  present  specific  and  even 
generic  distinctions. 

Mone'sia  Bark,  the  bark  of  a  tree  ( Chrysophyl - 
lum  glycyphlteum,  or  C.  buranheim)  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  star-apple,  a  native  of  the  South 
of  Brazil.  The  bark  is  lactescent;  but  when 
dried,  it  is  thick,  flat,  compact,  heavy,  brown, 
and  hard,  with  a  taste  at  first  sweet,  afterward 
astringent  and  bitter.  A  substance  called  monesia 
is  extracted  from  it,  which  is  almost  black,  at 
first  sweet,  then  astringent,  and  finally  acrid. 
It  is  used  as  a  stomachic  and  alterative  in  leucor- 
rhcea,  chronic  diarrhoea,  etc.  It  contains,  in  small 
quantity,  a  principle  called  monesim. 

Mongliyr',  a  city  of  India,  capital  of  a  district 
which  is  in  Behar,  Lower  Bengal,  is  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  thirty  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Bhagulpur.  It  is  a  large  and  thriv¬ 
ing  town,  and  carries  on  manufactures  of  hard¬ 
ware  and  fire-arms.  It  is  a  favorite  residence  of 
invalided  military  men  and  their  families.  Pop. 
(1881),  55.372.  The  district  has  an  area  of  3,921 
square  miles,  with  a  pop.  of  1,969,774. 

Mon  'gels,  the  name  used  for  larger  or  smaller 
groups  of  races  or  tribes.  Mongols  correspond 
to  those  races  speaking  Turanian  languages — 
almost  all  the  Asiatic  peoples,  not  Aryan  or  Se¬ 
mitic.  Thus  taken,  the  name  Mongolic  may  be 
used  for  the  yellow  type  of  man,  as  distin¬ 
guished  from  the  Caucasic  or  fair  type,  but 
should  not  be  misunderstood  as  implying 
racial  relationship  or  direct  connection  between 
their  languages.  They  have  been  thus  grouped; 
— 1.  Thibeto  -  Burman;  2.  Khasi,  and  3.  Mon 
(in  Assam  and  Pegu) ;  4.  Tai  (including 
Siamese,  Shans,  and  Laos);  5.  Sinico-Annamitic 
(Chinese,  Tonquinese,  etc);  6.  Koreo- Japanese;  7. 
Ural-Altaic;  and  8.  Malayan.  The  face  of  the 
typical  Mongolian  is  broad  and  flat,  because  the 
cheek-bones  stand  out  laterally,  and  the  nasal 
bones  are  depressed.  The  eyes  are  oblique  and 
wide  apart.  The  eyebrows  are  scanty.  The  iris 
is  dark,  the  cornea  yellow.  The  complexion  is 
tawny,  the  stature  low.  The  ears  are  large, 
standing  out  from  the  head;  the  lips  thick,  the 
forehead  low  and  flat,  and  the  hair  lank  and  thin. 
Of  course,  this  does  not  apply  to  the  more  civil¬ 
ized  nations  of  Mongolic  affinities,  such  as  the 
Turks  and  Magyars,  especially  the  latter,  who,  in 
physical  appearance,  differ  but  little  from  other 
European  nations.  The  name  of  Tartar,  or 
rather  Tatar,  belonged  originally  to  the  Mongols 
proper,  but  passed  later  to  the  Turks  and  Tungu- 
sic  peoples. 

Moniteur,  Le,  a  celebrated  French  journal, 
started  by  the  publisher,  Charles  Joseph  Panc- 
koucke,  May  5,  17f9,  under  the  title  of  the 
Gazette  Nationale,  ou  le  Moniteur  Universel. 
After  the  Restoration,  it  became  the  Government 
organ,  which  it  continued  to  be  until  1869,  when 
its  official  connection  was  discontinued. 

Monitor,  a  name  given  to  many  species  of 
saurian  reptiles,  nearly  allied  to  the  true  lizards, 
from  which  they  differ  in  having  no  teeth  on  the 
palate.  Among  them  are  some  of  large  size,  the 
largest  of  existing  saurians  except  those  of  the 
crocodile  tribe. 

Monk,  George,  Duke  of  Albemarle,  son  of 
Sir  Thomas  Monk  of  Potheridge,  Devonshire, 
England,  was  born  at  his  father’s  residence  Dec. 
6,  1608.  When  the  Civil  War  began,  Cromwell 
had  a  high  opinion  of  his  military  talents,  and 
made  him  his  Lieutenant-General.  When,  after 
Cromwell’s  death,  he  saw  everything  in  confusion, 
he  called  together  the  remaining  members  of  the 
Parliament  which  had  been  violently  driven  out 
twelve  years  before,  and  Charles  II.  was  pres¬ 
ently  recalled.  Monk  was  now  made  Duke  of 
Albemarle,  and  loaded  with  honors.  He  died  Jan. 
3,  1670. 

Monkey  (Simhi),  a  Linnsean  genus  of  Mam¬ 
malia,  of  the  Linnsean  order  Primates,  and  of 
Cuvier’s  order  Quadrumana,  now  constituting  the 
family  Simiadce,.  The  word  monkey  was  formerly 
of  almost,  if  not  altogether,  the  same  significa¬ 
tion  with  ape,  but  the  name  ape  is  now  more 
generally  applied  to  those  Simiadce  which  have 
no  tail,  and  no  cheek-pouches;  the  name  monkey 
to  those  which  have  cheek-pouches  and  long  tails, 
prehensile  or  not  prehensile,  while  the  name 
baboon  is  applied  to  creatures  considerably  differ¬ 
ent  from  both.  The  smaller  tailless  Simiadce  are, 


MONMOUTH. 


542 


MONTENEGRO 


however,  still  not  infrequently  spoken  of  as 
monkeys,  and  the  term  is  also  sometimes  used  to 
comprehend  all  the  Simiadce.  They  arc  more 
nearly  like  man  than  any  other  animal,  both  in 
general  form  and  in  anatomical  structure.  They 
are  found  in  all  the  tropical  portions  of  the  world. 

Monmouth,  a  maritime  county  in  the  west  of 
England,  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Estuary  of 
the  Severn,  and  on  the  west  by  Glamorgan. 
Area,  368,399  acres.  Pop.  (1871),  195,448;  (1881), 
211,374. 

Monmouth,  James,  Duke  of,  natural  son  of 
Charles  II.,  was  born  at  Rotterdam  in  1649. 
After  heading  a  rebellion  against  his  father,  for 
which  he  was  pardoned,  lie  was  taken  in  arms 
against  his  uncle  James  II.,  and  beheaded  June 
15,  1685. 

Monmouth,  a  thriving  city  of  Warren  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  7,500.  Several  large  manufactories 
and  grain  elevators  are  situated  here,  and  the  city 
is  of  some  importance  as  a  railroad  center. 

Monmouth,  Battle  of,  an  engagement  during 
the  Revolutionary  War  between  the  Americans 
under  Washington  and  the  British  under  Sir 
Henry  Clinton,  took  place  at  Freehold,  Mon¬ 
mouth  county,  N.  J.,  June  28,  1778.  The  British 
were  defeated,  and  Clinton  compelled  to  retreat. 

Monocotyled'onous  Plants,  plants  in  which 
the  embryo  has  one  and  only  one  cotyledon.  The 
cotyledon  in  these  plants  varies'extremely  in  form, 
and  is  often  comparatively  of  great  size,  but  has 
always  a  slit,  from  which,  as  germination  takes 
place,  the  gem  mule  sprouts.  The  gemmule  in 
elongating  assumes  an  acuminated  shape.  Mono- 
cotyledonous  plants  are  all  endogenous;  except 
the  dictyogens,  in  which  the  endogenous  structure 
is  not  perfectly  exhibited. 

Monce'cious  (Gr.  /novo ?,  monos,  one,  and 
oiKiov,  oikion,  a  habitation),  the  term  used  in 
botany  to  describe  those  plants  which  have  the 
male  and  female  parts  of  fructification  {stamens 
and  pistils )  in  different  flowers,  but  upon  the  same 
plant.  The  flowers  of  such  plants  are  also  said  to 
be  monoecious. 

Mon'ogram  (Gr.  povoZ,  monos,  alone,  and 
■ypapnot,  gramma,  letter),  a  character  composed 
of  two  or  more  letters  of  the  alphabet,  often  inter¬ 
laced  with  other  lines,  and  used  as  a  cipher  or 
abbreviation  of  a  name.  A  perfect  monogram  is 
one  in  which  all  the  letters  of  the  word  are  to  be 
traced. 

Mon'ograpli,  a  work  in  which  a  particular 
subject  in  any  science  is  treated  by  itself,  and 
forms  the  whole  subject  of  the  work. 

Mon'olitli,  a  monument,  column,  obelisk, 
statue,  or-  other  structure  formed  of  a  single 
stone. 

Monoma'uia  lias  loosely  been  made  to  rep¬ 
resent  every  form  of  partial  insanity;  but  has 
been  more  rigidly  defined  as  that  mental  condi¬ 
tion  in  which  a  single  faculty,  or  class  of  faculties 
or  associations,  become  diseased,  the  mind  gen¬ 
erally  remaining  healthy.  Slight  and  solitary 
aberrations,  such  as  where  a  savage  antipathy  to 
cats  coexists  with  a  love  for  human  kind;  where 
there  appears  to  be  an  incontrollable  tendency  to 
steal,  to  squander,  to  drink,  to  destroy,  are  of 
common  occurrence,  and  are  supposed  to  be 
compatible  with  the  exercise  of  intelligence,  and 
with  the  discharge  of  many  of  the  ordinary  duties 
of  life.  By  a  more  strict  limitation,  the  term  has 
been  confined  to  such  affections  as  involve  the 
emotions  and  propensities  alone. 

Monongahe'la,  a  river  which  rises  in  the  Alle¬ 
ghany  Mountains  in  Virginia,  and  flowing  north 
into  Pennsylvania,  unites  with  the  Alleghany  at 
Pittsburgh  to  form  the  Ohio.  Its  whole  length  is 
300  miles. 

Monoph'ysites,  the  name  given  to  a  widely 
ramified  sect  of  Christians  who  hold  that  Christ 
has  only  one  nature  (Gr.  povoi,  monos,  one; 
<pv6vi,  physis,  nature),  a  human  nature  become 
divine.  Monophysite  views  were  first  decidedly 
put  forward  in  the  controversy  against  Nestorius. 

Monos  to'ma  a  genus  of  T remat oid  worms,  so 
called  from  having  only  a  single  sucker,  which  is 
situated  anteriorly,  and  surrounds  the  mouth.  It 
belongs  to  the  Trematoda  digenea,  all  of  which 
present  the  phenomena  of  alternation  of  genera¬ 
tions,  the  earlier  or  larval  forms  occurring  chiefly 
in  mollusks,  while  the  perfect  worms  are  found, 
for  the  most  part,  in  vertebrated  animals. 


Mon'otlieism,  the  term  usually  employed  to 
denote  a  belief  in  the  numerical  unity  {unus  nu- 
mero)  of  the  Godhead,  or  belief  in  and  worship  of 
one  God.  It  is  thus  the  opposite  of  Polytheism . 

Monoth'elisni  (Gr.  iiovos,  monos,  single,  and 
OeXnv,  thelein,  to  will',  a  modification  of  Euty- 
chianism,  which  was  introduced  after  the  con¬ 
demnation  of  that  doctrine  by  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon.  It  consisted  in  maintaining  that,  al¬ 
though  Christ  had  two  natures,  yet,  these  natures 
possessed  or  acted  by  but  a  single  will,  the  human 
will  being  merged  in  the  divine,  orabsorbed  by  it. 

Monotrema'ta  (Gr.  povoZ,  monos,  single, 
vpy'fua,  trenia,  an  opening),  the  lowest  order  of 
mammalia,  in  many  of  their  characteristic  points 
indicate  an  approximation  to  birds.  This  order 
includes  only  two  or  three  species,  all  natives  of 
Australia  or  Van  Diemen’s  Land,  which,  however, 
form  two  families — the  0 rnilhorhy nehidee  and  the 
Ecliiinidce. 

Monotropa'ceae,  a  small  natural  order  of  exog¬ 
enous  plants,  allied  to  Ericece,  and  Pyrolaeeee; 
but  remarkably  differing  from  both  in  their  habit. 
They  are  herbaceous  plants  with  scales  instead  of 
leaves,  and  grow  parasitically  on  the  roots  of 
pines  and  other  trees  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
world. 

Monroe',  the  name  of  several  cities  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows  : — 1.  A  city  of  Michi¬ 
gan,  is  situated  on  the  River  Raisin,  two  miles 
from  Lake  Erie  and  thirty-two  miles  southwest 
of  Detroit.  Pop.  (1889),  6,516. — 2.  The  county 
seat  of  Green  county,  Wis.  Pop.,  4,546. — 3.  The 
parish  seat  of  Ouachita  parish,  La.  Pop.,  2,570.— 
4.  The  county  seat  of  Walton  county,  Ga.  Pop., 
800. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Union  county,  N  C. 
Pop.,  2,500. 

Monroe,  James,  fifth  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  was  born  in  Westmoreland 
county,  Va.,  April  28,  1758.  James  entered  the 
Revolutionary  Army  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  as  a 
Cadet,  and  was  present  at  several  battles;  but 
having  lost  his  rank  in  the  army  by  serving  as 
Aide-de-camp,  he  commenced  to  study  law  with 
Jefferson.  In  1782  he  was  elected  to  the  Assembly 
of  Virginia,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  to  the 
Executive  Council.  Next  year  he  was  elected  to 
Congress.  In  1799  he  was  elected  Governor  of 
Virginia;  and  in  1803  sent  by  Jefferson  as  Minister 
to  France,  to  purchase  Louisiana,  which  vast  ter¬ 
ritory  he  secured  for  $15,000,000.  In  1816  his 
eminent  services  were  rewarded  by  his  being 
elected  President  of  the  United  States  by  the 
Democratic-Republican  party,  and  he  made  him¬ 
self  very  popular.  The  acquisition  of  Florida  from 
Spain,  and  the  settlement  of  the  vexed  question 
respecting  the  extension  of  slavery  by  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  by  which,  after  the  reception  of 
Missouri  as  a  slave  State,  the  institution  was  pro¬ 
hibited  above  the  line  of  latitude  36?  30 ' ,  helped 
to  secure  his  reelection  in  1820.  He  promulgated 
what  has  since  been  called  the  “  Monroe  Doctrine,” 
in  which  he  declared  the  American  policy  of 
“  neither  entangling  ourselves  in  the  broils  of  Eu¬ 
rope,  nor  suffering  the  powers  of  the  Old  World 
to  interfere  with  the  affairs  of  the  New,”  and  that 
“any  attempt  to  extend  their  system  to  any  por¬ 
tion  of  this  hemisphere  would  be  dangerous  to  our 
peace  and  safety.”  He  died  in  1831 — like  his  pre¬ 
decessors,  Adams  and  Jefferson — on  July  4th. 

Monroeville,  the  county  seat  of  Monroe  county’, 
Ala.  Pop.,  160. 

Monsoon  (Malayan,  musim)  is  derived  from 
the  Arabic  word  mausim,  a  set  time  or  season  of 
the  year,  and  is  applied  to  those  winds  prevailing 
in  the  Indian  Ocean  which  blow  from  the  south¬ 
west  from  April  to  October,  and  from  the  opposite 
direction,  or  northeast,  from  October  to  April. 
Monsoons,  when  compared  with  the  trade-winds, 
will  be  found  to  play  a  most  beneficial  and  im¬ 
portant  part  in  the  economy  of  the  globe  Their 
greater  velocity,  and  the  periodical  changes  which 
take  place  in'  their  direction,  secure  increased 
facility  of  commercial  intercourse  between  dif¬ 
ferent  countries.  But  the  full  benefits  following 
in  their  train  are  not  seen  unless  they  be  con¬ 
sidered  in  their  relation  to  the  rainfall  of  Southern 
Asia.  Indeed,  the  fertility  of  the  greater  part  of 
this  fine  region  is  entirely  due  to  the  monsoons. 

Mon'strance  (Lat.  monstrare,  to  show),  called 
also  Ostensoky,  the  sacred  utensil  employed  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  for  the  purpose  of 


presenting  the  consecrated  host  for  the  adoration 
of  the  people,  as  well  while  it  is  carried  in  pro¬ 
cession,  as  when  it  is  exposed  upon  the  altar  on 
occasions  of  special  solemnity  and  prayer. 

Montagnards,  or  simply  Montagne,  “the 
Mountain,”  the  name  given  to  the  extreme  demo¬ 
cratic  politicians  in  the  first  French  Revolution,  be¬ 
cause  they  seated  themselves  on  the  higher  benches 
of  the  hall  in  which  the  National  Convention 
met.  Their  principal  members  were  Danton, 
Marat,  Robespierre,  St.  Just,  and  Collot  d’Herbois, 
the  men  w  ho  introduced  “  the  Reign  of  Terror.” 

Montagu,  Lady  Mary  Wortley,  wTas  eldest 
daughter  of  Evelyn,  Earl,  and  afterward  (1715) 
Duke  of  Kingston.  She  wTas  born  about  1690, 
and  became  famous  for  her  wit  and  learning. 

Montague,  a  considerable  town  of  Massachu¬ 
setts,  situated  in  Franklin  county.  Pop.,  7,000. 

Montague  Courthouse,  county  seat  of  Mon¬ 
tague  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  1,875. 

Montaigne,  Michel  Eyquem  de,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  French  moral  philosopher,  was  born 
in  1533,  at  his  paternal  home  of  Montaigne,  in 
Perigord.  Ilis  Ess/iis  are  known  and  admired 
throughout  the  civilizeu  world.  He  died  in  1592, 
as  an  avowed  member  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

Montalembert,  Charles  Forbes,  Comte  de, 
was  born  in  April,  1810,  of  an  ancient  family  of 
Poitou.  He  was  a  profound  thinker  and  writer 
—mostly  on  political  economy — and  was  a  thorn 
in  the  side  of  the  third  Napoleon,  of  whom  he  was 
an  implacable  adversary.  He  died  March  13, 
1870. 

Montan ’a,  a  territory  of  the  United  States, 
formed  in  1864,  extending  from  latitude  45°  to 
49°  N.,  and  longitude  104°  to  116°  W.  It  is 
mostly  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  is 
bounded,  north  by  British  America,  west  by 
Washington  and  Idaho,  south  by  Wyoming,  east 
by  the  Dakotas.  It  s  average  length  is  470  miles,  its 
average  breadth  275  miles,  and  it  area  143,776 
square  miles.  Montana  has  great  mineral  wealth, 
not  yet  fully  taken  advantage  of,  including  gold, 
silver,  galena,  copper,  coal,  and  precious  stones. 
It  is  exceedingly  well  watered,  the  chief  rivers 
being  the  Missouri  and  Yellowstone,  with  their 
affluents,  and  the  Columbia.  Montana  is  well 
adapted  for  grazing.  Pop.  (1880),  39,157,  with¬ 
out  including  over  20,000  Indians. 

Montargis,  a  town  of  France,  Department  of 
Loiret.  Pop.  (1881),  11,164. 

Montauban  (Lat.  Mom  Albanus),  a  town  of 
France,  capital  of  the  Department  of  Tarn-et- 
Garonne.  Pop.  (1881),  20,840,  nearly  one-half  of 
whom  are  Protestants. 

Mont  Blanc,  the  highest  mountain  in  Europe, 
and,  according  to  the  latest  measurements,  15,781 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  is 
one  of  the  Graian  Alps,  and  is  situated  in  the 
Department  of  Haute-Savoie,  France,  close  to  the 
Italian  frontier,  and  thirty-seven  miles  south  of 
the  east  end  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 

Mont  de  Piete,  called  in  Italy  Monte  di 
Pieta,  a  charitable  institution,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  lend  money  to  the  very  poor  at  a  mod¬ 
erate  rate  of  interest.  It  had  its  origin  at  the 
close  of  t  lie  mediaeval  period,  when  all  such  trans¬ 
actions  were  in  the  hands  of  usurers,  to  whom 
the  necessities  of  the  poor  were  but  an  induce¬ 
ment  to  the  most  oppressive  extortion. 

Monte  Carlo,  a  small  town  in  the  territory  of 
Monaco,  close  to  the  town  of  Monaco,  notorious 
on  account  of  its  gaming  tables. 

Monte  Cris'to,  a  small  island,  belonging  to 
Italy,  twenty-six  miles  south  of  Elba.  It  consists 
of  a  mountain  of  granite,  1,983  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea,  and  is  uninhabited  except  by 
wild  goats  and  other  animals.  It  is  inaccessible 
except  by  one  narrow  landing-place.  Monte 
Cristo  has  given  name  to  Dumas’  well-known 
novel. 

Montello,  the  county  seat  of  Marquette  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  625. 

Montene'gro  (an  Italian  translation  of  the 
native  name  Czernagora,  Black  Mountain),  is  a 
small  but  independent  and  recently  extended 
principality  situated  between  Bosnia  and  Albania. 
Till  1878  it  was  separated  from  the  Adriatic  by  a 
narrow  strip  of  foreign  territory;  but  the  Berlin 
Conference  assigned  to  Montenegro  the  Port  and 
District  of  Antivari,  while  closing  it  against  the 
war  ships  of  all  nations.  Toward  the  end  of 


MONTEREY 


543 


MOON. 


1880,  the  Port  and  District  of  Dulcigno,  heretofore 
Albanian,  became  Montenegrin.  The  latter 
place  Turkey  agreed  to  cede  instead  of  an  inland 
district  indicated  by  the  Berlin  Conference;  but 
the  persistent  delay  of  the  Porte  to  transfer  Dub 
cigno  led  to  strong  pressure  and  a  naval  demon¬ 
stration  by  the  Western  Powers.  Area  of  Monte¬ 
negro,  about  3,600  square  miles;  pop.  (1880), 
310,000. 

Monterey',  the  most  thriving  city  of  Northern 
Mexico,  capital  of  the  State  of  Nuevo  Leon,  on 
the  San  Juan,  a  tributary  of  the  Rio  Grande,  175 
miles  west  of  Matamoras.  Pop.  (1880),  26,000. 
In  the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Mex¬ 
ico,  Monterey  capitulated  Sept.  24,  1846,  after  a 
siege  of  four  days,  to  the  American  forces  under 
General  Taylor. 

Monterey,  the  countyseatof  Highland  county, 
Ya.  Pop.,  200. 

Montesano,  the  countyseatof  Chehalis county, 
Wash.  Pop.,  625. 

Monte  Ito'sa,  the  Mans  Sylvius  of  the  ancients, 
is  the  highest  mountain  in  Europe  after  Mont 
Blanc.  It  is  situated  in  the  angle  where  the  west 
end  of  the  Pennine  meets  the  Lepontic  Alps,  and 
separates  the  Canton  of  Valais  from  Italy. 

Montesquieu,  Charles  de  Secondat,  Baron 
re  la  Brede  et  de,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
authors  and  political  philosophers  of  France,  was 
born  Jan.  18,  1689,  at  his  father’s  chateau  of 
Brede  near  Bordeaux.  His  most  noted  work  is 
his  commentaries  on  Roman  history.  Montes¬ 
quieu  died  at  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1755. 

Monte  Vid'eo,  San  Felipe  de,  the  capital  of 
the  Republic  of  Uruguay,  in  South  America,  is 
situated  on  the  north  shore  of  the  Estuary  of  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  132  miles  east-by-soufh  from 
Buenos  Ayres.  Pop.,  110,167. 

Montevideo,  the  county  seat  of  Chippewa 
county,  Minn.  Pop.,  1,437. 

Montezuma,  the  name  of  two  of  the  emperors 
of  Mexico. — Montezuma  I.,  the  most  able  of  the 
Mexican  emperors,  ascended  the  throne  about 
1437  and  died  in  1471. — Montezuma  II.,  the  last 
of  the  Mexican  emperors  before  its  subjugation 
by  the  Spaniards,  succeeded  to  the  throne  in 
1502.  When  Cories  landed  in  Mexico  with  his 
small  army  in  1519,  Montezuma,  blinded  by  an 
old  prophecy,  and  by  the  strange  appearance  of 
the  invaders,  acknowledged  them  as  beings  of  a 
superior  order,  and  as  his  masters.  Afterward, 
being  wounded  accidentally  by  a  stone  flung 
from  amongst  a  crowd  of  liis  own  subjects,  he  so 
keenly  felt  the  indignities  which  he  had  suffered, 
that  lie  repeatedly  tore  the  dressing  from  his 
wound,  and  soon  after  died,  June  30,  1520. 

Montezuma,  the  county  seat  of  Poweshiek 
count}'  Iowa.  Pop.,  1,171. 

Montfort,  the  name  of  a  noble  French  house, 
descended,  according  to  the  most  probable  opin¬ 
ion,  from  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders,  and 
Judith,  daughter  of  Charles  the  Bald. 

Montfort,  Simon  de,  Earl  of  Leicester,  was 
born  in  France  about  1206.  The  title  of  Earl  of 
Leicester  came  to  him  by  his  grandmother, 
Amide  de  Beaumont,  sister  and  heiress  of  Robert 
Earl  of  Leicester.  Montfort  came  to  England, 
and  offered  his  services  to  Henry  III.  Little  did 
Henry  think  that  the  stranger  was  to  prove 
against  himself  a  great  founder  and  champion  of 
English  constitutional  liberty.  In  1257,  the 
King’s  debts  were  so  great,  and  the  rapacity  of 
his  foreign  relations  so  unbearable,  that  his  sub¬ 
jects  were  in  a  state  of  insurrection.  The  barons 
assembled,  and,  under  the  direction  of  De  .Mont¬ 
fort,  held  the  celebrated  Parliament  at  Oxford. 
They  passed  statutes  to  enforce  the  provisions  of 
Magna  Cliarta.  But  for  the  struggles  of  De 
vlontfort  and  the  barons,  the  concessions  at 
Runnymede  would  have  been  a  mere  worthless 
par  hment.  The  King  broke  his  pledges.  A 
second  war  broke  out,  and  this  time  the  popular 
cause  was  weakened  by  defection  and  treachery. 
Prince  Edward  (afterward  Edward  I.)  encoun¬ 
tered  the  barons  at  Evesham,  with  a  greatly 
superior  army.  When  defeat  was  inevitable,  the 
great  leader  refused  to  flee.  He  “fought  stoutly 
like  a  giant  for  the  liberties  of  England,”  but  fell, 
overwhelmed  by  numbers.  The  influence  of  De 
Montfort  was  felt  after  his  death.  No  baron  was 
executed  for  bearing  arms  against  his  sovereign, 


and  although  the  Oxford  statutes  were  formally 
rescinded,  their  spirit  remained. 

Montgolfier,  Jacques  Etienne  and  Joseph 
Michael,  two  brothers,  distinguished  as  the  in¬ 
ventors  of  the  first  kind  of  balloons — the  fire 
balloons.  They  were  the  sons  of  a  celebrated 
paper-manufacturer  at  Annonay.  Etienne  died 
at  Servieres,  in  1799. — His  elder  brother,  Joseph, 
died  at  Paris  in  1810. 

Montgomery,  James,  a  minor  British  poet, 
the  son  of  a  Moravian  preacher,  was  born  at 
Irvine,  Ayrshire,  Nov.  4,  1771.  He  died  in 
Sheffield,  April  30,  1854. 

Montgomery,  a  rapidly  growing  city  in  Mont¬ 
gomery  county,  Ala.  Pop.,  27,500.  It  was  here 
that  the  capital  of  the  Southern  Confederacy  was 
first  established,  but  afterward  removed  to  Rich¬ 
mond,  Ya. 

Montgomery  Courthouse,  county  seat  of 
Montgomery  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Montgomeryshire,  an  inland  county  of  North 
Wales,  between  Shropshire  on  the  east,  and  the 
Welsh  counties,  Merioneth  and  Cardigan,  on  the 
west.  Area,  483,323  acres;  pop.  (1881),  65,798. 

Month,  originally  the  period  of  the  moon’s 
revolution  round  the  earth.  If  this  is  reckoned 
from  the  position  of  the  moon  among  the  stars  to 
her  return  to  the  same  position,  the  period  is  called 
a  sidereal  month,  and  consists  of  27  days,  7  hours, 

43  minutes,  11)^  seconds;  but  if  from  new  moon 
to  new  moon,  it  is  longer,  being  29  days,  12  hours, 

44  minutes,  3  seconds;  this  is  called  a  synodic 
month.  There  are  several  other  periods  used  by 
astronomers  to  which  this  name  is  applied,  as  the 
tropical  or  periodic  month  (27  days,  7  hours,  43 
minutes,  4.7  seconds),  reckoned  from  the  moon’s 
passing  the  equinox  till  her  return  to  the  same 
point;  the  nodal  month  (27  days,  5  hours,  5  min¬ 
utes,  29  seconds),  from  ascending  node  to  ascend¬ 
ing  node;  the  anomalistic  month  (27  days,  13 
hours,  18  minutes,  37  seconds),  from  perigee  to 
perigee;  and  the  solar  month,  which  is  the 
twelfth  part  of  a  solar  year,  consisting  of  30  days, 
10  hours,  29  minutes,  and  4  seconds  Distinct 
from  all  these  is  the  civil  or  calendar  month,  fixed 
by  law  for  ordinary  purposes,  and  consisting  of  a 
fixed  number  of  days — from  28  to  31 — according 
to  the  particular  month. 

Mont icello.  The  name  of  several  towns  in 
the  United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county 
seat  of  Drew  county,  Ark.  Pop.,  1,875. — 2. 
County  seat  of  Jasper  county,  Ga.  Pop  ,  650. — 
3.  County  seat  of  Jefferson  county,  Fla.  Pop., 
1,550.-4.  County  seat  of  Lawrence  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  75. — 5.  County  seat  of  Piatt  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  1,900. — 6.  County  seat  of  Sullivan 
county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  1,200 — 7.  County  seat  of 
Wayne  county,  Ky.  Pop.,  625. — 8.  County  seat 
of  White  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  1,800. — 9.  The 
name  of  a  hamlet  in  Albemarle  county,  Ya.,  the 
seat  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  now  noted  for  its  wines 
and  vineyards. 

Montjoie  St.  Denis,  the  war-cry  of  the  old 
kings  of  France,  said  to  be  as  ancient  as  the  days 
of  Clovis,  and  from  which  the  king-of-arms, 
Montjoie,  who  had  exclusive  jurisdiction  in 
France,  derived  its  title. 

Mantlu^on,  a  town  of  France,  Department  of 
Ailier.  Pop.  (1876),  21,904. 

Montpe  'tier,  the  capital  of  Vermont,  is  on  the 
Winooski  river,  215  miles  north-northwest  of 
Boston.  It  is  a  picturesque  town,  with  a  hand¬ 
some  State-house.  Pop.  (1889),  5,000. 

Montpelier,  the  name  of  the  seat  of  President 
James  Madison,  in  Albemarle  county,  Va. 

Montpellier  (Lat.  Mans  pessulanus  or  puel- 
larutn),  a  city  of  France,  in  the  Department  of 
Herault,  in  43°  36'  N.  latitude,  and  3°  50'  E. 
longitude.  Pop.  (1876)  of  the  town  alone,  51,838. 

Montreal',  the  largest  city  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  in  Quebec  Province,  lies  in  latitude  45° 
31'  N.,  longitude  73°  35'  W.,  on  the  eastern  side 
of  an  island  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ottawa  with 
the  St.  Lawrence.  Situated  at  the  head  of  the 
ocean  navigation  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  Montreal 
has  naturally  become  the  depot  for  the  exports 
and  imports  of  all  the  Canadas.  Several  traffic 
lines  afford  direct  communication  with  all  the  im¬ 
portant  cities  and  towns  in  New  York  State  and 
the  States  of  New  England.  Pop.  (1881),  140,863. 

Montreal,  the  large  and  fertile  island  on  which 
the  city  of  the  same  name  is  built,  is  30  miles 


long,  10  miles  at  its  greatest  breadth,  and  contains 
197  square  miles. 

Montrose  Courthouse,  county  seat  of  Montrose 
county,  Colo.  Pop.,  875. 

Montrose,  county  seat  of  Susquehanna  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Mont  rnss,  the  county  seat  of  Westmoreland 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  250. 

Montserrat',  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  belong¬ 
ing  to  Britain,  lies  forty-three  miles  northwest  of 
Guadeloupe,  and  at  a  similar  distance  from  An¬ 
tigua  and  St.  Kitts.  It  is  about  11  miles  in  length, 
7  in  breadth,  and  contains  an  area  of  47  square 
miles.  The  pop.  in  1871  was  8,693. 

Montserrat  (Lat.  Mons  Serrntus,  so  named 
from  having  jagged  ridges  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw), 
a  mountain  of  Catalonia,  in  the  northeast  of 
Spain,  about  thirty  miles  from  Barcelona.  Its 
height  is  3,919  feet. 

Moon,  The,  the  satellite  of  the  earth,  revolving 
round  the  earth  from  west  to  east  in  a  period  of 
one  month,  and  in  consequence  accompanying  the 
earth  in  its  motion  round  the  sun.  The  first  pe¬ 
culiarity  about  the  moon  that  strikes  a  casual  ob¬ 
server,  is  the  constant  and  regular  change  of  her 
illuminated  surface  from  a  thin  crescent  to  a  circle, 
and  vice  versa,  and  a  corresponding  change  in  the 
time  of  her  appearance  above  the  horizon.  These 
changes  depend  upon  the  position  of  the  moon 
relative  to  the  earth  and  the  sun,  for  it  is  only  the 
half  of  the  moon  facing  the  sun  that  is  illuminated 
by  his  rays,  and  the  whole  of  this  illuminated 
portion  can  only  be  seen  from  the  earth  when  the 
sun,  earth,  and  moon  are  in  a  straight  line  (the 
line  of  syzygies),  and  the  earth  is  between  the  sun 
and  moon.  When  the  moon  is  in  the  line  of 
syzygies,  but  between  the  earth  and  the  sun,  no 
part  of  her  illuminated  disc  can  be  seen  from  the 
earth.  In  the  former  case,  the  moon  is  said  to  be 
full,  and  in  the  latter,  new.  A  few  hours  after 
“new  moon,”  the  moon  appears  a  little  to  the  east 
of  the  sun  as  a  thin  crescent,  with  the  horns 
pointing  toward  the  east,  and  as  she  increases  her 
angular  distance  from  the  sun  at  the  rate  of  about 
12°  daily,  the  crescent  of  light  becomes  broader, 
till,  after  the  lapse  of  a  little  more  than  seven 
days,  at  which  time  she  is  90°  in  advance  of  the 
sun,  she  presents  the  appearance  of  a  semicircle 
of  light.  The  moon  is  then  said  to  have  com¬ 
pleted  her  first  quarter.  Continuing  her  course, 
she  becomes  “  Gibbous,”  and  at  the  fifteenth  or 
sixteenth  day  from  new  moon,  attains  a  position 
180°  in  advance  of  the  sun,  and  now  presents  the 
appearance  known  as  full  moon.  From  this  point 
she  begins  to  approach  the  sun,  again  appearing 
gibbous,  and  after  a  third  period  of  more  than 
seven  days,  reaches  a  point  90°  west  of  him,  and 
enters  her  last  quarter.  Here,  again,  she  appears 
as  a  semicircle  of  light,  the  illuminated  portion 
being  that  which  was  not  illuminated  at  the  end 
of  the  first  quarter.  The  moon  now  rapidly  ap¬ 
proaching  the  sun,  resumes  the  crescent  form, 
but  this  time  with  the  horns  pointing  westward, 
the  crescent  becoming  thinner  and  thinner,  till 
the  moon  reaches  the  position  of  new  moon, 
and  disappears.  From  “full  moon”  to  “new 
moon,”  the  moon  is  said  to  be  waning;  and 
from  “new  moon”  to  “full  moon,”  waxing. 
Its  mean  distance  from  the  earth  has  been  esti¬ 
mated  at  237,600  miles,  actual  diameter  2,153 
miles.  Her  volume  is  therefore  about  Jg  of 
that  of  the  earth,  and  her  density  being  only  .577 
(that  of  the  earth  being  taken  as  unity),  her  mass 
is  only  of  the  earth’s  mass;  consequently,  the 
force  of  gravity  at  her  surface  is  so  much  less 
than  it  is  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  that  a  body 
which  weighs  1,000  pounds  here,  would  at  the 
moon  weigh  only  163  pounds.  The  moon 
revolves  round  the  earth  in  an  elliptic  orbit,  with 
the  earth  in  the  focus.  The  plane  of  her  orbit 
does  not  coincide  with  the  ecliptic,  but  is  in¬ 
clined  to  it  at  an  angle  of  5°  8'  47.9' ',  and  inter¬ 
sects  it  in  two  opposite  points,  which  are  called 
the  nodes.  The  point  at  which  the  moon  is 
nearest  to  the  earth  is  called  her  perigee,  and  that 
at  which  she  is  furthest  from  it  her  apogee,  and 
the  line  joining  these  two  points  is  called  (lie 
line  of  apsides.  The  moon,  like  all  other  satel¬ 
lites,  as  far  as  at  present  known,  revolves  round 
her  owTn  axis  in  precisely  the  same  time  that  she 
revolves  round  the  earth.  The  surface  of  the 
moon,  as  seen  from  the  earth,  presents  a  most 


MOON. 


544 


MORGANTOWN. 


irregular  grouping  of  light  and  shade.  The  dark 
portions  were  named  by  the  earlier  astronomers 
as  seas,  lakes,  etc.,  and  still  retain  these  names, 
although  there  is  strong  evidence  against  the  sup¬ 
position  that  the  moon,  or  at  least  that  portion 


The  Moon. 

From  De  la  Rue’s  Photograph. 


of  it  presented  to  us,  contains  any  water.  •  The 
brighter  parts  of  the  moon  are  mountainous,  as  is 
proved  by  the  fact  of  their  casting  shadows  when 
the  sun’s'rays  fall  upon  them  obliquely,  and  also 
by  the  ragged  appearance  presented  by  the 
interior  illuminated  border  of  the  moon,  an 
appearance  which  can  only  be  satisfactorily 
accounted  for  on  the  supposition  that  the  surface 
of  the  moon  is  not  level.  The  influence  of  the 
moon  in  causing  tides  has  long  been  well  known, 
and  there  is  some  reason  for  supposing  that  she 
produces  a  similar  effect  on  the  atmosphere,  com¬ 
bining  with  other  causes  in  the  generation  of 
winds. 

Moon,  Mountains  of  the.  The  name  of  a 
supposititious  range  of  mountains  in  Africa 
whose  existence,  though  hypothetical,  was  until 
lately  believed  in  by  all  geographers  and  assigned 
a  shifting  locality  ranging  from  10°  N.  to  10°  S. 
latitude,  extending  across  the  continent  east  and 
west. 

Moon 'jail,  Munjah,  or  Moonya n  (Saccharinn 
munja),  a  grass  of  the  same  genus  with  the  sugar¬ 
cane,  a  native  of  India,  the  leaves  of  which  afford 
a  useful  fiber,  of  which  ropes  are  made. 

Moore,  Sir  John,  English  general,  born  at 
Glasgow,  1761.  He  entered  the  army  as  Ensign 
when  only  fifteen,  and  served  with  distinction  in 
Corsica  as  Colonel;  in  the  West  Indies,  as  Briga¬ 
dier-General;  in  Ireland,  during  the  Rebellion  of 
1798,  and  in  the  Expedition  to  Holland,  as  a  Gen- 
eral-of-Staff.  He  was  in  Egypt  with  the  army 
under  Abercromby.  When  war  again  broke  out 
in  1802,  Moore  served  in  Sicily  and  Sweden.  In 
1808  he  was  sent  with  a  corps  of  10,000  men  to 
strengthen  the  English  army  in  the  Peninsula. 
He  was  killed  at  Coruna,  Spain,  in  1809.  A 
monument  was  erected  to  Moore’s  memory  in  St. 
Paul’s  Cathedral. 

Moore,  Thomas,  the  most  noted  of  Irish  poets, 
and  a  brilliant  author  of  prose  as  well,  the  son  of 
a  small  tradesman,  was  born  in  Dublin  on  May 
28,  1779.  In  1793  he  was  sent  to  the  Dublin  Uni¬ 
versity.  While  there,  he  translated  the  Odes  of 
Anacreon.  In  1798, with  his  translation  of  Anac- 
ieon  in  his  pocket,  he  came  to  London  to  study 
law,  and  entered  himself  in  the  Middle  Temple. 
In  1802  lie  produced  his  Poetical  Works  of  the 
Late  Thomas  Little — a  volume  of  sweet  but  licen¬ 
tious  verse,  which  was  a  good  deal  blamed,  and 
very  widely  read.  From  this  time  to  within  a 
few  years  of  his  death,  he  was  constantly  engaged 
in  his  literary  pursuits,  his  most  celebrated  pro¬ 
ductions  being  his  Irish  Melodies,  The.  Two-Penny 
Post-Bag,  Lalla  Rookli,  The  Fudge  Family,  Loves 
of  the  Angels,  The  Epicurean,  Memoirs  of  Captain 
Rock,  and  the  lives  of  Sheridan,  Byron,  and  Fitz¬ 
gerald.  His  last  important  work  was  a  History  of 
Ireland.  He  died  on  Feb.  25,  1852. 

Moorefielil,  the  county  seat  of  Hardy  county. 
W.  Va  Pop.,  1,000. 


Moorhead,  the  county  seat  of  Clay  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Moors  (Lat.  Mauri,  meaning  dark,  Span. 
Moros)  are  a  people  who  form  the  great  majority 
of  the  population  of  Barbary.  Their  appearance 
indicates  their  origin,  which  is  a  mixture  of  the 
Mauri  (from  whom  they  derive  their  name),  Nu- 
midians,  Phoenicians,  Romans,  and  Arabs,  who 
have  successively  held  possession  of  the  country. 
They  are  a  well-formed  race,  with  fine  Oriental 
features,  and  a  mild  and  melancholy  expression 
of  countenance.  They  are  more  friendly  and 
sociable  than  the  Bedouins  and  Berbers,  who 
inhabit  the  deserts  and  mountains,  but  are  inferior 
to  them  in  mental  ability,  besides  being  voluptu¬ 
ous  and  cruel.  The  Moors  first,  appear  in  modern 
history  as  the  allies  of  the  Vandals  in  their  inva¬ 
sion  of  Africa,  and  were  continually  rebelling 
against  the  Byzantine  emperor.  They  were  next, 
after  a  severe  struggle,  conquered  and  converted 
by  the  Arabs,  in  707.  In  1091  they  were  sum¬ 
moned  by  the  latter  into  Spain,  to  aid  in  stem¬ 
ming  the  tide  of  Christian  conquest,  and  after 
faithfully  supporting  the  Arab  Calif  of  Cordova, 
etc.,  till  his  dominions  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
King  of  Leon  and  Castile,  they  retired  in  1238  to 
Granada,  where  they  founded  their  kingdom. 
The  kings  of  Granada  carried  on  a  vigorous,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  chivalrous  warfare  with  the 
kings  of  Castile,  but  at  length,  weakened  by 
internal  discord,  were  compelled  to  succumb  to 
Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  in  1192.  The  Moors,  or 
at  least  that  portion  of  them  who  refused  to  adopt 
Christianity,  were  then  expelled  from  Spain,  and, 
in  revenge,  founded  in  1518  the  piratical  States  of 
Algiers  and  Tunis.  Their  subsequent  history 
can  not  be  separated  from  that  of  Algiers,  Tunis, 
and  Morocco. 

Mora  Courthouse,  the  county  seat  of  Mora 
county,  N.  M.  Pop.,  915. 

Mora,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Lcguminosce ,  sub-order  Ciesalpiniece.  The  timber 
is  said  to  be  equal  to  oak  of  the  finest  quality. 
It  is  already  a  considerable  article  of  commerce, 
under  the  name  of  morawood.  It  is  darker  than 
mahogany.  Is  is  valued  for  ship-building. 

Mora'cese,a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
or,  according  to  many  botanists,  a  sub-order  of 
Urlicen.  There  are  about  200  known  species. 
Among  the  species  are  figs,  mulberries,  osage 
orange,  fustic,  and  contrayerva. 

Morai'ne.  The  masses  of  rock  which,  by  at¬ 
mospheric  action,  are  separated  from  the 
mountains  bounding  the  valleys  along  which 
glaciers  flow,  find  a  temporary  resting-place  on 
the  surface  of  the  ice,  at  the  margin  of  the 
glacier,  and  are  carried  along  with  it,  but  so 
slowly,  that  they  form  a  continuous  line  along 
each  margin.  These  lines  of  debris  are  called 
lateral  moraines.  When  two  glaciers  unite,  the 
twoinner  moraines  unite  also,  and  form  one  large 
trail  in  the  middle  of  the  trunk  glacier  and  this  is 
called  a  medial  moraine.  A  large  portion  of  these 
rocky  fragments  at  length  reaches  the  end  of  the 
glacier  and  here  the  melting  ice  leaves  it  as  a 
huge  mound,  which  is  known  as  a  terminal  mo¬ 
raine. 

Mo'rava,  the  chief  river  of  Servia.  The 
stream  flows  northward  to  the  Danube,  and  has  a 
total  length  of  about  180  miles. 

Morava,  or  more  properly,  March,  a  river  of 
Austria,  has  its  origin  in  the  southern  slope  of 
the  Schneebcrg,  on  the  borders  of  Prussian  Si¬ 
lesia,  falling  into  the  Danube,  eight  miles  above 
Presburg.  Its  course  is  184  miles  in  length. 

Mora 'via  (Ger.  Mahren),  a  crown-land  of  the 
Austrian  Empire,  situated  in  48°  40' — 50°  N.  lati¬ 
tude,  and  15°  5' — 18°  45'  E.  longitude.  It  is 
bounded  north  by  Prussian  and  Austrian  Silesia, 
east  by  Hungary  and  Gallicia,  south  by  the 
Duchy  of  Austria,  and  west  by  Bohemia.  The 
superficial  area  is  about  8,480  square  miles;  and 
the  pop.  in  1880  was  2,153,406. 

Moravians  (called  also  United  Brethren,  Mo¬ 
ravian  Brethren,  or  Bohemian  Brethren),  a  re¬ 
ligious  community,  tracing  its  origin  to  the  fol¬ 
lowers  of  John  Huss.  The  Moravians  are  recog¬ 
nized  by  the  State  in  Germany  as  Protestants  at¬ 
tached  to  the  Augsburg  Confession.  They  have 
no  symbolical  books  of  their  own,  although  they 
drew  up  a  simple  and  brief  confession  of  their 
faith  in  1727,  and  a  brief  statement  of  principles 


was  emitted  by  a  svnod  held  in  1775.  The  re¬ 
ligious  services  of  the  (Moravians  are  conducted 
with  great  simplicity.  They  meet  for  worship 
daily,  in  the  evening,  the  service  being  much 
like  that  of  a  prayer-meeting  amongst  other 
Christians.  They  use  a  litany  on  the  Lord’s  Day, 
but  extemporary  prayer  is  frequent.  They  ad¬ 
mit  the  usu  of  instrumental  music.  They  main¬ 
tain  the  practice  of  washing  the  feet,  both  in 
choirs  and  in  congregations,  before  the  commun¬ 
ion.  They  meet  on  the  last  day  of  the  year,  to 
bring  in  the  New  Year  with  prayer  and  other 
exercises  of  religion.  On  Easter  morning,  they 
assemble  in  the  burying  ground  to  celebrate  the 
resurrection  of  Christ,  and  to  express  their  confi¬ 
dence  concerning  the  brethren  who  have  died 
during  the  preceding  year.  The  death  of  a 
member  of  the  brotherhood  is  made  known  in 
the  chief  settlements  by  sound  of  trumpets  as  if 
for  victory. 

Mo 'ray  Firth,  an  indentation  of  the  German 
Ocean,  on  the  northeast  coast  of  Scotland.  The 
entrance  of  the  firth  between  Burghead  and  Tar- 
bet  Ness  is  16  miles  in  width;  and  from  its  entrance 
to  Inverness  it  is  31  miles  in  extent. 

Morbilian,  a  maritime  department  in  the  North¬ 
west  of  France,  formed  out  of  the  ancient  Bre¬ 
tagne.  Area,  2,615  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
521,614. 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  Lord  Chancellor,  and  one 
of  England's  worthiest  sons,  was  born  in  (Milk 
Street,  London,  in  1478,  son  of  Sir  John  More, 
Justice  of  the  Queen’s  Bench.  He  was  beheaded 
by  Henry  VIII.,  in  1535,  because  he  would  not 
consent  to  the  divorce  of  that  monarch  from 
Queen  Catharine  of  Aragon. 

More 'a,  the  name  borne  by  the  ancient  Pelo¬ 
ponnesus  since  the  middle  ages,  if  not  from  as 
early  a  period  as  the  fourth  century.  The  Morea 
forms  the  most  southern  part  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Greece,  and  is  divided  into  the  nomarchies  of 
Argolis,  Corinth,  Laconia,  Messenia,  Arcadia, 
Achaia,  and  Elis.  Pop.  in  1880  was  745,000. 

Moreau,  Jean  Victor,  the  greatest  general  of 
the  French  Republic,  except  Bonaparte,  was  born 
Aug.  11,  1763,  at  Morlaix,  in  Bretagne.  During 
the  Revolution  he  fought  for  France  against  the 
Austrians  with  such  skill  and  success  as  to  rouse 
the  jealousy  of  Bonaparte,  which  culminated  in 
his  banishment,  during  which  he  resided  in  New 
Jersey.  In  1813  he  returned  to  Europe  and 
joined  the  allies  against  France,  and  while  assist¬ 
ing  them  at  the  Battle  of  Dresden,  he  was 
wounded,  from  which  he  died  on  September  2d. 

Mor'el  (Morchella),  a  genus  of  fungi,  of  the 
division  Ilymenomycetes.  They  grow  on  the 
ground,  and  have  a  more  or  less  agreeable  smell 
and  taste.  Some  of  them  are  reckoned  among 
esculent  fungi,  of  which  the  best  known  is  the 
common  morel  (M.  esntlenla )  a  fungus  common  in 
many  parts  of  the  Middle  and  South  of  Europe. 
Its  stalk  is  only  about  an  inch  high,  and  it  has  a 
roundish,  oval,  oblong,  or  conical,  yellowish  or 
brown  pileus.  It  is  nutritious,  and  not  difficult 
of  digestion;  but  is  chiefly  used  in  sauces  and 
gravies,  on  account  of  its  pleasant  flavor. 

More 'ton  Bay,  on  the  east  coast  of  Queens¬ 
land,  Australia,  is  formed  inside  the  Islands  of 
Moreton  and  Stradbroke,  the  former  23  miles, 
and  the  latter  35  miles  in  length,  and  both  about 
5  miles  in  greatest  breadth.  It  is  65  miles  in 
length  (latitude  27s — 27°  55'  S.)  by  23  miles  in 
greatest  breadth. 

Morelieail,  the  county  seat  of  Rowan  county. 
Ivy.  Pop.,  625. 

Morelia,  an  old  city  of  Mexico.  Pop.,  46,000. 

Morgan,  the  county  seat  of  Calhoun  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  250. 

Morgan  Courthouse,  the  county  seat  of  Mor¬ 
gan  county,  Utah.  Pop.,  750. 

Morganat'ic  Marriage  (Goth,  morgjan,  to 
curtail,  limit),  sometimes  called  left-handed  mar¬ 
riage,  a  lower  sort  of  matrimonial  union  which, 
as  a  civil  engagement,  is  completely  binding,  but 
fails  to  confer  on  the  wife  the  title  or  fortune  of 
her  husband,  and  on  the  children  the  full  status 
of  legitimacy  or  right  of  succession. 

Morgansfield,  the  county  seat  of  Union  county. 
Ivy.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Morganton,  the  county  seat  of  Burke  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  1,075. 


MORGANTON. 


545 


MORSE. 


Morganton,  the  county  seat  of  Fannin  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  500. 

Morgantown,  the  county  seat  of  Butler  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  375. 

Morgantown,  the  county  seat  of  Monongalia 
county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  1,275. 

Morgue,  a  French  word  denoting  the  inner 
wicket  of  a  prison,  at  which  persons  accused  or 
condemned,  are  kept  for  some  time,  in  order  that 
the  jailors  and  turnkeys  may  examine  them  at 
their  leisure,  so  as  to  he  able  to  recognize  them 
when  occasion  requires.  Hence  the  application 
of  the  word  to  a  certain  building  ( La  Morgue)  in 
the  “  City”  {La  Cite)  of  Paris,  at  the  extremity  of 
the  lie  cle  la  Cite,  just  behind  the  cathedral  of 
Notre  D  une,  where  the  dead  bodies  of  persons  un¬ 
known,  found  either  in  the  river  (Seine)  or  in  the 
streets,  are  exposed  to  public  view  for  three  days. 
The  corpses  are  put  under  a  glass  case,  on  a 
sloping  slab  of  black  marble.  When  a  corpse  is 
recognized,  it  is  handed  over  to  the  relatives  or 
friends  of  the  deceased,  on  payment  of  costs  and 
dues — otherwise,  it  is  interred  at  the  expense  of 
the  city.  There  are  morgues  in  New  York,  Brook¬ 
lyn,  Chicago,  and  other  American  towns. 

Mo'rion,  an  iron  or  steel  headpiece  worn  by  a 
man-at-arms  in  the  days  when  armor  was  used. 

Morison,  Robert,  M.D.,  one  of  the  most  emi¬ 
nent  botanists  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  a 
native  of  Aberdeen.  After  the  Restoration,  he 
was  appointed  by  Charles  II.  one  of  his  physi¬ 
cians,  and  “  botanist  royal, ’’and became  Professor 
of  Botany  at  Oxford.  He  died  in  1683.  His 
great  work  is  Plantarum  Historia  Universalis  Ox- 
oniensis. 

Mor'uions,  or,  as  they  call  themselves,  The 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-day  Saints, 
are  a  religious  sect  founded  by  Joseph  Smith. 
Smith  was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  was  born  in 
the  town  of  Sharon,  Windsor  county,  Vt.,  Dec. 
23,  1805.  He  professed  to  have  received  a  revela¬ 
tion  from  an  angel  directing  him  to  search  for  the 
“Book  of  Mormon,”  which  was  deposited  “  on 
the  west  side  of  a  hill,  not  far  from  the  top,  about 
four  miles  from  Palmyra,  in  the  county  of  On¬ 
tario,  and  near  the  mail-road,  which  leads  thence 
to  the  little  town  of  Manchester,”  (N.  Y.)  He 
advised  him  to  go  and  view  it,  which  Smith 
did;  but  the  prophet  was  not  yet  holy  enough  to 
obtain  possession  of  it.  At  length,  after  due  dis¬ 
ciplinary  probation,  the  angel  of  the  Lord,  on 
Sept.  22,  1827,  placed  in  Smith’s  hands 

the  wonderful  records.  They  were  engraven  on 
plates  nearly  8  inches  long  by  7  wide,  a  little 
thinner  than  ordinary  tin,  and  bound  together  by 
three  rings  running  through  the  whole.  The  vol¬ 
ume  was  altogether  about  six  inches  in  thickness, 
a  part  of  which  was  sealed.  The  characters,  let¬ 
ters,  or  hieroglyphics  upon  the  unsealed  part 
were  small,  and  beautifully  engraved.  They  rep¬ 
resented  an  unknown  language,  called  the  “  Re¬ 
formed  Egyptian.”  Along  with  the  records  was 
found  a  curious  instrument,  called  by  Smith 
“  Urim  and  Thummim,”  consisting  of  two  trans¬ 
parent  stones  set  in  the  rim  on  a  bow  fastened  to 
a  breastplate.  By  means  of  these  stone-specta¬ 
cles,  God  enabled  him  to  understand  and  translate 
the  ancient  records  into  such  humble  English  as 
the  “prophet”  (who  had  received  almost  no 
school  education,  and  could  read  with  difficulty) 
was  master  of.  The  records  contain  the  primitive 
history  of  America,  from  its  first  settlement  by  a 
colony  that  came  from  the  Tower  of  Babel,  at  the 
confusion  of  languages — the  facts  on  which  the 
religious  faith  of  the  Mormons  is  founded — and 
were  the  work  of  a  prophet  called  Mormon,  who 
had  been  commissioned  by  God  to  write  an 
abridgment  of  all  their  prophecies,  histories,  etc., 
and  to  hide  it  in  the  earth,  till  God  should  see  fit 
to  bring  it  forth,  and  “  unite  it  with  the  Bible  for 
the  accomplishment  of  his  purposes  in  the  last 
days.”  This  is  the  famous  Book  of  Mormon. 
In  420  a.d.,  they  were  finally  sealed  up  where 
Smith  found  them,  by  Moroni,  one  of  the  few 
survivors  of  the  Battle  of  Cumorah.  The  Book 
of  Mormon  finally  appeared  before  the  world  in 
1830,  with  the  names  of  Oliver  Cowdery,  Martin 
Harris,  and  David  Whitmer  appended  to  a 
statement,  that  an  angel  of  God  had  come  down 
from  heaven  and  shown  them  the  original 
plates.  The  work  of  proselyting  was  be¬ 
gun,  and  on  April  6,  1830,  the  Church  of 


Jesus  Christ  of  Latter-dag  Saints  was  first  organ¬ 
ized  in  the  town  of  Manchester,  State  of  New 
York.  In  January,  1831,  Smith  and  his  followers 
considered  it  prudent  to  remove  to  a  distant  part 
of  the  country.  They  established  themselves  at 
Kirtland,  in  Ohio,  which  was  to  be  the  seat  of  the 
New  Jerusalem.  They  now  made  immense  prog¬ 
ress.  In  the  autumn  of  1831,  a  colony  was  estab¬ 
lished  in  Jackson  county,  Mo.  Here  for  a  time 
they  prospered,  but  at  last  in  1838  they  were 
compelled  to  quit  the  State,  and  the  whole  body 
of  Saints,  15,000  in  number,  emigrated  from 
Missouri  to  Illinois,  and  settled  at  Nauvoo.  Prior 
to  the  settlement  in  Missouri  polygamy  had  not 
been  practiced,  but  was  denounced.  However, 
about  this  time  it  was  grafted  on  to  the  system  as 
the  result  of  a  special  revelation,  the  process  being 
termed  “sealing  of  spiritual  wives.”  The  country 
about  Nauvoo  was  a  mere  wilderness  when  the 
Mormons  settled  in  it;  it  soon  began  to  rejoice 
and  blossom  as  the  rose.  But  the  doctrine  of  1  ‘  seal¬ 
ing  wives  ”  once  more  roused  the  wrath  of  the 
neighborhood,  and  serious  disturbances  took 
place,  the  ultimate  result  of  which  was  that  the 
prophet  and  his  brother  Hyram  were  thrown  into 
prison  at  Carthage.  After  a  short  time,  it  began 
to  be  rumored  that  the  Governor  of  the  State  was 
desirous  of  letting  the  two  Smiths  escape,  where¬ 
upon  a  band  of  “  roughs,”  about  200  in  number, 
broke  into  the  jail,  June  27,  1844,  and  shot  them. 
It  may  here  be  stated  that  it  can  not  be  shown  that 
Smith  was  a  polygamist,  in  our  sense  of  the  word. 
Years  after  his  death,  Brigham  Young  produced 
a  paper  which  he  said  was  a  copy  of  a  “  revela¬ 
tion  ’made  to  Joseph  at  Nauvoo,  commanding 
him  to  take  as  many  wives  as  God  should  give 
him.  But  it  was  not  till  Aug.  29,  1852,  at  a 
public  meeting  held  in  the  Salt  Lake  City,  that 
the  “  revelation  ”  was  formally  received.  Smith’s 
death  created  great  agitation  and  confusion  among 
his  followers.  Sidney  Rigdon  and  others  aspired 
to  succeed  him,  but  the  Council  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles  unanimously  elected  Brigham  Young. 
The  Legislature  of  Illinois  having  revoked,  in  1845, 
the  charter  given  to  the  city  of  Nauvoo,  and  the 
hostility  of  their  neighbors  not  having  in  the 
least  abated,  the  Saints  resolved  to  emigrate  far 
beyond  the  boundaries  of  civilization,  and  to  seek 
a  new  home  amid  the  solitudes  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  where  they  might  pass  their  lives  in 
unmolested  peace.  Explorers  were  sent  out  to 
examine  the  country,  and  brought  back  a  favor¬ 
able  report  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake  Valley.  Brig¬ 
ham  Young  arrived  in  the  valley,  July  24,  1847, 
and  the  main  body  of  the  Mormons  in  the  autumn 
of  1848.  In  1850  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  admitted  the  region  occupied  by  the  Mor 
mons  into  the  Union,  as  a  Territory,  under  the 
name  of  Utah,  and  Brigham  Young  was  appointed 
Governor  by  President  Fillmore.  Brigham  Young 
was  soon  suspended  from  his  office  of  Governor, 
and  Colonel  Steptoe  of  the  United  States  army 
was  appointed  his  successor.  During  the  follow¬ 
ing  years,  the  collisions  between  the  United  States 
officers  and  the  Saints  became  more  and  more 
frequent,  and  in  the  spring  of  1856,  the  whole  of 
the  former  were  forced  to  flee  from  the  Territory. 
After  the  closeof  the  Civil  War,  the  United  States 
Government  determined  to  insist  on  its  authority. 
A  Federal  Governor  was  again  appointed,  and 
polygamy  was  declared,  in  1871,  to  be  a  criminal 
practice  contrary  to  the  laws  of  the  United  States; 
Brigham  Young  was  even  arrested.  One  of  the 
most  notable  events  in  the  recent  history  of  the 
Mormons  took  place  in  the  year  of  Brigham 
Young’s  death  (1877).  John  D.  Lee,  a  Mormon 
bishop,  was  brought  to  trial  and  executed  for  his 
share  in  a  crime  till  then  uninvestigated.  In  1857 
a  party  of  Mormons  and  Indians,  under  Lee’s 
command,  assaulted  a  train  of  150  non-Mormon 
emigrants  at  Mountain  Meadows,  near  Utah,  and 
massacred  every  soul  of  them.  In  1882  the  United 
States  House  of  Representatives  opened  its  long 
threatened  campaign  against  the  Mormons,  and 
by  a  majority  of  nearly  four  to  one,  passed  a  bill 
prohibiting  polygamy  within  the  Union.  Since 
then  numerous  prosecutions  have  been  made 
under  the  law  and  the  practice  may  be  said  to  be 
suppressed. 

Morny,  Charles  Auguste  Louis  Joseph, 
Comte  de,  a  French  statesman  of  the  second 
empire.  It  is  believed  that  he  was  half-brother 


of  Louis  Napoleon.  He  was  born  in  Paris,  Oct. 
20,  1811.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  coup 
d’etat.  He  died  May,  1865. 

Moroc'co,  or  Marocco,  called  by  the  natives 
M  aghrib-el-Aksa,  “the  extreme  west,”  or  briefly 
Maghrib,  an  empire  or  sultanate  in  the  Northwest 
of  Africa,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Algeria,  on 
the  north  and  west  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  south  by  a  line  which 
runs  from  Cape  Nun  (latitude  28°  45'  43' '  N.)  in 
an  easterly  direction  through  the  Sahara  to  the 
Algerian  frontier  in  longitude  2°  E.  At  the 
present  day  Morocco  includes  the  three  former 
Kingdoms  of  Maghrib,  Fez,  and  Tafilelet,  and 
contains  about  260,000  square  miles,  with  a 
pop.  of,  which  the  estimates  vary,  from  2,500,000 
to  8,000,000. 

Morocco  (Arab.  M arakash),  the  capital  of  the 
empire  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  in  the  south¬ 
west  of  the  country,  four  miles  south  of  the  River 
Tensift,  and  at  the  north  end  of  an  extensive  and 
fertile  plain.  The  pop.  is  estimated  at  about 
60,000. 

Mor'phens  (literally,  the  shaper  or  fashioner),  in 
the  Classic  Mythology,  the  son  of  Somnus  (sleep), 
and  the  god  of  dreams.  He  is  so  named,  because 
he  shapes  or  molds  the  dreams  that  visit  the 
sleeper.  He  is  first  mentioned  by  Ovid,  and  is 
represented  as  an  old  man  with  wings,  pouring 
somniferous  vapor  out  of  a  horn. 

Mor'pliia^nHisNO.-)  +  H20)  derives  its  name 
from  Morpheus,  in  allusion  to  its  narcotic  proper¬ 
ties.  It  is  the  most  important  of  the  alkaloids 
existing  in  opium,  of  which  it  constitutes  from 
J  to  jtg  by  weight.  The  therapeutic  uses  of 
morphia  and  its  salts  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
opium ;  but  the  preparations  of  morphia  are  prefer¬ 
able  to  opium  and  laudanum  in  being  less  liable 
to  occasion  nausea  and  headache.  The  ordinary 
dose  of  morphia,  or  its  hydrochlorate  or  acetate, 
when  given  to  an  adult  to  allay  pain  or  induce 
sleep,  ranges  from  a  quarter  of  a  grain  to  half  a 
grain. 

Morrillton,  the  county  seat  of  Conway  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  1,575. 

Morris,  the  county  seat  of  Grundy  county,  Ill. 
Pop.,  6,000. 

Morris,  the  county  seat  of  Stevens  county, Minn. 
Pop.,  1, 700. 

Morris,  William,  one  of  the  most  notable  of 
contemporary  English  poets,  was  born  near  Lon¬ 
don  in  1834,  and  educated  as  a  painter.  In  1863 
he  associated  himself  with  some  others  to  found 
an  establishment  for  designing  and  manufacturing 
decorative  furniture,  wall-paper,  stained  glass, 
and  the  like,  and  the  influence  of  this  establish¬ 
ment  on  modern  taste  has  been  decidedly  benefi¬ 
cial.  He  is  an  active  socialist.  His  best  known 
poems  are  contained  in  The  Earthly  Paradise. 

Morrison,  the  county  seat  of  Whiteside  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  3,750. 

Morristown,  the  county  seat  of  Hamblen 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  3,550. 

Morristown,  the  county  seat  of  Morris  county, 
N.  J.  Pop.,  10,760. 

Morrisville,  the  county  seat  of  Madison  county, 
N.  Y.  Pop.,  900. 

Morse,  Walrus  or  Sea-horse  ( Trichecus ),  a 
genus  of  amphibious  mammalia  of  the  family 
Phocidai.  There  is  only  one  known  species  {T. 
rosmarus),  sometimes  called  the  Arctic  walrus, 
an  inhabitant  of  the  Arctic  seas  and  of  the  colder 
parts  of  the  north  temperate  zone.  It  sometimes 
attains  a  size  greater  than  that  of  the  largest  ox, 
and  its  tusks  are  sometimes  2  feet,  or  even 
30  inches  long;  but  the  ordinary  length  of  the 
tusks  is  only  about  1  foot. 

Morse,  Samuel  Finley  Breese,  LL.D.,  etc., 
American  artist  and  inventor,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Rev.  Jedediah  Morse,  D.I).,  geographer,  and 
was  born  at  Charlestown,  Mass.,  April  27,  1791. 
In  1832,  he  conceived  the  idea  of  a  magnetic  tele¬ 
graph,  which  he  exhibited  to  Congress  in  1837. 
He  struggled  on  with  scanty  means  until  1843, 
when,  as  he  had  almost  yielded  to  despair,  Con¬ 
gress,  at  midnight,  and  the  last  moments  of  the 
session,  appropriated  $30,000  for  an  experimental 
line  between  Washington  and  Baltimore,  lie  re¬ 
ceived  honors,  orders  of  nobility,  and  wealth. 
Several  European  States  joined  in  presenting  him 
a  purse  of  $80,000,  and  banquets  were  given  him 
in  London  and  Paris.  The  well-known  recording 


35 


MORTALITY. 


546 


MOULD. 


instrument  is  liis  invention.  The  origination  of 
sub  marine  telegraphy  is  also  claimed  for  Morse, 
lie  died  April  2,  1872. 

Mortality,  Law  of.  While  there  are  few 
future  events  the  date  of  whose  arrival  is  more 
uncertain  than  that  of  death  to  any  one  man,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  average  duration  of  a  multi¬ 
tude  of  human  lives  is  found  to  be  in  accordance 
with  a  law  which  operates  as  surely  as  that  of 
gravitation.  If  it  be  asked  how  many  lives  must 
we  have,  before  we  can  depend  on  obtaining  from 
them  a  duration  equal  to  the  general  average,  the 
only  answer  that  can  be  given  is,  that  the  more  we 
have  the  more  nearly  must  we  approach  to  this 
result;  the  fluctuation  ultimately  becoming  so 
small  as  to  be  practically  of  no  effect.  The  an¬ 
nexed  table  includes  the  combined  calculations  of 
four  different  authorities  and  the  experience  of 
seventeen  insurance  companies.  Doctor  Farr’s 
table  is  the  authority  in  use  among  insurers  and 
has  been  found  to  be  nearly  perfect.  To  make 
use  of  this  table,  take  a  given  age  in  first  column, 
and  the  other  columns  will  give  the  average 
additional  time  a  person  will  live  after  reaching 
such  an  age  according  to  the  calculations  of  these 
authorities. 


phia,  Jan.  2G,  1799.  He  died  at  Philadelphia, 
May  15,  1851. 

Mosa'ic,  the  art  of  producing  artistic  designs 
by  setting  small  square  pieces  of  stone  or  glass  of 
different  colors,  so  as  to  give  the  effect  of  paint¬ 
ing.  The  name  is  from  the  Greek  /uovdeioS, 
mouseios,  of  the  muses.  The  origin  of  the  art  is 
obscure;  but  it  was  much  practiced  by  the 
Romans. 

Mos'cow,  an  important  government  of  Central 
Russia,  lies  immediately  south  of  the  governments 
of  Tver  and  Vladimir.  Area,  12,552  square  miles; 
pop.  (1880),  1,938,858. 

Moscow  (Russ.  Moshwa),  the  ancient  capital 
of  Russia,  and  formerly  the  residence  of  the 
czars,  is  situated  in  a  highly-cultivated  and  fer¬ 
tile  district  on  the  Moskva,  400  miles  southeast  of 
St.  Petersburg,  with  which  it  is  in  direct  commu¬ 
nication  by  railway.  Latitude  55°  40'  N.,  longi¬ 
tude  37°  33'  E.  Pop.  (1871),  601,970.  It  was 
burned  in  1812  by  order  of  the  czar,  to  prevent 
the  French  finding  shelter  there  during  thesevere 
winter.  The  result  was  the  retreat  of  Bonaparte 
and  the  destruction  of  the  French  army. 

Moselle  was  formerly  a  frontier  department  in 
the  Northeast  of  France,  but  the  greater  part  of  it 


Table  Showing  the  “Mean  Duration”  of  Human  Life,  According  to  Various  Authorities. 


Northampton. 

Carlisle. 

Government. 

English  Life  Table.— Dr.  Farr. 

Male  and  Female 

Female, 

combined. 

Finlaison, 

Male. 

Jiaie  ano  female 

Dr. 

Price. 

Dr. 

Hey  sham. 

1829. 

combined. 

Years 

Months. 

Years,  Months. 

Years,  Months. 

Years,  Months. 

Years, 

Months. 

Years,  Months. 

25 

2 

38 

9 

55 

6 

40 

2 

42 

o 

41 

o 

39 

9 

48 

10 

51 

1 

47 

1 

47 

10 

47 

5 

33 

5 

41 

6 

44 

0 

39 

11 

40 

10 

40 

4 

28 

3 

34 

4 

37 

7 

33 

2 

34 

3 

33 

8 

23 

1 

27 

7 

31 

i 

26 

6 

2 1 

9 

27 

o 

18 

0 

21 

1 

24 

4 

20 

0 

21 

1 

20 

7 

13 

3 

14 

4 

17 

4 

13 

7 

14 

5 

14 

0 

8 

7 

9 

2 

11 

0 

8 

6 

9 

0 

8 

9 

4 

9 

5 

6 

6 

6 

4 

11 

5 

‘> 

5 

i 

2 

5 

3 

3 

o 

10 

2 

9 

2 

10 

2 

9 

0 

0 

2 

3 

0 

6 

1 

6 

1 

6 

i. 

6 

Both  Sexes. 

Both  Sexes. 

Female  Life. 

Male  Life. 

Female  Life. 

Both  Sexes. 

Expel  ience  of 
Twenty  Offices.  S 

Male  Life.  ’ 


50.29 

42.06 

34.68 

27.40 

20.31 

13.83 


0 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

GO 


8  50 
4  72 


70 

80 


(at  95) 


2.36  90 

0.93  100 


Mortar,  a  piece  of  artillery  which  differs  from 
a  cannon  in  the  large  diameter  of  its  bore  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  its  length,  and  in  the  circumstance 
that  it  is  usually  fired  at  a  considerable  angle,  so 
that  the  projectile  may  strike  the  object  aimed  at 
in  a  direction  more  or  less  vertical.  The  object 
for  which  mortars  are  intended  is  the  discharge 
of  live  shells  or  carcasses.  The  use  of  mortars  is 
much  less  important  than  it  once  was,  elongated 
shells  of  great  weight  being  now  thrown  from 
rifled  cannon. 

Mort 'gage,  in  Law,  is  the  temporary  pledging 
of  realty  in  security  of  a  debt;  and  as  t lie  realty 
can  not  be  delivered  into  the  creditor’s  hand,  he 
acquires  a  hold  over  it  by  a  deed  called  an  indent¬ 
ure,  or  deed  of  mortgage.  The  ordinary  form 
of  a  mortgage-deed  resembles  an  absolute  con¬ 
veyance,  but  it  contains  a  proviso  that  if  the 
money  borrowed  is  repaid  within  a  certain  time, 
then  the  mortgagee  shall  reconvey  the  realty  to 
the  mortgager  or  borrower.  (Mortgage  deeds 
must  be  recorded.  A  mortgagee  can  assign  his 
mortgage  security  to  another  person,  who  there¬ 
upon  stands  in  his  shoes.  The  laws  of  each  State 
in  the  Union  have  their  own  peculiarities  as  to 
mortgages,  so  that  the  legal  status  of  the  subject 
can  only  be  obtained  by  consulting  the  various 
codes. 

Mor'tise  and  Ten 'oil,  a  form  of  joint  in  car¬ 
pentry.  The  tenon  is  a  projection,  generally 
rectangular  in  form,  on  the  end  of  a  piece  of 
wood,  cut  so  as  to  fit  exactly  into  a  deep  groove 
(called  the  mortise)  cut  in  another  piece,  so  that 
the  two  arc  united  at  a  required  angle. 

Morton,  Levi  Parsons,  Vice-President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Vermont  in  1824.  He 
was  twice  a  member  of  Congress,  was  sent  to 
France  as  Minister  by  President  Garfield,  and 
elected  with  Harrison  on  the  presidential  ticket 
November,  1888. 

Morton,  Oliver  P.,  born  in  Indiana  in  1823. 
Was  Governor  of  Indiana  from  1861  to  1865. 
Was  elected  United  States  Senator  in  1867,  and 
died  in  1877. 

Morton,  Samuel  George,  M.D. ,  American 
physician  and  ethnologist,  was  born  in  Philadel- 


was  taken  by  Germany  after  the  War  of  1870- 
1871.  The  small  portion  left  to  France  was 
joined  to  the  Department  of  Meurthe.  Pop., 
452,157. 

3IoselIe  (Ger.  mosel),  an  affluent,  of  the  Rhine, 
rises  in  the  Vosges  Mountains,  France.  Its  entire 
length  is  upward  of  330  miles. 

Mo'ses,  prophet  and  legislator  of  the  Israel¬ 
ites,  born  about  1600  B.C.,  in  Egj’pt.  He  led  the 
Israelites  out  of  Egypt,  gave  them  their  constitu¬ 
tion  and  laws,  and  brought  them  through  the 
wilderness  to  the  verge  of  the  Promised  Land, 
which,  however,  he  himself  was  not  permitted  to 
enter.  He  died  on  Mt.  Nebo,  aged  120  years, 
after  having  made  Joshua  the  leader  of  his  people. 

Mosqui'to  (Span,  gnat ),  a  name  very  generally 
given  to  the  most  troublesome  species  of  cylex, 
and  allied  genera.  The  bite  which  they  inflict  is 
painful,  and  their  incessant  sharp  buzzing  pre¬ 
vents  sleep.  (Mosquitoes  are  readily  attracted  to  a 
lamp,  and  perish  in  its  flame;  but  where  they  are 
numerous,  a  lamp  causes  additional  swarms 
to  congregate  in  its  neighborhood.  Gauze  net¬ 
ting  is  the  best  protection.  Pennyroyal  essence 
is  sai  l  to  drive  them  away  by  its  smell.  When 
the  bites  are  inflamed,  rub  with  spirits  of  harts¬ 
horn. 

Mosquito  Coast,  (Mosquito  Territory,  or 
Mosquiti.v,  formerly  a  native  kingdom,  under 
the  protectorate  of  Britain,  lies  on  the  cast  coast 
of  Central  America,  having  Honduras  on  the 
north,  Nicaragua  on  the  west,  and  Costa  Rica  on 
the  south.  The  area  is  estimated  at  15,000  square 
miles,  but  its  extent  would  be  more  correctly 
given  at  25,000  square  miles.  Pop.,  about 
15,000. 

Mosses  ( Mitxci),  an  order  of  acotyledonous 
plants,  consisting  of  mere  cellular  tissue  without 
vessels,  and  distinguished  from  Hepaticce,  the 
order  with  which  they  are  most  nearly  allied,  by 
having  always  a  leafy  stem,  and  an  operculated 
capsule  or  urn  {sporangium  or  theca)  which  opens 
at  the  top,  and  is  filled  with  spores  arranged 
around  a  central  column  {columella).  Several 
thousand  species  of  moss  are  known.  Many  of 
the  mosses  are  very  beautiful,  and  their  capsules 


and  other  organs  are  interesting  objects  of  study,, 
even  with  an  ordinary  magnifying  glass 

Moth,  the  popular  name  of  all  the  insects 
included  in  the  section  Nocturna  of  the  order 
l.epidoptera.  Among  them  are  the  very  largest 
Lepitloptera,  and  also  the  smallest.  Moths  are 
generally  nocturnal,  although  to  this  rule  there 
are  a  few  exceptions.  Some  are  social  both  in 
the  larva  and  chrysalis  state;  forming,  on  their 
entering  the  latter  state,  very  curious  nests.  The 
chrysalis  of  a  moth  is  never  angular  nor  furnished 
with  protuberances,  and  is  generally  enveloped 
in  a  silken  cocoon.  Silk-worm  moths  are  among 
the  insects  most  useful  to  man;  but  moths  in 
general  are  regarded  by  him  as  injurious,  the 
larvae  of  many  feeding  on  leaves  of  various  kinds, 
and  often  destroying  valuable  crops;  and  the 
larva?  of  some  small  species  proving  very  destruc¬ 
tive  to  clothes,  books,  etc. 

Mother  Carey’s  Chicken,  a  name  familiarly 


Mother  Carey's  Chicken,  or  Storm  Petrel  (Procedural 

pelagica). 


given  by  sailors  to  the  storm  petrel  and  other 
small  oceanic  species  of  petrel. 

Mother  of  Pearl,  the  shells  of  the  large 
bivalve  mollusk  Meleagrina  margaritifera,  which 
also  produces  the  precious  pearls. 

Moth'crwort  ( Leonurus  cardiaca),  a  plant  of 
the  natural  order  Labiates ,  found  about  hedges 
and  in  waste  places  in  Europe,  and  now  abund¬ 
antly  naturalized  in  some  parts  of  North  America. 
The  plant  was  formerly  in  much  use  as  a  domes¬ 
tic  pectoral  medicine,  but  is  now  comparatively 
little  employed. 

Motion,  Laws  of,  are  the  fundamental  princi¬ 
ples  connecting  force  and  motion  in  the  physical 
universe.  They  seem  first  to  have  been  given 
systematically  and  completely  by  Newton,  at  the 
opening  of  the  Principia;  but  the  first  two  were 
known  to  Galileo,  and  some  of  the  many  forms  of 
A  part  of  the  third  were  known  to  Hooke,  Iluy- 
ghens,  Wren,  and  others.  These  laws  are:  1. 
Every  body  continues  in  its  state  of  rest  or  oi'  uni¬ 
form  motion  in  a  straight  line,  except  in  so  far  as 
it  may  be  compelled  by  impressed  forces  to  change 
that  state.  2.  Change  of  motion  is  proportional 
to  the  impressed  force,  and  takes  place  in  the 
direction  of  the  straight  line  in  which  the  force 
acts.  3.  To  every  action  there  is  always  an 
equal  and  contrary  reaction ;  or,  the  mutual  actions 
of  any  two  bodies  are  always  equal  and  oppositely 
directed  in  the  same  straight  line. 

Motley,  John  Lotiirof,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  etc., 
American  historian,  was  born  at  Dorchester, 
Mass,  April  15,  1814.  He  studied  law  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1837;  but  preferring  litera¬ 
ture,  he  wrote  a  historical  romance,  entitled  Mor¬ 
ton’s  Hope,  and  in  1849  published  another  unsuc¬ 
cessful  novel,  entitled  Merry  Mount ,  a  Romance  of 
the  Massachusetts  Colony.  He  then  turned  his  at¬ 
tention  to  historical  composition,  and  gave  to  the 
world,  The  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic;  The  His¬ 
tory  of  the  United  Netherlands  from  the  Death  of 
William  the  Silent  to  the  Synod  of  Dort;  The  Life 
and  Death  of  John  of  Bar ncveldt.  Advocate  of  Hol¬ 
land,  with  a  View  of  the  Primary  Causes  and 
Movements  of  the  Thirty  Years’  War,  (2  vols.)  He 
died  May  29,  1877. 

Mould,  or  Mouldiness,  the  common  name  of 
many  minute  fungi  which  make  their  appearance, 
often  in  crowded  multitudes,  on  animal  and  vege¬ 
table  substances,  either  in  a  decaying  or  in  a  liv¬ 
ing  but  morbid  state.  It  consists  of  cobweb-like 
masses  of  threads,  from  which  rise  many  short 


MOULDINGS. 


547 


MUCOUS  MEMBRANE. 


stems,  each  bearing  at  the  top  a  roundish  mem¬ 
branous  blackish  spore-case.  The  only  sure  pre¬ 
ventive  of  mould  is  dryness.  Mildews  and 
moulds  are  very  nearly  allied. 

Mouldings,  the  curved  and  plane  surfaces  used 
as  ornaments  in  cornices,  panels,  arches,  etc.,  and 
in  all  enriched  apartures  in  buildings.  In  classic 
architecture  the  mouldings  are  few  in  number, 
and  definitely  fixed  in  their  forms.  There  are 
eight  kinds  of  these  regular  mouldings,  viz.,  the 
cyma,  the  ovolo  (or  echinus),  the  talon,  the  cavetto, 
the  torus,  the  astragal,  the  scotia,  and  the  fillet; 
and  each  of  these  mouldings  has  its  proper  place 
assigned  to  it  in  each  order. 

Moulins,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  De¬ 
partment  of  Allier,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
River  Allier.  Pop.  (1876),  21,122. 

Moulting*  is  the  term  applied  by  naturalists  to 
the  periodical  exuviation,  or  throwing  off  of  cer¬ 
tain  structures,. which  are  for  the  most  part  of  an 
epithelial  or  epidermic  character.  Thus,  in  a  con¬ 
siderable  number  of  the  Articul/ita,  the  external 
covering  is  thrown  off,  and  replaced  many  times 
during  life.  Many  Crustacea,  and  nearly  all  the 
frogs  aud  serpents,  with  a  great  number  of  insects 
moult.  Feathers  of  birds,  hairs  of  animals,  horns 
of  some  species  of  cornuta,  and  the  skin  of  man 
are  being  constantly  shed  and  renewed. 

Moulton,  the  county  seat  of  Lawrence  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Moul'trie,  the  county  seat  of  Colquitt  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  68. 

Moul'trie,  Fokt,  a  fort  on  Sullivan’s  Island, 
at  the  mouth  of  Charleston  Harbor,  South  Caro¬ 
lina,  celebrated  for  the  repulse  of  a  British  squad¬ 
ron  commanded  by  Sir  Peter  Parker,  Jan.  28, 
1776.  The  fort,  at  that  time,  was  hastily  built  of 
palmetto  logs  and  sand;  with.thirty-one  guns  and 
435  men.  The  spongy  wrood  of  the  palmetto  was 
found  to  resist  the  cannon  balls  perfectly.  The 
fort  was  afterward  rebuilt,  and  in  April,  1861, 
took  part  in  the  reduction  of  Fort  Sumpter,  and 
the  beginning  of  active  hostilities  in  the  Civil 
War  of  Secession. 

Mouml  City,  the  county  seat  of  Linn  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  1,375. 

Mound  City,  the  county  seat  of  Pulaski  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  2  625. 

Mounds vi lie,  the  county  seat  of  Marshall 
county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Mouut  Ayr,  the  county  seat  of  Ringgold 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Mount  Carmel,  the  county  seat  of  Wabash 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Mount  Carroll,  the  county  seat  of  Carroll 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Mount  Clemens,  the  county  seat  of  Macomb 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  4,780. 

Mount  Gilead,  the  county  seat  of  Morrow 
county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  1,466. 

Mount  Holly,  the  county  seat  of  Burlington 
county,  N.  J.  Pop.,  6,256. 

Mount  Ida,  the  county  seat  of  Montgomery 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  100. 

Mount  Idaho,  the  county  seat  of  Idaho  county, 
Idaho.  Pop.,  185. 

Mount  Olivet,  the  county  seat  of  Robertson 
county,  Ivy.  Pop.,  500. 

Mount  Pleasant,  the  name  of  several  towns 
in  the  United  States  as  follows: — 1.  The  county 
seat  of  Berkley  county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  483. — 2. 
The  county  seat  of  Henry  county,  Iowa.  Pop., 
4,796. — 3.  The  county  seat  of  Isabella  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  2  450. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Titus 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Mount  Sterling,  the  county  seat  of  Brown 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  1,800. 

M  ount  Sterling,  the  county  seat  of  Montgom¬ 
ery  county,  Ivy.  Pop.,  7,500. 

Mount  Vernon,  the  name  of  several  towns, 
cities,  etc.,  in  the  Union,  as  follows: — 1.  The 
county  seat  of  Franklin  county,  Tex.  Pop., 
625. — 2.  The  county  seat  of  Jefferson  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  4,375.  In  February,  1888,  this  town 
and  the  country  round  about  were  devastated  by 
a  cyclone,  attended  with  great  loss  of  life. — 3. 
A  growing  town  of  Knox  county,  Ohio.  Pop., 
8,000. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Lawrence  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  720. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Mont¬ 
gomery  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  312.— 6.  The  county 
seat  of  Posey  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  3,800. — 7.  The 
county  seat  of  Rockcastle  county,  Ky.  Pop.,  500. 


— 8.  The  county  seat  of  Skagit  county,  Wash. 
Pop.,  240. — 9.  The  seat  of  George  Washington, 
fifteen  miles  below  Washington  City,  in  Fairfax 
county,  Va.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Potomac. 
The  tomb  of  Washington  is  here,  and  is  now  the 
property  of  an  association  of  ladies  known  as  the 
Mount  Vernon  Association. 

Mountains  are  elevations  of  the  earth’s  surface 
above  its  usual  or  mean  altitude  (as  regards  the 
sea-level)  produced  either  by  volcanic  action 
directly  upon  a  given  point,  or  as  the  result  of  an 
undulatory  or  wave-like  motion  caused  by  some 
internal  disturbance  of  the  earth’s  components; 
or  yet  again  by  the  wearing  away  of  the  earth 
surrounding  them,  which  action  of  the  elements 
they  are  able  to  resist  by  reason  of  the  superior 
hardness  of  their  substance.  They  are  at  once 
the  great  collectors  and  distributors  of  water.  In 
the  passage  of  moisture-charged  winds  across 
them,  the  moisture  is  precipitated  as  rain  or  snow. 
When  mountain  ranges  intersect  the  course  of 
constant  winds  by  thus  abstracting  the  moisture, 
they  produce  a  moist  country  on  the  windward 
side,  and  a  comparatively  dry  and  arid  one  on  the 
leeward.  This  is  exemplified  in  the  Andes. 
Above  a  certain  height  the  moisture  falls  as  snow, 
and  a  range  of  snow-clad  summits  would  form 
a  more  effectual  separation  between  the  plains  on 
either  side  than  would  the  widest  ocean,  were 
it  not  that  transverse  valleys  are  of  frequent 
occurrence,  which  open  up  a  pass,  or  way  of 
transit,  at  a  level  below  the  snow  line.  In  America 
the  mountains  take  a  general  direction  more  or 
less  parallel  to  the  meridian,  and  for  8,280  miles 
follow  the  coast  line.  In  the  old  world,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  is  no  single  well-defined  con¬ 
tinuous  chain  connected  with  the  coast-line.  Fol¬ 
lowing  are  the  heights  ot  the  principal  mountain 
peaks  in  the  world: — Mt.  Everest,  Asia,  29,002 
feet;  Mt.  Dhawalagheri,  Asia,  28,826  feet;  Mt. 
Kintchinjunga,  Asia,  28,178  feet;  Mt.  Clium- 
ulari,  Asia,  23,946  feet;  Mt.  Aconcagua,  South 
America,  22,422  feet;  Mt.  Chimborazo,  South 
America,  21,422;  Mt.  Elbruz,  Europe,  18,514 
feet;  Mt.  St.  Elias,  North  America,  17,850  feet; 
Popocatapetl  volcano,  North  America,  17,540 
feet;  Mt.  Kasbek,  Europe,  16,500  feet;  Mt. Blanc, 
Europe,  15,732  feet;  Mt.  Iztaccihuatl,  North 
America,  15,705  feet;  Mt.  Rosa,  Europe,  15  150 
feet;  Mt.  Cervin,  Europe,  14,835  feet;  Mt.  Fair- 
weather,  North  America,  14.5H0  feet;  Pike's 
Peak,  North  America,  14,000  feet;  Mt.  Le  Geant, 
Europe,  13,800  feet. 

Mountain  Home,  the  county  seat  of  Baxter 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  175. 

Mountain  View,  the  county  seat  of  Stone 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  187. 

Mouse  ( Mvs ),  a  genus  of  rodent  mammalia  of 
the  family  Mur  idea.  This  genus  includes  rats 
and  mice;  the  smaller  species  bearing  the  latter 
name. — The  common  mouse  (.)/.  musculus )  is 
abundant  everywhere.  It  accompanies  man 
wherever  he  goes.  There  are  several  varieties  of 
this  species.  That  generally  found  in  houses  is 
smaller,  and  not  so  dark  in  color,  as  that  com¬ 
mon  in  barns  and  farm-yards.  A  white  variety 
sometimes  occurs,  and  has  been  perpetuated  in  a 
half-domesticated  state.  The  common  brown 
kind  is,  however,  at  least  as  easily  tamed,  and 
readily  becomes  familiar  enough.  A  pied  variety 
is  not  uncommon  in  India. 

Mouse  River,  the  county  seat  of  McHenry 
county,  N.  Dak. 

Mox'a  is  a  peculiar  form  of  counter-irritation 
which  was  early  practiced  in  the  East,  particu¬ 
larly  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese,  from  whom  it 
was  learned  by  the  Portuguese.  One  or  more 
small  cones,  formed  of  the  downy  covering  of 
the  leaves  of  Artemisia  mom  (as  used  by  the 
Chinese),  or  of  the  pith  of  various  plants  (as  of 
the  common  sunflower),  or  of  linen  steeped  in 
niter,  are  placed  on  the  skin  over  the  affected 
part,  and  the  ends  remote  from  the  skin  are 
ignited.  The  combustion  gradually  proceeds 
through  the  cone  and  forms  a  superficial  eschar 
on  the  skin.  The  surrounding  parts  mast  be  pro¬ 
tected  by  a  pad  of  wet  rag,  with  a  hole  in  it  for 
the  moxa.  It  may  be  employed  with  advantage 
in  certain  forms  of  neuralgia  (especially  obstinate 
sciatica)  and  paralysis,  and  in  chronic  diseases  of 
the  joints.  It  is  not  much  used  in  consequence 
of  its  apparent  severity,  but  the  pain  is  not  so 


great  as  might  be  expected,  and,  according  to 
some  of  its  advocates,  is  less  than  that  which 
often  attends  blisters. 

Mozambique',  a  territory  on  the  east  coast  of 
South  Africa,  nominally  belonging  to  Portugal. 
It  extends  from  Cape  Delgado,  in  latitude  10°  41' 
S.,  to  Delagoa  Bay,  26°  S.  The  chief  river,  the 
Zambesi,  divides  it  into  two  portions — Mozam¬ 
bique  proper  on  the  north,  and  Sofala  on  the 
south.  Area  estimated  at  283,500  square  miles; 
pop.,  300,000. 

Mozambique,  the  capital  of  the  Portuguese 
territory  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  on  a  small 
coral  island,  on  the  Eastern  coast  of  Africa,  close 
to  the  shore,  in  latitude  15°  2'  S.  Pop.,  8,500 

Mozambique  Channel,  between  the  Island  of 
Madagascar  aud  the  southeastern  coast  of  Africa, 
is  about  1,000  miles  in  length,  and  about  450  in 
average  breadth. 

Mozart,  Johann  Chrysostom  Wolfgang 
Gottlieb,  one  of  the  greatest  of  musical  com¬ 
posers,  born  Jan.  27, 1756,  at  Salzburg.  His  works 
comprise  Mithridates ,  Idomeno,  Die  Entfuhrung 
aus  dem  8era.il,  Le  Nozzedi  Figaro,  Don  Giovanni, 
Con  fan  tutti,  Zauberflote,  La  Clemenza  di  Tito, 
and  numerous  masses,  hymns,  sonatas,  etc.  He 
died  on  Dec.  5,  1791,  aged  thirty-five. 

Mu'cilage,  or  Bassorin  (C JLoOo),  is  a  modifi¬ 
cation  of  gum  which  is  insoluble  in  water,  but 
when  moistened  with  it,  swells  up  into  a  gelati¬ 
nous  mass.  It  is  contained  abundantly  in  gum 
tragacanth;  and  many  seeds,  such  as  linseed, 
quince  seed,  etc.,  and  certain  roots. 

Mu'cous  Membranes.  These  are  the  aliment¬ 
ary  mucous  membrane,  the  respiratory  mucous 
membrane,  and  the  genito  urinary  mucous 
membrane.  The  alimentary  mucous  membrane 
commences  at  the  lips,  and  not  only  forms  the 
inner  coat  of  the  intestinal  canal  from  the  mouth 
to  the  anus,  but  gives  off  prolongations  which 
after  lining  the  ducts  of  the  various  glands  (the 
salivary  glands,  the  liver,  and  the  pancreas)  whose 
products  are  discharged  into  this  canal,  penetrate 
into  the  innermost  recesses  of  these  glands,  and 
constitute  their  true  secreting  element.  The 
respiratory  mucous  membrane  begins  at  the  nostrils, 
and  under  the  name  of  Schneiderian  or  pituitary 
membrane,  lines  the  nasal  cavities,  from  whence 
it  sends  on  either  side  an  upward  prolongation 
through  the  lachrymal  duct  to  form  the  conjunc¬ 
tiva  of  the  eye;  backward,  through  the  poste¬ 
rior  nares  (the  communication  between  the  nose 
and  the  throat),  it  sends  a  prolongation  through 
the  eustachian  tube  to  the  middle  ear  (the  cavity 
of  the  tympanum),  and  is  continuous  with  the 
pharyngeal  mucous  membrane  (which  is  a  por¬ 
tion  of  the  alimentary  tract);  it  then,  instead  of 
passing  down  the  oesophagus,  enters  and  forms  a 
lining  to  the  larynx,  trachea,  and  bronchial  tubes 
to  their  terminations.  The  genito  urinary  mucous 
membrane  commences  at  the  genito-urinary  ori¬ 
fices,  lines  the  excretory  passages  from  the  gene¬ 
rative  aud  urinary  organs,  and  is  the  essential 
constituent  of  the  glaud^s  of  both.  The  mucous 
membranes  constitute  the  medium  through  which 
nearly  all  the  material  changes  are  effected  that 
take  place  between  the  living  organism  and  the 
external  world  Although  the  various  kinds  of 
epithelial  cells  discharge  a  special  office  in  rela¬ 
tion  to  the  peculiar  function  of  the  mucous  mem¬ 
brane  upon  which  each  kind  occurs,  yet  they  all 
serve  one  general  purpose — namely,  that  of  pro¬ 
tecting  the  surfaces  on  which  they  are  placed. 
This  protecting  power  is  increased  by  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  the  secretion  known  as  mucus,  which  ordi¬ 
narily  forms  an  extremely  thin  layer  on  these 
membranes,  but  when  they  are  irritated  or 
inflamed,  is  secreted  in  very  considerable  quantity. 
The  exact  mode  of  its  formation  is  still  a  disputed 
question,  but  it  is  generally  believed  to  be  the 
product  of  the  gradual  solution  of  the  uppermost 
epithelial  cells.  Besides  acting  both  mechani¬ 
cally  and  chemically  as  a  shield  to  highly  sensi¬ 
tive  membranes,  it  lias  other  uses,  amongst  which 
two  may  be  especially  mentioned — 1 .  It  commu¬ 
nicates  to  the  salivary,  and  probably  to  other 
glands,  properties  which  are  not  possessed  either 
by  itself  or  by  the  pure  glandular  secretions;  and 
2.  It  serves  to  eliminate  a  considerable  quantity 
of  nitrogen  from  the  system.  Normal  mucus  is 
devoid  of  smell  and  taste,  and  almost,  if  not 


MUDAR. 


548 


MURRAIN. 


quite,  neutral;  and  hence  its  constant  presence  in 
the  mouth  gives  rise  to  no  disagreeable  sensation. 

Mu'dar  (Calotropis),  a  genus  of  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  As  lepiadacem.  They  are  natives  of 
the  East  Indies,  and  the  bark  of  the  root,  and  the 
inspissated  milky  juice  of  some  of  them,  are  much 
used  there  as  an  alterative,  purgative,  emetic,  and 
sudorific  medicine.  The  medicinal  properties  of 
mudar  have  been  well  known  in  India  for  many 
centuries,  and  have  begun  to  attract  the  attention 
of  European  physicians.  It  is  found  of  great 
value  in  elephantiasis,  and  in  leprosy  and  other 
obstinate  cutaneous  diseases,  as  well  as  in  some 
spasmodic  affections,  and  in  syphilis. 

MuedMin  {Muezzin),  the  Arabic  name  of  the 
Mohammedan  official  attached  to  a  mosque, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  announce  the  different  times 
of  prayer. 

Muf'ti  (Arabic,  Expounder  of  the  Law).  The 
Turkish  grand  Mufti  is  the  supreme  head  of  the 
Ulemas  (servants  of  religion  and  laws),  and  has, 
together  with  the  Grand  Vizir  (Vizir  Azim),  the 
supreme  guidance  of  the  State,  nominally  ruled 
by  the  sultan.  His  is  the  chief  spiritual  authority, 
and  in  this  capacity  he  is  also  denominated  Slieikh- 
al-Islam  (Lord  of  the  Faith). 

31  ul 'berry  ( Morus ),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the 
natural  order  Moracece,  natives  of  temperate  and 
warm  climates.  The  Common  Mulberry,  or 
Black  Mulberry  (M.  nigra),  is  a  native  of  the 
middle  parts  of  Asia,  but  was  introduced  into  the 
South  of  Europe  more  than  a  thousand  years  ago, 
and  is  now  almost  naturalized  there.  The  wood 
is  employed  in  cabinet-work,  but  is  not  of  much 
value.  The  leaves  are  sometimes  used  for  feeding 
silk-worms.  The  White  Mulberry  ( M .  alba), 
is  a  native  of  China,  and  has  been  there  planted 
from  time  immemorial  for  the  sake  of  its  leaves, 
which  are  the  best  food  for  silk  worms.  In  North 
America  it  does  not  succeed  further  north  than 
latitude  43°.  The  best  variety  for  feeding  silk- 


</ 

Common  Mulberry  (Morus  nigra) ;  fruit,  leaf,  and 
female  flower. 

worms,  on  account  of  .its  rapid  growth  and 
abundant  leaves,  is  that  called  the  Philippine 
Mulberry.  There  are  several  other  species, 
deriving  their  value  chiefly  in  connection  with 
silk-worms.  The  Paper  Mulberry  ( Broussonelia 
papyrifera)  differs  from  the  true  mulberries.  It 
is  a  native  of  India,  Japan,  and  the  Islands  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  but  now  not  uncommon  in  pleasure- 
grounds  in  Europe  and  North  America.  The 
Islanders  of  the  Pacific  cultivate  the  paper  mul¬ 
berry  with  great  care.  They  make  a  kind  of  cloth¬ 
ing  and  a  sort  of  paper  from  the  bark. 

Mule  (Lat.  mvlus,  supposed  to  be  connected  with 
Gr.  poAo?,  molos,  labor,  and  with  Eng.  moil),  a 
hybrid  animal,  the  offspring  of  the  male  ass  and 
the  mare,  much  used  and  valued  in  many  parts 
of  the  world  as  a  beast  of  burden.  It  has  been 
common  from  very  ancient  times  in  many  parts 
of  the  East.  As  in  other  hybrid  animals  generally, 
males  are  more  numerous  among  mules  than 
females.  There  is  no  instance  on  record  of  off¬ 
spring  produced  by  two  mules;  but  instances 
occur,  although  rarely,  of  their  producing  off¬ 
spring  with  the  horse  and  with  the  ass. 

Mull,  after  the  Isle  of  Skye,  the  largest  of  the 
Inner  Hebrides,  belongs  to  the  County  of  Argyle, 
Scotland,  and  is  washed  on  the  west  and  south  by  | 


the  Atlantic,  and  bounded  on  the  northeast  by 
the  Sound  of  Mull. 

ftliiller,  FniEDRicu  Max  (Maximilan),  one 
of  the  most  eminent  living  Orientalists  and  phil¬ 
ologists,  was  born  at  Dessau,  Germany,  Dec.  6, 
1823. 

3IuPlet  ( Mugil ),  a  genus  of  acanthopterous 
fishes,  the  type  of  the  family  Mugilidce. 

Mullet,  or  Moli.et,  in  Heraldry,  is  a  charge  in 
the  form  of  a  star,  generally  with  five  points,  in¬ 
tended  to  represent  a  spur-rowel,  and  of  frequent 
occurrence  from  the  earliest  beginnings  of  coat- 
armor. 

Mull 'ion,  the  upright  division  between  the 
lights  of  windows,  screens,  etc.,  in  Gothic  archi¬ 
tect  lire.  Mullions  are  rarely  met  with  in  Norman 
architecture,  but  they  become  more  frequent  in 
the  Early  English  style,  and  in  the  decorated  and 
perpendicular  are  very  common. 

Mul'ti valve  Shells,  or  Multivalves,  are 
those  shelly  coverings  of  mollusks  which  are 
formed  of  more  than  two  distinct  pieces. 

31  ummy- wheat  is  a  variety  of  wdieat  said  to 
have  been  produced  from  grains  found  in  an 
Egyptian  mummy.  But  the  same  variety  has 
long  been  in  general  cultivation  in  Egypt  and 
neighboring  countries. 

Mumps,  a  popular  name  of  a  specific  inflam¬ 
mation  of  the  salivary  glands  described  by  nosolo- 
gists  as  Cynanche  Parotidcen,  or  Parotitis.  In 
most  cases  no  treatment  further  than  antiphlogis¬ 
tic  regimen,  due  attention  to  the  bowels,  and  pro¬ 
tection  of  the  parts  from  cold,  by  the  application 
of  flannel  or  cotton- wool,  is  required,  and  the  pa¬ 
tient  completely  recovers  in  eight  or  ten  days.  A 
singular  circumstance  connected  with  the  disease 
is,  that  in  many  cases  the  subsidence  of  the  swell¬ 
ing  is  immediately  followed  by  swelling  and  pain 
in  the  testes  in  the  male  sex,  and  in  the  mammae  in 
the  female. 

Miinchhauscn,  Karl  Friedrich  Hierony¬ 
mus,  Baron  von,  a  member  of  an  ancient  and 
noble  German  family,  who  attained  a  remarkable 
celebrity  by  false  and  ridiculously  exagerated 
tales  of  his  exploits  and  adventures,  so  that  his 
name  lias  become  proverbial.  He  was  born  in 
1720,  at  Bodenwerder,  in  Hanover,  and  died  in 
1797.  A  collection  of  his  marvelous  stories  was 
first  published  in  England  under  the  title  of 
Baron  Miinchhausen’s  Narrative  of  his  Marvelous 
Travels  and  Campaigns  in  Russia  (Lond.  1785). 
The  compiler  was  one  Rudolph  Erich  Raspe,  an 
expatriated  countryman  of  the  Baron’s. 

Munfordville,  the  county  seat  of  Hart  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  375. 

MuTiicli  (Ger.  Munchen),  the  capital  of  Bavaria, 
is  in  48°  8'  N.  latitude,  and  11°  35'  E.  longitude, 
Pop.  (1880),  230,023. 

Mun'jeet  ( Nubia  cordifolia,  or  munjisla),  a 
species  of  Madder,  of  which  the  root  yields  an 
excellent  red  dye.  It  is  a  native  of  India,  China, 
Japan,  Central  Asia,  and  Siberia. 

Munt'jak  ( Cervus  muntjac,  Cervulus  vaginalis, 
or  Stylocerus  muntjac),  a  species  of  deer,  abundant 


in  java,  Sumatra,  and  other  islands  of  the  same 
region. 

Mun'ster,  the  largest  of  the  four  provinces  of 
I  Ireland,  occupies  the  southwest,  and  is  bounded 


on  the  north  by  Connaught,  on  the  east  by  Lein¬ 
ster,  and  on  the  west  and  south.  by  the  Atlantic. 
It  contains  the  six  counties  Clare,  Cork,  Kerry, 
Limerick,  Tipperary,  and  Waterford.  Area, 
6,064,579  statute  acres.  Pop.  (1881),  1,323,910. 

Sliiuster,  chief  town  of  the  District  of  the  same 
name,  as  well  as  capital  of  all  Westphalia,  is  in 
51°  55'  N.  latitude,  and  7°  40'  E.  longitude,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Aa  with  the  Munster  canal, 
sixty-five  miles  northeast  of  Diisseldorf.  Pop. 
(1875),  35,535. 

Mur'aena,  a  genus  of  malacopterous  fishes,  of 
those  to  which  the  name  eel  is  commonly  given, 
the  whole  of  the  eels  being  sometimes  included  in 
the  family  Murcenidce. 

Mural  Crown,  in  Heraldry,  a  crown  in  the 
form  of  the  top  of  a  circular  tower,  masoned  and 
embattled.  It  is  meant  to  represent  the  crown 
which  was  given  by  the  Romans  as  a  mark  of 
distinction  to  the  soldier  wdio  first  mounted  the 
walls  of  a  besieged  town,  and  fixed  there  the 
standard  of  the  army. 

Murat,  Joachim,  King  of  Naples,  was  born  at 
Cahors,  in  France,  March  25,  1767  or  1768.  He 
was  a  General  of  Division  under  Bonaparte,  and 
on  Aug.  1,  1808,  liew'as  proclaimed  King  of  the 
Two  Sicilies  by  the  style  of  Joachim  I.  Napoleon. 
He  took  possession  of  Naples,  but  the  Bourbons, 
through  the  support  of  Britain,  retained  Sicily. 
After  Napoleon’s  final  overthrow,  he  found  refuge 
in  Corsica,  from  which  he  proceeded  with  a  few 
followers  to  the  coast  of  Naples,  and  proclaimed 
himself  King  and  liberator,  but  was  presently 
taken  prisoner,  and  after  trial  by  a  court-martial, 
was  shot  on  Oct.  13,  1815. 

Murchiso'nia,  a  genus  of  fossil  gasteropodous 
mollusca  belonging  to  the  family  JIaliotidce,  and 
so  named  in  honor  of  Sir  II.  I.  Murchison. 

3Iur'cia,  a  former  province  of  Spain,  now  sub¬ 
divided  into  the  smaller  provinces  of  Albacete 
and  Murcia,  is  in  the  southeast  of  the  peninsula. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  New  Castile,  on  the 
east  by  Valencia,  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterra¬ 
nean,  and  on  the  west  by  Granada,  Andalusia, 
and  New  Castile.  Area,  10,311  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1877),  670,733(of  modern  province,  451,611). 

Murcia  (the  Roman  Murgi),  a  large,  important, 
and  ancient  town  of  Spain,  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Segura, 
fifty  miles  southwest  of  Alicante. 

Mu'  rex,  a  Linnsean  genus  of  gasteropodous 
mollusk,  of  which  has  now  been  formed  the 
family  Muricidce,  belonging  to  the  order  Pectini- 
branchiata  of  Cuvier. 

Murex'ide,  purpurate  of  ammonia,  or  Roman 
purple,  a  curious  coloring  matter  obtained  from 
guano.  It  is  similar  to  the  purple  dye  or  Tyrian 
purple  of  the  ancients,  which  was  made  from  a 
species  of  Murex — hence  its  name. 

3Iiirfreesl)orough,  the  county  scat  of  Pike 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  130. 

3Iurfreesl)orougli,  the  county  seat  of  Ruther¬ 
ford  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  5,750.  It  was  the 
scene  of  some  severe  fighting  between  the  forces 
under  Generals  Bragg  and  llosecrans  in  Decem¬ 
ber,  1862,  and  January,  1863. 

Mu'ridse,  a  family  of  rodent  quadrupeds,  con¬ 
taining  many  genera  and  a  large  number  of  spe¬ 
cies,  distributed  over  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
of  which  rats  and  mice  may  be  regarded  as  typical 
examples. 

Murillo,  Bartholome  Esteban,  an  eminent 
painter,  wras  born  at  Seville,  Spain,  in  1617,  and 
died  April  3,  1682. 

Murphy,  the  county  seat  of  Cherokee  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  600. 

3Iurphysborough,  the  county  seat  of  Jackson 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  4,375. 

Mur'rain,  a  disease  of  domestic  animals,  more 
correctly  vesticular  epizootic,  popularly  known 
as  the  mouth  and  foot  disease.  It  is  a  contagious 
eruptive  fever,  affecting  cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  and 
poultry;  but  rarely  communicable  to  horses  or 
men.  *  It  is  characterized  by  the  appearance  of 
little  bladders  or  vesicles  in  the  mouth,  on  the 
lips,  gums,  and  tongue;  on  the  udder,  and  in  the 
interdigital  space;  causing  inability  to  eat,  and 
driveling  of  saliva,  heat  and  swelling  of  the  ud¬ 
der,  and  lameness.  Good  nursing,  comfortable 
lodgings,  and  a  liberal  supply  of  soft,  easily  di¬ 
gestible  food,  are  the  chief  requisites  for  speedy 
recovery.  A  laxative  may  be  given  if  needed. 


MURRAY. 


549 


MUSCLE. 


The  mouth  may  be  washed  out  twice  daily  with 
a  mild  astringent  solution,  which  may  be  made 
with  half  an  ounce  of  alum,  oxide  of  zinc,  or 
sugar  of  lead,  to  the  quart  of  water.  The  udder 
in  milch  cows,  in  which  the  complaint  is  usually 
most  serious,  should  be  bathed  with  tepid  water 
before  and  after  milking,  which  must  be  attended 
to  very  regularly;  and  the  feet  kept  clean,  and 
washed  occasionally  with  the  lotion  used  for  the 
mouth. 

Murray,  Lindley,  an  English  grammarian, 
was  born  at  Swatara,  Penn.,  in  1745.  During 
the  Revolutionary  War,  he  went  to  Eng¬ 
land,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  literary 
pursuits.  He  published,  besides  other  books,  a 
Grammar  of  the  English  Language,  English  Ex¬ 
ercises,  an  English  Header,  and  a  Spelling  Book. 
He  died  Feb.  16,  1826. 

Murray,  the  county  seat  of  Calloway  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  795. 

Murray,  a  flourishing  mining  town,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Shoshone  county,  Idaho.  Pop., 
1,250. 

Musa'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  endogenous 
plants;  the  largest  of  herbaceous  plants,  generally 
destitute  or  almost  destitute  of  true  stems,  yet 
resembling  trees  in  appearance,  and  sometimes 
rivaling  palms  in  stateliness;  the  long  sheathing 
bases  of  the  leaf -stalks  combining  to  form  a  false 
stem. 

Mus'cte  Yolitan'tes  is  the  term  applied  to 
ocular  spectra,  which  appear  like  flies  on  the 
wing,  or  floating  black  spots  before  the  eyes. 
There  are  two  kinds  of  muscae  volitantes — the  one 
a  perfectly  harmless  kind,  while  the  other  is  sym- 
tomatic  of  one  of  the  most  serious  diseases  of  the 
eyes — viz.,  amaurosis. 

Mus'cardine,  or  Silk  worm  Rot  ( Botrytis 
bassiana),  a  fungus  which  grows 
on  silk-worms,  and  often  kills 
them  in  great  numbers.  It  con¬ 
sists  of  erect  branching  threads, 
with  clusters  of  spores  at  the  end 
of  short  lateral  branches. 

Muscat',  or  Maskat,  an  inde¬ 
pendent  Arab  State,  forming  the 
sea-coast  of  Oman,  in  Eastern 
Arabia.  It  extends  from  the 
Strait  of  Ormus  to  the  Island  of 
Moseirah,  and  nowhere  exceeds  Muscardine 
150  miles  in  width.  The  capital  (Botrytis  Bassi- 
is  Muscat  (pop.,  60,000),  on  the  ana). 
Persian  Gulf. 

Muscatine,  the  county  seat  of  Muscatine  coun¬ 
ty,  Iowa,  is  an  important  manufacturing  and 
commercial  city  on  the  Mississippi  river,  180  miles 
above  St.  Louis.  Pop.,  12,500. 

Mus'catel  (Ital.  moscado,  musk),  the  name 
given  to  many  kinds  of  sweet  and  strong  French 
and  Italian  wines,  whether  white  or  red.  Amongst 
the  finest  are  the  white  Rivesalt  and  red  Bagnol 
wines  from  Roussillon,  and  the  Lunel  from  the 
Pyrenees,  the  Lacrymae  Christi  and  Carigliano  of 
Naples,  etc. 

Mitsch'elkalk  (Ger.  shell-lime),  the  middle 
member  of  the  triassic,  or  new  red  sandstone 
period. 

Muscica'pida;,  a  family  of  birds  of  the  order 
ln8essores  and  tribe  Dentirostres,  of  which  the 
greater  number  receive  the  popular  name  fly¬ 
catcher. 

Mus'cida?,  a  family  of  dipterous  insects,  having 
a  short,  thick,  membranous  proboscis,  geniculated 
at  the  base,  entirely  retractile,  so  as  to  be  con¬ 
cealed  within  the  mouth,  and  terminated  by  two 
large  lobes;  the  antemue  three-jointed;  the  thorax 
with  a  transverse  suture.  The  house-fly,  blow¬ 
fly,  etc  ,  belong  to  this  family. 

Muscle  and  Muscular  Tissue.  Muscular  tissue 
is  specially  distinguished  by  its  contractile  power, 
and  is  the  instrument  by  which  all  the  sensible 
movements  of  the  animal  body  are  performed. 
When  examined  under  a  high  magnifying  power, 
the  fibers  of  which  it  is  composed  are  found  to 
exist  under  two  forms,  which  can  be  distinguished 
from  one  another  by  the  presence  or  absenpe  of 
close  and  minute  transverse  bars  or  stripes.  The 
fibers  of  the  voluntary  muscles — or  those  whose 
movements  can  be  influenced  by  the  will — as  well 
as  the  fibers  of  the  heart,  are  striped  ;  while  those 
of  the  involuntary  muscles — the  muscular  struct¬ 
ure  over  which  we  have  no  control — as,  for  ex¬ 


ample,  the  muscular  fibers  of  the  intestinal  canal, 
the  uterus,  and  the  bladder,  are  unstriped.  On 
examining  an  ordinary  voluntary  muscle  with  the 
naked  eye  (a  muscle  from  one  of  the  extremities 
of  any  animal,  for  example),  we  observe  that  it 
presents  a  fibrous  appearance,  and  that  the  fibers 
are  arranged  with  great  regularity  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  muscle  is  to  act  or  contract  (for  it  is 
by  their  inherent  power  of  contracting  that  mus¬ 
cles  act).  On  closer  examination,  it  is  found  that 
these  fillers  are  arranged  in  fasciculi,  or  bundles 
of  various  sizes,  inclosed  in  sheaths  of  areolar 
tissue,  by  which  they  are  at  the  same  time  con¬ 
nected  with  and  isolated  from  those  adjoining 
them ;  and  when  the  smallest  fasciculus,  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  is  examined  with  the  microscope, 
it  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  num¬ 
ber  of  cylindrical  fibers  ly¬ 
ing  in  a  parallel  direction, 
and  closely  bound  together. 

These  primitive  fibers  pre¬ 
sent  two  sets  of  markings  or 
strife  —  longitudinal  a  n  d 
transverse.  The  fibers,  when 
separated  from  each  other, 
frequently  split  longitudi¬ 
nally  into  fibrillse.  Some¬ 
times,  however,  when  a  fiber 
is  extended,  it  separates  in 
the  direction  of  the  trans¬ 
verse  striae  into  a  series  of 
discs.  Hence,  it  is  as  proper 
to  say  that  the  fiber  is  a  pile 
of  discs  as  that  it  is  a  bundle  A  Fasciculus  of  Striped 

of  fibrillfP-  lmt  inf-lot  it  is  Muscuiartibers.show- 
OI  nmniae,  mu,  111  tact,  it  IS  jng  longitudinal  clear- 

neither  the  one  nor  the  other,  age,  magnified  300  di- 
but  a  mass  in  whose  struct-  ameters. 
ure  there  is  an  intimation  of  the  existence  of  both, 
and  a  tendency  to  cleave  in  the  two  directions.  If 
there  were  a  general  disintegration  along  all  the 
lines  in  both  directions,  there  would  result  a  series 


A  Fasciculus,  similarly  magnified,  showing  transverse 
cleavage. 

The  longitudinal  lines  are  scarcely  visible . 
a  and  ft,  discs  nearly  detached;  ft,  a  detached  disc,  more 
highly  magnified,  showing  the  sarcous  elements. 


of  particles,  which  may  be  termed  primitive  par¬ 
ticles  or  sarcous  elements,  the  union  of  which  con¬ 
stitutes  the  mass  of  the  fiber.  These  elementary  par¬ 
ticles  are  arranged  and  united  together  in  the  two 
directions,  and  the  resulting  discs,  as  well  as 
fibrillse,  are  equal  to  one  another  in  size,  and  con¬ 
tain  an  equal  number  of  parti¬ 
cles.  The  same  particles  com¬ 
pose  both.  To  detach  an  en¬ 
tire  filirilla  is  to  abstract  a  par¬ 
ticle  of  every  disc,  and  vice 
versa.  The  fibers  are  supplied 
with  vessels  and  nerves,  which 
lie  in  the  intervals  between 
them,  and  are  attached  by 
their  extremities  through  the 
medium  of  tendon  or  apo¬ 
neurosis  to  the  parts  which  they 
are  intended  to  move.  Aggre¬ 
gated  in  parallel  series,  of  *hde0fro^ 

greater  or  lesser  size,  and  as-  sections  of  the  im 


Transverse  Sections 
of  Striped  Muscle 
that  had  been  in¬ 
jected  and  dried. 

Magnified  70  diame¬ 
ters. 


sociated  with  nerves,  vessels 
tendinous  structures,  etc.,  they 
form  the  various  muscles, 
which  are  for  the  most  part, 
solid  and  elongated,  but  are 
sometimes  expanded  (as  in  the 
diaphragm)  into  a  membran¬ 
ous  shape.  The  length  of  the 
fibers  is  usually  about  that  of 
the  muscle  in  which  they  may  when  the elementary 
occur.  Their-  average  width  fibers  are  smallest, 
in  man  is  about  of  an  inch,  being 

about  glj  of  an  inch  in  the  male  and 
of  an  inch  in  the  female.  The  average  distance 
between  the  stria?,  or  the  size  of  the  sarcous  ele¬ 
ments,  in  the  human  subject  is  of  an  inch, 

the  extremes  being  ,-=(,)0(l  and  of  an  inch, 

according  to  the  contraction  or  relaxation  of  the 


jected  capillaries, 
showing  the  position 
they  occupy  among 
the  fibers;  a ,  a  capil¬ 
lary  seen  longitudi¬ 
nally;  A,  ft  section  of 
elementary  fillers, 
showing  their  angu¬ 
lar  form  and  various 
size.  These  figures 
show  that  the  vascu- 
larity  is  greatest 


fiber.  The  form  of  the  fibers  is  polygonal,  their 
sides  being  flattened  against  those,  of  the  adjoin¬ 
ing  fibers.  Each  fiber  is  inc'osed  in  a  transpar¬ 
ent,  very  delicate,  but  tough  and  elastic  tubular 
sheath,  which  can  not  always  be  readily  seen,  but 
is  distinctly  shown  stretching  between  the  separ¬ 
ated  fragments  of  a  fiber  which  has  been  broken 
within  it,  for  its  toughness  will  often  resist  a 


Muscular  fiber  broken  across; 
showing  the  untorn  sarcolemma  uniting  the  fragments. 

force  before  which  its  brittle  contents  give  way. 
This  tubular  sheath  is  known  as  the  sarcolemma  or 
rnyolemma — the  former  term  being  derived  from 
the  Greek  words  sar.r,  flesh,  and  lemma,  a  skin  or 
husk;  and  the  latter  from  the  Greek  words  rnus 
a  muscle,  and  lemma.  Muscles  grow  by  an  in¬ 
crease,  not  of  the  number,  but  of  the  bulk  of 
their  elementary  fibers;  and  the  number  of  fibers 
remain  ilirougli  life  as  it  was  in  the  foetus,  the 
spare  or  muscular  build  of  the  individual  being 
determined  by  the  mold  in  which  his  body  was 
originally  cast.  Involuntary  or  unstriped  form  of 
muscular  tissue  most  commonly  occurs  in  the 
shape  of  flattened  bands  of  considerable  length, 
but  of  a  width  not  exceeding  2060  or  30!o5  of 
an  inch.  These  bands  are  translucent,  and  some¬ 
times  slightly  granular,  and  are  usually  marked 
at  intervals  by  elongated  nuclei.  Every  one  of 
these  bands  or  fibers  is  either  a  single  elongated 
cell  (a  fiber-cell)  or  is  a  fasciculus  of  such  cells. 
These  fibers  have  not  usually  fixed  points  of 
attachment  like  the  striated  fibers,  but  form  con¬ 
tinuous  investments  around  cavities  within  the 
body — such  as  the  intestinal  canal,  the  bladder, 
the  uterus,  the  blood-vessels,  etc.,  or  are  dispersed 
through  the  substance  of  tissues,  such  as  the  skin, 
to  which  they  impart  a  contractile  property.  The 
fibrillse,  or  the  sarcous  elements  of  which  they  are 
composed,  consist  of  a  substance  termed  synto- 
nine,  which  closely  resembles  the  fibrine  or 
coagulating  constituent  of  the  blood;  and  the  same 
syntonine  is  also  the  main  constituent  of  the  un¬ 
striped  muscles,  or  at  all  events  of  their  fiber-cells. 
Like  the  blood-fibrine,  it  exists  in  a  fluid  form  in 
the  living  tissue,  and  only  coagulates  or  solidifies 
after  death.  Muscles  vary  extremely  in  their 
form.  In  the  limbs  they  are  usually  of  consider¬ 
able  length,  surrounding  the  bones  and  forming 
an  important  protection  to  the  joints;  while  in  the 
trunk,  they  are  flattened  and  broad,  and  con¬ 
tribute  very  essentially  to  form  the  walls  of  the 
cavities  which  they  inclose.  There  is  no  definite 
rule  regarding  the  nomenclature  of  muscles. 
Muscles  derive  their  names  (1)  from  their  situa¬ 
tion — as  the  temporal,  pectoials,  glutieals,  etc., 
or  (2)  from  there  direction — as  the  rectus,  obliquus, 
etc.,  of  which  there  may  be  several  pairs — as, 
rectus  femoris,  rectus  abdominalis,  rectus  capitis, 
etc. ;  or  (3)  from  their  uses — as  the  masseter,  the 
various  flexors,  extensors;  or  (4)  from  their  shape — 
as  the  deltoid,  trapezius,  rhomboid,  etc.;  or  (5) 
from  the  number  of  their  divisions — as  the  biceps 
and  triceps;  or  (6)  from  theirpoints  of  attachment — 
as  the  sterno  cleido-mastoid,  the  genio-hyo-glossus, 
the  sterno  thyroid,  etc.  In  the  description  of  a 
muscle,  we  express  its  points  of  attachment  by 
the  words  origin  and  insertion;  the  former  being 
applied  to  the  more  fixed  point  or  that  toward 
which  the  motion  is  directed,  while  the  latter  is 
applied  to  the  more  movable  point.  Muscles 
opposed  in  action  are  termed  antagonists.  The 
skeleton,  which  may  be  termed  the  locomotive 
framework,  may  be  regarded  as  a  series  of  levers, 
of  which  the  fulcrum  is,  for  the  most  part,  in  a 
joint,  the  resistance  (or  weight)  at  the  .further 
end,  and  the  force  (or  muscle)  in  the  intermediate 
portion.  This  arrangement,  which  depends  upon 
the  form  of  the  body,  involves  a  loss  of  power 
with  a  gain  of  velocity.  The  great  and  character¬ 
istic  property  of  muscular  tissue — that  of  shorten¬ 
ing  itself  in  a  particular  direction  when  stimulated 
— is  called  contractility.  In  the  living  body  the 
muscular  fibers  are,  in  most  cases,  made  to  con¬ 
tract  by  the  immediate  influence  of  the  nerves 
distributed  among  them,  which  are  consequently 
termed  motor  nerves,  and  are  under  the  influence 


MUSCULAR  FORCE. 


550 


MYRCIA. 


of  the  will.  Many  movements  ensue  involuntarily 
when  certain  impressions,  which  need  not  neces¬ 
sarily  be  attended  with  consciousness,  are  made 
on  the  surface  of  the  body,  or  on  any  part  of  its 
interior,  either  by  external  or  internal  causes. 
Such  movements  are  termed  reflex. 

Muscular  Force,  Origin  of.  Until  the  year 
1866  the  universally  accepted  theory  on  this  sub¬ 
ject  was  that  of  Liebig.  According  to  him,  non- 
nitrogenous  food  is  consumed  entirely  in  the 
production  of  heat;  while  muscular  energy  is  due 
to  the  waste  of  the  nitrogenous  muscular  tissue, 
and  therefore  of  nitrogenous  food.  Muscular 
exercise  should,  if  this  were  the  case,  cause  dis¬ 
tinct  increase  in  the  nitrogenous  excretions  of  the 
body,  as  well  as  greater  elimination  of  non-nitrog- 
enous  substances.  Recent  investigators  deny 
altogether  the  increase  of  excretion  of  nitrogen, 
and  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  energy  gen¬ 
erated  in  the  muscles  is  the  result  of  the  burning 
(oxidation)  of  non-nitrogenous  substances  (fats  and 
carbo-hydrates),  and  not  of  the  burning  of  the 
albuminous  constituents  of  muscular  tissue;  and 
they  conclude  that  the  nitrogenous  constituents 
of  muscles  are  rather  to  be  regarded  as  forming 
the  machine  in  which  these  substances  are  burned, 
than  as  being  themselves  destroyed.  Dr.  A. 
Flint  made  observations  which  seemed  to  show  that 
the  excretion  of  nitrogen  is  distinctly  increased, 
both  during  and  after  severe  muscular  work.  He 
accordingly  comes  to  the  conclusion  that  the  exer¬ 
cise  of  muscular  power  immediately  involves  the 
destruction  of  a  certain  amount  of  muscular  sub¬ 
stance,  of  which  the  nitrogen  excreted  is  a  meas¬ 
ure.  That  is  to  say,  lie  adheres  to  the  original 
view  of  Liebig.  All  observers  are  agreed  that  the 
amount  of  carbon  excreted  in  the  form  of  carbonic 
acid  is  largely  increased  during  exercise. 

Muses,  in  the  Classic  Mythology,  divinities 
originally  included  among  the  nymplis,  but  after¬ 
ward  regarded  as  quite  distinct  from  them.  To 
them  w  as  ascribed  the  power  of  inspiring  song, 
and  poets  and  musicians  were  therefore  regarded 
as  their  pupils  and  favorites.  Hesiod,  in  his 
Theogony,  mentionsnine,  as  follows:  Clio,  Euterpe, 
Tlialeia,  Melpomene,  Terpsichore,  Erato,  Poly¬ 
hymnia,  Urania,  and  Calliope. 

Musli'room,  or  Agaric  ( Agancus ),  a  genus  of 
fungi,  of  the  sub-order  Hymenomycetes,  having  a 
Itymenium  of  unequal  plates  or  gills  on  the  lower 


1.  Parasol  agaric  (.1.  procerus );  o,  young.  2.  Orange- 
milked  agaric  (.4.  deliciosus)',  b,  young.  3.  White  field 
agaric  (A.  virgineus) ;  c,  youug. 

side  of  the  jiileus.  Many  of  them  are  poisonous, 
many  are  edible,  and  some  are  among  the  most 
esteemed  fungi. 

Musk,  or  Musk  Deer  (Moschus  moscliatus),  a 
ruminant  quadruped,  the  type  of  the  family  Mos- 
chidre.  It  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  elevated 
mountainous  regions  and  table-lands  of  Central 
Asia.  Its  odoriferous  secretion  is  valued  as  a 
perfume. 

Musk  Duck  ( Cairina  moschatn),  a  species  of 
duck  of  the  non-oceanic  section  of  Anatidce;  of  a 
genus  characterized  by  an  elevated  tubercle  at 
the  base  of  the  bill,  the  edges  of  the  mandibles 
sinuated,  the  face  and  lores  covered  with  a  bare 
tuberculated  skin,  the  wings  furnished  with  a 
knob  or  spur  at  the  bend. 

Muskegon,  the  county  seat  of  Muskegon 


county,  Mich.,  is  an  important  manufacturing 
city  on  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Muskegon  river.  Pop.,  22,500. 

Musket,  or  Musquet  (Fr.  mousquet;  from 
viouchet,  a  sparrow-hawk;  in  the  same  way  that 
other  shooting-implements  were  named  falcons, 
falconets,  etc.),  the  fire-arm  for  infantry  soldiers, 
which  succeeded  the  clumsy  harquebuss,  and  has 
lately  given  way  to  breecli-loading  rifles. 

Musk  Ox  ( Dos  moschalus,  or  Ovibos  moschatus), 
an  animal  of  the  family  Bovidce,  regarded  as  a 
connecting  link  between  oxen  and  sheep.  It  in¬ 
habits  the  most  northern  parts  of  America,  but  is 
partially  migratory. 

Musk  Plant,  Musk  Root,  Musk  Tree,  Musk 
Wood.  Different  parts  of  a  number  of  plants 
smell  more  or  less  strongly  of  musk.  Among 
these  are  the  common  little  musk  plant,  the 
musk  tree  of  Van  Dieman’s  Land,  and  the  musk 
ochro.  The  musk  tree  of  Jamaica  (Moschoxylum 
swartzii)  belongs  to  the  natural  order  Meliacece. 
Remits  from  all  parts  a  smell  of  musk. 

Musk  Rat,  or  Musquash  {Fiber  zibethicus),  an 
American  aquatic  rodent  common  in  lakes, 
ponds,  and  rivers  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United 
States,  It  is  trapped  by  thousands  for  its  fur, 
though  pelts  bring  at  first  hands  but  about  10 
cents  each. — Musk  Rat,  or  Desman  (  •  h/gale,  or 
Galemys),  a  genus  of  insectivorous  quadrupeds  of 
the  shrew  family.  Only  two  species  are  known, 
one  a  native  of  the  streams  of  the  Pyrenees; 
another  plentiful  in  the  Volga  and  other  rivers 
and  lakes  of  the  South  of  Russia. — Musk  Rat 
(Sorex  murinus),  an  Indian  species  of  shrew,  in 
size  about  equal  to  the  common  brown  rat,  in 
form  and  color  resembling  the  common  shrew, 
but  remarkable  for  the  powerful  musky  odor  of 
a  secretion  which  proceeds  from  glands  on  its 
belly  and  flanks. 

Mus'lin,  a  cotton  fabric  of  Oriental  origin,  is 
said  to  have  derived  its  name  from  the  town  of 
Mosul,  in  Mesopotamia,  where  this  material  was 
at  one  time  largely  manufactured. 

Mussel  {Mytilus),  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate 
mollusks,  the  type  of  the  family  Mytilidce,  which 
is  plentiful  in  nearly  all  fresh  waters  in  this 
country. 

Musset,  Louis  Charges  Alfred  de,  one  of 
the  foremost  of  recent  French  poets,  was  born  at 
Paris,  Nov.  11,  1810  and  died  May  2,  1857.  The 
beauty,  tenderness,  and  power  of  much  of  his 
work  is  marred  by  the  morbid  pessimism  of  a 
man  prematurely  old,  disillusioned,  blase.  On 
this  ground  Musset  is  often  regarded  as  the  rep¬ 
resentative  poet  of  the  modern  Parisian. 

Mustard  (Sinapis),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Crucifer® ,  having  yellow  flowers, 
and  linear  or  oblong  pods,  which  terminate  in  a 
sword-sliaped  and  compressed  or  four-cornered 
beak,  and  contain  one  row  of  seeds.  The  seeds 
are  globular,  and  their  cotyledons  conduplicate. 
It  is  cultivated  for  its  seeds,  which  are  ground 
into  |  owder  and  used  as  a  condiment.  The  pow¬ 
der  of  the  seeds  is  also  used  in  medicine  as  a 
rubefacient. 

Mustard,  Oil  of.  The  seeds  both  of  the 
black  and  the  white  mustard  yield  by  expression 
a  large  quantity  of  a  bland  fixed  oil.  It  is  only 
the  black  mustard  which  by  distillation  yields 
the  compound  usually  known  as  the  oil  or  essence 
of  mustard,  and  which  is  in  reality  sulphocyanide 
of  allyl  contaminated  with  a  brown  resinous 
matter,  from  which  it  may  be  freed  by  simple  re¬ 
distillation.  It  is  the  gradual  formation  of  this 
oil,  when  powdered  mustard  and  warm  water  are 
mixed,  that  occasions  the  special  action  of  the 
common  mustard  poultice.  The  pungency  of 
mustard  as  a  condiment,  of  horse-radish,  etc.,  is 
mainly  due  to  the  presence  of  this  oil. 

Muste'lidae,  a  family  of  digitigrade  carnivora, 
mostly  forming  the  genus  Muslela  of  Linnaeus; 
now  divided  into  a  number  of  genera,  in  which 
are  ranked  the  weasel,  ermine  or  stoat,  sable, 
marten,  ferret,  polecat,  mink,  skunk,  etc. 

Mute,  a  small  instrument  used  to  modify  the 
sound  of  the  violin  or  violoncello.  It  is  made  of 
hard  wood,  ivory,  or  brass,  and  is  attached  to  the 
bridge  by  means  of  a  slit,  a  leg  of  it  being  inter¬ 
jected  between  every  two  strings. 

Mut'ule,  a  plain  block  under  the  corona  of  the 
cornice  of  the  Doric  style,  similar  in  position  to 
the  modallio  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  having 


a  number  of  guttai  or  drops  worked  on  the  under 
side. 

Myce'lium,  in  Botany,  a  development  of 
vegetable  life  peculiar  to  Fungi,  but  apparently 
common  to  all  the  species  of  that  order.  The 
spawn  of  mushrooms  is  the  mycelium. 

Myeli'tis,  an  inflammation  of  the  substance  of 
the  spinal  cord.  It  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic, 
but  the  latter  is  by  far  the  most  common. 
The  chronic  form  begins  with  a  little  uneasi¬ 
ness  in  the  spine,  somewhat  disordered  sensa¬ 
tions  in  the  extremities,  and  unusual  fatigue  after 
any  slight  exertion.  After  a  short  time  paralytic 
symptoms  appear,  and  slowly  increase.  The  gait 
becomes  uncertain  and  tottering,  and  at  length 
the  limbs  fail  to  support  the  body.  The  paralysis 
finally  attacks  the  bladder  and  rectum,  and  the 
evacuations  are  discharged  involuntarily;  and 
death  takes  place  as  the  result  of  exhaustion,  or 
occasionally  of  asphyxia  if  the  paralysis  involves 
the  chest.  In  the  acute  form  there  is  much  pain 
(especially  in  the  spinal  region),  which  usually 
ceases  when  paralysis  supervenes.  The  other 
symptoms  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  chronic 
form,  but  they  occur  more  rapidly  and  with 
greater  severity,  and  death  sometimes  takes  place 
in  a  few  days.  The  most  common  causes  of  this 
disease  are  falls,  blows,  and  strains  from  over¬ 
exertion;  but  sexual  abuses  and  intemperate 
habits  occasionally  induce  it.  It  may  also  result 
from  other  diseases  of  the  spine  (as  caries),  or  may 
be  propagated  from  inflammation  of  the  corres¬ 
ponding  tissue  of  the  brain.  The  treatment, 
which  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  inflammation 
elsewhere,  should  be  confided  entirely  to  the 
medical  practitioner. 

Myers,  the  county  seat  of  Lee  county,  Fla. 
Pop.,  650. 

My 'gale,  a  genus  of  spiders,  the  type  of  a 
family  called  Mygalidip.  They  have  four  pul¬ 
monary  sacs  and  spiracles,  four  spinnerets,  eight 
eyes,  and  hairy  legs. 

Myla'hris,  a  genus  of  coleopterous  insects, 
nearly  allied  to  Cantharis,  and  deserving  of 
notice  because  of  the  use  made  of  some  of  the 
species  as  blistering  flies. 

Mylit'ta,  a  female  deity,  apparently  first 
worshiped  among  the  Babylonians,  who  gradu¬ 
ally  spread  her  worship  through  Assyria  and 
Persia. 

Myl'odon  (Gr.  nvXov,  a  mill,  odor,  a  tooth), 
a  genus  of  huge  fossil  sloths,  whose  remains  are 
found  in  the  pleistocene  deposits  of  South  Amer¬ 
ica,  associated  with  the  Megatherium,  and  other 
allied  genera. 

Myn'ias,  more  accurately  Minyas,  was,  in 
Greek  mythology,  the  son  of  Cliryses.  He  was 
King  of  Joleos,  and  gave  his  name  to  the  people 
called  Minyce.  He  built  the  city  of  Orcliomenus, 
where  rites  (named  after  him)  were  celebrated  in 
his  honor. 

Myrrh  (Heb.  mur),  a  gum  resin  produced  by 
Ba  Isamodendron 
myrrha,  a  tree  of 
the  natural  order 
Amy  ri  dace  a, 
growing  in  Ara¬ 
bia,  and  prob¬ 
ably  also  in 
Abyssinia. 

Myrsina'ceae, 
a  natural  order 
of  exoge n o u s 
ilants,  consist- 
ng  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  natives  of 
warm  climates, 
and  having 
simple  leathery 
leaves,  destitute 
of  stipules;  her- 
m  a  p  h  r  odite  or 
unisexual  flowers 
generally  small, 
but  often  in  um¬ 
bels,  corymbs,  or 
panicles.  Myrrh  ( Balsamodendron  myrrha'). 

Myr'cia,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Myrtacece,,  to  which  belongs  the  wild  clove  or 
wild  cinnamon  of  the  West  Indies  (M.  acrid),  a 
handsome  tree  of  20  or  30  feet  high.  Its  timber 
I  is  hard,  red,  and  heavy. 


MYRIAPODA. 


551 


NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE. 


Myriap'oda  (Gr.  pvpia,  a  thousand,  novs,  a 
foot),  a  class  of  Articulaia,  resembling  Annelida 
in  their  lengthened  form,  and  in  the  great  num¬ 
ber  of  equal,  or  nearly  equal,  segments  of  which 
the  body  is  composed.  The  centipede  belongs  to 
this  class. 

Myrob'alans,  the  astringent  fruit  of  certain 
species  of  Terminalia,  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Combretacem,  natives  of  the  mountains  of 
India. 

Myrta'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  natives 
chiefly  of  warm,  but  partly  also  of  temperate 
countries. 


"Vf  is  the  fourteenth  letter  of  the  English  alplia- 
bet,  and  one  of  the  nasal  liquids  of  the 
lingual  class.  Its  Hebrew  (and  Phoenician)  name, 
Nun,  signified  a  fish,  which  its  original  form  was 
probably  meant  to  represent.  N  is  interchange¬ 
able  with  L  and  M,  as  in  collect,  ccwimingle,  con¬ 
fer  ;  and  in  Ger.  boden ,  compared  with  Eng. 
bottom.  In  Latin,  this  letter  had  a  faint,  uncer 
tain  sound  at  the  end  of  words  and  in  some  other 
positions,  especially  before  s. 

Nse'vus  (known  popularly  as  mother-spot  or 
mole)  is  a  congenital  mark  or  growth  on  a  part  of 
the  skin.  Sometimes  it  is  merely  a  dark  discol 
oration  of  the  surface,  in  which  case  it  is  termed 
a  mole  and  is  perfectly  harmless;  but  often  it 
consists  of  a  dense  network  of  dilated  blood¬ 
vessels,  forming  a  reddish  or  livid  tumor,  more  or 
less  elevated  above  the  surface  of  the  surround¬ 
ing  skin.  The  most  frequent  situations  of  these 
vascular  mevi  are  the  skin  and  subcutaneous 
cellular  tissue  of  the  head;  but  they  may  occur 
elsewhere. 

Nagasa'ki,  or  Nangasikt,  a  city  and  port  of 
Japan,  is  in  32°  44'  N.  latitude,  and  129°  51'  E. 
longitude,  on  the  western  side  of  a  peninsula  in 
the  northwest  of  the  Island  of  Kiusiu.  Pop. 
(1831),  39,506. 

Nagpur',  a  city  of  British  India,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  and  situated  near  the 
northwest  extremity  of  the  province.  Pop.  (1881), 
98,300. 

Nagpur,  an  extensive  division  of  British  India. 
Area,  24,040  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  2,758,056. 

Na'huni,  one  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets, 
was  a  native  either  of  Elkosh,  in  Galilee,  or  the 
son  of  a  man  named  Elkosh.  He  was  probably  a 
contemporary  of  Isaiah,  and  flourished  about 
713—711  b.c. 

Na'iades,  Naiada'ce/E,  or  Potame^e,  a  nat¬ 
ural  order  of  endogenous  plants,  divided  by  some 
botanists  into  several  orders  (Juncaginece,  Zoster- 
c tcetr ,  etc.),  containing  in  all  not  quite  100  known 
species,  all  aquatic  plants,  some  of  them  inhabit¬ 
ing  the  ocean,  some  found  in  lakes  and  ponds, 
some  in  streams. 

Na'iadS,  in  Grecian  Mythology,  the  nymphs  of 
fresh-water  lakes,  rivers,  and  fountains.  They 
were  believed  to  possess  the  power  of  inspiration; 
hence,  soothsayers  and  others  are  sometimes  called 
nympholeptoi  (siezed  by  the  nymph). 

Nai  'ant,  or  Na'tant  (Lat.  nature,  to  swim),  a 
heraldic  term  appbed  to  a  fish  when  borne  hori¬ 
zontally  across  the  shield  in  a  swimming  position 

Nails,  pointed  pieces  of  metal,  usually  with 
flattened  or  rounded  heads,  used  for  driving  into 
wood  or  other  materials,  for  the  purpose  of  hold¬ 
ing  the  pieces  together.  Formerly,  all  nails  were 
hand-made,  by  forging  on  an  anvil,  but  they  are 
now  made  by  machinery,  driven  by  steam,  and 
are  cut  direct  from  plate-iron.  Wire  nails  with 
serrated  edges  have  lately  come  into  use,  and  are 
preferred  for  many  purposes  to  common  iron  or 
steel  nails. 

Naissant,  a  term  applied  in  heraldic  blazon  to 
an  animal  depicted  as  coming  forth  out  of  the 
middle — not  like  isuant  or  jessant,  out  of  the 
boundary  line — of  an  ordinary. 

Nama'uitaland,  Great.  The  extensive  region 
in  South  Africa  north  of  tlie  Cape  Colony,  ex¬ 
tending  from  the  Orange  river,  latitude  29°  30', 
to  Walfish  Bay,  latitude  23°,  and  stretching  in¬ 
land  from  the  west  coast  to  the  Kalihari  Desert, 
comprehending  an  area  of  about  100,000  square- 
miles. 


Myrtle  (My Hus),  a  genus  of  Myriacece,  having 
the  limb  of  the  calyx  4 — 5  parted,  4 — 5  petals, 
numerous  free  stamens,  an  almost  globose  germen, 
and  a  2 — 3  celled  berry,  crowned  with  the  limb 
of  the  calyx,  and  containing  kidney-shaped  seeds. 

My 'sis,  agenus  of  podophthalmous (stalk-eyed) 
crustaceans,  of  the  order  Stomapoda,  much  resem¬ 
bling  the  common  shrimps  in  form,  although 
differing  from  them  in  the  external  position  of 
the  gills. 

Myso're,  orMAisuR,  a  native  State  of  Southern 
India.  It  is  surrounded  by  districts  of  the  Madras 
Government.  The  area  is  27,000  square  miles. 
Pop.,  in  1881,  4,186,399. 

N 

Namaqualand,  Little,  is  a  division  of  Cape 
Colony  south  of  the  Orange  river,  formerly  part 
of  the  district  of  Clanwilliam,  and  included  with 
the  country  north  of  it  under  the  general  name  of 
Namaqualand. 

Nama'quas,  the  principal  existing  tribe  of  the 
race  generally  known  under  the  name  of  Hotten¬ 
tot.  They  inhabit  the  region  called  Great  Nama¬ 
qualand,  north  of  the  Gariep  or  Orange  river, 
and  the  country  a  few  miles  south  of  it,  as  far  as 
the  Kamiesbergen. 

Namaycush  (Salmo  namaycusli),  a  fish  nearly 
allied  to  the  salmon  and  trout,  a  native  of  the 
great  lakes  and  interior  rivers  of  North  America. 
It  is  often  taken  of  a  size  varying  from  20  to  40 
lbs.,  and  is  said  sometimes  to  reach  60  lbs.  It  is 
much  esteemed  for  the  table. 

Namur',  a  province  of  Belgium,  on  the  French 
frontier,  lying  between  Hainault  and  Luxem 
bourg.  Area,  about  1,400  square  miles.  Pop 
(1880),  322,654. 

Namur  (Flem.  Namen),  the  chief  town  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  is  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Sambre  with  the  Meuse.  Pop.  (1876),  25,066 

Nancy,  a  beautiful  town  of  France,  capital  of 
the  Department  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  is  on  the 
River  Meurthe.  Pop.  (1881),  71,991. 

Nau'du,  or  American  Ostrich  (Rhea),  a  genus 
of  South  American  birds  allied  to  the  ostrich, 
cassawary,  and  emu,  and  most  nearly  to  the 
ostrich,  from  which  it  differs  in  having  the  feet 
three-toed,  and  each  toe  armed  with  a  claw,  also, 
in  being  more  completely  feathered  on  the  head 
and  neck;  in  having  no  tail,  and  in  having  the 
wings  better  developed  and  plumed,  and  termin¬ 
ated  by  a  hooked  spur. 

Nanking',  capital  of  the  Province  of  Kiangsu, 
formerly  the  capital  of  China,  on  the  Yangtse 
river,  ninety  miles  from  the  beginning  of  its  estu¬ 
ary,  N.  latitude  32°  40'  40"  E.  longitude  118°  47' 
Pop.  about  300,000. 

Nantes  (anc.  Namnetes  or  Nannetes),  an  im¬ 
portant  seaport  town  of  France,  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Loire  InfOrieure,  is  on  the  Loire, 
thirty  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Napa  City  the  county  seat  of  Napa  count}7, 
Cal.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  the  name  given  to  the  famous 
decree  published  in  that  city  by  Henri  IV'.,  of 
France,  April  13,  1598,  which  secured  to  the 
Protestant  portion  of  his  subjects  freedom  of 
religion. 

Nantuck'et,  an  island  and  town  upon  it,  on 
the  southeast  coast  of  Massachusetts.  The  island 
is  15  miles  long  and  an  average  of  4  wide,  with  an 
area  of  50  square  miles.  Pop.,  3,200. 

Naph'iha  is  derived  from  the  Persian  word 
nafata,  to  exude,  and  was  originally  applied  to 
an  inflammable  liquid  hydrocarbon  (or  rather  a 
mixture  of  several  hydrocarbons)  which  exudes 
from  the  soil  in  certain  parts  of  Persia.  The 
term  is  now  used  to  designate  a  similar  and 
almost  identical  fluid,  that  issues  from  the  ground 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  known  as 
petroleum,  rock-oil,  etc.  It  is  also  applied  to 
other  liquids  which  resemble  true  naphtha  in 
little  else  than  in  their  volatility  and  inflamma¬ 
bility.  Coal-tar  yields  by  distillation  a  liquid 
which  has  a  heavier  specific  gravity  and  a  lower 
boiling-point  than  Persian  naphtha,  but  resem¬ 
bles  it  in  general  properties,  and  can  generally  be 
substituted  for  it.  Native  naphtha,  petroleum, 
or  rock-oil,  is  found  in  many  parts  of  the  world, 
as  in  Japan,  Burmah,  Persia,  the  shores  of  the 


Mysore,  orMAisuR,  a  city  of  India,  the  seat  of 
a  British  residency,  capital  of  the  territory,  and 
of  the  subdivision  of  the  same  name,  is  245  miles 
west-southwest  of  Madras,  latitude  12°  19'  N., 
longitude  76°  42'  E.  Pop.  (1872),  57,765. 

Mys'teries  and  Miracle-plays  were  dramas 
founded  on  the  historical  parts  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  and  the  lives  of  the  saints,  per¬ 
formed  during  the  middle  ages,  first  in  churches, 
and  afterward  in  the  streets  on  fixed  or  movable 
stages.  Mysteries  were  properly  taken  from 
biblical  and  miracle-plays  from  legendary  sub¬ 
jects,  but  this  distinction  in  nomenclature  was 
not  always  strictly  adhered  to. 


Caspian  Sea,  Siberia,  Italy,  France,  and  in  this 
country. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles  James,  G.C.B.,  English 
general,  conqueror  of  the  Scinde.  was  one  of 
several  brothers  distinguished  for  their  bravery, 
three  of  whom — Charles,  William,  and  George — 
were  known  in  the  Peninsular  War  as  “  Welling¬ 
ton’s  Colonels  ”  He  was  born  at  Whitehall,  West¬ 
minster,  Aug.  10,  1782,  and.  died  Aug  29,  1S53. 
The  story  of  his  Conquest  of  Scinde  has  been 
written  by  his  brother,  Lieutenant-General  Sir 
William  Francis  Patrick  Napier,  K.C.B.,  born 
Dec  17,  1785,  who  served  in  the  Peninsular  cam¬ 
paign,  and  was  engaged  from  1824  to  1840  in  pre¬ 
paring  his  History  of  the  Peninsular  War.  He 
died  Feb.  12,  I860  at  Scinde  House,  Clapham. 

Napier,  Sir  Charles,  K.C.B.,  a  famous 
English  admiral,  was  cousin  to  the  hero  of  Scinde 
and  the  historian  of  the  Peninsular  War.  His 
father  was  the  Hon.  Capt.  Charles  Napier, 
R.N.,  second  son  of  Francis,  fifth  Lord  Napier. 
He  was  born  March  6,  1786,  at  the  family  seat, 
Mercliistoun  Hall,  in  the  County  of  Stirling,  and 
died  Nov.  6,  1806. 

Na  ples,  (Ital.  Napoli,  anc.  Neaqmlis),  the 
largest  city  of  Italy,  capital  of  a  province,  is  built 
partly  at  the  base,  partly  on  the  slopes  of  two 
crescent-shaped  acclivities  on  the  famous  Bay  of 
Naples.  Pop.  (1881),  463,172;  of  commune, 
494,314. 

Naples,  Bay  of,  an  indention  of  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  Sea  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Italy,  oppo¬ 
site  the  city  of  Naples,  is  20  miles  wide  from 
Cape  Miseno  on  the  northwest  to  Cape  Cam- 
panella  on  the  southeast,  and  from  this  line 
extends  inland  for  about  10  miles. 

Naples.  The  Italian  provinces  (formerly  king¬ 
dom)  of  Naples  and  Sicily,  or  the  Two  Sicilies, 
occupy  the  south  end  of  the  Italian  peninsula, 
and  consist  of  the  continental  territory  of  Naples 
and  the  insular  dependency  of  Sicily. 

Napoleon  Bonaparte,  Emperor  of  the  French, 
was  born  at  Ajaccio,  in  the  Island  of  Corsica, 
Aug.  15,  1769.  At  the  age  of  ten  he  entered  the 
Military  School  at  Brienne,  as  a  king’s  pensioner, 
and  in  1785  obtained  a  commission  as  sub-Lieu- 
tenant  in  the  artillery  regiment  tie  la  Fere.  When 
the  Revolution  broke  out  Napoleon  took  the  pop¬ 
ular  side,  but  in  a  quiet  and  undemonstrative 
way.  He  soon  rose  to  the  rank  of  Brigadier- 
General,  and  was  placed  in  command  of  the 
troops  at  Paris.  He  was  married  to  Josephine 
Beauharnais,  March  9,  1796.  A  few  days  before 
he  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Army  of 
Italy,  and  went  to  his  new  field  immediately  after 
the  wedding.  He  moved  against  the  Austrians 
and  achieved  important  victories  in  Northern 
Italy.  A  temporary  peace  was  made,  but  in 
January,  1797,  Austria  again  began  hostilities 
against  the  French,  and  fighting  continued  with 
slight  interruption  until  the  final  fall  of  the 
French  Empire.  Napoleon  returned  to  France. 
An  expedition  against  Egypt  was  decided  on, 
and  on  May  19,  1798,  sailed  from  Toulon  with  a 
fleet  containing 30,000 soldiers,  and  reached  Alex- 
andriaon  June29th.  He  captured  that  city,  moved 
at  once  on  Cairo,  and  soon  had  complete  control 
of  Egypt.  He  next  invaded  Turkey,  stormed 
Jaffa  on  March  7,  1799,  after  a  heroic  resistance 
on  the  part  of  the  Turks;  marched  northward  by 
the  coast,  and  reached  Acre  on  the  17tli.  Here 
his  career  of  victory  was  stopped.  All  his  efforts 
to  capture  Acre  were  foiled  through  the  obstinate 
resistance  of  Djezzar  Pasha,  assisted  by  a  small 


NAPOLEON. 


552 


NATATORES. 


body  of  English  sailors  and  marines.  On  May 
21st  lie  commenced  his  retreat  to  Egypt,  leaving 
the  whole  country  on  fire  behind  him,  and  re¬ 
entered  Cairo  on  .June  14th.  About  the  middle 
of  July  the  Sultan  landed  a  force  of  18,000  men 
at  Aboukir,  who  were  attacked  by  Napoleon  on 
the  25th,  and  routed  with  immense  slaughter. 
On  August  23d,  he  sailed  from  Alexandria,  on 
his  return  to  France,  leaving  his  army  behind 
him  under  the  command  of  Kleber.  He  hastened 
to  Paris,  soon  mastered  the  state  of  affairs,  threw 
himself  into  the  party  of  Sie3Tes,  and  overthrew 
the  Directory  on  the  18th  Brumaire.  A  new  consti¬ 
tution  was  drawn  up,  chiefly  by  Sieyes,  under 
which  Napoleon  became  First  Consul,  with  the 
power  of  appointing  to  all  public  offices,  of  pro¬ 
posing  all  public  measures  in  peace  or  war,  and 
the  entire  command  of  all  administrative  affairs 
civil  and  military.  In  a  word,  he  was  ruler  of 
France.  Leaving  Moreau  in  command  of  the 
Army  of  the  Rhine,  he  assembled  an  army  of  36,- 
005  men,  and  on  May  13, 1800,  began  his  march 
across  the  Alps.  Another  series  of  victories  made 
him  again  master  of  Austria,  and  on  Feb.  9, 
1801,  the  treaty  of  LunCville  was  signed.  In 
January,  1802,  *  Napoleon  became  President  of 
the  Cisalpine  Republic;  and  on  August  2d, 
following,  was  declared  Consul  for  life  by 
a  decree  of  the  French  Senate.  Peace  had 
meantime  been  made  between  France  and 
England,  but  did  not  last  long.  On  May 
18, 1804,  Napoleon  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of 
France.  In  the  following  summer  (May  26tli),  he 
was  crowned  King  of  Italy.  In  1805,  a  coalition 
was  formed  between  England,  Russia,  Austria, 
and  Sweden,  and  war  again  broke  out  in  the 
month  of  September.  Concentrating  his  widely- 
scattered  forces  at  Mainz,  NapoKon  marched  at 
once  across  Bavaria,  compelled  General  Mack  to 
capitulate  at  Ulm  with  20,000  men  (October  17th); 
and  on  November  13th,  entered  the  capital  of 
Austria.  Then  hurrying  north,  he  gave  bat¬ 
tle  to  the  allies  at  Austerlitz,  on  December  2d; 
victory  was  complete.  Next  day  the  Aus¬ 
trian  Emperor  sought  an  interview,  and  sued  for 
peace.  A  treaty  was  signed  at  Presburg  on 
December  26th,  by  which  Austria  ceded  to  France 
all  her  Italian  and  Adriatic  provinces.  Napoleon 
now  moved  on  Prussia  and  reduced  that  power  to 
submission.  Other  changes  effected  by  it  were, 
the  dissolution  of  the  old  German  Empire,  and  the 
formation  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine. 
After  the  capture  of  Berlin,  he  proceeded  north¬ 
ward  to  encounter  the  Russians,  who  were  advanc¬ 
ing  to  the  help  of  Prussia.  At  Pultusk  (Dec.  28,' 
1806),  and  at  Eylau  (Feb.  8,  1807),  the  French 
were  beaten,  but  after  some  months,  received 
heavy  reinforcements,  and  on  June  13th, 
fought  and  won  the  great  battle  of  Friedland, 
which  led  to  the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  signed  on 
July  7th.  Then  came  the  wars  with  Spain 
and  Portugal.  An  English  force  was  sent  to  the 
assistance  of  the  Spaniards,  but  the  French 
armies  continued  their  conquests.  In  May,  1812, 
Napoleon  declared  war  against  Russia,  and  with 
an  army  of  half  a  million  men  invaded  that 
country  in  .June  of  the  same  year.  After  a  disas¬ 
trous  campaign  of  five  weeks  he  retreated,  and 
when  he  crossed  the  Beresnia,  November  26th 
and  27th,  his  grand  army  was  reduced  to  25,000. 
In  the  spring  of  1813  he  invaded  Germany  with 
30,000  men,  and  though  at  first  he  won  several 
important  battles,  he  was  finally  on  October  16th, 
18th,  and  19th,  defeated  at  Leipzig  with  great 
slaughter,  and  retreated  toward  France,  followed 
by  the  allies.  On  March  30tli,  the  allied  forces 
captured,  after  a  severe  engagement,  the  fortifi¬ 
cations  of  Paris;  next  day,  Emperor  Alexander 
and  the  King  of  Prussia  entered  the  city,  and  on 
April  4tli,  Napoleon  abdicated  at  Fontainebleau. 
A  British  ship  conveyed  him  to  Elba,  where  he 
arrived  on  May  4th.  After  a  lapse  of  ten  months, 
Napoleon  made  his  escape  from  the  Island,  landed 
near  Frejuson  March  1,  1815,  and  appealed  again 
to  France.  The  army  went  over  to  him  in  a 
body,  and  several  of  his  marshals,  but  the  major¬ 
ity  remained  faithful  to  Louis  XVIII.  On  March 
20th,  he  reached  Paris,  reassumed  the  supreme 
power,  promised  a  liberal  constitution,  and  pre¬ 
pared  once  more  to  try  the  fortune  of  battle  with 
the  allies.  At  the  head  of  1 25,000  men,  he 
marched  (June  15th)  toward  Charleroi,  on  the 


Flemish  frontier,  where  the  English  and  Prussian 
forces  were  assembling.  The  Duke  of  Welling¬ 
ton,  who,  the  year  before,  had  completed  the 
deliverance  of  Spain,  was  appointed,  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna,  Commander-in-chief  of  the 
armies  of  the  Netherlands.  The  campaign  lasted 
only  a  few  days.  On  the  16th,  Napoffion  defeated 
the  Prussians,  under  Marshal  Blucher,  at  Ligny, 
which  compelled  Wellington  to  fall  back  on 
Waterloo,  where,  on  the  18th,  was  fought  the 
most  memorable  and  decisive  battle  of  modern 
times.  It  resulted  in  the  utter  and  irretrievable  ! 
ruin  of  Napoleon.  lie  returned  to  Paris  and 
abdicated  again  on  June  22d,  in  favor  of  his  son, 
NapoKon  II.,  and  fled  to  Rochefort.  He  sur¬ 
rendered,  however,  July  15th,  and  was  con¬ 
fined  on  the  Island  of  St.  Helena,  where  he  died, 
May  5,  1821. 

Napoleon,  or  in  full,  Napolkon  Joseph 
Charles  Paul  Bonaparte,  is  thesou  of  Jerome, 
King  of  Westphalia,  and  was  born  at  Trieste,  in 
1822.  He  has  Held  several  important  civil  and 
military  posts,  but  at  present  is  living  in  retire¬ 
ment. 

Napoleon,  the  county  seat  of  Logan  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  100. 

Napoleon,  the  county  seat  of  Henry  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  3,200. 

Napoleouville,  the  parish  seat  of  Assumption 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  525. 

Narcis'sus,  according  to  a  Greek  fable,  was  the 
son  of  the  river  god  Cephissus,  and  of  the  nymph 
Liriope  or  Lirioessa  of  Thespiie,  in  Boeotia. 

Narcissus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
AmaryVMea ,  having  a  perianth  of  six  equal  petal  ¬ 
like  segments,  and  a  bell-shaped  corona  of  various 
magnitude.  The  species  are  natives  of  the  South 
of  Europe,  the  North  of  Africa,  and  the  temperate 
parts  of  Asia. 

Narcot'ics  (Gr.  vapto),  narlce,  stupor)  are 
remedies  which, in  moderate  doses, lessen  theaction 
of  the  nervous  system.  Their  full  operation  is 
sleep  or  coma.  Opium  is  the  type  from  which 
most  descriptions  of  this  class  of  medicines  have 
been  drawn;  but,  although  most  narcotics  more 
or  less  resemble  opium  in  their  action,  almost  every 
one  presents  some  peculiarity  in  the  way  in  which 
it  affects  the  system.  Next  to  opium,  henbane, 
Indian  hemp,  and  aconite  may  be  regarded  as  the 
most  important  narcotics.  Narcotics  are  usually 
administered  either  with  the  view  of  inducing 
sleep  or  of  alleviating  pain  or  spasm.  As,  how¬ 
ever,  their  action  is  much  modified  by  a  variety 
of  circumstances — such  as  age,  idiosyncrasy,  and 
prolonged  use — they  should  be  administered  with 
extreme  caution,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  only  under 
competent  advice. 

Nardoo  (Marsika  quadrifidu),  a  plant  of  the 
acotyledonous  natural  order  Marsileacece,  t  he  only 
plant  of  that  order  which  is  used  in  any  way  by 
man.  It  has  but  recently  become  known  to 
botanists.  It  is  found  in  Australia,  and  affords 
important  supplies  of  food  to  the  natives  of  some 
regions;  it  has  also  been  of  great  use  to  some  recent 
exploring-parties. 

>ar'dus,  a  genus  of  grasses,  having  a  simple 
spike,  spikelets  all  on  one  side,  no  glumes;  each 
spikelet  consisting  of  one  floret,  which  has  two 
paleae,  the  outer  ending  in  a  long  point. 


Nar'wlial  ( Monodon  or  Nurwhalus),  a  genus  of 


Cetacea,  of  the  family  Delphinidce,  resembling 
Beluga  in  form  and  in  the  want  of  a  dorsal  fin, 
but  remarkably  characterized  by  having  no  teeth 
at  all,  except  two  in  the  upper  jaw,  supposed  to- 
be  canines,  which  sometimes  remain  rudimentary, 
even  in  the  mature  animal,  as  they  are  in  the 
young,  and  are  sometimes  developed  into  great 
spirally  twisted  straight  tusks,  passing  through 
the  upper  lip,  and  projecting  like  horns  in  front. 

NasaTis,  or  Proboscis  Monkey (Nasalis  larva- 
tux),  a  monkey  allied  to  the  Doucs  or  Semnopith.eci, 
but  distinguished  from  all  other  monkeys  by  an 


Proboscis  Monkey  ( Nasalis  larvatus). 


extreme  elongation  of  nose,  that  organ  being  nearly 
four  inches  in  length  in  the  mature  animal. 

Nash'ua,  a  manufacturing  city  of  New  Hamp¬ 
shire,  at  the  junction  of  the  Merrimac  and 
Nashua  rivers.  The  falls  of  the  latter  afford 
water-power  to  several  large  manufacturing  com¬ 
panies,  which  have  extensive  cotton  mills,  ma¬ 
chine  shops,  etc.  Pop.,  13,800. 

Nashville,  the  name  of  several  towns  and 
cities  in  the  United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  A  city, 
port  of  entry,  and  capital  of  Tennessee,  on  the 
Cumberland  river,  200  miles  above  the  Ohio. 
The  river  is  navigable  by  steamboats  of  1,500 
tons  fifty  miles  above  Nashville.  It  has  a  large 
commerce,  flour,  saw,  and  planing  mills,  several 
large  cotton  factories,  manufactories  of  engines 
and  machinery,  etc.  Near  the  city  are  the  State 
Lunatic  Asylum  and  the  “  Hermitage,”  once  the 
residence  of  President  Jackson.  Nashville  was 
occupied  by  the  Federal  troops  in  1862,  and  here 
the  Federals  gained  a  victory.  Pop.,  75,500. — 2. 
The  county  seat  of  Berrien  county,  Ga.  Pop., 
100. — 3.  Tiie  county  seat  of  Brown  county,  Ind. 
Pop.,  550. — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Nash  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  225. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Wash¬ 
ington  county,  III.  Pop.,  3,200. 

Nas'sau,  formerly  a  German  duchy,  now  Wies¬ 
baden,  a  district  of  the  Prussian  Province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  in  49°  50'  to  50°  50'  N.  latitude, 
and  7°  30'  to  8°  45'  E.  longitude,  is  bounded  west 
and  south  by  the  Main  and  the  Rhine,  the  Prus- 
sian-Rhenish  provinces,  and  the  Grand-duchy  of 
Hesse,  east  by  the  Hesse  and  Frankfort  territories, 
and  north  by  Westphalia.  Area,  1,802  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1880),  731,425. 

Nassau,  the  capital  of  New  Providence,  is  the 
center  of  the  Bahamas.  It  is  situated  in  latitude 
25p  5'  N.,  longitude  71“  21'  W.  Pop.,  9.000. 
•During  the  Civil  War  in  the  United  States  it  be¬ 
came  notorious  in  connection  with  the  blockade- 
runners. 

Natal'.  The  region  now  forming  the  Colony 
of  Natal  derives  its  name  from  its  being  discov¬ 
ered  by  the  Portuguese  on  Christmas  Day.  1497. 
The  Colony  of  Natal  is  on  the  southeast  coast  of 
Africa,  about  800  miles  east-northeast  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  between  the  29th  and  31st 
parallels  of  south  latitude.  Its  northeast  bound¬ 
ary  is  the  Tugela,  or  Buffalo  river,  which  divides 
it  from  Zululand,  and  its  southwest  boundary  is 
the  Umzimculu  and  Umtamouna  rivers,  separat¬ 
ing  it  from  Kaffraria  proper.  A  lofty  and  rugged 
range  of  mountains  called  the  Quathlamba,  or 
Draclienberg,  divides  it  from  the  Free  State  and 
Basutuland.  Area,  18,750  square  miles. 

Natato'res  (Lat.  swimmers),  the  name  given 
by  Illiger,  and  many  other  ornithologists,  to  the- 
order  of  birds  called  Palmipedes  by  Cuvier. 


NATCHEZ. 


553 


NEGRITOS. 


Natch 'ez,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  Missis¬ 
sippi,  on  the  "east  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river, 
280  miles  north  of  New  Orleans.  It,  is  the  ship¬ 
ping  port  of  a 'large  and  fertile  cotton  district, 
and  has  steamboat  connections  with  the  whole 
Mississippi  Valley.  Pop.,  8,500. 

Natchitoches,  the  parish  seat  of  Natchitoches 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  2,785. 

Natick,  a  prosperous  manufacturing  and  agri¬ 
cultural  city  of  Middlesex  county,  Mass.  Pop., 
8,600. 

Na'tron,  or  Trona,  an  impure  sesquicarbonate 
of  soda,  which  always  contains  sulphate  of  soda 
and  chloride  of  sodium.  It  is  obtained  from  the 
margins  of  lakes  in  Egypt,  Siberia,  Thibet,  etc., 
and  from  the  borders  of  the  Black  and  Caspian 
Seas. 

Natron  Lakes.  Natron  was  one  of  the  sub¬ 
stances  employed  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  in 
embalming  mummies,  and  it  is  mentioned  in  texts 
of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  circa  1800  b.c.  The  lakes, 
eight  in  number,  are  to  the  west  of  the  Damie'ta 
branch  of  the  Nile.  They  are  below  the  level  of 
the  sea,  and  the  natron  is  obtained  from  the  water 
of  these  lakes  by  evaporation. 

Natu'na  Islands,  The,  lying  to  the  northwest 
of  Borneo,  4°  N.  latitude,  108°  E.  longitude,  are 
densely  wooded  and  mountainous.  The  largest  of 
the  islands  is  about  GOO  square  miles. 

Natural,  in  Music,  a  note  belonging  to  the  dia¬ 
tonic  scale  of  C,  and  neither  elevated  by  a  sharp 
nor  depressed  by  a  flat. 

Naturalization,  the  act  of  placing  an  alien  in 
the  position,  or  investing  him  with  the  rights  of 
a  natural-born  citizen.  In  the  American  States  live 
years’  residence,  and  a  declaration  of  intention  to 
become  a  citizen,  emitted  before  a  magistrate,  is 
requisite  to  naturalization. 

Natural  Theology  is  the  name  given  to  that 
branch  of  moral  science  which  concerns  itself 
with  the  evidences  for  the  existence  of  God,  drawn 
from  an  inquiry  into  the  constitution  of  the  uni¬ 
verse. 

Nature-printing.  This  is  a  process  by  which 
engravings  or  plates  answering  thereto  are  pro¬ 
duced  by  taking  impressions  of  the  objects  them¬ 
selves,  and  printing  from  them. 

Nau 'sea  is  a  distressing  sensation  always 
referred  to  the  stomach.  It  is  unattended  by  pain, 
but  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  general 
languor  or  debility,  a  small  and  often  irregular 
pulse,  a  pale,  cool,  and  moist  skin,  general  muscu¬ 
lar  relaxation,  an  increased  flow  ot  saliva,  and  a 
sensation  that  vomiting  will  supervene.  It  is  most 
commonly  a  direct  symptom  of  disease  or  disorder 
of  the  stomach,  but  sometimes  it  is  a  very  important 
indirect  symptom  of  disease  of  some  part  at  a  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  stomach — as,  for  example,  the 
brain  or  the  kidney.  The  nausea  which  is  so 
troublesome  to  pregnant  women  is  due  to  the  irri¬ 
tation  excited  by  the  enlarged  uterus  being  re¬ 
flected  by  nervous  agency  to  the  stomach. 

Nau'tilus,  a  genus  of  tetrabranchiate  Cephalopo¬ 
da,  extremely  interesting  as  the  existing  representa¬ 
tives  of  an  order  of  mollusks  now  reduced  to  a 
few  species,  but  of  which  the  fossil  remains  attest 
the  great  abundance  in  former  geological  periods. 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  lound  only  in  the 
seas  of  warm  climates.  It.  is  supposed  to  have 
the  power  of  pumping  air  into  or  out  of  its  shell, 
so  that  it  may  float  or  sink  at  will. 

Nauvoo,  a  town  on  the  Mississippi  river  in 
Hancock  county,  Ill.  Pop.,  1,400.  It  was  once 
the  home  of  a  band  of  Mormons  who  were  finally 
driven  from  the  town  by  State  militia,  at  the 
point  of  the  bayonet.  Later,  it  was  the  home  of 
a  community  of  French  socialists  under  Cabct. 

Naval  Crown,  in  Heraldry,  a  rim  of  gold 
round  which  are  placed  alternately  prows  of 
galleys  and  square  sails. 

Navar're,  a  province,  and  formerly  a  kingdom 
of  Spain,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  France,  on 
the  south  and  east  by  Aragon,  and  on  the  west  by 
tin-  Biscay-;  and  is  in  42u  20' — 43°  15'  N.  latitude 
and  0°  50' — 2°  30' W.  longitude.  Area,  about 
4,000  square  miles.  Pop.  (1877),  304,184. 

Na'vcw  (Fr.  navette),  a  garden  vegetable  cul¬ 
tivated  in  France  and  other  parts  of  Europe.  It 
is  by  some  botanists  regarded  as  a  variety  of 
Brassica  napus,  or  rape,  while  others  refer  it  to 
B.  campeslris,  sometimes  called  wild  navew,  the 


species  which  is  also  supposed  to  be  the  original 
of  the  Swedish  tumip. 

Navic 'ilia  (Lat.  a  little  ship),  a  genus  of  Dia- 
tomaceoe;  receiving  its  name  from  the  resemblance 
of  its  form  to  that  of  a  boat.  Some  of  the  species 
are  very  common. 

Navic 'ular  Disease,  in  the  horse,  consists  in 
strain  of  the  strong  flexor  tendon  of  the  foot,  at 
the  point  within  the  hollow  of  the  fetlock,  where 
it  passes  over  the  navicular  bone.  It  soon  gives 
rise  to  a  short,  tripping,  yet  cautious  gait,  undue 
wear  of  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  wasting  of  the 
muscles  of  the  shoulder,  and  projecting  or 
“  pointing  ”  of  the  affected  limb  while  standing. 
When  early  noticed,  and  in  horses  with  well- 
formed  legs,  it  is  often  curable;  but  when  of  sev¬ 
eral  weeks’  standing,  it  leads  to  so  much  inflam¬ 
mation  and  destruction  of  the  tendon  and  adjoin¬ 
ing  parts,  that  soundness  and  fitness  for  fast  work 
are  again  impossible.  Rest  should  at  once  be 
given,  the  shoe  removed,  the  toe  shortened,  and 
the  foot  placed  in  a  large,  soft,  hot  poultice, 
changed  every  few  hours.  Laxative  medicine 
and  bran  mashes  should  be  given,  and  a  soft  bed 
made.  After  a  few  days,  and  when  the  heat  and 
tenderness  abate,  cold  applications  should  super¬ 
sede  the  hot;  and,  after  another  week,  a  blister 
may  be  applied  round  the  coronet,  and  the 
animal  placed  for  two  months  in  a  good  yard  or 
in  a  grass  field,  if  the  ground  be  soft  and  moist; 
or,  if  sufficiently  strong,  at  slow  farm  work  on 
soft  land. 

Nav  igators,  or  Samo'an  Islands,  a  group 
of  nine  islands,  with  some  islets,  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  lying  north  of  the  Friendly  Islands,  in 
latitude  i3°  30' — 14°  30'  S.,  and  longitude  168° — 
173°  W.  The  four  principal  islands  of  the  group 
are  Mauna,  Tutuila,  Upolu,  and  Savaii.  Of 
these,  Savaii,  40  miles  in  length  by  20  miles 
broad,  and  having  a  population  of  12,000,  is  the 
largest.  Area  of  the  group  estimated  at  250 
square  miles;  pop.,  about  36,000. 

Navy,  United  States.  The  present  strength 
of  the  United  States  Navy  consistsof  5  unarmored 
vessels,  10  iron-clad,  single-turreted  monitors, 
and  2  torpedo  rams,  carrying  in  all  495  guns. 
The  Chicago,  the  Boston,  the  Atlanta  and  the 
Dolphin,  are  built  of  steel,  heavily  armored,  have 
the  best  engines  known  to  science,  and  will  be 
armed  with  modern  breecli-loading  rifled  guns. 

Nax'os,  the  largest,  most  beautiful,  and  most 
fertile  of  the  Cyclades,  is  situated  in  the  iEgean, 
midway  between  the  coasts  of  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor.  Extreme  length,  about  20  miles;  breadth, 
15  miles.  Pop.,  about  19,000. 

Nazarene'  (Gr.  Na^apevoi,  and  NaCapmot, 
an  inhabitant  of  Nazareth)  was  used  by  the 
Jews  as  one  of  the  designations  of  our  Lord,  and 
afterward  became  a  common  appellation  of  the 
early  Christians  in  Judaea. 

Naz'areth,  a  small  town  or  village  of  Palestine, 
anciently  in  the  district  of  Galilee,  and  in  the 
territory  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulon,  21  miles 
southeast  of  Acre.  It  lies  in  a  hilly  tract  of  coun¬ 
try,  and  is  built  partly  on  the  sides  of  some  rocky 
ridges,  partly  in  some  of  the  ravines  by  which 
they  are  seamed.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  scene  of 
the  Annunciation,  and  the  place  where  the 
Saviour  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  life  in 
obscure  labor.  Pop.,  3,120. 

Naz'arites  (from  Heb.  nazar,  to  separate) 
denoted  among  the  Jews  those  persons,  male  or 
female,  who  had  consecrated  themselves  to  God 
by  certain  acts  of  abstinence,  which  marked  them 
off,  or  separated  them  from  the  rest  of  the  com¬ 
munity. 

Neagh,  Lough,  the  largest  lake  of  the  British 
Islands,  is  in  the  Province  of  Ulster,  Ireland,  and 
is  surrounded  by  the  Counties  of  Armagh,  Tyrone, 
Londonderry,  Antrim,  and  Down.  It  is  18  miles 
in  length,  and  11  miles  in  breadth. 

Neander,  Johann  August  Wilhelm,  by  far 
the  greatest  of  ecclesiastical  historians,  was  born 
at  Gottingen,  Jan.  16,  1789,  of  Jewish  parentage. 
His  name  before  baptism  was  David  Mendel..  He 
died  in  Berlin,  July  14,  1850. 

Nebras'ka,  one  of  the  United  States  ot  Amer¬ 
ica,  lying  in  latitude  40°  — 43°  N.,  and  longitude 
95° — 104°  W.;  bounded  on  the  west  by  Wyoming 
and  Colorado,  north  by  Dakota,  being  separated 
from  the  latter  by  the  Missouri  river;  east  by  Iowa 
and  Missouri,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Mis¬ 


souri  river;  south  by  Kansas  and  Colorado.  This 
State  is  about  420  miles  from  east  to  west ,  and  210 
from  north  to  south,  and  has  an  area  of  76,855 
square  miles. 

Nebraska  City,  the  county  seat  of  Otoe  county. 
Neb. ;  is  quite  an  educational  center,  and  is  an 
important  railway  town.  Pop.,  6,500. 

Nebraska,  or  Platte,  a  river  of  Nebraska, 
rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  flowing  easterly 
600  miles  through  the  entire  State,  watering  its 
great  valley,  falls  into  the  Missouri. 

Nech'es,  a  river  of  Texas,  rises  in  the  central 
eastern  portion  of  the  State,  and  flows  south-by- 
east,  200  miles,  into  Sabin  Bay. 

Nec'kar,  one  of  the  largest  tributaries  of  the 
Rhine,  and  the  principal  river  of  Wiirtcmberg, 
rises  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Black  Forest. 
It  has  a  winding  course  of  240  miles. 

Necker,  Jacques,  a  famous  financier,  and 
Minister  of  France,  was  born  Sept.  30,  1732, 
at  Geneva.  He  was  twice  Comptroller-General  of 
Finance  for  France  during  the  darkest  portions  of 
her  history.  His  administration  was  markedly 
successful.  He  died  in  1804.  Mme.de  Stael  was 
his  daughter. 

Nec'romancy (Gr.  vsKpot,  nekros,  dead,  and 
pavriia,  manteia,  divination),  a  mode  of  divina¬ 
tion  by  the  conjuring  up  of  the  dead  to  question 
them  concerning  the  future. 

Necrop'olis,  a  Greek  term,  meaning  the  city 
of  the  dead,  and  applied  to  the  cemeteries  in  the 
vicinity  of  ancient  cities.  It  occurs  in  classical 
antiquity  only  as  applied  to  a  suburb  of  Alex¬ 
andria. 

Necro'sis  (Gr.  vercpol,  nekros,  dead)  is  a 
term  employed  to  denote  the  death  or  mortifica¬ 
tion  of  bone,  but  often  restricted  to  the  cases  in 
which  the  shaft  of  a  long  bone  dies,  either  di¬ 
rectly  from  injury  or  from  violent  inflammation, 
and  is  inclosed  by  a  layer  of  new  bone;  the  death 
of  a  thin  superficial  layer,  which  is  not  inclosed  in 
a  shell  of  new  bone,  being  usually  termed  exfolia¬ 
tion. 

Nec'tar,  the  name  given  by  Homer,  Hesiod, 
Pindar,  and  the  Greek  poets  generally,  and  by  the 
Romans,  to  the  beverage  of  the  gods,  their  food 
being  called  ambrosia. 

Nec'tary,  in  Botany,  an  organ  in  the  flowers  of 
many  phanerogamous  plants,  devoted  either  to 
the  secretion  or  the  reception  of  honey. 

Nedjed,  or  Nejd,  the  central  highlands  of 
Arabia. 

Needles  are  instruments  of  metal,  or  other 
material,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  the  thread  in 
sewing,  embroidery,  knitting,  netting,  and  other 
similar  operations.  They  are  generally  made  of 
metal;  but  bone,  ivory,  and  wood  are  also  used; 
for  ordinary  needle-work,  called  sewing,  they  are 
made  of  fine  steel,  and  are  too  well  known  to  need 
description;  for  other  kinds  of  work,  they  are 
often  much  larger  and  differently  formed,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  requirements  of  the  work  to  be  done. 

Neg'ative,  in  Photography,  is  that  kind  of 
photographic  picture  in  which  the  lights  and 
shadows  of  the  natural  object  are  transposed;  the 
high  lights  being  black,  and  the  deep  shadows 
transparent,  or  nearly  so.  Negatives  are  taken  on 
glass  and  paper  by  various  processes,  and  should 
indicate  with  extreme  delicacy,  and  in  reverse 
order,  the  various  gradations  of  light  and  shade 
which  occur  in  a  landscape  or  portrait.  The 
value  of  a  negative  consists  in  the  power  it  gives 
of  multiplying  positive  proofs. 

Negative  (Quantities  are  generally  defined  as 
quantities  the  opposite  of  “positive”  or  “nu¬ 
merical  ”  quantities.  Newton  and  Euler  dis¬ 
tinctly  assert  the  existence  of  negative  quantities 
as  quantities  less  than  zero,  and  the  latter  sup¬ 
ports  his  opinion  by  the  well  known  illustration  of 
a  man  who  has  no  property,  and  is  $50  in  debt, 
to  whom  $50  requires  to  be  given  in  order  that  he 
may  have  nothing. 

Negri t'OS,  or  Negril'los  ( Spanish ,  diminutive 
of  negroes),  is  the  name  given  by  the  Spaniards 
to  certain  negro-like  tribes  inhabiting  the  inte¬ 
rior  of  some  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  differ¬ 
ing  essentially  both  in  features  and  manners  from 
the  Malay  inhabitants  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 
They  bear  a  very  strong  resemblance  to  the 
negroes  of  Guinea,  but  are  much  smaller  in  size, 

I  averaging  in  height  not  more  than  4  feet  8 


NEGRO  MINSTRELSY 


554 


NEPENTHES. 


inches,  whence  their  appellation  of  Negritos,  or 
little  negroes. 

Negro  3Iinstrelsy,  a  species  of  singing  which 
originated  among  the  negro  slaves  of  the  Southern 
States,  and  is  now  popular  at  public  entertain¬ 
ments.  Negro  melodies  may  be  said  to  have, 
been  made  known  by  Dan  Rice,  who  first  in  New 
York,  in  1831,  and  afterward  in  London,  created 
a  sensation  by  his  singing  of  Jim  Crow.  The 
minstrels  are  usually  only  negroes  in  name, 
with  faces  and  hands  blackened.  A  company 
of  educated  negro  Jubilee  Singers,  singing  char¬ 
acteristic  religious  songs,  were  successful  in 
raising  a  large  sum  of  money  for  Fisk  College, 
designed  for  colored  students. 

Negroes  (from  the  Spanish  word  negro,  black; 
Lat.,  niger)  is  the  name  given  to  a  considerable 
branch  of  the  human  family,  possessing  certain 
physical  characteristics,  which  distinguish  it  in  a 
very  marked  degree  from  the  other  branches  or 
varieties  of  mankind — more  especially  the  so-called 
whites  or  Europeans.  Both  Prichard  and  Latham 
strongly  protest  against  the  common  error  of 
looking  upon  the  term  negro  as  synonymous  with 
African.  Latham  observes:  “No  fact  is  more 
necessary  to  be  remembered  than  the  difference 
between  the  negro  and  the  African,  a  fact  which 
is  well  verified  by  reference  to  the  map.  Here 
the  true  negro  area — the  area  occupied  by  men  of 
the  black  skin,  thick  lip, depressed  nose, and  woolly 
hair — is  exceedingly  small;  as  small  in  proportion 
to  the  rest  of  the  continent  as  the  area  of  the  dis¬ 
trict  of  the  stunted  Hyperboreans  is  in  Asia,  or 
that  of  the  Laps  in  Europe.  To  the  negro  dis¬ 
trict  belong  the  valleys  of  the  Senegal,  the  Gam¬ 
bia,  the  Niger,  and  the  intermediate  rivers  of  the 
coast,  parts  of  Sudania,  and  parts  about  Sennaar, 
Kordofan,  and  Darfur.”  The  negro  has  a  black 
skin,  unctious  and  soft;  woolly  hair;  thick  lips;  the 
lower  part  of  the  face  prognathic,  or  projecting 
like  a  muzzle  ;  the  skull  long  and  narrow- ;  and  a 
low,  retreating  forehead.  The  skull  of  the  negro 
is  remarkably  solid  and  thick,  so  that  in  lighting 
they  often  butt  against  each  other  like  rams,  with¬ 
out  much  damage  to  either  combatant ;  and  it  is 
likewise  so  flat  that  burdens  are  easily  carried 
upon  it.  According  to  lateral  admeasurement, 
the  head  of  the  negro  shows  an  angle  of  70°, 
while  that  of  the  European  show's  one  of  80°. 
There  is,  neither  in  the  conformation  of  the  negro 
skull  nor  in  any  other  respect,  ground  for  the 
opinion  that  the  negro  forms  a  connecting 
link  betw’een  the  higher  order  of  apes  and 
the  rest  of  mankind.  As  to  the  supposed  ex¬ 
cessive  length  of  the  forearm  in  the  negro, 
a  circumstance  dwelt  upon  as  showing  an  ap¬ 
proach  to  the  anthropoid  apes,  facts  are  al¬ 
together  against  the  statement.  The  black  skin 
is  generally  supposed  to  depend  upon  the  greater 
amount  of  pigment  cells  in  the  refe  malpighii, 
and  in  the  great  number  of  cutaneous  glands.  In 
it  there  is  much!  oily  matter,  and  the  negro  per¬ 
spires  profusely,  which  serves  to  keep  him  in 
health,  while  it  diffuses  a  smell  far  from  agreeable 
to  bystanders  whose  olfactory  nerves  are  at  all 
sensitive.  The  difference  between  the  hair  of  a 
negro  and  that  of  a  European,  consists  in  the 
more  curled  and  frizzled  condition  of  the  former. 
This,  how'ever,  is  only  a  difference  in  the  degree 
of  crispation.  The  negroes,  in  their  native  seat, 
comprise  various  independent  tribes,  which  are 
thus  classified  and  enumerated  by  Doctor  Latham: 
1.  Western  Negro  Ailantidce,  embracing  the 
Woloffs,  Sereres,  Serawolli,  Mandingos,  Felups, 
etc.;  Fantis,  etc.;  the  Glia,  theWliidah,  Mahaand 
Benin  tribes,  the  Grebo,  etc.  2.  Central  Negro 
Atla ') tiche,  embracing  the  Yarriba,  the  Tapua, 
Haussa,  Fulahs,  Cumbri,  Sungai,  Kissur,  Bornu, 
etc.;  Bcgharmi,  Mandara,  Mobba,  Furians,  Kol- 
dagi.  3  Eastern  Negro  Atlantidce,  embracing 
the  Shilluk,  etc.;  Qamamyl,  Dallas,  etc.;  Tibboo, 
Gongas.  The  negroes  have  been  enslaved  anil 
imported  for  several  hundred  years  into  many 
countries.  They  are  found  in  all  the  West  India 
Islands,  to  the  number  of  about  3,000,000  ;  in  the 
United  States,  Brazil,  Peru,  and  other  parts  of 
South  America;  also  in  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands, 
Arabia,  Morocco,  etc.  In  the  British  West  India 
Islands  they  were  emancipated  from  slavery  in 
1834,  and  in  those  belonging  to  France  in  1848. 
Slavery  now  exists  nowhere  in  the  West  Indies, 
with  the  exception  of  Cuba.  In  the  United  States, 


where  slavery  has  been  utterly  abolished,  the 
negroes  increased  from  4,886,387  in  1870  to  6,577,- 
497  in  1880. 

Negun'do,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Aceracece,  differing  from  the  maples  chiefly  in  the 
dioecious  flowers  being  destitute  of  petals,  and  in 
the  pinnated  ash-like  leaves.  The  common  ne- 
gundo  or  ash  leaved  maple,  is  a  native  of  North 
America. 

Ne'gus,  a  compound  of  either  port  or  sherry 
wine  and  le  t  water,  sweetened  with  sugar  and 
flavored  with  lemon-peel  and  spices. 

Nehemi'ah,  son  of  Hachaliah,  probably  of 
royal  descent,  is  first .  mentioned  in  the  Bible  as 
cupbearer  to  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  in  his  palace 
at  Shushan  about  444  B.C.  The  book  known 
under  his  name  (in  thirteen  chapters)  is  believed 
only  partly  his  own  work.  Recent  investigation 
ascribes  to  him  only  the  flrst  six  chapters,  part  of 
the  seventh,  and  the  last  chapter  and  half ;  the 
rest  being  a  compilation  by  other  hands. 

Neilg’her'ry  (properly  Nilgiki)  Hills,  a  re¬ 
markable  group  of  mountains  in  the  South  of 
Hindustan,  entirely  isolated,  with  the  exception 
of  a  precipitous  granite  ridge,  15  miles  in 
width,  which  connects  it  with  the  high  table-land 
of  Maisur  on  the  north. 

Neilglierry  Nettle  (Girardinia  leschenaultii), 
a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Urticece,  nearly  allied 
to  the  true  nettles,  and  possessing  in  a  high  de¬ 
gree  the  stinging  power  which  is  common  in 
them.  It  is  frequent  on  all  the  higher  ranges  of 
the  Neilglierry  Hills. 

Neillsville,  the  county  seat  of  Clark  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Neligli,  the  county  seat  of  Antelope  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Nelson,  Horatio,  the  greatest  of  Brit¬ 
ain’s  admirals,  was  born  on  Sept.  29,  1758,  at 
Burnham  Thorpe,  Norfolk.  At  the  age  of  thir¬ 
teen  he  entered  the  royal  navy,  commencing  his 
career  in  the  Raisonnable,  64  guns,  commanded 
by  his  uncle,  Captain  Suckling.  In  1793,  ap¬ 
pointed  to  the  Agamemnon,  64  guns,  he  took  a 
distinguished  part,  among  other  services,  in  the 
sieges  ofBastia  andCalvi,  in  Corsica,  losing  an  eye 
at  the  last  of  these.  Being,  in  1798,  intrusted  with 
a  fleet,  he  signalized  his  first  independent  com¬ 
mand  of  any  magnitude,  by  the  stupendous  vic¬ 
tory  of  the  Nile,  memorable  in  naval  annals  as 
the  completest  annihilation  of  an  enemy  on  rec¬ 
ord.  Ilis  next  magnificent  exploit  was  the  Bat¬ 
tle  of  Copenhagen  in  1801,  in  which,  afterastrug- 
gle  of  terrible  severity,  he  shattered  the  naval 
power  of  Denmark,  and  along  with  it  the 
dreaded  coalition  against  England  of  the  three 
northern  kingdoms.  In  the  early  part  of  1805  he 
defeated  in  Trafalgar  Bay  the  combined  French 
and  Spanish  navies,  losing  his  own  life  in  this 
battle,  the  greatest  he  ever  fought.  He  died  as 
such  men  wish  to  die,  amid  the  thunders  of  his 
mightiest  victory. 

Nelson,  the  county  seat  of  Nuckolls  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  550. 

Nelson  River,  a  large  river  of  Canada,  issues 
from  the  north  end  of  Lake  Winnipeg,  and  falls 
into  Hudson’s  Bay.  Its  course  is  only  400  miles, 
but  it  discharges  an  enormous  quantity  of  water 
into  the  sea. 


Nelnm'bo  (. Nelumbium ),  a  genus  of  aquatic 


Lotus  (Nelumbium  speciosum). 

A,  the  ripe  receptacle  of  Nelumbium  speciosum ;  B,  a 
seed;  C,  a  seed,  with  the  two  cotyledons  so  separated  as 
to  show  the  large  plumule  which  they  inclose. 

plants,  in  the  natural  order  Nymphceacew.  The 


flowers  and  leaves  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
water-lilies.  The  species  are  few,  and  are  found 
in  the  warm  parts  of  Asia,  in  the  North  of  Africa, 
and  in  North  America.  The  seeds  are  in  size  and 
shape  like  acorns,  with  a  taste  more  delicate  than 
that  of  almonds.  The  root  contains  much  starch 
and  Chinese  arrow-root  is  said  to  be  obtained  from 
it.  Slices  of  it  are  often  served  up  at  table  in 
China.  Great  quantities  are  pickled  with  salt  and 
vinegar,  and  eaten  with  rice.  The  powdered 
root  makes  excellent  soup  with  water  or  milk. 

Nematel'mia  (derived  from  the  Gr.  words 
repa,  nema,  a  thread,  and  eXptv S,  helmins,  an 
intestinal  worm)  is  the  term  given  by  recent  zool¬ 
ogists  to  a  large  and  important  class  of  the  subdi¬ 
vision  Vermes  of  the  Articulata.  The  nematelmia 
are  sometimes  termed  round- worms. 

Nematoid'ea  constitute  the  highest  order  of 
the  Nematelmia,  and  indeed  of  intestinal  worms 
generally. 

Ne'mca,  anciently  the  name  of  a  deep  and 
well-watered  valley  of  Argolis,  in  the  Pelopon¬ 
nesus,  between  Cleon®  and  Phlius.  It  lies  north 
and  south,  and  is  from  2  to  3  miles  long, 
and  more  than  half  a  mile  broad.  It  possessed  a 
sacred  grove,  with  a  magnificent  temple  of  Zeus, 
and  was  celebrated  for  the  games  called  the 
Nemean  games. 

Nemer'tes,  a  genus  of  marine  Annelida,  the 
type  of  a  family,  Nemertidiv,,  remarkable  for  the 
prodigious  length  which  some  of  the  species 
attain,  which,  in  their  most  extended  state,  is 
30  or  40  feet. 

Nem'esis,  according  to  Hesiod,  the  daughter 
of  Night,  was  originally  the  personification  of  the 
moral  feeling  of  right  and  a  just  fear  of  criminal 
actions— in  other  words,  of  liie  conscience,  after¬ 
ward  the  avenger  of  wrongs — the  agent  of  a 
retributive  Providence. 

Neo'pliyte  (Gr.  v£oq>vToi,  neophutos,  from 
vsoi,  neos,  new,  and  <pvo,  phuo,  to  grow),  the 
name  given  in  early  ecclesiastical  language  to 
persons  recently  converted  to  Christianity.  The 
name  neophyte  is  also  applied  in  Roman  usage  to 
newly-ordained  priests,  and  somethin  s,  though 
more  rarely,  to  the  novices  of  a  religious  order. 

Neopla'tonists,  the  name  given  to  an  illus¬ 
trious  succession  of  ancient  philosophers  who 
claimed  to  found  their  doctrines  and  speculations 
on  those  of  Plato.  Strictly  speaking,  however, 
the  Platonic  philosophy — that  is,  in  its  original 
and  genuine  form — expired  with  Plato’s  im¬ 
mediate  disciples,  Speusippus  and  Xenocrates. 

Neosho,  the  county  seat  of  Newton  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  2,200. 

Neozo'ic  (Gr.  veoi,  new,  C&>ds,  life;  new  life),  a 
term  introduced  by  Edward  Forbes  to  include  all 
the  strata  from  the  trias  to  the  most  recent 
deposits. 

Nepaul',  or  Nipal,  an  independent  kingdom 
of  Hindustan,  lying  on  the  southern  slope  of  the 
Himalayas,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Thibet,  on 
the  south  and  west  by  British  India,  and  on  the 
east  by  Sikim,  a  protected  State.  Longitude  80° 
15' — 88°  15'  E.  It  is  500  miles  in  length,  by 
about  100  miles  in  average  breadth.  Area,  55,000 
square  miles;  pop.  estimated  (1880)  at  3,000,000. 

Nepen'tlies,  the  only  known  genus  of  a  natural 


Pitcher  Plant  (Nepenthes  distillatoria) . 
order  of  exogenous  plants  called  Nepenthacece, 


NEPHI. 


555 


NERVOUS  SYSTEM. 


terminates  in  a  pitcher  ( ascidium ),  from  which  the 
name  pitcher  plant  lias  been  very  generally 
given  to  the  species  of  this  order.  The  pitcher  is 
terminated  by  a  lid,  which  is  regarded  as  the  true 
blade  of  the  leaf.  The  fluid  found  in  these 
pitchers  is  a  secretion  of  the  plant  itself.  Insects 
often  enter  the  pitcher,  and  are  apparently  there 
dissolved  and  absorbed. 

Neplii,  the  county  seat  of  Juab  county,  Utah. 
Pop.,  2,700. 

Ne' pit  rite,  a  mineral  which  is  not  infrequently 
called  jade,  and  of  which  axestone  is  very 
generally  considered  a  variety.  It  is  composed 
of  silica,  magnesia,  and  lime. 

Nepliri'tis  (Gr.  vecppoS,  nephron,  kidney),  in¬ 
flammation  of  the  kidneys. 

Nept'une,  an  ancient  Italian  god.  It  is  doubt¬ 
ful  whether  he  was  originally  a  marine  deity  at 
all,  for  the  old  Italians  were  the  very  opposite  of 
a  maritime. people,  yet  his  name  is  commonly  con¬ 
nected  with  nato,  to  swim;  hence  at  an  earlier 
period  he  may  have  borne  another  designation, 
afterward  forgotten.  When  the  Romans  became 
a  maritime  power,  and  had  grown  acquainted 
with  Grecian  mythology,  they,  in  accordance  with 
their  usual  practice,  identified  him  with  the  Greek 
god  whom  lie  most  resembled. 

Nere'is,  a  genus,  and  Nerei'dse,  a  family  of 
Annelida,  having  a  long,  slender  body,  a  distinct 
head,  with  tentacles  and  eyes;  the  whole  body 
covered  with  tubercles,  and  the  gills  lobed  and 
tufted.  They  are  all  marine,  and  generally  hide 
under  rocks  or  in  the  sand. 

Ne'reites,  the  name  given  to  animals  which 
have  left  their  impress  on  the  Silurian  rocks,  and 
which  exhibit  a  form  similar  to  the  modern  nereis. 

Neri,  Philip  de,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  founder  of  the  Congregation  of  the 
Oratory,  was  horn  of  a  distinguished  family  in 
Florence,  July  21,  1515.  He  died  at  the  age  of 
eighty,  May  26,  1595. 

Ne'ro,  Roman  Emperor  from  54  a.d.  to  68  a.d., 
and  the  most  detestable  tyrant  who  ever  lived,  was 
horn  at  Antium,  on  the  coast  of  Latium,  Dec.  15, 
37  a.d.,  and  was  the  son  of  Cn.  Domitius  Aheno- 
barbus  and  of  Agrippina,  the  daughter  of  Ger- 
manicus  Caesar,  and  sister  of  Caligula.  After  the 
death  of  Claudius  (54  a.d.),  the  Praetorian  Guards, 
at  the  instigation  of  Afranius  Burrhus,  their  pre¬ 
fect,  declared  him  Emperor.  His  reign  began 
with  the  semblance  of  moderation  and  good  prom¬ 
ise;  but  the  baleful  influence  of  his  mother,  together 
with  his  own  moral  weakness  and  sensuality, 
gained  an  ascendency,  and  he  soon  plunged  head¬ 
long  into  debauchery,  extravagance,  and  tyranny. 
He  murdered  innumerable  victims,  among  them 
his  wife  and  mother.  In  July,  64,  occurred  a  great 
conflagration  in  Rome,  by  which  two  thirds  of  the 
city  were  reduced  to  ashes.  Nero  himself  is  usually 
believed  to  have  been  the  incendiary.  He  ended 
his  life  by  suicide,  June  11,  68. 

Nrr'v.i,  M.  Cocceiiis,  a  Roman  Emperor, 
elected  by  the  senate  afier  the  murder  of  Domitian, 
Sept.  18,  96.  He  was  born  32  a.d.,  and  died  in  98. 

Nervous  System,  Tiie,  is  composed  in  all  ver- 
tebrated  animals  of  two  distinct  portions  or  sys¬ 
tems — viz.,  the  cerebrospinal  and  sympathetic  or 
ganglionic.  The  cerebrospinal  system  includes  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord  (which  form  the  cerebro¬ 
spinal  axis),  and  the  cranial  and  spinal  nerves. 
The  sympathetic  system  consists  essentially  of  a 
chain  of  ganglia  connected  by  nervous  cords,  ex¬ 
tending  from  the  cranium  to  the  pelvis,  along  each 
side  of  the  vertebral  column,  and  from  which 
nerves  with  large  ganglionic  masses  proceed  to 
the  viscera  and  blood-vessels  in  the  cavities  of 
the  chest,  abdomen,  and  pelvis.  It  seems  to 
regulate — almost  or  cjuite  independently  of  the 
will— the  due  performance  of  the  functions  of  the 
organs  of  respiration,  circulation,  and  digestion. 
The  nerves  connected  with  the  cerebro-spinal 
center  or  axis,  are  usually  described  in  two 
classes — the  spinal  and  the  cranial  or  encephalic. 
The  former  class  consists  of  all  those  which  arise 
from  the  spinal  cord,  and  emerge  from  the  spinal 
canal  through  the  intervertebral  foramina;  while 
the  latter  includes  those  which  arise  from  some 
part  of  the  cerebro-spinal  center,  and  emerge 
through  foramina  in  the  cranium  or  skull.  The 
spinal  nerves  (exclusive  of  the  spinal  accessory 
nerve,  which,  from  the  fact  that  it  emerges  from 
the  skull,  is  usually  ranked  among  the  cranial 


nerves)  are  thirty-one  on  either  side,  there  being 
a  pair  for  each  pair  of  intervertebral  foramina, 
and  for  the  foramina  between  the  atlas  (the  first 
or  highest  vertebra)  and  the  occipital  bone  at  the 
base  of  the  skull.  Every  spinal  nerve  arises  from 
the  cord  by  two  roots,  an  anterior  and  a  posterior, 
of  which  the  latter  is  distinctly  the  larger.  Each 
root  passes  out  of  the  spinal  canal  by  a  distinct 
opening  in  the  dura  mater.  Immediately  after 
its  emergence,  a  ganglion  is  seen  on  the  posterior 
root,  and  in  the  anterior  surface  of  this  ganglion 
the  anterior  root  lies  imbedded.  Just  beyond  the 
ganglion,  but  not  at  all  previously,  the  nervous 
fibers  of  both  roots  intermingle,  and  a  compound 
nerve  results.  The  trunk  thus  formed  separates 
immediately  after  it  has  passed  through  the  inter¬ 
vertebral  canal  into  two  divisions — the  anterior 
and  posterior — each  of  which  contains  filaments 
from  both  roots,  and  possessing  perfectly  different 
functions.  These  divisions,  of  which  the  anterior 
is  considerably  the  larger,  proceed  to  the  anterior 
and  posterior  parts  of  the  body  respectively,  and 
are  distributed  to  the  skin  and  the  muscles.  The 
anterior  branch  communicates  with  the  sympa¬ 
thetic  nerve.  These  nerves  are  arranged  in 
classes,  according  to  the  regions  of  the  spine  in 
which  they  originate,  and  we  thus  speak  of  eight 
cervical,  twelve  dorsal,  five  lumbar,  and  six 
sacral  nerves  on  either  side.  The  anterior  root 
of  each  spinal  nerve  is  motor,  and  the  posterior, 
sensitive.  (In  place  of  the  terms  sensitive  and 
motor,  the  terms  afferent  and  efferent  are  now 
frequently  used.  The  functions  of  the  nerves 
being  to  establish  a  communication  between  the 
nervous  centers  and  the  various  parts  of  the  body, 
and  vice  versa-,  an  afferent  nerve  communicates 
the  impressions  made  upon  the  peripheral  nervous 
ramifications  to  the  centers,  while  an  efferent 
nerve  conducts  the  impulses  of  the  nervous 
centers  to  the  periphery.)  The  cranial  nerves, 
although  twelve  in  number  on  either  side,  were 
arranged  by  Willis  ( Cerebri  Anatome ;  cui  accessit 
Nervorum  Descriptio  et  Usus,  1664),  whose  system 
is’  still  generally  adopted,  in  nine  pairs,  which, 
taken  from  before  backward  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  transmitted  through  the  foramina  at  the 
base  of  the  skull,  stand  as  follows:  1st,  Olfactory; 
2d,  Optic;  3d,  Motores  Oculorum;  4th,  Pathetic; 
5th,  Trifacial;  6th,  Abducentes;  7th,  Portio  Dura 
or  Facial,  Portio  Mollis  or  Auditory;  8th,  Glos¬ 
sopharyngeal,  Par  Vagum  or  Pneumogastric, 
Spinal  Accessory;  9th,  Hypoglossal.  The  3d, 
4th,  and  6tli  pairs — the  motores  oculorum, 
pathetic,  and  abducentes — together  make  up  the 
apparatus  by  which  the  muscles  of  the  orbit  (the 
four  recti,  the  superior  and  inferior  oblique,  and 
the  levator  palpebrse)  are  called  into  motion. 
The  facial  nerve,  or  the  portio  dura  of  the  7th 
pair  is  the  motor  nerve  of  the  superficial  muscles 
of  the  face  and  ear,  and  the  deeper  muscles  of  the 
ear.  The  hypoglossal  nerve  (derived  from  the 
Greek  words  'into,  hypo,  under,  and  yXorra,  glotta 
the  tongue),  supplies  the  muscles  of  the  tongue 
with  motor  power  and  com  nunieates  with  the 
pneumogastric  nerve,  with  the  sympathetic  (by 
branches  derived  from  the  superior  cervical  gang¬ 
lion),  and  with  the  cervical  plexus,  soon  after 
its  emergence  from  the  cranium ;  and  subse¬ 
quently,  as  it  curves  round  the  occipital  artery, 
it  gives  off  the  long  anastomosing  branch  known 
as  the  descendens  noni.  The  trifacial,  or  fifth 
nerve,  presents  a  remarkable  resemblance  to  the 
spinal  nerves  in  its  mode  of  origin;  for  it  arises 
by  two  roots,  one  large  and  the  other  small,  and 
on  its  larger  root  is  a  distinct  ganglion;  the  two 
roots  being  quite  distinct  until  after  the  formation 
of  the  ganglion,  when  the  lesser  one  coalesces 
with  the  lowest  branch,  which  emerges  from  the 
ganglion  to  form  the  inferior  maxillary  nerve. 
This  ganglion,  which  is  known  as  the  gasserian 
ganglion,  and  which  is  formed  upon  the  larger 
root  of  the  nerve,  lies  upon  the  upper  surface  of 
the  petrous  portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  and  is 
of  a  somewhat  triangular  form,  with  its  base 
directed  forward  and  outward.  From  this  base 
there  proceed  three  nerves — viz.,  the  ophthalmic, 
on  the  inside;  the  superior  maxillary,  in  the 
middle;  and  the  inferior  maxillary,  externally. 
The  first  two  of  these  nerves  consist  exclusively 
of  fibers  from  the  ganglionic  root,  while  the 
third — the  inferior  maxillary- — is  composed  of 
fibers  from  both  roots,  and  is  therefore  a  com¬ 


pound  nerve.  From  the  mode  of  distribution, 
as  well  as  from  that  of  origin,  it  is  inferred  that 
the  ophthalmic  and  superior  maxillary  are  purely 
sensory,  while  the  inferior  maxillary  is  a  motor 
and  sensory  nerve.  The  lingual  or  gustatory 
branch  of  the  inferior  maxillary  is  distributed  to 
the  mucous  membrane  and  papillae  at  the  fore 


The  Sympathetic  nerve ;  the  right  lateral  walls  of  the 
chest  and  abdomen,  and  the  stomach,  intestines, 
liver,  spleen,  and  pancreas  being  removed  to  bring 
it  in  view  : 

1,  2,  3,  the  superior,  middle  and  inferior  cervical  ganglia ; 
4,  the  two  lines  from  this  figure  include  the  twelve  dorsal 
ganglia;  5,  include  the  four  lumbar  ganglia;  f>,  include  the 
five  sacral  ganglia;  7,  the  ganglion  impar;  8,  cardiac 
plexus;  9,  solar  plexus ;  10.  aortic  plexus:  11,  hypogastric 
plexus;  a,  the  larynx:  h.  the  trachea;  c,  arch  of  the  aorta; 
c',  external  carotid;  e",  internal  carotid:  d,  the  heart;  e,  e, 
the  diaphragm;  f,  the  cardiac  end  of  the  oesophagus;  g, 
thoracic,  and  (/abdominal  aorta;  A,  the  kidney;  i.  the 
supra-renal  capsule ;  k.  the  sacrum;  /,  the  section  of  base 
of  the  skull;  m,  the  bladder;  n,  the  lower  portion  of  the 
rectum. 

part  and  sides  of  the  tongue,  where  it  acts  both 
as  a  nerve  of  common  sensibility  and  of  taste. 
The  trifacial  nerve  is  the  seat  of  the  affection 
known  as  tic-douloureux,  and  described  in  the 


NESS  CITY. 


556 


NETHERLANDS. 


article  Neuralgia.  It  is  in  the  dental  branches 
of  this  nerve  that  toothache  is  situated;  and  in 
the  process  of  teething  in  young  children,  the 
irritation  of  these  branches,  consequent  upon  the 
pressure  of  the  teeth,  often  gives  rise  to  convul¬ 
sions,  by  being  conveyed  to  the  medulla  oblon¬ 
gata,  and  exciting  motor  nerves  by  reflex  action. 
The  glossopharyngeal  nerve  is  the  sensitive  nerve 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  fauces  and  of  the 
root  of  the  tongue,  and  in  the  latter  situation  it 
ministers  to  taste  and  touch,  as  well  to  common 
sensibility;  and  being  the  sensitive  nerve  of  the 
fauces,  it  is  probably  concerned  in  the  feeling  of 
nausea,  which  may  be  so  readily  excited  by  stim¬ 
ulating  the  mucous  membrane  of  this  region.  It 
is  also  an  excitor  of  the  movements  necessary  to 
pharyngeal  deglutition.  The  pneumogastric 
nerve,  or  par  vagum,  is  the  most  important 
nerve  in  the  body  and  supplies  motor  and  sensory 
power  to  the  larynx,  heart,  lungs,  stomach,  etc. 
The  spinal  accessory  nerve  is  more  remarkable 
for  its  peculiar  course  than  in  any  other  respect. 
It  rises  from  the  spinal  cord  at  the  level  of  the 
fifth  or  sixth  cervical  nerve,  passes  upward 
between  the  anterior  and  posterior  roots  of  the 
cervical  nerves  into  the  skull,  and  emerges  from 
the  cranial  cavity  with  the  two  preceding  nerves. 
It  is  chiefly  distributed  to  the  trapezius  muscle. 
We  shall  now  briefly  notice  the  mode  in  which 
the  extremities  receive  their  nerves.  These  nerves 
are  derived  from  the  spinal  nerves,  through  the 
intervention  of  what  is  termed  in  anatomy  a 
plexus.  Four  or  five  nerves  proceed  from  the 
spinal  cord  for  a  certain  distance,  without  any 
communication  with  each  other.  They  then 
divide,  and  from  the  conjunction  of  the  adjacent 
branches  new  nerves  result,  which  again  sub¬ 
divide  and  interchange  fibers  From  the  net- 


Fig.  1.  Fig.  2. 

Fig.  1.— A,  diagram  of  tubular  fiber  of  a  spinal  nerve;  a, 
axis  cylinder;  b,  inner  border  of  white  substance;  c,c, 
its  outer  border;  d,  d,  tubular  membrane ;  B,  tubular 
fibers;  e.  in  a  natural  state,  showing  the  parts  as  in  A; 
/,  the  white  substance  and  axis  cylinder  interrupted 
by  pressure,  while  the  tubular  membrane  remains; 
<7.  the  same,  with  varicosities  which  are  especially 
apt  to  be  exhibited  in  the  nerves  of  the  special  senses, 
and  of  young  animals  generally ;  C.  gelatinous  fibers 
from  the  solar  plexus,  treated  with  acetic  acid  to 
exhibit  their  cell-nuclei;  B  and  C  magnified  320  diam¬ 
eters;  A  on  a  considerably  larger  scale. — From  Todd 
and  Bowman. 


Fig.  2. — a ,  a  globular  nerve-vesicle  from  the  Gasserian 
ganglion  of  the  human  subject;  6,  its  nucleus;  c,  its 
nucleolus,  magnified  300  diameters;/,  caudate  vesicle 
from  the  gray  matter  of  the  spinal  cord,  magnified 
200  diameters.— From  Todd  and  Bowman. 


work  or  plexus  thus  formed  nerves  emerge,  each 
of  which  is  composed  of  fibers  derived  from 
several  of  the  original  branches.  TluJ  most  im¬ 
portant  of  these  plexuses  are  found  in  the  regions 
of  the  neck,  the  axilla,  the  loins,  and  the  sacrum, 
and  are  known  as  the  cervical,  brachial,  lumbar, 
and  sacral  plexuses.  Experiments  and  clinical 
observations  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
sympathetic  system  supplies  motor  power  to  many 
of  the  internal  viscera,  especially  the  heart  and 
the  intestinal  canal;  that  it  also  contains  sensitive 
fibers,  as  is  shown  by  the  sufferings  of  patients 


during  the  passage  of  a  gall-stone  or  a  renal 
calculus  through  a  duct,  "whose  sole  nervous 
energy  is  derived  from  this  system;  that  it  pre¬ 
sides  over  the  process  of  secretion  in  the  most 
important  glands;  and  that  it  operates  on  the 
blood-vessels  in  causing  them  to  contract,  while 
the  cerebro-spiual  nerves  produce  the  opposite 
effect.  It  is  obvious  that  it  is  through  the  instru¬ 
mentality  of  the  nervous  system  that  the  mind 
influences  the  bodily  organs,  as  when  volition  or 
emotion  excites  them  to  action;  and  that,  con¬ 
versely,  impressions  made  on  the  organs  of  the 
body  affect  the  mind,  and  excite  mental  percep¬ 
tions  through  the  same  channel.  The  nature  of 
the  connection  between  the  mind  and  nervous 
matter  is,  and  must  ever  be,  the  deepest  mystery 
in  physiology,  and  one  into  which  the  human 
intellect  can  never  hope  to  penet  rate.  There  are, 
however,  many  actions-of  the  body  in  the  produc¬ 
tion  of  which  the  mind  has  no  share.  Of  this 
kind  are  the  nervous  actions,  which  are  associated 
with  the  functions  of  organic  life,  such  as  diges¬ 
tion,  respiration,  and  circulation.  Again,  there 
is  another  class  of  actions  for  which  two  nerves 
(an  afferent  or  excitor,  and  a  motor)  and  a  nervous 
center  are  necessary.  These  are  the  actions 
known  as  reflex  or  excito-motory.  For  example: 
the  movement  of  the  oesophagus  in  propelling  the 
food  onward  to  the  stomach,  is  caused  by  the 
stimulus  of  the  food  acting  on  the  excitor  or 
afferent  nerves,  which,  through  the  spinal  cord, 
excite  the  motor  or  efferent  nerves,  and  thus  give 
rise  to  the  iu  cessary  muscular  action.  When  the 
edge  of  the  eyelid  is  touched,  the  excitor  nerve 
(a  branch  of  the  ophthalmic  division  of  the  fifth  or 
trifacial  nerve)  conveys  the  impression  of  the 
stimulus  to  the  nervous  center,  and  the  eye  is  at 
once  closed  by  the  motor  influence,  which  is 
transmitted  by  a  branch  of  the  facial  nerve  to  the 
orbicular  muscle.  In  such  cases  as  these — and 
they  form  a  very  numerous  class — the  mind  takes 
no  part.  In  some  of  them  it  is  conscious  of  the 
application  of  the  stimulus,  as  well  asof  the  mus¬ 
cular  act  which  follows;  but  even  in  these  cases 
no  effort  of  the  will  could  modify  or  interrupt  the 
sequence  of  the  phenomena. 

Ness  City,  the  county  seat  of  Ness  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Nest-building  Apes.  Various  kinds  of  mon¬ 
keys,  including  the  higher  anthropoid  apes,  build 
sleeping  places  for  their  females  and  young, 
which  may  be  fairly  called  nests.  Among  the 
nest-builders  may  be  classed  the  gorilla,  the  chim¬ 
panzee,  the  orang,  and  the  nseliiego  nkengo  of 
Du  Chaillu. 

Nes 'tor,  according  to  ancient  Grecian  legend, 
the  son  of  Neleusand  Chloris,  born  in  the  Mes- 
senian  Pylos,  escaped  destruction  when  Hercules 
slew  all  his  brothers.  Homer  makes  him  the 
great  counsellor  of  the  Grecian  chiefs,  in  the 
Trojan  War,  and  extols  his  eloquence  as  superior 
even  to  that  of  Ulysses. 

Nesto'rius,  a  native  of  Germanicia,  a  city  of 
Northern  Syria,  probably  a  disciple  of  t lie  cele¬ 
brated  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia;  was  selected  by 
the  Emperor,  in  428  a.d.,  to  fill  the  vacant  See  of 
Constantinople.  Soon  after  his  consecration,  a  con¬ 
troversy  arose  as  to  the  divine  and  human  natures 
of  our  Lord,  in  which  Nestorius  took  a  leading 
part.  Nestorius  himself  denied  that  the  Virgin 
Mary  could  be  truly  called  the  “Mother  of  God,” 
being  only  in  truth  the  mother  of  the  man  Christ, 
and  elaborated  this  view  into  the  theory  which 
has  since  been  known  by  his  name,  and  which 
equivalently,  if  not  in  formal  terms,  exaggerated 
the  distinction  of  two  natures  in  our  Lord  into  a 
distinction  of  two  persons — the  human  person  of 
Christ  and  the  Divine  Person  of  the  Word.  His 
followers  are  called  Nestorians.  The  date  of  his 
death  is  uncertain.  He  was  confined  all  the  latter 
years  of  his  life. 

Nests,  Edible,  an  important  article  of  com¬ 
merce  between  the  Eastern  Islands  and  China, 
and  of  luxury  in  China,  are  the  nests  of 
several  species  of  swallow  of  the  genus 
C ollocalitt .  The  nests  are  formed  of  grass,  sea¬ 
weed  fibers,  small  leaves,  etc.,  and  are  attached 
to  the  rock  by  a  sort  of  bracket,  made  of  a  gela¬ 
tinous  substance,  which  is  the  part  really  eaten. 
This  was  formerly  thought  to  be  made  of  sea¬ 
weeds,  but  is  now  known  to  consist  of  saliva, 


which  the  swallow  exudes  from  the  salivary 


lands  under  the  tongue.  The  nests  are  collected 
y  means  of  ladders,  and  often  by  means  of  ropes. 

Nether 'lands.  The  Kingdom  of,  lies  between 
•50°  43'  and  53°  36'  N.  latitude,  and  3°  22'  and 
7°  16'  E.  longitude,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  North  Sea,  east  by  Hanover  and  the  western 
part  of  Prussia,  south  bv  Liege,  Belgian  Lim 
burg,  Antwerp,  East  and  West  Flanders,  west  by 
the  North  Sea.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to 
south  is  195  English  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth 
from  the  west,  on  the  North  Sea,  to  the  extremity 
of  Overyssel,  on  the  east,  110  English  miles.  It 
contains  12,597  square  miles.  Pop.,  including 
the  Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg,  3,835,111. 
The  climate  of  the  Netherlands  is  variable,  chilly 
colds  often  closely  succeeding  high  temperatures, 
inducing  various  forms  of  fever  and  ague,  and 
requiring  peculiar  care  as  to  clothing.  The  farms 
are  generally  small  and  well  cultivated,  though 
the  implements  are  old-fashioned  and  clumsy. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  linen,  woolen,  cotton, 
and  silk  fabrics;  paper,  leather,  glass,  etc.  The 
language  of  the  Netherlands,  called  by  us  usually 
Dutch,  but  by  the  Netherlander  Nederduitsch  or 
Nederlandsch,  is  one  of  the  Low  German  lan¬ 
guages,  or  languages  spoken  in  the  lowlands  of 
the  Teutonic  part  of  Europe,  in  contrast  to  the 
High  German  of  Upper  Germany.  There  are 
ancient  universities  at  Leyden,  Utrecht,  and 
Groningen;  since  1876,  anew  university  at  Am¬ 
sterdam,  supported  by  the  municipality.  The 
four  universities  have  about  1,800  students.  Each 
community  or  parish  must  have,  at  least  one  ele¬ 
mentary  school,  supported  from  the  local  public 
funds,  in  which  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  his¬ 
tory,  geography,  etc.,  are  taught.  A  higher  class 
of  schools  iucludes  also  foreign  languages.  All 
are  under  government  inspectors,  and  the  teach¬ 
ers  must  undergo  stringent  examinations  on  all 
the  branches  before  obtaining  permission  to  teach. 
The  government  of  the  Netherlands  is  a  limited 
constitutional  monarchy,  hereditary  in  the  male 
line,  and  by  default  of  that  in  the  female.  The 
crown-prince  bears  the  title  of  Prince  of  Orange, 
and  attains  his  majority  at  eighteen,  when  he 
takes  his  seat  in  the  council  of  state.  The  execu¬ 
tive  is  vested  in  the  king,  with  a  council  of  state 
composed  of  twelve  members,  nominated  by  his 
majesty,  and  the  ministers  of  the  interior,  for¬ 
eign  affairs,  finance,  war,  the  colonies,  marine, 
and  justice,  the  last  named  taking  charge  of 
ecclesiastical  affairs  through  two  administrators, 
or  under-secretaries  of  state,  for  the  Protestant 
and  Roman  Catholic  Churches.  The  legislative 
power  is  shared  by  the  king  and  the  two  cham¬ 
bers  of  the  states-general,  the  first  chamber  having 
thirty-nine  members,  elected  for  nine  years  by 
the  provincial  States,  one-third  of  their  number 
retiring  every  three  years.  The  second  chamber 
has  eighty  members,  chosen  by  electors  numbering, 
in  1882,  126,290,  above  twenty-three  years  of  age, 
who  pay  from  $7  to  $50  of  direct  taxes,  according 
to  the  size  and  importance  of  the  electoral  district. 
These  are  elected  for  four  years,  one-lialf  of  the 
chamber  retiring  every  two  years.  The  members 
of  both  chambers  must  be  thirty  years  of  age 
before  the  day  of  election,  and  those  eligible  for 
the  first  chamber  are  the  nobility.  The  king 
nominates  the  governors  of  provinces,  theburge- 
meesters  of  every  city,  town,  or  village,  and  a 
host  of  other  officials.  The  cities,  towns,  and 
rural  parishes  arc  governed  by  a  council,  burge- 
mecster  (mayor  or  provost),  and  wethouders 


NETHERLANDS  TRADING  COMPANY 


557 


NEW  CALEDONIA. 


(aldermen  or  bailies).  The  council  consists  of 
from  seven  to  thirty-nine  members,  according  to 
the  population,  who  are  chosen  for  six  years,  one- 
third  part  retiring  every  two  years.  The  council 
selects  out  of  their  number  from  two  to  four 
wethouders  for  six  years,  one-half  retiring  every 
third  year.  These  with  the  burgemeester,  form 
the  local  executive.  The  law  departments  are  the 
High  Council,  the  provincial  courts  of  justice, 
those  of  the  arrondissements  and  cantons;  appeal 
in  many  cases  being  open  from  the  lower  to  the 
higher  courts. 

Netherlands  Trading  Company,  a  chartered 
joint-stock  association,  with  limited  liability, 
formed  to  aid  in  developing  the  natural  resources 
of  the  Dutch  East  Indian  possessions.  The  Com¬ 
pany  possesses  peculiar  privileges,  acting  exclu¬ 
sively  as  the  commission  agents  of  the  Nether¬ 
lands  Government  in  importing  and  selling  the 
produce  of  the  colonies,  as  well  as  doing  a  large 
business  as  merchants.  Private  enterprise  having 
failed  to  develop  the  trade  of  Java,  after  that 
island  was  restored  to  the  Netherlands,  King  Will¬ 
iam  I.,  in  1824,  erected  the  Trading  Company, 
with  a  capital  of  upward  of  $ 15,000,000,  not 
only  becoming  a  large  shareholder,  but  guar¬ 
anteeing  an  interest  of  4  per  cent,  on  the  paid-up 
capital.  The  early  transactions  were  unprofita¬ 
ble,  and  in  1827  the  king  had  to  pay  a  part,  and 
in  1830  the  whole  of  the  guaranteed  interest.  From 
that  date  it  has  prospered,  and  handed  over,  from 
the  trade  of  Java,  large  surplus  balances  into  the 
national  revenue. 

Netting,  Naval.  A  boarding -netting  is  formed 
-of  stroug  rope,  and  stretched  above  the  bulwarks 
of  a  ship,  over  the  port-holes,  etc.,  to  a  considera¬ 
ble  height,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the  en¬ 
trance  of  boarders  from  hostile  boats.  In  posi¬ 
tions  where  boat  attacks  are  feasible,  ships  are 
thus  protected  at  night,  and  at  other  times  when 
attempts  at  boarding  are  anticipated.  The  ham¬ 
mock-netting  is  in  the  bulwarks  of  a  ship,  usually 
in  the  waist,  and  its  purpose  is  to  keep  the  ham¬ 
mocks  of  the  crew  when  stowed  there  during  the 
day;  thus  netted  together  the  hammocks  form  a 
valuable  barrier  against  bullets.  Hatchway  net¬ 
tings  are  of  inch  rope,  and  are  placed  over  the 
open  hatchways  during  fine  weather,  to  prevent 
persons  from  falling  through. 

Nettle  ( Urtica),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Urticece.  The  species  are  herbaceous  plants, 
shrubs,  or  even  trees,  many  of  them  covered  with 
stinging  hairs,  which  pierce  the  skin  when 
touched,  and  emit  an  acrid  juice,  often  causing 
much  inflammation  and  pain.  The  bast  fiber  of 
nettles  is  useful  for  textile  purposes. 

Nettle-rash,  or  Urtica'ria  (Lat.  urtica,  a 
nettle),  is  the  term  applied  to  a  common  form  of 
-eruption  on  the  skin.  The  rash  is  accompanied 
with  grefit  heat,  itching,  and  irritation;  the  appear¬ 
ance  on  the  skin  and  the  sensation  being  very 
much  like  the  appearance  and  feeling  produced  by 
the  stinging  of  nettles;  and  hence  the  origin  of  its 
names.  The  disorder  is  always  connected  with 
some  derangement  of  the  digestive  organs.  The 
main  treatment  of  the  acute  form  consists  in  expel¬ 
ling  the  offending  matter  by  an  emetic  and  by  pur¬ 
gatives,  and  the  cure  is  thus  usually  completed. 
In  the  chronic  form,  the  patient  should,  in  the  first 
place,  determine  whether  the  rash  is  caused  by 
any  particular  article  of  diet,  and  if  this  seems  not 
to  be  the  case,  an  attempt  must  be  made  to  im¬ 
prove  the  state  of  the  digestive  organs. 

Neitle-t  ree  (Celtic),  a  genus  of  deciduous  trees 
of  the  natural  order  Ulatame,  with  simple  and 
generally  serrated  leaves,  considerably  resembling 
those  of  the  common  nettle,  but  not  stinging. 
A  number  of  other  species  are  natives  of  the 
warm  parts  of  America  and  of  Asia. 

Neufchatel',  or  Neuciiatel,  known  also  as 
Neuenburg,  a  canton  in  the  West  of  Switzerland, 
between  Lake  Neufchatel  and  the  French  frontier. 
Area,  310  square  miles;  pop.  (1878),  about  103,- 
850. 

Neural'gia  (Gr.  vsvpov,  neuron,  a  nerve; 
aXyot,  algos,  pain)is  a  term  employed  to  designate 
pain  of  a  purely  nervous  character,  usually  unac¬ 
companied  by  inflammation,  fever,  or  any  appreci¬ 
able  change  of  structure.  The  pain,  which  occurs 
in  paroxysms,  usually  followed  by  complete  remis¬ 
sions,  is  of  every  possible  degree  and  character, 
being  described  in  different  cases  as  piercing, 


tearing,  burning,  etc.  These  paroxysms  may 
occur  at  intervals  of  a  few  seconds  only,  or  they 
may  take  place  daily  or  on  alternate  days,  or  they 
may  be  separated  by  much  longer  intervals, 
which  are  often,  but  by  no  means  always,  of  a 
regular  length.  With  the  pain,  there  is  fre¬ 
quently  spasmodic  twitching  of  the  adjacent 
muscles.  The  duration  of  the  disease  is  very 
uncertain.  The  patient  may  have  only  a  single 
attack,  or  he  may  be  liable  to  recurring  attacks 
for  months,  years,  or  even  for  his  whole  life;  it 
is,  however,  very  seldom  that  the  disease  occurs 
but  once.  Death  scarcely  ever  results  directly 
from  this  affection  (unless  the  heart  is  the  seat  of 
disease),  but  the  pain  may,  by  its  severity  and 
persistence,  gradually  undermine  the  constitu¬ 
tion.  The  disease  may  attack  any  part  of  the 
body  where  there  are  nerves;  but  in  no  part  does 
it  occur  so  frequently  as  in  the  face,  when  it 
is  popularly  known  as  Tic  Douloureux.  The 
resources  of  the  materia  medica  have  been 
exhausted  in  searching  for  remedies  for  this  dis¬ 
ease.  If  the  digestive  organs  are  out  of  order, 
the  neuralgia  may  not  infrequently  be  removed 
or  alleviated  by  correcting  their  unhealthy  state. 
If  acidity  of  the  stomach  be  the  cause,  bicarbo¬ 
nate  of  soda  is  the  best  remedy.  Sometimes 
thorough  purging  is  the  best  remedy  and  for  this 
purpose  nothing  is  better  than  the  following: 

Extract  colocynth  compound . 1  drachin 

Croton  oil  . * _ 3  minims 

Compound  galbanum  pill .  3  drachms 

Mix  and  make  in  13  pills.  Take  one  at  bedtime. 

When  the  disease  is  in  rheumatic  patient,  take 

Potassium  iodide . 3  drachms 

Syrup  orange  peel . 6  oz. 

Take  teaspoonful  before  each  meal. 

If  it  be  periodic  take  sulphate  quinine  in  10  or 
20  grain  doses  between  paroxysms.  Larger  doses 
can  be  given  if  necessary.  Salycine  is  also  rec¬ 
ommended.  Fowler’s  solution  of  arsenic  in 
doses  of  three  drops  after  meals  is  also  usually 
beneficial.  Local  applications  are  of  but  tempo¬ 
rary  benefit  and  should  be  discouraged.  Neuralgia, 
being  a  nervous  affection,  can  to  a  great  extent 
be  controlled  by  the  exercise  of  proper  mental 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  patient,  and  this  should 
be  encouraged  by  every  means — even  those  which 
amount  to  harmless  deception  being  justifiable. 

Neii'O,  a  river  of  North  Carolina,  250  miles 
long,  rises  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  State 
and  empties  into  Pamlico  Sound. 

Neii'tral  Axis,  the  name  given  to  an  imaginary 
line  through  any  body  which  is  being  subjected 
to  a  transverse  strain;  and  separating  the  forces 
of  extension  from  those  of  compression. 

Neutrals,  nations  who,  when  a  war  is  being 
carried  on,  take  no  part  in  the  contest,  and  evince 
no  particular  friendship  for,  or  hostility  to,  any 
of  the  belligerents.  As  a  general  rule,  neutrals 
should  conduct  themselves  with  perfect  impar¬ 
tiality,  and  do  nothing  which  can  be  considered 
as  favoring  one  belligerent  more  than  another. 

Ne'va,  a  riverof  Russia,  in  the  Governmentof 
St.  Petersburg,  flows  westward  from  the  south¬ 
west  corner  of  Lake  Ladoga  to  the  Bay  of  Cron- 
stadt,  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  Its  length,  includ¬ 
ing  windings,  is  about  40  miles,  9  miles  of  which 
are  within  the  limits  of  the  city  of  St.  Petersburg. 

Neva 'da,  one  of  the  States  of  the  Union,  is 
bounded  on  the  west,  by  California;  on  the  south, 
by  California  and  Arizona;  on  the  east,  by  Utah 
and  Arizona;  on  the  north,  by  Oregon  and  Idaho. 
Area,  104,125  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880),  02,205 
(including  5,420  Chinese),  besides  about  4,000 
tribal  Indians.  The  chief  river  is  the  Humboldt. 
The  principal  lakes  are  the  Mud  Lakes,  Pyramid 
Lakes,  and  the  Walker  and  Carson  Lakes.  Nevada 
is  the  center  of  that  elevated  basin  which  reaches 
westward  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  at  a  mean  altitude  of  about  4,000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Numerous  mines, 
either  of  gold  or  silver  have  been  discovered. 
The  whole  country  is  rich  in  mineral  wealth. 
Besides  gold  and  silver,  quicksilver,  lead,  and 
antimony  are  found.  The  Territorial  capital  is 
Carson  City. 

Nevada,  a  growing  railroad  town  in  Vernon 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  6,500. 

Nevada  City,  the  county  seat  of  Nevada 
county,  Cal.  Pop.,  4,022. 

N’evors,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  De¬ 
partment  of  Nievre.  Pop.  (1870),  20,001. 


Nev'is,  a  small  island  of  the  West  Indies,  be¬ 
longing  to  Great  Britain.  Area,  50  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  11,864. 

New  Albany,  the  county  seat  of  Union  county 
Miss.  Pop.,  1,100. 

New  Al'bany,  a  city  in  Indiana,  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Ohio  river.  It  liasa  large  river  trade, 
and  railway  connections  with  Indiana  and  Ken¬ 
tucky.  Pop.  (1889),  26,422. 

New' ark,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  New 
Jersey,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Passaic  river, 
twelve  miles  from  New  York.  It  has  over  1,000 
manufacturing  establishments,  and  several  rail¬ 
roads.  Pop.,  153,200. 

Newark,  an  important  manufacturing  and 
agricultural  city  in,  and  the  county  seat  of  Lick¬ 
ing  county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  12,100. 

Newaygo,  the  county  seat  of  Newaygo  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  1,719. 

New  Bedford,  a  seaport  city  of  Massachusetts, 
on  Buzzard’s  Bay,  fifty-five  miles  south  of  Boston. 
Since  1755,  it  has  been  the  chief  center  of  the 
American  whale  fisheries.  Pop.  (1889),  33,000. 

Newbern,  the  county  seat  of  Pulaski  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  450. 

New  Berne,  a  college  town  of  Craven  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  6,700.  It  was  the  scene  of  import¬ 
ant  military  operations  during  the  late  war. 

Newberry,  the  county  seat  of  Newberry 
county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  3,500. 

New  Bloomfield,  the  county  seat  of  Perry 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  850. 

New  Braunfels,  the  county  seat  of  Comal 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  2,100. 

New  Brighton,  a  suburban  town  on  Staten 
Island,  Richmond  county,  N.  Y.,  containing 
many  handsome  buildings.  Pop.,  12,619. 

New  Brit'ain,  a  manufacturing  town  in  Con¬ 
necticut,  ten  miles  south  of  Hartford.  Pop. 
(1889),  14,000. 

New  Britain,  the  name  of  one  principal,  and 
of  several  subsidiary  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
in  latitude  between  4° — 6°  30'  S.,  and  longitude 
between  148° — 152°  30'  E.  New  Britain  was  first 
seen  by  La  Maire  and  Schouteu  in  1616,  but  Dam- 
pier,  at  a  later  date,  was  the  first  to  land. 

New  Brunswick,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  is  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Raritan  river,  at  the  head 
of  navigation,  fifteen  miles  from  its  mouth,  thirty 
miles  southwest  of  New  York.  It  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  cotton,  leather,  india-rubber, 
paper-hangings,  iron,  and  machinery.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Rutger’s  College,  and  a  theological  semi¬ 
nary.  Pop.  ( 1889),  18,500. 

New  Brunswick,  a  Province  of  the  Dominion 
of  Canada,  is  bounded  on  the  northwest  by  Que¬ 
bec  and  the  Bay  of  Chaleus,  on  the  northeast  by 
the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Strait  of  North¬ 
umberland,  on  the  south  by  Nova  Scotia  and  the 
Bay  of  Fundy.  and  on  the  southwest  by  the  State 
of  Maine.  It  has  an  area  of  27,322  square  miles, 
or  17,686,000  acres  (rather  less  than  the  area  of 
Scotland).  Pop.  (1871),  285  594;  (1881),  321,129. 
The  Province  of  New  Brunswick,  together  with 
that  of  Nova  Scot  ia,  originally  formed  one  French 
colony,  called  Acadia,  or  New  France.  It  was 
ceded  to  the  English  in  1713,  and  was  first  settled 
by  British  colonists  in  1764.  In  1784,  it  was  sep¬ 
arated  from  Nova  Scotia,  and  erected  into  an  in¬ 
dependent  colony.  It  joined  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  in  1867. 

New'burgh,  a  city  of  New  York,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Hudson,  sixty  one  miles  north  of 
New  York.  It  has  several  foundries  and 
factories  of  various  kinds.  It  was  Washington’s 
headquarters  during  a  critical  portion  of  the  War 
of  Independence.  Pop.,  23,500. 

Newburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Lewis  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  100. 

New'huryport,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
Massachusetts,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Merri- 
mac  river,  three  miles  from  its  mouth,  thirty- 
four  miles  northeast  of  Boston.  Latitude  42°  48' 
30"  N.,  longitude  70°  52' 3"  W.  It  has  import¬ 
ant  railway  and  manufacturing  interests.  Pop., 
13,800. 

New  Caledo'nia,  an  island  of  the  South  Paci¬ 
fic  Ocean,  belonging  to  France,  and  lying  about 
720  miles  east-northeast  of  the  coast  of  Queens¬ 
land,  in  Australia,  in  latitude  20° — 22°  30'  S.,  lon¬ 
gitude  164p — 167s  E.  It  is  about  200  miles  in 


NEW  CASTLE. 


558 


NEW  YEAR'S  DAY. 


length,  30  miles  in  breadth,  and  has  a  pop.  esti- 
maied  at  60,000. 

New  Castle,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Henry  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  4,200. — 2.  The 
county  seat  of  Craig  county,  Va.  Pop.,  550. — 
3.  The  county  seat  of  Henry  county,  Ky.  Pop., 
650. — 4.  The  county  seat  and  an  important  manu¬ 
facturing  city  of  Lawrence  county,  Peun.  Pop., 
15,300. 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  the  chief  town  of 
Northumberland,  England.  Pop.  (1881),  145,- 
228. 

New  City,  the  county  seat  of  Rockland  county, 
N.  Y.  Pop.,  300. 

New  Dtingeness,  the  county  seat  of  Clallam 
county,  Wash.  Pop.,  225. 

New  Eng 'land,  a  collective  name  given  to  the 
six  Eastern  States  of  the  United  States — Maine, 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode 
Island,  and  Connecticut — including  an  area  of 
65,000  square  miles. 

Newfane,  the  county  seat  of  Windham  county, 
Vt.  Pop.,  1,050. 

New'foiiiullaiid,  an  island  and  British  colony 
of  North  America,  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  separated  from  Labrador  on 
the  north  by  the  straits  of  Belle  Isle  (about 
12  miles  broad),  and  extending  in  latitude  from 
46°  38'  to  51°  37'  N.,  and  in  longitude  from 
52°  44'  to  58°  30'  W.  It  is  370  miles  in  length, 
209  miles  in  breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  40,200 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  179,509. 

Newfoundland  Dog,  one  of  the  most  sagacious 
and  esteemed  of  the  large  kinds  of  dog.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  originally  derived  from  New¬ 
foundland,  where  it  is  used  chiefly  as  a  beast  of 
draught,  to  convey  light  loads  of  wood  or  pro¬ 
visions  on  sledges  in  winter. 

New  Grana'da,  since  September,  1861,  has 
been  officially  styled  The  United  States  of  Col¬ 
ombia,  and  consists  of  nine  States,  Panama,  San¬ 
tander,  Cauca,  Boyaca,  Cundinamarca,  Antioquia, 
Tolima,  Bolivar,  Magdalena.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Caribbean  Sea;  on  the  west  by 
Costa  Rica  and  by  the  Pacific;  on  the  south  by 
Ecuador  and  Brazil;  and  on  the  east  by  Vene¬ 
zuela.  Area,  513,783  square  miles;  pop.  (1870), 
2,894,992. 

New  Hampshire,  one  of  the  United  States,  in 
latitude  42°  41' — 45“  11' N.,  longitude  70°  40' — 
72°  28'  W.,  is  176  miles  long,  and  on  an  average  45 
miles  wide,  having  an  area  of  9,305  square  miles, 
or  5,955,200  acres.  It  is  bounded  north  by  Can¬ 
ada,  east  by  Maine  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  south 
by  Massachusetts,  and  west  by  Vermont,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Connecticut  river. 
Pop.  (1880),  347,784. 

New  Hampton,  the  county  seat  of  Chickasaw 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  1,500. 

New  Hav'mony,  a  village  of  Indiana,  first 
settled  in  1815  by  a  German  community  of  relig¬ 
ious  socialists,  called  Harmonists.  In  1824,  the 
village  and  domain  was  purchased  by  Robert 
Owen,  for  an  experimental  community  on  his 
system.  After  the  speedy  failure  of  this  society, 
the  property  was  bought  by  William  Maclure  for 
a  school  of  industry.  It  is  now  a  flourishing  vil¬ 
lage  of  1,500  inhabitants. 

New  Ha 'veil,  the  chief  city  and  seaport  of 
Connecticut,  at  the  head  of  a  bay,  four  miles 
from  Long  Island  Sound,  seventy-six  miles  east- 
northeast  of  New  York.  It  is  the  seat  of  Yale  Col¬ 
lege,  which  has  more  than  a  dozen  large  buildings 
and  a  Gothic  library,  150  feet  long.  The  city  has 
also  many  important  factories.  Pop.,  62,950. 

New  Heb  'rides,  a  group  of  Islands  in  the  Pa¬ 
cific  Ocean,  to  the  northeast  of  New  Caledonia,  and 
to  the  west  of  the  Fijis,  in  S.  latitude  between  14° 
and  20°,  and  E.  longitude  between  167°  and  170°. 
Area,  3,500  square  miles.  The  group  embraces 
Espiritu  Santo  (65  miles  long  by  20  broad),  Malli- 
collo  (60  miles  long  by  28  broad).  Vati  Ambrym, 
Annatom,  Erromango,  and  Tanna. 

New  Hoi 'land,  the  former  name  for  Australia. 

New  Iberia,  the  parish  seat  of  Iberia  parish, 
La.  Pop.,  3,800. 

New  Ire 'land,  a  long  narrow  island  in  the  Pa¬ 
cific  Ocean,  lying  to  the  northeast  of  New  Britain, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  St.  George’s  Chan¬ 
nel;  latitude  2°  40' — 4°  52'  S.,  longitude  150°  30' 


— 152°  50' E.  Length  about  200  miles,  average 
breadth,  12  miles. 

New  Jer'sey,  one  of  the  United  States,  in  lati¬ 
tude  38°  55' — 41°  21'  N.,  and  longitude  73°  58' 
— 75°  29'  W.,  168  miles  long,  with  a  breadth 
which  varies  from  59  to  32  miles,  containing  an 
area  of  8,320  square  miles,  or  5,324.800  acres; 
bounded  north  by  New  York,  east  by  the  Hudson 
river  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  south  by  th e-ocean 
and  Delaware  Bay,  and  west  by  Delaware  Bay 
and  river,  which  separate  it  from  Delaware  and 
Pennsylvania.  Pop.  (1880),  1,131,116. 

New  Jolio're,  formerly  Tanjong  Putri,  a  Malay 
settlement  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula.  Pop.,  about  20,000. 

New  Kent  Courthouse,  the  county  seat  of 
New  Kent  county,  Va.  Pop.,  100. 

New  Lexington,  the  county  seat  of  Perry 
county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  1,600. 

New  Lon 'don,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  Con¬ 
necticut,  on  the  River  Thames,  three  miles  from 
Long  Island  Sound,  forty  miles  southeast  of  New 
Haven.  It  is  an  important  commercial  and  manu¬ 
facturing  point.  Pop.,  10,600. 

New  London,  the  county  seat  of  Ralls  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  670. 

New  Madrid,  the  county  seat  of  New  Madrid 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  975. 

Newman,  John  Henry,  D.D.,  Cardinal,  was 
born  in  London,  Feb.  21,  1801.  In  1828  he  was 
presented  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Mary’s,  Oxford, 
in  which  church  the  sermons  which  he  delivered 
at  a  late  period  had  an  extraordinary  influence  in 
forwarding  the  religious  movement  with  which 
his  name  is  permanently  associated.  At  this 
period  Newman  was  an  earnest  antagonist  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  He  was  one  of  the 
most  active  in  commencing  and  carrying  on  the 
so-called  Oxford  movement — the  great  object  of 
which  was  to  counteract  as  well  the  Romanizing 
as  the  dissenting  tendencies  of  the  time,  by  restor¬ 
ing.  and  bringing  into  notice  what  Newman  and 
his  friends  believed  to  be  the  catholic  character 
of  the  English  Church.  With  this  view,  he  com¬ 
menced,  in  1833,  the  series  known  as  the  Oxford 
Tracts ,  to  which  he  was  himself  one  of  the  chief 
contributors.  He  continued  the  publication  of 
the  tracts  up  to  the  ninetieth  number,  which  was 
written  by  himself,  and  the  tendency  of  which 
was  so  distasteful  to  the  Anglican  authorities, 
that  the  heads  of  houses  at  Oxford  con¬ 
demned  the  tract,  and  the  Bishop  of  Oxford 
called  on  Newman  to  discontinue  the  publication 
— a  request  with  which  he  at  once  complied. 
Eventually,  in  October,  1845,  he  was  admitted  into 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  wnich  step  he  de¬ 
fended  later  in  his  famous  Apologia  pro  Vita  Sod. 
He  was  made  a  Cardinal  Deacon  of  the  Church 
in  1879. 

Newman,  the  county  seat  of  Coweta  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  2,100. 

New  Martinsville,  the  county  seat  of  Wetzel 
county,  W.Va.  Pop.,  1,000. 

New  Mex'ico,  a  Territory  belonging  to  the 
United  States,  in  latitude  31°  22' — 37°  N.,  longi¬ 
tude  103° — 109“  9'  W.,  350  miles  from  east  to  west, 
and  350  to  400  from  north  to  south,  with  an  area 
of  122,580  square  miles;  bounded  north  by  Colo¬ 
rado,  east  by  the  Indian  Territory  and  Texas,  south 
by  Texas  and  Mexico,  and  west  by  Arizona. 
Pop.  (excluding  Indians),  in  1880,  119,565. 

New  Or'leans,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Lou¬ 
isiana,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Mississippi  river, 
130  miles  from  its  mouth,  latitude  29°  58'  N., 
longitude  90°  W.  It  is  the  great  port  of  transship¬ 
ment  for  a  large  portion  of  the  cotton  crop  of  the 
Southern  States,  the  sugar  crop  of  Louisiana,  and 
the  produce  of  the  vast  region  drained  by  the 
Lower  Mississippi,  and  is  an  important  railway 
center.  Pop.,  216,300. 

New  Philadelphia,  a  flourishing  agricultural 
city,  and  the  county  seat  of  Tuscarawas  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Newport,  the  name  of  several  towns  and  cities 
in  the  United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  A  city  and 
port  of  entry,  and  semi-capital  of  Rhode  Island,  on 
the  west  shore  of  the  isl  ind,  in  Narraganset  Bay, 
five  miles  from  the  ocean.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
fashionable  watering-places  in  America.  Pop., 
20,550. — 2.  A  city  of  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio 
river,  opposite  Cincinnati,  and  on  the  east  side  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Licking  river,  opposite  Coving¬ 


ton.  It  contains  a  United  States  arsenal,  and 
several  iron  foundries  and  rolling  mills.  Pop., 
28,500. — 3.  The  county  seat  of  Cocke  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  400. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Sulli¬ 
van  county,  N.  H.  Pop.,  2,700. — 5.  The  county 
seat  of  Vermillion  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  650. 

New  Red  Sandstone.  A  large  series  of  reddish 
colored  loams,  shales,  and  sandstones,  occurring 
between  the  carboniferous  rocks  and  the  lias,  were 
grouped  together  under  this  name,  in  contradis¬ 
tinction  to  the  old  red  sandstone  group,  which  lies 
below  the  coal-measures,  and  has  a  similar  mineral 
structure. 

New  Roads,  the  parish  seat  of  Pointe  Coupee 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  650. 

N  ew  ltock  fo  rd ,  the  count)7  seat  of  Eddy  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  350. 

New  Sibe'ria,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  lying  north-northeast  of  the  mouth  of  the 
River  Lena,  in  Eastern  Siberia.  Latitude  73°  20' 
— 76°  12'  N.,  longitude  135°  20' — 150°  20'  E.; 
area,  20,480  square  miles.  The  principal  are 
Kotelnoi,  Liakov,  Fadievskoi,  and  New  Siberia. 

New  South  Wales,  a  British  colony  in  the 
Southeast  of  Australia,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
a  line  which,  beginning  at  Point  Danger,  in  lati¬ 
tude  28°  8'  S.,  follows  several  lines  of  heights 
across  the  Dividing  Range. till  it  meets  the  29tli 
parallel,  which  forms  the  rest  of  the  boundary 
westward;  on  the  west  by  the  141st  meridian;  on 
the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean;  and  the  line  separat¬ 
ing  it  from  Victoria  on  the  south  runs  from  Cape 
Howe,  at  the  southeast  of  the  island,  northwest  to 
the  source  of  the  Murray  river,  and  then  along  that 
stream,  west  by  north,  "to  the  western  boundary  of 
the  two  colonies.  Area,  323,437  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  751,468. 

Newt,  or  Eft  {Triton),  a  genus  of  batrachians 
of  the  family  Salamandridce,  more  aquatic  in 
their  habits  than  the  salamander,  to  which,  in 
form  and  character,  they  are  very  similar,  having 
an  elongated  body  and  tail,  and  four  small,  weak 
limbs. 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  the  most  remarkable 
mathematician  and  natural  philosopher  of  his 
own  or  perhaps  of  any  other  age,  was  born  at 
Woolstliorpe,  England,  in  1642.  In  the  year  1665, 
he  committed  to  writing  his  first  discovery  on 
fluxions;  and  it  is  fabled  that  in  the  same  year, 
the  fall  of  an  apple,  as  he  sat  in  his  garden,  sug¬ 
gested  the  most  magnificent  of  his  subsequent 
discoveries — the  law  of  universal  gravitation, 
The  form  of  reflecting  telescope  devised  by  him 
is  the  one  which,  at  later  periods,  reached  such 
perfection  in  the  hands  of  Sir  William  Herschel 
and  Lord  Rosse.  He  sat  in  the  Convention  Par¬ 
liament  from  January,  1689,  to  its  dissolution  in 
1690.  He  again  took  a  seat  in  Parliament  in  1701. 
Newton  discovered  the  differential  calculus  almost 
simultaneously  with  Leibnitz.  Newton  died  on 
March  20,  1727. 

Newton,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  A  city  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  on  Charles  river,  eight  miles  west  of 
Boston.  It  has  several  paper  mills,  cotton  mills, 
and  other  factories.  Pop.,  19,800. — 2.  The  county 
seat  of  Baker  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  350. — 3.  The 
county  seat  of  Catawba  county,  N.  C.  Pop., 
300.— 4.  The  county  seat  of  Harvey  county,  Kan. 
Pop.,  7,325. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Jasper 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  3,025. 

New  Troy,  the  county  seat  of  La  Fayette 
county,  Fla.  Pop.,  225. 

New  Ulm,  the  county  seat  of  Brown  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  3  435.  It  is  a  prosperous  agricult¬ 
ural  town,  and  is  noted  as  the  scene  of  a  bloody 
massacre  of  white  settlers  by  Sioux  Indians  in 
1862. 

New  Year’s  Day,  the  first  day  of  the  year.  The 
custom  of  celebrating  by  some  religious  observ¬ 
ance,  generally  accompanied  by  festive  rejoicing, 
the  first  day  of  the  year,  appears  to  have  prevailed 
among  most  af  the  ancient  nations.  The  Jews, 
the  Egyptians,  the  Chinese,  the  Romans,  and  the 
Mohammedans,  although  differing  as  to  the  time 
from  which  they  reckoned  the  commencement  of 
the  year,  all  regarded  it  as  a  day  of  special  inter¬ 
est.  In  Rome,  the  year  anciently  began  in  March; 
and  when  Numa,  according  to  the  ancient  legend, 
transferred  it  to  January  1st,  that  day  was  held 
sacred  to  Janus  Bifrons ,  who.  was  thus  supposed 
to  turn  at  once  back  upon  the  old  year  and  for- 


NEW  YORK. 


559 


NICOBAR  ISLANDS. 


ward  into  the  new.  On  the  establishment  of 
Christianity,  the  usage  of  a  solemn  inauguration 
of  the  New  Year  was  retained;  but  considerable 
variety  prevailed,  both  as  to  the  time  and  as  to  the 
manner  of  its  celebration.  Christmas  Day,  the 
Annunciation  (March  25th),  Easter  Day,  and 
March  1st,  have  all,  at  different  times  or  places, 
shared  with  January  1st  the  honor  of  opening  the 
New  Year;  nor  was  it  till  late  in  the  sixteenth 
century  that  January  1st  was  universally  accepted 
as  the  first  day  of  the  New  Year.  The  early 
fathers — Chrysostom,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  Peter 
Chrysologus,  and  others — in  reprobation  of  the 
immoral  and  superstitious  observances  of  the 
pagan  festival,  prohibited  in  Christian  use  all 
festive  celebration;  and,  on  the  contrary,  directed 
that  the  Christian  year  should  be  opened  with  a 
day  of  prayer,  fasting,  and  humiliation.  The 
mandate,  however,  was  but  partially  observed. 
The  festal  character  of  the  day,  generally  speak¬ 
ing,  was  pertinaciously  preserved,  but  the  day 
was  also  observed  as  a  day  of  prayer;  and  this 
character  was  the  more  readily  attached  to  it 
when  the  year  began  with  January  1st,  as  that 
day,  being  the  eighth  after  the  nativity  of  our 
Lord,  was  held  to  be  the  commemoration  of  his 
circumcision  (Luke  ii,  21).  The  social  observ¬ 
ances  of  the  first  day  of  the  New  Year  appear  to 
have  been  in  substance  the  same  in  all  ages. 
From  the  earliest  recorded  celebration,  we  find 
notice  of  feasting  and  the  interchange  of  presents 
as  usages  of  the  day.  Suetonius  alludes  to  the 
bringing  of  presents  to  the  capital;  and  Tacitus 
makes  a  similar  reference  to  the  practice  of  giving 
and  receiving  New  Year’s  gifts.  This  custom 
was  continued  by  the  Christian  kingdoms  into 
which  the  Western  Empire  was  divided.  In 
England  we  find  many  examples  of  it,  even  as  a 
part  of  the  public  expenditure  of  the  court,  so 
far  down  as  the  reign  of  Charles  II.;  and,  as  all 
our  antiquarian  writers  mention,  the  custom  of 
interchanging  presents  was  common  in  all  classes 
of  society.  In  France  and  England  it  still  sub¬ 
sists,  although  eclipsed  in  the  latter  country  by 
the  still  more  popular  practice  of  Christmas  gifts. 
In  many  countries,  the  night  of  New  Year’s  Eve, 
“  St.  Sylvester’s  Eve,”  was  celebrated  with  great 
festivity,  which  was  prolonged  till  after  12 
o’clock,  when  the  New  Year  was  ushered  in,  with 
congratulations,  complimentary  visits,  and  mutual 
wishes  for  a  happy  New  Year.  This  is  an  ancient 
Scottish  custom,  which  also  prevails  in  many 
parts  of  Germany,  where  the  form  of  wish— 
“  Prosst  (for  the  Lat.  ywesfO-Neu  jahr  ” — “  May 
the  New  Year  be  happy” — sufficiently  attests  the 
antiquity  of  the  custom.  In  many  places  the 
practice  of  tolling  bells  at  midnight,  and  thus 
■‘ringing  in  the  New  Year”  is  still  observed. 
Many  religious  communions  are  wont  to  celebrate 
it  with  a  special  service.  In  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  the  Te  Ueitm  is  still  sung  at  the  close  of 
the  old  year;  and  New  Year’s  Day  is  a  holiday  of 
strict  obligation. 

New  York,  one  of  the  United  States,  the  most 
important  in  population  and  wealth,  occupies  an 
irregular  triangular  area  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
to  the  Great  Lakes;  latitude,  40°  29'  40" — 45°  O' 
42"  N.,  longitude,  71°  51'— 79°  47'  25"  W.  The 
State  is  412  miles  from  east  to  west,  311  from 
north  to  south,  with  an  area  of  47,000  square 
miles,  or  30,800,000  acres;  bounded  north  by 
Lake  Erie,  Lake  Ontario,  the  St.  Lawrence  river, 
and  Canada;  east  by  Lake  Champlain,  and  the 
States  of  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  and  Connecti¬ 
cut,  and  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  south  by  the 
ocean,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania;  west  by 
Pennsylvania,  the  Niagara  river,  and  the  lakes. 

New  York,  the  most  important  city  and  sea¬ 
port  of  the  United  States,  and  the  third  in  the 
civilized  world,  is  on  the  east  side  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Hudson  river,  at  its  confluence 
with  a  narrow  strait  called  East  river,  which 
opens  into  Long  Island  Sound,  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  eighteen  miles  from  the  ocean.  Lati¬ 
tude  40°  42'  43"  N.,  longitude  74°  O'  3"  W.  The 
city  comprises  the  Island  of  Manhattan,  formed 
by  the  Hudson  river  and  the  East  river,  and 
separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  strait 
called  Harlem  river,  on  the  east,  and  on  the  west 
by  Spuyten  Duyvel  Creek ;  includes  several 
smaller  islands,  containing  the  fortifications  in 
the  harbor,  and  the  public  institutions  in  the  East 


river  ;  and  also  part  of  the  mainland  north  of 
Manhattan  Island.  The  island  on  which  the  city 
is  built  is  134  miles  long,  and  with  an  average 
breadth  of  1 1  of  a  mile,  comprising  22  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1880),  1,206,577.  It  is  now 

estimated  as  containing  about  1,500,000  inhab¬ 
itants,  and  with  Brooklyn,  over  2,000,000. 

New  ZeaTand,  a  British  colony  in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  consists  of  three  islands,  two  large 
and  one  smaller,  and  a  number  of  islets.  These 
islands,  which  are  named  respectively  North, 
South,  and  Stewart’s  Island,  are  about  6,500  miles 
west  from  the  coast  of  South  America,  and  about 
1,200  southeast  of  Australia.  The  group  extends 
in  latitude  from  34°  15'  to  47°  30'  S.,  and  in  longi¬ 
tude  from  166°  to  179°  E. 

Ney,  Michel,  a  celebrated  Marshal  of  the  first 
French  Empire,  was  born  at  Saarlouis,  France, 
Jan.  10,  1769.  He  was  a  non-commissioned  offi¬ 
cer  in  a  hussar  regiment  when  the  Revolution 
began,  and  rapidly  rose  to  high  military  rank. 
On  the  establishment  of  the  empire  he  was  made 
a  Marshal.  In  1805  he  stormed  the  intrench- 
ments  of  Elchingen,  and  was  created  Duke  of 
Elchingen.  lie  afterward  rendered  important 
services  in  the  Tyrol;  contributed  much  to  the 
French  successes  of  1806  and  1807;  and  served  in 
Spain  with  great  ability  in  1808  and  1809.  In 
1812  he  received  the  command  of  the  third  corps 
d’  armee,  and  distinguished  himseif  at  Smolensk 
and  the  Moskwa,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was 
created  Prince  of  the  Moskwa.  He  had  a  princi- 
d  part  in  the  campaigns  of  1813  and  1814.  On 
apoleon’s  return  from  Elba,  Ney  assured  the 
king  of  his  fidelity,  and  was  sent  against  Napoleon 
at  the  head  of  4,000  men;  but  finding  the  Emperor 
to  be  received  with  general  enthusiasm,  and  his 
own  soldiers  to  be  favorable  to  his  cause,  Ney 
went  over  to  his  side.  In  the  Battle  of  Waterloo, 
he  commanded  the  center,  and  had  five  horses 
shot  under  him.  After  the  capitulation  of  Paris, 
he  retired  to  Switzerland;  but  a  costly  Egyptian 
saber,  Hie  gift  of  Napoleon,  led  to  his  being  sus¬ 
pected  by  an  official,  and  arrested.  He  was  con¬ 
demned  to  death  for  high  treason,  and  was  shot 
Dec.  7,  1815. 

N’ga'nii,  Lake,  Central  Africa,  is  between  the 
20th  and  21st  parallels  of  S.  latitude,  and  between 
the  meridians  22^  10 '  and  23°  SO'  E.  longitude,  at 
a  height  of  about  2,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  is  connected  by  a  series  of  streams  with 
the  river-system  of  the  Zambezi.  It  is  70  miles 
long  by  20  miles  wide. 

Niag'ara,  a  river  which  flows  from  Lake  Erie 
northward  into  Lake  Ontario.  It  is  about  36 
miles  in  length,  and  its  descent  from  the  level 
of  the  one  lake  to  that  of  the  other  is  about  334 
feet.  On  issuing  from  Lake  Erie,  it  is  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  broad;  but  it  becomes  several 
miles  wide,  and  has  several  islands.  At  the  foot 
of  Grand  Island,  which  reaches  within  14  miles 
of  the  Falls  of  Niagara,  the  river  is  contracted  to 
a  breadth  of  24  miles,  and  grows  narrower  as  it 
proceeds.  Above  the  falls  are  the  swift  currents 
known  as  the  rapids.  At  the  falls,  which  are 
twenty-two  miles  from  Lake  Erie,  the  river  is 
divided  by  Goat  Island;  but  the  larger  portion  of 
the  water  is  sent  down  by  the  Canadian  side. 
Though,  as  the  boundary  line  follows  “the 
deepest  channel  of  the  river,”  half  of  the  Horse¬ 
shoe  Fall,  on  this  side,  belongs  to  the  United 
States.  The  Horseshoe  Fall  is  600  yards  in  width, 
and  about  154  feet  in  height.  The  separation 
caused  by  Goat  Island  leaves  a  large  wall  of  rock 
between  the  Canadian  and  American  Falls,  the 
latter  being  again  divided  by  an  islet  at  a  short 
distance  from  Goat  Island.  This  fall  is  from 
8  to  10  feet  higher  than  the  Horseshoe,  but  only 
about  220  yards  wide. 

Niare  (Bos  brachicheros),  the  wild  ox  or  buffalo 
of  tropical  Western  Africa,  is  in  size  and  weight 
about  equal  to  the  smaller  breeds  of  American 
oxen,  but  of  greater  strength.  The  head  is  rather 
small,  the  muzzle  black,  the  ears  longand  pointed, 
and  fringed  with  beautiful  silky  hair,  several 
inches  long.  The  horns  are  10  to  12  inches  long, 
curved  backward,  and  sharply  pointed.  The  tail 
is  tufted  at  the  extremity  with  black  hair  several 
inches  long. 

Nias',  an  important  island  belonging  to  Hol¬ 
land,  lies  to  the  west  of  Sumatra,  in  0°  18'  54" — 


1°  35'  N.  latitude,  and  97° — 98°  E.  longitude, 
and  has  an  area  of  about  1,575  square  miles. 

Ni 'belungenlied,  or  “  Nibclnnge  Not"  as  the 
words  are  written  in  the  oldest  manuscripts,  is 
one  of  the  most  finished  specimens  of  the  genuine 
epic  poetry  of  Germany  belonging  to  the  middle 
ages. 

Nicaragua,  a  republic  of  Cential  America, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Republic  of  Hon¬ 
duras,  on  the  east  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  the 
south  by  the  republic  of  Costa  Rica,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Pacific;  latitude  10°  45' — 15°  N.; 
longitude  83°  20' — 87°  30';  area,  about  51,650 
square  miles;  pop.  (1882),  275,813. 

Nicaragua,  Lake  (native,  Gocibolca),  a  sheet  of 
fresh  waterin  the  republic  of  the  same  name,  110 
miles  long,  and  from  30  to  50  broad.  C’apt. 
James  B.  Eads  proposed  an  inter-oceanic  ship 
canal  to  run  by  way  of  this  lake  and  the  San 
Juan  river,  and  recently  a  company  has  been 
formed  and  has  obtained  concessions  from  the 
governments  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  out  the 
project.  The  whole  distance  by  this  route  from 
ocean  to  ocean  is  1804  miles;  and,  full  advantage 
being  taken  of  lake  and  river,  614  miles  of  tiie 
total  length  would  fall  to  the  canal. 

Nice  (Ital.  Rizzo),  chief  town,  since  1860,  of 
the  Department  of  the  Alpes  Maritimes,  France, 
ison  the  River  Paglione,  100  miles  south-southwest 
of  Turin,  and  about  the  same  distance  east-north¬ 
east  of  Marseille.  Pop.  (1876),  46,683. 

Nicene'  Creed,  a  detailed  statement  of  doc¬ 
trine,  which  forms  part  of  the  liturgy  of  the 
Roman,  Oriental,  and  Anglican  Churches,  and 
is  also  received  as  a  formulary  by  many  of  the 
other  Protestant  communions. 

Niche,  a  recess  formed  in  a  wall  to  contain  a 
statue  or  some  ornamental  figure. 

Nicholas,  the  name  of  five  among  the  Roman 
pontiffs.  Nicholas  I.  was  born  of  a  noble  Roman 
family,  and  on  the  death  of  Benedict  III.,  in 
858,  was  elected  to  succeed  him,  and  was  con¬ 
secrated  in  St.  Peter’s  Church,  in  the  presence 
of  Ludwig  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany.  He 
died  in  86s. — Nicholas  V.  was  originally  called 
Thomas  Parent ucelli.  Born  at  Pisa,  in  1398,  he 
was  educated  at  Florence  and  Bologna,  and  was 
named  Bishop  of  the  latter  see  by  the  Pope, 
Eugenius  IV.  On  the  death  of  Eugenius  IV.  he 
was  chosen  to  succeed  him  on  March  6,  1447,  and 
died  in  1455. 

Nicholas  I.,  more  properly  Nikolai  Paul- 
ovitch,  Emperor  of  Russia,  was  born  at  St. 
Petersburg,  July  7,  1796.  He  succeeded  to  the 
throne  in  December,  1825,  and  died  in  1855. 

Nicholas,  the  county  seat  of  Nicholas  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  100. 

Nicholasville,  the  county  seat  of  Jessamine 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Nickel  (symbol  Ni,  equiv.  59— sp.  gr.  8.8)  is 
a  grayish-white  glistening  metal,  capable  of  re¬ 
ceiving  a  high  polish,  of  about  the  same  hardness 
as  iron,  and,  like  that  metal,  malleable  and  duc¬ 
tile.  It  has  about  the  same  fusibility  as  wrought 
iron,  but  is  less  readily  oxidized  than  that  metal, 
since  it  remains  unchanged  for  a  long  time  in  a 
moist  atmosphere,  and  is  very  little  attacked  by 
dilute  acids.  It  is  strongly  magnetic,  but  loses 
this  property  when  heated  to  660°.  It  dissolves 
in  hydrochloric  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  with  a 
development  of  hydrogen  gas,  and  is  very  readily 
oxidized  in  nitric  acid.  Nickel  only  occurs  in  the 
native  state  in  meteoric  stones,  in  which  it  is  al¬ 
ways  present  in  association  with  the  iron  which 
forms  the  principal  part  of  those  masses.  It  is 
found  in  tolerable  abundance  in  Saxony,  West¬ 
phalia,  Hungary,  Sweden,  etc.,  where  it  occurs  in 
the  form  of  kupfernickel  (so  called  from  its  yel¬ 
lowish-red  color),  which  is  a  combination  of 
nickel  and  arsenic.  The  metal  is  obtained  on  the 
large  scale  (for  the  purpose  of  making  German 
silver,  and  other  alloys)  either  from  this  compound 
or  speiss,  which  is  an  impure  arsenio-sulphide  of 
nickel,  formed  during  the  manufacture  of  smalt, 
by  somewhat  complicated  chemical  processes.  In 
small  quantities,  it  may  be  obtained  by  reducing 
one  of  its  oxides  by  means  of  hydrogen  at  a  high 
temperature,  or  by  exposing  the  oxalate  to  a  very 
high  temperature  in  a  crucible  lined  with  char¬ 
coal  . 

Nicobar  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  belonging 
to  England,  iu  the  Indian  Ocean,  northwest  of 


NICOLAS. 


5G0 


NILE. 


Sumatra,  and  forming,  with  the  Andamans,  an 
extension  of  the  great  island  chain  of  which  Java 
and  Sumatra  are  the  principal  links.  Latitude 
6°  40'— 9°  20'  N.,  longitude  93°— 94°  E. 

Nicolas,  St.,  a  highly  popular  saint  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  reverenced  with  still 
greater  devotion  by  the  Russian  Church,  which 
regards  him  as  a  special  patron,  was  one  of  the 
early  bishops  of  Myra  in  Lycia.  The  precise  date 
of  his  episcopate  is  a  subject  of  much  controversy, 
lie  is  regarded,  in  Catholic  countries,  as  the  espe¬ 
cial  patron  of  the  young,  and  particularly  of 
scholars. 

Nicop'olis,  recently  a  Turkish  fortress,  but 
since  1878  a  city  of  the  newly  constituted  princi¬ 
pality  of  Bulgaria,  is  on  the  Danube,  about  fifty- 
six  miles  west  of  Rustchuk.  Pop.,  16,000. 

Nic'otine,  or  Nicoty'lia  (C6H,4N),  is  one  of 
the  natural  volatile  oily  bases  destitute  of  oxygen, 
and  constitutes  the  active  principle  of  the  tobacco 
plant,  in  the  leaves,  roots,  and  seeds  of  which  it 
occurs  in  combination  with  malic  and  citric  acids. 
It  is  likewise  contained  in  the  smoke  of  the  burn¬ 
ing  leaves.  It  is  a  colorless,  intensely  poisonous 
liquid,  of  specific  gravity  1.027  at  66°,  which 
boils  at  480°,  evolves  a  very  irritating  odor  of  to¬ 
bacco,  especially  on  the  application  of  heat,  is 
very  inflammable,  and  burns  with  a  smoky  flame. 
It  is  moderately  soluble  in  water,  and  dissolves 
readily  in  alcohol  and  ether.  If  exposed  to  the 
air,  it  absorbs  oxygen,  and  becomes  brown,  and 
ultimately  solid.  The  quantity  of  nicotine  con¬ 
tained  in  tobacco  varies  from  2  to  8  per  cent. ;  the 
coarser  kinds  containing  the  larger  quantity, 
while  the  best  Havana  cigars  seldom  contain  more 
than  2  per  cent.,  and  often  less. 

Niebuhr,  Iyarsten,  a  distinguished  geograph¬ 
er  and  traveler,  was  born  in  1733,  in  the  Hano¬ 
verian  territory  of  Hadeln,  on  the  confines  of 
Holstein.  He  died  in  1815,  leaving  a  character  of 
being  at  once  one  of  the  most  truthful  and  scien¬ 
tifically  exact  travelers  of  modern  times. 

Niebuhr,  Barthold  Georg,  son  of  the  above, 
one  of  the  most  acute  historians,  critics,  and 
philologists  of  modern  times,  was  born  Aug.  27, 
1776,  at  Copenhagen.  Niebuhr’s  attainments 
embraced  a  more  extensive  range  than  most  men 
are  capable  of  grasping,  for  he  was  alike  dis¬ 
tinguished  as  a  shrewd  man  of  business,  an  able 
diplomatist,  an  accurate  scholar,  and  a  man  of 
original  genius.  He  had  mastered  twenty 
languages  before  the  age  of  thirty.  He  died  in 
1831. 

Nie'meii  (called  by  the  Germans  Memel ),  a 
river  in  Prussia,  rises  a  few  miles  south  of  the 
city  of  Minsk,  flows  westward  to  Grodno  180 
miles,  north  and  west  along  the  frontiers  of  the 
Polish  province  of  Augustowo,  and  west  through 
East  Prussia  to  the  Kurische  Haft.  Entire  length, 
640  miles. 

Niepce  de  St.  Yictor,  Claude  Felix  Abel,  a 
French  chemist  and  photographer,  was  born  at 
Saint  Cyr,  near  Chalon-sur-Saone,  July  26,  1805. 
To  him  is  due  in  great  measure  the  development 
of  photography. 

Nieuw 'veldt Mountains,  a  portion  of  the  most 
northerly  of  the  three  ranges  of  mountains  in 
Cape  Colony,  which  at  various  distances  from  the 
southern  coast  all  run  parallel  to  it. 

Nievre,  a  central  department  of  France,  occu¬ 
pies  a  portion  of  the  watershed  between  the  Loire 
and  the  Seine,  and  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Rivers  Allier  and  Loire.  Area,  2,620  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  347,576 

Nifl'heim  (from  the  same  roots  as  Lat.  nebula, 
cloud,  and  Eng.  home),  meaning  the  abode  of 
clouds,  was  one  of  the  nine  separate  abodes  or 
homes,  of  which  the  old  Scandinavians  conceived 
the  world  as  consisting  in  the  beginning  of  time. 
It  is  the  kingdom  of  cold  and  darkness,  and  is 
separated  from  M  uspelsheim,  the  kingdom  of  light 
and  heat,  by  a  huge  chasm  (Ginungagap,  yawn¬ 
ing  gap). 

Ni'ger,  the  great  river  of  Western  Africa.  The 
principal  head-water  rises  on  the  slopes  of  Mount 
Loma,  a  peak  of  the  Kong  Mountains,  in  a 
barren,  desolate,  and  treeless  region,  in  latitude 
9°  25'  N.,  longitude  9°  45'  W.,  about  1,600  feet 
above  sea-level.  It  flows  northeast  to  Timbuktu, 
where  it  bends  eastward,  and  after  flowing  in  that 
direction  for  about  250  miles,  it  curves  toward 
the  south,  and  proceeds  in  a  general  south-south¬ 


east  course,  until  arriving  at  the  head  of  its  delta, 
in  latitude  about  5°  30'  N.,  it  separates  into  many 
branches,  and  enters  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  between 
the  Bights  of  Benin  and  Biafra.  The  entire 
length  of  the  river  is  estimated  at  upward  of 
2,500  miles. 

Niglit-liawk  ( Chordeiles  virginianus),  a  bird  of 
the  goatsucker  family  ( caprimulgidce ),  very 
common  in  America,  from  the  Arctic  islands  to 
the  West  Indies.  The  night-hawk  is  seen  pursuing 


Night-hawk  ( Chordeiles  virginianus). 
its  insect  prey  in  the  air,  chiefly  a  little  before  sun¬ 
set,  and  before  dawn,  and  attracts  attention  by  its 
rapid  repetition  of  a  sharp  impatient  cry,  which 
has  gained  for  it  the  name  piratniclig. 

Night  Heron  (Nycticorax),  a  genus  of  A  rdeidce, 
intermediate  in  form  between  bitterns  and  herons, 
but  with  shorter  and  thicker  bill  than  either,  and 
legs  shorter  than  in  herons.  The  common  night 
heron  ( N .  gardeni  or  europceus)  is  found  in 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  North  America,  chiefly 
in  the  warmer  temperate  regions. 

Nightingale,  Florence,  famed  for  her  labors 
in  reforming  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  British 
army,  is  the  daughter  of  William  Shore  Night¬ 
ingale  of  Embly  Park,  Hampshire,  and  Leigh 
Hurst,  Derbyshire,  and  was  born  at  Florence  in 
1823.  During  the  Crimean  War  she  put  forth 
such  unwearied  exertions  that  her  own  health 
succumbed,  and  her  labors  have  since  necessarily 
been  of  a  literary  character  exclusively,  but  have 
borne  good  fruit. 

Nightingale  (Philomela),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Sylviadce.  The  common  nightingale 
(P.  luscinia)  is  well  known  as  the  finest  of  song¬ 
sters.  It  is  rather  larger  than  the  hedge-sparrow, 
with  about  the  same  proportionate  length  of 
wings  and  tail.  It  is  of  a  rich  brown  color 
above,  the  rump  and  tail  reddish,  the  lower  parts 
grayish-white.  The  sexes  are  alike.  It  is  a 


native  of  many  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  of 
the  north  of  Africa;  and  is  a  bird  of  passage,  ex¬ 
tending  its  summer  migrations  on  the  Continent 
of  Europe  as  far  north  as  the  south  of  Sweden. 

Night'mare  ( Incubus ,  Ephialtes)  consists  in  a 
horrible  dream,  the  terror  being  inspired  by  a 
sense  of  weight  or  oppression  referred  to  the 
pressure  of  mountains,  giants,  hags,  serpents, 
upon  the  breast.  It  is  attributed  to  acceleration 
or  irregularity  of  the  circulation  in  the  chest  or  in 
the  brain.  It  has  been  traced  backward  to 
plethora,  posture,  heavy  suppers;  and  forward 
as  a  prognostic  of  heart  disease  or  hydrothorax. 
They  are  so  far  voluntary  that  indigestible  food 
or  excess  may  induce  them.  Fuseli,  for  artistic 
purposes,  created  “chimeras  dire”  in  sleep  by 
supping  on  pork  chops. 

Nightshade,  the  English  name  of  certain  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Solanacem,  possessing  the 
narcotic  properties  frequently  developed  in  that 


order.  Among  them  are  some  species  of  Sola¬ 
tium,  particularly  the  common  nightshade,  or 
black  nightshade  ( S .  nigrum),  an  annual  or  bi¬ 
ennial,  with  erect  angular  stem,  ovate,  sinuate- 
dentate  leaves,  drooping  lateral  umbels  of  white 
flowers,  and  globose  black  berries;  a  frequent 
weed  in  waste  places  in  England  and  in  most 
parts  of  the  world.  Few  plants  are  more  widely 
diffused.  It  is  only  slightly  narcotic.  The 
leaves,  in  a  fresh  state,  are  said  to  be  injurious  to 
animals  which  eat  them,  but  seem  to  lose  almost 
all  narcotic  property  by  boiling,  and  are  used  as 
spinach,  particularly  in  warm  climates. 

Ni'hilism  is  a  term  used  of  certain  philosoph¬ 
ical,  or  half-philosophical  systems  of  “negative” 
tendency,  especially  such  as  deny  God,  the  soul, 
and  the  moral  distinction  between  good  and  evil. 
Of  late,  however,  it  has  become  familiar  through¬ 
out  Europe  as  applied  to  the  hyper-revolutionary 
programme  of  a  Russian  organization  in  various 
ranks  of  society.  The  young  men  at  the  uni¬ 
versities  seem  to  be  largely  addicted  to  Nihilism, 
and  are  equaled  in  zeal  by  the  ‘  ‘  fair  girl  gradu¬ 
ates”  of  Russia.  The  Nihilists  are  said  to  have 
adopted  many  of  the  Socialistic  views  of  Proud¬ 
hon;  but  while  their  scheme  is  in  other  respects 
vague  and  ill-compacted,  their  foremost  principle 
is  the  belief  that  society  may  be  and  ought  to  be 
regenerated  by  a  sudden  and  sweeping  overthrow 
of  most  existing  social  and  poliiical  institutions. 
In  1869,  during  certain  students’  demonstrations, 
revolutionary  manifestos  were  distributed. 
Much  was  done  for  promoting  revolutionary 
opinions  through  the  medium  of  Sunday-schools, 
ere  these  were  suppressed  by  government.  Young 
men  of  good  birth  adopted  menial  callings  in 
order  to  understand  the  grievances  and  burdens 
of  their  poorer  brethren,  and  to  enter  with  fuller 
sympathy  into  their  feelings.  Nihilistic  associa¬ 
tions  began  to  display  organized  activity,  and 
considerable  funds  were  collected.  The  assassi¬ 
nation  of  public  officials,  in  1878,  showed  the  in¬ 
creasing  boldness  of  the  Nihilistic  propaganda. 
After  three  unsuccessful  attempts,  in  1879  and 
1880,  on  the  life  of  the  czar — one  by  shooting, 
one  by  the  wrecking  of  an  imperial  train,  a  third 
by  a  destructive  explosion  in  the  Winter  Palace 
itself — a  fourth,  by  means  of  a  bomb  thrown  in 
the  street,  accomplished  the  dire  purpose.  These 
and  other  outrages,  such  as  extensive  incendiary 
fires,  provoked  very  severe  repressive  measures. 
The  new  czar,  Alexander  III.,  has  lived  almost  a 
prisoner  in  his  palace  for  fear  of  assassination, 
and  Nihilistic  plots  continue  to  be  frequently 
discovered,  military  and  naval  officers  being 
sometimes  implicated. 

Nij'megen,  in  English,  usually  Ni'meguen,  is 
a  city  in  Gelderland,  Netherlands,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Waal,  with  a  pop.  (1881)  of  26,629. 

Ni 'jni-Nov'gorod,  an  important  government 
in  the  east  of  Great  Russia,  between  the  govern¬ 
ments  of  Vladimir  on  the  west  and  Kazan  and 
Simbirsk  on  the  east.  Area  (according  to  the 
Almanack  de  Gotha),  19,390  square  miles;  pop. 
(1879),  1,369,369. 

Nijni-Novgorod  (Lower  Novgorod),  a  famous 
commercial  and  manufacturing  town  in  the  east 
of  Great  Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  the 
same  name,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Oka  with  the  Volga,  715  miles  east-southeast  of 
St.  Petersburg.  There  are  three  annual  fairs, 
two  of  them  of  minor  account.  The  third,  be¬ 
ginning  at  the  end  of  July  and  continuing  into 
September,  is  by  far  the  greatest  in  the  world. 
The  normal  pop.  (12,441  in  1880)  is  then  in¬ 
creased  to  near  350,000;  and  the  value  of  the 
goods  sold  at  the  great  fair  of  1874  was  about 
$120,000,000.  Nijni-Novgorod,  which  is  favor¬ 
ably  situated  for  purposes  of  commerce,  carries 
on  a  brisk  trade  during  the  whole  season  of  navi¬ 
gation. 

Ni'jni-Tagi'lsk,  a  mining  town  of  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Perm,  amid  the  Ural  Mount¬ 
ains,  150  miles  east  of  Perm.  Pop.,  35,000. 

Nikolaef',  a  town  of  South  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Kherson,  stands  twenty-five  miles 
above  the  mouth  of  the  Bug,  and  at  the  conflu¬ 
ence  of  that  river  with  the  Ingul.  Pop.  (1880), 
82  805. 

Nile  ( Nilus ),  called  by  the  Egyptians,  HapiMu 
(the  genius  of  the  waters),  and  by  the  Hebrews 
Sihor  (the  black),  the  river  of  Northeastern  Africa 


NILOMETER. 


561 


NIZAM’S  DOMINIONS. 


formed  by  the  union  of  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  (the 
White  or  True  Nile)  and  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  (Blue 
Nile).  The  True  Nile  flows  out  of  the  Lake 
Victoria  Nyanza,  which  extends  from  about  lati¬ 
tude  0°  20'  N.,  to  2°  50'  S.,  and  from  longitude 
31°  40' — 35°  E.,  and  is  8,800  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea;  and  the  River  Shimiyu,  the  largest 
tributary  of  this  lake,  flowing  into  its  southern 
extremity,  must  now  be  regarded  as  the  most 
southerly  source  of  the  Nile.  The  second,  the 
Blue  Nile,  has  its  source  in  Abyssinia,  in  latitude 
10°  59'  N.,  and  longitude  36°  55'  E.  It  waters 
and  fertilizes  the  whole  length  of  the  laud  of 
Egypt.  The  Delta  of  the  Nile  extends  from  lati¬ 
tude  30Q  10'  N.  to  31°  30'  N.,  and  has  a  base  on 
the  Mediterranean  of  about  150  miles.  In  it  the 
Nile  spreads  out  into  numerous  streams,  the  two 
principal  being  those  of  Rosetta  and  Damietta. 
The  total  length  of  the  Nile,  from  its  exit  from 
the  lake  to  the  sea,  is  about  3,300  miles,  measured 
along  its  course,  or  2,200  miles  direct  distance. 

Nilom'eter  (the  measurer  of  the  Nile),  the 
name  of  two  buildings  existing  in  Egypt,  one  in 
the  Island  of  Rhoda,  opposite  to  Cairo,  the  other 
at  Elephantine,  close  to  Assouan,  in  24°  5' 23" 
N.  latitude.  They  were  intended  to  measure  the 
rise  and  full  of  the  river  at  its  annual  overflows. 

Nim'bns,  in  Art,  especially  in  Sacred  Art,  is 
the  name  given  to  the  disc  or  halo  which  encircles 
the  head  of  the  sacred  personage  who  is  repre¬ 
sented.  Its  use  is  almost  universal  in  those  relig¬ 
ions  of  which  we  possess  any  artistic  remains — 
the  Indian,  the  Egyptian,  the  Etruscan,  the 
Greek,  and  the  Roman.  Its  ordinary  form  is  the 
circular  or  semi-circular. 

Nimes  (ancient  Nemansus),  a  town  of  France, 
capital  of  the  Department  of  Gard,  thirty  miles 
northeast  of  Montpellier.  Pop.  (1881),  62,549. 

Nin'evch,  or  Ninus,  a  very  ancient  and  famous 
city,  the  capital  of  the  great  Assyrian  Empire, 
said  in  scripture  (Gen.  x,  11)  to  have  been  founded 
by  Ninus  or  Nimrod.  It  was  situated  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Tigris,  opposite  to  the  present  Mosul. 
According  to  the  accounts  of  the  classic  writers, 
the  city  was  of  vast  extent,  480  stadia,  or  more 
than  60  miles  in  circumference.  Its  walls  were 
100  feet  high,  broad  enough  for  three  chariots  and 
furnished  with  1,500  towers,  each  200  feet  in 
height. 

Ningpo,  a  department  in  the  Province  of  Che¬ 
kiang,  China,  comprising  t lie  city  of  that  name, 
the  Cliusan  group  of  islands,  and  the  cities  of 
Tsike,  Funghwa,  Chinhai,  and  Tsiangshan.  The 
port  of  Ningpo  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of 
two  small  streams,  in  latitude  29°  55'  N.,  longi¬ 
tude  121°  22'  E.  twelve  miles  from  the  sea.  The 
pop.  of  the  city  is  about  300,000;  that  of  the  plain, 
about  2,000,000. 

Ninian,  St.,  the  Apostle  of  the  Piets,  lived  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  fourth  and  the  beginning  of 
the  fifth  century. 

Ni'obe,  in  Greek  Mythology,  the  daughter  of 
Tantalus  and  the  sister  of  Pelops.  She  was  the 
wife  of  Amphion,  King  of  Thebes,  and  bore  him 
six  sons  and  six  daughters.  Proud  of  her  chil¬ 
dren,  she  despised  Leto  or  Latoua,  who  had  only 
two  children,  Apollo  and  Diana,  and  prevented 
the  people  from  the  worship  of  these  divinities  ; 
whereupon  Latona,  enraged,  moved  her  children 
to  destroy  all  the  children  of  Niob<5  with  their  ar¬ 
rows.  They  lay  nine  days  in  their  blood  un¬ 
buried,  wdien  Jupiter  changed  them  into  stone, 
and  on  the  tenth  day  they  were  buried  by  the 
gods  themselves.  Niobe  wandered  about  in  dis¬ 
tress,. and  at  last  was  changed  into  stoneon  Mount 
Sipylus,  between  Lydia  and  Phrygia,  retaining, 
however,  even  as  stone,  a  sense  of  her  woe. 

Nio'biuin  (symbol,  Nb)  is  a  rare  metal  dis¬ 
covered  by  IT.  Rose  in  the  mineral  tantalite.  It 
is  obtained  by  reducing  the  double  fluoride  of 
niobium  and  potassium  with  sodium,  and  forms 
a  black  powder  insoluble  in  nitric  acid,  but 
readily  soluble  in  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  hydro¬ 
fluoric  acids. 

Niobrara,  the  county  seat  of  Knox  county, 
Neb.  Pop. ,  450. 

Niort,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Deux-Sevres,  on  the  S'vre-Niortaise. 
Pop.  (1881),  21,237. 

Nipigon,  or  Nepigon,  a  lake  of  Ontario,  Can¬ 
ada,  lies  forty  miles  north  of  Lake  Superior,  to  the 
north  of  the  line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway. 


It  is  about  70  miles  long  from  north  to  south,  and 
50  miles  from  east  to  west. 

Nipissing  (or  Nepissing)  Lake,  lies  in  Ontario, 
Canada,  between  Lake  Huron  and  the  Ottawa 
river ;  length,  about  45  miles  ;  greatest  breadth, 
28  miles. 

Nipon,  or  Nipiion,  the  name  improperly  given 
by  Europeans  to  the  principal  island  of  Japan,  and 
borrowed  from  the  Japanese  name  of  the  empire, 
which  is  Dai  Nihon  or  Nippon.  The  area  is  86,- 
000  square  miles;  and  of  the  total  pop.  of  Japan 
in  1880,  35,000,000,  the  mainland  contained  27,- 
250,000. 

Nishapur',  or  Nushafur,  a  town  of  Persia, 
Province  of  Khorassan,  fifty-three  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Meshid.  Pop.,  about  8,000. 

Niter,  or  Saltpeter,  as  it  is  frequently  called, 
is  the  nitrate  of  potash  (KNCL).  It  usually  occurs 
in  long,  colorless,  striated,  six-sided  prisms;  its 
taste  is  cooling,  and  very  saline;  it  is  soluble  in 
seven  times  its  weight  of  water  at  60°,  and  in  less 
than  one-third  of  its  weight  of  boiling  water,  but 
is  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Niter  occurs  as  a  natural 
product  in  the  East  Indies,  Egypt,  Persia,  where 
it  is  found  sometimes  as  an  efflorescence  upon  the 
soil,  and  sometimes  disseminated  through  its 
upper  stratum  The  crude  salt  is  obtained  by 
lixiviating  the  soil,  and  allowing  the  solution  to 
crystallize.  A  large  quantity  of  niter  is  art  ificially 
formed  in  many  countries.  The  method  employed 
in  the  artificial  production  of  niter  consists  in 
placing  animal  matters,  mingled  with  ashes  and 
lime  rubbish,  in  loosely  aggregated  heaps,  ex¬ 
posed  to  the  air,  but  sheltered  from  rain.  The 
heaps  are  watered  from  time  to  time  with  urine 
or  stable  runnings;  at  suitable  intervals,  the  earth 
is  lixiviated,  and  the  salt  crystallized.  Three 
years  usually  elapse  before  the  niter  bed  is 
washed.  Niter  is  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  sulphuric  acid,  in  the  preparation  of  nitric 
acid  as  an  oxidizing  agent  in  numerous  chemical 
processes,  as  an  ingredient  of  fireworks,  and 
especially  in  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder.  It 
is  extensively  used  in  medicine.  In  moderate 
doses  (from  ten  grains  to  a  scruple)  it  acts  as  a  re¬ 
frigerant,  diuretic,  and  diaphoretic,  and  hence  its 
use  is  indicated  when  we  wish  to  diminish  abnor¬ 
mal  heat,  and  to  reduce  the  action  of  the  pulse, 
as  in  febrile  disorders  and  hemorrhages.  In  acute 
rheumatism,  it  is  given  in  large  doses  with  great 
benefit.  It  is  a  popular  remedy  in  sore  throat, either 
in  the  form  of  niter  balls,  or  powdered, and  mixed 
with  wdiite  sugar.  In  either  c  se,  the  remedy 
should  be  retained  in  the  mouth  till  it  melts,  and 
the  saliva  impregnated  with  it  gently  swallowed. 
The  inhalation  of  the  fumes  produced  by  the 
ignition  of  touch-paper  often  gives  speedy  relief  in 
cases  of  spasmodic  asthma. 

Ni  'trie  Acid  is  the  most  important  of  the  five 
compounds  which  oxygen  forms  with  nitrogen. 
Until  1849,  it  was  only  known  in  the  hydrated 
form  (the  aquafortis  of  the  older  chemists),  but  in 
that  year  Deville  showed  that  anhydrous  nitric 
acid,  or  n  itric,  anhydride  (N20n),  might  be  obtained 
in  transparent  colorless  crystals.  Hydrated  nitric 
acid  (symbol  IINOs,  equiv.  63 — sp.  gr.  1.521), 
when  perfectly  pure,  is  a  colorless,  limpid,  fuming, 
powerfully  caustic  fluid,  possessing  an  intensely 
acid  reaction.  It  boils  at  184°  and  freezes  at 
about — 40°.  It  parts  very  readily  with  a  portion 
of  its  oxygen  to  most  of  the  metals,  and  hence  is 
much  used  in  the  laboratory  as  an  oxidizing  agent. 
Nitric  acid,  whether  in  the  concentrated  or  in  a 
more  dilute  form,  acts  energetically  on  organic 
matters.  Nitric  acid  does  not  occur  n a’ u rally  in 
a  free  state;  but  it  is  found  tolerably  abundant  in 
combination  with  potash,  soda,  lime,  and  mag¬ 
nesia;  and  after  thunderstorms  traces  of  it,  in 
combination  with  ammonia,  are  found  in  rain 
water.  The  dilute  acid  is  used  internally  as  a 
tonic  in  conjunction  with  bitter  infusions.  In 
many  cases  of  chronic  inflammation  of  the  liver, 
and  in  syphilitic  cases  in  which  the  employment 
of  mercurials  is  inadmissible,  it  may  be  pre¬ 
scribed  with  great  benefit,  either  alone  or  in  con¬ 
junction  with  hydrochloric  acid,  externally  as  a 
bath  or  lotion,  or  internally  in  doses  of  about 
20  minims  properly  diluted.  The  strong  acid 
is  useful  as  an  escharotie;  as  to  destroy  warts, 
some  kinds  of  polypi,  the  unhealthy  tissue  in 
sloughing  ulcers,  etc.,  and  as  an  application  to 
parts  bitten  by  rabid  or  venomous  animals. 


Largely  diluted,  as  fifty  to  sixty  drops  of  the 
strong  acid  to  a  pint  or  more  of  water,  it  forms 
an  excellent  stimulative  application  to  torpid 
ulcers. 

Ni'tro  ben'zol.  This  substance  has  recently 
taken  a  prominent  place  amongst  the  narcotic 
poisons.  Under  the  name  of  essence  of  mirbane, 
it  is  largely  employed,  as  a  substitute,  in  perfum¬ 
ery  and  confectionery,  for  oil  of  bitter  almonds, 
which  it  closely  resembles  in  smell,  and  to  con¬ 
fectionery  it  gives  the  smell,  but  not  the  agreeable 
taste  of  that  oil.  When  taken  internally  the 
effects  resemble  apoplexy.  The  vapor  of  this 
substance,  as  it  is  evolved  from  almond  glycerine 
soap,  has  seriously  affected  females;  and  Doctor 
Taylor  mentions  the  case  of  a  gentleman  who, 
from  using  a  cake  of  the  soap,  in  taking  a  warm 
bath,  fainted  from  the  effects  of  the  vapor,  and 
was  ill  for  some  months  afterward.  The  mode 
of  treatment  that  should  be  adopted  in  poisoning 
by  this  substance,  is  essentially  the  same  as  that 
which  should  be  adopted  in  poisoning  by  opium. 

Ni'trogen  (symbol  N,  equiv.  14— sp.  gr. 
0.9713)  is  a  colorless,  tasteless,  inodorous,  perman¬ 
ent.  gas,  which  in  its  appearance  in  no  way  differs 
from  the  atmospheric  air,  of  which  it  is  the  main 
ingredient.  It  is  somewhat  lighter  than  atmos¬ 
pheric  air.  It  is  not  combustible,  nor  is  it  a  sup¬ 
porter  of  combustion.  It  is  not  respirable,  al¬ 
though  it  is  not  positively  poisonous;  for  when  it 
is  mixed  with  respirable  gases  (as  with  oxygen  in 
atmospheric  air)  it  may  be  breathed  without 
injury.  It  is  very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  and 
hence  may  be  collected  over  that  fluid.  Its  com¬ 
bining  powers  are  very  slight,  and  although  it 
unites  with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  chlorine,  and  many 
other  substances,  the  union  is  never  effected  by 
the  direct  action  of  the  elements  on  one  another. 
Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most  widely  diffused  ele¬ 
mentary  substances.  It  formsabout  four-fifths  of 
the  bulk  of  the  atmosphere.  In  combination  with 
hydrogen,  it  is  abundantly  found  as  ammonia, 
and  combined  with  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  car¬ 
bon,  and  sometimes  additionally  with  sulphur 
and  phosphorus,  it  forms  the  most  important 
constituents  of  the  solids  and  fluids  of  the  animal 
body,  and  occurs  in  many  vegetable  products. 
The  ordinary  methods  of  preparing  and  exhibiting 
this  gas,  are  based  upon  the  removal  of  the  oxygen 
from  atmospheric  air. 

Nitro-glycerinefCeHiNaO^.or  CalLfNOajaOa] 
known  also  as  Glonoin  or  Glonoin  Oil,  is  a 
compound  which  is  produced  by  the  action  of  a 
mixture  of  strong  nitric  and  sulphuric  acids  on 
glycerine  at  low  temperatures.  It  is  obtained  as 
a  light  yellow  oily  liquid,  of  specific  gravity 
varying  from  1.525  to  1.6,  inodorous,  but  having 
a  sweet,  pungent,  aromatic  taste.  If  ignited  in 
the  open  air,  nitro  glycerine  burns  rapidly  and 
with  a  brisk  flame,  without  any  explosion;  if 
poured  out  in  a  thin  sheet,  it  ignites  with  difficulty 
and  burns  incompletely.  But  it  explodes  at  once 
if  it  is  exposed  to  a  moderately  strong  blow  or 
concussion,  to  the  concussion  due  to  the  explosion 
of  gunpowder,  to  contact  with  red-hot  iron,  and 
especially  to  the  action  of  detonating  mixtures  and 
fulminates.  For  equal  bulks,  nitro-glycerine  is 
thirteen  times  as  strong  as  gunpowder,  while  for 
equal  weights  it  is  eight  times  as  strong.  The 
danger  of  using  this  compound  in  mining,  etc.,  is 
greatly  increased  by  its  instability. 

NUtrous  Etlier,  or  Nitrite  of  Oxide  of 
Etiiyl,  is  a  pale  yellow  fluid,  having  a  specific 
gravity  of  0.947,  and  evolving  an  agreeable  odor 
of  apples.  On  evaporation,  it  produces  a  great 
degree  of  cold;  it  boils  at  62°,  and  it  is  very  in¬ 
flammable.  It  is  used  in  makingfreezing  mixtures. 
The  spirit  of  nitrous  ether,  or  sweet  spirit  of 
niter,  used  in  medicine,  is  a  mixture  of  nitrous 
ether  with  about  four  timesits  volume  of  rectified 
spirit.  It  is  used,  in  con  junction  with  other  medi¬ 
cines,  as  a  diuretic,  especially  in  the  dropsy  which 
follows  scarlatina;  and  it  is  employed,  in  combi¬ 
nation  with  acetate  of  ammonia  and  tartarized 
antimony,  in  febrile  affections.  The  dose  in 
febrile  cases  is  from  half  a  drachm  to  a  couple  of 
drachms,  and  if  we  wish  it  to  act  as  a  diuretic, 
two  or  three  drachms  should  be  given. 

Nizam’s  Dominions,  an  extensive  territory  in 
the  interior  of  Southern  India,  lying  to  the  north¬ 
west  of  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  in  latitude  15° 
10'— 21°  42'  N.,  and  longitude  74°  40'— 81°  32' 


38 


NOBLESVILLE. 


562 


NOSE  AND  THE  SENSE  OF  SMELL. 


E.  Length  from  southwest  to  northeast,  480 
miles;  extreme  breadth,  340  miles.  Area,  90,000 
square  miles,  and  pop.  estimated  at  9,000,000.  In 
1687  the  territory  now  known  as  the  Nizam’s 
dominions  became  a  province  of  the  Mogul 
Empire;  but  in  1719  the  governor  or  viceroy  of 
the  Deccan,  Azof  Jah,  made  himself  independent, 
and  took  the  title  of  Niaam-ul-Mulk  (Regulator  of 
the  State). 

Noblesville,  the  county  scat  of  Hamilton 
county,  Ind.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Nodal  Points,  Lines,  and  Sections.  Investi¬ 
gation  has  shown  that  every  vibrating  string  is 
divided  into  a  number  of  portions  alternately 
vibrating  in  opposite  directions,  and  that  the 
points  which  separate  these  portions  from  each 
other  are  at  rest.  These  points  are  known  as 
nodal  points,  and  their  situation  may  be  found  by 
placing  small  pieces  of  paper  on  an  extended 
string,  and  causing  it  to  vibrate;  the  points  from 
which  the  pieces  of  paper  have  not  been  dis¬ 
placed  are  the  nodal  points. 

Noddy  (Megalopterus or  Andus),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  family  Laridce.  Only  one  species  is  known 
( -?/.  or  A.  stolidus),  a  bird  widely  diffused  both  in 
the  Northern  and  Southern  Hemispheres,  and 
familiar  to  sailors,  not  only  as  often  seen  skim¬ 
ming  over  the  water  in  quest  of  fishes,  but  also  as 
not  infrequently  alighting  on  vessels,  and,  par¬ 
ticularly  during  the  night,  suffering  itself  to  be 
taken  by  the  hand. 

Nodes,  in  Astronomy,  are  the  two  points  in 
which  the  orbit  of  a  planet  intersects  the  plane  of 
the  ecliptic,  the  one  through  which  the  planet 
passes  from  the  south  to  the  north  side  of  the 
ecliptic  being  called  the  ascending  node,  and  the 
other  the  descending  node. 

Non-conform'ists,  a  name  sometimes  given 
generally  to  all  sectaries  who,  at  any  period  in 
English  history  since  the  establishment  of 
Protestantism,  have  refused  to  conform  to  the 
doctrine  and  practices  of  the  Episcopal  Church. 

Nootka  Sound,  an  inlet  on  the  west  coast  of 
Vancouver’s  Island,  British  North  America,  in 
latitude  49®  35'  N.,  longitude  126°  35'  W. 

Nord,  the  most  northerly  department  in  France 
(whence  its  name),  corresponding  with  the  former 
Province  of  French  Flanders,  and  bordering  on 
Belgium  and  the  Strait  of  Dover.  Area,  2,185 
square  miles;  pop.  (1876),  1,519,585. 

Nord'erney,  a  small  island  of  the  Prussian 
Province  of  Hanover,  lies  three  miles  off  the  coast 
of  East  Friesland.  Area,  about  4  square  miles; 
permanent  pop.,  1,770. 

Nordhau 'sen,  a  flourishing  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  pleasantly  situated  at  the  southern  base 
of  the  Hartz  Mountains.  Pop.  (1875),  23,676. 

Nor'folk,  a  large  and  important  maritime 
county  of  England,  bounded  on  the  north  and 
northeast  by  the  North  Sea,  and  on  the  south  by 
the  County  of  Suffolk.  Area,  1,356,173  acres; 
pop.  (1871),  438,511;  (1881),  444,825. 

Norfolk,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Virginia, 
eighty-eight  miles  southeast  of  Richmond,  and 
thirty-two  miles  from  the  ocean.  Its  large,  deep 
harbor  is  defended  by  Fort  Calhoun  and  Fortress 
Monroe,  the  largest  fortress  in  America.  A  gov¬ 
ernment  navy  yard,  dry  dock,  and  marine  hospi¬ 
tal,  are  in  the. suburb  of  Gosport.  Portsmouth  is 
across  the  Elizabeth  river.  Pop.  of  Norfolk 
(1889),  30,000. 

Norfolk  Island  lies  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  1,100 
miles  east-northeast  of  Sydney  in  Australia,  in 
latitude  29°  10'  S.,  and  longitude  167°  58'  E. 
Length,  5  miles;  breadth,  2i  miles;  area,  8,960 
acres. 

Nor'mandy  (Fr.  Normandie),  formerly  a  prov¬ 
ince  in  the  North  of  France,  bordering  on  the 
English  Channel,  now  divided  into  the  Depart¬ 
ments  of  Seine-Inferieure,  Eure,  Orne,  Calvados, 
and  Manehe. 

Nor 'mans  (i.  e.,  Northmen),  a  name  generally 
limited  in  its  application  to  those  sea  rovers  who 
established  themselves  in  that  part  of  France 
called  after  them,  Normandy;  but  sometimes  em¬ 
bracing  also  the  early  inhabitants  of  Norway. 
The  first  Danish  Norsemen  made  their  appear¬ 
ance  on  the  eastern  and  southern  coasts  of  Eng¬ 
land  in  787.  After  832  their  invasions  were  re¬ 
peated  almost  every  year.  In  851  the  Norsemen 
wintered  for  the  first  time  in  the  island,  and  after 
866  obtained  firm  footing  there.  In  October, 


i 

1066.  Harold  lost  his  life  and  crown  at  the  Battle 
of  Hastings,  and  William  the  Conqueror,  a 
descendant  of  a  Norwegian  chief,  who  had  settled 
in  Normandy,  established  a  Norse  dynasty  on  the 
throne  of  England. 

Nor'ristown,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  River  Schuylkill,  sixteen  miles 
northwest  of  Philadelphia,  containing  cotton  and 
woolen  factories,  iron  rolling-mills,  foundries, 
machine-shops,  and  20,000  inhabitants. 

Norr'koping,  the  first  manufacturing  town  of 
Sweden  after  Stockholm,  is  the  chief  town  of 
Linkoping-Litn,  in  East  Gottland,  and  is  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  Motala  with  the  Gulf  of 
Bravike,  in  58°  30'  N.  latitude,  and  16°  15'  E. 
longitude.  Pop.  (1874),  26,365. 

North,  Frederic,  Loud,  English  minister, 
was  born  April  13,  1732.  Under  his  ministry 
British  rule  in  the  colonies  of  North  America 
became  so  obnoxious  that  the  Revolutionary  War 
was  the  result.  He  died  in  August,  1792. 

North  Adams,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Berk¬ 
shire  county,  Mass.  Pop.,  12,600. 

North  Sea  (ancient  Germanicum  Mare;  Ger. 
Nord  See),  that  arm  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  which 
separates  the  British  Islands  on  the  west  from  the 
continent  on  the  e  st.  It  is  700  miles  in  extreme 
length  (from  north  to  south),  about  400  miles  in 
greatest  breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  not  less  than 
140,000  square  miles. 

North  Hero,  the  county  seat  of  Grand  Isle 
county,  Vt.  Pop.,  690. 

North  Platte,  the  county  seat  of  Lincoln 
county,  Neb.  Pop.,  2,800. 

Northwest  Provinces  constitute  a  Lieutenant- 
Governorship  of  British  India,  occupying  the 
upper  basin  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and  ex¬ 
tending  from  Bengal  to  the  Punjab. 

North  Yakima,  the  county  seat  of  Yakima 
county,  Wash.  Pop.,  450. 

Northampton,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  one 
mile  west  of  the  Connecticut  river,  ninety-five 
miles  west  of  Boston.  It  is  celebrated  for  its 
beautiful  scenery.  Pop.  (1889),  12,950. 

Northampton,  capital  of  the  county  of  the 
same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nen,  Eng¬ 
land,  sixty-seven  miles  northwest  of  London. 
Pop.  (1881),  57,553. 

Northamptonshire,  a  central  county  of  Eng¬ 
land,  extending  lengthwise  northeast  and  south¬ 
west  from  Lincolnshire  to  Oxfordshire.  Area, 
629,912  acres.  Pop.  (1871),  243,891  ;  (1881),  272,- 
555. 

Northum'herland,  the  most  northern  county 
of  England,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  North 
Sea,  and  northwest  by  the  Scottish  counties  of 
Roxburgh  and  Berwick.  Area,  1,290,312  acres. 
Pop.  (1871),  386,646  ;  (1881),  434,024. 

Northwood,  the  county  seat  of  Worth  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Norton,  the  county  seat  of  Norton  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Nor'walk,  a  thriving  town  in  Huron  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  7,700. 

Norwalk,  a  township  in  Connecticut,  on  both 
sides  of  the  mouth  of  Norwalk  river.  It  has  man¬ 
ufactories  of  iron,  machinery,  hats,  felt-cloth. 
Pop.  (1880),  13,956. 

Nor' way  (Norweg.  Norge),  the  western  portion 
of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula,  which,  together 
[  with  Sweden,  forms  one  joint  kingdom,  is  situated 
between  57°  58'  and  71°  10'  N.  latitude,  and  be¬ 
tween  5°  and  28°  E.  longitude  It  is  bounded  on 
the  east  by  Sweden  and  Russia,  and  on  every 
other  side  is  surrounded  by  water,  having  the 
Skagerrak  to  the  south,  the  German  Ocean  to  the 
west,  and  the  Arctic  Sea  to  the  north.  Its  length 
is  about  1,100  miles,  and  its  greatest  width  about 
250  miles ;  but  between  the  latitudes  of  67°  and 
68°,  it  measures  little  more  than  25  miles  in 
breadth.  Pop.  (at  the  census  of  1876),  1,817,237. 
The  influence  of  the  sea  and  the  gulf  stream, 
and  the  penetrat  ion  into  the  interior  of  deep  inlets, 
greatly  modify  the  severity  of  the  climate,  more 
especially  on  the  west  coast.  Thus,  while  the 
mean  annual  temperature  is  for  Christiania,  on 
the  east  coast,  41°,  it  is  46.8°  F.  for  Bergen  on 
the  west  coast,  which  is  only  30'  further  north. 
The  Scotch  Fir,  Firms  sylvestris  (Norweg. 
furri),  and  spruce,  P.  dbies  (Norweg.  gran), 
cover  extensive  tracts,  and  with  birch  constitute 
the  principal  wealth  of  Norway.  The  hardier 


fruits,  as  strawberries,  gooseberries,  cherries,  and 
raspberries,  are  abundant  and  excellent  of  their 
kind.  Hemp,  flax,  rye,  oats,  and  barley  are 
grown  as  far  north  as  66°;  but  although  agricult¬ 
ure  has  been  more  systematically  pursued  of 
late  years,  the  crops  are  not  always  sufficient  for 
home  consumption,  and  hence  it  is  found  abso¬ 
lutely  necessaiy  annually  to  import  considerable 
quantities  of  corn  and  potatoes.  Fish  are  caught 
in  almost  every  stream  and  lake-  of  the  interior, 
as  well  as  in  the  fjords  of  the  coast,  and  in  the 
bays  and  channels  which  encircle  the  numerous 
islands  skirting  the  long  sea-line  of  Norway. 
Salmon,  herring,  and  cod  are  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  together  give  occupation  to 
upward  of  50,000  men.  The  mineral  products, 
which  comprise  silver,  copper,  nickel,  cobalt, 
iron,  chrome  ironstone,  etc.,  yield  a  large  annual 
return.  Ship-building  in  all  its  branches  is 
almost  the  only  industrial  art  that  is  extensively 
and  actively  prosecuted.  Norway  has  a  repre¬ 
sentative  government,  based  on  the  constitution 
which  was  established  in  1814,  and  ratified 
at  Eidsvold.  The  Storthing  votes  the  taxes 
which  are  collected  by  officers  of  the  King 
of  Sweden  and  Norway;  it  proposes  laws, 
which  must  be  ratified  by  the  king;  but  if 
they  pass  the  Storthing  three  times,  they  acquire 
validity  even  without  the  king’s  sanction. 
Although  Norway  constitutes  one  joint  kingdom 
with  Sweden  in  regard  to  succession,  external 
policy,  and  diplomacy,  it  is  in  all  other  respects 
an  independent  State,  having  its  own  government, 
legislative  machinery,  finances,  army,  and  navy. 
The  king  is  indeed  commander-in-chief  of  all  the 
forces  of  the  country,  whether  military  or  naval; 
but  he  can  neither  augment  or  decrease  their 
number,  nor  proclaim  peace  or  war  without  the 
assent  of  the  Norwegian  Council  of  State. 

Norwich,  a  town  and  county  seat  of  Chenango 
county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Norwich,  a  city  of  Connecticut,  at  the  head  of 
navigation  of  the  Thames  river,  thirteen  miles 
north  of  New  London,  and  thirty-eight  southeast 
of  Hartford.  There  are  numerous  manufactories 
of  cotton,  wool,  paper,  etc.,  which  are  supplied 
with  water-power  by  falls  of  fifty  feet  on  the 
Yantic  river.  Pop.,  21,200. 

Nose  ami  the  Sense  of  Smell.  The  nose  is 
not  only  the  organ  of  smell,  but  is  likewise  a 
part  of  the  apparatus  of  respiration  and  voice. 
Considered  anatomically,  it  may  be  divided  into 
an  external  part,  the  projecting  portion,  to  which 
the  term  nose  is  popularly  restricted;  and  an 
internal  part,  consisting  of  two  chief  cavities,  or 
nasal  fossce,  separated  from  one  another  by  a  ver¬ 
tical  septum,  and  subdivided  by  spongy  or  turbi¬ 
nated  bones,  projecting  from  the  outer  wall  into 
three  passages  or  meatuses,  with  which  various 
cells  or  sinuses  in  the  ethmoid,  sphenoid,  frontal, 
and  superior  maxillary  bones  communicate  by 
narrow  apertures.  The  stiff  hairs  which  project 
across,  serve  to  arrest  the  passage  of  foreign  sub¬ 
stances,  such  as  dust,  small  insects,  etc.,  which 
might  otherwise  be  drawn  up  with  the  current  of 
air  intended  for  respiration.  The  integument  of 
the  nose  is  studded  with  the  openings  of  sebaceous 
follicles,  which  are  extremely  large  and  abundant 
in  this  region.  The  oleaginous  secretion  of  these 
follicles  often  becomes  of  a  dark  color  near  the 
surface;  and  hence  the  spotted  appearance  which 
the  tip  and  lower  parts  of  the  sides,  or  ala.  of 
the  nose  frequently  present.  On  firmly  com¬ 
pressing  or  pinching  the  skin  of  these  parts,  the 
inspissated  secretion  is  forced  out  of  the  follicles 
in  the  form  of  minute  white-  worms  with  black 
heads.  The  peculiar  sensation  that  precedes 
sneezing  is  an  affection  of  the  nasal  nerve,  and 
the  flow  of  tears  that  accompanies  a  severe  fit  of 
sneezing  is  explained  by  the  common  source  of 
this  and  the  lachrymal  nerve;  while  the  common 
sensibility  of  the  nose,  generally,  is  due  to  the 
branches  of  this  and  of  the  naso-palatine  nerve. 
From  the  fact  that  most  odorous  substances  are 
volatile,  and  vice  versa,  it  may  be  presumed  that 
they  consist  of  particles  of  extreme  minuteness 
dissolved  in  the  air.  But  whatever  may  be  the 
nature  of  the  odorous  matter,  it  is  necessary  that 
it  should  be  transmitted  by  a  respiratory  current 
through  the  nostrils  to  the  true  olfactory  region, 
whose  membrane  must  be  in  a  healthy  condition. 
If  it  is  too  dry,  or  if  there  is  an  inordinate  excre- 


NOSING. 


563 


NUT. 


tion  of  fluid  from  its  surface  (both  of  which  con¬ 
ditions  occur  in  catarrh  or  cold  in  the  head), 
smell  is  impaired  or  lost,  in  consequence  of  the 
necessary  penetration  of  the  stimulating  odor  to 
the  nervous  filaments  being  prevented.  The 
acuteness  of  the  sense  of  smell  is  far  greater  in 
many  of  the  lower  animals  (dogs,  for  example), 
than  in  man,  and  they  employ  it  in  guiding  them 
to  their  food,  in  warning  them  of  approaching 
danger,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Nosing,  the  projecting  edge  of  a  molding, 
such  as  the  bead  or  bottle  used  on  the  edge  of 
steps,  to  which  the  term  is  most  frequently  applied. 

Nosol'ogy  (Gr.  vodoi,  nosos,  disease)  is  that 
branch  of  the  science  of  medicine  which  treats  of 
the  distribution  and  arrangement  of  diseases  into 
classes,  orders,  etc. 

Nos'loc,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Algce,  sub-order  Coufervaceai,  found  upon  moist 
ground,  rocks  near  streams,  etc.,  and  consisting 
of  a  somewhat  gelatinous  hollow  tumid  frond, 
filled  with  simple  filaments  resembling  strings  of 
beads. 

Nos'trils,  Diseases  of  the.  Acute  inflamma¬ 
tion  of  the  nasal  mucous  membrane  is  a  common 
and  well-known  affection,  commonly  known  as 
catarrh.  Hemorrhage  from  the  nostrils,  or  Epis- 
taxis  (Gr.  ertidraqiS,  a  dropping),  is  by  far  the 
commonest  form  of  bleeding  from  a  mucous  mem¬ 
brane.  If  the  hemorrhage  occur  in  a  flushed 
plethoric  subject,  and  is  obviously  of  an  active 
character,  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  salutary  effort 
of  nature,  and  may  be  left  alone  till  it  ceases  spon¬ 
taneously;  but  if  it  continues  so  long  as  materially 
to  weaken  the  patient,  or  if  it  be  of  the  passive 
character,  or  if  it  arise  from  injury,  then  means 
should  be  taken  to  stop  it.  The  patient  should  be 
placed  in  the  sitting  posture  at  an  open  window, 
wflth  the  head  erect  or  slightly  inclined  backward; 
and  amongst  the  simpler  means  to  be  first  tried,  are 
compression  of  the  nostrils  by  the  fingers,  the  ap¬ 
plication  of  a  key  or  other  piece  of  cold  metal  to 
the  back  of  the  neck,  and  the  occasional  immer¬ 
sion  of  the  face  or  whole  head  in  co'd  water, 
especially  if  accompanied  by  a  drawing-up  of  the 
water  into  the  nostrils;  or  by  causing  the  patient; 
in  a  standing  position,  to  suddenly  raise  his  arms 
straight  upward,  and  to  retain  them  for  a  short 
time  in  this  position.  Should  these  means  fail, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  astringent  injections  (for 
example  twenty  grains  of  alum  dissolved  in  an 
ounce  of  water)  thrown  up  the  nostrils  by  a  syringe, 
or  to  astringent  powders  (as  finely-powdered  galls, 
kino,  matico,  alum,  etc  )  blown  up  the  nostrils  by 
means  of  a  quill  or  other  tube,  or  snuffed  up  by 
the  patient.  As  a  final  resource,  direct  compres¬ 
sion  must  be  applied.  Bleeding  may  be  stopped 
by  winding  a  piece  of  moistened  lint  around  a 
probe,  so  as  to  form  a  cylindrical  plug,  passing 
this  along  the  floor  of  the  nose  for  its  entire  length, 
then  carefully  withdrawing  the  probe,  and  allow¬ 
ing  the  lint  to  remain  for  three  or  four  days. 
Polypus,  which  is  an  old  term  employed  to  signify 
any  sort  of  pedunculated  tumor  firmly  adhering 
(literally,  by  many  feet)  to  a  mucous  surface,  is  of 
common  occurrence  in  the  nos  rils,  its  most  usual 
seat  of  attachment  being  one  of  the  turbinated 
bones.  The  ordinary  kind  is  of  the  consistence  of 
jelly,  yellowish,  streaked  with  blood-vessels,  and 
of  a  pear-shaped  form.  The  best  treatment  is  to 
seize  the  neck  or  pedicle  with  the  forcepk,  and 
twist  it  off.  The  consequent  hemorrhage  maybe 
readily  checked  by  the  means  already  described. 
Foreign  bodies  are  often  inserted  into  the  nostrils 
by  children,  and  become  impacted.  They  may 
usually  be  extracted  by  a  small  scoop  or  a  bent 
probe.  If  they  can  not  be  removed  by  these  means, 
they  must  be  pushed  back  into  the  throat  through 
the  posterior  nares.  Children  are  occasionally 
born  with  imperforated  nostrils.  This  congenital 
malformation  may,  however,  usually  be  remedied 
by  surgical  assistance. 

Notornis,  a  large  bird  of  the  rail  family,  estab¬ 
lished  by  Owen  in  1848  from  fossil  remains  sent 
from  New  Zealand. 

Notollicriuni,  a  genus  of  gigantic  fossil  kan¬ 
garoo-like  marsupials,  found  in  Australia. 

Notre  Dame,  i.  e.  Our  Lady;  the  old  French 
appellation  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  therefore  the 
name  of  a  number  of  churches  and  convents,  dedi¬ 
cated  to  the  Virgin  Mary. 

Nottingham,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 


borough  of  England,  capital  of  the  county  of  the 
same  name,  and  a  county  in  itself,  on  the  Leen, 
at  its  junction  with  the  Trent,  130  miles  north- 
northwest  of  London.  Pop.  (1881),  parliamentary 
borough,  111,631;  municipal  borough,  186,578. 

Nottingham,  an  inland  county  of  England. 
Area,  526,176  acres.  Pop.  (1881),  391,815. 

Nottoway,  the  county  seat  of  Nottoway  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  200. 

No'va  Sco'tia,  a  province  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  is  bounded  on  the  northwest  by  New 
Brunswick  and  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  on  the  north 
by  the  Straits  of  Northumberland  and  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  and  on  the  other  sides  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  It  consists  of  two  portions, 
Nova  Scotia  proper,  a  large  peninsula  connected 
with  New  Brunswick  by  an  isthmus  about  15 
miles  in  width,  and  the  Island  of  Cape  Breton. 
The  peninsula,  about  280  miles  in  length,  and 
from  50  to  100  miles  broad,  extends  in  an  east- 
northeast  and  west-southwest  direction.  Cape 
Breton  lies  northeast  of  Nova  Scotia  proper,  sep¬ 
arated  from  it  by  a  narrow  strait,  called  the  Gut 
of  Canso,  16  miles  long,  and  from  y2  a  mile  1° 
2  miles  wide.  Sable  Island,  which  is  25  miles  in 
length  by  1£  in  breadth,  and  is  surrounded  by  a 
dangerous,  widely-extended  sand-bank,  is  about 
ninety  miles  from  the  nearest  coast  of  Nova 
Scotia,  in  latitude  44°  N.,  and  longitude  60°  W. 
Area,  21,731  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  440,572. 

No'va  Zem'bla  (Russ.  Nowaja  Zcmlja,  new 
land),  a  chain  of  islands  lying  in  the- Arctic  Ocean 
(latitude  between  70°  30'  and  76°  30'  N.,  and 
longitude  between  52°  and  66°  E.),  and  included 
within  the  Government  of  Archangel.  Length  of 
the  chain,  470  miles;  average  breadth,  56  miles. 
The  most  southern  island  is  specially  called  Nova 
Zembla;  of  the  others,  the  principal  are  Matthew’s 
Land  and  Liitke’s  Land. 

Novels.  The  novel  and  the  so-called  romance, 
inasmuch  as  they  constantly  merge  in  one  another, 
may  conveniently  be  included  under  the  common 
definition  of  prose  narrative  fiction.  The  growth  of 
this  class  of  literature,  within  the  past  fifty  years, 
has  been  prodigious,  and  neither  the  demand  for 
it  nor  the  production  of  it  has  ever  been  so  great 
as  at  present.  Millions  of  novels  are  printed  each 
year  and  yet  the  sales  of  the  higher  class  novels 
are  greater  now  than  ever  before. 

Noveni 'her  (Lat.  novcm,  nine)  was  among  the 
Romans  the  ninth  month  of  the  year,  at  the  time 
when  the  year  consisted  of  tern  months;  and  then 
contained  thirty  days.  It  subsequently  was  made 
to  contain  only  twenty-nine,  but  Julius  Caesar 
gave  it  thirty-one;  and  in  the  reign  of  Augustus 
the  number  was  restored  to  thirty,  which  number 
it  has  since  retained. 

Nov'gorod.  an  important  town  of  European 
Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  is  on  the  Volkhof,  near  where  it  issues  from 
Lake  Ilmen,  122  miles  south-southeast  of  St. 
Petersburg.  Pop.  (1880),  17,579. 

Novgorod,  a  government  of  Great  Russia, 
extends  immediately  southeast  of  the  Government 
of  St.  Petersburg.  Area,  48,780  square  miles; 
pop.  (1880),  1,078,955. 

Novi  'tiate,  the  time  of  probation,  as  well  as  of 
preparatory  training,  which  in  all  religious  orders 
precedes  the  solemn  profession. 

Novotcher'kask,  a  town  of  Southern  Russia, 
capital  of  the  territory  of  the  Cossacks  of  the 
Don,  on  the  AksaT,  and  about  seventy  miles  east- 
nortlieast  of  Taganrog.  Pop.  (1880),  37,091. 

Nubia  is  a  comparatively  modern  name  for  a 
large  region  of  Africa,  formerly  a  portion  of 
Ethiopia,  and  extending  on  both  sidesof  the  Nile 
from  Egypt  to  Abyssinia,  touching  the  Red  Sea 
on  the  east  and  the  desert  on  the  west. 

Nncleubranoliia'ta,  or  IIeterofoda,  an  order 
of  gasteropods  having  the  sexes  distinct;  the  loco¬ 
motive  organ  fin-like,  single,  and  ventral;  the 
gills  packed  in  small  compass  along  with  the 
heart.  They  are  all  marine,  and  usually  swim 
with  the  back  downward  and  the  fin-shaped  foot 
upward. 

Nudibranchia'ta  (naked-gillcd),  an  order  of 
gasteropods,  hermaphrodite, destitute  of  shell,  and 
having  the  gills  exposed  on  the  surface  of  the 
body.  The  gills  are  differently  situated  in  differ¬ 
ent  genera.  The  genus  Boris  is  an  example  of  this 
order. 

N  uc'ces,  a  river  of  Texas,  rises  in  Southwest¬ 


ern  Texas,  latitude  30°,  longitude  101°  W.,  and 
after  a  southeasterly  course  of  300  miles,  flows 
into  Corpus  Christi  Bay,  and  through  the  pass  of 
the  same  name  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Nullifica'tion,  in  American  politics,  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  the  extreme  States’  Rights  Party,  of  the 
right  of  a  State  to  declare  a  law  of  Congress  un¬ 
constitutional  and  void;  and  if  the  Federal  Gov¬ 
ernment  attempted  to  enforce  it,  to  withdraw 
from  the  Union. 

Nn'iita  PompiPius,  in  the  mythic  history  of 
Rome,  was  the  successor  of  Romulus,  the  founder 
of  the  city. 

Numbers  (Gr.  ApiQpoi-,  Ileb.  Bamidba>),  the 
fourth  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  consists  of  tliirty- 
six  chapters,  embracing  the  history  of  the  march 
of  the  Israelites  through  the  desert,  together 
with  the  special  laws  given  during  this  period  as 
complementary  to  the  Sinaitic  legislation. 

Numid'ia  (Gr.  NojudSia,  Nomadia,  the  land 
of  Nomads),  the  name  given  by  the  Romans  to  a 
part  of  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  corresponding 
to  some  extent  with  the  modern  Algiers. 

Num  'mulite  Limestone,  .‘in  important  member 
of  the  middle  eocene  period,  consisting  of  a 
limestone  composed  of  nummulites  held  together 
by  a  matrix  formed  of  the  comminuted  particles 
of  their  shells,  and  of  smaller  foraminifera. 

Nummulites,  or  Nummulina  (Gr.  rwe'?, 
money,  AtGoS,  fossil),  a  genus  of  fossil  foramini¬ 
fera,  the  shells  of  which  form  immense  masses  of 
rock  of  eocene  age. 

Nun,  a  member  of  a  religious  order  of  women. 
The  etymology  of  this  name  is  a  subject  of  some 
controversy,  but  there  seems  every  reason  to  be¬ 
lieve  that  it  is  from  a  Coptic  or  Egyptian  root, 
which  signifies  “virgin.”  It  is  found  in  use  as  a 
Latin  word  as  early  as  the  time  of  St.  Jerome 
(Ep.  to  EustacJdus,  p.  22,  c.  6). 

Nun'cio  (It ul .  nunzio,  Lat.  nuncius,  a  messen¬ 
ger),  the  superior  grade  of  the  ambassadors  sent 
by  the  Pope  to  foreign  courts,  who  are  called  by 
the  general  name  of  Legate.  A  nuncio  is  an 
ambassador  to  the  court  of  an  emperor  or  king. 
The  ambassador  to  a  republic,  or  to  the  court  of 
a  minor  sovereign,  is  called  Internuncio. 

Nuraglip,  the  name  of  certain  structures,  of 
conical  shape,  in  the  Island  of  Sardinia,  rising 
thirty  or  forty  feet  above  the  ground,  with  two  or 
three  stories  of  domed  chambers  connected  by  a 


View  of  the  Nuraghe  of  Goni,  in  Sardinia. 


spiral  staircase.  Some  are  raised  on  basements 
of  masonry,  or  platforms  of  earth.  They  are 
made  of  granite  limestone,  basalt,  porphyry, 
sandstone,  and  schist. 

N  iit1!!  'berg  (Not  imberga,  Norim),  a  city  of  the 
Bavarian  province  of  Middle  Franconia,  in  a 
sandy  but  well-cultivated  district  on  the  Pegnitz 
river  (ultimately  joining  the  Main).  Pop.  (1881), 
99,519;  with  suburbs,  i03,677. 

Nurs'ery,  a  garden  or  portion  of  a  garden  de¬ 
voted  to  the  raising  of  young  plants,  to  be  after¬ 
ward  planted  elsewhere.  The  ripening  of  garden- 
seeds  for  sale  is  generally  also  an  important  part 
of  the  trade  of  the  public  nurseryman. 

Nut,  in  popular  language,  is  the  name  given  to 
all  those  fruits  which  have  the  seed  inclosed  in  a 
bony,  woody,  or  leathery  pericarp,  not  opening 
when  ripe.  Amongst  the  best  known  and  most 
valuable  nuts  are  the  hazel-nut,  brazil  nut,  wal¬ 
nut,  hickory  nut,  chestnut,  and  cocoa-nut,  all  of 
which  are  edible. 


NUT-CRACKER. 


564 


OAKUM. 


ticaceoe,  which  contains  about  forty  species,  all 
tropical  trees  or  shrubs,  natives  of  Asia.  Mada¬ 
gascar,  and  America. 

Nutri'tion.  The  blood  which  is  carried  by 
the  capillaries  to  the  several  tissues  of  the  body  is 
the  source  from  whence  all  the  organs  derive  the 
materials  of  their  growth  and  development,  and  it 
is  found  that  there  is  direct  proportion  between 
the  vascularity  of  any  part  and  the  activity  of  the 
nutrient  operations  which  take  place  in  it.  Thus, 
in  nervous  tissue  and  muscle,  in  mucous  mem¬ 
brane  and  in  skin,  a  rapid  decay  and  renovation 
of  tissue  are  constantly  going  on,  and  these  are 
parts  in  which  the  capillaries  are  the  most  abun¬ 
dant  ;  while  in  cartilage  and  bone,  tendon  and 
ligament,  the  disintegration  of  tissue  is  compara¬ 
tively  slow,  and  the  capillaries  are  much  less 
abundant.  Each  elementary  cell  or  particle  of  a 
tissue  seems  to  have  a  sort  of  gland-like  power 
not  only  of  attracting  materials  from  the  blood, 
but  of  causing  them  to  assume  its  structure,  and 
participate  in  its  properties.  Nutrition  is  the 
process  by  which  the  various  parts  are  main¬ 
tained  in  the  same  general  conditions  of  form, 
size,  and  composition,  which  they  have  already 
by  development  and  growth  attained.  It  is  by 
this  process  that  an  adult  person  in  health  main¬ 
tains  for  a  considerable  number  of  years  the  same 
general  outline  of  features,  and  nearly  the  same 
size  and  weight,  although,  during  all  this  time  the 
several  tissues  of  his  body  are  undergoing  perpet¬ 
ual  decay  and  renovation.  In  many  parts  this  re¬ 
moval  and  renewal  of  the  particles  is  evident.  In 
the  glands— the  kidneys,  for  example — the  cells 
of  which  they  are  mainly  composed  are  being 
constantly  cast  off  ;  yet  each  gland  maintains  its 
form  and  proper  composition,  because  for  every 
cell  that  is  thrown  off,  a  new  one  is  produced.  In 
the  epidermis  of  the  skin,  a  similar  process  is  per¬ 
petually  going  on  before  our  eyes.  In  the  muscles 
a  similar,  change  may  be  readily  traced,  for  within 
certain  limits,  an  increased  amount  of  exercise 
is  directly  followed  by  an  increased  excretion  of 
the  ordinary  products  of  the  decomposition  of  the 
nitrogenous  tissues — viz.,  urea,  carbonic  acid, 
and  water.  Again,  after  prolonged  mental  exer¬ 
tion,  there  is  often  a  marked  increase  in  the 
amount  of  alkaline  phosphates  in  the  urine,  which 
seems  to  show  that  in  these  cases  there  is  an  ex¬ 
cessive  oxidation  of  the  phosphorus  of  the  brain; 
and  yet,  in  consequence  of  the  activity  of  the  re¬ 
parative  process,  neither  the  muscles  nor  the 
brain  diminish  in  size.  For  the  due  performance 
of  the  function  of  nutrition,  certain  conditions 
are  necessary,  of  which  the  most  important  are  : 

1,  a  right  state  and  composition  of  the  blood, 
from  which  the  materials  of  nutrition  are  derived. 

2,  a  regular  and  not  far  distant  supply  of  such 
blood;  3,  a  certain  influence  of  the  nervous  sys¬ 
tem;  and  4,  a  natural  state  of  the  part  to  be  nour¬ 
ished. 

NnxVom'ica  is  the  pharmacopoeial  name  of 
the  seed  of  strychnos  nux  vomica,  or  poison  nut. 
The  seeds  are  nearly  circular  and  flat,  about  an 
inch  in  diameter,  umbilicated  and  slightly  convex 
on  one  side,  externally  of  an  ash-gray  color, 


thickly  covered  with  short  satiny  hairs,  internally 
translucent,  lough  and  horny,  taste  intensely  bit¬ 
ter,  inodorous. 

N’yan'za,  Victoria,  a  great  fresh-water  lake 
in  Central  Africa.  Its  southern  point  is  in  lati¬ 
tude  2U  44'  S.,  longitude  33u  E.  Its  northern 
shore  runs  nearly  parallel  to  the  equator,  and  is 
about  twenty  miles  to  the  north  of  it.  It  is  esti¬ 
mated  to  be  about  220  miles  in  length,  and  180  in 
breadth. 

Nyas'sa,  orNvANJA  (apparently  identical  with 
name  N’yanza),  another  lake  in  the  interior  of 
Africa.  The  southern  end  of  the  Nyassa,  or  Star 
Lake,  is  in  latitude  14t>  25'  S.,  and  its  northern 
end  extends  to  the  parallel  of  9°  20'  S.  The  lake 
is  upward  of  300  miles  long,  its  average  breadth 
being  26,  and  is  1,300  feet  above  sea-level. 

Nyctagina'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  partly  of  herbaceous  plants, 
both  annual  and  perennial,  and  partly  of  shrubs 
and  trees. 

Nycteri 'hia,  an  extremely  curious  genus  of 
insects,  ranked  in  the  order  JJipUrn ,  although 
different  from  most  of  that  order,  and  having 
neither  wings  nor  balancers. 

Nyl-glxau  ( Antilope  picta,  or  Portax  trago- 
camelus),  a  species  of  antelope,  with  somewhat 


Nyl-ghau  ( Antelope  picta). 

ox-like  head  and  body,  but  with  long,  slender 
limbs,  and  of  great  activity  and  fleetness.  It  is 
one  of  the  largest  of  antelopes,  and  is  more  than 
4  feet  high  at  the  shoulder.  It  inhabits  the  dense 
forests  of  India  and  Persia. 

Nymphaea'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  growing  in  lakes,  ponds,  ditches,  and  slow 
rivers,  where  their  fleshy  rootstocks  are  prostrate 
in  the  mud  at  the  bottom,  and  their  large,  long- 
stalked,  heart-shaped,  or  peltate  leaves  float  on 
the  surface  of  the  water.  The  water-lily  is  an 
example. 

Nymphs,  in  Classic  Mythology,  female  divini¬ 
ties  of  inferior  rank,  inhabiting  the  sea,  streams, 
groves,  meadows,  and  pastures,  grottoes,  fount¬ 
ains,  hills,  glens,  trees,  etc. 


Nut-cracker  {Nucifraga  or  Caryocatactes),  a 
genus  of  birds  of  the  family  Corvidae,  with  a 
straight  conical  bill,  both  mandibles  terminating 
in  an  obtuse  point,  and  tail  nearly  square  at  the 
end.  The  form  and  characters  are  similar  to 


Nut-cracker  {Nucifraga  caryocatactes). 


those  of  crows,  but  the  habits  are  rather  those  of 
jays,  and  in  some  respects  indicate  an  approach 
to  woodpeckers.  One  species  (N.  caryocatactes  or 
G.  nucifraga)  is  common  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe. 

Nut-hatch  ( Sitta ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Gerthiadce,  having  a  straight,  conical  or 
prismatic  bill,  short  legs,  the  hind-toe  strong. 
They  run  up  and  down  trees  with  great  agility, 
moving  with  equal  ease  in  either  direction,  and 
without  hopping,  so  that  the  motion  is  rather  like 
that  of  a  mouse  than  of  a  bird. 

Nutmeg.  This  well-known  spice  is  the  kernel 
— mostly  consisting  of  the  albumen — of  the  fruit 


Nutmeg;  (Myristica  moschata). 

A  branch  showing  fruit,  and  section  of  fruit,  with  nutmeg 
inclosed. 


of  several  species  of  Myristica.  This  genus  be¬ 
longs  to  a  natural  order  of  exogens  calied  Myris- 


Ois  the  fifteenth  letter  in  the  English  and  in 
most  Western  alphabets,  and  is  one  of  the 
five  simple  vowel  signs  of  the  English  language. 
As  the  language  is  at  present  pronounced,  it 
stands  for  at  least  four  distinct  sounds,  heard  in 
the  words  note,  nor  (not),  move,  son.  The  pri¬ 
mary  and  simple  sound  of  o  is  that  heard  long  in 
nor,  and  short  in  not,  top.  The  sound  given  to  it 
in  such  words  as  note,  go,  is  really  a  diphthong — 
a  long  o  terminating  in  a  slight  u  or  oo  sound 
The  corresponding  letter  in  the  Hebrew 

and  Phoenician  alphabet  was  called  Ayn,  i.  e., 
“  eye;”  and  accordingly  the  primitive  form  of  the 
Phoenician  letter  was  a  rough  picture  of  an  eye, 
which  naturally  became  a  circle  with  a  dot  in 
the  center — still  to  be  seen  in  some  ancient  in¬ 
scriptions — and  then  a  simple  circle.  O’,  a  pre¬ 
fix  in  many  Irish  family  names,  serves  to  form  a 
patronymic,  like  Mac  in  Gaelic  names;  as  O’Brien, 
a  descendant  of  Brien.  By  some,  it  is  considered 


o 

to  be  derived  from  of;  but  it  is  more  likely  from 
Ir.  ua,  Gael,  ogha,  a  grandson.  In  the  Lowland 
Scottish,  the  word  oe  is  used  for  grandson,  and  in 
some  localities  for  nephew. 

Oa.ja'co,  Oaxaca,  or  Guaxaca,  a  city  of  Mex¬ 
ico,  capital  of  a  State  of  the  same  name,  is  on  the 
River  Rio  Verde,  210  miles  south-southeast  of 
Mexico.  Pop.,  25,000. 

Oak  (Quercus),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of 
the  natural  order  Cupuliferce,  having  a  three- 
celled  ovary,  and  a  round  (not  angular)  nut — 
which  is  called  an  acorn — placed  in  a  scaly  trun¬ 
cated  cup,  the  lower  part  of  it  invested  by  the 
cup.  The  species  are  numerous,  natives  of  tem¬ 
perate  and  tropical  countries.  The  timber  of 
many  species  is  finely  grained,  tough,  and  there¬ 
fore  valuable  in  the  arts. 

Oak  Beauty  {Bid on  prodromaria),  a  moth  of 
the  family  Geometridce,  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
or  two  inches  in  expanse  of  wings;  the  upper 


wings  with  two  brown  curved  bands  margined 
with  black,  the  lower  wings  with  one  brown  band. 
The  caterpillar  feeds  on  the  oak. 

Oakland,  the  county  seat  of  Garrett  county, 
Md.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Oakland,  the  county  seat  of  Mason  county, 
Wash.  Pop.,  100. 

Oakland,  a  city  of  California,  on  a  beautiful 
site  on  the  east  shore  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  here 
7  miles  wide.  It  is  a  favorite  residence  of 
business  men  from  San  Francisco,  just  opposite. 
Pop.,  50,500. 

Oak  Park,  a  suburb  of  Chicago,  eight  miles 
west  of  the  courthouse,  on  the  Chicago  &  North¬ 
western  Railway.  Pop.,  2,471. 

Oak 'mil,  a  tangled  mass  of  tarred  hempen 
fibers,  is  made  from  old  rope  by  untwisting  the 
strands  and  rubbing  the  fibers  free  from 
each  other.  Its  principal  use  is  in  caulking 
vessels. 


OAKVILLE. 


565 


ODOACER. 


Oakville,  the  county  seat  of  Live  Oak  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  275. 

Oa n lies,  the  name  of  a  Babylonian  god,  who, 
in  the  first  year  of  the  foundation  of  Babylon,  is 
said  to  have  come  out  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  or  the 
old  Erythraean  Sea,  adjoining  Babylon.  He  is 
described  as  having  the  head  and  body  of  a  fish, 
to  which  were  added  a  human  head  and  feet  under 
the  fish’s  head  and  at  the  tail. 

O'ases,  certain  cultivated  spots  in  the  Libyan 
Desert  (called  also  Aua4s,  Ouasis,  or  Hoasis), 
which  produce  vegetation  owing  to  the  presence 
of  springs  issuing  from  the  ground.  These  oases 


Temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon— Oasis  of  Siwah. 
(From  Hoskiii's  Visit  to  the  Great  Oasis.) 


are  now  held  by  Muggrebi  Arabs,  a  powerful  race 
in  the  desert,  capable  of  raising  30,000  men,  who 
supply  camels  and  guides  to  travelers.  The 
principal  oases  are: — 1.  El  Kliargeh,  or  the  Oasis 
Magna,  the  Greater  Oasis  of  Ptolemy. — 2.  El 
Kasr,  or  Oasis  Parva,  the  Lesser  Oasis. — 3.  Siwah, 
or  the  Oasis  of  Ammon,  the  most  northerly. — 4. 
The  Western  Oasis,  or  Dakkel.  The  celebrated 
Fountain  of  the  Sun  is  at  Siwah  Sliargieh.  It  is 
30  paces  long,  20  broad,  6  fathoms  deep,  with 
bubbles  constantly  rising  to  the  surface,  steam¬ 
ing  in  the  morning,  and  warmer  at  night.  (_  lose 
to  it  are  the  remains  of  the  sanctuary  of  Ammon. 

Oat,  or  Oats  (A vena),  a  genus  of  grasses,  con¬ 
taining  many  species,  among  which  are  some  valu¬ 
able  for  the  grain  which  they  produce,  and  some 
useful  for  hay.  The  native  country  of  the  culti¬ 
vated  oats  is  unknown,  although  most  probably 
it  is  Central  Asia.  Besides  a  large  quantity  of 
starch — about  65  percent. — and  some  sugar,  gum, 
and  oil,  the  grain  of  oats  contains  almost  20  per 
cent,  of  nitrogenous  principles,  or  proteine  com¬ 
pounds,  of  which  about  16  or  17  parts  are  avenine, 
a  substance  very  similar  to  caseine,  and  2  or  3 
parts  gluten,  the  remainder  albumen. 

Oath  (Ang  .-Sax.  at/i,  Ger.  eid),  in  the  religious 
use  of  the  word,  may  be  defined  an  expressed  or 
implied  calling  upon  the  Almighty  to  witnesstlie 
truth  of  an  asseveration,  or  the  good  faith  of  a 
promise;  with  which  is  ordinarily  conjoined  an 
imprecation  of  his  vengeance,  or  a  renunciation 
of  his  favor,  in  case  the  asseveration  should  be 
false,  or  the  promise  should  be  broken. 

Oath,  in  point  of  law,  is  that  kind  of  solemn 
declaration  which  is  necessary  as  a  condition  to 
the  filling  of  some  office  more  or  less  public,  or  of 
giving  evidence  in  a  court  of  justice. 

Ob 'disk,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek 
o/if.Xoi,  obelos,  and  o/3e\i6ko?  ,  obeliakos,  signify¬ 
ing  a  spit,  applied  to  prismatic  monuments  of 
stone  and  other  materials,  terminating  with  a 
pyramidal  or  pointed  top.  These  monuments, 
called  tvkJien,  were  placed  upon  bases  before 
gateways  of  the  principal  temples  in  Egypt,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  door.  They  appear  to  have 
been  erected  to  record  the  ho  ,ors  or  triumphs  of 
the  monarch.  They  have  four  faces,  are  cut  out 
of  one  piece,  and  are  broader  at  the  base  than  at 
the  top,  at  a  short  distance  from  which  the  sides 
form  the  base  of  a  pyramidion  in  which  the  obe¬ 
lisk  terminates.  They  were  placed  upon  a  cubi¬ 
cal  base  of  the  same  material,  which  slightly 
surpassed  the  breadth  of  their-  base.  Two 
which  formerly  stood  at  Heliopolis,  and  afterward 


at  Alexandria,  have  been  popularly  known  as 
Cleopatra’s  Needles.  One,  which  long  lay  pros¬ 


trate,  was  taken  to  London  in  1878,  and  erected 
on  the  Thames  embankment.  The  other,  pre¬ 
sented  by  the  Khedive  to  the  United  States,  was 
set  up  at  New  York  in  1881. 

Oberlin,  the  county  seat  of  Decatur  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  1,550. 

Ob'eron,  the  king  of  the  elves  or  fairies,  and 
the  husband  of  Titania.  The  name  is  derived  by 
a  change  of  spelling  from  Auberon,  more  an¬ 
ciently  Alberon,  and  that  from  the  Ger.  Alberich, 
i.  e.,  king  of  the  elves. 

Object,  in  the  language  of  metaphysics,  is  that 
of  which  any  thinking  being  or  subject  can 
become  cognizant.  This  subject  itself,  however, 
is  capable  of  transmutation  into  an  object,  for  one 
may  think  about  his  thinking  faculty. 

Oblates'  (Lat.  obtatus,  obla'a ,  offered  up),  the 
name  of  a  class  of  religious  bodies  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  which  differ  from  the  religious 
orders  strictly  so  called,  in  not  being  bound  by 
the  solemn  vows  of  the  religious  profession. 

Ob'olus(Gr.  o/JoJbs,  obolos,  or  ofteXoS,  obelott, 
a  spit),  the  smallest  of  the  four  common  Greek 
coins  and  weights.  It  was  equivalent  to  3£  cents 
and  15g  troy  grains  respectively. 

O’Brien,  William  Smith,  Irish  patriot,  born 
in  1803,  took  part  in  the  Rebellion  of  1848,  was 
transported  but  afterward  pardoned.  From  1826 
to  1841  he  was  continuously  a  Member  of  Parlia¬ 
ment.  He  died  June,  1864. 

Obscur'antists,  the  name  given,  originally  in 
derision,  to  a  party  who  are  supposed  to  look 
with  dislike  and  apprehension  on  the  progress  of 
knowledge,  and  to  regard  its  general  diffusion 
among  men,  taken  as  they  are  ordinarily  found,  as 
prejudicial  to  their  religious  welfare,  and  possibly 
injurious  to  their  material  interests. 

Obsid  'ian,  a  mineral  kind  of  native  glass,  com¬ 
posed  of  silica  (from  70  to  80  per  cent.),  alumina, 
lime,  soda,  potash,  and  oxide  of  iron. 

Ocala,  the  county  seat  of  Marion  county,  Fla. 
Pop.,  3,900. 

Occulta 'tions  (Lat.  occullatio,  a  concealment.) 
are  neither  more  nor  less  than  “  eclipses;”  but  the 
latter  term  is  confined  by  usage  to  the  obscuration 
of  the  sun  by  the  moon,  and  of  the  moon  by  the 
earth’s  shadow,  while  the  former  is  restricted  to 
the  eclipses  of  stars  or  planets  by  the  moon. 

Ocean,  a  term  which,  like  sea,  in  its  general 
acceptation,  denotes  the  body  of  salt  water  that 
separates  continent  from  continent,  and  is  the 
receptacle  for  the  watefs  of  rivers.  The  surface 
of  the  ocean  is  about  three-fifths  of  the  whole 
surface  of  the  earth. 

Oceana,  the  county  seat  of  Wyoming  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  127. 

Ocea'nia,  the  name  given  to  the  fifth  division 
of  the,  globe,  comprising  all  the  islands  which 
intervene  between  the  southeastern  shores  of  the 
Continent  of  Asia  and  the  western  shores  of  the  ; 
American  Continent.  It  naturally  divides  itself 
into  three  great  sections — Malay  Archipelago, 
Australasia  or  Melanesia,  and  Polynesia. 

O'Celot,  the  name  of  several  species  of  Felidce, 
natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  South  America, 
allied  to  the  leopard  by  flexibility  of  body,  length 


of  tail,  and  other  characters,  but  of  much  smaller 
size. 

O'chil  Hills,  a  hilly  range  in  Scotland,  occu¬ 
pying  parts  of  the  Counties  of  Perth,  Clackman¬ 
nan,  Stirling,  Kinross,  and  Fife,  and  extending 
from  the  vicinity  of  Stirling  northeast  to  the  Firth 
of  Tay. 

Ochna'cea;,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  containing  not  quite  100  known  species, 
natives  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries. 
Some  of  them  are  trees,  most  of  them  under¬ 
shrubs;  all  are  remarkable  for  their  smoothness  in 
all  parts.  Bitter  and  tonic  qualities  prevail  in 
this  order,  and  some  species  are  medicinally  used 
in  their  native  countries. 

O'chres,  the  name  usually  applied  to  clays 
colored  with  the  oxides  of  iron  in  various  propor¬ 
tions,  giving  to  the  clay  a  lighter  or  deeper  color. 
Strictly  speaking,  the  term  belongs  only  to  a  com¬ 
bination  of  peroxide  of  iron  with  water. 

OckmtiPgee,  a  river  in  Georgia,  which  rises  in 
the  northern  center  of  the  State  by  three  branches, 
and  after  a  course  of  200  miles  south-southeast, 
joins  the  Oconee,  to  form  the  Altamalia.  It  is 
navigable  to  Macon,  130  miles  above  its  mouth. 

Oco'iiee,  a  river  of  Georgia,  rises  in  the  north¬ 
east  part  of  the  State,  and  flows  southerly  250 
miles,  where  it  unites  with  the  Ockmulgee  to 
form  the  Altamalia;  it  is  navigable  to  Milledge- 
ville,  100  miles. 

O'Connell,  Daniel,  eldest  son  of  Mr.  Morgan 
O’Connell  of  Darrynane,  near  Cahirciveen,  in  the 
County  of  Kerry,  Ireland,  was  born  August  9, 
1775.  He  was  the  champion  of  the  Catholics  in 
Ireland,  and  by  his  efforts  removed  their  political 
disabilities.  He  was  a  Member  of  Parliament 
from  1829  to  his  death,  in  1847. 

Oconoinowoc,  a  town  in  Waukesha  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  2,714.  It  is  pleasantly  situated  on 
Lake  LaBelle,  and  is  a  popular  summer  resort. 

Oconto,  the  county  seat  of  Oconto  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Oc'tave  (Lat.  octavu «,  eighth),  the  interval 
between  any  musical  note  and  its  most  perfect 
concord,  which  is  double  its  pitch,  and  occupies 
the  position  of  the  eighth  note  from  it  on  the 
diatonic  scale. 

Octa'via,  the  sister  of  the  Roman  Emperor 
Augustus,  and  wife  of  Mark  Antony.  She  was 
distinguished  for  her  beauty,  her  noble  dis¬ 
position,  and  womanly  virtues.  Her  first 
husband  was  C.  Marcellus,  to  whom  she  was 
married  50  b.c.  He  died  41  b.c.,  shortly  after 
which  she  consented  to  marry  Antony,  whose 
behavior  toward  her  was  marked  by  unfaithful¬ 
ness  and  insult,  he  living  in  shameless  adultery 
with  Cleopatra.  After  Antony’s  death,  she 
brought  up  with  maternal  care  not  only  her  own 
children,  but  also  Cleopatra’s.  Her  death  took 
place  11  b.c. 

Octo'ber  (Lat.  octo,  eight)  was  the  eighth  month 
of  the  so-called  “  year  of  Romuftis,”  but  became 
the  tenth  when  (according  to  tradition)  Numa 
changed  the  commencement  of  the  year  to  Janu 
ary  1st,  though  it  retained  its  original  name.  It 
has  since  maintained  its  position  as  the  tenth 
month  of  the  year,  and  has  thirty-one  days. 

Odd -fell  ows,  the  name  assumed  by  one  of  the 
most  extensive  self-governed  provident  associa¬ 
tions  in  the  world.  The  institution  was  originated 
in  Manchester,  England,  in  1812,  and  is  now 
spread  to  nearly  every  quarter  of  the  globe, 
numbering  over  1,000,000  members. 

O'der  (Lat.  Viadrus,  Slav.  Vjodr),  one  of  the 
principal  rivers  of  Germany,  rises  in  the  Leselberg 
on  the  table-land  of  Moravia.  It  has  a  course  of 
more  than  500  miles,  and  a  river-basin  of  50,000 
square  miles. 

Odes'sa,  an  important  seaport  and  commercial 
city  of  South  Russia,  in  the  Government  of 
Kherson.  Latitude  46°  29'  N.,  longitude  30° 
44'  E.  Pop.  (1882),  217,000. 

Odeypoor',  Oodypore,  or  Udaipur,  the  name 
of  several  territories  in  India. — 1.  Meywar;  area, 
12,600  square  miles,  and  pop.  (1881),  1,494,220. — 
2.  A  tributary  State  in  Chota  Nagpore,  with  an 
area  of  1,000  square  miles;  pop.,  30,000. — 3.  Chota 
Odeypoor  is  a  tributary  State  in  Gujerat;  area,  650 
square  miles;  pop.,  70,000. 

O'din,  the  chief  god  of  Northern  mythology. 

Odoa'cer,  the  ruler  of  Italy  from  the  year  476 
to  493,  was  the  son  of  Edecou,  a  secretary  of  At- 


ODOMETER. 


566 


OILS. 


tila.  He  overthrew  the  Western  Empire,  and  was 
himself  defeated  by  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Ostro¬ 
goths.  He  was  a  wise,  temperate  ruler.  He  was 
assassinated  493  b.c. 

Odom'eter  (Or.  odd?,  odos,  a  road,  uerpov, 
metron,  a  measure),  also  called  perambulator,  or 
surveying-wheel ,  is  an  instrument  attached  to  a  car¬ 
riage  or  other  vehicle,  for  the  purpose  of  register¬ 
ing  the  distance  it  has  traveled. 

(Ecumen'ical  (Gr.  oikouj-isvike,  oikoumenike, 
of,  or  belonging  to,  the  world),  the  name  given  to 
councils  of  the  entire  Church,  and  synonymous 
with  the  more  ordinary  name  “  general.” 

(Ede'ma  is  the  term  applied  in  Medicine  to  the 
swelling  occasioned  by  the  effusion  or  infiltration 
of  serum  into  cellular  or  areolar  structures.  It  is 
not  a  disease,  but  a  symptom,  and  often  a  symp¬ 
tom  indicating  great  danger  to  life. 

(E'dipus  (Gr.  Oidiitovi),  the  lieroof  a  celebrated 
legend,  best  known  as  having  slain  the  Theban 
sphinx  by  answering  a  riddle  propounded  by  that 
monster.  The  riddle  was:  ‘ ‘  What  being  has  four 
feet,  two  feet,  and  three  feet;  only  one  voice;  but 
whose  feet  vary,  and  when  it  has  most,  is  weak¬ 
est?”  CEdipus replied  that  it  was  “Man;”  where¬ 
upon  the  sphinx  threw  itself  headlong  from  the 
rock. 

(Eland,  a  long  and  narrow  island  in  the  Baltic, 
lying  off  the  eastern  coast  of  Sweden,  opposite  to, 
and  forming  part  of,  the  Liin  of  Kalmar,  and  at  a 
distance  of  from  four  to  seventeen  miles  from  the 
shore.  It  is  bo  miles  in  length,  and  from  2  to  8 
miles  in  breadth.  The  area  is  588  square  miles, 
and  the  pop.,  45,000. 

Dels,  a  small  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  stands 
on  a  plain  on  the  Oelsa,  or  Oelse,  sixteen  miles 
east-northeast  of  Breslau.  Its  castle,  built  in  1558, 
is  surrounded  by  ramparts  and  ditches.  It  con¬ 
tains  a  gymnasium,  several  churches,  and  other 
public  edifices.  Pop.  (1880),  10,157,  who  carry 
on  manufactures  of  shoes  and  of  cloth  goods. 

(Enothe'ra,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Onagracece.  The  evening  primrose  is  a  spec¬ 
imen  of  this  family.  Several  other  species  of 
CEnoihera  are  natives  of  North  America. 

Oersted,  Hans  Christian,  one  of  the  most  dis¬ 
tinguished  scientific  discoverers  and  physicists  of 
modern  times,  was  born  in  1777  at  Rudkjobing, 
on  the  Danish  Island  of  Langeland.  He  died  in 
1851. 

(Esoph'agus  (Gr.  oio,  oio,  to  convey,  and 
epdyetv,  phagein,  to  eat),  or  Gullet,  a  membra¬ 
nous  canal,  about  9  inches  in  length,  extending 
from  the  pharynx  to  the  stomach,  and  thus  form¬ 
ing  a  part  of  the  alimentary  canal.  It  commences 
at  the  lower  border  of  the  cricoid  cartilage  of  the 
larynx,  descends  in  a  nearly  vertical  direction 
along  the  front  of  the  spine,  passes  through  an 
opening  in  the  diaphragm,  and  thus  enters  the 
abdomen,  and  terminates  in  the  cardiac  orifice  of 
the  stomach,  opposite  the  ninth  dorsal  vertebra. 

(Es'tridie,  a  family  of  dipterous  insects,  of 
which  the  hot  is  the  best  example,  the  larvae  of  all 
the  species  of  which  are  parasites  of  herbivorous 
quadrupeds. 

Oifenbacli,  Jacques,  a  composer  of  dramatic 
music,  who  enjoys  high  popularity  over  the  conti¬ 
nent;  of  German  birth,  but  a  naturalized  French¬ 
man.  He  was  born  in  1819,  and  died  Oct.  4,  1880. 
Offenbach  composed  a  vast  number  of  light,  lively 
operettas. 

Ollic'iual  Plants  (Lat.  offieina,  a  shop)  are 
those  medicinal  plants  which  have  a  place  in  the 
pharmacopoeias  of  different  countries,  and  which 
are  therefore  sold — or  some  of  their  products  or 
preparations  of  them — by  apothecaries  and  drug¬ 
gists. 

Ogalalla,  the  county  seat  of  Keith  county,  Neb. 
Pop.,  900. 

Ogden,  a  city  in  Utah,  of  importance  as  the 
place  where  the  Union  Pacific  and  Central  Pacific 
Railways  joim  Pop.  (1889),  7,300. 

Ogdeusburglt,  a  commercial  town  of  St.  Law¬ 
rence  county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  11,000. 

Ogeltliorpe,  the  county  seat  of  Macon  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  550. 

Og'liams,  the  name  given  to  the  letters  or 
signs  of  a  secret  alphabet  long  in  use  among  the 
Irish  and  some  other  Celtic  nations.  Its  charac¬ 
ters  are  lines,  or  group  of  lines,  deriving  their 
significance  from  their  position  on  a  single  stem 


or  chief  line — over,  under,  or  through  which  they 
are  drawn  either  straight  or  oblique. 

Olii'o,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America,  lies 
between  latitude  38°  17' — 41°  54'  N.,  and  longi¬ 
tude  80°  34' — 84°  40'  W.;  225  miles  in  extent 
from  east  to  west,  and  nearly  200  miles  from 
north  to  south;  containing  39,964  square  miles, 
or  25,576,960  acres;  bounded  north  by  Michigan 
and  Lake  Erie,  east  by  Pennsylvania  and  West 
Virginia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Ohio 
river,  which  also  forms  its  southern  boundary, 
separating  it  from  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky, 
and  west  by  Indiana.  Drift  formations  prevail  in 
the  north,  alluvium  in  the  south,  with  extensive 
coal-measures,  and  limestone  st  rata,  shales,  marls, 
and  gypsum,  giving  the  whole  State  a  wonderful 
fertility.  The  coat  beds  of  Eastern  Ohio  cover 
10,000  square  miles.  In  the  north  are  valuable 
deposits  of  buhrstoue,  a  fossiliferous flinty  quartz, 
used  for  millstones.  The  soil,  rich  everywhere, 
is  so  fertile  in  the  river  bottoms  as  to  have  borne 
heavy  cereal  crops  fifty  successive  years  without 
manuring;  the  climate  is  temperate,  with  a  liabil¬ 
ity  to  a  cold  in  winter  reaching  sometimes  to  20° 
below  zero.  It  is  healthy,  except  lowlands  liable 
to  fever  and  ague.  The  forests  are  rich  in  oak, 
black  walnut,  maple,  etc.;  the  chief  agricultural 
productions  are  Indian  corn,  wheat,  rye,  oats,  hay, 
sorghum,  tobacco,  hemp,  peaches,  apples,  grapes, 
cattle,  sheep,  swine,  the  latter  being  one  of  its 
chief  exports.  The  chief  manufactures  are  iron, 
clothing,  furniture,  spirits,  wines,  cotton,  and 
woolen.  The  wine  called  Catawba,  produced 
upon  the  southern  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  compares 
very  favorably  with  the  similar  wines  of  the 
Rhine.  After  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio  is  the  most  important  manufacturing  State 
in  the  Union  Pop.  (1880),  3,198,062. 

Ohio,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  is  formed  by 
the  union  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela,  at 
the  western  foot  of  the  Alleglianies,  at  Pittsburgh, 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  flows  west-southwest  975 
miles,  emptying  into  the  Mississippi  at  Cairo. 

Oil  in,  Georg  Simon,  a  German  physicist,  was 
born  at  Erlangen,  March  16,  1787,  and  died  July 
7,  1854.  He  devoted  himself  mainly  to  the  study 
of  the  galvanic  current.  The  unit  of  resistance 
fixed  on  by  the  British  Association  is  called  an 
ohm;  and  a  million  ohms,  a  megohm. 

O'id 'i mil,  an  important  genus  of  minute  fungi 
of  the  section  Hyphomyceles,  growing  on  diseased 

animal  and  vege¬ 
tal  ile  subtstan- 
ces.  The  ycon- 
sist  of  minute 
tubular  threads, 
forming  flocks, 
white  in  some 
species,  brightly 
colored  mothers, 
simple  or  irregu¬ 
larly  branched, 
assumingin  their 
upper  part  the 
form  of  strings 
of  beads,  which 
finally  break  up 
into  elliptic 
spores.  The  spe- 
Thrush  Fungus  ( Oidium  albican t)\  cies  actually  ex- 
general  view.  is  ting  are  prob¬ 

ably  much  more  numerous  than  those  which  have 
been  fully  ascertained.  Among  the  most  import¬ 
ant  of  the  vegetable  parasites  of  man  is  Oidium 
albicans,  which  is  found  on  the  epithelium  in 
the  mouth  and  throat  in  the  disease  called  aphthae, 
or  thrush,  and  on  that  of  the  throat  in  diphtheria, 
also  sometimes  in  the  nostrils,  stomach,  and  in¬ 
testines,  on  the  nails,  the  nipples,  and  other 
places.  Another  species  of  Oidium  which  has 
att  racted  great  attention  is  O.  tucker  i,  regarded  by 
many  as  producing  the  grape  disease;  which, 
several  years  ago,  injured  the  vineyards  of  many 
parts  of  the  world.  Various  means  were  resorted 
to  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of  the  grape  disease. 
The  application  of  pulverized  sulphur  was  found 
useful,  the  fungus  withering  and  drying  up  when 
brought  into  contact  with  a  minute  particle  of 
sulphur.  Hydrosulphide  of  lime  was  also  ap¬ 
plied  to  vines  with  very  beneficial  effect.  It  is 
prepared  by  thoroughly  mixing  sixty -eight  ounces 
of  flowers  of  sulphur  with  the  same  quantity  of 


slaked  lime,  adding  three  or  four  quarts  of  water, 
boiling  for  about  ten  minutes,  allowing  it  to  settle, 


Fragment  of  surface  of  Grape,  with  oidium  fully 
developed. 


and  decanting  the  clear  liquor.  When  it  is  to  be 
used,  one  quart  is  mixed  with  100  quarts  of 
water,  and  it  is  poured  over  the  vines. 

(til-cake,  the  cake  which  remains  in  the  press, 
when  seeds  are  crushed  to  express  the  oil  which 
they  contain.  Oil-cake  still  retains  a  portion  of 
the  oil  of  the  seed,  along  with  almost  all  its  other 
constituents,  and  is  valuable  either  for  feeding 
cattle  or  for  manure. 

Oil  City,  an  important  town  of  Venango 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  10,217.  This  is  a  distrib¬ 
uting  point  for  the  surrounding  country  of  oil 
wells  and  coal  mines,  and  a  great  deal  of  money 
changes  hands  here. 

Oil  Palm  (EUeis),  a  genus  of  palms  of  the 
same  tribe  with  the  cocoa-nut  palm.  The  best 
known  species,  the  oil  palm  of  tropical  Africa, 
sometimes  atta  ns  a  height  of  60 — 80  feet. 

Oil-refinin  g.  Several  oils,  from  the  mode  of 
their  extraction,  are  necessarily  impure,  and  vari¬ 
ous  means  are  taken  for  refining  or  purifying 
them;  thus,  the  so-called  fish-oils — that  is,  whale, 
seal,  cod,  etc. — are  clarified  either  by  mixing 
them  with  a  chemical  solution,  or  by  passing 
steam  through  them  and  filtering  through  coarse 
charcoal.  Olive,  and  some  other  vegetable  oils, 
are  refined  by  agitating  them  with  a  saturated 
solution  of  caustic  soda. 

Oils  (including  fats).  The  fats  and  fixed  oils 
constitute  an  important  and  well-marked  group  of 
organic  compounds,  which  exist  abundantly  both 
in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  They  are 
not  simple  organic  compounds,  but  each  of  them 
is  a  mixture  of  several  such  compounds  to  which 
the  term  glycerides  is  applied;  and  the  glycerides 
which  by  their  mixture  in  various  proportions 
form  the  numerous  fats  and  oils  are  mainly  those 
of  palmitic,  stearic,  and  oleic  acids,  and  to  a  less 
extent  those  of  other  fatty  acids,  such  as  butyric, 
caproic,  caprylic,  and  capric  acids,  which  are 
obtained  from  butter;  myristic  acid,  which  is 
obtained  from  cocoa-nut  oil,  etc.  The  members 
of  this  group  may  be  solid  and  hard,  like  suet; 
semi-solid  and  soft,  like  butter  and  lard;  or  fluid, 


e 


Wedge  Press. 

like  the  oils.  The  solid  and  semi-solid  are,  how¬ 
ever,  generally  placed  together  and  termed  fats, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  fluid  oils.  The  volatile 
or  essential  oils  exist,  in  most  instances,  ready 
formed  in  plants,  and  are  believed  to  constitute 
their  odorous  principles.  They  form  an  extremely 
numerous  class,  of  which  most  of  the  members 
are  fluid;  a  few  (oil  of  aniseed,  for  example)  being 
solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  all  of  them 
are  capable  of  being  distilled  without  undergoing 


OIL  WELLS. 


567 


OLYMPIA. 


change.  They  resemble  the  fixed  oils  in  their 
inflammability,  in  tlieir  solubility  in  the  same 
fluids,  and  in’ their  communicating  a  greasy  stain 
to  paper  or  any  other  fabric;  but  the  stain  in  this 
case  soon  disappears,  and  they  further  differ  in 
communicating  a  rough  and  harsh  rather  than  an 
unctuous  feeling  to  the  skin.  Their  boiling  points 
are  in  almost  all  cases  far  higher  than  that  of 
water,  but  when  heated  with  water,  they  pass  off 
with  the  steam — a  property  on  which  one  of  the 
chief  modes  of  obtaining  them  depends.  Nearly 
all  the  liquid  vegetable  oils 
are  obtained  from  seeds. 

First,  the  seeds  are  ground 
into  a  kind  of  coarse  meal, 
which  is  first  warmed  in 
pans,  and  then  put  in  certain 
portions  in  woolen  cloths  or 
bags,  so  arranged  as  to  be 
of  uniform  thickness;  these 
are  again  wrapped  in  horse¬ 
hair  cloths,  and  each  parcel 
is  placed  between  two  flat 
boards  slightly  fluted  on 
their  inner  sides,  and  then  Section  of  Wedge  Press, 
placed  in  the  wedge  press.  In  this  a,  a,  are  two 
flannel  bags  filled  with  the  meal  and  inclosed  in 
horse  hair  bags,  each  flattened  between  the  flat 
boards,  b,  b ,  b,  b.  They  are  set  upright,  between 
the  pressing-plates,  i,  i,  i,  i,  one  at  each  end  of 
the  press-frame,  ccc,  which  is  made  of  great 
strength,  and  often  of  cast-iron.  Next  is  placed 
the  wedge  d;  the  other  wedge,  e,  is  then  sus¬ 
pended  by  a  cord  in  the  position  represented; 

h,  h,  are  then  placed,  as  seen  in  the  drawing;  the 
main  wedge,  g,  is  lastly  inserted,  and  the  press  is 
ready  for  action.  The  operation  is  very  simple; 
a  heavy  wooden  stamper,  from  500  to  600  pounds 
weight,  is  raised  by  machinery  about  two  feet, 
and  allowed  to  fall  upon  the  wedge  <7.  This 
tightens  all  the  other  wedges  and  pressing-plates, 
and  exerts  a  pressure  of  about  sixty  tons  on  each 
bag  when  fully  driven  home.  The  pressing-plates, 

i,  1,  i,  1,  are  pierced  with  holes,  and  so  are  the 
plates  b,  b,  b,  b;  and  through  these  holes  the  oil 
trickles  and  passes  away  by  the  pipe,  k. 


Oil  Wells  and  Oil  Trade.  One  of  the  most 
remarkable  trades,  suddenly  sprung  up  into 
importance  in  modern  times,  is  that  in  oil  ob¬ 
tained  from  subterranean  sources.  The  richest 
oil  field  in  the  world  is  in  Venango  county,  Penn., 
although  numerous  wells  exist  in  New  York, 
Ohio,  West  Virginia,  Indiana,  and  other  States. 
Oil  had  for  many  years  been  seen  floating  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  of  a  well  near  Titusville, 
Penn. ;  it  was  taken  up  by  absorption  by  means  of 
flannel,  and  applied  to  medicinal  purposes.  Doctor 
Brewer,  in  1853.  suggested  that  it  might  possibly 
be  used  for  lubricating  and  for  illumination;  and 
in  the  following  year  was  formed  the  Pennsylva¬ 
nia  Rock-oil  Company.  This  company  languished 
until  1858,  when  Colonel  Drake,  manager  of  the 
Company,  and  Mr.  Bowditch,  resolved  to  sink  a 
well  purposely  for  oil.  They  were  amply 
rewarded,  for  oil  was  pumped  up  at  a  rate  varying 
from  400  to  1,000  gallonsdaily.  In  1861,  the  first 
large  Jtowin <7  well  was  struck — that  is,  a  well  up 
which  the  oil  rose  so  profusely  as  to  flow  over  the 
surface,  yielding  1,000  barrels  (of  forty  gallons 
each)  per  day.  When  the  oil  began  to  be  sent  in 
large  quantity  to  New  York  and  other  towns,  the 
cheapness  of  price  led  to  its  application  as  lamp- 
oil,  and  in  many  other  ways;  the  increasing 
demand  brought  the  price  up  again  to  a  reason¬ 
able  figure  at  Petrolia;  and  the  price  induced  the 
sinking  of  new  wells.  Small  villages  rose  into 
large  towns,  with  banks,  hotels,  and  wealthy 
people,  all,  however,  begrimed  with  oil.  Oil 
City  has  now  become  a  town  of  great  importance. 
The  new  Oil  Exchange  is  a  handsome  building, 
providing  amply  for  the  requirements  of  “the  most 
important  petroleum  market  in  the  world.”  In 
Canada  there  are  four  areas  in  which  oil-springs 
are  found — two  in  Enniskillen,  a.  third  in  Mosa 
and  Oxford  townships,  and  a  fourth  in  Tilson- 
burgh.  The  Canadian  oil  is  more  troublesome  to 
purify  than  that  found  in  the  States.  In  various 
parts  of  Europe  and  Australia  oil  wells  exist,  and 
the  refining  and  preparation  of  it  for  market  is 
an  important  industry. 


Oise,  a  department  in  the  North  of  France. 


Area,  2,250  square  miles,  of  which  two-thirds  are 
in  arable  land;  pop.  (18bl),  404,555. 

Okeecho'bee,  a  lake  bordering  on  the  Ever¬ 
glades  of  Southern  Florida,  about  120  miles  in 
circuit,  receiving  several  small  rivers. 

Okhotsk',  Sea  ok,  an  extensive  inlet  of  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  east  coast  of  Russian 
Siberia. 

Okmulgee,  the  capital  town  of  the  Creek 
Nation,  Ind.  Ter.  Pop.,  350. 

Olathe,  a  growing  town  of  Johnson  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  3,297. 

Oldenburg,  a  grand-duchy  of  Northern  Ger¬ 
many,  consisting  of  three  distinct  and  widely  sep¬ 
arated  territories — viz.,  Oldenburg  Proper,  the 
Principality  of  Liibeck,  and  the  Principality  of 
Birkenfeld.  Total  area,  2,461  square  miles;  pop. 
(1880),  337,478. 

Oldenburg,  capital  of  the  grand-ducliy  of  the 
same  name,  is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  banks  of 
the  navigable  River  Hunte,  twenty-five  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Bremen.  Pop.  (1880),  18,416. 

Oldha'mia,  a  genus  of  fossil  zoophytes,  dedi¬ 
cated  by  Forbes  to  Professor  Oldham,  who  was 
their  discoverer.  Only  two  species  are  known. 

Old  Point  Comfort,  a  village  and  watering- 
place  in  Virginia,  at  the  entrance  of  Hampton 
Roads  and  James  river,  twelve  miles  from  Nor¬ 
folk,  and  the  site  of  Fortress  Monroe,  the  largest 
military  work  in  the  United  States. 

Glean  'dor  (Nerium),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Apocynacm.  The  common  oleander 
(V.  oleander),  a  native  of  the  South  of  Europe, 
the  North  of  Africa,  and  many  of  the  warmer 
temperate  parts  of  Asia,  is  frequently  j  lanted  in 
many  count  ries  as  an  ornamental  shrub.  All  parts 
of  it  contain  a  bitter  and  narcotic-acrid  juice, 
poisonous  to  men  and  cattle.  A  decoction  of 
the  leaves  or  bark  is  much  used  in  the  South  of 
France  as  a  wash  to  cure  cutaneous  maladies. 
The  steeping  of  the  stems  in  ponds  kills  fish. 

O'leflant  Gas  (C2H4)  is  transparent  and  color¬ 
less,  possesses  a  disagreeable  alliaceous  odor,  and 
acts  as  a  poison  when  breathed.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  0.981.  It  takes  fire  when  brought  in 
contact  with  a  flame,  and  burns  with  a  bright 
clear  light.  Olefiant  gas  is  a  constituent  of  the 
gaseous  explosive  admixtures  that  accumulate  in 
coal-pits,  and  of  the  gaseous  products  yielded  by 
the  distillation  of  wood,  resinous  matters,  and 
coal;  and  the  brightness  of  the  flame  of  ordinary 
gas  depends  partly  on  the  quantity  of  olefiant 
gas  present.  This  gas  is  most  readily  obtained  by 
the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  on  alcohol. 

Oleograph.  This  is  a  name  given  to  an  ordi¬ 
nary  chromo-lithograph  which  has  been 
“roughed,”  as  it  is  termed,  on  a  lithographic 
stone  engraved  so  as  to  imitate  canvas. 

Oleomar'garine,  also  called  Butterixe, is  ani¬ 
mal  grease  in  disguise,  and  is  the  outcome  of  an 
ingenious  Frenchman’s  notion  that  the  butter  dif¬ 
fused  through  the  milk  of  the  cow  is  due  to  the 
absorption  of  the  animal’s  fat.  Taking  some 
minced  beef-suet,  a  few  fresh  sheep’s  stomachs 
cut  into  small  pieces,  carbonate  of  potash,  and 
water.  M,  Mfege-Mouriez  subjected  the  mixture  to 
a  heat  of  113°  F.;  and  so,  by  the  action  of  the 
pepsine  in  the  sheep’s  stomachs,  separated  the 
fat  from  the  other  tissues.  By  hydraulic  pressure 
this  fat  was  again  separated  into  stearine  and 
margarine;  and  on  putting  ten  pounds  of  the 
latter  into  a  churn  with  four  pints  of  milk,  three 
pints  of  water,  and  a  little  arnotto,  and  churning 
the  compound,  it  was  easy  to  turn  out  a  com¬ 
pound  sufficiently  like  butter  to  pass  for  that 
article.  The  inventor  patented  his  process;  and 
found  no  difficulty  in  selling  licenses  to  work  it 
in  France,  England,  Holland,  Germany,  and 
America.  In  America  the  manufacture  of  oleo¬ 
margarine  developed  very  rapidly. 

Olib'anum,  a  gum-resin,  which  flows  from 
incisions  made  in  Boxwellia  serrata,  a  tree  found 
in  some  parts  of  the  East.  It  was  formerly  used 
in  medicine,  chiefly  to  restrain  excessive  mucus 
discharges;  but  its  use  for  such  purposes  is  now 
rare.  It  sometimes  enters  as  an  ingredient  into 
stimulating  plasters.  It  is  chiefly  employed  for 
fumigation,  and  is  used  as  incense  in  Roman 
Catholic  Churches. 

Olive  (Oka),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of 
the  natural  order  Oteacece.  The  species  are  widely 
distributed  in  the  warmer  temperate  parts  of  the 


globe.  The  common  olive  (O.  europcea),  a  native 
of  Syria  and  other  Asiatic  countries,  and  perhaps 
also  of  the  South  of  Europe,  although  probably 
it  is  there  rather  naturalized  than  indigenous,  is 
in  its  wild  state  a  thorny  shrub  or  small  tree,  but 
through  cultivation  becomes  a  tree  of  20—40 
feet  high,  destitute  of  spines.  It  attains  a 
prodigious  age.  The  cultivated  varieties  are  very 
numerous,  differing  in  the  breadth  of  the  leaves, 
and  in  other  characters.  The  leaves  resemble 
those  of  a  willow,  are  lanceolate,  entire,  of  a  dull 
dark-green  color  above,  scaly  and  whitish  gray 
beneath;  the  flowers  are  small  and  white,  in  short 
dense  racemes;  the  fruit  greenish,  whitish,  violet, 
or  even  black,  never  larger  than  a  pigeon's  egg, 


Olive  Branch  and  Fruit. 


generally  oval,  sometimes  globular,  or  obovate, 
or  acuminate.  The  fruit  is  produced  in  vast 
profusion,  so  that  an  old  olive  tree  becomes  very 
valuable  to  its  owner.  It  is  chiefly  from  the  peri¬ 
carp  that  olive  oil  is  "obtained,  not  from  the  seed, 
contrary  to  the  general  rule  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  Olive  oil  is  much  used  as  an  article  of 
food  in  the  countries  in  which  it  is  produced,  and 
to  a  smaller  extent  in  other  countries,  to  which  it 
is  exported,  also  for  medicinal  and  other  uses. 
Olives,  gathered  before  they  are  quite  ripe,  are 
pickled  in  various  ways,  being  usually  first 
steeped  in  lime-water,  by  which  they  are  rendered 
softer  and  milder  in  taste.  They  are  well  known 
as  a  restorative  of  the  palate,  and  are  also  said  to 
promote  digestion.  Disagreeable  as  they  gener¬ 
ally  are  at  first,  they  are  soon  greatly  relished, 
and  in  the  South  of  Europe  are  even  a  consider¬ 
able  article  of  food.  Dried  olives  are  there  also 
used,  as  well  as  pickled  olives.  Several  other 
species  of  olives  are  found  in  America,  China, 
and  Japan. 

Gl'ives,  Mount  of,  called  also  Mount  Olivet, 
an  inconsiderable  ridge  lying  on  the  east  side  of 
Jerusalem,  from  which  it  is  only  separated  by  the 
narrow  Valley  of  Jeliosaphat.  It  is  mentioned  in 
the'New  Testament  in  connection  with  the  history 
of  Jesus. 

Olivet,  the  county  seat  of  Hutchinson  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  265. 

Ollneyville,  a  town  of  Providence  county, 
R.  I.  Pop.  5,900. 

Ol'miitz,  the  chief  fortress  of  Moravia,  Austria, 
is  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  and  is 
situated  in  latitude  49-’  36'  N.,  and  in  longitude  17° 
15'  E.,  on  an  island  of  the  River  Morava.  Pop. 
(1880),  22,849. 

Gluey,  the  county  seat  of  Richland  county,  Ill. 
Pop.,  4,500. 

Olonetz',  a  government  in  the  North  of  Russia, 
hounded  on  the  west  by  Finland,  and  on  the  east 
and  northeast  by  Archangel.  Area,  exclusive  of 
water,  49,104  square  miles.  Pop.  (1870),  296,392. 

Olym'pia,  capital  of  Washington,  at  t lie  head 
of  an  inlet  from  the  south  end  of  Puget’s  Sound, 
is  becoming  an  important  center,  especially  since 


OLYMPIA. 


568 


OPHTHALMIA. 


the  opening  of  the  North  Pacific  Railway.  Pop. 
(1889),  about  2,000. 

Olympia,  the  scene  of  the  celebrated  Olympic 
games,  is  a  beautiful  valley  in  Elis,  in  th  •  Pel¬ 
oponnesus,  through  which  runs  the  River  Al- 
pheus.  The  Sacred  Grove  (called  the  Altis)  of 
Olympia,  inclosed  a  level  space  about  4,000  feet 
long  by  nearly  2,000  broad,  containing  both  the 
spot  appropriated  to  the  games  and  the  sanctuaries 
connected  with  them.  It  was  finely  wooded,  and 
in  its  center  stood  a  clump  of  sycamores. 

Olym'piad  (Gr.  OXvpniat,  Olympian),  the 
name  given  to  the  period  of  four  years  that 
elapsed  between  two  successive  celebrations  of  the 
Olympic  games. 

01)  m'pus,  the  ancient  name  of  several  mount¬ 
ains  or  chains  of  mountains — e.  g.,  of  the  north¬ 
western  continuation  of  Taurus  in  Mysia,  of  a 
mountain  in  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  of  one  in  Lyeia 
of  another  in  Elis,  of  one  on  the  borders  of  La¬ 
conia  and  Arcadia,  and  of  another  on  the  front¬ 
iers  of  Thessaly  and  Macedonia. 

Omaha,  the  chief  city  of  the  State  of  Nebraska; 
is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missouri,  opposite 
Council  Bluffs,  and  twenty  miles  north  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Platte  river.  It  has  important  man¬ 
ufacturing,  mercantile,  and  railway  interests,  and 
is  growing  rapidly  into  a  great  commercial  cen¬ 
ter.  Pop.,  85,500. 

Oman,  the  most  eastern  portion  of  Arabia,  a 
strip  of  maritime  territory,  extending  between 
Ras-el-Jiboul  and  Ras-el-Had,  bounded  on  the 
northeast  by  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  and  on  the  south¬ 
west  by  the  deserts  of  the  interior.  It  is  about 
370  miles  in  length;  its  greatest  breadth  is  120 
miles. 

Ombay',  or  Maloewa  (Maluwa),  an  island  be¬ 
tween  Celebes  and  the  northwest  coast  of  Austra¬ 
lia,  lies  to  the  north  of  Timor,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  strait  of  Ombay,  latitude  8°  8' — 
8°  28'  S.;  longitude  124°  17  — 125°  7'  E.  Area, 
961  square  miles.  Pop  ,  193,800. 

Oilier,  the  county  seat  of  Arenac  county,  Mich. 
Pop.,  100. 

Ona'gracese,  OxAORARi.E.or  (Enothera'ce^e, 
a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting 
chiefly  of  herbaceous  plants,  but  including  also  a 
few  shrubs. 

Onawa,  the  county  seat  of  MonoDa  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Oncocar  'pus,  a  genus  of- trees  of  the  natural 
order  Anacardiacece.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
species  is  a  tree  about  sixty  feet  high,  with  large 
oblong  leaves  and  a  corky  fruit,  somewhat  resem¬ 
bling  the  seed  of  a  walnut,  the  sap  of  which,  if  it 
comes  into  contact  with  the  skin,  produces  a  pain 
like  that  caused  by  red-hot  iron. 

Onega,  Lake,  an  extensive  lake  in  the  north  of 
Russia,  Government  of  Olonetz,  and,  after  Ladoga, 
the  largest  lake  in  Europe,  is  59  miles  wide,  and 
150  miles  long. 

O’Neill,  the  county  seat  of  Holt  county,  Neb. 
Pop.,  913. 

OiTion  (Fr.  oignon,  from  Lat.  unin,  a  pearl, 
but  found  in  Columella,  signifying  a  kind  of 
onion),  the  name  given  to  a  few  species  of  the 
genus  Allium,  and  particularly  to  A.  cepa  (Lat. 
cepa),  a  biennial  bulbous  rooted  plant.  The 
onion  is  very  nutritious.  It  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  of  uncrystal- 
lizable  sugar;  with  an  acrid,  volatile,  sulphurous 
oil,  resembling  oil  of  garlic.  The  oil  of  the  onion 
is  dissipated  by  boiling,  so  that  boiled  onions  are 
much  milder  than  raw  onions.  Roasted  onions 
with  oil  make  a  useful  emollient  and  stimulating 
poultice  for  suppurating  tumors.  The  use  of 
onions  stimulates  the  secreting  organs. 

Onta'rio,  the  easternmost  and  smallest  of  the 
five  great  lakes  of  North  America,  lies  in  43°  10' 
— 44°  8'  N.  latitude,  and  76°  30'— 80°  W.  longi¬ 
tude.  At  its  southwest  corner  it  receives  the 
waters  of  the  upper  lakes  by  the  Niagara,  and 
at  its  northeast  corner  it  issues  into  the  St.  Law¬ 
rence.  Its  surface,  which  varies  a  few  feet  with 
the  seasons,  is  about  330  feet  below  that  of  Lake 
Erie  and  234  feet  above  tide-water.  Its  bottom, 
therefore,  must  be  considerably  lower  than  the 
level  of  the  Atlantic,  as  it  is  in  some  places  600 
feet  deep.  It  is  190  miles  long,  55  in  its  widest 
part,  and  about  480  in  circumference. 

Ontona'gon,  the  county  seat  of  Ontonagon 
county,  Mich.,  is  an  important  port  on  Lake 


Superior,  and  is  the  shipping  point  for  extensive 
copper  mines.  Pop.,  1,250. 

O'nyx,  an  agate  formed  of  alternating  white 
and  black,  or  white  and  dark  brown  stripes  of 
chalcedony.  More  rarely  a  third  color  of  stripes 
occurs.  The  finest  specimens  are  brought  from 
India. 

Onyx  Marble,  a  slalagmitic  formation,  which 
was  discovered  by  the  French  in  making  roads 
in  the  Province  of  Oran  in  Algiers.  It  is  a  trans¬ 
lucent  limestone,  containing  traces  of  magnesia 
and  carbonate  of  iron. 

Oolite  (Gr.  d)6v,  an  egg,  Ai'Ooi,  a  stone,  egg¬ 
stone),  a  variety  of  limestone,  often  pure  calcar¬ 
eous  spar,  distinguished  by  its  peculiar  structure, 
being  composed  of  grains  connected  together  by 
a  calcareous  cement;  the  whole  much  resembling 
the  roe  of  a  fish. 

Oolite,  or  Jurassic  Group  (in  Geology),  an 
extensive  and  important  series  of  strata  of  second¬ 
ary  age,  underlying  the  chalk  formation,  and 
resting  on  the  trias. 

Ooltewali,  the  county  seat  of  James  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  350. 

Oo'ri,  or  Limpopo  River,  an  important  river 
system  of  Southeastern  Africa,  rising  in  latitude 
26°  S.  Its  course  can  not  be  less  than  800  or  900 
miles,  and  it  has  numerous  large  tributaries,  the 
Mariqua,  Lipalula,  etc. 

O'pali,  or  King-fish  (Lnmpris  guttatus  or  L. 
luna),  a  fish  of  the  Dory  family  ( Zeidae ),  occasion¬ 
ally  found  in  the  British  seas,  but  more  common 
in  more  northern  regions,  and  found  not  only  in 
the  At'antic  and  Arctic  Oceans,  but  also  in  the 
Pacific,  as  on  the  coasts  of  China  and  Japan. 

Opal,  a  mineral  which  differs  from  quartz  in 
containing  from  5  to  13  per  cent,  of  water,  its 
only  other  essential  constituent  being  silica, 
although  a  little  alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  etc.,  is 
often  present. 

Opelika,  the  county  seat  of  Lee  county,  Ala. 
Pop  ,  3,300. 

Op  elousas,.  the  parish  seat  of  St.  Landry 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  1,750. 

Open-bill  ( Anastomus ),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  heron  family  (Ardeidce),  natives  of  the  East 
Indies  and  of  Africa,  remarkable  for  the  structure 
of  the  bill,  the  mandibles  being  in  contact  only  at 
the  base  and  tip,  with  a  wide  interval  between 
their  edges  in  the  middle. 

Opera-glass  (Fr.  lorgnette,  Ger.  thenter-per- 
spectiv).  This  is  a  double  telescope,  for  looking 
at  objects  that  require  to  be  clearly  seen  rather 
than  greatly  magnified.  It  is  the  same  in  princi¬ 
ple  as  the  telescope  invented  by  Galileo.  It  con¬ 
sists  of  two  lenses,  an  object  lens,  and  an  eye  lens. 
The  object  lens  is  convex,  and  the  eye  lens  con¬ 
cave.  They  are  placed  nearly  at  the  distance  of 
the  difference  of  their  focal  lengths  from  one  an¬ 
other.  The  •  cheapest  opera-glasses  consist  of 
single  lenses,  those,  of  the  better  class  have  com¬ 
pound  achromatic  lens.  An  ordinary  construc¬ 
tion  for  a  medium  price  is  to  have  an  achromatic 
object  lens,  consisting  of  two  lenses  and  a  single 
eye  lens.  In  the  finest  class  of  opera-glasses,  which 
are  called  field-glasses,  both  eye  lenses  and  object 
lenses  are  achromatic. 

Oper'culum  (Lat.  a  lid),  a  term  used  in  botany 
chiefly  to  designate  the  lid  or  covering  of  the 
mouth  of  the  urn  or  capsule  (theca)  which  con¬ 
tains  the  spores  of  mosses. 

Ophiceph  'alu«,  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the  family 
A  nabasidee,  sometimes  regarded  as  constituting  a 
distinct  family  Ophicephalulce,  because  there  is  a 
mere  cavity  for  retaining  water  to  supply  the 
gills,  and  no  pharyngeal  laminae,  and  because  of 
the  long  eel  like  form  and  the  flattened  head, 
which  is  covered  with  large  scales. 

OpliTcleide  (Gr.  ocpii,  aphis,  serpent,  and 
kAeiS,  kleis,  key),  a  musical  wind  instrument  of 
brass  or  copper,  invented  to  supersede  the  ser¬ 
pent  in  the  orchestra  and  military  bands. 

Opbioglos'seai,  a  sub-order  of  Filices  or  ferns, 
consisting  of  a  few  plants  with  an  erect  or  pendu¬ 
lous  stem,  which  has  a  cavity  instead  of  pith, 
leaves  with  netted  veins,  and  the  spore-cases 
( thecce )  collected  into  a  spike  formed  at  the  edges 
of  an  altered  leaf,  two-valved,  and  without  any 
trace  of  an  elastic  ring. 

O'phir,  a  region  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  from  which  the  ships  of  Solo¬ 
mon,  fitted  out  in  the  harbors  of  Edom,  brought 


gold,  precious  stones,  sandal-wood,  etc.  It  was 
probably  either  on  the  east  coast  of  Africa  about 
Sofala,  or  in  Arabia,  or  in  India,  but  in  which 
of  the  three  countries  is  doubtful. 

Ophir,  called  by  the  Malays,  GunongPasaman, 
a  volcanic  mountain  in  the  high  lands  of  Padang, 
Island  of  Sumatra,  lies  in  0°  4'  58"  N.  latitude, 
and  99°  55'  E.  longitude. 

Opliiuroidea,  the  brittle  starfishes,  a  class  of 
echinodermata. 

OphtliaPmia  (derived  from  the  Greek  word 
dcpQaAju  oS,  ophthalmos,  the  eye)  was  originally 
and  still  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  inflammation 
of  the  eye  generally,  but  it  is  at  the  present  time 
usually  restricted  to  inflammatory  affections  of 
the  mucous  coat  of  the  eye,  termed  the  conjunc¬ 
tiva.  Two  other  diseases,  sometimes  described 
under  this  name,  are  :  (1)  Ophthalmia  tarsi,  tinea 
tarsi  or  blepharitis,  an  inflammation  of  the  edges 
of  the  lids,  usually  chronic.  (2)  Sympathetic 
ophthalmia,  is  an  insidious  and  dangerous  disease, 
which  is  apt  to  be  set  up  in  one  eye  when  the 
other  has  been  wounded,  or  is  the  seat  of  certain 
forms  of  disease.  The  only  preventive  is  removal 
of  the  offending  eyeball,  and  this  must  be  resorted 
to  at  the  first  sign  that  sympathetic  ophthalmia 
threatens  the  other;  for,  when  once  established, 
it  is  peculiarly  intractable,  and  may  even  lead  to 
total  destruction  of  the  eye  attacked  by  it.  The 
most  important  forms  of  ophthalmia,  in  the 
restricted  sense  of  the  word,  are:  1.  Catarrhal 
ophthalmia. — Its  leading  symptoms  are  redness 
of  the  surface  of  the  eye  (the  redness  being  super¬ 
ficial,  of  a  bright  scarlet  color,  and  usually 
diffused  in  patches),  sensations  of  uneasiness, 
stiffness,  and  dryness,  with  slight  pain,  especially 
when  the  eye  is  exposed  to  the  light;  an  increased 
discharge,  not  of  tears,  except  at  the  beginning  of 
the  attack,  but  of  mucus,  which  at  first  is  thin, 
but  soon  becomes  opaque,  yellow,  and  thicker  ; 
pus  being  seen  at  the  corner  of  the  eye,  or 
between  the  eyelashes  along  the  edges  of  the  Jids, 
which  it  glues  together  during  the  night.  The 
disease  results  in  most  cases  from  exposure  to  cold 
and  damp,  and  is  apt  to  be  excited  by  exposure  to 
a  draught  of  air,  especially  during  sleep.  It  is 
popularly  known  as  a  cold  or  a  blight  in  the  eye. 
The  usual  domestic  treatment  by  the  application 
of  wet  cloths,  bread  poultices,  etc.,  is  most  mis¬ 
chievous,  and  can  not  too  strongly  be  condemned. 
This  disease  is  generally  easily  checked  by  the 
application  of  a  mild  astringent  wash  (alum 
3  grains,  or  boracic  acid  10  grains,  to  the  ounce  of 
water),  to  the  eye  three  or  four  times  daily;  and  of 
some  ointment  to  the  edges  of  the  lids,  to  prevent 
adhesion  during  sleep.  If  it  become  chronic,  it 
is  best  treated  by  touching  the  conjunctiva  of  the 
lids  every  second  or  third  day  with  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  10  or  15  grains  to  the  ounce  of 
water.  2.  Purulent  ophthalmia  is  often  indis¬ 
tinguishable  at  its  onset  from  catarrhal  oph¬ 
thalmia,  but  soon  becomes  more  severe,  and  is 
apt  to  lead  to  ulceration  or  complete  destruction 
of  the  cornea,  and  consequent  impairment  or  loss 
of  vision.  Three  varieties  may  be  distinguished, 
which  differ,  however,  more  in  their  causation, 
mode  of  occurrence,  and  severity,  than  in  their 
essential  symptoms :  (a)  purulent  ophthalmia  of 
adults,  or  Egyptian  ophthalmia ;  (b)  purulent 
ophthalmia  of  newly-born  children;  (c)  gonorrheal 
ophthalmia.  One  description  will  suffice  for  all 
the  forms.  The  conjunctiva  rapidly  becomes 
intensely  red,  and  soon  appears  raised  from  the 
sclerotic  by  the  effusion  of  serum  between  them, 
projecting  around  the  cornea,  which  remains 
buried,  as  it  were,  in  a  pit.  Similar  effusion  takes 
place  beneath  the  mucous  membrane  lining  the 
eyelids  ;  causing  them  to  project  forward  in  large 
livid  convex  masses,  which  often  entirely  conceal 
the  globe  of  the  eye.  These  symptoms  are 
accompanied  by  severe  burning  pain,  headache, 
fever,  and  prostration.  When  the  disease  is 
unchecked,  it  is  liable  to  produce  ulceration  or 
sloughing  of  the  cornea,  with  the  escape  of  the 
aqueous  humor  and  protrusion  of  the  iris;  and  even 
when  these  results  do  not  follow,  vision  is  often 
destroyed  by  permanent  opacity  of  the  cornea 
The  disease  is  unquestionably  contagious,  but 
there  are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  it  often 
arises,  independently  of  contagion,  from  severe 
catarrhal  ophthalmia  under  unfavorable  atmos¬ 
pheric  and  other  conditions;  and  that  having  so 


OPHTHALMOSCOPE. 


569 


ORCIN. 


originated,  it  possesses  contagious  properties. 
Gonorrheal  ophthalmia  arisi  s  from  the  applica¬ 
tion  of  gonorrheal  discharge  or  matter  to  the 
surface  of  the  eye ;  anil  hence  is  most  common  in. 
persons  suffering  from  the  disease  from  which 
this  variety  obtains  ils  specific  name.  It  is,  more¬ 
over,  not  infrequently  occasioned  by  the  common 
but  disgusting  practi.e,  adopted  by  the  poorer 
classes,  of  bathing  the  eyes  in  human  urine,  under 
the  idea  that  by  this  procedure  they  strengthen 
the  sight.  In  its  symptoms,  it  is  almost  identical 
with  ordinary  purulent  ophthalmia.  The  purulent 
ophthalmia  of  children  usually  begins  to  appear 
about  1  lie  third  day  after  birth.  It  is  a  common 
affection,  and  its  importance  is  apt  to  be  over¬ 
looked  until  it  has  made  considerable  progress. 
If  the  edges  of  the  lids  appear  red  and  glued 
together,  and  if  the  eye,  wlieu  the  lids  are  sepa¬ 
rated,  shows  redness  and  swelling  of  the  conjunc¬ 
tiva,  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  nature  of  the  disease, 
which,  if  not  checked,  progresses  in  much  the  same 
way  as  in  adults.  It  is,  however,  much  more  amen¬ 
able  to  treatment,  and  with  proper  care  the  sense  of 
sight  is  seldom  impaired,  provided  the  disease  has 
not  extended  to  t  lie  cornea  before  medical  aid  is 
sought.  The  treatment  of  purulent  ophthalmia 
in  these  various  forms  must  be  left  exclusively  to 
the  medical  practitioner,  whose  advice  should  be 
sought  as  soon  as  there  is  the  slightest  suspicion  of 
the  nature  of  the  case.  Strumous  (or  scrofulous), 
pustular,  and  phlyctenular  ophthalmia,  is  inti¬ 
mately  connected  tvith  the  scrofulous  constitution, 
and  is  most  prevalent  in  children  from  four  to 
ten  or  twelve  years  of  age.  The  most  prominent 
symptom  is  extreme  intolerance  of  light,  the  lids 
being  kept  spasmodically  closed.  When  they  are 
forcibly  separated,  a  slight  vascularity,  usually 
stopping  at  the  edge  of  the  cornea,  is  observed, 
and  at  or  about  the  line  of  separation  between  the 
cornea  and  sclerotic  small  opaque  pimples  or 
pustules  appear.  The  treatment  consists  (1)  in 
improving  the  general  health  by  due  attention  to 
the  secretions,  and  the  subsequent  administration 
of  tonics  (such  as  quinia  and  cod-liver  oil),  and 
change  of  air  ;  and  (2)  in  local  applications,  such 
as  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  or  wine  of  opium, 
dropped  into  the  eye,  or  stimulating  ointments 
(such  as  dilute  citrine  ointment)  smeared  over  the 
edges  of  the  lids  at  bedtime.  This  form  of  disease, 
being  dependent  on  constitutional  causes,  is  often 
obstinate,  and  is  always  liable  to  recur.  It  is  not 
infrequently  attended  with  the  annoying  compli¬ 
cation  of  a  skin  disease,  known  as  crusta  laden,  on 
the  cheeks,  in  consequence  of  the  irritation  caused 
by  the  flow  of  scalding  tears.  The  crusts  or  scabs 
are  easily  removed  by  a  poultice  or  warm-water 
dressing,  after  which  the  part  must  be  bathed  by 
a  lotion,  consisting  of  a  drachm  of  oxide  of  zinc  in 
four  ounces  of  either  pump  or  rose  water. 

Ophthalmoscope,  The,  is  an  instrument  re¬ 
cently  invented  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the 
deep-seated  structures  of  the  eye,  and  for  detect¬ 
ing  disease  in  them. 

Opin'icns,  one  of  the  fabulous  creatures 
known  in  Heraldry;  with  the  head  and  neck  of 
an  eagle,  the  body  of  a  lion,  wings,  and  a  short 
tail  like  that  of  a  camel. 

O'pium.  oneof  the  most  valuable  of  medicines, 
is  the  dried  juice  of  the  unripe  capsules  of  a 
species  of  poppy,  Papaver  somniferum,  some¬ 
times  called  the  common  poppy,  and  sometimes 
the  white  poppy,  although  the  latter  name  is 
really  appropriate  only  to  one  of  its  varieties. 
The  plant  is  now  common  in  cultivated  and  waste 
grounds  throughout  all  temperate  climes.  The 
cultivation  of  the  poppy  for  the  sake  of  opium  is 
carried  on  in  many  parts  of  India,  although  the 
chief  opium  district  is  a  large  tract  on  the  Ganges, 
about  000  miles  in  length  and  200  miles  in 
breadth.  The  poppy  is  also  extensively  culti¬ 
vated  for  opium  in  the  Asiatic  provinces  of 
Turkey,  in  Egypt,  and  in  Persia.  Opium  is  un¬ 
doubtedly  the  most  valuable  remedy  of  the 
whole  materia  medica.  “  For  other  medicines,” 
says  Doctor  Pereira,  “  we  have  one  or  more 
substitutes;  but  for  opium,  none — at  least  in  the 
large  majority  of  cases  in  which  its  peculiar  and 
beneficial  influence  is  required.”  We  not  otdy 
exhibit  it  to  mitigate  pain,  to  allay  spasm,  to 
promote  sleep,  to  relieve  nervous  restlessness,  to 
produce  perspiration,  and  to  check  profuse  dis¬ 
charges  from  the  bronchial  tubes  and  intestinal 


canal;  but  we  also  find  it  capable  of  relieving 
some  diseases  in  which  none  of  the  above  indica¬ 
tions  can  be  always  distinctly  perceived.  In 
combination  with  tartar  emetic,  it  has  been 
strongly  recommended  in  fever  with  much  cere¬ 
bral  disturbance;  in  association  with  calomel,  it 
is  the  most- trustworthy  remedy  in  cases  of  inflam¬ 
mation  of  membranous  parts;  in  insanity,  its  value 
can  not  be  overestimated;  it  is  the  remedy  chiefly 
trusted  to  in  delirium  tremens;  it  is  more  service¬ 
able  than  any  other  medicine  in  diabetes;  and  to 
conclude  with  a  more  common  and  less  serious 
affection,  its  efficiency,  when  administered  in 
small  doses  (as  ten  or  fifteen  drops  of  laudanum 
three  times  a  day),  in  promoting  the  healing  of 
ulcers  in  which  granulation  proceeds  too  slowly 
is  very  marked.  In  a  case  of  poisoning  by  opium, 
the  first  and  most  essential  point  is  the  evacuation 
of  the  contents  of  the  stomach.  The  stomach- 
pump,  if  it  can  be  procured,  should  be  employed, 
and  Strong  coffee  should  then  be  pumped  into 
the  stomach  after  the  removal  of  its  contents. 
The  next  best  remedy  is  an  emetic  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  (about  a  scruple),  and  if  this  is  not  at  hand, 
a  dessert  spoonful  of  flour  of  mustard,  stirred  up 
in  a  tumbler  of  warm  water,  will  usually  produce 
the  desired  effect.  The  patient  must,  if  possible, 
be  prevented  from  falling  asleep,  and  for  this 
purpose  he  should  be  kept  constantly  walking 
between  two  strong  men,  while  a  third  person  in 
the  rear  should,  at  short  intervals,  flick  him 
sharply  with  a  rough  wet  towel,  or  (if  procura¬ 
ble)  a  good  birch  rod.  Cold  water  should  also 
be  occasionally  dashed  over  the  head  and  chest. 
In  a  few  apparently  hopeless  cases,  death  has 
been  averted  by  artificial  respiration,  and  by  the 
application  of  electro-magnetism. 

Opodel'doc  is  a  popular  synonym  for  soap 
liniment. 

Opop'onax,  a  gum  resin  obtained  bv  punctur¬ 
ing  the  roots  of  a  species  of  parsnip  (Pastinaca 
opoponax. 

Opor'to,  (Port.  O  Porto,  the  port),  a  city  of 
Portugal,  and,  after  Lisbon,  the  most  important 
seaport  of  the  country,  in  the  Province  of  Minlio, 
on  the  right  bank,  and  two  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Douro,  in  latitude  41°  9'  N.,  longitude  8° 
37'  W.;  and  is  195  miles  north  northeast  of  Lis¬ 
bon.  Pop.  (1878)  of  Oporto,  89,295;  but  with  its 
four  suburban  districts,  108,346. 

Opos'smn  ( Didelplds ),  a  genus  of  Marsupiata, 
having  ten  cutting  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and 
eight  in  the  lower,  one  canine  tooth  on  each  side 
in  each  jaw,  three  compressed  praemolars,  and 
four  sliarply-tuberculated  molars  on  each  side — 
fifty  teeth  in  all;  the  tongue  bristly;  the  tail  long, 
prehensile,  and  in  part  scaly;  the  feet  plantigrade; 
five  toes  on  each  foot,  their  claws  long  and  sharp; 
but  the  inner  toe  of  the  right  foot  converted  into 
a  thumb,  destitute  of  a  claw,  and  opposable  to 
the  other  digits;  the  muzzle  long  and  pointed, 
the  mouth  very  wide,  the  ears  large  and  destitute 
of  hair. 

Oquawka,  the  county  seat  of  Henderson  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  900. 

Or,  in  Heraldry,  the  metal  gold, 
represented  in  heraldic  engrav¬ 
ings  by  an  unlimited  number  of 
dots. 

Or 'ache  ( Atriplex ),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Chen- 
op"diacew,  having  male,  female, 
and  hermaphrodite  flowers;  the 
male  and  hermaphrodite  flowers 
with  a  three  to  five  partite  calyx,  and  three  to  five 
stamens;  the  female  flowers  with  a  compressed 
and  two-lobed  or  two-partite  calyx. 

Or'ange,  one  or  more  speciesof  Citrus,  of  which 
the  fruit  is  much  prized.  The  common  orange, 
or  sweet  orange  ( Citrus  aurantium  of  Risso), 
is  an  evergreen  tree  of  moderate  size,  with  green¬ 
ish-brown  bark;  the  leaves  oblong,  acute,  some¬ 
times  minutely  serrated, .  the  leaf  stalks  more  or 
less  winged,  the  flowers  white,  the  fruit  roundish, 
the  oil-cysts  of  the  rind  convex,  the  juice  sweet 
and  acid.  It  is  cultivated  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  world  of  which  the  climate  is  warm  enough, 
but  succeeds  best  in  the  warmer  temperate  or  sub¬ 
tropical  climates.  The  greater  part  of  the  oranges 
used  in  the  United  States  are  now  produced  in 
California  and  Florida. 


Orang',  or  Oiiang'-outang'  ( Simla  satyrus,  or 
Pilhecus  satyrus,  or  P.  abelii),  a  species  of  ape 


Orang-outang  (Simla  satyrus ). 


found  in  the  forests  of  Malacca,  Cochin-China, 
and  some  of  the  islands  of  that  part  of  the  world. 

Orange,  a  city  in  New  Jersey,  four  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Newark,  and  an  important  suburb  of 
New  York.  Orange  Mountain  commands  a  noble 
view  of  New  York  City  and  Bay,  and  its  slope  is 
laid  out  in  beautiful  parks,  and  ornamented  with 
villas.  It  is  the  site  of  a  Roman  Catholic  College 
and  a  water-cure.  Pop.,  15,300. 

Orange,  the  county  seat  of  Orange  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Orange,  the  county  seat  of  Orange  county,  Ya. 
Pop.,  1,250. 

Orangeburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Orangeburgli 
county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  2,340. 

Orange  City,  the  county  seat  of  Sioux  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Orangeman,  oneof  the  party  designations  which 
has  long  contributed  to  create  and  keepalive  relig¬ 
ious  and  political  divisions  in  Ireland  and  among 
Irishmen  in  other  countries.  The  Orange  organ¬ 
ization  had  its  origin  in  the  animosities  which  had 
subsisted  between  Protestants  and  Catholics  in 
Ireland  from  the  Reformation  downward,  but 
which  reached  their  full  development  after  the 
Revolution  of  1688,  and  the  wholesale  confisca¬ 
tions  of  Catholic  property  by  which  that  event 
was  followed.  The  name  of  the  Orange  associa¬ 
tion  is  taken  from  that  of  the  Prince  of  Orange, 
William  III.,  and  was  assumed  in  honor  of  that 
prince,  who,  in  Ireland,  has  been  popularly  iden¬ 
tified  with  the  establishment  of  that  Protestant 
ascendency  which  it  was  the  object  of  the  Orange 
association  to  sustain. 

Orange  River  Free  State.  The  Orange 
River  Free  State  is  the  name  assumed  by  the 
Republic  of  Dutch  Boers,  who,  after  retiring  from 
Natal,  Africa,  when  declared  a  British  colony, 
established  themselves  in  the  country  lying 
between  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Orange 
river,  the  Ky  Gariep  and  the  Gariep,  known  to 
the  colonists  as  the  Yaal  and  Orange  rivers,  and 
separated  from  the  coast  region  by  the  great  chain 
of  the  Quathlamba,  Maluti,  and  Drachenberg 
Mountains. 

Orchid  'eat,  or  Orchida'ce.*,  often  popularly 
called  Orchids,  a  natural  order  of  endogenous 
plants,  remarkable  for  the  structure  of  their 
flowers,  which  are  of  great  beauty  and  exquisite 
fragrance.  Many  of  them  are  epiphytes,  adorn¬ 
ing  the  boughs  of  trees  with  splendid  flowers. 
This  is  chiefly  the  case  with  tropical  species,  those 
of  colder  climates  mostly  growing  on  the  ground. 
Orchids  have  of  late  been  much  cultivated  on 
account  of  their  flowers. 

Or 'chis  is  a  genus  of  Orchidia,  to  which,  as 
now  restricted,  eleven  species  are  referred.  Some 
of  them  are  among  the  most  common  adorning 
meadows  and  pastures  with  their  flowers  in 
summer. 

Or'cin  and  Orcein  are  coloring  matters  ob¬ 
tained  from  lichens.  Orcin  (C-jlLCL+ILO)  may 
be  obtained  by  boiling  certain  species  of  roccella 
or  lecanora  with  lime  lor  some  hours,  removing 
the  lime,  by  a  current  of  carbonic  acid,  evaporat¬ 
ing  and  extracting  with  boiling  alcohol,  from 
which  the  orcin  separates  in  red  crystals. 


ORD. 


570 


ORTHOPTERA. 


Old,  the  county  seat  of  Valley  county,  Neb. 
Pop.,  1,000. 

Ord,  Edward  O.  C.,  an  American  general, 
born  in  Maryland  in  1818,  was  appointed  Briga¬ 
dier-General  of  Volunteers  about  September,  1861 , 
and  raised  to  the  rank  of  Major-General  in  May, 
1862.  He  held  several  important  commands  in 
the  Civil  War,  and  died  July  22,  1883. 

Order.  In  Classic  Architecture,  the  order  or 
ordonnance  comprises  the  column  with  its  base 
and  capital  and  the  entablature.  There  are  live 
orders:  (1 )  Tuscan,  (2)  Doric,  (3)  Ionic,  (4)  Corin¬ 
thian,  (5)  Composite.  The  first  and  fifth  are  Ro¬ 
man  orders,  and  are  simply  modifications  of  the 
others.  The  remaining  three  are  the  Greek  orders. 

Order,  in  Natural  History,  a  group  constituted 
for  the  purpose  of  classification,  inferior  to  class 
and  sub-class,  but  superior  to  family,  tribe,  genus, 
etc.  The  term  natural  order  is  used  in  botany 
to  designate  an  order  belonging  to  the  natural 
system  of  classification,  in  Contradistinction  to 
one  of  an  artificial  system  devised  for  mere  con¬ 
venience  of  the  student,  and  signifies  that  the  limits 
of  the  order  agree  with  the  truth  of  nature,  and 
that  it  thus  exhibits  affinities  really  existing. 

Orders,  Holy,  an  institution  regarded  in  the 
Greek  and  the  Roman  Church  as  a  sacrament,  by 
which  priests  are  specially  set  apart  for  the  service 
of  religion,  and  are  regarded  as  receiving  a  certain 
religious  consecration,  or,  at  least,  designation 
for  their  office. 

Ordinary  of  Arms,  in  Heraldry,  an  index  or 
dictionary  of  armorial  coats,  arranged,  not  accord¬ 
ing  to  names,  like  an  armory,  but  according  to 
the  leading  charges  in  the  respective  shields,  so 
as  to  enable  any  one  conversant  with  heraldic 
language,  on  seeing  a  shield  of  arms,  to  tell  to 
whom  it  belonged. 

Or'e  gon,  one  of  the  United  States,  in  latitude 
42°  to  46°  20'  N.,  longitude  1 16°  40'  to  124°  35' 
W. ,  bounded  north  by  Washington,  from  which 
it  is  chiefly  separated  by  Columbia  river;  east 
by  Idaho,  the  Lewis  or  Snake  river  intervening; 
south  by  Nevada  and  California,  and  west  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean ;  being  350  miles  from  east  to  west, 
by  275  from  north  to  south,  with  an  area  of  96,030 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1860),  52,464;  (1870),  90,776: 
(1880),  174,768. 

Oregon,  the  county  seat  of  Holt  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  1,075. 

Oregon,  the  county  seat  of  Ogle  county,  Ill. 
Pop.,  2,600. 

Oregon  City,  the  county  seat  of  Clackamas 
county,  Ore.  Pop.,  1,800. 

Oreide,  a  new  alloy  lately  introduced  by  the 
French  as  a  substitute  for  ormolu,  which  it  excels 
in  its  gold-like  character. 

Orel,  a  government  in  the  southwest  of  Central 
Russia,  bounded  on  the  wTest.  by  Little  Russia  and 
the  Government  of  Smolensk.  Area,  17,951 
square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  1,826,169. 

Orel',  a  thriving  town  of  Great  Russia,  capital 
of  the  government  of  the  same  name,  stands  on 
the  Oka,  at  its  confluence  with  the  Orlik,  226 
miles  south-southwest  of  Moscow,  and  678  miles 
south-southeast  of  St.  Petersburg.  Pop.  (1880), 
53,500. 

O  'renburg,  a  Russian  Government  in  the  Ural 
region,  lies  partly  in  Europe  and  partly  in  Asia, 
and  extends  between  the  Governments  of  Tobolsk 
on  the  northeast,  and  Samara  on  the  southwest. 
Area  of  the  government,  73,600  square  miles; 
pop.  (1880),  1,070,420. 

Orenburg,  a  town  on  the  eastern  frontier  of 
European  Russia,  in. the  government  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  River  Ural,  1.393  miles  southeast  of 
St.  Petersburg.  Pop.  (1880),  47,840. 

Oreodaph  'ue,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Lauraceas,  sometimes  called  Mountain 
Laurel.  O.  opi/em  is  a  native  of  the  countries 
on  the  lower  part  of  the  Amazon.  A  volatile  oil 
obtained  from  the  bark  is  used  as  a  liniment,  and 
when  kept  for  a  short  time  deposits  a  great 
quantity  of  camphor.  O.  cupularis  is  a  large 
tree  with  strong-scented  wood,  the  bark  of  which 
yields  the  cinnamon  of  Mauritius.  It  grows  also 
in  Bourbon  and  Madagascar. 

Organis'ta,  the  common  name  of  a  number  of 
small  South  American  birds,  allied  to  wrens,  and 
remarkable  for  the  sweetness  of  their  song. 

Or 'ganzine,  a  name  applied  to  silk  which 
after  having  been  first  wound  off  from  the  cocoons 


into  hanks,  is  then  placed  on  a  winding  machine, 
which  reels  off  the  hanks  on  to  wooden  reels. 

Or  geat,  a  kind  of  culinary  preparation,  which 
is  both  used  as  an  agreeable  syrup  to  mix  in  cer¬ 
tain  drinks,  or  medicinally  as  a  mild  demulcent. 
It  is  prepared  by  making  an  emulsion  of  almonds, 
which  are  blanched  for  the  purpose,  and  beaten 
into  a  paste  in  a  mortar,  anil  then  rubbed  up  with 
barley-water.  The  proportions  arc — one  pound 
of  sweet  and  one  ounce  of  bitter  almonds,  to  a 
quart  of  barley-water.  To  this  emulsion  are 
added  two  pounds  of  powdered  loaf-sugar,  and  a 
quarter  of  a  pint  of  orange-flower  water. 

Orgies  (probably  from  Gr.  epdo,  erdo,  in  the 
perfect,  eorc/a,  to  sacrifice),  or  Mysteries,  secret 
rites  or  customs  connected  with  the  worship  of 
some  of  the  Pagan  deities,  as  the  secret  worship 
of  Ceres  and  the  festival  of  Bacchus,  which  was 
accompanied  with  mystical  customs  and  drunken 
revelry.  The  name  is  now  applied  to  scenes  of 
drunkenness  and  debauchery. 

Orgues  are  thick,  long,  wooden  beams,  pointed 
and  shod  with  iron,  hung  vertically  by  separate 
ropes  in  the  gateway  of,  and  over  the  entrance  to 
a  fortified  place. 

Oriel  YVimlow,  a  projecting  window  having 
more  sides  than  one,  usually  three,  and  commonly 
divided  into  bays  by  mullious. 

Orig'inal  Sin.  According  to  this  theological 
tenet,  ■when  stated  in  its  extremest  form,  men 
come  into  the  world  with  the  reason  and  will 
utterly  corrupt.  This  corruption  originated  in 
the  fall  of  Adam,  and  has  been  inherited  equally 
by  all  his  posterity,  so  that  the  natural  man  is  not 
oidy  incapable  of  knowing  and  loving  God  and 
goodness,  but  is  inclined  to  contemn  God  and 
pursue  evil;  on  which  account  the  anger  of  God 
has  subjected  him  to  temporal  death,  and  destined 
him  to  everlasting  punishment  in  hell.  The  re¬ 
formers  of  the  sixteenth  century  everywhere 
made  original  sin  a  leading  doctrine.  The  whole 
Protestant  Church  held  that  Jesus  alone  was 
free  from  sin,  both  original  and  actual.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  ascribed  this  attribute 
also  to  Mary. 

Orino'co,  a  river  of  South  America,  flows 
through  Guiana  and  Venezuela,  and  reaches  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  south  of  Trinidad,  in  latitude  8° 
40'  N.  It  rises  in  the  Sierra  Parime,  one  of  the 
chief  mountain  chains  of  Guiana,  near  latitude 
3°  40'  N.,  longitude  64°  30'  W.  Length  of 
course,  1,960  miles. 

O'riole  ( Oriolus ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
Thrush  family  (Merulidce or  Turdidce),  having  an 
elongated  conical  beak,  broad  at  the  base;  the 
upper  mandible  ridged  above,  and  notched  at  the 
point;  wings  of  moderate  size,  the  first  feather 
very  short,  the  third  the  longest;  the  tail  of  mod¬ 
erate  length,  and  rounded;  the  tarsus  not  longer 
than  the  middle  toe;  the  outer  toe  joined  at  its 
base  to  the  middle  toe;  claws  strong  and  curved. 

Ori'on,  in  Greek  Mythology,  was  a  gigantic 
hunter,  and  reputed  the  handsomest  man  in  the 
world. 

Oriza'ba,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  State  of 
Vera  Cruz,  seventy  miles  west-southwest  of  the 
town  of  that  name,  and  twenty-five  miles  south  of 
the  volcano  of  Orizaba.  Pop.,  20,200. 

Ork'ney  Islands,  which,  with  Shetland,  form 
one  county,  separated  from  Caithness  by  the 
Pentland  Firth,  lie  between  58°  41'  24"  and  59° 
23'  2"  N.  latitude,  and  between  2°  22' 2"  and  3° 
25'  10"  W.  longitude;  and  are  seventy-three  in 
number,  at  low-water,  of  which  twenty-eight,  be¬ 
sides  Pomona,  or  the  Mainland,  are  inhabited. 
Area,  610  square  miles,  or  390,147  acres.  Pop., 
32  037. 

Orlanda,  the  county  seat  of  Orange  county, 
Fla.,  is  an  important  fruit-shipping  and  trading 
point.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Orle,  in  Heraldry,  one  of  the  charges  known 
under  the  name  of  sub-ordinaries,  said  to  be  the 
diminutive  of  a  Bordure,  but  differing  from  it  in 
being  detached  from  the  sides  of  the  shield.  It 
may  be  the  sole  <  barge  in  a  shield. 

Orleans,  an  important  commercial  town  of 
France,  capital  of  the  Department  of  Loiret,  and 
formerly  capital  of  the  old  Province  of  Orlean- 
nais,  which  now  forms  the  greater  part  of  the  De¬ 
partments  of  Loiret,  Eure-et-Loir,  and  Loir-et- 
Clier,  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  and  is  sev¬ 


enty-five  and  one  half  miles  south-southwest  of 
Paris.  Pop.  (1880).  57,314. 

Orleans,  Jean  Baptiste  Gaston,  Due  d’, 
third  son  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  and  Marie  de 
Medici;  was  born  at  Fontainebleau,  April  25, 
1608,  and  died  Feb.  2,  1660. 

Orleans,  Piiilippe,  Due  d’.  Regent  of  France 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XV.,  was  the  son  of 
Philippe.  Due  d’Orleans,  and  the  grandson  of 
Louis  XIII.  He  was  born  Aug.  4, 1674,  and  died 
Dec.  2.  1723. 

Orleans,  Louis  Philippe  Joseph,  Due  d’,  born 
April  13,  1747,  was  the  great-grandson  of  the  pre¬ 
ceding.  He  became  a  violent  revolutionist;  was  a 
member  of  the  convention,  of  the  Jacobin  Club; 
was  tried  by  the  Committee  of  Public  Safety  on 
a  charge  of  treason,  and  beheaded  on  Nov.  6, 
1793. 

Orleans  Cloth,  a  kind  of  stuff  made  for  ladies’ 
dresses,  in  which  the  warp  is  of  cotton  and  the 
weft  of  worsted.  It  is  so  called  from  having 
been  first  made  at  Orleans  in  France. 

Or'lop  (Dutch,  tverlovp,  that  which  runs  over 
or  covers),  in  ships  of  war,  is  the  lowest  deck,  im¬ 
mediately  above  the  hold.  It  contains  the  maga¬ 
zine,  bread  room,  and  various  store-rooms,  and  is 
used  in  time  of  action  for  the  reception  and  treat¬ 
ment  of  the  wounded,  as,  from  being  below  the 
water-line,  it  is  the  safest  part  of  the  ship. 

Ormolu'  is  a  variety  of  brass,  consisting  of 
zinc  25  parts,  and  copper  75  parts,  which  has  a 
nearer  resemblance  in  color  to  gold  than  ordinary 
brass.  It  is  extensively  used  for  castings  of  or¬ 
naments  for  furniture,  chandelabras,  and  such 
articles. 

Ornitltol'ogy  (Gr.  opvii,  ornis ,  a  bird,  and 
Aoyof,  logos,  a  discourse),  that  branch  of  zoology 
of  which  the  subject  is  birds. 

Ornithorhyncli'us.  See  Duck-bill. 

Orohan 'cheat,  or  Orobanciia'ce^e,  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  all  herbaceous,  and 
destitute  of  true  leaves,  but  having  their  stems 
covered  with  brown  or  colorless  scales.  They  all 
grow  parasitically  upon  the  roots  of  other  plants. 

Oroville,  the  county  seat  of  Butte  county,  Cal. 
Pop.,  2,100. 

Or 'pheus  (supposed  to  be  the  Vedic  Ribliu  or 
Arbhu,  an  epithet  both  of  Indra  and  the  sun),  a 
semi-mythic  name  of  frequent  occurrence  in  an¬ 
cient  Greek  lore.  The  early  legends  call  him  a 
son  of  Apollo  and  the  Muse  Calliope,  or  of  (Eag- 
rus  and  Clio,  or  Polymnia.  He  is  mentioned  as 
a  divine  bard  or  priest  in  the  service  of  Zagreus, 
the  Thracian  Dionysius,  and  founder  of  the  mys¬ 
teries,  as  the  first  musician;  the  first  inaugurator 
of  the  rites  of  expiation  and  of  the  Mantle  art, 
the  inventor  of  letters  and  the  heroic  meter;  of 
everything,  in  fact,  that  was  supposed  to  have 
contributed  to  the  civilization  and  initiation  into 
a  more  humane  worship  of  the  deity  among  the 
primitive  inhabitants  of  Thracia  and  all  Greece. 

Orris  Root  (probably  a  corruption  of  iris 
root),  the  rootstock  ( rhizome )  of  certain  species  of 
L  A,. natives  of  the  South  of  Europe,  belonging  to 
the  division  of  the  genus  having  bearded  flowers, 
sword-shaped  leaves,  and  scapes  taller  than  the 
leaves — viz.,  I.  florentina,  a  species  with  white 
flowers;  I.  pallida,  which  lias  pale  flowers;  and  /. 
germaniea,  which  has  deep  purple  flowers.  The 
latter  extends  further  north  than  the  other  species, 
and  its  root  is  sometimes  said  to  be  more  acrid. 
Orris  root  was  formerly  used  in  medicinal  prepara¬ 
tions  as  a  stimulant,  but  is  now  almost  entirely 
disused.  It  is  sometimes  chewed  to  sweeten 
an  offensive  breath.  Its  chief  use  is  in  perfumery. 

Or'this  (Gr.dpQoS,  straight),  a  large  genus  of 
fossil  brachiopodous  moilusca,  found  in  t lie 
palaeozoic  rocks,  most  abundantly  in  the  Silurian 
rocks,  but  ranging  upward  to  the  permian  series. 

Ortho'ceras  (Gr.  opQoS,  straight,  and  Kepal, 
a  horn),  an  extensive  genus  of  cephalopodous  moi¬ 
lusca,  found  in  the  palaeozoic  rocks,  from  the 
lower  Silurian  to  the  trias.  It  is  nearly  allied 
to  the  nautilus,  and  is  indeed,  in  its  simplest 
forms,  nothing  more  than  an  unrolled  and  straight¬ 
ened  naut.lus. 

Orthop'tera (Gr.  opQo?,  straight,  and  nripiov , 
a  wing,  an  order  of  mandibulate  insects,  in  many 
respects  resembling  the  coleoptera,  but  having  the 
wing  covers  softer  and  generally  leathery  and 
flexible. 


ORTOLAN. 


571 


OTARY. 


Or'tolan  ( Emberiza  hortulana),  a  species  of 
bunting  resembling  the  yellow  hammer,  and  not 
quite  equal  to  it  in  size. 

Ortonville,  the  county  seat  of  Big  Stone  coun¬ 
ty,  Minn.  Pop.,  775. 

O'ryx,  the  name  given  by  the  ancients  to  a 
species  of  antelope,  a  native  of  the  North  of 
Africa.  It  is  often  represented  on  the  monu¬ 
ments  of  Egypt,  and  as  these  representations  are 
almost  always  in  protile,  it  is  generally  made  to 


Oryx. 


appear  as  having  only  one  horn,  thus  probably 
contributing  to  the  fable  of  the  unicorn;  and,  in¬ 
deed,  all  the  older  figures  of  the  unicorn  exhibit 
a  considerable  resemblance  to  this  kind  of  an¬ 
telope. 

Osa'ca,  or  Ozaka,  a  city  of  Japan,  in  35°  5'N. 
latitude,  about  twenty  miles  from  its  seaport  of 
Hiogo;  is  on  a  large  river  on  the  southeast  coast 
of  the  main  island.  Pop.  (1877),  281,11!). 

Osage,  the  county  seat  of  Mitchell  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  2,080. 

Osage  Orange  {Madura  aurantiaca),  a  tree  of 
the  natural  order  Moraceee,  a  native  of  North 
America.  It  is  extensively  used  as  a  hedge  plant. 

Osawatomie,  a  town  in  Miami  county,  Kan. 
Pop.,  543.  It  is  famous  as  the  home  of  Old  John 
Brown. 

Osborne,  or  St.  Helen’s  Beds  are  a  series  of 
strata  of  the  middle  eocene  period,  occurring  in 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  consisting  of  layers  of  white, 
green,  and  yellow  sands,  interstratified  with  blue, 
white,  and  yellowish  clays  and  marls,  with  a 
maximum  thickness  of  50  feet;  also  of  the  nettle- 
stone  grits,  composed  of  yellow  limestone  and 
marl,  and  a  shelly  freestone,  which  is  much  used 
for  building,  having  a  thickness  of  20  feet. 

Oscar  1.,  Josefii  Francis,  King  of  Sweden 
and  Norway,  was  born  at  Paris,  July  4,  1799.  lie 
ascended  the  throne  March  8,  1841,  and  died  July 
8,  1859.  His  son,  Charles  XV.,  succeeded  him, 
died  Sept.  18,  1872,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother  as  Oscar  II. 

Osceo'la,  the  county  seat  of  Mississippi  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  350. 

Osceola,  the  county  seat  of  Polk  county,  Neb. 
Pop.,  850. 

Osceola,  the  county  seat  of  St.  Clair  count}', 
Mo.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Osceola  (Seminole  Ax-se-ho-Ia r),  a  chief  of  the 
tribe  of  Seminole  Indians  in  Florida,  was  born 
about  1803.  In  1835,  the  wife  of  Osceola,  a  chief’s 
daughter,  was  claimed  and  seized  as  a  slave  by 
the  owner  of  her  mother.  The  outraged  husband 
threatened  revenge,  and  for  his  threats  was  im¬ 
prisoned  six  days  in  irons  by  General  Thompson. 
Lying  in  wait,  a  few  days  afterward  he  killed  the 
general  and  four  others.  This  was  the  beginning 
of  the  Second  Seminole  War.  Laying  in  ambush 
soon  after,  he  killed  Major  Dale  and  a  small 
detachment  of  soldiers,  and  taking  to  the  almost 
impenetrable  Everglades,  with  200  or  300  fol¬ 
lowers,  he  fought  for  a  year,  with  great  energy 
and  skill,  the  superior  numbers  sent  against  him. 
He  was  taken  prisoner  at  last  by  General  Jessup, 
and  confined  in  Fort  Moultrie  until  his  death,  in 
January,  1838. 

Osceola  Mills,  the  county  seat  of  Polk  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  450. 

Osh  'kosli,  a  town  in  Wisconsin,  on  both  sides 
of  the  Fox  river,  at  its  entrance  to  Lake  Winne¬ 
bago,  ninety  miles  north-northeast  of  Madison.  It 
has  a  large  lumber  trade,  saw-mills,  planing- 
mills,  steamboats,  etc.  Pop.,  25,100. 

O'sier  (Fr.,  probably  of  Celtic  origin),  the 


popular  name  of  those  species  of  willow,  which 
are  chiefly  used  for  basket-making  and  other 
wicker-work. 

Osi'ris,  according  to  others,  Asiris,  or  Ilysiris 
(Many-eycd),  a  celebrated  Egyptian  deity,  whose 
worship  was  universal  throughout  Egypt. 

Oskaloosa,  the  county  seat  of  Jefferson  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  759. 

Oskaloosa,  a  prosperous  manufacturing,  agri¬ 
cultural,  and  jobbing  city,  and  the  county  seat  of 
Mahaska  county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  7,600. 

Os'mium  (symbol  Os,  equiv.  200 — sp.  gr.  10) 
is  one  of  the  noble  metals  which  occurs  in  asso¬ 
ciation  with  platinum,  in  the  form  of  an  alloy 
with  iridium.  It  may  be  obtained  in  the  metallic 
condition  by  several  processes,  which  yield  it 
either  in  thin,  dark-gray  glistening  scales,  or  as  a 
dense  iron-black  mass.  It  is  the  least  fusible  of 
all  the  metals;  the  oxyliydrogen  jet  volatilizing, 
but  not  fusing  it. 

Osmun'da.  a  genus  of  ferns,  distinguished  by 
spore-cases  in  branched,  stalked  masses.  It  pos- 


Royal  Fern  ( Osmunda  r eg  alls) . 
a ,  Pinnate  of  a  barren  frond;  6,  branchlet  of  fertile  frond ; 
c ,  spore-case;  d,  the  same,  showing  how  it  opens  by 
two  valves. 

sesses  tonic  and  styptic  properties,  and  its  root¬ 
stocks  were  formerly  used  in  scrofula. 

Osnabriick,  or  Osnaburg,  a  territory  occupy¬ 
ing  the  western  portion  of  the  Prussian  Province 
of  Hanover,  and  embracing  the  Principality  of 
Osnabruck,  tlieCouigtshipsof  Lingenand  of  Bent- 
heim,  and  the  Duchy  of  Arensburg-Meppen,  and 
the  Lordship  of  Papenburg.  Area,  2,408  square 
miles;  pop.  (1880),  about  290,135. 

Osnabriick,  the  chief  town  of  the  territory,  is 
eighty  miles  west-southwest  of  Hanover.  Pop. 
(1880),  32,812. 

Osprey  ( PnmJion ),  a  genus  of  Falcauidm,  of 
which  only  one  species  is  known  (P.  haliaeUis), 


also  called  the  fish  hawk  or  fish  eagle,  and 
sometimes  the  bald  buzzard. 

Os  'sa,  the  ancient  name  of  a  mountain  on  the 
east  side  of  Thessaly,  near  Pelion,  and  separated 
from  Olympus  by  the  Vale  of  Tempo.  It  is  now 
called  Kissavo. 

Os'sein,  the  substance  in  the  tissue  of  the 


bones  which  yields  gluten.  It  is  obtained  by  the 
prolonged  action  of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  on 
bone,  which  dissolves  all  the  earthy  matter. 

Os'sian,  Poems  OF.  Ossian,  or  Oisin  (a  word 
which  is  interpreted  the  little  fawn),  a  Celtic 
warrior-poet,  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  third 
century,  and  to  have  been  the  son  of  Fingal  or 
Finn  MacCumliaill.  The  poems  which  are 
ascribed  to  him  in  manuscripts  of  any  antiquity, 
are  few  and  short,  and  of  no  remarkable  merit. 

Ossipee,  the  county  seat  of  Carroll  county, 
N.  II.  Pop.,  1,800. 

Osteol'ogy  (Gr.  odrea,  odea,  the  bones),  is 
that  department  of  anatomy  which  treats  of  the 
chemical  and  physical  properties  of  the  osseous 
tissue,  and  of  the  shape,  development  and  growth, 
articulations,  etc.,  of  the  various  bones  of  which 
the  skeleton  is  composed. 

Os'traeisni,  a  right  exercised  by  the  people  of 
Athens  of  banishing  for  a  time  any  person  whose 
services,  rank,  or  wealth  appeared  to  be  danger¬ 
ous  to  the  liberty  of  his  fellow-citizens,  or  incon¬ 
sistent  with  their  political  equality.  It  was  not  a 
punishment  for  any  particular  crime,  but  rather 
a  precautionary  measure  to  remove  such  leaders 
as  were  obvi  usly  exercising  a  dangerous  ascend¬ 
ency  in  the  State. 

Os 'trick  (Slruthio),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
order  Orallatoies,  and  tribe  Brempennes,  in 
Cuvier’s  system — the  order  Cursores  (or  runners) 
of  some  ornithologists.  The  ostrich  is  the  largest 
of  all  birds  now  existing,  being  from  6  to  8  feet 
in  height  to  the  top  of  its  head,  and  an  adult  ma’e 
weighing  from  200  to  300  pounds.  The  male  is 
rather  larger  than  the  female.  The  general  plum¬ 
age  is  glossy  black  in  the  adult  male,  dark  gray 
in  the  female  and  young,  with  a  slight  sprinkling 
of  white  feathers;  the  long  plumes  of  the  wings 
and  tail  are  white,  occasionally  marked  with 
black.  On  each  wing  are  two  plumeless  shafts, 
not  unlike  porcupine  quills. 

Ostrich  Feathers  are  occasionally  borne  as  a 
heraldic  charge,  and  always  represented  drooping. 

Oswe'go,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  New 
York,  is  at  the  mouth  of  Oswego  river,  on  Lake 
Ontario,  at  the  extremity  of  the  Oswego  Canal. 
It  has  a  large  trade  with  the  lake  country  and 
Canada,  and  exports  about  .$12,000,000  per  an¬ 
num.  Pop.,  25,100. 

Oswego,  the  county  seat  of  Labette  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  3,600. 

Oswego  Tea,  a  name  given  to  several  species  of 
Monarda,  particularly  M .  purpurea,  AI.  didyma, 
and  M.  kalmiana,  natives  of  North  America, 
because  of  the  occasional  use  of  an  infusion  of 
the  dried  leaves  as  a  beverage.  They  belong  to 
the  natural  order  Lubiatw,  somewhat  resemble 
mints  in  appearance,  and  have  an  agreeable  odor. 

Otal'gia(Gr.  oro?,  otos.  the  ear,  and  akyo?, 
algo*,  pain)  is  neuralgia  of  the  ear.  It  occurs  in 
fits  of  excruciating  pain,  shooting  over  the  head 
and  face,  but  is  not  accompanied  by  fever,  nor 
usually  by  any  sensation  of  throbbing.  Its  causes 
and  treatment  are  those  of  neuralgia  generally, 
but  it  is  particularly  caused  by  caries  of  the  teeth, 
which  should  always  be  carefully  examined  by  a 
dentist  in  these  cases.  When  patients  complain 
of  earache,  the  pain  is  far  more  commonly  due  to 
otitix,  or  inflammation  of  the  tympanic  portion  of 
the  ear,  a  much  more  serious  affection. 

O'tary  (Otaria),  a  genus  of  the  seal  family 
( Phocida ),  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  fam- 


Sea  Lion  (Otaria  jubata),  female  and  calf. 

ily  by  a  projecting  auricle  or  auditory  conch 
(often  popularly  called  external  ear),  and  by  a. 


OTIIMAN. 


572 


OVIPAROUS. 


remarkable  character,  a  double  cutting  edge  in 
the  four  middle  upper  incisors. 

Otlimau,  Othoman,  or  Osman  I.,  surnamed 
Al-'/liazi  (the  conqueror),  the  founder  of  the 
Turkish  power,  was  born  in  Bithynia  in  1259, 
and  died  in  1326.  From  him  are  derived  the  terms 
Ottomans,  Othomans,  and  Osmanli  or  OsmaulQ, 
which  are  employed  as  synonymous  with  Turks. 

O'tho,  Marcus  Salvius,  Roman  Emperor, 
was  descended  of  an  ancient  Etruscan  family, 
was  born  32  a.d.,  and  died  April  15,  69  a.d. 

Olho  I.,  or  the  Great,  son  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  I.  of  Germany,  was  born  in  912,  and  after 
having  been  early  recognized  as  his  successor, 
was,  on  the  death  of  his  father  in  936,  formally 
crowned  King  of  the  Germans.  His  reign  was 
one  succession  of  eventful  and  generally'  triumph¬ 
ant  wars.  He  died  in  973. 

Otho  II.,  surnamed  Rufus  the  Red,  son  of 
Otho  I.,  was  born  in  955,  succeeded  his  father  in 
973,  and  died  in  983. 

Olho  III.,  who  was  only  three  years  old  at  his 
father’s  death,  was  at  once  crowned  King  of  the 
Germans,  in  983,  from  which  period  till  996,  when 
he  received  the  imperial  crown  at  Rome,  the 
government  was  administered  by  three  female 
relatives  of  the  boy-king — viz.:  his  mother, 
Tlieophania;  his  grandmother,  Adelheid;  and  his 
aunt,  Matilda.  He  died  in  1002. 

Otho  I.,  second  son  of  Ludwig,  King  of  Bava¬ 
ria,  was  born  at  Salzburg,  June  1,  1815,  and  on 
the  erection  of  Greece  into  a  kingdom  in  1832, 
was  appointed  by  the  protecting  powers  King  of 
Greece.  He  died  July  26,  1867. 

Oti'tis,  or  inflammation  of  the  tympanic  cavity 
of  the  ear,  may  be  either  acute  or  chronic,  and  it 
may  come  on  during  the  course  of  certain  febrile 
affections,  especially  scarlatina,  or  in  consequence 
of  a  scrofulous,  rheumatic,  or  gouty  constitution; 
or  it  may  be  excited  by  direct  causes,  as  exposure 
to  currents  of  cold  air,  violent  syringing  or  prob¬ 
ing,  etc.  The  symptoms  of  the  acute  form  are 
sudden  and  intense  pain  in  the  ear,  increased  by 
coughing,  sneezing,  or  swallowing,  tinnitus  auri- 
urn,  or  singing  or  buzzing  noises  heard  by  the 
patient,  and  more  or  lessdeafness.  If  the  disease 
goes  on  unchecked,  suppuration  takes  place,  and 
the  membrane  of  the  tympanum  ulcerates,  and 
allows  the  discharge  of  pus,  or  inflammation  of 
the  dura  mater  and  abscesses  in  the  brain  may  be 
established.  In  less  severe  cases  there  is  usually 
a  considerable  amount  of  persistent  damage,  and 
an  obstinate  discharge  of  matter  (otorrhma)  is  a 
frequent  sequence  of  the  disease.  The  treatment 
of  so  serious  an  affection  must  be  left  solely  in  the 
hands  of  the  medical  practitioner.  The  symptoms 
of  the  chronic  and  less  acute  varieties  of  otitis  are 
unfortunately  so  slight,  that  they  are  often  neg¬ 
lected,  until  the  patient  finds  the  sense  of  hearing 
in  one  or  both  ears  almost  completely  gone.  In 
these  milder  forms  of  otitis  the  general  indications 
of  treatment  are  to  combat  the  diathesis  on  which 
they  frequently  depend,  and  to  improve  the  general 
health.  Small  doses  of  mercury  continued  for  a 
considerable  time  (such  as  one  grain  of  gray  pow¬ 
der  night  and  morning),  and  small  blisters  occa¬ 
sionally  applied  to  the  nape  of  the  neck  or  to  the 
mastoiu  process,  are  often  of  service  in  chronic 
cases.  If  there  is  any  discharge  the  ear  should 
be  gently  syringed  once  or  twice  aday  with  warm 
water,  after  which  a  tepid  solution  of  sulphate  of 
zinc  (one  grain  loan  ounce  of  water)  may  i  e  drop¬ 
ped  into  t lie  meatus,  and  allowed  to  remain  there 
two  or  three  minutes. 

OtoTilhus,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family 
Scmniclce,  having  a  .perch-like  form,  a  convex 
head,  with  cellular  bones,  ,’eeble  anal  spines,  no 
barbels,  I  mg  curved  teeth  or  canines  among  the 
other  teeth.  A  valuable  species  of  this  genus  is 
the  weak-fish,  or  squeteague  ( 0 .  regalia). 

Otorrlice'a,  a  purulent  or  muco-purulent  dis- ; 
charge  from  the  external  ear.  It  may  be  due  to 
various  causes,  of  which  t lie  most  frequent  is 
catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  meatus,  and  the  next  in  frequency  is 
otitis  in  its  various  forms.  In  obstinate  cases  of 
catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane, 
the  discharge  may  often  be  checked  by  penciling 
the  whole  interior  of  the  meatus  with  a  solution 
of  five  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  in  an  ounce  of 
water. 

Otran'to,  Terra  di,  now  called  Lecce,  the 


extreme  southeastern  province  of  Italy,  forming 
the  heel  of  the  Italian  boot,  is  bounded  on  the 
northwest  by  the  provinces  of  Bari  and  Basili¬ 
cata,  and  surrounded  on  all  other  sides  by  the  sea. 
Area,  3,293  square  miles;  pop.  (1871),  493,263. 

Ot'tawa,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  British 
North  America,  rises  in  latitude  48’  30'  N.  longi 
tude,  76°  W  ,  in  the  watershed  on  the  opposite 
side  of  which  rise  the  St.  Maurice  and  Saguenay. 
After  a  course  of  above  600  miles,  it  falls  into  the 
St.  Lawrence  by  two  mouths,  which  form  the 
Island  of  Montreal. 

Ottawa,  the  county  seat  of  Franklin  county, 
Kan.,  is  an  important  manufacturing  and  agri¬ 
cultural  city.  Pop.,  7,900. 

Ottawa,  the  county  seat  of  La  Salle  county, 

111.,  is  a  flourishing  manufacturing  city.  Pop., 

12,100. 

Ottawa,  the  county  seat  of  Putnam  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  1,800. 

Ottawa,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
is  eighty-seven  miles  above  the  confluence  of  the 
River  Ottawa  with  the  St.  Lawrence,  126  miles 
from  Montreal,  ninety-five  from  Kingston,  and 
450  from  New  York.  Pop.  (1881),  27,412.  The 
city  is  in  communication  by  steamer  on  the  Ot¬ 
tawa  with  Montreal;  on  the  Rideau  Canal  with 
Lake  Ontario  at  Kingston;  and  with  the  principal 
points  of  the  province  and  of  the  United  States 
by  several  railway  lines. 

Otter  (Lutra),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
weasel  family  ( Mustelidoe ),  differing  widely  from 
the  rest  of  the  family  in  their  aquatic  habits,  and 
in  a  conformation  adapted  to  these  habits,  and  in 
some  respects  approaching  to  that  of  seals.  The 
body,  which  is  long  and  flexible,  as  in  the  other 
Mustelidce,  is  considerably  flattened;  the  head  is 
broad  and  flat;  the  eyes  are  small,  and  furnished 
with  a  nictitating  membrane;  the  ears  are 
small;  the  legs  short  and  powerful;  the  feet, 
which  have  each  five  toes,  are  completely  webbed; 
the  claws  are  not  retractile;  the  tail  is  stout  and 
muscular  at  its  base,  long,  tapering,  and  horizon¬ 
tally  flattened.  The  tongue  is  rough,  but  not  so 
much  so  as  in  the  weasels.  The  fur  is  very  smooth, 
and  consists  of  two  kinds  of  hair — an  inner  fur 
very  dense  and  soft,  intermixed  with  longer, 
coarser,  and  glossy  hair. 

Otto  (or  Attar)  of  Roses,  is  the  volatile  oil  or 
otto  of  the  petals  of  some  species  of  rose,  obtained 
by  distillation,  and  highly  prized  as  a  perfume. 
It  is  a  nearly  colorless  or  light  yellow  crystalline 
solid,  at  temperatures  below  80°  F.,  liquefy¬ 
ing  a  little  above  that  temperature. 

Ottoman  Empire,  or  “Empire  of  the  Osman- 
lis,”  comprehends  all  the  countries  which  are 
more  or  less  under  the  authority  of  the  Turkish 
Sultan,  and  includes,  besides  Turkey  in  Asia, 
and  that  part  of  Turkey  in  Europe  which  is  under 
his  immediate  sovereignty,  the  tributary  but 
autonomous  Principality  of  Bulgaria,  with  the 
autonomous  Province  of  Eastern  Roumelia,  in 
Europe  (Roumania,  Servia,  and  Montenegro 
being  now  independent);  Egypt  (nominally)  and 
Tripoli,  in  Africa;  and  a  part  of  Arabia,  in¬ 
cluding  Mecca  and  Medina,  in  Asia. 

Ottumwa,  an  important  manufacturing  and 
mercantile  city,  and  t lie  county  seat  of  Wapello 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  12,100. 

Oude,  or  Audh,  a  province  of  British  India, 
separated  on  the  north  from  Nepaul  by  the  lower 
ranges  of  the  Himalaya,  whence  it  gradually 
slopes  to  the  Ganges.  Extreme  length,  270  miles; 
breadth  160;  area,  23,992  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1881),  11,427,625. 

Oil i(l a  is  the  pseudonym  of  Louisa  dela  Ramee, 
Sensational  English  novelist,  born  at  Bury  St. 
Edmunds  in  1840. 

Ounce  ( Felix  uncia ,  or  Leopardus  undo),  a  large 
feline  animal,  nearly  resembling  the  leopard.  It 
is  a  native  of  Asia,  and  probably  of  mountainous 
districts. 

Ouray,  the  county  seat  of  Ouray  county,  Colo. 
Pop.,  1,403. 

Ou'ro  Pro 'to  (black  gold),  a  city  of  Brazil, 
capital  of  the  Province  of  Minas  Geraes.  Pop., 
about  4,000. 

Outram,  Sir  James,  Lieutenant-General, 
G.C.IL,  Indian  soldier  and  statesman,  was  born 

1803. . at  Butterley  Hall,  Derbyshire,  England.  He 
died  in  1863. 


Ouzel,  or  Ousel  (Old  Fr.  oisel,  bird),  an  old 
name  of  the  black-bird. 

Ovam'pos  and  Ovampoland.  The  Ovampos 
or  Otjiherero  are  a  tribe,  seemingly  a  connecting 
link  between  the  Kaffir  and  Negro  races,  who 
inhabit  the  region  north  of  Great  Namaqualand, 
in  South  Africa,  extending  north  to  the  Cuauene 
river,  and  south  to  the  parallel  of  23°  S.  latitude. 

0  'varies  are  organs  peculiar  to  the  female,  and 
are  analogous  to  t  he  testes  in  the  male.  They  are  two 
oblong  flattened  bodies  (about  1J  inches  in  length, 
f  inch  in  width,  and  nearly  i  inch  thick  in  the 
human  subjec),  situated  on  either  side  of  the 
uterus,  to  which  they  are  connected  by  ligaments 
and  by  the  Fallopian  tube.  On  making  sections 
of  an  ovary,  numerous  vesicles  are  seen.  '1  liese 
are  the  ovisacs  of  the  future  ova  or  germs,  and  are 
termed  the  Graafian  vesicles.  Before  impregna¬ 
tion,  they  vary  in  number  from  ten  to  twenty,  and 
from  the  size  of  a  pin’s  head  to  that  of  a  pea;  but 
microscopic  examination  reveals  the  presence  of 
young  vesicles  in  large  numbers.  At  each  monthly 
period  a  ripe  Graafian  vesicle  bursts,  and  the  ovum 
contained  in  it  makes  its  way  by  ciliary  motion 
along  the  Fallopi  m  tube  to  the  uterus,  where,  if 
it  is  not  impregnated,  it  is  disintegrated  and  ab¬ 
sorbed. 

Oven-bird  ( Furnarius ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Certhiadm,  natives  of  the  southern  parts  of 
South  America,  interesting  on  account  of  the 
remarkable  nests  which  they  construct.  Both 
sexes  take  part  in  the  construction  of  the  nest, 


which  is  generally  in  an  exposed  situation,  remark¬ 
ably  large,  and  of  the  shape  of  a  dome,  with  a 
small  entrance  on  one  side,  so  as  to  have  much 
resemblance  to  a  rude  oven.  It  is  made  of  clay, 
grass,  etc. 

Overland  Route  to  India  is  that  from  Eng¬ 
land  across  the  Gontinent  of  Europe  and  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  is  only  about  half  as  long 
as  the  voyage  round  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope; 
a  little  over  6,000  miles  instead  of  more  than 
12,000. 

Overture  (from  Fr.  ovverlitre,  opening),  a 
musical  composition  for  a  full  instrumental  band, 
introductory  to  an  opera,  oratorio,  cantata,  or 
ballet.  It  originated  in  France,  and  received  its 
settled  form  at  the  hands  of  Lulli.  Being  of  the 
nature  of  a  prologue,  it  ought  to  be  in  keeping 
with  t  lie  piece  which  it  ushers  in,  so  as  to  prepare 
the  audience  for  the  sort  of  emotions  which  the 
author  wishes  to  excite.  In  the  end  of  last  cent¬ 
ury,  overtures  were  written  by  Haydn,  Pleyel, 
and  other  composers,  as  independent  pieces  to  be 
played  in  the  concert  room;  this  sort  of  overture 
being,  in  fact,  the  early  form  of  what  was  after¬ 
ward  developed  into  the  symphony. 

Overys'sel,  a  province  of  the  Netherlands,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Friesland  and  Drenthe; 
east,  by  Hanover  and  Westphalia;  south  and 
southwest,  by  Gelderland;  and  west,  by  the  Zuider 
Zee.  It  has  an  area  of  1,274  square  miles;  and 
(1880)  a  pop.  of  276,246. 

Ovid,  the  county  seat  of  Seneca  county,  N.  Y. 
Pop.,  775. 

Ovid  (Publius  Ovidius  Naso),  one  of  the 
most  graceful  Latin  poets,  author  of  the  Meta¬ 
morphoses,  etc.,  the  descendant  of  an  old  eques¬ 
trian  family,  was  born  on  March  20.  43  b.c.,  at 
Sulmo,  in  the  country  of  the  Peligni.  He  died 
in  18  a.d. 

Ovip'arous,  a  term  applied  to  animals  in 
which  reproduction  takes  place  by  eggs  (ova). 
Except  the  mammalia,  all  animals  are  either 
oviparous  or  ovoviviparous;  the  latter  mode — 


OVOVIVIPAROUS. 


573 


OXYGEN. 


which  is  not  essentially  different  from  the  former 
— being  comparatively  rare. 

Ovovivip'arous,  a  term  applied  to  animals  of 
which  the  egg  is  hatched  within  the  body  of  the 
mother,  so  that  the  young  is  excluded  alive, 
although  the  foetus  has  been  inclosed  in  an  egg 
almost  to  the  time  of  parturition.  It  is  probable 
that  the  egg  is  often  broken  in  parturition  itself. 

O'vule  (Lat.  a  little  egg),  in  Botany,  the  rudi¬ 
mentary  seed.  The  germen  or  ovary  sometimes 
contains  only  one  ovule,  sometimes  a  small 
definite  number,  sometimes  a  large  indefinite 
number. 

Owatonna,  the  county  seat  of  Steele  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  3,350. 

Owego,  the  county  seat  of  Tioga  county,  N. 
Y.  Pop.,  5,600. 

Owen,  Richard,  one  of  the  greatest  living 
physiologists,  anatomists,  and  general  surgeons, 
was  born  at  Lancaster,  England,  July  20,  1804. 
He  is  a  Fellow  and  acti  e  member  of  most  of  the 
metropolitan  scientific  societies,  one  of  the  eight 
foreign  associates  of  the  Institute  of  France,  and 
an  honorary  member  of  many  foreign  societies. 
From  France  he  also  received  the  order  of  the 
Legion  of  Honor;  from  Prussia,  the  Ordre  pour 
le  Merite;  and  from  Italy,  the  Order  of  St.  Mau¬ 
rice  and  St.  Lazare.  He  was  made  a  Companion 
of  the  Bath  in  1873,  and  a  K.  C.  B.  in  1883. 

Owensborough,  a  thriving  town  in  Daviess 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  10,100. 

Owenton,  the  county  seat  of  Owen  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Owingsville,  the  county  seat  of  Bath  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Owl,  a  numerous  and  extremely  well-defined 
group  of  birds,  constituting  the  family  Stru/ic/ce, 
the  whole  of  the  nocturnal  section  of  birds  of 
prey.  The  owls  are  easily  distinguished  by  the 
large  size  of  their  heads,  and  by  their  great  eyes, 
directed  forward,  and  surrounded  with  more  or 
less  perfect  discs  of  feathers  radiating  outward, 
while  the  small  hooked  bill  is  half  concealed  by 
the  feathers  of  these  discs,  and  by  bristly  feathers 
which  grow  at  its  base.  The  bill  iscurved  almost 
from  its  base;  the  upper  mandible  not  notched, 
but  much  hooked  at  the  tip.  The  claws  are  sharp 
and  curved,  but,  like  the  bill,  less  powerful  than 
in  the  Falconidas.  Owls  are  found  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  in  all  climates. 

Ox  (j Bos  taurus),  a  ruminant  quadruped  of  the 
family  Bovidce,  the  most  useful  to  man  of  all 
domesticated  animals.  The  species  is  distin¬ 
guished  by  a  fiat  forehead,  longer  than  broad; 
and  by  smooth  and  round  tapering  horns,  rising 
from  the  extremities  of  the  frontal  ridge.  But 
among  the  many  varieties  or  breeds  which  exist, 
there  are  great  diversities  in  the  length  and  cur¬ 
vature  of  the  horns,  and  some  are  hornless.  It  is 
probable  that  the  ox  is  a  native  both  of  Asia  and 
of  Europe,  perhaps  also  of  Africa.  The  ox  is 
chiefly  valuable  for  its  flesh  and  its  milk;  but 
almost  every  part  of  the  animal  is  useful — the  fat, 
skin,  hair,  horns,  intestines.  The  period  of  ges¬ 
tation  of  the  ox  is  nine  months,  or  270  days.  It 
rarely  produces  more  than  one  calf  at  a  birth.  It 
attains  maturity  in  two  or  three  years,  becomes 
evidently  aged  at  ten,  and  seldom  lives  more  than 
fourteen.  Cows  are  seldom  kept  for  the  dairy 
after  they  are  seven  or  eight  years  old,  as  after 
that  age  they  yield  less  milk  and  of  inferior 
quality.  The  varieties  of  breeds  differ  very  much 
in  almost  every  respect— some  being  fit  only  for 
beef,  while  others  are  only  suitable  for  the  dairy. 
Of  beef-cattle  the  best  breeds  in  this  country  are 
said  to  be  the  short-horns,  polled  angus,  Here- 
fords,  etc.  The  best  butter  cows  are  the  Holstein- 
Friesian,  the  Alderney,  and  the  Jersey. 

Oxal'ic  Acid  (C2II204)  occurs  in  colorless, 
transparent,  oblique,  rhombic  prisms,  which  have 
an  intensely  sour  taste,  and  are  soluble  in  nine 
parts  of  cold  water,  and  much  more  freely  in 
boiling  water.  Oxalic  acid  is  one  of  the  most 
powerful  of  the  organic  acids,  and  expels  car¬ 
bonic  acid  and  many  other  acids  from  their  salts. 
The  acid  itself,  and  its  soluble  salts,  are  poison¬ 
ous.  Its  most  common  mode  of  preparation  is 
by  the  oxidation  of  starch  or  sugar  by  nitiic  acid. 
Cases  of  accidental  poisoning  sometimes  occur 
by  its  being  sold  by  mistake  for  Epsom  salts. 
The  symptoms  area  hot  or  burning  acid  taste, 
with  a  sense  of  constriction  or  suffocation;  vom¬ 


iting,  great  pain  in  the  region  of  the  stomach, 
convulsions,  cold  perspirations  and  general  col¬ 
lapse  speedily  follow;  and  respiration,  shortly 
before  death,  becomes  slow  and  spasmodic.  With 
the  view  of  converting  the  free  acid  in  the  stom¬ 
ach  into  an  insoluble  and  inert  salt,  chalk, 
whiting,  or  lime-water,  with  full  draughts  of 
milk,  should  be  administered  with  the  least  pos¬ 
sible  delay.  Salt  of  sorrel  is  almost  as  poisonous 
as  the  pure  acid. 

Oxalide'ae,  or  Oxalida'ce/e,  a  natural  order 
of  exogenous  plants,  allied  to  Geraniaceat.  There 
are  upward  of  300  known  species,  natives  of 
warm  and  temperate  climates.  They  are  par¬ 
ticularly  abundant  in  North  America  and  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  An  acid  juice  is  very  char¬ 
acteristic  of  this  order.  Some  of  the  tropical 
species  produoe  agreeable  acid  fruits,  as  the 
carambola. 

Oxalu'ria,  or  The  Oxal'ic  AcidDiatii'esis, 
is  a  morbid  condition  of  the  system,  in  which  one 
of  the  most  prominent  symptoms  is  the  persistent 
occurrence  of  crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime  in  the 
urine.  Persons  who  secrete  this  form  of  urine 
are  usually  dyspeptic,  hypochondriacal,  and 
liable  to  attacks  of  boils,  cutaneous  eruptions, 
and  neuralgia.  The  oxalic  acid,  in  these  cases,  is 
not  introduced  into  the  system  with  the  food,  but 
is  a  product  of  the  disintegration  of  the  tissues, 
and  is  due  to  the  imperfect  oxidation  of  com¬ 
pounds  which  should  normally  have  been  con¬ 
verted  into  carbonic  acid.  The  treatment  is 
simple.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  patient 
should  avoid  articles  of  diet  containing  oxalic 
acid  (such  as  sorrel,  rhubarb,  tomatoes,  etc.),  or 
readily  converted  into  it  (such  as  sugar),  and  all 
drinks  containing  much  carbonic  acid;  while  he 
should  take  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  open  air, 
without  fatiguing  himself ;  should  use  the  shower- 
bath,  unless  he  feels  chilled  and  depressed  after 
its  application,  in  which  case  he  should  rub  the 
body  all  over  daily  with  a  horse-hair  glove;  and 
should  employ  as  a  tonic  medicine  either  a  little 
nitro-muriatic  acid  in  a  bitter  infusion  (twenty 
minims  of  the  acid  in  an  ounce  and  a  half  of 
infusion  of  chyretta),  or  five  grains  of  citrate  of 
iron  and  quinine  three  times  daily. 

Ox 'ford,  an  ancient  and  famous  city  and  seat 
of  learning  in  England,  the  chief  town  of  the 
County  of  Oxford,  is  situated  on  the  northeast 
bank  of  the  Isis,  a  tributary  of  the  Thames,  a 
little  above  the  point  where  it  is  met  by  the  Cher- 
well.  Latitude  of  the  city,  51°  45'  55"  N., 
longitude  1°  15'  29"  W.  Distance  from  London, 
fifty-five  miles  west-northwest.  Pop.  (1881), 
40,862.  It  is  the  seat  of  Oxford  University. 

Oxford,  the  county  seat  of  Granville  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  2,349. 

Oxford,  the  county  seat  of  La  Fayette  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Oxford  Clay,  the  principal  member  of  the 
middle  oolite  series,  is  a  bed  of  stiff  dark-blue  or 
blackish  clay,  sometimes  reaching  the  thickness 
of  600  feet.  There  occur  in  its  lower  portion  in 
some  places  layers  of  tough  calcareous  sandstone. 

Oxfordshire,  an  inland  county  of  England, 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  River  Thames,  east 
by  Bucks,  west  by  Gloucester.  Area,  472,717 
acres.  Pop.  (1881),  179,559. 

Oxford  University  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  King  Alfred.  The  colleges  were 
founded  at  various  periods,  from  the  end  of  the 
thirteenth  century  to  the  beginning  of  the  eight¬ 
eenth.  Fourteen  out  of  the  twenty  were 
founded  before  the  Reformation.  It  is  very 
difficult  to  ascertain  the  actual  number  of  students 
at  any  one  time  in  Oxford,  but  now  it  is  probably 
seldom  above  1,800.  There  are  four  terms  in  each 
year — viz.,  Michaelmas  term,  which  begins  on 
October  10th  and  ends  on  December  17th;  Hilary 
term,  which  begins  on  January  14th  and  ends  the 
day  before  Palm  Sunday;  Easter  term,  which 
begins  on  the  Wednesday  in  Easter-week,  and 
ends  on  the  Friday  before  Whitsunday;  Trinity 
term,  which  begins  on  the  Saturday  before  Whit¬ 
sunday  and  ends  on  the  Saturday  after  the  first 
Tuesday  in  July.  Twenty-four  weeks  may  be 
taken  as  the  ordinary  length  of  the  academic 
year.  Twelve  terms  of  residence  are  required  for 
the  degree  of  B.A.  from  all.  Thedegree  of  M.  A. 
is  obtainable  in  the  twenty-seventh  term  after 
matriculation.  Oxford  is,  of  course,  chiefly  fed 


from  the  great  English  schools.  A  student 
desirous  of  going  to  Oxford,  must  apply  lo  the 
head  of  the  college  to  which  he  wishes  to  belong. 
There  is  no  university  examination  at  matricula¬ 
tion;  but  all  the  good  colleges  have  such  an 
examination  before  they  receive  any  one — the 
standard  of  the  examination,  of  course,  varying 
with  the  college.  After  being  received  into  the 
college,  the  undergraduate  is  sometimes  assigned 
to  a  college  tutor,  who  exercises  a  special  control 
over  his  reading;  but  he  also  attends  the  instruc¬ 
tion  of  the  other  college  tutors  or  lecturers,  as  the 
course  of  his  studies  may  require.  The  cost  of 
tuition  varies  at  different  colleges,  but  an  average 
of  $312  may  be  given  as  paid  by  the  under¬ 
graduate  during  his  whole  career.  The  follow¬ 
ing  is  a  list  of  the  colleges  and  halls  as  they  rank 
in  t he  university:  University,  Balliol,  Merton, 
Exeter,  Oriel,  Queen’s,  New  College,  Lincoln,  All 
Souls,  Magdalen,  Brasenose,  Corpus  Chrisli, 
Christ  Church,  Trinity,  St.  John’s,  Jesus,  Wad- 
ham.  Pembroke,  Worcester,  Hertford,  Keble,  St. 
Mary  Hall,  New  Inn  Hall,  and  St.  Edmund  Hall. 

Oxida'tion  is  the  term  applied  to  the  union  of 
any  body  with  oxygen,  the  body  being  then  said 
to  be  oxidized,  and  the  resulting  compound  being 
termed  an  oxide. 

Ox'ides,  Metallic,  are  the  most  important  of 
all  the  compounds  of  the  metals,  and  in  many 
cases  occur  naturally  as  abundant  and  valuable 
ores.  They  are  divided  by  chemists  into  three 
classes — viz.,  (1)  basic  oxides  or  bases,  (2)  saline 
or  indifferent  oxides,  and  (3)  acid  oxides  or 
metallic  acids.  All  the  oxides  are  solid  at  ordi¬ 
nary  temperatures,  and  as  a  general  rule,  the 
addition  of  oxygen  to  a  metal  renders  it  much 
less  fusible  and  soluble ;  the  protoxide  of  iron, 
the  se-quioxide  of  chromium,  and  molybdic  acid 
being  the  only  oxides  that  melt  more  readily  than 
the  metal. 

Ox' iis,  the  ancient  name  of  a  great  river  in 
Central  Asia.  The  Oxus  rises  in  Lake  Sari-kol, 
in  the  elevated  plateau  which  separates  Eastern 
and  Western  Turkestan.  It  flows  through 
Buddakshan,  Bokhara,  and  Khiva,  and  empties 
itself  by  several  mouths  into  the  Sea  of  Aral.  Its 
total  length  is  about  1,150  miles. 

Ox'jgen  (symbol  O,  equiv.  16 — sp.  gr.  1. 1056)  is 
a  colorless,  inodorous,  tasteless  gas,  long  regarded 
as  a  “  permanent  ”  gas,  but  liquefied  by  Pictet  of 
Geneva  for  the  first  time  in  1877.  Its  chemical 
affinities  for  other  elementary  substances  are  very 
powerful  ;  with  most  of  them  it  is  found  in  com¬ 
bination,  or  may  be  made  to  combine,  in  more 
than  one  proportion;  with  several  in  four,  five, 
or  six  proportions  ;  and  there  is  only  one  element 
(fluorine)  with  which  it  does  not  enter  into  any 
combination.  Owing  to  the  intensity  with  which 
many  of  these  combinations  take  place,  this  gas 
has  the  power  of  supporting  combustion  in  an 
eminent  degree.  Of  all  known  substances,  it 
exerts  the  smallest  refracting  power  on  the  rays 
of  light.  It  possesses  weak  but  decided  magnetic 
properties,  like  those  of  iron,  and  like  this  sub¬ 
stance,  its  susceptibility  to  magnetization  is 
diminished  or  even  suspended  by  a  certain  eleva¬ 
tion  of  temperature.  It  is  only  slightly  soluble  in 
water;  100  cubic  inches  of  that  liquid  dissolving 
4.11  cubic  inches  of  gas  at  323,  and  only  2.99 
inches  at  59".  Oxygen  gas  is  not  only  respirable, 
but  is  essential  to  the  support  of  animal  life  ;  and 
hence  it  was  termed  vital  air  by  some  of  the  older 
chemists.  A  small  animal  placed  in  a  bell-glass 
containing  pure  oxygen  will  not  be  suffocated  so 
soon  as  if  it  were  placed  in  the  same  glass  filled 
with  atmospheric  air.  Oxygen  is  the  most 
abundant  and  the  most  widely  distributed  of  all 
the  elements.  In  its  free  state  ( mixed  but  not  com¬ 
bined  with  nitrogen),  it  constitutes  about  a  fifth  of 
the  bulk,  and  considerably  more  than  a  fifth  of 
the  weight  of  the  atmosphere.  In  combination  witli 
hydrogen,  it  forms  eight-ninths  of  all  the  water 
on  the  globe  ;  and  in  combination  with  silicon, 
calcium,  aluminium,  etc.,  it  enters  largely  into  all 
the  solid  constituents  of  the  earth’s  crust;  silica  in 
its  various  forms  of  -sand,  common  quartz,  flint, 
etc. — chalk,  limestone,  and  marble — and  all  the 
varieties  of  clay,  containing  about  half  their 
weight  of  oxygen.  It  is,  moreover,  found  in  the 
tissues  and  fluids  of  all  forms  of  animal  and 
vegetable  life,  none  of  which  can  support  exist¬ 
ence  independently  of  this  element. 


OYSTER. 


574 


PAINT  ROCK. 


Oys'ter  ( Ostrea ),  a  genus  of  lamellibrancliiate 
mollusks,  of  the  section  with  a  single  adductor 
muscle.  Theanimalis,  in  its  organization,  among 
the  lowest  and  simplest  of  lamellibranchiate  mol¬ 
lusks.  Oysters  are  hermaphrodite.  They  pro¬ 
duce  vast  numbers  of  young.  The  eggs  are 
hatched  within  the  shell  and  mantle  of  the 
parent.  When  the  parent  oyster  expels  the 
young,  and  this  is  done  simultaneously  by  multi¬ 
tudes  on  an  oyster  bank,  the  water  becomes  filled 
as  with  a  thick  cloud,  and  the  spawn — called 
spat  by  fishermen — is  wafted  away  by  currents; 
the  greater  part,  of  course,  to  be  generally  lost, 
by  being  driven  to  unsuitable  situations,  as  ex¬ 
posed  rocks,  muddy  ground,  or  sand  to  which  it 
can  not  adhere,  or  to  be  devoured  by  fishes  and 
other  marine  animals,  but  some  to  find  an  object 
to  which  it  can  attach  itself  for  life.  The  young 
come  forth  furnished  with  a  temporary  organ  for 
swimming,  ciliated,  and  provided  with  powerful 
muscles  for  extending  it  beyond  the  valves  and  ■ 
withdrawing  it  at  pleasure;  and  when  the  oyster 
has  become  fixed  in  its  permanent  place  of  abode, 
this  organ,  being  no  longer  of  any  use,  has  been 
supposed  to  drop  off,  or  gradually  to  dwindle 
aw  ay  and  disappear.  The  species  of  oysters  are 
numerous,  and  are  found  in  the  seas  of  all  warm 


and  temperate  climates.  None  have  been  found 
in  the  coldest  parts  of  the  world.  Maryland  and 
Virginia  produce  more  oysters  than  any  other 
locality  in  the  world,  and  their  product  is  large 
and  finer  flavored.  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
also  produce  famous  species.  Further  south  than 
Virginia  the  oyster  increases  in  size  but  loses  in 
flavor. 

Oyster  Bay,  a  favorite  watering-place  on  the 
north  coast  of  Long  Island,  New  York.  It 
abounds  in  handsome  residences  and  fine  scenery, 
and  offers  facilities  for  fishing,  bathing,  etc.  Pop. 
(1889),  15,923. 

Oysterville,  the  county  seat  of  Pacific  county, 
Wash.  Pop.,  325. 

Ozark,  the  county  seat  of  Dale  county,  Ala. 
Pop.,  550. 

Ozark,  the  county  seat  of  Fra-nklin  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Ozse'na  (from  the  Gr.  6'C,o,  ozo,  I  smell),  signifies 
I  a  discharge  of  foetid,  purulent,  or  sanious  matter 
from  the  nostrils.  It  may  arise  from  ulceration  of 
the  membrane  lining  the  nostrils,  or  from  caries 
of  the  adjacent  bones,  and  may  accompany  syph¬ 
ilitic,  scorbutic,  scrofulous,  or  cancerous  affec¬ 
tions  of  these  or  adjacent  parts.  The  treatment 
may  be  divided  into  the  general  or  constitutional, 

P 


and  the  local.  The  general  treatment  should  con¬ 
sist  of  tonics  combined  with  alteratives,  as  the 
preparations  of  bark  with  the  alkalies,  or  with  the 
mineral  acids;  a  dry,  bracing  air,  or  a  temporary 
removal  to  the  seaside,  is  also  usually  of  service. 
If  the  discharge  arises  from  syphilis  or  scurvy, 
the  treatment  suitable  to  those  diseases  should  be 
prescribed.  The  local  treatment  consists  in  the 
inhalation,  once  or  twice  a  day,  of  the  steam  of 
boiling  water,  to  which  a  little  creosote  or  car¬ 
bolic  acid  has  been  added;  and  in  more  severe 
cases,  in  the  thorough  syringing  of  the  nostrils, 
so  as  to  wash  away  all  collections  of  matter  with 
a  copious  stream  of  warm  water,  to  which  a  little 
chloride  of  zinc  has  been  added  (about  30 
minims  of  Burnett’s  solution  to  half  a  pint  of 
water). 

O'zone  (Gr.  o'Co,  ozo,  I  smell).  It  was  remarked 
long  ago  that  a  peculiar  odor  was  produced  by 
the  working  of  an  electrical  machine.  When 
electric  sparks  were  passed  through  a  tube  con¬ 
taining  oxygen,  the  gas  became  powerfully  im¬ 
pregnated  with  this  odor,  which,  therefore,  was 
called  the  “  smell  of  electricity.”  Subsequent  ex¬ 
periments  have  led  to  the  belief  that  it  is  an  allo- 
tropic  form  of  oxygen,  although  men  of  science 
are  as  yet  undecided  as  to  what  it  really  is. 


may  be  flying  or  persistent,  intermittent,  remit¬ 
tent,  or  continued.  It  is  not  always  that  the  pain 
is  felt  in  the  spot  where  the  cause  of  it  exists. 
Thus,  inflammation  of  the  liver  or  diaphragm 
may  cause  pain  in  the  right  shoulder.  Pain  is 
differently  felt  by  persons  of  different  constitu¬ 
tions  and  temperaments,  some  persons  being  little 
sensitive  to  painful  impressions  of  any  kind, 
while  others  suffer  greatly  from  slight  causes 
There  even  seem  to  be  national  differences  in  this 
respect,  and  before  the  introduction  of  chloro¬ 
form  it  was  a  matter  of  common  observation  that 
Irishmen  were  always  more  troublesome  subjects 
for  surgical  operations  than  either  Englishmen  or 
Scotchmen ;  and  the  negro  is  probably  less  sensi¬ 
tive  to  pain  than  any  of  the  white  races. 

Pago'da  (according  to  some  a  corruption  of 
the  Sanskrit  word  bhdgavata,  from  bhagavut, 
sacred  ;  but  according  to 
others,  a  corruption  of  put- 
gada,  from  the  Persian  put, 
idol,  and  gadn,  house)  is  the 
name  of  certain  Hindu  tem¬ 
ples,  which  are  amongst  the 
most  remarkable  monuments 
of  Hi  n  d  u  architecture. 

Though  the  word  itself  des¬ 
ignates  but  the  temple  where 
the  deity — especially  Si'va, 
and  his  consort  Durga  or 
Parvati — was  worshiped,  a 
pagoda  is  in  reality  an  aggre¬ 
gate  of  various  monuments, 
which,  in  their  totality,  con¬ 
stitute  the  holy  place  sacred 
to  the  god.  Sanctuaries, 
porches,  colonnades,  gate¬ 
ways,  wall,  tanks,  etc.,  are  Porcelain  Tower  of 
generally  combined  for  this  Nanking, 

purpose,  according  to  a  plan,  which  is  more  or 
less  uniform. 

Pagosa  Springs,  the  capital  of  Arcliuletta 
county,  Colo.  Pop.,  223. 

Paine,  Thomas,  an  author  famous  for  his  con¬ 
nection  with  the  American  and  French  Revolu¬ 
tions,  and  for  his  advocacy  of  infidel  opinions, 
was  born  Jan.  29, 1737,  atThetford,  in  the  County 
of  Norfolk  in  England.  His  writings — all  deisti- 
cal — are:  Common  Sense  Rights  of  Man,  and  the 
Age  of  Reason.  He  died  in  1802. 

Painesville,  the  county  seat  of  Lake  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  5,100. 

Painters’  Cream,  a  composition  used  by  artists 
to  cover  oil-paintings  in  progress,  when  they  leave 
off  their  work;  it  prevents  drying,  and  the  con¬ 
sequent  showing  of  lipes  where  new  wrork  is 
begun.  It  consists  of  6  parts  of  fine  nut  oil,  and 
1  part  of  gum-mastic. 

Paint  Rock,  the  county  seat  of  Concho 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  200. 


Pis  the  sixteenth  letter  of  the  English  alphabet, 
and  was  in  Hebrew  called  Re — i.  e  ,  mouth, 
most  probably  from  its  original  form.  P  is  the 
thin  letter  of  the  labial  series  (p,  b,f,  v),  and  is 
interchangeable  with  the  other  letters  of  the  series. 
P,  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  Latin,  is  replaced  by/ 
in  the  Teutonic  tongues.  Words  beginning  with 
p  in  English,  and  its  kindred  Teutonic  tongues, 
are  almost  all  of  foreign  origin  (Slavic,  Celtic, 
Latin),  as  pain  (Fr.  peine,  Lat.  poena),  plough 
(Pol.  plug),  pit  (Lat.  puleus,  a  well).  The  Greek 
preposition  apo  (Sans,  apa)  became  in  Lat.  ab;  Gr. 
hupo,  Lat.  sub;  Sans,  upa,  Lat.  ob;  but  before 
sharp  letters,  as  t  and  s,  the  original  j’’  was  re¬ 
tained  in  pronunciation,  as  is  shown  by  inscriptions 
(apstulit,  optinui).  There  are  remarkable  inter¬ 
changes  of  p  with  the  sharp  guttural  k  or  q. 
Thus,  for  Lat.  quis,  quod,  quarn,  the  Oscan  dialect 
had  pis,  pod,  pam;  Lat.  equus,  coquo,  corresponded 
to  Gr.  hippos  (iEol.  hikkos),  pepo ;  similarly, 
Gaelic  mac  (son),  ceathair  (Lat.  quatuor,  four), 
coig  (Lat.  quinque,  five),  correspond  to  Welsh 
map,  pedwar  (Gr.  pettores),  pump  (Gr.  pente  or 
pempe).  In  Gr. ,  p  is  sometimes  replaced  by  t,  as 
Us,  tessares,  for  pis,  pettores.  In  such  words  as 
redemption,  consumption,  p  has  been  introduced 
as  an  intermediary  between  the  incompatible 
sounds  m  and  t.  The  initial  p  of  Latin  words  has 
for  the  most  part  passed  into  French  unaltered; 
in  other  positions,  p  has  become  v;  thus,  Fr. 
eveque,  cheneu,  decevoir,  pauvre,  from  Lat.  episco- 
pus,  capillus,  decipcre,  pauper. 

Pa'ca  ( Coelogenys ),  a  genus  of  rodent  quadru¬ 
peds,  allied  to  the  agoutis,  cavies,  and  capybara, 
and  inhabiting  Brazil,  Guiana,  and  some  of  the 
West  India  Islands. 

Pachuca,  an  old  city  of  Mexico.  Pop.,  10,100. 
Pachj  derin'ata  (Gr.  tliick-skins),  in  the  system 
of  Cuvier,  an  order  of  mammalia,  including  part 
of  the  Bruta  (rhinoceros,  elephant),  and  all  the 
Belluce  (horse,  hippopotamus,  tapir,  hog,  etc.)  of 
Linnaeus,  besides  one  genus  [Ely rax  or  Daman)  of 
the  Linnaean  Glires.  As  defined  by  Cuvier,  the 
order  consists  of  those  hoofed  mammalia  (Ungn- 
bita )  which  are  not  ruminants;  all  of  which  pos¬ 
sess,  as  a  more  positive  character,  a  remarkable 
thickness  of  skin.  The  largest  terrestrial  mam¬ 
malia  belong  to  this  order.  The  Pachydermata 
generally  feed  on  vegetable  substances.  Some  are 
omnivorous. 

Pacif'ic  Ocean,  the  largest  of  the  five  great 
oceans,  lies  between  America  on  the  east,  and 
Asia,  Malaisia,  and  Australasia  on  the  west.  The 
name  “  Pacific  ”  was  given  to  it  by  Magellan,  the 
first  European  navigator  who  traversed  its  wide 
expanse.  The  greatest  length  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean  from  the  Arctic  (at  Behring’s  Strait)  to  the 
Antarctic  circles  is  9,200  miles,  and  its  greatest 
breadth,  along  the  parallel  of  latitude  5°  N., 
about  10,300  miles;  while  its  area  may  be  roughly 


estimated  at  80,000,000  square  miles,  or  about  § 
of  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth. 

Pacin'ian  Corpuscles  are  very  remarkable 
structures  appended  to  the  nerves.  In  the 
human  subject,  they  are  found  in  great  numbers 
in  connection  with  the  nerves  of  the  hand  and 
foot,  and  sparingly  on  other  spinal  nerves,  and  on 
the  plexuses  of  the  sympathetic,  but  never  on 
nerves  of  motion.  Their  office  is  as  yet  unknown. 

Padang',  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  Government 
on  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra,  is  situated  in  0° 59' 
30"  S.  latitude,  and  100°  20'  30"  E.  longitude, 
and  has  about  12,000  inhabitants. 

Pad'ua  (Ital.  Padova),  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name  in  Northern  Italy,  stands  on  a 
beautiful  plain  on  the  Bacchiglione,  twenty-three 
miles  by  railway  west-soutliwest  of  Venice.  Pop. 
(1881),  72,174. 

Padu'cah,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  just  below  (lie  mouth  of 
the  Tennessee  river,  322  miles  below  Louisville. 
It  is  the  entrepot  of  a  fertile  country,  and  has  a 
large  trade  by  the  rivers  and  railways.  Pop. 
(1889),  12,100. 

Pffl'ony  ( Pceonia ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Ranunculacem.  The  species  are 
large  herbaceous  perennials,  or  rarely  half-shrub¬ 
by;  natives  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  the  Northwest 
of  America.  On  account  of  the  beauty  of  their 
flowers,  some  of  them  are  much  cultivated  in 
gardens. 

Paganini,  Nicolo,  a  famous  violinist,  son  of  a 
commission  broker  at  Genoa,  where  he  was  born 
in  1784,  Paganini  died  at  Nice  in  1840,  leaving 
a  large  fortune. 

Pa'ganism.  another  name  for  heathenism  or 
polytheism.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
puganus,  a  designation  of  the  inhabitants  of  ihe 
country  ( pagus ),  in  contradistinction  to  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  of  towns. 

Page  (derivation  variously  assigned  to  Gr. 
Ttdi?,  puis,  a  boy,  and  Lat.  pagus,  a  village),  a 
youth  employed  in  the  service  of  a  royal  or  noble 
personage. 

Pain  is  an  undefinable  sensation,  of  the  nature 
of  which  all  persons  are  conscious.  It  resides 
exclusively  in  the  nervous  system,  but  may  origi¬ 
nate  from  various  sources.  Irritation,  or  exces¬ 
sive  excitement  of  the  nervous  system,  may  pro¬ 
duce  it;  it  frequently  precedes  and  accompanies 
inflammation;  while  it  sometimes  occurs  in,  and 
seems  to  be  favored  by,  a  state  of  positive  depres¬ 
sion,  as  is  seen  in  the  intense  pain  which  is  often 
experienced  in  a  limb  benumbed  with  cold,  in 
the  pain  which  not  infrequently  accompanies 
palsy,  and  in  the  well-known  fact,  that  neuralgia 
is  a  common  result  of  general  debility.  Pain  dif¬ 
fers  not  only  in  its  character,  which  may  be  dull, 
sharp,  aching,  tearing,  gnawing,  stabbing,  etc., 
but  in  its  mode  of  occurrence;  for  example,  it 


PAINTS. 


575 


PALIMPSEST. 


Paints,  Painters’  Colors,  or  Pigments.  The 
art  of  painting,  in  its  primitive  state,  consisted 
merely  in  applying  such  natural,  mineral,  and 
vegetable  colors  as  were  spontaneously  yielded, 
without  any  vehicle  to  render  them  permanent; 
consequently,  they  had  to  be  renewed  as  often  as 
they  were  rubbed  or  washed  oil  from  the  surfaces 
to  which  they  were  applied.  The  paints  now  in 
use  are  nearly  all  mixed  with  a  liquid  vehicle,  and 
are  applied  in  the  liquid  state.  The  mixing  ma¬ 
terials  are  varied  according  to  the  requirements 
of  the  work.  Thus,  for  some  kinds  of  decorative 
work,  and  for  water-color  drawings,  gum,  glue, 
size,  or  other  adhesive  materials  dissolved  in 
water,  are  employed;  while  for  the  painting  of 
buildings,  etc.,  and  for  oil-paintings,  oils  of  vari¬ 
ous  kinds  are  used  for  mixing  and  thinning  the 
colors.  For  painted  work  exposed  to  the  weather, 
it  is  found  that  linseed  oil  boiled  with  the  sul¬ 
phates  of  lead  (litharge)  or  zinc,  or  with  acetate 
of  lead  (sugar  of  lead),  is  the  best.  Most  of  the 
paints  used  for  ordinary  purposes  are  composed 
of  the  coloring  matter,  and  a  quantity  of  white 
lead,  with  which  they  are  worked  into  a  paste  of 
the  shade  required,  and  afterward  thinned  down 
with  oil  and  turpentine  when  used.  The  white 
lead  which  thus  forms  the  basis  of  most  paints,  and 
by  itself  a  color,  is  a  carbonate  and  oxide  of  the 
metal,  produced  by  exposing  pieces  of  lead  to  the 
action  of  the  steam  of  acetic  acid  in  beds  of  fer¬ 
menting  tan.  It  is  the  principal  white  paint  used, 
but  is  liable  to  discoloration  from  1  he  gases  con¬ 
tained  in  impure  atmospheres.  “Zinc  white,”  a 
carbonate  of  that  metal,  is  frequently  used  in¬ 
stead  of  lead,  and  both  are  often  adulterated 
with  sulphate  of  barytes.  In  all  cases,  the  color¬ 
ing  materials  of  paints  require  to  be  very  finely 
ground,  and  as  many  are  very  poisonous,  great 
care  is  required  in  their  preparation,  and  several 
forms  of  mill  have  been  invented  for  the  purpose. 
The  principle  upon  which  all  are  made  is  to 
secure  the  operator  from  I  he  poisonous  dust  and 
exhalations,  and  to  reduce  the  coloring  material, 
if  ground  dry,  to  an  impalpable  powder,  or  if 
mixed  with  the  oil,  to  a  perfectly  smooth  paste.  ■ 

Paints ville,  the  county  seat  of  Johnson 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  500. 

Palseog'raphy  (Gr.  TtaXdio'i,  palaios,  old, and 
ypaqieiv,  to  write,  writing),  the  science  of  ancient 
writings.  It  comprehends  not  merely  the  art  of 
reading  them,  but  such  a  critical  knowledge  of 
all  their  circumstances  as  will  serve  to  determine 
their  age,  if  they  happen  to  be  undated,  and  their 
genuineness,  in  the  absence  of  any  formal  authenti¬ 
cation. 

Palseonis'cus  (Gr.  itaXdioz,  ancient,  zyQe's, 
fish),  a  genus  of  ganoid  fish,  with  a  fusiform 
body,  covered  with  rhomboid  scales,  a  heterocer- 
cal  tail,  and  moderately-sized  fins,  each  furnished 
with  an  anterior  spine.  Twenty-eight  species 
have  been  described  from  the  carboniferous  and 
permian  measures. 

Palainntol'ogy  (Gr.  xaXdioS,  ancient,  ovra, 
beings,  A oyoi,  science)  is  that  division  of  geology, 
whose  province  it  is  to  inquire  into  the  evidence 
of  organic  life  on  the  globe  during  the  different 
by-gone  geological  periods,  whether  this  evidence 
arises  from  the  actual  remains  of  the  different 
plants  and  animals,  or  from  recognizable  records 
of  their  existence,  such  as  footprints,  coprolites, 
etc. 

Paheopy'ge  (Gr.  TtaXdioS,  ancient,  Ttvyp , 
rump),  a  genus  of  fossil  Crustacea,  founded  on  a 
single  impression  from  the  surface  of  a  bed  in  the 
longmynd,  of  Cambrian  age. 

Palsensau'rus (Gr.  TtaXaioS,  ancient,  davpov, 
lizard),  a  genus  of  fossil  saurian  reptiles  peculiar 
to  the  pormian  period.  The  remains  of  two 
species  occur  in  the  dolomitic  conglomerate  at 
Redland,  near  Bristol,  England. 

Pala30theTiiim(Gr.  itaXdioi ,  ancient,  Oepiov, 
a  beast),  a  genus  of  pachydermatous  mammalia 
whose  remains  occur  in  the  eocene  beds  of  Eng¬ 
land  and  the  Continent.  At  least  ten  species 
have  been  described,  ranging  in  size  from  that  of 
a  sheep  to  that  of  a  horse. 

Palteozo'ic  (Gr.  naXdiol,  ancient,  ? ooov ,  life), 
the  name  given  to  the  lowest  division  of  the  fos- 
siliferous  rocks,  which,  because  they  contain  the 
earliest  forms  of  life,  are  called  the  primary 
rocks. 

Palanquin',  or  Palki,  the  vehicle  commonly 


used  in  Hindustan  by  travelers,  is  a  wooden  box, 
about  8  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  high, 
with  wooden  shutters  which  can  be  opened  or 
shut  at  pleasure,  and  constructed  like  Venetian 
blinds  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  fresh  air, 
while  at  the  same  time  they  exclude  the  scorching 
rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  heavy  showers  of  rain  so 
common  in  that  country. 

Palap'teryx  (Gr.  itaXdio;,  ancient  antEpv^, 
apteryx),  a  genus  of  fossil  birds  whose  remains 
are  found  in  the  river-silt  deposits  of  New  Zea¬ 
land,  associated  with  the  gigantic  dinornis. 

Pal'ate,  Tiie,  forms  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  and 
consists  of  two  portions,  the  hard  palate  in  front 
and  the  soft  palate  behind.  The  frame-work  of 
the  hard  palate  is  formed  by  the  palate  process  of 
the  superior  maxillary  bone,  and  by  the  horizon¬ 
tal  process  of  the  palate  bone,  and  is  bounded  in 
front  and  at  the  sides  by  the  alveolar  arches  and 
gums,  a  id  posteriorly  it  is  continuous  with  the 
soft  palate.  The  soft  palate  is  a  movable  fold  of 
mucous  membrane  inclosing  muscular  fibers, 
and  suspended  from  the  posterior  border  of  the 
hard  palate  so  as  to  form  an  incomplete  septum 
between  the  mouth  and  the  pharynx;  its  sides 
being  blended  with  the  pharynx,  while  its  lower 
border  is  free.  When  occupying  its  usual  posi¬ 
tion  (that  is  to  say,  when  the  muscular  fibers  con¬ 
tained  in  it  are  relaxed),  its  anterior  surface  is 
concave;  and  when  its  muscles  are  called  into 
action,  as  in  swallowing  a  morsel  of  food,  it  is 
raised  and  made  tense,  and  the  food  is  thus  pre¬ 
vented  from  passing  into  the  posterior  nares,  and 
is  at  the  same  time  directed  obliquely  backward 
and  downward  into  the  pharynx.  Hanging 
from  the  middle  of  its  lower  border  is  a  small 
conical  pendulous  process,  the  uvula;  and  passing 
outward  from  the  uvula  on  each  side  are  two 
curved  folds  of  mucous  membrane  containing 
muscular  fibers,  and  called  the  arches  or  pillars 
of  the  soft  palate.  The  anterior  pillar  is  continued 
downward  to  the  side  of  the  base  of  the  tongue, 
and  is  formed  by  the  projection  of  the  palato¬ 
glossus  muscle.  The  posterior  pillar  is  larger  than 
the  anterior,  and  runs  downward  and  backward 
to  the  side  of  the  pharynx.  The  anterior  and 
posterior  pillars  are  closely  united  above,  but  are 
separated  below  by  an  angular  interval,  in  which 
the  tonsil  of  either  side  is  lodged.  The  tonsils 
{amygdala)  are  glandular  organs  of  a  rounded 
form,  which  vary  considerably  in  size  in  different 
individuals.  They  are  composed  of  an  assem¬ 
blage  of  mucous  follicles,  which  secrete  a  thick 
grayish  matter,  and  open  on  the  surface  of  the 
gland  by  numerous  (twelve  to  fifteen)  orifices. 
The  space  left  between  the  arches  of  the  palate 
on  the  two  sides  is  called  the  isthmus  of  the  fauces. 
It  is  bounded  above  by  the  free  margin  of  the 
palate,  below  by  the  tongue,  and  on  each  side  by 
the  pillars  of  the  soft  palate  and  tonsils. 

Palat  inate,  a  name  applied  to  two  German 
States,  which  were  united  previously  to  the  year 
1620.  They  were  distinguished  as  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Palatinate.  The  Upper  or  Bavarian  Palat¬ 
inate,  now  forming  a  circle  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Bavaria,  was  a  duchy,  and  was  bounded  by7  Bai- 
reuth,  Bohemia,  Neuburg,  Bavaria,  and  the  Dis¬ 
trict  of  Nurnberg.  Area,  2,730  square  miles- 
pop.  (1807),  283,800.  Amberg  was  the  chief  city, 
and  the  seat  of  government.  The  Lower  Palati¬ 
nate,  or  the  Palatinate  on  the  Rhine,  embraced  an 
area  of  from  3,045  to  3,150  square  miles,  and 
consisted  of  the  Electoral  Palatinate,  the  Princi¬ 
pality  of  Simmern,  the  Duchy  of  Zweibrucken, 
the  half  of  the  County  of  Sponheim,  and  the 
Principalities  of  Beldenz  and  Lautern. 

Palatine  Hill  (Mans  Palatinus),  the  central 
hill  of  the  famous  seven  on  which  ancient  Rome 
was  built,  and,  according  to  tradition,  the  seat  of 
the  ancient  Roman  settlements. 

Palatka,  the  county  seat  of  Putnam  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  4,000. 

Pale,  in  Irish  History,  means  that  portion  of 
the  kingdom  over  which  the  English  rule  and  Eng¬ 
lish  law  was  acknowledged.  In  a  general  way 
the  Pale  may  be  considered  as  comprising  the 
Counties  of  Dublin,  Meath,  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  and 
Louth. 

Palcmbaiig',  formerly  an  independent  king¬ 
dom  on  the  cast  coast  of  Sumatra,  now  a  Nether¬ 
lands  residency,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
|  Djambi,  northwest  by  Bencoolen,  south  by  the 


Lampong  districts,  and  southeast  by  the  Strait  of 
Banca,  has  an  area  of  61,900  square  miles;  and  a 
pop.  amounting,  in  1873,  to  577,085  souls.  Its 
capital  is  Palembang. 

Paler' mo,  an  arcliiepiscopal  city,  important 
seaport,  anil  the  capital  of  the  Island  of  Sicily, 
capital  also  of  the  province  of  the  same  name. 
Pop.,  186,000. 

Pal'estine  ( Palmtina  Philistia),  or  the  Holy 
Land,  a  country  of  Southwestern  Asia,  compris¬ 
ing  the  southern  part  of  Syria,  and  bounded  on 
the  west  by  the  Mediterranean,  east  by  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  north  by  the  mountain  r  nges  of 
the  Lebanon  and  the  Glen  of  the  Litany  (Leontes), 
and  south  by  the  Desert  of  Sinai;  latitude  31°  15' 
— 33°  20'  N.,  longitude  34°  30' — 35°  30'  E. 
Within  these  narrow  limits,  not  more  than  145 
miles  in  length  by  45  in  average  breadth — an  area 
less  than  that  of  the  Principality  of  Wales. — is 
comprised  the  “Land  of  Israel”  or  “Canaan,” 
the  arena  of  the  greatest  events  in  the  world’s 
history.  The  principal  physical  features  of  Pal¬ 
estine  are:  (1)  a  central  plateau  or  table-land, 
with  a  mean  height  of  1,600  feet,  covered  with  an 
agglomeration  of  hills,  which  extend  from  the 
roots  of  the  Lebanon  to  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  country;  (2)  the  Jordan  valley  and  its  lakes; 
and  (3)  the  maritime  plain,  and  the  plains  of 
EsdraSlon  and  Jericho.  On  the  east,  the  descent 
from  the  central  plateau  is  steep  and  rugged, 
from  Lake  Huleh  to  the  Dead  Sea.  On  the  west 
it  is  more  gentle,  but  still  well  marked,  toward 
the  plains  of  Philistia  and  Sharon.  The  ascer¬ 
tained  altitudes  on  this  plateau,  proceeding  from 
south  to  north,  are  Hebron,  3,029;  Jerusalem, 
2,610;  Mount  of  Olives,  2,724;  Mount  Gerizim, 
2,700;  Mount  Tabor,  1,900,  Safed,  2,775  feet 
above  the  sea.  Nearly  on  the  parallel  of  the  Sea 
of  Galilee,  the  range  of  Carmel  extends  from  the 
central  plateau  northwest  to  the  Mediterranean, 
where  it  terminates  abruptly  in  a  promontory 
surmounted  by  a  convent.  It  rises  from  600  feet 
in  the  west,  to  1,600  feet  in  the  east,  and  is  com¬ 
posed  of  a  soft  white  limestone,  with  many 
caverns.  Beyond  the  boundary  of  Palestine  on 
the  north,  but  visible  from  the  great  r  part  of 
the  country,  Mount  Hermon  rises  to  9,381  feet, 
and  is  always  snow-clad.  From  the  formation  of 
the  central  plateau,  the  drainage  is  nearly  always 
east  and  west,  to  the  Jordan  and  the  Mediterra¬ 
nean.  The  streams  of  the  plateau  are  insignifi¬ 
cant,  and  generally  dry  in  summer. 

Palestine,  the  county  seat  of  Anderson  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  4,100. 

Palestrina,  Giovanni  Pierluigi  da,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  musical  composer  of  the  sixteenth  cent¬ 
ury.  He  derived  his  surname  from  the  town  of 
Palestrina,  in  the  Roman  States,  where  he  was 
born  in  1524.  In  1563,  the  Council  of  Trent  hav¬ 
ing  undertaken  to  reform  the  music  of  the  Church, 
and  condemned  the  profane  words  and  music  in¬ 
troduced  into  masses,  some  compositions  of  Pales¬ 
trina  were  pointed  to  as  models,  and  their  author 
was  intrusted  with  the  task  of  remodeling  this 
part  of  religious  worship.  He  composed  three 
masses  on  the  reformed  plan;  one  of  them,  known 
as  the  Mass  of  Pope  Marcellus  (to  whose  memory 
it  is  dedicated),  may  be  considered  to  have  saved 
music  to  the  Church  by  establishing  a  type  infi¬ 
nitely  beyond  anything  that  had  preceded  it,  and, 
amid  all  the  changes  which  music  has  since  under¬ 
gone,  continues  to  attract  admiration.  His  pub¬ 
lished  works  consist  of  13  books  of  masses,  6 
books  of  motets,  1  book  of  lamentations,  1  book 
of  hymns,  1  book  of  offertories,  1  book  of 
magnificats,  1  book  of  litanies,  1  book  of  spiritual 
madrigals,  and  3  books  of  madrigals.  Palestrina 
must  be  considered  the  first  musician  who  recon¬ 
ciled  musical  science  with  musical  art,  and  his 
works  form  a  most  important  epoch  in  the  history 
of  music.  He  died  in  1594. 

Paley,  Dr.  William,  author  of  Paley’s  Evi¬ 
dences  of  Christianity ,  a  celebrated  English  divine, 
was  born  at  Peterborough,  England,  in  1743. 
His  writings,  most  of  a  polemical  character,  have 
given  him  deserved  fame,  and  are  yet  standards 
on  the  subjects  treated.  He  died  in  1805. 

Palgrave,  Sir  Francis,  a  distinguished  anti¬ 
quary  and  historian,  was  born  in  London,  Eng¬ 
land,  in  July,  1788,  and  died  in  1861. 

Palimp'sest(Gr.  naXiyndedro;,  palimpsest o-, 
rubbed  a  second  time),  the  name  given  to  parch- 


PALINDROME. 


’576 


PAMPAS  GRASS. 


ment,  papyrus,  or  other  writing  material,  from 
which,  after  it  had  been  written  upon,  the  first 
writing  was  wholly  or  in  part  removed  for  the 
purpose  of  the  page  being  written  upon  a  second 
time. 

Pal'indrome  (Gr.  itaXiv,  palin,  backward, 
and  dpopoi,  dromos,  a  running),  the  name  given 
to  a  kind  of  verse,  the  peculiarity  of  which  is  that 
it  may  be  read  the  same  backward  as  forward. 
The  English  language  has  few  palindromes,  but 
one  at  least  is  inimitable.  It  represents  our  first 
parent  politely  introducing  himself  to  Eve  in  these 
words:  “Madam,  I’m  Adam.” 

Palingene'sia  (Gr.  itaXiv ,  palin,  again,  and 
ysvediS,  genesis,  birth)  is  a  term  that  appears  to 
have  originated  among  the  Stoics,  who  employed 
it  to  denote  the  act  of  the  Demiurgus,  or  Cn  aitor, 
by  which,  having  absorbed  all  being  into  himself, 
he  reproduced  it  in  a  new  creation. 

Palissy,  Bernard,  aFn  nch  potter,  famous  for 
his  glass-paintings  and  beautiful  figured  pottery, 
was  born  near  Agen,  now  in  the  Department  of 
Lot-et-Garonne,  France,  about  1510;  died  in  1590. 

Pall  (Lat. pallium,  also pnlla,  acloak),  the  name 
given  in  English  to  two  very  different  portions  of 
the  vesture  employed  in  the  religious  use  of  the 
Roman  and  some  other  churches.  One  of  these 
is  the  funeral  pill,  an  ample  cover¬ 
ing  of  black  velvet  or  other  stuff, 
which  is  cast  over  the  coffin  while 
being  borne  to  burial.  In  its  second 
and  most  strictly  liturgical  use,  the 
word  pall  is  applied  to  one  of  the 
coverings  used  at  the  altar  in  the 
celebration  of  the  mass.  Pall. 

Palla'd  ium  (symbol  Pd,  equiv.106 — sp.  gr.11.8) 
is  one  of  the  so-called  noble  metals,  which  in  its 
color  and  ductility  closely  resembles  platinum. 
It  was  discovered  in  1803  by  Wollaston  in  the  ore 
of  platinum,  of  which  it  seldom  forms  so  much  as 
1  per  cent. 

Palladium,  among  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans,  an  image  of  Pallas,  who  was  generally 
identified  with  Athene,  upon  the  careful  keeping 
of  which  in  a  sanctuary  the  public  welfare  was 
believed  to  depend.  The  palladium  of  Troy  is 
particularly  celebrated.  According  to  the  current 
myth,  it  was  thrown  down  from  heaven  by  Zeus, 
and  fell  on  the  plain  of  Troy,  where  it  was  picked 
up  by  Ilus,  the  founder  of  that  city,  as  a  favor¬ 
able  omen.  In  the  course  of  time  the  belief  spread 
that  the  loss  of  it  would  be  followed  bv  the  fall 
of  the  city;  it  was  therefore  stolen  uy  Odysseus 
and  Diomedes.  Several  cities  afterward  boasted 
of  possessing  it,  particularly  Argos  and  Athens. 
Other  accounts,  however,  affirm  that  it  was  not 
stolen  by  the  Greek  chiefs,  but  carried  to  Italy  by 
./Eneas;  and  the  Romans  said  that  it  was  preserved 
in  the  temple  of  Vesta,  but  so  secretly  that  even 
the  Pontifex  Maximus  might  not  behold  it.  All 
images  of  this  name  were  somewhat  coarsely  hewn 
out  of  wood. 

Palm,  a  measure  of  length,  originally  taken 
from  the  width  of  the  hand,  measured  across  the 
joints  of  the  four  fingers.  In  Greece,  it  was 
known  as  palaiste,  and  was  reckoned  at  3  inches, 
or£  of  a  cubit,  which  was  their  standard  unit.  The 
Romans  adopted  two  measures  of  this  name — the 
one  was  the  Greek  naXai6rr/,  and  was  called  pal- 
mu  s  minor;  the  other,  which  was  not  introduced 
till  later  times,  was  called  palmus  major,  or  pelma, 
and  was  taken  from  the  length  of  the  hand,  being 
therefore  usually  estimated  at  three  times  the 
length  of  the  other.  At  the  present  day,  this 
measure  varies  in  a  most  arbitrary  manner,  being 
different  in  each  country,  and  occasionally  vary¬ 
ing  in  the  same.  The  English  palm,  when  used 
at  all,  which  is  seldom,  is  considered  to  be  the 
fourth  part  of  an  English  foot,  or  3  inches. 
The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  common  meas¬ 
ures  to  which  the  name  palm  is  given : 

V£ 

Greek  palaiste  .  = 

Roman  palmus,  or  lesser  palm .  = 

“  palrna,  or  greater  palin .  = 

English  palm  (*4  of  a  foot) .  = 

Hamburg  palin  (5£  of  a  foot) .  = 

Amsterdam  “  round  ”  palm .  — 

“  diameter”  palm .  = 

Belgian  palm,  I  properly  the  deci- 

Lombard  palm,  (  meter . ~ 

Spanish  palm,  or  palmo  major .  = 

“  “  ,  or  palmo  minor .  — 

Portuguese  palm,  or  palmo  de  Craveira  = 


lue  in  Eng- 
ish  inches. 
3.0:!3T5 
2.0124 
8.7372 
3.0000 
3.7633 
4.1200 
11.9687 

3.9371 

8.3450 

2.7817 

8.6616 


In  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries,  the  palm  is 
generally  confined  to  wood-measurement,  while 
in  Portugal  it  used  to  be  the  standard  of  linear 
measure. 

Palm  Sunday  (Lat.  Dominira  Palmarvm ,  or 
Dnm.  in  Palrnis),  the  last  Sunday  of  Lent,  is  so 
called  from  the  custom  of  blessing  branches  of 
the  palm  tree,  or  of  other  trees  substituted  in 
those  countries  in  which  palm  can  not  be  procured, 
and  of  carrying  the  blessed  branches  in  proces¬ 
sion,  in  commemoration  of  the  triumphal  entry 
of  our  Lord  into  Jerusalem  (John  xii). 

Palmella'ceai,  a  family  or  group  of  Alger,  of 
the  order  or  sub-order  Confervacece.  In  organiza¬ 
tion,  they  are  among  the  lowest  of  plants;  they 
are,  however,  universally  regarded  as  vegetable. 
The  Palmellaceae  all  grow  on  damp  surfaces,  but 
some  under  the  influence  of  fresh  water,  and  some 
of  salt. 

Palmer,  a  growing  town  of  Hampden  county, 
Mass.  Pop.,  6,000 

Palmerston,  Henry  John  Temple,  Viscount, 
an  English  politician,  was  born  at  the  family 
mansion,  Broadlands,  near  Romsey,  Hants,  Oct. 
20,  1784.  He  entered  Parliament  in  1807,  where 
he  remained  till  1835,  when  he  was  defeated, 
but  was  immediately  reelected  from  another 
borough.  He  was  several  times  a  member  of 
cabinet,  and  was  prominent  among  Eastern 
affairs.  It  was  his  ambition  to  be  considered  the 
minister  of  a  nation  rather  than  the  minister  of  a 
political  party;  and  his  opponents  have  been  con¬ 
strained  to  admit  that  he  held  office  with  more 
general  acceptance  than  any  English  minister 
since  the  time  of  the  great  Lord  Chatham.  He 
died  Oct.  18,  1865. 

Palmer-worm,  a  name  given  to  many  large 
kinds  of  grub,  the  larvae  of  coleopterous  insects, 
destructive  to  vegetable  substances  of  various 
kinds. 

Palmetto  {Sabal  palmetto,  or  Chamarops  pal¬ 
metto),  a  species  of  palm,  a  native  of  maritime 
parts  of  North  America,  as  far  north  as  latitude 
35°,  which  is  further  north  than  any  other  Amer¬ 
ican  species  of  palm  is  found.  It  attains  a  height 
of  40  to  50  feet. 

Palmi'pedes,  or  Webfooted  Birds,  also 
called  Natatores,  or  Swimmers,  an  order  of 
birds,  the  Anseres  of  Linnaeus,  very  natural  and 
universally  recognized  by  ornithologists,  having 
the  feet  specially  formed  for  swimming,  and  the 
toes  webbed— i.  e.,  connected  by  a  nr  mbrane,  at 
least  those  which  are  directed  forward. 

Palmit'ic  Acid  (Ci6H  32O2)  is  one  of  the  most 
important  of  fatty  acids  represented  by  the  gen¬ 
eral  formula.  (CnlLjnCL).  The  neutral  palmitates 
of  the  alkalies  constitute  soaps,  and  are  soluble  in 
water.  The  other  most  important  compounds  of 
palmitic  acid  are  those  which  it  forms  with  glyc¬ 
erine  and  with  cetylic  ether. 

Palms  {Palmer,  or  Palmacece),  a  natural  order 
of  endogenous  plants,  not  excelled  in  importance 
by  any  order  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  except 
grasses.  They  are  generally  tall  and  slender 
trees,  often  of  gigantic  height,  without  a  branch, 
and  bearing  at  the  summit  a  magnificent  and 
graceful  crown  of  very  large  leaves.  The  stem  is 
sometimes,  however,  of  humble  growth,  and  more 
rarely  it  is  thick  in  proportion  to  its  height; 
sometimes,  but  rarely,  it  is  branched,  as  in  the 
doom  palm;  and  sometimes,  as  in  rattans,  it  is 
flexible,  and  seeks  support  from  trees  and  bushes 
over  v  hich  it  climbs  in  jungles  and  dense  forests, 
clinging  to  them  by  means  of  hooked  spines. 
Some  of  the  species  with  flexible  stem  attain  a 
prodigious  length,  ascending  to  the  tops  of  the 
highest  trees,  and  falling  down  again.  The  fruit 
is  sometimes  a  kind  of  berry,  sometimes  a  drupe, 
either  with  a  fleshy  or  a  fibrous  covering;  and 
sometimes  contains  a  very  hard  and  bony  nut. 
The  fruit  is  sometimes  only  of  the  size  of  a  pea  or 
a  cherry;  sometimes,  notwithstanding  the  small¬ 
ness  of  the  flowers,  it  is  of  very  large  size,  of 
which  the  cocoa-nut  is  a  familiarexample.  Palms 
are  mostly  natives  of  tropical  countries,  being 
found  almost  everywhere  within  the  tropics,  and 
forming, perhaps,  the  most  striking  characteristic  of 
tropical  vegetation.  The  tropical  parts  of  America, 
however,  particularly  abound  in  them,  producing 
a  far  greater  number  of  species  than  any  other 
part  of  the  world.  The  uses  of  palm  are  many 
and  various;  there  is  almost  no  species  which  is 


not  capable  of  being  applied  to  some  use.  About 
500  species  are  known. 

Palmy'ra,  the  county  seat  of  Fluvanna  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  107. 

Palmyra,  the  county  seat  of  Marion  county. 
Mo.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Palmyra,  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  a 
great  and  splendid  city  of  Upper  Syria.  Its 
original  Hebrew  name  was  Tadmor,  which,  like 
the  Greek  word,  means  “  city  of  palms,”  It  was 
built,  according  to  the  writers  of  Kings  (Book  I, 
chap,  ix,  verse  18)  and  Chronicles  (Book  II,  chap, 
viii,  verse  4),  by  Solomon,  in  the  tenth  century 
b.c.;  but  it  is  more  probable  that  he  only  en¬ 
larged  it.  It  occupied  a  fertile  oasis,  well-watered, 
and  abounding  in  palm  trees. 

Palo  Pinto,  the  county  seat  of  Palo  Pinto 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  652. 

Pal  pitation  is  the  term  used  to  signify  inor¬ 
dinately  forcible  pulsations  of  the  heart,  so  as  to 
make  themselves  felt,  and  frequently  to  give  rise 
to  a  most  disagreeable  sensation.  It  may  be  either 
functional  or  a  symptom  of  organic  disease  of  the 
heart.  The  treatment  of  palpitation  must-entirely 
depend  upon  its  cause.  The  use  of  all  nervous 
stimulants  (tea,  coffee,  alcohol,  and  tobacco) 
should  be  suspended  or  abandoned.  If  the  patient 
is  clearly'  plethoric,  with  a  full,  strong  pulse,  he 
should  take  saline  cathartics,  and  live  upon  com¬ 
paratively  low  diet  (including  little  animal  food) 
until  this  condition  is  removed.  When,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  palpitation  is  due  to  an  anaemic 
condition,  the  remedies  are  preparations  of  iron, 
aloetic  purgatives,  an  abundance  of  animal  food, 
bitter  ale,  the  cold  shower-bath,  and  moderate 
exercise. 

Pam 'lico  Sound,  on  the  coast  of  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  is  separated  from  the  ocean  by  long,  narrow 
islands  of  sand,  an  angle  of  the  largest  forming 
Cape  Hatteras,  and  connected  with  the  ocean  by 
narrow'  passages;  it  is  80  miles  long,  and  from  10 
to  30  miles  wide,  and  receives  the  Neuse  and 
Pamlico  rivers. 

Pain 'pas  (in  the  Quichua  tongue,  a  valley,  or 
plain)  is  a  term  frequently  employed  in  a  general 
sense  as  a  designation  of  Southern  American 
plains,  in  contradistinction  to  the  “prairies”  of 
North  America.  It  is  also  used  in  Peru  as  a  gen¬ 
eral  designation  of  tracts  of  level  land  either  on 
the  coast  or  among  the  mountains. 

Pampas  Grass  (Oynerium  argenteum ),  a  grass 
which  covers  the  pampas  in  the  South  of  Brazil 


Pampas  Grass  (Gynerium  argenteum). 


and  more  southern  parts  of  South  America.  It  is 
quite  hardy,  and  its  tufts  have  a  splendid  appear¬ 
ance.  The  leaves  are  6  or  8  feet  long,  the  ends 


PAN. 


577 


PAPAL  STATES. 


hanging  gracefully  over;  the  flowering  stems  10 
to  14  feet  high;  the  panicles  of  flowers  silvery 
white,  and  from  18*  inches  to  2  feet  long.  The 
herbage  is  too  coarse  to  be  of  any  agricultural 
value. 

Pan,  among  the  Greeks,  the  chief  god  of  pas¬ 
tures,  forests,  and  flocks.  He  was,  according  to 
the  most  common  belief,  a  son  of  Hermes  (Mer¬ 
cury)  by  the  daughter  of  Dryops ;  or  by  Penelope, 
the  wife  of  Ulysses;  while  other  accounts  make 
Peneolpe  the  mother,  but  Ulysses  himself  the 
father — though  the  paternity  of  the  god  is  also 
ascribed  to  the  numerous  wooers  of  Penelope  in 
common.  When,  after  the  establishment  of 
Christianity,  the  heathen  deities  were  degraded 
by  the  Church  into  fallen  angels,  the  character¬ 
istics  of  Pan — viz.,  the  horns,  the  goat’s  beard, 
the  pointed  ears,  the  crooked  nose,  the  tail,  and 
the  goat’s  feet — were  transferred  to  the  Devil 
himself,  and  thus  the  “  Auld  Hornie”  of  popular 
superstition  is  simply  Pan  in  disguise. 

Panama',  a  city  and  seaport  of  the  Republic 
of  Colombia,  in  South  America,  capital  of  the 
State  of  the  same  name,  at  the  head  of  the  Bay 
of  Panama,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  isthmus 
of  the  same  name,  in  latitude  8°  56'  N.,  longitude 
79Q31'W.  Pop.,  19,000. 

Panama,  Isthmus  of,  is  that  portion  of  the 
narrow  ridge  of  mountainous  country  connecting 
Central  and  South  America,  which  is  bounded  on 
the  west  by  the  frontier  of  Costa  Rica,  and  on  the 
east  by  the  surveyed  inter  oceanic  route  from  the 
Bay  of  Caledonia  on  the  north  to  the  Gulf  of 
San  Miguel  on  the  south  or  Pacific  side.  It 
extends  in  longitude  from  77°  to  83°  W.  The 
State  of  Panama,  one  of  those  which  form  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  is  coextensive  with 
the  isthmus  of  the  same  name.  Area,  29,756. 
Pop.  (1870),  220,542.  Panama  contains  the  prov¬ 
inces  of  Panama,  Azuero,  Chiriqui,  and  Veraguas. 
The  Isthmus  is  traversed  throughout  by  a  chain 
of  mountains,  forming  the  barrier  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and  of  which  the 
highest  peak  is  that  of  Picaelio  (7,200  feet)  in  the 
west.  Numerous  streams,  the  largest  of  which 
is  the  Tuira  (162  miles  long,  and  navigable  for  102 
miles),  fall  into  both  oceans.  On  the  Pacific 
shores  are  numerous  beautiful  islands,  among 
which  La-s  Perlas,  so  called  from  their  pearl  fish¬ 
eries,  and  the  Island  of  Coiba,  are  the  chief.  On 
the  north  coast,  the  principal  harbors  are  the 
Chiriqui,  Lagoon,  San  Bias,  and  Caledonia;  on 
the  south  shore,  Damas  in  the  Island  of  Coiba, 
the  Bay  of  San  Miguel,  and  Golfo  Dulce.  Gold, 
which  in  ancient  times  was  obtained  here  in  great 
quantities,  is  still  found,  and  mines  of  salt,  cop¬ 
per,  iron,  coal,  etc.,  are  worked.  The  climate  is 
unhealthy,  except  in  the  interior  and  on  the 
flanks  of  the  mountains.  Almost  all  the  plants 
of  the  torrid  zone  may  be  raised  here,  but  maize, 
rice,  plantains,  etc.  (grown  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  the  transit),  are  the  chief  crops.  In 
1855  a  railway  across  the  isthmus,  from  Aspin- 
wall  City  on  the  Atlantic,  to  Panama  on  the 
Pacific  was  opened.  The  inter-oceanic  canal  dis¬ 
astrously  promoted  by  M.  de  Lesseps,  also 
between  Colon  or  Aspinwall,  and  Panama,  is  in 
the  main  parallel  to  the  railway.  It  is  a  level 
cutting,  without  locks,  the  c  ost  being  estimated 
at  $165,000,000. 

Pan 'cake.  This  article  of  food  is  prepared  by 
pouring  a  rich  batter  of  flour,  eggs,  and  milk 
into  a  frying-pan,  so  as  to  cover  it  about  half  an 
inch  in  thickness;  the  pan  having  been  previously 
heated,  and  well  supplied  with  butter,  lard,  or 
olive  oil.  A  quick  fire  is  necessary  to  cook  it 
well,  and  when  the  under  side  is  done,  a  dexterous 
cook  by  jerking  the  frying-pan  manages  to 
reverse  the  cake,  so  as  to  bring  the  upper  side 
downward  to  be  cooked  in  its  turn. 

Pancliatantra  (literally,  the  five  books)  is  the 
name  of  the  celebrated  Sanskrit  fable  book  of  the 
Hindus,  whence  the  Hitopade sa  was  compiled 
and  enlarged.  ' 

Pancreas  (from  the  Gr.  it av,  pan,  all,  and 
Kpeai,  krean,  flesh)  is  a  conglomerate  gland, 
lying  transversely  across  the  posterior  wall  of  the 
abdomen,  varying  in  length  from  6  to  8  inches, 
having  a  breadth  of  about  14  inches,  and  a  thick¬ 
ness  of.  from  4  an  inch  to  1  inch.  Its  usual 
weight  is  about  three  ounces.  The  head  of  the 
pancreas  lies  in  the  concavity  of  the  duodenum. 


The  secretion  of  this  gland,  or  the  pancreatic 
fluid,  is  conveyed  from  its  various  parts  by  means 
of  the  pancreatic  duct  to  the  duodenum.  This 
gland  is  found  in  all  mammals,  birds,  reptiles, 
amphibians,  and  osseous  fishes,  and  in  some  car¬ 
tilaginous  fishes^ 

Paiidanaceic,  a  natural  order  of  endogenous 
plants,  constituting  a  remarkable  feature  in  the 
scenery  of  many  tropical  countries,  but  unknown 
in  the  colder  regions  of  the  globe.  There  are  not 
quite  100  known  species.  Some  are  valuable  for 
the  fiber  of  their  leaves,  some  for  their  edible 
fruit,  etc.  The  screw  pine,  kiekie,  and  nipa 
belong  to  this  family. 

Pandects  (Gr.  itavdeKvov ,  pandecton,  all  re¬ 
ceiving;  from  itav,  pan,  all,  and  dexopai, 
dechomai,  I  receive),  one  of  the  celebrated  legisla¬ 
tive  works  of  the  Emperor  Justinian,  called  also  by 
the  name  Digestum,  or  Digest.  It  was  an  attempt 
to  form  a  complete  system  of  law  from  the  authori¬ 
tative  commentaries  of  the  jurists  upon  the  laws 
of  Rome. 

Pandora  (i.  e.,  the  All-endowed),  according 
to  Grecian  myth,  was  the  first  woman-  on  the 
earth.  When  Prometheus  had  stolen  fire  from 
Jupiter,  Zeus  instigated  Hephaestus  to  make 
woman  out  of  earth  to  bring  vexation  upon  man 
by  her  graces.  The  gods  endowed  her  with  every 
gift  necessary  for  this  purpose,-  beauty,  boldness, 
cunning,  etc. ;  and  Zeus  sent  her  to  Epimetheus, 
the  brother  of  Prometheus,  who  forgot  his 
brother’s  warning  against  receiving  any  gift  from 
Zeus.  A  later  form  of  the  myth  represents 
Pandora  as  possessing  a  vessel  or  box  filled  with 
winged  blessings,  which  mankind  would  have 
continued  to  enjoy  if  curiosi'y  had  not  prompted 
her  to  open  it,  when  all  the  blessings  flew  out, 
except  Hope. 

Panel  (through  Fr.  from  Lat.  pannus,  a  piece 
of  cloth,  a  patch),  a  space  cr  compartment  of  a 


wall,  ceiling,  woodwork,  etc.,  mclosed  by  beams, 
moldings,  framing,  and  so  forth. 

Pan'golin,  or  Pengolin,  a  name  sometimes 
extended  to  all  the  species  of  Manis',  but  originally 
belonging  to  M.  pentadactyla,  also  called  Short- 


Pangolin  ( Manis  pentadactyla). 


tailed  Manis,  and  in  some  parts  of  India,  Bajjer- 
keit;  this  species  being  a  na'ive  of  most  parts  of 
the  East  Indies,  and  Pangolin,  its  Malayan  name. 

Pangnitch,  the  county  seat  of  Garfield  county, 
Utah.  Pop.,  664. 

Pani'ni,  the  greatest  known  grammarian  of 
ancient  India,  whose  work  on  the  Sanskrit  lan¬ 
guage  has  up  to  the  present  day  remained  the 
standard  of  Sanskrit  grammar.  His  personal 
history  is  obscure. 

Panijmt,  the  chief  town  of  the  District Kurnal, 
in  the  Division  of  Delhi,  Punjab,  is  situated  fifty- 
four  miles  (by  road  seventy-eight  miles)  north-by- 
west  from  Delhi,  in  a  fertile  tract,  the  resources 
of  which  are  largely  developed  by  artificial 
irrigation.  Pop.,  25,276. 

Panno'nii),  a  province  of  the  ancient  Roman 
Empire,  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  the 
Danube,  on  the  west  by  the  mountains  of  Nor- 
ieum,  and  on  the  south  reaching  a  little  way 


across  the  Save;  and  thus  including  part  of  mod¬ 
ern  Hungary,  Slavonia,  parts  of  Bosnia,  of 
Croatia,  and  of  Carniola,  Styria,  and  Low'er 
Austria. 

Panora'ma  (Gr.  itav,  pan,  all,  opapa,  orama, 
a  view),  a  pictorial  representation  of  the  whole 
surrounding  landscape  as  seen  from  one  point. 
The  invention  of  the  panorama  is  claimed  by  the 
Germans  for  Professor  Breisig  of  Danzig,  but  it 
does  not  appear  that  he'  ever  constructed  one. 
The  real  inventor  was  Mr.  Barker,  an  ingenious 
artist  of  Edinburgh. 

Pauslavism.  This  term  is  applied  to  the 
movement  lately  set  on  foot,  and  generally 
ascribed  to  Russian  influence,  for  the  amalgama¬ 
tion  of  all  races  of  Slavonic  descent  into  one 
body,  having  one  language,  one  literature  and 
one  social  polity. 

Pan 'theism  (Gr.  itav,  pan,  all,  and  ©eos, 
theos,  God),  the  name  given  to  that  system  of 
speculation  which,  in  its  spiritual  form,  identifies 
the  universe  with  God  (akosmism),  and  in  its  more 
material  form,  God  with  the  universe. 

Panthe'on,  a  Greek  or  Roman  temple  dedi¬ 
cated  to  all  the  gods.  The  “Pantheon”  of  Rome 
now  the  Church  of  Santa  Maria  Rotonda,  is  the 
only  ancient  edifice  in  Rome  that  has  been  per¬ 


fectly  preserved.  The  Pantheon  is  lighted 
through  one  aperture  in  the  center  of  its  magnifi¬ 
cent  dome.  It  was  erected  -by  Agrippa,  son-in- 
law  of  Augustus,  27  b.c. 

Panther  (Felts  par  dm),  one  of  the  largest  Feli¬ 
dae,  now  supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  leop¬ 
ard,  or  a  mere  variety  of  it,  differing  only  in  its 
larger  size  and  deeper  color. 

Pan'tomime,  among  the  ancient  Romans,  de¬ 
noted  not  a  spectacle  but  a  person.  The  panto¬ 
mimes  were  a  class  of  actors  who  (as  the  name 
implies)  acted  not  by  speaking,  but  wholly  by 
mimicry — gesture,  movements,  and  posturings 
— corresponding  therefore  pretty  closely  to  the 
modern  ballet-dancers.  Pantomime  now  refers 
to  the  play,  rather  than  to  the  actors. 

Paola,  the  county  seat  of  Miami  county,  Kan. 
Pop.,  3,800. 

Paoli.  the  county  seat  of  Orange  county,  Ind. 
Pop.,  850. 

Papal  States  (Italian,  Stati  della  Chiesa 
or  Stati  Pontifici),  a  territory,  or  rather  group 
of  States  in  Central  Italy,  formerly  united  into 
one  sovereignty,  with  the  Pope  for  its  head.  It 
was  of  an  irregular  form,  resembling  the  letter  Z, 
the  upper  portion  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Apen¬ 
nines,  the  lower  to  the  west  of  that  range,  these 
two  being  connected  by  a  third  strip  which 
crossed  the  peninsular  from  east  to  west.  The 
Papal  States  were  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Po, 
on  the  south  by  Naples,  on  the  east  by  the  Gulf 
of  Venice  and  Naples,  and  on  the  w'est  by  Mo¬ 
dena,  Tuscany,  and  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea.  De¬ 
tached  portions,  as  Benevento  and  Pontecorvo, 
lay  within  the  Neapolitan  territory.  The  country 


37 


PAPAVERACEiE. 


578 


PAPILLJ3. 


was  divided  for  administrative  purposes  into 
twenty  districts,  as  follows:  one  Coniarca — includ¬ 
ing  Rome  andtheAgro  Romano;  six  Legations — 
Bologna,  Ferrara,  Forli,  Ravenna,  Urbino,  Vel- 
letri;  and  thirteen  Delegations — Ancona,  Ascoli, 
Benevento,  Camerino,  Civita  Vecchia,  Fermo, 
Frosinone,  Macerata,  Orvieto,  Perugia,  Spoleto, 
Rieti,  Viterbo;  with  a  total  area  of  15,774  Eng¬ 
lish  square  miles,  and  a  population  of  above 
3,000,000.  The  Papal  States  were  held  by  Aus¬ 
tria  and  France  for  the  Pope  till  1870,  when  the 
last-named  power  having  withdrawn,  the  remnants 
of  the  territory  left  the  Pontiffs,  voted  for  annex¬ 
ation  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  The  question  of 
the  restoration  of  the  temporal  power  to  the  Pope 
is  now  an  important  one  in  European  politics. 

Papavera  'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  herbaceous,  or  half  shrubby,  usually  with 
a  milky  or  colored  juice.  The  order  is  distin¬ 
guished  for  narcotic  properties.  Opium  is  its 
most  important  product.  The  juice  of  celandine 
is  very  acrid.  A  number  of  species  are  used  in 
their  native  countries  for  medicinal  purposes. 

Papavv'  (Carica  papaya),  a  South  American 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Papayaceat — of  which 
order  about  thirty  species  are  known — which  has 
now  been  introduced  into  many  tropical  and  sub¬ 
tropical  countries.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  15 
to  30  feet,  with  leaves  only  at  the  top,  where  also 
the  fruit  grows  close  to  the  stem.  The  leaves  are 
20  to  30  inches  long.  The  fruit  is  of  a  green 
color,  very  similar  in  appearance  to  a  small  melon, 
and  with  a  somewhat  similar  flavor.  It  is  eaten 
either  raw  or  boiled.  The  seeds  are  round  and 
black,  and  when  chewed,  have  in  a  high  degree 
the  pungency  of  cresses.  The  powdered  seeds 
and  the  juice  of  the  unripe  fruit  are  most  power¬ 
ful  anthelmintics.  A  constituent  of  this  juice  is 
fibrine,  otherwise  unknown  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom  except  in  the  fungi.  The  milky  juice 
of  the  tree  is  very  acrid.  The  leaves  are  used  by 
negroes  instead  of  soap  to  wash  linen.  The  juice 
of  the  fruit  and  the  sap  of  the  tree  have  the  sin¬ 
gular  property  of  rendering  the  toughest  meat 
tender  in  a  short  time.  Even  the  exhalations 
from  the  tree  have  this  property;  and  joints  of 
meat,  fowls,  etc.,  are  hung  am  mg  its  branches  to 
prepare  them  for  the  table.  It  is  a  tree  of  ex¬ 
tremely  rapid  growth,  bears  fruit  all  the  year, 
and  is  exceedingly  prolific.  The  fruit  is  often 
cooked  in  various  ways. 

Paper.  This  well-known  fabric  is  usually 
composed  of  vegetable  fibers  minutely  divided 
and  recombined  in  thin  sheets,  either  by  simple 
drying  in  contact,  or  with  the  addition  of  size  or 
some  other  adhesive  material.  It  is  known  that 
the  Chinese  were  acquainted  with  the  art 
of  making  paper  from  pulp  artificially  prepared 
as  early  as  the  commencement  of  the  Chris¬ 
tian  era:  and  it  is  thought  that  they  used 
the  bark  of  various  trees,  the  soft  parts 
of  bamboo  stems,  and  cotton.  In  the  seventh 
century,  the  Arabians  learned  the  art  of  making 
it  of  cotton  from  the  Chinese,  and  the  first  manu¬ 
factory  was  established,  about  706  a.d.,  at  Samar- 
cand.  From  thence  it  was  transplanted  to  Spain, 
where,  under  the  Moors,  paper  was  made  not  only 
of  cotton,  but  it  is  thought  also  of  hemp  and 
flax.  Whatever  the  material  employed,  the 
process  for  making  paper  from  fiber  is  the  same. 
The  rags,  bark,  fibers,  or  other  substance,  have  to 
be  reduced  with  water  into  a  fine  smooth  pulp. 
This,  in  the  early  stages  of  the  manufacture,  was 
accomplished  by  macerating  and  boiling  the 
material,  until,  in  the  case  of  bark,  fibers,  or  other 
raw  material,  the  fibers  could  be  drawn  out  from 
the  cellulose  matter,  after  which  it  was  beaten 
with  mallets,  or  with  pestles  in  mortars,  or  stamp¬ 
ers  moved  by  some  power.  Water  is  generally 
used,  but  in  Holland  wind-mills  do  this  work. 
The  beating  is  continued  until  the  material  is 
reduced  to  a  very  smooth  pulp.  It  is  then  put 
into  the  washing-machine,  which  washes  out  dirt 
and  everything  but  the  pure  vegetable  fiber.  This 
machine  is  a  large  cast-iron  vessel,  usually  about 
10  feet  in  length,  44  feet  in  width,  and  24  feet  in 
depth.  In  the  middle,  occupying  about  two- 
thirds  of  its  length,  is  a  .partition,  always  cast 
with  it,  called  the  mid-feather,  to  support  the 
axle  or  driving-shaft,  which  turns  a  cylinder 
which  has  a  large  number  of  teeth  or  ridges  run¬ 
ning  across  it,  which  grip  and  tear  the  rags,  or 


other  materials,  as  they  are  drawn  under  it  by 
the  current  formed  by  its  revolutions.  In  order 
to  facilitate  this,  a  peculiar  form  (hugging  the 
cylinder  closely  with  teeth  opposed  to  teeth  in  the 
cylinder)  is  given  to  the  bottom  of  the  part  in 
which  the  cylinder  works.  The  rise  is  called  the 
back-fall,  and  the  materials  are  drawn  up  to  and 
through  the  narrow  space  by  the  current;  then, 
as  they  pass  over  the  ridged  surface,  they  come 
in  contact  with  the  ridged  surface  of  the  cylinder, 
and  are  thus  violently  ground  and  drawn  through, 
the  stream  carrying  them  round  and  round  until 
they  are  thoroughly  washed  and  partly  pulped; 
or,  as  it  is  technically  called,  broken  in.  The 
washing-machine  is  supplied  with  a  continuous 
How  of  clean  water,  and  the  soiled  water  as 
regularly  escapes  through  a  fine  gauze  screen,  in 
the  ends  of  the  cylinders,  in  which  is  an  ingeni¬ 
ous  arrangement  for  raising  it  and  carrying  it 
away  through  the  axis,  which  is  hollow.  The 
contents  of  the  washing-machine  are  then  allowed 
to  flow  out  through  a  large  valve,  opening  down¬ 
ward  into  the  draining-chest.  Here  the  water  is 
drained  away,  and  the  stuff  is  then  placed  in  the 
bleaching  vats,  which  are  made  of  stone,  and 
each  calculated  to  contain  a  hundredweight  of 
stuff,  which  is  here  submitted  to  the  action  of  a 
strong  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  for  about 
twenty -four  hours,  and  frequently  agitated;  after 
which  it  is  transferred  to  a  hydraulic  press,  and 
pressed  so  as  to  remove  the  greater  portion  of  the 
liquid  and  chloride  of  lime.  It  is  then  placed  in 
another  washing-engine,  and  for  an  hour  is  sub¬ 
mitted  to  the  same  process  as  in  the  first;  by 
which  all  vestiges  of  the  bleaching  materials  are 
removed,  and  the  stuff  so  much  more  broken 
down  as  to  lie  called  half-stuff .  From  this  engine 
it  is  let  out  by  a  valve,  and  finds  its  way  into  the 
beating-engine,  which  is  placed  at  a  lower  level 
so  as  to  receive  it.  Here  the  arrangement  is 
nearly  the  same  as  in  the  washing  and  intermedi 
ate  engines;  but  the  ridges  on  the  bars  below  the 
cylinder,  and  on  the  cylinder  itself,  are  much 
sharper,  and  the  disintegration  of  the  fibers  is 
carried  on  with  great  rapidity  until  th  y  are  quite 
separated;  and  the  flow  of  the  water  in  a  rapid 
current,  as  it  passes  the  cylinder,  draws  them  out 
and  arranges  them  i.i  the  water  in  much  the  same 
way  as  wool  or  cotton  is  laid  on  the  carding  cyl¬ 
inders  of  a  carding-machine.  This  operation 
takes  about  five  hours,  at  the  end  of  which  lime 
-the  materials  have  been  worked  up  with  the  water 
into  an  almost  impalpable  pulp.  This  is  then  let 
out  into  the  pulp  vat,  where  it  is  kept  con¬ 
tinually  agitated  by  a  wooden  wheel  revolving 
in  ii,  called  a  hog,  and  from  this  the  hand- 
workman  or  machine  is  supplied.  In  Great 
Britain  very  little  paper  is  now  made  by  hand, 
the  paper-machine  having  changed  t lie  char¬ 
acter  of  the  manufacture.  It  is  usually  stated 
that  Louis  Robert,  a  Frenchman,  invented  the 
paper-machine,  and  that  it  was  taken  to  that 
country  by  Didot  of  Paris  in  an  imperfect  state, 
but  received  improvements  from  Fourdrinier. 
The  object  was  to  cause  an  equal  supply  of  the 
pulp  to  flow  upon  an  endless  wire-gauze  apron, 
which  would  revolve  and  carry  on  the  p  iper  until 
it  is  received  on  an  endless  sheet  of  felt,  passing 
around  and  between  large  couching  cylinders. 
These  machines  have  now  been  brought  to  such 
perfection,  that  paper  can  be  made  in  one  contin¬ 
uous  web  of  any  length;  and  before  leaving  the 
machine,  is  sized,  dried,  calender; d,  hot-pressed, 
and  cut  into  sheets.  The  principle  of  the  paper- 
machine  is  very  simple;  it  contains  a  pulp-vat, 
with  a  hog  or  wheel  inside  to  agitate  t lie  pulp, 
and  an  arrangement  for  pouring  the  pulp  over 
the  wire-gauze  mold,  which  is  an  endless  sheet 
moving  round  two  rollers,  which  keep  it  stretched 
and  revolving  when  in  operation.  Under  the  part 
which  receives  the  pulp  there  is  a  series  of  small 
brass  rollers,  these,  being  nearly  close  together, 
keep  it  perfectly  level,  which  is  a  most  necessary 
condition;  besides  which,  there  is  a  shallow  trough, 
to  catch  and  retain  the  water,  which  always 
escapes  with  some  pulp  in  suspension;  and  an  ar¬ 
rangement  of  suction  boxes  and  tubes,  worked  by 
air-pumps,  which  draw  much  of  the  water  out  as 
the  pulp  passes  over  them.  The  pulp  is  kept 
from  running  over  the  sides  by  straps;  which  are 
also  endless  bands,  usually  of  vulcanized  india- 
rubber,  carried  round  moving  rollers,  so  that  they 


travel  with  the  wire-gauze,  and  therefore  offer  no 
resistance  to  it.  In  addition  to  all  this,  the 
frame-work  on  which  the  surface  of  the  wire- 
gauze  rests  has  a  side-shake,  which  has  an  import¬ 
ant  effect  in  working  the  fibers  together  before 
the  pulp  finally  settles  down.  When  it  reaches 
the  couching-rolls,  which  press  out  most  of  the  re¬ 
maining  moisture,  and  carry  it  forward  to  the 
first  and  second  series  of  press-rolls  by  means  of 
an  endless  web  of  felt  which  passes  round  them, 
the  speed  of  these  rollers  and  the  traveling  sheet 
of  felt  is  nicely  calculated,  so  as  to  prevent  a 
strain  upon  the  still  very  tender  web  of  paper. 
Sometimes  the  upper  rollers  of  these  two  series 
are  filled  with  steam,  in  order  to  commence  dry¬ 
ing  the  web.  The  paper  is  now  trusted  to  itself, 
and  passes  on,  from  the  second  press-rolls  to  the 
first  set  of  drying  cylinders,  where  it  again  meets 
with  a  felt  sheet,  which  keeps  it  in  clo-e  con' act 
with  the  drying  cylinders,  which  are  of  large  size 
and  filled  with  steam.  Around  these  it  passes,  dry¬ 
ing  as  it  goes;  is  then  received  between  the  two 
smoothing-rolls,  or  damp  calenders,  which  press 
both  surfaces,  and  remove  the  marks  of  the  wire 
and  felt,  which  are  until  then  visible  on  the  paper. 
This  is  necessarily  done  before  the  drying  is  quite 
completed;  and  from  the  smoothing-rolls  it  passes 
to  the  second  series  of  drying  cylinders,  where 
the  drying  is  finished,  and  thence  to  the  calenders 
which  are  polished  rollers  of  hard  cast-iron,  so 
adjusted  as  to  give  a  considerable  pressure  to  the 
paper,  and  at  the  same  time  a  glossiness  of  sur¬ 
face.  For  writing-papers,  the  paper  passes 
through  a  shallow  trough  of  size  after  leaving  the 
drying  cylinders,  and  then  passes  over  another 
series  of  skeleton  cylinders,  with  fans  moving  in¬ 
side  by  which  it  is  again  dried  without  heat,  and 
afterward  passes  through  the  calenders.  Print¬ 
ing  and  other  papers  are  usually  sized  by  mixing 
the  size  in  the  pulp,  in  which  stage  the  coloring 
materials — such  as  ultramarine  for  the  blue  tint  of 
foolscap — are  also  introduced.  Still  following 
the  paper  web,  it  passes  from  the  calenders  to  an¬ 
other  machine  which  slits  the  web  into  widths, 
which  are  again  cross-cut  into  sheets,  the  size  of 
which  is  regulated  at  will.  The  water-mark  is 
impressed  on  machine-made  paper  by  means  of  a 
fine  liglit-wire  cylinder  with  a  wire-woven  pat¬ 
tern;  this  is  placed  over  the  wire-gauze  sheet 
upon  which  the  pulp  is  spread,  but  near  the 
other  end  of  it,  so  that  the  light  impression  of  the 
marker  may  act  upon  the  paper  just  when  it 
ceases  to  be  pulp,  and  this  remains  all  through 
its  course.  It  has  been  computed  that  an  ordi¬ 
nary  machine,  making  webs  of  paper  54  inches 
wide,  will  turn  out  4  miles  a  day. 

Papklago'nia,  anciently  a  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  extending  along  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Black  Sea,  from  the  Halys  on  the  east,  to  the 
Parthenius  on  the  west  (which  separates  it  from 
Bithynia),  and  inland  on  the  south  to  Galatia. 

l’apier-inache  (Fr.  mashed  or  pulped  paper). 
This  manufacture  has  certainly  been  in  use  for 
more  than  a  century  in  Europe.  Properly  speak¬ 
ing,  papier-mache  is  paper-pulp  molded  into 
shape,  and  it  has  been  used,  not  only  to  make 
small  articles,  such  as  boxes,  trays,  etc.,  but  in 
the  interior  decoration  of  houses,  for  cornices, 
ceilings,  etc.  From  the  extension  of  the  applica¬ 
tions  of  papier-mache  to  the  manufacture  of  a 
number  of  light  and  useful  articles,  modifications 
have  taken  place  in  its  composition,  and  it  is  now 
of  three  kinds— first,  the  true  kind,  made  of 
paper-pulp;  second,  sheets  of  paper  pasted  to¬ 
gether  after  the  manner  of  pasteboard,  but  sub¬ 
mitted  to  far  greater  pressure;  and  third,  sheets 
of  thick  millboard  cast  from  the  pulp  are  also 
heavily  pressed.  The  term  papier-machC  is  in 
trade  held  to  apply  rather  to  the  articles  made  of 
the  pulp  than  to  tiie  pulp  itself.  They  are  coated 
with  successive  layers  of  asphalt  varnish,  which 
is  acted  upon  by  heat  in  ovens  until  its  volatile 
parts  are  dissipated,  and  it  becomes  hard,  and 
capable  of  receiving  a  high  polish. 

Papiliona'ce®,  a  sub-order  of  the  natural  order 
of  plants  generally  called  Leguminom.  The 
plants  of  this  sub-order  are  the  only  plants  known 
which  have  flowers  of  peculiar  structure  called 
papilionaceous,  and  of  which  the  pea  and  bean 
afford  familiar  examples. 

Papil  'lrn.  This  term  is  applied  by  anatomists 
to  minute,  elongated,  conical  processes,  project- 


PAPILLION. 


579 


PARALYSIS. 


mg  from  the  surface  of  the  true  skin  into  the 
epidermis,  highly  vascular  and  nervous  in  their 
character,  and  taking  an  active  part  in  the  sense 
of  touch. 

Papillion,  the  county  seat  of  Sarpy  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  700. 

Papist  (Lat.  papista,  an  adherent  of  the  Pope)  is 
a  name  applied,  generally  with  some  admixture 
of  contempt,  to  members  of  the  Roman  Church. 
Of  itself,  it  implies  nothing  more  than  that  they 
are  adherents  of  the  Pope;  but  in  its  popular  use 
it  includes  all  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  Roman 
Catholics,  and  especially  those  which  are  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  peculiarly  cherished  by  the  supporters 
of  the  papal  authority. 

Pap 'pus,  in  Botany,  an  appendage  of  the  fruit 
of  plants  belonging  to  certain  natural  orders,  of 
which  the  great  natural  order  Composite  is  the 
chief.  It  consists  either  of  simple  or  feathery 
hairs,  sessile  or  stalked,  arising  from  the  summit 
of  the  fruit,  and  is  produced  by  a  development  of 
the  tube  and  limb  of  the  persistent  calyx. 

Pap'ua,or  New  Guinea,  is,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  Australia,  the  largest  island  on  the  globe. 
It  lies  in  latitude  0°  30' — 10°  40'  S.,  and  longitude 
131° — 150°  30'  E.,  and  is  about  1,300  miles  in 
length.  Area,  300,000  square  miles. 

Pap'ula;  and  Papular  Diseases.  Pimples 
occur  as  little  elevations  of  the  cuticle,  of  a  red 
color,  containing  neither  pus  nor  any  other  fluid, 
and  ending  usually  in  a  scurf.  The  diseases  re¬ 
garded  as  papular  are  strophulus,  lichen,  and 
prurigo. 

Papy'ri.  Rolls  made  of  the  paper  of  the  papy¬ 
rus  plant  known  as  papyri,  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  biblia. 

Papy'rus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Cyperacea ;,  of  which  there  are  several 
species,  the  most  important  being  the  Egyptian 
papyrus  or  papyrus  of  the  ancients  ( P .  antiquo¬ 
rum,  Cyperus  papyrus  of  Linmeus) ;  a  kind  of 
sedge  8  to  10  feet  high;  with  a  strong,  woody, 


Papyrus  ( P .  antiquorum). 


aromatic,  creeping  root;  long,  sharp-keeled  leaves; 
and  naked,  leafless,  triangular,  soft,  and  cellular 
stems,  as  thick  as  a  man’s  arm  at  the  lower  part, 
and  at  their  upper  extremity  bearing  a  compound 
umbel  of  extremely  numerous  drooping  spikelets, 
with  a  general  involucre  of  eight  long  filiform 
leaves,  each  spikelet  containing  six  to  thirteen 
florets.  The  papyrus  was  used  for  many  pur¬ 
poses,  such  as  crowns  for  the  head,  sandals,  boxes, 
boats,  and  cordage,  but  principally  for  a  kind  of 
paper  called  by  its  name.  Its  pith  was  boiled  and 
eaten,  and  its  root  dried  for  fuel. 

Par,  or  Parr,  a  small  fish,  also  called  Brand¬ 
ling  in  different  parts  of  Britain,  inhabiting  rivers 
and  streams,  and  at  one  time  believed  to  be  a  dis¬ 
tinct  species  of  the  genus  Salmo,  but  now  almost 
universally  regarded  as  the  young  of  the  salmon. 

Para',  or  Be'lem,  a  thriving  city  and  seaport 
of  Brazil,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  stands  on  the  east  hank  of  the  River  Para, 
eighty  miles  from  its  mouth.  Latitude  1°  28'  S., 
longitude  48°  28'  W. 


Para,  an  important  province  of  the  Empire  of  J 
Brazil,  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  country,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Guiana  and  the  Atlantic, 
on  the  east  by  Maranhao  and  Goyaz,  on  the  south 
by  Matto  Grosso,  and  on  the  west  by  Amazonas. 
Area,  460,000  square  miles  ;  pop.  (1872),  280,000. 

Parabola'ni  (Gr.  napa/JuXoi,  parabolas,  a 
desperate  person),  a  class  ot  functionaries  in  the 
early  Church,  by  some  writers  reckoned  as  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  clergy,  and  included  in  the  ranks  of 
the  minor  orders,  but  more  probably  religious 
associations,  whose  duty  it  was  to  assist  the  clergy, 
especially  in  the  more  laborious  and  the  menial 
offices  of  religion  or  of  charity. 

Par'achutc  (Fr.  chute,  a  fall),  a  machine  in¬ 
vented  for  the  purpose  of  retarding  the  velocity 
of  descent  of  any  body  through  the  air;  and  em¬ 
ployed  by  aeronauts  as  a  means  of  descending 
from  balloons.  It  is  a  gigantic  umbrella,  strongly 
made,  and  having  the  outer  extremities  of  the 
rods,  on  which  the  canvas  is  stretched,  firmly 
connected  by  ropes  or  stays  to  the  lower  part  of 
the  handle. 

Paragould,  the  county  seat  of  Greene  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Pa  r'affine  is  the  name  given  to  several  closely- 
allied  substances,  which  are  composed  of  mix¬ 
tures  of  polymeric  hydrocarbons,  of  the  olefiant 
gas  series,  and  are  obtained  from  the  dry  distilla¬ 
tion  of  wood,  peat,  bituminous  coal,  wax,  etc. 

Paraffine  Oil  is  the  term  applied  to  the  oily 
matter  which  is  given  off  in  large  quantity  in  the 
distillation  of  cannel-coal  and  bituminous  shale. 

Paraguay ',  a  republic  of  South  America.  Its 
frontiers,  previous  to  the  war  of  1865 — 1870,  were 
not  well  defined,  but  on  its  conclusion  were  fixed 
by  treaty.  It  now  extends  from  22°  to  27°  35'  S. 
latitude,  and  from  54°  35' to  6 1A  40'  W.  longitude, 
forming  the  peninsula  between  the  Rivers  Para¬ 
guay  and  Parana.  It  is  bounded  north  and  north¬ 
east  by  Brazil,  southeast,  south  and  southwest  by 
the  Argentine  Confederation,  and  northwest  by 
Bolivia.  Area,  91,970  square  miles.  Pop.  (1879), 
346,048. 

Paraguay,  an  important  river  of  South  Amer¬ 
ica,  an  affluent  of  the  Parana,  rises  in  the  Brazil¬ 
ian  Province  of  Matto  Grosso,  on  a  plateau  of  red 
sandstone,  in  latitude  13°  30'  S.,  longitude  about 
55°  50 '  W. 

Paralii'ba,  one  of  the  most  eastern  maritime 
provinces  of  Brazil,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Rio 
Grande  do  Norte,  on  the  south  by  Pernambuco, 
on  the  west  by  Ceara,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Atlantic.  Area,  31,500  square  miles;  pop.  (1872), 
376,226. 

Parahiba,  a  seaport  of  Brazil,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  is  on  the  river  of  the 
same  name,  about  ten  miles  from  the  sea.  Pop., 
15,000. 

Parallels,  or  Circi.es  of  Latitude,  are  circles 
drawn  round  the  surface  of  the  earth  parallel  to 
the  equator.  They  may  be  supposed  to  be  the 
intersections  with  the  earth’s  surface  of  planes 
which  cut  the  earth  at  right  angles  to  its  axis. 
The  greatest  of  these  circles  is  the  equator,  which 
has  the  center  of  The  earth  foritscenter,  the  radius 
for  its  radius,  and  is  equally  distant  at  all  points 
from  each  pole. 

Paral'ysis  (Gr.  nnpd,  beside,  Audi?,  a  lesion), 
or  Palsy,  is  a  loss,  more  or  less  complete,  of  the 
power  of  motion;  and  the  term  is  employed  to 
express  also  loss  of  sensation.  When  the  upper 
and  lower  extremities  on  both  sides,  and  more  or 
less  of  the  trunk,  are  involved,  the  affection  is 
termed  general  paralysis.  Frequently  only  one- 
half  of  the  body  laterally  is  affected,  the  other  side 
remaining  sound;  to  this  condition  the  term  hemi¬ 
plegia  is  given.  When  the  palsy  is  confined  to  all 
the  parts  below  an  imaginary  transverse  line  drawn 
through  the  body,  or  to  the  twolowerextremities, 
the  condition  is  termed  paraplegia.  When  one 
part  of  the  body,  as  a  limb,  one  side  of  the  face, 
etc.,  is  exclusively  attacked,  the  affection  is  known 
as  local  palsy.  In  some  cases  the  loss  of  sensation 
and  the  power  of  motion  in  the  paralyzed  part  is 
entire,  while  in  others  it  is  not  so.  In  the  former 
the  paralysis  is  said  to  be  complete,  in  the  latter, 
partial.  In  most  cases,  but  not  invariably,  sensi¬ 
bility  and  motion  are  simultaneously  lost  or 
impaired.  When  motion  is  lost,  but  sensation 
remains  unimpaired,  the  affection  is  called  akine¬ 


sia.  More  rarely,  there  is  a  loss  of  sensibility 
while  the  power  of  motion  is  retained;  and  to 
such  cases  the  term  anaesthesia  is  applied.  This 
affection  occurs  most  frequently  in  the  organs  of 
sense;  as  in  the  tongue,  for  example,  in  which  the 
sense  of  taste  may  be  lost,  without  'any  defect  of 
movement.  Paralysis  is  in  most  cases  a  mere 
symptom  of  disease  existing  in  some  other  part 
than  that  apparently  affected;  as,  for  example,  in 
the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  or  in  the  conducting 
nerves  between  either  of  these  organs  and  the 
palsied  organ.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  a  purely 
local  affection,  depending  upon  a  morbid  condi¬ 
tion  of  the  terminal  extremities  of  the  nerves. 
The  varieties  in  the  condition  of  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord  which  occasion  paralysis  are  some¬ 
what  numerous;  as,  for  example,  congestion, 
hemorrhagic,  and  serous  effusion,  softening,  fatty 
degeneration,  fibrinous  exudation,  suppuration, 
hydatids,  various  morbid  growths,  depressed  bone 
from  external  violence,  etc.  It  is  highly  probable, 
also,  that  palsy  may  sometimes  result  from  mere 
functional  dis  rder  of  the  nervous  centers — a 
view  which"  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  a  post 
mortem  examination  of  a  patient  who  has  suffered 
from  this  affection  sometimes  fails  to  detect  any 
apparent  lesion.  Paralysis  may  originate  in  a 
nervous  trunk,  if  it  is  compressed  by  a  tumor,  or 
otherwise  mechanically  affected,  or  if  it  is  the  seat 
of  morbid  action  tending  in  any  way  to  disorgan¬ 
ize  it;  or  it  may  be  due  to  an  abnormal  condition 
of  the  terminations  of  the  nerves,  which  may  be 
rendered  unfit  for  receiving  impressions  either 
from  the  external  world  or  from  the  brain  by 
prolonged  disuse,  by  continuous  or  severe  pres¬ 
sure,  by  exposure  to  cold,  by  disorganization 
of  their  own  tissue,  or  by  the  depressing  action 
of  various  metallic  poisons,  especially  lead. 
The  treatment  of  hemiplegia  and  paraplegia 
should  be  exclusively  restricted  to  the  physician. 
When  a  patient  has  an  attack  of  hemiplegia  (or  a 
paralytic  stroke)  all  that  shou’d  be  done  before 
the  physician  arrives  is  to  place  him  in  a  horizontal 
position,  with  the  head  slightly  raised,  and  to 
ren  ove  any  impediments  presented  by  the  dress 
to  the  free  circulation  of  the  blood.  Should  the 
plij  sician  not  arrive  in  an  hour  or  two,  it  may  be 
expedient  to  give  the  patient  a  sharp  purge  (half 
a  scruple  of  calomel,  followed  in  a  few  hours  by 
a  black  draught,  if  he  can  swallow;  and  two 
drops  of  croton  oil,  mixed  with  a  little  melted 
butter,  and  placed  on  the  back  of  his  tongue,  if 
the  power  of  deglutition  is  lost),  and  without  ■wait¬ 
ing  for  its  action,  to  administer  an  injection  (or 
clyster)  consisting  of  half  an  ounce  of  oil  of  tur¬ 
pentine  suspended  (by  rubbing  it  with  the  yolk  of 
an  egg)  in  half  a  pint  of  thin  gruel;  and  cqld 
lotions  may  be  applied  to  the  head,  especially  if  its 
surface  be  hot.  The  question  of  blood-letting 
must  be  left  solely  to  the  physician.  It  should, 
however,  be  generally  known,  that  if  the  patient 
be  cold  and  collapsed;  if  the  heart’s  action  be 
feeble  and  intermittent;  if  there  be  an  anaemic 
state;  if  the  patient  be  of  advanced  age;  if  there 
is  evidence  of  extensive  disease  of  the  heart  or 
arterial  system;  or  lastly,  if  there  is  reason, 
from  the  symptoms,  to  believe  that  a  large 
amount  of  hemorrhage  has  already  taken  place 
in  the  brain,  blood  should  not  be  abstracted. 
Facial  palsy,  unless  the.  seat  of  the  disease  be 
within  the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  will  usually 
yield  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  to  cupping 
and  blistering  behind  the  ear  of  the  affected  side, 
purgatives,  and  small  doses  of  corrosive  subli¬ 
mate  (one-twelfth  of  a  grain  three  times  a  day, 
combined  with  a  little  of  the  compound  tincture 
of  bark),  which  must  be  stopped  as  soon  as  the 
gums  are  at  all  affected.  Exposure  to  cold  air 
must  be  carefully  avoided  during  treatment.  Lit¬ 
tle  or  nothing  can  be  done  to  cure  paralysis  agi- 
tans.  In  the  treatment  of  mercurial  tremor, 
the  first  step  is  to  remove  the  patient  from  the 
further  operation  of  the  poison,  while  the  second 
is  to  remove  the  poison  already  absorbed  into  the 
system,  which  is  effected  by  the  administration  of 
iodide  of  potassium.  This  salt  combines  with 
the  metallic  poison  in  the  system,  and  forms  a 
soluble  salt  (a  double  iodide  of  mercury  and  po¬ 
tassium),  which  is  eliminated  through  the  kid¬ 
neys.  Good  food  and  tonics  (iron  or  quinia,  or 
the  two  combined)  should  be  at  the  same  time 
freely  given. 


PARAMARIBO. 


580 


PARKER. 


Paramaribo,  the  capital  of  Dutch  Guiana,  is 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  River  Surinam,  about 
ten  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  5°  45'  N.  latitude, 
and  55°  15'  W.  longitude.  Pop.  (1883),  24,485. 

Paramat'ta  is  a  light  worsted  twilled  fabric 
for  female  dress.  The  weft  consists  of  combed 
merino  wool,  and  the  warp  of  cotton.  It  resembles 
in  texture  the  Coburg  and  Orleans  cloths. 

Parana",  a  province  in  the  South  of  Brazil,  is 
Pounded  on  the  north  by  the  Province  of  Silo 
Paulo,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic,  southeast  by 
Santa  Catharina,  south  by  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
west  by  Paraguay  and  Matio  Grosso.  Area, 
85,415  square  miles.  Pop.  (1882),  189,608. 

Parana,  an  important  river  of  Brazil,  rises  in 
the  Province  of  Minas  Geraes,  about  100  miles 
northwest  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  flows  west  for 
upward  of  500  miles,  and  empties  into  the  Para¬ 
guay. 

Par'apet  (Ital.  para-petto,  from  parare,  to 
protect,  and  petto,  the  breast),  a  wall  raised 
higher  than  the  gutter  of  a  roof  for  protection  ;  in 


Ornamented  Gothic  Parapet. 

military  works,  for  defense  against  missiles  from 
without  ;  in  domestic  buildings,  churches,  etc., 
to  prevent  accident  by  falling  from  the  roof. 

Parasi'ta,  or  Anoplura,  an  order  of  insects, 
to  all  of  which  the  name  louse  is  popularly  given. 
Ail  live  as  parasites  on  quadrupeds  and  birds. 

Par'asite  (Gr.  from  itapa,para ,  beside:  d/rd?, 
•s itos,  food  ;  one  who  eats  with  another;  hence  one 
who  eats  at  the  expense  of  another),  a  common 
character  in  the  Greek  comedies ;  a  low  fellow, 
who  is  ready  to  submit  to  any  indignity,  that  he 
may  be  permitted  to  partake  of  a  banquet,  and  who 
lives  as  much  as  possible  at  the  expense  of  others. 

Parasit'ic  Animals  are  numerous.  Some  of 
them  are  entozoa,  and  some  are  epizoa.  They 
belong  to  different  classes,  and  even  to  different 
divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom  ;  all,  however, 
are  invertebrate.  Many  are  of  the  division 
Articulata,  and  many  of  the  division  Radiata. 

Parasitic  Diseases  constitute  one  of  the  recog¬ 
nized  orders  of  disease.  In  these  diseases,  certain 
morbid  conditions  are  induced  by  the  presence  of 
animals  or  vegetables  which  have  found  a  place 
of  subsistence  within  some  tissue  or  organ,  or  upon 
some  surface  of  the  body  of  man  or  of  other 
animals.  The  principal  vegetable  parasites 
associated  in  man  with  special  morbid  states  are 
arranged  into  ten  classes.  The  most  dangerous  of 


all  the  parasitic  diseases  is  the  fungus  foot  or 
fungous  disease  of  India.  It  is  a  disease  which 
occurs  among  natives  only,  so  far  as  has  been  yet 
observed,  and  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  presence 
of  a  fungus  which  eats  its  way  into  the  bones  of 
the  foot  and  the  lower  ends  of  the  tibia  and  fibula, 
penetrating  by  numerous  fistulous  canals  through 
the  tissue  of  the  entire  foot,  and  tending  to  cause 
death  by  exhaustion,  unless  amputation  is  per¬ 
formed  in  due  time. 

Parasitic  Plants  are  plants  which  grow  on 
•other  plants,  and  derive  subsistence  from  their 
juices  ;  the  plants  which  live  parasitically  on 
animal  tissues  being  generally  called  entopliytes, 


although  the  distinction  between  these  terms  is 
not  always  preserved. 

Par 'buckle  is  a  mode  of  drawing  up  or 
lowering  down  an  inclined  plane  any  cylindrical 
object,  as  a  barrel  or  a  heavy  gun,  without  the 
aid  of  a  crane  or  tackle.  It  consists  in  passing  a 
stout  rope  round  a  post  or  some  suitable  object  at 
the  top  of  the  incline,  and  then  doubling  the  ends 


under  and  over  the  object  to  be  moved.  This 
converts  the  cask  or  gun  into  a  pulley  in  its  own 
behalf,  and  limits  the  pressure  at  each  end  of  the 
rope  to  one-fourth  the  weight  of  the  object 
moved,  as  felt  on  the  incline.  By  hauling  in  the 
ends  equally,  the  cask  ascends,  or  vice  versa. 

Parch  'ment,  one  of  the  oldest  inventions  of 
writing  materials,  was  known  at  least  as  early  as 
500  years  b.c.  There  are  several  kinds  of  parch¬ 
ment,  prepared  from  the  skinsof  different  animals, 
according  to  their  intended  uses.  The  ordinary 
writing  parchment  is  made  from  those  of  the 
sheep  and  of  the  she-goat;  the  finer  kind,  known 
as  vellum,  is  made  from  those  of  very  young 
calves,  kids,  and  lambs;  the  thick  common  kinds, 
for  drums,  tambourines,  battledores,  etc.,  from 
those  of  old  lie-goats,  she-goats,  and  wolves;  and 
a  peculiar  kind  is  made  from  asses’  skins,  the 
surface  of  which  is  enameled.  The  method  of 
making  parchment  is  at  first  the  same  as  in  dress¬ 
ing  skins  for  leather.  The  skins  are  limed  in  the 
lime-pit  until  the  hair  is  easily  removed.  They 
are  then  stretched  tightly  and  equally,  and  the 
flesh  side  is  dressed  as  in  currying,  until  a  per¬ 
fectly  smoot li  surface  is  obtained.  It  is  next 
ground  by  rubbing  over  it  a  fiat  piece  of  pumice- 
stone,  previously  dressing  the  flesh  side  only  with 
powdered  chalk,  and  slaked  lime  sprinkled  over 
it.  It  isnext  allowed  to  dry,  still  tightly  stretched 
on  the  frame.  The  drying  process  is  an  im¬ 
portant  one,  and  must  be  rather  slowly  carried  on, 
for  which  purpose  it  must  be  in  the  shade.  Some¬ 
times  these  operations  have  to  be  repeated  several 
times,  in  order  to  insure  an  excellent  quality,  and 
much  depends  upon  the  skill  with  which  the 
pumice  stone  is  used,  and  also  upon  the  fineness 
of  the  pumice  itself.  When  quite  dried,  the  lime 
and  chalk  are  removed  by  rubbing  with  a  soft 
lamb-skin  with  the  wool  on. 

Parchment,  Vegetable.  This  remarkable 
sul  'Stance  resembles  animal  parchment  so  closely, 
that  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  the  difference. 
It  is  made  from  the  water-leaf,  or  unsized  paper, 
by  immersing  it  oidy  for  a  few  seconds  in  a  bath 
of  oil  of  vitriol,  diluted  with  one-half  its  volume 
of  water.  The  dilute  acid  must  not  be  used  im¬ 
mediately  after  mixing,  but  must  be  suffered  to 
cool  to  the  ordinary  temperature. 

Paregoric,  or  Paregoric  Elixir  (from  Gr. 
nappy  opiKot,  soothing),  compound  tincture 
of  camphor  (London  Pharmacopoeia)  and  cam¬ 
phorated  tincture  of  opium  (U.*S.  Disp.)  consists 
of  an  alcoholic  solution  of  opium,  benzoic  acid, 
camphor,  and  oil  of  anise,  every  fluid  ounce  con 
taining  two  grains  each  of  opium  and  benzoic 
acid,  and  a  grain  and  a  half  of  camphor.  In 
doses  of  from  one  to  three  drachms,  it  is  an  ex¬ 
cellent  remedy  for  the  chronic  winter-cough  of 
old  people,  the  opium  diminishing  the  bronchial 
secretion  and  the  sensibility  of  the  pulmonary 
mucous  membrane,  while  the  benzoic  acid  and 
oil  of  anise  act  as  stimulating  expectorants.  It 
has  also  been  found  useful  in  chronic  rheumatism. 

Parel'la  (Fr.  parelle  or  perelle),  a  name  often 
given  to  some  of  those  crustaceous  lichens  which 
are  used  to  produce  archil,  cudbear,  and  litmus; 
but  which  more  strictly  belongs  to  one  species, 
Lecanora  panlla.,  resembling  the  cudbear  lichen, 
but  with  somewhat  plaited  warty  crust,  and 


shields  (apotheeia)  having  a  concave  disk  of  the 
same  color  as  the  thick  tumid  even  border. 

Paren  'thesis,  a  term  originally  Greek,  and 
signifying  insertion  or  intercalation,  is  in  compo¬ 
sition  a  clause,  or  part  of  a  sentence  or  argument, 
not  absolutely  essential  to  the  sense,  but  generally 
serving  either  for  explanation  or  confirmation, 
sometimes  chiefly  for  rhetorical  effect.  A  paren¬ 
thesis  is  usually  included  between  the  marks  (  ), 
instead  of  which  the  dash  ( — )  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  parenthesis  is  frequently  but  im¬ 
properly  employed. 

Pa'rias  is  the  name  given  to  the  lowest  class  of 
the  population  of  India — to  that  class  which,  not 
belonging  to  any  of  the  castes  of  the  Brahminical 
system,  is  shunned  even  by  the  lowest  Hindu  pro¬ 
fessing  the  Brahminical  religion,  as  touching  a 
Paria  would  render  him  impure. 

Paring  and  Burning  consists  in  cutting  off 
the  surface  of  the  soil  in  thin  slices,  which  are 
then  dried  and  burned.  This  is  the  most  effectual 
way  of  reclaiming  peat  and  other  wasteland,  the 
surface  of  which  is  matted  with  coarse  plants, 
difficult  of  decay.  It  is  also  applied  advantage¬ 
ously  to  cold  clay  soils,  apt  to  produce  rank  weeds 
and  coarse  grasses,  which  are  to  be  broken  up 
after  lying  for  some  time  in  grass.  The  ashes  of 
the  plants,  consisting  of  potash  and  other  salts, 
act  as  a  powerful  manure;  while  the  clay  being 
reduced  to  the  state  of  brick-dust,  both  improves 
the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  acts  as  an  absorbent 
for  retaining  moisture  and  nutritive  gases,  and 
giving  them  out  to  the  roots  of  growing  plants. 

Par'is,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  small  endoge¬ 
nous  or  dic-tyogenous  natural  order  Trilliacece. 
It  is  rarely  more  than  a  foot  high,  with  one  whorl 
of  generally  four  leaves,  and  a  solitary  flower  on 
the  top  of  the  stem,  followed  by  a  berry.  The 
berry  is  reputed  narcotic  and  poisonous,  but  its 
juice  has  been  employed  to  cure  inflammation  of 
the  eyes.  The  root  has  been  used  as  an  emetic. 

Paris,  also  called  Alexander,  was,  according 
to  Homer,  the  second  son  of  Priam  and  Hecabe, 
sovereigns  of  Troy. 

Paris  (the  ancient  Lulelia  Parisiornm ),  the 
metropolis  of  Prance,  is  in  48°  50"  N.  latitude, 
and  2°  20'  E.  longitude,  on  the  Seine,  about  110 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Pop.  (1881),  2,269,023. 
Its  circumference  is  upward  of  twenty-five  miles. 

Paris,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the  United 
States  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Oxford 
county,  Me.  Pop.,  3,000. — 2.  The  county  seat 
of  Monroe  county,  Mo.  Pop.,  1,350.-3.  The 
county  seat  of  Henry  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  1,800. 
— 4.  The  county  seat  of  Bourbon  county,  Ivy. 
Pop.,  5,204. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Bear  Lake 
county,  Idaho.  Pop.,  650. — 6.  The  county  seat 
of  Edgar  county,  Ill.  Pop.,  4,400. — 7.  Tliecounty 
seat  of  Logan  county,  Ark.  Pop.,  610. — 8.  The 
county  seat  of  Lamar  county,  Tex.,  is  an  import¬ 
ant  agricultural  and  mercantile  center.  Pop., 
10,200. 

Paris  Basin,  the  collective  name  of  the  beds 
of  eocene  age,  which  rest  in  a  hollow  of  the 
chalk  in  the  district  around  Paris,  where  they 
occupy  an  oblong  area  measuring  180  miles  in 
greatest  length  from  north  to  south,  and  90 
miles  in  breadth  from  east  to  west. 

Park,  Mungo,  a  celebrated  African  traveler, 
was  the  son  of  a  Scottish  farmer,  and  was  born 
Sept,  10,  1771,  at  Fowlshiels  near  Selkirk.  He  is 
believed  to  have  been  murdered  by  the  natives  of 
floussa,  or  drowned  as  they  attempted  to  sail 
through  a  narrow  channel  of  the  river. 

Park  of  Artillery  is  the  whole  train  of  guns 
with  equipment,  ammunition,  horses,  and  gun¬ 
ners  for  an  army  in  the  field.  It  is  placed  in  a 
situation  whence  rapid  access  can  be  had  to  the 
line  of  the  army  in  any  part;  and  at  the  same  time 
where  the  divisions  of  the  force  can  easily  mass 
for  its  protection.  The  horses  of  the  park  are 
picketed  in  lines  in  its  rear. 

Park  Rapids,  the  county  seat  of  Hubbard 
county,  Minn.  Pop.,  100. 

Parker,  the  county  seat  of  Turner  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  967. 

Parker,  Theodore,  an  American  Unitarian 
clergyman  and  scholar,  was  born  at  Lexington, 
Mass.,  Aug.  24,  1810.  He  became  a  popular 
lecturer,  and  was  active  and  earnest  in  opposition 
to  slavery,  the  Mexican  War,  and  the  Fugitive 
Slave  Law,  for  resisting  which,  by  more  than 


PARKERSBURG  H. 


581 


PARLIAMENT. 


words,  he  was  indicted.  In  the  midst  of  his 
work,  he  was  attacked,  in  1859,  with  bleeding 
from  the  lungs,  and  made  a  voyage  to  Mexico, 
whence  he  sailed  to  Italy,  where  he  died  at  Flor¬ 
ence,  May  10,  1860. 

Parkersburgli,  an  important  manufacturing 
city  on  the  Ohio  river,  and  the  county  seat  of 
Wood  county,  W.  Ya.  Pop.,  9,100. 

Parkinson'ia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
ordert  Leguminom ,  sub-order  Ccesalpinixe.  P. 
aculeata  is  a'West  Indian  shrub  or  small  tree, 
which,  when  in  flower,  is  one  of  the  most  splendid 
objects  in  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It  has  pinnated 
leaves,  with  winged  leaf-stalk,  and  large  yellow 
flowers  spotted  with  red. 

Parliament  (Fr.  parlement,  from  purler ,  to 
talk),  the  supreme  legislature  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The 
word  was  first  applied,  according  to  Blackstone, 
to  general  assemblies  of  the  States  under  Louis 
Yli.  in  France  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century;  but  in  that  country  it  came  eventually 
to  be  the  designation  of  a  body  which  performed 
certain  administrative  functions,  but  whose  prin¬ 
cipal  duties  were  those  of  a  court  of  justice.  The 
constituent  parts  of  Parliament  are  the  sovereign, 
the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  House  of  Commons. 
In  the  sovereign  is  vested  the  whole  executive 
power;  the  crown  is  also  the  fountain  of  justice, 
from  whence  the  whole  judicial  authority  flows. 
To  the  crown  is.  intrusted  the  permanent  duty  of 
government,  to  be  fulfilled  in  accordance  with 
the  law  of  the  realm,  and  by  the  advice  of 
ministers  responsible  to  Parliament.  The  sover¬ 
eign  is  also  invested  with  the  character  of  the 
representation  of  the  majesty  of  the  State.  The 
sovereign’s  share  in  the  legislature  includes 
the  summoning,  proroguing,  and  dissolving  of 
Parliament.  Parliament  can  only  assemble  by  act 
of  the  sovereign;  in  but  two  instances  have  the 
Lords  and  Commons  met  of  their  own  authority, 
and  in  both  instances  it  was  considered  necessary 
afterward  to  pass  an  act  declaring  the  Parlia¬ 
ment  to  be  a  legal  one.  Though  the  queen  may 
determine  the  period  for  assembling  Parliament, 
her  prerogative  is  restiained  within  certain  limits. 
She  is  bound  by  statute  to  issue  writs  within 
three  years  after  the  determination  of  a  Parlia¬ 
ment;  and  the  practice  of  voting  money  for  the 
public  service  by  annual  enactments,  renders  it 
compulsory  for  the  sovereign  to  meet  Parliament 
every  year.  An  act  provides  that  the  sovereign 
shall  assemble  Parliament  within  fourteen  days, 
whenever  the  militia  shall  be  drawn  out  and  em¬ 
bodied  in  case  of  apprehended  invasion  and  re¬ 
bellion.  The  royal  assent  is  necessary  before  any 
measure  can  pass  into  law.  The  Crown,  as  the 
executive  power,  is  charged  with  the  management 
of  the  revenues  of  the  State,  and  with  all  pay¬ 
ments  for  the  public  service;  it  is  therefore  the 
Crown  that  makes  known  to  the  Commons  the 
pecuniary  necessities  of  the  government,  without 
which  no  supplies  can  be  granted.  The  sover¬ 
eign’s  prerogative  also  includes  the  sending  and 
receiving  of  ambassadors,  entering  into  treaty 
with  foreign  powers,  and  declaring  war  or  peace. 
All  the  kings  and  queens  since  the  Revolution 
have  taken  an  oath  at  their  coronation  “to  govern 
according  to  the  statutes  in  Parliament  agreed  on, 
and  the  laws  and  customs  of  the  same.”  The 
sovereign  is  further  bound  to  an  adherence  to  the 
Protestant  faith  and  the  maintenance  of  the  Pro¬ 
testant  religion  as  established  by  law.  A  person 
professing  the  popish  religion,  or  marrying  a 
papist,  is  incapable  of  inheriting  the  crown,  and 
the  people  are  absolved  from  their  allegiance,  and 
in  addition  to  the  coronation  oath,  every  king  or 
queen  is  required  to  take  the  declaration  against 
the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
either  on  the  throne,  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  the 
presence  of  both  Houses,  at  the  first  meeting  of 
the  first  Parliament  after  the  accession,  or  at  the 
coronation,  whichever  event  shall  first  happen. 
The  sovereign  is  bound  by  similar  sanctions  to 
maintain  the  Protestant  religion  and  Presbyterian 
Church  government  in  Scotland.  The  province 
of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  is  to  legislate  with 
the  Crown,  to  provide  supplies,  to  exercise  a  su¬ 
pervision  over  the  ministers  of  the  Crown  and  all 
other  functionaries,  and  to  advise  the  sovereign 
on  mattersof  public  moment.  TheUpper  House, 
from  its  hereditary  and  aristocratic  character,  is  a 


check  on  the  popular  branch  of  the  Legislature 
and  on  hasty  legislation.  The  House  of  Lords 
may  originate  legislative  measures  of  all  kinds, 
except  money-bills.  Acts  of  grace  and  bills 
affecting  the  rights  of  peers  must  originate  in  this 
House.  In  its  judicial  capacity  it  forms  a  court 
of  final  appeal  from  Her  Majesty’s  Court  of  Ap¬ 
peal  in  England,  from  the  Court  of  Session,  Scot¬ 
land,  and  the  superior  courts  of  larv  and  equity  of 
Ireland.  It  has  a  judicature  in  claims  of  peerage 
and  offices  of  honor  under  reference  from  the 
Crown.  Since  the  union  with  Scotland  and  Ire¬ 
land,  it  has  had  the  power  of  deciding  dis¬ 
puted  elections  of  representative  peers.  It 
tries  offenders  impeached  by  the  House 
of  Commons,  and  members  of  its  own  body 
on  indictment  found  by  a  grand  jury.  The 
House  of  Lords  is  composed  of  lords  spiritual 
and  temporal.  According  to  a  declaration  of  the 
House  In  1672,  the  lords  spiritual  are  only  lords 
of  Parliament,  and  not  peers.  They  consist  of  2 
archbishops  and  24  bishops  for  England,  who  are 
said  to  have  seats  in  virtue  of  their  temporal 
baronies.  The  lords  temporal  consist  of — 1.  The 
peers  of  England,  of  Great  Britain,  and  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  of  whom  there  were,  in  1881,  6 
princes  of  the  royal  blood,  21  dukes,  20  mar¬ 
quises,  .  181  earls,  25  viscounts,  and  254  barons. 
The  peers  of  the  United  Kingdom  may  be 
increased  without  limit  by  new  creations  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  sovereign. — 2.  Sixteen  representa¬ 
tives  chosen  from  their  own  body  by  the  peers  of 
Scotland  for  each  Parliament.  As  no  provision 
was  made  at  the  union  for  any  subsequent  crea¬ 
tion  of  Scottish  peers,  the  peerage  of  Scotland 
consists  exclusively  of  the  descendants  of  peers 
existing  before  the  Union.  3.  Twenty-eight 
representatives  of  the  Irish  peerage,  elected  for 
life.  The  House  has  also  power  to  call  to  its 
assistance  in  legal  and  constitutional  questions 
the  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature 
of  all  the  four  divisions,  who  advise  what  should 
be  done.  The  House  has  power  also  to  sit  for 
judicial  business  during  the  prorogation  of  Parlia¬ 
ment.  The  votes  of  spiritual  and  temporal  lords 
are  intermixed,  and  the  joint  majority  determine 
every  question;  but  they  sit  apart  on  separate 
benches — the  place  assigned  to  the  lords  spiritual 
being  the  upper  part  of  the  House  on  the  right 
hand  of  the  throne.  A  lord  may,  by  license  from 
the  sovereign,  appoint  another  lord  as  his  proxy 
to  vote  for  him  in  his  absence;  but  a  lord 
spiritual  can  only  be  proxy  for  a  lord  spiritual, 
and  a  lord  temporal  for  a  lord  temporal,  and  no 
member  of  the  House  can  hold  more  than  two 
proxies  at  the  same  time.  Proxies  can  not  vote  in 
judical  questions  or  in  committees  of  the  whole 
House.  Peerages  are  lost  by  attainder  for  high 
treason.  Neither  the  issue  of  the  body  of  the 
person  attainted,  nor,  on  their  failure, ‘the  descend¬ 
ants  of  the  person  first  called  to  the  dignity,  will 
be  admitted  to  it  without  a  removal  of  the  attain¬ 
der.  A  peerage,  whether  by  patent  or  writ,  is 
forfeited  by  attainder  for  high  treason;  attainder 
for  felony  forfeits  a  peerage  by  writ,  not  one  by 
patent.  An  attainted  peerage  can  not  be  restored 
by  the  Crown,  only  by  an  act  of  Parliament.  The 
House  of  Commons,  besides  its  general  power  to 
introduce  legislative  measures,  has  the  sole  right 
to  orginate  bills  levying  taxes  or  affecting  the 
public  income  and  expenditure,  and  to  examine 
into  the  validity  of  elections  to  its  own  body. 
The  House  of  Commons  has  the  right  to  expel  or 
commit  to  prison  its  own  members,  and  to  com¬ 
mit  other  persons  who  offend  by  breach  of  its 
privileges,  contempt  of  its  authority,  disobedience 
of  its  orders,  or  invasion  of  its  rights;  but  this 
power  is  limited  to  the  duration  of  the  session. 
Expulsion  does  not,  however,  create  any  disa¬ 
bility  to  serve  again  in  Parliament.  The  House 
of  Commons  has  also  the  power  of  impeaching 
offenders,  who,  however,  are  tried  at  the  bar  of 
the  House  of  Lords.  The  number  of  members  of 
the  House  of  Commons  has  varied  greatly  at 
different  times.  The  652  seats  occupied  after  the 
election  of  1880  were  thus  distributed: 


Counties.  Boroughs.  Universities.  Total. 


England  and  Wales. . , 

.  187 

295 

5 

487 

Scotland . 

.  82 

76 

1 

60 

Ireland  . 

64 

39 

103 

281 

*  860 

9 

652 

When  a  new  Parliament  lias  to  be  assembled,  the 
Lord  Chancellor,  by  order  of  the  sovereign, 


directs  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  to  prepare  and 
issue,  under  the  Great  Seal,  writs  to  the  sheriffs 
of  counties,  both  for  the  counties  and  the  bor¬ 
oughs.  A  sheriff,  on  receiving  a  writ  for  a 
county,  appoints  a  clay  for  the  election.  The  can¬ 
didates  are  now  nominated  by  a  writing  signed 
by  two  electors,  as  proposer  and  seconder,  and 
eight  others  as  consenting,  and  delivered  to  the 
returning  officer;  if  on  expiry  of  an  hour  from 
the  time  fixed,  there  are  more  candidates  than 
vacancies,  the  election  is  adjourned,  and  a  poll 
taken.  The  vote  is  given  by  ballot,  and  the  result 
announced  by  the  returning  officer,  and  returned 
to  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  in  Chancery.  Vacan¬ 
cies  occurring  after  a  general  election  are  supplied 
by  new  writs  issued  Icy  authority  of  the  House. 
When  it  is  determined  that  a  writ  should  be 
amended,  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  is  ordered  to 
attend  the  House,  and  amend  it  accordingly  A 
member  of  the  House  of  Commons  can  not,  in 
theory,  resign  his  seat;  but  on  the  acceptance  of 
any  office  of  profit  under  the  crown,  his  election  is, 
by  an  act  of  Queen  Anne,  declared  void,  and  a  new 
writ  issues,  he  being  however,  eligible  for  reflec¬ 
tion.  On  the  day  appointed  for  the  meeting  of  a 
new  Parliament,  the  members  of  the  two  Houses 
assemble  in  their  respective  chambers.  In  the 
Lords,  the  Lord  Chancellor  acquaints  the  House 
that  “  Her  Majesty,  not  thinking  it  fit  to  be  per¬ 
sonally  present  here  this  day,  had  been  pleased  to 
cause  a  commission  to  be  issued  unde'1  the  Great 
Seal,  in  order  to  the  opening  and  holding  of  the 
Parliament.”  The  Lords  Commissioners  being  in, 
their  robes,  and  seated  between  the  throne  and 
woolsack,  then  command  the  Gentleman  Usher  of 
the  Black  Rod  to  let  the  Commons  know  that  the 
“Lords  Commissioners  desire  their  immediate 
attendance  in  this  House  to  hear  the  commission 
read.”  Meantime,  in  the  Lower  House,  the  Clerk 
of  the  Crown  in  Chancery  has  delivered  to  the 
Clerk  of  the  House  a  list  of  the  members  returned 
to  serve;  and  on  receiving  the  message  from  Black 
Rod,  the  Commons  go  up  to  the  House  of  Lords. 
The  commission  having  been  read  in  presence 
of  the  members  of  both  Houses,  the  Lord  Chan¬ 
cellor  opens  the  Parliament  by  stating  that  “  Her 
Majesty  will,  as  soon  as  the  members  of  both 
Houses  shall  lie  sworn,  de<  lare  the  causes  of  her 
calling  this  Parliament;  and,  it  being  necessary 
that  a  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  should 
first  be  chosen,  that  you,  gentlemen  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  repair  to  the  place  where  you  are 
to  sit,  and  there  proceed  to  the  appointment  of 
some  proper  personas  your  Speaker,  and  that  you 
present  such  person  whom  you  shall  so  choose 

here  to-morrow  at - o’clock,  for  Her  Majesty’s 

royal  approbation.”  The  Commons  immediately 
withdraw,  and,  returning  to  their  own  House, 
proceed  to  elect  a  Speaker.  The  next  day,  the 
Speaker-elect,  on  the  arrival  of  Black  Rod,  pro. 
ceeds  with  the  Commons  to  the  House  of  Lords, 
where  his  election  is  approved  by  the  Lord  Chan¬ 
cellor.  He  then  lays  claim,  on  behalf  of  the  Com¬ 
mons,  to  their  ancient  rights  and  privileges,  which 
being  confirmed,  he  retires  with  the  Commons 
from  the  bar.  The  members  of  both  Houses  then 
take  the  oath  prescribed  by  law.  On  the  demise 
of  the  sovereign,  the  oaths  must  betaken  anew  in 
both  Houses.  When  the  greater  part  of  the 
members  of  both  Houses  have  been  sworn, 
the  causes  of  calling  the  Parliament  are  de¬ 
clared'  by  the  sovereign  either  in  person  or 
by  commission.  In  the  former  case  the  queen 
proceeds  in  state  to  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
commands  Black  Rod  to  let  the  Commons  know 
“that  it  is  Her  Majesty’s  pleasure  that  they  attend 
her  immediately  in  this  House.”  Black  Rod  pro¬ 
ceeds  to  the  House  of  Commons,  and  formally 
commands  their  attendance,  on  which  the  Speaker 
and  the  Commons  go  up  to  the  bar  of  the  House 
of  Lords,  and  the  queen  reads  her  speech,  which 
is  delivered  to  her  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  kneel¬ 
ing  on  one  knee.  Of  late  years  the  practice  has 
been  revived  of  the  Lord  Chancellor  reading  the 
royal  speech  in  the  queen’s  presence.  When 
Parliament  is  opened  by  commission,  the  sovereign 
not  being  personally  present,  the  Lord  Chancellor 
reads  the  royal  speech  to  both  Houses.  Immedi¬ 
ately  after  the  royal  speech  is  read,  the  House  is 
adjourned  during  pleasure;  but  both  Houses  are 
resumed  in  the  afternoon,  for  the  purpose  of 
voting  an  address  in  answer  to  the  speech  from 


PARMA. 


582 


PASSION-FLOWER. 


the  throne.  Adjournment  of  Parliament  is  but 
the  continuance  of  the  session  from  one  day  to 
another.  A  prorogation  differs  from  an  adjourn¬ 
ment  in  this  respect,  that  it  not  merely  suspends 
all  business,  but  quashes  all  proceedings  pending 
at  the  time,  except  impeachments  by  the  Com¬ 
mons,  and  appeals  and  writs  of  error  in  the  Lords. 
It  being  a  rule  that  a  bill  of  the  same  substance 
can  not  be  introduced  twice  in  I  he  same  session,  a 
prorogation  has  sometimes  been  resorted  to,  to 
enable  a  second  bill  to  be  brought  in.  Parliament 
can  be  prorogued  only  by  the  sovereign ;  and  this 
may  be  done  by  having  her  command  signified  in 
her  presence  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  to  both 
Houses,  by  writ  under  the  Great  Seal,  by  commis¬ 
sion,  or  by  proclamation.  Parliament  comes  to  an 
end  by  dissolution.  This  dissolution  may  be  by 
the  will  of  the  sovereign  expressed  in  person,  or 
by  her  representatives.  Having  been  first  pro¬ 
rogued,  it  is  dissolved  by  a  royal  proclamation, 
and  by  the  same  instrument  it  is  declared  that 
the  Chancellor  of  Great  Britain  and  Chancellor  of 
Ireland  have  been  respectively  ordered  to  issue 
out  writs  for  calling  a  new  Parliament. 

Parma,  once  a  sovereign  duchy  of  Italy,  lying 
between  the  Apennines  and  the  Po,  touching  Sar 
dinia  (Piedmont)  in  the  west,  and  Modena  on  the 
east.  It  comprised,  at  its  annexation  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy,  the  two  duchies  of  Parma  and 
Piacenza;  had  an  area  of  2,270  square  miles,  and 
a  pop.  of  490,000. 

Panua,  the  chief  town  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name  in  Italy,  and  formerly  the  capital  of 
the  Duchy  of  Parma,  is  on  both  sides  of  the  River 
Parma,  twelve  miles  south  from  the  Po,  seventy- 
five  miles  southeast  from  Milan,  and  about  the 
same  distance  east-northeast  from  Genoa,  with  a 
pop.  (1881)  of  45,217. 

Panne 'lia,  a  genus  of  lichens,  with  a  leafy 
horizontal  thallus  which  is  lobed  and  cut;  and 
orbicular  shields  ( apothecia )  fixed  by  a  central 
point,  concave,  and  bordered  by  the  inflexed 
thallus.  Some  of  the  species  are  occasionally 
employed  in  dyeing.  Various  chemical  principles 
have  been  discovered  in  lichens  of  this  genus,  and 
valuable  medicinal  properties — tonic  and  febri¬ 
fugal — have  been  ascribed  to  P.  parietina,  the 
common  yellow  wall  lichen,  or  common  yellow 
wall  moss  of  the  herb  shops,  a  bright  yellow 
species  with  deep  orange  shields. 

Parnahi'ba,  or  Paranahyba,  a  river  of  Bra¬ 
zil,  rises  in  the  Sierra  dos  Coroados,  between  the 
Provinces  of  Goyas  and  Piaulii,  about  11°  S. 
It  flow's  northeast  and  north,  and  enters  the 
Atlantic  in  longitude  about  41°  40'  W.  by  five 
mouths,  which  inclose  a  delta  about  30  miles 
wide  along  the  shore.  Total  length,  750  miles. 

Parnas'sus,  a  mountain  celebrated  among  the 
ancients,  and  regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  the  cen¬ 
tral  point  of  their  country.  It  was  in  Pliocis. 

Par'ody  (Gr.  itapa,  para,  beside,  and  ode, 
ode,  a  song),  the  name  given  to  a  burlesque  imi¬ 
tation  of  a  serious  poem,  its  peculiarity  is  that 
it  preserves  the  form,  and  as  far  as  possible  the 
words  of  the  original,  and  thereby  differs  from  a 
travesty,  which  is  a  looser  and  less  literal  kind  of 
burlesque. 

Parole'  (literally,  a  word),  is  the  declaration 
made  on  honor  by  an  officer,  in  a  case  in  which 
there  is  no  more  than  his  sense  of  honor  to  restrain 
him  from  breaking  his  word.  Thus  a  prisoner 
of  war  may  be  released  from  actual  prison  on  his 
parole  that  he  w  ill  not  go  beyond  certain  desig¬ 
nated  limits;  or  he  may  even  be  allowed  to  return 
to  his  own  country  on  his  parole  not  to  fight 
again,  during  the  existing  war,  against  his 
captors. 

Paros,  one  of  the  larger  islands  of  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  is  west  of  Naxos,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  a  channel  from  4  to  0  miles  wide. 
Greatest  length,  15  miles;  greatest  breadth,  9 
miles;  area,  about  95  square  miles;  pop.,  6,000. 

Pa  rowan,  the  county  seat  of  Iron  county, 
Utah.  Pop.,  957. 

Par'quetry,  a  kind  of  wood  mosaic  used  only 
for  flooring. 

Parrakeet',  or  Parroquet,  a  name  commonly 
given  to  many  of  the  smaller  species  of  the 
parrot  family;  generally  to  species  having  long 
tails,  and  natives  of  the  East  Indies,  Africa,  and 
Australia,  not  so  frequently  to  American  species; 


although  it  is  sometimes  also  applied  to  some  of 
these,  indifferently  with  the  name  parrot. 

Parrha'sius,  one  of  the  greatest  painters  of 
ancient  Greece,  was  the  son  of  Evenor,  himself 
an  artist,  and  was  born  at  Ephesus  in  the  fifth 
century  b.c.  Seneca  says  that  when  Parrhasius 
was  painting  his  Prometheus  Vinctus,  he  got  hold 
of  one  of  the  prisoners  taken  at  the  capture  of 
Olynthus  by  Philip  of  Macedon  (347  b.c.)  and 
crucified  him  in  his  studio  that  he  might  copy 
from  life  the  expression -of  agony.  This  anecdote 
is  almost  certainly  untrue,  as  it  would  require 
one  to  believe  that  Parrhasius  was  still  alive  and 
painting  when  upward  of  100  years  old. 

Par 'rot  (Psittacus),  a  Linnaean  genus  of  birds, 
now  the  family  Psittacidce,  of  the  order  Scansores, 
or  climbers,  comprehending  a  vast  number  of 
species,  natives  of  almost  all  tropical  and  sub-trop¬ 
ical  regions;  a  fewr  species  extending  further 
north  and  south,  in  America,  in  New  Zealand, 
and  in  Tasmania.  They  are  mostly  birds  of 
splendid  plumage;  they  vary  in  size,  from  the 
great  macaw,  more  than  3  feet  in  length,  tail 
included,  to  the  little  love-birds,  not  arger  than 
sparrows. 

Parry,  Sir  William  Edward,  commonly 
known  as  Sir  Edward  Parry,  a  celebrated 
English  navigator,  was  born  at  Bath,  Dec.  19, 
1790,  and  died  at  Ems,  Germany,  July  7,  1855. 

Par  'sees  (people  of  Pars  or  Ears,  i.  e.,  ancient 
Persia),  is  the  name  of  the  small  remnant  of  the 
followers  of  the  ancient  Persian  religion,  as  re¬ 
formed  by  Zerdusht,  or  Zoroaster,  as  he  is  com¬ 
monly  called.  They  are  also  known  under  the 
denomination  of  Guebres. 

Pars 'ley  (Petroselinum),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  TJm’beUife.rat.  The  species  are 
annual  or  biennial,  branching,  smooth,  herba¬ 
ceous  plants  with  variously  pinnated  leaves. 

Pars'nip  (Pastinaca),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Umbelliferm,  having  compound  um¬ 
bels  with  neither  general  nor  partial  involucres; 
yellow  flowers  with  roundish,  involute,  sharp- 
pointed  petals;  calyx  almost  without  teeth;  fruit 
dorsally  compressed  and  flat,  with  a  broad  bor¬ 
der,  the  ridges  very  fine. 

Parsons,  the  county  seat  of  Labette  county, 
Kan.,  is  an  important  agricultural  and  manufact¬ 
uring  city.  Pop.,  8,100. 

Parterre,  in  gardens  laid  out  in  the  old  French 
style,  the  open  part  in  front  of  the  house,  in 
which  flower-beds  and  closely-cut  lawn  were  in¬ 
termingled  according  to  a  regular  plan. 

Parthenogen 'esis  (from  the  Gr.  n apOevo?,  a 
virgin,  and  yevedii,  the  act  of  production)  is  a 
term  invented  by  Professor  Owen  to  indicate  pro¬ 
pagation  by  self-splitting,  or  self-dividing,  by 
budding  from  without  or  within,  and  by  any 
mode  save  by  the  act  of  impregnation. 

Par'thenon,  the  temple  of  Minerva  at  Athens: 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Greek  temples, 
and  usually  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  speci¬ 
men  of  Greek  architecture. 

Par'tisan  is  a  name  for  a  halberd  or  [like,  or 
for  a  marshal’s  baton.  The  name  is  also  given  to 
the  leader  of  a  detatched  body  of  light  troops, 
who  make  war  by  harassing  the  enemy,  rather 
than  coming  to  direct  fighting,  by  cutting  off 
stragglers,  interrupting  his  supplies,  and  confus¬ 
ing  him  by  rapid  strategy. 

Parti'tion  Lines,  in  Heraldry,  lines  dividing 
the  shield  in  directions  corresponding  to  the  or¬ 
dinaries.  According  to  the  direction  of  the  par¬ 
tition  lines,  a  shield  is  said  to  be  party  or  parted 
per  fesse,  per  pale,  per  bend,  per  cheveron,  per 
saltire. 

Par'tridge  ( Perdix ),  a  genus  of  gallinaceous 
birds,  of  the  family  Tetraonida',,  having  a  short, 
strong  bill,  naked  at  the  base;  the  upper  man¬ 
dible  convex,  bent  down  at  the  tip;  the  wings 
and  tail  short,  the  tarsi  as  well  as  the  toes  naked, 
the  tarsi  not  spurred. 

Partridge  Pigeon  ( Oeophaps ),  an  Australian 
genus  of  Columbidw,  approaching  more  than 
most  of  the  pigeons,  in  character  and  habits,  to  the 
true  gallinaceous  birds,  and  particularly  to  par¬ 
tridges. 

Partridge-wood,  a  hard  wood  native  to  the 
West  Indies  and  Brazil;  it  is  usually  of  a  reddish 
color,  in  various  shade  from  light  to  dark,  the 
shades  being  mingled  in  thin  streaks;  but  in  some 
choice  sorts  they  are  curled  upon  one  another  so 


as  to  resemble  the  feathers  of  the  partridge, 
whence  its  name.  One  variety  occurs  in  which 
the  colors  are  remarkably  bright,  and  it  is  conse¬ 
quently  called  plieasant-wood. 

Pascagou'la,  a  river,  and  bay  at  its  mouth,  in 
Mississippi.  The  river,  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Leaf,  the  Chickahay,  with  numerous 
branches,  drains  the  southeastern  portion  of  the 
State,  and  flows  into  Mississippi  Sound  through 
two  mouths  which  form  the  bay. 

Pascal,  Blaise,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
philosophers  and  scholars  of  the  seventeenth  cent¬ 
ury,  the  celebrated  apologist  of  the  Jansenists, 
was  born  at  Clermont,  in  Auvergne,  France,  June 
19,  1623.  In  the  controversylo  which  the  condem¬ 
nation  of  Arnauld  by  the  Sorbonne  (1655)  gave 
rise,  Pascal  took  a  lively  interest;  and  it  was  to 
this  controversy  that  he  contributed  the  memor¬ 
able  Leltres  P 'rovin dale s,  published  under  the 
pseudonym  of  Louis  de  Montalt.  He  was  a  pro¬ 
found  mathematician  and  of  a  deeply  religious 
nature.  His  sister  Jacqueline,  was  a  nun  of  Port 
Royale,  under  the  celebrated  Mere  AngGique. 

Pasco,  the  county  seat  of  Franklin  county, 
Wash.  Pop.,  100. 

Pas-de-Calais  (Fr.  for  Strait  of  Dover),  a  depart¬ 
ment  in  the  North  of  France,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Department  of  Nord  and  the  Strait 
of  Dover,  and  on  I  he  west  by  the  Strait  of  Dover 
and  the  English  Channel.  Area,  2,540  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1876),  793,140. 

Pasha',  or  Pacha,  a  title  used  in  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  and  applied  to  governors  of  provinces, 
or  military  and  naval  commanders  of  high  rank. 
The  name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  two  Persian 
words — pa,  foot  or  support,  and  shah,  ruler — and 
signifies  the  support  of  the  ruler. 

Pas'palum,  a  genus  of  grasses,  with  spikes 
either  solitary  or  variously  grouped,  one-flowered 
spikelets,  and  awnless  paleae.  The  species  are 
numerous,  natives  of  warm  climates.  P.  serobicu- 
latum  is  cultivated  as  a  cereal  in  India,  where  it  is 
called  koda. 

Pasque  Flower  (Pulsatilla),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  llanuncvlacece,  by  many 
botanists  still  included  in  Anemone,  the  chief  dis¬ 
tinguishing  characteristic  being  the  long,  feathery 
awns  of  the  fruit.  The  species  are  perennial, 
silky,  herbaceous  plants,  with  doubly  pinnatifid 
or  doubly  trifid  leaves,  and  a  simple  one-flowered 
scape. 

Passa'ic,  a  manufacturing  city,  and  the  county 
seat  of  Passaic  county,  N.  J.  Pop.,  9,000. 

Passaic,  a  river  of  New  Jersey,  rises  in  Morris 
county,  and,  after  a  circuitous  southeasterly  course 
of  ninety  miles,  empties  into  Newark  Bay. 

Passainaquod  'dy  Bay  opens  out  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  between  Maine  and  New  Brunswick.  It 
is  12  miles  long  by  6  wide,  and  shut  in  by  a  clus¬ 
ter  of  islands,  so  as  to  form  an  excellent  harbor. 

Pas'sant,  a  heraldic  term  used  to  express  the 
attitude  of  an  animal  in  a  walking  position,  with 
his  head  straight  before  him. 

Pass  Christian,  the  county  seat  of  Harrison 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Passion-flower  ( Passiflora ),  a  genus  of  plants 


almost  exclusively  natives  of  the  warm  parts  of 
America,  and  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Pas- 


PASSION-WEEK. 


583 


PAUL. 


sifloracece;  an  order  of  exogenous  plants,  of  which 
more  than  200  species  are  known,  mostly  climbers-, 
having  tendrils  which  spring  from  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  herbaceous  or  half  shrubby,  natives  of 
tropical  and  sub  tropical  countries,  but  rare  in 
Asia  and  Africa. 

Passion- week,  the  name  commonly  given  to  the 
week  immediately  preceding  Easter,  and  other¬ 
wise  called  Holy  week. 

Pass 'over  ( Pesach ,  Pascha),  the  first  and 
greatest  of  the  three  annual  feasts  (Regalim)  insti¬ 
tuted  by  Moses,  at  which  it  was  incumbent  upon 
every  male  Israelite  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the 
house  of  the  Lord.  It  was  celebrated  on  the  an¬ 
niversary  of  the  Exodus  from  Egypt — i.  e.,  on  the 
14th  day  of  Nisan,  otherwise  called  Abib,  the 
period  of  the  first  full  moon  in  the  spring — and 
lasted  eight  days. 

Pass 'port,  a  warrant  of  protection  and  per 
mission  to  travel,  granted  by  the  proper  authority, 
to  persons  moving  from  place  to  place.  Every 
independent  State  has  the  right  to  exclude  whom 
it  pleases  from  its  territory,  and  may  require  that 
all  strangers  entering  it  be  furnished  with  properly 
authenticated  documents,  showing  who  they  are, 
and  lor  what  purpose  they  are  visiting  the  coun¬ 
try.  Passports  are  sometimes  issued  by  the  min¬ 
isters  and  consuls  of  the  country  which  the  trav¬ 
eler  intends  to  visit,  which  can  not,  however,  be 
done  without  the  consent  or  connivance  of  the 
State  of  which  the  holder  of  the  instrument  is  a 
subject;  they  properly  proceed  from  the  author¬ 
ities  of  the  State  to  which  the  traveler  belongs, 
and  ought  to  bear  the  visa  or  countersignature  of 
the  minister  or  consul  of  the  country  which  he  is 
about  to  visit. 

Paste,  a  term  applied  to  various  compositions 
in  which  there  is  just  sufficient  moisture  to  soften 
without  liquefying  the  mass.  Common  or  ad¬ 
hesive  paste  is  made  by  mixing  wheaten  flour 
with  cold  water  in  the  proportion  of  about  two 
pounds  to  a  gallon.  The  water  is  added  by  de¬ 
grees,  and  well  stirred  in,  so  as  to  prevent  lumpi¬ 
ness.  About  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum  is 
sometimes  added  to  increase  its  adhesiveness,  and 
for  shoemakers  and  bookbinders  about  an  ounce 
and  a  half  of  finely-powdered  rosin  is  substituted 
for  the  alum,  which  thickens  it  and  renders  it 
more  tenacious.  When  the  ingredients  are  thor¬ 
oughly  mixed,  they  are  boiled,  care  being  taken 
to  stir  them  thoroughly  while  boiling  to  prevent 
burning. 

Pas  tel,  chalk  mixed  with  other  materials  and 
various  colors,  and  formed  into  pencils  or  cray¬ 
ons.  Drawings  with  such  dry,  colored  crayons 
may  be  made  on  paper  or  parchment ;  and  have 
been  especially  used  in  portraiture. 

Pasteur,  Louis,  distinguished  for  his  achieve¬ 
ments  in  chemistry  and  microscopic  biology,  was 
born  Dec.  27,  1822,  at  Dole,  in  the  Department  of 
Jura,  France.  He  is  best  known  in  connection 
with  a  series  of  studies  and  experiments  with  a 
view  to  discovering  a  means  of  vaccinating  for 
hydrophobia. 

Pastor,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  Starling  family 
(8  turn  idee),  differing  from  starlings  in  the  com¬ 
pressed  and  slightly-curved  bill.  In  habits,  as  in 
characters,  they  are  very  nearly  allied  to  starlings. 

Pastoral  Poetry  is  that  kind  of  poetry  which 
professes  to  delineate  the  scenery,  sentiment,  and 
incidents  of  shepherd-life. 

Pastoral  Staff,  sometimes  also,  although  not 
properly,  called  Crosier  (Lat.  bacxdus  pastornlis), 
one  of  the  insignia  of  the  Episcopal  office,  some¬ 
times  also  borne  by  an  abbot.  It  is  a  tall  staff  of 
metal,  or  of  wood  ornamented  with  metal,  having, 
at  least  in  the  Western  Church,  the  head  curved 
in  the  form  of  a  shepherd’s  crook,  as  a  symbol  of 
the  pastoral  office.  The  head  of  the  pastoral  staff 
of  an  archbishop,  instead  of  the  crook,  has  a 
double  cross,  from  which  its  name  of  crosier  is 
derived. 

Pastry,  articles  of  food  in  which  the  chief  part 
consists  of  a  paste  made  of  flour.  This  would  of 
course  apply  to  bread,  but  it  has  been  limited  by 
custom  to  such  articles  as  pies,  cakes,  puddings, 
etc. 

Patagonia,  the  most  southern  region  of  the 
South  American  Continent,  extending  from  lati¬ 
tude  39°  southward  to  the  Strait  of  Magellan, 
which,  for  a  dis'ance  of  300  miles,  separates  it 
from  the  desolate  Archipelago  of  Tierra  del 


Fuego.  Length  upward  of  1,000  miles,  greatest 
breadth  about  480  miles;  area  about  322,550 
square  miles;  pop.  about  20,000. 

Pataps'co,  a  river  of  Maryland,  rises  on  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  State,  and  flows  south¬ 
easterly  eighty  miles  to  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  four¬ 
teen  miles  south  of  Baltimore,  to  which  city  it  is 
navigable. 

Patchou'li.  This  very  interesting  material  is 
the  dried  branches  of  Pogostemon  patchouli  (nat¬ 
ural  order  Labiates),  a  native  of  Silhet,  the  Malay 
coast,  Ceylon,  Java,  the  neighborhood  of  Bom¬ 
bay,  and  probably  also  of  China;  but  owing  to 
the  fondness  of  Asiatics  for  the  perfume  which  it 
yields,  it  is  difficult  to  say  where  it  is  native  or 
cultivated. 

Patel'la,  or  Knee  cap,  is  a  sesamoid  bone, 
developed  in  the  single  tendon  of  tli &  rectus,  vastus, 
externus ,  and  vastus  interims  muscles — the  greater 
extensor  muscles  of  the  leg.  It  is  heart-shaped  in 
form,  the  broad  end  being  directed  upward,  and 
the  apex  downward,  and  serves  to  increase  the 
leverage  of  the  great  extensor  muscles  of  the  leg. 

Pa'ten  (Lat.  patina ,  a  dish),  the  plate  employed 
for  the  elements  of  bread  in  the  Eucharistic  serv¬ 
ice. 

Pat'ent  is  an  exclusive  right  granted  by  the 
government  (in  letters  patent,  or  open,  whence 
the  name)  to  an  individual  to  manufacture  and 
sell  a  chattel  or  article  of  commerce  of  his  own 
invention.  The  name  is  also  given  to  the  deed 
issued  by  the  government  whereby  the  title  to 
lands  is  conveyed  to  a  private  individual  or  to  a 
corporation. 

Pat 'era  (Lat.),.  a  round  dish,  imitations  of 
which  were  carved  by  the  Romans  in  the  panels 
of  their  ceilings,  etc.  The  name  is  also  applied 
to  the  foliated  ornaments  used  in  the  same  posi¬ 
tion. 

Pa'ter-nos'ter  (Lat.  Our  Father),  called  also 
The  Lord’s  Prayer,  a  short  form  of  prayer  sug¬ 
gested  or  prescribed  by  our  Lord  to  his  disciples 
(Matt,  vi,  9-13;  Luke  xi,  1-4)  as  the  model 
according  to  which,  in  contrast  with  the  prayers 
of  the  Pharisees,  their  petitions  ought  to  be  com¬ 
posed. 

Pat'erson,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  at  the  falls 
of  the  Passaic  river,  seventeen  miles  northwest  of 
New  York.  The  manufacture  of  locomotives,  of 
stationary  engines,  carriages,  paper,  cotton,  silk, 
-and  other  staples  is  conducted  on  an  extensive 
scale.  Pop.,  63,350. 

Patholog'ical  Anatomy,  or  the  anatomy  of 
diseased  organs,  is  included  in,  but  must  not  be 
confounded  with  pathology.  It  is  merely  a  sec¬ 
tion — although  a  most  important  section — of 
pathology,  contributing  to  practical  medicine  the 
solid  materials  from  which  to  construct  a  base¬ 
ment,  without  having  the  power  to  erect  a  perfect 
edifice.  Pathological  anatomy  enables  the  sur¬ 
geon  to  decide  whether  a  suspicious  tumor  is 
malignant  or  of  a  comparatively  harmless  nature, 
and  in  many  other  ways  is  of  the  greatest  import¬ 
ance  to  surgery;  and  although  at  first  sight  it 
might  appear  to  be  of  small  importance  in  rela¬ 
tion  to  therapeutics,  this  is  not  in  reality  the  case. 
Scientific  treatment  necessarily  demands  an  accu¬ 
rate  knowledge  of  the  material  changes  which  lie 
at  the  foundation  of  the  various  morbid  symp¬ 
toms.  Hence  pathological  anatomy  not  only 
forms  a  portion  of  the  positive  basis  of  therapeu¬ 
tics,  but  it  also  points  out  the  processes  by  which 
the  different  altered  parts,  may  be  gradually 
restored  to  their  normal  condition.  It  not  merely 
indicates  what  requires  healing,  but  in  many 
cases  also  the  course  that  must  be  adopted  in 
order  to  aid  the  curative  tendency  of  nature.  It 
likewise  serves  as  a  check  on  therapeutics,  expos¬ 
ing,  in  a  most  conclusive  manner,  the  absurdity  of 
many  pretended  methods  of  cure.  It  points  out, 
for  example,  that  in  a  certain  stage  of  inflamma¬ 
tion  of  the  lungs  (pneumonia)  a  fibrinous  fluid 
separates  from  the  blood,  and  by  its  coagulation 
renders  a  portion  of  the  tissue  of  the  lung- imper¬ 
meable  to  air;  and  further  that  it  requires  several 
days  for  this  coagulated  matter  to  resume  the 
fluid  condition  and  to  be  removed. 

Pathol 'ogy  (from  the  Gr.  naOoi,  pathos,  dis¬ 
ease,  and  XoyoS,  logos,  a  discourse)  is  that 
department  of  medicine  which  treats  of  the 
doctrine  of  morbid  actions  or  diseases. 

Pat'mos,  a  bare  and  rocky  island  in  the 


iEgean  Sea,  about  forty-five  miles  in  circumfer¬ 
ence.  It  belongs  to  the  group  called  the  Spo- 
rades,  lies  to  the  south  of  Samos,  and  is  now  called 
Patino,  but  in  the  middle  ages  Palmosa,  although 
(here  is  now  only  one  palm  tree  in  the  whole 
island.  It  is  celebrated  as  the  place  to  which  the 
apostle  John  was  exiled,  and  where  he  saw  the 
visions  recorded  in  the  Book  of  Revelation. 

Patois,  the  French  term  applied  to  corrupt 
dialects  of  a  language  spoken  by  the  uneducated. 

Patonce',  Cross,  in  Heraldry  (Lat.  patens,  ex¬ 
panding),  a  cross  with  its  terminationsexpanding 
like  early  vegetation  on  an  opening  blossom. 

Patras  (ancient  Patrcs,  Turk.  Baliabadra),  a 
fortified  seaport,  and  the  most  infportant  trading 
town  in  the  West  of  Greece,  in  the  Government  of 
Achaia  and  Elis,  stands  on  the  eastern  shore  of 
the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  twelve  miles  south- 
southwest  of  Lepanto.  Pop.,  about  26,000. 

Patriarchal  Cross,  a  cross,  which,  like  the 
patriarchal  crosier,  has  its  upright 
part  crossed  by  two  horizontal  bars,  | 
the  upper  shorter  than  the  lower. 

Patrick,  St.,  a  distinguished  mis¬ 
sionary  of  the  fifth  century,  common 
ly  known  as  the  Apostle  of  Ireland. 

The  year  of  his  birth  is  variously  as¬ 
signed  to  the  years  377  and  387,  of 
which  the  hitter,  if  not  even  a  later  date  is  more 
probable.  By  degrees  he  visited  a  large  portion 
of  the  kingdom,  and  baptized  great  numbers. 
According  to  the  accounts  of  his  Irish  biographers, 
he  founded  365  churches,  and  baplized  with  his 
own  hand  12,090  persons.  He  is  said  also  to  have 
ordained  a  vast  number  of  priests,  and  to  have 
blessed  very  many  monks  and  nuns.  He  is  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  died  about  460. 

Patrick,  St.,  Order  of,  a  national  order  of 
knighthood  for  Ireland,  established  by  George 
III.,  on  Feb.  5,  1783,  and  enlarged  in  1833. 

Pattee,  Cross,  in  Heraldry  (Lai.  patulus, 
spreading), also  calledCROSS  Formee 
a  cross  with  its  arms  expanding  to¬ 
ward  the  ends,  and  flat  at  their  | 
outer  edges. 

Paul,  the  great  apostle  of  the 
Gentiles,  was  born  of  Jewish  parents 
at  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  and  inherited 
from  them  the  rights  of  Roman  citi-  Pattee. 
zenship.  His  original  name  was  Saul.  He  was 
an  eloquent  preacher,  a  zealous  missionary,  and 
was  the  author  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians, 
the  Thessalonians,  the  Gallatians,  the  Collossians, 
the  Roman?,  Timothy,  and  the  Corinthians.  He 
died  a  martyr  under  Nero,  at  Rome,  about  67  a.d. 

Paul  was  the  name  of  five  Popes. — Paul  I. 
(757-763  a.d.)  and  Paul  II.  (1464-1471)  were 
unimportant. — Paul  III.  was  originally  named 
Alessandro  Farnese,  and  was  born  at  Carino,  in 
Tuscany,  in  1468.  On  the  death  of  Clement  VII., 
in  1534,  he  was  elected  Pope,  and  died  Nov.  10, 
1549. — Paul  IV.,  named  John  Peter  Oaraffa,  was 
born  in  Naples  in  1476.  On  the  death  of  Marcel- 
lus  II.  in  1555,  although  in  his  seventy-ninth  year, 
Caraffa  was  elected  to  succeed.  He  died  Aug. 
18,  1559. — Paul  V.,  originally  named  Camillo 
Borghese,  was  born  in  Rome,  in  1552.  On  the 
death  of  Leo  XI.  in  1605,  Cardinal  Borghese  was 
elected  to  succeed  him.  Hedied  Jan.  28,  1621. 

Paul,  Vincent  de,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
saints  of  the  modern  Catholic  Church,  was  born 
at  Ranquines,  in  the  Diocese  of  Dax,  in  1576.  He 
laid  the  foundation  of  what  eventually  grew  into 
the  great  and  influential  congregation  of  Priests 
of  the  Missions.  His  later  life  was  devoted  to  the 
organization  of  works  of  charity  and  benevolence. 
To  him  Paris  owes  the  establishment  of  the  Found¬ 
ling  Hospital,  and  the  first  systematic  efforts  for  the 
preservation  of  the  lives,  and  the  due  education  of 
a  class  theretofore  neglected,  or  left  to  the  opera¬ 
tion  of  chance  charity.  The  pious  Sisterhood  of 
Charity  is  an  emanation  of  the  same  spirit,  and 
Vincent  was  intrusted  by  St.  Francis  of  Sales 
with  the  direction  of  the  newly  founded  Order  of 
Sisters  of  the  Visitation.  He  died  at  the  advanced 
age  of  eighty-five,  at  St.  Lazare,  Sept.  27,  1660, 
and  was  canonized  by  Clement  XII.  in  1737.  His 
festival  is  held  on  July  19tli,  the  day  of  his  canoni¬ 
zation. 

Paul  (Petrowitscii),  Emperor  of  Russia,  the 
second  son  of  the  unfortunate  Peter  III.  and  the 
Empress  Catharine  II.,  was  born  in  1754,  became 


PAULDING. 


584 


PEASANT  WAR. 


heir-apparent  on  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in 
1763,  and  succeeded  his  mother  on  the  imperial 
throne  in  1796.  lie  was  assassinated  March  24, 
1801. 

Paulding,  the  county  seat  of  Paulding  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Pausa'nias,  a  famous  Spartan  regent  and  gen¬ 
eral,  the  son  of  Cleombrotus,  and  nephew  of  Le¬ 
onidas.  He  commanded  the  confederate  Greeks 
in  the  important  Battle  of  Plat;ea  (479  b.  c.),  in 
which  the  Persians  were  totally  routed,  and  their 
leader,  Mardonius,  slain.  He  afterward  proved 
a  traitor;  and  having  driven  him  into  the  temple 
of  Athene,  at  Byzantium,  the  people  blocked  up 
the  gate  of  the  temple  with  heaps  of  stones,  and 
left  him  to  die  of  hunger,  his  own  mother  depos¬ 
iting  the  first  stone. 

Pawnee  City,  the  county  seat  of  Pawnee 
county,  Neb.  Pop.,  1,700. 

Paw  Paw,  the  county  seat  of  Van  Buren 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Pawtuck'et,  a  cotton  spinning  and  manufact¬ 
uring  town  of  Rhode  Island,  on  both  sides  of  the 
Pawtucket  river,  four  miles  north  of  Providence. 
Pop.  (1881),  23,200. 

Paxton,  the  county  seat  of  Ford  county,  Ill. 
Pop.,  2,200. 

Paynizing,  a  process  for  preserving  and  hard¬ 
ening  wood,  invented  by  a  Mr.  Payne.  It  consists 
in  placing  well-seasoned  timber  in  an  air-tight 
chamber,  and  then,  when,  by  means  of  a  power¬ 
ful  air-pump,  the  wood  is  deprived  of  its  air,  a 
solution  of  sulphuret  of  calcium,  or  of  sulphuret 
of  barium  is  admitted,  and  readily  fills  up  the 
empty  vessels  all  through  the  wood.  The  air- 
pump  is  again  used,  and  the  superfluous  moisture 
is  drawn  out,  and  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron  is 
injected;  this  acts  chemically  upon  the  sulphuret 
of  barium  or  of  calcium,  and  forms  all  through 
the  wood  either  the  insoluble  sulphate  of  barium 
(heavy  spar)  or  of  lime  (gypsum).  The  addition 
of  these  mineral  materials  renders  the  wood  very 
heavy,  but  it  becomes  also  very  durable,  and 
almost  incombustible. 

Pea  ( Pisum ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosw,  sub-order  Papilionacem,  closely 
allied  to  the  genus  Lathy r us,  from  which  it  differs 
chiefly  in  the  triangular  style.  Two  species,  sup¬ 
posed  to  he  natives  of  the  South  of  Europe  and  of 
the  East,  are  very  extensively  cultivated  for  their 
seeds  (peas),  which  are  the  best  of  all  kinds  of 
pulse ;  the  common  pea  or  garden  pea  (P. 
sativum)  in  gardens,  and  the  field  pea  ( P . 
arvense)  in  fields.  There  are  innumerable  varieties 
both  of  the  field  pea  and  the  garden  pea.  Certain 
small  kinds,  of  very  rapid  growth,  known  as 
early  peas,  are  preferred  for  the  first  sowings, 
although  less  productive  than  many  others.  The 
varieties  known  as  mammoth  peas  are  remarkable 
for  their  size  and  tenderness  in  a  green  state,  but 
shrivel  as  they  ripen. 

Pea  Beetle,  or  Pea  Chafer  (B ruckus  pisi), 
a  coleopterous  insect,  very  destructive  to  crops  of 
peas  in  the  South  of  Europe  and  in  North  America. 
It  is  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  long,  black, 
variegated  with  bright  brown  hairs,  and  with 
white  spots  and  dots  on  the  wing-cases. 

Peabody  (formerly  Danvers)  a  town  of  Essex 
county,  Mass.  Pop.,  10,000. 

Peabody,  George,  an  American  merchant 
whose  name  deserves  to  be  held  in  remembrance 
on  account  of  his  munificent  philanthropy,  was 
born  at  Danvers,  Mass.,  Feb.  18,  1795.  In  1827 
he  first  visited  England,  where  he  settled  per¬ 
manently  ten  years  later.  Withdrawing  from  his 
Baltimore  firm  in  1843,  he  established  himself  in 
Loudon  as  a  merchant  and  money-broker,  and 
accumulated  a  large  fortune.  As  one  of  three 
commissioners  appointed  in  1848  by  the  State  of 
Maryland  to  obtain  the  restoration  of  its  credit, 
he  refused  all  payment,  and  received  a  special 
vote  of  thanks  from  the  Legislature  of  tint  State. 
In  1851  he  supplied  the  sum  required  to  fit  up 
the  American  Department  at  the  Great  Exhibition. 
In  the  following  year  he  sent  a  large  donation, 
afterward  increased  to  $270,000,  to  found  an 
educational  institute,  etc.,  in  his  native  town  of 
Danvers  (which  is  now  called  Peabody).  He 
contributed  $10,000  to  the  first  Grinnell  Arctic 
expedition;  $1,400,000  to  the  city  of  Baltimore 
for  an  institute  of  science,  literature,  and  the 
fine  arts;  $8,000,000  for  the  promotion  of  educa¬ 


tion,  endowment  of  libraries,  etc.,  in  the  United 
States.  From  1862  to  1868,  lie  gave  £350,000  for 
the  benefit  of  the  London  poor,  and  in  his  will  he 
left  £150,000  for  the  same  purpose;  half  a  million 
in  all,  which  has  been  employed  in  building 
dwellings  for  the  working  classes.  He  died  in 
London  in  1869. 

Peach  (Amygdalus  persica),  a  tree  much  cul¬ 
tivated  in  temperate  climates  for  its  fruit;  a 
native  of  Persia  and  the  north  of  India;  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  almond.  The  nectarine 
differs  from  the  peach  only  in  having  a  smooth 
fruit,  while  that  of  the  peach  is  downy  or  velvety, 
and  is  a  mere  variety,  probably  produced  and 
certainly  preserved  by  cultivation.  Both  peaches 
and  nectarines  are  divided  into  freestones  and 
clingstones.  In  the  former  the  flesh  of  the  fruit 
parts  from  the  stone;  in  the  latter  it  adheres  to  it. 

Peach-wood,  or  Lima-wood,  a  dye-wood 
imported  from  South  America,  supposed  to  be 
the  product  of  a  species  of  caesalpinia,  allied  to 
that  which  yields  the  Nicaragua  wood.  It  yields 
a  fine  peach  color,  whence  its  name,  and  is  now 
much  used  in  muslin  and  calico  printing  and 
dyeing. 

Pea 'cock,  or  Peafowl  (pavo),  a  genus  of 
gallinaceous  birds  of  the  family  Pavunidce,  or 
Phasianidm,  of  which  only  two  species  are  known, 
natives  of  the  East  Indies;  birds  of  large  size,  and 
remarkable  for  magnificence  of  plumage.  The 
common  peacock  (P.  cristatus)  has  for  a  crest  a 
kind  of  aigrette  of  twenty-four  upright  feathers, 
with  slender  almost  naked  shafts  and  broad  tip. 
The  tail  consists  of  eighteen  brown  stiff  feathers, 
and  is  about  6  inches  long.  The  train  derives 
much  of  its  beauty  from  the  loose  barbs  of  its 
feathers,  while  their  great  number  and  their  un¬ 
equal  length  contribute  to  its  gorgeousness,  the 
upper  feathers  being  successively  shorter,  so  that 
when  it  is  erected  into  a  disk,  the  eye-like  or 
moon-like  spot  at  the  tip  of  each  feather  is  dis¬ 
played.  The  lowest  and  longest  feathers  of  the 
train  do  not  terminate  in  such  spots,  but  in 
spreading  barbs,  which  incircle  the  erected  disk. 
When  the  disk  is  erected,  the  peacock  has  the 
power  of  rattling  the  shafts  of  its  feathers  against 
each  other  in  a  very  peculiar  manner,  by  a  strong 
muscular  vibration.  . 

Pea  Crab  ( Pinnotheres ),  a  genus  of  brachyour- 
ous  crustaceans,  with  nearly  circular  and  not  very 
hard  carapace.  They  are  of  small  size,  and  inter¬ 
esting  from  their  living  within  the  mantle-lobes  of 
lamellibranchiate  mollusks. 

Pea  Maggot,  the  caterpillar  of  a  small  moth 
( Tortrix  or  G rapholith  a  pisi) ,  which  lays  its  eggs 
in  young  pods  of  peas. 

Peanut  ( Aracliis  7iypogaa),  a  leguminous  plant 
which  was  formerly  a  native  of  Western  Africa, 


but  now  largely  cultivated  in  other  localities, 
particularly  in  Virginia  and  some  of  the  Southern 


States.  They  grow  best  in  light  sandy  loam. 
There  are  two  varieties,  the  Virginia  nut  (the 
larger)  and  the  African  nut.  The  seed  of  the 
plant  is  its  edible  portion.  From  the  seed  an  oil 
of  great  commercial  value  is  made.  This  oil  is 
used  instead  of  olive  oil  now  to  make  the  finest 
grades  of  soaps. 

Pea  Ore,  a  form  of  compact  brown  iron  ore 
(hydrated  peroxide  of  iron),  consisting  of  round 
smooth  grains,  from  the  size  of  mustard-seed  to 
that  of  small  pease. 

Pear  ( Pyrus  communi «),  a  tree  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  apple,  and  like  it  one  of  the  most 
extensively  cultivated  and  valuable  fruit-trees  of 
temperate  climates.  The  pear-tree  grows  wild  in 
woods  and  copses  in  Britain,  on  the  Continent  of 
Europe,  and  throughout  the  temperate  parts  of 
Asia.  There  are  almost  innumerable  varieties  of 
pears.  In  general,  tliey  can  not  be  kept  so  long 
nor  soeasily  as  apples.  Pears  are  sometimes  made 
into  a  preserve  with  syrup;  and  sometimes  cut 
into  pieces,  and  dried  in  the  sun  or  in  an  oven,  to 
be  afterward  used  in  pies,  a  practice  very  preva¬ 
lent  in  France.  A  very  agreeable  fermented 
liquor  called  Perry  is  made  from  pears,  in  the 
same  manner  as  cider  from  apples. 

Pearisburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Giles  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  385. 

Pearl,  a  peculiar  product  of  certain  marine  and 
fresh-water  mollusks  or  shell-fish.  Most  of  the 
molluscous  animals  which  are  aquatic  and  reside 
in  shells  are  provided  with  a  fluid  secretion  with 
which  they  line  their  shells,  and  give  to  the  other¬ 
wise  harsh  granular  material,  of  which  the  shell 
is  formed,  a  beautifully  smooth  surface,  which 
prevents  any  unpleasant  friction  upon  the 
extremely  tender  body  of  the  animal.  This 
secretion  is  evidently  laid  in  extremely  thin  semi¬ 
transparent  films,  which,  in  consequence  of  such 
an  arrangement,  have  generally  a  beautiful  irides¬ 
cence,  and  form  in  some  species  a  sufficient  thick¬ 
ness  to  be  cut  into  useful  and  ornamental  articles. 
The  material  itself  in  its  hardened  condition  is 
called  nacre  by  zoologists,  and  by  dealers  mother- 
of-pearl.  Besides  the  pearly  lining  of  the  shells, 
detached  and  generally  spherical  or  rounded  por¬ 
tions  of  the  nacre  are  often  found  on  opening  the 
shells,  and  there  is  great  reason  to  suppose  these 
are  the  result  of  accidental  causes,  such  as  the 
intrusion  of  a  grain  of  sand  or  other  substance, 
which,  by  irritating  the  tender  body  of  tlieanimal, 
obliges  it  in  self-defense  to  cover  the  cause  of 
offense,  which  it  has  no  power  to  remove;  and  as 
the  secretion  goes  on  regularly  to  supply  the 
growth  and  wear  of  the  shell,  the  included  body 
constantly  gets  its  share,  and  thereby  continues 
to  increase  in  size  until  it  becomes  a  pearl.  The 
principal  fisheries  for  pearls  are  in  Ceylon,  though 
they  exist  elsewhere.  The  pearls  are  brought  up 
by  divers  who  plunge  under  the  water  and  gather 
the  shells  containing  them.  There  are  in  exist¬ 
ence  several  pearls  of  enormous  value,  while 
Cleopatra  is  said  to  have  swallowed  one  worth 
over  $200,000.  Artificial  pearls  are  made  in 
France  out  of  glass  and  several  other  constituents. 

Pearl,  a  river  of  Mississippi,  which  rises  about 
100  miles  north-northeast  of  Jackson.  It  flows 
nearly  3O0  miles  through  a  fertile  cotton  country, 
emptying  into  Mississippi  Sound,  and  is  navi¬ 
gable  to  Jackson,  the  capital. 

Pearl  Oyster  (Avicula  or  Meleagrina  mar- 
garitifera),  a  lamellibranchiate  mollusk,  of  the 
family  AriculhUe,  generally  found — great  num¬ 
bers  together— attached  to  submarine  rocks  at 
a  considerable  depth  on  the  coasts  of  tropical 
countries,  and  important  as  producing  almost  all 
the  pearls  and  all  the  mother-of-pearl  of  cofn- 
merce. 

Pearsall,  the  couuty  seat  of  Frio  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  1,250. 

Peasant  War,  in  German  History,  the  name 
given  to  that  great  insurrection  of  the  peasantry 
which  broke  out  in  the  beginning  of  the  year 
1525,  and  which  Zscliokke  has  described  as  the 
“terrible  scream  of  oppressed  humanity.”  The 
example  of  Switzerland  encouraged  the  hope  of 
success,  and  from  1476  to  1517  there  were  risings 
here  and  there  amongst  the  peasants  of  the  South 
of  Germany,  and  the  disturbances  spread  to 
North  Germany,  where  it  continued  till  1526.  It 
is  supposed  that  more  than  150,000  persons  lost 
their  lives  in  the  Peasant  War. 


PEAT. 


585 


PELLICO. 


Peat  is  vegetable  matter  more  or  less  decom¬ 
posed,  and  passes  by  insensible  degrees  into 
lignite.  The  less-perfect ly  decomposed  peat  is 
generally  of  a  brown  color  ;  that  which  is  more 
perfectly  decomposed  is  often  nearly  black.  The 
formation  of  peat  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
most  important  geological  changes  now  in  evident 
progress.  It  is  extensively  used  for  fuel.  The 
more  perfectly  decomposed  the  vegetable  matter 
is,  and  the  more  consolidated  the  peat  therefore  is, 
the  better  is  it  suited  for  this  u.se.  It  is  the  ordi¬ 
nary  fuel  of  great  part  of  Ireland,  and  is  there 
almost  always  called  turf,  although  the  term  turf, 
in  its  ordinary  English  sense,  is  utterly  inappli¬ 
cable  to  it. 

Pea  Weevil  ( Sitona  crinita  and  S.  linenta), 
small  coleopterous  insects,  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  long,  which  are  very  destructive  to  crops  of 
pease  and  other  kinds  of  pulse,  devouring  the 
leaves  and  other  succulent  parts,  often  soon  after 
the  plants  appear  above  ground. 

Pec'cary  ( Dycotele s),  a  genus  of  Pachydermaia , 
of  the  family  Suidw,  much  resembling  hogs.  The 
common  peccary,  collared  peccary,  or  tajaiju  {D. 
torqualus),  is  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  South 
America  ;  the  white-lipped  peccary  {D.  labialus) 


Peccary  ( Dycoteles  torquatus). 


is  found  in  many  parts  of  it.  Both  are  gre¬ 
garious;  the  white-lipped  peccary  often  assem¬ 
bling  in  very  large  herds,  and  sometimes  doing 
great  mischief  to  maize  and  other  crops.  The 
hunter  has  often  to  take  refuge  from  them  in  a 
tree. 

Pecos;  a  river  of  Texas,  rises  in  the  mountains 
near  Santa  Fe,  N.  M  ,  runs  southeasterly  600 
miles  through  New  Mexico  and  Texas,  and  flows 
into  the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  in  latitude  about 
29°  20'  N.,  longitude  102°  \V. 

Pecos,  the  county  seat  of  Reeves  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  650. 

Pectinibraiicliia'ta  (Lat.  comb-gilled),  an 
order  of  gasteropodous  mollusks,  having  the  gills 
composed  of  numerous  leaflets  or  fringes  arranged 
like  the  teeth  of  a  comb,  and  affixed  to  the  infer¬ 
nal  surface  of  a  cavity  which  opens  with  a  wide 
opening  above  the  head.  The  sexes  are  distinct. 
All  the  pectiuibranchiata  have  two  tentacles  and 
two  eyes,  the  eyes  often  stalked. 

Pedee',  Great,  a  river  of  North  and  South 
Carolina,  rises  in  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  and 
enters  the  Atlantic  through 
Winyaw  Bay  at  Georgetown. 

— The  Little  Pedee,  its 
principal  eastern  branch,  is 
formed  by  the  confluence  of 
several  smaller  rivers  in  the  b 

south  part  of  North  Carolina. 

Ped'estal,  a  base  or  block 
on  which  columns,  statues, 
etc.,  are  frequently  set.  The 
pedestal  is  much  used  i  n 
classic  architecture.  Pedestal. 

Pedicular'is,  a  genus  of  a,  base;  b,  dado;  c,  sur- 
herbaceous  plants  of  the  nat-  base, 

ural  order  ticrophulariacea,  some  of  which  have 
rather  large  and  finely  colored  flowers.  Two 
species,  P.  p  dustris,  and  P.  syhaHca,  have  re¬ 
ceived  the  name  of  lousewort,  the  English  equiv- 
alentof  “pedicularis,”  from  their  supposed  influ¬ 
ence  in  producing  the  lousy  disease  in  sheep;  an 
influence  purely  imaginary. 

Pedro  II.  de  Alcantara,  Dom,  Emperor  of 
Brazil,  was  born  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Dec.  2,  1825. 
lie  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  five 
years,  the  government  being  administered  by  a 
Council  of  Regency  until  1840,  when  Pedro  as¬ 
sumed  the  power.  Meantime  he  was  thoroughly 
educated,  principally  by  the  aid  of  private  tutors, 


acquiring  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  classics, 
of  various  sciences,  and  a  fluent  control  of  the 
English,  French,  German,  Spanish,  and  Italian 
languages.  He  has  instituted  and  promoted 
many  important  reforms  among  his  people,  and 
is  an  earnest  patron  of  literature,  science,  and  the 
arts.  He  has  traveled  extensively  in  this  country 
and  Europe.  He  has  abolished  slavery  and  the 
slave  trade  in  his  domains,  and  is,  withal,  one  of 
the  most  learned  and  progressive  monarchs  of 
modern  times. 

Peekskill,  a  beautiful  city  in  Westchester 
county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  7,050. 

Peel,  Sir  Robert,  a  very  eminent  British 
statesman,  was  born  Feb.  5,  1788,  near  Bury,  in 
Lancashire.  He  died  in  1850. 

Peepul,  Pipul,  or  Pippul  {Ficus  religiosa), 
also  known  as  the  Sacred  Fig  of  India,  and  in 
Ceylon  called  the  Bo  Tree;  a  species  of  fig 
somewhat  resembling  the  banyan,  but  the 
branches  not  rooting  like  those  of  that  tree,  and 
the  leaves  heart-shaped,  with  long  attenuated 
points. 

Peeryville,  the  county  seat  of  McDowell 
county,  W.  Va.  Pop  ,  71. 

Pega'siis,  in  Greek  Mythology,  a  winged  horse 
which  arose  with  Clirysaor  from  the  blood  of  the 
Gorgon  Medusa,  when  she  was  slain  by  Perseus. 
He  is  said  to  have  received  his  name  because  he 
first  made  his  appearance  beside  the  springs 
(pegai)  of  Oceanus.  He  afterward  ascended  to 
heaven,  and  was  believed  to  carry  the  thunder 
and  lightning  of  Zeus. 

Pegasus,  a  genus  of  fishes,-  constituting  the 
family  Pegasidae ,  of  the  order  Lophobranchii. 


Sea  Dragon  ( Pegasus  draco). 


The  species  are  few;  they  are  small  fishes,  natives 
of  the  Indian  Seas. 

Pegu',  a  province  of  British  Burmah,  lies 
between  the  parallels  of  15°  14' — 19°  27'  N.  lati¬ 
tude,  and  the  meridians  of  94°  13' — 96°  52'  E. 
longitude.  Pop.,  1,662,058. 

Pei-ho',  a  river  of  China,  rising  on  the  con¬ 
fines  of  Tartary,  traverses  the  northern  part  of 
the  Province  of  Chili -le  or  Pe-chih-le,  and  falls 
into  the  Gulf  of  Pc-chih-le,  in  about  38°  30'  N. 
latitude. 

Peisis'tratos  (Lat.  Pisistratus),  a  famous 
“tyrant”  of  Athens,  belonged  to  a  family  of 
Attica,  which  claimed  descent  from  Pylian  Nes¬ 
tor,  and  was  born  toward  the  close  of  t lie  seventh 
century  b.c. — certainly  not  later  that  612.  He 
died  in  527  b.c. 

Pek  'an,  or  WooD-snocK  ( Maries  canadensis ),  a 
species  of  marten,  very  nearly  allied  to  the  sable, 
a  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  North  America. 

Pe 'kill,  or  Pe  king' (i.  <?.,  Northern  Capital), 
the  capital  of  the  Chinese  Empire  since  1421  a.d., 
is  situated  ou  a  sandy  plain  about  thirteen  miles 
northwest  of  the  Peiho,  in  latitude  39°  54’ 
13"  N.,  and  longitude  116°  28'  54"  E.,  in  the 
northern  province  of  Chih-le,  at  a  distance  of 
nearly  100  miles  from  the  sea,  and  about  sixty 
miles  from  the  great  Chinese  wall.  The  pop.  of 
the  city  is  estimated  at  about  2,000,000,  and  the 
circuit  of  the  walls  is  20  miles. 

Pekin,  a  growing  town  of  Tazewell  county,  I 
Ill.  Pop.,  6,025. 

Pelargo'nic  Acid  (C9HiS02)  is  one  of  the  vola¬ 
tile  fatty  acids  of  the  general  formula  (CnlLnCL). 
It  is  an  oily  fluid,  nearly  insoluble  in  water,  but 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  derives  its  name 
from  its  having  been  originally  obtained  from  the 
leaves  of  Pelargonium  roseum  by  distilling  them 
with  water.  It  is  still  used  to  adulterate  whisky. 

Pelargo'nium,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Geraniacece,  including  many  of  the  most 
favorite  greenhouse  flowers,  to  which  the  old 
generic  name,  geranium,  is  often  popularly  given. 

Pelas'gians  designates  a  certain  tribe  or  num¬ 
ber  of  tribes  who  inhabited  Italy,  Thracia,  Mace¬ 


donia,  a  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  many  other 
regions  of  Southern  Europe,  in  prehistoric  times. 
Ethnologically,  they  belong  to  the  same  race  as 
the  great  stock  of  the  earliest  known  settlers,  that 
reached  from  the  Po  and  the  Arno  to  the  Rliyn- 
dakus  (near  Kyzikus).  The  Pelagians,  from 
what  we  can  glean  about  them,  would  appear  to 
have  been  a  highly  intellectual,  receptive,  active, 
and  stirring  people,  of  simple-  habits  withal, 
chiefly  intent  upon  agricultural  pursuits.  Their 


Section  of  Tomb  of  Atreus  at  Mycenae  (Pelasgian ). 


political  circumstances  are  as  unknown  to  us  as 
the  whole  process  of  transition  between  them  and 
the  real  Greek  period.  They  gradually  disap¬ 
peared  from  the  rank  of  nations,  by  being  either 
“  absorbed  ”  by  superior  races  (Hellenes,  Italici, 
Carians,  Lydians,  Phrygians),  or  being  reduced 
to  nameless  serf-populations. 

Pelecan'idie,  a  family  of  palmiped  birds,  the 
Totipahnati  of  Cuvier.  They  are  generally  excel¬ 
lent  swimmers,  expert  divers,  and  birds  of  pow¬ 
erful  flight.  Some  of  them  often  perch  on  trees, 
which  few  other  web-footed  birds  do.  To  this 
family  belong  pelicans,  cormorants,  frigate-birds, 
tropic-birds,  and  darters. 

Pelew'  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  belonging  to  Spain,  450- 
miles  east  of  the  Philippines,  in  latitude  1° — 8° 
30'  N.,  longitude  134° — 136°  E.,  at  the  western 
extremity  of  the  Caroline  Archipelago. 

Pel'ican  (Pelecanus),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Pelecanidee,  having  a  very  long,  large, 
flattened  bill,  the  upper  mandible  terminated  by  a 
strong  hook,  which  curves  over  the  tip  of  the 
lower  one;  beneath  the  lower  mandible,  which  is 
composed  of  two  flexible  bony  branches  meeting 
at  the  tip,  a  great  pouch  of  naked  skin  is  appended ; 
the  tongue  is  very  short,  and  almost  rudimentary; 
the  face  and  throat  are  naked;  the  wings  of  moder¬ 
ate  length,  the  tail  rounded.  The  species  are 
widely  distributed,  frequenting  the  shores  of  the 
sea,  lakes,  and  rivers,  and  feeding  chiefly  on  fish. 

Pel 'la,  the  ancient  capital  of  Macedonia,  and 
the  birthplace  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was  situ¬ 
ated  on  a  hill,  and  surrounded  by  marshes.  It 
was  a  wealthy  and  powerful  city,  but  declined 
under  the  Romans  until  it  became  a  place  of  no 
consequence,  and  in  the  middle  ages  there  re¬ 
mained  only  a  strong  castle  called  Bodena.  Its 
site  has  been  identified  with  that  of  the  village  of 
1  Neokhori  or  Yenikiuy,  near  which  is  a  spring 
called  Pelle. 

Pella'gra,  at  one  time,  the  name  of  a  loath¬ 
some  skin  disease,  supposed  to  be  endemic  to  the 
rice-producing  part  of  the  North  of  Italy,  is  now 
employed  to  designate  a  group  of  phenomena,  of 
which  the  most  prominent  and  significant  are 
mental.  It  consists  in  the  skin  being  covered  with 
tubercles  and  rough  scales,  in  debility,  vertigo, 
inability  to  preserve  the  equilibrium,  e  ilepsy, 
and  great  depression  of  spirits.  The  melancholia 
which  constituted  the  latter  stage  often  led  to 
suicide,  and  so  frequently  to  destruction  by 
drowning,  that  it  was  distinguished  as  a  special 
form  of  the  tendency  by  the  appellation  of  hydro¬ 
mania.  The  belief,  so  long  current,  that  this 
malady  was  the  result  of  the  use  of  rice  or 
maize  as  the  chief  article  of  diet,  must  now  be 
greatly  modified,  as  it  has  been  observed  in 
districts  and  under  circumstances  where  the  food 
is  of  a  different  description;  but  where  poverty, 
insufficient  nourishment,  filth,  toil,  and  the  ordi¬ 
nary  agents  in  human  degeneration  are  at  work. 

Pel'lico,  Silvio,  an  Italian  poet,  celebrated  for 
his  cruel  ten  years’  imprisonment  by  the  Austri¬ 
ans,  was  born  in  1788  at  Saluzzo,  in  Piedmont. 
His  account  of  this  imprisonment,  Le  mie  Priyi - 


PELLITORY. 


586 


PEN. 


oni,  is  popular  in  many  languages.  He  died  Jan. 
31,  1834. 

Pel'litory,  or  Pellitohy  of  tiie  Wall  {Pari- 
ctaria),  a  genus  of  plants  of  tlie  natural  order 
Urticecs,  having  both  unisexual  and  hermaphro¬ 
dite  flowers  on  the  same  plant,  the  perianth  of 
both  kinds  four-fid.  It  was  formerly  much  esteemed 
as  a  diuretic,  refrigerant,  and  lithontriptic.  Its 
properties  depend  on  niter,  which  it  contains. 

Pellitory  of  Spain  ( Anacydus  pyrethrum),  a 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Composites,  of  a  genus 
nearly  allied  to  chamomile,  a  native  of  the 
Levant  and  of  Barbary,  and  cultivated  to  Some 
extent  in  Germany  and  other  countries.  It  is 
valued  in  medicine,  and  is  chewed  or  ad  ministered 
in  the  form  of  a  tincture  to  relieve  toothache,  also 
in  cases  of  paralysis  of  the  tongue,  as  a  sialogogue 
in  certain  kinds  of  headache,  and  of  rheumatic 
and  neuralgic  affections  of  the  face,  and  is  used 
as  a  gargle  in  relaxation  of  the  uvula.  The 
powder  of  it  enters  into  the  composition  of  cer¬ 
tain  cephalic  snuffs,  and  is  rubbed  on  the  skin  in 
some  eastern  countries,  to  promote  perspiration. 
It  is  the  Radix  pyrethri  of  the  pharmacopoeias. 
It  is  a  powerful  local  irritant. 

Pelopoime'sus  (i.  e.,  the  Isle  of  Pelops),  now 
called  the  Morea,  a  peninsula,  which  formed  the 
southern  part  of  ancient  Greece,  Hellas  Proper 
being  situated  to  the  northward  of  the  isthmus, 
on  which  stood  the  city  of  Corinth.  The  whole 
area  is  less  than  9  000  square  miles.  In  the  most 
flourishing  periodsof  Grecian  history,  the  Pelopon¬ 
nesus  had  a  pop.  of  more  than  2,000,000,  although 
at  present  it  has  little  over  500,000. 

l’e'lops,  in  Greek  Mythology,  the  grandson  of 
Zeus,  and  the  son  of  Tantalus,  was  slain  by  his 
father,  and  served  up  at  an  entertainment  which 
he  gave  to  the  gods,  in  order  to  test  their  omnis¬ 
cience.  They  were  not  deceived,  and  would  not 
touch  the  horrible  food;  but  Ceres,  being  ab¬ 
sorbed  with  grief  for  the  loss  of  her  daughter,  ate 
part  of  a  shoulder  without  observing.  The  gods 
then  commanded  the  members  to  be  thrown  into 
a  cauldron,  out  of  which  Clotho  brought  the  boy 
again  alive,  and  the  want  of  the  shoulder  was  sup¬ 
plied  by  an  ivory  one. 

Pel 'try.  a  general  term  applied  to  the  trade  in 
skins  of  wild  animals;  and  to  the  skins  themselves. 
It  is  understood  to  mean  only  skins  undressed, 
except  by  drying,  and  chiefly  those  which,  when 
dressed,  are  called  furs. 

Pelu'siuin,  the  Greek  name  of  an  ancient 
Egyptian  city,  situated  at  the  northeast  rn  angle 
of  the  Delta,  and  important  as  the  key  of  Egypt 
on  the  Asiatic  side. 

Pel' vis.  The  (from  the  Lat.  pelvis ,  a  basin),  is  a 
bony  ring  interposed  between  the  spinal  column 
and  the  lower  extremities,  so  as  to  transmit  the 
weight  of  the  former  to  the  latter.  Before  con¬ 
sidering  the  pelvis  as  a  whole,  it  will  be  expedi¬ 
ent  to  consider  the  individual  bones  of  which  it  is 
composed.  These,  in  the  adult,  are  four  in  num¬ 
ber,  viz.:  the  two  ossa  innominata  which  consti¬ 
tute  its  sides  and  front,  and  the  sacrum  and 
coccyx,  which  complete  it  behind.  The  osinnom- 
inatum  receives  its  name  from  its  bearing  no 
resemblance  to  any  known  body,  and  is  a  large 
irregular-shaped  bone.  In  the  young  subject,  it 
consists  of  three  separate  bones,  which  meet  and 
form  the  deep, cup-shaped  cavity  (the  acetabulum), 
situated  a  little  below  thcaniddle  of  the  outside 
of  the  bone,  and  in  which  the  head  of  the  thigh¬ 
bone  rests.  Hence  it  is  usual  to  describe  this 
bone  as  consisting  of  the  ilium,  the  ischium,  and 
the  pubes.  The  ilium  is  the  superior,  broad,  and 
expanded  portion  which  forms  the  prominence  of 
the  hip,  and  articulates  with  the  sacrum.  This 
bone  may  be  described  as  divisible  into  an  exter¬ 
nal  and  an  internal  surface,  a  crest,  and  an  ante¬ 
rior  and  posterior  border.  The  external  surface  is 
convex  in  front,  and  concave  behind;  it  is 
bounded  above  by  the  crest,  below  by  the  upper 
border  of  the  acetabulum,  and  in  front  and  be¬ 
hind  by  the  anterior  and  posterior  borders.  It 
presents  various  curved  lines  and  rough  surfaces 
for  the  attachment  of  the  glut  mi  and  other  power¬ 
ful  muscles  connecting  the  pelvis  and  the  lower 
extremities.  The  internal  surface,  which  is 
smooth  and  concave,  has  the  same  boundaries  as 
the  external,  except  interiorly,  where  it  termin¬ 
ates  in  a  prominent  line,  termed  the  lined,  ilio- 
pectinea.  The  surface  of  the  crest  is  convex, 


roughened,  and  sufficiently  broad  to  admit  of  the 
attachment  of  three  planes  of  muscles.  The 
ischium  is  the  inferior  and  strongest  portion  of  the 
bone.  It  consists  of  a  thick  and  solid  portion, 


The  Os  Innominatum  of  the  right  side. 

1,  the  ilium,  itsexternal  surface;  2,  the  ischium;  3,  the  os 
pubis;  4,  the  crest  of  the  ilium;  5,6,  upper  and  lower 
curved  lines  for  attachment  of  muscles;  7,  the  surface 
for  attachment  of  the  glutasus  maximus;  8,9,  the  ante¬ 
rior  superior  and  inferior  spinous  processes;  10,  11,  the 
posterior  spinous  processes;  12,  tliespineof  the  ischium; 
13,  14,  the  greater  and  lesser  sacro-isehiatic  notches; 
15,  tuberosity  of  the  ischium;  16,  itsramus;  17,  the  body 
of  the  os  pubis;  18,  its  ramus;  19,  the  acetabulum;  20, 
the  thyroid  or  obturator  foramen. —  (From  Wilson) . 

the  body  (whose  inferior  border  is  termed  the 
tubersity),  and  a  thin  ascending  portion,  the 
ramus.  In  the  ordinary  sitting  position,  the  whole 
weight  of  the  body  rests  on  the  ischium ;  and  by 
sitting  on  the  hands,  we  can  usually  feel  the  part 
through  which  the  weight  is  transmitted.  The 
pubes  is  that  portion  which  runs  horizontally  in¬ 
ward  from  the  inner  side  of  t  he  acetabulum  for 
about  two  inches,  and  then  descends  obliquely 
outward  for  about  the  same  length,  thus  making 
an  acute  angle  with  its  original  direction.  Tiie 
former  part  is  called  the  body  and  the  latter  the 
ramus,  of  the  pubes.  The  ramus  is  continuous 
with  the  ramus  of  the  ischium.  Between  the 
ischium  and  pubes  is  a  large  aperture,  known  as 
the  thyroid  or  obturator  foramen,  which  in 
the  living  body  is  closed  by  a  membrane  termed 
the  obturator  ligament.  The  object  of  this  large 
foramen  is  probably  to  give  lightness  to  the  parts, 
without  materially  diminishing  their  strength. 


Pelvis  (with  fifth  lumbar  vertebra)  of  European  female 
adult  Transverse  diameter,  5.7;  antero-posterior 
diameter,  4.5  inches. 

1,  the  last  lumbar  vertebra;  2,  the  inter-vertebral  sub¬ 
stance  connecting  it  with  the  sacrum;  3,  the  promontory 
of  the  sacrum;  4,  its  anterior  surface;  5,  the  coccyx;  6,  6. 
the  iliac  fossae;  9,  the  acetabulum;  e.  the  tuberosity,  and 
b  the  body  of  the  ischium ;  e,  the  os  pubis;  f,  the  sym¬ 
physis  pubis;  g,  the  arch;  i,  the  spine,  and  k  the  pectineal 
line  of  the  pubis;  k,l,k,l ,  the  ileo-pectineal  lines.— (From 
Humphry). 

As  the  precise  knowledge  of  the  diameter  and 
depth  of  the  pelvis  is  of  t  he  greatest  importance 
in  the  practice  of  midwifery,  we  give  the  average 
numbers  representing  the  dimensions  of  a  well- 
formed  adult  female  pelvis.  Diameters  of  inlet 
or  brim — antero-posterior,  4.4  inches;  transverse, 

5.4  inches;  oblique,  4.8  inch's.  Diameters  of 
outlet — antero-posterior,  5  itches;  transverse,  4.3 
inch's.  Depth  of  tin*  true  pelvis — posteriorly, 

4.5  inches;  in  the  middle,  3.5  inches;  anteriorly, 

1.5  inches.  There  are  well-marked  differences. 


chiefly  having  reference  to  the  act  of  parturition, 
between  the  male  and  female  pelvis.  In  the 
female,  the  bones  are  lighter  and  more  de  icate 
than  in  the  male,  and  the  muscular  impressions 
and  emmences  are  less  distinctly  marked.  The 
iliac  fossae  are  large  and  expanded,  and  hence  the 
great  prominence  of  the  hips.  The  several  diam¬ 
eters  (particularly  the  transverse  diameter  of 
the  brim,  which  measures  only  5.1  inches  in  the 
male)  are  somewhat  greater;  and  the  pubic  arch 
is  wider  by  about  ten  degrees;  the  sacrum  also  is 
wider  and  less  curved.  It  is  worthy  of  notice 
that  the  pelvis  of  the  negro  is  smaller  in  all  its 
dimensions  than  that  of  the  European,  and 
presents  a  partial  approximation  to  that  of  the 
monkey,  especially  in  the  deficiency  of  its  width. 
This  difference  is  very  much  more  obvious  in  the 
male  than  in  the  female  negro;  and  parturition 
in  the  black  races  is  facilitated  both  by  the  sacrum 
being  1«  ss  curved,  and  by  the  foetal  head  being 
of  smaller  dimensions. 

Pembina,  the  county  seat  of  Pembina  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  800. 

Pembrokeshire,  a  maritime  county  of  South 
W ales,  and  the  westernmost  county  of  the  princi¬ 
pality,  is  bounded  south  by  the  Bristol  Channel, 
and  west  and  north  by  St.  George’s  Channel. 
Area,  393,682  statute  acres.  Pop.  (1881),  91,808. 

Pem'mican,  as  made  by  the  Indians,  consists  of 
the  lean  portions  of  venison  dried  by  the  sun  or 
wind,  and  then  pounded  into  a  paste,  and  tightly 
pressed  into  cakes;  sometimes  a  few  fruits  of 
Amelanclder  ovata  are  added,  to  improve  the  flavor. 
In  making  pemmicau,  it  is  necessary  to  remove 
the  fat  completely. 

Pein'pliigus,  or  Pom'fholyx,  belongs  to  that 
order  of  skin-diseases  which  is  characterized  by 
an  eruption  of  large  vesicles,  filled  with  serous 
fluid,  and  known  as  bulla;.  The  disease  occurs 
both  in  the  acute  and  in  the  chronic  form.  In  a 
mild  case  of  acute  pemphigus,  bullae,  or  blisters, 
from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  that  of  a  chestnut  appear 
in  succession  (chiefly  on  the  extremities),  and,  hav¬ 
ing  continued  three  o,r  four  days,  break,  form  a 
thin  scab,  and  soon  heal,  unaccompanied  with 
febrile  or  inflammatory  symptoms.  In  severe 
cases  there  is  considerable  constitutional  disturb¬ 
ance;  the  bullae  are  larger,  and  the  scabs  heal  with 
difficulty.  The  chronic  form  differs  mainly  from 
the  acute  by  its  prolonged  continuance.  The 
acute  variety  chiefly  affects  children,  and  has  been 
ascribed  to  dentition,  errors  of  diet,  etc.;  while 
the  chronic  form  chiefly  attacks  aged  persons,  and 
is  probably  due  to  debility  and  impaired  nutrition. 
The  acute  form  usually  requires  m  thing  but  cool¬ 
ing  medicines  and  diet,  and  mild  local  dressings, 
such  as  simple  cerate,  to  protect  the  raw  surfaces 
from  exposure  to  the  air.  In  the  chronic  form,  a 
nutritious  diet,  with  the  judicious  use  of  tonics 
(iion,  bark,  etc.),  is  most  commonly  successful. 
In  obstinate  cases,  arsenic  is  sometimes  of  use. 

Pen,  an  instrument  for  writing  with  a  fluid. 
During  last  century  many  efforts  were  made  to 
improve  the  quill-pen.  At  the  beginning  of  this 
century,  pens  began  to  be  made  wholly  of  metal; 
they  consisted  of  a  barrel  of  very  thin  steel,  and 
were  cut  and  slit  so  as  to  resemble  the  quill- 
pen  as  closely  as  possible.  They  were,  however, 
very  indifferent,  and,  being  dear,  they  made 
but  little  way.  In  1820  Mr.  Joseph  Gillott, 
who  dealt  in  the  metal  pens  then  made,  hit 
upon  an  improvement,  which,  by  removing  this 
great  defect,  gave  a  stimulus  to  the  manufact¬ 
ure,  which  has  caused  it  to  be  developed  to  an 
extent  truly  marvelous.  This  consisted  in  making 
three  slits  instead  of  the  single  one  formerly  used, 
and  by  this  means  much  greater  softness  and  flexi¬ 
bility  were  acquired.  From  the  rolling-mills  the 
steel  is  sent  in  sheets  about  8  feet  long  by  3  feet 
broad;  it  is  prepared  from  the  best  iron,  generally 
Swedish  bloom.  The  manufacturer  then  prepares 
it  by  dipping  for  a  short  time  in  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  which  removes  the  scale  or  black  surface;  the 
acid  itself  is  also  carefully  removed  by  immersion 
in  clean  water;  the  sheets  are  then  passed  back¬ 
ward  and  forward  .through  a  rolling-mill  with 
smooth  rollers,  which  reduces  the  steel  to  the  ex¬ 
act  thickness  required,  and  gives  it  greater  com¬ 
pactness;  it  is  next  slit  into  strips  of  various 
widths,  according  to  the  kind  of  pen  to  be  made. 
This  is  then  passed  through  a  cutting-machine, 
which  punches  out  pieces  of  the  shape  of  the  pen 


PENANCE. 


587 


PENNSYLVANIA. 


flatwise.  The  blanks  are  now  passed  through  a 
sucbession  of  operations,  which  finally  produce 
the  perfect  pen.  Gold  pens  are  extensively  made 
in  New  York,  and  as  they  resist  the  corrosive 
action  of  the  ink,  they  are  very  durable;  their 
durability  is  also  greatly  increased  by  the  ingeni¬ 
ous  but  difficult  process  of  soldering  on  to  the 
points  of  the  nib  minute  particles  of  iridium,  which, 
from  their  extreme  hardness,  resist  wear  for  many 
years. 

Pen'ance  (Lat.  pee nitentia),  in  Roman  Catholic 
theology,  means  the  voluntary  or  accepted  self- 
inflicted  punishment  by  which  a  repentant  sinner 
manifests  his  sorrow  for  sin,  and  seeks  to  atone 
for  the  sin,  and  to  avert  the  punishment  which, 
evi  n  after  the  guilt  has  been  remitted,  may  still 
remain  due  to  the  offense.  Penance  is  held  in  the 
•Roman  Catholic  Church  to  be  one  of  the  sacra¬ 
ments  of  the  New  Law. 

Pen'cils  are  instruments  for  writing,  drawing, 
and  painting,  and  they  differ  as  much  in  their 
construction  as  in  the  uses  to  which  they  are  ap¬ 
plied.  Probably  the  pencil  was  the  first  instru¬ 
ment  used  by  artists,  and  consisted  then  of  lumps 
of  colored  earth  or  chalk  simply  cut  into  a  form 
convenient  for  holding  in  the  hand.  There  are 
now  in  use  the  following  kinds  of  pencils:  liair- 
peucils,  black-lead  pencils,  chalk-pencils,  and 
slate-pencils.  The  manufacture  of  hair-pencils  is 
of  great  importance,  and  requires  much  care  and 
skill.  The  hairs  employed  are  chiefly  those  of 
the  camel,  badger,  sable,  mink,  kolinski,  fitch, 
goat,  and  the  bristles  of  hogs;  and  the  art  of  pen- 
cil-makiftg  requires  that  these  hairs  shall  be  tied 
up  in  cylindrical  bundles,  so  nicely  arranged  that 
all  their  naturally  fine  points  shall  be  in  one  direc¬ 
tion,  and  that  the  central  one  shall  project  the 
furthest,  and  the  others  in  succession  shall  recede, 
so  that,  collectively,  the  whole  shall  form  a  beau¬ 
tifully  smooth  cone,  the  apex  of  which  is  a  sharp 
point.  Black-lead  pencils  are  made  of  graphite 
or  plumbago,  which  contains  no  lead  whatever  in 
its  composition,  but  is  in  reality  almost  pure  car¬ 
bon.  Until  recently  the  best  graphite  was  ob¬ 
tained  from  the  Cumberland  (England)  mines, 
which  have  long  been  celebrated.  Within  the 
last  twenty  years,  however,  vast  deposits  of 
this  mineral,  of  a  very  fine  quality,  have  been 
discovered  in  Siberia  and  other  parts  of  the 
Russian  Empire.  Inferior  qualities  are  found  in 
Austria  and  Prussia,  in  Ceylon,  and  various  parts 
of  North  America.  Black-lead  is  rarely  sufficiently 
free  from  sand  and  other  foreign  ingredients  to 
be  used  without  preparation;  it  is  therefore  gener¬ 
ally  ground  fine,  and  levigated  or  washed  until  it 
is  pure;  and  again  formed  into  solid  blocks  by 
means  of  enormous  pressure,  generally  in  hy¬ 
draulic  presses;  these  blocks  are  then  sawed  into 
thin  plates  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  ii.ch  in 
thickness,  which  are  again  cut  across,  so  as  to 
form  them  into  small  square  sticks.  There  is  so 
large  a  variation  in  the  color  of  various  qualities 
of  black-lead,  that,  by  a  judicious  mixture  of  them, 
when  in  the  powdered  state,  almost  any  shade  of 
darkness  can  be  procured;  but  instead  of  thus 
carefully  combining  different  qualities  of  graphite, 
it  is  a  common  practice  to  add  sulphur  or  sul 
phuret  of  antimony,  and  by  heating  to  procure 
the  desired  degree  of  blackness.  For  very  inferior 
pencils,  the  worst  quality  of  black-lead  is  mixed 
with  black  chalk  and  size,  or  gum-water,  and 
formed  into  a  paste;  of  which  the  pencil  is  made. 
It  is  usual  to  inclose  the  material  constituting  the 
essential  part  of  the  pencil  in  a  case  of  wood. 
Chalk-pencils  are  made  in  a  similar  manner. 
Slate-penci's  for  writing  on  slate  are  made  either 
by  cutting  slate  into  thin  sticks,  and  rounding 
them,  or  by  cutting  it  into  fine  square  slips,  and 
incasing  them  in  wood,  as  in  the  case  of  black- 
lead. 

Pend'ant,  or  Pennant,  a  narrow  flag  of  great 
length,  tapering  to  a  point;  and  carried  at  the 
head  of  the  principal  mast  in  a  naval  ship,  to  show 
that  she  is  in  commission. 

Panel 'ope,  in  Homeric  legend,  the  wife  of 
L  lysses  (Odysseus),  and  mother  of  Telemachus, 
who  was  still  an  infant  when  Ulysses  went  to  the 
T  rojan  War.  During  his  long  wanderings  after 
the  fall  of  Troy,  he  was  generally  regarded  as 
dead,  and  Penelope  was  vexed  by  tiie  urgent 
suits  of  many  lovers,  whom  she  put  off  on  the 
pretext  that  she  must  first  weave  a  shroud  for 


Laertes,  her  aged  father-in-law.  To  protract  the 
time,  she  undid  by  night  the  portion  of  the  web 
which  she  had  woven  by  day.  When  the  suitors 
had  discovered  this  device,  her  position  became 
more  difficult  than  before;  but  fortunately  Ulysses 
returned  in  time  to  rescue  his  chaste  spouse  from 
their  distasteful  importunities. 

Pendant,  a  hanging  ornament, used  in  ceilings, 
vaults,  staircases,  timber  roofs,  etc.  It  is  sometimes 
a  simple  ball,  and  sometimes 
elaborately  ornamented,  and 
is  chiefly  used  in  the  later  ^ 

Gothic  and  Elizabethan 
styles. 

Pendleton,  the  county 
seat  of  Umatilla  county, 

Ore.  Pop.,  2,800. 

Pend'ulum,  in  it  widest 
scientific  sense,  denotes  a 
body  of  any  form  or  mate¬ 
rial,  which,  under  the  action 
of  some  force,  vibrates  about 
a  position  of  sta  le  equi  ib- 
rium.  The  simple  pendu¬ 
lum  consists  (in  theory)  of  a 
heavy  point  or  particle,  sus¬ 
pended  by  a  flexible  string 
without  weight,  and  there¬ 
fore  constrained  to  move  as 
if  it  were  always  on  the  in¬ 
ner  surface  of  a  smoth  spherical  bowl.  If  such 
a  pendulum  be  drawn  aside  into  a  slightly  in¬ 
clined  position,  and  allowed  to  fall  back,  it  evi¬ 
dently  will  oscillate  from  side  to  side  of  its  posi¬ 
tion  of  equilibrium,  the  motion  confined  to  a  ver¬ 
tical  plane.  For  small  arcs  of  vibration,  thesquare 
of  the  time  of  oscillation  of  a  simple  pendulum  is 
directly  as  its  length,  and  inversely  as  the  earth’s 
attraction.  It  follows  that  so  long  as  the  arcs  of 
vibration  of  a  pendulum  are  all  small  relatively 
to  the  length  of  the  string,  they  may  differ  con¬ 
siderably  in  length  among  themselves  without 
differing  appreciably  in  time.  It  is  to  this  prop¬ 
erty  of  pendulum  oscillations,  known  as isocliron- 
ism,  that  they  owe  their  value  in  measuring  time. 
As  the  length  of  a  rod  or  bar  of  any  material 
depends  on  its  temperature,  a  clock  with  an  ordi¬ 
nary  pendulum  goes  faster  in  cold,  and  slower  in 
hot  weather.  Various  contrivances  have  been 
devised  for  the  purpose  of  diminishing,  if  not 
destroying,  these  effects:  In  the  method  of  cor¬ 
rection  usually  employed,  and  called  compensa¬ 
tion,  advantage  is  taken  of  the  fact  that  different 
substances  have  different  coefficients  of  linear 
dilatation;  so  that  if  thebob  of  the  pendulum  be  so 
suspended  as  to  be  raised  by  the  expansion  of  one 
substance,  and  depressed  by  the  expansion  of 
another,  the  lengths  of  the  effective  portions  of 
these  substances  may  be  so  adjusted  that  the  rais¬ 
ing  and  depression,  taking  place  simultaneously, 
may  leave  the  position  of  the  bob  unaffected. 
This  is  the  principle  employed  in  the  well-known 
gridiron  and  compensation  pendulums. 

Pen'guin  ( Aplenodytes ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Alcidce  or  constituting  the  family  Apteno- 


Penguin  ( Aptenoaytes  pennatis). 


didee.  The  penguin  has  extremely  short  wings, 
quite  unfit  for  flight,  but  covered  with  short 
rigid  scale-like  feathers,  admirably  adapted  for 


swimming,  and  much  like  the  flippers  of  turtles. 
The  penguins  are  all  among  the  most  aquatic 
birds,  although  they  are  seldom  seen  very  far  out 
at  sea.  In  some  of  the  furthest  antarctic  regions, 
penguins  are  prodigiously  numerous.  On  many 
of  tlie  shores,  the  penguins  do  not  flee  from  nor 
seem  to  dread  the  presence  of  man,  remaining  as 
if  stupidly  indifferent,  even  when  their  com¬ 
panions  are  knocked  on  the  head.  The  young 
are  reckoned  good  eating;  the  old  are  said  to  be 
black  and  tough. 

Penn,  William,  a  celebrated  English  Quaker 
and  philanthropist,  the  founder  of  the  colony  of 
Pennsylvania,  was  the  son  of  Sir  William  Penn, 
an  eminent  English  admiral,  and  was  born  at 
London,  Oct.  14,  1644.  Penn  studied  at  Christ 
Church,  Oxford,  and  while  here  was  converted 
to  Quakerism  by  the  preaching  of  a  disciple  of 
George  Fox,  named  Thomas  Loe.  In  Septem¬ 
ber,  1G70,  Admiral  Penn  died,  leaving  his  son  an 
estate  of  $7,500  a  year,  together  with  claims  upon 
government  for  $80,000.  Circumstances  having 
turned  his  attention  to  the  New  World,  he,  in 
1681,  obtained  from  the  crown,  in  lieu  of  his 
monetary  claim  upon  it,  a  grant  of  the  territory 
now'  forming  the  State  of  Pennsylvania.  Penn, 
with  several  friends,  sailed  for  the  Delaware  in 
August,  1682,  was  well  received  by  the  settlers, 
and  on  November  30th,  held  his  famous  inter- 
viewr  with  the  Indian  tribes,  under  a  large  elm 
tree  at  Shackamaxon,  now  Kensington.  He  next 
planned  and  named  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  and 
for  two  years  governed  the  colony  in  the  wisest, 
most  benevolent,  and  liberal  manner.  Toward 
the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  Penn  returned 
to  England  to  exert  himself  in  favor  of  his  per¬ 
secuted  brethren  at  home.  In  1690  he  was 
arrested  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy,  but  was 
acquitted.  In  1699  he  paid  a  second  visit  to  the 
New  World,  and  found  Pennsylvania  in  a  pros¬ 
perous  condition.  Penn  departed  for  England 
toward  the  end  of  1 701 ,  leaving  the  management 
of  his  affairs  to  a  Quaker  agent  named  Ford, 
whose  villainy  virtually  ruined  Penn.  When  the 
rogue  died,  he  left  to  his  widow  and  son  false 
claims  against  his  master,  and  these  were  so  ruth¬ 
lessly  pressed,  that  Penn  allowed  himself  to  be 
thrown  into  the  Fleet  in  1708,  to  avoid  extortion. 
His  friends  afterward  procured  his  release,  but 
not  till  his  constitution  was  fatally  impaired.  He 
died  at  Ruscombe,  in  Berkshire,  July  30,  1718. 

Pennat'ula,  a  genus  of  zoophytes  (Anthozon), 
allied  to  Gorgonia  and  Alryonium,  and  having 
very  similar  polypes;  but  the  polype  mass  is  not 
fixed  by  its  base,  has  a  fleshy  stem  strengthened 
by  a  bone,  and  a  skin  containing  calcareous 
spiculse,  the  upper  part  of  the  stem  winged  on  two 
sides,  with  numerous  pinnae,  along  the  upper  mar¬ 
gins  of  which  the  polype-cells  are  ranged.  The 
whole  form  somewhat  resembles  a  quill,  so  that 
the  popular  name  sea  pen  is  very  often  given  to 
these  zoophytes. 

Pennington,  the  capital  of  Trinity  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  863. 

Pen'non,  a  small,  pointed,  or  swallow  tailed 
flag,  carried  by  the  mediaeval  knight  on  his  lance 
bearing  his  personal 
device  or  badge,  and 
sometimes  richly 
fringed  with  gold. 

Pen'nonceile.a  long 
streamer-like  flag,  the 
diminutive  of  the  pen¬ 
non. 

Pennsylva'uia  one 
of  the  thirteen  original 
United  States  of  Amer¬ 
ica,  now  the  second 
in  population,  and 
called  from  its  position 
and  importance,  “the 
Keystone  State,”  is  in 
latitude  39°  43'— 42° 

15'  N.,  longitude 
740  75'— 80°  37'  W. 

It  is  bounded  north  by 
Lake  Erie  and  New 
York;  east  by  New 
York  and  New  Jersey,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Delaware  river;  south  by  Maryland  and 
West  Virginia;  and  west  by  West  Virginia  and 
Ohio.  The  small  State  of  Delaware  borders  for  a 


Pennon. 


PENNY. 


588 


PERIAGUA. 


few  miles  on  its  southeastern  angle.  It  is  310  miles 
long,  1(50  wide,  containing  an  area  of  42,215 
square  miles,  divided  into  sixty-six  counties.  The 
State  is  divided  near  the  middle  by  the  Alleglianies 
into  an  eastern  region,  whose  waters  fall  into  the 
Delaware.and  Chesapeake  Bays,  and  a  western,  in 
which  the  principal  rivers  are  the  Alleghany,  the 
Monongahela,  and  other  important  affluents  of 
the  Ohio.  These,  with  the  Delaware  and  Susque¬ 
hanna,  Lehigh,  Schuylkill,  and  Juniata,  are  the 
principal  rivers.  The  chief  towns  are  Philadel¬ 
phia,  on  its  southeastern  border;  Pittsburgh,  at 
the  head  of  the  Ohio;  and  Harrisburgli,  the 
capital,  on  the  Susquehanna.  The  geological 
formations  range  from  the  Potsdam  sandstone  to 
the  coal-measures.  There  is  middle  secondary 
red  sandstone  and  drift  in  the  northeast;  gneiss 
and  red  sandstone  in  the  southeast;  the  center  of 
the  State  is  a  rich  and  fertile  limestone  valley. 
Near  Philadelphia  are  line  quarries  of  white 
marble.  The  great  anthracite  and  semi-anthra¬ 
cite  deposits  of  coal  are  east  of  the  Alleglianies; 
west  are  the  great  beds  of  bituminous  coal.  Salt 
is  found  beneath  the  coal,  and  in  the  bituminous 
districts  great  deposits  of  petroleum.  Adjacent 
to  the  coal-measures  are  rich  beds  of  iron  ore,  also 
lead,  copper,  nickel,  and  zinc  ores.  The  climate 
is  mild,  and  the  soil  fertile,  producing  abundance 
of  wheat,  Indian  corn,  oats,  rye,  buckwheat, 
potatoes,  flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  hay  and  pasturage, 
apples,  pears,  peaches,  grapes,  etc.  Pennsylvania 
has  also  a  large  industry  engaged  in  mines  and 
manufactures,  coal,  iron,  woolen,  and  cotton.  At 
Pittsburgh,  about  57,000  hands  are  employed  in 
the  coal  and  iron  industries.  There  are  over  7,500 
miles  of  railway  in  the  State.  Its  educational 
system  is  excellent  and  its  religious  equipment 
unsurpassed.  There  are  2  State  penitentiaries 
(1  on  the  solitary  system),  6  asylums  for  the 
insane,  2  institutions  for  deaf-mutes,  2  for  the 
blind,  orphans’  schools,  etc.  The  population, 
largely  Scottish  and  German  in  its  origin,  was  in 
1800,  (502,361;  in  1820  it  was  1,049,458;  in  1870, 
3,521,951;  and  in  1880,  4,282,891. 

Penny,  a  British  coin  and  money  of  account. 
After  the  Sceatt®  it  is  the  most  ancient  of  the 
English  coins,  and  was  the  only  one  generally 
current  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Its  value  is 
slightly  inferior  to  our  2-cent  piece. 

Penn  Yan,  the  county  seat  of  Y’ates  county, 
N.  Y.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Pennyroy'al,  a  species  of  mint,  Iledeosma  pu l- 
egioides,  which  is  much  in  use  in  domestic  medi¬ 
cine,  in  the  form  of  a  warm  infusion,  to  promote 
perspiration,  and  as  an  emmenagogue. 

Penob'scot,  a  river  of  Maine,  rises  near  the 
center 'of  the  State  and  empties  into  Penobscot 
Bay.  It  is  navigable  to  Bangor,  where  there  is  a 
tide  of  twenty  feet. 

Pensaco'la,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  and  naval 
station  on  a  deep  bay  opening  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  at  the  southwestern  extremity  of  West 
Florida.  The  town  is  on  the  north  shore  of  the 
bay,  and  is  connected  by  railway  with  Montgom¬ 
ery,  Ala.  Pop.  (1880),  10,000.  Near  the  entrance 
of  its  bay  are  the  navy  yard,  hospital,  and  Fort 
Barrancas.  The  entrance  is  further  defended  by 
Fort  Pickens,  at  the  west  end  of  Santa  Rosa 
Island,  and  Fort  M’Rae,  on  the  opposite  point. 

Pen'tagon  is  a  plane  geometrical  figure  of  five 
sides.  When  the  sides  are  equal  the  figure  is 
called  a  regular  pentagon. 

Pen'tastyle,  a  building  with  a  portico  of  five 
columns. 

Pen'tateucli  (Gr.  five-fold  book),  a  name  given 
by  Greek  translators  to  the  five  books  ascribed  to 
Moses:  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Deuteronomy, 
and  Numbers. 

Pentecost  (Gr.  ttevt  ekoSte  ,  pentecoste, 
fiftieth)  was  the  name  given  to  the  least  among 
the  Jews,  held  on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the 
passover,  in  celebration  of  the  ingathering,  and 
in  thanksgiving  for  the  harvest.  From  the  Jew¬ 
ish  use  it  was  introduced  into  the  Christian,  and 
with  special  solemnity,  as  being  the  day  of  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  on  the  apostles,  and  of 
the  first  solemn  preaching  of  the  Christian  religion. 

Pent'house,  a  projection  forming  an  open  roof 
or  shed,  protecting  a  doorway,  gate,  window,  etc. 

Pen  'za,  a  -central  government  of  European 
Russia,  between  the  Government  of  Nijni-Nov- 
gorod  on  the  north,  and  that  of  Tamboy  on  the 


west.  Area,  15,000  square  miles;  pop.  (1879), 

I, 332,598. 

Penza,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Soura, 
220  miles  south-southeast  of  Nijni-Novgorod. 
Pop.  (1880),  35,000. 

Penzance',  a  market  and  seaport  town,  and  a 
municipal  borough  of  England,  in  the  county  of 
Cornwall,  stands  on  the  northwest  shore  of 
Mount’s  Bay,  twenty -two  miles  west-southwest  of 
Falmouth.  It  is  the  most  westerly  town  in  England 
— the  lighthouse  on  its  pier  being  in  latitude  50° 
7'N.,and  in  longitude  5°  28'  W.  Pop.  (1881), 

II, 684. 

Peo'ria,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  Illinois,  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Illinois  river,  seventy  miles 
north  of  Springfield  and  160  miles  southwest  of 
Chicago.  It  is  an  important  railway  center,  and 
bluffs  of  bituminous  coal,  opening  upon  the  river 
banks,  supply  numerous  manufactories.  Pop., 
40,500. 


Pepper  (Piper),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natu¬ 
ral  order  Piperacece,  which  once  included  the 
whole  of  that  order;  but,  as  now  limited,  consists 
of  plants  with  woody  stems,  solitary  spikes 
opposite  to  the  leaves,  and  covered  with  flowers 
on  all  sides,  the  flowers  mostly  hermaphrodite. 
The  most  important  species  is  common  or  black 
pepper  (P.  rugrurp),  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
now  cultivated  also  in  many  tropical  countries, 
and  extensively  in  some  parts  of  this  country;  its 
fruit  being  the  most  common  and  largely  used  of 
all  spices. 

Pepper-root  ( Denlaria  diphylla),  a  perennial 
herbaceous  plant,  of  the  natural  order  Uruciferce, 
a  native  of  North  America,  with  pairs  of  ternate 
leaves,  and  racemes  of  white  flowers;  the  root  of 
which  has  a  pungent  mustard-like  taste,  and  is 
used  as  a  condiment. 

Pep 'sine,  one  of  the  essential  constituents  of 
the  gastric  juice.  Various  modes  of  extracting 
it  from  the  walls  of  the  stomach  of  the  calf, 
sheep,  and  pig  have  been  proposed  by  different 
chemists.  In  its  ultimate  composition  it  is  closely 
allied  to  albumen.  This  substance  has  been 
employed  of  late  years  to  a'  considerable  extent 
in  medical  practice,  in  cases  of  disordered  diges¬ 
tion  from  deficient  or  imperfect  secretion  of  gastric 
juice,  and  of  convalescence  from  typhoid  and 
other  debilitating  fevers. 

Perak,  one  of  the  largest  Malay  States  in  the 
Peninsula  of  Malacca,  extends  about  90  miles 
along  the  Strait  of  Malacca,  and  some  45  miles 
inland. 

Percola'tion,  a  process  used  in  Pharmacy,  and 
in  some  other  arts,  for  extracting  certain  soluble 
properties  of  va¬ 
rious  bodies  by 
filtering  a  liquid 
through  them 
As  the  fluid  soaks 
in  and  passes 
through  the  ma¬ 
terial  acted  upon, 
it  displaces  a  n  d 
carries  with  it  the 
soluble  parts, 
hence  percolation 
is  someti  m e s 
called  the  method 
of  displacement. 

Percus'sion, 
in  Medicine,  is 
the  method  of 
eliciting  sounds 
by  tapping,  or 
gently  striking1 
the  surface  of  the 
body;  its  object 
being  to  deter¬ 
mine  by  the  na¬ 
ture  of  the  sound 
the  comparative 
density  of  the 
subjacent  parts. 

Percussion 
Caps  are  small 
copper  cylinders, 
closed  at  one  end, 


Percolator 

A,  funnel;  ft,  stopcock;  B,  glass  recep¬ 
tacle;  C,  brass  syringe;  at,  rr!,  a3, 
filters  of  porous  felt;  d ,  tube  for 
escape  of  air  bubbles.  The  material 
is  laid  on  topmost  diaphragm  and 
the  air  exhausted  by  means  of  the 
pump  O  which  causes  the  liquid  to 
percolate  the  three  filters. 

for  conveniently  holding  the  detonating  powder 
which  is  exploded  by  the  act  of  percussion  in 
percussion  arms. 


Perch  (Perea),  a  genus  of  acanthopterous  fishes 
of  the  family  Percidce,  to  which  it  gives  its  name, 
and  which  includes  many  genera  and  a  great 
number  of  species  both  of  marine  and  fresh¬ 
water  fishes. 

Perclose',  a  railing  or  other  inclosure  sepa¬ 
rating  a  tomb  or  chapel  from  the  rest  of  a  church. 

Perclose,  or  Demi-garter,  in  Heraldry,  the 
lower  half  of  a  garter  with  the  buckle. 

Perdi'do,  a  bay  and  river  of  Alabama.  The 
bay,  20  miles  long  by  6  to  10  miles  wide,  opens 
by  a  narrow  channel  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
eighteen  miles  west  of  the  entrance  to  Pensacola 
Bay;  the  river  rises  in  Southwestern  Alabama, 
and  bay  and  river  form  the  boundary  between 
Alabama  and  Florida. 

Per'ogrine  Falcon  (Falco peregrinus),  a  species 
of  falcon  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world.  • 
The  female  is  larger  than  the  male,  being  about 
18  inches  in  length  from  the  tip  of  the  bill 
to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  while  the  male  is  only  about 
15  inches.  The  female  is  the  falcon  of  falconers, 
and  the  male  is  the  tercel. 

Perekop',  Isthmus  of,  in  South  Russia,  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  Taurida,  18  miles  long,  16  miles 
broad  at  its  southern,  and  5  miles  broad  at  its 
northern  extremity,  connects  the  peninsula  of  the 
Crimea  with  the  mainland  of  European  Russia. 

Peren'nial,  in  Botany,  a  term  employed  in 
contradistinction  to  annual  and  biennial,  to  desig¬ 
nate  plants  which  subsist  for  a  number  of  years. 
Some  plants,  however,  which  are  annual  in  cold 
climates,  are  perennial  in  wanner  regions.  The 
term  perennial  is  in  general  applied  only  tb  herba¬ 
ceous  plants,  and  indicates  only  a  property  of 
their  roots,  the  stems  of  most  of  them  dying  at 
the  end  of  each  summer. 

Perfum'ery,  Perfumes  (Fr.  perfum,  from 
Lat.  fumus,  smoke  or  vapor),  delicate  fumes  or 
smells.  Perfumes  are  of  three  distinct  classes 
when  derived  from  plants,  and  there  is  a  fourth 
class,  which  are  of  animal  origin.  The  first  con¬ 
sists  of  the  various  odoriferous  gum-resins,  which 
exude  naturally  from  the  trees  which  yield  them; 
and  to  increase  the  produce,  the  plants  are  often 
purposely  wounded.  The  most  important  are 
benzoin,  olibanum,  myrrh,  and  camphor.  Tlie 
second  are  those  perfumes  which  are  procured 
by  distillation.  The  third  are  the  perfumes 
proper,  such  as  are  used  for  perfuming  handker¬ 
chiefs,  etc.  Contrary  to  the  general  belief,  nearly 
all  the  perfumes  derived  from  flowers  are  not 
made  by  distillation,  but  by  the  processes  of  en- 
fleurage  and  maceration.  The  odors  of  flowers 
do  not,  as  a  general  rule,  exist  in  them  as  a  store 
or  iu  a  gland,  but  are  developed  as  an  exhalation. 
If  a  living  flower  be  placed  near  to  grease,  animal 
fat,  butter,  or  oil,  these  bodies  absorb  the  odor 
given  off  by  the  blossom,  and  in  turn  themselves 
become  fragrant.  It  is  on  this  principle  that  per¬ 
fumery  is  extracted  from  flowers  by  ti  e  large 
manufacturers  of  this  commodity.  In  the  labo¬ 
ratory  there  are  several  thousand  sashes  upon 
which  the  grease  to  be  scented  is  spread,  and 
upon  this  grease  the  blossoms  are  sprinkled  or 
laid.  The  flower  blossoms  are  changed  every 
day,  or  every  other  day.  The  same  grease,  how¬ 
ever,  remains  in  the  sash  so  long  as  the  particular 
plant  being  used  yields  blossoms.  Fat  or  oil  is 
perfumed  with  these  same  flowers  by  the  process 
of  maceration;  that  is,  infusion  of  the  flowers  in 
oil  or  melted  fat.  The  fourth  class  are  perfumes 
of  animal  origin.  The  principal  are  musk,  civet, 
ambergris,  and  castor.  The  aroma  of  musk  is  the 
most  universally  admired  of  all  perfumes.  Its 
power  to  impart  odor  is  such,  that  polished  steel 
will  become  fragrant  of  it  if  the  metal  be  shut  in 
a  box  where  there  is  musk,  contact  not  being 
necessary.  In  perfumery  manufacture,  musk  is 
mixed  with  other  odorous  bodies  to  give  perman¬ 
ence  to  a  scent. 

Peri  (Fairy),  according  to  the  mythical  lore 
of  the  East,  a  being  begotten  by  fallen  spirits, 
which  spends  its  life  in  all  imaginable  delights,  is 
immortal,  but  is  forever  excluded  from  the  joys 
of  paradise.  It  takes  an  intermediate  place  be- 
twe<  n  angels  and  demons,  and  is  either  male  or 
female. 

Peria'gua,  a  large  canoe  composed  of  the 
trunks  of  two  trees,  hollowed  and  united  into 
one  fabric;  whereas  an  ordinary  .canoe  is  formed 
of  the  body  of  one  tree  only.  Periaguas  are 


PERIANTH. 


589 


PERMIAN. 


used  in  the  Pacific,  and  were  formerly  employed 
among  the  West  India  Islands. 

Perianth  (Gr.  nepi,  peri,  around,  avOoS, 
author,  a  flower),  in  Botany,  the  floral  envelope 
of  those  plants  in  which  the  calyx  and  corolla  are 
not  easily  distinguished. 

Pericardi't'S,  or  inflammation  of  the  pericar¬ 
dium,  is  a  disease  of  frequent  occurrence;  the 
result  of  a  large  number  of  post-mortem  examina¬ 
tions  being  to  show  that  about  one  in  twenty- 
three  of  all  who  die  at  an  adult  age  exhibits 
traces  of  recent  or  old  attacks  of  this  disorder. 
The  symptoms  of  pericarditis  are  pain  in  the 
situation  of  the  heart,  increased  by  a  full  inspi¬ 
ration.  by  pressure  upon  or  between  the  ribs  in 
the  cardiac  region,  and  especially  by  pressure 
upward  against  the  diaphragm  by  thrusting  the 
fingers  beneath  the  cartilages  of  the  false  ribs; 
palpitations,  a  dry  cough,  and  hurried  respiration, 
discomfort  or  pain  on  lying  on  the  leftside,  rest¬ 
lessness,  great  anxiety  of  countenance,  and  some¬ 
times  delirium.  The  pulse  usually  beats  from 
110  to  120  in  a  minute,  and  is  sometimes  inter¬ 
mittent,  and  febrile  symptoms  are  always  pres¬ 
ent.  The  physical  signs  are  three  in  number.  1. 
In  consequence  of  irritation  propagated  to  the 
muscular  tissue  of  the  heart  at  the  commence¬ 
ment  of  the  inflammation  of  its  investing  mem¬ 
brane,  the  ventricles  contract  with  increased 
force,  rendering  the  sounds  of  the  heart  louder 
and  its  impulse  stronger  than  in  health,  or  than 
in  the  more  advanced  stages  of  the  disease.  2. 
When  much  fluid  is  effused  into  the  pericardium, 
dullness  on  percussion  is  always  observable  to 
a  greater  degree  than  in  health.  This  sign,  which 
is  very  characteristic,  is  seldom  perceived  till  the 
disease  has  continued  for  two  or  three  days.  In 
extreme  cases  the  dullness  may  extend  over  a 
space  whose  diameter  is  seven  inches  or  more. 
Simultaneous  with  the  increased  dullness,  there  is 
a  diminution  of  the  heart’s  sounds  in  consequence 
of  the  intervening  fluid,  and  the  impulse  is  often 
scarcely  perceptible.  3.  The  rubbing  of  the 
inflamed  and  roughened  surfaces  upon  each  other 
gives  rise  to  a  sound  which  is  commonly  called 
the  friction  sound,  but  which  has  received 
various  names.  Sometimes  it  closely  resembles 
the  noise  made  by  a  saw  in  cutting  through  a 
board ;  sometimes  it  is  more  like  that  occasioned 
by  the  action  of  a  file  or  of  a  rasp,  but  its  essen¬ 
tial  character  is  that  of  alternate  rubbing;  it  is  a 
to  and  fro  sound.  This  sound  is  heard  early  in 
the  disease,  before  the  surfaces  of  the  pericardium 
are  separated  by  the  effusion  of  fluid.  Pericar¬ 
ditis  is  a  disease  which  occasionally  runs  a  rapid 
course,  and  terminates  fatally  in  forty-eight 
hours  or  less.  In  slight  cases  it  is  probable  that  a 
true  cure,  without  adhesion,  may  take  place. 

Pericardium,  The,  is  a  conical  membranous 
sac,  containing  the  heart  and  the  commencement 
of  the  great  vessels,  to  the  extent  of  about  two 
inches  from  their  origin.  It  is  placed  with  its 
apex  upward  behind  the  sternum,  and  to  its  left 
side,  in  the  interval  between  the  pleurae — the 
serous  sacs  in  which  the  lungs  are  inclosed;  while 
its  base  is  attached  to  the  diaphragm.  It  is  a 
fibro-serous  membrane,  consisting  of  an  external 
fibrous  and  an  internal  Si  rous  layer. 

Per' ides  (Gr.  Perikles),  the  most  accom¬ 
plished  statesman  of  ancient  Greece,  was  born  of 
distinguished  parentage  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fifth  century  u.c..  and  died  in  429  b.c. 

PerihePion  (Gr.  itepi,  peri  and  HeXio’i, 
helios,  the  sun),  that  point  in  its  orbit  at  which  a 
planet  is  nearest  the  sun.  The  point  of  the  orbit 
opposite  to  it  is  called  the  aphelion.  The  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  perihelion — i.e.,  its  longitude  east  or 
west  of  the  equinox,  is  one  of  the  seven  elements 
of  a  planet’s  orbit. 

Perini',  a  small  island  belonging  to  Great 
Britain,  in  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Red  Sea.  Lat.  12°  40'  30"  N., 
longitude  43°  23'  E. 

Perio'dical,  a  publication  which  appears  con¬ 
tinuously  at  regular  intervals,  and  whose  contents 
may  be  devoted  to  criticism,  politics,  religion, 
literature,  science,  arts,  amusements,  or  general 
and  miscellaneous  subjects.  Those  periodicals 
which  consist  of  a  collection  of  critical  essays  are 
called  reviews. 

Perios'teum  (Gr.  ite.pi,  peri,  around,  and 
odreov,  osteon,  bone),  a  tough  fibrous  membrane 


which  surrounds  the  various  bones.  It  is  highly 
vascular,  and  is  the  means  by  which  the  outer 
layers  of  the  shafts  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
spongy  portions  of  the  bones  are  supplied  with 
blood. 

Periosti'tis,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Perios¬ 
teum,  generally  occurs  on  the  surface  of  thinly- 
covered  bones,  such  as  the  tibia,  clavicles,  and 
cranial  bones.  The  affection  is  usually  accom¬ 
panied  with  considerable  nocturnal  pain.  If  the 
disease  occurs  in  an  acute  form,  it  must  be  treated 
with  leeches,  fomentations,  and  the  other  ordi¬ 
nary  antiphlogistic  (or  lowering)  remedies.  When 
it  becomes  Chronic,  the  treatment  must  be  mainly 
directed  to  the  cause  which  has  originated  it.  In 
almost  all  cas-  s  the  nocturnal  pains  are  best  re¬ 
lieved  by  large  doses  (5  to  10  grains)  of  iodide 
of  potassium,  taken  three  times  a  day  on  an  empty 
stomach. 

Peripneuino'nia,  an  inflammation  of  the  mem¬ 
brane  which  invests  the  lungs,  accompanied  with 
general  disturbance  of  the  whole  system;  remark¬ 
ably  prevalent  among  horses  in  South  Africa,  in 
a  zone  from  20°  to  27°  S.'  latitude.  Zebras,  ante¬ 
lopes,  and  oxen  are  liable  to  its  attacks,  but  no 
kind  of  quadruped  suffers  so  much  from  it  as  the 
horse. 

Peristal'tic  Motion.  The  terms  peristaltic 
(Gr.  clasping  and  compressing)  and  vermicular  (or 
worm-like)  are  applied  to  the  peculiar  motion  or 
action  of  the  muscular  coat  of  the  intestines,  by 
which  the  substances  contained  within  it  are  regu¬ 
larly  moved  onward. 

Per'istyle,  a  colonnade  around  the  interior  of 
a  courtyard  or  other  building. 

Peritone'um  (Gr.  nepirsiveiv ,  perileinein,  to 
extend  around),  a’ serous  membrane,  and  like  all 
membranes  of  this  class,  a  shut  sac,  which,  how¬ 
ever,  in  the  female,  is  not  completely  closed,  as 
the  Fallopian  tubes  communicate  with  it  by  their 
free  extremities.  The  peritoneum  more  or  less 
completely  invests  all  the  viscera  lying  in  the 
abdominal  and  pelvic  cavities,  and  is  then  reflected 
upon  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  so  that  there  is  a 

UM 

Dm,  the  diaphragm ;  S, 
the  stomach;  C,  the 
transverse  colon;  D. 
the  duodenum;  P,  the 
pancreas ;  I,  the  small 
intestines;  R,  the  rec¬ 
tum;  B,  the  urinary 
bladder;  1.  the  an¬ 
terior,  and  2,  the  pos¬ 
terior  layer  of  peri¬ 
toneum  ;  4,  the  lesser 
omentum;  5  and  6, 
the  greater  omen¬ 
tum  ;  7,  the  trans¬ 
verse  mesocolon;  10, 
the  mesentery  incir- 
cling  the  small  intes¬ 
tine;  11,  the  recto¬ 
vesical  fold;  12,  the 
anterior  layer  traced 
upward  upon  the  in¬ 
ternal  surface  of  the 
abdominal  walls  to 
the  point  (1)  with 
which  the  examina¬ 
tion  commenced.  — 
From  Wilson’s  Anat¬ 
omist's  Vade-mecum. 

The  Reflections  of  the  Peritoneum. 

visceral  and  a  parietal  layer.  Numerous  folds 
are  formed  by  the  visceral  layer  as  it  passes  from 
one  organ  to  another.  They  serve  to  hold  the 
parts  in  position,  and  at  the  same  time  inclose 
vessels  and  nerves.  Some  of  these  folds  are  termed 
ligaments,  from  their  serving  to  support  the 
organs. 

Peritoni'tis,  or  Inflammation  of  ttie  Peri¬ 
toneum,  may  be  either  an  acule  or  a  chronic 
disease.  Acute  peritonitis  generally  presents  well- 
marked  symptoms.  It  sometimes  commences  with 
a  chill,  but  severe  pain  in  the  abdomen  is  usually 
the  first  symptom.  The  pain  is  at  first  sometimes 
confined  to  particular  spots  (usually  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  abdomen),  but  it  soon  extends  over 
the  whole  abdominal  region.  It  is  increased,  on 
pressure,  to  such  an  extent  that  the  patient  can 
not  even  bear  the  weight  of  the  bed-clothes;  and, 
to  avoid  as  far  as  possible,  internal  pressure  upon 
the  peritoneum,  he  lies  perfectly  still,  on  his  back, 
with  t lie  legs  drawn  up,  and  breathes  by  means 
of  the  ribs,  in  consequence  of  the  pain  occasioned 
by  the  descent  of  the  diaphragm  in  inspiration. 


The  breathing  is  naturally  shallow  in  these  cases, 
and  less  air  being  admitted  at  each  movement  of 
respiration,  the  number  of  those  movements  is 
increased.  The  pulse  is  usually  very  frequent, 
often  120  or  more  in  the  minute,  and  small  and 
tense,  though  occasionally  strong  and  full  at  the 
commencement  of  the  attack.  After  the  disease 
has  continued  for  a  certain  time,  the  belly  be¬ 
comes  tense  and  swollen.  The  progress  of  the 
disease  is  in  general  rapid.  In  fatal  cases,  death 
usually  takes  place  within  a  week,  and  often 
sooner.  The  only  disease  with  which  peritonitis 
is  likely  to  be  confounded  is  a  peculiar  form  of 
hysteria.  The  treatment,  in  an  ordinary  case  of 
peritonitis  (not  arising  from  mechanical  injury, 
or  perforation  from  disease,  or  occurring  in  con¬ 
nection  with  puerperal  fever),  consists,  if  the  pa¬ 
tient  is  moderately  robust,  in  bleeding  from  the 
arm,  till  a  decided  impression  has  been  made  on 
the  circulation;  after  which  the  abdomen  should 
be  covered  with  twenty  or  thirty  leeches,  and  the 
bleeding  from  their  bites  should  be  encouraged 
by  fomenting  the  belly  with  flannels  wrung  out 
of  hot  water,  or,  if  the  patient  can  biar  its 
weight,  by  the  application  of  a  light  poultice. 
The  system  must,  at  the  same  time,  be  got  as 
speedily  as  possible  under  the  influence  of  mer¬ 
cury.  Opium  may  be  given  fr  ely.  The  patient 
must  be  kept  on  low  diet,  unless  indications  of 
sinking  appear.  Chronic  peritonitis  occurs  in 
two  forms,  which  differ  in  their  origin  and  degree 
of  fatality,  butaresimilarin  their  symptoms.  In  the 
first  place,  the  inflammation  is  of  the  ordinary  char¬ 
acter,  and  although  the  disease  sometimes  origi¬ 
nates  spontaneously,  it  is  more  frequently  the 
sequel  of  an  imperfectly  cured  acute  attack;  in 
the  second,  it  depends  upon  granules  (supposed  to 
be  tubercles)  lying  in  countless  numbers  in  the 
serous  membrane,  and  serving  as  a  constant  source 
of  irritation.  The  second  form  isconfined  almost, 
if  not  entirely,  to  persons  of  a  scrofulous  consti¬ 
tution.  The  symptoms  of  chronic  peritonitis  are 
more  obscure  than  those  of  the  acute  form.  There 
is  abdominal  pain,  often  slight,  and  not  always 
constant,  which  is  increased  by  pressure,  or  some¬ 
times  is  felt  only  when  pressure  is  made.  The 
patient  complains  of  a  sensation  of  fullness  and 
tension  of  the  belly,  although  its  size  is  not  visi¬ 
bly  increased;  of  a  loss  of  appetite;  and  of  nausea 
and  vomiting,  and  the  bowels  are  usually  more  or 
less  out  of  order.  After  a  time,  the  abdomen 
enlarges,  and  becomes  tympanitic,  or  more  or 
less  filled  with  fluid;  and  death  gradually  ensues 
from  debility  and  emaciation,  unless  the  fatal 
issue  is  accelerated  by  an  acute  inflammatory 
attack.  Little  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  treat¬ 
ment,  especially  in  the  tubercular  form,  further 
than  mitigating  the  most  distressing  syinptoms, 
and  possibly  retarding  the  final  issue.  The  fre¬ 
quent  application  of  a  few  leeches  to  the  abdo¬ 
men,  followed  by  warm  poultices,  occasional 
blisters,  attention  to  the  bowels,  which,  if  costive, 
should  be  acted  upon  by  gentle  laxatives,  and  a 
mild,  nourishing,  but  unstimulating  diet,  are 
more  likely  to  be  of  service  than  remedies  of  a 
more  energetic  nature. 

Per'iwinkle  (LiUorinit),  agenus  of  gasteropo- 
dous  mollusks  of  the  order  Pectinibranchiata  and 
family  I.ittonniclw,  having  a  proboscis-shaped 
head,  a  foot  of  moderate  size,  a  single  gill,  and  a 
rudimentary  siphonal  banal;  the  shell  turbinate, 
thick,  with  few  whorls,  and  no  nacreous  lining; 
the  operculum  of  few  whorls. 

Periwinkle  (Vinca),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Apocynaceai,  liavingafive-cleft  calyx, 
and  a  salver-shaped  corolla  bearded  at  the  throat, 
with  five  obliquely  truncated  segments.  The 
leaves  are  opposite  and  evergreen;  the  flowers 
grow  singly  or  in  pairs  from  the  axils  of  the 
leaves. 

Perm,  the  most  eastern  government  of  Euro¬ 
pean  Russia,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Siberia, 
and  on  the  north,  west,  and  south  by  the  Govern¬ 
ments  of  Vologda,  Viatka,  and  Orenburg  respect¬ 
ively.  Area,  12&,210  square  miles.  Pop.  (1379), 
2,439,134. 

Per'mian,  Magne'sian  Limestone,  or  Dias 
group,  is  the  lower  division  of  the  new  red 
sandstone  rocks,  which  were  separated,  chiefly  on 
palaeontological  grounds,  from  the  upper  portion, 
and  being,  in  1841,  without  a  collective  name, 
were  called  Permian  by  Murchison,  because  he 


PERNAMBUCO. 


590 


PERU. 


found  them  largely  developed  in  that  portion  of 
Russia  which  composed  the  ancient  Kingdom  of 
Permia,  or  Biarmia. 

I’ernambu  'co,  or  Recif'e,  the  most  eastern 
seaport  of  Brazil,  stands  at  the  mouths  of  the 
Biberibe  and  Capeberibc,  in  latitude  8°  4'  S., 
longitude  34°  52'  W.,  eighty  miles  south  of  Para- 
hiba.  It  is  the  greatest  sugar-mart  in  Brazil,  and 
is  the  third  in  commercial  importance  of  the 
cities  of  the  Empire.  Pop.,  120,000. 

Pernambuco,  a  maritime  province  of  Brazil,  is 
bounded  on  the  southeast  by  Bahia,  and  Alagoas, 
and  on  the  northwest  by  Piauhi,  Ceara,  and 
Paraliiba.  Area,  50,000  square  miles;  pop., 
850,000. 

Perpendicular,  the  name  given  to  the  style  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  England  which  succeeded 
the  decorated  style.  It  prevailed  from  about  the 
end  of  the  fourteenth  century  to  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  was  thus  contemporary 
with  the  Flamboyant  style  in  France.  These 
styles  have  much  in  common,  but  they  derive 
their  names  from  the  features  peculiar  to  each. 


Nave  of  Winchester  Cathedral  (perpendicular  style). 


Thus,  the  Flamboyant  is  distinguished  by  the 
flowing  lines  of  its  tracery;- while  the  perpendicu¬ 
lar  is  remarkable  for  its  stiff  and  rectilinear  lines. 
The  lines  of  the  window  tracery  are  chiefly  verti¬ 
cal,  and  the  mullions  are  frequently  crossed  by 
horizontal  bars.  The  moldings  are  usually  thin 
and  hard. 

Perry,  an  agreeable  beverage  made  by  fer¬ 
menting  the  juice  of  pears.  It  contains  from 
5  to  9  percent,  of  alcohol. 

Perry,  the  county  seat  of  Houston  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  929. 

Perry,  the  county  seat  of  Taylor  county,  Fla. 
Pop.,  250. 

Perry villc,  the  county  seat  of  Perry  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  456. 

Perryville,  the  county  seat  of  Perry  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Persep'olis  (Persian  city),  the  Greek  transla¬ 
tion  of  the  lost  name  of  the  capital  of  ancient 
Persia  ( Para-Karla ?),  was  situated  on  the  river 
Araxes  (Bendemir),  to  the  east  of  the  River  Medus 
(Polwat,  or  River  of  Murghab),  in  the  plain  of 


Merdusht,  about  thirty-five  miles  tq  the  north¬ 
east  of  Shiraz,  on  the  road  to  Ispahan.  A  number 
of  remarkable  ruins  is  all  that  now  remains  of 
that  city,  with  which,  according  to  ancient 
writers,  no  other  city  could  be  compared  either 
in  beauty  or  in  wealth,  and  which  was  generally 
designated  the  Glory  of  the  East. 

Per'seus,  also  Perses,  the  last  king  of  Mace¬ 
donia,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip  V.,  and  was 
born  in  the  latter  part  of  the  third  century  b.c. 
He  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne  179  b.c., 
and  died  about  165  b.c. 

Perseus,  in  Grecian  Mythology,  the  son  of 
Zeus  and  Danae,  and  grandson  of  Acrisius. 

Per'sia,  called  by  the  natives  Iran,  the  most 
extensive  and  powerful  native  kingdom  of 
Western  Asia,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
great  plain  of  Khiva,  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the 
Trans-Caucasian  provinces  of  Russia;  on  the  east 
by  Bokhara,  Afghanistan,  and  Beloocliistan ;  on 
the  south  by  the  Strait  of  Ormuz  and  the  Persian 
Gulf;  and  on  the  west  by  Asiatic  Turkey.  It 
extends  900  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  700  miles 
from  north  to  south,  and  has  an  area  of  about 
648,000  miles. 

Per'sian  Architecture  is  regarded  as  sup¬ 
plementary  to  and  explanatory  of  that  of  Assyria, 
which,  together  with  the  similar  edifices  in  Egypt, 
is  the  earliest  architecture  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge.  The  buildings  of  Persia  and  Assyria 
closely  resemble  one  another,  and,  owing  to  the 
mode  and  the  materials  in  which  they  were  con¬ 
structed,  their  remains  serve  to  illustrate  and 

r; 


Samples  of  Persian  Columns  and  Capitals. 

complete  each  other’s  history.  In  Assyria,  where 
no  solid  building  materials  exist,  the  walls  are 
composed  of  masses  of  sun-dried  brickwork, 
lined  on  the  inside,  to  a  certain  height  from  the 
floor,  with  large  sculptured -slabs  of  alabaster. 
These  have  been  preserved  to  us  by  the  falling  in 
of  the  heavy  earthen  roofs,  with  which,  as  the 
later  Persian  buildings  explain  to  us,  the  Assyrian 
palaces  were  covered.  The  subjects  usually  are 
large  bulls  with  human  or  lions’  heads  ;  priests 
with  human  bodies,  and  eagles’  or  lions’  heads, 
performing  religious  service  before  the  “sacred 
tree.”  The  Assyrian  remains  are  all  of  palace- 
temples,  buildings  somewhat  resembling  the 
Egyptian  temples  (which  were  also  palaces);  and 
many  of  the  sculptures  represent  the  exploits  of 
the  king  in  war  and  in  peace. 

Persian  Gulf,  an  arm  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
which  penetrates  between  Arabia  and  Persia  to 
the  extent  of  650  miles  in  a  general  northwesterly 
direction.  Its  breadth  varies  from  55  miles  at  the 
mouth  to  250  miles,  and  the  area  is  estimated  at 
117,300  square  miles,  from  which  about  1,930 
square  miles  must  be  subtracted  for  the  islands, 
which  are  scattered  over  the  western  half,  or  lie 
close  inshore  along  the  eastern  side. 

Persian  Powder,  a  preparation  of  the  flowers 
of  the  composite  plant,  Pyrethrum  carneum  or 
roseinn,  which  are  dried  and  pulverized.  This 
powder  has  wonderful  efficacy  in  destroying  nox¬ 
ious  insects. 

Person  (Lat.  persona,  a  mask),  has  come,  from 
its  original  signification,  to  be  applied  to  the  in¬ 
dividual  wearing  the  mask,  and  thus  to  mean  in 


general  an  individual,  or  a  numerically  distinct 
being. 

Personifica'tion  (was  called  by  the  Greeks 
IIpo6oTton£ia,  Prosopopoeia)  is  a  figure  of  rhet¬ 
oric  by  which  inanimate  objects,  or  mere  abstract 
conceptions,  are  invested  with  the  forms  and  at¬ 
tributes  of  conscious  life. 

Perspective  (Lat.  perspicio,  I  look  through);  is 
the  art  representing  natural  objects  upon  a  plane 
surface  in  such  a  manner  that  the  representation 
shall  effect  the  eye  in  the  same  way  as  the  objects 
themselves.  The  distance  and  position  of  objects 
affect  both  their  distinctness  and  apparent  form, 
giving  rise  to  a  subdivision  of  perspective  into 
linear  perspective,  which,  as  its  name  denotes, 
considers  exclusively  the  effect  produced  by  the 
position  and  distance  of  the  observer  upon  the 
apparent  form  and  grouping  of  objects;  while 
atrial  perspective  confines  itself  to  their  distinct¬ 
ness,  as  modified  by  distance  and  light. 

Perth,  a  city,  royal,  municipal,  and  parlia¬ 
mentary  burgh,  and  capital  of  the  county  of  the 
same  name,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
ray,  forty-five  miles  north-northwest  of  Edin¬ 
burgh.  Pop,  (1881),  28,948. 

Perth,  The  Five  Articles  of,  memorable  in 
the  ecclesiastical  history  of  Scotland,  were  five 
articles  agreed  upon  in  a  meeting  of  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  convened  at 
Perth,  by  command  of  James  VI.,  on  Aug.  25, 
1618.  These  articles  enjoined  kneeling  at  the 
Lord’s  Supper,  the  observance  of  Christmas, 
Good  Friday,  Easter,  and  Pentacost,  and  con¬ 
firmation,  and  sanctioned  the  private  administra¬ 
tion  of  baptism  and  of  the  Lord’s  Supper. 

Perth  Amboy,  a  suburban  resort  in  Middlesex 
county,  N.  J.  Pop.,  6,350. 

Perthshire,  one  of  the  most  important  coun¬ 
ties  in  Scotland,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by 
the  shires  of  Stirling  and  Clackmannan;  on  the 
north  by  Inverness  and  Aberdeen;  on  the  west  by 
Argyle  and  Dumbarton;  and  on  the  east  by  For¬ 
far,  Fife,  and  Kinross.  Its  area  is  2,834  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  128,985. 

Pertiuax,  IIelvitts,  Roman  Emperor,  was 
born,  according  to  Dio  Cassius,  at  Alba-Pompeia, 
a  Roman  colony  of  Liguiria,  Aug.  1,  126  a.  d. 
He  was  assassinated  in  192. 

Perturba'tions,  in  Physical  Astronomy,  are 
the  disturbances  produced  in  the  simple  elliptic 
motion  of  one  heavenly  body  about  another,  by 
the  action  of  a  third  body,  or  by  the  non  spher¬ 
icity  of  the  principal  body.  Thus,  for  instance, 
were  there  no  bodies  in  space  except  the  earth  and 
moon,  the  moon  would  describe  accurately  an 
ellipse  about  the  earth’s  center  as  focus,  and  its 
radius-vector  would  pass  over  equal  areas  in  equal 
times;  but  only  if  both  bodies  be  homogeneous 
and  truly  spherical,  or  have  their  constituent 
matter  otherwise  so  arranged  that  they  may  at¬ 
tract  each  other  as  if  each  were  collected  at  some 
definite  point  of  its  mass.  The  oblateness  of  the 
earth’s  figure,  therefore,  produces  perturbations 
in  what  would  otherwise  be  the  fixed  elliptic 
orbit  of  the  moon. 

Peru',  an  important  maritime  Republic  of 
South  America,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Ecua¬ 
dor,  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific,  on  the  south  and 
southeast  by  Bolivia,  and  on  the  east  by  Brazil. 
It  lies  in  latitude  3°  25' — 21°  30'  S.,  and  in  longi¬ 
tude  68'-' — 81°  20'  W.  Its  area  is  above  500,000 
square  miles;  and  according  to  a  census  made  in 
1876.  the  population  is  2,720,735,  not  including 
wild  Indians.  The  islands  on  the  Peruvian  coast, 
although  valuable,  are  extremely  few  in  number, 
and  small  in  extent  ,  a>  d  most  of  them  are  now  held 
by  Chili.  The  largest  of  them,  LobosdeTierra,  is 
5  miles  long  by  2  miles  broad,  and  the  others,  lying 
30  miles  southwest,  are  much  smaller  On  their 
eastern  sides,  they  are  covered  with  guano,  and  the 
quantity  on  the  whole  group,  when  it  began  to  be 
exported  from  them,  was  stated  to  be  4,000,000 
tons.  The  Islands  of  Macabi  and  Guanlope, 
near  the  Lobos,  were  originally  calculated  to  con¬ 
tain  2,280,000  tons  of  guano;  but  the  guano  ex¬ 
ported  has  very  greatly  exceeded  that  amount, 
and  in  1872  it  was  calculated  that  there  were  still 
750,000  tons  of  guano  on  the  former  and  500,000 
tons  on  the  latter.  The  Chinclia  Islands,  three  in 
number,  and  the  most  famous  of  the  whole,  which 
began  to  supply  Europe  in  1841,  had  very  little 
guano  left  on  them  in  1873.  They  are  called  the 


PERU. 


591 


PETERSBURG. 


North  Middle  and  South  Islands,  respectively. 
The  grand  physical  feature  of  the  country,  and 
the  source  of  all  its  mineral  wealth,  is  the  great 
mountain  system  of  the  Andes.  The  highest  tem¬ 
perature  observed  at  Lima  in  summer  is  85p,  the 
lowest  in  winter  is  61°  F.  The  wealth  and  re¬ 
sources  of  Peru  consist,  not  i  i  manufactures,  but 
entirely  in  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  pro¬ 
ducts  The  Andes  abound  in  mines  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  bismuth,  etc.  In  addition  to  the 
guano  another  important  article  of  national  wealth 
is  nitrate  of  soda,  which  is  found  in  immense  quan¬ 
tities  in  the  Province  of  Tarapaca.  Here,  also, 
great  quantities  of  borax  are  found.  The  vegeta¬ 
ble  productions  of  Peru  are  of  every  variety,  em¬ 
bracing  all  the  products  both  of  temperate  and 
tropical  climes.  In  1532  Pizarro  invaded  Peru, 
and  succeeded  after  hard  fighting  in  reducing 
the  country  to  a  province  of  Spain.  Peru  was 
the  last  of  the  Spanish  South  American  possessions 
to  set  up  the  standard  of  independence.  In 
August,  1820,  a  rebel  army,  under  General  San 
Martin,  one  of  the  liberators  of  Chili,  sailed  for 
Peru,  and  after  a  number  of  successes  both  on 
sea  and  land,  in  which  the  patriots  were  most 
effectively  assisted  by  English  volunteers,  the 
independence  of  the  country  was  proclaimed 
July  28,  1821.  In  1879,  Peru,  as  the  ally  of 
Bolivia,  became  involved  in  war  with  Chili.  The 
war  was  carried  on  desultorily  in  1879  and  1880; 
Arica  was  beseiged  and  taken;  the  most  power¬ 
ful  Peruvian  iron-clads  were  sunk  or  captured. 
Finally,  in  1881,  Callao  and  Lima  were  taken,  and 
occupied  by  the  Chilians.  The  victors  imposed 
severe  terms  upon  the  vanquished;  and  this  and 
the  anarchical  condition  in  which  Peru  was  left, 
long  postponed  the  settlement  of  a  definitive 
peace. 

Peril,  an  important  town  in  La  Salle  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Peril,  the  county  seat  of  Miami  county,  Ind. 
Pop.,  7,200. 

Perugi'no,  a  celebrated  Italian  painter,  whose 
real  name  was  Pietko  Vannucci,  was  born  at 
Citta  della  Pieve  in  Umbria,  about  1446.  He 
died  at  Castello  di  Fontignano,  near  Perugia,  in 
1524. 

Peruvian  Bark.  See  Cinchona. 

Pesliaw'er,  or  Pesiiawur,  an  important  town, 
near  the  northwest  “scientific  ”  frontier  of  India, 
capital  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  eighteen 
miles  east  af  the  eastern  extremity  of  Khyber 
Pass,  and  150  miles  east-southeast  of  Cnbul.  It 
is  defended  by  a  bastioned  wall,  and  commanded 
by  a  fort,  the  fear  of  wdiicli  prevents  internal  dis¬ 
turbances.  At  the  commencement  of  the  present 
century,  Peshawer  had  100,000  inhabitants. 

Pesh'ito,  or  rather  Pesiiit'to  (Syr.  not,  as 
generally  supposed,  simple,  faithful,  scil. 
version,  but  the  explained,  i.  e, ,  translated, 
Bible),  is  the  name  given  to  the  authorized 
Syriac  version  of  the  Old,  and  the  greatest  part 
of  the  New  Testament.  This  version  holds 
among  the  Syrian  Christians  the  same  place  as 
the  Vulgate  in  the  Roman,  and  the  “Authorized 
Version”  in  the  English  Church. 

Pestalozzi,  Johann  IIeiniuch,  philanthropist 
and  sociologist,  was  born  at  Zurich,  Jan.  12, 
1745.  Almost  all  Pestalozzi’s  methods  are  now 
substantially  adopted  by  the  instructors  of  ele¬ 
mentary  teachers  in  the  normal  schools  of  Europe, 
and  to  no  man  perhaps  has  primary  instruction 
been  so  largely  indebted.  He  died  in  1827  at 
Brugg,  in  the  Canton  of  Basel,  overwhelmed  with 
mortifications  and  disappointments. 

Pesth,  the  most  populous  and  important  com¬ 
mercial  city  of  Hungary,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube,  opposite  Buda,  and  171  miles  east-south¬ 
east  of  Vienna  by  railway.  It  occupies  a  low 
and  level  site,  and  contrasts  strongly  with  the 
antique,  picturesque,  and  rock-built  Buda,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river.  The  two  cities  are  con¬ 
nected  by  a  magnificent  suspension  bridge.  Pop. 
of  Buda-Pesth,  370,000. 

Pet 'chary,  the  popular  name  of  a  number  of 
species  of  the  genus  Ti/rannux,  sometimes  ranked 
with  the  shrikes  (Laniadce),  and  sometimes  with 
the  fly-catchers  (Muxeicapiclte).  The  name  seems 
to  be  derived  from  the  cry  of  the  gray  petchary 
(T.  dominicermx),  a  bird  very  common  in  the 
warm  parts  of  America. 

Petec'hia;,  This  term  is  given  to  spots  of  a 


dusky  crimson  or  purple  color,  quite  flat,  with  a 
well-defined  margin,  and  unaffected  by  pressure, 
which  closely  resemble  tf  a-bites.  These  spots 
result  from  a  minute  extravasation  of  blood 
beneath  the  cuticle.  They  occur  most  frequently 
on  the  back,  at  the  bend  of  the  elbow',  and  in  the 
groin.  They  indicate  an  altered  slate  of  the 
blood,  and  are  often  symptoms  of  very  serious 
diseases,  as  of  typhus  fever,  plague,  scurvy,  etc. 
They  likewise  occur  in  very  severe  cases  of  small¬ 
pox,  measles,  and  scarlet  fever,  when  their  pres¬ 
ence  must  be  regarded  as  indicative  of  extreme 
danger. 

Peter  St.,  apostle,  named  originally  Simon, 
was  a  native  of  Betlisaida,  on  the  Lake  of  Gen- 
nesaret.  His  father  was  called  Jonas;  and  the 
name  by  which  Peter  is  known  in  Christian 
history  was  given  to  him  by  our  Lord,  who 
changed  his  name  of  origin  (Bar-Jona)  into 
Cephas,  a  Syro-Chaldaic  word,  which  means 
“  rock”  or  stone,  and  for  which  Tier  pa,  Petra, 
or,  in  the  masculine  form  IJerpui,  Putros,  is  the 
Greek  equivalent.  He  was  a  fisherman  by  occu¬ 
pation,  and,  together  with  his  brother  Andrew, 
was  actually  engaged  in  this  occupation  on  the 
Sea  of  Galilee  when  our  Lord  called  both  to  be 
his  disciples,  promising  to  “  make  them  fishers  of 
men.”  It  is  plain  from  the  gospel  narrative  that 
lie  wais  regarded  by  our  Lord  with  special  favor 
and  affection.  The  last  incident  of  Peter’s  life 
supplied  by  the  Scripture  narrative  is  his  presence 
in  the  council  of  Jerusalem,  49  a.d.  Of  his  sub¬ 
sequent  career,  our  only  knowledge  is  derived 
from  tradition.  A  tradition  which,  until  the 
sixteenth  century,  met  general  acceptance,  re¬ 
ports  that  he  preached  at  Rome,  that  he  took  up 
his  residence  there  as  bishop,  and  that  he  there 
suffered  martyrdom.  This  tradition  is  the  main 
foundation  of  the  Roman  claim  to  supremacy 
in  the  church.  Peter  was  sentenced  to  be  cru¬ 
cified,  and,  according  to  the  tradition  (preserved 
by  Eusebius  from  Origen),  prayed  that  he 
might  be  crucified  with  his  head  downward,  in 
order  that  his  death  might  exceed  in  ignominy 
that  of  his  Divine  Master. 

Peter,  Epistles  General  of,  the  name  given 
to  two  Epistles  contained  in  the  canon  of  the  New 
Testament.  They  are  called  general  because 
they  are  not  addressed  to  particular  churches  or 
persons,  like  those  of  St.  Paul;  but  (as  in  the  case 
of  the  first  Epistle)  to  all  the  Christians  scattered 
throughout  Asia  Mi  or,  or  (as  in  the  case  of  the 
second)  to  the  entire  body  of  Christians  without 
exception.  The  first  Epistle  is  generally  admitted 
genuine.  The  second  is  believed  to  be  (by  best 
authorities)  doubtful,  if  not  positively  spurious. 

Peter-pence,  the  name  given  to  a  tribute 
which  was  collected  in  several  of  the  western 
kingdoms,  and  offered  to  the  Roman  Pontiff,  in 
reverence  of  the  memory  of  St.  Peter,  whose 
successor  that  bishop  is  believed  by  Catholics  to 
be. 

Peter  the  Hermit,  the  first  mover  of  the 
great  mediaeval  drama  of  the  Crusades,  was  of 
gentle  birth,  and  a  native  of  Amiens,  where  he 
was  born  about  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century. 
First  a  soldier,  then  a  Monk,  he  returned  from  a 
pilgrimage  to  Palestine  to  arouse  the  whole  of 
Christendom  to  an  effort  to  recover  the  Holy  City. 
Ilis  mission,  beginning  in  France,  was  pursued 
with  so  much  vehemence  and  his  rude  eloquence 
attended  with  so  much  power  that  an  enormous 
horde  of  undisciplined  men,  women,  and  children 
followed  him  through  Europe  to  the  East,  where 
after  more  than  decimation,  they  captured  Jeru¬ 
salem  in  1099.  He  died  in  his  monastery  at  Huy 
in  France,  in  1115. 

Peter  (Don  Pedro)  the  Cruel,  Kingof  Castile 
and  Leon,  was  the  son  of  Alfonso  XI.  and  Maria 
of  Portugal,  and  was  born  at  Burgos,  Aug.  30, 
1334.  He  was  killed  by  his  brother  in  1369. 

Peter  1.,  Alexievitch,  Czar  of  Russia,  gener¬ 
ally  denominated  Peter  tiie  Great,  was  theson 
of  the  Czar  Alexei  Mikailovitch  by  his  second 
wife,  Natalia Naryskine,  and  was  born  at  Moscow, 
June  9,  1672.  His  father,  Alexei,  died  in  1676, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  eldest  son,  Feodor, 
Peter’s  half-brother.  This  prince,  however,  died 
in  1682  without  issue,  after  naming  Peter  as  his 
successor,  to  the  exclusion  of  his  own  full  brot  her, 
Ivan.  This  step  immediately  provoked  an  insur¬ 
rection,  and  it  was  only  after  great  hardships  and 


years  of  bloodshed  and  strife,  that  Peter  succeeded 
in  establishing  himself  on  the  throne.  He  awoke 
to  the  fact  that  his  empire  was  a  barbarian  power, 
and  at  once  set  about  to  reorganize  it  on  the  plan 
of  civilized  Europe.  He  founded  St.  Petersburg, 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  empire,  organized  the 
army,  established  a  navy,  added  territory  to  his 
empire  by  conquest,  imported  men  of  science,  and 
established  schools  among  his  people.  He  was  of 
a  savage,  brutal  nature,  however,  and  ruled  with 
an  iron  hand.  He  fell  a  victim  to  his  own 
excesses,  dying  in  1725. 

Peter  IL,  Alexeivitch,  Czar  of  Russia,  was 
born  Oct.  23,  1715,  at  St.  Petersburg.  He  died 
at  St.  Petersburg,  Jan.  29,  1730.  During  his 
reign,  the  three  Caspian  Provinces,  Asterabad, 
Gliilan,  and  Mazanderan,  which  had  been  seized 
by  Peter  the  Great,  were  recovered  by  Persia. 

Peter  IlI.,Feodorovitcli,  Czar  of  Russia,  was 
born  at  Kiel,  March  4,  1728,  and  on  Nov.  18, 
1742,  was  declared  by  the  Czarina  Elizabeth, 
her  successor  on  the  throne  of  Russia.  He  abdi¬ 
cated  the  crown  on  July  10, 1762,  and  on  the  14th  of 
the  same  month  was  put  to  death  by  Orlof,  to 
secure  the  safety  of  the  conspirators. 

Peterborough,  an  episcopal  city  and  parlia¬ 
mentary  borough  of  Northamptonshire,  stands  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Nen,  thirty-seven  miles  north¬ 
east  of  Northampton  and  seventy-six  miles  north- 
northwest  of  London.  Pop.  (1881),  22,394. 

Peterloo  Massacre,  the  name  popularly  given 
to  the  dispersal  of  a  large  meeting  by  armed  force 
in  St.  Peter’s  Field,  Manchester,  England,  Mon¬ 
day,  July  16,  1819.  The  assemblage,  consisting 
chiefly  of  bodies  of  operatives  from  different  parts 
of  Lancashire,  was  called  to  consider  the  question 
of  parliamentary  reform,  and  the  chair,  on  open 
hustings,  was  occupied  by  Mr.  Henry  Hunt  The 
dispersal  took  place  by  order  of  the  magistrates. 
Five  or  six  persons  were  killed  and  many 
wounded. 

Peter’s,  St.,  Ciiurcii,  at  Rome,  is  the  largest 
cathedral  in  Christendom  It  stands  on  the  site 
of  a  much  older  basilica,  founded  by  Constantine, 
a.d.  306,  over  the  reputed  grave  of  St.  Peter,  and 
near  the  spot  where  he  is  said  to  have  suffered 
martyrdom.  This  basilica  was  of  great  size  and 
magnificence;  but  had  fallen  into  decay,  when 
Pope  Nicholas  V.,  in  1450,  resolved  to  erect  a  new 
cathedral,  worthy  of  the  dignity  and  importance 
of  the  Roman  pontificate,  then  in  the  zenith  of  its 
power.  A  design  was  accordingly  prepared  by 
Ilosselini  on  a  very  grand  scale,  and  the  tribune 
was  begun,  when  the  Pope  died.  The  new  build¬ 
ing  remained  neglected  for  about  half  a  century, 
when  Julius  II.  resolved  to  carry  out  the  build¬ 
ing,  and  employ^  d  Bramaute,  then  celebrated  as 
an  architect,  to  make  a  new  design.  This  design 
still  exists.  The  foundation  stone  was  laid,  in 
1506;  and  the  works  carried  on  with  great  activity 
till  the  death  of  the  Pope  in  1513.  Bramaute, 
who  died  the  following  year,  was  succeeded  by 
Baldussare  Peruzzi.  Almost  every  architect  who 
was  employed  during  the  long  course  of  time 
required  for  the  erection  of  this  great  edifice,  pro¬ 
posed  a  new  design.  That  of  San  Gallo,  who 
succeeded  Peruzzi,  is  one  of  the  best,  and  is  still 
preserved.  It  was  not  till  his  death  in  1546, 
when  the  superintendence  devolved  on  Michael 
Angelo,  then  seventy-two  years  of  age,  that  much 
progress  was  made.  He  designed  the  dome;  and 
had  the  satisfaction,  before  his  death  in  his  nine¬ 
tieth  year  (1564),  of  seeing  the  most  arduous  part 
of  the  task  completed;  and  he  left  such  complete 
models  of  the  remainder  that  it  was  carried  out 
exactly  in  conformity  with  his  design  by  his  suc¬ 
cessors,  Vignola  and  Giacomo  della  Porta,  and 
successfully  terminated  by  the  latter  in  1590,  in 
the  pontificate  of  Sixtus  V.  The  design  of  Michael 
Angelo  was  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  but  the 
building  was  actually  completed  as  originally 
designed  by  Bramaute  as  a  Latin  cross,  under 
Paul  V.,  by  the  architect  Carlo  Maderno. 

Petersburg,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
Union  as  follows; — 1.  A  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
Virginia,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Appomatox 
river,  twelve  miles  above  its  junction  with  James 
river,  at  City  Point.  It  is  twenty-three  miles 
south  of  Richmond.  In  the  campaign  of  1864-5 
Lieutenant-General  Grant,  commander  of  the 
Federal  army,  besieged  Petersburgh,  and,  finally 
after  long  and  severe  fighting,  compelled  the  sur- 


PETITION  OF  RIGHTS. 


592 


PHILADELPHIA. 


render  of  Lee’s  army  at  Appomatox  Courthouse, 
a  few  miles  distant. — 2.  The  county  seat  of  Grant 
county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  400. — 3.  The  county  seat 
of  Menard  county,  Ill.  Pop.,  3,100. — 4.  The 
county  seat  of  Pike  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  1,593. 

Petition  of  Rights,  a  declaration  of  certain 
rights  and  privileges  of  the  subject  obtained  from 
King  Charles  I.  in  his  third  Parliament.  It  was 
so  called  because  the  Commons  stated  their 
grievances  in  the  form  of  a  petition,  refusing  to 
accord  the  supplies  till  its  prayer  was  granted. 

Petrarca,  Francesco,  the  first  and  greatest 
lyric  poet  of  Italy,  was  the  son  of  a  Florentine 
notary  named  Petracco,  who  belonged  to'  the 
same  political  faction  as  the  poet  Dante,  and  went 
into  exile  along  with  him  and  others  in  1302. 
Petracco  took  up  his  residence  at  Arezzo,  and 
here  the  future  poet  was  born  in  the  month  of 
July,  1304.  lie  was  found  dead  in  his  library  on 
the  morning  of  July  18,  1374,  his  head  dropped 
on  a  book. 

Pet '  rel  ( Proctllaria),  a  genus  of  birds,  some¬ 
times  ranked  among  Laridce,  and  sometimes  con¬ 
stituted  into  a  separate  family,  Procellaridce. 
They  possess  great  power  of  wing,  and  are  among 
the  most  strictly  oceanic  of  birds,  being  often 
seen  at  great  distances  from  land.  Among 
the  ProccUaridce  are  reckoned  the  fulmars,  shear¬ 
waters,  etc.,  and  the  small  birds  designated 
petrels,  of  which  the  stormy  petrel  is  a  familiar 
example. 

Petri  fac  tion,  a  name  given  to  organic  re¬ 
mains  found  in  the  strata  of  the  earth,  because 
they  are  generally  more  or  less  mineralized  or 
made  into  stone. 

Petro'ica,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family 
Sylvidce,  natives  of  Australia,  nearly  allied  to  the 
redbreast,  and  to  which  its  familiar  name  robin 
has  been  given  by  the  colonists. 

PetroPogy  (Gr.  it erpa,  a  rock;  A oyoS,  a 
science),  a  term  recently  introduced  into  geology 
to  designate  particular  aspects  of  the  study  of 
rocks,  apart  from  their  organic  contents. 

PetuTiia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Solarutceie,  natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
America.  They  are  herbaceous  plants,  very 
nearly  allied  to  tobacco. 

Pewter,  a  common  and  very  useful  alloy  of 
the  metals,  tin  and  lead.  Two  other  kinds  of 
pewter  have  a  more  compound  character.  Com¬ 
mon,  or  ley-pewter,  consists  of  4  parts  of  tin 
and  1  part  of  lead;  plate-pewter  is  made  of  100 
parts  of  tin,  8  parts  of  antimony,  2  parts 
each  of  bismuth  and  copper;  another  kind,  called 
trifle,  is  composed  of  83  parts  of  tin  and  17  parts 
of  antimony. 

Pfor'zlieim,  an  important  manufacturing 
town  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  on  the 
northern  border  of  the  Black  Forest. 

Phagedae'na  (Gr.  from  cpaysiv,  phagein,  to 
eat  or  corrode),  designates  a  variety  of  ulceration 
in  which  there  is  much  infiltration,  and  at  the 
same  time  rapid  destruction  of  the  affected  part. 
The  sore  presents  an  irregular  outline,  and  a 
yellowish  surface;  it  gives  off  a  profuse  bloody  or 
icliorish  discharge,  and  is  extremely  painful.  It 
usually  attacks  persons  whose  constitutions  are 
vitiated  by  scrofula,  by  congenital  syphilis,  by 
the  abuse  of  mercury,  by  intemperance,  etc.  It 
not  very  infrequently  appears  in  the  .throat  after 
scarlatina  in  a  severe  form.  If  relief  is  not 
afforded  by  the  internal  administration  of  opium 
(to  allay  the  pain),  and  of  quinia,  or  some  other 
preparation  of  cinchona,  wine,  beef-tea,  etc.,  to 
improve  the  tone  of  the  constitution,  together 
with  astringent  and  sedative  local  applications, 
subacetate  of  lead,  kino,  tannate  of  iron,  etc.,  re¬ 
course  must  be  had  to  the  destruction  of  the  part 
by  chloride  of  zinc  (Canquoin’s  paste)  or  in  some 
cases  actual  cautery  (white  hot  iron).  Nitric  acid 
should  not  be  used,  as  it  frequently  induces 
phagedaena,  and  care  should  be  taken  that  all 
parts  of  the  ulcer  are  cauterized,  else  the  un¬ 
cauterized  portions  will  speedily  reinfect  the 
whole  sore. 

Phalan'gidse,  a  family  of  Trachearian  arach- 
nida,  popularly  called  Harvest-men,  some  of  the 
species  appearing  in  great  numbers  in  fields  during 
the  hay  and  corn  harvests.  They  resemble  spiders 
in  their  general  form. 

Pha'lanx,  the  ancient  Greek  formation  for 
heavy  infantry,  which  won  for  itself  a  reputation 


of  invincibility,  may  be  described  as  a  line  of 
parallel  columns,  rendered  by  its  depth  and  solid¬ 
ity  capable  of  penetrating  any  line  of  troops.  The 
oldest  phalanx  was  the  Lacedaemonian  or  Spartan, 
in  which  the  soldiers  stood  eight  deep. 

Phal'lus,  a  representation  of  the  male  gener¬ 
ative  organs,  used  at  certain  Dionysian  festivals 
in  ancient  Greece,  as  a  symbol  of  the  powers  of 
procreation.  The  bearers  of  the  phallus,  which 
generally  consisted  of  red  leather,  and  was  at¬ 
tached  to  an  enormous  pole,  were  the  Phallo- 
phoroi.  Phalli  were  on  those  occasions  worn  as 
ornaments  round  the  neck,  or  attached  to  the 
body.  Phalli  were  often  attached  to  statues,  and 
of  a  prodigious  size;  sometimes  they  were  even 
movable. 

Phallus,  a  genus  of  fungi  of  the  division 
Gasteromycetes,  egg-shaped,  the  outer  covering  at 
length  bursting  to  permit  the  growth  of  a  stem, 
the  receptacle  which  produces  the  spores,  and 
which  is  surmounted  by  a  rudimentary  pileus. 

Phanerogamous  (Gr.  qxxvepoi,  phaneros, 
manifest;  ydpt/,  game,  marriage)  Plants,  or 
Ph.enogamous  (Gr.  phaino,  to  show)  Plants, 
are  those  plants  which  have  true  flowers,  and  in 
which  the  sexual  organs  (stamens  and  pistils)  are 
distinctly  notable. 

Pha'raoli.  The  name  given  by  the  Hebrews 
to  the  monarch  ruling  in  Egypt  at  the  time,  in 
the  same  manner  as  Caesar  was  applied  to  the 
Roman  emperors,  and  as  Khan  is  to  the  Tartar 
and  Shah  to  the  Persian  rulers.  It  is  uncertain 
how  many  Egyptian  kings  bore  this  title. 

Phar'  isees  (Perishin  or  Perushim,  separatists), 
a  so-called  Jewish  sect,  more  correctly,  how¬ 
ever,  a  certain  Jewish  school,  which  probably 
dates  as  a  distinct  body  or  party  from  the  time  of 
the  Syrian  troubles,  and  whose  chief  tendency  it 
was  to  resist  all  foreign,  chiefly  Greek,  influences 
that  threatened  to  undermine  the  sacred  religion 
of  their  fathers. 

Pharmacopoe'ia.  This  term  has  been  applied 
to  various  works,  consisting  for  the  most  part  of 
(1)  a  list  of  the  articles  of  the  materia  medica, 
whether  simple  or  compound,  with  their  charac¬ 
ters,  and  the  tests  for  the  determination  of  their 
purity;  and  (2)  a  collection  of  approved  receipts  or 
prescriptions,  together  with  the  processes  for  arti¬ 
cles  in  the  materia  medica,  obtained  by  chemical 
operations. 

Phar'ynx  (Gr.  cpapvv |),  is  the  name  of  that 
part  of  the  alimentary  canal  which  lies  behind  the 
nose,  mouth, and 
larynx.  The 
pharynx  is  com¬ 
posed  of  an  ex¬ 
ternal  muscular 
coat;  a  middle 
fibrous  coat 
called  the  pha¬ 
ryngeal  aponeur¬ 
osis,  thick  above 
where  the  mus¬ 
cular  coat  is  ab 
sent,  and  gradu¬ 
ally  thinning  as 
it  descends;  and 
a  mucous  coat, 
continuous  with 
the  mucous 
membrane  of  the 
mouth  and  nos¬ 
trils.  When  the 
food,  after  being 
sufficiently  mas¬ 
ticated  and 
mixed  with  sali¬ 
va,  is  thrown, by 
the  action  of  the  External  View  of  the  Muscles  of 
.  ,  . ,  Pharynx, 

ongue,  in  O  it  ^  orbicularis  oris  muscle;  2,  the 
pharynx,  tneiat-  Buccinator  muscle;  3,  portion  of 
lower  jaw,  part  of  which  is  cut 
away ;  4.pterygomaxillary  ligament; 
5,  the  hyoid  bone;  6,  the  thyroid 
cartilage;  7,  the  bicoid  cartilage;  8, 
tlie  trachea;  9,  the  iesophagus,  with 
the  recurrent  laryngeal  nerve  lying 
between  it  and  the  trachea;  10,  the 
stylo-pharyngeus  muscle;  11,  12. 13, 
the  superior,  middle,  and  inferior 
constrictor  muscles. 


ter  is  drawn  up¬ 
ward  and  di¬ 
lated  in  differ¬ 
ent  directions; 
the  elevat  or  mus¬ 
cles  (the  stylo¬ 
pharyngeal  and 
palatopharyn¬ 
geal)  then  relax,  and  the  pharynx  descends;  and 
as  soon  as  the  morsel  is  fairly  within  the  sphere  of 
action  of  the  constrictor  muscles,  they  succes¬ 


sively  contract  upon  it,  and  gradually  pass  it  on¬ 
ward  to  the  oesophagus.  Independently  of  its 
importance  in  the  act  of  swallowing,  the  pharynx 
exerts  an  influence  on  the  modulation  of  the 
voice,  especially  in  the  production  of  the  higher 
notes. 

Pha'  ros,  a  rocky  islet  off  the  coast  of  Egypt, 
which  Alexander  the  Great  connected  with  Alex¬ 
andria  by  the  Heptastadium,  or  Seven  Furlong 
Mole.  The  light-house,  at  its  northeast  point, 
commenced  by  Ptolemy  I.,  and  finished  about 
280  b.c.,  was  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  world. 

Phasco'gale,  a  genus  of  marsupial  quadrupeds, 
of  which  one  species,  P.  penicillata,  about  the  size 
of  a  rat,  gray,  with  long,  soft  hair,  and  a  long 
tufted  tail,  is  common  in  most  parts  of  Australia, 
lives  chiefly  in  the  hollows  of  decayed  trees,  and 
preys  on  small  animals  of  every  kind. 

Phasian'idai,  a  family  of  gallinaceous  birds,  in¬ 
cluding  pheasants,  argus,  Macartney  cock,  fowls, 
impeyans,  tragopans,  etc. 

Phas'mid;e(Gr.  epadpd,  phasma,  a  specter),  a 
family  of  orthopterous  insects,  allied  to  Mantidce. 
They  are  insects  of  very  extraordinary  appearance, 
inhabiting  tropical  countries,  and  spending  their 
lives  upon  trees  and  shrubs,  the  tender  shoots  of 
which  they  devour. 

Pheas'ant  ( Phasianus ),  a  genus  of  gallinaceous 
birds  of  the  family  Phasianidce.  The  males  of  all 
the  species  are  birds  of  splendid  plumage;  the 
females  have  shorter  tails  and  dull  or  somber  col¬ 
ors.  They  are  numerous  species,  natives  of  the 
warm  and  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  They  have 
been  imported  into  almost  every  country  of  the 
world,  and  form  for  sportsmen  the  noblest  game 
among  the  birds. 

Pheid  'ias  (Lat.  Phidias ),  son  of  Charmides,  the 
greatest  sculptor  of  ancient  Greece,  born  at  Athens, 
probably  between  500-490  B.c.  His  death  took 
place  about  432  b.c. 

Phe  'nyl  and  The  Pheny  'He  Group.  Phenyl 

(CelL)  is  an  organic  radicle,  which  has  not  yet 
been  isolated.  Its  most  important  compounds  are: 
(1)  Carbolic  or  plienic  acid  (C6H80),  known  also 
as  phenol,  hydrated  oxide  of  phenyl,  and  phenyl- 
alcohol.  (2)  Hydride  of  phenyl  (CcHe),  known 
also  as  benzole,  benzine,  and  phene.  (3)  Phenyla- 
mine  or  phenylia  (CcHvN),  better  known  under 
the  name  of  aniline,  one  of  the  most  important  of 
the  artificially  formed  bases. 

Pliiga'lian  Marbles,  the  name  now  given  to 
the  sculptured  frieze  taken  from  the  cella  of  the 
temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigalia  in  Arcadia,  in  1814, 
and  transferred  to  the  British  Museum. 

Philadelphia,  the  chief  city  and  seaport  of 
Pennsylvania,  is  the  second  city  in  territorial  area 
and  in  population  and  commercial  importance  in 
America.  It  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Delaware  river,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill, 
on  a  plain  2  to  4  miles  wide  between  the  two 
rivers;  latitude  39°  56’  59"  N.,  longitude  75°  9'  54" 
W.;  125  miles  northeast  of  Washington,  eighty- 
seven  miles  southwest  of  New  York.  Its  greatest 
length  is  22  miles,  its  breadth  is  from  5  to  10  miles, 
and  its  area  130  miles.  The  city  is  neatly  but 
plainly  built  of  red  bricks  and  marble,  with  fine 
squares  laid  out  as  parks.  Chestnut  street  is  the 
fashionable  thoroughfare.  The  picturesque  emi¬ 
nence  of  Fairmount,  with  its  reservoirs  of  water 
raised  from  the  Schuylkill,  and  the  Laurel  Hill  and 
other  ornamental  cemeteries,  are  favorite  public 
resorts.  Among  the  finest  edifices  are  the  Girard 
(formerly  United  States)  bank,  custom-house, 
mint,  the  Public  Ledger  building,  the  Masonic 
Temple,  the  city  hall,  and  the  buildings  of  the 
Girard  College,  most  of  them  built  of  white  mar¬ 
ble,  the  last,  in  the  Corinthian  style,  having  cost 
$2,000,000.  The  most  noted  building  is  Independ¬ 
ence  Hall,  occupied  in  the  Revolution  of  1776  by 
the  Continental  Congress,  in  which  was  voted  and 
signed  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  The 
Philadelphia  Library,  founded  by  Benjamin 
Franklin,  contains  100,000  volumes,  and  the 
Mercantile  Library  has  135,000.  Philadelphia,  in 
fact,  possesses  some  of  the  most  valuable  libraries 
in  the  United  States.  The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts 
has,  in  connection  with  it,  a  gallery  exhibiting 
upward  of  1,000  pictures.  The  American  Academy 
of  Music  has  a  seating  capacity  of  about  3,000. 
For  the  Centennial  Exhibition,  held  here  in  1876, 
a  main  building,  1,880  feet  long,  with  numerous 


PHILADELPHIA. 


593 


PHOENICIA. 


and  extensive  supplementary  halls  and  galleries, 
was  erected  in  Fairmount  Park  at  a  cost  of  abort 
$4,500,000.  In  the  same  park  are  the  first  estab¬ 
lished  American  zoological  gardens,  opened  in 
1874.  The  medical  schools  of  Philadelphia  have 
long  been  held  in  high  esteem.  There  are  six 
medical  colleges;  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
lias  fifty  professors  and  800  students  in  the  medical 
department  alone,  and  comprises  six  faculties. 
There  are  several  other  colleges;  more  than  forty 
hospitals — for  the  insane,  for  deaf-mutes,  for  the 
blind,  and  others;  besides  literary,  scientific,  and 
art  associations.  The  Girard  College,  a  free  school 
for  orphans,  founded  by  Stephen  Girard,  supports 
and  educates  550  boys,  on  a  foundation  of  $8,000,- 
000.  Of  public  schools,  supported  by  taxation, 
and  governed  by  a  board  of  directors,  there  are 
over  2,000.  Philadelphia  is  the  first  manufactur¬ 
ing  city  in  the  Union,  both  in  the  number  of  per¬ 
sons  employed,  and  the  extent  and  variety  of  its 
manufactures.  Breadstuffs  and  petroleum  are  the 
chief  exports;  and  Philadelphia  has  several  ship¬ 
building  yards.  The  United  States  has  arsenals 
at  Bridesburg  and  Gray’s  Ferry  Road,  a  navy  yard, 
and  naval  hospital.  Next  to  New  York,  Phila¬ 
delphia  is  the  largest  publishing  center  in  the 
United  States.  Philadelphia  is  often  called  the 
“Quaker  City”  (though  there  are  now  very  few 
Quakers  here)  because  of  its  connection  with  Penn. 
Pop.  (1840),  93,665;  (1870),  674,022;  (1889),  1,050,- 
000.  The  first  American  newspaper,  the  Weekly 
Mercury,  was  printed  here  in  1719.  In  1728  was 
established  the  Gazette,  afterward  edited  by  Frank¬ 
lin.  The  first  Colonial  Congress  met  here  in  1774; 
in  1777  the  town  was  occupied  by  the  British 
forces  under  General  Lord  Howe,  when  the  city 
contained  21,767  inhabitants.  It  was  the  seat  of 
the  United  States  bank,  the  capital  till  1800,  and 
the  first  city  in  America,  until  surpassed  by  New 
York. 

Philadelphia,  the  county  seat  of  Neshoba 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  125. 

Philemon,  Epistle  of  Paul  to,  is  the  shortest 
of  the  four  extant  letters  which  the  apostle  wrote 
from  Rome  during  his  captivity. 

Philip  II.,  King  of  Macedonia,  and  father  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  was  born  at  Pella  in  382  b.c. 
He  subjugated  all  of  Greece,  and  laid  the  founda¬ 
tions  of  the  immense  empire  afterward  built  up 
by  his  son  Alexander.  He  reigned  from  359  to 
336  b.c. ,  in  which  latter  year  he  died. 

Philip  III.,  of  Macedon.  On  the  death  of 
Alexander  the  Great  at  Bab}7 Ion  in  323  b.c.,  the 
army  elected  as  king,  under  the  name  of  Philip 
III.,  Arrhidseus,  son  of  Philip  and  Philinna  of 
Larissa,  one  of  his  many  wives.  He  was  put  to 
death  in  317  b.c. 

Philip  II.,  King  of  Spain,  the  only  son  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  Y.  and  Isabella  of  Portugal,  was 
born  at  Valladolid,  May  21,  1527.  He  was  the 
husband  of  Mary  (Bloody),  Queen  of  England,  and 
attempted  to  subjugate  England  after  her  death 
by  means  of  the  Armada.  He  died  in  1598.  He 
was  a  tyrannical,  sour-tempered  bigot,  and  in  the 
endeavor  to  proselyte  the  Netherlands,  and  some 
of  the  German  States,  deluged  them  with  blood. 

Philip  V.,  King  of  Spain,  and  the  founder  of 
the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  that  country,  was  the 
second  son  of  the  Dauphin  Louis  (son  of  Louis 
XIV.)  of  France,  and  was  born  at  Versailles,  Dec. 
19,  1683. 

Philippe  II.,  better  known  as  Pitilipfe 
Auguste,  King  of  France,  was  the  son  of  Louis 
VII.  and  Alix  of  Champagne,  and  was  born  in 
August,  1165.  He  was  crowned,  in  1179,  during 
the  life  of  his  father,  succeeded  him  in  1180,  and 
proved  one  of  the  greatest  monarchs  of  the  Ca- 
petian  dynasty.  He  died  at  Mantes,  July  14,  1223. 

Philippe  IV.,  surnamed  Le  Bel,  or  “Fair,” 
King  of  France,  the  son  of  Philippe  III.,  King  of 
France,  and  Isabella  of  Aragon,  was  horn  at  Fon¬ 
tainebleau,  in  1268,  and  succeeded  his  father  in 
1285.  _  He  died  Nov.  29,  '.314. 

Philippe  VI.,  of  Valois.  King  of  France,  was 
the  son  of  Charles  of  Valois,  younger  brother  of 
Philippe  IV.,  and  succeeded  to  the  regency  of 
France  on  the  death  of  Charles  IV.  During  his 
reign  he  commenced  the  war  with  England  which 
1  isted  100 years,  and  which  was  ended  by  the  loss 
of  the  English  possessions  in  France,  but  in  the 
meantime  devastated  that  land  with  fire  and 
sword.  He  received  Daupliine  in  gift  in  1349, 


purchased  Majorca  from  its  unfortunate  king, 
and  died  Aug.  22,  1350,  neither  loved  nor 
respected.  He  was  a  despiser  of  learning,  and  a 
bigot. 

Philip 'pi,  a  city  of  Macedonia.  It  was  named 
after  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  who  conquered  it 
from  Thrace  (up  to  which  time  it  had  been  called 
Crenides.  It  is  famous  on  account  of  the  two 
battles  fought  in  42  b.c.,  between  Antony  and 
Octavianuson  the  one  side,  and  the  Republicans 
under  Brutus  and  Cassius  on  the  other. 

Philippi,  the  county  seat  of  Barbour  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  460. 

Philippians,  Epistle  to  tiie,  one  of  the  latest 
of  the  Pauline  Epistles.  It  was  transmitted  from 
Rome  probably  about  the  year  63  a.  d.,  through 
Epaphroditus,  apparently  a  pastor  of  the  Phil¬ 
ippian  Church,  who  had  been  sent  to  minister 
to  the  necessities  of  the  apostle. 

Philip 'pics,  originally  the  three  orations  of 
Demosthenes  against  Philip  of  Macedon.  The 
name  was  afterward  applied  to  Cicero’s  orations 
against  the  ambitious  and  dangerous  designs  of 
Mark  Antony. 

Philippine  Islands,  lie  to  the  North  of  Borneo 
and  Celebes,  in  5°  30' — 19°  42'  N.  latitude,  and 
117°  14' — 126°  4' E.  longitude.  They  are  more 
than  1200  in  number,  with  an  area  of  about  150,- 
000  square  miles.  Pop.  (1876),  6,173,632,  three- 
fourths  of  whom  are  subject  to  Spain,  the  remain¬ 
der  governed,  according  to  their  own  laws  and 
customs,  by  independent  native  princes. 

Philistines  (LALY.,  Allophuloi,  strangers),  a 
word  either  derived  from,  a  root  phalasa  (/Etli.), 
to  emigrate,  wander  about,  or  identified  with 
Pelasgi,  or  compared  by  others  with  Shefcla,([\cb.), 
lowlanders;  designates  a  certain  population 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  as  being  in  frequent  con¬ 
tact  with  the  Jews,  and  who  lived  on  the  coast  of 
the  Mediterranean,  to  the  southwest  of  Judaea, 
fromEkron  toward  the  Egyptian  frontier,  border¬ 
ing  principally  on  the  tribes  of  Dan,  Simeon  and 
Judah. 

Phillips,  Wendell,  a  distinguished  Amer¬ 
ican  orator,  was  born  in  Boston,  Nov.  29,  1811, 
and  died  in  February,  1884.  He  labored  from 
1836  till  1864  for  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  there¬ 
after  in  the  interest  of  the  education  of  the  negroes, 
of  prison  reform,  prohibition  and  woman  suffrage. 

Phillips,  the  county  seat  of  Price  county,  Wis. 
Pop.,  600. 

Phillipsburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Phillips 
county,  Kan.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Phillipsburgh,  the  county  seat  and  an 
important  manufacturing  city  of  Warren  county, 
N.J.  Pop.,  8,500. 

Philome'la,  the  name  of  a  personage  in 
Greek  legend,  who  was  changed  according  to  one 
account  into  a  swallow,  to  another  into  a  night¬ 
ingale. 

Phlebi'tis,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Veins 
(Gr.  epX e(il,  phlebs,  a  vein),  although  seldom 
an  original  or  idiophathic  disease,  is  a  frequent 
sequence  of  wounds,  in  which  case  it  is  termed 
traumatic  phlebitis  (from  the  Gr.  trauma,  a 
wound),  and  is  not  uncommon  after  delivery. 
The  disease  is  indicated  by  great  tenderness  and 
pain  along  the  course  of  the  affected  vessel,  which 
feels  like  a  hard  knotted  cord,  and  rolls  under  the 
fingers.  The  hardness  is,  however,  sometimes 
obscured  by  the  swelling  of  the  limb  beyond  and 
about  the  seat  of  the  disorder,  partly  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  effusion  of  serum  caused  by  the 
obstruction  to  the  return  of  the  venous  blood 
(which  thus  gives  rise  to  a  local  dropsy),  and 
partly  in  consequence  of  the  propagation  of  the 
inflammation  to  the  surrounding  tissues.  With 
the  return  of  the  circulation,  the  swelling  subsides, 
and  the  patient  gradually  recovers.  If,  however, 
the  disease  advances,  suppuration  takes  place 
within  the  coagulum,  and  one  of  two  things 
happens;  either  abscesses  are  formed  along  the 
vein,  or  the  pus  gets  into  the  current  of  blood  and 
contaminates  the  circulation,  giving  rise  to  the 
perilous  disease  knows  as  pycernia.  Either  con¬ 
dition  is  dangerous;  the  latter  pre-eminently  so. 
The  use  of  leeches  along  the  affected  vein  is 
recommended,  and  that  t  hey  should  be  repeated 
over  and  over  again  if  the  symptoms  of  inflam 
mation  persevere;  the  subsequent  application  of 
cold  lotions,  and  the  internal  use  of  mercury 
pushed  to  a  moderate  salivation. 


Phle'bolites  (Gr.  epXe ft 5,  phlebs,  a  vein;  and 
XtOoi,  lilhos,  a  stone),  are  calcareous  concretions 
formed  by  the  degeneration  of  coagulations  in 
veins,  or  occasionally  originating  in  the  coats  of 
the  vessel.  They  are  seldom  detected  till  after 
death,  although  cases  are  on  record  in  which,  oc¬ 
curring  in  subcutaneous  veins,  they  have  given 
rise  to  external  tumors  of  considerable  size. 

Phle'gethon,  i.  e.,  the  Flaming,  a  river  of  the 
infernal  regions,  whose  waves  rolled  torrents  of 
fire.  Nothing  would  grow  on  its  scorched  and 
desolate  shores.  After  a  course  contrary  to  the 
Cocytus,  it  discharged  itself,  like  the  latter  stream, 
into  the  Lake  of  Acheron. 

Phlegma'sia  A'lba  Bo'lens,  or  Milk-leg,  is  a 
disease  which  is  most  common  in  women,  after 
parturition,  especially  if  they  have  lost  much 
blood,  but  sometimes  occurs  in  unmarried  women 
and  occasionally  in  males.  It  usually  commences 
about  a  week  or  ten  days  after  delivery  with  a  feel¬ 
ing  of  pain  in  the  loins  or  lower  part  of  the  abdo¬ 
men  whence  it  extends  to  the  groin  and  down  the 
thigh  and  leg.  The  pain  soim  becomes  severe, 
and  principally  follows  the  course  of  the  internal 
cutaneous  and  crural  nerve  of  the  thigh  and  of 
the  posterior  tibial  in  the  leg.  The  limb  soon 
begins  to  swell,  and  in  the  course  of  a  couple  of 
days,  is  sometimes  twice  Us  ordinary  size,  and  as 
the  swelling  develops  itself,  the  acuteness  of  the 
pain  diminishes.  The  limb  is  partly  flexed,  and 
lies  motionless;  any  movement  aggravates  the 
pain.  The  swelling  extends  uniformly  over  the 
limb,  which  is  pale  and  shining,  and  hot  and  firm 
to  the  touch,  seldom  pitting  on  pressure.  The 
femoral  vein  may  usually  be  felt  like  a  hard  cord, 
and  this  symptom,  taken  with  the  swelling, 
clearly  indicates  that  this  affection  is  essentially 
crural  phlebitis.  The  uniformity  of  the  cord  is 
interrupted  by  nodules,  arising  either  from  in¬ 
flamed  cellular  tissue,  or  from  clots  within  the 
vein.  Both  legs  are  seldom  attacked  at  the  same 
time,  and  the  left  thigh  is  the  most  common  seat 
of  the  disease.  This  affection  usually  terminates 
favorably,  the  acute  symptoms  disappearing  in 
about  ten  days.  The  swelling,  however,  often 
continues  for  a  long  time,  and  sometimes  lasts  for 
life.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  disease  is  in¬ 
flammation  originating  in  the  veins  of  the  genital 
tract,  and  extending  to  those  of  the  lower  extrem¬ 
ity.  The  treatment  is  the  same  as  for  phlebitis, 
generally.  Warm  poppy  fomentations,  or  bran 
poultices  sprinkled  with  laudanum,  may  be  ap¬ 
plied  externally  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack, 
after  which,  flannel  saturated  with  a  liniment 
composed  of  one  part  of  laudanum  to  two  parts  of 
soap  liniment,  may  be  applied  round  the  limb  in 
the  form  of  a  bandage,  applied  not  so  tightly  as 
to  occasion  pain.  If  necessary,  the  bowels  must 
be  gently  opened  with  castor  oil,  and  opium  given 
to  allay  pain  and  induce  sleep. 

Phlox,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Palevioniaceoc ,  distinguished  by  a  prismatic  calyx, 
salver-sliaped  corolla,  and  unequal  filaments.  The 
species  are  numerous,  mostly  perennial  plants 
with  simple  leaves,  and  mostly  natives  of  North 
America. 

Pho'heros,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Flacourtiacecc  or  Bixacece,  of  which  one 
species,  P.  Mundtii,  the  Klipdoorn  of  the  Dutch 
colonists  of  South  Africa,  although  only  20 — 30 
feet  high,  attains  a  diameter  of  3  feet  or  more 
and  is  useful  in  many  industries,  the  wood  being 
hard  and  fine-grained. 

Pho'cis  (Gr.  <f>oKii),  a  province  of  Greece 
Proper,  or  Hellas,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Ozolian  Lokri,  on  the  north  by  Doris,  on  the  east 
by  the  Opuntian  Lokri,  and  on  the  south  by  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth.  It  was  about  792  square  miles 
in  extent. 

Plloe'bilS  (i.e.,  the  bright  or  radiant),  a  title, 
and  subsequently  a  name,  of  Apollo.  It  had  refer¬ 
ence  both  to  the  youthful  beauty  of  the  god,  and 
to  the  radiance  of  the  sun,  when,  latterly, 
Apollo  became  identified  with  Helios,  the  sun- 
god. 

Phfleni'cia  (Gr.  oiviKs ,  Plioinike,  derived 
either  from  <Poiv6 5,  Plioinos,  purple,  or  <I>oivi%, 
Phoinix,  palm-tree — both  designations  descriptive 
of  the  chief  produce  of  the  country;  the  Hebrew 
term  Reiia<j.u,  lowland,  referring  to  its  physical 
condition)  is  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  to  a  certain  territory  situated  about  34° 


38 


PHCENIX. 


594 


PHOTOGRAPHIC  ENGRAVING. 


— 36Q  N.  latitude,  bounded  by  the  Mediterranean 
on  the  west,  by  Syria  to  the  north  and  east,  and 
Judaea  to  the  south. 

IMioe'nix,  the  name  of  a  mythical  Egyptian 
bird,  supposed  by  some  to  be  a  kind  of  plover, 
like  the  kibitz ,  often  depicted  with  human  arms, 
and  called  in  hieroglyphs  rekh.  Others  consider 
it  to  be  the  bennu,  or  nycticorax,  a  bird  sacred 
to  Osiris,  and  represented  watching  in  the  tam¬ 
arisk  over  his  coffin.  The  legend  runs  that  the 
phoenix  burned  itself,  and  a  new  and  young 
phoenix  sprung  from  the  ashes. 

Phoenix,  the  county  seat,  and  an  important 
trading  center  in  Maricopa  county,  Ariz.  Pop., 
4,708. 

Plioenixville,  an  important  manufacturing 
city,  and  the  county  seat  of  Chester  county,  Penn. 
Pop.,  7,000. 

Pho'las,  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate  mol- 
lusks,  of  the  family  Plioladidce.  This  family,  to 
which  the  ship-worm  ( Teredo  navalis)  also  be¬ 
longs,  has  the  shell  gaping  at  both  ends,  thin, 
white,  hard,  sometimes  with  accessory  valves;  the 


A  piece  of  rock  bored  by  Pkolades. 


two  principal  valves  beset  with  calcareous  ine¬ 
qualities,  connected  by  fine  transverse  parallel 
ridges,  forming  a  kind  of  rasp,  used  by  the  ani¬ 
mal  for  boring  a  hole  in  rock,  wood,  or  other 
substance  in  which  it  lives. 

Phonet/ic  Writing  is  the  representation  of 
speech  by  means  of  symbols  for  the  elementary 
sounds  of  language.  All  alphabetic  writing  is 
essentially  phonetic.  The  invention  of  letters  was 
the  invention  of  phonetic  writing,  as  distinguished 
from  the  older  pictorial,  or  ideographic,  writing. 

Pho'nograpli.  This  apparatus,  invented  in 
1877  by  Thomas  A.  Edison,  is  designed  to  obtain 
a  record  of  the  sound  vibrations  resulting  from 
articulate  speech  that  can  be  mechanically  re¬ 
produced  at  a  distance  of  time.  The  instrument 
consists  of  a  sender  and  a  receiver  or  recorder. 
The  sender  consists  of  a  tube  having  an  open 
mouth-piece  at  one  end,  and  bearing  at  the  other 
end  a  thin  diaphragm  of  metal  or  other  substance, 
with  a  sharp  point  or  style  affixed  to  the  center  of 
its  outer  surface.  The  second  apparatus  consists 
of  a  cylinder,  about  four  inches  in  diameter, 
having  on  its  periphery  a  V-shaped  groove  cut 
spirally  from  end  to  end.  Over  this  grooved  cyl¬ 
inder  a  sheet  of  wax  is  placed,  and  the  sender  is 
advanced  till  the  point  of  the  style  lightly  touches 
the  wax,  over  the  opening  of  the  V-shaped  cut. 
While  the  words  to  be  recorded  are  spoken  or 
sung,  the  cylinder  is  turned  rapidly,  the  appa¬ 
ratus  for  moving  it  giving  a  lateral  as  well  as  a 
circular  motion.  The  point  of  the  style  thus  trav 
erses  the  wax  spirally  from  end  to  end,  and 
the  vibrations  in  the  diaphragm  caused  by  the 
sounds  result  in  a  series  of  indentations  in  the 
wax.  To  reproduce  the  sounds  in  the  transcriber 
(or  in  the  sender)  the  cylinder  is  again  presented 
to  a  style  attached  to  a  diaphragm,  the  style  be¬ 
ing  pressed  against  the  wax  by  a  slight  spring. 
The  cylinder  is  now  made  to  revolve,  and  the 
motion  of  the  style  upon  the  inequalities  in  the 
indented  wax  produce  vibrations  in  the  dia¬ 
phragm  corresponding  to  the  sound-caused  vibra¬ 
tions  originally  created  in  the  instrument  by  the 


voice.  The  sounds  are  thus  reproduced  with 
great  exactness,  even  the  character  of  the  voice 
being  so  perfectly  rendered  as  to  be  recognized 
by  any  one  familiar  with  it.  The  record  of  sung 
or  spoken  sounds  may  be  sent  to  a  distance,  or 
kept  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time,  and  the 
original  sounds  can  be  reproduced  on  applying  to 
the  proper  instrument.  Rubbings  in  wax  may  be 
taken  from  a  plaster-cast  of  the  original  indented 
slip,  so  that  copies  may  be  sent  to  different  persons, 
all  of  whom  can  thus  reproduce  the  sounds  so 
long  as  their  wax  copy  remains  intact. 

Pliosphores'cence  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
phenomenon,  exhibited  by  certain  bodies,  of  re¬ 
maining  luminous  in  the  dark  for  some  time  after 
being  exposed  to  a  strong  light.  In  this  sense, 
it  is  strictly  analogous  to,  perhaps  we  should  say, 
identical  with,  the  heating  of  bodies  by  exposure 
to  light  or  radiant  heat.  They  absorb  part  of 
the  energy  of  the  vibrations  which  fall  on  them; 
it  becomes  motion  of  their  particles;  and  is  again 
radiated  from  them  as  light  or  heat. 

Phos'pliorus  (symbol  P,  equiv.  31 — sp.  gr. 
1.826)  is  one  of  the  metalloids,  or  non-metallic 
elements,  although,  in  its  combining  relation,  it  is 
more  closely  connected  witli  the  metals  arsenic 
and  antimony  than  with  any  of  the  members  of 
the  sulphur-group,  in  which  it  is  commonly 
placed.  This  substance  affords  an  excellent  ex¬ 
ample  of  allotrophy;  that  is  to  say,  it  may  be  made 
to  occur  under  different  forms  presenting  differ¬ 
ent  properties. 

Photog'raphy  and  Photograph  'ic  Processes 

(Gr.  q>oi,  phos ,  light,  and  ypacpo,  grapho,  I 
write).  As  to  whether  a  photographic  picture  on 
glass  is  a  positive  or  a  negative  depends  upon 
whether  it  is  viewed  by  reflected  or  transmitted 
light.  Daguerreotypes  are  all  positives,  because 
they  are  taken  on  metal  plates,  and  can  only  be 
seen  by  reflected  light.  A  picture  on  glass  is  also 
positive  when  viewed  in  the  same  way,  but  glass 
being  transparent  ,  it  is  negative  when  looked  at  by 
transmitted  light,  that  is,  when  held  between  the 
eye  and  the  light.  Those  portions  of  the  image 
which  are  light  in  the  positive  way  are  dark  in 
the  negative  way.  This  will  be  quite  plain  to  any 
one  who  looks  at  such  a  picture  by  both  lights, 
laying  it  on  black  cloth  for  the  positive  view. 
For  convenience,  it  has  become  the  practice  to  call 
a  photographic  picture  a  negative  if  it  is  intended 
to  print  positive  pictures  from  it.  In  a  negative 
the  parts  intended  to  print  black  on  the  paper  are 
completely  transparent,  the  whites  are  completely 
opaque,  and  the  gradations  between  are  the  inter¬ 
mediate  shades.  Usually,  the  negative  is  on  glass 
and  the  positives  are  prints  on  paper,  but  many 
negatives  are  on  paper  or  celuloid,  the  former 
made  translucent  by  means  of  wax,  or  they  may 
be  on  gelatine.  The  most  important  piece  of 
apparatus  used  by  the  photographer  is  the  camera 
obscura,  generally  called  simply  a  camera.  On 
the  front  portion,  a  suitable  glass  lens  is  fixed, 
which  throws  the  image  on  a  ground  glass  screen 
placed  at  the  back,  to  enable  it  to  be  sharply 
focused.  A  thin  flat  box  with  a  shutter,  together 
called  a  slide,  contains  the  sensitized  plate.  When 
the  picture  is  focused,  the  screen  is  withdrawn, 
and  the  slide  inserted  in  its  place;  the  shutter  is 
then  drawn  out,  and  the  sensitized  plate,  which 
exactly  occupies  the  place  of  the  glass  screen, 
being  now  exposed, receives  the  picture.  In  a  brief 
time,  which  varies  from  a  fraction  of  one  to  sev¬ 
eral  seconds  in  a  good  light,  the  shutter  is  closed, 
and  the  slide  returned  to  a  dark  room,  where 
the  plate  is  taken  out  and  developed.  Lenses. — 
A  lens  which  is  well  adapted  for  taking  portraits 
or  other  objects  in  a  room  is  not  suitable  for 
taking  landscapes.  In  the  one  case  it  is  only 
necessary  for  the  lens  to  give  a  sharp  definition  of 
a  figure  a  few  feet  off,  and  to  do  its  work  rapidly, 
while  what  is  required  in  the  other  is,  that  distant 
objects,  lying  in  far  different  planes,  should  be 
clearly  defined.  To  effect  this,  the  curves  of  the 
lenses,  as  well  as  their  distance  apart  in  the  com¬ 
pound  arrangement,  must  be  different  in  each 
case.  For  ordinary  landscape  work,  indeed,  a 
single  lens  of  the  meniscus  form  may  be  used,  as 
the  distortion  it  gives  is  not  much  noticed,  but  a 
properly  constructed  double  lens  is  better.  When 
architectural  subjects  are  to  be  photographed,  a 
combination  of  lenses  which  correct  all  distortion 
must  be  adopted,  otherwise  vertical  lines  con- 


. 

verge,  and  therefore  appear  out  of  the  perpen¬ 
dicular.  What  is  called  a  wide  angle  doublet  lens 
is  used  for  taking  a  view  of  a  building  in  a  nar¬ 
row  street,  where  the  operator  can  not  retire  far 
enough  to  take  in  the  whole  pile  with  an  ordinary 
lens.  A  doublet  lens  of  the  ordinary  kind  for 
landscape  work  embraces  an  angle  of  about  .70°, 
while  a  wide-angle  doublet  embraces  about  90°; 
that  is,  these  lenses  cover  circles  whose  respective 
diameters  subtend  angles  of  50°  and  90u  from 
their  optical  centers.  A  diaphragm  or  stop  is 
used  with  the  lens.  This  is  a  thin  disc  of  metal 
perforated  with  holes  of  different  sizes,  the 
largest  of  which  is  much  less  in  diameter  than  the 
lens  itself,  opposite  the  center  of  which  any  of 
the  perforations  can  be  placed.  Wince  the  central 
rays  and  the  marginal  rays  have  different  points 
of  intersection,  the  object  would  be  wanting  in 
definition  if  the  whole  lens  were  used.  Collodion 
is  the  name  given  to  a  solution  of  gun-cotton  in 
a  mixture  ef  ether  and  alcohol.  When  this  is 
spread  over  a  glass  plate,  it  gradually  dries  into  a 
transparent  film.  It  is,  however,  little  used  in 
photography  nowadays,  having  been  largely 
superseded  by  the  other  processes.  These  are  of 
two  principal  kinds;  (1)  Those  in  which  the 
collodion  is  applied  to  t lie  glass  plate,  and  after¬ 
ward  sensitized  in  the  silver  bath,  as  in  the  wet 
way,  but  with  a  preservative  such  as  albumen 
flowed  over  the  surface,  and  the  plate  allowed  to 
dry.  (2)  Emulsion  processes,  in  which  the  sensi¬ 
tive  silver  salt  is  held  in  suspension  in  the  collodion 
or  gelatine.  A  sheet  of  paper  prepared  with 
chloride  of  silver  is  exposed  to  light  under  a  neg¬ 
ative,  and  pressed  close  to  it.  In  a  short  time;  if 
the  day  is  bright,  a  print  of  the  picture  is 
obtained  which  is  fixed  bv  hyposulphite  of  soda 
(sodium  hyposulphite).  The  details  of  the  pro¬ 
cess  are  briefly  as  follows;  (1)  Suitable  paper  is 
coated  on  the  surface  with  a  smooth  thin  layer  of 
albumen,  to  which  chloride  of  sodium  or  ammo¬ 
nium  has  been  added.  (Occasionally,  the  paper 
is  salted  only,  that  is,  impregnated  with  common 
salt).  (2)  Silvering  of  the  paper  by  floating  it  in 
a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver,  sixty  grains  of  this 
subst mce  being  used  for  every  ounce  of  waiter. 
It  is  afterward  dried.  (3)  Exposure  to  light. 
The  silvered  paper  is  exposed  behind  the  negative 
in  a  printing  frame  with  a  glass  front.  The  time 
of  exposure  varies  from  ten  minutes  to  twro  or 
three  hours,  but  occasionally  much  longer, 
according  to  the  brightness  of  the  light  and  the 
character  of  the  negative.  (4)  Toning. — In  order 
to  give  a  pleasing  color  to  the  print,  it  is  usual  to 
tone  it  in  a  solution  of  trichloride  of  gold.  (5) 
Fixing. — The  print,  when  taken  from  the  toning 
bath,  is  steeped  in  a  solution  of  hyposulphite  of 
soda,  which  removes  the  undarkened  silver  salt, 
and  so  fixes  the  image.  (6)  Washing. — Silver 
prints  require  to  be  washed  thoroughly  after 
treatment  with  the  hyposulphite  of  soda.  Imper¬ 
fectly  washed  prints  soon  spot  and  fade. 

Photograph 'ic  Engraving,  or  Photo  En¬ 
graving.  In  one  of  these  processes  a  steel  plate, 
such  as  is  prepared  for  engravers,  is  fu  st  dipped 
into  a  solution  containing  acetic  and  sulphuric 
acids;  it  is  then  coated  with  a  mixture  containing 
a  solution  of  fine  gelatine  and  bichromate  of 
potash.  This  is  impressed  with  the  image  of  a 
photographic  negative  by  exposure  in  the  copy¬ 
ing-frame,  and  washed.  The  film  of  gelatine  is 
previously  yellow,  but  the  action  of  the  light 
through  the  light  parts  of  the  photograph  change 
it  dark  brown,  but  the  remainder  is  unaffected; 
consequently,  a  picture  is  produced  of  a  light 
yellow  color  on  a  brown  ground.  The  action  of 
the  light  is  to  reduce  the  bichromate  of  potash, 
and,  consequently,  to  render  the  gelatine  com¬ 
bined  with  it  insoluble;  while  those  portions  which 
have  been  protected  from  the  action  of  the  light 
by  the  dark  parts  of  the  negative, are  still  readily 
soluble  in  water,  and  can  be  removed  by  soaking; 
the  insoluble  portion  thus  forms  a  raised  picture, 
which  is  submitted  to  a  solution  containing  bi¬ 
chloride  of  platina  in  certain  proportions,  with  a 
little  free  acid  and  water,  which  etches  out  the 
exposed  parts  of  the  plate,  and  renders  it  fit  for 
engraving  from.  An  ingenious  method  of  giving 
to  the  whole  picture  the  appearance  of  an  engrav¬ 
ing,  consists  in  spreading  over  the  gelatinized 
plate,  when  nearly  dry,  a  piece  of  fine  muslin, 
and  evenly  pressing  it  so  as  to  leave  an  impression 


PHOTOMETER. 


595 


PICHEGRU. 


of  the  cross-lines  of  the  textile  material  upon  the 
surface.  A  modification  of  this  system  is  that  in¬ 
stead  of  washing,  the  gelatinized  surface  is  thinly 
hut  evenly  covered  with  finely  powdered  copal  or 
other  resin,  and  the  under-side  of  the  plate  ex¬ 
posed  to  sufficient  heat  to  melt  the  resin,  so  as  to 
make  a  thin  varnish  over  the  whole.  The  etch¬ 
ing  fluid  is  then  poured  on,  and,  notwithstanding 
the  resin  coating,  it  acts  through  to  the  metal,  and 
eats  in  wherever  the  gelatine  has  not  been  ren¬ 
dered  insoluble  by  the  action  of  the  bichromate  of 
potash  and  the  light.  When  sufficiently  etched, 
it  is  washed  in  clean  water,  and  the  plate  is  freed 
from  the  resin  and  gelatine.  The  same  processes, 
with  some  modifications,  applied  to  zinc,  consti¬ 
tute  Photo  zincography,  and  to  Stone  Photo-lith¬ 
ography  both  of  which  are  largely  practiced. 

Photom'eter  (Gr.  phos,  light;  melron ,  measure), 
an  instrument  for  measuring  the  intensity  of  light. 
The  instrument  consists  of  a  screen  of  thin  paper 
placed  vertically,  and  behind  it,  at  the  distance 
of  a  few  inches,  is  placed  a  cylindrical  stick,  or 
any  other  similar  body.  When  the  intensity  of 
light  from  two  flames  is  to  be  compared,  they  are 
placed  behind  this  stick  in  such  a  way  that  each 
casts  a  separate  shadow  of  the  stick  upon  the 
paper  screen.  The  observer  stands  in  front  of 
the  screen,  and  directs  the  removal  of  the  two 
lights  either  to  or  from  the  stick,  till  the  shadows 
which  are  cast  upon  the  screen  are  equally  ob¬ 
scure.  The  distance  of  each  light  from  the 
shadow  it  casts  on  the  screen  is  then  measured ;  and 
the  squares  of  these  distances  give  the  relative  in¬ 
tensities  of  the  two  lights.  This  photometer  may 
also  be  modified  by  employing,  instead  of  a  cylin¬ 
drical  stick,  a  second  screen  parallel  to  the  first, 
but  of  greater  thickness,  and  having  an  aperture 
cut  in  its  center. 

Pho'tophone  is  the  name  of  an  apparatus 
which  may  be  said  to  transmit  articulate  speech 
to  a  distance  along  a  beam  of  light.  In  the  pho¬ 
tophone  found  most  serviceable,  the  transmitter 
is  a  plane  mirror  of  silvered  microscope  glass  or 
thin  mica;  the  receiver,  fixed  at  a  distance,  with¬ 
out  any  connection,  is  a  parabolic  reflecting  mirror, 
in  the  focus  of  which  is  placed  a  sensitive  sele¬ 
nium  cell,  connected  in  local  circuit  with  a  bat¬ 
tery  and  telephone.  When  the  apparatus  is  used, 
a  strong  beam  of  light  is  concentrated  by  a  lens  in 
the  plane  mirror;  the  speaker  directs  his  voice 
against  the  back  of  this  mirror,  which  is  thrown 
into  vibrations  corresponding  with  those  of  the 
voice.  The  reflected  beam  of  light,  to  which 
similar  vibrations  are  also  communicated,  is 
directed  through  a  lens  to  the  receiving  mirror, 
and  creates  in  the  selenium  cell  a  rapidly  inter- 
mittant  current,  which  at  the  end  of  the  telephone 
attached  becomes  audible  again  as  vocal  sound. 
The  rays  of  the  oxyliydrogen  light,  or  of  an 
ordinary  kerosene  lamp,  suffice  for  transmitting 
articulate  speech. 

Photo-sculpture,  invented  by  M.  Willeme  in 
1867,  is  an  ingenious  use  of  photography  to  assist 
a  sculptor  in  modeling  portrait  statues,  or  fac-sim- 
ilies  and  reduced  reproductions  of  other  statues. 
The  subject  stands  in  the  center  of  a  circular 
chamber,  and  is  simultaneously  photographed  by 
no  less  than  twenty-four  cameras,  arranged  at 
equal  distances  around  the  chamber.  The  twenty- 
four  photographs  are  subsequently  made  avail¬ 
able  in  the  sculptor’s  studio,  where  the  clay  model 
is  arranged  on  a  frame  capable  of  being  turned 
round.  A  magic  lantern  throws  the  outline  of 
photograph  No.  1  on  a  screen  in  front  of  the  artist, 
who  by  means  of  a  pantograph  brings  this  out¬ 
line  to  bear  on  the  clay  in  its  first  position.  The 
model  is  then  turned  round  of  a  revolution, 
and  the  outline  of  photograph  No.  2  is  taken  ad¬ 
vantage  of.  Thus  the  modeler  works  his  way, 
in  twenty-four  changes,  round  the  model,  and  the 
likeness  or  fac-simile  or  reduced  figure  of  the 
original  is  or  should  be  complete. 

Phrenol'ogy,  is  a  Greek  compound  signifying 
a  discourse  on  the  mind,  but  is  used  in  a  more 
limited  sense  to  mean  a  theory  of  mental  philos¬ 
ophy  founded  on  the  observation  and  discovery 
of  the  functions  of  the  brain,  in  so  farasit  is  con¬ 
cerned  in  intellectual  and  emotional  phenomena. 
Phrenology  takes  into  view  1  kewise  the  influence 
of  all  other  parts  of  the  body,  and  of  external 
agents  affecting  these,  upon  the  brain.  It  is 
held  by  prenologists — 1.  That  by  accurate 


observation  of  liuunn  actions,  it  is  possible  to 
discover  the  strength  of  the  dispositions  and  in¬ 
tellectual  powers  of  men; — 2.  That  the  form  of  the 
brain  can,  in  normal  subjects  not  beyond  middle 
age,  be  ascertained  with  sufficient  accuracy  from 
the  external  form  of  the  head — the  brain,  though 
the  softer  substance,  being  what  determines  the 
shape  of  the  skull ; — 3.  That  the  organs  or  parts  of 
which  the  brain  is  composed  appear  on  its  surface 
in  folds  or  convolutions,  which  have  a  well  ascer¬ 
tained  fibrous  connection  with  the  medulla  oblon¬ 
gata,  which  unites  the  brain  to  the  spinal  cord; 
—4.  That  the  brain  being  divided  into  two  equal 
parts  called  hemispheres,  in  each  of  which  the 
same  organ  occurs,  all  the  organs  are  double,  like 
the  ears  and  eyes.  But  when  the  term  organ  is 
used,  both  organs  are  meant. 

Phry'gia,  a  country  in  Asia  Minor,  the  extent 
and  boundaries  of  which  varied  at  different 
periods  of  ancient  history.  At  the  time  of  the 
Persian  invasion  it  was  limited  to  the  districts 
known  as  Lesser  Phrygia  and  Greater  Phrygia— 
the  former  stretching  from  the  Hellespont  to 
Troas  (inclusive),  the  latter  occupying  a  central 
portion  of  Asia  Minor.  The  inland  boundaries 
of  Lesser  Phrygia  are  not  well  ascertained;  but 
Greater  Phrygia  was  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Bithynia  and  Paphlagonia,  on  the  east  by  Cappa¬ 
docia  and  Lycaonia,  on  the  south  by  the  Taurus 
range,  and  on  the  west  by  the  maritime  countries 
of  Mysia,  Lydia,  and  Caria.  At  a  later  period  it 
was  considerably  reduced  by  the  formation  of 
Galatia,  and  the  extension  of  Lycaonia. 

Phylac'tery  (from  Gr.  q>v\a66 o ,  phylasso,  to 
guard),  an  amulet  or  charm  worn  by  the  Greeks, 
against  demoniac  influences.  Certain  strips  of 
parchment,  inscribed  with  certain  passages  from 
the  Scripture  (Ex.  xiii,  1-10,  11-16;  Deut. 
vi,  4-9;  xi,  13-21),  inclosed  in  small  cases, 
and  fastened  to  the  forehead  and  the  left 
arm  {Tejilli  a) — also,  in  another  form,  to  door-posts 
( Mesusa/i ) — in  use  with  the  Jews,  in  imagined 
accordance  with  Ex.  xiii,  9-16,  etc.,  are  also 
called  in  the  New  Testament  phylacteries. 

Phyllox'era  (Gr.  cpvXXov ,  phyllon,  a  leaf, 
and  ^epoi,  xeros ,  dry),  a  genus  of  insects  of  the 
order  Ilemiptera,  sub-order  Ilomoptera,  the  type 
of  a  family,  Phylloxeridce,  allied  to  the  Aphis  and 
Coccus  families.  The  PhyUoxcridcp,  attach  them¬ 
selves  to  various  plants,  on  the  juice  of  which 
they  feed,  and  which  they  often  injure  or  destroy. 
P.  vastatrix  is  the  name  given  to  an  insect  of  this 
family,  which,  since  1865,  has  committed  great 
devastation  in  the  vineyards  of  France. 

Pliysa'lia,  a  genus  of  Acaleplue,  having  an 
oval  or  oblong  body,  which  consists  in  great  part 
of  an  air  sac,  so  that  the  creature  floats  on  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  with  numerous  appendages  of 
various  kinds  hanging  from  its  under  side. 

Phy'salis,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Solanacete,  remarkable  for  the  calyx, 
which  becomes  large  and  inflated  after  flowering 
is  over,  and  incloses  the  ripened  berry.  The 
species  are  annual  and  perennial  herbaceous 
plants  and  shrubs,  natives  of  temperate  and  warm 
climates,  and  widely  scattered  over  the  world. 

Physic  Nut  ( Curcas ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Euphorbiacece,  having  a  5-partite 
calyx,  5  petals,  and  8 — 10  unequal-united  stamens. 
They  are  tropical  shrubs  or  trees,  having  alter¬ 
nate,  stalked,  angled  or  lobed  leaves,  and  corymbs 
of  flowers  on  long  stalks,  and  notable  for  the 
acrid  oil  of  their  seeds. 

Physics,  or  Physical  Science  (Gr.  q>v6iKo s, 
physikos,  natural),  comprehends  in  its  widest 
sense  all  that  is  classed  under  the  various  branches 
of  mixed  or  applied  mathematics,  natural  philos¬ 
ophy,  chemistry,  and  natural  history,  which 
branches  include  the  whole  of  our  knowledge 
regarding  the  material  universe.  In  its  narrower 
sense,  it  is  equivalent  to  natural  philosophy, 
which,  until  of  late  years,  was  the  term  more 
commonly  used,  and  denotes  all  knowledge  of 
the  properties  of  bodies  as  bodies,  or  the  science 
of  phenomena  unaccompanied  by  essential  change 
in  the  objects;  while  chemistry  is  concerned  with 
the  composition  of  bodies,  and  the  phenomena 
accompanied  by  essential  change  in  the  objects; 
and  natural  history,  in  its  widest  sense,  includes 
ali  (he  phenomena  of  the  animal,  vegetable,  and 
I  mineral  world.  The  application  of  the  term 


physic  to  a  branch  of  this  last — viz.,  the  science 
of  medicine — is  peculiar  to  the  English  language. 

Physiog'nomy,  the  art  of  judging  of  the  char¬ 
acter  from  the  external  appearance,  especially 
from  the  countenance.  The  art  is  founded  upon 
the  belief,  which  has  long  and  generally  prevailed, 
that  there  is  an  intimate  connection  between  the 
features  and  expression  of  the  face  and  the  quali¬ 
ties  and  habits  of  the  mind. 

Physiography,  a  term  formerly  used  of  a 
branch  of  mineralogy,  was  adopted  by  Professor 
Huxley  as  a  convenient  name  for  an  exposition  of 
the  principles  that  underlie  physical  geography, 
and  including  the  elements  of  physical  science. 
It  is  thus  understood  to  involve  a  conn  endious 
discussion  of  gravitation,  heat,  the  composition 
of  the  crust  of  the  earth,  the  movements  of  the 
sea,  the  phenomena  of  the  atmosphere,  etc. 

Physiology  (Gr.  <pvdit,physis,  nature;  A oyoi, 
logos,  a  discourse)  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
phenomena  which  normally  present  themselves  in 
living  beings,  of  the  laws  or  principles  to  which 
they  are  subject,  and  of  the  causes  to  which  they 
are  attributable.  It  is  therefore  a  branch  of  bi¬ 
ology,  the  science  which  investigates  the  nature 
and  relation  of  living  bodies. 

Phytolac'ca,  a  genus  of  exogenous  plants,  of 
the  natural  order  Phytolaccaceae.  This  order  con¬ 
tains  about  seventy  known  species,  half-shrubby 
and  herbaceous  plants,  natives  of  warm  parts  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  and  is  nearly  allied  to 
the  order  Chenopodiacece,  and  to  the  Potygonca. 

Phytozo'a  (Gr.  qovvov ,  phyton,  a  plant;  Zcbov, 
soon,  an  animal),  also  called  Antherozoids,  are 
minute  bodies  produced  amidst  a  mucilaginous 
fluid  iu  the  antheridia  of  many  cryptogamous 
plants  (algae,  hepaticae,  mosses,  ferns),  which 
are  either  aquatic  or  delight  in  moist  situations. 

Pia'iioforte  (Ital.  piano,  soft,  and  forte,  loud), 
a  stringed  musical  instrument,  played  by  keys, 
developed  out  of  the  clavichord  and  harpsichord, 
from  which  the  pianoforte  differs  principally  in 
the  introduction  of  hammers,  to  put  the  strings 
in  vibration,  connected  with  the  keys  by  a 
mechanism  that  enables  the  player  to  modify  at 
will  the  intensity  of  the  sounds;  whence  the 
name  of  the  instrument.  The  idea  of  the  piano¬ 
forte  was  conceived  independently  about  the 
same  time  by  three  persons  in  different  parts  of 
Europe — a  German  organist  of  the  name  of 
Schroter;  Marius,  a  French  harpsichord -maker; 
and  Bartolomeo  Cristofali,  a  harpsichord -maker 
of  Padua.  Priority  in  point  of  invention  (1714)  is 
due  to  the  Italian  maker.  Schroter’s  discovery 
was  followed  up  in  Germany  by  Silbermann  of 
Strasburg,  Spiit  of  Ratisbon,  Stein  of  Augsburg, 
and  others.  American  manufacturers  have  car¬ 
ried  piano-making  to  a  high  degree  of  excellence; 
while  such  composers  as  Chopin  and  Liszt  have 
developed  the  capacities  of  the  instrument  to  a 
marvelous  degree. 

Piassa'ba,  or  Piacaba,  a  remarkable  vegetable 
fiber  procured  from  Brazil,  chiefly  from  the  ports 
of  Para  and  Maranliam,  and  produced  by  one  or 
more  species  of  palm.  That  which  furnishes  the 
greater  part  is  the  coquilla-nut  palm  (Attalea 
funifera)-,  but  much  of  it  is  procured  from  a 
species  of  Leopoldinia,  which  has  been  named  L. 
piassaba.  The  fiber  is  produced  by  the  stalks  of 
the  large  fan-like  leaves.  When  the  leaves  decay, 
the  petioles  or  stalks  split  up  into  bundles  of 
cylindrical  fibers  of  a  dark  brown  color,  and  of  a 
hard  texture,  varying  in  thickne  s  from  that  of  a 
liorse-liair  up  to  that  of  a  small  crow-quill.  This 
material  has  been  found  of  great  utility  in  mak¬ 
ing  brushes  of  a  coarse  kind,  particularly  those 
required  to  sweep  the  street,  and  for  this 
purpose  they  have  almost  superseded  birch- 
brooms,  split  whalebone  brushes,  and  other  simi¬ 
lar  means  for  scavengers’  work.  The  coarsest 
fibers  are  best  for  such  purposes,  and  the  finer 
ones  are  found  valuable  for  finer  kinds  of  brushes. 

Pic'colo  (Ital .  Jlauto  piccolo,  small  flute),  a  flute 
of  small  dimensions,  having  the  same  compass  as 
the  ordinary  flute,  while  the  notes  all  sound  an 
octave  higher  than  their  notation.  In  joyous  as 
well  as  violent  passages,  this  instrument  is  some¬ 
times  very  effective  in  an  orchestra. 

Pichegru,  Charles,  a  French  General,  was 
born  Feb.  16,  1761,  at  Arbois,  in  the  Department 
of  Jura,  France.  He  entered  into  a  conspiracy 
against  Bonaparte  during  the  first  consulate,  and 


PICKENS  COURTHOUSE. 


596 


PILOT-FISH. 


was  found  dead  in  bed  soon  after  his  arrest,  on 
the  morning  of  April  6,  1804.  The  Royalists 
have  endeavored  to  fasten  a  charge  of  private 
assassination  on  Napoleon,  but  it  is  more  gener¬ 
ally  believed  that  Pichegru  strangled  himself. 

Pickens  Courthouse,  the  county  seat  of  Pick¬ 
ens  county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  1,857. 

Pickles.  Although  the  term  pickled  is  applied 
to  animal  substances,  such  as  beef,  pork,  lisli, 
etc.,  preserved  in  salt,  yet  pickles  are  generally 
understood  to  be  the  various  parts  of  vegetables 
preserved  in  vinegar.  The  process  employed  is 
first  to  wash  the  articles  intended  for  pickles  iu 
clean  cold  water,  and  afterward  to  soak  them  for 
a  few  days  in  a  strong  solution  of  salt  in  water. 
They  are  next  taken  out,  and  if  fruits  or  roots, 
dried  in  a  cloth;  but  if  vegetables,  such  as  cauli¬ 
flower,  etc.,  they  must  be  well  drained,  and  then 
placed  in  the  vessels  intended  to  hold  them,  a  few 
peppercorns,  or  another  spice  which  is  suitable, 
being  sprinkled  in  from  time  to  time.  When  the 
vessel  is  so  far  filled  that  it  will  hold  no  more,  boil 
ing  vinegar  is  poured  in  until  it  is  quite  full,  and 
tightly  covered  up.  Many  persons  prefer  to  boil 
the  spices,  of  whatever  kind  used,  in  the  vinegar; 
and  some  add  the  vinegar  cold  to  such  vegetables 
or  fruit  as  are  of  a  naturally  soft  substance,  because, 
except  in  the  case  of  green  walnuts,  and  one  or  two 
other  fruits,  extreme  softness  is  objectionable  iu 
pickles.  When  the  materials  to  be  pickled  are  nat¬ 
urally  green,  as  in  the  case  of  gherkins  or  small 
cucumbers,  French  beans,  etc.,  it  is  considered 
desirable  to  preserve  their  color  as  much  as  possi¬ 
ble;  and  it  is  sometimes  very  successfully  accom¬ 
plished  by  steeping  vine,  cabbage,  spinach,  or 
parsley  leaves  iu  the  vinegar,  by  which  their  color 
is  imparted  through  the  vinegar  to  the  pickles. 

Pi  'CO,  one  of  the  Azores  Islands,  stands  mid¬ 
way  between  the  eastern  and  western  extremities 
of  the  group,  a  few  miles  southeast  of  Fayal.  It 
is  45  miles  long,  and  5  miles  in  average  width; 
area,  about  225  square  miles;  pop — the  descendants 
of  Portuguese — about  30,000. 

Piets,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  north¬ 
eastern  provinces  of  Scotland. 

Piedmont,  or  Piemont  (Fr.  pied,  foot,  monl, 
mountain),  an  Italian  principality,  which  now 
forms  the  northwest  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy, 
is  inclosed  mostly  by  natural  boundaries,  having- 
on  the  north  the  Pennine  Alps,  on  the  west  the 
Graian  and  Cottian  Alps,  on  the  south  the  Mari¬ 
time  Alps  and  Genoa,  and  on  the  east  the  Ticino 
and  the  Duchy  of  Parma.  It  includes  the  former 
Duchy  of  Montferrat,  which  lies  in  the  south¬ 
eastern  corner,  what  was  the  Sardinian  portion 
of  the  old  Duchy  of  Milan,  and  contains  11,750 
square  miles,  with  a  pop.  (1881),  of  3,070,379. 

Pierce,  Franklin,  the  fourteen  ill  President  of 
the  United  States,  was  bora  in  Hillsborough,  N. 
H.,  Nov.  23,  1804.  He  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1827,  became  Speaker  of  the  State  House  of 
Representatives  in  1829,  and  was  elected  to  the 
33d  Congress,  a  Democrat  of  the  school  of  Jack- 
son.  In  1837  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
Senate,  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  Mexican 
War,  volunteered  as  a  private,  but  was  appointed 
Brigadier-General,  and  led  his  brigade  in  the  Bat¬ 
tles  of  Contreras  and  Churubusco.  In  1852  he 
was  nominated  as  a  compromise  candidate  for  the 
presidency,  against  General  Scott,  the  Whig 
nominee,  and  received  the  votes  of  all  but  four 
States.  During  his  administration,  the  Missouri 
Compromise  was  repealed ;  I  he  treaty  for  reciproc¬ 
ity  of  trade  with  the  British  American  colonies 
was  made,  and  a  treaty  with  Japan;  and  the 
Kansas  difficulties  which  then  arose,  with  the 
growing  animosity  between  the  North  and  South, 
led  to  secession,  and  the  war  of  1861.  He  died 
in  1869. 

Pierre,  Jacques  Henri,  Bernardin  de  St.,  a 
celebrated  French  writer,  was  born  at  Havre, 
Jan.  19,  1737.  He  wrote  the  story  of  Paul  et 
Virqinie.  He  died  Jan.  22,  1814. 

Pierre,  the  county  seat  of  Hughes  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  1,527. 

Pi  geon  (Ital.  pigione,  piccione,  or  pipione,  from 
pipiare,  Lat.  pipire,  to  peep  or  cheep),  a  name 
sometimes  applied,  like  dove,  to  all  the  species  of 
Golumbidm,  and  sometimes  almost  restricted  to 
those  still  included  by  ornithologists  in  the  genus 
Golumhn .  The  species  of  this  group  are  numer¬ 
ous,  and  occur  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 


The  original  of  all  the  varieties  of  the  domestic 
pigeon  is  now  almost  universally  believed  to  be 
the  rock  pigeon  or  rock  dove  ( C .  lima). 

Pigeon  Pea  ( Cajanus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminosce,  much  cultivated  in 
the  West  Indies  and  in  Africa,  the  pulse  of 
which  is  used  chiefly  by  negroes. 

Pike  (/Nor),  a  genus  of  malacopterous  fishes  in¬ 
cluding  all  the  species  of  the  family  Esocidce,  as 
restricted  by  Muller,  and  characterized  by  an 
elongated  body,  covered  with  scales,  a  depressed 
head,  and  broad  blunt  muzzle,  with  very  large 
mouth,  abundantly  furnished  with  teeth  of  vari¬ 
ous  sizes  on  the  jaws,  palatine  bones,  and  vomer; 
no  adipose  tin;  and  the  dorsal  fin  placed  very  far 
back  over  the  anal  fin.  The  species  are  not  nu 
merous;  they  are  all  inhabitants  of  fresh  waters  in 
the  Northern  Hemisphere.  Only  one  is  found  in 
Europe,  the  common  pike  (E.  lucius),  a  native 
also  of  Asia  and  North  America.  Other  species 
of  pike  are  found  in  the  lakes  and  rivers  of  North 
America,  as  Esox  estor,  which  is  sprinkled  with 
round  blackish  spots,  and  E.  reticularis,  which  is 
marked  with  a  network  of  brownish  lines. 

Pike-perch  ( Lucioperca ),  a  genus  of  the  perch 
family  having  two  dorsal  fins,  resembling  the 
pike  in  its  elongated  form,  large  mouth  and  for¬ 
midable  teeth.  Several  species  are  known,  of 
which  one  {L.  sandra)  is  common  in  most  of  the 
rivers  and  lakes  of  the  Northeast  of  Europe.  An¬ 
other  species  (L.  americana),  much  resembling  it, 
of  a  greenish-yellow  color,  is  found  in  the  lakes 
and  rivers  of  North  America. 

Pike's  Peak,  a  peak  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
Colorado,  seventy-five  miles  south  of  Denver, 
discovered  by  General  Pike,  U.  S.  A.,  in  1806. 
Its  height  is  14,151  feet.  Au  important  high- 
level  observatory  has  been  established  near  the 
summit  of  the  mountain. 

Pikeville,  the  county  seat  of  Bledsoe  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  245. 

Pikeville,  the  county  seat  of 
Pike  county,  Ivy.  Pop.,  546. 

Pilas'ter,  in  Classical  Archi¬ 
tecture,  a  square  pillar,  sometimes 
standing  free,  but  usually  attached 
to  a  wall,  from  which  it  projects 
's.  i,  or  other  definite  proportion 
of  its  breadth.  Greek  pilasters 
or  antse,  were  of  the  same  breadth 
from  top  to  bottom,  and  had  differ¬ 
ent  capitals  and  bases  from  those 
of  the  orders  with  which  they  were 
associated.  The  Romans  gave 
them  a  taper  like  the  columns, 
and  the  same  capitals  and  bases. 

Pilcomay'o,  a  river  of  South 
America,  draws  its  waters  from  the 
Bolivian  Andes,  and  is  formed  by 
the  confluence  of  two  rivers,  the 
Suipacha  and  the  Pilaya.  It  empties 
into  the  Paraguay. 

Pile,  iu  Heraldry  (from  Lat.  pilum,  a  javelin; 
or  from  the  pile  or 
stake  used  in  the  con- 1 
struction  of  a  1 
bridge),  an  ordinary,  1 
or,  according  to  some  \ 
heralds,  a  subordi-  \ 
nary,  in  the  form  of  J 
a  wedge,  issuing  gen¬ 
erally  from  the  mid-  Pi|e. 

•lie  chief,  and  extending  toward  the  middle  base 
of  the  shield. 

Piles,  or  Hemorrhoids,  are  small  tumors 
situated  either  within  or  on  the  verge  of  the  anus. 
These  tumors  are  divided  into  bleeding  and  blind 
piles,  according  as  they  are  or  are  not  accom¬ 
panied  with  hemorrhage;  and  into  internal  and 
external  piles,  according  as  they  are  within  or 
without  the  sphincter  muscle  of  the  anus.  The 
following  are  the  general  symptoms  of  this  affec¬ 
tion:  The  patient,  after  having  experienced  for 
a  varying  time  a  feeling  of  heat,  fullness,  and  dull 
pain  about  the  lower  part  of  the  bowel,  becomes 
conscious  of  a  sensation  as  if  there  wTere  a  foreign 
body  in  the  anus;  and  on  examination  after  an 
evacuation,  discovers  a  small  tumor,  usually 
about  the  size  of  a  grape,  which  either  remains 
outside  or  is  retracted,  according  as  it  originated 
without  or  within  the  sphincter.  Piles  may  be 


caused  by  any  circumstances  which  cause  con¬ 
gestion  in  the  lower  bowel,  particularly  constipa¬ 
tion.  In  the  treatment  of  piles,  it  is  expedient  to 
relieve  the  congested,  state  of  the  lower  bowel  by 
one  or  two  doses  of  sulphate  of  magnesia,  and  a 
cooling  vegetable  diet,  after  which  the  continued 
use  of  mild  laxatives  should  be  resorted  to.  A 
teaspoonful  of  an  electuary,  consisting  of  an 
ounce  of  confection  of  senna,  half  an  ounce  of 
cream  of  tartar,  and  half  an  ounce  of  sulphur,  if 
taken  in  the  middle  of  the  dav,  usually  acts 
gently  about  bedtime,  which  is  far  the  best  time 
for  the  bowels  of  patients  of  this  kind  to  act,  as 
the  parts  irritated  by  the  passage  of  the  evacua¬ 
tion  become  quieted  during  the  night.  In  long¬ 
standing  cases,  in  which  there  is  general  relaxa¬ 
tion  of  the  mucous  membrane,  the  confection  of 
pepper  in  doses  of  a  drachm  may  be  given  thrice 
daily  with  advantage,  or  a  scruple  of  common 
pitch  may  be  taken  at  bedtime  in  the  form  of 
pills  or  in  capsules.  Amongst  the  milder  forms 
of  local  treatment  must  be  mentioned  (1)  the 
injection  of  the  rectum  with  cold  water  both 
before  and  after  the  motion;  (2)  washing  the  anus 
with  yellow  soap  and  water  aftereach  evacuation; 
(3)  the  application  of  gall  ointment  or  of  other 
astringents;  and  (4)  the  injection  of  astringent 
lotions,  as,  for  instance,  of  sulphate  of  iron,  in 
the  proportion  of  a  grain  to  an  ounce  of  water. 
When  the  piles  are  inflamed,  leeches  to  the  anus 
(but  not  applied  directly  to  the  tumors)  are  some¬ 
times  required;  but  the  inflammation  generally 
subsides  under  the  influence  of  rest  in  the  hori¬ 
zontal  position,  fomentations,  poultices,  and  low 
diet.  The  treatment  of  the  hemorrhage  that 
frequently  accompanies  piles  requires  a  few 
words.  If  the  bleeding  is  moderate  in  quantity, 
and  lias  continued  for  some  time  without  induc¬ 
ing  weakness  or  any  other  bad  symptoms,  it  is 
not  expedient  to  interfere  with  it.  When,  how¬ 
ever,  it  obviously  requires  checking,  the  effect  of 
cold  water  injected  into  the  rectum,  as  already 
recommended,  should  be  tried,  and,  in  case  of  its 
failing,  astringent  injections  should  be  had  re¬ 
course  to.  At  the  same  time,  the  patient  should 
remain  in  the  horizontal  position,  and  take  the 
medicines  usually  prescribed  for  internal  hemor¬ 
rhage,  amongst  which  may  be  especially  men¬ 
tioned  oil  of  turpentine,  in  doses  of  twenty  drops 
three  or  four  times  a  day,  or  ergot  of  rye  in 
divided  doses  to  the  extent  of  a  drachm  daily. 

Pillar,  adetaclied  support  like  a  column;  but 
its  section  may  be  of  any  shape,  whereas  the  col¬ 
umn  is  always  round. 

Pill  'ory,  an  ancient  en¬ 
gine  for  the  public  punish¬ 
ment  of  criminals.  It  con¬ 
sisted  of  a  stout  plank 
fixed  like  a  sign-board  on 
the  top  of  a  pole,  the  pole 
being  supported  on  a 
wooden  platform  elevated 
above  the  ground.  Above, 
and  parallel  to  this  plank 
another  of  similar  dimen¬ 
sions  was  placed  in  a  simi¬ 
lar  position  with  respect 
to  the  pole,  and  fixed  to 
the  former  by  a  hinge,  be¬ 
ing  thus  capable  of  being 
moved  upward  from  it, 
or  closed  upon  it,  when 
necessary.  A  large  cir¬ 
cular  hole  is  cut,  with  its 
center  in  the  line  of  junc¬ 
tion  of  the  two  planks, 
and  two  corresponding 
holes  of  smaller  size  are  Pillar, 

formed,  one  on  each  side  of  it;  the  large  hole  is 
for  receiving  the  neck,  and  the  twro  smaller  the 
wrists.  When  a  criminal  is  to  be  placed  in  the 
pillory,  he  is  made  to  mount  and  stand  upon  the 
platform;  the  upper  of  the  two  hinged  planks  is 
raised  to  allow'  the  culprit’s  neck  and  wrists  to 
be  inserted  in  their  proper  grooves,  and  then 
brought  down  into  its  place,  and  fastened  by  a 
padlock,  or  in  some  other  way. 

Pilot-fish  ( Naucratcs  ductor),  a  fish  of  the 
family  Scomberidce.  The  shape  of  the  pilot-fish 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  mackerel.  It  is 
usually  about  a  foot  long.  It  is  common  in 
the  Mediterranean.  Its  popular  name  is  derived 


Pilaster. 


PIMENTO. 


597 


PIQUET. 


from  its  habit  of  following  ships  and  accom¬ 
panying  sharks. 

Pinien'to,  Pi.menta,  Allspice,  or  Jamaica 
Pepper,  a  well-known  spice,  is  the  dried  fruit 
of  Eugenia  pimento ,  a  small  West  Indian  tree. 
The  pimento  tree  is  much  cultivated  in  some  of 
the  West  Indian  Islands. 

Pin.  As  a  requisite  of  the  toilet,  etc.,  pins 
were  first  used  in  Britain  in  the  latter  part  of  tM 
fifteenth  century;  they  were  at  first  made  of  iron 
wire,  but  in  1540  bjjass  ones  were  imported  from 
France  by  Catharine  Howard,  Queen  of  Henry 
VIII.  At  first,  pins  were  made  by  filing  a  point 
to  a  proper  length  of  wire,  and  then  twisting  a 
piece  of  fine  wire  around  the  other  extremity  in 
order  to  form  a  nob  or  head;  but  in  1824,  Well¬ 
man  Wright,  an  American  inventor,  devised  a 
machine  for  forming  the  head,  by  pressing  the 
metal  of  the  pin  itself.  The  entire  process  of 
pin-making,  even  including  t he  inserting  of  them 
in  rows  into  paper,  is  now  done  by  machinery. 

Pinckney  ville,  the  count}' seat  of  Perry  county, 
Ill.  Pop., 1,600. 

Pin'dar  (Gr.  Pindaros),  the  great  lyric  poet  of 
Greece,  was  born  about  522  b.c.,  of  a  noble  family 
of  Thebes,  at  Cynocephalae,  a  village  in  that 
territory.  He  died  probably  in  442  b.c.,  in  his 
eightieth  year. 

Cine  ( Plans ),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Conifercr.  To  this  genus  belong  many  noble 
and  useful  trees.  Most  of  the  pines  are  more  or 
less  social,  one  kind  often  covering  a  considerable 
tract;  some  of  them  clothing  the  sides  and  even 
the  summits  of  mountains  with  magnificent  but 
somber  forests;  some  growing  in  lower  situations, 
on  otherwise  unproductive  sandy  grounds,  as  the 
pine  barrens  of  North  America.  There  are 
numerous  species  of  pine  in  North  America,  the 
most  valuable  of  which  is  the  long  leaf  or 
Southern  pine,  which  furnishes  the  greater  portion 
of  the  resin,  tar,  and  turpentine  of  the  world’s 
commerce.  Its  timber  is  also  very  valuable  for 
house  and  sliip-building.  The  timber  of  the  other 
species  is  more  or  less  useful,  ranging  in  grade 
from  that  used  for  house-building  to  that  used  for 
packing  cases.  The  Scotch  pine  or  Scotch  fir  (P. 
sylrextris)  is  the  only  species  indigenous  to 
Britain.  Its  timber  is  highly  valuable,  being 
very  resinous  and  durable,  and  is  the  red  deal 
or  red  pine  used  in  house  and  ship-carpentry. 
Other  varieties  of  pine  abound  in  almost  every 
portion  of  the  globe,  and  furnish  timber  of  greater 
or  less  importance  in  the  useful  arts.  The  seeds 
of  some  varieties  are  eaten,  while  almost  all  of 
them  produce  either  resin  or  oil  of  value  in  the 
arts  or  pharmacy. 

Pine'al  Body,  is  a  small  reddisli-gray  body, 
of  a  conical  form,  and  deriving  its  name  from  its 
resemblance  to  the  fruit  of  the  pine.  It  rests 
upon  the  corporc  quadrigemina  of  the  brain,  in 
front  of  the  cerebellum.  It  is  about  4  lines  in 
length,  and  from  2  to  8  in  width  at  its  base.  It 
is  larger  in  the  child  than  in  the  adult,  and  in  the 
female  than  in  the  male.  It  consists  chiefly  of 
gray  matter,  and  in  its  base  is  a  small  cavity, 
which  contains  a  transparent  viscid  fluid,  in  which 
are  granules  composed  chiefly  of  phosphate  and 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  termed  acervulus  cerebri. 
Tiiis  organ  was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  the 
seat  of  the  soul. 

Pineapple,  or  Ananas  ( A  nanassa  saliva),  a 
plant  of  the  natural  order  Bromeliacece,  highly 
esteemed,  and  much  cultivated  for  its  fruit.  The 
pineapple  is  a  native  of  tropical  America;  it  is 
found  wild  in  sandy  maritime  districts  in  the 
Northeast  of  South  America,  but  it  has  been  very 
much  changed  by  cultivation.  A  spirituous 
liquor  (pineapple  rum)  is  made  from  the  pineapple 
in  some  warm  countries. 

Pine  Bluff,  thecounty  seat  of  Jefferson  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  6,600. 

Pine-cliafer,  or  Pine-beetle  ( Hylurgus  pini- 
perdn ),  a  small  coleopterous  insect  of  the  family 
Xylophagi.  Pines  growing  in  open  situations  are 
little  liable  to  the  attacks  of  this  insect;  and  trees 
of  thirty  feet  in  height,  or  upward,  are  very 
rarely  attacked.  The  insect  is  about  the  size  of 
a  seed  of  the  Scotch  fir,  and  of  a  black  or  dark- 
brown  color. 

Pine  City,  the  county  seat  of  Pine  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  515. 

Pine-finch,  or  Pine  Grosbeak  ( Corythus ),  a 


genus  of  birds  of  the  family  Fringillida ,  nearly 
allied  to  bullfinches  and  crossbills.  This  bird 
frequents  pine  forests,  and  associates  in  flocks 
in  winter.  It  is  easily  tamed.  Its  song  is  rich 
and  full. 

Pine  Level,  the  county  seat  of  De  Sofa  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  200. 

Pinel,  Philippe,  a  celebrated  French  physi¬ 
cian,  was  born  April  20,  1745,  at  Saint  Andre,  in 
the  Department  of  Tarn,  France.  He  died  at 
Paris,  Oct.  26,  1826.  Pinel  gained  for  himself 
undying  fame  by  his  reformation  of  the  old,  bar¬ 
barous  methods  of  treating  the  insane. 

Pineville,  the  county  seat  of  Bell  county,  Ky. 
Pop.,  350. 

Pineville,  the  county  seat  of  McDonald  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  210. 

Pink  ( Dianthus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Caryophyltacece,  of  which  there  are 


China  Pink. 


many  species,  annuals  and  perennials,  with  beau¬ 
tiful  and  often  fragrant  flowers,  chiefly  natives  of 
Europe  and  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia. 

Pint,  a  measure  of  capacity  used  both  for 
liquids  and  solid  goods,  and  equivalent  to  the 
eighth  part  of  a  gallon,  or  34.65925  cubic  inches. 

Pin/tail,  or  Pintail  Duck  (Dafiln),  a  genus  of 
ducks,  of  the  section  with  the  liind-toe  destitute 
of  membrane.  The  bill  is  without  tubercle  at  the 
base,  narrow,  with  laminae  not  projecting  beyond 


the  margin.  The  tail  of  the  male  is  long,  and 
tapers  to  a  point  It  isa  native  of  all  the  northern 
parts  of  the  world,  migrating  southward  in  winter. 

Piuclie,  the  county  seat  of  Lincoln  county, 
Nev.  Pop.,  745. 

Pip,  Chip,  or  Roup,  a  disease  of  poultry,  often 
very  fatal,  particularly  to  chickens  and  turkey 
poults.  It  is  very  frequent  also  in  young  pheas¬ 
ants.  Adult  birds  are,  however,  liable  to  it;  and 
when  it  appears  in  a  poultry-yard,  it  often  attacks 
many  in  rapid  succession,  so  that  it  is  regarded  as 
highly  contagious.  It  most  frequently  occurs  in 
wet  or  very  cold  weather,  and  is  generally 
described  as  a  kind  of  catarrh,  although  perhaps 
it  might  more  accurately  be  called  a  kind  of  in- 
|  fluenza.  It  begins  with  a  slight  hoarseness  and 


catching  in  the  breath,  which  is  followed  by  an 
offensive  discharge  from  the  nostrils  and  eyes, 
rattling  in  the  throat,  and  an  accumulation  of 
mucus  in  the  mouth,  forming  a  “scale”  on  the 
tongue.  The  communicaiion  of  the  disease  from 
one  bird  to  another  is  supposed  to  take  place 
through  the  contamination  of  the  water  in  their 
common  drinking- vessel;  and  therefore  a  bird 
affected  with  it  should  at  once  be  removed  from 
the  rest.  Castor-oil  is  freely  administered  by 
some  poultry-keepers.  A  medicine  composed  of 
half  a  drachm  of  dried  sulphate  of  iron,  and  one 
drachm  of  capsicum,  made  into  thirty  pills  with 
extract  of  liquorice,  one  pill  to  be  given  three 
times  a  day,  lias  been  recommended.  This  after  a 
certain  time  is  to  be  followed  by  another  com¬ 
pound  of  sulphate  of  iron,  cayenne  pepper,  and 
butter.  The  eyes,  nostrils,  and  mouth  are  to  be 
washed  with  vinegar,  and  it  is  specially  recom¬ 
mended  that  the  diseased  birds  should  be  kept 
warm;  they  are  to  be  fed  on  oatmeal  mixed  with 
ale,  and  to  get  plenty  of  green  food. 

Pipa,  a  genus  of  batrachians,  in  general  form 
resembling  frogs  and  toads.  The  best-known 
species  of  pipa  is  that  commonly  called  the 
Surinam  toad  ( P .  surinamensis),  a  native  of 
Guiana  and  other  warm  parts  of  continental 
America. 

Pipe-fish  ( Syngnathus ),  a  genus  of  osseous 
fishes  of  the  order  Lophobranchii,  and  of  the  fam¬ 
ily  Syngnathidie.  In  this  family  the  form  is 
elongated,  there  is  little  flesh,  and  the  body  is 
almost  covered  with  partially  ossified  plates;  the 


Pipe-fish  (Syngnathus  acus). 


head  is  long;  the  jaws  are  elongated  so  as  to  form 
a  tubular  snout;  and  the  males  have  pouches, 
variously  situated,  in  which  they  receive  the  eggs 
of  their  mate,  and  carry  them  till  they  are  hatched. 

Pipe  Stone  (so  called  from  the  ancient  Indian 
pipestone  quarries,  situated  in  the  vicinity),  the 
county  scat  of  Pipe  Stone  county,  Minn.  Pop., 
1,200. 

Pip'pin  (so  called  probably  because  raised  from 
the  pip,  or  seed),  a  name  given  to  many  varieties 
of  apple,  among  which  are  some  of  the  finest  in 
cultivation,  as  the  golden  pippin,  ribston  pippin, 
etc. 

Piqna,  the  capital  of  Miami  county,  Ohio. 
Pop.,  8,100. 

Piquet,  a  game  of  cards  played  between  two 
persons  with  thirty-two  cards — viz.,  the  four 
honors,  and  the  highest  four  plain  cards  of  each 
suit.  The  cards  are  shuffled  and  cut  as  in  whist, 
and  then  dealt,  two  by  two,  till  each  player  has 
twelve;  and  the  remaining  eight,  called  the  talon, 
or  stock,  are  then  laid  on  the  table.  The  first 
player  must  then  discard  from  one  to  five  of  his 
cards,  replacing  them  with  a  similar  number  from 
the  talon;  and  after  him  the  younger  hand  may 
discard  if  he  pleases,  similarly  making  up  his 
proper  number  from  tlie  remaining  cards  of  the 
talon.  The  player  who  first  scores  100  wins 
the  game,  and  the  score  is  made  up  by  reckoning 
in  the  following  order ;  carte-blanche,  the  point, 
the  sequence,  the  quatorze,  the  cards,  and  the 
capot.  Carte-blanche  is  a  hand  of  twelve  plain 
cardsand  counts  ten  fortlie  player  who  possesses  it. 
The  point  is  the  greatest  number  of  cards  in  any 
suit,  or,  if  the  players  are  equal  in  this  respect,  that 
which  is  highest  in  value  (the ace  counting  eleven, 
each  court-card  ten,  and  the  plain  cards  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  number  of  pips),  and  counts  a  number 
equal  to  the  number  of  cards  in  the  suit.  The 
sequence  is  a  regular  succession  of  three  or  more 
cards  in  one  suit,  and  the  highest  sequence  ( i .  e., 
the  one  containing  the  greatest  number  of  cards, 
or  if  the  players  have  sequences  equal  in  this  re¬ 
spect,  the  one  of  the  two  which  begins  with  the 


PIRACY. 


598 


PIUS. 


highest  card),  if  of  three  cards,  counts  three; 
of  four  cards,  four;  of  live  cards,  fifteen;  of  six 
cards,  sixteen,  etc.  The  quatorze  is  a  set  of  four 
equal  cards  (not  lower  than  tens),  as  four  aces, 
four  queens,  etc.,  and  the  highest  quatorze  counts 
fourteen  for  its  holder;  but  should  neither  player 
have  a  quatorze,  then  the  highest  set  of  three  is 
counted  instead,  but  it  reckons  only  three.  The 
possessor  of  the  highest  sequence  or  the  highest 
quatorze  also  counts  all  inferior  sequences  and 
quatorzes  (including  sets  of  three);  while  his  oppo¬ 
nent’s  sequences  and  quatorzes  go  for  nothing. 
The  first  player  reckons  his  points,  and  plays  a 
card ;  the  dealer  then  reckons  his  points  and  follows 
his  opponent's  lead,  and  cards  are  laid  and  tricks 
are  taken  as  in  any  ordinary  card  game.  Each 
player  counts  one  for  every  card  he  leads,  and  the 
taker  of  the  trick  (if  second  player)  counts  one 
for  it;  the  possessor  of  the  greater  number  of 
tricks  counting  ten  in  addition  (the  cards),  or  if  he 
takes  all  the  tricks  he  counts  forty  in  addition 
(the  capot).  If  one  player  counts  thirty — i.  e., 
twenty-nine  by  his  various  points,  and  one  for  the 
card  lie  leads,  before  his  adversary  has  counted 
anything,  he  at  once  doubles  his  score,  reckoning 
sixty  instead  of  thirty  (this  is  called  the  pique); 
and  should  his  score  reach  thirty  before  he  plays 
a  card,  or  his  adversary  begins  to  count,  he 
mounts  at  once  to  ninety  (the  re-pique). 

Pi 'racy  is  robbery  on  the  high  sea,  and  is  an 
offense  against  the  law  of  nations.  It  is  a  crime 
not  against  any  particular  State,  but  against  all 
mankind,  and  may  be  punished  in  the  competent 
tribunal  of  any  country  where  the  offender  may 
be  found,  or  into  which  he  may  be  carried,  al¬ 
though  committed  on  board  a  foreign  vessel  on 
the  high  seas.  It  is  of  the  essence  of  piracy  that 
the  pirate  has  no  commission  from  a  sovereign 
State,  or  from  one  belligerent  State  at  war  with 
another.  Pirates  being  the  common  enemies  of  all 
mankind,  and  all  nations  having  an  equal  interest 
in  their  apprehension  and  punishment,  they  may 
be  lawfully  captured  on  the  high  seas  by  armed 
vessels  of  any  particular  State,  and  brought  wit  hin 
its  territorial  jurisdiction  for  trial  in  its  tribunals. 

Pine 'us  (Gr.  Peiicesus),  the  principal  harbor  of 
ancient  and  modern  Athens. 

Pi  'sa,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  beautiful 
cities  of  Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  which  formed  part  of  the  late  Grand  Duchy 
of  Tuscany,  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  River 
Arno,  which  intersects  the  city  and  is  spanned  by 
three  noble  bridges.  Pisa  is  situated  in  43°  43' 
N.  latitude,  and  11®  24'  E.  longitude.  The  pop. 
was,  in  1881,  53,957. 

Pis 'til,  in  Botany,  the  female  organ  of  fructifi¬ 
cation  in  phanerogamous  plants-  that  part  of  the 


Pistils. 


1,  Section  of  flower  of  a  species  of  primrose,  showing  the 
pistil  laid  open;  numerous  ovules  attached  to  a  free 
central  placenta.  2,  Section  of  flower  of  comfrey,  with 
corolla  removed,  showing  two  of  the  four  ovaries,  and 
the  style.  3,  Pistil  of  the  barberry,  consisting  of  several 
carpels  combined;  the  style  very  short  and  thick,  the 
stigma  shield-like.  4,  Section  of  the  ovary  of  a  lily.  5, 
Section  of  flower  of  cherry,  showing  pistil  of  two  sepa¬ 
rate  carpels,  only  one  of  which  comes  to  perfection  in 
fruit,  fi,  Pistil  of  pea,  opened;  a.  ovule;  6,  placenta; 
/,  umbilical  cord— From  Balfour’s  Class-Book  of  Botany. 

flower  which,  after  flowering  is  over,  is  developed 
into  the  fruit. 


Pi  'sa,  Council  of,  one  of  the  councils  com¬ 
monly  reputed  by  Roman  Catholics  as  oecumeni¬ 
cal  or  general.  It  was  opened  at  Pisa,  March  25, 
1409,  there  being  present  22  cardinals,  4  patriarchs, 
12  archbishops,  80  bishops,  together  with  repre¬ 
sentatives  of  12  archbishops  and  102  bishops,  and 
a  vast  body  of  abbots,  doctors  in  theology,  and 
other  eminent  ecclesiastics. 

Piscat'aqua,  a  river  about  80  miles  in  length, 
which  forms  the  southern  part  of  the  boundary 
between  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  and  empties 
itself  into  the  Atlantic,  forming  at  its  mouth  the 
excellent  harbor  of  Portsmouth. 

Pistole',  the  name  formerly  given  to  certain 
gold  coins  current  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  several 
parts  of  Germany.  The  pistole  was  first  used  in 
Spain,  and  varied  in  value  from  $2.05  to  $1.94. 
The  Italian  pistole  varied  in  value  from  $5.11  to 
$1.65. 

Pit 'cairn  Island,  a  solitary  island  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  lying  at  the  southeastern  comer  of 
the  great  Polynesian  Archipelago,  in  latitude  25® 
3'  6"  S.,  and  longitude  130®  6'  W  Its  length 
(2i  miles)  is  about  twice  its  breadth,  and  the  total 
content  is  approximately  lir  square  miles.  It  was 
occupied  in  1790  by  the  mutineers  of  the  Bounty, 
whose  descendants  yet  occupy  the  island,  being 
under  British  protection.  The  total  pop.  in 
1881  was  96. 

Pitch.  The  common  kind  of  pitch  is  the  black 
residue  which  remains  after  distilling  wood-tar. 
It  is  made  extensively  in  Russia,  Norway,  and 
North  America. 

Pitch,  the  degree  of  acuteness  of  musical 
sounds.  A  musical  sound  is  produced  by  a  series 
of  vibrations  recurring  on  the  ear  at  precisely 
equal  intervals;  the  greater  the  number  of  vibra¬ 
tions  in  a  given  time,  the  more  acute  or  higher  is 
the  pitch. 

Pitchblende,  a  mineral  which  is  essentially 
oxide  of  uranium,  with  slight  mixtures  of  other 
substances.  Its  color  is  grayish-black  or  brown- 
isli-black. 

Pitclistone,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  a 
variety  of  common  opal,  brown,  black,  gray,  red 
or  of  mixed  colors. 

Pitchurim  Beans,  or  Sassafras  Nuts,  an 
occasional  article  of  importation  from  South 
America,  are  the  seed-lobes  of  Nectandra  puchury, 
a  tree  of  the  same  genus  with  the  greenheart. 

Pitt,  William,  the  second  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Chatham,  and  of  Lady  Hester  Grenville,  daughter 
of  the  Countess  Temple,  was  born  May  28,  1759. 
He  was  the  head  of  the  British  Cabinet  for  seven¬ 
teen  years  of  the  most  eventful  period  in  the  his¬ 
tory  of  the  world.  He  succeeded  in  effecting  the 
organic  union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  but 
his  ministry  was  uniformly  unsuccessful  in  its 
foreign  policy.  He  died  Jan.  23,  1806. 

Pit'tacus,  one  of  the  “Seven  Wise  Men”  of 
ancient  Greece,  was  born  at  Mitylene,  in  the 
Island  of  Lesbos,  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century  b.c.  He  died  in  569  b.c. 

Pittsborough,  the  county  seat  of  Calhoun 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  225. 

Pittsborough,  the  county  seat  of  Chatham 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  850. 

Pitts'burgli,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Alleghany  and  Monongahela 
rivers,  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio,  latitude  40°  26' 
34' '  N.,  longitude  80°  2'  38"  W.  It  is  situated 
among  some  of  the  richest  deposits  of  bituminous 
coal  and  iron  in  America.  Tbe  city  possesses  num¬ 
erous  iron-foundries,  and  iron  and  steel  works, 
nearly  600  furnaces,  extensive  machine  shops,  and 
manufactures  of  steam-boilers,  engines,  nails,  etc. 
The  annual  value  of  the  iron  manufactures  is  about 
$30,000,000.  There  are  also  copper-smelting  and 
rolling  mills,  several  cotton-mills,  oil-refining 
works,  white-lead  and  glass  works.  The  numer¬ 
ous  foundries  and  factories  fill  the  atmosphere 
with  smoke,  and  have  given  Pittsburgh  the  name 
of  the  Birmingham  of  America.  It  is  connected 
by  steamboats  with  the  whole  Mississippi  Valley; 
and  by  railways  and  canals  with  theentire  Union. 
It  occupies  the  site  of  Fort  Pitt,  and  the  older 
French  Fort  Duquesne,  in  an  expedition  against 
which,  the  British  General  Braddoc-k,  was  de¬ 
feated  in  1755,  by  an  allied  force  of  French  and 
Indians.  It  was  taken,  on  a  third  attempt,  by 
General  Forbes  in  1758.  The  city  was  chartered 


in  1816;  in  1845,  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire. 
Pop.  (1889),  157,000. 

Pittsburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Camp  county, 
Tex;  Pop.,  1,045. 

Pittsfield,  a  city  in  Massachusetts,  157  miles 
west  of  Boston.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  woolen  goods,  etc.,  a  medical  college,  nine 
churches,  etc.  Pop.  (1889),  15,000. 

^’ittsfield,  the  county  seat  of  Pike  county,  Ill. 
H>p.,  2,600. 

Pitu'itary  Body,  a  small  reddisli-gray  mass  of 
an  oval  form,  weighing  from  six  to  ten  grains, 
and  situated  on  the  sella  turcica  of  the  sphenoid 
bone,  on  the  floor  of  the  cavity  of  the  skull.  It  is 
very  vascular,  and  in  its  structure  it  resembles  the 
ductless  glands.  In  the  foetus,  it  is  relatively 
larger  than  in  the  adult;  and  contains  a  cavity 
which  subsequently  disappears. 

Pityri'asis  (from  the  Greek  word  mrvpov, 
pityron,  bran)  is  tbe  term  given  to  one  of  the 
squamous  or  scaly  diseases  of  the  skin,  in  which 
there  is  a  continual  throwing  off  of  bran-like 
scales  of  epidermis,  which  are  renewed  as  fast  as 
they  are  lost.  It  may  occur  upon  any  part  of  the 
body,  giving  rise  to  brown  patches,  in  which 
there  are  sensations  of  itching,  tingling,  or  prick¬ 
ing.  The  treatment  of  this  affection  must  be 
solely  local.  Many  cases  have  yielded  at  once  to 
a  couple  of  sulphur  baths.  Probably  the  best 
remedy  is  the  application  of  a  saturated  watery 
solution  of  sulphurous  acid  gas,  or  of  one  of  the 
sulphites  dissolved  in  diluted  vinegar. 

Pi  'US,  the  name  of  nine  among  the  Roman  Pon¬ 
tiffs,  of  whom  the  following  only  appear  to  call 
for  particular  notice. — Pius  II.,  originally  known 
as  /Eneas  Sylvius,  was  a  member  of  tiie  noble 
family  of  Piccolomini,  and  was  born  (1405)  at 
Corsignano,  in  the  Duchy  of  Siena.  On  the 
death  of  Callistus  in  1458,  he  was  elected  Pope, 
and  took  the  name  of  Pius  II.  Pius  died  Aug.  14, 
1464. — Pius  IV.,  Giovanni  Angelo  Medici,  uncle 
of  Saint  Carlo  Borromeo,  deserves  to  be  noticed 
from  his  connection  with  the  celebrated  creed 
known  under  his  name.  He  was  elected  in  1560; 
and  his  pontificate  is  chiefly  memorable  as  that  in 
which  the  protracted  deliberations  of  the  council 
of  Trent  were  brought  to  a  close.  Pius  died  Dec. 
8,  1565. — Pius  V.,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  originally  named  Michele  Ghisleri,  was 
born  of  poor  parents,  in  the  village  of  Bosco,  near 
Alessandria,  in  1504,  and  immediately  after  the 
death  of  Pius  IV.,  was  chosen  unanimously  as 
his  successor,  Jan.  8,  1566.  Pius  died  in  May, 
1572. — Pius  VI.,  originally  named  Angelo  Braschi 
was  born  at  Cesena,  Dec.  27,  1717.  On  the 
death  of  Clement  XIV.,  Cardinal  Braschi  was 
chosen  to  succeed  him,  Feb.  15,  1775.  He  died 
in  August,  1799,  in  the  eighty-second  year  of  his 
age,  and  the  twenty-fourth  of  his  pontificate. — 
Pius  VII.,  originally  Gregory  Barnabas  Cliiara- 
monte,  was  born  at  Cesena  in  1742.  After  the 
death  of  Pius  VI.,  Cardinal  Chiaramonte  was 
chosen  his  successor  (March  14,  1800).  In  July, 
1823,  having  reached  the  patriarchal  age  of  cighty- 
one,  he  fell  accidentally,  and  broke  his  thigh. 
He  sank  gradually,  and  died  Aug.  20,  1823. — 
Pius  IX.,  Giovanni  Maria  Mastai  Ferretti, 
occupant  of  the  papal  chair  during  one  of  the 
most  event  ful  periods  in  the  history  of  the  papacy, 
was  born  at  Sinigaglia,  May  13,  1792.  Having 
been  successively  Archbishop  of  Spoleto  and  of 
Imola,  Nuncio,  and  Cardinal,  he  was,  on  the  death 
of  Gregory  XVI.  in  1846,  elected  “  by  acclama¬ 
tion”  to  succeed  him.  The  outbreak  of  the 
French  Revolution  of  February,  1848,  precipi¬ 
tated  the  crisis  of  popular  discontent.  Hav  ing  at 
first  confined  himself  to  the  Quirinal,  the  Pope 
at  length  fled  secretly  from  Rome  to  Gaeta,  a 
Neapolitan  seaport  near  the  Roman  frontier.  A 
republic  was  proclaimed  in  Rome,  the  provisional 
heads  of  which  proceeded  to  a  complete  and  radi¬ 
cal  remodeling  of  the  civil  government  of  the 
State.  Pius,  from  his  exile,  addressed  a  remon¬ 
strance  to  the  various  sovereigns.  In  April,  1849, 
a  French  expedition  was  sent  to  Civita  Vecchia, 
which  eventually  advanced  upon  Rome,  and, 
after  a  siege  of  about  thirty  days,  took  possession 
of  the  city,  and  established  a  French  army  of  oc¬ 
cupation  within  the  Roman  State.  The  Pope’s 
government  was  reestablished,  but  he  himself  did 
not  return  till  1850,  when  he  again  entered  upon 
the  administration.  This  he  continued  until  1870, 


PIZARRO. 


599 


PLASTERS. 


when  the  French  troops  were  withdrawn,  and  the 
Italian  army  occupied  Rome,  and  declared  it  the 
capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  thus  sweeping 
away  the  last  vestige  of  the  Pope’s  temporal  au¬ 
thority.  Pius  renewed  with  all  solemnity  his  oft- 
repeated  protest,  and  refusing  an  offered  dotation, 
and  all  other  proposals  of  accommodation,  from 
that  date  declared  himself  a  captive  in  the  Vatican, 
to  which  he  strictly  confined  himself.  Iu  June, 
1871,  he  completed  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  his 
pontificate,  thus  exceeding  the  term  of  all  previ¬ 
ous  pontificates  except  that  assigned  to  St.  Peter, 
and  falsifying  in  his  own  person  the  traditional 
prediction  that  no  pontiff  would  ever  “seethe 
days  of  Peter.”  His  health  was  for  some  years 
precarious;  but  with  the  exception  of  occasional 
interruptions,  he  continued  to  at  tend  personally  to 
all  the  public  affairs,  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical, 
of  his  office.  He  died  Feb.  7,  1878.  In  1869, 
during  his  pontificate,  the  dogma  of  infallibility, 
and  that  of  the  immaculate  conception  were  de¬ 
fined  by  an  (Ecumenical  Council,  convened  at 
Rome. 

Pizarro,  Francisco,  the  Conqueror  of  Peru, 
was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  a 
colonel  of  infantry,  and  a  soldier  of  some  distinc¬ 
tion.  He  was  born  at  Truxillo.  in  Estremadura, 
Spain,  about  1471.  He  fell  a  victim  to  a  con¬ 
spiracy  June  26,  1541. 

Pizzica'to  (Ital.  twitched),  abbreviated  pizz.,  a 
phrase  used  in  Music  for  the  violin  or  violoncello, 
to  denote  that  the  strings  instead  of  being  played 
as  usual  by  the  bow,  are  to  be  twitched  with  the 
fingers  in  the  manner  of  a  harp  or  guitar. 

Placen'ta,  or  After-birth,  a  temporary  organ 
that  is  developed  within  the  uterus  during  preg¬ 
nancy,  and  is,  as  its  popular  name  implies,  expelled 
from  the  maternal  organism  shortly  after  the  birth 
of  the  child  or  young  animal.  It  is  a  spongy 
vascular  mass,  existing  in  some  form  or  other  in 
all  mammals,  excepting  the  .1 larsupialia  and  Mono- 
(remain,  as  an  appendage  to  the  foetal  membrane, 
called  the  chorion.  In  the  human  subject,  it  is  of 
a  considerable  size  at  the  period  of  delivery  being 
of  a  rounded  or  oval  form,  witli  a  diameter  of  6 
or  8  inches,  and  a  thickness  of  somewhat  more 
than  an  inch.  The  pure  maternal  blood  is  con¬ 
veyed  to  the  placenta  by  what  are  termed,  from 
their  tortuous  course,  “the  curling  arteries”  of 
the  uterus,  and  is  returned  by  the  large  veins 
termed  sinuses.  “The  foetal  vessels  being  bathed 
in  this  blood,  as  the  branchiae  of  aquatic  animals 
are  in  the  water  that  surrounds  them,  not  only 
enable  the  foetal  blood  to  exchange  its  venous 
character  for  the  arterial,  by  parting  witli  its  car¬ 
bonic  acid  to  the  maternal  blood,  and  receiving 
oxygen  from  it,  but  they  also  serve  as  rootlets,  by 
which  certain  nutritious  elements  of  the  maternal 
blood  (probably  those  composing  the  liquor  san¬ 
guinis)  are  taken  into  the  system  of  the  foetus.  It 
is  probable,  too,  that  the  placenta  is  to  be  regarded 
as  an  excretory  org.n,  serving  for  the  removal, 
through  the  maternal  blood,  of  excrementitious 
matter,  whose  continued  circulation  through  the 
blood  of  the  foetus  would  be  prejudicial  to  the 
latter.”  Moreover,  recent  investigations  show  that 
the  placenta  secretes,  like  the  liver,  the  saccharine 
matter  known  as  glycogen,  which  probably  takes 
part  in  keeping  up  the  animal  heat.  The  vascular 
connection  between  the  foetus  and  the  placenta  is 
effected  by  the  umbilical  vein  (containing  arterial 
blood)  and  the  two  umbilical  arteries  (containing 
venous  b  ood),  all  of  which  lie  in  the  umbilical 
cord  which  connects  the  foetus  with  the  placenta. 
The  placenta  may  be  formed  at  any  point  of  the 
.uterus,  but  is  most  commonly  on  the  left  side. 
Occasionally  it  is  situated  partially  or  entirely 
over  the  mouth  of  the  womb  ( os  uteri),  in  which 
case  dangerous  flooding  takes  place  previous  to  or 
at  the  period  of  labor.  Another  difficulty  in  mid¬ 
wifery  practice,  but  far  less  serious  than  the 
preceding,  is  undue  retention  of  the  placenta.  The 
principal  causes  of  retention  are  either  imperfect 
and  insufficient,  or  irregular  contraction  of  the 
womb,  after  the  birth  of  the  child.  In  the  first  of 
these  cases,  if  the  uterus  can  not  be  excit  d  to 
sufficient  action,  the  placenta  must  be  withdrawn 
by  steady  traction  of  the  umbilical  cord,  and  if  it 
fail,  extraction  by  the  introduction  of  the  hand 
(an  operation  always  to  be  avoided  if  possible) 
must  be  resorted  to;  in  the  latter  case,  manual  ex¬ 
traction  is  commonly  necessary.  Sometimes,  in 


consequence  of  inflammatory  or  other  affections 
of  the  placenta,  there  may  be  adhesion  between 
its  outer  surface  and  the  inner  surface  of  the 
womb.  This  is  the  most  dangerous  form  of  reten¬ 
tion,  there  being  usually  excessive  flooding,  and 
additionally  the  peril  arising  from  the  decomposi 
lion  of  any  portion  that  can  not  be  removed  with 
out  undue  violence.  The  placenta  acquires  its 
proper  character,  iu  the  human  subject,  during 
the  third  month,  and  it  subsequently  goes  on  in¬ 
creasing  to  the  full  period  of  gestation.  At  about 
the  fourth  month  the  blood,  moving  through  the 
enlarged  uterine  vessels,  produces  a  peculiar  mur¬ 
mur,  which  is  known  as  the  placental  bruit,  re¬ 
sembling  the  sound  made  by  blowing  gently  over 
the  lip  of  a  wide-mouthed  phial,  and  increasing 
in  intensity  and  strength  as  pregnancy  (of  which 
it  is  oue  of  the  characteristic  signs)  advances. 

Placenta,  in  Botany,  a  membrane  of  the  inte¬ 
rior  of  the  gerinen  or  ovary,  to  which  the  ovules 
are  attached  either  immediately  or  by  umbilical 
cords. 

Placer ville,  the  county  seat  of  El  Dorado 
county,  Cal.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Plac'oid  Fishes,  an  order  of  fishes,  in  the 
classification  proposed  by  Agassiz,  characterized 
by  having  placoid  (Gr.  nXdi,  p’ax,  a  broad 
plate)  scales,  irregular  plates  of  hard  bone,  not 
imbricated,  but  placed  near  together  in  the  skin. 
These  scales  or  plates  are  of  considerable  size  in 
some  fishes,  but  in  others  they  are  very  small 
tubercles,  as  in  the  dogfish,  of  which  the  skin 
forms  fine-grained  shagreen. 

Plagios'tomi  (Gr.  transverse-mouthed),  an 
order  of  fishes,  in  the  system  of  Muller,  contain¬ 
ing  the  cartilaginous  fishes  with  placoid  scales, 
and  divided  into  two  sub-orders,  one  containing 
sharks,  and  the  other  rays. 

Plague,  a  very  malignant  kind  of  contagious 
fever  prevailing  at  certain  times  and  places  epi¬ 
demically,  characterized  by  buboes,  or  swellings 
of  the  lymphatic  glands,  by  carbuncles  and  pete¬ 
chia1,  and  not  apparently  furnishing  any  security 
against  its  recurrence  in  the  same  individual.  Its 
true  and  permanent  home  seems  to  be  in  the 
regions  bordering  upon  the  eastern  extremity  of 
the  Mediterranean.  At  different  periods  of  the 
fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centuries,  it 
visited  Western  Europe.  It  last  attacked  London 
and  almost  all  England  in  the  years  1663-1665; 
while  so  late  as  1720,  it  destroyed  nearly  half  the 
population  of  Marseille;  and  seventy  years  after¬ 
ward,  prevailed  in  Russia  and  Poland,  .since  which 
time  it  has  been  almost  unknown  in  Western 
Europe.  It  is  now  limited  chiefly  to  Egypt, 
Syria,  Anatolia,  Greece,  and  Turkey,  occasion¬ 
ally  extending  northward  toward  Russia,  and 
westward  as  far  as  Malta.  The  exact  nature  of 
the  disease  is  unknown.  A  poison,  whose  charac¬ 
ters  evade  all  chemical  and  microscopical  examin¬ 
ation,  is  absorbed,  and  alters  at  once,  or  after  a 
short  stage  of  incubation,  the  composition  of  the 
blood  and  the  condition  of  the  tissues.  With 
respect  to  treatment,  little  can  be  done  to  arrest 
the  progress  of  the  disease  iu  any  individual  case. 
There  can  be  little  doubt  that  it  is  in  consequence 
of  the  free  external  use  of  cold  water,  perfect 
cleanliness,  moderate  habits  of  life,  and  superior 
ventilation,  that  European  residents  in  the  in¬ 
fected  cities  of  the  Levant  are  comparatively  ex¬ 
empt  from  this  disease.  It  is  very  possible  that 
inunction  of  the  body  with  olive  oil  may  be  a  use¬ 
ful  prophylactic  agent,  although  it  fails  to  cure 
the  disease.  All  unnecessary  communication  with 
the  sick,  or  contact  with  clothes  or  other  matter 
that  may  have  been  infected  with  the  poison, 
should  be  as  much  as  possible  avoided. 

Plaice  ( Platessa  vulgaris),  a  species  of  flounder, 
much  resembling  the  common  flounder,  but 
rather  broader  in  proportion  to  its  length;  it  is  a 
native  of  European  rivers. 

Plain,  in  Geography,  is  an  extensive  tract  of 
country  which,  on  the  whole,  preserves  a  nearly 
uniform  elevation.  When  referred  to  the  level  of 
the  sea,  plains  may  lie  distinguished  into  low 
plains  or  lowlands,  and  elevated  plains  called 
plateaux  or  table-lands. 

Plainfield,  a  considerable  commercial  town  in 
Union  county,  N.  J.  Pop.,  9,050. 

Planchette  (a  little  board),  is  a  French  inven¬ 
tion.  It  consists  of  a  heart-shaped  board  7  or 
8  inches  at  its  greatest  breadth  and  length,  | 


mounted  on  two  pentagraph  wheels,  about  2 
inches  high,  at  its  widest  part,  while  a  pencil 
fastened  at  the  apex  forms  its  third  support. 
Placed  upon  a  table  with  a  sheet  of  paper  under 
it,  and  one  or  two  persons  with  the  necessary 
qualifications  having  their  hands  upon  its  tablet, 
setting  it  in  motion,  it  is  found  to  return  answers 
to  questions  sometimes  of  a  puzzling  character. 
These  answers  are  asserted  by  believers  in  spirit¬ 
ualism  to  be  communications  from  the  spirit- 
world. 

Plane,  in  Geometry,  is  a  surface  without  cur¬ 
vature,  and  the  test  of  it  is,  that  any  two  points 
whatever  beiug  taken  in  the  surface,  the  straight 
line  which  joins  them  lies  wholly  in  the  surface. 

Plane  ( Platanus ),  the  sole  genus  of  trees 
of  the  natural  order  Platanacca,  regarded  by 
many  as  a  sub-order  of  Amentacece.  The  button- 
wood  or  sycamore  is  the  only  member  of  the 
family  in  North  America. 

Plan'etoids,  or  Asteroids,  the  name  given 
to  that  numerous  group  of  very  small  planets 
which  are  situated  in  the  solar  system  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter.  Till  the  present  century  they 
remained  undiscovered ;  but  for  some  years  before, 
their  existence  had  been  suspected. 

Plan'ets(Gr.  xAagi/reS,  a  wanderer), are  those 
heavenly  bodies  (including  the  earth)  which  belong 
to  our  solar  system,  and  revolve  in  elliptic  orbits 
round  the  sun.  They  are  often  denominated 
primary  planets,  to  distinguish  them  from  t heir 
moons  or  satellites,  which  are  called  secondary 
planets. 

Plankinton,  the  county  seat  of  Aurora  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  1,069. 

Plant,  a  living  organic  being,  destitute  of  any 
indication  of  mind  or  feeling,  and  sometimes 
defined  as  essentially  differing  from  an  animal  in 
the  want  of  voluntary  motion.  Plants  are  the 
organisms  which  form  the  vegetable  kingdom; 
the  science  which  treats  of  them  is  botany. 

Plantag'enet,  the  surname  of  the  French 
family  of  Anjou,  which,  in  1154,  succeeded  to 
the  throne  of  England  on  the  extinction  of  the 
Norman  dynasty  in  the  male  line,  and  reigned  till 
1485,  when  it  was  supplanted  by  the  family  of 
Tudor. 

Plantag'ineai,  or  Plantagina'ce.e,  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants.  There  are  about  120 
known  species,  diffused  overall  parts  of  the  globe, 
but  most  abundant  in  temperate  and  cold  coun¬ 
tries.  The  most  important  genus  is  Plantugo,  the 
species  of  which  often  receive  the  English  name 
plantain. 

Plant'ain  ( Musa  paradisaica),  a  most  import¬ 
ant  food-plant  of  tropical  countries,  and  one  of 
the  largest  of  herbaceous  plants,  belongs  to  the 
natural  order  Musacece,  and  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  where  numberless  varieties  of  it  have  been 
cultivated  for  thousands  of  years.  It  is  now 
diffused  over  all  the  tropical  and  sub  tropical 
regions  of  the  globe.  So  great  is  the  food  produce 
of  the  plaintain,  that,  according  to  Humboldt’s 
calculation,  it  is  to  that  of  the  potato  as  44  to  1, 
and  to  that  of  wheat  as  133  to  1.  The  plantain 
requires  little  attention. 

Plantain-eater  (  Vusophaga),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  family  Musophagidce,  to  the  whole  of  which 
the  same  English  name  is  often  extended.  The 
Musophagidce  are  tropical  birds,  African  and 
South  American,  of  the  order  Insessores,  and 
tribe  Conirostres,  allied  to  finches,  but  many  of 
them  large,  and  more  like  gallinaceous  birds  than 
finches. 

Plantigra'da,  in  Cuvier’s  zoological  system,  a 
tribe  of  Carnivora,  characterized  by  placing  the 
whole  sole  of  the  foot  on  the  ground  in  walking. 
The  sole  is  generally  destitute  of  hair.  Both  fore 
and  hind  feet  are  five-toed  in  all  the  plantigrada. 

Plaqueinine,  the  county  seat  of  Iberville 
county,  La.  Pop.,  2,061. 

Plasters  are  a  class  of  medicinal  agents  which 
are  employed  externally  with  various  objects. 
They  are  .‘-olid  and  tenacious  compounds,  adhe¬ 
sive  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  body,  and 
owing  their  consistency — 1,  to  the  chemical  com¬ 
bination  of  oxide  of  lead,  with  one  or  more  fatty 
acids;  or  2,  to  a  due  admixture  of  wax,  or  fat, 
and  resin;  or  3,  to  the  chemical  action  of  the  com¬ 
ponent  parts  of  the  plaster  on  each  other.  Strictly 
speaking,  the  term  plaster  should  be  restricted  to 
the  first  class  of  compounds. 


PLATA. 


600 


PLEURODYNIA. 


Plata,  Itio  de  la,  a  wide  estuary  of  South 
America,  between  Uruguay  on  the  north  and  the 
Argentine  Confederation  on  the  south,  forms  the 
mouth  of  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay. 

Plat 'innm  (symbol  Pt,  equiv.  198— sp.  gr. 
21.5)  is  one  of  the  “noble  metals,”  which  may 
De  obtained  in  more  forms  than  one.  It  is  only 
found  in  the  native  state,  usually  occurring  in 
small  glistening  granules  of  a  steel-gray  color, 
which  always  contain  an  admixture,  in  varying 
proportions,  of  several  metals,  most  of  which  are 
rarely  found  except  in  association  with  platinum. 
Sometimes,  however,  it  is  found  in  large  masses. 
It  is  very  useful  in  the  arts,  being  almost  non- 
oxidizable,  and  is  used  to  make  the  most  delicate 
mathematical  and  scientific  instruments.  It  has 
a  wide  range  of  application,  and  only  its  compar¬ 
ative  scarcity  prevents  its  use  for  more  extended 
purposes. 

Plato,  who,  along  with  Aristotle,  represents 
to  modern  Europe  the  whole  compass  of  Greek 
speculation,  was  born  at  Athens  in  the  year  429 
b.c.  He  lived  to  the  age  of  eightv-two;  was 
never  married.  All  his  great  works  have  come 
down  to  us,  and  are:  The  Thecetetus,  Dialogues, 
Sophistes,  T imams  Parmenides,  Crah/las,  Republic 
Georgias,  Phelebus,  Phcedrus,  Banquet,  Phcelo, 
Janes,  and  Commonwealth. 

Plalon'ic  Love,tlie  name  given  to  an  affection 
subsisting  between  two  persons  of  different  sex, 
which  is  presumed  to  be  unaccompanied  by  any 
sensuous  emotions,  and  to  be  based  on  moral  or 
intellectual  affinities. 

Platte  City,  the  county  seat  of  Platte  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  825. 

Plattsburg,  a  village  of  New  York  on  the  west 
shore  of  Lake  Champlain.  In  Plattsburg  Bay 
was  fought  the  naval  Battle  of  Champlain,  in 
which  the  British  flotilla,  under  Commodore 
Downie,  was  defeated  by  the  American  Commo¬ 
dore  M’Donough,  Sept.  11,  1814;  while  the  land 
forces,  amounting  to  14,000  men,  under  Sir 
George  Prevost,  were  defeated  by  General  Ma¬ 
comb.  Pop.  (1870),  5,500. 

Plattsburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Clinton 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  1,400. 

Plattsmoutli,  a  growing  city  of  Cass  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  5,900. 

Platy'stonia  (Gr.  broad  mouth),  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  family  Siluridee,  having  a  very  flat 
(depressed)  snout,  and  a  very  large  mouth  with 
six  long  barbels;  the  skin  quite  destitute  of  scales; 
two  dorsal  fins;  the  eyes  lateral,  level  with  the 
nostrils.  The  species  are  numerous.  Several  are 
natives  of  the  rivers  of  the  northeast  of  South 
America. 

Pleasanton,  the  county  seat  of  Atascosa 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  698. 

Plebe'ians  (Lat.  plebs,  from  same  root  as  Lat. 
impleo,  to  fill,  and  Gr.  p'ethos,  multitude),  the 
common  people  of  Rome;  oneof  the  two  elements 
of  which  the  Roman  nation  consisted. 

Plebiscite,  the  name  given,  in  the  political 
phraseology  of  modern  France,  to  a  decree  of  the 
nation  obtained  by  an  appeal  to  universal  suf¬ 
frage.  Thus,  Louis  Napoleon,  for  example,  was 
chos  n  President,  and  subsequently  Emperor,  by 
a  plebiscite. 

Pledge  is  the  depositing  of  a  chattel  or  mov¬ 
able  with  a  creditor  in  security  of  a  debt,  and  is  a 
contract  between  the  parties  that  the  pledgee  shall 
keep  the  chattel  till  the  debt  is  paid. 

Ple'iades,  in  Greek  Mythology,  were,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  most  general  account  ,  the  seven  daugh¬ 
ters  of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  the  daughter  of  Oceanus. 
Their  history  is  differently  related  by  the  Greek 
mythologists;  according  to  some  authorities  they 
committed  suicide  from  grief,  either  at  the  death 
of  their  sisters,  the  Ilyades,  or  at  the  fate  of  their 
father,  Atlas;  according  to  others,  they  were  com¬ 
panions  of  Artemis  (Diana),  and  being  pursued 
by  Orion,  were  rescued  from  him  by  the  gods  by 
being  translated  to  the  sky;  all  authorities,  how¬ 
ever,  agree  that,  after  their  death  or  translation, 
they  were  transformed  into  stars.  Only  six  of 
these  stars  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  the 
ancients  believed  that  the  sevent  h  hid  herself  from 
shame  that  she  alone  of  the  Pleiades  had  married 
a  mortal,  while  her  six  sisters  were  the  spouses  of 
different  gods.  Their  names  are  Electra,  Maia, 
Taygete,  Alcyone,  Celaeno,  Sterope  (the  invisible 
one),  and  Merope.  In  Astronomy,  a  group  or 


constellation  of  six  stars  placed  on  the  shoulder 
of  Taurus,  the  second  sign  of  the  Zodiac,  and 
forming,  with  the  pole-star  and  the  twin  Castor 
and  Pollux,  the  three  angular  points  of  a  figure 
which  is  nearly  an  equilateral  triangle.  Many 
believe,  from  the  uniform  agreement,  that  the 
pleiades  were  “  seven”  in  number,  that  the  con¬ 
stellation  at  an  early  period  contained  “seven” 
stars,  but  that  one  lias  since  disappeared;  not  a 
very  uncommon  occurrence. 

Plei  'ocene  (Gr.  nXios,  more,  Kr/ve,  recent), 
the  name  given  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  to  a  section 
of  the  upper  tertiaries,  because  the  organic 
remains  found  in  it  contain  between  60  and  70  per 
cent,  of  living  species;  a  greater  proportion  than 
exists  in  the  older  miocene,  but  not  so  great  as 
that  found  in  the  succeeding  pleistocene. 

Pleiosau'rus  (Gr.  literally,  nXioi,  more, 
davpov ,  a  lizard — i.  e.,  than  the  Plesiosaurus),  a 
genus  of  fossil  sea-reptiles  nearly  allied  to  the 
plesiosaurus,  but  having  a  very  short  neck,  and' 
comparatively  a  larger  head. 

Pleis/tocene(Gr.  nXid  rot, most,  k//vf,  recent), 
or  Newer  Pleiocene,  terms  introduced  by  Sir 
Charles  Lyell  to  designate  the  most  recent  tertiary 
deposits,  the  organic  remains  of  which  belong 
almost  exclusively  to  existing  species. 

Plesiosau'rus  (Gr.  nXido,  near  to,  davpov,  a 
lizard),  a  remarkable  genus  of  fossil  sea-reptiles, 
the  species  of  which  are  found  in  the  lias,  oolite, 


Plesiosaurus. 

and  cretaceous  measures.  “To  the  head  of  a 
lizard,  it  united  the  teeth  of  a  crocodile,  a  neck  of 


membrane  of  the  lung,  is  one  of  the  most  serious 
diseases  of  the  chest.  It  is  very  often,  but  by  no 
means  invariably  associated  with  inflammation  of 
the  substance  of  the  lung,  commonly  known  as 
pneumonia.  Pleurisy  without  pneumonia  is 
much  more  common,  than  pneumonia  without 
pleurisy.  The  general  symptoms  of  pleurisy  are 
rigors,  pain  in  the  side,  fever,  difficulty  and 
rapidity  of  breathing,  cough,  and  an  impossibility 
of  assuming  certain  positions  ;  and  of  these,  the 
most  marked  is  the  pain  or  stitch  in  the  side.  In 
acute  pleurisy,  occurring  in  a  robust  and  pre¬ 
viously  healthy  subject,  free  blood-letting  should 
be  at  once  resorted  to.  If  there  is  a  sharp  stitch  in 
the  side,  and  the  respiration  is  short,  quick,  and 
restrained,  the  patient  should  be  bled,  in  the 
upright  position,  from  a  large  orifice  in  the  vein, 
until  the  pain  is  relieved,  and  he  can  draw  a  full 
breath  without  discomfort ;  and  if  the  pain  and 
difficult  breathing  should  return,  and  the  i3ul.se 
continue  firm  and  hard,  either  the  venesection 
must  be  repeated,  or  leeclus  must  be  freely 
applied  to  the  painful  side.  The  bowels  should 
be  freely  evacuated,  after  which  calomel  should 
be  given,  guarded  with  a  little  opium,  to  the 
extent  of  producing  slight  mercurialization,  with 
the  view  of  checking  the  effusion  of  fluid.  After 
the  pain  and  fever  have  ceased,  we  must  facilitate 
the  absorption  of  the  fluid  by  diuretics.  A  pill 
composed  of  half  a  grain  of  digitalis,  a  grain  of 
squills,  and  three 
grains  of  blue  pill 
taken  twice  a  day, 
usually  acts  efficient¬ 
ly  ;  and  the  com¬ 
pound  tincture  of 
iodine  taken,  largely 
diluted,  three  times 
a  day,  has  been 
strongly  recom¬ 
mended. 

Pleth'ora  (Gr. 

TtXebopa,  fullness  or 
excess),  designates  a 
general  excess  of  blood  in  the  system.  Pleth¬ 
ora  is  said  to  be  sthenic  when  the  strength 


enormous  length,  resembling  the  body  of  a  serpent,  I  and  irritability  of  the  muscular  fibers  (espe- 
a  trunk  and  tail  having  the  proportions  of  an  |  eially  of  the  heart  and  arteries)  are  fully  or  exces- 
ordinary  quadruped,  the  ribs  of  a  chameleon,  and  I  sively  developed.  This  form  commonly  affects 
the  paddles  of  a  whale.”  I  the  yoitng  and  active,  and  those  of  a  san- 

Pleu'rse.  Each  lung  is  invested  externally  by  guineous  nature.  The  plethora  is  said  to  be 
a  very  delicate  serous  membrane  termed  the  asthenic  (Gr.  a,  not ;  and  sthenos,  strength)  when 
pleura,  which,  after  inclosing  the  whole  organ,  there  is  a  deficiency  of  contractility  and  tone 


except  at  its  root,  where  the  great  vessels 
enter  it,  is  reflected  upon  the  inner  surface  of  the 
thorax  or  chest.  That  portion  of  the  pleura 


the  muscular  fiber.  The  face  is  purple  instead  of 
red  ;  the  extremities  cold,  and  the  excreting 
organs  sluggish.  This  form  affects  persons 
weakened  by  age,  excesses,  or  previous 
disease.  It  tends  to  produce  congestions 
and  passive  hemorrhages,  fluxes,  and 
dropsies;  and  if  continued,  structural 
changes,  such  as  dilatation  of  the  heart, 
enlarged  liver,  varicose  veins,  etc.  In 
sthenic  plethora,  blood-letting  is  the  first 
remedy,  and  this,  with  the  continued 
use  of  aperient  medicine  and  a  sparing 
diet,  is  often  sufficient  to  complete  the 
cure.  If  these  means  fail,  recourse  must 
be  had  to  antimonials,  salines,  digitalis, 
and  sometimes  mercury  or  colchicum. 
In  the  asthenic  form,  “the  continued  use 
of  alterative  aperients  and  diuretics, 
such  as  mild  mercurials,  with  rhubarb, 
aloes,  or  senna,  salines  and  taraxacum, 
nitric  acid,  iodide  of  potassium,  etc., 
may  prepare  the  way  for  various  tonics, 
such  as  calumba,  bark,  and  iron.”  Food 

A  transverse  section  of  the  Thorax,  showing  the  reflections  of  the  111  \,<:  taken  mom  fieely  than  ill  the 

Pleura,  and  the  relative  position  of  the  Viscera,  etc.  sthenic  form  ;  and  in  both  varieties,  as 

(From  Gray's  Anatomy  )  much  exercise  in  the  open  air  should  be 

1,  the  visceral  and,  2.  the  parietal  layer  of  the  pleura,  on  the  right  taken  as  can  be  borne  without  causing 
side;  3,  3,  the  ribs;  4.  5,  section  of  the  right  and  left  lungs;  G,  the  exhaustion. 

heart;  7.  the  pulmonary  artery,  dividing  into  the  right  and  left  pu„rnilv'nin  D  o  rlienmotin  offoe- 
branches;  8,  8',  the  right  and  left  pulmonary  veins;  9,9',  the  as-  .  1  ,nja  ls  a  rheumatic  ante 

cending  and  descending  aorta,  the  intervening  arch  beingcut  away:  tion  01  the  intercostal  muscles,  aim.  is 
lit,  10'.  the  right  and  left  bronchi;  11,  the  oesophagus;  12,  body  of  characterized  by  acute  pain  in  the  side 
,  upon  taking  a  full  breath  or  coughing, 

by  great  tenderness  on  pressure.  If  it 


dorsal  vertebra;  13,  the  sternum, 
which  is  in  contact  with  the  surface  of  the  lung  is 
called  the  pleura  pulmonalis,  or  visceral  layer; 
while  that  which  lines  the  interior  of  the  chest  is 
called  the  pleura  costalis,  or  parietal  layer  ;  while 
the  space  intervening  between  these  two  layers  is 
called  the  cavity  of  the  pleura. 

Pleu'risy,  or  inflammation  of  the  investing 


and 

happens  to  be  attended  by  slight  febrile  excite¬ 
ment,  or  by  a  cough,  it  is  impossible  to  distinguish 
it  from  pleurisy,  except  by  attending  to  the  physi¬ 
cal  signs  which  characterize  the  latter  disease. 
The  disease  generally  yields  to  local  measuies, 
such  as  blistering,  or  counter-irritation  in  a  milder 


PLEURO-PNEUMONIA. 


601 


PLYMOUTH. 


form  by  rubefacient  liniments.  A  mixture  of 
soap-liniment  and  chloroform  rubbed  over  tlie 
affected  part  two  or  three  times  a  day,  often  gives 
relief.  In  the  more  persistent  cases,  leeches  may 
be  applied  with  benefit. 

Pleu'ro-Pncumo'nia,  in  an  epizootic  form, 
consists  in  a  sub-acute  inflammation  of  the  structure 
of  the  lungs  and  their  investing  membrane,  shows 
a  great  tendency  to  early  exudation,  and  is  accom¬ 
panied  by  low  fever.  It  is  contagious,  but,  like 
many  other  contagious  disorders,  it  occasionally 
occurs  independently  of  contagion,  and  is  f  stered 
by  overcrowding,  exposure  to  cold  and  wet,  damp, 
dirty  hovels,  and  other  such  causes,  which  depress 
the  vital  powers.  The  symptoms  come  on  insid¬ 
iously,  appetite  and  rumination  are  irregular, 
there  is  fever,  dullness,  a  short,  half-involuntary 
cough,  with  quickened  breathing  and  pulse.  In 
cows,  the  yield  of  milk  is  early  diminished.  After 
three  or  four  days,  large  portions  of  the  lungs 
become  filled  with  the  products  of  inflammation, 
hence  the  labored  breathing,  quick,  indistinct 
palse,  wasting,  and  fatal  weakness.  Death  gen¬ 
erally  occurs  in  from  ten  to  twenty  days.  The 
best  treatment  consists  in  avoiding  bleeding  and 
all  reducing  remedies,  supporting  the  strength, 
and  keeping  up  the  action  of  the  skin,  bowels, 
and  kidneys,  in  order  that  the  poisonous  products 
of  the  disease  may  be  rapidly  got  rid  of.  For  this 
end,  the  patient  should  be  provided  with  a  cool, 
comfortable  house,  clothing  to  the  body,  bandages 
to  the  legs,  a  daily  dose  of  two  ounces  each  of 
niter  and  common  salt  given  in  treacle  and  water. 
When  the  bowels  are  costive,  gentle  laxatives  are 
required.  By  the  second  or  third  day,  counter- 
irritants  may  be  applied  to  one  or  both  sides, 
which  should  first  be  bathed  with  hot  water  and 
thin  mustard  paste,  or  a  mixture  of  cantharides 
and  euphorbium  ointments  well  rubbed  in.  By 
the  third  or  fourth  day,  or  earlier,  if  there  is 
weakness,  arrested  secretion,  and  coldness  of  the 
skin,  give,  several  times  daily,  some  stimulant, 
such  as  a  quart  of  warm  ale,  with  an  ounce  or  two 
of  ginger  or  other  stomachic,  some  good  whisky- 
toddy,  three-ounce  doses  of  sweet  spirits  of  niter, 
or  of  spirit  of  ammonia.  While  the  disease  con¬ 
tinues,  and  even  during  early  convalescence,  all 
food  requiring  rumination  must  be  interdicted, 
and  mashes,  flour  and  treacle,  bruised  grain,  or 
any  light  digestible  articles  substituted  for  the 
ordinary  hay,  straw  or  roots.  As  pleuro-pneu- 
monia  is  in  many  cases  pi  opagated  by  contagion, 
the  sick  should  be  separated  from  the  sound  stock; 
and  any  premises  they  have  occupied  carefully 
cleansed  by  whitewashing,  and  the  use  of  effectual 
disinfectants.  When  pleuro  pneumonia  prevails  in 
a  neighborhood,  all  fresh  purchases  should  be 
placed  in  quarantine,  and  kept  perfectly  away 
from  the  home-stock  for  at  least  three  weeks. 
Attention  to  this  simple  precaution  has  preserved 
many  farmers  from  pleuro  pneumonia,  even  while 
it  has  raged  all  around  them. 

Pleyel,  Ignaz,  a  musical  composer  of  some 
note,  born  in  1757  at  Rupperstahl,  near  Vienna, 
and  died  in  1831. 

Plinth,  the  square  member  at  the  bottom  of 
file  base  of  a  column.  Also  the  plain  projecting 
band  forming  a  base  of  a  wall. 

Pliny  (C.  Plinius  Secundus),  often  called 
Pliny'  tlie  Elder,  and  author  of  the  celebrated 
Ihstoria  Natura'U,  was  born  in  the  North  of 
Italy,  either  at  Novum  Comum  (Como)  or  Verona, 
23  a.d.  While  still  young  he  was  sent  to  Rome, 
where  his  ample  means  and  high  connections 
secured  him  the  best  education.  At  the  age  of 
t  •  enty-three  he  entered  the  army,  and  served  in 
Germany',  as  commander  of  a  troop  of  cavalry 
under  L.  Pomponius  Secundus.  His  mode  of 
study  was  a  model  of  systematic  assiduity.  lie 
collected  an  immense  mass  of  materials,  from 
which  he  compiled  his  great  Historia  Naturali *, 
published  about  77.  No  fewer  than  160  volumina 
of  notes  were  found  at  his  death,  two  years  after¬ 
ward.  Eager  to  examine  the  great  eruption  of 
79,  which  buried  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii,  more 
closely',  he  landed  at  Stabise,  where  he  was  suffo¬ 
cated  by  the  vapors  caused  by  the  eruption.  Of 
all  his  works,  only  his  Ilidoria  Nataralis  has 
come  down  to  us. 

Pliny  (C.  Plinius  C.ecilius  Secundus), 
nephew  of  the  preceding,  and  son  of  C.  Caecilius, 
frequently  called  Pliny  the  Younger,  was  born  at 


Novum  Comum,  61  a.d.  Our  knowledge  of 
Pliny  the  Younger  is  mainly  derived  from  his  let¬ 
ters  or  Epidohe,  of  which  there  are  ten  books. 
They  hold  a  high  place  in  epistolary  literature, 
and  give  us  many  interesting  glimpses  into  the 
life  of  their  author  and  his  contemporaries.  Of 
the  time  or  cause  of  his  death  we  know  nothing. 

Ploti'nus,  the  most  original  and  important 
philosopher  of  the  Neo-Platonic  School,  was  born 
at  Lycopolis,  in  Egypt,  205  a.d.  Plotinus  died 
from  a  complication  of  diseases,  in  270,  at  Pute- 
oli,  sixty -six  years  of  age.  Although  he  began  to 
write  very  late  in  life,  he  yet  left  fifty-four  books 
of  very  different  size  and  contents.  Ilis  MS. 
being  very  carelessly  written,  he  asked  his  pupil 
Porphyry  to  revise  and  correct  it  for  him.  The 
latter  also  divided  it  into  six  principal  divisions, 
each  subdivided  again  into  nine  books  or 
enneads. 

Plover  ( Cbaradrius ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Charadriadw,  having  a  straight  com¬ 
pressed  bill;  the  upper  mandible  alone  slightly 
inflated  and  slightly  bent  at  the  point;  the  nasal 
groove  extending  about  two-thirds  of  the  length 
of  the  bill,  the  nostrils  longitudinally  cleft  near 
the  base;  the  legs  not  very  long,  naked  a  little 
above  the  tarsal  joint;  no  hinder  toe;  the  wings 
rather  long  and  pointed,  the  first  quill-featlier  the 
longest.  The  species  are  numerous,  and  are 
found  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe;  many  of 
them  are  birds  of  passage.  They  frequent  low, 
moist  grounds. 

Plum  ( Primus ),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of 
the  natural  order  Rosacea,  sub-order  Amygdahce 
or  Drupacea •  ;  the  species  of  which  have  the  stone 
of  the  fruit  sharp-pointed  at  each  end,  with  a 
longitudinal  furrow  passing  all  round,  and  a 
smooth  surface;  the  fruit  covered  with  a  fine 
bloom,  and  the  young  leaves  rolled  up.  The 
common  plum,  the  bullace,  and  the  sloe,  are  gen¬ 
erally'  reckoned  by  botanists  as  distinct  species, 
but  with  much  doubt  if  they  are  really  distinct, 
as  the  plum  passes  into  the  bullace,  and  the  bul¬ 
lace  into  the  sloe  by  insensible  gradations; 
although  there  is  so  wide  a  difference  in  general 
appearance,  size  of  leaves,  and  size  as  well  as 
quality  of  fruit,  between  the  best  cultivated  plums 
and  the  sloe,  that  it  is  not  without  an  effort  we 
can  imagine  them  to  have  sprung  from  a  common 
stock. 

Plum  Creek,  the  county  seat  of  Dawson 
county,  Neb.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Plume-bird  (Epimachas),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Upupidce  (see  Hoopoe),  but  exhibiting 


Plume-bird  ( Epimachas  albus) 


points  of  resemblance  both  to  honey-suckers  and 
to  birds  of  paradise.  The  bill  is  slender  and 
arched.  The  plumage  is  magnificent  and  gor¬ 
geous,  scarcely  excelled  even  by  that  of  birds  of 
paradise.  The  plume-birds  are  natives  of  New 
Guinea  and  New  Holland.  They  are  variously 
adorned  with  enormously  long  tail-feathers,  great 
shoulder-tufts  of  broad  feathers,  loose  downy 
plumes,  etc.  One  species,  E.  albas ,  has  remark¬ 
able  thread-like  prolongations  of  the  shaft  of 
some  of  its  plumes. 

Plumed  Moth,  the  popular  name  of  a  group 
of  “  Nocturnal,  Lepidoptera,"  known  to  entomolo¬ 
gists  as  Fissipemm  and  Pterophorite*  ;  remark¬ 
able  for  having  at  least  a  pair  of  the  wings,  and 
often  all  tlie  wings,  longitudinally  cleft  into  two 
or  more — sometimes  six — divisions,  which  are 


beautifully  fringed  at  the  edges.  Although  they 
are  ranked  among  the  Nocturnal  Lepidoptera, 


some  of  them  fly  about  during  the  brightest  part 
of  the  day. 

Plumula'ria,  a  genus  of  zoophytes  ( Antlw - 
zoa);  plant-like,  rooted,  simple,  or  branched; 
with  feathery  shoots  and  offsets;  and  having 


a,  the  ovarian  vesicle  and  four  of  the  polype-cells  of  P. 
falcata,  magnified. — From  Johnston’s  British  Zoophytes. 

hydra-like  polypes  in  small  cells  arranged  on  one 
side  of  the  shoot  or  branch,  usually  in  the  axil 
of  a  horny  spine.  The  species  are  numerous, 
inhabitants  of  the  sea. 

Plu'tareli  ( Ploutarclws ),  the  biographer  and 
moralist,  was  born  at  Chseronia  in  Boeolia. 
We  can  only  approximate  to  the  year  of  his  birth. 
He  tells  us  himself  that  he  was  a  student  of 
philosophy  at  Delphi,  under  Ammonius,  when 
Nero  was  making  his  progress  through  Greece  in 
66  a.d.;  and  we  may  safely  infer,  therefore,  that 
in  that  year  he  was  beyond  the  age  of  fifteen 
or  sixteen.  He  died  after  106.  '['lie  work  by 
which  Plutarch  is  best  known  is  his  Parallel 
Lives  of  forty-six  Greeks  and  Romans.  These 
are  arranged  in  pairs,  each  pair  forming  one  book 
(biblioi 0,  consisting  of  the  life  of  a  Greek  and  a 
Roman,  and  followed  by  a  comparison  between 
the  two  men.  In  a  few  cases,  the  comparison  is 
omit  ted  or  lost.  Plutarch  has  no  equal  in  ancient, 
and  few  in  modern  times,  as  a  writer  of  “Lives.” 
The  other  writings  of  Plutarch,  more  than  sixty 
in  number,  are  included  under  the  general  title  of 
Moralia,  or  Ethical  Works. 

Pin 'to  (Gr.  nXovrcov ,  Plouton),  originally 
only  a  surname  of  Hades,  as  t  he  giver  or  possessor 
of  riches,  is,  in  the  mythology  of  Greece,  the 
third  son  of  Kronosand  Rhea,  and  the  brother  of 
Zeus  and  Poseidon.  On  the  tripartite  division  of 
the  universe,  he  obtained  the  sovereignty  of  the 
under-world — the  realm  of  darkness  and  ghostly 
shades,  where  he  sits  enthroned  as  a  “subter¬ 
ranean  Zeus” — to  use  the  expression  of  Homer, 
and  rules  the  spirits  of  the  dead. 

Pljm'outh,  an  English  seaport  and  market 
town,  and  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough 
in  the  Southwest  of  Devonshire,  246  miles  west- 
southwest  of  London.  Pop.  (1881),  77,401. 

Pit  mouth,  a  town  in  Massachusetts,  on  Plym¬ 
outh  Bay,  thirty-seven  miles  southeast  of  Boston, 
famous  as  the  landing-place  of  the  “  Pilgrim 
Fathers”  from  the  Mayflower,  Dec.  11,  1620,  o.s. 
Plymouth  Rock  is  a  granite  bowlder  at  the  water’s 
edge  on  which  they  landed.  It  is  covered  by  a 
handsome  granite  canopy,  and  there  is  also  a 
national  monument  to  the  pilgrims,  completed  in 
1875.  In  Pilgrim  Hall  are  preserved  many  relics 
of  the  fii  st  settlement  of  the  country,  among  which 


PLYMOUTH. 


602 


POINT  PLEASANT. 


are  Governor  Carver’s  chair  and  the  sword  of 
Miles  Standish.  The  town  has  a  good  harbor  and 
flourishing  trade.  Pop.  (1889),  7,350. 

Plymouth,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Grafton  county,  N.  H.  Pop.,  1,800. — 2.  An  im¬ 
portant  commercial  town  in  Luzerne  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  12,200. — 3.  The  county  seat  of 
Marshall  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  2,700. — 4.  The 
county  seat  of  Washington  county,  N.  C.  Pop., 
1,836. 

Plymouth  Sound,  a  well-known  roadstead  on 
the  Southwest  of  Devonshire,  England,  important 
as  a  naval  station,  is  2i  miles  wide,  and  extends 
inland  for  3  miles. 

Pneumat'ic  Dispatch.  This  name  is  given  to 
a  mode  of  sending  parcels,  mail-bags,  or  telegram 
papers  through  a  tube  by  atmospheric  pressure, 
or  by  a  partial  vacuum.  Early  in  the  present 
century  Mr.  Medhurst  conceived  the  idea  of  some 
such  contrivance.  He  proposed  to  construct  air¬ 
tight  tunnels,  with  carriages  moving  tlirougB  them 
on  rails;  and  these  carriages  were  to  be  propelled 
by  compressed  air  from  behind,  or  else  by  suction 
in  virtue  of  a  vacuum  formed  in  front  of  them. 
Medhurst  was  laughed  at  by  his  contemporaries 
as  a  visionary;  but  his  speculations  were  called  to 
mind  in  later  years,  and  led  to  the  attempts  to 
build  an  atmospheric  railway. 

Pneumatics  (Gr.  itvBvpa,  pneuma,  spirit  or 
breath,  air)  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the 
mechanical  properties  of  aeriform  fluids,  such  as 
their  weight,  pressure,  elasticity,  motion,  etc. 
The  great  representative  of  the  aeriform  fluids  is 
the  atmosphere.  The  atmosphere  is  very  fre¬ 
quently  called  “air,”  to  distinguish  it  from  the 
others,  which  are  known  as  “  gases.” 

Pnenmogas'tric  Nerve,  or  Par  Vagum, 
derives  the  first  of  its  names  from  its  supplying 
the  lungs  and  stomach  with  nervous  filaments, 
and  the  second  from  the  wandering  course  which 
it  pursues.  It  emerges  from  the  medulla  oblong¬ 
ata  by  eight  or  ten  filaments,  which  unite  and 
form  a  flat  cord,  that  escapes  from  the  cavity  of 
the  cranium  (in  association  with  the  glossopharyn¬ 
geal  and  spinal  accessory  nerve)  by  the  jugular 
foramen.  In  this  foramen,  it  forms  a  well- 
marked  ganglionic  swelling,  while  another  is 
observed  immediately  after  its  exit  from  the 
skull.  The  nerve  runs  straight  down  the  neck 
between  and  in  the  same  sheath  as  the  internal 
jugular  vein  and  the  carotid  artery.  Below  the 
root  i  f  the  neck,  its  course  is  different  on  the  two 
sides;  the  right  nerve  running  along  the  back  of 
the  oesophagus,  is  distributed  to  "the  posterior 
surface  of  the  stomach,  and  finally  merges  into  the 
solar  plexus;  while  the  left  nerve  runs  along  the 
front  of  the  oesophagus  to  the  stomach,  sending 
branches  chiefly  over  its  anterior  surface.  The 
sympathy  which  exists  bet  ween  the  digestive  and 
the  respiratory  and  circulating  organs,  is  ex¬ 
plained  by  the  anatomical  relations  of  this  nerve. 

Pneumo'nia,  or  inflammation  of  the  substance 
of  the  lungs.  The  following  are  (he  general 
symptoms  of  pneumonia:  The  disease  generally 
commences  with  inflammatory  fever;  and  pain 
in  the  side,  due  to  pleurisy  in  most  cases,  soon 
supervenes.  The  breathing  is  always  more  or 
less  affected,  especially  when  the  upper  lobe  is 
inflamed.  Delirium  is  a  very  frequent,  and 
always  a  dangerous  symptom,  indicating  that  the 
due  arterialization  of  the  blood  is  much  interfered 
with,  and  that  the  impure  circulating  fluid  is 
affecting  the  brain.  The  cough  is  usually  dry  at 
first,  but  in  a  few  hours  it  is  accompanied  by  the 
expectoration  of  sputa  of  so  characteristic  a 
nature  as  to  afford  almost  certain  evidence  of  the 
presence  of  the  disease.  On  the  second  or  third 
day,  the  expectoration,  which  previously  consisted 
merely  of  a  little  bronchial  mucus,  consists  of 
transparent  and  tawny,  or  rust-colored  sputa, 
which  unite  in  the  vessel  containing  them  into  one 
gelatinous  mass.  The  following  is  a  brief  out¬ 
line  of  the  treatment  to  be  adopted,  provided  the 
patient  was  previously  strong  and  healthy.  In 
the  first  stage,  free  venesection,  tartarized  anti¬ 
mony  (one-third  of  a  grain  to  half  a  wine-glassful 
of  water  every  hour;  and  the  dose  to  be  increased 
to  a  grain  or  more  hourly,  if  there  is  no  purging 
or  vomiting,  which  may  often  be  prevented  by 
the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of  laudanum  to  each 


dose),  and  antiphlogistic  regimen,  generally  are 
of  service.  Under  this  system  there  are  often 
signs  of  improvement  in  five  or  six  hours,  although 
sometimes  there  is  no  change  for  the  better  till 
twenty-four  hours  or  more  have  elasped.  When 
the  disease  has  reached  the  second  stage,  in  pref¬ 
erence  to  continuing  the  antimony,  we  should  as 
speedily  as  possible  get  the  system  gently  under 
the  influence  of  mercury.  If  there  is  great 
depression  of  the  vital  powers,  as  indicated  by  a 
feeble  and  irregular  pulse,  and  the  other  ordinary 
signs  of  sinking,  it  will  be  requisite  to  administer 
stimulants,  such  as  wine  and  carbonate  of 
ammonia,  and  to  feed  the  patient  on  beef-tea. 
There  are  few  diseases  in  which  it  is  of  greater 
importance  to  watch  tin*  patient  during  convales¬ 
cence  than  in  pneumonia.  The  convalescence  is 
often  rather  apparent  than  real,  “  and  a  patient  can 
never  be  pronounced  perfectly  secure  so  long  as 
any  trace  of  crepitation  remains  in  the  affected 
lung,  and  this  may  often  continue  long;  nay,  it 
not  infrequently  ceases  only  on  the  supervention 
of  another  more  surely  fatal  though  less  rapid 
disorder — viz.,  tubercular  consumption.” 

Po  (anc.  Eridanus  and  Padus),  the  largest  river 
of  Italy,  rises  in  two  springs  on  the  north  and 
south  sides  of  Monte  Yiso,  one  of  the  Cottian 
Alps,  close  to  the  French  frontier,  and  in  latitude 
about  44°  40'  N.,  andllowsto  its  embouchure  in 
the  Adriatic. 

Pocahontas,  the  “  Princess  Pocahontas,”  born 
about  1595,  was  the  daughter  of  Powhattan.  an 
Indian  chief  of  Virginia.  She  was  remarkable 
for  her  friendship  for  the  English  colonists,  hav¬ 
ing  on  several  occasions  saved  them  from 
destruction  by  warning  them  of  Indian  attacks. 
She  is  said  to  have  saved  G’apt.  John  Smith’s 
life  by  throwing  herself  between  him  and  her 
father’s  club,  but  the  tale  has  been  denied.  She 
married  John  Rolfe,  and  from  this  union  the 
Bollings,  Flemmings,  and  Randolphs  of  Virginia, 
claim  descent.  She  died  at  Gravesend,  England, 
aged  twenty-one. 

Pocahontas,  the  county  seat  of  Pocahontas 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  160. 

Pocahontas,  the  county  seat  of  Randolph 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  525. 

Po'cliard  ( Fuligula ),  a  genus  of  ducks,  of  the 
oceanic  section,  having  the  bill  as  tong,  or  nearly 
as  long  as  the  head,  broad  and  very  flat,  a  little 
dilated  toward  the  tip,  the  lamellae  of  the  upper 


Canvas-back  Duck  ( Fuligula  valisneria). 


mandible  not  projecting  beyond  the  margin,  the 
wings  and  tail  short,  the  tail  rounded.  The  can¬ 
vas-back  duck  ( F. .  valisneria)  of  North  America 
is  a  species  of  pochard.  It  is  very  like  the  com¬ 
mon  pochard,  but  is  much  larger. 

Podoplithal'nia  (Gr.  itovi,  afoot,  ontidXuoi, 
an  eye,  stalk-eyed),  a  name  often  applied  to  a  sec¬ 
tion  or  sub-class  of  crustaceans,  part  of  the  Mnla- 
costraca  of  Cuvier,  including  the  orders  Decapoda 
(crabs,  lobsters,  etc.)  and  Stomapoda,  (shrimps, 
etc.)  A  distinguished  character,  from  which 
they  derive  their  name,  is  their  stalked  and 
movable  eyes.  The  stalks  of  the  eyes  are  short 
in  many,  but  very  long  in  some,  of  which  a 
beautiful  example  is  presented  by  the  sentinel 
crab  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 

Podopliyllin  is  the  name  commonly  given  to 
the  resin  obtained  by  means  of  rectified  spirit 
from  the  root  of  podophyllum  peltatum,  or  may- 
apple,  a  plant  common  throughout  the  United 


States.  This  resin,  which  occurs  as  a  pale  green¬ 
ish  amorphous  powder,  has  (as  well  as  the  root 
from  which  it  is  derived)  been  introduced  into 
the  pharmacopoeia,  in  consequence  of  the  general 
favor  which  it  has  experienced  during  the  last 
three  or  four  years  from  the  medical  profession  in 
this  country.  It  is  an  active  purgative,  and 
seems  to  have  the  power  of  relieving  the  liver  by 
exciting  copious  bilious  discharges.  As  its  activ¬ 
ity  seems  to  vary  in  different  patients,  it  is  better 
to  begin  with  a  small  dose  of  one-fourth  of  a 
grain,  which  may  be  combined  with  extract  of 
henbane,  with  the  view  of  preventing  its  griping. 

Poe,  Edgar  Allan,  perhaps  the  finest  and 
most  original  poetical  genius  as  yet  produced  by 
America,  was  born  at  Boston,  Feb.  19,  1809. 
Edgar  was  adopted  by  Mr.  John  Allan,  a  rich 
merchant  who  had  no  children  of  his  own.  In 
1816  the  boy  came  to  England  with  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Allan,  and  was  sent  to  a  school  at  Stoke  Newing¬ 
ton.  In  1821  he  returned  to  America,  and 
attended  an  academy  at  Richmond  in  Virginia. 
In  1826  he  entered  the  university  of  Charlottes¬ 
ville,  where  he  was  a  very  successful  student.  In 
1829  Poe  published  a  volume  of  poems,  his  first 
known  essay  in  literature,  under  the  title  of  Al 
Aii.raaf,  Tamerlane,  and  other  poems.  In  1833 
the  publisher  of  a  Baltimore  magazine  having 
offered  prizes  for  the  best  prose  story  and  the 
best  poem,  Poe  competed,  and  won  both  prizes, 
and  procured  literary  employment  in  connection 
with  the  Southern  Literary  Messenger  at  Rich¬ 
mond.  While  here,  he  married  his  cousin,  Vir¬ 
ginia  Clemm,  a  beautiful  and  saintly  creature,  as 
destitute  as  himself,  who  died  in  1848.  In  1837 
he  removed  to  New  A"ork,  where  he  lived  by  con¬ 
tributing  to  the  New  York  Quarterly  iter  lew 
and  other  periodicals,  and  where  in  1838  he  pub¬ 
lished  The  Narrative  of  Arthur  Gordon  Pym. 
In  1839  he  became  editor  of  The  Gentleman’ s 
Magazine  at  Philadelphia,  and  published  a  col¬ 
lection  of  his  best  stories  with  the  title,  J'a'es  of 
the  Arabesque  and  Grotesque.  The  next  few  years 
were  spent  in  similar  literary  employment,  chiefly 
at  New  York;  the  year  1845  being  marked  by  the 
appearance  of  his  famous  poem,  The  Haven,  and 
1 848,  by  the  publication  of  Eureka,  a.  Prose  Poem, 
in  which  he  endeavored  to  elaborate  a  system  of 
cosmogony.  In  1849  he  went  to  Richmond,  and 
it  is  said  became  engaged  to  a  lady  of  considerable 
fortune.  On  October  4th,  he  left  Richmond  by 
train,  which  he  quitted  at  Baltimore.  Some 
hours  later  he  was  discovered  insensible  in  the 
streets,  and  taken  to  the  hospital,  where  he  died 
on  October  7th.  The  ordinary  explanation  of  his 
condition  at  Baltimore  is  that  he  had  met  some 
old  cronies,  and  drank  himself  into  a  state  of 
helpless  intoxication. 

Pogge  ( Aspidophorus  Europaus),  a  fish  of  the 
family  Sclerogenidee,  or  mailed  cheeks,  and  nearly 
allied  to  the  bullhead,  but  having  the  body  cui- 
rassed  with  large  bony  scales  from  the  head  to  the 
tail  tin,  so  that  it  is  in  form  nearly  a  pyramid  with 
eight  faces. 

Pogo'nias,  a  genus  of  acanthopterous  fishes, 
of  the  family  Scicenidce,  having  two  dorsal  fins, 
one  of  them  deeply  notched,  and  many  small  bar¬ 
bels  under  the  mouth.  The  fisln  s  of  this  genus 
are  found  on  thecoastsof  warm  countries,  and  are 
remarkable  for  the  sounds  which  they  emit, 
which  somewhat  resemble  those  of  a  drum,  and 
have  obtained  for  them  the  name  of  drumfish. 

Points  of  the  Escutcheon,  in  Heraldry.  In 
order  to  facilitate  the  description  of  a  coat-of- 

arms,  it  is  the  practice  to  sup-  ( - 

pose  the  shield  to  be  divided  j  A 
into  nine  points,  which  are  I 
known  by  the  following  names:  l 
A,  the  dexter  chief  point;  B,  \ 
the  middle  chief;  C,  the  sinister  \ 
chief;  D,  the  collar  or  honor  \c 
point;  E,  the  fesse  point;  F,  the  \ 
nombril,  or  navel  point;  G,  the 
dexter  base  point;  H,  the  mid-  Points  of  the 
die  ba=e  point;  and  I,  the  sinis-  Escutcheon, 
ter  base  point.  The  dexter  and  sinister  sides  of 
the  shield  are  so  called,  not  in  relation  to  the  eye 
of  the  spectator,  but  from  the  right  and  left  sides 
of  the  supposed  bearer  of  the  shield. 

Point  Pleasant,  the  county  seat  of  Mason 
county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  1,075. 


POINT. 


603 


POLECAT. 


Point,  in  Heraldry,  a  triangular  figure  issuing 
from  the  dexter  and  sinister  base 
of  the  shield. 

Point  a  la  Hache,  the  parish 
seat  of  Plaquemines  parish.  La. 

Pop.,  200. 

Pointer,  a  kind  of  dog  nearly 
allied  to  the  true  hounds,  but  not 
reckoned  one  of  them.  It  is  re¬ 
markable  for  its  habit  of  pointing 
at  game;  its  whole  body,  and  particularly  its 
head,  indicating  the  position  of  the  game  to  the 
sportsman,  and  a  well-trained  pointer  will  remain 


long  immovable  in  the  attitude  of  pointing,  not 
going  forward  to  disturb  the  game  which  its  ex¬ 
quisite  power  of  scent  has  enabled  it  to  discover. 

Poisons.  A  poison  is  a  substance  which,  when 
taken  internally,  is  capable  of  destroying  life  with¬ 
out  acting  medicinally  on  the  system.  A  poison 
may  also  act  by  absorption  when  applied  to  a  thin 
and  delicate  membrane,  as  glanders,  syphilitic 
poison, etc.,  or  it  may  be  introduced  directly  into 
the  circulation  by  a  puncture  or  abraded  surface, 
as  the  poison  of  insects,  scorpions,  and  serpents, 
the  wourali  poison,  and  that  of  animals  suffering 
from  hydrophobia.  The  irritants,  when  taken  in 
ordinary  doses,  speedily  occasion  intense  vomiting 
and  purging,  and  severe  abdominal  pain.  They 
act  chiefly  on  the  stomach  and  intestines,  which 
they  irritate,  inflame,  and  frequently  corrode, 
and  may  thus  occasion  ulceration,  perforation,  or 
gangrene.  Amongst  those  which  possess  cor¬ 
rosive  properties,  are  the  strong  mineral  acids, 
caustic  alkalies,  corrosive  sublimate,  etc.,  while 
among  the  pure  irritants  which  exert  no  destruc¬ 
tive  chemical  action  on  the  tissues  with  which 
they  come  in  contact,  may  be  mentioned  arsenic, 
cantharides,  carbonate  of  lead,  etc.  The  narcotics 
act  specially  on  the  brain  and  spinal  cord. 
Amongst  their  most  common  symptoms  are  gid¬ 
diness,  headache,  obscurity  of  sight  or  double 
vision,  stupor,  loss  of  power  of  the  voluntary 
muscles,  convulsions,  and,  finally,  complete  coma. 
The  narcotico-irritants  have,  as  their  name  im¬ 
plies,  a  mixed  action.  At  variable  periods,  says 
Doctor  Taylor,  after  they  have  been  swallowed, 
they  give  rise  to  vomiting  and  purging,  like 
irritants,  and  sooner  or  later  produce  stupor, 
coma,  paralysis,  and  convulsions,  owing  to  their 
effect  on  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow.  They 
possess  the  property,  like  irritants,  of  irritating 
and  inflaming  the  alimentary  canal.  Familiar 
examples  are  nux  vomica,  monkshood,  and 
poisonous  mushrooms.  Some  narcotico-irritants 
have  a  hot,  acrid  taste,  such  as  the  aconite  or 
monkshood;  others  an  intensely  bitter  taste,  as 
nux  vomica  and  its  alkaloid  strychnia.  The  cases 
in  which  there  are  antidotes  qualified  to  neutral¬ 
ize  chemically  the  action  of  the  poison  are  few  in 
number.  For  the  mineral  acids  we  must  prescribe 
chalk  or  magnesia  in  water,  with  the  view  of 
neutralizing  them,  after  which  milk  should  be 
given  freely.  The  alkalies  and  their  carbonates 
must  be  neutralized  by  vinegar  and  water,  or 
lemon-juice  mixed  with  water,  after  which  milk 
should  be  given.  For  oxalic  acid  the  antidote  is 
chalk  or  magnesia  in  water,  by  which  an  insolu¬ 
ble  oxalate  of  lime  or  magnesia  is  formed.  For 
arsenic,  the  hydrated  sesquioxide  of  iron  is 
regarded  as  ;in  antidote,  but  its  efficacy  is  doubt¬ 
ful.  Vomiting  should  be  excited  by  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  a  scruple  of  sulphate  of  zinc  in  warm 
water,  and  after  the  stomach  has  been  well  cleared 
out,  demulcent  fluids,  such  as  flour  and  water  or 
milk  should  be  given.  Corrosive  sublimate  com¬ 


bines  with  albumen  (white  of  egg),  and  forms  an 
insoluble  inert  mass;  nitrate  of  silver  is  neu¬ 
tralized  by  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt) 
dissolved  in  water;  tartarized  antimony  is  to  a 
great  degree  rendered  inert  by  the  administration 
of  decoction  of  bark  or  gall-nuts;  and  acetate  of 
lead  is  rendered  inert  by  the  administration  of 
sulphate  of  magnesia,  which  converts  it  into  an 
insoluble  sulphate  of  lead.  In  all  cases  of  sus¬ 
pected  poisoning,  in  which  the  nature  of  the 
poison  is  not  known,  the  safest  course  is  at 
once  to  produce  vomiting  by  sulphate  of  zinc,  or 
in  its  absence  by  a  dessert-spoonful  of  flour  of 
mustard  suspended  in  tepid  water,  and  to  con¬ 
tinue  the  vomiting  till  all  the  contents  of  the 
stomach  are  discharged,  after  which  milk  should 
be  given  freely. 

Poitou,  a  former  province  of  Western  France, 
is  now  mainly  comprised  in  the  Departments  of 
Deux  SBvres,  Vendee,  and  Vienne.  It  was  divided 
into  Upper  and  Lower  Poitou,  and  had  for  its 
capital  Poitiers. 

Polac'ca,  or  Poi.acre,  a  species  of  vessel  in 
use  in  the  Mediterranean,  with  three  masts  and  a 
jib-boom;  the  fore  and  main-masts  being  of  one 
piece  (pole-masts),  and  the  mizzen-mast  with  a  top 
and  top-mast.  They  generally  carry  square  sails, 
though  a  few  are  rigged  with  a  peculiar  form  of 
sail  to  which  the  term  polacre  is  also  applied. 
The  fore  and  main-masts  have,  of  course,  neither 
tops,  caps,  nor  cross-trees. 

Po'land,  called  by  the  natives  Polska  (a  plain), 
a  former  kingdom  of  Europe,  was,  previous  to  its 
dismemberment,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Baltic  Sea  from  Danzig  to  Riga,  and  by  the 
Russian  Provinces  of  Riga  and  Pskov;  on  the  east 
by  the  Russian  Provinces  of  Smolensk,  Tcher- 
,  nigov,  Poltava,  and  Kherson;  on  the  south  by 
Bessarabia,  Moldavia,  and  the  Carpathian  Mount¬ 
ains  ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Prussian  Provinces 
of  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Pomerania.  Its 
greatest  length  from  north  to  south  was  710  miles; 
and  from  east  to  west  693  miles,  embracing  an 
area  of  about  282,000  square  miles ;  an  area 
which,  in  1880,  had  a  pop.  of  24,000,000. 

Poland,  Kingdom  of,  a  province  of  European 
Russia,  which  was  united  to  that  empire  in  1815 
— though  the  title  of  kingdom  was  left,  and  a 
peculiar  form  of  government  long  continued  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  other  provinces — is  sur¬ 
rounded  by  Prussia,  Austria,  and  Western  Rus¬ 
sia  or  Russian  Poland,  and  contains  48,863  square 
miles,  with  a  pop.  (1880),  of  7,104,760. 

Polar  Expeditions.  In  1603  the  first  Arctic 
exploring  expedition,  consisting  of  one  English 
vessel,  the  Godspeed,  commanded  by  Stephen 
Bennett,  started  for  a  voyage  of  northern  ■  dis¬ 
covery;  and  this,  as  well  as  the  succeeding  ex¬ 
peditions  of  Bennett,  were  devoted  to  morse-hunt¬ 
ing  rather  than  to  geographical  investigation.  In 
1607,  Henry  Hudson  was  sent  out  by  the  Muscovy 
Company  to  penetrate  to  the  north  pole,  but  he 
was  stopped  about  the  north  of  Spitzbergen  (in 
latitude  81°  30')  by  the  ice.  The  succeeding 
voyages  of  Jonas  Poole  in  1610,  1611,  and  1612, 
and  of  Baffin  in  1613,  were  not,  primarily,  voyages 
of  discovery,  and  they  added  nothing  to  the 
previous  knowledge  of  the  polar  regions;  but  in 
the  expedition  of  Fotherby  and  Baffin  up  Davis’ 
Strait,  in  the  following  year,  the  latter  discovered 
a  northern  outlet  to  the  bay  called  by  his  own 
name,  which  was  denominated  Smith’s  Sound. 
Fotherby  was  sent  outagain  in  1615,  and  attempted 
to  pass  through  the  sea  which  lies  between  Green¬ 
land  and  Spitzbergen,  but  was  again  baffled, 
and  compelled  to  return,  after  correcting  some 
erroneous  observations  of  Hudson.  In  the  spring 
of  1773  an  expedition,  consisting  of  two  vessels, 
under  Capt.  John  Phipps  (afterward  Lord  Mul- 
grave)  sailed.  The  highest  point  to  which 
he  reached  was  latitude  80°  48'  N.  In  1806, 
Mr.  Scoresby,  mate  of  a  Greenland  whaler 
from  Hull,  reached  a  point  directly  north 
of  Spitzbergen,  in  latitude  81°  30'  N.,  and 
only  about  510  miles  from  the  pole.  Captain 
Parry  sailed  from  England  in  the  Ilecla,  March 
27, 1827,  on  the  same  mission.  The  highest  point 
reached  by  him  was  82°  40'.  A  new  land,  about 
200  miles  north  of  Nova  Zembla,  to  which  the 
name  Franz  Joseph  Land  has  been  assigned,  was 
discovered  by  the  Austro-Hungarian  Polar  Ex¬ 
pedition  of  1872-1874,  under  Lieutenants  Wey- 


precht  and  Payer.  Its  southern  coast  lies  about  the 
80th  parallel,  and  it  has  been  explored,  by 
means  of  sledges,  up  to  82°  5'  N.,  while  land  was 
seen  extending  as  far  as  83°  N.  In  1854,  two 
American  explorers  passed  through  Smith’s 
Sound,  and  reached  Cape  Constitution  in  82°  27° 
N.  latitude,  and  saw,  as  they  thought,  a  bound¬ 
less  open  polar  sea.  The  Polaris  sailed  in  July, 
1871,  from  New  London,  Conn.,  and  reached  82° 
16'  N.  An  English  Arctic  expedition  under 
Captain  Nares  in  1875-76  reached,  through 
Smith’s  Sound,  the  highest  latitude  till  then 
attained,  83°  20'.  The  disastrous  Arctic  expedi¬ 
tion  under  Greely  reached  83°  24'  N.  in  1883; 
of  the  party  of  twenty-five  sent  out  in  1882,  only 
five  survivors  were  rescued  in  1884.  The  attempts 
to  penetrate  to  the  south  pole  are  of  recent  date. 
Cook  and  Furneaux  are  the  first  navigators  who 
are  known  to  have  crossed  the  Antarctic  Circle, 
but  the  former  penetrated  only  to  latitude  71°  10' 
S.,  and  neither  made  any  discoveries  of  im¬ 
portance.  Bellinghausen,  a  Russian  navigator, 
reached  latitude  70°  S.  in  1819,  and  two  years 
after,  discovered  Alexander’s  Land  and  Peter’s 
Land,  then  the  most  southerly  islands  known. 
In  1823,  Captain  Weddell  reached  latitude  74° 
15'  S.,  longitude  34°  16'  W. ,  and  saw  beyond 
him  an  open  sea  to  the  south.  In  1*31,  Capt. 
John  Biscoe  discovered  Enderby  Land;  and  in 

1839,  the  sealing-schooner,  Eliza  Scoll,  from  New 
Zealand,  discovered  Sabrina  Land;  and  in  the 
same  year,  the  United  States  expedition,  under 
Captain  Wilkes,  set  out  on  a  career  of  explora¬ 
tion,  which  resulted  in  the  discovery  (January, 
1840),  of  what  he  with  reason  supposed  to  be  a 
continuous  coast-line,  though  an  ice-line  of  from 
8  to  12  miles  in  width  prevented  him  from 
establishing  its  continuity  beyond  dispute.  In 

1840,  a  French  expedition,  under  D’Urville,  dis¬ 
covered  a  line  of  coast  lying  directly  south  from 
Victoria  (Australia)  on  the  Antarctic  Circle.  But 
the  most  important  discoveries  of  all  were 
achieved  by  Capt.  (afterward  Sir  James)  Clarke 
Ross,  who  made  three  voyages  in  1841-1843, 
discovering  Victoria  Land,  and  tracing  its  coast 
from  latitude  71°  to  latitude  78°  10'  (the  highest 
southern  latitude  ever  attained).  In  his  third 
voyage,  Ross  proved  that  the  lands  discovered  by 
D'Urville  were  islands  of  inconsiderable  magni¬ 
tude.  Ross’  geographical  discoveries  have  since 
been  confirmed;  but  a  large  extent  of  surface 
within  the  Antarctic  Circle  still  remains  unex¬ 
plored. 

Pol'der,  a  word  used  in  the  topography  of  the 
Netherlands,  is  the  name  given  to  land  below  the 
level  of  the  sea  or  nearest  river,  which,  originally 
a  morass  or  lake,  has  been  drained  and  brought 
under  cultivation.  An  embankment,  forming  a 
canal  of  sufficient  height  to  command  a  run  to¬ 
ward  the  sea  or  river,  is  made,  and  when  carried 
quite  round,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Haarlem  Lake, 
it  is  called  the  Ringvaart.  At  one  or  more  points 
on  the  embankment  apparatus  for  lifting  water  is 
placed,  and  worked  by  wind  or  steam-power.  If 
the  lake  deepens  toward  the  center,  several  em¬ 
bankments  and  canals  are  necessary,  the  one 
within  the  other,  formed  at  different  levels  as  the 
water-surface  becomes  lessened,  a  connection 
being  maintained  with  the  outer  canal,  which 
secures  a  run  for  the  drainage  water. 

Polecat,  or  Fitchet  ( Mustela  putovius,  or 
Putorius  fwlidus),  a  quadruped  of  the  weasel 


Polecat  ( Mustela  putorius). 


family  ( Mustelidce ),  and  commonly  referred  to  the 
same  genus  with  the  weasel,  stoat,  or  ermine,  etc. 


POLEAXE. 


<304 


POLYPHONIC. 


Poleaxe,  a  weapon  consisting  of  an  axe-head 
mounted  on  a  long  pole.  In  the  navv,  a  poleaxe 

Poleaxe. 

or  boarding-hatchet  is  a  hatchet  with  a  handle 
about  15  inches  long,  and  a  sharp  point  bending 
downward  at  the  back  opposite  the  blade.  It  is 
used  for  boarding  or  resisting  boarders. 

Polemonia'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  allied  to  Convolvulacece,  and  containing 
more  than  100  known  species,  natives  of  temperate 
countries,  and  particularly  abundant  in  the  north¬ 
western  parts  of  America. 

Poles  (Gr.  noXoi,  a  turning-point),  in  Geography, 
are  the  two  extremities  of  the  axis  round  which 
the  earth  revolves;  they  are  therefore  situated  the 
one  on  the  north,  and  the  other  on  the  south  side 
of  the  equator,  and  equidistant  from  all  parts 
of  it,  or  in  latitude  90‘>  N.  and  latitude  90°  S. 
They  are  called  the  north  and  south  poles  of  the 
earth.  In  Astronomy,  the  poles,  which,  for  dis¬ 
tinction’s  sake,  are  frequently  denominated  ce¬ 
lestial  poles,  are  those  points  in  the  heavens  to 
which  the  earth’s  axis  is  directed,  and  round 
which  the  heavens  seem  to  revolve. 

Pole-star,  or  Polaris,  the  nearest  conspicuous 
star  to  the  north  pole  of  the  celestial  equator. 
The  star  which  at  the  present  time  goes  under 
the  name  of  the  pole-star  is  the  star  a:  in  the  con¬ 
stellation  of  Ursa  Minor. 

Polk,  J  ames  Knox,  eleventh  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  born  in  Mecklenburg  county, 
N.  C.,  Nov.  2,1795.  Admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1820,  he  was  three  years  after  elected  a  member 
of  the  Legislature  of  Tennessee,  and  soon  after,  to 
the  Federal  Congress,  by  the  Democratic  party. 
In  1836  he  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,  a  position  he  filled  during 
five  sessions.  After  serving  fourteen  years  in 
Congress,  lie  was,  in  1839,  elected  Governor  of 
Tennessee;  and  in  1844  nominated,  as  a  compro¬ 
mise  candidate,  for  the  presidency,  against  Henry 
Clay,  and  elected.  He  died  June  15,  1849. 

Pol 'lack  (Merlangus  pollachius),  a  fish  of  the 
family  Gadidce,  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
whiting  and  coal-fish.  It  is  common  on  the 
coasts  of  Britain,  and  in  Scotland  and  some  parts 
of  Ireland  it  is  called  lythe. 

Pol 'lan  ( Coregonus  pollan),  a  fresh  water  fish 
of  the  family  Salmonidce,  a  native  of  lakes  in 
Ireland. 

Polo,  XI  arco,  the  celebrated  traveler,  was  born 
of  a  noble  family  of  Dalmatian  origin,  at  Venice, 
about  1250.  He  was  taken  by  his  father  and 
uncle  to  Mongolia  in  1275,  and  the  Khagan  took 
special  notice  of  Marco,  from  the  rapidity  with 
which  he  learned  the  customs  and  language  of  the 
Mongols.  His  wisdom  and  the  nobility  of  his 
demeanor  also  recommended  him  as  a  fit  envoy  to 
the  various  neighboring  rulers;  and  during  his 
residence  at  their  several  courts,  Polo  was  in  the 
habit  of  closely  observing  the  manners  and  cus¬ 
toms  of  the  country,  and  delivering  on  his  return 
a  detailed  report  to  the  Khagan.  These  reports 
were  the  g  oundwork  of  the  book  which  informs 
us  regarding  the  state  of  Central  and  Eastern 
Asia  in  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century.  Polo’s 
first  mission  was  to  the  court  of  Annam  or  Ton- 
quin  (1277),  and  during  his  residence  there,  he 
acquired  much  information,  both  from  his  own 
observation  and  from  report,  concerning  Thibet, 
Yunnan,  Bengal,  Mien  (or  Pegu),  and  the  South 
of  China;  he  was  next  employed  to  aid  in  making 
an  inventory  of  the  archives  belonging  to  the 
court  of  the  Song  dynasty;  and  soon  afterward 
was  appointed  Governor  of  the  town  of  Yang- 
tcliow,  in  the  Province  of  Kiang-si,  in  Eastern 
China,  a  post  he  held  for  three  years.  He  also 
accompanied  a  Mongol  army  to  the  attack  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Pegu;  and  closed  the  list  of  services 
rendered  to  Kublai  Khan  by  accepting  the 
Embassy  to  Tsiampa,  the  south  par1  of  Cochin- 
China.  After  seventeen  years  of  such  service,  he 
succeeded  in  obtaining  permission  to  join  the 
escort  of  a  Mongol  princess,  who  was  traveling 
to  the  court  of  Persia.  The  three  Polos  accord¬ 
ingly  set  out  in  1291,  traveling  through  China, 
and  t  hence,  by  sailing  through  the  Chinese  Sea 
and  Indian  Ocean,  finally  arrived  at  Teheran, 


where  they  stayed  for  some  time;  but  learning 
that  Kublai  Khan  was  now  dead,  they  continued 
their  journey,  and  arrived  at  Venice  in  1295. 
Marco,  in  the  following  year,  fought  his  own 
galley  in  the  great  Battle  of  Curzola,  in  which  the 
Venetians,  under  Dandolo,  were  defeated  by  the 
Genoese  under  Doria  and  was  taken  prisoner  and 
immured  in  a  dungeon  at  Genoa.  After  his 
liberation  he  returned  to  Venice  where  lie  was 
appointed  member  of  the  Grand  Council,  and 
died  in  1323,  eleven  years  after  his  father. 

Polo  is  a  game  in  which  two  goals,  as  for 
football,  are  set  up  about  350  yards  apart,  and  the 
object  is  to  drive  a  ball  about  the  size  of  a  cricket- 
ball,  through  the  goal  by  striking  it  with  long 
sticks  having  bent  or  crooked  ends.  The  players 
are  mounted  on  ponies,  and  much  depends  on  the 
skill  with  which  these  are  managed.  Four  or 
five  a  side  are  the  usual  numbers,  and  those 
scoring  the  greater  number  of  goals  win  the 
game. 

Polta'va,  a  chief  town  of  the  government  of 
the  same  name,  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Worskla,  a  tributary  of  the  Dnieper,  about  934 
miles  south-southeast  of  St.  Petersburg.  Pop. 
(1880),  34,000. 

Poltava,  a  government  of  Little  Russia,  be¬ 
tween  the  Governments  of  Kiev  on  the  west  and 
Kharkov  on  the  east.  Area,  19,071  square  miles; 
pop.  (1880),  2,400,000. 

Polyan'dry,  or  Polyandria,  that  form  of 
polygamy  which  permits  a  woman  to  have  several 
husbands.  The  liot-bed  of  polyandry  is  Thibet. 
There  a  wife  commonly  is  the  wife  of  a  whole 
family  of  brothers — the  elder  brother  being  chief 
husband.  It  is  considered  by  Sir  John  Lubbock 
and  other  investigators  to  be  a  regular  stage  in  the 
evolution  of  sociology;  women  being  in  this  stage 
of  society  regarded  as  domestic  property. 

Polyan'thus  (Gr.  noXvS,  many,  avQv S,  a 
flower),  a  kind  of  primrose  much  prized  and  cul¬ 
tivated  by  florists.  It  is  generally  believed  to  be 
a  variety  of  the  common  primrose  (Primula  vul¬ 
garis),  oroduced  by  cultivation,  in  which  an  umbel 


Polyanthus. 

of  numerous  flowers  is  supported  on  a  common 
scape  (leafless  flower-stem),  instead  of  each  flower 
rising  on  its  own  stalk  from  the  crown  of  the 
root;  a  modification  to  which  a  tendency  often 
appears  in  the  wild  plant  itself. 

Poly coty led 'on oils  Plants,  those  plants  of 
which  the  embryo  has  more  than  two  seed-lobes  or 
cotyledons.  In  some  of  the  Con/ferte  in  partic¬ 
ular,  there  are  numerous  cotyledons;  the  genus 
Pinus  has  from  three  to  twelve. 

Poly '(lipsia  (Gr.  noXvZ,  great;  Sindia, 
thirst)  is  the  term  now  commonly  applied  to  the 
disease  formerly  known  as  diabetes  insipidus.  It 
is  characterized,  as  its  name  implies,  by  extreme 
thirst,  and  by  an  enormous  discharge  of  pale 
watery  urine.  The  affection  is  one  of  rare  occur¬ 
rence,  and  the  persons  most  liable  to  it  are  dys¬ 
peptics  who  have  passed  the  period  of  middlelife, 
and  whose  bodily  powers  are  failing,  although  it 
may  begin  in  childhood.  The  two  prominent 
features  of  this  disease  usually  lead  to  the  sus¬ 
picion  that  true  diabetes  is  present;  but  the  low 
specific  gravity  of  the  urine,  and  the  absence  of 
sugar  in  it  in  polydipsia,  and  die  reverse  con¬ 
dition  in  diabetes,  seem  to  make  the  distinction 
easy.  Little  good  can  be  effected  by  treatment, 

.  further  than  stimulating  the  action  of  the  skin  by 


the  use  of  Dover’s  powder,  Turkish  baths,  etc., 
and  by  inducing  the  patient  to  take  as  little  drink 
j  as  may  be  at  all  consistent  with  his  comfort. 

Polyga'leae,  or  Polygala  'ce,e,  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  herbaceous  or 
shrubby,  sometimes  twining;  the  leaves  without 
I  stipules,  and  generally  simple;  the  flowers  re¬ 
sembling  papilionaceous  flowers,  but  the  odd 
petal  inferior  and  the  odd  sepal  superior. 

Polygamous  (Gr.  tcoXvI,  many,  yapi),  fiiar- 
riage),  in  Botany,  a  term  employed  to  designate 
those  plants  which  produce  both  unisexual  and 
hermaphrodite  flowers  either  on  the  same  or 
different  plants. 

Polygon 'eae, or  Polygona'cevE,  a  natural  order 
of  exogenous  plants,  mostly  herbaceous  plants, 
but  including  a  few  shrubs,  and  even  trees.  The 
leaves  are  alternate,  sometimes  without  stipules, 
but  more  generally  with  stipules  cohering  around 
the  stem.  The  flowers  are  not  infrequently  uni¬ 
sexual. 

Polyhym'nia,  or  Polymnia  (the  many-hymned 
one),  one  of  the  nine  Muses.  She  was  reputed  by 
the  ancients  to  be  the  inventress  of  the  lyre,  and 
to  preside  over  lyric  poetry  and  eloquence.  In 
works  of  art,  she  is  usually  represented  in  a  pen¬ 
sive  attitude,  with  the  forefinger  of  the  right 
hand  upon  the  mouth. 

Polyne'sia,  or  the  region  of  many  islands  (Gr. 
TtoXvS,  polys,  much  or  many,  and  ve66z,  nesos,  an 
island),  is  the  name  usually  given, with  more  or  less 
of  1  i  nutation ,  to  the  numerous  groupsof  islands,  and 
some  few  single  islands,  scattered  throughout  the 
great  Pacific  Ocean,  between  the  eastern  shores 
of  Asia  and  the  western  shores  „of  America.  In 
its  widest  signification,  the  term  Polynesia  might 
be  understood  as  embracing,  besides  the  groups 
usually  geographically  so  called,  the  various 
islands,  large  and  small,  of  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
in  one  direction;  and  the  vast  Island  of  New  Hol¬ 
land  or  Australia,  with  itsdependency  of  Van  Die¬ 
men’s  Land,  in  another.  Including  these,  the 
whole  region  has  sometimes  been  called  Oceania, 
and  sometimes  Australasia — generally,  however, 
in  modern  times,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  islands 
in  the  Indian  Archipelago,  to  which  certain 
writers  have  given  the  name  of  Malaysia. 

Polyphe'mus,  in  the  Homeric  Mythology,  the 
son  of  Poseidon  and  the  nymph  Tlioosa,  the  most 
celebrated  of  the  fabulous  Cyclops  who  inhabited 
the  Island  of  Sicily.  He  was  of  immense  size, 
and  had  only  one  eye.  When  Ulysses  landed  on 
that  island,  he  entered  the  cave  of  Polyphemus 
with  twelve  companions,  of  which  number  this 
tremendous  cannibal  ate  six.  The  others  stood 
expecting  the  same  fate,  but  their  cunning  leader 
made  Polyphemus  drunk,  then  burned  out  his 
single  eye  with  a  blazing  torch,  and  so  escaped, 
leaving  the  blinded  monster  to  grope  about  in  the 
darkness. 

Polyphemus,  a  genus  of  Branrlnupoda,  of  the 
order  Cladocera ,  .remarkable  for  the  extraordinary 
size  of  the  solitary  eye,  which  occupies  almost  the 
whole  head. 

Pol  'y  pi,  or  Polypes,  a  class  of  animals  which 
were,  till  the  last  few  years,  included  in  the  Icadi- 
ata  of  Cuvier,  but 
which,  since  the  Ra- 
diata  have  ceased  to 
he  regarded  as  a  sub¬ 
kingdom,  have  found 
a  place  in  the  sub- 
k  i  n  g  d  o  m  Coden- 
lerata. 

Polypo 'ilium,  a 

genus  of  ferns,  with 
spore-cases  on  the 
back  of  the  frond, 
distinct .  ring-shaped, 
in  roundish  sort,  des¬ 
titute  of  indusium. 

P  o  1  y  p '  t  e  r  u  s,  a 
genus  ranked  by  Cu¬ 
vier  among  malacop- 
terous  fishes  and  in 
the  family  G lupeidce, 
notwithstanding  im¬ 
portant  differences  of  Polypi— Tubipora  inusica. 
structure;  but  now  constituted  into  a  family 
Polypteridce,  of  the  order  of  ganoid  fishes. 

Polyphon/ic(Gr.7roAuS,  many,  and  q>ovi), voice). 
When  a  musical  composition  consists  of  two  or 


POLYTRICIIUM. 


605 


POPE. 


more  parts,  each  of  which  has  an  independent 
melody  of  its  own,  it  is  said  to  be  polyphonic,  in 
opposition  to  a  homoplionic  composition,  con¬ 
sisting  of  a  principal  part  with  a  leading  idea, 
and  accessory  parts  employed  to  strengthen  it. 

Poly  'trichum  (Gr.  many-haired),  a  genus  of 
mosses,  having  the  capsule  supported  on  a  stalk 
(seta)  which  is  terminal,  and  thus  appears  as  an 
elongation  of  the  stem;  the  peristome  single,  of 
thirty-two  or  sixty-four  short  equidistant  teeth, 
which  are  curved  inward,  and  their  summits 
united  by  a  horizontal  membrane  closing  the 
mouth  of  the  capsule. 

Polyzo'a,  known  also  as  Bryozoa  (from  the 
Greek  tipvov,  bryon,  moss,  and  (<aor,  z  >oti,  an 
animal ;  because  many  of  these  organisms  incrust 
other  animals  or  bodies  like  moss),  and  Cilio- 
braciiiata  (from  the  circumstances  that  their 
tentacles  are  ciliated t,  are  so  called  from  many 
individuals  being  united  into  a  colony  or  poly- 
zoary.  Most  of  the  polyzoa  are  microscopic,  but 
as  they  occur  in  colonies,  they  often  collectively 
form  sufficiently  conspicuous  masses,  and  al¬ 
though  there  is  little  diversity  in  the  form  or 
structure  of  the  animals  themselves,  there  is  much 
difference  in  the  form,  arrangement,  and  compo¬ 
sition  of  the  cells  or  chambers  in  which  the  indi¬ 
vidual  animals  reside. 

Poma'cete,  or  Pome^e,  according  to  some  bot¬ 
anists,  a  natural  order  of  plants,  but  more  gener¬ 
ally  regarded  as  a  sub-order  of  Rosace w. 

Pomade',  or  Pomatum,  is  a  preparation  used 
instead  of  liquid  oil  for  the  hair.  It  consists  of  a 
fine  inodorous  fat,  such  as  lard  or  suet.  The  fat  is 
melted  in  a  steam-bath,  and  to  every  £  of  a  hun¬ 
dred-weight  is  added  1  ounce  of  alum  and  2 
ounces  of  salt,  continuing  the  action  of  the  heat 
till  any  scum  ceases  to  rise;  the  scum  is  care¬ 
fully  removed,  and  the  fat  allowed  to  con],  after 
which  it  is  levigated  with  cold  water  until  all  has 
been  acted  upon,  and  the  salt,  alum,  and  albu¬ 
minous  matters  are  perfectly  washed  out,  after 
which  it  is  remelted  in  the  steam-bath,  and  any 
remaining  water  falls  to  the  bottom,  when  cold, 
it  is  ..t  for  use.  The  perfumer  then  takes  portions 
of  this  prepared  fat,  and  remelting  each  sepa¬ 
rately,  adds  a  little  wax  or  spermaceti  to  give  it 
consistency,  and  perfumes  it  with  some  essence. 

Pome  (Lat.  pomum,  an  apple),  a  form  of  fruit 
of  which  examples  are  found  in  the  apple,  pear, 
and  other  fruits  of  the  Pomaceas ;  and  in  which 
tlieepicarp  andmesocarp  forma  thick,  fleshy  mass; 
while  the  endocarp  is  scaly,  horny,  or  stony,  and 
divided  into  separate  cells,  in  which  the  seeds  are 
inclosed.  The  fruit  is  crowned  with  remains  of 
the  calycine  segments.  Pomes  have  1  to  5  cells, 
or  spuriously  10  cells. 

Pomegran'ate  (Punica  granatum),  a  fruit 
which  in  a  wild  state  grows  on  a  thorny  bush, 
and  in  cultivation  on 
a  low  tree,  with  twig¬ 
gy  branches,  flowers 
at  the  extremities  of 
tliebranches,  the  calyx 
red,  the  petals  scarlet. 

The  fruit  is  as  large  as 
a  large  orange,  with  a 
thick  leathery  rind  of 
a  fine  golden  yellow, 
with  a  rosy  tinge  on 
one  side,  not  bursting 
when  ripe.  The  pulp 
is  sweet,  sometimes 
sub-acid,  and  of  a 
pleasant  delicate  fla-  Section  of  a  Pomegranate, 
vor,  very  cooling,  and  particularly  grateful  in 
warm  climates.  It  is  often  used  for  the  prepara 
tion  of  cooling  drinks. 

PomcraTiia  (Gcr.  Pommern),  a  province  of 
Prussia,  bounded  north  by  the  Baitic,  east  by 
West  Prussia;  south  by  Bradenburg,  and  west  by 
the  Mecklenburg  duchies.  Area,  11,600  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1880),  1,540,034. 

Pomeroy,  the  county  seat  of  Garfield  county, 
Wash.  Pop.,  80*. 

Pom mettfie,  or  Po Mel  Cross,  in  Heraldry,  a 
cross  whose  extremities  terminate  in  single  knobs 
or  pomels,  like  the  Bourdon  or  pilgrim’s  staff. 

Porno 'na  (whose  name  is  obviously  connected 
with  pomum ,  a  fruit)  was,  among  the  Latins,  the 
patron  divinity  of  garden-produce. 

Pomona,  or  Mainland,  the  largest  and  most 


populous  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  in  which  group 
it  occupies  a  central  position.  Area,  150  square 
miles;  pop.  (1881),  17,165.  It  is  25  miles  in  length, 
and  15  miles  in  breadth. 

Pompadour  (Jeanne  Antoinette  Poisson), 
Marquise  de,  a  notable  mistress  of  Louis  XV., 
was  born  in  Paris  in  1720  or  1722.  The  king 
thought  the  marquise  extremely  clever,  and,  when 
he  ceased  to  “  Jove  ”  her,  was  glad  to  avail  him¬ 
self  of  her  services  as  his  political  adviser.  In 
fact,  she  became  Premier  of  France;  the  council 
of  ministers  assembled  in  her  boudoir,  where  the 
most  important  affairs  of  state  were  settled.  She 
died  (April  15,  1764)  with  the  reins  of  govern¬ 
ment  in  her  hands. 

Pompe'ii,  a  city  of  Campania,  was  built  at  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Sarnus  (Sumo),  looking  out 
on  the  Bay  of  Naples.  It  stood  at  the  base  of 
Mount  Vesuvius,  between  Herculaneum  and 
Stabia?.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire  and  lava  from 
Mount  Vesuvius  in  79  a.d. 

Pom'pelmoose,  or  Pomelo  (Citrus  pompel- 
moos),  a  fruit  nearly  resembling  the  Shaddock,  of 
which,  perhaps,  it  ought  to  be  esteemed  a  vari¬ 
ety,  although  it  is  now  distinguished  by  some 
botanists  as  a  separate  species. 

Pom'pey  tlie  Great.  Cneius  Pompeius  Mag¬ 
nus,  son  of  Cn.  Pompeius  Strabo,  was  born  in 
106  b.c.  In  70  he  was  elected  Consul,  and  in 
67 — 66  B.c.  performed  a  noble  service  to  the  re¬ 
public  in  clearing  the  Mediterranean  of  the  pirates 
who  infested  it  in  immense  numbers;  and  during 
the  next  four  years,  65 — 62,  he  conquered  Mitii- 
ridates  King  of  Pontus,  Tigranes  King  of  Ar¬ 
menia,  and  Antiochus  King  of  Syria.  At  the 
same  time  he  subdued  the  Jewish  nation,  and  cap¬ 
tured  Jerusalem.  He  performed  other  brilliant 
services  for  his  country,  but  was  in  48  b.c.  treach¬ 
erously  murdered  by  order  of  the  king  of  Egypt, 
whither  he  had  fled. 

Pompey’s  Pillar.  The  name  of  a  celebrated 
column  in  the  neighborhood  of  Alexandria, 
Egypt.  It  stands  upon  an  eminence  about  1,800 
feet  south  of  the  walls.  It  is  a  monolith  of  red 
granite,  and  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  stands 
upon  a  pedestal.  Its  total  height  is  98  feet  9 
inches;  shaft,  73  feet;  29  feet  8  inches  in  circum¬ 
ference. 

Ponca,  the  county  seat  of  Dixon  county,  Neb. 
Pop.,  1,562. 

Pond  idler 'ry,  the  chief  of  the  French  settle¬ 
ments  in  India,  in  the  District  of  South  Arcot,  in 
the  Madras  Presidency.  The  other  French  estab¬ 
lishments  are  Mah<?  in  Malabar,  Karikal  inTan- 
jore,  Yanaonin  Godavari,  and  Chandernagore  in 
Bengal.  The  extent  of  the  united  territories  is 
188  square  miles.  Pondicherry  is  on  the  Coro¬ 
mandel  Coast  in  11°  56'  of  N.  latitude  and  79°  54' 
of  E.  longitude,  and  is  eighty-eight  miles  from 
Madras.  Area,  107  square  miles.  The  total  pop. 
of  the  French  establishments  in  India  in  1880, 
was  283,022. 

Pondoland,  a  district  about  60  miles  square, 
the  easternmost  part  of  what  was  formerly  Kaf- 
fraria  Proper,  on  the  Natal  frontier.  It  was 
the  last  of  the  independent  Kaffrarian  districtsab- 
sorbed,  having  been  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  by 
imperial  authority  in  the  end  of  1884. 

Pond  weed  (Po'amoge  on),  a  genus  of  aquatic 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Naiades,  having  lier- 
maphrohite  flowers,  sessile  upon  a  spike  or  spa¬ 
dix,  which  issues  from  a  sheathing  bract  or 
spathe,  a  perianth  of  four  scales,  four  sessile 
anthers  opposite  to  the  scales  of  the  perianth, 
four  pistils,  which  become  four  small  nuts,  and  a 
curved  embryo. 

Poll 'go  (Simit  or  Pithecus  wormhii),  an  ape 
of  thesame  genus  with  the  orang,  but  of  much 
larger  size,  6  feet  or  more  from  the  heel  to  the 
crown  of  the  head,  and  covered  with  black  hair, 
with  which  dark  red  hair  is  mingled.  It  is  a 
native  of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  probably  of  other 
neighboring  islands,  inhabiting  the  deepest  re¬ 
cesses  of  the  forests,  and  much  more  rarely  seen 
by  man  than  its  congener  the  orang,  which  was 
at  one  t  ime  supposed  by  the  most  eminent  natural¬ 
ists  to  be  the  same  species  in  a  younger  state. 

Pontcliartrain ',  Lake,  in  Louisiana, about  five 
miles  north  of  New  Orleans,  with  which  it  com¬ 
municates  by  a  canal,  is  40  miles  long,  aud  24 
miles  in  extreme  width. 


Ponti  ac,  the  county  seat  of  Livingston  county,. 
Ill.  Pop.,  3,800. 

Pont  iac,  the  county  seat  of  Oakland  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  5,400. 

Pontianak',  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
same  name  on  the  west, coast  of  Borneo,  is  near 
the  -junction  of  the  Landak  and  Kapuas.  The  city 
derives  its  importance  from  being  the  seat  of  the 
Netherlands’  Resident,  who  rules  directly  and  in¬ 
directly  over  the  whole  west  coast  from  2°  56'  S. 
— 2°  50'  N.  latitude,  and  108°  45'— 112°  50'  E. 
longitude.  Pop.,  7,000. 

Pontif'ical  (Lat.  pontificale,  belonging  to  a 
pontiff  or  bishop),  one  of  the  service-books  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  in  which  are  contained  the 
several  services,  whether  in  the  administration  of 
sacraments  or  (lie  performance  of  public  worship, 
in  which  the  bishop  exclusively,  or  at  least  a 
priest  delegated  by  the  bishop,  officiates. 

Pontoon'  (through  the  Fr.  ponton,  from  the 
Lat.  pons,  a  bridge),  the  name  given  to  buoyant 
vessels  used  in  military  operations  for  support¬ 
ing  a  temporary  bridge.  The  older  forms  of 
pontoons  were  flat-bottomed,  rectangular  boats, 
open  at  the  top.  They  were  very  heavy,  one 
pontoon,  with  appurtenances,  constituting  a 
wagon-load.  As  thirty -six  were  deemed  necessary 
for  the  train,  a  pontoon  equipment  was  a  serious 
item  in  the  impediment  a  of  an  army.  They  are  now, 
however,  obsolete.  The  United  States  Army  has, 
in  addition  to  its  pontoon  equipment,  a  system  of 
rectangular  frames  (4  feet  long,  2|  feet  wide,  14 
feet  deep),  over  which  the  rubber  blankets  of  the 
soldiers  are  stretched,  making  a  boat  capable  of 
floating  800  pounds.  When  heavy  loads  are  to  be 
transported,  a  number  of  these  are  lashed  together, 
and  make  a  very  effective  boat  capable  of  carry¬ 
ing  artillery. 

Pcutotoc,  the  county  seat  of  Pontotoc  county. 
Miss.  Pop.,  500. 

Pon'tus,  the  name  given  by  the  ancient  Greeks 
to  a  country  in  the  northeast  of  Asia  Minor, 
bordering  on  the  Pontus  Euxinus  (whence  its 
name),  and  extending  from  the  River  Halysin  the 
west  of  the  frontiers  of  Colchis  and  Armenia  in 
the  east.  Its  southern  limits  were  the  ranges  of 
Anti-Taurus  and  Paryadres. 

Poo 'die  (Ger.  pudel),  a  kind  of  dog,  origin¬ 
ally  German,  but  extensively  diffused  throughout 
Europe  (and  America  by  importation),  during  the 
wars  of  the  French  Revolution,  by  the  soldiers 
who  served  in  Spain  and  the  Netherlands.  It  is 
very  closely  allied  to  the  coarser,  crisp-haired 
water-dog. 

Poole,  William  F.,  a  distinguished  American 
bibliographer,  was  born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Dec. 
24,  1821.  He  graduated  at  Yale  in  1849  ;  was 
assistant  librarian  of  the  Boston  Athenamm  in 
1851-52  and  1856-69  ;  organized  the  Cincinnati 
Public  Library  in  1869,  the  Chicago  Public 
Library  in  1874,  and  presided  over  it  until  1887, 
when  he  resigned  to  organize  the  Newberry 
Library  of  Chicago,  of  which  he  is  now  (1889) 
the  librarian. 

Poo'na,  or  Puna,  the  capital  of  a  district  of 
British  India,  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Presi¬ 
dency  of  Bombay,  is  situated  on  the  small  River 
Moota,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Moola,  in  a 
treeless  plain  about  seventy -four  miles  southeast 
of  Bombay.  Its  present  population  is  estimated 
(1872)  at  90,436. 

Poop,  in  large  vessels,  is  a  sort  of  supplemental 
deck  raised  over  the  after-part  of  the  upper  deck. 
The  best  cabins  are  situated  b  neatli  it.  The 
poop  is  gradually  disappearing  from  ships  built 
cither  for  speed  or  war,  as  offering  undue  resist¬ 
ance  to  the  wind  in  one  case,  and  an  undesirable 
mark  to  the  enemy  in  the  other. 

Popayan,  a  city  of  the  United  States  of 
Colombia  (New  Granada),  South  America,  stands 
on  the  Cauca,  in  latitude  2°  27'  N.  Pop.,  20,000. 

Pope  (Gr.  TtaTtas;  Lat.  papa,  father),  the  title 
of  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  Supreme  Pontiff  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church;  applied  also  to  all 
priests  of  the  Greek  and  Russo-Greek  Church. 
The  office  of  Pope  is  elective.  The  electoral  body, 
according  to  the  present  usage,  is  the  College  of 
Cardinals.  Preparatory  to  an  election, the  cardinals 
are  shut  up  in  what  is  called  “  the  conclave,”  all 
communication  with  the  outer  world  being  inter¬ 
rupted  until  the  election  shall  have  been  made. 
A  simple  majority  of  voicesdoes  not  suffice — two- 


POPE. 


606 


PORTSMOUTH. 


thirds  of  the  cardinals  must  vote  for  the  same 
candidate.  The  general  nature  of  the  office  of 
the  Pope  may  be  referred  from  his  character  as 
successor  of  St.  Peter,  and  vicegerent  of  Christ 
on  earth,  whence  follow  all  the  powers  necessary 
for  the  practical  government  of  the  Church. 
Since  the  institution  of  the  office  there  have  been 
258  Popes,  exclusive  of  rival  claimants  of  the 
office. 

Pope,  Alexander,  an  eminent  English  poet, 
was  born  in  London,  May  21,  1688.  lie  died  on 
May  30,  1744. 

Pop'lar  ( Popvlus ),  a  genus  of  trees,  forming, 
along  with  willows,  the  whole  of  the  natural 
order  Salicaceee  or  Sail  ineae  (by  some  regarded  as 
a  sub-order  of  Amentacece).  The  species  are 
numerous,  chiefly  natives  of  the  temperate  and 
cold  regions  of  the  Northern  Hemisphere.  They 
are  large  trees  of  rapid  growth,  with  soft  wood, 
and  broad,  heart-shaped,  ovate,  triangular,  or 
lozenge-shaped,  deciduous  leaves,  on  rather  long 
stalks.  Many  of  them  are  very  beautiful  trees. 

Poplar  Bluff,  the  county  seat  of  Butler 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Popo'catepetl  (Aztec,  popoca,  to  smoke,  and 
tepetl,  a  mountain;,  or  in  Spanish,  Vulcan  Grande 
de  Mexico,  Grand  Volcano  of  Mexico,  a  mountain 
about  ten  miles  southwest  of  the  city  of  Mexico. 
It  rises  in  the  form  of  a  cone  to  a  height  of  17,720 
feet.  About  the  period  of  the  Spanish  conquest, 
it  was  very  active,  but  no  eruption  has  been 
recorded  since  1540,  but  it  still  smokes. 

Pop'py  {[‘a paver),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Papaveracece.  There  are  numerous 
species  of  poppy,  mostly  natives  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  By  far  the  most  important  species  is  that 
known  as  the  opium  poppy  ( P .  somniferum),  also 
called  the  white  poppy,  and  the  oil  poppy  which 
yields  opium.  But  the  same  species  is  important 
on  account  of  the  bland,  fixed  oil  of  the  seeds,  and 
is  much  cultivated  as  an  oil  plant.  Poppy  oil  is 
as  sweet  as  olive  oil,  and  is  used  for  similar  pur¬ 
poses. 

Por'cupine  ( Hystrix ),  a  genus  of  mammalia,  of 
the  order  Rodentia,  and  family  Hystricidm.  This 
family  is  remarkably  characterized  by  an  armature 
of  spines,  which,  like  those  of  the  hedgehogs,  are, 
as  to  their  structure,  merely  thick  and  strong- 
hairs.  The  Ilystricidce  are  plantigrade.  The 
common  porcupine  (II.  cristata)  is  a  native  of  the 
South  of  Europe,  of  many  parts  of  Asia,  and  of 
most  parts  of  Africa.  The  Canada  porcupine,  or 
urson,  is  different  from  the  true  porcupines;  and 
the  coendus  (Synetherex)  of  the  warm  parts  of 
America — which  are  covered  with  short  quills, 
and,  like  the  urson,  live  among  the  branches  of 
trees — are  remarkably  distinguished  by  their 
long,  prehensile  tail. 

Poros'ity.  By  this  term  we  express  the  ex¬ 
perimental  fact,  that  no  kind  of  matter  com¬ 
pletely  fills  the  space  it  occupies;  in  other  words, 
that  all  bodies  are  full  of  minute  cavities  or  inter¬ 
stices,  such  as  are  illustrated  on  a  large  scale  by  a 
sponge.  On  the  atomic  theory,  it  is  obvious  that 
this  must  be  the  case  if  the  atoms  of  matter  are 
spherical. 

Por'phyry  (Gr.  nopq>vpvi,  purple),  a  term 
originally  confined  to  an  Egyptian  rock  used  in 
sculpture,  and  known  now  as  Rosso  antico.  It  is 
composed,  according  to  I)elesse,of  a  red  feldsphatic 
base,  in  which  are  disseminated  rose-colored  crys¬ 
tals  of  the  feldspar  called  oligoclase,  with  some 
plates  of  blackish  horn  blende,  and  grains  of 
oxidized  iron  ore. 

Por'poise,  or  Porpesse  ( Phocceoa ),  a  genus  of 


Ceta  ea,  of  the  family  Delphinidce,  having  a  form 


similar  to  the  dolphins.  The  common  porpoise 
(P.  communis)  is  the  most  plentiful  of  the  Cetacea 
on  the  American  coasts,  abounding  particularly 
on  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Middle  and  Southern 
Atlantic  States,  on  all  the  coasts  of  Europe 
from  the  Mediterranean  northward,  and  in  the 
Arctic  regions.  It  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the 
Cetacea.  The  body  is  spindle-shaped;  its  greatest 
diameter  is  near  the  dorsal  fin.  The  skin  is  per 
fectly  smooth,  and  destitute  of  hair.  It  is  an 
object  of  pursuit  on  account  of  its  skin,  its  oil, 
and  its  flesh.  The  skin  is  made  into  excellent 
leather.  Under  the  skin  is  a  layer  of  fat,  about 
an  inch  in  depth,  which  yields  oil  of  the  finest 
quality. 

Port,  in  naval  language  is  a  harbor  where  ships 
are  ad  mi  l  ted  to  embark  or  discharge  cargoes,  or 
for  other  purposes — a  fiee  port  being  one  in  which 
the  embarkation  and  discharge  can  be  conducted 
without  the  payment  of  customs  or  port  dues. — 
A  port  in  a  ship’s  side  is  the  aperture  for  admit¬ 
ting  light  and  air,  or  for  pointing  a  gun  through. 
— Port  is  also  the  official  name  for  the  left-hand 
side,  when  looking  toward  the  bow  of  a  ship,  the 
term  taking  the  place  of  the  old  term  larboard. 

Port  Allen,  the  parish  seat  of  West  Baton 
Rouge  parish.  La.  Pop.,  250. 

Port  Arms,  in  musketry  drill,  is  derived  from 
portare,  to  carry,  and  applies  to  a  motion  in  which 
the  fire-arm  is  brought  to  a  slanting  position  in 
front  of  the  body,  lock  to  the  front,  the  barrel 
crossing  opposite  the  front  of  the  left  shoulder. 

Port-au-Prince,  or  Port  Republican,  the 
capital  of  Hayti,  is  situated  on  the  west  coast,  at 
the  head  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name.  Pop.,  about 
21,000. 

Port  Clinton,  the  county  seat  of  Ottawa 
county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Port  Gibson,  the  county  seat  of  Claiborne 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  1,800. 

Port  Huron,  a  thriving  city  in  St.  Clair  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  12,000. 

Port  Jervis,  a  great  dairying  center  in  Orange 
county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  8,800. 

Port  Madison,  the  county  seat  of  Kitsap 
county,  Wash.  Pop.,  300. 

Port  Tobacco,  the  county  seat  of  Charles 
county,  Md.  Pop.,  225. 

Port  Townsend,  the  county  seat  of  Jefferson 
county.  Wash.  Pop.,  1,800. 

Port  Washington,  the  county  seat  of  Ozaukee 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Port  Wine  (i.  e. .  Porto  or  Oporto  Wine),  a  spe¬ 
cies  of  red  wane,  hot  and  heady,  which  is  pro¬ 
duced  chiefly  in  a  mountainous  district  of  Portugal, 
called  Cima  de  Douro,  and  exported  from  Oporto 
and  Lisbon. 

Portage,  an  important  distributing  point  in 
Columbia  county,  Wis.  Pop.,  5,600.  There  are 
considerable  manufactures  carried  on  here,  and 
some  lumber  is  shipped. 

Portcul'lis  (literally  sliding  gate,  Fr.  from 
Lat.  porta  and  colare),  a  frame  of  wood  strength¬ 
ened  with  iron  in  the  form  of  a  grating,  and 
sliding  in  vertical  grooves  in  the  jambs  of  the 
entrance  gate  of  a  fortified  place,  in  order  to  de¬ 
fend  the  gate  in  case  of  assault.  The  vertical  bars 
were  pointed  with  iron  below,  and  struck  on  the 
ground  when  the  grating  was  dropped,  so  as  to 
injure  whatever  it  fell  upon. 

Porte,  Sublime  Porte,  or  Ottoman  Porte, 
the  name  given  to  the  Turkish  Government.  The 
origin  of  this  name  is  to  be  referred  to  the  ancient 
Oriental  custom  of  making  the  gates  of  cities  and 
of  king’s  palaces  places  of  assembly  in  connect  ion 
with  the  affairsof  government  and  of  the  adminis¬ 
tration  of  justice.  In  the  Byzantine  Empire  this 
custom  was  adopted,  and  the  term  was  transferred 
from  the  high  gate  of  the  imperial  palace  to  the 
government  whose  authority  was  there  exercised. 

Porter,  David,  American  commodore,  was 
born  in  Boston  in  1780;  he  distinguished  himself 
in  the  quasi  war  with  France,  and  in  1812  against 
England,  and  later  against  the  Tripolitans.  He 
died  in  1843. 

Porter,  David  D.  Admiral  of  the  American 
navy,  son  of  Commodore  David  Porter;  was 
born  in  Philadelphia  about  1805,  entered  the 
navy  as  Midshipman  in  1829.  At  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  the  War  of  1861,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed,  with  the  rank  of  Commander,  to  the 
ste  ,m  sloop  of  war  Powhatan ,  and  ordered  to 


Pensacola;  distinguished  himself  in  the  capture 
of  New  Orleans,  and  commanded  the  gun-boat 
and  mortar  flotilla  which  cooperated  with  the 
squadron  of  Admiral  Farragut  in  the  first  attack 
upon  Vicksburg.  In  1863  he  aided  in  the  second 
.and  successful  bombardment,  and  subsequently 
commanded  the  naval  forces  in  James’  river,  and 
in  the  attacks  upon  Fort  Fisher,  captured  at  the 
second  attack.  At  the  termination  of  the  war,  he 
was  appointed  Superintendent  and  President  ex 
officio  of  the  United  States  Naval  Academy,  at 
Annapolis.  He  was  made  Vice-admiral  in  1866, 
and  in  1870  he  became  Admiral,  a  rank  which 
carries  with  it  the  command  of  the  whole  United 
States  Navy,  subject  only  to  the  President. 

Porter,  Fitz-John,  American  general,  was 
born  in  New  Hampshire  in  1823.  He  participated 
in  the  war  with  Mexico,  and  in  the  Civil  War 
was  made  Major-General  of  volunteers.  At  the 
second  Battle  of  Bull  Run  he  was  charged  with 
disobedience  of  orders,  and  cashiered.  His  case, 
however,  was  reopened  by  Congress,  after  more 
than  20  years,  and  he  was  reinstated  in  the  army 
with  his  rank  of  Colonel,  which  position  he  now 
holds. 

Porter,  a  kind  of  malt  liquor  which  came  into 
use  in  London  in  1722.  The  chief  charcteristics 
of  porter  are  its  dark  brown  color,  peculiar  bitter 
flavor,  and  agreeable  freshness  in  drinking.  A 
kind  much  stronger  than  ordinary  porter  is  also 
extensively  brewed  in  London,  Dublin,  and  else¬ 
where,  under  the  name  of  stout.  The  name 
porter  is  now  seldom  used  in  England,  stout 
being  the  general  designation. 

Port-lire,  is  a  sort  of  slow-match  for  firing  guns. 
It  consists  of  a  paper  tube  from  16  to  20  inches  in 
length,  tilled  with  a  composition  of  saltpeter  666 
parts,  sulphur  222  parts,  mealed  gunpowder  112 
parts.  As  a  substitute,  may  be  employed  soft 
brown  paper  dipped  in  a  solution  of  two  ounces 
of  niter  to  a  gallon  of  water,  dried,  and  rolled  up 
to  the  size  of  a  common  portfire.  Another  port¬ 
fire  consists  of  a  rod,  cut  square,  of  lime,  birch,  or 
poplar,  boiled  for  six  hours  in  a  solution  formed 
by  dissolving  one  pound  of  nitrate  of  lead  in  one 
quart  of  water.  The  rod  is  subsequently  boiled  in 
spirits  of  turpentine.  When  thoroughly  dried, 
one  yard  will  burn  three  hours. 

Port-holes  are  embrasures  or  openings  in  the 
side  of  a  ship  of  war  to  enable  the  guns  to  be 
ranged  in  battery.  The  port-holes  are  ordinarily 
square,  of  size  sufficient  to  enable  the  guns  to  be 
pointed  at  aconsiderableangle.  In  stormy  weather 
the  ports  are  closed,  the  guns  being  run  in.  When 
the  guns  are  run  out,  and  no  fighting  is  antici¬ 
pated,  half-ports  are  employed  to  keep  the  water 
out.  There  is  a  row  of  ports  for  each  gun-deck. 

Portland,  a  seaport  of  Maine,  on  an  arm  of 
Casco  Bay,  105  miles  northeast  of  Boston.  The 
harbor  of  Portland  is  large,  deep,  and  well  shel¬ 
tered,  and  is  the  winter  station  of  the  Canadian 
steamers.  It  is  defended  by  two  forts.  In  1866, 
a  fire  destroyed  $10,000,000  worth  of  property. 
Pop.  (1889),  36,000. 

Portland,  the  largest  city  of  Oregon,  fifty 
miles  north  of  Salem,  the  capital  of  the  State,  is 
on  a  tributary  of  the  Columbia  river.  It  is  the 
terminus  of  the  Oregon  Central  Railway,  has 
rapidly  growing  trade  and  thriving  foundries, 
planing  mills,  and  breweries.  Pop.  (1889),  40.300. 

Portland,  the  county  seat  of  Jay  county,  Ind. 
Pop.,  4,200. 

Por'to  Ale'gre,  a  town  of  Brazil,  capital  of  the 
Province  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  stands  at  the 
northwest  extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Patos,  and 
contains  about  25,000  inhabitants. 

Ports'mouth,  the  chief  naval  arsenal  of  Great 
Britain,  and  an  important  seaport,  market-town, 
and  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  in  the 
South  of  Hampshire,  stands  on  the  south  west  shore 
of  Portsea  Island,  at  the  entrance  of  Portsmouth 
Harbor,  and  opposite  the  town  of  Gosport,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  means  of  a  steam- 
bridge.  It  is  seventy-four  miles  southwest  of 
London.  Pop.  of  the  borough  (1881),  127,953. 

Portsmouth,  the  name  of  several  cities  in  the 
Union,  as  follows: — 1.  A  city  and  the  only  seaport 
of  New  Hampshire,  is  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Piscataqua  river,  three  miles  from  the  Atlantic, 
and  fifty-four  miles  north-northeast  of  Boston. 
There  is  a  safe  and  deep  harbor,  a  United  States 
navy-yard,  having  a  balance-dock  350  feet  long, 


PORTUGAL. 


607 


POTASSIUM. 


and  two  forts,  M’Cleary  and  Constitution.  Pop. 
(1889),  9,800. — 2.  A  city  and  port  of  Virginia,  on 
the  west  bank  of  Elizabeth  liver,  opposite  Nor¬ 
folk,  and  eight  miles  from  Hampton  Roads.  Its 
proximity  to  Fortress  Monroe  caused  it  to  be  held, 
during  the  War  of  Secession,  by  the  Federal  forces. 
Pop.  (1889),  15,100. — 3.  A  village  of  Ohio,  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Scioto  and  Hocking  Valley  Railway,  and  Ohio 
and  Erie  Canal,  115  miles  east-by-south  from  Cin¬ 
cinnati,  and  ninety  south  of  Columbus.  Pop. 
(1889),  13,100. 

Portugal,  the  most  westerly  kingdom  of 
Europe,  a  part  of  the  great  Spanish  peninsula,  lies 
in  30°  55'— 42°  8'  N.  latitude,  and  6°  15'— 9°  30' 
W.  longitude.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to 
south  is  368  miles,  and  its  average  breadth  from 
east  to  west  about  100  miles.  The  census  of  1878 
showed  a  pop.  for  Continental  Portugal  of  4,348,- 
551,  and  with  the  Azores  and  Madeira,  4,745,124. 
The  vicinity  to  the  western  ocean  tempers  the 
climate  of  Portugal,  and  exempts  it  from  the  dry 
heat  by  which  Spain  is  visited.  The  natural 
products  correspond  to  the  diversity  of  the  physi¬ 
cal  and  climatic  conditions.  The  soil  is  generally 
rich,  but  agriculture  is  everywhere  neglected. 
The  commercial  industry  of  the  country  falls  very 
far  below  its  physical  capabilities,  and  Oporto  and 
Lisbon  are  the  only  centers  of  manufacture  and 
trade,  the  former  of  which  has  important  silk  and 
glove  manufactories,  and  produces  an  inconsider¬ 
able  quantity  of  linen,  cotton,  and  wool  fabrics, 
metal  and  earthenware  goods,  tobacco,  cigars, 
leather.  Portugal  is  almost  exclusively  Catholic, 
and  shows  little  toleration  to  other  creeds.  Public 
education  is  entirely  free  from  the  supervision  and 
control  of  the  church.  Compulsory  education 
was  enacted  in  1844,  butisfarfrom  fully  enforced. 
The  administration  of  the  law  is  effected  by  means 
of  111  courts  of  justice.  The  courts  are  public, 
and  in  some  cases  trial  by  jury  is  adopted.  Por¬ 
tugal  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  the  crown 
being  hereditary,  alike  in  the  female  and  male  lines. 
The  houses  of  representatives  are  called  Cortes, 
and  consist  of  the  Camaras  dos  Pares,  and  the 
Camaras  dos  Diputados,  the  former  composed  of 
grandees,  chosen  for  life  by  the  sovereign,  and  the 
latter  of  149  members,  elected  by  voters.  The 
monarch  is  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  six  ministers 
of  state,  and  a  council  composed  of  members 
chosen  for  life.  He  bears  the  title  of  King  of  Por¬ 
tugal  and  of  Algarve  “  on  both  sides  of  the  ocean.” 
The  heir-apparent  bears  the  title  of  Prince  of  Beira. 

Portulacese,  or  Portulacacete,  a  natural 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  nearly  allied  to  Cary- 
ophyllacece.  The  tuberous  roots  of  Claytonia 
tuberosa,  a  Siberian  plant,  are  used  for  food,  as 
are  those  of  the  melloco  (Mdloca  tuberosa  or 
Ullucus  tuberosus),  a  Peruvian  plant  sometimes 
referred  to  this  order.  The  genus  Calendrinia 
furnishes  some  beautiful  annuals. 

Po  'sen,  a  province  of  Prussia,  bounded  north 
by  Pomerania  and  East  Prussia,  east  by  Poland, 
south  by  Silesia,  and  west  by  Brandenburg  and 
Pomerania.  Area,  11,150  square  miles.  Pop. 
at  the  close  of  1880,  1,703,397. 

Posen  (Polish  Poznan ),  the  chief  town  of  the 
Province  of  Posen,  and  a  Prussian  fortress  of  the 
first  rank,  is  situated  on  the  low  and  sandy  banks 
of  the  Wartha,  nearly  150  miles  east  of  Berlin. 
Pop.  (1880),  65,713. 

Pos'set,  a  dietetic  preparation,  made  by  curd¬ 
ling  milk  with  some  acidulous  liquor,  such  as 
wine,  ale,  or  vinegar.  White  wine  or  sherry  is 
usually  preferred,  but  sometimes  old  ale  is  used. 
The  milk  is  boiled,  and  while  it  is  still  on  the  fire, 
the  acidulous  matter  is  added;  if  sherry,  about  a 
wine-glassful  and  a  half  to  the  pint  of  new  milk 
is  the  proportion;  or  twice  the  quantity  if  ale. 
A  tablespoonful  of  vinegar  or  of  lemon  juice  is 
sometimes  used  instead;  one  or  two  tablespoonfuls 
of  treacle  are  added,  to  sweeten.  Taken  at  bed¬ 
time,  it  is  used  for  colds  and  coughs. 

Post-office,  a  place  for  the  reception  of  letters, 
and  the  management  of  the  various  departments 
connected  with  their  dispatch  and  conveyance. 
The  name  originated  in  the  posts  (from  Lat. 
posi'urn,  placed,  fixed)  placed  at  intervals  along 
the  roads  of  the  Roman  Empire,  where  couriers 
were  kept  in  readiness  to  bear  dispatches  and 
intelligence;  but  the  posts  of  ancient  times  were 
never  used  for  the  conveyance  of  private  corres¬ 


pondence.  The  first  letter-post  seems  to  have 
been  established  in  the  Hanse  Towns  in  the  early 
part  of  the  thirteenth  century.  In  this  country  as 
soon  as  the  government  was  organized,  a  post- 
office  department  was  engrafted  and  Benjamin 
Franklin  was  first  Postmaster-General.  The 
system  has  grown  and  more  than  kept  pace  with 
the  other  departments,  until  now  we  possess  the 
most  splendid  and  stupendous  postal  system  on 
earth.  The  rates  of  postage  and  money  orders 
are  as  follows: 

Domestic— First-class.—  Letters  to  any  part.  2  cents 
per  oz. ;  city  drop  letters,  2  cents  per  oz. ;  postal  cards, 
1  cent  each.  Registered  letters,  letter  postage  and  10 
cents  extra.  Special  delivery  letters,  letter  postage  and 
special  stamp,  10  cents  extra.  Second-class.— Periodicals, 
newspapers,  magazines,  etc.,  1  cent  for  each  four  ounces. 
Periodicals,  newspapers,  magazines,  etc.,  mailed  by  the 
publisher  to  subscribers,  1  cent  per  pouud.  Third-class.— 
Books,  pamphlets,  circulars,  and  other  matter  wholly  in 
print,  including  music,  lithograph  and  corrected  copy 
accompanied  by  the  manuscript,  1  cent  for  every  two 
ounces.  Limit  of  weight  in  this  class,  four  pounds,  unless 
a  single  volume  of  a  book  weighs  more.  Fourth-class. — 
Merchandise,  cards,  patterns,  photographs,  letter  paper 
and  envelopes,  printed  or  plain,  printed  blanks,  bulbs, 
roots,  seeds,  etc.,  1  cent  per  ounce.  Limit  of  weight  in 
this  class,  four  pounds.  Postal  Notes  and  Money  Orders. — 
Postal  notes,  under  $5,  payable  to  bearer,  3  cents.  Limit 
of  validity,  three  months  from  last  day  of  month  of  issue. 
Money  Orders  in  United  States. — Not  exceeding  $5,  5  cents; 
85  to  $10,  8  cents:  $10  to  $15,  10  cents;  $15  to  $30.  15  cents: 
$30  to  $40,  20  cents;  $40  to  $50,  25  cents;  $50  to  $00,  30 
cents;  $00  to  $70,  35  cents;  $70  to  $S0,  40  cents;  $80  to 
$100,  45  cents.  To  Canada.— Postage  on  letters,  news¬ 
papers,  books,  circulars,  etc.,  same  as  in  United  States. 
Patterns  and  sample  packages  not  to  exceed  eight 
ounces,  10  cents,  prepaid.  To  Foreign  Countries. — 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  France,  German  Empire, 
Canada,  Belgium,  Italy,  Switzerland.  Portugal,  Algeria, 
Jamaica,  Windward  Islands,  Sandwich  Islands,  Victoria, 
Tasmania,  Queensland.  Cape  Colony,  Japan,  Hong  Kong, 
New  Zealand,  New  South  Wales,  Leeward  Islands  and 
Sweden,  under  $10,  10  cents;  $10  to  $20  20  cents;  $20  to 
$30,  30cents;  $30  to  $40,  40  cents;  $40  to  $50,  50  cents. 

In  October,  1874,  a  conference  at  Berne  resulted 
in  the  establishment  of  the  General  Postal  Union, 
embracing  all  the  European  countries,  with 
Egypt  and  the  United  States,  and  resulting  in  a 
great  simplification  of  international  postal  ar¬ 
rangements.  This  was  followed  in  June,  1878, 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  signed  or  subsequently 
adhered  to  by  all  the  parties  to  the  former  treaty, 
with  the  addition  of  British  India,  the  colonies  of 
France,  Spain,  Holland,  and  Portugal,  various 
British  colonies,  Persia,  Japan,  Liberia,  Brazil, 
Peru,  Mexico,  etc.,  the  new  convention  receiving 
the  name  of  the  Universal  Postal  Union.  Under 
this  important  treaty,  all  the  consenting  nations 
were  declared  to  be  “a  single  postal  territory  for 
the  reciprocal  exchange  of  correspondence.” 
Equal  rates,  weights,  and  rules  are  established, 
and  considerable  reductions  of  postage  have  fol¬ 
lowed  its  adoption.  Except  in  the  case  of  long 
sea  transit,  a  uniform  rate  of  25  centimes  (5  cents), 
is  adopted  for  a  letter  of  15  grammes  (one-half 
ounce);  of  10  centimes  (2  cents)  for  postal-cards; 
of  5  centimes  (1  cent),  for  packets  of  print,  etc., 
of  50  grammes  (two  ounces);  and  of  25  centimes 
(5  cents)  for  registration  iii  Europe,  and  50  cen¬ 
times  (10  cents)  for  registration  beyond  Europe. 
Prepayment  of  full  postage  is  optional. 

Post-office,  Offenses  against.  Owing  to 
the  conspicuous  part  which  the  post-office  plays 
in  modern  civilization,  a  small  code  of  laws 
belongs  to  it,  the  substance  of  which  is  as  follows: 
Every  person  employed  by  the  post-office  who 
steals  a  post-letter,  is  guilty  of  felony;  and  if  it 
contain  money  or  a  valuable  chattel,  the  punish¬ 
ment  is  increased.  So,  whenever  letters  are 
stolen  by  strangers  out  of  the  custody  of  the  post- 
office  or  its  officers.  The  moment  a  letter  is  put 
into  the  post-office,  or  delivered  to  the  postmaster, 
the  protection  of  the  statute  commences.  Who¬ 
ever  steals,  secretes,  or  destroys  printed  papers, 
or  newspapers  sent  by  post,  commits  a  misde¬ 
meanor.  So,  if  a  letter-carrier  delay  the  delivery 
willfully.  Receivers  of  letters  improperly  taken 
or  stolen  from  the  post-office  are  guilty  of  felony. 

Pot'asli  and  Pearl-Ash,  in  Commerce.  The 
chief  source  of  this  important  article  is  Canada, 
where  it  is  derived  from  the  vast  quantities  of 
wood  cut  down  and  burned  in  clearing  the  forest 
for  culture,  and  also  from  the  branches  of  the 
trees  felled  for  timber.  The  ashes,  mixed  with  a 
small  quantity  of  quicklime,  are  put  into  large 
wooden  cisterns,  and  covered  with  water.  The 
whole  is  well  stirred  up  and  allowed  to  settle  ;  the 
next  day  the  clear  liquor  is  drawn  off,  and  evapo¬ 


rated  to  dryness  in  iron  pots,  whence  it  is  called 
potash. 

Potas'sium  (symbol  K  [from  the  Arab.  Kali, 
potash],  equiv.  39 — sp.  gr.  0.865)  is  one  of  the 
alkaline  metals.  Potassium  does  not  occur  in 
the  native  state,  and  can  only  be  obtained  by  the 
reduction  of  its  oxide,  potash.  Potash  is  exten¬ 
sively  employed  in  the  arts;  to  the  soap-boiler  and 
the  glass-maker  it  is  indispensable;  when  com¬ 
bined  with  nitric  acid,  it  enters  largely  into  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder;  and,  in  greater  or 
less  quantity,  it  furnishes  important  aids  to  a  va¬ 
riety  of  processes  employed  in  the  manufactures 
of  the  country.  In  the  laboratory,  potash  is  in 
constant  use  for  absorbing  acid  gases,  such  as 
carbonic  acid,  and  for  separating  the  metallic  ox¬ 
ides  from  solutions  of  their  salts,  since,  owing  to 
the  powerful  affinity  of  the  alkali  for  acids,  it 
readily  decomposes  the  salts  of  all  the  metals 
which  produce  oxides  insoluble  in  water.  The 
United  States  Dispensatory  contains  the  following 
preparations  of  this  metal.  Caustic  potash,  of 
hydrate  of  potash,  which  occurs  in  hard  white 
pencils.  (From  its  being  fused  before  being 
poured  into  molds  which  give  it  the  form 
of  pencils,  it  is  often  termed  Polassa  fusa). 
From  its  power  of  dissolving  the  animal  tis¬ 
sues  it  is  sometimes  used  as  a  caustic,  although 
its  great  deliquescence  renders  it  somewhat  dif¬ 
ficult  to  localize  its  action  to  the  desired  spot. 
In  bites  of  venomous  serpents,  mad  dogs,  etc., 
it  may  be  applied  with  advantage,  and  it  is 
useful  in  destroying  warts  and  fungoid  growths 
of  various  kinds.  It  can  be  employed  with  greater 
safety  than  the  lancet  in  opening  certain  abscesses, 
especially  those  of  the  liver.  Solution  of  potash, 
commonly  known  as  liquor  potassce,  is  obtained 
by  the  process  for  the  preparation  of  hydrate  of 
potash — namely,  by  the  action  of  slaked  lime  on  a 
boiling  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash.  Its  sp. 
gr.  is  1.058.  Sulphurated  potash,  or  potassa  sul- 
phurata — is  obtained  by  fusing  together  carbonate 
of  potash  and  sub-limed  sulphur.  It  is  sometimes 
given  internally  in  doses  of  three  grains  (in  the 
form  of  a  pill  made  with  soap),  in  obstinate 
skin  diseases,  but  is  chiefly  used  as  a  lotion,  bath, 
or  ointment  for  these  diseases.  Acetate  of  potash 
is  obtained  by  the  action  of  acetic  acid  on  car¬ 
bonate  of  potash,  and  occurs  in  white  foliaceous 
satiny  masses.  In  its  passage  through  the  sys¬ 
tem,  it  is  converted  into  carbonate,  and  thus  ren¬ 
ders  the  urine  alkaline.  In  small  doses,  as  from 
a  scruple  to  a  drachm,  it  acts  as  a  diuretic,  and 
is  of  service  in  some  forms  of  dropsy.  Combined 
with  other  potass-salts,  it  is  much  given  in  acute 
rheumatism.  Carbonate  of  potash  is  frequently 
employed  in  medicine  in  the  same  cases  as  those 
in  which  solution  of  potash  is  used.  In  large 
doses,  it  acts,  like  caustic  potash,  as  an  irritant 
poison.  It  is  frequently  employed  in  the  prepara¬ 
tion  of  effervescing  draughts,  20  grains  of  this  salt 
being  neutralized  by  17  grains  of  citric  acid,  or 
18  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  by  half  a  fluid  ounce 
of  lemon  juice.  Bicarbonate  of  potash  may  be 
used  in  the  same  cases  as  the  carbonate  or  solu¬ 
tion  of  potash.  It  is  chiefly  used  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  effervescing  draughts,  20  grains  of  the 
crystallized  salt  being  neutralized  by  14  of  citric 
acid,  15  of  tartaric  acid,  and  3|  drachms  of  lemon 
juice.  Chlorate  of  potash  is  prescribed  with  ad¬ 
vantage  in  diseases  of  a  low  type,  such  as  scar¬ 
latina  maligna,  cancrum  oris,  diphtheria,  scurvy, 
etc.  It  may  be  prescribed  in  doses  of  from  ten 
to  twenty  grains  three  times  a  day  in  solution. 
Citrate  of  potash  is  obtained  by  neutralizing  a 
solution  of  citric  acid  with  carbonate  of  potash, 
filtering,  and  evaporating  to  dryness.  It  acts 
mildly  on  the  skin,  bowels,  and  kidneys,  whose 
secretions  it  promotes,  and  is  an  excellent  cool¬ 
ing  diaphoretic  in  fevers  with  a  hot  and  dry  skin, 
being  less  liable  to  act  on  the  bowels  than  the  tar¬ 
trate  or  acetate  of  potash.  It  may  be  taken  in 
doses  of  a  scruple  or  half  a  drachm  in  solution 
every  few  hours.  Sulphate  of  potash  is  useful 
as  a  mild  laxative,  a  scruple  of  this  salt,  especi¬ 
ally  if  combined  with  ten  grains  of  rhubarb, 
usually  acting  mildly  and  efficiently.  It  has 
considerable  power  in  repressing  the  secretion  of 
milk,  and  has  been  much  used  for  this  purpose. 
Bromide  of  potassium  occurs  in  white,  trans¬ 
parent,  cubical  crystals,  and  is  occasionally  em¬ 
ployed  in  enlargement  of  the  spleen  and  in 


POTATO. 


608 


POULTRY. 


certain  forms  of  epilepsy,  and  as  a  nerve  sedative 
or  depressant.  The  uses  of  iodide  of  potassium 
are  described  in  the  article  Iodine. 

Pota'to  (Sol mum  tuberosum;  see  Solanum), 
one  of  t lie  most  important  of  cultivated  plants, 
and  in  universal  cultivation  in  ihe  temperate 
parts  of  the  globe.  The  potato  is  a  native  of 
mountainous  districts  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
America,  probably  from  Chili  to  Mexico;  but  there 
is  difficulty  in  deciding  where  it  is  really  indige¬ 
nous,  and  where  it  lias  spread  after  being  intro¬ 
duced  by  man.  It  seems  to  have  been  first 
brought  to  Europe  by  the  Spaniards,  from  the 
neighborhood  of  Quito,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  spread  from  Spain  into 
the  Netherlands,  Burgundy,  and  Italy,  but 
only  to  be  cultivated  in  a  few  gardens  as  a 
curiosity,  and  not  for  general  use  as  an  article  o I 
food.  It  long  received  throughout  almost  all 
European  countries  the  same  name  with  the 
batatas,  or  sweet  potato,  which  is  the  plant  or 
tuber  meant  by  English  writers  down  to  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  in  their  use  of  the 
name  potato.  It  appears  to  have  been  brought  to 
Ireland  trom  Virginia  by  Hawkins,  a  slave  trader, 
in  1565;  and  to  England  by  Sir  Francis  Drake, 
1585,  without  attracting  much  notice,  till  it  was 
a  third  time  imported  from  America  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh.  It  was  still  a  long  time  before 
it  began  to  be  extensively  cultivated.  The  Royal 
Society  in  1663  adopted  measures  for  extending 
the  cultivation  of  the  potato,  in  order  to  the 
prevention  of  famines.  To  this  the  example  of 
Ireland  in  some  measure  led,  the  potato  having 
already  come  iuto  cultivation  there,  to  an  extent 
far  greater  than  in  any  other  European  country, 
and  with  evident  advantage  to  the  people.  The 
varieties  of  the  potato  in  cultivation  are  ex¬ 
tremely  numerous. 

Potato-fly  ( Anthonyia  tvberosa),  a  dipterous 
insect  of  the  same  genus  with  the  beet-fly,  cab¬ 
bage-fly,  turn  p-fly,  etc.  In  its  perfect  state,  it 
is  very  like  the  liouse-fly.  The  male  is  about  5 
lines  long,  grayish-black,  bristly,  with  five  in¬ 
distinct  broad  stripes  on  the  back,  and  fourocher- 
ous  spots  on  the  second  and  third  segments;  the 
female  ashy-slate  color,  with  two  indistinct 
ocherous  spots  on  the  second  abdominal  segment. 
The  maggots  are  very  abundant  in  bad  potatoes 
in  autumn,  and  are  very  different  from  the  mag¬ 
gots  of  the  house-fly,  being  horny,  spiny,  bristly, 
and  tawny;  the  long  tail  ending  in  six  long  bristles. 
The  pupa  is  very  like  the  larva. 

Potemkin,  Gregory  Alexandrovitch,  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  Czarina  Catharine  II. ’s 
favorites,  was  born  near  Smolensk  in  September, 
1736.  He  died  there  Oct.  15,  1791. 

Po'tent,  Cross,  in  Heraldry,  a  cross  crutch- 
shaped  at  each  extremity.  It  is  also  called  a 
Jerusalem  cross,  from  its 
occurrence  in  the  insignia  of 
the  Christian  kingdom  of  Jeru¬ 
salem. 

Potentil'la,  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order 
Roxacecv,  sub-order  PutentilUce, 
differing  from  h\  agaria  (straw¬ 
berry)  in  the  fruit  having  adry 
instead  of  a  succulent  recep-  Potent, 
tacle.  The  species  are  very  numerous;  natives 
chiefly  of  northern  temperate  regions,  and  some 
of  them  of  the  coldest  north. 

Poto'mac,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  formed 
by  two  branches,  which  rise  in  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  and  unite  twenty  miles  southeast  of 
Cumberland,  Md.,  from  which  point  the  river 
flows  in  a  generally  southeasterly  course,  400 
miles,  and  falls  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  where  it  is 
6  to  8  m'les  broad,  seventy-five  miles  from  the 
ocean. 

Po'toroo,  or  Kangaroo  Rat  (Tlypsiprimnus), 
a  genus  of  marsupial  quadrupeds,  of  the  family 
Macropida.  There  are  several  species,  all  of 
small  size,  none  of  them  larger  than  a  rabbit,  and 
all  natives  of  Australia,  timid  and  harmless 
creatures. 

Poto  'si,  one  of  the  richest  mining  towns  of 
South  America,  the  second  town  of  Bolivia,  and 
capital  of  a  department  of  the  same  name,  stands 
in  a  dreary  and  barren  district,  13,330  feet  above 
sea-level,  in  latitude  19°  35'  S.,  and  longitude 


65°  25'  W.,  seventy  miles  southwest  of  Chu- 
quisaca.  Pop.  (1889),  20,000. 

Potosi,  the  county  seat  of  Washington  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Pots 'dam,  a  city  in  the  Prussian  Province  £>f 
Bradenburg,  and,  next  to  Berlin,  the  handsomest 
and  best  built  town  in  Prussia,  is  situated  on  an 
island  at  the  point  of  junction  between  the  small 
stream  of  the  Nuthe  and  the  River  Havel,  sixteen 
miles  southwest  of  Berlin.  Pop.  (1880),  48,447. 

Potsdam,  a  township  and  village  in  New  York, 
on  Racket  river,  St.  Lawrence  county,  in  the 
northern  portion  of  the  State,  between  Lakes 
Ontario  and  Champlain.  There  are  quarries  of 
sandstone,  mills  and  factories  on  the  falls  of  the 
river,  a  railway  connecting  it  with  Watertown,  a 
bank,  and  six  churches.  Pop.  (1889),  7,774. 

Potter,  Paul,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
masters  of  the  Dutch  School  of  Art.  lie  was 
born  at  Enkhuyzen  in  1625.  He  died  before  he 
had  completed  his  twenty-ninth  year. 

Pot ' ter. v.  This  term — derived,  through  the 
French  poterie,  from  the  Celtic  word  pot,  which 
has  passed  into  Teutonic  and  Romance  tongues — 
is  applied  to  all  objects  of  baked  clay.  The 
invention  of  pottery  dates  from  the  most  remote 
period,  and  its  application  is  almost  universal — 
objects  of  pottery  being  in  use  amongst  races 
even  semi-barbarous.  The  art  of  molding  or 
fashioning  vessels  of  moist  clay,  and  subsequently 
drying  them  in  the  sun,  is  so  obvious,  that  it  is 
not  above  the  intelligence  of  the  rudest  savage. 
Hence,  at  the  most  remote  antiquity,  the  Egyp¬ 
tians,  to  whom  precedence  must  be  assigned  in 
this  art,  made  bricks  of  unbaked  or  sun-dried 
clay,  cemented  with  straw,  which  wTere  quite 
sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  construction  in  a 
country  where  little  or  no  rain  falls.  These 
bricks,  in  shape  resembling  those  in  use  at  the 
present  day,  but  of  larger  dimensions,  were  im¬ 
pressed,  at  the  earliest  period,  with  the  marks  of 
the  brickmaker,  and  later,  with  the  names  and 
titles  of  the  kings  for  whose  constructions  they 
were  made.  Kiln-dried  bricks,  in  fact,  did  not 
come  into  use  in  Egypt  till  the  Roman  dominion, 
although  some  exceptional  objects  of  the  class  of 
bricks  have  been  found,  such  as  a  kind  of  conical 
plug,  stamped  on  the  base  with  the  names  of  the 
tenants  of  the  tombs.  A  few  other  objects 
were  made  in  unbaked  clay;  but  vases  of 
baked  earthenware  were  in  use  at  the  eatli- 
est  period  of  Egyptian  civilization,  and  are 
contemporary  with  the  Pyramids  themselves. 
Pottery  and  porcelain  differ  chiefly  in  this,  that 
the  superior  quality  of  the  materials  used  in 
making  the  latter,  gives  it  a  peculiar  translucency. 
For  pottery,  inferior  materials  are  used,  and  a 
considerable  admixture  of  calcined  flint,  bone- 
aslies,  or  native  phosphate  of  lime,  are  added  to 
the  clay.  The  ingredients,  such  as  the  clay  and 
calcined  flints,  are  ground  in  mills  made  for  the 
purpose.  This  pap-like  clay  passes  into  a  large 
wooden  tank,  in  which  it  is  agitated  with  water 
until  incorporated,  so  as  to  resemble  milk  in 
color  and  consistency.  In  another  mill  the 
granite  and  calcined  flints  are  reduced  to  a  similar 
slate.  The  two  are  then  mixed,  and  the  mixture 
allowed,  to  subside  until  the  water  is  nearly  clear, 
when  it  is  drawn  off;  andthe  sediment  is  deprived 
of  its  surplus  moisture.  The  composition  is  then 
a  fine  plastic  material  of  the  consistency  of  tough 
dough,  and  is  ready  for  the  potter’s  use.  In 
preparing  the  finer  materials  for  porcelain,  many 
other  operations  are  required,  all,  however,  hav¬ 
ing  the  same  object — viz.,  the  extremely  minute 
division  of  the  substances  used.  The  prepared 
clay  is  taken  to  the  throwing-machine,  or  potter’s 
lathe.  When  the  lump  of  clay  is  revolving,  the 
potter,  with  his  hands  or  with  proper  tools, 
fashions  it  into  any  shape  he  pleases;  his  manage¬ 
ment  of  this  requires  considerable  skill,  as  nearly 
every  article  requires  a  different  configuration. 
If  the  articles  made  require  handles  or  other 
similar  accessory  parts,  they  are  always  molded, 
unless  of  very  simple  forms,  and  are  attached 
while  they  and  the  body  are  still  soft  enough. 
They  are  joined  by  a  thin  fluid  paste  called  a 
slip,  and  the  junction  is  smoothed  over  with  the 
wet  sponge,  which  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of 
the  potter’s  tools.  Being  formed,  the  articles,  of 
whatever  kind,  are  taken  to  the  drying-stove, 
where  they  are  placed  on  shelves,  and  remain 


there  some  time,  exposed  to  a  heat  of  about 
85°  F.  When  dry,  they  are  taken  to  a  workshop 
and  carefully  packed  in  coarse  earthenware  ves¬ 
sels,  called  seggars,  which  are  so  made  that  they 
can  be  piled  upon  one  another  to  a  great  height 
in  the  kiln.  As  the  seggars  are  generally  made 
large  enough  to  hold  a  number  of  articles,  which 
would,  when  highly  heated,  adhere  if  they 
touched,  a  number  of  curiously  shaped  pieces  of 
burned  clay  are  used  for  placing  between  them, 
so  as  to  make  them  rest  on  points;  these  are 
called  watches,  cockspurs,  triangles,  stilts,  etc. 
A  kiln  has  generally  eight  furnaces,  and  it  is 
usual  to  raise  six  piles  of  seggars  between  every 
two  furnaces,  or  rather  between  their  flues,  which 
rise  to  a  considerable  height  in  the  kilns.  Each 
pile  of  seggars  is  technically  called  a  bung,  so 
that  there  are  generally  forty-eight  or  fifty  bungs 
to  the  charge  of  a  kiln.  When  all  this  is  arranged, 
the  furnaces  are  lighted,  and  kept  burning  forty 
to  forty-two  hours.  The  fire  is  then  allowed  to 
go  out,  and  the  kiln  to  cool  gradually,  after  which 
it  is  opened,  and  the  seggars  removed,  to  be  un¬ 
packed  in  a  separate  workshop.  Common  pot¬ 
tery  is  often  figured  by  printing  the  design  in 
enamel  colors  on  paper,  and  while  the  printing  is 
still  wet,  applying  it  to  the  biscuit-ware;  the  ware 
absorbs  the  enamel  ink,  and  the  paper  is  removed 
by  water,  leaving  the  pattern  on  the  ware.  It  is 
then  fired  in  seggars,  ora  muffle,  to  fix  the  color, 
and  is  then  dipped  into  composition  called  glaze, 
of  which  three  kinds  are  used..  The  first,  for 
common  pipeclay  ware,  is  composed  of  granite, 
16  parts;  flint,  36  parts;  white-lead,  53  parts;  and 
cullet,  or  broken  flint-glass,  4  parts.  These 
materials  are  triturated  with  water,  with  the  same 
care  and  by  similar  means  to  those  employed  in 
forming  paste,  and  are  reduced  with  water  to  the 
same  milk-like  liquidity.  Each  workman  has  a. 
tub  of  the  glaze  before  him;  and  as  the  articles 
of  biscuit-ware,  either  with  or  without  decora¬ 
tions,  are  brought  to  him,  he  dips  them  in  the 
glaze,  so  as  to  insure  a  uniform  coating  over 
them.  The  colors  employed  in  decorating  fine 
porcelain  are  all  colored  glasses  ground  to  im¬ 
palpable  powders,  and  mixed  with  borax  or  some 
other  fluxing  material;  for  use,  they  are  generally 
made  liquid  with  oil  of  spike,  anil  they  are  laid 
on  with  hair-pencils,  in  the  same  way  as  oil- 
colors.  The  whole  process  is  exactly  the  same  as 
in  painting  or  staining  glass;  the  glaze  on  the 
biscuit-porcelain  being  true  glass,  and  the  enamel 
colors  being  exactly  the  same  as  those  used  by  the 
glass  decorator. 

Potts 'ville,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Schuylkill  river,  ninety-three  miles  northwest  of 
Philadelphia.  It  is  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  anthra¬ 
cite  coal  and  iron  region,  and  has  several  iron 
foundries,  a  brass  foundry  and  other  manufact¬ 
uring  plants.  Pop.  (1870),  12,384;  (1880),  13,350. 

Pouched  Rat,  or  Pocket  Gopher  ( P.-endos - 
to  mu),  a  genus  of  M  ■■  rida>,  of  which  there  are 
several  species,  natives  of  parts  of  this  country, 
and  some  of  them  very  troublesome  from  the 
ravages  they  commit  in  fields  and  gardens.  The 
cheeks  are  furnished  with  pouches,  to  which  the 
name  refers,  the  openings  of  which  are  from  the 
outside. 

Poughkeep'sie,  a  city  of  New  York,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  seventy-five  miles 
north  of  New  York.  It  has  extensive  iron-works; 
carriage,  chair,  and  carpet  factories,  and  import¬ 
ant  railway  interests.  Pop.,  20,607. 

Poulpe  ( Octopus ),  a  genus  of  Cephalopoda  of 
the  order  Di  branchial  a;  having  eight  feet  or 
arms,  nearly  equal,  united  at  the  base  by  a  mem¬ 
brane,  and  long  in  proportion  to  the  bod)'. 
There  is  no  shell,  but  it  is  represented  by  two 
small  grains  of  horny  substance  imbedded  in  the 
back,  one  on  each  side. 

Paul 'try  (Fr.  panic,  a  hen),  a  collective  name 
for  useful  domesticated  birds.  It  is  sometimes 
limited  to  the  domesticated  gallinaceous  birds, 
but  its  ordinary  use  includes  all  the  birds  reared 
for  economical  purposes.  The  North  of  France 
and  Pomerania  exceed  all  other  parts  of  Europe 
in  poultry-keeping,  which  there,  is  not  infre¬ 
quently  the  leading  object  of  husbandry,  and  the 
traffic  in  the  products  of  the  poultry-yard  is  on  a 
|  truly  great  scale.  Fowls  may  be  advantageously 
I  kept  either  wholly  or  mostly  in  confinement.  If 


POUNCE. 


609 


PRESERVES. 


circumstances  permit,  it  is  good  for  them  to  be  let 
out  for  an  hour  or  two  daily  into  a  grass  field, 
but  it  is  not  necessary,  if  they  are  provided  with 
a  warm,  clean,  and  well-ventilated  house,  to 
which  a  spacious  open  court  is  attached,  and  are 
regularly  supplied  with  abundance  of  food, 
water,  sand,  or  tine  ashes,  lime,  and  gravel,  all 
requisites  to  their  healthful  existence.  The  food 
must  also  be  of  various  kinds.  Poultry  should 
have  supplies  of  grain,  and  of  soft  food  made  of 
the  meal  of  grain  or  pulse;  the  kind  may  depend 
upon  convenience  and  cheapness;  and  instead  of 
such  food,  boiled  potatoes  may  to  some  extent  be 
used.  But  the  same  food,  without  variation, 
should  not  be  given  for  any  considerable  time. 


Poultry-pen. 

And  it  is  indispensable  that  all  kinds  of  poultry 
be  frequently,  if  not  even  daily,  supplied  with 
green  food,  as  blades  of  kale,  cabbage,  cauli¬ 
flower,  turnips  etc.,  or  lettuces,  cresses,  chick- 
weed,  etc.  When  they  have  no  opportunity  of 
seeking  worms,  snails,  slugs,  and  insects  for 
themselves,  animal  food  must  be  given,  and  the 
refuse  of  the  kitchen  can  not  be  more  profitably 
employed.  It  is  possible  at  some  seasons  to  give 
too  much  food,  making  the  poultry  too  fat,  and 
diminishing  the  production  of  eggs;  but  at  other 
times,  as  during  the  season  of  moulting,  food 
•can  not  be  given  too  plentifully.  Water  must  at 
all  times  be  abundantly  supplied.  Poultry- 
houses  may  be  built  of  any  material  that  is  most 
convenient;  but  warmth  should  be  regarded.  A 
poultry-house  of  four  feet  square,  should  have  a 
yard  at  least  eight  feet  by  four.  The  yard  is  in¬ 
closed  by  wire-netting.  The  floor  of  the  house, 
made  of  clay  or  other  material,  ought  to  be  so 
firm  and  hard  as  to  admit  of  its  being  easily 
swept,  and  this  should  be  often  done.  The  house 
is  provided  with  roosting  places  on  the  ground  or 
above  it,  according  to  the  kind  of  poultry,  and 
with  nests  for  laying  in.  Hatching  ought  to  be 
conducted  in  a  separate  place.  The  court  should 
be  furnished  with  a  “lean-to”  shed  on  one  side, 
under  which  the  birds  may  find  shelter  from  sun 
or  rain,  and  here  they  should  find  sand  or  fine 
ashes  to  fling  over  themselves,  according  to  their 
manner,  to  rid  themselves  of  insects.  Lime  is 
also  necessary  for  them,  large  quantities  of  it 
being  used  to  make  egg-shells,  besides  what  the 
animal  system  otherwise  requires.  For  web¬ 
footed  birds,  free  access  to  water  is  required;  but 
some  of  tlie  kinds  are  well  enough  provided  for 
by  a  capacious  trough.  Among  the  diseases  of 
poultry,  gapes  is  one  which  frequently  demands 
attention,  particularly  in  young  chickens.  Pip 


or  roup  is  another.  Some  of  the  maladies  which 
cut  off  great  numbers  of  young  chickens,  and  still 
more  of  turkey-poults,  may  be  in  a  great  measure 
prevented  by  supplying  abundance  of  nourishing 
and  sufficiently  varied  food,  with  water  and 
lime;  and  by  preventing  the  young  birds,  partic¬ 
ularly  turkeys,  from  getting  among  wet  grass. 
Poultry  is  best  fattened  for  the  table  by  being 
confined  in  a  dark  room  and  fed  on  a  thin  dough 
or  batter  made  of  sweet  milk  and  flour  or  corn 
meal.  Indeed  one  of  the  most  successful  methods 
in  use  is  to  force  the  food  into  the  crops  of  the 
fowls  with  syringes.  If  deprived  of  exercise  the 
fowls  fatten  rapidly  and  the  flesh  is  extremely 
tender  and  succulent. 

Pounce,  powdered  rosin,  or  some  gum  resin 
such  as  mastic,  sandaracli,  or  copal,  and  also  the 
powder  of  cuttle-fish  bones.  It  was  formerly 
used  for  sprinkling  over  freshly-written  writing, 
to  prevent  blotting;  fine  sand  is  often  substituted 
for  pounce. 

Poussin,  Nicolas,  a  French  painter  of  great 
celebrity,  was  born  near  Le  Grand-Andely,  in 
Normandy,  in  1593  or  1594,  and  died  at  Rome  in 
1665. 

Pow'an  (Coregonus  Cepedei),  a  fish  found 
in  Loch  Lomond,  Scotland,  and  often  called 
fresh  water  herring.  It  resembles  the  pollan  of 
the  Irish  lakes,  but  is  readily  distinguished.  The 
powan  sometimes  attains  the  length  of  16  inches. 

I  owdered,  or  Semee,  in  Heraldry,  strewn 
with  an  indefinite  number  of  small  charges. 

Powers,  Hiram,  American  sculptor,  was  born 
at  Woodstock,  Vt.,  July  29,  1805.  While  still  a 
boy,  he  went  to  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  where  he 
formed  the  acquaintance  of  a  German  sculptor, 
who  taught  him  to  model  in  plaster.  His  best 
known  work  is  his  “  Greek  Slave,”  of  which  six 
copies  in  marble,  with  cast  copies  innumerable, 
have  been  produced. 

Powliattan,  the  county  seat  of  Lawrence 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  220. 

Powliattan,  the  county  seat  of  Powliattan 
county,  Ya.  Pop.,  100. 

Poynt'eJI,  pavement  or  tiles  laid  in  small  loz¬ 
enge  form. 

Pi’ae'tor  (probably  a  contraction  for  prceitor, 
from  prce-eo,  to  precede,  also  to  order)  was,  among 
the  ancient  Romans,  the  title  given  to  the  consuls 
as  leaders  of  the  armies  of  the  State;  but  it  was 
specially  employed  to  designate  a  magistrate 
whose  powers  were  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  a 
consul. 

Prai'torian  Bands  (Lat.  Prcelorice  Coliortes, 
and  Prcetoriani)  the  name  given,  more  particularly 
during  the  period  of  the  Roman  Empire,  to 
a  body  of  soldiers,  organized  for  tlie  purpose 
of  protecting  the  person  and  maintaining  the 
power  of  the  emperors. 

Pragmat'ic  Sanction, or  Rescript,  a  solemn 
ordinance  or  decree  of  the  head  of  a  legislature 
relating  either  to  church  or  state  affairs. 

Prague  (Ger.  Prag,  Slav.  Praha),  the  capital  of 
the  Kingdom  of  Bohemia,  is  in  50°  5’  N.  latitude, 
and  14°  30'  E.  longitude,  on  both  sides  of  the 
River  Moldau,  251  miles  northeast  of  Vienna. 
Pop.  (1880),  218,077. 

Prair'ie  (Fr.  meadow)  was  the  name  given,  by 
the  early  French  explorers  of  the  northern  portion 
of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  to  the  vast  fertile  plains 
which  extend  from  Western  Ohio  and  Southern 
Michigan,  across  the  States  of  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Missouri,  Arkansas,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
and  Dakota,  including  the  southern  portions  of 
Wisconsin  and  Minnesota. 

Prairie  Dog  (Arctomys  Lvdovicianus),  a  very 
interesting  species  of  marmot,  an  inhabitant  of 
some  of  the  Western  prairies  of  North  America. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  squirrel  or  large  rat,  and 
has  soft,  reddisli-gray  fur,  each  hair  being  red, 
with  a  while  tip.  Tlie  name  prairie  dog  seems  to 
have  been  given  to  it  from  its  frequent  utterance 
of  a  sound  somewhat  like  the  bark  of  a  very 
young  puppy. 

Prairie-du-Chien,  a  city,  and  the  county  seat 
of  Crawford  county,  Wis.,  is  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Mississippi,  three  miles  above  the  mouth  of 
the  Wisconsin,  and  165  miles  west  from  Mil¬ 
waukee.  Pop.,  3,350. 

Pratique  is,  strictly,  a  limited  quarantine.  A 
ship  is  said  to  have  performed  pratique  when  her 
captain  has  convinced  the  authorities  of  a  port 


that  his  ship  is  free  from  contagious  disease;  and 
he  is  thereupon  permitted  to  open  trade  and  com¬ 
munication  with  the  shore. 

Prattville,  the  county  seat  of  Autauga  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Prawn  ( Palamon ),  a  genus  of  crustaceans,  of 
the  order  Hecapoda,  and  sub-order  Macrgura,  in 
general  form  resembling  lobsters,  crayfish,  and 
shrimps,  but  belonging  to  a  family  (Palmmonidce) 
remarkable  for  a  long  serrated  beak  projecting 
from  the  carapace. 

Precipita'tion,  in  Chemistry,  is  an  operation 
in  which  decomposition  occurs  in  a  fluid,  either 
through  the  action  of  the  air,  or  of  a  gas,  or  of  a 
chemical  agent  in  solution;  and  is  accompanied  by 
the  deposition  of  a  solid  substance  that  was  previ¬ 
ously  held  in  solution.  The  substance  employed  to 
produce  the  precipitation  is  called  the  precipitant, 
and  the  substance  which  is  separated  by  its  action, 
the  precipitate. 

Prefet,  the  name  of  an  important  magistrate  in 
modern  France,  so  called  from  his  exercising  func¬ 
tions  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the  Prcefectus 
urbi at  Rome.  The  office,  as  it  now  exists,  includes 
the  superintendence  of  the  police  establishment, 
the  enforcement  of  the  laws,  and  the  entire  control 
of  the  administration  of  the  departments. 

Prel'ate(Lat.  Pmlatus,  one  set  over),  in  Church 
Law,  is  the  name  given  to  the  holders  of  those 
higher  dignities  in  the  church  to  which,  of  their 
own  right,  is  attached  a  proper  jurisdiction,  not 
derived  by  delegation  from  any  superior  official. 

Propositions  are  words  that  express  certain 
relations  between  ideas — between  the  idea  of  an 
action  and  the  idea  of  a  thing,  or  between  the  idea 
of  one  thing  and  the  idea  of  another  thing.  “  The 
river  runs  to  the  sea.  The  glass  stands  on  the 
table.  The  dog  lies  under  the  table.  She  runs 
from  me.  The  house  by  the  wood.  The  house 
in  the  wood.” 

Pres'byter,  Presbyte'rianism.  Presbyter 
(Gr.  Ttped (ivT epos,  presbyter ot i,  elder)  is  the  title 
of  an  office  or  dignity  in  the  Jewish  synagogue, 
and  also  of  one  of  the  grades  in  the  Christian 
hierarchy.  Presbyterianism,  variously  modified, 
is  the  form  of  church  government  subsisting  in 
many  Protestant  Churches,  but  is  most  perfectly 
developed  in  Britain  and  America. 

Presbyterian  Church  in  America.  The  first 
Presbyterians  in  America  were  emigrants  from 
Scotland  and  Ireland.  The  first  Presbyterian 
congregations  in  America  were  organized  in  Mary¬ 
land  before  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  oldest,  that  of  Rehoboth,  dating  about  1690; 
and  the  first  presbytery  in  Philadelphia  in  1705. 
A  synod,  consisting  of  four  presbyteries,  was  con¬ 
stituted  in  1716.  In  1880-1883,  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States  had  600,695  mem¬ 
bers;  the  Southern  Presbyterian,  123,800:  the 
Cumberland  Presbyterian,  111,860;  the  Reformed 
Presbyterian,  17,270;  the  United  Presbyterian, 
84,573;  the  Reformed  Church  (Dutch),  80,167; 
the  Reformed  Church  (German),  155,857. 

Pres'bytery,  the  space  in  the  choir  of  a 
church  in  which  the  high  altar  is  placed;  the 
name  is  sometimes  extended  to  the  whole  choir. 

Pres'cott,  the  county  seat  of  Nevada  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  1,253. 

Prescott,  the  county  seat  of  Yavapai  county, 
Ariz.  Pop.,  2,836. 

Pres'cott,  William  Hickling,  LL.D.,  Amer¬ 
ican  historian,  was  born  at  Salem,  Mass.,  May  4, 
1796.  His  History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  His¬ 
tory  of  the  Conquest  of  Mexico,  Conquest  of  Peru,  and 
History  of  Philip  II.,  are  among  the  most  lucid 
and  fascinating  historical  compositions  in  the  Eng¬ 
lish  language.  He  died,  Jan.  28,  1859. 

Preserves,  Preserved  Provisions, etc.  Fruits 
intended  for  confectionery  are  preserved  in  four 
different  ways:  First,  they  may  be  preserved  in 
the  form  of  jam,  in  which  the  fruit  is  simply 
boiled  with  from  one-half  to  equal  its  weight  of 
sugar.  By  this  method,  the  fruit  becomes 
broken,  and  the  juice  set  free ;  but  all  is  preserved, 
as  the  latter  forms  a  thick  syrup  with  the  sugar. 
Such  preserves  can  be  kept,  if  well  made,  for 
several  years,  but  are  best  used  during  the  first 
winter.  A  second  plan  is  to  preserve  only  the 
juice,  which,  when  carefully  strained  from  the 
solid  portions  of  the  fruit,  and  boiled  with  a  third 
or  half  its  weight  of  refined  sugar,  constitutes  the 
fruit-jellies  of  the  cooks  and  confectioners.  An- 


PRESSIROSTERS. 


610 


PRINTING. 


other  method  is  called  candying,  and  consists  in 
taking  fruits  whole  or  in  pieces,  and  boiling  them 
in  a  clear  syrup  previously  prepared.  In  this 
way,  they  absorb  the  syrup,  and  are  then  dried 
by  a  gentle  heat,  which  causes  the  sugar  of  the 
syrup  to  crystallize  on  the  surface  and  through 
the  substance  of  the  preserved  fruits,  which  re¬ 
tain  their  form,  and  much,  if  not  all  of  their 
color.  The  remaining  method  is  to  carefully 
stew  them  in  a  weak  syrup  of  refined  sugar  and 
water,  so  that  they  are  rendered  soft,  but  are  not 
broken.  They  are  then  transferred,  with  the 
syrup,  to  jars  with  well-prepared  covers,  to  pre¬ 
vent  evaporation;  and  pale  brandy,  equal  in 
quantity  to  the  syrup,  is  added.  As  a  rule,  only 
stone-fruits,  such  as  peaches,  plums,  and  cherries, 
are  preserved  in  this  way.  Several  fruits  and 
vegetables,  such  as  olives,  cucumbers,  cabbage, 
etc.,  are  preserved  for  food  in  a  saturated  solu¬ 
tion  of  salt  and  water  poured  in  hot;  others,  in 
viuegar.  But  the  most  approved  methods  of  pre¬ 
serving  vegetable  and  animal  substances  for  food- 
purposes,  so  as  to  be  used  as  nearly  as  possible  as 
if  they  were  in  the  fresh  state,  is  either  to  desic¬ 
cate  them,  or  to  seal  them  in  air-tight  cases.  By 
this  method  all  moisture  is  entirely  removed  from 
the  vegetables,  by  drying  either  in  a  vacuum  or 
by  the  aid  of  heated  air,  which  reduces  their  bulk 
more  than  one-half.  They  are  then  compressed 
under  powerful  presses,  which,  beside  rendering 
them  portable,  also  makes  them  less  liable  to 
absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere,  which  is 
desirable,  as  they  are  very  absorbent.  In  this 
way,  both  the  color  and  distinctive  flavor  of  the 
vegetables  are  preserved,  and  mere  soaking  in 
water  restores  them  to  their  original  condition. 
The  ordinary  method  of  sealing  cooked  provis¬ 
ions  in  air-tight  metallic  cases,  is  as  follows: 
The  provisions  are  put  into  metal  cases,  and 
closely  packed,  and  the  interstices  tilled  in  with 
water  or  other  appropriate  liquid,  such  as  gravy 
in  the  case  of  flesh-food.  The  lids  are  then  sol¬ 
dered  on  securely;  two  small  perforations  are 
made  in  each  lid,  and  the  cases  are  set  in  a  water- 
bath,  in  which  muriate  of  lime  is  dissolved,  and 
heat  is  applied  until  the  whole  boils,  and  the 
air  is  expelled  through  the  small  openings  in 
the  lids  of  the  cases.  When  this  is  complete,  the 
small  holes  are  soldered  up,  and  the  tins  are  re¬ 
moved  from  the  bath.  The  muriate  of  lime  is 
used  because  its  solution  can  easily  be  maintained 
at  a  heat  of  270°  to  280a  F.,  without  material 
evaporation.  An  ingenious  and  scientific  plan 
for  preserving  meat  fresh  consists  in  cutting  the 
meat  small,  and  putting  it  into  jars  of  binoxide 
of  nitrogen,  which  perfectly  preserves  its  sweet¬ 
ness  and  ordinary  appearance. 

Pressiros 'ters,  a  tribe  of  birds  of  the  order 
Orallatores,  distinguished  by  a  bill  of  moderate 
size,  not  so  strong  as  in  the  Gultrirosters;  while 
the  hind  toe  is  either  wanting,  or  so  short  as  not 
to  touch  the  ground.  To  this  tribe  belong  bus¬ 
tards,  plovers,  lapwings,  oyster-catchers,  etc. 

Preston,  the  county  seat  of  Fillmore  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  975. 

Preston,  the  county  seat  of  Webster  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  239. 

Prestonburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Floyd 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  3G5. 

Pretence',  Escutcheon  of,  or  Escutcheon 
Surtout,  in  Heraldry,  a  small  shield  placed  in 
the  center  of  the  field  of  another  shield.  The 
husband  of  an  heiress  may  bear  the  arms  of  his 
wife  in  an  escutcheon  of  pretence,  instead  of 
impaling  them. 

Pri'am,  King  of  Troy  at  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  War,  was  the  son  of  Laomedon,  and 
Strymo  or  Placia.  He  is  represented  as  too  old 
to  take  any  active  part  in  the  Trojan  War;  and  in 
Homer,  only  once  appears  on  the  field  of  battle. 
The  later  poets — Euripides,  Virgil,  etc. — say  that 
he  was  slain  by  Pyrrhus  at  the  altar  of  Zeus 
Herkeios,  when  the  Greeks  stormed  the  city. 

Prickle  ( Aculeus ),  in  Botany,  a  strong  and 
hard  elongated  and  pointed  hair.  The  prickle  is 
connected  only  with  the  bark,  and  not  with  the 
wood,  in  which  it  essentially  differs  from  the  spine 
or  thorn. 

Prickly -heat  is  the  popular  name  in  India  and 
other  tropical  countries  for  a  severe  form  of  the 
skin-disease  known  as  lichen.  It  more  frequently 
attacks  strangers  from  temperate  climates  than 


the  natives,  although  the  latter  are  not  altogether 
|  exempt  from  it.  The  sensations  of  itching  and 
I  stinging  which  attend  it  are  intense,  and  give  rise 
to  an  almost  irresistible  propensity  to  scratching, 
which  of  course  only  aggravates  the  irritation. 
Little  or  nothing  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  treat¬ 
ment,  except  keeping  as  cool  as  possible. 

Prickly-pear,  or  Indian  Fig  ( Opuntia ),  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Gactece, 
having  a  fleshy  stem,  generally  formed  of  com¬ 
pressed  articulations,  sometimes  of  cylindrical 
articulations;  leafless,  except  that  the  youngest 
shoots  produce  small  cylindrical  leaves  which  soon 
fall  off. 

Pride,  in  Heraldry,  a  peacock,  or  other  bird, 
when  the  tail  is  spread  out  in  a  circular  form,  and 
the  wings  dropped,  is  said  to  be  in  his  pride. 

Priest  (Gr.  presbyter  os,  Lat.  presbyter,  Fr. 
prelre ),  the  title,  in  its  most  general  signification, 
of  a  minister  of  public  worship,  but  specially 
applied  to  the  minister  of  sacrifice  or  other  medi¬ 
atorial  offices.  The  priesthood  of  the  Christian 
Church  is  one  of  the  grades  of  the  hierarchy, 
second  in  order  only  to  that  of  bishop,  with  which 
order  the  priesthood  has  many  functions  in  com¬ 
mon.  The  priest  is  regarded  as  the  ordinary 
minister  of  the  eucharist,  whether  as  a  sacrament 
or  as  a  sacrifice;  of  baptism,  penance,  and 
extreme  unction;  and  although  the  contracting 
parties  are  held  in  the  modern  schools  to  be  them¬ 
selves  the  ministers  of  marriage,  the  priest  is 
regarded  by  all  schools  of  Roman  divines  as  at 
least  the  normal  and  official  witness  of  its  cele¬ 
bration.  The  priest  is  also  officially  charged  with 
the  instruction  of  the  people  and  the  direction  of 
their  spiritual  concerns,  and  by  long-established 
use,  special  districts,  called  parishes,  are  assigned 
to  priests,  within  which  they  are  intrusted  with 
the  care  and  supervision  of  the  spiritual  wants  of 
all  the  inhabitants. 

Priestley,  Joseph,  son  of  Joseph  Priestley,  a 
cloth-draper  at  Fieldliead,  near  Leeds,  England, 
was  born  at  Fieldhead  on  March  13,  1733,  o.s. 
He  became  celebrated  as  a  liberal  theologian,  and 
later  as  a  chemist  and  physicist.  He  is  best  known 
as  the  discoverer  of  oxygen.  In  1791  he  came 
to  this  country,  and,  in  Philadelphia,  filled  for 
some  years  the  Chair  of  Chemistry  in  the  Uni¬ 
versity  of  Pennsylvania.  He  died  Feb.  6,  1804, 
expressing  his  satisfaction  with  his  having  led  a 
life  so  useful,  and  his  confidence  in  immortality. 
At  Paris,  his  eloge  was  read  by  Cuvier  before  the 
National  Institute. 

Pri'mate  (Lat.  primus,  Fr.  primat,  first)  is  the 
title  of  that  grade  in  the  hierarchy  which  is 
immediately  below  the  rank  of  patriarch.  The 
title  strictly  belongs  to  the  Latin  Church,  but  in 
its  general  use  it  corresponds  with  that  of  exarch 
(Gr.  e^apxo?)  exarchos )  in  the  Greek  Church, 
although  there  were  some  exarchs  who  were  not 
immediately  subject  (as  were  all  primates)  to  a 
patriarch. 

Pri'matOs,  the  name  given  by  Linnaeus  to  the 
first  order  of  mammalia  in  his  system,  and  which 
he  placed  first  (whence  the  name,  Lat.  primus , 
first),  because  he  ranked  man  amongst  them,  and 
accounted  them  highest  in  the  scale  of  nature. 
He  assigned  as  the  characters  of  the  order,  incisor 
teeth  in  the  front  of  the  mouth,  four  in  the  upper 
jaw,  in  one  row  ;  mammae  two,  pectoral.  In  this 
order  he  placed  four  genera  :  Homo  (in  which  he 
included  man  and  the  orang-outang),  Simia, 
Lemur,  and  VesperWio ;  corresponding  to  the 
Bimana  (man  alone),  Quadrumana,  and  Cheiiop- 
tera  of  Cuvier 

Prime  (Lat.  prima,  the  first — i.  e. ,  hour),  the 
first  of  the  so-called  lesser  hours  of  the  Roman 
breviary. 

Primghar,  the  county  scat  of  O’Brien  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  243. 

Prim'rose  ( Primula ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Primulacece,  having  a  bell-shaped  or 
tubular  five-toothed  calyx,  a  salver-shaped  corolla 
with  five  segments,  five  stamens,  a  globose  germen 
containing  many  ovules,  and  a  many-seeded  cap¬ 
sule  opening  by  five  valves,  and  generally  with 
ten  teeth  at  the  apex. 

Primula'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  containing  more  than  200  known  species, 
mostly  natives  of  temperate  and  cold  regions. 
Tiiey  are  all  herbaceous,  or  scarcely  half-shrubby, 
with  leaves  generally  all  radical,  and  no  stipules. 


Prince  (Lat.  princeps,  from  primus,  first,  and 
capio,  I  take),  an  epithet  which  was  originally 
applied  to  the  princeps  senates  of  the  Roman 
State,  and  afterward  became  a  title  of  dignity. 
The  title  is  now  generally  applied  to  the  sons  of 
kings  and  emperors,  and  persons  of  the  blood- 
royal.  In  various  parts  of  continental  Europe 
the  title  prince  is  borne  by  families  of  eminent 
rank,  but  not  possessed  of  sovereignty. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  a  province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  in  the  south  of  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence,  and  separated  from  New  Bruns¬ 
wick  and  Nova  Scotia  by  the  Strait  of  Northum¬ 
berland,  latitude  about  45°  56' — 47u  4'  N., 
longitude  62° — 64®  23'  W.  Length,  130  miles; 
breadth,  4  to  34  miles;  area,  2,173  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  108,928. 

Prince  Fredericktown,  the  county  seat  of 
Calvert  county,  Md.  Pop.,  175. 

Prince  George,  the  county  seat  of  Prince 
George  county,  Va.  Pop.,  100. 

Prince  of  Wales,  the  title  borne  by  the  eldest 
son  of  the  sovereign  of  England. 

Prince  of  Wales  Island,  or  Penang  (Pirto 
Pi'nang)  Betel-Nut  Island),  a  British  possession, 
and  one  of  the  Straits  Settlements,  lies  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Strait  of  Malacca,  near  the  west 
coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  in  latitude  5°  16' — , 
5°  30'  N.,  and  longitude  100°  9' — 100°  25'  E. 
Length,  13£  miles;  breadth,  5  to  10  miles;  area, 
106  square  miles. 

Princess  Anne,  the  county  seat  of  Princess 
Anne  county,  Va.  Pop.,  239. 

Princess  Anne,  the  county  seat  of  Somerset 
county,  Md.  Pop.,  800. 

Prince 'ton,  a  town  of  New  Jersey,  forty 
miles  northeast  of  Philadelphia.  Pop.,  4,600. 
On  Jan.  3,  1777,  Princeton  was  the  scene  of  a 
battle  between  the  British  under  Colonel  Maw- 
hood,  and  the  Americans  under  Washington,  in 
which  the  former  were  defeated. 

Princeton,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Bureau  county.  Ill.  Pop.,  4,600. — 2.  The  county 
seat  of  Caldwell  county,  Ky.  Pop.,  1,334. — 3. 
The  county  seat  of  Dallas  county,  Ark.  Pop., 
205. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Gibson  county,  Ind. 
Pop.,  3,200. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Mercer 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  1,900. — 6.  The  county  seat  of 
Mercer  county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  400.— 7.  The 
county  seat  of  Mille  Lacs  county,  Minn.  Pop., 
1,200. 

Principa'to,  Citra  and  Ultra,  formerly  the 
name  of  two  provinces  of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples. 
Principato  Citra,  now  forming  the  Province  of 
Salerno  in  the  reorganized  Kingdom  of  Italy,  is  a 
maritime  province,  bounded  on  the  southwest  by 
the  Mediterranean,  and  on  the  north  by  the 
Province  of  Principato  Ultra,  now  called  Avel- 
lino.  The  united  area  of  the  two  provinces  is 
3,405  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  942,849. 

Prineville,  the  county  seat  of  Crook  county, 
Ore.  Pop.,  751. 

Printing.  The  Chinese  claim  to  have  practiced 
the  art  of  printing  by  means  of  movable  types 
over  4,000  years  ago;  but  the  process,  so  far  as 
known  to  Europeans,  was  invented  by  Johannes 
Gutenberg  about  1436,  who,  in  partnership  witli 
Johannes  Faust,  printed  copies  of  the  Latin 
Bible  about  1449  or  1450.  In  connection  with 
the  old  hand  press,  the  process  of  printing  may 
be  described.  The  form,  being  laid  on  the  bed 
of  tiie  press,  is  fixed  at  the  sides,  so  as  to  render  it 
immovable  from  its  position.  There  are  two  men 
employed;  one  puts  ink  on  the  form,  either  by 
means  of  stuffed  balls  or  by  a  composition-roller, 
and  the  other  works  the  press.  The  latter  lifts  a 
blank  sheet  from  a  table  at  his  side,  and  places  it 
on  what  is  called  the  tympan,  which  is  composed 
of  parchment  and  blanket  stuff  fitted  in  a  frame, 
and  tightened  like  the  top  of  a  drum — and  hence 
its  name — and  which,  by  means  of  hinges  con¬ 
necting  it  with  the  bed,  folds  down  like  a  lid  over 
the  form.  The  impression  is  then  taken  by  the 
left  hand  of  the  pressman  winding  the  carriage 
below  the  platten,  or  pressing  surface,  and  the 
impression  is  performed  by  the  right  hand  pull¬ 
ing  the  handle  attached  to  the  screw  mechanism. 
The  carriage  is  then  wound  back,  the  printed 
sheet  lifted  off,  and  another  put  on  the  tympan, 
the  form  again  inked,  and  so  on  successively. 
To  secure  good  printing,  the  following  points  are 


PRISONERS  OF  WAR. 


611 


PROLAPSUS  ANI. 


essential  1.  The  types,  carefully  set,  fixed  with 
precision  in  forms,  rendered  level  all  over,  so  that 
all  parts  may  be  pressed  alike,  and  the  whole 
properly  cleaned  by  a  wash  of  potash  lye.  2.  A 
uniform  inking  of  the  surface,  to  give  uniformity 
of  color.  3.  The  paper  damped  equably,  neither 
too  much  nor  too  little,  so  as  to  take  an  impres¬ 
sion  easily  and  evenly.  4.  An  equable,  firm, 
and  smart  pressure,  and  with  that  degree  of 
steadiness  in  the  mechanism  that  the  sheet  shall 
touch  and  leave  the  types  without  shaking  and 
blurring.  5.  Care  in  adjusting  the  pointers  (or 
gauge),  so  that  perfect  register  may  be  secured  in 
printing  the  second  side.  C.  Such  frequency  in 
changing  fly  or  underslieets  on  the  tympan,  that 
the  first  side  shall  not  get  dirtied  by  off-setting 
when  printing  the  second  side.  7.  The  laying  of 
small  patches  on  the  tympan,  where,  from  any 
inequality,  it  seems  necessary  to  bring  up  the 
pressing-surface  to  a  thorough  equality.  A  re¬ 
gard  to  all  these  circumstances  constitutes  the 
duty  of  a  pressman.  Bad  printing  is  usually  a 
result  of  old  and  worn  types,  want  of  proper 
cleaning,  or  an  inferior  kind  of  ink.  Early  in 
this  century  important  improvements  were  made 
on  the  old  system.  The  presses  then  brought  out 
have  been  still  further  improved,  until  we  now 
have  as  the  outgrowth  of  the  original  hand 
press,  the  great  Cottrell,  the  Potter,  the  Bul¬ 
lock,  the  Hoe,  and  other  steam-power  presses, 


unusual  to  subject  prisoners  of  war  to  penal  dis¬ 
cipline. 

Privateer',  a  ship  owned  by  a  private  individ¬ 
ual,  which,  under  Government  permission,  ex¬ 
pressed  by  a  letter  of  marque,  makes  war  upon 
the  shipping  of  a  hostile  power.  To  make  war 
upon  an  enemy  without  this  commission,  or  upon 
the  shipping  of  a  nation  not  specified  in  it,  is 
piracy.  Privateering  was  abolished  by  mutual 
agreement  among  European  nations  by  the  Treaty 
of  Paris  in  1856. 

Priv'et  (Ligustrum),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Oleacew,  containing  a  number  of 
species  of  shrubs  and  small  trees.  A  rose-colored 
pigment  obtained  from  them  is  used  for  coloring 
maps.  A  number  of  species  of  privet  are  natives 
of  different  parts  of  America  and  the  East,  and 
some  of  them  have  begun  to  be  introduced  into 
shrubberies  in  Britain. 

Prize,  Prize-money,  terms  having  reference 
to  property  captured  from  an  enemy,  or  to  ene¬ 
my’s  property  captured  from  a  neutral  in  time  of 
war  On  a  ship’s  being  taken,  she  must  be  sent 
to  a  port  belonging  to  the  capturing  power,  where 
the  Court  of  Admiralty,  on  full  evidence,  adjudi¬ 
cates  whether  she  be  lawful  prize  or  not.  If  the 
decision  be  affirmative,  the  prize  is  then  sold;  or 
if  a  sliip-of-war,  a  certain  allowance  per  gun  is 
granted  by  the  State  The  produce  of  the  sale  or 
grant  is  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the  Accountant- 


Hoe  Perfecting  Printing  Press. 


capable  of  delivering  10,000  to  20,000  impressions 
an  hour.  Hand-presses  of  an  improved  kind  con¬ 
tinue  to  be  used,  however,  in  the  case  of  limited 
impressions,  or  where  extra  care  and  elegance  in 
typography  are  required;  also  where  machinery 
is  unattainable.  The  web  perfecting  press  prints 
from  a  continuous  roll  of  paper,  which  is  damp¬ 
ened  as  it  goes  into  the  machine,  and  impressions 
are  printed  on  both  sides,  alternately,  from  curved 
stereotype  plates  fitted  to  the  large  cylinders. 
The  same  machine  cuts  off  the  sheet  of  the  re¬ 
quired  length,  folds  and  pastes  it,  cuts  the  edges, 
and  delivers  on  the  fly-board  a  complete  4,  8,  12, 
or  16  page  newspaper,  so  rapidly  that  complete 
editions  of  the  great  dailies  are  now  run  off  in  a 
few  hours. 

Prisoners  of  War  are  those  who  are  captured 
from  the  enemy  during  naval  or  military  opera¬ 
tions.  By  the  laws  or  recognized  principles  of 
war,  the  entire  people  of  a  vanquished  town, 
state,  or  nation  become  the  absolute  property  of 
the  victors;  but  civilization  has  greatly  modified 
this  stern  rule,  and,  except  when  a  country  is  de¬ 
vastated  for  military  reasons,  it  is  rare  for  non- 
combatant  citizens  to  be  subjected  to  penalties  of 
conquest,  beyond  the  levying  of  contributions  in 
money  or  provisions.  The  combatants  who  have 
laid  down  their  arms  become  prisoners  of  war. 
Their  lives  and  liberty  are  at  the  disposal  of  their 
conquerors,  and  even  in  modern  times,  their  lives 
are  sometimes  taken,  as,  for  instance,  when  Napo¬ 
leon  put  the  Turkish  prisoners  to  death  at  Jaffa 
in  1799;  otherwise,  prisoners  of  war  are  kept  in 
confinement  until  peace  ensues,  or  they  are  ex¬ 
changed  for  prisoners  of  their  conqueror’s  nation, 
held  in  captivity  by  their  own  countrymen.  It  is 


General  of  the  Navy,  for  distribution  to  the  offi¬ 
cers  and  men  who  assisted  at  the  capture.  The 
net  produce  of  the  sale  or  grant  is  first  divided 
ratably  among  any  ships  (if  there  be  more  than 
one)  concerned  in  the  capture.  The  share  of 
each  ship  is  then  divided  into  eight  equal  parts. 
If  she  were  employed  under  the  orders  of  a  flag- 
officer,  he  gets  one-eighth,  and  the  captain  two- 
eighths;  if  not,  the  captain  has  three-eighths;  one- 
eighth  is  divided  among  the  lieutenants  and 
officers  of  corresponding  relative  rank;  one-eighth 
is  shared  by  the  junior  commissioned  officers  and 
warrant  officers;  one-eighth  goes  to  the  midship¬ 
men  and  petty  officers;  and  the  remaining  two- 
eighths  among  the  seamen,  marines,  and  boys. 

Prize-court  is  a  court  which  adjudicates  the 
property  in  vessels  captured  at  sea  from  a  belliger¬ 
ent;  and  the  rule  is,  that  when  a  captor  brings 
home  a  prize,  the  tribunal  of  his  own  country 
has  jurisdiction  to  declare  whether  he  is  entitled 
to  it,  which  decision  is  binding  everywhere.  A 
prize-court  differs  from  other  courts  in  this,  that 
the  property  of  foreigners  is  brought  within  its 
jurisdiction,  not  by  consent,  as  is  implied  with 
regard  to  the  ordinary  municipal  courts,  but  by 
force. 

Procou  'sill,  a  Roman  magistrate  not  holding 
the  consulship,  who  was  invested  with  powers 
nearly  approaching  those  of  a  consul,  not,  how¬ 
ever,  extending  over  the  city  and  its  vicinity. 
The  proconsul  was,  at  first,  one  who  had  held  the 
office  of  consul,  whose  imperium  was  prolonged 
to  enable  him  to  bring  an  unfinished  campaign  to 
a  close.  The  duration  of  the  office  was  a  year. 
Occasionally,  the  office  of  proconsul,  with  the 
government  of  a  province,  was  conferred  on  a 


person  who  had  never  held  the  consulship. 
Under  Constantine,  parts  of  certain  dioceses  came 
to  be  governed  by  proconsuls. 

Proco'pius,  an  eminent  Byzantine  historian, 
was  born  at  Caesarea,  in  Palestine,  about  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  sixth  century,  went  to  Constantinople 
when  still  a  young  man,  and  acquired  there  so 
high  a  reputation  as  a  professor  of  rhetoric,  that 
Belisarius,  in  527,  appointed  him  his  private 
secretary.  His  death  occurred,  it  is  thought, 
about  565. 

Proems 'tes  (Gr.  IJpoKpvd re?,  the  Stretcher), 
the  surname  of  a  celebrated  robber  of  Attica, 
named  Damastes,  or  Polypemon.  According  to 
the  ancient  legend,  he  was  wont  to  place  all 
persons  who  fell  into  his  hands  upon  a  metal  bed 
which  they  were  made  to  fit.  Theseus  over-pow¬ 
ered  him,  and  put  him  through  the  same  torture. 

Procter,  Bryan  Waller,  an  English  poet, 
better  fnown  as  Barry  Cornwall,  -was  born 
Nov.  21,  1787,  and  died  Oct.  4,  1874. 

Profess'or,  an  officer  in  a  school  whose 
duty  it  is  to  instruct  students,  or  read  lectures  on 
particular  branches  of  learning.  In  the  early 
times  of  universities,  the  degrees  conferred  on 
students  were  licenses  to  act  as  public  teachers; 
and  the  terms  master,  doctor,  and  professor,  were 
nearly  identical  in  signification. 

Pro 'file,  the  outline  of  a  section  through  a 
cornice  or  other  series  of  moldings.  The  outline 
of  a  capital  when  drawn  geometrically;  the  out¬ 
line  of  the  human  face  in  a  section  through  the 
median  line.  etc. 

Prognosis  (from  the  corresponding  Greek 
word)  is  the  term  employed  in  medicine  to  indi¬ 
cate  the  opinion  or. decision  of  the  physician 
regarding  the  probable  course  and  issue  of  a 
disease. 

Progression,  in  Arithmetic,  is  the  succession, 
according  to  some  fixed  law,  of  one  number  after 
another.  A  series  of  numbers  so  succeeding  one 
another  is  said  to  be  “  in  progression.”  Progres¬ 
sion  may  be  of  various  kinds,  but  the  three  forms 
of  most  frequent  occurrence  are  arithmetical  pro¬ 
gression,  geometrical  progression,  and  harmonical 
progression.  The  conditions  of  the  harmonical 
progression  of  a  series  are  frequently  stated  as 
follows.  Three  numbers  are  in  harmonical  pro¬ 
gression,  when  the  first  has  to  the  third  the  same 
ratio  that  the  excess  of  the  first  over  the  second 
has  to  the  excess  of  the  second  over  the  third,  as 

1,  £,  i. 

Progression,  Musical,  the  regular  succession 
of  chords  or  movement  of  the  parts  of  a  musical 
composition  in  harmony,  where  the  key  con¬ 
tinues  unchanged,  is  called  progression;  where  a 
new  key  is  introduced,  it  is  not  progression,  but 
modulation. 

Projec  'tion  is  the  representat  ion  on  any  surface 
of  objects  or  figures  as  they  appear  to  the  eye  of 
an  observer.  It  thus  includes  perspective,  and  is 
most  simply  illustrated  by  the  shadow  of  an 
object  thrown  by  a  candle  on  a  wall;  the  shadow 
being  the  projection,  and  the  place  of  the 
light  the  position  of  the  eye. 

Prolap 'sxis  A'lii  is  a  common  affection  of  the 
termination  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  consists 
in  an  eversion  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  rectum, 
and  its  protrusion  through  the  anus.  It  may  de¬ 
pend  on  a  naturally  relaxed  condition  of  the 
parts,  as  in  infancy,  or  may  be  caused  by  violent 
strainings,  in  cases  of  costiveness,  piles,  etc. 
Whenever  it  occurs,  the  parts  should  be  washed, 
and,  if  possible,  replaced  by  careful  pressure  with 
(he  hand;  and  if  they  do  not  easily  return,  the 
forefinger  should  be  oiled,  and  pushed  up  into  the 
anus,  and  it  will  convey  the  protruded  intestine 
with  it,  after  which  the  patient  should  retain  the 
recumbent  position  for  some  hours.  If  it  can  not 
be  returned  by  the  above  means,  surgical  assist¬ 
ance  should  be  at  once  sought.  In  order,  to  re¬ 
move  the  tendency  to  prolapsus,  the  patient 
should  regulate  bis  bowels  so  as  to  avoid  costive¬ 
ness,  should  sponge  the  parts  after  every  evacu¬ 
ation  with  cold  water  or  soap  and  water,  and  if 
necessary,  use  astringent  injections,  as,  for  ex¬ 
ample,  a  weak  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  one 
grain  to  the  ounce,  and  when  the  stools  are 
passed,  the  skin  near  the  anus  should  be  drawn 
to  one  side  with  the  hand,  so  as  to  tighten  the 
orifice.  If,  after  the  adoption  of  these  means. 


PROLAPSUS  UTERI. 


612 


PRURIGO. 


the  bowel  continues  to  descend,  certain  surgical 
means  must  be  resorted  to. 

Prolap 'sus  U'teri — known  also  as  Proci¬ 
dentia  or  Descensus  Uteri,  by  writers  on  the 
diseases  of  women;  and  as  falling  of  the  womb, 
or  bearing'down,  among  non-professional  persons 
— consists  essentially  in  a  depression  of  the  womb 
below  the  natural  level  in  the  pelvis.  It  is  a 
common  affection  amongst  all  ranks,  and  is  most 
frequent  in  women  beyond  the  middle  age  who 
have  borne  large  families.  It  has,  however,  been 
met  with  in  women  who  have  not  borne  children, 
in  virgins,  and  even  (although  very  rarely)  in 
children.  Patients  with  only  a  slight  displace¬ 
ment  usually  complain  of  a  sensation  of  fullness 
in  the  pelvis,  of  -weight  and  bearing  down,  of 
dragging  from  the  loins,  often  amounting  to  pain 
in  the  back,  these  symptoms  being  aggravated 
when  the  upright  position  is  assumed.  The  treat¬ 
ment  varies  with  the  degree  of  displacement.  In 
comparatively  mild  cases,  prolonged  rest  in  the 
horizontal  position  should  be  enforced,  and  cold 
water  (from  half  a  pint  to  a  pint)  should  be 
slowly  injected,  night  and  morning,  into  the  canal 
leading  to  the  uterus,  by  means  of  an  elastic 
bottle,  the  patient  being  in  the  recumbent  position 
as  she  receives  the  injection.  If  this  treatment  is 
insufficient,  astringent  injections,  as  decoction  of 
oak-bark  or  of  galls,  or  a  solution  of  alum  (an 
ounce  to  the  pint  of  water),  should  be  tried.  If, 
however,  there  is  any  congestion  or  inflammation 
of  the  parts,  astringents  must  be  avoided.  More 
serious  cases  demand  professional  advice. 

Prome'tlieus.  The  myth  of  Prometheus  is 
one  of  the  oldest  of  Greek  antiquity,  and  is  briefly 
as  follows: — Once,  under  the  reign  of  Zeus,  men 
and  gods  were  disputing  with  one  another  at 
Mecone;  Prometheus,  with  a  view  to  outwit  Zeus, 
cut  up  a  bull,  and  divided  it  into  two  parts, 
hiding  the  meat  and  the  intestines  in  the  skin,  and 
putting  a  bad  piece  (the  stomach)  at  the  top  of  it; 
while  he  laid  in  another  heap  the  bones,  which 
were  covered  with  fat.  Zeus  pointed  out  the 
unequal  division,  but  was  asked  to  choose, 
whereupon  he  guessed  the  deceit  practiced,  and 
selected  the  good  portion;  but  irate  at  the  strata¬ 
gem,  he  avenged  himself  on  the  mortals  by 
withholding  from  them  the  fire  necessary  for  the 
cooking  of  the  meat;  whereupon  Prometheus 
stole  it  in  a  hollow  staff  and  brought  it  to  them 
Zeus,  to  punish  the  mortals,  caused  Hephaestus  to 
mold  a  virgin  of  rapturous  beauty,  Pandora, 
whom  Epimetheus  was  unwise  enough  to  receive 
as  a  present  from  Hermes;  and  thus  brought, 
through  her  box,  all  imaginable  ills  that  flesh  is 
heir  to  upon  humanity.  Prometheus  himself 
was  chained  to  a  rock,  and  an  eagle  sent  to  con¬ 
sume  his  liver  in  daytime,  while  Zeus  caused  it  to 
grow  again  at  night.  Herakles,  however,  killed 
the  eagle,  and,  by  permission  of  Zeus,  delivered 
the  suffering  Prometheus. 

Prom'issory-uote,  is  a  contract  by  which  A, 
the  promiser,  agrees  to  pay  B,  the  promisee,  a 
sum  of  money,  either  on  request  or  on  a  future 
day.  A  is  called  the  maker  of  the  note,  and  B 
the  payee  of  the  note. 

Prong-liorn,  or  Prong-horned  Antelope 
(Antilope  furcif era,  Dicranoceru s furcifer,  or  An- 
tilocapra  americana),  a  species  of  antelope  inhab¬ 
iting  the  western  prairies  6f  this  country.  It  is 
common  west  of  the  Missouri  river. 

Pro 'nouns  are  symbols,  names,  or  highly- 
generalized  marks,  applied  to  objects  to  signify, 
not  any  inherent  attribute,  but  merely  their 
relations  to  the  act  of  speaking.  They  are  usually 
considered  as  personal  or  relative.  Personal 
Pronouns. — The  several  objects  concerned  in  a 
speech  or  sentence  stand  in  one  or  other  of  the 
three  relations  of  speaker  (first  person),  object 
spoken  to  (second  person),  object  spoken  about 
(third  person).  Pronouns  expressive  of  these 
relations  are  called  personal  pronouns.  They  are 
(in  the  nominative  case),  first  person,  I,  we; 
second,  thou,  ye  or  you;  third,  he,  she,  it,  they. 
With  the  personal  pronouns,  and  most  nearly 
related  to  the  pronouns  of  the  third  person,  may 
be  classed  the  words  one  and  that  in  certain  con¬ 
structions.  In  phrases  like,  “  One  can  not  be 
sure  of  that,”  one  is  an  indefinite  pronoun,  desig¬ 
nating  any  person  whatever.  It  is  distinct  from 
the  numeral  adjective  one,  being  derived  from  the 
French  on,  which  is  a  corruption  of  ho  mine,  man. 


When  we  say,  “  I  like  peaches,  but  let  me  have  a 
ripe  one,  or  ripe  ones,”  we  have  now  the  numeral 
used  as  another  indefinite  pronoun.  The  first  of 
these  indefinite  pronouns  is  applied  only  to  per¬ 
sons;  the  second,  both  to  persons  and  things.  Rel¬ 
ative  Pronouns,  (including  Interrogative). — 
Relative  pronouns,  besides  standing  for  nouns, 
have  the  power  of  conjunctions.  They  join  sen¬ 
tences  and  clauses,  by  relating  or  referring  back 
directly  to  something  just  named.  The  relatives 
in  English  are,  who,  which  and  that.  What,  is 
used  for  that  which,  thus  embracing  both  relative 
and  antecedent.  In  phrases  like  “  Such  a  storm 
as  now  burst  onthem,”usis  used  with  the  form  of 
a  relative  pronoun.  Interrogative  Pronouns 
are  those  used  in  asking  questions:  they  are  who, 
which,  and  what.  A  variety  of  compounds  are 
formed  by  joining  these  simple  pronouns  with 
other  words,  such  as  himself,  whatever,  any  one. 

Propaganda  (Lat.  De  Propaganda  Fide, 
regarding  the  propagation  of  the  faith),  the  name 
of  a  congregation,  and  also  of  a  college  in  Rome, 
the  object  of  which  is  to  direct  and  forward  the 
propagation  of  the  Catholic  religion,  especially 
among  the  heathen;  although  Christian  dissenters 
from  the  Roman  Church  are  also  included  in  the 
sphere  of  its  operations.  The  institution  was 
originated  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  (1572-1584.) 

Pro'poliS,  a  substance  used  by  bees  in  the 
construction  of  their  combs,  to  give  to  the  fabric 
a  strength  which  it  could  not  have  if  made  of 
wax  alone.  It  is  also  used  for  closing  up  chinks 
of  the  hive.  It  is  a  resinous  unctuous  substance 
of  a  reddish-brown  color,  a  somewhat  bitter  taste, 
and  an  agreeable  aromatic  odor,  and  is  collected 
from  the  buds  of  trees. 

Proportion,  in  Arithmetic  and  Geometry,  is 
a  particular  species  of  relation  subsisting  between 
groups  of  numbers  or  quantities.  Notwithstand¬ 
ing  that  the  idea  of  proportion  is  found  to  exist  in 
perfection  in  the  mind  of  every  one,  yet  a  good 
definition  of  it  is  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty. 
The  two  definitions  which,  on  the  whole,  are 
found  to  be  least  objectionable  are  that  of  Euclid, 
and  the  ordinary  arithmetical  definition.  The 
latter  states  proportion  to  be  the  “equality  of 
ratios,”  and  throws  us  back  on  the  definition  of 
the  term  ratio,  which  may  most  simply  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  the  relation  of  two  numbers  to  each 
other,  shown  by  a  division  of  the  one  by  the 
other. 

Pros'ody  (Gr.  npoieodia,  prosbdia,  literally, 
belonging  to  song  or  hymn)  is  the  name  given, 
both  by  the  ancients  and  moderns,  to  that  part  of 
grammar  which  treats  of  the  rules  of  rhythm  in 
metrical  composition. 

Protea'cete,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  containing  about  650  known  species  of 
shrubs  and  small  trees,  chiefly  natives  of  South 
Africa  and  of  Australia,  and  forming  a  remark¬ 
able  feature  of  the  vegetation  of  these  regions. 

Pro'tein,  and  the  Protein  Bodies.  Under 
the  term  protein  bodies,  chemists  include  the 
following  substances  :  Albumen,  fibrin,  syntonin 
or  muscle-fibrin,  casein,  globulin,  and  lncmato- 
crystallin.  The  most  careful  analyses  have  shown 
that  in  their  composition,  these  substances  are 
almost  identical,  and  that  they  all  contain  about 
53.6  per  cent,  of  carbon,  7.1  of  hydrogen,  15.6 
of  nitrogen,  and  22.1  of  oxygen,  with  a  varying 
quantity  of  sulphur  not  exceeding  1.6  per  cent. 

Prot'estant,  a  term  first  applied  to  the 
adherents  of  Luther,  from  their  protesting  against 
the  decree  passed  by  the  Catholic  States  at  the 
second  diet  of  Speier  in  1529,  and  now  generally 
applied  to  all  non-Catliolic  Christians. 

Pro'teus,  in  the  Homeric  or  oldest  Greek 
Mythology,  appears  as  a  prophetic  old  man  of 
the*  sea  (aXioi  yepcov,  hallos  geron),  who  tends 
the  seal-flocks  of  Poseidon  (Neptune),  and  has  the 
gift  of  endless  transformation.  His  favorite 
residence,  according  to  Homer,  is  the  Island  of 
Pharos,  off  the  mouth  of  the  Nile. 

Proteus,  a  genus  of  perennibrancliiate  Batra- 
cliia,  having  a  long,  smooth,  naked,  eel-like 
body  ;  four  small  and  weak  legs  ;  the  fore-feet 
three-toed — the  hinder,  four-toed  ;  the  tail  com¬ 
pressed  and  forming  a  kind  of  fin  ;  the  head 
lengthened  and  flattened  ;  the  eyes  extremely 
small,  and  covered  by  the  skin  ;  the  ears  con¬ 
cealed  in  the  flesh ;  the  gills  external  and 


permanent,  reddish,  very  conspicuous,  between 
the  head  and  the  fore-legs. 

Proteus,  a  name  given  by  many  naturalists  to 
certain  animalcules  remarkable  for  changefulness 
of  form  ;  on  which  account  also,  as  the  name 
proteus  has  been  otherwise  appropriated  in 
science,  they  now  receive  the  generic  name 
Amoeba. 

Protocol  (Gr.  irpaoros,  prutos,  first,  and 
KoXXa,  holla,  glue),  a  word  used  in  two  senses  : 
1.  The  rough  draft  of  an  instrument  or  trans¬ 
action  ;  and  more  particularly  the  original  copy 
of  a  government  dispatch,  treaty,  or  other  docu¬ 
ment.  2.  A  record  or  register. 

Pro'tophytes  (Gr.  7tpwr6cpvra,  protophi/tia, 
first  plants),  a  name  now  frequently  employed  to 
designate  the  lowest  or  simplest  organisms  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  corresponding  to  the  protozoa 
of  the  animal  kingdom. 

Protozo'a  (Gr.  npooroi,  prutos,  first,  and 
^ooov ,zobn,  animal),  constitute  the  lowest  animal 
sub-kingdom,  and  include  a  large  number  of  ani¬ 
mal  beings  of  the  lowest  and  simplest  type  of  or¬ 
ganization.  Their  bodies  consist  either  of  a  sim¬ 
ple  cell  or  of  an  aggregation  of  cells,  each  of 
which  seems  to  retain  its  independent  existence. 

Proud -flesh  is  the  popular  term  for  coarse  and 
too  luxuriant  granulations  springing  up  on 
wounds  or  ulcerated  surfaces.  Such  granula¬ 
tions  must  be  treated  with  nitrate  of  silver  or  sul¬ 
phate  of  copper,  either  in  the  solid  form  or  in 
strong  solution. 

Proudhon,  Pierre  Joseph,  a  noted  French 
publicist  and  speculator  on  social  and  political 
subjects,  was  born  July  15,  1809,  at  Besangon,  in 
which  town  his  father  was  a  poor  cooper.  His 
career  through  the  French  Revolution  of  1848and 
since  has  laid  him  open  to  the  charge  of  extreme 
socialistic  if  not  nihilistic  opinions.  He  died  in 
obscurity  in  Paris,  Jan.  19,  1865. 

Provence,  formerly  a  maritime  province  of 
France,  in  the  extreme  southeast  of  the  country, 
was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Mediterranean, 
and  comprised  the  modern  Departments  of 
Bouches  du  Rhone,  Var,  Basses- Alpes,  and  the 
east  part  of  Vaucluse. 

Proverbs,  The  Book  of  (Heb.  Mishle,  Ixx, 
Paroimia  Salomontos,  Vulg.  Proverbia),  a  canoni¬ 
cal  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  containing  an  an¬ 
thology  of  gnomes  and  sentences,  the  fruit  of 
reflections  on  the  Mosaic  law  and  on  the  divine 
guidance  of  the  people  of  the  Israelites  It  is 
also  called  the  “Book  of  Wisdom.” 

Prov'idence,  a  city,  semi-capital,  and  seaport 
of  the  State  of  Rhode  Island,  situated  at  the  head 
of  navigation,  on  an  arm  of  Narragansett  Bay, 
known  as  Providence  river,  thirty-five  miles  from 
the  ocean,  forty-three  miles  south  southwest  from 
Boston,  and  160  northeast  of  New  York.  It  is  the 
second  city  in  New  England.  Providence  was 
settled,  in  1636,  by  a  colony  of  refugees  from  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  under  Roger  Williams.  Pop.  (1880), 
118,300. 

Provo  City,  the  county  seat  of  Utah  county, 
Utah.  Pop.,  5,100. 

Prunel'la,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Labiates.  It  was  at  one  time  in  considerable 
repute  as  a  febrifuge.  It  is  mildly  aromatic  and 
slightly  astringent. 

Prunes  are  the  fruit  of  the  plum-tree 
(prunus  domeslica),  of  the  variety  called  Juliana, 
which  is  largely  cultivated  in  France. 

Pmri'goisa  non-contagious  affection  of  the 
skin,  in  which  intense  itching  is  the  most  promi¬ 
nent  symptom.  Sometimes  the  parts  affected 
present  no  marked  deviation  from  the  normal 
type,  but  most  commonly  they  are  covered  with 
papulae,  which  are  nearly  of  the  same  color  as 
the  skin.  All  the  forms  of  this  disease  are  aggra¬ 
vated  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  by  heat.  In  the 
treatment  of  this  disease,  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  diet.  All  stimulating  condiments  and 
drinks  should  be  forbidden,  and  only  a  plain, 
easily  digested  food  allowed.  Internal  remedies 
are  seldom  of  use,  excepting  opium,  which  in 
severe  cases  is  required  in  free  or  large  doses,  in 
order  to  procure  rest.  The  local  applications 
that  have  been  recommended  are  very  numerous. 
Lotions  of  spirit,  diluted  vinegar,  solution  of 
acetate  of  ammonia,  glycerine,  prussic  acid,  etc., 
and  ointments  containing  creosote,  iodide  of  sul¬ 
phur,  aconitine,  etc.,  have  been  advocated  by 


PRUSSIA. 


613 


PTOLEMY  Y. 


various  physicians  of  eminence.  Unless,  how¬ 
ever,  the  greatest  attention  is  paid  to  personal 
cleanliness,  no  remedy  is  likely  to  be  of  permanent 
benefit. 

Prus'sia  (Ger.  Preussen),  a  kingdom  embracing 
nearly  the  whole  of  Northern  Germany.  It  is 
bounded  north  by  the  German  Ocean,  Jutland, 
and  the  Baltic;  east  by  Russia  and  Poland;  south 
by  Austria,  Saxony,  Saxe-Altenburg,  Saxe-Wei- 
mar,  Gotha,  and  others  of  the  smaller  German 
States,  Bavaria,  Ilesse-Darmstadt,  and  Alsace- 
Lorraine;  west  by  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands. 
Pop.,  28,000,000.  The  climate  of  Prussia  pre¬ 
sents  great  differences  in  the  eastern  and  west¬ 
ern  provinces — the  former  being  exposed  to  heavy 
snow-storms  in  the  winter,  and  great  drought 
in  the  summer,  and  with  a  mean  annual  temper¬ 
ature  of  43°,  has  a  summer  mean  temperature  of 
61°,  and  winter,  26°  P. ;  while  the  latter,  which 
have  milder  winters,  and  a  larger  fall  of  rain, 
have  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  49.5° — sum¬ 
mer,  63°,  and  winter  35c  F.  Agriculture  and  the 
rearing  of  cattle  constitute  the  principal  sources 
of  employment  and  wealth  of  the  rural  popula¬ 
tion  of  the  entire  monarchy.  The  principal  man¬ 
ufactures  are  linens;  while  of  late  years,  the  cot¬ 
ton  manufactories,  worked  by  steam,  have  main¬ 
tained  a  successful  rivalry  with  the  older  linens, 
worked  by  hand-looms.  Besides  these,  there  are 
numerous  manufactories  of  silk,  wool, mixed  cotton 
and  linen  fabrics;  including  fine  shawds  and  car¬ 
pets,  stockings  and  ribbons,  etc.  The  dominant 
religion  is  Protestantism,  and  since  1817  the  Lu¬ 
theran  and  Reformed  Churches  have  been  united 
under  the  head  of  one  common  EvangelicalChurch. 
Education  is  compulsory  in  Prussia,  and  its  man¬ 
agement  and  direction  are  under  the  control  of 
the  State.  Prussia  was  an  absolute  monarchy  till 
the  crisis  of  1848,  when  the  decided  movement  in 
favor  of  liberal  views  compelled  the  late  king  to 
convoke  a  national  assembly,  and  submit  to  the 
establishment  of  a  constitutional  form  of  govern¬ 
ment  which  has  been  repeatedly  modified.  An 
upper  chamber  ( Herrenhuus ,  or  blouse  of  Lords), 
composed  of  the  princes  of  the  royal  family  who 
are  of  age,  the  chiefs  of  the  mediatized  princely 
houses,  recognized  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
and  numbering  sixteen  in  Prussia,  the  heads  of 
the  territorial  nobility  (about  fifty),  life-peers 
chosen  by  the  king  from  the  class  of  rich  land- 
owners,  manufacturers,  and  “  national  celebra- 
ties,”  a  titled  representative  chosen  by  all  land- 
owners  in  each  of  the  Prussian  Provinces,  rep¬ 
resentatives  of  the  universities,  the  burgomas¬ 
ters  of  all  towns  having  more  than  50,000  inhabit¬ 
ants,  and  an  indefinite  number  of  members  ap¬ 
pointed  by  the  king  for  life  or  fora  limited  period. 
A  lower  chamber  ( Abgconlnetenhmis ,  or  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  composed  of  432  members,  352  for 
the  old  kingdom,  and  eighty  for  the  provinces  an¬ 
nexed  in  1867.  Every  Prussian  who  has  attained 
his  twenty-fifth  year,  and  who  has  a  municipal  vote, 
has  also  a  parliamentary  vote,  but  not  a  direct  one. 
Out  of  every  250  Urwdhkr,  or  electors  in  the  first 
instance,  is  chosen  a  Wahlmann,  or  direct  elector. 
This  is  the  man  who,  strictly  speaking,  votes  for 
a  member  of  Parliament.  Representatives  are 
elected  for  three  years.  In  addition  to  this  gen¬ 
eral  house  of  assembly,  there  are  representative 
bodies  for  the  provinces,  communes,  and  circles, 
which  debate  and  legislate  in  regard  to  local  mat¬ 
ters  within  their  several  departments.  The  coun¬ 
cil  of  state  is  composed  of  eight  ministers,  under 
whose  ministries  are  numerous  departments,  em¬ 
bracing  almost  every  conceivable  subdivision  of 
foreign  policy  or  internal  legislation,  since  noth¬ 
ing  can  be  done  in  Prussia  independently  of  the 
State.  About  seven-eighths  of  the  population  are 
Germans.  Three  distinct  hereditary  classes  are 
recognized  in  Prussia,  viz.,  nobles,  burghers,  and 
peasants.  Since  1871  the  history  of  Prussia,  un¬ 
der  the  leadership  of  Bismarck,  has  been  that  of 
Germany,  and  her  kings  are  emperors  of  Ger¬ 
many,  the  war  with  France  and  its  successful 
issue  having  unified  the  many  States  under  one 
Empire.  Kaiser  Wilhelm  I.,  of  Germany,  under 
whom  this  was.  accomplished  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Frederick  William,  who,  dying  a  few 
months  later,  left  the  throne  to  his  son,  Emperor 
William  II.,  the  present  Emperor. 

Psalms  (Heb.  Tehillim,  songs  of  praise,  or  Tejil- 
loth,  prayers;  Jerome,  Liber  llymnorum),  the  well- 


known  canonical  book  generally  ascribed  to  David . 
Respecting  the  general  contents  of  the  book,  it 
may  be  said  that  it  comprises,  in  the  form  of 
pious  lyrics,  written  for  and  on  behalf  of  the 
congregation,  the  quintessence  of  the  dogmatical, 
ethical,  historical,  and  tlieocratical  portions  of 
the  Old  Testament.  The  authorship  of  the 
Psalms  is  ascribed  by  the  headings  of  the  various 
chapters  as  follows  :  Psalm  xc,  to  “  Moses,  the 
man  of  God.”  Seventy-three  psalms  to  David;' 
two  to  Solomon,  twelve  to  Asaph,  the  Levite  and 
singer,  of  which  five,  however,  belong  to  the 
times  of  Jelioshaphat,  Hezekiah,  and  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  Babylonian  exile  respectively. 
Eleven  psalms  go  under  the  name  of  the  Sons  of 
Korah,  or  the  Korahites — a  family  of  singers 
descended  from  the  Levite  Korah,  known  from 
the  Pentateuch. 

Pskov  (Ger.  Pleskau),  a  government  in  the 
northwest  of  European  Russia,  lies  south  of  the 
Governments  of  St.  Petersburg  and  Novgorod. 
Area,  17,045  square  miles;  pop.  (1870),  775,701. 

Pskov, a  town  in  the  northwest  of  European 
Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Yelikaia,  180 
miles  south-southwest  of  St.  Petersburg.  Pop. 
(1867),  12,981. 

Psora'lea,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminom,  sub-order  Papilionacece,  hav¬ 
ing  the  calyx  permanent  after  flowering,  and  its 
tube  sprinkled  with  callous  points;  the  legume 
one-seeded,  sometimes  ending  in  a  beak.  The 
flowers  are  blue,  purple,  or  white. 

Psori'asis  (from  the  Greek  word  it dopa, 
psora,  which  signifies  a  cutaneous  eruption,  sup¬ 
posed  by  some  To  be  the  itch),  a  disease  character¬ 
ized  by  slight  elevations  of  the  surface  of  the 
skin  covered  with  whitish  scales.  The  causes  of 
psoriasis  are  obscure.  It  is  certainly  not  conta¬ 
gious,  but  there  appears  to  be  in  some  families  an 
hereditary  tendency  to  it.  It  is  occasionally  asso¬ 
ciated  with  gout  and  rheumatism.  Persons  of 
both  sexes,  of  all  ages,  and  of  all  conditions  of 
life,  are  liable  to  it,  although  it  is  more  common 
in  middle  and  advanced  life  than  in  childhood. 
The  treatment  varies  with  the  condition  of  the 
patient.  A  middle-aged,  vigorous  patient  should 
be  purged  two  or  three  times  a  week  with  sul¬ 
phate  of  magnesia,  should  be  restricted  in  his 
diet  to  vegetables  and  milk,  should  be  debarred 
from  all  stimulants,  and  should  take  a  warm 
bath  daily.  The  internal  remedies  of  most  repute 
for  this  disease  are — 1 .  Decoction  of  dulcamara, 
from  half  a  pint  at  first  to  a  pint  being  taken  in 
divided dosesthrough theday;  2.  Liquor potassog, 
in  doses  of  from  half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm, 
three  times  a  day,  in  a  glass  of  milk  or  beer;  3. 
Liquor  arsenicalis,  in  doses  of  from  three  to  four 
minims,  three  times  a  day,  to  be  taken  after  meals; 
4.  Iodide  of  potassium,  in  five-grain  doses,  three 
times  a  day;  and  5.  Pitch  pills.  In  inveterate 
cases,  tar  ointment,  first  diluted  with  lard,  or  a 
weak  ointment  of  iodide  of  sulphur,  should  be 
applied  locally;  but  these  should  not  be  tried 
unless  internal  treatment  fails. 

Ptar'migan  ( Lagopus ),  a  genus  of  Tetraonidm, 


Common  Ptarmigan  ( Lagopus  mutus). 


differing  from  the  true  grouse  chiefly  in  having 
the  toes  thickly  clothed  with  short  feathers  as 
-well  the  legs  {tarsi).  Hence  the  name  Lagopus, 


a  name  used  by  Pliny,  from  the  resemblance  of 
the  foot  to  that  of  a  hare.  The  bill  is  short,  and 
clothed  at  the  base  with  feathers.  The  species 
are  natives  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  world, 
and  either  of  elevated  or  of  strictly  arctic  regions. 

Psy'che  (Gr.  itdvxv,  breath,  or  soul),  a  crea¬ 
tion  of  the  later  mythology  of  Greece,  or  a  per¬ 
sonification  of  the  human  soul,  devised  by  the 
later  poets. 

Ptericli'thys  (Gr.  itzepov,  wing,  zySv?,  fish), 
a  genus  of  ganoid  fishes,  peculiar  to  the  beds  of 
the  old  red  sandstone  measures.  Fragments  of 
the  bony  case  had  been  found  in  Russia  as  early 
as  1813;  in  1840,  they  were  described  as  belong¬ 
ing  to  a  fish  to  which  the  generic  name  Asterolepis 
was  given . 

Pterodac'tyl  (Gr.  itzepov,  wing,  daKzv ?, 
finger),  a  remarkable  genus  of  fossil  lizards, 
peculiar  to  the  secondary  strata.  The  cranium 
is  small;  the  jaws  are  long,  and  either  armed  with 
numerous,  sharp-pointed  teeth,  or  toothless,  like 
those  of  a  bird.  The  eye-orbit  is  very  large;  the 
sclerotica  consists  of  a  ring  of  bony  plates,  and 
the  nostrils  are  placed  near  the  orbits.  The 


Pterodactyl. 


cervical  vertebra  are  large  and  strong,  and 
capable  of  great  flexibility  backward  and  for¬ 
ward,  probably  to  allow  the  head  to  fall  back  to 
the  center  of  gravity  during  flight.  The  dorsal 
vertebra  are  from  seventeen  to  twenty  in  number. 

Pterop'oda  (Gr.  itzepov,  wing,  itovs,  foot), 
a  class  of  mollusks,  hav¬ 
ing  for  their  only  organs 
of  locomotion  wing-like 
tins  attached  to  the  sides 
of  the  head  or  neck,  one 
to  each  side,  by  which 
they  make  their  way 
through  the  water,  flap¬ 
ping  them  as  a  bird  or 

an  insect  does  its  wings  _ _ 

in  the  air. 

Ptol'emy  I.,  son  of  Example  of  the  Pteropoda 
Lagus,  is  also  known  by  ^odf>ra  pyramidata). 
his  surname  Soter,  or  the  Preserver.  He  acted 
as  one  of  Alexander’s  generals  in  his  eastern 
campaigns;  and  when  the  possessions  of  the 
great  conqueror  were  divided,  after  his  death,  at 
Babylon,  323  b.c.,  Egypt  fell  to  the  lot  of  the 
son  of  Lagus.  He  died  in  283.  His  reign  ex¬ 
tended  from  323  to  283  b.c. 


Ptolemy  II.,  surnamed  Philadelpiius,  was 
the  son  of  Ptolemy  I.  and  Berenice.  He  was 
born  309  b.c.,  in  the  Island  of  Cos.  His  reign  is 
remarkable  rather  for  the  successful  cultivation 
of  the  arts  of  peace  than  of  the  practice  of  war. 
He  reigned  from  285  to  247  b.c. 

Ptolemy  III.,  surnamed  Euergetes,  suc¬ 
ceeded  his  father  Philadelpiius,  and  reigned  from 
247  to  222  b.c.  Ptolemy,  like  his  predecessors, 
patronized  learned  men,  and  encouraged  the 
study  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  He  added  so 
largely  to  the  library  of  Alexandria  that  he  has 
by  some  been  called  its  founder.  In  his  reign, 
the  Egyptian  kingdom  reached  the  highest  point 
of  military  glory,  prosperity,  and  wealth. 

Ptolemy  IY.,  surnamed  Puilopator,  reigned 
from  222  to  205  b.c  He  was  a  son  of  the  pre¬ 
ceding  king.  His  reign  began  by  the  murder  of 
his  mother  Berenice,  liis  brother  Magas,  and  his 
uncle  Lysimachus;  and  it  ended  by  the  violent 
death  of  his  wife  Arsinoe.  He  died  205  b.  c. 


Ptolemy  V.,  Epipiianes,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  his  father  Philopator,  when  only  five 
years  of  age,  and  reigned  from  205  to  181  b.c. 
While  Ptolemy  was  preparing  for  an  expedition 
against  Syria,  he  was  poisoned  by  some  of  his 
followers,  whom  he  had  alarmed  for  their  own 


PTOLEMY  VI. 


614 


PUMICE. 


safety.  Under  liim,  Egypt  rapidly  sank  in  pros¬ 
perity,  power,  and  reputation. 

Ptolemy  VI.,  Philometoe,  reigned  from  181 
to  146  b.c.  He  is  celebrated  for  his  mild  and 
humane  disposition. 

Ptolemy  VII.,  or  Euergetes  II. ,  best  known 
by  the  nickname  Pecyscon,  or  Big-belly,  ascended 
the  throne  after  the  death  of  his  brother.  The 
history  of  his  reign  is  one  unbroken  record  of 
murder  and  blood,  whence  his  subjects  nicknamed 
him  Kakergetes  (the  malefactor),  lie  reigned 
from  146  to  117  b.c.  Besides  these,  there  are 
several  Ptolemies  of  less  note,  one  of  them  being 
a  brother  of  Cleopatra. 

Ptolemy  (Claudius  Ptolom^us),  a  celebrated 
astronomer  and  geographer,  was  a  native  of 
Egypt.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  personal  his¬ 
tory,  exceot  that  he  flourished  in  Alexandria  in 
139  a.d.,  and  there  is  probably  evidence  of  his 
having  been  alive  in  161  a.d. 

Pto'sis  (from  the  Gr.  niitroo,  pipto,  I  fall), 
signifies  a  drooping  or  falling  of  the  upper  eye¬ 
lid,  and  arises  from  palsy  of  the  third  or  motor 
oculi  nerve.  It  may  arise  either  from  debility,  in 
which  case  it  may  be  removed  by  tonics,  or  from 
congestion  of  the  brain,  when  it  is  usually 
accompanied  with  giddiness,  headache,  etc.,  and 
should  be  treated  by  bleeding,  purgatives,  and 
low  diet;  or  from  organic  disease  of  the  brain,  in 
which  case  remediesare  of  little  use.  If  it  occurs 
without  any  apparent  cause,  and  resists  medical 
treatment,  it  may  be  removed  by  a  surgical  opera¬ 
tion,  by  which  the  eyelid  is  brought  under  the 
action  of  the  occipito  frontal  muscle,  which  re¬ 
ceives  its  nervous  power  from  another  source. 

Pty'chodus,  a  genus  of  cretaceous  fish,  founded 
on  large  square  crushing  teeth,  which  occur  in 
considerable  quantity  in  the  chalk  beds. 

Pueb'Ia,  or  Puebla  de  Los  Angeles,  a  city 
of  Mexico,  capital  of  a  State  of  the  same  name, 
is  seventy-six  miles  east-southeast  of  the  city  of 
Mexico.  Pop.,  75,100. 

Pueb'lo,  the  county  seat,  and  an  important 
agricultural  city  of  Pueblo  county,  Colo.  Pop., 
15,200. 

Puer'peral  Fever  is  the  most  fatal  disease  to 
which  women  in  childbed  are  liable.  It  has  been 
described  under  various  other  names  than  that 
which  is  now  assigned  to  it — as  childbed  fever, 
peritoneal  fever,  etc.  Numerous  series  of  fatal 
cases  of  this  disease  have  been  traced  back  to  the 
medical  man  or  nurse  having  immediately  before 
been  in  attendance  on  a  case  of  erysipelas,  of 
sloughing  sores,  of  gangrene,  or  of  typus  fever. 
It  is  believed  that  the  morbid  matter  acquired  by 
the  dissection  of  subjects  not  dying  from  this 
disease,  may  excite  the  disease  in  a  patient  shortly 
afterward  delivered  by  the  dissector.  Extreme 
care  should  be  exercised  by  all  who  come  in  con¬ 
tact  with  the  disease  to  avoid  spreading  it  by 
contagion.  Inflammatory  puerperal  fever  is  most 
commonly  due  to  peritonitis,  but  may  depend 
upon  inflammation  of  the  uterus,  the  ovaries  and 
uterine  appendages,  the  uterine  veins,  etc.  The 
ordinary  symptoms,  in  the  most  common  form 
(namely,  when  there  is  peritonitis),  are  rigors, 
followed  by  heat  of  skin,  thust,  flushed  face, 
quickened  pulse,  and  hurried  respiration.  The 
abnormal  heat  of  the  skin  soon  subsides,  and  is 
followed  by  nausea,  vomiting,  pain  in  the  region 
of  the  womb,  commencing  at  one  spot,  and  ex¬ 
tending  over  the  abdomen.  This  pain  increases 
as  the  inflammation  extends.  The  pulse  is  high ; 
the  tongue  coated;  the  urinary  secretion  dimin¬ 
ished,  and  often  passed  with  difficulty;  while  the 
intellectual  faculties  are  rarely  affected.  Five  or 
six  days  are  the  average  duration  of  this  disease, 
which  may  prove  fatal  on  the  first  day,  or  may 
extend  to  ten  or  eleven  days.  The  treatment 
closely  resembles  that  which  is  required  in  ordin¬ 
ary  acute  peritonitis.  Typhoid  or  malignant 
puerperal  fever  may  commence  in  various  ways, 
but  is  always  accompanied  with  fever  of  a  low 
typhoid  character,  and  with  the  symptoms  which 
usually  are  associated  with  such  fever.  Treat¬ 
ment  is  of  little  or  no  avail,  and  the  patient 
usually  sinks  at  the  end  of  a  few  days,  or  even 
hours. 

Puerperal  Mania  comprehends  many  forms 
and  degrees  of  mental  derangement.  In  some 
forms  insanity  is  developed  either  during  preg¬ 
nancy,  shortly  after  parturition,  or  during  nurs¬ 


ing,  but  unmarried  women  are  more  liable  to  it 
than  married  women,  in  the  proportion  of  eleven 
to  two.  Under  whatever  circumstances  the 
malady  may  arise,  it  is  one  of  exhaustion,  debil¬ 
ity,  and  prostration.  The  similarity  to  ordinary 
frenzy  is  great;  there  is  the  same  watchfulness, 
fury,  incoherence,  the  same  vitiation  of  the  secre¬ 
tions,  and  emaciation;  and  the  chief  differences 
between  these  affections  consist  in  puerperal 
insanity  being  invariably  traceable  to  disturbance 
of  the  circulation,  or  to  animal  poisoning,  and  in 
the  short  duration  of  the  great  majority  of  cases. 
It  was  found  by  Macdonald,  that  of  sixty-six 
cases,  only  six  could  be  attributed  to  a  purely 
physical  origin;  and  that  in  the  majority,  fright, 
or  anxiety,  or  anger  had  formed  the  last  or  prin¬ 
cipal  of  that  series  of  conditions  which  culminated 
in  alienation.  Quiet  tonic  treatment,  and  general 
attention  to  hygiene,  are  effective  remedies. 

Puer'to  Rico',  an  island  in  the  West  Indies, 
belonging  to  Spain,  is  one  of  the  Great  Antilles, 
and  lies  east  of  Hayti  or  St.  Domingo,  latitude 
17°  55' — IB0  30'  N.,  longitude  65°  39'— 67°  11' 
W.  It  is  100  miles  wide,  40  miles  long.  Ar  a, 
3,600  square  miles;  pop.,  625,000. 

Puff-adder  ( Vlotho  arieians),  a  serpent  of  the 
family  Viper  idee,  having  a  short  and  broad,  flat 
head,  with  scales  so  sharply  keeled  as  to  end  in  a 


Puff-adder  (Clotho  arie(cins). 


kind  of  spine.  It  is  one  of  the  most  venomous 
and  dangerous  serpents  of  South  Africa. 

Puffball  (L,  yerperdou),  a  Linmeau  genus  of 
Fungi,  now  divided  into  many  genera,  belonging 
to  the  section  Gasteromycetes,  and  to  the  tribe 
Trichospermi.  They  mostly  grow  on  the  ground, 
and  are  roundish,  generally  without  a  stem,  at 
first  firm  and  fleshy,  but  afterward  powdery 
within;  the  powder  consisting  of  the  spores, 
among  which  are  many  fine  filaments,  loosely 
filling  the  interior  of  the  peridium,  or  external 
membrane. 

Puf'fln  ( Fraterc'il'i ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
Auk  family,  Alcadte,  having  the  bill  shorter  than 


\ 


Common  Puffin  ( Fratercula  arctica). 


the  head,  compressed,  its  height  at  the  base  equal 
to  its  length,  the  ridge  of  the  upper  mandible  as 
high  as  the  top  of  the  head,  both  mandibles 
arched,  and  transversely  grooved. 

Pug,  or  Pug-dog,  a  kind  of  dog  much  like  the 
bull-dog  in  form,  particularly  in  its  abbreviated 
muzzle.  The  nose  is  often  a  little  turned  up. 
The  disposition  is,  however,  extremely  unlike 
that  of  the  bull-dog,  being  characterized  by  great 
timidity  and  gentleness. 


Pu'get  Sound,  the  southern  continuation  of 
Admiralty  Iniet,  in  the  Northwest  of  Washington. 
In  a  wide  sense,  Puget  Sound  includes  the  Ad¬ 
miralty  Inlet,  and  thus  would  comprise  the  whole 
body  of  water  to  the  southeast  of  Vancouver 
Island,  connecting  with  the  Pacific  by  Fuca  Strait, 
and  is  a  land  locked  sea  125  miles  long,  by  from 
5  to  25  miles  broad.  Even  in  this  sense  the  Sound 
is  all  navigable,  and  the  smaller  inlets -especially 
afford  safe,  deep,  and  spacious  harborage.  The 
coast  line,  in  the  stricter  sense,  is  2S0  miles;  in  the 
wider  sense,  806. 

Pulaski,  the  county  seat  of  Giles  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  2,100. 

Pul'ley,  one  of  the  mechanical  powers,  consists 
of  a  wheel,  with  a  groove  cut  all  round  its  cir¬ 
cumference,  and  movable  on  an  axis;  the  wheel, 
which  is  commonly  called  a  sheave,  is  often 
placed  inside  a  hollow  oblong  mass  of  wood  called 
a  block,  and  to  the  sides  of  this  block  the  extrem¬ 
ities  of  the  sheave’s,  axle  are  fixed  for  support; 
the  cord  which  passes  over  the  circumference  of 
the  sheave  is  called  the  tackle. 

Pullman,  a  well-planned  and  beautiful  town 
fourteen  miles  south  of  Chicago,  on  Lake  Calu¬ 
met.  It  embraces  within  its  limits  factories, 
foundries,  and  workshops  employing  about  2,500 
men.  Pop.,  9,000.  The  town  was  annexed  to 
Chicago,  July,  1889. 

Pul'nionata,  an  order  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
lusks,  having,  for  the  purpose  of  respiration,  a 
vascular  air-sac,  or  lung,  w-hich  opens  by  a  hole 
under  the  margin  of  the  mantle,  capable  of  being 
contracted  or  dilated  at  pleasure. 

Pulp,  the  soft  and  succulent  parts  of  plants 
and  fruits,  which  consist  of  cellular  tissue  with 
much  juice.  The  pulp  of  a  fruit  is  sometimes 
found  in  one  part  of  it,  sometimes  iu  another; 
thus,  in  the  peach,  plum,  and  other  drupes,  it  is 
the  mesocarp,  in  the  grape  and  gooseberry  it  is 
developed  from  the  placentas,  and  the  seeds  are 
embedded  in  it. 

Pulque,  a  favorite  beverage  of  the  Mexicans 
and  of  the  inhabitants  of  Central  America,  and 
some  parts  of  South  America;  made  from  the 
juice  of  different  species  of  Agave ,  which  is  col¬ 
lected  by  cutting  out  the  flowering-stem  from  the 
midst  of  the  leaves  in  the  beginningof  its  growth, 
and  scooping  a  hole  for  the  juice.  From  this 
cavity,  large  quantities  of  juice  are  removed  daily 
for  months.  The  juice  is  an  agreeable  drink 
when  fresh,  but  is  more  generally  used  after  fer¬ 
mentation,  when  it  has  a  pleasant  taste,  but  a  pu¬ 
trid  smell,  disgusting  to  those  unaccustomed  to  it. 

Pulse  (Lat.  pul*),  a  name  for  the  edible  seeds  of 
leguminous  plants,  as  corn  is  the  name  for  the 
edible  seeds  of  grasses.  Peas  and  beans  are  the 
most  common  and  important  of  all  kinds  of  pulse; 
next  to  them  may  be  ranked  kidney-beans,  lentils, 
chick-peas,  etc.  Legumine,  a  nitrogenous  prin¬ 
ciple,  abounds  in  all  kinds  of  pulse. 

Pulse  (Lat.  pulsus,  a  pushing  or  beating).  The 
phenomenon  known  as  the  arterial  pulse  or  arte¬ 
rial  pulsation  is  due  to  the  distention  of  the 
arteries  consequent  upon  the  intermittent  injec¬ 
tion  of  blood  into  their  trunks,  and  the  subse¬ 
quent  contraction  which  results  from  the  elasticity 
of  their  walls.  It  is  perceptible  to  the  touch  in 
all  excepting  minute  arteries,  and  in  exposed 
positions,  is  visible  to  the  eye.  In  healthy  males 
of  the  mean  age  of  twenty-seven  years,  the  average 
frequency  of  the  pulse  is,  when  standing,  81,  when 
sitting,  71,  and  when  lying,  66  per  minute;  while 
in  healthy  females  of  the  same  age  the  averages 
were — standing,  91,  sitting,  84,  and  lying,  79. 

Pu'lil,  a  beautiful  substance,  resembling  fine 
silk,  of  a  rich  brown  color  and  satin  luster,  used 
as  a  styptic  by  physicians^.  It  consists  of  the  fine 
hairs  from  the  stipes  of  one  or  more  species  of 
tree-fern,  referable,  without  doubt,  to  the  genus 
Cibotium. 

Pu'ma,  or  Cougar  ( Felis  concolor,  Leopardus 
concolor,  or  Puma  concolor),  one  of  the  largest  of 
the  American  Felidce,  rivaled  only  by  the  jaguar. 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  American  lion  and  the 
mountain  lion,  although  it  is  more  allied  to  the 
leopard,  notwithstanding  its  want  of  spots  and 
stripes.  It  is  from  4  to  4£  feet  in  length  from 
the  nose  to  the  root  of  the  tail,  and  the  tail  about 
2  or  2i  feet. 

Pum'ice,  a  mineral  found  in  volcanic  coun¬ 
tries,  generally  with  obsidian  and  porphyries. 


PUMPS. 


015 


PYRAMID. 


In  chemical  composition,  it  agrees  with  obsidian, 
of  which  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  peculiar  form, 
rapidly  cooled  from  a  melted  and  boiling  state. 
It  is  of  a  white  or  gray  color,  more  rarely  yellow, 
brown,  or  black;  and  so  vesicular,  that  in  mass, 
it  is  lighter  than  water,  and  swims  in  it. 

Pumps  are  machines  for  raising  water  and 
other  fluids  to  a  higher  level.  They  are  divided 
into  a  number  of  classes  according  to  their  mode 
of  action.  Of  these,  the  most  important  are; 
the  lift  or  suction  pump;  the  lift  and  force 
pump;  the  chain  pump;  the  centrifugal  pump, 
and  the  jet  pump.  In  the  suction  pump,  the 
fluid  is  raised  to  a  certain  height  by  the  pressure 
of  the  atmosphere.  A  valve  prevents  reflux,  and 
a  second  valve  in  the  piston,  opening  upward, 
allows  the  liquid  to  be  lifted  bodily  to  a  still 
greater  height.  In  the  lift  and  force  pump,  the 
piston  is  solid,  and  the  column  of  fluid  being 
raised  above  a  bottom  valve,  as  in  the  first  instance, 
is  forced  through  a  lateral  branch  by  the  descent 
of  the  piston,  and  there  held  by  a  second  valve 
which  prevents  reflux.  The  chain  pump  is 
formed  in  general  of  plates  of  wood  fastened  to 
an  endless  iron  chain,  and  moving  upward  in  a 
rectangular  case  or  box.  The  essential  parts  of 
the  centrifugal  pump  are  the  wheel  to  which  the 
water  is  admitted  at  the  axis,  and  from  which  it 
is  expelled  at  the  circumference,  by  the  centrif¬ 
ugal  force  due  to  the  rotatory  motion  imparted  to 
it  in  passing  through  the  rapidly  revolving  wheel; 
and  the  casing  or  box  in  which  the  wheel  works, 
and  by  which  the  entering  water  is  separated  from 
that  discharged.  The  jet  pump  works  by  means 
of  the  flow  of  a  jet  of  water,  which  creates  a 
vacuum  in  a  lateral  pipe. 

Pu'llic  Wars,  the  name  commonly  given  to 
the  three  great  wars  waged  for  supremacy  between 
Rome  and  Carthage. 

Punjab' or  Panjab  (from  two  Persian  words 
signifying  five  rivers;  the  Peutapotamia  of  the 
Greeks),  is  an  extensive  territory  in  the  North¬ 
west  of  Hindustan,  and  forms  a  British  possession 
since  February,  1849.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  Suliman  Mountains,  on  the  north  by  Cash- 
mere,  and  on  the  east  and  southeast  by  the  Sutlej. 
The  extreme  length  is  about  800  miles,  and  width 
about  650  miles.  Area  about  220,000  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  18,850,437. 

Pii'pa  (Lat.  a  girl,  or  a  doll),  the  second  stage 
of  insect  life  after  the  hatching  of  the  egg.  The 
first  stage  after  the  egg  is  that  of  larva.  In  those 
insects  of  which  the  metamorphosis  is  complete, 
the  pupa  is  generally  quite  inactive,  and  takes 
no  food.  This  is  the  case  in  the  Lepidoptera,  the 
pupa  of  which  is  called  a  Chrysalis  or  Aurelia  and 
in  the  Coleoptera,  llymenoptera,  and  Dipte.ru. 

Pur'beck,  Isle  of,  a  district  in  the  South  of 
Dorsetshire,  England,  14  miles  in  length  from 
west  to  east,  and  7  miles  in  breadth. 

Purdy,  the  county  seat  of  McNairy  county, 
Teiin.  Pop.,  350. 

Pur'fled,  or  Purflewed,  in  Heraldry,  a  term 
used  with  reference  to  the  lining,  bordering,  or 
garnishing  of  robes,  or  ornamentation  of  armor. 

Pur  'gatory  (Lat.  purgatorium,  from  purgo,  I 
cleanse),  is  the  name  given,  in  the  Roman  Catho¬ 
lic  and  Oriental  Churches,  to  a  place  of  purgation, 
in  which,  according  to  their  religious  system, 
souls  after  death  either  are  purified  from  venial 
sins  (peccata  venalia),  or  undergo  the  temporal 
punishment  which,  after  the  guilt  of  mortal  sin 
(peccata  mortalia)  has  been  remitted,  still  remains 
to  be  endured  by  the  sinner.  The  ultimate  eter¬ 
nal  happiness  of  their  souls  is  supposed  to  be 
secured;  but  they  are  detained  for  a  time  in  a 
state  of  purgation,  in  order  to  be  fitted  to  appear 
in  that  Presence  into  which  nothing  imperfect  can 
enter. 

Purification  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary, 

Feast  of,  a  festival  in  commemoration  of  the 
“purification”  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  in 
accordance  with  the  ceremonial  law  of  Lev  xii,  2. 
This  ceremony  was  appointed  for  the  fortieth  day 
after  childbirth,  which,  reckoning  from  December 
25th  (the  Nativity  of  our  Lord),  falls  upon  Feb¬ 
ruary  2d,  on  which  day  the  purification  is  cele¬ 
brated.  The  history  of  Mary’s  compliance  with 
the  law  is  related  in  Luke  ii,  22-24. 

Pu'ritans,  a  name  given  to  those  clergymen  of 
the  Church  of  England  who  refused  to  conform 
to  its  liturgy,  ceremonies,  and  discipline. 


Pur'neah,  a  large  town  of  British  India,  capi¬ 
tal  of  an  extensive  and  populous  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  Presidency  of  Bengal,  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Ganges,  230  miles  north-north¬ 
west  of  Calcutta.  Pop.  about  16,000;  of  district 
(1881),  1,848,687. 

Purple  Emperor  ( Apalura  iris  or  Nymphalis 
iris),  one  of  the  largest  ot  butterflies,  and  one  of 
the  most  richly  colored.  The  expanse  of  wings 
is  from  2j-  to  3£  inches.  The  wings  are  strong 
and  thick,  and  the  flight  more  sustained  than  that 
of  many  butterflies. 

Pur'pura,  a  genus  of  gasteropodous  mollusks, 
of  the  family  Buccinida}.  The  species  are  similar 
to  those  of  the  genus  Bucrinum,  but  have  a  less 
elongated  shell,  and  a  flattened  columella,  which 
is  pointed  at  the  base,  and  forms  there,  with  the 
outer  lip,  a  canal  excavated  as  a  notch  iu  the 
shell,  and  not  projecting. 

Purpura,  or  The  Purples,  is  a  malady  which 
is  often  erroneously  placed  among  the  diseases  of 
the  skin.  It  is  in  reality  a  blood  disease,  and  is 
characterized  by  the  appearance  of  small  round 
spots,  of  a  deep  purple  color,  which  are  seen  first, 
and  most  abundantly,  on  the  legs,  and  afterward 
extend  to  the  arms  and  trunk.  The  mode  of 
treatment  varies  in  different  cases,  but  the  main 
indication  always  is  to  correct  the  condition  of  the 
blood.  When  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the 
disease  is  dependent  upon  depressing  influences, 
a  nutritious  diet,  tonics,  and  stimulants  are  re¬ 
quired;  and  chalybeates,  or  the  mineral  acids,  and 
quinine,  with  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  open  air, 
should  be  prescribed.  When,  however,  there  is 
no  evidence  of  the  operation  of  any  debilitating 
cause,  and  the  pulse  is  hard,  the  most  efficient 
treatment  consists  in  abstinence,  venesection,  and 
purgatives.  In  cases  of  a  mixed  nature,  a  mix¬ 
ture  of  the  oil  of  turpentine  and  castor-oil,  in  free 
doses  (2  drachms  of  the  former  to  5  or  6  drachms 
of  the  latter),  and  iced  drinks,  or  the  sucking  of 
small  pieces  of  ice,  have  been  strongly  recom¬ 
mended.  If  the  hemorrhage  is  not  stopped  by 
the  oil  of  turpentine,  gallic  acid,  or  acetate  of 
lead  and  opium,  must  be  prescribed;  and  if  it 
proceeds  from  accessible  parts,  local  measures, 
such  as  the  employment  of  ice  or  strong  astrin¬ 
gents,  should  also  be  employed. 

Pur'piire,  in  Heraldry,  the  color  purple,  ex¬ 
pressed  in  engravings  by  lines  in  bend  sinister. 

Purse  •  crab 
(Birgus),  a  genus 
of  Crustacea,  of 
the  order  Deca- 
pnda,  and  sub¬ 
order  Anomoura, 
allied  to  hermit- 
crabs,  but  having 
the  abdomen  or 
tail  shorter  and 
almost  orbicular, 
its  under  surface 
soft  and  mem¬ 
branous,  its  up¬ 
per  surface  cov¬ 
ered  with  strong 
plates,  which  overlap  one  another  as  in  lobsters. 

Purs'lane  ( Portulaca ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Portulacem,  having  a  bifid  calyx, 
4  or  6  petals,  8  or  16  stamens,  and  a  capsule  divid¬ 
ing  around  the  middle. 

Pus  is  a  well-known  product  of  inflammation, 
and  occurs  as  a  thick  yellow  creamy  fluid,  differ¬ 
ing  from  all  other  morbid  exudations  in  contain¬ 
ing  a  large  number  of  corpuscles,  having  a  soft 
and  fatty  feeling  when  rubbed  between  the 
fingers,  a  peculiar  odor,  usually  an  alkaline  reac¬ 
tion,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.032.  Like 
the  blood,  it  consists  of  certain  definite  micro¬ 
scopic  elements,  and  of  an  intercellular  fluid  or 
serum  in  which  they  swim. 

Putchuck',  an  aromatic  root,  a  considerable 
article  of  commerce  in  India,  where  it  is  used  both 
as  a  perfume  and  a§  a  medicine,  and  of  export  to 
China,  where  it  is  used  for  incense,  as  it  gives  out 
a  pleasant  odor  when  burned. 

Putnam,  the  county  seat  of  Windham  county, 
Conn.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Putrefaction  is  the  term  applied  to  the  decom¬ 
position  of  organic  substances,  when  such  decom¬ 
position  is  accompanied  by  an  offensive  odor.  In 
other  respects  it  is  identical  with  fermentation. 


Purse-crab  ( Bircjuslat.ro ). 


In  the  process  of  putrefaction  the  organic  com¬ 
pounds  break  up,  producing  others  of  lower 
order,  inorganic  compounds,  and  even  simple 
elements.  It  may  be  prevented  by  exclusion  of 
oxygen  and  moisture,  by  maintaining  a  freezing 
or  boiling  temperature,  by  the  use  of  antiseptic 
substances,  etc. 

Putteeala  (Patiala),  a  native  State  in  the  Pun¬ 
jab,  partly  in  the  plain  south  of  the  Sutlej,  partly 
amongst  the  hills  near  Simla.  Pop.  (1881),  660,- 
500. 

Putty,  a  composition  of  whiting  and  drying  oil 
worked  into  a  thick  paste. 

Puy-de-Dome,  a  central  department  of  France, 
containing  an  area  of  3,070  square  miles,  and  a 
pop.  (1876)  of  570,207. 

Pyae'inia  (from  the  Gr.  nvov ,  pyon,  pus,  and 
aiga,  hmma,  blood),  or  purulent  infection  of  the 
blood,  is  a  disease  whose  cause  is  the  introduction 
of  decomposing  pus  and  wound  discharges  into 
the  circulation,  through  an  ulcer  or  a  wound,  or 
an  imperfectly  closed  vein.  The  poison  is  rapidly 
absorbed  and  diffused,  and  the  blood  undergoes 
certain  changes.  Within  twenty-four  hours,  in 
acute  cases,  there  are  severe  sliiverings,  headache, 
and  giddiness,  followed  by  heat,  perspiration,  and 
accelerated  circulation.  In  twenty-four  hours 
more,  the  patient  may  be  in  a  hopeless  condition, 
delirious,  and  rapidly  sinking.  In  less  acute 
cases,  the  symptoms  closely  resemble  those  of 
typhoid  fever,  and  in  this  form,  the  disease  is  a 
common  cause  of  death,  after  surgical  operations; 
such  cases  are  invariably  characterized  by  the 
formation  of  secondary  abscesses  in  the  lungs, 
liver,  kidneys,  and  other  internal  organs,  in  the 
various  glands  (the  parotid  gland,  iu  President 
Garfield’s  case),  in  the  joints,  and  the  tissues  im¬ 
mediately  under  the  skin.  The  pus  of  such 
abscesses  always  contains  bacteria.  There  is 
usually  more  or  less  delirium.  The  patient 
usually  dies  of  exhaustion.  Recovery  is  rare.  It 
is  chiefly,  however,  in  the  presence  of  predisposing 
causes,  such  as  previous  illness,  prostration  from 
organic  disease  or  surgical  complaints,  or  from 
difficult  parturition,  unhealthy  occupations,  etc., 
that  the  poison  acts  so  severely;  these,  with  the 
occurrence  of  putrefaction  in  a  wound,  may  con 
vert  a  comparatively  slight  local  mischief  into  in¬ 
fection  of  the  whole  mass  of  the  blood.  Even 
when  the  disease  has  shown  itself,  the  use  of  an¬ 
tiseptics  (carbolic  acid,  boracic  acid,  boroglycer- 
ide,  iodoform,  thymol,  eucalyptol,  etc.)  should 
be  resorted  to  locally.  The  bowels,  skin,  and 
kidneys  may  be  acted  on  by  suitable  purgatives, 
diaphoretics,  and  diuretics,  with  a  view  to  the 
elimination  of  the  poison;  but  the  patient  must  be 
carefully  watched  for  signs  of  depression,  which 
must  lie  combated  with  opium  and  stimulants, 
both  of  which  should  be  given  in  small  and  fre¬ 
quently-repeated  doses.  Various  drugs  having 
antisept  ic  properties  have  also  been  recommended 
for  internal  use;  salicylic  acid  and  the  salicylates, 
the  hyposulphite  of  soda,  and  the  hyposulphites 
generally,  may  be  mentioned.  This  mode  of 
treatment,  combined  with  the  most  assiduous 
nursing  and  generous  dieting,  and  the  appropriate 
surgical  management  of  such  secondary  abscesses 
as  form,  will  sometimes  prove  successful. 

PyciiOgoTiidse,  a  remarkable  family  of  Crus¬ 
tacea,  of  the  section  Edentata  of  Milne-Edwards, 
and  forming  the  order  Araneiformes  (spider-liki ) 
of  some  authors.  By  Cuvier  and  many  other 
naturalists,  a  place  was  assigned  them  among 
Arachnida and  it  is  only  of  late  that  they  have 
been  decidedly  referred  to  Crustacea,  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  discovery  that  they  undergo  meta¬ 
morphoses.  They  are  all  marine,  and  some  of 
them  live  among  algae,  or  are  to  be  found  under 
stones  on  the  beach,  while  others  are  dredged 
from  deep  water. 

Pyr'amid,  in  Geometry,  is  a  solid  figure,  of 
which  the  base  is  a  plane  rectilinear  figure,  and 
the  sides  are  triangles,  converging  to  a  point  at 
the  top  or  apex.  Pyramids,  like  prisms,  are 
named  from  the  form  of  their  bases;  thus,  a  pyra¬ 
mid  having  a  triangle  for  its  base  is  a  triangular 
pyramid;  with  a  square  base,  a  square  pyramid; 
with  any  four-sided  figure  for  its  base,  a  quad¬ 
rangular  pyramid;  or  it  may  be  pentagonal,  hex¬ 
agonal,  etc.  Pyramids  may  be  either  right  or 
oblique. 


PYRAMID. 


616 


PYTHON. 


Pyramid,  a  structure  of  the  shape  of  the 
geometric  figure  so  called,  erected  in  different 
parts  of  the  Old  and  New  World,  the  most  import¬ 
ant  being  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt  and  Mexico. 
Those  of  Egypt  were  considered  one  of  the  seven 
wonders  of  the  world,  are  seventy  in  number,  of 
different  sizes,  are  between  29°  and  30°  N.  lati¬ 
tude,  and  are  masses  of  stone  or  brick,  with 
square  bases,  and  triangular  sides.  Although 
various  opinions  have  prevailed  as  to  their  use,  as 
that  they  were  erected  for  astronomical  purposes, 
for  resisting  the  encroachment  of  the  sand  of  the 
desert,  for  granaries,  reservoirs,  or  sepulchers, 
the  last-mentioned  hypothesis  has  been  proved  to 
be  correct  in  recent  times  by  recent  excavations. 
They  were  all  the  tombs  of  monarclis  of  Egj'pt 
who  flourished  from  the  fourth  to‘the  twelfth 
dynasty,  none  having  been  constructed  later  than 
that  time;  the  subsequent  kings  being  buried  at 
Abydos,  Thebes,  and  other  places,  in  tombs  of  a 
different  construction.  The  most  remarkable  and 
finest  pyramids  are  those  of  Gizeli,  situated  on  a 
level  space  of  the  Libyan  chain  at  Memphis,  on 


Supposed  Mode  of  Construction  of  Pyramids. 

(From  Gliddon’s  Egyptian  Archceology). 

A,  Section  of  a  pyramid;  B.  horizontal  section  of  the  base, 
rubble _ work,  and  casing  of  a  pyramid;  C,  apex  of  a 
pyramid,  showing  t lie  process  of  finishing  from  the  top 
downward. 

the  west  bank  of  the  Nile.  The  three  largest  are 
the  most  famous.  The  first  or  great  pyramid, 
(built  by  Cheops)  was  480  feet  9  inches  high,  and 
764  feet  square  at  the  base.  The  second  pyramid 
is  situated  on  a  higher  elevation  than  the  first, 
and  was  built  by  Supliis  II.,  or  Kephren.  The 
third  pyramid,  built  by  Menkara,  or  Mycerinus, 
is  much  smaller  than  the  other  two,  being  only 
218  feet  high  by  354  feet  6  inches  square.  There 
are  six  other  pyramids  of  inferior  size  and  interest 
at  Gizeli. 

Pyr'enees,  the  name  of  that  mountain  range 
which,  separating  France  from  Spain,  extends 
270  miles  in  length,  and  from  30  to  70  miles  in 
breadth,  from  the  Gulf  of  Rosas,  in  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean,  to  the  southeast  corner  of  the  Bay  of  Bis¬ 
cay.  Area  estimated  at  12,600  square  miles. 

Pyrenees,  Basses,  a  department  forming  the 
southwest  corner  of  France.  Area,  2,940  square 
miles;  pop.  (1881)>  434,366. 

Py  renees,  Hautes,  a  department  of  France, 
lying  east  of  the  Basses  Pyrenees,  is  a  part  of  the 
old  Province  of  Gascony.  Area,  1,742  square 
miles;  pop.  (1881),  236,474. 

Py  renees-Orientales,  a  maritime  department 
of  France,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Pyrenees.  Area, 
1,590  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  208,855. 

Py 'rites,  a  large  group  or  family  of  minerals, 
compounds  of  metals  with  sulphur,  or  with  arse¬ 
nic,  or  with  both.  They  are  crystalline,  hard, 
generally  brittle,  and  generally  yellow.  The 
name  pyrites  originally  belonged  to  the  sulphuret 
of  iron,  known  as  iron  pyrites;  and  was  given  to 
it  in  consequence  of  its  striking  fire  with  steel,  so 
that  it  was  used  for  kindling  powder  in  the  pans 
of  muskets  before  gun-flints  were  introduced. 

Pyroliar 'neons  Acid,  or  Wood  Vinegar,  a 
crude  commercial  form  of  acetic  acid.  It  is 
made  by  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood,  and 
contains,  besides  acetic  acid,  tar  and  other  prod¬ 
ucts,  which  have  to  be  removed  if  it  is  required 


in  a  pure  state.  The  best  woods  for  the  distiller 
are  hard  woods,  although  all  will  yield  it. 

Pyrom'eter  (Gr.  nvp,  pyr,  fire,  and  utrpov, 
metron,  a  measure),  an  instrument  for  measuring 
the  gradations  of  temperature  above  those  that 
can  be  indicated  by  the  mercurial  thermometer. 
They  generally  depend  upon  the  expansibility  of 
the  material  of  which  they  are  made. 

Pyr 'ope,  a  beautiful  and  much-prized  gem, 
often  called  carbuncle  and  hyacinth  by  lapi¬ 
daries.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  garnet.  It  is  com¬ 
posed  of  silica,  alumina,  magnesia,  lime,  and  the 
protoxides  of  iron,  chrome,  and  manganese.  It  is 
always  of  a  deep-red  color,  and  is  transparent,  or 
at  least  translucent. 

Pyroph'orus  (from  the  Gr.  nvp,  pyr,  fire,  and 
epepo,  phero,  I  bear),  is  a  term  applied  to  any 
substances  which  take  fire  from  the  rapiditywith 
which  they  are  oxidized.  If  iron,  cobalt,  or 
nickel  be  reduced  by  hydrogen  from  its  oxide  at 
a  lowr  red  heat,  it  is  obtained  in  a  state  of  such 
extreme  division  as  to  become  incandescent  by 
the  oxidizing  action  of  the  atmosphere;  and  the 
tendency  to  rapid  oxidation  is  much  increased  by 
the  interposition  of  some  infusible  matter,  as  a 
little  alumina  or  magnesia,  between  the  particles 
of  the  oxide. 

Pyro  'sis,  or  Waterkrasit,  is  a  modification 
of  dyspepsia,  or  indigestion,  characterized  by  a 
burning  sensation  at  the  pit  of  the  stomach,  fol¬ 
lowed  by  the  eructation  of  a  considerable  quan¬ 
tity  of  a  thin,  watery  fluid,  which  is  generally 
tasteless,  but  sometimes  sour,  and  is  often  de¬ 
scribed  by  the  patient  as  being  cold.  It  occurs 
in  paroxysms,  which  usually  come  on  in  the 
morning  or  forenoon,  when  the  stomach  is  empty. 
The  first  symptom  of  it  is  a  pain  at  the  pit  of  the 
stomach,  and  a  sense  of  constriction,  as  if 
the  stomach  were  drawn  toward  the  back. 
It  is  usually  accompanied  with  other  symptoms 
of  dyspepsia,  and  is  sometimes  associated  with 
organic  disease  of  the  stomach,  or  of  the  liver. 
It  seems  to  be  due  in  a  great  measure  to 
indigestible  diet,  and  the  too  free  use  of 
spirits.  When  no  organic  disease  is  present,  the 
affection  usually  disappears  under  the  use  of  a 
well-regulated  diet,  and  the  administration  of 
opium,  combined  with  astringents,  care  being 
taken  to  guard  against  the  constipating  effect  of 
these  drugs  by  the  prescription  of  a  mild  aperient 
daily.  If  this  treatment  fail,  nitrate  of  bismuth, 
or  oxide  of  silver,  in  appropriate  doses,  may  be 
tried.  In  some  cases  a  cure  lias  been  effected  by 
the  use  of  lime-water  and  milk. 

Py  roso'mida*,  a  family  of  tunicated  mollusks 
forming  the  order  Dactylobranchiatn  of  Owen. 
They  are  marine,  and  swim  freely  in  the  water, 
many  individuals  usually  combined  together,  by 
their  elastic  integument  or  tunic,  into  a  mass  of 
definite  form  and  arrangement  ,  nearly  cylindrical, 
hollow,  closed  at  one  end,  and  open  at  the  other. 

Pyr'otechny,  the  art  of  making  fireworks,  is 
of  unknown  antiquity.  The  materials  used  in 
their  manufacture  are  gunpowder,  sulphur,  char¬ 
coal,  saltpeter,  filings  of  steel,  iron,  copper,  etc., 
and  several  salts,  such  as  nitrate  of  strontia, 
acetate  of  copper,  common  salt,  etc.  The  in¬ 
gredients  of  fireworks  are  usually  filled  into 
paper  cases,  made  by  rolling  pasted  paper 
round  a  cylinder  of  wood  of  the  proper  diameter, 
until  the  case  is  of  sufficient  thickness,  and  then 
cutting  the  paper  tube  so  formed  into  the  required 
lengths  for  squibs,  Roman  candles,  small  rockets, 
and  similar  articles;  one  end  of  each  is  closed  by 
drawing  a  piece  of  string  tightly  round,  so  as  to 
pinch  it  in,  or  choke  it,  as  it  is  technically  called, 
and  then  dipping  it  into  melted  resin,  which 
effectually  seals  it.  The  combustible  ingredients 
are  filled  in  at  the  open  end,  and,  if  necessary,  are 
rammed  down  with  a  wooden  ramrod;  the  opening 
isafterward  covered  with  a  piece  of  touch-paper, to 
prevent  the  composition  falling  out,  and  to  ignite 
it  by.  Steel  filings  are  an  important  ingredient  in 
many  fireworks,  producing  brilliant,  feather-like 
coruscations,  which  are  the  more  beautiful  the 
larger  and  cleaner  the  filings  are.  At  the  end  of 
their  course,  rockets  often  discharge  brilliant 
clusters  of  golden,  ruby,  emerald,  sapphire-like 
stars,  or  showers  of  golden  or  colored  rain,  or  of 
fiery  serpents.  This  is  produced  by  a  supplement¬ 
ary  part,  called  the  garniture  of  the  rocket,  con¬ 
sisting  of  a  shorter  and  broader  paper  tube  called  | 


the  pot,  attached  to  the  end  of  the  fusee  part  of  the 
rocket,  and  filled  with  a  composition  made  into  a 
paste  with  pure  alcohol,  and  cut  into  stars,  or 
granulated  into  small  round  bodies  for  drops. 
The  serpents  for  rockets  are  small  fusees,  with 
the  same  composition  as  squibs;  they  are  so 
packed  in  as  to  ignite  all  at  once.  The  white 
stars  are  made  of  niter,  16  parts;  sulphur,  8  parts; 
gunpowder,  3  or  4  parts;  nitrate  of  strontia 
added,  makes  them  ruby  red;  sulphate  or  acetate 
of  copper,  and  sulphate  and  carbonate  of  barytes, 
green;  zinc  filings  give  a  blue  color.  Yellow  stars 
and  yellow  showers  are  made  of  niter,  16  parts; 
10  of  sulphur,  4  of  charcoal,  16  of  gunpowder, 
and  2  of  lampblack.  A  deeper  and  richer 
golden  color  is  produced  by  a  slight  variation  in 
the  composition,  viz.,  2  parts  less  of  sulphur  and 
charcoal,  and  4 additional  of  gunpowder.  Chinese 
or  jasmine  fire,  which  is  used  by  itself  or  in  com¬ 
bination  with  other  mixtures,  consists  of  16  parts 
of  gunpowder,  8  of  niter,  3  of  finely  powdered 
charcoal,  3  of  sulphur,  .and  10  of  small  cast-iron 
borings;  the  last  must  be  finer  or  coarser  in  pro¬ 
portion  to  the  bore  of  the  case  to  be  filled. 

Pyroxyl'ic  Spirit,  Wood  Spirit,  or  Metiiy- 
lic  Alcohol,  a  peculiar  alcohol  obtained  by  the 
destructive  distillation  of  wood  in  the  manufact¬ 
ure  of  pyroligneous  acid.  It  is  one  of  numerous 
volatile  products  of  that  distillation,  and  has  to 
be  separated  from  the  others  by  saturating  it  with 
the  chloride  of  calcium,  with  which  it  combines, 
and  is  no  longer  volatile,  except  at  a  greater  tem¬ 
perature  than  212°  F.  It  is  therefore  easily 
separated  by  means  of  a  steam-bath  from  its 
more  volatile  associates,  which  are  carried  off  at 
a  temperature  below  boiling  water.  A  higher 
temperature  is  afterward  applied  to  the  residue, 
which  is  the  compound  of  chloride  of  calcium 
and  pyroxylic  spirit,  and  the  spirit  is  thus  distilled 
off. 

Pyr'rlius,  King  of  Epirus,  born  about  318 
b.c.,  a  Greek  warrior,  whose  personal  bravery 
and  passion  for  adventurous  exploits  equal  any¬ 
thing  recorded  of  the  knights  of  chivalry,  was 
the  son  of  iEacides,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne 
of  Epirus  by  the  death  of  his  cousin,  Alexander, 
326  b.c.  He  died  in  272  b.c. 

Py'rus,  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Rosacece,  sub-order  Pomem.  Among 
the  species  of  pyrus  are  some  of  the  most  valuable 
fruits  of  temperate  climates,  and  some  highly 
ornamental  trees  and  shrubs,  such  as  apple,  pear, 
service,  rowan,  beam-tree. 

Pythag'oras  was  a  native  of  the  Island  of 
Samos.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  very  uncertain, 
but  is  usually  placed  about  the  year  570  b.c.  ;  and 
all  authorities  agree  that  he  flourished  in  the 
times  of  Polycrates  and  Tarquinius  Superbus, 
(540-510  b.c.)  Pythagoras  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  assume  the  title  of  philosopher  (lover  of 
wisdom)  in  place  of  the  name  Sop/ios  (wise),  by 
which  the  sages  had  before  been  known.  Various 
discoveries  in  music,  astronomy,  and  mathematics 
are  attributed  to  him ;  among  others,  the  prop¬ 
osition  now  known  as  the  47th  of  Euclid,  Book 
I.  The  ethical  teaching  of  the  Pythagoreans 
was  of  the  purest  and  most  spiritual  kind.  He 
died  in  504  b.c. 

Pyth'ian  Gaines,  one  of  the  four  great 
national  festivals  of  the  Greeks,  are  said  to  have 
been  instituted  by  Apollo  after  vanquishing  the 
snaky  monster,  Python,  and  were  certainly  in  the 
earliest  times  celebrated  in  his  honor  every  ninth 
year. 

Py'tliou,  a  genus  of  serpents  of  the  family 


Python,  or  Rock  Snake  ( Horlulia  va/alensis). 
Boidce,  differing  from  the  true  boas  in  having  the 
plates  on  the  under  surface  of  the  tail  double.  The 
i  tip  of  the  muzzle  is  plated  ;  the  lips  are  grooved. 


PYX. 


617 


QUERETARO. 


The  species  are  all  natives  of  the  Old  World,  are 
large  ;  some  of  them  very  large,  and  rivaled  in 
size  by  no  serpents  except  the  boas  of  America. 


Qis  the  seventeenth  letter  of  the  Latin, 
English,  and  other  Western  alphabets,  and 
is  identical  in  power  with  the  letter  Iv.  It  is 
always  followed  by  u. 

Ouadrages'ima  (Lat.  fortieth  day),  the  name 
of  the  Lenten  season,  or  nfore  properly  of  the 
first  Sunday  of  the  Lent. 

Quad 'rant  (Lat.  quadrans,  a  fourth  part),  liter¬ 
ally  the  fourth  part  of  a  circle,  or  90 J;  but  sig¬ 
nifying,  in  astronomy,  an  instrument  used  for 
the'  determination  of  angular  measurements.  The 
quadrant  consisted  of  a  limb  or  arc  of  a  circle 
equal  to  the  fourth  part  of  the  whole  circumfer¬ 
ence,  graduated  into  degrees  and  parts  of 
degrees. 

Quadrature.  This  term  is  employed  in 
mathematics  to  signify  the  process  of  determin¬ 
ing  the  area  of  a  surface.  Its  derivation  suffi¬ 
ciently  indicates  its  nature — i.  e.,  it  consists  in 
determining  a  square  whose  area  is  equal  to  that 
of  the  assigned  surface. 

Quadrille',  a  dance  of  French  origin,  consist¬ 
ing  of  consecutive  dance  movements,  generally 
five  in  number,  danced  by  couples,  or  sets  of 
couples,  opposite  to,  and  at  right  angles  to  each 
other.  The  name  seems  to  be  derived  from  its 
having  been  originally  danced  by  four  couples. 

Quad'rumana  (Lat.  four-handed),  in  the  zoo¬ 
logical  system  of  Cuvier  an  order  of  Mammalia , 
which  he  places  next  after  Bimana,  and  which 
contains  the  animals  most  nearly  resembling  man 
in  their  form  and  anatomical  characters — viz., 
the  monkey  and  lemur  families. 

Quad'rupeds  (Lat.  four-footed),  a  term  em¬ 
ployed  both  popularly  and  by  scientific  writers  to 
designate  four-footed  animals.  It  is  not,  how¬ 
ever,  the  name  of  a  class  or  order  in  systems  of 
zoology.  Popularly,  it  is  almost  always  limited 
to  those  Mammalia  which  have  four  iimbs  well 
developed  and  formed  for  walking,  and  is 
scarcely  ever  applied  to  the  Cetacea,  and  rarely 
even  to  seals  or  to  the  Quadrumana. 

Quag'ga  ( Equus — or  Asians — Quagga),  an  ani¬ 
mal  of  the  family  Equidce,  a  native  of  the  south¬ 
ern  parts  of  Africa,  rather  smaller  than  the  zebra. 
The  quagga  receives  its  name  from  its  voice, 
which  somewhat  resembles  the  barking  of  a  dog. 

Quail  (Coturnix),  a  genus  of  gallinaceous  birds 
of  the  family  Tetraonulae,  nearly  allied  to  par¬ 
tridges,  but  having  a  more  slender  bill,  a  shorter 
tail,  longer  wings,  no  spur,  and  no  red  space 
above  the  eye.  The  tail  is  very  short.  They 
never  perch  on  trees,  but  always  alight  on  the 
ground.  They  are  among  the  smallest  of  gallina¬ 
ceous  birds. 

Quakers,  the  ordinary  designation  of  the  Soci¬ 
ety  of  Friends. 

Quamasli,  or  Biscuit  Root  ( Camassia  escu- 
lenia),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Liliacece, 
nearly  allied  to  squills  and  hyacinths.  It  is  a 
North  American  plant,  abounding  on  the  great 
prairies  west  of  the  Mississippi.  The  roasted 
bulbs  are  agreeable  and  nutritious,  and  are  much 
used  as  an  article  of  food. 

Quaquaver'sal  (Lat.  turning  every  way),  a 
term  applied  in  geology  to  the  dip  of  the  stratified 
rocks  when  arranged  in  dome-shaped  elevations, 
or  basin-shaped  depressions,  whereby  the  beds 
have  an  inclination  on  all  sides  to  one  point,  that 
point  being  the  summit  of  the  dome  in  the  one 
case,  and  the  lowest  level  of  the  basin  in  the 
other. 

Qnar'antine  (from  the  Fr.  quarantaine,  a 
period  of  forty  days)  is  a  forced  abstinence  from 
communication  with  the  shore,  which  ships  are 
compelled  to  undergo  when  they  are  last  from 
some  port  or  country  where  certain  diseases,  held 
to  be  infectious,  as  yellow  fever,  plague,  or  chol 
era,  are  or  have  been  raging.  Where  a  quaran¬ 
tine  is  established,  it  is  a  high  misdemeanor  for 
any  person  in  the  suspected  ship  to  come  on 
shore,  or  for  any  one  to  disembark  any  mer¬ 
chandise  or  goods  from  her.  Quarantine  is  not  of 
necessity  limited  to  a  sea-frontier;  and  it  is  some- 


Fyx  (Gr.  nv^ii,  pyxis,  a  box,  properly  of  box¬ 
wood),  the  sacred  vessel  used  in  the  Catholic 
Church  to  contain  the  consecrated  eucharistic 


elements,  which  are  preserved  after  consecration, 
whether  for  the  communion  of  the  sick  or  for  the 
adoration  of  the  faithful  in  the  churches. 


Q 

times  enforced  at  the  frontiers  between  contigu¬ 
ous  States. 

Quar'ry  (Fr.  carriere).  When  any  useful  rock 
is  worked  in  an  open  manner  at  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  the  excavation  is  called  a  quarry.  Quar¬ 
rying  differs  little  from  mining  in  principle,  ex¬ 
cept  that  the  latter  is  essentially  an  underground 
operation.  Stones  are  most  frequently  separated 
from  their  native  rock  by  blasting  with  gun¬ 
powder.  With  some  stratified  rocks,  such  as 
sandstone,  a  good  many  of  the  best  stones  are 
procured  without  the  aid  of  gunpowder.  Hand- 
tools  are  alone  used,  because  blasting  is  apt  to 
cause  rents,  and  otherwise  shatter  portions  which 
it  is  desirable  to  keep  solid.  When  stones  are 
removed  in  masses  by  blasting  or  otherwise,  they 
have  still  to  be  quarried  into  shape,  according  to 
the  purpose  for  which  the  various  pieces  are  best 
suited. 

Quart,  a  measure  of  capacity,  and  the  fourth 
part  of  a  gallon.  The  word  is  nothing  more  than 
the  common  word  “quarter,”  a  fourth  part. 

Quarter-deck  of  a  ship  is  an  upper  deck  ex¬ 
tending  from  the  main  mast  to  the  poop,  or, 
when  there  is  no  poop,  from  the  main-mast  to  the 
stern.  It  is  used  as  a  promenade  by  the  officers 
only,  and,  in  a  ship-of-war,  no  person — officer  or 
otherwise — enters  upon  it  without  touching  his 
hat  in  token  of  salute.  When  the  captain  ad¬ 
dresses  his  men,  or  confers  public  distinction  on 
any  individual,  the  crew  are  summoned  aft  on 
the  quarter-deck. 

Quartering,  in  Heraldry,  is  the  bearing  of  two 
or  more  coats  on  a  shield  divided  by  horizontal 
and  perpendicular  lines.  Arms  may  be  quartered 
for  various  reasons.  1.  To  indicate  dominion. 


Quartering. 


2.  Arms  of  augmentation  or  spqcial  concession 
accorded  to  a  subject  by  his  sovereign,  by  way  of 
honor,  are  sometimes  granted  to  be. borne  quar¬ 
terly  with  the  paternal  arms.  3.  The  most 
usual  reason  for  quartering  is  to  indicate  descent 
from  an  heiress  who  has  intermarried  into  the 
family. 

Quartermaster.  In  the  army,  the  quarter¬ 
master-general  is  a  staff-officer  of  high  rank, 
whose  duty  it  is  to  arrange  the  marches,  quarters, 
and  internal  arrangements  of  the  army  to  which 
he  belongs.  Every  army  has  some  officer  of  this 
department;  from  a  brigade  with  a  deputy- 
assistant-quartermaster-general,  up  to  a  com¬ 
plete  army  under  a  commander-in  chief,  with 
a  quartermaster- general,  who  is  usually  a  gen¬ 
eral  officer.  At  headquarters,  there  is  a  per¬ 
manent  quartermaster-general,  responsible  for 
all  the  movements  of  the  army,  the  organization 
of  expeditions,  camps  of  instruction,  etc.  The 
quartermaster  is  an  officer  on  the  staff  of  each 
regiment.  His  duties  are  to  superintend,  assign 
to  their  respective  occupants,  and  have  charge  of 
quarters,  barracks,  tents,  clothing,  etc.,  used  by 
the  regiment.  He  is  also  regimental  storekeeper. 
In  the  navy,  the  quartermasters  are  certain 
petty  officers  appointed  in  each  ship  by  the 
captain  to  have  charge  of  the  stowage  of  ballast 
and  provisions,  of  coiling  ropes,  attending  to  the 
steering,  keeping  time  by  the  sand-glasses,  etc. 

Quartette,  a  piece  of  music  arranged  for  four 
voices  or  instruments,  in  which  nil  the  parts  are 
obligati — i,  e.,  no  one  can  be  omitted  without 
injuring  the  proper  effect  of  the  composition. 
Vocal  quartettes  are  generally  accompanied  by 
instruments  to  sustain  the  voices.  A  mere  inter¬ 
change  of  melody,  by  which  the  parts  become  in 


turn  principal  and  subordinate,  without  any 
interweaving  of  them,  does  not  constitute  a 
quartette. 

Quartz,  a  mineral,  which  is  essentially  silicic 
acid,  or  oxide  of  silicon,  although  it  is  often 
combined  or  mixed  with  other  substances.  It  is 
a  very  abundant  and  widely-diffused  mineral.  It 
is  almost  the  sole  constituent  of  quartz  rock,  in 
which  gold  is  far  more  frequently  found  than  in 
any  other  matrix;  and  it  is  a  principal  constituent 
of  granite,  syenite,  protogine,  eurite,  pegmatite, 
granulite,  elvanite,  all  the  different  kinds  of  sand¬ 
stone,  and  many  other  rocks.  It  is  also  a  com¬ 
mon  mineral  in  trap-rocks,  limestone,  etc.,  and 
the  sands  of  the  sea-shore  and  of  deserts  are 
chiefly  formed  of  it. 

Quasimodo  Sunday,  called  also  Dominica  in 
Alius,  the  first  Sunday  after  Easter.  The  name 
Quasimodo  Sunday  is  taken  from  the  first  words 
of  the  Introit  (I.  Peter  ii,  2)  of  the  mass  of  the 
day. 

Quass,  a  sort  of  weak  beer  produced  in  Russia 
by  fermenting  rye-meal  in  warm  water. 

Quas'sia,  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Simarubacea’.  The  wood,  and  par¬ 
ticularly  that  of  the  root,  has  a  very  strong  bitter 
taste,  and  was  at  one  time  much  used  in  medicine 
under  the  names  of  quassia-wood,  bitter-wood, 
etc. 

Quatre  Bras'  (four  arms),  a  village  of  Bel¬ 
gium,  Province  of  South  Brabant,  about  ten 
miles  south-southeast  of  Waterloo.  On  June 
10,  1815 — two  days  before  the  Battle  of  Waterloo, 
Quatrebras  was  the  scene  of  a  desperate  and 
sanguinary  battle  between  the  English  under 
Wellington  and  the  French  under  Ney.  The 
honors  of  the  field  remained  with  the  former; 
but  the  severe  defeat  of  Bliicher  the  same  day  at 
Ligny,  rendered  Wellington’s  hard-won  victory 
almost  valueless;  and  foreseeing  that  it  would  be 
impossible  for  him  to  maintain  his  position,  the 
English  commander  retired  next  morning  through 
Jemappes  to  Waterloo,  in  order  to  keep  up  his 
communication  with  the  Prussian  army. 

Quebec',  the  most  important  military  position 
in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  is  situated  on  a  steep 
promontory  at  the  junction  of  the  Rivers  St.  Law¬ 
rence  and  St.  Charles,  in  latitude  40  48'  N., 
longitude  71°  12'  W.,  180  miles  northeast  of 
Montreal,  503  miles  east-northeast  of  Toronto, 
and  430  miles  north-northeast  of  New  York.  It 
is  connected  with  all  the  cities  in  America  by 
means  of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway.  Pop., 
(1889),  62,446. 

Queens 'land.  This  prosperous  British  colony 
occupies  the  whole  of  the  northeastern  portion  of 
Australia,  commencing  at  a  point  of  the  east 
coast  about  400  miles  north  of  Sydney,  called 
Point  Danger,  in  latitude  28°  8'  S.  The  greater 
portion  of  the  southern  boundary  line  is  formed 
by  the  29th  parallel  of  south  latitude.  The 
eastern  seaboard  extends  about  1,300  miles  to 
Cape  York,  the  extreme  northern  point  of  the 
continent,  in  latitude  10°  40'.  The  mean  breadth 
of  the  territory  is  900  miles,  from  the  eastern  coast¬ 
line  to  the  meridian  of  138°  E.  longitude,  which 
forms  the  western  boundary  line. 

Queens 'town,  formerly  Cove  of  Conic,  Ire¬ 
land,  a  seaport  town,  on  the  south  side  of  Great 
Island,  in  the  harbor  of  Cork.  Pop.  (1881), 
9,738. 

Quentin,  St.,  a  thriving  manufacturing  town 
in  the  North  of  France,  Department  of  Aisne,  is 
situated  on  the  Somme,  about  eighty  miles  north¬ 
east  of  Paris.  Its  pop.  in  1881  was  45,021. 

Quer'citron,  a  name  both  of  a  dye-stuff  and 
of  the  Species  of  oak  of  which  it  is  the  bark.  This 
oak  (Quercus  tinctorial),  also  called  dyer’s  oak  and 
black  oak  is  a  native  of  North  America — one  of 
the  noblest  forest  trees  of  the  United  States,  found 
in  New  England,  and  as  far  south  as  Georgia. 

Qnere'taro,  an  important  town  of  Mexico, 
capital  of  a  State  of  the  same  name.  Here,  when 
the  town,  after  a  long  defense,  fell  into  the  hands 


QUERN. 


618 


QUOIN. 


of  the  Republicans,  the  Emperor  Maximilian  was 
shot  by  order  of  a  court-martial,  June  19,  1867. 
Pop.,  47,570. 

Quern,  a  primitive  mill  for  grinding  corn,  the 


Quern. 

stone  of  which  was  turned  by  the  hand  before  the 
invention  of  windmills  or  watermills. 

Quick-match,  a  combustible  match,  made  by 
dipping  cotton-wick  in  a  composition  of  vinegar, 
saltpeter,  and  sometimes  an  admixture  of-  gun¬ 
powder;  when  lighted,  it  continues  to  burn  to  the 
end,  and  hence  is  useful  in  exploding  mines,  etc. 

Quilla'ia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Rosacea .  The  barks  of  some  species  of 
Quillaia,  as  Q.  saponaria,  and  Q.  brasiliensis , 
are  used  in  South  America,  under  the  name  of 
Quillai,  as  a  substitute  for  soap.  They  contain  a 
substance  closely  allied  to  saponine. 

Quills,  the  large  feathers  of  the  wings  of  birds, 
the  hollow  tubes  of  which,  being  properly  cleaned 
of  all  oily  or  fatty  matter,  and  dried,  were  form¬ 
erly  used  for  making  pens  to  write  with.  The 
exact  time  of  their  introduction  to  use  for  this 
purpose  is  not  known.  Those  plucked  from  geese 
were  most  generally  used,  but  swan  and  turkey- 
quills  were  not  uncommon;  and  for  very  fine  writ¬ 
ing,  and  for  pen-and-ink  drawing,  crow-quills 
were  preferred  to  all  others.  At  one  time  the  col¬ 
lection  and  preparation  of  quills  formed  a  very 
large  and  important  branch  of  commerce;  but  the 
introduction  of  metallic  pe  .s  has  reduced  it  to 
very  small  limits.  The  principal  use  to  which 
quills  are  now  put  is  in  making  tooth-picks. 

Quil'tor,  a  fistulous  wound  about  the  top  of  the 
horse’s  foot,  results  from  treads,  pricks,  or  neg¬ 
lected  corns,  which  lead  to  tin  formation  of  matter 
underneath  the  hoof.  Any  dead  horn,  matter,  or 
other  cause  of  irritation  must  be  sought  for  by 
cutting  away  the  hoof.  A  free  opening  must  be 
provided  for  the  egress  of  any  pent-up  matter. 
Poulticing  for  a  few  days  is  often  useful;  while 
healing  may  afterward  be  expedited  by  the  injec¬ 
tion  of  any  mild  astringent  lotion.  The  powerful 
caustics  so  frequently  used  cause  much  unneces¬ 
sary  pain,  and  often  aggravate  the  evil. 

Quince  ( Gyclonia ),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs 
of  the  natural  order  Rosacea’,  sub-order  Pomece. 
The  common  quince  ( G .  vulgaris),  a  native  of  the 
South  of  Europe  and  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  is  a 
low  tree.  The  fruit  is  hard  and  austere,  but, 


Common  Quince  (Cydonia  vulgaris). 


when  stewed  with  sugar,  becomes  extremely  pleas¬ 
ant,  and  is  much  used  in  this  way  either  by  itself , 
or  to  impart  a  flavor  to  apple-pies.  It  is  also 
much  used  for  making  a  preserve  called  quince 
marmalade. 

Quin'cy,  a  city  of  Illinois,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Mississippi  river,  100  miles  north  of  St.  Louis, 
is  handsomely  built  on  a  high  bluff,  and  has  a 
large  trade  by  the  river,  railway  connections  with 
Chicago,  Toledo,  etc.  Pop.  (1889),  39,400. 

Quincy,  the  county  seat  of  Gadsden  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  900. 

Quincy,  a  flourishing  town  of  Norfolk  county, 
Mass.  Pop.,  12,24i. 


Quincy,  the  county  seat  of  Plumas  county,  Cal. 
Pop.,  475. 

Quincy,  Josiaii,  an  American  lawyer,  ora¬ 
tor,  and  man  of  letters,  and  son  of  Josiah  Quincy, 
a  distinguished  orator  of  the  Revolution,  was  born 
at  Boston,  Feb.  4,  1772.  He  died  at  Boston,  July 
1,  1864.  _ 

Quin'ia,  or  Quinine,  and  the  other  cinchona 
alkaloids.  In  the  barks  of  the  different  varieties 
of  Cinchona  which  are  employed  in  the  treatment 
of  disease,  several  alkaloids  or  organic  bases  occur 
in  combination  with  quinic  and  quinotannic  acids. 
Of  these  bases,  the  most  important  arequiniaand 
cinchonia,  each  of  which  is  accompanied  by  (or 
connected  with)  two  isomeric  bases,  termed  re¬ 
spectively  Quinidine  and  Quinicine,  and  Cinchoni- 
riine  and  Cinchonicine;  and  besides  these,  a  base 
termed  Aricine  or  Cinrhovatine  occurs  in  the  bark 
of  Cinchona  ovata.  The  most  important  use  of 
sulphate  of  quinia  is  in  the  treatment  of  intermit¬ 
tent  fever,  for  which  it  may  be  regarded  as  a 
specific.  Various  nervous  affections,  especially  if 
they  assume  a  periodical  character,  are  success¬ 
fully  treated  by  it — as,  for  example,  neuralgia, 
chorea,  certain  forms  of  headache,  etc.  In  numer¬ 
ous  forms  of  dyspepsia,  debility,  and  cachexia, 
there  is  no  single  remedy  more  effectual  than  the 
citrate  of  iron  and  quinia.  The  ordinary  dose  of 
the  sulphate  is  from  one  to  three  grains,  but  in 
ague  it  may  be  given  in  far  larger  doses.  It  may 
be  prescribed  in  the  form  of  pills  made  with  con¬ 
serve  of  roses,  or  as  mixture,  in  which  case  a  little 
sulphuric  acid  should  be  added  to  render  it  soluble. 
In  large  doses,  as  from  10  to  20  grains  or  more,  it 
excites  the  nervous  system,  giving  rise  to  head¬ 
ache,  buzzing  of  the  ears,  blindness,  giddiness — 
a  group  of  symptoms  collectively  known  as  Quin- 
inistn;  and  several  deaths  are  recorded  as  arising 
from  its  administration  in  excessive  doses.  The 
average  dose  of  the  citrate  of  iron  and  quinia  is 
5  grains,  which  may  be  given  in  a  glass  of  sherry. 
Quinia  is  employed  not  merely  in  the  cure  of  dis¬ 
ease,  but  for  the  preservation  of  the  health,  when 
t  lie  system  is  exposed  to  certain  noxious  influences. 
Its  value  as  a  means  of  guarding  the  system  from 
the  attack  of  intermittent  fever  is  generally  re¬ 
cognized. 

Quinoa  ( Chenopodlum  quinoa ),  an  annual 
plant,  a  native  of  Chili  and  the  high  table-land 
of  Mexico.  In  the  countries  in  which  it  is  indig¬ 
enous,  it  is  much  cultivated  for  its  seeds,  which 
form  the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
meal  made  from  some  varieties  of  the  seed  has 
a  somewhat  peculiar  flavor,  but  it  is  very  nutri¬ 
tious. 

Quinquages'iina  Sunday  (Lat.  fiftieth),  the 
Sunday  immediately  preceding  Ash- Wednesday. 

Quin 'sy,  or  Common  Inflammatory  Sore 
Throat,  known  also  as  Cynanche  Tonsillaris  and 
Tonsillitis,  is  an  inflammatory  affection  of  the 
substance  of  the  tonsils.  The  inflammation  is 
seldom  limited  to  these  glands,  but  extends  to 
the  uvula,  the  soft  palate,  the  pharynx,  and  not 
infrequently  the  salivary  glands.  The  disease 
usually,  manifests  itself  by  difficulty  in  swallow¬ 
ing,  and  a  sense  of  heat  and  discomfort  in  the 
throat,  often  amounting  to  considerable  pain. 
On  examination,  the  throat  at  first  exhibits 
unnatural  redness,  with  enlargement  of  one  or 
both  tonsils.  The  uvula  is  enlarged  and  elon¬ 
gated  ;  its  end  either  dropping  down  into  the 
pharynx,  and  by  exciting  the  sensation  of  a 
foreign  body,  giving  rise  to  much  irritation,  or 
else  adhering  to  one  of  the  tonsils.  The  tongue 
is  usually  furred,  and  the  pulse  rapid,  and  there 
are  the  ordinary  symptoms  of  that  form  of  con¬ 
stitutional  disturbance  known  as  inflammatory 
fever.  The  inflammation  terminates  either  in 
resolution  (if  the  attack  is  not  severe,  and  yields 
readily  to  treatment)  or  in  suppuration,  which 
may  be  detected  by  the  occurrence  of  slight 
rigors,  and  by  the  increased  softness  of  the 
enlarged  tonsil.  The  matter  which  is  discharged 
has  a  very  fetid  smell,  and  the  fetor  is  often  the 
first  indication  of  the  rupture.  The  pain  almost 
entirely  ceases  with  the  discharge  of  matter,  and 
recovery  is  then  rapid.  The  disease  is  usually  at 
its  height  in  about  a  week  after  the  manifestation 
of  the  first  symptoms,  and  it  almost  invariably 
terminates  favorably.  The  ordinary  exciting- 
cause  of  this  disease  is  exposure  to  cold,  especially 
when  the  body  is  warm  and  perspiring;  and  cer¬ 


tain  persons,  or  even  families,  are  so  subject  to  it 
that  slight  exposure  is  almost  sure  to  induce  it. 
The  disease  may  sometimes  be  cut  short  if,  at  its 
very  commencement,  a  sharp  purgative  (as,  for 
example,  compound  infusion  of  senna  with  Epsom 
salts)  be  administered,  followed  tip  almost  imme¬ 
diately  by  an  emetic  of  a  scruple  of  ipecacuanha 
with  a  grain  of  tartar  emetic.  The  patient  should 
remain  in  the  house  (or  in  cold  weather,  even  in 
bed),  and  should  be  kept  on  low,  non-stimulating 
diet.  A  stimulating  liniment,  such  as  the  com¬ 
pound  camphor  liniment,  should  be  applied  to 
the  outside  of  the  throat,  and  the  neck  should  be 
surrounded  with  a  piece  of  flannel.  In  mild 
cases,  the  above  described  treatment  is  sufficient. 
In  more  severe  cases,  the  patient  may  gargle 
frequently  with  hot  water,  or  milk  and  water,  or, 
which  is  better,  may  inhale  the  vapor  of  boiling 
water.  Blistering  and  leeching  will  sometimes 
give  relief,  but  if  suppuration  is  once  established, 
they  do  harm  rather  than  good.  If  the  tonsils 
are  very  much  enlarged,  they  should  be  pricked 
with  a  lancet  made  expressly  for  the  purpose. 

Quint'al,  a  French  weight  corresponding  to 
the  English  “hundredweight,”  was  equal  to  100 
pounds  (livres);  on  the  introduction  of  the  metri¬ 
cal  system,  the  same  name  was  employed  to  desig¬ 
nate  a  weight  of  100  kilogrammes. 

Quin'tette,  a  musical  composition  for  five 
voices,  or  for  five  instruments,  each  of  which  is 
obligato. 

Quintal 'ian  (Quintilianus,  M.  Fabius)  cel¬ 
ebrated  rhetorician  and  orator,  was  born  40  a.d., 
at  Calagurris  (the  modern  Calahorra)  in  Spain. 
He  died  about  118. 

Quintin  Matsys,  a  celebrated  painter  of  the 
early  Flemish  school.  He  was  born  at  Antwerp, 
about  1460,  and  is  generally  known  by  the  name 
of  the  Blacksmith  of  Antwerp,  from  having  fol¬ 
lowed  that  trade  in  early  life.  The  romantic 
story  so  long  connected  with  this  artist’s  name, 
of  his  having  adopted  the  profession  of  painting 
in  order  to  obtain  the  hand  of  a  painter’s 
daughter,  is  founded  on  nothing  more  authentic 
than  the  verses  of  Lampsonius,  affixed  to  his  por¬ 
trait  by  Jerome  Cock.  He  died  between  July  8, 
and  Oct.  12,  1531. 

Quin'tus  Cur'tius  Ru'fus,  the  Roman  histo¬ 
rian,  flourished  probably  in  the  time  of  Vespasian  ; 
while  a  less  plausible  conjecture  represents  him 
as  having  lived  in  the  reign  of  Constantine. 
Nothing  further  is  known,  or  can  ever  be  fairly 
surmised  regarding  his  life. 

Quire  (through  Fr.  from  Lat.  qualuor)  of 
paper,  consists  of  twenty-four  sheets,  each 
doubled  once,  and  one  placed  within  the  other. 

Quiri'nus  was,  among  the  Sabines  (and  accord¬ 
ing  to  Mommsen,  among  the  Latins  also),  a  sur¬ 
name  of  Mars,  and  is  probably  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  quins,  a  spear.  It  is  therefore 
equivalent  to  the  “  spear-bearer.” 

Qui'scalus,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family 
Sturnidce.  Some  of  the  species  are  often  called 
boat-tail.  The  great  boat-tail,  or  great  crow  black¬ 
bird  {Q.  major),  a  bird  about  16  or  17  inches 
long,  is  common  in  the  southern  parts  of  North 
America. 

Quitman,  the  county  seat  of  Brooks  county, 
Ga  Pop.,  1,460. 

Quitman,  the  county  seat  of  Clarke  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  460. 

Quitman,  the  county  seat  of  Wood  county, 
Tex.  Pop  ,  160. 

Qui  'to,  the  capital  of  Ecuador,  and  of  the 
Province  of  Pichincha,  stands  between  two 
parallel  ranges  of  the  Andes,  on  the  east  side  of 
the  volcano  of  Pichincha,  at  an  elevation  of 
9,492  feet  above  the  sea,  and  in  latitude  0°  15'  S., 
longitude  78°  45'  W.  Pop.,  76,000. 

Quoin  (Fr.  coigne  from  Lat.  cuneus  =  Gr. 
yovicc,  gonia)  is  generally  a  wedge  or  an  angle. 
In  artillery,  the  quoin  is  a  wedge  inserted  beneath 
the  breach  of  a  gun,  for  raising  or  depressing 
the  muzzle.  Quoins  on  shipboard  are  wedges 
used  to  prevent  casks  from  damaging  each  other. — 
Quoin,  in  Architecture,  is  one  of  the  stones  form¬ 
ing  the  solid  corner  of  a  building.  Where  the 
work  is  of  brick  or  small  materials,  the  quoins 
are  usually  of  ashlar.  They  sometimes  project 
and  are  molded,  when  they  are  called  “rustic 
quoins.” — Quoins,  in  Typography,  are  wedges  of 
wood  or  iron  used  to  “  lock”  or  secure  pages  of 


QUOITS. 


619 


RAILWAYS. 


type  in  iron  frames,  or  “chases,”  in  which  they 
are  sent  to  press. 

Quoits,  a  game  much  practiced  by  athletes, 
seems  to  have  been  derived  from  the  ancient  game 
of  “throwing  the  discus,”  which  was  such  a 
favorite  amusement  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 
A  quoit  is  a  flattish  ring  of  iron,  generally  from 
8^4  to  9 inches  in  external  diameter,  and 
between  1  and  2  inches  in  breadth.  It  is  convex 
on  the  upper  side,  and  slightly  concave  on  the 
under,  so  that  the  outer  edge  curves  downward, 
and  is  sharp  enough  to  stick  into  the  ground. 
The  mode  of  playing  is  as  follows  :  Two  pins, 


Ris  the  eighteenth  letter  in  the  English  and 
other  Western  alphabets,  and  is  one  of  the 
group  of  liquids.  Its  name  in  Hebrew  was 
Resh,  meaning  forehead,  and  the  rude  outline  of  a 
head  is  thought  to  be  yet  recognizable  in  the 
Phoenician  form  of  the  letter.  Of  all  the  con¬ 
sonants,  Ii  approaches  most  nearly  to  the  vowels. 
In  Sanskrit,  there  is  an  R-vowel  distinguished  from 
the  R-consonant  by  a  different  character.  The 
Greek  also  had  two  varieties  of  R,  one  with  the 
“  spiritus  asper  ”  (p),  or  rough  breathing,  at  the 
beginning  of  words,  and  when  following  another 
R;  and  another  with  the  weaker  breathing  (p)  in 
other  positions.  The  Romans  in  spelling  Greek 
words  represented  the  former  by  i  h,  and  lienee 
we  still  write  Rhodes,  rheumatism,  catarrh.  This 
rh  was  probably  of  the  guttural  kind  commonly 
called  a  “  burr.”  This  pronunciation  of  r  occurs 
as  a  peculiarity  of  individualseverywhere,but  it  is 
universal  in  Northumberland  and  Durham,  Eng¬ 
land,  and  characterizes  the  pronunciation  of  the 
letter  in  certain  positions  throughout  Germany  and 
Scandinavia.  The  normal  pronunciation  of  R  in 
English  and  in  the  Romanic  tongues  (and  it  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  been  the  same  in  Latin)  is  a  vibratory 
sound  produced  by  applying  the  tip  of  the  tongue 
near  the  roots  of  the  upper  fore  teeth.  From  the 
resemblance  to  the  growl  of  an  angry  dog,  R  was 
called  by  the  ancients  the  dog’s  letter.  In  modern 
English,  there  is-an  increasing  tendency  to  smooth 
down  the  roughness  of  the  vibration,  until,  in 
such  words  as  far,  serf,  world,  the  r  has  dwindled 
to  a  kind  of  nondescript  vowel,  modifying  the 
preceding  vowel.  R  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
articulations;  children  are  long  in  learning  it,  and 
some  individuals  never  can  pronounce  it.  Whole 
nations  ( e .  (].,  the  Chinese  and  some  Polynesian 
tribes)  have  no  such  consonant  in  their  language, 
using  l  instead.  The  interchanges  of  r  with  l 
are  noticed  under  L.  A  more  remarkable  sub¬ 
stitution  is  that  of  r  for  cl,  which  was  very  prev¬ 
alent  in  early  Latin,  as  we  learn  from  Priscian 
and  from  inscriptions.  Ex.  arvocatosiov advocates. 
The  Latin  of  the  literary  period  had  returned 
from  this  corruption,  except  in  arbiter  '(from  an 
old  verb,  adbitere,  to  go  to,  to  intervene),  arcesso, 
and  mericlies  (for  medulies,  from  media s).  Avery 
common  phenomenon,  especially  in  Latin,  is  the 
sinking  or  degradation  of  an  original  s  between 
two  vowels  into  r.  On  inscriptions,  we  find 
Luges,  asas,  esum,  for  what  at  a  later  period  was 
written  Lares,  aras,  eram.  Jus,  mos,  became  in 
the  genitive  juris,  inoris,  instead  of  jusis,  mosis. 
Even  final  s  was  sometimes  degraded  to  r,  as  in 
the  double  forms  aibnr  =  arbos,  honor  =  honos. 

Rab'bi  (Heb.,  My  Master),  an  honorary  title  of 
the  Jewish  Masters  of  the  Law,  which  is  first 
found  applied  after  the  time  of  Herod,  sub¬ 
sequently  to  the  disputes  between  the  two  schools 
of  Shammai  and  Hillel. 

Rabbit  ( Lepus  cuniculus),  an  animal  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  hare,  but  of  smaller  size,  and 
with  shorter  limbs,  the  liind-legs  shorter  in  pro¬ 
portion.  It  is  not  adapted,  like  hares,  to  seek 
safety  by  rapid  and  continuous  running,  but  by 
retreating  to  burrows,  which  it  excavates  with 
great  dexterity. 

Rabelais,  Francois,  the  greatest  of  French 
humorists,' was  born,  according  to  the  general 
statement  of  biographers,  in  1483,  but  more 
probably  toward  1495,  at  Chinon,  a  small  town 
in  Touraine.  At  first  a  monk,  next  a  physician, 
he  then  turned  his  attention  to  literature.  His 
greatest  production  is  Gm-yantua  and  Pantagruel. 
He  died  at  Paris,  in  1553. 


called  “  hobs,”  are  driven  into  the  ground  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-four  yards  apart;  and  the  play¬ 
ers,  who  are  divided  into  two  parties,  stand  at  one 
hob,  and  in  regular  succession  throw  their  quoits 
(of  which  each  player  has  two)  as  near  to  the  other 
hob  as  they  can.  The  points  are  counted  as  in 
bowls  or  in  curling.  To  facilitate  the  sticking  of 
the  quoits  at  the  place  where  they  strike  the 
ground,  a  “clay  end” — that  is,  a  fiat  circle  of 
clay,  about  1  or  2  inches  in  thickness,  and  li  feet 
in  radius — is  placed  round  each  hob.  This 
requires  to  be  kept  moist,  and  should  ha"e  saw¬ 
dust  strewed  over  it.  The  quoit,  when  to  be 

R 

Ra'bies,  the  name  given  to  a  disease  affecting 
the  dog  and  other  animals.  It  is  a  matter  of  dis¬ 
pute  among  some  of  our  best  authorities  whether 
rabies  be  occasionally  spontaneous  in  the  car¬ 
nivora — the  only  animals  in  which  it  is  undoubt¬ 
edly  inherent — or  communicated  solely  by  inocu¬ 
lation.  Looking  simply  at  the  history  of  the 
disease,  the  facts  would  seem  to  be  against  the 
spontaneity  theory.  The  symptoms  of  rabies 
may  be  exhibited  in  the  dog  in  a  few  days,  or  it 
may  be,  and  often  is,  weeks,  and  even  months 
after  he  has  been  bitten.  At  first  he  loses  his 
appetite,  becomes  sullen,  fidgety,  has  a  vacant 
gaze,  licks  or  gnaws  the  injured  part,  laps  any 
liquid  that  comes  in  his  way — for  he  has,  unlike 
man,  no  dislike  for  water,  although  he  has  a 
difficulty  in  swallowing  it — eats  wood,  straw, 
hair,  and  other  indigestible  substances,  and  in  a 
day  or  two  he  becomes  quarrelsome,  bent  on  mis¬ 
chief,  bites  at  anything  that  comes  in  his  way, 
and  his  bark  is  more  like  a  howl;  his  lower  jaw 
often  becomes  pendulous,  and  general  paralysis 
sometimes  precedes  deatli ;  and  as  a  rule, on  the  fifth 
or  sixth  day  he  dies.  The  symptoms  in  the  horse, 
which  become  apparent  in  a  few  weeks,  are  those 
of  extreme  irritability.  He  trembles,  heaves,  and 
paws,  staggers,  and  falls,  and  after  aseverestrug- 1 
gle,  he  suddenly  rises  again,  and  appears  settled  | 
and  collected,  when  he  will  again  exhibit  the 
usual  distressing  symptoms,  lie  is  sometimes 
mischievous,  bites,  foams,  and  snorts,  and  gen¬ 
erally  in  three  days  lie  dies,  paralyzed  and  ex¬ 
hausted.  M.  Pasteur  has  for  some  years  main¬ 
tained,  and  sought  to  prove,  that  rabies  originates 
as  a  zymotic  disease  in  dogs,  which  by  bite  is 
communicated  as  rabies  to  other  dogs,  and  as 
hydrophobia  to  men.  Following  methods  analo¬ 
gous  to  those  found  by  him  so  successful  with 
chicken-cholera  in  fowls  and  splenic  fever  in 
sheep,  M.  Pasteur  proceeded  to  experiment  on 
the  culture  of  an  artificial  or  weakened  virus,  in 
order  by  inoculation  with  this  “  culture”  to  secure 
a  preventive  against  the  more  dangerous  and 
painful  forms  of  the  disorder.  A  distinguished 
committee  of  specialists  was  appointed  by  the 
French  Government  to  investigate  the  success  of 
M.  Pasteur’s  method;  and  in  1884  they  reported 
strongly  in  favor  of  it.  Of  the  dogs  previously 
inoculated  with  M.  Pasteur’s  artificial  virus,  all 
successfully  resisted  the  strongest  natural  virus, 
though  communicated  in  a  variety  of  ways; 
whereas  the  majority  of  the  dogs  not  previously 
inoculated  succumbed  to  the  disease  when  bitten 
by  mad  dogs, or  otherwise  infected  by  their  virus. 
Experiment  upon  human  subjects  have  given 
chiefly  negative  results.  When  it  is  known,  or 
even  suspected  that  the  disease  has  manifested 
itself,  all  reasonable  precautions  should  at  once  be 
adopted.  All  dogs  known  to  have  been  bitten,  or 
been  in  the  company  of  the  rabid  animal,  should 
be  immediately  destroyed,  and  every  other  dog 
in  the  town  and  district  confined,  or  closely  muz¬ 
zled,  for  several  weeks  or  even  months. 

Raccoon',  or  Racoon  ( Proryon ),  a  genus  of 
quadrupeds  of  the  bear  family,  Ursidce.  The 
raccoons  are  exclusively  American.  The  com¬ 
mon  raccoon  (P.  lotor),  is  a  native  of  North 
America,  from  Canada  to  the  South  of  Mexico. 
It  is  about  the  size  of  a  small  fox,  grayish-brown; 
the  muzzle  white.  Frequents  the  sea-shore,  and 
the  margin  of  swamps  and  rivers.  It  commits 
great  ravages  on  fields  of  Indian  corn,  planta¬ 
tions  of  sugar-cane,  etc.,  and  is  not  less  destruct¬ 
ive  to  poultry. 

Race,  the  portion  of  a  loom  from  which  the 


thrown,  is  grasped  with  the  right  hand  by  one 
side,  and  pitched  witli  an  upward  and  forward 
jerk  of  the  hand  and  arm,  which  give  it  a  whirl¬ 
ing  motion,  and  cause  it  to  strike  the  ground 
with  its  edge.  Professional  players  acquire  such 
dexterity  in  this  game,  that  they  can  very  fre¬ 
quently  “ring”  their  quoit — that  is,  laud  it  so 
that  the  quoit  surrounds  the  hob. 

Quo'rum  (Lat.  quorum,  of  whom)  is  a  legal 
term,  denoting  a  certain  specified  number  out  of 
a  larger  number  as  entitled  or  bound  to  act  for 
certain  purposes. 


shuttle  is  projected  through  the  shed,  or  separated 
threads  of  the  warp. 

Race-horse,  a  breed  of  horses  distinguished 
for  extreme  fleetness.  It  owes  its  origin  in  great 
measure  to  Arabian,  Barbary,  and  Turkish 
horses  introduced  into  England. 

Rachel,  Elisa  (properly  Elisa  Rachel  Felix), 
a  celebrated  French  tragedienne,  wras  born  at 
Munf,  in  Switzerland,  of  poor  Jewish  parents,  on 
Feb.  28,  1820.  She  died  at  Cannet,  Jan.  3,  1858. 

Racine,  a  city  and  county  seat  of  Racine  county, 
Wis.,  situated  on  Lake  Michigan,  at  the 
mouth  of  Root  river,  which  forms  an  excellent 
harbor,  and  on  the  line  of  the  Chicago,  Mil¬ 
waukee  &  St.  Paul  Railway,  twenty-three  miles 
south  of  Milwaukee.  It  has  ship-yards,  factories, 
furnaces,  etc.  Pop.  (1889),  22,600. 

Racine,  Jean,  the  most  admired  of  all  the 
French  dramatists,  was  born  at  Ferte-Milon, 
Dec.  21,  1639.  He  died,  after  a  brief  illness,  on 
April  21,  1699. 

Radia'ta,  the  lowest  of  Cuvier’s  four  great 
divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom,  derive  their 
name  from  the  organs  of  sense  and  motion  being 
disposed  as  rays  round  a  center;  the  other  three 
in  ascending  order,  being  the  articulata,  the  rriol- 
lusca,  and  the  verlebrata. 

Radish  ( Raphanus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  crxiciferce.  The  common  radish  is  a 
native  of  Asia,  from  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterra¬ 
nean  to  Japan. 

Rali'way,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  on  the 
Rahway  river,  five  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
the  New  Jersey  Railway,  nineteen  miles  west  of 
New  York.  It  contains  numerous  manufacturing 
establishments,  a  large  proportion  of  which  are 
for  carriages.  Pop.  (1889),  6,900. 

Rail  ( liallus ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order 
Grallee  and  family  liallidce.  America  produces  a 


Water  Rail  (. Rallies  aquaticus). 


number  of  species  of  rail,  all  swamp  bircis  and 
highly  esteemed  as  food. 

Rail 'ways.  The  origin  of  these  now  vast 
undertakings  is  traced  to  a  contrivance  for  sim¬ 
plifying  the  transit  of  coal  from  the  mines  in 
Northumberland  and  Durham,  England,  to  the 
places  of  shipment  on  the  Tyne  and  Wear.  The 
invention  consisted  of  a  double  parallel  line  of 
wooden  beams  or  trains  fixed  to  the  ground,  and 
furnished  with  flanges  to  prevent  the  wheels  of 
vehicles  from  slipping  aside.  Along  these  flanged 
beams  wagons  were  drawn  by  horses.  The  first 
locomotive  was  built  in  England  in  1802,  and  was 
successfully  used  for  hauling  a  train  of  wagons 
on  the  Merthyr-Tydvil  Railway  in  1804.  It  drew 
only  ten  tons  of  bar-iron  at  the  rate  of  five  miles 
an  hour.  Locomotive  power  was  employed  by 
George  Stephenson  on  the  Killingworth  Railway 
in  1814,  and  with  such  success,  that  it  was  after¬ 
ward  applied  on  the  Stockton  &  Darlington 
Railway,  for  which  the  first  Act  of  Parliament 


RAIN-GAUGE. 


620 


RAT 


was  passed  in  1821.  Tlie  first  railway  Imilt  in  j 
tlie  United  States  was  a  line  three  miles  long  [ 
for  hauling  granite  to  the  Neponset  river,  near 
Boston.  On  July  4,  1828,  the  construction  of  the 
Baltimore  &  Ohio  Railway  was  begun,  and  on  May 
24, 1830,  the  first  section  of  fourteen  miles,  extend¬ 
ing  from  Baltimore  to  Ellicott’s  Mills,  was  opened. 
It  was,  however,  for  a  time  operated  by  horse 
power,  and  the  first  locomotive  used  in  this 
country  was  imported  from  England  in  1829. 
It  was  used  on  the  Carbondale  Railway,  and  its 
first  trip  was  made  Aug.  8,  1829.  From  this 
humble  beginning  has  grown  the  gigantic  system 
of  railways  which  are  now  so  important  a  part 
of  our  social,  and  commercial,  and  political 
economy.  In  January,  1889,  there  were  in  the 
United  States  about  150,700  miles  of  railway. 

Rain-gauge.  The  use  of  rain-gauges  is  to 
ascertain  the  amount  of  rain  which  falls  at  any 
given  place.  Thejr  are  of  various  constructions. 
The  simplest  is  that  which  consists  of  a  metallic 
cylinder,  from  the  bottom  of  which  a  glass  tube 


(be),  divided  into  inches  and  parts  of  an  inch, 
projects  downward.  It  is  provided  with  a  funnel, 
inserted  within  at  the  top,  to  prevent  evaporation, 
and  the  rain-water  is  emptied  out  by  means  of  a 
stop-cock  (cl)  at  the  bottom,  or,  still  simpler,  by  a 
hole  (a)  pierced  in  the  funnel  at  the  top. 

Rai'ny  Lake  forms  a  portion  of  the  boundary¬ 
line  between  British  North  America  and  the 
United  States.  It  is  160  miles  west  of  Lake 
Superior,  is  about  35  miles  long,  and  5  miles  in 
average  breadth. 

Raisinee,  a  rob,  or  sweetmeat,  much  esteemed 
in  France,  made  by  boiling  new  wine,  and  skim¬ 
ming  until  only  half  the  quantity  of  wine  re¬ 
mains;  after  which  it  is  strained;  apples  pared 
and  cut  into  quarters  are  added  to  it,  and  it  is 
allowed  to  simmer  gently,  till  the  apples  are 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  wine,  when  it  has  a 
pleasant  sweetish  acid  taste.  Cider  may  be  used 
instead  of  wine. 

Raisins  are  dried  grapes,  prepared  by  two 
different  methods.  The  one  method  consists  in 
partially  cutting  through  the  stalk  of  the  ripened 
bunches,  and  allowing  them  to  shrink  and  dry 
upon  the  vine  by  the  lieatof  the  sun.  The  raisins 
prepared  by  the  other  method  are  called  Lexias, 
and  are  gathered  and  hung  on  lines,  or  laid  on 
prepared  floors  to  dry  in  the  sun.  When  dried, 
they  are  dipped  in  a  hot  lye,  made  by  dissolving 
the  alkali  out  of  wood-ashes  or  barilla  with  water, 
until  the  filtered  fluid  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
about  1.100;  to  this  is  added,  for  every  four* gal¬ 
lons,  a  pint  of  olive  oil  and  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  salt.  After  dipping,  the  fruit  is  laid  on  hurdles 
of  wicker-work  to  drain,  and  is  continually  ex¬ 
posed  to  the  sun  for  about  a  fortnight. 

Rake,  in  Naval  Language,  has  more  than  one 
meaning.  The  rake  of  a  ship’s  stern  or  bow  is 
the  length  to  which  the  keel  would  have  to  be 
prolonged  to  bring  it  under  the  most  projecting 
point  of  the  stern  or  bow.  Raking  masts  are 
masts  set  aslope,  so  that  the  angle  they  make  with 
the  keel  toward  the  stern  is  less  than  a  right 
angle,  as  in  a  brigantine.  To  rake  a  ship  is  to 
bring  guns  to  bear  so  as  to  fire  them  along  her 
deck  from  end  to  end. 

Raking  Molding,  a  molding  not  horizontal  or 
vertical,  but  sloping  at  an  angle.  When  joined 
to  a  horizontal  molding,  the  raking  molding  is 
run  so  as  to  miter  with  the  true  vertical  profile  of 


{ the  former,  and  is  therefore  different  from  it  in 
section. 

Raleigh,  Sin  Walter,  was  born  in  1552,  at 
Hayes,  England.  lie  organized  a  colony  in  Vir¬ 
ginia,  and  at  intervals  held  important  civil  and 
military  offices  under  Queen  Elizabeth.  He  was 
beheaded  by  order  of  King  James,  Oct.  29,  1618. 

Raleigh,  the  capital  of  North  Carolina,  is  six 
miles  west  of  the  Neuse  river,  near  the  center  of 
the  State;  latitude  35°  47'  N.,  longitude  78°  48' 
W.  It  has  extensive  railway  connections,  and 
some  manufacturing  interests.  Pop.,  16,200. 

Raleigh,  the  county  seat  of  Raleigh  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  225. 

Raleigh,  the  county  seat  of  Smith  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  170. 

Ral  'lidie,  a  family  of  birds  of  the  order  Grallce, 
characterized  by  a  long  bill,  which  is  more  or  less 
curved  at  the  tip  and  compressed  at  the  sides, 
the  nostrils  in  a  membranous  groove,  the  wings 
of  moderate  length,  the  tail  short,  the  legs  and 
toes  long  and  slender,  the  hind-toe  placed  on  a 
level  with  the  others.  To  this  family  belong  rails, 
crakes,  gallinules,  coots,  etc. 

Harnesses,  Rameses,  or  Ramses,  the  name  of 
several  Egyptian  monarclis  who  reigned  during  a 
portion  of  the  period  of  Egypt’s  greatest  civil 
and  military  power.  Their  names  are  found  on 
various  monuments  and  sepulchers,  and  it  is 
claimed  that  the  bones  of  one  of  the  number  were 
recently  discovered  in  one  of  the  ancient  tombs  on 
the  Nile. 

Ramp 'ant  (Fr.  literally,  raging),  in  Heraldry, 
an  epithet  applied  to  a  lion  or  other  beast  of  prey 
when  placed  erect  on  the  two  hind  legs,  with  only 
one  of  the  forelegs  elevated,  the  head  being  seen 
in  profile. 

Ram'pion  (Campanula  rapuncvlns;  see  Cam¬ 
panula),  a  perennial  plant,  a  native  of  Europe, 
rare  in  England,  with  a  stem  about  2  feet  high, 
and  a  panicle  of  pale-blue  bell-shaped  flowers. 

Rain-til  ( Guizotia  oleifera),  a  plant  of  the  nat¬ 
ural  order  Composite,  sub-order  Corymbiferce,  a 
native  of  the  East  Indies  and  Abyssinia,  much 
esteemed  for  the  bland  oil  which  is  obtained  from 
the  seeds,  and  which  is  employed  for  the  same 
purposes  as  olive  oil. 

Randle  (or  ranch),  a  name  formerly  applied  to 
the  cattle-breeding  farms  in  the  Western  States, 
but  now  used  to  designate  all  farms  in  the  far 
West.  It  is  from  the  Spanish  rancho,  originally  a 
set  of  persons  who  eat  together;  a  hut  where 
herdsmen  ( rancheros )  lodge;  then  a  cattle-breeding 
farm. 

Randolph,  John,  of  Roanoke,  an  American 
statesman,  was  born  in  Chesterfield  county,  Va., 
June  2,  1773.  In  1799  he  was  elected  to  Con¬ 
gress,  where  he  became  distinguished  for  his  elo¬ 
quence,  wit,  sarcasm,  invective,  and  eccentricity. 
In  1825,  he  was  chosen  United  States  Senator 
from  Virginia,  and  in  1830  appointed  Minister  to 
Russia.  He  died  in  Philadelpha,  June  24,  1833. 

Randolph,  the  county  seat  of  Rich  county, 
Utah.  Pop.,  263. 

Range,  in  Gunnery,  is  the  distance  between  a 
point  on  the  ground  vertically  below  the  muzzle 
of  the  piece  and  the  point  on  the  same  level  at 
which  the  projectile  touches  in  its  descent.  The 
point-blank  range  is  the  distance  from  the  firing 
point  at  which  the  projectile  will  strike  the  object 
aimed  at  without  elevating  the  piece;  the  range 
then  increases  with  the  elevation;  and  if  the  air 
opposed  no  resistance,  the  greatest  range  would 
be  attained  with  the  piece  elevated  at  an  angle  of 
45°;  but  in  practice  this  angle  is  found  to  be,  on 
an  average,  a  little  over  30°. 

Ran'ula  is  the  term  applied  to  an  encysted 
tumor,  containing  a  glairy  fluid,  and  lying  under 
the  tongue.  The  ordinary  method  of  treating 
such  tumors  is  by  free  incision,  or  by  cutting  out 
a  piece  of  the  sac;  and  if  this  is  not  sufficient  to 
effect  a  cure,  the  interior  should  be  touched  with 
nitrate  of  silver,  or  a  small  seton  should  be  passed 
through  it,  with  the  view  of  destroying  it  by  sup¬ 
puration.  The  name  of  the  tumor  is  due  to  the 
supposed  frog-like  form  which  the  swelling  as¬ 
sumes. 

Rammcula'cete,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  mostly  herbaceous,  rarely  shrubs,  and 
generally  natives  of  cold  damp  climates.  Some 
are  found  within  the  tropics,  but  almost  exclu¬ 


sively  in  very  elevated  situations  The  number 
of  known  species  is  about  1,000 

Ranun 'cuius,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natura; 
order  Rnnunculacea,  having  five  sepals  five  pet 
als,  with  a  nectariferous  pore  at  the  base  of  each 
petal,  often  covered  with  a  scale,  many  stamens 
situated  on  a  receptacle,  and  germens  accumulated 
into  a  head. 

Rape,  or  Coleseed  (Brassica  nap  us),  a  biennial 
plant  much  culti¬ 
vated  both  on  ac¬ 
count  of  its  herbage 
and  its  oil-producing 
seeds. 

Raphael,  or  Raf- 
faello  Santi  or 
Sanzio,  called  by  his 
countrymen  II  Di- 
vino,  “  the  Divine,” 
is  ranked  by  almost 
universal  opinion  as 
the  greatest  of  paint¬ 
ers.  He  was  born  at 
Urbino  in  1483,  and 
died  at  Rome,  April 
6,  1520.  His  works 
embellished  the  chief 
galleries  of  Europe. 

Rapid  City, 
the  county  seat  of 
Pennington  county, 

S.  Dak.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Rappalian'noek,  a  river  of  Virginia,  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  North  Fork  and  the  Rapidan, 
which  rise  in  the  Blue  Ridge  of  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  and  flow  eastwardly  to  their  point  of 
union,  forty  miles  above  Fredericksburg,  where 
the  falls  afford  water-power.  The  river  is  navi¬ 
gable  from  this  point  southeast  of  Chesapeake 
Bay,  which  it  enters  by  a  broad  estuary,  seventy 
miles  long.  The  Rappahannock  and  the  Rapidan 
were  the  scenes  of  some  of  the  most  sanguinary 
battles  of  the  War  of  Secession,  at  Fredericks¬ 
burg,  Chancellorsville,  and  the  Wilderness. 

Rashes,  affections  of  the  skin,  characterized  by 
a  red  superficial  efflorescence,  diffused  or  in 
patches,  disappearing  under  pressure,  and  usually 
ending  in  desquamation.  To  this  division  of 
cutaneous  disorders  belong  rubeola  (or  measles), 
scarlatina  (or  scarlet  fever),  erysipelas  (or  St. 
Anthony’s  fire),  erythema,  roseola  (or  scarlet 
rash),  and  urticaria  (or  nettle  rash).  Of  these 
rashes,  rubeola,  scarlatina,  and  erysipelas  are 
rather  to  be  regarded  as  fevers  or  blood  diseases, 
ihan  as  cutaneous  diseases,  in  the  true  sense  of  the 
phrase. 

Rasp 'berry  (Rubus  idaus),  the  most  valued  of 
all  the  species  of  rubus.  It  has  pinnate  leaves, 
with  five  or  three  leaflets,  which  are  white  and 
very  downy  beneath,  stems  nearly  erect,  downy, 
and  covered  with  very  numerous  small  weak 
prickles;  drooping  flowers,  and  erect  whitish 
petals  as  long  as  the  calyx.  Tt  is  highly  valued 
for  its  fruit. 

Raspberry  Vinegar,  a  culinary  preparation, 
consisting  of  raspberry  juice,  vinegar,  and  sugar. 
It  is  best  made  by  putting  ripe  raspberries  into 
jars,  and  when  as  full  as  they  will  hold  of  the 
fruit,  fill  up  the  jar  with  good  vinegar:  after 
eight  or  ten  days,  pour  off  tlie  vinegar,  and  let 
the  fruit  drain  for  some  hours.  The  mixture  of 
vinegar  and  juice  thus  obtained  is  added  to 
another  quantity  of  fruit,  and  treated  in  the  same 
way.  This  is  sometimes  repeated  a  third  time, 
and  then  the  liquid  is  gently  boiled  for  about  five 
minutes  with  its  own  weight  of  refined  sugar. 
Added  to  water,  it  forms  a  most  refreshing  sum 
mer  drink,  and  it  is  a  useful  cooling  drink  in  sick 
ness. 

Rat,  the  popular  name  of  all  the  larger  species 
of  the  genus  Mus.  There  are  two  species  The 
black  rat  (M.  rattus)  and  the  brown  rat  (M  decu 
manus).  Both  appear  to  be  natives  of  the  central 
parts  of  Asia,  where  other  nearly  allied  species 
are  also  found.  The  black  rat  found  its  way  to 
Europe  about  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cent 
ury;  the  brown  rat  first  appeared  at  Astrakhan 
in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and 
reached  Britain  and  the  western  countries  of 
Europe  about  the  middle  of  the  century.  From 
Europe  they  were  imported  to  this  country  in 


RATAFIA. 


621 


RED  CROSS  ASSOCIATION. 


the  holds  of  ships,  having  been  shipped  uninten¬ 
tionally  with  household  or  other  goods. 

Ratafl'a,  the  generic  name  of  a  series  of  cor¬ 
dials,  prepared  usually  by  mixing  an  alcoholic 
liquor  with  the  juice  of  some  fruit  or  some  flavor¬ 
ing  material,  and  sugar  or  syrup. 

Hatch,  or  Ratchet,  in  machinery,  is  a  small 
piece  of  metal,  so 
placed  with  one  end 
on  a  pivot,  that  the 
other  can  fall  into  the 
teeth  of  a  wheel. 

Being  perfectly  free 
to  move  up  an d 
down,  its  own  weight 
makes  it  drop  into 
tooth  after  tooth  as 
the  wheel  revolves.  Ratch. 

15a 'tel  ( Mellivora ),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of 
the  bear  family,  Ursidce,  nearly  allied  to  the  glut¬ 
tons,  from  which  it  differs  in  having  one  false 
molar  less  in  each  jaw,  and  the  upper  tubercular 
teeth  slightly  developed. 

Ratlidruin,  the  county  scat  of  Kootenai  county, 
Idaho.  Pop. ,  225. 

Rathlin',  Island  of,  an  island  6}  miles  in 
length  by  It  miles  in  breadth,  in  the  Barony  of 
Carey,  County  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  Of  miles  from 
the  coast  at  Ballycastle,  latitude  54®  36'  N.,  longi¬ 
tude  9®  15'  W. 

Ration,  in  the  United  States  Army.  The 
items  that  constitute  a  soldier’s  daily  ration,  in 
garrison,  or  on  the  march,  are  as  follows:  Twelve 
ounces  pork,  or  bacon,  or  beef  (fresh  or  canned), 
or  one  pound  and  four  ounces  of  fresh  beef,  or 
22  ounces  salt  beef;  18  ounces  soft  bread  or  flour, 
or  16  ounces  hard  bread,  or  1  pound  4  ounces 
corn  meal ;  and  to  every  100  rations  15  pounds 
beans  or  peas,  or  10  pounds  rice  or  hominy;  10 
pounds  green  coffee,  or  8  pounds  roasted  coffee, 
or  2  pounds  tea;  15  pounds  sugar;  4  quarts  vin¬ 
egar;  4  pounds  soap;  4  pounds  salt,  4  ounces  pep¬ 
per;  1  pound  8  ounces  candles;  and  when  on  field 
duty  and  when  necessary,  4  pounds  yeast  powder 
to  each  100  rations  of  flour.  When  troops  are 
traveling  by  rail  or  steamboat  the  ration  is  modi¬ 
fied  by  the  issue  of  soft  bread  in  lieu  of  flour,  of 
canned  beef  in  lieu  of  fresh  beef  or  salt  pork,  and 
of  baked  beans  in  lieu  of  dried  beans  or  peas. 

Ra’-snake  ( Coryphodon  blumenbnchii ),  a  ser¬ 
pent  of  the  family  Colubridm,  which  is  often  kept 
in  a  state  of  domestication  in  Ceylon,  on  account 
of  its  usefulness  in  killing  rats. 

Rat-tail  Maggot,  the  larva  of  a  dipterous 
insect,  Eristalis  ten  ax,  of  the  family  Muscidce.  It 
inhabits  mud,  and  breathes  by  means  of  tubes 
attached  in  telescope  fashion  to  the  tail,  which 
terminates  in  a  brush  of  hairs,  and  is  always  held 
up  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  being  elongated 
when  the  depth  of  water  increases. 

Rattan',  Ratan,  or  Rottang  (Calamus),  a 
genus  of  palms  different  in  habit  from  most  of 
the  order,  having  a  reed-like,  slender,  often 
jointed,  and  extremely  long  stem,  sometimes  even 
1,000  feet  or  upward  in  length.  The  stem,  which 
is  smooth,  and  hard  and  silicious  externally,  is 
either  erect,  or  ascends  and  descends  among  trees; 
often  laying  hold  as  it  ascends  by  means  of 
hooked  prickles,  the  extremities  of  the  midribs  of 
its  leaves,  which  are  scattered  at  considerable 
intervals  along  its  whole  length,  and  envelop  it 
by  their  sheathing  stalks,  and  then  descending 
climb  a  neighboring  tree.  They  are  all  useful; 
are  employed  for  making  plated  work,  wicker¬ 
work,  ropes,  etc. 

Rat'tany,  or  Rhatany  (Kramcria  triandra),  a 
half-shrubby  plant,  of  the  natural  order  Poly- 
galea,  a  native  of  the  cold  sterile  table-lands  of 
the  Andes  in  Peru  and  Bolivia.  It  is  valued  for 
the  medicinal  properties  of  the  root,  which  are 
shared  more  or  less  by  other  species  of  the  same 
genus,  also  natives  of  South  America. 

Rat/tlesnake  (Crotalus),  a  genus  of  serpents 
of  the  family  Crotalidm,  distinguished  from  the 
rest  of  that  family  by  the  rattle  at  the  end  of  the 
tail.  All  the  species  are  American,  and  are  much 
dreaded  for  their  deadly  venom,  although  they 
seldom  assail  man,  unless  molested,  and  the 
rattle  often  gives  timely  warning  of  danger. 
One  species  (C.  horrulus),  sometimes  called 
the  Carcavela,  is  found  in  the  warm  parts  both 
of  North  and  South  America.  Another  spe¬ 


cies,  Crotalus  or  Uropsophus  durissus,  extends 
further  northward,  as  far  as  the  southern  shores 
of  the  great  lakes.  A  third,  species,  Crotalus  or 


Crotalophorvs  miliaris,  is  also  common  in  many 
parts  of  North  America.  The  bite  of  all  Cro¬ 
talidm  is  venomous.  The  danger  connected  with 
snake-bite  arises  from  the  introduction  of  a 
poison  into  the  system,  which  is  so  rapidly  and 
thoroughly  distributed  throughout  the  whole 
body  that  its  ultimate  effects  <  an  be  counteracted 
only  by  constitutional  treatment.  The  wounded 
part  swells  to  enormous  proportions,  and  assumes 
various  lines,  while  the  patient  passes  from 
nausea  and  vomiting  to  delirium  and  uncon¬ 
sciousness.  If  death  docs  not  ensue  from  these 
first  effects,  it  is  likely  to  follow  from  the  intense 
fever  and  inflammation  which  are  necessary 
accompaniments  of  the  gangrenous  condition  of 
the  inoculated  parts.  If  possible,  the  wound 
should  be  sucked  vigorously  to  withdraw  the 
poison,  and  circulation  in  the  region  shut  off  with 
bandages.  Acetic  acid,  if  quickly  introduced 
into  the  wound,  may  coagulate  the  poison;  but  it 
is  rarely  at  hand  when  the  accident  occurs.  In  all 
instances,  large  and  frequent  drinks  of  brandy  or 
whisky,  together  with  the  free  application  of 
coal-oil  to  the  wound,  will  prove  an  effectual 
remedy.  The  wound  should  be  bandaged  with 
some  material,  such  as  flannel,  which  will  absorb 
and  hold  oil,  and  kept  thoroughly  soaked  with 
coal-oil;  the  patient  should  be  given  all  the 
liquor  he  can  drink,  and  all  will  have  been  done 
for  the  time  being  that  the  practiced  physician 
could  do.  The  popular  belief  is  that  if  the 
patient  can  be  intoxicated,  his  life  will  be  placed 
out  of  danger. 

Raveu  ( Corvus  corax),  a  species  of  crow 
remarkable  for  its  large  size.  It  is  more  than  2 
feet  in  length  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the 
extremity  of  the  tail. 

Ravenna,  the  county  seat  of  Portage  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  4,025. 

Rawlins,  the  county  seat  of  Carbon  c  unty, 
Wyo.  Pop.,  1,475. 

Raymond,  the  county  seat  of  Hinds  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  500. 

Rayville,  the  county  seat  of  Richland  county, 
La.  Pop.,  t26. 

Razor-bill,  or  Razor-billed  Auk  (Alca  torda ), 
a  species  of  auk,  also  called  the  black-billed  auk. 


Razor-bill  ( Alca  torda). 


The  eggs  arc  esteemed  a  delicacy;  and  the  flesh  of 
the  bird  itself  is  used  for  food. 

Re,  Ii.e  de  (Rex  insula ),  an  island  on  the  coast 
of  the  French  Department  of  Charente-Infcrieure, 
opposite  the  city  of  La  Rochelle,  from  which  it  is 


separated  by  the  Pertuis  Breton.  It  is  about  18 
miles  long,  and  4  miles  broad.  Pop.,  5,600. 

Reaction  is  the  term  employed  in  medicine  and 
surgery  to  indicate  the  process  of  recovery  from 
a  state  of  collapse. 

Reade,  Charles,  D.C.L.,  a  distinguished  Eng¬ 
lish  novelist,  was  born  in  1814,  and  died  April 
11,  1884. 

Reading,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Schuyl¬ 
kill  river,  fifty-eight  miles  northwest  from  Phila¬ 
delphia,  and  the  county  seat  of  Berks  county.  It 
has  blast-furnaces,  rolling-mills,  foundries,  manu¬ 
factories  of  steam-engines  and  machinery,  cottons, 
woolens,  nails;  also  flour  and  saw-mills,  with  a 
large  trade  in  coal.  Pop.,  59,200. 

Re'al,  a  silver  coin  and  money  of  account  in 
Spain,  Mexico,  and  other  old  Spanish  possessions. 
It  is  the  part  of  the  piaster  (peso  duro),  or  i  of 
the  peseta,  the  franc  of  the  new  Spanish  decimal 
system,  and  has  a  value,  varying  with  the  ex¬ 
change,  of  about  5  cents. 

Real'gar,  a  mineral  consisting  of  about  70  parts 
of  arsenic  and  30  of  sulphur.  This  native  sul- 
pliuret  of  arsenic  is  of  a  brilliant  scarlet  color, 
generally  translucent,  but  sometimes  transparent; 
and  occurs  in  the  vicinity  of  volcanoes,  and  in 
many  igneous  rocks;  massive,  disseminated,  or 
crystallized. 

Ream,  a  certain  quantity  of  paper,  consisting 
of  20  quires,  each  quire  containing  24  folio  sheets. 
A  printer’s  ream  should  consist  of  480  sheets.  The 
word  appears  to  be  derived  from  the  Saxon  ream, 
a  band,  and  was  probably  applied  in  consequence 
of  the  bundle  of  paper  being  held  together  by  a 
band. 

Reaping.  The  development  from  the  reaping 
hook  or  sickle  to  the  complicated  machines  of  the 
present  day  has  been  rapid.  The  first  reaping 
machines  patented  in  the  United  States  were  those 
invented  by  Husseyand  McCormick.  These  were 
crude  contrivances,  but  from  them  has  been  de¬ 
veloped  the  marvelous  appliances  of  to-day,  which 
cut,  rake,  bind,  and  deliver  the  grain  without  the 
aid  of  man,  other  than  that  required  to  direct  the 
horses  that  draw  them. 

Reaumur,  Rene  Antoine  Ferchault  de,  a 
celebrated  naturalist  and  physicist,  inventor  of 
i  he  thermometer  that  bears  his  name,  was  borniit 
La  Rochelle,  in  the  Department  of  Charente- 
Inferieure,  France,  Feb.  28,  1683,  and  died  Oct. 
17,  1757. 

Recluse'  (Lat.  reclusus,  also inclusus,  shut  up), 
a  class  of  monks  or  nuns  who,  from  a  motive  of 
special  penance,  or  with  a  view  to  the  more  strict 
observance  of  Christian  perfection,  remained  shut 
up  from  all  converse,  even  with  members  of  their 
own  order,  in  a  cell  or  other  place  of  strict  retire¬ 
ment. 

Recoil When  the  charge  of  gunpowder  con¬ 
tained  in  a  gun  is  fired,  the  sudden  expansion  of 
the  powder  into  many  times  its  former  bulk  acts 
with  equal  force  in  every  direction.  The  resist¬ 
ance  offered  by  the  ball,  which  moves  more  or 
less  easily  in  the  bore,  being  far  less  than  that  of 
the  bulky  and  heavier  gun  and  carriage,  the  ball 
is  forced  to  a  great  distance;  but  the  gun,  with 
its  carriage,  must  nevertheless  feel  the  reaction, 
and  is  driven  backward  a  certain  space,  ordinarily 
a  few  feet.  This  retrograde  motion  is  called  the 
recoil. 

Rec'tifying  is  a  process  applied  to  alcohol 
after  its  distillation,  to  remove  certain  impurities 
which  come  with  it  from  the  still.  These,  in  part, 
consist  of  essential  oils;  and  in  orderto  effect  their 
removal,  caustic  potash  is  added  in  sufficient  pro¬ 
portion  to  saponify  the  oil  present;  water  is  also 
contained  in  the  first  distillation,  and  to  remove 
this,  and  to  assist  in  removing  the  oily  matters, 
common  pearl-ash  is  added. 

Red  Bluff,  the  county  seat  of  Tehama  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Red  Cliff,  the  countv  seat  of  Eagle  county, 
Colo.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Red  Cloud,  the  county  seat  of  Webster  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  1,800. 

Red  Cross  Association,  an  organization 
founded  in  Europe,  in  1863,  for  the  relief  of  hu¬ 
manity  wounded  in  battle  or  suffering  from  dis¬ 
aster.  It  has  extended  its  operations  and  organi¬ 
zation  to  this  country,  and  under  Clara  Barton 
did  good  service  in  the  late  Johnstown  disaster. 


RED  CROSS  ORDER 


622 


REICHSTADT. 


Red  Cross  Order,  instituted  by  Queen  Victo 
ria,  in  1883,  to  distinguish  those  who  should  ren¬ 
der  eminent  service  in  nursing  the  sick  and 
wounded  of  the  army  and  navy.  The  decoration 
is  a  cross  of  crimson  enamel,  gold-edged,  attached 
to  a  dark-blue  ribbon, red-edged,  one  inch  in  width, 
tied  in  a  bow  and  worn  on  the  left  shoulder. 

Redemptionists,  one  of  the  names  of  an  order 
of  monks  devoted  to  t  he  redemption  of  Christian 
captives  from  slavery.  They  were  frequently 
called  Trinitarians. 

Redemp  'torists,  called  also  Liguokians,  a  con¬ 
gregation  of  priests  founded  by  St.  AlfonzoLigu- 
ori. 

Redfield,  the  county  seat  of  Spink  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Red  Gum,  ajlorid  eruption,  usually  occurring 
in  infants  before  or  during  their  first  dentition,  on 
the  most  exposed  parts,  as  the  face,  neck,  arms, 
and  hands,  from  whence  it  sometimes  extends  to 
other  portions  of  the  body.  White  pimples,  pop 
ularly  known  as  white  gum,  are  also  sometimes 
intermingled  with  the  red  papillae.  Very  little  is 
required  in  the  way  of  treatment  further  than  to 
remove  any  obvious  cause  of  the  affection.  Cold 
applications  should  be  carefully  avoided,  lest  they 
should  translate  t lie  cutaneous  irritation  to  some 
important  internal  organ.  In  the  event  of  such  a 
translation,  the  child  should  be  placed  in  a  hot 
bath,  and  mustard  poultices,  or  hot  moist  cloths 
sprinkled  with  turpentine,  should  be  applied  over 
the  arms  and  chest. 

Red  Oak,  the  county  seat  of  Montgomery 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  3,800. 

Red  River,  the  lowest  western  branch  of  the 
Mississippi,  rises  on  the  eastern  border  of  New 
Mexico,  flows  eastward,  separating  Texas  from 
the  Indian  Territory,  thence  southeast  through 
Louisiana,  and  enters  the  Mississippi  341  miles 
from  its  mouth.  It  is  2,100  miles  long. 

Red  River  of  the  North  rises  in  a  cluster  of 
lakes  in  Western  Minnesota,  near  the  sources  of 
the  Mississippi,  and  runs  north,  separating  -Min¬ 
nesota  from  Dakota,  into  the  British  possessions, 
and  empties  in  Lake  Winnipeg,  about  500  miles 
from  its  source. 

Red  Root  (Ceunothus),  a  genus  of  American 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Rhamnacem,  serves  as 
an  astringent,  and  for  dyeing  wool  of  a  cinnamon 
color 

Red  Sea,  or  Arabian  Gulf,  an  inlet  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  in  form  a  long  and  narrow  gulf, 
stretching  northwest  from  the  Strait  of  Bab-el- 
Mandeb  (latitude  12°  40'  N.),  by  which  it  com¬ 
municates  with  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  to  the  Isthmus 
of  Suez  (lati  ude  30°  N.),  which  parts  it  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  Its  extreme  length  is  over 
1,400  miles;  it  varies  greatly  in  breadth — from 
about  twenty  mnesat  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb, 
to  upward  of  230  at  about  latitude  1(1°  30'.  The 
passage  of  the  Israelites  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
place  a  little  south  of  the  present  town  of  Suez. 

Red 'start  (Puosnicura  rutidlla ,  or  Rutidlla 
plicznicura),  a  bird  of  the  family  Sylviadce.  The 


Redstart  ( Ttulicilla  phcmicura) 


American  redstart  ( Setophaga  rutidlla )  is  a  small 
bird  of  the  family  Muscicapidce,  or  fly-catchers, 
common  in  most  parts  of  North  America,  a  bird 
of  great  beauty,  and  extremely  active  in  its  move¬ 
ments. 

Reduction  of  Metals.  A  metal  is  said  to  be 
reduced  to  its  metallic  state  when  it  is  separated 
from  the  condition  of  a  chemical  compound  in 
which  it  exists  as  an  ore.  This  is  generally  ef 
fected  either  by  tlu  direct  action  of  heat,  or  by 
heating  the  compound  along  with  a  reducing 
agent. 


Red-water — also  known  as  bloody  urine, 
moor-ill,  and  haematuria — is  a  disease  of  cattle, 
and  occasionally  of  sheep;  it  depends  upon 
causes,  which  lead  to  a  deteriorated  state  of  the 
blood.  The  appetite  and  rumination  are  irregu¬ 
lar,  the  bowels  speedily  become  constipated,  and 
the  urine  reddened  with  the  broken-down  red 
globules  of  the  blood.  In  the  more  advanced 
stages  of  serious  cases,  the  urine  is  black.  A  dose 
of  physic  must  at  once  be  given,  and  for  an  adult 
animal  may  consist  of  i  pound  each  of  common  and 
epsoni  salt,  3  ounces  of  sulphur,  and  a  pound  of 
molasses,  mixed  together  in  two  bottles  of  water. 
Roots  should  be  withheld,  and  the  food  consist 
of  sound  hay  with  a  little  cake.  A  full  supply  of 
pure  water  is  further  essential.  Weakness  which 
is  apt  to  supervene,  may  be  warded  off  by  giving 
several  times  daily  two  ounces  each  of  gentian 
and  ginger  in  a  quart  of  ale.  To  prevent  red- 
water,  attend  to  feeding  and  watering,  place 
rock-salt  in  the  pastures  and  yards,  and  improve 
the  grazing-lands. 

Red 'wing  ( Turdus  Hiatus),  a  species  of  thrush. 
The  general  color  is  a  rich  clove-brown  on  the 
head,  upper  parts  of  the  body,  and  tail;  the  wing- 
feathers  darker,  but  with  lighter  external  edges; 
the  lower  parts  mostly  whitish,  tinged  and 
streaked  with  brown;  the  under  wing-coverts  and 
axillary  feathers  bright  reddish-orange.  The 
redwing  arrives  in  Britain  rather  earlier  than  the 
fieldfare,  and,  like  it,  congregates  in  large  flocks. 
It  has  an  exquisite  song,  which  it  pours  forth 
from  the  summit  of  a  high  tree,  gladdening  the 
woods  of  the  North. 

Red-wood,  the  heart-wood  of  Adenanthera 
pavonina  ( Leguminosce ),  a  large  tree  growing  in 
India. 

Redwood  City,  the  county  seat  of  San  Mateo 
county,  Cal.  Pop.,  1,400, 

Redwood  Falls,  the  county  seat  of  Redwood 
county,  Minn  Pop.,  1,200. 

Reed,  in  Music,  the  mouthpiece  of  a  hautboy, 
bassoon,  or  clarionet.  Also,  a  piece  of  metal 
with  a  brass  spring  or  tongue  attached  to  it  in 
such  a  way  that  the  admission  of  a  current  of 
wind  causes  it  to  vibrate,  and  sound  a  musical 
note.  The  reed  is  of  two  kinds,  the  beating  reed 
and  free  reed. 

Reenforce',  First  and  Second,  in  Guns,  are 
the  two  sections  of  the  length  which  come  next 
the  breech.  The  gun  is  made  thicker  at  these 
parts,  so  as  to  resist  more  effectually  the  explosive 
action  of  the  powder.  The  thickness  of  metal  is 
less  at  the  second  reenforce  than  at  the  first,  the 
powder  being  considered  to  have  already  exerted 
its  greatest  disruptive  force. 

Reformation.  The  Reformation  denotes  the 
great  spiritual  and  ecclesiastical  movement  which 
took  place  in  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  as  the  result  of  which  the  national  churches 
of  Britain,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway,  and 
Holland,  and  of  many  parts  of  Germany  and 
Switzerland,  became  separated  from  the  Church 
of  Rome.  In  other  countries,  such  as  Hungary 
and  France,  the  same  movement  detached  large 
portions  of  the  population  from  the  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  faith,  yet  without  leading  to  a  national  dis¬ 
ruption  with  the  papacy. 

Reformed  Churches,  a  term  employed  in 
what  may  be  called  a  conventional  sense,  not  to 
designate  all  the  Churches  of  the  Reformation, 
but  those  in  which  the  Calvinistic  doctrines  ami 
still  more  the  Calvinistic  polity  prevail,  in  contra¬ 
distinction  to  the  Lutheran. 

Refrain'  (Fr.),  otherwise  called  the  burden  of 
a  song,  a  part  of  a  song  which  is  repeated  at  the 
close  of  every  stanza. 

Relrig'erants.  This  term  is  applied  in  medi 
cine  both  to  internal  and  external  cooling  reme¬ 
dies.  The  following  are  the  refrigerants  in  most 
common  use  for  internal  administration:  citric 
and  tartaric  acids  taken  in  combination  with  bi¬ 
carbonate  of  potash  as  effervescing  draughts, 
ripe  oranges,  lemons  (in  the  form  of  lemonade), 
chlorate  of  potash  (ten  grains  dissolved  in  water, 
and  sweetened  with  syrup,  to  be  taken  every  sec¬ 
ond  hour),  and  nitrate  of  potash,  which  may  be 
taken  in  the  same  manner  as  the  chlorate,  or  as 
niter-whey,  which  is  prepared  by  boiling  two 
drachms  of  niter  in  a  pint  of  new  nvlk;  the 
strained  milk  may  be  given  in  frequent  doses  of 
two  or  three  ounces.  Many  European  physi¬ 


cians  regard  oxalic  acid  in  the  form  of  lemonade 
as  the  best  of  all  the  refrigerants.  Its  poisonous 
character  must  not  be  forgotten,  but  five  grains 
dissolved  in  half  a  pint  (or  more)  of  water  may  be 
taken,  in  divided  doses,  in  the  twenty-four  hours, 
with  perfect  safety.  The  following  remarks  on 
the  external  application  of  refrigerants  are  for 
the  most  part  condensed  from  Mr.  Simon's  able 
article  on  “Inflammation.”  Cold,  continuously 
applied,  is  the  sedative  of  every  vital  manifesta¬ 
tion;  and  it  may  be  regarded  as  being  in  direct 
and  essential  opposition  to  the  causes  of  inflam¬ 
mation;  and  as  it  is  thus  an  antidote  to  the  causes 
of  inflammation,  rather  than  a  remedy  for  the 
resulting  changes,  so,  in  order  to  get  full  advan¬ 
tage  from  its  use,  it  should  be  employed  from 
the  moment  when  these  causes  begin  to  operate. 
In  most  cases,  local  cooling  is  best  effected  by 
water  of  the  desired  temperature.  Cloths  wetted 
with  it  are  spread  over  the  surface  which  is  to  be 
acted  on,  their  original  low  temperature  being 
retained  either  by  their  being  continuously 
dripped  upon  by  means  of  a  bundle  of  threads 
inserted  in  a  reservoir  of  cold  water,  and  acting 
like  a  siphon,  or  by  their  being  frequently  re- 
wetted  or  changed.  Their  surface  should  be 
exposed  as  freely  as  possible  to  the  air,  so  as  to 
secure  ample  space  for  evaporation.  Both  the 
degree  of  cold  and  the  period  of  its  application, 
should  to  a  considerable  degree  be  influenced  by 
the  sensations  of  the  patient.  When  its  applica¬ 
tion  gives  comfort,  it  is  almost  certain  to  be  doing 
good;  and  in  most  cases  where  it  gives  discom¬ 
fort,  it  is  doing  harm. 

Refugio,  the  county  seat  of  Refugio  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  550. 

Regens 'burg,  or  Ratisbon  (Lat.  Reginum, 
Radespona ),  the  capital  of  a  Bavarian  province, 
stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  sixty- 
five  miles  north  northeast  of  Munich.  Pop. 
(1880),  34,51G. 

Reg'iment,  in  all  modern  armies,  is  a  colonel’s 
command,  and  the  largest  permanent  association 
of  soldiers.  Regiments  may  be  combined  into 
brigades,  brigades  into  divisions  and  divisions 
into  corps  or  armies;  but  these  combinations  are 
but  temporary,  while  in  the  regiment  the  same 
officers  serve  continually,  and  in  command  of  the 
same  body  of  men.  The  strength  of  infantry 
regiments  in  our  army  is  ten  companies  of  fifty 
men  each,  and  of  cavalry  regiments,  twelve  com¬ 
panies  of  sixty-five  men  each.  In  time  of  war, 
however,  these  companies  may  be  increased  to 
100  men  each  by  order  of  the  President. 

Registers  of  Voice,  a  term  applied  to  the 
different  kinds  of  sound  distinguishable  in  the 
graduated  scale  of  notes  produced  by  any  indi¬ 
vidual  voice.  These  sounds  which,  like  the 
ordinary  sounds  of  speech,  proceed  naturally  and 
freely  from  the  voice,  constitute  what  is  called 
the  chest  voice.  By  means  of  a  strained  con¬ 
traction  of  the  glottis,  notes  may  be  produced  of 
a  higher  pitch  than  those  of  the  chest  voice:  these 
are  called  falsetto  or  head  voice,  and  have  a 
peculiar  flute  or  flageolet-like  quality  of  their 
own. 

Reg 'let,  a  flat,  narrow  molding  rising  equally 
on  both  sides.  It  is  used  to  separate  panels,  and 
to  form  frets,  etc.  Also  a  thin  wooden  slat  or 
strip  used  by  printers  to  space  between  lines, 
where  more  white  is  desirable  than  is  shown  by 
the  thin  metal  strips  which  they  call  “  leads.” 

Regnault,  Henri  Victor,  a  distinguished 
recent  French  chemist  and  physicist,  was  born  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1810.  He  died  in  January, 
1878. 

Regular  Plane  Figures  are  those  surfaces 
whose  perimeters  are  equilateral  and  equiangular 
polygons.  They  are  named  according  to  the 
number  of  sides  which  compose  the  perimeter, 
being  triangles,  squares,  pentagons,  hexagons, 
etc.,  according  as  they  have  3,  4,  5,  6,  etc.,  sides 
respectively. 

llegulus,  a  term  in  Metallurgy,  which  is  now 
used  in  a  generic  sense  for  metals  in  different 
stages  of  purity,  but  which  still  retain,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  the  impurities  they  con¬ 
tained  in  the  state  of  ore. 

Reichstadt,  Napoleon,  Francois  Charles 
Joseph,  Duke  of,  described  by  the  Bonapartists 
as  Napoleon  II.,  was  the  son  of  the  first  Na 


REIDSVILLE. 


623 


REPRODUCTION. 


poleon  by  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria,  was  born  at 
Paris,  March  20,  1811,  and  died  July  22,  1832. 

Reidsville,  the  county  seat  of  Tattnall  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  106. 

Reign  of  Terror,  the  name  given  to  that 
period  in  the  history  of  France  when  the  Revolu¬ 
tionary  Government,  under  the  guidance  of  Maxi- 
niilien  Robespierre,  supported  itself  by  the  pure 
operation  of  terror,  exterminating  with  the  guillo¬ 
tine  all  the  enemies,  or  supposed  enemies,  of  the 
Democratic  dictatorship. 

Reindeer  ( Cervus  tarandus  or  Tarandus  rangi- 
fer),  a  species  of  deer,  a  native  chiefly  of  the 
arctic  regions;  by  far  the  most  valuable  and  im¬ 
portant  of  all  the  species  of  deer,  and  the  only 
one  which  has  been  thoroughly  domesticated  and 
brought  into  service  by  man.  It  is  found  wild  in 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  in  Spitzbergen,  and 
in  Greenland. 

Reindeer  Moss  ( Cenomyce  rangiferina  or  da¬ 
do  nia  rangiferina),  a  lichen  of  great  importance 
to  the  Laplanders  and  other  inhabitants  of  the 
northernmost  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  as 
forming  the  chief  winter  food  of  the  reindeer.  It 
is  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  but  is 
most  abundant  in  the  arctic  regions. 

Relapsing  Fever  usually  begins  suddenly 
with  rigors,  a  sense  of  chilliness  and  frontal  head¬ 
ache.  Febrile  reaction  soon  sets  in;  the  tongue  is 
coated  with  a  thick,  moist,  whitish  fur;  and  the 
skin  is  often  so  yellow  as  to  approach  to  jaundice 
(a  phenomenon  that  never  occurs  in  typhus  or 
typhoid  fever).  By  the  fifth  or  sixth  day,  there 
is  usually  delirium.  After  the  above  described 
symptoms  have  lasted  for  a  period  varying  from 
five  to  eight  days,  generally  on  the  seventh  day, 
a  sudden  change  takes  place.  This  change  com¬ 
mences  with  a  copious  perspiration,  which  is  fol¬ 
lowed  by  a  rapid  falling  of  the  pulse  to  its 
healthy  rate  (or  even  lower),  and  the  patient 
appears  nearly  well.  But  from  the  fifth  to  the 
eighth  day  of  this  seeming  convalescence,  a  sud¬ 
den  relapse  occurs,  and  all  the  primary  symptoms 
return;  these  run  a  rather  shorter  course  than 
before,  and  again  terminate  in  sweating  and  in  a 
second  convalescence,  which  is  in  most  cases  per¬ 
manent  The  relapse  sometimes,  however,  occurs 
three  or  even  four  times.  Death  is  a  rare  termin¬ 
ation  of  relapsing  fever;  and  when  it  does  occur, 
it  is  usually  before  the  seventh  day  of  the  disease. 
No  special  anatomical  lesion  is  observed  in  the 
bodies  of  those  who  succumb  to  this  disease,  but 
enlargement  of  the  spleen  is  by  no  means  uncom¬ 
mon.  The  treatment  is  simple.  The  bowels 
should  be  opened  at  the  commencement  of  the 
attack  by  calomel  and  rhubarb,  and,  if  necessary, 
kept  open  subsequently  with  castor-oil  or  saline 
aperients.  The  headache  must  be  encountered  by 
leeches  or  cupping,  if  the  patient  is  robust;  and 
by  blisters  or  dry  cupping,  if  he  can  not  bear  the 
loss  of  blood.  The  vomiting  is  often  hard  to 
check;  if  effervescing  draughts  fail,  it  may  some¬ 
times  be  combated  by  calomel  and  opium  com¬ 
bined  in  pills. 

Rel'ative  Keys,  in  Music,  the  keys  most 
nearly  related  to  any  key  whose  scales  have  the 
greater  number  of  their  notes  in  common  with  it. 

Relative  Pronouns  differ  from  personal  and 
other  pronouns  in  that,  besides  standing  for 
nouns,  they  at  the  same  time  have  the  power  of 
conjunctions.  They  join  senti  nces  or  clauses  by 
relating,  or  referring  back  directly,  to  something 
just  named.  They  are;  who,  which,  and  that. 

Rembrandt  Hermanszoon,  commonly  called 
Rembrandt  van  Riiyn,  the  most  celebrated  of 
the  Dutch  painters,  and  founder  of  the  Rembrandt 
school,  was  born  either  July  15,  1606,  or  in  1608. 
As  examples  of  composition,  expression,  color, 
and  light  and  shade,  his  works  rank  with  those  of 
the  greatest  artists.  He  died  in  1669. 

Remit'tent  Fever  is  one  of  the  three  varieties 
of  fever  arising  from  malaria  or  marsh-poison — 
the  two  others  being  intermittent  fever,  or  ague, 
and  yellow  fever.  In  its  milder  forms,  it  scarcely 
differs  from  severe  intermittent  fever;  while  in  its 
more  serious  form,  it  may  approximate  closely  to 
yellow  fever.  The  attack  may  be  either  sudden  or 
preceded  by  languor,  chilliness,  and  a  general  feel¬ 
ing  of  malaria.  Then  comes  a  cold  stage,  similar  to 
that  occurring  in  ague,  and  usually  of  short  dura¬ 
tion.  This  is  followed  by  a  hot  stage,  in  which  the 
symptoms  are  more  intense  than  those  exhibited 


in  the  worst  forms  of  ague.  Giddiness  proceeding 
to  delirium  is  not  uncommon,  and  is  a  bad  symp¬ 
tom;  while,  in  other  cases,  drowsiness  or  lethargy 
is  one  of  the  most  marked  symptoms.  There  is 
often  great  tenderness  or  pain  in  the  region  of  the 
stomach,  and  vomiting — the  vomited  matter  fre¬ 
quently  containing  file  or  blood.  A  remission  of 
these  symptoms  occurs,  in  mild  cases,  in  six  or 
seven  hours;  but,  in  severe  cases,  the  paroxysm 
may  continue  for  twenty-four  hours  or  longer. 
The  remission  is  sometimes,  but  not  always,  ac¬ 
companied  with  sweating.  The  duration  of  the 
remission  is  as  varied  as  that  of  the  paroxysm, 
varying  from  two  or  three  to  thirty  hours,  or 
even  longer.  The  fever  then  returns  with  in¬ 
creased  severity,  and  without  any  cold  stage;  and 
then  the  paroxysms  and  remissions  proceed,  most 
commonly  according  to  no  recognizable  law,  till 
the  case  terminates  either  fatally  or  in  convales¬ 
cence.  In  favorable  cases,  convalescence  is 
usually  established  in  about  a  week.  The  severer 
forms  of  this  fever  are  often  accompanied  with 
more  or  less  jaundice,  and  hence  the  disease  lias 
received  the  name  of  bilious  remittent  fever.  It 
is  also  known  as  jungle  fever,  lake  fever,  and  the 
African,  Bengal,  Levant,  Walcheren,  and  other 
similar  local  fevers,  are  merely  synonyms  of  this 
disease.  The  disease  is  most  severe  in  Southern 
Asia,  Western  Africa,  Central  America,  and  the 
West  India  Islands.  The  first  object  of  treat¬ 
ment  is  to  reduce  the  circulation  during  the  hot 
stage.  This  is  done  by  bleeding,  followed  by  a 
dose  of  five  grains  each  of  calomel  and  James’ 
powder,  and,  after  an  interval  of  three  or  four 
hours,  by  a  sharp  cathartic— as,  for  instance,  the 
ordinary  black  draught.  On  the  morning  of  the 
following  day,  the  remission  will  probably  be 
more  complete,  when  quinine,  either  alone  or  in 
combination  with  the  purgative  mixture,  should 
be  freely  and  repeatedly  administered.  A  mixt¬ 
ure  of  antimonial  wine  with  acetate  of  potash 
should  also  be  given  every  two  or  three  hours,  so 
as  to  soften  the  skin,  and  increase  the  action  of  the 
kidneys.  A  timely  removal  from  all  malarious 
influence,  by  a  change  of  climate  or  a  sea-voyage, 
is  of  the  highest  importance,  and  is  more  likely 
than  any  other  means  to  prevent  fatal  relapses 
into  other  forms  of  fever,  or  into  dysentery. 

Rem'ora,  or  Sucking-fish  (. Echeneis ),  a  genus 
of  fishes  which  Cuvier  placed  among  ihe  Discoboli , 
but  which  Miiller  assigns  to  the  order  Anacanlhs, 
and  regards  as  constituting  an  entire  family, 
Kcheneidce. 

Remoulade,  a  term  in  Cookery  for  a  kind  of 
salad  dressing,  consisting  of  the  yolks  of  two  eggs, 
boiled  hard;  flour  of  mustard,  about  a  teaspoon¬ 
ful,  rubbed  up  with  three  or  four  tablespoonfuls 
of  oil;  when  they  are  thoroughly  incorporated, 
add  two  teaspoonfuls  of  vinegar  and  a  little  pep¬ 
per,  and  other  flavoring  materials  according  to 
taste. 

Remusat,  Madame  DE,was  born  at  Paris,  Jan. 
5,  1780.  Her  maiden  name  was  Gravier  de 
Vergennes.  In  1796  she  married  the  Count  de 
Remusat,  who  held  various  important  posts  under 
Napoleon.  In  1803,  Madame  de  Remusat,  who 
was  remarkable  for  wit  and  ability,  became 
maid  of  honor  to  Josephine,  and  remained  in  her 
service  till  the  divorce. 

Renaissance',  the  name  given  to  the  style  of 
art,  especially  architecture,  in  Europe,  which 
succeeded  the  Gothic,  and  preceded  the  rigid 
copyism  of  the  classic  revival  in  the  first  half  of 
the  present  century.  The  Tuileries,  wrecked  by 
the  Commune,  showed  many  of  the  defects  of  the 
old  school.  From  this  debased  and  meaningless 
style,  architecture  gradually  recovered,  and 
during  the  eighteenth  century,  a  purer  style  was 
introduced.  The  classic  element  now  began  to 
prevad.  Many  large  palaces  are  built  in  this 
style  ;  but,  although  grand  from  their  size,  and 
striking  from  their  richness  and  luxuriance,  they 
are  frequently  tame  and  uninteresting  as  works 
of  art.  The  palace  of  Versailles  is  the  most 
prominent  example.  The  east  front  of  the 
Louvre,  designed  by  Perrault,  is  one  of  the  best 
examples  of  the  style  of  the  age.  Many  elegant 
private  hotels  and  houses  in  Paris  were  erected  at 
this  period.  The  classic  renaissance  was  com¬ 
pleted  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  by 
the  literal  copyism  of  ancient  buildings.  In 
common  with  architecture,  during  the  period  of 


the  renaissance,  painting  and  sculpture,  and  all 
the  other  arts  took  their  models  from  the  classic 


Central  Pavilion  of  the  Tuileries,  as  designed 
by  De  Lorme  (from  Mariette). 


remains  which  were  so  carefully  sought  for  and 
studied. 

Renan,  Joseph  Ernest,  a  renowned  French 
theologian  and  orientalist,  author  of  the  Life  of 
Jesus  Christ ,  was  born  in  1823  at  TrCguier  (Cotes- 
du-Nord),  France. 

Ren 'net  consists  of  the  inner  lining  of  the  true 
stomach  of  the  sucking-calf,  and  depends  for  its 
use  upon  the  acid  gastric  juice  contained  in  it.  It, 
is  prepared  by  removing  the  stomach  from  the 
animal  as  soon  as  killed,  and  scraping  off  the 
outer  skin  and  all  superfluous  fatty  matter.  The 
membrane  is  then  salted  for  some  hours,  and 
stretched  out  to  dry. 

Rennett,  the  common  name,  not  only  in 
English,  but,  with  slight  modifications,  in  French, 
German,  and  other  languages,  of  a  class  of  apples, 
including  many  of  the  most  beautiful  and  pleas¬ 
ant  varieties. 

Reno,  the  county  seat  of  Washoe  county,  Nev. 
Pop.,  3,900. 

Rensselaer,  the  county  seat  of  Jasper  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Replev'in,  in  English  Law,  is  a  form  of  action 
by  which  goods  which  have  been  seized  under  an 
illegal  distress  are  taken  back  (security  being 
given  to  the  amount  for  which  the  goods  were 
distrained),  and- the  action  of  replevin  commenced, 
to  try  the  legality  of  the  seizure. 

Reproduction,  or  the  propagation  of  organ¬ 
ized  beings  in  the  animal  kingdom,  is  accom¬ 
plished  by  three  different  processes.  The  first  of 
the  three  processes  by  which  the  multiplication 
of  individuals  takes  place  consists  in  the  division 
of  one  organism  into  two,  each  of  these,  again, 
dividing  into  two  others,  and  so  on.  This  is 
termed  reproduction  by  fission.  The  second 
mode  of  increase  consists  in  the  formation  of  a 
bud  at  some  part  of  the  body  of  the  animal.  This 
bud  gradually  approximates  in  form  to  that  of 
the  parent  from  which  it  springs;  its  pedicle  or 
stem  gradually  disappears;  and  the  liberated  bud 
ultimately  assumes  a  perfect  form,  resembling  in 
all  respects  the  parent  from  which  it  sprung 
(gemmation).  The  third  mode  is  far  the  most 
complicated.  In  it  the  new  organism  results 
from  a  series  of  changes  occurring  in  an  impreg- 


REPTILES. 


624 


REST-HARROW. 


nated  eg g  or  ovum.  For  this  process,  distinct 
sexual  organs,  both  male  and  female  (which, 
however,  may  be  associated  in  the  same  individ¬ 
ual,  although  in  all  the  higher  animals  they 


Myriana,  with  six  new  individuals  formed  on  it. 


occur  in  distinct  individuals),  are  required;  a 
female  organ  for  the  production  of  cells  termed 
germs,  and  a  male  organ  for  the  production  of 
certain  cells  termed  spermatozoa.  It  is  from  the 
union  (either  within  or  without  the  body)  and  the 
mutual  action  of  these  cells — the  germ  and  the 
spermatozoon — that  the  impregnated  ovum  re¬ 
sults.  The  new  resulting  body  is  altogether  dif¬ 
ferent  from  either  of  the  cells  which  took  part  in 
its  production.  This  is  the  ordinary  form  of  re¬ 
production  in  all  the  higher  animals,  and  may  be 
termed  true  generation,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  previous  forms  of  reproduction  by  multiplica¬ 
tion. 

Reptiles  (Lat.  repo,  I  creep),  a  class  of  verte¬ 
brates  distinguished  from  amphibians  by  never 
possessing  gills,  but  by  breathing  by  lungs 


Anatomy  of  a  Serpent. 

t,  tongue  and  glottis;  ce,  oesophagus  (partly  removed,  to 
show  heart,  etc.);  tr,  trachea;  ca,  ca,  carotid  arteries; 
c ,  left  auricle;  c',  right  auricle;  vt ,  ventricle  of  heart; 
vc,  vena  cava  inferior;  p,  p,  principal  lung;  p',  rudi¬ 
mentary  lung;  i,  stomach;  int,  intestines;  cl,  cloaca; 
an,  anus;  o,  ovary;  o’o’,  ova. 


throughout  life,  by  the  usual  presence  of  an  exo¬ 
skeleton,  by  the  possession  of  only  one  occipital 
condyle,  and  numerous  other  characters — chiefly 
osteological. 

Repub 'lie  (Lat.  res  publica,  the  public  good), 
a  political  community  in  which  the  sovereign 
power  is  lodged, not  in  a  hereditary  chief, but  either 
in  certain  privileged  members  of  the  community, 
or  in  the  whole  community.  According  to  the 
constitution  of  the  governing  body,  a  republic 
may  therefore  vary  from  the  most  exclusive  oli¬ 
garchy  to  a  pure  democracy.  The  several  repub¬ 
lics  of  Greece,  and  that  of  Rome  were,  at  the 
outset  at  least,  aristocratic  communities.  The 
mediaeval  republics  of  Venice,  Genoa,  and  the 


other  Italian  towns  were  also  more  or  less  aristo¬ 
cratic.  The  most  important  of  modern  republics 
is  that  of  the  United  States — dating  from  its  sep¬ 
aration  from  Great  Britain — where  pure  democ¬ 
racy  has  been  tried  on  a  scale  unknown  elsewhere. 
Switzerland  and  the  United  States  of  America 
are  federal  republics,  consisting  of  a  number  of 
separate  States  bound  together  by  a  treaty,  so  as 
to  present  to  the  external  world  the  appearance  of 
one  State  with  a  central  government,  which  has 
the  power  of  enacting  laws  and  issuing  orders 
which  are  directly  binding  on  the  individual 
citizens. 

Republican,  a  party  name  in  American  poli¬ 
tics,  which  has  had  at  different  times  different 
significations.  From  1860  to  1884  it  had  control 
of  the  government,  and  again  elected  its  national 
ticket  in  1888. 

Re'quieni  (Lat.  requies,  rest),  a  dirge  or  solemn 
service  for  the  dead  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  It  consists  in  the  celebration  of  the 
mass  Pro  Fidelibus  Dcfunctis  (forthe  faithful 
departed),  the  first  words  of  the  introit  of  which 
are  Requiem  ce  tern  am. 

Rere'dos(Fr.  behind  the  back),  the  wall  at  the 
back  of  an  altar,  scat,  large  fireplace,  etc.  In 
churches,  the  reredos  is  usually  in  the  form  of  a 
screen  detached  from  the  east  wall,  and  is  invari¬ 
ably  ornamented  with  niches,  statues,  etc.,  or 
with  paintings  or  tapestry. 

Re'scripts  (Lat.  rescripta),  answers  of  the 
popes  and  emperors  to  questions  in  jurisprudence 
officially  propounded  to  them.  Rescripta  principis 
were  one  of  the  authoritative  sources  of  the  civil 
law,  and  consisted  of  the  answers  of  the  emperor 
to  those  who  consulted  him,  either  as  public 
functionaries  or  as  individuals,  on  questions  of 
law. 

Resec 'tion,  or  Excision  of  Joints,  is  an  oper¬ 
ation  in  which  the  diseased  bone  of  a  joint  is  cut 
out,  in  place  of  cutting  off  the  whole  limb.  The 
operation  has  been  performed  on  the  ankle-joint, 
the  elbow,  hip-joint,  knee,  and  shoulder.  The 
object  of  the  operation  is  to  produce  a  firm  and 
useful  limb,  slightly  shortened,  and  with  entire 
bony  union  or  fibrous  union,  admitting  of  some 
small  degree  of  motion  at  the  situation  of  the 
joint. 

Reseda 'cere,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  mostly  herbaceous;  having  alternate 
leaves;  terminal  spikes  of  hermaphrodite  irregular 
flowers. 

Res'ins,  a  class  of  natural  vegetable  products 
composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 
They  are  generally  obtained  by  making  incisions 
into  the  wood  of  the  trees  which  produce  them; 
sometimes,  however,  they  exude  spontaneously, 
and  in  other  cases  require  to  be  extracted  from 
the  wood  by  boiling  alcohol.  The  resins  are  ex¬ 
tensively  employed  in  medicine;  and  in  addition 
to  the  almost  innumerable  applications  of  caout¬ 
chouc  and  gutta  percha,  various  resins  are  of 
service  in  the  preparation  of  varnishes,  soaps, 
pigments,  artificial  light  (resin-gas),  etc.  Various 
fossil  resins  are  known,  of  which  the  most  im¬ 
portant  is  amJx.T.  The  common  resin,  or  rosin, 
of  commerce  exudes  in  a  semi-fluid  state  from 
several  species  of  pine. 

Respect ding,  or  Respectant,  in  Heraldry,  a 
term  used  to  describe  two  animals  borne  face  to 
face.  Beasts  of  prey  rampant  when  so  borne,  are 
however,  said  to  be  rampant  combatant. 

Respira'tion,  Organs  and  Process  of.  The 
great  objects  of  respiration  or  breathing  are,  first, 
the  introduction  into  the  system  of  oxygen,  by 
which  the  products  resulting  from  the  disintegra¬ 
tion  or  breaking  up  of  the  muscular,  nervous,  and 
other  tissues  of  the  body  are  converted  into  com¬ 
pounds,  which  are  easily  eliminated  or  removed 
by  the  excreting  organs  (as  the  kidneys,  lungs, 
skin,  etc.);  and  secondly,  the  removal  of  the  most 
noxious,  and  consequently,  the  most  important  of 
these  products,  carbonic  acid,  through  special  re¬ 
spiratory  organs,  which,  in  most  air-breathing 
animals,  except  insects,  are  lungs-  while  in  water- 
breathing  animals,  excepting  those  very  low  in 
the  scale  of  organization,  they  take  the  form  of 
branchiae,  or  gills.  In  all  the  vertebrated  animals, 
excepting  in  fishes,  and  in  the  amphibians  during 
their  young  state,  the  respiratory  organs  are 
more  or  less  complicated  internal  air-sacs,  com¬ 
municating  through  the  throat  with  the  external 


atmosphere.  The  simplest  known  form  in  which 
these  lungs  or  internal  air-sftes  exist  is  as  a  pair  of 
elastic  membranous  bags  placed  close  beneath 
the  vertebral  column,  communicating  with  the 
surrounding  atmosphere  by  a  tube  known  as  the 


T,  trachia;  bb,  bronchial  tubes;  B,  right  and  left  bronchi; 

LLL,  mass  or  spongy  part  of  lung . 

windpipe,  or  trachea,  which  opens  through  the 
larynx,  or  organ  of  voice,  into  the  throat.  "These 
bags  are  lined  by  a  delicate,  thin,  and  moist 
membrane,  called  a  mucous  membrane,  embedded 
in,  and  partly  beneath  which  is  a  vascular  net¬ 
work,  through  which  all  the  blood  in  the  animal’s 
body  is  in  turn  driven  by  the  heart.  The  moist 
partition  between  the  blood  in  this  network  and 
the  air  in  the  interior  of  the  lungs  is  so  thin,  that 
after  having  (by  its  moisture)  dissolved  the  oxy¬ 
gen  of  the  air,  it  permits  of  its  passage  into  the 
moving  current  of  blood,  while  through  the  same 
agencies  carbonic  acid  simultaneously  passes  in  an 
opposite  direction  from  the  blood  into  the  air. 
To  complete  the  apparatus,  there  are  certain 
muscles  under  whose  action  the  bags  are  emptied 
of  their  vitiated  contents,  and  refilled  with  pure 
air.  In  the  more  highly  organized  animals,  and 
in  man,  we  find  these  elementary  essential  parts 
complicated  and  modified  in  a  great  variety  of 
ways. 

Respiration,  Artificial,  is  required  in  all 
cases  of  suspended  animation  from  drowning, 
noxious  gasses,  chloroform,  etc.  It  may  be  per¬ 
formed  either  by  forcing  air  into  the  lungs  bjr 
means  of  a  pipe  passed  through  the  mouth  or  the 
nostril  into  the  glottis,  or  (which  is  usually  pre¬ 
ferable)  by  imitating  the  natural  expansion  of  the 
chest  by  muscular  effort.  The  best  mode  of 
forcing  air  into  the  lungs  is  by  the  use  of  a  small 
pair  of  bellows,  with  the  nozzle  inserted  in  one  of 
the  patient’s  nostrils.  The  air  should  be  driven 
into  the  lungs  with  extreme  gentleness,  the  lar¬ 
ynx  being  pressed  backward  against  the  spine, 
so  that  the  air  ‘may  not  go  into  the  oesophagus 
and  stomach.  Gentle  but  firm  pressure  must  be 
then  applied  to  the  chest  to  expel  the  introduced 
air,  and  fresh  air  again  driven  in;  and  this  pro¬ 
cess  of  introducing  and  expelling  the  air  alter¬ 
nately  must  be  continued  until  either  natural 
respiratory  efforts  appear,  or  the  case  becomes 
hopeless.  In  another  method  the  patient  is  laid 
on  his  back  on  a  plane,  inclined  a  little  from  the 
feet  upward,  the  shoulders  are  gently  raised  by  a 
firm  cushion  being  placed  under  them;  the  tongue 
is  brought  forward,  so  as  to  project  a  little  from 
the  side  of  the  mouth.  The  operator  then  grasps 
the  patient’s  arms  just  above  the  elbows,  and 
raises  them  till  they  nearly  meet  above  the  head. 
This  action  imitates  inspiration.  The  patient’s 
arms  are  then  t  urned  down  and  firmly  pressed  for 
a  moment  against  the  sides  of  the  chest,  A  deep 
expiration  is  thus  imitated;  and  these  two  sets  of 
movements  should  be  perseveringly  continued  at 
the  rate  of  about  fifteen  times  in  a  minute. 

Respond',  in  Gothic  Architecture,  a  half-pier 
attached  to  a  wall  and  supporting  an  arch,  etc. 

Rest-harrow  {Ononis),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Leguminosm,  sub-order  Papil- 
ionaceee,  having  a  five-cleft  bell-shaped  calyx,  the 


RESTIACE^E. 


625 


RHEUMATISM. 


standard  of  the  corolla  large  and  striated,  the  keel 
beaked,  the  pod  turgid  and  few-seeded. 

Restia'c  ae,  a  natural  order  of  endogenous 
plants,  nearly  allied  to  Cyperacea,  mostly  natives 
of  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  and  abounding  at 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  Australia.  They 
are  herbaceous  plants,  or  sometimes  half-shrubby, 
have  simple  stems,  and  narrow  leaves;  and  are 
hard,  wiry,  and  rush -like. 

Restigouche,  a  river  in  the  northwest  of  New 
Brunswick,  Canada,  forms  for  about  fifty  miles  the 
boundary  between  that  province  and  the  Province 
of  Quebec.  It  is  200  miles  in  length,  and  falls 
into  Chaleur  Bay,  which  opens  into  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence.  For  the  last  eighteen  miles  it  is 
navigable  for  the  largest  ships. 

Retention  of  Urine  is  the  term  employed  in 
medicine  to  signify  a  want  of  power  to  discharge 
the  urine  from  the  bladder,  and  it  must  be  care¬ 
fully  distinguished  from  a  far  more  serious  affec¬ 
tion  known  as  suppression  of  urine,  in  which  also 
no  urine  is  passed,  because  in  this  case  there  is 
none  in  the  bladder.  Retention  may  arise  either 
from  change  of  structure  of  the  parts  concerned 
in  the  expulsion  of  the  urine,  or  from  mere  dis¬ 
ordered  function  unaccompanied  by  change.  The 
former  are  termed  organic,  and  the  latter  func¬ 
tional  causes  of  retention.  If  the  symptoms  are 
not  severe,  and  there  is  no  evidence  of  old  per¬ 
manent  stricture,  a  hot  bath,  combined  with  the 
administration  of  the.  tincture  of  muriate  of  iron, 
in  doses  of  ten  minims,  taken  every  ten  minutes 
in  thin  gruel  or  in  barley-water,  will  often  give 
relief.  Sometimes  a  full  opiate  administered  by 
the  mouth,  or  preferably  as  an  enema,  or  the 
inhalation  of  a  few  whiffs  of  chloroform,  will,  by 
allaying  the  spasmodic  action,  give  immediate 
relief.  If  these  means  fail,  surgical  assistance 
must  be  at  once  procured,  and  the  bladder  evacu¬ 
ated  by  a  catheter — an  operation  often  requiring 
delicate  manipulation.  If  these  means  fail,  which 
only  happens  when  the  spasm  is  associated  with 
old-standing  disease  of  the  urethra,  the  surgeon 
must  either  puncture  the  bladder  through  the 
rectum  or  above  the  pubes  or  make  an  incision 
into  the  urethra  either  at  or  behind  the  seat  of  the 
stricture.  In  case  of  paralysis  of  the  muscular 
coat  of  the  bladder  the  urine  must  for  a  time  be 
drawn  away  with  a  catheter. 

Retire  'ment,  Amiv  and  Navy.  A  law  was 
passed  by  Congress  in  1882  which  provides  that 
officers  who  have  served  in  the  army  or  navy 
thirty  years  may  be  retired,  with  the  approval  of 
the  President;  that  officers  who  have  served  forty 
years  may  retire  without  such  approval;  that  ail 
officers  shall  be  retired  at  the  age  of  sixty-four  and 
that  those  who  have  become  disabled  in  the  service 
may  be  retired  at  any  time  on  the  recommenda¬ 
tion  of  a  retiring  board,  with  the  approval  of  the 
President.  All  officers  retired  under  any  of  these 
provisions  receive  three-quarters  pay  while  in 
retirement.  Enlisted  men  are  retired  on  full  pay 
after  thirty  years’  service,  or  at  the  age  of  sixty- 
four  or  on  account  of  disability  incurred  iu  the 
service. 

Retort',  a  vessel  employed  by  chemists  for  the 
purpose  of  distilling  or  effecting  decomposition 
by  the  aid  of  heat.  It  may  be  made  of  glass, 
earthenware,  or  metal,  according  to  the  purposes 
for  which  it  is  to  be  employed. 

Retriev'er,  a  dog  specially  trained  to  go  in 
quest  of  game  which  a  sportsman  has  shot,  and 
particularly  useful  on  fatiguing  ground  or  in 
marshy  places.  The  retriever  is  generally  cross¬ 
bred,  the  two  recognized  crosses  being  that 
between  the  Newfoundland  and  setter,  which  has 
the  coat  wavy,  and  that  between  the  Newfound¬ 
land  and  water-spaniel,  which  has  the  coat  curly. 
The  favorite  colour  is  black. 

Reuss,  the  name  of  two  sovereign  principali¬ 
ties  of  Germany,  bet  ween  the  Kingdom  of  Saxony 
and  the  Prussian  Duchy  of  that  name,  and  sepa¬ 
rated  from  each  other  by  the  circle  of  Neustadt, 
an  out’ving  portion  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Saxe- 
Weimar. 

Reveille,  in  an  Army,  is  the  beat  of  drums  at 
break  of  day,  to  warn  the  troops  that  the  night 
is  past,  and  the  sentries  to  forbear  from  chal¬ 
lenging. 

Rev'el,  or  Reval,  a  Russian  seaport,  capital  of 
Esthonia,  stands  on  a  small  bay  of  the  same  name, 


238  miles  west  southwest  of  St.  Petersburg,  Pop. 
(1880),  50,860. 

Revelation  of  St.  John  ( Apokdlypsis  Toannov), 
the  last  book  of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures. 
It  professes  to  he  the  production  of  St.  John, 
traditionally  known  as  “The  Divine”  {ho  theold- 
go$).  It  has  been  a  subject  of  dispute,  however, 
whether  St.  John,  the  author  of  this  book,  is  the 
beloved  apostle,  the  author  of  the  fourth  gospel 
and  of  the  three  epistles,  or  not. 

llever'beratory  Furnace,  a  furnace  so  con¬ 
structed  that  matter  may  be  heated  in  it  without 
coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  fuel.  It  con¬ 
sists  essentially  of  three  parts — viz.,  a  fireplace  at 
one  end;  in  the  middle,  a  flat  bed  or  sole,  on 
which  the  material  to  be  heated  is  placed;  and  at 
the  other  end,  a  chimney  to  carry  off  the  smoke  or 
fume. 

Reversed,  in  Heraldry.  A  term  applied  to  a 
charge  turned  upside  down. 

Reynolds,  Sib  Joshua,  P.R.A.,  is  generally 
acknowledged  to  be  at  the  head  of  the  English 
school  of  painting;  he  was  born  on  July  1G,  1723, 
and  died  Feb.  23,  1792. 

Rhamna'cete,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  trees  or  shrubs;  often  spiny; 
with  simple,  generally  alternate  leaves,  and  stip¬ 
ules  minute  or  wanting. 

Rhanipsinit  us,  the  Greek  name  of  the  Egyp¬ 
tian  Monarch  Rameses  III.,  first  king  of  the 
twentieth  dynasty,  and  builder  of  the  great  palace 
at  Medinat  Habu.  According  to  Herodotus,  he 
placed  two  colossal  statues  of  25  cubits  high  in 
front  of  the  west  vestibule  of  the  Hephresteum  at 
Memphis.  According  to  Lepsius,  he  reigned 
about  1275  b.c. 

Rlieea  Fiber,  an  exceedingly  valuable  East 
Indian  fibrous  material,  produced  by  one  of  the 
nettle  tribe,  Urtica  lenacissima.  It  is  nearly  like 
the  fiber  of  which  the  Chinese  make  their  cele¬ 
brated  grass  cloth,  or  linen. 

Rlten'ish  Architecture,  the  style  of  the  coun¬ 
tries  bordering  on  the  Rhine  when  the  arts  first 
revived  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
The  earliest  churches  seem  to  have  been  all  circu¬ 
lar,  and  when  this  was  abandoned,  the  circular 


Elevation  of  Church  at  Laach. 

churcn  was  absorbed  into  the  basilica,  or  rectangu¬ 
lar  church,  in  the  form  of  a  western  apse.  Most 
German  churches  thus  have  two  apses — an  east¬ 
ern  and  a  western.  They  also  have  a  number  of 
small  circular  or  octagonal  towers. 

Rhenish  Prussia  (Ger.  Rheinprnmnz  or  Rhein- 
preussen),  the  most  western  and  most  thickly 
peopled  of  the  Provinces  of  Prussia,  lies  along  the 
banks  of  the  Rhine,  and  is  bounded  on  the  west 
by  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands.  Area,  10,400 
square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  4,074,000. 

Rhe'sus  Monkey  (.1/amcMs  Rhesus),  an  Indian 
monkey,  extending  further  north  than  any  other 
species  except  the  Entellus  and,  like  it,  partially 
migratory. 

Rhet'oric  (Gr.  pyropiece,  rhetorih j,  in  its 


broadest  sense  may  be  regarded  as  the  theory  of 
eloquence,  whether  spoken  or  written. 

Rhcu'inatism  ( from  the  Gr.  pev/ua,  rlieuma, 
a  flux)  is  a  blood  disease  in  which  inflammation 
of  the  fibrous  tissues  is  the  most  marked  charac¬ 
teristic.  Acute  rheumatism  is  indicated  by  gen¬ 
eral  febrile  symptoms,  redness,  heat,  swelling,  and 
usually  very  intense  pain,  in  and  around  one  or 
more  (generally  several,  either  simultaneously  or 
iu  succession)  of  the  larger  joints,  and  the  disease 
shows  a  tendency  to  shift  from  joint  to  joint. 
The  pulse  is  strong  and  full,  there  is  headache, 
but  seldom  delirium,  unless  the  heart  is  affected; 
the  tongue  is  covered  with  a  creamy,  thick  fur, 
the  tip  and  edges  being  red;  the  urine  is  turbid, 
and  abnormally  acid;  and  the  skin  is  bathed  in  a 
copious  perspiration,  with  so  characteristic  a 
smell  (resembling  that  of  sour-milk),  that  one  can 
often  recognize  the  disease  almost  before  he  sees 
the  patient.  The  joints  are  extremely  painful, 
and  the  pain  is  much  increased  by  pressure.  The 
only  known  exciting  cause  of  acute  rheumatism  is 
exposure  to  cold,  and  especially  to  cold  combined 
with  moisture.  The  danger  in  cases  of  acute  rheu¬ 
matism  arises  almost  entirely  from  the  disease  go¬ 
ing  from  the  joints  to  the  heart,  and  settingup  peri¬ 
carditis.  Bleeding  if  the  subject  is  young  and 
robust,  and  the  disease  is  not  too  far  advanced,  is 
the  best  initial  step,  but  if  these  conditions  are  not 
present,  purging  is  probably  almost  as  efficacious 
as  blood  letting,  at  the  beginning  of  the  disease. 
From  five  grains  to  a  scruple  of  calomel  given 
every  night,  and  followed  in  the  morning,  for 
three  or  four  days  in  succession,  by  an  ordinary 
black  draught,  will  sometimes  dislodge  an  enor¬ 
mous  amount  of  dark  and  foul  secretions  from  the 
liver  and  bowels,  and  give  marked  relief.  Opium 
(or  morphia)  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  remedies 
in  this  disease,  from  its  power  of  allaying  pain 
and  procuring  sleep.  Colchicum  sometimes  has 
a  marvelous  effect  in  subduing  the  disease,  but  it 
must  be  given  with  extreme  care,  in  consequence 
of  the  prostration  to  which  an  over-dose  gives  rise. 
In  conjunction  with  iodide  of  potassium  (say  2 
ounces  wine  of  colchicum,  |  ounce  iodide  potas¬ 
sium,  with  enough  syrup  liquorice  to  make  a  six- 
ounce  mixture)in  teaspoon  doses 
three  times  a  day  it  is  most  effi¬ 
cient.  The  bicarbonate  of  potash 
in  solution  has  been  largely  ad¬ 
ministered  in  average  doses  of 
two  scruples  every  two  hours,  by 
night  and  day,  for  several  days 
together.  The  medicine  soon 
rendered  the  urine  alkaline,  but 
did  not  irritate  either  the  bladder 
or  the  intestines.  It  is  highly 
recommended.  A  mixed  alka¬ 
line  and  opiate  solution  is  far 
more  powerful  than  any  other  in 
allaying  acute  rheumatic  pain. 
The  solution  is  made  by  dissolv¬ 
ing  half  an  ounce  (or  rather 
more)  of  carbonate  of  potash  or 
soda  in  nine  ounces  of  hot  water, 
and  adding  six  fluid  drachms  of 
liquor  opii  sedn'tivus.  Thin  flan¬ 
nel,  soaked  in  this  hot  lotion,  is 
applied  to  the  affected  joints,  and 
the  whole  is  wrapped  in  a  cover¬ 
ing  of  thin  oil  cloth.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  chronic  rheuma¬ 
tism,  which  are  sufficiently  dis¬ 
tinct  to  require  notice.  In  one 
there  is  considerable  local  heat 
and  swelling,  although  unaccom¬ 
panied  with  any  corresponding  constitutional  dis¬ 
turbance;  while  in  the  other  the  patient  complains 
of  coldness  (rather  than  heat)  and  stiffness  of  the 
affected  joints.  Patients  of  this  latter  kind  derive 
benefit  from  living  in  a  warm  climate,  from  warm 
clothing,  warm  bathing,  especially  in  salt  water 
at  a  temperature  of  mt  less  than  100°,  the  hot -ait- 
bath,  etc.  Friction  with  some  stimulating  lini¬ 
ment,  and  the  pecidiar  manipulation  known  as 
shampooing,  are  here  of  service;  and  among  the 
internal  remedies,  turpentine,  cod-liver  oil,  sul¬ 
phur,  guaiacum,  sarsaparilla,  and  Dover’s  powder 
possess  a  high  reputation.  Muriate  of  ammonia 
is  recommended  as  a  remedy  of  “singular 
efficacy;”  but  of  all  remedies  for  this  affection 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  most  efficacious 


40 


RUIN'. 


626 


RIENZI. 


is  the  iodide  of  potassium,  given  in  five-grain 
doses,  combined  with  a  few  grains  of  carbonate 
of  ammonia  three  times  daily.  A  patient  who  is 
liable  to  attacks  of  chronic  rheumatism  should 
always  wear  flannel  next  to  the  skin  during  the 
day,  and  at  night  he  should  sleep  between  the 
blankets,  abjuring  altogether  the  use  of  sheets. 

Rliin,  Bas  (Lower  Rhine),  formerly  a  frontier 
department  of  France,  and  corresponding  pretty 
nearly  to  the  present  German  administrative 
district  of  Lower  Alsace  (Nieder- Elsas*)  in  the 
imperial  territory  of  Alsace  Lorraine. 

Rliin,  Haut  (Upper  Rhine),  formerly  a  front¬ 
ier  department  in  the  East,  of  France,  now  for 
the  most  part  comprehended  within  the  German 
district  of  Upper  Alsace. 

RliinaiUthus,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Scrophulariacece.  It  is  also  called  cock’s- 
comb,  from  its  fringed  bracts. 

Rhine  (Rheum),  the  most  important  river  in 
Germany,  and  one  of  the  most  noted  in  Europe, 
takes  its  rise  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  the  Grisons, 
and  after  a  north-northwest  course  of  about  850 
miles,  falls  into  the  German  Ocean.  The  area  of 
the  Rhine  basin,  including  its  various  feeders, 
which  have  been  counted  to  the  number  of 
12,000,  is  estimated  at  about  80,000  square  miles. 

Rhinelander,  the  county  seat  of  Oneida 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  500. 

Rhinoc'eros  (Gr.  p/uoS,  nose,  KepoS,  horn),  a 
genus  of  perissodactyle  ungulates,  containing  the 
largest  and  most  powerful  of  terrestrial  mam¬ 
malia,  except  the  elephants.  There  are  at  least 


Rhinoceros  (J{.  inUicus). 


seven  or  eight  existing  species,  all  natives  of  the 
warm  parts  of  Asia,  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and 
Africa  ;  and  numerous  fossil  species  have  been 
discovered  in  the  newest  geological  deposits. 

Rhizop'oda  (Gr.  pi^ov,  rhizon,  a  root,  and 
irovt,  pous,  foot),  an  important  class  of  the  lowest 
of  the  animal  sub-kingdoms,  the  protozoa.  In  all 
the  organisms  of  this  class,  the  body  is  composed 
of  a  simple  gelatinous  substance,  to  which  the 
term  “  sarcode  ”  is  applied;  and  in  all,  locomo¬ 
tion  is  performed  by  the  protrusion  of  processes 
which,  from  their  function,  are  termed  “  pseudo¬ 
podia,”  or  false  feet.  As  in  the  case  of  all  the 
protozoa,  except  the  infusoria,  there  is  no  mouth 
or  intestinal  tube. 

Rhode  Island,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
United  States  of  America,  and  the  smallest  in  the 
Union,  on  the  southern  coast  of  New  England,  is 
47)2  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  37  miles  from 
east  to  west;  and  has  an  area  of  1 ,306  square  miles. 
It  is  bounded  north  and  east  by  Massachusetts, 
south  by  the  Atlantic,  and  west  by  Connecticut. 
It  is  divided  into  five  counties,  and  its  principal 
towns  are  Providence  and  Newport,  the  twin 
capitals ;  Bristol,  Warren,  Pawtucket,  Woon¬ 
socket,  etc.  The  population  is  chiefly  engaged  in 
trade  and  manufactures.  Pop.  (1880),  276,530. 

Rhodes,  an  island  now  belonging  to  Asiatic 
Turkey,  lies  off  t lie  southwest  coast  of  Anatolia. 
1 1  is  45  miles  long,  and  20  miles  in  greatest  breadth. 
Pop.,  about  30,000. 

Rhodes,  an  ancient  and  famous  maritime  city, 
capital  of  the  island  of  the  same  name,  and 
situated  on  the  northeast  extremity  of  that  island. 
Latitude  of  harbor  36°  26'  N.,  longitude  28° 
16'  E.  Pop.,  about  20,000. 

Rlio'diuin  (symbol,  Ro;  equiv.  104— sp.  gr. 
12.1)  is  one  of  the  metals  of  the  platinum  group. 
It  is  a  white,  very  hard  metal,  resembling 
aluminium.  It  usually  forms  about  34  Per  cent, 
of  the  ore  of  platinum. 

Rliododen 'dron,  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs 


of  the  natural  order  Ericeev.  The  species  are 
numerous  in  the  temperate  parts  of  North 
America;  most  of  them  are  poisonous,  and  some 
are  used  medicinally. 

Rhone  (Rhodanus  of  the  Romans),  which  takes 
its  rise  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  on  the  western  side  of 
Mount  St.  Gothard,  not  far  from  the  sources  of 
the  Rhine,  is  the  only  important  French  river 
which  falls  into  the  Mediterranean.  Its  entire 
length,  from  its  origin  to  the  Gulf  of  Lyon  at  its 
embouchures,  is  644  miles,  and  the  area  of  its 
river-basin  28,000  square  miles. 

Rhone,  a  small  but  important  inland  depart¬ 
ment  of  France,  bounded  on  the  north,  west,  and 
south  by  the  Departments  of  Sa<5ne-et-Loire  and 
Loire.  Area,  1,077  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
741,470. 

Rhu'barb  (Rheum),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Polyyonece.  The  species,  which 
are  numerous,  are  large  herbaceous  plants,  natives 
of  the  central  regions  of  Ada,  with  strong, 
branching,  almost  fleshy  roots;  erect,  thick, 
branching  stems,  sometimes  6  or  8  feet  high;  the 
stems  and  branches  while  in  the  bud  covered 
with  large  membranous  sheaths.  The  leaves  are 
large,  stalked,  entire  or  lobed;  the  flowers  are 
small,  whitish  or  red,  generally  very  numerous. 
The  roots  are  medicinal,  being  a  cathartic,  astrin¬ 
gent,  and  tonic.  The  leaf-stalks  of  rhubarb  con¬ 
tain  an  agreeable  mixture  of  citric  and  malic 
acids,  and  when  young  and  tender,  are  much 
used  for  tarts  or  pies. 

Rhyncliops,  commonly  called  Skimmer,  is  a 
genus  of  web-footed  birds  of  the  Laridat  family, 
to  which  the  gulls,  etc.,  belong.  There  are  three 
or  four  species;  the  best  known  being  the  black 
skimmer,  found  on  the  east  coasts  of  North  and 
South  America. 

Ribs  are  elastic  arches  of  bone,  ■which  with  the 
vertebral  column  behind,  and  the  sternum  or 
breast-bone  in  front,  constitute  the  osseous  part 
of  the  walls  of  the  chest.  In  man,  there  are 


1  and  2  are  the  upper  and  middle  parts  of  the  sternum  or 
breast-bon?;  3,  its  ensiform  cartilage;  4.  the  first  dorsal . 
and  5  the  last  (or  twelfth)  dorsal  vertebra:  6,  the  first 
rib;  7,  its  head:  8,  its  neck,  resting  against  the  trans¬ 
verse  process  of  the  first  dorsal  vertebra:  9,  its  tubercle; 
10,  the  seventh  or  last  true  rib;  11,  the  costal  cartilages 
of  the  true  ribs;  12,  the  last  two  false  ribs  or  floating 
ribs;  13,  the  grooves  along  the  lower  border  of  the  ribs.— 
(From  Wilson’s  Anatomist's  Vade-Mecum.) 

twelve  ribs  on  each  side.  The  first  seven  are 
more  directly  connected  through  intervening 
cartilages  with  the  sternum  than  the  remainder, 
and  hence  they  are  termed  vertebro  sternal  or  true 
ribs;  while  the  other  five  are  known  as  false  ribs, 
and  the  last  two  of  these,  from  being  quite  free 
at  their  anterior  extremities,  are  termed  floating 
ribs. 

Rice  (Oryza),  a  genus  of  grasses.  The  only 
important  species  is  the  common  rice  (O.  sntim), 
one  of  the  most  useful  and  extensively  cultivated 
of  all  grains,  supplying  the  principal  food  of 
nearly  one-third  of  the  human  race.  It  seems  to 
be  originally  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  is 
now  cultivated  in  all  quarters  of  the  globe.  The 
cultivation  of  rice  is  most  extensively  carried  on 
in  India,  China,  Cochin-China,  and  other  south¬ 
eastern  parts  of  Asia,  in  Japan  and  EgytP  also 


in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  other  southern 
States  of  North  America. 

Richard  I.,  King  of  England,  sumamed  Cceur 
de  Lion,  was  the  third  son  of  llenry  II.  by  his 
Queen  Eleanor.  lie  was  born  at  Oxford  in  Sep¬ 
tember,  1157.  lie  was  killed  by  an  arrow  shot 
from  the  Ca-tle  of  Chaluz,  which  he  wras  besieg¬ 
ing,  on  March  26,  1199. 

Richard  II.,  King  of  England,  the  second  son 
of  Edward  the  Black  Prince  and  Joanna  of  Kent, 
was  born  at  Bordeaux,  France,  on  April  3,  1366. 
He  succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his 
grandfather,  Edward  III.,  June  28, 1377.  He  was 
deposed  in  1399,  and  the  date  of  his  death  is  un¬ 
known. 

Richard  III.,  King  of  England,  was  born  at 
Fotlieringay  Castle,  Oct.  2,  1452.  After  whole¬ 
sale  murder  he  ascended  the  throne,  1483.  He  was 
slain  at  Bosworth,  1485. 

Richardson,  Samuel,  the  first  great  English 
novelist,  was  born  in  Derby  in  the  year  1689.  He 
wrote  Pamela,  {J Larissa  Harlowe,  and  the  History 
of  air  Charles  Grandison.  He  died  in  1761. 

Richelieu,  Armand  Jean  du  Plessir,  Car¬ 
dinal,  Due  de,  was  born  at  Paris,  Sept.  5,  1585. 
In  1607  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Lu<;on.  He 
was  made  Minister  of  State  in  1624.  lie  estab¬ 
lished  the  absolute  authority  of  the  French  King, 
and  overthrew  the  Huguenots  completely  by  the 
capture  of  Rochelle,  their  last  city  of  refuge. 
Richelieu  died  at  Paris,  Dec.  4,  1642. 

Richfield,  the  county  seat  of  Morton  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  360. 

Richfield,  the  county  scat  of  Sevier  county, 
Utah.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Richland  Center,  the  county  seat  of  Richland 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  23,000. 

Richmond,  the  name  of  several  cities  and  towns 
in  the  United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  capital 
of  Virginia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  James  river, 
at  the  head  of  tide  water,  150  miles  from  its  mouth, 
latitude  37°  32'  17"  N.,  longitude  77°  27'  28"  W., 
was  founded  in  1742.  In  June,  1861,  it  was  selected 
as  the  Confederate  capital,  and  from  that  period 
was  the  objective  point  of  the  Union  forces,  who 
compelled  its  evacuation  after  a  series  of  sanguin¬ 
ary  battles,  April  3, 1865.  A  considerable  portion 
of* the  city  was  destroyed  by  the  retreating  Con¬ 
federates.  Pop.  (1889),  70,000. — 2.  A  city  of  In¬ 
diana,  and  the  county  seat  of  Wayne  county,  on  the 
east  fork  of  Whitewater  river,  seventy  miles  north¬ 
west  of  Cincinnati.  The  river  gives  water-power 
to  factories  of  cotton,  wool,  flour,  and  several  ex¬ 
tensive  implement  factories.  Pop.  (1889),  17,500. 
— 3.  The  county  seat  of  Fort  Bend  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  1,650. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Little  River 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  350. — 5.  The  county  seat  of 
Madison  county,  Ivy.  Pop.,  4,200. — 6.  The  county 
seat  of  Ray  county,  Mo.  Pop.,  2,200. — 7.  The 
county  seat  of  Richmond  county,  N.  Y.  Pop. ,  350. 

Ricliter.  Jean  Paul  Friedrich,  better  known 
as  “Jean  Paul,”  a  German  humorist  and  senti¬ 
mentalist  of  the  greatest  singularity,  was  born  at 
1  Wunsiedel,  in  Bavaria,  March  21 , 1763.  His  works 
are  very  numerous,  his  best  known  being  (in  for¬ 
eign  countries)  Hesperus.  He  died  in  1825. 

Rick 'ets,  or  Rachi'tis  (from  the  Gr.  paryz?, 
rhachis,  the  spine,  because  a  peculiar  form  of 
spinal  curvature  results  from  the  affection).  The 
characteristic  symptom  in  rickets  is  the  imperfect 
development,  atrophy,  softness,  and  consequent 
distortion  of  some  or  many  of  the  bones.  The 
treatment  must  be  mainly  directed  to  the  improve¬ 
ment  of  the  general  health.  Free  exposure  to 
pure  bracing  air,  sponging  with  sea-water,  or  sea¬ 
bathing  if  the  little  patient  can  bear  it,  an  abund¬ 
ance  of  animal  food,  cod-liver  oil,  iron,  and 
quinia,  include  all  that  need  be  said  about  general 
treatment. 

Rico,  the  county  seat  of  Dolores  county,  Colo. 
Pop.,  870. 

Ridgway,  the  county  seat  of  Elk  county,  Penn. 
Pop.,  1,600. 

Ridley,  Nicholas,  one  of  the  most  noted  lead¬ 
ers  of  the  Reformation  in  England  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  was  a  native  of  Northumberland,  and 
born  about  the  commencement  of  the  century. 
He  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  1555. 

Rienzi,  Cola  im,  the  famous  Roman  tribune, 
was  born  at  Rome  in  1313.  He  was  murdered  by 
a  mob  in  1354. 


RIFLED  ARMS. 


627 


ROARING. 


Rifled  Arms  differ  from  the  smooth  bore  prin¬ 
cipally  in  having  spiral  grooves  running  parallel 
with  the  length  of  the  bore,  which  grooves  give 
the  ball  a  rotary  motion  on  its  longer  axis,  t  hereby 
insuring  greater  accuracy  and  penetrating  power. 
They  were  first  used  in  1520,  but  it  was  not  until 
many  years  after  that  soldiers  were  armed  with 
them  The  best  rifles  now  used  (small  arms)  are 
the  Springfield,  Enfield,  the  Martini- Henry,  the 


ARMSTRONG. 


WHIT  WORTII. 


LANCASTER.  TRENCH. 


(The  Ellipse  of  the  bore  in  the  Lancaster  is  exaggerated 
to  show  the  principle.) 

Ballard,  the  Spencer,  the  Sharpe,  and  the  Snider. 
The  best  magazine  rifles  at  the  present  time  are 
the  Spencer,  Winchester,  Yetterli,  Krag,  Kropat- 
chek,  Burton,  Hotchkiss,  Green,  Jarman,  and 
Mannlicher.  All  the  great  powers  are  adopting 
some  form  of  magazine  rifle  for  army  and  navy. 
As  with  small  arms,  so  with  cannon,  rifling  is  no 
new  discovery.  The  best  known  rifled  cannon 
are  the  Armstrong,  the  Whitworth,  the  Parrott, 
the  Lancaster,  the  Woolwich,  and  the  Krupp. 

Rigging,  in  a  ship,  is  a  combination  of  very 
numerous  ropes  to  afford  stability  to  the  masts, 
and  to  lower  and  hoist  the  sails.  Rigging  is 
either  standing  or  running.  The  former  is  em¬ 


Rig'or  Mor'tis  is  the  term  usually  given  to 
the  peculiar  temporary  rigidity  of  the  muscles 
that  occurs  shortly  after  death.  It  begins  imme¬ 
diately  after  all  indications  of  irritability  have 
ceased,  but  before  the  commencement  of  putre¬ 
faction.  In  the  human  subject  it  most  com¬ 
monly  begins  to  show  itself  about  seven  hours 
after  death,  although  cases  are  occasionally  met 
with  in  which  twenty,  or  even  thirty,  hours  may 
have  elapsed  before  it  begins  to  appear.  This 
condition  of  rigidity  usually  lasts  for  about  thirty 
hours;  but  it  may  pass  off  in  ten  hours  or  less, 
or  may  be  prolonged  to  four  or  six  days.  The 
muscles  of  the  neck  and  lower  jaw  are  first 
affected,  then  those  of  the  trunk,  then  those 
of  the  upper  extremities,  and  lastly  those  of  the 
lower  extremities.  In  its  departure,  which  is 
immediately  followed  by  decomposition,  the  same 
order  is  followed. 

Ringbones  consist  of  a  circle  of  bony  matter 
round  the  horse’s  coronet;  are  most  common  in 
the  fore  limbs  of  draught  horses  with  short 
upright  pasterns,  and  much  worked  upon  the 
hard  roads,  but  they  also  occasionally  appear  on 
the  hind  limbs  of  lighter-bred  horses.  They  sel¬ 
dom  cause  lameness,  except  when  rapidly  and 
recently  formed;  but  as  they  are  apt  to  stiffen  the 
neighboring  joints,  they  consitute  unsoundness. 
Rest  should  be  enjoined,  and  cold  bran  poultices 
or  swabs,  kept  cool  and  moist  by  any  refrigerant 
mixture,  applied  continuously  until  heat  and  ten¬ 
derness  are  removed,  when  the  fetlock  is  to  be 
fired  or  dressed  with  fly-blister,  or  the  ointment 
of  the  red  iodide  of  mercury. 

Ringgold,  the  county  seat  of  Catoosa  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  550. 

Ringworm  is  a  popular  term  for  several  dis¬ 
tinct  forms  of  skin  disease  which  occur  in  patches 
of  a  circular  or  annular  form  on  the  body,  and 
especially  on  the  scalp.  There  are  three  varieties 
of  true  ringworm,  which  are  described  by  Aitken 
under  the  following  names  :  (1)  Ringworm  of 
the  body  ( Tinea  circinatus)-,  (2)  Ringworm  of  the 


Spars,  etc.— A,  Mast;  B,  Topmast;  C.  Topgallant  mast ;  D,  Royal-mast;  E,  Yard;  F,  Topsailyard;  G,  Topgallantsail- 
yard;  II,  Royal-yard;  K,  Truck;  L,  Bowsprit  ;  M.  Jib-boom;  N,  Flying  Jib-boom;  O,  Martingale;  P,  Chains;  Q, 
Top;  R,  Cap;  S,  Crosstrees;  T,  Topmast  Cap ;  U.  Gaff;  V,  Boom,  or  Spanker-boom. 

Sails.—  a,  Mainsail;  b.  Topsail;  c,  Topgallantsail :  d.  Royal;  e.  Spanker. 

Standing  Rigging.— I,  Shrouds;  II,  Topmast  Shrouds,  crossed  by  Ratlings;  III,  Topgallant  Shrouds;  IV,  Stay:  V, 
Topmast  Stay;  VI,  Topgallantmast  Stay;  VII,  Royal  Stay;  VIII.  Topmast  Backstay;  IX,  Topgallantmast  Backstay : 
X,  Royal  Backstay;  XI.  Flying  Jib-boom  Martingale  Stays;  XII.  Jib-boom  Martingale  Stays;  XIII,  Martingale 
Backstays;  XIV,  Bobstays. 

Running  Rigging.— I,  Lifts;  2,  Topsail  Lifts:  3,  Topgallantsail  Lifts;  4,  Royal  Lifts;  5,  Braces;  6,  Topsail  Braces; 
T.  Topgallant  Braces:  8,  Royal  Braces;  9.  Signal  Halyards,  10,  Jib-stay;  11,  Flying  Jib-stay;  12,  Sheet;  13,  Peak 
Halyards;  14,  Vangs;  15,  Topping  Lifts;  16,  Spanker  Sheet. 


ployed  in  maintaining,  in  fixed  position,  the  masts 
ana  bowsprit;  the  latter  runs  freely  through  nu¬ 
merous  blocks,  and  its  functions  are  to  raise  and 
lower  the  upper  masts  and  the  yards,  to  trim  the 
sails,  to  hoist  the  signals  and  other  flags,  and 
occasionally  to  furl  the  sails. 


scalp  ( Tinea  tonsurans)-,  and  (3)  Ringworm  of 
the  beard  (Tinea  sycosis.  The  essential  point  in 
the  treatment  of  all  the  varietiesof  true  ringworm, 
is  to  apply  to  the  roots  of  the  hairs  a  preparation 
which  will  destroy  the  fungus;  but  before  this 
can  be  done,  the  hair  must  be  removed,  if  the 


disease  has  not  already  effected  the  removal  suffi¬ 
ciently.  In  order  to  destroy  and  remove  the 
disease,  lint  dipped  in  a  solution  of  sulphurous 
acid  should  be  continuously  applied — sulphurous 
acid  being  probably  the  most  energetic  parasiti¬ 
cide  at  present  known.  Amongst  the  solutions 
that  have  been  applied  with  the  same  object,  may 
be  mentioned  that  of  corrosive  sublimate,  1  part 
to  250  of  water.  The  general  health  must  be  at 
the  same  time  attended  to,  and  the  internal  use  of 
cod-liver  oil  may  usually  be  advantageously  com¬ 
bined  with  the  local  applications. 

Ri'o  de  Jane'iro,  a  maritime  province  in  the 
southeast  of  Brazil,  bounded  on  the  south  and 
east  by  the  Atlantic.  Area,  26,530  square  miles; 
pop.,  without  the  city  (1872),  782,724. 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  generally  called  Rio,  the 
capital  of  the  Brazilian  Empire,  and  the  largest 
and  most  important  commercial  emporium  of 
South  America,  stands  on  a  magnificent  harbor, 
seventy-five  miles  west  of  Cape  Frio,  in  latitude 
225  54'  S.,  longitude  43°  15'  W.  Pop.  (1889), 
300,000. 

Rio  Grande,  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  the 
upper  course  of  the  River  Parana  in  Brazil. 

Rio  Grande,  a  river  of  Senegambia. 

Rio  Grande,  or  Rio  Gbande  del  Norte,  the 
largest  river  falling  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
except  the  Mississippi,  forms  the  boundary 
between  Texas  and  Mexico.  It  is  1,800  miles 
long. 

Rio  Grande  City,  the  county  seat  of  Starr 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  2,150. 

Rio  Grande  do  Nor'te,  a  small  maritime  prov¬ 
ince  of  Brazil,  occupies  the  northeast  angle  of  the 
country,  and  is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by 
the  Atlantic.  Area,  22,000  square  miles;  pop., 
233,979. 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  or  in  full,  Sao  Pedro 
do  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  a  maritime  province  of 
Brazil,  constituting  the  extreme  south  portion  of 
the  empire  of  that  name.  Area,  85,239  square 
miles;  pop.,  about  455,000. 

Ri'o  Ne'gro,  one  of  the  principal  affluents  of 
the  Amazon,  joins  that  river  at  Manaos,  after  a 
course  estimated  at  1,000  miles. 

Rio  Negro,  a  river  of  South  America,  forms 
the  greater  part  of  the  boundary  between  the 
Argentine  Republic  and  Patagonia. 

Ripley,  the  county  seat  of  Lauderdale  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Ripley,  the  county  seat  of  Tippah  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  950. 

Rising  Sun,  the  county  seat  of  Ohio  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  1,860. 

llistori,  Adelaide,  a  celebrated  Italian  tragic 
actress,  was  born  in  1821  at  Cividale  in  Frioul. 
She  married  the  Count  del  Grillo  in  1847. 

Ritchie,  the  county  seat  of  Ritchie  county, 
W.  Ya.  Pop.,  214. 

Ritter,  Heinrich,  German  philosopher,  was 
born  at  Zerbst  in  1791.  He  died  in  1869. 

Ritter,  Karl,  an  illustrious  geographer,  was 
born  Aug.  7,  1779,  in  Quedlinburg,  in  Prussia. 
He  died  Sept.  28,  1859. 

Ritzville,  the  county  seat  of  Adams  county, 
Wash.  Pop.,  150. 

Riverliead,  the  county  seat  of  Suffolk  county, 
N.  Y.  Pop.,  1,757. 

River-crab  (T/ielphvsa^ ,  a  genus  of  crabs  in¬ 
habiting  fresh  water,  and  having  the  carapace 
quadrilateral,  the  antennae  very  short. 

Roach  ( Lenciscus  rutilus),  a  fish  of  the  family 
Cyprinidat,  very  plentiful  in  many  lakes,  ponds, 
and  slow-running  rivers.  It  is  found  all  over  the 
Continent  of  Europe. 

Roanoke',  a  river  of  Virginia  and  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Dan  and  Staun¬ 
ton  rivets,  which  rise  in  the  Alleghanies,  flows 
southeast  through  the  northeastern  portion  of 
North  Carolina,  and  empties  into  Albemarle 
Sound.  It  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  to  Wel¬ 
don,  head  of  tide-water,  150  miles,  its  length  is 
260  miles. 

Roaring,  a  disease  of  the  air-passages  of  the 
horse,  is  characterized  by  a  grating,  roaring 
noise,  most  noticeable  during  inspiration,  and 
when  the  animal  is  galloped  on  heavy  ground.  It 
usually  depends  upon  wasting  of  some  of  the  mus- 
clesof  the  larynx;  is  apt  to  result  from  frequent  at¬ 
tacks  of  cold,  from  strangles,  inflammation  of  the 
neck  vein,  or  from  tight  reining.  In  recent  cases,  a 


ROASTING. 


628 


ROD. 


dose  of  physic  should  be  given,  a  smart  blister 
applied  to  the  throat,  or  a  setou  inserted.  The 
horse  should  have  a  liberal  supply  of  good  oats, 
but  only  a  limited  allowance  of  hay,  which  should 
be  dampened.  In  bad  cases,  tracheotomy  may 
be  performed,  and  a  pipe  inserted  in  the  wind¬ 
pipe. 

Roasting  All  the  apparently  numerous  forms 
of  cooking,  may  be  reduced  to  two,  viz  ,  roasting 
and  boiling.  Chemistry  and  experience  alike 
teach  that  the  first  application  of  heat  in  roasting 
should  be  powerful  and  rapid,  so  as  to  form  an 
external  wall,  by  hardening  the  skin,  and  coagu¬ 
lating  the  superficial  albuminous  juices,  and  thus 
retain  the  deep-seated  juices  as  much  as  possible 
within  the  meat.  This  external  crust  is  usually 
formed  in  about  fifteen  minutes,  after  which  the 
meat  should  be  removed  to  a  greater  distance 
from  the  fire,  and  allowed  to  cook  slowly.  The 
evaporation  of  the  internal  juices  may  be  further 
restrained  by  the  free  and  early  application  of 
flour — a  process  known  as  dredging. 

Robbinsville,  the  county  seat  of  Graham 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  100. 

Robespierre,  Maximilien  Marie  Isidore  de, 
was  bom  May  0,  1758,  at  Arras,  France.  In  1790 
lie  was  elected  a  member  of  tbe  States-general,  in 
1789  and  in  1792  a  member  of  the  National  Con¬ 
vention.  He  was  a  conspicuous  figure  in  the 
French  Revolution,  was  personally  responsible 
for  many  of  its  atrocities,  and  in  Juiy,  1794,  he 
closed  his  career  on  the  scaffold  to  which  he  had 
sent  so  many  others. 

Rob'in,  a  species  of  thrush,  widely  distributed 
from  Mexico  to  latitude  60°  N  Its  color  is  olive 
gray,  the  top  and  sides  of  the  head  black,  the  chin 
and  throat  white  with  black  streaks,  the  under  parts 
chestnut  brown. 

Robi'nia,  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Lec/uminosce,  sub-order  Papilionacece 
having  a  four-fid  calyx,  with  the  upper  segment 
divided  into  two;  stamens,  nine  united,  and  one 
free;  the  pod  long  and  many-seeded. 

Robinson,  the  county  seat  of  Crawford  county 
Ill.  Pop.,  1,885. 

Rob  Roy,  the  popular  name  of  Robert 
McGregor,  a  celebrated  Scottish  outlaw,  whose 
singular  adventures  entitle  him  to  be  considered 
the  Robin  Hood  of  Scotland.  He  was  born 
between  the  years  1657  and  1660,  and  died  about 
1738. 

Roby,  the  county  seat  of  Fislier  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  125. 

Rocain'bole  (Allium  scorodoprasum),  a  plant 
of  the  same  genus  with  garlic,  onion,  leek,  etc., 
and  nearly  allied  to  garlic,  which  it  resembles  in 
its  habit,  although  larger  in  all  its  parts. 

Rocli,  or  Rock  Alum.  It  is  a  kind  of  native 
alum,  found  at  Civita  Vecchia,  Italy,  free  from 
iron,  but  having  a  reddish  color,  derived  from  the 
soil  in  which  it  is  found.  It  is  alsocalled  Roman, 
and  red  alum. 

Rochefort-sur-Mer,  an  important  seaport  and 
naval  arsenal  of  France,  in  the  Department  of 
Charente-Inferieure,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Charente,  five  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  has  ex¬ 
tensive  magazines,  dock-yards,  cannon  foundries, 
and  other  establishments  designed  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  and  preservation  of  naval  stores  and 
marine  apparatus  of  every  kind.  Pop.  (1876), 
25,454. 

Rochelle',  La,  a  fortified  seaport  of  France, 
capital  of  the  Department  of  Charente-Inferieure, 
on  an  inlet  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  formed  by  the 
Islands  lie  and  Oleron,  300  miles  southwest  of 
Paris.  Pop.  (1876),  19,030 

Rochelle  Salt  is  the  popular  name  of  tartrate 
of  soda  and  potash  in  crystallized  form,  this 
salt  having  been  discovered  in  1672,  by 
a  Rochelle  apothecary  named  Seignette.  It 
occurs,  when  pure,  in  colorless  transparent 
prisms,  generally  eight-sided;  and  in  taste  it  re¬ 
sembles  common  salt.  This  salt  is  a  mild  and 
efficient  laxative,  and  is  less  disagreeable  to  the 
taste  than  most  of  the  saline  purgatives.  From 
half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce,  dissolved  in  eight  or 
ten  parts  of  water,  forms  an  average  dose.  A 
drachm  of  rochelle  salt  added  to  one  of  the  in¬ 
gredients  of  an  effervescing  draught  (bicarbonate 
of  soda  or  tartaric  acid,  for  example),  forms 
one  of  the  varieties  of  what  are  called  Seidlitz 
powders. 


Rochester,  a  city,  and  the  county  seat  of  Mon¬ 
roe  county,  N.  Y.,  is  on  the  Genesee  river,  seven 
miles  south  of  its  entrance  into  Lake  Ontario.  In 
the  center  of  the  city  are  the  upper  falls  of  the 
Genesee,  a  perpendicular  cataract  of  96  feet. 
Two  other  falls  of  84  and  25  feet  are  a  mile  and  a 
half  below,  the  river  running  through  a  deep 
gorge  in  its  limestone  banks,  from  100  to  220  feet 
high.  The  falls  give  water-power  to  numerous 
large  flour  mills  and  other  manufactories.  Pop., 
103,500. 

Rochester,  the  county  seat  of  Fulton  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  3,200. 

Rochester,  the  county  seat  of  Olmsted  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  5,400. 

Rock,  Cock  of  the  (Rupicola  aurantia),  a  bird 
of  the  order  I  Tines  tores  ;  tribe  Denlirostres  ;  family 
Pipridce  (manakins,  etc.),  regarded  by  many  as 
a  sub-family  of  Ampelidce.  The  Pipridae ,  or  mana¬ 


kins,  are  a  pretty  large  group  of  birds,  many  of 
them  of  very  curious  and  beautiful  plumage, 
most  of  them  inhabitants  of  America. 

Rock  Butter,  a  mineral  substance,  consisting 
of  alum,  mixed  with  alumina  and  oxide  of  iron, 
of  a  pasty  consistency,  and  appearing  as  an 
exudation  oozing  out  of  rocks  which  contain 
alum. 

Rock  Crystal,  a  name  for  the  finest  and  purest 
quartz,  seldom  applied,  however,  to  small  crystals 
which  are  mere  six-sided  pyramids,  but  more 
generally  to  those  in  which  the  six  sided  prism  is 
well  developed. 

Rock'et,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Oruciferae,  and  belonging  to  the 
genera  Brassica,  Sisymbrium,  Erysimum,  Bar- 
barea,  Ilesperis,  etc. 

Rocket  is  a  pyrotechnic  toy,  and  also  a  firearm 
capable  of  taking  effect  at  a  long  range.  The 
charge  for  the  former  consists  of  saltpeter  68  parts, 
sulphur  12  parts,  charcoal,  or  mealed  powder,  32 
parts.  This  composition  is  rammed  hard  into  the 
case,  the  center  being  left  void.  To  the  rocket  is 
attached  a  long  stick,  which  serves  (like  the  tail 
of  a  kite)  to  straighten  its  course.  Rockets  have 
been  made  that  when  over  a  certain  point 
would  discharge  canister-shot,  bullets,  and  other 
missiles.  The  maximum  range  for  the  largest  of 
these  is  about  3,500  yards.  The  range  can  be 
also  increased  by  discharging  the  rocket  from  a 
cannon,  with  a  time-fuse  to  ignite  it  at  the 
cannon’s  utmost  range,  when  the  rocket  com¬ 
mences  its  own  course. 

Rock  'ford,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Winne¬ 
bago  county,  Ill.,  is  on  the  Rock  river,  92  miles 
west-northwest  of  <  liicago.  Pop.,  21,800. 

Rockford,  the  county  seat  of  Coosa  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  475. 

Rockingham,  the  county  seat  of  Richmond 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Rocking-stones,  or  Loggans,  are  large  masses 
of  rock  so  finely  poised  as  to  move  backward  and 
forward  with  the  slightest  impulse. 

Rock  Island,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Rock  Island  county,  Ill.,  at  the  foot  of  the  upper 
rapids  on  the  Mississippi,  opposite  Davenport, 
Iowa,  3  miles  above  the  mouth  of  Rock  river,  181 
miles  west-by-south  of  Chicago.  The  island  in 
the  river  from  which  the  town  is  named  is  the  site 
of  a  national  arsenal,  or  depot  for  stores.  A  dam 


across  a  portion  of  the  river  gives  water-power 
for  many  manufactories.  Pop.,  13,300. 

Rockland,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Knox 
county,  Maine,  is  on  the  west  side  of  Penobscot 
Bay,  forty  miles  southeast  of  Augusta.  Pop., 
7,700. 

Rock 'ling  ( Motella ),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
cod  and  haddock  family  (Oadulce),  having  an 
elongated  body,  compressed  toward  the  tail  ;  the 
first  dorsal  fin  very  slightly  elevated,  and  very 
delicate  ;  the  second  dorsal  and  the  anal  fins  long, 
continued  almost  to  the  tail  fin. 

Rockport,  the  county  seat  of  Aransas  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  875. 

Rockport,  the  county  seat  of  Atchison  county. 
Mo.  Pop.,  750. 

Rockport,  the  county  seat  of  Spencer  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  3,200. 

Rock  Rapids,  the  county  seat  of  Lyon  county, 
Iowa.  Pop  ,  1,220. 

Rock  River  rises  in  the  southeastern  portion  of 
Wisconsin,  and  runs  southwest  into  Illinois,  thence 
southwest,  and  empties  itself  into  the  Mississippi 
three  miles  below  Rock  Island. 

Rock-salt  is  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium) 
occurring  as  a  mineral  and  in  a  solid  form.  It  is 
always  mixed  with  various  impurities.  It  is 
found  massive  or  crystallized,  its  crystals  generally 
cubes,  its  masses  often  either  granular  or  fibrous. 
It  is  white,  gray,  or,  owing  to  the  presence  of 
impurities,  more  rarely  red,  violet,  blue,  or 
striped.  A  hill  of  rock-salt  near  Montserrat,  iu 
Spain,  is  500  feet  high.  In  many  parts  of  the 
world  rock-salt  is  found  in  beds  under  the  soil  or 
other  rocks. 

Rock-soap,  a  mineral  consisting  of  silica, 
alumina,  peroxide  of  iron,  and  water.  It  is 
earthy,  easily  broken,  black  or  nearly  so,  soft, 
and  easily  cut  with  a  knife,  is  greasy  to  the 
touch,  and  adheres  strongly  to  the  tongue.  It  is 
valued  by  painters  for  crayons. 

Rockville,  the  county  seat  of  Montgomery 
county,  Md.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Rockville,  the  county  seat  of  Parke  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Rockville,  the  county  seat  of  Tolland  county. 
Conn.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Rockwall,  the  county  seat  of  Rockwall  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  250. 

Rockwell  City,  the  county  seat  of  Calhoun 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  570. 

Rocky  Mount,  the  county  seat  of  Franklin 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  550. 

Rocky  Mountains,  a  great  range  of  mountains 
in  the  western  portions  of  North  America,  a  con¬ 
tinuation  of  the  Cordilleras  of  Mexico,  and  reach¬ 
ing  from  Mexico  to  the  Arctic  Ocean.  In  the 
United  States,  the  Rocky  Mountains  cover  an 
area  of  980,000  square  miles. 

Roco'co,  a  name  given  to  the  very  debased 
style  of  architecture  and  decoration  which  suc¬ 
ceeded  the  first  revival  of  Italian  architecture. 
This  style  prevailed  in  Germany  and  Belgium 


during  last  century,  and  in  France  during  the 
time  of  Henry  IV.  The  figure  is  an  example 
from  an  altar  in  the  Church  of  St.  James,  Ant¬ 
werp. 

Rod,  called  also  a  pole,  or  linear  perch,  a, 
measure  of  length  of  54  yards,  or  16i  feet.  The 
square  rod,  called  generally  a  rood,  is  employed 


RODENTIA. 


629 


ROME. 


in  estimating  masonry,  and  contains  16ixl6B  or 
2721  square  feet. 

Roden '  tia  (Lat.  gnawers),  or  Rodents  in  the 
system  of  Cuv¬ 
ier,  an  order  of 
mammalia  al¬ 
most  exactly  cor¬ 
responding  with 
the  Gliresof  Lin- 
naeus.  The  order 
is  a  truly  natural 
one,  and  is  there¬ 
fore  universally 

recognized  b  y  ^uu  ui  uue  r»e<tvei-,  s 
naturalists.  The  Dentition, 

rodentia  are  small  quadrupeds,  the  largest  of 
them — the  capybara — not  beinsr  equal  in  size  to  a 
hog,  while  to  this  order  belong  the  smallest  of 
mammalia.  They  are  all  remarkably  character¬ 
ized  by  their  front  teeth,  variously  regarded  as 
incisors  and  canines — tne  true  incisors  or  canines 
being  absent — which  are  large  and  of  peculiar 
structure,  two  iu  each  jaw,  and  separated  by  a 
considerable  vacant  interval  from  the  molars. 
The  front  teeth  have  a  plate  of  hard  enamel  in 
front,  which  wears  more  slowly  than  the  sub¬ 
stance  of  the  rest  of  the  tooth,  so  that  being  em¬ 
ployed  on  hard  substances,  they  acquire  a  chisel¬ 
like  form,  and  unlike  the  teeth  of  mammals  in 
general,  they  are  always  growing  from  a  fresh 
pulp  at  the  base. 

Roderic,  the  last  King  of  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain.  He  was  elevated  to  the  throne  in  709  and 
was  killed  in  battle  July  20,  711. 

Rodriguez,  a  rugged  and  hilly  island,  330 
miles  east-by-north  of  Mauritius,  of  which  it  is  a 
dependency,  being  one  of  the  Mascarene  group. 
Area,  about  GO  square  miles.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Roe  ( Gervus  capreolus,  or  Capreolus  dorcas),  a 
species  of  deer  inhabiting  Europe  and  some  parts 
of  Asia,  chiefly  in  hilly  or  mountainous  regions, 
either  covered  with  forests  or  with  scattered 
bushes  and  heath. 

Rogers  City,  the  county  seat  of  Presque  Isle 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Rogersville,  the  county  seat  of  Hawkins 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.  1,275. 

Rohilcund',  an  extensive  region  in  the  North 
west  Provinces  of  India,  lying  west  of  Oude,  and 
named  after  the  Rohillas,  an  Afghan  tribe  which 
migrated  hither  in  the  eighteenth  century.  Area, 
11,805  square  miles;  pop.  (1872),  5,436,314. 

Roll,  a  round  molding  used  in  Gothic  archi¬ 
tecture.  It  is  aho  modified  by  the  introduction 
of  a  fillet,  and  is  then  called  the  roll-and-fillet 
molding. 

Rolla,  the  county  seat  of  Phelps  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  2,000. 

Roll  of  Arms,  a  heraldic  reco-  d  of  arms,  either 
verbally  blazoned  or  illuminated,  or  both,  on  a 
long  strip  of  vellum,  rolled  up,  instead  of  being 
folded  into  leaves. 

Roller  (Coraeias),  a  genus  of  birds  generally 
referred  to  the  crow  family  ( Corvidce ),  but  by 
many  naturalists  to  the  bee-eater  family  ( Mero - 
pidat),  with  which  they  regard  the  habits  and 
colors  of  the  species  as  indicating  a  closer  alliance. 

Roller,  used  as  part  of  the  inking  apparatus  in 
letter-press  printing,  is  of  modern  invention.  The 
method  of  making  inking-rollers  is  simple.  The 
wooden  center  being  fixed  upright  in  an  iron 
mold,  the  composition  is  poured  in  when  in  allot 
liquid  state,  and  then  left  to  cool.  When  cold, 
the  mold,  which  is  in  halves,  finely-jointed  and 
held  together,  is  opened,  and  the  roller  taken  out; 
by  a  little  trimming  it  is  ready  for  use.  The 
composition  used  is  a  combination  of  glucose  (with 
glue)  and  glycerine  in  about  equal  parls.  In 
summer,  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  somewhat  larger 
proportion  of  glucose  than  in  winter,  to  secure 
suitable  firmness. 

Roll  in,  Charles,  a  French  historian,  was  born 
in  Paris,  Jan.  30,  1661,  and  died  Sept.  14,  1741. 

Rolling  Fork,  the  county  seat  of  Sharkey 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  291. 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  the  community  of 
Christians  throughout  the  world  who  recognize 
the  spiritual  supremacy  of  the  Pope  or  Bishop  of 
Rome,  and  are  united  by  the  profession  of  the 
same  faith,  and  the  participation  of  the  same 
sacraments.  Although  a  few  other  points  of 
doctrinal  difference  separate  the  Roman  Church 


from  the  Greek,  Russian,  and  Oriental  commun¬ 
ions,  yet  the  most  palpable  ground  of  division 
lies  in  the  claim  of  supremacy  in  spiritual  juris¬ 
diction  on  the  part  of  the  Roman  Bishop.  The 
claim  of  supremacy  on  the  part  of  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  rests  on  the  belief,  that  Christ  conferred  on 
Peter  a  primacy  of  jurisdiction;  that  Peter  fixed 
his  see  and  died  at  Rome,  and  thus,  that  the 
Bishops  of  Rome,  as  successors  of  Peter,  have 
succeeded  to  his  prerogatives  of  supremacy.  The 
details  of  the  doctrinal  system  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  will  be  best  collected  and 
explained  from  her  latest  authentic  creed,  that 
commonly  called  the  Creed  of  Pius  V.  This 
creed,  to  which  all  persons  entering  the  Church 
are  required  to  subscribe  is  in  these  words:  “I, 
N.  N.,  with  a  firm  faith  believe  and  profess  all 
and  every  one  of  those  things  which  are  contained 
in  that  creed  which  the  holy  Roman  Church 
maketli  use  of.  To-wit:  I  believe  in  one  God, 
the  Father  Almighty,  maker  of  heaven  and 
earth,  of  all  things  visible  and  invisible,  and  in 
one  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  only  begotten  Son  of 
God,  born  of  the  Father  before  all  ages;  God  of 
God;  Light  of  Light;  true  God  of  the  true  God; 
begotten,  not  made;  consubstantial  with  the 
Father,  by  whom  all  tilings  were  made.  Who 
for  us  men,  and  for  our  salvation,  came  down 
from  heaven,  and  was  incarnate  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  was  made  man. 
He  was  crucified  also  for  us  under  Pontius  Pilate, 
suffered,  and  was  buried.  And  the  third  day 
he  rose  again  according  to  the  Scriptures;  he 
ascended  into  heaven,  sitteth  nt  the  right  hand  of 
the  Father,  and  shall  come  again  with  glory  to 
judge  the  living  and  the  dead;  of  whose  kingdom 
there  shall  be  no  end.  I  believe  in  the  Holy 
Ghost,  the  Lord  and  life-giver,  who  proceedeth 
from  the  Father  and  the  Son;  who,  together  with 
the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  adored  and  glorified; 
who  spake  by  the  prophets.  And  in  one  holy, 
Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church.  I  confess  one 
baptism  for  the  remission  of  sins;  and  1  look  for 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  and  the  life  of  the 
world  to  come.  Amen.  I  most  steadfastly 
admit  and  embrace  the  apostolical  and  ecclesias¬ 
tical  traditions,  and  all  other  observances  and 
constitutions  of  the  same  Church.  I  idso  admit 
the  holy  Scriptures,  according  to  that  sense 
which  our  holy  mother,  the  Church,  hath  held  and 
doth  hold;  to  whom  it  belongeth  to  judge  of  the 
true  sense  and  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures; 
neither  will  I  ever  take  and  interpret  them  other¬ 
wise  than  according  to  the  unanimous  consent  of 
the  Fathers.  I  also  profess  that  there  are  truly 
and  properly  seven  sacraments  of  the  New  Law, 
instituted  by  Jesus  Christ,  Our  Lord,  and  neces¬ 
sary  for  the  salvation  of  mankind,  though  not  all 
for  every  one;  to-wit — baptism,  confirmation,  the 
eucliarist,  penance,  extreme  unction,  order, 
and  matrimony;  and  that  they  confer  grace;  and 
that  of  these,  baptism,  confirmation,  and  order, 
can  not  be  repeated  without  sacrilege.  I  also 
receive  and  admit  the  received  and  approved 
ceremonies  of  the  Catholic  Church,  used  in  the 
solemn  administration  of  the  aforesaid  sacra¬ 
ments.  I  embrace  and  receive  all  and  every  one 
of  the  things  which  have  been  defined  and 
declared  in  the  holy  Council  of  Trent  concerning 
original  sin  and  justification.  I  profess,  likewise, 
that  in  the  Mass  there  is  offered  to  God  a  true, 
proper,  and  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  the  living 
and  the  dead;  and  that  in  the  most  holy  sacra¬ 
ment  of  the  eucliarist  there  is  truly,  really  and 
substantially  the  body  and  blood,  together  with 
the  soul  and  divinity  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ; 
and  that  there  is  made  a  conversion  of  the  whole 
substance  of  the  bread  into  the  body,  and  of  the 
whole  substance  of  the  wine  into  the  blood;  which 
conversion  the  Catholic  Church  calleth  transub- 
stantiation.  I  also  confess  that  under  either  kind 
alone  Christ  is  received  whole  and  entire,  and  a 
true  sacrament.  I  constantly  hold  that  there  is  a 
purgatory,  and  that  the  souls  therein  detained 
are  helped  by  the  suffrages  of  the  faithful. 
Likewise,  that  the  saints  reigning  together  with 
Christ  are  to  be  honored  and  invocated,  and  that 
they  offer  prayers  to  God  for  us,  and  that  their 
relics  are  to  he  hacl-in  veneration.  I  most  firmly 
assert  that  the  Images  of  Christ,  of  the  Mother  of 
God,  ever  Virgin,  and  also  of  other  saints,  ought 
to  be  had  and  retained,  and  that  due  honor  and  i 


veneration  are  to  be  given  them.  I  also  affirm 
that  the  power  of  indulgences  was  left  by  Christ 
in  the  Church,  and  that  the  use  of  them  is  most 
wholesome  to  Christian  people.  I  acknowledge 
the  holy  Catholic,  Apostolic  Roman  Church  for 
the  mother  and  mistress  of  all  churches;  and  I 
promise  true  obedience  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome, 
successor  of  St.  Peter,  Prince  of  the  Apostles, 
and  Vicar  of  Jesus  Christ.  I  likewise  undoubt- 
ingly  receive  and  profess  all  other  things 
delivered,  defined,  and  declared,  particularly  by 
the  holy  Council  of  Trent;  and  I  condemn,  reject, 
and  anathematize  all  things  contrary  thereto,  and 
all  heresies  which  the  Church  hath  condemned, 
rejected,  and  anathematized.  I,  N.  N.,  do  at 
tbis  present  freely  profess,  and  sincerely  hold 
this  true  Catholic  faith,  out  of  which  no  one  can 
be  saved;  and  I  promise  most  constantly  to  retain 
and  confess  the  same  entire  and  inviolate,  by 
God’s  assistance  to  the  end  of  my  life.”  Iu  addi¬ 
tion  to  these  articles,  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
has,  since  the  compila  ion  of  the  Creed  of  Pius 
V.,  defined  certain  further  doctrines  in  the  con¬ 
troversy  on  grace,  which  arose  from  the  teaching 
of  Jansenius;  still  more  recently  that  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Blessed  Virgin 
Mary;  and  a  still  more  comprehensive  body  of 
articles  in  the  memorable  Syllabus  issued  by  Pope 
Pius  IX.,  and  in  the  decrees  of  the  Vatican  Conn 
cil,  celebrated  under  the  presidency  of  the  same 
Pontiff.  The  total  number  of  archbishops  of  the 
several  rites  in  communion  with  Rome  in  1880 
was  173,  of  whom  nine  bore  the  title  of  patriarch. 
The  number  of  bishops  was  710.  But  in  certain 
parts  of  the  world,  where  the  population  and 
government  are  Protestant  or  unbelieving,  the 
spiritual  affairs  of  the  Catholic  Church  are 
directed,  not  by  bishops  with  local  titles,  but  by 
bishops  in  partibus  infidelium,  who  are  styled 
vicars  of  the  Pope,  or  vicars  apostolic.  The  full 
number  of  archbishops  and  bishops  in  1880, 
including  those  retired  and  those  with  sees  in 
parlibus  infidelium,  was  1,146.  The  statistics  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  give  us  the  total 
number  of  Catholics  of  all  nations  as  185,000,000. 

Romanesque'  Architecture,  the  debased  style 
which  succeeded  Roman  architecture,  from  about 
the  time  of  Constantine  (350  a.d.)  to  that  of 
Charlemagne,  (800  a.d.) 

Roman'ic  Languages,  a  general  name  for 
those  modern  languages  that  are  the  immediate 
descendants  of  the  language  of  ancient  Rome. 
In  those  parts  of  the  empire  in  which  the  Roman 
dominion  and  civil  institutions  had  been  most 
completely  established,  the  native  languages 
were  speedily  and  completely  supplanted  by  that 
of  the  conquerors — the  Latin. 

Romanoff,  The  House  of,  of  which  the  pres¬ 
ent  imperial  family  of  Russia  is  the  chief  repre¬ 
sentative,  is  said  to  have  derived  its  origin  from  a 
Lithuanian  prince  of  the  fourth  century.  Its 
most  illustrious  members  in  modern  times  are 
Peter  the  Great,  Peter  II.,  Catherine  I.,  Ivan  IV., 
Peter  III.,  Paul  I.,  Alexander  I.,  Nicholas  I.,  and 
Alexander  III. 

Romans,  Epistle  to  the,  is  the  sixth  book  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  in  a  doctrinal  point  of 
view,  the  most  profound  and  elaborate  composi¬ 
tion  of  St.  Paul. 

Rome,  the  capital  of  ancient  Italy,  stood  ou 
the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber,  about  sixteen  miles 
from  the  sea.  After  its  first  destruction  in  390 
1?. c.  by  the  Gauls,  it  was  hastily  rebuilt  without 
respect  to  order,  and  with  narrow,  irregular 
streets.  Under  Servius  Tullius,  the  walls  were 
7  miles  in  circumference,  but  the  space  which 
they  comprised  was  not  entirely  occupied  by 
buildings.  Under  Aurelian,  the  new  walls  were 
11  miles  in  circumference,  and  the  city  went  on 
extending  until  it  reached  a  circumference  of 
13  miles  under  Vespasian.  The  population  at 
any  given  period  can  not  be  exactly  determined, 
but  must  have  aggregated  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
at  least  1,300,000,  and  considering  the  enlargement 
of  the  city  under  Vespasian,  we  may  safely  set  its 
population  down  at  not  less  than  2,000,000  in  his 
reign.  Modern  Rome  occupies  the  plain  on  each 
side  of  the  Tiber  and  the  slopes  of  the  seven 
hills.  Its  geographical  position  at  the  Observatory 
of  the  Collegio  Romano  is  latitude  41°  53'  52" 
N.,  longitude  12°  28'  40"  E.,  and  its  height  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  on  the  Tiber,  under  the 


ROME. 


630 


ROSSINI. 


iElian  Bridge,  is  20  feet.  Pop.  (18S1),  272,010 
(Commune,  300,467).  Rome  is,  on  the  whole,  a 
healthy  city,  except  at  the  close  of  summer  and 
the  beginning  of  autumn,  when  the  malaria  is 
prevalent.  The  Trastevere  is  its  most  uniformly 
healthy  district,  the  inhabitants  of  which  are 
superior  in  physical  development  to  those  of  the 
other  parts.  The  trade  of  the  city  is  insignifi¬ 
cant,  consisting  of  a  few  trivial  manufactures  of 
hats,  silk  scarfs,  gloves,  artificial  feathers,  false 
pearls,  mosaic  trinkets,  etc.,  and  of  such  articles 
as  artists  need  and  visitors  fancy.  The  only  great 
manufacture,  if  it  can  be  called  so,  is  that  of 
pictures,  original  and  copied,  for  the  painting  of 
these,  Rome  offers  not  only  the  advantage  of  nu¬ 
merous  galleries  of  art,  but  purity  of  sky.  The 
worst  feature  of  Rome  is  its  dirtiness.  In  Octo¬ 
ber,  1870,  Rome,  with  the  rest  of  the  Papal  ter¬ 
ritory,  was  annexed  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  and 
is  now  the  capital.  The  Pope  retains  the  rights 
of  a  sovereign  within  the  Vatican. 

Rome,  a  town  of  Oneida  county,  N.  Y.,  on 
the  Mohawk  river,  100  miles  northwest  of  Albany. 
It  contains  a  United  States  arsenal,  and  numerous 
manufactories.  Pop.,  13,000. 

Rome,  the  county  seat  of  Floyd  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  9,050. 

Romney,  the  county  seat  of  Hampshire  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  775. 

Rom'ulus,  the  mythical  founder  of  the  city  of 
Rome.  lie  is  said  to  have  been  the  son  of  a  vestal 
virgin  by  the  god  Mars,  and  his  grandfather  deter 
mined  to  destroy  him  and  his  twin  brother,  to¬ 
gether  with  his  mother.  He  and  Remus  were 
thrown  into  the  Anio,  and  the  cradle  containing 
them  was  washed  down  the  Tiber,  and  stranded 
at  the  foot  of  the  Palatine.  Here  a  she-wolf  found 
them  and  carried  them  to  her  den,  where  she, 
aided  by  a  woodpecker,  fed  them.  They  were 
discovered  by  Faustulus,  the  shepherd  of  Numitor 
(the  king),  who  carried  home  and  adopted  them. 
They  were  shortly  afterward  brought  in  contact 
with  their  grandfather  by  the  fortunes  of  war, 
and,  after  performing  prodigies  of  valor  in  his 
behalf,  and  placing  him  on  the  throne,  they  re¬ 
turned  to  the  Palatine  to  build  a  city.  While  the 
city  was  being  built,  Romulus  in  a  tit  of  anger 
slew  his  brother  Remus.  He  soon  gathered  around 
him  a  baud  of  outlaws,  and,  after  having  stolen 
the  Sabine  women  for  wives,  the  Sabines  and  his 
outlaws  were  reconciled  and  united  to  form  one 
people.  Thence  sprang  the  Romans.  After  a 
reign  of  thirty-seven  years  Romulus  was  translated 
to  heaven. 

Ronsard,  Pierre  de,  a  celebrated  French  poet 
and  reformer  of  French  poetry,  was  born  at  the 
Chateau  de  la  Poison niere,  in  Vendomois,  Sept.  11, 
1524,  and  died  in  1585. 

Root,  in  Botany,  sometimes  designated  the  de¬ 
scending  axis  of  a  plant,  that  part  by  which  it  is 
fixed  to  the  soil  and  derives  nourishment  from  the 
soil.  The  root  is  developed  in  the  germination  of 
the  seed,  at  or  about  thesame  time  with  the  stem, 
and  forces  its  way  downward  as  the  stem  grows 
upward. 

Root,  in  Philology,  is  that  part  which  is  com¬ 
mon  to  a  grou'p  of  allied  words — the  germ  out  of 
which  they  have  all  sprung.  It  is  arrived  at  by 
taking  away  the  formative  parts — the  suffixes  and 
affixes,  and  reversing  any  change  that  their  pres¬ 
ence  may  have  caused. 

Root,  in  Algebra,  denotes  any  value  of  the  un¬ 
known  quantity  in  an  equation,  which  will  render 
both  sides  of  it  identical. 

Root-mildew,  a  name  given  to  certain  myc  lit, 
which  infest  the  roots  of  peaches,  apples,  roses, 
currants,  etc.,  and  cause  their  death.  In  some 
plants,  as  roses,  the  state  of  the  bark  just  above 
the  soil  is  believed  to  be  premonitory  of  the  dis¬ 
ease,  which  may  perhaps  then  be  arrested  by  wash¬ 
ing  with  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate.  But 
the  mycelium  is  not  easily  destroyed,  and  a  tree 
of  the  same  kind  should  not  be  planted  where  it 
has  proved  fatal. 

Rope  and  Rope-making.  Ropes  are  usually 
made  of  vegetable  fibers,  and  differ  only  from 
twine  in  their  much  greater  thickness.  The  fiber 
most  commonly  used  is  hemp;  but  large  quant  ities 
of  plantain  fiber,  called  manilla  hemp,  made  from 
the  leaf -stalks  of  Musa  textilis,  are  also  employed, 
especially  for  t  he  large  ropes  used  for  various  pur¬ 
poses  on  board  ships.  Ropes  consist  of  many 


thicknesses  of  yarn,  which  is  spun  by  hand  in 
places  called  rope  walks.  The  spinner  lias  a  large 
bundle  of  the  fiber  loosely  gathered  round  his 
waist,  from  which  he  pulls  out  a  few  fibers,  and 
attaches  them  to  a  hook  in  the  turning  wheel  or 
whirl,  which  is  stationary,  and  is  worked  by  an 
assistant.  Experience  teaches  him  what  number 
of  fibers  to  draw  out,  and  how  to  twist  them  so  as 
to  hold  firmly  on  to  the  hook.  He  then  walks 
slowly  backward  down  the  rope-ground,  gradu¬ 
ally  drawing  out  or  regulating  the  pulling  out  of 
the  fibers  so  as  to  make  an  equal  yarn,  which  re¬ 
ceives  the  necessary  twist  from  the  whirl.  When 
he  has  got  to  the  end  of  the  walk,  another  spinner 
takes  the  yarn  from  the  hook  of  the  whirl,  and 
fixes  it  to  a  reel,  which  is  then  set  in  motion;  and 
he  attaches  a  second  portion  of  hemp  from  his  own 
supply  to  the  hook,  and  proceeds  down  the  walk 
as  the  previous  one  had  done.  In  the  meantime, 
the  first  spinner  gradually  walks  up  the  ground, 
carefully  guiding  his  length  of  yarn  as  it  is  wound 
on  the  reel.  When  he  reaches  the  reel,  it  stops, 
and  he  waits  until  the  second  spinner’s  length  is 
completed.  He  then  in  his  turn  takes  it  off  the 
hook,  and  twists  it  on  to  his  own;  and  the  reel 
being  again  started,  receives  the  additional  length 
from  the  second  man,  and  so  on  until  the  full 
length  required  is  made  up.  The  next  operation 
is  called  warping,  and  consists  in  stretching  out 
l  he  number  of  yarns  required  for  a  rope.  These 
are  all  slightly  twisted  again  separately,  and 
stretched  to  an  equal  length.  Then,  if  they  are 
intended  for  tarred  ropes,  each  yarn  is  drawn 
separately,  either  lengthwise  or  in  a  hank,  through 
a  kettle  of  hot  tar.  The  superfluous  tar  is  removed 
by  drawing  it  through  a  hole  lined  with  oakum. 
In  the  next  process,  called  laying,  two  or  more 
yarns  are  attached  to  hooks  on  a  whirl,  so  that 
when  it  is  turned  they  will  be  twisted  together  the 
contrary  way  of  the  original  twist  they  received 
in  the  first  spinning.  When  this  is  done,  it  is 
called  a  strand.  Then  as  many  of  these  strands 
as  are  required  for  the  rope  are  stretched  at  full 
length,  and  are  attached  at  each  end  to  whirls. 
One  of  the  whirls  has  but  one  hook,  to  which  all 
the  strands  are  attached ;  the  other  has  as  many 
hooks  as  there  are  strands,  one  always  being  cen¬ 
tral,  and  a  strand  is  attached  to  each.  The  whirls 
are  then  put  in  motion,  but  in  opposite  directions, 
and  this  causes  the  outer  strands  to  be  laid  with 
great  regularity  and  firmness  around  the  central 
one. 

Ror'qual  ( Rorqunlus ,  Balmnoplera,  or  Phy ta¬ 
lus),  a  genus  of  Cetacea  of  the  same  family 
{Bulcenidop)  to  which  the  Greenland  whale  be¬ 
longs,  and  distinguished  by  having  a  dorsal  fin. 

Rosa,  Salvator,  celebrated  painter,  was  born 
at  Renella,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Naples,  in 
1615,  and  died  in  1673. 

Rosa'cea,  known  also  as  Gutta  Rosea  and 
Acne  Rosacea,  is  a  disease  which  usually  first 
appears  at  or  near  the  end  of  the  nose;  and  in 
some  cases  it  is  confined  to  the  nose,  while  in 
ethers  it  extends  to  the  cheeks,  forehead,  chin,  or 
even  to  the  whole  face.  The  skin  in  the  part 
affected  assumes  a  deep  red  color,  which  usually 
disappears  after  a  time,  but  returns  either  on  no 
special  provocation,  or  in  consequence,  appar¬ 
ently,  of  some  gastric  disturbance,  and  after  a 
time  becomes  permanent;  pustules  of  acne — a 
chronic  pustular  disease  of  the  skin — now  appear, 
and  their  yellowness  contrasts  strongly  with  the 
redness  with  which  they  are  surrounded.  The 
skin  of  the  diseased  part  becomes  irregularly 
swollen,  and  is  marked  with  blue  or  red  streaks, 
caused  by  congestion  and  enlargement  of  the 
capillaries;  the  whole  surface,  in  a  severe  case, 
presenting  a  very  disagreeable  and  repulsive 
appearance.  The  general  treatment  consists  in 
the  administration  of  the  compounds  of  iodine 
and  mercury  (singly  or  conjoined)  in  alterative 
(loses,  and  a  nourishing  but  bland  and  non-stimu¬ 
lating  diet  should  be  prescribed. 

Rosacea;,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
containing  many  species  of  great  usefulness,  and 
many  that  are  in  the  highest  esteem  for  their 
beauty.  It  contains  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous 
plants,  natives  chiefly  of  cold  and  temperate 
regions,  and  far  more  abundant  in  the  Northern 
than  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 

Rosci'us,  Quintus,  was  born  at  Solouium,  a 


village  near  Lanuvium,  and  rose  to  be  the  great¬ 
est  comic  actor  in  Rome.  He  died  62  b.c. 

Roscom'inon,  an  inland  County  of  Ireland,  in 
the  east  of  the  Province  of  Connaught,  and 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  River  Shannon,  is  69 
miles  long  fiom  north  to  south,  by  40  miles  from 
east  to  west.  Area,  607.691  acres.  Pop.  (1881), 
132,490.  Its  capital  is  Roscommon. 

Roscommon,  the  county  seat  of  Roscommon 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  800. 

Rose  {Rosa),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Rosacea.  The  species  are  very  numerous, 
even  after  allowance  has  been  made  for  a  great 
number  of  varieties  elevated  into  species.  There 
is  no  genus  of  plants  in  which  the  limits  of 
species  are  more  difficult  to  define,  or  in  which 
varieties  are  more  apt  to  be  regarded  as  species. 
Some  kinds  of  roses  are  easily  propagated  by 
cuttings,  the  other  kinds  by  layers.  The  finer 
varieties  are  budded  on  stocks  of  some  common 
kind. 

Roselmrgh,  the  county  seat  of  Douglas  county. 
Ore.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Rosedale,  the  county  seat  of  Bolivar  county. 
Miss.  Pop.,  125. 

Rose'mary  {Rosmarinus),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Labia/ce,  and  nearly  allied  to 
sage  {Salvia),  from  which  it  differs  in  its  filaments 
having  an  awl-shaped  tooth,  directed  downward 
a  little  above  the  base.  Only  one  species  is 
known,  R.  officinalis.  Rosemary  has  been  advan¬ 
tageously  adminis.ered  internally  in  cases  of 
chronic  diarrhoea,  and  of  a  relaxed  state  of  the 
system.  Oil  of  rosemary  is  a  principal  ingredi¬ 
ent  of  the  perfume  called  Hungary  water,  or 
Queen  of  Hungary’s  water. 

Rose'ola  is  a  common  skin  disease,  included 
in  the  division  rashes,  and  sometimes  described 
under  thq  term  scarlet  rash.  In  some  cases,  it 
begins  with  slight  febrile  symptoms  and  gastric 
disturbance,  which  subside  in  two  or  three  days, 
when  the  rash  appears;  in  other  cases,  no  prelimi¬ 
nary  fever  occurs.  The  eruption  first  appears 
upon  the  face,  neck,  and  chest,  in  specks  or 
small  patches,  which  have  a  tendency  to  coalesce; 
and  in  severe  cases,  the  whole  surface  of  the  body 
assumes  a  uniform  red  tint.  The  eruption  is 
usually  accomp  nied  by  itching  of  the  affected 
parts,  and  by  redness  and  slight  soreness  of  the 
throat,  and  seldom  lasts  more  than  two  or  three 
days,  when  it  gradually  fades  away;  and  its  dis¬ 
appearance  is  not  followed  by  the  desquamation 
of  epidermis,  which  is  one  of  the  natural  sequeUe 
of  scarlatina  and  certain  other  skin  diseases.  The 
rash  differs  considerably  in  appearance  in  differ¬ 
ent  cases.  The  disease  is  never  contagious,  and 
one  attack  affords  no  immunity  from  a  second. 
The  treatment  is  very  simple,  as  the  disease  would 
probably  always  terminate  favorably  if  left 
entirely  to  itself.  If  there  is  a  suspicion  that  the 
case  should  turn  out  to  be  one  of  scarlatina,  an 
emetic  of  ipecacuanha  should  be  given,  and  the 
bowels  should  be  freely  acted  on.  In  ordinary 
cases,  a  few  days’  confinement  to  the  house,  a 
spare  and  non-stimulating  diet,  saline  laxatives — 
such  as  Seidlitz  powders — and  an  occasional  warm 
bath,  if  there  is  much  cutaneous  irritation,  or 
if  the  eruption  has  a  tendency  to  recede  too  sud¬ 
denly,  constitute  all  the  treatment  that  is  expe¬ 
dient. 

Roses,  War  of  tiie,  a  disastrous  civil  contest 
which  desolated  England  during  the  thirty  years 
from  1455  to  1485. 

Rosita,  the  county  seat  of  Custer  county, 
Colo.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Ross,  Sir  John,  C.B.,  Arctic  voyager,  born 
June  24,  1777,  at  Balsarroch,  Wigtonshire,  Eng¬ 
land,  and  died  Aug.  30,  1856. 

Ross,  Sir  James  Clark,  Arctic  explorer 
(nephew  of  the  preceding),  was  born  in  London, 
April  15,  1800.  He  died  in  1862. 

Rossetti,  Gabriele,  a  celebrated  Italian 
author,  was  born  at  Vasto,  in  1783.  He  died  in 
London,  in  1854. 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriele,  son  of  the  former, 
distinguished  as  a  thoughtful  and  powerful  painter, 
a  graceful  poet,  and  an  elegant  translator  of  early 
Italian  poetry,  was  born  in  London  in  1828,  and 
died  April  10,  1882. 

Rossini,  Gioacchino,  the  greatest  composer  of 
the  present  century  for  the  Italian  lyrical  stage. 
He  was  born  at  Pesaro  in  1792.  He  died  in  1868. 


ROT. 


631 


RUNNYMEDE. 


Rot  consists  in  the  maturation  within  the  liver 
and  biliary  ducts  of  an  entozoon,  the  Disloma 
hepalicum,  or  fluke.  Although  most  frequent 
among  sheep,  it  also  occasionally  attacks  rabbits, 
hares,  deer,  and  cattle.  Sheep  grazed  even  for  a 
few  hours  upon  land  subject  to  rot,  or  taking  a 
single  draught  from  an  infected  stagnant  pool, 
may  contract  the  diso  der,  most  probably  by 
swallowing  the  young  flukes.  From  fifteen  to 
forty  days  usually  elapse  before  any  serious  con¬ 
sequences  follow  from  the  presence  of  the  para¬ 
site.  At  first,  indeed,  digestion  appears  to  be 
stimulated,  and  the  sheep  thrive  rather  better  than 
before;  but  by  and  by  they  rapidly  waste,  their 
wool  becomes  dry,  and  easily  detached,  their 
bowels  irregular,  their  skin  and  mucous-  mem¬ 
branes  yellow,  as  is  usually  conveniently  observed 
by  examining  the  eye  and  its  pearly  caruncle, 
which  in  rot  loses  the  brilliancy  of  health,  and 
exhibits  a  dingy  yellow  hue.  The  treatment  of 
rot  is  seldom  very  satisfactory;  and  if  the  animals, 
when  first  affected,  are  in  tolerable  condition,  no 
time  should  be  lost  in  having  them  slaughtered. 

Rotato'ria,  or  Roti'fera,  popularly  known  as 
Wheel- animalcules,  derive  their  name  from 
the  Latin  word  iota,  a  wheel.  They  have  received 
these  names  on  account  of  the  apparent  rotation 
of  certain  disc-like  ciliated  organs  which  surround 
the  mouth.  Although  some  of  the  larger  forms 
may  be  detected  with  the  naked  eye,  they  are  as 
a  class  microscopical.  They  are  widely  diffused 
over  the  surface  of  the  earth,  inhabiting  both  salt 
and  fresh  water,  and  occurring  in  all  climates. 

Rothschild,  Meyer  Anselm,  baron  of  the 
Austrian  Empire,  was  born  in  the  Jews’  Alley, 
Frankfurt-on-tlie-Main,  in  1743,  and  died  in  1812. 
He  was  the  father  of  the  five  European  banker- 
princes — Anselm  in  Frankfurt,  Nathan  in  London, 
Solomon  in  Vienna,  James  in  Paris,  and  Charles 
in  Naples, — all  of  whom  are  now  dead,  but  whose 
heirs  and  successors  yet  hold  the  balance  of  finan¬ 
cial  power  in  Europe. 

Rot'tenstone,  a  mineral  consisting  chiefly  of 
alumina,  with  about  10  per  cent,  of  carbonace¬ 
ous  matter,  and  a  little  silica.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  formed  by  decomposition  of  shale. 

Rot'terdam  (dam  or  dike  of  the  Rofte),  after 
Amsterdam,  the  largest  city  in  the  Netherlands. 
Pop.,  109,477. 

Rouble,  Ruble,  or  Rubel,  the  unit  of  the 
Russian  money  system.  Tiie  present  silver 
rouble  is  equivalent  to  77  cents. 

Rouen  (Lat.  Rotorhagud),  one  of  the  principal 
manufacturing  and  trading  cities  of  France,  and 
the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Seine-Inferieure, 
is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seine,  eighty- 
seven  miles  northwest  of  Paris  by  railway.  Pop. 
(1881),  105,906. 

Roumania.  See  Moldavia. 

Roume'lia  (Turkish,  Rumili),  a  name  used  to 
denote  an  important  portion  of  European  Turkey, 
differing  widely  in  area  at  various  times,  but  most 
generally  applied  to  the  region  between  the  Bal¬ 
kans  and  the  Aegean,  corresponding  to  the  ancient 
Thrace  and  part  of  Macedonia. 

Roumelia,  Eastern,  a  province  of  the  Otto¬ 
man  Empire,  lying  immediately  to  the  south  of 
the  Balkans.  Area,  13,830  square  miles;  pop. 
(1880),  815,946,  of  whom  573,560  were  Bulgarians. 

Round 'heads,  a  name  given  by  the  adherents 
of  Charles  I.,  during  the  English  Civil  War,  to 
the  Puritans,  or  friends  of  the  Parliament,  who 
distinguished  themselves  by  having  their  hair 
closely  cut,  while  the  Cavaliers  wore  theirs  in 
long  ringlets. 

Roundle,  or  Roundlet,  in  Heraldry,  a  gen¬ 
eral  name  given  to  charges  of  a 
circular  form,  which,  in  English 
heraldry,  have  more  special  names 
indicative  of  their  tinctures;  the 
roundle  or  being,  for  example,  called 
a  bezant;  and  the  roundle  gules,  a 
torteaux.  Roundle. 

Rousseau,  Jean  Jacques,  a  French  author, 
celebrated  not  less  for  the  singularities  of  his 
character,  and  the  misfortunes  of  his  life,  than 
for  the  brilliancy  and  sentimental  enthusiasm  of 
his  writings,  was  born  at  Geneva,  June  28,  1712. 
He  died  in  1778. 

Row'an  Tree,  Mountain  Ash,  or  Quicken 
Tree  (Pyrus  aucuparia;  Sorbus  aitcuparia  of 
many  botanists),  a  tree  abundant  in  many  parts 


of  Continental  Europe.  The  wood  is  valued  for 
its  compactness.  The  inner  bark  and  sapwood 
have  a  very  peculiar  smell.  The  fruit  ( Rowan 


berried)  is  sometimes  used  for  preserves.  It  has 
much  acidity,  and  a  peculiar  bitterness.  It  is 
generally  red;  but  there  is  a  variety  with  yellow 
fruit;  and  a  very  nearly  allied  species,  P.  ameri- 
cana,  a  native  of  North  America,  has  purple  fruit. 

Roxborongh,  the  county  seat  of  Person  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  483. 

Rox 'bury,  formerly  a  separate  city  of  Massa¬ 
chusetts,  but  now  incorporated  with  Boston. 
Besides  numerous  elegant  residences,  churches, 
schools,  banks,  and  newspapers,  it  contains  many 
forges,  steam-engine  and  boiler  factories,  cordage- 
mills,  and  manufactories  of  cotton,  wool,  carpets, 
flax-cotton,  organs,  starch,  glue,  etc.  Pop.  (1870), 
34,772, 

Rub'ble,  a  common  kind  of  masonry,  iu  which 
the  stones  are  irregular  in  size  and  shape.  Walls 
faced  with  ashlar  are  generally  packed  with 
rubble  at  the  back. 

Rubefa'cients  are  external  agents  employed 
in  medicine  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating,  and 
consequently  reddening,  the  part  to  which  they 
are  applied.  All  agents  which,  after  a  certain 
period,  act  as  blisters,  may  be  made  to  act  as 
rubefacients,  if  their  time  of  action  is  shortened. 
The  mildest  rubefacients  are  hot  poultices,  cloths 
soaked  in  very  hot  water,  moderately  stimulating 
liniments — as,  for  example,  soap-liniment,  with 
various  proportions  of  liniment  of  ammonia,  or 
chloroform,  etc. 

Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
Flemish  painters,  was  born  probably  at  Siegen, 
in  Westphalia,  June  29,  1577.  He  died  in  1640. 

Ru’bicon,  a  stream  of  Central  Italy,  falling 
into  the  Adriatic,  has  obtained  a  proverbial 
celebrity  from  the  well-known  story  of  its  passage 
by  Cassar,  who,  by  crossing  this  river — which,  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  between  him  and 
Pompey,  formed  the  southern  boundary  of  his 
province — virtually  declared  war  against  the 
Republic. 

Rubid'ium  (symbol  Rb,  equiv.  85.4)  and 
Caesium  (symbol  Cs,  equiv.  133)  are  two  alkaline 
metals,  discovered  in  1860-61,  by  Bunsen  and 
KirchhofE,  by  means  of  spectrum  analysis.  They 
resemble  potassium  more  nearly  than  any  other 
substance,  and  their  names  are  derived  from 
rubidus ,  dark  red,  and  caarius,  sky-colored.  They 
are  widely  diffused  in  nature,  but  always  occur 
in  very  small  quantities. 

Ruby,  a  gem  much  prized,  and  only  inferior 
in  value  to  the  diamond,  or  perhaps  also  to  the 
sapphire.  It  is  regarded  by  mineralogists  not  as 
a  distinct  species,  but  as  a  mere  red-colored 
variety  of  sapphire  or  of  spinel. 

Ruby,  the  county  seat  of  Okanogan  county, 
Wash.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Rudder,  in  a  ship  or  boat,  is  that  part  of  the 
steering  apparatus  which  is  in  immediate  contact 
with  the  water.  It  is  hung  to  the  stern-post  by 
pintle  and  brace  hinges,  and  the  upper  end,  pass¬ 
ing  into  the  vessel,  is  acted  on  by  the  tiller. 

Rudolf,  or  Rodolf,  of  Hapsburg,  the  founder 
of  the  imperial  dynasty  of  Austria,  which  for  a 


time  was  that  of  Germany,  was  born  in  1218,  and 
died  in  1291. 

Rue  (Rutce),  a  genus  of  plants,  of  the  natural 
order  Rutacew,  employed  in  medicine  as  a  power¬ 
ful  stimulant,  and  its  expressed  juice,  mixed  with 
water,  used  as  a  hair- wash,  promotes  the  growth  of 
hair.  It  is  found  all  over  the  world. 

Rii'geii,  the  largest  of  the  islands  of  Germany, 
belongs  to  Prussia,  and  lies  in  the  Baltic,  off  the 
coast  of  Pomerania.  Greatest  length,  33  miles; 
greatest  breadth,  28  miles;  area,  360  square  miles. 
Pop.,  45,699. 

Rule  of  the  Road.  This  phrase  includes  the 
regulations  to  be  observed  in  the  movements  of 
conveyances  either  on  land  or  at  sea. — On  Land : 
Drivers  and  riders  keep  the  side  of  the  road  next 
their  right  hand  when  meeting,  and  that  next 
their  left  when  overtaking  and  passing  other 
horses  or  conveyances.  The  person  neglecting 
this  rule  is  liable  for  any  damage  that  may  hap¬ 
pen  through  such  neglect.  A  man  riding  against’ 
a  horse,  or  a  conveyance  driving  against  another 
that  is  standing  still,  is  answerable  for  any  dam¬ 
age  that  may  ensue. — At  Sea:  Vessels  meeting 
from  opposite  directions  port  their  helms  and  pass 
one  another  on  their  left  sides.  A  vessel  over¬ 
taking  another  shall  keep  clear  of  that  over¬ 
taken.  When  two  sailing  vessels  are  crossing 
one  another,  the  one  that  has  the  wind  on  its  port 
(left)  side  has  to  keep  clear  of  that  which  has  the 
wind  on  the  starboard  (right)  side,  except  when 
the  former  is  close-hauled  and  the  latter  free. 
If  they  have  the  wind  on  the  same  side,  the  ship 
that  is  to  windward  must  keep  clearof  that  to  lee¬ 
ward.  A  steamer  having  another  on  her  star¬ 
board  side  has  to  keep  out  of  its  way.  Steamers 
have  to  keep  out  of  the  way  of  sailing-ships,  and 
to  slacken  speed  when  nearing  other  vessels. 
When  one  vessel  has  to  get  out  of  the  way,  the 
other  keeps  her  course;  but  safety  being  the  first 
consideration,  these  rules  are  not  to  be  acted  upon 
at  all  hazards,  when  their  observance  incurs  ob¬ 
vious  risk  of  danger. 

Rum,  a  kind  of  spirit  made  by  fermenting  and 
distilling  the  “sweets”  that  accrue  in  making 
sugar  from  cane  juice.  The  scummings  from  the 
sugar  pans  give  the  best  rum  that  any  particular 
plantation  can  produce;  scummings  and  molasses, 
the  next  quality;  and  molasses  the  lowest. 

Rumford,  Benjamin  Thompson,  Count,  an 
American  inventor,  was  born  at  Woburn,  Mass., 
March  26,  1753.  He  died  at  Auteuil,  near  Paris, 
Aug.  21,  1814.  He  was  knighted  by  the  King  of 
Bavaria. 

Ruminan'tia,  a  group  of  animals,  in  the  divi¬ 
sion  Artiodactylia  of  the  order  of  Ungulala.  The 
Ruminantia  are  an  extremely  well-defined  group, 
among  the  individuals  of  which  the  habit  of 
rumination  or  chewing  the  cud  is  universal  and 
most  peculiar.  The  Ruminantia  are  all  strictly 
and  exclusively  herbivorous,  and  exhibit  a  great 
similarity  of  structure. 

Rump  Parliament.  In  order  to  bring  about 
the  condemnation  of  Charles  I.,  Oliver  Cromwell, 
on  Dec.  6,  1648,  sent  two  regiments,  under  the 
command  of  Colonel  Pride,  to  coerce  the  House 
of  Commons.  Forty-one  members  of  the  Long 
Parliament  who  were  favorable  to  accommoda¬ 
tion  were  imprisoned  in  a  lower  room  of  the 
house,  160  were  ordered  to  go  home,  and  only 
sixty  of  the  most  violent  of  the  Independents 
were  admitted.  The  clearance  was  called  Pride’s 
Purge,  and  the  privileged  members  were  after¬ 
ward  passed  by  the  name  of  the  Rump,  forming, 
as  it  were,  the  fag-end  of  the  Long  Parliament. 

Runes,  the  earliest  alphabet  in  use  among  the 
Teutonic  and  Gothic  nations  of  Northern  Europe. 
The  exact  period  of  their  origin  is  not  known. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Teutonic  rUn,  a 
mystery,  whence  runa,  a  whisper,  and  helrun, 
divination;  and  the  original  use  of  these  charac¬ 
ters  seems  to  have  been  for  purposes  of  secrecy 
and  divination. 

Rungpur',  a  British  district  of  India,  in  the 
Presidency  of  Bengal,  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  Brahmaputra,  and  on  the  north  by  the  pro¬ 
tected  State  of  Cush  Behar.  Area,  3,476  square 
miles;  pop.  (1871),  2,149,172. 

Runnels,  the  county  seat  of  Runnels  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  400. 

Run'nymede,  a  long  stretch  of  green  meadow 
lying  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  from 


RUPEfi. 


632 


RYE-GRASS. 


which  it  is  partly  concealed  by  plantations  of 
willows,  twenty  miles  west-southwest  of  London. 
Runnymede  is  of  great  historical  interest,  from 
the  fact  that  Magna  Charta  was  signed  by  King 
John,  June  15,  1215,  either  on  this  meadow,  or  on 
Charter  Island,  lying  a  short  distance  olf  the 
shore.  The  great  charter  itself  professes  to  have 
been  signed  per  manum  nostrain  in  pralo  quod 
■vacatur  Runnymede.  See  Magna  Charta. 

Rupee  is  the  name  of  a  silver  coin  current  in 
India,  of  the  value  of  48  cents. 

Rupert,  Prince,  a  royalist  general  in  the  war 
between  Charles  I.  and  Parliament,  the  son  of 
the  Elector-Palatine  Frederick  V.,  and  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  James  I.  of  England,  was  born  in 
1619.  He  died  in  1682. 

Ru'pia  is  a  severe  form  of  skin-disease.  It  is 
characterized  by  a  flatfish,  distinct  bullee  or  blebs, 
containing  a  serous,  purulent,  or  sanious  fluid, 
which  become  changed  into  thick  scabs.  Several 
varieties  of  this  disease  have  been  established  by 
dermatologists.  In  its  simplest  form,  the  blebs 
are  not  preceded  by  any  inflammatory  symptoms, 
are  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  contain  a  fluid 
which  is  originally  thin  and  transparent,  but  soon 
thickens,  becomes  purulent,  and  dries  into  brown 
ragged  scabs,  which  are  elevated  in  the  center. 
The  scabs  are  easily  separated,  and  leave  ulcerated 
surfaces,  on  which  several  successive  scabs 
usually  form  before  healing  ensues.  In  a  more 
severe  form,  known  as  rupia  pi  ominens,  the  scab 
projects  so  much  in  the  center  as  to  resemble  a 
limpet-shell  in  form.  The  disease  is  chronic,  and 
is  usually  limited  to  the  limbs,  the  loins,  and 
the  nates.  It  is  not  contagious,  and  generally 
attacks  persons  debilitated  by  old  age,  intemper¬ 
ance,  bad  living,  or  previous  diseases,  especially 
small  pox,  scarlatina,  and  syphilis.  The  general 
treatment  consists  mainly  in  the  administration  of 
tonics,  such  as  quinia,  the  mineral  acids,  ale, 
wine,  animal  food,  etc.  Some  writers  recom¬ 
mend  the  tincture  of  serpentaria;  and  certain 
cases  which  will  not  yield  to  tonics,  rapidly 
improve  when  treated  with  iodide  of  potassium. 
The  local  treatment  consists  in  puncturing  the 
blebs  as  soon  as  they  arise,  in  removing  the  scabs 
by  poulticing,  and  in  applying  a  slightly  stimulat¬ 
ing  application — such  as  a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver — to  the  subjacent  ulcers.  The  disease  is 
frequently  obstinate,  but  the  patient  usually 
recovers. 

Rurik,  who  is  considered  to  have  been  the 
founder  of  the  Russian  monarchy,  was,  according 
to  most  authors,  a  Varangian  of  Scandinavian 
origin,  who  was  invited  by  the  slaves  of  Nov¬ 
gorod  to  come  and  rule  over  them.  He  took 
possession  of  the  country  to  the  south  of  the  Gulf 
of  Finland,  including  Novgorod,  in  861  or  862, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  monarchy.  He  died 
in  879. 

Ru  'sa,  a  genus  of  Cervidce,  or  sub-genus  of 
Cerms,-  containing  a  number  of  species  of  deer, 
natives  of  the  forests  of  the  East  Indies,  which 
have  round  antlers,  a  snag  projecting  in  front  just 
above  the  base  of  each,  and  the  top  forked,  but 
the  antlers  not  otherwise  branched. 

Rush  ( Juncus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Junccoe,  having  a  glume-like  (not  colored) 
perianth,  smooth  filaments,  and  a  many-seeded, 
generally  three-celled  capsule. 

Rush,  Benjamin,  M.D.,  an  American  physi¬ 
cian,  was  born  near  Philadelphia,  Dec.  24,  1745. 
Elected  a  member  of  the  Continental  Congress, 
he  advocated  and  signed  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  In  1777  he  was  appointed 
Surgeon-General  and  Physician-General  of  the 
Continental  Army.  In  1785  he  planned  the  Phila¬ 
delphia  Dispensary,  the  first  in  the  United  States; 
and  was  a  member  of  the  convention  which 
ratified  the  Federal  Constitution.  He  died  April 
19,  1813.  Rush  Medical  College  in  Chicago  was 
named  in  his  honor. 

Rushville,  the  county  seat  and  a  prosperous 
manufacturing  city  of  Rush  county,  Ind.  Pop., 
7,200. 

Rushville,  the  county  seat  of  Schuyler  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  2,300. 

Rushville,  the  county  seat  of  Sheridan  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  550. 

Rusk,  the  county  seat  of  Cherokee  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Ruskin,  John,  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and 


original  writers  upon  art,  was  born  in  London  in 
1819. 

Russell,  the  county  seat  of  Russell  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Russellville,  the  county  seat  of  Logan  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  2,258. 

Russia,  Empire  of,  extending  over  a  large 
proportion  of  the  northern  regions  of  the  globe, 
includes  the  eastern  part  of  Europe,  the  whole  of 
Northern  Asia,  and  a  part  of  Central  Asia. 
Latitude  38"  30' — 78°  N.;  longitude  17°  19"  E. — 
190°  E.  (170°  W.)  The  portion  of  North 
America  which  formerly  belonged  to  Russia  was 
sold  to  the  United  Slates  in  1867.  Russia  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  on 
the  east  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  ;  on  the  south  by 
the  Chinese  Empire,  Turkestan,  Caspian  Sea, 
Persia,  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  the  Black  Sea ;  and 
on  the  west  by  Roumania,  Austria,  Prussia,  the 
Baltic,  and  Sweden.  The  area  of  Russia  amounts 
to  more  than  8,000,000  square  miles,  and  is  more 
than  double  the  entire  area  of  Europe.  The 
empire  thus  covers  more  than  one-sixth  of  the  land 
superficies  of  the  globe.  The  pop.  was,  in  1879-80, 
officially  estimated  at  98,356,100.  The  Govern¬ 
ment  is  an  unlimited  monarchy,  the  head  of 
which  is  the  emperor,  who  unites  in  himself  every 
authority  and  power — that  is  to  say,  is  the  head 
of  the  military,  the  legislative,  and  the  judicial 
systems,  and  is  also  the  ecclesiastical  chief  of  the 
orthodox  Greek  Church.  The  order  of  succession 
is  by  primogeniture,  hereditary  inheirs-male,  and 
in  females  in  default  of  males.  On  Jan.  1, 
1863,  the  standing  army,  including  the  guard, 
consisted  of  31,110  generals,  staff,  and  com¬ 
missioned  officers,  and  818,105  privates  and 
non-commissioned  officers.  Besides  this  establish¬ 
ment,  there  were  300,000  irregular  troops, 
consisting  of  Cossacks,  Kirghiz,  Circassians,  and 
other  contingents,  who  are  liable  to  military 
service  in  lieu  of  paying  taxes.  In  1875  Russia 
had  137  war-vessels  in  the  Baltic  Sea,  31  in  the 
Black  Sea,  and  55  on  other  waters.  In  all,  there 
were  223  ships  with  an  aggregate  burden  of  190,- 
000  tons,  29  being  ironclads.  The  expenditure 
for  the  navy  was,  in  1880,  estimated  at  $20,- 
390,000. 

Russian  Church,  the  community  of  Christians 
subject  to  the  Emperor  of  Russia,  using  the 
Slavonic  liturgy,  and  following  the  Russian  rite. 
As  regards  doctrine,  it  may  be  regarded  as 
identical  with  the  common  body  of  the  Greek 
Church.  Both  reject  the  supremacy  of  the  Pope, 
and  the  double  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  All 
the  great  leading  characteristics  of  their  disci¬ 
pline,  too,  are  the  same.  The  liturgy  of  the 
Russian  Church  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Church 
of  Constantinople  ;  but  it  is  celebrated  not  in  the 
Greek,  but  in  the  Slavonic  language. 

Russian  Language.  Russian,  a  principal  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Slavic  family  of  languages,  first  became 
a  written  language  in  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great, 
till  which  period  the  old  Slavic — the  language  of 
the  Church — had  been  the  only  medium  of  liter¬ 
ary  expression,  and  had,  in  consequence,  exer¬ 
cised  an  important  influence  on  the  Russian  pop¬ 
ular  speech,  as  on  that  of  other  Slavic  dialects. 
The  Mongol  conquest,  and  the  preponderance  of 
Polish  elements  in  the  western  parts  of  the  empire, 
have  also  introduced  into  the  Russsian  language 
a  great  number  of  Mongolian  and  Polish  expres¬ 
sions;  in  addition  to  which,  the  efforts  of  Peter 
the  Great  to  give  his  subjects  the  benefits  of 
western  culture  have  enlarged  the  Russian  vocab¬ 
ulary,  especially  in  arts  and  industry,  with 
numerous  German,  French,  and  Dutch  words. 
The  chief  characteristics  of  Russian,  as  a  language, 
are  simplicity  and  naturalness. 

Russ'niaks,  also  Russine  and  Rutheni,  the 
name  of  a  variety  of  peoples  who  form  a  branch 
of  the  great  Slavic  race,  and  are  sharply  distin¬ 
guished  from  the  Muscovites,  or  Russians  proper, 
by  their  language  and  the  entire  character  of 
their  life.  They  are  divided  into  the  Russniaks 
of  Galicia,  North  Hungary,  Podolia,  Volhynia, 
and  Lithuania,  and  are  estimated  by  Schafarik  at 
13,000,000. 

Rust,  the  name  given  to  a  disease  of  plants, 
which  shows  itself  on  the  stems  and  leaves  of 
many  plants,  and  on  the  ears  of  grasses,  both  of 
the  cereal  grasses,  and  of  many  pasture  or  forage 


grasses,  in  brown,  yellow,  or  orange-colored  spots; 
and  after  destroying  the  epidermis  of  the  plant, 
assumes  the  form  of  a  powder,  which  soils  the 
fingers  when  touched. 

Rustburg,  the  county  seat  of  Campbell  coun¬ 
ty,  Ya.  Pop.  ,400. 

Ruston,  the  parish  seat  of  Lincoln  parish,  La. 
Pop.,  550. 

Rustre,  in  Heraldry,  one  of  the  subordinaries, 
consisting  of  a  lozenge  with  a  circular  opening 
pierced  in  its  center. 

Ruta'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
consisting  mostly  of  trees  and  shrubs,  but  con¬ 
taining  a  few  herbaceous  plants. 

Ruth,  Book  of,  one  of  the  Hagiograplia, 
placed  in  the  authorized  version,  between  Judges 
and  Samuel.  It  consists  of  four  chapters,  and 
describes  how  Ruth,  the  Moabite  widow  of  a 
Hebrew,  Maclilon  by  name,  in  the  time  of  the 
Judges,  became — by  faithful,  loving  adherence 
to  her  mother-in-law,  Naomi — the  wife  of  Boaz, 
and  through  him  the  ancestress  of  David  himself. 

Rutlie'nium  (symbol  Ru,  equiv.  104 — sp.  gr. 
11.3)  is  a  metal  discovered  in  1843  by  Claus  in  the 
ore  of  platiiHim.  In  most  respects,  excepting  in  its 
specific  gravity,  it  closely  resembles  iridium,  the 
colored  reaction  of  the  salts  being  almost  without 
exception  the  same  in  both. 

Rutlierfordton,  the  county  seat  of  Rutherford 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  1,138. 

Rutland,  a  city,  and  the  county  seat  of  Rut¬ 
land  county,  Vt.,  fifty  miles  south-southwest  of 
Montpelier.  The  chief  industry  of  the  neighbor¬ 
hood  is  the  production  of  marble,  which  employs 
about  1,500  men.  Pop.,  15,200. 

Rutledge,  the  county  seat  of  Crenshaw  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  315. 

Rutledge,  the  county  seat  of  Grainger  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  275. 

Ruysdael,  or  Ruisdael,  Jakob,  a  great  Dutch 
landscape  painter,  was  born  at  Haarlem.  The- 
date  of  his  birth  is  uncertain;  some  make  it  1625, 
others  1630  or  1635.  He  died  in  1681. 

Rye  ( Secale ),  a  genus  of  grasses,  allied  to  wheat 
and  barley,  and  having  spikes  which  generally 
consist  of  two-flowered,  rarely  of  three-flowered, 
spikelets;  the  florets  furnished  with  terminal 
awns,  only  the  upper  floret  stalked.  One  species 
(S.  cereale )  is  a  well-known  grain.  It  has,  when 
in  fruit,  a  roundish-quadrangular  spike,  with  a 
tough  racliis.  Its  cultivation  does  not  extend  so 
far  north  as  that  of  barley;  but  it  grows  in  regions 
too  cold  for  wheat,  and  on  soils  too  poor  and 
sandy  for  any  other  grain.  Its  ripening  can  also 
be  more  confidently  reckoned  upon  in  cold  regions 
than  that  of  any  other  grain.  But  rye  succeeds 
best,  and  is  most  productive,  in  a  climate  where 
wheat  ripens. 

Rye-grass  ( Lolium ),  a  genus  of  grasses,  having 
a  two-rowed,  flatly-compressed  spike,  the  spike- 


1,  Common  Rye-grass;  2,  Italian  Rye-grass. 


lets  appressed  edgewise  to  the  racliis.  This  grass 
is  highly  valued  for  forage  and  hay,  and  is  ex¬ 
tensively  sowii  for  these  uses  in  various  countries. 


s. 


633 


SAFFRON. 


O  is  the  nineteenth  letter  in  the  English  and 
O  other  western  alphabets  (the  eighteenth  in 
the  Latin),  belongs  to  the  dental  series,  and  marks 
the  fundamental  sound  of  the  hissing  or  sibilant 
group,  s,  z,  sh,  zh.  The  Hebrew,  or  Phoenician 
character,  from  which  the  modern  s  is  derived, 
was  called  shin — i.  e. ,  tooth,  and  in  its  original 
form  probably  represented  two  or  three  teeth. 
The  same  character,  with  the  presence  or  absence 
of  a  diacritic  point,  marked  either  s  or  sh.  In 
English,  s  is  used  for  the  sharp  and  flat  sounds, 
as  this,  those  =  thoze.  The  nearness  of  the 
,v-sound  to  th  is  seen  in  the  English  loves— hmeth, 
and  in  the  phenomenon  of  lisping — yeth  =  yes. 
This  seems  to  furnish  the  transition  to  the  so  fre 
quent  interchange  of  the  High  German  s  for  the 
Low  German  t,  as  in  German,  wasser  —  water-, 
German  fuss  =foot.  Comp.  Greek  thallassa= 
thalatla. 

Sabadil'la,  Cebadilla,  or  Cevadii.la  (Asag- 
rcea  officinalis,  formerly  Helonius  officinalis),  a 
Mexican  plant  of  the  natural  order  Mel  tnthacece, 
the  seeds  of  which  are  employed  in  medicine, 
because  of  properties  analogous  to  those  of  white 
hellebore  ( Veratrum  album). 

Salne'ans,  the  supposed  descendants  of  one, 
two,  or  three  Sliebas  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  His 
torically,  the  Sabseans  appear  chiefly  as  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  Arabia  Felix  or  Yemen  (to  the  north 
of  the  present  Yemen),  the  principal  ciiy  of  which 
was  called  Saba,  and  the  cpieen  of  which  is  said 
to  have  visited  Solomon,  attracted  by  the  fame  of 
his  wisdom. 

Sal) 'bath  (Heb.  Shabbath,  Sabbathon,  etc., 
from  shabalh,  to  rest;  not  from  shub,  to  return, 
or  shebah,  seven)  designates  the  seventh  day  of 
the  week,  set  aside,  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  a 
period  of  cessation  from  work.  For  several  years 
after  the  death  of  Jesus,  the  Church  included 
none  but  Jews,  and  by  these  the  Sabbath  aud 
other  Mosaic  rites  continued  to  be  observed  as 
before.  At  what  date  the  Sunday,  or  first  day  of 
the  week,  began  to  be  generally  used  by  Chris¬ 
tians  as  a  stated  time  for  religious  meetings,  we 
have  no  definite  information  either  in  the  New 
Testament  or  in  the  writings  of  the  fathers  of 
the  Church.  By  none  of  the  fathers  before  the 
fourth  century  is  it  identified  with  the  Sabbath, 
nor  is  the  duty  of  observing  it  grounded  by  them 
either  on  the  fourth  commandment,  or  on  the 
precept  or  example  of  Jesus  or  his  apostles,  or  on 
an  anti  Mosaic  Sabbath  law.  By  Justin,  in  whose 
Apology  for  the  Christians  to  Antoninus  'Pius, 
written  between  138  and  150  a.d.,  the  earliest 
undoubted  mention  of  Sunday  meetings  in  the 
works  of  the  fathers  occurs,  several  reasons  for 
holding  them  then  are  assigned — the  first  being, 
that  on 'this  day  of  the  week  the  world  and  light 
were  created;  and  the  second  being  the  ressurree- 
tion  of  ’  Christ.  Unquestionably  the  first  law, 
either  ecclesiastical  or  civil,  by  which  the  sab¬ 
batical  observance  of  Sunday  is  known  to  have 
been  ordained,  is  the  edict  of  Constantine,  321 
a. d. ,  of  which  the  following  is  a  translation: 
“Let  all  judges,  inhabitants  of  the  cities,  and 
artificers,  rest  on  the  venerable  Sunday.  But  in 
the  country,  husbandmen  may  freely  and  law¬ 
fully  apply  to  the  businessof  agriculture;  since  it 
often  happens  that  the  sowing  of  corn  and  plant¬ 
ing  of  vines  can  not  be  so  advantageously  per¬ 
formed  on  any  other  day;  lest,  by  neglecting  the 
opportunity,  they  should  lose  the  benefits  which 
the  divine  bounty  bestows  on  us.” 

Sabba'tia,  a  genus  of  plants,  of  the  natural 
order  Oentianaceas,  natives  of  this  country. 

Sabine',  a  river  of  the  United  States,  rises  in 
the  northeast  part  of  Texas,  and  flows  southeast 
250  miles  to  t lie  eastern  boundary  of  Texas, 
whence,  flowing  southerly,  it  forms  the  eastern 
boundary,  and  empties  through  Sabine  Bay,  18 
miles  long  by  9  miles  wide,  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  This  river  is  500  miles  long. 

Sabri'na  Land,  discovered  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  March  20,  1839,  in  latitude  G9U  58'  S., 
longitude  121°  8’  E. 

Sac  City,  the  county  seat  of  Sac  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  1,500. 


s 


Sable  ( Maries  zibellina),  a  species  of  Marten, 
the  fur  of  which  is  brown,  grayish-yellow  on  the 


throat,  and  small  grayish-yellow'  spots  are  scat¬ 
tered  on  the  sides  of  the  neck. 

Sack.  A  name  in  common  use  in  the  time  of 
Shakespeare,  and  occurring  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  eighteenth  century  as  denoting  a  kind  of 
wine. 

Sack'ett’s  Harbor,  a  village  and  port  in  New 
York,  on  the  south  shore  of  Black  River  Bay, 
eight  miles  east  of  Lake  Ontario.  In  the  War  of 
1812,  it  was  an  important  port,  where  the  frigate 
Superior,  of  66  guns,  w'as  built  in  eighty  days, 
and  the  Madison  in  forty-five  days,  from  timber 
standing  in  the  forest.  A  man-of-war  of  3,200 
tons,  begun  before  the  treaty  of  disarmament,  is 
still  upon  the  sjocks.  Pop.,  800. 

Sa'co,  a  river  of  New  England,  rises  in  the 
White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire,  runs  south¬ 
easterly  through  the  southwestern  portion  of 
Maine,  through  Saco  Bay,  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Saco,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  York 
ebunty,  Maine,  is  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Saco  river,  at  its  last  falls,  four  miles  from  its 
mouth,  fourteen  miles  southwest  of  Portland.  It 
has  numerous  manufactories,  including  five 
cotton-mills,  four  saw  mills,  and  several  ship¬ 
yards.  Pop.  (1870),  7,300. 

Sac'rament  (Lat.  sacramentum,  mysterium, 
Gr.  /iv6repiov ,  mysterion),  the  name  given  to 
certain  religious  rites.  In  the  Roman  Church,  it 
is  held  that  there  are  seven  sacraments,  viz.: 
baptism,  confirmation,  the  holy  eucharist,  pen¬ 
ance,  extreme  unction,  holy  orders,  and  mat¬ 
rimony.  By  the  majority  of  the  Reformed 
Churches  the  sacraments  are  held  to  be  merely 
ceremonial  observances,  partly  designed  as  a  sol¬ 
emn  act,  by  which  each  individual  is  admitted  to 
membership,  or  desires  to  make  solemn  profes¬ 
sion  thereof;  partly  intended  to  stimulate  the 
faith  and  excite  the  fervor  and  the  pious  disposi¬ 
tion  of  the  recipient.  Most  Protestants  recognize 
only  two  sacraments — baptism  and  communion. 

Sacramen'to,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  capi¬ 
tal  of  California,  is  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Sacra¬ 
mento  river,  125  miles  from  the  sea,  latitude  38° 
33'  N.,  longitude  121°  20'  W.  Its  chief  trade  is 
furnishing  supplies  to  the  mining  districts,  with 
which  it  has  daily  communication  by  steamers 
aud  stages.  Pop.,  28,000. 

Sacramento,  a  river  in  California,  which  rises 
in  the  northeastern  part  of  the  State,  in  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  It  flows  nearly  due 
south,  receiving  numerous  branches  until  it 
unites  with  the  River  San  Joaquin,  and  flow's 
westerly  through  San  Pablo  and  San  Francisco 
Bays  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is  navigable  to 
Sacramento,  fifty  miles  from  San  Pablo  Bay,  and 
for  small  vessels  150  miles  further,  its  entire 
length  being  about  500  miles. 

Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  Feast  of,  a  modern 
festival  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  held  on 
the  Friday  after  the  octave  of  Corpus  Christi. 

Sac'ristan  (Lat.  sacra,  sacred  things),  an 
official  attached  to  a  church,  who  is  charged, 
under  the  priest  or  ruler  of  the  church,  with  the 
care  of  the  church,  and  of  all  its  appurtenances. 

Sac'risty,  an  apartment  attached  to  a  church, 
in  which  are  kept  the  sacred  objects  used  in  the 
public  worship,  and  in  which  the  clergy  and 
other  functionaries  who  take  part  in  the  service 


assemble  and  prepare  for  the  ceremonies  on 
which  they  are  about  to  enter. 

Sa'crum  or  Os  Sacrum,  is  a  triangular  bone 
situated  at  the  lower  pait  of  the  vertebral  column 
(of  which  it  is  a  natural  continuation),  and 
w  edged  betw'een  the  two  innominate  bones  so  as  to 
form  the  keystone  to  the  pelvic  arch. 

Sad'ducees  ( Zedukim ),  a  Jewdsh  school  or 
party  of  the  times  subsequently  to  the  Syrian 
Wars,  often  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
the  Talmud,  and  the  Midrash.  Their  principles 
were  sharply  opposed  to  those  of  the  Pharisees. 

Sadi,  Sheikh  Must, hi  Addin,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  Persian  poets,  was  born  at  Shiraz, 
about  the  year  1184.  lie  died  at  a  very  old  age, 
in  690  h.,  or  1263  A.  d. 

Safe-conduct,  a  passport  granted,  on  honor, 
to  a  foe,  enabling  him  to  pass  where  it  would 
otherwise  be  impossible  for  him  to  go  with 
impunity.  Safe-conducts  are  granted  in  wrar 
for  the  purposes  of  conference,  etc.;  and  to 
violate  the  provisions  of  such  a  pass  has  always 
been  esteemed  a  disgraceful  breach  of  the  laws  of 
honor. 

Safes,  Fire-proof.  The  manufacture  of  iron 
safes  for  the  preservation  of  money  and  valu¬ 
able  papers  has  become  one  of  great  import¬ 
ance.  They  were  first  made  in  1801.  One 
system  now'  in  use  consists  in  filling  the  jacket 
formed  by  the  double-plated  sides  with  saw¬ 
dust,  in  which  are  packed  a  number  of  small 
tubes  filled  with  an  alkaline  solution,  and 
hermetically  sealed,  or  crystals  of  alum  or  soda, 
containing  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  of  water  of 
crystallization.  In  case  of  fire,  and  the  safe 
becoming  heated,  the  tubes  burst,  or  the  crystals 
melt,  and  saturate  the  sawdust  with  water,  which 
becomes  steam,  and  passes  into  the  inner  chamber 
of  the  safe,  and  thus  protects  the  contents,  if 
inflammable,  from  fire  for  a  considerable  length 
of  time. 

Safety-fuse  is  used  in  mines  and  quarries.  It 
consists  of  a  hollow  cord  of  spun  yarn  or  hemp, 
tarred  on  the  outside  to  render  it  waterproof,  and 
filled  with  tightly-rammed  gunpowder.  This 
fuse  ignites  steadily  at  the  rate  of  about  tw'o  feet 
per  minute,  so  that  the  time  of  the  explosion  can 
be  easily  regulated.  The  fuse-tube  is  sometimes 
made  of  gutta-percha. 

Safety-lamp.  It  has  been  long  known  that 
when  marsh-gas  or  light  carbureted  hydrogen, 
which  is  frequently  disengaged  in  large  quantities 
from  coal-mines,  is  mixed  w'itli  seven  or  eight 
times  its  volume  of  atmospheric  air,  it  becomes 
highly  explosive,  taking  fire  at  the  approach  of  a 
light,  and  burning  with  a  pale  blue  flame.  More¬ 
over,  this  gas  in  exploding  renders  ten  times  its 
bulk  of  atmospheric  air  unfit  for  respiration,  and 
the  choke-damp  thus  produced  is  often  as  fatal 
to  miners  as  the  primary  explosion.  With  the 
view'  of  discovering  some  means  of  preventing 
these  dangerous  results,  experiments  were  insti¬ 
tuted  by  Sir  Humphrey  Davy,  which  led  to  the 
invention  of  the  safety-lamp.  It  consists  of  a 
gauze  jacket,  inside  of  which  is  placed  an  oil  cup 
and  wick.  As  flame  w  ill  not  pass  through  gauze, 
the  lamp  can  be  safely  used  in  an  explosive 
atmosphere. 

Safety-valve  is  a  circular  valve  placed  on  an 
opening  in  the  top  of  a  steam-boiler,  and  kept  in 
its  place  either  by  means  of  weights  piled  above 
it,  by  a  lever  of  the  second  kind,  with  a  weight 
capable  of  sliding  along  the  arm,  or  by  a  lever 
and  spring.  When  the  pressure  reaches  a  given 
point  the  valve  rises  and  permits  the  steam  to 
escape. 

Sa fvllower  ( Carthamus  tinctorius),  a  plant  of 
the  natural  order  Composite,  allied  to  thistles, 
but  distinguished  by  its  heads  of  flowers  having 
only  hermaphrodite  florets,  and  the  fruit  having 
four  ribs,  and  no  pappus. 

Saf'fron,  a  coloring  material,  consisting  of  the 
dried  stigmas  of  the  common  yellow  crocus.  In 
addition  to  its  other  properties,  it  is  often  used  as 
a  perfume,  and  in  flavoring  as  well  as  coloring 
confectionery  and  other  articles  of  food. 


SAGE. 


634 


SALAMANCA. 


Sage  (Salvia),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Labiates,  and  containing  many  species,  her¬ 
baceous  and  half-shrubby.  Common  sage  (S’. 
officinalis),  is  a  lialf-shrubby  plant  seldom  more 
than  2  feet  high,  with  ovate  oblong  or  lanceolate, 
finely  notched,  curiously  wrinkled,  whitish-gray 
leaves,  and  racemes  of  purplish  blue,  rarely 
white  or  red  flowers.  The  leaves  are  used  in  fla¬ 
voring 'dishes,  and  in  sauces,  etc. 

Sagevilie,  the  county  seat  of  Hamilton  county, 
N.  Y.  Pop.,  100. 

Sag'imuv,  the  county  seat  of  Saginaw  county, 
Mich.,  is  an  important  lumber  and  salt  manufact¬ 
uring  city.  Pop.,  15,100. 

Saginaw  Bay,  an  arm  of  Lake  Huron,  extends 
southwest,  and  forms  an  important  indentation 
of  the  shore  of  Michigan.  It  is  60  miles  long  by 
30  wide,  with  several  tine  harbors  and  picturesque 
islands. 

Sago  is  a  nutritive  substance  obtained  from 
several  species  of  palms,  especially  the  Metroxyl  >n 
sago,  which  abounds  in  Ceram  and  the  west  coast 
of  New  Guinea.  It  grows  also  in  Sumatra,  Bor¬ 
neo,  Celebes,  Timor,  Buro,  and  .other  islands  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago. 

Sagouiti'  (Gallithrix  or  Saguinus),  a  genus  of 
South  American  monkeys,  having  a  long  but  not 
prehensile  tail,  a  small  and  rounded  head,  short 
muzzle,  and  large  ears. 

Saguache,  the  county  seat  of  Saguache  county, 
Colo.  Pop.,  700. 

Sail.  A  sail  is  an  expanse  of  canvas,  matting, 
or  other  strong  material,  on  which  the  wind  may 
exert  its  force  and  propel  the  vessel.  A  sail  is 
extended  by  means  of  a  mast  or  yard,  or  both.  It 
may  be  of  various  shapes,  and  of  any  size,  accord¬ 
ing  to  the  carrying  power  of  the  vessel.  A  vessel 
of  shallow  draught  or  of  narrow  beam  can  bear 


shore  of  an  estuary  two  miles  from  the  Atlantic, 
160  miles  south  of  Savannah.  It  was  founded  in 
1565,  and  is  the  oldest  town  in  the  United  States. 
Pop.  (1889),  3,200. 

St.  Bernard,  the  parish  seat  of  St.  Bernard 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  250. 

St.  Cath'ari  lies,  a  city  of  the  Province  of 
Ontario,  is  on  the  Welland  Canal,  thirty-three 
miles  south  of  Toronto,  and  twelve  miles  from 
Niagara  Falls.  Pop.  (1889),  10.000. 

St.  Charles,  the  county  seat  of  St.  Charles 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  7,200. 

St.  Clairsville,  the  county  seat  of  Belmont 
county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  1,600. 

St.  Cloud,  the  county  seat  of  Stearns  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  5,100. 

St.  Croix,  a  river,  called  also  the  Passama- 
quoddy,  which,  flowing  out  of  Grand  Lake,  on 
the  eastern  border  of  Maine,  runs  east-southeast 
seventy-five  miles  to  Passamaquoddy  Bay,  and 
forms  a  portion  of  the  boundary  between  Maine 
and  New  Brunswick. 

Saints’  Bays,  days  set  apart  in  honor  of  par¬ 
ticular  saints  and  martyrs. 

Ste.  Genevieve,  the  county  seat  of  Ste.  Gene¬ 
vieve  county,  Mo.  Pop.,  2,100. 

St,  George,  the  county  seat  of  Tucker  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  250. 

St.  George,  the  county  seat  of  Washington 
county,  Utah.  Pop.,  1,350. 

St.  George’s  Ensign  is  the  distinguishing 
flag  of  the  British  navy.  It  consists  of  a  red 
cross  on  a  white  field,  with  a  union-jack  in  the 
dexter  chief  corner. 

St.  Helen,  the  county  seat  of  Columbia  county. 
Ore.  Pop.,  350. 

St.  Ignace,  the  county  seat  of  Mackinac 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  2,350. 


and  it  has  a  large  wholesale  trade.  Pop.  (1889), 
56,000. 

St.  Joseph,  the  parish  seat  of  Tensas  parish. 
La.  Pop.,  550. 

Saint  Just,  Louis  Antoine  de,  a  notable 
figure  in  the  first  French  Revolution,  was  born  at 
Decize,  in  Nivernais,  Aug.  25,  1767.  When  the 
revolution  broke  out,  he  was  transported  with  en¬ 
thusiasm,  and  became  one  of  its  most  ardent 
apostles.  In  1792  he  was  chosen  a  deputy  of  the 
convention,  voted  for  the  death  of  the  king,  and 
aided  in  the  formation  of  the  committee  to  super¬ 
intend  the  war.  Almost  all  the  energetic,  or,  as 
some  would  prefer  to  say,  sanguinary,  measures 
drawn  up  to  repress  the  royalists  and  timid  re¬ 
publicans  at  home,  and  to  repel  the  forces  of  the 
allied  monarchs  on  the  frontier,  were  devised  by 
him.  On  February  19th,  he  was  elected  president 
of  the  convention.  When  the  reaction  set  in,  he 
was  arrested,  and  was  guillotined  on  July  28, 
1794. 

St.  Louis,  a  port  of  entry  of  Missouri,  the 
chief  city  and  commercial  metropolis  of  the  Cen¬ 
tral  Mississippi  Valley,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Mississippi,  eighteen  miles  below  its  conflu¬ 
ence  with  the  Missouri,  and  174  miles  above  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio.  Among  its  manufactories 
are  flour  and  lumber  mills,  sugar  refineries,  lard 
and  linseed-oil  factories,  packing  houses,  manu¬ 
factures  of  hemp,  whisky,  tobacco,  and  vast 
iron-foundries  and  machine  shops.  Pop.  (1889), 
420,000. 

St.  Martinville,  the  parish  seat  of  St.  Martin’s 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  1,608. 

St.  Marys,  the  count}'  seat  of  Camden  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  650. 

St.  Marys,  the  county  seat  of  Pleasants  county, 

,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  450. 

St.  Paul,  a  city,  port  of  entry,  and  capital 
of  Minnesota,  is  on  both  banks  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  2,080  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  nine  miles 
below  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony.  It  has  many  im¬ 
portant  manufacturing  plants,  is  the  center  of  a 
great  and  growing  trade  in  flour,  lumber,  furs, 
etc.  It  has  a  state-house,  cathedral,  college, 
thirty-eight  churches,  numerous  hotels,  four 
daily  newspapers,  and  educational  and  charitable 
institutions.  Pop.  (1889),  155,000. 

St.  Paul,  the  county  seat  of  Howard  county. 
Neb.  Pop.,  1,400. 

St.  Peter,  the  county  seat  of  Nicollet  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  4,200. 

St.  Petersburg,  a  maritime  government  of 
Russia,  one  of  the  Baltic  provinces,  between  Lake 
Ladoga  on  the  northeast,  and  Lake  Peipus  on  the 
southwest.  Area,  17,057  square  miles;  pop.  (1879), 
1,591,244. 

St.  Petersburg,  the  capital  of  the  Russian 
Empire,  and  of  the  government  of  the  same  name, 
is  on  the  Neva,  and  the  shores  of  the  eastern  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  sixteen  miles  east 
of  Cronstadt,  its  port.  Latitude  59”  56'  N.,  lon¬ 
gitude  30w  19'  E.  Pop.  (1889),  1,200,000. 

St.  Stephen's,  the  county  seat  of  Washing¬ 
ton  county,  Ala.  Pop.,  200. 

St.  'I  ho  ill  as,  one  of  the  Danish  West  In¬ 
dian  Islands,  forms  one  of  the  group  of  the  Vir¬ 
gin  Islands,  and  lies  thirty-eight  miles  east  of 
Puerto  Rico.  Area,  23  square  miles;  pop., 
14,007. 

St,  Vincent,  one  of  the  British  islands  in  the 
West  Indies,  100  miles  west  of  Barbadoes.  It  is 
one  of  the  windward  group.  Area,  147  square 
miles;  pop.,  35,688. 

Sal'ad,  the  name  given  to  a  preparation  of  raw 
herbs  for  food.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  fact 
that  salt  is  one  of  the  chief  ingredients  used  in 
dressing  a  salad.  The  principal  salad  herbs  are 
lettuce,  endive,  chicory,  celery,  mustard  and 
cress;  water-cress,  onions,  radishes,  chervil,  and  a 
few  savory  herbs  used  to  give  flavor.  They  are 
usually  cut  up,  and  mixed  with  salt,  vinegar,  oil, 
and  other  condiments,  according  to  taste.  Sugar 
is  also  frequently  added. 

Salainan'ca,  one  of  the  three  modern  provinces 
of  Spain,  into  which  the  ancient  Kingdom  of  Leon 
was  divided.  Area,  about  4, 940  square  miles;  pop. 
(1877),  285,500. 

Salamanca,  a  famous  town  of  Spain,  capital  of 
the  modern  province  of  the  same  name,  stands  on 
three  rocky  hills  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tormes, 


comparatively  little  sail;  while  a  vessel  of  propor¬ 
tionately  deep  draught  and  heavily  ballasted — as 
a  yacht— or  a  vessel  of  great  breadth  of  beam,  can 
carry  sail  of  great  area.  A  sail  acts  with  the 
greatest  power  when  the  wind  is  directly  astern, 
but  it  can  be  applied,  though  with  less  strength, 
when  on  either  beam. 

Sail-cloth,  a  strong  fabric,  woven  generally 
with  linen  yarn,  but  in  this  country  it  has  been 
made  wholly  of  cotton;  and  in  England,  under 
Armitage’s  patent,  of  cotton  and  linen  mixed. 

St.  Albans,  a  city  of  considerable  importance 
in  Franklin  county,  Vt.  Pop.,  7,250. 

St.  Au'gustine,  an  ancient  Spanish  town  on 
the  east  coast  of  Florida,  is  built  on  the  western 


St.  James,  the  county  seat  of  Manitou  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  250. 

St.  James,  the  county  seat  of  Watonwan 
county,  Minn.  Pop.,  750. 

St.  John’s,  the  county  seat  of  Apache  county, 
Ariz.  Pop.,  1,350. 

St.  John’s,  the  county  seat  of  Clinton  county, 
Mich.  Pop.,  2,600. 

St.  John’s,  the  county  seat  of  Rolette  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  200. 

St.  Jolinsbury,  the  county  seat  of  Caledonia 
county,  Vt.  Pop.,  5,850. 

St.  Jo'seph,  a  city  of  Missouri,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Missouri  river,  on  the  eastern  border 
of  Kansas.  Seven  lines  of  railway  center  here, 


SALAMANCA. 


635 


SALZBURG. 


fifty  miles  east-nortlieast  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo. 
Pop.  (1878),  18,007. 

Salamanca,  a  decaying  town  of  Mexico.  Pop., 
18,000,  formerly  much  larger. 

Salaman  'der,  in  the  superstitions  of  the  middle 
ages,  denoted  a  being  possessing  the  shape  of  a 
man,  whose  element  was  the  fire,  or  who  at  least 
could  live  in  that  element.  Paracelsus  placed 
salamanders  among  the  elementary  spirits. 

Salamander  ( Snlamandra ),  a  genus  of  batra- 
chians,  of  the  family  Salamandvidce.  The  spotted 


salamander  ( S .  maculosa),  6  or  8  inches  long, 
black,  with  bright  yellow  stripes  on  its  side,  and 
livid  blue  beneath,  is  widely  spread  throughout 
Europe. 

Sal  Ammo'niac  (known  in  chemistry  as 
Hydrochlorate  of  Ammonia)  is  an  article  of 
considerable  importance  in  the  materia  medica. 
It  is  largely  given  in  cases  of  pneumonia,  and  of 
inflammation  of  the  serous  membranes,  in  mucous 
diarrhoea,  in  chronic  rheumatism  and  gout,  and 
in  passive  dropsies.  As  a  local  external  applica¬ 
tion,  it  is  of  great  value  in  promoting  the  absorp¬ 
tion  of  effused  blood.  Sal  ammoniac isemployed 
for  various  purposes  in  the  arts.  It  is  used  in 
soldering,  and  in  the  tinning  of  copper  and  iron 
to  prevent  the  oxidation  of  the  surface  to  be 
tinned. 

Salem,  capital  of  Oregon,  stands  on  the  Willa¬ 
mette  river,  and  on  the  Oregon  &  California 
Railway,  fifty  miles  south  of  Portland.  Pop. 
(1880),  5,200. 

Salem,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Massachu¬ 
setts,  is  fourteen  miles  northeast  of  Boston,  on  a 
peninsula  2  miles  long  by  |  of  a  mile  broad.  Pop. , 
in  1880,  28,150. 

Salem,  the  name  of  several  county  seats  in  the 
Union,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Dent 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  1,700. — 2.  The  county  seat  of 
Fulton  county,  Ark.  Pop.,  186. — 3.  The  county 
seat  of  Marion  county,  Ill.  Pop.,  1,827. — 4.  The 
county  seat  of  McCook  county,  S.  Dak.  Pop.,  465. 
— 5.  The  county  seat  of  Salem  county,  N.  J.  Pop., 
5,520. — 6.  The  county  seat  of  Washington  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  2,500. — 7.  The  county  seat  of  Roan¬ 
oke  county,  Va.  Pop.,  2,200. 

SalerTio  (ancient  Salernum ),  a  city  of  Southern 
Italy,  chief  town  of  the  Province  of  Salerno,  on 
the  gulf  of  the  same  name,  thirty-two  miles  east- 
southeast  of  Naples,  with  a  pop.  (1881)  of  31,245. 

Sales,  Francis  df>,  a  most  distinguished  saint 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was  born  Aug.  21, 
1567,  at  the  family  castle  of  Sales,  near  Annecy 
in  Savoy.  He  became  Bishop  of  Geneva,  and  his 
administration  of  this  charge  was  beyond  all 
praise.  More  than  forty  years  after  his  death,  in 
1665,  he  was  solemnly  canonized  as  a  saint  by 
Alexander  VII.  His  festival  is  held  on  January 
29tli,  the  day  of  the  translation  of  his  relics  to 
Annecy. 

Sal'icin  (CiaH^O,)  is  a  member  of  the  group 
of  organic  compounds  to  which  the  term  yly  cosides 
has  been  recently  applied  by  chemists.  It  is  manu¬ 
factured  to  a  considerable  extent  as  a  cheap  sub¬ 
stitute  for  quinia.  If  it  is  not  so  certain  in  its 
action  as  a  febrifuge  as  quinia,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  it  is  an  excellent  tonic;  and  it  possesses 
this  advantage  over  the  latter  substance,  that  it  is 
less  liable  to  irritate  the  stomach. 

Sa'lient,  in  Heraldry,  an  attitude  of  a  lion  or 
other  beast,  differing  but  slightly  from  rampant. 
He  is  supposed  to  be  in  the  act  of  springing  on  his 
prey,  and  both  paws  are  elevated. 

Kalina,  a  rapidly  growing  town  in  Saline 
county,  Kan.  Pop.,  5,100. 

Salinas,  the  county  seat  of  Monterey  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  3,100. 


Salisbury,  the  county  seat  of  Rowan  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Salisbury, ihe  county  seat  of  Wicomico  county, 
Md.  Pop.,  2,700. 

Sal'ivary  Glands.  Under  this  name  we  desig¬ 
nate  three  pairs  of  glands — the  parotid,  the  sub- 
maxillary,  and  the  sublingual,  each  gland  having 
an  efferent  duct,  which  conveys  the  glandular 


The  Salivary  Glands. 

1,  the  parotid  gland ;  2,  the  submaxillary  gland ;  3,  the  sub¬ 
lingual  gland;  4,  Steno’s  duct;  5,  Wharton's  duct;  6,  Bar¬ 
tholin's  duct;  7.  masseter  muscle;  8,  mastoid  process;  J. 
digastric  muscle;  10,  internal  jugular  vein;  11,  external 
carotid  artery;  12,  the  tongue. 

secretions  into  the  mouth,  where,  when  mixed 
with  the  mucus  secreted  by  the  follicles  of  the 
mucous  membrane  lining  the  mouth,  they  consti¬ 
tute  the  ordinary  or  mixed  saliva. 

Saliva'tion,  or  Pty'alism  (from  the  Gr. 
itTV cxXov ,  plyalon,  the  saliva),  is  the  term  em¬ 
ployed  to  designate  an  abnormally  abundant  flow 
of  saliva.  It  most  commonly  arises  from  a  specific 
form  of  inflammation  of  the  parotid  glands,  in¬ 
duced  by  the  action  of  mercury,  in  which  case  it 
is  termed  mercurial  salivation;  but  it  occasionally 
arises  frorii  the  action  of  other  drugs,  especially 
iodide  of  potassium;  and  sometimes  it  occurs  with¬ 
out  any  apparent  cause,  in  which  case  it  is  said  to 
be  idiopathic  or  spontaneous.  To  check  excessive 
salivation,  the  internal  administration  of  chlorate 
of  potash  in  scruple  doses,  three  times  a  day,  to¬ 
gether  with  the  frequent  use  of  a  gargle  of  the 
same  salt,  has  been  recommended  by  several  high 
authorities. 

Salm'on  (Subno),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family 
Salmonidoe:  The  salmon  is  one  of  the  largest 
species  of  the  genus.  No  fish  is  more  symmetrical 
or  beautiful  than  this;  and  its  form  is  admirably 
adapted  to  rapid  motion,  even  against  powerful 
currents,  by  the  regular  tapering  from  the  front 
of  the  first  dorsal  fin  both  to  the  snout  and  to  the 


Salmon  (Salmo  salar ). 


tail,  but  more  suddenly  in  the  former  direction, 
by  the  nearly  equal  convexity  of  back  and  belly, 
and  by  the  perfect  smoothness  and  want  of  angu¬ 
larity.  The  salmon  trout,  although  similar  in 


Salmon  Trout  ( Salmo  trutta). 


many  respects,  is  a  distinct  species.  The  rivers  of 
North  America  which  flow  into  the  Arctic  Ocean 
produce  several  species  of  salmon.  Salmo  scou- 
levi,  or  Salar  scouleri,  ascends  the  Columbia  and 
other  rivers  of  the  northwest  coast  in  vast  multi¬ 
tudes.  In  arms  of  the  sea  on  that  coast  it  is  some¬ 
times  impossible  for  a  stone  to  reach  the  bottom 
without  touching  several ;  and  the  channel  of  a  river 


or  a  brook  is  often  densely  crowded  with  them.  It 
is  also  abundant  in  certain  waters  in  Maine  and 
Canada. 

Salmon  City,  the  county  seat  of  Lemhi  county, 
Idaho.  Pop.,  525. 

Salt,  Manufacture  of.  Common  salt  is 
either  procured  in  the  solid  crystalline  state,  called 
rock-salt,  as  a  natural  brine  from  wells  or  springs, 
or  by  the  evaporation  of  sea-water.  In  the  first 
case,  it  is  obtained  by  mining,  often  at  great 
depths,  as  at  Northwich  in  England;  at  Salzburg, 
Magdeburg,  Berchtesgaden,  and  Wimpfeu  in  Ger¬ 
many;  Cracow  in  Poland;  in  the  Punjab  and 
other  ports  of  the  world.  Rock-salt  almost 
always  contains  impurities,  and  therefore  is  dis¬ 
solved  in  water,  and  the  insoluble  matters  mixed 
with  it  are  deposited  at  the  bottom.  The  brine  is 
then  drawn  off,  and  evaporated  by  artificial  heat 
in  large  iron  pans.  The  principal  salt  works  of 
the  United  States  are  in  the  vicinity  of  Saginaw 
and  Bay  City,  Mich. 

Saltil'lo,  a  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  the 
northern  State  of  Coahuila.  Pop.,  12,100.  Seven 
miles  south  is  Buena  Vista,  where,  in  1847,  the 
Mexicans  were  defeated  by  United  States  troops. 

Sal'tire,  one  of  the  ordinaries  in  Heraldry,  its 
name  of  uncertain  etymology,  representing  abend 
sinister  conjoined  with  a  bend  dexter,  or  a  cross 
placed  transversely  like  the  letter  X. 

Salt  Lake  City,  the  chief  town  and  capital 
of  the  Territory  of  Utah,  is  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  River  Jordan,  between  Lake  Utah  and 
Great  Salt  Lake,  twenty  miles  south  of  the 
latter,  and  4,350  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  650  miles  east-northeast  of  San  Francisco,  and 
1,100  west  of  the  Mississippi.  It  was  settled  by 
the  Mormons  in  1847.  The  principal  edifices  are 
the  Mormon  Temple,  the  Titliing-liouse  or 
Treasury,  and  the  Social  Hall,  which  serves  for 
ball-room  and  theater.  Pop.  (1889),  25,200;  of 
whom  two-thirds  are  Mormons. 

Salts,  Smelling,  a  preparation  of  carbonate  of 
ammonia  with  some  of  the  sweet-scented  volatile 
oils,  used  as  a  restorative  by  persons  suffering 
from  faintness.  The  pungency  of  the  ammonia 
is  all  that  is  useful,  and  the  oils  are  added  to 
make  it  more  agreeable. 

Saluda,  the  county  seat  of  Middlesex  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  275. 

Salute'  is  a  compliment  paid  in  the  navy  and 
army,  when  a  distinguished  personage  presents  him¬ 
self,  when  squadrons  or  armed  bodies  meet,  when 
officers  are  buried,  and  on  many  other  ceremonial 
occasions.  There  are  several  modes  of  saluting; 
firing  great  guns  and  small  arms,  dipping  colors, 
flags,  and  topsails,  presenting  arms,  manning  the 
yards,  cheering,  etc. 

Sal'vage  (from  Lat.  salvare,  to  save)  is  the 
payment  due  by  the  owner  of  a  ship  or  cargo  to 
persons  who  may  have  been  instrumental  in  sav¬ 
ing  it  from  extraordinary  danger — from  the  sea, 
fire,  or  an  enemy. 

Salvation  Army  is  the  name  of  a  Christian 
organization,  whose  aim  is  to  bring  under  the 
influence  of  the  Gospel  the  classes  not  reached  by 
the  ordinary  home-mission  agencies  of  the  churches 
— the  inhabitants  of  the  lowest  slums  of  cities, 
profligates,  thieves,  drunkards,  and  vagabonds. 
It  was  founded  in  England,  in  1865,  by  Mr. 
Booth,  now  called  General  Booth,  formerly  a 
minister  of  the  Methodist  Church,  and  has  since 
extended  to  all  civilized  countries. 

Sa'lve  Regi'na,  the  first  words  of  one  of  the 
most  popular  prayers  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  addressed  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary. 
It  forms  part  of  the  daily  office  of  the  Roman  Bre¬ 
viary,  and  is  recited  at  the  end  of  Lauds  and  of 
Complin. 

Sal  Volatile,  a  well-known  remedy  for  faint¬ 
ness,  is  a  solution  of  the  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
or  common  smelling-salts. 

Salyersville,  the  county  seat  of  Magoffin 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  350. 

Salzburg,  a  crown-land  in  the  West  of  Austria, 
bounded  on  the  west  partly  by  Bavaria,  and 
partly  by  the  Tyrol.  Area,  2,765  square  miles; 
pop.  (1880),  163,566. 

Salzburg  (anc.  Juvavia),  is  the  capital  of  the 
Austrian  crown-land  of  the  same  name,  and  is  on 
the  Salza,  190  miles  west-southwest  of  Vienna, 
pop.  (1880),  24,952. 


SALZKAMMERGUT. 


6H6 


SANGER. 


Salzkam'mergiit,  called  also  the  Austrian 
Switzerland,  one  of  the  most  picturesque  districts 
of  Europe,  forms  the  southwest  angle  of  the 
crown-land  of  Austria  oh  dcr  Enns,  between  the 
crown-lands  of  Salzburg  on  the  west,  and  Styria 
on  the  east.  Area,  249  square  miles;  pop.,  18,000. 

Samara",  a  frontier  government  of  Russia, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Kirghiz  Steppes,  anil 
on  the  west  by  the  Governments  of  Saratov,  Sim¬ 
birsk,  and  Kazan.  Area,  04,953  square  miles; 
pop.  (1880),  2,143,490. 

Samara,  capital  of  the  Russian  government  of 
the  same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga,  at 
the  junction  of  that  river  with  the  Samara.  Pop. 
(1880),  51,947. 

Samarang",  an  important  seaport  on  the  North 
of  Java,  385  miles  east  of  Batavia,  in  6°  57'  20" 
S.  latitude,  and  110°  20'  30"  E.  longitude,  is  the 
capital  of  the  Residency.  Pop.,  50,000.  In  1874 
the  pop.  of  the  Residency  of  Samarang  amounted 
to  1,319,978. 

Sama'ria  (Heb.  Shomcron,  Cliald.  Shamrayin, 
Septuagint,  Samareia,  Semeron,  etc.),  anciently  a 
city  of  Palestine,  the  chief  seat  of  the  Ephraimitic 
Baalworship,  and,  from  the  seventh  year  of 
Omri’s  reign,  the  capital  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Israel. 

Samarkand'  was  in  the  fourteenth  century  the 
capital  of  the  great  Tartar  Empire  of  Timur,  and 
has  since  remained  the  center  of  Mohammedan 
learning  in  Central  Asia.  It  is  in  latitude  40°  2' 
N.,  and  longitude  67°  3'  E.,  four  miles  south  of 
the  Zer-Afslian  (a  river  which  loses  itself  in  the 
sands),  and  145  miles  nearly  east-by-north  from 
Bokhara.  Pop.,  20,000. 

Saninites,  an  ancient  Italian  people  of  Sabine 
origin,  who  occupied  an  extensive  and  mountain¬ 
ous  region  in  the  interior  of  Southern  Italy. 

Sa'mos  (Mod.  Gr.  Samo ;  Turk.  Susam  Adassi), 
an  island  in  the  iEgean  Sea,  about  a  mile  off  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  Bay  of  Scalanova, 
about  forty-five  miles  south-southwest  of  Smyrna. 
Its  length  is  30  miles;  its  mean  breadth  about  8 
miles. 

Samotlirace,  or  TnnACiAN  Samos  (Mod.  Gr. 
Samothraki),  an  island  in  the  north  of  the  rEgean, 
northeast  of  Lemnos  ( Stnlimene ).  It  is  about  8 
miles  long  by  6  miles  broad;  pop.,  5,000,  almost 
all  Greeks. 

Samo'yedes,  the  name  of  a  race  widely  spread 
over  the  extreme  North  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and 
forming  one  of  the  four  families  of  the  great 
Altaian  stock. 

Sam'phire  ( Cnthmum ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Umbettiferce,  having  compound 
umbels  and  an  oblong  fruit,  rather  flattened  at 
the  back,  with  five  winged  ridges,  and  many 
vittne  spread  all  over  the  seed. 

Sam'soe,  a  small  island  belonging  to  the  King¬ 
dom  of  Denmark,  is  situated  in  the  northern 
entrance  to  the  Great  Belt,  between  Zealand  and 
Jutland.  Area,  42  square  miles;  pop.,  5,875. 

Samson  (Heb.  Shimshon,  compare,  Shemesh, 
sun),  the  son  of  Manoah,  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  for 
twenty  years  judge  over  the  southwestern  tribes 
of  Israel— perhaps  only  of  Dan.  He  was  renowned 
for  liis  great  strength,  and  is  said  to  have  slain  a 
lion  without  any  weapon  other  than  his  hands. 

Samuel  (Heb.  S hemuel,  heard  by  or  asked 
from  God),  the  last  Shofet  or  judge  of  Israel,  the 
first  of  prophets,  the  founder  of  the  schools 
of  prophets,  and  of  the  monarchy  in  Israel. 

Samuel  (Shemuel),  Books  of,  originally 
formed  one  work,  but  were,  by  the  LXX.  and 
Vulg.  (followed  by  the  recent  Hebrew  editions 
since  Bomberg)  and  the  authorized  version, 
divided  into  two  books,  the  first  closing  with  the 
death  of  Saul.  The  name  they  bear  is  derived 
from  Samuel,  as  the  principal  figure  in  them. 

Samyda'cete,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  which  are  all  trees  or  shrubs  and  all  tropi¬ 
cal,  mostly  American. 

Sa'niia,  the  principal  district  in  Yemen  or 
Arabia  Felix,  corresponding  to  the  ancient  Saba 
or  Sheba,  the  land  of  the  Sabeans. 

Sail  Andreas,  the  county  seat  of  Calaveras 
county,  Cal.  Pop.,  625. 

San  Angelo,  the  county  seat  of  Tom  Green 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  4,050. 

Sail  Anto'nio,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Bexar  county,  Tex.,  is  near  the  sources  of  the 
San  Antonio  river,  110  miles  southwest  of 


Austin.  In  the  Texan  Revolution  of  1836  it  was 
the  scene  of  the  massacre  of  the  Alamo,  when  a 
garrison  of  150  men  led  by  Colonel  Travis,  and 
including  David  Crockett,  was  surrounded  by 
several  thousand  Mexicans,  and  after  a  heroic  re¬ 
sistance  killed  to  the  last  man.  Pop.,  43,500. 

San  Augustine,  the  county  seat  of  San 
Augustine  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  500. 

San  Bernardino,  the  county  seat  of  San 
Bernardino  county,  Cal.,  is  an  important  manu¬ 
facturing,  agricultural  and  jobbing  city.  Pop., 
8,200. 

Sail  Buenaventura,  the  county  seat  of  Ventura 
county,  Cal.  Pop.,  3,100. 

San  Cristobal,  the  capital  of  Chiapas,  Mex., 
is  on  the  Cliiltepec  river,  twenty  miles  northeast 
of  Comitan.  Pop.,  12,000. 

San'dal-tvood  (a  name  corrupted  from  Santal 
wood),  the  wood  of  several  species  of  the  genus 
Santalmn,  of  the  natural  order  Santalacew,  natives 
of  the  East  Indies  and  tropical  islands  of  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

Sandalwood  Island,  called  by  the  natives 
Tjindana,  Sumba  and  Tanali  Tjumba,  lies  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  between  9°  18" — 10°  20'  S.  lati¬ 
tude,  and  118°  58' — 120°  43'  E.  longitude;  has 
an  area  of  4,966  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of 
1,000,000. 

San'darach,  or  Sandaracii  Resin,  is  a  friable, 
dry,  almost  transparent,  tasteless,  yellowish- 
white  resin,  which  is  imported  from  the  North  of 
Africa.  It  exudes  from  the  bark  of  the  Sandar- 
ach  tree  ( Callitris  quadrivalvis),  a  native  of  the 
North  of  Africa,  of  the  natural  order  Coniferce. 

Sail 'day  or  Sanda  Island,  one  of  the  most 
northern  of  the  Orkney  group,  contained,  in 
1881,  413  inhabited  houses  and  2,082  inhabitants. 

Sand  Blast,  a  method  of  engraving  figures  on 
glass  or  metal,  or  cutting  away  or  boring  holes  in 
hard  substances,  by  means  of  a  stream  of  fine 
sand,  driven  by  a  blast  of  air  or  steam. 

Sand 'crack  is  a  splitting  or  fracture  of  the 
horny  fibers  of  the  horse’s  hoof,  extending  usu¬ 
ally  from  above  downward;  when  reaching  to  the 
quick  it  causes  lameness.  The  horn  must  be 
thinned  for  an  eighth  of  an  inch  on  either  side  of 
the  crack;  across  the  upper  and  lower  ends  of  the 
crack,  to  prevent  its  extension,  the  firing-iron 
should  be  drawn,  making  a  line  nearly  through 
the  horny  crust.  The  opening  may  further  be 
held  together  by  winding  round  the  foot  several 
yards  of  waxed  string,  or  fine  wire.  Except  in 
very  bad  cases,  slow  work  on  soft  land  may  be 
permitted,  but  road-work  is  injurious.  The 
growth  of  healthy  horn  is  promoted  by  applying 
round  the  coronet,  at  intervals  of  ten  days,  some 
mild  blistering  liniment. 

San'derling  ( Calidris ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
plover  family  {Charadrictda),  or  which  ought 


Sanderling,  Male  and  Female  ( Calidris  arenaria ). 


rather  to  be  referred  to  the  snipe  family  ( Scolopa - 
cidre). 

Saudersville,  the  county  seat  of  Washington 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Sail  Biego,  the  county  seat  of  Duval  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  2,572. 

San  Diego,  the  county  seat  of  San  Diego 
county,  Cal.,  is  fifteen  miles  southwest  of  San 
Luis,  and  is  an  important  seaport.  It  has  ex¬ 
tensive  manufactures,  and  is  a  popular  winter 
resort.  Pop.,  20,200. 

Sand-hopper  (Talitrus  locusta),  a  small  crus¬ 
tacean,  of  the  section  Edriophlhalma  and  order 
Amphipoda,  abundant  on  the  sea  shores  of  Great 
Britain. 


Sand'piper,  the  common  name  of  a  numerous 
group  of  birds,  generally  referred  to  the  family 
Scolopacidce,  all  formerly  included  in  the  genus 
Tringa,  but  some  now  constituting  the  genera 
Totanus,  Pelidua,  Actitis,  etc.,  of  ornithologists. 


Redshank  ( Totanus  calidris). 


One  of  the  best  known  species  is  the  Redshank 
( Totanus  calidris).  The  common  sandpiper  (T. 


Common  Sandpiper  (T.  hypoleucos). 


hypoleucos)  is  migratory  and  is  highly  valued  by 
sportsmen  as  a  game  bird. 

Sandstone  is  a  rock  formed  of  compacted,  and 
more  or  less  indurated  sand.  The  grains  gener¬ 
ally  consist  of  quartz,  though  other  mineral  sub¬ 
stances  are  often  mixed  with  this;  they  are  color¬ 
less,  or  of  a  dull  white,  yellow,  brown,  red,  or 
green  color.  The  grains  vary  in  size,  forming, 
as  the  case  may  be,  a  fine  or  coarse  grained  stone. 
The  loose  sand  becomes  solidified  by  pressure 
simply,  but  more  generally  from  being  cemented 
together  by  calcareous,  silicious,  or  ferruginous 
infiltrations,  and  the  dark  color  of  the  mass  is 
produced  by  the  cement. 

Samlus'ky,  a  city, port  of  entry,  and  the  county 
seat  of  Erie  county,  Ohio,  is  on  the  south  shore 
of  Sandusky  Bay,  an  arm  of  Lake  Erie,  110  miles 
north  of  Columbus.  The  bay,  20  miles  long  and 
5  wide,  forms  an  excellent  harbor.  There  are 
foundries,  machine  shops,  manufactures  of  lum¬ 
ber  and  bent  woodwork  for  carriages,  etc. ,  with 
extensive  fisheries.  Pop.,  21,700. 

Sandwich  Islands,  the  group  forming  the 
Kingdom  of  Hawaii  (so  called  from  the  chief 
island).  They  are  a  rich,  beautiful,  and  inter¬ 
esting  chain,  eight  in  number,  exclusive  of  one 
or  two  small  islets.  The  chain  runs  from  south¬ 
east  to  northwest,  and  lies  in  the  middle  of-  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  in  latitude  19° — 22°  N.,  longitude 
155°— 160°  W.  Area,  7,600  square  miles.  Pop., 
(1878),  57,985. 

Sandy  Hook,  the  county  seat  of  Elliott  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  300. 

San  Francis 'co,  the  principal  seaport  on  the 
western  coast  of  North  America,  and  the  chief 
city  of  California,  stands  on  the  west  shore  of  San 
Francisco  Bay,  six  miles  south  of  the  Golden 
Gate,  the  outlet  leading  west,  and  connecting  the 
bay  with  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Latitude  37°  46'  N., 
longitude  122°  23'  W.  Among  the  manufact¬ 
uring  establishments  are  flour-mills,  saw-mills, 
woolen  factories,  and  iron  foundries.  In  recent 
years,  the  receipts  of  precious  metals  have  some¬ 
times  amounted  to  above  $60,000,000  in  a  year. 
Pop.,  285,000. 

Sanger,  the  county  seat  of  Oliver  county,  N. 
Dak.  Pop.,  100. 


SANGIR  ISLANDS. 


637 


SARAWAK. 


Sang'ir  Islands  He  to  the  north  of  Celebes,  in 
2o_4°  N.  latitude,  aie  upward  of  fifty  in  num¬ 
ber,  of  various  sizes,  and  nearly  all  inhabited. 
Pop.,  80,000. 

Sanguina'ria,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  tbipaverncea,  having 8  to  12  petals,  2stigmas, 
an  oblong  swollen  capsule  with  2  deciduous 
valves,  and  a  persistent,  manv-seeded  frame. 

Sanguine,  or  Murrey,  one  of  the  tinctures  of 
less  frequent  occurrence  in  heraldry,  denoting 
blood  color,  and  represented  in  engraving  by 
lines  crossing  each  other  saltireways. 

Saoguisorba'cese,  or  Sanguisor  're/e,  ac¬ 
cording  to  some  botanists  a  natural  order  of 
plants,  but  more  generally  regarded  as  a  sub¬ 
order  of  Rosacece. 

San'hedrim  (Gr.  2vv e8 piov),  the  supreme 
national  tribunal  of  the  Jews,  established  at  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees,  probably  under  John 
Hyrcan.  It  consisted  of  seventy-one  members, 
and  was  presided  over  by  the  Nasi  (Prince),  at 
whose  side  stood  the  Ab-Beth-Din  (Father  of  the 
Tribunal). 

San  Joaquin',  a  river  of  California,  rises  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  runs  first  southwest  to  its 
junction  with  the  outlet  of  Lake  Tulare,  thence 
northwest  to  its  junction  with  the  Sacramento 
river,  fifty  miles  from  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco. 
Entire  length,  350  miles. 

San  Jose',  the  capital  of  Costa  Rica,  Central 
America,  contains  a  number  of  important  institu¬ 
tions,  and  carries  on  an  active  trade.  Pop., 
12,000. 

San  Jose,  the  county  seat  of  Santa  Clara 
county,  Cal.,  is  forty  miles  southeast  of  San 
Francisco.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  and  some 
manufactures.  Pop.,  22,000. 

San  Juan  (lei  Rio,  a  city  of  Queretaro, 
Mexico,  is  twenty-two  miles  south  of  the  city  of 
Queretaro.  Pop..  18,000. 

San  Luis,  the  county  seat  of  Costilla  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  1,126. 

San  Luis  Obispo,  the  county  seat  of  San  Luis 
Obispo  county,  Cal.  Pop.,  5,100. 

San  Luis  Potosi',  a  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of 
the  State  of  the  same  name,  stands  near  the 
source  of  the  River  Tampico,  and  200  miles  west 
of  the  port  of  that  name  on  the  Mexican  Gulf. 
Pop.,  33,500. 

San  Marcos,  the  county  seat  of  Hays  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  2,025. 

San  Ni'colas,  or  San  Nicolao,  one  of  the 
Cape  Yerd  Islands,  and  residence  of  the  bishop 
of  the  group. 

San  Patricio,  the  county  seat  of  San  Patricio 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  250. 

San  Rafael,  the  county  seat  of  Martin  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  2,675. 

San  Re 'mo,  a  city  of  Northern  Italy,  Province 
of  Porto  Maurizio,  twenty-seven  miles  east-north¬ 
east  of  Nice.  It  is  built  on  the  slope  of  a  rising 
ground  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
is  a  favorite  winter  resort.  Pop.  (1881),  16,055. 

San  Saba,  the  county  seat  of  San  Saba  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  1,400. 

San  Salvador',  the  smallest,  though  the  sec¬ 
ond  in  point  of  population,  of  the  Central  Ameri¬ 
can  Republics,  consists  of  a  strip  of  territory 
between  Honduras  and  the  Pacific,  and  bounded 
on  the  west  by  Guatemala,  and  on  the  east  by 
Fonseca  Bay,  which  separates  it  from  Nicaragua. 
It  averages  180  miles  in  length,  by  about  40  in 
breadth,  and  contains  an  area  of  7,230  square 
miles,  with  a  pop.  (1878),  of  482,422. 

San  Salvador,  the  capital  of  the  Republic  of 
San  Salvador.  Pop.,  15,000. 

San'skrit,  or  San'scrit  (from  the  Sanskrit 
mm  =  Gr.  syn,  with,  together,  and  kri'ta, 
done,  with  an  epenthetic  x,  imparting  greater 
emphasis  to  the  sense  of  the  compound;  hence, 
thoroughly  done,  finished,  accomplished)  is  the 
name  of  the  ancient  language  of  the  Hindus;  in 
which  their  whole  sacred  literature,  and  by  far 
the  greatest  amount  of  their  numerous  ritual, 
legal,  poetical,  and  scientific  works,  are  written. 
It  belongs  to  that  stock  of  languages  commonly 
called  the  Indo-European,  or  Indo-Germanic, 
which  includes  the  Indian,  the  Medo-Persian, 
the  Graeco-Latin,  the  Germanic,  the  Lithuanian- 
Slavonian,  and  the  Gallo-Celtic  families. 

Sans-culottes,  i.  e.,  “without  breeches,”  wasthe 
name  given  in  scorn,  at  the  beginning  of  the 


French  Revolution,  by  the  court  party  to  the 
democratic  “proletaires”  of  Paris. 

Santa  Anna,  Don  Antonio  Lopez  de,  ex- 
President  of  Mexico,  was  born  in  Jalapa  in  1798. 
He  did  gallant  service  on  behalf  of  his  country  in 
the  wars  with  Spain,  France,  and  the  United 
States,  and  died  in  1876. 

Santa  Barbara,  an  important  seaport  and  the 
county  seat  of  Santa  Barbara  county,  Cal.,  is  ten 
miles  southwest  of  San  Marcos.  Pop.,  9,200. 

Santa  Cruz  (Teneriffe),  the  capital  of  the 
Canary  Islands  and  the  chief  seaport  of  the 
group,  stands  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  Island 
of  Teneriffe.  Pop.,  13,228. 

Santa  Cruz,  au  important  seaport  and  the 
county  seat  of  Santa  Cruz  county,  Cal.  It  is  a 
popular  winter  resort  for  Eastern  people.  Pop., 
4,100. 

Santa  Cruz  de  la  Palma,  the  capital  of  Pal¬ 
ma,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands.  Pop.,  5,000. 

Santa  Fe,  city  and  capital  of  the  Territory 
of  New  Mexico,  and  county  seat  of  Santa  Fe 
county,  is  an  old  Spanish-Mexican  town,  and 
contains  four  Roman  Catholic  Churches,  mission 
churches,  and  government  buildings.  Pop.  (1880), 
6,635. 

Santala'cem,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  mostly  trees  and  shrubs. 

Santa  Mau'ra,  or  Leuca'dia  (anc.  also  Leu- 
cadia  and  Leucas,  so  called  from  its  white  cliffs), 
one  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  off  the  west  coast  of 
the  ancient  Greek  Province  of  Acarnania,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  passage  about  a  mile 
wide.  It  is  22  miles  long,  and  from  6  to  9  miles 
wide.  Area  about  180 square  miles.  Pop.,  20,147. 

Santa  Rosa,  the  county  seat  of  Sonoma 
county,  Cal.  Pop  ,  6,050. 

Santee',  a  river  of  South  Carolina,  which  rises 
in  the  Blue  Ridge,  in  North  Carolina,  by  two 
principal  branches,  the  Congaree  and  Wateree, 
and  flowing  southeast,  empties  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  Latitude  33°  6'. 

Santiago,  the  largest,  of  the  Cape  Yerd 
Islands. 

Santia'go  de  Chi'li,  capital  of  the  Republic  of 
Chili,  and  of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  is 
ninety  miles  east-southeast  of  Valparaiso.  Area 
of  province,  9,000  square  miles;  pop.  (1880), 
193,517. 

Santiago  de  Cu'ba,  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
Island  of  Cuba,  and  now  the  chief  town  of  the 
eastern  department  of  the  island,  stands  on  a  bay 
on  the  south  coast  at  the  mouth  of  a  stream  of 
the  same  name.  As  a  seat  of  commerce,  it  takes 
rank  afler  Havana  and  Matanzas.  Pop.,  45,000. 

San'tonin  (C,5H1803)  is  a  vegetable  principle 
possessing  slightly  acid  properties,  obtained  from 
the  seeds  and  flower-heads  of  several  species  of 
Artemisia.  It  is  one  of  the  most  efficacious  of 
the  class  of  medicines  known  as  anthelmintics  or 
vermifuges,  the  most  obstinate  cases  of  ascarides 
and  lumbrici  almost  always  yielding  to  its  pro¬ 
longed  use.  Pure  santonin  may  be  given  in 
powder  combined  with  scammony  or  rhubarb, 
the  dose  being  from  half  a  grain  to  two  grains, 
according  to  the  age  of  the  child. 

Sao  Francisco,  a  large  river  of  Brazil,  rises,  as 
the  Paraopeba,  in  the  Province  of  Minas  Geraes, 
in  latitude  about  20°  40'  S.,  longitude  43Q  25'  W. 
It  flows  north,  northeast,  and  east,  and  empties 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  Its  entire  length  is 
1,652  miles. 

Saone,  a  river  of  France,  an  affluent  of  the 
Rhone,  rises  in  the  Department  of  Vosges,  at 
Viomenil,  in  the  Faucelles  Mountains,  at  the 
height  of  1,476  feet  above  sea-level,  and  flows 
south  past  Gray,  Chalons,  and  .Mat; on  to  its  con¬ 
fluence  with  the  Rhone  at  Lyon.  Entire  length, 
312  miles,  of  which  170  miles  are  navigable. 

Saone,  Haute,  a  department  in  the  Northeast 
of  France,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Vosges,  and  on  the  east  by  that  of 
Haut-Hhin.  Area,  2,050  square  miles;  pop. 
(1881),  295,905. 

Saone-et-Loire,  a  department  of  France, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Department  of  Jura 
and  the  River  Saone,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
department  of  Nievre  and  the  River  Loire.  Area, 
3,300  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  625,589. 

San  Pau'lo,  a  southern  maritime  province  of 
Brazil,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Province  of 
Minas  Geraes.  Area,  169,050  square  miles;  pop. 


(1872),  837,354.  Capital,  Sao  Paulo;  pop.  about 

22,100. 

Sap,  the  fluid  which  circulates  in  plants,  and  is 
as  indispensable  to  vegetable  life,  as  the  blood  to 
animal  life.  The  ascent  of  the  sap  is  one  of  the 
most  wonderful  phenomena  of  spring,  and  seems 
to  depend  not  so  much  on  the  state  of  the 
weather,  for  it  begins  in  the  depth  of  winter,  as 
on  the  plant  having  had  its  sufficient  period  of 
repose,  and  being  therefore  constrained  by  its 
veiy  nature  to  renewed  activity. 

Snp'ajon,  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  all  that 
division  of  American  monkeys  which  have  a 
prehensile  tail,  and  sometimes  limited  to  those  of 
them  which  are  of  a  slender  form,  as  the  genera 
Ateles ,  Cebvs,  etc. 

Sapin'dace®,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consi-ting  of  trees  and  twining  shrubs 
furnished  with  tendrils,  and  a  few  herbaceous 
climbers. 

Sapodil'Ia  Plum,  the  name  given  in  the  West 
Indies  to  the  fruit  of  Achras  snpota  and  other 
species  of  Achras ,  a  genus  of  the  natural  order 
Sapotacue.  The  seeds  are  aperient  and  diuretic, 
but  au  overdose  is  dangerous. 

Sap'onin  (Ci2H2o07)  is  a  vegetable  principle 
contained  in  various  plants,  including  the  Sapon- 
aria  officinalis  or  soap- wort,  the  Rolygala  senega, 
several  varieties  of  Lychnis,  the  fruit  of  the  horse- 
chestnut,  etc. 

Sapot'aceai,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  often 
abounding  in  milky  juice.  The  leaves  are 
leathery,  entire,  and  without  stipules. 

Sappan  Wood,  Sapan  Wood,  or  Bukkum 
Wood,  the  wood  of  Ccesalpinia  sappan ,  an  East 
Indian  tree,  about  40  feet  high,  with  twice  pin¬ 
nate  leaves,  and  racemes  of  yellow  flowers.  The 
wood  is  used  in  dyeing. 

Sap'phire,  a  gem  excelled  in  value  by  no 
precious  stone  except  diamond,  and  regarded  as 
a  variety  of  corundum,  highly  transparent  and 
brilliant.  It  is  sometimes  colorless,  and  the  color¬ 
less  kind,  called  white  sapphire,  is  sometimes 
sold  as  diamond.  It  more  frequently  exhibits 
exquisite  color,  generally  a  bright  red  or  blue; 
more  rarely  gray,  white,  or  green. 

Sapucaia  Nut,  the  seed  of  Lecytliis  ollaria, 
a  lofty  tree,  which  is  plentiful  in  the  forests  of 
the  North  of  Brazil,  and  belongs  to  the  natural 
order  Lccythidacece.  The  fruit  is  urn-shaped,  as 
large  as  a  child’s  head,  and  opens  by  a  lid  which 
falls  off. 

Sar'acens,  a  name  variously  employed  by 
mediaeval  writers  to  designate  the  Mohammedans 
of  Syria  and  Palestine,  the  Arabs  generally,  or 
the  Arab-Berber  races  of  Northern  Africa,  who 
conquered  Spain  and  Sicily,  and  invaded  France. 
At  a  later  date,  it  was  employed  as  a  synonym 
for  all  infidel  nations  against  which  crusades 
were  preached,  and  was  thus  applied  to  the 
Seljuks  of  Iconium,  the  Turks,  and  even  to  the 
pagan  Prussians. 

Saracen’s  Head,  a  not  infrequent  bearing  in 
Heraldry.  It  is  represented  as  the  head  of  an 
old  man,  with  a  savage  countenance. 

Sarato'-  a  Springs,  one  of  the  chief  watering- 
places  in  the  United  States,  is  in  New  York,  thirty- 
two  miles  north  of  Albany.  It  contains  twenty- 
eight  mineral  springs,  some  chalybeate;  some  con¬ 
taining  iodine,  with  salts  of  soda  and  magnesia; 
and  all  highly  charged  with  carbonic  acid. 
They  are  prescribed  in  diseases  of  the  fiver, 
chronic  dyspepsia,  etc.  In  the  village  are  thirty- 
two  hotels,  some  of  immense  magnitude;  and 
during  each  season  there  are  from  30,000  to 
45,000  visitors.  Pop.,  10,900. 

Saratov',  a  government  in  the  southeast  of 
Russia,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  river 
Volga.  Area,  32,500  square  miles;  pop.  (1870), 
1,751,268. 

Saratov,  a  city  of  Russia,  capital  of  the 
government  of  the  same  name,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Volga,  460  miles  southeast  of  Mos¬ 
cow.  Pop.  (1870),  85,220. 

Sarawak',  a  kingdom  on  the  northwest  coast 
of  Borneo,  is  bounded  south  and  west  by  Sambas, 
east  by  Brunai,  and  north  by  the  Bight  of  Datu. 
The  coast  stretches  from  the  west  of  Cape  Datu, 
in  latitude  2°  N.  and  longitude  109°  55'  E.,  to 
the  east  of  the  River  Samerahan,  in  longitude 


SARCINA. 


638 


SAWDUST. 


Ill®  3'  E.,  a  distance  of  nearly  seventy  miles. 
Area,  23,000  square  miles.  Pop  ,  200,000. 

Sar'cin  i  (Lat.  a  package),  or  Sarci'nula,  a 
genus  of  minute  plants  of  low  organization, 
sometimes  reckoned  among  Algae,  and  sometimes 
among  Fungi. 

Sar'cine  (Gr.  sarx,  gen.  sarcos,  flesh)  is  the 
name  now  given  to  a  nitrogenous  substance 
(C-111H4N4O2)  which  has  been  obtained  from  the 
muscular  tissue  of  the  horse,  ox,  and  hare;  and 
from  various  glandular  organs,  as  the  liver  and 
the  spleen  of  the  ox,  the  thymus  gland  of  the 
calf,  and  the  human  liver,  in  cases  of  acute 
atrophy  of  that  organ,  in  which  case  it  is  associ¬ 
ated  with  xanthine  (C10II4N4O4),  a  substance 
differing  from  it  only  by  two  atoms  of  oxygen. 
It  is  identical  with  the  substance  formerly  known 
as  hypoxanthine. 

Sarcoph'agus  (Gr.  flesh-eater),  any  stone 
receptacle  for  a  dead  body.  The  name  origi 
natc-d  in  the  property  assigned  to  a  species  of 
stone,  found  at  Assos  in  Troas  and  used  in  early 
times,  of  consuming  the  whole  body,  with  the 
exception  of  the  teeth,  within  the  space  of  forty 
days. 

Sarde,  or  Sarda,  a  variety  of  quartz  differing, 
from  carnelian  only  in  its  deep  red  color,  blood- 
red  by  transmitted  light.  It  is  rare,  and  brings 
a  much  higher  price  than  common  carnelian. 

Sar'dine  (Clupeti  sordino),  a  fisli  of  the  same 
genus  with  the  herring  and  pilchard,  smallerthan 
the  pilchard;  abundant  in  the  Mediterranean,  and 
found  also  in  the  southern  portions  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

Sardin'ia,  Kingdom  of,  a  former  kingdom  of 
Italy,  and  the  nucleus  of  the  present  Kingdom  of 
Italy,  included  the  Duchies  of  Savoy  and  Genoa, 
and  parts  of  those  of  Moutferrat  and  Milan,  the 
Principality  of  Piedmont  ,  the  County  of  Nice,  and 
the  Is'andsof  Sardinia  and  Caprera,  amounting  in 
all  to  19,564  square  miles,  with  a  pop.  (1857) 
of  4,590,260,  and  9,205  of  insular  territory,  with 
a  pop.  of  577,282;  total  area,  28,709  square  miles; 
pop.,  5,167,542. 

Sardinia,  Island  of,  the  largest,  after  Sicily, 
of  the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  lies  south  of 
Corsica,  from  which  it  isseparated  by  the  Strait  of 
Bonifacio,  a  channel  only  7  miles  wide  in  its 
narrowest  part.  Sardinia  is  situated  about  half¬ 
way  between  Central  Italy  and  Africa,  and  be¬ 
tween  Southern  Italy  and  Spain.  Its  length  is 
160  miles;  greatest  breadth  90  miles;  and  area 
9,361  square  miles.  Pop.  (1871),  243,452. 

Sardis,  the  county  seat  of  Panola  county,  Miss. 
Pop.,  1,100. 

Sardonic  Smile  is  a  term  applied  by  the  older 
medical  writers  to  a  convulsive  affection  of  the 
muscles  of  the  face,  somewhat  resembling 
laughter.  It  may  occur  in  tetanus  or  lock-jaw, 
and  other  convulsive  affections,  or  may  result 
from  the  action  of  certain  vegetable  poisons. 

Sardou,  Victorien,  a  prolific,  brilliant,  and 
successful  French  dramatist,  born  at  Paris,  Sept. 
7,  1831. 

Sari',  the  capital  of  the  Province  of  Mazan- 
deran,  Persia,  is  eighteen  miles  south  of  the  Cas¬ 
pian  Sea.  Pop.  about  25,000. 

Sarrace'nia,  or  Side-saddle  Flower,  a 
genus  of  marsh  plants,  natives  of  this  country. 
The  h  aves  are  of  remarkable  structure,  the  stalk 
being  hollow  and  urn-shaped,  and  the  blade  of  the 
leaf  articulated  at  its  apex,  and  fitting  like  a  lid. 
It  is  from  the  form  of  the  leaves  that  the  name 
side-saddle  flower  is  derived. 

Sarsaparil'la,  or  Sarsa.  This  medicine  is  the 
produce  of  several  species  of  Smilax,  although  all 
the  species  yielding  the  different  kinds  have  not 
yet  been  fully  ascertained.  Among  iliem,  the  three 
principal  are  believed  to  be  S’,  /ffiinalia,  S.  medi  a, 
and  S.papyracen;  twinin'  shrubs,  with  prickly 
angular  stems;  the  first  with  large  ovate-oblong, 
acute,  heart-shaped,  leathery  leaves;  the  second 
with  shortly  acuminate  smooth  leaves;  the  lower 
ones  heart-shaped,  the  upper  ones  approaching  to 
ovate;  the  third  with  membranous,  oval-oblong, 
obtuse  4  aves.  The  part  of  the  plant  used  iu  med¬ 
icine  is  the  dried  root. 

S  art  lie,  an  inland  department  of  France,  north 
of  the  Loire.  Area,  2,390  square  miles;  pop. 
(1881),  438.917. 

Saskatchewan,  a  river  of  British  North  Amcr 
ica,  rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  is  formed 


by  two  head-waters  called  the  South  Branch  or 
Bow  river  and  the  North  Branch.  From  the 
junction  of  the  two  branches  the  river  flows  east, 
and  falls  into  Lake  Winnipeg.  Length  of  main 
river,  200 miles;  of  North  Branch,  over  550  miles. 

Sas'safras  ( Sassafras ),  a  genus  of  trees  or 
shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Lauracece,  having  dioe¬ 
cious  flowers,  a  six-parted  membranous  perianth, 
nine  stamens,  a  succulent  fruit  placed  on  the 
thick  fleshy  apex  of  the  fruit-stalk,  and  sur¬ 
rounded  by  the  unchanged  perianth.  The  bark 
of  the  root  is  used  for  medicinal  purposes,  is  a 
powerful  stimulant,  sudorific  and  diuretic.  It  is 
employed  in  cutaneous  diseases,  gout,  rheuma¬ 
tism,  and  syphilis,  generally  in  combination  with 
other  medicines  It  contains  a  volatile  oil — oil  of 
sassafras — which  is  often  used  instead. 

Satellites  (Lat.  Sutelles,  an  attendant)  are 
certain  celestial  bodies  which  attend  upon  and 
revolve  round  some  of  the  planets,  as  these  latter 
revolve  round  the  sun  ;  and  hence  scientific  men 
frequently  apply  to  them  the  generic  term,  sec¬ 
ondary  planets.  The  Earth,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Sat¬ 
urn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune,  each  possesses  one  or 
more  of  these  attendants. 

Saliu,  a  fabric  in  which  so  much  of  the  weft 
is  brought  uppermost  in  the  weaving  as  to  give  a 
more  lustrous  and  unbroken  surface  to  the  cloth 
than  is  seen  when  the  warp  and  weft  cross  each 
other  more  frequently. 

Satinet,  an  inferior  satin,  woven  much  thin¬ 
ner  than  the  ordinary  kind.  The  term  is  also 
occasionally  applied  to  a  variety  of  cloth  woven 
with  cotten  warp  and  woolen  weft. 

Satin-wood,  a  beautiful  ornamental  wood 
obtained  from  both  the  West  and  East  Indies. 
The  former  is  the  better  kind,  and  is  supposed  to 
be  the  produce  of  a  moderate-sized  tree,  Ferolia 
gvianensis,  and  probably  other  species,  as  there 
are  several  varieties  of  the  wood. 

Sa'trap,  ill  the  ancient  Persian  monarchy,  was 
the  governor  of  a  province,  whose  power — so  long 
as  he  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the  king — was  almost 
absolute. 

Sat 'urn,  an  ancient  Italian  divinity,  who  pre¬ 
sided  over  agriculture.  His  name,  from  the  same 
root  as  satum  (wra,  to  sow),  indicates  what  was 
probably  one  of  the  earliest  personifications  in  the 
Italian  religion,  Saturn  being  the  god  who  bless¬ 
ed  the  labors  of  the  sower. 

Saturna'lia,  an  ancient  Italian  festival,  insti¬ 
tuted  according  to  the  common  belief  of  the 
ancients,  in  memory  of  the  happy  reign  of  Sat¬ 
urn.  The  modern  Italian  Carnival  would  seem 
to  be  only  the  old  pagan  Saturnalia  baptized  into 
Christianity'. 

Satyri'asis,  is  the  insanity,  or  the  ungovern¬ 
able  sway  of  the  lowest  instincts  and  propensities 
by  which  man  becomes  an  animal  in  its  savage 
and  excited  state. 

Sa'tyrs,  in  Greek  Mythology,  were  a  race  of 
woodland  deities.  In  appearance,  they7  were  gro¬ 
tesque  and  repulsive,  like  all  old  woodland  demons. 

Sauer-kraut,  a  preparation  of  the  common 
white  cabbage.  The  cabbages  are  gathered  when 
they  have  formed  firm  white  hearts ;  and  these, 
sliced  into  thin  shreds,  are  placed  in  a  succession 
of  thin  layers  in  a  cask,  each  layer  being  sprinkled 
with  fine  salt,  to  which  some  add  juniper  berries, 
cumin  seed,  caraway  seeds,  or  other  condiment. 
A  board  is  then  placed  on  the  top,  with  a  heavy 
weight,  so  as  to  press  the  whole  down  firmly, 
but  gently.  After  a  time,  fermentation  begins; 
and  when  a  sour  smell  arises  from  the  cask,  it 
must  be  removed  into  a  cool  place,  and  kept  for 
use.  It  is  generally  eaten  boiled,  iu  the  same  way 
as  fresh  cabbage. 

Sauk  Rapids,  the  county  seat  of  Benton  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Saul,  the  first  King  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of 
Kish,  a  wealthy  chief  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin. 
Gigantic  in  stature,  noble  in -mien,  and  imperious 
in  character,  he  appeared  admirably  fitted  to  ac¬ 
complish  the  task  of  consolidating  the  dislocated 
tribes  of  Israel.  The  deliverance  of  the  men  of 
Jabesli  Gilead,  above  all,  his  victories  over  the 
Philistines,  the  Moabites,  Ammonites,  Edomites, 
and  Amalekite's,  were  unmistakable  proofs  of  his 
vigorous  military  capacity,  but  gradually  there 
showed  itself  in  the  nature  of  the  man  a  wild  per¬ 
versity — an  evil  spirit  of  God,  as  it  is  called — 
culminating  iu  paroxysms  of  insane  rage,  which 


led  him  to  commit  such  frightful  deeds  as  the 
massacre  of  the  priests  of  Nob.  He  fell  in  a  dis¬ 
astrous  and  bloody  battle  with  the  Philistines  on 
Mount  Gilboa.  , 

Sau It  de  Sainte  Marie,  the  county  seat  of 
Chippewa  county,  Midi.,  is  at  the  rapids  of 
the  Saultde  Sainte  Marie  river.  The  falls  furnish 
water-power  for  extensive  manufacturing  plants, 
and  the  Government  canal  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  United  States.  Pop.,  5,500. 

SauTia,  an  order  of  reptiles,  having  an 
elongated  body,  covered  with  scales  or  with  bony 
plates;  a  more  or  less  elongated  tail;  four  limbs, 
or  sometimes  only  two  apparent,  the  rudimentary 
hind-limbs  being  concealed  beneath  the  skin  ;  the 
mouth  always  furnished  with  teeth;  the  ribs 
movable,  rising  and  falling  in  respiration  ;  the 
young  issuing  from  the  egg  in  a  form  similar  to 
that  of  the  mature  animal.  To  this  order  belong 
crocodiles,  alligators,  etc.;  chameleons,  geckos, 
iguanas,  agamas,  varans,  teguixins,  lizards, 
skinks,  etc. 

Sau'roid  Fishes,  a  name  sometimes  employed 
to  designate  fishes  which  approach  in  their 
structure  to  saurian  reptiles.  Bony  pikes  and 
sturgeons  are  examples. 

San'ry  Pike  (Scomberesw),  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  order  1‘haryngognathi  and  family  Seombcre- 
soeidee,  having  the  body  greatly  elongated,  and 
covered  with  minute  scales. 

Sausage-poison.  Sausages  made  or  kept  under 
certain  conditions  are  occasionally  poisonous;  and 
fatal  cases  of  sausage-poisoning  are  by  no  means 
rare.  The  poison  may  be  described  as  of  the 
narcotico-irritant  character,  and  is  dangerous.  It 
is  believed  that  the  poison  is  an  acid  formed  in 
consequence  of  modified  process  of  putrefaction; 
others  regard  it  as  an  empyreumatic  oil. 

Sav'ages,  or  Wild  Men,  in  Heraldry,  are  of 
frequent  occurrence  as  supporters.  They  are 
represented  naked,  and  also,  in  the  later  heraldry, 
are  usually  wreathed  about  the  head  and  middle 
with  laurel,  and  often  furnished  with  a  club  in 
the  exterior  hand. 

Savan 'nail,  a  city  and  port  of  Georgia,  the 
county  seat  of  Chatham  county,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Savannah  river,  18  miles  from  its  mouth, 
90  miles  southwest  of  Charleston.  Latitude  32®  5' 
N.,  longitude  81®  5'  W.  In  the  War  of  Secession, 
after  several  unsuccessful  attacks  by  the  sea,  it 
was  taken  by  General  Sherman  in  December,  1864. 
Pop.,  42,300. 

Savannah,  the  county  seat  of  Andrew  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Savannah,  the  county  seat  of  Hardin  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  1,050. 

Savannah,  a  river  which  forms  the  boundary 
between  Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  rises  in  the 
Alleghanies,  on  the  southwestern  border  of  North 
Carolina,  and  flows  southeast  to  the  Atlantic.  Its 
length  is  300  miles,  navigable  to  Augusta. 

Savannahs  (Span,  savana  or  sabana),  the  name 
given  by  the  early  Spanish  settlers  to  the  great 
plains  or  prairies  in  this  country. 

Sav'ine  ( Juniperus  sabina),  alow,  branched, 
and  widely  spreading  shrub,  with  small,  imbri¬ 
cated,  evergreen  leaves,  which  grows  on  mount¬ 
ains  in  the  South  of  Europe  and  the  East. 

Savory  ( Satureja ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Labiatce,  nearly  allied  to  thyme 
(Thymus),  and  differing  from  it  in  the  regularly 
five-toothed  or  five-cleft  calyx,  and  the  stamens 
bent  together  into  an  arch  under  the  upper  lip  of 
the  corolla. 

Savoy,  a  cultivated  variety  of  cabbage,  form¬ 
ing  a  large  close  head  like  the  true  cabbages,  but 
having  wrinkled  leaves. 

Savoy,  formerly  a  duchy  belonging  to  the  King¬ 
dom  of  Sardinia,  now  incorporated  with  France, 
is  bounded  on  the  north  and  east  by  Switzerland, 
east  and  south  by  Piedmont,  and  west  by  the 
French  Departments  of  Isbre  and  Ain. 

Savn'  Islands,  Tiie,  lie  in  the  Indian  Ocean. 
Pop.,  35,000.  They  are  small,  except  Savu,  in 
121®  45' — 122°  7'  E.  longitude,  and  10°  25' — 10® 
36'  S.  latitude.  Area,  237  square  miles. 

Sawdust.  The  waste  made  by  sawing  timber, 
formerly  of  little  or  no  use,  has  now  become  a 
material  of  some  value  in  localities  where  it  can 
be  applied.  Oxalic  acid  is  made  from  it,  and 
from  the  sawdust  of  hard  woods;  when  reduced 


SAWFISH. 


639 


SCARLATINA. 


to  powder  and  mixed  with  blood,  are  made 
medallions,  and  other  ornamental  articles. 

Sawfish  ( Pristis ),  a  genus  of  cartilaginous 
fishes,  constituting  the  family  Piistidce,  which  is 
ranked  with  the  rays,  although  the  elongated 
form  of  the  body  agrees  rather  with  that  of  the 
sharks.  In  a  number  of  anatomical  characters, 
however,  the  sawfishes  differ  from  sharks,  and 
agree  with  rays,  and  conspicuously  in  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  gill-openings,  which  are  not  on  the 
sides,  as  in  sharks,  but  on  the  under-surface,  as 
in  rays.  The  mouth  is  on  the  under  surface  of 
the  head,  and  is  furnished  with  pavement-like 
teeth,  adapted  for  crushing.  It  is  particularly  re¬ 
markable  for  the  elongation  of  the  snout  into  a 
flat,  bony  sword,  armed  on  each  edge  with  about 
twenty  large,  bony  spines  or  teeth;  a  most  for¬ 
midable  weapon,  of  which  it  seems  to  make  use 
for  killing  prey,  rushing  among  shoals  of  fishes, 
and  slaying  them  right  and  left. 

Sawfly  {Tenth  redo),  a  Linnaean  genus  of  insects 
of  the  order  Ilymenoptera,  now  divided  into  many 
genera,  and  constituting  a  family  of  which  the 
species  are  numerous. 

Saxe,  John  Godfrey,  an  American  poet  and 
novelist,  was  born  at  Highgate,  Yt. ,  June  2,  1816. 
lie  was  a  prolific  and  versatile  writer  of  both 
prose  and  poetry,  but  is  best  known  as  a  writer  of 
humorous  verse. 

Saxe-Al'tenburg,  the  smallest  of  the  minor 
Saxon  States,  is  a  duchy  bounded  by  Saxe- 
Weimar,  Prussian  Saxony,  the  Kingdom  of  Sax¬ 
ony,  Saxe-Meiningen,  and  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt,  and  separated  into  two  nearly  equal  parts 
by  the  interposed  Principality  of  Reuss-Gera.  It 
contains  254  square  miles,  with  a  pop.  (1871),  of 
94,502. 

Saxe-Co'bnrg-fclo'tlia  (in  Ger.  Sachsen- 
Iyoburg-Gotha),  one  of  the  minor  Saxon  States, 
is  a  duchy  comprising  the  Duchy  of  Gotha,  lying 
between  Prussia,  Schwarzburg,  Meiningen,  and 
Weimar,  and  containing  542  square  miles;  pop. 
(1871),  122.630;  and  the  Duchy  of  Coburg, 
eighteen  miles  south  of  Gotha,  lying  between 
Meiningen  and  Bavaria,  and  containing  215  square 
miles;  pop.  (1871),  51,709.  Total  area,  757 square 
miles;  pop.  (1880),  194,716. 

Saxe-Mein'ingeu  (also  called  Saxe-Meinin- 
gen-Hildburg  hausen),  the  second  in  size  and 
population  of  the  minor  Saxon  States,  is  a  duchy, 
consisting  of  one  large  crescent-shaped  territory, 
which  lies  immediately  north  of  Bavaria  and 
Coburg,  with  the  horns  of  the  crescents  pointing 
northward,  and  contains  8'i2  square  miles,  and 
two  small  isolated  territories,  Kranichfeld  and 
Hamburg.  The  area  of  the  whole  is  955  square 
miles,  with  a  pop.  (1880),  207,075. 

Saxe- Wei'mar-Eis'enach,  the  largest  of  the 
minor  Saxon  States,  is  a  Grand  Duchy,  consisting 
of  Weimar,  which  lies  between  Prussia,  Alten- 
burg,  and  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  and  contains 
683  square  miles,  with  a  pop.  (1871),  of  151,379. 

Sax'ifrage  ( Saxifraga ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Saxif eageoe,  or  Saxif ragacece. 
The  order  includes  over  900  species,  all  natives  of 
Spain  and  Ireland. 

Saxon  Architecture,  the  style  of  building 
used  in  England  before  the  introduction  of  the 
Norman  architecture  at  the  Conquest.  There  are 
few  specimens  remaining  which  can  be  depended 
upon  as  genuine.  The  Saxons  built  chiefly  in 
wood,  and  all  their  wooden  edifices  are  now  lost. 
It  seems  probable  that  a  rude  and  simple  style, 
not  unlike  early  Norman,  was  that  used  by  the 
Saxons. 

Saxony  (Gr.  Sachsen),  Kingdom  of,  thesecond  ■ 
in  importance  and  population  of  the  minor  Ger¬ 
man  States;  though  inferior  to  three  of  them  in 
extent,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Prussia,  south 
by  Austria,  and  west  by  Bavaria  and  the  Saxon 
Duchies.  Pop.  (1831),  2.972,805. 

S  txony,  Prussian,  the  most  westerly  unde- 
taehed  province  of  Prussia,  bounded  on  the  east 
and  northeast  by  the  Province  of  Brandenburg. 
Area,  9,730  square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  2,312,007. 

Scab,  in  Sheep,  like  itch  in  man,  or  mange  in 
horses  or  dogs,  depends  upon  the  irritation  of  a 
minute  acarus,  which  burrows  i a  the  skin,  espe¬ 
cially  if  dirty  and  scurfy,  causing  much  itching, 
roughness,  and  baldness.  The  parasite  readily 
adheres  to  hurdles,  trees,  or  other  objects  against 
■which  the  affected  sheep  happen  to  rub  thein- 


i 

selves,  and  hence  is  apt  to  be  transferred  to  the 
skins  of  other  sheep.  The  best  remedies  are 
diluted  mercurial  ointments,  tobacco-water,  tur¬ 
pentine  and  oil,  and  arsenical  solutions,  such  as 
are  used  for  sheep-dipping.  One  of  the  best  and 
simplest  applications  consists  of  a  pound  each  of 
common  salt  and  coarse  tobacco,  boiled  for  half 
an  hour  in  about  a  gallon  of  water;  to  this  are 
added  two  drachms  of  corrosive  sublimate;  and 
the  mixture  diluted  until  it  measures  three  gallons. 
For  each  sheep,  a  pint  of  this  mixture  should  be 
carefully  applied,  from  a  narrow-necked  bottle, 
along  the  back,  and  to  any  other  scurfy  itchy 
parts.  A  second  dressing,  after  an  interval  of  a 
week,  will  generally  effect  a  perfect  cure. 

Sca'bious  ( Scabiosa ),  an  extensive  genus  of 
herbaceous  plants,  natives  of  the  Eastern  Hemi¬ 
sphere,  of  the  natural  order  Dipsacucece. 

Scad  (Caranx  trachurus or  Trarhur us vnlga.'is), 
a  fish  of  the  family  Scomberidce,  sometimes  called 
the  horse  mackerel,  because  of  its  resemblance  to 
the  mackerel,  and  its  comparative  coarseness. 

Sea 'la  No'va,  a  seaport  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
stands  on  an  eminence  at  the  head  of  a  gulf  of 
the  same  name,  forty  miles  south  of  Smyrna.  The 
ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Ephesus  are  in  the 
vicinity.  An  important  export  trade  is  carried 
on.  Pop.  stated  at  20,000.  The  Gulf  of  Scala 
Nova,  confined  on  the  south  by  the  Island  of 
Samos,  is  40  miles  long,  and  about  20  miles 
broad . 

Scald-head  (a  corruption  probably  of  scaled 
head)  is  the  popular  name  of  a  fungous  parasitic 
disease  of  the  scalp,  (and  occasionally  of  the  face 
and  other  parts),  known  in  medical  phraseology 
as  Fuvus,  Tinea  favosa,  and  Porrigo  scutulata. 
The  primary  seat  of  the  parasite  is  in  the  lowest 
portion  of  the  hair-follicles,  outside  the  layer  of 
epithelium  which  covers  the  root  of  the  hair. 
In  treatment,  the  head  should  be  shaved,  and 
poultices  applied  till  the  scabs  are  removed. 
Tar-ointment  should  then  be  applied,  night  and 
morning,  the  old  oiutment  being  washed  off  with 
soft  soap  and  water  before  the  fresh  dose  is  laid 
on.  Doctor  Aitken  states,  that  in  the  early  stage 
of  the  disease,  in  placeof  the  preceding  treatment  , 
it  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  cut  the  hair  close,  and 
to  wash  the  affected  parts,  night  and  morning, 
with  oil  of  turpentine. 

Scale-armor  was  worn  in  warfare  before  the 
invention  of  gunpowder,  and  consisted  of  small 
plates  of  steel  riveted  together  in  a  manner  re¬ 
sembling  the  scales  of  a  fish.  From  the  small 
size  of  the  plates,  it  possessed  considerable  plia¬ 
bility,  and  was  therefore  a  favorite  protection  for 
the  neck,  in  the  form  of  a  curtain  hanging  from 
the  helmet. 

Seal 'lop,  more  commonly  Escalop,  in  Her¬ 
aldry,  a  species  of  shell.  It  has  been  considered 
the  badge  of  a  pilgrim,  and  asymbol  of  the  apostle 
St.  James  the  Greater,  who  is  usually  represented 
in  the  garb  of  a  pilgrim. 

Scalp,  The,  is  the  term  employed  to  designate 
the  outer  covering  of  the  skull  or  brain-case. 
Except  in  the  fact  that  hair  in  both  sexes  grows 
more  luxuriantly  on  the  scalp  than  elsewhere,  the 
skin  of  the  scalp  differs  slightly  from  ordinary 
skin.  Injuriesof  the  scalp  must  be  watched  with 
great  caution,  for  they  may  be  followed  by 
erysipelas,  or  by  inflammation  and  suppuration 
under  the  occipito-frontal  muscle,  or  within  the 
cranium,  or  by  suppuration  of  the  veins  of  the 
cranial  bones,  and  general  pyaemia  that  may  easily 
prove  fatal. 

Scamil 'lus,  a  small  plinth  below  the  bases  of 
Ionic,  Corinthian,  and  other  columns. 

Scani'mony  is  a  gum-resin  of  an  ashy-gray 
color,  and  rough  externally,  and  having  a  resin- 
'  ms,  splintering  fracture.  The  plant  which  pro¬ 
duces  this  valuable  drug  is  Convolvulus  scam- 
monia,  a  native  of  the  Levant. 

Scandina'via,  a  large  peninsula  in  the  North 
of  Europe,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic 
Ocean;  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic,  North  Sea, 
Skager  Rack,  Cattegat,  and  Sound;  and  on  the 
south  and  east  by  the  Baltic  Sea,  Gulf  of  Bothnia 
and  Finland,  with  which  it  is  connected  on  the 
northeast  by  an  isthmus  325  miles  wide.  This 
peninsula  comprises  the  two  Kingdoms,  Norway 
and  Sweden;  is  1,240  miles  long,  from  230  to  460 
miles  broad;  area  300,000  square  miles. 

Scaph'oid  Bone,  a  term  applied  to  two  some¬ 


what  boat-like  bones,  of  which  one  occurs  in  the 
carpus  or  wrist,  and  the  other  in  the  tarsus  of  the 
foot. 

Scap'ula,  The,  or  Shoulder  Blade,  is  a  flat- 
triangular  bone,  which,  when  the  arm  hangs 
loosely  down,  extends  posteriorly  and  laterally 
from  the  first  to  about  the  seventh  rib.  It  pre¬ 
sents  for  examination  an  outer  convex  and  an 
inner,  smooth,  and  concave  surface,  three  borders 
(a  superior,  an  inferior  or  axillary,  and  a  posterior), 
three  angles,  and  certain  outstanding  processes. 

Scap'ular,  or  Scapulary  (Lat.  scapula,  the 
shoulder),  a  portion  of  the  monastic  habit,  so 
called  from  its  being  worn  upon  the  shoulders. 
It  consists  of  a  long  stripe  of  serge  or  stuff,  the 
center  of  which  passes  over  the  head,  one  flap 
hanging  down  in  front,  the  other  upon  the  back. 

Searabae'idge,  a  tribe  of  mellicorn  coleopterous 
insects,  among  which  are  the  cockchafer,  goliath, 
and  other  well  known  beetles. 

Scarab®  'us,  the  name  of  a  beetle  held  sacred 
by  the  Egyptians,  commonly  known  in  ento¬ 
mology  as  the  Searabmus  or  Ateuchus  surer. 

Scarf,  in  Heraldry,  a  small  ecclesiastical  ban¬ 
ner,  suspended  from  the  top  of  a  crosier. 

Scarlati'na,  or  Starlet  Fever,  is  one  of  the 
group  of  diseases  called  exanthemata.  In  addi¬ 
tion  to  the  characters  common  to  the  group, 
scarlatina  is  almost  always  attended  by  sore 
throat,  and  the  rash  or  eruption,  which  is  of 
bright  scarlet  color,  commonly  appears  as  early 
as  the  second  day  after  the  manifestation  of  the 
febrile  symptoms,  and  ends  in  desquamation  of 
the  cuticle  on  the  sixth  or  seventh  day.  The 
disease  begins  with  shivering,  lassitude,  head¬ 
ache,  a  frequent  pulse,  a  hot  dry  skin,  a  flushed 
face,  thirst,  loss  of  appetite,  and  a  furred  longue. 
Shortly  after  the  appearance  of  the  febrile  symp¬ 
toms,  the  throat  begins  to  feel  irritable,  and,  on 
examination,  is  found  to  be  red,  and  often  more 
or  less  swollen.  This  redness  becomes  diffused 
over  the  interior  of  the  mouth  and  tongue.  The 
rash  begins  in  the  form  of  minute  red  points, 
which  soon  become  so  numerous  that  the  surface 
appears  of  an  almost  uniform  red.  It  first  ap¬ 
pears  on  the  neck,  face,  and  breast,  whence  it 
gradually  spreads  over  the  trunk  and  extremities. 
The  reddened  surface  is  smooth  to  the  touch,  and 
the  color  temporarily  disappears  on  pressure  of 
the  finger.  With  the  true  rash,  minute  vesicles, 
known  as  Sudamina,  sometimes  occur.  The 
eruption,  in  ordinary  cases,  is  persistent  for  three 
or  four  days,  after  which  it  gradually  disappears, 
and  is  usually  gone  by  the  end  of  the  seventh 
day.  The  cuticle  then  begins  to  scale  off  in  small 
bran-like  scurf,  or  in  flakes  of  various  sizes.  The 
treatment  of  this  disease  varies  according  to  the 
preponderating  symptoms.  In  Scarlatina  simplex, 
nothing  is  required  except  confinement  to  the 
house,  a  non-stimulating  diet,  and  due  regulation 
of  the  bowels,  which  are  apt  to  be  costive.  In 
Scarlatina  anginosu,  cold  or  tepid  sponging  gives 
relief  if  the  skin  is  hot.  If  there  is  much  fever, 
and  especially  if  delirium  supervene,  a  few 
leeches  should  be  applied  behind  the  ears,  or  if 
the  patient  were  previously  in  robust  health, 
blood  might  be  cautiously  taken  from  the  arm. 
If,  however,  no  bad  head-symptoms  are  present, 
all  that  is  necessary  is  to  prescribe  saline  draughts, 
of  which  citrate  of  ammonia,  with  a  slight  excess 
of  carbonate  of  ammonia,  forms  the  best  in¬ 
gredient,  and  to  keep  the  bowels  open  once  or 
twice  a  day  by  gentle  laxatives.  In  Scarlatina 
maligna,  there  are  two  sources  of  danger.  The 
one  arises  from  primary  impression  of  the  con¬ 
tagious  poison  upon  the  body,  and  particularly 
upon  the  nervous  system,  which  is  overwhelmed 
by  its  influence.  The  patients  sink  often  at  a 
very  early  period,  with  but  little  affection  either 
of  the  throat  or  skin.  If  we  can  save  such 
patients  at  all,  it  must  be  by  the  liberal  adminis¬ 
tration  of  wine  and  bark,  to  sustain  the  flagging 
powers  until  the  deadly  agency  of  the  poison  has 
in  some  measure  passed  away.  But  another 
source  of  danger  arises  from  the  gangrenous 
ulceration  which  is  apt  to  ensue  in  the  fauces, 
when  the  patient  is  not  killed  by  the  first  violence 
of  the  contagion.  The  system  is  re-inoculated,  it  is 
believed,  with  the  poisonous  matter  from  the 
throat.  Now,  under  these  circumstances  also, 
quinia,  or  wine  (and  upon  the  whole,  we  should 
give  the  preference  to  wine)  is  to  be  diligently 


SCARPANTO. 


640 


SCORPION. 


though  watchfully  given.  In  addition  to  these 
remedies,  a  weak  solution  of  chloride  ol  soda,  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  or  of  Condy’s  disinfectant  fluid, 
should  be  used  as  a  gargle;  or  if,  as  is  too  often 
the  case,  the  patient  is  incapable  of  gargling,  the 
solution  may  be  injected  into  the  nostrils  and 
against  the  fauces  by  means  of  a  syringe  or 
elastic  bottle.  Three  medicines  are  commended 
in  scarlet  fever  generally.  The  first  is  chlorate 
of  potash  dissolved  in  water  in  the  proportion  of  a 
drachm  to  a  pint.  The  second  medicine  is  a  weak, 
watery  solution  of  chlorine,  of  which  a  pint  may 
be  taken  in  the  day;  and  the  third  is  carbonate  of 
ammonia  in  five-grain  doses  three  times  a  day, 
given  in  beef-tea,  wine,  etc. 

Scar'panto  (anc.  Cavpalhos),  an  island  in  the 
Mediterranean,  belonging  to  Turkey,  midway 
between  the  Islands  of  Rhodes  and  Crete.  It  is 
32  miles  long,  and  about  8  miles  wide.  The 
ruins  of  towns,  which  are  found  in  several  places, 
seem  to  indicate  that  formerly  the  island  was  well 
peopled.  At  present,  the  inhabitants  are  only 
about  5,000  in  number,  and  are  mostly  employed 
as  carpenters  and  workers  in  wood,  a  trade  of 
which  they  seem  peculiarly  fond,  and  in  com¬ 
merce. 

Scarpe,  in  Heraldry,  a  diminutive  of  the  bend 
sinister,  being  half  the  breadth  of  that  ordinary. 

Scaup  Duck  ( b'uligula — or  Nyrocn. — mivrila),  an 
oceanic  species  of  duck,  of  the  same  genus  with 
the  pochard,  an  inhabitant  of  the  northern  parts 


Scaup  Duck  ( Faligula  marila). 


of  the  world,  spending  the  summer  in  arctic  or 
sub-arctic  regions,  and  going  south  on  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  winter. 

Sclielling,  Fiiiedr.  Wilh.  Jos.  von,  an  illus¬ 
trious  German  philosopher,  was  born  at  Leonberg, 
in  Wurtemberg,  Jan.  27,  1775,  and  died  in  1854. 

Sclienec'tady,  a  city  of  New  York,  on  the  Erie 
Canal  and  the  south  bank  of  the  Mohawk  river, 
sixteen  miles  northwest  of  Albany.  It  has  large 
machinery  and  locomotive  works,  foundries,  cot¬ 
ton-mills,  and  manufactories  of  shawls,  agricult¬ 
ural  implements,  etc.  Pop.,  15,500. 

Schiller,  Johann  Christoph  Friedrich  von, 
one  of  the  greatest  poetical  geniuses  of  Germany, 
was  born  at  Marbach,  Nov.  11,  1759,  and  died 
May  9,  1805.  lie  was  a  prolific  and  versatile 
writer.  His  poems  are  read  and  quoted  in  all 
countries,  and  his  dramas  of  The  Robbers,  Don 
Curios ,  and  William  Tell  are  familiar  to  all  patrons 
of  the  theater. 

Schist  is  a  term  applied  to  indurated  clay,  as 
bituminous  schist  and  mica  schist. 

Schlegel,  August  Wilhelm  von,  a  distin¬ 
guished  critic,  poet,  and  scholar,  was  born  at 
Hanover,  Sept.  8,  17G7,  and  died  in  1845. 

Schoharie,  the  county  seat  of  Schoharie  county, 
N.  Y.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Schoolcraft,  Henry  Rowe,  American  author, 
geologist,  and  ethnologist,  was  born  at  Water- 
vleit  (now  Guilderland),  N.  Y.,  March  28,  1793, 
and  died  in  1864. 

Schorl  Rock  is  a  granitoid  rock,  in  which  the 
mica  is  replaced  by  schorl  or  tourmaline.  Some 
specimens  occur  in  which  the  feldspar  is  also 
absent,  and  the  mass  is  composed  entirely  of 
quartz  and  schorl. 

Schubert,  Franz  Peters  German  composer, 
was  born  in  Vienna,  Jan.  31, 1797,  and  died  Nov. 
19,  1828. 

Schumann,  Robert  Alexander,  a  German 
composer,  was  born  at  Zwickau,  in  Saxony,  June 
8,  1810,  and  died  July  29,  1856. 

Sch  ooner  is  a  swift,  sharply -built  vessel,  carry¬ 
ing  usually  two  masts,  though  occasionally  a 


greater  number,  and  commonly  is  of  small  size.  I  tie  west  of  6°  W.  longitude,  and  about  50°  N. 
There  are  two  classes  of  schooners — the  fore-and-  latitude,  are  the  most  southern  partsof  the  United 


Topsail  Schooner. 


aft  schooner,  or  schooner  proper,  and  the  topsail 
schooner.  In  the  former,  both  foremast  and  main¬ 
mast  are  rigged  like  the  mainmast  of  a  cutter, 


with  fore-and-aft  sails.  In  the  latter,  the  fore¬ 
mast  carries  a  square  topsail  and  a  square  top¬ 
gallant-sail. 

Schuyler,  the  county  seat  of  Colfax  comity, 
Neb.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Schuyl  'kill,  a  river  of  Pennsylvania,  which 
rises  in  the  eastern  center  of  the  State,  and  flow¬ 
ing  120  miles  southeast,  empties  into  the  River 
Delaware  five  miles  below  Philadelphia. 

Schwanthaler,  Ludwig  Michael,  a  cele¬ 
brated  German  sculptor,  was  born  in  1802  at 
Munich,  and  died  in  1848. 

Schwarz 'burg-Rn'dolstadt,  a  German  prin¬ 
cipality,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Weimar,  Alten- 
burg,  and  Meiningen,  with  a  detached  part, 
thirty  miles  to  the  north,  in  Prussian  Saxony. 
Area,  367  square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  80,296. 

Schwarz 'burg-Son 'dershausen,  a  German 
principality,  is  partly  surrounded  by  Prussian 
Saxony.  Area,  333  square  miles;  pop.  (1880), 
71.107. 

Schweinfurth,  George  August,  a  distin¬ 
guished  African  traveler,  was  born  in  Riga,  Sept. 
29,  1836.  Schweinfurth  was  made  President  of 
the  Egyptian  Geographical  Society  in  1875. 

Schwerin',  capital  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of 
Mccklenburg-Schwerin.  Pop.  (1875),  27,989. 

Schwyz,  one  of  the  mountain  cantons  in  the 
middle  of  Switzerland,  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Canton  of  St.  Gall,  and  the  Canton  and 
Lake  of  Zurich,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Canton 
of  Uri  and  the  Lake  of  Lucerne.  Area,  350 
square  miles;  pop.  (1876),  49,216. 

Sciat'ica  is  the  term  given  to  neuralgia  of  the 
great  sciatic  nerve.  It  is  characterized  by  irreg¬ 
ular  pains  about  the  hip,  or  the  pains  may  occupy 
only  isolated  parts.  It  is  an  obstinate  disease, 
but  the  treatment  is  the  same  as  that  of  neuralgia, 
generally,  except  when  it  is  merely  a  complication 
of  gout,  in  which  case  the  primary  disease  must 
be  attacked  as  well. 

Scilly  Islands.  These  islands,  situated  a  lit- 


Scimitar. 


Kingdom  of  Great  Britain,  if  we  except  the  Chan¬ 
nel  Islands.  The  group  consists  of  about  forty, 
comprising  a  circuit  of  about  30  miles. 

Scim'itar,  a  sword  used  among  Eastern  na¬ 
tions.  It  is  considerably  curved, 
and  has  its  edge  on  the  convex 
side.  Being  usually  of  high  tem¬ 
per,  and  its  shape  favorable  to  in¬ 
cision,  it  forms  an  admirable  cut¬ 
ting  instrument,  but  is  powerless 
as  a  thrusting  weapon.  The  scim¬ 
itar  is  not,  however,  any  match  for 
the  bayonet. 

Scintilla 'tion  (Lat.  scintilla),  a 
term  applied  to  denote  the  spark¬ 
ling  or  flickering  of  l  lie  stars.  The 
phenomenon  is  not  yet  quite  ex¬ 
plained,  but  that  it  is  certainly  due 
to  the  earth’s  atmosphere  is  proved  by  facts, 
which  embrace  nearly  all  that  is  known  on  the 
subject. 

Scio'to,  a  river  of  Ohio,  rises  in  the  high  lands 
of  the  northwest  portion  of  the  State,  flows  south¬ 
east  to  Columbus,  then  south  to  its  junction  at 
Portsmouth  with  the  Ohio  river.  It  is  200  miles 
long,  flows  through  a  rich  valley,  is  navigable  130 
miles,  and  for  ninety  miles  feeds  the  Ohio  and 
Erie  Canal.  It  is  crossed  by  numerous  railways. 

Scip'io,  Publius  Cornelius,  surnamed  Afri- 
canus  Major,  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
warriors  of  ancient  Rome,  the  conqueror  of  Han¬ 
nibal,  but  whose  reputation  is  perhaps  somewhat 
greater  than  his  merits,  was  born  237  or  234  b.c. 
He  died  183  b.c. 

Scipio  vEinilianus,  Publius  Cornelius,  sur¬ 
named  Africanus  Minor,  the  destroyer  of  Car¬ 
thage  in  the  third  Punic  War,  was  born  185  b.c., 
was  a  younger  son  of  Lucius  HSmilius  Paulus, 
who  conquered  Macedon,  but  was  adopted  by 
his  kinsman,  Publius  Scipio,  son  of  the  great 
Scipio.  lie  was  murdered  in  129  b.c. 

Scitami 'nea?,  or  Zingibera'cejs,  a  natural 
order  of  endogenous  plants,  herbaceous  peren¬ 
nials.  There  are  about  250  known  species,  among 
which  are  the  different  kinds  of  ginger,  galangale, 
zedoary,  cardamom,  grains  of  Paradise,  turmeric, 
etc. 

Sclero 'stoma  (from  the  Gr.  6  k  A  epoi,  sderos, 
hard,  and  dr  o/ad,  stoma,  the  mouth)  is  the  term 
applied  to  a  well-known  genus  of  the  family  of 
Strongyli'hp,,  belonging  to  the  order  of  round 
worms  or  nematoidea.  One  species,  the  Hclero- 
stoma  syngamvs,  is  of  special  interest,  as  being  the 
cause  of  the  disease  in  poultry  known  as  the 


gapes. 

Scolopa'cidae,  a  family  of  birds  of  the  order 
Grallai.  Snipes,  woodcocks,  sandpipers,  and 
curlews  are  familiar  examples. 

Scorn  be 'rid  ae,  or  Scom  'bridge,  a  large  family 
of  acanthopterous  fishes,  containing  many  species 
highly  esteemed  as  articles  of  food,  and  some  of 
them  of  great  value  on  account  of  the  abundance 
in  which  they  are  caught.  The  mackerel,  tunny, 
bonito,  etc.,  are  examples. 

Scorpse'na,  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the  family  of 
Mailed  cheeks.  They  are  popularly  called  hog- 
fish  and  scorpion-fish.  The  flesh  is  dry  and  taste¬ 
less,  but  the  liver  yields  a  useful  oil. 

Scor'pion  (Scorpio),  a  genus  of  AracJmida,  of 
the  order  Pulmonaria,  natives  of  warm  climates. 


SCOTER. 


641 


SEAL. 


both  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres. 
The  species  are  numerous.  Scorpions  feed  on 


beetles  and  other  insects.  Its  sting  is  seldom  fatal, 
but  is  very  painful. 

Sco'ter  (Oidemia),  a  genus  of  the  oceanic  sec¬ 
tion  of  ducks.  The  common  scoter,  or  black 
scoter  {0.  nigra),  is  about  the  size  of  the  common 
duck.  The  whole  plumage  of  the  male  is  deep 


Velvet  Scoter  ( Oidemia  fusca). 


black;  the  bill  and  legs  are  also  black,  except  a 
line  of  orange  along  the  ridge  of  the  upper 
mandible.  The  female  is  dark  brown. 

Scotia,  the  county  seat  of  Greeley  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  450. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  celebrated  novelist  and 
poet,  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  Scotland,  on  Aug. 
15,  1771.  Both  his  prose  and  poetry  take  first 
rank,  and  his  productions  are  more  numerous  and 
varied  than  those  of  any  other  modern  author.  His 
best  known  works  are:  Border  Minstrelsy,  Sir 
Tristrem,  The  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  Marmion, 
The  Lady  of  the  Lake,  The  Vision  of  Don  Roderick, 
Harold  the  Dauntless,  Wdverly,  Guy  Mannering, 
Rob  Roy,  and  The  Heart  of  Midlothian.  He  died 
Sept.  21,  1832. 

Scott,  Winfield,  American  general,  was  born 
at  Petersburg,  Va.,  Jan.  13,  1786;  entered  the 
army  in  1808.  At  the  commencement  of  the  War 
of  1812  he  was  appointed  Lieutenant-Colonel  and 
sent  to.  the  Canadian  frontier.  In  1814,  as  Briga¬ 
dier-General,  he  fought  a  sharp  drawn  battle  at 
Chippewa,  and  twenty  days  after,  the  famous 
frontier  battle  of  Lundy’s  Lane.  He  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  Major-General.  In  1841  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  Commander-in-Cliief  of  the  Army,  and  in 
1846  directed  the  military  operations  in  the  war 
against  Mexico.  In  1852  he  was  the  candidate  of 
the  Whig  party  for  the  Presidency,  but  was  de¬ 
feated  by  one  of  his  subordinate  officers,  General 
Franklin  Pierce.  In  1855  was  created  for  him  the 
office  of  Lieutenant-General.  He  retired  in  1861, 
and  died  May  29,  1866. 

Scottsborougli,  the  county  seat  of  Jackson 
county,  Ala.  Pop.,  800. 

Scottsburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Scott  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  800. 

Scottsville,  the  county  seat  of  Allen  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Scranton,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  county  seat 
of  Lackawanna  county,  105  miles  north-by-west  of 
Philadelphia.  It  lies  in  an  important  anthracite 
basin,  and  is  the  center  of  five  railways.  Itstrade 
in  coal  and  mining  supplies  is  enormous.  It  be- 
came  a  city  in  1866.  Pop.  (1889),  70,500. 

Scranton,  the  county  seat  of  Jackson  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  1.100. 

Screw,  one  of  the  mechanical  powers,  is  a  mod¬ 
ification  of  the  inclined  plane,  as  may  be  shown 
by  wrapping  a  piece  of  paper  in  the  form  of  an 
inclined  plane  round  a  cylinder.  In  the  screw, 
the  spiral  line,  formed  by  the  length  or  slope  of 
the  plane,  is  raised  up  iu  a  ridge,  and  a  lever  is 


attached  for  the  purpose  of  working  it,  so  that 
the  screw  is  really  a  compound  machine,  combin¬ 
ing  the  lever  and  the  inclined  plane.  It  may  be 
used  as  an  instrument  for  penetration,  as  in  the 
auger,  gimlet,  etc.,  or  as  a  means  of  producing 
pressure,  the  latter  being  its  most  important  ap¬ 
plication  as  a  mechanical  power.  The  force 
exerted  by  a  screw  is  to  the  power  as  the  length  of 
the  lever  is  to  the  distance  between  the  threads  of 
the  screw. 

Screw  Pine  ( Pandanus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Pandanareee,  natives  of  the 
tropical  parts  of  the  East  and  of  the  South  Sea 
Islands. 

Screw-propeller,  Tiie,  is  of  the  same  con¬ 
struction  as  the  common  screw,  but  with  the  nar¬ 
row  thread  exaggerated  into  a  broad,  thin  plate, 
and  the  cylinder  diminished  to  a  mere  spindle. 

Screw-wrench,  a  tool  used  for  grasping  the 
flat  sides  of  the  heads  of  large  screws,  such  as  are 
used  in  engines  and  other  large  works.  One 
form  of  it  is  usually  called  the  monkey-wrench. 

Scrof'ula,  or  Scrophula,  signifies  a  certain 
disease  or  defect  of  t  he  constitution,  in  which  there 
is  a  tendency  to  the  production  and  deposition 
of  a  substance  called  tubercle  in  various  tissues 
and  organs;  and  tubercle  must  thus  be  regarded 
as  the  essential  element  of  scrofula.  It  does  not 
follow,  however,  that  a  deposit  of  tubercle 
should  actually  occur  in  every  case  of  scrofula. 
The  tendency  is  present,  and  the  absence  or  pres¬ 
ence  of  the  deposit  depends  upon  the  extent  of 
the  affection,  and  is  determined  by  various  causes. 
The  best  treatment  is  hygienic.  The  diet  should 
be  nutritious  and  sufficiently  abundant,  and  ani¬ 
mal  food  should  be  given  at  least  twice  daily. 
Dishes  containing  eggs  and  milk  may  usually  be 
taken  with  advantage.  If  the  patient  is  not  very 
young,  a  little  bitter  ale  taken  at  an  early  dinner 
will  often  promote  digestion;  if,  however,  it  causes 
flushing  or  much  sleepiness,  it  must  be  discon¬ 
tinued.  A  mother  with  scrolula  should  always 
provide  a  healthy  wet-nurse  for  her  child,  as 
suckling  in  such  a  case  is  injurious  both  to  parent 
and  offspring.  Flannel  should  always  (both  in 
summer  and  winter)  be  worn  next  the  skin  during 
the  day,  and  the  clothing  must  always  besufficient 
to  keep  the  extremities  warm.  Constant  resi¬ 
dence  in  pure  and  dry  air  should  be  enforced  as 
far  as  possible.  Free  exercise  of  the  muscles  and 
lungs  in  the  open  air  should  be  insisted  on  in 
fine  weather,  and  if  this  can  not  be  taken,  the  best 
substitute  is  friction  over  the  surface  of  the  body 
witli  the  flesli-brush.  Patients  who  can  bear  cold 
sea-bathing  during  the  summer  and  autumn 
months  will  derive  great  advantage  from  it;  but 
if  a  short  immersion  is  not  rapidly  followed  by  a 
genial  glow  after  drying  the  skin,  such  bathing  is 
injurious,  in  which  case  warm  salt-baths  will  be 
found  useful.  Too  much  stress  can  not  be  laid 
upon  the  fact  that  in  the  case  of  children  the 
mind  should  be  cheerfully  occupied,  but  not 
overtasked. 

Scrophulavia'ceae,  or  Scrophulari'ne/e,  a 
natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  consisting 
chiefly  of  herbaceous  and  half-slirubby  plants. 
This  order  is  a  very  large  one,  containing  almost 
2,000  known  species.  Digitalis  or  foxglove, 
calceolaria,  mimulus,  mullein,  antirrhinum  or 
snapdragon,  gratiola,  scrophularia,  or  figwort, 
veronica  or  speedwell,  and  euphrasia,  or  eye- 
bright,  are  familiar  examples. 

Scruple (Lat.  scrip ulum,scr iplum.or  scrupulum) 
was  the  lowest  denomination  of  weight  among  the 
Romans,  and  denoted  the  twenty-fourth  part  of 
an  ounce  ( undo ),  or  the  288th  of  a  pound  {libra). 
The  term  at  the  present  time  is  a  denomination  in 
that  modification  of  troy  weight  which  is  used  by 
apothecaries;  it  contains  twenty  troy  grains,  is 
the  third  part  of  a  drachm,  the  twenty-fourth  of 
an  ounce,  and  the  288th  of  a  troy  pound. 

Scull,  Sculling.  A  scull  differs  from  an  oar 
in  size  only.  It  is  shorter,  and  less  heavy.  A 
man  can  only  manage  one  oar;  but  he  can  pull 
with  a  pair  of  sculls,  the  ends  of  which  lap  over 
very  little,  or  else  do  not  meet  within  the  boat. 
Sculling  has  two  senses,  a  river  sense  and  a  sea 
sense.  In  its  freshwater  acceptation,  sculling  is 
the  art  of  propelling  a  boat  by  means  of  sculls  in 
pairs.  Among  seafaring  men,  however,  to  scull 
is  to  drive  a  boat  onward  with  one  oar,  worked 
like  a  screw  over  the  stern. 


Scuppers  are  holes,  lined  with  lead,  in  a  ship’s 
side,  intended  to  carry  off  rain  or  other  water 
which  may  be  shipped. 

Scurvy,  or  Scorbutus,  is  a  disease  which  is 
characterized  by  a  depraved  condition  of  the 
blood.  In  consequence  of  this  morbid  state  of  the 
blood,  there  is  great  debility  of  the  system  at 
large,  with  a  tendency  to  congestion,  hemor¬ 
rhage,  etc,.,  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  and 
especially  in  the  gums.  Scurvy  is  caused  by  a 
privation,  for  a  considerable  time,  of  fresh  succu¬ 
lent  vegetables.  Is  most  common  in  winter  or  the 
early  spring.  The  gums  are  invariably  swelled 
and  spongy,  and  bleed  readily;  there  is  extreme 
debility  and  depression  of  spirits,  venesection  and 
mercury  do  positive  harm,  while  a  cure  is  rapidly 
effected  by  the  administration  of  lemon-juice,  or 
of  fresh  fruits  and  vegetables.  The  potato  pos¬ 
sesses  almost  equally  great  antiscorbutic  proper¬ 
ties,  and  when  cooked  is  as  active  as  when 
taken  raw.  In  addition  to  the  dietetic  treatment, 
which  should  include  easily-digested  animal  food, 
potatoes,  such  ripe  fruits  as  can  be  procured,  and 
an  abundance  of  lemonade,  little  further  need  be 
prescribed.  If  necessary,  constipation  must  be 
relieved  by  mild  laxatives,  such  as  rhubarb  and 
castor-oil;  the  appetite  may  be  stimulated  by 
bitter  tonics,  and  opiates  given  to  procure  rest  in 
cases  of  pain  or  obstinate  wakefulness.  When 
the  gums  are  very  troublesome,  solutions  of 
tannin,  chloride  of  lime,  or  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
may  be  applied  to  them. 

Scurvy-grass  {Cochlear id),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Cruciferce.  They  have  an  acrid 
biting  taste,  containing  the  same  pungent  volatile 
oil  which  is  found  in  horse-radish,  and  are  valued 
for  their  antiscorbutic  properties. 

Scu'tari  (Italian  or  Levantine  form  of  the 
Turkish  Uskudar),  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  Bosporus,  immediately 
opposite  Constantinople,  of  which  it  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  a  suburb.  Pop.,  40,000  to  60,000  or 
100,000. 

Scyl'la  and  Cliaryb'dis.  Scylla  (Gr. 
2KvA.Xd.iov,  Skullaion),  a  rocky  cape  on  the 
west  coast  of  South  Italy,  jutting  out  boldly  into 
the  sea  so  as  to  form  a  small  peninsula  just  at  the 
northern  entrance  to  the  Straits  of  Messina.  The 
navigation  at  this  place  was  looked  upon  by  the 
ancients  as  attended  with  immense  danger,  which, 
however,  seems  to  have  been  much  exaggerated. 
Charybdis  (modern  name  Galofani),  is  a  celebrated 
whirlpool  in  the  Straits  of  Messina,  nearly  oppo¬ 
site  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  of  Messina  in 
Sicily,  and  iu  ancient  writings  always  mentioned 
in  conjunction  with  Scylla.  The  navigation  of 
this  whirlpool  is,  even  at  the  present  day,  con¬ 
sidered  to  be  very  dangerous. 

Scytli'ia,  a  name  employed  in  ancient  times 
to  denote  a  vast,  indefinite,  and  almost  unknown 
territory  north  and  east  of  the  Black  Sea,  the 
Caspian,  and  the  Sea  of  Aral. 

Sea-kale  {Crambe  maritima),  a  perennial  plant 
with  large  roundish  sinuated  sea-green  leaves, 
found  on  the  sea-sliores  in  various  parts  of  Europe. 
The  blanched  sprouts  have  become  a  very  favor¬ 
ite  esculent. 

Seal  (Phoca),  a  carnivorous  mammal,  the  type  of 
the  family  Phocidce.  Seals  are  found  in  all  the 
colder  parts  of  the  world,  most  abundantly  in  the 
arctic  and  antarctic  regions;  some  of  them  also  in 


Common  Seal  ( P .  vitulina ),  attitude  when  swimming. 


temperate  climates,  as  far  south  as  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean,  and  as  far  north  as  the  La  Plata.  Some 
of  them  ascend  rivers  to  some  distance  in  pursuit 
of  salmon  and  other  fish.  They  are  found  in  the 
Caspian  Sea,  and  even  in  the  freshwater  Lake 


41 


SEALE. 


642 


SELIM  III. 


Baikal.  The  species  are  numerous.  Seals  are 
divided  into  two  principal  groups — seals,  more 
Strictly  so  called,  and  otaries;  the  former  distin¬ 
guished  by  the  complete  want  of  external  ears, 
which  the  latter  possess,  and  by  their  dentition. 
The  common  seal  ( lJhoca  vitulina)  is  found  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  It  is  remarkably  distinguished, 
even  among  its  nearest  congeners,  by  the  oblique 
position  of  the  molar  teeth.  The  fur  is  yellowish, 
variously  spotted  and  marked  with  brown.  The 
whole  length  is  from  3  to  5  feet.  Its  skin  and 
oil  are  of  considerable  mercantile  importance. 
The  skill  is  dressed  with  the  fur  on,  tomakecaps, 
etc.,  oris  tanned  and  used  as  leather.  The  oil, 
when  made  before  decay  has  begun,  is  color¬ 
less  and  nearly  inodorous;  it  is  much  superior 
to  whale  oil.  The  flesh  is  much  used  for  food 
in  very  northern  countries,  as  is  that  of  all  the 
other  species  which  they  produce.  The  Alaska 
sealing  ground,  the  most  important  in  the  world, 
belongs  to  the  United  States. 

Seale,  the  county  seat  of  Russell  county,  Ala. 
Pop.,  800. 

Searcy,  the  county  seat  of  White  county,  Ark. 
Pop.,  1,840. 

Sea-sickness,  a  variety  of  vomiting,  is  often 
preceded  by  premonitory  symptoms,  which  ap¬ 
pear  almost  immediately  after  a  susceptible  per¬ 
son  is  exposed  to  the  motion  of  rolling  water  in  a 
vessel  or  boat,  and  are  as  distressing  as  the  vomit¬ 
ing  itself.  Amongst  these  symptoms  may  be 
mentioned  vertigo  and  headache,  with  a  peculiar 
feeling  of  sinking  and  distress  about  the  pit  of 
the  stomach.  Vomiting,  however,  in  general, 
soon  comes  on,  accompanied  witli  convulsive 
heaving  of  the  stomach,  and  such  an  indescrib¬ 
able  feeling  of  prostration  as  to  render  the  patient 
utterly  regardless  of  what  is  going  on  around  him, 
and  almost  indifferent  to"  life.  Moreover,  a 
deadly  pallor,  a  profuse  cold  sweat,  and  diarrhoea, 
are  more  or  less  commonly  present.  Bags  of  ice 
applied  to  the  spine  are  the  best  remedy,  and 
those  who  are  susceptible  to  this  distressing  af¬ 
fection,  may  diminish  the  severity  of  the  vomit¬ 
ing  by  assuming,  and  as  long  as  possible  retaining, 
the  horizontal  position,  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
the  center  of  the  ship’s  movement,  and  keeping 
the  eyes  closed.  The  compression  of  the  abdo¬ 
men,  by  means  of  a  broad  tight  belt,  sometimes 
gives  relief.  Large  doses  of  bromide  of  potas¬ 
sium  are  also  used  with  beneficial  results.  A  few 
drops  of  chloroform  on  a  lump  of  white  sugar 
will  sometimes  check  the  tendency  to  vomiting  in 
persons  who  only  suffer  slightly.  A  little  arrow- 
root,  flavored  with  brandy  or  sherry,  is  usually  a 
kind  of  food  that  will  most  easily  remain  on  the 
stomach,  when  the  severity  of  the  symptoms  is 
abating.  Doctor  Wood,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
of  the  American  physicians  of  the  present  day, 
asserts  that  he  has  “found  nothing  under  such  cir¬ 
cumstances  so  acceptable  to  the  stomach  as  raw 
salt  oysters.” 

Seattle,  a  growing  town  in  King  county, 
Wash.  P"p.,  12,700.  In  the  spring  of  1889  a 
large  portion  of  the  town  was  destroyed  by  fire, 
but  it  is  now  being  rapidly  rebuilt. 

Sehas'topol,  or  Sevastopol  ( Sebastopol is,  the 
august  city),  a  Russian  seaport,  fortress,  and  arse¬ 
nal  in  the  Crimea,  in  the  Government  of  Tau¬ 
rida.  The  siege  of  Sebastopol  by  the  allied 
English  and  French  armies  lasted  for  eleven 
months,  from  October,  1854  to  September,  1855. 
Before  the  siege,  the  pop.  including  the 
garrison,  was  about  40,000.  Since,  the  town  has 
been  partially  rebuilt,  but  the  present  pop.  is  only 
about  25,000. 

Second  is  the  sixtieth  part  of  a  minute, 
whether  of  time  or  of  angular  magnitude. 

Secondary,  in  Geology,  is  the  designation 
given  to  that  large  section  of  the  fossiliferous 
strata  which  includes  the  Triassic,  Oolitic,  and 
Cretaceous  rocks. 

Secretion  is  the  term  employed  in  Physiology 
to  designate  the  process  of  separation  of  those  mat¬ 
ters  from  the  nutritious  fluids  of  the  body  which 
are  destined  not  to  be  directly  applied  to  the  nu¬ 
trition  and  renovation  of  its  organized  fabric,  but 
(1)  to  be  either  at  once  removed  as  injurious  toils 
welfare,  or  (2)  to  be  employed  for  some  ulterior 
purpose  in  the  chemical  or  physical  processes  of 


the  economy  itself,  or  to  exert  some  kind  of  action 
upon  other  beings. 

Sec'retary,  Secretary  Falcon,  Secretary 
Bird,  or  Serpent-eater  (Gypogeranvs),  a  genus 
of  birds  of  prey.  The  best  known  species  is  an 
inhabitant  of  the  arid  plains  of  South  Africa.  It 
is  about  3  feet  in  length;  the  plumage  bluisli- 


Secretary  Bird  ( Serpentarius  secretarius) . 

gray.  It  feeds  chiefly  on  reptiles  of  all  kinds, 
which  it  devours  in  great  numbers,  and  so  is 
highly  valued  on  account  of  the  constant  war 
which  it  wages  against  serpents. 

Secretions,  Vegetable.  In  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  the  term  secretion  has  a  wrider  applica¬ 
tion  than  in  the  animal  kingdom,  and  all  sub¬ 
stances  which  have  been  formed  by  the  action  of 
cells  upon  the  compound  taken  up  as  food  (such 
as  carbonic  acid,  water,  and  ammonia) — whether 
these  substances  form  a  part  of  the  tissue  of  the 
plant,  or  are  thrown  out  upon  its  surface — are 
equally  considered  as  secretions. 

Sedalia,  a  flourishing  city  in  Pettis  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  17,200.  Several  railroads  center  here,  and 
the  town  is  one  of  great  importance. 

Sedam,  the  county-seat  of  Chautauqua  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  1,550. 

Sedan,  a  manufacturing  town  and  frontier  for¬ 
tress  of  France,  in  the  Department  of  Ardennes; 
pop.  (1881),  19,240.  The  fortress  of  Sedan  has  played 
a  considerable  part  in  military  history;  audit  has 
recently  become  noted  as  the  place  where  (Sept. 
2,  1870)  Napoleon  III.  and  an  army  of  90,000 
men  surrendered  to  the  Prussians. 

Se<l  'ati  ves  are  medicines  which  exert  a  direct  or 
primary  depressing  action  upon  the  vital  powers, 
without  inducing  any  subsequent  excitement. 
The  diseases  in  which  sedatives  are  employed  are 
chiefly  those  of  over  excitement  of  the  nervous 
and  circulating  systems  ;  and  as  some  of  the  mem¬ 
bers  of  this  class  (hemlock,  for  example)  act  di¬ 
rectly  on  the  nervous  system,  while  others  (fox¬ 
glove,  for  example)  more  immediately  act  upon 
the  heart,  it  is  necessary  to  be  able  to  determine 
the  kind  of  sedative  suitable  for  each  individual 
case.  The  following  are  the  most  important 
members  of  this  class,  aconite,  carbonic  acid  (ap¬ 
plied  locally  in  cases  of  irritable  bladder  or  womb, 
or  to  painful  ulcers),  chloroform  (especially  when 
inhaled),  conium,  digitalis,  hydrocyanic  acid 
and  tobacco. 

Sedgwick,  an  American  family,  distinguished 
in  politics,  law,  and  literature. — Theodore 
Sedgwick,  statesman  and  jurist,  was  bora  at  Hart¬ 
ford,  Conn.,  May,  1746,  lie  died  at  Boston,  Jan. 
24,  1813. — Theodore  Sedgwick,  American  law¬ 
yer  and  writer,  son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at 
Sheffield,  Mass.,  Dec.  1780.  He  died  of  a  stroke 
of  paralysis,  after  making  a  public  speech  at 
Pittsfield,  Mass.,  Nov.  7,  1839. — Susan  Ridley 
Sedgwick,  wife  of  the  preceding,  was  the  author 
of  several  once  popular  books. — Catherine 
Maria  Sedgwick,  authoress,  was  born  at  Stock- 
bridge,  near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Died  July  31,  1867.— Theodore  Sedgwick,  an 
American  lawyer,  son  of  the  second  Theodore 
Sedgwick,  was  born  at  Albany,  Jan.  27,  1811. 
He  died  at  Stockbridge,  Dec.  9,  1859. — 

John  Sedgwick,  born  in  Connecticut,  in  1813, 
was  a  graduate  of  West  Point,  served  in  the 
Mexican  War,  and  was  made  Major-General 


of  volunteers  in  the  late  war.  He  was  killed  at 
the  Battle  of  Spotsylvania  Courthouse,  in  1864. 

Seed,  in  Phanerogamous  Plants,  that  part  which 
may,  in  some  measure,  be  regarded  as  correspond¬ 
ing  to  the  perfectly  developed  impregnated  ovum 
of  animals,  and  which  is  the  utmost  effort  made 
by  the  plant  for  the  reproduction  of  its  species. 
It  is  the  perfectly  developed  ovule. 

See'land  (Dan.  SjaUand ),  the  largest  and  most 
important  island  of  Denmark,  lies  between  the 
Cattegat  and  the  Baltic,  and  is  separated  by  the 
Sound  from  Sweden,  and  by  the  Great  Belt  from 
Funen.  Length,  78  miles;  extreme  breadth,  70 
miles;  area,  2,672  square  miles;  pop.  in  1870  (in¬ 
cluding  the  two  small  islands  Mtien  and  Samsoe) 
637,711. 

Seguin,  the  county  seat  of  Guadalupe  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  1,550. 

Seid'litz  Powders  are  composed  of  120  grains 
of  tartrate  of  soda  and  potash,  and  40  grains  of 
bicarbonate  of  soda  reduced  to  powder,  mixed  and 
inclosed  in  a  blue  paper,  and  35  grains  of  powdered 
tartaric  acid  in  a  white  paper.  The  contents  of 
the  blue  paper  are  dissolved  in  from  half  a  tumbler 
to  a  tumbler  of  water,  and  those  of  the  white 
paper  are  then  stirred  in.  The  mixture  should  be 
taken  whilethe  effervescence  from  the  liberation  of 
the  carbonic  acid  is  still  going  on.  These  powders 
act  as  an  agreeable  and  mild  cooling  aperient.  If 
a  stronger  dose  is  required,  either  an  increased 
quantity  of  the  powder  may  be  used,  or  a  little 
sulphate  of  magnesia  (about  a  drachm)  may  be 
added. 

Seign'ior,  Grand,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
the  Sultan  of  Turkey. 

Seiue,  the  metropolitan  department  of  France, 
completely  inclosed  by  the  Department  of  Seine- 
et-Oise,  is  a  portion  of  the  former  Province  of 
LTle-de-France,  and  derives  its  name  from  that  of 
its  principal  river.  It  is  at  once  the  smallest  and 
the  most  populous  department  in  the  country;  its 
area  is  183  square  miles;  its  pop.,  in  1881,  2,799,- 
329.  _ 

Seine  (anc.  Scqumut),  one  of  the  most  important 
rivers  of  France,  rises  near  Mont  Tasselot,  in  the 
middle  of  the  Department  of  Cote-d’Or,  and  emp¬ 
ties  into  the  English  Channel,  which  it  reaches  at 
Havre,  after  a  course  of  470  miles. 

Seine-et-Marne,  an  inland  department  in  the 
North  of  France,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  and  forms  a  portion 
of  that  wide  basin  in  the  middle  of  •which  stands 
Paris.  Area,  2,214  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
348,991. 

Seine-et-Oise,  a  department  in  the  North  of 
France,  incloses  the  metropolitan  Department  of 
Seine.  Area,  2,163  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
577,798. 

Seine-Inferieure,  a  maritime  department  of 
France,  bounded  on  the  northwest  by  the  English 
Channel,  and  on  the  south  by  the  Department  of 
Eure.  Area,  2,328  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
814,068. 

Sele'nium  (symbol  Se,  equiv.  79 — sp.  gr. 
4.28)  is  an  element  having  two  forms.  In  the 
vitreous  form,  at  ordinary  temperatures,  it  is  a 
solid  of  a  dark-brown  color,  and  when  broken, 
presents  a  conchoidal  vitreous  fracture.  Crystal¬ 
line  selenium  is  of  a  dull  leaden  color;  unlike  the 
vitreous  selenium,  is  very  opaque  to  light  even  in 
thin  films;  and  is  a  conductor  of  electricity  at 
ordinary  temperatures.  Selenium  was  discovered 
in  1817  by  Berzelius,  in  the  refuse  of  a  sulphuric- 
acid  manufactory. 

Seleu'cia,  the  name  of  seven  ancient  cities  of 
Asia,  situated  in  Syria,  Pisidia,  Pamphylia,  Cili¬ 
cia,  Caria,  and  Mesopotamia,  and  founded  during 
the  earlier  existence  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Seleu- 
cidas. 

Selcu'cidse,  the  dynasty  of  kings  to  whom 
fell  that  portion  of  Alexander  the  Great’s  im¬ 
mense  and  ill-compacted  monarchy,  which  in¬ 
cluded  Syria,  a  large  portion  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
the  whole  of  the  pastern  provinces. 

Selim  I.,  Sultan  of  Turkey,  son  of  Bajazet  II., 
was  born  in  1467,  dethroned  his  father  by  the  aid 
of  the  Janizaries,  April  25,  1512,  and  ascended 
the  throne.  He  died  Sept.  22,  1520. 

Selim  III..  Sultan  of  Turkey,  the  only  son  of 
Mustapha  III.,  was  born  Dec.  14,  1761,  and 
ascended  the  throne  in  1789.  Lie  was  assassin¬ 
ated  in  1808. 


SELKIRKSHIRE. 


643 


SERPULA. 


Selkirkshire,  Scotland,  in  ancient  times  called 
Ettrick  Forest,  is  bounded  by  the  Counties  of 
Midlothian,  Roxburgh,  Dumfries,  and  Peebles, 
on  the  north,  east,  south,  and  west  respectively. 
It  extends  in  length  from  north  to  south  about  28 
miles,  and  from  east  to  west  16  to  18  miles.  Its 
area  is  260  square  miles  The  pop.  in  1881  was 
25,564. 

Selma,  a  thriving  city  of  Dallas  county,  Ala. 
Pop.,  12,100. 

Selt'ers  Water  (commonly  but  incorrectly 
written  Sel'zer  Water),  takes  its  name  from  the 
village  of  Lower  Sellers  near  Limburg,  in  the 
Duchy  of  Nassau,  where  several  springs,  united 
in  one  basin,  yield  5, 000 cubic  feet  an  hour  of  this 
sparkling  and  effervescing  mineral  water.  Its 
chief  ingredients  are  carbonic  acid,  carbonate  of 
soda,  and  common  salt. 

Sein'inoles,  a  tribe  of  American  Indians, 
originally  a  vagrant  branch  of  the  Creeks,  whose 
name,  Seminole,  signifies  wild  or  reckless.  In 
1705,  they  aided  in  driving  the  Appalaches  from 
Florida;  and  in  1817  they  joined  with  the  Creeks 
and  some  negroes  who  had  taken  refuge  with 
them,  ravaged  the  white  settlements  in  Georgia, 
plundering  plantations,  and  carrying  off  slaves, 
whom  they  refused  to  surrender.  General  Jack- 
son,  sent  to  punish  them,  took  at  the  same  time 
several  Spanish  forts,  and  hastened  the  negotia¬ 
tions  which  ended  in  the  cession  of  Florida  to  the 
United  States.  At  this  cession  in  1823,  the  Semi- 
noles  engaged  to  retire  into  the  interior,  and  not 
molest  the  settlers;  but  as  the  negroes  continued 
to  take  refuge  with  them,  a  treaty  was  made  with 
some  of  the  chiefs,  in  1832,  for  the  removal  of 
the  whole  tribe  west  of  the  Mississippi.  This 
treaty  was  repudiated  by  the  tribe,  at  the  insti¬ 
gation  of  Osceola,  one  of  their  chiefs;  and  a  war 
commenced  against  a  handful  of  savages,  which 
lasted  eight  years,  and  cost  thousands  of  lives, 
and  $10,000,000.  In  the  end,  the  remains  of  the 
tribe  were  removed  to  the  Indian  Territory. 

Semi-pela'gianism,  a  modification,  as  the 
name  implies,  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Pelagians  as 
to  the  powers  of  the  human  will,  and  as  to  the 
effects  to  be  attributed  to  the  action  of  the  super¬ 
natural  grace  of  God,  and  of  the  divine  decree 
for  the  predestination  of  the  elect. 

Senatobia,  the  county  seat  of  Tate  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Sen'eca,  M.  Annaeus,  the  rhetorician,  wasborn 
at  Corduba  (Cordova)  in  Spain.  The  time  of  his 
birth  is  doubtful,  probably  about  61  n.c.  He 
probably  lived  till  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Ti¬ 
berius,  and  died  in  Rome  or  Italy. 

Seneca,  L.  Ann/eus,  son  of  the  preceding,  and 
a  celebrated  philosopher,  w'as  also  bom  at  Cor¬ 
duba,  a  few  years  b.c.  He  was  the  tutor  of 
Nero,  and  was  forced  by  that  tyrant  to  commit 
suicide  in  65  a.d. 

Seneca,  the  county  seat  of  Nemaha  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  2,200. 

Seneca  Falls,  a  flourishing  town  in  Seneca 
county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  6,000. 

Seneca  Lake,  one  of  a  range  of  narrow  lakes 
in  the  western  part  of  the  State  of  New  York. 
It  is  37  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  from  2  to 
4  miles  in  width. 

Sen'ega,  or  Snake  Root,  is  the  dried  root  of 
Poly  gala  senega.  Senega  is  a  powerful  and  trust¬ 
worthy  stimulating  expectorant,  and  may  be 
advantageously  prescribed  in  the  advanced  stages 
of  chronic  bronchitis  and  pneumonia,  especially 
when  occurring  in  aged  or  very  debilitated 
patients.  It  is  also  a  valuable  remedy  in  pro¬ 
longed  hooping-cough,  and  in  the  latter  stages  of 
croop  and  of  bronchitis  in  young  children.  The 
preparations  are  the  infusion  and  the  tincture; 
the  average  dose  of  the  former  being  an  ounce 
and  a  half,  of  the  latter  a  drachm.  For  children, 
the  powdered  root  in  doses  of  ten  grains  is  the 
best  form. 

Senegal'  (called  by  the  natives  Seringa),  a  large 
river  in  Western  Africa,  rises  in  Mount  Cooro,  in 
latitude  10°  30'  N.,  longitude  10°  40'  W.,  flows 
first  northwest  and  then  west,  and  falls  into  the 
Atlantic  after  a  course  of  1,000  miles. 

Senegambia,  a  large  tract  of  country  in 
Western  Africa,  lying  between  the  Senegal  and 
Sierra  Leone.  It  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic  on 
the  west,  but  has  very  indefinite  limits  toward 


the  east.  The  country  takes  its  name  from  its 
two  principal  rivers,  the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia. 

Senna  is  one  of  the  most  important  purgatives 
used  in  our  materia  medica.  Two  sorts  of  senna 
are  recognized  in  the  Pharmacopoeia— viz.,  Alex¬ 
andrian  senna  and  Tinnevelly  senna.  The  Alex¬ 
andrian  senna  leaves  are  chiefly  obtained  from 
Cassia  lanceolata,  while  the  Tinnevelly  senna 
leaves  are  yielded  by  Cassia  elongata. 

Sennacli'erib,  an  Assyrian  king,  son  of  Sar- 
gon,  reigned  702-680  n.c.  It  was  to  his  inva¬ 
ding  army  that  there  befell  an  extraordinary  dis¬ 
aster,  when  no  fewer  than  J85.000  Assyrians  are 
said  to  have  been  slain  by  the  angel  of  the 
Lord. 

Sensitive  Plant,  a  name  commonly  given  to 
certain  species  of  Mimosa,  on  account  of  the 
peculiar  phenomena  of  irritability  which  their 
leaves  exhibit  in  their  collapse  when  touched  or 
shaken. 

Senso'rium.  This  term  is  applied  by  phys¬ 
iologists  to  a  series  of  ganglionic  centers,  each  of 
which  has  the  power  of  communicating  to  the 
mind  the  impressions  derived  from  the  organ  with 
which  it  is  connected,  and  of  exciting  automatic 
or  involuntary  muscular  movements  in  respon- 
dence  to  these  sensations. 

Sepia,  a  pigment  used  as  a  water-color.  It  is 
prepared  from  the  secretion  of  a  peculiar  organ, 
called  the  ink-bag,  found  in  the  Dibranchiate 
Cephalopoda ,  or  cuttle  fishes. 

Sepoy',  corrupted  from  the  Indian  word  sipalii, 
a  soldier.  The  word  sepoy  now  denotes  a  native 
Hindu  soldier  in  the  British  army  in  India. 

Septem  'brists,  Septembri'sers  (Fr.  Septem- 
brisenrs),  the  name  given  to  the  frantic  execu¬ 
tioners  in  what  are  known  as  the  “September  mas¬ 
sacres"  in  Paris,  which  took  place  Sept.  2,  1792, 
and  in  which  over  1,500  people  perished  by  assas¬ 
sination. 

Sep'tuagint  (Gr.  0"i  roov  O,  Hoi  ton  0,  or 
oi  O,  hoi  V;  Lat.  Septuaginta,  Seventy,  LXX, 
Alexandrine  Version,  etc.),  the  most  ancient 
Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  that  has 
come  down  to  us,  and  the  one  commonly  in  use 
among  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ. 

Se'quiii  (Ital.  zeceliino,  from  zecca,  the  name 
of  the  Venetian  mint),  a  gold  coin  first  struck  at 
Venice  about  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
was  about  the  size  of  a  ducat,  and  was  equiva¬ 
lent  to  about  $2.25.  Coins  of  the  same  name,  but 
varying  in  value,  were  issued  by  other  States. 

Seragl'io  (properly  Serai),  is  the  palace  of  the 
sultan  at  Constantinople.  It  stands  on  a  beauti¬ 
ful  situation  on  a  head  of  land  projecting  into 
the  sea,  known  as  the  Golden  Horn,  and  is 
inclosed  by  walls  74  miles  in  circuit. 

Ser'apbim  (plural  of  Seraph),  celestial  beings 
in  attendance  upon  Jehova,  mentioned  by  Isaiah. 
They  are  described  as  similar  to  the  Cherubim, 
have  the  human  form — face,  voice,  two  hands, 
and  two  feet — but  six  wings,  with  four  of  which 
they  cover  their  face  and  feet — as  a  sign  of  rever¬ 
ence — while  with  two  they  fly. 

Sera 'pis,  or  Sarapis,  the  Greek  name  of  an 
Egyptian  deity,  introduced  into  Egypt  in  the 
time  of  Ptolemy  I..  or  Soter.  It  is  said  that 
forty-two  temples  were  erected  under  the  Ptole¬ 
mies  and  Romans  to  this  god  in  Egypt.  His 
resemblance  to  Osiris  consisted  in  his  chthonic 
or  infernal  character,  as  judge  of  the  dead  and 
ruler  of  hades. 

Serf  (Lat.  servns,  a  slave).  A  numerous  class 
of  the  population  of  Europe  known  as  serfs  or 
villeins,  were  in  a  state  of  slavery  during  the 
early  middle  ages.  In  some  cases  this  serf  popu¬ 
lation  consisted  of  an  earlier  race,  who  had  been 
subjugated  by  the  conquerors;  but  there  were 
also  instances  of  persons  from  famine  or  other 
pressing  cause  selling  themselves  into  slavery,  or 
even  surrendering  themselves  to  churches  and 
monasteries  for  the  sake  of  the  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  the  prayers  of  their  masters. 

Se'rous  Fluids.  This  term  is  applied  by 
chemists  and  physicians  to  various  fluids  occur¬ 
ring  in  the  animal  body.  They  are  arranged  by 
Gorup-Besanez,  one  of  the  highest  authorities  on 
physiological  chemistry,  under  three  heads: 
Those  which  are  contained  in  the  serous  sacs  of 
the  body,  as  the  cerebro-spinal  fluid,  the  peri¬ 
cardial  fluid,  the  peritoneal  fluid,  the  pleural 
fluid,  the  fluid  of  the  tunica  vaginalis  testis,  and 


the  synovial  fluid.  The  tears  and  the  fluids 
existing  in  the  eyeball,  the  amniotic  fluid,  and 
transudations  into  the  tissue  of  organs.  Morbid 
or  excessive  transudations,  such  as  dropsical 
fluids,  the  fluids  occurring  in  hydatids,  and  in 
blebs  and  vesicles  on  the  skin,  and  transudations 
from  the  blood  in  the  intestinal  capillaries,  as  in 
cases  of  intestinal  catarrh,  cholera,  or  dysentery. 

Serous  Membranes.  There  are  seven  of 
these  membranes  in  the  human  body,  three  being 
median  and  single,  while  two  are  double  and 
lateral.  They  are  the  arachnoid,  the  pericar¬ 
dium,  and  the  peritoneum,  with  the  two  pleurae 
and  tunicas  vaginales  testis.  Thus  they  are  con¬ 
nected,  with  the  obvious  view  of  facilitating  mo¬ 
tion  and  affording  general  protection,  with  all 
the  most  important  organs  in  the  body.  They 
are  all  closed  sacs,  with  one  exception. 

Serpents  ( Ophidia ),  an  order  of  reptiles,  which 
is  in  general  simply  characterized  as  having  a 
very  elongated  body  and  no  external  limbs.  The 
vertebrae  are  so  formed  as  to  admit  of  great 
pliancy  of  the  body,  which  is  capable  of  being 
coiled  up,  wit  lithe  head  in  the  center  of  the  coil, and 
some  serpents  have  the  power  of  throwing  them¬ 
selves  to  some  distance  from  this  coiled  position. 
The  true  serpents  live  on  larger  prey,  which  they 
swallow  entire,  some  of  them — astheboas — crush¬ 
ing  it  by  constriction  in  the  coil  of  their  muscular 
body.  The  teeth  of  the  true  serpents  are  simple, 
and  directed  backward.  In  the  non  venomous 
kinds,  there  are  four  rows  on  the  upper  part  of 
the  mouth,  two  rows  on  the  jaws,  and  two  outlie 
palate;  each  division  of  the  lower  jaw  is  also 
armed  with  a  single  row.  In  vipers,  rattlesnakes, 
and  other  venomous  serpents,  there  are  no  teeth 
on  the  upper  jaw,  except  the  poison-fangs;  the 
palatal  teeth,  however,  forming  two  rows  as  in 
the  non-venomous  kinds,  the  arrangement  of 
teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  being  also  the  same.  The 
venom  of  serpents  differs  very  much  in  its  deadly 
power  in  different  species.  The  bite  of  some 
causes  the  death  of  a  human  being  in  a  few  min¬ 
utes,  so  that  no  creatures  are  more  formidable ;  that 
of  others  proves  fatal  after  the  lapse  of  hours; 
while  the  bite  of  others,  such  as  the  viper,  is  sel¬ 
dom  fatal,  although  causing  great  pain  and  many 
unpleasant  consequences.  Tight  ligatures  above 
the  bitten  part,  to  stop  the  circulation  of  the 
poisoned  blood;  excision;  cauterizing  with  live 
coal,  red-hot  iron,  or  gunpowder;  application  of 
ammonia,  and  repeated  doses  of  brandy  or  whisky 
are  the  chief  remedies  to  be  tried;  but  they  must 
be  resorted  to  immediately  after  the  patient  has 
been  bitten. 

Ser'pula,  a  genus  of  Annelida,  of  the  order 
Tubicolce,  forming  and  inhabiting  a  calcareous 
tube,  like  that  of  mullusks.  The  serpulse  attach 
their  shells  to  rocks,  shells,  etc.,  in  the  sea.  The 
shell  is  variously  contorted,  and  some  of  the 
species  live  in  groups,  with  the  shells  intertwined. 
The  wider  end  of  the  shell  is  open,  and  from  it 


Serpula  contortuplicata,  on  the  back  of  an  oyster- 
shell. 

the  animal  protrudes  its  head  and  gills,  which 
expand  as  beautiful  fan-like  tufts.  They  are  in 
general  exquisitely  colored,  and  serpulae  are 
among  the  most  interesting  and  beautiful 
creatures  that  can  be  placed  in  an  aquarium. 


SERVAL. 


644 


SHAKERS. 


Ser'val,  (Felis  set  ml  or  Leopardus  served),  one 
of  the  smaller  Felidae,  a  native  of  South  Africa, 
the  Bo8chkatte,  or  Bush-cat,  of  the  Cape  Colony. 


Serval  (Felis  serval ) . 


It  is  about  2  feet  in  length,  exclusive  of  the 
tail.  The  serval  is  a  beautiful  animal,  yellowish 
with  black  spots,  the  lower  parts  white  with  black 
spots. 

Servetus,  Michael,  or,  in  his  native  Spanish, 
Miguel  S§rvede,  a  notable  and  unfortunate 
speculator  in  theology,  was  born  at  Villanueva, 
in  Aragon,  in  1509.  He  was  burned  through 
Calvin’s  efforts  in  1553. 

Servia  (Srbija),  proclaimed  a  kingdom  in  1882, 
but  a  principality  tributary  to  Turkey  till  1878, 
when  the  Berlin  Conference  recognized  its  inde¬ 
pendence.  Its  frontiers  touch  those  of  Austria, 
Roumania,  Bulgaria,  and  Turkey.  Area,  18,720 
square'miles;  pop.  (1880), •  1,700,211.  In  1882, 
Prince  Milan  (since  abdicated)  was  proclaimed 
the  first  King  of  Servia.  Its  constitution  dates 
from  1S69.  At  the  present  time  the  throne  of 
Servia  is  occupied  by  a  young  son  of  Milan,  but 
the  jealous  interference  of  several  of  the  great 
powers  has  given  rise  to  much  uneasiness  in 
Europe,  and  may  at  any  time  involve  a  general 
war. 

Ses'amoid  Bones  are  small  bones  met  with 
in  the  substance  of  the  tendons  of  muscles  in  the 
neighborhood  of  certain  joints.  They  derive 
their  name  from  the  Gr.  dr/daug,  sesame,  a  kind 
of  Indian  grain,  which  they  we  e  supposed  to  re¬ 
semble.  In  the  human  subject  the  patella  is  the 
best  example. 

Sesos'tris,  the  Greek  name  of  a  celebrated 
Egyptian  monarch,  who  is  supposed  to  have  con¬ 
quered  all  Asia  and  Ethiopia.  Herodotus  places 
his  reign  long  before  that  of  Cheops  of  the  fourth 
dynasty.  Dicsearclius  makes  him  rule  3712  b.c. 
and  is  followed  by  Aristotle  and  other  authors. 

Ses'tertius,  a  Roman  coin,  was  the  fourth  part 
of  the  Denarius,  and  thus  contained  at  first  24 
asses  or  librae  (4Jc).  The  name  is  an  abbreviation 
of  the  Latin  semis-tertius,  which  was  their  mode 
of  expressing  24. 

Se'ton,  in  Surgery,  is  an  artificially  produced 
sinus  or  channel,  through  which  some  substance 
— e.g.,  a  skein  of  cotton  or  silk,  or  a  long  flat 
piece  of  india-rubber  or  gutta-percha— is  passed 
so  as  to  excite  suppuration,  and  to  keep  the  arti¬ 
ficially  formed  openings  patent. 

Setter,  a  kind  of  dog  which  derives  its  name 
from  its  habit  of  setting  or  crouching  when  it 
perceives  the  scent  of  game,  instead  of  standing 
like  the  pointer.  Setters,  however,  are  now 
trained  to  adopt  the  pointer’s  mode  of  standing 


English  Setter. 

while  marking  game.  The  setter  is  much  em¬ 
ployed  by  sportsmen.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
affectionate,  gentle,  and  intelligent  of  dogs. 

Seveu  Sleepers,  the  her.es  of  a  celebrated 
legend,  according  to  which,  during  the  flight  of 
the  Christians  from  the  persecution,  seven  Chris¬ 
tians  of  Ephesus  took  refuge  in  a  cave  near  the 
city,  where  they  were  discovered  by  their  pur¬ 


suers,  who  walled  up  the  entrance  in  order  to 
starve  them  to  death.  A  miracle,  however,  was 
interposed  on  their  behalf — they  fell  into  a  preter¬ 
natural  sleep,  in  which  they  lay  for  nearly  200 
years.  The  concealment  is  supposed  to  have 
taken  place  in  250  or  251;  and  it  was  not  till  the 
reign  of  Theodosius,  447,  that  they  were  reani¬ 
mated.  On  awakening,  they  imagined 
that  their  sleep  had  been  but  of  a  single 
night;  and  on  one  of  the  party  (supposing  the 
persecution  still  in  progress)  going  into  the  city 
to  purchase  provisions  privately,  was  amazed  to 
find  erected  in  triumph  on  the  churches  and 
other  buildings  a  cross,  which,  as  it  seemed,  but 
a  few  hours  before,  he  had  seen  the  object  of 
contempt  and  blasphemy.  When  their  wonder¬ 
ful  history  became  known,  they  were  conducted 
in  triumphant  procession  into  the  city  of  Ephe¬ 
sus;  but  they  all  died  at  the  same  moment,  as  if 
by  one  common  and  mysterious  destiny.  The 
same  legend  reappears  with  variations  at  later 
periods  of  Christian  history 

Seven  Wise  Men,  the  collective  designation  of 
a  number  of  Greek  sages,  who  lived  about  620- 
548b.c.,  and  devoted  themselves  to  the  cultiva¬ 
tion  of  practicid  wisdom.  The  names  of  the 
seven,  as  usually  given,  are  Solon,  Thales, 
Pittacus,  Bias,  Cliilou,  Cleobulus,  and  Periander 
of  Corinth. 

Seven  Wonders  of  the  World  were,  in  ancient 
times,  reckoned  to  be  the  Pyramids  of  Egypt,  the 
Hanging  Gardens  of  Semiramis  at  Babylon,  the 
Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  the  Statue  of 
Jupiter  at  Athens  by  Phidias,  the  Mausoleum, 
the  Colossus  at  Rhodes,  and  the  Pharos  of  Alex¬ 
andria. 

Seven  Years  War,  TnE,  was  the  third,  last, 
and  by  far  the  longest  (1756-1763)  and  most 
terrible  of  the  contests  for  the  possession  of 
Silesia.  It  begun  in  August,  1756,  and  ended  with 
the  peace  of  Hubertsburg  on  Feb.  15,  1763. 

Sev  'era,  one  of  the  most  important  and  beauti¬ 
ful,  and,  after  the  Thames,  the  largest  of  the 
rivers  of  England,  rises  about  eleven  miles  west 
of  Llanidloes,  in  Montgomeryshire,  North  Wales. 
Its  entire  length  is  210  miles,  and  it  drains  an  area 
of  more  than  6,000  square  miles. 

Severns,  L.  Septimius,  Roman  emperor,  was 
born  April  11,  146  a.d.,  near  Leptis  Magna,  on 
the  north  coast  of  Africa.  He  died  at  Y’ork,  Eng¬ 
land,  Feb.  4,  211  a.d. 

Severns,  Wall  of,  as  it  has  been  erroneously 
called,  was  a  rampart  of  stone  between  England 
and  Scotland  which  seems  to  have  been  built  by 
the  Emperor  Hadrian  in  120  a.d. 

Sevierville,  the  county  seat  of  Sevier  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  550. 

Sevigne,  Madame  de,  Marie  de  Rabutin- 
Chantal,  was  born  at  Paris,  Feb.  6,  1626.  She 
was  the  only  daughter  of  the  Baron  de  Chantal, 
Celse-Benigne  de  Rabutin,  and  his  wife,  Marie  de 
Coulange.  In  1696,  while  on  a  visit  to  the 
Chfiteau  de  Grignan,  she  was  seized  with  malig¬ 
nant  small-pox,  and  died  at  the  age  of  seventy. 
The  letters  of  Madame  de  Sevigne,  on  which  her 
fame  securely  rests,  are  charming  in  the  abandon 
and  easy  naive  frankness  with  which  they  reveal 
her  beautiful  nature.  They  sparkle  with  French 
esprit,  and  spontaneous  gaiety  of  heart. 

Seville'  (Span.  Seville,  the  llispalis  of  the 
Romans)  a  famous  city  of  Spain,  formerly  capital 
of  the  ancient  kingdom,  and  now  of  the  modern 
province  of  the  same  name.  Pop.,  about  118,000. 

Sevres,  a  small  town  of  France,  in  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Seine-et-Oise,  six  miles  southwest  of 
Paris,  on  the  Paris  &  Versailles  Railway.  It  is 
celebrated  for  its  manufact  ure  of  porcelain  wares, 
which  are  unsurpassed  for  elegance  of  design  and 
beauty  of  painting.  Pop.  (1876),  6,512. 

Seward,  the  county  seat  of  Seward  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  2,400. 

Seward,  William  Henry,  American  states¬ 
man,  was  born  at  Florida,  N.  Y.,  May  16,  1801. 
In  1838  he  was  elected  Governor  of  New  York, 
and  in  1860  was  made  Secretary  of  State  under 
President  Lincoln.  On  April  14,  1865,  President 
Lincoln  was  assassinated  by  John  Wilkes  Booth. 
At  the  same  time  another  assassin,  named  Paine, 
penetrated  the  room  of  Mr.  Seward,  dangerously 
wounded  his  son,  and  with  a  poignard  inflicted 
wounds  upon  him  which  were  at  first  believed  to 
be  fatal,  but  from  which  he  slowly  recovered, 


and  continued  in  office,  as  Secretary  of  State 
under  Lincoln’s  successor,  Andrew  Johnson. 
Seward  resigned  his  office  in  1869,  on  the  acces¬ 
sion  of  President  Grant.  Hedied  in  October, 1872. 

Sewing-machine.  The  earlier  inventors  tried 
to  imitate  hand-sewing,  but  as  this  proved  im¬ 
practicable,  because  of  the  wearing  out  of  the 
thread,  an  attempt  was  next  made  to  imitate  the 
crochet  stitch  by  machinery.  It  is  generally 
conceded  that  Elias  Howe  (1819-1867),  who 
patented  his  machine  in  1846,  is  the  originator  of 
the  lock-stitch  machine.  His  machine  has  formed 
the  basis  upon  which  numerous  improvements 
and  modifications  have  been  introduced  by  other 
inventors. 

Sexages'ima  Sunday  (Lat,  seragesima,  i.  e., 
dies,  the  sixtieth  day),  the  second  Sunday  before 
Lent,  and  roughly  reckoned  the  sixtieth  day 
before  Easter. 

Sex 'taut,  an  instrument  for  measuring  the 
angular  distance  of  objects  by  means  of  reflec¬ 
tion.  The  principle  of  its  construction  depends 
upon  the  theorem,  that  if  a  ray  of  light  suffer 
double  reflection,  the  angle  between  the  original 
ray  and  its  direction  after  the  second  reflection  is 
double  of  the  angle  made  by  the  reflecting  sur¬ 
faces. 

Seychelles'  Cocoa-nut,  or  Double  Cocoa- 
nut  (Lodoicea  seychellarum),  a  palm,  of  which 
the  fruit  has  some  resemblance  to  a  cocoa-nut, 
although  it  belongs  to  a  different  tribe  of  palms, 
being  allied  to  the  Palmyra  palm.  It  is  found 
only  in  the  Seychelles  Islands. 

Seychelles  Islands,  situated  nearly  in  the 
center  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  between  3°  40' — 5° 
35'  S.  latitude,  and  55°  15' — 56'’  0'  E.  longitude, 
a  group  of  more  than  thirty  isles. 

Seymour,  the  county  seat  of  Baylor  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  580. 

Shad  (Alavsa  or  Alosa),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
family  Ch/peida’.  A  species  generally  weighing 
about  four  or  five  pounds,  but  sometimes  twelve 
pounds,  is  very  abundant  during  some  months  of 
the  year  in  some  of  our  rivers,  as  the  Hudson, 
Delaware,  Chesapeake,  and  St.  Lawrence,  and  is 
now  bred  successfully,  and  in  immense  numbers, 
in  the  United  States  piscieultural  establishments. 

Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper, 
Earl  of,  born  in  1621,  an  English  statesman  and 
philanropist,  descended  from  a  family  intimately 
associated  with  the  political  history  and  literature 
of  England.  He  was  the  Achitophel  of  Dryden, 
by  whom  his  character  is  drawn  with  as  much 
truth  as  power — His  descendant,  Anthony 
Ashley  Cooper,  seventh  Earl  of  Shaftesbury, 
was  born  in  Grosvenor  Square,  London,  April  28, 
1801.  He  is  best  known  by  his  attempts  to  im¬ 
prove  the  social  condition  of  the  laboring  classes. 
After  his  accession  to  the  earldom,  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  various  religious,  social,  and 
philanthropic  societies.  He  followed  up  his  Ten 
Hours’  Bill  by  other  measures  regulating  defective 
workshops  and  factories,  niglit-work,  and  the 
treatment  of  children  by  their  employers.  He 
died  at  Folkestone,  Oct.  1,  1885. 

Shagreen'  is  generally  understood  to  mean 
shark  skin  dressed  and  rubbed  down  smooth  or 
not;  but  the  Oriental  shagreen,  formerly  in  so 
much  repute,  consists  of  portions  of  the  skins  of 
horses,  asses,  camels,  and  oxen,  the  part  used 
being  strips  taken  from  head  to  tail  along  the 
center  of  the  back. 

Shali-Jehan,  or  “King  of  the  World,”  the 
title  assumed  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  by 
Khorrum  Shah,  the  third  son  of  Sclitn  Jehan- 
Ghir,  and  the  fifth  of  the  Mogul  emperors  of 
Delhi. 

Shakers,  the  name  commonly  given  to  a  small 
religious  sect  existing  in  the  United  States  of 
America.  They  believe  that  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  has  come;  that  Christ  has  come  upon 
earth  a  second  time,  and  that  the  personal 
rule  of  God  has  been  restored.  Then  they  hold 
that  the  old  law  has  been  abolished,  and  a  new 
dispensation  begun;  that  Adam’s  sin  has  been 
atoned;  that  man  has  been  made  free  of  all  errors 
except  his  own;  that  the  curse  has  been  taken 
away  from  labor;  that  the  earth  and  all  that  is  on 
it  will  be  redeemed.  For  them,  there  is  neither 
death  nor  marriage;  what  seems  death  is  only  a 
change  of  form,  a  transfiguration  which  does  not 
hide  them  from  the  purified  eyes  of  the  saints; 


SHAKESPEARE. 


645 


SHELLDRAKE. 


and  in  union,  as  in  heaven,  there  is  no  marrying 
or  giving  in  marriage— the  believer  owes  love  to 
all  the  saints,  but  his  love  must  be  celibate  in 
spirit  and  in  fact.  A  Shaker  settlement  is,  for 
convenience,  divided  into  families,  consisting  of 
the  brothers  and  sisters,  who  live  in  the  same 
houses,  each  governed  by  an  elder  and  an  elderess 
There  are  two  orders  of  members,  Probationers 
and  Covenanters — that  is,  novices  and  full  mem¬ 
bers.  It  is  on  becoming  a  covenanter  that  the 
Shaker  puts  his  property  into  the  common  stock. 
On  entering  upon  residence,  he  becomes  subject 
to  all  the  rules  of  the  society;  but  he  is  free — 
whether  a  covenanter  or  a  probationer — to  leave 
the  body  whenever  he  pleases.  Both  men  and 
women  wear  a  prescribed  dress.  The  men  wear 
a  sort  of  Arab  sack,  with  a  linen  collar  and  no 
tie;  an  under- vest  buttoned  to  the  throat,  and  fall¬ 
ing  below  the  thighs;  loose  trousers,  rather  short; 
and  a  broad-brimmed  hat,  usually  of  straw  The 
women  wear  a  small  muslin  cap,  a  white  kerchief 
round  the  chest  and  shoulders,  a  skirt  dropping 
in  a  straight  line  from  the  waist  to  the  ankle, 
white  socks,  and  shoes.  Some  latitude  is  allowed 
as  to  the  materials  of  the  dress. 

Shakespeare,  William,  the  chief  literary  glory 
of  England,  was  born  at  Stratford-on-Avon,  in 
Warwickshire,  it  is  believed,  April  23,  1564. 
Soon  after  Nov.  28,  1582,  Shakespeare,  a  lively 
lad  going  nineteen,  was  married  to  Anne  Hatha¬ 
way  of  Shottery,  a  hamlet  some  mile  or  so  out  of 
Stratford,  a  damsel  about  eight  years  older  than 
himself;  and  six  months  afterward  a  daughter 
was  born  to  him,  whose  baptism  bears  record 
May  26, 1583.  The  only  other  children  born  of  the 
marriage  were  twins,  a  boy  and  a  girl,  baptized 
Feb.  2,  1585.  The  boy  (Hamnet)did  not  survive 
his  father,  dying  in  his  twelfth  year.  As  nearly 
as  can  be  made  out,  in  the  year  1586,  Shakespeare, 
then  twenty-two,  left  the  neighborhood  of  Strat¬ 
ford,  and  betook  himself  to  London.  No  certain 
details  have  come  down  to  us  as  to  Shakespeare’s 
earlier  relations  with  the  London  theater.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  one  tradition,  he  was  content  at  first  to 
turn  a  penny  by  holding  horses  at  the  door. 
According  to  another — which  seems  in  a  natural 
sequence  with  the  foregoing — we  find  him  admit¬ 
ted  inside  on  his  promotion,  though  as  yet  only  in 
the  humble  capacity  of  prompter’s  attendant. 
Asa  dramatist,  his  magnificent  powers  were  early 
recognized,  and  in  no  long  time  had  won  for  him 
the  very  foremost  rank  among  the  writers  for  the 
stage  of  his  time.  His  death  took  place  on  his 
fifty-third  birthday,  April  23,  1616. 

Shakopee,  the  county  seat  of  Scott  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  1,900. 

Shale,  or  Slate-clay,  an  indurated  clay, 
which  often  forms  beds  in  the  coal  measures.  It 
is  chiefly  composed  of  silica  and  alumina,  in  vari¬ 
able  proportions,  but  also  frequently  contains  a 
considerable  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  of 
oxide  of  iron. 

Shallot'  ( Allium  axr/ilonicum),  a  species  of 
Allium,  a  native  of  the  East,  introduced  into 
Europe  by  the  Crusaders,  and  much  cultivated 
for  its  bulbs,  which  are  used  like  those  of  the 
onion,  and  sometimes  for  its  leaves,  which  are 
used  like  those  of  the  chive.  The  leaves  grow 
in  tufts  like  those  of  the  chive,  but  are  larger. 

Shamokin,  an  important  mining  town  in 
Northumberland  county,  Penn.  Pop.,  8,300. 

Sham'rock,  a  national  emblem  of  Ireland,  a 
leaf  with  three  leaflets,  or  plant  having  such 
leaves,  sometimes  supposed  to  be  the  wood  sorrel, 
but  more  generally  believed  to  be  some  species  of 
clover,  or  perhaps  some  common  plant  of  some  of 
the  nearly  allied  genera,  as  the  bird’s  foot  trefoil, 
or  the  black  medick. 

Shanghai,  the  most  important  maritime  city  of 
China,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hwang- 
poo  or  Woosung  river,  twelve  miles  from  where 
it  debouches  into  the  southern  portion  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Yangtse-kiang,  in  latitude  31°  14' 
N.,  and  longitude  121°  30'  E.  The  pop.  is  esti¬ 
mated  at  250,000. 

Shan 'non,  the  largest  of  the  rivers  of  Ireland, 
rises  in  the  Cuilcagli  Mountains,  County  of  Cavan, 
and  after  a  course  of  230  miles,  falls  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  between  the  headlands  of  Loop 
and  Kerry  Head. 

Shark  ( Squalus ),  a  Linnean  genus  of  cartilagi¬ 
nous  fishes.  The  white  shark  (Corchitrias  vul¬ 


garis)  is  the  most  dreaded  of  all  the  monsters  of 
the  deep.  It  attains  a  great  size,  one  has  been 


ft.  *  ,T> 


White  Shark  ( Carcharias  vulgaris). 

caught  of  37  feePin  length.  The  body  is  covered 
with  a  hard  skin,  and  is  grayish-brown  above  and 
whitish  below.  There  are  numerous  other 
species,  all  inhabitants  of  the  warmer  parts  of  the 
sea. 

Sharon,  a  growing  town  in  Mercer  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  6,100. 

Sharp,  a  sign  used  in  Music,  which,  when 
prefixed  to  a  note,  elevates  it  by  a  semitone  in  the 
scale.  When  placed  at  the  beginning  of  a  piece 
of  music,  it  denotes  that  all  the  notes  on  the  line 
or  space  on  which  it  is  placed,  and  their  octaves 
above  and  below,  are  to  be  played  sharp.  A 
double  sharp  raises  a  note  two  semitones. 

Shasta,  the  county  seat  of  Shasta  county,  Cal. 
Pop.,  950. 

Shawano,  the  county  seat  of  Shawano  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  1,295. 

Shawneetown,  the  county  seat  of  Gallatin 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  2,851. 

Shear'water  ( Puffinus ),  a  genus  of  Proc  l- 
laridcv,  differing  from  petrels  in  having  the  tip  of 
the  lower  mandible  curved  downward,  and  the 
nostrils  opening  separately  and  not  by  a  common 
tube.  It  is  very  abundant  on  the  shores  of  New¬ 
foundland. 

Sheathing  is  a  protection  (usually  copper)  for 
the  wooden  planking  of  the  immersed  portion  of 
a  ship  from  the  attacks  of  the  teredo  and  other 
worms,  mollusks,  and  marine  animals,  which, 
especially  in  hot  climates,  adhere  to  the  bottom 
and  eat  into  the  timber,  while  they  retard  the 
vessel’s  progress. 

Sheboy  'gan,  a  town  and  port  of  Wisconsin,  on 
the  west  bank  of  Lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Sheboygan  river,  fifty-two  miles  north  of  Mil¬ 
waukee.  It  was  settled  in  1836,  has  a  good  har¬ 
bor,  with  mills  at  Sheboygan  Falls,  six  miles 
above,  and  a  large  trade  in  wheat  and  timber. 
Pop.  (1889),  15,200. 

Shech'inah  (from  shachan,  to  reside,  rest),  a 
word  used  in  post-biblical  times  by  the  Jews,  and 
adopted  by  early  Christian  writers;  expressive  of 
the  presence  of  the  Divine  Majesty,  in  Heaven, 
among  the  people  of  Israel,  or  in  the  Sanctuary. 

Sheep  ( Ovis ),  a  genus  of  ruminant  quadrupeds 
of  the  family  Capridcs ,  so  nearly  allied  to  goats 
that  the  propriety  of  generic  distinction  is  very 
doubtful.  They  differ  from  goats  in  having  the 
outline  of  the  face  more  or  less  arched  and  con¬ 
vex;  the  horns  spiral,  sometimes  very  large  in  the 
males — in  domestication,  however,  often  wanting 
in  the  females,  and  also  in  the  males  of  some 
breeds;  the  chin  destitute  of  a  beard;  a  sac  or 
pit  between  the  toes  of  each  foot,  lined  with 
hair,  and  secreting  a  fatty  matter.  It  is  supposed 
by  some  that  all  the  wild  sheep  existing  in  differ¬ 
ent  parts  of  the  world  are  mere  varieties  of  one 
species,  but  of  this  there  is  no  sufficient  proof. 
A  very  inte’esting  species  of  the  wild  sheep  is  the 
Rocky  Mountain  sheep,  or  big-horn  (0.  mo  n!  ana), 
of  North  America.  It  is  equal  in  size  to  the 
argalia,  which  it  much  resembles  also  in  its  gen¬ 
eral  appearance,  and  in  the  size  and  curvature  of 
its  horns.  The  horns  of  the  old  rams  attain  so 
great  a  size,  and  are  so  much  curved  downward 
and  forward,  that  they  often  effectually  prevent 
the  animal  from  feeding  on  level  ground.  The 
abode  of  this  species  is  in  the  most  craggy  and 
inaccessible  parts  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
flesh  is  of  the  very  finest  quality.  The  wool  is 
very  fine,  and  fully  1 J  inches  long;  it  is  completely 
concealed  by  long  hairs.  The  general  color  is 
brown,  paler  on  the  lower  parts;  the  old  rams 
are  almost  white  in  spring.  The  common  sheep 
( 0 .  ariex)  was  probably  the  first  animal  domes¬ 


ticated  by  man.  The  felting  and  weaving  of 
wool  were  unquestionably  among  the  earliest  of 
the  arts.  The  wool  was  probably  at  first  pulled 
from  the  skin,  a  rude  and  even  cruel  practice, 
which  it  is  said  still  subsists  in  some  countries, 
and  was  not  very  long  ago  relinquished  in  the 
Orkney  Islands.  The  leather  made  of  the  skin 
of  the  sheep  is  much  employed  in  bookbinding, 
and  for  making  gloves.  In  patriarchal  times,  the 
milk  was  much  used,  as  it  still  is  in  some  coun¬ 
tries;  it  is  richer  than  cow’s  milk,  and  the  cheese 
made  of  it  has  a  sharp  taste  and  strong  flavor, 
which,  however,  are  greatly  relished  by  some. 
There  are  numerous  varieties  of  domestic  sheep, 
some  the  result  of  careful  breeding,  and  others 
arising  spontaneously. 

Sheep-louse,  or  Sheep-tick  ( Melophagus 
ovinux),  an  insect  of  the 
family  Hippoboscidce,  to 
which  also  the  forest  fly  . 
belongs,  ranked  in  the 
order  Diptera,  although  VCJ 
in  this  genus  the  wings 
are  completely  wanting. 

It  lives  among  the  wool 
of  sheep,  and  particu¬ 
larly  of  lambs,  sucking 
the  blood  of  the  animal, 
and  is  most  abundant 

i  the  early  part  of 


Sheep-louse  ( Melophagus 
ovinus ). 


summer.  Whereit  fixes  a,  natural  size;  b,  magnified; 
its  head  in  the  skin,  a  the  pupa,  magnified, 
large,  round  tumor  is  formed. 

Sheep’s- head  (Sargus  ovis),  a  fish  of  the  family 
SparidtB,  plentiful  in  the  latter  part  of  summer 
on  some  parts  of  the  coast  of  North  America, 
and  highly  esteemed  for  the  table.  It  sometimes 
attains  a  weight  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  pounds. 

Shef'field,  an  important  manufacturing  town 
and  parliamentary  borough,  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  England,  and  capital  of  an  independ¬ 
ent  district,  called  Hallamsliire.  Pop.  (1881), 


284,403. 

Shek  'el  (siklos,  from  shakal,  to  weigh),  origin¬ 
ally  a  certain  standard  weight  in  use  among  the 
ancient  Hebrews,  by  which  the  value  of  metals, 
metal  vessels,  and  other  things  was  fixed.  Gradu¬ 
ally  it  became  a  normal  piece  of  money,  both  in 
gold  and  silver  (value,  50  cents),  marked  in  some 
way  or  other  as  a  coin,  although  not  stamped. 

Shelby,  the  county  seat  of  Cleveland  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  2,050. 

Shelbyville,  the  name  of  several  county  seats 
in  the  United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  capital 
of  Bedford  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  1,900. — 2.  The 
capital  of  Shelby  county.  Ill.  Pop.,  3,960. — 3. 
The  capital  of  Shelby  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  6,500. 
—4.  The  capital  of  "Shelby  county,  Ky.  Pop., 
2,425.-5.  The  capital  of  Shelby  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  1,500. 

Shel'if,  the  chief  river  of  Algeria. 

Shell.  This  term  is  employed  to  designate  the 


hard  outer  coverings  of  a  large  number  of  inver¬ 
tebrate  animals.  Shells  are  met  with  in  the  Edii- 
nodermnla,  in  the  great  majority  of  the  Mollusca 
(excluding  the  molluscoids),  in  a  few  of  the  Anne¬ 
lida,  as  serpula,  spirorbis,  etc.,  in  the  Cirropoda, 


and  in  the  (J  ruslucta. 

Shell'drake,  orSniFiLDRAKElTWeivioO.agenus 
of  ducks  of  the  section  having  the  hind-toe  with¬ 
out  any  pendent  membrane.  Theshelldrakesare 


Shelldrake,  Female  and  Male  (Tudor n a  vulpanser). 


a  connecting  link  between  geese  and  ducks,  having 
much  resemblance  to  the  former.  The  species  are 
mostly  natives  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere. 


SIIELLEY. 


SHOVELER. 


646 


Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe,  British  poet,  was  bom 
at  Field  Place,  near  Horsham,  in  Sussex  county, 
on  Aug.  4,  1793.  lie  was  drowned  in  1823,  and 
his  body  was  cremated. 

Shell  Lake,  the  county  seat  of  Washburn 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  1,350. 

Shells,  called  in  earlier  times  bombs,  consist 
of  hollow  vessels  of  metal,  containing  gunpowder 
or  other  explosive  compound,  so  arranged  that  it 
shall  explode  at  a  certain  point,  and  spread 
destruction  around  by  the  forcible  dispersion  of 
its  fragments.  The  concussion  shell,  or  percus¬ 
sion  shell,  is  one  in  which  the  charge  is  fired  by 
the  detonation  of  a  cap  on  striking  an  object.  If 
sufficiently  delicate  to  explode  on  touching  a  soft 
object,  and  at  the  same  time  not  to  be  exploded 
by  the  resistance  of  the  air  to  its  rapid  flight  ,  this 
form  of  shell  is  the  most  certain  in  execution. 
Since  the  introduction  of  rifled  ordnance,  the 
shell  has  become  the  commonest  form  of  pro¬ 
jectile.  It  is  usually  in  the  shape  of  an  elongated 
bolt. 

Shenandoah',  a  river  of  Virginia,  the  largest 
tributary  to  the  Potomac.  In  the  war  of  1861- 
1865,  the  Valley  of  the  Shenandoah  was  the 
scene  of  numerous  conflicts;  was  successively 
occupied  by  the  opposing  armies,  and  finally 
occupied  by  General  Sheridan  in  the  autumn  of 
1864. 

Shenandoah,  a  prosperous  mining,  manu¬ 
facturing,  and  agricultural  city  of  Schuylkill 
county,  Penn.  Pop. ,  10,300. 

Shepherdsville,  the  county  seat  of  Bullitt 
county,  Ivy.  Pop.,  300. 

Shepherd’s  Dog,  Sheep-dog,  or  Collie,  one 
of  the  most  intelligent,  useful  and  valuable  of 
dogs  employed  by  shepherds  in  various  countries. 

Shepherd’s  Purse  (Gap sella — formerly  Thlaspi 
—  Bursa  pastoris),  an  annual  plant  of  the  natural 
order  CrucifercB,  common  in  gardens  and  corn¬ 
fields  and  remarkable  as  one  of  the  few  plants 
that  are  found  over  almost  the  whole  world, 
adapting  themselves  to  almost  all  soils  and 
climates. 

Sherbet',  a  beverage,  consisting  of  the  juices 
of  various  fruits  diluted  with  water,  and  sweet¬ 
ened  in  the  way  in  which  lemonade  is  made. 

Sherbrooke,  the  county  seat  of  Steele  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  100. 

Sheridan,  Phillip  Henry,  an  American  gen¬ 
eral,  born  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  March  6,  1831,  and 
died  Aug.  5,  1888.  He  held  the  rank  of  Captain 
in  the  regular  army  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War,  but  rose  rapidly  through  the  grades  of 
Colonel,  Brigadier-General,  and  Major-General. 
In  March,  1869,  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
Lieutenant-General;  in  1883  was  made  Com- 
mander-in-Cliief,  and  on  June  1,  1888,  was  con¬ 
firmed  as  General  of  the  Army. 

G  Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley,  an  Irish  dram¬ 
atist,  was  born  at  Dublin  in  September,  1751,  and 
died  July  7,  1816.  Ilis  best  known  plays  are 
The  School  for  Scandal,  The  Stranger,  and  Pizzaro. 

Sheridan,  the  county  seat  of  Grant  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  150. 

Sheridan,  the  county  seat  of  Sheridan  county, 
Wyo.  Pop.,  200. 

Sherman,  William  Tecumseh,  an  American 
general,  born  in  Ohio  in  1818;  was  educated  at 
West  Point,  and  received  a  commission  as  First 
Lieutenant  in  1841.  During  the  war  with  Mexico 
he  served  in  California,  and  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  Captain.  In  1860  he  was  appointed  Col¬ 
onel  of  Infantry,  and  rose  by  successive  grades  to 
the  rank  of  General  of  the  Army.  He  distin¬ 
guished  himself  at  the  Battle  of  Shiloh,  and  in  the 
siege  of  Vicksburg.  In  1864  he  took  command 
of  the  army  in  Georgia,  forced  General  Hood  to 
evacuate  Atlanta,  and  then  marched  across  the 
State,  capturing  Savannah,  and  Charleston,  S.  C., 
from  which  point  he  moved  north,  capturing  the 
most  important  Confederate  positions,  and  by 
cutting  off  the  resources  of  General  Lee,  com¬ 
pelled  the  evacuation  of  Richmond  and  the 
surrender  of  Lee  to  Grant,  April  9,  1865.  The 
surrender  of  the  army  of  General  Johnston  to  Sher¬ 
man  in  North  Carolina  a  few  days  later,  and  that 
of  General  Kirby  Smith,  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
closed  the  war.  No  Northern  general  has  ac¬ 
quired  greater  popularity  than  Sherman. 

Sherman,  the  county  seat  of  Grayson  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  10,350. 


Shilling  (A.S.  scylling),  a  British  coin  equiv¬ 
alent  in  value  to  24  cents  (approximately)  of  our 
money. 

Shire  (Sax.  sciran,  to  divide),  a  term  which 
seems  to  have  originated  in  the  eighth  century, 
and  is  applied  to  the  districts  otherwise  called 

counties,  into  which  Great  Britain  is  divided. 

• 

Sliirwa,  or  Tamandua,  a  lake  of  Southeast 
Africa,  north  end  30  miles  southeast  of  Lake  Ny- 
assa;  latitude  of  center  15a  10'  S.,  longitude  35° 
40'  E. 

Shit 'tini-wood.  It  is  not  certain  what  kind 
of  wood  is  meant  by  this  name  in  the  Old  Testa¬ 
ment.  The  Ark  of  the  Covenant  was  made  of  it, 
and  probably  it  was  a  kind  of  wood  distinguished 
both  for  beauty  and  durability. 

Shi  ves,  a  name  used  by  cork-cutters  to  desig¬ 
nate  the  small  bungs  used  to  wide-mouthed  bot¬ 
tles,  in  contradistinction  to  the  pliial-corks  used 
for  narrow-necked  bottles. 

Slio'a,  a  kingdom  of  Africa,  the  most  southern 
division  of  Abyssinia,  in  latitude  8U  30' — 10°  or 
11°  N.,  longitude  38p — 401-’  30'  E. 

Shoals,  the  county  seat  of  Martin  county,  Ind. 
Pop.,  1,100. 

Shoeing  of  Horses.  When  the  feet  are  strong 
and  properly  managed,  nothing  is  better  than  a 
plain  shoe  of  tolerably  uniform  breadth  and  thick¬ 
ness,  carefully  fashioned  to  the  shape  of  the  foot. 
But  many  good  authorities  prefer  what  is  called  a 
seated  shoe,  which  has  a  level  part  for  the  crust 
to  rest  upon,  and  within  that  the  inner  half  of  the 
shoe  toward  the  sole  surface  is  beveled  off.  This 
seated  shoe  is  thus  wider  than  the  plain  shoe,  and 
hence  affords  greater  protection  for  a  weak  or  flat 
sole.  For  faulty  or  diseased  feet,  special  forms  of 
shoes  are  suitable.  In  all  healthy  feet  the  shoe 
should  be  fitted  to  the  foot,  and  not,  as  is  com¬ 
monly  done,  the  foot  cut  to  fit  the  shoe.  Another 
frequent  error  of  keeping  the  shoe  short  and  spare 
at  the  heels  should  be  avoided.  For  roadsters, 
the  toe  of  the  fore-shoes  should  be  slightly  turned 
up,  which  greatly  obviates  tripping.  The  hind- 
shoes  are  generally  thickened,  and  sometimes 
turned  down  at  the  heels.  The  number  of  nails 
required  must  vary  somewhat  with  the  weight  of 
the  shoe  and  soundness  of  the  horn;  five  is  the 
minimum,  nine  the  maximum.  It  is  important, 
however,  that  the  shoes  be  firmly  held  on  by  as 
few  nails  as  possible.  In  a  saddle-horse  with 
sound  feet,  three  on  the  outside  and  two  on  the 
inside,  should  suffice  to  hold  a  well-fitted  shoe. 
To  preserve  the  foot  in  a  sound  state,  the  shoe 
should  be  removed  every  month.  When  the  shoe 
is  carefully  taken  off  the  sole  surface  on  which  it 
has  rested  should  be  rasped,  to  remove  any  rag¬ 
ged  edges  and  any  portions  of  adhering  nails. 
Having  for  a  month  been  protected  from  the 
wear  to  which  the  exposed  portions  of  the  foot 
are  subjected,  it  will  probably  have  grown  con¬ 
siderably,  and,  in  a  stout  hoof,  will  require  to  be 
cut  down  with  the  knife,  especially  toward  the  toe. 
Except  in  very  strong  feet,  and  in  farm-horses 
working  on  soft  land,  the  surface  of  the  sole  un¬ 
covered  by  the  shoe  seldom  requires  to  be  cut. 
It  is  the  natural  protection  of  the  internal  delicate 
parts,  and  must  be  preferable  to  the  leather  and 
pads  often  artificially  substituted  for  it .  The  bars 
must  likewise  remain  untouched,  for  they  are  of 
great  service  in  supporting  weight ;  while  the 
tough,  elastic  frog  must  be  scrupulously  preserved 
from  the  destructive  attacks  of  the  knife,  and 
allowed  uninjured  to  fulfill  its  functions  as  an 
insensible  pad,  obviating  concussion  and  sup¬ 
porting  weight.  When  the  shoe  is  nailed  and 
firmly  clinched,  the  rasp  may  be  lightly  run  round 
the  lower  margin  of  the  crust  just  where  it  meets 
the  shoe,  to  smooth  down  any  irregularities,  but 
all  further  use  of  the  rasp  must  be  interdicted. 
In  the  most  approved  methods  of  shoeing,  the  shoe 
is  applied  cold,  and  the  hoof  is  not  touched  by 
heat.  To  prevent  the  hoof  becoming  too  dry  and 
hard,  it  is  advisable,  especially  in  roadsters,  and 
in  hot  weather,  to  stop  the  feet  several  times  a 
week  with  a  mixture  of  equal  weights  of  lard,  tar, 
bees-wax,  and  honey,  with  about  one-fourth  part 
of  glycerine,  melted  together,  well  stirred,  and 
preserved  in  pots  for  use. 

Sho'Ja,  the  white  pith  of  the  leguminous  plant 
TEschynamene  asp  era ,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies. 
With  this  substance,  which  is  exceedingly  light, 


the  natives  of  India  make  a  great  variety  of  useful 
articles,  especially  hats,  which  are  light  and  cool. 

Shot  is  the  term  applied  to  all  solid  balls  fired 
from  any  sort  of  firearms;  those  for  cannon  and 
carronades  being  of  iron,  those  for  small  arms,  of 
lead.  The  latter  are  known  as  bullets  and  small- 
shot. 

Shoulder-joint,  The,  is  a  ball-and-socket 
joint.  The  bones  entering  into  its  composition 
are  the  humerus  or  arm-bone,  and  the  scapula  or 
shoulder-blade,  the  large  globular  head  of  the 
former  being  received  into  the  shallow  glenoid 
cavity  of  the  latter,  an  arrangement  by  which 
extreme  freedom  of  motion  is  obtained,  while  the 
apparent  insecurity  of  the  joint  is  guarded  against 
by  the  strong  ligaments  and  tendons  which  sur¬ 
round  it,  and  above  by  the  arched  vault  formed 


The  Left  Shoulder-joint  and  its  Connections. 

1,  the  clavicle  or  collar-bone;  2,  the  acromion  process;  3, 
the  coracoid  process;  4,  the  capsular  ligament;  5,  the 
coraco-humeral  ligament;  6,  the  tendons  of  the  biceps 
muscle;  7,  the  shaft  of  the  humerus  or  arm-bone;  8,  the 
greater  tuberosity  of  the  humerus;  9,  the  lesser  tuber¬ 
osity;  10,  the  neck  of  the  scapula;  11,  anterior  surface 
of  the  scapula. 

by  the  under  surface  of  the  acromion  and  coracoid 
processes.  The  articular  surfaces  are  covered 
with  cartilage,  and  there  is  a  synovial  membrane 
which  lines  the  interior  of  the  joint.  The  most 
important  connecting  medium  between  the  two 
bones  is  the  capsular  ligament,  which  is  a  fibrinous 
expansion  embracing  the  margin  of  the  glenoid 
cavity  above,  while  it  is  prolonged  upon  the 
tuberosities  of  the  humerus  below.  From  its 
relations  with  the  surrounding  muscles,  the  liga¬ 
ment  derives  much  of  its  strength.  The  slioulder- 


Disloeation  of  the  Shoulder-joint  downward. 

1,  the  clavicle;  2.  the  acromion  process;  3,  the  coracoid 
process;  4,  the  glenoid  cavity;  5,  the  head  of  the 
humerus  lying  in  the  axilla. 

joint  exhibits  the  following  varieties  of  motion: 
flexion,  to  a  great  extent;  extension,  in  a  much 
more  limited  degree;  adduction,  in  an  oblique 
direction,  forward  and  inward;  abduction  very 
freely;  circumduction;  and  rotation  slightly. 

SIlOY'eler  ( Rhynchaspis ),  a  genus  of  ducks  of 
the  section  having  no  lobe  or  pendent  membrane 
on  the  hind  toe,  and  remarkable  for  the  expansion 
of  the  end  of  the  mandibles  in  adult  birds,  par¬ 
ticularly  of  the  upper  mandible.  The  legs  are 
placed  near  the  center  of  the  body,  so  that  these 


SHREVEPORT. 


647 


SIGHT. 


Thirds  walk  much  more  easily  than  many  of  the 
ducks.  The  common  shoveler  (R.  clypeata)  is 
smaller  than  the  wild  duck,  hut  rather  larger 


Shoveler.  Female  and  Male  (Ii/njnchaspis  clypeata) . 


than  the  widgeon.  The  shoveler  is  a  winter 
visitant  of  Britain,  but  not  very  common.  A  few 
remain  all  the  year.  It  is  widely  distributed 
over  this  country  and  Europe. 

Shreveport,  an  important  city  and  cotton 
market,  and  the  parish  seat  of  Caddo  parish,  La. 
Pop.,  11,200. 

Shrew  ( Sorex ),  a  genus  of  small  quadrupeds  of 
the  family  Sorecidie.  They  are  often  popularly 


Common  Shrew  (Sorex  vulgaris). 


confounded  with  mice  and  rats,  but  are  really 
different,  having  insectivorous  and  not  rodent 
teeth. 

Shrew  Mole  ( Scalops ),  a  genus  of  insectivorous 
mammalia,  of  the  family  Talpidce,  and  nearly 
allied  to  the  moles. 

Shrike,  or  Butcher-bird  (Lanius),  a  genus  of 
birds  of  the  family  Lnniadce,  approaching  more 
nearly  in  character  to  the  Falconidce  than  any 
other  of  that  family;  having  a  ’short,  thick,  anil 
compressed  bill,  the  upper  mandible  curved, 
hooked  at  the  tip,  and  furnished  with  a  prominent 
tooth  the  base  of  the  bill  beset  with  hairs,  which 
point  forward. 

Shrimp  ( Crangon ),  a  genus  of  crustaceans,  of 
the  order  Decapoda,  sub-order  Macroura,  and 
family  Crangonidce,  allied  to  lobsters,  crayfish, 
and  prawns.  It  is  abundant  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  is  highly  valued  as  an  article  of  food. 

Shrouds  are  strong  ropes  passing  from  the  heads 
of  the  lower  masts  in  a  ship  to  the  chains  or  chan¬ 
nels  on  her  sides,  for  the  purpose  of  affording 
lateral  support.  They  are  crossed  by  thinner 
ropes,  called  ratlines,  to  form  steps  or  ladders, 
The  top  mast  shrouds  in  shi  p  rigged  vessels  are  sim¬ 
ilar,  except  that  they  terminate  in  a  row  of  dead- 
eyes  on  the  outside  of  the  tops. 

Shrove 'tide  (Ang.-Sax.  serif  an,  to  shive,  to 
confess)  literally  means,  confession-time,  and  is 
the  name  given  to  the  days  immediately  preceding 
Ash  Wednesday,  which,  asindeed  the  whole  period 
after  Septuagesima  Sunday  appears  to  have  been, 
were  anciently  days  of  preparation  for  the  peniten¬ 
tial  time  of  Lent;  the  chief  part  of  which  prepara¬ 
tion  consisted  in  receiving  the  sacrament  of 
penance,  i.  e.,  in  being  shriven,  or  confessing.  In 
the  modern  discipline  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  a  traceof  this  is  still  preserved,  as, in  many 
countries,  the  time  of  the  confession,  which  pre¬ 
cedes  the  paschal  or  Easter  communion,  com¬ 
mences  from  Shrovetide. 

Shrubs,  plants  with  woody  stem  and  branches 
like  trees,  but  of  smaller  size,  not  generally  ex¬ 
ceeding  20  feet  in  height,  and  branching  near  the 
root .  so  as  to  have  no  main  stem  of  considerable 
height. 


Sial'ogogues  are  substances  which,  by  local 
stimulating  action,  increase  the  secretion  of  saliva. 
Amongst  the  substances  which  thus  act  as  direct 
stimulants  to  the  salivary  glands,  we  may  espe¬ 
cially  mention  horse-radish  root,  mezereon  bark, 
aud  pellitory  root. 

Siam'  (native  name  Thai  =  the  free,  or  Muang 
Thai  —  the  Kingdom  of  the  Free),  the  chief  State 
of  Indo-Cliina,  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the 
Gulf  of  Siam  and  the  Malay  Peninsula.  On  the 
west,  north,  and  east,  the  frontier-line  is  ill-defined 
and  fluctuating,  owing  to  many  tribes  being  only 
partially  under  subjection,  and  to  the  constant 
wars  of  aggrandizement  between  Siam  and  the 
Malayan  and  Burmese  races  on  the  west,  and  the 
Cambodian  and  Cochin-Cliinese  races  on  the  east. 
According  to  a  recent  account,  the  country  lies  in 
latitude  4° — 2 19  N. ,  longitude  96° — 102p  E ;  is  1 , 200 
miles  in  length,  and  about  350  miles  in  extreme 
breadth.  Area  from  190,000  to  290,000  square 
miles.  Pop.  from  6,000,000  to  10,000,000. 

Siamese'  Twins,  a  name  given  to  two  youths, 
Eng  and  Chang,  born  of  Chinese  parents  in  Siam, 
in  1811,  having  their  bodies  united  by  a  band  of 
flesb,  stretching  from  the  end  of  one  breast-bone 
to  the  same  place  in  the  opposite  twin.  The 
survival  to  advanced  life  of  such  a  lusus  natures 
makes  this  one  of  the  most  remarkable  cases  on 
record.  They  married  two  sisters,  and  they  died 
within  a  few  hours  of  each  other,  in  1874. 

Sibe'ria,  a  vast  territory  in  Northern  Asia, 
belonging  to  Russia.  The  name  is  generally 
applied  to  all  the  Russian  possessions  in  Asia, 
with  the  exception  of  the  Transcaucasian  and 
Armenian  provinces.  Siberia  so  defined  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean;  on 
the  east  by  the  seas  of  Kamtchatka,  Okhotsk,  and 
Japan,  all  of  them  arms  of  the  Pacific  Ocean;  on 
the  west  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  Ural  river,  and 
Caspian  Sea.  The  southern  boundary  is  made  to 
include  the  recent  Russian  acquisitions  in 
Turkestan,  runs  from  Lake  Issyk  Kul  north- 
northeast,  then  eastward  by  Kialita  to  the  Argun 
river,  which  it  follows  to  the  Amur;  the  latter  it 
follows  to  longitude  135°  E.,  where  it  trends  in  a 
south-southwest  direction,  ascending  the  Usuri 
tributary  for  200  miles,  and  then  runs  straight  to 
the  sea  at  the  northern  frontier  of  Corea.  With 
Central  Asia,  but  excluding  the  Caucasus,  the 
total  area  of  Russian  Asia  is  nearly  6,000,000 
square  miles,  aud  the  pop.,  8,500,000. 

Sibley,  the  county  seat  of  Osceola  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  1,759. 

Sib'yl  (Gr.  2iSvX\a),  the  name  anciently 
given  to  several  prophetic  women,  whose  history 
has  come  down  to  us  in  a  wholly  mystical  form. 
In  general,  ten  are  reckoned — viz.,  the  Babylonian, 
the  Libyan,  the  Delphian,  the  Cimmerian,  the 
Erythnean,  the  Samian,  the  Cumaean,  the  Trojan 
Or  Hellespontian,  the  Phrygian,  and  the  Tibur- 
tine.  Of  these,  by  far  the  most  celebrated  is  the 
Cumaean.  She  figures  prominently  in  the  sixth 
book  of  Virgil’s  jEneul,  as  the  conductor  of  the 
poet  into  the  realm  of  the  shades.  The  Roman 
legend  concerning  her  (as  recorded  by  Livy)  is, 
that  she  came  from  the  East,  and  appearing  before 
KingTarquin  the  Proud,  offered  him  nine  books 
for  sale.  The  price  demanded  appeared  to  the 
monarch  exorbitant,  and  he  refused  to  purchase 
them.  She  then  went  away,  destroyed  three,  and 
returning,  asked  as  much  for  the  remaining  six 
as  for  the  nine.  This  was  again  refused,  where¬ 
upon  she  destroyed  other  three,  and  once  more 
offered  to  sell  him  the  rest,  but  without  any  abate¬ 
ment  in  the  original  price.  Tarquin  was  struck 
by  her  pertinacity,  and  bought  the  books,  which 
were  found  to  contain  advices  regarding  the 
religion  and  policy  of  the  Romans.  They  were 
preserved  in  a  subterranean  chamber  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  on  the  Capitoline. 

Sida,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Malvacem,  containing  a  large  number  of  species, 
annual  and  perennial  herbaceous  plants  and 
shrubs,  mostly  natives  of  warm  climates,  and 
widely  diffused. 

Siddons,  Mits.  Saraii,  an  English  tragedienne, 
was  born  at  Brecon,  in  South  Wales,  on  July  5, 
1755,  and  died  June  8,  1831 .  As  a  tragic  actress, 
Mrs.  Siddons  has  probably  never  been  equaled. 

Side'real  Clock,  a  clock  so  regulated  as  to 
indicate  sidereal  time.  The  sidereal  clock  is  a 
most  important  aid  to  the  practical  astronomer, 


and  is  one  of  the  indispensable  instruments  of  an 
observatory. 

Siderox'ylon,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Sajiolacece,  having  evergreen  leaves  and 
axillary  clusters  of  flowers,  natives  of  warm 
climates,  and  very  widely  distributed. 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  soldier,  courtier,  poet, 
and  prose  writer,  the  son  of  Sir  Henry  Sidney, 
and  Mary,  sister  to  Robert  Dudley,  the  favorite 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  was  born  at  Penshurst,  in 
Kent,  Nov.  29,  1554.  As  a  courtier,  his  success 
was  great ;  and  with  Queen  Elizabeth  he  became, 
and  continued  while  he  lived,  a  special  favorite. 
At  the  Battle  of  Zutphen,  in  Gelderland,  he 
received  a  musket-shot  in  the  thigh,  and  after 
lingering  for  some  days  in  great  suffering,  he 
died  at  Arnheim  on  Oct.  7,  1586,  in  the  thirty- 
third  year  of  his  age.  The  love  and  admiration 
which  Sidney  won  from  his  contemporaries  was 
mainly  a  tribute  to  the  singular  beauty  of  his 
character. 

Sidney,  the  county  seat  of  Cheyenne  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Sidney,  the  county  seat  of  Fremont  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Sidney,  the  county  seat  of  Shelby  county,  Ohio. 
Pop.,  5,050. 

Sier'ra  Ma'dre,  a  name  given  to  central  por¬ 
tions  of  the  great  chain  of  Cordilleras  or  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  Mexico,  from  latitude  19°  to  25° 
N.,  aud  in  New  Mexico,  to  the  great  western 
range,  from  latitude  34°  to  38°  N. 

Sierra  Nera'da,a  range  of  mountains  in  Cali¬ 
fornia,  forming  a  portion  of  its  eastern  boundary, 
extends  from  northwest  to  southeast  450  miles, 
and  is  united  to  the  coast-range,  which  runs 
parallel  with  the  Pacific,  by  Mount  San  Bernar¬ 
dino. 

Sierra  Neva'da  (Snowy  Range),  a  mountain- 
range  of  Spain  in  Andalusia,  extending  east  from 
Padul,  twelve  miles  south  of  Granada,  to  the 
frontiers  of  the  modern  Province  of  Almeria,  is 
60  miles  in  length,  from  20  to  30  miles  in  breadth; 
and  covers  an  area  of  upward  of  1,000  square 
miles. 

Sight,  Defects  of.  Short-sight,  near-sight,  or 
myopia, is  often  popularly  confounded  with  dim  or 
weak  sight;  but  in  reality,  short-sight  applies 
exclusively  to  the  range  and  not  to  the  power  of 
sight,  and  a  short-sighted  person  may  possess 
the  acutest  power  of  vision  for  near  objects. 
In  this  affection,  the  rays  which  ought  to  come 
to  a  focus  upon  the  retina  converge  to  a  point 
more  or  less  in  front  of  it.  The  cause  of  this 
defect  may  arise  from  over-convexity  of  the 
cornea  or  the  lens,  from  undue  density  or  abun¬ 
dance  of  the  humors  of  the  eye,  from  elonga¬ 
tion  of  the  globe  in  its  antero-posterior  diameter, 
or  from  an  imperfect  power  of  the  eye  to  adjust 
itself  to  objects  at  various  distances.  In  the 
treatment  of  myopia  the  principal  objects  are; 
To  prevent  its  further  development  and  the 
occurrence  of  secondary  disturbances;  and  by 
means  of  suitable  glasses,  to  render  the  use  of 
the  myopic  eye  easier  and  safer.  To  effect,  if 
possible,  the  first  object,  the  patient  must  look 
much  at  a  distance,  and  spectacles  must  be 
provided  which  render  vision  distinct  at  from 
sixteen  to  eighteen  inches.  Moreover,  it  is  desira¬ 
ble  that  at  intervals  of  a  half  hour  work  should 
be  discontinued  for  a  couple  of  minutes,  and 
no  working  in  a  stooping  position  should  be 
permitted.  The  patient  should  read  with  the 
book  in  the  hand,  and  in  writing  should  use  a 
high  and  sloping  desk.  The  optical  remedy  for 
short-sight  obviously  consists  in  concave  glasses 
of  a  focus  suited  to  the  individual  case.  Long- 
sight  and  presbyopia  are  usually  considered  as 
synonymous  terms.  But  the  term  presbyopia  should 
be  restricted  to  the  condition  in  which,  as  the  result 
of  the  increase  of  years,  the  range  of  accommo¬ 
dation  is  diminished,  and  the  vision  of  near 
objects  is  interfered  with.  In  ordinary  pres¬ 
byopia,  the  defect  is  at  once  remedied  by  the 
use  of  glasses  of  low  convex  power,  as  of  thirty 
or  twenty-four  inches  focus,  which  should, 
however,  only  be  worn  during  reading  and  writ¬ 
ing,  and  not  constantly.  Although  the  improper 
use  of  convex  glasses  is  not  by  any  means  so 
dangerous  as  the  inconsiderate  use  of  concave 
glasses,  the  advice  of  a  good  oculist  regarding 
the  choice  of  spectacles  should  be  obtained. 


SIGILLARIA. 


648 


SITKA. 


Double  vision,  or  diplopia,  is  of  two  kinds.  It 
may  arise  from  a  want  of  harmony  in  the 
movements  of  the  two  eyes,  the  vision  of  each 
eye  singly  being  perfect;  or  there  may  be  double 
vision  with  one  eye  only.  The  first  form  may 
occur  in  cases  of  squinting,  or  in  cases  of  pa¬ 
ralysis  of  one  or  more  of  the  muscles  of  the 
orbit.  In  cases  of  squinting,  the  vision  of  the 
most  distorted  eye  is  almost  always  imperfect; 
and  impressions  on  the  two  retinae  are  similar 
in  kind  but  dissimilar  in  form.  Night-blindness, 
or  hemeralopia,  is  a  peculiar  form  of  inter¬ 
mittent  blindness,  the  subjects  of  which  see  per¬ 
fectly  with  an  ordinary  light,  but  become  entirely 
and  almost  instantaneously  blind  as  soon  as 
twilight  commences.  It  is  seldom  met  with 
except  among  sailors  just  returned  from  tropical 
regions.  All  that  suggests  itself  in  the  way  of 
treatment  is  to  protect  the  eyes  from  strong 
light  during  the  day,  and  to  prescribe  quinine 
and  a  nourishing  mixed  diet.  Snow-blindness 
must  be  regarded  as  allied  to  the  preceding 
affection. 

Sigilla'rin,  a  genus  of  fossil  plants  which  are 
of  importance  because  of  their  singular  structure, 
and  their  remarkable  abundance  in  the  coal  meas¬ 
ures.  They  seem  to  have  contributed  more  than 
any  other  genus  of  plants  to  the  formation  of 
coal. 

Sigismund,  surnsmed  the  Great,  King  of 
Poland,  the  youngest  son  of  Casimir  IV.,  was 
born  at  Kozienice,  1467,  and  succeeded  to  the 
Kingdom  of  Poland  on  December  8th  of  the  same 
year.  He  died  April  1,  1548. 

Signature,  in  Printing,  denotes  the  letters  or 
figures  which  are  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the  first 
page  of  each  sheet  of  a  book,  to  facilitate  the 
arrangement  of  the  several  sheets  in  the  volume. 

Sigourney,  Mrs.  Lydia  Huntley  (Huntley 
being  her  maiden  name),  American  author  and 
poet,  was  born  at  Norwich,  Conn.,  in  1791  and 
died  June,  1865. 

Sigourney,  the  county  seat  of  Keokuk  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  2,100. 

Sikhs.  The  term  Sikh,  a  corruption  of  the 
Sanskrit  s'ishya,  signifying  disciple  is  applied  to 
a  community  of  wliicli  the  Punjab,  in  Northern 
India,  constitutes,  substantially,  the  confines. 

Sikh  Wars,  two  brief  but  desperate  contests 
waged  between  the  British  power  in  India  and 
the  Sikhs  in  1845-1846,  1848-1 "49,  which  re¬ 
sulted  in  the  destruction  of  the  latter  as  an  inde¬ 
pendent  nation. 

Site 'sia,  a  province  of  the  Kingdom  of  Prus¬ 
sia,  included  in  the  limits  of  the  German  Empire, 
lies  south  of  the  Provinces  of  Brandenburg  and 
Posen,  and  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Polish 
Provinces  of  Russia  and  Austria,  and  on  the 
south  and  west  by  the  Austrian  Provinces  of 
Silesia  and  Bohemia,  and  the  Kingdom  of  Sax¬ 
ony.  It  is  divided  into  three  governments: 
Liegnitz,  Breslau,  and  Oppeln,  and  these,  again, 
are  subdivided  into  circles.  Area,  15,666  square 
miles;  pop.  (1880),  4,007,925. 

Si 'lex  (Lat.  flint)  a  generic  name  given  by 
some  mineralogists  to  all  those  minerals  of  which 
silica  is  the  principal  ingredient. 

Sil  'icon,  or  Sili'cium  (symbol  Si,  eq.,  28  sp. 
gr.  2.49),  is  one  of  the  non-metallie  elements. 
It  may  be  obtained  in  three  different  forms — viz., 
the  amorphous,  the  graphitoid,  and  the  crystal¬ 
line.  It  is  the  first  of  these,  the  amorphous  sili¬ 
con,  which  is  obtained  by  the  processes  in  com¬ 
mon  use,  the  second  and  third  being  obtained 
from  this  first  modification. 

Silk  and  Silkworm.  The  name  silk  is  de¬ 
rived  by  the  not  unusual  substitution  of  l  for  r, 
from  Lat.  sericum  (Gr.  GepiKov,  serikori),  so 
called  as  coming  from  the  country  of  the  Seres  or 
Chinese.  The  silkworm  is  the  caterpillar  of  the 
silkworm  moth,  of  which  there  are  numerous 
species  belonging  to  the  genus  ljnnbyx.  The 
most  important  is  the  common  silkworm  ( Bombyx 
mori ),  a  native  of  the  northern  provinces  of 
China.  The  perfect  insect  is  about  an  inch  in 
length,  the  female  rather  larger  than  the  male; 
the  wings  meeting  like  the  sides  of  a  roof;  the 
color  whitish,  with  a  broad,  pale  brown  bar  across 
the  upper  wings.  The  females  generally  die  soon 
after  they  have  laid  their  eggs,  and  the  males  do 
not  survive  much  longer.  The  eggs  are  numer¬ 
ous,  about  the  size  of  a  pin’s  head,  not  attached 


together,  but  fastened  to  the  surface  on  which 
they  are  laid.  It  is  an  important  factor  in  com- 


Silkworm  Moth  (Bombyx  mori),  in  its  various  stages. 

merce,  furnishing  the  fiber  from  which  silk  is 
made. 

Silk'worm  Gilt,  a  material  used  by  anglers  for 
dressing  the  hook-end  of  the  fishing-line.  It  is 
prepared  from  the  silkworm  at  the  period  when  it 
is  just  about  to  spin,  and  the  sericteria  or  silk 
vessels  are  distended  with  the  secretion.  The 
worms  are  immersed  for  twelve  or  fourteen  hours 
in  strong  vinegar,  and  then  taken  separately,  and 
pulled  in  two  very  gently,  and  the  skilled  operator 
draws  out  the  shreds,  which,  when  dried,  are  ready 
for  use. 

Sillim an,  Benjamin,  American  physicist,  was 
born  at  North  Strafford  (now  Trumbull),  Conn., 
Aug.  8,  1779,  and  died  in  November,  1864. 

Silu'rian  Rocks,  a  large  division  of  the  Palae¬ 
ozoic  rocks  between  the  old  red  sandstone  and  the 
Cambrian  strata.  The  Silurian  system  contains 
an  enormous  thickness  of  rocks,  nearly  30,000  feet, 
according  to  some  estimates,  the  absolute  thick¬ 
ness  being  greatly  increased  by  immense  beds  of 
interst ratified  igneous  rocks. 

Silu'ridte,  a  family  of  malacopterous  fishes, 
divided  into  many  genera,  and  including  a  great 
number  of  species,  mostly  inhabitants  of  the  lakes 
and  rivers  of  warm  countries. 

Silver(symbol  Ag,  equiv.  108,  sp.  gr  10.53),  a 
precious  metal,  is  harder  than  gold,  but  softer  than 
copper,  and  is  one  of  the  most  ductile  of  the  metals. 
It  is  malleable,  may  be  hammered  into  very  thin 
leaves,  and  may  be  drawn  out  into  very  fine  wire, 
the  thinnest  silver-leaf  having  a  thickness  of  only 
roo’ono  of  an  inch,  and  one  grain  of  the  metal  being 
capable  of  yielding  400  feet  of  wire.  It  possesses  a 
high  degree  of  tenacity,  a  wire  with  a  diameter  of 

of  an  inch  being  able  to  support  a  weight  of 
nearly  188  pounds.  It  requires  a  heat  of  1,873"  E. 
to  fuse  it,  and,  on  cooling,  expands  at  the  moment 
of  solidification.  Silver,  like  gold,  has  been  known 
and  prized  from  the  earliest  ages.  The  silver 
mines  of  Mexico  were,  until  recently,  the  richest 
known.  Their  estimated  annual  yield  is  about 
1,600,000  lbs.  troy  of  the  pure  metal.  Until  the 
remarkable  discoveries  of  silver  ore  in  Nevada  and 
adjoining  States  in  1859  and  1860,  Chili  and  Peru 
had  long  stood  next  to  Mexico  in  their  yield,  each 
furnishing  about  one-sixth  of  the  produce  of  that 
country.  Bolivia  is  also  rich  in  silver;  but  the 
recent  extraordinary  development  of  silver  mining 
in  the  Western  States  and  Territories  appears  to 
have  raised  their  produce  to  at  least  a  par  with 
that  of  Mexico,  so  that  these  two  countries  now 
furnish  three-fourths  of  all  the  silver  obtained  in 
the  world. 

Silver  City,  the  county  seat  of  Grant  county, 
N.  M.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Silver  City,  the  county  seat  of  Owyhee  county, 
Idaho.  Pop.,  625. 

Silvertou,  the  county  seat  of  San  Juan  county, 
Colo.  Pop.,  1,550. 

Simbirsk a  government  of  Russia,  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Volga,  and  on  tiie  west  by  the 
Governments  of  Nijni-Novgorod  and  Penza.  Area, 
19,050  square  miles;  pop.  (1870),  1,205,881. 

Simbirsk,  capital  of  the  Russian  government 
of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Volga, 
220  miles  southeast  of  Nijni-Novgorod.  Pop. 
(1867),  24,607. 

Simms,  William  Gilmore,  American  author, 
was  born  at  Charleston,  S.  C.,  April  17,  1806.  Of 
his  various  and  voluminous  works,  some  are  of 
high  excellence.  He  died  in  1870. 

Simoom'  (otherwise  written  Simoun,  Semoun, 
Samoun,  Samun),  or  Sambuli,  a  name  derived 
from  the  Arabic  samina,  signifying  hot,  poison¬ 


ous;  or  generally  whatever  is  disagreeable  or  dan¬ 
gerous,  and  applied  to  the  hot  suffocating  winds 
which  are  peculiar  to  the  hot,  sandy  deserts  of 
Africa  and  Western  Asia. 

Sim'plon  (It al .  Sempione ),  a  famous  mountain 
of  Switzerland,  one  of  the  Lepontine  Alps,  in  the- 
east  of  the  Canton  of  Valais,  and  near  the  Pied¬ 
montese  frontier,  rises  to  the  height  of  11,124 
feet. 

Si'nai,  the  mount  on  which,  according  to  the 
Pentateuch,  God  announced  to  Moses  the  Ten 
Commandments  and  the  other  laws  by  which  the 
Israelites  were  to  be  bound. 

Singapore',  one  of  the  Straits  Settlements, 
belonging  to  Great  Britain,  consists  of  an  island 
lying  off  the  south  extremity  of  the  Peninsula  of 
Malacca,  in  latitude  about  1°  17'  N.,  longitude 
103°  50'  E.,  and  having  a  city  of  the  same  name 
on  its  south  side.  The  island  is  25  miles  long, 
and  from  14  to  15  broad;  area,  224  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  139,000. 

Sing  Sing,  a  town  of  Westchester,  N.  Y. 
Pop.,  6,800.  The  New  York  State  prison  is  situ¬ 
ated  here,  and  United  States  Government  civil 
convicts  are  sent  here  for  punishment. 

Si  'mis  (Lat.  a  bend  or  hollow)  has  two  signifi¬ 
cations  in  anatomy,  and  one  in  surgery.  "The 
cells  or  cavities,  contained  in  certain  bones — as 


Siphon. 


the  frontal,  ethmoid,  sphenoid,  and  superior  max¬ 
illary — receive  this  designation.  In  surgery,  the 
term  sinus  is  nearly  equivalent  to  fistula. 

Sioux,  a  tribe  of  North  American  Indians, 
calling  themselves  also  Dakotas,  inhabiting  the 
two  Dakotas.  Formerly  they  numbered  30,000, 
and  counted  7,000  warriors;  at  present  their 
whole  number  is  much  less. 

Sioux  City,  a  growing  and  important  city  in 
Woodbury  county,  Iowa,  Pop.,  25,500.  It  is 
the  center  of  one  of  the  richest  sections  of  country 
in  the  great  Northwest. 

Sioux  Falls,  a  growing  town  and  the  county 
seat  of  Minnehaha  county,  S.  Dak.  Pop.,  8,100. 

Si'plion  is  a  tube  bent  so  that  the  two  legs  are 
either  parallel,  or  incline  at  an  acute  angle,  and 
is  employed  to  draw  off 
liquids  from  vessels  which 
it  is  not  convenient  or  desir¬ 
able  to  move.  If  the  end  of 
the  short  leg  of  a  siphon  be 
plunged  into  the  liquid, 
and  the  other  leg  be  suf¬ 
fered  to  hang  outside  the 
vessel,  then,  whenever  the 
siphon  is  exhausted  of  air, 

(a  process  which  can  be 
performed  by  suction  by 
the  mouth  or  a  pump,  or / 
by  filling  the  tube  with 
the  liquid  it  is  employed  A-B,  long  leg  of  siphon; 
to  decant,  and  keeping  it  B-C.  short  leg  of  siphon; 
so  filled  till  it  is  placed  in  D’  surface  of  ^Uld- 
its  proper  position),  the  liquid  will  at  once  flow 
out  of  the  vessel  through  the  tube,  and  continue 
to  do  so  either  till  it  falls  below  the  level  of  the 
outside  end,  or  till  the  inside  end  ceases  to  be 
immersed. 

Siplionosto'mata,  a  large  group  of  gasterop- 
odous  mollusks,  of  the  order  1‘eclinibran chinta, 
having  the  mantle  prolonged  into  a  siphon,  by 
which  the  water  enters  the  gill-chamber. 

Sip'unculus, agenus of  Kchinodermntn ,  giving 
its  name  to  a  family,  Sipunculacctr,  and  to  an 
order,  ISipunculidat. 

Si'ren,  agenus  of  perennibrancliiate  batrachia. 
of  eel-like  form,  but  having  two  small  weak 
limbs  on  the  fore  part  of  the  body. 

Si 'reus  (Gr.  Geippvei,  seirenes,  the  entanglers, 
probably  from  seiva,  a  cord  or  string),  figure  in 
Greek  Mythology  as  young  maidens,  who  sat  on 
the  shores  of  a  certain  island  or  promontory  near 
the  southwestern  coast  of  Italy,  and  sang  with 
bewitching  sweetness  songs  that  allured  the  pass¬ 
ing  sailor  to  draw  near,  but  only  to  meet  with 
death. 

Sir'ius,  otherwise  called  Canicula, or  the  Dog- 
star,  is  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  the  brightest 
in  the  heavens,  and  is  situated  in  the  constellation 
of  Canis  Major,  or  the  Great  Dog.  It  is  about 
123,000,000,000  miles  distant  from  the  earth. 

Sit'ka,  or  New  Archangel,  the  principal  town 
in  the  Territory  of  Alaska,  is  on  the  west  coast 
of  the  Island  of  Sitka  or  Baranov,  the  largest 


SIXTUS. 


649 


SMALLPOX. 


island  in  the  group  known  as  George  III. ’s  Archi¬ 
pelago.  Latitude  57°  3'  N.,  longitude  135°  18' 
W.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Sixtus,  the  name  of  five  Popes,  of  whom  two 
call  for  brief  notice,  Sixtus  IV.  and  Sixtus  V. 
The  former  (originally  named  Francesco  della 
Rovere),  was  born  July  22,  1414.  On  the  death 
of  Paul  II.  in  1471,  Rovere  was  elected  to  the 
Roman  see.  He  died  Aug.  13, 1484. — Sixtus  V., 
in  many  respects  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  modern  occupants  of  the  Roman  see,  origin¬ 
ally  named  Felice  Peretti,  was  born  (Dec.  13, 
1521)  near  Montalto.  He  was  elected  Pope  on 
the  death  of  Gregory  XIII.  in  1585,  and  died  in 
1598. 

Ska'gen,  Cape,  or  The  Skaw,  the  most  north¬ 
erly  point  of  Jutland,  Denmark.  On  it  is  built 
a  light-house  of  stone,  67  feet  high,  the  latitude 
of  which  is  57°  43'  8"  N.,  longitude  10°  36'  5" 
E.;  and  near  it  is  a  small  town  of  1,400  inhabit¬ 
ants. 


Skager-Rack  (Crooked  Strait  of  Skagen), 
an  arm  of  the  North  Sea  lying  between  Denmark 
and  Norway,  and  communicating  with  the  Catte- 
gat,  is  about  150  miles  long  from  west-southwest 
to  east-northeast,  and  80  miles  broad. 

Skate,  the  popular  name  of  several  species  of 
Ray. 

Skel'eton  (Gr  6k  t Aero?,  skeletos,  dry)  is  the 
term  applied  in  Anatomy  to  designate  the  hard 
parts  or  framework  of  animals. 

Skel'ligs,  The,  three  rocky  islands  on  the 
west  coast  of  Ireland,  about  eight  miles  west  of 
Bolus  Head,  county  Kerry,  in  longitude  10°  32' 
AV.  The  lights  on  the  Great  Skellig  are  the  first 
visible  to  ships  crossing  the  Atlantic. 

Skin.  In  the  skin,  the  hard  and  thick  epithe¬ 
lium  is  termed  cuticle  or  epidermis,  and  the  true 
skin  below  it  is  termed  the  derma  or  cutis  vera, 
and  is  chiefly  formed  of  modified  and  very  dense 
connective  (or  areolar  or  cellular) 
tissue.  The  deep  layer  of  the 
skin  consists  of  connective  tissue, 
in  which  both  the  white  and 
yellow  fibrous  elements  are  con¬ 
siderably  modified  as  to  the  pro¬ 
portions  in  which  they  occur, 
and  smooth  muscles  are  present 
in  no  inconsiderable  quantity  in 
some  parts  of  the  skin.  Where 
great  extensibility,  with  elasticity 
is  required,  the  yellow  (elastic) 
element  predominates;  and  where 
strength  and  resistance  are 
specially  required,  as  in  the  sole  'i({0 
of  the  foot,  the  cutis  is  chiefly 
composed  of  a  dense  interweav-  j 
ing  of  the  white  (inelastic)  ele-  • 
meat.  The  thicknessand  strength  i 
of  this  layer  differ  greatly  in  : 
different  parts,  according  to  the 
amount  of  resistance  required  d 
against  pressure.  The  skin  is 
thicker  on  the  hinder  surface  of 
the  body  than  in  front,  and  on  „T  . 
the  outer  than  on  the  inner  sides  theCSki^f°the 
of  the  limbs.  It  is  on  the  ex-  Sole  of  Foot, 
ternal  surface  of  the  cutis  that  a,  cuticle;  b,  papil- 
the  tactile  papilla,  or  true  organs  lary  structure;  c, 
of  touch,  are  developed.  The 
thickness  of  the  true  skin  varies 
from  of  a  line  to  li  lines. 

In  its  chemical  characters,  it 
agrees  with  those  of  the  con¬ 
nective  tissue,  of  which  it  is 
principally  composed.  Arteries 
from  the  subcutaneous  connect¬ 
ive  tissue  freely  enter  into  the 
structure  of  the  skin,  and  are 
distributed  to  the  fat-lobules,  the  sudoriparous 
and  sebaceous  glands,  the  hair  follicles,  the 
papilla;,  etc.  In  these  several  parts,  they  termin¬ 
ate  in  a  close  network  of  capillaries. 

Skowhegan,  the  county  seat  of  Somerset 
county,  Maine.  Pop.,  4,600. 

Skull.  The  skull  is  divided  into  two  parts, 
the  cranium  and  the  face.  In  human  anatomy, 
it  is  customary  to  describe  the  former  as  consist¬ 
ing  of  eight,  and  the  latter  of  fourteen  bones; 
the  eight  cranial  bones,  which  constitute  the 
brain-case,  being  the  occipital,  two  parietal, 


cutis  vera ,  or 
true  skin ;  d, 
sweat-gland  ly¬ 
ing  in  a  cavity 
on  the  deep  sur¬ 
face  of  the  skin, 
and  imbedded  in 
globules  of  fat. 
Its  duct  is  seen 
passing  to  the 
surface.  Magni¬ 
fied  about  thirty 
diameters. 


frontal,  two  temporal,  sphenoid,  and  ethmoid; 
while  the  fourteen  facial  bones  are  the  two  nasal, 
two  superior  maxillary,  two  lachrymal,  two 
malar,  two  palate,  two  inferior  turbinated,  vomer, 
and  inferior  maxillary.  The  bones  of  the  ear, 
the  teeth,  and  the  wormian  bones  are  not  included 
in  this  enumeration.  At  a  very  early  period  of 


1,  frontal  bone;  2.  parietal  bone;  3,  occipital  bone;  4, 

temporal  bone  (squamous  portion);  4,  temporal  bone; 

(mastoid  portion);  5,  sphenoid  bone;  6,  malar  bone; 

7,  nasal  bone;  8.  superior  maxillary  or  jaw  bone;  9, 

inferior  maxillary  or  jaw  bone. 

foetal  existence,  the  cerebrum  is  inclosed  in  a 
membranous  capsule  external  to  the  dura  mater, 
and  in  close  contact  with  it.  This  is  the  first 
rudiment  of  the  skull,  the  cerebral  portion  of 
which  is  consequently  formed  before  there  is  any 
indication  of  a  facial  part.  Soon,  however,  four 
or  five  processes  jut  from  it  on  either  side  of  the 
mesial  line,  which  grow  downward,  incline  to¬ 
ward  each  other,  and  unite  to  form  a  series  of 
inverted  arches,  from  which  the  face  is  ultimately 
developed. 

Skunk  (Mephitis),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of 
the  weasel  family  (Mustelidce).  Skunks  depend 
very  much  for  defense  against  enemies  on  an 
excessively  fetid  fluid,  which  is  secreted  by 
glands  near  the  anus;  and  when  assailed,  they 
turn  their  rump  toward  the  assailant,  elevate  the 
tail  and  discharge  this  fluid  with  considerable 
force. 

Skye,  the  largest  of  the  Scottish  Islands  after 
Lewis,  and  the  most  northerly  of  the  group 
known  as  the  Inner  Hebrides,  forms  part  of  the 
County  of  Inverness,  from  the  mainland  of  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  channel  scarcely  half  a  mile 
in  breadth  at  its  narrowest  point. 

Sky'ros,  or  Scyro,  an  island  of  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  the  largest  of  the  northern  Spo- 
rades,  twenty-five  miles  northeast  of  Euboea. 
Length,  19  miles;  area,  60  square  miles. 

Slags,  called  otherwise  Scoriae  or  Cinders,  are 
fused  compounds  of  silica  in  combination  with 
lime,  alumina,  or  other  bases;  and  result  as 
secondary  products  from  the  reduction  of  metallic 
ores. 

Slate,  or  Clay-slate  (Fr.  esclat,  a  shiver  or 
splinter),  is  a  highly  metamorphosed  argillaceous 
rock,  fine-grained  and  fissile,  and  of  a  dull  blue, 
gray,  green,  or  black  color.  It  splits  into  thin 
laminae  or  plates,  that  are  altogether  independent 
of  the  layers  of  deposit;  though  sometimes  coin¬ 
ciding  with  them,  they  more  frequently  cross 
them  at  different  angles. 

Sla  ves,  or  Slavonians,  the  general  name  of  a 
group  of  nations  belonging  to  the  Aryan  family, 
whose  settlements  extend  from  the  Elbe  to 
Kamtcliatka,  and  from  the  Frozen  Sea  to  Ragusa 
on  the  Adriatic,  the  whole  of  Eastern  Europe 
being  almost  exclusively  occupied  by  them. 

Slavo'nia,  a  province  of  Austria,  lying  east  of 
Croatia,  with  which  it  is  now  politically  united. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Drave,  on  the 
east  by  the  Danube,  on  the  south  by  the  long 
strip  of  marsh-land  known  as  the  Slavonian  Mili¬ 
tary  Frontier,  which  stretches  between  it  and 
the  Save.  Area  of  the  Kingdom  of  Croatia 
and  Slavonia,  8,840  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880), 
1,191,845. 

Sleep  of  Plants,  one  of  the  phenomena  of 
irritability  in  plants.  Light  acts  on  plants  as  a 


powerful  stimulus,  essential  to  their  active  and 
healthful  vegetation.  When  it  is  withdrawn,  the 
flowers  of  many  plants  close,  and  the  greater 
number  show  a  tendency  to  it,  while  leaves  more 
or  less  decidedly  incline  to  fold  themselves  up. 
The  leaf-stalk  also  generally  hangs  dowm  more  or 
less,  although  in  some  plants  it  is  more  erect 
during  sleep. 

Sles'vig,  a  duchy  known  till  the  fourteenth 
century  as  South  Jutland,  formed  part  of  the 
Danish  dominions  till  1864,  when  it  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the- Austrian  and  Prussian  sovereigns. 
In  terms  of  the  treaty  of  1867  it  wTas  incorpor¬ 
ated  with  Prussia.  The  pop.  in  1864  was 
406,486.  Within  its  old  recognized  limits,  it  was 
bounded  on  'he  north  by  Jutland,  on  the  east  by 
the  Little  Belt  and  the  Baltic,  on  the  west  by  the 
German  Ocean,  and  on  the  south  by  Holstein, 
from  which  it  wras  divided  by  the  Eyder  and  the 
Kiel  Canal.  The  area  was  3,492  square  miles. 

Slipped,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  of  blazon  applied 
to  a  leaf,  branch,  or  flower,  which  is  represented 
with  a  stalk,  and  torn  from  the  parent  stem. 

Sloe,  or  Sloe-tiiorn  (Prunus  spinosa)  a  shrub 
of  the  same  genus  with  the  plum,  and  perhaps 
really  of  the  same  species  with  it  and  the  bullace. 
It  is  generally  a  shrub  of  4 — 10  feet  high,  some¬ 
times  becoming  a  small  tree  of  15 — 20  feet. 

Sloop  is  a  one-masted  cutter-rigged  vessel,  dif¬ 
fering  from  a  cutter,  according  to  old  authorities, 
in  having  a  fixed  bowsprit  and  somewhat  smal’er 
sails  in  proportion  to  the  hull. 

Sloth  ( Bradypus ),  a  genus  of  mammalia,  of 
the  order  Edentata,  and  family  Turdigrada. 
They  feed  on  the  leaves,  buds,  and  young  shoots 
of  trees,  amongst  the  branches  of  which  they  are 
born  and  spend  their  whole  life,  rarely  and 
unwillingly  descending  to  the  ground.  They  do 
not  walk  upon  the  branches,  but  cling  beneath 
them,  with  the  back  downward.  The  best  known 


Three-toed  Sloth  (Bradypus  trydactylus). 


species  of  three-toed  sloth  is  the  ai  (Bradypus  or 
Acheus  tridactylus),  which  is  smaller  than  the 
unau,  has  a  more  obtuse  muzzle,  and  is  generally 
brownish  gray,  slightly  variegated  with  hairs  of 
different  tints,  the  head  darker  than  the  body. 
All  the  sloths  belong  to  South  America. 

Slovaks,  The,  are  the  Slavic  inhabitants  of 
North  Hungary,  who,  in  the  ninth  century, 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  great  Moravian  King¬ 
dom,  but  who,  after  the  Battle  of  Presburg 
(907  a.d.),  were  gradually  subjugated  by  the 
Magyars,  to  whom  even  yet  they  bear  no  friendly 
feeling. 

Slovenians,  a  branch  of  the  same  South  Sla¬ 
vonic  stock  to  which  Serbs  and  Croats  belong. 
The  Slovenians  are  found  mainly  in  Styria,  Car- 
inthia,  Carniola,  and  adjoining  parts  of  Austria, 
and  number  in  all  about  1,250,000. 

Slug  ( Limax ),  a  genus  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
lusks,  of  the  division  Momecia  (hermaphrodite), 
and  of  the  family  Limacidat,  which  is  closely 
allied  to  the  snail  family,  llelicidce,  but  has  no 
external  shell. 

Smack  is  a  generic  term  for  small  decked  or 
half-decked  vessels  employed  in  the  coasting  and 
fishing  trade.  The  majority  of  smacks  are,  how¬ 
ever,  rigged  as  cutters,  sloops,  or  yawls. 

Smallpox,  or  Variola,  is  one  of  the  most  for¬ 
midable  of  the  class  of  febrile  diseases  known  as 
the  Exanthemata.  Some  writers  make  a  primary 
stage  of  the  period  of  incubation,  or  of  the  time 
intervening  between  t lie  reception  of  the  poison 
into  the  system,  and  the  first  appearance  of  febrile 
symptoms;  but  this  is  not  entitled  to  be  regarded 
as  a  stage  of  the  disease,  seeing  that  no  symptoms 


SMALLPOX  IX  SHEEP. 


650 


SNOW. 


of  disorder  have  begun  to  show  themselves.  The 
first  stage  begins  with  rigors,  followed  by  beat 
and  dryness  of  the  skin,  a  quickened  pulse, 
furred  tongue,  loss  of  appetite,  pain  in  the  pit  of 
the  stomach,  with  nausea,  vomiting,  headache,  and 
often  pains  in  the  back  and  limbs.  The  violence 
of  the  pains  in  the  back,  and  the  obstinacy  of  the 
vomiting  are  frequently  very  well  matked  and 
characteristic  symptoms.  In  children,  the  disease 
is  often  ushered  in  by  convulsions;  while  delirium 
sometimes  attends  its  outset  in  adults.  On  the 
third  day,  minute  red  specks  begin  to  come  out 
first  on  the  face,  then  on  the  neck  and  wrist,  and 
on  the  trunk  of  the  body,* and  lastly,  on  the  lower 
extremities.  The  fever  usually  begins  to  subside 
as  soon  as  the  eruption  appears,  and  by  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  the  fifth  day,  when  the  eruption  is  gener¬ 
ally  completed,  the  fever  has  entirely  disappeared. 
The  second  stage  commences  when  the  eruption 
is  fully  out.  Upon  the  second  or  third  day  of 
the  eruption,  a  little  clear  lymph  is  seen  in  each 
pimple,  which  has  increased  considerably  in  size 
since  its  first  appearance,  and  which  is  thus  con 
verted  into  a  vesicle.  The  vesicles  gradually 
increase  in  breadth,  and  become  converted  into 
pustules,  which  are  at  first  depressed  in  the  center, 
but  by  the  fifth  day  of  the  eruption  become  turgid 
and  hemispherical ;  the  suppuration  on  the  face 
being  complete  by  about  the  eighth  day  from  the 
commencement  of  the  fever,  and  the  same  process 
rapidly  following  in  the  other  parts  of  the  body 
in  the  same  order  of  succession  as  that  in  which 
the  eruption  originally  appeared.  The  pustules 
then  break,  and  scabs  or  crusts  form  over  them, 
which  usually  fall  off  after  four  or  five  days’ 
existence.  As  a  general  rule  the  number  of  pus¬ 
tules  and  the  severity  of  the  disease,  stand  in  a 
direct  ratio  to  one  another;  for  the  number  of 
pustules  indicates,  in  the  first  place,  the  quantity 
of  the  variolous  poison  which  has  been  reproduced 
in  the  blood;  and,  in  the  second  place,  it  is  also  a 
direct  measure  of  the  extent  to  which  the  skin 
suffers  inflammation.  Sometimes  there  are  not 
more  than  half  a  dozen  pustules;  sometimes  there 
are  many  thousands.  If  all  these  were  collected 
into  one,  it  would  be  an  enormous  phlegmon. 
For  both  these  reasons,  the  system  suffers  com¬ 
motion,  distress,  and  peril,  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  the  eruption.  The  third  or  declining 
stage  is,  in  the  distinct  variety,  little  more  than  a 
period  of  convalescence.  About  the  eleventh  or 
twelfth  day,  the  pustules  on  the  face  become 
brown  and  dry  at  the  top,  or  some  of  them  break, 
and  the  fluid  which  oozes  out  solidities  into  a 
yellowing  crust;  and  from  this  time  the  process 
of  desiccation  goes  on,  the  swelling  of  the  face 
subsides,  and  at  last  only  dry  scabs  remain, 
which  gradually  fall  off  about  the  fourteenth 
day.  It  is  not  till  three  or  four  days  after  the 
scabs  have  formed  on  the  face,  that  the  same  pro¬ 
cess  is  completed  over  the  whole  body.  The 
scabs  are  usually  completely  gone  by  the  twenty- 
first  day,  leaving  behind  them  blotches  of  a  red¬ 
dish  brown  color,  which  sometimes  continue  for 
some  months  before  they  quite  disappear;  and 
some  of  the  pustules,  in  consequence  of  ulcera¬ 
tion  of  the  true  skin,  leave  pits,  especially  on  the 
face,  which  remain  permanently.  Although,  in 
the  great  majority  of  cases,  vaccination  affords 
perfect  protection  against  smallpox,  it  not  infre¬ 
quently  happens  that  vaccinated  persons,  when 
exposed  to  the  contagion  of  smallpox,  get  the 
disease  in  a  modified  form,  milder  and  shorter 
even  than  after  inoculation,  and  therefore  incom¬ 
parably  milder  than  in  the  natural  form.  In 
mild  cases,  and  in  cases  of  varioloid  disease,  the 
physician  has  merely  to  guard  the  patient  against 
hurtful  influences,  such  as  stimulating  foods  or 
drinks,  too  hot  a  room,  or  improper  exposure  to 
cold,  and  to  prescribe  cooling  drinks  during  the 
fever,  and  occasional  laxatives  if  they  shall  be 
required.  In  more  severe  cases,  the  fever  may 
be  combated  by  saline  purgatives,  prescribed  so 
as  to  produce  two  or  three  liquid  stools  daily,  and 
by  free  ventilation  of  the  surface  of  the  body. 
When  the  eruption  is  all  out,  if  the  pimples  on 
the  face  are  few  and  distinct,  the  danger  may  be 
regarded  as  over,  and  no  further  treatment  is 
required.  If,  however,  the  disease  assume  a  con¬ 
fluent  form,  wakefulness  and  restlessness  are  apt 
to  come  on  about  the  eighth  day,  and  opiates  in 
free  doses  may  be  prescribed  with  benefit.  If  the 


pustules  are  abnormally  torpid  in  reaching  their 
maturity,  it  may  be  expedient  to  administer 
strong  broths,  or  even  wine;  and  when  the  pus¬ 
tules  are  livid,  and  intermixed  with  petechias, 
bark  and  acids  must  be  additionally  ordered, 
although  the  patient  is  then  too  often  beyond  the 
reach  of  help.  During  the  secondary  fever,  the 
bowels  must  be  kept  gently  open,  and  opiates 
should  be  prescribed  once  or  twice  each  day.  A 
more  nourishing  diet  is  now  called  for,  and  wine 
1  should  be  given  if  the  pulse  is  weak.  The  external 
itching  is  partly  relieved  by  the  opiates,  but  local 
applications  are  also  employed;  cold  cream,  ora 
mixture  of  equal  parts  of  olive  oil  and  lime  water, 
may  be  thus  used  with  advantage.  Special 
methods  have  been  devised  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  the  pitting  or  seaming  of  the  face, 
which  is  often  a  permanent  disfigurement  to  the 
patient.  The  best  application  of  this  kind  is 
probably  that  of  nitrate  of  silver.  During  the 
period  of  desquamation,  an  occasional  warm 
bath  may  be  prescribed  with  advantage;  and  the 
patient  should  always  resort  to  this  measure,  as  a 
precaution  against  carrying  the  contagion  about 
with  him,  before  again  mixing  in  society. 

Smallpox  in  Sheep  ( Variola  ovina).  although 
resembling  the  smallpox  in  men,  is  a  distinct 
disease,  not  communicable  either  by  contagion  or 
inoculation  to  men  or  children,  or  even  to  dogs  or 
goats.  About  ten  days  after  exposure  to  con¬ 
tagion,  the  infected  sheep  become  feverish, 
have  a  muco-purulent  nasal  discharge,  and  a 
hot,  tender  skin.  The  red  pimples  which  first 
appear,  in  about  three  days  become  white,  and 
afterward  leave  scabs  or  ulcers.  The  weakness 
is  great,  and  the  mortality  varies  from  25  to 
90  per  cent.  Good  food  and  nursing  are  the 
appropriate  remedies.  Promptly  and  carefully 
must  the  sick  be  separated  from  the  sound; 
but  if  the  spread  of  the  disorder  be  not  thus 
checked,  the  whole  of  the  sound  flock  should 
be  inoculated.  The  disease  thus  artificially  pro¬ 
duced  appears  in  ten  days,  runs  a  mild  course, 
occasions  a  loss  from  2  to  5  per  cent.,  and  in  three 
weeks  the  disorder  is  got  rid  of,  and  all  risk  of 
contagion  over. 

Smelt  ( Oumerus ),  a  genus  of  the  salmon  or 
trout  family  (Salmonidce),  of  which  only  a  few 
species  are  known,  differing  from  the  salmon, 
trout,  etc ,  in  having  long  conical  teeth  on  the 
jaws  and  tongue,  ami  on  the  tip  of  the  vomer,  the 
rest  of  the  vomer  being  destitute  of  teeth;  two 
distinct  rows  of  teeth  on  each  palatine  bone.  It 
is  found  on  the  northeastern  coasts  of  America,  as 
far  south  as  the  Hudson. 

Smethport,  the  county  seat  of  McKean  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Smew  (Mergellus  albellus),  a  bird  of  the  family 
Anatidce,  nearly  allied  to  the  goosander  and 
mergansers,  but  having  a  shorter  bill. 

Smila'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  ranked  by  Lindley  in  his  class  Dietyogens, 
and  consisting  of  herbaceous  or  half -shrubby 
plants,  generally  more  or  less  climbing,  with 
recticulated  leaves,  and  bi-sexual  or  polygamous 
flowers. 

Smitlifleld,the  countyseat  of  Johnston  county, 
X.  C.  Pop.,  500. 

Smitliland,  the  county  seat  of  Livingston 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  657. 

Smithville,the  county  seat  of  Charlotte  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  550. 

Smithville,  the  county  seat  of  De  Kalb 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  600. 

Smithso'nian  Institution,  at  Washington, 
was  organized  by  Act  of  Congress  in  1846,  in 
accordance  with  the  will  of  James  Smithson,  who 
bequeathed  the  reversion  of  an  estate  amounting 
to  $515,169  to  the  United  States,  to  be  devoted  to 
the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among 
men.  The  Institution  is  governed  by  regents 
appointed  by  the  President,  and  has  a  spacious 
edifice,  with  museum,  library,  cabinets  of  natural 
history,  and  lecture-rooms.  It  receives  copies  of 
all  copyright  books,  and  exchanges  with  other 
countries,  and  its  museum  is  enriched  with  the 
gatherings  of  national  exploring  expeditions.  _  A 
portion  of  its  funds  is  devoted  to  scientific 
researches,  and  the  publication  of  works  too 
expensive  for  private  enterprise. 

Smolensk',  a  government  of  European  Russia, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Government  of  Mos¬ 


cow  and  Kaluga.  Area,  21,554  square  miles; 
pop.  (1880),  1,223,890. 

Smolensk,  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the 
Government  of  the  same  name,  is  on  a  range  of 
steep  declivities  overlooking  the  River  Dnieper, 
250  miles  west-southwest  of  Moscow. 

Smut,  the  popular  name  of  certain  small  fungi 
of  the  section  Coniomycetes,  and  group  or  family 
Uredinece,  parasitical  on  plants,  particularly  on 
grasses,  anil  notable  for  the  abundance  of  dark- 
colored  spores  which  they  throw  off. 

Smyr'ua,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  import¬ 
ant  cities  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is  on  the  banks  of 
the  River  Meles,  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  Ifer- 
maean  Gulf,  now  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna.  The 
modern  city  of  Smyrna  (Turk.  Izmir)  occupies 
the  site  of  New  Smyrna,  being  built  partly  on 
the  plain  at  the  head  of  the  gulf,  partly  on  the 
declivity  of  a  hill,  the  ancient  Mons  Pagus, 
and,  from  the  sea,  has  an  attractive  appearance. 
Pop.,  150,000. 

Smyrna,  Gulp  of,  an  iidct  of  the  iEgean  Sea, 
on  the  West  coast, of  Asiatic  Turkey,  is  so  called 
from  the  city  of  Smyrna,  which  stands  at  its  head. 
It  is  40  miles  long,  is  about  20  miles  in  breadth, 
and  contains  several  islands. 

Snail  (Helix),  a  genus  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
lusks  of  the  family  Helicidce,  having  generally  a 
sub-globose,  sometimes  a  depressed,  spiral  shell; 
the  mouth  of  the  shell  more  or  less  encroached 
upon  by  the  last  whorl  but  one,  strengthened 
with  an  internal  thickened  rib,  its  edges  more  or 
less  reflexed. 

Snake,  a  term  synonymous  with  serpent.  The 
name  is  very  generally  given  to  a  species  abun¬ 
dant  in  most  parts  of  the  country. 

Snake-eel,  the  popular  name  of  the  fishes  form¬ 
ing  the  family  Ophiuttridce  of  some  naturalists,  in¬ 
cluded  by  others,  with  all  the  eels,  in  the  family 
Murcenidm,  and  distinguished  by  the  want  of  a 
tail-fin,  and  the  tail  ending  in  a  conical  point  like 
that  of  a  serpent. 

Snake  River,  also  called  Lewis’  Fork,  is  the 
great  southern  branch  of  the  Columbia. 

Snapdragon  (Antirrhinum),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Scrophularuiceae ,  consisting 
of  annual  and  perennial  herbaceous  plants,  chiefly 
natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere. 

Sneeze-wood  (Plceroxylon  utile),  a  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Sapindacece,  a  native  of  South 
Africa,  common  in  the  eastern  districts  of  Cape 
Colony. 

Snipe  (Scolopax),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family 
Scolopacidce,  having  a  long,  straight  bill,  with 
nasal  grooves  extending  almost  to  the  tip,  which 
expands  a  little,  the  upper  mandible  slightly  ex- 


1,  Solitary  Snipe  ( Gattinar/o  major) ;  2.  Common  Snipe 
(Gallinayo  media) ;  3,  Jack  Snipe  (  Gallinago  gallinuia) . 


ceeding  the  lower  in  length,  the  whole  bill  soft 
and  sensitive,  smooth  and  sinning  in  the  living 
bird,  but  soon  after  death  becoming  pitted  like 
the  end  of  a  thimble  by  drying. 

Snohomish,  the  county  seat  of  Snohomish 
county,  Wash.  Pop.,  450. 

Snow  is  the  frozen  moisture  which  falls  from 
the  atmosphere  when  the  temperature  is  32°  or 
lower.  It  is  composed  of  crystals,  usually  in  the 
form  of  six-pointed  stars,  of  which  about  1,000 
different  kinds  have  been  already  observed. 
These  numerous  forms  have  been  reduced  to  the 
following  five  principal  varieties — 1.  Thin  plates, 


SNOWBERRY. 


651 


SODIUM. 


the  most  numerous  class,  containing  several  hun¬ 
dred  forms  of  the  rarest  and  most  exquisite  beauty. 
2.  A  spherical  nucleus,  or  plane  figure  studded 


Snow  Crystals. 


with  needle-shaped  crystals.  3.  Six  or  more 
rarely  three-sided  prismatic  crystals.  4.  Pyra¬ 
mids  of  six  sides.  5.  Prismatic  crystals,  having 
at  the  ends  and  middle  thin  plates  perpendicular 
to  their  length. 

Snow  berry  ( Symplwricarpos  or  Symphoria  race- 
moan),  a  bushy  deciduous  shrub  of  the  natural 
order  Qnprifoliacece,  a  native  of  the  northern  parts 
of  this  country. 

Snow-bird  ( Junco  or  Fringilla  hyemalis),  a 
bird  of  the  finch  family  (Fringillidce),  common 
from  Louisiana  to  British  America,  in  all  the 
Eastern  States. 

Snow  Bunting,  or  Snowfleck  ( Plectrophanes 
nivalis),  a  bird  of  the  bunting  family  ( Emberizidce ), 


Snow  Bunting  (Plectrophanes  ni calls). 


of  a  genus  distinguished  from  the  true  buntings 
by  the  long  and  nearly  straight  claw  of  the  hind- 
toe,  in  this  resembling  the  larks. 

Snowdrop  ( Galanthus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 


Common  Snowdrop  ( Galanthus  nivalis). 


natural  order  Amnryllidece,  of  the  same  tribe  with 
amaryllis,  snowflake,  crinum,  etc. 

Snow  Hill,  the  county  seat  of  Greene  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  425. 

Snow  Hill,  the  county  seat  of  Worcester 
county,  Md.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Snow-line,  The  snow  line  marks  that  height 
above  the  sea-level  below  which  all  the  snow  that 
falls  annually  melts  during  summer;  higher  than 
this  lies  the  region  of  perpetual  snow. 

Snow-slxoes,  a  species  of  shoe  used  by  those 
who  inhabit  or  travel  in  those  regions  where  snow 
prevails  for  a  great  portion  of 
the  year.  It  consists  of  a  flat 
frame,  of  a  lanceolate  form,  from 
8  to  14  inches  in  breadth  at  its 
widest  part,  and. generally  about 
4  feet  long.  It  is  either  wholly 
of  wood,  or  is  a  wooden  frame 
filled  in  wfitli  wicker-work  or 
thongs,  and  has  cross-straps  on 
the  upper  surface  to  attach  it  to 
the  foot. 

Snyder,  the  county  seat  of 
Scurry  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  100. 

Soap.  The  chemical  compo¬ 
sition  of  soap  may  be  explained 
as  follows;  The  fixed  fatty 
bodies,  stearine,  palmitine,  and 
oleine,  when  heated  with  alka¬ 
line  solutions,  undergo  the  change  known  as 


saponification,  or  conversion  into  soap,  during 
which  process  the  fats  yield  up  a  clear  viscid 
liquid,  which,  from  its  sweetness,  is  termed  gly¬ 
cerine.  Hard-soap  is  made  from  tallow,  palm- 
oil,  bone  grease,  and  other  fat,  by  boiling  to 
saturation  with  caustic-soda.  Cocoa,  palm  nut, 
and  some  other  oils  are  occasionally  used,  chiefly 
in  imitating  superior  soaps,  and  the  only  other 
ingredient  of  consequence  is  rosin,  the  residuum 
of  the  distillation  of  rough  turpentine.  The  soap- 
maker  first  dissolves  in  boiling  water  600  to  800 
lbs.  of  crude  soda-asli#  in  a  cast-iron  circular 
vessel  (contents  may  be  1,000  gallons),  furnished 
with  a  steam-pipe  in  its  center.  He  then  adds 
half  the  weight  of  pure  caustic  lime,  and  boils  the 
mixture.  When  the  lime  has  rendered  the  soda 
caustic,  the  boiling  is  discontinued,  subsidence 
takes  place,  and  the  lye  is  ready  for  use.  Heat  is 
applied  to  the  soap-pan  either  by  means  of  a 
furnace  beneath  the  bottom  piece,  or  by  open 
steam  introduced  by  a  pipe  led  to  a  circular  per¬ 
forated  ring  at  the  bottom  of  the  pan.  The  tallow 
being  put  into  the  soap-pan,  with  a  quantity  of 
the  prepared  lye,  steam  is  turned  on,  and  boiling 
continued  until  the  lye  is  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  the  tallow,  and  becomes  a  pasty  mass.  A 
few  shovelfuls  of  common  salt  is  now  thrown  in 
when  the  lye  begins  to  separate.  The  partially 
formed  soap  is  allowed  to  cool,  and  the  salted  lye, 
now  deprived  of  its  soda,  subsides,  and  is  drawn 
off  from  the  bottom  by  a  pipe,  or  removed  by  a 
pump.  The  operation  of  adding  and  boiling  with 
lye  is  repeated  until  the  tallow  is  saturated  with 
soda,  and  the  lyes  show  as  much  alkali  after  boil¬ 
ing  as  before.  The  soap  is  now  treated  with 
weaker  lye,  and  by  more  or  less  water  brought 
to  the  consistency  the  maker  requires.  From 
its  tendency  to  thicken  rapidly,  it  is  transferred 
to  the  frame  at  a  high  temperature.  Other 
varieties  of  soap  are  made  by  slight  modifica¬ 
tion  of  this  process. 

Soapberry  ( Sapindus  saponaria),  a  West  In¬ 
dian  tree,  of  the  natural  order  Sapindacem,  the 
pulp  of  the  fruit  of  which  is  used  instead  of  soap 
in  washing. 

Soapwort  ( Saponaria ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Caryophyllacece,  having  a  cylin¬ 
drical  or  ventricose  five-toothed  calyx,  without 


Soapwort  (Saponaria  officinalis). 


any  outer  calyx  or  attendant  bracteae,  5  undi¬ 
vided  petals  with  long  claws,  10  stamens,  2  stig¬ 
mas,  and  a  capsule  openingat  the  top  by  4  valves. 

Society  Islands,  a  small  archipelago  in  the 
South  Pacific  Ocean,  in  latitude  16° — 183  S., 
longitude  148° — 155°  W.,  is  formed  of  a  number 
of  islands,  which  belong  to  France.  There  are 
thirteen  main  islands — Tahiti  or  Otaheite,  Maitia, 
Eimeo,  Maiaoiti,  TetUaroa,  Otalia,  Moorea,  Tuba, 
Lord  Howe’s  Island,  Scilly  Island,  Huahine, 
Raiatea,  and  Borabora.  Area,  650  square  miles; 
pop.,  18,000.  The  capital  of  Tahiti  is  Papiete, 
(pop.,  2,000). 

Socorro,  the  county  seat  of  Socorro  county, 
N.  M.  Pop.,  4,275. 

Socotra,  an  island  near  the  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  Aden,  80  miles  long  and  30  broad.  Area 
over  1,000  square  miles;  pop.,  5,000. 

Socrates,  the  celebrated  Greek  philosopher  and 
orator,  was  born  at  Athens  in  469  n.c.  In  399 
a. c.,  an  indictment  was  laid  against  him  for  not 
worshiping  the  gods  whom  the  city  worshiped, 


for  introducing  new  divinities  of  his  own,  and  for 
corrupting  the  youth.  The  penalty  due  was  death. 
He  was  tried,  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  be 
poisoned,  the  sentence  being  carried  into  effect  a 
month  after  the  trial. 

Soda,  Manufacture  of.  Soda,  or,  more  cor¬ 
rectly,  carbonate  of  soda,  occupies  the  chief 
place  among  the  leading  chemical  manufactures, 
alike  from  its  own  importance,  and  also  on 
account  of  its  influence  on  other  great  chemical 
industries,  such  as  glass-making,  soap-making, 
bleaching,  etc.  The  principal  supply  is  now 
made  from  common  salt.  The  decomposition  of 
the  common  salt  is  effected  by  treating  it  with 
sulphuric  acid,  which  transforms  it  into  sulphate 
of  soda  and  hydrochloric  acid.  The  furnace 
used  for  reducing  the  salt,  is  -worked  in  the  follow¬ 
ing  way:  When  it  is  properly  heated,  about 
1,000  pounds  of  salt  is  thrown  in  by  an  opening, 
and  about  80  gallons  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  is 
heated  and  run  in.  The  mixture,  which  is  well 
stirred  with  an  iron  rake,  gradually  thickens, 
and  in  about  an  hour  the  pasty  mass,  not  yet  all 
decomposed,  is  pushed  through  the  opening  into 
the  salt-cake  chamber.  Here  it  is  spread  out  on 
the  sole,  and  maintained  at  a  red  heat  for  another 
hour,  when  the  whole  of  the  hydrochloric  acid 
is  expelled,  and  the  conversion  into  sulphate  of 
soda  complete.  The  conversion  of  the  sulphate 
of  soda  into  black-ash,  is  effected  by  heating  a 
mixture  of  sulphate  of  soda,  carbonate  of  lime, 
and  coal,  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  The  pro¬ 
portions  used  are  sulphate  of  soda,  100  parts; 
carbonate  of  lime,  100  parts;  carbon  (charcoal), 
55  parts.  The  charge  is  thrown  into  the  bed  of 
the  furnace,  after  it  has  been  raised  to  a  bright 
red  heat,  and  remains  till  it  becomes  sufficiently 
heated  throughout  the  whole  mass.  It  is  then 
transferred  to  the  fluxing  bed,  which  is  next  the 
fire,  and  exposed  to  a  higher  heat,  when  it  shortly 
begins  to  soften  and  flux  into  a  mass  like  dough. 
In  about  half  an  hour  the  charge  is  withdrawn  in 
a  red-hot  state  by  the  working  door,  and  received 
into  iron  barrows,  where  it  solidifies  into  blocks 
of  crude  soda,  termed  ball  soda  or  black-ash. 
In  the  preparation  of  carbonate  of  soda  from  the 
black-ash,  by  lixiviation  and  evaporation,  the 
black-ash  is  introduced  fresh  into  a  vat;  it  then 
passes  from  this  to  other  vats  and  is  taken  away 
exhausted  at  the  highest  one.  The  water,  on  the 
contrary,  comes  in  fresh  at  the  top,  and  in  pass¬ 
ing  downward  encounters  less  exhausted  ash  in 
each  succeeding  vat,  and  finally  passes  away  from 
the  lowest,  a  fully  saturated  solution.  The  next 
stage  is  the  evaporation  of  the  soda-lye.  This 
consists  in  using  the  waste  heat  of  the  balling 
furnace,  the  flame  from  which  passes  over  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  liquor.  With  proper  manipulation  the 
soda  falls  to  the  bottom,  and  is  raked  out  at 
intervals  through  a  side-door,  and  drained  upon 
a  sloping  surface.  The  soda-salts  (chiefly  car¬ 
bonate  of  soda),  thus  obtained  by  evaporation  of 
the  lye,  contain  caustic  soda,  which  requires  to 
be  carbonated,  and  a  little  sulphide  of  sodium, 
which  it  is  necessary  to  get  rid  of.  They  are 
accordingly  transferred  to  a  reverberatory  furn¬ 
ace,  and  calcined,  at  a  moderate  heat,  with  saw¬ 
dust,  or  sometimes  with  small  coal,  the  mixture 
being  stirred  with  iron  paddles.  By  this  treat¬ 
ment,  the  caustic  soda  is  converted  into  carbon¬ 
ate  of  soda,  the  sulphur  is  mostly  expelled,  and 
we  now  obtain  the  soda-asli,  or  alkali  of  com¬ 
merce,  which  generally  contains  about  50  per 
cent,  of  real  soda,  the  other  ingredients,  besides 
the  carbonic  acid  with  which  it  is  combined, 
being  chiefly  water,  sulphur,  and  common  salt. 
Sometimes  it  is  further  purified,  and  it  is  then 
known  as  white  alkali.  Soda  crystals,  or  what 
is  commonly  called  “washing-soda,”  are  obtained 
by  dissolving  the  soda-ash  in  hot  water,  then 
filtering  the  solution  and  boiling  it  till  the 
specific  gravity  reaches  1.3,  when  it  is  trans¬ 
ferred  to  the  crystallizing  coolers.  Bars  of  wood 
or  iron  are  laid  across  these  vessels  to  sustain  the 
mass  of  crystals  which  form,  and  in  ten  days  at 
most  the  crystallization  is  complete.  Crystals  of 
soda  are  purer  than  soda-asli,  but  they  are  of 
much  less  value,  weight  for  weight,  because  of 
the  large  quantity  of  water  which  enters  into 
their  constitution,  amounting  to  62|  per  cent. 

So '(linni  (symbol  Na,  equiv.  23 — sp.  gr.  0.972), 
is  one  of  the  metals  of  the  alkalies — its  oxide 


SODOM. 


652 


SOMME. 


being  soda.  Its  properties  closely  resemble  those 
of  the  allied  metal,  potassium.  It  is  of  a  bluish- 
white  color,  is  somewhat  more  volatile  than 
potassium,  and  further  differs  from  that  metal  in 
having  a  higher  fusing-point  (about  208°),  a 
greater  specific  gravity,  and  in  not  catching  fire 
when  dropped  in  water  (unless  the  water  is 
heated),  although,  like  potassium  under  similar 
conditions,  it  partially  decomposes  it  and  liberates 
hydrogen;  and  at  the  same  time  communicates  a 
strong  alkaline  reaction  to  the  solution.  The 
methods  of  obtaining  sodium  are  similar  to  those 
already  described  for  obtaining  potassium.  In¬ 
timately  mix  717  parts  of  dried  carbonate  of  soda 
with  175  parts  of  finely  powdered  charcoal  and 
108  parts  of  ground  chalk,  knead  them  into  a 
stiff  paste  with  oil,  heat  them  in  a  covered  iron 
pot  till  the  oil  is  decomposed,  and  finally  distill 
them  in  an  iron  retort  with  the  precautions  which 
are  noticed  in  describing  the  preparation  of 
potassium. 

Sodom  and  Gomor'rah,  two  ancient  cities  of 
Syria,  almost  invariably  spoken  of  in  conjunction 
in  the  Bible,  and  forming  with  Admah,  Zeboiim, 
and  other  towns,  the  cities  of  the  plain,  which, 
on  account  of  the  enormous  wickedness  of  their 
inhabitants  (the  nature  of  which  is  indicated  in 
the  term  Sodomy),  are  said  to  have  been  over¬ 
thrown — not  submerged — by  some  terrible  con¬ 
vulsion  of  nature. 

Sodom,  Apple  of,  the  name  given  to  the  fruit 
of  a  species  of  Solatium.  But  it  seems  that  the 
true  apple  of  Sodom,  or  mad  apple,  of  the  shores 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  mentioned  by  Strabo,  Tacitus, 
and  Josephus,  and  described  as  beautiful  to  the 
eye,  but  filling  the  mouth  with  bitter  ashes  if 
tasted,  is  a  kind  of  gall,  growing  on  dwarf  oaks, 
and  produced  by  a  species  of  gall-insect,  which 
has  received  the  name  of  Cynvpx  insana. 

Sofa 'la,  or  Cefola,  that  portion  of  the  south¬ 
east  coast  of  Africa  extending  from  the  Delta  of 
the  Zambezi  (Quama  of  old  geographers)  as  far 
south  as  the  Itio  Maneci  or  Delagoa  Bay,  or  from 
latitude  13®  to  26°  S.,  although  some  modern 
geographers  consider  Cape  Corrientes  as  its 
southern  limit. 

Softening  and  Induration  are  terms  used  to 
express  a  pathological  diminution  and  augmenta¬ 
tion  of  the  consistence  of  the  tissues  or  organs  of 
the  body.  These  changes  may  aiise  from  inflam¬ 
matory  action;  but  softening  may  also  be  induced 
by  causes  totally  distinct  from  inflammation,  as, 
for  example,  from  a  deficient  supply  of  blood, 
from  scrofula  or  cancer,  or  from  long-continued 
functional  inactivity  (as  in  the  case  of  paralyzed 
muscles).  Among  the  parts  liable  to  both  soft¬ 
ening  and  induration  are  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord,  the  heart,  the  lungs,  the  serous  and  mucous 
membranes,  the  liver,  the  spleen,  the  kidneys,  the 
uterus,  and  the  bones  and  cartilages. 

Soft-grass  ( Uolcus ),  a  genus  of  grasses  having 
a  lax  panicle,  two-flowered  spikelets,  with  two 
nearly  equal  glumes. 

Soils  consist  of  the  disintegrated  materials  of 
the  hard  crust  of  the  earth,  mixed  with  decayed 
vegetable  matter.  This  disintegration  is  effected 
partly  by  the  chemical  action  of  oxygen,  carbonic 
acid,  and  the  other  acid  or  alkaline  substances 
brought  by  the  atmosphere  to  bear  upon  rocks, 
and  partly  by  the  wearing  action  of  water  in  a 
fluid  state  or  in  the  form  of  glaciers,  or  by  its 
bursting  force  when  frozen  in  deep  clefts.  The 
soils  produced  by  running  water,  floods,  and 
tides,  are  found  along  the  banks  or  at  the  mouths 
of  rivers,  and  are  generally  called  alluvial  soils; 
those  produced  by  glacier-action  are  known  as 
drift  soils,  and  both  are  generally  found  at  a  great 
distance  from  the  rocks  of  whose  disintegrated 
materials  they  are  composed.  But  by  far  the. 
greater  mass  of  soil  has  been  produced  in  the 
other  way  above  mentioned,  by  the  gradual 
weathering  of  rock  under  atmospheric  influence; 
and  it  is  generally  found  adjoining  or  overlying 
the  rocks  from  which  it  has  been  produced. 

Sokoto,  a  kingdom  of  Africa,  in  Sudan,  to  the 
southwest  of  Lake  Tchad,  and  separated  from  it 
by  the  State  of  Bornu.  Area,  117,000  square 
miles. 

Solanaceae,  or  Solane^e,  a  natural  order  of 
exogenous  plants,  mostly  herbaceous  plants  and 
shrubs,  but  including  a  few  tropical  trees. 

Sola'mim,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 


| 

order  Solanacece,  containing  a  great  number  of 
species,  which  are  distributed  all  over  the  world, 
but  are  particularly  abundant  in  South  America 
and  the  West  Indies.  Bittersweet  and  nightshade 
are  examples. 

Solar  Microscope,  an  instrument  for  pro¬ 
ducing  magnified  images  of  minute  objects  on  a 
screen,  through  the  agency  of  the  sun’s  rays. 
The  tube  of  the  microscope  is  conical,  and  is 
fastened  to  the  interior  side  of  a  closed  window- 
shutter  over  a  hole  in  the  latter;  a  reflector,  placed 
at  the  hole,  so  that  the  rays  of  light  may  fall  on  it, 
is  so  adjusted  as  to  throw  them  along  the  tube. 
They  are  then  collected  by  a  powerful  double 
convex  lens,  and  thrown  on  the  object,  which  is 
inserted  into  the  tube  at  the  focus  of  the  lens  by  a 
slit  at  the  side.  After  passing  the  object,  the  rays 
again  pass  through  a  single  lens,  or  a  combina¬ 
tion  of  lenses,  make  their  exit  from  the  tube,  and 
fall  on  a  screen,  on  which  they  depict  a  magnified 
image  of  the  object.  We  have  here  supposed 
the  object  to  be  so  translucent  as  to  allow  of  the 
passage  of  rays  through  it.  Should  it  be  opaque, 
the  rays  of  light  reflected  from  the  mirror  are 
caught  by  the  double  convex  lens,  which  concen¬ 
trates  them  on  another  mirror  near  the  opposite 
end  of  the  tube;  they  are  thence  reflected  upon 
the  back  of  the  object,  and  diverge  on  the  system 
of  lenses  at  the  mouth,  which  form  the  image. 
Instead  of  the  sun’s  rays,  the  oxyhydrogen  lime¬ 
light  (and  more  recently  the  electric  light)  have 
been  employed,  its  rays  being  thrown  on  the 
double-convex  condenser  by  means  of  a  concave 
reflector,  in  whose  focus  the  piece  of  burning  lime 
or  marble  is  situated.  The  instrument  is  lienee 
often  called  the  oxyhydrogen  microscope. 

Solder,  an  easily  fusible  alloy  used  for  joining 
metals.  Solders  are  of  various  kinds,  suited  to 
different  metals.  They  always  require  to  be  used 
with  a  flux,  such  as  borax,  resin,  chloride  of  zinc, 
salammoniac,  etc. 

Sole  ( Solea ).  a  genus  of  flat-fishes  (Pleuronec- 


Common  Sole  (Solea  vulgaris). 


tidee),  of  an  oblong  form,  with  a  rounded  muzzle, 
which  almost  always  advances  beyond  the  mouth. 

Solenhofen  Lithographic  Stone,  a  famous 
deposit  of  limestone  of  upper  oolite  age,  which 


I 


from  its  fine-grained  and  homogeneous  texture  is 
admirably  adapted  for  lithographic  purposes.  It 


occurs  near  Aichstadt  in  Bavaria,  and  has  been 
extensively  quarried  since  the  invention  of  lithog¬ 
raphy.  It  is  of  special  interest  to  the  geologist 
from  the  singular  assemblage  of  fossii  remains 
which  are  preserved  in  it. 

So'len,  a  genus  of  lamellibrancliiate  mollusks, 
the  type  of  a  family,  Solenida,  remarkable  for  the 
wide  gaping  of  the  shell  at  both  ends,  and  the 
large  and  muscular  foot. 

Soleure'  (Ger.  Solothurn),  a  canton  in  the 
North  of  Switzerland,  bounded  on  the  west  and 
south  by  Bern,  and  on  the  north  and  east  by  Basel 
and  Aargau.  Area,  300  square  miles;  pop.  (1876), 
77,803. 

Soleure  (Ger.  Solothurn),  capital  of  the  canton, 
is  situated  on  the  Aar,  sixteen  miles  north-north¬ 
east  of  Bern. 

Solitaire  ( Pezophaps ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
Dodo  family  (Didin, e),  but  differing  from  the 
dodos  in  a  smaller  bill  and  longer  legs. 

Sol'omon  (Heb.  Sheloino,  Salomon,  Salomo, 
Suleiman,  derived  from  shalom,  peace=peaceful, 
like  Ger.  Friedrich),  the  second  son  of  David  and 
Bathsheba;  successor  of  the  former  on  the  throne 
of  the  Israelitish  Empire  for  forty  years  (1015  to 
975  b.c.)  According  to  his  promise,  Solomon,  in 
the  fourth  year  of  his  accession,  commenced  the 
building  of  the  Temple  on  Moriah,  after  the 
model  of  the  tabernacle,  wherein  he  was  aided  by 
Hiram,  who  not  only  sent  him  timber,  but  archi¬ 
tects,  and  cunning  Phoenician  artists  in  wood, 
and  stone,  and  metals.  In  the  eleventh  year  of 
his  reign  it  was  completed,  and  solemnly  inaug¬ 
urated  in  the  following  year — at  which  occasion 
prodigious  numbers  of  sacrifices  were  slaugh¬ 
tered. 

Solomon  City,  the  county  seat  of  Dickinson 
county,  Kan.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Solomon  Islands,  a  chain  of  islands  in  the 
Malay  or  Indian  Archipelago,  between  New 
Britain  on  the  northwest  and  the  Queen  Charlotte 
Islands  on  the  southeast;  latitude  4®  50'  to  11  ° 
50'  S.  Area,  10,000  square  miles. 

Solomon's  Seal  ( Polygonatum ),  a  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Liliacece,  differing 
from  the  lily  of  the  valley  chiefly  in  the  cylindri¬ 
cal  tubular  perianth,  and  in  having  the  flowers 
jointed  to  their  flower-stalks. 

Solomonsville,  the  county  seat  of  Graham 
county  Ariz.  Pop.,  700. 

SO 'Ion,  the  most  famous  of  all  the  ancient 
Greek  lawgivers,  was  born  about  638  b.c.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  not  known. 

So'loi-  Islands,  The,  lie  east  of  Flores,  be¬ 
tween  122°  56' 30' ' — 124°  25'  east  longitude,  and 
belong  to  the  Netherlands  Residency  of  Timor. 
Besides  several  groups  of  smaller  islands,  they 
consist  of  Solor,  with  an  area  of  105  square  miles, 
and  a  pop.  of  15,000;  Adanara,  302  square  miles, 
pop.,  36,000;  Lomblem,  520  square  miles,  pop., 
120,000;  and  Pantar,  275  square  miles,  with  60,- 
000  inhabitants. 

Solution.  A  substance  is  said  to  undergo  so¬ 
lution,  or  to  become  dissolved,  when  the  force  of 
adhesion  between  it  and  a  liquid  in  which  it  is 
immersed  is  sufficient  to  overcome  the  force  of 
cohesion  between  the  solid  particles. 

Solyinan  (Suleiman")  II.,  surnamed  “The 
Magnificent,”  the  greatest  of  the  Turkish  sul¬ 
tans,  was  born  in  1496;  and  in  September,  1520, 
succeeded  his  father,  Selim  I.,  and  died  Sept.  5, 
1566. 

Soma'li  Land,  an  extensive  maritime  country 
in  the  East  of  Africa,  is  triangular  in  shape,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  on 
the  southeast  by  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  on  the 
southwest  by  the  Jub  river.  Area,  330,000  square 
miles. 

Somerset,  the  county  seat  of  Pulaski  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Somerset,  the  county  seat  of  Somerset  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Somerville,  is  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  A  suburb  of  Bos¬ 
ton,  Mass.,  two  miles  northwest  of  Boston.  Pop. 
(1870),  14,685,  (1880),  30,000.-2.  The  county 
seat  of  Fayette  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  1,100. — 3. 
The  county  seat  of  Morgan  count y,  Ala.  Pop., 
209. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Somerset  county, 
N.  J.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Somme,  a  maritime  department  in  theNorth  of 
France,  south  of  Pas-de-Calais,  and  northeast  of 


SOMNAMBULISM. 


653 


SPEAKING-TRUMPET. 


Se'ne-Inferieure.  Area,  2,377  square  miles;  pop. 
(1881),  550,837. 

Somnambulism  (Lat.  sleep-walking).  Walk¬ 
ing  in  sleep  is  the  most  palpable,  but  not  the  most 
marvelous  characteristic  of  this  condition.  The 
person  affected  walks,  rides,  climbs,  with  the  eyes 
shut  or  insensible;  his  movements  are  precise, 
cautious,  leading  him  into  positious  of  difficulty 
and  peril,  which,  if  perfectly  alive  to  their  re<d 
nature,  or  if  acting  under  the  influence  of  ordi¬ 
nary  motives,  he  would  avoid:  and  yet  there 
appears  to  be  a  partial  consciousness  of  surround¬ 
ing  objects,  and  an  adaptation  to  circumstances. 

Sono’ra  a  frontier  State  in  the  Northwest  of 
Mexico,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Arizona,  and 
on  the  west  by  Lower  California  and  the  Gulf  of 
California.  Area,  79,021  square  miles;  pop.  (in 
1882),  115,424. 

Sonora,  the  county  seat  of  Tuolumne  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  1,525. 

Soo'soo  (Platunista  gangeticus  or  Soosoo  gnn- 
gelicus),  a  cetacean  of  the  Dolphin  family,  inhab¬ 
iting  the  Ganges,  and  most  abundant  in  the  slug¬ 
gish  waters  of  its  delta,  but  found  also  as  far  up 
the  river  as  it  is  navigable. 

Soph'oclSs,  the  great  master  of  Greek  tragedy, 
was  born  at  Colonus,  near  Athens,  about  495  b.c., 
and  died  in  405. 

Sorbonne,  a  celebrated  academic  body  at  Paris, 
which  dates  from  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century;  and  which,  down  to  the  French  Revolu¬ 
tion,  held  a  prominent  place  in  all  church  contro¬ 
versies.  The  Sorbonne  continued  in  the  enjoy¬ 
ment  of  its  privileges  and  its  revenues  down  to 
the  Revolution,  when  it  shared  in  the  common  ruin 
of  all  the  ecclesiastical  establishments  of  France. 
At  the  reorganization  of  the  university  by  Napoleon 
in  1808,  the  Sorbonne  was  reestablished  as  the 
Theological  faculty  of  that  body. 

Sore'cidae,  a  family  of  mammalia,  of  the  order 
Carnaria,  and  section  Insectivora  of  Cuvier. 
They  are  generally  small  animals,  covered  with 
soft  hair.  To  this  family  belong  shrews,  shrew- 
mice,  musk  rats,  or  desmans,  etc. 

Sor'rel  ( Rumex ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat¬ 
ural  order Polygonece,  closely  allied  to  Polygonum 
and  Fugopyrum,  but  having  the  perianth  divided 
into  six  segments,  the  three  inner  of  which  enlarge 
and  cover  the  achenium. 

Sorrel  Tree  ( Lyonia  arborea,  formerly  A  rdro- 
meda  arbor ea),  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Ervece, 
remarkable  in  that  portion  of  the  order  to  which 
it  belongs  for  its  magnitude,  its  near  allies  being 
generally  small  shrubs. 

Souffle,  a  light  and  agreeable  dish,  consisting 
chiefly  of  the  whites  of  eggs,  to  which  other  in¬ 
gredients  (chocolate,  cheese,  vanilla,  orange-flower 
water,  rose-water,  various  essences,  etc.,  are  added 
to  give  consistency,  flavor,  and  variety. 

Soul,  in  the  language  of  spiritualistic  philos¬ 
ophers,  covers  the  whole  region  of  mind,  and  is 
generally  conceived  of  as  a  naturally  imperish¬ 
able  entity,  in  relation  with  the  body,  but  definable, 
for  the  most  part,  only  in  terms  of  the  complete 
negation  of  material  attributes. 

Sounding  is  the  act  ‘  of  ascertaining  the  i 
depth  of  the  wTater.  This  is  done  either 
for  purposes  of  navigation  in  piloting  a  “g 
ship  among  shoals  or  rocks,  for  ascer- 
taining  her  position  where  the  depth  and  tm 
nature  of  the  bottom  is  previously  known,  |  j|I 
or  constructing  a  chart,  etc.  It  is  generally  U 
effected  by  means  of  a  marked  line,  to  111* 
which  is  attached  a  tapered  lead,  the  bot-  1 11 
tom  or  foot  of  the  lead  being  hollowed  to  I'ji 
receive  some  grease  or  tallow  to  which  a  MB 
portion  of  the  soil  at  the  bottom  of  the 
sea  will  adhere.  Sound- 

Soutane,  the  outer  garment  worn  in  ins 
civil  life  by  Roman  Catholic  ecclesiastics,  Lead- 
where  the  strict  law  of  clerical  costume  is  in  force. 

South  Bend,  a  city  of  Indiana,  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  St.  Joseph  river,  near  the  border  of 
Michigan,  eighty-five  miles  east  of  Chicago.  Pop., 
20,500. 

Southbridge,  a  prosperous  manufacturing  and 
agricultural  city  of  Worcester  county,  Mass.  Pop., 
6,600. 

Southey,  Robert,  an  English  poet,  was  born 
Aug.  12,  1774,  at  Bristol.  In  1807,  in  considera¬ 
tion  of  his  services  to  literature,  the  English  Gov¬ 
ernment  granted  him  a  pension  of  $800  per  annum, 


and  in  1813,  on  the  death  of  Mr.  Pye,  he  succeeded 
him  as  Poet  Laureate.  In  1835  he  received  a 
further  pension  of  $1,500.  He  died  March  21; 
1843. 

Southington,  an  important  agricultural  and 
manufacturing  city  of  Hartford  county,  Conn. 
Pop.,  5,550. 

South  Island,  the  southern  of  the  two  large 
islands  which,  with  the  small  Stewart’s  Island, 
form  the  British  colony  of  New  Zealand. 

Southport,  the  county  seat  of  Brunswick 
county,  N  C.  Pop.,  1,050. 

South  Shetlands,  New,  a  group  of  islands  in 
the  South  Atlantic,  about  600  miles  south  of  Cape 
Horn,  in  latitude  61° — 63°  50'  S.  The  chief  are 
Smith,  Livingston,  Nelson,  King  George,  Clar¬ 
ence,  and  Elephant  Islands.  Ice  and  snow  lie  at 
the  sea-level  all  the  year. 

Soy  is  a  thick  and  piquant  sauce,  made  from 
the  seeds  of  the  soy  bean  (Soja  hispida),  a  plant  of 
the  natural  order  LeguminoscB,  sub-order  Papilio- 
uacere,  so  nearly  allied  to  the  genus  Dolichos  as  to 
be  often  included  in  it.  It  is  a  native  of  China, 
Japan,  and  the  Moluccas,  and  is  much  cultivated 
in  China  and  Japan. 

Spa'his  (the  same  with  S/pahi,  or  Sepoy)  were 
the  cavaliers  furnished  by  the  holders  of  military 
fiefs  to  the  Turkish  army,  and  formed  the  elite  of 
its  cavalry. 

Spain  (Span.  Espana),  a  kingdom  of  Europe, 
occupying  the  larger  portion  of  the  peninsula 
which  forms  the  southwest  corner  of  the  European 
continent,  reaching  further  south  than  any  other 
European  country,  and  further  west  than  any  ex¬ 
cept  Portugal.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  and  by  France,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  mountain  ridge  of  the  Pyrenees; 
on  the  east  and  south  by  the  Mediterranean  and 
Atlantic;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Atlantic  and 
Portugal.  Greatest  length,  560  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  about  650  miles.  Area,  including  the 
Balearic  and  Canary  Isles,  195,738  square  miles; 
pop.  (1877),  16,623,384. 

Span,  a  natural  measure  of  length,  being  the 
distance  between  the  tips  of  the  thumb  and  mid¬ 
dle  finger,  the  hand  being  stretched  as  much  as 
possible.  This  space  averages  about  9  inches, 
and  the  term  came  to  denote  a  measure  of  nine 
inches. 

Span'celled,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  applied  to  a 
horse,  two  of  whose  legs  are  fettered  by  a  log  of 
wood. 

Span'iel,  a  kind  of  dog,  of  which  there  are 
many  breeds,  differing  considerably  in  size  and 
other  characters.  None  of  them  are  large;  some 
are  among  the  smallest  of  dogs.  Some  are  used 
for  sporting  purposes,  others  are  merely  kept  as 
pets  and  companions.  All  of  them  are  lively, 
playful,  docile,  and  affectionate  in  a  high  degree. 
The  cocker,  the  springer,  and  the  Blenheim  are 
different  kinds  of  spaniels. 

Spanish  Main  ( i .  e.,  main  land),  a  name  gener¬ 
ally  given  during  the  sixteenth  century  and  the 
earlier  part  of  the  eighteenth  to  the  northeast 
coast  of  South  America,  from  the  Orinoco  to  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien;  as  also  to  the  contiguous 
southern  portion  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  traversed 
by  the  Spanish  treasure-ships.  The  name  occurs 
frequently  in  connection  with  the  history  and 
exploits  of  buccaneers. 

Spank 'er,  a  large  quadrilateral  sail,  with 
parallel  sides,  set  between  the  gaff  and  boom  of  a 
ship.  Its  foreleech  is  attached  by  rings  to  the 
mast.  The  spanker  is  a  fore-and-aft  sail  of  great 
importance  in  bringing  the  vessel  to  the  wind. 

Spar  ( Spath ),  a  term  used  by  miners  to  denote 
any  bright  crystalline  mineral,  and  which  has 
been  adopted  by  mineralogists  in  the  names  of  a 
number  of  minerals,  as  calcareous  spar,  fluor 
spar,  etc.,  in  which,  however,  it  has  no  proper 
generic  significance. 

Spa'rida;,  a  family  of  acanthopterous  fishes, 
having  a  general  resemblance  to  the  perch  family 
— a  single  dorsal  fin,  which  is  not  protected  by 
any  scales,  and  of  which  the  anterior  rays  are 
spinous,  the  pectoral  and  ventral  fins  sharp- 
pointed,  the  tail-fin  notched;  the  gill-cover  shin¬ 
ing,  without  proper  spines  or  denticulations;  the 
palate  destitute  of  teeth;  the  scales  large,  broader 
than  long,  and  generally  thin. 

Sparks,  Jared,  American  historian,  was  born 


at  Willington,  Conn.,  May  10,  1789,  and  died 
March  15,  1866. 

Spar'row  ( Passer  or  Pyrgitd),  a  genus  of  birds 
of  the  family  FiingiU/dcB,  having  a  strong  conical 
bill,  the  upper  mandible  slightly  curved,  the 
lower  mandible  compressed  and  shorter  than  the 
upper,  the  nostrils  partly  concealed  by  the  short 
feathers  at  the  base  of  the  bill,  the  legs  moder¬ 
ately  long  and  stout,  the  claws  sharp  and  curved, 
the  tail  moderately  long,  and  nearly  even  at 
the  tip. 

Sparrotv-hawk  ( Accipiter  or  Nisus),  a  genus 
of  Falconidce,  ranked  among  the  ignoble  birds  of 
prey.  The  bill  is  curved  from  the  base,  short. 


Sparrow-hawk  ( Accipiter  nisus). 
and  compressed;  its  upper  ridge  rounded  and 
narrow;  the  cutting  margin  of  the  upper  man¬ 
dible  with  a  distinct  festoon. 

Spar'ta,  anciently  Lacedaemon,  the  capital  of 
Laconia,  and  the  most  famous  city  of  the  Pelopon¬ 
nesus,  occupied  partly  a  range  of  low  hills  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Eurotas,  and  partly  the  inter¬ 
vening  plain. 

Sparta,  the  name  of  five  towns  in  the  United 
States,  as  follows; — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Alle¬ 
ghany  county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  175. — 2.  The  parish 
seat  of  Brenville  parish,  La.  Pop.,  200. — 3.  The 
county  seat  of  Hancock  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  900. 
— 4.  The  county  seat  of  Monroe  county,  Wis. 
Pop.,  3,050. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  White 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  500. 

Spartanburg,  the  county  seat  of  Spartan- 
burgh  county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  4,050. 

Spatlie  ( Spatha ),  in  Botany,  a  sheathing  bract 
which  incloses  one  or  more  flowers,  as  in  the 
Narcissus. 

Spav'in,  a  disease  of  horses,  occurs  under  two 
different  forms,  both  interfering  with  soundness. 
In  young,  weak,  overworked  subjects,  the  hock- 
joint  is  sometimes  distended  with  dark-colored 
thickened  synovia,  or  joint-oil.  This  is  bog  or 
blood  spavin.  Wet  bandages,  occasional  friction, 
a  laxative  diet,  and  rest,  should  for  several  weeks 
be  diligently  tried;  and  if  such  remedies  prove 
unsuccessful,  the  swelling  must  be  dressed  with 
strong  blistering  ointment,  or  fired.  The  second 
variety  of  spavin  is  the  more  common  and  seri¬ 
ous.  Toward  the  inside  of  the  hock,  at  the  head 
of  the  shank-bone,  or  between  some  of  the  small 
bones  of  the  hock,  a  bony  enlargement  may  be 
seen  and  felt.  This  is  bone  spavin.  At  first, 
there  is  tenderness,  heat,  swelling,  and  con¬ 
siderable  lameness;  but  as  the  inflammation  in 
the  bone  and  its  investing  membrane  abates,  the 
lameness  is  less  perceptible,  although  the  animal 
continues  to  drag  his  leg  and  go  stiffly.  In  recent 
and  slight  cases,  cold  water  should  be  applied 
continuously;  but  in  serious  cases,  when  the 
limb  is  swollen  and  tender,  hot  fomentations  are 
best.  For  several  days,  they  must  be  persever- 
ingly  employed.  When  the  limb  is  again -cool 
and  free  from  pain,  an  iodide  of  mercury  or  fly- 
blister  should  be  applied,  and  the  animal  treated 
to  three  months’  rest  in  a  small  paddock,  the  end 
of  a  barn,  or  a  roomy  loose-box.  In  persistent 
cases,  firing  or  setoning  usually  gives  much 
relief. 

Speaking-trumpet,  an  instrument  for  giving 
concentration  rather  than  dispersion  to  the  waves 
of  sound  originated  by  the  articulation  of  the 


SPECIES. 


654 


SPIDER. 


human  voice,  and  thereby  enabling  the  sound 
to  be  conveyed  to  a  greater  distance.  It  is  use¬ 
ful  on  shipboard  in  enabling  the  officers  to  convey 
orders  during  windy  weather  from  one  part  of 
the  deck  to  another,  or  to  the  rigging. 

Spe'cies,  in  Natural  History,  a  term  employed 
to  designate  groups  inferior  to  genera  but  supe¬ 
rior  to  varietie  s.  In  Mineralogy,  the  term  is  of 
arbitrary  application,  serving  only,  like  class, 
order,  genus,  etc.,  the  purpose  of  classification, 
although  it  thus  indicates  common  characters  or 
points  of  real  agreement  among  minerals. 

Spccif'ic  Gravity  of  any  body  is  the  propor¬ 
tion  which  the  weight  of  a  certain  bulk  of  that 
body  bears  to  the  same  bulk  of  another  body 
which  is  taken  as  a  standard.  The  standard  for 
substances  solid  and  liquid  is  distilled  water  at 
the  temperature  of  02°  F.,  barometer  30 

inches;  and  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  this 
standard  is  given  as  252.456  troy  grains,  hence  a 
cubic  foot  of  it  weighs  997.129  avoirdupois 
ounces,  or  62.32  avoirdupois  pounds.  A  cubic 
foot  of  water  weighs  about  1,000  ounces  avoirdu¬ 
pois,  as  the  error  resulting  from  employing  this 
estimate  does  not  amount  to  much  more  than 
3 go  of  the  whole.  For  aeriform  bodies,  the 
standard  is  atmospheric  air,  a  cubic  inch  of 
which,  at  a  temperature  of  32°  F.,  weighs 
.32698,  and  at  60°  F.,  .30935  grains  troy. 
The  specific  gravity  of  solid  bodies  is  best  meas¬ 
ured  by  the  hydrostatic  balance,  which  gives  the 
weight  of  a  volume  of  water  equal  in  bulk  to  the 
solid,  by  which  it  is  only  necessary  to  divide  the 
weight  of  the  solid  in  air  to  obtain  the  specific 
gravity;  that  of  liquids  may  be  obtained  by  the 
areometer,  or  by  comparing  the  weight  lost  by  a 
solid  body  in  the  liquid  and  in  water,  and  divid¬ 
ing  the  former  by  the  latter — or  by  means  of  the 
specific-gravity  bottle,  which  holds  exactly  1,000 
grains  of  distilled  water  in  its  standard  condit  ion. 
The  bottle  is  emptied  of  water,  filled  with  the 
liquid,  and  then  weighed;  the  result  gives  the 
weight  of  a  volume  of  the  fluid  equal  in  bulk  to 
1,000  grains  of  the  standard,  and  hence  this 
weight  divided  by  1,000  gives  the  specific  grav¬ 
ity.  The  specific  gravity  of  an  aeriform  fluid  is 
determined  by  weighing  a  glass  globe  filled  first 
with  the  fluid,  and  then  with  atmospheric  air.  The 
specific  gravity  of  gold  is  19.25;  of  mercury  14.; 
lead  11.35;  silver  10.34;  copper  8.78;  iron  7.78; 
diamond  3.52;  chalk  2.45;  ivory  1.92  coal  1.16; 
ice  .93;  human  body  alive  .89;  cork  .24;  milk 
1.03;  whisky  .92,  and  ammonia  .59. 

Spectroscope,  the  instrument  by  the  aid  of 
which  spectral  phenomena  may  be  most  conveni¬ 
ently  studied.  It  consists  essentially  of,  first,  a 
narrow  slit,  through  which  parallel  rays  of  light 
pass;  secondly,  a  prism  or  train  of  prisms,  to  sep¬ 
arate  the  colored  or  differently  refrangible  por¬ 
tions  of  these  rays;  and  thirdly,  a  telescope,  to 
form  a  magnified  image  of  the  spectrum  pro¬ 
duced.  With  its  aid  the  most  delicate  chemical 
analyses,  both  terrestrial  and  celestial,  are  made 
possible. 

Spec'trum  is  a  term  applied  in  optics  to  the 
colored  image  of  the  sun,  or  other  luminous 
body,  produced  by  refraction  through  a  prism, 
by  diffraction  through  a  fine  grating,  etc.  A 
ray  of  sunlight  enters  a  dark  room  through  a 
small  hole  in  a  shutter.  It  proceeds  in  a  straight 
line  to  the  opposite  wall,  and  forms,  as  a  circular 
white  spot,  an  image  of  the  sun.  If  the  edge  of 
a  glass  prism  be  interposed  in  the  path  of  this  ray, 
the  white  spot  disappears,  and  the  spectrum  is 
produced.  In  this  form  of  experiment,  its  shape 
is  that  of  a  rectangle  with  semicircular  ends. 
The  breadth  of  the  spectrum  is  equal  to  the  diam¬ 
eter  of  the  image;  and  it  is  brilliantly  colored, 
the  end  nearest  to  the  image  being  red,  and  the 
other  end  violet.  Between  these  we  have  grada¬ 
tions  of  color,  and  the  whole  appears  to  be 
divisible  into  seven  differently  colored  spaces, 
which  are  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue, 
indigo,  and  violet.  When  any  substance  is 
heated  to  incandescence,  a  ray  of  light  from  it 
exhibits  a  spectrum  in  like  manner  as  the  solar 
light,  with  variations  of  color  and  arrangement 
which  are  peculiar  to  itself,  and  invariable  in 
light  from  that  source.  When  the  substance  so 
heated  is  volatile  its  spectrum  is  crossed  by  dark 
lines,  and  these  lines  are  always  the  same  in  a 
given  substance.  On  the  presence  of  these  lines 


spectrum  analysis  depends,  and  the  principle  has 
been  used  to  good  purpose  in  making  qualitative 
analyses  of  some  of  the  constituents  of  the  fixed 
stars  and  of  the  sun,  and  has  also  been  the  means 
of  the  discovery  of  several  new  elements  and 
metals,  as  for  instance,  caesium,  rubidium, 
thallium,  indium,  and  gallium. 

Speed 'well  {Veronica),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Scroplmlariacece,  distinguished 
by  a  four-cleft  wheel-shaped  corolla,  with  the 
lower  segment  narrower,  two  stameDS,  and  a 
two-cellecl  capsule. 

Spencer,  Herbert,  who  has  attempted  to  work 
out  a  complete  system  of  philosophy  in  harmony 
with  the  principles  and  results  of  modern  science, 
was  born  at  Derby,  England,  in  1820.  His  works 
are  voluminous  and  are  read  all  over  the  world. 

Spencer,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
Union,  as  follows  1.  The  county  seat  of  Owen 
county,  Ind.  Pop.,  2,900. — 2.  The  county  seat 
of  Roane  county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  450.— 3.  The 
county  seat  of  Van  Buren  county,  Tenn.  Pop., 
300. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Worcester  county, 
Mass.  Pop.,  8,300. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Clay 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  1,650. 

Spen'cer  Gulf,  a  very  large  inlet  on  the  coast 
of  South  Australia,  between  Eyria  Peninsula  on 
the  west,  and  Yorke  Peninsula  on  the  east.  It  is 
about  209  miles  in  length,  by  100  miles  in  greatest 
breadth. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  one  of  the  chief  literary 
ornaments  of  the  great  Elizabethan  period,  was 
born  in  London  in  the  year  1553.  Spenser  takes 
admitted  rank  as  one  of  the  very  greatest  of  our 
poets;  and  his  chief  work.  The  Faery  Queen,  is  a 
masterpiece  of  genius.  He  died  in  London  on 
Jan.  15,  1599. 

Spermace'ti  is  a  waxy  matter  obtained  from  a 
cavity  in  the  head  of  the  whale,  Physeter  macro- 
cephalus.  It  is  an  emollient  and  demulcent,  and 
is  hence  a  useful  ingredient  in  cough  mixtures. 
It  is  however,  chiefly  used  externally  as  an 
ingredient  in  various  ointments.  Unguentum 
celacci,  or  spermaceti  ointment,  of  the  phar¬ 
macopoeia  consists  of  a  mixture  of  spermaceti, 
white  wax,  and  almond  oil. 

Spermatozo'a  is  the  term  given  to  the  true 
fertilizing  agents  occurring  in  the  male  generative 
organs.  In  the  human  subject,  the  spermatozoa 
may  be  described  as  clear,  hyaloid  bodies,  each  of 
which  consists  of  a  dilated  portion,  the  head  or 
body,  from  which  a  long  tail,  or  filament, 
issues.  The  head  is  flattened  from  side  to  side, 
and  of  a  conical  form,  the  pointed  extremity 
being  anterior.  The  length  of  the  spermatozoa  is 
about  HJ5  of  an  inch.  The  spermatozoa  of  differ¬ 
ent  animals  vary  extremely  in  size  and  form. 

Sphaerula'ria,  a  remarkable  nematode,  or 
round  worm,  which  exists  as  a  parasite  in  various 
species  of  bees.  The  female  is  almost  an  inch  in 
length,  has  a  nearly  uniform  diameter  of  of 
an  inch,  is  of  a  whitish  color,  is  bluntly  pointed 
at  each  end,  and  is  covered  with  numerous  small 


Sphaerularia  bombi ;  male  and  female. 
Magnified  nine  diameters.  The  male  is  seen  as  a  thread¬ 
like  appendage  attached  to  the  extremity  of  the  female. 
—From  Cobbold’s  Entozoa. 

button-like  projections — a  peculiarity  to  which  it 
owes  its  name.  Although  the  female  was  dis¬ 
covered  in  1836,  it  was  not  until  January,  1861, 
that  the  discovery  of  the  male  was  announced. 

Sphag'num,  a  genus  of  mosses,  whose  spore- 
case  is  an  urn  closed  by  a  deciduous  lid,  and  its 
brim  toothless,  the  calyptra  irregularly  torn. 

Sphe'gidse,  or  Sphecid^e,  a  family  of  hymen- 
optcrous  insects,  winged  in  both  sexes,  and  much 
resembling  bees  or  wasps  in  general  appearance. 
Splie'noid  Bone  (Gr.  dqjy'jv,  sphen,  a  wedge, 


and  siSoS,  eidos,  form)  is  situated  at  the  anterior 
part  of  the  base  of  the  skull,  and  articulated  with 
all  the  other  cranial  bones,  which  it  wedges  firmly 
together.  It  somewhat  resembles  a  bat  with  its 


The  Upper  or  Cerebral  Surface  of  the  Sphenoid  Bone. 

1,  The  olivary  process ;  2,  the  ethmoidal  spore  ;  3  and  4, 
the  lesser  and  greater  wings  on  the  left  side ;  C,  the 
extremity  of  left  pterygoid  process  ;  7,  the  foramen  for 
the  optic  nerve ;  10,  the  sella  turcica  on  which  the 
pituitary  gland  rests  ;  12,  the  basilar  portion  of  the 
bone,  joining  with  the  occipital  ;  13.  part  of  the  sphenoi¬ 
dal  fissure  which  separates  the  greater  from  the  lesser 
wings,  and  transmits  the  3d,  4th,  the  ophthalmic 
division  of  the  5th,  and  the  6th  nerves,  with  the  oph¬ 
thalmic  vein  ;  14,  the  foramen  rotundum,  transmitting 
the  second  division  of  the  5th  nerve;  15.  the  foramen 
ovula,  transmitting  the  third  division  of  the  5th  nerve  ; 
16,  the  foramen  spinosum  for  the  joassage  of  the  middle 
meringeal  artery. 

wings  extended,  and  hence  was  termed  the  Os 
vespertilionis.  It  is  divisible  into  a  body,  the 
greater  and  lesser  wings,  and  various  processes. 
The  greater  wings  present  three  surfaces ;  a 
superior  or  cerebral  surface,  forming  part  of  the 
floor  on  which  the  brain  rests  ;  an  anterior  surface, 
which  assists  to  form  the  outer  part  of  the  orbit 
of  the  eye  ;  and  an  external  surface  with  a  rough 
ridge,  giving  attachment  to  the  external  pterygoid 
muscle,  one  of  the  most  powerful  muscles  of  mas¬ 
tication. 

Sphere,  a  regular  solid  figure,  every  point  of 
whose  surface  is  equally  distant  from  its  center  ; 
and  whose  outline  is  traced  by  a  circle  revolving 
round  its  diameter.  All  sections  of  a  sphere  by  a 
plane  are  necessarily  circles,  and  all  sections  by 
planes  passing  through  the  center,  or  by  planes 
cutting  the  sphere  at  equal  distances  from  the 
center,  are  equal. 

Sphe 'roid  is  a  species  of  ellipsoid,  and  is 
represented  by  the  same  equation. 

Sphincter  Muscles  (Gr.  drpivKrr/p,  spldnkter, 
that  which  binds  tight)  are  circular  bands  of  mus¬ 
cular  fibers,  whose  function  is  to  antagonize  the 
expellent  action  of  certain  viscera,  especially  the 
bladder  and  the  lower  part  of  the  intestinal  canal. 

Sphinx,  a  Greek  word,  signifying  the  squeezer 
or  strangler,  applied  to  certain  symbolical  forms  of 
Egyptian  origin,  having  the  body  of  a  lion,  a 
human  or  an  animal  head,  and  two  wings  at  tached 
to  the  sides.  Various  other  combinations  of  ani¬ 
mal  forms  have  been  called  by  this  name.  The 
most  remarkable  sphinx  is  the  Great  Sphinx  at 
Gizeh,  a  colossal  form,  hewn  out  of  the  natural 
rock,  and  lying  300  feet  east  of  the  second  pyra¬ 
mid.  It  is  sculptured  out  of  a  spur  of  the  rock 
itself,  to  which  masonry  has  been  added  in  cer¬ 
tain  places,  to  complete  the  form,  and  measures 
172  feet  6  inches  long  by  56  feet  high. 

Sphyg'mograph,  an  instrument  by  which  we 
ascertain,  and  permanently  record,  the  form, 
force,  and  frequency  of  the  pulse-beat,  and  the 
changes  which  that  beat  undergoes  in  certain 
morbid  states.  This  instrument  consists  of  two 
essential  parts:  Of  two  levers,  one  of  which  is  so 
delicately  adjusted  on  the  vessel  the  pulsation  of 
which  it  is  desired  to  examine,  that  on  each  ex¬ 
pansion  of  the  vessel,  the  lever  undergoes  a  cor¬ 
responding  slight  elevation;  this  lever  communi¬ 
cates  by  a  perpendicular  arm  with  a  second,  to 
which  it  transmits  the  impulse  received  from  the 
vessel;  the  extremity  of  this  second  lever  is  armed 
with  a  pen  point,  which  records  the  movements 
thus  indicated  on  a  movable  plate,  controlled  by 
the  second  part  of  the  instrument.  The  second 
portion  consists  of  a  plate,  moved  by  watch-work, 
and  bearing  a  strip  of  paper  on  which  the  sphyg- 
mographic  tracery  is  formed. 

Spider  {Aranea), a  Linnacan  genus,  now  divided 
not  only  into  many  genera,  but  into  many  fami¬ 
lies,  and  constituting  a  section  ( Araneida )  of  the 
class  Arachnida,  and  order  Pulmonaria.  All 
spiders  kill  the  insects  and  other  small  creatures 


SPIDER  MONKEY. 


655 


SPLINT. 


on  which  they  prey  by  means  of  their  venomous 
mandibles,  and  the  bite  of  a  house-spider  is 
quickly  fatal  to  a  house-fly.  The  bite  of  the 


Position  of  Spider  when  attached  to  a  thread  of  web;  and 
spinning  apparatus  highly  magnified. 


larger  species  is  dreaded  even  by  man,  being 
painful,  and  not  only  producing  inflammation 
and  swelling,  but  often  fever.  Death  has  been 
known  to  ensue.  Spiders’  webs  have  long  been 
in  high  repute  for  stanching  wounds.  Threads 
of  this  material  are  also  employed  for  the  cross¬ 
wires  of  astronomical  telescopes. 


Spider  Monkey,  a  name  often  given  to  species 
of  the  genus  Ateles,  small  American  monkeys,  on 
account  of  their  very  long,  slender,  inelegant 
limbs.  The  tail  is  very  long,  and  not  only  pre¬ 
hensile  in  the  highest  degree,  but  endowed  with  a 
wondrous  sensitiveness  of  touch.  These  monkeys 
display  great  intelligence. 

Spinal  Column,  or  Spine,  The,  is  the  most 
important  and  characteristic  part  of  the  skeleton 
of  the  highest  animal  sub-kingdom,  which  in¬ 
cludes  mammals,  birds,  reptiles,  amphibians,  and 


fishes.  In  each  of  these 
classes,  it  is  composed 
of  a  series  of  bones 
placed  one  above,  or  in 
front,  of  another,  and 
called  vertebrae;  and 
hence,  these  animals, 
having  this  distinguisli- 
i  n  g  characteristic  i  n 
common,  are  all  in¬ 
cluded  in  the  term  verte¬ 
brates.  In  man  the 
number  of  vertebrae 
which  collectively  form 
the  spinal  column  is 
seven  in  the  neck  (cervi¬ 
cal  vertebrae),  twelve  in 
the  back  (dorsal  verte¬ 
brae,  five  in  the  loins 
(lumbar  vertebrae),  all  of 
which  are  capable  of 
being  detached  from 
one  another,  and  are 
termed  true  vertebrae; 
and  five  vertebrae  ossi¬ 
fied  together,  and  form¬ 
ing  the  sacrum,  and 
four  or  five  similarly 
united  forming  the  ter¬ 
mination  of  the  column, 
and  constituting  the 
bone  called  the  coccyx, 
which  are  known  as 
false  vertebrae.  Each 
vertebrae  is  attached  to 
the  two  between  which  it 
lies  by  numerous  strong 
and  more  or  less  elastic 
ligaments,  and  between 
each  pair  of  vertebrae 
there  is  interposed  a 
lenticular  disc  of  fibro- 
cartilagc,  which  acts  as 
a  buffer.  The  vertebral 
canal  formed  by  the  ap¬ 
position  of  the  spinal 
foramina,  or  neural 
arches,  and  containing 
and  protecting  the  spinal 
cord,  varies  in  its  size  £ 
column.  It  is  largest 


l«t  DORSAL 


I  LUMBAR 


sacrum's 

■COCCVX 

Sirin&l  Column. 

t  different  parts  of  the 
in  its  antero-posterior 


diameter  in  the  neck  and  loins  (measuring  at  the 
last  lumbar  vertebra  |  of  an  inch),  where  the  an¬ 
tero-posterior  movements  of  the  spine  are  great¬ 
est,  and  where  the  cord  is  least  closely  attached  to 
the  vertebra;  while  in  its  lateral  diameter  it  is 
greatest  at  the  atlas,  where  it  measures  nearly  an 
inch  and  a  half.  The  spinal  cord  is  that  elon¬ 
gated  part  of  the  cerebro  spinal  axis  which  is 
contained  in  the  spinal  canal  from  the  foramen 
magnum,  at  the  base  of  the  skull,  superiorly,  to 
the  first  or  second  lumbar  vertebra  inferiorly, 
where  it  merges  into  the  filvm  terminate,  which 
extends  to  the  lower  end  of  the  sacral  canal,  and 
in  no  way  differs  structurally  from  the  proper 
spinal  cord,  except  that  no  nerve  roots  are  con¬ 
nected  with  it.  Its  length  varies  from  15  to  18 
inches,  and  it  presents  a  difference  in  its  diameter 
in  different  parts,  there  being  an  upper  or  cervi¬ 
cal,  and  a  lower  or  lumbar  enlargement.  In  form 
it  is  a  flattened  cylinder.  It  is  almost  completely 
divided,  along  the  median  plane,  by  an  anterior 
and  posterior  fissure,  into  two  equal  and  symmet¬ 
rical  parts.  The  anterior  fissure  is  more  distinct 
and  wider  at  the  surface  than  the  posterior  fissure, 
but  it  only  penetrates  to  about  one-third  of  the 
thickness  of  the  cord,  while  the  posterior  fissure 
extends  to  about  half  the  thickness  of  the  cord. 
The  tivo  halves  are  hence  only  united  near  the 
center  by  a  commisural  band,  which  is  traversed 
by  the  “  spinal  canal,”  extending  downward  from 
the  fourth  ventricle,  and  about  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  A  posterior  and  an  interior  lateral 
furrow  (two  shallow  depressions,  the  latter  being 
scarcely  perceptible)  further  divide  each  half 
of  the  cord  into  a  posterior,  a  lateral,  and  an 
anterior  column;  these  two  furrows  correspond¬ 
ing  with  the  lines  of  attachment  of  the  posterior 
and  anterior  nerve-roots.  Careful  microscopic 
investigation  has  revealed  the  fact,  that  the  root- 
fibers  of  the  spinal  nerves  run  two  very  distinct 
courses  in  the  substance  of  the  cord;  the  first 
transverse,  and  the  second  longitudinal.  The 
spinal  cord,  in  union  with  the  brain,  is  the  instru¬ 
ment  of  sensation  and  voluntary  motion  to  the 
trunk  and  extremities,  and  that  the  spinal  cord 
may  be  the  medium  for  the  excitation  of  move¬ 
ments,  independently  of  volition  or  sensation, 
either  by  direct  irritation  of  its  substance,  or  by 
the  influence  of  a  stimulus  conveyed  to  it  from 
some  surface  of  the  trunk  or  extremities  by  its 
nerves  distributed  upon  that  surface. 

Spike'nard,  or  Nakd  (Gr.  Napdoi,  Nardos), 
a  perfume  highly  prized  by  the  ancients,  and 
used  both  in  baths  and  at  feasts.  It  was  brought 
from  India,  and  was  very  costly. 

Spi'na  Bi'fida  is  a  congenital  malformation, 
occurring  perhaps  more  frequently  than  any  other 
except  hare  lip,  and  arising  like  it  from  arrest  of 
development.  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  congeni¬ 
tal  hernia  of  the  membranes  of  the  spinal  cord, 
through  a  fissure  in  the  wall  of  the  bony  canal. 
A  tumor  is  thus  formed,  which  is  usually  of  a 
roundish  shape,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  an 
egg  to  that  of  an  adult  head,  lying  in  the  middle 
line  of  the  back,  fluctuating,  and  adhering  to  the 
adjacent  vertebra  either  directly  or  by  a  pedicle. 
The  usual  termination  of  the  disease  is  death. 

Spin'ach,  or  Spinage  ( Spinacia ),  a  genus  of 
herbaceous  plants,  of  the  natural  order  Chenopodi- 
acece,  in  general  cultivation  for  the  sake  of  its 
young  leaves,  which  are  a  favorite  and  whole¬ 
some  vegetable,  either  prepared  by  boiling,  or  by 
frying  with  butter. 

Spine,  Curvature  of  TnE.  There  are  two 
perfectly  distinct  forms  of  curvature,  viz.:  lateral 
curvature — arising  from  weakness  of  the  bones, 
ligaments  and  muscles,  and  fearfully  common  in 
girls  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes,  between 
the  ages  of  ten  and  sixteen — and  angular  curva¬ 
ture  (frequently  known  as  Pott’s  Curvature,  or 
the  Malady  of  Pott).  Lateral  curvature,  or  dis¬ 
tortion,  denotes  deformity  of  the  bones  of  the 
spine  and  chest;  with  corresponding  change  of 
the  structures  in  relation  to  them.  When  a  girl 
is  defective  in  muscular  power,  disinclined  to 
take  exercise,  and  prone  to  distortion  of  the  spine, 
the  sitting  position  does  not  afford  her  rest,  in 
consequence  of  the  great  efforts  she  has  to  make 
in  order  to  keep  the  body  erect.  A  patient  in  that 
condition  will  derive  benefit  from  being  obliged 
to  lie  for  two  or  three  hours  daily,  at  divided  in¬ 
tervals,  on  a  sofa  or  board.  When  the  deformity 


has  actually  occurred,  gymnastic  exercises  sug¬ 
gested  by  the  medical  attendant  will  not  infre¬ 
quently,  when  continued  for  some  time,  have  the 
effect  of  loosening  the  connection  of  the  bones,  of 
facilitating  their  falling  into  their  proper  places, 
when  extension  is  employed,  and  of  restoring  to 
the  spine  a  portion  of  its  lost  suppleness.  There 
are  two  methods  of  extending  the  curved  spine — 
by  stretching  the  body  while  the  patient  is  recum¬ 
bent;  and  by  letting  the  patient  remain  upright, 
and  using  spinal  supports.  The  chief  objections 
to  the  former  are  the  necessary  confinement,  com¬ 
parative  seclusion,  and  interference  with  the  rou¬ 
tine  of  study.  Any  mode  of  treatment  with  the 
view  of  producing  extension  of  the  spine  must  be 
continued  for  mouths  in  order  to  be  of  any  avail. 
Angular  curvature  consists,  as  already  mentioned, 
of  caries  of  certain  vertebra,  which  first  consumes 
the  bones  and  fibro-cartilages,  and  subsequently 
excites  a  discharge  of  pus.  The  first  symptom  of 
this  affection  is  the  appearance,  at  the  seat  of  the 
caries,  of  a  prominence  of  one  or  more  of  the  spin¬ 
ous  processes.  This  growing  out  of  the  back,  as 
patients  frequently  term  it,  is  due  to  the  destruction 
of  a  portion  of  the  column.  In  an  advanced  stage, 
the  spinal  ridge  will  stand  out  prominently,  the 
knob  of  each  process  being  distinctly  visible;  and 
finally,  a  distinct  angular  projection  is  developed. 
The  most  essential  point  in  relation  to  treatment 
is  rest,  and  the  most  effectual  method  of  arresting 
motion  between  the  diseased  vertebra,  and  of 
keeping  them  at  rest,  is  by  placing  the  patient  in 
a  recumbent  position  on  his  back.  If  possible, 
an  invalid  bed  should  be  procured,  provided  with 
contrivances  for  enabling  him  to  lie  upon  it,  day 
and  night,  without  rising.  Local  counter-irrit¬ 
ants,  such  as  compound  tincture  of  iodine,  are 
often  useful;  and  good  diet,  backed,  if  necessary, 
by  cod-liver  oil  and  tonics,  must  be  prescribed. 

Spi'nel,  a  mineral  allied  to  corundum,  consist¬ 
ing  chiefly  of  alumina,  with  smaller  proportions 
of  magnesia,  silica,  and  protoxide  of  iron. 

Spinoza,  Baiivcii(= Benedict),  one  of  the  great¬ 
est  philosophers  of  modern  times,  was  born  at 
Amsterdam,  Nov.  24,  1632.  His  parents,  rich 
Portuguese  Jews,  had  their  son  diligently  in¬ 
structed  in  the  Bible  and  its  commentaries,  and 
the  Talmud.  He  died,  forty-four  years  old,  Feb. 
21,  1677. 

Spirit  Lake,  the  county  seat  of  Dickinson 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Spitzber'gen,  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  in  latitude  76°  30'— 80°  40'  N.,  and  longi¬ 
tude  9° — 22°  E.,  lies  300  miles  north  of  Scandina¬ 
via,  and  325  east  of  Greenland.  It  was  discovered 
in  1596,  by  William  Barentz.  It  is  claimed  as  a 
dependency  of  its  European  territories  by  Russia. 

Spleen,  TnE,  is  the  largest  and  most  import¬ 
ant  of  the  so-called  ductless  glands,  whose  chief 
object  is  supposed  to  be  to  restore  to  the  circula¬ 
tion  any  substances  that  may  have  been  withdrawn 
from  it.  It  is  of  an  oblong  flattened  form,  soft, 
of  very  brittle  consistence,  highly  vascular,  of  a 
dark,  bluish-red  color,  and  situated  on  the  left 
hypochondriac  region,  with  its  interior  slightly 
concave  surface  embracing  the  cardiac  end  of  the 
stomach  and  the  tail  of  the  pancreas. 

Spleu'ic  Apoplexy,  a  disease  of  cattle  and 
sheep,  resembles  black  quarter  in  suddenly  attack¬ 
ing  animals  in  good  thriving  condition,  and,  like 
it,  appears  to  depend  upon  the  rapid  manufacture 
of  insufficiently  elaborated  blood,  probably  faulty 
in  the  healthy  proportion  of  some  of  its  con¬ 
stituents.  The  animal  staggers,  froths  at  mouth, 
throws  itself  about  in  convulsions,  and  sometimes 
dies  within  an  hour.  Few  cases  recover. 
Pasteur’s  researches  have  shown  that  this  disease 
of  splenic  fever,  also  known  as  Anthrax  or 
Siberian  plague,  is  due  to  the  presence  in  the 
blood  of  small  organisms,  specific  bacteria  in  the 
blood.  By  artificially  cultivating  these  bacteria, 
he  further  succeeded  in  developing  a  weaker  crop 
of  germs.  By  inoculating  healthy  animals  with 
the  virus,  he  produced  a  milder  form  of  the 
disease,  which  protects  from  the  more  violent  and 
dangerous  malady — a  process  analogous  to  vac¬ 
cination. 

Splint,  or  Sflent,  is  a  bony  enlargement  on 
the  horse’s  leg,  between  the  knee  and  fetlock, 
usually  appearing  on  the  inside  of  one  or  both 
fore-legs,  frequently  situated  between  the  large 
and  small  canon  bones,  depending  upon  con- 


SPLIXT-BOXES. 


656 


SQUIRREL. 


cussion,  and  most  common  in  young  horses  that 
have  been  driven  rapidly  on  hard  roads  before 
their  bones  are  consolidated.  When  of  recent 
and  rapid  growth,  the  splint  is  hot  and  tender, 
and  causes  lameness,  especially  noticeable  when 
the  horse  is  trotted  along  a  hard  road.  A  piece 
of  spongiopiline  saturated  with  cold  water  should 
be  applied  to  the  splint,  kept  in  position  with  a 
light  linen  bandage,  and  wetted  with  cold  water 
or  a  refrigerant  mixture  every  hour.  Perfect  rest 
must  be  enjoined  for  ten  days  or  a  fortnight. 
When  the  limb  is  cool,  and  free  from  tenderness, 
the  swelling,  which  will  still  remain,  may  be 
greatly  reduced  by  some  stimulating  applica¬ 
tions,  such  as  the  ointment  of  the  red  iodide  of 
mercury,  the  common  fly-blister,  or  the  firing- 
iron. 

Splint-bones.  The  horse  and  certain  allied 
mammals  have  what  is  popularly  known  as  an 
outer  and  an  inner  splint-bone  in  the  skeleton  of 
the  leg.  Beyond  the  hones  of  the  carpus  and 
tarsus,  there  is  one  very  large  bone  (the  metacarpal 
or  metatarsal  of  the  third  toe),  which  suppor  s  the 
whole  weight  of  the  animal.  On  either  side  of 
this  bone  are  the  outer  and  inner  splint-bones, 
which  are  small  bones,  not  running  more  than 
half  the  length  of  the  great  central  bone,  into 
which  they  merge.  They  represent,  in  a  rudi¬ 
mentary  form,  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal 
bones  of  the  fourth  and  second  toe. 

Spolir,  Ludwig,  an  eminent  German  musical 
composer  and  violinist,  son  of  a  physician  of 
Brunswick,  and  born  in  that  town  in  1784.  lie 
died  in  1859. 

Spokane  Falls,  a  rapidly  growing  manufact¬ 
uring  and  mining  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Spokane  county.  Wash.  Pop.,  0,359. 

Sponge.  The  sponges  are  creatures  of  low 
organization.  At  first  referred  to  the  Protozoa, 
and  later  to  the  Codenteratn ,  they  are  now  con- 


Living  Sponge,  showing  numerous  small  inhalent 
terminal,  large  exhalent  orifices. 


sidered  by  the  greater  number  of  naturalists 
as  entitled  to  rank  as  a  separate  sub-kingdom, 
Ponfera. 

Sponta'neous  Combus'lion  is  a  phenomenon 
that  occasionally  manifests  itself  in  mineral  and 
organic  substances.  The  facts  connected  with 
the  spontaneous  ignition  of  mineral  substances 
are  well  knowm  to  chemists.  Ordinary  char¬ 
coal  does  not  undergo  combustion  in  air 
under  a  temperature  of  1000°,  but  in  some  states 
it  is  liable  spontaneously  to  acquire  a  tempera¬ 
ture  which  may  lead  to  combustion.  Thus,  lamp¬ 
black  impregnated  with  oils,  which  contain  a 
large  proportion  of  hydrogen,  gradually  becomes 
warm,  and  inflames  spontaneously.  The  phe¬ 
nomenon  is  due  to  the  heat  developed  by  chemi¬ 
cal  action. 

Spoon 'bill  ( Platadca ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
Heron  family  (Ardeula),  much  resembling  storks. 
It  is  found  all  over  the  world.  The  flesh  of  the 
spoonbill  is  said  to  be  tender  and  of  good  flavor. 
The  spoonbill  is  easily  tamed,  is  quiet  and  in¬ 
offensive,  and  feeds  readily  on  any  offal. 

Sporadic  is  a  term  applied  to  any  disease  that 
is  naturally'  epidemic  or  contagious,  when  it 
attacks  only  a  few  persons  in  a  district,  and  does 
not  spread  in  its  ordinary  manner. 

Spottsyl vania,  county  seat  of  Spottsyl vania 
county,  Ya.  Pop  ,  100. 

Sprague,  the  county  seat  of  Lincoln  county, 
Wash.  Pop..  1,200. 

Sprain.  A  sprain  or  strain  is  a  term  employed 
in  Surgery  to  designate  a  violent  stretching  of 
tendinous  or  ligamentous  parts  with  or  without 
rupture  of  some  of  their  fibers.  The  treatment 
of  sprains  generally  must  be  regulated  by  their 


severity.  In  a  severe  sprain,  attended  with  much 
pain  and  inflammation,  leeches  should  be  applied, 
followed  by  liot-water  fomentations,  or  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  a  hot  linseed-meal  poultice.  In  slighter 
cases,  rest  and  cold  lotions  constitute  sufficient 
treatment.  In  all  cases  of  sprain  of  the  extremi¬ 
ties,  thin  pasteboard  splints  placed  on  the  outer 
and  inner  surfaces  of  the  joint,  over  a  wet  band¬ 
age  previously  laid  round  it,  afford  support  to 
tiie  part,  aud  comfort  to  the  patient.  In  sprains 
of  the  back,  more  decided  antiphlogistic  oi  lower¬ 
ing  measures  are  required.  After  an  active  mer¬ 
curial  purge,  a  dose  or  two  of  Dover’s  powder 
may  be  given,  with  salines  at  intervals.  The  diet 
ought  to  be  spare.  In  those  of  vigorous  constitu¬ 
tion,  the  abstraction  of  blood  may  be  required. 
Afterward,  nothing  will  conduce  more  to  the 
comfort  of  the  patient  than  well-managed 
fomentation  of  the  back.  Amendment  will  be 
denoted  by  the  patient’s  turning  in  bed  more 
freely,  and  seeking  to  sit  up.  At  that  period, 
stimulating  liniments,  or  the  application  of  the 
compound  tincture  of  iodine,  will  be  called  for. 
When  able  to  walk,  he  will  be  benefited  by  a 
warm  plaster  to  his  loins.  Sprains,  or  strains, 
are  common  amongst  horses,  owing  to  the  severe 
exertions  required  of  them,  often  while  they  are 
young,  and  unprepared  for  such  work.  In  slight 
cases,  cold  water  continuously  applied  for  several 
hours  gives  relief;  but  in  all  serious  cases,  dili¬ 
gent  fomentation  of  water  about  the  tempera¬ 
ture  of  100°  is  preferable;  or  the  injured  part 
may  be  swathed  in  a  thick  woolen  rug,  kept 
constantly  moist  and  warm  by  frequent  wetting 
with  the  hot  water.  Perfect  rest  is  essential,  and 
in  order  to  insure  the  relaxation  of  the  large 
tendons  of  the  horse’s  limbs,  he  may  in  bad  cases 
be  kept  slung  for  several  days.  Blisters,  hot 
oils,  firing,  and  all  such  irritants,  are  on  no 
account  to  be  used  until  the  inflammation  abates, 
and  the  part  becomes  cool,  and  free  from  tender¬ 
ness.  Such  remedies  are  then  useful  for  causing 
the  reabsorption  of  swelling,  and  perhaps  also  for 
invigorating  the  weakened  part. 

Spring 'bok  ( Antilope  euchore,  or  Antidorcns 
euchore),  a  species  of  antelope,  nearly  allied  to  the 
gazelles,  very  abundant  in  South  Africa.  It  is 
an  extremely  beautiful  creature,  of  graceful 
form  and  fine  colors.  It  is  larger  than  the  roe¬ 
buck,  and  its  neck  and  limbs  much  longer  and 
more  delicate. 

Springer,  a  kind  of  dog,  regarded  as  a  variety 
of  the  spaniel.  It  is  small,  elegant,  usually  white, 
with  red  spots,  black  nose  and  palate,  long,  pend¬ 
ent  ears,  and  small  head.  Its  aspect  is  lively, 
and  its  manners  equally  so.  It  is  used  by  sports¬ 
men  for  raising  game  in  thick  and  thorny  coverts. 
There  are  several  breeds  or  sub-varieties. 

Springer,  the  county  seat  of  Colfax  county, 
N.M.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Springfield,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows; — 1.  A  city,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Hampden  county,  Mass.,  is  on  the 
east  bank  of  Connecticut  river,  ninety-eight  miles 
west-by -south  of  Boston.  It  is  the  seat  of  many 
important  manufacturing  establishments,  which 
are  supplied  with  water  power  by  the  falls  of 
Mill  river,  and  among  which  are  the  United 
States  Armory.  Pop.,  37, GOO. — 2.  The  capital  of 
Illinois,  is  178  miles  southwest  of  Chicago,  at  the 
intersection  of  seven  railway  lines  The  State 
House,  built  in  a  great  central  square,  is  the  prin¬ 
cipal  architectural  ornament.  It  is  also  the  seat 
of  the  Illinois  State  University,  and  has  several 
newspapers,  foundries,  machine-shops,  breweries, 
and  flouring-mills,  and  is  the  entrepot  of  a  rich 
agricultural  country.  Pop.,  30,000. — 3.  A  city, 
and  the  county  seat  of  Clarke  county,  Ohio, 
forty-three  miles  west  of  Columbus.  It  contains 
the  Wittenberg  Lutheran  College,  flouring-mills, 
iron  foundries,  machine  shops,  woolen  and  paper 
miils,  publishes  several  newspapers,  has  extensive 
railway  connections,  and  a  large  trade  in  various 
commodities.  Pop.  (1880).  33, 6u0. — 4.  The  county 
seat  of  Effingham  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  50. — 5.  A 
flourishing  city  and  railroad  center  in  Greene 
county,  Mo.  Pop,  21,000. — 6.  The  county  seat 
of  liobert-on  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  1.250. — 7.  The 
county  seat  of  Washington  county,  Ky.  Pop. ,  925. 

Spring  Place,  the  county  seat  of  Murray 
county,  G-a.  Pop.,  450. 


Springview,  the  county  seat  of  Iveya  Pacha 
county,  Xeb.  Pop.,  250. 

Springville,  the  parish  seat  of  Livingston 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  75. 

Sprit  ( spriet ,  Dutch;  old  English  verb,  sprit, 
to  sprout  or  spring  out)  means  a  pole  or  spar. 
The  word  occurs  most  frequently  in  the  com¬ 
pound,  bowsprit,  which  explains  itself.  When 
used  alone,  a  sprit  is  a  diagonal  yard  for  sustain¬ 
ing  a  quadrilateral  (usually  square)  fore-and-aft 


Spritsail. 


sail.  The  sprit’s  heel  is  held  on  the  mast  in  a 
ring  of  rope,  called  a  “snotter,”  and  its  head 
reaches  to  the  after  upper  corner  of  the  sail.  The 
sail  thus  extended  is  a  spritsail,  and  is  frequently 
employed  in  boats. 

Spurge  ( Euphorbia ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Euphorhiactce ,  having  monoecious 
naked  flowers,  the  male  flowers  membranous,  and 
surrounding  a  tricoccous  stalked  female  flower, 
the  wdiole  placed  within  a  cup-shaped  involucre. 

Spurgeon,  Charles  II addon,  a  celebrated 
Baptist  preacher,  born  at  Kelvedon,  Essex,  Eng¬ 
land,  June  19,  1834. 

Spurzheim,  Johann  Gaspar,  a  German  phy¬ 
sician  and  phrenologist,  was  born  near  Treves, 
Dec.  31,  1776.  He  died  in  1832. 

Square-pierced,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  used  to 
designate  a  charge  perforated  with  a  square  open¬ 
ing,  so  as  to  show  the  field. 

Squill  ( Scilla ),  a  genus  of  bulbous-rooted  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Lili- 
acece,  nearly  allied  to 
hyacinths,  onions,  etc. 

Squills  are  prescribed  as  a 
diuretic  and  expectorant, 
aud  occasionally  as  an 
emetic;  but  it  must  be 
recollected  that  in  moder¬ 
ately  largedoses  it  acts  as  a 
narcotico-irritant  poison, 
twenty-fourgrainshaving 
proved  fatal.  When  given 
as  a  diuretic,  it  is  usually 
prescribed  in  combina¬ 
tion  with  digitalis  and 
calomel,  when  it  seldom 
fails  to  produce  an  in¬ 
creased  secretion  of  urine, 
while  at  the  same  time  it 
promotes  the  absorption 
of  the  effused  fluid  in  the 
dropsy, which  is  generally 
present  when  diuretics  are 
ordered.  Its  use  is  coun¬ 
ter-indicated  if  inflamma- 
torysymptomsarepresent. 

Squint 'ing,  or  Stra- 
bis'mus,  is  a  wrell-known 
and  common  deformity, 
which  may  be  defined  as 
a  want  of  parallelism  in  the  visual  axes,  when  the 
patient  endeavors  to  direct  both  eyes  to  an  object 
at  the  same  time.  The  squint  is  said  to  be  con¬ 
vergent  when  the  eye  or  eyes  are  directed  toward 
the  nose,  and  divergent  when  they  are  directed 
toward  the  temple,  and  is  termed  single  or  double 
according  as  only  one  eye  or  both  are  displaced. 
If  the  squint  is  only  temporary,  and  arises  from 
intestinal  irritation, the  bowelsmust  be  well  cleared 
out,  and  tonics  subsequently  given.  If  it  is  due 
to  some  peculiarity  in  the  visual  focus  of  the  eyes, 
it  maybe  removed  by  the  judicious  use  of  glasses. 
If  these  fail,  a  surgeon  must  be  employed. 

Squirrel  (Sciurus),  a  Linnsean  genus  of  rodent 
quadrupeds,  now  the  family  Sciuridce.  The  spe¬ 
cies  are  numerous,  and  are  found  in  almost  all 
partsof  the  world,  except  Australia;  some  inhabit- 


STACHYS. 


657 


STARVATION. 


ing  temperate  and  even  cold  regions,  while  some 
belong  to  tropical  countries, 

Sta'cliys,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
LaMn/ce,  containing  a  great  number  of  species, 
mostly  European,  having  a  ten-ribbed  calyx,  with 
five  nearly  equal  teeth,  the  upper  lip  of  the  corolla 
entire,  and  the  lower  lip  three  lobed. 

Stafford  Courthouse,  the  county  seat  of  Staf¬ 
ford  county,  Va.  Pop.,  100. 

Stag,  or" Red  Deer  (Cervus  eiaphits),  a  species 
of  deer,  with  round  antlers,  which  have  a  snag  at 
the  base  in  front.  The  female  has  no  horns,  and 
is  called  a  hind.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  the 
North  of  Asia. 

Stag-beetle  ( Lucanus ),  a  g  nus  of  coleopter¬ 
ous  insects,  of  the  family  LameUicorncs,  remark¬ 
able  for  the  large  projecting  mandibles  of  the 
males,  which  have  large  denticulations,  and  some¬ 
what  resemble  stags’  horns. 

Stag'gers  is  a  popular  term  applied  to  several 
diseases  of  horses.  Mad  or  sleepy  staggers  is  in¬ 
flammation  of  the  brain,  a  rare  but  fatal  com¬ 
plaint,  marked  by  high  fever,  a  staggering  gait, 
violent,  convulsive  struggling,  usually  terminat¬ 
ing  in  stupor;  and  treated  by  bleeding,  full 
doses  of  physic,  and  cold  applied  to  the  head. 
Grass  or  stomach  staggers  is  acute  indigestion, 
usually  occasioned  by  overloading  the  stomach 
and  bowels  with  tough,  hard  grass,  vetches,  or 
clover,  a  full  meal  of  wheat,  or  other  indigestible 
food.  It  is  most  common  in  summer  and  autumn, 
is  indicated  by  impaired  appetite,  distended  abdo¬ 
men,  dull  aspect,  unsteady  gait;  and  is  remedied 
by  full  doses  of  purgative  medicine,  such  as  six 
drachms  of  aloes  and  a  drachm  of  calomel  rubbed 
down  together,  and  given  in  a  quart  of  thin,  well- 
boiled  gruel.  Frequent  clysters,  with  hand-rub¬ 
bing  and  hot  water  to  the  belly,  are  likewise 
useful.  Where  the  dullness  increases,  stimulants 
should  be  freely  given. 

Stagliound,  a  large  and  powerful  kind  of 
hound,  formerly  much  used  in  England  for  hunt¬ 
ing  the  stag,  and  which  has  been  introduced  into 
this  country,  where  it  is  used  on  antelope,  deer, 
wolves,  etc. 

Stalac'tites  and  Stalagmites  are  found  in 
caves  and  other  places  where  water  charged  with 
carbonate  of  lime  is  subject  to  evaporation. 
Water  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid  is  able  to 
dissolve  lime,  and  as  all  rain  and  surface  water 
contains  more  or  less  carbonic  acid,  it  takes  up  in 
its  passage  through  the  earth  to  the  roofs  of  caves 
a  certain  amount  of  lime.  When  the  water  is 
exposed  on  the  roof  or  floor  of  the  cave,  evapora¬ 
tion  takes  place,  and  stalactites  form  in  the  roof, 
while  stalagmites  form  on  the  ground  beneath. 

Sta'mens  are  those  parts  in  the  flowers  of 
phanerogamous  phmts  which  excite  the  pistil  to 
the  formation  of  the  fruit,  and  thus  effect  fertili¬ 
zation  or  fecundation. 

Stamford,  a  town  of  Connecticut,  at  the  en¬ 
trance  of  Mill  river  into  Long  Island  Sound, 
thirty-six  miles  northeast  of  New  York.  Pop., 
11,300. 

Stammering  and  Defective  Speech.  .Stam¬ 
mering  is  an  affection  of  the  vocal  and  enuncia- 
tive  organs,  causing  a  hesitancy  and  difficulty  of 
utterance.  The  nervousness  which  unfits  the 
stammerer  for  self-direction  gradually  subsides  as 
his  will  attains  a  mastery  over  the  processes  of 
speech;  and  perseverance  in  a  discipline  of  system¬ 
atic  and  guarded  utterance  rarely  fails  to  remove 
the  impediment,  and  the  fear  which  accompanied 
it.  The  stammerer  should  be  counseled  to  take 
time  and  speak  slowly.  Parents  often  unwisely 
defer  the  attempt  to  correct  impediments  of  speech, 
in  the  hope  that  the  defects  will  disappear  as  the 
child  gains  strength  and  reaches  riperyears.  With 
this,  as  with  all  habits,  “prevention  is  better  than 
cure”and  stammering  would  be  easily  and  cert  ainly 
prevented  by  timely  advice  carried  out  with  ordi¬ 
nary  care  in  the  nursery.  The  habit  of  stammer¬ 
ing  can  only  be  counteracted  by  the  cultivation  of 
a  habit  of  correct  speaking;  and  the  latter  can 
only  be  acquired  by  studying  the  processes  of 
speech,  the  relation  of  breath  to  articulate  sound, 
the  positions  of  the  tongue  and  the  other  oral  or¬ 
gans  in  molding  the  outward  stream  of  air,  and 
by  a  patient  application  of  these  principles  in 
slow  and  watchful  exercise.  All  sound  originates 
in  the  throat,  and  all  effort  in  speech  must  be 
thrown  back  behind  the  articulating  organs, 


which  must  be  kept  passive,  yielding  to  the  air, 
always  opening  to  give  it  exit,  and  never  resisting 
it  by  ascent  of  the  tongue  or  of  the  jaw.  The 
head  must  be  held  firmly  on  the  neck,  to  give 
free  play  to  the  attached  organs;  and  the  great 
principle  must  never  be  lost  sight  of  that  speech 
is  breath;  and  that,  while  distinctness  defends  on 
precision  and  sharpness  of  the  oral  organs, 
fluency  depends  on  the  unrestrained  emission  of 
the  material  of  speech — the  air  we  breathe. 

Stamping  of  Metals.  For  the  ordinary  stamped 
brass-work,  a  stamping  machine  is  employed,  of 
which  the  essential  parts  are  a  die,  a  reverse  or 
counter-die,  and  a  hammer.  Pieces  of  thin 
rolled  brass  are  cut  to  size,  and  one  placed  upon 
the  die;  the  hammer,  with  the  counter-die,  is  now 
raised  to  a  sufficient  height  by  a  windlass  and 
rope,  or  other  means,  and  allowed  to  fall,  and 
thus  force  the  thin  plate  into  the  die.  The  plates 
from  the  first  blow  are  then  annealed.  Repeated 
blows  and  annealings  follow  until  the  article  is 
brought  up,  slight  alterations  in  the  reverse  being 
from  time  to  time  required.  Sometimes  as  many 
as  thirty  blows  are  necessary,  but  ten  or  twelve 
st  rokes  will  suffice  for  an  object  with  a  considerable 
depth  of  raising.  Globular  articles  are  stamped 
in  two  or  more  pieces,  and  then  soldered 
together. 

Stanardsville,  the  county  seat  of  Greene 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  375. 

Standing  Stones,  Large  rude  unhewn  blocks 
of  stone,  artificially  raised  to  an  erect  position  at 
some  remote  period,  have  been  found  in  almost 
every  part  of  the  world  where  man  has  fixed  his 
habitation.  They  are  in  Britain,  in  Continental 


Europe,  in  Assyri1.  India,  Persia,  and  even  in 
Mexico,  and  are  generally  of  such  a  size  that 
their  erection  presupposes  some  degree  of  skill  in 
the  use  of  mechanical  power.  The  purpose  for 
which  they  were  planted  is  not  known. 

Stanford,  the  county  seat  of  Lincoln  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  3,600. 

Stanley,  Henry  M.,  American  journalist  and 
explorer  of  Africa,  was  born  in  1841.  He  became 
notable  as  a  newspaper  correspondent,  but  it  was 
as  the  discoverer  of  Livingstone  he  obtained  a 
world-wide  reputation.  Commissioned  by  the  pro¬ 
prietor  of  his  newspaper,  Stanley  started  from 
Zanzibar  in  April,  1871,  and  succeeded  in  meet¬ 
ing  Livingstone  at  Ujiji  on  November  10th.  By 
his  subsequent  exploration  of  the  lake  region  of 
equatorial  Africa  and  of  the  Lualaba-Congo'  in 
1874-7  he  has  placed  himself  in  the  front  rank  of 
African  travelers.  He  is  at  present  in  the  interior 
of  Central  Africa. 

Stanton,  the  name  of  four  towns  in  the  United 
States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Mercer 
county,  N.  Dak.  Pop.,  100. — 2.  The  county  seat 
of  Montcalm  county,  Mich.  Pop.,  2,500. — 3.  The 
county  seat  of  Powell  county,  Ky.  Pop.,  175. — 4. 
The  countyseat  of  Stanton  county,  Neb.  Pop. ,900. 

Staph 'ylonia  is  a  term  employed  by  the  ocu¬ 
list  to  signify  any  protrusion  on  the  anterior  sur¬ 
face  of  the  eye.  Staphyloma  of  the  iris  occurs 
when  there  is  a  protrusion  of  the  iris  through  a 
perforation  of  the  cornea,  consequent  either  on 
ulceration  or  on  a  wound.  Staphyloma  of  the 
cornea  occurs  when  that  coat  of  the  eye  is  more 
or  less  completely  destroyed,  and  when  the 
cicatrix  with  which  the  iris  has  become  covered 
is  caused  to  protrude  by  the  pressure  of  the 
fluids  of  the  eye,  in  the  form  of  an  opaque  white 
prominence.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  de¬ 
tails  of  the  treatment  of  these  affections,  which 
must  be  left  entirely  to  the  hands  of  the  surgeon. 


Star,  in  Heraldry.  The  star  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  as  a  heraldic  bearing;  it  sometimes 
represents  the  heavenly  body  so  called,  and  some- 


Stars. 


times  the  rowel  of  a  spur.  In  the  latter  case  it  is 
blazoned  a  mullet. 

Star,  Order  of  the,  an  order  of  knight¬ 
hood  formerly  existing  in  France,  founded  by 
John  II.  in  1350,  in  imitation  of  the  then 
recently  instituted  order  of  the  Garter  in  Eng¬ 
land. 

Star  Apple  ( Clirysopliyllum ),  a  genus  of  trees 
and  shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Sapotacece.  The 
species  are  natives  of  tropical  and  sub  tropical 
countries. 

Starch,  or  Amylaceous  Matter  (CellmOs),  is 
an  organized  substance  of  the  class  known  as 
carbo-hydrates,  which  occurs  in  roundish  or  oval 
grains  in  the  cellular  tissue  of  certain  parts  of 
plants.  It  is  widely  diffused  through  the  vege¬ 
table  kingdom,  and  is  especially  abundant  in  the 
seeds  of  the  cereals,  in  the  seeds  of  leguminous 
plants,  such  as  pease  and  beans,  in  the  tuber  of  the 
potato,  in  the  roots  of  arrowroot  and  tapioca,  in 
the  pith  of  the  sago  palm,  etc.  Ordinary  com¬ 
mercial  starch  occurs  either  as  a  white  glistening 
powder,  or  in  masses  which  are  readily  pulver¬ 
ized;  and  when  pressed  between  the  fingers  it 
evolves  a  slight  but  peculiar  sound.  It  is  heavier 
than  water,  and  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  alcohol, 
and  ether.  Starch  is  usually  obtained  by  a 
simply  mechanical  separation  of  it  from  the  other 
ingredients  with  which  it  is  associated;  advan¬ 
tage  being  taken  of  its  insolubility  in  cold  water. 
The  details  of  the  mode  of  separation  vary 
according  to  the  source  from  which  it  is  pro¬ 
cured,  but  in  all  cases  mechanical  appliances  are 
designed  for  the  purpose. 

St«ar  City,  the  county  seat  of  Lincoln  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  580. 

Star-fish  ( Asteriadw ),  a  family  of  Echinoder- 
mata,  having  in  the  center  of  the  body  a  stomach 
with  only  one  aperture,  but  extending  by  two 


Common  Cross-fish  (Uraster  rubers)  \  2.  Gibbous  Star¬ 
let  (Asterina  gibbosa) ;  3,  Common  Cross-fish,  reproduc¬ 
ing  rays;  4.  Eyed  Cribella  (C ribella  oculata) ;  5,  Lesser 
Sand-star  (.  Ophiura  albida).—  From  Forbes’  British  Star¬ 
fishes. 

much-branched  caeca,  into  each  of  the  rays  into 
which  the  body  is  divided. 

Starkville,  the  county  seat  of  Oktibbeha 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Starvation,  or  Inani'tion,  are  terms  applied 
to  the  phenomena  resulting  from  an  entire 
deficiency,  or  an  insufficient  supply  of  food.  It 
is  impossible  to  fix  the  exact  lime  during  which 
life  can  be  supported  under  entire  abstinence  from 
food  or  drink.  One  instance  is  given  of  a  healthy 
man,  aged  sixty-five,  who  was  found  alive  after 
having  been  shut  up  in  a  coal  mine  for  twenty- 
three  days,  during  the  first  ten  of  which  he  was 
able  to  procure  a  small  quantity  of  foul  water.  He 
was  in  a  state  of  extreme  exhaustion,  and  notwith¬ 
standing  that  he  was  carefully  nursed,  he  died 
three  days  after  his  rescue.  A  young  man  under 


42 


STARLING. 


658 


STEAM-ENGINE. 


the  influence  of  religious  delusion,  starved  him¬ 
self  to  death.  He  survived  for  sixty  days,  during 
which  time  he  took  nothing  but  a  little  orange 
juice.  In  this  case,  life  was  probably  abnormal¬ 
ly  prolonged  in  consequence  of  the  peculiar 
emotional  excitement  of  the  patient.  Numerous 
other  instances  are  on  record  of  persons  who  have 
abstained  from  eating  thirty  to  fifty  days.  Some 
of  these  have  then  eaten  and  recovered;  others 
have  persisted  in  fasting  until  death  ensued. 

Star 'ling  (Sturnus),  a  Linnaian  genus  of  birds, 
of  the  order  I nsessorea;  now  the  family  Star- 
niilce;  nearly  allied  to  Corvidce,  but  in  general  of 


Starling  ( Sturnus  vulgaris). 


smaller  size;  the  bill  more  slender  and  com¬ 
pressed,  its  point  nail-like;  the  wings  long  and 
pointed. 

Star  of  Bethlehem  ( Ornithogalum ),  a  genus 
of  bulbous-rooted  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Liliacece,  nearly  allied  to  squills  and  hyacinths. 

Sta'tant,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  applied  to  an 
animal  standing  still,  with  all  the  feet  touching 
the  ground. 

Stat'en  Island,  an  island,  which  forms  the 
west  shore  of  the  bay  and  narrows,  and  the  south 
shore  of  the  harbor  of  New  York.  It  contains 
584-  square  miles.  Pop.  (1875),  85,241. 

Statenville,  the  county  seat  of  Echols  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  100. 

Statesborough,  the  county  seat  of  Bulloch 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  300. 

States-general  (Fr.  etats  generaux),  the  name 
which  was  given  to  the  convocation  of  the  repre¬ 
sentative  body  of  the  three  orders  of  the  French 
kingdom  ;  so  named  in  contradistinction  from  the 
etats  provincial! x,  or  assemblies  of  the  provinces. 

Statesville,  the  county  seat  of  Iredell  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Sta'tice,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Plumbaginece,  having  a  funnel-shaped,  membran¬ 
aceous,  and  plaited  corolla  ;  the  flowers  in  spikes 
on  one  side  of  a  panicled,  leafless  flowering  stem 
(scape). 

Staun'ton,  a  rapidly  increasing  town  of  Vir¬ 
ginia,  on  a  branch  of  the  Shenandoah  river,  100 
miles  west-northwest  of  Richmond.  It  contains 
nine  churches,  three  newspapers,  several  acade¬ 
mies  and  seminaries,  mills,  foundries,  and  manu¬ 
factories.  Pop.,  9,050. 

Stavro'pol,  a  government  in  Russian  Caucasia 
bounded  on  the  nort  li  by  the  Government  of  Astra¬ 
khan,  and  by  the  country  of  the  Don  Cossacks; 
by  the  Caspian  Sea  on  the  east;  and  by  the  Cau¬ 
casus  on  the  south.  Area,  27,000  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1871),  437,118. 

Stavropol,  capital  of  the  government,  stands 
on  the  chief  highway  from  Europe  to  the  Cau¬ 
casus,  200  miles  southeast  of  Rostov.  Pop.  (1867), 
20,927. 

Steam.  Steam  is  water  in  the  gaseous  form. 
When  dry,  it  is  invisible  and  transparent,  like 
air,  and  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  vapor, 
which  is  steam  returned  to  the  state  of  water,  and 
thus  becomes  visible — water-dust,  as  it  were.  The 
development  of  steam  is  connected  popularly  with 
a  high  temperature,  but  the  two  things  do  not 
necessarily  go  together.  Water  (or  snow,  or  ice) 
gives  olf  vapor  or  steam  at  every  temperature — a 
low  temperature  not  preventing  the  formation  of 
steam,  but  only  decreasing  its  density.  The  only 
limit  to  this  evaporation  is  when  the  air  surround¬ 
ing  the  water  (or  snow,  etc.)  is  already  satin  ated 
with  vapor  of  the  maximum  density  which  the 


water  can  give  off  at  the  existing  temperature.  It 
is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  while  no  atmospheric 
pressure  can  prevent  the  water  or  ice  passing  into 
vapor,  the  previous  presence  in  the  air  of  vapor  of 
the  required  density  (even  when  so  small  as  in  the 
instance  just  given)  entirely  stops  it.  It  is  at  212° 
that  water  in  an  open  vessel  begins  to  boil;  that 
is,  the  vapor  rises  rapidly  and  in  volumes,  being 
able  to  displace  the  atmosphere.  In  this  state,  it 
is  usually  called  steam  ;  but  there  is  no  essential 
difference  between  steam  at  212°  and  steam  at 
60°.  The  steam  rising  from  boiling  water  in  an 
open  vessel  is  of  the  same  temperature  as  the 
water — viz.,  212°  ;  but  notwithstanding  this,  it 
contains  a  great  deal  more  heat.  This  heat  is 
employed  (to  use  popular  language)  in  forcing 
asunder  the  molecules  of  the  steam,  and  thus 
causing  it  to  occupy  so  much  greater  bulk  as 
steam  than  as  water.  It  does  not  make  itself 


The  piston,  by  means  of  a  rod  passing  through 
the  end  of  the  box,  is  made  to  communicate  mo¬ 
tion  to  the  rest  of  the  machinery.  The  steam  is 
first  admitted  to  one  end  of  the  cylinder  through 
an  opening,  and  forces  the  piston  along  to  the 
other  end.  The  current  of  steam  from  the  boiler 
is  then  allowed  to  pass  into  the  other  end  of  the 
cylinder  through  the  opening  and  forces  the  pislo,n 
back  again  to  its  original  position,  and  so  on. 
But  while  this  return-motion  is  going  on,  the 
steam  previously  admitted  must  be  allowed  some 
exit,  or  the  piston  could  not  be  forced  back.  The 
manner  of  this  exit  constitutes  the  difference  be¬ 
tween  the  two  principal  classes  of  engines,  accord¬ 
ing  as  the  steam  is  allowed  simply  to  rush  out  in¬ 
to  the  atmosphere,  oris  conducted  into  a  separate 
vessel,  and  there  condensed.  The  simplest  way 
in  which  steam  can  be  used  in  a  cyfinder  is  at  the 
same  time  the  most  wasteful.  It  consists  in  fill- 


known  by  the  thermometer  and  is  therefore  called  ing  each  end  of  the  cylinder  alternately  full  of 


latent  heat,  but  its  existence  and  quantity  may  be 
determined  by  ascertaining  the  bulk  of  water  it 
will  raise  a  given  number  of  degrees  in  temperature. 
When  a  cubic  inch  of  water  is  converted  into  steam 
at  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  its  vol¬ 
ume  is  increased  to  1,645  cubic  inches — i.  c.,  a  cubic 
inch  of  water  becomes  nearly  a  cubic  foot  of  steam 
of  one  atmosphere.  If  the  steam  is  produced  at  any 
greater  pressure,  its  volume  will  be  nearly  inversely 
as  that  pressure;  at  two  atmospheres,  it  would 
occupy  about  855  cubic  inches;  at  four  atmos¬ 
pheres,  about  457  cubic  inches.  When  water  is 
boiled  in  an  open  vessel,  neither  the  temperature 
of  the  water,  nor  that  of  the  steam  rising  from  it, 
ever  rises  higher  than  212°,  however  hot  the  fire; 
the  heat  as  it  enters  is  carried  off  in  a  latent  state 
in  the  steam.  But  under  pressure,  the  tempera¬ 
ture  of  both  can  be  raised  to  any  degree. 

Steam-engine.  Steam-engines,  in  their  in¬ 
fancy,  were  known  as  “fire”  (that  is,  heat)  en¬ 
gines;  and  in  point  of  fact  the  older  term  is  the 
more  correct,  because  the  water  or  steam  is  only 
used  as  a  convenient  medium  through  which  the 
form  of  energy  which  we  call  heat  is  made  to 
perform  the  required  mechanical  operations.  In 
modern  engines,  sufficient  heat  is  added  to  the 
steam  to  raise  it  to  a  high  pressure,  and  the  excess 
of  this  pressure  over  the  pressure  opposed  to  it 
(either  atmospheric  pressure  or  the  still  lower 
pressure  in  a  condenser)  is  both  the  cause  and 
measure  of  the  work  done  by  the  engine.  In 
earlier  machines,  however,  the  steam  was  raised 
only  to  atmospheric  pressure,  and  admitted  into 
the  engine  only  to  be  at  once  condensed  by  a  jet 
of  cold  water.  The  excess  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure  above  the  pressure  in  the  partial  vacuum 
caused  by  the  condensation  was  then  the  direct 
cause  of  work.  Engines  of  this  kind  are  not 
now  used;  they  were  called  atmospheric  engines. 
The  common  mode  of  employing  steam  in  an 


Watt's  Double-Acting  Condensing  Engine. 

engine  is  by  causing  it  to  press  alternately  on  the 
two  surfaces  of  a  movable  diaphragm  or  piston 
inclosed  in  a  fixed,  steam-tight,  cylindrical  box. 


steam  direct  from  the  boiler,  and  having  the  full 
boiler  pressure,  and  thus  forcing  the  piston  along 
in  exactly  the  same  way  as  that  in  which  it  would 
have  to  be  forced  were  water  the  fluid  used  instead 
of  steam.  If  wre  imagine  the  cylinder  to  have 
a  capacity  of  seven  cubic  feet,  then,  if  it  be 
filled  entirely  with  steam  from  the  boiler  at  sixty 
pounds  pressure,  it  will  contain  just  one  pound- 
weight  of  steam.  The  total  heat  in  this  pound 
of  steam,  is  equivalent  to  1,171  thermal  units. 
When  the  pist"n  has  reached  the  end  of  its 
stroke  the  steam  contained  in  the  cylinder  is 
thus  in  itself  a  great  store-house  of  work,  for 
each  of  these  thermal  units  is  equivalent  to  772 
foot-pounds  of  mechanical  energy.  But  instead 
of  utilizing  this  force,  at  the  moment  when  the 
cylinder  is  full  of  steam,  one  opening  is  put  into 
communication  with  the  boiler,  the  other  with  the 
atmosphere,  and  the  steam  immediately  rushes 
out  of  the  cylinder,  and  dissipates  its  contained 
energy  through  the  air.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  although  the  steam,  when  allowed  to  go  into 
the  atmosphere,  is  immediately  reduced  to  the 
pressure  corresponding  to  the  temperature  of  the 
air  (which  in  ordinary  cases  would  be  only  a  frac¬ 
tion  of  a  pound  per  square  inch),  still  the  full 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  itself  will  always  be 
acting  on  the  back  of  the  piston  during  its  stroke; 
and  that  therefore,  to  find  the  force  with  which 
the  piston  is  being  pushed  along,  wre  must  sub¬ 
tract  that  pressure  from  the  steam-pressure.  On 
the  one  side  of  the  piston  will  be  the  atmosphere-* 
with  its  -uniform  pressure  of  nearly  15  pounds 
per  square  inch,  and  on  the  other  side  the  steam 
pressure  of  60  pounds,  The  effective  pressure 
thus  will  be  60 — 15,  or  45  pounds  per  square  inch 
only.  The  process  commonly  called  condensa¬ 
tion,  and  associated  with  the  idea  of  liquefaction, 
consists  in  essence  merely  of  the  subtraction  from 
steam  of  a  portion  of  its  sensible  beat.  This  reduc¬ 
tion  of  temperature  lias  a 
double  effect  on  the  steam 
— first,  the  liquefaction  of 
a  part  of  it;  and  then,  the 
reduction  of  the  rest  to  the 
pressure  corresponding  to 
the  reduced  temperature. 
One  of  the  properties  pos¬ 
sessed  by  steam,  in  com¬ 
mon  w'itli  all  other  gases,  is 
a  tendency  to  expand  in¬ 
definitely.  If  we  have  a 
cylinder  of  the  same  area 
as  before,  but  of  twice  the 
length,  but  only  intend  to 
admit  one  pound  of  steam 
into  it  at  a  time,  it  will  be 
necessary,  when  the  piston 
has  traveled  34  feet  of  its 
stroke,  to  shut  the  entrance 
valve,  so  as  to  prevent  more 
steam  entering ;  this  is  called 
cutting  off  the  steam.  The 
piston,  however,  still  con¬ 
tinues  its  motion  in  the 
same  direction  as  before, 

( propelled  by  the  internal 
J  separative  energy  among 
the  particles  of  steam. 


But  as  it  is  pressed  forward,  the  space  occupied 
by  the  steam  is  always  increasing,  and  its  press¬ 
ure  always  decreasing,  in  proportion,  until  at 


STEAM-HAMMER. 


659 


STEREOTYPING. 


length,  when  the  piston  lias  reached  the  end  of 
its  stroke,  the  steam  occupies  exacily  double  its 
original  volume — namely,  14  cubic  feet,  and  is 
reduced  in  pressure  to  half  its  original  pressure — 
namely,  to  30  pounds  per  square  inch.  We 
have  thus  during  the  first  half  of  the  stroke  a 
constant  pressure  on  the  piston  of  00  pounds  per 
square  inch,  and  during  the  second  half  a  press¬ 
ure  gradually  decreasing  from  60  to  30  pounds. 
The  mean  pressure  during  this  second  half  of 
the  stroke  will  be  found  on  calculation  to  be 
almost  exactly  40  pounds.  In  the  first  half  of 
the  stroke  we  have  59,472  foot-pounds  of  work 
exactly  as  before,  and  then  we  have  in  addition  a 
mean  pressure  of  40 — 1,  or  39  pounds  per  square 
inch,  exerted  over  288  square  inches  for  a  distance 
of  3|  feet.  This  equals  39,312  foot-pounds, 
making  a  total  of  98,784  foot-pounds  of  work 
obtained  from  the  steam  which  only  gave  us 
59,472  before.  If  the  cylinder  had  been  four 
times  its  original  length,  and  the  steam  had  been 
cut  off  at  the  same  point  as  before  (which  would 
then  be  quarter  stroke),  we  should  have  obtained 
from  the  1  pound  of  steam  144,345  foot-pounds 
of  work.  It'  we  had  expanded  the  pound  of  steam 
into  eight  times  its  original  volume,  we  should 
have  obtained  179,984  foot-pounds  of  work.  All 
modern  engines  are  worked  more  or  less  on  this 
principle  of  expansion ,  and  the  general  tendency 
seems  to  be  every  year  to  adopt  higher  initial 
pressures,  and  larger  ratios  of  expansion.  The 
figure  represents  Watt’s  double-acting  condensing 
engine,  which  was  among  the  first  built.  By 
double-acting  engine  is  meant  an  engine  in  which 
the  steam  acts  on  both  sides  of  the  piston  instead 
of  only  on  one.  as  in  Newcomen’s  engine.  Watt’s 
engine,  though  not  of  the  form  now  generally 
used,  contains  all  the  parts  now  considered  essen¬ 
tial  ,  and  we  may  therefore  describe  it  before  say¬ 
ing  anything  about  these  parts  in  detail.  The 
steam  from  the  boiler  passes  direct  to  the  valve- 
chest  v,  which  is  simply  a  long  box  attached  to 
the  cylinder  a.  In  this  chest  are  placed  valves, 
which  are  so  regulated  as  to  open  communication 
between  the  boiler,  cylinder,  and  condenser,  in 
such  a  way  that  when  the  top  of  the  cylinder  is 
open  to  the  boiler,  the  bottom  communicates 
with  the  condenser,  and  vice  versa.  When  the 
steam  has  done  its  work  it  passes  out  through  the 
bent  pipe  into  the  condenser/,  where  it  is  met  by 
a  jet  of  water  (not  shown  in  the  engraving),  and 
condensed  as  before  explained,  g  is  a  pump 
called  the  air-pump,  which  continually  draws 
away  the  contents  of  the  condenser,  and  dis¬ 
charges  them  into  a  cistern  h,  called  the  hot-well. 
A  small  force-pump,  j,  draws  part  of  the  water 
from  this  cistern,  and  sends  it  back  again  to  the 
boiler,  there  to  be  reconverted  iuto  steam,  while 
the  rest  of  the  water  is  allowed  to  run  to  waste. 
A  suction-pump,  k,  supplies  water  to  the  large 
tank  round  the  condenser,  and  also  for  the  con¬ 
densing  jet.  Inside  the  cylinder  are  the  piston 
and  the  rod  (called  the  piston-rod)  connecting  it 
with  the  beam  bb.  In  the  double-acting  engine, 
the  piston-rod  is  required  both  to  pull  and  to 
push  the  beam.  It  is  obvious  that  as  the  head  of 
the  rod  must  move  in  a  straight  line,  while  every 
point  in  the  beam  describes  an  arc  of  a  circle,  the 
two  can  not  be  rigidly  connected.  Watt  in¬ 
vented  the  arrangement  of  rods  by  which 
the  piston-rod  head  is  always  guided  in  a 
straight  line,  while  the  end  of  the  beam  is 
left  free  to  pursue  its  own  course.  The  end  of 
the  beam  furthest  from  the  cylinder  is  connected 
by  a  rod  cc,  called  a  connecting  rod,  to  the  crank 
l,  which  is  firmly  fixed  on  the  shaft;  and  by  this 
means  the  reciprocating  motion  of  the  beam  is 
converted  into  the  rotary  motion  of  the  “crank¬ 
shaft”  r.  The  governor  m,  and  the  fly-wheel 
ee,  will  be  explained  further  on.  The  cylinder 
and  its  piston  are  both  made  of  cast-iron.  The 
former  is  accurately  bored  in  a  lathe,  and  ought 
always  to  be  covered  outside  with  non-conduct¬ 
ing  material  to  prevent  radiation  of  heat.  It  is 
frequently  inclosed  in  another  cylinder,  and  the 
annular  space,  or  jacket,  between  them  filled  with 
steam  from  the  boiler,  principally  with  the  object 
of  preventing  liquefaction  in  the  cylinder,  which 
is  fatal  to  economical  working.  The  openings 
for  the  entrance  or  discharge  of  the  steam  are 
called  ports.  The  valve  or  valves  which  regulate 
the  admission  of  steam  to  the  cylinder  vary  in 


construction  and  design.  In  ordinary  engines 
one  valve,  called  a  slide-valve,  does  the  whole 
work  for  each  cylinder.  The  fly-wheel  is  a  large 
wheel  fixed  on  the  crank  shaft,  and  having  a 
heavy  rim.  As  it  revolves,  this  contains,  stored 
up  in  itself,  a  great  quantity  of  energy,  and  so 
equalizes  the  motion  of  the  shaft,  and,  by  restor¬ 
ing  some  of  the  energy,  enables  the  engine  to  pass 
the  dead-points,  or  points  at  which  the  connect¬ 
ing-rod  and  crank  are  in  a  line.  The  condenser 
is  simply  a  cast-iron  box  of  any  convenient  shape. 
The  water  for  condensing  the  steam  is  introduced 
into  it  in  a  jet  in  such  a  way  that  its  particles 
mix  with  the  steam  at  once  on  entering,  and  con¬ 
denses  it  almost  instantaneously.  The  governor 
is  an  ingenious  application  bv  Watt  of  mechanism 
long  used  in  water-mills.  Its  object  is  to  make 
the  engine  to  a  great  extent  regulate  its  own 
speed,  so  that  it  shall  neither  be  pulled  up  alto¬ 
gether  by  a  sudden  increase  of  load,  nor  race 
when  any  part  of  its  load  is  suddenly  removed. 
It  consists  essentially  of  a  spindle  or  upright  rod, 
with  a  pulley,  by  which  it  is  caused  to  revolve, 
fixed  on  it.  Two  levers  are  pivoted  on  a  pin 
near  the  top  of  the  spindle,  and  at  the  lower  end 
of  each  is  fixed  a  heavy  cast-iron  ball.  When 
the  engine  is  running  at  its  proper  speed,  the 
balls  revolve  with  the  spindle,  but  if  that  speed 
be  increased,  the  centrifugal  force  causes  them  to 
fly  outward,  and  consequently  upward;  and  con¬ 
versely,  if  it  be  decreased,  they  fall  downward 
toward  the  center.  At  the  upper  end  of  the 
spindle  is  a  system  of  levers,  by  which  the  raising 
of  the  balls  tend  to  close,  and  their  lowering  to 
open,  the  throttle-valve.  This  valve  is  simply  a 
disc  of  metal  placed  in  the  steam-pipe  near  the 
cylinder.  The  further,  therefore,  it  is  opened, 
the  greater  the  amount  of  steam  admitted  to  the 
cylinder,  and  vice  versa ,  and  so  the  tendency  of 
the  engine  to  alter  its  speed  arising  from  causes 
extraneous  to  itself,  is  just  balanced  by  the  altera¬ 
tion  made  in  the  amount  of  steam  admitted 
through  the  throttle-valve.  In  order  that  econ¬ 
omy  as  well  as  regularity  of  working  may  be 
attained,  the  governor  should,  however,  be  so 
arranged  as  to  control  the  cut-off  instead  of 
throttling  the  steam.  In  locomotive  engines  it  is 
necessary  that  the  whole  machinery  should  be 
compressed  into  the  smallest  possible  bulk,,  and 
this  necessity  is  the  cause  of  their  principal 
peculiarities.  The  engine  itself  is  much  the 
same  as  an  ordinary  horizontal  engine, and  has  two 
cylinders  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  smoke-box, 
and  partly  inclosed  in  it.  In  all  marine  engines, 
except  the  very  smallest,  two  cylinders  are  used, 
working  cranks  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  so 
as  to  equalize  the  motion  as  far  as  possible,  it 
being  almost  impossible  to  use  a  fly-wheel  of 
sufficient  weight  for  that  purpose  on  board  ship. 
In  compound  engines,  the  two  cylinders  are  of 
unequal  size — the  larger,  called  the  low-pressure 
cylinder,  having  from  three  to  four  times  the 
capacity  of  the  smaller  or  high-pressure  cylinder. 
The  steam  from  the  boiler  is  admitted  into  the 
latter  in  the  usual  way,  and  cut  off  generally  at 
from  J  to  |  of  the  stroke;  and  after  doing  its 
work  there,  it  is  conducted  to  the  large  cylinder 
where  its  reduced  pressure,  by  acting  on  an 
increased  area,  does  as  much  work  as  in  the  other 
cylinder,  and  thence  to  the  condenser.  This 
system  of  engine  has  several  notable  advantages 
— among  which  are  that  the  internal  stresses  are 
more  uniform  than  in  ordinary  engines;  that 
leakage  past  the  piston  becomes  of  less  import¬ 
ance;  and  that  for  any  given  large  measure  of 
expansion,  the  mechanism  of  the  engine  is  much 
more  simple  and  less  liable  to  get  out  of  order 
than  for  the  same  degree  of  expansion  carried  out 
independently  in  two  cylinders. 

Steam-hammer,  The,  has  doubtlessly  con¬ 
tributed  more  than  any  other  mechanical  inven¬ 
tion  of  modern  times  in  developing  the  wonder¬ 
ful  resources  of  the  iron  trade.  In  the  best 
modern  steam-hammers  the  steam  is  admitted  to 
raise  the  piston,  and  when  it  has  attained  the 
required  elevation,  and  at  the  very  moment  when 
about  to  descend,  the  steam  is  admitted  into  the 
cylinder  above  the  piston,  which  accelerates  and 
increases  the  intensity  of  the  falling  blow  and  the 
consequent  capacity  of  the  hammer.  One  of  the 
largest  steam-hammers  yet  constructed  is  at  Perm 
(a  town  in  the  Northeast  of  Russia),  and  is  used 


for  the  manufacture  of  large  cast-steel  guns.  It 
is  a  50-tou  hammer,  made  double-acting,  so  as 
to  be  equal  to  a  100  ton  single-acting  one.  Its 
anvil-block  is  the  largest  casting  ever  made 
weighing  considerably  more  than  500  tons. 

Ste'atite,  or  Soap-stone,  a  mineral  principally 
composed  of  silica  and  magnesia,  with  more  or 
less  alumina  and  water.  It  is  found  massive,  or 
sometimes  assuming  the  forms  of  the  crystals  of 
other  minerals  which  it  has  replaced.  It  is  plen¬ 
tiful  in  many  parts  of  the  world. 

Steele,  Sir  Richard,  one  of  the  most  famous 
of  British  novelists,  was  born  in  Dublin  in  the 
year  1671,  and  died  at  Llangunuor,  near  Carmar¬ 
then, Wales,  Sept.  21,  1729. 

Steel  ville,  the  county  seat  of  Crawford  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  700. 

Steilacoom,  the  county  seat  of  Pierce  county, 
Wash.  Pop.,  275. 

Stem,  in  Botany,  that  part  of  the  plant  which, 
arising  from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  shoot¬ 
ing  upward  as  the  root  shoots  downward,  bears 
the  leaves  and  flowers. 

Stephen,  St.,  The  Deacon,  called  also  the 
Protomartyr,  or  earliest  of  the  Christian  martyrs, 
was  one  of  the  seven  deacons  named  in  Acts,  chap, 
vi,  where  his  martyrdom  is  also  described .  I  lis  festi¬ 
val  is  fixed  during  the  festivals  which  accompany 
that  of  Christmas. 

Stephen,  King  of  England,  was  born  in  1 105. 
He  was  crowned  in  1135,  and  died  Oct.  25,  1154. 

Stephenson,  George,  inventor  of  the  locomo¬ 
tive  engine,  was  born  at  Wylam,  England,  June 
9,  1781,  and  died  Aug.  12,  1848. 

Stephenson,  Robert,  the  engineer  who  de¬ 
signed  the  Brittania  tubular  bridge,  only  son  of 
George  Stephenson,  was  born  Oct.  16,  1803.  He 
died  Oct.  12,  1859. 

Stephenville,  the  county  seat  of  Earth  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  1,150. 

Steppes  the  name  applied  to  those  extensive 
plains  which,  with  the  occasional  interpolation 
of  low  ranges  of  hills,  stretch  from  the  Dnieper 
across  the  Southeast  of  European  Russia,  round 
the  shores  of  the  Caspian  and  Aral  Seas  be¬ 
tween  the  Altai  and  Ural  chains,  and  occupy 
the  low  lands  of  Siberia.  The  word,  which  is  of 
Russian  origin,  denotes  primarily  an  uncultivated 
plain  of  great  extent,  and  has  been  applied  by 
geographers  to  the  above-mentioned  regions  as  ex¬ 
pressive  of  their  flat,  semi-barren ,  t  reeless  character. 

Sterculia'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  closely  allied  to  Malvaceae,  and  Byttner- 
iacece,  and  consisting  of  large  trees  and  shrubs, 
natives  of  warm  climates. 

Ste'reoscope,  is  an  optical  instrument  of 
modern  invention,  by  means  of  which  pictures 
of  objects  possessing  three  dimensions  are  seen 
not  as  plane  representations,  but  with  an  appear¬ 
ance  of  solidity  or  relief,  as  in  ordinary  vision  of 
the  objects  themselves.  The  essential  principle 
of  the  stereoscope  may  be  thus  explained; — The 
eyes  being  separated  by  a  certain  interval  of  space, 
all  solid  objects  so  near  to  the  observer  as  to  be 
seen  with  a  sensible  convergence  of  the  optic  axes, 
necessarily  form  retinal  pictures,  differing  as  to 
their  perspective  projections  for  each  eye.  This 
dissimilarity  of  the  retinal  images  is  made  to  sub¬ 
serve  an  important  end  in  the  use  of  our  visual 
organs — that  it  is,  in  fact,  the  principal  originating 
cause  of  our  immediate  perception  of  the  solidity 
(or  relief)  of  objects  adjacent  to  the  sight.  In 
order  to  overcome  this  state  of  vision  the  stereo¬ 
scope  was  devised.  It  consists  of  two  semi-lenses 
placed  in  a  frame,  so  that  their  focal  points  con¬ 
verge  to  a  common  center,  at  6  to  8  inches  from 
the  lens  frame.  The  pictures  (taken,  be  it  remem¬ 
bered,  from  two  different  points  of  view)  are 
mounted  side  by  side,  on  a  piece  of  cardboard, 
and,  being  placed  in  a  sliding  frame,  in  front 
of  the  lenses,  are  viewed  through  the  semi-lenses, 
fixed  at  the  distance  apart  of  the  two  eyes.  The 
subsidiary  purposes  served  by  this  arrangement 
are,  that  the  pictures  arc  magnified  as  well  as 
caused  to  coalesce;  and  that  the  quality  of  the 
magnifying  power  of  the  eye-pieces  (a  result  by 
no  other  means  certainly  attainable)  is  secured  by 
the  fact  of  their  being  cut  from  the  same  lens,  the 
whole  of  which  is  thus  advantageously  and  eco¬ 
nomically  utilized. 

Stereotyping,  the  art  of  fabricating  metal 
plates,  resembling  pages  of  type,  from  which 


STERLING. 


STOMACH. 


660 


impressions  may  be  taken  as  in  ordinary  letter- 
press  printing.  The  plates,  which  are  composed  of 
type-metal,  are  about  of  an  inch  thick,  smooth 
on  the  back,  and  having  a  face  resembling  a  page 
of  movable  type.  To  yield  an  impression,  the 
plates  are  fastened  by  a  temporary  arrange¬ 
ment  to  blocks  of  wood — plate  and  block  together 
being  the  height  of  a  type,  or  one  inch.  The 
page  of  type  being  set,  corrected,  cleaned,  and 
fixed  in  a  frame,  is  laid  on  a  smooth  iron  table, 
face  upward;  a  little  fine  oil  is  brushed  over  it, 
to  prevent  the  liquid  stucco  from  adhering;  the 
stucco  to  the  consistency  of  cream  is  now  poured 
over  the  face  of  the  page,  and  straightened  over 
it  in  the  process  of  hardening;  when  hardened, 
the  cake  of  stucco  is  lifted  off,  and  is  seen  to  be 
a  perfect  mold  of  the  types.  The  cake  is  now 
baked  in  an  oven,  and  then  placed  inauiron  pan; 
the  pan,  which  has  inlets  at  the  upper  side,  is 
plunged  into  molten  metal,  which  soon  runs  into 
the  mold;  being  lifted  out  and  cooled,  the  pan 
is  opened  and  found  to  contain  a  plate  resem¬ 
bling  the  page  of  type;  the  mold  is  broken  and  of 
no  further  use.  When  removed  from  the  pan, 
the  plate  is  rough  and  needs  to  be  trimmed  for 
working;  for  this  purpose,  it  passes  through  the 
hands  of  artisans,  who  prepare  it  for  the  press. 
Should  any  particular  letter  be  defective,  it  is 
dug  out,  and  a  corresponding  type  inserted;  the 
end  of  which  type  is  cut  off  at  the  back  of  the 
plate  by  a  soldering  bolt.  In  preparing  platesfor 
press,  nothing  is  more  important  than  giving  a 
high  degree  of  level  smooth  ness  to  the  back,  and  to 
effect  thiscertain  planingandsmoothing  operations 
are  adopted.  Such  is  the  old  andwell-known  stucco 
process  of  stereotyping.  Latterly,  there  have  been 
divers  improvements,  as  in  taking  the  impres¬ 
sion  in  papier-mache,  etc.,  but  the  principle  is  in 
all  cases  the  same.  Plates  properly  manufactured, 
stored,  and  mended  when  necessary,  will  last  for 
repeated  impressions  to  the  extent  of  hundreds  of 
thousands  over  a  long  series  of  years. 

Sterling,  the  county  seat  of  Logan  county, 
Col.  Pop.,  550. 

Sterling,  the  county  seat  of  Whiteside  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  0,600. 

Steth'oscope,  The,  is  an  instrument  for  exam¬ 
ining  the  sounds  of  the  chest.  The  main  object 
of  the  stethoscope  being  to  circumscribe  and 
localize  the  sounds  which  it  transmits,  the  chest 
end  should  be  small,  in  order  to  determine  the 
exact  seat  of  the  greatest  intensity  of  sound.  To 
ascertain  this,  the  instrument  should  be  moved 
right  and  left,  up  and  down,  till  its  end  is  on  the 
exact  spot  from  which  the  abnormal  sound  for 
which  we  are  searching — or,  it  may  be,  the 
absence  of  sound — proceeds. 

Stettin',  an  ancient  town  of  Prussia,  capital 
of  the  Province  of  Pomerania  ( Pommern ),  and, 
after  Danzig,  the  most  important  seaport  in  the 
kingdom,  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Oder,  eighty- 
three  miles  northeast  of  Berlin.  Pop.  (1875), 
80,972. 

Steuben,  Frederic  William  Augustus, 
Baron,  a  general  of  the  American  revolutionary 
army,  was  born  at  Magdeburg,  Prussia,  Nov.  15, 
1730;  and  died  near  Utica,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  28,  1794. 

Steubenville,  the  county  seat  of  Jefferson 
county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  12,300. 

Stevens  Point,  the  county  seat  and  an  im¬ 
portant  lumbering  town  in  Portage  county,  Wis. 
Pop.,  7,600. 

Sticking-plaster,  or  Court-plastf.r,  is  best 
prepared  in  the  following  manner:  Two  solu¬ 
tions  are  first  made,  one  of  an  ounce  of  isinglass 
in  eight  ounces  of  hot  water,  and  the  other  of  two 
drachms  of  gum-benzoin  in  two  ounces  of  recti¬ 
fied  spirit.  These  solutions  are  to  be  strained 
and  mixed.  Several  coats  of  this  mixture,  kept 
fluid  by  a  gentle  heat,  are  then  to  be  applied  with  a 
camel’s-luiir  brush  to  a  piece  of  silk  stretched  on 
a  frame,  each  coat  being  allowed  to  dry  before 
the  next  is  applied.  A  layer  of  a  solution  com¬ 
posed  of  one  ounce  of  Chian  turpentine  in  two 
ounces  of  tincture  of  benzoin,  is  then  to  be 
applied  to  the  other  side  of  the  silk,  and  allowed 
to  dry. 

Stilagina'ceae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  allied  to  Uriicece,  containing  about  twenty 
known  species  of  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  the 
East  Indies,  Mauritius,  and  Madagascar. 


Stick 'leback  ( Gasterosleus ),  a  genus  of  acan- 


thopterous  fishes, 
referred  by  many 
naturalists  to  the 
family  of  Mailed 
Cheeks  ( Sdero - 
(jenidcB  or  T rigli- 
dte);  by  others  to 
a  distinct  family 
( Gnxterosteidae ). 

S  t  i  11-  N  e  c  k 
(known  also  as 
W  R  Y-N  eck  or 
Torticollis)  is 
the  ter  m  com¬ 
monly  applied  to 
a  condition  of  the 
neck  in  which  lat¬ 
eral  movement  Sticklebacks  and  Nests, 
of  the  head  causes  great  pain,  and  which  is 
due  to  rheumatism  of  the  muscles  lying  on  the 
side  of  the  neck,  especially  the  sterno-mastoid. 
In  addition  to  the  ordinary  treatment  of  the 
sub-acute  rheumatism,  heat  may  be  advanta¬ 
geously  employed,  either,  as  suggested  by  Doctor 
Wood,  of  Philadelphia,  by  placing  a  batch 
of  carded  tow  or  cotton  over  the  part  and  then 
applying  a  hot  flat-iron,  or  by  the  direct  applica¬ 
tion  of  a  small  heated  iron  hammer. 


Stillwater,  the  county  seat  of  Churchill 
county,  Nev.  Pop.,  225. 

Stillwater,  the  county  seat  of  Washington 
county,  Minn.  Pop.,  16,600.  It  is  an  important 
lumbering  and  manufacturing  city  and  the  seat 
of  the  State  prison. 

Stim 'ulants  may  be  defined  to  be  agents 
which  produce  a  sudden  but  not  a  permanent 
augmentation  in  the  activity  of  the  vital  func¬ 
tions.  Alcohol,  ammonia,  cajeput  oil,  and  ether 
are  the  most  important  of  the  general  stimulants. 
To  these  may  be  added  camphor,  ginger,  horse¬ 
radish,  the  preparations  of  lavender,  of  the 
mints,  etc.  Electricity,  galvanism,  and  magnetic 
electricity  operate  on  the  animal  system  either  as 
general  or  local  stimulants,  according  to  the 
manner  in  which  they  are  applied. 

Sting  Ray  (27  y- 
gon),  a  genus  of 
cartilaginous  fishes, 
of  the  order  Ram, 
and  family  Trygo- 
n  id  a.  In  this 
family,  the  tail  is 
long  and  slender, 
the  eyes  on  the 
upper  (dorsal)  as¬ 
pect,  and  in  the 
genus  Trygon  the 
tail  is  armed  with  a 
strong  spine  notch 
ed  on  both  sides. 

The  tail  has  either 
no  fin,  or  a  merely 
rudimental  one. 

The  spine  is  used 
by  the  savages  of 
the  South  Sea  Sting  Ray  ( Trygon  pastinacd). 
Islands  to  point  their  spears. 

Stink-traps,  a  name  given  to  certain  useful 
forms  of  drain-open¬ 
ings,  which,  while  al¬ 
lowing  liquids  to  run 
down,  prevent  the 
escape  of  noxious 
gases.  They  are  made 
of  iron  or  earthenware, 
in  a  great  variety  of 
forms,  but  on  one  very 
simple  principle,  there 
being  a  curved  o  r 
siphon  pipe  below  the 
grating  or  grid,  which 
always  retains  sufficient,  Stink-trap, 

water,  b,  to  prevent  the  outward  passage  of  the 


gases. 

Stink-wood  (Oreodaphne  fcelida),  a  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Lauracece,  a  native  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  remarkable  for  the  strong  disagree¬ 
able  smell  of  its  wood,  which,  however,  is  hard, 
very  durable,  takes  an  excellent  polish,  and 
resembles  walnut. 


Stip'nle,  in  Botany,  a  leafy  appendage  at  the 
base  of  the  leaf  stalk  in  many  plants. 

Stir 'nips  (Naval)  are  eyes  of  rope  pendent 
from  the  yards,  and  supporting  certain  portions 
of  the  tackle  connected  with  the  management  of 
the  sails. 

Stitch 'wort  ( Stellaria ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Caryophylleit’,  having  a  calyx 
of  5  leaves,  5  deeply-cloven  petals,  10  stamens, 
3  styles,  and  a  many-seeded  capsule  opening  with 
6  teeth. 

Stock,  or  Stock  Gillyflower  ( Mntlhiola ),  a 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Cruaferce , 
having  cylindrical  or  compressed  pods,  and  a 
stigma  consisting  of  two  upright  oppressed  plates, 
the  outer  side  of  which  often  rises  into  a  knob  or 
horn. 

Stock-fish,  a  commercial  name  of  salted  and 
dried  cod  and  other  fish  of  the  same  family,  par¬ 
ticularly  the  ling,  hake,  and  torsk. 

Stoek'holm,  the  capital  of  Sweden,  is  situated 
at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Maelar  Lake,  in 
59°  20'  N.  latitude,  and  18°  5'  E.  longitude. 
Pop.  (1877),  165,677. 

Stocks,  an  apparatus  of  wood,  much  used  in 
former  times  in  England  for  the  punishment  of 
petty  offenders.  The  culprit  was  placed  on  a 
bench,  with  his  ankles  fastened  in  holes  under  a 
movable  board,  and  allowed  to  remain  there  for 
an  hour  or  two. 

Stock 'toil,  a  town  and  port  of  entry,  and  the 
county  seat  of  San  Joaquin  county,  Cal.,  on  Stock- 
ton  channel,  near  San  Joaquin,  130  miles  east- 
southeast  of  San  Francisco.  It  is  an  important 
commercial  point,  and  the  entrepot  of  the  southern 
gold  mines.  Pop.,  18,200. 

Stockton,  the  county  seat  of  Cedar  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  620. 

Stockton,  the  county  seat  of  Rooks  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Stockville,  the  county  seat  of  Frontier  county. 
Neb.  Pop.,  220. 

Stomach,  Diseases  of.  In  the  discussion  of 
the  diseases  of  any  organ,  it  is  customary  to  begin 
with  the  consideration  of  inflammation.  In 
the  stomach,  however,  acute  gastritis,  or  inflam¬ 
mation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  that  organ,  is 
rare,  except  as  a  result  of  the  administration  of 
an  irritant  poison.  The  symptoms  which  indicate 
that  an  irritant  poison  lias  been  received  into  the 
stomach,  are  a  gradually  increasing  sensation  of 
uneasiness  or  heat,  which  shortly  assumes  an 
acute  burning  character  in  the  epigastric  region. 
This  pain  is  accompanied  with  vomiting,  which 
becomes  increasingly  frequent  as  the  pain  aug¬ 
ments,  and  often  with  hiccough.  There  is  usually 
extreme  tenderness  on  pressure,  and  the  patient 
bends  his  body  forward  to  relax  the  muscular 
tension.  During  the  accession  of  these  symptoms, 
there  is  a  marked  degree  of  excitement,  as  indi¬ 
cated  by  the  acceleration  of  the  pulse  and  breath¬ 
ing,  and  the  heat  of  the  skin.  This  condition  is, 
however,  soon  exchanged  for  one  of  prostration. 
The  skin  becomes  cold  and  clammy,  the  pulse 
thready  and  feeble,  and  the  breathing  catching 
and  intermittent;  until  finally,  after  a  variable 
period  of  exhaustion,  the  patient  sinks,  usually 
retaining  his  mental  faculties  to  the  last.  Sub¬ 
acute  gastritis  is  by  no  means  a  rare  affection,  and 
it  occurs  in  two  distinct  forms— one  in  which  the 
malady  is  caused  by  a  constitutional  state,  the 
effects  of  which  are  shown  in  a  variety  of  other 
organs,  as  well  as  in  the  stomach;  another  in 
which  it  is  due  to  causes  connected  chiefly  or 
exclusively  with  this  organ,  which  is  submitted 
to  an  irritative  process  somewhat  analogous  to 
that  typified  by  the  gastritis  of  irritant  poisoning. 
The  first  of  these  forms  is  well  illustrated  in 
certain  cases  of  scarlatina,  in  which,  if  death  takes 
place  between  the  third  and  seventh  day  of  the 
disease,  distinct  marks  of  inflammation  are  seen 
in  the  stomach.  The  other  variety,  which  is  often 
of  a  chronic  form,  is  best  seen  in  cases  of  deliri¬ 
um  tremens;  the  affection  being  sub-acute  or 
chronic,  according  as  it  has  been  produced  by 
a  single  prolonged  debauch,  or  by  a  protracted 
habit  of  drinking  spirits;  the  patient’s  final 
malady  being  induced  by  a  deficiency  of  food, 
or  the  want  of  the  ordinary  stimulant.  Purely 
chronic  inflammation  may  be  induced  by  various 
causes,  of  which  the  most  common  are  the  abuse 
of  alcoholic  drinks,  habitual  excess  in  eating,  the 


STOMAPODA. 


STRENGTH  OF  MATERIALS. 


061 


eating  of  indigestible  food,  and  the  excessive  use 
of  irritating  medicines.  In  the  treatment  of 
gastritis,  the  first  point  is  the  removal  of  the  cause; 
to  be  attempted  in  cases  of  irritant  poisoning, 
either  by  the  removal  of  the  poison  (by  the 
stomach-pump  or  emetics,  as,  for  example,  sul¬ 
phate  of  zinc),  or  by  its  neutralization  by  means 
of  an  antidote.  In  severe  cases,  leeches  may  be 
applied  to  the  epigastrium;  but  counter  irritants, 
such  as  turpentine  on  a  hot  moist  flannel,  or 
mustard-poultices,  are  generally  of  more  service. 
Continuous  fomentation  with  water,  as  hot  as 
can  be  borne,  often  gives  great  relief;  while  at 
the  same  time  iced  water,  or  small  lumps  of  ice 
swallowed  whole,  usually  relieve  the  thirst  and 
mitigate  the  pain.  Enemata,  or  purgative  ma¬ 
terials,  if  the  bowels  are  constipated,  or  of  a 
soothing  character  (as  thirty  drops  of  lauda¬ 
num  in  a  little  starch  or  gruel),  if  the 
bowels  are  irritable,  may  be  prescribed  with 
advantage.  When  the  stomach  begins  to  be 
able  to  retain  food,  it  must  be  given  in 
the  form  of  a  bland  liquid,  in  small  doses,  at  dis¬ 
tant  intervals.  Chronic  gastritis  must  be  treated 
in  much  the  same  manner  as  indigestion.  The 
most  essential  point  of  treatment  is  the  due  regu¬ 
lation  of  the  diet.  Ulcer  of  the  stomach  is  the 
most  important  of  the  idiopathic  diseases  of  that 
organ,  both  from  its  frequency,  from  the  facility 
with  which  it  may  be  detected  during  life,  from 
the  fact  that  at  any  period  of  its  protracted  course 
it  may  prove  suddenly  fatal,  and  from  its  being 
usually  curable.  The  first  and  most  characteris¬ 
tic  symptom  of  this  disease  is  pain,  which  com¬ 
mences  as  a  mere  dull  feeling  of  weight  or  tight¬ 
ness,  then  gradually  augments  into  a  burning 
sensation,  and  at  last  assumes  a  gnawing  charac¬ 
ter,  and  occasions  a  kind  of  sickening  depression. 
This  pain  comes  on  in  from  two  to  ten  minutes 
after  the  ingestion  of  food,  and  lasts  for  an  hour 
or  two;  vomiting  often  ensues,  after  which  the 
pain  ceases.  In  treatment,  strict  attention  to  diet 
is  of  the  first  importance.  When  the  symptoms 
are  urgent,  the  patient  should  maintain  the  re¬ 
cumbent  position,  and  should  be  fed  on  lukewarm 
milk,  thickened  with  biscuit-powder,  given  in 
doses  of  one,  or,  at  most,  two  table-spoonfuls 
every  two  hours.  The  pain  is  often  relieved  by 
the  application  of  a  mustard-poultice  to  the  pain¬ 
ful  spot;  and  benefit  is  frequently  derived  from 
the  internal  administration  of  bismuth  (in  doses 
of  ten  grains),  either  given  alone  or  combined 
with  the  compound  kino  powder  (in  five-grain 
doses).  When  there  is  In  morrliage,  small  lumps 
of  ice  may  be  swallowed;  and  if  all  food  is  rejected 
by  vomiting,  beef-tea  injections  must  be  thrown 
into  the  lower  bowel.  Aperients  are  sometimes 
required,  but  they  must  be  given  with  caution; 
and  if  castor-oil  can  be  taken  without  increasing 
the  pain  or  vomiting,  it  is  the  most  harmless  rem¬ 
edy  of  its  class.  Cancer  of  the  stomach  is  a  dis¬ 
ease  of  much  interest,  from  its  being  obscure  in 
its  symptoms  and  difficult  of  detection  in  its  early 
stage,  frequent  in  its  occurrence,  and  always 
fatal  in  its  termination.  In  treatment,  more  good 
is  done  by  careful  attention  to  the  diet  than  by 
any  medicine.  Good  milk  or  strong  beef-tea 
thickened  with  biscuit-powder,  may  be  given  in 
the  same  manner  as  recommended  in  ulcer;  and 
milk  mixed  with  a  little  old  Jamaica  rum  will 
sometimes  stay  on  the  stomach  when  everything 
else  is  vomited.  If  there  be  pain,  opiates  must  be 
given,  and  they  may  be  prescribed  either  in  the 
ordinary  way,  or  as  enemata,  the  latter  having 
the  advantage  of  not  inducing  constipation. 
Ihematemesis,  or  vomiting  of  blood,  must  be 
looked,  upon  rather  as  a  symptom  than  a  disease. 
Thus,  it  may  occur  by  the  ulcerative  destruction 
of  the  walls  of  a  comparatively  large  blood-ves¬ 
sel.  as  in  gastric  ulcer  and  in  cancer;  but  it  gen¬ 
erally  is  of  the  kind  termed  capillary.  The  treat¬ 
ment  must  be  directed  against  the  disease  on 
which  the  hemorrhage  depends,  rather  than 
against  the  mere  symptom;  but  from  whatever 
cause  it  arises,  if  it  is  proceeding  to  a  dangerous 
extent,  tlic  patient  should  be  kept  perfectly 
quiet  in  bed,  and  should  swallow  small  pieces 
of  ice.  Ilot  applications  may  also  be  applied 
to  the  extremities,  with  the  view  of  directing 
the  blood  to  those  parts.  The  medicines  most 
likely  to  be  of  service  are  acetate  of  lead,  gallic 
acid,  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  and  oil  of  turpen¬ 


tine;  but  they  should  only  be  given  on  medical 
authority. 

Sto'mapoda,  an  order  of  malacostracous  crus¬ 
taceans,  to  which  Squillida,  glass-crabs,  etc., 
belong. 

Stom'ata,  are  minute  openings  in  the  epider¬ 
mis  of  leaves  and  other  green  parts  of  plants  ex¬ 
posed  to  the  air,  communicating  with  intercellu¬ 
lar  spaces. 

Stone-chat  (Saxicola  n/bicola);  one  of  the  most 
common  of  the  Sylviada,  is  black  on  the  upper 
parts  and  throat  in  summer;  the  breast  of  a  dark 
reddish  color;  some  white  on  the  sides  of  the  neck, 
the  wings,  and  the  tail. 

St  one-cutting  Machines.  For  the  cutting  of 
common  kinds  of  stone,  which  are  not  to  receive 
a  fine  polish,  a  machine  is  now  in  operation  at 
various  large  quarries,  both  of  stone  and  slate. 
The  cutting  portion  consists  of  a  circular  disc, 
A,  A,  (two  of  these  are  shown  in  the  figure,  but 
the  number  varies),  round  the  circumference  of 
which  a  number  of  pointed  steel  tools  are  fixed 


Stone-cutting  Machine. 


into  sockets,  thus  giving  it  the  appearance  of 
a  large  toothed  saw.  This  machine  will  cut  sand¬ 
stone  at  the  rate  of  five  to  six  inches,  slate  at  three 
inches,  and  soft  limestone  at  three  inches  per 
minute,  supposing  these  to  be  in  blocks  each  two 
feet  thick. 

Stone-fly  (Pei la),  a  genus  of  neuropterous 
insects,  of  the  tribe  or  family  Planipennes. 

Stoneliam,  an  important  manufacturing  town 
of  Middlesex  county.  Mass.  Pop.,  5,750. 

Stone'henge  (Sax. .  Slanhengist,  hanging  or 
uplifted  stones),  a  remarkable  structure,  com¬ 
posed  of  large  artificially  raised  monoliths, 
situated  on  Salisbury  Plain,  two  miles  from  the 
town  of  Amesbury,  England.  When  entire,  it 
consisted  of  two  concentric  circles  of  upright 


Stonehenge. 


stones,  inclosing  two  ellipses,  the  whole  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  double  mound  and  ditch  circular 
in  form,  but  has  been  so  much  defaced  as  to  be 
little  more  than  a  confused  mass  of  moss-grown 
stones. 

Ston  'iligton,  a  town  and  port  of  entry  of 
1  Connecticut,  at  the  eastern  extremity  of  Long 
Island  Sound,  sixty-three  miles  east  of  New 
Haven.  It  has  a  fine  harbor,  with  17,000  tons  of 
shipping,  engaged  in  coasting  trade  and  fisheries, 
and  numerous  manufactories.  Pop.,  6,313. 

Stork  (Ciconia),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  same 
family  (Ardcidce)  with  herons  and  bitterns.  It  is 
a  native  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Old  World. 

Storm  Lake,  the  county  seat  of  Buena  Vista 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.  1,850. 

Storth  'ing  (from  stov,  great,  and  thing,  court), 
the  Legislative  Assembly  of  Norway.  Its  mem¬ 
bers  are  elected  by  certain  deputies,  who,  in  their 
turn,  are  chosen  by  a  constituency  comprising 
every  native  Norwegian  of  twenty-five  years  of 


age,  who  is  a  burgess  of  any  town,  or  possesses 
property  in  land  to  the  value  of  $165,  the  qualifi¬ 
cation  for  being  elected,  if  thirty  years  of  age, 
being  the  same. 

Stoughton,  a  flourishing  manufacturing  town 
of  Norfolk  county.  Mass.  Pop.,  5,250. 

Stowe,  Harriet  Elizabeth  Beechek,  Ameri¬ 
can  authoress,  daughter  of  Rev.  Dr.  Lyman 
Beecher,  and  wife  of  Rev. Prof. Calvin  Ellis  Stowe, 
was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June  15,  1812.  She 
has  written  a  number  of  popular  books,  but  is 
best  known  as  the  author  of  Unde  'Turn’s  Cabin. 

Strangles  is  a  contagious  eruptive  disorder 
peculiar  to  young  horses.  It  is  ushered  in  by 
sore  throat  and  cough,  a  mucu-purulent  n  sal 
discharge,  and  the  eruption  of  a  swelling  in  the 
space  between  the  branches  of  the  lower  jaw.  In 
about  ten  days,  this  swelling  comes  to  a  head, 
bursts,  and  in  favorable  cases  the  patient  is  soon 
well  again.  Good  food  and  nursing,  with  fo¬ 
mentations  to  the  throat,  and  steaming  of  the 
head,  favor  the  healthier  maturation  of  the 
swelling.  When  there  is  debility,  coax  the  ani¬ 
mal  to  eat  by  offering  him  at  short  intervals 
small  quantities  of  scalded  oats,  malt,  bran,  or 
green  food,  and  allow  him  several  times  daily  a 
pint  of  sound  ale. 

Stran'gury  is  perhaps  to  be  regarded  as  a 
symptom  rather  than  a  disease.  It  shows  itself 
in  a  frequent  and  irresistible  desire  to  pass  water, 
which  is  discharged,  however,  in  very  small 
quantity,  and  whose  passage  from  the  bladder  is 
accompanied  with  scalding  and  cutting  pains 
along  the  course  of  the  urethra.  The  pain  often 
extends  to  the  bladder  and  even  to  the  kidneys, 
and  is  sometimes  so  severe  as  to  implicate  the 
lower  bowel  (the  rectum),  and  to  produce  the 
straining  condition  known  as  Tenesmus.  After 
the  removal  of  the  cause,  if  it  can  be  recognized 
and  the  removal  is  possible,  a  drachm  of  laud¬ 
anum  in  a  wine-glassful  of  starch  mucilage  should 
be  thrown  into  the  lower  bowel,  and  mild  mucil¬ 
aginous  draughts  (of  barley-water,  for  example) 
should  be  freely  given  in  order  to  render  the 
urine  less  irritat  ing.  The  warm  bath  is  also  use¬ 
ful,  and  if  it  can  not  readily  be  obtained,  hot  local 
fomentations  often  tend  to  relieve  the  pain  and 
allow  the  urine  to  pass  more  freely. 

Stratford-upon-Avon,  a  municipal  borough 
and  township  of  England,  in  the  County  of  War¬ 
wick,  and  eight  miles  southwest  of  the  town  of 
that  name,  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Avon. 
Pop.  (1881),  8,053.  It  5s  famous  as  the  birthplace 
of  Shakespeare.  The  house  in  which  he  was  born 
is  still  preserved,  and  there  is  a  memorial  theater, 
with  library  and  picture-gallery,  in  honor  of  the 
poet.  He  is  buried  in  the  parish  church. 

Stratio'tes,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Hydrocliaridea . 

Siraw'berry  (Fragaiia),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Rosacea,  sub-order  Ilbsea,  tribe 
PotentilUda,  remarkable  for  the  manner  in  which 
the  receptacle  increases  and  becomes  succulent,  so 
as  to  form  what  is  popularly  called  the  fruit;  the 
proper  fruit  (botanic-ally)  being  the  small  achenia 
which  it  bears  upon  its  surface. 

Strength  of  Materials.  The  strength  of  ma¬ 
terials  depends  upon  their  physical  constitution— 
viz.,  their  form,  texture,  hardness,  elasticity,  and 
ductility.  The  resistance  of  materials  in  engineer¬ 
ing  works  is  tested  in  reference  to  various  strains; 
such  are — (1)  Extension  or  tension;  (2)  Compres¬ 
sion  or  crushing;  (3)  Transverse  or  cross  strain; 
(4)  Shearing  strain;  (5)  Torsion  or  twisting  strain. 
The  following  table  gives  the  resistance  to  rupture 
of  some  of  the  most  common  materials; 

Per  Square  Inch. 


Fine  sandstone . 20(1  lbs. 

Brick .  300 

Portland  cement .  210  " 

Pine  .  5  tons. 

Cast  iron  (ordinary) .  01 

Wrought  iron,  boiler-plate . 20  to  24  “ 

“  bars .  .  25  “ 

Cast  steel .  60  “ 


Ropes  (hemp),  four-fifths  ton  per  pound-weight  per 
fathom. 

The  following  table  gives  the  resistance  to  crush¬ 
ing  of  some  of  the  more  common  materials: 


Cast  iron .  50  tons  per  square  inch. 

Wrought  iron .  16  “  “  “ 

Brickwork .  30  tons  per  square  foot. 

Sandstone . 200  “  “ 

Limestone .  490  “  “ 

Pine . 450  “  “  “ 

Oak . 650  “  “  “ 


STRICTURE. 


G02 


SULIOTS. 


Strict'ure  is  a  term  employed  in  Surgery  to 
denote  an  unnatural  contraction,  either  congenital 
or  acquired,  of  a  mucous  canal,  such  as  the  urethra, 
oesophagus,  or  intestine.  When,  however,  the 
affected  part  is  not  mentioned,  and  a  person  is 
stated  to  suffer  from  stricture,  it  is  always  the 
urethral  canal  that  is  referred  to.  The  treatment 
of  organic  stricture  i's  purely  surgical.  The  treat¬ 
ment  of  spasmodic  stricture  consists  in  the  removal 
of  the  causes,  as  far  as  possible,  and  the  hot  bath. 
The  inhalation  of  chloroform  sometimes  gives 
immediate  relief;  and  several  cases  are  recorded 
in  which  the  spasm  was  cured  by  quinine. 

String'-lialt  is  a  peculiar  catching  up  of  the 
horse’s  limbs,  usually  of  one  or  both  hind  limbs. 
It  is  most  noticeable  when  the  animal  is  first 
brought  out  of  the  stable,  when  he  is  excited,  or 
made  to  turn  suddenly  round;  it  is  a  variety  of 
chorea  or  St.  Vitus’  dance.  Although  a  serious 
eyesore,  it  does  not  interfere  witli  usefulness,  and 
is  quite  incurable. 

Strom'boli,  one  of  the  group  of  the  Lipari 
Islands,  is  about  12  miles  in  circumference,  cir¬ 
cular  in  shape,  and  contains  2,000  inhabitants. 

Slrongy'lidae,  a  family  of  nematode  worms. 

Strou'gylus,  the  term  applied  to  a  genus  of  the 
family  Stronc/ylidce  of  nematode  parasitic  worms. 

Slron 'say,  one  of  the  Orkney  Islands,  lies 
fifteen  miles  northeast  from  the  town  of  Kirkwall. 
It  is  7i  miles  long  and  6  miles  in  extreme 
breadth.  Pop.  (1881),  1,274. 

Stron'tium  (symbol  Sr,  equiv.  87.6 — sp.  gr. 
2.54)  is  a  ductile  and  malleable  metal,  somewhat 
harder  than  lead,  and  of  a  pale  yellow  color.  A 
mixture  of  40  parts  of  nitrate  of  strontia  with  10 
of  chlorate  of  potash,  18  of  sulphur,  and  4  of 
sulphide  of  antimony,  deflagrates  with  red  color, 
and  constitutes  what  is  popularly  known  as  red 
bengal  fire. 

Stroudsburgli,  the  county  seat  of  Monroe 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  1,900. 

Strycli'nos,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Loganiaceoe.  To  this  genus  belongs  the  S. 
mix  vomica,  a  tree  of  middling  size,  with  ovate 
stalked  leaves,  a  native  of  India,  the  fruit  of 
which  is  produced  in  great  abundance,  and  is 
about  the  size  of  a  small  orange;  the  seeds  are 
the  mix  vomica  of  commerce,  and  yield  strych¬ 
nine. 

Stuart,  Charles  Edward  Lewis  Casimir, 
often  called  the  younger  Pretender,  was  born  at 
Rome,  Dec.  31,  1720,  and  bore  among  the  Jacob¬ 
ites  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales.  He  died  at 
Rome,  Jan.  31,  1788. 

Stuart,  Gilbert  Charles,  American  painter, 
was  born  at  Narraganset,  R.  I.,  in  1756,  and  died 
at  Boston,  July,  1828. 

Stuart,  the  county'seat  of  Patrick  county,  Va. 
Pop.,  1,100. 

Sturdy,  or  the  Gid,  affects  sheep,  and  occa¬ 
sionally  cattle,  and  is  caused  by  the  presence 
within  the  brain  of  a  hydatid,  reaching  sometimes 
the  size  of  a  hazel-nut,  and  floating  in  a  watery 
fluid  inclosed  in  a  membranous  sac.  The  para¬ 
site  and  its  sack  may  generally  be  safely  removed 
by  placing  the  sheep,  with  its  feet  tied,  on  a  table 
or  bench  searching  for  the  softened  portion  of 
the  skull,  which  generally  overlies  the  hydatid, 
laying  back  a  flap  of  skin,  and  introducing  the 
trochar  and  canula,  and  when  the  sac  is  deep- 
seated,  cautiously  withdrawing  it  with  the  help 
of  a  small  syringe.  Protected  by  a  leather  cap 
and  simple  water  dressings,  the  wound  speedily 
heals. 

Stur'geon  ( Accipenser ),  a  Linnaean  genus  of 
cartilaginous  fishes,  now  forming  the  family 
Stinioiiuhe,  The  species  are  numerous,  and  in¬ 
habit  both  the  sea  and  fresh-water;  ascending 
deep,  muddy  rivers  at  certain  seasons,  and  tempor¬ 
arily  inhabiting  lakes.  Numerous  species  are 
found  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  world,  although 
there  -are  none  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  or  the  rivers 
which  flow  into  it,  but  the  South  of  Siberia  and 
North  America  particularly  abound  in  them. 

Sturgeon  Bay,  the  county  seat  of  Doorcounty, 
Wis.  Pop.,  2,300. 

Stuttgart  is  the  royal  residence  and  metrop¬ 
olis  of  Wurtemberg.  Pop.  (1880),  117,303. 

Stye,  or  Sty,  is  the  popular  name  fora  minute 
boil  occurring  at  the  edge  of  the  eyelid.  The 
best  local  treatment  consists  in  the  application  of 
warm-water  dressings  with  lint  and  oiled  silk; 


and  if  any  hardness  remains  after  the  discharge 
of  the  matter,  dilute  nitrate  of  mercury  ointment 
may  be  applied.  The  stye  should  never  be 
rubbed. 

Styp'tics  {Gr.drvTtTiKoi,  styplikos,  astringent) 
are  agents  employed  in  surgery  for  the  purpose 
of  checking  the  flow  of  blood  by  application  to 
the  bleeding  orifice  or  surface. 

Styr'ia  (Ger.  Sleiermark),  a  duchy  forming 
one  of  the  German  crown-lands  of  Austria,  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Upper  and  Lower  Aus¬ 
tria,  east  by  Hungary  and  Croatia,  south  and 
west  by  Carniola,  Carinthia,  and  Salzburg.  Its 
area  is  8,671  square  miles,  and  pop.  (1880),  1,213,- 
197. 

Styx  (Gr.  dzvyeiv,  stugein,  to  hate,  abhor).  In 
Mythology,  was  a  river  of  Hades,  round  which  it 
flowed  seven  times,  and  over  which  Charon  con¬ 
veyed  the  shades  of  the  departed. 

Sua'bia  (Ger.  Schwnben),  Swabia,  or  Suevia, 
an  ancient  duchy,  in  the  southwest  of  Germany. 

Subliina'tioii  is  a  chemical  process  similar  to 
distillation,  but  differing  from  it  in  the  nature  of 
the  substances  to  which  it  is  applied.  While  in 
distillation,  liquids  are  converted  by  the  agency  of 
heat  into  vapor,  which  is  condensed  in  the  liquid 
form  usually  by  the  cooling  action  of  water;  in 
sublimation,  solid  bodies  are  reduced  by  heat  to 
the  state  of  vapor,  which  reassumes  the  solid  form 
on  cooling. 

Subor'dinary,  or  Suboii'dinate  Ordinary, 
in  Heraldry,  a  name  given  to  a  certain  class  of 
charges  mostly  formed  of  straight  or  curved 
lines. 

Succin'ic  Acid  (CMI„04)  derives  its  name 
from  its  having  been  originally  found  in  amber 
(Lat.  succinum).  One  of  the  most  important 
points  in  connection  with  succinic  acid  is  its 
convertibility  into  tartaric  acid,  while  tartaric 
acid  may  in  its  turn  be  reconverted  into  succinic 
acid . 

Suc'cnleiit  Plants  are  those  plants  remark¬ 
able  for  the  thick  and  fleshy  or  succulent  char¬ 
acter  of  their  stems  and  leaves.  This  character 
prevails  in  the  natural  orders  Cactacece,  Matem- 
bryaccce,  and  Crassulaceie ,  but  frequently  appears 
also  in  genera  of  other  natural  orders. 

Suez,  Istiimusof,  is  a  neck  of  land  seventy -two 


miles  in  width  at  its  narrowest  part,  extending 
from  the  Gulf  of  Suez  on  the  south  to  the  Medi¬ 


I 

terranean  on  the  north,  and  connecting  the  Conti¬ 
nents  of  Asia  and  Africa.  In  1856  M.  de  Lesseps, 
a  member  of  the  French  diplomatic  service  in 
Egypt  obtained  from  the  Pasha  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  forming  a  sliip-canal  across  the  Isth¬ 
mus  of  Suez.  Work  was  begun  on  this  canal  in 
the  end  of  1860,  and  the  canal  was  formerly  opened 
in  November,  1869. 

Sudan',  or  Soudan,  a  vast  tract  of  Central 
Africa,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Sahara;  on 
the  west  by  Senegambia;  on  the  south  by  Upper 
Guinea,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  (lie  Kong 
Mountains;  and  on  the  east  by  the  Nile  Provinces 
of  Egypt.  Area  estimated  at  2,250,000  square 
miles;  pop.,  10,000,000  to  80,000,000.  For  the 
last  few  years  Sudan  has  been  the  scene  of  im¬ 
portant  military  operations  by  the  British  on 
behalf  of  the  Khedive. 

Sue,  Marie  Joseph  Eugene,  a  well-known 
French  novelist,  was  born  at  Paris,  Dec.  10,  1804. 
He  died  at  Annecy  July  3,  1857. 

Suffolk,  the  county  seat  of  Nansemond  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Sugar  (Lat.  and  Gr.  saechar,  Sans,  sarkara, 
Pers.  schakar,  Arab,  sokkar  or  assokkar,  Sp.  azu- 
car.  It.  zucchero,  Fr.  sucre,  Ger.  zucker)  is  a  general 
term  applied  by  chemists  to  a  number  of  neutral 
carbo-hydrates,  possessing  a  more  or  less  sweet 
taste,  for  the  most  part  crystallizable,  and  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  vital  processes  going  on  in  certain 
plants  and  animals.  They  are  divisible  into  two 
groups,  the  first  embracing  such  sugars  as  are 
capable  of  undergoing  fermentation,  and  of  being 
resolved,  under  the  action  of  yeast,  either  directly 
or  indirectly  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid  gas; 
and  the  second  including  those  sugars  which  are 
not  capable  of  being  broken  up  by  fermentation 
into  the  above  named  products.  The  first  group 
contains  cane-sugar  or  sucrose,  fructose  or  inverted 
sugar,  trehalose,  mycose,  melezitose,  melitose, 
grape-sugar  or  glucose,  and  milk-sugar  or  lactose; 
while  the  second  group  includes  inosite  or  inosin, 
sorbite  or  sorbin,  and  scyllite  or  scyllin. 

Sugar-cane  ( Saccharum ),  a  genus  of  grasses, 
natives  of  tropical  and  sub-tropical  countries. 


Sugar  cane  ( Saccharum  officinarum). 


The  common  sugar-cane  (S.  officinarum)  is  origi¬ 
nally  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  was  brought  to 
Europe  by  the  Crusaders. 

Sugar-of-lead,  the  common  name  for  acetate 
of  lead. 

Su 'idte,  a  family  of  mammalia,  non-ruminant 
Artiodactyla.  To  this  family  belong  hogs,  wart- 
hogs,  peccaries,  etc. 

Su'liots,  a  tribe  who  inhabited  the  valley  of 
the  Acheron,  in  the  pashalik  of  Janina  ( Epirus ) 
in  European  Turkey,  are  a  mixed  race,  being 
partly  of  Hellenic  and  partly  of  Albanian  origin. 
Though  they  took  a  part  in  the  war  of  Greek 
independence,  their  country  was  not  included  by 


SULLA. 


663 


SUN. 


the  treaty  of  1829  within  the  Greek  boundary¬ 
line  ;  but  most  of  them  established  themselves  in 
Greece,  where  their  leaders  were  raised  to 
important  offices. 

Sul'la,  L.  Cornelius,  surnamed  by  himself 
Felix,  the  ablest  Roman  after  the  younger  Scipio 
until  the  appearance  of  Julius  Caesar,  was  born 
138  b.c. ,  and  died  73  b.c. 

Sullivan,  the  county  seat  of  Moultrie  count}7, 
Ill.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Sullivan,  the  county  seat  of  Sullivan  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  3,700. 

Sullivan’s  Is' and,  a  large  island,  six  miles 
below  Charleston,  S.  C.,  between  the  harbor  and 
ocean,  the  site  of  Fort  Moultrie. 

SuUphides,  Metallic,  formerly  known  as 
Sulphurets,  are  combinations  of  sulphur  with  a 
metal.  Many  of  them  occur  native,  and  form 
highly  valuable  ores. 

Sulphur  (symbol  S,  equiv.  32 — sp.  gr.  of  rolled 
sulphur,  1.98,  and  of  amorphous  sulphur,  1.957; 
sp.  gr.  of  vapor,  6.617  at  824°,  and  2.2  at  1,900°, 
atmospheric  air  being  the  unit  of  comparison  for 
the  vapor)  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
nou-metallic  elements.  At  an  ordinary  temper¬ 
ature,  it  exists  as  a  solid,  brittle,  tasteless,  and 
inodorous  body,  of  a  characteristic  yellow  color, 
and  insoluble  in  water.  Sulphur  occurs  widely 
distributed  in  the  mineral  kingdom,  partly  free 
and  partly  combined  with  other  elements.  The 
free  sulphur  is  either  found  pure  in  regularly 
formed  crystals,  or  intimately  mixed  with  earthy 
matters.  The  principal  sources  of  crystalline 
sulphur  are  Urbino  in  Italy,  Girgenti  in  Sicily, 
anti  Radoboy  in  Croatia ;  while  the  earthy 
sulphur  is  mainly  derived  from  Italy,  Moravia, 
and  Poland.  Iceland  is  rich  in  both  varieties,  but 
the  mineral  wealth  of  that  island  remains  almost 
unworked.  Sulphur  is  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  in  medicine.  It  is  given  internally  either 
as  sublimed  sulphur  (flowers  of  sulphur)  or  as 
precipitated  sulphur  (milk  of  sulphur),  in  some 
what  large  doses,  as  a  mild  cathartic— its  purga¬ 
tive  effects  being  due  to  its  stimulating  the 
muscular  coat  of  the  intestines.  In  consequence 
of  ils  being  both  gentle  and  sure  in  its  action,  it  is 
the  best  purgative  to  employ  in  cases  of  piles  or  in 
stricture  or  other  painful  affections  of  the  rectum. 
The  only  objection  to  its  use  is  that,  from  its 
becoming  partly  converted  in  the  system  into 
sulphureted  hydrogen,  the  evacuations,  and  even 
the  insensible  perspiration,  often  become  fetid, 
and  continue  so  for  some  time  after  the  primary 
operation  of  the  medicine.  As  a  purgative,  the 
dose  is  about  two  drachms,  made  into  an  elect¬ 
uary  with  molasses  or  honey.  It  is,  however, 
generally  combined  with  jalap  and  cream  of  tartar. 
The  external  use  of  sulphur  in  the  form  of  oint¬ 
ment  is  chiefly  confined  to  itch.  It  is  also  used 
externally  in  many  other  cutaneous  disorders, 
particularly  in  lepra  and  psoriasis  ;  and  in  chronic 
cases,  its  application  in  the  form  of  vapor  is  often 
of  great  service. 

Sulpliu'ric  Acid,  or,  more  correctly,  Hy¬ 
drated  Sulphuric  Acid  (H20S04),  is 
the  chemical  name  of  the  liquid  commercially 
and  popularly  known  as  oil  of  vitriol.  It  is  a 
dense,  colorless,  oily  liquid,  without  smell,  of  a 
specific  gravity  of  1.846  at  a  temperature  of  60°, 
and  of  an  intensely  acid  taste  and  reaction.  It 
has  a  powerful  caustic  action,  and  chars  and 
destroys  organic  matters  from  its  strong  affinity 
for  water;  and  in  consequence  of  this  destructive 
property,  it  must,  always  be  handled  with  the 
greatest  caution.  This  acid  is  employed  in  the 
arts  and  manufactures  for  a  large  number  of  pur¬ 
poses.  Its  use  as  a  desiccating  agent  for  labora¬ 
tory  purposes  is  extensive.  But  its  greatest  con¬ 
sumption,  doubtless,  is  in  the  preparation  of  the 
salt-cake,  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
carbonate  of  soda.  The  first  stage  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  sulphuric  acid  is  the  preparation  of 
sulphurous  acid  by  the  burning  of  sulphur  or  of 
iron  pyrites.  'When  sulphur  is  the  material  used 
for  producing  the  sulphurous  acid,  it  is  burned 
in  an  oven  or  burner  of  brick-work,  having  a 
sole  or  bottom  of  iron,  termed  the  burner-plate. 
Under  this,  a  small  fire  is  at  first  lighted,  which 
is  allowed  to  go  out  after  the  sulphur  has  ignited. 
A  little  above  the  sulphur,  a  small  pot,  called  the 
niter-pot,  is  either  placed  on  a  stand,  or  hung 
from  the  roof,  filled  with  a  quantity  of  either 


nitrate  of  soda  or  nitrate  of  potash,  with  sul¬ 
phuric  acid  sufficient  for  its  decomposition — 8  or 
10  pounds  of  the  niter,  with  5  or  6  pounds  of 
sulphuric  acid  being  allowed  for  every  hundred¬ 
weight  of  sulphur.  The  decomposition  of  the 
niter  by  the  action  of  heated  sulphuric  acid  fur¬ 
nishes  nitric  acid  fumes,  which  go  over  into  the 


Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid. 

A,  sulphur-burner,  or  furnace;  II,  lead-chamber,  shown  in  section  at  B';  C,  steam- 
boiler;  D,  leaden  pan;  E,  coke  tower;  S,  steam-pipe;  n,  niter-pot. 


chamber  along  with  the  sulphurous  acid.  The 
sulphurous  readily  abstracts  from  the  nitric  acid 
the  addit  onal  equivalent  of  oxygen  required  for 
its  conversion  into  sulphuric  acid,  reducing  the 
nitrous  compound  from  nitric  acid,  NOs,  to 
nitrous  oxide,  N02;  nitrous  oxide  in  its  turn 
quickly  converts  itself  into  nitrous  acid,  NO.,,  by 
the  abstraction  of  two  additional  equivalents  of 
oxygen  from  the  air  that  is  constantly  entering 
the  chamber  through  the  burners. 

Sulphuric  Ether  is  a  term  commonly  but  im¬ 
properly  applied  to  ethylic,  vinic,  or  ordinary 
ether.  True  sulphuric  ether,  known  also  as  sul¬ 
phate  of  ethyl,  is  an  oily  liquid,  of  burning  taste 
and  ethereal  odor,  resembling  that  of  peppermint, 
of  specific  gravity  1.120  (while  that  of  ordinary 
pure  ether  is  0.720),  and  almost  incapable  of  being 
distilled  without  decomposition,  as  at  a  tempera¬ 
ture  of  about  280°  it  resolves  itself  into  alcohol, 
sulphurous  acid,  and  olefiant  gas.  Insensibility 
may  be  readily  induced  by  the  application  to  the 
skin  of  the  finely  divided  spray  of  perfectly  pure 
rectified  ether,  of  specific  gravity  0.723.  The 
skin  blanches  in  from  half  a  minute  to  two  min¬ 
utes,  and  by  following  the  knife  with  the  spray, 
more  than  merely  superficial  incisions  may  be 
rendered  painless.  It  has  been  successfully  em¬ 
ployed  in  amputationsof  fingers  and  toes,  removal 
of  tumors,  opening  of  abscesses,  removal  of  teeth, 
etc. 

Sulphurous  Acid  (S03)  has  become  one  of 
the  most  popular  articles  in  our  pharmacopoeia. 
A  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  this  acid  and 
water  has  been  recommended  in  all  cases  of 
breaches  of  the  skin,  asprimary  wounds  (whether 
resulting  from  injuries  or  surgical  operations),  in 
ulcers,  burns,  bed-sores,  chapped  hands,  chil¬ 
blains,  saddle-sores  (whether  of  man  or  beast), 
sore  nipples,  and  in  cases  of  bruises,  such  as 
black-eye,  etc.  Moreover,  in  erysipelas,  its  sooth¬ 
ing  properties,  if  diluted  with  two  or  three  parts 
of  water,  are  striking. 

Sulphur  Springs,  the  county  seat  of  Hopkins 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  4,050. 

Sul' tail,  or  Sui.taun,  an  Arabic  word,  signify¬ 
ing  mighty  man,  and  evidently  closely  connected 
with  tlie  Hebrew  word  shalul,  to  rule,  is  in  the 
East  an  ordinary  title  of  Mohammedan  princes, 
and  also  used  in  private  life  as  a  title  of  courtesy 
for  people  of  high  rank. 

SuTnach  (/thus),  a  genus  of  small  trees  and 
shrubs,  of  the  natural  order  Anncnrdiacece.  The 
bark  is  sometimes  used  asa  substitute  for  peruvian 
bark.  The  leaves  are  astringent,  and  are  used  in 
dyeiug  turkey  red.  The  root  is  also  used  in 
dyeing,  and  the  whole  plant  is  used  for  tanning. 

Suma'tra,  the  most  westerly  of  the  Sunda 
Islands,  lies  south  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Strait  of  Malacca. 
Latitude  between  5®  45'  N.,  and  5°  50'  S.  It  is 
1,040  miles  long,  and  266  miles  in  extreme 
breadth;  area,  168,000  square  miles;  pop.,  in¬ 
cluding  that  of  the  adjacent  isles,  5,000,000. 

Suniba'wa,  one  of  the  chain  of  islands  to  the 


east  of  Java,  lies  between  8°  4' — 9°  2'  S.  latitude, 
and  116°  50' — 119°  15'  E.  longitude,  is  now 
divided  into  the  Kingdoms  of  Sumbawa,  Bima, 
Dompo,  and  Sangar,  each  governed  by  its  own 
sovereign.  Area,  5,838  square  miles;  pop.,  nearly 
100,000. 

Sum'bul  has  been  extensively  employed  for 
some  years  past  in  the 
treatment  of  epilepsy, 
hysteria,  and  other  dis¬ 
eases  of  the  nervous  sys¬ 
tem.  It  has  a  musk-like 
odor  and  an  aromatic 
and  somewhat  bitter 
taste.  It  may  be  given 
in  the  form  of  infusion, 
tincture,  or  resin. 

Summerville,  the 
county  seat  of  Chat¬ 
tooga  county,  Ga.  Pop., 
1,340. 

Sumner,  Charles, 
was  born  at  Boston, 
Mass.,  Jan.  6,  1811. 
Identifying  himself  with 
the  Free-soil  party,  he 
was,  in  1850,  chosen 
United  States  Senator 
place  of  Daniel  Web- 


from  Massachusetts,  in 
ster,  where  he  opposed  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law, 
and  declared  freedom  national  —  slavery  sec¬ 
tional.  He  was  attacked  in  the  Senate  Chamber, 
May  22d,  and  severely  beaten  by  Preston  C. 
Brooks,  and  so  severely  injured  that  Ins  labors 
were  suspended  for  three  or  four  years,  during 
which  he  visited  Europe  for  repose  and  health. 
Returning  to  the  Senate,  he  supported  the  election 
of  Mr.  Lincoln,  urged  upon  him  the  proclamation 
of  emancipation,  and  became  the  leader  of  the 
Senate,  as  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Foreign 
Relations.  In  1862  he  was  again  elected  a  Senator, 
and  reelected  in  1869.  In  1871  he  opposed  the 
annexation  of  Ilayti  to  the  United  States.  He 
died  in  1874. 

Sum  'ter,  Fort  (originally  spelled  Sumpter, 
after  General  Sumpter,  in  whose  honor  it  was 
named),  was  built  1845-55,  on  an  artificial  island, 
at  the  entrance  of  Charleston  Harbor,  two  and  a 
half  miles  distant  from  Forts  Moultrie  and 
Pinckney,  on  either  side.  On  the  secession  of 
South  Carolina,  December,  1860,  Major  Anderson, 
in. command  of  the  defenses  of  the  harbor,  was 
called  upon  to  surrender  them  to  the  State 
authorities.  Instead  of  doing  this,  he  abandoned 
the  other  forts,  and  occupied  Fort  Sumter, 
mounting  fifty-two  guns,  wilh  a  garrison  of 
seventy  men  and  thirty  or  forty  workmen.  This 
was  considered  an  act  of  war  by  the  Confeder¬ 
ates  and  their  troops,  who.  under  command  of 
General  Beauregard,  took  possession  of  Forts 
Pinckney  and  Moultrie,  and  erected  additional 
batteries.  While  the  surrender  of  the  fort  was 
under  consideration,  a  fleet  was  sent  from  New 
York  for  its  relief.  On  its  appearance  off  the 
harbor,  the  attack  on  the  Fort  was  opened  by 
General  Beauregard,  April  12;  1861,  and  it  sur¬ 
rendered  on  the  13th.  This  event  arous.ed  the 
North,  and  began  the  war  which  terminated  in 
1865.  During  the  siege  of  Charleston,  this  Fort 
was  battered  by  the  heaviest  artillery,  until  its 
walls  were  completely  crushed  and  shattered. 
The  flagstaff  was  shot  away  fifty  times,  and 
thousands  of  tons  of  iron  projectiles  were  mingled 
with  the  debris  of  the  Fort;  but  the  garrison 
constructed  a  still  stronger  fortress  on  its  ruins, 
and  held  it  for  three  years  against  assault  and 
bombardment,  until  the  operations  of  General 
Sherman  compelled  its  evacuation,  and  the 
United  States  flag  was  again  raised,  April  14, 
1865;  an  event  soon  followed  by  the  evacuation 
of  Richmond,  and  the  surrender  of  all  the  Con¬ 
federate  armies. 

Sumter,  the  county  seat  of  Sumter  county, 
S.  C.  Pop..,  2,600. 

Sumterville,  the  county  seat  of  Sumter  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  350. 

Sun,  The,  the  great  luminary  upon  which  not 
only  our  well-being  but  our  very  existence 
depends.  From  observations  made  in  1882  the 
distance  is,  from  the  earth  to  the  sun,  reckoned  at 
between  92,000,000  and  93,000,000  miles.  The 
diameter  calculated  on  the  basis  of  the  shorter 


SUNBIRDS. 


664 


SWAN. 


distance  hitherto  received  is,  in  round  numbers, 
850,000  miles,  or  more  than  107  times  the  mean 
diameter  of  the  earth;  so  that  the  volume  or  bulk 
of  the  sun  exceeds  that  of  the  earth  1,200,000 
times,  and  is  600  times  greater  than  the  bulk  of 
all  planets  at  present  known,  together.  The  mass 
of  the  sun,  or  quantity  of  matter  it  contains  as 
measured  by  weight,  exceeds  that  of  the  earth 
only  300,000  times;  and  thus  it  appears  that  the 
matter  of  the  sun  has  only  one-fourth  the  density 
of  that  of  the  earth.  From  this- and  other  facts, 
it  is  inferrc  d  that  the  matter  of  the  sun  exists  for 
the  most  part  in  a  gaseous  condition.  Still  his 
mass  is  740  times  greater  than  the  masses  of  all 
known  planets  put  together. 

Sunbirds  ( Cinnyridce ),  a  family  of  birds  of  the 
order  Insessores,  and  tribe  Tenuirostres,  which 
may  be  regarded  as  a  connecting  link  between 
the  creepers  and  the  humming-birds,  and  as 
occupying  nearly  the  same  place  in  the  tropical 
parts  of  the  Old  World  which  belongs  to  the 
humming-birds  in  America. 

Sunbury,  the  county  seat  of  Northumberland 
county,  Penn.,  is  an  important  manufacturing 
city.  Pop.,  8,050. 

Sundance,  the  county  seat  of  Crook  county, 
Wyo.  Pop.,  100. 

Sundew  (Drosera),  a  beautiful  and  interesting 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Droxerarew. 
The  leaves  of  this  and  the  other  species  are  f  ringed 
and  beset  in  all  parts  with  hairs,  which  bear  at 
their  extremity  viscid  glands,  and  the  irritation 
of  these  glands  causes  them  to  contract  and  fold 
up,  so  that  insects  are  imprisoned  by  them. 

Sun'fish  ( Orthagorixcus ),  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  family  Diodontidce.  The  name  sunfish  is 
variously  regarded  as  derived  from  the  form  of 
the  fish,  and  from  its  habit  of  floating  at  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  water,  in  fine  weather,  as  if  to  enjoy 
the  sunshine. 

Sun  'flower  (Helianthus),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  (  bmpoxitm,  sub-order  Corymbi- 
ferce.  The  species  are  numerous,  all  natives  of 
America;  large  herbaceous  plants,  with  opposite 
or  sometimes  alternate  undivided  leaves.  This 
plant  is  now  cultivated  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  in  the  South  of  Europe  is  sometimes  a 
field-crop;  the  seeds  being  valued  as  food  for 
cattle  and  poultry,  and  on  account  of  the  oil 
which  they  yield,  which  is  little  inferior  to  olive 
oil. 

Sun'nites,  traditionists  or  believers  in  the 
Sunna;  the  name  of  the  orthodox  Muslims,  as 
opposed  to  the  Shiites. 

Sunstroke.  Sunstroke  does  not  necessarily 
arise  from  undue  exposure  to  the  sun’s  rays,  but 
may  proceed  from  heat  which  is  either  actually 
too  excessive,  or  which  is  encountered  when  the 
vital  forces  of  the  body  are  near  the  point  of 
exhaustion.  In  some  cases  the  head  is  hot,  face 
flushed  (very  red — almost  purple),  the  pulse  full 
and  hard,  breathing  stertorous,  and  the  general 
aspect  as  of  suffocation.  In  other  cases  the  face 
is  pale,  the  extremities  cold  and  deathlike, 
breathing  faint  and  labored,  while  the  pulse  is 
very  feeble,  and  fluttering.  In  the  former  case, 
the  first  thing  to  do  is  obviously  to  reduce  the 
heat  of  the  body.  Lay  the .  patient  on  a  cool, 
hard  floor  or  table,  raising  the  head  slightly. 
Apply  ice  to  the  head,  and  then,  stripping  off  his 
clothes,  dash  the  whole  body  with  ice  water. 
Give  no  stimulant  internally.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  stimulate.  Give 
the  patient  whisky  or  ammonia  (aromatic  spirits, 
teaspoonlul  doses  well  diluted),  at  the  same  time 
rubbing  vigorously  to  start  the  circulation.  Keep 
the  patient  quiet  in  both  cases,  and  enjoin  abso¬ 
lute  rest. 

Supererogation,  Works  of  (Lat.  svpererogatn, 
over  and  above  things  required),  a  class  of  works 
which,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  system,  are 
described  as  not  absolutely  required  of  each  indi¬ 
vidual  as  conditions  to  his  eternal  salvation. 
Roman  Catholics  found -this  definition  on  the  dis¬ 
tinction  between  what  they  believe  to  be  com¬ 
manded  and  what  they  hold  to  be  only  counseled, 
for  an  example  of  which  they  appeal  to  the  words 
of  our  Lord  to  the  young  man  in  Matthew  xix,  21. 

Superior,  Lake,  the  largest  body  of  fresh 
water  in  the  world,  is  the  highest  and  most 
western  of  the  Great  Lakes  lying  between  West 
Canada  and  the  United  States.  It  is  situated  not 


far  from  the  center  of  the  North  American  Conti¬ 
nent.  Its  general  form  is  nearly  semi-lunar,  the 
outer  curve  being  toward  the  north.  Greatest 
length  from  east  to  west,  355  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  160  miles;  area,  about  32,000  square 
miles. 

Superior,  the  county  seat  of  Douglas  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  5,100. 

Suppura'tion  is  a  morbid  process  which  gives 
rise  to  the  formation  of  pus,  which,  as  is  well 
known,  is  one  of  the  commonest  products  of  in¬ 
flammation.  There  are  two  doctrines  as  to  the 
origin  of  pus.  The  opinion  universally  adopted 
till  very  recently  was,  that  it  was  formed  from  an 
excessive  exudation  of  the  fluid  portions  of  the 
blood  through  the  walls  of  the  capillaries;  in 
which  exudation,  under  certain  conditions,  pus- 
cells  were  developed.  This  view  is  now  rejected 
for  the  doctrine  of  Virchow,  the  eminent  professor 
of  pathology  at  Berlin,  who  maintains  that  pus- 
cells  are  generated  from  the  corpuscles  of  areolar 
tissue,  which  lie  supposes  to  permeate  nearly 
every  portion  of  the  body. 

Surface  Grub  the  caterpillar  of  the  great 
yellow  underwing  moth  ( Tnphana  pronuba),  a 
pretty  large  moth,  with  the  upper  wings  deep 
brown  or  pale  tawny,  the  under  wings  bright 


a,  Surface  Grub;  b,  Chrysalis;  e,  the  Moth  ( Triphoena 
■pronuba). 


orange  with  a  black  border.  The  caterpillar, 
when  full  grown,  is  nearly  an  inch  and  a  half 
long,  pale  green  with  a  tinge  of  brown,  dotted 
with  black,  three  pale  lines  down  the  back,  and 
seven  black  spots  on  the  inside  of  each  of  the  two 
outer  ones.  It  often  does  great  mischief  to  the 
roots  of  cabbage  and  turnips,  and  also  devours 
the  roots  of  grass. 

1  Surf  Duck,  or  Surf  Scoter  (Oidemia  perspicil- 
lata),  a  species  of  scoter,  extremely  plentiful  on 
the  coasts  of  Labrador,  Hudson’s  Bay,  and  other 
very  northern  parts  of  America. 

SurmulTet  (Mullus),  a  genus  of  acanthopter- 
ous  fishes  of  the  family  Mullidce.  Only  two 
species  are  known,  both  abundant  in  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean. 

Sur  rey  (Sax.  Suth-rice,  the  south  kingdom),  an 
inland  county  in  the  South  of  England,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Middlesex,  and  on  the  east  by 
Kent.  Area,  483,178  acres;  pop.  (1881),  1,435,842. 

Surry  Courthouse,  the  county  seat  of  Surry 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  150. 

Susauville,  the  county  seat  of  Lassen  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  700. 

Suspension  Bridges.  In  these  bridges,  the 
roadway  is  suspended  from  chains  passing  over 
piers  and  towers,  and  firmly  fixed  at  their 
extremities.  When  the  roadway  is  equally  loaded 
over  its  length,  the  curve  of  the  chain  is  a  par¬ 
abola.  The  weight  of  the  roadway  being  known, 


Suspension  Bridge. 


the  strain  upon  the  chain,  and  its  requisite 
strength,  are  readily  determined.  In  this  man¬ 
ner,  large  railway  bridges  have  been  constructed 
in  America,  among  them  is  that  over  the  Niagara, 
below  the  Falls,  with  three  lines  of  rails  on  it,  of 
which  the  span  is  822  feet,  and  the  height  of  the 
platform  above  the  river,  250  feet;  it  is  supported 
by  four  wire  cables  each  containing  3,640  wires. 
Trains  pass  over  it  at  the  rate  of  ten  miles  per 


hour.  There  are  also  very  fine  specimens  at 
Brooklyn  (the  largest  in  the  world)  and  at 
Cincinnati. 

Susquelian 'na,  an  American  river,  which  has 
its  origin  in  Otsego  and  Canandaigua  Lakes,  in 
Western  New  York,  and  flowing  eastward, 
empties  itself  into  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  at  Havre 
de  Grace,  (Maryland,  400  miles  from  its  source, 
and  153  miles  from  its  junction  with  the  West 
Branch. 

Sus  'sex  (Soutli-Saxons),  a  maritime  county  in 
the  South  of  England,  bounded  on  the  noitli  by 
Surrey  and  Kent,  and  on  the  -west  by  Hampshire. 
Area,  936,011  acres:  pop.  in  1881,  490,316. 

Sussex  Courthouse,  the  county  seat  of  Sussex 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  50. 

Suth'erland,  a  county  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Scotland,  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Caithness 
and  the  North  Sea,  on  the  north  and  west  by  the 
Atlantic,  and  on  the  south  by  Ross  and  Cromarty. 
Area,  1,207,188  acres;  pop.  in  1881,  23,366. 

Suttee'  (an  English  corruption  from  Sanskrit 
sail,  a  virtuous  wife),  means  the  practice  which 
prevailed  in  India,  of  a  wife  burning  herself  on 
the  funeral  pile,  either  with  the  body  of  her  hus¬ 
band,  or  separately,  if  he  died  at  a  distance. 

Sut'ure  (Lat.  sutura,  a  seam)  is  a  term  em¬ 
ployed  both  in  anat¬ 
omy  and  su  r  g e r y. 

In  anatomy,  it  is  used 
to  designate  the 
modes  of  connection 
between  the  various 
bones  of  the  cranium 
and  face.  In  surgery, 
the  word  suture  is  em¬ 
ployed  to  designate 
various  modes  of  sewing  up  wounds,  so  as  to 
maintain  the  opposed  surfaces  in  contact. 

Suvorof,  Alexander  Vassilivitsh,  Count, 
Prince  Italiiski,  a  Russian  field-marshal,  and  the 
most  famous  of  Russian  generals,  was  born  in 
Finland,  Nov.  13  (o.s.),  1729.  He  died  May  17, 
1800. 

Swainsborougli,  the  county  seat  of  Emanuel 
county.  Ga.  Pop.,  286. 

Swallow  (Hirundo),  a  Linnsean  genus  of  birds  of 
the  order  Insessores,  and  tribe  Fissirostres.  The 
family  is  divided  into  two  groups,  swifts  and  swal¬ 
lows — some  of  which  are  also  called  marlins.  The 
common  swallow,  or  chimney  swallow  ( Hirundo 
rustica),  exhibits  a  character  common  to  many 


Suture  for  hare  lip. 


Swallows. 


1,  common  orchimney  swallow  (Hirundo  rvstica) :  2,  sand 
martin  (II.  ripaiia)-,  3,  house  martin  (II.  urbica). 


other  species,  in  the  very  long  and  deeply-forked 
tail,  the  two  lateral  feathers  of  which  far  exceed 
the  others  in  length.  The  plumage  is  very  beau¬ 
tiful,  the  upper  parts  and  a  baud  across  the 
breast  glossy  bluish  black,  the  forehead  and 
throat  chestnut,  the  lower  parts  white,  and  a 
patch  of  white  on  the  inner  web  of  each  of  the 
tail-feathers  except  the  two  middle  ones.  The 
whole  length  of  the  bird  is  about  84  inches,  of 
which  the  outer  tail-feathers  make  5  inches. 

Swan  ( Cygnns ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  duck 
family  ( Analidce ),  constituting  a  very  distinct  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  family.  They  are  the  largest  of  the 
Anaiidce.  The  common  swan,  mute  swan,  or  tame 
swan  (U.  olor ),  is  about  5  feet  in  entire  length,  and 
weighs  about  thirty  pounds.  It  is  known  to  live 
for  at  least  fifty  years.  The  male  is  larger  than 


SWAN  LAKE. 


665 


SYPHILIS. 


the  female.  The  adults  of  botli  sexes  are  pure 
white,  with  a  reddish  bill;  the  young  (cygnets)  I 
have  a  dark  bluish-gray  plumage, and  lead-colored 
bill.  They  are  found  all  over  the  world. 

Swan  Lake,  county  seat  of  Emmett  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  100. 

Swan  Quarter,  county  seat  of  Hyde  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  100. 

Sweat  (Ang.-Sax.  swat,  Sans,  svnidas,  Lat. 
sudor;  Gr.  i 'id op,  moisture;  Lat  ud(us)  =  wet), 
or  Perspiration.  The  composition  of  this  fluid 
varies  materially  according  to  the  part  of  the 
b‘  dy  from  which  it  is  secreted.  Thus  Funk 
iouud  the  sweat  of  the  feet  was  richer  in  fixed 
salts  than  that  of  the  arm,  in  the  ratio  of  five  to 
three;  and  Scliotten  found  a  considerable  pre¬ 
ponderance  of  potassium  in  the  former.  The 
sweat-glands,  like  the  lungs  anil  kidneys,  act  as 
depurating  organs,  and  separate  and  carry  off 
effete  matters  from  the  blood.  This  eliminating 
action  of  the  skin  is  modified  in  various  diseases; 
in  some  cases  being  diminished,  as  in  the  early 
stage  of  fevers,  in  inflammations  before  suppura¬ 
tion  commences,  in  scurvy,  diabetes,  sun  stroke, 
etc.,  while  it  is  more  or  less  increased  in  the 
sweating  stage  of  ague,  in  acute  rheumatism,  in 
Asiatic  cholera,  in  certain  adynamic  fevers,  in 
the  advanced  stages  of  pulmonary  consumption, 
in  the  formation  of  matter  in  internal  parts,  etc. 
The  sweat  is  naturally  acid  in  health,  but  in  pro¬ 
longed  sweating  the  secretion  becomes  neutral, 
and  finally  alkaline.  Lit i le  is  known  with  cer¬ 
tainty  regarding  the  colot  ing  matters  of  sweat. 
In  cases  of  jaundice,  the  sweat  sometimes  com¬ 
municates  a  yellow  tinge  to  the  body-linen;  and 
instances  of  blue,  red,  and  bloody  sweat  are  on 
record. 

Swe'den  {Sverige),  the  eastern  portion  of  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula,  constitutes  with  Norway 
one  joint  kingdom.  It  is  situated  in  55°  20' — 
69®  3'  N.  latitude,  and  11° — 24°  E.  longitude,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  north  and  west  by  Norway;  on 
the  extreme  southwest  and  south  by  the  Cattegat, 
which  separates  it  from  Denmark;  on  the  south¬ 
east  and  east,  as  far  as  66®  N.  latitude,  by  the 
Baltic  and  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia;  and  from  thence 
to  the  extreme  north  by  Russia.  The  area  is 
nearly  171,000  square  miles;  and  the  pop.  was, 
in  1884,  4,644,448.  Its  length  is  969  miles,  and 
its  greatest  width  from  150  to  280  miles.  Sweden 
is  divided  into  three  provinces,  viz.,  Norrland, 
the  largest  and  most  northern;  Sweden  Proper, 
or  Sven-rike  (land  of  the  Swedes),  in  the  center; 
and  Gotland  or  Qdia-rike  (land  of  the  Goths),  to 
the  south.  Sweden  i3  a  hereditary  and  constitu¬ 
tional  monarchy.  The  diet,  which  meets  every 
year,  and  remains  sitting  for  three  or  four  months, 
is  composed  of  two  chambers,  which  are  both 
elected  by  the  people.  Election  to  both  chambers 
is  by  ballot.  The  diet  exercises  a  strict  control 
over  the  expenditure  of  the  revenue,  fixes  the 
budget,  and  has  power  to  take  cognizance  of  the 
acts  of  the  ministers  and  crown  officers.  The 
king’s  person  is  inviolable,  and  he  can  exercise  a 
veto  on  the  decrees  of  the  diet.  He  is  the  supreme 
head  of  the  law  courts,  nominates  to  all  appoint¬ 
ments,  can  declare  war,  make  peace,  and  con¬ 
clude  foreign  treaties.  He  is  assisted  by  a  council 
of  state  composed  of  ten  members,  who  are 
responsible  to  the  diet. 

Stve'deuborg,  Emanuel,  founder  of  the  Swe- 
denborgian  system  of  religion,  was  born  in  Stock¬ 
holm,  Jan.  29,  1688,  and  died  in  London,  March 
29,  1772.  The  distinctive  principle  of  Sweden- 
borgian  theology,  next  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Divine  Humanity,  is  the  doctrine  of  life':  God 
alone  lives.  Creation  is  dead — man  is  dead ;  and 
their  apparent  life  is  the  divine  presence.  God  is 
everywhere  the  same.  It  fallaciously  appears  as 
if  He  were  different  in  one  man  and  in  another. 
The  difference  is  in  the  recipients;  by  one  He  is  not 
received  in  the  same  degree  as  another.  A  man 
more  adequately  manifests  God  than  a  tree;  that 
is  the  only  distinction.  The  life  of  devils  is 
God’s  presence  perverted  in  disorderly  forms. 
“  All  things,  and  each  of  them  to  the  very  utter¬ 
most,  exist  and  subsist  instantly  from  God.  If 
the  connection  of  anything  with  Him  were  broken 
for  a  moment,  it  would  instantly  vanish;  for 
existence  is  perpetual  subsistence,  and  preserva¬ 
tion  perpetual  creation.”  By  this  law  of  life  is 
explained  man’s  self-consciousness,  freedom,  and 


personality.  All  these  sensations  are  communi 
cated  from  God  to  man.  He  dwells  in  man  so 
cordially,  that  He  gives  him  to  feel  that  he  lives 
of  himself,  even  as  He  lives.  Swedenborgians, 
or,  as  they  designate  themselves,  “The  New 
Church  signified  by  the  New  Jerusalem  in  the 
Revelation,”  were  first  organized  as  a  separate 
body  in  1788  by  Robert  Hindmarsh,  a  printer  in 
Clerkenwell,  London,  who  was  elected  by  lot  to 
baptize  and  to  ordain  his  comrades  in  the  ministry. 

Sweet  Sop  ( Anonn  squamosa),  a  fruit  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  custard  apple.  It  is  pro¬ 
duced  by  a  small  bush,  with  lanceolate  leaves,  a 
native  of  the  warm  parts  of  America. 

Sweet  Water,  the  county  seat  of  Nolan  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  725. 

Swift  ( C'ypstlits ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
swallow  family.  The  anatomy  more  resembles 
that  of  humming-birds  than  of  true  swallows. 
The  swift  is  easily  recognized  in  its  flight  by  the 
remarkably  sickle-shaped  wings,  and  its  slight 
scream  is  very  different  from  the  twitter  of  the 
swallow.  It  is  black,  with  a  white  throat.  It 
makes  its  nest  in  holes  of  rocks  or  of  walls,  often 
in  those  of  houses.  From  its  frequently  building 
in  chimneys,  this  species  is  known  in  this  country 
as  the  chimney  swallow. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  the  greatest  of  English 
satirists,  and  the  most  original  waiter  of  his  age, 
author  of  Gulliver’s  Travels,  The  Tale  of  a  'Tub, 
etc.,  was  born  in  Dublin,  but  of  English  parents, 
Nov.  30,  1667.  He  died  Oct.  19,  1745. 

Swin 'burne,  Algernon  Charles,  one  of  the 
first,  of  living  English  poets,  is  the  son  of  Admiral 
Charles  Henry  Swinburne  and  Lady  Jane 
Henrietta,  daughter  of  the  third  Earl  of  Asli- 
burnliam,  and  was  born  in  London  on  April  5, 
1837.  His  verses  and  his  criticisms  are  equally 
famous. 

Switzerland  (Ger.  Schweiz;  Fr.  Suisse;  It. 
Svizzera)  is  an  inland  country  of  Europe,  situated 
between  45°  48' — 47°  49'  N.  latitude,  and  5°  55' — 
10®  30'  E.  longitude.  Its  greatest  length  from 
east  to  west  is  180  miles,  and  its  greatest  width 
from  north  to  south,  130  miles.  Its  superficial 
area,  without  including  lakes,  is  15,920  square 
miles.  In  1880  the  pop.  of  Switzerland  was 
2,846,102.  The  government  is  a  republic,  each 
canton  being  a  sovereign  state,  while  the  presi¬ 
dent  is  only  the  presiding  officer  of  the  national 
council,  having  very  few  executive  powers. 

Sword-fish  (Xiphias),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
family  Scomberidce,  having  the  upper  jaw  remark¬ 
ably  elongated  and  compressed,  in  the  form  of  a 
sword  or  dagger.  The  body  is  rather  of  a  long 


With  section  of  a  ship's  timbers  perforated  by  the 
“  sword.” 

shape,  and  covered  with  very  small  scales.  There 
are  no  teeth.  There  is  one  long  dorsal  fin.  The 
tail-fin  is  large  and  forked.  There  are  two 
genera,  Xiphias,  destitute  of  ventral  fins;  and 
Histiophhorus,  which  possesses  ventral  fins. 

Syc 'amove,  or  Svcomore  (Sycomorus),  a  genus 
of  trees  of  the  natural  order  Moracece.  The 
species  are  chiefly  African,  but  the  geographical 
range  extends  also  into  the  West  of  Asia.  Some 
of  them  attain  a  large  size  and  a  great  age.  The 
figs  are  top-shaped,  and  grow  in  clustered  racemes 
on  the  trunk  and  oldest  branches.  They  are 
sweet,  well  flavored,  and  somewhat  aromatic. 
The  wood  is  light,  porous,  and  of  little  value. 
It  has  been  supposed  that  the  cases  of  Egyptian 
mummies  are  made  of  it,  but  this  is  disputed. 
Other  species  are  found  in  Abyssinia,  South 


Africa,  etc.  The  sycamore  tree  of  Britain  Is  a 
species  of  maple,  in  some  parts  of  this  country 


Sycamore  (Acer  pseud o-plaf  anus),  showing  leaves, 
flowers,  and  fruit. 

the  same  name  is  given  to  the  plane,  Plalanvs 
occidentalis. 

Sycamore,  the  county  seat  of  De  Kalb  county, 
Ill.  Fop.,  4,050. 

Syd'ney,  the  capital  of  New  South  Wales,  and 
the  oldest  city  in  Australia,  is  situated  on  the 
southern  shores  of  Port  Jackson,  in  latitude  32® 
52'  S.,  longitude  151°  11'  E.  Pop.,  220,000. 

Sykeston,  the  county  seat  of  Wells  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  100. 

Sylvania,  the  county  seat  of  Screven  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  450. 

Sylvi'adae,  a  family  of  birds,  of  the  order  In- 
sessores,  and  tribe  Dentirostres,  including  a  very 
great  number  of  small  species,  among  which  are 
many  of  the  birds  most  noted  for  sweetness  of 
song,  while  something  of  this  power  is  possessed 
by  almost  all  the  family,  so  that  the  name  Warb 
lers  is  often  used  as  synonymous  with  Sylviadae. 

Sy no' vial  Membranes  and  Fluid.  In  every 
joint  in  which  a  considerable  range  of  motion  is 
required,  the  osseous  segments  (or  contiguous  ex¬ 
tremities  of  bones)  are  separated  by  a  space,  which 
is  called  the  cavity  of  the  joint.  The  end  of  each 
of  the  bones  entering  into  the  composition  of  the 
joint  is  incrusted  by  a  layer  of  articular  cartilage 
adapted  to  its  form,  and  the  entire  cavity  of  the 
joint  is  lined  by  a  delicate  membrane,  which  is 
termed  the  synovial  membrane,  which  secretes  a 
peculiar  viscid  matter,  termed  synovia,  or  synovial 
fluid,  for  the  purpose  of  lubricating  the  inner  sur¬ 
face. 

Syn'tax(Gr.  taxis,  arrangement,  tivv, 

syn,  together)  is  the  part  of  grammar  that  teaches 
the  putting  together  of  words  for  the  expressing 
of  thoughts;  in  other  words,  it  treats  of  the  con¬ 
struction  of  sentences. 

Syn'thesis  (Gr.  6v/tQediS,  synthesis,  making 
a  whole  out  of  parts)  is  a  term  em  floyed  in  chem¬ 
istry  to  designate  the  building  up  of  a  more  or  less 
complicated  product  from  its  elementary  constit¬ 
uents,  as  opposed  to  the  reverse  process,  analysis. 

Syntonin,  or  Muscle  Fibrin  (Gr.  6vi'teiveiv, 
synteinein,  to  render  tense)  contains  in  100  parts: 
carbon,  54.06;  hydrogen,  7.28;  nitrogen,  16.05; 
oxygen,  21.50;  and  sulphur,  1.11.  It  is  the  princi¬ 
pal  constituent  and  the  essential  basis  of-  all  the 
contractile  tissues. 

Syph  'ilis.  It  is  almost  unnecessary  to  observe 
that  syphilis  is  a  contagious  disease  usually  propa¬ 
gated  by  impure  sexual  intercourse.  The  follow¬ 
ing  is  a  brief  history  of  the  course  of  the  disease, 
if  its  progress  is  not  checked  by  proper  reme¬ 
dial  agents.  At  an  uncertain  period,  varying 
from  three  to  ten  days,  after  exposure  to  the  in 
fection,  one  or  more  venereal  ulcers  (commonly 
known  as  chancres)  appear  upon  the  generative 
organs.  These  ulcers  present  many  varieties, 
which  have  been  variously  classified.  The  Hun¬ 
terian  or  indurated  or  infecting  chancre,  the  lion- 
indurated  or  suppurative  chancre,  the  ulcerative 
chancre,  and  the  sloughing  chancre.  These  local 
affections  are  so  different  in  their  characters,  and 
in  their  action  on  the  constitution,  that  each  must 
have  a  brief  separate  notice.  The  indurated,  or. 


SYRA. 


666 


TALLAHASSEE. 


as  it  is  frequently  termed,  the  Hunterian  chancre, 
from  its  having  been  first  accurately  described  by 
John  Hunter,  is  the  only  one  of  these  local  affec¬ 
tions  that  can  be  associated  with  constitutional 
syphilis.  Its  natural  course  is  thus  described  by 
Doctor  Lee:  "  At  an  uncertain  period,  butgeneral- 
ly  from  three  to  four  days  after  exposure  to  infec¬ 
tion,  attention  may  be  drawn  to  the  part  by  a 
slight  itching.  On  examination,  a  red  spot,  sur¬ 
rounded  by  a  little  induration,  will  perhaps  pre¬ 
sent  itself,  or  a  vesicle  about  the  size  of  a  millet- 
seed  will  not  infrequently  form  upon  theinfected 
part.  The  cuticle  covering  this  vesicle  is  so  thin 
that  it  usually  gives  way  at  a  very  early  period; 
and  this  commonly  happens  before  the  disease 
has  been  carefully  examined.  The  base  of  the 
vesicle  then  becomes  indurated,  and  the  indura¬ 
tion  (whether  preceded  or  accompanied  by  a  pim¬ 
ple  or  a  vesicle,  or  independent  of  either  of  these) 
assumes  a  circular  form,  extending  equally  in 
every  direction,  and  terminating  quite  abruptly 
in  apparently  healthy  parts.  A  sore  generally 
follows;  this  is  excavated,  without  granulations, 
sometimes  glazed,  at  other  times  having  some  ad¬ 
hesive  matter  on  its  surface.  The  color  of  the 
chancre  will  depend  often  upon  the  amount  and 
character  of  the  substance  which  adheres  to  it, 
and  will  frequently  present  a  fawn  hue,  or  differ¬ 
ent  shades  of  brown  and  red.  When  this  adventi¬ 
tious  matter  is  removed,  the  sore  will  usually 
again  assume  its  original  smooth  and  red  glazed 
appearance.”  This  variety  of  sore  frequently 
gives  rise  to  a  chronic  enlargement  of  one  of  the 


glands  of  the  groin,  which  does  not  involve  the 
skin  or  the  cellular  membrane.  It  is  followed  by 
certain  constitutional  symptoms  known  as  secon¬ 
dary  symptoms,  and  requires,  both  in  its  primary 
and  secondary  forms,  mercurial  treatment.  The 
suppurating  chancre  usually  begins  as  an  abra¬ 
sion,  which,  when  fully  developed,  often  presents 
the  same  appearance  as  if  a  piece  of  skin  had 
been  removed  by  a  circular  punch.  The  sore  is 
covered  with  ill-formed  granulations,  and  extend¬ 
ing  equally  in  all  directions,  maintains  its  circular 
form.  After  continuing  three  or  four  weeks,  it 
generally  heals,  without  leaving  the  hardness 
which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  Hunterian,  in¬ 
fecting  or  indurated  sore.  It  is  not  followed  by 
secondary  symptoms.  The  ulcerative  chancre  is 
a  ragged,  worm-eaten,  ulceration;  secreting  an  ill- 
formed  pus,  and  presenting  an  irritable  surface. 
Soon  after  the  appearance  of  t  his  sore,  one  of  the 
glands  of  the  groin  will  become  enlarged  and 
painful.  This  maybe  preceded  by  a  shivering 
tit,  more  or  less  marked.  The  enlarged  gland  or 
bubo  becomes  very  tender  to  pressure,  and  as  the 
swelling  increases,  the  skin  becomes  red,  espe¬ 
cially  at  the  center,  and  the  general  symptoms  of 
suppuration  present  themselves.  Great  relief  is 
afforded  by  the  discharge  of  the  pus.  It  is  never 
followed  by  secondary  symptoms,  and,  like  the 
preceding  form,  requires  only  local  treatment. 
The  sloughing  chancre  is  fortunately  rare  in  this 
country,  but  in  many  foreign  ports,  in  warm  and 
hot  countries,  commits  great  ravages  amongst 
sailors.  It  does  not  affect  the  inguinal  glands,  is 


not  followed  by  constitutional  symptoms,  and 
requires  only  local  treatment. 

Sy'ra,  the  most  important  of  the  group  of 
islands  in  the  iEgean  Sea  known  as  the  Cyclades, 
lies  thirteen  miles  south  of  Andros.  It  is  about 
10  miles  long  by  5  broad,  bare,  hilly,  and  not  very 
fertile. 

Syracuse,  a  city,  and  the  county  seat  of  Onon¬ 
daga  county,  N.  Y.,  is  at  the  head  of  Onondaga 
Lake,  148  miles  west-by-north  of  Albany.  Here 
are  the  largest  salt-works  in  America.  5  iron  fur¬ 
naces,  14  machine-shops,  manufactories  of  silver, 
tin-ware,  sheet-iron,  coach  and  wagon  factories, 
and  breweries.  Pop.,  78,000. 

Syr'ia,  a  division  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  portions  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
west  by  the  Levant,  and  on  the  south  by  Arabia 
Pet  rasa;  on  the  east  and  southeast  its  boundary 
is  rendered  indefinite,  in  great  part,  bythe  sands 
of  the  desert,  but  at  length  becomes  fixed  by  the 
course  of  the  Euphrates.  Area,  about  146,000 
square  miles;  pop.,  about  2,250,000. 

Syrrhap 'tes,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  grouse 
family  ( Tetraonidce),  of  which  only  one  species  is 
known  ( S .  Pallasii),  a  native  of  the  deserts  of 
Tartary,  abundant  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lake 
Baikal.  . 

Syr'tis  Ma'jor  and  Syrtis  Mi'nor,  the  ancient 
name  of  two  gulfs  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on 
the  north  coast  of  Africa. 

Sze-chnen'  (Four  Streams),  a  vast  province  of 
Western  China,  and  the  largest  of  the  eighteen. 


T 


T  is  the  twentieth  letter  of  the  English  alphabet, 
and  the  sharp  or  mute  of  the  lingual  series, 
t,  d,  th  (dh).  It  is  produced  by  pressing  the  fore¬ 
part  of  the  tongue  against  the  front  of  the  palate. 
This  aspirated  t  is  wanting  in  Latin  and  its  deriva¬ 
tives;  it  is  also  foreign  to  High-German,  although 
the  Gothic  and  other  Low-German  tongues  (Eng¬ 
lish)  possess  it.  The  Gothic  th  has  become  in 
High-German  d.  In  t  he  spelling  of  Higli-German 
th  occurs  not  infrequently;  but  it  is  never  pro¬ 
nounced,  and  the  introduction  of  it  being  con¬ 
sidered  by  students  of  the  language  an  aberration,' 
there  is  a  tendency  to  drop  the  h. 

Taban'idat,  a  numerous  family  of  dipterous 
insects,  of  the  section  Pruboscidece,  which  live  by 


Gad-fly  and  larva  ( Tabanu*  bovinus). 


sucking  the  blood  of  horses,  oxen  and  other  ani¬ 
mals,  and  are  popularly  kuown  by  the  name  of 
gad-fly,  which,  however,  is  often  given  also  to 
some  of  the  CEstridai. 

Tab'ernacle,  The,  was  the  tent  first  erected 
by  Moses  in  the  desert  as  a  visible  symbol  of  the 
Divine  Presence  in  the  midst  of  the  people,  and 
afterward  a  movable  wooden  building.  A  detailed 
description  of  the  Tabernacle  is  given  in  Ex.  xxv, 
seqq.,  xxxvi,  seqq.  It  was  divided  into  the  Sanc¬ 
tuary  proper— which  formed  the  front  part,  and 
the  dimensions  of  which  were  20  cubits  in  length, 
10  in  width  and  10  in  height — and  the  Holy  of 
Holies,  which  was  10  cubits  square  and  10  high. 
A  kind  of  court-yard,  formed  by  curtains  sus¬ 
pended  between  columns,  ran  around  the  Taber¬ 
nacle,  100  cubits  long  and  50  wide. 

Tabernacle  (Lat.  tabernaculum,  armarium ),  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  is  the  name  given  to 
the  receptacle  in  which  the  consecrated  elements 
of  the  Eucharist  are  retained. 

Ta'bes  Dorsa'lis,  an  affection  of  the  nervous 


system,  now  known  in  medicine  as  locomotor  ataxy. 
I  t  is  characterized  by  a  want  of  power  in  harmon¬ 
izing  the  action  of  certain  muscles,  the  absence  of 
such  coordinating  power  being  first  apparent  in 
the  lower  extremities,  and  the  gait  in  consequence 
being  straggling  and  unsteady.  The  treatment, 
as  may  readily  be  understood,  is  limited  to  the 
improvement  of  the  general  health,  rather  than  to 
any  specific  remedies.  Warm  clothing,  nutritious 
food,  and  rest  are  the  chief  items  in  the  course  of 
treatment  prescribed  for  this  disease;  while 
opiates  are  indicated  for  the  relief  of  the  neuralgic 
pains.  Sulphur  baths  have  been  prescribed  in 
the  earlier  stages  to  relieve  the  numbness,  and 
attention  requires  to  be  paid  to  the  bowels  with  a 
view  of  alleviating  constipation. 

Tacca,  a  genus  of  plants  of  a  small  natural 
order  called  Taccacece ,  nearly  allied  to  Aracece. 

Tack,  Tacking.  The  tack  of  a  sail  is  the 
lower  windward  corner.  The  tack  is  the  rope 
employed  in  hauling  down  that  corner  to  its 
proper  position.  The  tack  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail  is 
its  lower  forward  clue  or  corner;  it  also  designates 
the  rope  for  hauling  down  that  corner.  A  ship 
is  said  to  be  on  the  starboard  or  port  tack  when 
she  is  close-hauled  with  the  wind  on  the  starboard 
or  port  side.  Tacking  is  the  practice  of  beating 
up  against  an  adverse  wind  by  a  zigzag  course. 

Tacoma,  the  county  seat  of  Pierce  county, 
Wash.,  is  on  Puyallup  Bay,  an  arm  of  Puget 
Sound.  It  is  the  tide-water  terminus  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railway,  and  is  an  important 
commercial  and  manufacturing  center.  Pop  , 
8,100. 

Tadema,  Lawrence  Alma,  a  distinguished 
painter,  born  Jan.  8,  1886,  at  Dronryp,  in  the 
Netherlands.  He  was  naturalized  as  a  British 
subject  in  1873. 

Taffrail,  in  a  Ship,  is  the-rail  over  the  heads  of 
the  stern -timbers,  extending  across  the  stern  from 
one  quarter-stanchion  to  another. 

Ta 'gas  (Span.  Tajo),  the  largest  river  of  the 
Spanish  Peninsula,  rises  on  the  frontier  of  New 
Castile  and  Aragon,  between  the  Sierra  de  Albar- 
racin  and  the  Sierra  de  Molina,  about  forty-five 
miles  northeast  of  the  city  of  Cuenca.  It  first 
flows  northwest  for  about  thirty  miles  to  its 
union  with  the  Gallo,  and  thence  into  the  Atlan¬ 
tic.  Total  length,  540  miles. 

Tab leq uali.  Territorial  capital  of  Cherokee 
Nation,  Ind.  Ter.  Pop.,  600. 

Tahi'ti,  or  Otaheite,  the  chief  of  the  Society 
Islands,  is  32  miles  long,  about  120  miles  in  cir¬ 
cumference,  and  consists  of  two  peninsulas,  con¬ 


nected  by  an  isthmus  about  3  miles  broad,  but 
which  is  submerged  at  high  water.  Pop.,  13,800 
Tailor-bird  (Orthotomus),  a  genus  of  birds' of 
the  family  Sylviadce,  with  a  long  graduated  tail, 
the  feathers  of  which  are  narrow.  The  species 


Tailor-bird  and  Nest  (.Orthotomus  loagicaudus). 


are  numerous,  natives  of  the  East  Indies  and  of 
the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  haunt  cultivated 
grounds,  where  they  are  commonly  seen  in  pairs. 

Taine,  Hippoi.yte  Adolphe,  French  critic, 
was  born  at  Vouziers  in  Ardennes,  April  21, 
1828.  His  Histoire  de  la  Litteraturc  Anglaise  is 
his  best  known  work. 

Talbottoii,  the  county  seat  of  Talbot  count}7, 
Ga.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Talc,  a  mineral  allied  to  mica,  and,  like  it, 
easilv  separated  into  thin  flakes,  which  are  trans¬ 
parent  and  flexible,  but  not  elastic,  like  those  of 
mica. 

Tale'galla,  a  genus  of  gallinaceous  birds,  of 
the  family  Megapodidce. 

Ta'lipat  Palm,  or  Great  Fan  Palm  (Corypha 
vmbraculifera),  the  noblest  palm  of  the  East  In¬ 
dies,  a  native  of  Ceylon,  Malabar,  etc. 

Talladega,  the  county  seat  of  Talladega 
county,  Ala.  Pop.,  3,600. 

Tallahass'ee,  the  capital  of  Florida,  on  a  high 
plain  180  miles  east  of  Pensacola.  It  is  celebrated 
for  its  salubrious,  semi-tropical  climate,  and 
abundant  springs  of  soft  pure  water.  Pop.,  3,000. 


TALLEYRAND-PERIGORD. 


667 


TASMANNIA. 


Talleyrand- Perigord,  Charles  Maurice  de, 
Prince  of  Benevento,  the  most  subtile,  shrewd, 
and  unprincipled  of  all  modern  diplomatists,  was 
horn  at  Paris,  Feb.  13,  1754,  and  died  May  17, 
1838. 

Tallow  Tree,  the  name  given  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  to  trees  of  different  kinds 
which  produce  a  thick  oil  or  vegetable  tallow,  or 
a  somewhat  resinous  substance,  which,  like  tal¬ 
low,  is  capable  of  being  used  for  making  candles. 

Tal'mud  (from  Heb.  lumad,  to  learn) — i.  e., 
Study,  by  way  of  eminence — is  the  name  of  the 
fundamental  code  of  the  Jewish  civil  and  canon¬ 
ical  law,  comprising  the  Mislina  and  the  Gemara, 
the  former  as  the  text,  the  latter  as  the  commen¬ 
tary  and  complement. 

Tains,  a  term  employed  in  Geology,  to  desig 
nate  the  sloping  heap  which  accumulates  at  the 
base  of  a  rock  or  precipice,  from  fragments 
broken  off  by  the  weather,  or  materials  in  any 
way  carried  over  it. 

Tamaqua,  the  county  seat  of  Schuylkill 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  5,900. 

Tam'arin  ( Midn *),  a  genus  of  South  American 
monkeys,  with  short  muzzle,  prominent  fore¬ 
head,  long  nails,  which,  except  on  the  hinder 
thumbs,  are  formed  like  claws,  the  tail  longer  than 
the  body,  not  prehensile,  and  covered  with  hair 
so  as  to  resemble  the  tail  of  a  squirrel. 

Tam'arind  (Tamurindus  indica),  a  beautiful 
tree  of  the  natural  order  Leguminom,  sub-order 
Cmsalpinew,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  but  now 
generally  cultivated  in  warm  climates. 

Tam'arisk  ( Tamnrix ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Tamaricacece. 

Tambov',  a  government  in  the  southeast  of 
Great  Russia,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Govern¬ 
ments  of  Penza  and  Saratov.  Area,  25,542  square 
miles;  pop.  (1880),  2,405,713. 

Tambov,  capital  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  Tsna,  750  miles  southeast  of  St. 
Petersburg.  Pop.  (1880),  26,403. 

Tampa,  the  county  seat  of  Hillsborough  county, 
Fla.,  is  an  important  seaport  and  market  town. 
Pop.,  3,500. 

Tampan,  a  tick  of  South  Africa,  remarkable 
for  its  poisonous  bite. 

Tampi'co,  or  Santa  Anna  de  Tamaulipas,  a 
seaport  of  Mexico,  in  the  State  of  Tamaulipas,  on 
the  Panuco,  five  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico. 

Tan'ager  ( Tanagra ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
finch  family  ( Fringillidm ),  having  a  conical  beak, 
triangular  at  the  base;  the  upper  mandible  u  Jelled 
toward  the  tip,  and  its  ridge  arched. 

Tanganyika,  a  lake  of  Eastern  Central  Africa, 
lying  between  latitude  3°  and  9°  S.  Longitude 
of  center,  30°  E.;  length,  about  400 miles;  breadth, 
from  15  to  60  miles. 

Tang'hin  ( Tanghinia  venenifera,  or  Cevbera 
Aanghin),  a  tree  of  the  natural  order  Apocynaccm, 
a  native  of  Madagascar. 

Tanis,  the  Tyrian  name  of  the  goddess  Astarte. 

Tan'nic  Acid,  or  Tannin.  Under  these  syn¬ 
onymous  terms,  chemists  include  a  number  of 
solid  non-nitrogenous  substances,  consisting  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  some  of  which  are 
crystalline,  and  others  amorphous,  and  possessing 
no  smell,  but  a  well-marked  astringent  taste.  They 
are  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  the  solutions 
being  acid,  and  yielding  precipitates  with  most 
metallic  oxides.  A  solution  of  gelat  ine  is  also  pre¬ 
cipitated  by  a  solution  of  any  of  the  tannic  acids, 
and  the  gelatigenous  tissue  in  raw  hides  is  by  an 
analogous  process  converted  into  leather. 

Tansy  (Tanacetum),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Compositm,  sub-order  Corymbiferm , 
allied  to  Artemisia,  and  having  hemispherical 
heads  of  flowers,  with  the  floretsall  tubular,  the 
receptacle  naked,  the  pappus  a  slight  membranous 
border.  The  species  are  pretty  numerous,  and  are 
natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  Old  World. 
The  plant  is  also  tonic  and  anthelmintic,  and  tans3r 
tea  is  an  old  popular  medicine. 

Tantalus,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  Ardei- 
“  dm,  resembling  storks  in  their  feet  and  hill,  except 
that  the  ridge  of  the  bill  is  rounded,  and  its  tip 
gradually  curved  downward  and  slightly  notched 
on  each  side;  a  portion  of  the  head,  and  sometimes 
of  the  neck,  is  bare. 

Taos,  the  county  seat  of  Taos  county,  N.  M. 
Pop.,  1,300. 


Tape'worm  is  a  word  popularly  used  in  a  vague 
sense  to  designate  any  worm  of  the  group  Cestoidea. 


1.  Head,  neck,  and  upper  joints  of  Tania  solium  magni¬ 
fied:  a,  the  circle  of  hooks;  b  and  c,  two  of  the  sucking 
discs;  d,  the  neck. — 2.  One  of  the  lower  or  sexually 
mature  joints  of  the  same,  showing  the  water-vascular 
canals,  and  the  branched  uterine  organ  distented  with 
ova. 


It  is  only  in  the  alimentary  canal  of  man  or  some 
other  animal  that  a  tapeworm  of  any  kind  can 
attain  to  sexual  maturity;  and  in  all  of  these  the 
eggs  are  fecundated  be¬ 
fore  being  discharged. 

How  long  a  tapeworm 
can  naturally  exist  in  an 
intestinal  canal,  is  not 
nown;  but  there  is 
doubtless  a  period  at 
which  the  parasite  spon¬ 
taneously  separates  from 
the  intestinal  mucous 
membrane  of  its  host— a 
period  probably  coincid-  ,  , , 

TO;ti,  ti.„  cWlrlinrr  The  double  crown  of  hooks 
"nil  the  Slie(luin0  more  highly  magnified, 
and  non-renewal  of  the 

circlet  of  hooks.  When  this  separation  occurs, 
the  whole  length  of  the  worm  is  expelled,  in  the 
same  manner  as  if  the  parasite  had  been  first  killed 
by  the  administration  of  a  vermifuge  medicine. 
Tapeworms,  although  rare  among  horses  and 
cattle,  are  common  in  dogs  and  sheep,  causing 
irritability  of  the  bowels,  and  an  unthrifty  appear¬ 
ance.  For  dogs,  no  remedy  answers  so  well  as 
powdered  arecanut,  of  which  thirty  grains  suffice 
for  a  dog  weighing  about  twenty  pounds.  It  is  best 
given  after  ten  or  twelve  hours’  fasting,  in  a  little 
soup  or  milk,  and  should  be  followed  in  a  few 
hours  by  a  dose  of  castor  oil.  Neither  areca  nut 
nor  any  of  the  approved  remedies  used  in  men, 
prove  effectual  in  sheep;  and  one  of  the  best  pre¬ 
scriptions  for  them  consists  of  40  drops  of  oil  of 
turpentine,  a  drachm  of  powdered  green  vitriol, 
and  an  ounce  of  common  salt,  given  mixed  in  a 
little  milk  or  gruel,  or,  where  their  bowels  are 
confined,  in  linseed  oil.  A  daily  allowance  of  lin¬ 
seed  cake  and  sound,  dry  food  should  likewise  be 
given  with  the  grass  or  roots,  and  pieces  of  rock- 
salt  left  within  the  animal’s  reach. 


Ta'pir  ( Tapirus ),  a  genus  of  Pachydermata, 
of  the  section  Ordinariu;  having  a  bulky  form, 
with  moderately  long  legs;  the  fore-feet  four¬ 
toed,  the  hind-feet  three-toed;  the  skin  thick;  the 
hair  short;  the  tail  very  small;  the  neck  thick; 
the  ears  short;  the  eyes  small;  the  muzzle  elon¬ 
gated;  the  nose  prolonged  into  a  short,  flexible 
proboscis,  which,  however,  does  not  terminate  in 
an  organ  of  touch  and  prehension,  like  that  of 
the  elephant;  six  incisors,  two  canine  teeth,  and 
fourteen  molars  in  each  jaw,  the  molars  separated 
from  the  canine  teeth  by  a  wide  interval. 

Tappahannock,  the  county  scat  of  Essex 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  650. 

Ta'ra,  or  Taro  (Colocasia  macvorldzn),  a  plant 
of  the  natural  order  Arucem,  of  the  same  genus 
with  the  coeco,  or  eddoes,  and  cultivated  for  its 
roots,  which  are  a  principal  article  of  food  in  the 
South  Sea  Islands. 

Tara  Fern  (Pteris  esculenta),n  species  of  brake, 
the  root  (rhizome)  of  which  was  one  of  the  prin¬ 
cipal  articles  of  food  of  the  New  Zealanders, 
before  the  settlement  of  New  Zealand  by  British 
colonists. 

Taranaki,  a  provincial  district  of  New  Zealand, 
occupying  the  southwest  corner  of  the  north 
island;  area,  2,137,000  acres,  of  which  three- 
fourths  are  dense  forests.  Pop.  (1881),  14,858. 
The  capital  is  New  Plymouth;  pop.  (1881),  3,310. 


Taran'lula  ( Lycosa  tarantula),  a  species  of 
spider,  of  a  genus  to  which  the  name  wolf-spider 
is  often  given,  a  native  of  the  South  of  Europe. 
One  species  is  also  numerous  in  Mexico, Texas, etc. 

Tara'xacnm,  or  Dandelion  Root,  is  em¬ 
ployed  to  a  considerable  extent  in  medicine.  The 
roots  should  be  gathered  in  August  and  Septem¬ 
ber,  when  the  juice  is  most  abundant.  This 
medicine  may  be  prescribed  with  advantage  in 
the  form  of  extract,  decoction,  or  juice  in  chronic 
diseases  of  the  liver,  and  in  certain  forms  of 
dyspepsia  and  skin-disease,  which  are  accom¬ 
panied  by  derangement  of  the  biliary  orgaiis. 
In  large  doses  it  has  a  diuretic  and  slightly 
•aperient  action. 

Tarborough,  the  county  seat  of  Edgecombe 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  1,700. 

Tare  ( Ervum ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminom,  sub-order  Papilionaecm,  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  Vida, to  which  it  is  nearly  allied, 
by  a  capitate  stigma,  downy  all  over. 

Tarn,  a  department  in  the  South  of  France, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Departments  of' 
Aveyron  and  Tarn  et-Garonne,  receives  its  name 
from  the  River  Tarn.  Area,  2,216  square  miles; 
pop.  (1870),  359,232. 

Tarn-et-Garonne,  a  small  department  in  the 
South  of  France,  bounded  on  the  southeast  by  the 
Department  of  Tarn.  Area,  1,435  square  miles; 
pop.  (1881),  217,056. 

Tarry 'town,  a  village  of  New  York,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  twenty -seven 
miles  north  of  New  York  City.  It  is  noted  as  the 
scene  of  the  capture  of  Major  Andre.  Pop.,  3,500. 

Tar' tar,  a  mixture  of  bitartrate  of  potash  and 
tartrate  of  lime,  is  a  deposit  formed  from  wine, 
and  known  in  its  crude  form  asargol. 

Tartar  of  the  Teeth  is  a  deposit  of  salts  of 
lime  and  organic  matter  from  the  saliva,  and 
usually  occurs  most  abundantly  on  the  inferior 
incisors.  The  accumulating  of  this  substance 
may  usually  be  prevented  if  due  attention  is  paid 
to  the  cleaning  of  the  teeth.  The  teeth  should 
be  cleaned  at  least  twice  a  day  with  a  soft  tooth- 
powder  (precipitated  chalk  is  best)  and  a  little 
soap.  The  hairs  of  the  tooth-brush  should  be 
soft,  and  not  too  closely  set,  so  that  they  may, 
penetrate  the  better  into  the  interstices  of  the 
teeth.  When  the  tartar  has  accumulated  to  any 
extent,  it  must  be  removed  by  the  scaling  instru¬ 
ments  of  the  dentist. 

Tartar,  Soluble,  a  term  applied  by  some 
chemists  to  neutral  tartrate  of  potash,  and  by 
others  to  borotartaric  acid. 

Tar'tars,  or,  more  properly,  Tatars,  was 
originally  a  name  of  the  Mongolic  races,  but 
came  to  be  extended  to  all  the  tribes  brought 
under  Mongolic  sway  by  Genghis  Kahn  and  his 
successors,  including  Tungusic  and  Turkic 
races. 

Tartary  (properly  Tatary)  is  the  name  under 
which,  in  the  middle  ages,  was  comprised  the 
whole  central  belt  of  Central  Asia  and  Eastern 
Europe,  from  the  Sea  of  Japan  to  the  Dnieper, 
including  Mantchuria,  Mongolia,  Chinese  Turk¬ 
estan,  Independent  Turkestan,  the  Kalmuck  and 
Kirgliis  steppes,  and  the  old  khanates  of  Kasan, 
Astrakhan,  and  the  Crimea,  and  even  the  Cos¬ 
sack  countries;  and  hence  arose  a  distinction  of 
Tartary  into  European  and  Asiatic.  But  latterly 
the  name  Tartary  had  a  much  more  limited  sig¬ 
nification,  including  only  that  tract  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Siberia,  on  the  south  by  China  and 
Thibet,  along  with  Independent  Turkestan;  and  at 
the  present  day  many  writers  apply  it  as  a 
synonym  for  Turkestan. 

Tascosa,  the  county  seat  of  Oldham  countv, 
Tex.  Pop.,  175. 

Tasman'ia,  formerly  Van  Diemen’s  Land,  a 
considerable  island  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean, 
between  the  parallels  of  40  40' — 43°  40'  S. 

latitude  and  between  144°  30' — 148°  30'  W. 
longitude,  lying  to  the  south  of,  and  separated 
from  Australia  by  Bass’  Strait.  Greatest  length, 
240  miles;  greatest  breadth,  200  miles;  area, 
26,375  square  miles.  The  capital  is  Hobart.  Pop. 
(1883),  126,220. 

Tasman'nia,  a  genus  of  shrubs  of  the  natural 
order  Magnoliacem.  The  fruit  is  occasionally 
used  as  pepper. 


TASSISUDON. 


TE  DEUM. 


668 


Tassisudon',  the  capital  of  Bhotan,  stands  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Godadda,  an  atllueut  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  in  latitude  27°  30'  N. 

Tasso,  Torquato,  one  of  the  greatest  poets  of 
Italy,  the  son  of  Bernardo  Tasso,  also  a  poet, 
was  born  at  Sorrento  in  Naples,  March  11,  1544, 
and  died  April  25,  1595. 

Taste,  Organ  and  Sense  of.  The  principal 
seat  of  the  sense  of  taste  is  the  mucous  membrane 
of  the  tongue,  in  which  dissection  reveals  a  cutis, 
or  chorion;  a  papillary  structure,  and  an  epithe¬ 
lium.  The  cutis  is  tough,  but  thinner  and  less 
dense  than  in  most  parts  of  the  cutaneous  sur¬ 
face,  and  receives  the  insertions  of  the  intrinsic 
muscles  of  the  tongue.  The  papillary  structure 
differs  from  that  of  the  skin  in  not  being  con¬ 
cealed  under  the  epithelium;  but  in  projecting 
from  the  surface  like  the  villi  of  the  digestive 
canal,  and  it  thus  gives  to  the  tongue  its  well 
known  roughness.  The  epithelium,  is  of  the 
scaly  variety,  as  on  the  skin,  but  is  much  thinner 
on  the  tongue  than  on  the  skin.  It  is  most  dense 
about  the  middle  of  the  upper  surface  of  the 
tongue,  and  it  is  here  that,  in  disordered 
digestion,  there  is,the  chief  accumulation  of  fur, 
which  in  reality  is  simply  a  depraved  and  over¬ 
abundant  formation  of  epithelium.  The  papillae 


A.  Fungiform  papilla,  showing  the  simple  papilla1  on 
its  surface,  and  at  a,  the  epithelium  investing  them 
(magnified  thirty-five  diameters).  B.  a  similar 
papilla,  with  the  capillary  loop  of  its  simple  papilse 
injected;  a ,  artery;  a,  vein.  Around  the  base  there  is 
often  a  groove,  which  is  here  shown,  as  also  are  the 
capillary  loops,  c,  c ,  of  two  of  the  neighboring  simple 
papilla;  (magnified  eighteen  diameters). 

on  the  surface  of  the  tongue  are  either  simple  or 
compound.  The  former,  which  closely  resem¬ 
bles  those  on  the  skin,  are  scattered  over  the 
whole  surface  of  the  tongue  in  parts  where  the 
others  do  not  exist,  and  they  likewise  participate 
in  the  formation  of  the  compound  papillae,  which, 
from  their  forms,  are  respectively  termed  (1)  the 
circumvallate  or  calyciform,  (2)  the  fungiform, 
and  (3)  the  conical  or  filiform.  Although  the 
surface  of  the  tongue  is  the  special  seat  of  gus- 
tative  sensibility  in  man,  the  sense  of  taste  is 
diffused,  in  a  less  degree,  over  the  soft  palate, 
the  arches  of  the  palate,  and  the  fauces.  It  is 
generally  allowed  that  acute  taste  resides  at 
the  base  of  the  tongue,  over  a  region  of  which  the 
circumvallate  papillae  may  be  taken  as  the  center, 
and  also  on  the  sides  near  the  base.  These  parts 
are  supplied  solely  by  the  glossal  twigs  of  the 
glosso-phary ngeal  ner ves . 

Tattersall’s,  a  celebrated  mart  for  the  sale  of 
horses  in  London,  so  called  from  Richard  Tatter- 
sall,  who  died  in  1795,  and  who  was  groom  to  the 
second  Duke  of  Kingston.  The  racing  subscrip¬ 
tion-room  here  is  one  of  the  principal  rendezvous 
for  patrons  of  the  turf. 

Taunton,  a  flourishing  city  and  county  seat  of 
Bristol  county.  Mass.,  on  Taunton  river,  thirty- 
five  miles  south  of  Boston,  and  thirty  miles  east- 
northeast  of  Providence.  The  falls  of  Taunton 
river  and  its  branches  furnish  water-power  to 
numerous  factories.  Pop.  (1889),  23,800. 

Tautog',  or  Blackfish  (Tautoga  nigra  or 
americana),  a  fish  of  the  family  Lnbridm,  of  the 
section  forming  the  family  Cyclo-labridm  of 
Milller.  It  is  found  in  the  North  American  seas, 
and  is  in  great  request  for  the  table.  It  brings  a 
very  high  price  in  the  New  York  market.  It 
attains  a  size  of  twelve  or  fourteen  pounds. 

Tautol'ogy  (Gr.  rauro,  iauto,  the  same,  and 
Xoyia,  login,  speech)  is  a  term  used  to  denote  the 
useless  repetition  of  the  same  idea  in  different 
words.  It  is  considered  one  of  the  worst  vices, 
whether  of  oral  or  written  style,  and  certainly 
none  more  effectually  robs  language  of  its  force 
and  impressiveness. 


Tawas  City,  the  county  seat  of  Iosco,  Mich. 
Pop.,  750. 

Taylor,  Bayard,  an  American  author  and 
traveler,  born  at  Kennel  t  Square,  Chester  county, 
Penn.,  Jan.  11,  1825.  Having  received  a  common 
school  education,  he  was  apprenticed  at  seventeen 
in  a  printing  office,  when  lie  began  his  poetical 
contributions  to  periodicals.  In  1844  he  pub¬ 
lished  a  volume  of  poems  under  the  title  of 
Ximena,  and  soon  after,  started  on  a  pedestrian 
tour  of  Europe,  and  in  1846  published  Views 
Afoot,  or  Europe  seen  with  a  Knapsack  and  Stuff. 
He  traveled  nearly  all  over  the  world,  and  his 
contributions  to  literature  were  extensive  and 
valuable.  He  resided  some  years  in  Germany, 
and  in  1878  was  appointed  United  States  ambas¬ 
sador  at  Berlin,  where  he  died  in  December,  1878. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  one  of  the  greatest  names  in 
the  English  Church,  was  the  son  of  a  Cambridge 
barber,  and  was  born  in  that  town,  Aug.  15, 
1613.  His  The  Rule  and  Exercises  of  Holy  Living 
and  The  Rule  and  Exercises  of  Holy  Dying,  are 
English  classics.  He  died  Aug.  13,  1667,  Bishop 
of  Down  and  Connor,  Ireland. 

Taylor,  Zaciiary,  twelfth  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  bom  in  Orange  county,  Va., 
Nov.  24,  1784.  His  elder  brother  had  received  a 
lieutenancy  in  the  army,  and  died  in  1808,  when 
Taylor  was  appointed  to  the  vacant  commission. 
In  1810  he  was  promoted  to  a  Captaincy;  and  in 
1812,  with  fifty  men,  two-thirds  of  whom  were 
ill  of  fever,  he  defended  Fort  Harrison,  on  the 
Wabash,  against  a  large  force  of  Indians  led  by 
the  famous  chief  Tecumseh.  He  served  in  the 
Black  Hawk  and  Mexican  Wars,  and  in  1848  was 
elected  President.  On  July  4,  1850,  sixteen 
months  after  his  inauguration,  he  was  attacked 
with  bilious  cholic,  and  died  on  the  9th. 

Taylor,  the  county  seat  of  Loup  county,  Neb. 
Pop.,  250. 

Taylorsville,  the  county  seat  of  Alexander 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  280. 

Taylorsville,  the  county  seat  of  Spencer 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  725. 

Taylorville,  the  county  seat  of  Christian 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  3,600. 

Tazewell,  the  county  seat  of  Claiborne  county, 
Teirn.  Pop.,  525. 

Tazewell  Courthouse,  the  county  seat  of 
Tazewell  county,  Va.  Pop.,  800. 

Tchad,  or  Tsad,  Lake,  a  large  lake  in  Sudan, 
Northern  Africa,  latitude  12°  30' — 14°  30'  N., 
longitude  13° — 15°  30'  E.  It  has  an  area  of  10,000 
square  miles  in  the  dry  season,  and  is  sometimes 
four  or  five  times  as  large  in  the  rainy  months. 
According  to  Rohlfs,  it  is  1,150  feet  above  sea- 
level. 

Tclielyuskin,  Cape,  the  northernmost  point 
of  Asia.  It  was  rounded  by  Nordenskjold  and 
his  party  in  1878,  and  found  by  them  to  be  in 
latitude  77°  41'  N.  It  used  to  be  called  Cape 
Severe. 

Tea  {Then),  a  genus  of  shrubs  of  the  natural 
order  Ternstramiacece,  very  nearly  allied  to 
the  genus  Camellia.  The  cultivation  of  tea  in 
China  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  regions  between 
N.  latitude  24° — 35°  and  E.  longitude  115° — 122°. 
Tea  for  domestic  use  is,  however,  cultivated  both 
in  more  southern  and  more  northern  regions. 
The  plant  is  to  be  accounted  sub-tropical,  but 
bears  a  tropical  climate  well,  and  can  also  accom¬ 
modate  itself  to  cold  winters.  All  that  can  be 
affirmed  regardingtlie  early  history  of  this  bever¬ 
age  is,  that  it  appears  to  have  been  used  for  ages 
in  China,  where  it  is  believed  by  the  natives  to 
be  indigenous.  It  first  became  known  to  Euro¬ 
peans  at  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  For 
green  teas,  the  leaves  are  roasted  in  pans  almost 
immediately  after  they  are  gathered.  After  about 
five  minutes’  roasting,  during  which  they  make  a 
cracking  noise,  become  moist  and  flaccid,  and  give 
out.  a  good  deal  of  vapor,  they  are  placed  on  the 
rolling-table,  and  rolled  with  the  hands.  They 
are  then  returned  to  the  pans,  and  kept  in  motion 
by  the  hands;  in  about  an  hour,  or  rather  more, 
they  are  well  dried,  and  their  color,  which  is  a 
dull  green,  but  becomes  brighter  afterward,  has 
become  fixed.  The  essential  part  of  the  whole 
operation  is  now  over,  nothing  more  being 
required  than  to  sift  and  re-fire  it.  For  black 
teas,  the  leaves  are  allowed  to  be  spread  out  in 
the  air  for  sometime  after  they  are  gathered;  they 


are  then  further  tossed  about  till  they  become 
flaccid;  they  are  next  roasted  for  a  few  minutes, 
and  rolled,  after  which  thev  are  exposed  to  the 


Chinese  Tea  Plant. 


air  for  a  few  hours  in  a  soft  and  moist  state;  and 
lastly,  they  are  dried  slowly  over  charcoal  fires, 
till  the  black  color  is  fairly  brought  out. 

Teak,  the  name  of  two  kinds  of  timber,  valua¬ 
ble  for  ship  building  and  other  purposes,  one  of 
which  is  known  as  Indian  teak,  and  the  other  as 
African  teak. 

Teal  (Querquedtda),  a  genus  of  ducks  (Anatidee) 
with  very  slightly  lobed  hind-toe,  narrow  bill,  as 
long  as  the  head,  the  sides  nearly  parallel,  or 
widening  a  little  at  the  end,  the  wings  pointed, 
the  tail  moderately  large,  and  wedge-shaped. 
Some  naturalists  divide  the  genus  into  two — 
Neltion,  in  which  the  bill  has  parallel  sides,  and  a 
small  nail  at  the  tip;  and  Querquedula,  in  which 
it  is  widened,  and  has  a  larger  nail. 

Tea'sel  (Dipsacus),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Dipsacece  or  Dipsacacece.  This  order 
consists  of  herbaceous  and  half-shrubby  exogen¬ 
ous  plants,  with  opposite  or  whorled  leaves,  and 
flowers  in  heads  or  whorls,  surrounded  by  a 
many-leaved  involucre.  About  150  species  are 
known,  natives  of  the  temperate  parts  of  the  Old 
World.  The  only  valuable  species  of  the  order 
is  the  fuller’s  teasel,  or  clothner’s  teasel  ( D .  fullo- 
num ),  a  native  of  the  South  of  Europe,  natural¬ 
ized  in  some  parts  of  England.  It  is  a  biennial, 
several  feet  high,  with  sessile  serrated  leaves,  the 
stem  and  leaves  prickly;  and  with  cylindrical 
heads  of  pale  or  white  flowers,  between  which  are 
oblong,  acuminated,  rigid  bracts,  hooked  at  the 
point.  The  heads  are  cut  off  when  the  plant  is  in 
flower,  and  are  used  in  woolen  factories,  and  by 
fullers  and  stocking-makers,  for  raising  the  nap 
on  cloth.  The  heads  of  teasel  are  fixed  on  the  cir¬ 
cumference  of  a  wheel  or  cylinder,  which  is  made 
to  revolve  against  the  surface  of  the  cloth. 

Teclinol'ogy  (Gr.  rexvE,  techne,  art)  is  the 
name  given  to  the  science  or  systematic  knowl¬ 
edge  of  the  industrial  arts.  In  its  widest  sense, 
it  would  embrace  the  whole  field  of  industry,  but 
it  is  restricted  in  usage  to  the  more  important 
manufactures,  (spinning,  weaving,  metallurgy, 
brewing,  etc.) 

Tecumseh,  the  county  seat  of  Johnson  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  1,750, 

Tecumseh,  a  celebrated  chief  of  the  Shawnee 
tribe  of  Indians,  was  born  near  the  Scioto  river, 
Ohio,  about  1770.  He  joined  the  English  in  the 
War  of  1812,  was  made  a  Brigadier-General,  and 
was  killed  at  the  Battle  of  the  Thames  in  1813. 

Te  Deum  {Te  Deum  laudamus,  Te  Dominum 
confitemur,We  praise  Thee,  O  God.  We  acknowl¬ 
edge  Thee  to  be  the  Lord),  a  well-known  hymn 
(so"  called  from  its  first  words)  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  sung  on  all  occasionsof  triumph 
and  thanksgiving. 


TEETH. 


669 


TELESCOPE. 


Section  of  Human  Incisor 
Tooth,  magnified. 
c,  c,  the  cement;  d,  (l,  the 
dentine;  e,  e,  the  enamel, 
partly  chipped  off  on  the 
crown  ;p,  the  pulp  cavity. 


Teeth.  True  teeth  consist  of  one,  two,  or 
more  tissues,  differing  in 
their  chemical  composi¬ 
tion  and  in  their  micro- 
s  c  o  p  i  c  a  1  appearances. 

Dentine,  which  forms  the 
body  of  the  tooth,  and 
cement  forming  its  outer 
crust,  are  always  present. 

The  enamel  covers  the  ex¬ 
posed  portions  of  the 
tooth.  Teeth  appear  in 
the  human  subject  in  the 
following  order;  The 
central  incisors  appear 
generally  by  the  seventh 
month;  the  lateral  inci¬ 
sors  by  the  tenth;  the 
anterior  molars,  from 
twelfth  to  fourteenth; 
the  canines,  from  the 
fourteenth  to  twentieth; 
the  posterior  molars,  be¬ 
tween  eighteenth  and 
thirty-sixth.  The  per¬ 
manent  teeth  begin  to 
appear  about  the  sev¬ 
enth  year,  and  are  gen¬ 
erally  all,  including 
“  wisdom  teeth,”  present 
by  the  twentieth.  They 
appear  iu  the  following 
order :  Anterior  molar, 
six  to  seven;  central  in¬ 
cisors,  six  to  eight;  lat¬ 
eral  incisors,  seven  to 
eight ;  anterior  and 
posterior  bicuspids,  nine  to  ten;  canines,  eleven 
to  twelve;  second  true  molars,  twelve  to  thirteen; 
wisdom  teeth,  seventeen  to  nineteen.  It  is  only 
in  the  mammals  that  we  have  a  well-marked 
division  of  the  teeth  into  the  four  kinds  of  inci¬ 
sors,  canines,  premolars,  and  molars,  each  of 
which  claims  a  brief  description.  The  incisors, 
or  cutting-teeth,  are  situated  in  front,  and  possess 
a  single  conical  root  or  fang,  and  a  vertical  crown 
beveled  behind,  so  as  to  terminate  in  a  sharp  cutting 
edge.  These  teeth  are  specially  fitted,  as  their 
name  implies,  for  cutting  the  food.  In  man,  there 
are  two  of  these  incisors  in  each  side  of  each  jaw. 
The  canines  (so  called  from  their  prominence  in 
the  dog)  come  next  to  the  incisors.  In  all  carniv¬ 
orous  animals,  they  are  largely  developed,  being 
obviously  formed  for  tearing  the  flesh  of  their 
prey.  Iu  man,  there  is  one  canine  tooth  in  each 
half- jaw;  and  there  is  never  more  than  this  num¬ 
ber  in  any  of  the  lower  animals.  The  premolars 
(known  also  as  bicuspids  and  false  molars)  come 
next  in  order  to  the  canines;  they  are  smaller  than 
the  latter,  and  their  crown  presents  two  pyramidal 
eminences.  In  man,  there  are  two  premolars  iu 
each  half- jaw.  The  true  molars  (or  multicuspids) 
are  placed  most  posteriorly.  They  are  remark¬ 
able  for  their  comparatively  great  size,  the  square 
form  of  the  upper  surface,  on  which  are  from 
three  to  five  elevations  or  cusps,  and  for  their 
short  root,  which  is  divided  into  from  two  to  five 
branches,  each  of  which  is  perforated  at  its  ex¬ 
tremity.  In  man,  there  are  three  molars  in  each 
half-jaw,  the  posterior  one  being  termed  the 
wisdom-tooth,  from  its  being  cut  t lie  latest;  they 
are  especially  employed  for  grinding  the  food, 
under  the  action  of  the  muscles  of  the  lower  jaw. 
Toothache  is  not  so  much  a  disease  as  a  symptom 
of  various  morbid  states  of  the  affected  part. 
When,  as  in  a  great  majority  of  cases,  the  pain  is 
associated  with  caries,  the  best  treatment  is  as 
follows;  “  Let  the  patient  have  a  dose  of  calomel 
and  colocynth;  confine  him  to  spoon-diet;  let 
him  wash  out  the  mouth  with  a  solution  of  car¬ 
bonate  of  soda  in  tepid  water;  let  the  gum  around 
the  tooth,  and  between  it  and  its  neighbors,  if 
tumid  and  tender,  be  deeply  scarified  with  a  fine 
lancet;  then  let  the  cavity  be  filled  loosely  with  a 
little  bit  of  cotton-wood,  dipped  into  a  solution  of 
tannin  and  mastic,  made  by  dissolving  a  drachm 
each  of  mastic  and  tannin  in  an  ounce  and  a  half  of 
sulphuric  ether;  and  if  the  toothache  be  curableat 
all,  this  plan,  with  a  little  patience,  will  be  almost 
sure  to  succeed.  If  the  pain  is  very  violent,  half 
a  grain  of  powdered  acetate  of  morphia  may  be 
taken  up  with  the  cotton  imbued  with  the  tannin, 


which  should  be  warmed  before  it  is  put  into  the 
cavity.  As  soon  as  the  pain  is  relieved,  the  tooth, 
if  of  use,  should  be  stopped  with  gold  or  amalgam; 
or,  if  of  no  use,  it  should  be  extracted.  It  may 
be  added,  that  most  of  the  violent,  burning, 
empirical  nostrums,  such  as  creosote,  oil  of  thyme, 
etc.,  although  they  may  be  of  service  when  in¬ 
troduced  in  small  quantity  by  a  skillful  hand 
into  the  carious  tooth  at  the  right  time,  can  do 
nothing  but  mischief  when  employed  indis¬ 
criminately,  as  they  are  by  the  vulgar.” — Druitt’s 
Surgeon’ s  Vade-mecum. 

Tegner,  Esajas,  a  Swedish  poet  of  high  repu¬ 
tation,  was  born  in  1782  at  Kyrkerud,  in  the 
Swedish  Province  of  Wermland.  His  Consecra¬ 
tion  of  a  Priest  and  Natlvar debar  nen,  or  the 
Young  Communicants ,  and  Frithoifs  Saga  are 
familiar  in  Longfellow’s  translations.  He  died 
in  1846. 


Tehran',  frequently  spelled  Teheran,  capital 
of  Persia,  and  of  the  Province  of  Irak-Ajemi, 
seventy  miles  south  of  the  shore  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Pop.,  in  summer,  80,000;  in  winter,  120,000. 

Tehuacan  las  Granadas,  a  growing  city  of 
Mexico.  Pop.,  12,000. 

Tehuantepec',  a  river-port  of  the  South  of 
Mexico,  in  the  territory  of  the  same  name,  and 
ten  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  River  Tehuan¬ 
tepec,  in  the  bay  also  of  that  name.  Pop.,  15,100. 

Tekamali,  the  county  seat  of  Burt  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Tel'egraph  (Gr.  re\e,  tele,  far  off,  and 
•ypacpeiv,  graphein,  to  write)  is  a  general  name 
for  any  means  of  conveying  intelligence  other 
than  by  voice  or  writing.  The  idea  of  speed  is 
also  implied.  Telegraph  instruments  may  be 
classed  under  two  heads,  namely,  those  which 
record  the  signals,  and  those  which  only  give 
passing  signals  to  the  observer  or  listener.  Among 
the  former  are  several  kinds,  namely,  those  giv¬ 
ing  a  record  in  arbitrary  signs  ( i .  e.,  in  tbe  dots 
and  dashes  of  the  Morse  alphabet);  those  which 
print  in  ordinary  characters,  such  as  the  Hughes 
type-printing  instrument;  and  lastly,  a  class  of 
instruments  giving  a  facsimile  of  the  message. 
The  latter  two  classes  are  not  much  used.  The 
leading  principle  in  the  Morse  and  other  allied 
instruments  is,  that  by  the  depression  of  a  key  or 
other  method,  an  electric  circuit  is  “  closed”  or 
completed,  and  a  signal  is  transmitted  along  the 
wire  to  the  distant  station,  where,  on  its  arrival, 
it  reproduces  the  signal  by  the  action  of  an  electro¬ 
magnet  or  otherwise.  In  the  first  Morse  instru¬ 
ments  the  marks  were  made  on  the  paper  with  a 
pointed  style  (the  instrument  being  thus  known 
as  the  embosser).  The  duration  of  the  current 
determines  the  nature  of  the  mark,  a  momentary 
passage  causing  a  dot,  a  longer  depression  of  the 
key  a  dash.  In  all  modern  telegraph  offices 
instead  of  the  old-fashioned  roll  of  paper  and 
embosser,  the  operator  has  only  a  ‘  *  sounder  ”  or 
“clicker”  for  receiving  messages,  and  a  key  for 
sending,  his  trained  ear  enabling  him  to  discrim¬ 
inate  between  the  letters  and  words  in  rapid  suc¬ 
cession.  In  telegraphing  long  distances  it  is 
necessary  to  strengthen  the  circuit  by  auxiliary 
currents,  which  object  is  effected  by  relay  bat¬ 
teries.  There  have  been  almost  innumerable 
improvements  in  the  art  since  Morse’s  time,  but 
his  system  remains  the  basis  of  all.  From  the 
year  1850,  when  a 


copper  wire  insu¬ 
lated  with  gutta¬ 
percha,  submerged 
between  Dover  and 
Calais,  continued  in 
use  for  one  day,  the 
progress  of  subma¬ 
rine  telegraphy  has 
been  as  remarkable 
as  that  of  telegraphy 

on  terra  firnia.  The  C  is  a  strand  of  seven  copper 
Volts  A  levanrl  rio  wires;  G,  three  layers  of  gutta- 
iVtaita  A 1  ex  an  (II  la  percha;  II,  a  serving  of  tarred 

was  the  first  long  yarn;  and  I,  eighteen  iron  wires 
cable  successfully  constituting  the  sheathing, 
laid  (its  total  h  ngtli,  in  three  sections,  being  1,331 
miles).  There  are  150  cables  belonging  to  com¬ 
panies,  and  420  belonging  to  government  systems, 
existing  at  this  date.  The  longest  cable  is  that 
from  France  to  America,  2,585  nautical  miles. 
From  Europe  to  America  seven  cables  cross  the 
Atlantic  (five  from  Ireland,  one  from  France,  and 


Section  of  Malt8-Alexaudria 
Cable. 


one  from  Portugal  to  Brazil).  In  18S2  was  com¬ 
pleted  a  submarine  line,  3,100  miles  in  length, 
between  Lima  and  VeraCruz  in  Mexico,  crossing 
the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  by  a  land  line  of  220 
miles;  it  thus  connects  the  South  American  Pa¬ 
cific  Coast  with  the  United  States. 

Tel'eplione.  This  instrument  is  designed  to 
convey  sounds  to  a  distance  by  means  of  elec¬ 
tricity.  As  commonly  used  it  consists  of  two 
parts,  a  mouthpiece  (transmitter),  and  an  ear¬ 
piece,  which  latter  was  the  original  form  of  tele¬ 
phone  as  first  introduced  by  Bell.  The  ear]  iece 
consists  of  a  compound  permanent  magnet  in¬ 
closed  in  a  tube  of  hard  rubber,  carrying  at  one 
end  a  short  electro-magnet  whose  coil  is  included 
in  the  circuit  when  the  instrument  is  in  use.  In 
front  of  the  magnet,  at  right  angles,  is  fixed  a  thin, 
soft  iron  disc  about  two  inches  in  diameter.  This 
is  covered  by  a  concave  mouthpiece  with  a  small 
hole  in  the  center  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating 
the  collection  of  the  sound-waves  when  the  instru¬ 
ment  is  spoken  into  (as  it  formerly  was);  but  it  is 
now  rarely  used  for  anything  but  as  a  receiver. 
The  transmitter  consists  of  a  box  with  a  concave 
mouthpiece  behind  which  is  a  soft  iron  disc  or 
diaphragm;  behind  the  diaphragm  is  a  small 
platinum  pin  pressed  by  a  spring  against  a  block 
of  gas  carbon  which  is  attached  to  a  brass 
block,  the  whole  being  held  in  position,  immedi¬ 
ately  behind  the  diaphragm,  by  delicate  springs. 
These  are  connected  with  a  cell  of  a  battery  and 
with  the  line,  so  as  to  form  a  local  circuit  at  the 
transmitting  station,  and  a  circuit  with  the  re¬ 
ceiver  also.  The  principle  on  which  the  whole 
acts  is:  The  transmitter  diaphragm  being  spoken 
against,  the  sound-waves  of  the  voice  produce 
vibrations  in  the  thin  iron  plate  of  which  it  is 
composed.  This  vibration  before  the  carbon  im¬ 
parts  a  like  vibration  to  it,  which  induces  an  elec¬ 
tro-magnetic  current,  which  in  turn  passes  over 
the  line,  and  reproducing  similar  vibrations  in  the 
diaphragm  of  the  receiving  phone,  must  of  neces¬ 
sity  produce  an  effect  at  that  end  of  the  line  (in 
consequence  of  the  vibrations  there)  similar  to 
the  cause  of  the  vibration  at  the  transmitting  end. 
Thus,  if  the  word  “hurrah”  spoken  into  the 
transmitter  produce  three  vibrations  in  any  one 
direction,  it  is  plain  that  if  we  can  reproduce  those 
vibrations  at  the  other  end  of  the  line,  the  word 
“hurrah”  at  that  end  will  be  produced;  in 
other  words,  the  instrument  will  speak  the  word. 
The  honor  of  the  invention  of  the  phone  is 
disputed,  although  there  seems  to  be  but  little 
doubt  that  Reis  was  the  pioneer  of  the  idea  as 
now  developed.  Professors  Gray  and  Bell,  to¬ 
gether  with  Edison,  claim  the  honor  of  inventing 
and  perfecting  the  best  known  and  most  practica¬ 
ble  systems.  The  Bell  phone,  with  the  Blake 
transmitter,  is  most  used  in  this  country. 

Tele'scope  (Gr.  rt/Xe,  afar,  dKoneiv,  to  see) 
consists  essentially  of  a  lens  or  mirror,  to  form, 
within  our  reach,  an  image  of  a  distant  object; 
and  a  microscope,  to  examine  this  image  in  detail. 
Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  various  individuals 
living  about  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century;  but 
there  is  no  doubt  that  Galilei  was  the  first  to  apply 
it  to  any  purpose  other  than  the  gratification  of 
mere  curiosity.  In  the  earliest,  or  Galilean,  tele¬ 
scope,  the  eye-lens  is  concave;  a  construction  only 
now  used  in  opera-glasses.  It  has  far  less  chro¬ 
matic  and  spherical  aberration  than  the  common 
astronomical  telescope,  and  is  shorter,  since  the 
distance  between  the  lenses  is  the  difference,  not 
the  sum  of  their  focal  lengths;  but  it  has  a  very 
serious  defect  in  the  smallness  of  its  field  of  view. 
This  can  only  be  enlarged,  as  in  opera-glasses,  by 
making  the  diameter  of  the  object-lens  dispro¬ 
portionately  great.  Before  the  discovery  of  the 
possibility  of  forming  an  achromatic  lens,  Huy- 
ghens,  Cassini,  and  others,  had  endeavored,  by 
enormously  increasing  the  focal  length  of  the 
object-glass  of  the  common  astronomical  tele¬ 
scope  in  proportion  to  its  diameter,  to  get  rid  as 
far  as  possible  of  chromatic  aberration.  This 
was  called  the  aerial  telescope,  as  the  object  and 
eye-lenses  were  mounted  separately  on  stands;  the 
tube  (which  would  have  been  100,  200,  or  even 
600  feet  long)  being  dispensed  with.  Valuable 
work  was  done  with  some  of  these  telescopes,  of 
125  feet  focus,  but  the  longer  ones  proved  un¬ 
manageable.  The  gigantic  telescopes  of  Lord 
Rosse  and  Mr.  Lassell  are  wonderful  examples  of 


TELLURIDE. 


670 


TERRAPIN. 


delicate  art,  and  have  had  their  full  share,  with 
the  large  achromatics  of  the  present  day,  as  the 
Lick  telescope  and  the  Washburne  (Chicago),  in 
the  startling  discoveries  of  modern  astronomy. 

Teliuride,  the  county  seat  of  San  Miguel 
county,  Colo.  Pop.,  861. 

Tellu'rium  (symbol  Te,  equiv.  128 — sp.  gr. 
6.183)  is  a  chemical  element,  which  some  authori¬ 
ties  place  among  the  metals,  and  others  among 
the  non-metallic  bodies  or  metalloids.  Although 
in  its  outward  characters  it  closely  resembles  the 
metals,  its  close  analogies  with  sulphur  and  selen¬ 
ium  indicate  that  its  true  place  is  among  the 
metalloids.  Tellurium  is  a  rare  substance,  found 
chiefly  in  Transylvania,  but  recently  discovered 
in  Hungary,  in  North  America,  and  in  the  Altai 
silver  mines.  It  sometimes  occurs  native,  but 
more  commonly  as  a  teliuride  of  gold,  lead,  or 
silver. 

Tem'peratiire  of  t  lie  Body.  It  is  admitted,  as 
a  result  of  the  observations  of  numerous  physiol¬ 
ogists,  that  although  the  range  of  temperature 
varies  in  different  parts  of  the  human  body,  the 
normal  temperature  at  completely  sheltered  parts 
of  the  surface  amounts  to  98.4°,  ora  few  tenths 
more  or  less  in  temperate  climates;  and  that  if 
there  is  a  persistent  elevation  above  99.5°,  or  a 
depression  below  97.3°,  some  form  of  disease  is 
certainly  indicated.  When  the  temperature 
rises  in  cases  of  disease,  the  following  relation  to 
its  augmentation  and  that  of  the  pulse  has  been 
established:  an  increase  of  temperature  1°  above 
98°  corresponds  with  an  increase  of  ten  beats  of 
the  pulse  in  the  minute.  Thus,  if  the  pulse  is 
sixty  at  98°,  it  is  seventy  at  99°,  eighty  at  100  , 
and  so  on. 

Tempering  Metals.  A  peculiar  effect  is  pro¬ 
duced  upon  some  metals  bv  heating  them  to  red¬ 
ness,  and  then  suddenly  cooling  them.  By  this 
means,  extreme  hardness  is  obtained,  especially 
in  steel,  which  is  so  susceptible  to  this  process, 
called  tempering,  that  almost  any  degree  of  hard¬ 
ness  and  brittleness  can  be  obtained.  If,  for  in¬ 
stance,  we  make  a  piece  of  steel  red  hot,  and  tin  n 
plunge  it  into  cold  water,  it  becomes  hard  and 
brittle  when  co'd,  and  is  actually,  though 
slightly  increased  in  bulk.  But  if  we  re  heat  the 
metal,  and  allow  it  to  cool  slowly,  it  again 
becomes  soft  and  malleable  as  before.  Moreover, 
if  we  again  re-heat  it,  but  not  to  redness,  and  cool 
it  suddenly,  it  is  still  further  softened. 

Tem'plars,  Knights,  acelebrated  religious  and 
military  order,  founded  at  Jerusalem  in  the 
beginning  of  the  twelfth  century,  by  Hugues  de 
Paganes,  Geoffroy  de  St.  Omer,  and  seven  other 
French  knights,  for  the  protection  of  the  Holy 
Sepulcher,  and  of  pilgrims  resorting  thither.  In 
1312,  the  whole  order  throughout  Europe  was 
suppressed  by  the  Council  of  Vienne,  and  its 
property  bestowred  on  the  Knights  of  St.  John,  to 
whom  their  English  possessions  were  formally 
transferred  in  1323. 

Temple  (so  called  because  the  Knights  Tem¬ 
plars  had  one  of  their  branches  in  that  part  of 
London),  in  its  connection  with  the  law  of  Eng¬ 
land,  is  a  part  of  the  city  of  London  occupied 
exclusively  by  barristers  or  attorneys,  with  few 
exceptions.  It  is  the  joint  property  of  the  two 
Inns  of  Court,  called  the  Societies  of  the  Inner 
Temple  and  Middle  Temple,  each  of  which  has  a 
right  of  calling  persons  to  the  degree  of  barrister 
—a  privilege  shared  by  the  two  other  Inns  of 
Court,  Gray’s  Inn,  and  Lincoln’s  Inn.  The  Tem¬ 
ple  consists  of  buildings  occupied  by  barristers, 
who  rent  the  same  from  the  above  two  societies, 
who  are  the  private  proprietors,  and  issue  their 
own  regulations  as  to  the  management  of  the 
property. 

Tenacity  (Lat.  tenarilas,  power  of  holding)  is 
that  property  of  material  bodies  by  which  their 
parts  resist  a  force  employed  to  attempt  to  sepa¬ 
rate  them.  It  is  the  result  of  the  attractive  forces 
exerted  by  the  particles  of  matter  upon  one 
another  through  the  infinitesimally  small  spaces 
which  are  supposed  to  exist  between  them;  hence 
it  differs  in  different  materials,  and  even  in  the 
same  material  at  different  degrees  of  tempera¬ 
ture. 

Tench  {Tinea),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family 
Cyprinidce.  The  common  tench  (T.  vulgaris)  is 
an  inhabitant  of  ponds  and  other  stagnant  waters 
in  Europe  and  the  North  of  Asia.  It  passes  the 


winter  in  a  torpid  state,  concealed  in  the  mud. 
It  is  of  a  deep  yellowish-brown  color,  more  rarely 
golden  or  greenish. 

Ten'don  is  the  term  employed  in  Anatomy  to  des¬ 
ignate  the  white  fibrous  tissue  reaching  from  the 
end  of  a  muscle  to  bone  or  some  other  structure 
which  is  to  serve  as  a  fixed  attachment  for  it,  or 
which  it  is  intended  to  move.  The  tendons  com¬ 
mence  by  separate  fascicles  from  the  end  of  each 
muscular  fiber,  and  they  similarly  terminate  by 
separate  fascicles  in  distinct  depressions' in  the 
:  bones,  besides  being  closely  incorporated  with  the 
periosteum.  If  a  tendon  is  ruptured  by  an  acci¬ 
dent, or  divided  by  the  surgeon, the  two  ends, if  not 
too  far  separated,  unite  readily,  by  the  formation 
of  intervening  plastic  material,  which  soon 
acquires  great  firmness.  Rupture  of  the  tendons 
is  frequently,  caused  by  violent  muscular  action, 
especially  if,  from  illness  or  other  causes,  the 
muscles  have  been  for  some  time  in  a  state  of  in¬ 
activity.  The  essential  point  in  the  treatment  of 
ruptured  tendon  is  to  keep  the  injured  part  in  a 
state  of  constant  rest  and  muscular  relaxation,  so 
that  the  separated  ends  may  he  approximated  as 
much  as  possible,  and  to  prevent  any  violent  ex¬ 
tension  till  firm  union,  by  the  process  of  repar¬ 
ation,  has  been  established. 

Ten'edos  (Turk.  Bogdsha-Adassi),  an  island 
belonging  to  Turkey  in  the  northeast  of  the 
HSgean  Sea,  off  the  coast  of  the  Troad,  and  about 
seventeen  miles  south  of  the  western  entrance  to 
the  Strait  of  the  Dardanelles.  It  is  about  5 
miles  long  by  2  broad. 

Teneriffe',  the  largest  of  the  Canary  Islands. 

Tenes'mus  (from  the  Gr.  leinein,  to  strain)  is 
the  term  employed  in  Medicine  to  designate  a 
straining  and  painful  effort  to  relieve  the  bowels 
when  no  faecal  matter  is  present  in  the  rectum; 
the  effort  being  excited  by  some  adjacent  source 
of  irritation.  Tenesmus  is  a  common  symptom 
in  dysentery,  irritation  of  the  bladder,  stricture 
of  the  urethra,  etc. 

Teniers,  David,  the  Elder,  a  Flemish  artist  of 
note,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in  1582.  He  died  in 
1649. 

Teniers,  David,  the  Younger,  also  an  artist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  was  born  at  Antwerp  in 
1610.  He  died  at  Brussels,  Feb.  11,  1685. 

Tennessee',  a  Southern  State  of  the  American 
Union,  the  third  admitted  under  the  federal  con¬ 
stitution,  extends  in  latitude  35° — 36°  30'  N., 
and  longitude  81°  37' — 90°  28'  W.,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Kentucky  and  Virginia; 
and  on  the  south  by  Georgia,  Alabama,  and 
Mississippi.  Area,  45,600  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1880),  1,542,359. 

Tennessee,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  the 
largest  tributary  of  the  Ohio,  has  its  origin  in 
the  union  of  the  Clinch  and  Holston,  which  rise 
in  the  Alleghany  Mountains  of  southwestern 
Virginia,  and  flowing  southwest,  unite  at  Kings¬ 
ton  in  the  West  of  Tennessee.  The  river  flows 
still  southwest,  in  the  Alleghany  Valley,  entering 
Alabama  close  by  the  northwest  corner  of  Georgia, 
whence  it  flows  sixty  miles  further  in  the  same 
course,  then  turning  to  the  west-northwest,  re¬ 
enters  Tennessee  at  the  northeast  corner  of  Mis¬ 
sissippi,  flows  northwardly  across  the  State,  then 
northwest  across  Kentucky  to  its  confluence  with 
the  Ohio  at  Paducah ;  length  800  miles,  or,  from 
the  source  of  the  Holston,  1,100. 

Ten'ney,  in  Heraldry,  orange  color,  one  of  the 
tinctures  enumerated  by  heralds,  but  not  of  fre¬ 
quent  occurrence  in  coat-armor. 

Tennyson  Alfred  (now  Lord  Tennyson, 
Baron  D’Eyncourt),  poet  laureate  of  Great  Britain, 
was  born  in  1809  at  Somersby,  in  Lincolnshire. 
His  verse  is  among  the  most  finished  in  our  lan¬ 
guage,  both  for  the  music  of  its  flow  and  the  art 
displayed  in  the  choice  of  words. 

Tenot'oiny,  or  the  Division  of  Tendons,  is  a 
comparatively  recent  surgical  operation,  whose 
object  is  to  relieve  some  variety  of  deformity  by 
severing  a  permanently  contracted  muscle  at  its 
tendinous  portion.  The  affections  in  which  it  is 
employed  are  club-foot,  contractions  of  the  upper 
extremity  from  spasm  and  paralysis,  deformity 
from  deseases  of  the  palmar  fascia,  torticollis  or 
wry  neck,  anchylosis  of  the  knee  and  other  articu¬ 
lations,  and  squinting. 

Ten'rec  or  Tanrec  ( Centeles ),  a  genus  of  Mam¬ 


malia,  nearly  allied  to  moles  and  hedgehogs, 
usually  ranked  in  the  family  Erinaceidce. 

Tentac'nlites,  a  genus  of  obscure  annulated 
tapering  shells,  found  abundantly  in  some  strata 
of  Silurian  age. 

Tenuiros'tr&s,  a  tribe  or  suborder  of  birds, 
of  the  order  Insessores,  characterized  by  a  length¬ 
ened  slender  bill,  which  is  sometimes  straight, 
sometimes  curved. 

Teocal '  1 1  (House  of  God),  the  name  given  to 
the  temples  of  the  aborigines  of  Mexico,  of  which 
many  still  remain  in  a  more  or  less  perfect  state. 

Tercei'ra,  one  of  the  Azores  Islands,  and  the 
second  in  size  of  that  group,  forms  one  of  the 
central  cluster,  and  lies  eastward  from  San  Jorge. 
Area,  162  square  miles;  pop.,  above  45,000. 

Terebran'tia,  a  section  of  the  insect  order 
Ilymenoptera ,  distinguished  by  the  females  hav¬ 
ing  an  ovipositor. 

Terebrat'ula,  a  genus  of  deep-sea  brachiopo- 
dous  mollusca. 

Tore 'do,  a  genus  of  lamellibraneliiate  mollusks 
of  the  family  Poladidee;  elongated,  and  worm¬ 
shaped;  the  mouth  delicate,  open  in  front  and  at 
its  lower  part,  for  the  passage  of  the  short  foot; 
the  shell  rather  thick,  equivalve,  destitute  of 
hinge,  gaping  at  both  ends. 

Teresa,  St.,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
the  female  saints  of  the  modern  Roman  calendar, 
and  the  most  admired  of  the  modern  mystic 
writers  of  that  communion,  w7as  born  at  Avila,  in 
Old  Castile,  March  28,  1515,  and  within  the  life¬ 
time  of  Teresa,  no  fewer  than  seventeen  convents 
of  women,  and  sixteen  of  men,  accepted  the  re¬ 
forms  which  she  had  originated.  Teresa  died  at 
Alba,  Oct.  4,  1582,  in  her  sixty-eighth  year. 
She  was  canonized  by  Gregory  XV.,  in  1621,  her 
feast  being  fixed  on  October  15th.  She  left  a 
number  of  works,  which  have  at  all  times  main¬ 
tained  a  high  reputation  among  the  spiritualists 
of  her  own  church. 

Ter 'mite,  or  White  Ant  {Termites),  a  genus  of 
insects  of  the  order  Neuropiera,  and  of  the  family 
Termitidce ,  or  Termitince. 

Tern  {Sterna),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  gull 
family  {Laridm),  by  some  made  the  type  of  a  dis¬ 
tinct  family  {Siernida)-,  having  the  bill  as  long  as 


Common  Tern  ( Sterna  hirundo). 


the  head,  or  longer,  nearly  straight,  compressed, 
slender,  tapering;  the  wings  long  and  pointed;  the 
tail  long  and  forked. 

Ternstroemia 'cete,  a  natural  order  of  exoge¬ 
nous  plants,  allied  to  Guitiferce,  and  consisting 
of  trees  and  shrubs,  natives  of  warm  and  temper¬ 
ate  countries. 

Terpsich'ore,  one  of  the  nine  muses,  presided 
over  choral  song  and  dancing. 

Terra-cotta,  an  Italian  term  signifying  baked 
clay.  It  is  applied  chiefly  to  manufactures  of 
brick-earth  used  for  ornamental  purposes,  espe¬ 
cially  those  used  architecturally.  After  the  reign 
of  Queen  Anne,  it  was  discontinued,  and  was 
scarcely  used  until  within  the  last  ten  years.  A 
complete  revival  has  now  taken  place,  and  this 
material  is  now  used  for  both  inner  and  outer 
walls  in  some  of  the  largest  and  most  costly  build 
ings  of  the  day. 

Terra-fir 'in  a,  a  term  frequently  employed  to 
denote  continental  land  as  distinguished  from 
islands.  Colloquially,  the  phrase  terra-Jirma 
is  applied  (but  erroneously)  to  land  as  distin¬ 
guished  from  water. 

Ter'rapin,  the  popular  name  of  many  species 
of  fresh-water  tortoises,  of  the  family  Emydce, 
natives  of  tropical  and  the  warmer  temperate 


TERRE  HAUTE. 


671 


THEODOLITE. 


countries.  Their  flesh  is  generally  much  esteemed. 
Several  species  are  natives  of  this  country. 

Terre  Haute,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Vigo  county,  Ind.,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Wabash  river,  seventy-eight  miles  west-south¬ 
west  of  Indianapolis.  Pop.,  38,000. 

Terrier,  a  small  kind  of  dog,  remarkable  for 
sagacity,  vivacity,  courage,  and  eagerness  in  the 
pursuit  of  vermin,  which  it  readily  follows  into 
burrows;  from  Lat.  term,  the  earth  (hence  the 
name). 

TersclielTing,  one  of  the  chain  of  islands  to 
the  North  of  Holland,  lies  in  53°  24'  N.  latitude. 
Area,  about  45  square  miles. 

Tertiary,  the  term  applied  in  the  science  of 
geology  to  all  the  strata  of  the  earth’s  crust  above 
the  cretaceous  rocks,  with  the  exception  of  those 
superficial  beds  which  have  recently  been  raised 
to  a  distinct  group,  under  the  title  of  the  quar- 
ternary  system,  or  recent  period. 

Tertul'lian,  a  Father  of  the  Church,  and  one 
of  the  earliest  who  used  the  Latin  language  in 
written  competitions.  He  was  the  son  of  a  pro¬ 
consular  centurion— that  is,  a  centurion  who  at¬ 
tended  on  the  proconsul.  He  was  born  in  Car¬ 
thage.  We  know  nothing  of  his  conversion.  He 
became  a  presbyter  in  the  Church.  He  married, 
and  as  his  wife  was  a  Christian,  it  is  supposed  that 
his  marriage  took  place  after  his  conversion. 
After  remaining  a  presbyter  until  he  reached 
middle  age  he  became  a  Montanist.  He  lived  to  a 
good  old  age,  remaining  a  Montanist  to  the  last. 
We  have  no  clue  to  precise  dates  in  the  history  of 
Tertullian.  Jerome  states'  that  he  flourished 
under  Severus  and  Antoninus  Caraoalla.  Allix 
places  his  birth  at  145  or  150  a.  d.,  and  his  death 
at  about  220  A.  D.  His  works  are  interesting, 
throwing  much  light  on  the  internal  circum¬ 
stances  of  the  Church,  on  the  social  questions 
which  perplexed  Christians,  on  the' opinions  of 
heretics,  and  on  the  development  of  doctrine. 

Tet  'anus,  or  Lock  Jaw,  is  one  of  the  most  for¬ 
midable  diseases  of  the  nervous  system,  and  is 
characterized  by  an  involuntary,  persistent,  in¬ 
tense  and  painful  contraction  or  cramp  of  more 
or  less  extensive  groups  of  the  voluntary  muscles, 
nearly  the  whole  of  the  body  being  sometimes 
affected.  In  the  way  of  treatment  all  we  can  do 
is  to  enable  our  patient  to  weather  out  the  storm 
by  giving  him  as  much  strength  as  possible;  all 
causes  of  excitement,  and  more  especially  the 
cold  air  or  winds,  must  be  guarded  against,  taking 
care  to  preserve  a  uniform  temperat  ure.  When,  in 
consequence  of  the  strong  contraction  of  the  mus¬ 
cles  of  the  jaw,  it  is  impossible  to  open  the  patient’s 
mouth,  food  and  medicine  should  be  introduced 
into  the  stomach  by  means  of  a  flexible  tube 
passed  through  one  of  the  nostrils.  When  lock¬ 
jaw  occurs  in  domestic  animals  a  full  dose  of 
purgative  medicine  must  at  once  be  given;  extract 
of  belladonna,  repeated  twice  or  thrice  daily,  is 
occasionally  serviceable;  any  discoverable  wound 
or  injury  should  be  fomented  or  poulticed;  bleed¬ 
ing,  sedatives,  and  all  causes  of  irritation  must  be 
avoided.  In  adult  animals  most  cases  are  fatal; 
but  among  young  animals,  especially  when  the 
attack  results  from  exposure  to  cold,  many  recov¬ 
eries  occur. 

Tetragon ia'ccae,  a  natural  order  of  exogenuos 
plants,  formerly  included  in  Mesembryace.iv ,  from 
which  it  differs  chiefly  in  the  want  of  petals. 

Teuton  'ic,  a  term  applied  to  a  group  of  nations, 
as  well  as  of  languages,  forming  an  important 
division  or  stem  of  the  Aryan  family.  The  Teu¬ 
tonic  stock  of  nations,  as  they  exist  at  the  present 
day,  is  divided  into  two  principal  branches:  (1) 
The  Scandinavian,  embracing  Danes,  Swedes, 
Norwegians,  Icelanders  ;  and  (2)  the  Germanic, 
which  includes,  besides  the  German-speaking 
inhabitants  of  Germany  proper  and  Switzerland, 
also  the  population  of  the  Netherlands  (the 
Dutch),  the  Flemings  of  Belgium,  and  the  de¬ 
scendants  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  in  Great  Britain, 
together  with  their  offspring  in  North  America, 
and  in  Australia  and  other  British  colonies. 

Teutonic  Knights,  one  of  the  more  celebrated 
of  the  military  and  religious  orders  to  which  the 
Crusades  gave  birth. 

Texarkana,  the  county  seat  of  Bowie  countv, 
Tex.  Pop.,  6,200. 

Texarkana,  the  county  seat  of  Miller  county, 
Ark.  Pop.,  5,050. 


Texas,  one  of  the  southwestern  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  is  bounded  on  the  southwest 
by  Mexico,  on  the  west  by  New  Mexico,  on  the 
east  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Arkansas,  and 
Louisiana,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Indian  Terri¬ 
tory.  Area.  205,780  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880), 
1,591,749.  The  soil  is  of  great  fertility,  produc¬ 
ing  the  finest  cotton,  sugar,  wheat,,  corn,  tobacco, 
fruits  of  all’  kinds,  with  abundant  pasturage — 
making  it  one  of  the  finest  cattle-countries  in 
the  world.  The  climate  is  pure,  temperate,  and 
remarkably  salubrious.  The  thermometer  ranges 
from  an  average  of  84°  F.  the  hottest  month  in 
summer,  to  50u  the  coldest  month  in  winter. 

Texel,  The,  an  island  in  the  Province  of 
North  Holland,  separated  from  the  Holder  by  a 
narrow  strait,  called  the  Marsdiep.  It  contains 
about  35,000  acres,  and  has  a  pop.  of  6,408. 

Thackeray,  William  Makepeace,  novelist 
and  satirist,  was  born  at  Calcutta,  India,  in  1811, 
of  English  parents,  and  died  Dec.  24,  1863.  He 
was  an  able  and  prolific  writer  and  has  left  many 
valuable  works,  the  best  known  of  which  are  his 
novels,  Vanity  Fair,  Fendennis,  and  The  New- 
comes;  his  historical  lectures  on  The  Four 
Georges,  and  his  Fnglish  Humorists. 

Thai  'eia,  or  Tiialia  (Gr.  the  blooming  one), 
one  of  the  nine  Muses,  generally  regarded  as  pre¬ 
siding  over  comedy. 

Tha'les,  an  early  Greek  philosopher,  founder 
of  the  Ionic  or  physical  school  of  philosophy,  and 
one  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men,  was  a  native  of 
Miletus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  flourished  toward  the 
close  of  the  seventh  century  b.  c.  His  claim  to 
the  title  of  sage  (as  in  the  case  of  his  compeers) 
was  due  to  his  practical  wisdom  rather  than  to  his 
speculative  achievements.  Nevertheless,  Thaltss 
has  a  name  in  the  history  of  speculative  philoso¬ 
phy.  According  to  him,  the  original  principle  of 
all  things  is  water,  from  which  everything  pro¬ 
ceeds,  and  into  which  it  is  again  resolved. 

Thal’lium  (symbol  Tl,  equiv.  204,  sp.  gr.  11.9) 
is  a  metal  which  derives  its  name  from  the  Gr. 
word  thallos,  green,  because  its  existence  was  first 
recognized  by  an  intense  green  line  appearing  in 
the  spectrum  of  a  flame  in  which  thallium  is 
volatilized.  It  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Crookes  in 
1861.  Thallium  is  slightly  heavier  than  lead — a 
metal  which  it  resembles  in  its  physical  proper¬ 
ties.  It  is  very  soft,  being  readily  cut  with  a 
knife,  or  drawn  into  wire;  and  its  freshly  cut 
surface  exhibits  a  brilliant  metallic  luster  and 
grayish  color,  somewhat  between  those  of  silver 
and  lead.  In  contact  with  the  air,  it  tarnishes 
more  rapidly  than  lead,  and  becomes  coated  with 
a  thin  layer  of  oxide,  which  preserves  the  rest  of 
the  metal.  It  fuses  at  290°  C.,  and  at  a  red  heat 
becomes  volatilized.  It  is  crystalline  in  structure, 
crackles  like  tin  when  bent,  but  is  highly  malle¬ 
able.  It  is  used  to  produce  a  green  light  in  fire¬ 
works,  and  is  employed  to  render  glass  highly 
refractive. 

Thallogenous  Plants  are  those  acotyledonous 
plants  which  exhibit  the  greatest  simplicity  of 
structure,  consisting  of  a  mere  tlpillus  with 
reproductive  organs.  Of  this  description  are  algae, 
cliaraceae,  fungi,  and  lichens. 

Thai 'lus,  in  Botany,  a  structure  composed  of 
cellular  tissue,  without  woody  fiber,  which  in 
some  of  the  lower  cryptogamic  orders,  as  algae, 
fungi,  and  lichens,  constitutes  the  whole  plant, 
except  the  reproductive  organs,  which  are  situ¬ 
ated  in  or  upon  it. 

Thames,  the  most  important  river  of  Great 
Britain,  and  the  longest  in  England;  rises  near 
Cheltenham  and  flows  east-southeast  across  the 
south  portion  of  the  country,  emptying  into  the 
North  Sea  near  Gravesend.  Total  length,  250 
miles. 

Than'et,  Isle  of,  forms  the  northeastern  cor¬ 
ner  of  the  County  of  Kent,  England,  from  the 
mainland  of  which  it  is  cut  off  by  the  River 
Stour  and  its  branches,  and  is  bounded  on  the 
north  and  east  by  the  sea.  It  is  10  miles  in  length, 
and  from  4  to  8  miles  broad,  and  contains  26,500 
acres. 

Tha'SOS,  the  most  northerly  island  in  the 
/Egean  Sea,  a  few  miles  off  the  coast  of  Mace¬ 
donia.  Circumference  about  40  miles;  pop.  about 
5,000. 


Thebes,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  Egyptian 
city,  called  by  the  Egyptians  Taape,  or  Taouab. 
It  lies  in  the  broadest  section  of  the  Valley  of  the 
Nile,  in  about  latitude  26°  N.,  and  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  Southern  or  Upper  Egypt.  Its 
ruins,  the  most  extensive  in  that  country,  com 
prise  nine  townships,  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  are  Medinat  Habu,  Gournah,  Karnak,  and 
Luxor. 

Thebes,  the  principal  city  of  Boeotia,  in  ancient 
Greece,  was  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
country,  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Teumessus,  and 
between  two  streams,  the  Dirce  and  the  Ismenus. 

The  Dalles,  county  Seat  of  Wasco  county, 
Ore.,  is  an  important  city  at  the  head  of  the  lower 
falls  of  the  Columbia  river.  Pop.,  3,900. 

Themis 'tocles,  a  great  Athenian  general  and 
statesman,  was  the  son  of  an  obscure  citizen  of 
Athens,  and  was  born  about  514  b.c.  He  began 
his  public  eareer  by  setting  himself  in  opposition 
to  the  principal  men  of  the  State,  and  chiefly 
Aristides,  “the  Just.”  In  471  he  was  ostracized, 
and  retired  to  Argos;  and  finally,  to  escape  being 
tried  for  treason,  in  which  he  was  implicated  by 
the  correspondence  of  Pausanias,  he  betook  him¬ 
self,  in  465,  to  the  cou  t  of  Artaxerxes,  King  of 
Persia.  He  lived  securely  at  Magnesia  until  his 
death  in  449. 

Thcobro'mine  (CULNjCL)  is  a  crystallizable 
principle  present  in  chocolate.  It  is  extracted 
from  the  cacao-nuts  (the  seeds  of  Theobroma  cacao) 
in  the  same  manner  as  caffeine  or  theine  is  ex¬ 
tracted  from  the  coffee,  tea,  etc.,  in  which  that 
substance  occurs. 

Theoc'racy,  literally,  government  by  God,  is 
the  name  given  to  that  constitution  of  a  state  in 
which  the  Almighty  is  regarded  as  the  sole  sover¬ 
eign,  and  the  laws  of  the  realm  as  divine  com¬ 
mands  rather  than  human  ordinances. 

Tlieoc'ritus,  the  creator  and  most  celebrated 
composer  of  bucolic  poetry,  was  the  son  of  Prax- 
agoras  and  Philinna,  and  born  at  Syracuse.  The 
date  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown,  but  the 
period  of  his  greatest  literary  activity  was  prob¬ 
ably  272  b.c. 

Theotl 'olite  (Gr.  Oe.aeh,  thcad,  I  see,  doXixot, 
dolirhos,  long),  an  instrument  employed  in  land- 
surveying  for  the  measurement  of  angles  horizon¬ 
tal  and  vertical,  is  neither  more  nor  less  than  an 
altitude  and  azimuth  instiument,  proportioned 
and  constructed  so  as  to  be  conveniently  portable. 
It  consists  essentially  of  two  concentric  circular 
plates  of  copper,  brass,  or  other  material  (the 
upper  plate,  or  upper  horizontal,  either  being 
smaller,  and  let  into  the  lower,  or  lower  horizon¬ 
tal,  or  the  rim  of  the  lower  raised  around  the  out¬ 
side  of  the  upper),  moving  around  a  common  axis, 
which,  being  double,  admits  of  one  plate  moving 
independently  of  the  other.  Upon  the  upper 
horizontal  rise  two  supports,  bearing  a  cross  bar, 
which  is  the  axis  of  a  vertical  circle  moving  in  a 
plane  at  right  angles  to  the  former.  This  latter 
circle  either  has  a  telescope  fixed  concentric  with 
itself,  or  a  semicircle  is  substituted  for  the  circle, 
and  the  telescope  is  laid  above,  and  parallel  to  its 
diameter.  The  circles,  as  their  names  denote, 
are  employed  in  the  measurement  of  horizontal 
and  vertical  angles.  For  these  purposes,  the 
outer  of  the  horizontal  circles  is  graduated,  and 
the  inner  carries  the  index-point  and  the  verniers; 
the  vertical  circle  is  also  graduated,  and  the 
graduations  are  generally  read  off  by  an  index- 
point  and  vernier  firmly  attached  to  the  supports. 
The  upper  horizontal  is  furnished  with  two  levels 
placed  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  for  purposes 
of  adjustment,  and  has  a  compass-box  let  into  it 
at  its  center.  The  stand  consists  of  a  circular 
plate  supported  on  three  legs,  and  connected  with 
the  lower  horizontal  by  means  of  a  ball-and- 
socket  joint;  the  horizontal  adjustment  of  the 
instrument  being  effected  by  means  of  three  or 
four  (the  latter  number  is  the  better)  upright 
screws  placed  at  equal  distances  between  the 
plates.  The  telescope  is  so  fixed  as  to  be  revers¬ 
ible,  and  the  adjustments  are  in  great  part  similar 
to  those  of  other  telescopic  instruments.  Both 
horizontal  plates  being  made,  by  means  of  the 
screws  and  levels,  truly  level,  the  telescope  is 
pointed  at  one  object,  and  the  horizontal  angles 
read  off;  it  is  then  turned  to  another  object,  and 
the  readings-off  from  the  graduated  circle  again 
performed;  and  by  the  difference  of  the  readings. 


THERAPEUTICS. 


672 


THRACE. 


the  angular  horizontal  deviation  is  given,  and 
when  vertical  angles  are  required,  the  readings 


Theodolite. 

A,  B,  the  horizontal  limbs;  a,  the  vernier  plate,  which 
turns;  C,  the  vertical  axis;  D.  the  ball  or  socket  move¬ 
ment;  d.  /(.  spirit  levels;  E,  a  magnifier  to  read  off  the 
degrees;  F,  G,  plates  held  together  by  the  ball  D;/,  a 
screw  to  adjust  the  level  or  line  of  collimation;  b,  b,  b, 
milled  screws  to  adjust  the  instrument,  and  set  in  level; 
<7,  a  screw  to  adjust  the  telescope  laterally;  H,  a  clamp¬ 
ing  screw,  by  which  means  the  collar  c  may  be  tightened 
to  the  axis  C,  and  kept  from  moving;  J,  the  magnet 
box;  I,  a  slow-motion  screw,  by  which  the  instrument  is 
moved  more  exactly  than  could  be  done  by  the  hand; 
i,  i,  clips,  to  reverse  the  telescope  by  screws K,  L, 
frames  into  which  the  pivots  are  placed,  on  which  the 
vertical  arc  M  is  turned  round,  and  on  which  the  tele¬ 
scope  is  fixed;  N.  a  microscope  for  reading  off  the 
degrees;  O,  a  clamp  screw;  P,  a  slow-motion  screw,  by 
which  the  vertical  arc  and  telescope  are  moved ;  Q,  a 
milled  screw  for  moving  the  object-glass  of  the  tele¬ 
scope.—  From  Cresy's  Encgclopcedia  of'  Civil  Engineering. 

are  taken  from  the  vertical  circ’e  in  a  similar 
manner. 

Therapeu'tics  (Gr.  Oepa-rtevoo,  therapcuo,  I 
heal),  is  that  division  of  the  science  of  medicine 
which  treats  of  the  various  actions  of  remedies 
upon  the  diseased  animal  system,  or  the  means  by 
which  nature  may  be  aided  in  her  return  to 
health. 

Therapon'idai,  a  family  of  acantliopterous 
fishes,  allied  to  Percidce,  from  which  they  are 
distinguished  by  having  six  instead  of  seven 
branchiostegal  rays. 

Therinidor',  i.  e.,  the  “hot  month,”  formed, 
in  the  calendar  of  the  first  French  Republic,  the 
eleventh  month,  and  lasted  from  July  19th  to 
August  18th. 

Thermom'eter  (Gr.  literally  Qepuoi,  heat, 
iterpov,  measurer),  a  term  which,  in  spite  of  its 
derivation,  is  usually  restricted  to  instruments 
which  measure  temperature  by  the  expansion  of 
bodies  The  common  thermometer  is  a  scaled 
lube  with  a  bulb  at  its  lower  end  containing  mer¬ 
cury,  which  expands  or  contracts  as  the  tempera¬ 
ture  rises  or  falls.  The  spirit  thermometer, 
which  is  employed  chiefly  for  temperatures  below 
the  freezing  point  of  mercury,  contains  alcohol 
instead  of  mercury  The  mercurial  thermometers 
in  use  are  those  of  Fahrenheit.  Reaumur,  and 
Celsius.  Of  these,  the  first  is  commonly  used  in 
America  and  Britain,  the  second  in  Germany  and 
Russia,  and  me  third  in  France;  but  this  last, 
under  the  name  of  the  Centigrade  scale,  is  almost 
exclusively  used  by  scientific  men  of  all  nations. 


The  three  scales  are  mutually  convertible  by  the 
following  rules; 


Fahrenheit  Degrees  to  Degrees  Centigrade. 

When  temperature  given  is  above  zero:—  Subtract  82°, 
multiply  by  5  and  divide  the  product  by  9. 

Example:  77° — 32°  *  5-;  9  25°. 

When  temperature  given  is  below  zero:— Add  32°,  and  pro¬ 
ceed  as  above. 

Example:  —  22°  ■*  32°  x  5+9=-39°. 

Fahrenheit  Degrees  to  Degrees  Reaumur. 

Above  zero:— Subtract  32°,  multiply  by  4  and  divide 
product  by  9. 

Example:  77°  —  32°  x  4+9=20°. 

Below  zero:—  Add  32°,  and  proceed  as  above. 

Example:  — 13°  +32*  x4+9=—  2U°. 

Centigrade  Degrees  to  Degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Above freezing . — Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  5  and  add  32° 
to  product. 

Example:  25°  x  9+5  +  32°=77°. 

Below  freezing.— Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  5,  then  take 
the  difference  between  32°  and  the  result  so  obtained. 

Example:  — 30°  x  9+5=54°;  54°— 32°=22°. 
Centigrade  Degrees  to  Degrees  Reaumur. 

Divide  by  5  and  subtract  product  from  number  of  de¬ 
grees  given. 

Example:  70°+5=14°;  70°— 14°=56°. 

Reaumur  Degrees  to  Degrees  Centigrade. 

Divide  by  4,  and  add  product  to  number  of  degrees 
given. 

Example:  56°+4=14°;  56°  +  14°=10°. 

Reaumur  Degrees  to  Degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Above  freezing. — Multiply  by  9,  divide  by  4  and  subtract 
32°  from  the  product. 

Example:  20°  x  9+4  +  32°=77°. 


Example:  — 20  x  9+4— 32°=— 13°. 


Tliermop'yla)  (literally,  the  hot  gates),  a 
famous  pass  leading  from  Thessaly  into  Locris, 
and  the  only  road  by  which  an  invading  army 
can  penetrate  from  Northern  into  Southern 
Greece.  It  lies  south  of  the  present  course  of  the 
River  Sperclieius,  between  Mount  Gita  and  what 
was  anciently  an  impassable  morass  bordering  on 
the  Maliac  Gulf.  In  the  pass  are  several  hot 
springs,  from  which  Thermopylae  probably 
received  the  first  part  of  its  name.  Thermopylae 
has  won  an  eternal  celebrity  as  the  scene  of  the 
heroic  death  of  Leonidas  and  his  300  Spartans  in 
their  attempt  to  stem  the  tide  of  Persian  invasion, 
(480  b.c.)  Again,  in  279  b.c.,  Brennus,  at  the 
head  of  a  Gallic  host,  succeeded,  through  the 
same  treachery  that  had  secured  a  victory  to 
Xerxes,  in  forcing  the  united  Greeks  to  withdraw 
from  the  pass. 

Thessalo'uians,  First  Epistle  to  the,  one 
of  the  earliest  epistles  of  St  Paul — perhaps  the 
very  earliest — was  probably  written  at  Corinth 
about  the  close  of  the  year  52  a.d.,  and  seems  to 
have  been  occasioned  by  the  good  tidings  which 
Timothy  brought  him  of  the  faith  and  charity  dis¬ 
played  by  his  Macedonian  converts. 


Tliessalonians,  Second  Epistle  to  tile,  was 
likewise  written  at  Corinth,  and  in  all  probability 
not  long  after  the  first.  It  is  generally  thought  to 
have  been  occasioned  by  the  misapprehension  of 
the  apostle’s  meaning  on  the  subject  of  the  com¬ 
ing  of  Christ  to  judgment,  to  which  the  previous 
letter  had  given  rise. 


Thes'saly,  the  largest  division  of  ancient 
Greece,  lay  to  the  south  of  Macedonia  and  the 
east  of  Epirus,  being  separated  from  the  latter  by 
Mount  Pindus,  and  from  the  former  by  the 
Cambunian  Mountains,  the  iEgean  Sea  bounding 
it  on  the  east,  and  the  Maliac  Gulf  and  Mount 
Gilta  on  the  south. 


Thian-slian,  or  Celestial  Mountains,  a  great 
mountain  system,  consisting  of  several  ridges, 
mostly  parallel,  in  Central  Asia,  are  situated  to 
the  south  and  east  of  Lake  Issyk-kul,  in  latitude 
about  42°  N.  They  are  said  to  extend  in  an  east- 
northeast  direction  from  the  vicinity  of  Samar¬ 
kand,  to  longitude  about  96°  E. — a  distance  of 
1,500  miles. 

Thibet,  Tibet,  or  Tubet,  is  the  European 
name  of  a  country  in  Central  Asia,  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Mongolia,  on  the  east  by  China,  and 
on  the  south  and  west  by  Hindustan.  It  covers 
an  area  of  from  600,000  to  1-00,000  square  miles, 
with  the  northeastern  i  art  of  which  we  are  still 
almost  totally  unacquainted.  The  pop.  is  esti¬ 
mated  at  6,000,000. 

Thibodeaux,  the  parish  seat  of  La  Fourche 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Thierry,  Jacques  Nicholas  Augustin,  an 
eminent  French  historian,  was  born  at  Blois  on 
May  10,  1795,  and  died  May  22,  1856. 

Thiers,  Louis  Adolphe,  French  historian  and 


statesman,  was  born  April  16,  1797,  at  Marseille. 
He  was  equally  celebrated  in  literature  and  in 
statecraft,  and  in  1871,  after  having  crushed  the 
Commune  and  restored  order,  he  became  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  French  Republic,  and  held  this  office 
till  May,  1873.  His  death  (Sept.  5,  1877)  was  a 
severe  blow  to  the  Republicans  of  France. 

Thirty  Years’  War  was  not  properly  one  war, 
but  rather  an  uninterrupted  succession  of  wars 
(1618-1648)  in  Germany,  in  which  Austria,  the 
most  of  the  Catholic  princes  of  Germany,  and 
Spain,  were  engaged  on  one  side  throughout,  but 
against  different  antagonists.  This  long-continued 
strife  had  its  origin  in  the  quarrels  between  the 
Catholics  and  Protestants  of  Germany,  and  the 
attempts  of  the  former,  who  were  the  more  pow¬ 
erful  body,  to  deprive  the  latter  of  what  liberty 
of  worship  they  had  obtained. 

Thistle  ( Carduus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Composite,  sub-order  C'y naroceph- 
alat,  with  spinous  leaves,  imbricated  involucres, 
and  heads  of  flow’ers,  consisting  of  tubular  her¬ 
maphrodite  florets  alone,  very  rarely  dioecious, 
stamens  free,  pappus  deciduou^  the  receptacle 
having  chaffy  bristles. 

Tho'len,  an  island  in  the  Netherlands,  Province 
of  Zeeland,  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Easter 
Scheldt.  Area,  34,000  acres.  Pop.,  14,078. 

Thomas,  St  ,  one  of  the  most  westerly  of  the 
group  of  Virgin  Islands,  is  in  latitude  18°  20'  N., 
longitude  65°  W .;  area  (Almanack  de  Gotha,  1879), 
33  square  miles;  pop.,  about  14,000.  It  belongs  to 
Denmark. 

Thomas,  George  H.,  an  American  general, 
was  born  in  Southampton  county,  Va.,  July  31, 
1816,  and  died  in  1870.  He  served  in  the  Mexican 
War,  attaining  the  rank  of  Captain,  and  in  May, 
1861,  was  appointed  Colonel  of  the  Fifth  United 
States  Cavalry.  He  advanced  rapidly  to  the  rank 
of  Major-General,  rendering  gallant  service  to  the 
Union  cause  on  many  occasions,  but  his  greatest 
achievement  was  in  defending  Nashville,  in  De¬ 
cember,  1864,  against  Hood,  who,  in  the  two 
days’  engagement,  lost  6,000  men,  and  sixty 
pieces  of  artillery. 

Thomaston,  a  towm  and  port  of  Maine,  on  the 
St.  George  river,  fifteen  miles  from  the  coast, and 
eighty  miles  east-northeast  from  Portland.  Pop., 
3,100. 

Thomaston,  the  county  seat  of  Upson  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  1,900. 

Thomasville,  the  county  seat  of  Thomas 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Thomson,  James,  author  of  The  Seasons, 
and  of  the  song,  Rule  Brittania,  wTas  born  Sept. 
11,  1700,  at  Ednam,  in  Roxburghshire,  Scotland, 
and  died  in  August,  1748. 

Thomson,  the  county  seat  of  Carlton  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  530. 

Thomson,  the  county  seat  of  McDuffie  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  750. 

Tliori'num,  or  Tho'rium  (symbol.  Th,  equiv. 
115.6),  is  a  rare  metal,  much  resembling 
aluminium,  but  taking  fire  considerably  below 
a  red  heat,  and  burning  with  great  brilliancy. 
Thorina,  or  Thoria,  is  supposed  to  be  the  protox¬ 
ide,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  high  specific  grav¬ 
ity,  9.4 

Thorn-apple  (Datura),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Solanacece,  having  a  tubular  five- 
cleft  calyx,  a  large  funnel-shaped,  five-lobed 
flower,  a  two-laminated  stigma,  and  an  imper¬ 
fectly  four-celled,  prickly,  or  unarmed  capsule. 
The  species  of  this  genus  are  annual  herbaceous 
plants,  rarely  shrubs  or  trees,  and  are  in  general 
very  narcotic,  and  productive  of  excitement  or 
delirium.  The  common  thorn-apple,  or  stramo¬ 
nium  ( D .  stramonium),  contains  a  peculiar  narcotic 
alkaloid,  Daturine ,  and  is  one  of  the  most  power¬ 
ful  narcotic  acrid  poisons;  but  its  leaves  and 
seeds  are  employed,  although  rarely,  in  medicine. 

Thornback  (Raia  clavata),  a  species  of  ray  or 
skate,  common  on  most  parts  of  the  British  coast. 

Thorvaldsen,  Bertel,  one  of  the  greatest  of 
modern  sculptors,  was  born  at  Copenhagen,  Den¬ 
mark,  Nov.  19,  1770,  find  died  March  24,  1844. 

Thrace,  anciently  the  name  of  an  extensive 
country  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Danube,  on 
the  east  by  the  Euxine,on  the  south  by  the  Aegean 
and  Macedonia,  and  on  the  west  by  Macedonia 
and  Illyria.  In  pre-historical  times,  however,  the 
name  appears  to  have  denoted  the  whole  of  East- 


THORACIC  DUCT. 


673 


TICONDEROGA. 


era  Europe  north  of  Greece,  including  both 
Macedonia  and  Scythia. 

Thorac'ic  Duct,  a  canal  equal  in  diameter  to  a 
goose-quill,  proceeding  from  the  Receptaculum 
Chyli  (into  which  the  con¬ 
tents  of  the  lacteals  are  col¬ 
lected,  and  which  is  situated 
in  the  front  of  the  body  of 
the  second  lumbar  verte¬ 
bra),  ascends  along  the  front 
of  the  vertebral  column, 
between  the  aorta  and  as¬ 
cending  vena  cava,  as  high 
as  the  fourth  dorsal  verte¬ 
bra;  it  then  inclines  to  the 
left,  and  passing  behind  the 
arch  of  the  aorta,  ascends,as 
high  as  the  seventh  cervical 
vertebra,  when  it  bends  for¬ 
ward  and  downward,  and 
terminates  at  the  point  of 
union  of  the  subclavian  and 
inlernal  jugular  veins  of  the 
left  side,  where  it  is  provided 
with  a  pair  of  semilunar 
valves,  which  prevent  the 
admission  of  venous  blood 
into  it.  It  is  also  provided 
with  other  valves  on  its  up¬ 
ward  course.  This  duct  is 
not  liable  to  any  special 
disease;  but  if  its  function 

The  Course  and  Termination  of  the  Thoracic  Duct. 

1,  the  arch  of  the  aorta:  2,  the  thoracic  aorta;  3,  the 
abdominal  aorta;  4,  arteria  innominata;  5,  the  left 
carotid;  6,  the  left  subclavian;  7,  the  superior  vena 
cava,  formed  by  the  union  of  8,  the  two  venas  innom 
inatae;  and  these  by  the  junction  9,  of  the  internal 
jugular  and  subclavian  vein  at  each  side;  10,  the  vena, 
azygos;  12,  the  receptaculum  chyli;  13,  the  thoracic 
duct,  often  dividing  in  the  middle  of  the  thorax  into  two 
branches,  which  soon  reunite  (the  course  of  the  duct 
behind  the  great  vessels  is  shown  by  a  dotted  line):  14, 
the  duct  making  its  turn  downward  before  terminating 
in  the  veins  of  the  left  side;  15,  the  termination  of  the 
trunk  of  the  duct  on  the  right  side.— From  Wilson's 
Anatomist's  Vade-mecum. 


of  conveying  cliyle  from  its  source  into  the 
general  circulation  be  interfered  with,  as,  for 
example,  by  the  pressure  of  a  tumor,  the  due 
nutrition  of  the  system  must  be  checked. 

Thread-worms.  This  term  is  employed  by 
some  zoologists  to  the  whole  order  Rcmatoda — 
a  word  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  signifying  a 
thread  like  form  Only  one  species,  Oxyuris  ver¬ 
micular  is  ("formerly  known  as  A  scar  is  vermicularis) 
the  small  thread  worm,  infests  man,  and  is  the 
commonest  of  the  intestinal  parasites 

Thrift  ( Armeria ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Plumbaginece. 

Tlirips,  a  genus  of  small  insects  of  the  order 
Hemiptera,  sub-order  Ilomoptera,  allied  to  Aphis, 
and  included  in  the  family  Aphidii  of  some  ento¬ 
mologists 

Throat,  Affections  of  the.  The  malignant 
sore  throat  of  the  older  nosologists  is  now  recog¬ 
nized  as  a  modification  of  scarlatina.  Another 
important  variety  of  sore  throat  occurs  as  one  of 
the  forms  of  secondary  syphilis.  The  disease 
popularly  known  as  clergyman’s  sore  throat,  or 
dysphonia  clericorum,  and  which  is  recognized  in 
medicine  under  the  name  of  follicular  inflamma¬ 
tion  of  the  pharynx,  first  shows  itself  by  huski¬ 
ness  of  the  voice,  with  more  or  less  coughing, 
hawking,  and  expectorating,  from  an  uneasy  sen 
sation  in  the  throat;  there  is,  moreover,  a  con¬ 
stant  inclination  to  swallow.  Perfect  rest  from 
public  speaking,  preaching,  acting,  etc.,  is  of 
more  importance  than  anything  else  in  the  way  of 
treatment,  and  a  residence  during  the  winter  and 
spring  in  a  mild  and  equable  climate  is  expedient. 
Tonics,  such  as  iron,  quinia,  and  strychnia  (in 
small  doses  not  exceeding  fa  of  a  grain,  three  times 
a  day),  should  be  tried;  but  the  local  application 
of  a  strong  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  (from 
twenty  to  eighty  grains  in  one  ounce  of  distilled 
water),  applied  by  a  probang  to  the  affected 
mucous  membrane,  is  usually  of  far  more  service 
than  internal  remedies. 

Throckmorton,  the  county  seat  of  Throck¬ 
morton  county,  Tex.  Pop.,  437. 

Thrombe'sis  is  a  term  employed  to  designate 
an  affection  of  the  blood-vessels  (either  veins  or 
arteries),  which  essentially  consists  in  a  coagu¬ 


lation  of  blood  (forming  a  true  clot)  at  a  certain 
fixed  spot.  Under  certain  morbid  conditions,  the 
blood  has  a  tendency  to  coagulate  in  its  vessels 
during  life,  on  the  least  provocation.  Thus, 
slight  pressure  on  the  side  of  a  vein  will  some¬ 
times  induce  this  coagulation,  while  in  other 
cases  it  is  due  to  inflammation  of  the  tissues 
which  surround  a  vein,  or  laceration  of  a  vein 
(as  when  the  placenta  is  expelled  from  the  uterus). 
A  clot  thus  formed  in  a  vessel  increases  and  ex¬ 
tends  from  one  to  another,  till  it  reaches  and 
finally  fills  a  large  vessel. 

Tliron'dhjem,  or  Trondhjem  (Ger.  Dron- 
theim),  the  ancient  Nidaros,  and  former  capi¬ 
tal  of  Norway,  is  in  the  Fjord  of  Throndhjem, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  little  River  Nid,  240  miles 
north  of  Christiania.  Pop.  (1875),  22,597. 

Thrush  (Turdus  or  Merida),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  Merididce  or  Tur  didoe.  The  wood- 
tlirusli,  blackbird,  and  robin  are  examples. 

Thrush .  known  also  as  Infantile  Sore  Mouth, 
is  essentially  a  disease  of  early  infancy,  although  it 
may  occur  at  any  age.  Its  characteristic  symptom 
is  the  presence  of  small  roundish  white  specks  or 
patches,  on  the  lining  membrane  of  the  cavity  of 
the  mouth  and  throat,  on  the  surface  of  the  tongue, 
the  angles  of  the  lips,  etc.  As  undue  acidity  of 
the  stomach  seems  to  be  an  almost  general  symp¬ 
tom,  the  diet  should  be  carefully  regulated,  and 
mild  antacids  prescribed.  One  authority  recom¬ 
mends  a  mixture  of  2  parts  of  dried  carbonate  of 
soda  and  1  of  gray  powder  (mercury  with  chalk) 
of  which  from  three  to  five  grains  may  be  given 
thrice  daily.  As  a  local  application  to  the  patches, 
honey  of  borax  may  be  applied  with  a  camel-hair 
pencil;  or  a  pinch  of  a  mixture  of  powdered  borax 
and  loaf-sugar  (1  to  8  or  10)  may  be  placed  occa¬ 
sionally  on  the  tongue,  and  the  infant  allowed  to 
spread  it  over  the  mouth. 

Thrush,  or  Trusii,  in  the  horse,  consists  in  in¬ 
flammation  and  ulceration  of  the  sensitive  surfaces 
within  the  frog,  giving  rise  to  a  foetid  discharge, 
constituting  unsoundness,  and  usually  causing 
lameness.  Want  of  cleanliness  is  the  chief  cause. 
Daily  when  the  horse  returns  to  his  stable,  the 
foot  should  be  washed  out  with  soap  and  water, 
carefully  dried,  and  the  fissures  filled  with  mineral 
tar.  If  amendment  does  not  speedily  ensue  a 
dressing  of  calomel  should  be  substituted  for  the 
tar  several  times  a  week  Ragged  or  loose  por 
tions  of  the  frog  may  be  removed  by  the  knife  or 
the  scissors. 

Thucy  d'ides,  the  great  historian  of  the  Pelopon 
nesian  War,  was  born,  most  probably,  in  471  n.c. 
The  year  of  his  death  is  generally  fixed  at  401. 

Tliule,  the  name  generally  given  by  the  ancients 
to  the  most  northerly  part  of  Europe  known  to 
them. 

Thun'derbolt,  in  Heraldry,  a  bearing  borrowed 
from  classical  mythology,  which  may  be  described 
as  a  twisted  bar  in  pale,  inflamed  at  each  end,  sur¬ 
mounting  two  jagged  darts  in  saltire  between  two 
wings  displayed  with  streams  of  fire. 

Thiir'inger-wald  (Forest  of  Thuringia)  is  a 
mountain  range  of  Central  Germany,  which  ex¬ 
tends  from  the  junction  of  the  Rivers  Werra  and 
Horsel,  near  Eisenach,  in  a  southeast  direction,  to 
the  North  of  Bavaria,  where  it  joins  the  Franken- 
wald,  a  ramification  of  the  Fichtel  Gebirge. 

Thurin'gia  (Ger.  Thuringen),  the  name  still 
borne  by  that  part  of  Upper  Saxony  which  is  gen¬ 
erally  bounded  by  the  Werra,  the  Saale,  and  the 
Harz  Mountains,  though  it  has  no  longer  any  di-- 
tinct  terminal  significance. 

Tliurs'day  (Swed.  Th orsdag,  Ger.  Donnerstag), 
the  fifth  day  of  the  week,  is  so  called  from  Donar 
or  Thor,  who,  as  god  of  the  air,  had  much  in 
common  with  the  Roman  Jupiter,  to  whom  the 
same  day  was  dedicated  (Lat.  Jovisdies,  Fr.  Jeudi). 

Thyl'acine  (Thylacinus),  a  genus  of  carnivorous 
marsupial  quadrupeds,  nearly  allied  to  opossums 
and  dasyures.  It  is  a  native  of  the  mountainous 
parts  of  Australia. 

Thyme  (Thymus),  a  genus  of  humble,  half- 
shrubby  plants,  of  the  natural  order  Labiates, 
having  a  two  lipped  calyx,  and  four  diverging 
stamens.  The  flowering  branches  ( Ilerba  thymi 
and  Ilerba  serpylli )  are  used  in  medicine  as  a  power¬ 
ful  stimulant,  and  those  of  garden  thyme  are  also 
used  in  cookery  for  flavoring. 

Thymelea'cete,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 


plants,  of  which  the  mezereon  and  spurge  laurel 
are  familiar  examples. 

Thy'mus  Gland,  or  simply  the  thymus,  one  of 
those  structures  which,  like  the  spleen,  suprarenal 
capsules,  and  thyroid  gland,  are  placed  amongst 
the  ductless  glands.  The  only  disease  of  this 
structure  requiring  notice  is  hypertrophy — a  con¬ 
dition  which  was  supposed  occasionally  to  in¬ 
duce  suddenly  fatal  dyspnoea  (breathlessness)  in 
children.  The  disease  is  known  under  various 
other  names,  as  Laryngismus  stridulus,  spasmodic 
croup,  and  child-crowing.  This  is  far  more  com¬ 
mon  than  true  croup,  and  is  very  liable  to  be  con¬ 
founded  with  it.  During  the  paroxysm,  the  warm 
bath  may  be  tried,  if  it  can  be  got  ready  at  once. 
The  application  of  hot  fomentations  to  the  throat 
by  means  of  a  large  sponge  is  often  serviceable, 
and  is  usually  more  accessible  than  the  bath.  The 
muscles  sometimes  relax  when  cold  w’ater  is 
freely  sprinkled  over  the  chest  and  face,  and  these 
simultaneous  applications  of  hot  and  cold  water 
are  by  no  means  incompatible.  The  subsequent 
general  treatment  must  depend  upon  the  exciting 
cause,  on  the  painful  dentition,  the  eruption  of  the 
head,  etc.  The  state  of  the  bowels  and  of  the  skin 
must  always  be  carefully  regulated,  and  change 
of  air  is  always  advisable.  Phosphate  of  lime,  in 
doses  of  from  five  to  ten  grains,  three  times  a  day, 
administered  in  chalk  mixture,  has  been  strongly 
recommended  in  this  disease,  and  is  deserving  of 
a  trial. 

Tby'roid  Body  or  Gland,  one  of  the  ductless 
or  vascular  glands,  lying  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
trachea,  and  consisting  of  two  lateral  lobes,  placed 
one  on  each  side  of  this  canal,  and  connected  to¬ 
gether  by  a  narrow  transverse  portion  at  the  lower 
third,  called  the  isthmus  It  is  of  a  brownish  red 
.color,  and  its  normal  weight  is  about  an  ounce, 
but  it  occasionally  becomes  enormously  enlarged, 
constituting  the  disease  called  bronchocele  or 
goitre.  Each  lobe  is  somewhat  conical,  and  is 
about  2  inches  long  and  -s  of  an  inch  broad.  The 
thyroid  body  differs  from  the  other  vascular  glands 
in  structure,  for  it  consists  of  an  aggregation  of 
closed  vesicles,  which  seem  to  be  furnished  with 
a  true  limitary  membrane,  and  therefore  to  be  real 
gland  vesicles  embedded  in  a  stroma  of  connective 
tissue,  and  not  communicating  with  any  common 
reservoir. 

Thysanu'ra,  an  order  of  wingless  insects  of 
small  size,  and  which  undergo  no  metamor¬ 
phoses. 

Ti  (Cordyline  Ti,  formerl y  Draccenaterminalis), 
a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Liliactce,  and  nearly 
allied  to  the  dragon  tree. 

Ti'ara,  the  triple  crown  of  the 
Pope,  which  is  considered  to  be  sy  m 
bolical  of  his  temporal,  as  the  keys 
are  of  his  spiritual  authority.  It 
is  composed  ot  a  high  cap  of  gold 
cloth,  encircled  by  three  coronets, 
with  a  mound  and  cross  of  gold  on 
the  top. 

Ti'ber,  the  chief  river  of  Cen¬ 
tral  Italy,  and  the  most  famous  in 
the  peninsula,  rises  in  the  Tuscan  Apennines,  in 
latitude  about  43°  45'  N.,  and  flows  into  the  Medi¬ 
terranean  by  two  branches,  which  inclose  the  Isola 
Sacra 

Tick,  the  popular  name  of  a  great  number  of 
Acarides,  forming  a  section  called  Suctoria,  hav- 


Harvest  Bug  Dog  Tick 

(Leplus  autumnalis).  (Ixodes plumbeus) . 

ing  the  mouth  in  the  form  of  a  sucker,  with  no 
apparent  mandibles.  The  harvest  bug  is  an  ex¬ 
ample. 

Ticknor,  George,  an  American  scholar  and 
author,  born  in  Boston,  Aug.  1,  1791,  and  died  in 
1871.  His  History  of  Spanish  Literature  and  his 
Life  of  Lafayette  are  well  known  examples  of  his 
ability  as  a  writer. 

Ticondero'ga,  a  town  in  New  York,  on  Lake 
Champlain,  atlhe  outlet  of  Lake  George,  ninety- 
five  miles  north-by-east  of  Albany;  and  the  name 


-Tiara. 


43 


IECK. 


674 


TITANIUM. 


also  of  a  lofty  promontory  in  the  township,  of 
which  the  extremity,  Mount  Defiance,  rises  750 
feet  above  the  lake.  It  was  the  scene  of  heavy 
fighting  in  1757-8  and  in  1775-7. 

Tieck,  Ludwig,  a  brilliant  and  prolific  German 
novelist  and  poet,  was  born  at  Berlin,  May  31, 
1773,  and  died  April  28,  1853. 

Tien-Tsin,  a  large  and  important  city  and  river- 
port  of  China,  in  the  province  of  Chih-le,  on  the  > 
right  bank  of  the  Pei-lio,  thirty-four  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  that  river.  It  is  the  port  of  the  city 
of  Pekin,  from  which  it  is  distant  eighty  miles 
southeast.  Pop.  estimated  at  1,000,000. 

Tierra  Amarilla,  the  county  seat  of  Rio, 
Arriba  county,  N.  M.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Tierce,  Tierce,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  of  blazon 
used  to  indicate  that  the  field  is  divided  by  lines 
into  three  equal  parts.  A  shield  may  be  tierce  in 
pale,  in  fess,  in  bend,  in  bend  sinister,  or  in  pall; 
all  which,  with  other  arrangements  in  tierce,  are 
common  in  French  heraldry. 

Tier'ra  del  Fue'go  (Land  of  Fire),  an  archi¬ 
pelago  situated  at  the  extreme  south  of  South 
America,  from  the  mainland  of  which  it  is  sepa¬ 
rated  by  Magellan’s  Strait,  consists  of  eleven  large 
islands,  of  which  the  chief  is  King  Charles’  South 
Land,  and  about  twenty  islets;  latitude  52° — 66°  S. , 
longitude  65° — 75°  W.  Area  about  21,260,  square 
miles. 

Tiffin,  the  county  seat  of  Seneca  county,  Ohio,  is 
a  flourishing  agricultural  and  manufacturing  city. 
Pop.,  8, 000. 

Tif'lis,  a  government  of  the  Russian  lieuten¬ 
ancy  of  Caucasia,  lying  immediately  south  of  the 
Caucasus.  Area,  15,553  square  miles;  pop.  (1873), 
660,800. 

Tiflis,  an  important  Russian  city,  capital  of  the 
government  of  the  same  name  and  of  the  territory 
of  the  Caucasus,  stands  on  the  Kur,  165  miles 
east-southeast  of  the  Black  Sea.  Pop.  (1886), 
104,000,  mostly  Armenians. 

Tiger  (Felix  tigris),  one  of  the  largest  of  the 


Head  of  Bengal  Tiger. 


Felidce,  equal,  perhaps,  to  the  lion  in  size  and 
strength,  and  superior  in  activity.  It  inhabits 
principally  the  tropical  regions  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere. 

Tiger-cat,  a  name  often  given  to  some  of  the 
Felidce  of  middling  size,  which  resemble  the 
tiger  in  their  form  or  marking.  The  Ocelots  and 
the  Serval  sometimes  receive  this  name. 

Tiger- flower  ( Tigridia  pavonia),  a  plant  of 
the  natural  order  Iridacece,  the  only  known  species 
of  its  genus,  which  is  distinguished  by  the  three 
outer  segments  of  the  perianth  being  larger,  and 
by  the  filaments  being  united  into  a  long  cylinder. 

Ti  'gris,  a  large  river  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  rises 
in  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  and  flows  into  the 
Persian  Gulf.  Length,  l,150miles. 

Tilden,  the  county  seat  of  McMullen  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  650. 

Tilden,  Samuel  Jones,  an  American  states¬ 
man,  born  at  New  Lebanon,  N.  Y.,  Feb.  9,  1814. 
He  was  Governor  of  New  York  1875-6,  and  was 
the  Democratic  candidate  for  President  of  the 
United  Slates  in  1876,  but  was  defeated  by  Mr. 
Hayes.  Tilden  died  Aug  4,  1886. 

Tile 'stones,  the  uppermost  group  of  the  Silur¬ 
ian  period,  consisting  of  a  reddish,  thin-bedded, 
slight  ly  micaceous  sandstone,  which  in  some  places 
attains  a  thickness  of  1,000  feet. 

Tilia'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
of  which  nearly  400  species  are  known,  mostly 
trees  and  shrubs,  with  a  few  herbaceous  plants. 

Tillamook,  the  county  seat  of  Tillamook 
county,  Ore.  Pop.,  125. 

Timbers  of  a  ship  are  the  upright  ribs,  based 
on  the  keel,  and  rising  to  the  gunwTale,  on  which 
the  planking  is  fastened. 


Timbuk'tu,  a  famous  city  of  Sudan,  occupies 
a  position  of  the  highest  commercial  importance 
on  the  great  northwestern  bend  of  t He  Niger; 
latitude  17°  37'  N.,  longitude  3°  5'  W.  Pop., 
13,000. 

Timor',  the  most  important  of  the  chain  of 
islands  which  stretch  eastward  from  Java,  lies  in 
8®  16' — 10°  25'  S.  latitude,  and  125®  25' — 127° 
10'  E.  longitude,  has  an  area  of  8,820  square 
miles,  and  a  pop.  of  about  400,000. 

Timor-Laut,  The,  or  Tenimrer  Islands,  lie 
east  from  Timor,  in  6°  40' — 8°  23'  S.  latitude,  and 
130®  26' — 132°  2'  E.  longitude,  having  an  area  of 
3,150  square  miles.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Timothy,  First  and  Second  Epistles  to, 
form,  with  the  Epistle  to  Tit  us,  the  three  Pastoral 
Epistles,  the  authorship  of  which  is  generally 
ascribed  to  St.  Paul. 

Timothy  Grass,  the  name  commonly  given  to 
Phlevrn  pmtense,  a  grass  much  valued  for  feeding 
cattle.  It  first  received  the  name  timothy  grass  in 
this  country  from  the  name  of  a  man  who  did  much 
to  promote  its  cultivation.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe. 

Timur,  called  also  Timur-beg  and  T imur-leng 
from  his  lameness,  and  vulgarly  known  among 
Western  writers  as  Tamerlane,  was  the  second  of 
the  great  conquerors  whom  Central  Asia  sentforth 
in  the  middle  ages,  and  was  born  at  Sebz,  forty 
miles  from  Samarkand,  April  8,  1336,  and  died 
Feb.  17,  1405. 

Tin  (symbol  Sn,  atomic  weight  118 — sp.  gr. 
7.29)  is  a  silvery-white  metal,  with  a  tinge  of 
yellow,  and  a  high  metallic  luster.  It  possesses  a 
crystalline  texture,  and  may  be  obtained  in  well- 
formed  crystals  of  the  pyramidal  or  tetragonal 
system;  and  it  is  in  consequence  of  this  crystal¬ 
line  texture  that  a  bar  of  tin,  when  bent,  emits  a 
creaking  sound,  termed  the  cry  of  tin.  Tin  is 
softer  than  gold,  is  malleable,  and  can  be  beaten 
out  into  thin  laminae,  in  which  form  it  is  known 
as  tinfoil.  At  a  temperature  of  about  212°  F. 
its  ductility  is  considerable,  but  by  no  means 
remarkable,  and  it  may  be  then  easily  drawn  into 
wire,  the  tenacity  of  which  is  only  moderate. 
The  richest  tin  mines  in  the  world  are  at  Corn¬ 
wall,  England,  though  it  is  also  found  in  other 
localities,  as  in  the  Black  Hills,  Dak. 

Tinctures  are  defined  by  Sir  Robert  Christison 
to  be  solutions  of  vegetable  and  animal  drugs,  and 
sometimes  of  mineral  substances  in  spirituous 
liquids.  The  spirit  most  commonly  employed  is 
proof  spirit ;  sometimes  rectified  spirit  is  used, 
and  occasionally  ether.  Ammonia  is  sometimes 
conjoined  with  the  spirit, "in  which  case  the  solu¬ 
tion  is  termed  an  ammoniated  tincture. 

Tinder,  an  inflammable  material,  usually  made 
of  half-burned  linen.  It  was  formerly  one  of  the 
chief  means  of  procuring  fire  before  the  introduc¬ 
tion  of  chemical  matches.  The  tinder  was  made 
to  catch  the  sparks  caused  by  striking  a  piece  of 
steel  with  a  flint ;  and  the  ignited  tinder  enabled 
the  operator  to  light  a  match  dipped  in  sulphur. 

Tinea  is  a  term  somewhat  vaguely  employed  to 
designate  certain  parasitic  diseases  of  the  skin, 
and  especially  of  the  scalp.  Tinea  decalvans, 
known  also  as  Porrigo  decalvans,  is  a  fungus 
disease,  causing  the  formation  of  rounded  or 
oval  patches  of  baldness,  sometimes  solitary, 
more  generally  multiple.  It  affects  the  hairy 
scalp  principally  ;  but  the  beard  and  the  hairy 
portion  of  the  skin  may  also  suffer.  The 
treatment  consists  in  preventing  the  spread  of 
the  disease  by  extracting  the  hairs  round  the 
circumference  of  the  patch,  and  washing  the 
head  daily  with  soft  soap  ;  and  all  the  young 
hairs  within  the  patch  must  be  extracted  till  a 
healthy  crop  begins  to  appear.  Moreover,  a  solu¬ 
tion  of  sulphurous  acid,  as  recommended  for 
ringworm,  should  be  applied.  When  by  these 
means  the  fungus  has  been  destroyed,  stimulants 
must  be  applied  to  the  bald  patches.  A  mixture 
of  equal  parts  of  Collodium  and  of  Ether  canthar- 
idalis  ( Collodium  vesicans)  is  the  most  useful 
stimulant  in  these  cases. 

Tinei'dic,  a  family  of  small  moths,  the  smallest 
insects  of  the  lepidopterous  order. 

Tin  'gi  (Magonia  glabrata),  a  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Sapindacece,  a  native  of  Brazil,  generally 
growing  to  the  height  of  30  or  40  feet,  but  some, 
times  much  higher.  An  infusion  of  the  bark  of 
the  roots  is  used  to  poison  fish. 

Ti'nos,  or  Tino  (auc.  Tenos),  an  island  in  the 


Grecian  Archipelago,  belonging  to  the  group  of 
the  Cyclades,  lies  immediately  southeast  of  the 
Island  of  Andros,  fifty-three  miles  off  the  coast  of 
Bceotia.  It  is  18  miles  long,  8  miles  in  breadth, 
has  an  area  of  70  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of 
about  13,000. 

Tionestii,  the  county  seat  of  Forest  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  750. 

Tin-plate.  The  manufacture  of  this  article 
forms  a  branch  of  the  iron  trade.  Sheet  iron  for 
tin-plates  is  made  either  of  charcoal-bar  or  coke- 
bar,  which  has  been  rolled  with  particular  care,  in 
order  to  avoid  scales  on  the  surface.  When  the 
iron  has  been  cut  to  the  required  size,  the  plates 
are  immersed  in  hot  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric 
acid  which  has  been  diluted  by  16  parts  of  water 
to  1  of  acid,  in  order  to  remove  all  oxide.  After 
this,  the  plates  require  to  be  washed  several  times 
in  water  ;  and  then  follows  an  annealing  in  closed 
cast-iron  boxes  in  a  reverberatory  furnace.  The 
next  operation  consists  in  passing  the  plates  two 
or  three  times  through  chilled  iron  rollers  highly 
polished  with  emery  and  oil,  so  as  to  give  them  a 
well-polished  surface.  Once  more  they  are  sent 
to  the  annealing  furnace,  passed  again  through 
dilute  sulphuric  acid,  which  is  followed  by 
another  washing,  but  this  time  in  running  water, 
and  then  scoured  with  sand.  Each  plate  is  now 
put  singly  into  a  pot  of  melted  grease  (which  has 
become  sticky  by  use',  and  left  till  it  is  com¬ 
pletely  coated,  after  which  the  plates  are  taken  in 
parcels  and  plunged  into  a  bath  of  melted  tin 
covered  with  grease,  called  the  tin-pot.  They  pass- 
from  this  to  another  vessel  with  two  compart¬ 
ments  called  the  wash-pot,  both  of  which  contain 
melted  tin  of  the  purest  quality,  and,  like  the  last, 
covered  with  grease.  The  plates  are  put  into  the 
first  compartment  in  parcels,  where  they  receive 
a  coating  of  purer  tin  than  that  of  the  tin-pot,  and 
are  then  withdrawn  one  by  one,  and  wiped  on 
both  sides  with  a  hemp  brush  ;  the  marks  of 
which  are  obliterated  by  another  dipping  in  the 
second  compartment  of  the  wash-pot.  This  last 
dipping  also  gives  the  plate  a  polish.  The  next 
thing  is  the  removal  of  the  superfluous  tin  by 
immersing  the  plates  in  a  pot  containing  tallow 
and  palm  oil  maintained  at  a  temperature  no 
higher  than  will  keep  the  tin,  in  contact  with  the 
oil,  liquid,  and  so  allow  it  to  run  off.  The  final 
treatment  consists  in  working  the  plates  sepa¬ 
rately  in  troughs  of  bran  with  a  little  meal,  and 
then  rubbing  them  with  flannel. 

Tippecanoe',  a  river  in  Indiana,  which  rises  in 
a  lake  of  the  same  name  in  the  uorthern  part  of 
the  State,  flows  southwest  200  miles,  and  empties 
into  the  Wabash  nine  miles  above  Lafayette.  It 
is  famous  for  the  battle  fought  on  its  banks, 
Nov.  5,  1811,  in  which  the  Indians,  under  Te- 
cumseh’s  brother,  the  prophet,  were  defeated 
by  General  Harrison. 

Tippera'ry,  an  inland  county  of  the  Province 
of  Munster,  Ireland,  bounded  on  the  south  by 
Waterford;  and  on  the  west  by  Cork,  Limerick, 
Clare,  and  Galway.  Area,  1,659  square  miles,  or 
1,001,731  acres.  Pop.  (1871),  216,713,  of  whom 
203,227  were  Catholics,  13,459  Proteslants. 

Tipton,  the  county  seat  of  Cedar  county,  Iowa. 
Pop.,  1,625. 

Tipton,  the  county  seat  of  Tipton  county,  Ind. 
Pop.,  2,600. 

Tiptonville,  the  county  seat  of  Lake  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Tiree',  one  of  the  Inner  Hebrides,  included  in 
Argyleshire,  Scotland,  lies  twenty  miles  northwest 
of  Iona.  It  is  30  miles  long,  and  over  6  miles  in 
extreme  breadth.  Pop.  (1881),  2,730r 

Ti'sane,  Tisan,  or  Ptisan,  an  infusion  made  of 
certain  herbs,  leaves,  or  flowers,  used  as  tea  for 
medicinal  purposes.  It  is  a  favorite  form  of  rem¬ 
edy  in  the  domestic  medicine  of  France. 

Tishomingo,  the  capital  of  the  Chickasaw 
Nation,  Ind.  Ter.  Pop.,  85. 

Tit,  or  Titmouse  ( Parus ),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  order  Insessores,  tribe  Conirostres,  and  family 
Paridce.  The  chickadee,  or  blackcap  tit  ( Parus 
atricapillus)  is  common  in  this  country. 

Tita'nium  (symbol  Ti,  equiv.  50 — sp.  gr.  unde¬ 
termined)  is  a  comparatively  rare  metal,  which, 
according  to  the  method  by  which  it  is  procured, 
occurs  as  a  gray,  heavy,  iron-like  powder,  which 
burns  with  brilliant  scintillations  in  the  air,  and 
is  converted  into  titanic  acid,  or  in  prismatic. 


TITIAN. 


675 


TONICS. 


crystals.  At  212"  it  decomposes  water,  and  it 
is  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid.  Titanium  was 
discovered  by  Gregor,  as  a  constituent  of  menac- 
canite,  in  1791. 

Titian,  or  Tiziano,  Vecelli,  the  head  of  the 
Venetian  School,  and  one  of  the  greatest  painters 
that  ever  lived,  was  born  at  Capo  del  Cadore,  in 
the  Friulian  Alps,  in  the  year  1477,  and  died  in 
1576. 

Ti'tus,  Epistle  to,  one  of  the  three  Pastoral 
Epistles,  was  written  by  St.  Paul,  probably  in  the 
latter  part  of  his  life,  and  after  he  had  been  lib¬ 
erated  from  his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome. 

Titusville,  the  county  seat  of  Brevard  county, 
Fla.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Titusville,  the  county  seat  of  Crawford  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  10,000. 

Toad  ( B"fo ),  a  genus  of  Bntrachia,  of  the 
Anourous  or  tailless  section  of  the  Caducibrnnch- 
iain.  The  original  genus  has  been  subdivided, 
and  is  now  constituted  into  a  family,  Bttfonidce, 
to  all  which  the  popular  name  toad  is  often 
extended.  The  form  resembles  that  of  the  frogs, 
but  is  more  thick  and  clumsy,  and  the  hind-legs 
are  generally  short,  so  that  the  species  rather 
crawl  than  leap;  some  of  them,  indeed,  are  not 
known  to  leap  at  all. 

Toadflax  ( Linaria ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Scrophulavinece,  close'y  allied  to 
snapdragon,  from  which  genus  this  has  but 
recently  been  separated,  and  is  distinguished 
chiefly  by  the  spur  at  the  base  of  the  corolla,  and 
the  capsule  opening  by  valves  or  teeth — not  by 
pores. 

Tobac'co  (of  uncertain  derivation,  but  most 
probably  from  the  native  American  name),  a 
genus  ( Nicotinnu )  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
SolanacccB,  having  large,  broad  leaves;  a  5-parted 


( Nicoliana  tabacum).  ( Nicotiana  rustica ) . 

calyx;  a  funnel-shaped,  5-lobed  corolla,  and  5 
stamens;  the  flowers  growing  in  panicles  at  the 
top  of  the  stem;  the  fruit  a  2-cclled,  5-valved, 
many-seeded  capsule.  They  all  possess  the  nar¬ 
cotic  property,  on  account  of  which  a  few  of 
them  are  extensively  cultivated. 

Tobag'o,  oneof  the  Windward  Islands,  belong¬ 
ing  to  Great  Britain,  lying  sixty  miles  south¬ 
east  of  Grenada,  and  eighteen  miles  north¬ 
east  of  Trinidad,  is  32  miles  long,  from  6  to  9 
broad,  and  has  an  area  of  97  square  miles.  The 
island  was  discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1498,  and 
named  by  him  Assumption.  The  pop.  in  1880 
was  19,324. 

Tobolsk',  a  Government  of  West  Siberia,  occu¬ 
pies  the  northwest  angle  of  the  country,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  on  the 
west  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  on  the  east  by 
the  Governments  of  Yeniseisk  and  Tomsk. 
Area,  564,825  square  miles;  pop.  (1870),  1,086,848. 

Tobolsk,  a  town  of  Western  Siberia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  stands  at  the 
confluence  of  thelrtish  and  the  Tobol,  1,976  miles 
east  of  St.  Petersburg.  Pop.  (1867),  20,330. 

Tocantins',  an  important  river  of  Brazil,  rises 


in  the  Province  of  Gojas,  flows  north  through  the 
Province  of  Para,  and  joins  the  waters  of  the 
Para,  the  southern  branch  of  the  estuary  of  the 
Amazon,  130  miles  from  the  Atlantic.  Total 
length,  1,100  miles. 

Tocqueville,  Alexis  Charles  Henri  Clerel 
de,  a  French  statesman,  and  the  most  eminent 
writer  of  this  century  on  the  science  of  politics, 
was  born  at  Verneuil,  in  the  Department  of  Seine- 
et-Oise,  July  29,  1805,  and  died  April  16,  1859. 

To'ga  (from  Lat.  lego,  to  cover)  was  the  princi¬ 
pal  outer  garment  of  the  Romans,  and  originally, 
perhaps,  the  only  one.  Subsequently  an  under¬ 
garment,  the  tunic,  was  added. 

Tog'gel,  on  shipboard,  a  short  bar  of  hard 
wood,  tapering  from  the  middle  toward  each  end, 
placed  in  an  eye  at  the  end  of  a  rope,  as  a  con¬ 
venient  obstacle  to  the  rope  passing  through  a 
loop  or  knot. 

Tokay',  a  species  of  wine  obtained  from  the 
vines  which  grow  on  the  Hegyallya  Mountains,  a 
group  stretching  north  and  northeast  of  Tokay. 

Toledo,  a  famous  city  of  Spain,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  and  long  the  capital 
of  tne  whole  country,  stands  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Tagus,  fifty-five  miles  south-soutliwest  of 
Madrid.  Pop.  (1877),  21,297. 

Toledo.  The  names  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat 
of  Lucas  county,  Ohio,  finely  built  on  the 
estuary  of  the  Maumee  river,  near  the  western 
extremity  of  Lake  Erie,  ninety-two  miles  west  of 
Cleveland,  and  fifty-three  miles  southwest  of 
Detroit.  It  has  a  fine  harbor,  extensive  railway 
connections,  is  the  terminus  of  two  large  canals, 
and  has  important  manufacturing  interests.  The 
local  and  transit  trade  is  immense.  The  chief 
trade  is  in  grain,  the  annual  receipts  of  which 
amount  to  over  50,000,000  bushels.  Pop.  (1889), 
90,000. — 2.  The  county  seat  of  Cleveland  county. 
Ark.  Pop.,  150. — 3.  The  county  seat  of  Cumber¬ 
land  county,  Ill.  Pop.,  750. — 4.  The  county  seat 
of  Tama  county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Tolland,  the  county  seat  of  Tolland  county, 
Conn.  Pop.,  250. 

Tom  'aliawk,  a  light  war-ha! chet  formerly  used 
by  the  North  American  Indians.  The  early  ones 
were  rudely  made  of  stone,  ingeniously  fastened 
to  their  handles  by  animal  sinews,  or  cords  of 
skin.  Traders  supplied  hatchets  of  steel,  the 
heads  of  which  were  made  hollow,  for  tobacco- 


Tomahawk. 

pipes;  the  handle  of  ash,  with  the  pith  removed, 
being  the  stem.  These  hatchets  were  used  in  the 
chase  and  in  battle,  not  only  in  close  combat,  but 
by  being  thrown  with  a  wonderful  skill,  so  as  to 
strike  the  object  aimed  at  with  the  edge  of  the 
instrument. 

Toma 'to,  or  Love-apple,  ( Ly  coper sicum  cscu- 
lentum),  a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Solanacece, 
formerly  ranked  in  the  genus  Solanum,  and 
known  as  S.  Lycopersicum.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
tropical  parts  of  America,  but  is  now  cultivated 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  suitable  for  it. 

Tombstone,  the  county  seat  of  Cochise  county, 
Ariz.  Pop.,  1,550. 

Tompkinsville,  the  county  seat  of  Monroe 
county,  Ivy.  Pop.,  300. 

Tomsk,  a  government  of  Western  Siberia, 
bounded  on  the  east  and  northeast  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment  of  Enisei  or  Yeneseisk,  and  on  the  north¬ 
west  and  west  by  that  of  Tobolsk.  Area  324,275 
square  miles;  pop.  (1879),  1,032,599. 

Tomsk,  a  trading-town  of  Siberia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Tom,  a 
tributary  of  the  Ob,  2,809  miles  east  of  St.  Peters¬ 
burg,  in  latitude  56°  30' N.,  and  longitude  84° 
58'  E.  Pop.  (1880),  33,795. 

Tom’s  river,  the  county  seat  of  Ocean  county, 
N.  J.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Ton,  the  same  word  as  Tijn,  denotes  a  weight 
of  20  hundred-weight,  (cwt.)  In  Britain,  the  hun¬ 
dred-weight  contains  112  lbs.,  so  that  the  ton  con¬ 
tains  2,240  lbs.  In  this  country  the  hundred¬ 
weight  is  usually  reckoned  at  100  lbs.,  and  the  ton 
at  2,000  lbs.  In  both  countries,  forty  cubic  feet 
of  rough  or  fifty  feet  of  hewn  timber  constitute  a 


edges;  5,  5,  the  V-shaped 
mass  of  circumvallate 
papillae;  6,  the  foramen 
ccecum;  7,  the  mucous 
glands  at  the  root  of  the 
tongue;  8.  the  epiglottis; 
9,  9,  9,  the  fraena  epiglot- 
tides;  10.  10,  the  greater 
horns  of  the  hyoid  bone. 
— From  Soemmering. 


ton  or  load  of  the  same.  The  hundred-weight 
{centner)  in  Austria,  Prussia,  Denmark,  Germany, 
and  Switzerland,  contains  100  lbs. ;  in  Hamburg, 
112;  in  Bremen,  116;  its  representative  in  France, 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  is  the  quintal;  in  Italy,  the 
centinajo;  in  Turkey,  Egypt,  Northern  Africa, 
and  the  Balearic  Isles,  the  kantar,  (124  lbs.) 

Tongue,  The,  is  a  symmetrical  muscular 
organ,  extending  from  the  hyoid  bone  backward 
and  downward,  to  the 
lips  in  front,  and  occu¬ 
pying  the  buccal  cavity. 

The  superior  surface, bor¬ 
ders,  and  anterior  third  of 
the  inferior  surface,  are 
free;  while  the  remain¬ 
ing  parts  are  attached  to 
adjacent  parts  by  the  in¬ 
vesting  mucous  m  e  m  - 
brane  and  s  u  b  j  a  c  e  n  t 
structures.  At  certain 
points,  this  membrane,  on 
leaving  the  tongue,  forms 
distinct  folds,  containing 
fibrous  or  muscular  tis¬ 
sue,  which  act  to  a  certain 
extent  as  ligaments  to  the 
tongue.  The  most  con¬ 
siderable  of  these  folds  is 
termed  the  fraenum  (or 
bridle)  of  the  tongue,  and 
connects  its  anterior  free 
extremity  with  the  lower 
jaw.  It  acts  as  a  strong  Upper  surface,  of  Tongue, 
ligament,  and  limits  the  showing  the  Papillae, 
backward  movement  of  IXVteraTparts"!; 
the  tip  of  the  tongue.  In  the  tip;  4  4  the  sales  or 
rare  cases,  this  ligament 
extends  abnormally  to  the 
tip,  so  as  to  interfere 
with  speech  and  masti¬ 
cation,  and  the  child  is 
said  to  be  tongue-tied ; 
recourse  must  be  then 
had  to  division  of  the 
fraenum,  popularly  known  as  cutting  the  tongue. 
Other  folds  of  mucous  membrane  (the  glosso- 
epiglottid  folds,  pass  from  the  base  of  the  tongue 
to  the  epiglottis,  while  from  the  sides  of  the  base, 
passing  to  the  soft  palate,  are  seen  two  folds  on 
either  side,  known  as  the  pillars  of  the  fauces. 
The  superior  surface  of  the  tongue  is  divided 
into  two  symmetrical  lateral  parts  by  a  median 
longitudinal  furrow,  commencing  at  the  tip, 
and  extending  back  about  two-tliirds  of  the 
tongue’s  length.  Hypertrophy,  or  persistent 
enlargement  of  the  tongue,  sometimes  results 
from  an  imperfectly  cured  case  of  inflamma¬ 
tion;  but  is  probably  in  most  cases  congenital, 
although  perhaps  not  noticed  for  a  year  or  two. 
One  of  the  most  common  forms  of  disease  of  the 
tongue  is  ulceration,  which  may  arise  from 
the  irritation  of  a  decayed  tooth  with  a  sharp, 
jagged  edge;  or  from  constitutional  syphilis;  or 
from  a  disordered  condition  of  the  digestive 
organs.  In  the  first  case,  the  tooth  must  be  re¬ 
moved;  in  the  second,  iodide  of  potassium  with 
sarsaparilla  should  be  tried;  and  in  the  third,  the 
complaint  generally  yields  to  regulation  of  the 
diet  and  of  the  digestive  organs,  and  sedatives  at 
bed-time.  Cancer  of  the  tongue  occurs  either  in 
the  hard  or  in  the  epithelial  variety.  The  only 
treatment  which  can  be  adopted  with  any  chance 
of  success  is  full  and  early  extirpation.  Tongue- 
tie  is  an  affection  for  which  infants  are  often 
brought  to  the  surgeon,  and  which  is  often  oper¬ 
ated  on  when  this  might  be  dispensed  with.  The 
division  of  the  fraenum  with  a  blunt-pointed  pair 
of  scissors,  with  their  point  directed  downward, 
is  very  easily  performed,  and  fortunately  does  no 
harm  to  the  child. 

Tonics  are  medicines  which,  in  cases  of  want  of 
tone  or  tonicity  in  the  muscular  fibers,  are  em¬ 
ployed  to  restore  strength  and  vigor  to  the  sys¬ 
tem.  Tonics,  to  a  certain  degree,  are  stimulants; 
but  while  the  latter  produce  a  rapid  but  transi¬ 
tory  excitement,  the  former  slowly  induce  a 
certain  degree  of  excitement,  and  the  effect  is 
permanent.  It  is  not  only  in  general  muscular 
debility  that  tonics  are  to  be  employed,  but  in  all 
the  numerous  complaints  which  follow  in  its 
train,  as  palpitation,  convulsions,  epilepsy. 


TONKA  BEAN. 


G76 


TORTOISE-SHELL. 


chorea,  neuralgia,  and  all  forms  of  periodic 
disease.  Among  the  chief  medicines  of  this  class 
are  the  dilute  hydrochloric,  nitric,  nitro-hydro- 
chloric,  and  phosphoric  acids,  various  salts  of 
bismuth,  copper,  iron,  silver,  and  zinc,  the  vari¬ 
ous  kinds  of  cinchona  bark,  with  their  alkaloids 
and  their  salts,  cusparia,  calumba,  cascarilla, 
chiretta,  gentian,  quassia,  salix,  simaruba,  and 
taraxacum.  Although  nux  vomica  and  its  alka¬ 
loid  strychnine  are  placed  by  writers  on  materia 
medica  among  the  special  stimulants,  when  given 
in  small  doses  they  have  a  well-marked  tonic 
action;  and  there  is  probably  no  tonic  medicine 
of  more  general  utility  than  the  syrup  of  iron, 
quinine,  and  strychnine,  a  non-officinal  but 
widely  used  preparation,  of  which  every  drachm 
(the  ordinary  dose)  contains  j's  of  a  grain  of 
strychnine. 

Tonka  Bean,  or  Tonga  Bean,  the  seed  of 
Dipteryx  odorata,  a  large  tree  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminosce,  sub-order  Papilionaceas,  a  native  of 
Guiana.  Tonka  beans  are  used  for  flavoring 
snuff,  for  which  purpose  one  is  carried  in  the 
snuff-box;  and  are  put  among  clothes,  to  preserve 
them  from  insects,  and  to  communicate  an  agree¬ 
able  odor. 

Tonnage,  in  regard  to  ships,  is  the  measure  of 
capacity,  the  ton  being  one  not  of  weight,  but  of 
cubic  content — i.  e.,  40  cubic  feet. 

Tonqnin',  the  most  northerly  province  of 
Cochin  China. 

Tonqnin,  Gulf  of,  an  arm  of  the  China  Sea, 
bounded  by  Cochin  China  on  the  west,  by  China 
on  the  north,  and  by  the  Chinese  Province  of 
Quang-tung  and  the  Island  of  Hainan  on  the  east. 
It  is  150  miles  in  width,  and  300  miles  in  length. 

Tooele,  the  county  seat  of  Tooele  county, 
Utah.  Pop.,  1,000. 

Toombnd'ra  (correctly,  Tunga-Bhadro),  an 
important  tributary  of  the  Kistnah  or  Krishna, 
rises  in  the  southwest  of  Maisur  (Mysore),  and 
after  a  northeast  course  of  from  350  to  400  miles, 
joins  the  Kistnah,  twenty-five  miles  below  Karnul. 

Toon,  or  Toona  (Cedrela  Toona),  a  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Cedrelacece,  one  of  the  largest  timber 
trees  of  India. 

Tope  is  the  vernacular  name  of  Buddhistic 
monuments  intended  for  the  preservation  of 
relics.  In  Ceylon  and  elsewhere,  they  are  also 


Kock-cut  Tope  at  Adjunta  (from  Fergusson's  Hand¬ 
book  of  Architecture). 


literally,  accumulation,  and  conveys  a  sense 
analogous  to  that  of  the  Latin  tumulus.  Dagop  is 
a  corruption  of  dhutu-g^pa,  i.  e.,  relic-preserver; 
and  Chaitya  applies  generally  to  objects  of  wor¬ 
ship,  as  images,  temples,  sacred  trees,  etc.  Tope 
is  therefore  the  name  of  those  monuments  in 
regard  to  their  shape;  Dagop,  in  regard  to  their 
purpose;  and  Chaitya  the  general  term. 

To'paz,  a  mineral,  ranked  by  mineralogists 
among  gems,  and  the  finer  varieties  of  which 
are  much  valued  both  for  their  luster  and  the 
beauty  of  their  colors.  It  is  composed  chiefly  of 
alumina  and  silica,  the  former,  in  general,  more 
than  50  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  with  fluoric  acid, 
and  usually  a  little  oxide  of  iron.  It  is  found 
generally  in  primitive  rocks,  and  in  many  parts 
of  the  world. 

Tope  (Galeus  cams),  a  small  species  of  shark, 
of  the  family  Ga'leida,  which  has  two  dorsal  fins 
and  one  anal,  spout-holes,  and  the  eyes  furnished 
with  a  nictitating  membrane,  the  first  dorsal 
situated  over  the  space  between  the  pectorals  and 
ventrals. 

Topeka,  the  capital  of  the  State  of  Kansas,  on 
both  banks  of  the  Kansas  river.  It  is  connected 
by  rail  with  the  ports  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
by  the  Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  with  San 
Francisco.  (Pop.  (1881),  38,000. 

Top-gallant,  in  a  Ship,  the  name  applied  to  the 
third  mast  or  sail  above  the  deck — i.  e.,  to  the 
mast  and  sail  above  the  topmast  and  topsail. 

To'pliane,  a  suburb  of  Constantinople. 

Torce,  or  Wreath,  in  Heraldry,  a  garland  of 
twisted  silk,  by  which  the  crest  is  joined  to  the 
helmet. 

Tor'get,  a  small  island  off  the  northwest  coast 
of  Norway,  in  latitude  65°  30'  N. 

Tor'mentil  (Tormentilla),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Rosacea,  sub-order  Poten/illece, 


differing  from  Potentilla  only  in  the  four-parted 
calyx  and  corolla,  and  now  united  with  it  by 
many  botanists. 

Tor'nea,  a  river,  important  as  forming  part 
of  the  boundary  line  between  Russia  and 
Sweden,  rises  in  Lake  Tornea,  in  Sweden,  and 
flows  southeast  and  south  between  Russia  and 
Sweden,  entering  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  at  its 
northern  extremity,  after  a  course  of  250  miles. 

Toronto,  the  capital  city  of  the  Province  of 
Ontario,  Canada,  stands  on  the  north  shore  of 
Lake  Ontario,  in  latitude  43°  39'  N.,  longitude 
79Q  23'  W.,  165  miles  from  Kingston,  and  323 
miles  from  Montreal.  Pop.,  86,415. 

Torpe'do,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  order  Raiice, 
and  family  Torpedinidce.  All  the  Torpedinidce 
were  formerly  included  in  this  genus,  itself 


Torpedo.  The  modern  torpedo  is  of  two 
kinds — first,  the  locomotive  torpedo,  which  is 
in  various  w'ays  projected  against  the  side  of  a 
hostile  vessel;  secondly,  the  fixed  torpedo,  a  kind 
of  stationary  bomb  shell  intended  to  explode 
under  the  bottom  of  the  enemy’s  ship.  Of  fixed 
submarine  torpedoes  there  are  two  classes — those 
which  are  self-explosive  on  a  ship  touching  them, 
and  those  which  are  dependent  on  an  electric  cur¬ 
rent  supplied  from  the  shore.  A  torpedo  of  the 
self-acting  class  is  shown  in  the  accompanying 
illustration;  abc  is  a  hollow  iron  cone,  water¬ 
tight,  with  a  ring  at  b  by  which  to  anchor  it. 
The  upper  part,  B,  is  left  empty,  for  the  sake  of 
buoyancy,  while  the  lower  end,  A,  is  filled  with 
gunpowder,  the  charge  varying  from  100  to  300 
pounds.  At  the  top  of  the  powder  is  an  iron  case, 

C,  filled  with  lime,  and  in  it  a  tube  of  thin  glass, 

D,  containing  sulphuric  acid.  The  upper  part 
of  the  glass  tube  is  enveloped  by  the  ringed  end 
of  the  iron  rod,  E,  which  passes  through  the  top 


of  the  torpedo,  and  some  distance  above  it;  and 
has  horizontal  rods,  G,  called  feelers,  attached 
rigidly  to  its  upper  extremity.  When  a  ship 
impinges  on  the  feelers,  the  rod  is  deflected  from 
the  perpendicular;  the  ring  at  its  lower  end 
breaks  the  glass  tube;  the  acid  acting  on  the  lime, 
generates  great  heat,  and  explodes  the  powder. 
In  the  electric  torpedo  a  wire  insulated  in  a 
small  cable  is  laid  from  a  battery  on  shore  to  the 
submarine  mine.  It  enters  it  by  an  insulated 
joint,  and  is  then  soldered  to  a  small  piece  of 
platinum  wire  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
priming  of  the  torpedo;  from  the  other  end  of  the 
platinum  a  second  wire  communicates  with  the 
metal  sides  of  the  torpedo  case.  On  closing  cir¬ 
cuit  at  the  battery,  the  current  passes  by  the 
cable  into  the  torpedo,  heating  the  platinum  to 
incandescence,  and  exploding  the  torpedo.  On 
this  latter  class  the  United  States  depends  largely 
for  defense  of  its  harbors  against  any  possible  in¬ 
vasion  by  hostile  men  of  war 

Tor'res  Strait  lies  between  North  Australia 
and  Papua  or  New  Guinea,  in  latitude  9°  20' — 10® 
40' N. ;  and  longitude  142°  30'  E.  The  channel 
is  about  80  miles  in  width,  and  its  navigation, 
though  practicable,  is  rendered  dangerous  and 
difficult  by  the  innumerable  shoals,  reefs,  and 
islands  with  which  it  is  strewn.  It  was  discov¬ 
ered  by  Torres  in  1606. 

Torsk,  or,  by  corruption,  Tusk  ( Brosmius  vul¬ 
garis),  a  valuable  fish  of  the  family  Gadidce, 


Torsk,  or  Tusk  ( Brosmius  vulgaris). 


abundant  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

Tortoise-sliell,  the  large  scales  of  the  cara¬ 
pace,  or  shield,  of  a  species  of  sea-turtle,  the 
Chelonia  imbricata  and  Tistudo  imbricata  of  sev¬ 
eral  authors.  It  is  found  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
Amboyna,  New  Guinea,  Seychelles,  Havana,  and 
the  Red  Sea.  Tortoise-shell  is  so  called,  because, 
formerly  the  order  of  animals  to  which  it  belongs 


called  Dagops;  and  another  of  their  designations  Torpedo  ( Torpedo  vulgaris). 

is  Chaitya.  The  difference  between  these  terms  \  originally  formed  from  Raia;  but  it  has  been 
results  from  their  meaning.  Tope  is  the  Pali  divided  into  a  number  of  genera,  as  Torpedo, 
th  dpa,  and  the  Sanskrit  stupa;  it  means,  therefore,  I  Narcine,  Astrape,  etc. 


TORTOISE. 


677 


TEANSUBSTANTIATION. 


was  little  known,  and  all  were  confounded  under 
the  general  name  of  tortoises. 

Tortoise  {Testudo),  a  genus  of  Chelonian  rep¬ 
tiles,  which  once  included  the  whole  order,  but 
is  now  much  restricted.  When  used  by  itself,  it 


Land  and  Water  Tortoises. 

1,  Common  Land  Tortoise  (Testuda  grazed)-,  2,  Lettered 
Tortoise  (Emys  scripla) . 

is  commonly  the  designation  of  what  are  distinct¬ 
ively  called  land  tortoises,  which  belong  to  the 
genus  Testudo  as  now  restricted,  and  the  genera 
most  nearly  allied  to  it. 

Tortu'gas  (Sp.  Turtles),  a  group  of  ten  islets 
or  keys,  also  called  the  Dry  Tortugas,  belonging 
to  the  United  States,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  120  miles  west-southwest  of  Cape 
Sable,  the  southern  point  of  Florida.  During  the 
Civil  War,  the  fort  was  used  as  a  penal  station  for 
Confederate  prisoners. 

TotipaUmae,  the  name  of  a  group  of  birds,  of 
the  order  Palmipedes,  having  the  hind-toe  con¬ 
nected  with  the  other  toes  by  a  web. 

Tou 'can  ( Rtimphastos ),  a  Linnaean  genus  of 
birds,  now  forming  the  family  Ramphastidm, 
which  belongs  to  the  order  Scansores,  and  con¬ 
tains  nearly  forty  known  species,  all  natives  of 
tropical  America,  and  remarkable  for  the  magni¬ 
tude  of  the  bill. 

Ton'la,  or  Tula,  one  of  the  governments  of 
Great  Russia,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Gov¬ 
ernment  of  Moscow.  Area,  11,909  square  miles; 
pop.  (1870),  1,167,  878. 

Toula,  or  Tula,  a  town  of  Great  Russia,  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  government  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Upa,  an  affluent  of  the  Oka,  110  miles  south  of 
Moscow.  Pop.  (1867),  58,150. 

Toulon,  a  great  seaport  and  naval  arsenal  of 
France,  in  the  Department  of  Var,  stands  on  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  thirty-seven  miles 
southeast  of  Marseille.  Pop.  (1876),  61,382. 

Toulon,  the  county  seat  of  Stark  county.  Ill. 
Pop.,  1,000. 

Toulouse  (anc.  Tolosd),  an  important  city  in 
the  South  of  France,  capital  of  the  Department 
of  the  Haute-Garonne,  is  on  the  River  Garonne, 
160  miles  southeast  of  Bordeaux.  Pop.  (1881), 
136,627. 

Tour'maline,  a  mineral  ranked  among  gems, 
and  occurring  in  primitive  rocks  in  many  parts 
of  the  world.  Some  varieties  are  transparent, 
some  translucent,  some  opaque.  Some  are  color¬ 
less,  some  green,  brown,  red,  blue,  and  black. 
Red  tourmaline  is  known  as  Rubellite;  blue 
■tourmaline,  as  Indicollite;  and  black  tourmaline, 
as  Schorl.  This  last  is  the  most  common  kind. 
The  finest  tourmalines  are  much  valued  by  jew¬ 
elers,  but  are  comparatively  rare.  They  mostly 
come  from  Ceylon,  Siberia,  and  Brazil." 

Tours,  a  city  of  France,  capital  of  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Indre-et-Loirc,  and  formerly  capital  of 
Touraine,  146  miles  southwest  of  Paris.  Pop. 
(1881),  52,516. 

Towanda,  the  county  seat  of  Bradford  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  3,814 

Tour 'niquet,  an  instrument  for  compressing 
the  main  artery  of  the  thigh  or  arm,  either  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing  too  great  a  loss  of  blood 
in  amputation,  or  to  check  dangerous  hemorrhage 
from  accidental  wounds,  or  to  stop  the  circula¬ 
tion  through  an  aneurism.  The  common  tourni¬ 
quet  consists  of  three  parts — a  pad  to  compress 


the  artery;  a  strong  band  which  is  buckled  round 
the  limb;  and  a  bridge-like  contrivance  over 


Common  Tourniquet. 

which  the  band  passes,  with  a  screw  whose  action 
raises  the  bridge  and  consequently  tightens  the 
band. 

Tower,  an  important  mining  town  in  St.  Louis 
county,  Minn.,  ninety  miles  north  of  Duluth. 
Pop.,  550. 

Towson,  the  county  seat  of  Baltimore  county, 
Md.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Tra'cery,  the  beautiful  forms  in  stone  with 
which  the  arches  of  Gothic  windows  are  filled  or 
traced  for  the  support  of  the  glass.  These  forms 
vary  with  every 
variety  of  Gothic 
architecture. 

G  o  t  h  i  c  windows 
were  at  first  nar¬ 
row,  and  were  cov¬ 
ered  with  a  simple 
arch.  Then  two 
windows  were 
grouped  together, 
and  an  arch 
thrown  over  both. 

The  space  thus  in¬ 
closed  became  part 
of  the  window  Gothic  Window  with  Tracery, 
and  was  at  first  pierced  with  a  circle,  quatrefoil, 
or  other  opening.  Wlieu  three  or  more  windows 
were  grouped  under  one  arch,  the  shield  or  space 
in  the  arch  became  larger,  and  was  pierced  with 
apertures  of  various  forms.  In  the  early  pointed 
styles,  these  were  usually  circles  filled  with 
cinquefoils,  trefoils,  etc. 

Tra'chea,  The,  is  the  connecting  link  between 
the  broncliii  and  the  external  respiratory  orifice  of 
the  mouth.  It  is  subject  to  various  affections  re- 
quiringskillful  treatment.  Foreign  bodiesoccasion- 
ally  pass  through  the  larynx  into  the  trachea.  In 
cases  of  this  kind,  the  patient  who  has  had  some 
foreign  substance  in  his  mouth  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  swallowed,  is  seized  with  a  convul¬ 
sive  cough,  threatening  suffocation,  but  subsiding 
after  a  time.  The  symptoms  that  then  ensue 
vary  with  the  weight  and  figure  of  the  substance, 
and  according  as  it  is  fixed  or  movable.  Although 
inversion  of  the  body,  together  with  succussion 
and  lateral  movement  of  the  larynx,  has  in  some 
few  cases  been  successful,  it  is  now  deemed  ad¬ 
visable  by  the  highest  authorities  to  precede  the 
attempt  at  removal  by  making  an  artificial  open¬ 
ing  into  the  windpipe.  A  free  aperture  is  thus 
secured  for  respiration,  spasm  of  the  glottis  is 
prevented,  and  the  foreign  body  is  commonly  ex¬ 
pelled  through  the  artificial  opening,  or  falls 
through  the  glottis  into  the  mouth.  Rupture  of 
the  trachea  from  external  injury  occasiomdly 
happens,  and  generally  proves  fatal  in  conse¬ 
quence  of  the  rapid  and  extensive  emphysema 
which  usually  ensues.  It  is  too  rare  an  accident 
to  require  a  more  special  notice. 

Tracta'rianism,  a  remarkable  and  important 
movement  in  the  English  Church  during  the  sec¬ 
ond  quarter  of  the  present  century,  which  con¬ 
sisted  in  an  endeavor  to  revive  and  bring  into 
prominence  the  principles  of  antiquity,  catholic¬ 


ity,  and  authority  recognized  in  some  portions  of 
the  Anglican  formularies,  in  contrast  to  the  Prot¬ 
estant  sentiments  long  and  widely  prevailing. 
The  name  is  derived  from  a  series  of  papers  enti- 
th  d  Tracts  for  the  Times,  published  at  Oxford 
during  the  years  1833-1841,  hence  called  the 
“  Oxford  Tracts.”  The  chief  promoters  of  the 
movement  were  the  Rev.  John  Keble,  the  Rev.  J. 
H.  Newman,  and  R.  H.  Froude;  the  Rev.  E.  B. 
Pusey,  the  Rev.  Isaac  Williams,  the  Rev.  Hugh 
Rose,  and  others. 

Traders  Hill,  the  county  seat  of  Charlton 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  75. 

Trafalgar',  Cape,  a  low  promontory  on  the 
south  coast  of  Spain,  about  twenty-nine  miles 
west-northwest  of  Tarifa,  on  the  Straits  of  Gibral¬ 
tar.  It  is  memorable  for  the  great  naval  victory 
obtained  (Oct.  21,  1805)  by  the  British  fleet  under 
Nelson,  over  the  combined  fleets  of  France  and 
Spain,  under  the  French  commander  Villeneuve 
and  two  Spanish  admirals. 

Trag'opan,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family 
Phasianidce.  It  inhabits  the  higher  parts  of  the 
Himalaya,  Thibet,  and  some  of  the  mountainous 
provinces  o-f  China. 

Tra'jan’s  Column,  a  celebrated  column  at 
Rome,  which  was  reared,  114  a.d.,  by  the  Roman 
senate  and  people,  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Tra¬ 
jan.  It  is  considered  not  only  the  greatest  work 
of  its  architect,  Apollodorus,  but  one  of  the  noblest 
structures  of  its  kind  ever  erected. 

Trajan’s  Wall,  aline  of  fortifications  stretching 
across  the  Dobrudscha  from  Czernavoda,  where 
the  Danube  bends  northward,  to  a  point  of  the 
Black  Sea  coast  near  Kustendji.  It  consists  of  a 
double,  and  in  some  places  a  triple,  line  of  ram¬ 
parts  of  earth,  from  8:|  to  11  feet  in  height  on  the 
average  (though  occasionally  it  attains  an  altitude 
of  19^  feet),  bounded  along  its  north  side  by  a 
valley. 

Traja'nus,  Marcus  Ulpius,  Roman  emperor, 
was  born  at  Italica  (Alcala),  near  Seville,  Sept.  18, 
52  a.d.  HediedatSelinus,  in  Cilicia,  August,  117. 

Transcanca'sia,  the  tract  of  territory  belonging 
to  Russia,  and  extending  between  the  Caucasus  on 
the  north,  and  Turkey  in  Asia  and  Persia  on  the 
south. 

Transfu'sion  of  Blood  lias  been  regarded  as  a 
recognized  and  legitimate  operation  in  obstetric 
surgery  since  the  year  1824.  It  is  an  operation 
which  is  almost  always  restricted  to  cases  of  pro¬ 
fuse  hemorrhage  in  connection  with  labor.  The 
benefits  derived  from  it  are  probably  twofold — 
the  actual  restitution  of  blood  which  has  been 
lost;  and  the  supply  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
blood  to  the  heart,  to  stimulate  it  to  contraction, 
and  thus  to  enable  the  circulation  to  be  carried  on 
until  fresh  blood  is  formed. 

Tran 'sit-instrument,  one  of  the  most  import¬ 
ant  of  astronomical  instruments,  consists  of  a  tele¬ 
scope  fixed  to  a  horizontal  axis,  so  as  to  revolve 
in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,  and  is  employed,  as 
its  name  denotes,  in  the  observation  of  the  meri¬ 
dian  transits  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

Transiibstantia'tion  (Lat.  transvbstantiatio, 
change  of  substance,  from  trans,  over;  substantia ,  a 
substance),  a  word  used  by  the  scholastic  writers 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  designate  the 
change  which  is  believed  by  Roman  Catholics  to 
take  place  in  the  Eucharistic  elements  of  bread 
and  wine,  in  virtue  of  the  consecration.  Accord¬ 
ing  to  the  Catholic  doctrine,  which  has  been 
explicitly  defined  as  an  article  of  faith  (Council  of 
Trent,  Sess.  xiii.  Can.  2),  “the  whole  substance 
of  the  bread  is  changed  into  the  body  of  Christ, 
and  the  whole  substance  of  the  wine  into  His  blood, 
the  species  alone  remaining.”  What  is  the  pre¬ 
cise  philosophical  meaning  of  the  word  “species,” 
called  also  “  accidents,”  in  this  definition,  is  not 
declared;  but  in  popular  language  it  may  be 
described  as  simply  meaning  the  appearances, 
that  is  to  say,  those  qualities  or  conditions  of 
bread  and  wine  which  produce  upon  the  senses 
the  impression  of  the  presence  of  bread  and  wine. 
It  is  not  taught,  however,  that  in  the  change 
called  transubstantiation,  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  are  formed  out  of  the  substance  of  the 
bread  and  wine,  but  that,  in  virtue  of  the  Eucha¬ 
ristic  consecration,  the  substance  of  bread  and 
wine  cease  to  exist,  and  that  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  take  their  place. 


TRANSVAAL. 


678 


TRILOBITES. 


Transvaal'  (i.  e. ,  across  the  Vaal),  in  Southeast 
Africa,  till  1877  a  republic,  from  1877  till  1881  a 
British  territory,  and  now  under  the  suzerainty 
of  the  British  sovereign.  It  includes  the  country 
north  of  the  Vaal  river,  and  on  both  slopes  of  the 
Magaliesberg  or  Cashan  Mountains,  into  which 
the  emigrant  Boers  retired  after  the  annexation 
of  the  Orange  River  Free  Stale,  in  1848,  to  the 
British  crown.  Its  limits  lie  between  latitude 
22° — 27°  S.,  and  longitude  25° — 32’  E. 

Transylva'nia  is  the  most  easterly  territory  of 
Austria,  and  since  1808  has  been  completely 
incorporated  with  Hungary,  of  which  it  now 
forms  the  eastern  portion.  The  area  is  21,670 
square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  2,084,048. 

Trap'pist  Order,  The,  celebrated  among  the 
religious  orders  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
for  its  extraordinary  austerities,  is  so  called  from 
La  Trappe,  an  abbey  of  the  Cistercian  Order, 
founded  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century. 
By  the  Trappist  rule,  the  monks  are  obliged  to 
rise  at  two  o’clock  a.  m.  for  matins  in  the  church, 
which  lasts  till  half-past  three;  and  after  an  inter¬ 
val  occupied  in  private  devotion,  they  go  at  half¬ 
past  live  to  the  office  of  prime,  which  is  followed 
by  a  lecture.  At  seven,  they  engage  in  their  sev 
eral  daily  tasks,  indoors  or  out,  according  to  the 
weather.  At  half-past  nine,  they  return  to  the 
choir,  for  the  successive  offices  of  terce,  sext,  and 
none;  at  the  close  of  which  they  dine  on  vegeta¬ 
bles  dressed  without  butter  or  oil,  and  a  little 
fruit.  This  meal  is  succeeded  by  manual  labor 
for  two  hours,  after  which  each  monk  occupies 
an  hour  in  private  prayer  or  reading  in  his  own 
cell  until  four  o’clock,  when  they  again  assemble 
in  the  choir  for  vespers.  The  supper  consists  of 
bread  and  water,  and  after  a  short  interval  of 
repose,  is  followed  by  a  lecture.  At  six  o’clock, 
they  recite  complin  in  choir,  and  at  the  end, 
spend  half  an  hour  in  meditation,  retiring  to  rest 
at  eight  o’clock.  The  bed  is  a  hard  straw  mat¬ 
tress,  with  a  coarse  coverlet;  and  the  Trappist 
never  lays  aside  his  habit,  even  in  case  of  sick¬ 
ness,  unless  it  should  prove  extreme.  Perpetual 
silence  is  prescribed,  unless  in  cases  of  necessity. 

Traveler’s  Tree,  or  IIavenala  ( Urania 
speciosa,  or  Raven ula  madagascariensis),  a  re¬ 
markable  plant  of  the  natural  order  Musacece,  a 
native  of  Madagascar,  and  forming  a  character¬ 
istic  feature  of  the  scenery  of  many  parts  of  that 
island. 

Traverse  City,  the  county  seat  of  Grand  Trav¬ 
erse  county,  Mich.  Pop.,  4,200. 

Traw'ling,  a  mode  of  fishing  by  a  net  dragged 
along  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  behind  a  boat, 

Tre'bizond,  or  Trebisond  (in  Turk.  Tara- 
bezfm),  is  a  Turkish  eyalet  in  the  Northeast  of 
Asia  Minor,  stretching  along  the  southeast  shore 
of  the  Black  Sea  for  240  miles,  with  an  estimated 
pop.  of  540,000. 

Tree  Ferns,  are  ferns  with  tree-like  woody 
stem,  and  a  head  of  fronds  resembling  the  leaves 


Tree  Fern. 


of  palms.  They  are  found  only  in  tropical  and 
sub  tropical  countries,  many  of  which,  however, 
are  quite  destitute  of  them. 


Tree,  the  name  given  to  those  plants  which 
live  for  many  years,  and  have  woody  stems 
and  branches,  the  stem  being  generally  single, 
and  bearing  a  head  of  branches  and  twigs ; 
whereas  shrubs  have  generally  a  number  of  stems 
springing  from  one  root.  The  terms  tree  and 
shrub  are  not,  however,  of  exactly  defined  signifi¬ 
cation;  and  many  shrubs,  under  certain  circum¬ 
stances,  assume  the  form  of  trees,  either  naturally 
or  by  the  help  of  art;  while  trees  are,  in  other 
circumstances,  converted  into  shrubs. 

Tree-frogs  (Ilylada),  a  family  of  Butrachia, 
separated  from  the  true  irog&{Ran.idce)  on  account 
of  the  dilated  discs  or  suckers  at  the  tips  of  the 
toes,  which  are  covered  with  a  viscid  secretion, 
and  enable  the  animals  to  climb  trees. 

Tre'foil,  a  name  given  to  many  herbaceous 
plants  with  leaves  of  three  leaflets,  as  clover, 
lotus,  medick,  buekbean,  etc. 

Trefoil,  in  Heraldry,  is  a  frequent  charge, 
representing  the  clover-leaf,  and  is  always  depict¬ 
ed  as  slipped,  i.  e..  furnished  with  a  stalk. 

Tre 'nails,  pieces  of  wood  which  are  used  as 
nails  in  ship-building.  They  are  usually  about 
15  or  18  inches  in  length,  and  when  completed,  at 
least  1  inch  in  thickness. 

Trench,  Richard  Chenevix,  Archbishop  of 
Dublin,  divine  and  scholar  of  the  Church  of  Eng¬ 
land,  belonged  to  an  Anglo-Irish  family  of  Gal¬ 
way,  the  Trenches  of  Woodlawn,  and  was  born 
at  Dublin,  Sept.  9,  1807.  lie  died  March  29, 
1886.  He  was  a  prolific  theological  writer,  but 
is  best  known  by  his  works  on  the  English  lan¬ 
guage —  Words  and  Their  Uses,  etc. 

Trent,  Council  of,  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
assemblies  regarded  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  as  ecumenical  or  general,  and  the  great 
repository  of  all  the  doctrinal  judgments  of  that 
communion  on  the  chief  points  at  issue  with  the 
reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  met  Dec. 
3,  1545. 

Tren  'ton,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  capital  city  of 
New  Jersey,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Delaware 
river,  at  the  head  of  steam-navigation,  thirty  miles 
northeast  of  Philadelphia,  and  fifty-seven  south¬ 
west  of  New  York;  a  well-built  and  handsome 
eiiy.  Pop.  (1889),  34,500. — 2.  The  county  seat  of 
Dade  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  355. — 3.  The  county 
seat  of  Gibson  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  2,050. — 4. 
The  county  seat  of  Grundy  county,  Mo.  Pop., 
5,300. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Jones  county,  N.  C. 
Pop.,  300. 

Trenton  Falls,  a  village  of  New  York,  on 
AVest  Canada  Creek,  fifteen  miles  northwest  of 
Utica,  celebrated  for  its  beautiful  cascades  (six 
in  number),  with  an  aggregate  fall  of  312  feet,  in 
a  deep  ravine,  two  miles  long,  with  walls  of  rock 
in  places  150  feet  high. 

Trephine'  and  Trephining.  The  operation 
of  trephining  consists  in  the  perforation  of  a  bone 
by  means  of  a  trephine,  which  is  a  small  cylin¬ 
drical  or  circular  saw,  with  a  center-pin  on  which 
it  works.  It  is  practiced  on  the  skull  in  cases  of 
fracture:  “  Firstly,  when  a  portion  of  the  bone  is 
depressed,  and  incroaches 
on  the  cavity  of  the  skull, 
producing  compression  of 
the  brain,  and  the  frag¬ 
ment  can  not  otherwise  be 
raised ;  secondly,  for 
punctured  fractures  by 
which  the  inner  table  is 
splintered,  separated  from 
the  outer  table,  and  lying 
loose  on  the  dura  mater; 
and  thirdly,  for  effusion 
of  blood,  or  of  inflam¬ 
matory  products,  between 
the  bones  and  membranes, 
or  between  the  latter  and  Trephine, 

the  brain,  when  it  is  presumed  that  the  effused 
fluid  may  be  evacuated  by  the  opening. 

Tri  'as,  the  oldest  group  of  the  secondary  strata, 
formerly  associated  with  the  permian  rocks  under 
the  name  of  the  new  red  sandstone.  The  term 
trias,  or  the  triple  group,  has  been  given  to  these 
beds  by  German  geologists  because  they  are 
separable  into  three  distinct  formations:  the 
keuper,  muschelkalk,  and  bunter-sandstein ;  and 
the  name  has  been  generally  adopted,  as  the  beds 


are  more  fully  developed  in  Germany  than  in 
England  or  France. 

Trichi'asis  consists  in  a  growing  inward  of 
the  eyelashes;  three  or  four  of  them  (sometimes 
only  one)  presenting  their  points  toward  the  globe 
of  the  eye,  while  all  the  other  hairs  retain  their 
natural  position.  The  treatment  consists  in  pluck¬ 
ing  out  the  offending  hairs  (if  they  are  few  in 
number)  from  time  to  time,  each  hair  being  re¬ 
moved  by  hair-forceps  with  a  slow  steady  pull. 
If  they  form  a  lit  tle  group,  they  must  be  removed 
by  dissecting  out  the  small  portion  of  lid  in  which 
they  are  implanted,  and  uniting  the  wound  with 
a  suture.  In  other  cases,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
remove  the  entire  margin  of  the  lid. 

Triclii 'na  Spiral 'is,  the  name  given  to  a 
peculiar  nematoid  worm,  which,  in  its  sexually 
immature  state,  inhabits  the  muscles,  usually  of 
the  pig.  The  young  trichinae,  as  they  are  seen  in 


Triehiua  spiralis. 


the  human  muscles,  present  the  form  of  spirally- 
coiled  worms,  in  the  interior  of  small,  globular, 
oval,  or  lemon-sliaped  cysts,  which  appear  as 
minute  specks  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  number  of  larval  trichinae  that  may  simul¬ 
taneously  exist  in  the  muscles  of  a  single  man  or 
animal  is  enormous.  It  is  claimed  that  the  num¬ 
ber  may  amount  to  at  least  20,000,000. 

Trichiniasis  is  the  name  of  the  diseased  condi¬ 
tion  which  is  induced  by  the  ingestion  of  food 
containing  Trichina  spiralis  in  large  quantity. 
As  soon  as  a  case  of  suspected  trichiniasis  comes 
under  the  not  ice  of  the  physician,  attempt  s  should 
be  made  to  remove  the  mature  worms  from  the 
intestine  by  active  purgation.  For  this  purpose, 
calomel,  in  scruple  doses,  is  more  serviceable 
than  any  other  purgative.  Two  or  three  such 
doses  should  be  given  at  intervals  of  twenty-four 
hours.  No  special  directions  can  be  given  for 
the  treatment  of  the  fever.  If  there  is  any  appe¬ 
tite,  the  diet  should  be  light,  and  at  the  same 
time  nourishing.  Liebig’s  extract  of  meat  has 
been  found  very  serviceable  in  keeping  up  the 
strength.  The  most  effectual  remedy  for  the 
sleeplessness  was  found  to  be  the  cold  wet  sheet, 
in  which  the  patient  should  be  wrapped  repeat¬ 
edly  during  the  day.  The  preparations  of  opium 
only  aggravate  the  discomfort.  The  other  symp¬ 
toms  must  be  treated  by  the  ordinary  rules  of 
therapeutics. 

Triest',  or  Trieste  (Slav.  Terst),  the  most 
important  seaport  of  the  Austrian  monarchy,  and 
the  most  considerable  trading  town  on  the  Adri¬ 
atic,  stands  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Triest,  an 
arm  of  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  ninety  miles  southwest 
of  Laibach,  on  the  Vienna  and  Triest  Railway. 
Pop.  (1880),  74,544;  of  the  city  with  the  surround¬ 
ing  district  of  Triest,  about  133,000. 

Trigonocepb 'ulus,  a  genus  of  extremely  ven¬ 
omous  serpents,  of  the  family  Crotalida,  nearly 
allied  to  rattlesnakes,  but  having  the  tail  termi¬ 
nated  with  a  spine  instead  of  a  rattle.  T.  rho- 
dostoma  may  be  mentioned  as  an  example.  It  is 
found  in  Java,  and  preys  chiefly  on  frogs. 

Tri'lobites,  an  order  of  fossil  Crustacea  entirely 
confined  to  the  palaeozoic  rocks.  They  are  spe- 


TRILOGY. 


679 


TRUMPET  FLOWER. 


dally  abundant  in  the  Silurian  period,  and  disap¬ 
pear  in  the  lower  members  of  the  coal  measures. 

Tril'ogy,  the  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  a 
group  of  three  tragedies,  either  connected  by  a 
common  subject,  or  each  representing  a  distinct 
story.  A  satyric  drama  was  customarily  added 
as  a  termination,  whence  the  whole  was  some¬ 
times  termed  a  tetralogy. 

Trinidad,  an  island  belonging  to  Great  Brit¬ 
ain,  and  the  most  southerly  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  being  in  latitude  li°  N.  It  is  about  50 
miles  long,  varying  in  breadth  from  30  to  35 
miles,  and  the  area  amounts  to  1,755  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1881),  155,128. 

Trinidad,  the  county  scat  of  Las  Animas 
county,  Colo.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Trin'ity,  a  river  of  Texas,  formed  by  the 
union  of  two  streams,  West  Fork  and  Elm  Fork, 
which  rise  near  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
State,  and  uuite  150  miles  southeast,  the  main 
stream  flowing  thence  550  miles  in  the  same  gen¬ 
eral  direction  to  Galveston  Bay,  about  forty  miles 
north  of  the  city  of  Galveston.  It  Is  navigable 
300  to  500  miles. 

Trinity,  a  river  of  California,  rising  near  the 
coast-range,  and  flowing  through  a  country  of 
rich  gold  mines  into  the  Klameth  river. 

Trinity,  The  doctrine  op  the,  is  the  highest 
and  most  mysterious  doctrine  of  the  Christian 
religion.  It  declares  that  there  are  three  Persons 
in  the  Godhead,  or  divine  nature— the  Father, 
the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  that  “these  three 
are  one  true,  eternal  God,  the  same  in  substance, 
equal  in  power  and  glory — although  distinguished 
by  their  personal  properties.”  The  most  elaborate 
statement  of  the  doctrine  is  to  be  found  in  the 
Athanasian  Creed,  which  asserts  that  “the  Catholic 
faith  is  this  :  That  we  worship  one  God  as  Trinity, 
and  Trinity  in  Unity — neither  confounding  the 
persons  nor  dividing  the  substance — for  there  is 
one  person  of  the  Father,  another  of  the  Son, 
and  another  of  the  Holy  Ghost.  But  the  God¬ 
head  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  is  all  one  ;  the  glory  equal;  the  majesty 
co-eternal.”  . 

Trinity  Sunday,  the  Sunday  immediately  fol¬ 
lowing  Pentecost  Sunday,  so  cal  led  as  being  set 
aside  for  the  special  honor  of  the  blessed  Trinity. 

Trip'oli,  or  Tripolis  (in  its  modern  Arabic 
form,  Tarabulus,  the  ancient  Tripolis,  a  seaport, 
and  one  of  the  chief  commercial  towns  of  Syria, 
capital  of  a  pashalic  in  the  eyalet  or  govern 
meut  of  Sidon,  is  near  the  coast,  on  the  east¬ 
ern  border  of  a  small  triangular  plain  running 
out  into  the  Mediterranean,  and  on  both  sides  of 
the  river  Kadasha.  Pop.  stated  at  over  24,000. 

Tripoli,  a  regency  of  the  Ottoman  Empire, 
and  the  most  easterly  of  the  Barbary  States, 
North  Africa,  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  Tunis, 
on  the  south  by  the  Libyan  Desert  and  Fezzan,  on 
the  east  (if  we  include  the  plateau  of  Barca)  by 
Egypt,  and  on  the  north  by  the  Mediterranean. 
Area  estimated  at  399,000  square  miles;  pop.  un¬ 
certain,  but  believed  to  be  over  1,010,000. 

Tripoli,  called  by  tlieTurks  TarabUlUs,  and  prob¬ 
ably  the  (Ea  of  antiquity,  the  capital  of  the  fore¬ 
going  State,  lies  on  a  bit  of  rocky  land  projecting 
into  the  Mediterranean,  and  forming  a  bay.  Pop. 
about  24,000. 

Tripoli  ( Tarabillds ),  a  seaport  of  Syria,  is 
forty  miles  north-northeast  of  Beyrout.  Pop. 
(chiefly  Greek),  about  25,000. 

Tripoli,  a  mineral  substance  used  in  polish¬ 
ing  metals,  marble,  glass,  etc.,  so  named  because 
it  was  originally  brought  from  Tripoli  in  Africa. 

Tro'chidae,  a  family  of  gasteropodous  mollusks. 
of  the  order  Pectinibruncliiata.  section  Asiphonuta. 

Trogon '  idae,  a  family  of  birds,  ranked  by  some 
naturalists,  on  account  of  their  habits,  in  the 
order  Insessores,  and  tribe  Fissiroslres ;  but  more 
generally,  on  account  of  the  formation  of  the 
feet — two  toes  before,  and  two  behind — placed  in 
the  order  Hcanaores.  The  trogonidae  are  remarka¬ 
ble  for  the  beauty  of  their  plumage,  which  is  soft, 
full,  and  brightly  colored.  All  the  trogonidae  are 
tropical ;  they  belong  chiefly  to  the  southeastern 
parts  of  Asia,  the  Indian  Archipelago,  and  South 
America. 

Tro'glodytes  (Gr.  Troglodytai — Gr.  trogle,  a 
hole,  and  dyo,  to  get  into;  hence  cave-dweller), 
the  name  given  by  the  ancient  Greeks  to  various 
tribes  or  races  of  uncivilized  men,  who  dwelt 


either  in  natural  caverns,  or  in  holes  which  they 
had  dug  for  themselves  in  the  earth.  They  are 
mentioned  by  Strabo  as  existing  as  far  west  as 
Mauretania,  and  as  far  east  as  the  Caucasus;  but 
perhaps  the  best  known  Troglodytes,  of  ancient 
times,  were  those  of  Southern  Egypt  and  /Ethio¬ 
pia, where  a  considerable  district  of  country  was 
called  llegio  Troglodytica . 

Trollope,  Anthony,  one  of  the  most  popular 
of  recent  English  novelists,  was  born  April  24, 
1815,  and  died  Dec.  6,  1882. 

Trom'soe,  a  small  island  on  the  northwest 
coast  of  Norway,  in  Finmark,  lies  between  the 
Island  Kvalo  and  the  mainland.  It  is  4  miles 
long,  and  about  14  miles  broad. 

Troop'ial  {Molothrus),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Sturnidw,  having  a  short,  thick,  conical 
bill;  long,  pointed  wings;  and  a  slightly  rounded 
tail.  The  cow  troopial  ( M .  pecoris),  also  called  cow 
blackbird,  cow-pen  bird,  etc.,  is  common  in  this 
country,  passing  the  winter  in  the  southern  parts 
of  the  continent,  and  migrating  northward  in  the 
spring. 

TropaPolum,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Tropeeolaceai.  This  order  is  allied  to  Sal 
saminacece,  and  Geraniacece.  The  species  are  not 
numerous,  and  are  all  natives  of  South  America. 
Nasturtium  and  canary  plant  are  specimens  of 
the  order. 

Tropic-bird  {Phaeton),  a  genus  of  birds,  ranked 
by  some  in  the  family  Pelecanidce,  by  others  in 
Laridce.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  partridge,  white. 


Tropic-bird  ( Phaeton  cethereus). 


with  curved  lines  of  black  on  the  back;  some  of 
the  quill-feathers  black,  tipped  with  white. 

Trop'ics  (Gr.  turning  points  or  limits)  are  two 
parallels  of  latitude  on  the  terrestrial  globe, 
passing  through  the  most  northerly  and  southerly 
points  on  the  earth’s  surface  at  which  the  sun  is 
vertical.  On  the  armillary  sphere,  consequently, 
the  ecliptic  (the  representation  of  the  sun’s  path), 
touches  but  does  not  cross  the  tropics.  The 
tropics  include  between  them  all  those  points  on 
the  earth’s  surface  at  which  the  sun  is  ever  ver¬ 
tical.  The  tropic  north  of  the  equator  is  called 
the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  because  the  sun  at  the  sum¬ 
mer  solstice  (at  which  time  he  is  vertically  over 
that  tropic)  enters  the  constellation  of  Cancer; 
and  the  southern  one  is,  for  a  similar  reason, 
denominated  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

Trout,  the  popular  name  of  many  species  of 
the  genus  Salmo.  Trout  are  found  throughout 
the  temperate  and  colder  parts  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere.  The  head  of  the  trout  is  large;  the 
eye  large;  the  general  form  symmetrical,  stouter 
than  that  of  the  salmon,  the  convexity  of  the 
outline  of  the  back  nearly  similar  to  that  of  the 
belly;  the  tail  is  slightly  forked,  except  in  old 
fish,  in  which  it  becomes  almost  square,  and 
sometimes  even  slightly  convex. 

Trowbridge,  John  Townsend,  an  American 
poet  and  novelist,  born  in  Monroe  county,  N.  Y., 
in  1827.  His  best  known  works  are,  The  Vaga¬ 
bonds,  Neighbor  Jackwood,  Cudjo’s  Cave,  and 
Coupon  Bonds. 

Troy.  A  city  supposed  to  have  existed  at  some 
period  anterior  to  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
era,  but  of  which  no  trace  now  remains,  and  of 
which  we  have  no  authentic  history.  Almost  the 
only  account  of  the  city  or  its  people  that  has 
come  down  to  us  is  that  contained  in  Homer’s 
Iliad,  and  that  is  known  to  be  largely  fanciful. 
His  description  of  the  Siege  of  Troy  by  the 
Greeks  under  Agamemnon  is  one  of  the  finest 


poems  in  ancient  classics.  The  existence  of  the 
city  has  been  recently  verified,  and  its  site 
identified  by  Scbliemann. 

Troy.  The  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows;  1.  A  city,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Rensselaer  county,  N.  Y.,  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Hudson  river,  at  the  head  of 
navigation  and  tide-water,  151  miles  north  of  New 
York  City.  Its  iron  furnaces  and  manufactories 
are  numerous,  the  latter  covering  many  branches 
of  commercial  industry.  Pop.  (1889),  56,900. — 
2.  The  county  seat  of  Lincoln  county,  Mo.  Pop., 
1,575. — 3.  Thecounty  seat  of  Miami  county,  Ohio. 
Pop.,  4,600. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Montgomery 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.  175. — 5.  The  county  seat 
of  Obion  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  1,100. — 6.  The 
county  seat  of  Pike  county,  Ala.  Pop.,  2,800. 

Trullle  {Tuber),  a  genus  of  fungi  of  the  section 
Caster  omycetes;  globose,  or  nearly  so;  of  a  fleshy 
substance,  with  a  distinct  skin,  the  whole  sub¬ 
stance  pervaded  by  a  network  of  serpentine  veins, 
which  are  the  hymenium,  and  bear  the  spore-cases 
in  minute  cavities.  They  are  subterranean,  often 
found  at  the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more  in  the  soil. 
Some  of  them  are  among  the  most  highly  valued 
of  esculent  fungi.  The  gathering  of  truffles  is  the 
occupation  of  many  persons  in  the  places  where 
they  abound.  They  are  dug  up  with  a  kind  of 
hoe  or  pick.  Dogs  are  trained  to  seek  them,  and 
readily  discover  by  the  scent  the  spot  where  they 
grow  under  ground. 

Trumbull,  Jonathan,  an  American  revolution¬ 
ist,  was  born  at  Lebanon,  Conn.,  Oct.  12,  1710. 
He  was  successively  Judge,  Deputy-Governor, 
and  Governor  of  the  colony,  and  took  a  very 
prominent  part  in  the  measures  that  led  to  the 
War  of  Independence.  Washington  placed  great 
reliance  on  him.  He  died  Aug.  17,  1785.  His 
son  Jonathan  was  eminent  as  a  statesman,  and 
his  son  John  as  a  painter. 

Trumbull,  John,  American  painter,  was  born 
in  Lebanon,  Conn,  June  6,  1756,  was  educated  at 
Harvard  College,  and  devoted  himself  to  painting. 
He  was  employed  by  Congress  to  paint  four  large 
national  pictures  for  the  Rotunda  of  the  Capitol 
at  Washington — the  “  Declaration  of  Independ¬ 
ence,”  Surrender  of  Burgoyne,”  the  “  Surrender 
of  Cornwallis,”  and  the  “Resignation  of  General 
Washington,  at  Annapolis,  Dec.  23, 1783.”  These 
pictures  are  chiefly  valuable  as  collections  of  por¬ 
traits.  He  was  the  President  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  from  its  foundation,  in 
1816,  until  the  formation  of  the  National  Academy, 
in  1825,  and  died  in  New  York,  Nov.  10,  1843. 


Trumpet,  a  musical  instrument  of  great  an¬ 
tiquity,  which,  in  its  present  form,  consists  of  a 


tube  usually  about  eight  feet  long,  less  in  diam¬ 
eter  than  the  horn,  doubled  up  in  the  form  of  a 
parabola,  and  sounded  by  a  mouth-piece. 

Trumpet-fish,  or  Snipe-fish  {Centriscus),  a 
genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  Fistularidm,  remark¬ 
able  for  the  elongated  and  tubular  snout.  The 


Trumpet-fish  ( Centriscus  scolopax). 


mouth  is  destitute  of  teeth.  This  little  fish  is  es¬ 
teemed  a  delicacy,  and  is  often  to  be  seen  in  the 
markets  of  Italy. 

Trumpet  Flower,  the  popular  name  of  certain 
flowering  shrubs  of  the  genera  Bignonia  and 
Tecoma,  both  of  the  natural  order  Bignoniacece. 
B.  capreolata  is  a  native  of  the  Southern  States, 
but  often  planted  in  shrubberies  and  gardens  in 
the  Middle  States. 


TRUSS. 


680 


TURKESTAN. 


Trnss,  an  instrument  employed  in  the  pallia¬ 
tive  treatment  of  hernia,  with  the  view  of  pre¬ 
venting  its  descent,  and,  in  some  cases,  of  effect 
ing  a  permanent  cure.  It  consists  essentially  of 
a  pad  or  cushion  attached  to  a  metallic  spring, 
with  straps  so  arranged  that  its  position  may  be 
retained  during  the  varied  postures  of  the  body. 
The  necessity  of  having  recourse  to  a  suitable  truss 
the  moment  that  the  slightest  protrusion  shows 
itself  in  any  ot  the  parts  liable  to  hernia,  can  not 
be  too  strongly  urged  as  a  matter  of  necessary 
general  knowledge.  At  whatever  period  of  life  a 
hernia  occurs,  if  properly  attended  to,  and  judi¬ 
ciously  supported,  it  usually  gives  little  trouble, 
and  if  it  occurs  in  early  life,  it  may  often  be 
cured;  whereas,  if  it  be  neglected,  increase  of 
bulk,  and  subsequently,  diseased  states  of  the 
parts,  often  terminating  in  death,  will  almost  cer¬ 
tainly  occur. 

Trysail,  a  fore-and-aft  sail  set  with  a  gaff,  and 
with  or  without  a  boom,  on  the  lower  masts  of 
square  rigged  vessels. 

Tuber,  in  Botany,  a  subterranean  stem,  thick¬ 
ened  by  the  approximation  of  the  nodes  and 
swelling  of  the  internodes,  with  latent  buds  along 
its  sides  ready  to  produce  new  plants  in  the 
succeeding  year.  The  cellular  tissue  is  unusually 
developed,  and  in  general  a  large  quantity  of 
amylaceous  matter  is  accumulated,  whence  the 
economical  value  of  tubers,  as  in  the  potato,  the 
Jerusalem  artichoke,  and  the  arrow-root. 

Tube'rose  ( Poliant/ies ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Lili'cece.  The  common  tuberose 
(P.  tuberosa)  has  rounded  bulbous  roots ;  a  cylin¬ 
drical,  upright,  unbranched  stem,  3  or  4 
feet  high  ;  both  root-leaves  and  stem-leaves 
sword-shaped,  and  very  acute ;  flowers  spiked 
and  somewhat  aggregated,  large,  pure  white,  the 
tube  a  little  curved.  The  plant  grows  well  in 
the  South  of  Europe,  but  only  bears  the  open  air 
in  more  northern  climates  during  summer. 

Tube-well  is  an  American  invention,  having 
for  its  object  the  obtaining  of  a  supply  of  water 


Tube-well  or  Drive-well. 


A,  tube;  B,  temporary  col¬ 
lar  to  support  pulleys; 

C,  weight  for  driving; 

D,  temporary  collar  by 
which  tube  is  forced 
downward. 


A,  tube  in  place;  B,  orifices 
through  which  water 
enters  tube;  C,  line  of 
porous  water-bearing 
stratum. 


in  a  short  space  of  time  by  the  application  of  a 
limited  amount  of  manual  power.  The  apparatus 
comprises  three  parts — a  tube  or  well,  a  rammer 
or  monkey,  and  a  pump.  The  tube  consists  of  an 
iron  pipe  about  inch  diameter,  made  in  pieces 
of  convenient  length,  which  can  be  screwed 


together  end  to  end.  The  pipe  terminates  at  the 
lower  end  with  a  solid  tempered  steel  point,  and 
is  perforated  for  about  sixteen  inches  from  the  end 
with  small  lateral  apertures.  The  pipe  is  driven 
a  short  way  into  the  ground,  just  sufficient  to  keep 
it  upright  without  falling,  and  is  temporarily 
kept  in  that  position  by  hand.  A  strong  iron 
clamp  is  fixed  to  the  tube  by  clamping-screws  at 
a  short  distance  above  the  ground;  and  another 
clamp  is  similarly  fixed  higher  up.  Two  pulleys 
are  supported  by  the  upper  clamp.  The  rammer 
or  monkey  consists  of  a  fifty-six  pound  iron 
weight,  which  slides  up  and  down  the  tube, 
encircling  it  like  a  ring  or  belt.  The  rammer, 
being  raised  by  two  men,  is  allowed  to  fall  with 
its  full  weight  on  the  lower  clamp  ;  thus  giving  a 
series  of  blows  which  drive  the  tube  into  the 
ground.  When  the  lower  clamp  becomes  level 
with  the  surface  of  the  ground,  it  is  raised  up  the 
tube;  as  is  likewise  the  other  clamp,  which 
supports  the  two  pulleys.  Successive  lengths  of 
the  tube  and  successive  shiftings  of  the  clamps 
afford  the  means  of  enabling  the  perforated  end 
of  the  tube  to  reach  strata  whence  water  can  be 
obtained.  When  water  is  reached,  a  small  suction- 
pump  is  applied,  and  the  water  pumped. 

Tucson,  a  city  in  the  South  of  Arizona,  on  the 
Santa  Cruz  river  and  the  South  Pacific  Railway. 
It  has  a  large  trade  with  the  Mexican  State  of 
Sonora.  Pop.,  7,725. 

Tudor,  the  surname  of  a  family  of  Welsh  extrac¬ 
tion,  which  occupied  the  throne  of  England  from 
1485  to  1603. 

Tudor  Style,  in  Architecture,  a  rather  indefinite 
term  applied  to  the  late  Perpendicular,  and  the 
transition  from  that  to  Elizabethan. 

Tuileries,  Palace  and  Gardens  op  tiie,  were 
situated  in  the  middle  of  Paris,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Seine,  with  Rue  de  Rivoli  running  along 
their  north  side,  and  Quai  des  Tuileries  to  the 
south.  Here,  in  1342,  a  certain  Pierre  des  Essarts 
possessed  a  pleasure  house,  called  the  Hotel  cits 
Tuileries ,  on  account  of  its  being  built  in  a  locality 
outside  the  city  where  there  were  several  tile-works 
(tuileries).  Francis  I.  bought  this  property  from 
the  Sieur  de  Villcroy,  as  a  present  to  his  mother, 
the  Duchess  of  Ang<  adeine.  It  was  afterward 
chosen  by  Catharine  de’  Medici  as  the  site  of  a  new 
palace  instead  of  that  of  Tournelles,  and  the  build¬ 
ing  was  begun  in  1566.  Originally,  the  palace  con¬ 
sisted  of  only  the  square  structure  in  the  middle. 

Tu'lip  (Tulipa),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Liliacece.  The  most  famous  of  all  florists’ 
flowers  is  the  garden  tulip  (T.  gesneriana),  which 
is  from  18  inches  to  3  feet  high.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  Levant. 

Tulip  Tree  (Liriodendron  tulipifera),  a  beauti¬ 
ful  tree  of  the  nat  ural  order  Magnoliacece,  a  native 
of  the  United  States,  having  a  stem  sometimes 
100 — 140  feet  high,  and  3  feet  thick,  with  agrayish- 
brown,  cracked  bark,  and  many  gnarled  and  easily 
broken  branches. 

Tu'nis,  a  French  protectorate  in  North  Africa, 
lying  to  the  east  of  Algiers,  and  washed  on  its 
northern  and  eastern  coasts  by  the  Mediterranean 
— long  known  as  one  of  the  Barbary  States.  It 
touches  the  desert  to  the  south,  and  Tripoli  on  the 
east.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is 
about  440  miles;  its  average  breadth,  160;  area, 
about  45,000  square  miles;  pop.,  according  to  latest 
authorities,  2,100,000. 

Tunis,  capital  of  the  State,  lies  on  a  small 
lagoon,  near  the  southwest  extremity  of  the  Lake 
of  Tunis,  about  3  miles  from  the  ruins  of  ancient 
Carthage.  Pop.  stated  at  120,000. 

Tunkers,  a  religious  sect,  occupying  settle¬ 
ments  in  New  England,  New  York,  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  etc,  and  thus  pretty  widely  scat¬ 
tered  throughout  the  northern  and  middle  parts  of 
the  United  States.  The  name  which  they  take  for 
themselves  is  simply  that  of  Brethren,  and  they 
profess  that  their  association  is  founded  on  the 
principle  of  brotherly  love. 

Tunkliannock,  the  county  seat  of  Wyoming 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  1,200. 

Tunnel.  Tunnels  are  passages  constructed 
under  ground  to  carry  roads,  railways,  canals,  or 
streams  of  water.  Tunneling,  which  was  long 
in  use  for  roads  and  aqueducts,  has  received  a 
great  development  in  the  construction  of  rail¬ 
ways.  The  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  greatly  surpassed 
any  earlier  enterprise  of  the  kind.  This  tunnel 


connects  the  railways  of  Fi  ance  and  Italy,  and  is 
on  the  direct  railway  route  from  Paris  to  Turin. 
The  length  of  this  tunnel  is  7  miles  4%  furlongs. 
It  is  434  feet  higher  at  Bardonneche,  on  the 
Italian  side,  than  at  Modane,  on  the  French  side. 
On  this  account,  it  is  on  a  gradient  of  1  in  45 £ 
from  Modane  to  the  middle,  and  thence  it  falls  1 
in  2,000  to  Bardonnbclie,  this  latter  fall  being 
sufficient  to  run  off  the  water.  The  dimensions 
at  Modane  are  25  feet  3i  inches  wide  at  base,  26 
feet  2|  inches  at  widest  part,  and  24  feet  7  inches 
high,  the  arch  being  nearly  semicircular.  At 
Bardonnhche,  it  is  Ilf  inches  higher.  It  is  all 
lined  with  stone  masonry,  except  at  the  Bardon¬ 
neche  end,  where  the  arch  is  of  brick.  The  St. 
Gothard  tunnel  is  a  still  more  stupendous  enter¬ 
prise.  It  was  begun  in  January,  1871,  and  on 
Feb.  29,  1880,  the  borings  from  the  Swiss  and 
Italian  sides  met,  though  much  time  and  labor 
were  still  required  to  prepare  the  tunnel  for  rail¬ 
way  traffic.  The  total  length  is  9J  miles,  the 
width  21  \  feet.  The  Hoosac  tunnel  in  Massa¬ 
chusetts  is  4\  miles  long,  was  in  progress,  with 
intervals,  from  1858  till  1876,  and  cost  above 
$15,000,000. 

Tunny  (Thynnxis  vulgaris),  a  fish  of  the  family 
Scomberidce,  found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  in 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  but  particularly  abundant  in 
the  Mediterranean,  where  the  tunny  fishery  is  of 
great  importance.  The  tunny  is  a  very  large  fish, 
sometimes  9  feet  in  length,  and  weighing  1,000 
pounds,  or  even  more.  Its  form  is  much  thicker 
than  that  of  the  mackerel;  its  tail  so  widely  forked 
as  to  be  crescent-shaped.  It  is  very  plentiful 
near  Constantinople,  where  it  appears  in  shoals, 
sometimes  so  crowded  that  it  may  even  be  taken 
with  the  hand.  The  chief  tunny  fisheries  of  the 
present  day,  however,  are  on  the  coasts  of  Spain, 
Italy,  and  Sardinia. 

Tu 'pelojAyssa),  agenusof  treesof  the  natural 
order  Alnngiacec p,  natives  of  North  America, 
chiefly  of  the  Southern  States;  having  simple 
alternate  leaves,  mostly  entire,  greenish,  incon¬ 
spicuous  flowers  at  the  extremity  of  long  stalks, 
the  fruit  a  drupe.  N.  villosa  attains  a  height  of 
60  or  70  feet.  It  is  often  called  black  gum  tree. 

Tupelo,  the  county  seat  of  Lee  county,  Miss. 
Pop.,  1,800.  Here  several  skirmishes  and  minor 
actions  took  place  during  the  late  war. 

Tupper,  Martin  Farquhar,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S., 
an  English  poet  rather  popular  than  great,  was 
born  on  July  17,  1810.  His  writings  have  been 
very  popular,  though  their  great  merit  has  been 
disputed. 

Tur'botJ/fThwtJt/s  maximus),  a  fish  of  the  fam¬ 
ily  Pleuronectidm,  or  flat-fishes,  the  most  valuable 
of  them  all.  The  turbot  attains  a  large  size, 
sometimes  seventy  to  ninety  pounds  weight.  Its 
form  is  shorter,  broader,  and  deeper  than  that  ot 
almost  any  other  flat-fish.  It  is  of  a  brown  color 
on  the  upper  surface,  -which  is  studded  with  hard 
roundish  tubercles.  Like  the  other  flat-fishes,  it 
generally  keeps  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea; 
and  it  is  found  chiefly  on  banks  where  there  is 
a  considerable  depth  of  water. 

Turenue,  Henri  de  la  Tour  d’Auvergne, 
Vicomte  de,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  France’s 
military  heroes,  was  born  at  Sedan,  in  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Ardennes,  Sept.  11,  1611.  He  was  killed 
in  1672. 

Turgenef  (or  Tourguenief),  Ivan  Sergeje- 
vitscii,  one  of  the  best  modern  Russian  novelists, 
was  born  at  Orel,  Nov.  9,  1818.  He  became 
known  as  a  poet  in  1843.  He  veas  banished  in 
1852  for  his  liberalism,  and  though  afterward 
pardoned,  lived  mostly  at  Paris  and  Baden.  He 
died  Sept.  3,  1883. 

Tu'rin  ( Augusta  Taurinorum,  Boclincomagus, 
Colonia  Julia,  Taurasia — in  Italian,  Torino ),  a 
city  of  Northern  Italy,  formerly  capital  of  Pied¬ 
mont,  then  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  is  situated 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Po  and  the  Dora  Ripa- 
ira,  45°  5'  N.  latitude,  1°  42' E.  longitude.  Pop., 
230,183. 

Turkestan',  “the  country  of  the  Turks,” 
called  also  Jagatai,  and  by  the  Persians,  Turan,  is 
an  extensive  region  of  Central  Asia,  stretching 
from  the  Caspian  Sea  eastward  to  beyond  Lob- 
nor  (longitude  110°  E.),  and  from  Siberia  and 
Dzungaria  southward  to  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and 
Thibet. 


TURKEY. 


681 


TURKEY. 


Turkey  ( Mdeagris ),  a  genus  of  gallinaceous 
birds  of  the  family  Pawnidce,  or,  according  to 
some  ornithologists,  of  a  distinct  family  Mclea- 
gridae. 

Turks,  the  name  of  a  numerous,  important, 
and  widely-spread  family  of  the  human  race, 
members  of  which  are  to  be  found  as  well  on  the 
banks  of  the  Lena  in  Siberia,  as  on  those  of  the 
Danube  and  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic  in  Europe. 
The  Turks  belong  to  the  second  of  the  five  great 
divisions  of  mankind — viz.:  Mongolians;  and  to 
the  first,  or  Mongolidse,  in  the  three-fold  classifi¬ 
cation.  In  this  latter  classification,  the  Turks 
form  a  branch  of  the  Turanian  stock  of  Altaic 
Mongolidae. 

Turkey.  The  Ottoman  Empire  ( Osmanli  Vi- 
laic  ti),  embraces  extensive  territories  in  South¬ 
eastern  Europe,  Western  Asia,  and  Northern 
Africa,  grouped  mainly  round  the  eastern  waters 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  along  both  sides  of  the 
Red  Sea,  the  west  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  and 
the  southern  and  western  shores  of  the  Black 
Sea.  These  territories  form  an  aggregate  of 
provinces  and  States,  some  under  the  direct  con¬ 
trol  of  the  Sultan,  some  enjoying  a  large  share  of 
political  autonomy,  some  practically  independent, 
either  administered  by  foreign  powers  or  ruled 
by  hereditary  vassals  or  tributary  princes.  The 
present  (1889)  extent  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  is 
about  1,692,150  square  miles,  and  its  pop.,  42,- 
346,000.  Since  the  Russo-Turkisli  War  of  1878, 
the  extremely  irregular  frontiers  of  European 
Turkey  are  conterminous  with  Greece  in  the 
South,  and  in  the  North  with  Montenegro,  Aus¬ 
tria,  Servia,  and  Roumania,  being  separated  from 
the  last  country  partly  by  the  Danube,  partly  by 
a  conventional  line  drawn  from  Silistria  on  that 
river  to  Mangalia  on  the  Black  Sea.  By  the  Ber¬ 
lin  Congress  Roumania  and  Servia,  hitherto  vas¬ 
sal  Slates,  were  made  absolutely  independent 
kingdoms.  Roumania  at  the  same  time  receiving 
the  District  of  Dobrudja  between  the  lower  Dan¬ 
ube  and  the  Black  Sea,  and  Servia  those  of  Nish 
and  Leskovatz  about  the  upper  Morava  river. 
Montenegro  was  also  recognized  as  an  independ¬ 
ent  principality,  with  an  increase  of  territory, 
■which  gave  it  a  sea  frontier  limited  southward  by 
the  River  Boyana,  and  including  the  Albanian 
ports  of  Dulcigno  and  Antivari  on  the  Adriatic. 
The  Greco-Turkish  frontier  was  also  shifted 
north,  Greece  obtaining  most  of.  Thessaly  and  a 
strip  of  Epirus  (South  Albania),  so  that  since  1881 
the  border  line  runs  from  near  Mount  Olympus 
on  the  Gulf  of  Saloniki  (40°  N.  latitude)  west  to 
the  Pindus  range,  than  southwest  to  the  Gulf  of 
Arta  on  the  Ionian  Sea.  A  still  more  serious 
step  was  taken  toward  disintegration  by  the 
withdrawal  of  Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Roumelia 
from  the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  Sublime 
Porte.  The  former  was  constituted  a  tributary 
principality,  with  representative  institutions,  and 
Eastern  Roumelia  was  erected  into  an  autono 
mous  province,  both  under  the  guarantee  of  the 
European  powers.  But  in  1885  the  latter  prov¬ 
ince  declared  for  union  with  Bulgaria,  and  since 
then  these  two  territories  have  practically  formed 
one  State  administered  from  Sophia,  Europe  as¬ 
senting  and  Turkey  consenting  (imperial  firman 
of  April  6,  1886)  on  the  retrocession  to  Turkey 
of  the  Moslem  Districts  of  Kirjali  and  the  Rho¬ 
dope.  In  the  year  1878  Austria  occupied  and 
assumed  the  civil  administration  of  the  North¬ 
western  Provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
besides  taking  military  possession  of  the  con 
tiguous  strategical  District  of  Novi-Bazar.  The 
direct  possessions  of  the  Sultan  have  thus  been 
reduced  in  Europe  to  a  strip  of  territory  stretch 
ing  continuously  across  the  Balkan  Peninsula 
from  the  Bosphorus  to  the  Adriatic  (29°  10'  to 
19°  20'  E.  longitude),  and  lying  in  the  east  mainly 
between  40°  and  42°  and  in  the  west  between  39° 
and  43°  N.  latitude.  It  corresponds  roughly  to 
ancient  Thrace,  Macedonia  with  Chalcidice, 
Epirus,  and  a  large  part  of  Illyria,  constituting 
the  present  administrative  divisions  of  Stambul 
(Constantinople,  including  a  small  strip  of  the 
opposite  Asiatic  coast),  Edirneh  (Adrianople), 
Saloniki  with  Kosovo  (Macedonia),  Jania  (parts 
of  Epirus  and  Thessaly),  Shkodra  (Scutari,  or 
Upper  Albania).  To  these  must  be  added  the 
Turkish  Islands  in  the  Aegean  usually  reckoned 
to  Europe,  that  is,  Thasos,  Samotlirace,  Itnbros, 


and,  in  the  extreme  south,  Crete  or  Candia,  with 
estimated  (1887)  areas  and  populations  as  under: 


Provinces. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Pop. 

1,100 

12,800 

32,000 

14,000 

13,000 

3,800 

1,200,000 

560,000 

1 ,900,000 
1,440,000 
890,000 
230,000 

76,700 

24,300 

14,000 

23,570 

5,720,000 

2,(X)8,000 

975,000 

1,504,000 

Bulgaria,  tributary  principality . 

East  Roumelia,  autonomous  province . 

Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and  Novi-Bazar, 

Total  European  Turkey  since  1878 . 

138,570 

4,200 

4,250 

2,000 

2,000 

10,207,000 

150,000 

367,000 

116,000 

100,000 

Nish  aud  Leskovatz,  ceded  to  Servia . 

Parts  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  ceded  to 

Total  European  Turkey  before  1878  .... 

151.020 

10,940,000 

The  territory  still  directly  administered  from 
Stambul  comprises  one  of  the  most  favored  regions 
of  the  temperate  zone.  The  extensive  igneous  and 
metamorpliic  system  of  the  Great  Balkans  and 
Rhodope  ( Despoto-Dagli)  culminating  in  the  Rilo 
Dagh  (9,000  feet),  interspersed  in  the  Pindus 
range  farther  west  by  Permian  formations  of  un¬ 
known  age,  and  succeeded  in  the  extreme  east 
(both  sides  of  the  Bosphorus)  by  Lower  Devonian 
sandstones  and  some  more  recent  volcanic  rocks, 
is  pierced  by  the  four  rich  alluvial  valleys  of  the 
Maritza,  Kara-su  or  “  Blackwater,”  Struma 
(Strymon),  and  Vardar.  These  rivers,  flowing  in 
nearly  parallel  sout  heasterly  courses  to  the  Aegean, 
collect  most  of  the  drainage  of  Roumelia,  as 
Thrace  and  Macedonia  are  commonly  called  by 
the  Turks.  The  whole  region  thus  enjoys  a 
somewhat  southerly  aspect,  sheltered  from  the 
north  by  the  lofty  crests  of  the  Rilo  Dagh  and 
northern  Pindus,  and  in  every  wray  admirably 
suited  for  the  cultivation  of  most  cer<  als,  as  well 
as  of  cotton,  tobacco,  madder,  the  mulberry,  the 
vine,  and  fruits.  Here  maize  yields  such  a 
bountiful  harvest  that,  although  originally  intro¬ 
duced  from  America,  it  has  long  been  regarded 
as  indigenous,  and  for  the  Italians  is  simply  the 
Turkish  corn  (gran  tureo)  in  a  preeminent 
sense.  The  inhabitants  also,  Greeks  intermingled 
with  Turks  in  the  east,  with  Bulgarians  in  the 
west,  are  intelligent  and  industrious,  noted  for 
their  skill  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and  other 
woven  goods,  of  saddlery,  arms,  and  jewelry. 
The  mainstay  of  the  Ottoman  dynasty  is  the 
Asiatic  portion  of  the  empire,  where  the  Moham¬ 
medan  religion  is  absolutely  predominant,  and 
where  the  naturally  vigorous  and  robust  Turki 
race  forms  in  Asia  Minor  a  compact  mass  of 
many  millions,  far  out  numbering  any  other  single 
ethnical  element  and  probably  equaling  all  taken 
collectively.  Here  also,  with  the  unimportant 
exception  of  the  Islands  of  Samos  and  Cyprus, 
and  the  somewhat  privileged  District  of  Lebanon, 
all  the  Turkish  possessions  constitute  vilayets 
directly  controlled  by  the  Porte.  They  comprise 
the  geographically  distinct  regions  of  the  Ana¬ 
tolian  plateau  (Asia  Minor),  the  Armenian  and 
Kurdish  highlands,  the  Mesopotamian  lowlands, 
the  hilly  and  partly  mountainous  territory  of 
Syria  and  Palestine,  and  the  coastlands  of  West 
and  Northeast  Arabia.  The  changes  caused  by 
the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1878  were  the  cession 
to  Pe  rsia  of  the  little  district  of  Kotur  on  the 
eastern  frontier  and  to  Russia  of  the  districts  of 
Kars  and  Batoum  on  the  northeast  frontier,  while 
to  England  was  conceded  the  military  occupation 
and  administration  of  Cyprus.  Asiatic  Turkey 
is  conterminous  on  the  east  with  Russia  and 
Persia;  in  the  southwest  it  incloses  on  the  west, 
north,  and  northeast  the  independent  part  of 
Arabia.  Toward  Egypt  the  frontier  is  a  con¬ 
ventional  line  drawn  from  Akabali  at  the 
head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabali  northwestward 
to  the  little  port  of  El  Arish  on  the  Medi¬ 
terranean.  Elsewhere  Asiatic  Turkey  enjoys  the 
advantage  of  a  sea  frontage,  being  washed  in  the 
northwest  and  west,  by  the  Euxine,  Aegean,  and 
Mediterranean;  in  the  southwest  by  the  Red  Sea; 
and  in  the  southeast  by  the  Persian  Gulf.  The 
above  enumerated  five  natural  divisions  of  Asiatic 
Turkey  are  divided  for  administrative  purposes 
into  about  twenty  vilayets,  which,  however,  have 
been  and  still  are  subject  to  considerable  fluctua¬ 


tions.  The  subjoined  grouping,  with  areas  and 
populations,  is  based  mainly  on  data  lately  com¬ 
municated  confidentially  to  the  British  Gov¬ 
ernment  by  Mr.  Redhouse.  His  estimates  of 
population  have  been  strikingly  confirmed  by  the 
official  returns  that  have  for  the  first  time  just 
been  made  for  certain  provinces  in  Asia  Minor 
and  the  Armenian  highlands.  Thus  the  census 
of  the  Trebizond  vilayet,  completed  in  1886,  gave 
a  total  of  1,010,000,  which  differs  only  by  7,000 
from  Mr.  Redhouse’s  estimate  for  1878  (1,017,000). 
So  also  the  (1887)  census  for  the  Erzeroum  vilayet 
gives  5S3, <>00,  or  998,000  including  the  lerritory 
ceded  to  Russia  in  1878,  which  is  45,000  higher 
than  Mr.  Redhouse’s  estimate. 


Natural 

Divisions. 

Provinces. 

fBroussawith  Biga  and  Ismid. 

Asia  Minor 

Armenia  and 
Kurdistan 

?  Diarbekr  with  Aziz . 

Mesopotamia 

Syria  and 
Palestine 

Arabia 

J  Damascus  i 

l  Lebanon  }-  . 

[Jerusalem ) 

S  Hejaz  ? 

(  Yemen  £ . 

Archipelago . 

Total  Asiatic  Turkey  . 

Area 

in  Sq. 
Miles. 

Popula¬ 

tion. 

32,000 

1,900,000 

23,000 

1,610,000 

21,000 

1,260,000 

21.000 

860, 1  00 

39,000 

1,280,000 

16,000 

470,000 

26,000 

1,770,000 

12.00. 

1,010,000 

40,600 

$  583,000 
i  1,000,000 

38,000 

560,000 

b'0,1 00 

4,750,000 

31,000 

l,1  *85,000 

46.0U0 

1,450,010 

C  1.560,000 

35,000 

<  450,000 
(  390,000 

200,000 

(  720,000 
l  830,000 

1,700 

525,(100 

210 

41,000 

3,670 

235,000 

691/  60 

24.339,000 

Of  the  natural  divisions  Asia  Minor  or  Anatolia  is 
by  far  the  most  important  for  extent,  population, 
and  natural  resources.  It  constitutes  an  elevated 
and  fertile  plateau  inclosed  by  irregular  mountain 
ranges,  which  in  the  Taurus  and  Antitaurus  on 
the  south  and  east  rise  to  from  7,000  to  10,000 
feet,  culminating  in  the  volcanic  Erjish-Dagh,  or 
Argteus,  nearly  12,000  feet  high,  flue  plateau, 
which  has  a  mean  altitude  of  some  3,000  feet,  is 
depressed  in  the  center,  where  the  Tuz-gol  (Tatta 
Palus)  and  several  other  lacustrine  basins  have  at 
present  no  outflow',  but  which  appear  to  have 
formerly  drained  through  the  Sakaria  (Sangarius) 
northward  to  the  Euxine.  In  the  same  direction, 
and  in  curiously  parallel  curves,  flow  the  more 
easterly  Kizil-Irmak  (Halys)  and  Yesliil-Irmak 
(Iris),  which  carry  off  most  of  the  surface  waters 
of  the  plateau  The  western  rivers — Granicus, 
Xauthus  (Scamander),  Ilermus,  Simois,  Meander 
— although  renowned  in  song  and  history,  are 
comparatively  insignificant  coast  streams,  rush¬ 
ing  from  the  escarpment  of  the  plateau  down  to 
their  fjord-like  estuaries  in  the  Aegean.  None  of 
the  rivers  are  navigable  to  any  distance  from  their 
mouths,  and  in  the  absence  of  good  means  of  com¬ 
munication  the  very  rich  resources  of  the  pla¬ 
teau  in  minerals  and  agricultural  produce  have 
hitherto  been  little  developed.  Owing  to  the 
different  elevations  and  varied  aspects  of  the  land 
toward  the  Euxine,  Aegean,  and  Mediterranean, 
the  climate  is  extremely  diversified,  presenting  all 
the  transitions  from  intense  summer  heat  along 
most  of  the  seaboard  to  severe  winters  on  the  lofty 
tablelands  of  the  interior,  which  are  exposed  to 
biting  winds  from  the  Russian  steppes.  Anatolia 
has  an  endless  variety  of  natural  products,  from 
the  hardy  boxwood  of  Lazistau  (Trebizon  vilayet) 
to  the  sub  tropical  figs  and  grapes  of  the  western 
coastlands.  On  the  plateau  thrives  the  famous 
breed  of  Angora  goats,  whose  soft,  silky  fleece 
(mohair)  forms  a  staple  export.  Of  far  less 
economic  importance  are  the  Armenian  uplands, 
forming  a  rugged  plateau  of  limited  extent, 
above  which  rise  many  lofty  peaks,  culmin¬ 
ating  in  the  tower-crested  Ararat  (16,916  feet), 
the  converging  point  of  three  empires.  The 
long  and  terribly  severe  winters,  intolerably 
hot  short  summers,  and  generally  poor  soil 
of  Armenia  present  a  marked  contrast  to  the 
far  more  temperate  climate,  rich  upland  valleys, 
and  densely  wooded  slopes  of  the  more  southern 
Kurdistan  highlands.  But  these  advantages  are 
counter-balanced  by  the  generally  inaccessible 
nature  of  the  country,  the  want  of  good  highways, 
and  especially  the  lawless  character  of  its  inhabit¬ 
ants,  who  have  undergone  little  social  change 
since  the  days  of  their  wild  Karduehi  forefathers. 


TURMERIC. 


TURNING. 


682 


In  the  heart  of  this  savage  region  lies  tlu. 
magnificent  basin  of  Lake  Van,  which,  like  Tuz- 
gol  and  the  more  easterly  TJrmiya,  has  no  present 
outflow,  but  formerly,  no  doubt,  discharged  to 
the  Tigris  valley.  In  the  Van  district  lie  the 
sources  of  most  of  the  head  streams  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates,  which  have  created  the  vast  and 
fertile  alluvial  plains  of  Mesopotamia.  This 
latter  region,  the  seat  of  the  ancient  Accadian  and 
Assyrian  and  the  more  recent  .Moslem  cultures, 
forms  a  continuous  plain  from  the  escarpments  of 
the  Kurdistan  highlands  to  the  Persian  Gulf, 
broken  only  in  the  north  by  the  Sinjar  Hills,  and 
capable  of  yielding  magnificent  crops  wherever 
water  is  available.  But  under  Osmanli  rule  the 
splendid  system  of  irrigation  works,  dating  from 
the  dawn  of  history,  has  fallen  into  decay;  the 
lower  Euphrates  now  overflows  its  banks  and 
converts  much  of  the  region  above  and  below 
Kurnah,  at  the  confluence  of  the  two  great 
arteries,  into  malarious  marshlands.  Hence  the 
populous  cities  and  innumerable  villages  formerly 
dotted  over  the  Babylonian  plains  have  been 
succeeded  by  the  scattered  hamlets  of  t  he  Montefik 
and  other  amphibious  Arab  tribes.  This  lowland 
region  is  separated  by  the  more  elevated  Syrian 
desert  or  steppe  from  the  much  smaller  and  less 
productive  provinces  of  Syria  and  Palestine. 
Here  the  main  physical  features  are  at  once 
simple  and  yet  striking.  The  narrow,  hilly  region 
disposed  north  and  south  between  the  Mediter¬ 
ranean  and  the  desert,  and  stretching  for  over  400 
miles  between  Anatolia  and  the  Sinai  Peninsula, 
culminates  toward  the  center  in  the  parallel 
Libanus  and  Antilibanus  (10,000  to  11,000  feet), 
inclosing  between  them  the  fertile  depression  of 
the  Beka‘  (Ccele-Syria).  The  stupendous  ruins  of 
Baalbek,  standing  at  the  highest  point  of  this 
depression  in  30°  N.  latitude,  mark  the  parting 
line  between  the  northern  and  southern  water¬ 
sheds  of  the  region.  Northward  flows  the  El- 
‘Asi  (Orontes),  southward  the  Litani  (Leontes), 
both  through  the  Beka‘  in  moderately  sloping 
beds  to  the  Mediterranean.  In  the  Lebanon  the 
Christian  Maronite  communities  enjoy  a  measure 
of  self-government  under  the  guarantee  of  France, 
while  their  pagan  neighbors  and  hereditary  foes, 
the  Druses,  are  gradually  withdrawing  to  the 
hilly  Ilauran  district  beyond  Jordan.  Turkey’s 
Arabian  possessions  comprise,  beside  El-Hassa 
on  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  low-lying,  hot,  and 
insalubrious  Tehama  and  the  southwestern 
highlands  (vilayets  of  Hejaz  and  Yemen) 
stretching  continuously  along  the  east  side 
of  the  Red  Sea,  and  including  the  two  holy 
cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina.  These  are  held 
by  military  occupation,  probably  at  a  loss  to 
the  imperial  exchequer,  and  certainly  against  the 
wishes  of  the  inhabitants.  But  these  drawbacks 
are  supposed  to  be  more  than  compensated  by 
the  political  prestige  derived  from  the  possession 
of  the  Holy  Land  of  Islam.  Since  the  abandon¬ 
ment  of  Eastern  or  Egyptian  Soudan  in  1884, 
consequent  on  the  revolt  of  the  Malidi,  and  the 
occupation  of  Tunis  by  the  French  in  1881, 
Turkey  in  Africa  has  been  reduced  to  the  two 
territories  of  Egypt  and  Tripolitana  with  Barca 
and  Fezzan,  jointly  occupying  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  continent.  Of  these  Tripolitana 
alone  is  directly  administered,  constituting  the 
pashalik  or  vilayet  of  Tripoli.  Egypt,  whose 
southern  frontier  was  temporarily  fixed  in  Janu¬ 
ary,  1887,  at  the  station  of  Akashe  above  Wady 
Haifa,  near  the", second  cataract  ih  Lower  Nubia 
(22°  N.  latitude),  has  formed  a  practically  inde¬ 
pendent  principality  under  the  dynasty  of  Me- 
hemet  Ali  since  1841,  subject  only  to  an  annual 
tribute  of  $3,475,000  to  the  Porte.  The  areas  and 
populations  of  Turkey  in  Africa  were  estimated 
as  follows  in  1887: 


Tripoli,  with  Barca  and  Fezzan,  a 

vilayet . 

Egypt,  a  tributary  principality 

Total  Turkey  m  Africa  .... 


Area  in 

Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

485,000 

374,000 

1,000,000 

6,800,0.0 

862,000 

7,800,000 

Turkey  is  essentially  a  theocratic  absolute  mon¬ 
archy,  being  subject  in  principle  to  the  direct 
personal  control  of  the  sultan,  who  is  himself  at 
once  a  temporal  autocrat  and  the  recognized 
caliph,  that  is,  “successor”  of  the  prophet,  and 


consequently  the  spiritual  head  of  the  Moslem 
world.  But,  although  the  attempt  made  in  1876 
to  introduce  representative  institutions  proved 
abortive,  this  theoretical  absolutism  is  neverthe¬ 
less  tempered  not  only  by  traditional  usage,  local 
privilege,  the  juridical  and  spiritual  precepts  of 
the  Koran,  and  its  'ulema  interpreters,  and  the 
privy  council,  but  also  by  the  growing  force  of 
public  opinion  and  the  direct  or  indirect  pressure 
of  the  European  powers.  The  'ulema  form  a 
powerful  corporation,  whose  head,  the  sheikhu  ’1- 
Islam,  ranks  as  a  state  functionary  scarcely  sec¬ 
ond  to  the  grand  vizier,  or  prime  minister.  Be¬ 
sides  these  expounders  of  Koranic  doctrine,  the 
sovereign  is  to  some  extent  bound  also  by  the 
Multeka,  a  legal  code  based  on  the  traditional 
sayings  of  Mohammed  and  the  recorded  decisions 
of  his  successors,  having  the  force  of  precedents. 
The  grand  vizier  (xadr-azam),  who  is  nominated 
by  the  sultan,  presides  ex-officio  over  the  privy 
council  (mijiiss-i-khass),  which,  besides  the  shei¬ 
khu  ’1-Islam,  comprises  the  ministers  of  home  and 
foreign  affairs,  war,  finance,  marine,  trade,  public 
works,  justice,  pub  ic  instruction,  and  worship, 
with  the  president  of  the  council  of  state  and  the 
grand  master  of  artillery.  For  administrative 
purposes  the  immediate  possessions  of  the  sultan 
are  divided  into  vilayets  (provinces),  which  are 
again  subdivided  into  sanjaks  or  mutessariks 
(arrondissements),  these  into  kazas  (cantons),  and 
the  kazas  into  naliiis  (parishes  or  communes).  A 
vali,  or  governor-general,  nominated  by  the  sultan, 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  vilayet,  and  on  him  are 
directly  dependent  the  pashas,  effendis,  beys,  and 
other  administrators  of  the  minor  divisions.  All 
these  officials  unite  in  their  own  persons  the 
judicial  and  executive  functions,  and  all  alike  are 
as  a  rule  thoroughly  corrupt,  venal  in  the  dispen¬ 
sation  of  just  ice,  oppressors  of  the  subject,  embez¬ 
zlers  of  the  public  revenues,  altogether  absorbed 
in  amassing  wealth  during  their  mostly  brief  and 
precarious  tenure  of  office.  Foreigners  settled  in 
the  country  are  specially  protected  from  exactions 
by  the  so-called  “capitulations,”  in  virtue  of 
which  they  are  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
local  courts  and  amenable  for  trial  to  tribunals 
presided  over  by  their  respective  consuls.  Cases 
between  foreigners  of  different  nationalities  are 
heard  in  the  court  of  the  defendant,  and  between 
foreigners  and  Turkish  subjects  in  the  local 
courts,  at  which  a  consular  dragoman  attends  to 
see  that  the  trial  is  conducted  according  to  law. 
The  trade  returns  for  the  last  few  years  show  that 
the  country  is  slowly  recovering  from  the  disas¬ 
trous  consequences  of  the  Russo-Turkish  War. 
The  chief  staples  of  the  export  trade  arc:  raisins, 
$2,850,000;  (in  1884-85),  wheat,  $4,500,000;  cot¬ 
ton,  $3,500,000;  opium,  $3,500,000;  olive  oil, 
$2,250,000;  valonia,  $2,250,000;  barley,  $1,660,- 
000;  figs,  $1,000,000;  sesame,  $980,000  ;  maize, 
$970,000;  pulse,  $925,000;  nuts,  $920,000;  mohair, 
$725,000;  wool,  $700,000;  dates,  $575,000.  Previ¬ 
ous  to  1880  Turkey  was  commonly  regarded  as 
practically  bankrupt.  But  since  then  a  con¬ 
siderable  improvement  has  been  effected.  Until 
1886  the  military  service,  compulsory  on  all 
Moslems  over  eighteen  years  of  age,  was  k(  pt  up 
by  45,0u0  annual  recruits  drawn  by  ballot;  but 
in  November  of  that  year  universal  conscription 
of  the  whole  able-bodied  male  population  was 
decreed.  By  this  measure  the  army,  hitherto 
reckoned  at  about  160,000  men,  with  a  war 
strength  of  from  450,000  to  500,000,  will  be 
probably  raised  to  a  permanent  footing  of  1,000,- 
000  effectives  under  the  flag  and  in  the  reserves. 
These  will  continue  to  be  grouped  in  the  three 
categories  of  the  nizam  or  regulars  in  active 
service,  the  aedif  or  first  reserve,  and  the  mustahfiz 
or  second  reserve.  There  is  to  be  a  considerable 
increase  of  cavalry,  all  conscripts  being  allowed 
to  join  that  branch  of  the  service  who  have  the 
means  of  providing  themselves  with  mounts  and 
equipment.  For  military  purposes  the  empire 
is  divided  into  seven  divisions,  with  headquarters 
at  Constantinople,  Adrianople,  Monastir,  Erzin- 
gian,  Baghdad,  Damascus,  and  Sanaa;  all  except 
Sanaa  (for  Yemen)  hitherto  furnishing  an  army 
corps  for  the  nizam  and  two  for  the  redif.  The 
navy  at  the  beginning  of  1887  comprised  fifteen 
large  and  several  smaller  ironclads  (monitors,  gun¬ 
boats,  etc.),  a  number  of  mostly  old-fashioned 
steamers,  and  fourteen  torpedo  boats,  and  was  I 


manned  by  30,000  sailors  and  10,000  marines 
(nominal  strength),  raised  by  conscription  or 
voluntary  enlistment  and  serving  for  twelve  years 
in  the  active  and  reserve  classes.  Public  instruc¬ 
tion  is  much  more  widely  diffused  throughout  the 
empire  than  is  commonly  supposed.  This  is  clue 
partly  to  the  Christian  communities,  notably  the 
Marouites  and  others  in  Syria,  the  Anatolian  and 
Roumelian  Greeks,  and  the  Armenians  of  the 
Eastern  Provinces  and  of  Constantinople.  Edu¬ 
cation  is  practically  limited  among  the  Moham¬ 
medans  to  reading  and  writing  and  the  study  of 
tiie  Koran.  But  among  the  Christians,  especially 
the  Armenians,  the  Greeks  of  Smyrna,  and  the 
Syrians  of  Beyrut,  it  embraces  a  considerable 
range  of  subjects,  such  as  classical  Hellenic, 
Armenian,  and  Syriac,  as  well  as  modern  French, 
Italian,  and  English,  modern  history,  geography, 
and  medicine.  Large  sums  are  freely  contributed 
for  the  establishment  and  support  of  good  schools, 
and  the  cause  of  national  education  is  seldom  for¬ 
gotten  in  the  legacies  of  patriotic  Anatolian 
Greeks.  Even  the  Turks  are  bestirring  them¬ 
selves  in  this  r<  spect,  and  great  progress  has  been 
made  during  the  last  twenty  years  in  the  Erze- 
roum  vilayet.  In  1886  that  province  contained 
1,216  schools  and  163  madrasas  (colleges),  with  a 
total  attendance  of  25,680,  including  1,504  girls. 
Besides  administrative  and  financial  reforms,  one 
of  the  most  pressing  needs  is  improved  means  of 
communication.  In  Trebizond  the  route  from 
the  coast  at  Unieh  through  Niksar  to  Sivas  has 
recently  been  completed  to  the  limits  of  the 
vilayet.  But  the  works  on  the  more  important 
road  from  Kirasun  to  Ivara-liissar  for  the  silver 
and  lead  mines  at  Lijessy  are  still  suspended, 
owing  to  di-putes  between  the  contiguous  pro¬ 
vincial  administrations.  Many  of  the  great  his¬ 
toric  highways  are  also  much  out  of  repair.  At 
the  end  of  1885  only  1,250  miles  of  railway  were 
completed  in  the  empire,  of  which  903  were  in 
Europe  and  347  in  Asia.  The  chief  lines  are 
those  connecting  the  capital  with  Adrianople  (210 
miles),  Adrianople  with  Saremby  (152),  Saloniki 
with  Uskub(150),  Zenica  with  Brod  (118),  Uskub 
with  Mitrovitza  (75),  and  Kulleli  with  Degeagatch 
(70)  in  Europe,  and,  in  Asia,  Scutari  with  Ismid 
(40),  Smyrna  with  Ala-Shehr  (130),  and  Smyrna 
with  Denizli  (170).  By  imperial  decree  (August, 
1887)  a  contract  was  granted  to  an  English  syndi¬ 
cate  for  the  extension  of  the  Ismid  line  and  the 
construction  of  a  system  of  Asiatic  railways  to 
extend  to  Baghdad  within  the  space  of  ten  years. 
The  telegraph  system  is  much  more  developed, 
comprising  (1885)  14,620  miles,  with  26,100  miles 
of  wire  and  470  stations.  The  yearly  average  of 
letters  and  packages  of  all  sorts  sent  through  the 
710  post-offices  scarcely  exceeds  2,600,000.  Most 
of  the  foreign  postal  service  is  conducted  through 
the  British,  Austrian,  German,  French,  and  Rus¬ 
sian  privileged  post-offices. 

Tur'meric  ( Curcuma  longn;  a  plant  of  the 
natural  order  tfcitnmincce,  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  much  cultivated  both  in  India  and  in 
Cochin  China.  The  root  is  divided  into  several 
fleshy  fingers,  oblong,  and  as  thick  as  a 
man’s  thumb,  sometimes  crooked  when  young, 
and  the  root  then  abounds  in  a  kind  of  arrow- 
root;  but  in  a  more  advanced  stage,  it  contains  in 
large  quantity  a  peculiar,  resinous,  yellow  sub¬ 
stance,  which  is  used  as  a  dye-stuff,  and  for  other 
purposes,  and  is  called  turmeric.  It  appears  in 
commerce  in  the  form  of  dried  roots,  or  as  a 
powder. 

Turner,  Joseph  Mallard  William,  one  of 
the  greatest  of  British  landscape-painters,  was 
born  in  London  in  1775,  and  died  in  1851. 

Turning,  the  art  of  shaping  wood,  metal,  ivory, 
or  other  hard  substances  into  forms  having  a 
curv<  d  (generally  circular  or  oval)  transverse 
section;  and  also  of  engraving  figures  composed 
of  curved  lines  upon  a  smooth  surface,  by  means 
of  a  machine  called  a  turning-lathe.  This  art  is 
of  great  importance  and  extensive  application  in 
mechanics,  the  most  delicate  articles  of  luxury 
and  ornament,  equally  with  the  most  ponderous 
machinery,  beingproduced  by  it.  The  foot-lathe, 
the  most  common  and  generally  useful  form  of 
lathe,  has  a  head-stock  or  fast-head  in  place  of 
the  left-hand  stationary  puppet,  as  in  the  older  form 
of  lathe.  This  head-stock,  H,H,  consists  of  two 
supports  or  puppets,  firmly  connected  at  their 


TURNIP. 


683 


TUSSOCK. 


■base,  and  fastened  at  right  angles  to  the  bed  by 
means  of  the  screws  A,  A;  the  outer  puppet  is 
pierced  for  the  screw  S;  and  the  inner  is  supplied 


with  a  s'eel  collar,  within  which  the  mandrel,  M, 
which  carries  the  speed  pulleys,  P,  turns.  The 
left  end  of  the  mandrel  is  concave,  so  as  to  allow 
the  steel  point  of  the  screw,  S,  to  fit  closely.  R, 
is  a  rest,  which  slides  along  the  slit  between  the 
two  beams  of  the  bed,  and  may  be  clamped  at  any 
point,  and  elevated  or  depressed  as  is  found  neces¬ 
sary.  The  rest  is  used  by  the  workman  for  lean¬ 
ing  his  cutting  tool  upon,  in  order  to  afford  it 
greater  steadiness.  G  is  the  right-hand  puppet 
front-head,  or  tail  stock,  movable  along  the  slit 
in  the  bed,  and  capable  of  being  fastened  like 
the  rest;  its  point,  I,  can  be  advanced  or  retired 
as  required  by  means  of  the  screw,  J.  C  is  the 
spindle,  which,  being  connected  with  the  treadle, 
W,  by  means  of  the  rods  or  chains,  E,  E,  turns 
the  fly  or  foot  wheel,  F,  and  by  means  of  an  end¬ 
less  band  connecting  the  latter  with  ilie  speed- 
pulleys,  communicates  motion  to  the  mandrel. 
The  pulleys  on  the  spindle  and  mandrel  are  of 
different  sizes,  and  so  arranged,  that  when  the 
endless  band  is  placed  on  the  left-hand  pulleys,  an 
extremely  rapid  motion  is  communicated  to  the 
mandrel,  the  motion  being  reduced  more  and  more 
as  the  band  is  transferred  more  to  the  right,  till 
at  the  extreme  right,  the  rotatory  motion  is  much 
slower  than  that  of  the  spindle.  When  the  foot- 
lathe  is  required  for  center-work,  the  inner  end  of 
the  mandrel  is  furnished  with  a  point  similar  to 
I,  but  when  hollow  or  inside  work  is  to  be  done,  it 
must  be  armed  with  a  screw,  as  in  the  figure. 
In  this  latter  case,  certain  contrivances,  known  as 
chucks,  for  holding  the  work,  are  screwed  on  to 
the  end  of  the  mandre'. 

Turnip  ( Bmssica  mpa),  a  biennial  plant,  with 
lyrate  hispid  leaves;  the  upper  part  of  the  root 
becoming,  especially  in  cultivation,  swollen  and 
fleshy.  It  is  a  native  of  Europe  and  the  temper¬ 
ate  parts  of  Asia,  growing  in  borders  of  fields  and 
waste  places. 

Turnip-fly,  a  name  given  to  several  insects 
destructive  to  turnips.  It  is  often  given  to  AUv:a 
(or  Haltica )  nemorum,  also  called  turnip-flea,  from 
its  skipping  or  leaping  powers,  but  which  is  truly 
a  very  small  beetle,  with  long  and  strong  hind¬ 
legs,  and  ample  wings,  of  a  sinning  black  color, 
with  two  yellowish  stripes  down  the  wing-cases, 
and  ocherous  legs. 

Turpentine  is  a  semi-solid  resin  which  is 
yielded  by  various  species  of  pine,  and  by  some 
other  trees  when  incisions  are  made  into  them. 
The  chief  varieties  of  turpentine  are  common  tur¬ 
pentine,  yielded  by  Pinus  abies;  Venice  turpentine, 
yielded  by  the  larch;  Bordeaux  turpentine, 
yielded  by  Pinus  maritima;  and  Chian  turpen 
tine,  yielded  by  Pistacia  lentiscus.  Oil  of  turpen¬ 
tine  is  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  medicine. 
It  is  probably  the  most  effective  remedy  for 
the  expulsion  of  tapeworm,  is  nearly  equally 
efficacious  over  the  lumbrici  or  round- worms,  and 
in  the  form  of  an  injection  is  serviceable  in  the  case 
of  ascarides  or  thread-worms.  For  an  adult,  in 
a  case  of  tapeworm  or  round-worm,  the  dose 
should  be  one  ounce,  combined  with  an  equal 
quantity  of  castor-oil,  or  made  into  an  emulsion 
with  yelk  of  egg  or  mucilage.  In  the  case  of 
children  and  delicate  women,  it  is  better  to  try  a 
milder  vermicide.  In  doses  of  from  two  drachms 
to  two  ounces,  and  in  similar  combination  with 
castor-oil,  it  may  be  given  as  a  cathartic  in  cases 
ot  obstinate  constipation,  especially  when  depend¬ 
ent  on  affections  of  the  brain ;  in  hysteria,  epilepsy, 
tympanitis,  passive  hemorrhage,  and  in  purpura 
hemorrhagica,  in  which  last-named  disease  Doc¬ 


tor  Neligan  highly  recommends  it.  In  small 
do-es  (as  from  ten  to  twenty  minims),  oil  of  tur¬ 
pentine  is  regarded  as  a  diuretic,  but  it  must  be 
given  with  caution,  in  consequence  of  its  stimu¬ 
lating  properties.  It  is  of  more  service  in  chronic 
mucous  discharges  of  the  genito  urinary  organs, 
as  gleet,  leucorrhcea,  etc.,  than  in  dropsy.  In 
small  doses,  it  is  often  useful  in  chronic  rheuma¬ 
tism  and  in  sciatica.  When  applied  externally, 
oil  of  turpentine  is  a  speedy  and  powerful  rube¬ 
facient  and  counter-irritant,  and  is  beneficially 
used  in  this  capacity  in  inflammatory  attacks  of 
the  throat,  chest,  and  abdomen.  The  best  method 
to  pursue  is  to  rub  the  oil  by  means  of  a  bit  of 
flannel  over  the  part  to  be  acted  on;  over  this  to 
lay  three  or  four  folds  of  flannel,  wrung  out  of 
hot  water,  and  over  the  flannel  to  place  a  dry 
towel;  two  or  three  such  applications  produce  a 
sufficient  result.  There  is  a  liniment  of  turpen¬ 
tine  which  is  powerfully  stimulating,  and  is 
applied  as  a  dressing  for  extensive  burns;  and  is 
likewise  used,  with  friction,  in  rheumatic  and 
neuralgic  cases.  There  is  also  the  liniment  of 
turpentine  and  acetic  acid,  an  excellent  counter- 
irritant  (applied  with  a  sponge)  in  pulmonary  con¬ 
sumption  and  other  chronic  pulmonary  affections. 
Lastly,  ointment  of  turpentine,  a  warm  stimula¬ 
ting  application,  requires  mention. 

'1  urquoise,  a  mineral  found  chiefly  in  the  prov¬ 
ince  of  Khorassan  in  Persia,  and  much  prized  as 
an  ornamental  stone.  It  is  essentially  a  phos¬ 
phate  of  alumina,  containing  also  a  little  oxide  of 
iron  and  oxide  of  copper.  It  is  harder  than  feld¬ 
spar,  but  softer  than  quartz,  and  has  a  greenisli- 
blue  color.  It  is  opaque,  or  sometimes  translu¬ 
cent  at  the  edges. 

Turret-ship,  a  notable  invention  in  naval  war¬ 
fare,  consists  of  an  iron-plated  vessel  rising  but 
slightly  above  the  water.  In  the  middle  of  the 
deck  are  one  or  more  turrets  incased  in  the  most 
massive  plates,  and  holding  each  one  or  two 
guns  of  heavy  caliber.  The  turret,  in  American 
vessels,  is  pivoted  on  the  keel  or  other  firm  base; 


U.  S.  Turret-ship,  Miantonomah. 


in  English  specimens  it  revolves  on  rollers  under 
the  periphery.  By  means  of  simple  mechanism, 
it  can  be  made,  either  by  a  steam-engine  or  by 
hand,  to  revolve  with  considerable  speed,  thus 
giving  the  gun  a  range  in  every  direction.  Tur¬ 
ret-ships  were  first  proposed  in  America  by  Mr. 
Theodore  R.  Timby,  of  New  York,  and  elabo¬ 
rated  by  Captain  Ericsson  in  his  Monitor. 

TurritelTidae,  a  family  of  gasteropodous  mol- 
lusks,  having  an  elongated  spiral  shell,  the  lower 
spires  remarkably  separated. 

Turtle,  the  popular  name  of  those  Chelonian 
reptiles,  the  family  Cheloniacloe  of  some,  whicii 
1 


1,  flawkbill  Turtle  ( (laretta  imbricata)-,  2,  Green  Turtle 
( Chelonia  my  das) . 

have  a  rather  flat  carapace,  and  fin-like  paddles 


instead  of  legs,  suited  for  swimming,  and  not  for 
walking.  The  fore-legs  are  longer  than  the  hind¬ 
legs.  Turtles  are  all  marine,  and  although  they 
lay  their  eggs  on  the  beech,  seldom  visit  the  shore 
for  any  other  purpose.  They  deposit  their  eggs 
in  holes,  which  they  scoop  in  the  sand  with  their 
hind  feet.  The  eggs  are  numerous,  150  or  200 
being  often  deposited  at  a  time,  and  the  turtles 
lay  several  times  a  year.  The  young,  soon  after 
being  hatched,  make  their  way  through  the  sand 
which  covers  them,  and  immediately  betake 
themselves  to  the  water.  The  eggs  are  hatched 
by  the  heat  of  the  sand  alone,  and  the  young  re¬ 
ceive  no  attention  from  their  parents.  • 

Turtle-dove,  or  Turtle  ( Turtur ),  a  genus  of 
Columbidce,  having  the  bill  more  slender  than 


Turtle-dove  ( Turtur  communis). 


pigeons,  the  tip  of  the  upper  mandible  slightly 
bent  down.  They  are  also  more  slender  and  ele¬ 
gant  in  form  than  pigeons,  and  generally  smaller; 
the  wings  are  longer  and  more  pointed;  and  the 
tail  is  longer,  rounded,  or  slightly  graduated. 

Tuscaloosa,  the  county  seat  of  Tuscaloosa 
county,  Ala.  Pop.,  4,550. 

Tus'can  Order  of  Architecture,  one  of  the 
five  classic  orders,  being  a  Roman  modification 
of  the  Doric  style  with  unfluted  columns,  and 
without  triglyphs.  It  is  the  simplest  of  the  orders. 

Tus'cany,  formerly  a  sovereign  grand  duchy 
in  the  West  of  Italy,  lying  for  the  most  part,  but 
not  wholly,  south  and  west  of  the  Apennines, 
in  latitude  42°  20' — 44°  10'  N.,  and  longitude 
10°  15' — 12°  20'  E.  Area,  8,440  square  miles; 
pop.  in  I860,  at  the  date  of  its  annexation  to  Sar¬ 
dinia,  1,800,000;  (1881),  2,208,516. 

Tuscaro'ras,  a  tribe  of  Indians,  who,  at  the 
settlement  of  North  Carolina,  had  fifteen  towns 
on  the  Tar  and  Neuse  rivers,  and  1,200  warriors. 
In  1711  they  began  a  war  with  the  settlers,  and 
after  a  seriesof  savage  encounters,  were  defeated, 
and  joined  the  Iroquois  in  New  York,  where  they 
became  allies  of  the  English,  and  where  about 
fifty  families  still  reside  on  a  reservation  in  the 
western  part  of  the  State. 

Tuscola,  the  county  seat  of  Douglas  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Tuscumbia,  the  county  seat  of  Colbert  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  1,869. 

Tuscumbia,  the  county  seat  of  Miller  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  300. 

Tuskegee,  the  county  seat  of  Macon  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  2,550. 

Tus'sac  Grass  {Dnctylix  coespitoftn),  a  large 
grass,  a  native  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  remark¬ 
able  for  forming  great  tufts,  sometimes  5  or  6  feet 
in  height,  the  long,  tapering  leaves  hanging  over 
in  graceful  curves,  from  5  to  8  feet  long,  and  1 
inch  broad  at  the  base. 

Tussila'go,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Compoxitm,  sub-order  Corymbiferw,  having 
bracteae,  with  a  membranous  edge,  a  naked  re¬ 
ceptacle,  a  hairy  pappus;  the  florets  of  the  ray 
pistilliferous,  in  many  rows,  tongue-shaped;  those 
of  the  disc  perfect,  few. 

Tver,  a  government  of  Great  Russia,  bounded 
on  the  northwest  by  the  Government  of  Novgorod, 
and  on  the  southeast  by  those  of  Moscow  and 
Smolensk.  Area,  25,080  square  miles;  pop.  (1880), 
1,638,196. 

Tver,  a  city  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  same  name,  stands  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Volga  with  the  Tvertza,  348  miles  south¬ 
east  of  St.  Petersburg.  Pop.  (1880),  38,246. 

Tus'sock  Moth  ( Laria  pudibuncla.),  a  grayish- 
white  moth,  about  1  inch  long,  the  upper  wings 


TUTUILA. 


684 


TYPH-FEVER. 


freckled,  with  four  irregular  darkish  lines,  the 
under  wings  nearly  white.  The  caterpillar  does 


great  mischief  in  hop  plantations,  and  is  known 
by  the  name  of  hop-dog. 

Tutui'la,  an  island  in  the  Pacific,  belonging  to 
the  group  of  the  Navigators’  or  Samoan  Islands, 
is  about  17  miles  long  and  5  miles  broad,  and  is 
said  to  contain  nearly  5,000  inhabitants. 

Tweed,  the  most  famous  of  Scottish  rivers,  rises 
in  the  extreme  south  of  Peeblesshire,  and  flows 
into  the  North  Sea  at  Berwick-on-Tweed. 

Ty'bee,  an  island  and  sound  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Savannah  river,  Georgia.  The  sound  is  a  bay  of 
the  Atlantic,  extending  from  Tybee  Island  on  the 
south  to  Hilton  Head  on  the  north,  opening  to 
Port  Royal  entrance  by  Cooper’s  river.  Wall’s 
Cut,  Lazaretto  Creek,  and  other  channels.  The 
island  is  6  miles  long  by  3  wide,  and  was  occupied 
in  1861  by  General  Sherman,  who  erected  batteries 
for  the  reduction  of  Fort  Pulaski,  which  capitu¬ 
lated  April  11,  1862. 

Tyler,  John,  tenth  President  of  the  United 
States,  born  in  Charles  City  county,  Va.,  March 
29,  1790.  At  twenty-one  he  was  elected  to  the 
State  Legislature,  supporting  the  policy  of  Jeffer¬ 
son,  Madison,  and  the  Democratic  party.  He 
was  almost  unanimously  elected  five  times,  and 
in  1816,  entered  Congress.  In  1821,  he  was 
elected  Governor  of  Virginia,  and  in  1827,  Sen¬ 
ator  in  Congress.  In  1840  he  wras  elected  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States,  with  General 
Harrison  as  President.  President  Harrison  died 
April  4,  1841,  a  month  after  his  inauguration,  by 
which  event  Tyler  became  President.  The  most 
important  act  of  his  administration  was  the  an¬ 
nexation  of  Texas,  March  1,  1845.  At  the  close 
of  his  term  of  office,  he  retired  to  private  life 
until  1861,  when  he  was  president  of  a  peace 
conventional  Washington.  Failing  in  his  efforts 
at  a  compromise,  he  gave  his  adhesion  to  the  Con¬ 
federate  cause,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Confed¬ 
erate  Congress  until  his  death  at  Richmond,  Jan¬ 
uary,  1862. 

Tyler,  the  county  seat  of  Smith  county,  Tex. 
Pop.,  6,800. 

Tylo'phora,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Asclepiadncew,  natives  of  the  East  Indies, 
New  Holland,  etc.,  with  a  wheel-shaped  corolla, 
and  a  five-leaved  fleshy  coronet. 

Tym'panum  (Lat.  a  drum),  in  Anatomy,  the 
middle  ear.  In  Architecture,  the  flat  space  left 
within  the  sloping  and  horizontal  cornices  of  the 
pediment  of  classical  architecture,  usually  filled 
with  sculpture;  also  the  space  between  the  arch 
and  lintel  of  doorways  in  Gothic  architecture, 
which  is  frequently  enriched  with  sculpture. 

Tyndall,  John,  physicist,  w7as  born  Aug.  21, 
1820,  at  Leighlin  Bridge,  Ireland.  lie  has  per¬ 
formed  valuable  services  in  the  cause  of  science 
and  has  greatly  increased  our  knowledge  of  physics 
and  of  natural  phenomena.  His  best  known  works 
are:  The  Glaciers  of  the  Alps;  Mountaineering  in 
1861 ;  lleat  Considered  as  a  Mode  of  Motion;  Frag¬ 
ments  of  Science;  and  Hours  of  Exercise  in  the 
Alps. 

Tyndall,  the  county  seat  of  Bon  Homme 
county,  S.  Dak.  Pop.,  650. 

Type  (Gr.  rvitoS,  typos,  from  rvitreiv ,  typtein, 
to  beat  or  strike),  the  name  given  to  the  dies  which 
impress  the  letters  on  the  paper  in  printing.  The  first 
step  in  the  process  of  makingtype  is  the  cuttingof 
a  punch  or  die  resembling  the  required  lett  er.  The 
punch  is  of  hardened  steel,  with  the  figure  of  the 
letter  cut,  the  reverse  way,  upon  its  point.  On 
this  die  being  finished,  it  is  struck  into  a  piece  of 
copper  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  long,  one- 
eightli  of  an  inch  deep,  and  of  a  width  propor¬ 


tionate  to  the  size  of  the  type  to  be  cast.  This 
copper  being  so  impressed  with  the  representa¬ 
tion  of  the  1<  tter,  requires  to  be  adjusted  to  the 
mold,  so  that  the  face  or  impression  of  the  punch 
(in  the  copper)  may  be  brought  into  such  relation 
with  the  metal  which  forms  the  body  or  stalk  of 
the  type  that  when  the  types  arc  set  up  they  may 
stand  at  the  proper  distance  from  each  other,  and 
be  m  line  or  range,  and  also  square  to  the  page; 
this  work  is  termed  justifying,  and  the  copper  is 
now  a  matrix.  The  matrix  is  now  fixed  into  a 
small  instrument  or  frame,  called  the  mold, 
which  is  composed  of  two  parts.  The  external 
surface  is  of  wood,  the  internal  of  s’eel.  At  the 
top  is  a  shelving  orifice,  into  which  the  metal  is 
poured.  The  space  within  is  of  the  size  of  the 
required  body  of  the  letter,  and  is  made  exceed¬ 
ingly  true.  The  melted  metal,  being  poured  into 
this  space,  sinks  down  to  the  bottom  into  the 
matrix,  and  instantly  cooling,  the  mold  is  opened, 
and  the  type  is  cast  out  by  the  workman.  This 
process  of  casting  types  is  executed  with  great 
celerity.  Of  course,  every  separate  letter  in  the 
alphabet,  every  figure,  point,  or  mark,  must  have 
its  own  punch  and  matrix.  In  casting  types,  the 
founder  stands  at  a  table,  and  has  beside  him  a 
small  furnace  and  pot  with  heated  metal,  which 
he  lifts  with  a  small  ladle.  Type-metal  was  a 
compound  of  lead  and  regulus  of  antimony, 
with  a  small  proportion  of  tin;  but  in  1856  a  new 
compound  was  formed  by  adding  a  large  propor¬ 
tion  of  tin  to  the  lead  and  antimony,  which  con¬ 
siderably  increased  the  cost  of  the  metal,  but  it 
doubled  its  durability.  The  antimony  gives  hard¬ 
ness  and  sharpness  of  edge  to  the  composition, 
while  the  tin  gives  toughness  and  tenacity,  and 
removes  the  brittleness  which  antimony  causes 
when  used  largely  without  tin.  The  type-casting 
machine  consists,  first,  of  a  small  melting-pot, 
which  contains  the  molten  metal,  and  is  placed 


over  a  small  furnace  having  an  outer  case  of  cast- 
iron.  In  the  interior  of  the  pot  is  arranged  a 
forcing-pump  and  valve  for  admitting  the  metal 
under  the  piston,  and  also  for  preventing  the 
return  of  the  metal  into  the  mass  in  the  pot  when 
the  piston  is  depressed,  and  thus  securing  the  full 
force  exerted  upon  the  piston  being  transmitted  by 
the  piston  to  the  molten  metal  under  it,  and  forc¬ 
ing  it  through  a  narrow  channel  leading  from  the 
bottom  of  the  chamber  in  which  the  piston  works 
to  the  outside  of  the  pot,  where  a  nipple  is  in¬ 
serted,  with  a  small  hole  through  it,  communi¬ 
cating  with  this  narrow  channel.  Against  this 
nipple,  the  mold  in  which  the  type  is  formed  is 
pressed  at  the  moment  at  which  the  piston  de¬ 
scends,  and  so  receives  the  molten  metal  that 
forms  the  type.  The  second  part  of  the  machine 
is  that  which  carries  the  mold,  and  to  which  the 
mold  is  firmly  bolted.  The  mold  is  similar  to 
the  old  hand-mold,  but  modified  to  suit  the  ma¬ 
chine;  it  is  much  stronger;  the  jets  are  shorter, 
and  the  orifice  by  which  the  metal  enters  is 
smaller,  so  that  it  may  be  brought  exactly  coinci 
dent  with  the  small  hole  in  the  nipple  in  front  of 


the  pot.  The  mold — as  the  old  hand-mold — is 
made  in  halves;  the  one  half  being  firmiy  bolted 
to  an  arm  which,  by  cams  and  levers,  is  made  to 
oscillate,  and  carry  the  mold  to  and  from  the 
nipple  in  front  of,  and  above  the  pot;  the  other 
half  of  the  mold  is  bolted  to  another  arm,  which, 
by  a  peculiarly  formed  hinge,  is  attached  to  the 
first  arm,  so  that  the  two  halves  of  the  mold  may 
be  made  to  open  and  shut  upon  each  other,  like 
the  lid  of  a  snuff-box;  and  so  both  sides  of  the 
mold  oscillate  together  to  and  from  the  nipple  in 
the  pot  from  which  they  receive  the  molten 
metal.  The  furnace,  with  the  pot  and  machine 
carrying  the  mold,  are  raised  upon  cast-iron 
framing  to  a  height  convenient  for  a  man  stand¬ 
ing  to  watch  the  working  of  the  machine.  The 
operation  of  the  machine  is  as  follows;  The  piston 
being  raised  in  the  chamber  of  the  pump,  and  the 
chamber  being  supplied  with  metal  through  the 
valve,  the  mold  is  brought  against  the  nipple;  the 
valve  closes,  to  prevent  the  metal  being  forced 
back  into  the  pot;  the  piston  descends,  and  forces 
the  metal  through  the  narrow  channel  into  the 
mold;  the  mold  then  recedes  from  the  nipple,  and 
in  receding,  the  two  halves  separate  from  each 
other,  and  eject  the  type;  the  mold  again  ap¬ 
proaches  the  nipple,  and  in  approaching,  the  two 
halves  close  together,  and  are  ready  for  another 
operation. 

Type-writers  are  machines  for  superseding 
handwriting  by  a  mechanical  process.  The  con¬ 
struction  of  the  most  familiar  form  of  type-writers 
is  as  follows:  On  the  top  is  a  roller  covered  with 
india  rubber,  and  by  its  side,  and  parallel  with  it, 
a  small  wooden  roller.  Between  these  the  top 
edge  of  a  sheet  of  paper  is  inserted  and  brought 
into  proper  position  to  receive  the  first  line  of 
writing.  Immediately  under  the  rubber  cylinder, 
and  in  line  with  its  axis,  is  the  ink  ribbon,  and 
beneath  this  there  is  a  circular  opening,  several 
inches  in  diameter,  in  the  case  containing  the 
mechanism.  It  is  at  a  point  in  the  center  of  this 
opening  that  every  letter  is  made  to  appear  in 
succession  to  do  the  writing.  The  types  are  of 
iron,  and  are  fixed  in  the  ends  of  a  series  of  levers 
about  3  inches  in  length,  each  having  its  fulcrum 
at  a  point  in  the  circumference  of  the  opening. 
These  type-levers  are  in  fact  suspended  around  a 
kind  of  well,  their  short  arms  being  connected 
with  a  series  of  wires  actuated  by  keys  which  are 
worked  by  both  hands  similar  to  the  way  in 
which  a  piano  is  played.  The  key  for  forming 
the  spaces  bet  ween  the  words  extends  the  whole 
length  of  the  key -board,  so  that  it  can  be  readily 
worked,  no  matter  in  what  position  the  hands 
maybe  at  the  close  of  every  word.  The  depres¬ 
sion  of  each  key  causes  the  letter  with  which  it  is 
connected  to  rise  quickly  in  the  well,  and  when 
raised,  it  strikes  the  ink  ribbon,  thereby  trans¬ 
ferring  the  form  of  the  letter  to  the  paper.  Upon 
removing  the  pressure,  the  type  descends  by  its 
own  gravity.  When  a  single  letter  is  printed, 
the  paper  and  its  cylinder  are,  by  means  of  a 
coiled  spring,  traversed  at  each  touch  of  the  key, 
from  right  to  left  of  the  machine,  the  precise 
distance  required  to  admit  of  the  next  letter  being 
impressed.  At  each  touch  of  the  key,  too,  the 
ink  ribbon  is  advanced  a  corresponding  distance. 
After  a  line  is  completed,  the  paper  cylinder  is 
moved  back  by  a  peculiar  arrangement  to  the 
right  of  the  machine,  and  the  pressure  of  a  lever 
causes  it  to  make  a  partial  revolution,  which 
forms  the  space  between  the  two  lines  of  the 
writing.  Other  type-writers  employ  various 
different  mechanisms,  but  the  fundamental  prin¬ 
ciple  of  the  best  forms  is  the  same. 

Ty'pha,  a  genus  of  plants,  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Typhaccce  of  some  botanists,  which, 
according  to  others,  is  a  sub-order  of  Aracece. 

Tjpli-fcver  is  a  term  which  has  sometimes 
been  used  to  designate  continued  low  fever.  The 
best-marked  varieties  of  this  affection  are  known 
as  typhus  and  typhoid  fevers,  which  in  typical 
cases  are  easily  distinguished  from  one  another, 
but  not  infrequently  so  merge  into  one  another 
that  it  is  difficult  to  decide  whether  the  disease 
should  be  classed  as  typhus  or  typhoid  fever;  and 
hence  the  general  term  typli-fever  is  a  very  con¬ 
venient  one  in  doubtful  cases.  All  the  typh- 
fevers  belong  nosologically  to  the  miasmatous 
order  of  zymotic  diseases. 


TYPHON. 


685 


UHLAND. 


Ty'phon,  in  Egyptian  Mythology,  was  tlie 
Greek  name  of  a  son  of  Seb  (Kronos)  and  Nut 
(Rliea).  The  latter  gave  birth  to  five  children  On 
the  last  five  days  of  the  year;  first  Osiris  and 
Haroeris,  then  Typhon,  and  lastly  Isis  and  Nepli- 
thys.  The  Egyptian  name  of  Typhon  was  Set, 
also  Suti  and  Sutecli,  and  in  the  earliest  times  he 
was  a  highly  venerated  god.  He  often  appears 
on  the  monuments  in  the  form  of  a  beast,  the 
cunning  crocodile,  the  dreaded  hippopotamus,  or 
the  obstinate  ass,  and  with  yellow  liair  and  long 
blunted  ears.  From  him  the  kings  of  the  nine¬ 
teenth  dynasty,  Seti  (Sethos,  Sethosis,  changed  by 
Herodotus  into  Sesostris),  derive  their  name.  The 
city  of  Ombos  was  a  special  seat  of  his  worship. 
In  later  times,  however,  either  about  the  close  of 
tue  twenty-first  dynasty  or  afterward,  his  worship 
was  abandoned,  and  liis  figure  and  name  were 
obliterated  from  many  of  the  monuments.  The 
cause  of  this  curious  religious  revolution  is  un¬ 
known,  but  at  any  rate,  Typhon  came  to  be 
regarded  as  a  god  hostile  to  the  Egyptians,  and 
was  gradually  developed  into  a  personification  of 
the  principle  of  evil — in  short,  the  Egyptian  Devil, 
the  opponent  of  hoi/  doctrine,  and  adversary  of 
Osiris — the  god  of  the  waste  howling  wilderness, 
of  the  salt  lakes,  of  drought,  and  of  scorching  heat. 

Typhoons'  (Chinese  Tei-fun,  i.  e.,  hot  wind;, 
are  violent  storms  which  blow  on  the  coast  of 
Tonquin  and  China  as  far  north  as  Niugpo  and 
the  southeast  coasts  of  Japan.  Typhoons  have 
their  origin  in  the  ocean  to  the  east  of  China, 
especially  about  Formosa,  Luzon,  and  the  islands 
immediately  to  the  south.  They  thence  proceed, 
in  four  cases  out  of  five,  from  east-northeast 
to.ward  west-southwest,  more  rarely  from  east- 
southeast  to  west-northwest,  and  scarcely  ever 
from  north  to  south,  or  from  south  to  north;  in 
other  words,  their  course  is  generally  along  the 
coast  of  China. 

Ty  'pints  and  Ty'plioid  Fevers  have  so  much 
in  common,  that,  to  avoid  repetition,  we  shall 
discuss  them  in  one  article.  Typhus  fever  some¬ 
times  commences  to  show  itself  by  certain  pre¬ 
monitory  symptoms,  due  to  the  depressing  action 
of  the  poison — which,  as  will  presently  be  seen, 
is  the  cause  of  the  disease — upon  the  nervous  sys¬ 
tem  before  it  begins  to  affect  the  circulation. 
The  patient,  in  these  cases,  is  listless,  unwilling  to 
make  any  bodily  or  mental  exertion,  loses  ap¬ 
petite,  feels  wandering  pains  over  the  body,  is 
drowsy  during  the  day,  and  restless  at  night. 
More  commonly,  however,  the  disease  begins 
suddenly,  a  shivering  fit  being  the  first  symptom. 
Severe  headache,  especially  across  the  forehead, 
is  another  common  early  symptom.  The  muscu¬ 
lar  power  rapidly  becomes  enfeebled,  and  the 
patient  soon  feels  compelled  to  take  to  his  bed. 
The  characteristic  eruption,  which  Doctor  Jenner 
calls  the  mulberry  rash,  may  show  itself  as  early 
as  the  fifth  day,  but  most  commonly  appears  at 
the  beginning  of  the  second  week,  and  sometimes 
a  little  later.  The  characters  of  the  rash  vary 
with  its  age.  It  consists  of  very  slightly  elevated 
spots  of  a  dusky-pink  color.  Each  spot  is  flattened 
on  its  surface,  irregular  in  outline,  with  no  well- 
defined  margin,  but  fades  insensibly  into  the  hue 
of  the  surrounding  skin,  disappears  completely 
on  pressure,  and  varies  in  size  from  a  point  to 
three  or  four  lines  in  diameter.  In  two  or  three 
days  these  spots  undergo  a  marked  change. 
They  no  longer  remain  elevated  above  the  sur¬ 
rounding  cuticle;  their  hue  becomes  darker  and 


IT  is  the  twenty-first  letter  of  the  English  alpha- 
J  bet,  and  represents  in  that  language  three  dis¬ 
tinct  sounds,  as  heard  in  tube,  tub,  and  full.  The 
last  is  its  primitive  sound,  which  it  had  in  Latin, 
and  which  it  has  preserved  in  German  and  Italian, 
but  which  is  oftener  denoted  in  English  by  oo. 
In  tube,  it  does  not  mark  a  pure  vowel  sound;  it  is 
aspirated,  as  if  y  were  prefixed — tyub.  The  sound 
heard  in  tub  is  characteristic  of  English ;  and  owing, 
perhaps,  to  the  decided  emphasis  given  to  one 
syllable  of  a  word  at  the  expense  of  the  rest,  there 
is  a  tendeiicy  to  allow  the  other  vowels,  a,  e,  o, 
when  unaccented,  to  degenerate  into  this  indis¬ 
tinct,  stifled  sound:  cavalry,  sister,  fashion  are  pro¬ 
nounced  almost,  if  not  altogether,  as  if  written 


more  dingy  than  at  first,  and  they  now  only  fade 
on  pressure,  instead  of  completely  disappearing. 
From  this  state  they  commonly  grow  paler,  pass 
into  faintly  marked  reddish-brown  stains,  and 
finally  disappear.  The  spots  composing  this 
mulberry  rash  are  generally  very  numerous,  close 
together,  and  occasionally  almost  covering  the 
skin.  The  fact  that  the  difference  between  typhus 
and  typhoid  fevers  was  first  recognized  only  a 
few  years  ago,  affords  sufficient  evidence  that  the 
symptoms  of  these  diseases  must  be  similar. 
Among  the  early  symptoms  of  typhoid  fever 
(although  they  are  sometimes  postponed  to  the 
end  of  the  first  week),  the  most  characteristic  are 
abdominal  pains  and  diarrhoea.  These  are  due 
to  an  ulcerated  condition  of  the  intestines.  The 
diarrhoea  is  either  spontaneous,  or  continues  after 
the  operation  of  a  purgative.  The  stools  are 
loose  and  frequent;  and  either  of  a  dark  color 
and  foetid,  or  of  a  yellow  pea-soup-like  appear¬ 
ance.  The  abdomen  is  found  on  examination  to 
be  unnaturally  hard  and  resisting,  tympanitic,  and 
sometimes  much  distended;  its  shape  is  invariably 
the  same,  and  somewhat  peculiar.  Its  convexity 
is  from  side  to  side,  and  not  from  above  down¬ 
ward.  The  patient  is  never  pot-bellied,  but  tub¬ 
shaped;  the  cause  probably  being  that  the  flatus 
occupies  the  colon,  ascending,  descending,  and 
transverse.  Pressure  over  the  region  of  the 
caecum  frequently  excites  uneasiness,  and  usually 
gives  rise  to  a  peculiar  gurgling  movement,  which 
is  both  audible  and  palpable,  and  doubtless  arises 
from  the  intermixture  of  liquid  and  gaseous 
matters  in  the  bowels.  An  eruption  usually  ap¬ 
pears  at  from  the  eighth  to  the  twelfth  day  of  the 
disease.  This  typhoid  rash  is  different  from  that 
occurring  in  typhus;  it  consists  of  slightly  elevated 
papulae  or  pimples,  with  their  heads  rounded,  and 
their  bases  gradually  passing  into  the  level  of  the 
surrounding  cuticle.  These  papulae  are  circular, 
and  of  a  bright  rose  color,  which  fades  insensibly 
into  the  hue  of  the  surrounding  skin.  Typhoid 
fever  is  essentially  a  disease  of  childhood  and 
adolescence,  the  average  age  at  which  it  occurs 
being  2 If  years,  and  it  being  very  rarely  that 
a  person  aged  more  than  fifty  is  attacked;  while 
typhus  attacks  persons  of  all  ages,  from  early 
infancy*  to  extreme  old  age,  though  the  latter 
is  rare  in  this  country,  except  among  emigrants. 
Whether  typhus  can  be  generated  de  novo  by 
great  over  crowding  and  vitiation  of  air,  by  the 
organic  impurities  eminating  from  the  respira¬ 
tory  and  other  functions,  is  still  a  disputed  ques¬ 
tion.  The  conditions  essential  to  its  propagation 
are  overcrowding,  combined  with  deficient  venti¬ 
lation,  personal  filth,  and  clothes  saturated  with 
cutaneous  exhalations;  and  an  impaired  condition 
of  the  system,  such  as  may  result  from  insufficient 
food,  scurvy,  and  any  other  debilitating  causes. 
The  following  details  should  be  invariably 
attended  to  as  soon  as  this  disease  appears:  All 
discharges  from  the  fever-patient  should  be 
received,  on  their  issue  from  the  body,  into  ves¬ 
sels  containing  a  concentrated  solution  of  chlo¬ 
ride  of  zinc.  Two  ounces  of  a  caustic  solution  of 
chloride  of  zinc  should  be  put  in  the  night  stool 
on  each  occasion  before  it  is  used  by  the  fever- 
patient.  All  tainted  bed  or  body  linen  should 
immediately  on  its  removal  be  placed  in  water 
strongly  impregnated  with  the  same  agent.  The 
water-closet  should  be  flooded  several  times  a 
day  with  a  strong  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc; 
and  some  chloride  of  lime  should  also  be  placed 

IT 

cavulry,  sistur,  fasliun.  This  is  especially  the 
case  with  o;  and  in  this  vowel  the  degeneracy  is 
not  confined  to  unaccented  syllables;  in  a  whole 
host  of  words,  the  accented  o  is  exactly  equivalent 
to  u — e.  (].,  come,  money,  among. 

U'fa,  a  government  of  Russia,  formed  in  1865 
out  of  the  five  northwestern  districtsof  Orenburg, 
and  separated  from  the  present  government  of 
Orenburg  by  the  southwest  branch  of  the  Ural 
Mountains.  Pop.  (1S70),  1,364,925. 

Ufa,  capital  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bielaia  or  White 
river.  Pop.  (1880),  20,917. 

Ugan'da,  an  African  empire  extending  along 


there,  to  serve  as  a  source  of  chlorine  in  the  gas¬ 
eous  form.  So  long  as  fever  lasts,  the  water- 
closet  should  be  used  exclusively  as  a  receptacle 
for  the  discharges  from  the  sick.  In  typhoid 
fever,  the  chief  indications  of  treatment  are  to 
reduce  the  temperature,  and  subdue  any  vascular 
excitement  that  is  present  in  excess;  to  restrain 
excessive  diarrhoea,  for  which  purpose  milk  and 
lime-water  in  equal  parts  may  be  taken  as  a  drink. 
The  discharge  ought  not  to  be  altogether  checked. 
In  cases  in  which  it  is  doubtful  whether  to  check 
or  encourage  diarrhoea,  the  physician  will  gener¬ 
ally  be  on  the  safer  side  if  he  discourages  the 
action  of  the  bowels.  To  stimulate  the  nervous 
system  by  proper  food,  and  possibly  by  stimu¬ 
lants;  to  maintain  the  free  action  of  the  kidneys, 
which  is  best  effected  by  the  administration  of 
small  doses  of  the  alkaline  carbonates,  or  of  cream 
of  tartar;  to  influence  the  elimination  of  morbid 
matter  from  the  affected  intestinal  glands.  For 
i  his  purpose,  one  or  two  grains  of  calomel  should 
be  given  twice  a  day  till  about  the  tenth  day,  but 
not  later.  Special  symptoms,  such  as  great  infla¬ 
tion  of  the  abdomen  (known  as  meteorism),  hem¬ 
orrhage  from  the  intestines,  etc.,  must  be  treated 
by  the  ordinary  rules.  Probably  the  best  single 
remedy  for  this  form  of  hemorrhage  is  oil  of 
turpentine  in  doses  of  from  five  to  twenty  drops 
every  hour  or  two.  It  is  best  administered  in 
the  form  of  an  emulsion  with  gum-arabic,  white 
sugar,  and  water.  The  diet  is  a  subject  of  the 
utmost  importance  from  the  beginning  of  the 
disease  till  complete  recovery  ensues.  From  the 
various  forms  of  farinaceous  food,  such  as  arrow- 
root,  rice,  sago,  tapioca,  bread,  etc.,  from  eggs 
beaten  into  custard,  aud  milk  with  or  without 
lime-water  (or,  preferably,  effervescing  carrara 
water),  an  abundant,  bland,  and  nourishing  diet¬ 
ary  can  be  selected.  All  animal  food,  excepting 
eggs  and  milk,  must  be  rigidly  prohibited.  Even 
beef-tea,  and  mild  broths  have  often  been  found 
to  exert  a  special  irritant  action  on  the  overcharged 
glands  of  the  ileum.  During  the  period  of  conva¬ 
lescence,  no  meat  should  be  allowed  till  at  least  a 
week  has  elapsed  after  all  the  febrile  symptoms 
have  vanished,  and  the  only  admissible  means  of 
opehing  the  bowels  are  by  castor  oil  or  simple 
enemata. 

Tyrant  Shrike,  the  popular  name  of  a  section 
of  the  shrike  family  ( Lnniadce ),  connecting  that 
family  with  the  flycatchers  ( Muscicapidce )  and 
entirely  American. 

Tyre  (Phoen.  Sur  or  Sor,  rock),  a  city  of  ancient 
Phoenicia,  situated  in  latitude  33°  12'  N.,  which 
probably  derived  its  name  from  the  double  rock 
on  which  it  was  first  founded.  Although  there 
has  been  a  slight  improvement  in  its  prospects  of 
late,  the  desolation  and  wretchedness  of  the  city 
are  still  striking.  It  now  has  but  3,000  or  4,000 
inhabitants. 

Tyr'ol  (in  Ger.  more  commonly  spelt  Tirol; 
not  spoken  of  as  das  Tyrol  though  usually  called 
in  England  The  Tyrol),  forms  with  Vorarlberg  the 
most  westerly  province  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy,  and  borders  north,  west  and  south  on 
Bavaria,  Switzerland  and  Italy.  Area,  including 
Vorarlberg,  11,280  square  miles;  pop.  in  1880, 
912,549. 

Tyrrhenian  Sea(anc.  Tyrrhenuni  Mare),  that 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  between  the  islands 
of  Corsica,  Sardinia,  and  Sicily  on  the  west,  and 
the  Italian  peninsula  on  the  east. 


the  northwest  shore  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza. 
Pop.,  estimated  at  500,000. 

Uliland,  Jon.  Ludwig,  a  celebrated  German 
poet,  was  born  at  Tubingen,  April  26,  1787,  and 
died  there  on  Nov.  13,  1862.  Uliland  was  a 
patriotic  politician  as  well  as  a  poet.  He  entered 
the  representative  assembly  at  Wurtemberg  in 
1819  as  deputy  from  Tubingen,  and  was  also  a 
delegate  to  the  Frankfurt  Assembly  of  1848.  His 
pieces  are  full  of  spirit,  imagination,  and  truth, 
finely  picturesque  in  their  sketches  of  nature,  and 
exquisite  in  their  varied  tones  of  feeling.  Nothing, 
indeed,  can  surpass  the  brevity,  vigor,  and  sug¬ 
gestive  beauty  of  his  ballads,  in  which  a  romantic 
sweetness  of  sentiment  and  a  classic  purity  of 


UHLANS. 


UNGULATA. 


686 


style  are  happily  combined.  Uliland  is  the 
acknowledged  head  of  the  “  Suabian  School  ”  of 
German  poets.  Longfellow,  in  his  llt/perion,  lias 
translated  some  of  Uliland’s  ballads  into  English. 

Ull'lans  (a  Polish  word  signifying  lancers), 
light  cavalry  of  Asiatic  origin,  were  introduced 
into  the  North  of  Europe  with  the  colonies  of 
Tartars  who  established  themselves  in  Poland  and 
Lithuania.  They  were  mounted  on  light  active 
Tartar  horses,  and  armed  with  saber,  lance,  and 
latterly  with  pistols. 

Uist,  North  and  SouTn,  two  islands  of  the 
Outer  Hebrides,  are  situated  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  miles  west  of  the  Isle  of  Skye,  from 
which  they  are  separated  by  the  Little  Minch. 

Ujiji,  a  small  country  or  district  on  the  eastern 
shore' of  Lake  Tanganyika,  Africa.  The  chief 
town  in  it,  Kawele,  is  the  terminus  of  the  great 
caravan  route  from  Zanzibar,  and  is  an  important 
Arab  station. 

Ukase,  or  Ukas  (Russian  ukasat,  to  speak),  a 
term  applied  in  Russia  to  all  the  orders  or  edicts 
legislative  or  administrative,  emanating  from  the 
government.  The  ukases  either  proceed  directly 
from  the  emperor,  and  are  then  called  imenny 
ukas,  or  are  published  as  decisions  of  the  directing 
senate.  Both  have  the  force  of  laws  till  they  are 
annulled  by  subsequent  decisions.  The  prikases 
are  imperial  “  orders  for  the  day,”  or  military 
orders  given  during  a  campaign. 

Ukiah,  the  county  seat  of  Mendocino  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Ulcera'tiou  is  that  part  or  effect  of  an  inflam¬ 
matory  process  in  which  the  materials  of  inflamed 
tissues  liquefy  or  degenerate,  are  cast  off  in  solu¬ 
tion  or  very  minute  particles  from  free  surfaces, 
or,  more  rarely,  are  absorbed  from  the  substance 
of  the  body. 

Ulma  'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
regarded  by  some  botanists  as  a  sub-order  of 
V rticacece. 

Uloilen'dron,  a  singular  genus  of  coal-plants, 
founded  on  stems  which  occur  chiefly  in  the  roof- 
shales. 

UTster  (Lat.  Ultonid),  a  province  of  Ireland, 
the  most  northern  of  the  four  provinces  which 
compose  that  island,  is  divided  into  nine 
counties — Antrim,  Armagh,  Cavan,  Donegal, 
Down,  Fermanagh, Londonderry,  Monaghan,  and 
Tyrone.  The  northeastern  portion,  now  the 
county  of  Down,  was  early  overrun  by  John 
de  Courcy,  and  subsequently  by  Hugh  de  Lacy, 
and  was  the  most  permanent  seat  of  English 
power  in  the  north.  The  Antrim  coast  was  occu¬ 
pied  by  a  Celtic  colony  from  Scotland  and  the 
Isles;  but  although  various  efforts  were  made  by 
the  English  to  effect  a  permanent  settlement  in 
the  north  and  northwest,  the  success  was  but 
nominal  until  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  of 
James  I  ,  when  the  plantation  of  Ulster  was 
effected.  Of  this  gigantic  scheme  of  coloniza¬ 
tion,  the  chief  seat  was  the  county  of  London¬ 
derry.  In  Ulster,  the  Celtic  race,  owing  to  the 
frequent  and  large  infusions  of  a  foreign  element, 
is  found  in  a  much  smaller  proportion  than  else¬ 
where  in  Ireland.  Of  the  total  pop.  in  1881, 
1,739,543,  the  Protestants  of  all  denominations 
made  up  907,014;  the  Roman  Catholics  only 
831,784.  Of  the  former,  466,107  were  Presby¬ 
terians,  377,936  belonged  to  the  Episcopalian 
Church,  and  the  rest  were  Protestants  of  other 
denominations. 

Ultramarine a  beautiful  blue  pigment,  form¬ 
erly  obtained  only  from  the  mineral,  lapis-lazuli; 
but  an  artificial  kind  is  now  made  so  cheaply, 
and  is  so  good,  that  it  is  generally  used  instead. 
The  true  ultramarine,  from  its  costly  nature,  was 
only  used  by  artists;  the  artificial  sort  is,  however, 
extensively  used  by  house  and  ship  painters,  and 
is  as  cheap  as  it  is  beautiful. 

Ultramon'tane  (Lat.  beyond  the  mountains — 
the  Alps — namely,  in  relation  to  France),  that 
party  in  the  Church  of  Rome  which  assigns  the 
greatest  weight  to  the  papal  prerogative. 

Ulys'ses,  Ulyxes,  and  Ulixes,  the  Latin 
forms  of  the  Greek  Odysseus,  i.  e.,  the  “Angry,” 
the  name  of  one  of  the  most  celebrated  heroes  of 
the  Trojan  War,  and  the  hero  of  Homer’s  Odyssey. 
Different  accounts  are  given  of  his  parentage,  but 
according  to  the  oldest  legend,  the  Homeric,  he 
was  the  son  of  Laertes,  Prince  of  Ithaca  (one  of 
the  Ionian  Isles),  and  of  Anticleia,  daughter  of 


Autolycus.  He  married  Penelope,  by  whom  he 
became  the  father  of  Telemachus.  While  still  a 
youth,  he  had  acquired  a  reputation  for  courage, 
eloquence,  and  address.  When  the  expedition 
against  Troy  was  resolved  on,  Agamemnon  visited 
Ithaca,  and  prevailed  on  Ulysses,  though  with 
difficulty,  to  take  part  in  it.  Before  hostilities 
broke  out,  Ulysses,  in  conjunction  with  Menelaus 
and  Palamedes,  was  sent  to  Troy,  with  the  view 
of  persuading  the  Trojans  to  give  up  Helen  and 
her  treasures,  but  this  having  failed,  the  Greek 
princes  assembled  their  fleets  in  the  port  of  Aulis, 
and  sailed  for  Troy,  Ulysses  bringing  with  him 
twelve  ships.  During  the  siege,  Ulysses  per¬ 
formed  important  services  for  the  Greeks.  After 
the  fall  of  Troy,  the  most  interesting  part  of 
Ulysses  career  begins,  and  forms  the  subject  of 
the  Odyssey.  Setting  sail  for  home,  his  ships 
were  driven  by  a  storm  on  the  coast  of  Thrace, 
where  he  plundered  the  town  of  Ismarus,  but  lost 
a  number  of  his  crew.  Having  re-embarked,  a 
north  wind  blew  them  across  the  iEgean  and  the 
Levant,  to  the  country  of  the  Lotophagi  (the 
Lotus-eaters),  on  the  coast  of  Libya,  where  the 
companions  of  Ulysses  ate  of  the  Wondrous  fruit 
and  wished  to  rest  forever.  But  their  leader 
compelled  them  to  leave,  and  sailing  north  again, 
they  touched  at  the  “Island  of  goats,”  where 
Ulysses  left  all  his  ships  but  one.  Thence  he 
proceeded  westward,  till  he  reached  the  “island 
of  the  Cyclopes.”  The  Island  of  aEoIus,  and  the 
city  of  the  Lsestrygones  (a  race  of  cannibals), 
whither  fortune  and  the  winds  next  carried  the 
Hellenic  chief,  are  supposed  to  be  only  names  for 
particular  parts  of  Sicily.  Thence  he  sailed 
westward  to  the  Island  of  HSaea,  inhabited  by  the 
sorceress  Circe.  After  a  year’s  sojourn,  he 
departed,  and  sailing  still  further  west,  crossed 
Oceanus,  the  “  ocean-stream,”  into  the  country  of 
the  Cimmerians,  where  darkness  reigns  perpetu¬ 
ally.  Here  (following  the  advice  of  Circe,  he 
descended  into  Hades,  and  inquired  at  the  blind 
seer  Teiresias  how  he  might  get  back  to  his  native 
land.  Teiresias  disclosed  to  Ulysses  the  fact  of 
the  implacable  enmity  of  Poseidon  (Neptune), 
on  account  of  his  having  rendered  Polyphemus 
(who  was  a  son  of  Poseidon  by  the  nymph 
Tlioosa)  blind,  but  encouraged  him  at  the  same 
time  with  the  assurance  that  he  would  yet  reach 
Ithaca  in  safety,  if  he  would  not  meddle  with  the 
herds  of  Helios  (the  sun-god)  in  Tlirinacia. 
Ulysses  now  retraced  his  course,  and  once  more 
visited  Circe,  who  forewarned  him  of  the  dangers 
he  would  yet  have  to  encounter,  and  how  to  act. 
A  west  wind  blew  him  past  the  perilous  island  of 
the  Sirens  to  the  coasts  of  Italy.  In  passing 
between  Scylla  and  Charybdis,  the  monster  that 
inhabited  the  first  of  these  rocks  devoured  six  of 
Ulysses’  companions.  He  next  came  to  Thrin- 
acia,  which  he  would  fain  have  passed  by,  but  his 
crew  insisted  on  landing,  and  in  spite  of  their 
oath,  killed  some  of  the  cattle  of  Helios  while 
Ulysses  was  asleep.  The  anger  of  Zeus  was 
kindled.  When  they  had  sailed  away,  a  fierce 
storm  arose,  and  Zeus  sent  forth  a  flash  of  light¬ 
ning  that  destroyed  the  ship.  Every  one  on  board 
was  drowned  except  Ulysses  himself,  who,  after 
many  dangers,  reached  the  Island  of  Ogygia,  the 
abode  of  the  nymph  Calypso,  with  whom  he 
lived  for  eight  years.  After  his  departure  (which 
was  commanded  by  Zeus),  Poseidon  persecuted 
him  with  a  storm,  and  cast  him  on  the  shores  of 
Scheria,  the  island  of  the  Pliseacians,  in  a  very 
forlorn  condition.  He  was,  however,  very  kindly 
received  by  Nausicaa,  daughter  of  King  Alcinous, 
and  having  revealed  his  name  at  a  feast,  the 
monarch  provided  him  with  a  ship  to  carry  him 
home.  Ulysses  was  asleep  when  the  vessel 
approached  the  coast  of  It  haca;  and  the  Phaeacian 
sailors  who  had  accompanied  him  bore  the  uncon¬ 
scious  hero  to  the  shore,  and  left  him  there. 
When  he  awoke,  he  did  not  at  first  recognize 
where  he  was;  but  Athene  appearing,  informed 
him,  and  of  all  that  had  happened  to  Penelope 
in  his  absence.  Disguised  as  a  beggar,  he  repaired 
to  his  own  court,  where  he  was  recognized  by  his 
nurse,  and  by  his  old  dog,  Argus.  Aided  by 
Telemachus,  and  the  swine-herd  Eunueus,  he 
took  vengeance  upon  the  insolent  suitors  of  his 
wife,  all  of  whom  he  slew. 

Umbel'lifene  ( Apiacece  of  Lindley),  a  large 
and  important  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 


containing  more  than  1,000  species,  abounding 
chiefly  in  the  temperate  regions  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere. 

Um'bcr  {Scopus  vmbretta),  an  African  bird  of 
the  family  Ardeidw,  allied  to  the  storks,  but 
having  a  compressed  bill  with  sharp  ridge,  the 
tip  of  the  upper  mandible  hooked,  and  the 
nostrils  situated  in  a  furrow  which  extends  all 
the  length  of  the  bill.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
crow,  with  umber-colored  plumage,  and  the  male 
has  a  large  crest  on  the  back  of  the  head. 

Umber,  a  mineral  used  as  a  pigment,  a  variety 
of  the  iron  ore  called  haematite,  and  consisting 
chiefly  of  oxide  of  iron,  with  some  oxide  of 
manganese,  silica,  alumina,  and  water. 

Umbil'ical  Cord,  or  Navel-string,  the  bond 
of  communication  between  the  foetus  (which  it 
enters  at  the  umbilicus,  or  navel)  and  the  placenta, 
which  is  attached  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
maternal  womb.  It  consists  of  the  umbilical  vein 
lying  in  the  center,  and  the  two  umbilical  arteries, 
winding  from  left  to  right  round  the  vein. 

Umbilical  Cord,  in  Botany,  the  connecting 
link  between  the  placenta  of  the  ovary  and  the 
ovule,  through  which  pass  the  vessels  which 
nourish  the  ovule  till  it  ripens  into  the  seed. 

Umbilical  Hernia  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
protrusion  of  intestine  at  the  navel  or  umbilicus. 
It  is,  for  obvious  anatomical  reasons,  of  most 
frequent  occurrence  shortly  after  birth;  but  it  is 
not  uncommon  in  women  who  have  been  fre¬ 
quently  pregnant.  If  the  hernia  is  reducible, 
and  the  patient  an  infant,  the  ordinary  course  of 
treatment  is,  after  returning  the  parts  to  their 
proper  position,  to  place  the  convex  surface  of  an 
ivory  hemisphere  on  the  navel,  and  to  retain  it 
there  either  with  strips  of  adhesive  plaster,  or 
with  a  bandage.  Special  trusses  are  made  for  the 
treatment  of  This  affection  in  adults.  In  cases  of 
irreducible  hernia,  a  large  hollow  pad  should  be 
worn.  If  it  becomes  strangulated,  an  operation 
may  become  necessary. 

Umbili'cus  is  the  anatomical  term  of  the 
navel. 

Um'bria,  one  of  the  ancient  divisions  of  Italy, 
west  of  Etruria,  and  north  of  the  country  of  the 
Sabines.  It  is  usually  described  as  extending 
from  the  Tiber  eastward  to  the  Adriatic. 

Unalas'ka,  an  island  in  the  North  Pacific,  be¬ 
longs  to  the  Fox  group  of  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
in  latitude  55°  52'  N.,  and  166°  32'  W.  It  is  75 
miles  long,  and  in  some  parts  20  miles  broad;  has 
a  rugged  mountainous  surface,  and  is  thinly  peo¬ 
pled. 

Uncon form'able  Strata  are  strata  of  rock 
which  rest  on  the  more  or  less  inclined  edges  of 
older  beds.  The  existence  of  unconformability 
in  a  series  of  strata  is  an  indication  of  an  interval 
sufficiently  long  to  permit  of  the  consolidation, 
disturbance,  and  upheaval,  denudation,  and  sub¬ 
sequent  depression  of  the  inferior  beds. 

Un'dine,  a  city  of  Northern  Italy,  Yenetia,  in 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  formerly  called 
also  the  Province  of  Friuli,  situated  in  a  fertile 
plain,  about  seventy-five  miles  northeast  of  Venice 
by  railway.  Pop.  (1881),  32,020.  Pop.  of  pro v- 
ince*(1879),  513,650. 

Un 'dines  (perhaps  from  unda,  a  wave),  the 
name  given  in  the  fanciful  system  of  the  Paracel- 
sists  to  the  elementary  spirits  of  the  water.  They 
are  of  the  female  sex.  Among  all  the  different 
orders  of  elementary  spirits,  they  intermarry  most 
readily  with  human  beings,  and  the  Undine  who 
gives  birth  to  a  child  under  such  a  union,  receives 
with  her  babe  a  human  soul.  But  the  man  who 
takes  an  Undine  to  wife  must  be  careful  not  to  go 
on  the  water  with  her,  or  at  least  not  to  anger  her 
while  there,  for  in  that  case  she  will  return  to  her 
original  element.  Should  this  happen,  the  Un¬ 
dine  is  not  disposed  to  consider  her  marriage  dis¬ 
solved;  she  will  rather  seek  todestroy  her  husband, 
should  he  venture  on  a  second  marriage.  Baron 
de  laMotte  Fouque  has  made  this  Paraeelsist  fancy 
the  basis  of  an  exquisite  tale,  entitled  Undine. 

Umly,  in  Heraldry,  the  same  as  wavy. 

Unguicula'ta  (Lat.  clawed),  in  Zoology,  a  sec¬ 
tion  of  the  class  mammalia,  consisting  of  those 
animals  which  have  toes  furnished  with  nails  or 
claws. 

Ungnla'ta  (Lat.  hoofed),  in  Zoology,  a  section 
of  the  class  mammalia,  consisting  of  those  animals 


UNGULED. 


687 


UNITED  STATES. 


which  have  hoofs,  aud  divided  into  Perissodactyla 
and  Artiodactylu. 

Unguled,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  applied  to  the 
tincture  of  the  hoofs  of  an  animal. 

U'nicorn  (Lat.  vnum  cornu,  one  horn),  an  ani¬ 
mal  probably  fabulous,  mentioned  by  ancient 
Grecian  and  Roman  authors  as  a  native  of  India, 
and  described  as  being  of  the  size  of  a  horse,  or 
larger,  the  body  resembling  that  of  a  horse,  and 
with  one  horn  a  cubit  and  a  half  or  two  cubits 
long  on  the  forehead,  the  horn  straight,  tts  base 
white,  the  middle  black,  the  tip  red.  The  body  of 
the  animal  was  also  said  to  be  white,  its  head  red, 
its  eyes  blue. 

Union,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the  United 
States,  as  follows  : — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Frank¬ 
lin  county,  Mo.  Pop.,  700. — 2.  The  county  seat 
of  Monroe  county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  550. — 3.  The 
county  seat  of  Union  county,  Ore.  Pop.,  1,100. 
— 4.  The  county  seat  of  Union  county,  S.  C. 
Pop.,  1,000. 

Union  College,  a  seat  of  learning  at  Schenec¬ 
tady,  N.  Y.,  incorporated  in  1795,  chiefly  by 
the  efforts  of  Gen.  Philip  Schuyler,  a  distin¬ 
guished  officer  of  the  American  Revolution.  It 
was  named  Union  from  its  being  established  by 
the  cooperation  of  several  religious  denominations. 
It  has  18  professors  and  175  students.  In  1873 
a  school  of  engineering,  a  medical  college  (with 
120  students),  and  a  law  school  (with  near  100 
students),  were  associated  with  the  Union  College, 
now  known  as  Union  University. 

Union  Springs,  the  county  seat  of  Bullock 
county,  Ala.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Uniontown,  the  county  seat  of  Fayette  county, 
Penn.,  is  an  important  manufacturing  city.  Pop., 
8,100. 

Unionville,  the  county  seat  of  Putnam  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  800. 

Unita'rians,  a  name  applied  generally  to  all 
who  maintain  that  God  exists  in  one  person  only, 
and  specially  to  a  small  Christian  sect  of  recent 
times,  whose  distinguishing  tenet  is  the  Unity  as 
opposed  to  the  Trinity  of  the  Godhead.  In  the 
more  general  sense,  the  name  of  course  includes 
the  Jews  and  the  Mohammedans,  as  well  as  those 
Christians  who  deny  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
and  in  this  sense  also  there  have  been  Unitarians 
from  the  earliest  period  of  ecclesiastical  history. 

United  Presbyte'rian  Church,  the  name  of  a 
religious  body  which  was  constituted  in  Scotland 
in  1847  by  the  amalgamation  of  the  secession  and 
relief  churches. 

United  States  of  America,  a  federated 
Republic,  composed  of  forty-two  independent 
States,  five  organized  and  two  other  Territories, 
and  a  Federal  District,  occupies  the  central 
portion  of  the  Continent  of  North  America,  from 
latitude  24°  30'  to  49p  24'  N.,  longitude  66°  50' 
to  124°  45'  W.,  exclusive  of  Alaska.  Its  greatest 
length,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  is  2,760 
miles;  greatest  breadth,  from  Minnesota  to  Texas, 
1,600;  northern  or  British  frontier,  3,540  miles; 
Mexican,  1,550  miles;  ocean  coast,  including  the 
larger  indentations,  12,609  miles,  of  which  6,861 
are  on  the  Atlantic,  8,461  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  2,281  on  the  Pacific.  The  area  of  the  United 
States,  as  revised  at  the  census  of  1880,  is  3,602,- 
999  square  miles.  The  vastness  of  this  territory 
will  be  best  recognized  by  remembering  that  the 
total  area  of  Europe  is  but  little  greater,  being 
estimated  at  3,826,000  square  miles.  Texas,  one 
of  the  States,  is  itself  considerably  greater  in 
extent  than  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire;  and 
there  are  four  other  States  or  Territories,  each 
larger  than  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  together. 
In  1783  the  United  States  had  an  area  of  only 
827,844  square  miles;  by  the  purchase  of  Louisi¬ 
ana  from  France  in  1803,  it  acquired  1,171,931; 
by  the  cession  of  Florida  by  Spain  in  1819, 
59,270;  by  the  annexation  of  Texas  in  1845, 
376,000;  by  the  Oregon  Treaty  with  Great  Britain 
in  1846,  280,425;  by  the  Mexican  treaties,  677,260; 
and  by  the  purchase  of  Alaska  from  Russia  in 
1867,  577,390  square  miles.  The  forty-two  States 
composing  the  Federal  Republic,  each  has  its 
constitution,  legislature,  executive,  and  judiciary, 
and  represented  in  the  Federal  Congress  by  two 
senators,  and  from  one  to  above  thirty  repre¬ 


sentatives,  according  to  its  population.  The 
five  organized  Territories  are  governed  by  the 
Federal  Congress,  with  governors  and  judiciary 
appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United  States, 
but  have  a  local  legislature,  and  send  a  delegate 
without  a  vote  to  Congress.  There  is  also  the 
Indian  Territory,  a  reserve  for  Indian  tribes, 
removed  from  the  east  of  the  Mississippi  river; 
an  unorganized  region  west  of  this,  caked  Public 
Lands;  the  District  of  Columbia  (sixty  square 
miles),  ceded  by  Maryland,  including  Washing¬ 
ton,  the  Federal  capital,  governed  by  Congress; 
and  Alaska,  under  military  rule.  At  the  c  nsus 
of  1880  there  were  64  cities  in  the  United  States 
with  between  20,000  and  50,000  inhabitants;  15 
between  50,000  and  100.000;  10  between  100,000 
and  200,000;  3  between  200,000  and  300,000,  3 
between  300,000  and  400,000;  2  between  400,000 
and  500,000;  1  (Philadelphia)  over  800,000;  and  1 
(New  York)  with  upward  of  1,200,000.  It  was 
found  that  of  the  18  most  populous  cities  in  the 
United  States,  6  had  increased  since  1870  by  from 
20  to  30  per  cent.,  4  from  30  to  50,  4  from  50  to 
71,  and  1  (Milwaukee)  92  per  cent.  No  country 
has  been  peopled  by  such  a  variety  of  races.  New 
England  was  settled  by  English  Puritans,  and  a 
few  Scottish  and  Welsh;  New  York,  by  Dutch; 
Pennsylvania,  by  Quakers  and  Germans;  Mary¬ 
land,  by  English  Roman  Catholics;  Delaware  and 
New  Jersey,  by  Dutch  and  Swedes;  Virginia,  by 
English  cavaliers;  the  Carolinas,  in  part  by 
French  Huguenots;  Louisiana,  by  French; 
Florida,  Texas,  and  California,  by  Spanish; 
Utah,  by  Mormons,  chiefly  from  England,  Wales, 
and  Denmark.  Immigration  from  Ireland, 
Germany,  England,  Scotland,  France,  Switzer¬ 
land,  Sweden,  has  been  large  and  progressive. 
Of  the  total  of  50,155,783  reckoned  in  the 
census,  25,518,820  were  males,  and  24,636,963 
females;  43,475,840  were  native  born,  and 
6,679,943  were  whites,  foreign  born;  105,465 
Chinese;  148  Japanese,  and  66,407  were  civilized 
Indians.  Of  the  whites  foreign  born,  2,772,169  were 
natives  of  Great  Britain;  1,966,742  were  Germans; 
717,084  British  Americans  ;  194,327  Norwegians; 
181,729  Swedes;  106,971  French.  It  is  said  that 
the  Irish  and  the  Germans,  with  their  descendants, 
constitute  one-third  of  the  entire  population; 
about  10,000,000  being  set  down  as  of  Irish 
descent,  and  6,000,000  of  German  stock.  From 
1820  to  1880,  the  immigrants  from  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  numbered  over  4,700,000.  The 
current  of  immigration  which  goes  to  swell  the 
grand  total  is  very  large,  but  fluctuates  from  year 
to  year.  Between  1870  and  1880  it  varied  from 
138,000  in  1877,  to  457,000  in  1880 ;  in  1881  it 
reached  the  enormous  aggregate  of  669,431. 
Though  occupying  the  central  portion  of  a 
continent,  more  than  two-tliirds  of  the  frontiers 
of  the  United  States  are  shores  of  lakes  and  oceans, 
with  numerous  bays  and  sounds,  rivers  and 
lakes.  The  principal  lakes,  besides  those  divided 
with  British  America,  are  Lake  Champlain,  Lake 
Michigan,  Great  Salt  Lake,  Pyramid  Lake,  Mono 
Lake,  Lake  Tulare,  and  many  beautiful  clusters 
of  smaller  lakes  in  Maine,  New  York,  Minnesota, 
etc.  The  rivers  of  the  United  States  may  be  classed 
in  four  divisions;  The  Mississippi  and  its  branches; 
the  rivers  emptying  into  the  Atlantic  or  its  bays 
and  sounds — the  St.  Croix,  Penobscot,  Kennebec, 
Merrimac,  Connecticut,  Hudson,  Delaware,  Sus¬ 
quehanna,  Potomac,  James,  Roanoke,  Neuse, 
Cape  Fear,  Pedee,  Santee,  Savannah,  Altamahn, 
St.  Johns,  etc.  Those,  besides  the  Mississippi, 
emptying  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico — the  Chatta¬ 
hoochee,  Alabama,  Tombigbee,  Pearl,  Sabine, 
Trinity,  Brazos,  Colorado,  Nueces,  and  Rio 
Grhnde.  Those  emptying  into  the  Pacific — the 
Oregon  or  Columbia,  Sacramento,  San  Joaquin, 
Colorado,  etc.  Besides  these,  there  are  many 
small  rivers  emptying  into  the  Great  Lakes,  and 
findingtheiroutlet  through  the  St.  Lawrence;  and 
the  rivers  which  empty  in  the  salt  lakes  of  the 
great  interior  basin  of  Utah.  The  chief  mountains 
of  America  are  the  Alleghanies  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  soil  is  of  every  variety,  from  the 
sterile  deserts  of  the  great  western  plains  and 
Utah,  to  the  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  bottom¬ 
lands  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  where  heavy  crops 
of  maize  have  grown  for  fifty  successive  years 
without  manuring.  The  St.  Lawrence  basin  is  an 
elevated  calcareous  plain,  fertile  and  well  wooded. 


The  Atlantic  slope  from  Maine  to  New  Jersey, 
east  of  the  Hudson,  is  hilly,  and  best  adapted  for 
grazing;  more  southerly,  the  coast-belt  is  low, 
sandy,  in  places  swampy,  with  pine-barrens,  the 
inland  region  fertile,  and  among  the  best  in  the 
country.  The  Mississippi  Valley  is  generally  level, 
and  prairie-lands  of  unsurpassed  fertility,  with  a 
rich  mold,  in  places  twenty-five  feet  deep.  North¬ 
west,  the  country  rises  to  a  high  and  sterile  region, 
extending  from  200  to  400  miles  from  the  base  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  Texas  slope  has  rich 
bottom-lands  on  the  coast,  a  fine  rolling  fertile 
country,  rising  to  a  high  plateau,  dry  and  sterile, 
except  in  the  river-bottoms.  The  Pacific  slope  is 
generally  sterile,  except  the  great  valleys  between 
the  mountain-ranges,  and  bordering  the  rivers, 
which  are  of  great  fertility.  Utah,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  a  few  fertile  spots,  is  a  desolate  untimbered 
region  of  salt  lakes  and  land  saturated  with  alka¬ 
line  substances.  The  country  east  of  the  Missis¬ 
sippi,  except,  the  prairies  of  Illinois  and  Indiana, 
was,  at  its  settlement,  heavily  wooded,  and  there 
are  still  vast  forests  of  valuable  timber — beech, 
birch,  maple,  o  di,  pine,  hemlock,  spruce,  walnut, 
hickory,  ash,  elm,  etc. ;  aud  in  the  south,  live-oak, 
water-oak,  magnolia,  palmetto,  tulip-tree,  cypress, 
cotton-wood,  cane,  etc.  West  of  the  9bth  meridian 
stretches  a  vast  region  of  almost  treeless  prairies; 
forests  again  occur  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
California,  Oregon,  and  Washington  have  the 
largest  timber  in  the  world.  The  climate  is  re¬ 
markable  for  wide  transitions  of  cold,  heat,  rain, 
and  drought,  except  in  the  Peninsula  of  Florida, 
where  the  temperature  varies  but  12°  F. ,  and  west¬ 
ern  Oregon  and  Washington,  where  the  climate 
is  like  that  of  England.  With  few  exceptions, 
the  summers  are  hot,  both  north  and  south,  the 
thermometer  rising  at  times  to  110°  F.,  and  along 
the  northern  range  of  States  sinking  to— 20°, 
and  even  sometimes  as  low  as  40°.  The  whole 
Atlantic  coast  has  a  winter  temperature  10°  lower 
than  that  of  Western  Europe  in  the  same  latitude. 
Thus,  at  New  York,  in  the  latitude  of  Madrid,  the 
Hudson  river  is  frozen,  and  the  harbor  at  times 
filled  with  floating  ice.  The  causes  modifying  the 
climates  of  the  different  portions  of  the  country 
chiefly  arise  out  of  the  physical  features;  of  which 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the 
Atlantic,  and  the  lake  system  in  the  north  are  the 
most  prominent.  On  the  west,  from  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific  to  the  Cascade  Mountains,  one  of  the 
most  important  ranges  of  mountains  in  America, 
the  climate  resembles  that  of  Great  Britain  more 
closely  than  that  of  any  country  in  the  world,  being 
mild  and  humid, with  frequent  showers  at  all  sea¬ 
sons.  But  the  great  valley  lying  between  the 
Cascade  and  Rocky  Mountains  is  almost  entirely 
a  rainless  district,  because  the  westerly  winds  are 
drained  of  their  moisture  in  crossing  the  Cascade 
Mountains  before  arriving  there.  In  winter,  it  is 
covered  with  snow, but  in  summer  is  dry  and  arid. 
Owing,  however,  to  the  copious  streams  poured 
down  from  the  melting  snow,  it  presents  abundant 
facilities  for  irrigation,  so  that  its  capabilities  and 
resources  are  great.  The  country  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  depends  for  its  rain  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico;  and  the  rainfall  there  is  distributed  most 
in  the  low  plains,  and  least  on  the  plateaux  and 
mountains.  Hence  over  this  extensive  district 
southerly  winds  are  warm  and  moist,  and  westerly 
and  northerly  dry  and  cold.  The  result,  is  rapid 
alternationsof  temperature,  the  temperature  having 
frequently  a  range  in  the  course  of  a  day  of  50° 
or  60°.  In  the  New  England  States,  the  northerly 
and  easterly  winds  are  cold,  moist,  and  chilly, 
accompanied  with  frequent  fogs;  otherwise  the 
climate  resembles  that  of  Great  Britain.  The 
climate  of  the  States  surrounding  the  Great  Lakes 
in  the  north  is  mild  and  moist  in  summer  as  com¬ 
pared  with  the  other  northern  States;  but  in  winter, 
when  the  lakes  arc  partly  frozen,  a  degree  of  cold 
is  experienced  greater,  absolutely  and  relatively, 
than  anywhere  else  in  the  country.  This  exces¬ 
sive  col  dis  caused  by  the  country  being  exposed 
in  the  north  to  the  full  sweep  of  the  polar  current 
from  the  north:  but  more  particularly  to  its  low- 
lying  situation,  thus  forming,  as  it  were,  a  vast 
basin  into  which  is  poured  from  all  sides  the  cold, 
and  therefore  heavy,  currents  of  air  chilled  by 
terrestrial  radiation  during  the  winter  season. 

United  States  History. — The  history  of  the 
United  States  begins  with  July  4,  1776,  when  the 


UNITED  STATES. 


688 


UNITED  STATES. 


thirteen  colonies  renounced  their  allegiance  to  the 
British  Crown,  and  declared  themselves  independ¬ 
ent  States.  But  long  before  that  date  the  colo¬ 
nies  had  begun  to  feel  the  need  of  mutual  sup¬ 
port  and  had  taken  preliminary  steps  toward  the 
formation  of  a  Union.  After  many  years  of 
oppressive  legislation,  the  English  Parliament 
passed,  in  1765,  a  stamp  act,  requiring  that  every 
legal  document  executed,  and  every  newspaper 
or  pamphlet  published,  should  be  written  or 
printed  upon  paper  bearing  the  government 
stamp,  and  costing  from  6  cents  to  $30  a  sheet. 
The  opposition  of  the  colonies  was  general, 
and  Oct.  7,  1765,  the  first  Colonial  Congress 
met  at  New  York  and  declared  that  the 
colonists,  not  being  represented,  could  not  be 
taxed.  The  act  was  repealed  in  the  following 
year,  but  in  1767  a  duty  was  imposed  on  all  glass, 
paper,  tea,  etc.,  imported  into  the  colonies.  Its 
enforcement  was  strenuously  resisted,  especially 
in  Massachusetts,  and  in  1774,  Parliament  passed 
the  Boston  Port  Bill,  declaring  that  no  merchan¬ 
dize  should  be  received  at,  or  shipped  from,  Bos¬ 
ton.  The  oilier  colonies  sympathized  with  Mas¬ 
sachusetts,  and  in  September  the  second  Colonial 
Congress,  represent  ng  eleven  colonies,  met  at 
Philadelphia.  April  18,  1775,  the  fight  at  Con¬ 
cord  took  place,  and  was  soon  followed  by  the 
investment  of  the  British  troops  in  Boston. 
Ge  rge  Washington  was  elected  Commander-in- 
Chief,  June  15,  and  took  command  of  the  troops 
before  Boston,  which  was  evacuated  by  the 
British,  March  17,  1776.  July  4,  Congress  adopted 
the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Military  opera¬ 
tions  during  the  remainder  of  the  year  were 
unfavorable  to  the  Americans,  who  were  com¬ 
pelled  to  evacuate  New  York.  These  reverses 
were  followed  by  the  victories  at  Trenton  and 
Princeton.  In  1777,  the  Americans  were  forced 
to  abandon  Philadelphia,  but  October  17,  General 
Burgoyne  surrendered  at  Saratoga  to  General 
Gates.'  During  the  winter  of  1777-78,  the  Ameri¬ 
can  forces,  reduced  in  number  and  disheartened 
in  spirit,  were  encamped  at  Valley  Forge,  where 
they  suffered  great  hardships.  Feb.  6,  1778,  an 
alliance  "was  concluded  with  France,  which  sent 
men,  ships,  and  money  to  aid  the  Americans. 
Notwithstanding  this  assistance  but  little  was 
accomplished  during  the  year,  nor  during  1779, 
Georgia  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  British,  and 
an  attempt  to  capture  Savannah  resulting  unsuc¬ 
cessfully.  In  the  following  year  Gates  was 
defeated  at  Camden,  and  South  Carolina  wras  in 
the  possession  of  the  enemy.  Benedict  Arnold 
deserted  to  the  British  after  failing  in  his  plan  to 
surrender  West  Point  to  them.  In  1781,  how¬ 
ever,  the  American  forces  in  the  South,  under 
General  Greene,  after  the  Battle  of  the  Cowpens 
and  several  other  engagements,  drove  the  British 
into  Charleston  and  Savannah,  and  October  19, 
the  war  was  practically  ended  by  the  surrender  of 
General  Cornwallis  at  Yorktowu.  Negotiations 
for  peace  were  begun  in  1782,  and  Sept.  3,  1783, 
the  treaty  was  signed,  acknowledging  the  inde¬ 
pendence  of  the  United  States.  The  defects  of 
the  articles  of  confederation  soon  became  appar¬ 
ent,  and  in  1787  a  convention  was  called  at  Annap¬ 
olis  to  revise  the  form  of  government.  The 
result  of  its  labors  was  the  present  Constitution, 
except  the  amendments,  which  have  been  adopted 
at  various  times  It  was  ratified  by  the  requisite 
number  of  States  before  the  end  of  1788,  and 
April  30  of  the  following  year,  George  Washing¬ 
ton  wras  inaugurated  first  President.  From  this 
time  until  1812,  the  United  States  was  at  peace, 
with  the  exception  of  the  contests  with  the 
Miami  and  Shawnee  Indians  who  were  defeated, 
the  first  l>y  General  Wayne  and  the  second  by 
General  Harrison.  In  1812  war  was  declared 
against  Great  Britain,  the  chief  cause  being  the 
assertion  by  that  power,  then  at  war  with  France, 
of  its  right  to  search  American  vessels,  and  seize 
seamen  of  British  birth.  Hostilities  were  carried 
on  until  Dec.  24,  1814,  when  the  treaty  of  Ghent 
was  signed.  The  chief  events  of  this  war  were, 
on  one  side,  the  naval  victories  won  by  Commo¬ 
dore  Perry  on  Lake  Erie  and  Commodore  McDon¬ 
ough  on  Lake  Champlain,  the  campaign  of 
General  Harrison  against  the  British  and  their 
Indian  allies  near  Detroit,  the  successes  of  the 
forces  under  General  Scott  at  Chippewa  and 
Lundy’s  Lane  in  Canada,  and  the  defeat  of  the 


British  at  New  Orleans  by  General  Jackson; 
and  on  the  other  the  capture  of  Generals  Hull  and 
Winchester  and  the  armies  they  commanded, 
and  the  occupation  of  Washington  after  the  Battle 
of  Bladensburgh.  During  1813  the  Creek  Indians, 
in  Alabama,  who  had  begun  war,  were  conquered 
by  General  Jackson.  In  1832  there  was  a  conflict 
with  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  and  from  1835  to  1839  a 
contest  with  the  Seminoles,  which  ended  in  their 
removal  to  the  Indian  Territory.  In  December 
of  1845,  Texas  was  annexed  to  the  United  States, 
and  a  dispute  with  Mexico  as  to  the  boundary 
line  led  to  a  war  with  that  State,  hostilities  being 
declared  May  11,  1846.  Gen.  Zachary  Taylor, 
marching  from  the  Rio  Grande  won  the  Bat¬ 
tles  of  Palo  Alto  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma, 
captured  Monterey  and  defeated  a  superior  force 
under  Santa  Ana  at  Buena  Vista.  Gen.  Winfield 
Scott,  in  March,  1847,  forced  Vera  Cruz  to  sur¬ 
render,  and  after  the  Battles  of  Cerro  Gordo. 
Churubusco,  and  Chapultepec,  occupied  the  city 
of  Mexico.  By  the  treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo, 
signed  Feb.  2,  1848,  which  ended  the  war,  New 
Mexico  and  Upper  California  were  ceded  to  the 
United  States.  From  this  time,  until  the  out¬ 
break  of  the  Civil  War,  nothing  occurred  to 
check  the  progress  of  the  country  in  wealth  and 
population;  but  in  1860  Abraham  Lincoln  was 
elected  president,  and  December  20  of  that  year. 
South  Carolina  passed  an  ordinance  of  secession, 
the  example  thus  set  being  rapidly  followed  by 
Mississippi,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Florida,  Louisi¬ 
ana,  and  Texas.  In  April,  1861,  Fort  Sumter 
in  Charleston  Harbor  was  fired  on  by  the  Confed¬ 
erates,  and  the  Union  soldiers  who  garrisoned  it 
were  forced  to  surrender.  This  was  followed  by  a 
call  by  President  Lincoln  for  troops.  Virginia, 
Arkansas,  Tennessee,  and  North  Carolina  seceded 
soon  after.  The  first  great  battle  of  the  war  was 
fought  at  Bull  Run,  July  21,  and  resulted  in  the 
defeat  of  the  Federal  army.  During  1862  the 
Union  forces  in  the  East  were  unsuccessful,  being 
driven  back  from  Richmond  and  again  defeated 
at  Bull  Run,  while  the  Confederates  under  Gen¬ 
eral  Lee  crossed  into  Maryland,  from  which 
State,  however,  they  soon  retreated.  But  in  the 
West,  Forts  Ilenry  and  Donclson  were  captured, 
and  the  greater  part  of  Tennessee  was  occupied 
by  the  Union  armies.  The  year  1863  began  by 
the  issuance  by  President  Lincoln  of  the  emanci¬ 
pation  proclamation.  The  capture  of  Vicksburg 
by  General  Grant  and  the  defeat  of  Lee  at  Gettys¬ 
burg,  by  General  Meade,  which  occured  during 
this  year,  were  the  decisive  events  of  the  war.  In 
1864,  General  Sherman,  after  a  series  of  battles, 
gained  possession  of  Atlanta  and  marched  from 
there  to  Savannah,  while  General  Grant,  driving 
Lee’s  forces  before  him,  began  the  siege  of  Peters¬ 
burg.  April  2,  1865,  Richmond  was  evacuated, 
and  on  the  9th  of  that  month  General  Lee  sur¬ 
rendered  at  Appomattox  Courthouse,  thus  closing 
a  war  in  which,  on  the  Union  side,  1,772,408  men 
had  been  engaged,  and  a  debt  of  $2,000,000,000 
contracted.  Since  the  close  of  the  war  the  United 
States  has  been  at  peace  at  home  and  abroad. 

The  chief  agricultural  products  of  the  United 
States  are  corn,  wheat,  hay,  rye,  oats,  barley,  po¬ 
tatoes,  cotton,  tobacco,  hemp,  and  sugar.  Of  the 
cereals,  wheat  is  grown  in  the  greatest  quantities 
in  the  Dakotas, Minnesota,  IowTa,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
California,  and  Ohio;  and  corn  in  Missouri, Illinois, 
Indiana, and  Ohio.  The  cultivation  of  cotton  is 
practically  confined  to  the  Gulf  and  South  Atlantic 
States,  where  it  has  been  grown  on  a  great  scale 
since  1793,  the  year  of  the  invention  of  the  cotton 
gin.  Tobacco  is  grown  chiefly  in  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri,  though  large 
quantities  are  raised  in  Wisconsin,  Pennsylvania, 
New  York,  and  the  Valley  of  the  Connecticut. 
The  sugar-cane  is  confined  to  Louisiana.  Hay 
is  one  of  the  great  crops  of  all  the  Northern 
and  Western  States,  and  potatoes  are  cultivated 
in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Among  other  articles 
which  are  extensively  grown,  though  not  on  so 
large  a  scale  as  those  mentioned  above,  are  rice, 
flax,  hops,  buckwheat,  etc.  There  are  no  trust¬ 
worthy  returns  of  the  exports  of  the  colo¬ 
nies  prior  to  1701.  Before  that  time,  however, 
heavy  shipments  were  made  of  rice  and  indigo 
from  South  Carolina,  of  tobacco  from  Virginia, 
and  of  lumber  from  the  New  England  States.  A 
large  trade  sprang  up  with  the  West  India 


Islands,  but  was  hampered  by  the  oppressive 
regulations  of  various  acts  of  Parliament,  which 
sought  to  confine  the  carrying  trade  of  the  colo¬ 
nies  to  British  bottoms.  The  War  of  the  Revo¬ 
lution  put  an  end  to  all  commerce,  but  it  rapidly 
revived  after  the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  of  peace 
with  Great  Britain,  was  increased  by  the  conti¬ 
nental  wars,  but  was  again  reduced  by  the  re¬ 
strictive  regulations  of  Napoleon  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  British  Government  on  the  other,  and 
also  by  the  War  of  1812.  Since  that  period,  how¬ 
ever,  it  has  steadily  increased,  though  temporarily 
diminished  by  short  crops,  or  by  events  such  as 
the  Civil  War.  The  exportation  of  cotton  began 
on  a  small  scale  in  1790,  that  of  manufactured 
cottons  in  1826,  that  of  lard  and  cheese  in  1855, 
of  petroleum  in  1862,  of  wheat  in  1810,  and  of 
bacon  and  hams  in  1855.  The  total  value  of 
imports  from  June  1,  1888  to  May  31,  1889,  was 
$746,830,236,  and  of  exports  $738,764,637.  The 
exports  of  bread  and  of  breadstuff's,  in  1887, 
were  valued  at  $165,768,662;  of  cotton,  raw  and 
manufactured,  at  $221,151,3  t9;  and  of  provisions, 
at  $92,783,296.  Most  of  these  went  to  Great 
Britain.  There  were  exported  from  this  country 
duringtlie  fiscal  years  1887-88,  11,521,790  barrels 
of  flour,  265,333  barrels  of  corn  meal,  16,818,330 
batrels  of  oatmeal,  101,971,949  bushels  of  wheat, 
40,307,252  of  corn,  357,256  of  rye,  1,305,300  of 
barley,  and  440,283  of  oats.  The  imports  have 
varied  greatly  in  value  since  1790, being  influenced 
by  tariff  legislation,  by  the  prosperity  of  the 
country, or  by  foreign  wars.  From  1790  until  1811, 
the  imports  exceeded  the  exports  in  value,  as  they 
did  from  1814  to  1821,  and  with  rare  interrup¬ 
tions  until  1840.  From  that  time  until  1850 
the  imports  were  in  excess.  During  the  twenty- 
three  years  between  1850  and  1873,  the  balance  of 
trade  varied.  Since  then,  it  has  been  steadily  in 
favor  of  the  United  States.  The  tonnage  of  the 
United  States  June  30,  1888,  was:  Sailing  ton¬ 
nage,  2,170,158;  steam  tonnage,  1,542,717;  total, 
4,105,845.  The  employment  of  tonnage  was:  In 
i he  foreign  trade,  989,412;  coastwise  trade,  3,010- 
735;  whale  fisheries,  26,151;  cod  and  mackerel 
fisheries,  79,547. 

It  is  estimated  by  the  director  of  the  mint  that 
the  bullion  product  of  the  United  States  for  the 
year  1886  was  $86,190,500,  of  which  $34,869,- 
000  was  gold,  and  $51,321,500  silver.  Before 
the  discovery  of  California,  gold  was  mined 
in  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  and 
was  also  found  in  other  States,  though  not 
in  paying  quantities.  Silver  was  also  found  in 
the  mountains  of  Georgia  and  the  Carolinas. 
The  total  product  of  both  of  the  metals  was 
comparatively  small,  however.  But  in  1848, 
the  working  of  the  California  mines  began,  and 
from  1861  the  quantity  of  silver  put  upon 
the  market  has  been  steadily  increasing.  At 
present  the  United  States  produces  a  larger 
quantity  of  the  precious  metals  annually  than 
any  other  country  in  the  world.  During  the 
war  the  exports  of  gold  and  silver  coin  and  bullion 
ranged  from  $56,946,851,  in  1861,  to  $100,473,562 
in  1864.  In  1887,  however,  the  exports  of  both 
domestic  and  foreign  coin  and  bullion  were  only 
$13,287,351,  while  the  imports  were  $60,170,- 
712.  There  were  in  the  United  States,  at  the 
close  of  the  year  1830,  twenty-three  miles  of 
railroad  track.  At  the  close  of  the  year  1888 
there  were  150,700  miles.  So  that  the  present 
enormous  railway  system  of  this  country  has 
been  constructed  in  just  half  a  century.  In 
1782  Oliver  Evans,  an  American  inventor,  pat¬ 
ented  a  steam  carriage,  and  urged  the  construction 
of  a  railway  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia, 
with  wooden  or  iron  rails,  on  which  his  locomo¬ 
tive  might  be  used.  But  he  was  in  advance  of 
his  age,  and  it  was  left  for  others  to  carry  out  his 
designs.  In  1825  the  Stock  I  on  &  Darlington 
road  in  England  was  opened.  The  passengers 
were  conveyed  in  coaches,  drawn  by  horses,  at  a 
speed  of  ten  miles  an  hour.  Locomotives  had 
been  used  in  England  prior  to  this  time,  one  hav¬ 
ing  been  put  on  a  Welsh  road  as  early  as  1804, 
but  they  labored  under  many  and  serious  defects, 
and  it  was  not  until  1830  that  George  Stephenson’s 
locomotives,  which  were  used  on  the  Liverpool  & 
Manchester  road,  solved  the  problem.  A  horse 
railroad  was  built  in  1827  from  the  granite 
quarries  at  Quincy,  Mass.,  to  the  Neponset  river. 


UNITED  STATES. 


689 


UNITED  STATES. 


The  rails  were  of  pine,  covered  with  an  oak  plate, 
and  this  with  flat  bars  of  iron,  all  resting  upon 
granite  sleepers.  The  Baltimore  &  Ohio,  which 
was  begun  in  1828,  was  originally  planned  for 
horse-cars  only.  The  first  railway  in  America, 
upon  which  steam-power  was  employed,  was  a 
short  line  built  in  1827  by  the  Delaware  &  Hud¬ 
son  Coal  Company,  from  their  mines  to  llones- 
dale,  at  the  terminus  of  the  canal.  A  locomotive 
brought  from  England  was  used  upon  it  in  1828. 
In  the  same  year  a  road  six  miles  long  was  built 
out  of  Charleston,  and  the  first  locomotive  built  in 
this  country  was  put  upon  it.  The  capital  stock 
of  all  the  roads  in  the  United  States  was  at  the 
beginning  of  1887,  $3,999,508,508;  the  bonded 
debt  was  $3,882,966,330;  other  debt,  $280,673,814; 
cost  of  railroads  and  equipment,  $7,254,999,223. 
No  country  has  coal  fields  equaling  in  extent  or 
productiveness  those  of  the  United  States. 
Anthracite  coal  is  found  in  immense  quantities 
in  Pi  nnsylvania,  and  bituminous  coal  is  found 
in  the  same  State,  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  and  other 
States  and  Territories.  Petroleum,  which  is 
exported  in  large  quantities,  is  produced  in 
Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Indiana,  Ohio,  and 
Wyoming.  The  United  States  owned  no  lands 
at  the  time  of  the  organization  of  the  Gov¬ 
ernment.  All  the  vast  territory  lying  between 
the  .Mississippi  river  and  what  are  now  the 
western  boundaries  of  Georgia,  North  Carolina, 
West  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York, 
was  claimed  by  certain  of  the  colonies  under  their 
royal  charters.  But  in  1784  Virginia  ceded  to 
the  General  Government  all  her  right  to  the  lands 
north  of  the  Ohio,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
tracts  reserved  as  bounty  lands  for  her  soldiers. 
Connecticut  retained  what  is  known  as  the  West- 
era  Reserve  in  Northern  Ohio,  but  the  other 
States  made  unconditional  cessions.  Out  of  this 
— the  Northwestern  Territory — the  States  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  have 
been  created.  Virginia  retained  her  possessions 
south  of  the  Ohio,  which  constituted  at  a  later 
day  the  State  of  Kentucky.  North  Carolina 
ceded  to  the  General  Government  what  is  now  the 
State  of  Tennessee,  but  there  were  no  public 
lands  wdtliin  its  limits.  All  of  Mississippi  and 
Alabama,  with  the  exception  of  a  strip  along  the 
gulf  coast,  was  ceded  to  the  British  by  France  in 
1763,  and  was  claimed  by  Georgia,  by  which  State 
it  was  surrendered  to  the  United  States,  and  by  it 
surveyed  and  sold.  In  1803  the  public  domain 
was  immensely  increased  by  the  purchase,  by 
President  Jefferson,  of  the  remaining  possessions 
of  the  French  on  this  continent.  The  land  thus 
acquired  now  constitutes  the  States  of  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  Missouri,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Nebraska, 
most  of  Minnesota  and  Oregon,  and  all  the  present 
Territories,  with  the  exception  of  New  Mexico, 
Utah,  and  Arizona.  In  1811  the  remainder  of 
Mississippi  and  Alabama  was  wrested  from  Spain, 
and  in  1819  that  power  ceded  Florida  to  the 
United  States.  The  acquisition  of  New  Mexico, 
nearly  all  of  Arizona,  California,  Nevada,  Utah, 
and  part  of  Colorado,  was  due  to  the  war  with 
Mexico,  which  ended  in  1848.  That  portion  of 
Arizona  lying  south  of  the  Gila  river  was  bought 
of  Mexico  in  1853,  and  the  purchase  of  Alaska 
from  Russia  in  1877  constituted  the  last  addition 
to  the  territory  of  the  Republic.  The  total  area 
of  the  land  now  comprising  the  United  States 
and  Territories  is  3,602,990  square  miles.  The 
public  lands  were  disposed  of  slowly  at  first,  for 
they  were  held  at  what  was  then  a  high  price,  it 
being  thought  that  the  expenses  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment  could  be  met  by  the  sales  of  lands.  Subse¬ 
quently,  however,  they  were  alienated  with  great 
liberality.  Large  grants  were  made  of  bounty 
lands  to  the  soldiers  who  had  fought  in  the 
various  wars;  to  the  States  for  educational  and 
other  purposes,  including  the  construction  of 
canals,  and  to  aid  in  the  construction  of  railways  ; 
while  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  the  Homestead 
Law  was  passed,  by  which  persons  who  will  settle 
upon  and  improve  lands  may  acquire  homes  at  a 
nominal  cost.  There  were  on  June  30,  1887,  973,- 
723,495  acres  of  public  lands  of  all  soits  still 
remaining,  though  of  this  a  very  small  portion  is 
available  for  cultivation.  A  large  trade  has 
recently  sprung  up  in  the  exportation  of  live 
horned  cattle,  and  of  fresh  meat,  to  Great  Britain, 
which  will,  unless  checked  by  prohibitory  legis¬ 


lation  on  the  other  side  of  the  ocean,  rapidly 
attain  still  greater  dimensions.  The  value  of 
living  animals  exported  in  1887  was  $10,598,- 
362.  At  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War, 
the  United  States,  irrespective  of  the  valueless 
Continental  currency,  the  various  issues  of 
which  amounted  to  $359,000,000,  had  a  debt  of 
$75,463,476,  which  had  been  reduced  by  1812 
to  $45,209,737.  As  a  result  of  the  war  with 
Great  Britain  it  rose,  by  1816,  to  $127,334,933. 
In  1835  it  had  sunk  to  $37,518,  rising  in  1838  to 
$10,434,221.  It  next  reached  its  highest  point  in 
1851,  when  it  was  $68,304,769,  an  increase  due  in 
great  part  to  the  war  with  Mexico.  In  1857  it 
was  $28,699,831,  but  had  risen,  through  various 
causes,  to  $64,842,287  in  1860.  The  highest  point 
was  reached  in  1866,  at  the  close  of  the  Civil  War, 
when  the  public  debt  was  $2,773,236,173.  It  is 
now  (1889),  $1,651,401,188.  The  greater  portion 
of  this  indebtedness  bears  but  four  percent,  inter¬ 
est,  and  the  outstanding  six  and  five  per  cent, 
bonds  which  were  due  in  1881,  have  b  en  replaced 
by  new  ones  bearing  three  and  a  half  per  cent.  The 
revenues  of  the  Government  have  been  derived 
from  customs  duties,  proceeds  of  sales  of  public 
lands,  internal  revenue  duties,  and  at  various  times, 
direct  taxes.  Internal  revenue  taxes  were  collected 
from  1792  to  1848,  and  were  again  resorted  to  in 
1862  to  help  meet  the  expenses  of  the  war.  Direct 
taxes  were  levied  from  1800  to  1839,  and  from  1861 
to  1871 .  The  customs  duties,  which  have  been  the 
principal  source  of  revenue,  have  varied  greatly, 
depending  on  the  amount  of  imports  and  the 
higher  or  lower  scale  of  the  tariff.  Of  the  total 
amount  collected  up  to  July  1, 1887,  $5,858,971,676 
was  from  customs,  $3,568,289,457  from  internal 
revenue,  $250,887,164  from  public  lands,  28,130,- 
432  from  direct  taxes,  and  $594,078,827  from 
miscellaneous  sources,  the  grand  total  net  receipts, 
excluding  loans,  being  $10,300,347,549.  The 
internal  revenue  duties  are  now  collected  chiefly 
from  distilled  spirits,  malt  liquors,  and  tobacco. 
In  addition  to  its  bonded  indebtedness  the  United 
States  has  outstanding  legal  tender  notes  to  the 
amount  of  $73,700,000.  They  are  redeemable  in 
coin,  upon  presentation  at  the  Treasury  at  Wash¬ 
ington,  or  the  Sub-Treasury  in  New  York  City. 
There  were  also  in  circulation,  July  1,  1889, 
national  bank  notes  to  the  amount  of  $127,534,092. 
There  were  on  May  13th,  3,346  national  banks, 
with  a  capital  of  $599,472,742,  and  a  surplus  of 
$277,702,996.  With  the  exception  of  the  large 
grants  of  public  lands  made  to  the  States  to  consti¬ 
tute  a  common-school  fund,  to  endow  agricultural 
colleges,  etc.,  the  Federal  Government  has,  as  yet, 
left  the  subject  of  education  to  the  States.  The 
growth  of  the  population  of  the  United  States 
has  been  such  as  to  excite  the  wonder  and  envy 
of  the  world.  It  has  been  kept  up  without 
cessation  since  the  foundation  of  the  Govern¬ 
ment,  with  the  exception  of  the  period  from 
1861  to  1865,  when  the  two  sections  of  the 
country  were  engaged  in  a  combat  which  cost 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  lives.  Prior  to  the 
first  national  census,  taken  in  1790,  there  are  few 
statistics  showing  the  population  of  the  colonies. 
There  were,  however,  in  1701,  262,000  inhabit¬ 
ants,  and  in  1749,  1,046,000.  The  population  in 
1880  was  50,155,783,  and  is  now  about  65,000,000. 
Of  the  11,000,000  who  have  come  to  this  country 
during  the  last  century,  the  majority  were  from 
Ireland,  Germany,  and  Scandinavia — Denmark, 
Norway,  and  Sweden.  There  have,  however, 
been  large  numbers  of  English,  Scotch,  Poles, 
Bohemians,  and  Russians.  Few  were  from  France, 
and,  while  many  Italians  have  come,  it  has  gen¬ 
erally  been  with  the  intention  of  returning.  Sta¬ 
tistics  of  the  destination  of  immigrants  have  been 
kept  since  1855.  Of  the  3,837,508  who  arrived 
between  that  year  and  1871,  1,226,026  went  direct 
to  the  Western  States  and  Territories  where 
cheap  land  was  procurable;  596,249  to  the  Middle 
States;  303,806  to  New  England;  59,848  to  the 
Southern  States;  106,237  to  the  Pacific  States  and 
Territories;  while  1,572,342  gave  their  destina¬ 
tion  as  New  York,  but  the  majority  of  these 
found  a  permanent  location  elsewhere. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  President, 
who  lioldsoffice  for  four  years  and  receives  $50,000 
annually.  He  can  be  removed  only  on  articles  of 
impeachment  presented  by  the  House  of  Repre¬ 
sentatives  to  the  Senate,  and  sustained  by  two- 


thirds  of  that  body.  In  case  of  his  death  or 
removal  the  Vice-President  succeeds  him.  The 
President  and  Vice-President  are  not  elected  di¬ 
rectly  by  the  people,  but  by  what  is  known  as 
the  electoral  college.  Each  State  is  entitled  to  a 
number  of  electors  equal  to  that  of  its  Senators 
and  Representatives  in  Congress,  and  these 
electors,  meeting  at  their  respective  State  capitals, 
vote  for  President  and  Vice-President.  These 
returns  are  then  sent  to  Congress  where  they  are 
canvassed  and  the  result  announced.  In  case  no 
person  receives  a  majority  of  all  the  votes,  the 
election  devolves  upon  the  House  of  Representa¬ 
tives,  where  each  State  votes  as  a  unit,  a  majority 
of  all  the  States  being  necessary  for  an  election. 
The  various  Cabinet  officers  are  appointed  by  the 
President  and  confirmed  by  the  Senate.  They 
are — Secretary  of  State,  of  the  Treasury,  of  War, 
of  the  Navy,  of  the  Interior,  of  Agriculture, 
Postmaster  General,  and  Attorney  General,  their 
compensation  being  $8,000  yearly.  The  Depart¬ 
ment  of  the  Interior  includes  the  Pension,  Land, 
and  Patent  Offices,  Indian,  Census,  and  Educa¬ 
tional  Bureaus.  The  amount  paid  during  1887 
on  account  of  pensions  was  $75,029,102.  The 
pensioners  are  persons  who  have  served  in  the 
War  of  1812,  the  Mexican  War,  or  the  War  of 
the  Rebellion.  The  Postmaster  General  has  the 
general  charge  of  all  matters  relating  to  the  trans¬ 
portation  of  the  mails.  The  total  number  of 
post  offices,  July  1,  1887,  was  55,157;  miles  of 
mail  routes,  377,442;  receipts,  $48,837,609.  In 
1790  there  were  75  post  offices  and  1,875  miles  of 
mail  routes;  the  receipts  were  $37,395.  The  legis¬ 
lative  power  is  vested  in  Congress,  which  is  com¬ 
posed  of  two  branches:  the  Senate,  two  members 
of  which  are  elected  by  the  Legislature  of  each 
State  to  hold  office  for  six  years;  and  the  House 
of  Representatives,  whose  members  are  elected 
by  the  voters  of  each  State,  and  who  hold  office 
for  two  years.  The  number  of  members  com¬ 
posing  the  Fifty-first  Congress,  1889  to  1891,  is 
325,  being  based  upon  the  apportionment  under 
the  census  of  1880.  The  total  number  of  inhabit¬ 
ants  in  the  United  States  exclusive  of  the  Terri¬ 
tories,  each  of  which  has  one  delegate,  and  of 
the  District  of  Columbia,  is  divided  by  the 
number  of  Representatives  of  which  it  has  been 
decided  that  the  House  shall  consist,  and  the 
result  is  the  ratio  of  representation.  The  popu¬ 
lation  of  each  State  is  divided  by  this  ratio,  and 
the  result  is  the  number  of  members  to  which 
it  is  entitled,  it  being  provided,  however,  that 
each  State,  no  matter  how  small  its  population, 
shall  be  entitled  to  one  member.  The  ratio  estab¬ 
lished  under  the  census  of  1880  was  154,912. 
All  laws  have  to  be  passed  by  both  Houses  and  be 
approved  by  the  President,  whose  veto  can  be 
overcome  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  the  House  and 
Senate.  All  revenue  bills  must  originate  in  the 
House,  while  the  approval  of  treaties  and  confir¬ 
mation  of  nominees  belong  to  the  Senate.  The 
salary  of  Senators  and  Members  of  the  House  is 
$5,000  per  year.  The  judiciary  of  the  United 
States  consists  of  a  Supreme  Court  which  sits  at 
Washington,  and  which  is  composed  of  a  Chief 
Justice  and  eight  Associate  Justices,  appointed  by 
the  President  and  holding  office  during  good 
behavior.  The  Chief  Justice  receives  $10,500 
yearly,  and  the  other  justices  $10,000.  The 
United  States  is  divided  into  nine  judicial 
circuits,  each  of  which  has  a  Circuit  Judge  who 
is  paid  $6,000  a  year.  A  Supreme  Court  Justice 
also  holds  court  yearly  in  each  circuit.  There 
are  also  fifty-eight  District  Courts  from  which  an 
appeal  lies  to  the  Circuit  Court.  For  each  of 
these  there  is  a  judge  whose  compensation  is 
from  $3,500  to  $5,000  a  year.  There  is  a  Supreme 
Court  for  the  District  of  Columbia.  The  Terri¬ 
torial  Courts  are  treated  under  their  proper  heads. 
There  is  also  a  Court  of  Claims,  of  five  members, 
each  receiving  $4,500  which  has  to  pass  upon 
all  claims  against  the  United  States.  The  Presi¬ 
dent  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  military  and 
naval  forces,  but  the  direct  supervision  of  them 
belongs  to  the  Secretaries  of  War  and  of  the 
Navy.  The  present  strength  of  the  army  is 
ten  regiments  of  cavalry,  five  of  artillery  and 
twenty-five  of  infantry,  with  an  engineer  bat- 
tallion,  etc.,  making  a  total  of  2,200  officers  and 
24,236  enlisted  men.  The  chief  officers  are  one 
lieutenant-general,  three  major-generals,  and  six 


44 


UNIVALVES. 


690 


URINE. 


brigadier-generals.  The  lieutenant-general  re¬ 
ceives  $11,000;  the  major-generals  $7,000;  and 
the  brigadier-generals  $5,500.  The  pay  of 
privates  runs  from  $13  to  $21  a  month.  The 
army  is  employed  principally  in  garrisoning 
frontier  posts,  and  protecting  the  settlers  in  the 
Western  States  and  Territories  against  hostile 
Indians.  The  cost  of  the  army  for  the  fiscal 
year  1887  was  $38,561,026.  The  active  list  of  the 
navy  was  composed  of  1,704  officers  and  8,250 
enlisted  men  and  boys.  There  were  ninety- 
seven  vessels,  with  539  guns.  Squadrons  are 
kept  in  the  Pacific  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  at 
other  points,  in  order  to  protect  the  interests  of 
American  citizens.  There  is  one  admiral;  receiv¬ 
ing  $13,000;  one  vice-admiral,  pay  $9,000,  when 
on  duty  at  sea;  twelve  rear-admirals  who  get 
from  $4,000  to  $6,000  according  to  the  duty  on 
which  they  are  employed;  and  twenty-five  com¬ 
modores,  who  receive  from  $3,000  to  $5,000. 
The  expenditures  for  the  fiscal  year  1887  were 
$15,141,127.  Several  fine  war  vessels  are  now 
under  construction. 

PRESIDENTS  AND  VICE-PRESIDENTS. 

PRESIDENTS  OF  CONGRESS  DURING  TIIE  REVOLU¬ 
TION  AND  UNDER  THE  ARTICLES  OF  CON¬ 
FEDERATION. 


Peyton  Randolph . September  5.  1774,  to  October  22, 1774 

Henry  Middleton . October  22,  1774,  to  May  10,  1775 

Peyton  Randolph . May  10,  1775,  to  May  24,  1775 

John  Hancock . . May  24,  1775,  to  November  1,  1777 

Henry  Laurens . November  1,  1777,  to  December  10, 1778 

John  Jay . December  10, 1778,  to  September  23,  1779 

Samuel  Huntington . September  28, 1779,  to  July  10,  1781 

Thomas  McKean . July  10,  1781,  to  Novembers,  1781 

John  Hanson  . November  5,  1781,  to  November  4, 1782 

Elias  BoiMinot . November  4,  1.82,  to  Novembers,  1783 

Thomas  Mifflin . . November  3, 1781,  to  Jure  6, 1786 

Richard  Henry  Lee . . June  6, 1786,  to  November  3  >,  1786 

Nathanael  Gorham . November  30,  1786,  to  February  2,  1787 

Arthur  St.  Clair . February  2, 1787,  to  January  22, 1788 

Cyrus  Griffin . January  22,  1788,  to  April  30,  1789 

PRESIDENTS  UNDER  TnE  CONSTITUTION. 

George  Washington . April  30,  1789,  to  March  4,  1797 

John  Adams .  March  4,  1797,  to  March  4,  1801 

Thomas  Jefferson . March  4, 1801,  to  March  4,  1809 

James  Madison . March  4,  1809,  to  March  4,  18)7 

James  Monroe . March  4.  1817,  to  March  4,  1825 

John  Quincy  Adams . March  4,  1825,  to  March  4,  1829 

Andrew  Jackson . March  4,  1829,  to  March  4, 1837 

Martin  Van  Buren . March  4,  1837,  to  March  4,  1841 

*  William  Henry  Harrison . March  4, 1841,  to  April  4,  1841 

John  Tyler,  V.  Pres . April  6,  1841.  to  March  I,  1845 

James  K.  Polk . March  4,  1845,  to  March  4,  1849 

♦Zachary  Taylor  . March  4,  1849,  to  July  9,  1850 

Millard  Fillmore,  V.-Pres . July  10,  1850,  to  March  4, 1853 

Franklin  Pierce . March  4,  1853,  to  March  4, 1857 

James  Buchanan . March  4,  1857,  to  March  4, 1861 

♦Abraham  Lincoln . March  4, 1861,  to  April  15, 1865 

Andrew  Johnson,  V.-Pres . April  15,  1865,  to  March  4, 1869 

Ulysses  S.  Grant . March  4,  1869,  to  March  4,  1877 

Rutherford  B.  Hayes . March  4,  1877.  to  March  4,  1881 

♦James  A.  Garfield . March  4,  1881,  to  Sept.  19,  1881 

Chester  A.  Arthur,  V.-Pres . Sept.  20,  1881,  to  March  4, 1885 

Grover  Cleveland . March  4,  1885,  to  March  4, 1889 

Benjamin  Harrison . March  4, 1889,  to - 

♦  Died  in  Office. 

VICE-PRESIDENTS. 

John  Adams . 1789  to  1797 

Thomas  Jefferson . 1797  to  1801 

Aaron  Burr . 1801  to  1805 

Geor.  e  Clinton . 1805  to  1812 

Elbridge  Gerry . 1813  to  1814 

tJohn  Gaillard . 1814  to  1817 

D.  I).  Tompkins . 1817  to  1825 

John  C.  Calhoun  . 1825  to  1833 

Martin  Van  Buren  . 1833  to  1837 

R.  M  Johnson . 1837  to  1841 

John  Tyler  .  1841 

-f Samuel  L.  Southard . 1841  to  1842 

tWillie  P.  Mangum . 1842  to  1845 

George  M  Da1  las . 1845  to  1849 

Millard  Fillmore . 1849  to  1850 

+ William  R.  King . 1850  to  1853 

fDavid  R.  Atchison . 1853  to  1854 

tJ-sseD.  Bright . . . 1854  to  1857 

John  C.  Breckenridge . 1857  to  1861 

Hannibal  Hamlin . 1861  to  1865 

Andrew  Johnson .  1865 

fLafayetteS.  Foster . 1865  to  1867 

tBenjamin  F.  Wade . 1867  to  1869 

Schuyler  Colfax . -..1869  to  1873 

Henry  Wilson  . • . . 1873  to  1875 

■fThoinas  W.  Ferry . 1875  to  1877 

William  A.  Wheeler . 1877  to  1881 

Chester  A.  Arthur .  1881 

IThomas  F.  Bayard .  ls81 

fDavid  Davis . 1881  to  1883 

4G  F.  Edmunds . 1883  to  1885 

Thomas  A.  Hendricks . March  4, 1885,  to  Nov.  25,  l.w85 

tJolin  Sherman . 1885  to  1887 

tJohn  J  Ingalls . 1887  to  1889 

Levi  P.  Morton . 1889  to  - 


William  R.  King  was  elected  Vice-President  in  1852,  but 
died  before  taking  his  seat.  Henry  Wilson  and  Thomas 
A.  Hendricks  died  in  office.  The  dagger  indicates  that 
the  person  thus  marked  was  acting  vice-president  and 
president  pro  tem  of  the  Senate. 

U  'ni valves,  in  Conchology,  are  shells  consist¬ 
ing  of  one  piece,  as  opposed  to  bivalves  (cockles, 
clams,  etc.),  and  multivalves.  They  are  mostly 
the  shells  of  gasteropodous  mollusks. 

Universalists,  a  body  of  Christians  whose  dis¬ 
tinctive  peculiarity  consists  in  their  belief  that 
evil  will  ultimately  be  eradicated  from  the  world, 


and  that  all  erring  creatures  will  be  brought  back 
to  God  through  the  irresistible  efficacy  of  Christ’s 
divine  love. 

Unst,  the  most  northern  of  the  Shetland 
Islands,  in  latitude  60°  45'  N.,  is  12  miles  long, 
and  Si  miles  in  average  breadth;  area,  36  square 
miles;  pop.  (1881),  2,173. 

U  'pas  (the  Malay  word  for  poison)  is  the  name 
given  to  a  number  of  vegetable  poisons  in  the 
Eastern  Archipelago  and  the  Philippine  Islands. 
The  most  celebrated  poison  of  this  kind  is  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  antjar  (Antiaris  toxicaria),  a  tree 
which  grows  in  the  Sunda  and  Philippine  Islands. 
It  attains  a  height  of  upward  of  100  feet,  and 
belongs  to  the  natural  order  Artocarpacece,  the 
same  order  with  the  bread-fruit.  From  the  milky 
juice  of  this  tree  (called  in  some  of  the  islands 
pohon-upas,  antjar  in  Java,  and  ipo  in  the  Philip¬ 
pines),  mixed  with  black  pepper,  and  the  juice  of 
galanga  root  and  of  ginger,  t  he  Malays  prepare  a 
poison  for  their  arrows,  which  proves  speedily 
fatal  to  men  and  to  the  larger  mammalia.  Al¬ 
though  the  fresh  juice  of  this  tree,  brought  into 
contact  with  the  skin,  acts  as  a  poison,  the  story 
of  a  poison-vale  in  Java,  in  which  the  exhalations 
of  numerous  poison  trees  extinguish  all  animal 
life,  and  even  all  other  vegetable  life,  is  a  mere 
fable. 

Upheav'al  or  Upthrow  of  Strata,  the 
change  in  stratified  rocks  from  their  original  hori¬ 
zontal  position  to  one  more  or  less  inclined,  pro¬ 
duced  by  an  expansive  subterranean  force,  or 
other  power,  like  the  pushing  forward  of  the 
crust  itself,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains. 

Upper  Marlborough,  the  county  seat  of 
Prince  George  county,  Md.  Pop.,  600. 

Upper  Sandusky,  the  county  seat  of  Wyan¬ 
dot  county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  4,600. 

U  'radius,  The,  in  the  adult  human  subject,  is 
a  small  fibrous  cord  formed  by  the  obliteration  of 
a  tubular  canal,  which  in  the  embryo  runs  from 
the  apex  of  the  bladder  to  the  umbilical  cord.  In 
other  mammals,  it  remains  open,  and  is  continu¬ 
ous  with  one  of  the  foetal  membranes;  and  it  has 
been  found  pervious  in  the  human  subject  at 
birth. 

U'ral,  a  river  of  Russia,  called  Rimna  by  the 
ancients,  later  Jaik,  and  since  1775  by  its  pres¬ 
ent  name,  rises  in  the  southern  section  of  the 
Ural  Mountains,  near  the  east  frontier  of  the 
Government  of  Orenburg,  and  flows  into  the 
Caspian  Sea.  Length,  1,040  miles. 

Ural  Mountains  (probably  the  Tartar  word 
ural,  belt),  the  Hyperborean  Mountains,  or  Rhipcei 
Montes ,  of  the  ancients,  form  part  of  the  bound¬ 
ary  between  Europe  and  Asia,  and  separate  Eu¬ 
ropean  Russia  on  the  west  from  Siberia  on  the 
east.  The  chain  extends  south  from  the  Kara 
Sea,  an  arm  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  to  the  middle 
course  of  the  Ural  river,  or  from  latitude  70°  to 
that  of  50°  N.,  and  is  1 ,333  miles  in  length,  with 
a  breadth  varying  from  16  to  66  miles. 

lira 'ilia  ( i .  e.,  the  Heavenly  Muse)  was  a 
daughter  of  Zeus  and  Mnemosyne.  She  was  re¬ 
garded  as  the  muse  of  astronomy,  and  was  repre¬ 
sented  with  a  celestial  globe,  to  which  she  points 
with  a  little  staff. 

Ura'iiiuin,  a  hard  hut  moderately  malleable 
metal,  resembling  nickel  or  iron  in  its  luster  and 
color;  hut  in  a  finely  comminuted  state,  occur¬ 
ring  as  a  black  powder. 

Urban,  the  name  of  eight  Popes,  of  whom  the 
following  deserve  to  be  specially  noticed. — Ur¬ 
ban  II.,  a  Frenchman  by  birth,  and  originally  a 
monk  of  Clugny,  was  elected  in  a  council  held  at 
Terracina,  in  the  year  1088,  during  the,  scliismat- 
ical  pontificate  of  the  anti-Pope  Guibert,  styled 
Clement  III,  and  died  in  1099.— Urban  V.  (origi¬ 
nally  William  de  Grimoard)  is  remarkable  as 
practically  the  last  of  the  Popes  who  resid<  d  at 
Avignon,  and  the  one  by  whom  the  papal  seat 
was  for  a  time  re-transferred  to  Rome.  On  the 
death  of  Innocent  VI.,  in  1362,  he  was  elected  at 
Avignon,  where  he  continued  to  reside  until  his 
death  in  1370. — Urban  VI.  was,  before  his  elec¬ 
tion,  Bartolomeo  Prignano,  Archbishop  of  Bari. 
On  the  death  of  Gregory  XI.  (1378),  Prignano 
was  elected  in  a  conclave  held  at  Rome  under  cir¬ 
cumstances  of  great  excitement,  owing  to  the 
apprehension,  on  the  part  of  the  populace,  of  an 


intention  to  elect  a  French  Pope,  and  again  aban¬ 
don  Rome.  He  died  in  October,  1389. — Urban 
VIII.  was  the  successor  of  Gregory  XV.  He  was 
horn  at  Florence  in  1568,  elected  Pope  in  Septem¬ 
ber,  1623,  and  died  in  1644. 

Urbana,  the  county  seat  of  Champaign  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Urba  na,the  county  seat  of  Champaign  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  8,300. 

Ure 'do,  a  genus  of  minute  parasitic  fungi,  of 
the  order  Coniomycetcs. 

Ure'na,  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Malmcece.  The  hark  is  fibrous;  and 
the  fiber  of  U.  lobatn  and  U.  sinuata,  weeds 
common  in  most  parts  of  India,  is  used  as  a  sub¬ 
stitute  for  flax.  It  is  strong,  and  tolerably  fine. 

Ure'ters(Gr  ovpbv ,  ouron,  urine,  and  rrjpiiv , 
terein,  to  keep),  the  canals  by  which  the  urine  is 
conveyed  from  the  pelvis  of  the  kidney  on  either 
side  to  the  base  of  the  bladder.  Each  ureter  is 
about  eighteen  inches  in  length,  and  enters  the 
bladder  in  so  slanting  a  direction  as  to  prevent 
regurgitation. 

Urethra  is  the  term  given  in  Anatomy  to  the 
canal  by  which  the  urine  is  discharged  from  the 
bladder. 

U'ritn  and  Tlnim  'mini  (Heb.),  a  mysterious 
contrivance  in  or  on  the  liigh-priest’s  breast¬ 
plate,  either  consisting  of  the  four  rows  of  pre¬ 
cious  stones  upon  which  the  names  of  the  twelve 
tribes  were  engraved,  or  of  two  images  personify¬ 
ing — most  probably — Truth  and  Revelation. 

U'rine  is  the  fluid  which  is  secreted  or  sepa¬ 
rated  by  the  kidneys  from  the  blood,  and  it  is  the 
principal  means  of  removing  the  wTorn-out  tis¬ 
sues,  especially  the  nitrogenous  and  saline  mat¬ 
ters,  from  the  system.  It  is  a  complex  fluid,  and 
its  composition  varies  in  different  classes  of 
animals,  mainly  with  the  nature  of  the  food. 
From  a  table  in  Day’s  Physiological  Chemistry ,  it 
appears  that  an  adult  man  of  ordinary  weight 
(about  150  pounds)  secretes  in  twenty-four  hours 
about  fifty-two  fluid  ounces  (or  rather  more 
than  two  and  a  half  pints)  of  urine,  the  range 
extending  from  forty  to  seventy  ounces;  and 
that  these  fifty-two  ounces  yield,  on  evapora¬ 
tion,  935  grains  of  solid  constituents,  the  re¬ 
mainder  being  water,  which  is  expelled  by  heat. 
Of  these  935  grains,  520  (or  more  than  an  ounce) 
are  composed  of  urea,  and  266  of  chloride  of 
sodium  (or  common  salt);  while  the  remaining 
149  grains  are  made  up  of  uric  acid,  hippuric 
acid,  sulphuric  acid,  thirty-two  grains;  phos¬ 
phoric  acid,  fifty-four  grains;  earthy  phosphates, 
fifteen  grains;  ammonia  (in  the  form  of  hydro- 
chlorate),  eleven  grains;  with  smaller  quantities 
(in  most  cases  mere  traces)  of  creatinine  and 
creatine,  xanthine,  liypoxantliine,  coloring  mat¬ 
ters,  mucus  (from  the  walls  of  the  bladder),  iron, 
silica,  and  fluorine.  The  fluid  also  holds  an 
undetermined  quantity  of  gases  (carbonic  acid 
and  a  little  nitrogen)  in  solution.  The  most 
characteristic  and  important  of  these  ingredients 
is  the  urea,  the  daily  excretion  of  which  is  modi¬ 
fied  by  various  circumstances. 

U'rine,  Incontinence  of,  or  Eneuresis,  is  a 
troublesome  affection,  far  more  common  in  child¬ 
hood  than  in  more  advanced  life.  The  child  may 
often  he  broken  of  this  unpleasant  habit  by 
proper  domestic  management,  as  withholding 
any  excess  of  fluids  before  going  to  bed,  and  by 
waking  it,  and  making  it  discharge  the  contents 
of  the  bladder  at  the  time  when  the  elder  mem¬ 
bers  of  the  family  retire  to  bed.  When  such 
means  as  these  fail,  recourse  must  he  had  to 
medical  advice.  Blisters  to  the  sacrum,  which 
prevent  the  patient  from  lying  flat  on  the  hack, 
and  consequently  prevent  the  urine  from  gravi¬ 
tating  toward  the  most  irritable  part  of  the 
bladder,  are  often  useful;  and  cold  douches  to  the 
spine,  combined  with  the  internal  use  of  chalyb- 
eates,  are  frequently  serviceable.  The  most 
certain  remedy,  however,  is  extract  of  belladonna, 
given  at  first,  according  to  the  age  of  the  patient, 
in  doses  varying  from  jV  to  of  a  grain,  twice 
daily,  and  increasing  it,  if  required,  till  it  gives 
rise  to  marked  constitutional  disturbance.  The 
various  forms  of  mechanical  pressure  that  have 
been  suggested,  with  the  view  of  preventing  the 
passage  of  the  urine,  can  not  he  too  strongly 
reprobated. 


URSA  MAJOR. 


691 


VALENTINE’S  DAY. 


Ur'sa  Ma'.jor,  the  Greater  Bear,  and  Ursa 
Minor,  the  Lesser 
Bear,  are  two  con- 
ste llat ions  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere 
of  the  heavens.  The 
remarkable  group  of 
stars  in  the  hinder 
part  of  the  Great 
Bear  being  within  40° 
of  the  north  pole, 
never  sinks  below  the 
horizon  of  any  place 
in  a  higher  N.  latitude 
than  40°.  The  star  (a), 
of  Ursa  Minor,  is  the 
so-called  “pole  star.” 

Ur 'soil  ( Erytldzon 
nearly  allied  to  the  porcupine,  and  often  called 
the  Canada  porcupine. 

Ur'snlines,  a  religious  order  of  females  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  taking  their  name  from 
Saint  Ursula. 

Urtica'ccse,  or  Urti'ce^e,  a  natural  order 
of  exogenous  plants,  consisting  of  trees,  shrubs, 
and  herbs,  natives  of  almost  all  parts  of  the 

world . 

Uruguay',  otherwise  Banda  Oriental  Del 
Uruguay — i.  e. ,  the  Eastern  Bank  of  the  Uru¬ 
guay,  is  a  small  South  American  State,  bounded 
on  the  north  and  northeast  by  Brazil,  on  the  east 
and  southeast  bv  the  Atlantic,  on  the  south  by 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Uruguay.  It  is  nearly  square  in  shape,  and  its 
greatest  length  and  its  greatest  breadth  are  over 


300  miles.  Area,  75,752  square  miles;  pop.  (1880), 
438,245. 

Urume'yah,  Urumi  jali,  Urmea,  Lake, called 
also  the  Lake  of  Maragha,  Lake  of  Talriz,  and 
by  the  neighboring  peoples,  Kapauta  (Armen. 
kapoit,  blue),  the  principal  lake  of  Persia,  in  the 
west  of  Azerbijan,  about  thirty-four  miles  west 
from  Tabriz.  The  lake,  which  is  4,320  feet  above 
sea-level,  is  about  80  miles  in  lemrth  from  north 
to  south,  has  an  average  width  of  25  miles  and 
contains  more  than  1,900  square  miles. 

U'ms,  a  great  animal  of  the  ox-kind,  which 
anciently  inhabited  the  forests  of  Central  Europe, 
and  is  described  by  Caesar  {Bell.  Gall.  vi.  28)  as 
common  in  the  great  Hercynian  Forest;  as  scarcely 
less  than  an  elephant  in  size — an  evident  exaggera¬ 
tion — but  otherwise  resembling  an  ox,  of  great 
strength,  of  great  swiftness,  and  of  great  fierce¬ 
ness. 

U'sedom,  an  island  belonging  to  Prussia,  lies 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Oder,  and  together  with  the 
Island  of  Wollin,  shuts  off  the  Stettiner  Ilaff  from 
the  Baltic.  It  is  34  miles  in  extreme  length,  and 
15  miles  broad.  Area  about  148  square  miles. 

Usll'ant(Fr.  Ouesnant),  an  island  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  belongs  to  France,  and  is  included  in  the 
Department  of  Finisterre,  from  the  west  coast  of 
which  it  is  distant  about  seventeen  miles. 

U'snea,  a  genus  of  lichens,  having  a  branched 
thallus,  with  an  elastic  thread  in  the  center.  They 
grow  on  trees,  and  are  generally  pendulous. 

U 'tah  (named  from  an  Indian  tribe  Utah,  or 
Yuta  [Utes],  dwellers  in  mountains), a  territory  of 
the  United  States,  lying  between  latitude  37° — 
42°  N.,  and  longitude  109° — 114°  W.,  containing 


84,476  square  miles;  bounded  north  by  Idaho  and 
Wyoming,  east  by  Colorado,  south  by  Arizona, 
and  west  by  Nevada.  Pop.  (1880),  143,966.  Its 
chief  town  and  capital  is  Salt  Lake  City. 

U'tica,  an  ancient  city  of  North  Africa,  origin¬ 
ally  Phoenician,  in  the  territory  of  Carthage;  it 
stood  to  the  nort  hwest  of  the  present  city  of  Tunis. 

Utica,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Oneida 
county,  N.  Y.,  ninety-five  miles  west-northwest 
of  Albany.  The  city  has  an  elevation  of  150  feet. 
Among  its  buildings  are  a  city  hall,  public  halls, 
34  churches,  6  large  hotels,  4  banks,  a  cotton  mill, 
2  woolen  mills,  a  State  lunatic  asylum  with  500 
patients;  and  has  manufactories,  of  flour,  starch, 
organs,  pianos,  clothing,  carriages,  machinery, 
carpets,  oil-cloth,  etc.  Pop.,  42,500. 

Utilita 'nanism,  the  name  of  the  peculiar 
theory  of  ethics,  or  of  the  ground  of  moral  obliga¬ 
tion,  that  adopts,  as  the  criterion  of  right,  the 
happiness  of  mankind. 

U'trecht,  a  province  of  the  Netherlands, 
bounded  on  the  west  by  South  Holland,  north  by 
North  Holland  and  the  Zuider  Zee,  east  by 
Gelderland,  and  south  by  the  Rhine  and  Leek. 
It  is  42  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  21  miles  from 
north  to  south.  Superficial  extent  346,405  acres. 

Utrecht  ( Ultrajeclum.  or  Trajectum  ad Rhenitm), 
the  provincial  capital,  lies  twenty-four  miles  south¬ 
east  from  Amsterdam.  Pop.  (1880),  67,633. 

U  'tricle  is  the  botanical  term  for  a  kind  of  seed 
like  the  achenium.  In  the  utricle,  however,  the 
pericarp  does  not  lie  close  to  the  seed,  but  sur¬ 
rounds  it  as  a  loose  inflated  covering. 

Uvalde,  the  county  seat  of  Uvalde  county, 
Tex.  Pop.  2,800. 


Upper  group,  Ursa  Minor. 
Lower  group,  Ursa  Major. 

dorsatum),  a  quadruped 


y 


Vis  the  twenty-second  letter  in  the  English 
alphabet,  and  is  derived  directly  from  the 
Latin  character  v,  which  represented  originally 
both  the  consonant  v  and  the  vowel  u.  The 
name  of  the  letter  is  derived  from  the  Phoenician 
and  Hebrew  van  (signifying  a  nail,  which  the 
form  of  the  letter  originally  resembled),  which 
stood  sixth  in  the  alphabet,  and  became  the  di- 
gamma  of  the  old  Greek,  and  the  f  of  the  Latin 
(see  F).  The  Greek  v,  from  which  the  Latin  v 
is  taken,  had,  in  the  classical  period,  degenerated 
into  a  sound  like  the  French  v,  and  in  modern 
Greek  is  undistinguishable  from  i. 

Yaal  River,  the  Dutch  name  of  one  of  the 
most  important  branches  of  the  Gariep  or  Orange 
river,  rises  in  the  Drakenberg  range,  at  the  north¬ 
west  angle  of  Natal,  Africa,  and  flows  into  the 
Gariep  or  Orange  river,  in  latitude  29°  10'  S., 
longitude  24°  28'  E. 

Vaccina'tion  is  the  process  by  which  a  specific 
disease,  termed  vaccinia,  or  cow  pox  (from  the 
Latin  word  vacca,  a  cow),  is  introduced  into  the 
human  organism  with  the  view  of  protecting 
it  against  an  attack  of  an  incomparably  more 
severe  disorder — viz.,  smallpox.  Except  under 
circumstances  of  special  risk  (as,  for  instance, 
where  smallpox  is  in  the  neighborhood),  children 
should  be  vaccinated  only  when  they  are  in  ap¬ 
parently  good  health.  Diarrhoea  and  skin  dis¬ 
eases  are  especially  to  be  avoided;  and  it  is 
important  to  see  that  there  is  no  chafing  behind 
the  ears,  or  in  the  folds  of  the  neck  or  groin. 
Plump  and  healthy  children  should  be  vaccinated 
when  a  month  orsix  weeks  old;  in  more  delicate 
children,  the  vaccination  may  be  postponed  till 
they  are  two  or  three  months  old;  but  all,  except 
those  whose  state  of  health  positively  contra-indi¬ 
cates  vaccination,  should  be  vaccinated  by  the 
age  of  three  months.  This  early  age  has  also  the 
advantage  of  being  free  from  the  irritation  of 
teething.  The  lymph  to  be  used  should  always 
be  taken  from  a  healthy  child,  and  from  thor¬ 
oughly  characteristic  vesicles;  and  when  lymph 
in  all  respects  satisfactory  can  not  be  procured,  as 
is  often  the  case  in  country  districts,  the  opera¬ 
tion  should  be  postponed.  The  process  of  vac¬ 
cination  consists  essentially  in  introducing  the 
lymph  into  the  structure  of  the  true  skin,  or  in 
bringing  it  in  contact  with  the  absorbing  surface. 
This  may  be  effected  in  various  ways,  one  of  the 
most  common  being  by  puncture.  The  skin  on 
the  outside  of  the  arm,  below  the  shoulder,  should 


be  held  upon  the  stretch,  and  a  sharp,  clean 
lancet,  well  charged  with  lymph,  should  be  made 
to  puncture  the  skin  from  above  downward,  at 
an  angle  of  about  45°,  and  be  made  just  to'  enter 
the  true  skin.  The  matter  thus  inserted  is  re¬ 
tained  by  the  valvular  character  of  the  puncture 
and  the  elasticity  of  the  skin.  In  this  form  of 
the  operation,  not  less  than  five  or  six  such 
punctures  should  be  made,  at  a  distance  of  half 
an  inch  from  the  other;  and  for  the  sake  of 
security,  three  punctures  may  be  made  on  each 
arm.  If  the  lymph  is  preserved  on  points,  each 
point,  after  being  held  in  the  steam  of  hot  water 
so  as  to  dissolve  the  lymph,  should  be  inserted 
into  the  punctures  made  by  an  ordinary  lancet. 
Some  surgeons  make  a  number  of  minute  superfi¬ 
cial  punctures,  and  spread  the  lymph  over  this  spot 
with  the  flat  part  of  the  lancet;  this  kind  of 
tattooing  should  be  repeated  on  three  spots. 
Others  make  a  number  of  parallel  scratches,  or 
crossed  scratches,  with  a  charged  lancet;  and 
others,  again,  use  special  scarifiers  or  rakes,  con¬ 
sisting  of  three  or  four  needle-points  inserted  in 
an  ivory  handle,  and  drawn  either  once  or  again 
at  right  angles  over  the  tense  skin,  the  lymph 
being  then  plastered  over  the  scarified  surface. 
The  original  vaccine  virus  from  the  cow  is  now 
much  employed,  and  has  at  least  the  advantage  of 
being  free  from  scrofulous,  syphilitic,  and  similar 
taints. 

Vaccinia'ceai,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  differing  from  Eviceai  chiefly  in  having  an 
inferior  ovary  and  succulent  fruit. 

Yalais  (Ger.  Wallis),  a  frontier  canton  of 
Switzerland,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Can¬ 
tons  of  Valid  and  Bern,  and  on  the  south  by  Italy. 
Area,  2,020  square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  100,216. 
It  forms  one  long  and  deep  valley,  included  be¬ 
tween  two  of  the  loftiest  mountain  chains  of 
Europe — the  Pennine  and  the  Bernese  Alps,  and 
is  drained  by  the  Upper  Rhone,  which,  rising  at 
its  northeastern  extremity,  in  the  glacier  of  the 
Gallenstock,  falls  at  the  western  boundary  of  the 
canton  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva. 

Valdosta,  the  county  seat  of  Lowndes  county, 
Ga.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Vale,  the  county  seat  of  Malheur  county,  Ore. 
Pop.,  75. 

Valence,  a  town  of  France,  capital  of  the  De¬ 
partment  of  Drome,  on  a  hill  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhone,  sixty-five  miles  south  of  Lyon.  The 
walls  with  which  it  is  surrounded  give  it  a  gloomy 


appearance.  Silk-weaving  and  silk-throwing  are 
carried  on,  manufactures  of  printed  and  other 
cottons,  and  commerce  in  silk,  fruits,  wines, 
liqueurs,  and  spirits.  Pop.  (1876),  20,476. 

Valen'cia,  a  small  island  on  the  southwest 
coast  of  Ireland,  forms  part  of  the  County  Kerry, 
is  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  arm 
of  Valencia  Bay,  and  lies  thirty-eight  miles  west- 
southwest  from  Killarney.  It  is  54  miles  long 
and  2  miles  broad.  There  are  about  2,500  inhab¬ 
itants.  On  the  north  side  of  the  island  is  Valencia 
Bay,  an  inlet  of  Dingle  Bay;  and  Valencia  Har¬ 
bor,  the  most  western  in  Ireland,  is  part  of  the 
bay  of  the  same  name.  Here  is  the  telegraphic 
station  for  three  Atlantic  cables,  which  were  laid 
in  1866,  1873,  and  1874,  besides  the  cable  laid  in 
1865,  which  is  not  now  in  operation.  Another 
Atlantic  cable  starts  from  Balinskellig  Bay,  a 
little  to  the  south  of  Valencia. 

Valen'cia,  a  former  kingdom  of  Spain,  now 
subdivided  into  the  three  modem  Provinces  of 
Valencia,  Alicante,  and  Castellon  de  la  Plana, 
comprises  a  tract  of  country  in  the  East  of  Spain, 
washed  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Catalonia,  and  on  the  south  and 
southwest  by  Murcia. 

Valencia,  an  ancient  city  and  seaport  of  Spain, 
formerly  capital  of  the  kingdom,  and  now  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the  shores 
of  the  Mediterranean,  294  miles  east-southeast  of 
Madrid.  Pop.,  143,856. 

Valenciennes,  a  manufacturing  town  and  fort¬ 
ress  of  France,  in  the  Department  of  Nord,  on 
the  Escaut,  155  miles  by  railway  north-northeast 
of  Paris.  Pop.  (1881),  23,291. 

Val'ens,  Emperor  of  the  East,  the  brother  of 
Valentinian  I.,  was  born  near  Cibalis  in  Pan- 
nonia,  about  328  a.d.,  and  was  slain  in  378. 

Valentine,  the  county  seat  of  Cherry  county. 
Neb.  Pop.,  850. 

Valentine’s  Day,  February  14th,  is  celebrated 
by  a  peculiar  custom.  On  the  eve  of  St.  Valen¬ 
tine,  a  number  of  young  folk — maids  and 
bachelors — would  assemble  together,  and  inscribe 
upon  little  billets  the  names  of  an  equal  number 
of  maids  and  bachelors  of  their  acquaintance, 
throw  the  whole  into  a  receptacle  of  some  sort, 
and  then  draw  them  lottery-wise — care,  of  course, 
being  taken  that  each  should  draw  one  of  the 
opposite  sex.  The  person  thus  drawn  became 
one’s  valentine.  Out  of  that  custom  grew  the 
one  still  in  vogue  of  sending  through  the  mails  or 


VALERIAN. 


692 


VANILLA. 


otherwise  tokens  of  love  or  friendship  on  St. 
Valentine's  day. 

Vale'rian  {Valeriana),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Valerianacea,  an  order  of  exogen¬ 
ous  plants,  containing  nearly  200  known  species, 
natives  of  temperate  climates.  The  root  is  a 
well-known  medicine,  used  both  by  physicians 
and  as  a  domestic  remedy  in  spasms,  epilepsy, 
hysteria,  and  other  nervous  affections.  It  pos¬ 
sesses  powerful  antispasmodic  properties,  and  a 
considerable  influence  over  the  nervous  system. 

Valet'ta,  an  important  fortress  and  beautiful 
city,  capital  of  the  Island  of  Malta,  on  the  north¬ 
east  side  of  which,  in  latitude  35°  53',  longitude 
14°  31',  it  is  situated.  Besides  the  enormous 
forts,  balconies,  and  battlements,  which  are  the 
principal  architectural  characteristics  of  the  city, 
Valetta  contains  many  noble  edifices.  Pop., 
upward  of  60,000. 

Val'gus  is  a  term  employed  in  Surgery  to 
designate  a  variety  of  club-foot.  The  correspond¬ 
ing  Latin  word  signifies  having  legs  bent  out¬ 
ward,  bow-legged,  and  is  probably  derived  from 
volvo,  to  turn  or  twist.  As  it  is  an  adjective,  the 
substantive,  Talipes  (an  unclassical  word,  indicat¬ 
ing  weakness  of  the  feet,  but  in  surgical  nomen¬ 
clature  signifying  club-foot)  must  be  regarded  as 
understood. 

Valladolid',  a  famous  city  of  Spain,  sometime 
capital  of  t  lie  whole  country,  and  still  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Pisuerga,  150  miles  northwest  of 
Madrid.  Pop.,  52,206. 

Valladolid,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  State 
of  Yucatan,  ninety  miles  east-southeast  of  Merida, 
stands  in  the  midst  of  a  highly  cultivated  tract  of 
country.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Vallejo,  the  county  seat  of  Solano  county, 
Cal.  Pop  ,  6,100. 

Valley  City,  the  county  seat  of  Barnes  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  1,575. 

Vallisner'ia,  a  genus  of  small,  stemless, 
aquatic  plants,  with  grass-like  leaves,  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  Hydrocharidece,  and  found  in 
the  warm  parts  of  both  hemispheres.  They  gen¬ 
erally  grow  in  running  waters.  V.  spiralis  is 
particularly  celebrated  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
process  of  fecundation.  At  the  time  when  this  is 
to  take  place,  the  flowers  of  the  female  plants 
rise  to  the  surface  of  the  water  by  means  of  their 
long  spirally-twisted  stalks.  The  flowers  of  fhe 
male  plants,  in  order  to  follow  them  thither,  be¬ 
come  detached,  having  previously  grown  on 
short  spikes  at  the  bottom  of  the  water,  and  ex¬ 
pand,  floating  about  upon  the  surface.  After 
fecundation,  the  female  flowers  return  under  the 
water  by  the  spiral  contraction  of  their  stalks, 
and  the  fruit  is  ripened  under  water.  This  plant 
is  found  in  ditches  and  bogs  in  Italy  and  the 
South  of  France. 

Vallombro'sa,  a  celebrated  abbey  of  Tuscany, 
situated  among  the  Apennines,  in  a  valley  sur 
rounded  with  forests  of  fir,  beech,  and  chestnut 
trees  (hence  the  name,  meaning  shady  valley). 
Here  an  order  of  monks  according  to  the  rule  of 
St.  Benedict  was  founded  about  the  middle  of 
the  eleventh  century,  who  were  called  Vallom- 
brosians  from  the  name  of  the  site,  or  Gray 
Monks,  from  the  color  of  their  habit,  which, 
however,  was  afterward  changed  to  black.  They 
were  the  first  to  admit  lay  brethren.  In  1863  the 
monastery  was  suppressed,  and  the  buildings 
were  made  use  of  for  a  royal  academy  of  forestry. 
Vallombrosa  was  visited  by  Dante,  celebrated  by 
Ariosto  in  the  Orlando  P arioso,  canto  xxii,  and 
is  mentioned  by  Milton  in  the  Paradise  Lost. 

Valois,  House  of,  a  branch  of  the  Capelian 
dynasty,  which  possessed  the  throne  of  France 
from  1327  till  1589,  originated  in  the  person  of 
Charles,  second  son  of  King  Philippe  III.  ( le 
Ilardi),  who  obtained  in  1285  the  County  of 
Valois  in  appanage  from  his  father. 

Valo'n  ia,  an  article  extensively  used  by  tan¬ 
ners,  in  consequence  of  the  quantity  of  tannic 
acid  which  it  contains.  It  is  the  acorn-cup  of  a 
species  of  oak  ( Qaercus  ceyilops),  indigenous  to 
Asiatic  Turkey. 

Valparaiso,  the  most  important  trading-town 
of  Chili,  South  America,  is  in  the  province  and 
on  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  about  ninety  miles 
west-northwest  of  Santiago,  with  which  it  is 
ronnected  by  railway.  Pop.,  100,000. 


Valparaiso,  the  county  seat  of  Porter  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  5,600. 

Vam'braced,  in  Heraldry  (Fr.  avant-bras,  fore¬ 
arm),  a  term  applied  to  an  arm  clothed  in  armor, 
a  dexter  arm  embowed  vambraced  proper,  the 
gauntlet  holding  a  sword  below  the  hilt  iu  bend 
sinister,  point  downward,  argent,  hilt,  and  pom¬ 
mel  or. 

Vam'pire  (Ger.  vampyr),  called  also  by  the 
Servians  Vukodlak,  and  by  the  Wallachians 
Murony,  is,  according  to  the  popular  belief  of  the 
Slavonic,  Romanic,  and  Greek  population  of  the 
Lower  Danube  and  the  Thessalian  Peninsula,  a 
blood  sucking  ghost.  In  the  mythology  of  the 
ancient  Greeks,  beings  of  a  similar  nature  existed 
— the  Lamias,  beautiful  phantom  women,  who, 
by  all  sorts  of  voluptuous  delusions,  allured 
youths  to  them  in  order  to  feast  on  their  fresh, 
young,  and  pure  blood  and  flesh.  And  among 
the  Greek  Christians  there  is  a  belief  that  the 
bodies  of  those  who  have  died  in  excommunica¬ 
tion  are  kept  by  the  devil  in  a  kind  of  life;  that 
they  go  forth  from  their  graves  by  night  and 
suddenly  destroy  other  men,  and  also  by  other 
means  procure  food,  a' d  thus  keep  themselves 
in  good  condition.  They  are  called  Burkolakka, 
or  Tympanita;  and  the  only  way  of  escaping 
from  their  molestation  is  by  digging  up  their 
unwashed  corpses  and  burning  them,  after  the 
removal  of  the  excommunication.  The  vampire 


Vampire  Bat. 


propi  is  the  illegitimate  offspring  of  parents 
themselves  illegitimate,  or  the  troubled  spirit  of 
one  killed  by  a  vampire.  During  the  day  he  lies 
as  a  corpse,  but  turned  in  his  grave,  with  a  florid 
appearance  and  warm  blood,  open  staring  eyes, 
and  skin,  hair,  and  nails  still  growing.  But  by 
night,  especially  at  full  moon,  he  wanders  about 
in  the  form  of  a  dog,  frog,  toad,  cat,  flea,  louse, 
bug,  spider,  etc.,  and  sucks  the  blood  from  living 
persons  by  biting  them  in  the  back  or  neck.  The 
name  vampire  has  been  given  a  species  of  blood¬ 
sucking  bats.  It  was  erroneously  given  to  bats 
of  the  Southeast  of  Asia  and  Malayan  Archipelago, 
which  are  really  frugivorous.  The  blood-sucking 
bats  are  all  South  American,  and  belong  to  the 
genus  Phyllostoma,  or  specter  bat,  and  nearly 
allied  to  it. 


Van,  a  fortified  town  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  capital 
of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  stands  near  the 
southeast  shore  of  Lake  Van,  145  miles  southeast 
of  Erzerum.  Pop.  stated  at  45,000. 

Vana'dium  (symbol  V,  equiv.  51.2),  a  rare  metal 
of  little  practical  importance.  The  discovery  of 
the  substance  was  ascribed  by  some  to  Del  Rio  in 
lt>01 ,  and  by  others  to  Sefstrom  in  1830. 

V  an  Buren,  the  county  scat  of  Carter  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  150. 

Van  Buren,  the  county  seat  of  Crawford 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  2,200. 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  an  American  statesman, 
eighth  President  of  the  United  States,  was  born 
at  Ivinderhook,  N.  Y.,  Dec.  5,  1782.  He  was 
elected  to  the  Senate  of  New  York  on  the  Demo¬ 
cratic  ticket  in  1812;  was  made  Attorney-General 
in  1815,  and  was  again  elected  to  the  Senatq  in 
1816.  lie  was  chosen  United  States  Senator  in 
1821  and  again  in  1827.  In  1828  he  was  elected 
Governor  of  New  York,  but  resigned  and  entered 
President  Jackson’s  cabinet  as  Secretary  of  State. 
He  resigned  that  office  in  1831  and  was  elected 
Vice-President  of  the  United  States  in  1832.  He 
was  chosen  President  in  1836  and  nominated  for  a 
second  term  in  1840,  but  was  defeated  by  General 
Harrison,  and  died  iu  July,  1862. 

Vanceburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Lewis 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  1,600. 


Vancouver,  the  county  seat  of  Clarke  county, 
Wash.  Pop,  3,100. 

Vaiicou'ver  Island,  now,  jointly  with  British 
Columbia,  one  of  the  colonies  of  Great  Britain, 
forms  a  part  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific,  and  on 
the  east  by  Queen  Charlotte  Sound,  Johnstone 
Strait,  Discovery  Strait,  and  Strait  of  Georgia. 
Latitude  48°  20'— 51°  N.,  longitude,  123°— 128° 
W.  It  is  270  miles  in  length,  from  30  to  50  miles 
in  average  breadth.  Area,  about  16,000  square 
miles. 

Van 'da,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Orcfiideo1.  V.  ccerulea,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
of  Indian  orchids,  is  highly  prized  by  cultivators, 
It  has  panicles  of  azure  flowers.  Doctor  Hooker 
found  it  on  the  Khasia  Mountains,  growing  in 
great  profusion, epiphytical  upon  the  oak, banyan, 
etc. 

Vandalin,  the  county  seat  of  Fayette  county. 
Ill.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Van 'dais  (Lat.  Vandali,  also  Vitidili  and  Van- 
duli),  a  famous  race  of  European  barbarians, 
probably  of  Germanic,  though  some  consider 
them  of  Slavonic  origin.  They  make  their  first 
appearance  as  a  historic  people  in  the  second  cent¬ 
ury  a.d.,  at  which  time  they  inhabited  the  north¬ 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Riesengebirge  (called  after 
them,  Vandnlici  Montes),  and  figure  as  the  associ¬ 
ates  of  the  Marcomanni  and  Quadi  in  the  plun¬ 
dering  expeditions  into  Pannonia,  and  the  wars 
with  Marcus  Aurelius.  They  overran  Europe  and 
Northern  Africa  during  the  fifth  and  the  sixth 
century,  and  after  the  defeat  of  Gelimer  by  Beli- 
sarius  in  534,  most  of  the  Vandals  were  drafted 
into  the  Imperial  Army,  and  “used  up”  in  the 
wars  with  Persia. 

Vanderbilt,  Cornelius,  an  enterprising  Amer¬ 
ican  navigator,  born  on  Staten  Island,  N.  Y.,  in 
May,  1794.  His  early  life  was  spent  in  navigating 
sail  and  steam  vessels,  and  later  he  became  a  suc¬ 
cessful  steamboat  builder.  lie  was  made  Presi¬ 
dent  of  the  New  York  Central  Railroad  in  1857 
and  died  Jan.  4,  1877,  having  accumulated  a 
fortune  of  several  million  dollars. 

Van  Dyck,  Sir  Anthony.  Born  at  Ant¬ 
werp,  March  22,  1599.  He  studied  under  Van 
Balen  and  Rubens,  visited  the  principal  cities 
of  Italy,  and  spent  some  years  at  Rome.  About 
1630-31  he  visited  England  at  the  command  of 
Charles  I.  He  was  lodged  at  Blackfriars,  was 
knighted,  and  had  a  pension  of  $1,000  a  year  set¬ 
tled  on  him.  He  is  said  to  have  painted  over 
1,000  pictures  in  twenty  years.  Van  Dyck  died 
in  London  in  1641 . 

Vane,  Sir  Henry,  a  notable  English  politician 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  born  in  1612.  His 
father,  also  a  Sir  Henry,  was  a  distinguished 
statesman  iu  the  reigns  of  King  James  I.  and 
Charles  I.,  and  received  many  proofs  of  the  royal 
favor;  but  having  taken  partin  the  prosecution  of 
Strafford,  he  was  deprived  of  all  his  offices  of 
honor  and  emolument.  When  the  Parliament  rose 
against  the  king,  Vane  remained  neutral,  and  some 
time  before  the  execution  of  Charles,  he  withdrew 
to  his  seat  at  Raby  Castle,  where  liedied  in  1654. 
— Sir  Henry  Vane,  the  Younger,  studied  at 
Oxford,  where  he  appears  to  have  embraced 
those  republican  principles  for  which  he  after¬ 
ward  became  so  famous.  His  travels  in  France 
and  Switzerland  strongly  confirmed  him  in  his 
aversion  to  the  government  and  di-cipline  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  in  1635,  he  sailed  for 
New  England.  He  was  soon  after  chosen  by  the 
people,  Governor  of  Massachusetts;  but  his  predi¬ 
lections  in  favor  of  “Antinomian”  opinions  soon 
robbed  him  of  his  popularity,  and  in  1636,  or 
thereabouts,  he  returned  home,  and  ent  ered  deeply 
into  politics,  being  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  revolu¬ 
tion.  When  the  Restoration  took  place,  Vane  was 
one  of  the  twenty  persons  excluded  from  the  Act 
of  General  Pardon  and  Oblicion;  and  in  July,  1660, 
he  was  committed  to  the  Tower.  On  June  2, 
1662, he  was  arraigned, and  indicted  of  high  treason 
before  the  Middlesex  grand  jury,  found  guilty 
(on  the  6tli),  and  on  the  14th  was  beheaded  on 
Tower  Hill. 

Vangs,  ropes  on  either  side  of  a  gaff,  forsteady- 
ing,  or  acting  as  braces  to,  a  fore-and-aft  sail. 

V anil 'la,  a  genus  of  parasitical  Orchidece,  na¬ 
tives  of  tropical  parts  of  America  and  of  Asia. 
The  vanilla  of  commerce  was  formerly  supposed 


VAN  RENSSELAER. 


693 


VEINS. 


to  be  the  fruit  of  V.  aromatica,  a  native  of  tropi¬ 
cal  America,  but  is  now  ascertained  to  be  chiefly, 
if  not  wholly,  the  fruit  of  V.  planifolia ,  a  species 
indigenous  to  Mexico,  Guiana,  Brazil,  Peru,  etc., 
and  cultivated  also  iu  some  of  the  West  India 
Islands,  the  Mauritius,  and  Ceylon. 

Van  Rensselaer,  Stephen,  known  as  “the 
Patroon,”  an  American  statesman,  and  patron  of 
learning,  was  born  in  New  York,  Nov.  1,  1769. 
After  an  active,  useful,  and  honorable  career, 
worthy  of  his  high  position,  he  died  at  Albany, 
Jan.  26,  1839. 

Van  Wert,  the  county  seat  of  Van  Wert  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  5,600. 

Vapor.  As  all  solids,  with  the  exception  of 
carbon  (an  exception  most  probably  due  to  our 
not  being  able  to  produce  a  sufficiently  high  tem¬ 
perature),  are  melted,  or  rendered  liquid  by  the 
application  of  heat,  so  a  further  application  of 
heat  converts  them  into  vapor.  A  vapor  is  really 
a  gas.  The  most  familiar  instance  of  vapor  is 
aqueous  vapor,  or  steam.  At  all  temperatures, 
even  as  low  as  the  freezing-point,  ice  and  water 
give  off  vapor;  and  the  quantity  produced  is 
determined  by  the  temperature  alone.  Aqueous 
vapor  may  be  liquefied  by  cold  alone,  or  by  pres¬ 
sure  alone.  Carbonic  acid  is  liquefied  when  ex¬ 
posed  to  a  pressure  of  thirty-five  atmospheres  at 
ordinary  temperatures;  and  some  varieties  of 
cha  coal  absorb  from  eighty  to  100  times  their  bulk 
of  this  gas. 

Varan 'idae,  a  family  of  saurian  reptiles,  hav¬ 
ing  an  elongated  body,  without  a  dorsal  crest; 
strong  legs,  and  long  unequal  toes;  the  tail  long 
and  slightly  compressed;  the  scales  tuberculous, 
and  arranged  in  rings;  the  tongue  protractile, 
dividing  into  two  points  as  in  serpents. 

Var'icocele  (known  also  as  Circocele)  is  a 
term  used  in  Surgery  to  designate  a  varicose  state 
of  the  veins  of  the  spermatic  cord.  It  is  caused 
by  the  same  conditions  which  give  rise  to  varicose 
veins  elsewhere — viz.,  weakness  of  structure, 
combined  with  obstruction  through  corpulence, 
constipaiion,  to  the  return  of  the  venous  blood. 

Var'icose  Veins.  When  a  vein  becomes  di¬ 
lated  at  a  certain  part  of  its  course,  for  no  appar¬ 
ent  physiological  object,  such  as  relieving  the 
venous  circulation  elsewhere  (as,  for  example,  in 
the  case  of  the  superficial  abdominal  veins  enlarg¬ 
ing  in  order  to  relieve  a  compressed  vena  cava), 
it  is  said  to  be  varicose,  the  actual  dilatation  being 
called  a  vnrix  (a  word  used  in  this  sense  by 
Cicero  and  Celsus).  Some  veins  seem  to  be  un¬ 
affected  by  varices,  which,  however,  are  of  com¬ 
mon  occurrence  in  the  sub-mucous  veins  of  the 
rectum  (constituting  hemorrhoids  or  piles),  in  the 
spermatic  veins,  giving  rise  to  varicocele,  and  in 
the  veins  of  the  lower  extremities.  They  are 
occasionally  (but  very  rarely)  found  in  other 
veins.  Certain  conditions  of  the  system  favor  the 
formation  of  varices,  amongst  which  may  be 
noticed  an  indolent  temperament,  and  a  debil¬ 
itated  condition  of  the  general  system,  accom¬ 
panied  by  a  relaxed  state  of  the  walls  of  the 
veins;  and  possibly  also  a  congenital  predispo¬ 
sition  or  hereditary  tendency.  Persons  with  such 
a  predisposition  are  more  likely  to  suffer  from 
this  affection  if  their  occupation  is  one  which 
involves  much  standing  or  walking;  and  cooks, 
washerwomen,  and  foot-soldiers  have  been  se¬ 
lected  as  specially  prone  to  varicose  veins.  With 
regard  to  treatment,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  old 
varices  can  not  be  cured,  except  by  operations 
dangerous  to  life,  although  much  may  be  done 
for  their  relief.  In  their  earlier  stages,  they  are, 
however,  more  amenable  to  treatment.  The 
venous  circulation  of  the  leg  should  be  as  much 
as  possible  facilitated  by  the  disuse  of  ganers;  by 
keeping  the  leg  (if  the  means  and  condition  of 
the  patient  permit  it)  in  a  horizontal  position  for 
a  month  or  six  weeks;  by  prohibiting  walking, 
and  allowing  only  carriage-exercise,  with  the 
leg  elevated  to  the  horizontal  position.  The  leg 
should  also  be  carefully  bandaged  from  the  toes 
to  above  the  knee,  the  bandage  being  replaced 
daily,  and  the  leg  then  well  rubbed  with  the 
hand,  or  with  a  flesh-brush,  for  ten  minutes  or 
more,  from  below  upward,  so  as  to  stimulate  the 
circulation.  When  the  circumstances  of  the 
patient  hinder  this  treatment,  elastic  stockings 
may  be  tried  during  the  day,  or  ordinary  band¬ 
ages,  with  a  pad  of  lint  placed  on  each  varicose 


cluster  before  the  bandage  is  applied.  Incases 
where  only  one  or  two  trunks  are  affected,  the 
disease  may  be  prevented  from  extending  by  the 
application  of  pieces  of  wash-leather  spread  with 
soap-plaster  firmly  over  them.  At  the  same  time 
the  general  health  must  be  attended  to. 

Var'na,  an  important  seaport  of  the  Princi¬ 
pality  of  Bulgaria,  on  the  northern  side  of  a  semi¬ 
circular  bay,  an  inlet  of  the  Black  Sea,  180  miles 
north-northwest  of  Constantinople.  Pop.,  26,000. 

Var'nisli  is  a  solution  of  some  resinous  mate¬ 
rial  in  any  proper  solvent,  alcohol  and  oils  being 
the  ones  chiefly  employed.  The  solution  must  be 
of  such  consistency  as  to  enable  it  to  be  very 
thinly  and  smoothly  spread  over  the  surface  in¬ 
tended  to  be  varnished,  so  that  wdien  it  dries,  it 
leaves  a  thin  resinous  coating,  which  is  either 
naturally  glossy,  or  can  be  made  so  by  mechani¬ 
cal  polishing. 

VaTus  is  a  term  employed  in  Surgery  to  desig¬ 
nate  a  variety  of  club-foot.  The  corresponding 
Latin  word  signifies  having  the  legs  turned  in¬ 
ward,  knock-kneed.  It  may  be  regarded  as  the 
opposite  to  valgus,  and  as  in  the  case  of  that 
word,  Talipes  must  be  understood.  In  the  form 
of  club-foot  termed  varus,  (1)  the  heel  is  raised  ; 
(2)  the  inner  edge  of  the  foot  is  drawn  upward; 
and  (3)  the  anterior  part  of  the  foot  is  twisted  in¬ 
ward,  so  that  the  patient  walks  on  its  outer  edge. 

Yasarliely,  or  Holdmezo-Vasarhely,  a  town 
of  Hungary,  stands  on  a  marshy  plain  five  miles 
from  the  left  bank  of  the  Tlieiss,  and  sixteen  miles 
northeast  of  Szegedin.  It  is  the  largest  market- 
town  of  Hungary.  Pop.  (1880),  74,094. 

Vaseline  is  a  substance  obtained  from  petro¬ 
leum  or  paraffin.  Yellowish,  translucent,  and 
crystalline  in  appearance,  it  is  nearly  of  the  con¬ 
sistency  of  soft  soap,  and  is  almost  perfectly  taste¬ 
less  and  inodorous.  It  is  soluble  in  ether,  and 
resists  the  action  of  most  chemicals.  Largely 
used  as  a  salve  or  liniment,  it  is  also  made  the 
base  of  various  ointments  and  pomades;  and 
it  may  be  employed  inwardly  as  a  remedy  in 
colds,  coughs,  and  hoarseness.  It  is  an  excellent 
lubricant ;  is  serviceable  for  protecting  polished 
steel  or  iron  from  rust ;  and  has  the  advantage 
over  animal  and  vegetable  fats,  that  it  does  not 
become  rancid. 

Yat'ican,  Palace  of,  in  Rome,  the  principal 
residence  of  the  Pope,  and  the  seat  of  the  great 
library  and  the  museums,  and  collections  of  art, 
ancient  and  modern,  which,  for  visitors,  consti¬ 
tute  one  of  the  chief  attractions  of  the  city  of 
Rome.  The  Popes,  soon  after  the  establishment 
of  the  peace  of  the  church  under  the  Emperor 
Constantine,  had  a  residence  at  the  Vatican,  which 
they  occupied,  although  at  uncertain  intervals, 
conjointly  with  that  of  the  Lateran.  The  build¬ 
ing,  with  its  gardens  and  other  appurtenances,  is 
said  to  cover  a  space  equal  to  the  whole  area  of 
the  city  of  Turin,  as  it  was  thirty  years  ago,  with 
a  pop.  of  130, <)00.  It  is  popularly  believed  to 
contain  16,000  apartments  of  various  sizes,  but 
this  is  probably  an  exaggeration.  Some  of  them, 
however,  are  of  unrivaled  beauty,  among  which 
may  be  particularized  the  Chapel  of  San  Lorenzo, 
the  Pauline  Chapul,  and  the  still  more  celebrated 
Sixtine  Chapel,  which  is  decorated  in  frescoes 
from  the  pencil  of  Michael  Angelo;  the  Sala 
Regia,  the  galleries  and  halls  decorated  by 
Raphael,  Giulio  Romano,  and  their  scholars;  the 
magnificent  library,  which,  although  surpassed 
in  the  number  of  volumes,  is  unrivaled  among 
the  cities  of  Europe  in  extent,  in  beauty  of  pro¬ 
portions,  and  in  decorations,  the  galleries  of 
antiquities,  Christian  and  pagan,  and  of  paint¬ 
ings,  statuary,  bronzes,  medals,  vases,  and  other 
objects  of  art. 

Vaucluse,  a  department  in  the  Southeast  of 
France,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Rhone,  and 
on  the  south  by  the  Durance,  which  separates  it 
from  the  Department  of  Bouchesdu  Rhone.  Area, 
1,365  square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  244,149. 

Vaud  (Ger.  Waadt),  a  canton  which  forms  the 
western  corner  of  Switzerland  between  the  Jura 
and  the  Bernese  Alps.  Area,  1,240  square  miles; 
pop.  (1880),  238,730.  The  existing  democratic- 
representative  constitution  dates  from  1845.  The 
Vaudois  are  industrious  and  well  educated;  and 
from  this  part  of  Switzerland  come  a  large  num¬ 
ber  of  the  Swiss  teachers  and  governesses  who  are 


met  with  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Capital, 
Lausanne. 

Vault,  an  arched  roof,  usually  constructed  of 
stone  or  brick  work.  The  simplest  kind  of  vault 
is  the  plain  wagon  or  tunnel  vault,  being  a  simple 
segmental  or  semicircular  arch,  thrown  across  a 
longitudinal  apartment  and  extending  from  one 
end  to  the  other.  Ordinary  bridges  show-  an  exam¬ 
ple  of  this  styleof  vaulting.  Such  vaults  were  com¬ 
monly  used  by  the  Romans,  who  also  built  vaults 
with  groins — i.  e.,  vaults  intersecting  one  another. 
The  tunnel  arch,  of  a  pointed  form,  wras  of  very 
ancient  introduction,  having  been  used  by  the 
Assyrians  for  vaulting  their  large  drains.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  a  fire-proof  apartment  in  a 
building  used  as  a  depository  for  money  or  other 
valuables. 

Vaux'hall,  a  famous  public  garden  in  London, 
constituted  as  such  immediately  after  the  Restora¬ 
tion  (May,  1660),  and  supporting  that  character 
for  nearly  two  centuries.  It  was  situated  in 
Lambeth,  opposite  Millbank,and  near  the  manor 
called  Fulke’s  Hall  (the  residence  of  Fulke  de 
Breaute,  a  follower  of  King  John),  from  which 
is  derived  the  name  Vauxhall.  Vauxliall  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  particularly  strict  in  its 
morals.  The  loose  character  of  the  amusements 
it  afforded  is  freely  sketched  by  the  dramatists 
and  novelists  of  the  last  century,  and  is  again 
revived  in  Tliackery’s  Vanity  Fair. 

Vay'gach  (also  written  Vaigntch,  Vaigatz, 
and  Waigatz),  an  island  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
belonging  to  Russia,  stands  between  the  mainland 
and  the  Island  of  Nova  Zembla,  from  the  former 
of  which  it  is  separated  by  a  strait  about  5  miles 
broad.  There  is  no  resident  population,  but  being 
productive  in  furs  and  in  fish,  it  annually  attracts 
a  number  of  Russian  and  Samoyede  hunters. 

Vedettes  are  sentinels,  placed  in  advance  of 
the  outposts  of  an  army,  to  keep  a  strict  watch 
upon  the  enemy’s  movements,  and  to  signal  im¬ 
mediately  the  approach  of  danger. 

Veer,  in  Sailing,  is  to  pass  from  one  board  to 
the  other,  by  bringing  the  stern  to  windward. 
It  is  therefore  the  same  action  as  gybing. 

Vega-Carpio,  Lope  Felix  de,  a  celebrated 
Spanish  poet,  was  born  at  Madrid  on  Nov.  25, 
1562.  After  a  rather  riotous  career  he  became, 
in  1609,  a  priest  of  the  Order  of  St.  Francis.  Of 
his  zeal  in  his  new  functions,  there  is  evidence 
in  the  fact,  that  in  January,  1623,  he  took  promi¬ 
nent  part  in  the  ceremony  of  burning  a  heretical 
brother  of  his  order.  Finally,  in  the  beginning 
of  August,  1635,  he  gave  himself  a  scourging  so 
terrible,  that  the  walls  of  the  chamber  were  found 
bespattered  with  his  blood;  and  some  days  after 
he  died  of  it,  at  the  ripe  age  of  seventy-three. 

Vegetable,  in  a  scientific  sense,  is  a  term 
synonymous  with  plant.  Organic  nature  is 
divided  into  the  animal  kingdom  and  the  vege¬ 
table  kingdom.  The  word  vegetable  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  vegetus,  lively,  or  healthy.  Vege¬ 
tation  is  the  term  employed  to  denote  the  growth 
of  plants. 

Vegetable  Tissue,  the  term  employed  in 
Botany  to  denote  the  whole  substance  of  which 
plants  consist;  regarded  according  to  its  structure, 
rather  than  to  functions  or  chemical  composition. 

Vegeta'rianism,  the  doctrine  that  vegetable 
substances  are  the  solids  intended  by  nature  for 
the  sustenance  of  man,  and  that  it  is  wrong — 
against  nature  and  against  good  morals — for  men 
to  make  use  of  an  animal  diet.  There  have  never 
been  wanting  among  speculative  persons  some 
who  maintained  that  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
the  proper  food  for  men;  and  illustrious  names 
such  as  those  of  Pythagoras,  Plato,  Plutarch,  in 
ancient  times — of  Rousseau,  Shelley,  Sweden¬ 
borg,  in  modern,  can  be  counted  among  the 
upholders  of  this  doctrine. 

Veins,  ill  Anatomy,  if  we  except  the  pulmon¬ 
ary,  the  portal,  and  the  umbilical  veins,  are  the 
vessels  winch  carry  back  venous  blood  from  the 
capillaries,  and  enlarging  as  they  proceed,  finally 
pour  it  through  the  ascending  and  descending 
venas  cavce  into  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart. 
Their  coats  are  similar  to  those  of  the  arteries, 
but  much  thinner,  and  even  transparent.  They 
are,  however,  of  considerable  strength.  The 
internal  coat  consists  of  an  epithelial  layer,  sup¬ 
ported  on  several  laminae  of  longitudinal  elastic 
fibers.  The  middle  or  contractile  coat  consists  of 


VEINS. 


694 


VERB. 


numerous  alternating  layers  of  muscular  and 
elastic  libers;  the  muscular  fibers  being  disposed 
circularly  round  the  vessel.  The  muscular  libers 
are  wanting  in  some  parts  of  the  venous  system, 
and  specially  developed  in  others  (as,  for  example, 
t lie  splenic  and  portal  veins,  where,  perhaps  from 
the  physical  character  of  the  tissues  which  they 
pervade,  uicre  may  be  more  than  the  ordinary 
resistance  to  the  passage  of  the  blood).  In  the 
vence  cavce  and  pulmonary  veins  near  the  heart, 
striped  muscular  fibers  may  be  detected,  continu¬ 
ous  with  those  in  the  auricles.  The  external  or 
areolar  fibrous  coat  consists  of  connective  or 
areolar  tissue,  and  of  longitudinal  elastic  fibers; 
within  some  of  the  larger  veins,  as  the  inferior 
vena  cava,  through  its  whole  length,  the  external 
iliacs,  the  azygos,  etc.,  there  is  also  a  longitudinal 
network  of  unstriped  muscular  fibers.  Venous 
valves  are  most  numerous  in  the  veins  of  the 
extremities,  especially  the  lower  ones,  these  ves¬ 
sels  having  to  act  against  the  force  of  gravity 
more  than  most  others.  They  are  absent  in  the 
vence  cavir,  the  hepatic,  portal,  renal,  pulmonary, 
and  some  other  large  veins,  and  in  very  small 
veins  generally.  The  veins  are  nourished  by 
nutrient  vessels,  or  vasa  vasorum,  like  the  arter¬ 
ies;  but  except  in  a  few  instances  (including  the 
inferior  vena  cava),  nerves  are  not  distributed  to 
them. 

Veins,  in  Geology,  are  crevices,  more  or  less 
vertical,  caused  by  the  contraction  during  drying 
or  metamorphoses,  or  by  the  mechanical  disturb¬ 
ance  of  a  rock,  which  have  been  filled  by 
materials  different  from  the  body  of  the  rock. 
Veins  containing  substances  that  have  been  in¬ 
jected  in  a  state  of  fusion  from  heat,  have  had 
their  origin  in  some  internal  force;  while  those 
filled  with  mineral  deposits  may  or  may  not  be 
connected  with  upheaval.  Granitic  and  trap- 
pean  veins  differ  from  dykes  chiefly  in  the 
greater  size  of  the  latter. 

Velez-Malaga,  a  town  in  the  South  of  Spain, 
in  the  modern  Province  of  Malaga,  and  sixteen 
miles  east  of  the  city  of  that  name.  Pop.  (1877), 
24,332. 

Vello'zia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Ilcemocloracm,  natives  of  Brazil,  Southern 
Guiana,  and  the  Mascarene  Islands.  They  are 
sometimes  called  tree  lilies.  Some  of  them  are 
from  2  to  10  feet  high,  and  the  trunk  is  some¬ 
times  as  thick  as  a  man’s  body.  The  structure 
of  the  trunk  is  very  remarkable.  It  has  a  slender 
sub-cylindrical  central  column,  of  the  ordinary 
monocotyledonous  structure,  outside  of  which 
are  arranged  great  quantities  of  slender,  fibrous 
roots,  which  cohere  firmly  by  their  own  cellular 
surface,  and  form  a  spurious  kind  of  wood.  In 
some  of  the  southern  districts  of  Brazil,  vellozias 
are  found  covering  large  tracts.  The  flowers  of 
the  larger  species  are  about  0  inches  long,  either 
pure  white,  or  of  a  beautiful  purple  color,  much 
resembling  the  white  lily  of  our  gardens. 

Velocity,  Initial,  in  Gunnery,  is  the  speed 
with  which  the  ball  leaves  the  muzzle  of  the  gun. 
This  was  formerly  calculated  from  the  momen¬ 
tum  as  shown  by  the  ballistic  pendulum.  A  great 
improvement  of  the  last  ten  years  is  the  elec¬ 
tro  ballistic  pendulum,  the  invention  of  a  Major 
Na'  ez  of  the  Belgian  service,  which  actually  meas¬ 
ures  the  interval  of  time  during  which  the  shot 
traverses  a  short  space  of  ground.  The  apparatus 
cousists  of  a  steel  pendulum  falling  at  the  side  of 
a  graduated  sector  of  a  circle.  Behind  the  segment 
is  a  piece  of  iron  capable  of  being  magnetized  by 
a  galvanic  battery  adjoining.  The  wi-res  for  com¬ 
pleting  the  circuit  between  the  battery  and  the 
magnet  are  so  arranged  that  they  are  in  connec¬ 
tion  with  two  targets  of  paper  or  other  thin  mate¬ 
rial  in  the  line  of  t lie  projectile’s  fire.  So  long  as 
the  circuit  is  complete,  and  before  the  experiment, 
the  magnet  holds  the  pendulum  at  its  highest 
point.  When  the  shot  pierces  the  first  target,  the 
circuit  is  broken,  the  iron  demagnetized,  and  the 
pendulum  released;  these  effects  being  absolutely 
simultaneous.  With  equal  simultaneity,  the  pierc¬ 
ing  the  second  target  reestablishes  the  circuit, 
magnetizes  t  he  iron,  and  arrests  the  pend  ulum  in  its 
descent .  The  distance  between  the  targets  is  known, 
and  the  accumulating  resistance  of  the  atmosphere 
within  that  time;  t  lie  sector  being  finely  graduated, 
the  distance  traversed  by  the  pendulum  shows 
exactly  the  fraction  of  a  second  occupied,  and 


from  these  data  the  initial  velocity  is  a  matter  of 
simple  computation.  Of  an  ordinary  smooth-bore 
cannon,  the  initial  velocity  is  about  1,600  feet  per 
second. 

Vel'vet,  a  fabric  in  which,  besides  the  ordinary 
warp  and  weft,  which  are  usually  arranged  as  in 
twill-weaving,  there  is  also  a  supplementary 
weft,  consisting  of  short  pieces  of  silk,  cotton,  or 
woolen  thread  doubled  under  the  regular  weft, 
and  brought  to  the  surface  in  loops  which  are  so 
close  together  as  to  conceal  the  regular  web. 
The  loops  are  afterward  cut  evenly,  and  the  ends 
thus  made  constitute  a  covering  resembling  a 
very  short  fur.  In  silk  velvets,  the  warp  and 
pile  threads  are  both  of  organzine  silk,  which  is 
the  strongest  used  in  weaving. 

Vcn'dace  (Coregonus  willvghbii  or  maroenula), 
a  fish  of  the  family  Salmonidce,  found  in  the 
rivers  and  lakes  of  Sweden,  in  the  Castle  Loch 
at  Lochmaben  in  Scotland,  and  in  some  of  the 
English  lakes.  It  attains  a  length  of  6  or  7 
inches,  is  deeper  in  proportion  than  many  of  the 
Salmonidce,  and  of  a  compressed  form. 

Vendee,  La,  a  maritime  department  in  the  West 
of  France,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  on  the  north  by  the  Department  of  Loire- 
Inferieure,  and  on  the  south  by  that  of  Charente- 
Inferieure.  Area,  2, 5S7  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
421,139. 

Vendemiaire(<.  r.,  the  Wine-month)  embraced, 
in  the  calendar  of  the  first  French  Republic,  the 
period  from  September  23d  to  October  21st. 

Vendetta  (vengeance),  the  term  used  to  denote 
the  practice,  as  it  prevails  in  Corsica,  of  individu¬ 
als  taking  private  vengeance  upon  those  who  have 
shed  the  blood  of  their  relations.  In  Corsica,  when 
a  murder  has  been  committed,  the  murderer  is  pur¬ 
sued  not  only  by  the  officers  of  justice  whose  duty 
it  is  to  punish  offenses  against  society,  but  also  by 
the  relatives  of  the  slain,  upon  whom  the  received 
views  of  social  duty  impose  the  obligation  of  per¬ 
sonally  revenging  his  death.  In  such  a  case,  the 
relatives  of  the  murdered  man  take  up  their  arms, 
and  hasten  to  pursue,  and  if  they  can  find  him, 
to  slay  the  murderer.  If  he  succeed  in  eluding 
their  pursuit,  the  murder  may  be  revenged  upon 
his  relatives;  and  as  the  vengeance  may  be  taken 
whenever  an  opportunity  occurs,  the  relatives  of 
a  murderer  whose  crime  is  unavenged  have  to  live 
in  a  state  of  incessant  precaution. 

Veneer'  (Fr.  fournir,  to  furnish),  a  layer  of 
wood,  cut  very  thin,  for  the  purpose  of  being 
glued  onto  the  surface  of  a  commoner  kind.  Only 
choice  kinds  of  hard  woods  are  sawed  into 
veneers,  and  they  are  usually  attached  to  deal  or 
pine,  so  as  to  give  all  the  appearance  of  being 
made  solid.  In  this  way,  the  more  costly  kinds 
of  furniture-woods  are  economically  used  by  the 
cabinetmaker,  for  with  the  improvements  which 
have  been  effected  in  the  process  of  cutting, 
veneers  as  thin  as  paper  have  be  n  produced. 
The  veneer  wood  is  steamed  until  it  is  very  soft 
and  is  then  shaved  off  with  powerful  knives 
worked  by  steam. 

Vene'ridte,  a  family  of  lamellibrancliiate 
mollusks,  having  a  regular,  closed,  bivalve  shell; 
the  teeth  and  laminae  of  the  hinge  near  together 
in  a  single  group  under  the  beak  (umbo)-,  gener¬ 
ally  three  diverging  teeth  in  each  valve;  a 
marked  oval  impression  in  front  of  the  beak;  the 
general  form  similar  to  that  of  the  cockles  ( Cardi- 
acece),  but  usually  more  flattened. 

Vene'tian  Chalk,  a  variety  of  soap-stone  or 
steatite,  used  sometimes  in  the  manufacture  of 
drawing  crayons. 

Venetia,  Territory  of,  ceded  to  Austria  in 
1815,  formed  from  that  year,  along  with  Lom¬ 
bardy,  what  was  called  the  Lombardo- Venetian 
Kingdom,  one  of  the  Austrian  crownlands.  In 
1859  Lombardy  was  ceded  to  Italy,  but  Venetia 
continued  in  the  possession  of  the  Austrians  till 
1866,  when,  as  one  of  the  results  of  the  famous 
Month’s  War,  it  also  was  ceded  to  Italy,  and  is 
now  incorporated  witli  that  kingdom.  While 
still  in  Austrian  possession,  Venetia  was  regarded 
as  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Austrian  crown- 
lands  of  the  Tyrol  and  Carintliia;  on  the  east  by 
Gorz  and  Gradisca;  on  the  south  by  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  the  River  Po,  and  the  Duchy  of  Modena; 
and  on  the  west  by  the  River  Adige  and  the 
Tyrol.  The  territory  of  Venetia,  ceded  to  Italy 


by  the  treaty  of  peace,  Oct.  3,  1866,  has  the  same 
frontiers  which  it  had  as  an  Austrian  province. 

Venetian  Style  of  Architecture.  This  term 
is  applied  to  the  p  .rticular  phase  of  the  Renais¬ 
sance  developed  in  Venice.  The  Venetian  is  the 
most  picturesque  and  ornate,  as  compared  with 
the  styles  of  Rome  and  Florence. 

Venezuela,  a  Republic  in  the  Northwest  of 
South  America,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  on  the  west  by  the  United  States 
of  Colombia  (New  Granada),  on  the  south  by 
Brazil,  and  on  the  east  by  British  Guiana.  Lat¬ 
itude  1°  20' — 12°  25'  N. ;  longitude  59°  45' — 73° 
17'  W. 

Ve'nial  Sin  (Lat.  veniale,  pardonable,  from 
venia,  pardon),  a  term  used,  chiefly  in  Roman 
Catholic  theology,  to  denote  the  less  heinous 
class  of  offenses  against  the  law  of  God.  St. 
Thomas  Aquinas,  whose  definition  is  generally 
accepted,  explains  mortal  sin  to  be  that  which  of 
itself  subverts  the  end  of  the  law;  whereas  venial 
sin  but  diverts  it  in  a  greater  or  less  degree  from 
that  to  which  God  intended  that  it  should  be 
directed. 

Yen 'ice,  a  fortified  city  of  Northern  Italy,  one 
of  the  noblest,  most  famous,  and  singular  cities 
in  the  world,  is  built  upon  a  crowded  cluster  of 
islets,  in  the  lagoon  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
northwest  fringe  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  twenty- 
three  miles  east  of  Padua.  Latitude  45°  25'  N., 
longitude  12°  20'  E.  Pop.  (1881)  of  town,  129,- 
276;  of  commune,  132,826.  Area  of  the  Terri¬ 
tory  of  Venice,  9,024  square  miles;  pop.  (1881). 
2,814,173. 

Ventric'nlites,  a  genus  of  fossil  sponges  speci¬ 
mens  of  which  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
cretaceous  strata.  They  often  form  the  nucleus 
around  which  flints  are  aggregated,  and  give  their 
form  to  the  flint-nodules. 

Ye 'ii  us,  the  Roman  goddess  of  Love,  subse¬ 
quently  identified  with  the  Greek  Aphrodite.  As 
the  myth  of  the  Trojan  origin  of  Rome  gained 
ground,  the  worship  of  Venus  emerged  into  im¬ 
portance.  Aphrodite  was  the  mother  of  yEneas, 
and  Aphrodite  became  Venus;  Ares  was  Mars,  and 
Mars  was  the  national  god  of  the  Roman  people; 
and  as  in  the  Greek  mythology  Aphrodite  was 
beloved  of  Ares,  so,  of  course,  Venus  was  repre¬ 
sented  as  the  paramour  of  Mars,  and  thus  was 
advanced  by  the  poets  to  thedignity  of  the  divine 
mother  of  the  Roman  people.  The  figure  of 
Venus  was  a  favorite  subject  of  ancient  sculptors. 
One  of  the  most  famous  specimens  extant  is  the 
Venus  de’  Medici,  preserved  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery 
at  Florence,  and  generally  admitted  to  be  the 
finest  relic  of  ancient  art.  It  was  dug  up  in 
several  pieces,  either  at  the  villa  of  Hadrian,  near 
Tivoli,  or  at  the  portico  of  Octavia,  in  Rome,  in 
the  seventeenth  century.  The  sculptor  was 
Cleomenes,  the  Athenian  (200  b.c.).  The  beauti¬ 
ful  Venus  of  Milo,  now  in  the  Louvre  at  Paris,  is 
so  called  because  it  was  found  in  the  island  of 
Milo  or  Melos  in  the  Archipelago.  Of  modern 
statues,  that  by  Canova  is  the  most  famous. 

Venus’  Looking-glass  ( Specularia  speculum), 
an  annual  of  the  natural  order  Campanulacece, 
which  has  long  been  a  favorite  in  flower-gardens, 
and  is  a  native  of  cornfields  in  the  South  of 
Europe. 

Ve'ra  Cruz,  or  Villa  Noeva  de  la  Vera 
Cruz  (the  New  City  of  the  Real  Cross),  an  import¬ 
ant  city  on  the  east  coast  of  Mexico,  about  200 
miles  east  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  with  a  pop.  of 
about  16.000. 

Vera'tria  (Ca  JLsNoOs),  an  alkaloid  occurring 
in  cevadilla  (the  dried  fruit  of  Asagrcea  officinalis), 
in  the  bulbs  of  Colchicum  autumnale,  and  in  the 
roots  and  seeds  of  different  species  of  Vcratrum. 
Cevadilla  is  the  source  from  which  it  is  most 
readily  obtained.  In  this  country  it  is  chiefly 
employed  externally  in  the  form  of  ointment  of 
veratria  for  neuralgic  affections,  and  for  scrofulous 
diseases  of  the  joints.  It  is  an  extremely  acrid 
and  violent  poison,  and  must  be  prescribed  with 
great  care. 

Verb  (Lat.  verbum,  a  word),  the  name  given  in 
grammar  to  that  part  of  speech  which  predicates 
or  affirms.  As  the  very  end  of  speaking  is  to 
assert  or  affirm  something  with  a  view  to  being 
believed  or  disbelieved,  the  part  of  speech  which 
performs  this  office  is,  as  it  were,  the  soul  of  the 
sentence,  and  is  called  “  the  word,”  or  verb,  par 


VERBENACEH3. 


695 


VESTA. 


excellence.  Verbs  affirm  either  some  action  or 
some  state;  as,  “John  reads;”  “  The  sun  shines;” 
“The  book  lies  on  the  table.”  When  the  nature 
of  the  action  requires  an  object  to  complete  the 
sense,  the  verb  is  called  transitive,  because  the 
action  passes  over  (Lat.  transit)  to  an  object;  as, 
“  The  child  strikes  the  dog.”  Some  verbs  complete 
the  conception  of  the  action  in  themselves,  and 
require  no  complement;  as,  “The  child  sleeps;” 
“The  bird  flies.”  These  are  called  intransitive. 
All  verbs,  then,  agree  in  affirming  action. 

Verbena'cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  consisting  chiefly  of  trees  and  shrubs,  but 
partly  also  of  herbaceous  plants. 

Verdi,  Giuseppe,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Italian 
operatic  composers,  was  born  in  1814  at  Ilancola, 
in  the  Duchy  of  Parma,  where  his  father  was  an 
innkeeper.  His  operas,  Ernani,  II  Trovatore,  La 
Traviatn,  JJn  Balia  in  Maschera,  and  Aida,  are 
familiar  everywhere.  In  1S61  he  was  elected  to 
the  Italian  Parliament,  and  in  1874  was  made  a 
Senator;  while  in  1875  he  was  nominated  a  Com¬ 
mander  of  the  French  Legion  of  Honor,  of  which 
he  was  already  a  member. 

Ver'digris  is  the  popular  name  for  diacetate  of 
copper,  a  mixture  of  several  basic  copper  acetates, 
a  substance  which  is  largely  used  for  commercial 
purposes,  and  as  an  external  application  in  surgery. 
It  is  prepared  on  a  large  scale  by  piling  up  copper¬ 
plates  with  alternate  layers  of  marc  or  fermenting 
grape-skins.  In  the  course  of  a  few  weeks,  the 
surface  of  the  copper  is  covered  with  a  crust  of 
the  salt,  which  is  detached,  made  into  a  thick 
paste  with  vinegar,  and  pressed  into  molds.  The 
salt  thus  obtained  is  in  the  form  of  a  bluish-green, 
tough  mass,  which  is  not  easily  pulverized.  The 
formation  of  the  salt  by  this  process  is  due  to  the 
alcohol  in  the  grape-skins  being  slowly  oxidized 
into  acetic  acid,  while  the  copper  absorbs  oxygen 
from  the  air,  and  the  oxide  thus  formed  unites 
with  the  acetic  acid.  It  is  used  by  the  surgeon  as  a 
caustic  application  to  venereal  w'arts  and  fungous 
growths;  it  is  also  a  good  application  in  ophthalmia 
tarsi,  and  has  been  of  much  service  in  stimulating 
old  and  indolent  ulcers,  in  the  ulcerated  sore 
throat  of  scarlatina,  and  in  malignant  ulcer  of  the 
tongue.  It  may  be  used  in  the  form  of  an  oint¬ 
ment  or  a  liniment. 

Ver'doy,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  indicating  that  a 
bordure  is  charged  with  flowers,  leaves,  or  vege¬ 
table  charges. 

Vermicerii  (Ital.  little  worms),  a  fine  kind  of 
Macaroni. 

Ver'mifuges,  Ver'micides,  or  Anthelmin¬ 
tics,  are  remedies  which  possess  the  property  of 
destroying  intestinal  worms,  or  of  expelling  them 
from  the  digestive  canal.  A  few  of  this  class  of 
medicines  are  said  to  be  useful  in  destroying  the 
tapeworms,  the  round  worms,  and  the  thread¬ 
worms.  In  this  category  we  may  place  Absinthium ., 
or  wormwood,  whose  effects  are  doubtful;  Suba- 
dilla,  or  Cevadilla;  Santonica,  or  worm-seed,  and 
its  active  principle,  Santonin;  and  oil  of  turpen¬ 
tine.  For  tapeworm,  the  root  of  the  male  shield- 
fern  ( Aspidium  filix  max),  of  which  the  best 
preparation  is  the  liquid  extract  of  fern-root,  may 
be  taken  in  the  morning  before  breakfast,  in  doses 
of  about  a  scruple,  in  the  form  of  an  emulsion 
with  the  yelk  of  egg,  syrup  of  orange-peel,  and 
water;  and  if  the  worm  does  not  come  away  in  six 
hours,  a  brisk  purgative  should  be  administered. 
Cusso,  or  Kousxo,  the  flowers  of  Bray  era  anlhel- 
mintica,  in  doses  of  from  half  an  ounce  to  an  ounce 
of  the  flow'ers  (infused  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  in 
ten  ounces  of  lukewarm  water  and  a  little  lemon- 
juice),  or  of  four  ounces  of  the  infusion,  and  fol¬ 
lowing  in  four  hours,  if  it  has  not  acted,  by  a  dose 
of  castor  oil,  is  a  safe  and  sure  remedy.  Decoction 
of  the  bark  of  the  root  of  the  pomegranate  tree 
( Granati  radix),  oil  of  turpentine,  and  the  seeds  of 
the  common  pumpkin  ( (Jucurbita  pepo),  are  also 
widely  praised.  All  these  medicines  should  be 
taken  fasting,  or  after  a  light  supper  on  the  previ¬ 
ous  evening.  Foremost  among  the  remedies  for 
Ascaris  lumbricoid.es  is  Santonin;  but  kamela  is 
also  very  efficacious  in  doses  of  from  one  to  two 
drachms  every  four  hours.  Ascaris  vetmicularis, 
or  the  threadworm,  is  more  successfully  attacked 
locally  in  the  rectum  by  injection,  than  by  medi- 
cines administered  in  the  ordinary  method.  Among 
the  best  forms  of  enemata  are  half  a  drachm  of 
tincture  of  sesqui-chloride  of  iron  in  a  little  gruel, 


retained  in  the  bowel  as  long  as  possible,  or  injec¬ 
tions  of  salt  and  water,  or  of  infusion  of  quassia. 
As  an  internal  remedy,  santonine  is  the  best.  The 
most  annoying  symptom  occasioned  by  these 
worms,  the  intense  itching  about  the  lower  part  of 
the  bowel,  is  best  relieved  by  the  introduction  of 
a  little  mercurial  ointment  within  the  verge  of  the 
anus,  when  the  patient  retires  to  rest. 

Vermirion,  or  artificial  cinnabar,  is  a  bisul¬ 
phide  of  mercury,  formed  by  mixing  100  parts  of 
the  metal  with  16  parts  of  sulphur,  and  subliming 
them  in  properly  constructed  retorts;  the  result  is, 
a  heavy,  dull  red  cake,  an  inch  or  so  in  thickness, 
of  acicular  crystalline  texture,  and  exactly  re¬ 
sembling,  in  these  respects,  the  native  cinnabar. 
When,  however,  it  is  finely  powdered,  it  acquires 
the  beautiful  bright  red  color  so  well  known  in 
this  pigment. 

Vermillion,  the  county  seat  of  Clay  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  1,550. 

Vermont'  (Fr.  verdmont,  green  mountain),  one 
of  the  United  States,  one  of  the  five  New  England 
States,  and  the  first  State  received  after  the  adop¬ 
tion  of  the  Federal  constitution;  latitude  42°  44' 
— 45"  N.,  and  longitude  72°  25' — 73°  25'  W.; 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Canada,  on  the  east  by 
the  Connecticut  river,  which  separates  it  from 
New  Hampshire;  on  the  south  by  Massachusetts; 
and  on  the  west  by  New  York,  from  which  it  is 
separated  for  100  miles  by  Lake  Champlain.  It 
has  an  area  of  9,565  square  miles,  divided  into 
fourteen  counties.  Pop.  (1880),  332,286. 

Vernal  Grass,  Sweet  ( Anthoxanthum  odora- 
ium),  a  grass  common  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
world  generally,  growing  in  meadows,  woods,  and 
pastures. 

Verna 'tion,  in  Botany,  a  term  employed  to 
designate  the  manner  in  which  the  leaves  are 
arranged  in  t  he  leaf-bud. 

Vernet,  Emile  Jean  Horace,  a  celebrated 
French  painter  of  battle-pieces,  in  whom  may  be 
said  to  have  culminated  the  talent  of  a  family 
through  several  generations  distinguished  in  the 
sphere  of  art,  was  born  in  Paris,  June  30,  1789, 
and  died  Jan.  17,  1863. 

Vernon,  the  name  of  four  towns  in  the  United 
States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  parish  seat  of  Jackson 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  100. — 2.  The  county  seat  of  Jen 
nings  county,  Ind.  Pop.,  1,100. — 3.  The  county 
seat  of  Lamar  county,  Ala.  Pop.,  200. — 4.  The 
county  seat  of  Washington  county,  Fla.  Pop.,  50. 

Vero'na,  an  ancient  and  interesting  city  of 
Northern  Italy,  in  Venetia,  stands  on  a  plain  at 
the  foot  of  the  hills  which  lie  at  the  base  of  the 
Tyrolese  Mountains,  seventy-two  miles  west  of 
Venice  by  railway.  Pop.  of  Verona  and  suburbs 
(1881),  68,741. 

Versailles,  a  celebrated  city  of  France,  and 
long  the  residence  of  the  French  court,  capital  of 
the  Department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  is  eleven  miles 
southwest  of  Paris.  Pop.  (1881),  48,324. 

Versailles,  the  county  seat  of  Morgan  county. 
Mo.  Pop.,  1,070. 

Versailles,  the  county  seat  of  Ripley  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  750. 

Versailles,  the  county  seat  of  Woodford 
county,  Ivy.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Verst,  or  Werst,  in  Russian,  wersta,  an  itin¬ 
erary  measure,  equivalent  to  l,166i  yards,  or 
about  two-thirds  of  an  English  mile. 

Vertebrat 'a,  the  highest  and  most  important 
of  the  animal  sub-kingdoms,  characterized  by  the 
universal  presence  of  a  backbone,  composed  of  a 
varying  number  of  small  bones  called  vertebral, 
which  at  once  serve  for  the  general  support  of  the 
other  parts,  and  for  the  protection  of  the  central 
part  of  the  nervous  system  (the  brain  and  spinal 
cord)  in  a  closed  cavity  in  the  interior. 

Ver'tigo,  in  Medicine,  designates  a  sensation 
which  the  patient  describes  as  one  of  going  to 
fall,  or  of  turning  round,  or  of  everything  turn¬ 
ing  around  him.  It  comes  on  without  premoni¬ 
tory  symptoms,  excepting  a  sense  of  disturbed 
balance,  which  may  either  precede,  accompany, 
or  follow  it.  The  treatment  of  course  depends 
upon  the  cause;  while  in  some  cases  tonics  (the 
mineral  acids,  small  doses  of  nux  vomica,  quas¬ 
sia,  etc.)  are  required,  in  others,  the  local  ab¬ 
straction  of  blood  from  the  nape  of  the  neck,  cold 
affusion,  etc.,  are  required.  The  following  rules 
are,  however,  generally  applicable  for  the  treat¬ 
ment  of  patients  subject  to  giddiness.  They 


I 

should  avoid  violent,  continuous  or  rotatory  exer¬ 
cise,  abstain  from  highly  nutritious  or  heating 
articles  of  diet,  and  from  suppers;  they  should 
not  indulge  in  much  sleep,  or  the  use  of  feather¬ 
beds,  or  of  warm  baths.  Counter-irritation  to 
the  skin  by  sinapisms,  foot  baths  with  mustard, 
the  use  of  the  flesh  brush,  with  cold  washing  of 
the  body,  and  the  administration  of  coling  laxa¬ 
tives  are  to  be  recommended.  (A  good  laxative 
of  this  kind  is  obtained  by  mixing  six  drachms  of 
sulphate  of  magnesia  [epsom  salts]  with  two 
drachms  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and  taking  a 
teaspoonful  three  times  a  day).  When  the 
patient  feels  the  attack  coming  on,  he  should 
direct  his  full  attention  to  movement.  The 
patients  do  this,  in  a  measure,  of  their  own  accord, 
by  supporting  themselves  firmly  with  their  hands 
and  feet,  in  order  to  resist  the  illusory  movement. 
The  sense  of  vision  may  be  employed  for  the  same 
purpose;  thus,  the  vertigo  produced  by  rotatory 
movement  of  the  body  may  be  suppressed  by 
looking  steadily  at  the  finger  held  up  to  the  eye, 
or  by  turning  round  in  a  direction  opposite  to  the 
previous  movement. 

Ver'vain  (Verbena),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Verbenacem. 

Ves'icants,  or  Blistering  Agents,  are  sub¬ 
stances  which,  if  kept  in  contact  for  sometime 
with  the  surface  of  the  body,  excite  such  irrita¬ 
tion  as  to  cause  the  effusion  of  serum  from  the 
true  skin,  leading  to  the  separation  and  elevation 
of  the  cuticle,  and  the  formation  of  a  vesicle  or 
blister.  They  are  employed  in  the  practice  of 
medicine  for  the  purpose  of  relieving  or  removing 
the  diseased  condition  of  some  internal  part,  by 
producing  a  determination  of  blood  from  the 
interior  to  the  surface  over  the  seat  of  the  affec¬ 
tion.  They  likewise  are  of  great  value  from 
their  action  as  general  stimulants  to  the  system, 
and  as  such  are  often  used  with  great  benefit  in 
the  advanced  stages  of  low  continued  fever.  More¬ 
over,  they  are  not  infrequently  employed  for  the 
direct  purpose  of  withdrawing  serum  from  the 
vascular  system,  and  with  this  view  they  are  pre¬ 
scribed  with  advantage  in  cases  of  sudden  effusion 
into  the  pericardium  or  the  pleura.  To  produce 
vesication,  cantharidinc — the  active  principle  of 
cantharides,  or  Spanish  flies — in  one  of  its  various 
forms  is  generally  employed,  although  other 
substances,  as  croton  oil,  etc.,  are  occasionally 
used.  Cantharidine  is  a  white  crystalline  sub¬ 
stance,  which  is  extracted  from  the  powdered 
insects  by  rectified  spirit.  When  a  blistering 
agent  with  very  rapid  action  is  required,  as  in  the 
state  of  collapse  in  cholera,  recourse  may  be  had 
to  the  application  of  boiling  or  nearly  boiling 
water  to  a  portion  of  the  abdomen,  the  surround¬ 
ing  surface  being  protected  by  a  wall  of  damp 
cloths;  or  in  less  urgent  cases,  as  retrocedent  gout 
showing  itself  internally,  an  almost  immediate 
blister  may  be  produced  by  saturating  a  piece  of 
lint  of  the  size  of  the  desired  blister  in  the  strong 
solution  of  ammonia,  and  applying  it  to  the  skin 
with  moderate  pressure.  By  the  time  that  the 
ammonia  has  evaporated,  the  required  result  is 
usually  obtained.  When  it  is  desired  to  keep  up 
a  discharge  from  a  blistered  surface  (instead  of 
healing  it,  as  is  most  commonly  required),  or  to 
produce  a  perpetual  blister,  dress  the  raw  surface 
with  irritants  of  various  kinds,  such  as  savine 
ointment,  Papier  d’Albespeyres,  etc.  At  each 
fresh  dressing,  which  in  summer  should  take 
place  twice  a  day,  the  part  should  be  cleansed 
with  warm  water. 

Vesta,  Ves'tals.  Vesta,  an  ancient  Latin 
divinity,  whose  worship  was  the  embodiment  of 
an  idea,  deeply  rooted  in  the  Latin,  and  par¬ 
ticularly,  in  the  Roman  mind — viz.,  that  the  State 
was  one  great  family.  As  the  Lares  were  the 
tutelary  guardians  of  the  individual  household, 
so  the  Penates  and  Vesta  watched  over  the  welfare 
of  the  State.  The  Greek  Hestia  (hearth)  is  a 
kindred  conception;  and  if  the  word  is  the  same, 
it  may  be  conjectured  that  the  worship  of  the 
chaste  divinity  that  presided  over  domestic  life 
goes  back  to  a  period  when  the  Greeks  and  Latins 
were  still  an  undivided  people.  The  common 
hearth  of  the  Greeks  was  at  Delphi.  There  was 
also  a  temple  of  Vesta  at  Rome,  which  stood  in 
the  forum.  On  the  first  of  March  each  year,  the 
sacred  fire  was  renewed;  on  June  9th,  the  Vestalia 
were  held  in  honor  of  the  goddess;  and  on  the 


YESUYIAN. 


696 


VINCENNES. 


15th  of  that  month  the  temple  was  cleared  out, 
and  the  dirt  carried  into  a  narrow  lane  ( angi - 
partus)  behind  the  temple,  which  was  locked  by  a 
gate,  that  none  might  enter.  The  goddess  herself 
was  a  virgin,  and  her  lire  was  carefully  tended 
night  and  day  by  the  Vestal  virgins.  The 
number  of  these  priestesses  was  originally  four, 
but  two  were  subsequently  added,  increasing  the 
number  to  six.  The  period  during  which  the 
priestess  was  bound  to  the  service  of  Vesta  was 
thirty  years,  the  first  ten  being  occupied  with 
learning  her  duties,  the  next  in  performing  them, 
and  the  last  in  teaching  them  to  others.  When 
she  entered  upon  her  office,  the  Vestal  took  upon 
herself  a  solemn  vow  of  chastity  for  the  thirty 
years  of  her  service,  the  dreadful  punishment  of  a 
violation  of  which  was,  that  she  should  be  buried 
alive  in  a  subterranean  vault  near  the  Colline 
Gate,  to  which  she  was  carried  on  a  bier,  as  if 
dead,  and  where  she  found  a  light,  with  a  scanty 
supply  of  bread,  water,  milk,  and  oil.  The  chief 
duty  of  the  virgin  priestesses  was  to  keep  the  fire 
on  the  altar  of  the  goddess  ever  burning. 

Vesu'vian,  or  Idocrase,  a  mineral,  allied  to 
garnet,  and  sometimes  called  pyramidal  garnet. 
It  is  found  in  volcanic  and  in  primitive  rocks. 

Vesu'vius,  a  well-known  volcano,  is  near  the 
east  shore  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  about  ten  miles 
from  the  city  of  that  name.  It  is  a  solitary 
mountain,  rising  from  the  plain  of  Campania, 
having  at  the  base  a  circumference  of  about  30 
miles,  and  dividing,  at  a  certain  height,  into  two 
summits,  Somma  and  Vesuvius  Proper.  The 
height  of  the  mountain  and  form  of  its  apex  are 
subject  to  frequent  changes  by  eruptions.  It  is 
estimated  to  be  at  present  nearly  4,000  feet  high. 

Vetch  ( Vicia ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosce ,  sub-order  Papilionaccm,  hav¬ 
ing  a  tuft  of  hairs  on  the  style  beneath  the  stigma, 
nine  stamens  united,  and  one  free. 

Vetiver,  or  Cuscus,  the  dried  roots  of  an  East 
Indian  grass  ( Andropogon  muricalm),  which  has 
an  agreeable  and  persistent  odor,  something  like 
sandal-wood. 

Yevav,  the  county  seat  of  Switzerland  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  2,050. 

Viat'icuiu  (Lat.  viaticum,  money  allowed  for  a 
journey),  the  word  applied  in  the  ancient  as  well 
as  modern  ecclesiastical  terminology  to  the  com¬ 
munion  administered  to  dying  persons.  This 
special  ministration  of  the  eucharist  to  the  dying 
is  very  ancient ;  it  was  the  one  exceptional  case  in 
which,  during  the  times  of  rigorous  canonical 
penance,  the  penitents  were  admitted  to  the  com¬ 
munion  before  the  i  ompletion  of  the  appointed 
cycle  of  penance.  By  the  modern  practice  of 
the  Roman  Church,  it  is  permitted  to  the  sick, 
to  whom  the  eucharist  is  administered  in  the 
form  of  the  viaticum,  to  receive  it,  although  not 
having  fasted  (as  is  required  in  all  other  cases) 
from  the  midnight  previous.  The  priest  is 
ordered  to  bring  the  sacred  elements  from  the 
church  to  the  dying  person  at  any  hour,  whether 
by  day  or  by  night,  when  he  may  be  called  on 
for  this  last  service  of  religion. 

Yiat'ka,  a  government  of  the  East  of  European 
Russia,  bounded  on  t lie  east  by  the  Governments 
of- Perm  and  Orenburg,  and  on  the  south  by  that 
of  Kazan.  Area,  59,000  square  miles;  pop.  (1880), 
2,620,000 

Yiatka,  a  town  of  Russia,  capital  of  the  gov¬ 
ernment  of  the  same  name,  on  the  River  Viatka, 
280  miles  northeast  of  Nijni-Novgorod.  Pop. 
(1880),  21,694. 

Yibrion'iilse,  a  family  of  microscopic  organ¬ 
isms,  which  derive  their  name  from  their  darting 
and  quivering  motion. 

Vihur'num.  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Caprifoliaceae.  The  guelder  rose,  or  snow¬ 
ball  tree,  is  an  example. 

V  ic'ar  (Lat.  vicarius,  from  vicem,  i.  e.,  gerens, 
acting  in  the  place  of  another),  the  title  given  to 
the  substitute,  whether  temporary  or  permanent, 
employed  to  act  in  the  place  of  certain  ecclesi¬ 
astical  officials,  whether  individuals  or  corpora 
tions;  as  of  the  pope,  a  bishop,  a  chapter,  a 
parish  priest,  etc. 

Yicen'za,  a  handsome  city  of  Venetia,  beauti 
fully  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Rivers 
Bacchiglione  and  Retrone,  forty-two  miles  west 
of  Venice  by  railway.  Pop.  (1881),  24,331. 

Vichy,  a  small  town  of  the  interior  of  Fi  ance, 


;  in  the  Department  of  AUier,  stands  on  the  Allier, 
in  a  fine  valley,  surrounded  by  hills  clad  with 
vines  and  fruit-trees,  thirty -five  miles  south-south¬ 
east  of  Moulins.  Pop.  (1876),  6,154.  Vichy  is 
the  most  fashionable  bathing  resort  in  France. 
The  springs  which  rise  at  the  foot  of  the  volcanic 
mountains  of  Auvergne  are  alkaline,  and  the 
most  efficacious  of  the  kind  that  are  known. 
They  vary  in  temperature  from  68°  to  112°  F., 
and  are  used  both  for  drinking  and  bathing. 
They  are  resorted  to  in  cases  of  indigestion, 
chronic  catarrh,  gout,  etc. 

Vicksburg,  a  city  and  port  of  Mississippi,  the 
county  seat  of  Warren  county,  is  on  the  Missis¬ 
sippi  river,  408  miles  north  of  New  Orleans.  It 
is  the  chief  town  between  Memphis  and  New 
Orleans,  exporting  at  present  as  many  as  200,000 
bales  of  cotton  per  annum.  In  January,  1862,  it 
was  attacked  by  the  United  States  naval  forces 
from  Memphis  and  New  Orleans,  but  without 
success.  In  April,  1863,  a  naval  attack  was  com¬ 
bined  with  the  land-forces  under  General  Grant, 
who  defeated  General  Pemberton  near  Jackson, 
cut  off  supplies  and  reinforcements  from  the  gar¬ 
rison,  and  with  a  close  siege  and  continual 
assaults,  compelled  a  surrender,  July  4,  1863, 
with  30,000  prisoners,  200  cannon,  and  70,000 
stand  of  arms.  Pop.,  19, <  00. 

Victor-Einmanuel  I.  (Ital.  Vittore- Emanuele), 
King  of  Sardinia,  the  second  son  of  Victor- 
Amadeus  III.,  was  born  July  24,  1759,  and  died 
Jan..  10,  1824. 

Victor-Emmannel  II.,  the  first  king  of  United 
Italy,  was  born  March  14,  1820,  and  died  Jan. 
9,  1878.  lie  became  king  on  the  abdication 
of  his  father,  March  23,  1849,  on  the  eve  of  the 
Battle  of  Novara;  and  after  years  of  struggle  and 
disappointment,  succeeded  in  liberating  and  unit¬ 
ing  all  Italy  in  1860. 

Victo'ria  I.,  Queen  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  daughter  and  only  child 
of  Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  fourth  son  of  George 
III.,  was  born  at  Kensington  Palace,  May  24,1819, 
and  ascended  the  throne  June  20,  1837.  She  is  a 
liberal,  progressive  ruler,  and  Great  Britain  has 
prospered  under  her  fifty  years’  reign  as  it  never 
did  under  that  of  any  of  her  predecessors. 

Victoria  comprises  the  southeast  corner  of 
Australia,  at  that  part  where  its  territory  projects 
furthest  into  cool  southern  latitudes.  '  Wilson’s 
Promontory  to  the  southeast,  the  most  southerly 
headland,  just  passes  the  39°  of  S.  latitude;  while 
the  most  northern  point,  which  is  at  the  opposite 
or  northwest  extreme,  is  in  S.  latitude  34°.  The 
longitude  comprises  9° — between  141°  and  150° 
E.  of  Greenwich.  To  the  west  is  the  colony  of 
South  Australia,  separated  by  the  141°  of  E. 
longitude;  to  the  north  is  New  South  Wales,  sep¬ 
arated  by  the  line  of  the  Murray  river  eastward 
from  141°  E.  longitude  to  its  source,  and  thence 
by  a  straight  line  southeast  to  Cape  Howe,  and 
from  Cape  Howe  to  South  Australia,  again,  the 
colony  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  Bass’  Strait. 
The  extreme  length  is  east  and  west,  and  is  about 
480  miles,  by  an  extreme  width,  north  and  south, 
of  250  miles.  Area,  56,245,760  acres,  or  87,884 
square  miles.  Pop.,  849,434. 

Victoria,  at  the  southeast  end  of  Vancouver’s 
Island,  capital  of  the  Canadian  Province  of  Brit¬ 
ish  Columbia;  is  the  business  center  of  British 
Columbia;  has  regular  steam  communication  with 
San  Francisco,  and  is  within  easy  reach  by  steamer 
of  the  termini  of  the  North  Pacific  and  Canadian 
Pacific  Railways.  Pop.  (1881),  5,925. 

Victoria,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Nt/mphceacece,  resembling  the  common  water-lily, 
but  most  nearly  allied  to  the  genus  hlurydle,  and 
distinguished  from  it  particularly  by  the  deciduous 
tips  of  the  calyx,  and  the  sterility  of  the  inner¬ 
most  stamens.  Only  one  species  is  yet  known, 
V.  regia.  It  was  first  described  in  1832  lay  Pop- 
pig,  who  observed  it  in  the  River  Amazon;  and  it 
lias  since  been  found  by  Schomburgk  and  others 
in  many  rivers  of  the  Northeast  of  South  America 
Its  leaves  are  orbicular,  float  upon  the  water,  and 
attain  a  diameter  of  5  to  6  feet;  have  the  margin 
turned  up,  and  about  2  inches  high;  are  of  a  pur¬ 
plish  color  on  the  under  side,  and  there  exhibit  a 
sort  of  wicker-work  of  very  prominent  veins,  fur¬ 
nished  with  prickles. 

Victoria  Bridge,  across  the  St.  Lawrence  at 
Montreal,  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  of  Can 


ada.  This,  the  greatest  tubular  bridge  in  the 
I  world,  was  begun  in  May,  1854,  and  finished  in 
December,  1859.  The  engineers  were  Robert 
Stephenson  and  Alexander  M.  Ross. 

Victoria  Lake,  called  also  Ai.exandrina  or 
Kayinga  Lake,  a  brackish  lagoon  in  the  South¬ 
east  of  South  Australia,  is  separated  from  the  sea 
only,  by  a  narrow  belt. 

Vicug’na  (Auciunia  vicugna),  a  species  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  lama  and  alpaca.  In  size,  it 
is  intermediate  between  the  two.  It  inhabits  the 
most  desolate  parts  of  the  Cordillera,  at  great  ele¬ 
vations. 

Vidalia,  the  parish  seat  of  Concordia  parish. 
La.  Pop.,  800. 

Vieii’na  (Ger.  Wun,  Lat.  Vindobona,  after¬ 
ward  Vavilina),  capital  of  the  Austrian  Empire, 
stands  on  a  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  last  hills  of 
the  Wiener  Wald,  which  forms  the  eastern  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  Alps.  Pop.  (1880),  726,105. 

Vienna,  the  county  seat  of  Dooly  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  600. 

Vienna,  the  county  seat  of  Johnson  county. 
Ill.  .  Pop.,  1,100. 

Vienna,  the  county  seat  of  Maries  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  407. 

Vienne,  an  interior  department  in  the  West  of 
France,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Depart¬ 
ments  Maine-et-Loire  and  Indre-et-Loire,  and  on 
the  west  by  Deux-Sevres,  which  intervenes  be¬ 
tween  this  and  the  maritime  Department  of  Ven¬ 
dee.  Area,  2,680  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  340,- 
295.  The  Vienne,  an  affluent  of  the  Loire,  is  the 
principal  river,  and  all  the  other  streams  of  the 
department  are  tributary  to  it.  It  flow's  from 
south  to  north,  and  receives  the  Clain,  Gartempe, 
and  Creuse — of  these,  the  last  only  is  navigable. 
The  department  is  divided  into  the  five  Arron- 
dissements  of  Poitiers,  Chatelherault,  Civray, 
Loudun,  Montmorillon.  Poitiers  is  the  capital.' 

V'ienne,  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  of 
France,  in  the  Department  of  Isere,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhone,  nineteen  miles  south  of  Lyon. 
The  river  Gere  passes  through  the  town,  and  here 
joins  the  Rhone.  Pop.  (1876),  22,950.  In  1312,  a 
council  was  held  here,  in  which  Pope  Clement 
V.  pronounced  the  suppression  of  the  Order  of 
the  Templars. 

Vienne,  Haute,  an  interior  department  of 
France,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Departments 
of  Vienne,  Chareute,  and  Dordogne;  area,  2,130 
square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  349,332.  It  is  watered 
by  the  Vienne  and  its  tributaries — the  chief  of 
which  is  the  Gartempe.  Mines  of  iron,  lead,  and 
copper  are  worked.  The  department  is  divided 
into  four  arrondissements — Limoges,  Bellac. 
Rochecliouart,  and  Saint-Yrieix;  capital,  Limoges. 

Vigny,  Alfred,  Comte  de,  a  French  poet  and 
novelist,  was  born  at  Loches  in  Touraine,  March 
27,  1799.  He  died  Sept.  18,  1863.  His  principal 
works  are  Poemes,  Poemes  Antiques  et  Modcrnes, 
and  Cinq- Mars. 

Villar'sia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Gentianacece,  the  species  of  which  are 
widely  distributed  over  the  world,  and  are  either 
aquatic  or  marsh  plants,  with  entire  leaves  and 
yellow  flowers. 

ViPno  (often  written  Vilna),  a  government  of 
West  Russia,  bounded  on  the  w'est  by  Poland, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Niemen;  and 
on  the  east  by  the  Government  of  Vitebsk,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  the  Western  Dwina,  and 
by  that  of  Minsk.  Area,  16,320  square  miles. 
Pop.  (1880),  1,171,400. 

Vilno,  an  important  city  of  West  Russia,  capi¬ 
tal  of  the  province  of  the  same  name;  situated  on 
the  Vilia,  473  miles  soutliw'est  of  St.  Petersburg. 
Pop.  (1880),  88,693. 

Vi  n ago,  a  genus  of  Columbidm,  the  most 
marked  section  of  that  family,  having  a  compara¬ 
tively  stout,  solid  bill,  laterally  compressed; 
with  a  hard,  hooked,  and  inflated  tip;  the  tarsi 
short,  the  feet  large,  and  formed  for  perching  or 
grasping. 

Vincennes,  a  city  of  Indiana,  and  county  seat 
of  Knox  county,  is  on  the  Wabash  river,  11C 
miles  southwest  of  Indianapolis.  It  is  the 
entrepot  of  a  rich  agricultural  country,  has  a 
university,  Roman  Catholic  bishopric,  seminary 
and  academy,  and  considerable  manufactures 
Pop.,  10,200. 


VINCENT. 


697 


VIRGINIA. 


Vincent,  St.,  a  British  island  of  the  West 
Indies,  belongs  to  the  Windward  Group,  and  lies 
about  twenty-eight  miles  south  of  St.  Lucia,  and 
100  miles  west  of  Barbadoes.  Latitude  13°  10'  N., 
longitude  61°  5'  W.  It  is  18J  miles  long,  11  miles 
broad,  has  an  area  of  147  square  miles.  Pop. 
(1881),  40,496. 

Vine,  a  term  sometimes  used  to  designate  any 
climbing  plant,  especially  if  shrubby,  but  more 
particularly  applied  to  the  species  of  the  genus 
Vitis,  of  the  natural  order  V'Oacux.  The  most 
important  species  is  the  grape  vine  (  V.  vinifera), 
from  the  fruit  of  which  wine  and  raisins  are 
made.  The  grape  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of 
fruits,  not  only  because  of  its  use  in  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  wine,  and  as  the  source  also  from 
which  brandy,  vinegar,  and  tartaric  acid  are 
obtained,  but  because,  botli  in  a  fresh  and  dried 
state,  it  forms  not  a  mere  article  of  luxury,  but  a 
great  part  of  the  food  of  the  inhabitants  of  some 
countries.  Dried  grapes,  under  the  names  of 
raisins  and  currants,  are  a  considerable  article  of 
commerce.  Fresh  grapes  are  commonly  eaten 
with  bread  in  Syria,  and  some  other  countries  in 
which  they  abound.  The  usefulness  of  the  grape 
is  increased  by  its  keeping  fresh  for  many  weeks 
in  a  cool  aiiy  place.  Some  varieties  are  more 
easily  kept  than  others.  More  than  1,500  varie¬ 
ties  are  described  in  w'orks  on  the  culture  of  the 
grape.  The  quality  of  the  grape  is  extremely 
liable  to  be  affected  by  circumstances  of  soil  and 
climate,  and  this  is  particularly  to  be  observed  in 
thewdne  produced  from  it,  the  difference  between 
the  produce  of  two  vineyards  in  the  same  neigh¬ 
borhood  being  often  very  remarkable.  The 
vine  dislikes  a  damp  soil,  but  will  thrive  in 
almost  any  open  soil  with  good  drainage.  In  rich 
deep  soils,  it  grows  luxuriantly,  and  produces 
abundance  of  large  fruit;  but  on  shallow,  dry 
soils,  the  fruit,  though  less  abundant,  is  of  finer 
flavor.  The  vineyards  most  celebrated  for  the 
excellence  of  their  wines  are  not  generally  of  rich 
soil.  The  steep  slopes  of  hills  are  often  planted 
with  the  vine,  and  are  sometimes  terraced  for  this 
purpose;  and  nothing  can  be  more  suitable  to 
situations  where  patches  of  good  soil  are  mingled 
with  bare  rocks,  nor  anything  more  beautiful 
than  the  rocks  covered  with  luxuriant  foliage 
and  rich  fruit.  This  mode  of  cultivation  on 
steep  rocky  slopes  was  anciently  very  prevalent 
in  Judaea.  It  is  doubted  of  what  country  the 
grape-vine  is  a  native,  nor  is  it  known  at  what 
time,  certainly  very  remote,  its  cultivation  was 
first  introduced  into  the  South  of  Europe.  It 
seems  probable  that  it  is  indigenous  in  the  hilly 
countries  on  the  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  where 
it  is  very  abundant  and  luxuriant,  climbing  to 
the  tops  of  the  loftiest  trees,  and  producing  large 
bunches  of  delicious  fruit.  But  it  is  doubted  if 
Vitis  Indica, a  native  of  the  North  of  India,  abound¬ 
ing  in  some  parts  of  the  Himalaya,  is  really  a 
differentspecies.  The  wild  grapes  of  these  mount¬ 
ains  are  round  and  purple,  and  very  agreeable. 
It  is  doubted  also  by  some  if  any  of  the  wild 
grapes  of  America  are  really  distinct;  some  of 
which,  however,  are  much  more  different  in  their 
characters  and  qualities  from  the  common  form  of 
the  cultivated  plant.  Of  these  American  grapes, 
the  fox  grape  (  V.  Labrusca)  is  the  most  similar  to 
the  cultivated  grape.  It  is  common  throughout 
great  part  of  North  America,  and  is  found  as  far 
North  as  Quebec.  The  berries  are  large,  deep 
blue,  with  thick  skin  and  tough  pulp,  but  make 
good  wine,  and  have  been  found  capable  of  much 
improvement  by  cultivation;  their  color  also  vary¬ 
ing  to  red  and  white.  The  chicken  grape  ( V. 
t Bstivuli* ),  not  found  north  of  latitude  42°,  has 
smaller  and  more  agreeable  berries,  which  are 
regularly  brought  to  the  Philadelphia  market. 
Very  similar  to  this  is  V.  sinuala,  a  native  of 
Virginia  and  Carolina,  from  the  fruit  of  which 
good  wine  is  made.  The  bullace  grape  ( V. 
rotund  if  olid),  found  only  as  far  north  as  latitude 
39°,  has  larger  grapes  than  any  other  American 
species,  and  of  agreeable  flavor.  There  is  also  a 
species  ( V  cordifolia  or  vulpina)  with  small  nau¬ 
seous  berries,  and  one  ( V.  ripariu)  found  abun¬ 
dantly  on  gravelly  banks  of  rivers  in  the  Western 
States,  which  has  exquisitely  fragrant  flowers. 
But  the  habit  and  leaves  of  all  these  differ  very 
little  from  those  of  the  common  vine.  Nor  does 
the  water  withe  of  Jamaica,  so  called  from  the 


great  quantity  of  sap  which  its  shoots  pour 
;  out  when  cut  ( V.  caribboea),  differ  in  very 
marked  botanical  characters;  although  its  small 
black  berries,  which  it  produces  in  immense 
quantity,  are  acid  and  austere.  In  Europe 
the  cultivation  of  tbe  vine  forms  an  import¬ 
ant  branch  of  rural  economy  as  far  north 
as  Coblenz  on  the  Rhine;  but  in  some  countries, 
particularly  in  Greece  and  the  Ionian  Islands, 
raisins  form  the  chief  part  of  the  produce  of  the 
vineyards.  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  was  early 
introduced  by  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  into 
the  Azores,  the  Madeira,  and  Canary  Isles,  and 
America.  It  is  now  prosecuted  with  energy  in 
Ohio,  Missouri,  California,  New  Jersey,  and  some 
other  States  of  the  Union,  and  very  good  wines 
are  produced.  Great  ravages  have  been  made  of 
late  years  on  vines  in  many  countries  by  the  vine 
disease,  or  vine  mildew  (0  dium  tuclceri )  and 
especially  by  the  Phylloxera  rastalrix.  The  juice 
of  ripe  grapes  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of 
grape-sugar,  small  quantities  of  a  glutinous  sub¬ 
stance,  and  of  extractive,  bitartrate  of  potash, 
tartrate  of  lime,  a  little  malic  acid,  and  other  in¬ 
gredients,  suspended  or  dissolved  in  water.  The 
rapidity  with  which  it  passes  into  a  state  of  fer¬ 
mentation,  after  being  expressed  from  the  fruit, 
is  remarkable. 

Vinegar  is  that  form  of  acet  ic  acid  which  is  gen¬ 
erally  preferred  for  culinary  purposes,  and  which 
is  made  by  the  fermentation  of  vegetable  sub¬ 
stances.  It  is  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  by  the 
fermentation  of  malt,  and  from  low  wines  which 
have  turned  sour.  Malt  vinegar  is  made  by  brew¬ 
ing  a  weak  wort  from  malt  exactly  as  for  beer. 
To  100  gallons  of  this,  at  a  temperature  of  70°, 
are  added  four  gallons  of  yeast,  and  well  stirred 
through  for  eight  or  ten  minutes.  This  mixture 
is  then  allowed  to  ferment  actively  for  two  days, 
and  is  then  transferred  to  the  stoving-room;  here 
it  is  distributed  into  a  number  of  tubs,  which, 
when  filled,  are  covered  over  with  coarse  canvas. 
This  room  is  dark,  and  is  heated  by  stoves,  and 
the  heat  is  constantly  sustained  for  weeks  until 
the  conversion  of  the  wort  into  vinegar  is  com¬ 
plete.  The  process  of  acetification  is  accelerated 
by  introducing  into  the  casks  with  the  wrort  either 
the  residuary  fruit  used  in  making  domestic  wine, 
or  the  foot-stalks  and  skins  of  grapes.  This  rape, 
as  it  is  called,  acts  as  a  kind  of  ferment.  A  rather 
insipid  kind  of  vinegar  is  made  by  means  of  the 
vinegar-plant.  The  plant  itself  may  be  produced 
thus:  A  solution  of  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  sugar 
and  half  a  pound  of  molasses  in  three  quarts  of 
water  is  first  simmered,  then  poured  into  a  jar, 
covered  up,  and  kept  in  a  warm  place  for  six 
weeks.  The  liquid  becomes  vinegar,  and  on  the 
top  there  has  been  formed  a  scum-like  fungus, 
which  is  the  vinegar-plant;  and  by  adding  a  piece 
of  this  to  a  similar  solution,  the  process  of  con¬ 
version  into  vinegar  now  takes  place  in  much  less 
time.  During  the  process,  the  plant  thickens  by 
the  formation  of  a  new  layer  on  its  under  surface; 
and  by  peeling  off  this  layer,  and  using  it  in  a 
fresh  operation,  the  plant  may  be  propagated 
indefinitely. 

Vinegar-plant  ( Penicillium  glaucum),  a  fungus 
of  the  sub-order  Ilyphomycetes,  but  somewhat 
resembling  those  known  by  the  name  of  mould.  It 
foims  a  flocculent  mass  or  ■web,  which  is  tough 
and  crust-like  or  leathery,  and  when  examined  by 
the  microscope,  is  seen  to  consist  of  a  myc-.lium 
of  branched  threads,  with  the  branches  somewhat 
tangled,  and  the  spores  disposed  in  patches  about 
the  pencil-shaped  ends  of  fertile  threads.  It  is 
found  on  decaying  bodies  and  in  fluids  undergo¬ 
ing  the  acetous  fermentation,  which  it  greatly 
promotes,  and  which,  indeCd,  it  readily  occasions, 
a  small  piece  placed  in  sugar  and  water  soon 
changing  it  into  vinegar.  Advantage  is  some¬ 
times  taken  of  this  property  for  making  vin¬ 
egar. 

Vinton,  the  county  seat  of  Benton  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  2,800. 

Viola'  cese,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
of  which  about  300  species  are  known,  natives  both 
of  temperate  and  tropical  countries,  those  belong¬ 
ing  to  the  former  being  generally  herbaceous,  and 
those  belonging  to  the  latter  generally  shrubby. 
The  best  known  species  are  the  violets. 


Violet  (Viola),  a  genus  of  herbaceous  plants, 
mostly  perennial,  of  the  natural  order  Violacece. 


1,  Hairy  Violet  (  Viola  hirta);  2,  Heart's  Ease  (  Viola 
tricolor). 

Nearly  200  species  have  been  described,  natives- 
chiefly  of  northern  temperate  countries. 

Viper  ( Vipera),  a  name  common  to  the  members 
of  the  family  Viperidee.  Its  bite  is  attended  with 
pain,  and  serious  consequences  ;  but  intemperate 
regions  is  seldom  fatal,  although  it  is  so  in  warmer 


Common  Viper  or  Adder  (Pelias  berus) . 


countries.  The  remedies  employed  are  generally 
the  external  application  of  hot  olive  oil,  and  the 
internal  use  of  olive  oil  and  of  ammonia,  or  strong 
stimulants,  such  as  brandy  taken  in  large  doses. 
The  young  are  pro¬ 
duced  in  early  sum¬ 
mer,  from  twelve  to 
twenty  or  more  at  a 
birth.  The  Viper  is 
ovo-viviparous,  tliet 
eggs  bursting  in  the' 

act  of  parturition,  or  Young;  Viper's  Position  in 
immediately  after  ;  the  E/g. 

the  investing  membrane  is  so  thin  and  slight  as  to 
be  easily  torn.  It  is  not  found  in  this  country, 
where  it  is  replaced  by  the  more  venomous  cro- 
talidse,  etc. 

Vipe'ridae,  a  family  of  snakes  that,  with  a 
second  family,  Crotalidm,  constitutes  Viperina, 
the  third  sub-order  of  Ophidia. 

Viper’s  Bii'g'loss  ( Echium ),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Boraginece,  having  a  calyx 
with  live  deep  segments,  an  almost  bell-shaped 
corolla,  with  dilated  throat,  and  irregular  limb, 
very  long  unequal  filaments,  and  a  bifid  style. 

Virgil,  The  Magician,  is  the  character  in 
which  the  great  Roman  poet  presented  himself 
to  the  popular  imagination  of  the  middle  ages. 

Virgil'ius  (or,  as  it  is  more  accurately  spelled, 
Vergilius)  Ma'ro,  Publius,  after  Homer,  the 
greatest  epic  poet  of  antiquity,  was  born  in  the 
consulship  of  Grassus  and  Pompey,  Oct.  15,  70 
n  c.,  at  Andes,  and  died  in  19  b.c.  At  the 
instance  of  Mtecenas,  lie  commenced  his  Georgies 
in  his  thirty-fourth  year.  The  JEneid  was  his 
last  performance,  and  must  have  occupied  many 
of  the  latter  years  of  his  life. 

Virgin 'in,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  United 
States,  lies  in  latitude  36°  31' — 39°  27'  N.,  and 
longitude  75°  13' — 83°  37'  W. ;  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  West 
Virginia,  east  by  Maryland  and  the  Atlantic, 
south  by  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee,  and  west 
by  Kentucky  and  West  Virginia.  Area,  42,450 


VIRGINIA. 


698 


VOICE. 


constructed  by  Peter  the  Great,  and  connecting 
the  navigation  of  the  Baltic  and  Caspian  Seas,  by 
means  of  the  Volga,  etc.  Pop.  (1880),  38,250 
Yisli'nu  is  the  second  god  of  the  Hindu 
triad,  but  is  considered  by  his  worshipers 
to  be  the  supreme  deity  of  the  Hindu  pan¬ 
theon.  The  word  is  derived  from  vish,  en¬ 
compass,  or  vis',  penetrate;  when,  accordin 


a  valuable  remedy  in  chorea  and  other  spasmodic 
diseases,  especially  when  they  occur  in  weak  con¬ 
stitutions  about  the  period  of  puberty.  Its  use  in 
doses  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  grains 
as  an  active  emetic  is  mentioned 
in  all  works  on  materia  medica; 
but  sulphate  of  zinc  in  a  dose  of  a 
scruple,  is  as  efficacious,  and  safer. 
Externally,  this  salt  in  solution 
(varying  from  one  to  ten  grains  in- 
an  ounce  of  water)  forms  a  good 
application  to  indolent  ulceis,  aph- 


Vishnu  as  Narayana. 


square  miles,  or  27,168,000  acres;  pop.  (1880), 
1,512,565. 

Virginia,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Storey 
county,  Nev.,  is  an  important  mining  center,  and 
numbers  among  its  present  and  former  residents 
some  of  the  wealthiest  citizens  of  the  State.  Pop. 
(1880),  13,705. 

Virginia,  the  county  seat  of  Cass  county,  Ill. 
Pop.,  1,500. 

Virginia  City,  the  county  seat  of  Madison 
county,  Mont.  Pop.,  750. 

Virginia,  University  of,  an  institution  of 
learning  at  Charlottesville,  Albemarle  county, Va., 
four  miles  from  Monticello,  the  seat  of  Jefferson, 
by  whom  it  was  planned  and  organized.  It  was 
chartered  by  the  State  in  1819,  and  opened  in 
1825.  It  is  governed  by  arectorand  nine  visitors. 
It  has  schools  of  ancient  languages  and  history; 
modern  languages,  history,  and  literature; 
mathematics,  natural  philosophy;  law;  medicine; 
etc.  There  were,  in  1880,  over  twenty  professors 
and  330  students.  Library,  36,000  volumes. 

Virginia,  West,  a  new  State,  separated  from 
Virginia,  and  included  in  its  boundaries  and 
statistics,  was  admitted  into  the  Union  by  act  of 
Congress,  approved  Dec.  31,  1862,  and  taking 
effect  June  20,  1863.  The  new  State,  separated 
from  Virginia  during  the  War  of  Secession,  com¬ 
prises  fifty-four  counties  lying  west  of  the 
Alleghanies,  having  an  area  estimated  at  23,000 
square  miles;  capital  (since  1884),  Charleston. 
Pop.,  618,457. 

Virgin  'ian  Quail,  or  Colin  ( Ortyx ),  a  genus 
of  birds  of  the  family  Tetraonidce,  natives  of  this 
country.  The  best-known  species  is  the  Virginian 


Virginian  Quail  (Orlyx  virginiana) . 
quail  (0.  virginiana),  which  is  abundant  in  most 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  in  some  parts  is 
commonly  known  by  the  name  of  quail,  in  others 
(erroneously)  by  that  of  partridge. 

Vir'gin  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
West  Indies,  partly  belonging  to  Denmark,  partly 
to  Britain,  directly  east  of  Puerto  Rico.  The 
islands  and  islets  are  about  fifty  in  number,  but 
of  these,  only  a  few  are  of  any  considerable  size 
or  importance.  The  total  area  is  about  250  square 
miles,  and  the  pop.  is  near  45,000.  Three  of  the 
islands,  St.  Thomas,  St.  Croix,  and  St.  John, 
belong  to  Denmark,  having  a  total  area  of  140 
square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  34,000.  Spain  claims 
Vieque  and  Culebra  (together  65  square  miles), 
the  former  of  which  has  3,500  inhabitants, 
and  the  latter  is  uninhabited.  The  others  are 
British.  Total  area,  64  square  miles;  pop.  (1881), 
5,287. 

Viroqua,  the  county  seat  of  Viroqua  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  1,400. 

Vi'rus  (the  Latin  word  for  a  poisonous  liquid) 
is  a  term  used  in  medicine  to  signify  those  myste¬ 
rious  poisonous  agencies  which  produce  zymotic 
diseases,  such  as  smallpox,  measles,  scarlatina, 
the  various  forms  of  continued  fever,  ague, 
hooping-cough,  cholera,  syphilis,  glanders,  hydro¬ 
phobia,  etc. 

Visalia,  the  county  seat  of  Tulare  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  2,575. 

Vis'count  (Lat.  vice,  in  place  of,  and  comes, 
earl),  originally  the  officer  who  acted  as  deputy  to 
the  earl,  the  earl  being  the  king’s  immediate 
officer  within  his  county.  A  viscount  is  now  the 
fourth  degree  of  nobility  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

Yish'ni-Volotchek',  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
Government  of  Tver,  about  230  miles  southeast 
of  St.  Petersburg  by  railway.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Tzna,  on  the  Vishni-Volotcliek  water-route 


to  them,  it  would  imply  the  deity  who  encom¬ 
passes  or  penetrates  the  whole  universe,  both  as 
regards  its  exterior  appearance  and  its  inward 
essence. 

Yist'ula  (Lat.  Vistula  or  Visuln,  Ger.  Weichsel, 
Russ.  Wisla),  an  important  river  of  Austria, 
Poland,  and  Prussia,  rises  in  Austrian  Silesia, 
near  the  frontier  of  Galicia,  in  a  morass  in  the 
Jablunka  Mountains,  fifteen  miles  southeast  of 
Teschen,  and  flows  into  the  Baltic  Sea. 

Vita  'cese,  also  called  S a r.ment a ce.e  and 
Ampelide/E,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
of  which  the  common  vine  may  be  regarded  as 
the  type. 

Vitebsk',  a  government  in  the  North  of  West 
Russia,  bounded  on  the  northwest  by  Courland 
and  Livonia,  and  on  the  northeast  by  the  Govern¬ 
ment  of  Pskov.  Area,  17,425  square  miles;  pop. 
(1870),  888,727. 

Vitebsk,  a  city  of  West  Russia,  capital  of  the 
government  of  the  same  name,  on  both  banks  of 
the  Western  Dwina,  389  miles  south  of  St.  Peters¬ 
burg.  Pop.  (1867),  28,944. 

Vitel'lus  O'vi,  or  the  yelk  of  the  egg  of  the 
domestic  fowl,  is  employed  in  pharmacy  for  the 
purpose  of  administering  substances  insoluble  in 
water  (the  oils  and  resins,  for  example)  in  the 
form  of  emulsions.  The  white  is  employed  as  an 
antidote,  in  cases  of  poisoning  by  corrosive  sub¬ 
limate  or  with  salts  of  copper.  As  a  dietetic 
article  in  the  sick-room,  eggs,  either  lightly  boiled 
or  poached,  or  as  ingredients  of  puddings,  are  in¬ 
valuable;  the  stomach,  after  an  acute  disease, 
being  often  able  to  digest  an  egg,  when  any  more 
solid  article  of  animal  food  would  set  up  gastric 
irritation. 

Vi'tex,  a  genus  of  trees  or  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  Verbenacece,  the  fruit  a  drupe,  with 
a  four-celled  stone. 

Yit'riol  (derived  from  the  Latin  vitrum,  glass) 
is  a  term  wdiicli  the  early  chemists  applied  to 
glass-like  salts,  distinguishing  them  by  their 
colors  into  blue  vitriol,  green  vitriol  and  white 
vitriol.  Blue  vitriol  is  still  the  popular  name  for 
sulphate  of  copper,  which  may  be  obtained  on  a 
large  scale  in  various  ways,  but  most  simply  by 
boiling  copper  in  an  iron  pot  with  dilute  sul¬ 
phuric  acid.  In  large  doses,  it  acts  as  a  powerful 
irritant  poison,  unless,  as  is  frequently  the  case, 
it  is  rejected  by  vomiting.  In  small  but  repeated 
doses  (as  from  half  a  grain,  gradually  increased 
to  two  grains,  made  into  pills  with  conserve  of 
roses),  it  acts  as  a  tonic  and  astringent,  and  will 
often  check  the  discharge  in  cases  of  chronic 
diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  when  other  medicines 
have  failed;  and  it  has  been  found  serviceable  in 
croup  by  checking  excessive  bronchial  secretion. 
It  has  been  employed  in  cases  of  epilepsy,  and  is 


tine,  cancrum  oris,  and  the  sore  throat  in  scar¬ 
latina;  it  is  also  used  in  chronic  ophthalmia,  and 
as  an  injection  in  cases  of  urethral  or  vaginal 
discharges.  In  the  solid  state,  it  is  used  as  a 
caustic  to  repress  excessive  granulations  (proud 
flesh),  to  destroy  warts,  and  to  excite  indolent 
ulcers.  Green  vitriol  is  the  popular  name  for 
sulphate  of  iron.  White  vitriol  is  obtained  from 
zinc.  Oil  of  vitriol  is  the  old  name  given  to 
commercial  sulphuric  acid,  in  consequence  of  its 
oily  appearance,  and  of  its  being  formerly  ob¬ 
tained  from  green  vitriol.  Elixir  of  vitriol  is  the 
old  name  for  aromatic  sulphuric  acid.  It  is  a 
mixture  of  three  ounces  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
two  pints  of  rectified  spirit,  in  which  powdered 
cinnamon  and  ginger  have  been  digested.  Its 
uses  in  doses  of  from  ten  to  thirty  minims,  in  a 
wine-glassful  of  water,  are  much  the  same  as  those 
of  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  but  it  is  more  agreeable 
to  the  taste,  and  sits  more  lightly  on  the  stomach. 

Viver'ridic,  a  family  of  Carnivora,  having  the 
body  elongated,  the  claws  partly  retractile,  the 
pupil  of  the  eye  circular  during  the  day,  and  not 
contracted  into  a  vertical  line,  as  in  the  Felidce, 
and,  in  general,  a  strong  musky  odor,  proceeding 
from  a  secretion  in  the  pouch  near  the  anus.  To 
this  family  belong  the  civet,  genet,  ichneumon,  etc. 

Vladi'mir,  a  government  of  Russia,  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  Government  of  Nijni-Novgorod, 
and  on  the  southwest  by  that  of  Moscow.  Area, 
18,796  square  miles;  pop.  (1880),  1,332,156. 

Vladimir,  a  town  of  Great  Russia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Ivliasma,  125  miles  northeast  of 
Moscow.  Pop.  (1878),  16,422. 

Voice  (Lat.  vox)  may  be  defined  as  an  audible 
sound  produced  by  the  larynx,  and  may  be  pro¬ 
duced  by  any  animal  possessing  that  organ; 
while  speech  or  articulate  language  may  be 
regarded  as  voice  modified  in  the  cavity  of  the 
mouth.  The  larynx  is  the  organ  by  which  the 
so-called  vocal  sounds  (or  primary  elements  of 
speech)  are  produced.  There  are  two  groups  of 
muscles,  which  respectively  govern  (1)  the  pitch  of 
the  notes,  and  (2)  the  aperture  of  the  larynx. 
Those  which  affect  the  pitch  of  the  notes  are 
divisible  into  two  antagonistic  sub-groups,  viz., 
(a)  those  which  depress  the  front  of  the  thyroid 
cartilage  on  the  cricoid,  and  stretch  the  vocal 
ligaments;  and  (b)  those  which  elevate  the  front 
of  the  thyroid  cartilage,  and  relax  the  vocal  liga¬ 
ments;  while  those  which  control  the  aperture  of 
the  glottis  are  divisible  into  (c)  those  which  open 
it,  and  ( d )  those  wdiich  close  it.  It  is  only  the 
first  of  these  groups,  viz.,  the  muscles  which 
stretch  or  relax  the  vocal  ligaments,  that  is  con¬ 
cerned  in  the  production  of  voice.  In  the  ordi¬ 
nary  condition  of  rest,  there  is  a  wide  opening 


VOIDED. 


699 


VULCAN. 


between  the  vocal  ligaments,  which  are  in  a  state 
of  complete  relaxation,  and  the  air  passes  freely 


Condition  of  the  Larynx  during  tranquil  respiration. 
e  epiglottis;  (e,  fissure-like  opening  of  oesophagus;  c,  fold 
’of  mucous  membrane  bounding  the  opening  of  the 
glottis  posteriorly. 

between  them.  The  three  figures,  represent 
respectively  the  condition  of  the  larynx  as 
seen  during  tranquil  respiration,  its  condiiion 
during  the  emission  of  the  broad  vocal  sound  A, 


Condition  of  the  Larynx  during  the  emission  of  the 
broad  vowel  sound  A. 

a, a,  cartilages  of  Santorini,  surmounting  the  arytenoid 
cartilages;  e,  epiglottis;  ivc,  inferior  or  true  vocal  cord; 
svc,  superior  or  false  vocal  cord  of  left  side. 

and  its  condition  during  the  emission  of  a  high 
or  acute  sound.  The  movements  of  the  aryte¬ 
noid  cartilages  during  the  production  of  vocal 


Condition  of  the  Larynx  during  the  emission  of  a  high 
or  acute  sound. 

e,  epiglottis;  cu ,  cushion  of  epiglottis;  ivc,  true  vocal 
cord;  svc,  false  vocal  cord. 

sounds  can  be  distinctly  seen — the  views  that  had 
been  previously  deduced,  from  theory  and  experi¬ 
ments  on  the  dead  subject,  being  thus  confirmed 
by  ocular  proof.  As  soon  as  we  wish  to  utter 
a  sound,  the  two  arytenoid  cartilages  raise  them¬ 
selves  in  the  fold  of  mucous  membrane  which 
covers  them,  and  approach  one  another  with  sur¬ 
prising  mobility'.  This  movement  effects  the 
approximation  of  I  he  vocal  cords,  and  conse¬ 
quently  the  contraction  of  the  glottis;  and  the  air 
being  expelled,  the  tense  edges  of  the  cords  act 
as  a  musical  instrument  of  the  reed  type. 

Voided,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  applied  to  an  ordi¬ 
nary  when  its  central  area  is  removed,  so  that  the 
field  is  seen  through  it,  and  little  but  a  mere  out¬ 
line  remains. 

Vo'lant,  in  Heraldry,  flying.  A  bird  volant  is 
represented  flying  bendways  toward  the  dexter 
side  of  the  shield ;  and  its  position  may  be  distin¬ 
guished  from  that  of  a  bird  rising  by  the  legs 
being  drawn  up  toward  the  body. 

Volca'noes  are  openings  in  the  earth’s  crust 
from  which  various  kinds  of  matter  in  a  highly 
heated  condition  areejected,  such  as  gases,  steam, 
ashes,  and  cinders,  masses  of  solid  rock,  and 
molten  rock  called  lava.  The  heavier  portions  of 
the  materials  thus  ejected  fall  back  within  and 
around  the  vent,  thus  in  time  building  up  the 
hilly  or  mountainous  cones  by  which  volcanoes  are 
in  general  distinguished.  The  depression  in  the 
top  of  these  conical  formations  is  called  the  crater; 
and  the  appearance  of  burning  and  of  vomiting 
forth  flame  and  smoke,  peculiar  to  volcanoes  in 
action,  is  not  caused  by  external  combustion,  but 
is  simply  the  fiery  reflection  thrown  upon  the 
ascending  volumes  of  steam  and  vapor  from  the 
incandescent  materials  within  the  vent.  Volcanic 
structures  are  likewise  formed  in  the  ocean.  The 
theories  propounded  to  account  for  volcanic  action 
are  either  chemical  or  geological.  One  writer 
suggested  that  if  immense  quantities  of  the 
metallic  bases  of  the  earths  and  alkalies  were 
present  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  all  the  phe¬ 
nomena  would  be  produced  by  their  oxidization 
from  contact  with  air  or  water.  Another,  assum¬ 
ing  that  the  interior  of  the  earth  consists  of  a 
highly  heated  and  fused  mass,  considers  that  the 
mechanical  action  of  water,  converted  into  steam 
by  the  great  heat,  would  produce  volcanic  action. 


Both  theorists  seek  support  for  their  views  from 
the  fact,  that  the  great  majority  of  volcanoes 
are  situated  on  or  near  the  sea-coast.  Geologists 
accepting  also  the  doctrine  of  internal  heat,  and 
believing  that  at  a  certain  depth  the  rocks  of  the 
earth  are,  partially  at  least,  in  a  state  of  fusion, 
explain  volcanoes  by  considering  them  as  con¬ 
nections  established  between  the  interior  of  the 
earth  and  the  atmosphere,  the  elastic  force  of 
steam  being  the  propelling  power.  Darwin,  from 
observations  made  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
believes  that  volcanoes  are  chiefly,  and,  indeed, 
almost  only  found  in  those  areas  where  subter 
ranean  motive-power  has  lately  forced,  or  is  now 
forcing  upward  the  crust  of  the  earth,  and  are 
invariably  absent  in  those  where  the  surface  has 
lately  subsided,  or  is  still  subsiding. 

Vole  ( Arvicola ),  a  genus  of  rodent  quadrupeds, 
of  a  group  which  some  naturalists  constitute  into 
a  family  (Armcolida),  but  which  is  more  gener¬ 
ally  regarded  as  a  tribe  or  sub-family  of  Mur  idee. 
This  group  is  characterized  by  a  thicker  and 
shorter  form  than  that  of  the  true  rats  and  mice; 
an  obtuse  muzzle;  ears  of  moderate  size;  a  round 
and  hairy  tail,  not  so  long  as  the  body;  the  molar 
teeth  with  flat  crowns,  which  present  angular 
enameled  plates.  These  characters  exhibit  an 
approach  to  the  beaver  family  ( Vastoridce ).  The 
lemmings  belong  to  this  group.  The  species  are 
numerous  and  widely  distributed,  being  found  in 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  North  and  South 
America. 

Vol'g'a,  the  most  important  river  of  Russia, 
and  the  longest  in  Europe,  has  its  origin  among 
the  Valdai  Hills,  in  the  Government  of  Tver;  lati¬ 
tude  57°  N.,  longitude  33°  10'  E.,  and  flows  into 
the  Caspian  Sea. 

Volhyn'ia,  a  frontier  government  of  West 
Russia,  bounded  on  the  southwest  by  Galicia, 
and  on  the  west  by  Poland,  from  which  it  is  sep¬ 
arated  by  the  River  Bug.  Area,  27,348  square 
miles;  pop.  (1870),  1,704,018. 

Volog'da,  an  extensive  government  of  Russia, 
bounded  on  the  east  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  and 
on  the  northwest  by  the  Government  of  Arch¬ 
angel.  Area,  151,500  square  miles;  pop.  (1880), 
1,131,584. 

Vologda,  a  city  of  Great  Russia,  in  the  south¬ 
west  angle  of  the  government  of  the  same  name, 
of  which  it  is  capital,  stands  on  both  banks  of 
the  River  Vologda,  467  miles  east  of  St.  Peters¬ 
burg.  Pop.  (1880),  17,250. 

Volta,  Alessandro,  a  celebrated  Italian  pliysi 
cian,  was  born  at  Como,  of  a  noble  family,  in 
1745.  Volta’s  contributions  to  the  science  of 
electricity  are  of  great  importance,  the  chief  of 
them  being  his  theory,  in  opposition  to  the  “ani¬ 
mal  electricity  ”  doctrine  of  Galvani,  that  electric 
power  resides  in  the  metals.  He  died  March  5, 
1826.  He  invented  an  electric  battery,  consisting 
of  a  series  of  cups  arranged  in  a  circle,  each  cup 
containing  a  saline  solution,  in  which  were  im¬ 
mersed,  edgewise,  two  plates,  one  of  zinc  and  the 
other  of  silver,  the  zinc  plate  in  one  cup  being 
connected  with  the  silver  one  in  the  next  by 
means  of  a  wire.  This  battery  was,  however, 
soon  after  superseded  by  his  “pile.”  He  also 
invented,  in  1775,  the  electrophorus;  in  1782,  the 
electrical  condenser,  employing  with  it  an  electro¬ 
meter,  in  which  two  straws  were  employed  instead 
of  the  gold-leaf  strips  now  in  use;  and  also  (1777) 
the  hydrogen  lamp,  and  the  electrical  pistol. 

Voltaire  (Francis  Marie  Arouet,  his  true 
name),  one  of  the  most  famous  of  French  writers, 
was  born  Feb.  20,  1694,  at  Cliatenay,  near 
Sceaux,  and  died  May  30,  1778.  His  was  truly  a 
universal  genius;  he  wrote  literally  everything — 
histories,  dramas,  poems,  disquisitions  (literary, 
philosophical,  and  scientific);  novels,  for  the  most 
part  with  some  doctrinal  purpose,  of  which  his 
famous  Candide,  or  the  Optimist ,  may  stand  as  the 
type;  his  literary  correspondence  was  on  an  unex¬ 
ampled  scale;  and  he  was  seldom  without  some 
fierce  polemic  on  hand,  in  which  his  adversaries 
had  to  writhe  for  the  amusement  of  the  public, 
under  the  scourge  of  his  unvenomed  wit. 

Voltigeurs,  picked  companiesof  irregular  rifle¬ 
men  in  the  French  regiments.  They  are  selected 
for  courage,  great  activity,  and  smail  stature.  It 
is  their  privilege  to  lead  the  attack. 

Volumet'ric  Analysis,  in  Chemistry,  consists 
in  submitting  the  substance  to  be  estimated  to  cer¬ 


tain  characteristic  reactions,  the  chemist  employ¬ 
ing  for  such  reactions  liquids  of  known  strength, 
and  from  the  quantity  of  liquid  employed  to  in¬ 
duce  the  reaction,  determining  the  weight  of  the 
substance  to  be  estimated  by  means  of  the  laws 
of  equivalence. 

Volute',  in  Architecture,  the  spiral  ornaments 
of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  capitals,  probably 
derived  from  Assyrian  architecture,  in  which  it  is 
also  used. 

Volu'litlae,  a  family  of  gasteropodous  mollusks, 
of  the  section  Pectinibranchiata. 

Vol'vox,  a  genus  of  minute  organisms,  the  type 
of  a  family,  Volvocinece,  ranked  among  Proto- 
phytes. 

Vol 'villus  (Lat.  volvere,  to  twist)  is  the  term 
used  in  medicine  to  signify  a  twisting  of  the 
intestines,  producing  obstruction  to  the  passage 
,of  its  contents.  The  operations  that  have  been 
proposed  for  the  relief  of  this  and  other  intestinal 
obstructions  are  so  often  fatal,  and,  even  when 
successful,  leave  the  patient  in  so  wretched  a 
state,  with  an  artificial  outlet  for  the  discharge  of 
the  contents  of  the  bowels,  that  it  is  doubtful 
whether  they  should  be  recommended.  It  is 
simply  a  choice  between  almost  certain  death  in  a 
few  days,  and  a  possible  chance  of  a  prolonged 
(but  usually  a  miserable)  existence.  There  are, 
however,  a  few  rules  that  should  be  universally 
known  and  attended  to — viz.,  aperients  should  be 
given  only  i  hrougli  the  rectum,  while  opium  should 
be  freely  given  by  the  mouth.  Leeches  and  hot 
fomentations  should  be  applied  to  the  seat  of  pain; 
and  all  solid  food  should  be  prohibited,  the 
nourishment  being  given  solely  in  the  fluid  form. 

Vo'iner,  a  bone  which,  in  the  human  skeleton, 
forms  part  of  the  middle  partition  of  the  nose, 
and  the  lower  edge  of  which  fits  into  grooves 
between  the  apposed  surfaces  of  the  palatine 
processes  of  the  upper  jaw  and  palate-bones. 

Vom'iting  consists  in  the  stomach  emptying 
itself  through  the  gullet  and  mouth.  In  the 
treatment  of  vomiting,  we  must  consider  it  as  a 
symptom  rather  than  as  a  malady.  Where  the 
stomach  is  irritated,  relief  is  afforded,  according 
to  circumstances,  by  drinking  cold  water,  aerated 
or  soda  water,  or,  if  necessary,  by  opium  or  dux 
vomica.  Cold  applications  outwardly  also  do 
good.  In  other  cases,  infusions  containing  ethereal 
oils — camomile,  coffee,  etc. — astringents,  or  cor¬ 
rectives  for  acidity — magnesia,  soda,  etc. — are  the 
fitting  remedies.  When  the  irritation  is  in  the 
brain,  the  best  remedy  is  a  horizontal  position, 
with  composure  and  darkness.  If  a  person  in 
sound  health  is  suddenly  seized  with  vomiting, 
poisoning  may  be  suspected. 

Vorant,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  applied  to  an 
animal  represented  as  swallowing  another  ;  as, 
sable,  a  dolphin  naiant,  vorant  a  fish  proper. 

Vorone'je,  or  Voronetz  (pronounced  Voro¬ 
nezh),  a  government  in  the  South  of  Great  Russia, 
bounded  on  the  south  by  Little  Russia  and  South 
Russia.  Area,  25,712  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880), 
2,340,266. 

Voroneje,  a  town  of  Great  Russia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Voroneje,  150  miles  southwest 
of  Tambov.  Pop.  (1880),  46,279. 

Vorticel'lidae,  a  family  of  Infusoria,  remark¬ 
able  for  beauty,  and  containing  a  great  number 
of  species,  to  which,  from  their  form,  the  name 
of  Bell  or  Bell-flower  Animalcules  is  often  given. 

Vosges,  a  department  in  the  Northeast  of 
France,  formed  out  of  the  south  part  of  the  old 
Province  of  Lorraine,  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Departments  of  Meuse  and  Meurlhe,  and  on 
the  east  by  Alsace-Lorraine.  Area,  2,269  square 
miles.  Pop.  (1881),  406,862. 

Vosges  Mountains  (Lat.  Vgesus,  Ger.  Voyesen 
or  Wasr/au),  a  range  of  mountains  in  the  North¬ 
east  of  France  and  the  West  of  Germany,  run  from 
south  to  north,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
from  the  borders  of  the  Departments  Ilaute-Saone 
and  Doubs,  north  to  Mainz,  and  separate  Alsace 
from  the  French  Departments  of  Vosges  and 
Meurthe  and  the  German  Lorraine. 

Voiissoirs,  the  individual  stones  forming  an 
arch,  and  of  which  the  central  one  is  the  keystone. 
They- are  always  of  a  truncated  wedge-form. 

Vul'can  (the  name  is  probably  connected  with 
fulaere  and  fulgur,  anil  may  be  translated  the 
bright  or  shining  one)  was  the  old  Italian  god  of 


VULGATE. 


700 


WALKYRIES. 


fire.  Latterly,  the  character,  attributes,  and  his¬ 
tory  of  the  Greek  Hephaestus  were  transferred  to 
Vulcan,  and  the  two  thus  became  identified. 
In  the  Iliad,  the  wife  of  Hephaestus  is  Cliaris; 
while  in  the  Odyssey,  and  in  later  writers,  he  is 
represented  as  being  much  tormented  by  the 
amours  of  his  frail  and  charming  spouse  Aphro¬ 
dite,  with  her  favorite  Ares  (Mars). 

V ill 'gate  is  the  name  of  the  Latin  translation 
of  the  Bible,  which  is  the  received  version  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  It  must  not  be  con¬ 
founded  with  the  older  Latin  translation  known 
as  the  Itala. 

Yul'ned,  a  heraldic  term,  applied  to  an  ani¬ 
mal,  or  part  of  an  animal — as,  for  example,  a 
human  heart,  wounded  and  with  the  blood  drop¬ 
ping  from  it.  A  pelican  in  her  piety  is  sometimes 
described  as  vulning  herself. 

Yul'ture  ( Vnllur),  a  Linnaean  genus  of  rapa¬ 
cious  birds,  now  forming  the  family  Vultur  id  a>, 
to  almost  all  the  species  of  which  the  name  vul¬ 
ture  is  popularly  given.  The  carrion  crow  and 
turkey  buzzard  are  examples.  Vultures  are 
mostly  found  in  warm  climates,  and  many  of 
them  are  inhabitants  of  mountainous  regions. 
They  feed  on  carrion,  which  it  seems  to  he  there 


Wis  the  twenty-third  letter  of  the  English 
alphabet,  and  a  letter  which  performs  the 
double  office  of  a  consonant  and  a  vowel.  It 
would  appear  from  a  variety  of  phenomena  in 
Latin  and  Greek,  that  the  Latin  v  or  u,  used  as  a 
consonant,  as  well  as  the  old  Greek  digamma  (F), 
were  more  of  the  nature  of  the  modern  w,  than 
of  the  decidedly  consonantal  English  v. 

Waal,  The  (Lat.  Valis  or  Vahnlis),  an  arm  of 
the  Rhine,  thrown  off  near  the  village  of  Panuer- 
den,  in  the  Netherlands,  flows  thence  to  Nijmegen, 
Tiel,  Nieuw-St.-Andries,  between  the  Boemmeler 
and  Tieler-waard,  and  unites  with  the  Maas  below 
Fort  Loevestein  (Luvestein).  The  united  rivers 
then  take  the  name  of  the  Merwede,  which,  flow¬ 
ing  past  Gorinchem  and  Dordrecht,  becomes  the 
Oude,  or  Old  Maas. 

Wa'bash,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  rises  in 
Western  Ohio,  runs  west  and  southwest  through 
Indiana,  forming  the  southerly  half  of  its  western 
boundary,  on  the  borders  of  Illinois,  to  the  Ohio 
river,  146  miles  from  its  mouth,  is  550  miles  long, 
is  navigable  by  steamers  at  high-water  300,  and 
has  for  its  principal  branches  the  Tippecanoe,  Big 
Vermilion,  Embarras,  and  White  rivers — the  last 
200  miles  long. 

Wabasli,  the  county  seat  of  Wabash  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  7,100. 

Wabasha,  the  county  seat  of  Wabasha  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  2,550. 

Wailena,  the  county  seat  of  Wadena  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  900. 

Waders,  or  Wading-birds,  a  designation 
often  applied  to  the  whole  order  of  birds  G  aVce, 
or  Grallatores,  but  really  appropriate  only  to 


Characteristic  Features  of  Wading-birds: 

1,  Head  and  foot  of  common  snipe;  2,  Head  and  foot  of 
ringed  dotterel;  3,  Head  and  foot  of  common  godwit; 
4,  Head  and  foot  of  curlew. 

some  of  them,  the  more  aquatic  in  their  habits, 
as  heron,  snipes,  and  rails. 


office  in  nature  to  remove  from  the  face  of  the 
earth,  that  the  evil  consequences  of  its  corruption 
may  be  prevented.  They  seldom  attack  a  living 
animal,  but  they  have  been  seen  to  sit  and  watch 
the  approach  of  death,  waiting  for  their  feast. 
They  are  not,  in  general,  courageous  birds,  and 
are  often  put  to  flight  by  birds  much  smaller  than 
themselves;  yet,  if  unmolested,  they  readily  be¬ 
come  familiar  with  the  presence  of  man,  and  some 
of  them  seek  their  food  even  in  the  streets  of 
towns,  in  which  they  are  useful  as  scavengers. 
They  gorge  themselves  excessively  when  food  is 
abundant,  t  ill  their  crop  forms  a  great  projection, 
and  sit  long  in  a  sleepy  or  half-torpid  state  to 
digest  their  food.  They  do  not  carry  food  to  their 
young  in  their  claws,  but  disgore  it  for  them  from 
the  crop.  The  bareness  of  their  head  and  neck 
adapts  them  for  feeding  on  putrid  flesh,  by  which 
feathers  would  be  defiled;  and  they  are  very  care¬ 
ful  to  wash  and  cleanse  their  plumage.  The  Vul¬ 
tur  idee  are  divided  into  several  genera,  of  which 
one,  Gypaelos,  approaches  to  the  Falconidce  in  its 
characters  and  habits,  having  the  head  feathered, 
and  not  always  feeding  on  carrion,  but  often 
attacking  living  animals.  The  LSmmergeier  is 
one  of  this  group.  The  feet  are  feathered  to  the 
toes,  while  the  other  vultures  have  the  tarsi  bare. 

W 

Wadesborough,  the  county  seat  of  Anson 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  1,550. 

Wa'di,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  a  river,  a 
river-course,  a  ravine,  or  valley.  It  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  names  of  places;  e.  </.,  Wadi- 
Musa  (i.  e.,  the  Valley  of  Moses)  in  Arabia. 

Wagner,  Richard,  an  illustrious  German  oper¬ 
atic  composer,  was  born  at  Leipzig  in  1813.  He 
is  the  greatest  of  modern  composers.  His  operas 
comprise  Rienzi,  Der  Fliegende  Hollander,  Tann- 
hauser,  Lohengrin,  Tiistan  und  Isolde,  Die  Meis- 
tersinger  von  Nurnberg,  the  tetralogy  of  Der  Ring 
des  Nibelungen,  and  Parsifal.  He  died  Feb.  13, 
1883. 

Wag  'tail  ( Motatilla ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Motacillidce,  which  is  now  generally  re- 


1,  Yellow  Wagtail  ( MotacWa  flora) ;  2,  Pied  Wagtail 
(M.  YairtUii). 


garded  as  a  sub-family  ( Motacillina )  of  Sylviadce. 

Wahoo,  the  county  seat  of  Saunders  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  2,075. 

Walipeton,  the  county  seat  of  Richland  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  2,050. 

Wain  'scot,  the  name  given  to  boards  lining  the 
interior  walls  of  apartments. 

Waist,  in  a  Ship,  is  that  portion  of  the  upper 
deck  lying  between  the  fore  and  main  masts.  In 
it  the  larger  boats  are  stowed,  and  along  its  gun¬ 
wale  the  crew  pile  their  hammocks  during  the  day. 

Wa  Keeney,  the  county  seat  of  Trego  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  1,250. 

Wakefield,  a  prosperous  manufacturing  city  of 
Middlesex  county,  Mass.  Pop.,  6,100. 

Wake 'field,  an  important  town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  overlooking 
the  Calder,  nine  miles  south  of  Leeds,  on  the 
Lancashire  &  Yorkshire  Railway.  It  has  long 


In  the  Southern  States  is  found  the  black  vulture, 

( Catkartes  atratus),  there  generally  known  as  the 
carrion  crow,  a  comparatively  small  species,  not 
quite  two  feet  in  entire  length,  of  a  deep  black 
color,  the  head  and  neck  covered  with  warty  ex¬ 
crescences,  and  a  few  hair-like  feathers.  This  bird 
is  also  very  abundant  in  many  parts  of  South 
America,  where  it  is  called  the  gallinazo.  Very 
nearly  allied  to  it,  and  found  in  the  same  regions, 
is  the  turkey  buzzard,  or  red  headed  vulture 
(Calhartes  aura).  These  vultures  are  more  or 
less  gregarious,  not  only  assembling  where  food 
is  to  be  found,  but  flying  in  flocks.  They  make  their 
nests  in  hollow  trees,  and  sometimes  in  the  chim¬ 
neys  of  deserted  houses,  or  on  the  roofs  of  houses. 
In  some  of  the  towns  of  tropical  America,  they 
may  be  seen  in  great  numbers,  perched  during  the 
heat  of  the  day  on  the  tops  of  houses,  or  on  walls, 
asleep,  witli  their  heads  under  their  wings.  The 
Californian  vulture  ( Calhartes  californianvs)  is 
the  largest  rapacious  bird  of  North  America,  being 
fully  four  feet  long,  and  about  ten  feet  in  extent 
of  wings.  It  is  black,  with  a  white  band  on  the 
wings.  It  is  found  only  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  It  much  resembles  the  con¬ 
dor  in  its  habits. 


been  famous  for  its  manufactures  of  woolen  yarn 
and  cloths,  and  noted  for  its  wheat  and  cattle 
markets.  Coal-mines  are  worked  in  the  vicinity. 
Pop.  (1881),  30,573. 

Wal  'clieren,  an  island  in  the  Netherlands, 
Province  of  Zeeland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scheldt, 
contains  52,000  acres;  pop.  (1875),  42,503. 

Waldenses  (Vai.denses,  Valdesi,  Vai.esi, 
Vaudois)  are  a  Christian  community  who  inhabit 
a  mountain  tract  on  the  Italian  side  of  the  Cottian 
Alps,  southwest  from  Turin.  The  district  is 
bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Dora  Ripaira,  on  the 
south  by  the  Po.  It  is  inclosed  on  all  sides  by 
spurs  of  the  Alps,  which  divide  it  into  three 
valleys — that  of  Perosa,  drained  by  the  Clusone; 
that  of  San  Martino,  drained  by  the  Germanasca; 
and  that  of  Lucerna,  drained  by  the  Pelice,  all 
tributaries  of  the  Po.  These  valleys  lie  between 
France  and  Italy,  and  immediately  south  of  the 
great  western  route  into  Italy  by  the  passes  of 
Mont  Cenis  and  Genevre.  The  religious  doctrines 
of  the  Waldenses  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
Reformed  Churches.  They  were  not,  as  has  been 
claimed,  Protestant  before  the  Reformation, 
although  they  entertained  some  opinions  which, 
so  far,  were  in  anticipation  of  those  held  by  the 
Reformers. 

Wald  roil,  the  county  seat  of  Scott  county,  Ark. 
Pop.,  550. 

Wallial  'la  (the  Hall  of  the  Fallen,  i.  e.,  heroes) 
is,  in  Northern  Mythology,  the  name  of  the 
place  of  residence  for  the  fallen  in  battle. 
This  brilliant  hall  stood  in  Gladsheim  (the  house 
of  joy);  in  front  of  it  was  the  beautiful  grove 
Glasur,  the  trees  of  which  bore  golden  leaves. 
Before  the  hall,  which  was  so  high  that  its  sum¬ 
mit  could  scarcely  be  seen,  a  wolf  was  hung,  as  a 
symbol  of  war,  over  which  sat  an  eagle;  the  salon 
itself,  ornamented  with  shields,  and  wainscoted 
with  spears,  had  540  doors,  through  each  of  which 
800  of  the  inmates  (Einherji  r)  could  walk  abreast. 
For  these  Einherjer  (i.  e.,  the  brave),  who  came 
after  death  to  Odin,  was  it  destined.  Renowned 
chiefs  were  met  and  welcomed  by  Bragiand  Her- 
mode  as  messengers  from  Odin.  The  hall  was 
decorated  to  honor  them;  all  the  divine  heroes 
stood  up  at  their  reception;  the  Walkyries  tasted 
wine  for  them,  which  otherwise  only  Odin  drank. 
All  kings  came  to  Walhalla,  even  when  they  did 
not  die  on  the  battle-field;  in  general,  these  joys 
seem  to  have  been  prepared  only  for  those  of  high 
rank  and  the  rich. 

Walhalla,  the  county  seat  of  Oconee  county, 
S.  C.  Pop.,  1,789. 

Walky'ries,  beings  of  the  Scandinavian  Mythol¬ 
ogy,  the  legend  of  whom  is  the  most  terribly 
beautiful  in  the  whole  system.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  old  Norse  val,  which  signifies  a 
heap  of  slaughtered  men,  and  hjora ,  to  choose. 
The  Walkyries,  also  called  battle-maidens,  shield- 


WALKING-STICK. 


701 


WARTS. 


maidens,  Vish-maidens,  are  charming  young 
women  who,  adorned  with  golden  ornaments,  ride 
through  the  air  in  brilliant  armor,  order  battles, 
and  distribute  the  death-lots  according  to  Odin’s 
command.  Fertilizing  dew-drops  on  the  ground 
from  the  manes  of  their  horses;  light  streams  from 
the  points  of  their  lances,  and  a  flickering  bright¬ 
ness  announces  their  arrival  in  the  battle.  With 
their  charming  glance  they  rejoice  the  glazing  eye 
of  the  hero,  and  lead  him  to  Walhalla,  where  they 
act  as  his  cup-bearers.  Two  Walkyries,  Hrist  and 
Mist,  are  cup-bearers  to  Odin  himself. 

Walking-stick,  the  popular  name  of  many 
insects  of  the  family  Phasmidce,  destitute  of  wings, 
and  having  a  long,  slender,  cylindrical  body,  like 
a  small  stick  with  the  bark  on,  the  delicate  legs 


Walkiag-stick  ( Pkasma  gigas). 


resembling  little  twigs.  A  species,  between  3  and 
4  inches  long,  P.  femoratum,  is  found  even  in  the 
Northern  and  Northwestern  States. 

WalTaba  Tree  (Eperva  foliatu),  a  tree  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Ccesalpinea, 
a  native  of  Guiana. 

Wallace,  Lew,  an  American  general  and  writer, 
was  born  in  Fountain  county,  Ind.,  about  1828. 
He  did  valuable  service  to  the  Union  cause  in  the 
War  of  the  Rebellion,  and  in  1882  was  appointed 
Minister  to  Turkey.  His  Ben  Hur  and  The  Fair 
God  are  among  the  most  successful  novels  of  mod¬ 
ern  times. 

Wallace,  William  Vincent,  a  British  musi¬ 
cian  and  composer  of  operas,  was  born  at  Water¬ 
ford,  of  Scotch  parents,  June  1, 1814,  and  died  at 
the  Chateau  de  Bagen,  in  the  South  of  France, 
Oct.  12,  1865.  He  is  best  remembered  by  his 
opera  Maritana. 

Walla  Walla,  the  county  seat  of  Walla  Walla 
county.  Wash.  Pop.,  5,100. 

Wallflower  ( Cheiranthus ),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  Crudferce. 

Wallisville,  the  county  seat  of  Chambers 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  225. 

Walnut  ( Juglans ),  a  genus  of  beautiful  trees 
of  the  natural  order  Juglandaeece.  This  order  is 


Walnut  ( Juglans  regia). 


nearly  allied  to  Amentacece,  and  particularly  to 


the  sub-order  Cupuliferce,  or  Corylacem,  but  differs 
in  having  the  ovary  one-celled,  with  a  solitary 
erect  ovule.  The  black  walnut  and  the  butternut 
are  examples. 

Wall-plate,  a  piece  of  wood  laid  along  the  top 
of  the  wall  of  a  building  to  receive  the  feet  of  the 
rafters  of  the  roof. 

Wall-trees,  in  Horticulture,  are  fruit-trees 
trained  on  walls  for  better  exposure  of  the  fruit 
to  sunshine,  and  for  the  sake  of  the  heat  radiated 
from  the  wall. 

Walpole,  Horace,  a  noted  English  statesman 
and  writer,  was  born  in  1717,  and  died  March  2, 
1797. 

Walsenburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Huerfano 
county,  Colo.  Pop.,  550. 

Walterborough,  the  county  seat  of  Colleton 
county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Walthall,  the  county  seat  of  Webster  county, 
Miss.  Pop. ,  130. 

Waltham,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  on  Charles 
river,  ten  miles  nortli-by-west  from  Boston,  has 
manufactories  of  bleached  cotton  goods,  hollow 
iron-ware,  machinery,  chemicals,  boots  and  shoes, 
and  watches,  of  which  10,000  are  made  a  year. 
Pop.,  14,700. 

Walther  Von  Der  Yogelweide,  the  greatest 
and  most  famous  Minnesinger  of  the  middle  ages, 
was  born  1165-1170,  in  Franconia  or  in  Austria. 
He  died  about  the  beginning  of  1228.  His  grave 
has  long  been  pointed  out  in  the  Laurence  Garden 
of  the  cathedral  of  Wurzburg;  but  a  new  monu¬ 
ment  was  erected  to  him  in  1843. 

Walton,  Isaak,  author  of  the  Complete  Angler 
and  other  books,  was  born  at  Stafford,  England, 
Aug.  9,  1593,  and  died  Dec.  15,  1683. 

Wam'pum,  a  name  given  to  shells  and  shell 
beads,  used  as  money,  and  worn  for  ornaments 
in  strings  and  belts  by  the  North  American  In¬ 
dians. 

Wauderoo ',  a  name  given  to  several  species  of 
monkey.  The  species  commonly  described  under 
the  name  is  Macacus  silenus  or  Silenus  veter,  a 


Wanderoo  Monkey  (Macacus  silenus). 


War 'bier,  a  name  often  applied  to  all  the  birds 
of  the  family  Sylviadce,  many  of  which,  however, 
commonly  receive 
other  popular  names, 
as  the  blackcap, hedge- 
sparrow,  redbreast, 
redstart,  stonechat, 
whitethroat,  etc. 

Numerous  species  of 
warbler  are  found  in 
North  America,  mi¬ 
gratory  birds,  which 
spend  the  winter  in 
more  southern  re¬ 
gions.  Not  a  few  of 
the  same  species  are 
therefore  reckoned 
among  the  birds  of 
the  West  Indies. 

Some  of  the  European 
species  are  in  like 
manner  found  in 
Africa;  and  Asia  has 
many  species  of  warb- 
ler,  among  which 
some  Of  the  European  Nest  of  Reed  Warbler, 
species  are  included.  Australia  has  many  species 
of  warbler,  some  of  which  are  of  very  beautiful 
plumage. 

Warren,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 


United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Bradley  county,  Ark.  Pop.,  550. — 2.  The  county 
seat  of  Marshall  county,  Minn.  Pop.,  575. — 3. 
The  county  seat  of  Trumbull  county,  Ohio. 
Pop.,  5,100. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Warren 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  5,700. 

Warrensburgh,  a  flourishing  town  in  Johnson 
county,  Mo.  Pop.,  6,100. 

Warrenton,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Fauquier  county,  Va.  Pop.,  1,500. — 2.  The 
county  seat  of  Warren  county,  Ga.  Pop.,  1,250. 
— 3.  The  county  seat  of  Warren  county,  Mo. 
Pop.,  1,000. — 4.  The  county  seat  of  Warren 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  1,300. 

War 'saw,  formerly  the  capital  of  Poland,  now 
capital  of  the  Russian,  or  rather  Russianized, 
Government  of  Warsaw,  stands  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Vistula,  about  300  miles  east  of  Berlin  by 
railway.  Latitude  42°  13'  N. ,  longitude  21°  2' 
E.  Pop.  (1880),  339,350. 

Warsaw,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Benton  county,  Mo.  Pop.,  750. — 2.  The  county 
seat  of  Gallatin  county,  Ky.  Pop.,  825. — 3.  The 
county  seat  of  Kosciusko  county,  Ind.  Pop., 
3,150.-4.  The  county  seat  of  Richmond  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  250. — 5.  The  county  seat  of  Wyo¬ 
ming  county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  3,100. 

Wartburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Morgan  county, 
Tenn.  Pop.,  325. 

Wart-hog  (Phacochceru s),  a  genus  of  Sitidce, 
closely  resembling  the  true  hogs  in  most  of  their 
characters,  and  particularly  in  their  feet.  The 
head  is  large,  and  the  muzzle  broad;  the  cheeks 


native  of  the  coast  of  Malabar,  a  monkey  of 
rather  large  size,  deep  black  throughout,  except 
a  ruff  of  long  gray  or  white  hair,  from  the  midst 
of  which  the  face  looks  forth,  and  which  descends 
over  the  chest,  giving  the  animal  a  very  peculiar 
aspect. 

Wapakoneta,  the  county  seat  of  Auglaize 
county,  Ohio.  Pop.,  3,600. 

Wapello,  the  county  seat  of  Louisa  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Wap'iti,  or  Elk  ( Cervus  canadensis),  a  species 
of  deer,  a  native  of  this  country,  found  in  the 
mountainous  districts  west  of  the  Missouri  river, 
and  as  far  north  as  56°  or  57°  N.  latitude.  It  is  yel¬ 
lowish  brown  on  the  upper  parts;  the  sides  gray; 
a  pale  yellowish  patch  on  each  buttock,  bounded 
by  a  black  line  on  the  thigh;  the  neck,  a  mixture 
of  red  and  black,  with  long,  coarse,  black  hair 
falling  down  from  it  in  front  like  a  dewlap;  a 
black  mark  at  each  angle  of  the  mouth. 

Ware,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Hampshire 
county,  Mass.  Pop.,  6,100. 

Warfleld,  the  county  seat  of  Martin  county, 
Ky.  Pop.,  145. 

Warm  Springs,  the  county  seat  of  Bath  county, 
Va.  Pop.,  350. 


Wart-hog  ( Phacocliotrus  cethiopicus) . 


furnished  with  large  wart-like  excrescences,*  so 
that  the  appearance  is  altogether  remarkable  and 
uncouth.  The  species  are  all  natives  of  Africa. 

Warts  (sometimes  known  in  Surgery  by  their 
Latin  name  Verruca, )  are  collections  of  lengthened 
papillae  of  the  skin,  closely  adherent  and  en- 
sheathed  by  a  thick  covering  of  hard,  dry  cuticle. 
Common  warts  are  so  apt  to  disappear,  that  they 
may  be  often  left  to  themselves.  If  it  is  desired 
to  remove  them,  glacial  acetic  acid  is  perhaps  the 


WARWICK  COURTHOUSE. 


702 


WATER-BUG. 


best  remedy;  it  must  be  applied  with  a  camel- 
liair  pencil  till  the  wart  is  pretty  well  sodden, 
care  being  taken  not  to  blister  the  neighboring 
skin.  One  or  at  most  two  applications  are  usually 
sufficient.  Nitrate  of  silver  and  tincture  of  iron 
are  popular  and  general  applications.  Small 
warts  hanging  by  a  neck  may  often  be  simply 
removed  by  the  'moderately  light  application  of 
an  elastic  ligament  (for  example,  a  small  broken 
elastic  ring)  to  the  base.  The  wart  usually 
shrivels  up,  and  falls  off  within  a  week. 

Warwick  Courthouse,  the  county  seat  of 
Warwick  county,  Va.  Pop.,  105. 

Waseca,  the  county  seat  of  Waseca  county, 
Minn.  Pop.,  2,550. 

Washburn,  the  county  seat  of  McLean  county, 
N.  Dak.  Pop.,  100. 

Washington,  Geouge,  Commander-in-Chief  of 
the  Continental  forces  in  the  war  of  the  American 
Revolution, and  first  President  of  the  United  States, 
was  born  in  Westmoreland  county,  Va.,  Feb.  22, 
1732;  son  of  Augustine  Washington  and  liis  second 
wife,  Mary  Ball.  At  the  age  of  nineteen,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Seven  Years’ War,  he  was  ap¬ 
pointed  adjutant  of  the  provincial  troops,  with 
the  rank  of  Major.  At  twenty-two  (1754)  he  com¬ 
manded  a  regiment  against  the  French,  who  had 
established  themselves  at  Fort  Duquesne  (now 
Pittsburgh), and  held  Fort  Necessity  againstsupe- 
rior  numbers,  until  compelled  to  capitulate.  The 
year  following,  when  two  regiments  of  regulars 
were  led  against  Fort  Duquesne  by  General  Brad- 
dock,  Washington  volunteered;  and  at  the  disas¬ 
trous  ambuscade  of  July  9,1755,  he  was  the  only 
aide  not  killed  or  wounded.  In  1759  he  married 
Mrs.  Martha. Custis,  a  wealthy  widow,  and  was 
for  some  years  after  a  member  of  the  Virginia  As¬ 
sembly.  The  news  of  the  Battle  of  Lexington, 
April  19,  1775,  called  the  country  to  arms;  and 
Washington,  then  a  member  of  the  Continental 
Congress,  was  elected  Commander-in-Chief  by  that 
body.  He  hastened  to  the  camp  at  Cambridge, 
compelled  the  evacuation  of  Boston;  was  driven 
from  New  York;  compelled  to  retreat  across 
New  Jersey;  often  defeated,  and  reduced  to 
the  most  desperate  straits  by  disaffection,  lack  of 
men  and  supplies,  and  even  cabals  against  his 
authority;  but  by  his  calm  courage,  prudence, 
firmness,  and  perseverance,  he  brought  the  war, 
with  the  aid  of  powerful  allies,  to  a  successful  ter¬ 
mination;  and  (Dec.  23, 1783)  the  independence  of 
the  thirteen  colonies  achieved,  he  retired  from  the 
army  to  Mount  Vernon,  which  he  had,  during  the 
eight  years  of  the  war,  but  once  visited.  He  re¬ 
fused  pay,  but  kept  a  minute  account  of  liis  per¬ 
sonal  expenses,  which  were  reimbursed  by  Con¬ 
gress.  The  Federation  of  States  having  failed 
to  give  an  efficient  government,  Washington  pro¬ 
posed  conventions  for  commercial  purposes,  which 
led  to  the  Convention  of  1787,  of  which  he  was  a 
member,  which  formed  the  present  Federal  con¬ 
stitution,  considered  by  him  as  the  only  alterna¬ 
tive  to  anarchy  and  civil  war.  Under  this  consti¬ 
tution  he  was  chosen  President,  and  inaugurated 
at  New  York,  April  30,  1789.  In  1797,  when  there 
arose  a  difficulty  with  France,  threatening  hostili¬ 
ties,  he  was  appointed  Lieutenant-General  and 
Commander-in-Chief.  On  Dec  12,  1799,  he  was 
exposed  in  the  saddle,  for  several  hours,  to  cold 
and  snow,  and  attacked  with  acute  laryngitis,  for 
which  he  was  repeatedly  bled,  but  sunk  rapidly, 
and  died  December  14tli.  He  is  entombed  at  Mt. 
Vernon. 

Washington,  one  of  the  United  States,  in  lati¬ 
tude  45°  30' — 49®  N.;  longitude,  117° — 125°  W.; 
bounded  north  by  British  Columbia,  east  by  the 
Territory  of  Idaho,  south  by  the  Columbia  river, 
which  separates  it  from  Oregon,  west  by  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  Area,  69,180  square  miles.  Its 
capital  is  Olympia.  The  climate  in  the  western  dis¬ 
trict  is  mild,  with  a  rainfall  of  fifty-three  inches; 
east  of  the  mountains,  there  is  but  a  quarter  of  the 
rainfall,  and  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  The 
timber  in  the  western  district  is  of  great  richness 
and  abundance.  Fish  are  very  abundant,  several 
species  of  salmon  filling  all  the  streams,  with  hali¬ 
but,  cod,  and  herrings,  in  great  quantities.  The 
scenery  is  among  the  finest  on  the  continent.  The 
chief  product  is  timber.  Wheat,  barley,  oats,  pota¬ 
toes,  and  the  hardier  fruits,  are  produced  in  abun¬ 
dance.  This  territory  was  admitted  to  Statehood 


| 

in  1889.  Pop.  (1880),  76,000,  besides  about  20,000 
Indians. 

Washington,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows; — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Beaufort  county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  3,100. — 2.  The 
county  seat  of  Daviess  county,  Ind.,  is  an  import¬ 
ant  and  growing  city  with  many  large  factories 
and  valuable  railroad  interests.  Pop  ,  6,100. — 3. 
The  county  seat  of  Fayette  county,  Ohio,  is  a 
prosperous  agricultural  city,  well  laid  out  and 
handsomely  built.  Pop.,  6,600. — 4.  The  county 
seat  of  Franklin  county,  Mo.,  is  a  flourishing 
manufacturing  and  trading  center.  Pop.,  5,100. 
— 5.  The  county  seat  of  Hempstead  county,  Ark. 
Pop.,  800. — 6.  The  county  seat  of  Rappahannock 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  385. — 7.  The  county  seat  of 
Rhea  county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  325  — 8.  The  county 
seat  of  Washington  county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  3,100. 
— 9.  The  county  seat  of  Washington  county, 
Ivan.  Pop.,  2,500. — 10.  The  county  seat  of 
Washington  county,  Penn.,  is  a  prosperous  man¬ 
ufacturing  and  railroad  city.  Pop.,  6,100. — 11. 
The  county  scat  of  Wilkes  county,  Ga.  Pop., 
3,100. 

Washington,  City  of,  the  seat  of  the  govern¬ 
ment  of  the  United  States  of  America,  is  in  the 
District  of  Columbia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Po¬ 
tomac  river,  between  Anacostia  river  and  Rock 
Creek,  which  separates  it  from  Georgetown,  lati¬ 
tude  38°  51'  20"  N.,  longitude  77°  0'  15"  W., 
thirty-five  miles  southwest  of  Baltimore,  136  from 
Philadelphia,  205  from  New  York,  120  northeast 
of  Richmond,  1,203  from  New  Orleans,  2,000 
from  San  Francisco,  160  above  the  mouth  of  the 
Potomac,  and  300  from  the  Capes  of  the  Chesa¬ 
peake.  The  city  was  laid  out  under  the  direction 
of  General  Washington,  on  a  handsome  scale  for 
the  national  capital.  The  principal  edifices  are 
the  Capitol;  the  White  House,  residence  of  the 
President;  Patent  Office;  General  Post  Office, 
Treasury,  War,  and  Navy  Departments;  Smith¬ 
sonian  Institution,  etc.  The  Capitol,  on  the  sum¬ 
mit  of  a  gentle  elevation,  in  a  pleasure-ground  of 
thirty-five  acres,  was  commenced  in  1793,  burnt 
by  the  British  troops  in  1814,  completed  in  1825, 
and  extended  by  the  addition  of  two  spacious  wings 
in  1851;  the  center  is  352  feet  by  101,  with  a  lofty 
dome;  the  wings,  142  by  238  feet;  the  entire 
building  being  751  feet  long,  324  deep,  covering 
3J  acres— the  center  of  white  sandstone,  the 
wings  white  marble.  The  rotunda,  under  the 
dome,  contains  several  national  pictures  by  Trum¬ 
bull,  Weir,  Vanderlyn,  Powell,  Chapman,  etc. 
Pop.  (1889),  188,000. 

Wash'ita,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  rises 
on  the  western  borders  of  Arkansas,  and  runs 
east  and  southeast  through  Louisiana,  emptying 
into  the  Red  river  thirty  miles  from  its  mouth;  it 
is  500  miles  long,  and  navigable  to  Camden,  300. 
Its  chief  branches  are  the  Saline  river,  La 
Fourche,  Tensas,  and  Little  Missouri. 

Wasp  {Vespa),  a  Linnrean  genus  of  insects, 
now  forming  the  family  Vespidce,  a  numerous 


Nests  of  Various  Species  of  Wasps. 


1,  Vespa  crabro;  2,  V.  Holsatica;  3,  V.  vulgaris, 
and  widely  distributed  family  of  the  order  Hy- 
menoptera  and  section  Aculeata. 

Watch,  a  small  portable  machine  for  measuring 
time,  the  construction  of  which  is  essentially  the 
I  same  as  that  of  a  clock,  except  that  the  moving 


power  is  obtained  from  the  elastic  force  of  a 
coiled  spring  instead  of  from  a  weight,  and  the 
movement  regulated,  so  as  to  be  isochronous,  by 
a  balance  and  balance-spring  instead  of  a  pendu¬ 
lum.  The  movement  of  a  watch  consists  of  a 
train  of  wheels  and  pinions  kept  in  motion  by  a 
spring,  called  the  main-spring;  the  last  and  fast¬ 
est  wheel  of  the  train,  the  scape-wheel  or  balance- 
wheel,  acting  so  as  to  keep  in  vibratory  motion  a 
balance,  whose  movement,  again — which  is  made 
isochronous  by  the  action  of  another  spring  called 
the  balance-spring — regulates  to  a  uniform  rate 
the  revolution  of  the  scape-wheel,  and  consequently 
the  motion  of  the  rest  of  the  train,  and  the  un¬ 
coiling  of  the  main-spring.  The  chronometer  is 
a  large  watch  fitted  with  all  the  contrivances 
which  experience  has  shown  to  be  conducive  to 
accurate  time-keeping — e.  g  ,  the  cylindrical  bal¬ 
ance-spring,  the  detached  escapement,  and  the 
compensatiombalance.  As  a  watch  which  will 
keep  time  in  one  position  will  often  not  do  so 
equally  well  in  another,  marine  chronometers  are 
always  set  horizontally  in  a.  box  in  gimbals,  an 
arrangement  which  keeps  the  chronometer  hori¬ 
zontal,  whatever  the  motion  of  the  vessel. 

Watch,  on  Shipboard,  a  division  of  the  crew 
into  two,  or  if  it  be  a  large  crew,  into  three 
sections;  that  one  set  of  men  may  have  charge  of 
the  vessel  while  the  others  rest.  The  day  and 
night  are  divided  into  watches  of  four  hours 
each,  except  the  period  from  4  to  8  p.m.,  which 
is  divided  into  two  dog-watches  of  two  hours’ 
duration  each.  The  object  of  the  dog-watches  is 
to  prevent  the  same  men  being  always  on  duty  at 
the  same  hours. 

Water  (Symbol  n»0,  equiv.  18 — sp.  gr.  1),  in  a 
state  of  purity,  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of 
the  air,  is  a  clear,  colorless,  transparent  liquid, 
perfectly  neutral  in  its  reaction,  and  devoid  of 
taste  or  smell.  At  a  temperature  below  32°  it 
freezes,  crystallizing  in  various  forms  derived 
from  the  rhomboliedron  and  six  sided  prism. 
Distilled  water  is  815  times  heavier  than  air;  a 
cubic  inch  weighs,  in  air  at  62°,  with  the  barom¬ 
eter  at  30  inches,  252.458  grains,  and  in  vacuo, 
252.722  grains,  the  grain  being  of  the 

avoirdupois  pound.  Water  evaporates  at  all 
temperatures,  and  under  the  ordinary  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere,  boils  at  212°,  passing  off  in  the 
form  of  steam,  which,  in  its  state  of  greatest 
density  at  212°,  compared  with  air  at  the  same 
temperature,  and  with  an  equal  elastic  force,  has 
asp.  gr.  of  0.625.  Water  is  the  most  universal 
solvent  with  which  the  chemist  is  acquainted,  and 
its  operations  in  this  respect  are  equally  apparent, 
although  on  very  different  scales,  on  the  surface 
of  the  globe  and  in  the  laboratory.  Owing  to  its 
Extremely  solvent  powers,  pure  water  is  never 
found  in  nature.  The  nearest  approach  to  a 
natural  pure  water  is  rain-water,  after  a  continu¬ 
ance  of  wet  weather;  but  even  this  water  always 
contains  in  100  volumes  about  2.5  volumes  of 
atmospheric  air,  with  a  trace  of  ammonia;  and  in 
point  of  fact,  it  seems  impossible  to  obtain  water 
which  does  not  contain  the  latter  ingredient,  for, 
after  two  distillations,  Professor  Miller  found 
from  1.85  to  2.38  volumes  of  air  in  100  volumes  of 
water. 

Water-budget,  a  heraldic  bear¬ 
ing  in  the  form  of  a  yoke  with 
two  pouches  of  leather  appended 
to  it,  originally  intended  to  rep¬ 
resent  the  bags  used  by  the  Cru¬ 
saders  to  convey  water  across  the 
desert,  which  were  slung  on  a 
pole,  and  carried  across  the 
shoulders. 

Water-bug,  the  popular  name 
section  of  heteropterous 
insects,  Hydrocorisce,  which 
live  almost  entirely  in 
water,  and  feed  upon  other 
aquatic  insects.  The 
Hydrocorisce  are  divided 
into  two  families,  Notonec- 
lidce,  and  Nepidce.  The 
Nepidce  are  popularly 
known  as  water  scorpions, 
from  the  form  of  their  fore¬ 
legs,  which  are  efficient  instruments  for  seizing 
their  prey.  Some  of  the  Nepidce  are  powerful 
insects,  two  or  three  inches  long. 


Water- iludget. 

of  a  tribe  or 


Water  Scorpion. 


WATERBURY. 


703 


WAYNE. 


Wa'terbnry,  a  city  of  New  Haven  county, 
Conn.,  thirty-three  miles  southwest  of  Hartford, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Naugatuck  river,  at  its 
confluence  with  Great  Brook  and  Mad  river, 
whose  falls  furnish  abundant  water-power.  It  is 
a  well-built  town,  and  has  numerous  manu¬ 
factories  of  rolled  copper,  brass,  German-silver, 
plated  ware,  lamps,  clocks,  etc.  An  immense 
watch  factory  employs  300  hands,  and  makes 
daily  600  watches,  the  parts  of  which  may  be 
changed  from  any  one  watch  to  any  other.  Pop. 
(1889),  20,300. 

Water-colors  are  painters’  colors  mixed  with 
water  and  some  adhesive  material,  as  gum  or  size 
instead  of  oil. 

Water-dog,  a  kind  of  dog,  of  which  the  poodle 
is  regarded  as  a  sub-variety.  The  head  is  rather 
large  and  round,  the  ears  long,  the  legs  rather 


Water  Spaniel. 


short,  the  general  form  compact,  the  hair  every¬ 
where  long  and  curly.  The  water  spaniel  is  the 
most  common  variety. 

Wateree',  a  river  of  the  United  States,  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  Catawba  and  Fishing  Creek 
in  North  Carolina,  runs  southeast  iuto  South 
Carolina,  where  it  unites  with  the  Congaru  to 
form  the  Santee.  Steamboats  ascend  the  Wateree 
to  Camden,  200  miles  from  the  sea. 

Waterford,  a  city,  capital  of  the  county  of  the 
same  name,  in  Ireland,  but  itself  a  county  of  a 
city,  and  a  parliamentary  borough,  is  situated  in 
N.  latitude  52°  16',  W.  longitude  7Q  8',  on  the 
River  Suir,  twelve  miles  from  the  sea.  The  pop. 
was  in  1881,  29,181. 

Water-glass,  the  soluble  silicates  of  potash  or 
soda,  or  a  mixture  of  both.  It.  is  usually  prepared 
by  boiling  silica  with  caustic  alkali  under  press¬ 
ure,  about  sixty  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  in  a 
digester.  When  pure  and  solid,  it  has  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  common  glass,  and  is  slowly  soluble  in 
boiling  water. 

Water-lily,  a  name  commonly  enough  given  to 
the  different  species  of  Nymphcea,  and  Nuphar, 


White  Water-lily  (Nymphcea  alba). 


and  also  of  Nelumbium ,  all  genera  of  the  natural 
order  Nympliceacece,  and  indeed  often  extended  to 
all  the  plants  of  that  order. 

Waterloo',  Battle  of,  the  decisive  conflict 
which  annihilated  the  power  of  Napoleon  I.,  was 
fought  June  18,  1815,  in  a  plain  about  two  miles 
from  the  village  of  Waterloo,  and  twelve  miles 
south  from  Brussels,  Germany. 

Waterloo,  a  flourishing  city  of  Black  Hawk 
county,  Iowa,  has  important  manufacturing  and 
railway  interests.  Pop.,  G,500. 

Waterloo,  the  county  seat  of  Monroe  county, 
HI.  Pop.,  2,728. 


Waterloo,  the  county  seat  of  Seneca  county, 
N.  Y.,  is  a  prosperous  manufacturing  city.  Pop., 
5,100. 

Watertown,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of 
Jefferson  county,  N.  Y.,  is  on  the  Black  river, 
eighty -six  miles  northwest  of  Utica,  and  182  from 
Albany.  It  has  manufactories  of  cotton,  woolen, 
flour,  paper,  iron  castings,  machinery,  etc.  Pop., 
12,600. — 2.  A  city  of  Wisconsin,  on  Rock  river, 
forty  miles  east-by-nortli  from  Madison.  It  has 
flouring  and  sawmills,  foundries,  and  manufactor¬ 
ies  of  agricultural  implements,  furniture,  woolen 
mills,  and  potteries.  Pop.,  9,100. — 3.  The  county 
seat  of  Codington  county,  S.  Dak.  Pop.,  3,600. 
— 4.  A  manufacturing  and  agricultural  city  of 
Middlesex  county,  Mass.  Pop.,  6,300. 

Waterville,  a  village  of  Maine,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Kennebec  river,  at  Ticonic  Falls, 
eighty-two  miles  north-northeast  from  Portland. 
Around  the  falls  are  clustered  saw-mills,  plow, 
ax,  hoe,  and  scythe  factories,  machine-shops,  tan¬ 
neries,  etc.  Pop.,  4,700. 

Watkins,  the  county  seat  of  Schuyler  county, 
N.  Y.  Pop.,  3,600. 

Watkinsvillc,  the  county  seat  of  Oconee 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  700. 

Watseka,  the  county  seat  of  Iroquois  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Watson,  the  county  seat  of  Desha  county,  Ark. 
Pop.,  130. 

Watt,  James,  mechanician,  engineer,  and  man 
of  science,  famous  as  the  improver,  and  almost 
the  inventor,  of  the  steam-engine,  was  born  at 
Greenock,  in  Scotland,  on  Jan.  19,  1736,  and  died 
Aug.  25,  1819. 

Watteau,  Antoine,  a  French  artist  noted  for 
charming  color  and  graceful  design,  was  born  at 
Valenciennes,  in  the  year  1684.  He  was  made  a 
member  of  the  French  Academy,  and  became  by 
special  favor  Peintre  de  Fetes  Oa'antes  du  Roi. 
He  died  at  Nogent,  near  Paris,  in  1721. 

Wattle-bird  (Anthochcem  carunculata) ,  an 
Australian  bird  of  the  family  of  honey-eaters 
(MelipJiagidce) . 

Wauke'gan,  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  and  the 
county  seat  of  Lake  county,  Ill  ,  on  the  west 
shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  thirty-five  miles  north 
from  Chicago,  and  fifty  miles  south  of  Mil¬ 
waukee.  Pop.  (1889),  4,115. 

Waukesha,  the  county  seat  of  Waukesha  coun¬ 
ty,  Wis.,  is  a  popular  resort  for  invalids  who  go 
there  to  drink  of  its  famous  mineral  waters. 
Pop.,  4,300. 

Waukou,  the  county  seat  of  Allamakee  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  1,425. 

Waupaca,  the  county  seat  of  Waupaca  county, 
Wis.  Pop.,  2, 000. 

Wausau,  the  county  seat  of  Marathon  county, 
Wis.,  is  a  prosperous  lumbering  and  agricultural 
city.  Pop.,  9,500. 

Wauseou,  the  county  seat  of  Fulton  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  2,100. 

Wautoma,  the  county  seat  of  Waushara 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  900. 

Waverly,  the  county  seat  of  Bremer  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  2,500. 

Waverly,  the  county  seat  of  Humphreys 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  825. 

Waverly,  the  county  seat  of  Pike  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  2,000. 

Waxahachie,  the  county  seat  of  Ellis  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  3,600. 

W ax-flowers.  An  elegant  use  is  found  for 
bees’-wax  in  the  manufacture  of  wax-flowers. 
The  wax  for  this  purpose  is  bleached  and  pre¬ 
pared  in  thin  sheets  of  various  colors,  which  are 
cut  out  into  the  shapes  for  petals  and  leaves, 
according  to  the  kind  of  flower  to  be  imitated. 
They  are  easily  made  to  adhere,  either  by  a  slight 
amount  of  heat,  or  a  little  melted  wax. 

Wax  Insect  ( Coccus  sinensis)  a  small  white 
insect,  a  native  of  China,  of  the  same  genus  with 
the  cochineal  and  kermcs  insects,  and  with  the 
scale  insects,  valuable  on  account  of  the  wax 
which  it  produces.  The  wax  is  deposited  on 
the  branches  of  trees  as  a  coating  which  re¬ 
sembles  hoar-frost.  This  is  scraped  off,  melted 
in  boiling  water,  and  strained  through  a  cloth. 

Wax-painting  is  an  art  of  great  importance, 
better  known,  however,  under  the  name  of  en¬ 
caustic  painting. 


Wax  Palm  ( Ceroxybn — or  Iriartea — andicola), 
a  lofty  palm,  found  in  the  Andes,  on  the  eastern 
borders  of  Peru,  at  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet,  and 
upward  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  grows  to 
the  height  of  160  feet,  and  on  the  cicatrices  of  the 


Wax  Palm  ( Ceroxylon  andicola). 

fallen  leaves,  a  resinous  secretion  is  produced  in 
great  abundance,  composed  of  about  two  parts  of 
yellow  resin,  and  one  of  a  kind  of  wax,  more 
brittle  than  bees’-wax.  It  is  used  by  the  inhab¬ 
itants  of  the  country  in  which  it  is  produced  for 
making  candles,  but  is  usually  mixed  with  wax 
or  tallow. 

Wax-sculpture,  consists  in  producing  a  model 
in  wax,  and  then  coating  it  with  clay  or  other 
material  in  a  soft  state;  this  is  allowed  to  harden; 
and  the  wax  is  then  melted  out  by  heat,  and  the 
molten  metal  poured  in.  A  fine  cast  of  the  wax- 
figure  is  thus  obtained;  but,  of  course,  the  wax- 
model  of  the  artist  is  lost,  after  the  first  copy  is 
taken;  hence,  such  specimens  are  highly  prized 
by  connoisseurs. 

Wax-tree  ( Vismia ),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Hypericacece. 

Waxwing  ( Bombycilla ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  Ampelidce,  or  Chatterers.  The  name  is 
derived  from  a  peculiar  character  which  the 


Bohemian  Chatterer  (Bombycilla  garrula). 
wings  exhibit;  some  of  the  secondaries  and  ter- 
tiaries  terminating  in  horny  expansions  of  the 
shaft,  resembling  small  pieces  of  red  sealing-wax. 

Waxy  Degeneration  is  a  morbid  process  in 
which  the  healthy  tissue  of  various  organs  is 
transformed  into  a  peculiar  substance,  allied  in 
some  respects  to  amyloid  compounds,  and  in 
others  to  albuminous  substances.  Organs  affected 
by  this  degeneration  have  a  certain  resemblance 
in  consistency  and  physical  character  to  wax. 
They  may  be  cut  into  portions  of  the  most  regu¬ 
lar  shape,  with  sharp  angles  and  smooth  surfaces; 
and  the  thinnest  possible  slices  may  be  removed 
by  a  sharp  knife  for  microscopical  examination. 

Way  Cross,  the  county  seat  of  Ware  county, 
Ga.,  Pop.,  2,650. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  an  American  general,  was 
born  at  Waynesborough,  Penn.,  Jan.  1,  1745.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  (1775),  he  became 
a  member  of  a  Committee  of  Safety.  He  raised  a 
regiment  of  volunteers  of  which  he  was  appointed 
Colonel,  and  sent  to  Canada,  where  he  covered  the 
retreat  of  the  provincial  forces  at  Three  Rivers. 
He  commanded  at  Ticonderoga  until  1777,  when 
he  was  made  Brigadier-General.  He  did  valuable 


WAYNE. 


704 


WELDING. 


service  in  various  battles  and  campaigns  during 
the  war,  and  at  its  conclusion  engaged  in  the  build¬ 
ing  of  roads  and  canals.  He  died  Dec.  14,  1796. 

Wayne,  the  county  seat  of  Wayne  county,  Neb. 
Pop.,  1,100. 

Wayne,  the  county  seat  of  Wayne  county,  W. 
Va.  Pop.,  275. 

Waynesborough,  the  county  seat  of  Burke 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  2,100. 

Waynesborough,  the  county  seat  of  Wayne 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  225. 

Waynesborough,  the  county  scat  of  Wayne 
county,  Tenn.  Pop.,  275. 

Waynesburg,  the  county  seat  of  Greene  county, 
Penn.  Pop.,  2,750. 

Way  lies  ville,  the  county  seat  of  Pulaski  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  220. 

Way ues ville,  the  county  seat  of  Haywood 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  750. 

Wea'sel  ( Mustela ),  a  genus  of  quadrupeds  of 
the  family  Mustelidce,  having  an  elongated  body; 


Weasel  (Musteh  vulgaiis). 


short  feet,  with  toes  quite  separate,  and  sharp 
claws;  four  molar  teeth  on  each  side  above,  and 
five  below. 

Weatherford,  the  county  seat  of  Parker  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  4,050. 

Weaver-bird  ( Ploceus ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
Finch  family  ( Fringillidce ),  of  a  group  or  sub¬ 
family  ( Ploceince ),  to  most  of  which  the  name 


Taha  Weaver-bird  ( Ploceus  taha). 


weaver-bird  is  extended.  The  name  has  refer¬ 
ence  to  the  remarkable  structure  of  the  nests  of 
these  birds,  which  are  woven  of  various  vegetable 
substances,  and  are  objects  of  great  interest. 

Weaverville,  the  county  seat  of  Trinity  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  000. 

Webster,  Daniel,  American  statesman  and 
jurist,  was  born  at  Salisbury,  N.  H.,  Jan.  18, 1782. 
He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1808  on  the  Feder¬ 
alist  ticket.  In  1822  he  was  a  member  of  the  Mas 
sachusetts  Constitutional  Convention;  and  Dec. 
22,  1822,  he  pronounced  at  Plymouth,  on  t  lie  anni¬ 
versary  of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  the  first  of 
that  remarkable  series  of  discourses,  or  orations, 
which  gave  him  the  first  rank  among  American 
orators.  In  1825  he  gave  an  oration  at  the  laying 
of  the  corner-stone  of  the  Bunker  Hill  monument; 
in  1843,  one  on  its  completion.  In  182(5  he  pro¬ 
nounced  the  eulogy  of  John  Adams  and  Thomas 
Jefferson,  two  fathers  and  Presidents  of  the  Ameri¬ 
can  Republic,  who  died  on  the  same  semi-centenary 
anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence; 
and  in  1851,  a  patriotic  discourse  on  the  laying  of 
the  corner-stone  of  the  Capitol  at  Washington.  In 
1822  he  was  again  elected  to  Congress  from  Boston. 
In  1826  lie  was  chosen  Senator;  and  in  1830  rose  to 
the  height  of  his  forensic  renown  in  a  speech  of 
two  days,  in  the  debate  with  Mr.  Hayne,  of  South 
Carolina,  on  the  right  of  nullification.  In  1841  he 
accepted  the  post  of  Secretary  of  State  in  the 
cabinet  of  General  Harrison,  and  remained  in  that 
of  Mr.  Tyler,  who,  as  Vice-President,  succeeded 
on  the  death  of  the  President,  until  1843.  In  1844 
he  aspired  to  the  presidency,  but  the  choice  of  his 
party  fell  upon  Mr.  Clay,  whom  he  supported,  but 
unsuccessfully.  He  was  chosen  Senator  for  Mas- 


sachusett-,  and  again,  in  1848,  was  disappointed 
of  the  presidential  nomination  by  the  popular 
enthusiasm  for  General  Taylor.  In  1850  he  became 
again  Secretary  of  State  in  the  Cabinet  of  Mr.  Fill¬ 
more;  and  in  1852  was  once  more  disappointed  at 
not  receiving  the  nomination  to  the  presidency, 
which  was  given  to  General  Scott.  He  died  Oct. 
24,  1852.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  orators  and 
most  profound  jurists  this  country  ever  produced. 

Webster,  Noaii,  American  author  and  philolo¬ 
gist,  was  bom  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  Oct.  16,  1758. 
He  was  a  judge,  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature, 
and  one  of  the  founders  of  Amherst  College;  but 
his  greatest  work,  and  that  on  which  his  fame 
rests,  is  his  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language.  He 
died  May  28,  1843. 

Webster,  the  name  of  three  towns  in  the  United 
States,  as  follows: — 1.  The  county  seat  of  Day 
county,  S.  Dak.  Pop.,  550. — 2.  The  county  seat  of 
Jackson  county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  325. — 3.  An  import¬ 
ant  manufact  uring  city  of  Worcester  county,  Mass. 
Pop.,  6,275. 

Webster  City,  the  county  seat  of  Hamilton 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  3,000. 

Wedge,  one  of  the  mechanical  powers,  and  in 
principle  a  modification  of  the  inclined  plane.  The 
power  is  applied  by  pressure,  or  more  generally  by 
percussion,  to  the  back,  thus  forcing  the  edge  for¬ 
ward.  The  edge  is  employed  for  such  purposes 
as  the  splitting  of  wood,  the  fastening  firmly  of 
the  handle  of  an  axe,  the  raising  of  a  ship  in  a  dry 
dock.  The  best  and  simplest  illustrations  of  the 
single  wedge  arc  axes,  nails,  plugs,  planes,  chisels, 
needles,  and  all  sharp-pointed  instruments. 

Wedotvee,  the  county  seat  of  Randolph  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  400. 

Wednesday,  the  fourth  day  of  the  week,  the 
Dies  Mercurii  of  the  Romans,  the  Miltwoch  (mid¬ 
week)  of  the  modern  Germans.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  northern  mythology,  and  signi¬ 
fies  Woden’s  or  Odin’s  day.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
form  was  Wodanes  dag,  the  old  German  Wuota- 
nes  tac.  The  Swedish  and  Danish  is  Onsdag. 

Wee 'bo,  or  Ibo,  a  small  island  off  the  coast  of 
Mozambique,  belonging  to  the  Portuguese,  about 
150  miles  south  of  Cape  Delgado. 

Weed,  TnuRLow,  American  journalist,  was 
bom  at  Cairo,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  15,  1797,  and  died 
Nov.  22,  1882.  He  was  a  vigorous  and  able 
writer,  a  prominent  anti-Masonic  leader,  a  shrewd 
and  successful  manager  for  the  Whig  and  after¬ 
ward  for  the  Republican  party. 

Weeping  Trees  are  trees  with  remarkably 
elongated  and  pendulous  branchlets,  generally 


mere  varieties  of  species  which  ordinarily  have  a 
different  habit,  as  the  weeping  birch,  weeping 
ash,  and  weeping  willow,  which  are  varieties  of 
the  common  birch,  common  ash,  and  white 
willow. 

Weed  (. Lymphangeitis ),  or  a  Suot  of  Grease, 


consists  in  inflammation  of  the  large  absorbent 
glands  and  vessels  situated  between  the  horse’s 
thighs  .Rarely,  it  attacks  the  corresponding 
structures  between  the  fore  legs.  It  occurs  in 
round-limbed,  indifferently  bred,  hard-wrought 
horses;  appears  particularly  after  a  day  or  two  of 
rest,  after  exposure  to  cold,  or  during  imperfect 
action  of  the  bowels;  and  is  said  to  depend  upon 
more  blood  being  produced  than  is  required  to 
replace  the  natural  waste  of  the  body.  It  is 
identified  by  lameness,  tenderness  in  the  groin, 
and  fever.  The  horse  must  be  bled,  have  a  full 
dose  of  aloes,  and  when  the  pain  and  tenderness 
are  great,  ten  drops  of  tincture  of  aconite  in 
water  every  two  hours;  the  legs  should  be  bathed 
for  at  least  six  or  eight  hours  continuously  in  hot 
water,  and  then  rubbed  dry  and  kept  warm.  The 
subsequent  swelling  will  be  reduced  by  saline 
draughts,  diuretics,  rubbing  of  the  leg,  and  exer¬ 
cise. 

Weever,  or  Sting-fish  (Trachinus),  a  genus  of 
acanthopterous  fishes  of  the  family  Uranoscopidce, 
also  called  Trachinidce. 

W  ee'vil  ( Gureulio ),  a  Linnsean  genus  of  insects, 
now  forming  the  tribe  Rhyncliophora,  of  the  order 
Coleoptera  and  section  Tetramera. 

Weighing-machines.  The  great  majority  of 
weighing  machines  are  founded  upon  the  princi¬ 
ple  of  the  lever,  the  chief  exceptions  being  the 
various  forms  of  the  spring-balance,  to  which 
might  also  be  added  (though  in  such  cases  the 
term  machine  is  quite  inapplicable)  some  of  the 
methods  employed  to  determine  specific  grav¬ 
ity,  time  of  oscillation,  etc.  These  machines  are 


variously  constructed,  the  modifications  having 
reference  either  to  convenience  of  use,  or  to  the 
species  or  weight  of  the  goods  to  be  weighed;  an 
example  is  the  equal-armed  balance,  made  in  an 
inverted  manner,  with  the  scales  above,  and  the 
rods  which  connect  the  scales  with  the  beam  so 
united  as  to  preserve  their  perpendicularity 
during  oscillation. 

Weir,  or  Wear,  called  also  a  dam,  a  structure 
placed  across  a  river  or  stream,  for  the  purpose 
either  of  diverting  the  water  into  a  mill-lade,  of 
raising  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  river,  and 
thereby  increasing  its  depth  for  the  purpose  of 
navigation,  or  of  providing  the  means  of  catch¬ 
ing  fisli.  There  is  also  the  waste-weir,  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing  a  reservoir  embankment 
being  overtopped  by  floods;  and  the  gauge-weir, 
for  the  purpose  of  computing  the  quantity  of 
water  flowing  over  it,  from  a  measurement  of  the 
difference  of  level  between  the  crest  of  the  weir 
and  the  surface  of  the  still  water  above  it.  The 
word  is  also  sometimes  used,  though  perhaps  not 
quite  correctly,  to  denote  a  training-wall  or  other 
structure  parallel  with  the  general  line  of  a  river, 
for  the  purpose  of  reme¬ 
dying  or  preventing  loops 
or  sinuosities. 

Weiser,  the  county  seat 
of  Washington  county, 

Idaho.  Pop.,  450. 

Weld.  or  Woold,  also 
called  Dyer’s  Rocket, 

Dyer’s  Weed,  and  Yel¬ 
low  Weed  (Reseda  Lute- 
ola),  is  a  plant  of  the  same 
genus  with  Mignonette. 

It  is  used  for  dyeing.  In 
order  that  it  may  yield  a 
good  dye,  it  requires  to  be 
cultivated  with  care. 

Weld'ing,  the  process 
by  which  some  substances 
are  united  together  in  a 
softened  state.  It  is  gen¬ 
erally  applied  to  such 
metals  as  malleable  iron,  Dyer’s  Rocket  ( Reseda 
two  pieces  of  which,  luteola). 

heated  to  redness,  may  be  made  to  unite  by  ap¬ 
plying  them  together  and  beating  with  a  ham¬ 
mer.  Other  substances,  such  as  horn  and  tortoise 


WELLINGTON. 


705 


WESTMINSTER. 


shell,  can  be  welded  by  first  making  separate 
pieces  soft  by  heat,  and  pressing  them  together, 
which  causes  so  intimate  a  union  that  no  traces 
of  the  junction  remain  after  cooling. 

Wellington,  Arthur  Wellesley,  Duke  of, 
K.  G.,  one  of  England’s  greatest  generals,  was 
born  May  1,  1769,  at  Dangan  Castle,  Ireland,  and 
died  Sept.  14,  1852.  He  distinguished  himself  in 
many  battles  and  campaigns,  but  his  fame  rests 
chiefly  on  his  defeat  of  Napoleon  at  Waterloo, 
June  18,  1815. 

Wellington,  the  county  seat  of  Sumner  county, 
Kan.,  is  an  important  agricultural  and  manufact¬ 
uring  city.  Pop.,  7,157. 

Wellingto'nia,  the  name  given  by  Lindley  to 
a  genus  including  only  one  species,  the  W.  gi- 
gantea,  the  greatest  of  all  pines.  American  bot¬ 


Wellinstonia  gigantea:  The  Three  Graces, 

(Copied  from  Hutchin’s  Scenes  of  Wonder  in  California). 

anists,  however,  refer  the  Wellingtonia  to  the 
genus  Sequoia,  which  contains  two  species,  S. 
sempervirens  and  S.  gigantea. 

Wellsborougli,  the  county  seat  of  Tioga 
county,  Penn.  Pop.,  2,228. 

Wellsburg,  the  county  seat  of  Brooke  county, 
W.  Va.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Welsh  Onion,  or  Cibol  ( Allium  fistulomm),  a 
perennial  plant,  a  native  of  Siberia.  It  has  fistu- 
lar  leaves  and  no  bulb.  Its  leaves  appear  very 
early  in  spring,  and  are  then  used  in  soups  and 
salads.  Its  flavor  more  resembles  that  of  garlic 
than  of  the  onion. 

We'ner,  Lake,  the  largest  lake  in  the  Scandi 
navian  peninsula,  and  after  the  Lakes  Lagoda  and 
Onega  in  Russia,  the  largest  in  Europe,  is  150 
miles  west-soutliwest  of  Stockholm,  and  about 
thirty  miles  inland  from  the  Cattegat.  It  is  over  90 
miles  in  length,  and  varies  from  15  to  48  miles  in 
breadth.  Area,  2,005  square  miles. 

Wens  are  encysted  tumors,  much  more  com¬ 
mon  on  the  scalp  than  in  any  other  situation, 
though  occasionally  observed  on  the  face,  shoul¬ 
ders,  etc.,  and  consisting  of  obstructed  sebaceous 
glands,  which  enlarge  by  the  internal  pressure  of 
their  accumulated  secretions.  The  closed  orifice 
may  be  often  noticed  in  the  form  of  a  small  dark 
point,  and  in  that  case  the  duct  may  sometimes  be 
gradually  enlarged  by  the  gentle  introduction  of 
a  probe  or  director,  and  its  contents  pressed  out. 
By  this  treatment,  they  may,  at  all  e\ents,  be 
kept  from  being  unsightly,  and  will  sometimes 
shrivel  up  and  disappear.  If  this  treatment  fail, 
and  the  patient  finds  the  tumor  so  annoying  that 
he  insists  upon  its  removal,  it  must  be  extermin¬ 
ated  with  caustic  or  the  knife.  In  consequence  of 
the  well-known  dangers  (especially  erysipelas) 
that  frequently  follow  cutting  operations  of  the 
scalp,  the  caustic  treatment  is  generally  prefera¬ 
ble.  The  most  prominent  part  of  the  wen  must 
be  thoroughly  cauterized  with  nitric  acid  or  pot¬ 
ash,  which  will  lead  to  the  formation  and  separa¬ 
tion  of  a  slough,  which  will  lay  open  the  tumor, 


which  may  then  be  left  to  empty  itself  and 
wither,  or  may  be  emptied  by  pressure,  and  .cau¬ 
terized  within.  As  a  general  rule,  wens  are 
better  left  alone,  unless  they  can  be  emptied  by 
simple  pressure,  as  severe  operations  on  them  are 
frequently  attended  with  danger. 

Wen'tletrap  ( Scalaria ),  a  genus  of  gasteropo- 
dous  mollusks,  of  the  family  Turritellidce.  The 
shell  is  spiral,  with  mapy  whorls;  the  whorls 
deeply  divided,  and  not  always  close  together, 
crossed  by  remarkably  elevated  ribs,  the  aper- 


Wentletrap  ( Scalaria  pretiosa). 

ture  round  and  rather  small.  The  animal  is 
furnished  with  a  proboscis,  and  has  the  eyes 
placed  on  an  external  convexity,  the  foot  short 
and  oval.  About  one  hundred  species  of  this 
genus  are  known. 

Wentworth,  the  county  seat  of  Rockingham 
county,  N. C.  Pop.,  280. 

We  'sel,  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  Prussia,  on 
the  Rhine,  thirty-two  miles  north-northwest  of 
Diisseldorf.  The  citadel  is  defended  by  about 
4,500  men.  Pop.  (1880),  inclusive  of  garrison, 
20,593. 

We  'ser  (Lat.  Visurgis),  a  river  of  Germany, 
formed  out  of  the  Werra,  which  rises  in  the 
Tliuringer-wakl,  and  the  Fulda,  rising  in  the 
Rhongebirge,  on  the  frontiers  of  Prussia  and 
Bavaria.  These  streams,  after  the  northern 
course,  unite  at  Miinden,  in  Hanover;  and  the 
united  stream  flows  north  through  Prussia,  till, 
passing  Bremen,  it  forms  for  about  forty  miles 
the  boundary  between  Oldenburg  and  Prussia, 
and  enters  the  North  Sea  by  a  wide  but  shallow 
estuary,  much  interrupted  by  sand.  Entire 
length,  260  miles.  It  communicates  with  the 
Elbe  by  a  navigable  canal . 

Wesley,  John,  the  founder  of  the  Methodists, 
was  born  at  Epworth,  in  Lincolnshire,  England, 
June  17,  1703.  In  1735,  John  Wesley  was 
induced  to  go  out  to  Georgia  with  General  Ogle¬ 
thorpe,  to  preach  to  the  Indians  and  colonists. 
In  1752,  he  married  in  London  a  widow  with 
four  children,  but  the  marriage  proved  an 
unhappy  one,  and  a  separation  ensued.  He  died 
in  London,  March  2,  1791,  in  the  eighty-eighth 
year  of  his  age. — Charles  Wesley,  his  younger 
brother,  born  at  Epworth,  Dec.  18,  1708,  was 
associated  with  him  in  the  whole  Methodist  move¬ 
ment.  He  is  the  author  of  a  great  number  of 
hymns  in  use  among  the  Methodists;  some  of 
them  among  the  best  and  most  admired  hymns 
in  the  English  language. 

Wessington  Springs,  a  growing  town  in 
Jerauld  county,  S.  Dak.  Pop.,  349. 

West  Bay  City,  an  important  city  in  Bay 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  9,500. 

West  Bend,  the  county  seat  of  Washington 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  1,500. 

West,  Benjamin,  American  painter,  was  born 
at  Springfield,  Penn.,  Oct.  10,  1738,  of  Quaker 
parentage,  and  with  lack  of  opportunity  or 
encouragement,  surprised  his  friends  by  his  skill 
in  drawing  at  the  age  of  seven  years,  and  at  nine 
painted  a  picture  in  water-colors,  which  in  some 
points,  he  declared  in  after-life,  he  had  never  sur¬ 
passed.  His  first  colors  were  made  from  leaves, 
berries,  etc.,  and  his  brushes  stolen  from  a  cat’s 
tail.  At  eighteen  he  was  painting  portraits  in 
Philadelphia,  and  later  at  New  York,  where,  in 
1760,  he  was  aided  by  some  generous  merchants 
to  go  and  pursue  liis  studies  in  Italy.  At  Rome, 
he  was  patronized  by  Lord  Grantham,  whose 
portrait  he  painted,  became  the  friend  of  Mengs, 
and,  as  the  first  American  artist  ever  seen  in  Italy, 


attracted  much  attention.  He  painted  his  Cimon 
and  lphigenia  and  Angelica  and  Medora,  and 
was  elected  member  of  the  Academies  of  Flor¬ 
ence,  Bologna,  and  Parma.  In  1763,  visiting 
England  on  his  way  to  America,  he  was  induced 
to  remain  in  London,  and  in  1765  married  Eliza 
Shewell,  to  whom  he  had  been  engaged  before 
leaving  America.  His  Agrippina  Landing  with 
the  Ashes  of  Germanicus  attracted  the  attention 
of  George  III.,  who  was  his  steady  friend  and 
patron  for  forty  years,  during  which  time  he 
sketched  or  painted  400  pictures.  His  Death  of 
General  Wolfe,  painted  in  the  costume  of  the 
period,  against  the  advice  of  all  the  most  distin¬ 
guished  painters,  effected  a  revolution  in  historic 
art.  For  the  king,  he  painted  a  series  of  twenty- 
eight  religious  pictures  for  Windsor  Castle.  He 
died  in  London,  March  11,  1820,  and  was  buried 
with  great  pomp  at  St.  Paul’s  Cathedral. 

West  Branch,  the  county  seat  of  Ogemaw 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  850. 

West'chester,  a  beautiful  town,  in  a  rich 
agricultural  district  of  Pennsylvania,  twenty- 
three  miles  west  of  Philadelphia,  near  the  banks 
of  the  Brandywine.  Pop.  (1889),  8,200. 

West'ern  Australia,  a  British  colony,  and 
the  western  section  of  the  great  island-continent 
of  Australia,  embraces  the  whole  of  that  island 
west  of  the  129th  meridian.  Its  extreme  length 
from  northeast  to  southwest  is  1,370  miles,  its 
average  breadth  is  650  miles,  its  area  is  978,300 
square  miles.  Pop.  (1881),  31,000. 

Westfield,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Hampden 
county,  Mass.  Pop.,  8,975. 

West  Liberty,  the  county  seat  of  Morgan 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  525. 

Westminster,  the  county  seat  of  Carroll 
county,  Md.  Pop.,  3,375. 

Westminster,  The  City  and  Liberty  of, 
now  forms  part  of  London.  It  is  bounded  by 
Temple  Bar  on  the  east,  the  Thames  on  the  south, 
Chelsea  and  Kensington  on  the  west,  and  Maryle- 
bone  on  the  north.  "The  early  history  of  West¬ 
minster  is  that  of  the  abbey,  still  the  most 
interesting  of  its  public  buildings.  In  early  times, 
that  part  of  Westminster  which  adjoins  the 
Thames  was  surrounded  by  a  branch  of  the 
river,  so  as  to  form  an  island  called  Thorney 
Island,  from  its  being  covered  with  brushwood. 
The  first  edifice  erected  on  the  site,  of  which  we 
have  any  certain  account,  was  one  built  of  stone 
by  Edward  the  Confessor  in  1065.  The  Pyx 
House,  a  low  apartment,  110  feet  long  by  ”80 
feet  wide,  vaulted  and  divided  by  a  central  range 
of  eight  plain  pillars  with  simple  capitals,  is  nearly 
all  that  remains  of  it.  The  principal  parts  of  the 
existing  abbey  were  built  by  Henry  III.  In  1220 
he  erected  a  chapel  dedicated  to  the  Virgin,  and 
a  quarter  of  a  century  later  he  took  down  the  old 
abbey  of  the  Confessor,  and  erected  the  existing 
choir  and  transepts,  and  the  chapel  of  Edward 
the  Confessor.  The  remainder  of  the  building 
was  completed  under  the  abbots,  the  western 
parts  of  the  nave  and  aisles  having  been  erected 
between  1340  and  1483.  The  west  front  and  its 
great  window  were  the  work  of  Richard  III.  and 
Henry  VII.  The  latter  pulled  down  the  chapel  to 
the  Virgin,  erected  by  Henry  III.  at  the  east  end  of 
the  church,  and  built  the  chapel  known  as  Henry 
VII. ’s  chapel.  This  completed  the  interior  of 
the  abbey  as  it  now  stands;  the  only  important 
addition  made  since  then  having  been  the  upper 
parts  of  the  two  western  towers,  which  were  the 
work  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  The  whole  build¬ 
ing  forms  a  cross.  Its  extreme  length,  including 
Henry  VII. ’s  chapel,  is  511  feet;  its  width  across 
the  transepts  is  203  feet.  The  width  of  the  nave 
and  aisles  is  79  feet;  of  the  choir,  38  feet;  and  of 
Henry  VII. ’s  chapel,  70  feet.  The  height  of 
the  roof  is  102  feet.  In  the  east  aisle  of  the 
southern  transept  is  the  “  Poets’  Corner,”  where 
many  of  the  most  eminent  British  poets  have 
been  buried.  There  monuments  are  erected  to 
Chaucer,  Beaumont,  Drayton,  Cowley,  Dryden, 

I  Milton,  Gray,  Prior,  Shakespeare,  Thomsen, 

I  Gay,  Goldsmith,  Addison,  and  Ben  Jonson.  In 
the  north  transept  are  the  monuments  of  Pitt, 

1  Fox,  Chatham,  Canning,  and  Wilberforce.  Else¬ 
where  are  the  monuments  of  the  great  engineers 
and  inventors,  Telford,  Watt,  and  Stephenson. 
William  Rufus,  in  1097,  erected  a  palace 
I  between  the  abbey  and  the  Thames.  Its  chief 


46 


WESTMORELAND. 


70  ( 


WHEAT. 


apartment  was  a  bunqueting-hall,  which,  becom¬ 
ing  ruinous  in  the  time  of  Richard  II.,  lie 
pulled  down,  and  erected  in  1397-1399,  on  the 
same  site,  and  indeed  on  the  same  foundations, 
the  great  hall  which  still  exists.  It  is  90  feet 
high,  and  290  feet  long,  by  68  feet  wide  inter¬ 
nally,  and  is  roofed  by  thirteen  great  ribs  of 
timber.  The  roof  of  Westminster  Hall  is  the 
finest  specimen  of  the  purely  English  art  of  form¬ 
ing  a  Gothic  roof  of  wood.  With  the  exception, 
perhaps,  of  the  Hall  of  Justice  at  Padua,  it  is  the 
largest  roof  in  Europe  unsupported  by  pillars. 
The  old  Houses  of  Parliament  which  adjoined  the 
hall,  and  like  it  lay  between  the  abbey  and  the 
Thames,  were  burned  to  the  ground  in'  1834.  It 
was  then  determined  to  erect  a  new  building  on  the 
same  site,  but  on  a  much  grander  scale.  The 
designs  of  Sir  Charles  Barry  for  “  the  new  Palace 
of  Westminster  ”  were  selected  as  the  best,  and 
the  work  was  begun  in  1840.  The  building  is  the 
most  magnificent  erected  in  England  for  many 
centuries.  It  may  be  roughly  said  to  form  a 
parallelogram,  900  feet  long  by  300  feet  in  width. 
The  principal  rooms  are  the  House  of  Lords  and 
the  House  of  Commons,  which  occupy  the  center 
of  the  building,  and  run  on  the  line  of  its  greatest 
length.  The  state  entrance  of  the  queen  is  at  the 
southwestern  extremity,  and  is,  of  course,  in 
direct  communication  with  the  royal  apartments. 
The  building  is  surmounted  by  lofty  spires  and 
towers.  In  the  center,  above  tlie  Octagon  Hall, 
rises  the  central  tower,  300  feet  high.  At  each 
corner  there  are  towers  ;  at  the  southwest  the 
Victoria  Tower,  346  feet  high  ;  at  the  northwest 
the  clock  tower,  surmounted  by  a  belfry  spire  320 
feet  high.  The  clock  has  four  faces,  each  thirty 
feet  in  diameter;  and  it  strikes  the  hours  on  a  bell 
weighing  nine  tons,  and  known  as  Big  Ben. 

West 'moreland,  a  county  in  the  Northwest  of 
England,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Yorkshire,  "on 
the  south  and  west  by  Lancashire,  and  on  the 
north  by  Cumberland  and  Durham.  Area, 
500,906  acres.  Pop.  (1881),  64,184.  Westmore¬ 
land  is  very  mountainous,  the  chief  summit  being 
Ilelvellyn  (3,055  feet),  partly  in  Cumberland. 

Westmoreland,  the  county  seat  of  Potta¬ 
watomie  county,  Kan.  Pop.,  700. 

Weston,  the  county  seat  of  Lewis  county,  W. 
Va.  Pop.,  2,100. 

West'plialia,  a  province  of  Prussia,  lies 
between  Holland,  Hanover,  Brunswick,  Hessen- 
Nassau,  and  the  Rhine  Province.  Its  area  is 
7,770  square  miles,  with  a  pop.  of  1,907,195. 

West plialia.  Treaty  of,  also  known  as  the 
Treaty  of  Munster  was  concluded  at  Munster 
and  Osnabruck  (towns  in  the  circle  of  Westphalia) 
in  1648,  and  in  putting  an  end  to  the  Thirty 
Years’  War,  restored  tranquillity  to  Germany, 
established  a  new  system  of  political  equilibrium 
in  Europe,  and  became  the  basis  of  ail  subsequent 
treaties  down  till  the  French  Revolution. 

West  Plains,  the  county  seatof  Howell  county, 
Mo.  Pop.,  1,550. 

West  Point,  a  town  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Hudson  river,  in  Orange  county,  N.  Y.,  sixty 
miles  above  New  York  City.  Pop.,  1,200.  It  is 
the  seat  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy, 
which  was  established  in  1794.  The  officers  of 
the  Academy  are  a  superintendent  with  the  rank 
of  colonel,  with  five  officers  constituting  his  staff; 
the  commandant  of  cadets,  and  instructor  of 
artillery,  cavalry,  and  infantry  tactics,  with  six 
assistants;  the  professor  of  mathematics,  with 
eight  assistants;  the  professor  of  drawing,  with 
two  assistants;  the  professor  of  chemistry,  miner¬ 
alogy,  and  geology,  with  two  assistants;  the  pro¬ 
fessor  of  the  Spanish  language,  with  two  assist¬ 
ants;  the  professor  of  natural  and  experimental 
philosophy,  with  four  assistants;  the  professor  of 
the  French  language,  with  four  assistants;  the 
professor  of  military  and  civil  engineering,  with 
two  assistants;  the  professor  of  law;  the  chaplain 
and  professor  of  ethics;  the  instructor  of  practical 
military  engineering,  etc.,  with  one  assistant;  the 
instructor  of  ordnance  and  gunnery,  with  one 
assistant,  and  the  sword  master;  total  51.  Cadets 
are  admitted  between  the  ages  of  seventeen  and 
twenty-one  years,  and  the  number  authorized  by 
law  is  one  from  each  Congressional  district,  each 
Territory,  and  one  from  the  District  of  Columbia, 
in  each  year.  Ten  are  also  annually  appointed 
at  large.  The  pay  of  a  cadet  is  f 500  a  year,  and 


one  ration.  The  course  of  study  occupies  four 
years.  On  graduation  the  cadet  is  commissioned 
a  second  lieutenant  in  the  engineers,  ordnance, 
artillery,  infantry,  or  cavalry,  according  to  the 
proficiency  attained  in  his  studies.  In  some  cases, 
however,  cadets  who  have  been  graduated  with 
distinguished  honors  are  allowed  to  choose  the 
department  to  which  they  shall  be  appointed. 

West  Point,  the  county  seat  of  Clay  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  2,600. 

West  Point,  the  county  seat  of  Cuming  county, 
Neb.  Pop.,  1,700. 

West  Troy,  a  town  of  New  York,  on  the  Hud¬ 
son,  opposite  Troy.  It  has  a  lumber  trade,  and 
various  manufactures;  the  IVatervliet  National 
Arsenal  is  in  the  center  of  the  village,  Pop.  (1889), 
13,000. 

West  Union,  the  county  seat  of  Adams  county, 
Ohio.  Pop.,  1,100. 

West  Union,  the  county  seat  of  Doddridge 
county,  W.  Va.  Pop.,  1,517. 

West  Union,  the  county  seat  of  Fayette 
county,  Iowa.  Pop.,  1,793. 

Westville,  the  county  seat  of  Simpson  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  350. 

Wet'terliorn  (Peak  of  Tempests),  a  lofty 
mountain  of  the  Bernese  Oberland,  Switzerland, 
on  the  east  side  of  the  Grindelwald,  and  about  ten 
miles  southeast  of  the  Lake  of  Brienz.  From  the 
path  by  which  it  is  ascended,  it  rises  in  one  vast 
precipice  of  alpine  limestone.  The  three  peaks  of 
the  Wetterhorn  are  respectively  12,149,  12,166, 
and  12,107  feet  high. 

Wetumpka,  the  county  seat  of  Elmore  county, 
Ala.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Wexford,  capital  of  the  Irish  county  of  that 
name,  a  seaport  and  parliamentary  and  municipal 
burgh,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the  River 
Slaney,  seventy-four  miles  south  from  Dublin, 
with  which  it  communicates  bv  the  Wicklow, 
Wexford  &  Waterford  Railway,  now  completed. 
The  pop.  in  1881  was  12,163. 

Wey ’mouth,  a  township  of  Massachusetts,  on 
Boston  Harbor,  twelve  miles  south-southeast  of 
Boston,  on  South  Shore  Railway,  with  large  fac¬ 
tories  of  nails,  boots  and  shoes,  etc.  Pop.  (1889), 
10,900. 

Whale,  the  popular  name  of  the  larger  ceta¬ 
ceans,  particularly  of  all  those  belonging  to  the 
families  Balamidce  and  Physeteridw,  or  (Jatodon- 
ticlcB.  In  the  Balcenidce,  the  head  is  of  enormous 
size,  as  in  the  Catodonlulw,  but  is  entirely  desti¬ 
tute  of  teelh,  instead  of  which,  the  palate  is  fur¬ 
nished  with  an  apparatus  of  baleen,  or  whalebone, 
for  the  purpose  of  straining  out  of  the  water  the 


Jaws  of  Greenland  Whale,  showing  the  Baleen. 

small  crustaceans  and  acaieplne,  which  form  the 
food  of  these  whales.  Rudiments  of  teeth,  how¬ 
ever — dental  pulps — appear  in  the  foetus  of  the 
whale,  sixty  or  seventy  on  each  side  of  each 
jaw;  but  they  are  re-absorbed  into  the  sys¬ 
tem,  and  the  plates  of  whalebone  are  not  pro¬ 
duced  from  them,  but  from  the  integuments. 
The  tongne  is  a  soft,  thick  mass,  not  extending 
beyond  the  back  of  the  mouth.  The  gullet  of 
whales  is  very  narrow;  it  is  said  not  to  be  more 
than  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter  even  in  a  large 
whale,  so  that  only  very  small  animals  can  pass 
through  it.  The  head  of  whales  occupies  from  a 
third  to  a  fourth  of  the  whole  length.  The  skull 
is  unsymmetrical,  the  right  side  being  larger  than 
the  left.  The  flesh  is  red,  firm,  and  coarse.  The 
skin  is  naked,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  bristles 
about  the  jaws,  and  its  surface  is  moistened  by  an 
oily  fluid.  The  lower  surface  of  the  true  skin 
extends  into  a  thick  layer  of  blubber,  and  open 
network  of  fibers  in  which  fat  isheld.  The  blub¬ 
ber  is  from  a  foot  to  two  feet  in  thickness,  the 
whole  mass  in  a  large  whale  sometimes  weigh¬ 
ing  over  thirty  tons,  and  serves  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  animal  warm,  as  well  as  of  making 


the  specific  gravity  of  the  whole  body  much 
lighter  than  it  would  otherwise  be,  and  of  resist¬ 
ing  the  pressure  of  the  water  in  the  great  depths 
to  which  it  often  descends.  The  skin  of  whales  is 
always  infested  with  parasites;  mollusks  adhere  to 
it;  certain  kinds  of  cirrliopods  burrow  and  live 
in  it;  and  crustaceans,  such  as  the  whale-louse, 
attach  themselves  to  it ,  and  feed  upon  it.  Import  ’- 
ant  as  the  whale  is  to  civilized  man,  both  for  the 
oil  and  the  whalebone  which  it  yields,  it  is  still 
more  important  to  the  rude  natives  of  Arctic  re¬ 
gions,  as  the  Esquimaux  and  Greenlanders,  who 
use  its  oil  for  food  as  well  as  for  burning,  and  to 
whom  its  flesh  also  is  a  chief  article  of  food; 
while  its  bones  and  baleen  are  used  for  making 
tents,  sledges,  boats,  harpoons,  and  spears;  the 
sinews  supply  a  substitute  for  twine  or  thread; 
and  the  membranes  are  used  instead  of  glass  for 
windows.  Before  the  introduction  of  tlie  bomb- 
lance,  there  was  no  essential  difference  in  the  way 
in  which  the  capture  of  whales  was  prosecuted 
by  the  rudest  tribes  and  the  most  civilized  nations. 
The  whale-fishers  approached  the  whale  in  boats, 
and  attacked  it  by  harpoons  to  which  lines  were 
affixed,  following  up  and  repeating  the  attack, 
until  its  strength  was  exhausted,  taking  ad  van 
tage  of  the  necessity  which  it  experiences  of  com¬ 
ing  at  intervals  to  the  surface  to  breathe,  and 
finally  killing  it  with  lances,  which  were  thrust 
into  the  most  vital  parts.  Bomb-lances  are  now 
used  almost  exclusively  in  whaling. 

Whale'bone.  The  baleen  plates,  which  take 
the  place  of  teeth  in  the  mouths  of  the  baleen 
whales,  constitute  the  whalebone  of  commerce. 
They  vary  in  length  from  a  few  inches  up  to  ten, 
and  even  in  rare  instances  to  twelve  feet.  Their 
chemical  constitution  is  albumen  hardened  by  a 
small  proportion  of  phosphate  of  lime.  Their 
color  is  usually  of  a  bluish  black,  but  in  some  spe¬ 
cies  they  are  striped  longitudinally  with  bands  of 
a  whitish  color. 

Wliale-louse  ( Cyavms ),  a  genus  of  Crusta  c " , 
of  the  order  Lcemodipodtr ,  having  the  body  short 
and  rather  broad;  the  legs 
short  and  stout;  seven  pair 
of  legs;  the  first  pair  more 
slender  than  the  rest;  the 
first,  second,  fifth,  s  i  x  t  li, 
and  seventh  pair,  furnished 
with  sharp  hooked  claws,  the 
third  and  fourth  not  termin¬ 
ating  in  claws,  but  in  a  long 
almost  cylindrical  joint.  All 
the  species  are  parasitic  on 
Cetacea,  attaching  t  li  e  m  - 
selves  to  the  skin  by  means 
of  their  claws. 

Wharton,  the  county  seat  of  Wharton  county, 
Tex.  Pop.,  475. 

Whatcom,  the  county  seat  of  Whatcom  county, 
Wash.  Pop.,  600. 

Wheat,  the  most  valuable  and,  next  to  maize, 
the  most  productive  of  all  the  cereal  grasses.  The 
genus  Triticum,  of  which  the  species  are  popularly 
known  either  as  wheat  or  wheat-grass,  is  distin¬ 
guished  by  a  spike  with  many-flowered  spikelets, 
without  stalks,  and  seated  one  on  each  notch  of 
the  racliis,  their  sides  directed  to  theracliis,  wh’di 
is  zigzag;  and  two  glumes,  of  which  the  lower  is 
either  awned  or  awnless;  the  outer  palea  of  each 
floret  having  at  the  top  a  notch,  in  the  center  of 
which  is  the  terminal  point,  sometimes  prolonged 
into  an  awn,  or  in  some  species,  with  many  florets 
tapering  into  an  awn  without  a  notch.  The  native 
country  of  the  cultivated  wheat  has  generally 
been  supposed  to  be  the  central  part  of  Asia;  but 
a  discovery  was  made  not  many  years  ago  by  M. 
Fabre  of  Agde,  in  the  South  of  France,  that  the 
jBuilops  ovata,  a  grass  of  the  regions  near  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  of  the  West  of  Asia, 
becomes  transformed  by  cultivation  into  wheat. 
Wheat  has  been  cultivated  from  the  earliest  ages, 
and  was  a  chief  crop  in  ancient  Egypt  and  Pal¬ 
estine,  as  it  still  is  in  all  the  temperate  parts  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  It  is  cultivated  toacon- 
siderable  extent  in  the  North  of  India.  In  North 
America,  it  is  very  extensively  cultivated,  and 
many  parts  of  the  United  States  and  British 
provinces  are  admirably  adapted  to  it.  Wide 
regions  of  South  America  are  equally  suitable, 
and  wheat  of  the  finest  quality  is  produced  in 
Australia.  In  the  torrid  zone  wheat  does  not 


WHEAT-EAR. 


707 


WHIST. 


succeed,  except  in  elevated  situations;  but  it 
nowhere  succeeds  better  than  in  sub-tropical 
regions,  although  it  is  a  hardy  plant,  and  when 
covered  by  snow,  endures  even  very  severe  win¬ 
ters  in  the  North  of  Europe  and  America.  For 
its  successful  cultivation,  however,  it  requires  a 
mean  temperature  of  at  least  55°  F.  for  three  or 
four  months  of  the  year.  It  is  an  annual  plant, 
and  its  capacity  of  enduring  the  cold  of  winter 
is  of  importance  only  in  connection  with  the  ad¬ 
vantage  to  be  derived  from  sowing  in  autumn,  so 
as  to  have  it  more  forward  in  spring.  Its  culti 
vation  does  not  extend  so  far  north  as  that  of 
barley  or  oats,  or  even  of  rye.  The  Dakotas  and 
contiguous  States  produce  the  finest  wheat  in  the 
world,  and  in  Minnesota  are  the  largest  flouring- 
mills.  Chicago  is  the  largest  market  in  the  world 
for  wheat,  both  the  red  and  the  white  grain  being 
handled.  In  1888  the  United  States  produced, 
from  37,336,138  acres  in  seed,  414,868,000  bushels 
of  wheat,  valued  at  $384,248,030;  of  which  the 
largest  quantities  were  distributed  among  the 
States,  as  follows; 


States. 

Acres. 

Yield  in  bu. 

Value. 

2,657.884 

2,774,062 

2,449,343 

3,097,916 

2,468,982 

2,351,300 

3,921,269 

28,705,000 
27,879,000 
33,556,000 
27,881,000 
24  196,000 
28,451,000 
38.036,000 

$27,843,850 
26,206,260 
31,207,080 
25,650.520 
20,566,600 
21,183.350 
34,612  760 

Indiana . 

Minnesota . 

California . 

The  States  of  Pennsylvania,  Tennessee,  Kentucky, 
Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Neb¬ 
raska,  had  each  between  1,000,000  and  2,000,000 
acres  in  seed  during  the  same  year.  [Figures 
from  the  preliminary  estimates  of  the  Depart¬ 
ment  of  Agriculture.]  During  the  same  year 
Great  Britain  produced  71,939,647  bushels;  Ire 
land,  2,534,000;  France,  273,668,845;  Germany, 
68,112,000;  Russia,  325,054,000;  Austria,  38,738,- 
700;  Hungary,  136,871,064;  Netherlands,  5,108,- 
100;  Denmark,  4,824,600;  Sweden,  4,108,690; 
Norway,  312,180;  Turkey,  39,046,000;  Roumania, 
53,503,000;  Servia,  7,603,364;  Italy,  106,195,792; 
Greece,  4,664,000;  Spain,  101,174,700;  Portugal, 
6,860,000;  Switzerland,  1,646,400;  Belgium,  14,- 
878,-751 — making  a  total  for  Europe,  including 
Russia,  of  1,265,843,333  bushels.  India,  during 
1887-8,  from  26,854,882  acres  in  seed,  yielded 
226,882,211  bushels;  and  Australia,  from  4,010,- 
244acres,  47,588,161.  The  United  States  exported 
during  1888,  11,963,574  barrels  of  flour  and  65,- 
789,261  bushels  of  wheat.  [Figures  from  the 
Annual  Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Chicago 
Bo;.rd  of  Trade,  18i?&. ] 

Wlieat-ear,  or  Fallow  -  chat  ( Saxicola 
/znanthe),  a  bird  of  the  genus  popularly  known  by 
the  name  chat,  of  the  family  Sylviadce.  Its  geo¬ 
graphic  range  is  wide.  Its  winter  retreat  is  in 


the  countries  near  the  Mediterranean,  and  chiefly 
in  Africa;  its  summer  migrations  extend  to  the 
furthest  North  of  Europe,  and  to  Iceland  and 
Greenland. 

Wheat -fly,  the  popular  name  of  certain  spe¬ 
cies  of  dipterous  insects,  which  are  often  very 
injurious  to  wheat -crops.  One  of  them,  C>ci- 
domyia  tritici,  sometimes  called  the  wheat  midge, 
and  belonging  to  the  same  genus  witli  the 
destructive  Hessian  fly  of  America,  is  common, 
but  fortunately  is  not  very  abundant  except  in 
particular  years.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  fly 
which  appeared  in  the  North  of  New  England 
in  1828,  probably  imported  from  the  Old  World, 


and  thence  spread  into  New  York  and  Canada, 
destroying  a  tenth  part  of  the  wheat-crop  for 


Wheat-fly  ( Cecidomyia  tritici). 

(From  Morton’s  Cyclopcedia  of  Agriculture). 

a ,  larva  in  spikelet  of  wheat;  b,  pupa  in  the  same;  c, 
larva,  natural  size;  d,  do.  magnified;  e ,  pupa,  natural 
size;  f,  do.  magnified;  g,  a  few  joints  of  one  of  the 
antennas  of  a  male  wheat-fiy;  A,  do.  of  female;  i,  female 
wheat-fly,  natural  size;  k,  do.  magnified, 
several  years,  and  only  disappearing  on  being 
starved  out  by  a  change  of  crop,  or  by  late  spring¬ 
sowing  of  wheat. 

Wheaton,  Henry,  American  jurist  and  diplo¬ 
matist,  was  born  at  Providence,  R.  I.,  Nov.  27, 
1785.  Having  retired  from  political  life,  he  died 
at  his  residence  at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  March  11, 
1848. 

Wheaton,  the  county  seat  of  Du  Page  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Wheatstone,  Sir  Charles,  physicist  and 
electrician,  was  born  at  Gloucester  in  1802.  Few 
men  have  done  so  much  toward  enabling  the 
student  to  apprehend  the  principles  on  which 
scientific  theories  are  based,  particularly  those  of 
the  undulatory  theory  of  light.  In  i833,  Mr. 
Wheatstone  communicated  his  first  paper,  On 
Acoustic  Figures,  to  the  Royal  Society;  followed, 
in  1834,  by  Experiments  to  Measure  the  Velocity 
of  Electricity,  in  which,  with  a  mirror  revolving 
800  times  in  a  second,  he  demonstrated  the 
velocity  at  288,000  miles  in  a  second — greater 
than  that  of  light.  In  the  same  year,  he  was 
appointed  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in 
King’s  College,  London.  In  1836  he  was  elected 
a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society;  and  in  a  course  of 
lectures  at  the  college  he  anticipated  the  electric 
telegraph  by  experimenting  through  four  miles 
of  copper  wire.  In  May,  1837,  a  patent  was 
taken  out  in  the  joint  names  of  Cooke  and  Wheat¬ 
stone,  “for  improvements  in  giving  signals  and 
sounding  alarms  in  distant  places  by  means  of 
electric  currents  transmitted  through  metallic 
circuits.”  The  first  working-telegraph — insulated 
copper  wires  inclosed  in  an  iron  tube — was  con¬ 
structed  on  the  Blackwall  Railway  in  1838.  He 
died  in  1875. 

Wheel,  Breaking  on  the,  a  very  barbarous 
mode  of  inflicting  the  punishment  of  death,  for¬ 
merly  in  use  in  France  and  Germany,  where  the 
criminal  was  placed  on  a  carriage-wheel,  with  his 
arms  and  legs  extended  along  the  spokes,  and  the 
wheel  being  turned  round,  the  executioner  fract¬ 
ured  his  limbs  by  successive  blows  with  an  iron 
bar,  which  were  repeated  till  death  ensued. 

Wheeler,  the  county  seat  of  Charles  Mix  coun¬ 
ty,  S.  Dak.  Pop.,  109. 

Wheel  ring',  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  West 
Virginia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ohio  river,  and 
botii  sides  of  Wheeling  creek,  forty  miles  direct, 
and  ninety-two  by  river,  below  Pittsburgh.  Pop. 
(1880),  31,266. 

Whelk  ( liuccinum ),  a  genus  of  gasteropodous 
mollusks,  of  the  family  Buccinidce.  There  are 
about  twenty  known  species,  chiefly  found  on  the 
coasts  of  the  colder  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  very 
widely  distributed  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
common  mollusks  of  the  Arctic  regions.  Itis  much 
used  as  an  article  of  food,  is  cooked  simply  by 
boiling,  and  is  generally  eaten  with  vinegar  and 
pepper. 


Whim  'brel  (Numenius  phceopus),  a  bird  of  the 
same  genus  with  the  curlew,  and  much  resembling 
it  in  form,  plumage,  and  habits,  but  of  smaller 
size,  and  with  a  bill  considerably  shorter  in  pro¬ 
portion.  The  wliimbrel  is  a  very  widely  distri¬ 
buted  bird,  being  found  from  the  North  of  Africa 
and  of  India  to  the  Arctic  regions  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  The  flesh  is  highly  esteemed. 

Whin-chatOSoau’coforw&efra),  abird  very  similar 
to  the  stone-chat,  a  summer  visitant  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Europe.  The  whin-chat  fre¬ 
quents  furze  (or  whin)  bushes.  Its  song  is 
pleasant. 

Whip-poor-will  (Caprimulgus  or  Antrostomus 
vociferus),  a  species  of  goatsucker,  a  native  of 
North  America,  common  in  the  eastern  parts  of 
the  United  States.  It  receives  its  popular  name 
from  the  fancied  resemblance  of  its  notes  to  the 
words  “whip  poor  will.”  It  is  about  10  inches 


Whip-poor-will  ( Caprimulgus  xociftrus). 


long,  the  plumage  very  like  that  of  the  European 
goatsucker,  much  mottled  and  indistinctly  marked 
with  small  transverse  bands,  the  top  of  the  head 
streaked  with  black,  a  narrow,  white  collar  on  the 
throat. 

Whist,  a  game  of  cards,  believed  to  be  of  Eng¬ 
lish  origin.  The  game  of  whist  is  played  by 
four  pers "ns,  two  being  partners  against  the  other 
two.  The  partners  sit  opposite  to  each  other. 
The  partnership  is  determined  by  cutting.  The 
two  lowest  are  partners  against  the  two  highest, 
and  the  lowest  has  the  deal  and  the  choice  of  seats 
and  cards.  In  cutting,  the  ace  is  reckoned  low¬ 
est.  Each  player  has  a  right  to  shuffle  the  pack 
once  before  each  deal,  the  dealer  having  the  privil¬ 
ege  of  a  final  shuffle.  The  shuffling  being  con¬ 
cluded,  the  player  to  the  dealer’s  right  cuts  the 
pack.  The  dealer  having  reunited  the  packets, 
is  bound  to  deal  the  cards  one  at  a  time,  to  the 
players  in  rotation,  beginning  with  the  player  to 
liis  left.  He  turns  up  the  bottom  card  (called  the 
trump  card).  The  deal  being  completed,  the 
players  sort  their  cards,  and  the  player  to  the 
dealer’s  left  (or  leader)  plays  a  card  face  upward 
on  the  table.  The  other  players  follow  in  rota¬ 
tion,  being  bound  to  follow  suit  if  they  can. 
When  all  have  played,  the  trick  is  complete.  It 
is  then  gathered  and  turned  over  by  the  winning 
side.  The  highest  card  wins  the  trick.  The  ace 
is  highest  in  playing;  and  the  other  cards  reckon 
in  the  order,  king,  queen,  knave,  ten,  etc.,  down 
to  the  deuce,  or  two,  which  is  lowest.  If  any 
player  can  not  follow  suit  (i.  e. ,  has  none  of  the 
suit  led),  he  may  play  any  card  he  pleases.  If  he 
plays  a  card  of  the  suit  turned  up  (called  trumps), 
lie  wins  the  trick,  unless  another  player  also 
having  none  of  the  suit  led,  plays  a  higher  I  rump. 
The  player  who  wins  the  trickbecomes  the  leader 
for  the  next  trick,  and  so  on  till  the  whole  hand 
(consisting  of  thirteen  tricks)  is  played  out.  After 
scoring,  the  player  to  the  last  dealer’s  left  deals 
in  his  turn;  and  in  subsequent  deals,  each  player 
deals  in  turn,  the  rotation  going  to  the  left.  After 
the  hand  is  played  out,  the  scoring  is  thus  per¬ 
formed;  the  side  who  wins  more  than  six  tricks 
reckon  one  for  each  trick  above  six ;  and  the  side 
who  either  separately  or  conjointly  hold  more 
than  two  of  the  following  cards,  ace,  king,  queen, 
and  knave  of  trumps  (called  honors),  reckon  as 
follows:  If  they  hold  any  three  honors,  they 
score  two  (that  being  the  excess  of  their  honors 
over  their  opponents’);  and  similarly  if  they  hold 
four  honors,  they  score  four.  At  short  whist, 
players  who  are  at  four  can  not  score  honors. 
The  same  at  long  whist  with  players  who  are  at 
nine.  The  side  who  thus  in  one  hand  or  in  a  sue- 


WHITE. 


708 


WILKES. 


cession  of  hands  first  reach  five  at  short  whist,  or 
ten  at  long,  score  the  game.  Short  whist  is  the 
more  popular  game,  in  this  country,  and  “honors” 
are  not  usually  counted.  A  game  at  short  whist 
is  called  a  single,  if  the  adversaries  have  already 
scored  three  or  four;  adouble,  if  they  have  scored 
one  or  two;  a  treble,  if  they  have  scored  nothing. 
A  game  at  long  whist  is  a  single,  if  the  opponents 
have  scored  five  or  more;  a  double,  if  they  have 
scored  less.  There  is  no  treble  at  long  whist.  A 
rubber  consists  of  the  best  two  games  out  of 
three.  If  the  same  players  win  two  consecutive 
games,  the  third  is  not  played.  The  winners  of 
the  rubber  win  in  points  the  value  of  the  games 
they  have  won,  and  where  the  rubber  has  con¬ 
sisted  of  three  games,  the  value  of  the  loser’s 
game  is  deducted.  And  whether  two  or  three 
games  are  played,  two  points  are  added  for  the 
rubber  at  short  whist;  one  point  for  the  rubber  at 
long.  Thus,  if  at  short  whist  A  B  (partners)  win 
a  single  and  a  double,  they  win  three  points  on 
the  games,  and  they  add  two  for  the  rubber, 
making  five  points.  Had  A  B  won  the  same,  but 
C  D  (their  opponents)  won  a  treble,  they  would 
have  to  deduct  three  points,  the  value  of  the 
opponents’  game,  and  would  only  win  two  points. 
Long  whist  is  now  seldom  played. 

White,  Richard  Grant,  an  American  scholar 
and  litterateur,  born  in  New  York  in  1822.  He 
wrote  several  treatises  on  Shakespeare  and  his 
works,  and  two  valuable  studies  on  the  Eng¬ 
lish  language  entitled  Words  and  Their  Uses,  and 
Erery-Day  English,  besides  numerous  criticisms, 
etc.  He  died  April  8,  1885. 

White 'bait,  a  small  fish,  called  by  Valen¬ 
ciennes  Rogenia  alba,  and  for  which  he  consti¬ 
tuted  the  genus  Rogenia  as  a  distinct  genus  of 
the  herring  family  (Clupeidce),  but  which  is  now 
generally  regarded  by  naturalists  as  merely  the 
fry  of  the  herring.  The  whitebait  fishery  is 
actively  prosecuted  on  some  parts  of  the  British 
coast. 

Whitefield,  George,  one  of  the  founders  of 
Methodism,  was  born  in  the  Bull  Inn,  at  Glouces¬ 
ter,  Dec.  16,  1714.  To  America,  Whitefield  paid 
seven  visits.  lie  died  somewhat  suddenly  at 
Newberry,  near  Boston,  Mass.,  Sept.  30,  1770. 

White 'fish  ( Coregonus  albus),  a  fish  of  the 
family  Salmonklce.,  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
gwyniad,  vendace,  powan,  pollan,  etc.,  found  in 
the  lakes  and  large  riversof  North  America,  from 
the  St.  Lawrence  and  its  tributaries  to  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  Amer¬ 
ican  fresh  water  fillies,  abounding  over  a  great 
extent  of  country,  and  being  excellent  for  the 
table. 

AVhite  Gunpowder  is  a  mixture  that  was  at 
one  time  employed  in  blasting,  but  is  now 
scarcely  ever  employed  in  consequence  of  the 
danger  attending  its  preparation,  and  the  facility 
with  which  it  explodes  by  friction.  Its  ingredi¬ 
ents  are  chlorate  of  potash,  dried  ferrocyanide  of 
potassium,  and  sugar. 

White 'hall,  a  village  of  New  York,  at  the 
head  or  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Champlain. 
In  the  War  of  1812  it  was  an  impoitant  military 
depot.  Pop.  (1889),  6,500. 

Whitehall,  the  county  seat  of  Trempealeau 
county,  Wis.  Pop.,  800. 

White  Mountains,  a  mountain-chain  of  New 
England  regarded  as  an  outlier  of  the  Appala¬ 
chian  range,  commences  at  the  headwaters  of  the 
Aroostook  river,  in  Maine,  where  its  first  summit 
is  Mount  Katahdin.  Mount  Washington,  the 
highest  summit  in  New  England,  6,285  feet,  has 
a  practicable  carriage-road  and  a  hotel  on  its  sum¬ 
mit.  Five  narrow  and  precipitous  notches  seem 
to  have  been  rent  in  the  mountains,  and  give  pas¬ 
sage  to  as  many  rivers. 

White  Plains,  the  county  seat  of  Westchester 
county,  N.  Y.  Pop.,  2,450. 

White  River,  a  river  of  Arkansas  and  Mis¬ 
souri,  rises  in  the  Ozark  Mountains,  flows  north¬ 
east  into  Missouri,  then  turning  east  and  soutli- 
( ast  into  Arkansas,  drains  the  northeastern  por¬ 
tion  of  the  State,  and  flowing  southerly,  empties 
itself  into  the  Mississippi  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Arkansas.  It  is  800  miles  long,  and  navigable 
350  miles. 

Whiteslmrgh,  the  county  seat  of  Letcher 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  300. 

White  Sea  (Russ.  Bjeloje-More),  an  arm  or 


great  bay  or  inlet  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  which, 
between  Cape  Kanin  on  the  Kaninskaia  Penin¬ 
sula,  and  Cape  Sviatoi  on  the  Kola  Peninsula, 
penetrates  the  Russian  Government  of  Archangel 
southward  to  latitude  64°  N.  It  covers  an  area 
estimated  at  47,000  square  miles,  and  the  length 
of  its  coast-line  is  over  1,000  miles. 

W  hite  Sulphur  Springs,  a  watering-place  in 
Virginia,  on  Howard’s  Creek,  205  miles  west  of 
Richmond.  Pop.,  about  1,000.  It  has  hotel 
accommodation  for  over  1,500  guests.  The  spring 
is  in  the  lowest  part  of  a  beautiful  valley,  and  is 
covered  by  a  dome  supported  by  twelve  Ionic 
columns,  and  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  Hygeia; 
it  is  2,000  feet  above  tide-water;  yields  thirty 
gallons  per  minute  of  water  at  62°  F.,  impreg¬ 
nated  with  sulphates  of  lime,  soda,  magnesia, 
carbonate  of  lime,  chlorides  of  calcium  and 
sodium,  iron,  iodine,  sulphur,  carbonic  acid,  sul- 
phureted  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen.  It  is 
considered  efficacious  in  dyspepsia,  liver  diseases, 
gout,  rheumatism,  and  diseases  of  the  skin  and 
kidneys.  The  Red,  Salt,  and  Blue  Sulphur 
Springs,  at  a  distance  of  22  to  24  miles  from  the 
above,  are  also  much  resorted  to. 

White  Sulphur  Springs,  the  county  seat  of 
Meagher  county,  Mont.  Pop.,  750. 

White'throat  (Curruca  cinerea );  a  bird  of  the 
family  Sylviadce,  plentiful  during  summer  in  the 
South  and  Middle  of  Europe,  and  is  found  even 
in  the  North.  It  places  its  nest  in  a  low  bush,  or 
among  a  tangled  mass  of  brambles  and  weeds. 
Its  food  consists  both  of  insects  and  berries.  Its 
song  is  not  very  sweet,  but  is  delivered  with 
great  energy,  and  it  seems  to  vie  with  other  birds 
in  singing,  refusing  to  be  outdone. 

Whiteville,  the  county  seat  of  Columbus 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  550. 

White  Vitriol.  The  sulphate  of  zinc. 

Whit'ing  ( Merlangus ),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the 
family  Qadidce,  differing  from  the  cod,  haddock, 
and  their  congeners  (Oadus,  or  Morrhua)  in  having 


Whiting  (Merlangus  vulgaris). 


no  barbule  on  the  lower  jaw,  and  also  in  their 
more  slender  form,  which  adapts  them  for  pursu¬ 
ing  their  prey  more  actively  and  further  from  the 
bottom  of  the  sea. 

Whiting  is  an  impure  carbonate  of  lime,  pre¬ 
pared  by  grinding  and  then  washing  chalk,  so  as 
to  separate  the  coarser  particles  from  the  finer 
ones,  which  are  collected  in  masses,  and  dried.  It 
is  used  for  size-painting,  and  for  cleaning  plate; 
and,  on  emergency,  may  be  employed  as  an  anti¬ 
dote  (in  suspension  in  milk)  in  cases  of  poisoning 
with  oxalic,  or  one  of  the  mineral  acids. 

Whit'low,  or  Parony'ciiia,  is  a  painful  inflam¬ 
matory  affection  of  the  phalanges  of  the  fingers, 
almost  always  proceeding  to  suppuration.  In  the 
treatment  of  the  milder  forms,  the  finger  or  thumb 
should  be  held  for  half  an  hour  or  longer  in  water 
as  hot  as  can  be  borne,  after  which  lunar  caustic 
should  be  rubbed  freely  over  the  painful  surface; 
and  if  there  are  any  febrile  symptoms,  the  patient 
may  take  a  powder,  consisting  of  four  grains  of 
calomel,  three  of  James’  powder,  and  three  of  Dov¬ 
er’s  powder,  at  bedtime,  to  be  followed  in  themorn- 
ing  by  an  ordinary  black  draught.  The  hot  local 
baths  should  be  carried  on  till  matter  shows  itself; 
and  as  soon  as  its  presence  and  seat  are  determined 
with  certainty,  an  incision  should  be  made,  to 
admit  of  its  escape.  Even  if  suppuration  has  not 
taken  place,  a  free  incision  into  the  inflamed  part 
often  gives  great  relief.  There  is  a  very  pernici¬ 
ous  popular  idea  that  the  application  of  cobblers’ 
wax,  or  some  other  stimulating  substance,  will 
draw  the  inflammation  to  the  surface,  and  bring 
the  whitlow  to  a  head. 

Whitman,  Wart,  an  American  poet  of  singular 
originality,  audacity,  and  eccentricity,  was  born 
at  West  Hills,  Suffolk  county,  N.  Y.,  in  1819. 


Successively  printer,  schoolmaster,  journalist,  and 
carpenter,  he  acted  as  a  volunteer  nurse  during 
the  Civil  War.  From  1865  till  1874  he  held  a 
Government  clerkship,  but  latterly  he  was  dis¬ 
abled  by  paralysis.  His  chief  work,  Leaves  of 
Brass,  appeared  in  1855.  He  has  strong  admirers 
and  strong  opponents. 

Whitney,  Eli,  inventor  of  the  cotton  gin,  was 
born  at  Westborougli,  Mass.,  Dec.  8,  1765,  and 
died  Jan.  8,  1825. 

Whitney,  William  Dwigiit,  an  American 
philologist,  born  Feb.  9,  1827,  at  Northampton, 
Mass.  In  1854  he  became  Professor  of  Sanskrit 
in  Yale  College. 

Whittier,  John  Greenleaf,  American  author 
and  one  of  our  greatest  poets,  was  born  at  Haver¬ 
hill,  Mass.,  November,  1807,  in  the  Society  of 
Friends.  His  poems  include  Among  the  Hills; 
Snowbound;  Tent  on  the  Beach;  Barbara  Fritchie; 
and  A  Centennial  Hymn. 

Whortleberry  ( Vaccinium ),  a  genus  of  small 
shrubs  of  the  natural  order  Vacciniacece.  The 
common  whortleberry,  or  blueberry  ( V.  myrtillus), 
is  common  in  the  Northern  States,  where  it  forms 
an  important  article  of  food.  It  varies  from  a 
few  inches  to  almost  two  feet  in  height,  and  has 
ovate  deciduous  leaves,  and  dark-purple  berries. 
The  black  whortleberry,  or  huckleberry  (  V.  angus- 
tifoli urn  or  Gaylussacia  angustifolia),  is  a  shrub 
about  two  feet  high,  much  branched  and  erect, 
with  deciduous  oval  leaves.  The  berries  are  of  a 
shining  black  color,  and  sweet.  It  is  widely  dif¬ 
fused  from  Canada  to  Georgia. 

Whydaw  Bird,  Whydaw  Finch,  or  Widow 
Bird  ( Vidua),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  of 
weaver-birds,  having  long  wings,  and  a  boat¬ 
shaped  tail,  the  two  middle  feathers  of  the  tail  of 
the  males  excessively  lengthened  during  the  breed¬ 
ing  season. 

Wichita,  the  county  seat  of  Sedgwick  county, 
Kan.,  is  an  important  railway  center  and  manu¬ 
facturing  city.  Pop.,  28,400.' 

Wichita  Falls,  the  county  seat  of  Wichita 
county,  Tex.  Pop.,  2,100. 

WiclilFe,  John  de,  the  greatest  of  all  the 
Reformers,  was  born  in  1324,  and  died  in  1384. 
His  great  work  was  the  translating  the  scriptures, 
or  rather,  for  the  most  part,  of  revising  existing 
translations,  and  circulating  them  among  the 
common  people.  The  Lollards,  as  his  disciples 
were  called,  were  to  be  found  not  only  among 
the  poor,  but  in  the  church,  the  castle,  and  even 
on  the  throne. 

Wid'geon,  or  Wigeon  ( Mareca ),  a  genus  of 
ducks  of  the  non-oceanic  section.  The  species 
arenumi  rous,  migratory  birds,  appearing  in  great 
flocks  in  the  warmer  countries  which  they  visit 
during  the  winter. 

Wiesba  'den,  chief  town  in  the  Prussian  dis¬ 
trict  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Province  of  Hesse- 
Nassau  (formerly  the  independent  Duchy  of  Nas¬ 
sau),  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  famous  of  the 
German  watering-places,  delightfully  situated  on 
the  south  slopes  of  Mount  Taunus,  twenty-six 
miles  west  of  Frankfurt,  and  five  miles  northwest 
of  Mainz  by  railway.  The  season  lasts  from  June 
to  September,  and  the  number  of  visitors  annually 
is  near  40,000.  Pop.  (1880),  50,238. 

Wig  'ail,  a  prosperous  market  and  manufactur¬ 
ing  town,  and  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough,  in  Lancashire,  England,  on  the  Douglas, 
fifteen  and  one-half  miles  south-southeast  of 
Preston,  and  about  the  same  distance  from  Liver¬ 
pool  on  the  southwest,  and  Manchester  on  the 
southeast.  Pop.  (1881),  48,196. 

Wight,  Isle  of,  an  island  in  the  English 
Channel,  belonging  to  Great  Britain,  is  22  miles 
long,  and  13£  miles  wide.  Area,  98,320  acres. 
Pop.  (1881),  73,652. 

Wilber,  the  county  seat  of  Saline  county,  Neb. 
Pop.,  1,200. 

Wilberforce,  William,  the  great  English  anti¬ 
slavery  reformer,  was  born  at  Hull,  on  Aug.  24, 
1759.  He  died  July  29,  1833,  and  was  buried  as 
a  national  benefactor  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

Wilkes,  Charles,  American  naval  officer  and 
explorer,  was  born  in  New  York  in  1801,  and  en¬ 
tered  the  navy  in  1816,  becoming  Lieutenant  in 
1826.  In  1838  he  was  made  Commander  of  an 
exploring  expedition,  by  which  the  Samoan  and 
Fiji  Islands  were  carefully  surveyed,  and  many 
other  regions  of  the  southern  seas  examined.  As. 


WILD-FOWL. 


709 


WINDAGE. 


■Commander  of  the  United  States  steamer  San 
Jacinto,  he,  in  1861,  forcibly  removed  from  the 
British  mail-steamer  Trent ,  Messrs.  Mason  and 
Slidell,  Commissioners  of  the  Confederate  States 
to  England  and  France,  and  conveyed  them  to 
Boston,  receiving  the  thanks  of  Congress  and  the 
acclamations  of  the  people;  but  on  the  represen¬ 
tations  of  the  British  Government,  his  act  was  dis¬ 
approved  as  irregular,  and  the  commissioners 
restored.  In  1862  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank 
of  Commodore,  and  in  1863  commanded  a  squad¬ 
ron  in  the  West  Indies.  In  1866  he  was  commis¬ 
sioned  as  Rear-Admiral  on  the  retired  list.  He 
died  Feb.  8,  1877. 

Wild-fowl,  a  term  synonymous  with  waiter- 
fowl,  and  generally  applied  to  web  footed  birds, 
such  as  ducks,  geese,  etc.,  but  sometimes  etn- 


Wild-duck  or  Mallard,  Male  and  Female. 


ployed  also  to  include  herons,  plovers,  and  other 
birds  which  frequent  l  ivers,  lakes,  and  sea-shores. 

Wilkes  Barre,  the  county  seat  of  Luzerne 
county,  Penn.,  is  an  important  manufacturing 
city  and  railway  center.  Pop.,  35,100. 

Wilkeshorougli,  the  county  seat  of  Wilkes 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  250. 

Wilkie,  Sir  David,  a  distinguished  Scottish 
painter,  was  born  in  Fifeshire,  at  Cults,  Nov.  18, 
1785,  and  died  at  sea  in  1840. 

Wil'let  ( Symphemia  semipalmnta) ,  a  bird  of  the 
family  Scolopaciche,  a  native  both  of  North  and 
South  America.  The  fleshis  highly  esteemed,  and 
the  eggs  are  considered  a  delicacy.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  note. 

William  I.,  King  of  England,  commonly  called 
William  the  Conqueror,  was  born  in  1027.  He 
invaded  England,  acquired  the  crown  by  the 
famous  Battle  of  Hastings,  Oct.  14,  1066,  and  died 
Sept.  9,  1087. 

William  II.,  King  of  England,  surnamed  Ru¬ 
fus,  second  son  of  William  the  Conqueror,  was 
born  in  Normandy  in  1056,  was  crowned  on  Sept. 
26,  1087,  and  was  killed  while  hunting  Aug.  2, 

1100. 

William  III.,  King  of  England,  was  the  pos¬ 
thumous  son  of  William  II.  of  Orange,  and  Mary, 
eldest  daughter  of  Charles  I.  of  England.  lie 
was  born  in  1650  and  died  March  8,  1702. 

William  IV.,  King  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire¬ 
land,  third  son  of  George  III.,  was  born  on  Aug. 
21,  1765.  Succeeded  to  the  throne  June  26,  1830. 
The  great  event  of  his  reign  was  the  passing  of 
the  Reform  Bill.  The  abolition  of  colonial  slav¬ 
ery,  the  reform  of  the  poor-laws,  and  of  the  Irish 
Church,  wTere  the  immediate  results  of  the  great 
constitutional  change.  William  IV.  dying,  after 
a  short  illness,  on  June  20,1837,  was  succeeded  by 
his  niece,  Queen  Victoria. 

William,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Count  of 
Nassau,  the  founder  of  the  independence  of  the 
Netherlands,  was  born  at  Dillenburg,  April  16, 
1533,  and  was  assassinated  July  10,  1584. 

William  1.  (Ger.  Friedrich-Ludwig  Wil¬ 
helm),  King  of  Prussia,  and,  since  1871,  Emperor 
of  Germany,  was  the  second  son  of  Frederiek- 
William  III.,  was  born  March  22,  1797,  and  died 
March  9,  1888. 

William  II.  (Frederick  George  Lewis), 
King  of  the  Netherlands,  son  of  William  I., 
was  born  at  the  Hague,  Dec.  6,  1792,  ascended 
the  throne  in  1840,  and  died  March  17,  1849. 

William  III.  (Alexander  Paul  Frederick 
Lewis),  King  of  the  Netherlands,  was  born 
Feb.  19,  1817,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  on 
the  death  of  his  father,  William  II.,  in  1849. 


William  and  Mary  College,  next  to  Harvard 
College  the  oldest  institution  of  learning  in 
America,  was  established  at  Williamsburg,  Va., 
1693,  and  endowed  with  lands,  and  placed  under 
the  patronage  of  the  king  and  queen  of  Great 
Britain.  Here  were  educated  Presidents  Jeffer¬ 
son,  Madison,  and  Monroe,  Chief  Justice  Mar¬ 
shall,  and  General  Scott. 

Williams,  Roger,  founder  of  the  State  of 
Rhode  Island,  was  born  at  Conwyl  Cayo,  Wales, 
in  the  year  1606,  and  died  in  1683.  He  refused 
to  join  the  congregation  at  Boston,  because  the 
people  would  not  make  public  declaration  of 
their  repentance  for  having  been  i  i  communion 
with  the  Church  of  England;  he  therefore  went 
to  Salem,  as  assistant-preacher,  but  was  soon  in 
trouble  for  denying  the  right  of  magistrates  to 
punish  Sabbath-breaking  and  other  religious 
offenses,  as  belonging  to  the  first  table  of  the 
law.  For  his  opposition  to  the  New  England 
theocracy,  he  was  driven  from  Salem,  and  took 
refuge  at  Plymouth,  where  he  studied  Indian 
dialects.  Two  years  later  he  returned  to  Salem, 
only  to  meet  renewed  persecution  and  banish¬ 
ment  from  the  colony,  for  denying  the  right  to 
take  the  Indiaus’  lands  without  purchase,  and 
the  right  to  impose  faith  and  worship.  He  held 
that  it  was  not  lawful  to  require  a  wicked 
person  to  swear  or  pray,  which  were  both  forms 
of  worship;  and  that  the  power  of  the  civil 
magistrate  extends  only  to  the  bodies,  goods, 
and  outward  state  of  men,  and  not  to  their 
souls  and  consciences.  Banished  from  the  colony 
in  1635,  and  threatened  to  be  sent  back  to  Eng¬ 
land  in  order  to  prevent  the  infection  of  his 
new  doctrines  from  spreading,  he  escaped  in 
mid-winter  to  the  shores  of  Narragansett  Bay, 
accompanied  by  a  few  adherents,  where  lie 
purchased  lands  of  the  Indian  chiefs,  founded 
the  city  of  Providence,  and  established  a  govern¬ 
ment  of  pure  democracy.  Having  adopted  the 
belief  in  adult  baptism  of  believers  by  immersion, 
Williams  was  baptized  by  a  layman,  and  then 
baptized  the  latter  and  ten  others,  and  founded  the 
first  Baptist  Church  in  America. 

Wil'liaiusburg,  a  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  James  City  county,  Va.,  between  York  and 
James  rivers,  sixty  miles  southeast  of  Richmond, 
the  site  of  William  and  Mary  College,  and  the 
Eastern  State  Lunatic  Asylum.  A  battle  was 
fought  here  between  General  McClellan  and  the 
Confederates,  May  5, 1862.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Williamsburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Covington 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  200. 

Williamsburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Whitley 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  1,550. 

Williams  College,  an  institution  of  learning 
in  Williamstown,  Mass.,  founded  by  a  bequest  of 
Col.  Ephraim  Williams,  in  1755,  and  incorporated 
in  1793. 

Williamsport,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Lycoming  county,  Penn.,  on  the  west  branch  of 
the  Susquehanna.  It  has  35  saw-mills,  13  planing- 
mills,  5  iron-foundries,  and  numerous  factories. 
Pop.,  28,600. 

Williamsport,  the  county  seat  of  Emmons 
county,  N.  Dak.  Pop.,  100. 

Williamsport,  the  county  seat  of  Warren 
county,  Ind.  Pop.,  1,500. 

Williamston,  the  county  seat  of  Martin  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  500. 

Williamstown,  the  county  seat  of  Grant 
county,  Ky.  Pop.,  925. 

Willimantic,  the  county  seat  of  Windham 
county,  Conn.,  is  a  prosperous  manufacturing 
city.  Pop.,  6,700. 

Willis,  Nathaniel  Parker,  American  au¬ 
thor  and  poet,  was  born  at  Portland,  Me.,  Jan. 
20,  1807,  and  died  Jan.  21,  1867. 

Willmar,  the  county  seat  of  Kandiyohi  coun¬ 
ty,  Minn.  Pop.,  1,400. 

Willow  ( Salix ),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of 
the  natural  order  Salicacece,  otherwise  regarded 
as  a  sub-order  of  Amentacea ;. 

Willow  Springs,  the  county  seat  of  Garfield 
county,  Neb.  Pop.,  180. 

Wil'niington,  a  city  and  port  of  Delaware, 
and  the  county  seat  of  New  Castle  county,  is 
near  the  river  Brandywine,  twenty-eight  miles 
southwest  of  Philadelphia.  Pop.,  51,000. 

Wilmington,  a  city  and  port  of  North  Caro¬ 
lina,  and  the  county  seat  of  New  Hanover  county, 


on  the  northeast  branch  of  Cape  Fear  river, 
twenty  miles  from  the  sea.  During  the  war  of 
1861-1865,  it  was  one  of  the  chief  ports  of  ihe 
Confederacy,  and  was  frequented  by  blockade- 
runners,  until  it  surrendered  to  General  Terry  in 
1865.  Pop.,  22,000. 

Wilmington,  the  county  seat  of  Clinton 
county,  Ohio,  is  a  handsomely  built  and  prosper¬ 
ous  agricultural  and  manufacturing  city.  Pop., 
3,600. 

Willow-moth  ( Caradrina  cubicularis),  a  spe¬ 
cies  of  moth,  of  which  the  caterpillars  feed  upon 
the  grain  of  wheat,  often  doing  much  mischief. 


Willow-moth  ( Caradrina  cubicularis ). 
a.  caterpillar;  b,  pupa  in  its  cocoon;  c,  willow-moth  at 
rest;  d,  insect  with  wings  expanded. 

The  perfect  insect  is  of  a  mouse  color,  and  its 
wings  are  closed  flat  upon  its  back  when  it  is  at 
rest. 

Wilmot,  the  county  seat  of  Roberts  county, 
S.  Dak.  Pop.,  457. 

Wilson,  Alexander,  American  ornithologist, 
was  born  at  Paisley,  Scotland,  July  6,  1766,  and 
died  at  Philadelphia,  Penn.,  Aug.  23,  1813.  He 
is  recognized  throughout  the  world  as  a  standard 
authority  on  his  chosen  science. 

Wilson,  Henry,  an  American  statesman  born 
at  Farmington,  N.  H.,  Feb.  16,  1812.  In  1840 
he  was  elected  to  the  1  louse  of  Representatives 
of  Massachusetts  on  the  Whig  ticket,  and  later 
a  member  of  the  State  Senate.  In  1855  he  was 
chosen  a  United  States  Senator,  and  was  re¬ 
elected  in  1859.  In  1861  he  was  commissioned 
a  Colonel  in  the  army,  but  soon  resigned  to  return 
to  the  Senate.  In  i865  he  was  again  elected  to 
the  Senate  and  in  1872  was  chosen  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States  with  General  Grant.  Wilson 
died  Nov.  22,  1875. 

Wilson,  John,  famous  as  Professor  Wilson, 
and  “Christopher  North”  of  Blackwood's  Maga¬ 
zine,  was  born  on  May  18,  1785,  at  Paisley,  Scot¬ 
land,  and  died  at  Edinburgh,  April  3,  1854. 

Wilson,  the  county  seat  of  Wilson  county,  N. 
C.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Wilt'shire,  or  Wilts  (called  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  Wiltonshire,  from  their  capital  town, 
Wilton),  one  of  the  southwestern  counties  of 
England,  bounded  on  the  west  and  north  by  Somer¬ 
set  and  Gloucester,  and  on  the  east  and  south  by 
Berks,  Hants,  and  Dorsetshire.  Area,  859,303 
acres.  Pop.  (1881),  258,967.  The  hill  district  (on 
the  chalk)  presents  ranges  of  bleak  downs,  with 
deep  valle3rs,  and  is  thinly  peopled,  much  of  it 
consisting  of  solitary  sheep-walks,  on  which  it  is 
estimated  700,000  sheep  are  pastured. 

Winamac,  the  county  seat  of  Pulaski  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Winchester,  the  name  of  five  towns  in  the 
United  States,  as  follows; — 1.  A  city  and  the 
county  seat  of  Frederick  county,  Va.,  is  in  the 
Valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  150  miles  north-north¬ 
west  of  Richmond,  sixty-seven  west-by-north 
from  Washington;  thirty-two  miles  by  railway 
to  Harper’s  Ferry.  March  12,  1862,  it  was  occu¬ 
pied  by  General  Banks,  and  was  during  the  war 
the  scene  of  frequent  conflicts,  and  occupied  in 
turns  by  the  Federal  and  Confederate  armies. 
Pop.,  5  000. — 2.  The  county  seat  of  Clark 
county,  Ivy.,  is  an  important  agricultural  and 
manufacturing  city.  Pop.,  6,100. — 3..  The 
county  seat  of  Franklin  county,  Tenn.  Pop., 
1,300.-4.  The  county  seat  of  Randolph  county, 
Ind.  Pop.,  2,600. — 5.  The  eounty  seat  of  Scott 
county,  Ill.  Pop.,  1,850. 

Windage,  in  a  Gun,  the  difference  in  diameter 
between  the  bore  of  the  piece  and  the  projectile 
with  which  it  is  loaded.  In  the  present  rifled 
artillery,  it  is  sought  to  reduce  the  windage  to  a 
minimum,  as  .01  of  an  inch.  Some  windage  is 


WINDERMERE. 


no 


WINE. 


indispensable,  or  the  shot  would  jam  either  going  ! 
in  or  corning  out. 

Win'dermere,  W i  n  and  er  mere,  or  Lake 
"Winder,  the  largest  lake  in  England,  is  partly  in 
the  county  of  Lancaster  and  partly  divides  that 
county  from  Westmoreland.  It  is  11  miles  long, 
and  about  1  mile  in  breadth. 

Windfalls  are  puffy  swellings  about  the 
joints  of  animals,  particularly  of  horses,  corres¬ 
pond  to  the  ganglions  of  human  surgery,  and 
result  from  irritation  and  inflammation  being  set 
up  within  the  delicate  synovial  cavities,  which  thus 
secrete  an  unusual  quantity  of  thickened  synovia. 
Rest,  moderate  work,  wet  bandages,  and  occas¬ 
ional  blisters  reduce  the  swellings,  but  with  fast 
roadwork  they  are  apt  to  reappear,  especially  in 
old  horses. 

WiiHl'lass  is  that  modification  of  the  wheel 
and  axle  which  is  employed  in  raising  weights 
such  as  bucketfuls  of  water  from  a  well,  coals 
from  a  pit,  etc.  Its  simplest  form  is  that  of  an 
axle  supported  by  pivots  on  two  strong  upright 
pieces,  and  pierced  near  one  end  with  four  or 
six  square  holes,  into  which  handles,  known  as 
handspikes,  are  inserted.  In  other  forms  a  winch 
at  each  end  is  substituted  for  the  handspikes. 

Wind  'mill  is  a  mill  for  raising  water,  grinding 
corn,  sawing  wood,  or  performing  any  other 
species  of  work  for  which  fixed  machinery  can  be 
employed,  the  motive-power  being  the  force  of 
the  wind  acting  on  a  set  of  sails  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  of  a  current  of  water  impinging 
obliquely  on  the  float-boards  of  a  water-wheel. 
The  structure  is  a  conical  or  pyramidal  tower  of 
considerable  height,  and  covered  over  at  the  top 
with  a  species  of  dome,  which  is  so  fastened  as  to 
revolve  upon  it  round  the  upper  extremity  of 
the  shaft,  as  a  center,  the  motion  being  aided  by 
the  interposition  of  castors  between  the  wooden 
rings  which  form  respectively  the  base  of  the 
dome  and  the  top  of  the  tower. 

Windom,  the  county  seat  of  Cottonwood 
county,  Minn.  Pop.,  700. 

Wind  'sor,  properly  called  New  Windsor,  a  I 
municipal  and  parliamentary  borough  of  Berk¬ 
shire,  beautifully  situated  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Thames,  twenty-three  miles  west-southwest  of 
London.  Windsor  and  Eton  in  reality  form  one 
town.  The  town  is  chiefly  interesting  on  account 
of  its  being  the  scene  of  The  Merry  Wives  of 
Windsor,  and  the  antiquity  of  its  castle  and  parks, 
which  have  been  a  favorite  residence  of  English 
monarclis,  especially  since  the  time  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  who  probab  y  built  the  first  substan¬ 
tial  stone  buildings,  and  regularly  fortified  the 
place.  The  history  of  the  existing  castle  begins 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.  Pop.  (1831),  12,273. 

Windsor,  the  county  s  at  of  Bertie  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  550. 

Wine.  The  principal  component  of  the  juice 
of  ripe  grapes  is  water,  in  which  are  various  sub¬ 
stances.  either  held  in  solution  or  very  minutely 
divided.  The  juice  as  obtained  by  pressure,  is 
thick,  and  exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  rapidly 
changes  it  into  a  fermented  liquid.  As  principal 
components  held  in  solution  in  the  water,  Professor 
Mulder  mentions  “  sugar  (both  grape-sugar  and 
fruit-sugar),  gelatine  or  pectine;  gum,  fat,  wax, 
vegetable  albumen,  vegetable  gluten,  and  some 
other  substances  of  the  nature  of  extractive 
matters,  which  are  not,  however,  accurately 
determined;  tartaric  acid ,  both  free  and  combined 
with  potash  (as  cream  of  tartar),  partly  also  com¬ 
bined  with  lime  ;  in  some  cases,  we  find  also 
racemic  acid,  malic  acid,  partly  quite  free,  partly 
combined  with  lime,  and,  according  to  some, 
tartrate  of  potash  and  alumina;  further,  oxide  of 
manganese  and  oxide  of  iron,  sulphate  of  potash, 
common  salt,  phosphate  of  lime,  magnesia,  and 
silicic  acid  may  also  exist.”  Other  materials 
which  appear  during  fermentation,  and  impart 
not  only  the  vinous  smell  common  to  all  wines, 
but  the  aroma  (bouquet)  and  the  flavor  peculiar 
to  each  wine,  must  exist  in  it  in  small  quantities. 
Coloring  matter  and  tannic  acid  are  found  in  the 
skin,  and  are  thus  imparted  to  red  wines.  More¬ 
over,  the  grape-stones,  which  are  left  with  the 
skins,  yield  tannic  acid  freely  during  fermenta¬ 
tion.  The  different  proportions  in  which  the 
inorganic  matters — the  potash,  soda,  lime,  mag¬ 
nesia,  iron,  manganese,  sulphuric  acid,  phos¬ 
phoric  acid,  and  chlorine — exist  in  grape-juice, 


exert  a  very  great  influence  upon  the  quality  of 
the  wine,  both  in  relation  to  its  color  and  its  taste. 
With  regard  to  the  acids  of  grape-juice, or  ‘  ‘  must,” 
as  it  is  technically  called,  Professor  Mulder, 
observes  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  three — viz., 
tartaric,  malic,  and  citric — are  rarely  found 
together  in  one  fruit,  and  he  doubts  whether  the 
presence  of  citric  acid  has  been  fully  proved. 
Malic  acid  exists  in  unripe,  and  tartaric  acid  in 
ripe  grapes;  and  while  no  malic  acid  exists  in 
wine  made  from  perfectly  id pe  grapes,  a  small 
quantity  is  present  in  most  wines.  Racemic  acid 
is  sometimes  present.  Wines  containing  this  acid 
are  sweeter,  and — if  red  wines — darker  colored, 
than  wines  containing  only  tartaric  acid.  The 
quantity  of  sugar  varies  extremely.  In  the  juice 
of  very  ripe  grapes,  it  may  reach  40  per  cent. 
Upon  the  quantity  of  sugar  depends  the  strength 
of  a  wine,  as  in  fermentation,  sugar  is  changed 
to  alcohol.  According  to  Mulder,  sugar  is  found 
in  all  wine,  and  its  quantity  depends  to  a  con¬ 
siderable  extent  upon  the  treatment  to  which  the 
grapes  are  subjected  before  pressure.  Tokay 
wins,  for  example,  is  prepared  from  grapes  which 
have  been  allowed  not  only  to  get  over-ripe,  but 
partly  to  dry  on  the  vines;  mu  depafWe  is  obtained 
from  grapes  dried  on  straw  exposed  to  the  sun, 
and  in  both  these  cases,  water  is  evaporated,  and 
the  concentrated  juice  yields  a  wine  of  extra 
strength.  The  strong  heavy  wines  used  by  the 
ancients  were  thus  prepared.  When  the  grapes 
are  dried  on  the  vine,  the  wine  is  called  vin  sec; 
and  when  the  juice  has  been  evaporated  by  the 
aid  of  heat,  the  wine  is  called  vin  cotti.  The 
character  of  the  wine  is  much  influenced  by  the 
extent  to  which  the  process  of  fermentation  is 
allowed  to  proceed.  If  it  goes  on  till  all  the  sugar 
is  converted  into  alcohol,  a  dry  wine  is  produced; 
when  it  is  checked  before  the  change  is  completed, 
a  rich  fruity  wine  is  produced;  and  when  the 
wine  is  bottled  while  the  fermentation  is  still  in 
progress,  effervescent,  or  “sparkling”  wine  is 
formed.  Shortly  after  the  “must”  has  passed 
from  the  winepress,  symptoms  of  fermentation 
appear;  the  juice  becomes  more  turbid,  bubbles 
rise  to  the  surface,  and  a  froth  soon  settles  there. 
In  two  or  three  weeks,  the  fluid  becomes  compara¬ 
tively  clear,  and  a  precipitate  forms  at  the  bot¬ 
tom.  The  wine  is  now  removed  from  the  sedi¬ 
ment  into  another  vessel,  and  a  slow  form  of 
fermentation — after-fermentation,  as  it  is  termed 
— goes  on  for  several  months,  sugar  being  con¬ 
stantly  converted  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid, 
and  a  fresh  precipitate  forming  at  the  bottom. 
Several  similar  changes  into  other  vesse's  are 
made,  to  get  rid  of  the  sediment,  till  it  is  fit  for 
transferring  into  casks.  That  the  process  of  fer¬ 
mentation  may  go  on  satisfactorily,  not  only 
must  water,  sugar,  and  a  nitrogenous  matter 
in  a  state  of  actual  change  be  present,  but 
there  must  be  a  certain  temperature  and  a 
certain  quantity  of  atmospheric  air  present. 
The  actual  substance — ferment — which  causes 
the  breaking-up  of  sugar  into  alcohol  and 
carbonic  acid,  has  been  submitted  to  careful 
chemical  and  microscopical  examination.  One 
hundred  parts  of  sugar  require  about  1.5  parts  of 
ferment  reckoned  in  the  dry  state;  and  as  the 
analysis  of  ferment  shows  that  about  half  of 
it  consists  of  albuminous  matter,  it  follows 
that  f  of  a  part  of  albuminous  matter  are 
required  for  the  conversion  of  100  parts  of 
sugar  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid.  Ferment 
consists  of  cells  or  globules  of  torula,  which  are 
precisely  the  same  in  the  production  of  wine  and 
beer.  It  is  the  contents  of  these  cells  which  con¬ 
tain  the  active  albuminous  matter.  The  leading 
points  in  which  the  constituents  of  grape-juice 
and  those  of  wine  differ  from  one  another  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  fermentation,  are,  that  in  the  wine 
there  is  a  diminution  of  the  mucilaginous  and 
saccharine  matters,  in  consequence  of  the  forma¬ 
tion  of  ferment  and  alcohol;  of  those  substances 
which  are  insoluble  in  common  water,  but  are 
held  in  solution  in  the  viscid  “must,”  as,  for 
example,  phosphate  and  sulphate  of  lime;  and  of 
cream  of  tartar,  tartrate  of  magnesia,  and  sul¬ 
phate  of  potash,  which,  being  less  soluble  in 
spirit  than  in  water,  fall  as  the  formation  of 
alcohol  increases.  Red  wines  lose  a  portion  of 
coloring  matter  and  of  the  tannin,  which  is  with¬ 
drawn  hy  these  salts,  and  hence  become  of  a  lighter 


color  and  less  astringent.  The  process  of  clearing 
is  undertaken  with  the  view  of  removing  all  the 
sediment  in  which  albuminous  matters  may 
still  occur,  and  of  diminishing  the  coloring  matter 
and  tannin  of  red  wines.  Among  the  sub¬ 
stances  used  for  these  purposes  maybe  mentioned 
albumen,  isinglass,  gum,  milk,  lime,  gypsum, 
etc.  In  warm  countries,  gum  is  preferable  to 
albumen  or  isinglass.  The  addition  of  lime 
throws  down  a  precipitate  of  salts  of  lime,  which 
carries  down,  in  the  case  of  red  wine,  a  consider¬ 
able  quantity  of  coloring  matter;  its  addition  gives 
a  sweeter  and  less  astringent  taste  to  the  wine, 
and  an  appearance  of  age.  As  a  general  rule, 
clearing  increases  the  durability  of  wine.  Sul¬ 
phurizing  is  a  process  which  is  especially  applied 
to  sweet  white  wines,  which  possess  an  excess  of 
sugar  and  albuminous  matter,  and  little  tannic 
acid,  and  thus  become  easily  decomposed.  Its 
object  is  to  check  undue  fermentation,  and  to 
prevent  the  formation  of  mold,  which  afterward 
imparts  a  musty  taste  to  the  wine.  The  process 
is  effected  by  burning  sulphur  in  bottles  or  casks, 
and  instantly  pouring  in  the  wine,  which  absorbs 
the  sulphurous  acid.  Wine  intended  for  exporta¬ 
tion  to  warm  climates  is  usually  strongly  sul¬ 
phurized.  Of  course,  great  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  sulphur  is  free  from  its  common 
impurity,  arsenic.  In  place  of  sulphurizing, 
another  method  of  hindering  the  fermentation  of 
sweet  wine  is  adopted  in  some  parts  of  France;  it 
consists  in  putting  part  of  powdered  mustard 
into  the  wine;  but  how  it  acts  is  unknown.  The 
ages  at  which  different  wines  attain  their  perfec¬ 
tion  are,  as  is  well  known,  extremely  different. 
“  As  a  general  rule,”  says  Mulder,  “  wines  which 
have  retained  a  considerable  portion  of  albu¬ 
minous  matter,  and  possess  but  little  tannic 
acid,  can  not  resist  the  influence  of  time;  they 
become  acid,  or  undergo  some  other  change. 
This  occurs  in  the  case  of  Rhine  wines,  which 
contain  but  little  alcohol;  and  all  those  wines 
which  contain  much  sugar,  or  but  little  tannic 
acid,  can  not  be  kept  long.  Wines  which  can 
be  “cellared”  are  those  which  improve;  or,  to 
speak  more  correctly,  those  wines  are  stored 
which  improve  with  age.  In  these,  odoriferous 
substances  are  formed,  and  the  wine  becomes  less 
acid  and  better  tasting.  Such  wine  as  is  colored 
often  deposits  a  considerable  amount  of  sediment; 
and  if  it  be  stored  in  casks,  there  is  a  constant 
increase  of  alcohol.”  Wine  is  improved  by  being 
kept  in  wooden  casks,  as  water  escapes  by  evapora¬ 
tion,  and  the  other  constituents  are  relatively 
increased.  The  vinous  constituents  being  thus 
concentrated,  exert  a  stronger  chemical  action 
upon  each  other,  and  render  the  wine  not  only 
stronger,  but  better  flavored.  The  change,  how¬ 
ever,  does  not  stop  here.  The  loss  of  water  must 
be  replaced  by  the  addition  of  wine,  otherwise  the 
action  of  the  air  would  turn  the  wine  sour,  and 
convert  the  alcohol  into  acetic  acid;  and  the  dimi¬ 
nution  of  water,  which  is  thus  replaced  by  wine, 
causes  a  constant  increaseof  tartaric  acid.  Wines 
which  are  poor  in  sugar  may  thus  soon  become 
too  sour;  and  consequently,  all  wines  can  not  un¬ 
dergo  this  process.  The  popular  idea,  that  wine 
which  has  grown  old  in  bottles  has  therefore  be¬ 
come  richer  in  alcohol,  is  altogether  false,  and  is 
doubtless  founded  on  the  fact,  that  it  is  only  the 
strongest  wines  which  can  be  preserved.  The 
color,  however,  of  bottled  wine  is  materially  affect¬ 
ed  by  aire;  liqueur-wines  and  red  wines  contain 
itig  no  large  amount  of  tannic  acid,  becoming 
darker,  while  wines  which  are  rich  in  tannic  acid, 
as  Port,  for,  example,  deposit  a  sediment,  and 
become  lighter.  Old  bottled  wines  contain  odor¬ 
iferous  constituents — ethers  of  various  organic 
acids — which  are  not  found  in  new  wine.  This 
effect  of  time  may  be  imitated  by  art,  and  if  bot¬ 
tles  corked,  but  not  quite  filled  with  wine,  are 
placed  for  two  hours  in  warm  water  at  a  tempera¬ 
ture  of  185°,  and  after  cooling,  are  filled,  their 
contents  possess  the  flavor  and  aroma  of  wine 
that  has  been  bottled  several  years.  Wines 
which  have  been  long  in  bottle  sometimes  acquire 
a  peculiar  flavor,  which  is  incorrectly  referred  to 
the  cork.  It  is  in  reality  due  to  the  peculiar  mold 
which  grows  from  the  outside  of  the  cork  inward; 
and  should  it  reach  the  inner  surface,  it  imparts 
to  the  contents  of  the  bottle  a  peculiar  taste;  and 
this  wine  is  said  to  be  corked.  Very  similar  to 


WINFIELD. 


711 


WINNIPEG. 


this  is  what  is  known  as  “the  taste  of  the  cask,” 
a  peculiar  flavor  sometimes  acquired  by  winebefore 
bottling.  This  flavor  is  regarded  as  dependent 
on  the  development  of  a  peculiar  essential  oil, 
during  the  growth  of  “mold,”  on  the  surface  of 
the  wine.  It  can  be  removed  by  the  addition  to 
each  pipe  of  about  a  quart  of  olive  oil,  which  dis¬ 
solves  the  unpleasant  flavoring  matter,  and  carries 
it  to  the  surface.  In  submitting  matured  wines 
to  chemical  analysis  it  is  found  that  they  differ 
materially  from  one  another  in  their  composition; 
and  especially  as  the  wine  is,  or  is  not,  red.  In 
white  wine,  no  special  coloring  matters  are  found, 
and  only  a  trace  of  tannic  acid;  while  in  red  wine, 
both  are  present.  In  wine  generally,  the  princi¬ 
pal  ingredients  are  alcohol  and  water;  then  sugar, 
gum,  "extractive  and  albuminous  matters;  then 
free  organic  acids,  such  as  tartaric,  racemic,  malic, 
and  acetic  acid;  and  salts,  such  as  the  tartrates 
of  potash,  of  lime,  and  of  magnesia,  sulphate  of 
potash,  chloride  of  sodium,  and  traces  of  phos¬ 
phate  of  lime;  also  especially  in  old  wines,  sub 
stances  imparting  aroma,  as  oenanthic  and  acetic 
ethers,  and  other  volatile  odoriferous  matters 
(among  which  Mulder  mentions  butyric  and  capry- 
lic  ethers,  each  having  a  pine-apple  odor,  caproic, 
pelargonic,  capric,  and  propionic  ethers,  amylic 
alcohol,  and  many  of  its  ethers  and  other  com¬ 
pounds,  aldehyde,  acetal,  and  probably  racemic, 
citric,  and  malic  ethers).  In  red  wines,  and  in  many 
others,  a  little  iron,  and  possibly  some  alumina, 
may  be  found;  and  lastly,  the  best  wines  contain, 
according  to  Faure,  a  peculiar  matter,  which  he 
terms  cenantliin,  and  to  which  he  ascribes  the 
substance  or  body  of  the  wine;  but  which  seems 
to  other  chemists  scarcely  to  differ  from  gum  or 
d  -xtrine.  These  ingredients,  vary  exceedingly 
in  proportion.  The  quantity  of  some  is  so  small 
that  the  substance  almost  disappears  during 
analysis;  others  can  just  be  determined  by  a  deli¬ 
cate  balance;  while  others,  again,  arc  freely 
present.  Putting  aside  taste  and  smell  as  stand¬ 
ards  of  comparison,  most  of  the  essential  dietetic 
and  therapeutic  properties  of  wine  depend  upon 
the  alcohol,  sugar,  and  free  acids,  especially  tar¬ 
taric  acid,  contained  in  it.  Dr.  Bence  Jones, 
found  that  the  alcohol  varies  in: 


Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Port  . 

. . from  20.7 

to 

23.2 

Madeira . 

.  “  19.0 

‘4 

19.7 

2  4.7 

Champagne . 

.  “  14.1 

14.8 

Burgundy . 

.  ■■  10.1 

13.2 

Rhine  Wine . 

.  “  9.5 

13.0 

Claret  . .  . 

.  “  9. 1 

u 

11.1 

Moselle  . 

.  “  8.7 

w 

9.4 

Brandy . 

.  “  50.4 

“ 

53.8 

Rum . 

.  “  72.0 

77.1 

Genera  ...  . 

.  “  49.4 

Bitter  Ale  . 

.  “  6  6 

44 

12  3 

Porter . 

.  “  6.5 

7.9 

Cider . 

.  “  5.4 

14 

7.5 

Sugar  is  found  in  all  wines,  although  in  certain 
kinds  very  little  exists.  Small  as  is  the  quantity 
of  sugar  in  some  wines,  it  is  of  great  importance 
in  diminishing  the  sharp  taste  of  the  free  acids, 
and  in  imparting  an  agreeable  flavor.  Good  red 
wines  should  contain  at  least  .)  per  cent,  of 
sugar,  and  the  quantity  is  sometimes  larger. 
Some  of  the  sweet  wines  contain  nearly  one-fourth 
of  their  weight  of  saccharine  matter.  The  fol¬ 
lowing  results  were  yielded  by  the  experiments  of 
Dr.  Bence  Jones: 

Sherry  (IS  samples), sugar  in  1  oz.  varied  from  4  to  18  grains. 


Madeira  (9  samples) .  “  “  6  to  20 

Champagne  (4  samples).  .  “  “  6  to  as  “ 

Port  (8  samples) . .  “  “  16  to  34  " 

Malmsey  Madeira .  “  “  56  to  06  “ 

Tokay  .  “  “  74  “ 

Cyprus .  “  “  101  “ 


Under  the  term  “free  acids”  are  included  the 
acid  tartrate  of  potash,  known  as  cream  of  tartar, 
and  other  soluble  bitartrates  found  in  wine, 
besides  such  acids  as  are  quite  uncombined,  such 
as  tartaric,  malic,  and  acetic  acid,  and  a  trace  of 
free  tannic  acid.  Sugar  has  so  much  power  in 
concealing  the  free  acids,  that  their  quantity  can 
not  be  estimated  with  any  certainty  by  the  flavor 
of  the  wine  and  must  be  estimated  chemi¬ 
cally  by  ascertaining  how  much  of  an  alka¬ 
line  solution  of  given  strength  must  be  used 
in  order  to  render  a  given  quantity  of  wine  per¬ 
fectly  neutral  to  test-paper.  Volatile  acids,  as, 
for  example,  acetic  acid,  may  either  be  deter¬ 
mined  separately,  or  included  with  the  others; 


and,  excepting  this  acid,  all  the  other  acids  occur¬ 
ring  in  wine  may  practically  be  calculated  as 
tartaric  acid.  Mulder  found  that  acetic  acid  was 
present  in  twenty  different  kinds  of  wine  which 
lie  examined,  the  quantity  of  the  anhydrous  acid 
ranging  from  1.75  thousandth  parts  in  Madeira 
to  0.25  thousandth  parts  in  Tavella.  In  the  same 
twenty  kinds  of  wines,  the  free  tartaric  acid 
ranged  from  2  to  7  parts  in  1,000  of  wine, 
Tavella  having  the  largest,  and  Bordeaux 
Sauterne  the  smallest  quantity.  Traces  of  tannic 
acid  may  be  found  in  all  white  wines,  but  in  no 
white  wine  is  it  sufficiently  abundant  to  be  of  the 
slightest  importance  in  a  medical  or  dietetic  point 
of  view.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  abundant  in 
Port  and  heavily  loaded  Bordeaux  wines,  especi¬ 
ally  when  new.  In  the  course  of  time,  this  tannic 
acid  becomes  oxidized  into  a  sparingly  soluble 
compound,  which  is  called  by  Berzelius  the 
apothema,  or  precipitate  of  tannic  acid — a  process 
which  is  facilitated  by  the  exposure  of  the  wine 
in  bottles  to  full  daylight.  There  is  no  doubt  that 
this  acid,  by  combining  with  the  albuminous 
matters,  tends  to  increase  the  durability  of  these 
wines.  The  recent  decline  in  French  vintages  by 
reason  of  the  phylloxera,  has  developed  a  new 
wine-making  industry  in  France.  Enormous 
quantities  of  dried  raisins,  imported  chiefly  from 
Smyrna  and  the  East,  are  soaked  in  water  for  forty 
or  fifty  hours,  and  then  treated  as  fresh  grapes. 
Every  100  kilogrammes  of  raisins  so  treated,  yield 
325  litres  of  white  or  straw-colored  wine,  now 
recognized  by  the  authorities  as  harmless;  30,- 
000,000  kilogrammes  of  raisins  and  currants 
were  used  in  1880  in  this  way.  The  most  import¬ 
ant  of  the  diseases  of  wine  are:  Turning  is  a 
disease  incidental  to  young  wine,  and  seems  to 
occur  under  special  conditions  of  the  weather. 
The  color  becomes  darker,  and  the  taste  first  dis¬ 
appears,  and  if  the  disease  goes  on,  becomes  dis¬ 
agreeable;  the  wine  becomes  turbid  and  acid. 
This  disease  is  caused  by  a  decomposition  of 
tartar.  Ropiness  consists  in  the  formation  of 
vegetable  mucus  from  the  sugar  of  the  wine,  and 
is  known  as  mucous  fermentation.  The  wines 
liable  to  this  change  are  those  which  are  deficient 
in  tannic  acid.  Bitterness,  to  which  Burgundy 
wines  are  especially  exposed,  seems  due  to  a 
second  fermentation,  inasmuch  as  a  large  amount 
of  carbonic  acid  is  evolved.  It  has  been  ascribed 
to  the  formation  of  citric  ether,  which  is  very  bitter. 
The  disease  is  caused  by  the  sediment,  and  often 
ceases  on  being  drawn  off  into  other  casks.  The 
acidifying  of  the  wine  depends  upon  the  con¬ 
version  of  the  alcohol  into  acetic  acid,  and 
may  be  stopped  at  its  commencement  by 
adding  alkaline  carbonates,  which,  however, 
destroy  the  color,  and  affect  the  taste  of  the 
wine.  Moldiness  is  a  disease  in  which  mold- 
plants  are  produced  on  the  surface  of  the 
wine.  How  or  under  what  conditions  the 
mold  is  formed,  is  not  known,  except  that 
the  admission  of  air  is  favorable  to  the  disease. 
The  manufacture  of  wine  has  been  carried  on  in 
all  countries  where  the  grape  could  be  success¬ 
fully  cultivated,  from  the  very  earliest  periods 
of  history ;  and  during  the  present  century,  it  had 
followed  the  footsteps  of  man,  and  become  exten¬ 
sively  established  in  this  country  and  Australia. 
The  vine,  like  most  cultivated  plants,  is  capable 
of  producing  numerous  varieties,  and  these,  of 
course,  give  rise  to  different  qualities  of  wine;  but 
far  more  influence  is  exerted  upon  the  quality  of 
the  wine  by  climate,  soil,  and  the  position  of  the 
vineyard  as  to  the  sun’s  influence;  so  that  we  not 
only  have  wines  peculiar  to  particular  countries, 
but  of  those,  again,  we  have  usually  very  numerous 
varieties,  produced  by  special  causes  within  those 
countries;  and  in  addition  to  all  these,  again,  we 
have  other  differences,  produced  by  the  degrees 
of  skill  in  the  manufacture.  Burgundy  is  the 
oldest  wine-producing  country  of  Central  Europe, 
and  centuries  ago  the  wine  of  this  province  was 
the  choicest  to  be  found  on  the  tables  of  the  rich 
and  noble.  Much  of  the  Burgundy  of  the  present 
day  has  excellent  qualities — being  of  good  body, 
velvety,  and  of  delicate  bouquet.  A  few  scarce 
kinds,  such  as  the  Romanee-Conti,  are  really 
splendid  wines.  Claret  or  red  wine,  for  export, 
is  chiefly  the  produce  of  the  Medoc  district.  It 
begins  below  Bordeaux,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Gironde,  and  stretches  almost  to  the  Bay  of 


Biscay.  White  wine,  or  Sauterne,  is  also  pro¬ 
duced  in  the  same  neighborhood.  The  general 
character  of  the  Bordeaux  wines,  which  are  ot  all 
qualities,  is  crispness,  elegance,  and  fine  bouquet, 
and  they  improve  by  keeping.  Sparkling  wine 
of  great  renown  is  produced  in  the  Champagne, 
the  finest  qualities  of  which  sell  at  exorbitant 
prices  ;  but  it  would  appear  that  in  no  other 
corner  of  tile  earth  can  wine  of  the  same  high 
character  be  .obtained,  Germany  produces  fine 
white  wine  but  very  few  red  wines.  They  are 
best  known  as  Hocks  and  Moselles,  and  are  made 
both  still  and  sparkling.  They  have  much 
elegance  and  a  racy  flavor.  At  the  Vienna 
Exliibition  of  1873,  the  jurors  on  the  wine  section 
had  before  them  a  sample  of  Rhine  wine  made  in 
1706,  the  year  in  which  Marlborough  gained  the 
Battle  of  Ramillies,  another  coeval  with  the  War 
of  American  Independence,  and  another  of  the' 
year  of  the  Battle  of  Jena.  But  all  these  and 
others  made  in  the  early  part  of  the  century, 
before  the  days  of  “  fortifying,”  had  lost  their 
characteristic  taste  and  flavor,  and  were  but  the 
phantoms  of  what  they  had  been.  The  vineyards 
of  Austria  are  extensive,  and  produce  a  great 
variety  of  wines,  which  are  mostly  consumed 
in  the  country  itself,  the  red  Voslauer  being 
ihe  kind  principally  exported.  Hungary  is  still 
more  a  wine-growing  country,  producing  con¬ 
siderably  more  than  it  consumes,  and  is  the  home 
of  the  renowned  Tokay,  which  boasts 'a  high  an¬ 
tiquity,  and  commands  a  more  fabulous  price 
than  any  other  wine  in  the  world.  Mi'neser- 
Ausbruch,  Carlowitz,  Ruster,  Somlauer,  and  one 
or  two  others,  are  also  favorably  known.  Per¬ 
haps  the  foreign  wines  best  known  in  this  country 
are  the  Sherries  of  Spain  and  the  Ports  of  Portu¬ 
gal.  The  best  kinds  of  the  former  are  those 
technically  called  dry — that  is,  free  from  sweet¬ 
ness.  Manzanillo  is  said  to  be  the  purest,  but 
Montilla,  Amontillado,  and  Vino  de  Panto  are  also 
famous  kinds  of  sherry.  This  wine  is  chiefly 
shipped  at  Cadiz,  near  which  it  is  made.  The 
Malaga  wines,  both  sweet  and  dry,  are  widely 
known,  and  from  Catalonia  come  the  Spanish 
reds.  Port  wine  is  mostly  brought  from  Oporto. 
Nearly  all  wines  passing  under  the  names  of  Port 
and  Sherry  are  fortified,  that  is,  dosed  with 
brandy;  but  these  form  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  wines  produced  in  the  Peninsula.  Madeira, 
where  twenty-five  years  ago  the  vineyards 
were  almost  totally  destroyed  by  the  oidium 
fungus,  is  now  rapidly  increasing  the  yield  of  its 
highly-prized  wine.  Italy,  with  great  natural 
advantages,  is  behind  several  other  nations  in  the 
production  of  fine  and  especially  of  sparkling 
wines;  but  the  Barolo  of  Piedmont,  the  Chianti 
of  Tuscany,  the  Orvieto  of  the  Roman  States, 
the  Lacryma  Christi  of  Naples,  and  other  special 
growths,  have  a  high  reputation.  The  celebrated 
Marsala,  a  wine  with  a  sherry-like  flavor,  comes 
from  Sicily.  Not  much  Italian  wine  is  exported, 
but  the  acreage  occupied  by  the  vineyards  must 
be  very  large.  The  lesser  wine-growing  countries 
of  Europe  are  Switzerland,  Russia,  Turkey,  and 
Greece,  which  continues  as  in  ancient  times  to 
put  resin  in  what  is  required  for  home  consump¬ 
tion.  Australia  can  already  astonish  the  best 
French  judges  by  the  excellence  of  her  wines, 
and  the  Cape  continues  to  yield  her  luscious 
Constantia  and  other  growths  of  fine  quality; 
while  the  American  Catawbas  and  other  wines, 
still  and  sparkling,  red  and  white,  sweet  and  dry, 
have  already  become  familiar  throughout  t lie 
world. 

Winfield,  the  county  seat  of  Cowley  county, 
Kan.  Pop.,  7,400. 

Winfield,  the  county  seat  of  Putnam  county, 
W  Va.  Pop.,  500. 

Winnemucca,  the  county  seat  of  Humboldt 
county,  Nev.  Pop..  800. 

Wlnnfield,  the  parish  seat  of  Winn  parish,  La. 
Pop.,  133. 

Win'nipcg,  Lake,  one  of  the  largest  of  the 
lakes  belonging  wholly  to  British  North  America, 
lies  ninety  miles  north  of  the  State  of  Minnesota, 
and  about  350  miles  northwest  of  Lake  Superior, 
in  latitude  50°— 54°  N.,  96°— 100°  W.  It  is  264 
miles  long,  35  miles  broad,  has  an  area  of  9,000 
square  miles,  and  lies  628  feet  above  sea  level. 

Winnipeg,  capital  of  the  Canadian  Province  of 
Manitoba,  stands  at  the  confluence  of  the  Assini- 


WINNIPISEOGEE. 


712 


WOLFE. 


boine  with  the  Red  river,  fifty  miles  south  of 
Lake  Winnipeg.  Pop.,  15,000. 

Winnipiseogee,  or  Winnipesau'kee,  a  beau¬ 
tiful  lake  of  New  Hampshire,  25  miles  long, 
and  of  varying  width,  with  deep  bays,  bold  prom¬ 
ontories,  and  numerous  islands. 

Winnsborough,  the  county  seat  of  Fairfield 
county,  S.  C.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Winnsborough,  the  parish  seat  of  Franklin 
parish,  La.  Pop.,  350. 

Winona,  the  county  seat  of  Montgomery 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  1,275. 

Winona,  the  county  seat  of  Winona  county, 
Minn.,  is  an  important  shipping  and  manufactur¬ 
ing  point  on  the  Mississippi  river,  twenty  miles 
above  La  Crosse  and  110  miles  below  St.  Paul. 
Pop.,  20,200. 

Winston,  the  county  seat  of  Forsyth  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  7,200. 

Wintergreen,  Oil  of,  or  Gattltheiuc  Acid,  is 
an  essential  oil  yielded  by  the  flowers  of  the  Gaul- 
theria  procumbent,  abundant  in  New  Jersey.  This 
oil  is  not  only  yielded  by  the  distillation  of  other 
plants,  as  by  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  Monotropa 
hypopitys,  and  the  bark  of  Belula  h-nta,  but  may 
also  be  artificially  formed  by  distilling  a  mixt¬ 
ure  of  2  parts  of  crystallized  salicylic  acid, 
2  of  anhydrous  wood-spirit,  and  1  part  of  oil  of 
vitriol.  In  whatever  mode  it  is  obtained,  it  pre¬ 
sents  the  appearance  of  a  colorless  or  yellow  oil, 
of  a  powerful,  agreeable,  and  persistent  odor, 
and  hence  it  is  largely  used  in  perfumery. 

Winterset,  the  county  seat  of  Madison  county, 
Iowa.  Pop.,  3,300. 

Winthrop  Family. — John,  Governor  of  the 
Colony  of  Massachusetts,  was  born  in  Groton, 
County  of  Suffolk,  England,  Jan.  12,  1588,  and 
died  at  Boston,  April  5,  1676. — John,  LL.D., 
American  scholar,  a  descendant  of  the  first  Gov¬ 
ernor  Winthrop,  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  1715, 
and  died  at  Cambridge,  May  3,  1779. — Robert 
Charles,  LL.D.,  American  statesmen,  and  ora¬ 
tor,  descendant  of  the  sixth  generation  from  the 
first  Governor  Winthrop,  was  born  at  Boston, 
May  12,  1809.  In  1840  he  was  elected  to  Con¬ 
gress,  of  which  he  was  a  member  for  ten  years. 
In  1850  he  succeeded  Mr.  Webster,  who  became 
Secretary  of  State  as  Senator  from  Massachu¬ 
setts,  a  place  in  which  he  was  succeeded  by  the 
more  radical  Charles  Sumner. 

Winton,  the  county  seat  of  Hertford  county, 
N.  C.  Pop.,  300. 

Wrire  and  Wire-drawing.  The  facility  with 
which  any  metal  can  be  drawn  into  wire  depends 
upon  its  ductility.  Metals  largely  used  for  mak¬ 
ing  wire,  such  as  iron,  brass,  and  copper,  are 
drawn  by  essentially  the  same  process.  It  is  pre¬ 
pared  by  cutting  up  flat  rolled  plates  into  square 
rods  of  a  given  t  hickness.  This  is  done  by  means 
of  a  pair  of  slitting  rollers;  one  of  these  has 
grooves,  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  rods  wanted, 
fitting  into  corresponding  grooves  in  the  other, 
which  cut  up  the  metal  like  scissors.  The  rods 
are  cleaned  of  scales  of  oxide,  either  by  mechan¬ 
ical  rubbing,  or  by  chemical  treatment  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid.  If  the  rod  is  thick,  it  has  its 
s  (uare  edge  taken  off  by  rollers.  It  is  then  drawn 
into  wire  by  forcing  it  through  the  hole  of  a 
draw-plate.  This  is  an  oblong  piece  of  hard  steel 


Wire-drawer's  Bench. 

pierced  with  conical  holes,  gradually  diminishing 
in  diameter,  and  having  the  smallest  ends  of  these 
tapering  holes  carefully  prepared  to  the  required 
size.  Sometimes  cubical-shaped  dies,  each  with 
a  single  trumpet-shaped  hole,  are  used.  A  wire- 
drawer’s  bench  is  shown  in  the  annexed  figure,  in 
which  A  is  the  drawing-plate,  and  B  the  drawing- 


block  or  cylinder.  The  motion  is  given  by  means 
of  beveled  wheels  connected  with  a  shaft  driven  j 
by  steam  or  water  power.  The  workman  com¬ 
mences  by  making  a  point  on  the  rod,  so  as  to 
allow  it  to  pass  through  the  hole,  and  be  grasped 
by  a  pair  of  pincers  attached  to  a  chain,  which 
draws  it  out  till  the  length  is  sufficient  to  pass 
round  the  cylinder.  This  much  is  done  by  hand, 
and  then  the  cylinder,  being  put  in  gear,  is  made 
to  revolve  and  pull  the  wire  through  the  draw- 
plate — coiling  it  round  itself  as  the  drawing  pro¬ 
ceeds.  After  being  once  drawn,  it  is  again  passed 
through  a  smaller  hole,  and  so  the  process  is  re¬ 
peated  till  it  has  been  reduced  to  the  size  required. 
Fine  wire  may  require  from  20  to  30  drawings. 
The  cylinder  revolves  slowly  with  a  thick  wire, 
and  the  speed  is  increased  as  the  size  diminishes. 
After  being  passed  a  few  times  through  the  draw- 
plate  the  metal  becomes  brittle,  and  requires  to 
be  annealed.  Sometimes,  a  lubricating  substance 
— as  wax,  grease,  or  soap — is  employed  during 
the  drawing,  especially  for  fine  wires. 

Wire- worm,  a  name  given  by  farmers  and 
gardeners  to  the  larvae  of  click  beetles,  which  are 
long  and  hard,  and  often  swarm  in  corn-fields,  gar¬ 
dens,  and  pastures,  feeding  on  the  roots  of  ctops, 
and  doing  great  mischief. 

Wiscasset,  the  county  seat  of  Lincoln  county, 
Maine.  Pop.,  1,978. 

Wiscon  'sin,  one  of  the  United  States,  between 
latitude  42°  31 ' — 47°  N.,  and  longitude  87°  8' — 92° 
54'  W.;  302  miles  from  north  to  south,  and  258 
from  east  to  west,  containing  53,924  square  miles, 
or  34,511,600  acres;  is  bounded  north  by  Lake 
Superior  and  the  State  of  Michigan,  east  by. Lake 
Michigan,  south  by  Illinois,  and  west  by  Ipwa 
and  Minnesota,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  Mississippi  and  St.  Croix  rivers.  There  are 
over  6,000  miles  of  railway  in  the  State,  and 
extensive  lake  and  river  navigation.  Pop.  (1889), 
1,563,800. 

Wisconsin,  a  river  of  Wisconsin,  rises  in  the 
northern  center  of  the  State,  and  flows  south 
and  west  into  the  Mississippi.  Length,  270  miles. 

Wise  Courthouse,  the  county  seat  of  Wise 
county,  Va.  Pop.,  225. 

Wise,  Henry  Alexander,  American  states¬ 
man,  was  born  at  Drummoudtowui,  Accomack 
county,  Va.,  Dec.  3, 1806.  Elected  to  Congress  in 
1833,  he  was  involved  in  a  duel  with  his  opponent, 
whose  arm  he  fractured.  In  1840  he  was  made 
Minister  to  Brazil,  where  he  resided  until  1847, 
and  in  1854  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Virginia. 
In  December,  1859,  he  signed  the  death-warrant 
of  John  Brown,  hanged  for  treason  in  attempting 
to  excite  a  negro  insurrection.  In  1861,  as  mem¬ 
ber  of  the  Virginia  Convention,  he  labored  for 
conciliation;  but  when  his  State  voted  for  seces¬ 
sion,  he  entered  the  Confederate  army  and  was 
appointed  Brigadier-General.  He  died  in  Sep¬ 
tember,  1876. 

Wiseman,  Nicholas, Cardinal  and  Roman  Cath¬ 
olic  Archbishop  of  Westminster,  was  born  Aug. 
2,  1802,  at  Seville,  of  an  Irish  family  settled  in 
Spain.  In  his  sixteenth  year  he  entered  as  an  eccle¬ 
siastical  student  the  English  college  at  Rome,  and 
after  a  very  brilliant  course,  received  holy  orders 
at  Rome  in  1823, at  which  time  he  was  also  admitted 
to  the  degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity,  and  ivas  ap¬ 
pointed  Vice-Rector  of  the  English  college,  and 
Professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  the  Univer¬ 
sity  of  the  Sapienza.  In  the  year  1850,  in  the 
face  of  great  opposition,  he  received  his  title  of 
Cardinal,  and  Bishop  of  Westminster.  Though 
at  first  ill-received  in  England,  the  undoubted 
abilities  and  great  literary  eminence  of  Cardinal 
Wiseman,  eventually  compelled  the  admiration 
of  the  British  public.  He  died  in  his  sixty-third 
year,  Feb.  15,  1865.  Besides  admittedly  high 
professional  learning,  he  wTas  a  scholar  of  rare 
and  singularly  various  attainments,  an  eminent 
linguist,  a  well-informed  scientific  scholar,  a  dis¬ 
tinguished  orator,  a  graceful  and  vigorous  writer, 
and  an  accomplished  critic  and  connoisseur  of  art. 

Wis'taria,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Papilionacece ,  having 
pinnate  leaves  and  flowers  in  terminal  racemes, 
the  pod  leathery.  The  species  were  formerly 
included  in  the  genus  Glycine.  W.  frute teens,  a 
native  of  the  Northern  States,  found  chiefly  in 
marshy  grounds,  attains  the  length  of  30  feet, 


and  has  beautiful  racemes  of  fragrant  bluish- 
purple  flowers. 

Witch-hazel  ( Hamamelis  vivginica),  a  North 
American  shrub  of  the  natural  order  Hamameli- 
dacece.  The  English  name  is  derived  from  the 
supposed  virtues  of  a  forked  twig  as  a  divining- 
rod.  The  bark  is  much  esteemed  as  a  sedative 
and  discutient. 

Wittsburgh,  the  county  seat  of  Cross  county 
Ark.  Pop.,  275. 

Wo'burn,  a  township  of  Massachusetts,  ten 
miles  north-northwest  of  Boston,  on  the  Boston 
&  Lowell  Railway,  containing  numerous  factories 
supplied  with  water-power,  country  residences  of 
wealthy  Bostonians,  numerous  churches,  acad¬ 
emy,  etc.  Pop.  (1880),  11,800. 

Wolf  (corresponds  to  Lat.  vulpes,  a  fox),  the 
name  of  a  wild  animal  of  the  same  genus  with 
the  dog,  and  of  which  it  is  indeed  doubtful  if  it 
constitutes  a  distinct  species;  while  as  to  the 
different  kinds  of  wolves  found  in  different  parts 
of  the  world,  it  must  be  deemed  at  present 
wholly  uncertain  whether  they  are  to  be  regarded 
as  species  or  varieties,  although  they  have,  pro¬ 
visionally,  received  specific  names.  There  exists 
among  them  the  same  close  resemblance  as  in 
the  different  kinds  of  dog,  with  a  similarly 
marked  distinction  of  characters,  which,  how¬ 
ever,  it  is  difficult  to  state  as  specific  characters 
are  generally  stated.  The  common  wolf  ( Cams 
lupus)  inhabits  Europe  and  the  northern  parts  of 
Asia,  its  range  extending  from  the  Arctic  regions 
as  far  south  as  the  northern  parts  of  Africa  and 
of  India.  The  American  wolves  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  the  old  world.  They  have  been 
described  as  forming  several  distinct  species,  but 
are  by  some  included  in  one,  doubtfully  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  the  common  wolf,  and  to  which 
the  name  Cams  occidentals  is  given.  The  fur  is 
thicker,  and  the  form  more  robust  than  in  the 
common  wolf,  the  muzzle  is  less  pointed,  and  the 
profile  not  so  straight,  the  legs  and  ears  are 
shorter,  and  the  tail  is  more  bushy.  The  gray 
wolf  ( Canis  occidentals,  variety  Griseo-albus  or  0. 
griseus)  is  abundant  in  the  northern  parts  of 
North  America,  except  in  the  long-settled  dis¬ 
tricts,  from  which  it  has  been  expelled  by  man. 
It  is  the  only  kind  found  in  Canada.  A  few  still 
remain  in  the  mountainous  and  wooded  parts  of 
New  England.  In  the  Northwestern  States  the 
gray  wolf  gives  place  to  the  dusky  woll  ( Canis 
nubilus  of  many  naturalists);  and  in  the  South  is 
the  black  wolf  ((7.  ater  or  Lycaon)-  while  on  the 
upper  parts  of  the  Missouri,  the  white  wolf 
appears,  and  the  rufous  wolf  in  Texas.  They 
differ  little  in  characters  and  habits  from  the 
gray  wolf.  The  prairie  wolf  (C.  latrans,  or  Tycis- 
cus  latrans),  the  coyote  of  the  Mexicans,  is  a  very 
different  animal,  more  resembling  the  jackal.  It 
is  found  from  Mexico  northward  to  the  Sas¬ 
katchewan,  abounding  on  the  vast  plains  of  the 
Missouri.  It  is  36  to  40  inches  long,  with  a  tail 
of  16  or  18  inches;  the  muzzle  sharp  and  fox-like, 
the  ears  very  large  and  erect,  four  toes  on  each 
foot,  and  on  the  forefeet  a  sharp  claw  on  the  in¬ 
side,  two  inches  above  the  ground,  attached  to 
the  rudimentary  thumb;  the  color  is  usually  dull 
yellowish  gray,  with  black  cloudings,  the  under 
parts  dirty  white.  It  hunts  in  packs.  It  is  an 
extremely  fleet  quadruped,  excelling  every  other 
in  the  countries  which  it  inhabits,  except  the 
prong-horn.  Its  voice  is  a  kind  of  snapping  bark. 
The  true  wolves  never  bark,  the  only  sound  the}' 
emit  being  a  prolonged  and  dismal  howl.  South 
America  has  numerous  species  of  Caiiidce,  some 
of  which  are  known  as  Aguana  wolves,  and  are 
nearly  allied  to  the  prairie  wolf. 

Wolfe,  James,  the  most  famous  English  gen¬ 
eral  of  his  time,  was  born  at  Westerliam,  in  Kent, 
Jan.  2,  1727.  In  1758  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
command  of  a  brigade  in  the  expedition  against 
Cape  Breton,  under  General  Amherst.  A  great 
success  was  obtained  in  the  capture  of  Louisbourg; 
that  it  was  mainly  due  to  Wolfe’s  skill,  boldness, 
and  activity  was  quite  clearly  understood,  and  he 
became  popularly  known  as  “  the  Hero  of  Louis¬ 
bourg.”  Pitt  was  now  organizing  his  grand 
scheme  for  the  expulsion  of  the  French  from 
Canada,  and  the  expedition,  which  had  for  its 
object  the  capture  of  Quebec,  the  enemy’s  capital, 
lie  confided  to  the  care  of  Wolfe,  allowing  him, 
as  far  as  possible,  a  carte  blanche  for  the  choice 


WOLFFIAN  BODIES. 


713 


WOOD-ENGRAVING. 


•of  his  subordinate  officers.  On  Feb.  17,  1759, 
Wolfe  advanced  to  the  rank  of  Major-General, 
and  commanding  an  army  of  between  8,000  and 
9,000  men,  set  sail  from  England.  On  June  26th, 
Wolfe  landed  his  forces  on  the  Isle  of  Orleans, 
opposite  Quebec,  and  proceeded  to  concert  his 
plans  for  the  attack  upon  it.  At  last,  at  day- 
dawn  of  September  13tli.  he  found  himself  at  the 
head  of  his  little  army,  on  the  Heights  of  Abra¬ 
ham,  above  the  city,  where  Montcalm  was  forced 
to  risk  battle  in  the  open  field.  Wolfe  had,  dur¬ 
ing  the  night,  succeeded  in  scaling  the  cliffs 
at  a  point  insufficiently  guarded.  After  a  short 
struggle,  the  enemy  was  driven  from  the  field  in 
complete  rout;  the  capitulation  of  Quebec  fol¬ 
lowed  some  days  after;  and  its  fall  decided  the 
fate  of  Canada.  But  Wolfe  did  not  live  to  reap 
the  fruits  of  his  bravery,  being  killed  at  the 
moment  of  victory. 

Wolf'ftan  Bodies,  important  organs  in  the 
vertebrate  embryo,  in  which  they  serve  only  a 
temporary  purpose,  except  in  the  lowest  classes 
(the  fishes  and  amphibia),  where  they  remain 
permanently.  They  may  be  regarded  as  tempor 
ary  kidneys.  In  man,  they  begin  to  appear 
toward  the  end  of  the  first  month;  while  in  the 
seventh  week,  the  true  kidneys  first  present  them¬ 
selves.  From  the  beginning  of  the  third  month, 
the  Wolffian  bodies  begin  to  decrease,  the  kid¬ 
neys  increasing  in  a  corresponding  ratio,  and  at 
the  time  of  birth,  scarcely  any  traces  of  the  former 
can  be  seen. 

Wolf-fish  (Anarrhichas),  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  family  Blenniidoe.  One  species,  the  common 
wolf-fish,  also  called  cat-fish  and  sea-cat  (A. 
lupu ■.),  is  found  in  northern  seas.  A  similar 


Wolf-fish  ( Anarrhichas  lupus). 


species,  A.  vomerinus,  is  found  on  the  American 
coast  from  New  York  to  Greenland,  and  is  not 
only  eaten  fresh,  but  is  also  split,  salted,  and 
smoked. 

Wolseley,  Sir  Gaknet  Joseph,  English  gen¬ 
eral,  was  born  near  Dublin  June  4,  1833.  He 
was  Commander-in-Chief  of  the  expedition  to 
Egypt  in  1882,  and  is  the  author  of  a  novel 
( Marley  Castle,  1877),  and  of  several  essays  and 
military  handbooks. 

Wolsey,  Thomas,  Cardinal,  was  born  in  1471 
at  Ipswich,  England,  and  is  reputed  to  have  been 
the  son  of  a  butcher  of  that  place.  After  being 
the  prime  minister  of  Henry  VIII.,  for  a  long 
period,  he  fell  into  disgrace  and  died  in  obscurity 
under  a  charge  of  treason  in  1530. 

Womb,  The,  professionally  known  as  the 
uterus,  is  a  flattened,  pear-shaped  organ,  whose 
position  and  various  parts  will  be  best  understood 
by  a  reference  to  the  illustration.  In  the  unim¬ 
pregnated  condition  it  is  about  3  inches  in  length, 
2  in  breadth,  and  1  in  thickness,  and  weighs  about 
an  ounce  and  a  half.  On  laying  it  open,  or  ex¬ 
ploring  its  interior  by  the  introduct  ion  of  an  instru¬ 
ment  through  the  os  uteri,  its  cavity  is  found  to 
be  very  narrow,  and  to  contain  a  little  mucus.  Its 
walls  are  nearly  |  inch  thick,  and  are  mainly  com¬ 
posed  of  muscle-cells  and  fibers  running  irregu¬ 
larly  in  all  directions  except  round  the  os,  where 
they  make  a  parti  d  sphincter.  This  muscular 
coat,  which  constitutes  the  bulk  of  the  organ,  is 
covered  externally  with  a  serous  coat,  derived 
from  the  peritoneum,  and  is  lined  internally  by  a 
mucous  coat  continuous  with  that  of  the  canal 
ealled  the  vagina,  by  which  the  interior  of  the 
womb  communicates  with  the  outer  surface  of  the 
body.  This  mucous  coat  abounds  in  small  mucous 
follicles,  and  is  provided  with  ciliated  epithelium. 
The  neck  or  cervix  of  the  womb  is  distinguished 
from  the  body  by  a  well  marked  constriction. 
The  mouth,  or  os,  projects  slightly  into  the  vagina 
(which  is  shown  as  laid  open  anteriorly  in  the 
figure).  This  opening  is  nearly  round  in  the  vir¬ 
gin,  and  transverse  after  parturition.  It  is  of  co  i- 


The  Uterus  and  its  appendages  viewed  on  their  anterior  aspect. 


year. 

Wood 'chuck  ( Arctomys  monnx ),  a  spe¬ 
cies  of  marmot,  inhabiting  North  Amer¬ 
ica,  from  Hudson’s  Bay  to  South  Carolina. 

1,  the  body  of  the  uterus:  2,  its  fundus;  3,  its  cervix;  4,  the  os  uteri;  jt  is  from  15  to  18  inclles  long,  blackish, 
5,  the  vagina  laid  open;  6,  the  broad  ligaments  or  the  uterus  on  •  i  i  i  ,  .  ,  P ’ 

leftside;  7,  a  convexity  of  the  broad  ligament  caused  by  the  9r  Swizzle1 Cl  above,  C hestnut  red  below;  the 
ovary;  8,  8,  the  round  ligaments;  9,  9, the  Fallopian  tubes;  10,  10,  form  thick,  the  head  broad  and  flat,  with 
their  fimbriated  extremities;  11,  the  right  ovary;  12,  the  utero-  a]most  n0  apparent  neck,  the  legs  short 
ovarian  ligament;  13,  the  P allopio-ovarian  ligament,  on  which  1  h  *  1  +i\  f  f  i  +  , 

some  small  fimbriae  are  continued  for  a  short  distance;  14,  peri-  ttllCK,  tile  ieet  laige,  me  tail  OuSiiy. 
toneum  of  anterior  surface  of  uterus.  The  membrane  is  removed  Wood'COCk,  the  popular  name  of  a 
on  the  right  side  to  show  the  parts  embedded  in  its  folds. — From  commonly  regarded  as  of  the  same 

Wilson’s  Anatomist's  Vade-Mecum.  .genus  with  the  snipes,  but  of  more  bulky 


nerves  enlarge  in  a  very  remarkable  way  during 
pregnancy,  so  as  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  in¬ 
creased  wants  of  the  organ,  which,  at  the  ninth 
month  of  utero-gestation,  weighs  from  two  to  four 
pounds.  The  term  appendages  to  the  uterus  is 
given  to  the  fallopian  tubes  and  ovaries,  which 
are  inclosed  by  the  lateral  folds  of  the  peritoneum 
called  the  broad  ligaments.  The  womb  is  sus¬ 
pended  in  the  pelvic  cavity  in  such  a  way  as,  by 
its  mobility,  to  escape  rude  shocks  from  without 
or  disturbance  from  the  varying  conditions  of  the 
surrounding  viscera,  while  at  the  same  time  to 
allow  of  its  vastly  increasing  in  bulk  with  com¬ 
paratively  little  discomfort  when  pregnancy  oc¬ 
curs.  This  is  effected  by  several  duplicatures  of 
peritoneum,  containing  variable  quantities  of 
fibrous  and  muscular  tissue,  and  known  from  their 
form  or  connection  as  the  broad,  the  round,  the 
utero-sacral,  and  the  utero- vesical  ligaments.  The 
uterus  is  an  organ  peculiar  to  the  mammalia,  and 
in  comparatively  few  of  them  (excepting  the  apes 
and  cheiroptera)  is  it  of  the  simple  oval  or  triangu¬ 
lar  form  which  we  have  described.  It  is  two- 
hornedintlieruminantia,pachydermata,solipedia, 
and  cetacea;  and  it-is  said  to  be  divided  where  it 
has  only  a  very  short  body,  as  in  most  of  the  car¬ 
nivora  and  edentata,  and  some  rodentia,  which 
speedily  divides  both  externally  and  internally, 
and  is  continuous  with  the  oviducts  or  fallopian 
tubes.  The  uterus  is  actually  double  in  some  of 
the  edentata,  and  in  most  of  the  rodentia,  includ¬ 
ing  the  mouse  and  hare;  in  which  each  fallopian 
tube  passes  into  an  intestiniform  uterus,  which 
lias  two  completely  distinct  openings  lying  near 
to  each  other  within  the  vagina.  In  the  marsu- 
piata  and  monotremata,  the  modifications  of  this 
organ  are  still  more  singular. 

Woin'bat  (Phase olomys),  a  genus  of  marsupial 
quadrupeds,  constituting  a  distinct  family,  Phas- 


form,  and  having  shorter  and  stronger  legs. 
The  American  woodcock  (Scolopax  or  1‘hilohela 


Woodcock  ( Scolopax  rusticola). 

minor)  is  a  smaller  bird  than  the  woodcock  of 
Europe,  being  only  about  11  inches  long,  similar 
in  plumage  and  habits. 

Wood  Duck,  or  Summer  Duck  (Aix  sponsa),  a 
duck  having  the  bind  toe  destitute  of  membrane. 


siderable  size,  and  is  named  the  orificium  uteri 
externum;  it  leads  into  a  narrow  canal  which 
terminates  at  the  upper  end  of  the  cervix  in  a 
smaller  opening,  the  orificium  internum,  beyond 
which  is  the  shallow  triangular  cavity  of  the 
womb,  of  which  it  forms  the  lower  angle,  while 
the  two  upper  angles,  which  are  funnel-shaped, 
constitute  the  beginning  of  the  fallopian  tubes, 
whose  apertures  are  so  small  as  only  to  admit  the 
passage  of  a  tine  bristle.  The  blood-vessels  and 


wombat  is  an  auimal  of  clumsy  form,  having 
stout  limbs  and  a  blunt  muzzle.  It  is  2  or 
3  feet  long,  plump,  with  a  thick  coat  of  long, 
grayish  brown,  coarse,  woolly  hair;  the  head  large, 
flat,  broad,  with  small  eyes  and  ears,  the  upper 
lip  cleft;  the  feet  five-toed,  the  claws  long,  except 
those  of  the  inner  toes  of  the  hind  feet;  the  tail 
short. 

Woodbury,  the  county  seat  of  Cannon  county, 
Tenu.  Pop.,  425. 

Woodbury,  tlie  county  seat  of  Glouces¬ 
ter  county,  N.  J.  Pop.,  3,600. 

Wood'chat  ( Lanius  rutilus),  a  bird 
which,  notwithstanding  its  name,  is  not  a 
species  of  chat,  but  of  shrike.  The  wood- 
chat  is  abundant  in  the  southern  parts  of 
Europe.  It  may  be  regarded  as  an  African 
bird,  being  found  from  the  Mediterranean 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  In  Europe, 
it  appears  only  as  a  summer  visitant,  but 
in  Africa  it  occurs  at  all  seasons  of  the 


Wombat  ( Phascotomys  wombat). 

colomyelce,  and  of  which  only  one  species  is  known, 
;  phascolomys  wombat,  a  native  of  Australia.  The 


Wood  Duck. 

It  is  a  native  of  this  country,  and  takes  its  name 
from  its  habit  of  perching  and  nesting  in  trees. 

Wood-engraving,  or  Xylography,  the  art  of 
engraving  designs  on  wood,  differs  from  copper 
and  steel  plate  engraving  by  having  the  parts 
iutended  to  print  on  the  paper,  in  relief.  W  bile 
plates  are  printed  from  the  engraved  lines  by  a 
laborious  and  necessarily  slow  process,  wood- 
engravings,  having  the  object  to  be  represented 
on  the  surface,  in  the  manner  of  a  type,  may  be 
printed  along  with  the  matter  it  is  intended  to 
illustrate  in  the  ordinary  printing-machine.  The 
wood  used  for  engraving  is  boxwood,  which  has 
the  closest  grain  of  any  wood  hitherto  discovered. 
It  is  principally  imported  from  Turkey.  It  is 
cut  across  the  grain  in  slices,  which  are  then 
dressed  to  the  same  height  as  type,  for  convenience 
in  printing.  Inferior  kinds  of  wood,  such  as 


WOODLAND. 


714 


WORM  FEVER. 


rock  maple,  pear  tree,  plane-tree,  ete.,  are 
used  for  coarser  purposes;  anil  for  large  and 
coarse  subjects,  such  as  show  posters,  com¬ 
mon  pine  is  used,  and  cut  on  the  side  of  the  wood 
with  chisels  and  gouges.  The  tools  or  gravers 
necessary  in  wood -engraving  are  of  three  kinds — 


Engraver's  Toots. 


a,  gravers  proper;  b ,  tint-tools;  c,  scoopers. 

viz.,  gravers  proper;  tint-tools;  and  scoopers,  or 
cutting-out  tools  for  clearing  out  the  larger 
pieces.  They  are  arranged  in  different  sizes,  to 


Method  of  Using  the  Graver. 


suit  the  different  portions  of  the  work.  Most 
engravers  use  a  glass  of  slight  magnifying  power, 
more  for  the  purpose  of  relievi ng  the  eyes  from  the 
strain  of  fixing  both  eyes  closely 
on  a  small  object,  than  for 
magnifying  the  work. 

Woodland,  the  county  seat 
of  Yolo  county,  Cal.  Pop., 

3,750. 

Wood-louse  (Oniscus),  is  a 
Linnajan  genus  of  Crustacea, 
now  forming  the  family  0 nis¬ 
ei  dot,  of  the  order  lsopoda. 

They  feed  on  decaying  animal 
and  vegetable  matter.  They 
run  with  some  celerity  when  Wood-louse 

apprehensive  of  danger,  and  (Oniscus  murarius). 
sometimes  also  rpll  themselves  up  into  a  ball,  so 
as  to  exhibit  only  the  plates  of  the  back.  The 
eggs  are  inclosed  in  a  pectoral  pouch. 

Wood 'pecker  (Ficus),  a  Linnaean  genus  of 
birds,  now  divided  into  a  number  of  genera,  and 
belonging  to  the  family  Picidce,  of  the  order 
Scansores.  Woodpeckers  are  diffused  over  almost 


Green  Woodpecker  (Picus  viridis). 


all  parts  of  the  globe,  but  abound  chiefly  in  warm 
countries.  The  species  are  very  numerous.  They 
are  mostly  solitary  in  their  habits,  and  live  in  the 
depths  of  forests.  The  green  woodpecker  belongs 
to  a  group  or  section  of  woodpeckers  entirely  con¬ 
fined  to  the  Old  Continent,  and  which  are  more 
frequently  to  be  seen  seeking  their  food  on  the 
ground  than  the  more  typical  species.  The 
American  species  of  woodpecker  are  very 
numerous,  and  some  of  them  are  among  the  best- 
known  birds  of  this  country  and  Canada;  as 
the  hairy  woodpecker  (Picus  viliosus),  which  is 
to  be  found  at  all  seasons  in  woods,  orchards, 
fields,  and  even  in  the  midst  of  cities,  visiting 
farm-yards  in  winter  to  pick  up  grain — a  lively, 
noisy,  and  active  bird;  the  ivory -billed  wood¬ 
pecker  (Picus  or  Campelophilus  principalis), 
which  inhabits  the  southern  parts  of  the  United 


States  and  Mexico,  is  called  Cnrpentevo  by  the 
Spaniards,  from  the  great  quantity  of  chips 
which  it  makes;  and  is  valued  by  the  Indians  for 
its  ivory-like  bill  and  scarlet  crest,  which  they 
use  as  ornaments.  The  red  headed  woodpecker 
(Picus  or  Melanerpes  erythrocephalus)  is  very  com¬ 
mon  in  most  parts  of  North  America,  and  feeds 
much  upon  fruits  and  upon  young  heads  of 
Indian  corn,  so  that  a  reward  is  given  for  killing 
it.  The  largest  species  in  the  northern  parts  of 
America  is  the  black  woodpecker,  or  logcock 
(Picus  or  Dryotomus  pileatus),  which  is  about 
eighteen  inches  long,  the  general  color  greenish 
black,  with  stripes  of  white  from  the  eyes  along 
the  neck  and  sides.  The  genus  Picumnus  is 
the  type  of  a  group  of  Picidce  called  Piculets,  very 
small  birds,  with  bill  hard  at  the  tip,  broad 
rounded  wings,  and  a  short  tail  with  broad 
rounded  feathers,  not  used  for  support,  departing 
from  the  typical  characters  of  the  family.  They 
inhabit  the  warm  parts  of  South  America,  India, 
and  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 

Wood-preserving.  Several  processes  have 
been  employed  of  late  years  for  the  purpose  of 
preventing  the  decay  of  wood  from  damp  atmos¬ 
pheric  action,  or  the  destructive  operations  of 
animals  and  parasitic  plants.  The  principle  in 
all  has  been  the  same — viz.,  the  injection  into  the 
vessels  of  the  wood  of  some  mineral  material, 
which,  by  combining  with  the  albumen  of  the 
woody  tissue,  prevents  its  decomposition,  or  gives 
it  a  poisonous  character.  The  chief  of  the 
methods  in  use  are  those  called  kyanizing,  creosot- 
ing  (in  which  the  preserving  material  is  the  so- 
called  creosote,  or  crude  carbolic  acid  of  coal-tar), 
and  the  bonclierie  process,  chiefly  used  on  the 
continent.  In  this  last,  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper  is  used.  While  the  tree  is  still  growing, 
the  head  of  the  tree  is  cut  off,  and  the  top  of  the 
bare  stem  is  hollowed  into  the  form  of  a  bowl, 
which  is  then  filled  with  the  solution,  which  is 
afterward  supplied  as  required.  The  liquid  pen¬ 
etrates  downward,  killing  the  tree  as  it  goes,  but 
giving  to  the  wood  a  most  remarkable  degree 
of  durability,  particularly  when  applied  to  such 
purposes  as  railway  sleepers,  etc. 

Wood 'ruff  (Aspcnda), 
a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Rubiacece, 
containing  a  number  of 
annual  and  perennial 
species,  with  whorled 
leaves,  natives  of  t  h  e 
northern  parts  of  the  Old 
World,  and  distinguished 
by  a  funnel-shaped  o  r 
bell-shaped  corolla,  a 
bifid  style,  capitate  s  t  i  g  - 
ma,  and  dry  didymous 
fruit. 

Woodsfleld,  the  county 
seat'  of  Monroe  county, 

Ohio.  Pop.,  900. 

Woodstock,  the  county 
seat  of  McHenry  county, 

Ill.  Pop.,  1,650. 

Woodstock,  the  county 
seat  of  Shenandoah 
county,  Ya.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Woodstock,  the  county 
seat  of  Windsor  county, 

Yt.  Pop.,  2,900. 

Wood viHe,  ! he  county  woodruff 

seat  of  1  aylor  county,  (Aspenda  odorat.a). 
Tex.  Pop.,  550. 

Wood vi  lie,  the  county  seat  of  Wilkinson 
county,  Miss.  Pop.,  1,100. 

Wool'wich,  a  market-town  and  parish  of  Kent, 
the  seat  of  the  chief  government  arsenal  of  Great 
Britain,  stands  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Thames, 
about  nine  miles  east  of  London.  Its  dockyard,  its 
government  manufacturing  establishments  for  the 
production  of  material  of  war  of  every  descrip¬ 
tion  (except  gunpowder),  and  the  fact  that  it  is  a 
great  depot  for  naval  and  military  stores,  and  also 
the  headquarters  of  the  great  corps  of  Royal 
Artillery,  combine  to  render  Woolwich  a  place  of 
great  importance.  A  royal  dockyard  existed  there 
as  early  as  1515.  The  Royal  Arsenal,  the  largest 
in  Britain,  contains  not  only  the  largest  stores 
of  all  kinds — shot,  shells,  cannon,  etc. — which 
are  required  for  the  English  armies,  navies, 


and  forts,  but  it  comprises  also  establishments  for 
manufacturing  them,  and  for  constructing  gun- 
carriages,  and  preparing  ammunition  for  cannon 
and  small  arms.  These  works  are  carried  on  in 
the  three  departments  called  respectively  the  Gun 
Factories,  Carriage  Department,  and  Laboratory. 
On  the  common,  south  of  the  town,  is  the  Royal 
Military  Academy,  for  the  education  of  cadets 
destined  for  the  Artillery  and  Engineers.  Pop. 
(1881),  36,600. 

W  oonsock'et,  a  city  of  Rhode  Island,  on  the 
Blackstone  river,  sixteen  miles  north-by-west  of 
Providence,  containing  numerous  cotton-mills, 
woolen-mills,  machine-shops,  iron-foundries,  sash, 
blind,  and  planing  mills,  etc.  Pop.,  18,900. 

Woonsocket,  the  county  seat  of  Sanborn 
county,  S.  Dak.  Pop.,  1,300. 

Wooster,  the  county  seat  of  Wayne  county, 
Ohio,  is  a  flourishing  agricultural  and  manufact¬ 
uring  city.  Pop.,  6,800. 

Worcester,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  forty-five 
miles  west-southwest  of  Boston,  with  several 
railways,  and  manufactories  of  cotton,  woolen, 
carpets,  hollow-ware,  wile,  paper,  musical  instru¬ 
ments,  etc.  Pop.,  79,000. 

Wor'cester,  a  city,  capital,  and  assize  town  of 
the  county  of  the  same  name,  and  a  county  of 
itself,  stands  almost  in  the  center  of  the  Severn 
Valley,  and  is  situated  principally  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  river,  about  twenty-six  miles  south¬ 
west  from  Birmingham,  England.  The  chief 
object  of  antiquity  now  existing  is  the  cathedral, 
A  cathedral,  dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  was  founded 
here  as  early  as  the  seventh  century.  The  tombs 
of  King  John,  and  of  Arthur,  Prince  of  Wales 
(eldest  son  of  Henry  VII.),  are  the  chief  ancient 
monuments  in  the  present  building,  which  dates 
from  1084,  though  it  was  restored  in  1855.  Pop. 
of  the  city  (1881),  40,421  Glove-making  is  con¬ 
sidered  tiie  staple  manufacture  of  the  city;  but 
one  large  factory  has  absorbed  a  large  portion  of 
tbe  business,  and  now  there  are  not  above  two 
dozen  of  master-glovers,  great  and  little,  whereas 
forty  years  ago  there  were  nearly  100  in  the  trade. 
There  are  two  porcelain  factories,  and  the  number 
of  hands  employed  by  them  in  all  departments  is 
about  500.  The  Royal  Porcelain  Works  are  cele¬ 
brated  for  fine  taste  in  designing,  and  the  beauty 
of  execution  of  the  highest  class  of  productions. 
The  glazed  semi-porcelain  is  also  famous. 

Worcestershire,  one  of  the  west-midland 
counties  of  England.  The  conterminous  counties 
are  those  of  Warwick  and  Stafford  on  the  north, 
Warwick  and  Oxford  on  the  east,  Gloucester  on 
the  south,  and  Hereford  and  Salop  on  the  west. 
Area,  472,453  acres,  whereof  about  400,000  are 
cultivated.  Its  greatest  length  is  38  miles,  and 
greatest  breadth  26.  Pop.  (1881),  380,291. 

Wordsworth,  William,  a  distinguished  Eng¬ 
lish  poet,  was  born  April  7, 1770,  at  Cockermouth, 
England.  By  remanding  it  to  truth  and  simplic¬ 
ity  of  natural  feeling  as  its  basis,  Wordsworth 
did  more  than  perhaps  any  oilier  writer  of  his 
time  to  forward  the  great  revival  of  English 
poetry  which  distinguished  the  opening  of  the 
century.  With  the  charm  of  natural  simplicity 
of  manner,  he  combined  a  depth  of  philosophic 
meditation  peculiarly  his  own;  there  was  born 
with  him,  moreover,  a  passionate  susceptibility 
to  effects  of  beauty  in  the  material  world,  such 
as  few  men  can  ever  have  been  gifted  with. 

Worm  Fever  is  a  popular  name  for  the  affec¬ 
tion  more  scientifically  known  as  infantile  re¬ 
mittent  fever.  Although  it  is  a  disease  which 
presents  great  differences  in  its  course  and  symp¬ 
toms,  according  to  the  circumstances  which  have 
given  rise  to  it,  its  characteristic  symptoms  will 
be  found  to  point  to  the  mucous  membrane  as  the 
original  seat  of  morbid  action.  The  disease 
seldom  occurs  during  the  first  year  of  life;  but 
from  the  second  to  the  twelfth  year,  it  is  an  affec¬ 
tion  often  met  with.  With  regard  to  the  treat¬ 
ment  of  remittent  fever,  the  first  point  is  to 
improve  the  condition  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and 
to  correct  the  morbid  secretions  poured  into  it. 
From  the  deranged  state  of  the  secretions,  the 
occasional  use  of  a  mercurial  is  often  beneficial; 
and  it  may  be  given  combined  with  an  aperient  or 
a  diaphoretic,  according  to  the  circumstances. 
The  powder  of  jalap,  simple  or  compound,  is 
that  which  is  preferred,  and  the  addition  of  some 
ipecacuanha  increases  the  effect.  The  following 


WORMS. 


1lO 


XENOCRATES. 


formula  is  recommended:  Powdered  jalap,  30 
grains;  powdered  ipecacuanha,  5  grains;  calomel, 
5  grains;  white  sugar,  10  grains.  From  2  to  5 
grains  of  this  powder  may  be  given  every  three 
hours,  till  the  bowels  are  freely  moved  To  give 
cold  drinks,  and  keep  the  body  cool  by  light 
clothing  and  the  use  of  an  airy  apartment  (while 
we  enjoin  quietness,  and  occasionally  exclude  the 
light),  is  essential  to  recovery.  When  the  bowels 
are  not  irritable,  a  solution  of  crystals  of  tartar 
(bitartrate  of  potash)  given  cold,  in  the  form  of 
imperial,  possesses  many  advantages,  as  it  acts  on 
the  kidneys,  while  it  allays  thirst,  and  tends  to 
keep  the  bowels  open.  In  the  more  advanced 
stages,  when  debility  sets  in,  the  mineral  acids  are 
useful.  They  can  be  employed  sooner  than  qui¬ 
nine;  but  the  latter  may  occasionally  be  pre¬ 
scribed  at  the  close  of  the  complaint.  If  there 
are  decided  signs  of  intestinal  inflammation, 
leeches  must  be  applied  to  the  abdomen;  when 
there  is  mere  intestinal  irritability,  Dover’s  Pow¬ 
der  and  the  warm  bath  will  give  relief.  If  diar¬ 
rhoea  can  not  be  checked  by  other  means,  turpen¬ 
tine,  in  doses  of  one  or  two  drops,  rubbed  up  with 
gum-water,  may  be  tried.  In  relation  to  diet, 
the  great  point  is  to  avoid  giving  such  food  as 
leaves  a  bulky,  indigestible  residue.  When  con¬ 
valescence  begins,  change  of  air  often  affords 
remarkable  benefit. 

Worms,  an  island  with  an  area  of  about  36 
square  miles,  belonging  to  the  Russian  Govern 
ment  of  Esthonia,  and  lying  to  the  east  of  Dago. 

Worm-seed  is  the  popular  name  for  santonica, 
from  which  santonin  is  extracted. 

Wormwood  is  the  popular  name  for  Artemi -in 
absinthium.  It  not  only  acts  as  an  anthelmintic, 
as  its  name  implies, 
but  it  also  possesses 
tonic  and  stimulant 
properties,  which  pre¬ 
vent  the  reproduction 
of  worms  after  their 
expulsion.  An  infu¬ 
sion  of  Wormwood, 
made  by  pouring  a 
pint  of  boiling  water 
over  an  ounce  and  a 
half  of  the  dried 
plant,  letting  it  stand 
for  an  hour,  and 
straining,  taken  in 
doses  of  a  couple  of 
ounces  once  or  twice 
a  day,  is  a  good  do 
mestic  tonic,  and  maj 
be  prescribed  with 
advantage  even  in 
cases  where  worms 
are  not  suspected. 

Worthington,  the 
county  seat  of  Nobles 
county,  Minn.  Pop., 

1,000. 


Wormwood  ( Artemisia  absin¬ 
thium). 


Xis  the  last  letter  of  the  proper  Latin  alpha¬ 
bet,  and  the  last  but  two  of  the  English. 
It  is  in  reality  a  superfluous  character,  being 
equivalent  in  English,  as  it  was  in  Latin,  to  k*  or 
gs.  In  form  it  corresponds  to  ihe  Greek  *,but  in 
power  to  Greek  |.  It  was  a  later  addition  to  the 
Latin  alphabet,  having  been  introduced,  accord¬ 
ing  to  Corssen,  between  the  time  of  the  Decem- 
virate  and  the  fall  of  Veii.  In  the  popular 
pronunciation,  the  guttural  element  of  the  char¬ 
acter  gradually  disappeared,  until,  in  the  later 
period  of  the  empire,  x  was  undistinguishable 
from  8-i  or  *;  thus,  inscriptions  show  visit  for  vixit, 
milex  for  miles.  This  change  survives  in  modern 
Italian,  whicli  substitutes  ss  or  s  for  the  Latin  x, 
as  saKso  =  saxum;  slraneo  —  extraneum;  and  uses 
x  only  in  foreign  words. 

Xiin'tliine,  or  Xantiiic  Oxide  (Cr,IIiN,02). 
was  first  described  by  Dr.  Marcet,  who  regarded 
it  as  a  rare  constituent  of  urinary  calctiii,  and 
from  its  composition  he  gave  it  the  name  of  uric 
oxide.  During  the  last  ten  years,  it  has  been 
proved  to  be  a  normal  ingredient  (although  to  a 
small  amount)  of  human  mine,  and  has  been 
found  in  the  brain,  the  spleen,  the  pancreas,  and 


Wouvermans,  Philip,  a  Dutch  painter  of  note, 
was  born  in  1620  at  Haarlem.  From  his  father, 
Paul  Wouvermans,  a  historical  painter,  he  inher¬ 
ited  a  taste  for  art.  He  studied  first  with  his 
father,  and  afterward  with  John  Wynants.  He 
passed  his  entire  life  at  Haarlem  in  the  assiduous 
practice  of  his  art,  and  died  in  the  year  1668. 

Wrack,  or  Sea-wrack,  a  name  sometimes  ap¬ 
plied  indiscriminately  to  many  of  the  larger  Algex 
of  the  sea-sliores,  but  also  employed  to  designate 
the  species  of  the  genus  Fuetis,  some  of  the  most 
abundant  of  which  are  employed  for  the  manu¬ 
facture  of  kelp,  and  are  also  used  as  a  manure. 

Wrangel  Land,  an  island  or  tract  of  land  in 
the  Arctic  Ocean,  lying  north  of  the  eastern  ex¬ 
tremity  of  the  Asiatic  coast,  and  intersected  by 
the  meridian  of  180°  E.  longitude.  It  was  dis¬ 
covered  by  Long  in  1867.  and  named  after  the 
Russian  explorer  Wrangel  (1795-1870),  who 
sought  to  reach  it. 

Wrasse,  or  Rock-fish  ( Labrus ),  a  genus  of 
fishes  of  the  family  Lnbrulce,  of  the  section  having 
cycloid  scales,  Gycloldbridce. 

Wreath,  Wreathed,  in  Heraldry.  A  wreath 
is  a  twisted  garland  of  silk  of  dif¬ 
ferent  colors,  otherwise  called  a 
force,  on  which  it  lias,  since  the 
fourteenth  century,  been  usual  to 
place  the  crest. 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  a  re¬ 
nowned  English  architect,  was 
born  at  East  Knoyle,  in  Wiltshire,  Oct.  20,  1632, 
and  died  Feb.  25,  1723. 

W  ren  ( Troglodytes ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
Creeper  family  ( Oerthiadce ),  having  a  slender, 
slightly  curved,  anti  pointed  bill,  the  edge  of  the 
mandibles  entire;  the  wings  very  short  and 
rounded;  the  tail  short  and  carried  erect;  the  legs 
slender,  and  rather  long.  They  are  natives  chiefly 
of  the  Northern  Hemisphere,  and  most  of  them 
are  American. 

Wriglitsville,  the  county  seat  of  Johnson 
county,  Ga.  Pop.,  300. 

Wright  ia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Apocynucets,  containing  some  of  the  greatest 
twining  shrubs  of  the  West  Indies,  such  as  attach¬ 
ing  themselves  in  the  first  instance  to  trees  for 
support,  become  themselves  at  last  of  tree-like 
thickness,  as  well  as  height,  and  kill  the  support¬ 
ing  trefes  by  their  choking  embrace. 

Writers’ Cramp,  or  Scriveners’ Palsy,  is  a 
peculiar  kind  of  local  spasm,  in  which  every 
attempt  to  write  instantly  calls  forth  uncontrol¬ 
lable  movements  in  the  thumb,  the  index  and 
middle  finger,  so  that  the  pen  starts  up  and  down 
on  the  paper,  and  instead  of  a  legible  hand¬ 
writing,  a  mere  scrawl  results.  It  is  diagnostic 
of  these  attacks  that  they  are  instantly  arrested 
when  the  individual  ceases  writing;  and  that  the 
hand  is  capable  of  every  other  combination  of 
movements  and  exertions. 

Wry 'neck  ( Tunx ),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
woodpecker  family  ( Picidce ),  having  a  short, 

X 

the  liver  of  the  ox;  in  the  thymus  gland  of  the 
calf;  and  in  the  muscular  tissue  of  the  horse,  the 
ox,  and  of  fishes;  as  well  as  in  the  liver  of  various 
animals. 

Xanthip'pe,  the  wife  of  Socrates,  has  acquired 
the  reputation  of  having  been  an  archtermagant. 
She,  however,  if  we  can  trust  Plato,  appears  to 
have  really  loved  her  husband,  and  lie  at  his 
death  committed  her  tenderly  to  the  care  of  his 
friends. 

Xanthox'ylum,  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
the  type  of  the  natural  order  Xanihoxylacem,  an 
order  closely  allied  to  Butacece,  and  chiefly  distin¬ 
guished  from  it  by  unisexual  flowers,  including 
more  than  100  known  species  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
having  opposite  simple  or  pinnate  leaves  with  pel¬ 
lucid  dots,  and  no  stipules,  chiefly  natives  of 
warm  climates,  and  more  particularly  of  the 
warm  parts  of  America. 

Xavier,  St.  Francis,  a  celebrated  missionary 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  was  born  at 
Xavier,  in  Navarre,  April  7,  1506,  and  died  Dec. 
22,  1552.  He  was  associated  with  Loyola  in  Ihe 
foundation  of  the  Society  of  Jesus,  and  afterward 
became  a  successful  missionary  to  Japan,  where 


straight,  conical  beak;  a  long  extensile  tongue, 
with  a  horny  point;  wings  of  moderate  size;  a 
rather  short  and  rounded  tail;  the  feet  with  two 
toes  in  front,  and  two  behind. 

Wiir'teinberg,  The  Kingdom  of,  lies  in  8Q 
15' — 10°  30'  E.  longitude,  and  47°  35' — 49°  35' 
N.  latitude,  is  bounded  on  the  west,  southwest, 
and  northwest  by  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden; 
east,  southeast,  and  northeast  by  Bavaria;  and 
south  by  the  Lake  of  Constance  and  Vorarlberg. 
Area  7,500  square  miles.  Pop.  (1880),  1,971,- 
118. 

Wurzburg,  capital  of  the  former  principality 
of  Wurzburg,  now  of  the  Bavarian  circle  of 
Lower  Franconia,  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  valley 
on  both  sides  of  the  Maine,  over  which  there  is  a 
stone  bridge  600  feet  long,  of  eight  arches.  Pop. 
(1880),  51,014,  of  whom  6,200  were  Protestants. 
The  university  of  Wurzburg  was  founded  in  1582 
by  Bishop  Julius;  is  celebrated  for  its  medical 
faculty. 

Wyamlots',  a  tribe  of  American  Indians,  of  the 
Iroquois  family,  the  Hurons  of  the  French 
writers,  who  called  themselves  Wendats  or  Yen- 
dats,  first  known  at  Montreal,  where,  in  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  many  of  them 
became  Roman  Catholics  under  the  instructions  of 
the  French  missionaries. 

Wyo'ming,  a  Territory  of  the  United  States, 
formed  in  1868,  with  an  area  of  97,883  square 
miles,  lies  between  41°  and  45°  N.  latitude,  and 
104°  and  110°  W.  longitude.  Its  boundaries  are: 
north,  Montana;  east,  the  Dakotas  and  Nebraska; 
south,  Colorado;  southwest,  Utah;  west,  Idaho. 
The  chief  ranges  are  the  Wind  River  range  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  in  the  west;  the  Big  Horn 
Mountains,  near  the  center;  and  the  Shoshone 
Mountains  in  the  northeast.  The  Missouri,  Col¬ 
umbia,  and  Colorado  have  their  sources  within 
this  Territory;  and  other  important  rivers  are  the 
Green  river  in  the  southwest,  a  fork  of  the  Platte 
in  the  southeast,  and  in  the  northwest  the  Yellow¬ 
stone.  The  Laramie  Plains  in  the  south  form 
a  tableland  of  7,600  square  miles  in  extent. 
The  soil  of  the  valleys  is  moderately  fertile,  and 
there  is  good  pasturage.  Wyoming  is  rich  in 
minerals,  which  embrace  iron,  copper,  lead,  coal, 
silver,  and  gold.  The  LTnion  Pacific  Railway 
traverses  the  south  of  Wyoming.  Pop.  (1880), 
20,788. 

Wyoming  Valley,  a  beautiful,  fertile  valley 
on  the  Susquehanna  river,  in  Pennsylvania,  21 
miles  long  by  3  wide,  surrounded  by  mountains 
1,000  feet  high,  its  name  supposed  to  be  a  cor¬ 
ruption  of  the  Indian  Maug/ncauwame — large 
plains.  It  contains  many  large  towns,  including 
Wilkes  Barre. 

Wytlieville,  the  county  seat  of  Wythe  county, 
Va.  '  Pop.,  2,600. 

Wy'vern,  a  fictitious  monster  of  the  middle 
ages,  frequently  occurring  in  Heraldry.  It 
resembles  a  dragon,  but  has  only  two  legs  and 
feet,  which  are  like  those  of  the  eagle. 


the  mission  that  he  founded  continued  to  flourish 
for  over  100  years  after  his  death  from  disap¬ 
pointment  over  his  failure  to  penetrate  into 
China.  Many  miracles,  attested  by  numerous 
witnesses,  were  reported  of  Xavier  in  almost  all 
the  stages  of  his  career.  Among  these,  there 
have  been  some  who  reckoned  the  miraculous  gift 
of  tongues.  The  evidence  of  these  miracles  was 
submitted  to  the  usual  processof  inquiry  at  Rome, 
and  many  miracles  having  been  established  by 
the  ordinary  canonical  process,  Xavier  was  beati¬ 
fied  by  Paul  V.  in  1619,  and  canonized  by  Greg¬ 
ory  XV.  in  1622,  his  festival  being  fixed  upon 
December  3d. 

Xe'nia,  the  county  seat,  of  Greene  county, 
Ohio,  a  handsome  and  flourishing  town  situated 
sixty-five  miles  northeast  of  Cincinnati,  and  the 
dicenter  of  a  rich  and  populous  agricultural  dis¬ 
trict.  Pop.,  8,600. 

Xeno'crates,  an  ancient  philosopher,  was  born 
at  Chalcedon  396  b.c.,  and  died  314.  At  an 
early  age,  he  attached  himself  to  Plato,  and  in 
course  of  time,  was  so  much  esteemed  for  his 
proficiency  in  philosophy  and  high  moral  charac¬ 
ter,  that  he  was  thought  worthy  of  succeeding 


XENOPHANES. 


716 


YAM. 


Speusippus,  Plato’s  successor,  in  the  presidency 
of  the  Academy.  This  post  he  tilled  most  credit¬ 
ably  for  twenty-five  years.  He  introduced  into 
the  Academy,  to  a  greater  degree  than  before,  the 
mystic  Pythagorean  doctrine  of  numbers,  in  con¬ 
nection  with  the  ideas  of  Plato.  In  his  ethical 
teaching,  he  aimed  at  making  the  Platonic 
doctrines  more  directly  applicable  to  ordinary 
life  in  individual  cases  and  pitched  his  standard 
of  excellence  very  high. 

Xeno'plianes,  founder  of  the  Eleatic  school  of 
philosophy,  was  born  at  Colophon,  in  Asia  Minor, 
about  580  b.c.,  or,  according  to  others,  about 
forty  years  earlier.  He  spent  the  greater  part  of 
a  life  which  was  prolonged  beyond  his  ninetieth 
year,  in  banishment.  He  employed  poetry  as  the 
instrument  for  disseminating  his  philosophical 
tenets.  He  was  the  first  to  maintain  the  Eleatic 
doctrine  of  the  oneness  of  the  universe;  and 
recognizing  clearly  the  unity  and  perfection  of 
the  Deity,  he  attacked  the  prevalent  mythology 
and  the  practice  of  attributing  to  the  godhead  a 
human  form  and  human  weaknesses.  The  dis¬ 
tinguishing  tenet  of  Xenophanes  is  his  mono¬ 
theism;  and  as  a  philosophical  rhapsodist,  lie 
sought  to  inculcate  it,  though  he  failed  to  express 
it  iu  a  clear  and  systematic  manner.  His  expla¬ 
nations  of  physical  phenomena  were  crude;  but 
one  is  recorded  in  which  he  has  anticipated 
modern  geology.  From  the  shells  and  marine 
petrifactions  found  on  mountains  and  in  quarries, 
lie  inferred  that  the  surface  of  the  earth  had  risen 
gradually  out  of  the  sea. 

Xen 'oplion,  celebrated  as  a  general,  historian, 
and  philosopher,  was  born  at  Athens  445  b.c.  At 
an  early  age  he  became  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  and 
is  said  to  have  been  saved  from  death  by  that 
philosopher  at  the  Battle  of  Delium.  He  died 
probably  at  Corinth,  in  359  b.c. 

Xerxes  I.,  King  of  Persia,  was  the  eldest  son 
of  Darius  and  his  second  wife  Atossa,  and  was 
appointed  successor  by  his  father,  in  preference 
to  Artabazanes,  his  eldest  son  by  his  first  wife. 
Darius  died  in  485  B.c.,  in  the  midst  of  his  prep¬ 
arations  for  a  third  expedition  against  Greece. 
Xerxes,  after  having  subdued  the  rebellious 
Egyptians,  gave  his  whole  attention  to  the  prep¬ 
arations  begun  by  his  father,  which  occupied 
nearly  four  years.  The  preparations  were  com¬ 
pleted  in  481  b.c. ,  and  in  the  autumn  of  that 
year,  Xerxes  arrived  at  Sardis,  where  he  wintered. 
In  the  spring  of  the  following  year,  the  vast 
assemblage  began  to  march  toward  the  Helles¬ 
pont;  and,  according  to  Herodotus,  it  took  seven 
days  and  nights  to  march  across  the  bridge. 
After  crossing  the  Hellespont,  the  march  was  con- 
tinued  along  the  Thracian  coast  toward  Doriscus 
on  the  Ilebrus,  where  a  halt  was  made  on  a 
large  plain,  and  the  army  numbered.  The  fleet 
drew  up  near  to  Doriscus.  According  to  Herod¬ 
otus,  the  whole  number  of  fighting-men,  military 
and  naval,  amounted  to  nearly  2,500,000,  and  the 
fleet  consisted  of  1,207  ships  of  war,  besides  3,000 


smaller  vessels.  These  numbers  were  considera¬ 
bly  increased  during  the  march  between  Doriscus 
and  Thermopylae  by  the  Thracians,  Macedonians, 
Magnesians,  and  other  nations  through  whose 
territories  Xerxes  passed  on  his  way  to  Greece. 
Herodotus  supposes  that  the  number  of  camp- 
followers,  exclusive  of  eunuchs  and  women, 
would  amount  to  more  than  that  of  the  fighting- 
men;  so  that,  according  to  him,  the  whole 
number  of  people  assembled  on  this  occasion 
would  be  considerably  over  6,000,000.  This  num¬ 
ber  is  doubtless  greatly  exaggerated;  still,  it  can 
not  be  doubted  that  this  was  one  of  the 
greatest  multitudes  ever  brought  together  for  any 
purpose.  This  immense  force  moved  on  without 
resistance  through  submissive  nations  till  it 
reached  Thermopylae,  where  it  was  brought  to  a 
stand  by  the  army  of  Leonidas.  Although  the 
Greeks  were  entirely  defeated  and  slain,  it  was 
not  without  heavy  loss  to  the  Persians.  On  the 
same  day,  and  on  the  third  day  after,  the  Persian 
fleet,  which  had  previously  suffered  severely  from 
a  storm,  was  defeated  with  heavy  loss  by  the 
Greeks  off  Cape  Artemisium  in  Eubodi.  Xerxes 
continued  his  march  on  to  Athens  through 
Phocis,  which  he  laid  waste,  and  Boeotia,  whose 
inhabitants  joined  him,  with  the  exception  of 
those  of  Platsea  and  Thespia,  which  cities  he 
burned.  A  detachment  which  he  sent  to  attack 
Delphi  met  with  a  signal  defeat  When  Xerxes 
arrived  at  Athens  (in  the  summer  of  480,  three 
months  after  crossing  the  Hellespont),  he  found 
the  city  deserted,  the  Athenians  having  sent  their 
families  to  Trcezen,  JEgina,  and  Salamis.  Athens 
was  destroyed.  Meantime  the  two  fleets  had 
sailed  round  from  Euboea  and  taken  up  their 
positions  in  the  narrow  strait  between  Salamis  and 
the  Attic  coast,  where  the  famous  naval  battle  of 
Salamis  took  place  (September,  480  b.c.)  Xerxes 
witnessed  the  fight  from  a  lofty  throne  which  he 
had  caused  to  be  erected  on  one  of  the  slopes  of 
Mount  .-Egaleus.  Xerxes  was  apparently  con 
founded  at  the  unexpected  and  inglorious  result  of 
all  his  mighty  preparations  for  the  overwhelming 
of  Greece,  and  becoming  alarmed  for  his  personal 
safety,  fled,  under  an  escort  of  60,000  men,  wit  h  all 
haste  toward  the  Hellespont,  which  lie  reached 
in  forty-five  days.  The  bridge  of  boats  having 
been  again  destroyed  by  a  storm,  he  crossed  over 
to  the  Asiatic  coast  in  a  vessel.  Mardonius  was 
left  with  300,000  men  to  carry  on  operations  in 
Greece.  In  479  b.c.,  the  Greeks  defeated  Mar¬ 
donius  in  the  famous  Battle  of  Platsea,  and  on  the 
same  day  gained  another  victory  over  the  Persians 
at  Mycale  iu  Ionia.  Next  year  (478  b.c.),  the 
Persians  lost  their  last  possession  iu  Europe  by 
the  capture  of  Sestos  on  the  Hellespont.  The 
war  was  continued  for  a  few  years  longer,  though 
the  struggle  was  now  virtually  at  an  end.  Little 
more  is  known  of  the  personal  history  of  Xerxes, 
except  that,  in  465  b.c.,  he  was  murdered  by 
Artabanus,  who  aspired  to  the  throne,  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Artaxerxes. 

Ximenes,  Francis  de  Cisneros,  the  well 


known  statesman,  archbishop,  and  cardinal,  was 
born  of  a  humble  family  at  Torrelaguna,  in 
Castile,  in  1437.  His  reputation  for  piety  and 
learning,  led  the  queen,  Isabella,  to  choose  him, 
in  1492,  for  her  confessor;  and  three  years  after¬ 
ward,  to  name  him  Archbishop  of  Toledo — a 
dignity  which  he  refused  to  accept  until  he 
received  an  express  command  from  the  Pope. 
Having  yielded  in  the  end,  he  continued  as  arch¬ 
bishop  the  life  of  mortification  and  austerity 
which  he  had  practiced  in  his  monastery;  and  lie 
applied  to  purposes  of  religion,  charity,  and 
public  utility  the  whole  of  the  princely  revenues 
of  his  see.  As  confessor  and  confidential  adviser 
of  the  queen,  Ximenes,  during  the  lifetime  of 
Isabella,  was  the  guiding  spirit  of  Spanish  affairs; 
and  on  her  death  in  1504,  he  held  the  balance 
between  the  parties  of  Ferdinand  and  Philip  of 
Burgundy,  husband  of  Joanna,  the  heiress  of  the 
crown.  On  the  death  of  Philip  in  1506,  Ximenes 
was  appointed  Regent,  in  consequence  of  the 
incapacity  of  Joanna  and  the  absence  of  Ferdi¬ 
nand,  and  conducted  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom 
through  a  most  critical  time  with  consummate 
skill  and  success.  In  1507  he  was  created 
cardinal;  and  in  the  following  year  he  organized, 
at  his  own  expense,  and  himself  accompanied  as 
commander,  the  celebrated  expedition,  consisting 
of  10,000  foot  and  4,000  horse,  for  the  conquest  of 
Oran,  on  the  African  coast.  Ferdinand  died  iu 
January,  1516,  and  on  his  deathbed  named 
Ximenes  Regent  of  Spain  till  the  arrival  of  his 
grandson  Charles;  and  although  the  grandees  had 
organized  an  opposition  as  well  to  himself  as  to 
the  royal  authority,  Ximenes,  by  his  prompt  and 
able  dispositions,  overawed  them  into  submission; 
and  subsequently,  by  the  same  exercise  of  vigor 
and  determination,  quelled  the  incipient  revolt 
of  Navarre.  In  order  to  the  better  consolidation 
of  the  royal  authority  in  Spain,  Ximenes  urged 
very  strongly  the  speedy  visit  of  Charles,  who 
still  lingered  in  his  Flemish  principality;  but  it 
was  not  till  after  the  lapse  of  a  year  and  a  half, 
that  the  king  decided  on  his  journey;  and  mean¬ 
while  the  enemies  of  Ximenes  had  so  worked  upon 
his  jealousy  and  pride,  that  he  took  the  ungrate¬ 
ful  course  of  dismissing  his  too  powerful  servant  . 
Ximenes  had  set  out  to  meet  the  king,  and 
although  laboring  under  great  infirmities,  con¬ 
tinued  to  prosecute  his  journey,  when  he  was 
seized  with  a  mortal  illness  at  Branguillas,  near 
Aranda  de  Duero,  where  he  died  Nov.  6,  1517. 

Xy'lol  (Gr.  %v\ov,  xylon,  wood)  is  an  oily 
aromatic  fluid  with  a  strong  refractive  power,  and 
boiling  at  about  263°.  Xylol,  mixed  with  toluol, 
and  cymol,  is  found  among  the  oils  which  cumol, 
are  separated  from  crude  wood-spirit  by  the  addi¬ 
tion  of  water. 

Xylo'phagan  (Gr.  ov,  xylon,  wood,  and 
qodyeiv,  phagein,  to  eat.  wood-eaters),  a  family  of 
Coleoplem,  of  the  section  Telmmern,  nearly  resem¬ 
bling  weevils,  but  differing  from  them  iu  the  want 
of  a  beak. 


Y 


Yis  the  last  letter  but  one  of  the  English 
alphabet,  and.  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
W  ( v ).  It  had  no  place  in  the  earlier  Latin  alpha¬ 
bet,  and  only  came  into  use  by  Roman  writers  in 
the  time  of  Cicero  in  spelling  words  borrowed 
from  the  Greek.  In  the  Greek  of  the  classic  1 
age,  v  (¥)  no  longer  retained  its  pristine  power 
(Ital.  u  or  Eng.  oo),  but  had  degenerated  into  a 
sound  like  the  French  u,  or  even  nearer  to  i  (re)-, 
it  could  not  therefore  be  represented  by  the  Roman 
u  or  v,  which  had  remained  (and  remains  yet  in 
modern  Italian)  undegenerated,  and  thus  was 
appended  to  the  Roman  alphabet  as  a  new  char¬ 
acter.  Its  use  in  native  Latin  words,  as  sylva  for 
silva, setyra  for  satira,  is  an  error  of  modern  editors. 

Yablonoi '  Mountains,  a  range  in  the  Northeast 
of  Asia,  dividing  the  basin  of  the  Amur  from  that 
of  the  Lena.  Some  peaks  are  between  7,000  and 
8,000  feet  high,  but  parts  of  the  ridge  are  but  a 
kind  of  plateau.  The  Stanovoi  Mountains  are 
a  continuation  of  the  Yablonoi  Mountains. 

Yacht  is  a  small  vessel  constructed  so  as  best  to 
insure  strength,  elegance,  and  speed,  and  exclu 
sively  employed  for  pleasure  sailing. 


Yadkinville,  the  county  seat  of  Yadkin 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  150. 

Yak  (Bos  grunniens),  a  species  of  ox  found  in 
Thibet,  and  domesticated  there.  It  is  ranked  by 
some  authorities  in  the  genus  Bison,  with  the 


Yak  (80s  grunniens). 


bison,  gaur,  and  gayal,  and  by  others  in  the  new 
.  genus  Poephagiis. 


Yale  College,  an  institution  of  learning  in 
New  Haven,  Conn.,  founded  in  1700  as  the  col¬ 
legiate  school  of  the  colony  of  Connecticut,  under 
the  trusteeship  of  the  ten  principal  ministers  of 
the  colony,  who  each  contributed  a  gift  of  books. 
It  was  first  established  at  Saybrook,  and  in  1716 
removed  to  New  Haven.  Among  its  early  pat¬ 
rons  were  Governor  Yale,  whose  name  it  bears, 
and  Bishop  Berkeley.  The  library  has  about 
100,000  volumes.  There  is  a  geological  and  min- 
eralogical  cabinet  of  30,000  specimens,  and  the 
college  has  the  historical  pictures  and  portraits  of 
Trumbull.  A  natural  history  museum  has  been 
added  from  funds  given  in  1866  by  the  late 
George  Peabody.  It  has  over  100  instructors  and 
more  than  1,000  students,  and  has  had  about 
10,000  graduates. 

Yam  (Dioscorea),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Dioscovectcece ,  distinguished  by  an 
inferior  ovary  and  membranous  winged  fruit. 
The  species  are  mostly  tropical,  natives  of  the 
I  East  and  IVest  Indies,  etc.  The  great  fleshy 
I  roots  of  some  of  them  are  very  much  used  as  an 
|  article  of  food,  in  the  same  way  that  potatoes  are 


YANCEYVILLE. 


717 


YONKERS. 


in  mere  temperate  climates,  and,  in  fact,  they  are 
sometimes  confounded  with  sweet  potatoes. 

Yauceyville,  the  county  seat  of  Caswrell 
county,  N.  C.  Pop.,  400. 

Yaug-tze-Kiang,  the  principal  river  of  Asia, 
connecting  all  the  central  provinces  of  China, 
situated  between  Thibet  and  Kokonor  on  the  west 
and  the  Pacific  Ocean  on  the  east.  Its  entire 
length  is  more  than  3,000  miles. 

Yan'kee,  Yankee  Doodle.  Yankee,  the  pop¬ 
ular  name  for  a  New  Englander  in  America,  and 
in  G  eat  Britain  often  applied  indiscriminately  to 
the  whole  population  of  the  United  States,  was  in 
its  origin  a  corruption  of  the  word  English  as 
pronounced  by  the  Indians  (Yenghies,  Yanghies, 
l'ankees).  It*  seems  to  have  been  first  applied 
about  1775  by  the  British  soldiers  as  a  term  of 
reproach  to  the  New  Englanders,  who  themselves 
afterward  adopted  it.  The  Southern  people  apply 
it  to  the  Northern  people  generally.  The  air 
known  as  Yankee  Doodle  was  originally  Nankee 
Doodle,  and  is  as  old  as  the  time  of  Cromwell. 
It  was  known  in  New  England  before  the 
Revolution;  it  is  said  to  have  been  played  by 
the  English  troops  in  derisive  allusion  to  the  then 
popular  nickname  of  the  New  Englanders;  and 
afterward  the  New  Englanders,  saying  that  the 
British  troops  had  been  made  to  dance  to  Y'ankee 
Doodle,  adopted  the  air. 

Yaukton,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  Yank¬ 
ton  county,  S.  Dak.,  stands  on  the  north  bank  of 
the  Missouri,  980  miles  above  its  junction  with 
the  Mississippi.  It  is  growing  rapidly,  and  is  an 
important  trade  center.  Pop.  (1880),  8,390. 

Ya'pock  (Cheironectes  palmatus),  a  marsupial 
quadruped  of  the  opossum  family,  Didelphidce, 
the  only  known  species  of  its  genus. 

Yard,  in  the  rigging  of  a  ship,  is  a  timber 
which,  when  in  its  normal  position,  is  borne  hori¬ 
zontally  at  right  angles  to  the  ship’s  length  at 
one  of  several  heights  on  a  mast,  for  the  purpose 
of  sustaining  and  spreading  a  square  sail. 

Yar'kand,  the  commercial  capital  of  Eastern 
Turkestan  (pop.  not  less  than  155,000),  is  situated 
in  38°  24'  N.  latitude,  aud  77°  14'  E.  longitude, 
near  a  river  of  the  same  name. 

Yates  Centre,  the  county  seat  of  Woodson 
county,  Kan.  Pop.,  1,600. 

Yawl,  a  decked  boat  having  two  masts,  on  the 
first  of  which  is  a  lugsail  and  topsail;  and  on  the 
aftermost,  which  rises  almost  from  the  sternmost, 
a  driver  or  fore-and-aft  sail. 

Yaws,  known  scientifically  as  Frambcesia,  is  a 
cutaneous  eruption  of  a  peculiar  nature,  which 
commonly  attacks  negroes,  but  has  been  noticed 
in  white  persons.  The  disease  is  preceded  by 
languor  and  pain  in  the  limbs,  and  shivering,  suc¬ 
ceeded  by  heat  and  restlessness,  and  is  more  severe 
in  children  than  in  adults.  After  a  few  weeks, 
the  pure  glossy -black  color  of  the  skin  gives  place 
to  a  dirty  dull  tint;  and  the  patients  often  not 
only  loath  food,  but  take  to  eating  coals,  chalk, 
earth,  etc.  The  skin  is  then  covered  for  a  few* 
days  with  a  white  mealy  scurf,  as  if  it  had 
been  dusted  with  flour,  after  which  pimples  like 
pin-heads  appear  on  the  forehead,  face,  neck, 
groins,  etc.,  which  increase  for  a  week  pr  more, 
growing  into  crusted  pustules,  which  enlarge 
until  the  base  attains  the  size  of  a  five-cent  piece. 
If  the  crust  is  removed,  a  foul  sloughing  sore  is 
exposed.  The  pustules,  may,  however,  burst 
spontaneously,  and  discharge  a  thick  viscid  mat¬ 
ter,  which  hardens  to  a  scab  on  the  surface. 
With  regard  to  treatment,  mercury  does  more 
harm  than  good,  and  all  that  can  be  done  with 
advantage  is  to  render  the  progress  of  the  morbid 
processes  as  little  painful  as  possible.  The  most 
important  remedial  agent  is  the  warm  bath;  and 
blood-purifying  drinks,  such  as  decoction  of  sar¬ 
saparilla,  etc.,  may  be  prescribed. 

Yazoo',  a  river  of  Mississippi,  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Tallahatchie  and  Yallobusha,  runs 
south  and  south-by-west  in  a  serpentine  course, 
in  a  deep,  narrow,  sluggish  channel,  between 
fertile  cotton  plantations,  and  empties  into  the 
Mississippi  river,  twelve  miles  above  Vicksburg; 
it  is  290  miles  long,  and  navigable  at  all  seasons. 

Yazoo  City,  the  county  seat  of  Y'azoo  county, 
Miss.  Pop.,  2,600. 

Yedo  (pronounced  Edo — Eng.  River-door)  since 
1868  called  Tokio,  (Eastern  capital),  the  chief 
city  of  Japan,  is  in  the  east  of  the  mainland,  at 


the  head  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  in  latitude 
35°  26'  30"  N.,  and  longitude  139°  39'  24"  E. 
Pop.  (1881),  957,121. 

Yedo,  Bay  of,  an  inlet  of  the  North  Pacific 
on  the  southeast  coast  of  the  Island  of  Nipon, 
Japan,  lying  between  35°  and  35°  40'  N.  latitude, 
and  intersected  by  the  140tli  meridian  of  E.  longi¬ 
tude. 

Yell,  one  of  the  Shetland  Islands,  and,  after 
Unst,  the  farthest  north  of  that  group,  is  sepa¬ 
rated  from  Mainland  by  Yell  Sound,  and  from 
Unst  by  Blue  Mull  Sound.  It  is  17  miles  in 
length,  5)  miles  in  average  breadth.  Area, 
94  square  miles;  pop.  (1881),  2,529. 

Yellow-bird  (Ghrynomitris  trislis),  a  bird  of 
the  Finch  family  ( Fringillidw ). 

Yellow  Fever  is  a  disease  endemic  in  low  dis¬ 
tricts  near  the  sea,  but  under  certain  circum¬ 
stances  sporadic  in  other  places,  never  appearing 
beyond  48°  of  N.  latitude,  nor  without  a  tem¬ 
perature  of  at  least  72°  F. ,  nor  above  the  eleva¬ 
tion  of  2,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
depending  in  part  on  causes  not  yet  known,  but 
in  circumstances  favorable  to  its  production, 
capable  of  being  propagated  by  contagion.  It 
usually  commences  suddenly  (generally  in  the 
night  or  early  morning)  with  a  sense  of  coldness, 
a  rigor,  or  actual  shivering,  followed  by  vascu¬ 
lar  reaction,  as  shown  by  the  heat  and  dryness  of 
the  skin,  headache,  especially  over  the  eyes,  and 
pain  of  the  eyeballs,  which  are  suffused,  and 
have  a  strange,  drunk-like  aspect.  The  limbs 
and  loins  are  painful;  the  tongue  is  loaded,  and 
its  edges  are  red.  There  is  a  peculiar  and  charac¬ 
teristic  flush  or  suffusion  of  the  face,  occupying  a 
zone  of  about  an  inch  above  and  below  the  eyes. 
Nausea,  gastric  uneasiness,  and  a  tendency  to 
vomit  soon  supervene.  These  symptoms  may 
gradually  lessen,  and  the  patient  will  then  regain 
his  ordinary  health  in  twenty-four  or  thirty-six 
hours;  but  if  the  symptoms  persist,  they  soon  be¬ 
come  more  aggravated,  and  the  stomach  ejects  at 
first  a  clear  fluid,  which  soon  becomes  of  a  dirty- 
brown  tint,  and  is  finally  succeeded  by  the  true 
black  vomit.  A  yellow  tint  on  the  conjunctiva 
is  observed,  which  extends  to  the  skin  of  the  face; 
and  as  the  disease  advances,  the  whole  body  be¬ 
comes  of  a  yellow  color,  varying  in  intensity 
from  a  pale  lemon  to  a  deep  orange  tint.  The 
anxious  countenance  indicates  the  distress  of  the 
patient,  who  appears  to  be  agitated  by  fearful 
apprehensions  or  incipient  delirium.  The  skin 
feels  constricted,  and  is  of  a  pungent  heat.  The 
bowels  are  constipated,  and  the  red,  clean,  and 
tremulous  state  of  the  tongue  indicates  the  pres¬ 
ence  of  intestinal  irritation,  and  consequently 
the  increase  of  danger.  The  urine  and  other 
excretions  are  more  or  less  suppressed.  Eruc¬ 
tations,  hiccoughing,  and  vomiting  increase  the 
dist  ress  and  weakness.  The  disease  in  fatal  cases 
usually  terminates  on  the  second  or  third  day. 
There  are  great  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the 
proper  treatment  of  this  disease.  One  authoiity 
holds  that  the  disease  may  be  cut  short  or  aborted 
by  prescribing  20  grains  of  calomel  added  to 
24  grains  of  quinine,  afterward  followed 
by  2  drachms  of  carbonate  of  magnesia,  and 
2  ounces  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  iu  8  ounces 
of  peppermint  water.  These  aborting  doses 
may  be  repeated  at  intervals  of  four  or  six 
hours,  one  dose  being  generally  efficient,  but 
four  have  been  given  before  the  quinine  induced 
its  special  symptoms  of  cinclionism.  It  is  prob¬ 
able  that  there  is  no  one  mode  of  treatment 
suitable  for  all  cases,  and  that  each  should  be 
treated  according  to  its  special  symptoms.  The 
extreme  heat  of  the  surface  (a  temperature  of  107° 
has  been  observed  in  the  arm-pit)  may  be  relieved 
by  the  frequent  application  of  the  wet  sheet; 
cupping  or  leeches  often  relieve  the  head-symp¬ 
toms;  and  a  blister  to  the  gastric  region  may 
relieve  the  irritation  of  the  stomach.  If  there  is 
no  suppression  of  urine,  and  if  that  fluid  is  free 
from  albumen,  morphia  is  of  great  service,  but  it 
must  be  given  with  great  caution.  The  food 
should  be  of  the  mildest  form,  such  as  chicken- 
broth,  arrowroot,  sago,  and  barley-water,  and 
these  should  be  taken  frequently  in  very  small 
doses,  in  consequence  of  the  state  of  the  stomach. 
Similarly,  with  regard  to  all  drinks,  which  are 
most  likely  to  be  retained  if  sucked  through  a 
tube  or  given  by  teaspoonfuls.  Tea  usually  dis¬ 


agrees,  but  cold  infusion  of  oatmeal,  and  very 
dilute  brandy  and  water,  are  usually  relished. 

Yellow-hammer,  or  Yellow-bunting  (Em- 
beriza  citrineUa),  a  species  of  bunting. 

Yellow 'stone,  a  river,  rises  in  a  beautiful  lake 
of  the  same  name  high  up  in  the  Rocky  Mount¬ 
ains,  and  receiving  numerous  branches  from  the 
south,  flows  northeasterly  through  the  State  of 
Montana,  and  empties  into  the  Missouri  river, 
in  the  northwest  part  of  North  Dakota,  latitude 
48°  5'  N.,  longitude  104°  W.  It  is  800  yards 
wide  at  its  mouth,  1,000  miles  long,  and  navigable 
700  or  800  miles. 

Yellowstone  National  Park  is  a  district 
situated  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  Territory 
of  Wyoming,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Montana, 
and  on  the  west  by  Idaho.  It  has  an  area  of 
3,575  square  miles,  measures  65  miles  from  north 
to  south,  and  55  from  east  to  west;  its  highest 
part  lies  8,000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  the  lowest 
6,000.  It  has  a  cold  climate;  snow  lies  on  the 
ground  for  nearly  nine  months  of  the  year!  and 
September  begins  the  winter  there.  The  chief 
attraction  of  the  Yellowstone  National  Park  is  its 
extraordinary  diversity  of  natural  phenomena, 
such  as  is  not  brought  together  within  the  same 
area  in  any  part  of  the  New  or  the  Old  World. 
It  is  a  land  of  streams  and  waterfalls,  geysers  and 
hot  springs,  diversified  by  mountains,  hills,  dales, 
and  lakes,  and  is  covered  by  a  dense  growth  of 
coniferous  timber. 

Yellowville,  the  county  seat  of  Marion 
county,  Ark.  Pop.,  600. 

Yem'en,  in  a  wide  sense,  includes  the  whole 
south  and  southwest  of  Arabia;  but,  more  strictly, 
is  the  southwestern  corner  of  the  peninsula, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Hedjaz  and  Nedjed; 
and  on  the  east  by  Hadramaut  and  the  Desert. 

Yenika'le  Strait,  sometimes  also  called 
Strait  of  Kertch,  connects  the  Sea  of  Azov 
with  the  Black  Sea,  forming  a  sea-passage 
between  the  Crimea  on  the  west  and  the  Caucasus 
on  the  east.  It  is  over  20  miles  in  length,  and  at 
its  narrowest  is  less  than  2  miles  wide. 

Yenise'i,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  Siberia, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Oulou-Keme  and 
the  Bey-Keme,  which  rise  in  the  mountains  on 
the  southern  border  of  Siberia.  It  flows  north 
through  the  center  of  Siberia  into  the  Arctic 
Ocean. 

Yes'so,  Y’ezo,  or  Jesso,  the  most  northerly  of 
the  four  principal  islands  which  compose  the 
Empire  of  Japan. 

Yew  ( Taxux ),  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Tnxacece,  which  is  generally  regarded  as  a 
sub-order  of  Couiferce.  The  species  are  diffused 
over  the  whole  northern  parts  of  the  world. 

Yggdrasil,  the  name  given  in  Scandinavian 
mythology  to  a  tree,  the  greatest  and  most  sacred 
of  all  trees,  which  was  conceived  as  binding 
together  heaven,  earth,  and  hell.  Yggdrasil  is  an 
ash  whose  branches  spread  over  all  the  world, 
and  reach  above  the  heavens.  It  sends  out  three 
roots  in  three  different  directions — one  to  the  Asa- 
gods  in  heaven,  another  to  the  frost-giants,  the 
third  to  the  under  world.  Under  each  root 
springs  a  wonderful  fountain,  endowed  with 
marvelous  virtues.  From  the  tree  itself  drops  a 
honey-dew.  Among  its  branches  and  roots, 
several  animals  sit  or  run  about — an  eagle,  a 
squirrel,  four  stags,  a  serpent — all  having  their  own 
proper  names.  The  serpent,  Nithhoggr,  lies  at 
the  under  world  fountain  and  gnaws  the  root  of 
yggdrasil;  the  squirrel,  Ratatoskr,  runs  up  and 
down  and  tries  to  breed  strife  between  the  serpent 
and  the  eagle,  which  sits  aloft. 

Yokohama  (Jap.  for  cross  shore),  a  town  of 
Japan,  in  the  island  of  Nipon,  and  the  port  for 
the  foreign  trade  of  Y'edo.  It  is  on  the  south  side 
of  a  bight  of  the  Bay  of  Yedo,  about  seventeen 
miles  from  Yedo,  and  opposite  to  Kanagawa. 
Pop.  (1879),  67,499. 

Yonge,  Charlotte  Mary,  an  English  novelist 
of  merit  and  popularity,  was  born  in  1823.  The 
work  by  which  she  is  best  known  is  The  Heir  of 
Redclyffe. 

Yonk  'ers,  a  city  of  New  Y'ork,  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  Hudson* river,  sixteen  miles  north  of  New 
YTork  City.  In  1872  the  town  was  divided,  the 
northern  part  being  constituted  the  city  of 
Yonkers;  the  southern  portion  became  part  of 
New  Y'ork  City  in  1874.  Pop.  (1880),  19,000. 


YORK. 


718 


ZEITIIUN. 


York,  the  capital  of  Yorkshire,  England,  is 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Rivers  Ouse  and 
Foss.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric,  a  county 
in  itself,  and  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough.  Pop.  (1881),  54,198. 

York,  a  city  and  the  county  seat  of  York  county, 
Penn.,  ten  miles  southwest  of  the  Susquehanna 
river,  twenty-eight  miles  south-southeast  of  Har¬ 
risburg.  Pop.,  22,500. 

York,  the  county  seat  of  York  county,  Neb. 
Pop.,  2,400. 

York, a  river  of  Virginia,  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  Pamunkey  and  Mattapony,  flowing  south¬ 
east  to  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  nearly  opposite  Cape 
Charles. 

York 'shire,  which  is  larger  in  territorial  extent 
than  any  other  two  counties  in  England,  is  situ¬ 
ated  nearly  in  the  center  of  Great  Britain,  about 
midway  between  London  and  Edinburgh.  The 
longest  diagonal  of  the  county,  northwest  to  south¬ 
east,  extends  about  130  miles,  the  shortest,  south¬ 
west  to  northeast,  about  ninety.  It  contains  about 
6,095  square  miles,  or  3,882,851  statute  acres. 
Pop.  (1881),  2,886,564. 

Yorktown,  the  county  seat  of  York  county, 
Va.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  York  river.  Pop. 
about  1,000.  It  is  notable  for  two  sieges,  one  in 
1781,  when  Lord  Cornwallis,  with  a  force  of 
8,000  regulars  and  106  guns,  surrendered  to  Gen¬ 
eral  Washington  at  the  head  of  a  combined  force 
of  Americans  and  French.  From  April  5th,  to 
May  4,  1862,  it  suffered  a  second  siege  by  the 
United  States  troops  under  General  McClellan, 
when  the  town  was  held  by  the  Confederates 
under  General  Johnston. 

Yorkville,  the  county  seat  of  Kendall  county, 
Ill.  Pop.,  400. 


Zis  the  last  letter  of  the  English  and  other 
West  European  alphabets,  and  had  no  place 
in  the  original  Latin  alphabet,  but  was  adopted 
in  the  time  of  Cicero  from  the  Greek  with  y  (v\ 
and  thus  stood  last.  In  Greek,  it  had  the  sixth 
place,  and  had  the  power  of  a  double  consonant, 
being  equivalent  to  da  or  sd;  in  Latin,  its  use  was 
confined  to  words  of  Greek  origin.  In  Iligh-Ger- 
man,  in  which  it  is  pronounced  like  ts,  it  corres¬ 
ponds  to  t  in  the  Low-Germanic  and  the  Scandi¬ 
navian  tongues,  e.  g.,  zeit  =  English  tide  (time). 
In  Italian,  z  or  zz  mostly  takes  the  place  of  the 
Latin  U,  as  in  negozio  =  negotium,  palazzo  =  pa  In¬ 
dian,  and  is  pronounced  ta,  or.  preceded  by  a,  ds. 
In  English  and  in  French,  it  represents  the  flat 
sibilant  sound  of  which  s  is  the  sharp.  But  in 
English,  as  in  the  majority  of  cases,  s  has  always 
been  employed  to  represent  the  flat  sibilant  sound 
as  well  as  the  sharp  (e.  g.,  in  almost  all  plurals, 
as  bones,  cards,  in  words  like  revise,  etc.),  there 
is  a  tendency  to  drop  the  use  of  z,  except  in  a 
few  individual  words,  such  as  size,  prize. 

Zaandam',  or  Saakdam,  a  town  in  North 
Holland,  is  situated  on  both  banks  of  the  Zaau,  at 
its  entrance  into  the  I j  (a  deep  and  narrow  bay  of 
the  Zuider  Zee),  now  converted  into  land  inter¬ 
sected  by  canals,  bearing  rich  crops.  Zaandam 
lies  five  miles  northwest  of  Amsterdam  on  the 
other  side  of  the  bay.  Pop.  (1880),  13,171. 

Zacate'cas,  capital  of  the  Mexican  State  of 
that  name,  is  about  320  miles  northwest  of 
Mexico.  Pop.,  75,000. 

Zacliarias,  a  Roman  pontiff,  successor  of 
Gregory  III.  in  741,  who  is  noticeable  as  one  of 
the  series  of  Greek  prelates  by  whom  the  des¬ 
tinies  of  Rome  and  Italy  were  much  influenced  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries,  in  connection 
with  a  work  of  benevolence  and  charity,  which 
the  Roman  Church  afterward  consecrated  by  in¬ 
trusting  it  to  a  special  religious  order — viz.,  the 
redemption  of  captives  from  the  pagan  masters 
by  whom  they  had  been  held  in  slavery.  During 
the  troubles  arising  out  of  the  Lopibard  invasion, 
Zacliarias,  by  his  interposition  in  more  than  one 
instance  in  favor  of  the  city  of  Rome  with  the 
Lombard  kings,  contributed  to  that  prestige  of 
the  Roman  see,  which  eventually  led  to  its  obtain- 


Yorkville,  the  county  seat  of  York  county, 
S.  C.  Pop.,  2,600, 

Yo'ruba,  or  Yarriba,  a  county  of  Guinea, 
West  Africa,  lying  to  the  east  and  northeast  of 
Dahomey,  in  N.  latitude  6° — 9°,  and  E.  longi¬ 
tude  2s — 6°.  Its  area  is  about  70,000  square 
miles;  and  the  pop.  is  estimated  at  2,500,000. 

Yosem'ite  Valley  is  a  cleft  in  the  west  slope 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  about  the  center  of  Cali¬ 
fornia,  and  140  miles south-of-east  of  San  Francisco. 
The  name  Yosemite  is  an  Indian  word  which 
signifies  large  grizzly  bear.  This  celebrated 
valley,  noted  for  the  sublimity  and  beauty  of  its 
scenery,  is  about  6  miles  long,  and  from  a  | 
to  1  mile  in  breadth,  and  has  the  peculiarity  of 
being  sunk  for  about  a  mile  below  the  level  of 
the  surrounding  country.  The  visitor  to  this 
valley  is  awed  and  impressed  by  the  massiveness 
of  its  mountain  elevations,  the  nearly  perpen¬ 
dicular  walls  by  which  it  is  shut  in  throughout 
its  entire  length,  and  the  grandeur  of  its  water¬ 
falls,  which  are  in  some  respects  the  most  remark¬ 
able  in  the  world.  The  valley,  which  is  traversed 
by  the  Merced  river,  has  in  its  lower  portion  the 
appearance  of  a  vast  flower  garden,  with  plants, 
shrubs,  and  flowers  of  every  hue.  Of  its  world- 
famous  falls,  the  Bridal  Veil  Fall — so  named 
because  thecolumn  of  water  formingthe  fall  seems 
to  flutter  in  the  wind  like  a  veil — leaps  at  one 
bound  of  630  feet  upon  a  slope,  down  which  it 
rushes  in  a  series  of  cascades  still  farther,  a  per¬ 
pendicular  distance  of  300  feet.  From  the  bottom 
it  has  the  appearance  of  a  direct  fall  of  900  feet. 
The  Yosemite  Fall,  one  of  the  most  wonderful 
features  of  the  scenery  in  this  valley,  has  a  first 
vertical  leap  of  1,500  feet,  with  a  series  of  cascades; 
the  Nevada  Fall  has  a  height  of  600  feet. 

Yucatan,  a  peninsular  province  of  Mexico, 
running  northward  so  as  to  separate  the  Gulf  of 


ing  the  leadership  of  Italy.  lie  died  at  Rome  on 
March  14,  752. 

Zam'ia,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Cycadacece,  of  which  the  species  are  found  in  the 
tropical  parts  of  the  world. 

Zamouse  (Bos  brachyceros),  a  species  of  ox  or 
buffalo,  found  in  the  tropical  parts  of  Western 
Africa.  It  is  the  bush  cow  of  Sierra  Leone. 

Zanes'ville,  a  city,  and  the  county  seat  of 
Muskingum  county,  Ohio,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Muskingum  river,  and  opposite  the  mouth  of 
Licking  river,  fifty-four  miles  east  of  Columbus. 
It  has  abundant  water-power,  and  rich  coal  and 
iron  mines;  cotton,  woolen,  nail,  and  glass  fac¬ 
tories,  iron  foundries,  etc.  Pop.,  24,300. 

Zan'te  (ancient  Zacynthus),  one  of  the  principal 
Ionian  Islands,  about  nine  miles  from  the  west 
coast  of  the  Morea,  and  eight  south  of  Cephalonia, 
is  about  24  miles  long,  12  broad,  and  has  a  super¬ 
ficies  of  156  square  miles.  Pop.,  20,000. 

Zanzibar,  or  Zanguebar.  The  territories  of 
the  Sultan  of  Zanzibar  comprise  all  that  part  of 
the  east  coast  of  Africa  included  between  Magda- 
shooa  in  2°  N.,  and  Cape  Delgado  in  10°  42'  S. 
latitude.  They  are  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
independent  tribes  of  Somal  and  Gallas,  and  on 
the  south  by  the  Portuguese  Province  of  Mozam¬ 
bique.  The  extent  of  the  coast  is  about  1,100 
miles,  and  parallel  to  it  are  numerous  islands,  the 
most  important  of  which  are  Zanzibar,  contain¬ 
ing  the  capital  of  the  same  name,  Pemba,  and 
Mafia  (Monfia  on  the  charts). 

Ze 'a  (ancient  Ceos),  an  island  of  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  thirteen  miles 
east  of  Cape  Colonna;  14  miles  in  length,  and  8 
in  greatest  breadth. 

Ze'bra,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  all  the 
striped  Equidce,  all  of  which  are  natives  of  South 
Africa,  and  thus  including  the  dauw  and  quagga; 
but  also,  in  a  more  restricted  use,  designating  a 
single  species,  Equus  or  Asinus  Zebra,  a  native  of 
the  mountainous  districts  of  South  Africa. 

Zebu',  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands. 

Zebu,  Indian  Ox,  or  Brahmin  Ox,  a  kind  of 
ox,  nearly  allied  to  the  common  ox,  of  which 
naturalists  generally  regard  it  as  a  mere  variety, 
although  some  think  it  a  distinct  species  (Bos 
indicus).  The  most  conspicuous  distinctive  cliar- 


Mexico  from  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Pop.  (1882), 
302,319. 

Young,  Brigham,  American  Mormon  leader, 
and  for  many  years  President  of  the  Mormon 
Church,  was  born  at  Whittingham,  Vt.,  June  1, 
1801,  and  died  Aug.  29,  1877,  leaving  a  fortune 
of  .$2,000,000  to  seventeen  wives  and  fifty-six 
children. 

Youngstown,  the  county  seat  of  Mahoning 
county,  Ohio,  is  an  important  manufacturing  city. 
Pop.,  25,500. 

Ypsilauti,  the  county  seat  of  Washtenaw 
county,  Mich.  Pop.,  5,400. 

Yreka,  the  county  seat  of  Siskiyou  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  1,059. 

Yt'trium  is  a  very  rare  metal,  whose  oxide  is 
the  earth  Ttlria,  which  is  found  in  the  Scandi¬ 
navian  mineral  Gadenolite  (a  silicate  of  yttria, 
glucina,  and  an  oxide  of  cerium  and  iron),  in 
Yttrutantalite,  and  in  one  or  two  other  very  scarce 
minerals. 

Yuba  City,  the  county  seat  of  Sutter  county, 
Cal.  Pop.,  650. 

Yuc'ca,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Liliaeem,  natives  of  North  and  South  America, 
and  some  of  which  are  often  cultivated  in  gardens 
on  account  of  the  singularity  and  splendor  of  their 
appearance.  Y.  gloriosa  is  a  native  of  Virginia 
and  of  more  southern  parts  of  North  America. 
The  fibers  of  the  leaves  are  used  by  the  Indians  to 
make  a  sort  of  cloth  and  cordage.  The  other 
species  have  a  general  resemblance  to  this  in  habit 
and  appearance.  The  fiber  of  the  yuccas  is  similar 
to  that  of  the  agaves  and  bromelias,  and  probably 
is  often  included  under  the  name  pita  flax  or  pita 
fiber. 

Yuma,  the  county  seat  of  Yuma  county,  Ariz. 
Pop.,  1,250. 


acter  is  a  large  fatty  hump  on  the  back,  above 
the  shoulders. 

Zebulon,  the  countv  seat  of  Pike  county,  Ga. 
Pop.,  300. 

Zecli'ariah,  called  in  the  book  of  prophecy 
which  goes  under  his  name,  the  son  of  Berecliiali, 
the  son  of  Iddo,  but  in  Ezra,  the  son  of  Iddo,  was 
born  in  Babylonia  during  the  captivity,  and 
accompanied  the  first  band  of  exiles  on  their  re¬ 
turn  to  Palestine  under  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua. 
He  combined  in  himself  the  offices  of  priest  and 
prophet. 

Zed'ckiali,  originally  Mat'taniah,  the  last 
King  of  Judah,  son  of  the  good  Josiah  by  his 
wife  Hamutal,  succeeded  his  nephew  Jehoiacliin, 
The  latter  having  rebelled  against  his  master, 
Nebuchadnezzar,  King  of  Babylon,  was  besieged 
in  Jerusalem,  and  taken  prisoner,  after  a  brief 
reign  of  three  months.  Nebuchadnezzar  be¬ 
stowed  the  vacant  throne  on  Zedekiah,  doubtless 
in  the  expectation  of  securing  a  faithful  liege¬ 
man.  Zedekiah  was  a  weak  unwise  ruler,  prob¬ 
ably  incapable  of  political  fidelity;  in  the  phras¬ 
eology  of  the  Jewish  historian,  he  did  that  which 
was  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord. 

Zed'oary  (Arab.  Jedwar),  the  name  of  certain 
species  of  Curcuma,  natives  of  the  East  Indies, 
the  root-stocks  (rhizomes)  of  which  are  aromatic, 
bitter,  pungent,  and  tonic,  and  are  used  for  simi¬ 
lar  purposes  with  ginger. 

Zee'land,  a  province  of  the  Netherlands,  con¬ 
sists  of  the  Islands  Walcheren,  North  Beveland, 
South  Beveland,  Schouwen,  Duiveland,  Tholen, 
West  Flanders,  and  East  Flanders.  It  lies  be¬ 
tween  51°  20' — 51 p  45'  N.  latitude,  and  3°  21' — 
4°  15'  54"  E.  longitude,  and  has  an  area  of  665 
square  miles.  The  boundaries  are:  South  Hol¬ 
land  on  the  north,  the  Easter  Scheldt  on  the  east, 
Belgium  on  the  south,  and  the  North  Sea  on  the 
west.  Pop.  (1880),  188,614. 

Zeitliun,  a  town  and  district  in  the  highlands 
of  Cilicia,  lying  in  37° — 38u  N.  latitude,  and  34° 
— 35°  E.  longitude,  inhabited  by  a  community  of 
Armenian  Christians,  virtually  independent  of 
the  Turkish  Government,  and  forming,  in  fact,  an 
Asiatic  republic.  There  are  twenty  villages  in 
the  district,  and  the  chief  town,  Zeitliun,  is  said 
to  contain  20,000  inhabitants.  The  Zeitliumlus 


ZELAYA. 


719 


ZOOLOGY. 


can  master  an  army  of  from  7,000  to  8,000  men  to 
defend  the  mountains  against  the  Turkish  pashas; 
and  they  are  in  alliance  with  a  neighboring  Tur¬ 
coman  chief,  also  independent  of  the  Turks,  who 
brings  10,000  men  into  the  field.  Zeithun  is  a 
relic  of  the  Armenian  kingdom  of  Cilicia,  founded 
in  the  eleventh  aud  destroyed  in  the  fourteenth 
century. 

Zela'ya,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  State  of 
Guanajuato,  about  120  miles  north-northeast  of 
the  town  of  Mexico,  with  a  fine  cathedral.  There 
are  manufactures  of  cotton  and  saddlery.  Pop., 
14,000. 

Ze'nith,  a  word,  like  nadir,  borrowed  from 
the  Arabic,  is  the  name  given  to  that  point  of  the 
heavens  which  is  directly  overhead — i.e.,  in  line 
with  the  spectator’s  position  and  the  center  of  the 
earth.  It  is  thus  the  upper  pole  of  the  spectator’s 
horizon,  as  the  nadir  is  the  under  pole.  The 
word  would  seem  to  be  connected  with  the  Arabic 
san,  a  “point.” 

Ze'no,  a  philosopher  of  Elea,  a  town  of  Lu- 
cania,  in  Italy,  was  a  favorite  disciple  of  Par¬ 
menides.  He  visited  Athens,  and  the  illustrious 
Pericles  was  one  of  his  pupils.  He  held  the 
usual  doctrines  of  the  Eleatic  school  respecting 
the  unity  and  the  immutability  of  all  things,  dis¬ 
trust  in  knowledge  acquired  through  the  senses, 
and  reliance  on  pure  reason.  He  did  not  deny 
that  there  were  phenomena  or  appearances,  but 
he  maintained  that  these  were  not  real  existences. 
In  this  he  anticipated  the  Berkeleyan  theory.  But 
he  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  having  been  the  first 
to  employ  the  style  of  argument  known  by  the 
name  of  Dialectics,  in  which  error  is  refuted,  and 
truth  sought  to  be  established,  by  the  reductio  ad 
absurdum — a  method  so  skillfully  employed 
afterward  by  Socrates  and  Plato. 

Zeno,  the  founder  of  the  Stoic  philosophy,  was 
born  at  Citium,  in  Cyprus.  The  dates  of  his 
birth  and  death  are  uncertain.  He  flourished  in 
the  early  part  of  the  third  century  b.c.,  and  was 
a  contemporary  of  Epicurus.  Having  made 
himself  master  of  the  tenets  of  the  various  schools, 
he  proceeded  to  open  a  school  for  himself.  He 
selected  for  the  purpose  the  “Painted  Porch” 
(Stoa  Poikile ),  from  which  his  sect  has  got  its 
name,  and  there,  till  his  ninety-eighth  year,  con¬ 
tinued  to  teach  those  doctrines,  which,  in  spite  of 
serious  drawbacks,  inculcate  that  manly  energy 
and  simplicity,  fortitude  under  suffering,  and 
reverence  for  moral  worth,  which  made  disciples 
of  so  many  of  the  noblest  characters  among  the 
Romans. 

Zeno'bia,  Queen  of  Palmyra,  succeeded  (267 
a.d.)  her  husband  Odenatus,  who  had  been  ac¬ 
knowledged  by  Gallienus  as  his  colleague  in  the 
Roman  Empire.  She  was  a  woman  of  great 
courage,  high  spirit,  and  strikingly  beautiful. 
With  purity  of  morals  in  private  life,  she  com¬ 
bined  prudence,  justice,  and  liberality  in  her  ad 
ministration. 

Ze'olite  (Gr.  'C,eeiv,  zeein,  to  boil,  and  Xiboi, 
Mhos,  a  stone),  the  common  name  of  a  large 
group  of  minerals,  often  called  the  zeolitic  family. 
They  receive  this  name  from  their  melting  before 
the  blowpipe. 

Zeus  was  the  greatest  of  the  national  deities  of 
Greece.  According  to  the  most  received  mythol¬ 
ogy,  he  was  the  son  of  Cronos  and  Rhea,  brother 
of  Poseidon  and  Hera,  the  latter  of  whom  was 
also  his  wife. 

Zimb,  a  dipterous  insect,  exceedingly  destruc¬ 
tive  to  cattle  in  Abyssinia,  as  the  tsetse  is  in 
more  southern  parts  of  Africa. 

Zinc  (Zn,  equiv.  65.2 — sp.  gr.  6.8),  or  Spelter, 
as  it  is  often  called  in  commerce,  is  a  hard,  bluish- 
white  metal,  lustrous  externally,  and  when  broken, 
exhibits  a  foliaceous  crystalline  fracture.  At  ordin 
ary  temperatures,  it  is  somewhat  brittle;  but  when 
heated  to  above  212°  it  becomes  perfectly  ductile 
and  malleable,  and  may  be  drawn  out  into  wire  or 
beaten  into  thin  plates.  At  about  400°  it  again 
becomes  so  brittle  that  it  may  be  easily  pulverized. 
It  fuses  at  773°,  and  at  a  white  heat  may  be  vola¬ 
tilized;  and  if  the  vapor  be  exposed  to  the  air,  it 
burns  brilliantly,  and  is  converted  into  oxide 
of  zinc,  which  is  deposited  in  copious  white  flakes. 
The  temperature  of  its  boiling-point  is  estimated 
at  1904°.  There  are  several  ores  of  zinc,  but  only 
two  of  much  importance — blende  and  calamine. 
Blende,  black-jack,  or  sulphuret  of  zinc,  contains, 


when  pure,  about  67  per  cent,  of  zinc,  but,  like 
most  ores,  it  is  rarely  found  pure.  Calamine,  or 
carbonate  of  zinc,  contains,  when  pure,  52  per 
cent,  of  zinc,  but  it  varies  much  in  the  proportion 
of  metal  which  it  contains  on  account  of  impuri¬ 
ties.  The  principal  zinc  mines  are  in  England, 
Belgium,  Silesia,  Carinthia,  Spain,  and  the 
United  States — Missouri  taking  the  lead  in  produc¬ 
tion  in  this  country.  Since  it  became  known  that 
zinc  could  be  rolled  into  thin  sheets  and  spun  into 
wire,  the  uses  of  the  metal,  which  formerly  was 
only'  employed  with  copper  to  make  brass,  have 
become  greatly  extended.  In  sheets,  it  is  used 
for  roofing,  baths,  water-tanks,  spouting,  and  the 
like;  also  for  covering  ships’  bottoms  instead  of 
copper.  A  considerable  quantity  is  consumed 
for  name-plates,  for  engraving  upon,  and  for 
galvanic  batteries.  Perforated  sheets  with  various 
ornamental  patterns  are  manufactured  for  screens, 
blinds,  light  fences,  and  all  similar  objects.  As  a 
material  for  casting  artistic  works,  zinc  possesses 
the  desirable  properties  of  having  a  low  melting- 
point,  and  taking  a  sharp  impression  from  the 
mold,  so  as  to  require  but  little  labor  from  the 
chaser;  it  has  also  considerable  hardness.  It  has, 
inconsequence,  become  a  favorite  material  on  the 
continent  for  making  casts  of  statues,  statuettes, 
and  different  kinds  of  ornaments.  Of  late  years, 
zinc  has  been  applied  with  great  success  to  the 
coating  of  sheet-iron  for  roofing  and  other  pur¬ 
poses  and  also  for  coating  various  kinds  of  iron 
wire,  especially  telegraphic  wire.  Carbonate 
cerate,  chloride  oxide,  and  other  products  of  zinc, 
are  largely  used  in  medicine. 

Zin'gel  {Aspro),  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  perch 
family,  remarkable  for  the  elongated  form  of  I  he 
body,  and  for  having  the  mouth  situated  under 
the  projecting  and  rounded  snout,  also  for  the 
roughness  of  their  scales. 

Zion.  Mount  Zion  is  the  name  of  the  hill  on 
which  the  southwest  part  of  Jerusalem,  the  City 
of  David,  or  Upper  City,  with  the  citadel  of 
David,  stood.  At  the  present  day,  only  the  north 
half  belongs  to  the  city,  the  city  wall  running 
obliquely  over  the  hill.  On  the  west,  and  still 
more  on  the  south  side,  it  descends  steeply  into 
the 'Vale  of  Hinnom,  to  a  depth  of  300  feet. 
Mount  Zion  is  2,537  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea. 

Zirco'nium  (symbol  Zr,  equiv.  89.6)  is  the 
metallic  constituent  of  the  earth  zirconia,  which 
is  found  in  association  with  silica  in  the  minerals 
zircon  and  hyacinth. 

Zoar,  a  village  in  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio  Canal, 
ninety  miles  east-northeast  of  Columbus,  settled 
in  1817,  by  a  German  community,  the  Society 
of  Separatists  of  Zoar,  who  hold  in  common 
9,000  acres  of  land ;  they  have  a  woolen  factory, 
mills,  a  store,  church,  school,  and  other  social  and 
industrial  establishments,  all  managed  by  trust¬ 
ees,  elected  by  popular  vote.  Pop.,  about  400. 

Zo'bo,  a  hybrid  between  the  yak  and  the  com¬ 
mon  ox  of  India.  It  is  common  in  the  western 
parts  of  the  Himalaya,  and  is  valued  as  a  beast  of 
burden,  as  well  as  for  its  milk  and  its  flesh. 

Zodi'acal  Light  is  the  name  given  to  a  singu¬ 
lar  appearance  seen  after  sunset  or  before  sunrise, 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year  in  low  latitudes,  but 
rarely  in  northern  regions,  except  in  March,  April, 
and  Slay  in  the  evenings,  and  six  months  later  in 
the  mornings.  It  is  obviously  due  to  illuminated 
(partly,  perhaps,  self-luminous)  matter  surround¬ 
ing  the  sun  in  a  flat,  lenticular  form,  nearly  coin¬ 
ciding  with  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  or  rather 
with  the  sun’s  equator,  and  extending  to  a  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  sun  greater  than  that  of  the  earth, 
as  its  apex  is  often  seen  more  than  90°  fromthesun. 

Zola,  fi.uiLE,  a  French  writer,  born  at  Paris, 
April  2,  1840.  Many  of  his  novels  are  so  realistic 
that  they  border  on  obscenity;  but  outsell  those 
of  almost  any  other  modern  writer. 

Zonur'idse,  a  family  of  saurian  reptiles,  having 
the  head  covered  with  regular  polygonal  shields, 
the  body  and  tail  with  large  scales;  the  sides  fur¬ 
nished  with  a  longitudinal  fold  of  the  skin,  covered 
with  small  scales;  the  tongue  flat,  nicked  at  the 
tip,  the  eyes  with  two  valvular  lids.  The  species 
are  numerous,  natives  of  warm  climates. 

ZooUogy  (Gr.  %goov,  zbon,  an  animal,  and 
Xoyoi,  logos,  a  discourse),  the  science  which  has 
for  its  subject  the  animal  kingdom.  This 
science,  itself  a  branch  of  natural  history  or  1 


biology,  is  divided  into  a  number  of  branches, 
which  are  often  pursued  as  distinct  sciences,  the 
subject  being  too  large  to  be  thoroughly  studied 
except  in  this  manner;  although  it  is  also  neces¬ 
sary  that  the  results  of  investigation  in  particular 
departments  should  be  brought  together,  so  that 
the  animal  kingdom  may  be  viewed  as  a  whole, 
and  the  relations  of  the  most  widely  different 
groups  of  animals  to  each  other  determined.  The 
branches  of  zoology  relating  to  the  inferior  classes 
of  Vertebmla  are  thus  named:  that  which  has 
Birds  for  its  subject  is  known  as  Ornithology, 
that  which  relates  to  Reptiles  is  Herpetology,  and 
the  subordinate  branch  relating  to  serpents  is 
sometimes  called  Ophiology;  that  which  relates 
to  Fishes  is  Ichthyology.  Among  Invertebrate 
animals,  the  great  group  of  Mollusca  is  the  subject 
of  the  science  of  Malacology,  although  this  term 
isseldom  used;  and  when  shells  rather  than  the 
animals  which  bear  them  are  considered,  the  term 
Conchology  is  employed.  No  particular  term  is 
commonly  applied  to  the  branches  of  zoology 
which  treat  of  the  Crustacea,  Arachnida,  etc.; 
but  that  which  relates  to  Insects  is  known  as 
Entomology,  and  the  term  Helminthology  is 
employed  to  designate  that  which  has  Worms  for 
its  subject.  No  similar  terms  are  used  for 
the  branches  of  this  science  which  relate  to  other 
groups  of  Invertebrata  The  science  of  zoology, 
however,  divides  itself  into  distinct  sciences,  not 
so  much  in  accordance  with  the  divisions  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  as  with  regard  to  particular 
aspects  of  the  subject  which  may  be  studied  either 
in  relation  to  animals  generally,  or  to  any  par¬ 
ticular  species.  Thus,  Anatomy  maybe  regarded 
as  a  branch  of  zoology,  when  the  term  zoology  is 
taken  in  its  largest  sense,  as  including  man  along 
with  the  inferior  animals,  and  Ethnology  must  in 
like  manner  be  considered  as  belonging  to  it. 
The  anatomy  of  the  inferior  animals  is  sometimes 
called  Zootomy,  and  the  term  Comparative  Anat¬ 
omy  is  employed  when  their  structure  is  studied 
in  relation  to  that  of  man,  and  the  structure  of 
one  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  in  relation  to 
that  of  the  others.  Ph ysiolngy  is  one  of  the  most 
important  branches  of  zoology;  and  with  it  that 
branch  of  chemistry  which  treats  of  animal  sub¬ 
stances  is  closely  connected.  A  very  interesting 
branch  of  zoology  is  that  which  relates  to  the 
habits  and  instincts  of  animals.  It  can  hardly  be 
said  to  have  been  constituted  into  a  separate 
science,  but  has  received  much  attention  from 
those  naturalists  who  have  devoted  themselves 
to  the  study  of  particular  groups  of  animals. 
It  was  not  till  after  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  that  any  real  progress  was  made  in  classi¬ 
fication,  founded  upon  a  philosophical  study  and 
comparison  of  animals.  The  works  of  Ray  are 
described  by  Cuvier  as  “the  foundation  of  modern 
zoology.”  The  materials,  however,  were  in  great 
part  prepared,  and  the  first  outline  of  a  system 
sketched  by  Willughby.  From  the  days  of  Aris¬ 
totle,  zoology  had  never  been  prosecuted  with 
such  acuteness  of  observat  ion,  accuracy  of  descrip¬ 
tion,  and  breadth  of  philosophical  generalization 
as  it  was  by  Willughby  and  Ray.  The  progress 
of  the  science  now  became  very  rapid.  Buffon 
won  for  it,  by  his  interesting  descriptions  and  bril¬ 
liant  style,  the  general  attention  of  the  educated 
portion  of  society,  not  only  in  his  own  but  in  other 
countries.  He  was  almost  immediately  followed 
by  Linnaeus, who, extending hisstudies  from  botany 
to  zoology,  not  only  enlarged  the  science  by  his 
own  observations  and  discoveries,  but  rendered  it 
far  greater  service  by  gathering  together  the  facts 
ascertained  by  others,  and  by  the  Improvement 
which  he  effected  in  classification.  Some  of  the 
larger  groups  established  by  Linnaeus  have  been 
retained  by  all  subsequent  naturalists  without 
essential  modification  of  their  characters,  and  even 
his  smallest  groups — genera — have  been  very  gen¬ 
erally  retained,  although  now  regarded  as  consti¬ 
tuting  tribes  or  families.  According  to  the  Lin- 
nacan  system,  the  animal  kingdom  is  divided  into 
six  great  classes,  which  are  further  brought  to¬ 
gether  in  groups  of  two  each,  as  follows: 

Heart  bilocular,  with  two  |  Viviparous.  1.  Mammalia, 
auricles, blood  warm,  red.  (Oviparous.  2.  Birds. 

Heart  unilocular,  with  one  (With  lungs.  3.  Amphibia. 

auricle,  blood  cold,  red,  )  Witli  gills.  4.  Fishes. 

Heart  unilocular,  with  one  1  With  antenna:.  5.  Insects, 
auricle.circulating  fluid  V  With  tentacula.O.  Vermes. 

I  ( sanies )  cold,  white,  ) 


ZOROASTER. 


720 


ZYGOPHYLLACE^E. 


It  was,  however,  in  constituting  and  defiuingthe 
genera  that  Linnaeus  showed  in  the  highest  degree 
his  powers  botli  of  observation  and  arrangement. 
After  Linnaeus  the  names  of  Pallas,  Hunter,  and 
Blumenbach  are  particularly  worthy  to  be  noticed; 
but  more  than  any  other, the  name  of  Cuvier,  who, 
like  Linnaeus,  took  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
whole  subject  of  zoology,  and  carried  forward  the 
work  of  minute  observation  as  well  as  of  generali¬ 
zation.  His  system  of  classification  is  so  vast  an 
improvement  of  that  of  Linnaeus  as  to  be  almost 
fundamentally  new,  and  has  formed  a  new  starting- 
point  for  all  f  urther  progress.  The  following  is  a 
general  outline  of  the  system; 


Div.  I.  Vertebrata.  Classl. 

Mammalia. 

“  2. 

Aves  (Birds). 

“  3. 

Keptilia  (Reptiles). 

“  4. 

Pisces  (Fishes) . 

Div.  II.  Mollusca.  Class  1. 

Cephalopoda. 

2. 

Pteropoda. 

“  3. 

Gasteropoda. 

“  4. 

Aeepliala. 

“  5. 

Brachiopoda. 

u  ti. 

Cirrhopoda. 

Div.  IILArticulata.  Class  1. 

Insecta  (Insects). 

..  o 

Crustacea. 

“  3. 

Arachnida. 

“  4. 

Annelida. 

Drv.  IV.  Radiata  Class  1. 

Echinodermata. 

“  2. 

Entozoa. 

“  3. 

Aealephae. 

“  4. 

Polypi. 

“  5. 

Infusoria. 

The  system  of  Cuvier  has  been  extensively  modi¬ 
fied  by  many  subsequent  anatomists;  notably 
Lamarck,  De  Blainville,  Ehreuberg,  Owen,  Milne- 
Edwards,  Yon  Siebold,  and  Stannius,  Leuckart, 
Agassiz,  Huxley,  Haeckel,  and  others.  The 
most  remarkable  progress  in  zoology  since  Cuvier, 
has  been  due  at  first  to  the  morphological 
studies  of  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire;  to  the  prosecution, 
in  the  light  of  the  cell-theory,  of  the  study  of  the 
simplest  forms  of  life,  and  of  the  minute  struct¬ 
ure  of  the  higher  animals;  to  the  pursuit  of 
embryology  under  Yon  Baer  and  his  successors; 
and  finally,  in  the  highest  degree  to  Darwin’s 
labors,  both  in  the  regions  of  observation  and  of 
theory.  Influenced  by  the  theory  of  evolution, 
and  aided  by  embryology,  the  zoologist  now 
seeks  to  arrange  his  forms  in  series  which  should 
represent  not  merely  resemblance  of  adult  struct¬ 
ure,  but  also  should  indicate  as  nearly  as  possible 
the  lines  of  descent  by  which  he  believes  these 
forms  to  have  originated.  Thus  various  recent 
authors,  notably  Hteckel  and  Semper,  have  con¬ 
structed  “phylogenetic”  classifications  of  the 
animal  kingdom  in  the  form  of  genealogical  trees; 
but  these  speculations,  however  ingenious  and 
suggestive,  can  not  supersede  the  existing  classifi¬ 
cations,  at  least  while  our  knowledge  of  embry¬ 
ology,  and  more  especially  of  palaeontology, 
remains  so  imperfect;  for  the  line  of  descent  has 
been  made  out  with  apparent  certainty  only  in 
the  case  of  a  few  genera,  such  as  the  horse  and 
the  crocodile.  It  may  be  interesting,  however,  to 
give  an  example  of  a  genealogical  tree,  borrowed 
from  Semper. 

I.  PROTOZOA. 

Section  A.  Monera  —  Class  1.  Monera. 

Section  B.  Endoplastica.— Class  2.  Rhizopoda;  3.  Forami- 

nifera:  4.  lleliozoa;  5.  Radiolaria;  6.  Infusoria;  7. 

Gregarinida. 

II.  PORIFERA. 

Class  1.  Myxospongiae;  2.  Fibrospongiae ;  3.  Calcispongiae. 

III.  CCELENTERATA. 

Class  I.  IIydrozoa— 

Sub-class  i.  Hydroida.— Order  1.  Hydridee;  2.  Coryni- 
dae;  3.  Sertularidae;  4.  Campanularid®. 

Sub-class  ii.  Siphonophora.— Order  5.  Calycophoridae; 
6.  Pbysophoridae. 

Sub-class  iji.  Discophora. — Order  7.  Medusidse;  8. 
Lucernaridae. 

Sub-class  iv.  Graptolitida  (extinct).— Order  9.  Grap- 
tolitidas. 


Class  II.  Actinozoa— 

Sub-class  i.  Coralligena  —Order  1.  Zoantharia;  (a) 
Malacoderinata,(6)  Sclerodermata,  (c)  Sclerobasica; 

2.  Alcyonaria;  3.  Rugosa  (extinct) . 

Sub-class  ii.  Ctcnophora.— Order  4.  Ctenophora. 

IV.  VERMES. 

Class  I.  Platyelmia.— Order  1.  Turbellaria;  2.  Nemertea; 

3.  Trematoda;  4.  Cestoidea. 

Class  II.  Nematelmia. — Order  1.  Nematoda;  2.  Gordiacea. 
Class  III.  Acanthocephala  ( Echinorhynchus ). 

Class  IV.  Ch^tognatha  ( Sayitla ). 

Class  V.  Rotatoria. 

Class  VI.  Enteropneusta  ( Balanoglossus ). 

Class  VII.  Gephyrea. 

Class  VIII.  Annelida— 

Sub-class  i.  Discophora. 

Sub  class  ii.  Choetopoda.— Order  1.  Achneta:  2.  Oligo- 
chceta;  3.  Polycbceta  (Tubicola,  Errantia). 

Class  IX.  Polyzoa. 

Class  X.  Brachiopoda. 

V.  ARTHROPODA. 

Class  I.  Prototrachkata  ( P-ripah/s ). 

Class  II.  Myriapoda. — Order  1.  Chilognatha;  2.  Chilopoda. 
Class  III.— I.NSECTA— 

Section  A.  Ametabola.— Order  1.  Anoplura;  2.  Mallo- 
phaga;  3.  Thysanura. 

Section  B.  Hemimetabola.— Order  4.  Neuroptera;  5. 
Hemiptera;  6.  Orthoptera. 

Section  C.  Holometabola.— Order  7.  Aplianiptera;  8. 
Diptera;  9.  Hymenoptera;  10.  Lepidoptera;  11. 
Strepsiptera;  12.  Coleoptera. 

Class  IV.  Crustacea.— Order  1.  Trilobita  (extinct);  2. 
Phyllopoda.  (a)  Branchiopoda.  (b)  Cladocera;  .3. 
Oumacea;  4.  Edriophthalmia,  (a)  Amphipoda,  (b) 
Isopoda;  5.  Stomatopoda;  0.  Copepoda;  7.  Ostra- 
coda;  8.  Cirripedia;  9.  Schizopoda;  10.  Decapoda, 
(a)  Macrura,  (6)  Brachyura. 

Class  V.  Arachnida.— Order  1.  Merostomata,  (a)  Xipli- 
osura,  ( b )  Eurypterida  (extinct);  2.  Arthrogastra; 
3.  Araueina;  4.  Acarina;  5.  Linguatulina. 

VI.  ECIIINODERMATA. 

Class  1.  Echinoidea:  2.  Asteroidea:  3.  Ophiuroidea;  4. 
Crinoidea;  5.  Holotl i uroidea ;  0  Blastoidea  (extinct); 
7.  Cystoidea  (extinct). 

VII.  MOLLUSCA. 

Class  I.  Lamei.i.ibranchiata— 

Section  A.  Dimya. — Order  1.  Asiphonida;  2.  Sipbonida. 
Section  B.  Monomya. 

ClaSS  II.  POLYPLACOPHORA. 

Class  III.  Scaphopoda. 

Class  IV.  Gasteropoda— 

Section  A.  Prosobranehiata. 

Section  B.  Opisthobranehiata. 

Section  C.  Pulmonata. 

Section  D-  lleteropoda. 

Class  V— Pteropoda— 

Order  1.  Thecosomata;  2.  Gyninosomata. 

Class  VI  Cephalopoda— 

Section  A.  Tetrabraneliiata. 

Section  B.  Dibranchiata— Order  1.  Decapoda:  2.  Octo- 
poda. 

VIII.  TUNICATA. 

Class  I.  Perennichordata  (Appendicularla) . 

Class  II.  Caducichordata— 

Section  A.  Simplicia. 

Section  B  Composita. 

Section  C.  Conserta. 

IX.  VERTEBRATA. 
a  Acraniata  ( Amphioxus ). 

b  Craniata. 

Class  I.  Ichthyopsida— 

Section  A.  Cyclostomata. 

Section  B.  Pisces.— Order  1.  Elasmobranchii;  2.  Holo- 
cephala;  3.  Ganoidei;  4.  Teleostei,  (a)  Physostomi, 
(S)  Anacanthini,  (c)  Acanthopteri,  (d)  Pharyng- 
oguatbi,  (e)  Lophobrauchii,  (/)  Plectognatlii;  5. 
Dipnoi. 

Section  C.  Amphibia.— Order  1.  Urodela;  2.  Anura; 
3.  Gymnophiona;  4.  Labyrinthodonta  (extinct). 
Class  II.  Sauropsida — 

Section  D.  Keptilia.— Order  1.  Lacertilia;  2.  Chelonia; 
3.  Ophidia;  4.  Crocodilia;  5.  Plesiosauria;  0.  Ich- 
thyosauria;  7.  Dinosauria;  8.  Pterosauria  the  last 
five  extinct). 

Section  E.  Aves— 

i.  Saururae  (Archceopteryx). 

ii.  Ratitae  ( Cursont ). 

iii.  Carinatae— Order  1.  Natatores;  2.  Grallatores;  3. 
Rasores,  (a)  Galliuacei.  (6)  Columbacei;  4.  Scan- 
sores;  5.  Insessores  or  Passeres,  (a)  Dentirostres, 
(b)  Conirostres,  (c)  Tenuirostres,  (d)  Fissirostres ; 
6.  Raptores. 

Class  III.  Mammalia— 

Section  i.  Oruithodelphia.— Order  1.  Monotremata. 
Section  ii.  Didelphia.— Order  2.  Marsupialia. 

Section  iii.  Monodelphia  (or  Placentalia).— Order  3. 
Edentata:  4.  Ungulata,  (a)  Perissodactyla,  (b) 
Artiodactyla;  5  Sirenia:  C  Toxodontia  (extinct) ; 
7.  Dinocei'ata  (extinct);  8  Tillodontia  (extinct);  9. 
Hyracoidea;  10.  Proboscidea;  11.  Carnivora;  12. 
Cetacea;  13.  Insectivora;  14.  Rodentia;  15.  Chei¬ 
roptera;  16.  Primates,  (a)  Lemuridse,  (b)  Simiadae, 
(c)  Antliropidse. 


Zoroas’ter,  or  rather  Zarathustra  (which  in 
Greek  and  Latin  was  corrupted  into  Zarastrades 
and  Zoroastres;  while  the  Persians  and  Parsees 
altered  it  into  Zerdusiit)  is  the  name  of  the 
founder  of  what  is  now  known  as  the  Parsee 
religion.  The  original  meaning  of  the  word  is 
uncertain,  and  though  there  have  been  many  con¬ 
jectures  formed  about  it,  yet  not  one  of  them 
seems  to  be  borne  out  by  recent  investigations. 
Most  probably,  it  only  indicates  the  notion  of 
“chief,”  “senior,”  “high-priest,”  and  was  a 
common  designation  of  a  spiritual  guide  and 
head  of  a  district  or  province.  Indeed,  the 
founder  of  Zoroastrianism  is  hardly  ever  men¬ 
tioned  without  his  family  name — Spitama.  He 
seems  to  have  been  born  in  Bactria.  His  life  is 
i  completely  shrouded  in  darkness. 

Zosimus,  Pope,  and  successor  of  Innocent  I. 
was  a  Greek  by  birth,  and  was  elected  Bishop  of 
Rome,  March  1,  417.  He  died  Dec.  2G,  418. 

Zug,  the  smallest  of  the  Swiss  cantons,  is  about 
14  miles  in  length  by  10  in  width.  Pop.  (1880), 
22,994.  Zug,  the  capital  of  the  canton,  has  a 
pop.  of  about  4,300. 

Zuider  Zee,  a  large  gulf  penetrating  deep  into 
the  Netherlands,  between  52”  26' — 53°  20'  N. 
latitude,  is  about  60  miles  in  length,  and  210  miles 
in  circumference.  The  islands  Texel,  Vlieland, 
Ter  Schelling,  Ameland,  and  Schiermonnikoog, 
reaching  in  a  chain  from  the  most  northern  point 
of  Holland,  are  the  remains  of  the  former  line  of 
coast,  which  form  a  breakwater  against  the  North 
Sea. 

Zit'lu,  or  Amazulu,  is  the  name  of  that  portion 
of  the  Kaffir  race  who  inhabit  Natal  and  the 
region  northeast  of  it,  until  they  gradually  merge 
into  the  mere  negro  of  the  east  coast,  north  of  the 
Zambesi. 

Zululand.  The  country  lying  northeast  of 
the  Colony  of  Natal,  between  its  east  boundary,  the 
Tugela  and  Umzimyati  rivers,  and  Delagoa  Bay, 
is  generally  known  under  the  name  of  Zululand, 
or  the  Zulu  country,  inhabited  by  tribes  of  Zulu 
Kaffirs. 

ZU'ricli,  a  canton  on  the  northeastern  frontier 
of  Switzerland,  is  drained  by  the  Rhine  and  its 
tributaries.  Pop.  (1880),  317,576.  It  is  traversed 
by  ridges  of  lofty  hills,  running  northwest  and 
southeast,  between  which  lie  three  valleys,  form¬ 
ing  almost  its  whole  surface — those  of  the  Toss,  the 
Glatt,  and  the  Limmat.  The  Lake  of  Zurich 
penetrates  Zurich  for  a  distance  of  twenty-six 
miles,  and  connects  it  with  the  Cantons  of  Scliwyz 
and  St.  Gall.  The  pop  of  the  canton  (663  square 
miles)  is  German-speaking  and  Protestant. 

Zurich,  the  capital  of  the  canton  of  the  same 
name,  is  situated  at  the  point  where  the  Limmat 
issues  from  the  Lake  of  Zurich,  and  unites  with 
its  tributary,  the  Sihl.  Its  pop.  in  1880  was 
25,102.  It  is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  manu¬ 
facturing  and  commercial  towns  of  Switzerland. 

Zwingli,  Ulrich,  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  reformers,  was  born  Jan.  1,  1484,  at  Wild- 
haus,  in  the  Canton  of  St.  Gall,  Switzerland,  and 
was  killed  in  a  battle  between  Zurich  and  the 
Catholic  cantons,  on  Oct.  11,  1531. 

Zwol'le,  the  capital  of  the  Netherlands  Prov¬ 
ince  of  Overyssel,  is  on  the  Zwarte  Water,  and 
by  the  canal  called  the  Willemsvaart  has  connec¬ 
tion  with  the  Yssel.  Pop.,  22,760. 

Zygophylla'cetc,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  allied  to  Rubiacece,  and  containing  about 
one  hundred  known  species,  herbaceous  plants, 
shrubs,  and  trees,  chiefly  natives  of  sub-tropical 
countries. 


722 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


CAi*nwmm 

'""'Ft.Congcrf^rft  - 

GRINNBU. 

from  Archer  1"'°*“  ffifes 


4.«''W°9 

a  O.WJ 

IS^&V'N. 


ll^n\r»ir^K3a 


^>nn'«>oT 

11^ 


- '  u  ,; 

g£c>Tortm 
i  i>0tucr  !j 


?c % 

mmm. 


'fr\fo  %  ^uX-0n 


-y»CTQH^^afl00t”%^ 


n}Xtruj> 


-Kill*  \ 


^r-athlftA 


c'W5hm  >■•«  \ 


oobaunt 
Hake  l’\ 


■zjir°'a',r 

—/.S'  -XirtA  Lined  Jh 
JJgjJS  L„l:e  ^ 
uhtaskaJj  °\  V- 


’"S^ioT 


SVMi 


J'ort  Carlton 
i<-‘  Winncjm 


'jRCainh 


w*as» 


1  ^  Hlani 

Rk^'NaV^U, 

"Mouse 


R.  f7^\y,00ds  O^J 


IT  A 

f-EHA 
yinia,  6h 


BismVrc 

J  D  A  ? 

3*f.~Z)eati  itfco . 

Jfpo  ^7 

I  Cnsler\ 


>  WjhaQranger  rr 

’SAttt"' - -—-.A 


^WgsK 

A^TFuankfQi^s l,  , 
/^v®  Cn*B 

kehtockv. 

vai^r  — 


3)E3  GX' 
■3101NE3 


JNCOLN 


y  *1//  S^Pv^nikSs^^''. 

~'/?7>p5?£B‘kK<iiifea3  ^  op^ 

A  ji  S  A  SOity  <>P  C  '<S^iUiiro 

1 N  u  1  feLc  x lesj.  IMiTy « 

^rEf^lT0RV\^6tr  <o  /'it.— -Vp 

/Rock^‘  >fMelX 


f&tijPueblo  L lric 


SANTJ/fS\C’a^i,W 


FtTWallrita 

•oAjor^ v_  _ 

wNth  c  o  -JilverT  7r 
J)allas  l.vP  V 

«-•««  Vs  -S'ajAXS! 

li£t>s  §n 


j  /.U/VOp 
O  |£S7MCAi)< 
Ton  } 


'vocorrl 


Q  *  la  2(i 


Rincon)'?}' 


I  C&r/neu  *% 


of  AY  S.lu  Antonio6 

V‘ 1 


3fonclova 


j-^o  °  uontci 

C.Tict  >rla  1 


iaran 


/A'  Mazatla} 


Zacaten 


(fm 

Pta.Pajm?(n 


iaccrt  (<?7i?e5 


y-ofaro  V 
1  o^ac 


GuandpUato 


,3 foreh a  ■ 


folia:  a 


ggSaKii 
t^sTrsw 

Fr,v»^Mi^gv| 

Nicaragua 


[,  •  *Ch  ilpanc  i'iyJgo-ftx  c 
^.rehua  nCepecj, 


IK^ i. 


NOBTH  AMERICA 


Scale  of  Miles, 


Copyright,  1886, "by  IRana,JMrNaTly  &  Co. 


Ttan3,  JUcTfdlly  «£  Co.,  lEngr'gfi 20°  Chicago. 


Longitude  West  loot 


*from  Greenwich. 


NEW  BRUNSWICK,  NOVA  SCOTIA,  AND  PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND. 


723 


i 


mW  > 

iHi 


s  pi 

;■§  A°4, 


g.  1°J8flOU9c 


724 


QUEBEC. 


ONTARIO 


725 


i  qfWQlT 


CAN.  Pj 


A1H-C^=^v/ 


nvduzivQ 


MI i 


IfP^BT  2|?  > 


avva0 


\  f  ^>§1 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA,  NORTH  WEST  TERRITORIES,  AND  MANITOBA 


726 


w  'JT  •/*“>T‘”',aA 


aj‘>»d 


wiqyMlPd  I  ^ 


’2T  u!Vjunojfr 


Hirer 


'VutAflU . 

—"1  ✓ 


AC  *  |fl" 


UNITED  STATES. 


727 


\oont)(j 


[iCY 

-AK 

'  JJi 

f$i1 

■*i  c  3 

— wj\j' 

=s| 

^n" 

ALABAMA. 


728 


ALASKA 


729 


JleViis 


Hiner 


<55W%J|  ife. 


nnojoQ 


”£ ]&!.’  "SOj***# 
M3 tJN» 


:  <\)  ,»&,  «”»yf  svT^ 

"f wTi  I 1 


m 


f  i  V  #1 

?  °  /  O  ’.  y  - C  - - 


7*0 


ARIZONA. 


ILongitude  West  from  Green1 


'e  IK  an  aTb 


PARI  A 


Cave  Spring 


PLATEAU 


Tip'?  Spring 


JBtacTt  Toe,!  Spr 


/I l\VAJ'O%0 


’Willow  Spring 


in  d/an  WRESER\VA  Tl 


ojTA  ^ 


o./Pticomatlee 
<J  f  Spring 


defiance 


SpencerJsJlanch  '*■ 


° Indian  Settlements? 


MTS. 


PA.CIF'? 


foliave  City 


Sirn.set 


Simmons 


.OUiuo'VaTle; 


PRE/SCO' 


Tort  Verde 
t>  Camp  ~W\r 


WU  > 

Cienngi 


> Walker 


Snow  Tlahe] 


AJexaindra 


rville  o 


Stantons, 


'COLORADO 


Crillett 


ZNutrioso 


' Wiclilenburgii  £ 


" Vulture 


'A 

'Tort  Apaclu- 


'•hrenberg 


McDowell 


PlLoeuix 


Tempe 


Silver  Xing  o  Xj 
Final  o' 


•  an  Carloi 


{  jWortoiis_ 


Pt.Thomai 


T_Floren<M 


p  Svyeet  WateiNVc^ 
%.  Casa  Grande\?_ 


Saffurcl  0\  /g 

Or  Solomons 


ToltecV 

Picacho 


Port  Grant 


Trea  Alamos ] 


Tucsoui 


Quijotoa 


(apagdS^</( 


™acUII  y%% 

3  «a\  Sd 


^  MULE  PASS 

i.bstone 

MTS. 


Arivaca 


Calabasas^ 


Huachuca. 


Casita 


'Longitude  WestItrom  Greenwich. 


Il0°jtan3,  JIcXaRy  «£•  Cu.,JZngv'a,  Chicago. 


COLO 


ARKANSAS. 


751 


sioimi 


o  U  o 


ii  "TSy  \  I  >- 


little 


noumz 


732 


CALIFORNIA. 


COLORADO 


733 


DEN. 


i  a  i 

n?'K2 

i  S'SN 

W&P 

\  \j 

a  VT  o 

Vv 

§ 

i  g  * 

j — so 

iisls/i 

4i  tJ 

734 


CONNECTICUT. 


ff. 


oyumfgr 


H  m«Q'V 


i  C3  p3  %-V.y 

c<»kvcZLc!S>. 


X3AYH 


X0n)v6> 


‘^3.\YK 


-*7.\T 


^  aaoai'®' 


.Ida? 


fjflO ^fe.„ 


nous  ATONIC 


’.'i.HlHOMl 


^  'ivaixao  Q 


a 

§  * 

ft  "S3 

hi 

>8 

W  0 

NORTH  DAKOTA  AND  SOUTH  DAKOTA. 


735 


98°  wifflyrtEfiHi 

97° 

MAKQTOETTE1!  J 

7 

jpL  KIRK 

IX  b  .St.Nofbert 

p 

/V  p/jV 

Ls  i-/  / 

jiv|ENCHE3l 

5 

736 


DELAWARE. 


Greenwich. 


Longitude  76®  West 


from 


Avondale? 


^TDuPunt 

oHagley'" 

Greenville 

\Rentc^5 

ZEdgeu^»or 


-Landenbun 


iofewark 
xACoocVs  , 
WARridge J 


Glasgow 


mer 


tcfletou 


"Kirkwood 


cwfielfl 


Summit! 
Bridge  I 


-Pori  Penn 
itiPleasant 


"inelarici  \ 


i  iddletown' 


Bridgeton L/y 


^FielTl&borough/\ 

°  J  N. 

Taylor'sJBrid'je  \ 

yFureft 

Lj  Bedkyne  V- 
\I31ackbird  ''\w 


Townsend 


Green  Springs 

V  Jj urk j 


Davis 


trenforcl 


'riVER 


v.vXuy  ShWView/^ 
\/  East  Ft' 


ajtloorton 


•  IRcnton 
Down’s  Yhajpul/ 


icstcrtowa 


Bittle  Creek 


Pearson's 
irtljs  Corner 
Slaughter  0 


OVE 


Hazlellville  ° 

Wyomin 

milow  Grove  / 

o  / 

DVoodeidel 

\pjitersburg~h  Violin  A 


Caindcnv^- 

O 

ZM.agnolia 


Felton 


hllandville 


PHILADELPHIA 


o'Verna, 


Benton 


'armington 


Xincoln 


-AJnmsi’ille 


Xllendale 


z  \  — r  Creek  \ 
dl'elto n rj  o  •-*„  N 

IJP-^yDraw  Bridge 


Greenwood 


IdbTnns'P' 


Easton 


ledden 


ZBridgeville 


feorgetoavn 


Cannon 


'dleford 


Stocliley 


,S/aford- 


Concord 


Shortly 


DlillsborougU 


Xagsbi 


Ocaa\ 


Uacli  'Water 

O 

~iBoxuna 

"rankford  s-% 


0Xowa’s 
Cross  Bonds 


Scale  or  Statute  Miles. 


Gumborough  o 


Wtlliamsvf. 


liand,  McNally  ft  Co.,  Eng'ra,  Ch’^f 


lelmar 


SeTbyville 


DELAWARE 

*  /  BAY 

:e 

AT  | 

.41  -S'  -- 

rp  M  Sr 

A?  ;  J 

FLORIDA. 


737 


&~r  Los<:h7ni:~.'<.Wr.:T  from  Greenwich. 
■1 


Trailer* 

Kill 

ffpokee' 


‘ 'em / 

LVliUia’ 


■  ChaltahoocT 


?onc(ft<7. 


wmw 


!  Jasper 

y-Ttelmont 


tuttonj 


facias*' 


I^J  Orange 


I  ■  n' 


m.TaUr 

•^j\/'"-bradford7  |  G 

"■  ■  ■  ’^o  ITo rtft t natorvU  Slatf 

/^iuc£\^-r\  /W  I 

■NewnansA^yT)/-| 
Brewer^  ~ /  Yv 


*■  /  O’Bvieo 

«y  o-'iiX  » 

-h  New) 
/  Troy  I 

jiK®  p's 


ipalk'chte 


,  1/5  A 

!  FlorenclK 

n  -* 

lro»e.Cr-s< 

\Tocoi  ^ 


TPari  ;*orJ 


Salem 


Garrabclk 1 


fAuastasi 

1 1  Tc  1  .1  \ 


St^Joseph^^,,  Apalachicola'1- 


yS  tii  phen^yille  ( 
Dead  man ‘  vV 

^11 


Melrose^.^  1 

^pS^Il  e 

r^TnterltwhedvTBu  H‘ai§> 

pyiiSLK  ^WUHiiff 


^  Frank  I  and 


OM  Town 


>rJicllCi 


^TFiUiidon  Oaklawn' 
Y  IMartin, 


JCitra  \ 

;  EurcTcd) 


'Otter  Creel 


'-ulf /Hammock 


•.Sniuatmp 


river  Sjy 


_ _ ier  Sprs 

ChaitieMy-^ 

GULF 


JBeTleview” 


LLDundTlo] 


►  °*L7eDcLuncL 
— *  «®Blue  SprV; 

(&2)  /  Enterprise 

£LdFt  Mason 
Eustis  i 


fpr*U{ 


[er|»rlsN 


OjatitoprSj 
TC  ft  R^a 


.eesburgtl  ^ 
.  SEaTlcuhao  , 

.  L  /  ■<?'> 


(7  I  T  RW' 

f  o  Sul 

3fa,o.  JlannfM.I 

p| 

Wooks/v. 

H  E /R  /NAN 


Jorrenti 


Taidooe) 


'Ov'edt 


\k  Orlando  \ 

m  N  .G  E 

Apinecastle 

»Mackinnon 


.  / Dado  Cl 

<tLr  San  Antonio^/ 


’arpon  Sprs^  A 


irtow 


Sebastian 


non  a 


Homeland 


IFort  Green 


^Palmetto 


mafee 


Sl.Zucie 


JSlicCklca 


'FWavelanTt 


IFort  Ogle! 
^Charlotte 

I^HarboTvX 


fe%C,Tunta  Gorda 


'ROM 


COVI 


~7Zi«p 


Geneva 


Natural. 


Jjhomjtsojf. 


_Z  'dimes  O: 


vS>  Olahile  Wfii 


'  ~  "  ■}'  i  r*  L/-xihand\ng 


Gordo 


UlYers 


[Chaffii 


ChumucklcF^r^ rft,  ?7r 

Ir^PISP 

CfiglfmeiV  7“" 

lPo/relton\  O 

\  "  <1*4  . 

—  yj  i  ii>,rrorr 

Vvn 


LEucbee  ;  ^ 
^Anna’  - 

fiV/er’s  Ferr'i 


'ernon*^ 


^  f  ^BlountsUiwn, 

lEconrin t%Z  Abf-j-Spr.  L  Z 


°'Ypr£ss  SWAMP. 


nnCWfa 


.Arid  rcwjQ^ 


^  .Cv-x-'ov.Mvr  v  | 

,  j> 

%  fy^ 

tf'  V.  i'?  y.  -;  min 

&  '  -M 

tmw  ■> 

W^Kmm 


NORTH  WESTERN  PORTION 


FLORIDA. 


XONGITI  PR  AVrEST  FROM  SG'GreENWICJ 


»•>  6  .  v 


ftugajr^ 


\H:)''Pdnd,3(r.KaVy  Jk  Co.yEngr'a,  Chicago.^ SLoKGUVT>E. 


738 


GEORGIA 


IDAHO. 


739 


Longitude 


West  from 


Scale  of  Miles,. 

0  b  10  20  30  40  60 


Hand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Engds,  Chicago, 


NIKS, 


dgoma 


Koofccl  nai 


Chilco 


H//M. 

mb  OREILLE  T" 
ojRdnd  <1'  Oreille 

minim 

SSlfefci 


WFLA  THE  AD 


Fort  Denton 


\C(EUR  D’\ 

\Ca  ur  d'  Aj 

INOMt 


RESERVi 


Jamestown 


Missoul 


I  Moscow 


Colfa 


laville 


I Blaine  y- 
j  GeneaSe 

I 


Pribkly  Peur'Jc, 


Garrisoi 


White  Sulphur 
Springs 


.  sot  I II 


■  "  NEZ  PERCES. 

^INDIAN  RESERVE 

i  p  1 

lotion  ^ 


Radersbnrjr  q  V 

\  JEFFERSON 


Anaconda 


ASOTIN) 


Jf^^Clear^Wulej^y 
G  lenwoocf 

©Mr. Idaho  4- 


y  Silver^, 
Bow  i 
SILVER 


BOW 


i^Tablcfi, 
.’graziu#- 
’  liLaiicIsJg 


l{o7.eumn 


Warren 


lalinoii  (’It 

,y 


fl’/'TSesbi 


Pife'mw  , 

bC/YELLOWSTONE 

%  SI 

3  p~  NATIONAL 

4  ■  ' 


Great  J*ay?lte' 
Zake  jlj 
r alley,  f 


Rftljtburg 


Tunction/A, 


Challis 


H onanza  o  o 


Caster 


(  ?  Indian 

{hliddte  I Vajfey  A 


Clayton 


g^AVelser 
Weiser  Sta. 


inner,.; 


Jamas 


Galena? 


'  nta 

*VagtepilU  A  j 
’f/JmCremlle  J>  f 

q  J^Elt  was  ZLdke !  (y 

!,t^#/RocA  Bar  j  0 


ilk’s  StorX^  Crj/\^ 
•Rive  rude  o  Ti\- 
v  _  Emnulluvilh 
Xp?arm*tlidM(*9n 


Marie  ( 


J "Bullion 


E  LMOR  E 

°  CorcTcc%  / 

"  -'.'y  y  Don 


Hailfly' 


Soldiei 

Home 


Basalt 


c/Alountain 


faraeko 


[  Ross  Fork^i 
J  HALL  [b 
VPocatello^ 


is  tie  Creek 


PACIFIC 


$0Paynes 


G\eo" 


■ricao  Fulls '\ 

McCummoriL 

RESER'VATlo/rr 

n 


*  o  Teton 

Soda 


•  ^jBruneau  Valley 


Salmon  Falls 


Great  Shoshone 
_9  Falls 
G o&sd^^reek  o)  3 


SAGE 

BRUSH 

PLAINS 


down 


Alblo) 


.Bonnjoigton 
V MJinltpelier 
|\/ftl|phur 


{asm 


Oakley 


-Mulad 


Samaria 


F  \iND.  Longitude  A  Wes' 


|114-Qreenwich. 


from: 


7*0 


ILLINOIS. 


IKDIANA 


741 


74  2 


INDIAN  TERRITORY 


~^I%ckory 


Ham  u 


^*»3fr  nmH 


Cache 


°n  and 


IOWA. 


744 


KANSAS 


Longitude  West  from^o Washington. 


KENTUCKY. 


Coarton5^ 

DS-^S°rr' 


I01N3>,; 


;new< 


.hs>/n<* 


NEW 


^/ainvH’ 


iHVILLE 


“louis^'^vi'-le 


KMVA( 


CAIRO 


^13QN.VX31V 


llJcTISSlSSIltf' 


- -^S 

T  0  n/ 

♦v 

a 

o 

l/  c/>  *a 

m) 

Sn/T*"  ^ 

f 

/ uQ0frX3 

746 


LOUISIANA. 


MAINE. 


747 


JCAMOURASKA 


/ 


kVT  A. 


-V. 


\ 


♦ 

/ 


/ 


4 

SI  .Francis 


GrancHraHa 


% 


* 

/ 


l  Bow  Sweden 

O 

Carfbouc 
TEast  Lyndd 


-J? 


It 


4 


4> 


st.  Joseph  /t  ijaf 


V 


e\ 


£> 


w  r 

J  i 

ZOATG  & 

^AKE  jiThe  Tiv* 

Xakes 

’  ) ~  ( 

CO  v 

CD 

^  1 

:%b  v-xy\jp 

Mr*  CH A  il  BERLA 1 N 
LAKE 

f  CHESUMCOQKT 

<? 


■  look 


SK 


[fiquawpan 
Zafc« 
Masardis 

Bridgewater 


Xs 

CD 

STiarrfzan  mil  [Is 


'°^o, 


H 

fMcAdam  Jo.  1 


j  o%lrf 


Blaudhard^  I 
°FlagstafF  \  cP  JIonsdnToV; 


t^Iqpson 


□coin 


E 


ox, 


<P 


•ARb 


//  Moosetocmaguntic 
ZLake  ^ 

’ 'Madrid 


Weld 


,  Wesley ° 


,  4 Xeblois 


Xembrokec 


Unity 


Liberty  V 

O 


“BelfastV 


ortsL 


"  Statute  Miles.  > 

30 _ 40 


|8°  Longitude  East  from  Washington.  |jq 


Rand,  McNally  <&  Co.,  Engr's,  Chicagoi\o° 


748 


MARYLAND. 


*aoiVJ  itvT 


NOX9M'n'11A 


PENN 


XtNTBA L 


cc  aaoKuivi 


balt.j 


MASSACHUSETTS. 


749 


>OlO/yy 


BOSTOr 


zr  saiuvnx 


\  ~^NORTHEB^, 


)NOON 


iew  ujaijA 


in  jipouwojfy 


3HIVH  £ 


•s5S*°*s£ 

! 

i>  P 


Jlo>‘  tatoni,  -4 


750 


MICHIGAN. 


"NORTHERN”  PORTION”  OF 

MICHIGAN. 

Scale  of  Miles. 


Handle Nally  if  Co. Engravers,  Chicago. 


'reen} 


Jfonenuch  ^ 


-  ascaTle 

iSancls  I 


V\.  Strmgviile 


Wampton 


ftropolitarT' 


iru'mmond'1 
I  “island 


1  non*r«»ltl>i 
JronUlfoum 
1L0RENC 

Sfr-i - 


J)  i  (0JVI  at  k'i  nacTl  1 

itfwM 

JLheho)  gau  ^  ;\Y 
CHE/TJOVGANl  V» 


o  ''III 

All® 

^t'rSaine^p 


Jarney 


Waggettj 


Cliebo, 


iOCONK 


jA^bKAVEK  I/D, 
NJFoX/llD^g^' 


minee 


idiaD  jKiyeb  Rogers' 
toYGAN  A  City 


rwanai 


tdE  VlO 

.  Junior A. 

le  FallA 


•1 

*-VvAm' 

\  r 

XfnovWZf) 

.Jr? T^HIKfllfwi 


yOWp. 

-llllliasaii 


f\  W! 

Vlancel  >na 


Frode)ric_ 


’raversc  Clt: 


iJvalkftjili 


CRAlWFORD' 


IHancly 


HI  Jlfoorestuum 
WL-X  FOR P^anton 
/{;  y  nviitcheTi  r 
»>>  Mi&eaukeel  . 

►  Jc.  rT^JLake  City 

Cadillac  K  E  I 


!?®pso^ 


/TV.  Bn 
ROSCOMMON 


~  Meredith  ) 

’i  rost  A„( 
/  oGladlvfn 


Osceola  JfX 

'O/S  C  E  O  L  AN 

I  Fvar^ArSi. 


irrison 


‘ortTAustii 


MAS  0\N 

7  fllNT 


Caseville 


l^llatto : 
Atwood  ’ 


’oreattP 


L*- Cole  man 


/IfMoaTsf^ 

'iVShelbr  1  NEW 

)  c\e  a  n,a  L-  ■ . 

\  Tvirixe  cioug 


.Midland 


i-J* 

fc-lEdniort 

A/L  M 
g^Stant 
jnfeherida 


X&P  CarsoijV.Y 
Marlette  Lexify 
VI  Crosweil 


aygo 


(Howard  CyJ, 


fayv'lleSfc^ 
^_Fost|>ria  £ 
Vt/lNorth. 
5\/  Branch 


r^RiJu  uCt  i  on\/ 
th  Mu?kefl)ii^ 

MmUtkon, 

ppg 


«£ s?prt$U 
I  iGreenville^ 

XN  JabB 

[MillVCreek'  ]  / 

.Grand  Knjn< 


ltir,lslown 


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NEW  MEXICO. 


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768 


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771 


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772 


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TURKEY  AND  BULGARIA, 


785  ’ 


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ITALY— NORTHERN  PORTION 


ITALY-SOUTHERN  PORTION 


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BELGIUM  AND  THE  NETHERLANDS 


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Keiut  Kale 


JOrstam, 


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■Erivan 


Nit. Ararat 


Smyrna 


Scale  of  Miles. 


Copyright,  1886,*byTRand,IMcNalIy  A  Co. 


II iOUgi l.uflc* -Ea.-l  froin>Qreon wlcli.  |.> 


50°  RAND,  MCNALLV  &  CO. 


Ijon^itude  J^ait  from  Greenwich 


792 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY— NORTHERN  PORTION 


SWEDEN  AND  NORWAY— SOUTHERN  PORTION. 


793 


'794 


ASIA. 


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795 


Longitude  last  from  Greenwich. 


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TPe  sb  a  w  a  i\  li  ^ 


Statute  Miles. 


Ghazni 


Copyright,  1886,~byIRaricl,IMcNany  &  Co. 


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796 


CHINA. 


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JAPAN. 


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AUSTRALASIA— WESTERN  PORTION. 


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140° 


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EASTERN  PORTION. 


AUSTRALASIA 


Tropic  of 


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SERVIA 


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(UNDEFINED) 


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Tropic  of  Capricorn 


o^Wqum 
XX-  V'AND  •• 


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W.25°ol  Greenwich. 


Long.  E.  of  Greenwich. 


JRITIUS  O 
FRANCK 


AFEICA 


[iREUMON^i: 

/DOUR  BON  1 


Scale  of  Miles. 


_Sc a i_e_  of  Miles, 


Scale  of  Miles. 


Copyright,  1886, hy  Rand,  McNally  &  Co. 


2 0°  Xongitude  East 3/0 3 from  Greenwich.  40 


W°  Longitude  West. 


